Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015 https://archive.org/details/universalpronounOOthoiin_0 UNIVERSAL Pronouncing Dictionary OF BIOGRAPHY AND MYTHOLOGY. BY J. THOMAS, A.M., M.D., AUTHOR OF THE SYSTEM OF PRONUNCIATION IN " LIPPINCOTT'S PRONOUNCING GAZETTEER OF THE WORLD," AND OF THE PRONOUNCING VOCABULARIES OF BIOGRAPHICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES IN "WEBSTER'S UNABRIDGED DICTIONARY." COMPLETE IN ONE VOLUME. PHILADELPHIA: J. B. LIPPINCOTT AND CO. 1873. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO., In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United Sta^ 9 for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. I PREFACE. The plan of the present work differs in several important respects from that of any other biographical dictionary which has yet been offered to the public. In its preparation the aim has been to produce a convenient and complete book of reference, both for Mythology and Biography, — one which in all essential respects should, if possible, be fully equal to the best biographical dictionaries in the language, and include, in addition, succinct notices of all the more important subjects of the Norse and Hindoo, as well as of Classic, Mythology, with the CORRECT Pronunciation of the various names. In order to accomplish these objects, and at the same time confine the work within reasonable limits, great attention has been given to the condensation as well as to the proper selection of the different articles. That the work, moreover, may combine, as far as practicable, completeness with brevity, to the more im- portant notices have been added ample bibliographical references,* indicating to the reader the sources whence he can obtain the fullest information respecting any person in whom he may chance to feel a particular interest. Among the peculiar features of the present work, that of the pronunciation of the names may justly claim the first place, both on account of its intrinsic importance, and because (so far as we are aware) this is the first time that anything of the kind has ever been attempted in any work on general biography. The utility of such a feature (if thoroughly carried out) would seem to be too obvious to require any argument. Its great importance, however, can only be fully appreciated by those who — like teachers or public speakers — have learned by large experience the exceeding inconvenience arising from the want of a standard for the pronunciation of modern names. In pronouncing modern proper names there are only three courses which can by any possibility be pursued : ist. To blunder over or pronounce them at random, like a barbarian who should attempt to speak a language of which he knows nothing ; 2dly. To endeavour ^to pronounce all names, foreign as well as English, according to the principles of our own lan- Ijguage, giving each letter its proper English sound ; or, lastly. To adopt the system of pronun- ciation now generally recognized by the more highly educated classes not only in England and America, but also in Germany and most other parts of Europe — that is, to pronounce all . names, as nearly as possible, as they are pronounced by the well-educated people of the dif- ferent countries to which such names belong, with the exception of those very few celebrated names, such as Calvin, Cervantes, Galileo, Luther, Napoleon, Petrarch, etc., which may bp said to have acquired an established English pronunciation. Respecting the first method — if method it can be called — we need not waste our own or the reader's time in pointing out its absurdity. As to the second, although at the first glance it may have an appearance of plausibility, we shall find, if we scan it attentively, that for all practical purposes it is little, if any, better than the first. A few examples will suffice "fc(jQ to show the utter absurdity of attempting to pronounce foreign names according to the ^ * The only exceptions to this statement, of any consequence, will be found under the notices of living persons, ^ of whom, generally speaking, there are either no published biographies or else such only as are very defective and unsatisfactory. 111 PREFACE. English sounds of the letters.* How, for example, should we pronounce the name of the celebrated German poet Heine, according to such a system? Should the ei be sounded like ee^ as in the English words seize., ceilings etc.? or like long a, as in vein., weight., inveigh? or like long /, as in height., sleight., etc.? Should Heine then be pronounced heen., hdn, or htnP or should we sound the final ^, and make it hee'ne., hd'ne^ or hi'ne? Or take, if you choose, another name, equally well or better known — that of Schiller. Now, the proper English sound of sch is sk., as in school^ scholar., schooner., etc. We have no genuine English word in which sch has the sound of sh.,\ although we have some, as schism., schismatic, etc., in which it sounds like simple s. Yet would any one in his senses seriously advocate pronouncing the name of Germany's most popular poet either as SkiVler or Sil'ler ? Innu- merable instances, moreover, occur, in which it is very difficult, if not impossible, to pronoun( e the names of other countries according to the English sounds of the letters, as Bjornson, CzAjKOWSKi, etc., although there is not the slightest difficulty in pronouncing them according to the sounds of the languages to which they belong. A multitude of instances also occur in which the English mode of pronouncing, though not difficult, would be far less euphonious than the native pronunciation. Cagliari (kal'ya-ree) and Borgognone, (boR-gon-yo'na,) two distinguished painters of Italy, and Carvalho, (kaR-val'yo,) a Portuguese bibliographer, may serve as examples. Another insuperable difficulty in the way of pronouncing many for- eign names according to the sounds of our own tongue arises from the fact that in some lan- guages the same sound is often represented by different letters. Thus, oe and 6 in German are sounded precisely alike ; hence, Goethe and Gothe should clearly have the same pronunciation. Again, the Spanish j and x are, in sound, exactly equivalent to each other : therefore, Caravajal and Caravaxal should be pronounced exactly alike. So also the Portuguese ch and ^, having the same sound (that of our were formerly often interchanged, as in the names Xaves or Chaves, | Xingu or Chingu, Xoa or Choa, (written in English, Shoa, etc.) Innumerable examples of this kind might be adduced. It must be obvious, even to the least intelligent mind, that the attempt to pronounce names so differently written according to the English sounds of the letters would lead to endless confusion. The only rational course then left for us is to adopt the third method noticed above, and to pronounce modern names, as nearly as possible, as they are pronounced by the inhabitants of the respective countries to which such names belong. It is admitted that cases not unfre- quently occur in which it is impossible to convey, with any great degree of precision, the pronunciation of foreign sounds by means of English letters ; but something is undoubtedly gained by such an approximation to the true sound as would enable one more readily to understand, and to be understood by, those who are familiar with names as spoken in their proper tongue. Nor are the obstacles in the way of acquiring such a pronunciation nearly so great, even for the ordinary English scholar, as at first sight might appear. Take, for example, the various names which occur in the histories and biographies of modern Italy. In all the countless thousands of those names (whether of persons or places) there is not a single vowel or consonant sound which has not its exact equivalent, or something very near it, in our own language; and, consequently, not one which, if properly explained^ an Englishman or American could not pronounce with ease. Though, to one unacquainted with the language, many of the names may have, when written, an uncouth and even formidable appearance, there is nothing uncouth or formidable in the sounds which they represent. Again, in the fifty thousand or more names of Spain and Spanish America there is only one sound (that of j or x) which presents any real difficulty to the English * The celebrated Charles James Fox is said to have favoured such a system. It is probable, however, that he merely proposed to Anglicize the pronunciation of well-known foreign names somewhat more generally than is customary. He could hardly have intended to apply the principles of English pronunciation to all foreign names, without exception. t All words of this kind, as schisi, schorl, are clearly of foreign origin, and of recent introduction into our language. X In old books instances of this kind are very frequent, but at present the Spaniards nearly always use 7, (not x,) the Portuguese, ch, (not x,) except in a few words and names of foreign origin, and the Germans, 0, (not oe.) But, as the English and French still very frequently employ x for / in writing Spanish, so they generally make use of oe instead of 0 in writing German names. iv PREFACE. speaker, and this corresponds almost exactly to the sound of the German in such words as ach^ nach^ doch^ etc. For those, therefore, who may have already acquired the elements of German pronunciation even this difficulty would be wholly removed. The names of Portugal or Portuguese America (Brazil) are scarcely more formidable than those of Italy. There is, indeed, only one sound * (that of m or ao) unknown to our language, and this is by no means difficult to acquire. So that by learning two foreign sounds an Englishman or American will be enabled, if the pronunciation be properly marked, to pronounce, with tolerable correctness, all the myriads of names belonging to Italy, Portugal, Spain, Brazil, i and Spanish America. With regard to French, the case is, we admit, very different ; but, as an offset to the inherent difficulties of this language, we have the fact that it is more univer- sally studied than any other ; so that if one is really desirous of mastering its peculiar sounds he will at least be pretty sure to find near at hand ever}' needful aid for doing so. Persons who view the different European languages separately are apt to regard the mastering of the difficult sounds in all as a far more formidable task than it really is. They forget that a large proportion of the most difficult sounds are common to several different languages. For example, the French and Dutch u is equivalent to the German and Hun- garian and to the Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish Here it will be seen that the same sound (and that one of the most difficult for an Englishman to acquire) occurs in seven dif- ferent languages. Again, the German 6 or oe is found in Hungarian, Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish, and nearly corresponds to one of the most difficult of the French and Dutch sounds, that of eu in the Dutch words breuk^ reuk^ or in the French leur^ -peur., etc. The German c/z, as already remarked, corresponds almost exactly to the Spanish j or at, and is essentially the same as the modern Greek /, the Russian the Polish, Scottish, and Welsh ch^ and the Dutch g.^ The acquisition of ten or twelve new sounds, which might be learned by persons of ordinary aptitude in a few hours, would enable any one who can read correctly the pro- nunciation of English words, as marked in Walker's, Webster's, or Worcester's Dictionary, to pronounce with tolerable correctness all the names of Portugal, Spain, Italy, France, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Denmark, Norway, and (we might perhaps add) of Sweden, Russia, and Hungary. In another part of the work will be given a full and particular explanation of the system of orthoepy which has been adopted, and of the method pursued in order to insure the greatest attainable accuracy. It may, however, be proper to say here, that the author, fully sensible that the value of this most important feature (the pronunciation of the names) must depend almost entirely on the thoroughness and accuracy with which it is carried out, has spared neither time, labour, nor expense in order to render it as perfect as possible. Particular attention has been given to what may be termed the five principal languages of Continental Europe — namely, the Italian, French, German, Spanish, and Russian. In regard to the French especially, this being by far the most important of all, both on account of its being so widely spoken, and on account of the inherent difficulty of the sounds to be repre- sented, the utmost pains have been taken not only to ascertain the correct pronunciation, but to mark it so fully and clearly that any intelligent person who has once acquired the elementary sounds of the language, and made himself acquainted with our system of notation, may pronounce with facility and with tolerable accuracy whatever name he may \ have occasion to speak. As already observed, the Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese names are comparatively easy for the English or American learner. Those of Germany are not very formidable, for although the German vowel sounds are more difficult than the Italian, the similarity of accent that exists between the German and our own tongue is an important help to us in acquiring the correct German pronunciation. Of the five languages above named, the Russian is undoubtedly the most difficult ; but in overcoming the essential diffi- * There are one or two other sounds, such as the diphthongs m and ei, (or ey^ which, though having no exact equivalent in English, yet differ so slightly from some of our sounds, and, we may add, are so easy to acquire, that for practical purposes they may be said to form no exception to the above statement. t The same sound occurs in Arabic and Persian, besides many other languages. V PREFACE. culties of the language, the author has had the assistance of some of the best Russian scholars 'in Europe ; and he has reason to hope that the pronunciation of the Russian names contained in this work will be found not only generally correct in regard to the accent, (perhaps the most important point of all,) but sufficiently accurate in other respects for all practical purposes. As the Russian Empire unites Asia with Europe, so the language of Russia may be said to form, in one sense, the connecting link between the Oriental and European tongues. The names belonging to the other languages of Europe are all written either with Roman letters, or in characters, like the German and modern Greek, which can readily be converted into corresponding Roman letters ; and the mode of writing such names is, with very few excep- tions, the same in all the various European languages ; for example, Mazzini, the name of the renowned Italian patriot, is not only the Italian, but the English, French, German, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, and Spanish name of the same person ; in like manner, the name of the celebrated French philosopher, Descartes, will be found to be invariably written with the same letters in all the modern languages of Western and Southern Europe ; so also the name of Schiller, the illustrious German poet, is spelled alike in Italian, French, Spanish, German, etc. ; for though in the last-named language it is usually (but by no means univer- sally) written in German characters, (©chiller,) yet as these exactly correspond to the Roman letters usually employed in spelling the name, the difference is only apparent, not essential. Russian names, on the contrary — as they (like all Oriental names) are neither written in Roman letters nor in characters which can be converted into corresponding Roman letters — are spelled according to the sound, the writers of the different nations seeking to indicate the pronunciation of the name in the manner which to them seems most proper. Thus the name of one of the most distinguished Russian poets is written in English Derzhavin, in French Derjavine, and in German Derschawin, each spelling being intended to repre- sent the sound of the name according to the different languages ; so likewise the name of another celebrated Russian poet is written in English Pooshkin or Pushkin, in French Pouchkine or Pouchekine, and in German Puschkin ; each of these different modes being intended to represent exactly the same pronunciation. It is curious to observe that the Russians adopt precisely the same rule in writing foreign names ; that is, they spell them (with a few exceptions) according to the sound, without attempting to follow the letters of the original spelling; thus, they would write Bordo for Bordeaux, Dzhonson* for John- son, Davoo for Davoust, Roosso for Rousseau, Chimaroza\ for Cimarosa, ChartoriskeeX for Czartoryski, etc. ; in the same manner as a Frenchman might write Ouachintonn for Washington, (as Volney§ actually does,) Cheqtiespir for Shakespeare, and so on. (See " Reiff's Russian Grammar," pp. 167, 168.) There is perhaps no branch of pronunciation attended with so many difficulties as that of Oriental names. One great source of perplexity arises from there being in our language no uniform and established system for writing such names. French and German writers, for the most part, adhere pretty strictly to the rule referred to above — that is, they try to represent as nearly as possible the sound of the name in their own language. The French write the name of the celebrated Mongol conqueror of the thirteenth century, Djenguis, or Djenguyz. The Germans write it Dschengis ; and both give the sound of the name, as nearly as it can be done, in their own tongue. The French have no other way of representing the sound of oury (a very common sound in the Oriental languages) than by Dj or Dg. The Germans represent the same sound in the best way they can, but very imperfectly, by Dsch, In the second syllable of the above name the French use u after ^, to make this consonant hard before ^, ox y. If the u were omitted, the^ (being before e) must necessarily, according to * They have no single letter to represent our /, but one which is exactly equivalent to our zh. t They represent the sound of our ch by a single character, H.. X As we are unable to give the Russian letters, we give the nearest equivalent. § See Volney's " Tableau du Climat et du Soldes fitats-Unis d'Amerique," {2 vols., Paris, 1803,) where the reader will also find Wayne spelled Ouayne ; Williams written Ouilliams ; Rush, (Dr.,) Roche; Green Briek, Grine" hreiiar ; Worcester, Ouorcester^ etc. vi PREFACE. rules of the French tongue, have the sound of thei! / or our 5:^. But in German, as^ is always hard, they need use only the simplest form, {g'is.) The sound of the name, however, is represented much more simply and more perfectly in English by Jengis or Jengiz. Again : the name of a celebrated Sultan of Syria and Egypt is written in French, Nour-ed-Din Mahmoud, in German, Nur-ed-Din-Mahmud, and would be written in English, Noor* ed-Deen-Mahmood. It should be observed that the French make no attempt to conform to the German spelling, nor the Germans to the French ; but both nations adhere very generally to the principles of their respective languages. Unfortunately, a large majority of English writers, instead of conforming to a rule which has the double merit of being (in most instances) simple and easy for the writer and perfectly intelligible to the reader, by sometimes writing in the French and sometimes in the German or Italian mode, and not very unfre- quently combining the two in the same name, have involved the department of Oriental names in a confusion which is most perplexing to all, and is absolutely inextricable to those who have not made it the subject of long and laborious study.* Even if the mode of writing Oriental names according to the French and German letters were equally intelligible to ordinary readers as the English mode, there would still be one paramount argument in favour of the last — viz. : the letters of our language are capable of conveniently expressing or representing a greater variety of sounds than those of any other European tongue. There is no sound much used either in Oriental or Russian names which we cannot express as well as the French ; while there are several which we can express much better than they ; and there are sounds perfectly familiar to our tongue which they cannot express at all. Take, for example, the sound of our j\ (which, as already intimated, is of very frequent occurrence in Asiatic names :) what we express by a single letter is indicated less perfectly in their language by two — dj. So also the sound of our ck^ one of continual occur- rence both in the names of Asia and of Eastern Europe, is indicated in French by three letters instead of our two, as Tchandra for Chandra, etc. It may be remarked that this sound, as well as that of y, is one of the most common and familiar to the English tongue, while both are foreign to the French language, since neither of them is to be found in any genuine French word. Again : our w expresses a sound (common in the Oriental languages) which is not nearly so neatly nor so well expressed by the French ou. This defect in their language is so obvious that some eminent French writers (Fauthier, for example, in his works on China) often make use of iv when they wish to represent the sound of our w at the begin- ning of a name ; e.g.^ Wen Wang — not Ouen Ouang, as the strictly French mode of writing would require. Lastly, there are sounds expressed in our language with perfect ease which they cannot represent at all ; among them are the sounds of the Greek 0 (th) and ^, (th ;) the first of these is of frequent occurrence, not only in modern Greek, but in Spanish names. With respect to the German language, there is, if we mistake not, but one frequently- occurring sound in Oriental names (that of kh^ indicated in German by ch) which can be better represented in German than in English, while there are many which can not only be more conveniently expressed in English, but much more correctly than in German. Thus, the Germans employ four letters {dsch) to indicate the sound of our j\ and after all represent it most imperfectly, as in the example of Dschengis, (Jengis,) noticed above. Their four letters, tsch^ do not represent correctly the sound of our ch^ nor does their sc7i convey even a tolerable idea of our zk^ (the sound of s in pleasure or occasion.) Like the French, they have no letter or combination of letters equivalent to our w, nor can they in any manner represent the sound of the modern Greek 6 or d. One mode of writing Oriental names, which has been recommended by several eminent scholars, is to employ English consonants in conjunction with German or Italian vowels, marked with certain accents in order to show their quantity or quality. Thus, a without the accent represents the Italian a either short or obscure, a ov d denotes the long Italian as in * One great cause of this confusion undoubtedly arises from the fact that many English writers, in attempting to translate works from the German and French, fail to translate the names. But such an omission could scarcely occur if there was any generally-recognized system of writing such names. vii PREFACE, father^ often approaching the sound of a in fall; e as in met or her ; e or e as in fete or there; i as in pin; i or i as in marine; o nearly as in opinion; 6 or 6 as in ; u as in or full; u ox ti like in moon. This method has the merit of combining brevity with pre- cision, and is well adapted to publications designed chiefly for the use of scholars ; but there are serious, if not insuperable, objections to its general employment in English works intended for popular perusal. While such works are printed under the immediate superintendence of some competent linguist, they may, perhaps, answer every needful purpose ; but as soon as they get into general and popular use, and require to be reprinted, the accents, as all ex- perience proves, will be dropped either through carelessness on the part of the printer, or, what is more likely to occur, from a want of the proper kind of type. And let it be re- membered that the omission of the proper accent in such a case is equivalent to the omission of a letter, with this great disadvantage, that the former error would be much less likely to attract attention, and would therefore be less readily corrected. Those accustomed to the study of languages can scarcely conceive the difficulty which the unlearned experience in attempting to pronounce for the first time the letters of a foreign tongue. Readers of this class would be almost sure to miscall such names as Nureddin or NouREDDiN, Abdul Mejid or Abdoul Medjid, and a multitude of others, while they could pronounce them without the slightest difficulty if written according to the English sounds of the letters — Noor-ed-Deen, Abdool Mejeed, etc. We admit tliat there are many names which, in order to give a correct idea of their pronunciation, would require some additional explanation besides merely writing them with English letters. But in a realm where the intricacies are so perplexing and the obstacles so formidable as often to bewilder and discourage the most intelligent, it is certainly no unworthy or useless task to attempt to do all that can be done to smooth and straighten the paths and to remove every unnecessary obstruction. The rule adopted in the present work has been to give various spellings of every cele- brated Oriental name, whenever these spellings appeared to be sanctioned by any good authority ; the biographical notice being given under the English spelling, which is placed first in order.* Thus, in the name above cited, the English Noor-ed-Deen Mahmood is given first, to which are added the French Noureddin (or Nour-ed-Dyn) Mahmoud, and the German Nureddin Mahmud. So, also, the notice of the great Mongol conqueror, referred to above, is given under the English spelling Jengis, this being followed not only by the French and German forms, (Djenguiz and Dschengis,) but by many others, it being the rare fortune of this famous name to be written by respectable authorities in no fewer than twenty different modes. In the proper alphabetical place of each of these different spellings will be found a reference to that form of the name under which the biographical notice is given. The only exceptions to the rule above indicated are those very few names which appear to have acquired by universal (or almost universal) usage an established form common to the different European languages ; as Avicenna, (changed from Ibn-Seend^) Avenzoar, {Ibn-Zohr,) Averroes, {Ibn-Roshd^) Elmacin, {Ml- Makeen or El-Making Saladin, {Sala-ed-Deen or Sala-eddtn^) Solyman, (of Turkey, Sooleymdn^ etc. The confusion which prevails in regard to the spelling of Oriental names is not, however, the only cause of the difficulties with which this subject is surrounded. The character of the Oriental languages, so different in many respects from those with which we are most familiar, renders it often exceedingly difficult to indicate the pronunciation in a manner satisfactory to the English reader. In order that he might, as far as possible, enjoy every needful facility and aid in encountering the difficulties in question, the author deemed it necessary that he * The only exception to this rule of any importance will be found in Mythological and other names from the Sanscrit, which, like the Greek and Latin, may be regarded as a dead language ; the names occurring in it, written according to the system established by Sir William Jones, (see page vii., near the bottom,) are pronounced according to the spelling rather than the (modern) sound of the letters. At the same time, the modern Hindoo pronunciation, when this appears to differ essentially from the pronunciation first given, has usually been added, For illustration, see the articles on Agni, Brahma, Garuda, etc. viii PREFACE. should have some knowledge of those tongues besides what books alone could furnish. He accordingly spent nearly two years in the East in studying the rudiments of several Asiatic languages, (with particular reference to their pronunciation,) including the Arabic, Persian, Sanscrit, and Hindostanee. The time and labour thus bestowed, he feels persuaded, have not been spent in vain. He has, in consequence of this preparation, not only been enabled to proceed with a surer step in representing the pronunciation of Asiatic and African names, but he has also in many instances, by referring to the name as written in Arabic or Sanscrit, been enabled to correct errors of greater or less importance in the prevalent European spell- ings of Oriental names. Respecting the bibliographical references, it may be proper to remark that they are in tended not so much to indicate the materials from which the preceding notice has been pre* pared, as to point out to the reader the sources whence he can obtain fuller information. The works referred to will be found generally, but not always, to contain all the materials used in the composition of the article to which the references are appended. Occasionally an isolated fact or circumstance of minor importance, but yet of sufficient interest to make it worth stating, may have been obtained from some source deemed good authority, to which, nevertheless, our plan, requiring the utmost condensation, would not admit of a special refer- ence. Many of our facts, moreover, have been taken from the " Biographic Universelle," the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale," Brockhaus's " Conversations-Lexikon," or other similar works, when the article from which it is taken was too brief to make it worth while to refer to it particularly. As a general rule, it has not been deemed expedient to make a special reference to works like the above, unless the notice referred to extended to a page or more. This rule would, of course, preclude a reference in nearly all cases in which the subject of our notice is of minor importance. It would, however, be an error to infer that the omission of all references is intended as any indication of mediocrity in the subjects of our articles, more especially in regard to living characters, since, as has been already inti- mated, the materials for the biographies of living persons, however distinguished, are often extremely meagre and defective. Nor would it be just to conclude that in all cases the length of the different notices is designed to be a measure of the relative importance of the individuals noticed, since he who has written many passable works may perhaps require a longer notice than he who has produced a single work of superior merit. Other things being equal, the man of action will almost of necessity occupy much more space than the man of thought, although the latter may have perhaps far juster claims upon the esteem and gratitude of mankind, and his glory may be as much more permanent as it is less daz- zling, and less fitted to win the admiration of the unthinking and fickle multitude. It may be observed also that considerably less space, relatively speaking, has generally been allotted to living persons than to those who are deceased ; not merely because it is often much more difficult to obtain the necessary information in regard to the living, but more especially because it behooves us to speak with great circumspection, whether in the way of praise or censure, of those whose earthly career is still unfinished, and whose future conduct may possibly redeem the errors or throw discredit on the virtues of their past life.* The subjects of the Hindoo and Norse Mythologies have been treated somewhat more fully in proportion to their relative importance than those of Classic Mythology, for the simple reason that while one can find almost everywhere excellent works relating to the last, there exists scarcely any book of convenient reference to which the ordinary reader can have re- course in order to satisfy his curiosity respecting the two former. With respect to the relative length of the various articles there will of course be con- siderable diversity of opinion among different readers, according to their respective pursuits and habits of thought. We are not, however, without hopes that the majority of candid * Voltaire has well remarked : " On doit des egards aux vivants ; on ne doit aux morts que la verite"— (" We owe consideration to the living ; to the dead we owe only truth.") This consideration for the living was, indeed, formerly deemed so important that, until the last half century, all works of reference of this kind systematically excluded the biographies of living persons, however illustrious ; thus rejecting the very class in which perhaps a large majority of readers feel the deepest interest. I ix PREFACE. critics will admit that on the whole the space allotted to each notice has been apportioned with a fair measure of justice and impartiality. Those who are familiar with works of this kind cannot fail to have remarked that certain principles of perspective, so to speak, prevail in history and biography as well as in the arts of design. No French historian or biographer would treat the events or the actors of English history with the same fulness or minuteness that an English writer would naturally employ in describing the same occurrences or per- sons. The same general remark, mutatis mutandis., will apply with equal truth to English, German, or Italian writers of history and biography. As events are magnified in importance by nearness of place, they are in like manner modified by nearness of time. Although the author of the present work has felt himself justified in following principles so universally recognized, and has accordingly given a greater prominence to the distinguished men of his own country, and to those of recent times, than to individuals equally eminent among other nations or living in a remote age, it has been his earnest aim not to allow this liberty to degenerate into license. In regard to this and all similar questions respecting which there are no clearly defined rules or authoritative precedents by which his course could be surely guided, he feels that he may safely rely on the candour and intelligence of his critics, since those whose opinion is most to be valued or feared will be most capable of appreciating the inherent difficulties as well as the extraordinary labour involved in the preparation of such a work. To the following works on general biography we have been under especial obligations in the preparation of this Dictionary : 1. Michaud's "Biographic Universelle," of which the first edition, (the publication of wlifich was begun in Paris in iSio,) with the supplement, has extended to nearly ninety vol umes 8vo, and has included among its contributors many of the most distinguished names in French literature and science ; e.g.^ those of Biot, Cuvier, De Sacy, Guizot, Sismondi, Madame de Stael, Villemain, etc. 2. The " Nouvelle Biographic Generale," edited by Dr. J. C. F. Hoefer, and published at Paris by Messrs. F. Didot Freres in forty-six volumes 8vo, (i 857-1 866.) This is one of the most valuable works on general biography to be found in any language. That portion embracing the first twelve letters of the alphabet (/.^., from A to M, inclusive) exceeds in completeness every other publication of the kind of which we have any knowledge. If inferior to the " Biographic Universelle '* in the length and fulness of many of the memoirs, it greatly surpasses that work in the number of its biographical notices ; and it possesses two important additional recommendations — first, of including the living as well as the dead, and, secondly, of giving the reader valuable bibliographic information under almost every article. 3. Brockhaus's Conversations-Lexikon," in 16 volumes large 8vo, (Leipsic, 1851-1855,) which is especially full in regard to the distinguished men of the present century, and par- ticularly those of Germany ; also the annual continuation of that work, entitled " Jahrbuch zum Conversations-Lexikon." 4. Pierer's " Universal-Lexikon," in 19 volumes, fourth (last) edition, greatly enlarged, (Altenburg, 1857-1865.) 5. Vapereau's " Dictionnaire des Contemporains," (1858 et seq,^ important for the information it gives respecting living persons. 6. Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyclopadie der Wissenschaften und Kiinste," 145 vols. 4to, (Leipsic, 1818-1869.) This great work has numbered among its contributors several of the most eminent literary and scientific men of Germany. Nor must we omit to notice, among the important works of general reference, the " Critical Dictionary of English Literature and British and American Authors," by S. Austin Allibone, to be completed in three volumes imperial 8vo, of which two volumes (1858-1870, pp. 2326) have already appeared ; and the " Dictionary of the United States Con- gress and the General Government, compiled as a Book of Reference for the American People," by Charles Lanman, (6th edition, 1869.'* X PREFACE, As this Dictionary of Biography and Mytliology, comprising, as it does, distinguished indi- viduals of all ages and countries, must of necessity be extremely brief in regard to a large majority of the notices, and especially those of persons belonging to foreign countries, and as our plan does not admit of special bibliographical references, except under the more important articles, it may not be without use to refer the reader to the following works on NATIONAL biography : In relation to the distinguished men of Denmark, Norway, etc., see Kraft og Nyerup, " Almindeligt Litteraturlexicon for Danmark, Norge og Island," (Copenhagen, 2 vols. 4to, 1820;) and T. H. Erslew, Almindeligt Forfatter-Lexicon fra 1814 til user vaerende Tid," (Copenhagen, 3 vols. Svo, 1843-1853,) with a supplement extending to 1864, (2 vols.) For Holland. — See A.J. van der Aa, ''Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden,** (2 vols., 1852-1855.) For Italy. — G. M. Mazzuchelli, " Gli Scrittori d' Italia, cioe Notizie storiche e critiche intorno afle Vite e agli Scritti dei Letterati Italiani," (6 vols., 1753-1763; a work of great merit, but unfortunately not extending beyond the first two letters of the alphabet;) E. de TiPALDO, Biografia degli Italiani illustri nelle Scienze, Lettere ed Arte del Secolo XVIII. e de' Contemporanei," (10 vols. 8vo, 1 835-1 847 ;) G. Tiraboschi " Storia della Letteratura Italiana," (20 vols. 8vo, 1805-1813.) For Portugal. — D. Barbosa Machado, " Bibliotheca Lusitana na qual se compre- hende a Noticia dos Authores Portuguezes e das Obras que compuserao," (4 vols, fol., 1741- I759-) For Spain, — N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana sive Hispanorum qui usquam unquamve seu Latina seu populari, seu alia quavis Lingua scripto aliquid consignaverunt, Notitia," (3 vols, fol., 1672,) and ''Bibliotheca Hispana Nova," (2 vols, fol., 1783-1788.) To which may be added Cean-Bermudez* " Diccionario Historico de los mas ilustres Professores de las bellas Artes en Espana," (6 vols, small 8vo, 1800.) For Sweden. — Georg Gezelius, " Forsok til et biographiskt Lexicon ofeer namnkunnige och liirde Svenska Man" (3 vols. 8vo^ 1776-1778,) and supplement, (2 vols. Svo, 1780;) and a more recent work, of great value, (edited chiefly by W. F. Palmblad,) entitled " Biogra- phiskt Lexicon ofver namnkunnige Svenska Man," extending to 23 vols. 8vo ; the publica- tion of which was begun at Upsal in 1835, and was afterwards continued at Oerebro, (1856 ;) and a sequel to the same, in 5 vols. (Oerebro, 1857-1864.) We cannot conclude without expressing our grateful acknowledgments to our numerous friends, both in this city and in other parts of the United States, not merely for valuable information of various kinds, but still more for the generous words of encouragement which we have received from them during our long and arduous labours. We feel confident that this general expression of our gratitude will be more acceptable to most of them than a more particular and open acknowledgment of their disinterested kindness. But there are those whose claims are so important that justice to the public, if not to them and to ourselves, demands a more explicit statement of the nature of our obligations. To Mr. William Jacobs, our almost constant collaborator for more than ten years, our acknow- ledgments are pre-eminently due for his conscientious fidelity, no less than for his untiring diligence and well-directed research, to which must be ascribed in no small measure what- ever of accuracy or thoroughness our work may possess. To his pen we owe not only a multitude of the minor notices, but no inconsiderable number of the more important articles, among which may be mentioned those on Cicero, Milton, Newton, La Fayette, Hamil- ton, (Alexander,) and Napoleon III. Justice and gratitude alike require that we should acknowledge our great obligations to Professor Edward H. Magill,* of Swarthmore College, for ascertaining, during his recent visit to Europe, the correct pronunciation of a multitude of difficult or doubtful names in the French, Italian, and Russian languages. He performed this important task not merely with the ability of a skilful linguist, but with a conscientious thoroughness and accuracy which can * Known to the public as the author of a series of excellent elementary books on the French language, xi PREFACE. only be fully appreciated by those who know by experience the peculiar difficulties attending researches of this kind. We gladly avail ourselves of this opportunity to express our heartfelt thanks to the Rev. Charles P. Krauth, D.D., for many important favours, the value of which has been trebly enhanced by the spirit of truest kindness and generosit}^ in which they have been bestowed. To cite one example out of many, he has placed at our entire disposal the contents of a library which, for the number of its volumes, and more especially for the rarity of many of its books, is surpassed by few, if any, private libraries in the United States. Nor must we omit to mention our important obligations to Daniel B. Smith, of German- town, to whose friendly sympathy and encouragement, enjoyed through a series of years, no less than to his judicious suggestions and valuable counsel, which his extensive and varied learning so eminently qualifies him to impart, we are more deeply indebted than any words of ours can express. To Mr. James S. Lippincott, of Haddonfield, so well known through his Important contributions to climatology and other kindred branches of science, our warmest thanks are due for much accurate and valuable information relating to a great variety of subjects. Justice requires that we should not withhold the acknowledgment of our great obligations to Mr. Joseph McCreery, our accomplished proof-reader, to whose intelligence and judgment as a critic we are scarcely less indebted than to the remarkable fidelity and accuracy with which he habitually performs the duties of his office. Nor can we omit the expression of our heartfelt gratitude to Mr. Rudolf Blankenburg for the aid he has rendered us in regard to the pronunciation of German names, and for other important assistance in the prosecution of our arduous labours. With sincere pleasure we embrace this opportunity to express our cordial thanks to Mr. Lloyd P. Smith, the librarian of the Philadelphia Library, to whose extensive knowledge of books, as well as to his unfailing courtesy and kindness in aiding our researches, we are under especial obligations. We should do injustice to our own feelings did we not acknowledge our great indebted- ness to Mr. William A. Wheeler, of Boston, for a variety of interesting information in regard to the pronunciation of difficult or doubtful names, to which his rare skill in questions of orthoepy has added a double value. Nor can we withhold the acknowledgment of our heartfelt obligations to the Trustees and Superintendent of the Boston Public Library, for their liberality in affording us every possible facility for availing ourselves of the rich literary treasures of an institution, no less remarkable for the endless variety and value of its works, than for the liberal and enlightened spirit which presides over its administration. J. JHOMAS. Phiiadelphia, June, 1870. INTRODUCTION. We have already in our Preface spoken in general terms of the system of pronunciation and orthography adopted in the present work. It is proposed in this introductory portion to offer, in support of the plan that we have thought proper to pursue, some additional arguments and observations, which will be followed by an explanation of the general principles of pronunciation of each of the more important European and Asiatic languages. It is interesting to observe that the practice of nearly all our distinguished poets, but more particularly of those of the present century, goes to support the system of pronunciation which we have adopted ; that is, they almost invariably follow the native accentuation of proper names, — even where this is very irregular, — except in the case of those few well-known names which have acquired an established English pronunciation, as Cal- vin, CoRTEZ, Kosciusko, etc. As the principles of geographical pronunciation are precisely the same as those of the names of persons, and as geographical names very often form a part either of the surnames or titles of distinguished men, we may without impropriety cite, in order to prove our position, either the names of places or of persons occurring in the works of the poets. It is indeed the more necessary that we should be allowed the liberty of doing so, since names of /Vr^o^^/ar accentuation are, comparatively speaking, of rare occurrence. We have spoken particularly of accentuation, because, in a large majority of cases, that is all that can be determined from the usage of the poets. It is scarcely necessary to remind the classical reader that the misaccentuation of Latin or Greek names is justly considered an inex- cusable fault in an educated poet. We will endeavour to show that our best poets are not less punctilious in the pronunciation of modern names. That they should accentuate correctly such names as Granada, Bologna, *Ravenna, etc. is nothing surprising, since the easiest and most natural accentuation is also the correct one ; but that they should be scrupulously exact in the pro- nunciation of names in which the accent is placed irregu- larly, is more remarkable. It may be affirmed without fear of contradiction that in all the poetry of Byron, Moore, Rogers, Southey, Scorr — and, we may per- haps add, of any other distinguished poet of the present century — scarcely a solitary instance can be pointed out of the misaccentuation of a name of which the poet had any opportunity of knowing the correct pronunciation.* * The only exception to this rule, if we mistake not, occurs in French names, which, as the accent rests equally (or nearly so) on all the syllables, cannot readily be adjusted to the metre of English verse, in which case the poet usually places the accent according to the general rule of English pronunciation, — that is, on the penul- tima or antepenultima, very rarely on the last syllable. In the pro- nunciation of foreign names that have become thoroughly anglicized, it is interesting to observe the tendency of our language to throw the Kccnt as far as possible from the termination: e.g. Mil'an, (It. True, Scorr says " Panama but, at the time when he wrote, very few persons, even in the United States, were acquainted with the correct accentuation of that name. Some of our old poets also mispronounced Niagara. Goldsmith says, " Where wild Oswego spreads her swamps around, And Niagara stuns with thund'ring sound."t The Traveller. But this is to be explained simply by the fact that he had no means of learning the true pronunciation, and therefore he accentuated the name in the manner which appeared to him the most easy or most natural. It is worthy of remark that the only English poet of note who had an opportunity of ascertaining the true pronunciation of the name of the great cataract is the only one (so far as we are aware) who has pronounced that name correctly. We have heard it asserted that Moore also, using a "poet's license," has placed the accent on the penultima ; but any one, we feel sure, who will read his verse atten- tively, will see that he always gives the correct pronuncia- tion. The name occurs several times in his poems, but the following passage shows his accentuation so clearly as to leave no room for doubt or equivocation ; " I could fancy almost he and I were a pair Of unhappy young lovers, who thus, side by side, Were taking, instead of rope, pistol, or dagger, a Desperate dash down the falls of Niagara." Fudge Family in Paris, Letter V. The following are a few examples illustrating the usage of eminent English poets respecting foreign names of irregular accentuation : " Lerma ' the generous,' Av'ila ' the proud.' " Rogers : Voyage of Columbus, " So acted to the life, as Maurice might And Spi'nola have blushed at the sight." Ben Jonson: Underwoods, (vol. viii. p. 427 of Gifford's edition, London, 1816.) MilAno or MilXn,) Tvr'ol, (Ger. Tyr6l,) etc. Hanover, which might be pronounced with the native accentuation (Han6ver) without the slightest oiTence to the genius of our tongue, (for we have a multitude of words similar in accent, as devotion, projnoier, etc.,) has become irrecoverably Han'ovrr. Thus, also, we pronounce Andalu'sia, (in Spanish, ANDALUcf a,) Ar'agon, (in Spanish, Ara- gon',) etc. t Many persons suppose that Niagdra corresponds in accentuation with the old Indian name : but this, we have reason to believe, is an error : the Indians pronounce the name very much as the French pronounce it,— Ne'i'gS'ri'. 5 INTRODUCTION. "And strangers were received by thee, Of C6kdova the chivalry." Bykon : Translation of a Spanish Ballad on the Conquest of Alhama. " The regal seat Of Abdalazis, ancient C6kdoba." " Till they saw The temples and the towers of C6rdoba Shining majestic in the light of eve." SouTHEY : Roderick, book v. " How quick they carved their victims, and how well. Let Saxony, let injured Genoa tell." Moore. '* Remember the moment when Prevesa fell, The shrieks of the conquered, the conquerors' yell." Byron : Childe Harold, canto ii. "Unseen is YAnina, though not remote." Childe Harold, canto ii. There is, perhaps, no class of names whose accentua- tion seems more foreign to an English ear than those ending in ia with the accent on the penultima. Yet even in such cases the poets conform to the native pro- nunciation : " Sustained by thoughts like these, from morn till eve He journeyed, and drew near LEYRfA's walls." SouTHEY : Roderick, book iii. " And now appear, as on a phosphor sea. Numberless barks from Mil'an, from PAvfA." Rogers : Italy, Part i., vii. Among the principal languages of continental Europe, the German, in its accent and in the metre of its verse, has perhaps the nearest affinity to the English ; and it is worthy of remark that precisely the same general usage prevails with respect to foreign names in German poetry as in that of our own tongue. Any one may satisfy himself of the correctness of this statement if he will consult the poems of Schiller, who seems to have had occasion to use foreign names far more frequently than almost any other German poet. In his drama of " Don Carlos," Madrid occurs nearly twenty times, and always with the accent on the last syllable. This one fact (even were there no other) may show how sparingly the "poetical license," so often alluded to, is used by perhaps the most careless in versification of all the great poets of Germany. Mirandola (a town in Italy) occurs twice, and in both instances has the accent on the ante- penultima : "Zwei edle Hauser in MirXndola." "Eilt nach MirXndola der Trunkene." Act i. Scene 3. This is the more remarkable because Mirandola is an exception to the general rule of Italian pronunciation, which places the accent on the penultima of words end- ing in a, vowel. The name of the famous Princess of Eboli occurs a great number of times, and invariably with the correct accentuation, — that is, with the accent on the antepenul- tima, although, this is contrary to the general rule both of Spanish and Italian pronunciation. The following lines will suffice to show Schiller's accentuation : " Ich hoflfe melne Eb'oli denkt anders." " Prinzessin Eb'oli, sie haben uns Noch nicht gesagt ob Gomez hoffen darf." " Wir wollen wissen, ob er lieben kann, Und Liebe kann verdienen, — Eb'oli? Don Carlos, Act i. Scene 3. "Der Fiirstin Eb'oli die Hand zu reichen." Act ii. Scene 8. 6 "Das lang' entbehrte Gliick verscliafft, der Fiirstin Von Eb'oli mich wiederum zu nahern." Act ii. Scene 11. If our poet is not equally correct in regard to Al- calA, (a small town of Spain,) it was owing, doubtless, either to the difficulty of making such a name " lie smooth in rhyme," or to his being ignorant of its true accentuation. The latter is by no means improbable, inasmuch as the Spanish language is far less studied by the generality of European scholars than the Italian. That it was not the result of carelessness is shown by the fact that Alcala is always pronounced in the poem in the same manner, and according to the general rule of Spanish accentuation; that is, with the accent on the penultima. It may be remarked, however, that Schiller places the accent on the last syllable of Paris, Saint- Denis, and Saint-Quentin,* — in all of which he differs from the English and conforms to the French accentua- tion. (See " Remarks on the French Accent," page 13.) But perhaps the most remarkable illustration of this tendency to adopt the native pronunciation of foreign names is found in his drama of " Mary Stuart ;" where the poet, with the obvious intention of obliging his countrymen to pronounce the English names correctly, invariably in his verse spells Leicester " Lester," although in the explanatory (prose) parts of the play he as invariably writes it " Leicester," as we do in English. For the same reason, doubtless, he writes Boleyn " Boulen," that his countrymen might pronounce the name Boo'len, nearly as it is spoken in England. Had he written it Boleyn, the Germans might have placed the accent on the last syllable, as we often hear it pro- nounced in the United States. The acce7ttuation of names occurring in poetry, as already intimated, can readily be determined by the metre ; but the manner in which the poets pronounced the letters of a foreign name cannot be so easily ascer- tained, since it can be known only when the name ends a line in rhyme ; and even then it is often extremely un- certain, as they appear to consider themselves entitled, in such cases, to much greater license than in the ac- centuation of words. Thus, we often see associated, in rhyme, words which correspond very imperfectly in sound, as enemy and mourn and burn, etc. Never- theless, by comparing a number of passages, especially of those poets who are most remarkable for the cor^ rectness of their rhymes, we shall often be enabled to ascertain the true pronunciation of a word or name. Now, it will be found that the system which we have adopted is supported by the practice of the poets in this respect also. In other words, it will be found that, while foreign names that are very commonly used in our lan- guage have an English pronunciation, those not very well knoum are generally pronounced %vith the foreign sound of the letters, as will be seen from the following passages ; " ' 'Tis Jacqueline ! 'tis Jacqueline V Her little brother laughing cried ; ' I know her by her kirtle green. She comes along the mountain side."* " Not now to while an hour away. Gone to the falls in Valombri.'* " De Courcy, lord of A rgentiire ! Thy thirst for vengeance sought the snarg.*' — Rogers. * The two former names occur in "The Maid of Orleans," ("D^ Jungfrau von Orleans,") the last in " Don Carlos." INTR OD UCriON. "Winding between Alpine trees, Spiry and dark around their house of prayef, Below the icy bed of bright ^rg-^«/!i^r^."— Wordsworth. " This circumstance may serve to give a notion Of the high talents of this new Vauban * But the town-ditch below was deep as ocean. The rampart higher than you'd wish to hangy — Byron. " For many an age remember'd long Shall live the towers of Hougomont* And fields of Waterloa" — Scott. On the ortier hand, we shall find the poets pronounce foreign names of some celebrity with the English sound of the letters, as may be seen from these and similar examples : " Gh, never talk again to me Of northern climes and British ladies ; It has not been your lot to see, Like me, the lovely girl of Cadiz.''^ — Byron. " And Courtenay's pride and Percy's fame Blazed broader yet in aher-years, At Cressy red and fell Poitiers.'''' — Scott. " So the shaft Of victory mounts high, and blood is quaffd In fields that rival Cressy and Poictiers, — Pride to be wasli'd away by bitter tears." — Wordsworth. Not unfrequently the poets will be found to give the correct pronunciation of names even when this differs essentially from the popular usage. Thus, Halleck says, " Born in a camp, its watchfires bright Alone illumed my cradle-bed, And I had borne with wild delight My banner where Boli'var led." — Magdalen. The pronunciation of the name of Coke, the celebrated lawyer and statesman, is almost always given correctly (kook) by the poets, although this does not correspond with the usual spelling.t In proof of this we may, out of a multitude of examples, cite the following; *' May he Be by his father in his study took At Shakespeare's plays instead of my Lord Coke.'''' See "A Poetical Revenge," in Cowlkv's Miscellanies. " And said she must consult her hooks, Tlie lover's Fletas, Bractons, Cokes." Swift: Cadenus and Vanessa. "Also observe that, like the great Lord Coke, (See Littleton,) whene'er I have expressed Opinions two which at first sight may look Twin opposites, the second is the best." BvRON : Don Juan, canto xv. stanza Ixxxvii. The name of Bolingbroke is almost always pronounced correctly (Bolingbrook) by the poets. The following example, out of several occurring in the same poem, may serve as an illustration : "What hope have you that ever Bolingbrok'e Will live a subject that hath tried his fate? Or what good reconcilement can you look. When he must always fear and you must hate?" Daniel: History of the Civil War, book ii. stanza xxxv. * In these names the letter n is similar in sound to ng. The rhymes, however, are not perfect : the o in the last syllable o{ Hougo- mont should be sounded Kke o in won't, but the final / is silent. The final syllable of Vauban sounds almost like bing. t We say usual spelling, because in Coke's own time it was not unfrequently written Cook. " In the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., Sir Edward's name was frequently spelt Cook. Lady Hatton, his second wife, who would not assume it, adopted this spelling in writing to him, and according to this spelling it has invariably been pro- nounced.''' (See Lord Campbell's " Lives of the Chief Justices," vol. i. chap, vii.) There is one difficulty m ■ arrying out the system of foreign pronunciation adopted by us, which it may be proper to notice here, viz., that of drawing the lines be- tween foreign names which are., and those which are noty well known. With respect to the more obvious in each division there cannot be the slightest hesitation ; but the two classes meet and pa5s into each other by impercepti- ble gradations, so that sometimes the question whether they should be pronounced according to the foreign ot the English mode can be settled only by arbitrary decis- ion. In these doubtful instances we have spared no pains to ascertain the prevailing practice of the best speakers, as well as the usage of the poets : when these have been found unsatisfactory, nothing has remained for us but to decide according to the best of our ability. We have in these cases usually given both pronunciations, placing that first which, in our judgment, is to be preferred. In those cases where it is impossible to express accu- rately the sounds of other languages by English letters, we have endeavoured to employ a mode of indicating those sounds which, if it does not afford any effectual assistance to the mere English scholar, may at least be in no danger of embarrassing or leading him astray. Thus, we have represented the sound of the German ch by K, distinguished by being a small capital. Perhaps a strongly aspirated h — which might be indicated by hh — would convey a nearer idea of the German sound ; but it seems less eligible than the other mode, both be- cause persons might differ in the pronunciation of it or perhaps be at a loss to pronounce it at all, and because the established mode of anglicizing the German r/z seems to be to change its sound to that of k, as in the instances BLUCHER,t Blumenbach, Meiternich, etc. The Scottish and Dutch sounds of ch, so similar to the Ger- man, when anglicized, assume invariably, if we mistake not, the sound of k. The ordinary mode of pronouncing the Greek x tends to the same result. We have not, however, represented the sound of the German g, at the end of a syllable, in the same manner as the ch, though it has nearly the same sound, because it is not customary to anglicize it by the sound of k, except in a few instances. § Were the pronunciation of such a word as berg repre- sented by berYi, the effect would be to lead the Eng- lish scholar to pronounce it differently from the ordinary mode, while he would be in no respect nearer the German than those who pronounce the word according to the English sound of the letters. Another considera- tion may, perhaps, be allowed to have some weight, viz., that though the more approved mode of German pronunciation requires that g, when it does not begin a word, should be pronounced nearly like ch, yet in some parts of Germany it is pronounced in every case like^ hard in English. In a similar manner, and for similar reasons, we have usually represented the German t^; by a X Although in America we very frequently hear this name pro- nounced Blu'tcher by intelligent speakers, the ch should unquestion- ably be hard, as is indicated by the following passage from Moore's " Fudge Family in Paris :" " A fine sallow sublime sort of Werter-faced man, With mustachios that gave (what we read of so oft) The dear Corsair expression, half savage, half soft; As hyenas in love may be fancied to look, or A something between Abelard and old Blucher." § Dantzic or Dantzick, (German, Danzig,) Leipsic or Leip- siCK, (German, Leipzig,) Sleswick, (German, Schleswig ; Danish, Slesvig,) are the only examples that we now recollect. 7 INTRO D UCTION. ^, and not by a v, though this is nearer the sound of the German letter.' With regard to French names, however, a different plan has been pursued, both because it is less easy, so to speak, to anglicize the French letters, and because, from the circumstance of this being far more studied than any other foreign language, it is much more usual for English or American speakers to adopt all the pecu- liar sounds in pronouncing French words or names. ARABIC. I. The Arabic belongs to what is called the Semitic* family of languages, and is nearly related to the Hebrew, which it resembles not only in its general grammatical structure, but also in the form of many of its individual words. Of all the Semitic family it is by far the richest in its literature and the most copious in its vocabulary. Like the Hebrew, it is written from right to left. It belongs to the class referred to in the Preface (p. vi.) as " neither written in Roman letters nor in characters which can be converted into corresponding Roman let- ters ;" it is therefore customary for Europeans in giving Arabic words or names to spell them according- to the sound, the writers of the different nations seeking to indicate the pronunciation in the manner which to them seems most proper. In order to be able to point out more clearly the causes of the diversity which prevails among European writers respecting the manner of rep- resenting the sounds of the Arabic tongue, and for other reasons, we have deemed it proper to present to the reader a table of the Arabic characters, accompanied by such explanations as seemed necessary for our purpose. The Arabic alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters, as follows : 2 . 0 Q U Id ', Q J ^ w 8 u d <-> < Q < Name. Power. ^ z Ui 2 I. L L V alif. a. 2. >. J ba. b. 3- 0 o- X. J ta. t. 4- 0 A % thl th. 5* jeem or jim. j- 6. z Hi H. 7. % i> kha. kh. 8. dal. d. 9- l\ dhai. dh. 10. Jt / J >> ra. r. II. jt J J J z. 12. seen or sin, s. 13- sheen or shin, sh. 14. /O sad. s or ss. 15. 0^ AO dsad, ds or dh. 16. J. Ja L ta, t. 17. 12 dza. dz or dh. * I.e. Shemitic, — a term derived from Shem, the son of Noah, t The letters thus marked ought never, according to the rules of Arabic orthography, to be connected with those that follow them. 8 Uncon- nected. Final Con- nected. Medial. Initial. Name. Powi 18. t X £ ain, (^'in or in,) t 19- t k ghain, (g^'in or Gin,) J 20. Si 5 f£l, f. 21. A kaf. k. 22. ^§ ^ Uf, k. 23- JL i mm, 1. 24. r meem or mim. m. 25. 0 0 i noon or nun, n. 26. J- J- waw, w. 27. » i ha. h. 28. l5 l5 J, y- In the Persian, (and Hindostanee,) besides the fore* going, the following four additional characters are used j Unconnected. Final Connected. Medial. Initial. Power. v—J ^ - sounds like b in English. 3. o has the sound of the Spanish /. (See XIX. 17.) 4. O sounds like our th in thin, or the Spanish z. S^^'In Persian and Hindostanee it has the sound of s. 5. ^ is usually pronounced like the English y, though in some dialects it has the sound of g hard. 6. ^ sounds nearly like the Spanish j or (see XIX. 9,) but it is formed lower in the throat. 7. ^ sounds like the German ch in ach, doch, etc. It is commonly represented in the French and English languages by kh, and in the German by ch. 8. 0 nearly resembles the English d in sound, but, in pronouncing it, the tip of the tongue is placed against the teeth. It bears the same relation to our d that the Spanish / does to our 9. 3 has no exact equivalent in any European lan- guage, though it nearly resembles the sound of our th in thy. It is often represented by dh, and sometimes by ds, dhs, or simple d. In Persian and Hindostanee it takes the sound of z. 10. ^ sounds like the French or Italian r, or like rr in the English word terror. 11. J has the sound of our 2. 12. \jH sounds like our s in this, 13. [J^ is like the English sh. 14. sounds nearly like the English sharp s ; but, X These letters have in sound nothing like them in English. (See [8 and 19 of this section.) § Written, also, ^3. |1 Written, also, INTRODUCTION. in pronouncing it, the teeth are not brought so nearly into contact. It is often represented by jj, or by f. 15. (jT has no equivalent in any European language. It is variously represented by dz, dh, dd, and ds. This letter, in Persian and Hindostanee, takes the sound oi z. 16. -b is in sound nearly like the English /, but is pronounced somewhat harder. It is variously repre- sented by t, tt, and th.* 17. j£> has a sound somewhat similar to (jT'. It can- not be indicated by any English letter or combination of letters ; it is, however, usually represented by dA or d^/i. Ji^^ It is pronounced like 2 in Persian and Hindostanee. 18. ^ has no exact equivalent in any European tongue. It nearly corresponds to the Plebrew ^- In the hiatus pro- duced in uttering S — d in quick succession, we make a sound very similar to the Arabic ain, but the latter is formed lower in the throat. 19. ^ has no equivalent in English. It bears nearly the same relation to hard g that M (K) does to k. It is sometimes represented by^, but more frequently by^//, at least by French and English Orientalists. 20. has the sound of our / 21. is similar to our i, but is formed lower in the throat. There seems to be a sort of aspirate mixed with the sound of It is sometimes represented by (with a dot under it,) and sometimes by g. 22. wii in sound is exactly like our ^. 23. i3 is like the English /. 24. j» is pronounced like our m. 25. Q is in sound like the English n. 26. 5, as a vowel, is equivalent to 00 or u ; as a con- sonant, it sounds like the English w or v. 27. 8 sounds like our A; when final, it is nearly silent. 28. as a vowel, sounds like ee or /, in which case a kasra is implied or expressed ; as a consonant, like j. In the middle of a word the sound of may be doubled by means of the tashdeed, which, in writing, is often omitted. Preceded by fatha, (see below,) this letter as- sumes the sound of our long t, and is represented by az., 29. All the foregoing characters are regarded by Arab grammarians as consonants. I has been compared to the soft hxQ2i\.h.\r\g (spiritus lenis) of the Greeks; ^ is a similar breathing, though the place of its formation is lower in the throat. 30. The true vowels are three. They are called — i. Fat' ha, {a ;\) 2. Kas'ra, (;, sometimes e ;) and 3. Dham- ma,X (00 or «.§) Fatha is written thus— over the con- sonant to which it belongs ; kasra is placed beneath its consonant, thus—; dhamma (which is in fact a minute •)) is written over its consonant, thus,—. These vowels are always joined to the consonant which in pronuncia- tion precedes them: thus, in ^i, (kalam,) a "reed" or "pen," the fir&t fatha is considered to belong to the M/, over which it is placed, the second to the /dm, (not to * In such cases ih is not intended to indicate a sound like that of the English tk or the Greek 0, but rather a sound similar to that of the Hindoo th. (See XVIII. 6.) t Often represented by e, and sometimes (in English) by u short. (See IX. 3, and XIII. 3 ) t Pronounced by the Persians zam'ma. § Often represented by o, as in the case of Mohammed, (see 32 of this section.) the meem which comes after it ;) and so in all similar cases : it follows that no vowel can stand by itself.|| Hence, if we wish to write an initial short fatha, it must be as- sociated either with alif or aiti, as (ahad,) a " unit," ^yic, (afu,) "forgiveness." If we would write a short initial kasra or dhamma, we must begin the word in the same manner ^yjj, (ib'n,) a "son," ^U^* (ibad,) "servants," ^^f, (uf or oof,) "fie!" ^y^&> (ubiir or dbboor,) a "passage" or "crossing." 31. As a general rule, if any one of the simple vowels is joined to an ordinary consonant, or to an initial alif or ain, it is short, as will be seen from the previous examples ; but if in any syllable not initial they are joined with any of the (so-called) consonants (alif, ain, ivaw, etc.) to which they naturally correspond, they be- come long : for example, fatha with alif or ain gives us the sound of d, as vU, (bab,) a "gate," tA*J, (bad or bi-ad,) "after:" so kasra with yd gives the sound of /, (or ee,) as (seen or sin,) the name of the letter <^ ; so also dhamma with waw gives the sound of u or 00, as {x\vM or noon,) the name of the letter q. It should be observed that the fatha or dhamma is not written on the alif or waw, nor the kasra under the yd^ but is joined to the previous consonant, the semi-con- sonants coming after, for the sole purpose, it would seem, of prolonging the vowel.l" In order to indicate the sound of d at the beginning of a word, it is usual to place a circumflex over the alif, — thus, \. The initial long / ( i or ee) is represented by jj, and long u (-& ox 00) by •,1 32. The vowels are not usually written in Arabic manuscripts, and they are scarcely needed by the native Arabs who already know the language ; but they are of great utility to foreigners in learning Arabic. The same may be said of the jazm or jezm, (**,) a mark placed upon a consonant to show that it has no vowel following it, as vjjjj^, (azrak, " blue," which without the jazm might be pronounced azarak,) and the tashdeed or tashdid, (-,) placed on a consonant to show that it must be doubled in pronunciation ; as (Mohammed.) 33. It is proper to observe that when the Arabic article al or el is followed by certain letters it changes its sound to that of the letter following : thus, el-Deen becomes ed-Deen; el-Dowlah, ed-Dowlah ; al-Rahman or el-Rahman, ar-Rahman or er-Rahtnan ; al-Temeemee, at-Temeemee ; and so on. (See XIII. 4.) REMARKS ON ARABIC PRONUNCIATION. When any of the long vowels (see 31 of this section) occur in the final syllable of a word or name ending in a consonant, that syllable always takes the accent accord- ing to the common European signification of this term. Some eminent grammarians lay it down as a rule that the accent in Arabic never falls on the last syllable ; but this rule proceeds on the supposition that the final syl- lable is short. Or, if it be meant to apply to all syllables, long as well as short, the term " accent" cannot be under- stood in the sense in which it is used by most European II It may be remarked as an apparent exception to this rule that Ibn, "son," is often written simply {hn ;) but this is usually to be considered as an abbreviation for though l>en or itn is not unfrequently used instead of the longer form 11 The long vowels in Arabic are to be pronounced very full and long, — fjarticularly the long a, which is not only longer but sensibly broader than our a in /ar. (See XIV. 4.) 9 INTRO D UCTION, nations. In support of our position, we may cite, as a practical argument of great force, the fact that when an Arabic word ending in a consonant, preceded by a long vowel, is adopted into any European language, it takes the accent on the final syllable : thus, Wddy-al-Kebir be- comes in Spanish Gtcadalquivir, A/-Mansoorhecomes Al- mansSr, and so on. Nor can it be said that this ultimate accent is due to the tendency of the Spanish language to throw the accent on the last syllable ; for Almodovar, derived from the Arabic Al-Modhofer, (which, like Al- Mansoor, signifies " the Victorious,") is in its Spanish form accentuated precisely as in the Arabic, — that is, on the penultima. If an Englishman who should hear a native Arab pronounce the word kebir^ "great," or kethir, "much," should be told, by one who had any knowledge of the subject, that the first and not the last syllable was accentuated, he could come to no other conclusion than that in the mind of the speaker accent had a totally different meaning from what it has in Eng- lish and in most other European tongues. In Hammer- Purgstall's great work on the literature of the Arabs, he translates into German verse many thousand lines from the Arabian poets, and he invariably, if we are not mistaken, places the accent on a long final syllable end- ing in a consonant. In illustration and support of this statement, we may select, from a multitude of the same general character, the following passage. A witty Ara- bian poet had been found half drunk by one of the caliph's police-officers in a tippling-house. The officer questioned the offender, as he had been instructed to do, — " Who art thou, and what is thy religion V The poet's answer, rendered into German, is as follows : " Ich glaube was glauben die Beni Abbas Und was ist besiegelt mit Thon auf Papier; Wenn ich getrunken ein frbliches Glas, Und wenn es im Kopfe rumoret bei mir, So sei die geringste der Sorgen dir das."* See " Literaturgeschichte der Araber," vol. iii. p. 462. If there were any Arabic words, ending in a long final syllable, that might be considered doubtful, it would be those which, like Abbas, have a double consonant in the penultima ; and yet nothing can be clearer than that the accent is placed on the final syllable only, in the foregoing verse. Mansur, (Mansoor,) though having also two consonants after the penultimate vowel, is pronounced by Hammer-Purgstall in the same manner. The reader, by referring to the above work, will find a multitude of similar examples, among others Bagdad, with the accent on the last syllable, (see vol. iii. p. 440,) to which testi- mony we may add that of one of the most learned and accurate of our English poets. Southey in his " Thalaba" says, " The old man answered, To Bagdad I go." " Stands not Bagdad Near to the site of ancient Babylon?" "At length Bagdad appeared, The city of his search." * The following is a nearly literal translation : " I believe what- ever the Beni AbbSs [then the reigning family of caliphs] believe, and whatever is sealed with wax upon paper, [that is, whatever is gen- erally recognized and established.] If I have drunk a cheerful glass, and if it causes some confusion in my head, let that be the least of thy cares." 10 CHINESE. II. As it would be out of the question in a work like the present to attempt to give a minute and systematic ex- position of the principles of Chinese pronunciation, vary- ing greatly as they do in different provinces and among different classes of the community, we shall content ourselves with merely offering a few brief observations, for the purpose of explaining the more obvious differ- ences in the mode of representing Chinese names among the nations of the West. 1. One of the remarkable peculiarities of the Chinese tongue is the perpetual occurrence of nasal sounds. It was through the Portuguese, who, among all the nations of Europe, were the first to become intimately acquainted with China and the Chinese, that the forms of celebrated Chinese names first became familiar to Europeans. It so happened that the Portuguese language abounded in the same class of nasal sounds ; and in representing these sounds in Chinese names according to the principles of their own language the Portuguese missionaries adopted a spelling which would necessarily convey an erroneous idea of the pronunciation to the great majority of Europeans. Thus, they wrote for the name of the great northern capital of China, Pcquim or Feguin, and for that of the southern capital, Nanqidm or Nanqtcm, the Portuguese pronunciation of which would be nearly pi'keeN' or p^keeng', and n^N'keeN' or ning'keeng'. The Spaniards, then the leading nation in the world, having conquered Macao and the other Portuguese pos- sessions in the far East, adopted, with little or no change, the Portuguese spellings, giving to them their own pro- nunciation, which they introduced among the other na- tions of Europe. The result was that, until very recently, Peking was often written Peking and was generally pro- nounced in Europe p^-keen' or pe-kin'; and Nanking, commonly written A^^^/^-m, was called nan'keen'.f ToN- QUIN (pronounced almost tong'king' by the Chinese) still retains its Spanish pronunciation, ton-keen'; and Canton (in Chinese Quantong) has in English and in most othef European tongues coinpietely dropped the nasal termi* nation and taken the sound of n pure. In like manner we are to explain the fact that the names Confucius and Mencius, by which the two great Chinese philoso* phers (KoNG-FOO-TSE and Meng-tse) are generally known in Europe, have no trace of that nasal sound which is so distinct an element in those names as spoken by the Chinese. 2. Several consonant sounds which are found in all, or nearly all, European tongues, are wanting in most of the Chinese dialects, viz., b, d,g, (hard,) r, v, and z. It being a principle or law of this language that every individual word must be a monosyllable, ending either in a pure vowel or a nasal, it often causes strange transformations when an attempt is made to introduce words or names from other nations : thus, the Hindoo Booddha is changed into Fo, the initial B being necessarily replaced by a Chinese consonant, and the monosyllable which is sub- stituted for the original dir.syllable drops the terminal consonant, according to the usage of the language. On account of the difficulty and uncertainty attending the pronunciation of Chinese names, resulting from the t As is shown by the common English name of a kind of cloth manufactured there. INTRO D UCTION. great diversity of dialects in that country, to attempt any great exactness or nicety in representing that pro- nunciation would clearly be a work of supererogation. We have deemed it sufficient to give the names accord- ing to the usage of the best European writers, taking care only, when there is occasion to do so, to render the French, Portuguese, or German spellings into their nearest English equivalents, Respecting the diver- sity of forms caused by writing Oriental names in dif- ferent languages, see Preface, (pp. vi.-viii.,) and Section XIIL, on the Oriental Languages, in this Introduction. DANISH. III. 1. A usually has a sound between that in the English word far and that in fat It may be represented by S. When it ends a syllable it is usually longer than when followed by a vowel in the same syllable: Xhns, fader (" father") is pronounced fS'oer, nearly like the English father. Aa is commonly pronounced nearly like our aw, (or au.) 2. E, at the end of an accented syllable, usually has a sound like that of /'in pin, (see XX., 3 ;) in other cases it is sometimes like e in met, and sometimes like e in battery. 3. /is like ee, or like / in pin. li is like our ee. 4. O is like the English o. 5. U is like 00. 6. Fis equivalent to the French u or ii. 7. Ae sounds like a in fate. 8. le sounds like ee in English. 9. Oe or 0 is the same as in German. 10. The consonants b, c, f h, k, /, m, ft, p, q, s, t, x, z are like the English. 11. £>, at the beginning of a word, is like the English d ; between two vowels, or at the end of a syllable in which it follows a vowel, it sounds nearly like t/i in tAis, (th.) When preceded by /, «, or r, more particularly when it occurs at the end of a word, it is almost or quite silent, as in AhWdgard. 12. is always hard ; at the end of a word it is sounded very slightly, so as to resemble A : e.g. Aalborg is pronounced nearly ol'bor^k. 13. y is like the English j, (consonant.) 14. R is similar to the German. 15. V \s usually like the English ; but av sounds like dw, (or (m in our:) plov (a "plough") is pronounced pl&w. 16. W has a sound similar to that of our v or the Ger- man w. It is sometimes interchangeable with v, DUTCH. IV. 1. The vowels a, e^ i, o, and u are similar to the French. 2. y is like long / in English, as in nig-A. Obs. /j is often made use of instead of ^; thus, Ovhrvssel (the old spelling) is now commonly written Overijssel. 3. Aa is a long, (I.) 4- Ae is equivalent to M or I. 5. Ee (equivalent to e long) sounds like our a in fate. 6. Ei or ey is like the German ei, or our long (1.) 7. le sounds like ee in English. 8. Oe sounds like 00. 9. Oo is always pronounced like 0 long in English, or like 00 in door. 10. Ui or uy is similar to oi in English, or eu in Ger- man. It appears, however, that formerly the Dutch ui had a different sound, somewhat resembling a lengthened ii. (See H. Frijlink, '* Woordenboek voor vreemde Eigennamen," p. 31, Amsterdam, 1858.) 11. The consonants b, c,f, h, ky /, n, p, q, r, s, t, and z are similar to the English. 12. Z>, at the end of a word, is like t; in other cases it is the same as in English. 13. G resembles in sound a strongly aspirated A, or the German cA. 14. y is equivalent to the English (consonant.) 15. V, at the beginning of a word or name, usually sounds nearly like f ; or, to speak more exactly, it has a sound intermediate between that of the German v (f) and our V. 16. fV is somewhat like the German, but softer ; in other words, it has a sound between that of our w and the German w. In the word Nieuw, ('* new,") followed by a consonant, as Nieuwpoort, (written also NiEU- POORT,) it is silent. 17. Ch is similar to the German ch. 18. Schy however, has not, as in German, the sound of the English sh, but the pure sound of s, followed by the guttural ch, resembling sk in English. The Flemish is so closely allied to the Dutch that it may be regarded as essentially the same language. It differs, however, somewhat in the spelling of words. According to the modern Dutch . orthography, aa is generally substituted for ae, and ij for y. In Flemish both of these old forms are still retained. FRENCH, v.- 1. A, in French, has two sounds : the short, as in amiy la bal, etc., is intermediate between S (as in the English word far) and i, (as in fat:) this sound in the present work is represented by t. The second or long sound is like that in our word far ; it occurs in the a circumflexed (a) and a followed by a silent s, as in pas, which should be pronounced as if written pa. This sound is repre- sented by 2. ^ has four sounds : {\)close,V[k^avci the English word fate, e.g. in (represented in this work by k ;) (2 and 3) open,* the second e, nearly as in met, but more pro- longed, e.g. in prods, (represented by § or i ;) the third e {e circumflexed) is like the preceding, but still more open and more prolonged, e.g. in tete; it is represented by i ; (4) obscure, as in battery, e.g. in retour, devrait.'\ 3. / has two sounds : the first nearly as in the Eng- lish word fig, e.g. in il, ami ; the second like ie in fieldy or ee, e.g. in git, pie, etc. 4. O has three sounds : (i) nearly as in robe, e.g. in trdne, (represented by 6 ;) (2) as in rob, e.g. in parole; (3) as in lord, e.g. in corps. The second and third are both represented by o without any mark. 5. The sound of the French u has no equivalent in English. It may be said to be intermediate between ee * In pronouncing this sound the mouth must be freely opened, — ^whence the name. t The e in these and similar cases is often scarcely sounded at all, and appears to pass imperceptibly into e mute ; retour and devrait may be pronounced r'tooR and d'vsA. It should, however, be ob- served that in reading poetry, as well as in the graver style of public speaking, the unaccented e, even when it forms the terminal letter of such words as tHe, parte, etc., nearly always makes a distinct and separate syllable. (See 18 of this section.) II INTRODUCTION, and 00. This is one of the most difficult sounds in the language, but may readily be produced if the speaker^ after placing his lips in the position proper for sounding our 00, attempts, without moving his lips, to utter the sound of ee. In tlie present work it is represented by the German ii. Ofis. U, before n nasal, has its second English sound nearly, un being pronounced almost like «N. 6. yis similar to the French In the middle of a word J is usually equivalent to ii, as in fuyard, fii-e'ytR', (pronounced in Yxench, ftci-iar.) 7. Ai and ay are like ^, (represented by i.) Obs. When ai forms the termination of verbs, as in fai, ("I have,") je parlai, (" I spoke,") je parlerai, (" I shall speak,") it has the sound of e, or a in fate. Some authorities say that while aie, ais., and aye are to be sounded as k, ai, ay, ei, and ey terminal (that is, when not followed by ^ or j mute) should be pronounced as e, (A ;) but to this general rule there appear to be many exceptions.* 8. Au is like 0. 9. Ei and ey are like ^, (see 7 of this Section ; Ob- servation.) 10. Eli is nearly similar to the English u in tub, but the sound is somewhat closer and more prolonged, nearly resembling that of tc in fur. It is similar to the German 0, but is rather more open, Obs. Eu, in the different parts of the verb avoir, "to have," always has the sound of simple u. 11. le is like ee in English, or i. 12. Oi usually sounds like w§. : e.g. mot is pronounced mwS or mwSh. Obs. C/was formerly used in the termination of the French verbs, e.g. avois, avoit, avoient ; also in the final syllable of many adjectives, * There is not only considerable diversity among the different French authorities in regard to the pronunciation of words or names with these terminations, but scarcely any one writer appears to be consistent with himself in this respect. In Boyer's " French Dic- tionary," with the pronunciation according to the Abb^ Tardy, (Bos- ton, 1822,) Bey {a. Turkish governor) is pronounced bA, (or be;) but all words ending in ai, as l^atai, delai, essai, gai, geai, lai, Mai, quai, vrai, are pronounced with the open sound of e, or k ;) the ai of balai, gai, geai, lai, Mai, and quai is sounded like the English e in 9nei, but in delai, essai, and vrai, like e in there. In the Dictionary of Fleming and Tibbins, (American edition, Philadelphia, 1843,) in gai, Mai, and quai has the sound of e, close k, (or e,) but balai, delai, essai, lai, and vrai are pronounced in precisely the same manner as in the preceding work. In Spiers and Surenne's Dic- tionary (American edition, 1852) gai has the sound of e close, (d or i. ;) but balai, Mai, and all other words (not verbs) of this termi- nation are pronounced with the sound of open e. Bey, as in Boyer and Fleming and Tibbins, is pronounced bd, (or b^ ;) but dey, a word similar in its origin and general character, has the open sound of e, (di.) Ay and ey, when forming the termination of proper names, are in Spiers and Surenne's Dictionary invariably represented in pro- nunciation by k, with the single exception of Solway. See, also, " Surenne's French Pronouncing Dictionary, "(American edition, from the Edinburgh edition of 1840,) in which is given the pronunciation of a great many proper names ending in ay and ey, and never with the sound of e close, (e,) except in the solitary instance of Solway, just noticed. Mr. Bescherelle, perhaps the highest modern authority in regard to the pronunciation as well as the definition of French words, does not speak very definitely in regard to the sound of ai or ay terminal ; but, under the letter E, he says ey has its middle sound {^'son moyen ou demi-ouverf^ in bey, dey, Hervey, Ney, Volney, etc., (see " Dictionnaire National," vol. i., pp. 1049 and 1050.) In con- sideration of the general tendency of the preceding writers, and sup- ported by the high authority last named, we have adopted the general rule to make the e open in the final syllables of all names of this class. At the same time, those who are anxious to be accurate in their pro- nunciation should take care to make the sound of ai, ay, and ey, terminal, less open and less full than in the final syllables aie, aye, ttts, eys, etc. 12 as Polonois, " Polish," and Lyonnois, "belonging to Lyons." The oi in these words — which are now usually written avals, avaii, avaient, Polonais, Lyonnais — sounds like ai, (or ^.) 13. Ou sounds like 00 in English. 14. B, c,\ d, f, k, p, t, V, and z are the same as in English. 15. G, before a, o, and u, is hard, as in the English word ^(2/ ; before e, i, and y it is soft, having the sound of zh, or of s in the English word pleasure. Gu sounds like g hard : thus, gue, guide, are pronounced gi, g^d or geed. 16. H\?, never pronounced in French so forcibly as in English. Some of the best French authorities, indeed, say that the h should Tiever be sounded at all in French words or names ; the only difference they would make between the (so-called) aspirated and unaspirated initial h is, that before the latter the a or unaccented e in such particles as la, le, etc. is dropped, as Vherbe, (pronounced liRb,) "the grass;" Vhomtne, (lorn,) "the man;" while before the former it is retained, as la halle, (pronounced It tl,) "the market;" le hamac, (leh t'mtk',) "the ham- mock," etc. 17. y sounds like soft ^ in French, or zh in English. 18. L has usually the same sound as in English ; but when it ends a word, being preceded by i, or when // follows i in any situation, it usually has what is called its liquid sound. This may be said to answer nearly to the sound of /// in million, the sound of / in such cases being blended with that of y, (consonant :) e.g. papillon is pronounced pt'piKy6N'; Chantilly, shfiN^t^Kye', etc. It should, however, be observed that at present, accord- ing to the general practice of the more polite French speakers, the sound of / in such words is in ordinary conversation scarcely heard at all, so that their pronun- ciation may rather be indicated thus, — pt'pe^'6]S^ sh6N'- te'ye'; but in the higher style of speaking, and in public discourses, the / in such cases is, according to the best usage, distinctly pronounced. 19. M and n, when followed by a vowel, or when double, have the same sound as in English ; but when at the end of a word, (not immediately followed by another word beginning with a vowel,) or when followed by another consonant in the middle of a word, they have what is termed the nasal sound, which somewhat re- sembles that of ng in long, pang, etc., but is softer :% thus, m and n are nasal in such words as coMparer, con- teNte, but have their natural sound in such as commune, connu. Bon, (" good,") before a consonant or standing by itself, would be pronounced b6N ; but if followed im- mediately by a vowel, as in the phrase bon ami, (" good friend,") the final n is sounded distinctly, as nn would be in the same position. The pronoun sien, when not followed by a vowel, is pronounced nearly se-S^N' ; but when it takes the feminine termination the n, being doubled, has the same sound as in English, so that sienne is pronounced se-hn' . 20. M ox n nasal, when preceded by e, causes this vowel to assume the broad sound of a: thus, dents, sens, are pronounced like the French words dans and sans, almost as if written in English ddN and sdN. t C with a cedilla, (g) before a, o, and «, sounds like s : thus, (a, go, gu are pronounced like sa, so, su. tin uttering this sound, care should be taken not to press the back part of the tongue against the palate, as is done in pronouncing the EngHsh INTROD UCTION. 21. In, t'm, am, aim, ein, oin, and en, preceded imme- diately by i, when nasal, have a sound nearly resembling that of ang in the English word pang. In such cases, iit, im, ain, aim, ein, and en are pronounced alike iN ; the o in oin has the sound of our w, so that loin and soin are pronounced almost IwiN, sw^N. 22. In om and on nasal, the o has nearly the sound of b as in ivon''t. Obs. The French nasal sound is represented in the present work by N or M, distinguished as a small capital: e.g. Chaumont, sho'- moN'. 23. Q or qn, in French, always sounds like k: e.g. quel is pronounced khl ; qui, ke. Obs. Q, in French words, (except when terminal, as in coq and cinq,) is always followed by w, though it is often employed without this letter in writing certain foreign names. 24. R is like the English, but is trilled more strongly, especially when it precedes another consonant, or stands at the end of a word, as in vev^tu, puniK : in similar cases the English r is but very slightly sounded. This sound is represented by a small capital r. 25. S, when single and between two vowels, sounds like z: in other cases it is the same as in En_glish. 26. X generally has the same sound as in English, but is sometimes sounded like s, — e.g. in six, pronounced s^ss, and Brtixelles, (Brussels,) pronounced brii'sil.', — and oc- casionally like z, as in dixiime, de'ze-im'. 27. Ch is like sh in English ; th is always like 28. Gn (the same as in Italian) has a sound which blends that of n and (consonant,) or, in other words, is equivalent to the sound of ni in minion. Thus, Avi- gnon is pronounced t'v4n'y6.N'. Obs. This sound is represented in Spanish by and bears the tame relation to n that the liquid / (T) does to the ordinary/. In Hungarian it is expressed by wy, and in Portuguese by nh. When it occurs in the middle of a word, we have represented it by n and y, as in the example above given ; but when it stands at the end of a word, as it cannot then be expressed by any letter or combination of letters in English, it has been indicated by the Spanish fi : accordingly, the French pronunciation of such names as Cologne and Boulooxe is thus given r—ko'loiV, boo'loiV. SILENT LETTERS. 29. The vowel e at the end of a word, when not marked with an accent, is invariably mute : e.g. in park, contente,* etc. 30. The French consonants, when occurring at the end of a word, are generally not pronounced, unless they are immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel : e.g. in content, (pronounced cAw'tdN',) and dents, (dflN.) If, however, they are followed by a mute e or any other vowel, they must always be articulated : e.g. in con- tenYe, den ve, etc. Obs. I. The letters c, /, I, and r are, when final, very often pro- nounced, (the two former almost always:) e.g. in avec, neuf, il, and funir. Obs. 2. The French articulate the final consonants in almost all foreign and classical names: e.g. in Amsterdam, {vt not nasal,) V^NUS. etc. REMARKS ON THE FRENCH ACCENT. It may be observed that the French language has no accent, in the sense in which we employ this term. The * The particles le. r^, and the pronouns/^, me, te, etc., are per- haps, strictly speaking- .exceptions; but though the e in these words is not always absolutely /-nute, it is very often so: thus, the sentence V071S me trouverez le mime is pronounced in rapid conversation voom troov rkl mem, the vowel in me and ne being entirely suppressed, and the consonants attached to the preceding words. marks, called accents, that are placed over the different vowels, serve only to indicate some particular sound of these letters, and not that peculiar impulse of the voice which characterizes an accented syllable in the English and mo.st other European tongues. Thus, the accent over the e in parle serves to show that this vowel has its first French sound, and at the same time distinguishes it from parle, another form of the same verb, in which the e is mute. The circumflex imparts to the vowel over which it is placed a longer and deeper sound than ordinary : e.g. in hate, tempHe, gtte, and apdtre. It is commonly said that the French pronounce all the syllables of a word with an equal stress of voice, but that they seem to an English ear to accentuate the last, be- cause in our language the universal tendency is to throw the accent towards the beginning of the word. Others, on the contrary, maintain that in pronouncing words of a number of syllables the voice of a native French speaker almost invariably rises and dwells on the last, and that this peculiar terminal intonation is very analo- gou-s and nearly equivalent, to our accent. This last opinion appears to us to be not without a real founda- tion. But, however the question may be settled, the fact that the English who have learned the pronun- ciation of names from hearing them spoken by the French themselves, almost invariably thro^y the accent on the final syllable, furnishes, in our judgment, sufficient grounds for establishing a general rule on this subject. Accordingly, in the present work we have, with very few exceptions, placed the principal accent on the last syllable of French names ; at the same time, it has been thought proper to mark the others with sec- ondary accents, in order to prevent them from being pronounced too slightly or indistinctly, as is usually the case with unaccented syllables in English. The pronunciation of Orleans, for example, has been thus given : — oR'li'ftN'. Obs. Particular care, however, should be taken not to break such names into as many isolated sounds as there are different syllables, but, while pronouncing these syllables with a stress of voice nearly equal, to let each glide smoothly into that which follows it. It may be observed that the French, in uttering short sentences, usually make the different words run into each other, as if they were parts of the same word. GERMAN. VI. 1. A, in German, usually sounds as in the English word far, though sometimes approxirrjating the a in fat. 2. E, when long, sounds like a in fate ; when short, like e in met; frequently, however, it has an obscure sound, like e in bitter, paper, etc. It should have this obscure sound whenever it ends an unaccented syllable, (as in Goethe^ or when it precedes /, n, or r in an un- accented syllabic, (as in Schlegel, Bunsen, Schiller.) 3. /long sounds like i in marine, (or ee in English i) / short, like i in pit. 4. O long sounds like o in no ; 0 short, nearly like 0 in on. 5. C/"long is like 00 in moon; u short, like 00 in good. 6. F sounds like the German 7. Ae, or d, is similar to the German e, or to the Eng- lish a in fate or e in met. 8. le is equivalent to i long, (or ee in English.) 9. Oe, or 0, nearly resembles the eti in French, but has no parallel sound in English : the sound in our Ian- '3 INTRODUCTION, guage nearest to it is that of e in ker^ or u in fur : the German poets often rhyme it with with ^, (§ or a.) 10. Ue, or M, is like the French u. 11. At is similar in sound to but somewhat broader, (See 14 of this section.) 12. Au is equivalent to the English ou in our. 13. dti and eu resemble in sound the English oiy as in oil. 14. Ei and y and ^ are alike. ^T/^zgyar is pronounced mod'- yor. 18. Ly is like I in Spanish, or /// in the English word million. Vdsdrhely is pronounced in three syllables, — vi'shSR-hll. 19. iVj/is like the Spanish n, or ni\xi minion. Mdrtony is pronounced in two syllables, — mSR'ton. 20. Ty approximates the sound of our ch, bearing the same relation to t that dy does to d. 21. Zs is sounded like the French /, or zh in English. Obs. In Hungarian, the accent usually falls on the first syllable. ITALIAN. XI. I. A, in Italian, is like the English a in far, though its sound varies somewhat in different situations.* . * There are a number of niceties in Italian pronunciation, which, however interesting to a thorough linguist, cannot properly be noticed in a work like the present. The difficulty of giving a brief and at the $arae time a satisfactory exposition of the principles of this language 16 2. E has two sounds : (i.) close, like a in fate; (2.) open, like e in met. 3. / is like e in me, or i in fig. 4. O has two sounds : (i.) close, as in note; (2.) open^ similar to o in not, but rather broader. 5. like 00 in English. 6. and au, in Italian, are /r«?/(?;' diphthongs. (See VI. 14, Observation.) Accordingly, Cairo is to be pro- nounced ki'ro, AusA, ow'sS, etc. 7. The consonants b, d, f I, m, n, p, q, s, t, and v are similar to the English. Obs. K, w, x, and j>' are not used by the Italians, except in spelling foreign names. 8. C and cc, before a, o, and u, are sounded like k ; be- fore e, i, and^, like ch or tsh. Obs. C, as an Arabic letter, is commonly represented by dk or d, it has in Per- sian the sound of z: and so on. X Major Price, in his " Mahommedan History," (London, 1811,) writes the name AbQ-Bukker, — somewhat inconsistently, since the first part of the name (Abfl) is written with the Italian or German vowels, while the second (Bukker) is written in the English mode, — a mode, moreover, which no Englishman would be likely to use who had not acquired his pronunciation of the name in India. A worse inconsistency is found in Major Stewart's spelling of the name of Hoomayoon, (Houmaioon,) in which the first and second parts of the name are French, and the third English. He should either have written it Houmaioun or Houmayoun, or else Hoomayoon. § So generally pronounced in India. 17 INTRODUCTION, Adh-Dhahabee,* (or -Dhahabi,) (9,) Al-Dzahabi, Uz- Zu'hubee * (30.) Akbar,^ Akber, Ekber, Uk'bur,* (sometimes improp- erly written Akhbar and Ackbar.) Alee,' All, Aly, (or Ally,) UKee * Al-kahir-Billah,* Al-Qahir-t (or Qaher-) Billah, (21.) Baber, Babar, or Baubur. Bayazeed, Bayezeed, Bayazid; Bajasid, (German;) sometimes corrupted into Bajazet. Fereedoon, Feridoun, Feridun, Fureedoon ; written also Pheridun or Pheridoun. Firdousee, Firdausi, Ferdougy, Firdousi, Firdusi, Ferdosi. (For the signification of this name, see Fir- dousee, in the body of the work.) Hassan,' Ha9an, (14,) Hussun.t Hoolakoo, Houlakou, Hulaku or Hooligoo, Houla- gou, Hulagu. Hoomayoon,® Houmayoun, Humayiin or Humayoon, Houmaioon. Isfendiyar, Asfandiyar, Isfundear.J Jehan- (or Jahan-) Geer,"" Djehan-Ghyr, Djahan-Guire, Dschehan- (or Dschahan-) Gir. Kai-Kaoos, Kai-Kaous, Kai-Kaus, Key-Kawuss. Kereem,* (or Kareem,) Kerim, Karim, Carim, Kur- reem.} Khadijah, (or Khadeejah,) Chadidsha or Khadid- schah, Khadidjah or Khadidja, Kadijah. Khaled, Chaled, Caled. Khaleel, Chalil, Khulleel.J Lokman, Locman, Loqman, (21,) Lockmaun. Mahmood-Abool-Kasim- (or Kasem-) Yemeen-ed- Dow - lah," Mahmoud - Abul - Kagem -Yemin - eddaulah, Mahmud-Abul-Kassim-Jemin-eddaulah. Mansoor,'" (Al,) Mansour or Man90ur, (14,) Mansiir, Munsoor.J Meerza,'' Mirza, Mirsa, (German.) Moaweeyah, Moawiah, Moawiyah, Moawije and Mua- wijjah, (German,) Moaveah, Mauweiah, (in Latin, Moawias.) Modhafar,"* Modhofar, Mozaffer, Mozuffur, Muzu£fer, Moozuffur,t (17.) Mohammed," Mahomed, Mahomet, Muhammed, Me- hemet, Moohummud,* (moo-hum'mud.) Nadir Shah,'* Nadir (or Nader) Chah, Nadir Schah, Nauder Shah. Nasir-ed-Deen,'' Nassireddyn, Nagireddin, (14,) Nas- ser-u-deen, Nausser-ud-deen. Nizamee, Nizami, Nisami, Nidhami, (17.) Noor-ed-Deen'^ or Nour-ed-Din, Nour-u-deen, Nour- eddyn, Nureddin. • " The golden." ^ The " great," or " greatest." ' "High," "eminent," "noble." * "Victorious through God." • "Beautiful," "handsome," "good." • "Fortunate," "blessed." Conqueror of the world." • "Bountiful," "generous," "merciful." • Yemeen-ed-Dovvlah signifies "right hand of the state (or empire.") " "The victorious." I.e. Meer-Zad, or Ameer-Z&d, "son of a prince." " Victorious." " Praised." ** " Wonderful king." »» "Defender of the faith." »« "Light of the faith." * Sometimes so written and so pronounced by the English in India. (See Section IX. 3.) t Sir G. Wilkinson writes the name of the celebrated capital of Egypt (Cairo) Qahera. X So written by Sir John Malcolm, and so pronounced in India. 18 Nousheerwan, Noushirwan, Nauschirwan or Naou- chirwan, Nuschirwan. (See Khosroo, in the body of this work.) Omeyyah, Ommeyah, Ommaiah, Umeyyah, Omaee; (in German,) Omajjah, Omijjah, or Umaijjah. Othman, Osman, Otman, (or Ottoman.) Roostam, Roostum, Roustam, Roustem, Rustam, Rus- tem. Shah-Alam" (or -Aulum,) Chah-Alam (or -Alem,) Schah-Alam. Shah-Jehan" (or -Jahan,) Chah-Djehan, Schah- Dschehan or Schah-Dschahan. Sooleyman, Suleiman, Solyman, Soliman, Souleyman. Soovorof, Souvorof, Suworow, Suwarow, Suwarrow, Souvarof, Suvaroff, Suvorow. Taimoor or Teemoor, Timour, Taimour, Taimur or Timur, Tamerlane.'* Yakoob, Yacoob, Yakoub, Yacoub, Yakub; Jakub, (German.) Yazeed or Yezeed, Yazid or Yezid ; Jezid, (Dutch ;) Jasid or Jesid, (German.) Yoozuf, Yoosoof, Youzouf or Youzef, louzef ; Jusuf or Jusef, (German.) The following table of names of a certain kind, classi- fied according to their spelling in the four principal European languages, will, it is believed, furnish a key to many of the difficulties which the reader is likely to meet with in works on Oriental history or biography : English. French. German. Italian. Chengiz, Tchenguiz, Tschengis, Cenghis. Chenghiz, Tchenghis, Tschingis, Cinghis. Chenghis, Tchenguis, Chingiz, Tchinguiz. Chingis, Tchinguis. Chinghis, Tchinghis. Jengis,§ Djenguiz, Dschengis, Genghis. Jengiz, Djenguyz. Jenghis, Djenguis. The first of the above spellings are based on the sup- position that the initial consonant in the Mongol name had the sound of our ch ; while those below (Jengis, etc.) rest on the supposition that the initial letter had the sound of j. On this question the best Oriental authori- ties are not agreed. It very probably had a sound somewhat differing from either. English. French. German. Italian. Jaafar, Djafar, Dschafar, Giafar. Jafar, Djafer, Dschafer, Giaffar. Jafer, Djaafar, Dschaafar, Giaafar, eta Jamsheed Djamchid, Dschamschid, Giamscid. or Djamchyd, Dschemschid. Jemsheed, Djemchid, Djemchyd, Djamschid, ptc.l " "King of the world," or "king of the universe." " " King of the world." " A corruption of Taimoor-leng ox Timur-lenk, — i.e. "Taimoor the lame." § Gibbon, the historian, writes the name Zingis. II It is extremely common for French writers, in spelling Oriental or Russian names, to use sch instead of ch, which is more strictly French. It has not been deemed necessary to present in the table every pos- sible form, such as Djamschyd, Djemschyd, Dgemchid, Dgemchyd. etc., although these would be perfectly legitimate French spellings. INTRODUCTION, English. French. German. Italian. Taiwan f^P(*r ^ Djahanguir,* Dschahangir,* Giahanghir. Jehan Geer Djahanguyr, Dschehangir, Gehanghir. or Djehanguir, Jehangeer, Djehanguyr, Djahanguire, etc Khadyah, Khadidja, Chadidscha, Cadigia. Khadeejah. Meerza, Mirza, Mirsa or Mirza, Mirsa or Mirza. Nizimee, Nizami, Nisami, Nisami. Noor-ed-Deen,* Noureddin,* Nureddin,* Nureddin. Noor-ud-deen, Noureddyn. Shah-Jahin, Chah-Djahan, Schah-Dschahan,Sciah Giahan. Shah-Jehan, Chah-Djehan, Schah-Dschehan, Sciach Giacan. Shah-Jehaun. Yazeed Yazid, Jasid, Jasid. or Yasid, Jesid, Jesid. Yezeed, lazid, Yezid, lesid. Yoosuf Youzouf, Jussuf (or Jasuf. or Youzef, JusuQ JuseC Yoozoof, Youseph, Jusef, Yoozef, louzef, etc., Juseph. Zeid or Zeyd, Zeid, Seid or Seyd. Zhookofski Joukofski, Schukowski, or Joukovski, Schukovski, Sciucofschi. Zhookofskee, Joucofski, Schukofski, Sciucovschi. ZhoukofskLt Shukowski. Any number of instances might be cited in which re- spectable English writers use in the same work, and, it may be, in the same sentence, the English, French, and German orthography indiscriminately, as Aboo, Abou, or Abu, Abool-Kausim, Aboul-Kassim, Abul-Kassim, Arghoun, Feridoon, etc. etc This is unquestionably a serious defect in any work, as in most cases the reader must be wholly at a loss to determine what sound the writer intends to convey ; yet the universal prevalence of this practice, and the absence of any settled orthog- raphy in regard to Oriental names, may be justly urged as some extenuation. But there is another very common fault, which in our view is far more objectionable, — that of combining French and English or English and Ger- man orthography in the same name : as, Abou-Yusoof, (in which the second syllable is French, the third Ger- man, and the fourth English,) Abou-Aly-Sumjoovee, (in which the first part is French, and the second and third English,) Aboushirwan, Aboul-Kausim, (in both of which the second syllable is French, and the third English,) Abulfiradge, (Aboolfaraj,) (in which the second syllable is German, and the fourth French,) Nour-u-deen-Mah- mood, (in which the first syllable is French, and all the rest English.) All the examples last cited, and most of the others, are taken from Sir John Malcolm's '* History of Persia," * It may be proper to observe that compound names, like the above, (as Jahangeer or Djahanguir, Noureddin or Nureddin, etc., may be written as one word or divided into their separate parts, according to the option of the writer. Thus, we may write Jahangeer or Jahan-Geer, Djahanguir or Djahan-Guir ; Nooreddeen, Noor-ed- Deen, Noureddin, (or Noureddyn,) Nour-ed-Din, Nour-Eddin, or Nour-Eddyn; etc. etc. We have, however, in giving the Eng- lish spellings, generally preferred to divide the names into their separate parts, which appears to accord with the general usage of our language in regard to compound words of modern origin. t It may be remarked that French writers sometimes, though rarely, use zh instead of / in order to represent the sound of the Russian ^K. The Germans often employ sh {s in German being usually equivalent to our z) for the same purpose. a work of decided merit, whose author was not wanting either in the learning or judgment required to produce a work essentially free from the above defects, had his attention been directed to the great importance of con- sistency and uniformity in writings of this kind. PERSIAN. XIV. 1. The modern Persian is a mixed product formed by the union of words derived from the different Aryan dialects of ancient Persia with the Arabic, which was introduced into the language by the Mohammedan con- querors of the country. The mixture of these hetero- geneous elements may be aptly compared to that of oil and water. As in such a mixture we see portions or masses of each ingredient in contact, but not combined or assimilated with each other, so in modern Persian we often find the Aryan and Semitic elements thrown together side by side, without the slightest attempt to assimilate or combine them into a harmonious whole. We constantly meet with scraps of pure Arabic — not merely phrases, but even whole sentences — introduced bodily into a passage of which all the rest is Persian, both in etymology and grammatical construction.}: 2. The Persian alphabet includes, along with the twenty-eight Arabic letters, these four additional ones : V' (^') > (^^'^ (S-) The following characters have, in Persian, a totally different power from that given them in the Arabic alphabet, viz. : ^3, (jT, and which are pronounced like and O, which takes the sound of s. This diversity of sound, as might naturally be expected, often causes much confu- sion, because European writers are apt to spell the name according to the language with which they happen to be most familiar : thus, one who is familiar with Arabic and but little acquainted with Persian, as pronounced by the natives of that country, will write Adherbij'an, Modhafef or Modhofar, while those who have learned the pronun- ciation of these names in Persia or India will write Azerbijan, Mozafer or Mozaffer. 3. The Persian has also two vowel-sounds unknown to the Arabic, — namely, ^ and d. These sounds of yd and waw are usually distinguished from the common Arabic sounds of the same letters (namely, i or ee and «2 or 00) by the Arabic epithet Majhool or Majh^l, (signifying " unknown,") or Ajemee, ( Ajemi,) ( i.e. " Persian,") while the ordinary sound is designated by the term Ma'roof, ( Ma'riif, ) that is, known" or " familiar." 4. It may be observed that the long a (d)'m Persian is considerably broader than the long a in Arabic or in Sanscrit, though the pronunciation varies somewhat in different provinces. In the city of Shiraz (where it is claimed that the best Persian is spoken) the sound of d is scarcely, if at all, less broad than in the English words awe, fall, etc. t Sir William Jones, in the Preface to his "Persian Grammar," gives a very striking illustration of the difference between the crude mixture of different ingredients composing the modern Persian, and the more thoroughly assimilated elements of our own tongue, by the following parallel sentences. The first, exhibiting the structuie of the English language, is from Middleton's *' Life of Cicero," (vol. iii. p. 351 :) "The true law is right reason conformable to the nature of things ; which calls us to duty by commanding, deters us from sin by forbidding." The composition of the Persian is similar to the follow- ing: "The true lex is recia ratio conformable natiem, which by commanding vocet ad ojfficium, by forbidding hfraude deterreat." 19 INTRODUCTION. POLISH. XV. 1. A sounds as a in the English word far. 2. E, without an accent, like^ in met ; with an accent, like a in fate. 3. / as in marine. 4. (9, unaccented, as in note ; with an accent, like 00 in ^ood, or 06. 5. U is like 00 in w^7c7«. 6. y resembles e in but is more guttural, being similar to i in pin. 7. A sounds nearly like on in French, (6n ;) ^ is in in French, (or ^N.) 8. The consonants b, d,fg, (always hard,) k, m, n, p, s, (always sharp,) / and z, are essentially the same as in English. 9. C in all cases, even before a or 0, sounds like ts in English ; cz is equivalent to our c/i ; ch is like the Ger- man ch. 10. yis like the German, being equivalent to^ con- sonant. 11. Z (without any mark) is similar to our /, but softer ; \ is very hard, somewhat resembling the // of the Welsh. 12. ^ is like the German. 13. W"\?> similar to the German, resembling our v. 14. with an accent over it, («,) sounds like the Spanish n. 15. S, marked in a similar manner, (r,) has a sound blending that of s and y consonant. Sc has a sound which cannot be given in English : its nearest approxi- mation in our language is sts. 16. ^0 is equivalent to sh in English. 17. Z, with a point over it, (4,) is like the French y, or zh in English. 18. Zy with an accent, («,) is somewhat similar to the above, but has no equivalent in our language. Obs. 1. The accent in Polish words or names of more than one syllable is nearly always on the penultima. Obs. 2. The sounds of the letters in Slavonian, Bohemian, and Illyrian correspond, with slight exceptions, to those of the Polish language. PORTUGUESE. XVI. 1. The vowels «, ^, /, u, and y, and the diphthongs ai, ay^ au,* are essentially the same as in Spanish. 2. Ao and am are pronounced almost <3wn. 3. The consonants b, d,f /, m, n, p, s, t, v, and z are similar to the English. 4. C is the same as in French, differing from the Eng- lish only by sometimes having the cedilla. 5. Ch is the same as in French, or, in other words, is like our sh. 6. G and / are the same as in French. (See V. 15 and 17.) 7. in Portuguese, is always silent. When, how- ever, it follows / or it renders these letters liquid: thus, flho ("son") is pronounced feel'yoo or f^Kyo ; senhora, (" lady,") sin-yo'ri, etc. 8. M frequently, and n sometimes, has a nasal sound. Sam, like sao, is pronounced almost souN ; alem or alen sounds like I-ISn'. * Et and ey are almost the same as in Spanish, but have a sound sometimes approaching that of the English long /. 20 9. Qu is pronounced as in French, the u in this case not being sounded. 10. i? is like the French. (See V. 24.) 11. Xis sounded like ch in Portuguese, or sh in English. Obs. In Portuguese the general rules of accentuation are similar to those in the Spanish language. (See XIX. Obs. i.) RUSSIAN. XVII. The Russian is the most important of all the Slavic family of languages, not merely on account of its being the tongue of one of the most powerful and most popu- lous empires in the world, but it is probably not inferior, viewed simply as a vehicle of expression, to any other member of that family, if we take into consideration all the qualities which go to form a good language, such as softness, flexibility, variety, richness, and force. Al- though some of its consonants — LH, for example — seem sufficiently harsh to an English ear, it is much softer than the Polish, and is mostly free from that concourse of consonants! which makes the latter tongue so formi- dable to foreigners. The power of the greater number of the Russian letters is perhaps sufficiently explained in the table on the opposite page. The following, however, require some additional explanation : 1. r sounds usually nearly like our hard ^, but is some- what more guttural, as if an aspirate were mingled with the other sound. Occasionally it is pronounced like hf and not unfrequently, when at the end of words, like the German ch. It also has sometimes nearly the sound of our h; and, as the Russians have no other letter to represent h in foreign names, they use T for this purpose. Thus, they would write Kopengagen for Copenhagen. 2. E, though generally possessing the pronunciation indicated in the table, (i or yk,) in some cases takes the sound of yo or ^ ; it is then usual to mark it thus, e, as Hecexe, "you carry," (pronounced n§s-yo'tS or nSs-^'tS.) Obs. 1. The omission of this mark sometimes leads to important errors: thus, Feodor, ("Theodore,") always in three syllables, is not unfrequently written and pronounced by foreigners Fedor. Obs. 2. The varying sound of e (4 or yi) will explain why certain names beginning with this vowel are written sometimes with an initial E and sometimes with F, as E kaierinoslaf or Vekaterinoslaf, Elisavetgrad or Yelisaveigrad, etc. 3. K is usually sounded as in English, but in certain positions it takes the sound of kh, (or the German ch.) 4. A has usually the same sound as the English /, but when followed by the hard semi-vowel t, or by the vowels a, o, y, {00,) it is similar to the Polish "k, 5. The hard semi-vowel i> imparts to the preceding consonant a strong harsh sound, as if it were doubled. When preceded by B (v) it changes the sound of this consonant into that of / or ff; as, op.ioB'L, pronounced or-loff'. Following >k, it changes the sound of this letter mio sh; as, ho^kTi, pronounced — nosh. In like manner, when it follows /\,it changes its sound to t; and so on. 6. The soft semi-vowel L usually imparts a soft or liquid sound to the preceding consonant. Thus, CTaHB is pronounced almost stin ; cto;il, stol, etc. 7. The semi-vowel is placed after vowels with which it coalesces, forming but one syllable ; as, A^H pro- nounced dt-! or di ; neft, pi^e or pa, etc. t As occurs, for example, in such Polish names as the followmg/ Brzesc, Przemysl, Skrzenbski, etc. etc. INTRODUCTION, The Russian alphabet consists of thirty-six letters, as follows ; I. A a Power. Name as pronounced IN English. 19. Ttih p_„,_.„ Name as pronounced ^^""^•^ IN English. t ti 2. B 6 b bk 20. 00 00 3- B B V vi 21. f hi 4. r r g oxgh ghi 22. X X K (like the German ch) Ki 5. 6. 7- £ e a i or y«l zh di • yk zhi 23- 24. 25- mm ts ch or tch (equivalent to the Persian rr) sh tsi Chi Shi c 0. 9- 10. T/f w 11 H T i z e, I, ye & or 1 zi ye h 26. 27. 28. Um sh-tsh e mute (making the preceding consonant hard) h or w6 sh'tchi y5R yir-we lit K K k ki 29. h L y, nearly mute ya'ri 12. A A 1 30. yi or i yi'ty or yi'tl 13- m. sH m £m 31- 3 3 h h 14. n H Q &i 32. 10 JH) u (yoo) or ii yoo 0 0 0 6 33- yi or yS 16. n n P pi 34- e e f ft-ti' 17. p p r gR 35- ee'zhit-si 18. G c s gss 36. y, nearly mute, (like a half- uttered i.) hori SANSCRIT. XVIII. I. The Sanscrit* {i.e. the "elaborate" or "perfect" language) was the language used by the more highly cultivated portion of the ancient Aryan inhabitants of India, (see Arya in the body of this work,) and is still the learned language of their descendants, the modern Hindoos.! It is regarded as the oldest of the Indo-European tongues. The character in which it is written is called NagariJ or Devanagari, (pronounced da'va ni'ga-ree',) and, like most other alphabets of the Indo-European family, it is written from left to right. The Nagari, (or Nagaree,) considered simply as a phonetic system, is perhaps the most perfect of human alphabets. It not only has a separate letter for every one of its elementary sounds, but it is also remarkable for its ad- • Written also Sanscrit and Sungskrit. The term is derived from the Sanscrit particle sdm, nearly equivalent to the Latin con, "together," (acd, like it, often used as an intensive,) and kritA, " made" or " done." It signifies "made or done thoroughly," and, hence, "elaborate," "complete," "perfect." t It may be said to bear nearly the same relation to the modern Hindoo dialects that the Latin bears to the dialects of modern Italy. X Nagari [from A'a^ara, a "city"] signifies "of the city," and, hence, "refined" or "cultivated." Deva, (nearly related to the Latin Dezts and Divus,) a Sanscrit word, denoting a "god" or "deity," was often applied as a term of honour to the Brahmans. (See " Institutes of Manu,"ix. 317, 319.) Devanagari would appear, then, to signify the 'cultivated (written) language of the gods, (or Brahmans,") the use of it having originally been for the most part, if not exclusively, con- fined to the priestly caste. mirable classification of these sounds. It consists of fifty letters, of which fourteen are vowels and thirty-six consonants, besides various compound characters, which may be said to be merely abbreviated modes of writing two or three consonants together. 2. The vowels are jR- ri (or ree) ciT li (or lee) ^ or *^ ai {i.e, i'e) ^ au (or 6u) or T a ^ i (or ee) 3o u (or 06) Obs. It will be seen that most of the Sanscrit vowels have two forms : the first is used at the beginning of a clause or sentence, the other occurs in other positions, particularly in the middle of a word. 3. The consonants are as follows : m k W kh g ST gh 3 ng ^ ch ^ chh 5T j ?1T jh oT n Z % 5 th -Z d c dh ITT n FT t 5T th ^ dh ^ n ^ p ph sr b V[ bh IT m n y ^ 1 oT V • m ST sh GT sh e s ^h 5 h|l § The pronunciation of 5J, in modern India, is like that of our short u in but. It should be observed that 5fJ and ^ do not involve any sound of i, but are similar to our r and II To these may be added Q,) occurring only in the Vedas. 21 INTRO D UCTION. 4. The vowels are divided into Short, ^ ^ :? Rff ^ Long, ^ ^ 3: ^ cf| 5. The Sanscrit letters may be classified as follows : ASHIRA- VOWELS. SEMI- VOWELS. NASALS. MUTES. SIBI- LANTS. TION, ETC. Gutturals, rrsr Palatals, J t or Linguals, ITT z z ^ ^ Dentals, FT 2T 5: ^ Labials, 3 3; oT STVT 6. The only Sanscrit sounds of frequent occurrence which present any serious difficulty to the European learner are the combinations of the mutes k, g, ch,j, d, t, d,p, and b with h, making kh, (W,)^/^, (ST,) th, (5-,) and so on. It is important to observe that W has a totally different sound from the Arabic or Persian (equivalent to the German ch ;) and 5" or ?T is pronounced quite dif- ferently from the Arabic O, or our th. The sound of kh, gh, th, dh, ph, and bh, in Sanscrit as well as in the modern Hindoo dialects, may be said to resemble that produced in such English phrases as "bake-house," "stag-horn," "hot-house," "bid him," "stop him," etc., when these words are pronounced quickly and yet very distinctly; with this important difference, however, that the Indian mute and h are to be uttered with a single impulse of the voice, and never divided into separate syllables. 7. The dental t (rT) and d, (5^,) in Sanscrit, have essentially the same sound as the Arabic O and 0, (see Section I. 4 and 8 ;) but the lingual (cerebral) t (^) and d (3") have no equivalent either in Arabic or Persian. They somewhat resemble the English t and d, but are formed by reverting the end of the tongue far back into the dome of the mouth : hence the name of cerebrals sometimes given to them.* The Hindostanee r (j) is pronounced in a similar manner. (See 8 of this Section.) 8. It may be observed that in the modern dialects of India, including Hindostanee, we have, in addition to the lingual and dental sounds of t and d, a lingual (or cerebral) r, (not found in Sanscrit.) The Sanscrit STtTT (ghota,) a "horse," becomes in Hindostanee ghora; JT^S", (Garuda,) the vahan of Vishnu, takes the modern form of garur, (pronounced gur'oor.) In writing Hindo- stanee with the Nagari alphabet, this lingual r is repre- sented by 3" with a dot beneath, thus, while in the ordinary (Persian) alphabet it is indicated thus,J; or j. The lingual / and d in the modern Nagari are written precisely as in Sanscrit ; but in the common alphabet they are distinguished from o and J> either by having four dots, as cy, O, or by a stroke placed above, O, 3. 9. In writing Sanscrit, ^ (d) is never expressed after a consonant, but it is implied after every consonant unless this be followed by another vowel or by the rest- sign : thus, chJ7c^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 2? JBJCCO 26 ABBADIE lamily, became King of Hungary in IC41. as successor to Peter, whom a revolution had compelled to fly the country. His injustice and cruelty at length irritated the Hungarians, who entreated the assistance of the emperor Henry III. In 1044 a battle was fought on the Raab, in which Aba was defeated and slain, and Peter was restored to the throne of Hungary. Abacco, i-bdk'ko, (Antonio,) an Italian architect of the sixteenth century, a pupil of San Gallo. He pub- lished a work on architecture in 1558. Abacco, (or Abaco,) dall', ddl-la-bik'ko, (Paolo,) a Florentine mathematician and poet, who flourished about the middle of the fourteenth century. Abad. See Abbad. Abad I., II., and III., (Sultans of Seville.) See Abbad. Abadia, i-si-Dee'd, (Francisco Xavier — H^-ye- aiR',) a Spanish general, born at Valencia in 1774. Died about 1830. Abad y Queypeo, i-bio' e ki-pa'o, (Manuel,) a Spanish bishop, born in Asturias about 1775. He was imprisoned about 181 5 for hostility to the Inquisition, and was released in 1820. Died after 1824. Abaelardus. See Abelard. Abailard. See Abelard. Ab^ka Khan, i-b3,'ki Kan, son of Hoolakoo, (Hu- laku,) and grandson of Jengis Khan, succeeded his father on the Persian throne a.d. 1264. He was a just and enlightened ruler. He curbed the soldiery, who had been so licentious under his father, and established order and justice throughout his dominions. Died about 1280. Abamonti, i-bi-mon'tee, or Abbamonte, ib-ba- mon't^, (Giuseppe,) a Neapolitan statesman, born about 1759. He became secretary-general of the Cisalpine Republic in 1798, and a member of the executive com- mission at Naples. After the king was restored in 1799, he removed to Milan, and acted as secretary-general until 1805. Died in 1818. Abaiicourt, d', dt'bSN'kooR', (Charles Xavier Joseph Franqueville — fr6Nk'v^K,) one of the minis- ters of Louis XVI., and nephew of Calonne. He was massacred at Versailles on the 9th of September, 1792. Abancourt, d', (Francois Jean Villemain — v^l - miN',) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1745. Died in 1803. Abano, di, de d-bi'no, or Apo'no, (Pietro,) [in Latin, Pe'trus Apo'nus or Pe'trus de Apo'no,] a learned physician and astrologer, born at Abano, near Padua, in 1250. He was appointed professor of medicine in the University of Padua about 1303, and died about 1316. He wrote a work entitled *' Conciliator Diff"eren- tiarum Philosophorum et praecipue Medicorum," the ob- ject of which was to reconcile the various opinions held by the diflerent philosophical and medical schools ; from which he has been surnamed Conciliator, " Reconciler." Another of his works, entitled " On Poisons and their Treatment," ("DeVenenis eorumque Remediis,") though much celebrated, shows him to have possessed more learning than originality or cautious observation. See Mazzuchelli, "Raccolta d'Opiiscoli Scientific! e Filologici," 1741 ; Sloy, " Dictionnaire de la Medecine," article Apono. A-ban'ti-das, ['A5avri(5af,] a tyrant of Sicyon, (one of the small states of Greece,) who obtained the supreme power about 264 B.C. He was afterwards assassinated. Abarbanel. See Abrabanel. Abarca, i-baR'ki, (Joaquin,) a Spanish prelate, born ill Aragon in 1780, became Bishop of Leon. He was a chief of the Carlist party in the civil war which began about 1833. Died in 1844. Abarca, de, di i-baR'k^, (Dona Maria,) a Spanish amateur portrait-painter. She died about 1660. Abarca, de, di i-baR'kl, (Pedro,) a Spanish his- torian, born in 1619. He belonged to the society of Jesuits, and was for many years professor of theology in the IFniversity of Salamanca. Died about 1690. His chief work, " The Kings of Aragon," (" Los Reyes de Aragon,") appeared in 1684. Abascal, a-sis-kil', (Jos6 Fernando,) a Spanish commander, born at Oviedo in 1743. At 19 he entered the army, and in 1804 was appointed Viceroy of Peru. Through his abilities and indefatigable exertions, not only were the Peruvians preserved in a state of subjec- tion to Spain while other parts of South America were in open insurrection, but the Spanish arms gained many advantages over the insurgents of Buenos Ayres and Chili. In 1816 he was superseded in the government by General Pezuela, and returned to Spain, where he died in 1821. See W. B. Stevenson, "Twenty Years' Residence in South America." Abati, a-bi'tee, (Antonio,) an Italian poet, born at Gubbio in 1614. He was governor of several cities in the papal dominions. Died in 1667. Abati, degli, diKyee i-bi'tee, a Florentine family known in history chiefly through the treachery of one of its members, Bocco degli Abati. During a battle be- tween the Guelphs (the party of the Florentines) and the Ghibelines, (1260,) he cut off" the hand of Jacopo del Vacca, who carried the Florentine standard, which con- sequently fell, and caused the defeat of his countrymen. For this crime Dante assigns him a place in the ninth or lowest circle of hell. See " Inferno," canto xxxii. Abatini, i-bi-tee'nee, (Guido Ubaldo,) an Italian fresco-painter, born about 1600, worked in Rome, and died in 1656. Abauzit, t'bo'ze', (Firmin,) a justly celebrated phi- losopher and mathematician, born at Uzes, in France, in 1679. When he was two years old his father died, and on the revocation of the edict of Nantes his mo- ther, being a Protestant, was obliged to seek a refuge in some foreign country. Her two sons were sent to Gen- eva, where Firmin soon distinguished himself by his rapid progress in almost every branch of learning and science. The fame of Abauzit does not rest so much on his pub- lications as on the opinion entertained of him by his contemporaries. He not only enjoyed the respect of the greatest writers and philosophers of France, but received the most flattering testimonials of regard from other countries. Sir Isaac Newton esteemed him highly, and, after having once made his acquaintance, kept up a con- stant correspondence with him. Died at Geneva in 1767. See Sabatier de Castres, " Les Trois Siecles de la Litterature Frangaise;" J. J. Rousseau, "CEuvres;" Sknebier, " Histoire lit- teraire de Geneve," tome iii.; Berenger, " filoge d' Abauzit." Abba Arica, ib'ba i-ree'ka, [Heb. .XDHX commonly known by the name of Rav, (31,) a learned Jewish rabbi, native of Babylon, flourished in the early part of the third century. He died 243 a.d. Abbad, (or Abad,) ab'btd', I., (called also_ABOO-L- Kasim (or Aboul-cacem) Mohammed, i.'bool ki'sim mo-him'med,) the founder of the Abbadite (or Abadite) dynasty of Seville, became sovereign of that city about 1023, and died 1042 a.d. Abbad (or Abad) II., Aboo-Amroo, (Abu-Ain- ru,) ib'bSd' i'boo ^m^roo, the second sultan of Seville, succeeded his father, Aboo-l-Kasim, (Abu'l-Kasim,) about 1042, aged 26 years. He was an able and successful general, and was well versed in the learning and science of the times. In splendour and luxury he rivalled the most powerful sovereigns of the East ; but all his glory was stained by his sanguinary cruelty. He used to keep, it is said, in a private apartment, the skulls of all the chiefs and princes who had fallen into his hands, and paved the alleys of his gardens with those of infe- rior rank. He died in 1069. Abbad (or Abad) III, Moorish King of Seville, born in 1039, was a son of Abbad 11. He was a brave and prudent ruler, and patronized arts and learning. He was deposed by Yoosuf, (Yusuf,) King of Morocco, in 1091, and died in 1095. Abbadie, a'bt'de', (Jacques,) a distinguished Prot- estant divine, born in Beam, in the south of France, in 1658. His " Treatise on the Truth of the Christian Reli- gion" ("Traite de la Verite de la Religion Chretienne," 2 vols., 1684) .was received with great favour both by Catholics and Protestants, and still enjoys a high repu- tation. He was the author of several other works of less note. He preached for some time in London, and after- wards became Dean of Killaloe, Ireland. Died in London in 1727. See Nic^RON, "M^moires," and " Biographia Britannica." Abbadie, d', dt'bt'de', (Antoine and Arnould i, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, T, 6, u, short; a, e, j, q, obscure; fUr, f^ll, f^t; mSt; ndt; good, moon; ABBAMONTE 27 ABBOT Michel,) two brothers of Irish origin, but citizens of P'rance. They made some scientific researches in Abys- sinia, where they passed about five years, — 1840-45. Abbamonte. See Abamonti. Abbas I., or Shah Abb^s, shah ib'bls', [i.e. " King Abbas,") surnamed the Great, King of Persia, was born in 1^57. His father, Mohammed Meerza, whose want of capa- city rendered him unpopular, was deposed by the discon- tented nobles, and Shah Abbas succeeded to the throne at the age of twenty-five. He exhibited an energy and wis- dom which commanded the respect alike of his subjects and of his enemies. After having healed the dissensions and curbed the lawlessness which had prevailed among his nobles, he marched against the Turks, who, with an army of 100,000 men, were then ravaging the Persian provinces on the north. The army of Abbas consisted of scarcely more than 60,000 men ; but it had been dis- ciplined under the direction of two English gentlemen, Sir Anthony and Sir Robert Shirley, and w^as provided with an efficient artillery. In August, 1605, a battle was fought, in which the Turks suffered a total defeat. The Persian king recovered all his lost provinces, and was not molested by the Turks during the remainder of his reign. He died in 1627. See Malcolm, " Histor>' of Persia," 1829 ; " Travels of the Broth- ers Shirley," 1825. Abbks II., Shah of Persia, born about 1631, succeeded his father Sufi, or Sophy, in 1641. He possessed some good qualities, and was noted for his liberal treatment of the Christians and other foreigners in his dominions. Died in 1666. Abb^s III., King of Persia, born in 1731, was the last king of the dynasty of Sophvs. He was a son of Shah Tamasp, who was dethroned by Nadir Shah. Died in childhood in 1736. Abbis, or more fully Abb^s-Ibn-Abd-il-Moot- talib, (or -Mottalib.) db'bSs' ib'n abd-il-moot'tA-lib, written also Abbas-Ben- Abdel-Mottaiib, a paternal uncle of Mohammed, born at Mecca about 566 A.D., was the ancestor of the dynasty of Abbassides. He fought against Mohammed at the battle of Bedr, but afterwards was converted to the cause of that prophet, to whom he rendered important services. (See Moham- med.) Died in 652 a.d. See Caussin de Perceval, " Essai sur I'Histoire des Arabes." Abbas, Sb'bSs', (Pasha,) Viceroy of Egypt, born at Yedda, Arabia, in 1813, was a grandson of Mehemet Ali. He succeeded his uncle Ibraheem in November, 1848. Died in 1854. Abbas-Meerzl, (-Mirza,) db'bis' meeR'zi', son of Fatah Alee Shah, King of Persia, was born about 1785. He was distinguished for his zealous and enlightened efforts to introduce into his own country the arts, sci- ences, and military tactics of Europe. He died in 1833. Abbassah, db-bi'si, a pasha of Erzeroom, distin- guished first for his successful rebellion against the sul- tan Amurath (Murad) IV., and afterwards for his great favour and influence with that monarch. At last, how- ever, he fell a victim to the suspicions of his sovereign, and was executed in 1634. Abbassides or Abbasides, ab-bas'sTdz, singular, Abbasside, ab-bas'sid, [Fr. pron. t'btskl'; Ger. Ab- BASSIDEN, ib-bSs-see'den ; Lat, Abbas'Td.^: ; called by the Arabs Benee (Beni) Abbas, i.e. "sons or descend- ants of Abbas,"] the name of the most illustrious dynas- ty of caliphs. They traced their genealogy to Abbas the uncle of Mohammed, and reigned at Damascus and after- wards at Bagdad from 749 to 1258 a.d. See Aboo-l- Abbas-Abdallah. Abbate, ab-bi'ti, or Abate, J-bl'ti, (Andrea,) a Neapolitan painter of natural history and inanimate ob- jects. Died in 1732. Abbate, db-bi'ti, Abbati or Abati, i-ba'tee, (Nich- olas, or NiccOLo,) a celebrated Italian painter, born at Modena about 15 12. Although his productions rank him with the greatest Italian masters, very little is known of the circumstances of his life. He died in Paris in 1571. Among his works were frescos at Fontainebleau. His oil pictures are very scarce. See Vedrl\ni, " Vite dei Pittori Modenesi." Abbate or Abati, (Pietro Paolo,) a brother of Niccolo, noticed above, was a skilful painter of battles and horses, at Modena. Died about 1580. Abbate, dell', d^l-ldb-bi'ti, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter and modeller, worked at Modena. Died in 1557. Abba-Thulle, ib'bi t'huKlee, a king of the Pelew Islands, who hospitably entertained the crew of the Eng- lish ship Antelope, wrecked on an island of that group in 1783. Struck with admiration on witnessing for the first time the effect of fire-arms, he prevailed on Captain Wilson, commander of the Antelope, to assist him in his contests with the neighbouring islanders. The allied forces, armed with "thunder and lightning," easily sub- dued their enemies, destitute of these novel and terrific implements of war. When his English friends were about to return to their native country, the king intrusted to their care his son Lee Boo, that he might visit Europe. See Keate's "Account of the Pelew Islands, from the Journal of Captain Wilson." Abbati, ib-bi'tee, or Abbatio, Sb-bS'te-o, (Baldi Angelo,) commonly called Abba'tius, a physician and naturalist, who flourished about the middle of the six- teenth century. Abbatini, ib-bl-tee'nee, (Antonio Maria,) an Ital- ian composer of music, who flourished in the first half of the seventeenth century. Died about 1675. Abbatucci, Sb-bl-toot'chee, (Carlo, or Charles,) a Corsican general, born in 1771, was a son of Giacomo Pietro. He gained the rank of general of division by his conduct at the passage of the Lech in 1796. He w as killed at Huningue in 1796. Abbatucci, (Jacques Pierre, or Giacomo Pietro,) a Corsican, who was a lieutenant under General Paoli, and after various changes of fortune was raised to the rank of a general of division in the French army. Born 1726, died 1812. See Jacobi, " Histoire de la Corse ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- rale." Abbatucci, (Jacques Pierre Charles,) a French lawyer, born in Corsica in 1791, w^as a grandson of Carlo A., noticed above. He was elected to the Con- stituent Assembly in 1848, and became a partisan of Louis Napoleon, who appointed him minister of justice about 1852. Died in 1857. Abbeville, d', dtb'v^K, (Pi:RE (paiR) Claude,) a Capuchin, who wrote a history of the French mission to the island of Maranham, on the coast of Brazil, entitled " Histoire de la Mission des Peres Capucins en ITsle de Maragnan." He gives an interesting account of the character and customs of the natives of that island and the neighbouring continent. The mission alluded to was undertaken in 161 2. Abbiati, 2.b-be-d'tee, (Filippo,) an excellent Italian painter, born at Milan in 1640. He painted both in oil and fresco with great facility. Among his best w^orks is a fresco of "John the Baptist preaching in the wilder- ness." Died at Milan in 1715. Abbiati, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter and engraver, flourished at Milan about 1700. Abbon, t'biN', [in Latin, Ab'bo Cer'nuus, "Abbon the bent or bowed down,"] a learned French monk, who flourished about 900. He wrote a Latin poem on the siege of Paris bv the Northmen, (a.d. 885-6.) Abbon of Fleury, [in Latin, Ab'bo Floriacen'sis,] an eminent ecclesiastic of the tenth century, born near Orleans in France. He was one of the most learned men of his age, and after he was elected Abbot of Fleury showed himself a patron of learning. He died in 1004. Abbondanti, Ib-bon-d^n'tee, (Antonio,) sometimes called Abundan'tius of Imola, (ee'mo-lS,) an Italian historian and poet, lived about 1625. He wrote an ac- count of the war in the Low Countries, 1559-1609. Ab'bpt, (Abiel,) an American divine, born at An- dover, Massachusetts, in 1770. He died in 1828, on his return from Cuba, which he had visited on account of his health. A posthumous volume of letters written while in that island, evinces strong powers of observation and considerable talent for description. Abbot, (Benjamin,) LL.D., an American teacher, born about 1763, was for half a century the principal of Phillips Academy, at Exeter, New Hampshire. He numbered among his pupils Daniel Webster, Edward as 9 as s; g hard; § as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, yiasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^ii^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ABBOT 28 ABDALLAH Everett, Jared Sparks, George Bancroft, and John G. Palfrey. Died in 1849. Ab'bot, (Charles,) Lord Colchester, a British statesman, born at Abingdon in 1757, was educated at Oxford, and was called to the bar about 1784, He was elected to Parliament in 1795, showed himself a warm supporter of Pitt, and distinguished himself by his talents for business and his public spirit. He was the mover of the bill which in 1800 authorized the first census of the population of Great Britain ever taken. In 1801 he became chief secretary for Ireland. He was speaker of the House of Commons from February, 1802, until May, 1 81 7, when he resigned on account of ill health, and wa3 raised to the peerage as Baron Colchester. He had pe formed his duties as speaker to the general satis- faction. He died in 1829, leaving two sons. See "Gentleman's Magazine" for May, 1829; "Annual Obituary," 1830. Abbot, (George,) an English prelate, born at Guild- ford, Surrey, in 1562. He studied at Oxford, took orders in 1583, became a very popular preacher, and was em- ployed in the translation of the Bible authorized by King James in 1604. He was one of eight divines who trans- lated the Four Gospels and the book of Acts. In 1609 he obtained the see of Lichfield, from which he was translated to the see of London in 1610. He was ap- pointed Archbishop of Canterbury in January, 161 1. He was a zealous Calvinist, both before and after his high promotion. In the latter part of his life he favoured the popular party, but his influence in the church and state was ruined by the ascendency of Laud, who had long been his rival and adversary. Among his works is a " Brief Description of the Whole World," (1634.) Died in 1633. See William Russell, "Life of George Abbot," 1777; Gardi- ner, " History of England from 1603 to 1616." Abbot, (George,) a nephew of Archbishop Abbot, was born about 1602. He fought against the royalists in the civil war. He published "The Book of Job Para- phrased," (1640.) Died in 1648. Abbot, (Lemuel,) an English portrait-painter, born about 1760, worked in London, and was well patronized. Most of his portraits are considered to be excellent like- nesses. Among his works are portraits of the poet Cowper and Lord Nelson. Died in 1803. Abbot, (Sir Maurice or Morris,) a distinguished merchant of London, was the youngest brother of Arch- bishop Abbot. He was appointed one of the council for settling the colony of Virginia in 1624, and became gov- ernor or chairman of the East India Company in 1633. Died in 1640. Abbot, (Robert,) a learned divine, born at Guildford in 1560, was a brother of Archbishop Abbot. He was a popular preacher, a chaplain to James I., and King's professor of divinity at Oxford. In 161 5 he became Bishop of Salisbury. He was a strenuous opponent of Laud's opinions and church policy. Among his works is a "Defence of the Royal Supremacy," in Latin, (1619.) He was esteemed a man of more profound learning than the archbishop. Died in 161 7. See "Biographia Britannica;" Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." Abbot, (Robert,) an English Puritan divine, became vicar of Cranbrook, Kent, and minister of Southwick in Hampshire. He published, besides other works, " The Trial of our Church-Forsakers," (1639.) Died about 1655. Abbot, (Samuel,) born at Wilton, New Hampshire, in 1786; died in 1839. He invented a process of ex- tracting starch from the potato. Ab'bott, (Charles,) Lord Tenterden, an emi- nent English judge, was born at Canterbury in 1762, and studied at Oxford. He was admitted to the bar in 1795, and in 1802 published a "Treatise on the Law of Merchant Ships and Seamen," which has since been re- garded in England and the United States as the stand- ard work on maritime law. He became a judge in the Court of Common Pleas in 1816. Lord Ellenborough having resigned his position as Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench in 1818, Mr. Abbott succeeded him, and in 1827 was raised to the peerage, with the title of Lord Tenterden. He died in November, 1832. He was a firm adherent of the Tory party. His judicial merits were of a very high order. According to some, he excelled Lord Mansfield in industry and learning, and equalled him in acuteness of perception and power of reasoning. See Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Chief Justices," vol. iii. ; Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. ; also a criticism on Lord Tenterden's professional character, by Brougham, in the " Edinburgh Review," vol. Ixix. p. 14. Abbott, (Rev. Jacob,) a popular American author, born at Hallowell, Maine, in 1803. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1820. Few writers have given to the public a greater number of volumes. Among them may be mentioned "The Young Christian;" "The Corner-Stone ;" "A Series of Histories of Celebrated Sovereigns;" "The Rollo Books," 28 vols.; "Harper's Story-Books," 36 vols., etc. etc. Mr. Abbott has ad- dressed himself principally to the young, with whom his works have been exceedingly popular. Nearly all his books have been republished in England, and some, it is said, have been translated into various European and Asiatic languages. Abbott, (John S. C.,) an American author, brother of the Rev. Jacob Abbott, was born at Brunswick, Maine, in 1805. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825, studied divinity at the Theological Seminary in Andover, Mass., and was subsequently minister in Worcester and Roxbury. Among his principal works may be named the "Mother at Home," (1833;) "Histories of Marie Antoinette, Josephine, Madame Roland, Cortez," etc., forming a series in six vols. ; " History of Napoleon Bonaparte," 2 vols. 8vo; "History of the French Revo- lution," and " History of the Civil War in America," 2 vols. 8vo, 1863-66. Most of his books have obtained an extensive circulation. He is a pleasing and animated writer, but as a historian he is scarcely to be relied on. His " History" of Napoleon, in particular, is perhaps the most remarkable example of indiscriminate and extrava- gant eulogy ever given to the world under the august name of History. He has recently published a " History of Na- poleon III., Emperor of the French," (1868,) which is said to possess the merits and demerits of the preceding work. Abbt, apt, (Thomas,) an eminent German writer, born at Ulm in 1738. He studied at the University of Halle, and in 1 76 1 was appointed professor of mathe- matics in the University of Rinteln. Here he wrote his two most celebrated works, " On Merit," (" Vom Ver- dienste," 1765,) and "On Dying for one's Native Coun- try," ("Ueber den Tod fiir's Vaterland," 1761.) He was afterwards invited by Count William of Lippe-Schauen- burg to his court at Biickeburg, where he died in 1766. Like Lessing, he exerted himself to improve and refine the German language, and had he lived longer his name would undoubtedly have become one of the most distin- guished in his country's literature. See NicoLAi, " Ehrengedachtniss des Herm Thomas Abbt," 1767; Wolf, " Encyklopaedie der Deutschen National-Literatur;" Meu- SEL, " Dictionnaire des Litterateurs d'Allemagne." ABD, an Arabic word signifying "servant," and form ing the prefix in many names ; as Abd-Allah, (Abdal lah,) the "servant of God." Abd-al-Kadir. See Abd-el-Kader. Abdallah, ab-dlKlah, (almost ib-dul'lah.) or Abdul- lah, ib-ddoKlah, the last shereef (sherif) or prince of the Wahabites, was born about 1 740. Having been captured by Ibraheem (Ibrahim) Pasha, he was executed in 1818. Abdallah, (or Abd-Allah,) Abu-l-Abbas. See Aboo-l- Abb as- Abdallah. Abdallah- (or Abdullah-) Ibn-Abd-H-Moottalib, (-Ib'n ibMil md6t't3,-lib,) the father of the prophet Mo- hammed, is said to have been distinguished for his virtue and personal beauty. Died about 570 a.d. See Abdallah-Ben-Abdelmottalib, in the " Nouvelle Bio- graphic G^n^rale." Abdallah-Ibn-Al-Aftas,(-ai-af'tas,) the founder 'jf the dynasty of Benee Al-Aftas, was iDorn at Mequinez in Africa about 1004. He possessed eminent military talents, and was surnamed Al-Mansoor, or "the vic- torious." He died about 1060. Abdallah-Ibn-Balkeen, (or -Balkin, -bJl-keen',) the fourth and last sultan of Granada; dethroned (a.d. 1090) by Yoosuf, whom he had invited from Africa to as- sist him against Alphonso I. of Castile. He was a brave and enlightened monarch. He was a patron of science. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, ^, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nSt; good, moon; ABDALLAH 29 ABD-EL-MALEK and wrote a learned and valuable commentary on the Koran. Abdallah-Ibn-Koteyba, (-Coteyba.) See Ibn- KOTEYBA. Abdallah-Ibn-Mohammed, (-Ib'n mo-him'med,) the seventh sultan of Cordova of the dynasty of Omeyyah, ascended the throne in 888, and died in 912. He was a poet and a patron of literature. Abdallah- (or Abdullah-) Ibnool-Fara-dhee, {-Ib-nul-Faradhi, ib'ndol fl'rd-dhee,) a Mohammedan historian, born at Cordova in 962. He was killed at the taking of his native city by Suleyman, 1013. Abdallah- (or Abdullah-) Ibnool-Hijaree, (-Ib- nul-Hij^ri, ib'nool he-ji'ree,)a celebrated Mohammedan historian, born in the territory of Guadalajara in 1105. He was the author of a valuable and voluminous history of Spain, most of which is lost. He died about 1195. Abdallah-Ibn-Sa'd (-sdd or -si'd) was one of the earliest converts to the Mohammedan faith, and was em- ployed by the prophet to write down his pretended reve- lations. He was afterwards appointed governor of Egypt, under the caliph Othman, about the year 646. On the death of the caliph, in 656, he was deposed ; but the year of his death is unknoAvn. Abdallah-Ibn-Yaseen, (or -Yasin,) -yi'seen', the founder of the dynasty of the Almoravides, was born at Nafees, a little town in North Africa. He began his career as a zealous teacher of religion, about the year 1041. His followers were called Almorabitoon, "men devoted to the service of God," (whence the European name Almoravides.) At first he contented himself with forcibly converting the pagan tribes of the Berbers to Mo- hammedanism, but finally aspired to the entire subjuga- tion of Africa and the overthrow of the ruling dynasty of Zenatah. After entire success had crowned his under- taking, although he exercised all the functions of royalty, he never assumed the titles, but contented himself with the name of Fakih, (fS-keeh',) or "Theologian." He died in 1059. His successors ruled over the greater part of North Africa and Spain for nearly a century. Abdallah-Ibn- (or Ben-) Zobeyr, (or -Zobair,) -zo- hlK'y surnamed Aboo-Beker or Abd compiled from other authentic sources, by Colonel Churchill, London, 1S67 ; also the " Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale." Abd-el-Kader-Ghiianee, (-Ghiiani,) Sbd'el-k^der ge-ld'nee or ce-lS'nee, an eminent Persian doctor of the Soofee (Sufi) sect, flourished about the middle of the twelfth century. Like the orthodox Mohammedans, the Scofees believe in one eternal God ; but their views of a future state are more spiritual than those taught by the Koran. Abd-el-Kader wrote various works on the doc- trines of the Soofees, some of which are still extant. Died at Bagdad in 1165. Abd-el-Kadir. See Abd-el-Kader. Abd-el-Lateef or Abdellatif, ab'del-ll-teef, or Abdullattif, ib^dol-lS-teef, an eminent Arabian his- torian and physician, born at Bagdad in 1 162. He wrote an important work on the history, antiquities, and geog- raphy of Egypt, of which De Sacy published a French version entitle^ "Relation de I'figypte," (1810.) See WiisTENFELD, " Geschichte der Arabischen Aerzte ;" " Nou- velle Biographic Gen^rale." Abd-el-Malek or -Malik,* abMel-mt'lek or-mil'ek, (Ibn-Habeeb or -Habib, ib'n hl-beeb',) a famous Mohammedan historian and divine, born at Cordova in 801; died 853. Abd-el-Malek,* (Ibn-Koreyb — ko-rab',) generally * It should be observed that the Arabic words Maiek (m^l'ek) (writ ten also Melek, mSl'ek) and Malek (mii'lek) differ in signification as well as pronunciation; the former signifies "king," the latter " mas- ter" or "possessor." e AS 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K.^tiural; n, nasal; r. trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) e ABD^EL-MALEK 30 ABDIAS called Alasmaee, (Alasma'!,) ai-as'mS-ee', a celebrated Mohammedan doctor, born at Bassora about 740. He possessed an extraordinary memory, and is said to have known by heart above 16,000 poems. Haroun-al-Raschid, hearing of the fame of Alasmaee, invited him to his court and chose him as his own instructor. He died at Bag- dad about 821. The famous romance of Antar has been ascribed to him. Abd-el-Maiek or Abd-ul-Maiik,* abd'dol-mi'lik, a sultan of Western Africa, was born at Fez about 1500. When his dominions were invaded by Sebastian, King of Portugal, he made vigorous preparations for defence, and, though labouring under severe disease, accompanied his army, in a litter, "to the field of battle, (August, 1578.) The Moors were victorious, and Sebastian was taken and put to death ; but Abd-el-Malik died of exhaustion dur- ing the contest, and Mohammed, his nephew, wh«m he had dethroned, and at whose instigation the Portuguese king had begun the war, was drowned in his flight. This battle has been called "the battle of the three kings." Abd-el-Malek,* (Ibn-Merwan — mer'wSn',) the fifth caliph of the house of Omeyyah, ascended the throne in 685. He distinguished himself as a warrior while quelling several formidable rebellions in his dominions ; he was brave, just, and strict in the observance of all the duties of his religion, and was moreover a patron of learn- ing and the useful arts. Died in 705, aged sixty years. See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap. ix. Abd-el-Melek. See Abd-el-Malek. Abd-el-Moomen, (-Moumen or -Mumen,) dbd'el- moo'men, written also Abdul-Munien, the second prince or sultan of the line of Almohades, in Africa, was born in the province of Tlemsen, about iioo. On the death of Al-Mahdee, (Al-Mahdi,) founder of the new dynasty, he managed to get himself elected successor to the throne, in 1130. His reign was constantly occupied with wars, in which he was for the most part eminently successful. Having subdued all his enemies in Western Africa, he was preparing to cross into Spain, that he might put a stop to the victorious career of Alphonso VHI., when he was attacked by the disease of which he died, in 1163. He assumed the title of caliph, which his successors retained. See Abd-el-Moumen, in the " Nouvelle Biographic G^n^rale." Abd-el-Moottalib, (or -Muttalib,) ibd'el-mdot'- ti-lib,t written also Abd-el-Mottalib and Abdol- Motalleb, a rich citizen of Mecca, born in 497 a.d., was the son of Hashem and grandfather of the prophet Mo- hammed. He is said to have dug at Mecca, in obedience to a command given him in a vision, the famous well of Zemzem, which was destined to supply pilgrims with water through all succeeding ages. Died in 579. See Abd-el-Mottalib, in the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Sprenger, " Life of Mohammad." Abdel-Mumen. See Abd-el-Moomen. Ab d-el- Wahab,abd'el- wi- h W, or Al) dul- Wahab, ib'dool-wi-hib', the founder of the sect of the Wahab- ites, (Wahabees or Wahabys,) was born in the Arabian province of Nejd in 169 1. He did not, as has been as- serted, promulgate the doctrines of a nevr religion. He saw, as he believed, that the primitive Mohammedan faith had become totally corrupted, and his effortb were directed towards introducing a thorough reformation. He acknowledged the Koran and the traditionary law, the " Soonnah," (or '* Sunnah,") to be the foundation of religion ; but the opinions even of the greatest com- mentators were not, he maintained, to be received im- plicitly. He complained that many of the Mohammedan professors bestowed upon the prophet and the saints honours which were equivalent to adoration. He held and proclaimed that before God all men were equal, and * See note on last column of preceding page. t There is some discrepancy in regard to the accentuation of this name : some writers gwt Abd-el-Muidlib, (or -Motallib ;) but the best authorities make the penultima short. Hammer-Purgstall (Litera- turgeschichte der Araber, vol. i. p. 384) spells \t Abdol-Moththalib, {i.e. -Moththalib, for he uniformly places an accent on the long sylla- bles:) it should also be observed that he employs th (in German) for t hard. Pocock, in his Latin version of Abulpharagius, writes the name with //, A bdol-Motallab or -Motalleb ; but in the Arabic text the penultima is short. (See " Historia Dynastiarum," Oxford, 1663.) that it was a sin to pray to departed saints or to honour their relics more than those of ordinary persons. The Wahabites, wherever they had the power to do so, de- stroyed the domes and ornamental tombs : even the cupola over the birthplace of Mohammed, at Mecca, and his tomb at Medina, were demolished. Abd-el-Wa- hab died in 1787. See BuRCKHARDT, " Materials for a History of the Wahabys," London, 1830; "Voyages d'Ali-Bey," Paris, 1814; Niebuhr, " Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien," etc. Abd-er-Rahman, abd'eR-RdH'man,* (or Abd-ur- Rahman, ib'ddoR-RiH'min,) I., written aJso Abdar- rahman, (the "servant of the Merciful," that is, of God,) the founder of the Omeyyah dynasty of sultans in Spain, in opposition to the caliphs of the new line, (the Abbas- sides.) He wrested Moslem Spain from the govern- ment of the caliph in 756, and died in 788 A.D. See Al-Makkari, " History of the Mohammedan Dynasties -n Spain." Abd-er-Rahman II., the fourth sultan of Cordova of the Omeyyah dynasty, ascended the throne in 822 a.d. He was an able warrior, was eminent for his modera- tion, justice, and humanity, and was a distinguished patron of learning. Died in 852 A.D. Abd-er-Rahman III, surnamed An-Nasir-Lideen- Illah or -Lidinillah, in-ni'sir-le-dee'niFllh, {i.e. "the defender of the religion of God,") the eighth sultan and first caliph of Cordova, began to reign in 912, and by his talents and energy raised the Mohammedan empire in Spain to the highest pinnacle of glory. He was dis- tinguished both as a warrior and as a patron of learning and the arts. One of his palaces near Cordova was decorated with unequalled magnificence ; the audience- room, in particular, was adorned with golden images of the most exquisite workmanship, and the roof was cov- ered with pure gold. After a reign of nearly fifty years, An-Nasir died in 961, at the age of 73. An-Nasir-Li- deen-Illah was also the name of one of the caliphs of the Abbasside dynasty, as well as of several other Mo- hammedan princes. See Al-Makkari, " Histoi7 of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain," translated into English by Gayangos, London, 1840-43; Conde, "Histoire de la Domination des Arabes;" Casiri, " Bibli- otheca Arabico-Hispana." Abd-er-Rahman, Sultan or Emperor of Morocco, born in 1778, succeeded his uncle Muley Soliman in 1823. He became the ally of Abd-el-Kader in the war against the French, who defeated his army at Isly in 1844. Abd-er-Rahman-Alghafekee, (or -Algh^feki,) il-Gi'fe-kee^, a Moslem governor of Spain, invaded Gaul at the head of eighty thousand men, and, having ravaged Aquitaine, encountered the French army under Charles Martel near Tours, in October, 732 a.d. After a se- vere and prolonged contest, the Christians gained a complete victory, which saved Europe from the Moham- medan yoke and put an effectual check to the conquests of the Saracens of Spain. Abd-er-Rahman himself was left dead on the field of battle. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Abd-er-Rahman, (Ibn-Khaldoon or -Khaldiin.) See Ibn-Khaldoon. Abd-er-Razzak, dbd^eR-Rlz-zIk'. or Abdurrazzak, ibMooR-R^z-zak', the founder of a small empire in East- ern Persia, about 1336, which lasted only till the con- quest of Tamerlane in 1381. Abd-er-Razzak, or Abd-er-Rezzak, (Kamai-ed Deen or Kemai-ed-Din, ka-mSK ed-deen',) a Persian traveller and historian, born at Herat in 141 3 ; died about 1475. He wrote an interesting history of the de- scendants of Tamerlane. Abdias, ab-dee'is, (Ben-Shalom — shS'lom,) a Jew- ish rabbi of the seventh century, went to Arabia to dis- pute with Mohammed, who is said to have converted him. * Most European writers accentuate this name on the last syllable, Abd-er-Rahman ; but we have preferred to follow Hammer-Purgstall, who invariably gives it with the relh'ma short — Abderrahman, (ab- der-rih'mSn.) So far as we have had an opportunity of consulting tne Arabic texts of the Mohammedan writers, they have nearly always confirmed the practice of that eminent Orientalist. Both forms are undoubtedly correct ; but that given above is sanctioned by the best Arabic usage. a e, I, 5, \i, y, /ono^; i, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; gS&d; moon; ABDOL^MALIK JBELa Abdol-Malik. See Abd-el-Malek. Abdol-Moththalib. See Abd-el-Moottalib. Abdolonimus. See Abdalonymus. Abd-ool- (Abdul- or Abdoul-) Hamid, (or -Ha- met,) ab'ddol- ha'mid,(or ha''met,) Sultan of Turkey, born in 1725, was a son of Ahmed III. He succeeded his brother Mustapha III. in 1774. Having been defeated by the Russians, he obtained a short peace by the treaty of Kootchook-Kainarji in July, 1774. He was again involved in war against Russia, and lost a battle at Oc- zakow, in 1788. Died in 1789. See Von Hammer, " Histoire de TEmpire Ottoman." Abd-ool-Mejeed, Abdoul-Medjid, or Abdul- Mejid, ib'ddol-me-jeed'', an eminent Mohammedan poet, vizier to Aboo-IMohammed, the last king of Bada- joz. He died about 1125. Abd-ool-Mejeed, Abdul-Mejid, or Abdoul- Medjid, ab'ddol-m^-jeed', [Ger. spelling, Abdul Med- SCHID,] Sultan of Turkey, born in 1823, was the eldest son of Mahmood II., whom he succeeded July i, 1839. He found Turkey at war against Mehemet Ali of Egypt, whose victorious army was marching towards his capital. From this danger he was saved by the intervention of the great European powers in 1840. He pursued the course of reform commenced by his father, which was resisted by a fanatical party among his subjects, and ex- hibited a spirit of tolerance towards Christians. About the end of 1853 he was involved in a war with Russia, in which France and England were the allies of Abd-dbl- Mejeed. (See Nicholas I.) He died in June, 1861, and was succeeded by his brother Abd-ool-Azeez, (Abdul- Aziz.) See Abdoul Medjid, in the " Nouvelle Biographic G^n^rale." Abdor-Rahman. See Abd-er-Rahman. Abdoul-Melek. See Abd-el-Malek. Abdulaziz. See Abdelaziz. Abdul-Kadir. See Abd-el-Kader. Abdul-Malik. See Abd-el-Malek. Abdul-Mumen. See Abd-el-Moomen. Abdurrahman. See Abd-er-Rahman. Ab'dy, (Mi'ra Smith,) an English authoress, born in London about 1818, was a niece of Horace and James Smith. She married a Rev. Mr. Abdy, of London. She has written agreeable verses and tales, some of which appeared in various annuals. Perhaps her most important work is her "Appeal on Behalf of Govern- esses." Died in July, 1867. A'Bec'ket, (Gilbert Abbot,) a witty and humorous English writer, born in London in 1810 or 1811. He was admitted to the bar in 1841. He contributed to the London "Times" and " Punch." Among his works are "The Comic Blackstone," (1844-46,) and "The Comic History of England," (1848.) Died in 1856. A Becket, (Thomas.) See Becket. A-bed'ne-go', called also Az-a-ri'ah, one of the three Hebrew captives whom Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, ordered to be thrown into his fiery furnace. (See Daniel i. 7 ; ii. 49 ; iii. 10, etc.) A-beeF, (David,) an American missionary, born at New Brunswick, New Jersey, in 1804. He published "A Journal of a Residence in China, 1829-33." Died in 1846. Abegg, I'hlV., (Bruno Erhard — SR'haRt,) a Ger- man lawyer, born at Elbing in 1803. Died in Berlin in 1848. Abegg, (Julius Friedrich Heinrich,) a German jurist, born at Erlangen in 1796. He became professor of law at Breslau in 1826, and published many legal works. Abeille, I'hW, [Fr. pron. t'biF or rbi'ye,] (Gas- PARD,) a mediocre French lyric and tragic poet, born in Provence in 1648. He was educated for the church, and received the title of "Abbe." In 1704 he was elected a member of the French Academy. Died in 1718. Abeille, i'bil', (Louis,) a German pianist and com- poser, born at Baireuth about 1765. He produced several successful operas, etc. Died in 1832. See F6tis, " Biographie Universelle des Musicians." Abeille, (Louis Paul,) a French writer and agricul- turist, born at Toulon in 17 19. He was for several years inspector-general of the manufactures of France. Died in 1807. Abeille, (Scipion,) a French surgeon and poet, was a brother of Gaspard, noticed above. He wrote in verse a " Description of the Bones," (" Histoire des Os," 1685.) Died in 1697. Abeken, ib'eh-k?n, (Bernhard Rudolph,) a Ger- man writer, born at Osnabriick in 1780. He was em- ployed by Schiller as tutor to his children, and was after- wards professor in the College of Osnabriick. Among his works are " Studies on the Divina Commedia of Dante," (1826,) and a valuable contribution to the biogra- phy of Cicero, "Cicero in seinen Briefen," (1835,) of which an English version was published in 1854. A'bel, [in Hebrew ^3n>] the second son of Adam and Eve. He is regarded as the first martyr, and the first of mankind who suffered physical death, having been murdered by Cain, his brother. (See Genesis iv., and Hebrews xi. 4; also Matthew xxiii. 35.) Abel, [Dan. pron. i'b^l,] a king of Denmark, second son of Waldemar 11. He secretly instigated the mur- der of his brother, Erik VI., and was elected king in his stead in 1250. He was killed, while endeavouring to suppress a rebellion of the Frisians, in 1252. Abel, S'bel, (Caspar,) a German writer and anti- quary, born in 1676; died 1763. Abel, a'bel, (Clarke,) an English surgeon and natu- ralist, born about 1780. He accompanied Lord Am- herst to China in 1816 as naturalist of the expedition, and published a " Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China," (1818,) which has been highly commended. He was afterwards surgeon-in-chief to the governor- general of India, and died in 1826. See " Gentleman's Magazine," Dec. 1827. Abel, (Friedrich Gottfried,) a German physician, born in 1714, was a son of Caspar, noticed above. Died in 1794. Abel, (Joseph,) a distinguished historical painter, born near Linz, on the Danube, in 1768. He passed six years, 1802-8, in Rome, where he painted "Pro- metheus Bound" and designs from the Iliad. He after- wards worked in Vienna, and produced, besides many portraits, some historical pictures, among which is a " Flight into Egypt." Died in Vienna in 1818. Abel, (Karl Friedrich,) a German musician, born at Kothen in 1725. In 1763 he removed to London, where for many years he enjoyed the highest popularity ; but, owing to the fickleness of the public taste, his con- certs ceased at last to attract any attention. He died in 1787. He is noted as having been the teacher of Cra- mer. Abel, 3.'b^l, (Niels Henrik,) a distinguished mathe- matician, born at Findo, in Norway, in 1802. He studied at the University of Christiania ; and afterwards, by the aid of a pension from the government, travelled through Germany, Italy, Switzerland, and France. He returned to his native country in 1827, and died in 1829. The special object of Abel's scientific labours was the theory of elliptic functions. The celebrated Legendre spoke with astonishment of his discoveries, and evidently regarded his mathematical talents as of the most orig- inal and highest order. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" "Nouvelle Biogra- phie Generale." Abel, von, fon i'bel, (Jakob Friedrich,) a German philosopher, born in Wiirtemberg in 1 751, was professor of philosophy at Tubingen. He wrote, besides other works, "Collection and Explanation of the Remarkable Phenomena of Human Life," (" Sammlung und Er- klarung merkwiirdiger Erscheinungen aus dem mensch- lichen Leben," 3 vols., 1790,) Died in 1829. Abel, von, (Karl,) a Bavarian statesman, born at Wetzlar in 1788. He became minister of the interior in 1838, and the chief of the absolutist or ultramontane party. By the influence of Lola Montes he was driven from power in February, 1847. Abel-De-PujoL See Pujol. Abel Remusat. See R^musat. Abela, i-ba'ia, (Giovanni Francesco,) a Maltese, of noble family, who in the early part of the seventeenth € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, Vi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ABEIARD 32 ABERCROMBr century wrote a valuable work entitled " Malta Illus- trated, with its Antiquities, and other Information," (" Malta illustrata con le sue Antichita ed altre Notizie.") Born in 1582 ; died in 1655. Ab'^-lard' (Pierre) or Abailard, [Fr. pron. t'bi'- ItR' ; in Latin, Pe'trus Ab.^lar'dus,] a celebrated French philosopher and logician, was born near Nantes in 1079. After having studied Latin, Greek, and He- brew, he visited Paris, where he became the pupil of William de Champeaux, the most skilful dialectician of the age. But the pupil soon surpassed his master, and often challenged him to public disputations, so com- mon in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. He is said to have been so elated by his frequent triumphs that not only his master but his fellow-students were disgusted with his vanity. About i loi he retired from Paris and set up a school at Melun, whither crowds of pupils repaired to hear his instructions. Not long after, he returned to Paris, where, both as teacher and disputant, he was soon without a rival. When he was about thirty-four years old, Abelard turned his attention to divinity, and went to Laon to study under Anselme. His brilliant repu- tation, joined to his vanity and arrogance, raised up against him bitter enemies, whose persecution compelled him to leave the town. He then reopened a school in Paris, and his fame became greater than ever before. His well-known and unfortunate amour with his pupil Heloise need not be related here. Suffice it to say that it left him defenceless against the malice of those ene- mies whom his former triumphs and arrogance had pro- voked. The remainder of his life was little else than a succession of persecutions. His errors and his afflic- tions appear to have at last taught him simplicity and humility. He died in 1142, at the priory of St. Marcel, near Chalons, whither he had gone for his health. His remains were, at her request, given up to Heloise, and buried at the oratory of the Paraclete, which he had founded, and where she was then prioress. Twenty years afterwards, she was interred in the same tomb. Abelard left many writings, nearly all dialectical or theological, except his "Letters to Heloise," ("Epistolae Petri Abaslardi et Heloisae,") and the " History of [his] Misfortunes," (*' Historia Calamitatum.") "Abelard's reputation," says the '* Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1846, " was higher than that of any living man. ... It is from his connection with Heloise that Abelard has descended to posterity ; his own claims are slight, and have been greatly overrated. . . . He discovers nothing ; he improves nothing. He can only dazzle and confuse." "Abelard," observes Hallam, " was almost the first who awakened mankind, in the age of darkness, to a sympa- thy with intellectual excellence. His bold theories, not the less attractive, perhaps, for treading upon the bounds of heresy, his imprudent vanity that scorned the regu- larly acquired reputation of older men, allured a multi- tude of disciples who would never have listened to an ordinary teacher. . . . But the whole of Abelard's life was the shipwreck of genius ; and of genius both the source of his own calamities and unserviceable to posterity." ("Middle Ages," vol. iv. p. 377.) See Cousin's " Introduction to the Works of Abelard," 1836 ; Ber- INGTON, " Histoi-y of Abelard and Heloise," 1787 ; J. Hughes, " Life cf Abelard," 1751 ; Berington, " History of the Middle Ages," 1814 ; Brucker, "History of Philosophy," 1766; DoM Gervaise, "Vie d'Abelard," 1720; Fessler, "Abalard und Heloise," 2 vols., 1806; Schlosser, "Abalard und Dulcin," 1807; Feuerbach, "Abalard und Heloise," 1834; O. Guizot, " Essai sur la Vie et les ficrits d' Abailard et de Heloise," 1839 ; Ch. de Remusat, "Abelard," 2 vols., 1845; Fleury, " Histoire de I'fialise," 1751 ; Bernaruus, (Saint,)" Epistolae ;" also articles in the " Westminster Review," vol. xxxii., and the " Foreign Quarterly," vol. xxxvi. Abelin, t'behO^N', or Abeling, S'beh-Hng, (Johann Philipp,) a German historian, born at Strasburg, as- sumed in some of his works the name of Johann Lud- wiG Gottfried, (Gothofredus.) He published many works, among which are the first and second volumes of the "Theatrum Europaeum," a valuable record of con- temporary history, which was continued to the twenty- first volume, and a description of the West Indies, (" His- toria Antipodum," 1655.) Died about 1646. See JoCHER, "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." Abell, a'bel or i-b§l', (John,) an English singer and performer on the lute, was attached to the chapel of Charles II. He was banished as a papist in 1688. Died after 1700. Abelli or Abelly, i'b^He', (Antoine,) an eminent French ecclesiastic, born in Paris in 1527. He was con- fessor to Catherine de Medicis. He is supposed to have died about 1600. Abelli or Abelly, (Louis,) a French ecclesiastic, born in Paris in 1603. He was made Bishop of Rodez in 1664, and died in 1691. He wrote numerous theo- logical works. Aben- (or Ebn-) Beitar, i'b6n-bi-e-taR' or -I i-taK', • (AbdalTah-Ibn- (Tb'n) Ah'med,) an Arabian botan- ? ist, born near Malaga; died in 1248. Abencerage, a-b^n'se-raj", [Sp. pron. S-B^n-thk-ri'- H&,] plural, Abencerages or Abencerrages, (a Span- ish corruption of the Arabic Ben! Serraj, i.e. the " Sons of Serraj,") the name of a noble Moorish family in the kingdom of Granada, originally from Cordova. Several members of this family acted prominent parts in the pe- riod which preceded the conquest of Granada by the Spaniards. There was a deadly feud between the Aben- cerages and the Zegris. Abendana, i-b^n-d^'n^, (Jacob,) a Spanish Jew, who lived in London, and wrote commentaries on the Scriptures. Died in 1685. Abendroth, ^'bent-rot^ (Amadeus Augu.st,) a Ger- man lawyer, born at Hamburg in 1767. He became mayor of that city in 1 810, and burgomaster in 1831. Died in 1842. Aben- (a'b^n) Ez'ra, a Spanish Jew, born at Toledo in 1 1 19. As a commentator on the Scriptures he stands in the foremost rank. He excelled in almost every branch of science ; he was an eminent astronomer, math- ematician, physician, linguist, and poet. He is supposed to have died in 11 94. Aben-Humeya, 3.'b§n-hoo-rna'yi, the last king of Granada, born about 1520. He was of Spanish origin, and was chosen king by the Moors who had revolted against Philip II. He was captured and strangled in 1568. Abenpace. See Avenpace. Abercrombie, ab'er-krum-be, (James,) D.D., an elo- quent and learned clergyman of the Episcopal Church in Philadelphia, born in 1758 ; died in 1841. Abercrombie, (James,) a major-general in the Brit- ish army in America, where he arrived and took com- mand of the troops at Albany in 1756. The French having obtained possession of the lakes, Abercrombie in 1758 was intrusted by Pitt with a force of 50,000 men to recover the places which had been lost. On the 8th ol July he attacked Ticonderoga at the head of 15,000 troops, but was repulsed by Montcalm with great loss. He was shortly after superseded by Lord Amherst. Abercrombie, (John,) an eminent Scottish physician, born at Aberdeen in 1781. Having graduated as an M.D. in 1803, he settled in Edinburgh, and rose to the highest rank in his profession. His reputation was widely extended by his writings, among which are " Pathological and Practical Researches on Diseases of the Brain and Spinal Cord," (1828,) "Inquiries concern- ing the Intellectual Powers of Man, and the Investiga- tion of Truth," (1830,) and "The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings," (1833.) Referring to his work on the intellect- ual powers, the "Quarterly Review" observes, " His de- scriptions of the mental phenomena are clear and pre- cise, and his reasonings perspicuous and sound. . . . The style of the work merits equal praise. It is sim- ple and unambitious, without being devoid of ornament or power." ("London Quarterly" for July, 1831.) He was chosen lord rector of Marischal College, Aber- deen, in 1835. Died in November, 1844. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," vol. V. Abercromby, ab'er-kriim-be, (Alexander,) a Scot tish j udge, the youngest brother of Sir Ralph Abercromby, was born in 1745. In 1792 (on the death of Lord Hailes) he became a judge in the court of justiciary. Died in 1795. He wrote several interesting papers for "The Mirror" and "The Lounger," two literary periodicals edited by Mackenzie. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." a, e, T, o, u, y, Ions:; \ ^. same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; JBERCROMBT 33 ABGAR US Abercromby, (David,) a Scottish physician, who flourished in the latter halt of the seventeenth century. Besides four short treatises on medicine, he wrote several works on other subjects. His " Fur Academicus" ("Aca- demical Thief") shows him to have been a man of wit and learning. The time of his birth and that of his death are unknown. Abercromby, (James,) Baron Dunfermline, a British peer, a son of vSir Ralph, noticed below, was born in 1776. He entered Parliament about 1812, voted with the Whigs, and acquired distinction as a debater. He was speaker of the House of Commons from 1835 to 1839, in which year he resigned and passed into the House of Lords as Baron Dunfermline. Died in 1858. Abercromby, (John,) a horticultural writer, born near Edinburgh in 1726. His first work, entitled "Every Man his own Gardener," had a great sale ; and he after- wards published a number of others, among which may be mentioned "The British Fruit Gardener" and "The Gardener's Daily Assistant." Died in 1806. Abercromby, (Sir John,) the second son of Sir Ralph, served under him in Egypt, and obtained the rank of general. Having been appointed governor of Madras, he took Mauritius from the French in 1810. He died, it is supposed, in 1817. Abercromby, (Patrick,) M.D., the author of a work entitled " Martial Achievements of the Scots Nation," (2 vols., 1711-15,) was born at Forfar in 1656, and is supposed to have died about the year 1720. Although his work has enjoyed a considerable reputation, it pos- sesses little merit, Abercromby, (Sir Ralph,) a distinguished military commander, was born in Clackmannanshire, Scotland, in 1734. He entered the University of Edinburgh in 1752, and in 1754 was sent by his father to Leipsic to study civil law. But, as he manifested a decided pref- erence for the military profession, his father yielded to his wishes and permitted him to join the army. In 1773 he was elected member of Parliament. He does not, however, appear to have particularly distinguished himself in any way till the breaking out of the war with France in 1793. In 1795 he was created Knight of the Bath. In the unfortunate campaigns in Holland under the Duke of York in 1793-5, and es])ecially in that of 1799, he did everything that a subordinate officer could do. The bravery and military skill which he evinced won for him universal respect, and every one was satis- fied that had he commanded in chief the results would have been very different. Abercromby was appointed commander-in-chief of the expedition against Eg\-pt, which set out in 1800 and reached its destination in I Sox. A few days after the landing of the troops near Alexandria, the British camp was suddenly attacked by all the French troops in that country. The assailants were bravely repulsed, but during the action the British commander received a wound in the thigh, of which he died a few days after. As an officer, Sir Ralph Aber- cromby was distinguished by talents of a high order, and still more by a humane and generous regard for the welfare of his soldiers. Though perfectly reckless in exposing himself, he was extremely careful never to expose those under his command to any unnecessary danger. As a man, he was distinguished for benevolence, superiority to prejudice, and a high sense of honour. Sir Ralph Abercromby had four sons: the first Lord Aber- cromby ; Sir John Abercromby, who served with credit under his father in Eg^'pt, and afterwards rose to the rank of a general ; Lord Dunfermline ; and Alexander, a lieutenant-colonel in the army. See "Memoir of Sir Ralph Abercromby," by Lord Dunferm- line ; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Wilson, " History of the British Expedition to Egypt." Abercromby, (Sir Robert,) a British general, was a younger brother of Sir Ralph, He became governor of Bombay in 1789, and commander-in-chief in India in 1792, After a successful campaign against the Rohillas, he returned to England in 1797, and was elected to Par- liament. Died about 1827. Ab-er-deen', (George Ham'ilton Gor'don.) Earl OE, a British statesman, born in 1784, inherited the earl- dom (in the Scottish peerage) from his grandfather, who died in 1802, He was elected one of the Scottish repre- sentative peers about 1807, identified himself with the Tory party, and was sent on a diplomatic mission to Vi- enna in 1813. In 1814 he became Viscount Gordon in the peerage of the United Kingdom, He was secretary of state for foreign affairs, in the cabinet of Wellington, from 1828 until November, 1830, when his party went out of power. In September, 1841, Sir Robert Peel appointed him to the same office, which he retained until the triumph of the Whig party, in July, 1846. His foreign policy was pacific. After the death of Peel, (1850,) the Earl of Aberdeen was regarded as the head of the Peelite party. On the defeat of Lord Derby, in December, 1852, he became prime minister, and formed his cabinet by a coalition of Conservatives and Whigs or Liberals. In spite of his ef- forts to maintain peace. Great Britain "drifted into war" against Russia, in 1854, He lost popularity by his mod- eration towards Russia, and was censured for remissness in the prosecution of the war. Having been defeated in the House of Commons about February i, 1855, ^-^ signed his office, and was succeeded by Lord Palmerston. Died in December, i860. He had been twice married, and left a son, who was styled Lord Haddo, See " Gentleman's Magazine" for February, 1861. Aberli, a'beR-lee, (Johann Ludwig,) a Swiss land scape-painter and engraver, born at Winterthur in 1723, His landscapes of Swiss scenery, engraved and coloured, were much admired, and found many imitators. Died at Berne in 1786. Abernethy, ab^er-ne-ZZ/e, (John,) an eminent dis- senting divine, born at Coleraine, in Ireland, in 1680. He took the degree of M.A. at the College of Glasgow, and afterwards studied divinity in Edinburgh. Upon finishing his course he returned to Ireland, and at length became the pastor of a Presbyterian congregation at Antrim. Some new views which he subsequently adopted, on the right of private judgment in matters of faith, together with the spirit of independence which he manifested with respect to the authority of the synod, caused at last a schism in the church. In 1730 he be- came the pastor of an independent congregation, ^n ad- dressing whom he carefully avoided all appeals to the affections, maintaining that nothing else was requisite than merely to convince the reason. Hence his follow- ers were termed Rational Dissenters. Abernethy died in 1740. See DucHAL, "Life of Abernethy," prefixed to his Sermons; "Biographia Britannica." Abernethy, (John,) a celebrated English surgeon and physiologist, born in London in 1764, was a pupil of John Hunter. He was a grandson of John Aber- nethy, noticed above. In 1786 he became assistant-sur- geon of St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London, and on the death of Sir C. Blick he succeeded him as chief sur- geon in that institution. He lectured on anatomy and surgery, and acquired immense popularity as a teacher. He published, in 1809, an able work "On the Consti- tutional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases," in which he propounded doctrines which have made a great change in the science of surgery. He is said to have been the first surgeon who performed the ligature of the carotid artery and the external iliac artery. Many amusing anecdotes are related of him, exhibiting that singular mixture of shrewd sense, wit, and eccen- tricity for which he was so remarkable. A gouty rich man having consulted him received for answer, " Live on sixpence a day, and earn it." In domestic relations he is said to have been amiable. He married Ann Threlfall in 1800. Died at Enfield in April, 1 83 1. See George MacIlwain. "Memoirs of J. Abernethy," 1853 Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Abert, a'bert, (John J.,) an American engineer, born in Maryland in 1790, He was appointed major of topo- graphical engineers in 1814, and colonel of the same in 1838. Pie was at the head of the corps of topographical engineers for about thirty years. Died in January, 1863. Abesch, yhlsh, (Anna Barbara,) a famous Swiss painter on glass. Died about 1750. Ab'gar-us, [Gr. "AjByapog,] written also Abagarus, e as k, 9 as s; g ^ard; g as j; G, H, K, gidttiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s ass; th as in this. 0:^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ABIATHAR 34 ABOO-BEKR Agbarus, and Augarus, a name common to several kings of Edessa in Mesopotamia. Ab-i'a-thar, [in Hebrew, "ir\Oi<,] a high-priest of the Jews, and one of the chief counsellors of King David. (See I. Samuel xxii., xxiii., and xxx. ; II. Samuel viii. and XX.; 1. Kings ii. and iv.) Abicht, i^biKt, (Johann Georg,) a German author and divine, born in Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt in 1672. He wrote several works on the Hebrew language and antiquities, and also on theology. Died in 1 740. ADicot. See Habicot. Abidenus. See Abydenus. Ab'i-gail, [Heb. a Hebrew matron, who was married hrst to Nabal, and secondly to King David. (See I. Samuel xxv.) A-bi'jah or A-bi'a, [in Hebrew, n'^lJN,] a name com- mon to several Israelites, among whom may be named a son of Jeroboam and a son of the prophet Samuel. Ab-i^jam [Heb. D'^X] or Abijah, King of Judah, was a son of Rehoboam, whom he succeeded on the throne. After a reign of three years, he died about 955 B.C. (I. Kings XV. 1-8; H. Chronicles xiii.) Abildga.ai'd, a''bIld-goRd', (Nicholas,) a distinguished Danish historical painter, born in Copenhagen in 1 744. In 1772 he visited Italy, where he spent live years. He was afterwards appointed professor of painting in the Academy of Copenhagen. Died about 1806. He is considered by many as the best painter that Denmark has produced. Among his works are a " Socrates," and the "Creation of the World, after Orpheus." See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikoii." Abildgaard, (Peter Christian,) an able Danish physician and naturalist, born at Copenhagen about 1740, was, according to Malte-Brun, a brother of the preced- ing. He wrote many treatises on medicine, zoology, etc., and gave a description of the Megatherium at the same time as Cuvier, (1796.) He was secretary of the Academy of Sciences, and founder of the Veterinary School of Copenhagen. Died about 1808. See " Biographie Universelle;" " Historia brevis Regii Instltiiti Veterinani," etc., Copenhagen, 1788 ; Cuvier, " Sur les Ossements Fossile*" Abildgaard, (So'ren,) a Danish naturalist, born be- tween 1720 and 1730. He wrote two works on topo- graphical mineralogy, one of which is entitled " Physico- Mineralogical Description of the Promontory of Moen," (" Physik-mineralogisk Beskrivelse over Moens Klint," 1781.) Died in 1791. See Ersch, " Handbuch der Dautschen Literatur." Abilfedae. See Aboolfeda. A-bini'e-lee!i, [Heb. an illegitimate son of Gideon, chosen king by the men of Shechem after he had slain all his brothers except Jotham. Afterwards, while attempting to take Thebez, he was mortally wound- ed with a stone thrown from the top of the citadel by a woman ; upon which his armour-bearer, at his request, ran him through the body with a sword, lest it should be said that he had been slain by a woman. (See Judges ix.) Two kings of Gerar, named Abimelech, are men- tioned in the book of Genesis, (chaps, xx. and xxvi.) Ab'in-ger, (Lord,) an English lawyer, whose proper name was James Scarlett, was born in Jamaica about 1 769. Having been educated in England, he was called to the bar in 1791, and obtained great success as a pleader. He was appointed attorney-general in 1827, and became an adherent of the Tory party. In 1834 he was appointed chief baron of the exchequer, and raised to the peerage as Baron Abinger. He is said to have been almost unri- valled in the tact and address with which he operated on the minds of juries. Died in 1844, leaving several sons. See "Gentleman's Magazine" for June, 1844 ; Foss, " The Judges of England," vol. ix. Ab'ing-tpn, (Frances,) a celebrated English actress, born about the year 1731. She excelled in every de- partment of comedy, and was for a long time without a rival. Her taste in dress was greatly admired. Her talents and elegant manners procured her admittance into society of the highest rank ; but, as a woman, her character was marred with those moral blemishes so common in persons of her profession. She died in 1815. Abington, (Thomas and William.) See Habing- ton. Abisbal, a-B^s-bdl', (Henry O'Donnell,) Count, a Spanish general of Irish descent, who greatly dis- tinguished himself in resisting the French invasion in 1809-10. He afterwards acted a conspicuous part in the political as well as military affairs of Spain until his death, in 1834. A-bish'a-i, [Heb. 'l^'^^X,] one of the three sons of Zeruiah, sister of King David, in whose army he was a leader. See II. Samuel xxiii. 18; also I. Samuel xxvi. 6-9. Ablancourt, d', dt'blSN'kooR', (Nicolas Perrot — pa'ro',) an eminent French translator, born at Chalons- sur-Marne in 1606. He produced translations of Taci- tus, Thucydides, Cresar, and Lucian, which were received with favour ; but they are not faithful, and are now neg- lected. He was admitted into the French Academy in 1637. Colbert proposed him as historiographer in 1662, but Louis XIV. rejected him because he was a Protestant. Died in 1664. Ab-laVi-us, a Roman historian, cited by Jornandes in his History of the Goths. The age in which he lived is unknown. Ableitner, db'lTt-ner, (Johann,) a Bavarian sculptor, who flourished in the early part of the seventeenth cen- tury. Ablesiniof or Ablecimof, i-blSs'e-mof (Alexan- der,) an officer in the Russian army, who became dis- tinguished as a dramatist. Among his works is a suc- cessful national comic opera entitled "The Miller," (1779,) which is considered a faithful picture of Russian manners. Died at Moscow in 1784. Ab''ner or Abiner, [Heb. or "^i'llX,] the son of Ner, was captain of the host of Saul, King of Israel. After the death of Saul, in consequence of an affront offered him by Ishbosheth, Abner sought to transfer the whole kingdom to David. But Joab, exasperated be- cause Abner had killed his brother Asahel in battle, and perhaps jealous of the influence which he might ac- quire with David, called him aside under pretence of speaking with him privately, and treacherously slew him. Ab'ney, (Sir Thomas,) M.P., Lord Mayor of Lon- don, born in 1639. He rendered important services to William III. Died in 1722. Abondio, a-bonMe-o, ( Alessandro,) a Florentine painter, was a pupil of Michael Angelo. He worked in Germany, and died at Prague. He had a son of the same name, who lived at Munich and was no less dis- tinguished as a painter than his father. AB'OO, ABOU, or ABU, an Arabic word signifying "father," forming a prefix to many Oriental names, as Aboo-Bekr, (which see,) the "father of the virgin." Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Abdillah, a.''boo ^b-diK- lah, the Sheeite, the chief actor in the revolution which established the dynasty of the Fatimites on the throne of Egypt. He was born at Sanaa about 865. By his preaching and by his arms he induced a great part of the Mohammedans in Africa to join the new sect and to recognize the claims of Obeydallah, the first sultan of the Fatimite line. But having afterwards been detected in a conspiracy against his sovereign, whom he had raised to the throne, he was put to death in 911. Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Abdillah-Mohammed, surnamed Al-mahdee or Al-mahdi, {i.e. "director" or " ruler,") founder of the sect and dynasty of the Almo- hades, ( Almowahedun,) was born in the province of Soos, in Morocco, about the year 1087. Like many other leaders of Mohammedan sects, he began with preaching ^nd ended with the sword. He died in 1130, leaving to Abd-el-Moomen the prosecution of his plans of reform and conquest. Aboo-Amroo-Al-Owz^ee, (Abu-Amru-Alau- zM,) a'boo am'roo Sl-ow-zi'ee, a famous Mohammedan doctor, who was born at Baalbek about 706 and died about 774 A.D. Aboo- (Aba- or Abou-) Bahr-Sefwan, cVboo'- bin'r sef wSn', a distinguished Moslem poet and histo- a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, hy 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; ABOO-BEKR 35 ABOOLFEDA rian, born at Murcia, in Spain, about the year 1106. Besides many other valuable works, he wrote a biograph- ical dictionary of eminent contemporary authors. He died about 11 82. Aboo-Bekr, (Abu-Beker, Abu-Bekr, or Abou- Bekr,) a'boo bek''er, or a-boo'bek-er, written also Abu- Bakr, Abu-Bacr, and Aboubecre, the first of Mo- hammed's successors, was born in 571 a.d. He be- longed to the celebrated tribe of Koreish, and was one of the first and most zealous of the converts to Islam. ♦His original name was Abd-el-Kaaba, (abd-el-ka'bd ;) but after the prophet Mohammed had married his virgin daughter Ayeshah, he was called Aboo-Bekr, the " Fa- ther of the Virgin." He was elected to the throne in 632, and died in 634, after a reign of two years and three months. Aboo-Bekr is admitted by all to have been a pious and humble man, and a mild, generous, and excel- lent prince. He was succeeded by Omar, See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, "chap. 1. ; Ir- ving, *' Mahomet and his Successors ;" Weil, "Geschichte der Cha- lifen," vol. i. chap. i. For a notice 01' the character of Aboo-Bekr, see Sprexger's " Lite of Mohammad," p. 170 et seg. Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Bekr-al-Mahree, (Al- mahri,) d'boo bek'er ^l-mdn'ree', the vizier of Almu- tamed. Sultan of Seville, was born about 1030. He ap- pears to have been an able minister, but, having incurred the suspicion of his sovereign, he was put to death in 1084. He was regarded as one of the first poets of his age. Aboo-Bekr (Abu-Beker) -Ibn-Tofail, (Ib'n to- fll',) an eminent Arabian philosopher, born at Cniadix, in Spain. He wrote a philosophical romance entitled " Hai- Ibn-Yokdhan," (or " Hayyi-Ibn-Yokttan,") which was translated into Latin by Pocock and published in 1671, and into English by vSimon Ockley, (London, 1708.) Died at Morocco in 11 86. See Al-Makkari, " History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain," translated by Gavangos, vol. i. pp. 335-6. Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Fara.s, .Vboo fS-rts', a dis- tinguished Arabian poet, born in 932. He was cousin to Seyf-ed-Dowlah, (Seyfu-d-daulah,) Sultan of Aleppo, at whose court he lived. A Mohannnedan writer calls him "the pearl of his time, and the sun of his age, in learning, talent, generosity, glory, elociuence, horseman- ship, and bravery." He was killed in a skirmish in 968. Aboo- (or Abou-) Hamid-Alghazaiee, ( Abu-H^- mid-Al-ghazaii or Alghazzali,) .VbcK) hd'mitl al-(}c^- zi'lee, a distinguished doctor, born at Toos, (Tiis,) in Khorassan, about 1058. He spent a part of his time in travelling ; but much the greater portion appears to have been passed in seclusion and wholly devoted to philosophy and divinity. He is said to have been a man of sound judgment and immense learning. From his rare attainments as a divine, he w-as called Zeyn-ed-Deen, "the ornament of religion." Died at Bagdad in iiii. Aboo-Haneefah. Sec Hankkfaii. Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Hayyan, a'bob hT''yan', surnamed Atheer-ed-Dekx, ( Aihir-ud-din,) "the gloiyof religion," a distinguished Arabian author, born in the province of Jaen, in Spain, in 1256. When verv young, he visited several towns in Andalusia, where he supported himself by transcribing books and lecturing on the Koran. He afterwards went to Kgypt, and was ap- pointed a professor and lecturer on the Koran in one of the colleges of that country. He died in Cairo in 1344. He was called "the prince of his age in the science of grammar." Besides numerous other important works, he wrote a " History of the Turkish Race," and a volu- minous commentary on the Koran. Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Ishak, (-is-hak',) an Ara- bian geographer, who lived about the beginning of the tenth century. The place of his birth is unknown. Aboo-^ (Abu- or Abou-) Ishak-Al-Hos'ree', (or Al-Hosri,) a noted poet, born near Kairwan in Africa ; died in 1061. Aboo-Jaafar, (or -Jafar.) See Mansoor, Al. Aboo-1- ( Abu-1-) Abbas- Abdallah, e. This peculiarity is owing to the fact that the A bit in the first part of the name has in Arabic Abi for its genitive. In like manr:er, we say (in the nomi- native) Abu Talib; but Ibn Abi Taiib, the "son of Abu Taiib," the change of u (00) to \ (ee) being necessary to mark the genitive case. c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, li, K, outtural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23-' ABOO-L-HJSSJN 36 JBOO-SAEED mah, but the fief which they held having been declared extinct by Nasir, (or An-Nasir-Ibn-Kalaun,) Sultan of Syria and Egypt, Aboolfeda was deprived of his inherit- ance. Upon this he entered the service of the sultan, and was with him in all his wars against the Tartars. Afterwards, as an acknowledgment of his eminent ser- vices, the sultan conferred upon him the title of Prince of Hamah. He remained in undisturbed possession of his newly-acquired dignity until his death in 133 1. All the Moslem writers agree in representing Aboolfeda as a man of the greatest talents ; he was as much dis- tinguished for skill and courage in the field as for wis- don. and prudence in the divan. In spite of the cares of his government, he devoted much of his attention to the cultivation of literature. He has left valuable works on history, geography, and medicine. His work enti- tled "The Description of the Countries" is considered to be the best and most complete Arabic geography which exists. His great history, called "An Abridgment of the History of Mankind," is a work of vast erudition. Besides containing a history of the Mohammedans from the birth of the prophet down to the date of the work itself, (1328,) it furnishes much information respecting Arabia before the time of Mohammed, the ancient Per- sian dynasties, the Copts, the Hindoos, etc. See " Nouvelle Blographle Generale ;" Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Eiicyklopaedie." Aboo-l-Hassan or Abu-1- (Aboul-) hassaii, .VbooK hds'san, an Arabian astronomer, who flourished in Morocco in the beginning of the thirteenth century. Aboo-l-Hassan, (or Abii-l- (Aboul-) hassan,) writ- ten also Aboul-Hagan, a Samaritan, who embraced the Mohammedan religion and repaired to the court of the King of Damascus, by whom he was appointed vizier about the year 1231. Accompanying an expedition into Egypt, he was taken prisoner and put to death in 1251. Aboo-l-Hassan or Aboul-Ha9an, (Alee (or All) Ibn Omar, a'lee Tb'n o'mar,) an Arabian astronomer of Morocco, lived about the year 1200. He wrote a valu- able treatise on philosophical instruments, which was translated into French by Sedillot. Aboo-l-Kisim, Abu-l-k^aim, or Aboul-cacem, i'boor ka'sim, [in Latin, Albuca'sis or Abulca'sis,] the most celebrated of all the Arabian writers on surgery. Scarcely anything is known of his life ; he is supposed to have practised medicine in Cordova in the latter part of the eleventh and the beginning of the twelfth century, and to have died about mo. His principal work, which treats of anatomy, physiology, the practice of medicine, and surgery, is one of extraordinary value. ■ That portion which is devoted to surgery has been pro- nounced the best treatise on this subject that has come down to us from antiquity. It is especially interesting and valuable to those who desire to trace the gradual progress of the surgical art in its various departments. See WijsTENFEi,D, "Geschichte der Arabischen Aeizte;" Spren- GEL, " History of Medic'.n-\" Aboo-l-K^sim, ( Abu-l-k^sim or Abou-l-caoem,) a distinguished Mohammedan theologian and poet, born in the province of Valencia, Spain, about 1 143. He visited several foreign countries, and finally settled in Cairo, where he was aj^pointed to a professorship. He died in 1194. He wrote several works on the Koran, which are highly esteemed. Aboo-l-K^sim or Aboul-Cacem, a Turkish gen- eral, lived about 1050. He took Nicaea, and advanced towards Constantinople, but was repulsed by Taticius, and put to death by the Shah of Persia. Aboo-l-Kisim-Mansoor. See Firdousee. Aboo-l-Khatar orAbul- (Aboul-) Khatt^r, a^bool' K^t'taR', a governor of Spain under the caliphs. He was a native of Arabia, and was sent by the Viceroy of Africa to quiet the contending factions by which Spain was at that time distracted. He arrived in Cor- dova in 743 A.D. At first he was entirely successful, but at length a rebellion broke out, which he was unable to quell ; and he was finally slain by the conquering party. Aboo-l-Maalee or Abul- (Aboul-) Maali,\Vb6or mS.'a-lee, a learned Persian who flourished in the reign of Bahram Shah, of Ghiznee, between 11 18 and 1152. Aboo-l-Mahanee or Abul- (Aboul-) mahani, a'boor ma-ha'nee, an Arabian astronomer, who lived at the court of Al-Mamoon, the seventh caliph of the Ab- bassides, between 813 and 833. Aboo-l-Wafa or Abul- (Aboul-) Wafa, a'bool' wa'fa', a distinguished mathematician and astronomer, born in Khorassan about 940 ; died in 998. He was employed at Bagdad, with other eminent astronomers, to correct the astronomical tables of Aboo-l-Mahanee. Aboo-l-Waleed or Abul- (Aboul-) Walid, d'boor vva-leed', a fixmous Mohammedan divine, born at Beja, in Portugal, about 1012. His talents and learning attracted the notice of Al-Mo6tamed, King of Seville, by whom he was appointed chief justice, which position he held till his death, in 1081. Aboo-l-Waleed or Abul- (Aboul-) Walid, a dis- tinguished Moslem divine and historian, born at Alep- po about the year 1400 ; died 1478. Aboo-l-Waleed- (or Abul- (Aboul-) Walid-) Ibn- Jehwar — ib'n-jeh'wiR or -j^h'war, the second sul- tan of Cordova of the Jehwar dynasty, whose capita^ was treacherously wrested from him by Al-Mootamed King of Seville, about the year 1045 '■> the latter having with a large army entered Aboo-l-Waleed's kingdom with the professed object of assisting him against Al Mamoon, King of Toledo. Aboo-l-Waleed died, or waa killed, soon after. Ab o ol- Wale e d-Moliammed-Ibn-Roshd. Sec AVERROES. Aboo-Mansoor, (Abu-Mansur or Abou-Man- sour,) i'ljoo man'sooR', a distinguished astronomer, born at Mecca in 855. He lived at the court of the caliph Al-Mamoon, who appointed him president of an academy of astronomers at Bagdad, and committed to his superintendence the building of two observatories. The time of his death is unknown. Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Merwan or Merouan, ^''boo meR^wan', a distinguished Mohammedan divine, born at Seville about 11 70. He was for several years chief justice of his native city. Having made a pil- grimage to Mecca, he died at Cairo, on his return, in 1237. Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Mos'lem, (or -Muslim,) a general, who contributed greatly to the overthrow of the Omeyyah dynasty and the establishment of that of the Abbassides, was born about 720 A.D. Neither his fidelity nor the greatness of his merits availed him against the jealous cruelty of a sovereign whom he had raised to the throne. Aboo-Jaafar had employed him in quelling some formidable rebellions which threatened to dismem- ber the empire. But, when his services were no longer needed, the caliph, having invited him, with every mark of friendship, to visit him in his palace at Roomeeyeh, (Rumiyyah,) caused Aboo-Moslem to be basely assas- sinated, in 755. Although Aboo-Moslem's character was undoubtedly stained with many crimes, he appears to have been always faithful to his sovereign. See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap, xvii., and vol. ii. cliaps. i. and ii. Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Nowas — no-wass', an Ara- bian poet, born about 744, and died about 810 A.D. Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Obeyd — o'bad' or -o'bTd', a noted Mohammedan geographer and historian, born in Spain about 1040. He was vizier to Mohammed, King of Ahneria. Died about 1095. Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Obeydah — o-baMah, a celebrated Mohammedan general, who commanded un- der the caliphs Aboo-Bekr and Omar. He died of the plague, at Damascus, in 639. Aboo-Reehan or Abu- (Abou-) Rihan, written also Abou-Ryhan, i'boo ree'hln', a distinguished Arabian astronomer, born about 970 ; died in 1038. He was employed on several embassies by Al-Mamoon, (Mamun,) Sultan of Kharasm. Aboo-Saeed or Abu- (Abou-) Said, cVboo sa-eed', the ninth of the Persian kings of the race of Jengis Khan, ascended the throne in 13 17. He was a weak jjrince, being ruled first by his favourite, the emir Choo- ban, and afterwards by his wife, the daughter of that nobleman. He died in 1335, at the age of thirty. Aboo-Saeed-Meerza, ( Abu-Said-Mirzi or Abou Said Mirza,) a'boo sa-eed' meer'zS, a prince of the Moguls, born about 1427, was a descendant of Tamei lane. i, e, T, 5, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, li, y, shoft; a, e, i, g, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; ABOO SAHL-ISA 37 ABRAHAM Having invaded Irak and Azerbaijan, he was taken prisoner and put to death in 1469. _ Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Sahl-Isa, a'boo sSh'! is'i, (or ee'sa,) an eminent Christian physician of Khorassan, tutor to the famous Avicenna, (Ibn-Seena.) He lived in the early part of the eleventh century. ^ Aboo-Salat or Abu- (Abou-)s-Salat, a'boo s3.1'at, (or sal'at,) a Spanish physician, astronomer, and poet, born in 1068 ; died in 1134. Aboo- (Abou- or Abu-) Sofian, (Sophian or So- phySn,) i'boo so-fe-an', a chief among the Koreish, who distinguished himself by his obstinate hostility to the claims of Mohammed. After all resistance was vain, he reluctantly acknowledged the divine mission of the prophet. Aboo-Sofian was the father of the caliph Moaweeyeh, the founder of the Omeyyah dynasty at Damascus. (See Mohammed.) Aboo-TaMr or Abu- (Abou-) Tahir, i'boo td'hir, the chief of a sect called Karmatians, who, with a com- paratively small number of followers, took and plun- dered Koofah, (Kiifah,) Mecca, and several other cities of Asia, and at length, in 931, was bold enough to advance, with only 500 horse, to within a short distance of Bagdad. He suddenly attacked, defeated, and took prisoner Abissaj, (i'be-sSj',) whom, at the head of 30,000 men, the caliph had sent against him. Died in 943. Bahrein, on the Persian Gulf, was the capital of his dominions. Aboo-Taiib, (or -Taieb,) Abu-Taiib, or Abou- Talib, (or -Thaleb,) a'boo tS'lib, written also Ebu- Thalib, an uncle of Mohammed, and the father of Alee, (All,) who married the prophet's only daughter, Fatimah. He belonged to the illustrious tribe of Koreish, and flourished in the latter half of the sixth and beginning of the seventh century. Died about 620 a.d. (See Mo- hammp:d.) Aboo- ( Abii- or Abou-) Taiib, (pronounced by the Hindoos ul/00 td'lib,) a native of India, born at Luck- now in 1752. For a number of years he was em- ployed by the East India Company in various offices, civil and military. At length, in 1800, he visited Eng- land, where he was received with the most flattering at- tentions by the royal family and many of the nobility. He returned to India through France, Italy, Turkey, and Persia. He wrote a very interesting journal of his travels, a translation of which into English has been published. Died in 1806. Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Temam — te-mSm', a famous Arabian poet, born in Syria about 805 A.D. He spent the first years of his life in Damascus in the service of a tailor. He afterwards repaired to Bagdad, where he was munificently patronized by the caliph and the officers of his court. Died in 845. Aboo-Yakoob-Yoosuf, Abu-Ya'kub-Yusuf, or Abou-Yakoub-Yousouf, (or -Yousef,) a'boo yd'- koT)b' yoo'soof, (or yoo'suf,) the third sultan of Africa and Spain of the Almohade dynasty, succeeded his father, Abd-el-Moomen, in 1163. In 1184 he was mortally wounded before the walls of Santarem, a fortress of Por- tugal, in the possession of the Christians, which he had besieged with a large army. Aboo-Yakoob was a mild and enlightened sovereign, and a patron of learning. Aboo-Yoosuf, Abu-Yusuf, or Abou-You.5ef, an eminent Moslem divine, born at Koofah (Kufah) about 731 A.D. In consequence of his great talents and legal knowledge, he was appointed chief judge of Bagdad, an ofiice which he held till his death, in 798. In the latter part of his life he was the subject of the famous Haroun al-Raschid. Aboo-Yoosuf- Yakoob, Abu-Yusuf-Ya'kub, or Abou- Yousouf - Yakoub, a'boo yoo'sdof yi'koob', surnamed Almansoor, (Al-Mansur,)" The Victorious,'' the fourth sultan of Africa and Spain of the Almohade dynasty, was born at Morocco in 11 60. He succeeded his father Aboo-Yakoob-Yoosuf, who fell at the siege of Santarem, in 11 84. Having established himself on his throne, and put down several rebellions in his Afri- can dominions, he determined to cross the Straits of Gibraltar and avenge the death of his father. He made, jr. all, three expeditions into the Spanish peninsula : in the first (1189) he took captive, of both sexes, 40,000 persons, whom he led into Africa and settled at Rabatt, near Sale ; in the second (1190) he reduced the fortress of Torres and the town of Silves in Portugal ; in the third (1195) he defeated the Christians under Alphonso III., in a great battle near Valencia ; after which he took Calatrava, Guadalajara, Madrid, Alcala, and Salamanca He died at Morocco in 1 198, leaving behind him the char- acter of an able and enlightened prince. He has been pro- nounced the greatest and best of the Almohade sultans. Aboubecre. See Aboo-Bekr. Abou-Bekr. See Aeoo-Bekr. Abou-l-Cacem, (or Kasim.) See Aboo-l-Kasim. Abou-I-Casim-Mansour. See Firdousee. Aboulfaradge. See Aboolfaraj. Aboul-Hagan. See Aboo-l-Hassan. About, t'boo^ (Edmond Francois Valentin,) a successful and pithy French writer, born at Dieuze (in Meurthe) in 1828. Having passed some time at Athens, he published, in 1855, a work on modern Greece, " La Grece contemporaine," which is said to be remarkable for the best qualities of a truly French style. His ro- mance entitled "ToUa" (1855) is also much admired. He has written several novels, among which are "The King of the Mountains," (1856,) and " Germaine," (1857,) and a remarkable political work on the " Roman Ques- tion," (about i860,) which shows a decided sympathy for the liberal cause. Abou-Tahir. See Aboo-Tahir. Abou-Taleb, (or-Thaleb.) See Aboo-Talib. Abou- Yousouf. See Aboo-Yoosuf. Aboville, d', dS'bo'v^K, (Francois Marie,) Comte, a French general, born at Brest in 1730. He served with distinction as colonel at Yorktown, Virginia, where he directed the artillery, (1781,) became a general about 1790, and opposed Dumouriez at the time of his defec- tion, 1793. Under the regime of Bonaparte he was in- spector-general of artillery, and senator. Died in 1817. Abrabanel, i-BR^'Bd-n^r, [Span. pron. almost av-Ra'- vd-neK,] written also Abarbanel and Abrabaiiiel, (Isaac,) the most illustrious of all the Spanish rabbis, was born in Lisbon in 1437. His family, which was sup- posed to be descended from King David, had dwelt in Spain from a very early period. The parents of Abra- banel were rich, and no expense was spared in his edu- cation. Endowed with extraordinary quickness of in- tellect and great powers of application, he soon made himself master of all the learning of that time, and was particularly distinguished for his thorough acquaintance with the Holy Scriptures and the writings of the rabbis. His great abilities attracted the attention of Alphonso V. of Portugal, who frequently consulted him on the most important affairs. On the death of this king, in 1481, his son, John II., yielding to the bigoted spirit of that age, banished Abrabanel from his presence and forced him to seek refuge in Spain. Here he was at first received with great favour by Ferdinand and Isa- bella ; but in 1492 a decree was promulgated by which all the Jews were banished from the Spanish dominions and their property confiscated. Abrabanel fled at first to Naples ; he afterwards resided for a short time in several of the Italian cities, and at last died in Venice in 1508. His works consist of commentaries on various parts of the Scriptures. They are considered by the best judges to display not only the greatest learning, but powers almost unrivalled in this species of writing. See Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana ;" Le Long, " Bibliotheca Sacra;" J. H. Mai, " Dissertatio de Vita at Scriptis Abrabanielis," 1708. Ab-ra-da'tas, a king of Susa, who at first fought on the side of the Assyrians, but afterwards attached him- self to Cyrus the Great, King of Persia. He fell in the war which Cyrus waged against Croesus. See Xenophon's " Cyropaedia," book v. Abraham, a'bra-ham, [Heb. DTT^I^X,] or Abram a'bram, one of the most eminent of the Hebrew patri- archs, was born at Ur, a city of Chaldea, about 2000 years (it is supposed) before the Christian era. " AlDraham" signifies the " father of a numerous people," and "Abram" "exalted father." In consequence of his ex- emplary obedience and trust in God, he has been hon- oured with the title of " father of the faithful." He died at or near Hebron, aged 175 years. (See Genesis xi.-xxv.) € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g s j; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; t-h as in this. (2[^=See Explanations, p. 23.) ABRAHAM 38 ABSTRTUS Abraliam-a-Sancta-Clara — S-sank'ta kLVi\i, an Augustine friar, regarded as the greatest popular preach- er of Germany during the seventeenth century, was born in Suabia, in 1642. His proper name was Ulric Me- GERLE, (ma'ger-la). He studied philosophy and theo- logy in the Augustine convent at Vienna. In 1662 he entered holy orders, and took the degree of doctor of divinity ; in 1669 the emperor Leopold appointed him preacher to the imperial court at Vienna, which office he continued to hold for many years. He died in 1709, leaving many religious works. See LoNGKELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Oester- reichisches Biograpliisches Lexikon," Vienna, 1S51. Abraham-Bar-Chasdai-Hallevi — baR-Has'di'haK- ieh-vee'', a Jewish rabbi, born at Barcelona, Spain, lived in the last half of the twelfth century. He wrote " The Book of the Soul," and other works. Abraham-Beii-Chanania-Jagel (or -Jaghel) — kl-nd-nee'a ya''gel, an Italian rabbi, was born near the close of the sixteenth century. Fie wrote a work en- titled " The Book of Good Doctrine," a catechism on the articles of the Jewish faith, which is much cele- brated. He embraced Christianity about the beginning of the seventeenth century, and was baptized by the name of Camillus Jaghel. The exact time of his death is unknown. Abraliam-Ben-Dior — de'oR^ (The Levite,) a famous rabbi, born at Toledo, in Spain, in the early part of the twelfth century. He is said to have been a personal friend of Maimonides, who speaks of him with great respect. He is supposed to have suffered death on ac- count of his religion about the year 11 80. Abraham-Ben-Haja (-hcVya) or -Chaja, (-Kd'yS,) a Spanish rabbi, wrote a treatise " On Nativities," and one entitled the " Globe of the World," (" Sph^era Mun- di," 1546.) Died in 1105. Abraham-Ben-Isaac-Zahalon — za-ha-l5n', a dis- tinguished Spanish rabbi, who lived in the sixteenth century. He was an excellent lawyer, an eminent astron- omer, and also a poet. He was banished from Spain with the other Jews, and took refuge in Italy. Abraham-di- (or de-) Balmis — de bal^m^s, a cele- brated Italian rabbi and physician, born at Lecce in the latter part of the fifteenth century. Died about 1522. Abraham-Zacuth (or -Zacut, -za-kootO or -Zacu- tho — za-koo'to, [Span. pron. thi-koot' or tha-koo'to,] a Spanish rabbi and astronomer, born at Salamanca near the middle of the fifteenth century. He was one of the Jews banished from Spain in 1492. On leaving his na- tive country he went to Portugal, where he was kindly received by King Emmanuel and appointed astronomer and chronographer royal. The date of his death is un- known. Abram, t'bR6N', (Nicholas,) a learned French Je- suit, born near Charmes, in 1589. In 1636 he became professor of theology in the University of Pont-a-Mous- son. Died in 1655. Abranches, de, da i-bRln'shls, (Alvaro,) a Por- tuguese noble, who took a prominent part in the revo- lution which occurred in 1640, and which resulted in the expulsion of the Spaniards from Portugal. Abrantes, §,-bRdn'tes, fourth Marc^uis of, a Portu- guese nobleman, born in 1784. He occupies a promi- nent place in the political history of his country from 1807 to 1824, when, in consequence of the part which he took in the murder of the Marquis of Louie, he was ban- ished from Portugal. He went first to Italy, and thence to England, where he died in 1827. Abrantes, Duke of. See Junot. Abresch, a^^Rgsh, (Friedrich Ludwig,) a learned German author, born at Hesse-Homburg in 1699. He studied at the University of Utrecht. His parents had designed him for the Church, but his own inclinations led him to devote himself wholly to classical literature. Among his works are " Notes on ^schylus and Thucy- dides." He was rector of the College of Middelburg, 1725-41. Died in 1782. Abreu, d', da'br^-00, (Alexis,) a distinguished Por- tuguese physician, born about 1570. In 1606 he was ap- pointed consulting physician to Philip III. of Spain. Died in 1630. Abreu y Bertodano, de, di cVbRg-00 h b^R-to-Di'no, (Felix Jose,) a Spanish knight, (caballero,) son of the Marquis de Regalia, born about 1720. He devoted him- self to the study of international law, and published, in 1746, a "Treatise on Maritime Prizes," (Tratado ju- ridico-politico sobre Presas de Mar,") which attracted considerable attention. From 1755 to 1760 he was envoy extraordinary to the court of St. James. The year of his death is unknown. Abreu y Bertodano, de, (Jose Antonio,) a Span- ish writer on international law, was brother to the pre- ceding. Died in 1775. Abrial, t'bRe'aK, (Joseph Andre,) a French advo- cate, born in 1750, at Annonay, was educated in the College of Louis-le-Grand, at Paris. He was sent in 1800 to Naples, in order to organize a republican gov- ernment, in which work he manifested great ability. During the whole of his administration, his mildness and moderation won for him the affection of the Nea- politans. He was made senator, and received the title of count, under Napoleon, but was nevertheless one of the first to vote for his dethronement in 1814. He was afterwards created a peer by Louis XVIII. Died in 1828. Abriani, a-bRe-i'nee, (Paolo,) an Italian poet, born at Vicenza in 1607. He was employed as professor or teacher in Genoa, Verona, and Paclua. Among his works are a volume of sonnets, "Canzoni," etc., and a poetical version of Horace's "Art of Poetry," (1663.) Died at Venice in 1699. Abril, i-BReer, almost a-vReeK, [in Latin, Apri'lis,] , , (Pedro Simon,) a Spanish grammarian, who is supposed to have died near the close of the sixteenth century. He was the author of a number of books, some of which are in Spanish, and some in Latin Abruzzi, a-bRoot'see, a landscape-painter, who lived in Rome towards the close of the last century. Abruzzo, d-bRoot'so, (Baldassare,) a Sicilian philos- opher and civilian, born about 1600; died in 1665. Ab'sa-lom, [Heb. CDlStJ^nX,] the third son of Da- vid, was born in Hebron after his father ascended the throne. Possessed of winning manners and an ex- ceedingly handsome person, he became very popular throughout the land of Israel, and at length sought openly to dethrone his fi\ther. In the battle which was subsequently fought, Absalom was slain by Joab, al- though King David had expressly commanded that the life o"f his son should be spared. The rebellion of Ab- salom is supposed to have occurred in 1036 B.C. (See II. Samuel xiii.-xviii.) Absalon, Sb'si-lon', called also Axel, a descendant of Slagus, was born in Iceland in 1128. He studied in Paris, and in 11 78 was appointed to the archbishopric of Lund, in Scania, which office he held till his death in 1 201. Absalon was undoubtedly one of the greatest men of his age ; he was a wise counsellor to his king, a brave general, and a generous patron of learning. See EsTRUP, "Absalon considere comme heros, homme d'£tat et eveque," 1S56. Abschatz, Sp'shats, (Hans Assmann— ass'min,) Baron of, a poet and statesman, born in Silesia in 1646. He studied jurisprudence at the Universities of Stras- burg and Leyden. In 1675 he was appointed governor of the principality of Liegnitz, and afterwards was Sile- sian ambassador at the court of Vienna. Died in 1699. He is ranked among the principal German poets of the seventeenth century. Many hymns of his composition are still sung in the' Protestant churches. Abslioven. See Apshoven. Abste^nio, ab-sta'me-o, or Astemio, [Lat. Abste'- Mius,] (Giampietro,) an eminent teacher, who lived in Friuli about the middle of the sixteenth century. His school was attended by young men of the first Italian families. Ab-ste'mi-us Lau-ren'ti-iis, (lau-ren'she^s,) [It. Astemio, Ss-ta^me-o,] an Italian writer, who was born at Macerata in the latter half of the fifteenth century. Besides several works on grammar and criticism, and one on geography, he wrote, in Latin, a book of Fables, which at one time enjoyed considerable popularity. Ab-syr'tus or Apsyr'tus, [Gr. ' h^pvprog ; Fr. Ab a, e, T, o, u, y, lojig; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, f^t; met; n5t; good; moon; ABV-BAKR 39 JCCOLTl SYRTE, tb's^Rt',] a son of /Eetes, King of Colchis, was a brother of Medea, who took him with her when she fled with Jason. When she was pursued by her father, she killed her brother and scattered his severed limbs along the road, in order to retard the pursuit. ABU, ABU, or ABU, a prefix to many Arabian names. See Aboo. Abu-Bakr, (or -Bacr.) See Aboo-Bekr. Abubeker or Abiibekr. See Aboo-Bekr. A-bu'ca-ra, [Gr. ^ k^ovKapu^ (Theodorus,) a Chris- tian theological writer, who lived in the eighth century. Of the circumstances of his life little or nothing is known. He wrote a great number of works, mostly in Greek, though a few are in Arabic. Ab-u-dac'nus, (Joseph,) a native of Cairo, who, about the year 1600, was a teacher of Arabic at Oxford. Be- sides some grammatical treatises on Hebrew, he wrote a " History of the Copts," (" Historia Jacobitarum seu Coptorum in /Egypto Libya," etc.) See Wood, "Athenje Oxonienses." Abulfaragius. See Aboolfaraj. Abul-Faraj, (or Farage.) See Aboolfaraj. Abulfeda. See Aboolfeda. Abul-Kasira or Abu-l-Kasim. See Aboo-l-Kasim. Abu-l-Kasim-Mansur. See Firdousee. Abulola. See Aboo-l-ala. Abulpharagius. See Aboolfaraj. Abul-Walid-Ibn-Roshd. See Averroes. Abundance, d', di^biiN'dSNss', (Jean,) a French poet and satirist, who flourished in the early part of the sixteenth century. Nothing is known of his life ; the name is supposed by some to be fictitious. One of his works is entitled "The Great and Marvellous Acts of Nobody," (" Les Grands et Merveilleux Faits de Nemo.") Ab-y-de'nus, ['A,5i;(57/v6f,] a Greek historian, who wrote a work on Assyria, very valuable, so far as can be judged from the few fragments which remain. Of his life nothing is known. Acace. The French spelling of ACACIUS, which see. Acacius, a-ka'she-us, [Gr. 'kKuiuoQ-, Fr. Acace, t'ktss',] a bishop of Caesar e''a, who succeeded Eusebius in 339 A.D. Died about 366. Acacius, a philosopher and rhetorician of Caesarea, contemporary with the preceding. Acacius, a bishop of Beroe, who lived in the fourth and fifth centuries. Acacius, a bishop of Amida, in Mesopotamia, who ransomed 7000 Persians that had been taken prisoners by the Romans, about the beginning of the fifth century. Acacius, a patriarch of Constantinople, to which dignity he was appointed in 471 A.D. He was ambi- tious and crafty, and aimed to raise the church of Con- stantinople above all other Eastern churches. Died in 489. Ac-a-de'mus {'kKddrjfiag] or Hec-a-de'mus, an Athenian, who disclosed, it is said, to Castor and Pollux the place where their sister Helen was secreted. The garden or grove called Acadeniia, in which Plato found- ed his school of philosophy, is supposed to have been named in honour of Academus. Acamapichtli, S-ki-mS-p^tch'tlee, the first king of Tenochtitlan or Mexico, was elected to the throne, according to the Mexican annalists, in the year 1352. His authority extended only to the Aztecs inhabiting the island on which Tenochtitlan was built. Under his reign the Aztecs increased in fame, stone edifices were built, and canals were constructed. Died in 1389. Ac'a-mas, ['kKUfiaq,] a son of Theseus and Phaedra, is said to have been sent with Diomede to Troy to demand the surrender of Helen. According to Virgil, he was one of the band enclosed in the wooden horse. A9arq, d', dS''sSRk', a French critic and grammarian, who was born in 1720 and died in 1795. A-cas'tus, [Gr. 'A/caarof; Fr, Acaste, t'ktst',] a son of Pclias, King of folcus, was one of the Argonautae. He married Astydami'a, who, by false accusations, produced an enmity between Acastus and Peleus. Ac'ca, a learned bishop of Hexham, a contemporary and friend of the celebrated Bede. Died in 740 A.D. Ac'ca Lauren'tia (lau-r^n'she-a) or Larentia, li- r^n'she-a, the wife of the shepherd Faustulus, is said to have been the nurse of Romulus and Remus. Ac- cording to one tradition, she was a courtesan who was renowned for her beauty, and who bequeathed a large sum of money to the Roman people in the time of An- cus Martins. Accama, ak'kl-ml, (Bernard,) a Dutch historical and portrait painter, born in Friesiand. Died in 1756. Accarigi, ak-ka-ree''jee, or Accarisi, ak-kl-ree''see, [Lat. Accaris''ius,] (Francesco,) a distinguished pro- fessor of civil law, born at Ancona about 1550. He taught successively in the Universities of Sienna, Parma, and Pisa. Died at Pisa in 1622. Accai-rigi, (jACoro,) a native of Bologna, who was professor of rhetoric in the University of Mantua. Died in 1654. Accarisio, ak-ka-ree''se-o,(ALBERTO,) an Italian, born at Cento, near Ferrara, in the early part of the sixteenth century, was the author of an Italian grammar of some celebrity. Acciajuoli or Acciaioli, ^t-chd-yo'lee, (Donato,) a distinguished Italian scholar, born at' Florence in 1428, wrote commentaries on the ethics and politics of Aris- totle. Died in 1478. Acciajuoli or Acciaioli, (Filippo,) a dramatic writer and composer, born at Rome in 1637 ; died in 1700. Acciajuoli or Acciaioli, (Niccolo or Nicholas,) an eminent statesman, born at Florence about 13 10. He was for many years the chief adviser of Joanna, Queen of Naples, to whom he was recommended by his talents, eloquence, and fine personal appearance. Died in 1366. Acciajuoli or Acciaioli, (Renier,) a Florentine, who obtained possession of Athens and Corinth about 1364, and was styled Duke of Athens. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Acciajuoli or Acciaioli, (Zenobio,) a classical scholar, born at Florence in 1461, became librarian oi the Vatican and a friend of Politian. He translated Eusebius and Theodoret into Latin, and wrote Latin verses, which were praised by Giraldi and other critics. Died in 15 19. Acciajuoli-Salvetti, It-chS-yo'lee sdl-vet'tee, (Mad- dalena,) an Italian poetess of Florence, wrote " Rime Toscane," and otiier works. Died in 1610. Accioli, St-cho'lee, (Juan de Cerqueira y Silva — dis§R-ka'e-ra e seeKvS,) a Brazilian historian, born about the end of the eighteenth century. Among his works is "Historical and Political Memoirs of the Province of Bahia," (6 vols., 1835 and the years following.) Accius, ak'she-us, or Attius, at'she-us, (Lucius,) a celebrated Roman tragic poet, born about 170 B.C. None of his dramas has come down to us entire ; but the numerous fragments which remain justify the ad- miration with which the ancients regarded him. The date of his death is unknown. See Sellars, " Roman Poets of the Republic," chap. v. Accius, (Titus,) a Roman orator, born at Pisaurum, (now Pesaro,) in Umbria. He lived about 70 years B.C. Accolti, ik-koKtee, (Benedetto, or Benedict,) an Italian writer, born at Arezzo in 1415. He was doctor and professor of law at Florence ; in 1459 he was made chancellor of the republic, which office he held till his death in 1466. He wrote a Latin history of the conquest of Palestine by Godfrey of Bouillon, from which Tasso derived the materials of his great poem. Accolti, Sk-koKtee, (Benedetto,) an Italian cardinal, born at Florence in 1497, was a grandson of the pre- ceding, and a son of Michele Accolti. He became a cardinal in 1527, after which he was sometimes called Cardinal de Ravenna. He was an elegant Latin poet, in the opinion of such judges as Vida and Sadoleto, and was also a patron of learning. Died in 1549. See AuBERY, " Histoire des Cardinaux." Accolti, (Bernardo,) a noted Italian poet and im- provisatore, who lived at the court of Leo X., was a son of the historian Benedetto, and uncle of the preceding. Whenever he recited his verses in public, great crowds flocked to hear him. Died about 1535. Accolti, (Francesco,) a distinguished Italian lawyer, (better known as Areti'nus or Aretino, a-ri-tee'no,) a € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jJ^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) ACCOLTl 40 AC HARD name assumed by several members of his family,) born at Aiezzo about 141 8, was a brother of Benedetto the his- torian. In 1440 he was made professor of law at Bo- logna, and in 1479 was appointed senior professor of law at Pisa, which position he held till his death, about 1485. Besides a number of works of a strictly profes- sional character, he wrote several essays in general lit- erature, including translations from the ancient authors. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d' Italia." Accolti, (PiETRO,) Cardinal, son of Benedetto the historian, was born at Florence in 1455. He held for some time the professorship of law in the University of Pisa; afterwards, in 151 1, he was made Cardinal of St. Eusebius. He has generally been called, though incor- rectly, Cardinal of Ancona : it is under this title that he is said to have had the principal share in preparing the bull against Luther, in 1520. It is certain that he pos- sessed great influence at the court of Leo X. Died in 1549. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Accolti, (PiETRO, the younger,) grandson of Cardinal Benedetto, lived in the early pai»t of the seventeenth century. He lectured on canon law at Pisa. Accoraniboni, 3.k-ko-ram-bo^nee, (Fabio,) an Ital- ian lawyer, born in 1502. In 1523, or soon after, he was appointed professor of civil law in the University of Pisa, and afterwards, about 1527, became professor of canon law at Rome. Died in 1559. Accoramboni, (Felix,) an Italian philosopher and physician, a grandson of Geronimo, noticed below, lived about 1600. He wrote commentaries on Aristotle and Galen. Accoramboni, (Girolamo,) an eminent Italian phy- sician, born about 1467, at Gubbio, in the duchy of Ur- bino. He was professor of medicine at Perugia, and afterwards at Rome. Leo X. chose him as his own phy- sician. Died in 1537. Accoramboni, (Virginia,) an Italian poetess, was the wife of Francesco Peretti, a nephew of Pope Sixtus V. She was murdered by Luigi Orsini in 1585. See Adry, "Vie de V. Accoramboni," 1807. Accorso, ik-koR'so, [Fr. Accurse, t^kilRss',] (Buo- NO, boo-o'no,) written also Buonaccorso, [Lat. Bo'nus Accur'sius,] a celebrated classical scholar and rhetori- cian, native of Pisa, lived in the latter half of the fifteenth century. He wrote commentaries on the writings of Csesar and other Latin classics. Accorso, (or Accursio, ^k-kooR'se-o,) (Marian- GELO,) an Italian writer and critic, who lived at Rome in the time of Leo X. Accum, cWkum or ik'kum, (Friedrich,) a German chemist, born at BUckeburg in 1769. He emigrated to London in 1793, and became professor of chemistry there about 1802. He published an excellent " Practical Treatise on Gas Light," (1815,) which contributed greatly to promote the use of gas for illumination of cities. Among his other works are, " On the Adulteration of Food," (1822,) and " Essay on Chemical Reagents," (Lon- don, 1 816.) Died in Berlin in 1838. Accurse. See Accorso and Accursius. Accursii, ak-kur'she-T, (CERVO'r''TUS,) second son ol Accui sius, noticed below, born about 1240 ; died in 1287. Accursii, ak-kur'she-T, or Accursius, ak-kur'she-us, (Franciscus,) or Accorso, (Francesco,) the soiT^of Accursius mentioned below, was born at Bologna in 1225. He was for several years a counsellor to Edward I. of England, and afterwards a professor of law at Bo- logna, where he died in 1293. Accursii, (Wilhelmus,) a third son of Accursius, mentioned below, born in 1246, obtained several eccle- siastical preferments, and was for some time in the service of the pope. Died about 13 10. Accursius, ak-kur'shc-us, (the Latinized form of Ac- corso,) [Fr. Accurse, Fl. a collection o{ glossa;, or notes, made by different commentators on Justinian, is very celebrated. Died in 1260. Acebedo, a-thi-Ba'Do, (Don Man'J!;i.,) a Spanish historical painter, born at Madrid in 1 744, and died m 1800. A-9er'bas, or Sichseus, si-kee'us, a Tyrian priest, who married Dido and was murdered by her brother Pygmalion. .Servius gives Sicharbas or Sicharbes for Sichceus. Acerbi, a-cheR''bee, (Enrico,) an Italian surgeon, born at Castano, near Milan, in 1785. Died in 1827. Acerbi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian traveller, born near Mantua in 1773. He performed, in 1799, a journey through Lapland to Cape North, and published a narra- tive of that journey in English, (1802.) In 1816 he founded, at Milan, the " Biblioteca Italiana," a period- ical of some merit. Died in 1846. Acernus. See Klonowicz. A9'e-sas [Gr. 'k.Kzadr\ or Aceseus, as'e-siis, ['A/ce- oz'vQ^ a celebrated embroiderer or weaver of remote an- tiquity, was born in Cyprus. The time in which he lived is unknown. Acesius, a-see'she-us, ['A/tcaw^,] a bishop of Constan- tinople, who flourished in the early part of the fourth century. A-9e3'tor, ['A/cearwp,] a sculptor of Gnossus,or Cnosus, in Crete, lived about 430 B.C. Acevedo or Az3vaflo, d-thi-va'Do, (Felix Al- varez,) a brave Spanish officer, born in the province of Leon, was one of the chiefs of the popular party in the revolution of 1820. Having gained a victory near the Minho, he was shot in March, 1820, by some roy- alists whom he had approached with friendly overtures. The Junta ordered that his name should be retained on the army list as if he were alive. Acevedo, de, da d-thi-va'Do, (Alonzo Maria,) an advocate in the royal council at Madrid, and doctor of canon law in the University of Salamanca, flourished from about 1760 to 1770. Died about 1775. Acevedo, de, (Cristobal,) an eminent Spanish historical painter, born at Murcia. Pie studied with B. Carducci, at Madrid, about 1590, after which he worked in Murcia. He excelled in design and in grandeur of expression. See Cean-Bermudez, "Diccionario Historlco." Ach, (JoHANN van.) See Achen. Achasmenes, a-kem'e-n^z, [Gr. ^ k.xaLiLhri<;^ the fa- ther of a line of Persian kings, named from him Ach^menid.'E, (ak-e-men'i-de.) He is supposed to have been the great-grandfather of Cyrus the Great. Achaemenidae. See Ach.'EMenes. Achceus, a-kee'us, [Gr. ' kx^ioq ; Fr. Achee, t'shi',] the mythical ancestor of the Achaeans, was said to be a son of Xuthus, a grandson of Helen, and a brother of Ion. Achaeus, a Greek dramatic writer, born at Eretria, 484 B.C. He wrote several tragedies, but succeeded best in the satiric drama. Only a few fragments of his works remain. Achaeus, a cousin of Antiochus III., by whom he was appointed governor of Asia Minor. Having re- belled against his sovereign, he was taken and put to death, 214 B.C. Achaintre, t'shiNtR', (Nicolas Louis,) a French philologer, born in Paris in 1771, became a school- teacher. He was patronized by Firmin Didot, and pro- duced good editions, with notes, of Horace, (1806,) Juve- nal, (1810,) and Persius, (1812.) Died about 1830. Achard, t''shtR', (Antoine,) a Swiss Protestant min- ister, born at Geneva in 1696, was an eloquent preacher. He settled in Berlin in 1724, received the title of privy counsellor, and was admitted into the Royal Academy of Berlin in 1743. Two volumes of his sermons were published, (1774.) Died in 1772. Achard, ^'shtR^ (Claude Franqois,) a French writer, horn at Marseilles in 1758, Among his works are a " Description of Provence," (1787,) and "Elements of P.ibliooraphv," (3 vols., 1807.) Died in 1809. Achard, (Franz Karl,) a distinguished German chemist, son of Antoine Achard, born at Berlin in 1753. He was elected, in 1776, a member of the Royal Acad- emy of Sciences at Berlin. The extraction of sugar from the beet-root appears to have engaged his especial a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, T, 6, li, y, s/wrt; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, f^t; mSt; ndt; good, moon; J CHARD 41 JCINELLI attention ; and his essays on the subject contributed much towards the introduction ot this manufacture into France. Among his works is "Lectures on Experi- mental Philosopny," (4 vols., 1792.) Died in 1S21. Achard, (Louis A. me dee Eugene,) a French writer of fiction, born at Marseilles in 1S14. He removed to Paris about 1S38, and wrote for several journals, among which was the "Charivari." His romance "La Belle Rose"' (5 vols., 1S47) obtained success. Achards, de la Baume des, d'la bom da-zS'shtR', (£leazar Francois,) a French bishop, born at Avi- gnon in 1679. He is commended for acts of charity during the prevalence of the plague at Marseilles in 1721. Died in Cochin in 1741. Acharius, a-kd're-as, (Erik,) a distinguished botan- ist and physician, born at Gefle, in Sweden, in 1757. He studied at Upsal, under the celebrated Linnaeus. As a botanist, his attention seems to have been chiefly directed to cryptogamous plants, and especiallvto lichens. He published " Lichenographia Universalis," (1810.) Died in 181 9. See " Blographiskt Lexicon ofver namnkunnige Svenska Man," Upsala and Oeiebro, 1835-1856. A-eha'tes, [Fr. Achate, t'shSt',]* a friend of .-Eneas, whose fidelity was so exemplary that " Fidus Achates" became a proverb. (See Virgil, "^f^neid," lib. i. 18S and 312.) Achates, J-KcVtis, (Leonardus,) one of the early printers, who carried the art from Germany into Italy. He flourished in the latter half of the fifteenth century. Achelom. See Antiquls. A-eh-e-lo'us, ['Axv-tjo^-,] a river-god of Greek mythol- ogy, was a son of Oce'anus. The poets relate that he had the assurance to compete with Hercules as a suitor of Dejanira, and was defeated by that hero in a combat. Aclien or Aachen, van, van d'Ken, (Johann,) writ- ten also Acken, Fanachen, and Janachen, an emi- nent German painter of history and portraits, born at Cologne in 1552. He was employed at Munich by the Elector of Bavaria, and afterwards at Prague by the em- perors Rudolph and Matthias. Died at Prague about 1620. He was reputed the richest artist of his time. See Descamps, " Vies desPeintres Flainands," etc. Achenbach, i'Ken-baK', (Andreas,) a German painter, of the Dusseldorf school, born at Cassel in 1 81 5. He excels in landscapes and marine views. He obtained a medal of the first class at Paris in 1855, when he exhibited " High Tide at Ostend ;" a " Moon- light Scene," etc. Achenbach, (Oswald,) a brother of the preceding, and like him distinguished as a painter of landscapes, was born at Dusseldorf in 1827. Achenwall, i'Ken-Ml, (Gottfried,) an eminent wiiter on statistics, born at Elbing, in Prussia, in 1 7 19. He may almost be said to have created the science of statistics, called by him, in German, Staatswissenschaft, (in Latin, "Scientia Statistica,") i.e. "the science or in- formation relating to States." He appears to have in- j eluded in the terms above cited all those facts of which ' a knowledge is necessary to thorough statesmanship, i Accordingh', in his lectures he treated of the laws of nations and' history, as well as of statistics in the present ! acceptation of the word. He first taught in the Uni- i versity of Marburg; but in 1748 he was employed at! Gottingen, where he continued till his death, in 1772. Acherley, ak'er-le, (Roger,) an English lawyer and political writer, who lived in the early part of the eigh- I teenth century. He wrote a work on the Britannic Con- stitution, and' another on Free Parliaments. Acheron. See Pluto. Achery, d', dt'shi're', (Jean Luc,) a learned French Benedictine monk, born at St. Quentin in 1609. His most important work is a collection of rare documents, entitled a "Gleaning [Spicilegium] of certain old Wri- ters who have been buried in the Libraries of France," (13 vols., 1653-77.) Died in 1685. A-ehillas, [Gr. 'kxi/>.u^,] an Egyptian general, who, on the death of Ptolemy Auletes, was appointed regent • Oiaucer writes the name Achate. (See the " House of Fame.") of Egypt and guardian to Ptolemy XHI. and his sister Cleopatra. He was afterwards put to death by Arsinoe, sister of Ptolemy. Achilles, a-kiri^z,[Gr.'A,ViA/^Tf; Fr. Achille, S'sh^K, It. Achille, d-kel'la,j a celebrated Grecian warrior, the hero of Homer's Iliad, was the son of Peleus, King of Thessaly, and the sea-nymph Thetis : hence he is often called Peli''des. The poets feigned that his mother dipped him into the river Styx to render him invulnera- ble, and that he was vulnerable only in the heel by which she held him. He led to the siege of Troy a band of Myrmidones in fifty ships, and performed great exploits ; but he quarrelled with Agamemnon before the end of the war, and withdrew from the contest. To avenge the death of Patroclus, he again took arms, and slew Hector. He was at last killed by Paris, (or, as some say, by Apollo,) who shot him in the heel. See Iliad," /rtjj/w/, and "Odyssey," xxiv. 36. Achilles, [Ger. pron. i-Kil'les,] (Alexander,) a Prus- sian nobleman, whom Ladislaus, King of Poland, sent on an embassy to Persia. Born in 1584; died in 1675. Achilles Tatius, a-kil'lez ta'she-us,) ['A,\v/./fi'f Ta- TLog,^ a Greek poet and romance-writer, who is sup- posed to have lived in the fourth or fifth centnrv. This writer, or another of the same name, is the author of an astronomical work called the "Sphere." Achillini, a-k^l-lee'nee, [Lat. Achilli'nus,] (Ales- SANDRO,) a celebrated physician and philosopher, born at Bologna in 1463. He studied at Paris, and in 14S5 be- gan to teach in his native town. In 1506 he was ap- pointed professor of philosophy and medicine at Padua ; but three years after, in consequence of a Mar, he re- turned to Bologna, where he died in 15 12. He left sev- eral works on anatomy, and some philosophical treatises. Achillini, (Claudio,) [Lat. Clau'dius Achilli'- NUS,] born at Bologna in 1574, was professor of law successively in the Universities of Bologna, Ferrara, and Parma. He wrote poems in the inflated style which was prevalent in his time. He was a grandson of Gio- vanni Filoteo. Died in 1640. Achillini, (Giovanni P^iloteo,) a poet and anti- quary, brother of Alexander the physician, was born at Bologna in 1466, and died in 1538. Achish, a'kish, a king of Gath, to whom David fled from Saul. (See I. Samuel xxi. 10.) Achitophel, (a-kit'o-fel.) See Ahithophel. Achmet. See Ahmed. Achmet Geduc. See Ahmed Kedijk. Achrelius, a-kree'le-us, (Daniel,) a professor at the University of Abo, wrote a book agaiiist the Copernican system, in the latter part of the seventeenth century. See " Biographiskt Lexicon ofvernamnkunnige Svenska Man," Up- sala, 1S35. Achterveldt, ^K'ter-v^lt', (Jacob,) a Dutch painter, who died in 1704. Achtschelling, aKt'sK§l-ling, (Lucas,) a skilful land- scape-painter, who lived at Brussels towards the close of the seventeenth century. He was a close imitator of nature. Acidalius, as-se-da'le-us or dt-se-da'le-us, (Va'lens,) a German classical scholar, born at Wittstock, in Bran- denburg, in 1567 ; died in 1595. His commentaries on Velleius Paterculus, Quintus Curtius, and other Latin authors, exhibit much critical acumen. See Leuschner, "De V. Acldalli Vita, Moribns et Scriptis," 1757- Acier, t'se-i', (Michel Victor,) a French sculpicr, born at Versailles in 1736; died in 1799. A-gill-us Gla'bri-o, (Manius,) a Roman general, who became consul in 191 B.C., and commanded the army sent against Antiochus of Syria, whom he defeated at Thermopylae. He also subdued the Boeotians and rEto- lians. A golden statue of Acilius Glabrio was the first of that material seen in Italy. Ag-in-dy'nus, ['A/viVJvroc,] (Gregorius,) a Greek monk and polemical writer, who lived at Constantinople during the fourteenth century. Acinelli, i-che-neKlee, a Genoese historian, who flourished about the middle of the eighteenth century. He wrote a "History of Genoa," (1745-47.) « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23. JCK 42 ACROTATUS Ack, ak, (John,) a distinguished painter on glass, tvlio tlourished at Brussels about 1550. Acken, (Jan van.) See Achen. Ac'ker-mann, [Ger. pron. dk'ker-man^,] (Conrad,) a celebrated German comedian, born in 17 10; died in 1771- Ackermann, (Jacob,) an eminent German physiolo- gist, born near Mentz in 1765. He was professor of botany and afterwards of anatomy in the University of Mentz. In 1S04 he was appointed to the chair of anat- omy at Jena, and in 1805 to the same position in Hei- delberg, which he held till his death, in 1813. Ackermann, (Johann Christian Gottlieb,) a physician and distinguished classical scholar and critic, was born in Upper Saxony in 1756. He studied at Jena in 1 77 1, and subsequently at Gottingen, under the cele- brated Heyae. Some years after, he was appointed pro- fessor of pathology and therapeutics in the University of Altorf, where he died in 1801. Among his various works the lives of Hippocrates, Galen, and other Greek physicians deserve particular mention. Ackermann, (Rudolph,) a German artist and dealer in prints, was born in Saxony in 1764. He settled in London, where he prospered as a print-seller, and estab- lished an extensive repository of arts, which had a European reputation. He pulDlished coloured engrav- ings and lithographs, and an annual or series of annuals entitled " The Forget-me-not." He is said to have been the first who introduced lithography as a fine art into England. According to Jerdan, he published the first annual in England. Died in 1834. See "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iv. chap. xiii. Ac'land, (Henry Wen rvvoRrii,) M.D., F.R.S., a distinguishe 1 iLiiglish physician, born in 1815, graduated as M.D. at Oxford in 1 848. In i860 he accompanied the Prince of Wales to America as his medical attendant. Ac;and, (I^ady Harriet,) wife of Major Acland, who served with distinction in tlie British army under Bur- goyne. She accompanied her husband in the campaigns of 1776-7, of which she wrote a narrative. Her husband was seriously wounded and taken prisoner in October, 1777. She died in 1815. Agoka. See Ashoka. Acolutli, ¥ko-\6Qi\ [Lat. Acolu'thus,] (.Andreas,) a distinguished Oriental scholar, born in Silesia in 1654, was a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. Died in 1704. Acoluth, (Johann,) a German theologian, born in Silesia in 1628. Died in 1689. Aconiinatus. See Nicetas. Aconce. See Aconzio. Aconz Kover, 3.'konts ko'ver, (Stephen,) a distin- guished Armenian writer, born in Transylvania in 1740. His ancestors had removed from Armenia, in Asia, in 1330. He was chosen, in 1800, abbot of the convent of St. Lazarus at Venice, regarded as the great centre of Armenian learning. Died in 1824. Aconzio, il-kon'ze-o, (Giacomo, or James,) [Lat. aco'bus Acon'tius, ( a-kon'shc-us;) Fr. Aconce, 'koNss',] a distinguished writer, born at Trent about 1500. Having relinquished the Catholic and embraced the Protestant faith, he left his native country about 1557, and, passing through Switzerland, went to Eng- land, where it is supposed that he died about 1565. He wrote a book entitled "Stratagems of Satan," (1565,) which has enjoyed great celebrity. His work on the Best Method of Acquiring Knowledge, evinces an acute understanding ; and all his writings show him to have been a man of learning and literary taste. Ac'o-ris, [Gr. 'KnopLc,] a king of Egypt, who flou- rished about 380 B.C. He made war, though with little success, against Artaxerxes Mnemon, King of Persia. Acosta, i-kos'ta, (Christovao, or Christopher,) a Portuguese naturalist, who visited India to procure drugs, and afterwards practised medicine at Burgos. He wrote a " Treatise on the Drugs and Plants of the East Indies," (1578.) Died about 1580. Aco3ta, (Gabriel,) a professor of theology at Coim- bra, Portugal, wrote commentaries on the Scriptures. Died in 1616. Acosta, (Joaquin,) a native of South America, a colonel of engineers in the service of New Granada, published a " Historical Compendium of the Discovery and Settlement of New Granada," (1848,) with a good map of that country. Acosta, d-kos'ta, or d'Acosta, dd-kos'ta, (Jose,) a Spanish Jesuit and writer, born at Medina del Campo about 1539. He went to South America as a missionary in 1571, returned in 1588, and published a work entitled "Natural and Moral History of the Indies," (" Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias," 1590,) which was much esteemed, and translated into several languages. He became rector of the University at Salamanca, where he died in 1600. Acosta, (Uriel,) a Portuguese, who was educated as a Christian, converted to Judaism, and afterwards ex- communicated by the Jews in consequence of his having written against the Mosaic Scriptures and the immor- tality of the soul. He killed himself in 1640, or, accord- ing to some accounts, in 1647. See his Autobiography, Leipsic, 1847; Jellinek, "Acostas Le- ber.," 1847. Acquapendente. See Fabricius or Fabrizio, Geronimo. Acquaviva, ak-kwa-vee'vi, a noble family of Naples that has produced a number of distinguished command- ers, statesmen, and men of learning. Its representa- tive has for several generations borne the title of Duke of Atri. Acquaviva, (Andrea Matteo,) Duke of Atri, J'tree, a Neapolitan, born about 1460, was a munificent patron of learning. Died in 1528. Acquino, Sk-kwee'no, a Piedmontese chronicler, who lived about the beginning of the sixteenth century. Acquisti, ik-kwes'tee or ^k-kwis''tee, (Luigi,) an Italian sculptor, born at Forli in 1744; died in 1824. He worked at Rome and Milan. A group of " Venus pacifying Mars" is considered his master-piece. Ac'ra-gas, [Gr. 'A/cpuya^,] a celebrated engraver or chaser in silver, supposed to have lived in the fifth cen- tury B.C. Acrel, §,'kRel, (Olof,) an eminent Swedish surgeon, born near Stockholm in 171 7. Having spent some time in Paris in observing the practice of the most dis- tinguished surgeons of that city, he entered the French army in 1743 ; but, after serving in two campaigns, he re- tired on account of ill health. He died at Stockholm in 1807, leaving several surgical works. See " Biographiskt Lexicon ofvernamnkunnige Svenska Man." Acrisius, a-krish'e-us, [Gr. 'AKpioLog,'] a son of Abas, King of Argos, and the father of Danae, whom he con- fined, it is said, in a brazen tower or other prison, be- cause an oracle had declared that she would bear a son who should kill her father. He was killed accidentally by Perseus, the son of Danae by Jupiter. (See Danaij.) A'cron, [Gr. 'A/cpwv,] a celebrated physician of Agri- gentum, (now Girgenti,) in Sicily, who lived in the fifth century B.C. A'cron Hel-e'ni-us, a Roman grammarian, who wrote a commentary on Horace. The age in which he lived is unknown. A-cro'ni-us or Acron, S-kron', (Jan, or John,) a Dutch physician, born in 1520. Died at Bale in 1563. A-crop-o-li'ta, [Gr. ' kKpoTioXLTrig,'] (Constantine,) a Byzantine writer, lived between 1250 and 1300, He was a son of George, below noticed. Acropolita, (George,) a celebrated Byzantine his- torian, born at Constantinople in 1220. He was highly esteemed by the emperors Ducas (to whom he was re- lated) and Michael Palaeologus, and held the office of chancellor (logotheta) at the Byzantine court. He was, moreover, employed on several important embassies. His greatest work is a history of the Byzantine Empire from "the capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204 down to 1260, when Michael Palaeo'logus again took possession of the city. Died in 1282. See Gibbon, "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- pire," chap. Ixii. A-crot'a-tus, ['A/cporarof,] King of Sparta, was the son of Areus, whom he succeeded about 265 B.C. Be- fore his accession he distinguished himself by the de- fence of Sparta against Pyrrhus in 272. After a reign of a, e, T, o, li, y, long; a, 6,6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fAt; m§t; n6t; good; moon; ACS 43 ADALOALDVS one year, he was killed in battle against Aristodemus of Megalopolis. See Plutarch, "Life of Pynhus." Acs or Aacs, itch, (Michael,) a Hungarian philos- opher, born at St. Martin in 163 1. Died in 1708. Acs or Aacs, (Michael,) a theologian, born at Raab in 1672, was a son of the preceding. Died in 171 1. Actceon, ak-tee'on, [Gr. 'XnTaiuv ; Fr. ACTEON, tk'ta'6N',] in the Greek mythology, a hunter, who was a son of Aristaeus and Autonoe, a daughter of Cadmus. He was changed into a stag by Diana and torn to pieces by his own hounds, because he had seen that goddess bathing. Ac-tis'a-nes, [Gr. 'A.KTLaavTj^,'] an ancient king of Ethiopia, who is said to have conquered Egypt before the time of the Trojan war. Ac'ton, [Fr. pron. ik't6N',] (Joseph,) an officer of Irish descent, born at Besan9on, France, in 1737. He entered the navy of Tuscany, became a captain, and af- terwards passed into the service of the King of Naples. The favour of the queen, and his own intrigues, procured his promotion to the office of minister of the marine. He was prime minister from 1784 to 1798. His policy was implacably hostile to the Fi-ench. Died about 1810. See CoLLETTA, " Storia del Regno di Napoli." Ac'tor, [Gr. 'A/crwp,] a son of Deion, (or, as some say, of Myrmidon,) was the husband of /Egina, and grand- father of Patroclus, who was called Actor'ides. Ac-tu-a''ri-us, ['A/c-oyapwf,] (John,) a Greek physi- cian and medical w-riter, who flourished about the end of the thirteenth century. A-cuTe-o, (Caius,> a Roman knight and distin- guished lawyer, who married an aunt of Cicero the orator. A-cu'me-nus, {' kKov^iEvo^,'] an Athenian physician, and friend of Socrates, lived in the fifth century u.c Acuna, de, da a-koonV.i, (Antonio,) Bishop of Za- mora, Spain, distinguished for his martial exploits in the insurrection of Castile in 1520. He was strangled in prison in 1526. Acuna, de, (Cristoval,) a Spanish Jesuit, born at Burgos in 1597, wrote an interesting narrative of the voyage of exploration of the river Amazon in 1639-41. His work is entitled " New Discovery of the Great River of the Amazons," (" Nuevo Descubrimiento del gran Rio dc las Amazonas.") Died about 1680. Acuna, de, (Hernando,) a distinguished Spanish soldier and poet, born about 1500, was a friend of Gar- cilasso de la Vega. His sonnets and eclogues were much admired. Died in 15S0. Acuna, de, (Don Pedro Bravo,) a Spanish gov- ernor of the Philippine Islands, distinguished as a war- rior and naval commander. His principal exploit was the reconquest of the Moluccas from the Dutch in 1606. He died the same year, at Manilla. A-cu-si-la'us, Y'\KovaLkaoc,] a Greek historian, sup- posed to have flourished about 530 B.C. A'da, a Carian princess, who succeeded her husband on the throne of Caria in 344 B.C. When Alexander conquered Asia Minor, he appointed her to the satrapy of Caria. Ada, d'dd, a countess of Holland, deprived of her patrimonial estate by William of Friesland. She is sup- posed to have died about the year 12 18. A'da, (Ear-Ahaba or -Ahavah,) a celebrated rabbi, regarded as the greatest of all the Jewish astronomers, was born at Babylon, A.D. 183. He'is said to have lived to the age of 170 years. Adadurof, S-dd-doo'rof, (Basil,) a Russian savant, born at St. Petersburg in 1709, was preceptor to Cathe- rine II. He wrote some scientific works. Died in 1780. Adaeus ['Af'a^or] or Addaeus, ['A(5(5a?of,] ad-dee'us, a Greek poet, native of Macedonia, flourished, it is sup- posed, about 320 B.C. A-dair', (James,) a trader and resident among the Chickasaw and other neighbouring tribes of Indians, pub- lished in 1775 a " History of the American Indians," in which he endeavours to establish their descent from the Israelites. A-dair', (James,) an eminent English lawyer, and member of Parliament. He was recorder of London about 1780, or after that date. Died in 1798. A-dair', (James Makit'trick,) a Scottish physician, born in 1728, died in 1802. He spent many years of his life in the West Indies. Besides a number of medical essays, he wrote a pamphlet against the abolition of the slave-trade. A-dair'', (John,) an American general and senator, born in South Carolina in 1757. He served in the wars against the frontier Indians in 179 1-2-3, ^^'^^ ^ senator in Congress from Kentucky, 1805-6, and in 1814 distin- guished himself in command of the Kentucky troops at the battle of New Orleans. From 1820 to 1824 he was Governor of Kentucky, and from 1831 to 1833 a repre- sentative in Congress. Died in 1840. Adair, (John,) F.R.S., a noted Scottish hydrog- rapher, who lived in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. He is the author of a work entitled " De- scription of the Sea-coast and Islands of Scotland, with Large and Exact Maps for the Use of Seamen." Adair, (Sir Robert,) an able English diplomatist, born in London in 1763. He entered Parliament about ! 1802 as a friend of Fox, and was sent on an embassy to ! Vienna in 1806. In 1808, ahliough not identified in 1 politics with the ministry, he was appointed on a special j mission to the Ottoman Porte. He was ambassador at that court from 1809 until 1811. In 1831 he was sent by Earl Grey on a special mission to the court of Bel- gium, and in 1835 retired from public service with the rank of privy counsellor. Died in 1855, aged about 92. See "Gentleman's Magazine" for Nov. 1855. Adalard. See Adalhard. Adalbero, a-dal-ba'ro, or Adalberon, a'dSl'beh- roN^, Archbishop of Rheims, flourished in the latter half of the tenth century. He officiated at the corona- tion of Hugh Capet in 987, and died in 988. Adalbero, a bishop of Laon in the time of Louis the last of the Carlovingians, and Hugh Capet. Ad'al-bert, [Fr. pron. a'dftrbaiR''; Lat. Adalber'- Tus,] written also AFdebert or Aldeber'tus, a French bishop of great popularity, who lived about the middle of the eighth century. He pretended, it is said, to work miracles, and to be possessed of all knowledge. He was dei^osed from his bishopric for heresy, and imprisoned, about 775 A. D. Ad'al-bert, [Ger. pron. ^'dal-bCRt',] an archbishop of Bremen, born, it is supposed, about loco A.D. He was descended from the emperor Otho II., and became a favourite of Henry IV. Died in 1072. Ad'al-bert (Adalberto, a-dal-ber'to) I., son of Boniface, Count of Lucca, assumed the title of Marquis of Tuscany. His son Adalbert (or Adalberto) II. suc- ceeded him, with the titles of duke and marquis. Died about 888. Ad'al-bert or Adalber'tus, Bishop of Prague, called the "Apostle of the Prussians," commonly known as Saint Adal])ert, was born in 939. He was killed in 997. Ad'al-bert, an eminent prelate who lived in the time of Henry V., Emperor of Germany, by whom he was made Archbishop of Mentz. W^hen Henry was excom- municated by the pope, in 11 12, Adalbert was one of the first to turn against him, and became at length his irre- concilable enemy ; and on his death, in 11 25, had sufficient influence to prevent his nephew, Frederick of Suabia, from being elected emperor. He died in 1137. Adalbert, S'dal-b^Rt'', (Heinrich Wilhelm,) a Prussian prince, cousin-german of Frederick William IV., born in Berlin in 181 1. He entered the army in his youth, and made a voyage to Brazil, of which he wrote a narrative : " Passages from my Travelling Diary," ("Aus meinem Reisetagbuch," 1842.) He obtained com- mand of the Prussian navy about 1850. Adalbertus. See Adalbert. Adalhard, ad'a-lard', [Lat. Adalar'dus,] an abbot and eminent preacher, allied to the family of Charles Martel, born about 753. He stood in high favour at the court of Charlemagne, who employed him on several important missions. Died in 826. A-dalo-aFdus, a king of the Lombards, son of Agi- lulfus and Theudelinda, was born at Mu^tina (Mod''ena) about 602 A. D. He is said to have been poisoned by C as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; c, 11, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (2:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) ADAM 44 ADAMI some of his subjects whom his tyranny had exasper- ated. Ad'am, [Heb. DIX, i.e. "man,"] the first man, (see Genesis i., li., and iii.,) is commonly supposed to have been created a little more than 4000 years before the Christian era; though according to the computation of some writers, his date should be placed much earlier. Adam, S'doN', (Adolphe Charles,) a popular com- poser, born in Paris in 1803, was a son of Jean Louis, noticed below. He composed with extreme facility. In 1844 he was chosen a member of the Institute. Among his works are operas entitled " Le Chalet," (1834,) and "Le Postilion de Lonjumeau," {1836.) Died in 1856. Adam, a'ddm, (Albrechf,) a German painter of bat- tles, was born at Nordlingen in 17S6. He entered the service of Eugene, Viceroy of Italy, whom he accom- panied in the Russian campaign of 181 2. Among his works is "The Battle of the Moskwa," (1835.) Died in 1862. Ad'am, (Alexander,) an eminent teacher and gram- marian, born in 1741 in Murrayshire, Scotland. In 1768 he became rector of the Edinburgh high school, which, under his able management, acquired a reputation al- most unequalled among institutions of its kind. He published his "Principles of Latin and English Gram- mar" in 1772, and in 1791 his "Roman Antiquities." Both of these works, until within a few years, have been extensively used in many schools in the United States as well as in Great Britain. His " Roman Antiquities," (1791,) considered the most creditable of all his works, immediately established his reputation as a sound and thorough scholar. In 1794 appeared his "Summary of Geography and History, both Ancient and Modern," which afterwards passed through several editions. Be- sides tlie foregoing, and a little book entitled " Classical Biography," he published a compendious Latin dictionary, (" Lexicon Linguae Latinoe Conipendiarium,") abridged from a much larger work, of the same kind, which was never finished. He died in 1809. See Alexander Henderson', "Life of A. Adam," 1810; Cham- bers, " Biograpliicil Dxtionavy of Eminent Scotsmen ;" and Sir Wal- ter Scott's "Autobiography," which contains some interesting par- ticulars illustrating Dr. Adam's character, both as a teacher and as a man. Adam, (Daniel,) a German historian, born at Prague in 1546. Died in 1599. Adam, t'dox', (pRANgoiS Gaspard,) a French sculp- tor, born at Nancy in 17 10, was a brother of Lambert Sigisbert, noticed below. He worked in Paris and Ber- lin. Died in 1759. Adam, S.'dlm, (Georg,) a German landscape-painter, of Nuremberg, born about 1783 ; died in 1823. Adam, (Jacob,) a German engraver, lived in Vienna about 1800. He engraved plates for the " Bilder-Bibel" of Vienna. Adam, (Jacques,) a French writer, born at Vendome in 1663 ; died in 1735. ^^"^^ one of the translators of De Thou's Universal History, (16 vols., 1734,) and was a member of the French Academy. Ad'am, (James,) an architect, was a brother and part- ner of Robert, noticed below. Died in 1794. Adam, ([ean Louls,) a French composer and pianist, born in the department of the Lower Rhine about 1760. He had great success as professor of music in Paris, and published a " Methode de Piano," (1802,) which was very popular. Died in 1848. Adam, (Jean Victor,) a French painter and lithog- rapher, born at Paris in 1801. He painted several bat- tle-pieces for the gallery of Versailles, and produced many lithographs, among which are the " Promenades and Environs of Paris." Adam, (Lambert Sigisbert,) a distinguished French sculptor, born at Nancy in 1700. When only twenty-three years of age, he obtained the first prize in the Academy at Paris. He executed several groups for the royal gardens at Versailles and Choisy. In 1744 he was ap- pointed professor in the Royal Academy of Paris. His works were less remarkable for their conception than for their finished execution, and are deficient in the sim- plicity of antique art. Died in 1759. Adam, i'dim, (Melchior,) an eminent German biographer, born in Silesia in the latter part of the six- teenth century, and died in 1622. Pie wrote the lives of many eminent men, both Germans and foreigners, who lived between 1500 and 1618. He was rector of the College of Heidelberg. One of his works is entitled " Lives of German Philosophers," (" Vitce Germanorum Philosophorum," 4 vols., 1615-20.) Adam, (Nicolas,) a French grammarian and trans- lator, born in Paris in 1716. Died in 1792. Adam, (Nicolas Sebastien,) a younger brother of Lambert Adam the sculptor, whom he surpassed in all the higher qualities of the art, was born at Nancy in 1705. His two greatest works are his "Prometheus Chained," and his " Monument of the Queen of Poland." Pie was professor of sculpture in the Academy of Paris. Died in 1778. Adam, (Robert,) an architect, born at Edinburgh in 1728, and died in 1792. He and his brother James erected a number of mansions for the nobility, and public edifices in different parts of England. His style, though strikingly novel at the time of its introduction, has the great defect of excessive and minute decoration ; and his works generally are deficient in unity of composition. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Adam, (Rev. Robert,) a Scottish writer, born at' Udney about 1770, published "The Religious World Displayed." Died in 1826. Adam, (Rev. Thomas,) born at Leeds in 1701, and died in 1784. He wrote numerous works of a religious character, of which his " Private Thoughts on Religion" (published in 1786) is probably the best-known. Adam, (Right Hon. William,) a British lawyer, born in Scotland in 1751, was a nephew of Robert Adam the architect. He was chosen a member of Parliament in 1774, fought a duel with Charles James Fox in 1779, and was one of the managers appointed by the Commons to conduct the impeachment of Warren Hastings in 1788. He was sworn of the privy council in 181 5, and pre- sided over the Scottish jury court for the trial of civil causes from 1816 until his death in 1839. His son John became Governor-General of India, and died in 1820. Another son, Charles, obtained the rank of admiral. See Lockhart, "Life of Scott." Adam-Billaut, t'd6N' be'y5', commonly styled Mai- TRE Adam, mgt'R t'dSw', [i.e. " Master Adam,") a French poet, and a joiner by trade, sometimes called the Joiner of Nevers. Pie was patronized by the great Conde, and pensioned by Richelieu. Died in 1662. Adam of Brem''8n, [Lat. Ada'mus Bremen'sis,] an ecclesiastical author, who flourished in the latter part of the eleventh century. He wrote a history of the efforts to extend Christianity from the time of Charlemagne to that of Henry IV. Adam de la Halle— deh'lt-htK, surnamed Le Bossu d'Arras, leh bo^sii' dt'rSss', {i.e. "The Hunchback of Arras,") a French poet of the thirteenth century. He wrote a piece called " The Play of the Shepherd and Shepherdess," (•' Le Jeu du Berger et de la Bergere,") which is regarded as the earliest specimen of the modern drama. Adam de Marisco. See Adamus Mariscus. Adamannus or Adamanus. See Adomnan. Adamanteo, a-da-man-ta'o, an Italian mathemati- cian and Orientalist. Died in 158 1. Adamantiu3, ad-a-man'she-us, ['A(5a,uaynof,] the au- thor of a treatise in Greek on physiognomy, is sup- posed to have lived about the beginning of the fifth cen- tury after Christ. Adami, a-d3.'mee, (Adam,) a German ecclesiastic, statesman, and historian, born at Miihlheim about 1600. He was chosen by the prelates of Wiirtemberg to repre- sent them in the congress which met in 1643 to nego- tiate the peace of Westphalia ; and afterwards wrote an excellent and impartial history of those negotiations, "Arcana Pacis Westphalicae," (published in 1698.) Died in 1663. Adami, d-di'mee, (Antonio Filippo,) an Italian poet and prose-writer, born at Florence about 1720. Died in 1761. Adami, (Lionardo,) an Italian author and excellent classical scholar, born in Tuscany in 1690. He wrote a history of ancient Arcadia, (1716.) Died in 1719. a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; tl. h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mht; n5t; good; mt56n; ADAMI 45 ADAMS Adami, S-di'mee, (Tobias,) a writer born in Saxony in 1581, first introduced the works of Campanella to the notice of the philosophers of Germany. Died in 1643. Adami-da-Bolsena, ^-da'mee da bol-sa'ni, (An- drea,) an Italian musician, born at Rome in 1663, pub- lished a work called " Observations for the Regulation of the Choir of Singers in the Pontifical Chapel," ("Os- servazioni per ben regolare il Coro dei Cantori dellaCa- pella Pontificia," 1711.) Died in 1742. Adamino, d-d^-mee'no, an Italian sculptor, who lived in the eleventh century. Adamnan or Adamnanus. See Adomnan. Ad'ains, (Abigail,) the daughter of the Rev. William Smith, "was born at Weymouth, Massachusetts, in 1744.. She was married in 1764 to John Adams, afterwards President of the United States, and died in 181 8. Her " Letters" are interesting and valuable for the hints which they furnish ot the manners of her country at the period in which she lived, and for her original and graphic notices of European society. Adams, (Amos,) an American divine, born in 1727. He published several sermons, two of which, giving a "Concise Historical View, etc., of New England," were republished in London. Died in 1775. Adams, (Charles Baker,) an American naturalist, born at Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1814. He grad- uated at Amherst College, became, in 1838, professor of chemistry and natural history in Middlebury College, Vermont, and afterwards of chemistry and zoology at Amherst. He assisted Professor Hitchcock in his geo- logical survey of New York, and as State geologist was engaged for several years in a survey of Vermont. He published "Contributions to Conchology," and other works. Died in 1853. Adams, (Charles Francis,) an American diplomat- ist, the son of John Quincy Adams, was born in lioston on the 1 8th of August, 1807. He passed his childhood mostly in St. Petersburg and London, graduated at Harvard College in 1825, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1828. He served for five years in the legislature of Massachusetts. He was nominated at Buffalo, in August, 1848, for the office of Vice-President l)y the convention of Frce-Soilers which nominated Mar- tin Van Buren for the Presidency. He published the " Life and Works of John Adams," (10 vols., 1850-56.) In 1858 he was elected to Congress as a Republican by the voters of the third district of Massachusetts. He was re-elected in i860, and was ap- pointed minister to England in the spring of 1861. He encountered the most bitter social hostility in England, but he maintained the rights of his country, and acquit- ted himself with credit in the difficult and important controversies that arose during the great rebellion. Among the principal subjects of his negotiations was the damage inflicted on the American mercantile marine by piratical war-steamers built in England and depend- ing for success on British aid and sympathy. " No ambassador in recent times," says the " London Spectator" of Feb. 8, 1868, "has ever had to fill a posi- tion, not merely so delicate and difficult, but so trying to the equanimity of him who held it through the rapid and extreme changes of fortune in the State of which he has been the mouth-piece. . . . Mr. Adams must have entered on his diplomatic task with a just sense of soreness, which, but for his great self-command and even self-forgetfulness, might have resulted after the most lamentable fashion." He resigned about F'ebruary, 1868. "It has been the good fortune of Mr. Adams," says the "London Illustrated News" of February 15, 1868, "to have exercised the grandest qualities of true statesman- ship just where and when they were of priceless value, and to have exercised them with complete success." Adams, (George,) an English optician and scientific writer, distinguished as a maker of mathematical instru- ments and globes. Among his works are a " Treatise on the Construction and Use of Globes," ( 1 766,) and an " Es- say on the Microscope," (1771.) Died in London, 1786. His son George, born about 1750, was also an op- tician. He published an " Essay on Vision," (1789,) and "Astronomical and Geometrical Essays," (1789, often reprinted.) Died in 1795. Adams, (Hannah,) one of the earliest female writers of America, born at Medfield, Massachusetts, in 1755. She was the author of a " View of Religious C)pinions,' (1784,) "History of New England," (1799,) "Evidences of Christianity," (1801,) " History of the Jews," (1812,) and of several other works. She numbered among her friends the Abbe Gregoire and other distinguished per- sons. Died in 1832. Adams, (Isaac,) of Boston, inventor of the Adams printing-press, was born near the commencement of the present century. His printing-presses are now hi general use in all parts of the United States, and in the j.;iincipal cities have nearly or quite superseded every other. Adams, (Jasper,) D.D., an American divine, born at Medway, Massachusetts, in 1 793. He graduated at Brown University in 1815, and soon after became professor of mathematics in that institution. He was subsequently president of Charleston College, South Carolina. Died in 1841. Adams, (John,) an Englishman, who lived in the seventeenth century. He published " Index Villaris ; or, An Alphabetical Table of all the Cities, Market Towns, Parishes, etc., in England and Wales," (1680,) which has been pronounced the best work of its kind. See GouGH, "British Topography." Adams, (John,) an eminent preacher, born in Lon- don in 1662, was chaplain to William III. and to Queen Anne. He obtained a prebend at Canterbury, which he exchanged in 1708 for a stall in the royal chapel at Windsor. He left a treatise on suicide, and several ser- mons. Died in 1719 or 1720. Adams, (John,) an American divine and poet, born in 1704. Died at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1740. Adams, (John,) an eminent American statesman, the second President of the United States, was born in Braintree, Massachusetts, about ten miles from Boston, on the 19th of October, 1735, O. S. He was the eldest son of John Adams, a farmer, and Susanna Boylston. He graduated at Harvard College in 1755, and, while he was preparing himself for the profession of the law, taught school at Worcester for two years or more. In choosing a profession he was at first inclined to be a minister of the gospel ; but he found he could not assent to the orthodox creed in the doctrine of election and rci)robation. " His disgust at the doctrines of Calvin- ism," says John Quincy Adams, " was perhaps riveted by the opinions which he found disseminated in the so- cial circle into which he had been introduced." He studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1758, and afterwards resided with his father at Braintree for sev- eral years. " For the profession of the law," says his grandson, " John Adams had been pre-eminently gifted with the endowments of nature ; a sound constitution of body, a clear and sonorous voice, a quick conception, a discrim- inating judgment, and a ready elocution." • Among the intimate friends of his youth was Jonathan Sewall, an eloquent lawyer. In 1761 his patriotic zeal was inflamed by the argument of James Otis (which he heard) on the subject of writs of assistance. Alluding to the time and place of that plea, John Adams said, "American independence was then and there born." He married, in 1764, Abigail Smith, (a grand-daughter of Colonel John Quincy,) a woman of excellent char acter and superior talents. The passage of the stamp act in 1765 was the occasion of his first active participation in political affairs. At a meeting of the citizens of Brain tree he offered resolutions or instructions addressed tc the legislature, which were approved, and were adoptee by forty other towns in Massachusetts. He published, in 1765, an "Essay on Canon and Feudal Law." The same year, Jeremiah Gridley, James Otis, and John Adams were employed by the people of Boston as their counsel to support an important memorial, addressed to the governor and council, praying that the courts of law, which had been closed, might be reopened. In order to induce him to join the Tory party, he was offered in 1763 the place of advocate-general, which he declined. He removed from Braintree to Boston in 1768, and soon obtained an extensive practice. € as /6; 5 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, giitttcral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) ADAMS 46 ADAMS He had now become distinguished as one of the most prominent and intrepid advocates of the popular cause ; yet he was also disposed to act the part of a moderator and to counteract the violent excesses of the patriots. He acted as counsel for the defence in the trial of the soldiers who, when attacked by a mob in Boston in March, 1770, had fired and killed several persons. In this case he firmly resisted the storm of popular excite- ment and the violence of party spirit. He was elected a member of the general court {i.e. the legislature) in 1770. " It was not as a politician," says Charles Francis Adams, " but as a lawyer, that John Adams was first drawn into public life." He became the chief legal ad- viser of the patriots. The destruction of the tea in the harbour of Boston, December, 1773, opened the active drama of the Revolution by a resort to physical force. Mr. Adams was one of the five delegates sent by Mas- sachusetts to the first continental Congress, which met at Philadelphia in September, 1774. To his friend Sewall, who urged him not to engage in the perilous enterprise of revolution, he replied, " The die is now cast ; I have passed the Rubicon. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish with my country, is my unalterable determina- tion." In Congress he found a fitting arena for the ex- ercise of those great talents, both for business and de- bate, which ultimately raised him to the leadership of that body. His diary and letters give a graphic account of the proceedings of that assembly. During the winter of 1774-75 he wrote, under the sig- nature o{ JVoc'angins, a series of able essays in defence of the rights of the colonists. These first appeared in a journal of Boston, and may be found in the fourth vol- ume of his collected works. After the battle of Lexing- ton, (A]Dril, 1775,) which made many converts to the cause of independence, he returned to Congress. The majority of the members, however, were still disposed to temporize, and adopted another petition to the king, which Mr. Adams opposed. He was more suc- cessful in his efforts to induce the Congress to provide for the defence of the colonies. It appears that he was the first to propose George Washington as com- mander-in-chief of the army. He was again elected to the Federal Congress for one year, and went to Philadel- phia in February, 1776. In a letter dated March 23, 1776, he wrote, "All our misfortunes arise from the re- luctance of the southern colonies to republican govern- ment." He procured, in May, the passage in Congress of a resolution that the colonies should assume the duty of self-government. On the 7th of June a resolution was moved by Richard Henry Lee, and seconded by Mr. Adams, that these colonies " are and of right ought to be free and independent States." On the nth of June, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston were ap- pointed a committee to prepare a declaration of inde- pendence. This measure was opposed by a strong party, of which John Dickinson was the leader and spokes- man. In reply to him, Mr. Adams made, about July 2, a memorable speech, in reference to which Jefferson said, " John Adams was the ablest advocate and champion of independence on the floor of the house." " He was the colossus of that Congress. Not graceful, not eloquent, not always fluent in his public addresses, he yet came out with a power of thought and expression which moved his hearers from their seats." On the 3d of July he wrote to his wife, "The second day of July,* 1776, will be the most memorable epoch in the history of America. I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival." Mr. Adams was the president, or chairman, of the board of war appointed in June, 1776. He was also chairnian of twenty-five committees in Congress. He was appointed commissioner to France in November, 1777, and arrived in Paris in April, 1778, to learn that a treaty between France and the United States had al- ♦ The clay on which the resolution in favour of independence was passed : the Declaration of Independence, with its various amend- ments, was not agreed to until the 4th, and then only after a long and vehement debate. ready been concluded. He returned to the United States in July, 1779, and in the ensuing autumn served in the convention which formed a new constitution for Massachusetts. Before this business was finished, Mr. Adams was appointed minister to negotiate a treaty of peace and commerce with Great Britain. He embarked in November, 1779, but did not reach Paris until Feb- ruary, 1780. Having changed his base of operations to Amsterdam, in July, he was authorized in January, 1781, to act as minister to Holland. The difficulty of his po- sition was increased by the intrigues and duplicity of the French minister, De Vergennes, who induced Con- gress to revoke Mr. Adams's powers to negotiate a treaty of commerce. Adams, Franklin, Jay, and Laurens, who had been appointed joint commissioners, negotiated with Great Britain a treaty, the preliminary articles of which were signed November 30, 1782. He was minis- ter at London from May, 1785, until the spring of 1788, during which period he published a " Defence of the American Constitutions." When, in 1789, Washington was inaugurated as President of the United States, Adams became Vice-President. As an advocate of t"he Federal constitution he was identified with the Federal- ist party, by which he was again elected Vice-President in 1792. In the first Congress he gave no less than twenty casting votes, all on points of imijortance in the organic laws, and thus rendered an efficient support to the policy of Washington. When the French Revolu- tion divided the Americans into two parties, Mr. Adams joined the Anti-Gallican party. In 1796, John Adams and Thomas Pinckney were nominated by the Federalists for the offices of President and Vice-President. The Republican candidate for the Presidency was Thomas Jefferson. Mr. Adams wrote to his wife, under date of January 20, 1796, " I am heir-ap- parent, you know, and a succession is soon to take place." His friends assert that General Hamilton, who was the favourite leader of the Federal party, used his influence to elect Pinckney to the Presidency. The result of the canvass was that Adams received seventy-one electoral votes and became President, while Jefferson received sixty-eight votes and became Vice-President. As Pres- ident, Adams retained the cabinet ministers appointed by Washington, viz., Timothy Pickering, Oliver Wolcott, James Mclienry, Joseph Habersham, and Charles Lee. With the first two of these secretaries, however, he had no cordial relations. In the war between France,and Eng- land he maintained neutrality; but the French Directory provoked the enmity of the Americans by the violation of their maritime rights, and by the expulsion of the envoys, Marshall and Pinckney, from France. In 1798 the gov- ernment of the United States organized a new army, of which General Washington was appointed commander- in-chief. For the post of second in command Wasli- ington preferred Hamilton, whom the President regard- ed with ill will or distrust ; but the general-in-chief pro- cured the appointment of Hamilton by a " menace of resignation." In February, 1799, without consulting his cabinet, Adams nominated a Mr. Murray as minister to the French Republic. This act, wliich Charles Francis Adams says was " the most noted event of Mr. Adams's administration," gave great offence to many of his own party, although the result, by averting a war with France, was probably advantageous to the country. His unpop- ularity was increased by the alien and sedition laws, the latter of which made the mere expression of opinions or public men and measures a penal offence. In May, 1800, he removed Mr. Pickering from the office of secretary of state, and appointed John Marshall in his stead. In the presidential election of 1800 he was again the Federal candidate, and received sixty-five electoral votes, but was defeated by Thomas Jefferson, who received seventy-three votes. In March, 1801, he retired from public life, and sank into neglect, covered with obloquy by both of the great political parties. A reaction of public sentiment, however, gradually took place in his favour, and his faults — which, indeed, were of a kind to impair his popularity rather than his usefulness — were almost lost sight of, after he had withdrawn from political life, in the remembrance of his inany and inestimable public services. a, e, i, 5, u, y, lons^; i, hy 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, shoj-t; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, f^t; met; n6t; good; moon; ADAMS 47 AD 4 MS He l^egan to write an Autobiography, whiich he never finished. Having lived to see his son, John Quincy, elected President of the United States, he died at Quin- cv on the 4th of July, 1S26. By a remarkable coinci- dence, Thomas Jetferson died on the same day. The character of John Adams as drawn by Jefferson before these distinguished men had become rivals for the suf- frages of the American people, is probably very near the truth. He says, writing from Paris, "A seven months' intimacy with him here, and as many weeks in London, have given me opportunities of studying him closely. He is vain, irritable, and a bad calculator of the force and proljable effect of the motives which govern men. This is all the ill which can possibly be said of him. He is profound in his views and accurate in his judgment, except where knowledge of the world is necessary to form a judgment." — Letter to Madison, dated January 30, 1787. Sje " The Life and Works of John Adams," edited by his grand- son, Charles Francis Adams, 10 vols. Svo, 1850-56 ; Bancroft, " Hiotory of the United States;" Hilureth, "History of the United States;" "Quarterly Review" for December, 1S41 ; "New York Review" for January, 1842 ; " North American Review" for October, 1850; Jared Sparks, "Diplomatic Correspondence of the American Revolution." Adams, (John,) a British sailor, was one of the mu- tinous crew of the "Bounty," who, in 1789, sent their commander, Bligh, adrift in a boat, and established them- selves in Pitcairn's Island. After some of his comrades had been killed by the natives, he became religious, trained his children in habits of strict morality, and was regarded as the patriarch of the colony. His proper name is said to have been Alexander Smith. Died in 1829. An account of this colony was published in a " Voyage to the Pacific," etc., by Captain Beechey, who visited it in 1825 ; also by Rev. E. Murray, (1853.) Lord Byron has made the history of this colony the subject of a poem in four cantos, entitled " The Island." See, also, Sir John Barrow, "History of the Mutiny of the Bounty." Adams, (John Couch,) an eminent English astron- omer, l)orn in Cornwall about 181 7, was educated at Cambridge. He shares with Leverrier the honour of the discovery of the planet Neptune, although he was anti- cipated by that astronomer in the publication of the dis- covery. He began his researches into the causes of the irregularities in the motion of Uranus as early as 1843, and communicated the results to Professor Airy in 1845. In November, 1846, he made public his "Explanation of the Observed Irregularities in the Motion of Uranus." He received the Copley medal in 1848, was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society in 1849, and President of the Astronomical Society in 185 1. He was appointed pro- fessor of astronomy at Cambridge in 1858. Adams, (John Quincy,) an American statesman, orator, and diplomatist, the sixth President of the United States, was born in Braintree, Massachusetts, on the i ith of July, 1767. He was the eldest son of President John Adams, above noticed. He enjoyed peculiar and' rare advantages for education. In childhood he was instruct- ed by his mother, a grand-daughter of Colonel John Quincy, and a woman of superior talents. In 1778, when only eleven years old, he accompanied his father to France, attended a school in Paris, and returned home in August, 1779. Having been taken again to Europe by his father in 1780, he pursued his studies at the University of Leyden, where he learned Latin and Greek. In July, 1781, at the age of fourteen, he was ap- pointed private secretary to Francis Dana, minister to Russia. He remained at St. Petersburg until October, 1782, after which he resumed his studies at the Hague, and was present at the signing of the definitive treaty of peace in Paris, September 3, 1783. Having passed some months with his father in London, he returned to the United States to complete his education, entered Har- vard College in 1786, and graduated in 1788. He studied law with the celebrated Theophilus Par- sons, of Newburyport, was admitted to the bar in 1791, and began to practise in Boston. In 1791 he published in the " Boston Centinel," under the signature of Piibli- cola, a series of able essays, in which he exposed the fal- lacies and vagaries of the French political reformers. | These papers attracted much attention in Europe as well as in the United States. Under the signature of Marcelhis he wrote, in 1793, several articles, in which he argued that the United States should observe strict neutrality in the war between the French and the British. " To him," says Mr. Sew- ard, " it is believed, belongs the honour of first publicly advocating this line of policy, which afterwards became a settled principle of the American government." These writings having commended him to the favour of Gen- eral Washington, he was appointed minister to Holland in May, 1794. Pie married, in July, 1797, Louisa Cath- erine Johnson, a daughter of Joshua Johnson, of Mary- land, who was then American consul at London. In a letter dated February 20, 1797, Washington wrote i.o the elder Adams, " I give it as my decided opinion that Mr. Adams is the most valuable public character we have abroad," and he advised the President-elect not to withhold promotion from him because he was his son. John Quincy Adams was accordingly appointed ministei to Berlin, in 1797. He translated Wieland's " Oberon" into English, and published an account of his travels in Silesia, which he visited in 1800. He succeeded in ne- gotiating a treaty of amity and commerce with the Prus- sian government, and was recalled about February, 1801. He was elected a senator of the Uuited States by the Federalists of Massachusetts, for the term beginning March, 1803. In 1805 he was appointed professor of rhetoric and belles-lettres at Plarvard College, and ac- cepted that office on condition that he should be permit- ted to attend to his senatorial duties while Congress was in session. His lectures at Harvard were much ad- mired, and were published in 1810. In 1805 he endeav- oured to procure the passage of a law to levy a duty on the importation of slaves. He offended his political friends, the Federalists, by supporting Jefferson's em- bargo act, which was passed in December, 1807, and thus became connected with the Democratic party. The legislature of Massachusetts elected another person to take the place of Mr, Adams, who resigned his seat in March, 1808, declining to serve for the remainder of the term, rather than obey the instructions of the Federalists, who were then the dominant party in his State. He sub- sequently gave far deeper offence by charging some of the Federal leaders with a plot to dissolve the Union and establish an independent northern confederacy. This accusation was doubtless one of the principal causes of the hostility and distrust which were long felt towards New England, not only in the Southern, but also in the Middle and Western States. While a member of the Senate, Mr. Adams had dis- tinguished himself as an able and eloquent public speak- er, as well as an accomplished scholar. In March, 1809, he was appointed by President Madison minister to Russia, louring his residence in that country he was nominated an associate justice of the supreme court of the United States, and confirmed February, 181 1 ; but he declined the appointment. His influence and diplo- matic services at St. Petersburg laid the foundation of those amicable relations which have ever since been maintained between Russia and the United States. In 1813, Adams, Clay, Gallatin, and Russell were appointed commissioners to negotiate a treaty of peace with Great Britain. They met the British diplomatists at Ghent, and, after a protracted negotiation of six months, signed a treaty of peace on the 24th of December, 1814. In the spring of 1815, Adams was appointed minister to the court of St. James, where he remained until he was selected by Mr. Monroe for the office of secretary of state in 181 7. In his long and successful career as a diplomat- ist he had justified the confidence of Washington, who, in 1797, had predicted that Mr. Adams would "prove himself to be the ablest of all our diplomatic corps." He entered upon his duties as secretary of state in Sep- tember, f8i7, and performed them with a fidelity and success which obtained the approbation of the country. He defended General Jackson's conduct in Florida, when the other members of the cabinet censured him for tran- scending his orders. According to Mr. Seward, " Mr. Adams deserved and received a high share of credit" for negotiating, in c as y^, 9 as s; g hard; g as G, H, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2!:^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) ADAMS 48 ADAMS 1819, with Spain, a treaty which was very advantageous to the United States. In 1824, Adams, Jackson, Crawford, and Clay were candidates for the Presidency; all Democrats, and pro- fessing substantially the same political creed. Mr. Adams, who was supported by the Eastern States and New Vork, received eighty-four electoral votes ; General Jackson, ninety-nine ; Mr. Crawford, forty-one ; and Mr. Clay, thirty-seven. Neither of the candidates having received a majority in the electoral colleges, the election devolved on the House of Representatives. Aided by the influence of Henry Clay, Mr. Adams received the votes of thirteen States, and was elected. He appointed Mr, Clay secretary of state, Richard Rush secretary of the treasury, James Barbour secretary of war, Samuel L. Southard secretary of the navy, and William Wirt attorney-general. The friends of Jack- son were indignant, and accused Adams and Clay of obtaining their success by "bargain and corruption." Athough Mr. Crawford wrote to Mr. Clay, after the elec- tion, " I approved of your vote when it was given, and should have voted as you did between Jackson and Adams," yet the friends of Crawford formed a coalition with the Jacksonians to oppose the new administration. Mr. Adams favoureti internal improvements, and the protection of domestic manufactures. It ought to be remembered to his honour that he refused to remove competent men from office merely because they were his political opponents. In the latter part of his Pres- idential term the opposition had a majority in both houses of Congress, and assailed the President with un- scrupulous and bitter hostility. At the election of 1828 he received eighty-three electoral votes, and was defeated by General Jackson, who received one hundred and seventy-eight votes. His defeat was probably promoted by the charge of corrupt collusion with Mr. Clay in 1825, although that charge appears to have been wholly des- titute of foundation. On the 4th of March, 1829, he retired to his estate at Quincy. In 1830 the public were greatly surprised by the elec- tion of Mr. Adams to Congress, in which he took his seat in December, 183 1. He continued to represent his native district in that body for seventeen years, during which he was constantly at his post, and surpassed nearly all the members in close application to business and in the power of endurance. " In every respect," says Seward, " he was a model legislator." He usually acted with the Whigs, but kept himself free from the trammels of party. His most memorable service in Con- gress was his defence of the right of petition, and his inflexible resistance to the encroachments of the slave power. In 1836 the opponents of slavery began to send to Congress petitions for the abolition of slavery, which were presented by Mr. Adams. The House of Repre- sentatives adopted a rule that no petition relating to slavery should be read, printed, or debated. " With un- wavering firmness," says Seward, " against a bitter and unscrupulous opposition, exasperated to the highest pitch by his pertinacity — amidst a perfect tempest of vituperation and abuse — he persevered in presenting these petitions, one by one, to the amount sometimes of two hundred in a day — demanding the action of the house on each separate petition." His opponents once made a motion to punish him by a vote of censure for presenting a petition from slaves ; but they were bafifled in their object when the fact was announced that the said petitioners prayed that slavery should NOT be abol- ished. On the 2 1 St of February, 1848, while in his seat in the Capitol, he was struck with paralysis. He died on the 23d of that month ; his last words were, " This is the last of earth ! I am con tent !" In the latter part of his career he was popularly known by the title of "the Old Man Eloquent." He kept a copious diary of his public life, and was a voluminous writer of prose and verse. Manv of his orations, poems, and discourses have been published. In religion he was, like his father, a Unitarian. Sie William H. Skward, "Life of John Q lincy Adams," 1849; Tf) -I ah Q'jimcy, " Memoir of the Life of John Q jincy Adams," 1858 ; HiLO^'RTH. "History of the United States," vol. vi. (or vol. iii., Second Series.) Adams, (Joseph,) a physician and medical writer, born in 1756. He practised in London from 1805 till his death in 181 8. His principal work is entitled " Observations on Morbid Poisons," (1796.) He was an enthusiastic admirer of Hunter, and appears to have adopted, too implicitly, most of the views of that emi- nent physiologist. Adams, (Nehemiah,) D.D., an American divine, born at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1806. He graduated at Harvard University in 1826. For many years he has been pastor of the Essex Street Congregational Church, Bos- ton. Among his various publications may be men- tioned " Remarks on the Unitarian Belief; " " F'riends of Christ in the New Testament ;" " Life of John Eliot;" and "South Side View of Slavery," (1854,) which has been severely criticised by the free-soil press of the country. Adams, (Richard,) an English non-conformist minis- ter, born in Cheshire, graduated in 1644. He was eject- ed from a living in Bread street, London, in 1662. Died near the close of the seventeenth century. Adams, (Samuel,) an eminent American patriot and orator, born in Boston on the 27th of September, 1722, was a second-cousin of President John Adams. He graduated at Harvard College in 1740. A few years af- terwards, on taking the degree of master of arts, he chose for his thesis the question, " Whether it be lawful to re- sist the supreme magistrate if the commonwealth can- not otherwise be preserved .''" of which he maintained the alifirmative. In early life he applied himself to mer- cantile business, in which he was not successful. He af- terwards served as collector of taxes in Boston. Having gained distinction as a political writer, he was elected a member of the general assembly of Massachusetts in 1765. He continued to represent Boston in that assem- bly for nine years, and by his courage, talents, and energy acquired great influence. Before the Revolution he was a zealous opponent of the policy of the British ministers, and an advocate of independence. John Adams, in his diary, written in 1765, after some notice of James Otis and others, says, "Adams, I believe, has the most thor- ough understanding of liberty and her resources in the temper and character of the people, though not in the law and constitution, as well as the most habitual radi- cal love of it, of any of them." He was elected a member of the continental Congress in 1774, and was one of the two popular leaders excepted from the general pardon offered by the British govern- ment in Tune, 1775. As a member of Congress, in which he continued about eight years, he rendered important services, and signed the Declaration of Independence. Mr. Adams took part in the formation of the constitution of Massachusetts, adopted in 1780, served afterwards as a senator of that State, and was a member of the con- vention which ratified the Federal constitution in 1788. In national politics he favoured the Republican or Jef- fersonian party. Lie was lieutenant-governor from 1789 to 1794, and in 1795 succeeded John Hancock as Gov- ernor of Massachusetts. Having been several times re- elected, he served as Governor until 1797, and then re- tired from public life. He had married young, and had an only son, whom he survived. In religion he was 1 strict Calvinist. An oration on the independence of his country, which he delivered in Philadelphia in August, 1776, has been published. He died in Boston, on the 2d of October, 1803. Respecting his merits as a speaker and writer, John Adams remarks that in his works may be found "specimens of a nervous simplicity of reasoning and eloquence that have never been rivalled in America." See " Life and Public Services of Samuel Adams," by Wn.Li.\M V. Wells, 3 vols. 8vo, Boston, 1S65 : see also the " Encycloj-'jedia Americnna; ' Goodrich, "Lives of the Sii^ners to the Declaration of Independence;" Sanderson, "Biography of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence;" Bancroft, "History of the United States," vol. v. chaps, x. and xix.; Hildreth, "History ol the United States," vol. ii. Adams, (Sir Thomas,) an English royalist, noted for munificence, born in Shropshire in 1586. He was lord mayor of London in 1645. Died in 1667. Adams, (Thomas,) an English clissenting mmister, who was rejected for non-confonnity about 1662. He wrote a work called " Protestant Union." Died in 1670. Adams, (William), an English navigator, born m , e, T, o, u, y, long; k, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, !, o, li, y, s/wrt; a, e, i, o, obsa^re; fSr, f^ll, f^t; mSt; nSt; good; moon; V / ADAMS 49 ADDISON Kent about 1575. He entered the Dutch navy as pilot, and passed some time in Japan, where he is said to have rendered important services to the commerce of the Dutch and English. Died in 1621. Adams, (Rev. William,) distinguished as the friend of Dr. Johnson, was born in 1707, and died in 1789. Besides some smaller pieces, he published "An Answer to Mr. Hume's Essay on Miracles," (1752,) which at- tracted considerable attention. Adams, (William,) an English divine and writer, born in 1814. He held the position of vicar of St. Peters, Oxford. Among his works are " The Shadow of the Cross," (1842, 8th edition, 1849,) and "Distant Hills," (4th edition, 1847.) I^ied in 1848. Ad'am-spn, (Henrv,) a Scottish poet, who lived in the early part ot the seventeenth century. He was a nephew of Archbishop Adamson. Died in 1639. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- men." Adamson, (John,) an English author, born in 1787. He published a "Memoir of Camoens," (1820,) and " History, Antiquities, and Literature of Portugal," (2 vols., 1842-46.) Died in 1855. Adamson, (Patrick,) an eminent Scottish prelate and writer, born at Perth in 1536. He embraced the cause of the Reformation on its gaining the ascendency, and in 1564 published a poem "On the Superstitious Follies of the Papists," (" De Papistarum Superstitiosis Ineptiis.") In 1576, through the influence of Morton, the regent, he was raised to the archbishopric of St. An- drews. From this time to the end of his life he was en- gaged in an almost incessant struggle with the Presby- terian party, who were growing every day more powerful, and who at last succeeded in deposing him, not only from the primacy, but from all his functions as a minis- ter. He died in 1592, in great indigence. Besides the poem already mentioned, he wrote translations of the book of Job, of the Apocalypse, and other parts of the Bible, in Latin verse. See Calderwood, " History of the Church of Scotland ;" Cham- bers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Spotts- WOOD, "History of the Church of Scotland." A-da'mus Ma-ris'cus or Ad'am de Maris'co, a learned monk, and teacher of theology at Oxford, born about the end of the twelfth century. Roger Bacon, who was his contemporary, speaks of him as an eminent mathematician. He died about 1260. A-da'miis Mu-re-mu-then'sis (or Murimuthen- sis) or Adam de Murimuth, Murimouth, or Mu- rymouth, an English chronicler, who wrote a " Chron- icle or History of his Own Time," extending from 1303 to 1337. He appears to have been employed on several important missions ; in 1323 he was ambassador from Ed- ward H. (of England) to the pope and the King of Sicily. Ada'mus Sco'tus, {i.e. "Adam the Scotchman,") a learned bishop, who lived in the twelfth century, chiefly remarkable as the author of a curious dialogue between the Soul and Reason. Of the events of his life little or nothing is known. Adanson, S'd6N''s6N', (Michel,) an eminent French naturalist, born at Aix in 1727. His family were of Scottish extraction, and had been exiled from their country on account of their devotion to the house of Stuart. He was distinguished at school for his great application, and won many of the prizes while at the College of Plessis. In 1748 he visited Senegal, in Africa, where he remained five years, and in spite of burning suns and drenching rains he collected, by unremitting labour, an immense number of new plants and animals, as well as objects of commerce, clothes, utensils, and implements of war peculiar to the inhabitants ; made exact maps of the countries through which he travelled ; prepared grammars and vocabularies of the different nations of that region, and kept an exact register of me- teorological observations. After his return to France, he published, in 1757, his " Natural History of Senegal," ("Histoire Naturelle du Senegal,") and, in 1763, his "Families of Plants," ("Families des Plantes.") In these, and all his other works, he strenuously opposed the artificial system of Linnaeus ; but the influence and popularity of the Swedish naturalist were so great as not only to resist uninjured all the efforts of his talented and powerful assailant, but to throw for a time even Adanson's extraordinary merits into the shade. Though on the publication of the " Natural History of Senegal" he was elected member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris, and fellow of the Royal Society of London, yet he passed a considerable portion of his after-life in ob- scurity and extreme indigence ; but he was finally main- tained by a pension from the French government. He died in 1806. In addition to the works already men- tioned, Adanson contributed many valuable papers to the Memoires of the Royal Academy of Sciences ; and also prepared an immense work entitled " Universal Or- der of Nature," ("Ordre Universel de la Nature,") — a sortof encyclopaedia of natural science, — which has never been published. He read, in 1 76 1, before the Academy of Sciences, a very interesting notice (accompanied by an accurate botanical description) of the baobab-tree, which was afterwards named, in honour of the illustrious botanist, Adansonia. As a naturalist, Adanson is not unworthy to be the rival of Linnseus ; in the estimation of Cuvier, indeed, he ought to rank far above the illus- trious Swede. His eulogy was composed by Cuvier, who represents his character as noble, but eccentric. See Cuvier, " filoge d' Adanson," 1819; Lejovand, "Notice siii la Vie et les Travaux de M. Adanson," 8vo, 1808 ; "Observations sur feu M. Adanson," by his nephew, M. Adanson ; " Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale." Adashef, d-dS-sh^f, or Adashev, written also Ada- scliew, (Alexis,) an eminent Russian statesman, who was the minister and favourite of Ivan IV. from 1547 to 1560. His administration was distinguished for its jus- tice, humanity, and enlightened policy. Having incurred the displeasure of his sovereign, he died, in prison, at Dorpat, in 1561. See Karamzin, "History of the Russian Empire." Adashef or Adashev, (Daniel,) a brother of the preceding, greatly distinguished himself by a successful expedition which he commanded against the Crim Tar- tars in 1559. Two years after, he was beheaded by the order of his capricious and ungrateful sovereign. Addemeeree or Addemiri, Sd-deh-mee'ree, writ- ten also Al-Damiri, surnamed Kemal-ed-Deen, (or -ED-DiN,) ke-mSK cd-deen', (" Perfection of the Faith,") a distinguished Arabian naturalist, born in Egypt about 1350. He wrote on history and biography as well as natural science. The best-known of his works is " The Lives of Living Creatures." Died about 1405. Ad'ding-ton, (Anthony,) an English physician, who was the confidential friend and adviser of Lord Chat- ham, was educated at Oxford, where he took the degree of master of arts in 1740, and that of doctor of medicine in 1744. He practised at Reading, and died in 1790. Addingtoii, (Henry,) afterwards Lord Sidmouth, son of the preceding, was born in 1756, and educated with Pitt, the son of Lord Chatham. He soon distin- guished himself in the political world; in 1789 he was chosen speaker of the House of Commons, and in 1801, on the resignation of Pitt, to whom he had ever shown himself an unfaltering friend, he succeeded that great statesman as chancellor of the exchequer and first lord of the treasury. The opposition of his enemies obliged him to leave his station in May, 1804: the king then conferred upon him the title of Lord Viscount Sidmouth. He became home secretary in 1812, and retired from public life in 1822. Died in 1844. See " Life and Correspondence of the Hon. Henry Addington," by Pellew, 1847. Addington, (Stephen,) D.D., a dissenting minister, born at Northampton, England, about 1730, and died in 1796. He wrote, besides other religious works, a life of the Apostle Paul. See Wilson's "Dissenting Churches." Ad'di-son, (Alexander,) an American lawyer and judge, distinguished for his learning and eloquence, was born in 1759. Died at Pittsburg in 1807. Ad'dison, (G. H.,) an Englishman, born in 1793; was a youth of high promise when he died, in India, in 1815, leaving a work called "Indian Reminiscences," (1837.) Addison, (Joseph,) an English author, pre-eminent as an essayist, humorist, and moralist, was born at Mil- € as k; 9 as s; | hard; g as /; G H, y., guttural ; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) JDDISON 50 ADDISON ston, ^tar Amesbury, in Wiltshire, on the ist of May, 1672. He was a son of the Rev. Lancelot Addison. He attended school at the Charter House, from which, about the age of fifteen, he passed to Queen's College, Oxford, with a stock of classical learning that would have done honour to a master of arts. In 1689 he removed to Magdalen College, where he remained about ten years. He acquired at college a high reputation as a writer of Latin verse, in which he probably excelled all his con- temporaries. His first English composition was a piece of complimentary verse addressed, m 1694, to Dryden, who appears to have been pleased with this tribute, and became a friend of the author. Addison wrote the crit- ical preface which Dryden prefixed to his version of the " Georgics," (1697.) His friends destined him for the church, to which his opinions and nabits of thought were well adapted. Be- fore he had decided in relation to the choice of a profes- sion, he formed an acquaintance with Charles Montagu, the eminent Whig financier, to whom he dedicated an elegant Latin poem on the peace of Ryswick, (1697.) was persuaded by Montagu to decline the clerical pro- fession and to devote himself to the service of the state. The course of his life was determined in 1699, when he received an annual pension of ;i^300, and set out on a tour to France and Italy, partly with the design to qualify himself for diplomacy by the study of the French lan- guage. At Paris he met with Boileau, who complimented him highly on his Latin poetry. He passed many months in the chief cities of Italy, and addressed to his friend Montagu, now Lord Halifax, a " Letter from Italy," in verse, (1701,) which was greatly admired. In conse- quence of the death of King William and the removal of his Whig friends from office, Addison was deprived of his pension in 1702. He returned to England about the end of 1703. One morning he was surprised to receive, in the garret which he occupied in the Haymarket, a visit from Mr. Boyle, chancellor of the exchequer, who, on behalf of the chief minister, Godolphin, requested him to write a poem on the battle of Blenheim, (1704.) The result of this visit was "The Campaign," which was received with immense applause by the public, and procured for the author a commissionership as an earnest of greater favours. He published an interesting " Narrative of his Travels in Italy," which, before it was reprinted, sold for five times the original price. His next work was the opera " Rosamond ;" which failed on the stage through the fault of the music, but was completely successful as a publication. In 1705 Addison was appointed under-secretary of state, through the influence of Halifax and Somers, who had formed a coalition with Godolphin and Marlborough. He was elected to Parliament in 1708, and on one occa- sion rose to speak, but could not overcome his diffidence, and made no further effort to become a debater. His literary talents and character, however, rendered him one of the main pillars of the Whig party, for at that time public opinion was influenced more by the pen than by the tongue. " When these things are duly considered," says Macaulay, " it will not be thought strange that Addison should have climbed higher in the state than any other Englishman has ever, by means merely of literary talents, been able to climb." He was chief secretary to Lord Wharton, Lord-Lieuten- ant of Ireland, in 1709, with a salary of about ;^2000. In this year his friend Steele began to issue " The Tatler," which afforded to Addison an opportunity to display his genius in a new department of literature. His graceful style, his genial spirit, his excellent invention and inimi- table humour rendered The Tatler, and its successor " The Spectator," extremely popular. The Spectator was issued daily from March I, 171 1, until December 6, 1 712, and was revived in 17 14 as a tri-weekly paper. Addison wrote about three-sevenths of The Spectator, the success of which was such as no similar work has ever obtained. The circulation of it amounted to nearly four thousand copies. For some particular papers, it is said, the demand was so great that not less than twenty thousand copies were required. These essays exerted a great and salutary influence on society. *' He not only made the proper use of wit himself," says Dr. Johnson, " but taught it to others. . . . He has dissipated the prejudice that had long connected gaiety with vice, and easiness of manners with laxity of principles. He has restored virtue to its dignity, and taught innocence not to be ashamed. This is an elevation of literary charac- ter, ' above all Greek, above all Roman fame,' " Although the Whigs were defeated in the general election of 17 10, Addison was so popular that he was returned to Parlia- ment without a contest. On this occasion Swift writes, " I believe if he had a mind to be king, he would hardly be refused." In 1713 he produced his tragedy of " Cato," which was greeted with "thunders of unanimous applause^" and obtained more celebrity among his contemporaries than any other of his works ; but this favourable esti- mate has not been confirmed by the suftrages of a later age. On the death of Queen Anne, August, 1 7 14, he was appointed secretary to the regency or lords justices. Soon after that date he again became chief secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. He exchanged this office for a seat at the board of trade in 171 5, and began to pub lish "The Freeholder," his best political work. After a long courtship, he married, in 17 16, the Countess-dow- ager of Warwick, who, according to Johnson, " thought herself entitled to treat with very little ceremony the tutor of her son." He became one of the two principal secretaries of state in the new ministry formed in the spring of 171 7, but remained in office only eleven months. His retirement is attributed to ill health and inefticienc) as a public speaker. He died on the 17th of June, 17 19, leaving no child but a daughter, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Shortly before his death he said to his step-son, Lord Warwick, " I have sent for you in order that you might see in what peace a Christian can die !" The two gravest faults charged against him are his habit of drinking wine, and his insidious enmity to Pope. The former has, in all probability, been much exagger- ated, and the latter is said to have been fully and dis- tinctly disproved. It appears, indeed, to have never had any better foundation than Pope's morbid suspicion. (See Pope, Alexander.) Addison's colloquial powers are extolled by several authors. Lady Mary Montagu said that " she had known all the wits, and that Addison was the best company in the world." "Addison's conversation," says Pope, "had something in it more charming than I have found in any- other man. But this was only when familiar : before strangers, or perhaps a single stranger, he preserved his dignity by a stiff silence." " His humanity," says Mac- aulay, "is without a parallel in literary history. The highest proof of human virtue is to possess boundless power without abasing it. No kind of power is more formidable than the power of making men ridiculous ; and that power Addison possessed in boundless meas- ure. But it would be difficult, if not impossible, to find, in all the volumes which he has left us, a single taunt which can be called ungenerous or unkind. . . . The numerous fictions, generally original, often wild and grotesque, but always graceful and happy, which are found in his essays, fully entitle him to the rank of a great poet, — a rank to which his metrical compositions give him no claim. As an observer of life, of manners, of all the shades of human character, he stands in the first class." See Johnson, "Lives of the English Poets;" Macaulay, " Essavs," article Addison; Steele, " Memoirs of the Life and Writings of J. Addison," 1724; Des Maizeaux, "Vie de J. Addi- son;" Lucy AiKiN, "Life of Joseph Addison," 1843; Elwin, "Life of Addison," 1857; " Biographia Britannica;" Villemain, "Coursde Llttt^rature." Addison, (Rev. Lancelot,) father of the preceding, was born in Westmoreland in 1632, and educated at Queen's College, Oxford. He passed seven years at Tan- gier as chaplain to the garrison, and, after his return, published " West Barbary, or a Short Narrative of the Revolutions of the Kingdoms of Fez and Morocco," (1671,) which attracted considerable attention both i. England and foreign countries. He became a royal chaplain about 1670, Dean of Lichfield in 1683, and Arch- deacon of Coventry in 1684. Among his writings are a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mgt; n6t; good; moon; ADEL 51 ADENEZ several religious treatises, and a work on " The Present State of the Jews, (more particularly relating to those in Barbary,") (1675.) He died in 1703, leaving three sons : — Joseph ; Gulston, who died Governor of Madras ; and Lancelot, who was eminent as a classical scholar. See Wood, "Athenas Oxonienses." Adel, i'del, or Adils, J'dils, one of the early kings of Sweden, whose history is lost in fable. He is sup- posed to have lived in the fifth or sixth century. Adelaar. See Adeler. Adelaide, id'el-ad, [Ger. Adelheid, ^'del-hit',] an empress of Germany, daughter of Rudolph H., and wife of Otho I., (surnamed the Great,) was born in 931. After the death of the emperor, her husband, she governed the empire with great ability during the early part of the reign of her son, Otho H. She was afterwards regent during a part of the minority of Otho HI. She died in 999,' universally beloved, and is regarded as a saint, though her name does not appear in the Roman cal- endar. Adelaide, ad'e-lad, [Fr. Adelaide, t'd^'lt'kK,] (Ma- dame,) the eldest daughter of Louis XV., was born, in 1732, at Versailles. On the breaking out of the revolu- tion, she, with her sister, Madame Victoire, left their native country for Italy. She died at Trieste in t8oo. Adelaide, ad'e-lad,' Queen of England, born in 1792, was a daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, and was married, in 1818, to the Duke of Clarence, who became William IV. Died in 1849. See DoRAN, "Life of Queen Adelaide." Adelaide, t'di'lt'W, (Eugene Louise,) a French princess, born in Paris in 1777, was a sister of King Louis Philippe. She was an exile from 1792 until 1814. In 1830 she urged Louis Philippe, with whom she had much influence, to accept the crown. Died in 1847. Adelais [M'W ox S'deh-li') of Louvain, the daugh- ter of Godfrey, Duke of Brabant, and the second queen of Henry I. of England, was born about 1103, and mar- ried in 1 121. Her beauty was celebrated under the des- ignation of " The Fair Maid of Brabant." After the death of Henry I. she married William de Albini, an English nobleman, and died in 1 151. Ad'el-ard or Athelard, a king of the West Saxons, who ascended the throne in 727, and died in 740. Adelard ok Bath, [Lat. Adelar'dus Batho.men'- SIS,] a student of natural science, who lived in England in the early part of the twelfth century. He wrote a book entitled " Concerning the Natures of Things," (" De Na- turis Rerum,") and made a translation of Euclid from the Arabic into I^atin, at a time when this work was almost unknown in Western Europe. Adelbert. See Adalbert. Ad'el-bold, [Lat. Adelbol'dus, Adelbal'dus, or A riiELHAL''DU.s,] a bishop of Utrecht, who flourished in the early part of the eleventh century. He was distin- guished for his piety, and was a great patron of learning and the arts. Died in 1027. Adelburner, i'del-booR'ner, or Adelbulner, d^'del- booKner, (Michael,) a German mathematician, born at Nuremberg in 1702, became professor at Altdorf in 1743. He published an astronomical journal, called " Commer- cmm Astronomicum," (1735-40,) which had great suc- cess. Died in 1779. See MoNTUCLA, "Histoire des Mathr^matiqiiefi." Adelcraiitz or Adelkrantz, d'del-k Rents', the name of two Swedish architects, father and son. The latter, Charles Frederick, who was the more eminent, was born at Stockholm in 1716, and died in 1796. Adeler, SMdl-er, also written Adelaar, (Cord or Conrad Sivertsen,) a famous admiral, born in Nor- way in 1622. He entered the service of Venice in his youth, and obtained command of a fleet. In 1654 he gained a signal victory over the Turkish fleet, and killed with his own hand the admiral Ibraheem Pasha. The King of Denmark recalled him in 1663, and gave him the command of his navy. Adeler was appointed grand ad- miral in 167:;, and died the same yea» Ad'el-frid, a Saxon king, was slain in battle in 617. Ad-el-gi'sus, called also A'del-ehffs, the only son of Desiderius, King of the Longobnrds. Though a brave prince, he was defeated, with his father, by Charlemagne, in 773 ; after which he fled to Constantinople. Little else is known respecting him. Adelgisus, a prince of Beneventum, (now Benevento,) who lived in the ninth century. He was murdered by his own relations in 878. Adelgreiff, a'del-gRlf, (Johann Albrecht,) a noto- rious fanatic of the seventeenth century. He claimed to represent God on earth. He was beheaded at Konigs- berg in 1636. Ad'el-man, (or i'd^l-m^n',) an ecclesiastical writer, who lived about the middle of the eleventh century, was Bishop of Brescia. Adelon, td''16N', (Nicolas Philibert,) a French physician and writer, born at Dijon about 1780. He was a favourite pupil of Chaussier, with whom he co-operated in the first volumes of the "Biographic Universelle." In 1823-24 he published a "Treatise on the Physiology of Man," (4 vols.) He obtained the chair of legal medi- cine in Paris in 1826, and continued to occupy it so late as 1858. Died in July, 1862. Adelstan, See Athelstan. Adelung, cVdeh-ldong, (Friedrich,) a German phi- lologist, born at Stettin in 1768, was a nephew of Johann Christoph, noticed below. He removed to St. Peters- burg, where he became preceptor to the grand duke Nicholas, (afterwards emperor,) and a counsellor of state. Among his works are "The Relations between the San- scrit and Russian Languages," (1815,) and an " Essay on the Sanscrit Literature and Language," (1830.) Died at St. Petersburg in 1843. See GuETsCH, " Histoire de la Litt^rature Riisse." Adelung or Adlung, dd'loong, (Jacob,) an organist and writer on music, born near Erfurt, in Germany, in 1699 ; died in 1762. Adelung, (Johann Christoph,) a distinguished phi- lologist and lexicographer, born near Anklam, in Pome- rania, in 1732. He commenced the study of theology at the University of Halle, but his tastes led him to general literature and philology, to which, from about the year 1 761, he appears to have devoted all histinie and thoughts. He wrute several historical works, which, however, have attracted but little attention. That on which his fame principally rests is his "Attempt at a Complete Gram- matico-Critical Dictionary of the German Language," (" Versuch eines voUstandigen Grammatisch-Kritischen WorterbUches der Hochdeutschen Mundart.") This great (jerman work has been compared to the great Eng- lish dictionary of Dr. Johnson ; but Adelung's is supe- rior to Johnson's in its definitions, and in all that relates to etymology. His dictionary attracted great attention in Germany ; and, as a reward for the important service he had rendered to German literature, he was appointed, by the Elector of Saxony, chief librarian of the public library of Dresden, with the title of Hofrath, (" court- counsellor,") an office which he held until his death. Among the defects, however, of Adelung's dictionary may be named : ist, an excessive partiality for the dialect of Upper Saxony, which caused him to reject words used in other parts of Germany ; 2dly, his fastidious rejection of all new words not sanctioned by what he considered good authority. Besides writing a German grammar, and several other books illustrating his own tongue, he commenced a great work, entitled " Mithridates, oder Allgemeine Sprachen-Kunde," a general treatise on lan- guage, which was finished, after his death, by J. S. Vater. Died in 1806. See Ersch und Grubek, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Adelwalch, ad'el-w61k, a king of Sussex, who was slain in battle in 686. Ad'e-mar' [Lat. Adema'rus] or Aymar, i'mSR^ a French historical writer, who flourished in the early part of the eleventh century. Ad-e-ma'rus, a courtier of Otho III., Emperor of Germany, by whom he was appointed Duke of Spoletum (Spoleto) and Marquis of Camerino, about the end of the tenth century. Adenez or Adenes, td'ni' or tMeh-ni', sometimes written Adans, surnamed Le Roi, (leh rwS,) a cele- brated minstrel, born in Brabant about 1240. He wa.s € as ^; 5 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^See Explanations, p. 23.> U. OF ILL LIB. ADEODAT 52 ADLERFELD first patronized by Henry III., Duke of Brabant, and afterwards by Philip the Bold, King of France. The time of his death is unknown. Adeodat. See Dieudonn6. Adeodato, a-di-o-da'to, an Italian sculptor, who lived in the twelfth century. Ader, t'daiR', (Guillaume,) a physician and medical writer, who lived at Toulouse, in France, about the be- ginning of the seventeenth century. Adet, t'dV, (Pierre Auguste,) a French politician and chemist, born at Nevers in 1763. He was sent, in 1795, as minister to the United States, but resigned or suspended his office in 1797, on account of an alleged vio- lation of neutrality. Having returned to France, he became, in 1809, a member of the legislative body. He published "Elements of Chemistry," (1804.) Died in 1832. Adgillus (ad-jil'lus) I. and II., two dukes of Fries- land, who lived in the latter part of the seventh and the beginning of the eighth century. Adhad-ed-Dauiah, (or -Eddoulat.) See Azad-ud- DOWLAH. Adh-dhahebee or Adh-dhahebi, iD-Dd'hSh-bee', (almost ith-thi'h§h-bee',) written also Al-Dzahabi, sur- named Shems-ed-Deen, {i.e. the " Sun of Religion,") an eminent Arabian writer and lawyer, born at Damas- cus about 1274. Pie was raised to the high office of Mufti of Damascus. Died about 1347. His principal work is a chronological history of all the Moslem nations from the creation down to his own time. Adh-dhobbee (Adh-dhobbi) or Ad-dobbee, Id- Dob'bee' or ath-%hob'bee', a native of Cordova, who wrote a valuable history of the Spanish Arabs. He flourished about the beginning of the thirteenth century. Adhemar, ^'deh-maR', written also Azemars, (Wil- liam,) a Proven9al poet of the twelfth century, who is said to have loved the Countess of Die so passionately that, on hearing she was about to be married to the Count of Embrun, he fell desperately ill, and, having sent for her, expired in her presence. This so affected her that she abandoned all thoughts of marriage, and died of grief a few years afterwards. Adhemar de Monteil, ad'eh-mar' deh mon-taK, [Fr. pron. td'mtR'deh moN'tkF or m6N''ta'ye,] an eccle- siastic, statesman, and warrior, who lived in the four- teenth century. He was appointed Bishop of Metz in 1327, and died in 1361. He had the reputation of a spirited and magnificent prince. Ad-her'bal; [Gr. 'Ara,o/3aj-,] a Carthaginian command- er during the first Punic war, who gained a great victory over the Roman fleet 249 B.C. Adherbal, the son of Micipsa, King of Numidia. On the death of his father (B.C. 118) he shared the kingdom with his brother Hiempsal and his cousin Jugurtha, by whom he was slain, 112 B.C. (See Jugurtha.) Adi-Buddha, (or -Booddha.) See Booddha. Adil-Shah-Yoosuf, (or-Yusuf,) a'djl-shlhyoo'soof, a son of the Turkish sultan Amurath H., whom, on the death of this monarch in 145 1, his mother contrived to secrete from the executioners sent by his brother, Mo- hammed II., for the purpose of destroying him, and caused him to be privately conveyed to Persia, whence he afterwards fled to Hindostan. Here he entered the. service of Mohammed Shah, (II.,) King of the Dekkan, and gradually rose to the highest military offices in the state. On the death of Mohammed Shah, an attempt was made by a corrupt faction at court to destroy Yoosuf ; but he withdrew to Bejapoor, (of which province he had been appointed governor,) where his military fame and his high character for liberality and justice soon drew to his standard multitudes of the best and bravest of the land. Though at first he acted uniformly on the de- fensive, he at length (about i 500) established an empire on the ruin of his enemies. He had previously, in 1489, assumed the title of royalty. He died about 15 10. His posterity continued to reign at Bejapoor till 1689, when their capital was taken by Aurungzebe, and Sikandar, the last of the Adil-Shah dynasty, was made prisoner by the conqueror. Ad-i-man'tus, kdsifiavTo^,'] the commander of the Corinthian ships during the invasion of Greece by Xerxes, 480 B.C. He appears to have been destitute alike of skill and bravery. Adimantus is also the name of an Athenian gen« eral who was defeated and taken prisoner by Lysander at i^Lgospotami, 405 B.C. Adimantus, a Manichaean writer, who is supposed to have lived in the fourth century. Adimari, a-de-mi'ree, a noted, though not noble, Florentine family, who hold a considerable place in the history of Italy in the middle ages. Adimari, ( Alessandro,) a classical scholar and poet, born at Florence about 1 580, made a translation of Pindar into Italian verse. Died in 1649. Adimari, (Ludovico,) born at Naples in 1644; died at Florence in 1708. He was professor of Tuscan in the Academy of Florence, and wrote, in Italian, satiric poetry which is much admired by some. Aditi, ad'I-tl, [common Hindoo pron. lid'i-tT,] the wife of Kasyapa, and the mother of the gods. She is sometimes styled, for greater distinction, the "mother of Indra." She is supposed to personify the earth. See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." Adibya, d'dlt-ya, [in the English plural, Adityas,] the name given to twelve Hindoo deities, sons of Aditi. They are said to represent the sun in each of the differ- ent months of the year. Among the Adityas the prin- cipal are Varuna, Surya, Indra, Yama, and Vishnu, who, in his fifth Avatar, was born as the son of Kasyapa and Aditi. See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." Adler, (Caspar.) See Aquila. Adler, id'ler, (Georg Christian,) a theological writer and eminent teacher, born in Silesia in 1674. He founded a school at Konigsberg, which afterwards became a gymnasium, being now called the " Collegium P'redericianum." Died in 1741. Adler, (Georg Christian,) son of the preceding, was born in 1734. He was chief pastor of a Lutheran congregation at Altona, and died in 1804. Besides other works of the same kind, he wrote one on the topography of the city of Rome, (1781.) Adler, (Georg J.,) a philologist, born at Leipsic, in Germany, in 1 821. He came to the United States in 1833, graduated at the University of New York in 1844, and from 1846 to 1854 was professor of the German lan- guage in that institution. He is the author of several German and Latin school manuals, and of an excellent German and English dictionary. Died in New York in August, 1868. Adler, ^d'ler, (Jacob Georg,) a Danish Orientalist, born at Amis, in Sleswick, in 1755, became professor of theology at Copenhagen in 1788. Among his works is one on the Cufic writings or inscriptions, (" Musaeum Cuficum Borgianum," 2 vols., 1782-92.) Died in 1805, Adler, (Philipp,) the first who carried the art of etch- ing to any degree of excellence, was born in Nuremberg in 1484. The date of his death is unknown. He en- graved many of the works of Albert Diirer. Adlerbeth, ad'ler-b^t', (Gudmund Goran,) a trans- lator and Swedish poet, born at Jonkoping in 1751. In 1778 he was appointed antiquary and private secretary to Gustavus III., whom he accompanied on a tour to Rome. He was afterwards made councillor of the state, and baron, besides receiving numerous other honours. Died in 181 8. He was a voluminous writer ; among his works are many operas and tragedies, constructed on the plan of the French school. He translated the_ works of Virgil, Horace, and the Metamorphoses of Ovid. Adlerfeld or Adlerfelt, ad'ler-f!lt', (Gustaf,) a Swedish historical writer, born near Stockholm in 1671. He was appointed by Charles XII. hof-junkarc, pr gen- tleman of the court, and afterwards accompanied the king on several of his campaigns, of which he wrote a regular journal until his death. He was killed by a can- non-ball in the famous battle of Pultowa, (or Poltava,) July 8, 1 709. Adlerfeld, (Pehr, or Peter,) a brother of the preced- ing, born at Stock»)lm in 1680. He was made a colonel in the Swedish army in 1712, and in 1720 was raised tc the rank of a baron, and made a member of the Riks- rad, " Council of the Kingdom." He wa?; killed, in a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^U, fit; mlt; ndt; gdod; n oon. ADLERSCREUTZ 53 ADOMNAN 1743, while defending his native city against the insurgent Dalecarlians. Adlerscreutz, id'l^Rs-kRoits^, (Baron,) a Swedish general, was the leader of the party which dethroned Gustavus lY. in 1809. Adlersparre, ad'ler-spSr'ra, (Georg,) Count of, a Swedish general and \\Titer, born in 1760. He acted a prominent part in the conspiracy or revolt which de- throned Gustavus IV. in 1809. Died in 1837. Adlung. See Adelung. Adlzreiter, Sd'elts-rl'ter or ad'lts'rl'ter, (Johann,) a lawyer and statesman, born at Rosenheim, in Bavaria, in 1596. He became vice-chancellor and privy counsellor to Maximilian, Elector of Bavaria. Died in 1662. He furnished important materials to the history of Bavaria, by Fervaux, which was published under his name. Ad-me'tus, [Gr. 'Adfirj-og ; Fr. Admbb:e, td'mat',] a son of Pheres, King of Pherae in Thessalv, succeeded his father on the throne. Apollo, who had been banished from Olympus for one year, tended the herds of Admetus during that period. Admetus became a suitor for Al- cestis, the daughter of Pelias, who promised her to him on condition that he would come in a chariot drawn by a lion and a wild boar. With the help of Apollo he fulfilled that condition, and married Alcestis. (See Alcestis.) Admiral, L', Itd'me'rtK, (Jean,) a French portrait- painter in miniature, born in Normandy in 1698. Died in 1773. Ado, 3.'do, Saint, born about 800, in the territory of Gatinois, in the north of Gaul, became Archbishop of Vienne in 860, and died in 875. He wrote a work pur- porting to be a chronicle of events from the creation to the year 874. Adoaldus. See Adaloaldus. Adolf, i'dolf, a German sculptor, who lived in the beginning of the sixteenth century. Adolf, (Joseph Franz,) a German painter, who died about 1750. He excelled in painting horses. Adolfi, 3.-doKfee, (Giro,) an Italian painter, born at Bergamo in 1683 ; died in 1758. As an artist he was much superior to his brother Giacomo. Adolfi, (Giacomo,) a brother of the preceding, also a painter, was born in 1682 ; died in 1 741. Adolphe, (of Cleves, Guelders, etc.) See Adolphus. Adolphi, d-doKfee, (Christian Michael,) a German physician, professor of medicine at Leipsic, born in 1676; died in 1753. Adolphi, (CiRO.) See Adolfi. A-dol'phus, [Fr. Adolphe, t'dolf,] son of Arnold, the sixth Duke of Guelderland, born in 1438. He was in constant disputes with his father from his earliest years, and at length, in 1465, suddenly seized and im- prisoned him, and then extorted from him a formal act of abdication. But he was afterwards compelled by John I., Duke of Cleves, and Charles the Bold, of Bur- gundy, to release him and restore to him all his posses- sions. Adolphus, in turn, was seized and kept in con- finement for several years, during which time his father died. Having at length, on the death of Charles the Bold, been released, he was soon after killed, while be- sieging Tournay, in 1477. Adolphus (or Adolph) I, Duke of Holstein and Sleswick, son of Frederick I., King of Denmark, was born in 1526. He was distinguished as a soldier, and was the founder of several hospitals and flourishing pub- lic schools. Died in 1586, after a rule of forty-two years. Adolphus (or Adolph) I., Count of Holstein, one of the most remarkable men of his time, flourished in the early part of the twelfth century. Little is known re- specting him, except that he was distinguished both as a statesman and a warrior, and contributed greatly to the diffusion of Christianity among the Wendi, a neighbour- ing nation of Slavonian origin. Died in 113 1. Adolphus (Adolph) tl., a son of the preceding, succeeded his father while still very young. Though at first unsuccessful in his campaign against Magnus, Duke of Sleswick, and in his war with Henry the Proud, Duke of Saxony, he soon recovered himself, and after- wards eclipsed even the glory of his father. He com- pletely subdued the Wendi, and, by planting colonies in the territories which they had occupied, thoroughly Ge^ • manized the country. To those colonies the towns d Lubeck and Eutin owe their origin. He gained several victories over Canute, Prince of the Danes. In 1164. however, while engaged in the siege of Demmin, in Pomerania, he was, through treachery, suddenly attacked and slain, after an administration of thirty-three years. Adolphus (Adolph) III., Count of Holstein, was a son of Adolphus II., whom he succeeded. Although a valiant soldier, he appears to have been far inferior to his father in justice and wisdom. Having sided with Waldemar, Bishop of Sleswick, in his contest with Can- ute, King of Denmark, in 1200, Adolphus lost nearly all his possessions, and died soon after. Adolphus (Adolph) IV., son of the preceding, re- covered Holstein from Waldemar, King of Denmark, whom he defeated in a great battle near Eutin. In 1238 he entered a monastery, where he passed the remaining fourteen years of his life as an humble friar. Adolphus [Fr. Adolphe, t'dolf] II., Duke of Cleves, was born in 13 71. He was almost constantly engaged in wars, chiefly with his brother Gerard, Duke of Mark. He died in 1448, leaving behind him a high reputation for piety and justice, as well as for bravery and enterprise as a soldier. Adolphus (Adolph) VIII., Duke of Sleswick, was the son of Gerard, Count of Holstein. His father hav- ing died when he was but three years old, he received his education at the court of the emperor Sigismund. In 1440 Christopher, King of Denmark, conferred Sles- wick upon Adolphus as a fief. When Christopher died, in 1448, the crown of Denmark was offered him, but he declined it. He died in 1459, leaving a high character for wisdom and justice. Adolphus, (Frederick,) a king of Sweden, born in 1 710, was descended from the royal line of Vasa. He was elected to the Swedish throne in 1743. The royal au- thority, however, was at this period almost entirely over- borne by the council of the states ; and, after having been continually thwarted in his wishes by that body, Fred- erick Adolphus at length, in 1769, tendered the resigna- tion of his crown. Upon this the council made some trifling concessions, and he remained a nominal king till his death, in 1771. Adolphus (or Adolph) II., (John, or Johann,) Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels, sprung from a collateral branch of the electoral (now royal) line of Saxony, was born in 1685. He early distinguished himself by his bravery and military skill. In 1704 he was made a lieutenant- general in the Hessian service, and in 1 7 10, Augustus, Elector of Saxony, appointed him one of the generals of his forces then engaged against Charles XII. of Sweden. His two older brothers having died, Adolphus became Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels in 1736. In 1744 he took an active part against Frederick II. of Prussia ; but, ex- hausted by the fatigues and hardships through which he had passed, he soon after retired to his duchy, where he died in 1746. Adolphus (Adolph) of Nassau [in Latin, Adol'- phus Nassovien'sis] was elected, in 1292, successor to Rudolph, Emperor of Germany. Though possessed of considerable military talents, by his falsehood and bru- tality he soon became very unpopular, and in 1298 was deposed by an assembly of the electors. He refused, however, to relinquish his power. But in a battle fought soon after (in 1298) between him and Albert his succes- sor, Adolphus was slain, fighting desperately. See J. P. Wagner, "Vita Adolphi Nassoviensis," 1775-80 ; J. G Leuchs, "Adolph der Nassauer, Kaiser und Konig der Deutscheii," 1798. A-dol'phus, (John,) an English lawyer and historian, born about 1770. He practised in the criminal courts of London, and had a high reputation as an eloquent ad- vocate. His chief work is a " History of England, from the Accession of George III.," (7 vols., 1805-45,) which displays considerable research and learning. Among his other works we may name " Biographical Memoirs of the French Revolution," (4 vols., 1799.) He gained great credit by his able defence of Thistlewood, charged with treason, in 1820. Died in 1845. Ad'om-oian^ or Ad'am-nan^ [Lat. Adomna'nus € as ^; 9 as g kard; g as g, h, k, giitticral; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( Ji:^=See Explanations, p. 23.) AD ON I J AH 54 ADRIAN or Adamna'nus,] also written Adamaii'nus, an abbot of the monastery of lona, born about 624. According to some writers, he was a native ot Ireland ; according to others, of Scotland. He was a contemporary and friend of King Alfred of Northumbria. He is the author of a " Life of St. Columba," a curious work, which throws interesting light upon the political and social condition of that period. Ad-o-nrjah, [Heb. iTJlX,] a son of King David and Haggith, whoj near the close of his father's reign, aspired to the succession in opposition to the claims of Solomon. He was afterwards put to death by the order of Solomon, 1030 B.C., it is supposed. (See I. Kings i. 5 ; ii. 13.) A-do'nis, [Gr. 'AfWi'if,] a son of Cin^yras, King of Cyprus, represented by the poets as a youth of exquisite beauty. He was passionately fond of hunting, and, not- withstanding the anxious admonitions of Venus, by whom he was greatly beloved, he exposed himself daily in the chase, and at last was killed by a boar which he had wounded. From his blood sprang the anemone, a beautiful flowe.', Venus was inconsolable at his loss; but she obtained at last from Proserpine that Adonis should spend six months of every year with her on earth, and the other six in Hades. Adonis or Adonai {i.e. " Lord") was an Oriental title sometimes given to the sun, as the " lord of day :" the preceding fable, therefore, is supposed to allude to the periodical return of summer and winter. Hence the expressions " Beautiful as Ado- nis" and " Beautiful as day"* (in French, " Beau comme le jour") maybe considered as equivalent to each other. Adorni, ^-doR'nee, (Caterina or Catherina Fieschi — fe-^s'kee,) an Italian poetess, born at Genoa in 1447, wrote on religious subjects. Died in 15 10. See Cattaneo Marbatto, "Vita de Catherina Adorni." Adorno, ^-doR'no, (in the plural, Adorni, d-doR'nee,) an influential Genoese family, from which, between 1360 and 1530, no fewer than six doges of Genoa were chosen. They held, however, a precarious authority, being ever and anon driven from the city according as the opposing faction (the Fregosi) chanced for the moment to prevail. Adorno, (Antonio,) a doge of Genoa, elected in 1384, is said to have been an enlightened and liberal statesman. Died in 1397. Adorno, (Francesco,) an eminent Italian Jesuit, born about 1530, was the author of several theological works. Died in 1586. Adorno, (Prosper or Pros'pero,) was elected Doge of Genoa in 1461, but was soon expelled from the city by Paul Fregoso. He was restored to power in 1477, and defeated the Duke of Milan in battle in 1478, soon after which he was driven out by a sedition. Died at Naples in i486. See Varese, " Storia della Republica di Genova." A-drain^ (Robert,) LL.D., a distinguished inathema- tician, born in Ireland in 1775. Plaving emigrated to America, he became successively professor of mathema- tics and natural philosophy in Rutgers College, New Brunswick, and Columbia College, New York, and sub- sequently professor of mathematics in the University of Pennsylvania. He edited Hutton's Mathematics. Died at New Brunswick, New Jersey, in 1843, A-dras'tns, [Gr. "k^^aoToq; Fr. Adraste, t'dRtst',] a king of Argos, contemporary with Theseus. He was the leader of a celebrated expedition against Thebes, the object of which was to restore Polynices to the throne of that state. This expedition, which was called the war of the " Seven against Thebes," was not successful. All of the Seven, except Adrastus, were killed at Thebes. The war of ihe Seven against Thebes was a favourite subject of ancient epic and tragic poets. Adrastus, ['A(5pa(7rof,] a Greek, who wrote a com- mentary on the works of Aristotle, and a treatise on music, which is extant. Nothing is known of his life ; it \s supposed that he lived in the first or second century, Adrets, des, d^'zt'dRa', (Franqois Beaumont— •jS'm^N',) Baron, usually called simply Des Adrets, * " For he was beautiful as day When day was beautiful to me As to young eagles being free." Byron's Prisoner 0/ Chilian. a celebrated French nobleman, born in 15 13, became a leader of the Huguenots in 1562, out of resentment to the Duke of Guise. He was distinguished for great mili- tary talents, the boldness and celerity of his movements, and for the most atrocious cruelty. In 1567 he joined the_ Catholic party ; but soon after, incurring their sus- picions, he was thrown into prison. Though released in 1 571, he never regained his influence, but, distrusted and abhorred by all, died in 1587. See Gui-Allard, "Vie du Baron Des Adrets," 1675. Adria, i'dRe-i, (Giovanni Giacomo,) an eminent Italian physician, born at Mazara, in Sicily, about the beginning of the fifteenth century. The emperor Charles V. made him his own physician, ennobled him, and ap- pointed him proto-7nedictis of Sicily, Died in 1560. Adriaens, a'dRe-ans", (Lucas,) a Flemish painter, who lived in tlj^ latter half of the fifteenth century, Adriaensen, ^MRe-an'sen, (Alexander,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp about 1620. He painted flow- ers, fruit, vases, etc., with exquisite skill. See De.scamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands." Adriaensen, (Cornelis,) a popular Catholic preach- er and Franciscan friar, born at Dordrecht (Dort) about 1520, The Protestants, to whom he was extremely ob- noxious, charged him with the most scandalous conduct, — whether justly or not cannot now be determined. Died in 1581. See VoET, "Historia von Briider Cornelis, etc.," 1613. Adrian, a'dre-an, [Gr, ^Ac^ptawf ; Lat. Adria'nus,] a Greek writer of the fifth century, who wrote an intro- duction to the Scriptures. A'drian \^k6pLavb(\ or Ha'drian of Tyre, a Greek sophist of the second century, studied eloquence at Athens under Herodes Atticus, whom he succeeded in his school. His reputation was so high that he was invited to Rome by Marcus Aurelius. He died at Rome during the reign of Commodus, whom he served as secretary. Adrian or Adrianus, (Emperor.) See Hadrian. A'dri-an or Ha'dri-an,[Lat, Adria'nus or Hadria'- nus,] a native of Africa, who was made abbot of the monastery ot St, Peter, at Canterbury, about 670. Ac- cording to Bede, he was a man of great learning, both theological and secular, Adrian [Lat, Adria'nus; It, Adriano, S-dRe-^'no; Fr, Adrien, t'dRe'iN'] I., son of Theodore, of a dis- tinguished Roman family, was elected pope in 772. When Desiderius, King of the Longobards, had taken several towns belonging to the papal see, and was pro- ceeding to Rome, Adrian threatened him with excom- munication, — the first instance on record of such a threat to a sovereign prince. He was, however, indebted to Charlemagne for protection against the Longobard king. In the reign of this pontiff (a. D. 787) was held at Nicasa, (Nice,) in Bithynia, the seventh oecumenic council, which recognized and restored the worship of images. In 794 Charlemagne assembled at Frankfort-on-the-Main a general council of the West, which justified the use of images in churches, but condemned their worship, — a limitation disapproved by the pope, though countenanced by the King of the Franks. Adrian appears to have been an able and liberal prince. During his pontificate Rome enjoyed a degree of peace and prosperity to which she had long been a stranger. He built, or repaired, at his own expense, several public edifices ; he was also very liberal towards th« poor. Died in 795, See Panvin'io, " Vita dei Pontefici." Adrian II., a native of Rome, succeeded Nicholas I. in the popedom in 867, and died in 872, Adrian III., a native of Rome, succeeded Marinas as pope in 884, and died in 885. Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspere) was boin about the end of the eleventh century, near Saint Albans, in England. Having gone to France to seek his fortune, he was made abbot of a monastery near Avignon in 1 137, But the canons, displeased with his strict discipline, brought charges against his character, which obliged him to repair to Rome, The pope, Eugenius III., having examined the matter, not only acquitted Nicholas entirely, but was so pleased with him that he kept him about ins person, and in 1 146 appointed him Cardinal-Bishop of a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, s/ior^; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; nftt; good; moon- ADRIAN 55 jEGISTHUS Albano. After the death of Anastasius IV., in 1154, he was raised to the holy see by the name of Adrian IV. He was a man of acknowledged talents, but his exalted views of papal supremacy involved him in serious dif- ferences with the emperor Frederick, (of Suabia,) which, still unsettled at his death, led to an open rupture dur- ing the pontificate of his successor, Alexander III. Adrian IV. died in 1 1 59. He was the only Englishman ever raised to the papal chair, Adrian V., a native of Genoa, was elected to the Roman see in 1276, and died the same year. Adrian VI., a native of Utrecht, was raised to the papal see on the death of Leo X., in 152 1. He had formerly been preceptor to the emperor Charles V,, by whom he was greatly esteemed. He was a sincere and upright man, and saw with profound sorrow the scandal- ous abuses which then prevailed in the Catholic churches. He justly attributed the formidable progress of Protest- antism to the sins of the Catholics, particularly to those of the higher clergy. He undertook and accomplished several important reforms ; which, however, rendered him extremely unpopular. When he died, (a.d. 1523,) the people of Rome, especially those about the court, expressed the most indecent joy. See MoRiNG, "Life of Adrian VI.," 1536; Caspar Burmann', "Analecta Historica de Hadriano VI.," 1727; L. E. RoscH, "Jets over Paus Adriaan VI.," 1S36. A'drian de Cas-tel'lo or Adriano di Castello, i-dRe-d'no de kas-tel'lo, a native of Tuscany, who was agent for English affairs at the court of Rome, and was afterwards appointed Bishop of Hereford, whence he was translated to the bishopric of Bath and Wells. He was made cardinal by Pope Alexander VI. Wolsey suc- ceeded him as Bishop of Bath and Wells in 15 18. He wrote Latin poems, and "On True Philosophy," ("De Vera Philosophia,") which was frequently printed. Died about 1520. A'dri-an, [Russ. pron. i-dre-5n',] the last primate or patriarch of Russia, died in 1702, after which the office of patriarch was suppressed by Peter the Great. Adrian, i'dRe-dn, (Joh.\nn Valentin,) a German litterateur, horn at Klmgenbcrg, on the Main, in 1793. He became professor of modern languages at Giessen m 1823. Among his works is one called " Pictures of England," ("Bilder aus England," 2 vols., 1828.) Adriani, i-dRe-d'nee, (John Baptist, or Giovanni Battista,) an Italian historian, born at Florence in 1513. He was appointed, in 1549, professor of eloquence in the University of Florence, which office he held till his death in 1579. He wrote a " History of his own Times," ("Istoria de' suoi Tempi," 1583,)' which is much es- teemed. Adriani, (Marcello,) a son of John Baptist Adriani, whom he succeeded as professor of eloquence. Died in 1604, aged about 70. Adriani, (Marcello Virgilio,) the father of John Baptist Adriani. He was born at Florence in 1464, and became professor of belles-lettres ; in 1498 he was made chancellor of the republic. He made a good Latin version of Dioscorides' " De Materia Medica." Died in 1521. Adriano, (Pope.) See Adrian. Adriano (a-dRe-cVno) the Friar, a Spanish histori- cal painter, who was born at Cordova, and died there in 1630. He was a pupil of Cespedes, and painted a Mag- dalen, which Palomino pronounced equal to Titian in style. Adriansen, i-dRe-dn'sen, (Alexander,) a Flemish painter of fish, born about 1625. Adrichomia, d-dre-ko'me-a, (Cornelia,) a nun of the order of St. Augustine, in the sixteenth century, who versified the Psalms of David, and composed other sa- cred poems. Ad-ri-eho'mi-us, (Christianus,) a writer, born at Delft, in Holland, in 1533. Being a Catholic priest, he was driven from his native country on the overthrow of the authority of Spain, and died at Cologne in 1585. He left a work on the geography of the Holy Land, en- itled "Theatrum Terrae Sanctae," (1593.) He also "Tfote, under the name of Christianus Crucius, a "Life of Christ." Adrien, the French of Adrian, which see. Adry, fdRe'', (Jean F.,) a French writer, born near Auxerre in 1749. He was professor of rhetoric at Troyes, and afterwards received a pension from the gov- ernment. He wrote several biographical works, besides making various compilations, translations, etc. Died in 1818. Adryan, a-dri-dn', (Albin,) a Polish poet, born about 1490. Died at Cracow about 1540. Ad'so, Az'o, or As'so,[Fr. Adson, td's6N',] a French monk, born about 910 a.d. He wrote the lives of sev- eral saints. Aduarte, a-Doo-aR'ti, almost id-w^R'ti, (Diego,) a Spanish historian, born at Saragossa about 1570. He was a missionary to the Philippine Islands, and in 1632 was made Prior of Manilla, where he died in 1637. He has left a very interesting account of his missionary labours, and of the dangers and sufferings which he and the other Spanish missionaries encountered in conse- quence of their efforts to introduce Christianity into Cambodia ; he also wrote a history of the martyrdom of the Christian converts in Japan, and several other works. Advenier-Fontenille, td'veh-ne-i'f6Nt'neI' or foNt'- ne'ye, a French captain of engineers, who wrote an opera and other works. Born at Paris in 1773; died in 1827. Adventius, ad-ven'she-us, a bishop of Metz, who flourished in the latter half of the ninth century. -ffiacides, e-ass'e-d^z, [Gr. kiaKidrjc,'] the father of Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, was killed in battle 313 B.C. "^acus, ee'a-kus, [Gr. MuKog ; Fr. Eaque, i'tk',] (Myth.,) a son of Jupiter and yEgina, reigned in the island of /Egina. He was the father of Telamon and Peleus. He was renowned for justice and piety, and after his death became one of the judges of Hades. .SJantides, e-an'te-d^z, [A-o^ ; Fr. Eschyle, Ss'sh^K,] the first of the three great tragic poets of Greece, was born at Eleusis, in Attica, 525 b. c. He distin- guished himself at the battle of Marathon, 490 B.C., and ever after regarded this as the most glorious event of his life. He gained his first prize in tragedy 484 B.C. Having in 468 B.C. been defeated by Sophocles in the first trial of this young poet, he left his native country and went to Syracuse, in Sicily, where he was held in great regard by King Hiero. He afterwards returned to Athens. The manner of his death, which took ])lace 456 B.C., was extraordinary. An eagle soaring above him dropped a tortoise on the bald head of the poet, and killed him. ^schylus is said to have written seventy tragedies, besides a number of satiric dramas, and to have gained thirteen prizes. Seven of his tragedies are extant, viz., "Prometheus Bound;" "The Seven against Thebes;" "The Persians ;" "The Female Suppliants ;" "Agamemnon ;" " Choephoras ;" and "Eumenides." According to Macaulay, i4ischylus was a great lyric poet, rather than a great dramatist. " Considered as plays," he remarks, " his works are absurd ; considered as choruses, they are above all praise. . . . But if we forget the characters and think only of the poetry, we shall admit that it has never been surpassed in energy and magnificence." (See article on Milton in the "Edin- burgh Review," 1825.) Speaking of the spirit of ^schylus' poetry, another critic remarks, " If ever there was a poet filled with a deep sense of the sacred nature of his calling as the teacher of religion, and of all virtue as therewith con- nected, yEschylus was he. And this it is which — to all such as have studied him earnestly — gives a character to his poetry nothing less than awful." (See article en- titled "Modern Criticism on ^schylus," in the "Quar- terly Review" of October, 1839.) See Petersen, " De .i^^schyli Vita et Fabulis," 1814; Ahrens, "Ueber ^Eschylus," 1832; R.H.Klausen, " Theologumena /Eschyli Tragici," 1829; F. Jacobs, "Ueber den Charakter des ^schylus ;" RocHEFORT, "Siirla Vie d'Eschyle," 1785; Frensdorff, "Etudes sur Eschyle," 1847; K. O. Muller, "History of the Literature of Ancient Greece;" Edward R. Lange, " Programma de .^Eschylo Poeta," 1832. -Sjsculapius, §s-ku-la'pe-us, [Gr. 'AaKXr]m6g, (As- klepios) ; Fr. Esculape, ^s^kii^tp',] (Myth.,) the god of medicine, supposed to have been the son of Apollo and Coronis. He is said to have raised men from the dead, so that Jupiter, fearing lest the realms of Pluto should become depopulated, struck him with thunder. After his death he was translated to heaven. He is usually represented as a venerable old man with a flowing beard. Hygieia [i.e. " Health") is said to have been a daughter of ^sculapius. Sj&ix, a'sir, [Icelandic pron. T'sir,] sometimes incor- rectly written Asir, Asar, or Aser, [the Norse plural of As, Ss, or Asa, a'sa, a word of doubtful etymology, but not improbably related to the Sanscrit as, to " be," and applied to the gods as " beings" par excellence. J^^'The German plural of As is AsEN, ^'zen ; the Eng- lish plural Asas or AsES is sometimes used,] the name of the principal or ruling gods in the Norse mythology. They may be said to be the representatives of life, order, and progress, in contrast to the Jotuns, who typify, under various forms, confusion, desolation, and death. (See Jotuns, and Vanir.) Among the yEsir are generally reckoned twelve gods, viz., Odin, Thor, Balder, Niord, (or Njord,) Frey, (or Freyr,) Tyr, Bragi, Heimdall,Vidar, Vali, Ullur, and Forseti ; and the same number of god- desses, Frigga, Freyia, (called also Van'adis,) Iduna, Eira, Saga, Fulla, Siofn, (or Siona,) Lofn, (or Lovna,) Vara, (or Vor,) Hlin, Gefione, and Syn, (or Synia.) The dwelling-place of the ^sir is called Asgard, [i.e. the "Asa court, ward, or garden.") It is represented as a vast fortress, sufficiently capacious to contain the man- sions of all the gods and goddesses, as well as the field or plain of Ida, the assembling-place of the gods. It is Heimdall's special office to keep watch that the giants (Jotuns) do not approach Asgard unperceived. Odin also is said to have a lofty throne in Asgard, whence his eye surveys all the regions of the world. (See Odin.) For a more particular account of the M.s\x, see separate articles in this work ; also, Thorpe's " Northern Mythology," vol. i., Mallet's "Northern Antiquities," vol. ii., and Petersen's " Nordisk My- thologi." jEIsoii, ee'son, \Qx.klauv; Fr. £soN, \'zh^','\ (Myth.,) a son of Cretheus, king of lolchos in Thessaly, and the father of Jason. He was deprived of the kingdom by his half-brother Pelias. iEIsop, ee'sop, [Gr. AlauTzog; Lat. .^so'pus ; Fr. £soi'E, i'zop',] the celebrated faloulist, was born about 619, died 564 B.C. He is supposed to have been a Phrygian. He was the slave of ladmon the Samian, who set him free as a reward for his wit and pleasantry. The Athenians erected a statue in honour of him. The fables of yEsop are among the very earliest compositions of this kind, and probably have never been surpassed for point and brevity, as well as for the practical good sense which they display. It should, however, be re- membered that in most of the popular collections of fables which go under ^sop's name a large proportion are spurious, and perhaps all have been more or less modified by the translator or compiler. Phaedrus says, "yEsopo ingentem statuam posuere Attici, Servumque collocarunt a;terna in basi Patere honoris scirent ut cunctis viam."* See Suidas, "yEsopus ;" Bachet de Meziriac, "Vie d'fisope," 1632; Manoel Mendes, "Vida y Fabulas de Esopo," 1603; Beni- LEV, "Dissertatio in jElsopi Fabulas;" A Westermann, "Vita iEsopi," 1845; "iEsopi Leben und auserlesene Fabeln," Nuremberg, 1747; M. Planudes, "Vita .^sopi," 1505; Clinton, "Fasti Hel- lenic!," vol. i. iEjSopus, e-so'pus, (Clodius,) the most eminent tragic actor of Rome, was a friend of Cicero, who speaks of him as an old man in 55 B.C. At this date he made his last appearance on the stage. He was grave, digni- fied, and impassioned, but less versatile and graceful than Roscius, his contemporary. He is styled gravis yEsopzis by Horace. * " The Athenians erected a great statue to y^^sop, and placed [him who was] a slave on an eternal pedestal, that [men] might know that the road to glory was open to all." € as 9 as s; g Aard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) jETHELRED JFZELIUS ^tlielred. See Ethelred. iEtherius, e-^/zee're-us, {kiHepLO^,'] a Greek architect, who flourished about 500 A.D., and bui't an edifice, called "Calchis," at Constantinople. ^thicus or Ethicus, eth'e-kus, the supposed au- thor of an ancient " Cosmography" of uncertain date, written in barbarous Latin, consisting of three treatises on Geography, one of which is by some ascribed to Ju- lius Honorius, and another is found in Orosius, forming the second chapter of his history. In some MSS. he is surnamed Ister, a native of Istria. jEithra, ee'thra, [Gr. kldpa; Fr. £thra, ^''tRt',] (Myth.,) a daughter of Pittheus, was a wife of iEgeus, and the mother of Theseus. She was taken as a cap- tive to Sparta by Castor and Pollux, and became a ser- vant of Helen. Aetion, a-ee'te-on, ['Afnwv,] an eminent Greek painter of antiquity, who is supposed to have lived in the early part of the second century. His most cele- brated work was a painting of the marriage of Alexander the Great and Roxana, which, it is said, exhibited the most exquisite skill. Aetius, a-ee'she-us, sometimes improperly written i£jtius, a Roman ^general, born near the end of the fourth century. For many years he successfully de- fended Gaul against the encroachments of the barba- rians. In 451, when Attila the Hun had besieged and was on the point of taking Orleans, the approach of the combined armies of Aetius and Theodoric obliged him to raise the siege ; and, these generals having followed the Huns in their retreat to the plains of Chalons, a great but indecisive battle was fought, in which 300,000 men are said to have been slain. Soon after, Attila retreated beyond the Rhine. But the emperor Valen- tinian, having become jealous of the fame and influence of Aetius, slew him with his own hand in 454. The emperor, it is said, asked a Roman if he had done well in killing Aetius. He replied, " I do not know ; but I think you have cut off your right hand with your left." See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Jor- NANDES, "De Rebus Geticis." Aetius, a-ee'she-us, written also, but incorrectly, ^tius, ['Amot",] a^reek physician, who is supposed to have lived at Amida about the end of the fifth century. He wrote a work on medicine, divided into sixteen books, which is extant, and possesses great merit. Aetius surnamed the Atheist, a heresiarch of the fourth century, who favoured the doctrine of the Arians, and taught fatalism. He wrote a work in defence of his doctrines, and had a number of followers, called Aetians. Aettenkover or Attenkover, et'ten-ko'ver, (Jo- seph Anton,) a German historian, wrote a " History of the Dukes of Bavaria." Died at Munich in 1775. Afer, a'fer, (Domitius,) a distinguished Roman orator, who flourished in the reigns of the emperors Tiberius and Caligula. He was born at Nimes, (Nemausus,) in Gaul, 15 B.C., and died 60 a.d. He was the preceptor of Quintilian, (by whom his oratory was highly extolled,) and was made consul by Caligula. Afesa, 3,-fa'sS, (Pietro,) an eminent Italian painter, who flourished about the middle of the seventeenth cen- tury. He was born in Basilicata, a province of Naples. Affaitati, af-fi-ti'tee, (Fortunio,) an Italian of the sixteenth century, who wrote a work on astronomy and natural philosophy, (1549.) He was drowned in the Thames, England, about 1550. Affelman, iffel-min, (Johann,) a German theolo- gian, born at Soest in 1588, was professor at Rostock, where he died in 1624. Affichard, 1', la'fe'shtR', (Thomas,) a French dram- atist and romance-writer, born in 1698; died in 1753. Afflitto, af-fl^t'to, (Giovanni Maria,) a Neapolitan monk, who wrote a "Treatise on Fortifications." Died in 1673. Afflitto, d', daf-fl^t'to, (Eustachio,) an Italian Do- minican, wrote " Memoirs of the Writers of the King- dom of Naples," (" Memorie degli Scrittori del Regno di Napoli,") 2 vols., 1792, (unfinished.) Died in 1790. Afflitto, d', (Matteo,) [in Latin, Matth.^'us de Afflic'tis,] an eminent Italian lawyer, was born in | Naples in 1448. He became professor of civil and canon law in the University of Naples in 1469. He wrote a number of works, all on the subject of law. Died in 1524. Affo, affo, (Ireneo,) an Italian historian, philologist, and antiquary, born at Busseto, in the duchy of Parma, in 1 741 ; died about 1800. His works are very numer- ous : they rolate chiefly to the antiquities and history, both literary and political, of his native country, Parma. He is regarded as one of the most eminent Italian critics and philologists that the last century produced. Affonso. See Alfonso. Affre, tfR, (Denis Auguste,) Archbishop of Paris, born at Saint-Rome-de-Tarn in 1793. He was appointed canon titular and vicar-general at Paris in 1834. Hav- ing become Archbishop of Paris in 1840, he distinguished himself by his virtues. During the insurrection of June, 1848, he made a noble effort to arrest the carnage. The troops having at his request suspended their fire, he ad- vanced towards the insurgents, preceded by M. Albert, who wore the dress of a workman and carried a green branch. He began to address the insurgents, who, hearing the report of a gun, and suspecting treachery, opened a fire on the Garde Mobile, and he was mortally wounded. He left, besides several religious works, an "Essay on the Egyptian Hieroglyphics," (1834.) See Abbe Cruice, "Vie de Denis Auguste Affre," 1849; Denis E. Affre, " Biographie de D. A. Affre," 1848 ; E. Gourdon, " Bio- graphie authentique de I'Archeveque de Paris, D. A. Affre," 1848. Affrikan, af-fre-kSn', (a corruption of Africanus,) the name by which Chaucer designates SciPio Africanus the elder. (See the "Assembly of Foules.") Affry, ITrc', (Louis,) of a Swiss family, was bom at Versailles in 17 13. In 1755 he was sent as French min- ister to the Hague. He afterwards became colonel of the Swiss guards under Louis XVI. In 1792 he was imprisoned by the revolutionists ; on being released, he retired to Switzerland. Died in 1798. Affry, (Louis Auguste PiiiLiprE,) Count, a son of the preceding, was born at Friburg in 1743. He was a lieutenant-general in the French army; but after the mas- sacre of 1792, in which he lost a brother, he retired to Friburg. He afterwards became Lmidainan7i or chief of the Helvetic Confederacy, as established in 1803. Died in 1810. Afhaoker, ^fhik^er, (Giles,) a Dutch theologian, born at Vreeswyk, lived about 1600. A-fra'ni-us, (Lucius,) a Roman comic poet and orator, who flourished about 100 B.C. Scarcely anything of his writings has been preserved. A-fra'ni-us or Afra'nius Ne'pos, (Lucius,) an ad- herent of Cneius Pompey, was killed in Africa by the soldiers of Caesar, 46 b.c. Afrasi&b, a-frJ-se-lb', a semi-fabulous king of ancient Persia, who, though born in Tartary, (Turan,) claimed to be a direct descendant of the famous Fereedoon, (Feri- dun.) He is said, with an army of Tartars, to have in- vaded Persia, which he conquered after an obstinate resistance and for many years ruled with a rod of iron. The people, exasperated by his tyranny, rose in rebel- lion, and, headed by Zal, (the father of Roostum,) drove out Afrasiab and restored the lawful line of Persian kings to the throne. Afrasiab is supposed to have lived about 1000 years before the Christian era. Africanus. See Scipio Africanus. Africanus, Leo. See Leo, (John.) Af-ri-ca'nus, (Sextus C/ECIlius,) a Roman jurist, who is supposed to have lived in the second century. Africanus, (Skxtus Julius,) [Fr. Skxte Jules Africain, s^xt zhiil t'fRe''ka;i',] a Christian writer, who lived in the early part of the third century. He was a man of extensive learning, and wrote a history of the world from the creation to the year 221 A.D. He fixes the date of the creation 5499 years B.C., and the birth of Christ three years earlier than the ordinary computa- tion. The era thus fixed is known as the historical era, or that of the Alexandrian historians. He is sui)posed to have died in 232 A.D. Af-ze'li-us, [Sw. pron. Sf-tsTi'le-iis,] (Adam,) a Swed- ish botanist, born in 1750. He was a pupil of Linnaeus. Having visited England in 1789, he was appointed botanist to the Sierra Leone Company. In 1792 he left a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, sAor^; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n5t; good; moon; AFZELIUS 59 JGJSSIZ London for Africa, and returned in 1 794 with collections of plants from the regions ^Yhich he visited. In 1 812 he became professor of dietetics and materia medica in the University of Upsal, an office which he held till his death in 1836. Most of the writings of Afzelius are in the form of papers contributed to different scientific periodicals. Afzelius, (Arvid August,) a Swedish historical writer, born in 1785. Among his works is "Legendary History of the Swedish People," (*' Svenska Folkets Sagohafder," 1839-43.) Died in 1871. Afzelius, (JoHAN,) a Swedish chemist, born in 1753, was a brother of Adam, noticed above. He became pro- fessor of chemistry at Upsal. Died in 1837. Ag'a-bus, a Christian prophet in the time of the apostles. (See Acts xi. 28, and xxi. 10.) Ag-a-me'des \^ \yauT]6r,c'\ and Trophonius, two anciep.t architects of Greece, who are supposed to have lived in the time of Homer. See Trophonius. Ag-a-mem'non, \^Xyaueuvuv,'\ the son of Atreus, King of Mycenae, and brother of Menelaus, was appointed generalissimo of the Greek forces during the Trojan war. On his return to his native country, Argolis, after the destruction of Troy, he was murdered by his wife Clytemnestra and her paramour ^-Lgisthus, who had possessed the kingdom in his absence. He was the father of Orestes, Electra, and Iphigeni^a. He and his brother Menelaus were often called Atri'd/E. See Homer's "Iliad;" /Eschvlus, "Agamemnon." Aga- (or Agha-) Mohammed, ^'g\ mo-hSm'med, the founder of the present dynasty of Persia, was born in 1734. He was an artful as well as a warlike prince. Commencing his career about 1780, he overran in a few years a large part of Persia, also Georgia and Khoras- san. He was assassinated in 1797. Aganduru, i-gSn-doc'roo, or Aganduro, S-gSn- doo'ro, (RoDRiGO Mauricio,) a Spanish missionary, who laboured in Japan about 1640. He wrote a "His- tory of the Moluccas and Philippine Islands." Ag-a-pe'tus, [Gr. W-ya-iKog ; Fr. Agaret, S'gS'pV,] a deacon of the principal church of Constantinople, lived in the sixth century. He is the author of a work ad- dressed to the emperor Justinian in 527, containing many excellent precepts, religious, moral, and political. Agapetus L, an archdeacon of Rome, who was ele- vated to the Roman see in 535. Died at Constanti- nople in 536. Agapetus H. was raised to the Roman see in 946. He is supposed to have died about 955. Agar. See Hagar. Agar, t'gir', or d'Agar, dS'gtR', (Jacques,) a native of Paris, born in 1640. He became court painter and chamberlain to Christian V., King of Denmark, and died at Copenhagen in 1716. Agar, it'gtR', (Jean Antoine Michel,) Count of Mosbourg, a French administrator, born near Cahors in 1 77 1. He was chosen a member of the legislative body in 1804, and became minister of finances to Murat, Duke of Berg, in 1806. Murat having ascended the throne of Naples, Agar administered the finances of that ki^fdom with success from 1809 to 181 5. He was elected to the French Chamber of Deputies in 1830, and became a peer of France in 1837. Died in 1844. Agar, S-gaR', (Pedro,) a Spanish officer, born in America, was one of the three members of the regency chosen in 1808 by the Cortes after the abdication of Charles IV. His conduct was prudent and moderate. He was banished by the absolutists in 1 814. On the revolution of 1820 he became president of the Junta of Galicia. He resigned in July of that year. Died about 1840. Agarde or Agard, i-gard', (Arthur,) an eminent English archivist and antiquary, born at Foston about 1540, became one of the deputy chamberlains in the Exchequer in 1570. He contributed several treatises to the Society of Antiquaries, which were published by Hearne. Died in 1615. See Hearne, "Curious Discourses." Agardh, i'gaRd, (Karl Adolph,) a Swedish natural- ist, was born at Bastad, or Bostad, in Scania, in 1785. He became professor of botany and rural economy at Lund about 1812, and was ordained a priest in 1816. Besides several works on theology and economy, he published many remarkable treatises on botany, among which we notice " Species of Sea-weeds," (" Species Al- garum," 1820-28,) "Systematic Arrangement of Sea- weeds," (" Systema Algarum," 1824,) and a "Manual of Botany," (2 vols., 1830-31.) He was appointed Bishop of Karlstad in 1834. Died in October, 1862. See " Biographiskt Lexicon ofver namnkunnige Svenska Man." A-ga'si-as, [Gr. 'kyaaiag,'] a sculptor of Ephesus, who is supposed' to have lived about 400 B.C. Pie was the author of a statue called the Fighting Gladiator, a fine specimen of ancient art, discovered at Antium (vrhere the Apollo Belvidere was also found) in the beginning of the seventeenth century. Agassiz, t'gt'see' or a-gas'sTz, (Louis,) a Swiss natur^ alist of great eminence, was born in the parish of Mot- tier, near the lake of Neufchatel, in 1807. His father was a Protestant divine. Young Agassiz studied the medical sciences at Zurich, Heidelberg, and Munich, where he graduated about 1830. In 1827 he was selected by Martins to describe the species of fishes which Spix had brought from Brazil, and on which he produced an able work in Latin, (1829-31.) He had previously, during the college vacations, visited many parts of Europe to study the fossil and fresh-water fishes. In 1832 or '33 he was'appointed professor of natural history or zoology at Neufchatel. He published a " Natural History of the Fresh-Water Fishes of Central Europe," (1839,) and "Researches on Fossil Fishes," (14 livraisons, or 5 vols., with 311 plates, 1832-42,) a work of high order, in which he made im- portant changes in classification. The Transactions of the British Association, the " An- nales des Sciences Naturelles," and other journals, con- tain many contributions from Agassiz on fossil fishes and on geology. He propounded some new and remarkable ideas on geology and the agency of glaciers, in his capital work entitled " Etudes sur les Glaciers," (1840,) and in his "Systeme Glaciere," (1847.) In 1846 he visited the United States on a scientific mission, and about the end of 1847 was induced to ac- cept the professorship of zoology and geology at Har- vard University, Cambridge. About 1854 he declined the offer of a chair of natural history in the University of Edinburgh. He has delivered several courses of lec- tures in Boston, and has given a decided impulse to the study of his favourite sciences in the New World. M. Agassiz favours the theory that the human race is not descended from a single pair, and discredits that of or- ganic development, or metamorphosis, which was main- tained by Lamarck and others. In 1865 he went to Brazil with a corps of assistants, and explored the Lower Amazon and its tributaries with reference to natural his- tory, geology, etc. It is stated that he discovered more than 1800 new species of fishes in that region. Among his other works are a " Monography of Living and Fossil Echinodermata,"( 1838-42,) " Outlines of Com- parative Physiology," (1848,) "Principles of Zoology," in conjunction with' Dr. A. A. Gould, (2d edition, 1851,) "Contributions to the Natural History of the United States," to be completed in ten volumes, quarto, of which the first two were published in 1857 ; and a " Jour- ney in Brazil," (1868.) Mr. Agassiz became in 1868 a non-resident professor at the Cornell University at Ith- aca, New York. "In the operation of his [Agassiz's] mind," says cne of the ablest of American critics, "there is no predomi- nance of any single power, but the intellectual action of what we feel to be a powerful nature. When he ob- serves, his whole mind enters into the act of observation ; just as, when he reasons, his whole mind enters into the act of reasoning. . . . He is not merely a scientific thinker ; he is a scientific force ; and no small portion of the immense influence he exerts is due to the energy, intensity, and geniality which distinguish the nature of the man. In personal intercourse he inspires as well as informs, communicates not only knowledge, but the love of knowledge. . . . He is at once one of the most domi- nating and one of the most sympathetic of men, having the qualities of leader and companion combined in singu- lar harmony." (See Whipple's "Character and Charac- teristic Men," Boston, 1866.) « as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; N, fiasal; r, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (J^^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) AGATHA 60 AGESILAUS Ag'a-tha, Saint, [Fr. Sainte-Agathe, sdN^tt^tt',] a vii i^in martyr of Sicily in the middle of the third cen- tury. She was put to death by Quintianus, Proconsul of Sicily, in 251. See Mrs. Jameson, " Sacred and Legendary Art ;" Tillemont, "Alemoires eccles.astiques," etc. Ag-a-than'ge-lu3, an Armenian historian, lived about 320 A.D., and was secretary to King Tiridates. Ag-a-thar'«hi-des ['Aya^a^.v^^w] or Ag-a-thar'- •ehus, a Greek writer and grammarian, born at Cnidos, lived about 130 B.C. He was guardian to the young king of Egypt, probably Ptolemy Soter IL, who became king 117 B.C. Ag-a-thar'-ehus, [Gr. kyudapxog ; Fr. Agatharque, t'gS'taRk',] a Greek painter, who lived about 480 B.C., is considered as the first artist who applied the laws of perspective in painting. Vitruvius says that he made a scene for zEschylus at Athens, From the context it is inferred that a painted perspective scene is signified. Agatharchus, a Greek painter, born at Samos, lived about 420 B.C. He was patronized by Alcibiades, who once confined him in his house until he had painted cer- tain pictures which he had ordered. Plutarch states that he boasted of his facility and rapidity in the pres- ence of Zeuxis, who reproved him by a simple remark that he (Zeuxis) painted slowly. Agatharque. See Agatharchus. Agathe. See Agatha. Ag-a-thein'e-rus, [Gr.'Aya^^/zepof; Fr. Agathemere, t'gt'ta'maiR',] the author of a small work on geography in Greek, is supposed to have lived about 200 A.D. A-ga'thi-as, \^kyadLag,'\ surnamed Asianus, a-she-a'- nus, a Greek historian and poet, born at Myrina, in Asia Minor, in the early part of the sixth century. He studied at Alexandria, and afterwards settled at Constantinople, where he died about 580. He commenced a history of his own time, but left it unfinished. His history and some of his epigrams are extant ; his other poems are lost. Ag-a-thi'nus, ['A}a9woc,] an eminent Greek physician, born at Sparta, lived in the latter half of the first cen- tury. He was a pupil of Athenaeus, from whose doc- trines, however, he dissented in many points, and founded a school or sect of his own. Agatho. See Agathon. Agathocle. See Agathocles. A-gath-o-cle'a, [Gr. ' Xyado'icAeia ; Fr. Agathocl^e, t'gt'to^kla',] a mistress of Ptolemy Philopator, who, with her brother Agathocles, obtained an absolute ascend- ency over that king. After his death, which for a time was kept secret, Agathocles ruled in the name of the young prince ; but his tyranny became so intolerable that the people rose in revolt, and killed him, his sister, and also his mother QLnanthe, who had been the first, if not the principal, instigator of his crimes. A-gath''o-cles, [Gr. 'AjadoKh)g; Fr. Agathocle, t'gt'tok'K,] a tyrant of Syracuse, who reigned from 317 to 289 B.C. Born at Thermi, in Sicily, he learned the trade of a potter. Being distinguished, however, for bodily strength and beauty, he was raised to the military rank of chiliarch. He afterwards married a rich widow, and became in consequence one of the wealthiest of the Syracusans, As an officer he was not only brave and fertile in resources, but he was distinguished for readi- ness and boldness as an orator. In 317 B.C. he caused all the men of note opposed to him in Syracuse to be massacred, and became tyrant of the city. The subse- quent career of Agathocles is marked with a variety of fortune, in which the boldness, cruelty, and treachery of his character are conspicuous. His death, as related by Diodorus Siculus, is remarkable. His grandson Archag- athus, aspiring to the succession, corrupted a favourite of his grandfather, named Maenon, who gave him a pois- oned toothpick, by which his mouth became incurably gangrened. Being speechless, he was placed on a funeral pile and burnt while still alive, (289 B.C.,) in his seventy- second year. SeeR. Perrinchief, "The Sicilian Tyrant ; or, The Life of Agath- ocles," London, 8vo, 1661 ; Diodorus Siculus, "History." Agath'ocles of Cyz'icus, a Greek historian, lived probably about 100 or 150 B.C. He wrote a "History of Cyzicus," which is lost. Agathocles of Egypt. See Agathoclea. Agathodaemon, ag'a-tho-dee'mon, [Gr. 'Ayadodai- of Alexandria, an ancient geographer and map- maker of an uncertain date. He probably lived after 200 A.D. Ag'a-thon or Ag'a-tho, ['Ayaduv,] an eminent Greek tragic poet, born at Athens about 450 B.C., was a con- temporary and friend of Plato and Euripides. He gained the prize in tragedy at a public festival in 417 B.C. His works are praised by Plato and Aristotle. He was rather fond of antithesis and sophistical subtleties. Only a few fragments of his works remain. Died about 400 B.C. See Bentley, "Dissertation on the Epistles of Euripides." Agathon, a monk, native of Sicily, was raised to the Roman see in 679, and died in 681 A.D. Agay, d',dt'gi', (Francois Marie Bruno — bRii'no',) Count, a French jurist, born at Besan9on in 1722. Died in 1805. Agazzari, 3.-g3.t-si'ree, (Agostino,) an Italian musi- cian, native of Sienna. Died about 1640. A-gePa-das, ['AyeXudag,] a Grecian sculptor, who lived at Argos about 500 B.C. He was the master of Phidias. Agelet, tzh'la', or d'Agelet, dtzh'LV, (Joseph Le Paute — leh pot,) a French astronomer, born in 1751. He became professor of mathematics in the Ecole Mili- taire in 1777. He accompanied La Perouse on his voy- age of discovery in 1785, and perished with him in 1788. (See La Perouse.) Agelli, i-jeKlee, [Lat. Agel'lius,] (Antonio,) a dis- tinguished Italian commentator, born at Sorrento in 1532. He was made Bishop of Acerno in 1593, and died in 1608. He wrote a commentary on the Psalms, the Lamentations of Jeremiah, and many other parts of Scripture. Agellio, i-jel'le-o, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, born at Sorrento. He worked at Rome in the early part of the seventeenth century, and excelled in landscapes. He assisted Roncalli and other artists in the figures and the landscapes of their paintings. Agellius. See Gellius, Aulus. Ag'el-noth, [Lat. Agelno'thus,] also called Eth'- el-noth, an archbishop of Canterbury, who lived in the early part of the eleventh century, and died in 1038. He was one of the principal advisers of the Danish king Canute. See Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. iii. chap. iii. A-ge'nor, [Gr. 'Ayi^vup; Fr. Ag6nor, i'zha'noR',] a fabulous king of Phoenicia, regarded as a son of Nep- tune, a brother of Belus, and the father of Cadmus, Phoenix, Phineus, and Europa. Agenor, a brave Trojan warrior, was a son of An- tenor. According to Homer, he wounded Achilles, and was rescued from him by Apollo. Ager, t'zha^ [in Latin, Age'rius,] (Nicolas,) a Frei|(^botanist, born in Alsace in 1568, wrote a treatise " Oii^egetable Life," (" De Anima Vegetiva," 1629.) Died in 1634. Ag-e-san'der, [Gr. 'Ayr^aavSpoc; Fr. Ag^sandre, t^zh^'zSNdR',] a sculptor of Rhodes, mentioned by Pliny as one of the three artists who executed a group of La- ocoon and his sons, which was in the palace of Titus at Rome. This same group, there is reason to believe, is now in the Vatican. It was accidentally discovered in 1506. The time of Agesander is unknown ; some sup. pose him to have been contemporary with the earlier Roman emperors. Agesias. See Hegesias. A-ges'i-cles, a king of Sparta, who lived about 600 B.C. A-ges-i-la'us [Gr. 'AyriatXaog; Fr. Ag6silas, i'zhk'- ze'lis'] I., a king of Sparta, who lived in the ninth century B.C. He was contemporary with Lj^curgus. Agesilaus II., one of the most distinguished of the Spartan kings, was a son of Archidamus. He ascended the throne at the death of his brother Agis in 398 B.C., and reigned thirty-seven years in the most eventful pe- riod in the history of Sparta. In the second year of his reign he commanded an expedition into Persia, in which, a, c, 1, 0, u, y, /o;t^; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, 1, 6, it, y, sAort; a, c, j, o, obscm-e; far, f^ll, fit; m^t; n6t; good; mot^n; AGESIPOLIS 6i JGNESI by his generosity and courtesy, as well as by his success as a general, he won over to his cause many of the sub- jects of Artaxerxes. He even contemplated the con- quest of the Persian empire ; but the accomplishment of this great scheme was prevented by a hostile confederacy of the Greeks at home. He was summoned home by the Ephori about 394 B.C. In the subsequent contest between the Spartans on the one side, and the Argives, Thebans, Athenians, and Corinthians on the other, Agesi- laus, if not always successful, at least fully justified the high opinion which his countrymen entertained of his statesmanship and military skill. His vigilance and energy saved the city of Sparta, which was menaced by Epaminondas in 362. He was not present at the battle of Leuctra, where the Spartans were defeated in 371. He died about 361 B.C., being more than eighty years old. See '"Life of Agesilaus," by Plutarch, who compares him with Pompey ; Xenophon, " Agesilaus" and " Hellenica ;" Cornelius Nhpos, "Agesilaus;" Grote, "History of Greece," vol. ix. chaps. Ixxiii.-lxxiv. ; Thirlwall, " History of Greece ;" Cauer, " Ques- tionum de Fontibus ad Agesilai Historiam pertinentibus," Pars I., Breslau, 1S47. Ag-e-sip'o-lis, ['A}'7;ai7roA) ^^^^ ^ " History of the Revolution of 1848," (2 vols., 1851.) Agrain, d', dt'gRdN', (Eustache,) a French warrior, who went to Palestine in the first crusade with Raymond of Toulouse, and became Viceroy of Jerusalem. He was called "The Sword and Shield of Palestine." Agrate, a-gR3.'ta, (Marco Fer.rerio — f§r-ra're-o,) an Italian sculptor, lived about the year 1500. Agreda, de, da d-gRi'Da, (Maria,) a Spanish abbess, born in 1602. She wrote a "Life of the Virgin Mary," which Bossuet censured as indecent. Died in 1665. Agresti, S-gR^s'tee, (Livio,) an eminent Italian painter, who died about 1580. He was a native of Forli. He painted frescos at Rome and Forli. Vasari extols the grandeur of his style. Agricola, S-gRik'o-ia, (Christoph Ludwig,) an emi- nent German landscape-painter, born at Augsburg (or, according to some authorities, at Ratisbon) in 1667. He worked for a long time in Naples, and painted several views of Southern Italy. Died at Augsburg in 1719. A-gric'o-la, (Cn^us Julius,) a distinguished Ro man general, "born at Forum Julii, (Frejus,) a Roman colony in Gaul, A.D. 37. In 62 he married at Rome a lady of high rank, and the next year went as quaestor to Asia, under the proconsul Salvius Titianus, where he distinguished himself by his strict integrity. In 73, Ves- pasian (whose cause Agricola had early espoused) made him a patrician, and appointed him governor of Aqui- tania, which position he held for nearly three years. In 77 he was chosen consul, and not long after was made S, e, T, o, u, y, /on^; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/ior^; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mit; n6t; good; moon; AG RICO LA 63 AGRIPPINA Governor of Britain, where he subdued the Ordovices in North Wales, and conquered the island of Mona, (An- glesea.) He adopted a wise and generous policy towards the Brirons, encouraging them to enibrace the Roman customs and dress and to instruct their children in the Latin language. He afterwards crossed the Tweed, and carried his arms (80 A.D.) as far as the Frith of Tay, and erected a chain of fortresses from the Clyde to the Frith of Forth. He was soon after recalled by the emperor Domitian, and retired into private life, whither, however, the admiration of the people followed him. He died in 93, not without a general suspicion of his having been poisoned through the jealousy of Domitian. Agricola was the father-in-law of the historian Tacitus. (See Tacitus.) See Tacitus, "J. Agricols Vita ;" Dion Cassius, "History of Rome;" Held, " Commentatio de C. J. Agricolje Vita quae vulgo Comelio Tacito assignatur," Schweidnitz, 1845. A-gi'ic'o-la, (Franxis,) a German theologian, born at Lunen, wrote against the Reformation. Died in 1621. Agricola, (Georg,) an eminent mineralogist and physician, whose proper name was Bauer, was born at Glauchau, in Saxony, about 1490. He became well versed in metallurgy and the art of mining. " He was the first mineralogist," says Cuvier, "who appeared after the renaissance of the sciences in Europe. He was to mineralogy what Conrad Gesner was to zoology." His principal works are, " Concerning Ores, (or Mines,)" (" De Re Metallica," 1546,) and "On the Origin and Causes of Subterranean Things," (" De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum,") both written in elegant Latin. Died 1555- See A. D. Richter, "Vita Georgii Agricolie," 1755; M. Adam, " Vit^e Medicorum Germaiiorum ;" Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." Agricola, (Georg Andre.\s,) a German physician, born at Ratisbon in 1672. He pretended to have dis- covered a method by which the growth of plants might be greatly accelerated, and published in 171 7 a useful work on the culture and propagation of plants. Died about 1738. Agricola, (Johan'nes Ammo'nius,) a German phy- sician, who was one of the best commentators on Hip- pocrates and Galen. He became professor of Greek at Ingolstadt, where he died about 1570. Agricola, (Joha.nn Friedrich,) a German musician and composer, born in Altenburg in 1720. He com- posed "Achilles," an opera. Died at Berlin in 1774. Agricola, (John, or Johann,) was originally called John Schneider (shni'der) or Schnit'ter ; but, ac- cording to the usage of that time, he changed his name into Agricola. Born at Eisleben, in Prussiafi Sa.\ony, in 1492, he studied at Wittenberg, where he formed an intimate friendship with Luther. But from being one of that great reformer's most active supporters, he after- wards became a bitter opponent. Agricola asserted that obedience to the Mosaic law was not necessary for a Christian, — that nothing was required but penitence and faith ; while Luther maintained the necessity of obey- ing the Ten Commandments. The followers of Agricola were styled Antinomians, ("opposers of the law.") He died in 1566. Besides writing a great number of theo- logical works, he made a valuable collection of German proverbs, to which he added a commentary, with numer- ous illustrations. See Unger, " Dlssertatiodejohanne Agricola," 1732; B. Kordes, "J. Agricola aus Eisleben," 1817; De Thou, " Histoire," book v. ; Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." Agricola, (Martin,) an eminent musician, born in Silesia about i486 ; died in 1556. Agricola, ^-gRik'o-ia, (Michael), an early Swedish reformer of the sixteenth century, who translated the New Testament into the Finnish tongue. Died in 1577. Agricola, (Rudolph,) an eminent Dutch scholar, born near Groningen, in Friesland, in 1443. H76 he went to Italy, where he studied Greek, and afterwards excited the admiration of the Italians (who had previously regarded the Germans as barbarians) by his various ac- complishments. In 1482 he became professor at Heidel- berg, where he died in 1485. He was highly eulogized by Erasmus. His influence contributed greatly to dif- fuse a taste for Grecian literature among the Germans. " He was," says Guizot, (" Biographic Universelle,") " a good painter, a good writer, a good poet, and a learned philologer." His greatest work is " De Inventione Dia- lectica." See Philip Melanchthon, " Orationes II., prior de Vita Rud. Agricolas," etc., 1539; T. F. Tresling, " Vita et Merita Rud. Agric- olje," 1S30; Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Jocher, "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." A-grip'pa, an ancient skeptical philosopher, men- tioned by Diogenes Laertius as author of a treatise called " Five Reasons for Doubt." Agrippa, King. See Herod Agrippa. Agrippa, a-gRep'pS, (Camillo,) an Italian architect, born at Milan, flourished in the latter half of the six- teenth century. Agrippa, a-grip'pS, (Henry Cornelius,) a German physician, theologian, and astrologer, who acquired celebrity by his varied learning, superior talents, and supposed skill in alchemy and occult philosophy, was born at Cologne in i486. He was extolled by some as an ornament of his age, and denounced by others as an 1 impostor and a heretic. In his youth he served several I campaigns in the Imperial army with distinction. His 1 success in the various pursuits which he followed in many I countries of Europe was hindered by his quarrelsome or 1 satirical temper. After he had lectured on theology at Cologne, Pisa, Turin, and Pavia, and practised medicine in France, he received, in 1529, invitations from Henry VIII. of England, and from other sovereigns. He ac- cepted that of Margaret of Austria, regent of the Low Countries; but she died in 1530. He died poor, at Gren- oble, in 1535, leaving, besides other works, one " On the Vanity of the Sciences," in Latin, (1527,) which has been translated into English and several other languages. Hallam calls him " a meteor of philosophy." See H. MoRi.EV, "Life of Agrippa," 1856; "Agrippseana oder H. C. Agrippas Leben," 1722; "Retrospective Review," vol. xiv. (1826.) A-grip'pa, (Mar'cus Vipsa'nius,) a distinguished Roman commander and statesman, born 63 B.C. His family was obscure, but a friendship was early formed between him and Octavius, (afterwards Augustus Caesar,) and his fortunes became inseparably associated with those of the future emperor. To the skill and wisdom of Agrippa, Augustus owed much of his continued suc- cess ; especially his victory at Actium, which gave him the empire of the world. After the death of Marcellus, in 23 li.C, Agrippa married his widow, Julia, the daugh- ter of the emperor, by whom he had three sons, two of whom were adopted by Augustus, (see Caius C/esar,) and two daughters. Pie died 12 B.C., in the fifty-first year of his age. Agrippa and Maecenas were the chief ministers or advisers of Augustus, and the former was for some time regarded as his destined successor. See G. C. Gebauer, " Dissertatio de M. V. Agrippa," 1717; P, Frandsen, "Marc. Vipsanius Agrippa: historische Untersuchung iiber dessen Leben und VVirken," 1836 ; Livv, " Epitome ;" Tacitus, " Annales " Agrippa, (Menf/nius,) a Roman consul, who gained a victory over the Sabines in 503 B.C., and afterwards quelled a sedition of the plebeians by relating to them the well-known fable of the belly and the members. Agrip'pa Po.st'umus, a posthumous son of M. Vip- sanius Agrippa, put to death by Tiberius, 14 A.D. Ag-rip-pi'na [Fr. Agrippine, t'gRe'p^n'] I., a daughter of M. Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia, was mar- ried to Caesar Germanicus, the nephew of the emperoT Tiberius. She was the mother of the emperor Caligula, She died, it is supposed, about 31 A.D. See Eliz.^beth H.amilton, " Memoirs of the Life of Agrippina," 1800; C. BuRKHARD, " Agi-ippina des M. V. Agrippa Tochter," 1846. Agrippina II., or Agrippina Augusta, a daugh- ter of the preceding, and mother of the emperor Nero by her first husband, Domitius. She was a woman of abandoned principles and remorseless cruelty. She married her father's brother, the emperor Claudius, and afterwards poisoned him. After a life of almost unin- terrupted crime, she was put to death (A.D. 60) by the order of her son Nero. See C. H. Graun, " Dissertatio de Agrippina Neronis Matre," 16S1 ; F. F. Walbrat, "Agrippina Gemahlin des Claudius Stifterin von Coin," 1800; Tacitus, "Annales." € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; c, H, k, guthtral; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) AG U ADO 64 ABLE Aguado, a-gw3.'Do, (A. Maria,) a financier and mil- lionaire, born at Seville, Spain, in 1784. He became a banker of Paris. Died in 1842. Aguado, de, di S-gw^'Do, (Francisco,) a learned and pious Spanish Jesuit, born near Madrid in 1572; died in 1654, leaving many religious works. Agucchio. See Agocchi. Agiiero, de, da i-gwa'ro, (Benedicto Manuel,) a dis- tinguished Spanish painter, born at Madrid in 1626 ; died in 1670. He excelled in landscapes and battle-pieces. Agiiesseau, d', dt'ga'so', (Henri Francois,) (writ- ten by himself Daguesseau,) a celebrated French chan- cellor, orator, and legislator, was born at Limoges, No- vember 27, 1668. He passes for the most learned law- yer that France ever produced, and is called the father of French forensic eloquence. In 1691 he was appointed by Louis XIV. one of the advocates-royal. He be- came procureur-general to the Parliament in 1700, and chancellor of France in 171 7. Before the latter date he had resolutely defended the liberties of the Galilean Church against the aggressions of the papal power in the case of the bull Unigenitus, (1713.) He was ban- ished from court in 17 18 for his opposition to the finan- cial system of Law, but was restored to his high func- tions in 1720, after the ruinous collapse of that system. A contest for precedency between D'Aguesseau and Car- dinal Dubois resulted in the removal of the former from ofiice in 1722. He was again appointed chancellor in 1737, and kept the seals until 1750, when he resigned on account of his great age. Died in Paris in February, 1 75 1. His works, consisting chiefly of forensic argu- ments, official papers, and treatises on law, were pub- lished in thirteen volumes, (1759-89.) His legislative reforms constitute perhaps his greatest claim to the re- membrance of posterity. See St. Simon's " Memoirs ;" Antoine Thomas, " filoge de H. F. d'Aguesseau," 1760; " Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de D'Aguesseau," 2 vols., 1835 ; "Discours sur la Vie et la Mort de M. D'Aguesseau," by his son : Bourlet de Vauxcelles, " filoge de D'Aguesseau," 1760; Morlhom, "Eioge du Chancelier D'Agues- seau," 1760; Boinvilliers, " fi'oge du Chancelier D'Aguesseau," 1848: Boullee, "Histoire de la Vie du Chancelier D'Aguesseau," 1849. Aguesseau, d', (Henri C. Jean Baptiste,) Count, born at Fresnes in 1746, was a grandson of the chancel- lor. He became a member of the French Academy in 1789, and a senator in 1805. Died in 1826. Aguiar, ^-ge-aR^, (ToMAS,)a Spanish portrait-painter of the seventeenth century. Aguila, d', dd'ge-1^, (C.F.E.H.,) an officer of engineers, who travelled extensively between 1770 and 1774. He appears to have been a native of Spain. He wrote, in French, a " History of the Reign of Gustavus III. of Sweden," (1803.) Died in 181 5. Aguila, del, dll a'ge-ia., (Miguel,) a Spanish painter, whose works are said to be in the style of Murillo. Died at Seville in 1736. Aguilar, S-ge-laR', (Grace,) a Jewish authoress, of Spanish extraction, born at Hackney, near London, in 1816. She wrote "The Magic Wreath," in verse, and a number of prose works, among which are " Women of Israel," " Home Scenes and Heart Studies," and " Home Influence : a Tale." Died at Frankfort in 1847. Aguilera, de, da S-ge-la^ri, (Diego,) a Spanish his- torical painter, who was born at Toledo, and lived in the latter part of the sixteenth century. Aguillon, t'ge'yoN', (Franqois,) a learned Jesuit, born at Brussels in 1566; died in 161 7. He wrote a work on optics, (1613.) Aguirre, de, da i-ger'ri, (Jos^; Saenz— si-^nth',) a learned Spanish ecclesiastic, born in 1630, was made cardinal in 1686 by Pope Innocent XI. Died in 1699. He wrote several works on theology. Agujari, S-goo-yiVree, (Lucretia,) a popular singer and performer, who flourished in the latter half of the eighteenth century. Died at Parma in 1783. Agusti, 3.-goos^tee, written also Agustin, S-goos-teen', or Agostini, S-gos-tee'nee, (Miguel,) a Spanish agri- culturist, born at Baiiolas, in the sixteenth century, was prior of the order of St. John at Perpignan. He wrote a useful and popular work called " The Book of the Secrets of Agriculture," (161 7.) A.gylaeus, aj-e-lee'us or d-ge-la'us, [Fr. Agyl6e, t'zhe'l^',] (Hendrik,) a Dutch jurist, born at Bois-le- Duc about 1533, was noted as a Greek scholar. Died in 1595- Ahab, a'hab, [Heb.3XnJ<,] an idolatrous king of Israel, who reigned from 931 to 909 B.C. He was slain in bat- tle in a war against Benhadad, King of Syria. (See I. Kings xvi.-xxii.) A-has-u-e'rus, or, more correctly, Ahhasverosh or Akhasverosh, [Heb. tymiyn^,] a Hebrew name ap- plied in the Scriptures to various Persian and Median kings. It is in all probability derived from the ancient Persian word Khshvershe, (the Xerxes of the Greeks, and corresponding to the Sanscrit Kshatra,) which sig- nifies "king" or "lion-king." The Ahasuerus mentioned in the book of Esther is generally believed to be Artaxerxes Longimanus, (in modern Persian, Ardashir Daraz-dast,) who reigned from 464 to 425 B.C. (See Artaxerxes.) Ahaz, a'haz, or Achaz, a'kaz, [Heb. THX,] a son of Jotham, King of Judah, succeeded his father about 741 and died 725 B.C. He distinguished himself abovr all his predecessors by his abominable idolatry, even sacrificing his own children to Moloch. (See II. Kings xvi., and II. Chronicles xxviii.) Ahaziah, a-ha-zl'a, [Heb. H'rnx,] King of Israel, the son and successor of Ahab. He reigned two years, from 909 to 907 B.C. (See I. Kings xxii. ; II. Kings i.) Also, a son of Jehoram, King of Judah. He succeeded his father about 896 B.C., and after a reign of one year was slain by Jehu. (See 11. Chronicles xxii. i-io; II. Kings viii. 25-29.) A-hen'o-bar'bus, in the plural A-hen'o-bar'bi, a name given to a branch or division of the Domitian family of Rome. It signifies " having red or copper- coloured beard," and is said to have originated as fol- lows. When Castor and Pollux, on their return from the battle of Lake Regillus, announced to Lucius Domi- tius the victory of his countrymen, he did not believe them ; whereupon they stroked his hair and beard, which were instantly changed from black to red. The most distinguished of this name are the following : Ahenobarbus, (Cneius Domitius,) a consul, 122 B.C., who gained a victory over the Allobroges and Ar- verni, nations in the south of Gaul. Ahenobarbus, (Cneius Domitius,) a son of Lucius Domitius, noticed below. In the civil wars he joined the party of Brutus and Cassius, but after the battle of Philippi he attached himself first to Antony and after- wards to Octavius. He died a few days after the battle of Actium| 31 B.C. Ahenobarbus, (Cneius Domitius,) a grandson of the preceding, distinguished for his profligacy and fero- city. He married Agrippina, by whom he became the father of the emperor Nero. Ahenobarbus, (Lucius Domitius,) a Roman gen- eral, who married a sister of Cato Uticensis. He be- came pr?etor in 58 and consul in 54 B.C. He opposed Caesar and Pompey during their coalition. In rhe civil war that ensued, he was appointed by the Senate to suc- ceed Caesar in Farther Gaul in the year 49. He was, it is said, the only leader of the senatorial party who showed energy when Caesar invaded Italy. He was, however, on account of the defection of his army, com- pelled to surrender at Corfinium. He was killed in 48 B.C., at Pharsalia, where he commanded a wing of Pom- pey's army. See C^sAR, "De Bello Civili;" Suetonius, "Life of Cssar;" Dion Cassius, "History of Rome." A-hi'jah, [Heb. rrnx,] a prophet who lived in the reigns of Solomon and Rehoboam. (See I. Kings xL, xii. ; I. Chronicles xxvi. 20 ; II. Chronicles ix. 29.) Ahimelech, a-him'e-lek, a priest, the son of Ahitub, slain by the command of Saul. (See I. Samuel xxi., xxii.) A-hith'o-phel or A-ehit'o-phel, a Hebrew courtier, a counsellor of King David, whose cause he deserted and became an adherent of Absalom in his rebellion. (See II. Samuel xv. 12, xvi. and xvii.) Ahle, a'leh, (Johann Georg,) a German musician and composer, born at Miihlhausen in 1650; died in 1701. a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obsaire; fSr, f^ll, fit; m^t; nSt; good; moon: AHLE 65 AIDAN Ahle, (JoHANN Rudolph,) a German organist, born at Miihlhausen in 1625 ; died in 1673. He was the father of the preceding. Ahlee or Ahli, Sn'Ie', surnamed Shirazee or tlHEERAZEE, (Shirazi,) she-rS'zee, from the place of his birth, a celebrated Persian poet, born at Shiraz about .he middle of the fifteenth century; died about 1535. Ahlwardt, aKMRt, (Chrisi ian Wilhelm,) an emi- nent German linguist, born at Greifswalde in 1760. In 181 8 he was appointed professor of ancient literature in the university of his native town, where he died in 1830. He translated into German portions of many of the most ' celebrated poems in the ancient as well as in the differ- ent modern languages. He made, moreover, a com- plete translation of the poems of Ossian. Ahlwardt, (Peter,) born at Greifswalde in 1710. Though the son of a shoemaker, by diligence he made great progress in learning, and in 1752 was appointed professor of logic and metaphysics in the University of Greifswalde. Died in 1791. Ahmed (Jn'med) or Achmet (aK'met) I., a son of Mahom.et HI., born in 1590. He succeeded his father on the Ottoman throne in 1603, and died in 161 7. Ahmed or Achmet II., born in 1643, "^^'^s the son of Sultan Ibraheem, (Ibrahim.) He began to reign in 1691. His army was defeatecl with great loss by the Austrians, at Slankament, in the same year. He was a feeble ruler, and his reign was disastrous in various respects. He died in 1695, and was succeeded by Mus- tafa H. Ahmed or Achmet III., son c?F Mahomet IV., born in 1673, was raised to the Ottoman throne in con- secjuence of a revolt of the Janissaries in 1703. Though unfortunate in his war with Austria and Venice, his reign was, on the whole, not inglorious. The Turkish name was respected abroad, while learning and the arts of peace flourished at home. Yet Ahmed was deposed by the rebellious Janissaries in 1730, and died in 1739. "Ahmed or Achmet IV., or Abd-ool- (AbdiU-) H&mid, db'ddol-hd'mid, was born in 1 725, and succeeded ihe sultan Mustafa HI. in 1773. His reign is memora- ble for two disastrous wars with Russia, in which Turkey lost the Crimea, a considerable portion of Circassia, and some other territories, besides a number of important fortresses. Died in 1789. See Hammer, " Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." Ahmed Pasha, surnamed the Traitor, a Turkish commander, who, in the reign of Solyman I., captured the island of Rhodes, defended by the Knights of St. John. Afterwards oflended because the sultan did not make him grand vizier, he raised the standard of revolt in Egypt, and caused himself to be proclaimed sultan in 1 524 ; but, though successful at first, he was soon after taken and put to death. Ahmed the Renegade, grand vizier to the sultan Solyman the Great, was a native of Gratz, in Styria. He was educated a Christian, but, having been taken prisoner by the Turks, he embraced the Mohammedan faith, rose to distinction at the Ottoman court, and mar- ried the grand-daughter of the sultan. Died in 1580. Ahmed-al-Kastaiee, (al-Kastaii,) -al-kls-ta^lcc, a distinguished Arabian poet, born in Spain in 958 ; died about 1030. Ahmed-al-Makkari, (or Mekkari ) See Mak- karee. Ahmed An-Nahhas— an-nSh-Has', a distinguished Arabian grannnarian and philologist, who was drowned in the Nile about 950. He was a native of Egypt. Ahmed-ar-Razi. See Ahmed-er-Razee. Ahmed-er-Razee, (el-R^zi,) -er-rd'zee, a native of Cordova, lived in the tenth century. He was the author of a v\.'luminous work on the geography and history of Spain. Another Ahmed-er-Razee, distinguished as Ibn- (or Ben-) Faris, (fd'ris,) i.e. "son of Faris," wrote a-i Arabic dictionary and a work on biography. Died in 985. Ahmed-Ibn (or -Ben) -Arab-Shah,* (-ib'n d'rab- ihSh',) an Aral^ian historian of the fifteenth century, was * This name is incorrectly given Ahmed-Ibn- Arahsham in the 'Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale." the author of a " History of Tamerlane," which was translated into Latin by Manger and into French by Vattier. Died in 1450. Ahmed-Ibn-Faraj — fSr'aj, a distinguished Arabian poet and historian, native of Spain, died about 970. Ahmed-Ibii-Hanbal. See Ibn-Hanbal. Ahmed-Ibn-Tooloon. See Tooloon. Ah'med-Kediik — ke-diik', written also Achmet- Geduc, a celebrated Turkish commander, who was grand vizier of Mahomet II. from 1473 1477- During this period he concjuered the Crimea, and took the towns of Kaffa and Azof, (or Tana.) Under Bayazeed (Bajazet) II., the son and successor of Mahomet II., Ahmed-Kediik greatly distinguished himself He quelled a formidable rebellion headed by Prince Jem, a brother of the sultan, and conquered Kazim Bey, the last of the Caramanian princes. But, having by his arrogance deeply offended Bayazeed, he was put to death in 1482. Ahmed Khan Abdalee (Abdaii) or AbdaUee— Kan ab-dS.'lee, a celebrated conqueror, the founder of the Doorranee (or Durrani) dynasty in Afghanistan. He commenced his military career in the service of the fa mous Nadir Shah, by whom when a child he had been taken prisoner. After the death of that monarch, he succeeded in getting possession of a large convoy of treasure on its way from India to Nadir's camp, and by this means laid the foundation of a powerful kingdom. He was crowned at Candahar in 1747, and died in 1773. In the intermediate period he had extended his sway over the eastern part of Persia, the whole of Afghanistan, and a large portion of India. See Elphinstone's "Caubul;" Malcolm's " History of Persia." Ahmed- (or Achmet-) Resmi-Effendi, Sn'med rcs'mee et'-fen'dce, a Turkish historian and diplomatist, who signed the treaty of Kainarji. He wrote a "His- tory of the War between the Turks and Russians," (1768-74.) Died about 1788. Ahmed (or Ahmad) Shah, (of Afghanistan.) See Ahmed Khan Abdai.ee. Ahmed Shah — shah, succeeded his grandfather,Muz- zaftar Shah, on the throne of Guzerat, in 141 1. He founded Ahmcdabad, {i.e. "city of Ahmed,") and made it his capital. Died in 1443. Ahmed Shah Walee Bahmanee,* (Bahmani,) — wa'lee bSh'ind-nee'', the ninth king of the Bahmanee dynasty in the Dckkan. He succeeded his brother P'iroz in 1422, and died in 1435. Ahrens, .Vrens, (Heinrich,) a German jurist, born in Hanover in 1808. He was professor of philosophy at Brussels from 1839 to 1848, after which he obtained a chair at Gratz. His "Course of Natural Law" (Paris, 1838) has been often reprinted, and translated into sev- eral languages. Ahriman. See Ormuzd. Ahroon, (Ahrun,) dh^roon', or Aaron, a Christian priest of Alexandria, lived in the early part of the seventh century. He composed a voluminous medical work, of which some extracts only are extant. Aibek-Azad-ed-Deen, (-ed-Din,) i'e-b^k (or T''bek) a'zad cd-dcei/, the first Egyptian sultan of the dynasty of Mamelukes. He began to reign in 1254, and was as- sassinated, through the jealousy of his wife, in 1257. Aicardo, T-kaR'do, (Giovanni,) an Italian architect, born in Piedmont, worked in Genoa. Among his works is the aqueduct which supplies Genoa with water. Died in 1650. Aicher, T'Ker, (Otto,) a German antiquary and his- torian, born in 1628, lived at Salzburg, and died in 1705. He wrote a work on epitaphs, entitled "Theatrum Fu- nebre," (1675,) many treatises on points of ancient history. Aichspalt, iK'spJlt, (Peter,) an archbishop of Mentz, born about 1250. Died in 1320. Aidan or ..S3dan, a'dan. Saint, a pious monk of lona, who was employed about 635 A.D. by Oswald, King of Northumbria, to instruct his subjects in the Christian religion. He is considered as the first of the line of bishops now styled Bishops of Durham. See Hook:, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. i. chap, ii * Pronounced in India, uh'mud sh3h wul'ee bSh'miin-ee. f as k; 9 as s g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, 7iasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ^J^^'>'^t Explanations, p. 23.) AIDAN 66 AINSLIE Aidau, a'dan, King of Scotland, began to reign about 578 A.D. Died in 606, Aidoneus. See Pluto. Aigiian, an'y5N', (£tienne,) an able French trans- la or and political writer, born at Beaugency-sur-Loire in 1773. He produced a translation of the Iliad in verse, which is one of the best in the French language. In 1814 he was chosen a member of the French Academy in place of Bernardin de Saint Pierre. After the restora- tion of 181 5, he entered the ranks of the liberal opposi- tion as a publicist. His work entitled "The Condition {£tat) of the Protestants in France" (1818) is highly commended for the sentiments and style. Died in 1824. Aigneaux or Aignaux, Wyo^, (Robert and An- TOINE,) two brothers, born at Vire, in Normandy, in the sixteenth century, translated Virgil into French verse. Their work appeared in 1582, and in that age enjoyed a high reputation. Aiguani, i-gwi'nee, a Carmelite friar of the fourteenth century, was a respectable sculptor, and afterwards be- came Cardinal of Bologna. Died in 1400. Aiguebere, ag'baiR', (John Dumas — dii'mi',) a French dramatic writer, born at Toulouse in 1692. He studied at Paris, where he formed a friendship with Vol- taire which lasted through life. He was a counsellor of the Parliament of Toulouse, the duties of which office he performed with equal zeal and integrity. Died in 1755- Aiguillon, d', d^'gCyoN' or da^geKyoN', (Armand ViGNEROT (or Vignerod) Duplessis Richelieu,) Sr'- m6N' v^n'yeh-ro' dii^phys^, resh''le-uh',) Due, born in 1720, is said to have been a great -grand-nephew of Cardi- nal Richelieu. He was prime minister of France during the last three years of the reign of Louis XV. He was chiefly indebted for his promotion at court to the favour of Madame du Barry, mistress of the king. His admin- istration was highly disgraceful to France ; for, though an accomplished courtier, he was destitute of all the great and solid qualities necessary to form a statesman. Dur- ing his ministry the partition of Poland took place ; yet he knew nothing of this nefarious project till it was already accomplished. On the accession of Louis XVI., Aiguillon was removed from office, and died in 1788. See "Memoires du Due d' Aiguillon ; Lacretelle, " Histoire du Dix-huitieme Siecle." Aiguillon, d', (Armand de Vignerot Duplessis Richelieu,) Due, a son of the preceding. He warmly supported the popular cause in the States-General of 1789, and was the second of the noblesse to renounce his privileges in the session of August 4. He superseded Custine in the command of one of the armies, early in 1792, but was proscribed by the dominant party in Au- gust of that year. He escaped by flight, and died in 1800. See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution." Aiguillon, d', (Marie Madeleine de Vignerot or Vignerod,) Duchesse, a niece of Cardinal Richelieu, born about 1610. She founded several charitable institu- tions. Died in 1675. Aiken, a'ken, (William,) born in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1806, graduated at the College of South Carolina in 1825, served several sessions in the State Legislature, and was chosen Governor of his native State in 1844. In 1850 the Democratic party elected him a representative to Congress, of which he continued a member till 1857. In the memorable contest for the speakership, 1855-6, he catne within one vote of being elected to that office. Among Southern statesmen he has distinguished himself by his moderation and good sense. Aikin, (Anna L.ctitia.) See Barbauld. Aikin, a'kin, (Arthur,) a son of Dr. John Aikin, noticed below, was born about 1780, and gained dis- tinction as a scientific writer. He was editor of the ''Annual Review," (1803-08,) and was for many years secretary of the Society of Arts. His principal works are a "Manual of Mineralogy," (1814,) and a "IDictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy." Died in 1854. Aikin, (Edmund,) an English architect, born at War- rington in 1780, was a brother of the preceding. Died in 1820. Aikin, (John,) M.D., an eminent miscellaneous writer, born in Leicestershire, England, in 1747. Besides a number of essays and papers, scientific and literary, he published an instructive and popular work, entitled "Evenings at Home," (1792-95,) in which he was as sisted by his sister, Mrs. Barbauld. His greatest wori was his " General Biography," a biographical dictionary extending to ten closely-printed quarto volumes : it wai completed in 1815. In 1816 he published his "Annals of the Reign of George III.," in 2 vols. 8vo ; and in 1820, his " Select Works of the British Poets," with bir>. graphical and critical prefaces. Pie died in 1822. Aikin, (Lucy,) a daughter of the preceding, born in 1781. She published, among other works, a "Memoir" of her father, in 2 vols. 8vo, (1823,) and a "Life of Joseph Addison," (1843.) Died in 1864. Aiknian, ak'man, (William,) a Scottish portrait- painter, born in Aberdeenshire in 1682. He studied in Rome, returned to Scotland in 17 12, and settled in Lon- don in 1723, after which he painted portraits of many eminent persons. He was a friend and patron of the poet Thomson, who was introduced by him to Sir Robert Walpole, and who wrote verses to the memory ofAikman. Died in 173 1. See Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting," etc. Aillaud, t'yo'', (Pierre Toussaint— too'siN',) a French poet, born at Montpellier in 1759, became an abbe and a professor at Montauban. Among his works are " L'Egyptiade," a heroic poem, (1802); and " Le Nouveau Lutrin," (1815,) an imitation of Boileau's "Lu- trin." Died in 1826. Ailly or Ailli, SKye' or f ye', (Peter of,) an eminent French ecclesiastic, born at Compiegne, in Picardy, in 1350. In 1389 he was made chancellor of the Univer- sity of Paris ; in 1395, Archbishop of Cambray ; and in 1411 he was elevated to the dignity of cardinal. He presided at one of the sessions of the famous Council of Constance, in which John Huss was condemned to the stake. Yet he was a reformer, and confessed and boldly denounced the abuses and impurities of the church. He died about 1420. See DiNAUX, "Notice historique sur P. D'Ailly," 1824. Ailred, aKred, a religious and historical writer of the twelfth century, and abbot of the monastery of Rievaulx, in Yorkshire. Ainiar Rivault. See Rivault. Aime (a'ma'') de Varenne. See Aimon de Va- renne. Aimeric, a'mer-ik or §m'rek', written also Haimerio, a native of France, chosen Patriarch of Antioch in 1142 ; died in 1187. Aimeric de Pegulha — da pi-gooKyc^ or Aimeri de Peguilain, a'meh-re' deh peh-ge'liN', a troubadour of the thirteenth century, wrote a number of popular poems and songs. Died about 1260. Aimeric of Jerusalem. See Amaury. Aimericli, T-ma-rMc', (Mateo,) a Spanish Jesuit of great learning, born in Catalonia in 171 5, became pro- fessor of philosophy and divinity. He was noted for the elegance of his Latin style. Among his works is " Novum Lexicon Historicum et Criticum Antiquje Romanas Literature," (" A New Historical and Critical Lexicon of Ancient Roman Literature," 1 787.) Died at Ferrara in 1799. Aimery. See Amaury. Almoin, almoin', [Fr. pron. im^wiN' ; Lat. Aimoi'- NUS,] a French monk and writer, who flourished in the latter part of the tenth century. Died in 1008. Aimon. See Aymon. Aimon de Varenne, i'm6N' deh vt^en', a French poet, who lived in the thirteenth century. Ainmiiller, Tn'murier, (Maximilian Emanuel,) a German painter, born at Munich in 1807, is called the restorer of the art of painting on glass in Germany. Among his works are the glass windows of Notre Dame de Bon Secours, Munich. He has also a fair reputation as an oil-painter. Ainslie, anz'le, (George Robert,) born at Edinburgh in 1766, was ap])ointed Governor of Dominica in 1813, but soon after retired, having obtained the rank of lieu* a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sAorf; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; AINSLIE 67 AJJX tenant-general. Died in 1S39. He was a distinguished numismatologist, and published "Illustrations of the Anglo-French Coinage," (1830.) Ainslie, (Hew,) a poet, born in Scotland in 1792, emigrated to America in 1822. He is author of " Pil- fiCrimage to the Land of Burns ;" and of " Scottish Songs, Ballads, and Poems," (1855.) Ainslie, (Sir Robert,) born in Scotland about 1730, was knighted and sent as English ambassador to the Ottoman Porte in 1755. While in Constantinople, he made an extensive collection of coins and other curiosi- ties. Died in 1812. A.insworth, anz'worth, (Henry,) one of the leaders of the English Independents in the sixteenth century, and a distinguished controversial writer. He was banished from England, with others of his sect, in 1593, and settled in Amsterdam, where he became the pastor of a church. Died about 1622. His "Annotations" on the five books of Moses, the Psalms, and the Song of Solomon, is a work of great merit. See Neal's "History of the Puritans;" Brook's " Lives of the Puritans." Ainsworth, (Robert,) a writer, teacher, and eminent classical scholar, born near Manchester, England, in 1660; died in 1743. He is principally known as the author of an excellent Latin Dictionary, (1736,) which is still extensively used. Ainsworth, (William Francis,) an English geolo- gist, physician, and traveller, born at Exeter in 1S07. He went with the expedition of Colonel Chesney to the Eu- phrates in 1835, and afterwards, as agent of the Bible Society and Geographical Society, was sent to explore the river Halys and visit the Christians of Koordistan. He has published " Researches in Assyria," and " Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Chaldea, etc.," (2 vols., 1842.) Ainsworth, (William Harrison,) a cousin of the preceding, an English novelist, born at Manchester in 1805. He produced in 1834 "Rookwood," which had great success. His popularity with a certain class was maintained by his "Jack Sheppard," (1839.) He has been censured for choosing robbers as the heroes of these novels. Among his other works are "The Tower of London," and "The Admirable Crichton." He is, or was recently, proprietor of the "New Monthly Maga- zine." "With a great regard for Ainsworth," says an English critic, " and a full sense of the talent and re- search which he brings to bear upon every subject which he touches, we must say, we like not this gallows school of literature." (See article on "Ainsworth and Jack Sheppard" in " Eraser's Magazine" for February, 1840.) Airault. See Ayrault. Airay, a're, (Christopher,) an English clergyman, born in Westmoreland about the beginning of the seven- teenth century. He wrote on logic. Died in 1670. Airay, (Henry,) an English Puritan, born in West- moreland in 1560, became provost of Queen's College, Oxford, and vice-chancellor of the university, about 1606. He wrote "A Treatise against Bowing at the Name of Jesus," and several other works. Died in 161 6. Aird, Srd, (Thomas,) a Scottish poet, for some time editor of the "Dumfries Herald," born in Roxburgh- shire abo'.il 1802. He published in 1846 a volume of poems, which are commended. He has also written some prose works, among which is "Religious Charac- teristics." Airey, a're, (Sir Richard,) a British officer, born in 1803, served in the Crimean war, 1854-55, as quarter- master-general. He became lieutenant-general in 1862. Airy, a're, (George Bid'dell,) an English astrono- mer, born at Alnwick, Northumberland, in 1801, was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he was elected a Fellow in 1824. He became Lucasian profes- sor of mathematics at Cambridge in 1826, and Plumian professor of astronomy in 1828. In 1835 he was ap- pointed astronomer royal and director of the Observa- tory at Greenwich, the efficiency of which he increased by improved methods and new instruments. He was elected in 1836 a Fellow of the Royal Society, from which he lias received the Copley and Royal medals. He pub- h'shed in 1846 an important "Abridgment of the Planet- ary and Lunar Observations from 1750 to 1830." Among his works are the articles " Figure of the Earth," and " Tides and Weaves," in the " Encyclopaedia Metropoli tana," and the article " Gravitation," in the " Penny C»'- clopaedia." Aischah. See Ayeshah. Aisse, a's Alcazar, de, da al-kd'thaR, (Baltazar,) a Spanish poet, who lived at Seville about 1600. He composed many " redondillas," and was highly commended by Cer- vantes in his "Canto de Caliope." See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Alcazar, de, written also Alcasar, (Luis,) a Span- ish Jesuit, born at Seville in 1554. He wrote on the Apocalypse. Died in 1613. Alcazova. See Alca^oba. Alcedo, de, da dl-sa^'Do, (Antonio,) a native of Spanish America, published at Madrid in 1786 a valu- able work on the geography of America, " Diccionario Geografico-historico de la? Jndias Occidentales 6 Ame- rica," (5 vols.) Scarcely anything is known of his life. Alcee. See AlC/*;us. Al-ges'tis, [Gr. 'AXKrjGTtg or 'MneaTi] ; Fr. Alceste, Srs^st^J the daughter of Pelias and wife of Admetus, King of Thessaly, is fabled to have prevented the death of her husband by offering to die for him. Tradition adds that she was rescued from the realms of death by Hercules. The story of her heroic devotion forms the subject of one of the best tragedies of Euripides. APge-tas [Gr. 'Ahiha^\ I., King of Epirus, was an ally of the Athenians. He reigned about 375 B.C. Al'cetas II., King of Epirus, was a grandson of Al- cetas I. He was killed by his own subjects, and was succeeded by Pyrrhus. APcetas, a brother of Perdiccas, the favourite of Alexander the Great. After the death of his brother, 321 B.C., he killed himself, to avoid falling into the hands of Antigonus. (See Perdiccas.) Alchabitius, al-ka-bish'e-us, [Arab. Abdalazeez or A]n:)ALAZiz,] an Arabian astrologer, who lived at Alep]:)o about the middle of the tenth century. Alchfred. See Alfred. Al-ehin'dus or Al-kinMus, [Arab, Al-Kin'dee or Alkindi,] a noted Arabian astrologer, physician, and writer, born about the end of the eighth century. He lived at the court of Al-Mamoon, Caliph of Bagdad. He wrote many works, in one of which he pretended to explain the action of medicines by the principles of mathematics and music. Alciati, dl-cha'tee, [Fr. Alciat, tl^se-$',] (Andrea,) a celebrated lawyer of Milan, born in 1492. He became professor of law in the University of Avignon in 15 18, and afterwards filled the same chair in Bourgcs, (1528 to 1532,) and subsequently in Bologna, Pavia, and Fer- rara. He died at I'avia in 1550. Though possessed of popular and brilliant talents, he was far from being a profound jurist. He left " Commentaries on the Digest," and many other legal works. "Alciati," says Ilallam, "was the first who taught the lawyers to write with purity and elegance. Erasmus has applied to him the eulogy of Cicero on Scaevola, that he was the most juiisprudent of orators and the most elo- quent of lawyers." (See "Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") See "Vita Alciati," prefixed to his "Emblemata," published by Claude Mignault in 1581 ; Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." Alciati, (Francesco,) a nephew of the preceding, and tutor to the celebrated Saint Carlo Borromeo, born in 1522, was made cardinal in 1565. Died in 1580. Alciati, (Giovanni Paolo,) an Italian Protestant of the sixteenth century, who was accused, or at least strongly suspected, of heresy by Calvin and other re- formers, in consequence of which he retired to Dantzic, where he died about 1570. Alciati, (Terenzio,) a learned Jesuit, born at Rome in 1570. He taught divinity for seventeen years in the Jesuits' College at Rome, and wrote several works on theology. Died in 1651. Alcibiades, i\l-se-bl'a-d^z, written also Alkibi'ades, [Gr. ' AliaSuidi]^ ; Fr. Alcibiade, tl''se^be''td''; Ger. Al- cibiades, ilt-se-bee'i-d§s,] a celebrated Athenian, son of Cleinias, was born about 450 B.C. He seemed to combine all the gifts of nature and of fortune. He was descended from the noblest families and inherited one of the largest estates of Athens. He possessed remark- able personal beauty, and an intellect of wonderful strength and versatility. The ward of Pericles, and the € as 5 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s ■ as z; th as in this. (^[^^ See Explanations, p. 23.) ALCIDAMAS 78 ALCYONE lavourite pupil and companion of Socrates, he enjoyed unequalled opportunities for cultivating his talents to the highest degree. Yet all these advantages were ren- dered futile or pernicious by his fickleness and want of virtue. He was elected one of the board of generals in 419 B.C., and became the leader of the democratic party. Through his intrigues and counsels, the Athenians were involved in a war with Sparta and Syracuse, 414 B.C. About the time he was to sail for Sicily with the fleet, (in the command of which Nicias was associated with him,) he was accused of an act of sacrilege which had been recently committed, and was afterwards condemned in his absence. Upon this he joined the enemies of his country, and by his counsels contributed powerfully, though indirectly, to the destruction of the Athenian army in Sicily in 413. (See NiciAS.) Having quarrelled with the Spartans, he was recalled by the hckle popu- lace of Athens in 411, and was again intrusted with the command of the fleet. Under his conduct the Athe- nians gained several signal victories, at Cynossema and Abydos in 411 B.C., at Cyzicus in 410; and in the two following years they acquired Chalcedon and Byzan- tium. But subsequently he made an unsuccessful at- tempt on the island of Andros, and soon after his lieu- tenant in his absence was defeated at Notium, near Ephesus. He was superseded in the command of the fleet, and retired into Thrace, for he thought it unsafe to return to Athens. After the fall of Athens and the es- tablishment of the rule of the thirty tyrants, he with- drew into Asia, where he was honourably received by the satrap Pharnabazos. Not long after, the house in which he slept was attacked at night by a body of men, who set it on fire, and when he rushed out, sword in hand, dispatched him with darts and arrows, 404 B.C. It is not known whether this deed was done at the instigation of his public or his private enemies. See his life in Plutarch ; Grote, " History of Greece," vol. viii. chaps. Ixii. to Ixiv., also Ixvi. ; Thirlwall, " Historj' of Greece;" A. G. Meissner, "Alcibiades," 4vo1s., 1785-8S ; J. H. Joanin, " His- toire d' Alcibiades," 1S19; Hertzberg, " Alkibiades der Staatsmaun und Feldherr," Halle, 1853; W. Vischer, " Alcibiades und Lysau- dros,"iS45; Xenophon, " Hellenica ;" Thucvdides, "History." Al-gid'a-nias, ['AAwAi/ia^,] a Greek rhetorician, who lived about 400 B.C. He was a native of Elsa, in Asia Minor. Alcides. See Hercules. Al-9iMes, [Gr. 'AA/c£i(5;/f ; Fr. Alcide, tKs^d',] a name of Hercules, supposed to have been derived from the Greek aA/c^, (alke,) "strength." Al-gim'a-ehus, ['A?L/a'//tI\;of,] a Greek painter, sup- posed to have lived in the time of Alexander the Great. Alcime. See Alcimus. Al-cim'e-nes, ['AA/fi//ei^77^-,] a Greek comic poet, who is supposed to have lived at Athens about 500 B.C. Al'ci-mus, [Gr. "Aliunog ; Fr. Alciisie, tl'sem',] (called also Ja-gi^mus [Gr. 'laKetiJiog] or Jo'a-ehim,) a Jewish high-priest, contemporary with Judas Maccaboeus, He apostatized and joined Demetrius. See I. Maccabees vii., ix. AFgi-mus A-le^thi-us, a Latin writer and rhetori- cian of the fourth century. He lived in Burdigala, (Bor- deaux.) Al-cin'o-us, [Gr. 'Midvooq,] a king of the Phaeacians, whose beautiful gardens, described by Homer in the Odyssey, have afforded a favourite thenie for other poets. He reigned in the island of Scheria, (now Corfu.) Alcinous, a Greek philosopher, who wrote an intro- duction to the philosophy of Plato. He is supposed to have flourished in the time of the early Roman em- perors. Alcionio, (Pietro.) See Alcyonius. Al'91-phron, ['AA/c%jwv,] a Greek epistolary writer, supposed to have lived about 200 A.D. His works are interesting as exhibiting a picture of the domestic life of that period. The number of his letters is above seventy. His language is elegant and purely Attic. Alcmaeon, ilk-mee'on, [Gr. 'Ahi/xatcov ; Fr. Alc- MEON, tlk^mVoN',] a son of Amphiaraus and Eriphyle, renowned as the leader of the Epigoni in their successful expedition against Thebes. Alcmae'on, [Gr. 'AXKuaujv,] a natural philosopher, native of Crotona, lived in the sixth century B.C., and was a pupil of Pythagoras. He is said to have been the first who dissected animals in order to study anatomy. Alcmaeon, (the lyric poet.) See Alcman. Alcniceonidse, Alk-me-on'i-de, [Gr. ' AXKfiaujv'i6ai,] one of the most distinguished of the noble families of Athens. Alcman, ^Ik'man, [Gr. 'A7Mfiav,] called Alcmse'on ['A'AKfxcuui'] by the later Greek WTiters, the chief lyric poet of Sparta, flourished about 650 B.C. He was origin- ally a Lydian slave, born at Sardis, and was emanci- pated in his youth and nationalized by the Spartans. He wrote Parthenia, paeans, bridal hymns, and other poems, which were highly prized by the ancients. Some beau- tiful fragments of his works are extant. He was con- sidered by some ancient writers the inventor of erotic poetry. To Alcman was assigned the first place in the canon of lyric poets, by the Alexandrian grammarians. See ScHOELL, "Histoire de la Litterature Grecque." Alcmene, ilk-mee'ne, or Alc-me'na, [Gr. 'Alu- fj.7ivr] ; Fr. Alcmene, tlk'man',] the daughter of Elec- tryon. King of Mycena;, and wife of Amphitryon. She bore Hercules to Jupiter, who, it is said, in the absence of her husband, deceived her by assuming the form of Amphitryon. Alcock or Alcok, auKkok, (John,) a native of York- shire, England, was sent as ambassador by Edward IV. to John II. of Castile, and afterwards became success- ively Bishop of Rochester, of Worcester, and of Ely. He was also tutor to Prince Edward of Wales, and president of his council. He held the chancellorship a short time under both Edward IV. and Henry VIII. Died in 1500. He was a patron of learning, and founded Jesus College, Cambridge. Alcock, (John,) an English musical composer, born in London in 1715. Died in 1806. Alcock, (Thomas,) an English surgeon, born in 1784; died in 1833. AFcon ["Aa.'cw?-'] or AFco, a Greek statuary of un- known epoch, noted for having made an iron statue of Hercules. Alcott, auKkot, (Amos Bronson,) an American writer on education, born in Wolcott, Connecticut, in 1799. Alcott, (William A.,) M.D., an American reformer and educational writer, born in Wolcott, Connecticut, in 1798. He studied, medicine at New Haven, but, after following the profession for a few years, united with Wil- liam C. Woodbridge in the preparation of his school geographies and atlases, and in editing the "Annals of Education," etc. He has since laboured zealously in the cause of educational reforms, and lectured extensively on the best modes of instruction, hygiene, physiology, etc. Besides editing and contributing to various journals, he has published many volumes on educational and kindred subjects. Some of his works have enjoyed a great popu- larity, especially "The House I Live in ;" "The Young Man's Guide;" " The Young Woman's Guide;" "The Young Mother;" "The Young Housekeeper," etc. Alcuin, dKkwin, or AFcwin, an English prelate, who passes for the most learned man of his age, and whose full name was Flac'cus Albi'niis Alcui'nus, was born at York about 735 A.D. About 780 he accepted an in- vitation to the court of Charlemagne, with whom he lived thenceforth on terms of intimate friendship. The court of that monarch, it is said, became a school of w^hich Alcuin was the head. According to some writers, he founded schools at Aix-la-Chapelle and Paris. He was appointed in 796 abbot of St. Martin at Tours, where he died in 804. He left many epistles, poems, and theo- logical works, which are among the best specimens of mediaeval Latinity. A life of Alcuin, by Professor F. Lorenz, of Halle, has been translated into English, (1837.) See also Bahr, " Geschichte der Romlschen Literatur;" '* Bio- graphia Britannica Literaria," 1S42. Alcyone (il-sT'o-ne) or Hal-gy'o-ne, [Gr. 'AA- Kv6v7j,] (Myth.,) a daughter of ^Eolus, who became the wife of Ceyx. They were remarkable for their mutual and de- voted love. Ceyx having perished in a storm at sea, Alcyone, overcome by grief and despair, threw herself into the waves. To reward their conjugal devotion, the a, e, T, 0, u, y, i, 6, d, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fdr, fill, fAt; met; n6t; good; moon; jLCrONIUS 79 ALDRICH gods transformed them into kingfishers. The sea, as ancient writers tell us, is always calm and the weather delightful during the period in which these birds build their nests and hatch their young: hence the origin of the expression "halcyon days," signifying those of peace and happiness. Al-gy-o'ui-us or Al-9i-o'ni-us, (Petrus,) [It. Al- ciONio, al-cho'ne-0, Pietro,] a distinguished Italian scholar, was born at Venice about 1490. He translated into elegant Latin several works of Aristotle, and be- came professor of Greek at Florence about 1521. His most celebrated work is " Medices Legatus de Exsilio," (1522,) a dissertation on Exile. He was erroneously suspected of having taken the finest passages of this work from Cicero's lost treatise on Glory. He died in Rome in 1527. See ;Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d' Italia ;" Paolo Giovio, "Elogia Virorum ulustrium," IJale, 1677. Al-Damiri. See Addemeeree. Alday, aul'de, (John,) an English translator, of whom little is known. He translated a popular French work by Boaistuau, (or Boistuau,) entitled " The Theatre of the World," ("Theatrum Mundi," 15S1.) Aide, van, van alMeh, (Hendrik,) a Dutch painter and engraver, lived at Amsterdam about 1650. Aldebert. See Adalbert. Aldegati, al-da-ga'tee, (Marco or Marcantonio,^ an Italian poet, born at Mantua, lived in the latter part of the fifteenth century. Aldegoude, Saint. See Marnix, (Philip van.) Aldegrever, alMeh-gRi'ver, or Aldegraef, aKdeh- gRef, (Heinrich,) an eminent German painter and en- graver, born at Soest, Westphalia, in 1502, v.-as a pupil of Albert Diirer, whose style he closely imitated. He left a great number of engravings, mostly from his own designs. They are finely executed in the Gothic stvle. Among his plates are " Susanna and the Elders ;" " The Labours of Hercules and portraits of Luther and Me- lanchthon. His paintings are not numerous. Died about 1562. ! Aldeguela, de, di al-di-ga'la, (Tosef or Jose Mar- \ TIN,) a Spanish architect, born in 1730; died in 1802. j Al-Demiri. See Addemeeree. Alden, aul'den, (John,) one of the first settlers of' Plymouth, Massachusetts, came over in the Maj-flower j in 1620. He was a magistrate in that colony for more than fifty years. He forms one of the principal charac- ters in Longfellow's poem on " Miles Standish's Court- ship." Died in 16S7, ^ged about eighty-nine. Alden, (Timothy,) an American clergyman, born in Massachusetts in 1771, was the founder'and first presi- dent of Alleghany College, Meadville, Pennsylvania. He published a collection of epitaphs and inscriptions, in 5 vols. Died in 1839. Alderete, de, da al-di-ra't^i, or Aldrete, Sl-dRa'ti, (Bernardo,) a learned Spanish writer and priest, born at Malaga about 1550. He was distinguished for his knowledge of Hebrew, Arabic, and Greek, and was re- puted one of the best Spanish writers of his time. Among his works is "The Origin and Principles of the Castilian Language," (1606,) which, says Gavangos, is the best on that subject. The date of his death is un- known. Alderete, de, (Diego Gracian,) a Spanish Hellenist of the sixteenth century-, was employed as private secre- tary by Charles V. and by Philip II., at whose court he enjoyed great favour. He made good Spanish versions of Xenophon, (1552,) Thucydides, (1554,) and other Greek writers. He died at an'advanced age about 1590. Alderete, de, (Jose,) a younger brother of Bernardo, noticed above, was rector of the College of Granada, and author of a treatise "De Religiosa Disciplina tuenda," (1615.) Died in 1616, aged about fifty-six. See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Alderoti, ai-di-ro'tee, (Taddeo,) a celebrated phy- sician, and a friend of Dante, was born at Florence in 1215. Died in 1295. See Vn.LANi, " Vie d' Alderoti." Alderson, aul'der-son, (John,) M.D., a distinguished English physician, born in Suffolk in I7;8, practised in Hull. Died in 1829. Aldhelm, Sld'h^lm, Saint, a distinguished Saxon ecclesiastic, born about the middle of the seventh cen- tury. He was made Bishop of Sherborn in 705, and died in 709. Aldigieri. See Alticherio. Aldini, il-dee^nee, (Antonio,) Count, an Italian statesman, born at Bologna in 1756, was a nephew of Galvani. Having become a political friend of Bonaparte, he was chosen president of the Council of Slate of the Cisalpine Republic, and in 1S05 secretary of state in the kingdom of Italy. He continued to live at Milan after it passed into the power of Austria. Died in 1826. Aldini, (Giovanni,) a distinguished natural philoso- pher, nephew of the celebrated Galvani, and brother of the preceding, was born at Bologna in 1762. In 1798 he was appointed professor of physics in the university of his native city. In 1S07 he became a member of the council of state at Milan, and Knight of the Iron Crown. Died in 1834. He has left essays on galvanism, steam, the hydraulic lever, and other subjects. See Tip.\LDO, " Blografia degli Italiani illustri." * Aldini, (Tobia,) an Italian botanist of Cesena, wrote a "Description of the Garden of Cardinal Farnese at Rome," (1625.) Aldobrandini, al-do-bRan-dee'nee, (CiNZio,) a nephew of Pope Clement VIII., born at Sinigaglia, be- came cardinal in 1593. He was a friend of Tasso, who dedicated to him his "Jerusalem Delivered," (" Gerusa- lemme Liberata.") Aldobrandini, (Silvestro,) a learned Italian jurist, born in 1499. He was for some years professor of law at Pisa. Died in 1558. His son Ippolito became pope in 1592. (See Clement VIII.) He had a son, Gio- vanni, and two grandsons, Pietro and Cinzio, (noticed above,) who became cardinals. Aldobrandini, (Tomm.\so,) a son of Silvestro, born at Rome about 1540, was a brother of Clement VIII. He produced a translation of Diogenes Laertius, (1594.) He died in the prime of life. Aldobrandino, dl-do-bRin-dee'no, (called Fioren- TiNo, or the "Florentine,") an Italian physician, prac- tised at Sienna, and died at Florence in 1327. Aldo Manuzio. See Manutius. Aldred, al'drcd or dlMred, surnamed the Glosser, [Lat. Glossa'tor,] an Anglo-Saxon writer, author of the " Book of Durham," lived about 8co a.d. Aldred, aKdred, [Lat. Aldre'dus, called also Al- re'dus and Ealre'dus,] an archbishop of York in the eleventh century. He enjoyed high favour with Ed- ward the Confessor. In 1066 William the Conqueror was crowned by him. Died in 1069. Aldrete. See Alderete. Aldric, alMrik, [Lat. Aldri^'cus,] Saint, was born in France about Soo. He was elected to the bishopric of Le Mans in 832, in which office he acquired the highest character for wisdom and sanctity. Died about 856. Aldrich, auld'ritch or auld'rij, (Henry,) D.D., an eminent English scholar and divine, born at Westmin- ster in 1647, was educated at Oxford. He became a tutor of the college of Christ Church, and edited several Greek classics. In the reign of James II. he was one of the most able defenders of the Protestant cause. He was appointed dean of Christ Church, Oxford, in 16S9, He possessed great skill in music, and composed numer- ous services and anthems which are used in the English cathedrals. His " Compendium of the Art of Logic" (" Artis Logicae Compendium") was extensively used in England until the publication of Whately's "Elements of Logic" in 1826. See M.A.CAULAv's "History of England," vol. iii. ch. xiv.; Hawicins's "History of Music" Aldrich, auld'ritch, (James,) an American poet and journalist, born in Suffolk county. New York, in 1810. He at first engaged in mercantife pursuits, but subse- quently devoted himself entirely to literature. Died in 1856. He edited several popular periodicals, and was author of numerous poems. See Grisavold's " Poets and Poetry of America." Aldrich or Aldridge, auld'rij, (Robert,) born in Buckinghamshire, England, became Bishop of Carlisle in 1537, and died in 1555. € ad ^; 5 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k. guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in tkis. ([[^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) ALDRICH 80 ALEE BET Aldrich, (Thomas Bailey,) an American poet, and assistant editor of tlie "New Yorlv Home Journal," was born at Portsmouth, New Hampsliire, in 1836. He is author of " Miscellaneous Poems," " The Course of True Love Never Did Run Smooth," etc. Aldridge, aukKrij, (Ira,) a negro tragedian, born near Baltimore, in Maryland, about 1 810. He early ex- hibited uncommon powers of mind, acquiring knowledge with great facility, and learning, among other things, to speak the German language. Having attracted the notice of Kean, the eminent tragedian, he accompanied him, as an attendant, to Europe, and at Belfast appeared on the stage in the character of Othello to Kean's lago. He subsequently rose to distinction as an actor, person- ating with great success a wide range of characters, both in Great Britain and on the continent. Particular honours were conferred on him by the King of Prussia and the Emperor of Austria, and in 1857 the King of Sweden invited him to visit Stockholm. Died in 1867. See " Leben unci Kiinstlerlaufbahn des Negers I. Aldrige," Ber- lin, 185*. Aldrighetti, al-dRe-get'tee, an Italian physician and medical writer, born at Padua in 1573; died in 1631. Aldringer, alt'ring-er, or Altringer, (Johann,) an officer in the Thirty Years' War, was born in the duchy of Luxemburg, of an obscure family. From a common soldier in the Imperial (Austrian) army, he rose gradu- ally to the highest rank, and after the death of Tilly, in 1632, was made field-marshal. He was killed while de- fending the bridge of Landshut against the Swedes in 1634. Aldrovande. See Aldrovandus. Aldrovaiidi. See Aldrovandus. Aldrovandini, M-dRo-vin-dee^nee, a family of artists who lived in Bologna in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The most celebrated were the following : Aldrovandini, (Pompeo Agostino,) born in 1677, died in 1739. Like the others of his family, he was dis- tinguished as an architectural and decorative painter. He painted in oil and fresco, in Vienna, Dresden, and Italy. Aldrovandini, (Tommaso,) a painter of Bologna, born in 1653, w^as a cousin of the preceding. Died in 1736. Al-dro-vanMus, [Fr. Aldrovande, aKdRoVSNd'; It. Aldrovandi, al-dRo-van'dee,] (Ulysses,) a great Italian naturalist, born of a noble family, at Bologna, about 1 524. Having studied botany, medicine, and other sciences, he graduated in medicine in 1553, and obtained the chair of natural history at Bologna in 1560. Lie pur- sued his favourite studies with unremitting zeal, and spent his fortune in collecting specimens and procuring en- gravings by the best artists. The result of his labours is a "Natural History," in 13 volumes, of which four ap- peared during his life. He published three volumes on Birds, 1 599-1 603, and one volume on Insects, 1602. The other volumes were edited by various persons. His works are praised for their completeness, but are defi- cient in scientific arrangement and condensation. "The book of Aldrovandus," says Cuvier, "can only be re- garded as an enormous compilation, without taste or ge- nius : the plan and materials of it are in a great measure borrowed from Gesner." Died at Bologna in 1607. Buffon praises the method of Aldrovandus and his fidelity of description. See Fantuzzi, " Memorie della Vita d'UIisse Aldrovandi," 1774; Hauler, " Bibliotheca Botanica ;" Jocher, " Allgemeines Gelehrten- Lexikon." Aldilin, aicKwin, [Lat. Aldui'nus or Aldov/nus,] written also Aud^win, Aud'oin, and sometimes Hieldui'nus, the first king of the second dynasty of Longobards or Lombards, reigned about the middle of the sixth century. The emperor Justinian made an alli- ance with him, and gave him Pannonia, (now the south- western part of Hungary,) and the Longobard king sent him in return 5000 mercenaries to fight in the imperial army. (See Alboin.) Alduinus. See Alduin. Aldus Manutius. See Manutius. Ale, ^^leh, (Egidius,) a Flemish painter, who was born at Liege, and worked at Rome. Died in 1689. Aleander and Aleandre. See Aleandro. Aleandro, a-la-an^dRo, [Lat. Alean'der ; Fr. Ale- andre, t'la'oNdR'',] (Girolamo,) a distinguished Italian scholar, born near Friuli in 1480, was reputed one of the most learned men of his time. He became professor of belles-lettres in the University of Paris in 1508, and libra- rian of the Vatican in 15 19. In 1520 he was sent by Pope Leo X. as nuncio to Germany, to oppose the doctrines of Luther, against whom he showed a violent hostility. He was the redacteiir of the edict against Luther which the emperor and diet adopted. In 1525 he was taken prisoner at Pavia with Francis I., whom he had accom- panied as nuncio. He was made a cardinal in 1538, and died in 1542, leaving an unfinished work on holding coun- cils, ("De Concilio habendo.") See D'AuBiGNE, "History of the Reformation;" Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d'ltalia ;" A. Victorelli, " Vie d' Aleandre," in a collec- tion of lives of Pontiffs, published at Rome in 1630, 2 vols. Aleandro, (Girolamo the younger,) a very learned Italian poet and antiquary, born in Friuli in 1574, was a grand-nephew of the preceding. Lie was remarkable for the precocity of his intellect, and composed, at the age of sixteen, seven beautiful odes, called "The Tears of Peni- tence," (" Le Lagrime di Penitenza.") He was for about twenty years secretary to Cardinal Bandini, at Rome. He was also for some time secretary to Pope Urban VIII. Among his works are "Penitential Psalms," (in Latin. 1593,) and an antiquarian treatise entitled "An- tiquae Tabulae Marmorere," etc., (1616.) Died in 1629. See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia;" Gasparo de Simeoni, " In morte di G. Aleandro orazione," 1636. Aleaume, t'la'Sm', (Louis,) a French litkh-atew, born in 1525, died in 1596. He wrote Latin verses. Alecto. See Eumenides. Alee or Ali, cVlee, or Ali-Ibn-Abi-T^iib, a'lee ib'n iVbee tJ'lib, [i.e. " Alee the son of Aboo-Talib :" see note to Aboolfeda, on page 35,) surnamed the Lion op God, an Arabian caliph, born at Mecca about 600 A.D., was a cousin-german of the prophet Mohammed. He was one of the first to embrace the new faith, which he afterwards defended with uneciualled zeal and valour. He married Fatimah, a daughter of Mohammed. Upon the death of the prophet in 632, Alee and Aboo-Bekr were rival candidates for the succession, which the latter obtained. This contest was the origin of the great schism between the Soonnites (orthodox) and Sheeites, the latter of whom were partisans of Alee. On the death of Othman in 655, Alee became caliph ; but he was obliged to maintain his cause in battle against Moa- weeyeh, a powerful rival. Three fanatics conspired to assassinate both of these rivals in order to end the war, and Alee was killed by one of them in 660 A.D. He left a son, Hassan, who became caliph. Alee is a popular hero, especially with the Persians, who belong to the sect of Sheeites. He is also celebrated as an author of maxims and sentences. See Irving, "Mahomet and his Successors," vol. ii. ; Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap, iv.; Ockley, "History of the Saracens;" Elmacin, " Historia Saracenica ;" _ D'Herbelot, " Bibliotheque Orientale ;" Noel des Vergers, " Histoire de 1' Ara- ble," 1846. Alee or Ali, (Abool-Hassan, ^'hobV has'san,) King of Granada, ascended the throne in 1466. He renewed the war against Ferdinand and Isabella in I48i,and was defeated at Alhama. In 1482 his subjects revolted, and proclaimed his son Boabdil, or Aboo-Abdillah, king. Alee died soon after that date. Alee, Ali, or Aali, a^ee, a Turkish historian, who wrote a history of the Ottoman Empire. Died in 1597. Alee- (or Ali-) ar-Ridha, i'lee ar-r5d'5, a descendant of Alee the son-in-law of Mohammed, born in 75^ A. D., was considered one of the legitimate successors of the prophet. He married a daughter of the caliph Al-Ma- moon. Died in 819. Alee Beg, (of Poland.) See Alt Beg. Alee-Best^mee or Ali-Bestami, d'lee bgs-ta'mee, a famous sheikh and learned Mohammedan writer, born at Llerat in 1400. He came to Turkey in 1443, and re- sided at the court of the sultan Mahomet II. He wrote on ethics, grammar, philosophy, etc. Died in 1470. Alee (or Ali) Bey, aHee ba, or Alee Beg, a Mam- a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, s/wri; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; JLEE-CHORLEELEE 8i ALE M AND el like chief, was born in 1728, on or near Mount Caucasus. Having been taken to Cairo when a child, he was sold to an otiicer of the Janissaries, who adopted and educated him. He soon distinguished himself by his courage and ability. Having at length got possession of the chief power in Egypt in 1768, he aimed to make it an inde- pendent kingdom. In 1770 he attempted to conquer Palestine and Syria from the Turks, which led to a long contest, in which Alee was at length slain in 1776. Alee-Chor-lee'lee, (or Ali-Chorlili,) sometimes written -Chourlouli, a vizier of Sultan Ahmed HI, during the time that Charles XII. of Sweden was in Turkey in 1709-10. He was an enemy of Charles XII. Died in 1711, aged about forty. Alee-Ibn-Hammood, or Ali-Ibn-Hammoud, (or -Hammud,) i''Iee Ib'n ham-mood', the founder of the dynasty of Hammood'ites in Spain. He defeated in bat- tle and killed Suleiman, an aspirant to the throne. Died i'l 1017. Alee-Ibnool-Abbas, or Ali-Ibnu-l- Abbas, cVlee ii/nool Sb'bas'', (often called Haly Abb^s,) a cele- brated Arabian physician, who was probably a native of Persia, and died about 994. Little is known of the events of his life. His work, commonly known as " Royal Book," (" Liber Regius,") is considered by some as the best or most complete treatise on medicine which has come down to us from ancient times. Alee- (or Ali-) Ibn-Rodhwan, a^ee ib'n r6d^vSn^ (often called Haly Rodoan,) a noted Arabian physician, born near Cairo in Egypt, flourished in the early part of the eleventh century. Alee-Ibn-Saeed, (or Ali-Ibn-Said,) d^ee Ib'n sa'eed', a distinguished Mohammedan geographer and historian, born at Granada in 1214; died about 1286. Alee- (or Ali-) Ibn-Yoonas, (-Yunas or-Younis,) 3,'lee Tl)'n yoo''nas, surnamed A]/oc)i, Has'san, an emi- nent Arabian astronomer, born at Cairo. He was author of astronomical tables, which were considered the best in the language. Died in 1008. Alee- (or Ali-) Ibn- (Ben-) Yoosiif, (or -Yusuf,) a'lee ib'n yoo'soof, a sultan of Africa and Spain of the Almoravide dynasty, began to reign in 1107. He waged war against the Christian princes of Spain, who captured a number of his cities. Died in 1 142-3. A'lee-Koo'jee, [Gcr. spelling, Ali Kudscjii,] an Ottoman astronomer, who lived at Constantinople. Died in 1474. Alee-Koolee- (or Ali-Kuli-) Khan, a'lee koo'lee Kan, a nephew of the famous Nadir Shah of Persia, succeeded that monarch in 1747. He was dethroned and deprived of sight in 1748. A'lee-Mo-ez-zeen', (Ali-Moezzin or -Muezzin,) Kapudan Pasha under Sultan Selim I., was defeated and killed in the great naval battle of Lepanto, (1571,) where he commanded the Turkish fleet. Alee- (Ali-) Mustafa-Ben- Ahmed, S'lee moos'ta-fS ben dii'med, an excellent Turkish historian and indif- ferent poet, born at Gallipoli in 1542. His chief work is a universal history, called "Mine of Information." Died in 1599. Alee-Sheer- Ameer, or Ali-Shir-Amir, aOee' sheer i-meer', a Persian poet and statesman, born about 1440. He became vizier or prime minister of Sultan Husain of Persia about 1470. He has been styled the Mae- cenas of his age and country, and had a high reputation as a poet. Died about 1500. Alee-Welee-Zade, or Ali-Weli-Zade, S'lee weKee zaMeh, suinamcd Arslan, aRs-lan', (i.e. the " Lion,") and commonly called Alee (or Ali) Pasha, was born at Tep- aleen, or Tepalen, in Albania, about 1750. He began his career as a robber. At one time, when he was in a state of extreme destitution, after having sold his sword to avoid starvation, he accidentally discovered, partially buried in the earth, a large iron box filled with gold. With this he levied two thousand Albanian soldiers. From this time forward fortune seemed to smile upon almost all his enterprises. He possessed extraordinary courage, shrewdness, and strength of mind, and well knew how- to take advantage of the weakness of the Porte, and of the troubles in which it was involved with the surround- ing nations. In return for his services in the war against Austria and Russia, the sultan appointed him Pasha of Trikala in 1787. Soon after, by intrigue, bribery, and force, he caused himself to be declared Pasha of Yanina, (Janina,) by which title he is generally known. He sub- sequently rose, step by step, to be the most powerful subordinate prince (subject he could scarcely be called) in the Ottoman Empire. In the wars which convulsed Europe after the breaking out of the French Revolution, Alee Pasha took part now with this power and now with that, as it suited his interest. Though the Porte had abundant reason to distrust and fear him, its weakness obliged it to temporize. At length, in 1820, the Sultan Mahmood II., who had too much pride and energy to endure any longer the greatness and independent spirit of Alee, sent against him a powerful army ; and, though the Pasha of Yanina strove to avail himself of the aid of the Greeks, who were then beginning to assert their in- dependence, he lost one fortress after another, and was at last entrapped by the craft of Khurshid Pasha, the commander of the sultan's forces. Hassan Pasha was dispatched for Alee's head. No sooner had he announced his errand than Alee, seizing his pistols, rose with the fury of a lion, broke with one shot the thigh of his op- ponent, and with two others killed two of Hassan's lieu- tenants, but was shot dead himself the same moment. This occurred in P'ebruary, 1822. See Mai.te-Brun, "Tableau historique et politique de la Vie d'Ali Pacha;" Beauchamp, " Histoire du fameux Ali Pacha," 1822 ; Davexpokt, ''Life of Ali Pasha," 1837 ; article on Ali Pacha in the "North American Review," January, 1824; Pouqueville, " Memoire sur la Vie et la Puissance d'Ali Pacha; " Vaudoncourt, " INIenioirs on the Ionian Islands, including the Life of Ali Pacha." Alefeld, a'leh-felt', (Georg Ludwig,) a German physician and writer, born at Giessen in 1732, became professor of medicine and physics at that place in 1758, and died in 1774. Alegambe, .V!eh-g6Mb' or aneh-gSm^beh, (Philip,) a learned Flemish Jesuit, born at Brussels in 1592. He became superior of the house of the Jesuits at Rome, where he died in 1652. He was the principal author of an excellent work entitled " Library of the Writers of the Society of Jesus," (" Kibliotheca Scriptorum Societatis Jesu," 1643,) clevoted to the biography and bibliography of Jesuit writers. Alegre, d', da1:\gR', (Yves or Ives, ^v,) Baron, a cele- brated French captain, who served in Italy in the time of Charles VIII. and Louis XII., from 1495 to 1512, when he fell at the head of his victorious troops in the battle of Ravenna. Alegre, d', (Yves,) Marquis, a distinguished French general in the time of Louis XIV. He became marshal of France in 1724. Died in 1733, aged about eighty. Alejandro, the Spanish for Alexander, which see. Alekseief or Alexejev, J-lgx-a'-y^f, (Feodor Ya- KOVLEVITCII,) a Russian architectural painter, born in 1755. He excelled in perspective, and in a skilful selec- tion of the point of view from which his pictures were drawn. Died in 1821. Alemagna, di, d6 a-L\-man'ya, (Giusto,) [Lat. Jus'- TUS DE AlEma'nia,] an eminent artist, probably of Ger- man origin, painted at Genoa about 1450. APe-man, [Fr. pron._ trmSN'',] (Louis,) a distin- guished French ecclesiastic, born in 1390, was made car- dinal in 1426. For his resolute defence of the authority of the councils in opposition to the despotism of the Papal see, Eugenius IV. issued a bull depriving him of all his ecclesiastical dignities ; but these were restored by Nicholas V., the successor of Eugenius. Aleman died in 1452. Aleman, I-la-m^n', (Mateo,) a Spanish writer of the time of Philip II., born at Seville about the middle of the sixteenth century. He was the author of a celebrated novel, "Guzman de Alfarache," (gooth-m^n' di Jl-fi- ri'chi,) (1599,) which was translated into many lan- guages ; and of a few other works of less importance. Aleman is said to have been a man of sterling integrity as well as of great wit and judgment. He was employed twenty years by the king in the department of finances. Alemand, tl^mSN^ (Louis Augustin,) a French writer, born at Grenoble in 1653. He practised law and medicine at Grenoble, and displayed both judgment and € as k; 9 as s; g /lard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, ti-illcd; s as z; th as in this. (S^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 6 ALEMANN 8 2 ALENCON erudition in his works, among which is a collection of critical remarks on the history of words, called " New Observations, or Civil War of the French respecting Language," ("Nouvelles Observations, ou Guerre Civile des Fran9ais sur la Langue," 1688.) Died in 1728. Alemann, d'leh-mdn', (Conrad,) a German writer, born at Magdeburg in 1309, Died in 1398. Alemaniii, a-li-mdn'nee, sometimes written Ala- manno, a-la-man'no, (Antonio,) a Florentine poet, who flourished about 1500. He is cited for the purity of his style in the " Vocabolario della Crusca." Alemanni, (Giovanni Battista,) a son of Luigi, the celebrated poet noticed below, born in 1 5 19, became a privy counsellor of Francis L, and, in 1558, Bishop of Mascon, (Macon.) He wrote several sonnets and let- ters. Died in 1581. Alemanni, written also Alamanni, a-ld-man'nee, (Luigi,) an eminent Italian poet, born at Florence in 1495. removed to Paris about 1530, and passed many years at the court of Francis L, in whom he found a liberal patron, and by whom he was sent as ambassador to Charles V. in 1544. He was also patronized by Henry H. His chief work is an excellent didactic poem on agriculture, "La Coltivazione," (1546,) which, says Ginguene, "abounds in elegant imitations of Virgil's Georgics, and in true and poetical descriptions of the rural beauties of Italy and France." He was author of numerous sonnets, epigrams, elegies, satires, etc. Died at Amboise in 1556. See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia;" Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana:" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Alemanni, (Luigi,) a grand-nephew of the poet of that name, was born at Florence in 1558. He was a good classical scholar, and author of several short Latin poems. Died in 1603. Alemanni, (Niccolo,) an antiquary of Greek origin, born at Ancona in 1583. He became a priest, and was for some time professor of Greek in Rome. In 16 14 he was appointed librarian of the Vatican. He pub- lished, besides other works, the ninth book of the his- tory of Procopius, with a Latin version and notes. Died in 1626. Alemans, trmSN^, a miniature-painter of rare merit, resided at Brussels in the early part of the eighteenth century. His works were in great demand, and com- manded very high prices. Alembek, d'lem-bek", (Louis Valerian,) a Polish poet, born at Leopol about 1620. Died about 1690. Alembert, d', di'ldN'baiR', (Jean le Roud— leh r6N,) an eminent French geometer and philosopher, born in Paris on the i6th of November, 171 7, was an illegitimate son of M. Destouches-Canon, a commissary of artillery, and Madame de Tencin, an authoress. Having been found exposed in the street, he was placed by the police in the care of a glazier's wife, named Rous- seau, by whom he was brought up. A few days after his birth his parents settled upon him an annuity of 1200 livres. It is said that after his remarkable talents be- came known his mother discovered herself to him, but he replied, " Je ne connais qu'une mere, c'est la vitriere," (" I know but one mother — the glazier's wife.") He was educated in the College Mazarin, which he entered in 1730. After he left college he studied mathematics and law, and continued to reside with his foster-mother for many years. Having written a " Memoir on the Integral Calculus," he was elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1741. He published, in 1 743, a celebrated " Treatise on Dynamics," containing an important principle which will always be known by the name of D' Alembert, and which initiated a revolution in physico-mathematical sciences. The prin- ciple in question amounts simply to this, that every force applied to a system must produce its entire effect some- where, if not at the point of application, then somewhere else. In other words, there is an absolute equality at all times betzueen the entire anioujit of force applied and the sum total of the effects produced: thus, one portion of the force may be spent in neutralizing an antagonistic force, — for example, in overcoming the momentum which a body may have already acquired ; another portion, in overcoming the resistance caused by friction ; a third, in imparting motion in a new direction. D'Alem- bert's work " On the General Theory of the Winds " gained a prize of the Academy of Berlin in 1746. He declined, in 1752, the invitation of Frederick II. of Prussia, who offered him the presidency of the Royal Academy with a liberal pension, but he accepted an un- conditional pension of 1200 francs from that monarch in 1754. From this time until his death a constant epis- tolary correspondence was maintained between him and Frederick. D'Alembert was elected to the French Academy in 1754, and received a pension of 1200 francs from Louis XV. in 1756. He declined, in 1762, an urgent invitation from Catherine II. of Russia to come to her court and direct the education of her son for a salary of 100,00c francs. About 1764 he became attached to the accomplished Mademoiselle de I'Espinasse, who lived with him twelve years, but rendered him unhappy by her growing indif- ference to him and her partiality to another. (See Espi- NASSE.) D'Alembert was for a time joint editor with Diderot of the famous " Encyclopedic, '" (commenced about 1750,) for which he wrote many mathematical articles, and an introductory discourse that was highly commended as a model of accurate thinking and elegant composition. (See Diderot.) For many years he was on terms of great intimacy with Voltaire, to whom he was as superior in justness of thought as he was in- ferior in wit and brilliancy. D'Alembert was a skeptic in the true sense of the word, {i.e. a "doubter" or "in- quirer,") but not a scoffer or blasphemer, as he has been commonly represented. We find in his published works no attacks on the Christian religion; although he did not conceal his hostility to Roman Catholicism. In 1772 he was chosen secretary of the French Acad- emy. He wrote "liloges" of the members of that insti- tution who died between 1700 and 1772. Among his numerous works are " Researches on V arious Important Points of the System of the Universe," (3 vols., 1754- 56;) "Melanges of Literature and Philosophy," (5 vols. ;) and "Elements of Philosophy," (1759.) He was a member of all the prominent learned societies of Eu- rope. Died in Paris on the 29th of October, 1783. Lacroix, in the "Biographic Universelle," expresses the opinion that D'Alembert should be ranked as high as any contemporary geometer, when we consider the difficulties he overcame, the intrinsic value of the methods w^hich he invented, and the ingenuity {finesse) of his ideas. "His literary works," says Lacroix, "constantly di- rected to the perfection of reason and the propagation of correct ideas, were highly appreciated by all men of sense, {bons esprits.) All of them are remarkable for a pure diction, a neat style, and strong or pithy thought." His character presents many amiable traits, among which are candour, modesty, and beneficence. See " ]5lo_c;e de D'Alembert," par Condorcet; a notice in the first volume of the edition of his literary and philosophical works published by J. B. Bastiem, Paris, 18 vols., 1805 ; and the notice pre- fixed to an edition of his works by Bossange, 5 vols., 1821 ; N. Ro- sen VON RosENSTEiN, " Lefnadsbeskrifniug ofvcr J. L. d'Alembert." Stockholm, 8vo, 17S7; " Biographie Universelle." Alen, van, vin a'len, (or van OTen,) (John, or Jan,) a Dutch painter, born in 1631, imitated Melchioi Hon- dekoeter. Died at Amsterdam in 1698. Alence, d', dt'lSN'sa', (Joachim,) a French astron- omer and physicist, born in Paris. Died in 1707. Alengon, a-len'son or S']5n''s6n', Counts, and after- wards Dukes of, a distinguished line of French nobles in the middle ages. Alengon, (Charles de Valois — vSl'wa^) Count OF, a brother of Philippe de Valois, King of France. He w^as killed at the battle of Crecy in 1346. Alengon, (Charles,) Duke of, a grandson of Jean, who died in 1476, was born in 14S9. He married a sister of Francis I. The loss of the battle of Pavia was at- tributed to him. He is said to have died of shame for his misconduct in that action. Died in 1525. Alengon, (Franqois,) Duke of, afterwards Duke of Anjou, the youngest son of Henry II. of France and a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fdt; m§t; n6t; good; moon; ALENCON 83 ALEXANDER Catherine de Medicis, born in 1554; died in 1584. He was awkwardly made, was disfigured by the small-pox, and, to crown all, was of a cowardly and malignant dis- position. Although he acted a conspicuous part in the wars and intrigues of his time, he accomplished nothing useful or great. He paid court to Queen Elizabeth of England, and his proposals were very favourably re- ceived by her, but the marriage was broken off on ac- count of Jris being a Catholic. See De Thoc, " Historia sui Temporis ;" Simonde de Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais Sully, ]Memoires ;" Motley, "Rise of the Dutch Republic," vol. iii. ; Froude, "Reign of Elizabeth." Alengon, (Jean,) first Duke of, a French nobleman, born in 13S5. He was killed at the battle of Agincourt in 141 5. Alen9on, (Jean,) fourth Duke of, a French noble- man in the reigns of Charles VH. and Louis XL, noted for his turbulent ambition. Died in prison about 1474. Aleni, a-la'nee, or Alenio, a-la'ne-o, (Giulio,) a learned Italian Jesuit and missionarj-, born at Brescia. He visited China in 1610, and preached with great suc- cess ; he caused several churches to be erected, and made many converts. Died in China in 1649. He wrote a number of works in the Chinese language. Aleni, (Tommaso,) an Italian historical painter, born at Cremona in 1500. Died about 1560. Aleotti, d-la-ot'tee, (GiAMiiATxrsTA,) an Italian en- gineer and architect, born near Ferrara in 1546 ; died in 1636. His chief work is the theatre of Parma. Aler, a'ler, (Paul,) a German Jesuit, born in Lux- emburg in 1656, passed many years as a teacher at Co- logne. He wrote several Latin dramas, and published a popular school-book called " Gradus ad Parnassum," of which it is said he was not the author. Died in 1727. Ales, Aless, or Alesse, c^-less', [Lat. ALF.sius,a-lee'- she-us,] (Alexander,) an eminent Scottish divine, bom in Edinburgh in 1500. His family name was Alane. He was driven into exile about 1530 by persecution for religion, and became a pupil of Melanchthon, with whom he formed an intimate and lasting friendship. He was professor of theology at Leipsic from 1543 until 1565. He wrote commentaries on several books of Scripture, and some polemical works. Died at Leipsic in 1565. See Cha.mbers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;'' M.-KCKENZiE, "Lives of Scotch Writers." . Ales, t'l^s', (Pierre Alexandre,) Vicomte de Corbet, a French writer, born in Touraine in 17 15. His chief work is " On the Origin of Evil," (2 vols., 1758.) Died about 1770. Alesio, S-la'se-o, (]\La.tteo Pietro; more properly Matteo Lecce — l^t'chi.) a painter and engraver, born at Rome, was a pupil of Michael Angelo. He worked at Seville. His fresco of Saint Christopher in that city is highly praised. He returned to Italy, and died in 1600. Alesius. See Ales, (Alexander.) Alessandri, d-l^s-sau'dRee, (Alessandro,) [in Latin, Ali:xan''der .\b Alexan^dro,] an Italian writer and i jurist, born at Naples about 1460; died in 1523. He left ' a work on philology, called "Dies Geniales," (1522,) often reprinted. It is on the model of the " Attic Nights" of Aulus Gellius. Alessandri, d-l§s-san'dRee, (Felice,) an Italian composer of operas, born at Rome in 1742. Died about 1810. Alessandri, (Tnnocente,) an Italian engraver of Venice, born about 1742. Alessandrini, i-les-sin-dRee'nee, (Giulio,) an Ital- ian medical writer, born at Trent in 1506. Died in 1590. Alessandro, the Italian for Alexander, which see. Alessandro, S-les-sSnMRo, and Ju'li-o, (or Giuglio, jooKyo,) two Italian fresco-painters, who are supposed to have been pupils of Raphael, (or, according to some writers, of Giovanni da Udine,) and appear to have been partners. They worked for Charles V. in Spain, and decorated the Alhambra. Died about 1530. Alessi, a-l^s'see, (Galeazzo, gS-la-at'so,) an eminent Italian architect, born at Perugia in 1500, was an inti- mate friend of Michael Angelo. Having adorned his native city with several palazzi, (palaces,) he was called to Genoa in 1552, to design tlie Carignano Church. He ; was architect of the Grimaldi Palace, and of other grand I palaces of Genoa. Died in 1572. I See Q. DE QuixcY, " Histoire des plus celebres Architectes ; j MiLiziA, " Vite de' piu celebri Architelti." ' Alessio Piemontese, i-18s'se-o pe-a-mon-ta'sa. r [Lat. Alex'is Pedemonta'nus,] a physician of the six teenth century, who dealt in secret remedies. Stung bv remorse at the death of a person who, as he supposed might have been saved if he had communicated his know- ledge to the attending surgeon, he resolved to make known to the world all his remedies, and published a curious book called " The Secrets of Alexis of Pied- mont." APe-vas or Aleu'as, [W'/A'ac,] an ancient Greek statuarv, who worked in bronze. He is mentioned bv Pliny. ' Al-ex-am'e-nus, ['AAt^a.un-'of,] a native of Teos, was, according to Aristotle, the first Greek who wrote dia- logues in the Socratic style. Al-ex-an'der ['A/i^ru'dpof] I., King of Macedonia, a son of Amyntas I., began to reign about 500 B.C. He was obliged to join his forces with the army of Persian invaders in 480. Alexander II., King of Macedonia, was a son of Amynras II., whom he succeeded about 370 B.C. He was assassinated in 367. Alexander [Gr. 'A/i^aj'('pof; Lat. Alexan''der ; Fr. Alexandre, J'lek'sSNdR';* It. Alessandro, i-les-sin'- dRo; Sp. Alejandro, d-la-Hdn'dRo ; Persian and Turk- ish, Iskan'der and Sikan'der] surnamed the Great, the first in order of time of the four most celebrated com- manders of whom history makes mention,! and the third Macedonian king of his iiame, was born at Pella, 356 B.C. He was the son of Philip and Olympias, being descended on his father's side from the ancient royal line of Mace- donia, and on his mother's from the kings of Epirus. who boasted their descent from Achilles. When Alex- ander was about fourteen years of age, his father sent for Aristotle, that he might become the tutor of the young prince. Under this illustrious master, the greatest intellect of that or, perhaps, of any age, Alexander rapidly advanced in knowledge of every kind, and devel- oped mental powers of the highest order. Unhappily, his descent from Achilles, and the flattery of the cour- tiers around him, gave his mind an early bias towards war, and the ambition to be a great conqueror became the ruling passion of his soul. The Iliad was his favour- ite book ; and it is said that he had a copy of that poem which he regularly placed under his pillow at night along with his sword. He seemed fitted to excel in every de- partment of knowledge, as well as in every manly and martial exercise. In horsemanship he was unequalled ; and when the famous steed Bucephalus was brought to Pella, the Macedonian capital, as none of the grooms or nobles could manage him, Philip, displeased, ordered the animal to be sent back whence he came ; but the young prince begged to be allowed to try his skill. His wish was at first regarded as the thoughtless expression of youthful folly; but, when he earnestly insisted, the king asked what forfeit he would be willing to pay in case he failed. " The price of the horse," said Alexander.^ He had observed that Bucephalus was excited by his own shadow. He therefore turned the horse's head towards the sun, and, at the same time using every means to soothe him, he soon succeeded in bringing him under complete control. The king was so delighted with his son's success that he is said to have wept for joy, telling him he must seek for another kingdom, for Macedonia was too small for him. He had such confidence in Alex- ander's abilities, that when he set out on an expedition against Byzantium he left the young prince, then onl} sixteen years old, as regent of the kingdom during his absence. According to Plutarch, Philip was delighted to hear the Macedonians call his son "king," while he him- * Chaucer has Alexandre s.v\d. Alisaimder, the latter being e\'i- dently derived from the Italian, but not improbably through an old French form. t Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, and Napoleon. + The price of Bucephalus, says Pliny, in his "Natural History'," was sixteen talents, — probably more than twenty thousand dollars ot our money. € as k: c as j; g hard; g as /; o, h, y^^ guttural; N, fiasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in t/iis. (2[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ALEXANDER 84 ALEXANDER self received the title of "general" only. When but eighteen years of age, Alexander greatly distinguished himself in the battle of Chcerone^a, and the victory which Philip won on that memorable field was due in a great measure to his son's courage and valour. On the death of his father, (336 B.C.,) Alexander, who was not yet twenty years old, succeeded to the throne. Several of the Grecian states which had been subjugated by Philip, deemed this a favourable opportunity for regaining their j independence. Alexander's energy and promptitude, I however, disconcerted all their measures, and even ihose who had been most active submitted to his power without a struggle. But soon after, while he was en- gaged in subduing the Triballi and other barbarous na- tions in the east of Europe, a report having been circu- lated that he was dead, the Thebans revolted a second time. But the young king advanced into Boeotia by rapid strides, and was soon at their gates. The city was taken by storm, the houses levelled to the ground, and all the citizens who had escaped massacre in the assault were sold into slavery — the posterity of the poet Pindar, and the families of those who had opposed the revolt, alone excepted. The other states of Greece, intimi- dated by this terrible example, were fain to accept Alex- ander as their ruler. In a general assembly held not long after, at Corinth, he was chosen generalissimo of all the Grecian forces destined for the expedition against Persia. In the spring of 334 B.C. he passed over into Asia Minor with an army of not more than 35,000 men, including the cavalry, which scarcely amounted to 5000. lie first engaged the Persians at the river Grani''cus, where they endeavoured to prevent his passage. Al- though the Macedonians fought at a great disadvantage, being attacked by the Persians while they were still in the river, they soon put their enemies to flight. He af- terwards advanced to Gordium, where was the famous Gordian knot. He had been told that the fates had de- creed the empire of the world to him who should untie the knot. He tried therefore for some time ; but, finding all his efforts to be vain, he at last drew his sword and cut the knot, declaring that this was the only way to untie it. In 333 B.C., having received reinforcements from Macedonia, he advanced to meet Darius, who had assembled an army of about 600,000 men. The opposing forces met at Issus. The Persians were defeated with terrible slaughter. Darius himself escaped from the battle, but his mother, his wife, and two daughters were taken bv the conqueror, who treated them with the greatest kindness and consideration. The booty which fell into the hands of the Macedonians after their victory at Issus was immense. Before proceeding farther, Alex- ander deemed it wisest to reduce the maritime states. Most of the other towns and cities submitted at once to his power ; but Tyre offered a most determined resist- ance. After a siege of seven months, during which the Tyrians defended the place with equal skill and obsti- nacy, the city was taken, 332 B.C. The glory of this achievement, however, was stained by the cruelty of the conqueror towards the inhabitants, of whom several thousands were mercilessly slaughtered, and the remain- der, amounting to thirty thousand, sold into slavery. As he proceeded southward, all the towns opened their gates except Gaza, which experienced a fate similar to that of Tyre. Alexander then marched into Egypt, where he was received by the people, who were weary of the Persian domination, as a liberator. Here he founded a city called, after his own name, Alexandria. He afterwards visited the temple of Jupiter Amnion on an oasis in the desert of Libya, in the hope, as some say, that the god would acknowledge him as his son. This acknowledgment having been made through the priest of the temple, Alexander returned to Egypt, and, not long after, marched against Darius, who had col- lected another army of more than a million men, with 40,000 cavalry. The Macedonians had only about 40,000 foot-soldiers and 7000 horsemen. The armies met at Gaugamela, near Arbela, 331 B.C. The Persians were routed with immense slaughter. Soon after Babylon and Susa opened their gates to the conqueror. Persepolis, the capital of the empire, defended by Ariobarzanes, was taken after a slight resistance. Alexander was noAV the undisputed master of Persia; but his successes appear to have turned his brain. Having persuaded himself that he was a god, he thought that he owed no obedience to laws which were made for mortals only. While at Persepolis, he is said, in a drunken revel, at the instigation of the courtesan Thais, to have set fire, with his own hand, to the magnificent residence of the Per- sian kings, then one of the wonders of the world. In 330 B.C., having learned that Darius was collecting another army in Media, Alexander set out in pursuit of him. The Persian king fled towards Bactria ; but be- fore he reached its confines he was murdered by Bessus, the satrap of that country, who aspired to the throne of Persia. The conqueror came up just as Darius was breathing his last. The dying king, covered with wounds, lay extended on a chariot. At this sad spectacle Alex- ander could not restrain his tears. He caused the body of Darius to be conveyed to Persepolis and interred in the tombs of the Persian kings. He then marched in pursuit of Bessus, who, having at last fallen into his hands, was put to death, as Plutarch informs us, in the following manner. He was attached by his limbs to two trees, which had been bent towards each other for this purpose, and, on their being allowed to recoil, his body was torn asunder. Alexander had carried his victorious arms to the northward beyond the Jaxartes. He after- wards subdued Sogdiana. Oxyartes, a Bactrian prince, had, for the sake of security, placed his wife and daugh- ters in a fortress built upon a lofty rock. Alexander took it, and was so deeply smitten with the beauty of Roxana, one of the daughters, that he married her. After his conquest of Persia there were formed against his life two conspiracies, in the first of which Philotas, the son of Parmenio, was implicated, and which led to the death both of son and father, (see Parmenio ;) the second, of which Hermolaus was the chief instigator, in- volved Callisthenes, the pupil, and, according to some, the nephew, according to others the cousin, of Aristotle, and several of the royal pages. All the conspirators were put to death, except Callisthenes, who was muti- lated and afterwards killed ; though some say he de- stroyed himself by poison. In 327 B. C. Alexander invaded India, a country of which until that time even the name was scarcely known to the Greeks. Having crossed the Indus, he formed an alli- ance with Taxiles, one of the kings of that region, w^ho is said to have brought him, in addition to a large body of troops, one hundred and thirty elephants. He ap- pears to have met with little opposition until he arrived at the banks of the Hydaspes, (Jhylum.) Here his ad- vance was resisted by a king named Porus, at the head of a great army, with a large number of elephants. After a hard -fought and bloody battle, Alexander was victo- rious. He took Porus prisoner, but afterwards he re- stored him to his kingdom and treated him with the highest consideration. His favourite horse Bucephalus had been severely wounded in the battle, so that he died soon after. On the spot where he was buried Alexander founded a town, which he called, in honour of him, Buce- phala. He afterwards advanced, subduing many cities in his course, as far as the Hyphasis, (Gharra,) when hiS> soldiers refused to go any farther. His commands and entreaties were equally unavailing, and he was under the necessity of returning. Plaving previously given orders that a fleet should be built on the Hj^laspes, they imme- diately embarked upon that river, continuing their course down the Indus to the sea. Committing his fleet to Nearchus, he proceeded by land to Susa. In his march he encountered incredible hardships, and a large number of his men perished from hunger and thirst. At Susa, where he rested for some time, he married, as his second wife, the daughter of Darius ; and to all those Mace- donians (amounting, it is said, to 9C00 or 10,000) who married Persian women he gave presents. His object was to unite the two nations as intimately as possible. Soon after, his friend Hepha^stion died, for whose loss he was for a long time inconsolable. As he was forming vast projects for the improA-ement of his empire, and for the subjugation of the surrounding nations, he died at Babylon, 323 B.C., in his thirty-third year. In the extent of his conquests, and in the splendour a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, 11, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fdr, fall, fdt; \wlt; \ 6t gdod; moon; ALEXANDER 85 ALEXANDER of his exploits, Alexander may be said to have surpassed all other military heroes. He overran and subdued the greater part of the world known to the ancients, almost as quickly as the same could have been explored by an active and enterprising traveller. Even now, after the lapse of twenty-two hundred years, his name is still "familiar as household words" in most of the countries that he conquered. It may not be irrelevant to state — in order to show what a deep impression the arms and policy of Alexander had made upon the mind of the Persian nation — that Firdousee, (Firdausi,) in his great historic poem, the Shah Nameh," written about the year 1000 A.D., speaks of Alexander (Iskander) as the greatest of heroes ; but, following probably the tradi- tions of his country, the poet represents him as the son of a Persian king who had married a Macedonian prin- cess, and, while she was on a visit to her father in Mace- don, Alexander was born. This is equivalent to an acknowledgment, on the part of the Persians, that they considered his glory too great not to be appropriated at least in part by themselves. Although it must be ad- mitted that Alexander owed more to fortune than any other of the great conquerors mentioned in history, it can scarcely be questioned that his military talents were of the very highest order. Many of his views of public policy were liberal and enlightened ; and his ideas re- specting the greatness and dignity that became a king were very different from those of an ordinary or vulgar sovereign. Undoubtedly, much of what was greatest and noblest in his character was due to the instructions of his illustrious teacher Aristotle ; but it is certainly no small praise that the royal pupil was, at least in the early part of his career, before his brain had been turned by his unparalleled successes, every way worthy of such a teacher. He appears to have regarded him with an affectionate reverence such as he felt for no other human being, not even his father. And if these sentiments were ! 1753; LiNGL'ET, "Histoire du Siecle d'Alexandre le Grand," 1762 De Bury, " Vie d'Alexandre le Grand," 1760; G. Schlegel, " Ein- leitung zu einer Alexandropadie oder iiber die Jugenujahre Alexander* des Grossen," 1775; Gustav Pfizer, "Geschichte Alexanders dc. Grossen," 1845; Igxaz A. Fessler, "Alexander der Eroberer,' 1797; C. Matthias, •'Historia Alexandri Magni," 1645; F. Av GUSTi, " Riflessioni critiche sopra il Carattere e le Gestad'Alessandro etc.," 1764. Alexander IV., a son of Alexander the Great ana Roxana, was born in 323 B.C., after his father's death. He was saluted as king by the army at Babylon, and was under the guardianship of successive regents, Perdiccas. Antipater, and Polysperchon. About 316 he fell intc the power of Cassander, who put him and Roxana to death in 310 B.C. Alexander V. of Macedonia, was the third son of Cassander. He disputed w^ith his brother Antipater for the royal power, and was put to death by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 294 B.C. Alexander I., King of Epirus, was a son of Neop- tolemus, and brother of Olympias, who was the mother of Alexander the Great. He was killed in a war against the Lucanians about 330 B.C. Alexander II. of Epirus, succeeded his father Pyr- rhus in 272 B.C. He waged war against Demetrius of Macedon. Died about 242 B.C. Alexander, tyrant of Pherae in Thessaly, usurped the throne in 369 B.C., and was notorious for cruelty. He was compelled by Epaminondas to give up Pelopidas, whom he had taken prisoner in 367. In 364 he was defeated by the Thebans under Pelopidas, who fell in the action. He was killed by conspirators in 359 B.C. Alexander I. of Egypt, was a son of Ptolemy Ever- getes II. He reigned jointly with his mother Cleopatra eighteen years, from 107 to 89 r-.C. He was dethroned and killed in battle soon after the latter date. His son Alexander reigned a few weeks in 81 B.C., and was killed by his own subjects in the same year. AlexcQider I., surnamed Ba'las, King of Syria, pre- afterwards somewhat changed by the folly or crinie of | ^^^^^^^ ^he son of Antiochus Epiphanes. He began Aristotle's relative Callisthenes, they were never wholly extinguished. There was in Alexander's nature a gene- rosity and magnanimity rare even among men most distinguished for greatness of soul. His treatment of the family of Darius, and his generous conduct towards Porus, have already been spoken of. We may cite another example of his magnanimity, related by Plutarch and some other writers. A letter from Parmenio, one of his ablest and most trusted officers, informed Alex- ander, when he was once lying very ill, that his physi- cian Philip had been bribed by Darius, with presents of immense value and the promise of his daughter in mar- riage, to take him off by poison. As Philip entered the ^ ^ chamber with a cup of medicine for his royal patient, i will was most extraordinary, unhap- ^^^^^^^ Qabinius about the end' of that year. He 10ns was still greater. Accordingly, 1 ^^.^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ q ^^-^y^^ p Alexander drew the letter from under his jmHow and gave it to him to read, while he himself, without the slightest hesitation, drank off the medicine prepared for him. The result fully justified the trust with which Philip's character had inspired him, and which his coun- tenance then confirmed. Although the strength of his intellect and of his pily that of his passi we behold him, after the conquest of Persia, so elated | as eagerly to accept the adoration which his flatterers offered to him as to a god, and yet surrendering him- self up at one time to the most insane paroxysms of anger, at another to the most passionate and uncontrol- lable grief. In a fit of rage he slew his friend and foster- brother Clitus, who had once saved his life, after which he became a prey to sorrow and remorse no less violent than his anger had been, so that had he not been re- strained by his friends he would probably have killed himself. Pope, in his " Temple of Fame," appropriately calls him "The youth who all things but himself subdued." See Plutarch's "Lives;" Arrian's "History of Alexander's Expedition;" "Life of Alexander," by Quintus Curtius ; " Bib- liotheca" of DiouoRUS Siculus." books xvii.-xx. ; Sainte-Croix. " Examen critique des anciens Historiens d'Alexandre le Grand.'' 1775; Droypen, "Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen," 1833: Wil- liams, "Life and Actions of Alexander the Great." 1829; Thirl- WALL, " HistorA- of Greece ;" Valerius, " Historia Alexandri Magni," 1589; Lehmann, " Historia Magni Alexandri," 1667; Kossin. ''L'Eroismo ponderato nella Vita di Alessandro il Grande," 2 vols.^ 1716 ; Fonseca-Rebelo, " Historia abreviada de Alexandro Magno," to reign in 150 B.C., after he had defeated Demetrius Soter in battle, and after the Roman Senate had issued a decree in his favour. The kingdom was invaded in 148 by an army raised by Demetrius II., and by another under Ptolemy of Egypt, who gained a decisive victory over Alexancler in 147. He fled into Arabia, where he was killed in 146 B.C. His surname of Balas is supposed to signify " Lord." See Josephus, " Histon,- of the Jews." Alexander II., otherwise called Alexander Za- bi'nas, (or Zebina, i.e. "a purchased slave,") was a pretender, who, being favoured or instigated by Ptolemv Physcon of Egypt, obtained the throne of Syria in 128 C, after he had defeated Demetrius II. Refusing to pav tribute, lie provoked the hostility of Ptolemy, by whom he was defeated and put to death in 122 B.C. Alexander, a grandson of Alexander Jannasus, and a son of Aristobu'lus II, He raised an army in 57 B.C. and entered Judca, then occupied by the Romans. He made himself master of that country in 56, but was de- put to death by Q. Alexander of'^g^, (ee'je. Peripatetic philoso- pher, instructor of the Roman emperor Nero. Alexander of Aphrodisias. See Alexander EXEGETES. Alexander surnamed ^Etolus, (e-to'lus,) from his birthplace, .^tolia, a Greek poet, who lived in the third century B.C. He Avas regarded as one of the Pleias of tragic poets. Alexander surnamed Exege'tes, {i.e. the "Ex- pounder,") a celebrated philosopher and commentator on Aristotle, flourished in the early part of the third century. He was a native of Aphrodisias, in Caria, Asia Minor. Alexander Jann^us, (jan-nee'us,) a son of John Hyrcanus, succeeded his brother Aristobu'lus as King of'judca in 105 B.C. The enmity of the Pharisees against him caused a rebellion, which raged several years, and was suppressed with great cruelty in 86 B.C. Died in 78 B.C. See article by Gesenius in Ersch und Gruber's " Allgemeine En- cyklopaedie." € as ^; 5 as x; g kard; g as g, h, v.,giiUural; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as z; th as in this. 0:^="See Explanations, p. 23. ALEXANDER 86 AI EXANDER Alexan'der Myxm'dius, a Greek writer and natural- ist, lived probably in the second century B.C. Alexan'der Nume'nius. a Greek rhetorician of the second century, wrote a book on the " Figures of Rhet- oric,"' which is extant. Alexander Pelop'laton, a Greek orator, who was secretary to Antoninus Pius about 150 a.d. Alexan'^der Philale'thes, ^^Ckalrjdriq^ 2. Greek physician, who was the head of a celebrated medical school in Phrygia. He is mentioned by Strabo as his contemporary, and by Galen. His works are not extant. Alexan^der Trallia'nus, [Gv.oTpa'/lXiavog; Fr. Al- exandre UE Tralles, t'lek'sONdR^deh tRtK,] a Greek medical writer of great merit, was born at Tralles, in Lydia, and lived in the sixth century. He settled in Rome, and attained great distinction in his profession. It i> supposed that he was a Christian. His great work is entitled "Twelve Books on Medicine," {BcSAia 'LarpLKu dvoKaldena.) He is considered one of the best Greek physicians after Hippocrates. His style is clear and elegant. His works have often been printed. See E. MiLWARD, "Trallianus Revivescens," 1734; Freind, '■ History of Physic." Alexander, a bishop of Jerusalem, who was perse- cuted under the emperor Septimius Severus. He was translated from the see of Cappadocia to that of Jeru- salem, where he founded a library. Died in prison about 250 A.D. Alexander, Patriarch of Alexandria from 312 to 325 A.D., is noted as the first orthodox theologian who took a prominent part in the Arian controversy. He wrote many epistles against Arianism. He attended the Coun- cil of Nice in 325, and died in 326 a.d. (See Atha- NASIUS.) Alexander, Emperor of Constantinople, born about 870 A.D., was a son of Basilius. He succeeded his brother Leo the Philosopher in 911, and disgraced him- self by his debaucheries. Died in 912. Alexander I., Pope, became Bishop of Rome in 108 A.D. ; died in 117. He is said to have been the first to introduce the use of holy water in the service of the church. Alexander II., named originally Anselmo Bada- gio, (bi-dcVjo,) was elected pope in 1061; died in 1073, and was succeeded by Gregory VII. Alexander III. (previously Cardinal Rolando Ranuccio Bandinelli — ri-noo'cho b3n-de-neKlee) was raised to the papal chair in 1159 ; died in 1181, and was succeeded by Lucius HI. He was distinguished for his learning and great abilities. See " Vita Alexandri III.," by the Cardinal of Aragon ; Mu- RATOKi, " Annali d'ltalia ;" G. F. Loredano, "Vita di Alessandro III.," 1672. Alexander IV. (Rinaldo di Anagni — de S-nin'- yee) became pope in 1254; died in 1261, and was suc- ceeded by Urban IV. Alexander V. (Pi ETRO Filargo — fe-laR'go) became pope in 1409 ; died in 1410. His successor was John XXIH. Alexander VI. (Rodrigo Lenzuoli Borgia — Ign- zoo-oHee boR'ji) was born at Valencia, Spain, about 1430. He first studied law, and distinguished himself as an Advocate, but afterwards embraced the military pro- fession. When he was only twenty-five, his uncle, Ca- lixtus HI., was raised to the papal see. This circum- stance directed his ambition towards the church. He was made cardinal through the influence of his uncle in 1456, and at length, in 1492, was elected pope as suc- cessor to Innocent VIII. He was distinguished, both while he was a cardinal and after he became pontiff, for his profligacy, inhumanity, and unscrupulous ambition. Alexander's illegitimate son, the infamous Cesare Bor- gia, was made cardinal soon after his father's accession to the papal throne. (See Borgia.) He died in August, 1503, and was succeeded by Pius III. It has been as- serted by several historians that Alexander VI. died from the effects of a poison which he and his son Borgia had designed for certain of their guests at a banquet, but which, by mistake, was taken by the pope himself. The " Nouvelle Biographic Generale," in an elaborate article. endorses this accusation. It has, however, been dis- credited by several historical critics, on the ground that the evideiice is insufficient. But, whatever judgment we may form on this question, it can scarcely be denied that the reign of Alexander VI. constitutes the blackest and most infamous page in the history of modern times. See Gordon, " Lives of Alexander VI. and Csesar Borgia," 1729 ; MuRCHARD, " Specimen Historian Arcana; seu Anecdota de Vita Alex- andri VI.," 1697 ; Panvinio, "Vitedei Pontefici ;" ^tienne Michel Masse, " Histoire du Pape Alexandre VI," 1830; F. de la Fon- taine, " Le Pape Alexandre VI," 1844; Tomasi, " Vita di Cesare Borgia." Alexander VII. (Fabio Chigi — kee'jee) was born at Sienna in 1599, and chosen pope in 1655, on the death of Innocent X. He is noted for his zealous and successful efforts to improve and embellish the city of Rome. He died in May, 1667, and was succeeded by Clement IX. See Bagatta, "Vitadi Alessandro VII. ;" Botta, " Storia d'lta- lia;" N. N. Sforza Pallavicino, " Delia Vita di Alessandro VII.," 2 vols., 1840. Alexander VIII. (named originally Pietro Otto- boni — ot-to-bo'nce) was born at Venice in 1610. He succeeded Innocent XI. in 1689. He aided the Vene- tians in war against the Turks. Died in 1691. His suc- cessor was Innocent XII. See Artaud de Montor, "Vies des souverains Pontifes." Alexander I., King of Scotland, was a younger son of Malcolm Canmore. He succeeded his brother Edgar in 1 107, and married a natural daughter of Henry I. of England. He died in 11 24, and left the throne to his brother, David I. See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. i. chap. xi. and vol. ii. chap. xii. Alexander II. of Scotland, born in 1198, succeeded his father William the Lion in 1 2 14. He fought against King John of England, as an ally of the revolted barons, and after the end of the war married a sister of Henry III. He is represented as a wise and able ruler. Died in 1249, and was succeeded by his son. See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. ii. chap. xiv. Alexander III. of Scotland, a son of the preceding, was born in 1241, and began to reign in 1249. His nup- tials were celebrated with Margaret, the daughter of Henry HI. of England, in 125 1. His long reign was prosperous and peaceful, with the exception of an un- successful invasion of Scotland by Haco, King of Nor- way, with a large army, in 1263. Alexander fell with his 'lorse over a precipice, and was killed by the fall, in 1286. He left no surviving children, and was succeeded by his infant grand-daughter Margaret. See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. ii. chap. xv. ; Tvtler, "History of Scotland;" Wvntovvn, " Chronicle of Scotland." Alexander Jageli.on — yi-gel'lon, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, born in 1461, was a son of Casimir IV. of Poland. He became king at the death of his brother John Albert in 1501. He waged war with little success against the Grand Duke Ivan of Rus- sia. In his reign the laws of Poland were reduced to a code by John Laski, Died in 1 506. Alexander-NEVSKY — nev'ske, (i.e. " of the Neva,") sometimes written -Nevskoi and -Newskoj, a brave Russian prince, born in 12 19, was a son of Yaroslav (Jaroslaw) II. He is said to have gained, in 1240, a great victory over the Swedes on the river Neva, whence his surname. He succeeded his father as grand duke in 1245. Died in 1263. He is venerated as a saint by the Russians. Alexander I., (or, more fully, Alexander-Pavlo- vitch — pav'lo-vitch^, ie. "Alexander the son of Paul,'') Emperor of Russia, the son of Paul and Maria Feodo- rovna, daughter of Prince Eugene of Wiirtemberg, was born at Saint Petersburg in 1777. The care of his education was taken from his father by Catherine II., his grandmother, who herself wrote tales for the amuse- ment and instruction of the young prince. Catherine died in 1796, having named, it is said, Alexander as her successor in a will which was destroyed by Paul. In 1 80 1 Paul was assassinated ; but there is no sufficient ground for believing that Alexander in any way, directly or indirectly, sanctioned this crime, al-nough he appears a, e, T, o, u, y, /o;i^; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, s/iort : a, e, i, o, odsnar; fh', fall, fdt; met; n6t; good; moon; ALEXANDER 87 ALEXANDER to have consented to the dethronement of his father. The chief defect of his character in the early part of his life was the yielding too passively to the advice of the corrupt courtiers about him, and the want of reliance on his ovai judgment and on the dictates of his own noble nature. This may perhaps account for the in- consistencies which appear in his conduct in different parts of his life. He does not seem to have exhibited any striking indications of that greatness of mind which was afterwards so conspicuous, till about the time of the French invasion in 1812. Our limits neces- sarily compel us to pass over the military movements and those other acts of his reign which are found in every history of that eventful period. Suffice it to say that as his firmness and wisdom had led to the over- throw of Napoleon in 1813, so, after that event, his magnanimity preserved the city of Paris from the fury of the Russian soldiers, liberated one hundred and fifty thousand French prisoners of war confined in Russia, and sought to obtain for his fallen foe the most liberal terms compatible with what he deemed the safety of Europe. It was, in fact, through his influence that Bo- naparte was allowed an independent sovereignty in Elba and the command of a portion of his former guard. On Alexander's return to Russia he granted an absolute pardon to all his subjects who had taken part against him in the late war. When it w^as proposed to erect a monument to commemorate his exploits, he peremptorily declined the honour, adding, " May a monument be erected to me in your hearts, as it is to you in mine." He gave unremitting attention to the internal improve- ment of his empire. Reform was introduced into every department, military and civil. In the army, the soldier was subjected to the restraints not merely of discipline, but also of humanity. Persecution on account of reli- gion was first abolished in Russia under his reign. He entered Paris with the army of the Allies in July, 181 5, and in September of that year he concluded with the Em- peror of Austria and the King of Prussia a treaty called the Holy Alliance, which, although ostensibly formed to promote religion, peace, and justice, proved to be a bul- wark against the progress of liberal principles. He died without issue, at Taganrog, on the ist of December, 1825, and was succeeded by his brother Nicholas. In reviewing the life and character of Alexander I. of Russia, we are obliged to confess that although his nature was on the whole kind and generous, and most of the acts of his reign were prompted by the spirit of justice and humanity, the cause of freedom owes little or nothing to his influence. It may be that he, like so many others, received such an impression from the ex- cesses of the French Revolution that he came to believe that the people could not safely be trusted with any por- tion of liberty. In the latter part of his life especially, his mind sharing, perhaps, in his bodily infirmities, he re- garded with morbid apprehension every public manifes- tation which looked towards the slightest enlargement of the privileges and powers of the people, and his at- tention was chiefly devoted to suppressing liberal move- ments not only in Poland, but also in Italy, Spain, Por- tugal, and Germany. See Henry Evans Lloyd, "Alexander I., Emperor of Russia," 1826 ; Sir Walter Scott, " Life of Napoleon Bonaparte ;" Ali- son, "History of Europe;" Heinrich Storch, " Russland unter Alexander L," 8 vols., 1803-06; J. D. F. Rumpf, "Alexander L Kaiser von Russland," 1814; Cousin d'Avallon, "Vie privee, ;>olitique et militaire d' Alexandre I," 1826; Carl F. Leidenfrost, "Abriss eiuer Lebens Alexanders L," 1826; Adrien Egron, "Vie d'Alexandre I de Russie," 1826; Alphonse Rabbe, " Histoire d'Al- exandre I," etc., 1826; Carl Morgenstern, "Zum Gedaechtnisse Alexanders L," 1S27; E. W. C. Voigt, "Alexander L," 1830. Alexander II.,surnamed NicoLAEViTCH,ne-ko-la.'e- vitch, {i.e. "son of Nicholas,") Emperor of Russia, the eldest son of Nicholas I., was born on the 29th of April, 1818. Ilis mother, Alexandra Feodorovna, was a sister of Frederick William IV. of Prussia. He married, in 1841, a daughter of Louis II., Grand Duke of Hesse- Darmstadt, who, on joining the Greek Church, adopted the name of Marie Alexandrovna. On the death of Nicholas, March 2, 1855, he ascended the throne, in the midst of a war between Russia on one side, and France, England, Turkey, and Sardinia on the other. He re- 'ained in office the ministers of his father, and pro- claimed his intention to pursue the policy of his prede- cessor. The war was prosecuted with vigour even aftei the capture of Sebastopol, September, 1855. Conferences for the negotiation of peace, opened in Paris in March, 1856, resulted in a treaty by which neither party gained any important advantages. Since the restoration of peace he has ordered several reforms in the administration, and has acquired the reputation of being more moderate and liberal than his father. Among the important measures of his reign is the gradual emancipation of more than twenty millions of serfs, which was decreed in March, 1861. A letter which he addressed to the government of the United States in 1861, on the subject of the great rebel- lion, was received as an indication of a most friendly feeling on the part of Russia towards this country, which was doubly welcome on account of the doubtful or hostile attitude assumed by some of the other leading European powders. Alexan'der Alen''sis, [i.e. "of Hales,") a renowned English theologian, styled the "Irrefragable Doctor." His chief work is a "System of Theology," ("Summa Theologiae,") written by order of Pope Innocent IV. Died in 1245. Alexander [Fr. Alexandre, t'lek''s6NdR'] of Ber'- NAY^ afterwards Alexander of Paris, a French poet of the twelfth century, born at the village of Bernay, in Normandy. He was the author (or one of the authors) of a poem on the exploits of Alexander the Great, in verses of twelve syllables, a measure which has ever since been termed "Alexandrine." Alexander of Canterbury, an English abbot and writer, who was noted for his assertion of the rights or interests of King John against the pope. Died about 1220. Alexan'der Essebien'sis, {i.e. "of Ashby,") an English monk, who wrote historical and theological works in the first part of the thirteenth century. Alexan''der Insula'nus, a monk and chronicler of Westphalia, flourished about 12 10. Alexander, I^ishop of Lincoln, born at Blois, w^as surnamed the Magnificent. He rebuilt Lincoln Ca- thedral. Died in 1 147. Alexander of Ville Dieu, {vhl de-uh',) a gramma- rian of the thirteenth century. He taught in Paris, and composed a book of grammar in verse, which was long in general use as a school-book. Alexan'der, (Archibald,) D.D., an eminent Ameri- can divine, born in Rockbridge county, Virginia, in 1772. His grandfather, of Scottish descent, came from Ireland to Pennsylvania in 1736, and, after a residence of about two years, removed to Virginia. His father was a farmer. Archibald received his classical education at the academy of the Rev. William Graham, with whom he also studied theology. Pie was licensed to preach in 1 79 1, and for several years devoted himself to itinerant labours, in which he acquired great fluency as a speaker. In 1796 he succeeded the Rev. Dr. John Blair Smith as president of Hampden-Sidney College, Virginia. He became pastor of the Pine Street Presbyterian Church of Philadelphia in 1807. On the organization of the Theo- logical Seminary at Princeton in 1812, Dr. Alexander was unanimously chosen the first professor, with the sole charge of the several branches of a theological educa- tion. As the number of students increased, other pro- fessors were called to his assistance, which enabled him to direct his attention more particularly to the depart- ment of pastoral and polemic theology, in promoting which and the general interests of the institution he con- tinued to labour with great zeal and success till his death in 1 85 1. Dr. Alexander's powers, both for pulpit oratory and polemic disquisition, were extraordinary ; and in all the relations of life he possessed rare excellencies. Few persons who have commenced authorship at so late a. period in life have written so much. With the exception of some occasional sermons and contributions to peri- odicals, he had published nothing till the appearance of his "Outlines of the Evidences of Christianity," in his fifty-second year, — a work which has been translated into various foreign languages and is a text-book of high € as k; 9 as s; g /tard; g as g, h, y., guttural ; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^^="See Explanations, p. 23.) ALEXANDER 88 ALEXANDER a-ithority in several colleges. This was followed by his "Treatise on the Canon of the Scriptures ;" "Christian Experience ;" " History of African Colonization ;" " His- tory of the Israelites " Bible Dictionary ;" "Counsels fr jm the Aged to the Young ;" besides many other works which our limits will not permit us to mention. His "Outlines of Moral Science," published in 1852, (after his decease,) says the " Westminster Review," " is a calm, clear stream of abstract reasoning flowing from a thought- ful, well-instructed mind, without any parade of logic, but with an intuitive simplicity and directness which give an almost axiomatic force." Dr. Alexander mar- ried in 1802 Janetta Waddell, daughter of the celebrated blind preacher mentioned by Wirt in his " British Spy." He left five sons and one daughter. Of the former, three were ministers. See "Life of Dr. Archibald Alexander," by his son, James W. Alexander, New York, 1852; Sprague's "Annals of the American Pulpit," vol. iii. Alexander, (Caleb,) D.D.,an American clergyman, was born at Northfield, Massachusetts, and graduated at Yale College in 1777. He afterwards settled at Onon- daga Hollow, New York, where he died in 182S. He was the author of a Latin Grammar, (1794,) an English Grammar, and an Essay on the Deity of Jesus Christ, (1796.) Alexander, (Sir James Edward,) a British officer and writer, born in Scotland in 1803. He was employed about 1835 in an exploration of Africa, and commanded a regiment at Sebastopol in 1855. Among his works are "An Expedition into Southern Africa," "Travels through Russia and the Crimea," and a "Life of the Duke of Wellington." Alexander, (James Waddell,) D.D., an American divine, eldest son of Dr. Archibald Alexander, was born in Louisa county, Virginia, in 1804. He graduated at Princeton in 1820, and, after studying theology, was for some time tutor in that institution. He commenced his labours as a minister in Charlotte county, Virginia, about 1826; subsequently removed to Trenton, New Jersey; and, from 1830 to 1833, edited "The Presbyterian," pub- lished in Philadelphia. He filled the chair of rhetoric and belles-lettres in the College of New Jersey (Prince- ton) until 1844, when he became pastor of the Duane Street Presbyterian Church, New York. P'rom 1849 to 1851 he was professor of ecclesiastical history and church government in the Princeton Theological Seminary, and, for the remainder of his life, minister of the Presbyterian church in Fifth Avenue, New York. Dr. Alexander was a ripe scholar and vigorous writer. Among his works may be mentioned above thirty juvenile books written for the American Sunday-School Union ; " Life of Dr. Archibald Alexander," 8vo, pp. 700 ; " American Me- chanic's and Working-Man's Companion," 2 vols. ; " Gift to the Afiiicted ;" besides numerous sermons, essays, etc. For many years he was one of the principal contributors to the " Princeton Review." Died at Vir- ginia Springs, July, 1859. See " Forty Years' Familiar Letters of James W. Alexander," by John Hall, D.D. Alexander, (Joseph Addison,) D.D., a distinguished theologian and Oriental scholar, third son of Dr. Ar- chibald Alexander, was born in Philadelphia in 1809. At the age of twelve he commenced the study of Arabic, and before entering college had made considerable pro- gress in the Persian and Hebrew. After graduating at Princeton in 1826, he continued his studies under pri- vate tutors, and from 1830 to 1833 was adjunct pro- fessor of ancient languages and literature in the Col- lege of New Jersey. In 1838 he became professor of biblical criticism and ecclesiastical history in the Princeton Theological Seminary, and in 1852 was trans- ferred to the chair of biblical and ecclesiastical history. This position he occupied till his death, (1859.) In the extent and accuracy of his learning Dr. Alexander had few superiors in America ; and several of his works have had a great success. His " Commentary on the Prophecies of Isaiah," (8vo, pp. 968,) republished in Scotland, Dr. Eadie, of Glasgow, pronounces " among the best commentaries on Isaiah of any age or lan- guage," His "Psalms Translated and Explained," in three voh mes, which appeared in 1850, reaciicd a sale of ten thousand copies in four years. In 1851 he gave to the public his "Essays on the Primitive Church Of- fices." He was one of the principal contributors to the " Princeton Review." At the time of his decease he was engaged, with Dr. Plodge, in the preparation of a com- mentary on the New Testament. See "Life of J. A. Alexander," by the Rev. Henry C. Alhx- ANDER, New York, 1870. Alexander, (Nathaniel,) born in 1756, was elected Governor of North Carolina in 1806 ; died in 180S. Alexander, (NoiiL.) See Alexandre. Alexander, (Stephen,) LL.D,, an American as- tronomer, was born at Schenectady, New York, in 1S06. He graduated at Union College in 1824, entered Prince- ton Theological Seminary in 1832, and in 1834 was appointed adjunct professor of mathematics in the Col- lege of New Jersey. In 1840 the professorship of as- tronomy was created and assigned to him, and on the death of Dr. Albert D. Dod, in 1845, succeeded him as professor of mathematics. Since 1854 he has filled the chairs of mechanics and astronomy. He has pub- lished numerous papers on astronomy, mathematics, etc., some of which have attracted the attention of emi- nent astronomers both at home and abroad. Among these may be mentioned one on the " Physical Phenom- ena attendant upon Solar Eclipses ;" " Fundamental Principles of Mathematics ;" " On the Origin of the Forms and the Present Condition of some of the Clus- ters of Stars," etc. In i860 he conducted an astronom- ical expedition sent out to the coast of Labrador by the United States government for the purpose of making observations on the solar eclipse of July 18 of that year. Alexander, (Thomas,) Earl of Selkirk, a British writer on politics, etc., planted a colony in Canada. Died in 1820. Alexander, (WilliXm,) Earl of Stirling, a Scot- tish poet and courtier, born, it is supposed, about 1580. He produced in 1604 tragedies entitled "Julius Cassar " and " Croesus ;" and " Paraenesis to the Prince," a didactic poem. His long didactic poem of " Doomes- day" appeared in 1614. These works were greatly ad- mired by his contemporaries, but are now obsolete. He received from James I., by charter, in 1621, the ter- ritory of Nova*Scotia, which he afterwards sold to the French. He was appointed secretary of state for Scot- land in 1626, and received the title of Earl of Stirling in 1633. Died in 1640. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" " Biographia Britannica." Alexander, (William,) (generally known in Ameri- can history as Lord Stirling,) a major-general in the American army of the Revolution, was born in 1726 in New York, of which his father, a Scotchman, was for many years the provincial secretary. He served as an officer in the war with the French and Indians, and at its close went to Scotland, where he spent a large por- tion of his fortune in an unsuccessful attempt to estab- lish his claim to the estates and earldom of Stirling, of which many believed him the rightful heir. He early and warmly espoused the patriotic cause in the war of the Revolution, and, before the arrival of Washington from Boston, captured with a small fleet of boats a British transport in the harbour of New York. He led the attack in the battle of Long Island, in which he dis- played the most determined courage, but was finally compelled to surrender, after securing the safe retreat of a large part of his detachment. On being exchanged, he at once resumed his command under Washington, fought with him at Brandywine, and especially distin- guished himself at Germantown and Monmouth. In the last of these engagements he commanded the left wing of the American army. Through his fidelity, Wash- ington was made acquainted with the intrigues and cabals of General Conway in 1777. Besides his military achievements. General Alexander won an honourable distinction as a mathematician and astronomer. Died at Albany in 1 783. See William A. Duer, "Life of William Alexander, Earl of Stirling," New York, 1847. Alexander, (William,) an English artist, born at a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; ALEXANDER 89 ALFANI Maidstone in 176S. He accompanied Lord Macartney as draughtsman on his embassy to China in 1792, and published "Views of Chinese Scenery," etc. Died in 1816. Alexander, (William,) a British medical writer, practised in London. Died in 1783. Alexander, (William Lindsay,) D.D., a Scottish writer on theology, born at Leith in 1808. He became pastor of a church in Edinburgh. He is author of nu- merous works, among which are "The Connection and Harmony of the Old and New Testaments," (1841,) and "Memoirs of Ralph W^ardlaw," (1856.) Alexander ab Alexandre See Alessandri. Alexander, (Ben-Moses-Ethu'^san or-Ethuzan — St-hoo'zan.) a German rabbi, born at Fulda, lived about 1710, and wrote a History of the Jews, (1719.) Alexander Farnese. See Farnese. Alexander de Medici. See Medicl Alexander Polyhistor. See Polyhistor. Alexander Severus. See Severus. Al-ex-an^dra, a daughter of Hyrcanus, was the mother of Mariamne, the wife of Herod the Great. She conspired against Herod, and was put to death in 28 B.C. Alexandre, the French of Alexander, which see. Alexandre, t'lSk^sSNdR', (Charles,) a philologist, born in Paris in 1 797. Among his works is a " Greek-and- French Dictionary," (" Dictionnaire Grec-Frangais.") Alexandre, (Dom Jacques,) a French Benedictine, born at Orleans in 1653. He wrote a "Treatise on Tides," (1726,) and a valuable "General Treatise on Clocks," (1734.) Died in 1734. Alexandre, (Nicolas,) a French monk and medical writer, born in Paris in 1654, published a "Botanical Dictionary," (1716.) Died in 1728. Alexandre, (Noel,) a French Jansenist theologian, born at Rouen in 1639. He published, besides other works, "Dogmatic and Moral Theology," ("Theologia Dogmatica et Moralis," 10 vols., 1694.) Died in 1724. See NiCEROx, "Memoires." Alexandre-Severe. See Severus. Al-ex-an-dri'nus or Alexandrini, a-lek-s^n-dRee'- nee, (Julius,) a medical writer, physician to the empe- rors Frederick II., Maximilian, and Rudolph II., was born at Trent in 1506 ; died in 1590. He translated and commented on several of Galen's work^ Al-ex-i'nus [Gr. 'Me^lvo^] of Elis, a disciple of Eu- bulides, lived about 350 B.C., and distinguished himself as a logician. He attacked Aristotle and Zeno the Stoic, and was nicknamed Elenxi'nus, ("the fault-finder.") Al-ex'is, ["AAf^ff,] a Greek comic poet, an uncle of the poet Menander, was born at Thurium, and flourished between 350 and 290 B.C. He removed to Attica in his youth. He excelled in the delineation of the characters of Parasites, belonged to the middle school of the Attic comedy, and was a very prolific writer. Only small frag- ments of his works are extant. See A. Meineke, " Historia Critica Comicorum GrjECorum." Alexis, a Greek sculptor, who is mentioned by Pliny as a pupil of Polycletus, and of whom nothing more is known. He is supposed by some to have been identical with the Alexis whom Pausanias mentions as the father of Cantharus. Alexis, t'l^k'se', (Guillaume,) a French Benedictine, who lived in the latter part of the fifteenth century. He wrote in verse and prose several works, among which is "Le Grand Blason de Faulces Amours," ("The Great Blazon of False Loves," 1493.) Al-ex'is or Al-ex'i-us I, (Com-ne'nus.) [Gr. "Me^Lg or 'AM^Log Kofivr/vor,] an emperor of Constantinople, born about 1048. He was of high birth, and became general of the Byzantian armies, in whicja capacitv he showed considerable military skill. About 1080 'he was pro- claimed emperor by his soldiers, in opposition to Nice- phorus, who, on the approach of the troops of Alexis, left his throne for a monastery. It was during the reign of Alexis that the first crusade to Jerusalem took place. He died in rii8, and was succeeded by his son John. As a ruler he was more distinguished for craft and in- trigue than for any higher qualities. See Anna Comnena, "Alexias ;" Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chaps, xlviii., Ivi., Iviii., lix.; Mill, "His- tory of the Crusades." Alexis or Alexius II., (Comne'nus,) Emperor of Constantinople, a son of Manuel, was born about 1168, and became emperor in 1180. He was deposed and strangled by Androni^cus in 11 83. Alexis or Alexius III., (An'ge-lus,) was a brother of Isaac Angelus, Emperor of Constantinople, whose throne he usurped in 1195. An army of crusa- ders, whose destination was Palestine, besieged Constan- tinople in 1203, ostensibly to restore Alexis, son of Isaac, to the throne. (See Dandolo.) Alexis III. fled on the capture of the city, and died in exile in 12 10. Alexis or Alexius IV., (Angelus,) a son of Isaac Angelus, reigned a few months. He was put to death in 1204 by Alexis Ducas. Alexis or Alexius V., (Du'cas,) surnamed MuR- zu'PHLUS, usurped the throne in 1204. The Latin chiefs who commanded the crusaders, having resolved to par- tition the Empire of the East, took Constantinople by assault in 1204. Alexis escaped, but was arrested in the Morea, was tried for the murder of Alexis IV., and was executed in the same year. He was succeeded by Baldwin L See Gibbon, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Alex'is or Alex'ius Comne'nus is also the name of several emperors who reigned at Trebizond (Trape- zus) in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. They were of the same family as the Alexis Comnenus noticed above. Al-ex'is or Alexei (a-lSk-sa'^e) Michaelovitch or Mikhaylovitch — me-Ki'lo-vitch, Czar of Muscovy, born in 1629 or 1630, succeeded his father Michael in 1645. He introduced many improvements, particularly with respect to the administration of the laws. He also succeeded in transferring from Poland to Russia the alle- giance of the Cossacks who were attached to the Greek Church. He may, indeed, be said to have prepared the way for the great undertakings of his son Peter. (See Peter I. of Russia.) Died in 1676, and was succeeded by his son Feodor. Alexis, a monk, who became Patriarch of Constan- tinople in 1025. In 1042 he crowned the emperor Con- stantine Monomachus. Died in 1043. Alexis of Samos, a Greek historian, the author of a " History of Samos," which is mentioned by Athenasus. The period in which he lived is not known. Alexis Pedemontanus. See Alessio Piemontese. Alexis Petrovitch or Petrowitsch, (pa-tRo'vitch,) written also Petrowitz, a Russian prince, born in 1690, was a son of Peter the Great and his first wife Eudokia. He is said to have been a studious youth, averse to mar- tial pursuits and hostile to the innovations of his father. While Peter was absent on one of his long European tours in 1716, Alexis retired furtively to Vienna and Naples, for refuge from the dreaded ire qf the Czar. This strange proceeding, which perhaps was as wise as any course that was open to him in the circumstances, was treated as a crime by his father. Having been in- duced to return, Alexis was compelled to renounce his claim to the throne, and was condemned to death on a charge of meditated rebellion, in 1718. He was found dead in prison a few days after his sentence was pro- nounced. There are very strong reasons for believing that he was poisoned by order of the Czar. He left a son, Peter, who became Czar in 1727. See Voltaire, " Histoire de Russie;" Levesque, " Histoire de Russle ;" Sir John Barrow, " Life of Peter the Great," in the " Fam- ily Library;" Von Halem, " Leben Peters des Grossen ;" Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Alexis del Arco. See Arco, (Alonso del.) Aleyn, iKen, (Charles,) an English poet, who once had considerable reputation, born, it is supposed, about 1590, was educated at Cambridge, and became tutor to Sir Edward Sherburne. His principal poems are "The Battles of Cressy and Poitiers," (1632,) and a "History of Henry VII., etc.," (1638.) Died about 1640. See WiNSTANLEY, "Lives of the Poets," 1687. Alfani, il-fa'nee, (Domenico di Paris,) an eminent Italian painter, born at Perugia about 1483, was a pupil of Pietro Perugino. Among his works are a "Virgin Mary" and a "Saint John." Died about 1540. c as 9 as s; | ^ard; g as J; o, h, Yi, guttural; N, jiasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2[^==See Explanations, p. 23.) ALFANI 90 ALFONSO Alfani, (Orazio di Paris,) an able artist, a son of the preceding, born at Perugia about 1 5 10. He imi- tated tlie manner of Raphael with success, and painted both in oil and fresco. Among his chief works are several Madonnas. Died in 1583. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Alfar. See Elves. Al-fa-ra'bi-us, [Arab. Alfarabee or Alfarabi, ll-fa-ra^bee,] the Latin name of a distinguished Ara- bian philosopher who lived at Damascus in the tenth century. He is said to have understood seventy dif- ferent languages. Besides other works on various sciences, he wrote several treatises on the philosophy of Aristotle. Alfarazdak, al-fA'riz-dak', an eminent Arabian poet of the seventh century. Alfaro, al-fa'ro, (Francisco,) a Spanish silversmith and artist, who flourished at Seville towards the close of the sixteenth century. His representations on silver were designed and executed with great taste. Alfaro y Gomez, de, da al-fa'ro e go'meth, (Juan,) a Spanish painter of high reputation, born at Cordova in 1640, was a pupil of Castillo and Velasquez. He worked at Madrid, and excelled in portraits, in which he imitated the style of Velasquez. Among his best works is an " Incarnation," at Cordova, and a portrait of Calderon the poet. He was a brilliant colorist. Died in 1680. See Bermudez, " Dicclonario Historico," etc. Alfatli, ai-fit', or Alfatah, il-fa'td, a distinguished Arabian philologist, born at Seville, in Spain, near the close of the eleventh century. He was put to death at Morocco in 1135. He wrote a book containing bio- graphical notices of various Arabian poets, with speci- mens of their poetry. Alfeii, ti^fen, (Johan Eusebius,) a Danish miniature- painter, worked in Vienna. Died in 1770. Al-fe'nu3 Va'rus, an eminent Roman jurist, and a pupil of Servius Sulpicius, lived in the last half of the first century B.C. He wrote forty books of Digesta, extracts from which are to be found in the Digest of Justinian. He is often quoted by other jurists. A pas- sage in Horace Sat. i. 3, v. 130 is supposed to refer to this Alfenus. Alferghanee, (Alferghani,) ^l-fer-G^'nee, written also Alferg^nee, Alfergaiiy, and Alferganus, some- times called Al-fra-gan^ an Arabian astronomer of the ninth century, was born in Sogdiana. He wrote a work entitled " Elements of Astronomy," which has been translated into Latin. Alfez, il-fez', or Alpliesi, ^l-fez'ee or il-fa'zee, (Isaac Berabbi — be-rab''be,) a rabbi and eminent Jew- ish writer, born near Fez, in Africa, about 1013. Died in Spain in 1103. His chief work is an abridgment of the Talmud, called the "Lesser Talmud." Alf heim. See Elves. Alfieri, ai-fe-a'ree, (Benedetto,) Count, an Italian architect, born in Rome in 1700, was an uncle of the great poet Alfieri, who, in his own memoirs, speaks of him as a very worthy man. He designed the Royal Opera-House of Turin, one of the noblest structures of the kind in Italy, and was patronized by the king, Charles Emmanuel. Among his other works are the fagade of Saint Peter's Church at Geneva, and the church at Carignano. Died at Turin in 1767. Alfieri, (Vittorio,) the most celebrated Italian poet of his age, was born of a noble family at Asti, in Pied- mont, on the 17th of January, 1749. He inherited an ample fortune from his father, who died while Vittorio was an infant, and was sent to the Accademia or College of Turin, in which he received such an education as those wholly incompetent to teach could impart. Fie left school about the age of fifteen, and indulged his passion for travel and reckless dissipation. He visited Paris, passed over to England, and sojourned in Holland. From a second tour through Germany, Sweden, Russia, etc., he returned to Turin in 1772. He once went to England on purpose to purchase horses, of which he was very fond. The success of his first drama, " Cleo- patra," which was performed at Turin in 1775, appears to have produced a change in his mode of life, which was thenceforth devoted to study and to dramatic com- position. In the course of the seven ensuing years he composed fourteen tragedies, among which are "Filippo II.," " Virginia," " Orestes," " Mary Stuart," " Octavia," "Merope," and "Saul," (1782.) The first and the last of these are considered his master-pieces. His dramas are simple in design, noble in sentiment, sententious in style, and pervaded by intense passion. About 1778 Alfieri became acquainted with the Countess of Albany, (wife of the Pretender, Charles Edward Stuart,) who in- spired his wayward heart with a lasting passion. (See Albany, Countess of.) It is supposed that he was privately married to her after the death of her husband in 1788. He resided some years in P>ance, and invested a large sum of money in French stocks, which he lost when he fled from the outrages of the Revolution in 1792. He then became a resident of Florence, and about the age of forty-six commenced the study of Greek, in which he made good progress. He translated some of the plays of /Eschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Among the other works of Alfieri are an " Essay on Tyranny," a translation of Sallust, a number of sonnets and epigrams, and five odes on the American Revolu- tion. He died at Florence on the 8th of October, 1803. Notwithstanding his faults, he was a man of public spirit, a sincere patriot, and an ardent lover of liberty. A monument, designed by Canova, was erected to him by the Countess of Albany in Santa Croce, Florence, be- tween the tombs of Michael Angelo and Machiavel, " He rarely speaks to the heart," says Ginguene, "but he is eloquent and nervous in intense passions ; he pos- sesses grandeur, and in his ideas, as well as in his style, aspires always to the sublime. . . . His dialogue is often a model of precision and dramatic argumentation." " The aim of his works," says Madame de Stael, " is so noble, the sentiments which the author expresses accord so well with his personal conduct, that his tragedies ought always to be praised as actions, even when they may be criticised as literary works." {Corhine.) "A par- allel between Alfieri and Cowper," says Macaulay, (in his article on Byron, in the "Edinburgh Review," 1831,) " may at first sight seem as unpromising as that which a loyal Presbyterian minister is said to have drawn in 1745 between (jcorge the vSecond and Enoch. . . . But though the private lives of these remarkable men pre- sent scarcely any points of resemblance, their literary lives bear a close analogy to each other. They both found poetry in its lowest state of degradation, feeble, artificial, and altogether nerveless. They both possessed precisely the talents which fitted them for the task of raising it from that deep abasement. . . . They had not in a very high degree the creative power, but they had great vigour of thought, great warmth of feeling, and, what was above all things important, a manliness of taste which approached to roughness." See his Autobiography entitled "Vita di Vittorio Alfieri scritta da Esso," translated into English by C. E. Lester ; " Vita di Vittorio Alfieri," Milan, 1S23; Serafico Grassi, " Dissertazione in lode di Vittorio Alfieri," 1S19; Antonio Zezon, " Biografia di Vittorio Al- fieri," 1S35; Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Ville- MAiN, " Cours de Litterature ;" A. Buccellini, " Elo^io de Vittorio Alfieri," iSii ; R. Southey, article on the Life and Writings of Alfieri, in the " Quarterly Review" for January, 1S16. Alfon, ll-fon', (Juan,) a Spanish painter, born at Toledo, lived about 141 8. Alfonse, tKfoNs', (Jean,) a French navigator of the sixteenth century, was a native of Saintonge, whence his surname Le Saintongeois, (leh s^-N'toN^zhw^'.) He made several voyages of discovery in the South Seas, an account of which was published in 1559, entitled " Voyages Adventure^x du Capitaine Jean Alfonse." Al-fon'so I., surnamed El Batallador, el bS-til- yi-dSR', {i.e. the "battler" or "warrior,") King of Ara- gon and Navarre, ascended the throne in 1104. He fell in battle in 1134. He had, it is said, previously de- feated the Mohammedans in thirty-nine successive con- flicts, and taken from them a much greater extent of territory than he had inherited from his ancestors. He was succeeded by his brother, Ramiro II. Alfonso II. of Aragon, a grandson of Ramiro XL, born in 1 152, became king in 1163. He inherited Bar- a, e, I, o, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, vi, y, s/iorl; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, fit; met; nSt; good; inoon; ALFONSO 91 ALFONSO celona from his father, Raymond V., and extended his dominions at the expense of the Mussuhnans. Died in 1 196, leaving the throne to his son, Pedro II. Alfonso III. of Aragon, born about 1265, was a son of Pedro III., whom he succeeded in 1285. The Cortes asserted their privileges with success in this reign, and set bounds to the royal prerogative. He died in 1291, and was succeeded by his brother, Jaime II. Alfonso IV. of Aragon, a son of Jaime II., began to reign in 1327. He waged a war against the Genoese, who invaded his kingdom, but were repulsed. Died in 1336, and was succeeded by his son, Pedro IV. See ZuKiTA, " Annales de Aragon." Alfonso V. OF Aragon. See Alfonso I. of Na- ples. Alfonso I., King of Asturias, ascended the throne in 739 A.D. He gained many victories over the Mos- lems, and took from them a multitude of towns and for- tresses. From his zeal for religion, evinced in building churches and founding monasteries, etc., he received the surname of El Catolico, (" the Catholic") Died in 756. Alfonso II. of Asturias, surnamed El Casto, ("the Chaste,'") succeeded to the throne in 791 A.D. He was distinguished for his successful wars against the Mohammedans. He died in 842, after a prosperous reign of more than fifty years. Alfonso III. of Asturias and Leon, surnamed El Magno, ("the Great,") succeeded his father Ordono in 866 A.D. He greatly extended his dominions by con- quests from the Mohammedans. Died in 910, leaving the throne to his son Garcia. Alfonso I. of Castile, (or Alfonso VI. of Leon,) surnamed El Bravo, 61 bri'vo, ("the Brave,") a son of Fernando I., ascended the throne of Leon in 1065. On the death of his brother, Sancho II. of Castile, in 1073, Galicia, Asturias, Castile, etc. were added to his sway. He acquired great renown in his wars against the Moors. His reign may be considered as the dawn of Christian prosperity in modern Spain. Died in 1 109, aged seventy-nine. Alfonso II. of Castile, (called Alfonso VII. of Leon by some historians, who count Alfonso I. of Castile as VI. of Leon,) named also Alfonso Ray- mond, a grandson of the preceding, ascended the throne in 1 126. He was very successful in his wars with the Mohammedans, and removed the frontiers of Castile from the Tagus to the Sierra Morena Mountains. In 1 135 he assumed the imperial title, and is accordingly sometimes styled "the Emperor," Died in 1 157, leav- ing Castile to his son Sancho, and Leon to his son Fer- nando, The written language of Spain is supposed to date from about the beginning of the reign of Alfonso VII,, and the oldest Spanish document of which the date is known is one given by Alfonso VII, to the city of Aviles, in Asturias, in confirmation of certain privi- leges prcviouslv granted. See Ticknor's "Spanish Literature," vol. i. chap. ii. Alfonso VIII. of Castile, called by some Alfonso III., surnamed El Noble, el no'Bli, ("the Noble,") succeeded to the throne in 1 158, when he was only three years old. After he became of age he was almost con- stantly engaged in war with the Mohammedans. In 1 195 he sustained a severe defeat from the arms of Aboo- Yoosuf-Yakoob ; but in 1212, with the kings of Aragon and Navarre, he gained a great victory over the Almo- hade sultan Mohammed An-Nasir, at the head of 600,000 men. The loss of the Mohammedans, as estimated by their own writers, was not less than 160,000, Alfonso died in 12 14, and was succeeded by his son, Enrique I, Alfonso XI. of Castile, a son of Fernando IV., succeeded to the throne in 13 12, when he was only a year old. In 1333, aided by Alfonso IV. of Portugal', whose daughter he had married, he turned his arms against the Moors, and in 1340 gained a great victory over the sultan Abool-Hassan (or Alboacen) under the walls of Tarifa, then besieged by the Mohammedan forces. He died in 1350, respected even by his enemies. The Moorish king of Granada is said to have exclaimed, when he heard of Alfonso's death, "We have lost the best king in the world, — one who knew how to honour the worthy, whether friend or foe." He was succeeded by his son, Pedro the Cruel. See Mariana, " Historia general de Espaiia." Alfonso I., II., and III. of Leon. See Alfonso of Asturias. Alfonso IV. of Leon and Asturias, surnamed the Monk, succeeded his uncle Fruela in 924. Pie abdi- cated in favour of his brother Ramiro about 930, and became a monk. Died about 932. Alfonso v., King cf Leon, born in 994, succeeded his father, Bermudo II., in 999. His reign was pros- perous, and his armies gained several victories over the Moors. He was killed at the siege of Viseu' in IC28, and was succeeded by his son, Bermudo III. Alfonso VI. of Leon. See Alfonso I. of Castile. Alfonso VII. OF Leon, See Alfonso II, of Cas- tile. Alfonso IX., King of Leon, succeeded his father Fernando II. in iiGS. He waged war against Alfonso of Castile, and afterwards married his daughter. Died in 1230, leaving a son Fernando, who was King of Cas- tile and Leon. Alfonso X., King of Leon and Castile, surnamed El Sabio, el sa'se-o, ("the Wise,") born in 1226, was a son of Fernando III., whom he succeeded in 1252. He had a high reputation for learning and eloquence, and was distinguished for the patronage he extended to science and literature ; but he was not a successful or popular ruler. His reign was disturbed by civil wars, one of which was instigated by his second son, Sancho, about 1281. The situation of Alfonso was so desperate that he solicited aid from the Moors. Spain owes to him an excellent code of laws, a translation of the Bible into Castilian, the restoration of the University of Sala- manca, and the first use of the Castilian language in public aftairs. Europe is indebted to him for the valu- able astronomical tables called Alphonsine Tables, Died in 1284. See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature," vol. i. chap, iii., Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Conde, " Histona de la Dominacion de los Arabes en Espana ;" Mariana, "Historia general de Espana ;" Marquis de Mondejar, " Memorias historicas del Rey Don Alfonso el Sabio." Alfonso I. of Naples, Sicily, and Aragon, born in 1385, succeeded his father Fernando I. on tlie throne of Aragon in 1416. He had been adopted as the heir of Queen Joanna of Naj^les, and in 1442, seven years after the death of that princess, and after encountering much opposition, he obtained possession of the whole Neapoli- tan kingdom. Died in 1458, He was a man of learning, and a liberal patron of literature and science. His son Ferdinand became King of Naples. See Facio, " Fatti d' Alfonso d'Aragona." Alfonso II., King of Naples, born in 1448, was a son of Ferdinand I. He defeated the Florentines at Poggio in 1479, and the Turks at Otranto in 1481. He ascended the throne in January, 1494, and rendered him- self odious by his cruelty and avarice. Alarmed at the approach of Charles VIII. of France with an army, he abdicated in favour of his son Ferdinand in January, 1495, ^^""^ ^^^'^ about the end of that year. SeeGiANNONE, "Storia del Regno di Napoli." Alfonso I., [Port. Affonso,] or, more fully, Dom Af- fonso Enriqiies, doN Sf-fon'so gn-ree'kgs, the founder of the Portuguese monarchy, son of Henry of Besangon, Count of Toulouse, was born in 1094, He inherited the title of Count of Portugal from his father, who had received it from Alfonso I, of Castile, his father-in-law. Enriques was yet a child when his father died, and Por- tugal was for along time under the rule, or rather mis- rule, of his mother Theresa ; but in 1128 he took the su- preme authority into his own hands. Alfonso VIII, (or more properly III.) of Castile, having supported the claims of Theresa, Enriques met him in the field, de- feated him, and established the entire independence of Portugal. He did not, however, take the title of king till 1139, when, at the head of about 13,000 Portuguese, he completely routed, at Ourique, the combined army of the Mohammedans, amounting, it is said, to 200,000 men, and made prisoners the five kings by whom this mighty host was led. In 1146 he took Santarem from € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, H, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (3^=See Explanations, p. 23,! ALFONSO 92 ALFRED che Moors by assault, and in the same year, or early in the next, reduced Lisbon, after a siege of more than five months. He turned his arms successively against the other towns and fortresses in possession of the Moham- medans, and in 1 158 became undisputed possessor of his kingdom. Died in 1 185, aged ninety. He left a son, who became King Sancho 1. See Mariana, "Histoiia de Espana;" Schaeffer, "Histoire du Portugal." Alfonso (or Affonso) II. of Portugal, a son of San- cho I., was born in 1 185, and began to reign in 121 1. His kingdom was placed under an interdict by the pope because he taxed the property of the clergy. Alfonso was thus reduced to submission. He died in 1223, leav- ing the throne to his son, Sancho H. Alfonso (Affonso) III., a son of the preceding, born in 1210, succeeded his brother Sancho II. in 1248. His reign was rather prosperous, though he was once excom- municated by the pope. He died in 1279, and was suc- ceeded by his son Denis, (Diniz.) Alfonso (Affonso) IV. of Portugal, surnamed the Brave, a son of Denis, was born in 1290, and began to reign in 1325. Among the remarkable events of his reign was the rebellion of his son Dom Pedro, whose motive was revenge for the murder of Ines de Castro, to which the king had consented. He died in 1357, leaving the throne to his son, Pedro I. Alfonso (Affonso) V. of Portugal, a son of Duarte, was born in 1432, and became king in 1438, under the regency of his mother. He conducted a large armament against Africa in 1458, and captured Tangier. Having invaded Castile, he was defeated by Ferdinand of Ara- gon in 1476. He died in 1481, and was succeeded by his son Joao 11. See Mariana, " Historia de Espana." Alfonso (Affonso) VI. of Portugal, a son of John IV., was born in 1643, and became king in 1656. Plis imbecility or vices having rendered him unpopular, he was forced to abdicate in 1667 in favour of his brother Dom Pedro, and was banished to Terceira. He was con- fined in the castle of Cintra in 1675, ^^'^d died in 1683. Alfonso I. of Este, Duke of Ferrara, born in 1476, began to reign in 1505. He commanded the Papal troops in the war of the League of Cambrai, 1509. In 1 5 12 he fought against the Pope, Julius II., at Ravenna. He married the famous Lucretia Borgia. Died in 1534. Alfonso, (the Navigator.) See Alphonse. Alfonso, al-fon'so, (Pedro,) a Spanish Jew, who was born in Aragon in 1062, and was converted to Chris- tianity. He wrote after his conversion, besides other works, one called "Clerical Discipline," ("Disciplina Clericalis,") which was much esteemed. Died about 1 140. Alfonso OF Cartiiagena, (or de Cartagena, da kaR-ta-Ha'ni,) [Lat. Alphon'sus a Sanc'ta-Mari'a,] a celebrated Spanish historian, born at Carthagena (or Cartagena) in 1396, became Bishop of Burgos. He wrote a " History of Spain," from the earliest ages down to his own time, and other works. Died in 1456. Alfonso de Cartagena. See Alfonso of Car- thagena. Alfonso Lopez de Corella, (lo'peth da ko-rel'yi,) a Spanish physician, born in Navarre, wrote numerous medical works, dated 1546-82. Alfonso de Palencia, (de pi-lgn'she-a,) [Sp. pron. ai-fon'so dk pi-lSnV/ze-^ ; Lat. Alphon'sus Palenti'- NUS,] a distinguished Spanish historian, born at Palen- cia, in Old Castile, in 1423. He was royal historiogra- pher to Queen Isabella of Castile. The precise time of his death is unknown. He was alive in 1492. He wrote in Latin a history of the reign of Isabella, and a chronicle of Plenry IV. See Prescott, " Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. part i. Alfonso Tostado. See Alphonsus Abulensis. Alford, awKford, (Henry,) D.D., commonly known as Dean Alford, an English poet and divine, born in London in 1810, was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. He became vicar of Wymeswold, Leices- tershire, in 1835, Hulsean Lecturer at Cambridge in 1841, incumbent of Quebec Street Chapel, London, in 1853, and Dean of Canterbury about 1856. He pub- lished in 1835 "The School of the Heart, and other Poems," (2 vols.,) which are commended. " The present volumes," says the "Edinburgh Review," "appear to us to be a beginning of great promise. . . . Extracts so much longer than we are in the habit of making, are a sufficient proof of our sense of the talent displayed in these poems." (Critique on "The School of the Heart, and other Poems," January, 1836.) His reputation as a divine is founded on an excellent edition of the Greek New Testament in four or more volumes, 1841-61. He also published a small volume entitled "The Queen's English," (2d edition, 1864,) which attracted much atten- tion. Died in 1871. Alford, (Michael,) an English Jesuit and writer, born in London in 1587 ; died at Saint Omer, in France, in 1651. He wrote " Britannia Illustrata," (1641,) treat- ing of the ecclesiastical history of Britain. Alfragan. See Alferghanee. Alfrago, ai-fR.Vgo, (Andrea,) an Italian physician, wrote a history of Arabian physicians, etc. Died at Padua in 1520. Alfred, iKfred, written also ^I'fred, El'fred, and Alured, i.e. Alvred, [Lat. zElfre'dus,] surnamed the Great, King of the West Saxons in England, was born in 848 or 849. He was the son of King .Ethel- wulf and Osburga, (or Osberga,) the daughter of a Gothic nobleman. On the death of his brother /Ethelred, in 871, Alfred became king. At this period the country was in the most deplorable condition. The Danes had overrun a great portion of England, and many of the bravest Saxons had fallen in vain attempts to resist their pagan invaders. King Ethelred himself had died of a wound received in this unequal conflict. Alfred was fain to procure peace on almost any terms, and at last agreed to pay the Danes a sum of money on condition that they would leave his dominions. But they broke their oaths, and, attacking him by night, destroyed all his cavalry. All the means of resistance being lost, Alfred for a time laid aside the ensigns of royalty and concealed himself in the family of a poor herclsman. Having at length been discovered by some of his nobles, he grad- ually, but secretly, collected a considerable force, with which he occasionally made inroads into the territory occupied by the Danes, and thus procured the means of subsisting himself and his army. About this time Odun, Earl of Devon, sallied from his castle, defeated the be- siegers, slew Ubbo, one of the principal leaders, and took the Danish standard. Upon this, Alfred resolved to attack the main army of his enemies, which he routed with great slaughter at Eddington in 878, and soon after obliged the survivors to surrender at discretion. The Danish king, Godrun, (or Guthrun,) embraced the Chris- tian religion, Alfred standing as his godfather ; and a considerable tract of country was allotted to the con- verted Danes. Alfred now directed his earnest efforts towards the fortifying and internal improvement of his kingdom. He caused a number of ships to be built, and may be said to have laid the foundation of the British navy. He repaired the old dilapidated fortresses, and erected new ones wherever they were needed. He ex- erted himself, moreover, to establish an efhcient police and a thorough administration of justice within his dominions. He was not, however, as has frequently been stated, the author of the trial by jury. It was his highest glory that he did so much for his country's literature and the intellectual improvement of his people. He not only established schools in all the principal towns, but he began himself, it is said, to learn Latin at the age of thirty-nine, and afterwards translated a number of works from that language into his native tongue. In 894 the Northmen again invaded England, with a fleet of three hundred ships ; but they were defeated by Alfred, and those who escaped the sword were either taken captive and executed as pirates or chased from the kingdom. Alfred died in 901. Alfred the Great presents to us one of the most per- fect characters to be found on the page of history. He was, to use the language of a recent author, "a saint with- out superstition, a scholar without ostentation, a warrior all whose wars were fought in defence of his country, a conqueror whose hands were never stained by cruelty, a a, e, T, 0, 11, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; f3.r, fill, fit; m§t; ndt; good; moon; ALFRED 93 AL-HOMATDEE prince never cast down by adversity, never lilted up to insolence in the day of triumph," (See Freeman's " Nor- man Conquest," vol. i. chap, ii.; also, Hume's character of Alfred in his "History of England," vol. i, chap, ii.) See T. A. Giles, " Life and Times of Alfred the Greai," 1854; Spelmak, ''Life of Alfred," 1709; A. Bickxell, "Life of Alfred," 1777; Stolberg. "Leben Alfreds des Grossen," 1815; Asser, "Life of Alfred," ("De Aelfredi Rebus gestis," 1571 :) Richard Paulli, " Konig Alfred und seine Stelle in der Geschichte Englands," London, 1S51, translated into English by Thomas Wright, 1S52. Alfred, a son of the Saxon king Ethelred H., and Emma, He attempted to obtain the throne in 1042, but failed, and lost his life, Alfred, surnamed An'glicus (or the " Englishman") and THE Philosopher, wrote some scientific works, — one, " On the Motion of the Heart," (" De Cordis Motu,") A part of his life was passed in England ; but the place of his nativity is unknown. Died about 1270. Alfred or Alured of Beverley, an English historian, born about 1 100, became a priest. He left a Latin His- ton,' of Britain, which is supposed to be an abridgment of the work of Geoffrey of Monmouth, Alfred of Malmesbury, an English monk and writer, became Bishop of Crediton about 990. Alfred, (Ernest Albert.) Duke of Edinburgh, the second son of Victoria, Queen of England, was born in 1844. He entered the navy in 1S58, and made voyages to various countries. In 1S62 he declined the throne of Greece, which had been offered to him. He was shot at and wounded by an assassin in Australia in 186S. Alfred and A-bi'ram, two German architects, born in Bavaria, lived in the ninth century. They built the imperial palace of Ratisbon. Alfric, dFfrik, written also -Sllfric and Elfric, [Lat. Alfri^cus, .Elfri'cus, or Elfri'cus,] surnamed Abbas, (the " Abbot,") and Grammaticus, (the " Grammarian,") a celebrated Anglo-Saxon writer, who flourished in the latter half of the tenth century. Of his life nothing cer- tain is known. It is supposed that he became Archbishop of Canterbur}- in 995, Among his works are numerous homilies, Alfric or JElfric, Archbishop of York, an Anglo- Saxon writer, who is by some identified with the famous w.iter Alfric surnamed Grammaticus, above noticed. Died in 105 1. Algardi, Sl-gaR'dee, (Alessandro,) a celebrated Italian sculptor and architect, born at Bologna about 1600. His birth is variously dated at 1588, 1593, and 1602. He studied design the Caracci, became a pupil of Cesare Conventi, and went to Rome about 1625. He was architect of the Villa Panfili or Pamphili, and of the fa9ade of the church of St. Ignatius, Rome. His master-piece in sculpture is a colossal bas-relief* in the church of Saint Peter's, representing Saint Leo forbid- ding Attila to enter Rome, (1640.) This is said to be the largest bas-relief in the world. Among his works are statues of Saint Philip de Neri and Innocent X, He is regarded by some critics as the greatest sculptor of his age. Died in 1654. See Passeri, " Vite de' Pittori," etc. ; Milizia, "Vite degli Archi- tetti." Algarotti, al-gi-rot'tee, (Francesco,) Count, a dis- tinguished Italian writer and connoisseur, born at Venice in 1 712. He was not only well versed in many languages and sciences, but possessed decided skill in the art of design, and wTOte verses with facility. In 1733 he pro- duced popular dialogues on Optics, entitled "Optics for Ladies," (" Xeutonianismo per le Dame,") which were translated into several languages. Invited by Frederick the Great, he went to Berlin about 1740, and passed many years at that court as a friend of the king, who gave him the title of count. This friendship continued until the death of Algarotti. He corresponded with Vol- taire and many other eminent authors. Besides essays on various subjects, he wrote "Letters on Painting," which display good taste and judgment. He died at Pisa in March, 1764. See D. MiCHELESsi, "Memorie intomo alia vita del Conte F. Al- garotti," 1770, and French version of the same, 1772; Fabroni, • Some authorities call Algardi's great work an alto-relievo ; we ha\-e fuJowed the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." "Vitae Itaiorum doctrina excelientium ;" and Voltaire, " Correspon- dance Generale." Algazd, al-g§.'zee, (Solomon Ben Abraham,) a voluminous Jewish writer, born in the Levant. Died in 1683. AlgazzaU, Algazali, or Alghazzali. See Aboo- Hamid-Alghazalee. Alger, aKjer, [Fr. pron. aKzhaiR'; Lat. Al'gerus,] an ecclesiastical writer, who died about the middle of the twelfth century. He was a native of Liege. Alger, aKjer, (William Rounseville,) an Ameri- can writer, born in Freetown, Massachusetts, in 1823. He is author of "Symbolic History of the Cross of Christ;" "Oriental Poetry;" "History of the Doctrine of a Future Life, as it has Prevailed in all Nations and Ages," (1S62,) to which was contributed a very complete bibliography of the subject, by Ezra Abbot, assistant librarian at Harvard University; and various other works. Mr. Alger has furnished numerous contributions to the " Christian Examiner" and other periodicals. Alghafikee or Alghafiki, M-ca'te-kee', an eminent physician, who lived in Mohammedan Spain in the twelfth century. Died about 1164. Alghisi, al-gee'sec, sometimes written Algisi, (Fran- cesco,) an Italian musical composer, born at Brescia in 1666. He composed two operas, one of which, called "II Trionfo della Continenza," ("The Triumph of Con- tinence,") had a great success. Died in 1733. Alghisi, (Galasso,) an Italian architect of the six- teenth centuiy, born at Carpi. He published a splendid work on fortihcations, ("Della Fortilicazione," 1570.) Alghisi, (ToMMASO,) a distinguished Italian surgeon, born at Florence in 1669. He particularly excelled in lithotomy, on which he wrote an able treatise, (1707.) Died in 1713. Algrin, trgRaN', (Jean,) a French theologian, who became Archbishop of Besancon. Died in 1237. Alhakem or Al-Hakem (al-hik'em) I., Sultan of Cordova, began to reign in 796 A.D. He waged war against Alfonso of Asturias and the Franks, and sup- jDressed with great cruelty a rebellion in Cordova. Died in 822. Alhakem H., Sultan and Caliph of Cordova, suc- ceeded his father Abd-er-Rahman III, in 961, He was a pacific and enlightened sovereign, and was celebrated as a patron of literature and science. His reign has been called the golden age of Arabian literature. He col- lected a great library, and expended vast sums in the erection of colleges, mosques, hospitals, etc. He died in 976, aged sixty-three, and was succeeded by his son Hisham (or Hescham) II. Al-Hakem-Ibn-Attt, il-hS'kem ib'n ^t\if, com- monly called Al-Mo-ken^na, ( -Mo-can''na or -Mu- kanna, mdo-kan'na,) or " the veiled one," a famous impostor, who arose in the time of Aboo-Jaafar Al-Man- soor, the second caliph of the Abbasside dynasty. He first made his appearance as a legislator and prophet at Merv or Meru, the capital of Khorassan, in 774 A.D. About 780 the caliph Mahdee (Mahdi) sent an army that besieged the impostor in his principal fortress. When Al-Hakem found that there was no chance of escape, he administered, it is said, a mortal poison to those about his person, and afterwards burned their bodies to ashes, so that no vestige might be left; and, the better to impress posterity with the idea of his divine character, he plunged into a large caldron filled with a liquid so powerful and penetrating that no part of his body remained unconsumed. The truth appears to have been, that he burned himself in the castle in which he was, so that no trace of him remained except ashes. This story forms the basis of Moore's poem entitled "Mokanna, or the Veiled Prophet of Khorassan." See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vo]. ii. chap, iii.; D'Her- BELOT, " Bibliotheque Onentale ;" Abulpharagius, " Historia Dy- nastiarum ;" Abulfeda, "Annales Moslemici." Alhazan or Alhazen, written also Alhacen and Alhasan, al-haz'an, an Arabian philosopher and mathe- matician, native of Bassora, celebrated as the author of a treatise on optics, of great merit. Died at Cairo about 1038. Al-Homaydee or Al-Homaydi, il-ho-mi'dee'', a dis- € ai i; ; as s; g hard; g as J; G,H, Yi, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ALHOY 94 ALIX tinguished Arabian writer, born at Majorca in 10^9. A-mong his works is a valuable biography of the distin- guished Moslems of Spain. Died at Bagdad about 1095. Alhoy, t'lwa', (Louis,) a French litterateur, born at Angers in 1755, succeeded Abbe Sicard as Director of the Institution for Deaf-Mutes in 1797. He wrote "Les Hospices," a poem. Died in 1826. Ali. See Alee. Ali, (Pacha.) See Alee-Welee-Zade. Aliamet, a'le-t'ma' or tl'yt'm<¥, (pRANgois Ger- main,) a French engraver, born at Abbeville in 1734, was a brother of Jacques, noticed below, to whom he was inferior in skill. He worked some years in London, and engraved historical works after the Italian masters. Aliamet, (Jacques,) a skilful French engraver, born at Abbeville in 1727; died in Paris in 1788. He ex- celled in landscapes and sea-pieces. His engravings, after Vernet, are much admired. Alibaud, t'le^bo', (Louis,) a French fanatic, born at Nimes in 1810. He attempted to assassinate Louis Philippe with a pistol in June, 1836, and was guillotined in July of the same year. Ali Beg, a'lee beg, a native of Poland, was captured in childhood by Tartars, who sold him to a Turk. He became dragoman to the sultan, and translated the Bible into the Turkish language. Died in 1675. Alibert, t'le^baiR'', (Jean Louis,) an eminent French physician, born in Aveyron in 1766. He became one of the chief physicians of the Hospital Saint Louis, Paris, in 1 80 1, and professor of medicine in 1802. In 18 14 he was appointed consulting physician to Louis XVIII., and a few years later was made first physician-in-ordinary. He gave special attention to diseases of the skin, on which he wrote a work of much merit, called " Description of Diseases of the Skin," (" Description des Maladies de la Peau," 1806-25.) He was author of other medical works, written in an elegant style. Died in 1837, See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Aliberti, a-le-bCR'tee, (Giancarlo,) an Italian fresco- painter, born at Asti, in Piedmont, in 1680; died about 1740. His chief works were executed at his native city. Ali Bey, aHee ba, the assumed name of Domingo Badia y Leblich, do-ming'go bJ-dee'^, e k\-blek', a Spanish traveller and projector, born in Biscay in 1766. He travelled in the disguise of a Mussulman, and pub- lished " Travels in Asia and Africa, 1803-1807," (3 vols., 1814.) Died in 1818. See the "Quarterly Review" for July, 1816. Alibrandi, I-le-bRin'dee, (Francesco,) an Italian Jesuit and casuist, born at Messina. Died in 1711. Alibrandi, (Girolamo,) a distinguished painter, called " the Raphael of Messina," where he was born in 1470. His manner resembled that of Leonardo da Vinci, with whom he studied. Died of the plague in 1524. His master-piece is a " Purification of the Virgin." See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Alidosi, a-le-do'see, (Giovanni Niccolo Pasquale,) an antiquary of Bologna. Died about 1630. Aiighieri. See Dante. Alignan, t'len^yON^, Benedict of, [Fr. Benoit d'Alignan, beh-nwa' dt'len'yoN',] a French Benedict- ine monk, who was elected Bishop of Marseilles in 1229. Died in 1268. Aligre, t'legR', (Iitienne FRANgois,) born about 1726, became president of the Parliament of Paris in 1 768, which office he held for twenty years. Died in exile in 1798. Ali, Hyder. See Hyder Alee. Al-i-men''tus, (Lucius Cincius,) a Roman histo- rian of merit, became tribune of the people in 214 B.C., and praetor in 210. He received with the province of Sicily the command of two legions which had been de- feated at Cannae and were afterwards condemned to serve in Sicily. Some time after 208 he was taken pris- oner by Hannibal, who appears to have treated him with great respect. lie wrote, in Greek, a history of Rome from the foundation of the city to his own time, and other works, on law, grammar, etc. His diligence and erudition are commended by Livy. Only fragments of his works are extant. See NiEBUHR, " History of Rome ;" AuLUs Gellius, xvi. ; Voss, " De Historicis Latinis." Alinard, iKe-nard' or t'le'ntR', written also Hali- nard, a learned French prelate, born in Burgundy about 990, became Archbishop of Lyons in 1046. Died in 1052. A-lip'i-us, a friend of Saint Augustine, was an emi- nent lawyer. Having been baptized by Saint Ambrose in 387 A.D., he became Bishop of Tagaste. Died about 428. Aliprandi, a-le-pRcWdee, (Buonamente,) an Italian poet, native of Mantua. He wrote a history of Mantua and other cities of Italy, a work of little merit. Died in 1414. Alisaunder, one of the modes in which Chaucer writes the name of Alexander the Great. AFi-son, (Alexander,) a British writer, born in Scot- land about 1 81 2. He published, besides other works, "The Philosophy and History of Civilization," (i860,) and is about to publish, it is said, "The Church and the World Reconciled." Alison, (Rev. Archibald,) a Scottish writer, born in Edinburgh in 1757. He took orders in the Anglican Church in 1784, and married the same year a daughter of the well-known Dr. John Gregory of Edinburgh. He became curate of Kenley, Shropshire, in 1790, and vicar of Ercall in 1794. In 1790 he pubhshed "Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste," a popular work, which Lord Jeffrey made the subject of a laudatory article in the " Edinburgh Review " in 181 1. He became senior minister of the Episcopal Chapel, Cowgate, Edinburgh, in 1800. Two volumes of his sermons were published. " We do not know any sermons," says the " Edin- burgh Review" for September, 1814, "so pleasing, or so likely both to be popular and to do good to those who are pleased with them. All the feelings are generous and gentle — all the sentiments liberal — and all the gen- eral views just and ennobling." Died in 1839. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," Supplement, vol. v.; " Gentleman's Magazine," September, 1839. Alison, (Sir Archibald,) a historian, a son of the preceding, was born at Kenley, Shropshire, in Decem- ber, 1792. He was educated in Edinburgh, studied law, and was called to the Scottish bar in 18 14. In 1828 he was chosen sheriff of Lanarkshire. He gained distinc- tion by his "Principles of Criminal Law," (1832.) His most important work is a " History of Europe from the Commencement of the French Revolution to the Resto- ration of the Bourbons, 1815," (istvol., 1839,) which has been eminently successful. The ninth ecUtion was pub- lished in 1853-55, 12 vols. "It is upon the whole," says the "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1842, "a valuable addition to European literature, evidently com- piled with the utmost care : its narration, so far as we / can judge, is not perverted by the slightest partiality. ... Its merits are minuteness and honesty — qualities which may w^ell excuse a faulty style, gross political prejudices, and a fondness for exaggerated and frothy declamation." He published in 1847 "The Life of John, Duke of Marlborough," (3d edition, 1855,) and in 1852-57 a continuation of his "History of Europe" to the year 1852, (6 vols.) The latter work is not so able nor so popular as his first history. He was created a baronet in 1852. His political sympathies were ultra- conservative. He was the author of several other works, among which are "Essays, Political, Historical, etc.," (3 vols., 1850,) originally published in " Blackwood's Magazine." Died near Glasgow in May, 1867. See a review of his History in "Blackwood's Magazine" for July, 1840. Alison, (William Pulteney,) an eminent physician and physiologist, son of the Rev. Archibald Alison, born in Edinlnirgh in 1790. He became professor of medical jurisprudence at Edinburgh in 1820, and was appointed professor of the institutes of medicine in 1828. In 1830 he published "First Lines of Physiology." He became professor of the practice of medicine in the University of Edinburgh in 1832, and published "Out- lines of Physiology and Pathology" in 1833. He re- ceived the title of "First Physician to the Queen for Scotland." Died in Edinburgh in 1859. Alix, t'less', or Alice, aKiss, (called by the older writers Adela, Ada, and Ala,) a daughter of Theobald, (Thibaud le Grand,) Count of Champagne, was married a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; \ h, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fdll, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; ALIX 9S • JLLJTIUS to Louis VII., King of France, in 1160 ; died in 1206. Her son became King Philippe Auguste. Aliy , t'less', (Matthieu FRANgois,) a French phy- sician, born in Paris in 1738. He was professor of anat- omy at Fulda, and wrote a work of merit, entitled " Sur- gical Observations," ("ObservataChirurgica," 1774-78.) Died at Briickenau in 1782. Alix, (Pierre,) a French priest, born at Dole in 1600, became a canon at Besancon. He defended against the pope, in several tracts, the rights of his chapter in regard to the election of archbishops. Died in 1676. Alix, (P. M.,) a French engraver, born 1752 ; died 1809. Al-Jannabi or Al-Jannabius. See [annabee. Al-Kader-Billah, al-kaMir h'lVlA, {i.e. '"'mighty by the grace of God,") a caliph of the house of Abbas, born at Bagdad about 947, succeeded to the throne in 99 1; died in 103 1 or 1032. He received and protected at his court Firdousee, (Firdausi,) the celebrated Persian poet, who fled from the anger of Mahmood of Gazna. Al-Kahir-Biilah, al-ka'hir biKla, {i.e. "victorious by the grace of God,") a caliph of the house of Abbas, who ascended the throne in 929. His tyranny and cruelty rendered him an object of execration, and caused his dethronement after a reign of rather more than a year. Alkaios. See Algous. Al-Kasim-Ibn-Hammood, (-Hammud,) ai-ki'- sim ib'n harn'mood', a sultan of Cordova, dethroned by his nephew Yahya in 1024. Al-Kayim, al-ka'yim or al-kl'yim, a caliph of the house of Abbas, succeeded his father Al-Kader-Billah about 1031. Died in 1073. Alkemade, van, vtn ai-keh-miMeh,(KoRNELis,) a Dutch antiquary, born in 1654. He was first commis- sioner of import and export duties at Rotterdam. He published, besides other works, a curious treatise on old Dutch customs in civil life, entitled " Nederlandsche Displechtigheden," (3 vols., 1732.) ^Died in 1737. Al-Khazrejee or Al-Khazreji, al-Ka/Zreh-jee^ an excellent historian of Mohanmiedan Spain, supposed to have lived about the end of the twelfth century. Alkhowarezmi,dl-k6w-d-rez'mee,an Arabian math- ematician, lived about 810-830 a.d. He was librarian to Al-Mamoon at Bagdad. Alkibiades. Sec Alcihiades. Alkindi, Alkiudu.s, or Alkendi. See Alciiindus. Alkman. See Alcmax. Alkniar or Alkmaar, van, vtn ilk-msR', (Henry, or HiNREK,) a Low-German poet, who lived in the latter half of the fifteenth century, was the author or first trans- lator of a celebrated poem and satire, "Reynard the Fox," which he published in Low German at Liibcck in 1498. In the preface he states that he translated it from the Walsch (supposed to be the Walloon) and the French, and that he was a schoolmaster and teacher of virtue in the service of the Duke of Lorraine. The original is lost, if it ever existed. The poem of Alk- mar is one of the most popular in the language, and has been translated into several other languages. Goethe produced a modern German version of it in hexameters, which has been splendidly illustrated by Kaulbach. See J. Grimm, "Die Sage von Reinhart Vos," 1834. Allacci. See Allatius. Allaiuval, t'l^N'vSK, (L^onor Jean Christine Soulas — soo'las') a French dramatic poet, born at Char- tres about 1 700; died in 1753. Although he assumed the title of abbe, he never entered holy orders. Among his best works is "L'£cole des Bourgeois," (1728,) a comedy which is praised by La Harpe. AUais, t'la', (Denys Vairasse — vi^rtss^) a French writer of the seventeenth century, born in Languedoc, was known as the author of a political romance called the " History of the Sevarambians," (" Histoire des Sevarambes," 1677.) AFlam, (Andrew,) a learned English antiquary, born near Oxford in 1655. He entered holy orders in 1680. He assisted Wood in the "Athense Oxonienses," and began a "History of English Cathedrals," the comple- tion of which was i^revented by his death in 1685. AUamand, t'lS'mSN', (Jean Nicolas S6bastien,) a philosopher and naturalist, born at Lausanne, in Swit- zerland, in 1 713. In 1749 he became professor of phi- losophy, and afterwards of natural history, in the Uni- versity of Leyden, both of which chairs he held with credit till his death in 1787. He was the first to explain the phenomena of the Leyden jar, and rendered an im- portant service to the public by the publication of the Historical Dictionary of his friend Prosper Marchand, (1758-9,) which the latter left in manuscript. The writ- ing was so minute that he was obliged to use a powerful microscope to decipher it. Allan, aKlan, (David,) a Scottish historical painter, sometimes called " the Scotch Hogarth," was born at Alloa in 1744. He went to Rome in 1764, and gained there a gold medal for his picture of a Corinthian maiden drawing her lover's profile on the wall by the shadow, which is esteemed his master-piece. He settled in Edin- burgh about 1780, and increased his reputation by illus- trations of Allan Ramsay's "Gentle Shepherd.'^ He owes the name of the Scotch Hogarth to his humorous designs of the Roman Carnival. Died in 1796. See Chambers, " Biograpliical Dictionary of Eminexit Scotsmen ;" Cunningham, "Lives ot Painters, Sculptors," etc. Allan, ^Klan, (George,) an English attorney and antiquary, who resided at Darlington, was a zealous student of national antiquities. He contributed to Hutchinson's " History and Antiquities of Durham," and published, besides other works, a "Life of Bishop Trevor," (1776.) Died in 1800. See Nichols, " Literarj' Anecdotes," etc. Allan, (Robert,) a Scottish lyric poet, born at Kil- barchan in 1774, was a weaver. He produced a volume of poems in 1836. Having emigrated to the United States, he died at New York in 1841. Allan, (Thomas.) See Allen. Allan, (Thomas,) F'.R.S., a Scottish mineralogist, born in Edinburgh in 1777. He formed a collection ol about seven thousand specimens of minerals, said to be the finest collection in Scotland. His knowledge of mineralogy was extensive and accurate. He wrote the article Diamond for the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," and a work on Mineralogical Nomenclature. Died in 1833. Allan, (Sir William,) an eminent British historical ])ainter, born in Edinburgh in 1782. He studied in the Royal Academy of London, worked some years in Saint Petersburg, visited Circassia and Turkey, and returned to Scotland in 1814. His large picture of the "Circassian Captives" was purchased for 1000 guineas by Sir Walter Scott and ninety-nine other subscribers. He afterwards painted subjects of Scottish history, among which are the "Parting of Charles Stuart and Flora Macdonald," and "The Murder of Regent Murray." He was elected academician of the Royal Academy, London, in 1835, and succeeded Wilkie in 1840 as her Majesty's limner for Scotland. From 1838 until his death he was presi- dent of the Scottish Royal Academy. Among his chief works are two pictures of the "Battle of Waterloo." Died in 1850. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," vol. v.; " Er.cyc!opa;clia^Britannica." Allard, t'ltR', (Gui,) a French writer, noted for his works on the history and genealogy of Dauphine. Born at Grenoble about 1645; died in 1715. Allard, (Jean Francois,) a French general, born in Var in 1785. He left France after the restoration of 1S15, and v/ent to Hindostan. He entered the service of Runjeet Singh at Lahore, organized his army after the French system, and became general-in-chief. Died in India in 1839. Allarde, d', da'lSRd', (Pierre Gilbert Leroi — leh- Rwa',) Baron, a French political economist, born at Montlucon in 1749 ; died in 1809. Allart, t'ltR^ (Mary Gay,) a novelist, born at Lyons, in France, in 1750. She lived a long time in Paris, and wrote a successful novel called "Albertine de Saint- Albe," (181 8.) She also made an elegant French trans- lation of the "Family Secrets" of Miss Pratt. Died in Paris in 1821. Allatius, ^1-la'she-us, (Leo,') [It. Leone Allacci, la-o'na Sl-lSt'chee,] an eminent scholar and physician, born at Chios (Scio) in 1586, embraced the Catholic religion, taught Greek in a college of Rome, and was € as k; 5 as .f ; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in tliis. (^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ALLE • 96 ALLEN appointed librarian of the Vatican by Pope Alexander VII. He edited and translated into Latin several old Greek works, and wrote some original productions. Died in 1669. Alle, al'li, (GiROLAMO,) an Italian writer and eccle- siastic, born at Bologna probably about 1580. He was an admired orator, and author of many works in prose and verse on religious and moral subjects, (1613-54.) Al-lec'tus, an officer of Carausius, King of Britain. Having murdered Carausius, in 293, he usurped the throne. He was defeated and killed by the Roman army of Constantius Chlorus about 296 a.d. Allegrain, trgRiN', (Christophe Gabriel,) a dis- tinguished French sculptor, born in Paris about 1 710. He excelled in nude figures. Died in 1795. Allegrain, (Stienne,) the father of the preceding, was a skilful landscape-painter, who died in 1736, aged eighty, AUegretti, 3.1-la-gRet'tee, (Antonio,) a Florentine poet, who lived (mostly at Rome) about the middle of the sixteenth century. AUegretti, (Carlo,) an Italian painter, born at Monte Prandone, lived between 1600 and 1650. AUegretti, (Jacopo,) an Italian physician and as- trologer, born at Forli in the early part of the fourteenth century, had an extensive reputation as a Latin poet. AUegri. See Correggio. AUegri, al-la'gRee, (Alessandro,) a satirical poet of the sixteenth century. He was a native of Florence, and excelled in burlesque poetry. The purity of his language was recognized by the Academy Delia Crusca. Died about 1596. AUegri, (Gregorio,) an eminent musician and com- poser, born at Rome about 1580, was a singer in the pontifical chapel. He is said to have been a relative of the painter Correggio. His most remarkable work is the "Miserere," which is still performed annually in the pope's chapel during the holy week. Died in 1652. See Burney's "Musical Tour in Italy." AUegrini, ai-la-gRee'nee, (Francesco,) a distin- guished Italian painter, born at Gubbio in 1587. He worked at Rome and Genoa in oil and fresco. Died in 1663. AUegrini, (Francesco,) a designer and engraver, born at Florence in 1729. Died about 1785. AUein or AUeine, iKlen, (Joseph,) an English non- conformist divine, born at Devizes in 1633, was educated at Oxford. He became curate to Mr. Newton at Taun- ton in 1655, and was ejected for nonconformity in 1662. Continuing to preach frequently, he was committed to Ilchester jail in 1663, fined one hundred marks, and im- prisoned one year. He again suffered similar persecu- tion in 1665, in consequence of which he died prema- turely in 1668, leaving several religious works, one of which, "An Alarm to the Unconverted," (1672,) is highly esteemed and has been often reprinted. See A. Duff's "Life and Death of the Rev. J. Alleine;" August RiscHE, "Leben J. Alleins weiland Predigers zu Taunton," Biele- feld, (?) 1850; "Life and Death of J. Alleine," London, 1672. AUein or AUeine, (Richard,) an English noncon- formist minister, born about 1610, was rector of Batcombe, in Somersetshire. He published, besides other works, a " Vindication of Godliness," (" Vindiciae Pietatis," 1663,) which was highly esteemed. Died in 1 681. Allemand. See Lallemand. Allemand, tl'mSN', (Georges,) a French historical painter, born at Nancy, lived in Paris about 1650. Allemand, (Jean Baptiste,) a French painter, was a pupil of J. Vernet. He lived at Rome, and painted some fine landscapes in the Corsini palace in 1750. Allemand, tKmSN', (Zacharie Jacques Theodore,) a French admiral, born at Port Louis, in Mauritius, in 1762. He commenced his career as a cabin-boy. In 1792 he was made captain, and captured many British merchant- vessels between 1793 and 1800. He rose gradually by his activity and skill to the station of vice- admiral in 1809. He commanded the fleet which Coch- rane attempted to destroy with fire-ships at the Isle of Aix in 1809. Died in 1826. AUemanni, ai-li-man''nee, (Pietro,) of Ascoli, an Italian painter, who flourished between 1470 and 1490. AUemant. See Lallemant and Lalamant. Allen, aKlen, (Alexander,) an English philologist, a son of John Allen (1771-1839) noticed below, born at Hackney, near London, in 1814. He was a good classical scholar, and an excellent teacher. He wrote articles for the " Penny Cyclopaedia" and for Smith's " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography," and published seve- ral works for the use of students of the Greek and Latin languages. Died in 1842. AlTen, (David Oliver,) an American missionary, born at Barre, Massachusetts, in 1800. He laboured many years in India, whither he went about 1827, and published " India, Ancient and Modern," (2d edition, 1858.) Died in 1863. AlTen or Al''en, (Edmond,) an English theologian, born in Norfolk. He wrote a number of works. Died ii-i 1559- * Allen, (Ephraim W.,) born about 1780, was for more than thirty years editor of the " Newburyport Herald." In his office William Lloyd Garrison learned the art of printing. (See Garrison.) Died in 1846. Allen, (E'than,) an officer of the Revolutionary war, born at Litchfield, in Connecticut, about 1742. He settled, when young, in Vermont, and became the leader of the famous "Green Mountain Boys." On the loth of May, 1775, the head of only eighty-three men, he took the forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point. In Sep- tember of the same year, -while on an expedition to take Montreal, he fell in with a much larger force of British troops, and was made prisoner. He remained in cap- tivity above two years and a half, when he was exchanged for Colonel Campbell, an English officer. After his re- lease he was appointed general of the state militia. He died suddenly, February 13, 1789. Besides a narrative of his captivity, and some writings of a political char- acter, he wrote a work entitled " Reason the only Oracle of Man," in which he advocated pure Deism. See " Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Heroes of '76," by 11. W. De Puy ; Life of Ethan Allen, in Sparks's " American Biogra- phy ;" Hugh Moore, " Memoir of Colonel E. Allen," Plattsburg, 1834. Allen, (Henry,) a religious enthusiast, born at New- port, Rhode Island, in 1748. He was the founder of a sect in Nova Scotia who taught that Adam and Eve, in their state of innocence, had a spiritual existence with- out bodies, and that all human beings are emanations from the same great Spirit, and were present with our first parents in the Garden of Eden before the fall, and participated in the original transgression. He published a collection of hymns, and several religious treatises and sermons. Died in 1784. Allen, (John,) an Irish prelate, born at Dublin in 1476, became Archbishop of Dublin in 1528. He was killed in 1534 by Thomas Fitzgerald, a son of the Earl of Kildare, during a rebellion. Allen, (John,) a Puritan divine, born in England in 1596, emigrated to America, and settled as first minister in DedhaiTi, Massachusetts. Died in 1671. Allen, (John,) M.D., an English physician, who lived in the early part of the eighteenth century and wrote a valuable work in Latin entitled a " Synopsis of Universal Practical Medicine," (" Synopsis Universae Medicinae Practicae,") which aims to give in a succinct form the opinions of the most eminent physicians in all ages re- specting the cause and cure of diseases. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1730. Died in 1741. See Nichols, "Literary Anecdotes." Allen, (John,) a dissenting layman, born at Truro, England, in 1771. He was the master of an academy at Hackney. Besides other writings of a religious charac- ter, he was the author of a valuable and learned work entitled " Modern Judaism, or a Brief Account of the Opinions, Rites, and Ceremonies of the Jews," (1816,) said to be the best work on the subject in the language. Died in 1839. Allen, (John,) M.D., a British writer on constitu- tional history, metaphysics, etc., was born at Redford, near Edinburgh, in 1770. He studied medicine and metaphysics at Edinburgh, and " was eminent in that fa- mous school of metaphysics," says Brougham, " for his ex- tensive learning and unrivalled power of subtle reason- ing." In 1795 he published " Illustrations of Hume's Es- a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; ALLEN 97 ALLEN say concerning Liberty and Necessity." He contributed many political and historical articles to the " Edinburgh Review," and published, besides other \Yorks, a learned and luminous " Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of the Royal Prerogative in England," (1830.) His intimacy with Lord Holland was such, says Lord Brougham, that "in the latter part of his life [Mr. Allen] shared all his thoughts, and was never a day apart from him." He was master of Dulwich College for many years. Died m 1843. See Brougham, "Statesmen of the Times of George III.," Second Series ; Sydney Smith, "Memoirs." Allen, (Joseph W.,) an English landscape-painter, born at Lambeth, Surrey, in 1803. He was reduced in his youth to the necessity of painting scenes for the theatre, and became principal scene-painter at the Olym- pic Theatre, the success of which was greatly promoted by his skill. He acquired considerable reputation as a I)ainter of pastoral, landscape, and simple, quiet, rural scenery. The style of his later works was vitiated by "brilliant effects " obtained at the expense of fidelity to nature. Died in 1852. Allen, (Moses,) an American patriot, a brother of the Rev. Thomas Allen, was born at Northampton in 1748. He served as chaplain in the army, was taken prisoner at Savannah, and was drowned in 1779 in an attempt to escape from a prison-ship. Allen, (P.AUL,) an American poet and journalist, born at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1775. He was for seve- ral years editor of the "Morning Chronicle," published at Baltimore, where he died in 1826. His principal works are a volume of " Original Poems, Serious and Entertaining," and a large poem in five cantos, entitled "Noah." Allen, (Richard,) an English Baptist minister of London, published "Ecclesiastical Biography,'' ("Bio- graphia Ecclesiastica," 2 vols., 1690.) Died in London in 1717. Allen, (Samuel,) a London merchant, who came to New England about 1690, and was subsequently Gov- ernor of New Hampshire. Died in 1705. Allen, (Solomon,) an American divine and patriot, brother of the Rev. Thomas Allen, was born in North- ampton, Massachusetts, in 1751. He rose to the rank of major in the war of the Revolution. While in the army, he was ordered by Lieutenant-Colonel Jameson to carry from Andre to Arnold the letter which informed the latter of Andre's capture and enabled Arnold to make his escape. Died in 1821. Allen, (Stephen,) a distinguished citizen of New York, born in that city in July, 1767. He was elected mayor of New York in 182 1. While commissioner for visiting prisons, he proposed the erection of a State prison at Sing Sing. He was one of the principal originators of the project for supplying New York with water from Croton River, and was chairman of the Board. He perished in the steamer Henry Clay, which was burned in July, 1852. See Hunt's " Lives of American Merchants," vol. ii. Allen, (Stephen M.,) an American merchant and banker, born at Burton, New Hampshire, in 1819. He distinguished himself by his liberal donations to various literary institutions. See Livingston's " Portraits of Eminent Americans," New York, 1054. Allen, Alleyn, or Allan, pronounced alike ^Klen, (Thomas,) an English mathematician of high reputation, born at Uttoxeter in 1542. He refused a bishopric from the Earl of Ivcicester, with whom he was intimate, and lived much in the family of the Earl of Northumber- land. He was a great collector of manuscripts, historical and antiquarian. Among his few publications is a copy (made with his own hand) of Ptolemy's work on As- trology, ("De Astrorum Judiciis,") to which he added some explanatory notes. Died in 1632. See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." Allen, (Thomas,) an English divine, born in 1572 or 1573, was a Eellow of Merton College. Died in 1636. Allen, (Sir Thomas,) an English naval commander, Dorn in Suffolk. He was appointed in 1664 commodore and commander-in-chief of the fleet sent to punish the Algerine pirates, and in the same year he gained a vic- tory over the Dutch near Gibraltar. He became a rear- admiral in 1665, and was vice-admiral of the fleet which under the Duke of Albemarle defeated the Dutch near the southeast coast of England in 1666, Died about 1680. See Ch.^rnock, " Biographia Navahs." Allen or AUein, (Thomas,) an English clergyman, born at Oxford in 1682, became rector of Kettering in 1715. Among his works is "The Practice of a Holy Life," (1716.) Died in 1755. Allen, (Rev. Thomas,) an American divine, born at Northampton, Massachusetts, in 1743, was the first min- ister of Pittsfield. He graduated at Harvard in 1762, and was ordained at Pittsfield in 1764. In the Revolu- tionary war he warmly supported the popular cause, and served as chaplain at White Plains, Ticonderoga, etc. Four of his brothers were soldiers in the army. He was the author of several published sermons, letters, etc. Died in 1810. He was the father of William Allen, president of Bowdoin College. Alien, (Thomas,) an English topographical writer and engraver, born about 1803. He published, among other works illustrated by his own hand, " Tlie History and Antiquities of London, Westminster, and Parts ad- jacent," (4 vols., 1827-8.) Died in 1833. See " Gentleman's Magazine," July, 1S33. Allen, Alan, or Alleyn, (Willl\m,) Cardinal, born in Lancashire in 1532, took the degree of D.D. in the University of Douay in 1571, and was made cardinal by Pope Sixtus V. in 1587, in order that he might superin- tend the Catholic interests in England after Philip II. of Spain should have conquered that country. He left a niunber of works in defence of the Catholic Church. Died in Rome in 1594. See Fitzherbejjt, "Epitome VitJe CardinaHs Alani," 1608; a " Life of Allen " in the folio Brussels edition of Dodd's "Church History;" Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses." Allen, (William,) a chief justice of Pennsylvania, who assisted Dr. Franklin in establishing the College of Philadelphia; but in the Revolution he took sides with the royalists. Died in 1780. His son, Andrew Allen, also became chief justice of Pennsylvania, and, like his father, sided in the Revolution with the British. Allen, (William,) an English chemist and philan- thropist, born in London in August, 1770, was a member of the Society of Friends. He became a pupil and as- sistant of Joseph Gurney Bevan, chemist, of Plough Court, and acquired distinction as a pharmaceutical chemist.- In 1802 he was appointed a lecturer on chem- istry at Guy's Hospital, and in 1804 gave a course of lectures on natural philosophy at the Royal Institution, at the request of his friend, H. Davy. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1807, and was associated with W. H. Pepys in researches on respiration and car- bonic acid. (See Pepys.) William Allen was an active promoter of various benevolent and reformatory en- terprises, and devoted much time to the cause of the education of the poor. He began to preach in the meet- ings of his Society in 1818, and accompanied Stephen Grcllet, a noted minister of the Society of Friends, in a religious visit to the continent, from which they returned in 1S20, after they had traversed Russia from north to south and visited various cities in Turkey and Italy. In 1822 he went to Vienna to see Alexander, Emperor of Russia, with whom he had a long and satisfactory interview in relation to schools, the slave-trade, and the Greeks. In 1825 he founded two manual-labour schools, one for boys and one for girls, at Lindfield, Sussex. He visited Germany, France, and Spain on religious and philanthropic missions in 1832 and 1833. He con- tributed several papers on chemistry to the Philos^h- ical Transactions. Died at Lindfield in 1843. See "Life of William Allen, with Selections from his Correspond- ence," 2 vols., 1847. Allen, (William,) D.D., an American biographer, born at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, in 17S4. He graduated at Harvard College in 1802. and was president of Bow- doin College from 1820 to 1839. He succeeded Dr. Channing as regent in Harvard College. In 1809 he published "The American Biographical Dictionary," (3d as k; 9 as x; g hard; g as J; g, h, k, guttural ; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 7 th as in this, [i^^^ See Explanations, p. 23. ALIEN 98 ALL ION I edition, enlarged, 1S57.) Among his works are "Wun- nissoo," a poem, (1856;) and "Psalms and Hymns, with many Original Hymns," (1835.) Died in July, 1868. Allen, (William Henry,) an American naval officer, born at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1784. He dis- tinguished himself as lieutenant under Captain Decatur m the battle which resulted in the capture of the Mace- donian, October 25, 1812. Having been raised to the rank of captain, he sailed in the Argus, and took many orizes. In August, 1813, he was killed in a fight between the Argus and the Pelican, and his vessel was captured. Allen, (W1LLLA.M Howard,) an American naval officer, born at Hudson, New York, in 1792. He took command of the Argus when Captain William Henry Allen was disabled by a mortal wound in August, 1813. He was killed in a fight with pirates near Matanzas in November, 1822. AUende, il-ygu'da, (J.,) a Mexican officer, who in 1810 joined Hidalgo in the revolt against Spain and tendered efficient service to the cause. He was cap- tured and shot in July, 181 1. Allent, t'16N',( Pierre Alexandre Joseph,) a French general, born at Saint Omer in 1772. After the resto- ration he became chief of the staff of the national guard, and counsellor of state. He wrote a "History of the Imperial Corps of Engineers, and of the Sieges it has directed," {1805,) and a few other works. Died in 1837. AUeon-du-Lac, t'la'oN' dii iSk, (Jean Louis,) a French naturalist, born at Saint Etienne in 1723, was postmaster at that place. He published " Memoirs on the Natural History of Lyonnois, Forez, and Beaujolois," (2 vols., 1765,) and " Melanges of Natural History," (2 vols., 1762,) both works of merit. He died, it is supposed, about 1770. Allerstein, Allerstain, aKler-stin', or Hallerstein, a German Jesuit, born about 1700, went as a missionary to China. He stated the population of China in 1760 at 196,837,977. Died at Pekin about 1777. Allestree or AUestry, auls''tre, (Richard,) an emi- nent English divine, born in Shropshire in 1619. He served in the royalist army in the civil war, and at the restoration became one of the chaplains of Charles II. In 1663 he was appointed regius professor of divinity at Oxford. His lectures, which were continued about twenty years, are commended' by Bishop Fell. A volume of his sermons was published in 1669 and 1684. Died in 1681. See Wood, "Athense Oxonieiises." Allestry, auls'tre, (Jacob,) an English poet, born about 1653 ; died in 16S6. Alletz,i1as^ (Pierre £douard,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1798. He wrote " Walpole," a dra- matic poem, (1825,) an "Essay on Man, or the Accord- ance of Philosophy with Religion," (2 vols., 1S35,) and "Sketches of Moral Suffering," ("Esquisses de la Souf- france morale," 2 vols., 1S36,) which is his principal work. He was consul at Barcelona when he died in 1850. Alletz, (PoNS-AuGUSTiN — poN^zS^giis^tS.N'',) a French litterateur, born at Montpellier in 1703. He worked for the booksellers of Paris, and compiled a number of suc- cessful works, some of which were popular school-books. Among his works are a "History of the Popes," (1776;) " L'Agronome," a treatise on farming, (1760;) an "Epi- tome of Grecian History," (1764;) and a Synopsis of the Evidences of Christianity, called " Catechism for Adults," ("Catechisme de Page mur.") Died at Paris in 1785. See QuERAKD, "La France Litteraire." Alley, iKle, (Rev. Jerome,) a theologian, born proba- bly in Ireland in 1760, was educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He became rector of Beaulieu and Drumcarr. Arnong his works is "Vindiciae Christianse, or a Com- parative Estimate of the Genius and Temper of the Greek, the Roman, the Hindu, the Mahometan, and the Christian Religions," (1826.) Alley or Alleigli, iKle, (William,) an English bishop, born at Great Wycombe about 15 12. He became a zealous Protestant minister, and in the reign of Mary resigned his cure. On the accession of Elizabeth he was appointed reader of the divinity lecture in Saint Paul's, London. He was consecrated Bishop of Exeter in 1560. He translated the Pentateuch for the Bishops' Bible, and left several religious works. Died in 1571. AUeyn or Allen, dKlen, (Edward,) a celebrated English actor, born in London in 1566, was a friend or companion of Shakspeare. He was one of the two owners and managers of the Fortune Theatre, London, and amassed a large fortune, which he spent in acts of munificence. He founded, for the benefit of the poor, Dulwich College, finished about 1618, and by his last will endowed twenty almshouses. The college was founded for the support of one master, (whose family name must always be the same as that of the founder,) one warden, four fellows, six poor men, six poor women, and for the education and support of twelve boys. Died in 1626. See J. P. Collier, " Memoirs of Edward Alleyn," etc. APli-bond, (John,) an English divine, born in Buck- inghamshire, was rector of Bradwell. He wrote a satirical poem, " Rustic Description of the Oxford Acad- emy lately reformed," (" Rustica Academise Oxoniensis nuper reformatae Descriptio," 1648,) and is called by Anthony Wood an excellent Latin poet. Died in 1658. AlTi-bone, (Samuel Austin,) an American writer, born in Philadelphia in i8i6. He is the author of an excellent work entitled "A Critical Dictionary of Eng- lish Literature and British and American Authors," of which the first volume (royal 8vo, pp. 1005) was is- sued in 1858; the second is said to be now (1868) in press. The plan, which is as happy as it is novel, is to give a succinct biography of each author, accompanied by copious extracts from the opinions of the most cele- brated critics, or some periodical of acknowledged repu- tation, by means of which the reader is at once enabled to determine the literary standing of the author con- cerning whom he may desire information ; and this plan has been so fully and thoroughly carried out as to leave little or nothing to be desired. Allier, i'le-a^ (Achille,) a French artist and anti- quary, born in the Bourbonnais in 1807 or 1808. He described some antiquities of his native province in "Esquisses Bourbonnaises," (1832,) and began, in 1833, to issue, in numbers, " L'Ancien Bourbonnais," a splen- did work on the history and antiquities of the Bourbon- nais, with plates designed by himself. He died in 1836, leaving it unfinished. Allier, (Antoine,) a French sculptor, born at Em- brun in 1793. Among his works are statues of Philopoe- men and Eloquence, and busts of Sully and Arago. Allier, (Louis,) called also Hauteroche, hof'rosh', a French antiquary and numismatist, born at Lyons in 1766. He visited the Troad and Asia Minor, collected many Greek medals, and wrote several antiquarian treatises; died in 1827. Allies, ^V\hz, (Jabez,) an English antiquary, born in Worcestershire in 1787; died in 1856. AFling-heim, (John Till,) a popular English dra- matic writer, flourished about the end of the eighteenth century. He was a native of London, and belonged to the legal profession. He wrote comedies and farces, among which are "The Weathercock," and "Fortune's Frolic," (1799.) Allingham, (William,) a poet, born at Ballyshannon, Ireland, about 1S28. He published a volume of poems in 1S50, and "Day and Night Songs" in 1854. His poem entitled "Laurence Bloomfield in Ireland" (in 12 chapters, 1864) was very favourably received. He has received an appointment in the Customs in England, and a literary pension was granted him in 1864. Allio, iKle-o, (Matteo,) an Italian sculptor, worked at Milan about 1750. His brother Tommaso was also a sculptor at Milan. Allioli, ai-le-o^'lee, (Joseph Franz,) a German theo- logian, born at Sulzbach in 1793. He became professor of theology at Munich in 1826, and provost of the cathe- dral of Augsburg about 1838. He made a translation of the Bible from the Vulgate into German, (1830, 6th edition, 1839-45,) which was approved by the pope, and wrote several religious works. AUioni, il-le-o'nee, (Carlo,) an Italian physician and eminent botanist, born at Turin in 1725. Pie was professor of botany in the University of Turin, and Fe!- a, e, i, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, vl, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fS.lI, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; ALLIOT 99 AL MACRO low of the Royal Societies of London, Madrid, and Got- tingen. Like his friend Haller, he was opposed to the artificial system of Linnaeus. His principal work is a " Flora of Piedmont," (" Flora Pedemontana, etc.," 3 vols., 1785,) by which he acquired a durable reputation. He wrote an able medical work, entitled " Synopsis of the Present Condition of Diseases," ("Conspectus Prsesentaneae Morborum Conditionis," 1793.) Died in 1804. See M. F. Buniva, "Reflexions siir toutes les ouvrages publics et in^dits du Dr. C. Allioni, avec des notices historiques concernant sa Vie," Turin; Ersch und Grubek, " AUgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Alliot, t^leV, (Pierre,) a French physician of the seventeenth century, born at Bar-le-Duc, had the repu- tation of great skill in the treatment of cancerous and other malignant ulcers. Allison. See Alison. APli-son, (Francis,) a Presbyterian minister, born in Ireland in 1705. He became a professor and vice-pro- vost of the Philadelphia College about 1755. Died in 1777. Allix, t'leks', (Jacques Alp:xandre Francois,) a French general, born at Percy (Manche) in 1776, served as colonel at Marengo, 1800, Died in 1836. Allix, (Pierre,) a French Protestant theologian, born at Alen9on in 1641, was eminent as a scholar and preacher. He was deeply versed in Hebrew and classical literature. The sermons he preached at Charenton in opposition to Bossuet were much admired. On the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 he took refuge in England, learned the English language, and was appointed treas- urer of the cathedral church of Salisbury, (1690.) He was greatly distinguished as a controversial writer. His principal work, " Reflexions on the Books of the Holy Scripture," (1688,) is highly esteemed, and has been often reprinted. Died in 171 7. See Wood, "Fasti Oxonienses." Allix. See Alix. AUoisi. See Galanino. AUori, al-lo'ree, [It. pron. Sl-lo'ree,] (Alessandro,) an eminent Italian painter, born at Florence in 1535, was a pupil of Angelo Bronzino, his uncle, and an imitator of Michael Angelo. He was skilful in drawing, and in the science of anatomy, of wiiich he made an excessive dis- play in his works. He adorned the churches and palaces of Florence with paintings in fresco and oil. His mas- ter-pieces are "The Last Judgment," "Christ Disputing with the Doctors," and "The Sacrifice of Abraham." Died in 1607. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." AUori, (Angelo.) See Bronzing, (Angelo.) Allori, (Cristofano,) a celebrated painter, a son of Alessandro, noticed above, was born at Florence in 1577. He studied with Gregorio Pagani, and adopted a style very different from that of his father. He excelled in richness and delicacy of colouring, and was a superior portrait-painter. His works are scarce, and exquisitely finished. Among his master-pieces are a Magdalen, and the "Miracle of San Giuliano," in the Pitti gallery. Died about 1620. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." _ AFlot, (Robert,) is believed to have been the com- piler of a valuable collection of early poetry, entitled "England's Parnassus," (London, 1600,) in the compila- tion of which he showed good taste and judgment. Allou, t'loo', (Charles Nicolas,) a French arch- jEologist, born in Paris in 1787. He wrote an "Essay on the Universality of the French Language," (1828.) AUouette, de 1', deh li'loo'gt', [Eat. Alauda'nus,] (Francois,) a French antiquary, born at Vertus about 1530, was president of the court of Sedan, and master of riequests. He wrote many works on genealogy, civil law, the history of the Gauls, etc. Died about 1608. AUston, auKston, (Joseph,) an American, born in 1778, was Governor of South Carolina in 1812. His wife was Theodosia, the only daughter of Aaron Burr. Died in 1816. Allston, (Robert Francis Withers,) an American planter, born in South Carolina in 180 1. He was elected Governor of his native State in 1856. He distinguished himself as an agriculturist, and made improvements U' the cultivation of rice. Allston, (Washington,) one of the most eminent of American artists, born at Waccamaw, in South Caro- lina, November 5, 1779. Owing to his delicate health in early childhood, he was sent to Newport, Rhode Is- land, where he remained at school ten years. He en- tered Harvard College in 1796, and took the degree of A.B. in 1800. He returned soon after to Charleston, and in 1801 embarked for England, accompanied by MalbonCj the painter, whom he had previously known at Newport, and with whom he formed a warm and lasting friendship. The following year he exhibited in London several pictures, one of which, a "French Sol- dier telling a Story," attracted very favourable notice. He visited Paris in 1804, and subsequently repaired to Italy, where he remained four years. While at Rome he formed an intimacy with Coleridge, of whose extra- ordinary genius he speaks in enthusiastic terms. In 1809 he returned to America, and soon after married a sister of William E. Channing, the eminent Unitarian divine. He again sailed for England in 1811, and es- tablished himself in London, where he had resided but a short time when he met with a severe affliction in the death of his wife. In 181 8 he was elected associate of the Royal Academy. The same year, in consequence of failing health, he returned to his home in America. He had previously finished his great historical painting of "The Dead Man revived by Elisha's Bones," for which he obtained the first prize at the British Institu- tion. Among Mr. Allston's most celebrated pictures are "Jacob's Dream;" "Elijah in the Desert;" "The Angel Uriel in the Sun;" and "Spalatro's Vision of the Bloody Hand." He was engaged on a large painting of " Belshazzar's Feast," when he died, July 9, 1843. I" addition to his genius as a painter, Allston possessed poetic talent of a high order. He was the author of "The Sylphs of the Seasons, and other Poems," pub- lished in 1 813. During his residence at Rome, Allston became ac- quainted with Washington Irving, who thus describes him: "There was something to me inexpressibly en- gaging in the appearance and manners of Allston. I do not think I have ever been more completely captivated on a first acquaintance. He was of a light, graceful form, with large blue eyes, and black silken hair waving and curling round a pale, expressive countenance. Every- thing about him bespoke the man of intellect and refine- ment. His conversation was copious, animated, and highly graphic, warmed by a genial sensibility and be- nevolence, and enlivened at times by a chaste and gentle humour. . . . His memory I hold in reverence and affection, as one of the purest, noblest, and most intel- lectual beings that ever honoured me with his friend- ship." See DuNLAP, " Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in Amer- ica," vol. i.; TucKEKiviAN, "Book of the Artists;" also, article by Dr. O. W. Holmes, in "North American Review," vol. 1. p. 35S. AUut, S'lii', ( Antoine,) born at Montpellier, in France, in 1743, was educated at Paris, and became, while very young, a contributor to the "Encyclopedic." He was executed by the Jacobins in 1794. Ally, (Ali.) See Alee. Almada, de, da il-ma'D^, (Al'varo Vas,) a famous Portuguese warrior, was created Count of Avranches by Charles VI. of France. He was a loyal adherent of Dom Pedro, regent of Portugal, and was killed in battle in 1449. Almagro, de, da ^l-m^'gRo, (Diego,) a bold and enterprising Spanish officer, who was the principal asso- ciate of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru. He was a found- ling, born about 1464, and went to America to seek his fortune. About 1525, Pizarro, Almagro, and Luque agreed to co-operate in an effort to conquer Peru. This object they effected with a very small force about 1533. (See Pizarro, Francisco.) In 1534 Almagro was ap- pointed adelantado (governor) of the region which lies southward from Peru. Pie extended the conquests of the Spanish power into Chili in 1535, after which he cap- tured Cuzco from the army of Pizarro, who had become his perfidious enemy. In a decisive battle, fought near € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; trh as in this. (g:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) AL MACRO lOO ALMICI Cuzco in 1538, Almagro was defeated and taken pris- oner by Pizarro, who caused him to be put to death. See Robertson, "History of America;" Prescott, "Conquest of Peru," vol. i.; Herrera, "Historia." Almagro, de, (Diego,) a son of the preceding, born about 1520, assisted to revenge his father's death by the assassination of Pizarro. After the defeat of his asso- ciates by De Castro, he was betrayed and put to death in 1542. Al-Mahdee or Al-Mahdi, (founder of the sect of Ahnohades.) See Aboo- Abdillah-Mohammed. Almahdee or Almahdi, al-mah'dee', or, more fully, Almalidi Billah, [i.e. "the director by the grace of God,") the third caliph of the house of Abbas, succeeded to the throne in 776 a.d. Died in 785. Almaiii, tKmdN'', (Jacques,) a French theological writer, who was a native of Sens. Died in 1515. Al-Makhzoomee or Al-Makhzumi, al-m3,K-zoo'- mee, a distinguished historian and poet of Mohammedan Spain, born in 1190. He passed the latter part of his life at the court of the Sultan of Tunis, Died in 1256. Al-Makkari. See IMakkaree. Al-Makin. See Elmacin, Al-Makreezee or -Makrizi. See Makreezee. Al-Malek or Al-Melik. See Malik. Al-Mamoon. See Mamoon. Al-Mansoor, Al-Mansur, Al-Mansoiir, or Al- Mau90ur, al-man's6or^ written also Almanzor and Almansor, ("the Victorious,") the surname by which Aboo- Amir (a'boo d^mir) -Mohammed, the minister of Hisham II., Sultan of Cordova, is generally known. Born near Algeziras in 939 A.D., he began his career as a bookseller and scribe ; but he soon found means to recommend himself to the notice of the sultan, and at length, by his talents and address, succeeded in possess- ing himself of all the real power in the state, Hisham retaining only the name of sovereign. He exercised the power thus obtained with an ability and success which have scarcely a parallel in the history of Mohammedan Spain, He not only overran the greater part of the Peninsula, but also extended his sway over a considerable portion of Western Africa. His internal administration is said to have been no less distinguished for wisdom and justice, than was his military career for brilliant success. Died in 1002. See Al-Makkari, " H'story of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain," translated by Gavangos, 2 vols. 4to, London, 1840-43 ; Conde, " Historia de la Dominacion de los Arabes en Espaiia;" Mariana, " Historia general de P2spana." Al-Mansoor, (Aboo-Jaafar,) Caliph of Bagdad. See Mansoor. Almanzor. See Al-Mansoor. Almeida, il-ma^-da, (Manoel,) a Portuguese Jesuit, born at Viseu in i38o. He passed ten years in Abys- sinia, (1622-32,) and collected materials for a "History of Ethiopia," which was published bv B. Tellez in 1660; it is said to be a work of decided merit. Died at Goa in 1646, Almeida, de, da ll-ma/e-dd, (Antonio,) a Portu- guese surgeon, born in BeiraT about 1760, He published "Surgical Works," ("Obras Cirurgicas," 4 vols., 1814.) Died in 1822. Almeida, de, (Brites, bRee'tis,) a heroine who has been called " the Portuguese Joan of Arc," was born about the middle of the fourteenth century, and followed the business of a baker. When her native village (Al- jubarotta) was attacked by the Spaniards in 1386, she is said to have killed several soldiers with a baker's shovel, which was religiously preserved as a memorial by the in- habitants of Aljubarotta through several generations. See " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." Almeida, de, (Dom Francisco,) the first Portuguese Viceroy of India, a son of the Count of Abrantes, was born at Lisbon about the middle of the fifteenth cen- tury. Having distinguished himself in the Moorish wars, he was appointed Viceroy of India in 1505, and fixed the seat of his government at Cochin. By his courage and prudence he greatly extended the dominion of Portugal. When Albuquerque arrived in 1508 with a commission to supersede the viceroy, Almeida refused at first to resign the office, and arrested the admiral. About the end of 1508, Almeida gained a great victory over the Egyptian fleet near the coast of India. Soon after this victory he gave up the command to his rival, and embarked for Portugal in November, 1509; but before the end of the voyage he was killed in an af- fray with a band of Caffres, near the Cape of Good Hope, in 15 10. Thus obscurely perished, by the hands of savages, a man who had humbled the potentates of India and rendered his country's flag triumphant on the Eastern seas. See Barros, " Decadas da Asia ;" Faria y Souza, "Asia Por- tugueza." Almeida, de, (Lorenzo,) a son of the preceding, distinguished for the many noble qualities of his heart, as well as for bravery and military talents, fell in a sea- fight with the Egyptians near Choul, in 1508. See JoAO DE Barros, "Decada quarta;" Faria y Souza, "Asia Portugueza." Almeida, de, (Nicolao Tolentino — to-lSn-tee'no,) a Portuguese satirical poet, born at Lisbon in 1745. He published a volume of poems in 1802. It is stated that his superiority in satire was such that he had neither rivals nor imitators. Died in 1811. Almeida, de, (Theouoro.) See Almeyda. Almeida-Garrett, al-ma^-dagir-rgt'',(or gar''ret,) (J. B. Leitao de,) a Portuguese litterateur, and the author of ametrical romance entitled " Adozinda," (London, 1828.) He also wrote a " Historical Sketch of Portuguese Lite- rature." See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe," and an article "On the Poets of Portugal," in the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for 1832, (vol. X.) Almela, de, da Sl-ma'la, (Diego Rodriguez,) a Spanish historical writer of the fifteenth century, was born in the city of Mvuxia. Almeloveen, van, vtn iKmeh-lo-van^, (Theodorus Jansson — yans''son,) an eminent Dutch physician and scholar, born at Mydrecht in 1657, was professor of Greek and of medicine at Harderwyk. He published good editions of the "Aphorisms" of Hippocrates, and "Celsus de Medicina," (1687,) ^i"'<^ wrote several works, among which is "Theological and Philological Ame- nities," (" Amoenitates Theologico-Philologic^e," 1694.) Died in 17 12. Almeloven, ^Kmeh-lo^ven, (Jan,) a Dutch painter and engraver, born in Holland about 1620. He left a number of spirited etchings of landscapes, some of which are after his own designs. Almenar, al-ma-naR', (Juan,) a Spanish physician, lived about 1500, and wrote "De Morbo Gallico," (1502.) Almendingen, von, fon i.Kmen-ding'en, (Ludwig Harscher,) a jurist, born of German parents in Paris in 1766. He was a judge or counsellor in the duchy of Nassau. He wrote several legal treatises, and co- operated with Feuerbach in his " Bibliothek," a periodi- cal devoted to criminal law. Died in 1827. Aimer, aKmer, (Johann Christian,) a Danish painter, born at Copenhagen in 1742 ; died in 1792. Almeras, tKma^rls', (Louis,) an able French gene- ral, born at Vienne in 1768. He served on the staff of Kleber in Egypt, and distinguished himself at Heliopo- lis. Having obtained the rank of general, he joined the grand army in 1809, and was wounded at Wagram, For his conduct at the battle of the Moskwa, in 1812, he was made lieutenant-general. He was taken prisoner in the retreat from Russia, He was appointed com- mandant of Bordeaux in 1813. Died in 1823. Almeyda, (Francisco.) See Almeida. Almeyda, de, da ll-ma^-da, (Fernando,) a Portu- guese sacred poet, born at Alberca in 1459, See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetrj' of Europe." Almeyda, de, (Francisco,) a Portuguese theologian, born at Ivisbon in 1701; died after 1750. Almeyda or Almeida, de, da il-ma^-dJ, (Theo- DORO,) a Portuguese priest and writer, born ?kt Lisbon in 1722. He promoted the study of philosophy on rational principles in Portugal, and wrote many wot^s, of which the most remarkable is "Philosophical Recreation," ("Recrea9ao Filosofica," 5 vols., 1751.) Died in 1804. Almici, ^1-mee'chee, (Camillo,) a learned Italian priest and writer, born at Brescia in 1714 ; died in 1779. a, e, T, 6, u, y, loii^i:^; ti, h, ('), same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f3.r, fall, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; ALMODOVAR lOI ALOMPRA Almodovar, il-mo-do'vaR, (Don Ildefonso Dias de Ribera — de'as da re-Ba'ra,) Count of, a Spanish diplomatist and writer of consideraljle merit. He was successively ambassador to Russia and England, and returned to Spain in 1779. His chief work is a free translation of Raynal's " History of the East and West Indies," (1784-90,) in which he made such changes as enabled it to pass the Spanish censorship. Died in 1794. See CoxE, "Memoirs of the Kings of Spain." Almoliades, dKmo-hAdz ; singular, Almohade, il'- mo-hdd, [Fr. pron. trmo'Sd' ; Ger, Almohadex, dl- mo-hi''den ; Lat. Almo''had.-e — from the Arabic Ai.- MOWAHiDOOX, (AlmuwaiiidOn,) signifying "worship- pers of ONE God,"] the name of a celebrated Moham- medan dynasty which succeeded in Northern Africa and Spain to the power of the Almoravides. Its founder was Aboo-Abdillah-Mohammed, (which see,) a religious reformer, who took the surname of Al-Mahdee, (Al- Mahdi,) " the director." His followers called themselves Al-Mowahidoon, that is, " worshippers of the One true God" as revealed by Mohammed, and accused the Almo- ravides of having departed from the original purity of the Moslem faith and of having relapsed into a condi- tion little better than polytheism or paganism. The power of the Almohades lastedYrom about 1 145 until 1269, when it was subverted by the Benee Mereen, (Beni Merin.) The Almohade dynasty is sometimes called that of Abd-el-Moomen, (or Abd-ul-Mumen,) because he was the first of the Al-Mowahidoon who took the name of sultan. See Al-Makkari's " Mohammedan Dynasties of Spain," trans- lated by Gayangos, London, 1840-43 ; Ibn-Khaldoon, " History of the Berbers." Almon, iKmon, (John,) an English political writer, born at Liverpool about 1738, was a political friend of John Wilkes. He became a prominent publisher of pamphlets for the opposition party about 1763. Some of these pamphlets were of his own composition. He also published "Anecdotes of Eord Chatham, with his Speeches from 1736 to 1778," (1792,) and " Biographical, Literary, and Political Anecdotes," (3 vols., 1797.) Died in 1805. See "Gentleman's Magazine," December, 1805. Almonacid, de, di Sl-mo-nA-th^D', (Sebastian,) a Spanish sculptor, who flourished in the beginning of the sixteenth century. Almonde, van, vSn ai-m6n'deh, (Philippus,) writ- ten also AUemonda, a Dutch admiral, born at Briel in 1646. He distinguished himself as captain in the battle against the English in Solebay, 1672. On the death of De Ruyter, 1676, he obtained command of the fleet, and in the following year shared in Tromp's victory over the Swedes. He accompanied William of Orange in his expedition to England in 1688, and commanded the Dutch fleet at La Hogue, (1692,) where the French were signally defeated. Almonde and Sir George Rooke commanded the allies at the destruction of a Spanish fleet in the Bay of Vigo in 1702. Died in 171 1. See Van dek Aa, " Eiographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden." Almonte, &l-mon'ta, (Juan N.,) a Mexican general, born about the beginning of the nineteenth century, served under Santa Anna in Texas in 1S36, and was sent as ambassador to the United States soon after 1840. He took part in the battles of Buena Vista and Cerro Gordo in 1847. In 1862 he was appointed dictator by a party of Mexicans opposed to Juarez, but he was de- prived of power by the French general Forey in Sep- tember of that year. Died in 1869. Al-Moohtadee or Al-Muhtadi Billah, Sl-mooh'- tj-dee'' bil'ldh, a caliph of the house of Abbas. Born in 838 A.D., he ascended the throne in 869, and was killed, after a reign of eleven months, by the rebellious Turkish soldiers. Al-Mooktadee or Al-Muktadi, il-mook'ti-dee', a caliph of the house of Abbas, began to reign at Bagdad in 1075, and died in 1094. Al-Mooktader, (-Muktader,) ai-mook'tS-der, or Almobk'tader BiPlah, a caliph of the house of Abbas, ascended the throne in 908, and, after a troubled and inglorious reign, was killed in battle by his rebel lious subjects in 931 a.d. Al-Mooktafee or Al-Muktafi, ai-mook'ta-fee', a caliph of the house of Abbas, who began to reign in 902 A.D., at the age of twenty years, and died in 908. AI-Mooktafee or Al-Muktaf i was also the name of another Abbasside caliph, who ascended the throne ii. 1 136. Died in 1160. Al-Moontaser, Al-Muntaser, or Al-Muntasir, dl-mdon'tds-ser, the eleventh caliph of the line of Abbas, succeeded to the throne by parricide in 862 A.D., and died after a reign of six months. Al-Mootassem. See Motassem. Al-Mootenabbee or Al-Mutenabbi, &l-moo^teh- nib^bee, or El-Motenebbi, el-mo'teh-neb'bee, one of the most distinguished of the Arabian poets, born at Koofah (Kfifah) in the early part of the tenth century. He was killed, while on a journey, by a party of hostile Arabs, in 965 A.D. Almoravides, il-mo'ra-vidz; singular, Almcravide, il-mo'ra-vid, [Fr. pron. tl^mo'rtVed' ; Ger. Almora- viden, il-mo-ra-vee'den ; Lat. Almorav'id/E — a Eu- ropean corruption of the Arabic term Almorabitoon, (or Almorabitun,) — in the oblique cases Almorabiteen, (Al- morabitin,) an Arabic term signifying "those bound" or " devoted" to the service of God,] the name of a Moslem dynasty which arose in Northern Africa about the mid- dle of the eleventh century. It was founded by Abdal- lah-Ibn-Yaseen, (which see,) a religious leader, one of whose generals, Yoosuf-Ibn-Tashefeen, conquered a large part of Spain and established a dynasty which lasted about one hundred years. The last sultan of this line, Tashefeen-Ibn-Alee, was deprived of his throne and life by the victorious Almohades in 1 145. See Ibn-Khaldoon, " History of the Berbers," (in manuscript,) and Al-Makkari, "History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain," translated by Gayangos, London, 1840-43. Almosnino, al-mos-nee'no, (Moses,) a learned Jew- ish rabbi and writer, born at Salonikiin 1523 ; died near the close of the sixteenth century. Al-Motassem. See Motassem. Al-Motenebbi. See Al-Mootenabbee. Almquist, alm'kwist, (Karl Jonas Ludwig,) a Swedish poet and novelist of the romantic school, was born in 1 793. He i;t,i,i,blished several novels, one of which is entitled " Amorinaj''; a number of elementary works on history, mathematics, etc., and a collection of poems entitled "Book of Thorn-Roses," {i.e. "sweet-briers;" in Swedish, " Tornrosens Bok.") Died in 1844. See Fahlkrantz, " C. J. L. Ah-nquist sasom Fbrfattare i Alhnanhet och sasom Theolog i synnerhet skiirskadad," 2 vols., 1845. Al-Muhtadi. See Al-Moohtadee. Al-Muktader. See Al-Mooktader. Al-Muktadi. See Al-Mooktadee. Al-Muktafi. See Al-Mooktafee. Al-Muntaser. See Al-Moontaser. Al-Mutassem. See Motassem. Al-Mutenabbi. See Al-Mootenabbee. Almy, dKme, (William,) an American philanthro- pist, member of the Society of Friends, born in 1761. He amassed a large fortune, which he employed in pro- moting objects of benevolence. Among other things', he liberally endov»'ed the Friends' Boarding-School ar Providence, Rhode Island. Died in 1836. Alnander, al-n§.nMer, (Olaf Johan,) a Swedish an- tiquary, born at Norrkjoping, lived about 1510. Al-Nassir or Al-Nasir, (An-Nasiar.) See Abd-er- Rahman III. Aloisi or AUoisi, (Baldassare.) See Galanino, Aloisio, i-lo-ee'se-o, (Gian-Francesco,) an Italian poet, born near Naples, was accused of heresy, for which he was put to death in 1564. Aloja, i-lo'yi, (Giuseppe,) a Neapolitan engraver, lived about 1750. Alompra, S-lom'pr^, the founder of the present dy- nasty of Burmah, was born about 17 10. He was the chief of the town of Monchaboo, when the King of Pegu conquered Burmah, in 1752. Having raised the standard of revolt, in 1753, he defeated the Peguans in several battles, and made himself master of all Burmah. He took the King of Pegu prisoner in his own capital in € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, H, k, guttural; n, 7iasal; r, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (J[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ALONSO I02 AL-SAFFAH 1757. Alompva was faithless and cruel, but possessed superior civil and military talents. Died in 1760. See Dalrymple, "Oriental Repertory;" Crawfurd, "Journal of an Embassy to Slam," etc. ; Symes, "Account of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava in the year 1795." Alonso or Alonzo, (of Spain.) See Alfonso. Alonso de los Rios, a-lon'so da 16s ree'6s, (Pedro,) a Spanish sculptor, born at Valladolid in 1650, worked at Madrid. Died in 1700. His father, Francisco, was also an able sculptor. Alonzo. See Alfonso. Alopa, d', da-lo'pa, (Lorenzo,) a learned printer, born at Venice, published at Florence, about 1475-1500, accurate editions of several Greek works, in elegant typography. Alopaeus, a-lo-pa''us, (David,) brother of Maxim, noticed below, born at Viborg in 1769, was sent by the emperor Alexander 1. as minister to Sweden in 1809. After the peace of 1815 he was minister from Russia to the court of Berlin, where he died in 1831. Alopaeui3, (Maxim Maximovitch,) a Russian diplo- matist, born at Viborg, in Finland, in 1748, He was appointed by Catherine II., in 1790, minister plenipo- tentiary to the court of Prussia. Died in 1822. Alos, a'los, (Juan,) a Spanish medical writer, be- came professor of anatomy at Barcelona in 1664. Aloysius, i-lo-ish'e-us, an architect who flourished at Rome in the time of Theodoric the Great. Alpago, ai-pi'go, [Lat. Alpa'gus,] (Andrea,) an Italian physician, native of Belluno, lived about the close of the fifteenth century. Alp-Arsl^n, ilp-ars-l5n'', (the "strong lion,") written also Alp-Arselan, a celebrated Seljook sultan, born in Toorkistan in 1030, succeeded to the throne in 1063. In 1071 he defeated and took prisoner Romanus Dioge- nes, the Byzantian emperor, who is said to have com- manded, in this battle, three hundred thousand men. He treated his imperial captive with great generosity and kindness. Alp-Arslan was assassinated in 1072. His person was remarkable for beauty, grace, and strength, and his character appears to have been almost without a stain. His minister, Nizam-ul-Mulk, (ne- zam-dol-mdolk,) shared the glory of his sovereign. "Under his wise direction," says Sir John Malcolm, "the territories of Alp-Arslan attainf^d the highest pros- perity. Justice was well admini^itfered ; colleges and mosques were erected in every city ; learning was en- couraged ; the poor were protected ; and the inhabitants of Persia confessed that the conquest of their country by the savage Tartars, which they had dreaded as the worst of evils, had proved the greatest of blessings." See Malcolm, "History of Persia," vol. i. chap. viii. ; Von Hammer, " Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs ;" D'Herbelot, " Bibliotheque Orientale ;" Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Al-pha'nus or Alfani, il-f^'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian medical writer of Salerno, lived between 1550 and 1600. Alphee. See Alpheus. Alpliege. See Elphege. Alphen, van, vin ai'fen, (Daniel,) a Dutch jurist, born in 17 13, was professor of law at Leyden. Died in 1707. Alphen, van, (Hieronymus,) a popular Dutch poet, born at Gouda in 1746, became procurator-general at the court of Utrecht, and treasurer-general of the Union. He published " Poems and Meditations," (1777,) " Dutch Songs," ("Gezangen," 1779,) and "Short Poems for Children," (1781,) which are remarkable for simple grace and beauty. His imaginative poem of "The Starry Fleavens" ("De Starrenhemel," 1783) is one of his finest productiuns. Died at the Hague in 1803. See Kampen, " Geschiedenis der Letteren en Wetenschappen in de Nederlanden ;" Jorlssen, " Erinnerung an H. van Alphen," 1804. Alphen, van, (Hieronymus Simon,) a distin- guished theologian, an ancestor of the preceding, was born at New Hanau in 1665. He became professor of theology at Utrecht in 171 5, and acquired a high repu- tation as a teacher. He wrote commentaries on the epistles of Paul (1742) and on other books of Scripture. Died in 1742. Hieronymus van Alphen, (1700-58,) son of the pre- ceding, was professor of theology at Utrecht, and grand-' father of the poet Van Alphen. Alphery, aKfa-re, (Nicephorus,) a Russian, who emigrated to England and became a parson of the An- glican Church. He died at an advanced age in the latter part of the seventeenth century. Al-phe^us or Al-phei^us, [Gr. 'AA^eor or 'AZ^iwc; Fr. Alphee, trii',] a river-god of classic mythology, was a son of Oceanus. The poets fabled that he loved the nymph Arethusa, who fled from him to the island of Ortygia and was metamorphosed into a fountain, and that Alpheus followed her through the sea and was thus united to that fountain. Alpheus, a Greek poet, native of Mitylene, supposed to have lived in the time of Augustus Caesar. He was distinguished as a writer of epigrams. Alpheus, a Greek engraver of gems, lived in the first century of our era. Alphonse. See Alfonso. Alphonso. See Alfonso. Alphonso (or Alfonso) Tostado. See Alphon- sus Ahulensis. Al-phon^sus Ab-u-len'sis, (/,£-. "Alphonso of Avila,") or Alfonso Tostado, ai-fon'so tos-ti'Do, an eminent Spanish theologian, born in New Castile about 1400, became Bishop of Avila. Died in 1445, leaving many works, among which are "Commentaries on the Scriptures," (13 vols., 1508.) Alphonsus a Sancta Maria. See Alfonso of Carthagena. Alphonsus Palentinus. See Alfonso de Palen- CIA. Alpin. See Alpinus. Al-pi'nus, written also Alpin, (Prosper,) [It. Pros- PERO Alpin I, pRos'pa-ro ^1-pee'nee,] an eminent Italian botanist and physician, born at Marostica, in the re- public of Venice, in 1553. He passed some years in Egypt, and after his return published, in Latin, a work "On the Plants of Egypt," (1591.) He also published a treatise " On the Egyptian Practice of Medicine," (" De Medicina yEgyptiorum," 1591.) In 1593 he became professor of botany at Padua. He was the first Euro- pean who published an account of the coffee-plant, and he enriched the science of botany with many new facts. He died in 161 7, leaving in manuscript a valuable work "On Exotic Plants," ("De Plantis Exoticis," 1628.) See ToMASiNi, " Elogia Virorum Illustrium ;" Haller, " Biblio- theca Botanica." Alptageen or Alpteghin, Slp^ta-geen', a Turkish slave, regarded as the founder of the Gaznevide dynasty in Eastern Persia, (in what is now called Afghanistan.) Died in 976 A.D. His son-in-law Sabuktageen (or Sebek- tagin) was the father of the famous Mahmood of Gazna. Alquie, d', dtl'ke-a', (Franqois Savinien,) a French author of the seventeenth century, wrote, besides other works, "The Delights of France," ("Les Delices de la France," 1670.) Alquier, tl'ke-i^ (Charles Jean Marie,) a French diplomatist, noted for his tact and amenity, born in La Vendee in 1752. From 1798 to 1813 he was appointed successively ambassador to Bavaria, Madrid, Florence, Naples, Rome, Stockholm, and Copenhagen. In 1816 he was banished from France, on the ground of his having, when in the National Convention, voted for the death of Louis XVI. He was, however, recalled in 1818, and died in 1826. Als, tls or tlss, (Peter, or Peder,) a Danish painter of history and portraits, born at Copenhagen in 1725; died in 1775. Alsace, d', dSrsts', (Thomas Louis,) Cardinal, called also Alsace de Bossu, tl^sts' deh bo'sii', (Thomas Philippe de Hennin or Henin — ha^u^N',) was born at Brussels in 1680. He was descended from the counts of Flanders and from the counts of Bossu. In 1 714 he was appointed by the Emperor of Germany Archbishop of Malines (Mechlin) and Primate of the Austrian Netherlands. In 17 19 he was raised to tne dignity of cardinal. Died in 1759. Al-Saffah or As-SefFMi. See Aboo-l-Abbas-Ab- E, T, o, u, y, long; S., fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, il, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fAt; met; n6t; good; mooii; JLSJRIO DELIA CROCK 103 ALTHJiA Alsario della Croce, il-si're-o deKld IcRo'chi, [Lat. Alsa'rils,] a learned physician and writer, born at Genoa about 1576. He gave lectures on medicine in Rome for twenty years or more, and was physician to Pope Gregory XV. Died after 1631. Al-Sheik^ al-shak' or il-sha^ik, (Moses,) a Jewish rabbi, born at Sapheth, in Galilee, was celebrated as an interpreter of the Scriptures, on which he wrote many j commentaries. Died about 1595. Alsloot, van, vtn ils-lot', (Daniel,) a Flemish land- scape-painter, who was born at Brussels about 1550, and died in the early part of the seventeenth century. Alsop, aul'sop, (Antony,) an English divine and eminent classical scholar, who graduated at Cambridge in 1696, and became a prebendary of Winchester. He published a " Selection of the Fables of /Esop,'" in Latin v(;rse, (" ^Esopicarum Fabularum Delectus,'' 1698.) He also wrote Latin odes with facility. Died in 1727. Alsop, auKsop, (Richard,) an American poet and journalist, born at Middletown, Connecticut, in 1761. With Theodore Dwight, Hopkins, Trumbull, and others, called the "Hartford Wits," he issued, in 1791, the first number of the " Echo," a satirical journal, directed chiefly against the Democratic party. In 1800 he published a Monody on the Death of Washington. He translated "The Enchanted Lake of the Fairy Morgana," from Berni's "Orlando Lmamorato ;" and Molina's "Geo- graphical, Natural, and Civil Historv of Chili." Died in 1815. See Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America." Alsop, (Rev. Vincent,) an English nonconformist divine, who became minister of a Presbyterian congre- gation in Westminster. He gained distinction by his strictures on Sherlock's work "On the Knowledge of Christ," and his reply to a sermon by Stillingfleet against nonconformists. Died at an advanced age in 1703. See Nichols, "Literary Anecdotes." Alsted, aKst^t, [Lat. Alste'dius,] (Johann Hein- RICH,) a voluminous German writer on theology and history, born near Herborn, in Nassau, in 1588. His works, which were all written in Latin, were once highly esteemed. Died in 1638. Alston, auls'ton, (Charles,) an eminent Scottish botanist and physician, born at Eddlewood in 1683. He began to read lectures on botany and materia medica at Edinburgh soon after 1720, and was appointed professor of the same in the university of that city about 1740. His principal work is a manual of botany, entitled "Tiro- cinium Botanicon Edinburgense," (1753,) in which he defended the system of Tournefort and wrote against that of Linnaeus. Died in 1760. His lectures on Ma- teria Medica (2 vols., 1770) are highly commended. See Cham BERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Alston, (Washington.) See Allston. Alston, auls'ton, (Willis,) a native of Halifax county. North Carolina, was a representative in Congress from that State from 1799 to 1815, and from 1825 to 1831, During the war of 1812 he was chairman of the Com- mittee of Ways and Means, the most honourable and at the same time the most arduous and responsible posi- tion, after the speakership, in the National House of Representatives. Died in 1837. Alstorph, ais'torf, (Jan,) a Dutch antiquary, born at Groningen about 1680 ; died in 1719. Alstromer or Alstroemer, aKstRo-mer, (almost ^V- stRum-er,) (Jonas,) a distinguished Swede, born at Al- ingsas, in 1685, of poor and obscure parents. He went to seek his fortune, first to Stockholm and afterwards to London, where he set up as ship-broker, in which busi- ness he appears to have been very successful. Although he became an English citizen, he still retained the warm- est attachment to his native country, to which he returned about 1724. His earnest and untiring efforts were sub- sequently directed towards the improvement of Swedish commerce and manufactures, by which he merited and obtained the esteem and gratitude of his countrymen, A-ho conferred upon him many honours. He was made, 1739) a member of the Council of Commerce, and was afterwards ennobled. Died in 1761. See Kryger, "Aminnelse-Tal ofver J. Alstromer." Alstromer or Alstroemer, (Klaudius or Klas,) a Swedish naturalist, born at Alingsas in 1736, was a son of Jonas Alstromer, mentioned above. He studied natural history under Linnaeus, and travelled in Spain to obtain information respecting sheep and other sub- jects. A journal which he wrote during this tour was accidentally destroyed by fire. He published a "Dis- course on the Breeding of Fine-Woolled Sheep," (1770,) which is highly praised. Died in 1796. SeeDuBB, "Aminnelse-Tal ofver Clas Alstromer," 1796. Alt, alt, (Franz Joseph Nicolaus,) a Swiss historian, born at Freiburg in 1689, bore the title of baron. He wrote in French (of which he was not a perfect master) a "History of Switzerland," (10 vols., 1749-52,) a work of much research, but defective in style and criticism. Died in 1770. Altani, al-ta'nee, (Antonio,) Bishop of Urbino, an eminent Italian ecclesiastic of the fifteenth century. Died in 1450. Altani, (Antonio,) an Italian poet, born in Friuli about 15 10, was of the same family as the preceding. He left in manuscript a great number of sonnets, can- zoni, and epigrams, the most of which are lost. Died about 1570. Altani, (Enrico,) an Italian dramatic poet, who flourished in the first half of the seventeenth century. Among his productions is "L'Americo," a tragedy. His works are commended by several Italian critics. Died at an advanced age in 1648. Altaroche, tl'ta'rosh'', (Marie Michel,) a success- ful and witty French writer and journalist, born at Is- soire (Puy-de-D6me) in 1811. He was chief editor of the "Charivari" from 1834 to 1848/ and sustained during that period an exuberant flow of ready wit, raillery, and satire. He published a volume of political songs, (1835,) two historical studies entitled the "Reformation," and the "Revolution," (1841,) and other works, which favour democracy. He was elected to the Constituent Assem- bly in 1848. Altdorfer, Slt'doRTer, written also Altorfer, (Al- brecht,) a celebrated German painter and engraver, born at Altdorf, in Bavaria, in 1488. There is a doubt- ful tradition that he was a pupil of Albert Dlirer. He worked chiefly in Regensburg, (or Ratisbon,) and is called by the French "Le Petit Albert," either in contradistinc- tion to Albert Diirer or because he seldom painted other than small figures. Among his works is a remarkable picture of the victory of Alexander at Arbela, which contains a great number of figures. The details of cos- tume and accessories are very minutely represented. His engravings on copper and wood are more numerous than his paintings. Died in 1538. See Strutt, "Dictionaiy of Engravers." Alten, ai'ten, (Karl,) the youngest son of Baron Al- ten, was born in Hanover in 1764. He entered the Eng- lish army in 1803, became a major-general in 181 2, and commanded with great credit the third division of Wel- lington's army at the battle of Waterloo, in which he was wounded. He was soon after created a count. Died in 1840. Altensteig or Altenstaig, IKten-stlo^, (Johann or Johannes,) a Roman Catholic theologian, a native of Germany, flourished in the first half of the sixteenth century. Altenstein, aKten-stm, (Karl,) Baron, a Prussian minister of public instruction, born at Anspach in 1770. In 1 81 5 he undertook the recovery of the works of art and literary treasures which the French had removed from Germany to Paris. For the successful accomplish- ment of this arduous task, all Germany owes him a debt of gratitude. He became minister of public instruc- tion and worship in 181 7, and made important changes during the long period of his administration. Died in 1840. Alter, IKter, (Franz Carl,) a German Jesuit and eminent classical scholar, born in Silesia in 1749; died in 1804. He published editions of Homer's "Iliad," Lucretius, and other Greek and Latin works. Althaea, il-thee'a, [Gr. 'Mdaia; Fr. Althee, tlW,] in the Greek mythology, was the wife of CEneus, King € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, K,guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Sl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ALTHAMMER ALTON of CaWdon, and the mother of Meleager. (See Melea- GER ) Althammer, alt'him'mer, or Althamer, (Andreas,) a distinguished German divine, born at Brenz, in Sua- bia, in 1498. He embraced the principles of Luther in 1520, and became, by his learning, energy, and wisdom, one of the chief pillars of the Reformation. Died in 1564. His best-known work is his "Diallage," {i.e. "Reconciliation," 1528,) in which he attempts to explain and reconcile those passages of Scripture which at first sight appear to be contradictory. Althen, trtON^ (Euan, g-hin', or Jean,) a native of Persia, who became a benefactor to France by the in- troduction of madder, was born in 171 1. His father was the governor of a province. He was made captive in his youth by some Arabs, and sold as a slave at Smyrna, whence he escaped to Marseilles. He carried thither some seeds of the madder, the exportation of which was forbidden under penalty of death. Having the advan- tage of a handsome person, he married a rich heiress of Marseilles, and was thus placed in a situation to pursue at leisure his plans for the culture of madder in France. He had observed that the soil and climate of the Comptat- Venaissin were similar to those of Smyrna and Anatolia, which were most favourable to the cultivation of madder. His experiments in this part of France were crowned with complete success, and the culture of madder has since become extensive and very profitable. Died in 1774. See A. Rastoul, " Vie de J. Althen," in " Portraits et Histoire des Homnies utiles." Altliof, alt'hSf, (Ludwig Christoph,) a German physician and medical writer, born at Detmold in 1758; died in 1832. Althor.p, ^I'thorp, (Lord John Charles Spencer,) Earl Spencer, a liberal English statesman, the son of George John, Earl Spencer, was born in May, 1782. He was elected to Parliament for Oakhampton in 1804, and was a junior lord of the treasury under the ministry of Fox and Grenville, 1806-7. He represented Northamp- tonshire in the House of Commons from 1806 until 1834. By his good sense, prudence, probity, and other moral qualities, he acquired great influence, and was commonly called "honest Lord Althorp." In 1830 he became chancellor of the exchequer in the Whig ministry. He inherited the title of Earl Spencer at the death of his father in 1834, and resigned ofhce in the same year. His favourite pursuit was agriculture, to the improvement of which he probably contributed more than any other English nobleman of his time. Died in 1845. See "Gentleman's Magazine" for November, 1845. Althusen, ilt'hii^sen, [Lat. Althu'sius,] (Johann,) a Dutch jurist, born probably at Emden about 1556, became professor of law at Herborn in 1590, and syndic at Bremen. He was an enlightened friend of liberty, and advocated the doctrine that supreme power is the right of the people. He published a " System of Roman Law," (1586,) and other works. Died about 1638. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Alticherio, al-te-ka're-o, or Aldigieri, il-de-ja'ree, (Da Zevio — did-za^ve-o,) a distinguished Veronese painter, who flourished in the latter half of the four- teenth century. Alticozzi, il-te-kot'see, (Lorenzo,) an Italian Jesuit and theological writer, born at Cortona in 1689. His chief work is " Summa Augustiniana," (6 vols., 1744-61.) Died in 1777. Altieri. See Clement X. Altilio, ai-tee'le-o, [Lat. Altil'ius,] (Gabriello,) an Italian poet and ecclesiastic, born about 1440. He lived mostly at Naples. He is known as the author of some short Latin poems of great merit, among which is an Epithalamium on the marriage of Galeazzo Sforza, Duke of Milan. Died about 1500. Alting, aKting, [Lat. Altin'gius,] (Heinrich,) a Calvinistic theological writer and professor, born at Emden in 1583. He was preceptor of Frederick, King of Bohemia, professor of theology at Heidelberg, and subsequently at Groningen, 1627-44. Died in 1644. See " Encyclopaedia Britannica," and Bayle, " Historical and Crit- ical Dictionary." Alting, (Jacob,) a distinguished biblical scholar, sou of the preceding, was born at Heidelberg in 1618. In 1642 he was appointed professor of Hebrew and the Oriental languages at Groningen. He wrote several valuable exegetical and philological works, among which was a Syro-Chaldaic grammar. Died in 1679. See B. Becker, "Vita J. Altingii," prefixed to his "Opera Om- nia." Alting, (Menso,) a zealous Calvinistic preacher and controversialist, born in Drenthe, a district of Holland, in 1541, was the father of Pleinrich, above noticed. He was minister at Emden, and leader of his party in a con- test against the Lutherans. Died in 16 12. Alting, (Menso,) a grandson of the preceding, was born in 1636. He became burgomaster of Groningen, and published a valuable work, entitled a "Description of Lower Germany," ("Notitia Germaniae Inferioris," 1697.) Died in 1712. See Ubbo Emmius, "M. Altingii Vita," 1717. Altissimo, al-tes'se-mo, {i.e. "most sublime,") the surname of a famous Italian poet and improvisatore who lived in the beginning of the sixteenth century. His true name is believed to have been Cristoforo Fio- rentino, (kris-tof o-ro fe-o^r^n-tee'no.) His best work is an Italian metrical version of the first book of the prose romance entitled " Reali di P'rancia." Altissimo, dell', del-lal-tes'se-mo, (Cristofano,) an eminent Florentine portrait-painter of the sixteenth cen- tury. Altmann, ait'man, (Johann Georg,) a Swiss theo- logian, born at Zofingen in 1697, was professor of moral philosophy and Greek at Berne. He published, be- sides other works, " Critical Observations on the New Testament," (3 vols., 1737,) and was one of the two editors of the "Tempe Helvetica," (6 vols., 1735-43.) Died in 1758. See Ersch iind Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Altmish, tlt^nish, surnamed Shems (or Shums) ood-Deen — shems or shums ood-deen', (the "sun of re- ligion,") a young man of Tartar descent, who, from the condition of a slave, became Sultan of Delhi in 1210 a.d. He died in 1236. He was an able ruler, and was the father of Ruzeea Begum and Mahmood Nasir ood-Deen. See Ferishta's " History of the Mahomedan Power in India," translated by Briggs, vol. i. Altobello, ll-to-beKlo, (Francesco Antonio,) a Neapolitan historical painter of the seventeenth century, was born at Bitonto. He worked at Naples, and ex- celled in invention and composition. Altomare, ai-to-mi'ra, (Donato Antonio,) [often called in Latin Dona'tus ab Altoma'ri,] an eminent Neapolitan physician and medical writer. Having been driven from Naples by persecution, he was restored by the mechation of Pope Paul IV. His chief work, "Ars Me- dica," (1553,) has been often reprinted. Died about 1566. Altomonte, il-to-mon'ta, (Martino,) an Italian painter, born at Naples in 1657. He worked many years in Vienna with success, and painted portraits of the Austrian emperors. Died in 1745. Alton, aKton, (Richard,) Count of, a general in the Austrian service, born in Ireland in 1732, command- ed in the Low Countries at the beginning of the insur- rection in 1789. He was forced to evacuate Brussels, and died during his retreat towards Vienna in 1790. His younger brother, Edward, Count of Alton, served with distinction against the Turks and French. He fell at the siege of Dunkirk in August, 1793. Alton, d', ddKton, (Johann Samuel Eduard,) a physician, born at Saint Goar in 1803. He became pro- fessor of anatomy at Halle in 1834, and published a "Manual of Comparative Anatomy of Man," (1850.) Alton, d', (Joseph Wilhelm Eduard,) a German naturalist and antiquary, the father of the preceding, was born at Aquileja in 1772. He studied natural his- tory and the fine arts, and travelled in France, England, Spain, etc. He published a "Natural History of the Horse," (1810,) and a " Comparative Osteology," (1821- 28.) About 1821 he was appointed professor of archae- ology and the history of art in the University of Bonn< where he remained until his death in 1840. a, G, 1, o, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon: ALT ON -S HE E [05 ALVAREZ Alton-Shee, d', dil lo.x' shi', (Edmond,) Comte, a French democrat, born in 1810. He was an active pro- moter of the revolution of February, 1848, advocated a socialist regime, and acted with Ledru-RoUin. Altorfer. See Altdorfer. Altoviti, al-to-vee'tee, (Antonio,) born in 1521, at Florence, was made archbishop of that city in 1548; died in 1573. Altovitis, trto've'tess', or Altouvitis, trtooVe^tess', Mademoiselle, a poetess, born at Mai'seilles in 1550. Died in 1606. Altringer. See Aldringer. Altschul, ^It'shool, (Elias,) a German homoeopathic physician, born at Prague in 181 2. He published a "Dictionary of Ocular Medicine," (2 vols., 1836.) Altzenbach, ait'sen-bS,K^ (Wilhelm,) the name of two German engravers (father and son) of the sev- enteenth century. They worked in Paris and Stras- burg. Alunno, S-loon'no, (Francesco,) an Italian gram- marian and calligraphist of the sixteenth century, was born at Ferrara. He is known as the author of two works on the Italian language, which were often re- printed, viz. : "Riches of the Italian Language," (1543,) and a Vocabulary containing the words in Dante, Pe- trarch, Boccaccio, and others, (1548.) Died in 1556. Alunno, (Niccolo,) an Italian painter of Foligno, flourished from 1450 to 1500, painted in water-colours, and was an artist of great merit for his time. He was one of those who contributed to the progress of art by the freedom of his style. Among his works is a " Na- tivity of Christ." See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." Alured. See Alfred. Alva, dKva, or AFba, [Sp. pron. iKvS,] (Fernando Alvarez de Toledo,) [Sp. pron. f^R-ndnMo al'v^- r^th di to-la'Do,] DuKE of, [Fr. Due d'Albe, diik dtlb,] a celebrated Spanish general under the emperor Charles V. and Philip II., King of Spain, was born in 1508, of a noble and ancient Castilian family. At an early age he entered the army of Charles V., whom he afterwards accompanied in most of his campaigns. In 1556-7 he successfully defended Naples against the allied French and Papal armies, and acquired a high reputation as a prudent and able general. He was sent by Phili]) 11., in 1567, to quell the insurrection which had broken out among the Protestants of the Low Countries. But, although in this war he displayed great abilities as a general, the rigour of his administration, and the extreme cruelty with which he treated the avowed or suspected heretics who fell into his hands, doubtless contributed more than any other cause towards the final separation of those provinces from the Spanish crown. Alva was recalled to Madrid in 1573. He boasted that in the space of four years he had brought no fewer than eighteen thousand persons to the scaffold! In 1580 he invaded Portugal, and, after defeating the Portuguese forces at the mouth of the Tagus, annexed that kingdom to the dominions of Spain. Alva died in 1582. See Watson, "Philip II.;" Pkescott, "Philip II.," vol. ii. ; Motley, "History of the Dutch Republic;" J. Antonio de Vera Y FiGUEROA, "Resultas de la Vida de Fern. Alvarez de Toledo," 1643 ; " Vie du Due d'Albe," Paris, 169S ; J. V. de Rustaut, " His- toriade Fern. Alvarez de Toledo Duque de Alva," 1750 ; J. Mitchell, " Biographies of Eminent Soldiers of the Last Four Centuries," 1865. Alvarado, de, da Sl-vi-ri'Do, (Alonzo,) a Spanish officer, who served under Cortez in Mexico, after the conquest of which he went to Peru and obtained a high command in the army of Pizarro. Having been sent with five hundred men to reinforce the brothers of Pi- zarro at Cuzco, he was defeated and made prisoner by Almagro in 1537. After the death of Pizarro he took arms against Almagro the younger, and joined his troops to those of De Castro, (1542.) He was lieutenant-gene- ral of the army which suppressed the rebellion of Gon- zalo Pizarro in 1548. See Prescott, "Conquest of Peru." Alvarado, de, (Pedro,) a Spanish officer, born at Badajos at the close of the fifteenth century, was one of the principal companions of Cortez in the conquest of Mexico. He distinguished himself at the battles of Ta- basco and Otumba, and gained tne full confidence of Cortez. He was left in command of the city of Mexicc when Cortez marched to encounter Narvaez. In 1523 he led a successful expedition against Zacatula, Tehuan- tepec, and Guatemala, and received from the King of Spain the title of Governor of Guatemala. He per- formed an arduous march over the Andes with a design to seize Quito ; but, having met the troops of Pizarro, who claimed the command in that place, he retired peaceably after receiving a large indemnity for his expenses. He was killed in a fight with some natives in 1541. Some writers say his death was caused by a horse falling on him down a steep bank. See Prescott, " Conquest of Mexico," vols. ii. and iii. Alvares. See Alvarez. Alvarez, aKva-rgth, (Diego,) a Spanish theologiaru born in Old Castile about 1550, became Archbishop ot Trani, in Italy, in 1606. His chief work is "On the Aids of Divine Grace," ("De Auxiliis Divinae Gratiae,' 1610.) Died about 1633. APva-rez, [Port. pron. iKva-rlz,] (Emanuel,) a Portuguese Jesuit, born in the island of Madeira in 1526 : died in 1582. Among other works, he was the author of an excellent Latin grammar. Alvarez, (Francisco,) a Portuguese priest, born at Coimbra, became chaplain to King Manoel some time before 15 15. Soon after this date he accompanied Duarte Galvam on a mission to the King of Abyssinia, who was then called Prester John. He passed about six years in that strange country, and returned home in 1527. A long and valuable account of this mission was published in 1540, with the title "Prester John of the Indias : a True Account of the Country of Prester John," (" Ho Preste Joam das Indias : verdadera Infor- ma9am das Terras do Preste Joam.") He is regarded as a candid and veracious writer. Died probably about 1 540. See F. Denis, " Le Monde enchante," etc.; Ramusio, "Viaggi e Navigazioni." Alvarez, (Gomez,) a Spanish poet, born in 148S ; died in 1538. Alvarez, (Don Jose,) one of the most eminent Span- ish sculptors, was born at Priego, in the province of Cordova, in 1768. He became a student in the Acad- emy of Madrid in 1794, gained there a prize of the first class, and received from the king a pension of twelve thousand reals (fifteen hundred dollars) in 1799, after which he pursued his studies in Paris. His reputation was increased by a statue of Ganymede, (1804.) He worked chiefly in Rome, and became a member of the Academy of Saint Luke. Among his master-pieces are "Orpheus Sleeping," a "Venus and Cupid," and a group of "Antilochus and Memnon." He received the title of court-sculptor to Ferdinand VII. about 1818. Died at Madrid in November, 1827. His son, a prom- ising sculptor, died in 1830, aged about twenty-five. SeeBEKMUDEZ, " Diccionarlo Historico;" Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Alvarez, (Juan,) a Mexican general, born in 1790, was distinguished for his energy and boldness. He took a prominent part in the insurrection which began in 1854 and which deprived Santa Anna of power in 1855. Alvarez became President of Mexico about September, 1855, and abolished the old privilege {fiiero) of the clergy and the army. He resigned in December, 1855. Alvarez, (Don Manuel,) a distinguished Spanish sculptor, born at Salamanca in 1727, was a pupil of Fe- lipe de Castro. He gained the first prize at Madrid in 1754, and became sculptor to the king in 1794. The purity and vigour of his design procured for him the sur- name of "El Griego," ("the Greek.") Died in 1797. Alvarez, (Don Martin,) Count of Colomera, a Span- ish general, born in Andalusia about 17 14. He obtained in 1779 the command of the army which besieged Gib- raltar without success for several years, and was super- seded by the Due de Crillon in 1782. Having been raised to the rank of captain-general, he commanded in 1794 against the French, whose progress he failed to arrest. He was removed in February, 1795. Died in 1819. Alvarez, (Tomas,) a Spanish physician of Seville, published a treatise on the plague in 1569. € as 5 as s; g hard; g as j; G, h, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (iJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) io6 A MAD ESI ALVAREZ Alvarez, de, aKvc\-i-eth, (Bernardo,) a Spanish adventurer, born at Seville in 15 14, founded several hos- pitals in Mexico. Died in 1584. Alvarez de Cabral. See Cabral. Alvarez de Castro, aKva-reth di kSs'tRo, (Mari- ano,) a Spanish officer, born at Granada, was distin- guished for his resolute defence of Gerona against the French, by whom it was taken in 1809, after a siege of seven months. He died in prison about the end of 1809. See SouTHEY, "History of the Peninsular War." Alvarez de Colmenar. See Colmenar. Alvarez de Luna; See Luna. Alvarez do Oriente, iKvi-riz do o-re-en'ti, {i.e. "Alvarez of the East,") (Fernao,) a Portuguese poet of great merit, born at Goa, in India, about 1540. Scarcely anything is known of his life, except that he was bred to the sea and at one time was himself the captain of a vessel. His chief work is entitled " Portugal Trans- formed," ("A Lusitania transformada," 1607,) a pastoral partly in verse and partly in prose. Alvarez y Baena, al'va-rSth e ba-a'na, (Jos^ An- tonio,) a Spanish biographer, born at Madrid, wrote the "Illustrious Sons of Madrid," (" Hijos de Madrid illustres," 4 vols., 1789-91.) Died about 1803. Alvaro, a/va-ro, (Giovanni,) a Neapolitan painter, who flourished in the first half of the eighteenth century. Alvarotto, al-vi-rot'to, (Jacopo,) a distinguished feudal lawyer, born at Padua in 1385 ; died in 1453. Alvar Paez, aKvaR pa'es, or Alvar Pajo, dKvaR pi'zho, [Lat. AlVarus Pela'gius,] a theologian, born probably in Portugal, became Bishop of Silves in Al- garve about 1334. His chief work is "On the Com- plaint of the Church," ("De Planctu Ecclesias,") com- pleted in 1332. He maintains in this the supremacy of the pope. Died about 1350. APva-rus, (Paulus,) often called Al'varus Cordu- beii'sis, {i.e. " Alvarus of Cordova,") from the place of his birth, a Christian writer of the ninth century. Alvarus. See Alvarez. Alvensleben, von, fon ^I'vens-la'ben, (Albrecht,) Count, a Prussian minister of state, born in 1794. He was minister of finances from 1836 to 1842. Alvensleben, von, (Karl Gebhard,) a Prussian general, born in 1778. He fought at Jena in 1806, com- manded a regiment at Lutzen in 181 3, and rendered im- portant service at Bautzen. He became a general in 1817. Died in 1831. Alvensleben, von, (Philip Charles,) Count, a diplomatist in the service of Prussia, born at Hanover in 1745, was made a count in 1801, and died in 1802. Alves, iKves, (Robert,) a Scottish poet, born at Elgin in 1745, wrote "The Weeping Bard," and "The Banks of the Esk," (published in 1801.) Died in 1794. Alviano, ai-ve-i'no, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian gen- eral who was famous for his courage, audacity, and skill in the wars that preceded and followed the League of Cambrai, was born about 1455. Having entered the service of Venice, he routed the Imperialists near Ca- dore in 1508, and was promoted to the position of gen- eral-in-chief He was defeated and taken prisoner by Louis XII. of France at Ghiera d'Adda in 1509. The Venetians and the French having become allies, he was released in 1 5 13. The victory of the French at Mari- gnano, in 1515, is ascribed in great measure to him. He was a lover of literature, and a generous patron of lite- rary men. Died of fever in 1515. See SiSMOXDi, " Histoire des Republiqiies Italiennes." Alvinczy, Alvinzi, or Alvinzy, von, pronounced alike — fon al-vTnt'se, (Joseph,) Baron, an Austrian gen- eral, was born at Vincz, (Vints,) in Transylvania, in 1735, (or, as some authorities say, in 1 726.) He became a lieu- tenant-field-marshal in 1789, and greatly distinguished himself as commander of a division in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793 against the French. After the defeat of Wurmser in Italy in the summer of 1796, Marshal Al- vinczy was appointed to the command of a new army of about fifty or sixty thousand men, sent against Bona- parte. He entered Italy from Carinthia, and fought an indecisive action at Bassano on the 6th of November, 1796. In the same month he was defeated by Bona- parte at Areola, after a battle of three days' duration. "The ruinous fetters of the Aulic Council," says Alison, "paralyzed all the movements of Alvinzi, who in this strife evinced neither the capacity nor spirit of a general worthy to combat Napoleon." Having been again de- feated at Rivoli in January, 1797, he resigned his com- mand. Died in 1810. See BoTTA, " Storia d'ltalia;" Alison, "Historyrf Europe." Alvintzi or Alvinczi, Sl-vint'se, (Peter,) a Protest- ant divine and writer, who lived at Waradin and Ka- schau, in Hungary, in the early part of the seventeenth century. Two volumes of his sermons were published in 1632 and 1634. Al-Waleed or Al-Walid (ai-w^leedO I., the sixth caliph of the race of Omxyyah, ascended the tlirone of Damascus in 705. During his reign, Toorkistan in the East, and Spain in the West, were added to the Arabian Empire, and the Omeyyah dynasty attained the acme of its power. Died in 715 a.d. See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen." Alxinger, alk' sing-er, (Johann Baptist,) a German scholar and poet, born at Vienna in 1755. wrote lyric, dramatic, and epic poems. Among his most popu- lar works is "Doolin von Mainz," an epic poem, (1787.) He was well acquainted with the best works in the an- cient as well as the modern languages, and is said to have known the whole of the yEneid by heart. As a man he was distinguished by a noble and unostentatious gene- rosity towards all who needed his sympathy or aid. He died in 1797. Aly. See Alee, A-ly-at'tes, [Gr. ' klva-Tri^ ; Fr. Alyatte, t'le-tt',] a celebrated king of Lydia, the father of Croesus, began to reign about 618 B.C. He waged war for five years against Cyaxares, King of Media. A battle between them was interrupted by an eclipse of the sun, in consequence of which they made a treaty of peace. This eclipse, pre- dicted by Thales, is supposed to have occurred in 610 B.C. Alyattes reigned fifty-seven years. See Herodotus, book i. ; Rollin, "Ancient History;" Hamil- ton, "Researches in Asia Minor." Alyon, t1e-6N', (Pierre Philippe,) a French phar- macist, naturalist, and writer, born at Aavergne in 1758; died about 1820. A-lyp'i-us, [Gr. 'KIv'klo^,'] an architect of Antioch, lived in the fourth century. He was charged by Julian the Apostate to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem. But this design was frustrated, if we may credit the statement of an excellent pagan historian, (Ammianus Marcellinus,) by eruptions of fire from the earth. See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap, xxiii. Alypius, ['AAvTr/of,] an ancient Greek musician and writer on music. Fragrnents of his work are extant. Alypius, a distinguished Greek sophist of the fourth century, born at Alexandria, in Egypt, excelled in dia- lectics. Aly Shir. See Alee-Sheer-Ameer. Alyy. See Alee. Alzate y Ramirez, dl-sa'ta e ra-mee'res, (Jos6 Antonio,) a distinguished astronomer and geographer who lived at Mexico in the early part of the eighteenth century. His numerous works are written in Spanish. Amac, (a Persian poet.) See Amak. Aniadei, §,-mi-da'ee, (Girolamo,) an Italian priest, born about 1483, preached and wrote against Luther. Died in 1543. Amadei, (Stefano,) an Italian painter of history and portraits, born at Perugia in 1589. He excelled in the use of the crayon, and worked in Rome. Died in 1644. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Amadeo, cVmS-da'o, or Amadei, ^-ma-da'ce, (Gio- vanni Antonio,) a distinguished Italian sculptor, born at Pavi'a about 1400. Among his principal works are the monuments of the Venetian general Colleoni and his daughter, at Bergamo. Died in 1474. Amadesi, a-ma-da'see, (Domenico,) a popular Italian poet, born at Bologna in 1657, was a rich merchant. His first poems appeared under the anagram " Simonide de Meaco," (1709.) Died in 1730. a, e, T, 0, u, y, lons^; i, h., 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, ohsaire; far, f^ll, fdt; m§t; nSt; good; moon; JMADESI 107 AMALTEO Amadesi, (Giuseppe Luigi,) a distinguished anti- , quary and scholar, born at Leghorn, of Bolognese parents, in 1701. He contributed to Calogera's "Rac- colta di Opuscoli," and published "DeComitatu Argen- tato," (1763.) Died in 1773. Am-a-de''us, [It. Amedeo, a-ma-da'o, or Amadeo, a-mi-da''o ; Fr. Amedee, t'ma'da',] the name of several [ counts and dukes of Savoy from about iioo to 1472. | Amadeus I. of Savoy, a son of Humbert, Count of | Maurienne, lived in the lirst half of the eleventh* century. Amadeus II. was a nephew of the preceding, and a ' son of Oddo by his wife Adelaide of Susa. Died in the ' eleventh centu'rv. He was succeeded bv his son, Hum- bert H. ' Amadeus III., Count of Maurienne, succeeded his father, Humbert H., in 1103. He went to Palestine on a crusade with his nephew, Louis VH, of France, in 1 147, and died in Cyprus in 1148. His successor was his son, Humbert IH, Amadeus IV. succeeded his father, Thomas I., Count of Savoy, in 1233. He made some additions to his dominions. Died in 1253. Amadeus V., born in 1249, was a son of Thomas H. of Savoy, Count of Flanders. He succeeded his uncle Philip as Count of Savoy in 1285. He died in 1323, leaving the crown to his son Edward. Amadeus VI., born in 1334, was a son of Aymon, Count of Savoy, whom he succeeded in 1343. He was one of the most able and successful princes of the house of Savoy. He defeated the French at Arbrette in 1354, and, having joined a crusade against the Turks, took Gallipoli in 1366 and released the captive emperor John. He acquired large accessions of territory in Pied- mont. Died in 1383. Amadeus VII., born about 1360, succeeded his father, Amadeus VI., at the age of twenty-three. He was styled the "Red Count," from the colour of his ar- mour. He annexed Nice to his dominions. Died in 1391- Amadeus VIII., son of Amadeus VII., succeeded his father in 1391, being then only eight years old. In 1416 he was created by the emperor Sigismund first Duke of Savoy. He enjoyed a great reputation for wis- dom, and was called the Solomon of his age. In 1434 he made his son Louis lieutenant-general of his domin- ions, and retired to the monastery of Ripaille, which he had founded. Having remained here five years, he was elected pope by the Council of Bale, in the place of Eugenius IV., whom they haS deposed. Amadeus ac- cepted the office, though with great reluctance, taking the name of Felix V. Afterwards, wishing to put an end to the schism in the Church, he publicly renounced his claims to the papacy in favour of Nicholas V., who on the death of Eugenius had been elected at Rome. Died in 145 1. Amadeus IX., a son of Louis, Duke of Savov, and a grandson of the preceding, was born at Thonon in 1435, '^^^ began to reign in 1465. He married Yolande, a daughter of Charles VII. of France. Died in 1472, and was succeeded by his son Philibert. Am'a-dis de Gaul or GauTa, the hero of a famous romance of chivalry written in the thirteenth century by Vasco de Lobeira, a Portuguese. (See Loeeira.) " The Amadis," says Ticknor, "is admitted by general consent to be the best of all the old romances of chivalry." See Ticknor, " Spanish Literature," vol. i. chap. xi. p. 221 et seq. Amador Rebello, i-ma-doR' ra-bel'lo, a Portuguese Jesuit and writer, born in 1539 ; died at Lisbon in 1622. Amaduzzi, a-ma-doot'see, [in Latin, Amadu'tius,] (Gtovaxxi Cristoforo,) a learned Italian writer, born near Rimini in 1740, was professor of Greek in Rome. He published " Anecdota Literaria," (3 vols., 1774,) and other works. Died in 1792. Amaia. See A may a. Amak Bokharee, (or Bokhari,) am'Sk bo-Ka'ree, (/V. " Amak the Bokharian,") written also Amac and Amik, a Persian poet, whose life was nearly coexten- si\ e with the eleventh century, A-mal'ar-ic, [Lat. Amalari'cus,] the last king of the Visigoths that reigned in Spain, was a son of Afaric II., who died in 507 a.D. He married Clotilde, a daughter of Clovis, King of the Franks. He was killed during a war against the Franks, in 531 a.D. Am-a-la'ri-us For-tu-na'tus, an archbishop of Treves, who was sent by Charlemagne, in 811 a.D., to diftuse Christianity among the Saxons. He established the first church at Hamburg. In 813 he went as ambas- sador to Constantinople. Died in 814 A.D. Am^a-lek, [Heb. p-:o;',] a king of the Amalek- ites, who opposed the' Israelites on their flight from Egypt. He was defeated at the battle of Rephidim. (See Exodus xvii. 8-14; Deuteronomy xxv. 17.) Amalfi. See Avalos, (Costaxza.) Amalie, a-m§.'le-eh, or Ame'lia, (Axxa,) Princess of Prussia, and sister of Frederick the Great, was born in 1723. She had a remarkable talent for music, to which she devoted her life. Her musical library was the finest and most complete ever collected. Died in 17S7. Amalie, or Amelia, (Anna,) Duchess of Saxe- Weimar and Eisenach, a daughter of the Duke of Bruns- wick-\Yolfenbiittel, born in 1739, was distinguished as a patron of genius and learning. She assembled at her court the brightest ornaments of German literature, among others Wieland, Herder, Goethe, etc. She was mother of the duke Karl August. Died in 1S07. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Amalie, (Catherine,) a German poetess, born in 1640, married the Count George Lewis (Georg Ludwig) ofErbach. Died in 1696. Amalie or Amelia, (Elisabeth,) a grand-daughter of William I., Prince of Orange, was born in 1602, and in 1619 married \Villiam V., Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. After his death, in 1637, she was made regent, in which capacity she displayed extraordinary energy, wisdom, and virtue. Died in 1651. See K. W. Justi, "Amalie Elisabeth Lar.dgrafin von Hessen." Amalie or Amelia, (Marie Friederike Auguste,) Duchess of Saxony, born in 1794, was a sister of Fred- erick Augustus II. She cultivated poetry and music, and wrote in German successful dramas, among which are "Falsehood and Truth," "The Marriage-Ring," " Cousin Henry," and " The Young Lady from the Country." See article by Professor Feltok, in the " North American Review," vol. lii., and " Social Life In Gemiany, illustrated in the acted Dramas of the Princess Amelia," etc., translated from the German by Mrs. Jameson. Amalric of Jerusalem. See Amaury. Amalric, t'mSrR^k', (Arnaud,) a French ecclesiastic of the thirteenth century, distinguished by the energy and sanguinary cruelty which he displayed against the heretics of Languedoc, commonly known as the Albi- genses. He was made Archbishop of Narbonne in 1212, and soon after assumed the title of Duke of Narbonne. Died in 1225. Amalricus. See Amalric and Amaury. Am-al-a-son'tha, written also Amalasonte, [Lat. Amalasue'n'ta,] Queen of the Goths in Italy, distin- guished for her wisdom, was a daughter of Theodoric I. She began to reign in 526 A.D., as guardian of her son, who was a minor. The famous Cassiodorus was her prime minister. She was assassinated in 535. See J. D. RiTTER, "Dissertatio de Amalasuenta," 1735. Amalteo, l-mll-ta'o, [Lat. Amalthe'us ; Fr. Amal- thee, t'mtrta',] (Corxelio,) an Italian poet, born at Oderzo about 1530. His profession was medicine. He wrote Latin poems, the best of which is entitled " Pro- teus," (1572.) Died in 1603. Amalteo, (Francesco,) the father of the preceding, was born towards the close of the fifteenth century. He taught literature in several cities of Italy, and had some reputation as a writer of Latin verse. He had three sons, who were poets. Amalteo, (Giovanni Battista ) an excellent Latin poet, a son of Francesco, noticed above, born at Oderzo in 1525, became secretary to the republic of Ragusa. He wrote Latin eclogues, elegies, and epigrams, and verses in Greek and Italian. His Latin poems are con- sidered equal in elegance to those of any poet of his time. Died in Rome in 1573, soon after he had become € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, k, gtithiral; n, tiasal; r, trilled; s as z; \\\ as in this. (S^="See Explanations, p. 23.) AMALTEO io8 / AMAT secretary to Pope Pius VII. He is regarded as the most eminent poet of all his family. Amalteo, (Girolamo,) a brother of the preceding, born at Oderzo in 1506, was a physician, philosopher, and celebrated Latin poet. He practised medicine with great success at several places. His reputation is founded on two Latin epigrams, entitled *' De Gemellis Luscis," ("On the One Eyed Twins,") and " Horologium Pul- vereum," ("Hour-Glass,") the former of which has been translated into many languages. Died in 1574. Amalteo, (Girolamo,) a brother and pupil of Pom- ponio, noticed below, was a historical painter of distin- guished ability. His chief works are small pictures, highly finished. He died at an early age. See Altan, " Memorie intorno alia Vita di Pomponio Amalteo;" Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Amalteo, [Lat. Amaltheus,] (Paolo, or Paul,) an Italian poet, born at Pordenone in 1460, was a brother of Francesco, noticed above. Died in 15 17. Amalteo, (Pomponio,) an eminent painter of the Venetian school, was born in Friuli in 1505. He was a pupil of Pordenone, whose style he imitated, though with less grandeur of invention. His colouring is brilliant, and his drawing correct. Among his master-pieces are " The Judgment of Solomon," and "The Judgment of Daniel." Am-al-the'a or Am-al-tliei''a, [Gr. 'kiiakdeia; Fr. Amalthee, t'lnSl'ta^] in Greek mythology, the name of the nurse of Jupiter. According to one tradition, she was a goat, whose horn Jupiter broke off and filled with herbs, fruits, flowers, etc., and endowed it with the prop- erty of supplying whatever its possessor might desire. This was the origin of the fable of the Cornucopiae, or " horn of plenty." Amalthee, tlie French of Amalteo, which see. Amaltlieus. See Amalteo. Amama, d-mi'ma, (Sixti'nus,) a Dutch Protestant and biblical philologist, born at Franeker in 1593. He was professor of Oriental languages at that city from 161 8 until his death, and declined the chair vacated by Erpenius at Leyden. He was the author of a critical work on the historical books of the Old Testament, and a number of Latin treatises. Died in 1629. Aman, d^nin, (Johann,) a German architect, born in Baden in 1765. He designed several public buildings in Austria and other countries. Died about 1834. Amand, fmSx', Saint, [Lat. Sanc'tus Aman'- DUS,] a bishop of Bordeaux in the fifth century, eminent for his piety and purity of life. Amand or Amandus, Saint, a French ecclesi- astic, born about 590. He was a man of eminent vir- tues. Died in 679 A.D. Amand, (Jacques,) a French engraver, born near Blois in 1730; died in Paris in 1769. Amand, (Pierre,) a French surgeon and writer on obstetrics, born at Riez about 1650 ; died in 1720. Amaniea des Bscas, t'mt'ne-uh' dcVzesOci', a troubadour, who flourished in the latter half of the thir- teenth century. He passed a part of his life at the court of James II. of Aragon. Amanton or Amanthon, fmSN'toN', (Claude Nicolas,) a judge at Dijon, in France, and a writer on biography and local history, born in 1760 ; died in 1835. Amar, i'mlR^ (Andre,) (or Amar, J. P., according to the " Biographic Universelle,") a French demagogue, born at Grenoble in 1750, was notorious for his cruelty in the reign of terror. He was elected to the Conven- tion in 1792, voted for the death of the king, and became chairman of the committee of surete generale in Septem- ber, 1793. In October he wrote and presented to the Convention a report which condemned the twenty-two Girondins arrested in June and ordered the arrest of seventy-three other deputies. He acted with the enemies of Robespierre on the 9th of Thermidor, 1794, and de- fended Barrere, Collot d'Herbois, and Billaud-Varennes in 1795. Died in Paris in 1816. Amar (or Amare) du Rivier, t'mtR'' dii re^ve-i', (Jean Augustin,) often calledsimply Amar or Am^afe, an able French critic and miscellaneous writer, born in Paris in 1765. He became conservator of the Mazarin Library m 1809. He made translations of many of the ancient classics, published several school-books, and wrote many articles for the "Biographic Universelle." Died in 1837. Amaral, d-ma,-rdK, (Andres do,) a Portuguese, who became chancellor of the order of Saint John of Jerusa- lem while that order had possession (jf the island of Rhodes. He was defeated as a candidate for the office of grand master in 1 521. During the siege of Rhodes by the Turks in 1522 he was put to death on a charge of giving 'intelligence to the enemy. See Vertot, " Histoire des Chevaliers Hospitallers de St. Jean;' FoNTANUs, "De Belle Rhodico," 1524. Amaral, (Antonio Caetano (ka-a-t^'no) do,) a Por- tuguese writer, born at Lisbon in 1 747. He wrote a very valuable work on the early history of Portugal, entitled "Memorias sobre a Forma do Governo e Cos- tumes," etc. Died in 1819. Am'a-ra Singlia or Sinha, am'a-ra sing'ha, [mod- ern Hindoo pron. um'ur-a sing'lia,] a celebrated Hindoo poet and grammarian, who is suj^posed to have flourished in the first century B.C. He belonged to the Booddhist sect. His works were all destroyed by the Brahmans, except a vocabulary of the Sanscrit language, entitled "Amara Kosha," which is esteemed a standard work. Amari, §.-ma'ree, (Emerico,) an Italian political economist, born at Palermo in 1810. He became pro- fessor of law at Palermo in 1841. Amari, (Michele,) an Italian historian, born at Palermo in 1806. His father was condemned to an im- prisonment of thirty years for a conspiracy against the government. He published in 1842 his principal work, "The War of the Sicilian Vespers," ("La Guerra del Vespro Siciliano," 2 vols.,) which had great success, but was prohibited by the government. The author was summoned to trial, but escaped to France. He took an active part in the revolution of Sicily in 1848, and was appointed minister of finances in the new government. He resigned ofilice before the end of the year. He has since resided in Paris, and published the first volume of a "History of the Mussulmans in Sicily." Amariton, t^mt^re'toN^, (Jean,) a French jurist, born in Auvergne ; died in 1590. Am'a-sa, [XZ^O^',] a Hebrew warrior, who was ap- pointed by Absalom, when he rebelled, captain of the host instead of Joab. After the suppression of this re- bellion he became commander of the army of David, and was treacherously slain by Joab. (See II. Samuel xvii. 25 ; XX. 4-10.) Amaseo, a-m^-sa'o, [Lat. AMAS/^i'us,] (Pompilio,) an Italian scholar, was a son of Romolo, noticed below. Died about 1584. Amaseo, (Romolo,) a celebrated Italian scholar and orator, born at Udine in 1489; died about 1552. He Vi^as professor of belles-lettres (literas humaniores) at Padua, Bologna, and Rome. Among his works may be mentioned a Latin version of Pausanias, (1547,) and a Latin version of Xenophon's "Anabasis," (1533.) A-ma'sis, [Gr. "A//aa«f,] a celebrated king of Egypt, succeeded Apries about 570 B.C. He is said to have been a man of liberal and independent spirit, and free from the prejudices against foreigners which were com- mon among the Egyptians. His reign was prosperous and peaceful. He built the grand temple of Isis at Memphis, and adorned Egypt with many magnificent monuments. Died about 525 B.C., leaving the throne to his son Psammenitus, (or Psammetichus.) A-mas'tris, a Persian lady of superior talents, and a niece of Darius Codomannus. She was married suc- cessively to Craterus, to Dionysius, tyrant of Heraclea, and to Lysimachus, King of Thrace. Amat, d-mat', (Felix,) an eminent Spanish eccle- siastic and writer, born at Sabadell, near Barcelona, in 1750. He became Archbishop of Palmyra in partihus infiddium in 1803, and confessor to Charles IV. in 1806. He was supposed to be favourable to the French during the war which began in 1808. His great work Is an ecclesiastical history, e'ntitled " Treatise on the Church of Jesus Christ," (" Tratado de la Iglesia de Jesu Cristo," 12 vols., 1793-1803.) Died in 1824. See Felix Torres Amat, " Vida de Amat Arzobispo de Pal- myra," 1835. a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; \ 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sJiort; a, e, i, g, obscure; far, fill, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; AMATI 109 AMBOISE Amati, a-mi'tee, (Andrea,) a celebrated maker of violins, worked at Cremona in partnership with his bro- ther N1CC0I6 about 1550. Their instruments are highly prized at the present time. AmatL vAntonio,) a son of the preceding, born at Cremona about 1565, followed the same business with success. He made for Henry IV. of France, in 1595, a violin, which is said to be now in good order. Amati, (Carlo,) an eminent Italian architect, born at Milan about 1786. Among his chief works is the Rotunda of San Carlo, at Milan. Amati, (Girolamo.) a distinguished Italian scholar and antiquary, born at Savignano in 1768. He was an assistant librarian in the Vatican, and was regarded as an oracle among antiquaries. He wrote papers on the antiquities of philology and art for the " Giornale Arca- dico," and furnished materials for the works of other authors. His sagacity in palaeographical science was remarkable. Died in 1834. Amati, (Pasquale,) an Italian antiquary, born at Savignano in 1716; died in 1796. Amatius, a-ma'she-us, (Caius,) a famous impostor, who made his appearance at Rome about 45 B.C., claim- ing to be the grandson of Marius. He was strangled by order of Antony about 43 or 44 B.C. Amato. See Amatus. Amato, d', di-mi'to, or Amati, i-mS'tee, [Lat. 1 Ama'tus,] (Elia,) a literary Italian monk, born at Mon- talto in 1666. He wrote on various subjects, and dis- played a talent for dry humour. Died in 1 747. Amato, d', (Giovanni Antonio,) a celebrated his- torical painter, called "II Vecchio," ("The Elder,") was born at Naples in 1475. style resembles that of Perugino in simplicity. He painted religious subjects exclusively, and was also noted as a theologian. Among his master-pieces are a " Dispute on the Sacrament," at Naples, and a " Madonna and Child." He painted in oil and fresco. Died in 1555. Amato, d', (Giovanni Antonio,) a nephew and pupil of the preceding, surnamed II Giovane, [i.e. "the younger,") born at Naples in 1535, was a skilful painter. He excelled in colouring, and painted some Works which are said to be as finely coloured as those of Titian. His chief work is an altar-piece of the infant Christ, in a church of Naples. Died in 1598. SeeDoMiNici, " Vite de' Pittori Napolilani." Amato, d', (Michele,) an Italian theologian, born at Naples in 1682 ; died in 1729. Amato or A-raa'tus, (SciPio,) an Italian jurist and linguist, flourished between 1600 and 1650. Amato or Amati, [Lat. Ama'tus,] (Vincfnzo,) a Sicilian musician and composer, born in 1629; died in 1670. Amatrice, dell', d^l Id-ma-tRee'cha, (Co'la,) a Nea- politan architect and painter, who flourished in the early part of the sixteenth century. He worked at Ascoli. His master-piece is a picture of the "Last Supper." See Laxzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Am-a'tus Lu-.si-ta'nus, [Port. Joao Rodriguez Amato, zho-owN' ro-dRee''ggz d-ma'to ; Lat. Joan'nes RoDERi'cus Ama'tus,] an eminent Portuguese physi- cian and anatomist, born at Castel-Branco in 1 5 11. He lectured in Venice, and practised at Ancona. In 1555 the fear of the Inquisition, which persecuted him as a Jew, induced him to retire to Saloniki, where he joined a synagogue. Died in 1568. He is said to have been the second author who has described the valves in veins. He left, besides other works, one giving an ac- count of seven hundred remarkable cases in medicine and surgery, (1551-66,) which was highly esteemed. See Sprexgel, " Biogiaphie Medicale." Amaury. See Amalric. A-mau'ry, [Fr. pron. S^mo're',] Aimery, a'meh-re, [Fr. pron. Im're',] or Am-al'ric, [Ger, Amalrich, A'mil-riK' ; Lat. Amalri'cus,] I., King of Jerusalem, born in 1135, was a son of Baldwin II. He succeeded his brother Baldwin III. in 1162. He invaded Egypt in 1x68, and marched victoriously to Cairo, but was'driven out by an army of Turks under Saladin, who invaded the kingdom of Amaury in 11 70. The latter defended his domhiions with ability and courage, but with ill suc- cess, until his death in 1173, and left the throne to his son, Baldwin IV. Amaury II. of Jerusalem (otherwise called Amaury de Lusignan — deh lii''zen''y6N'') inherited Cyprus from his brother Guy, and received the title of King of Jerusalem in 1194. He was unable to defend the kingdom against the Saracens, and died at Ptole- mais in 1205. Amaury, Amalric, or Aimeric, [Lat. Amalri'- cus,] Patriarch of Jerusalem, succeeded Fulcher in 11 59. He contributed much to the election of Amaury I. as King of Jerusalem. Died in 11 80. Amaury, t'mo're', [Lat. Amalri'cus,] of Char- TRES, a French theologian of the twelfth century. He advanced heterodox opinions on the Divine nature (which he identified with the primary matter of Aristotle) in a work called "Physion," now lost. Died about 1205. Amaury-Duval. See Duval. Amaya, §.-mi'i, a Spanish painter, a pupil of Vin- cenzo Carducci, lived about 1682. Amaya or Amaia, (Francisco,) a noted Spanish jurisconsult of the seventeenth century, born at Ante- quera. He published " Observationes Juris," (1625,) and other works. Am-a-zi'ah, [Heb. rrvrDJ^j] a king of Judah, who as- cended the throne 849 B.C. He was killed by a con- spiracy, S20 B.C. (See II. Kings xiv, ; II. Chronicles xxv.) Am'a-zpns, [Gr. 'Afia^oveg; Lat. Amaz'ones,] the name of a semi-fabulous race of female warriors, sup- posed to have lived originally on the Thermodon in Pontus, and to have made conquests in Asia Minor and Thrace. During the Trojan war, led by their queen, Pen- thisile'a, they fought against the Greeks. The battles of the Amazons were favourite subjects of the ancient Greek artists. See "Encyclopaedia Britannica." Amberger, Sm'beRG'er, (Christoph,) a celebrated German painter, born at Nuremberg about 1490, is sup- posed to have been a pupil of Hans Holbein. He worked in oil, fresco, and distemper, excelled in per- spective, and designed well. The history of Joseph, in twelve pictures, is called his best work. He was patron- ized by Charles V., of whom he painted a good portrait at Augsburg in 1530. Died at Augsburg about 1570. Am-bi-ga^tus, [Fr. Ambigat, SN^be^t',] an an- cient and powerlul king of Gaul, supposed to have reigned about 600 or 650 B.C. Ambillon. See Bouchet, (Rene.) Am'bi-o-rix or Am-bi''o-rix, written also Abrio- rix and Ambriorix, a king of the Eburones, a Belgic nation, in the time of Julius Caesar. By stratagem or treachery he succeeded in destroying the army com manded by Cassar's legates Sabinus and Cotta, 54 B.C. See CtsAR, "De Bello Gallico," lib. v. Ambiveri, am-be-va'ree, (Francesco,) an Italian writer, born at Bergamo about 1592; died in 1627. Am-biv'i-us, (Lucius Turpio,) a famous Roman actor, lived about 175 B.C. Amblimont, d', d6N'ble^m6N', (Fuschemberg, fii'- shoN^baiR',) Count, a French naval ofiicer, and writer on naval tactics, was killed in battle in 1796. Ambly, d', dON^ble', (Claude Jean Antoine,) a French marquis and field-marshal, born in Champagne in 1711. He emigrated in 1792, and served in the army of the Prince of Conde, after he had been a royalist member of the States-General. Died at Hamburg in 1797. Ambodik, Sm^'bo-dik, (Ne.stor Maximovitch,) an eminent Russian physician and accoucheur, born in the province of Pultava in 1740. Died in 1812. He is said to have been the first who WTote on medical subjects in the Russian language. He practised in Saint Peters- burg, and published many translations and compilations. Amboise, (Bussy d'.) See Bussy d'Ameoise. Amboise, d', dfiN'bwSz', (Francois,) a French ad- vocate and scholar, born in Paris about 1550 ; died in 1620. He is chiefly known as the editor of the works of Abelard, (i6j6.) Amboise, d', (George,) commonly known as Car- •£ as k; 9 as j; g ^ard; g as j; G, h, k, guthiral; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; t-h as in this. (3;^= See Explanations, p. 23. ) AM BOISE o AMEILHON niNAL d'Amboise, a French statesman, born of a noble family at Chaumont-sui-Loire in 1460. He became Archbishop of Rouen in 1493, '^^'^'^ prime minister of Louis XII. of France at his accession in 1498, before which he had been his faithful partisan or friend. He displayed great talents for administration, made reforms in legislation and finance, and left the reputation of a wise and virtuous minister. He remained in power until his death in 1510. He was surnamed the "Father of the People." See Legendre, "Vie du Cardinal D'Amboise," 1726. Amboise, d', (Jacques,) [Lat. Jaco'bus Ambosia'- NUS,j a French surgeon, brother of Francois, noticed above, born near the middle of the sixteenth century. His father Jean was surgeon to Henry H., Charles IX., and Henry HI. Jacques became in 1594 rector of the university, which he restored to a flourishing condition. Died in 1606. Ambra, d', dim'bRi, (Francesco,) a distinguished Italian comic poet, born at Florence in the early part of the sixteenth century; died in 1558. His chief works are three comedies, "II Furto," in prose, (1560,) "La Cofanaria," inverse, (1561,) and "J. Eernardi," in verse, (1563-) See GiNGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." Ambrogi, im-bRo'jee, (Anton Maria,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Florence in 17 13. He was professor of rhetoric and poetry at the Collegio Romano, and en- joyed a great reputation as teacher. Died in 1788. His principal work is a translation of Virgil's works into Italian verse, (4 vols., 1758-62.) Ambrogi, degli, daFyee am-bRo'jee, (Domenico,) a skilful Italian painter of the seventeenth century, born at Bologna, was a pupil of Denis Calvart and of Fran- cesco Brizio. He painted landscapes and other works, in oil and fresco, at Bologna. He is said to have had great facility in composition. Ambrogio, im-bRo^jo, (Giovanni,) a Florentine painter and sculptor, who flourished in the fourteenth century. Ambrogio or Ambrosio, Sm-bRo'se-o, (Teseo,) a distinguished Italian Oriental scholar, born at Pavi'a in 1469, became a regular canon of San Giovanni di Late- rano at Rome. He was professor of Syriac and Chal- dee at Bologna. His principal work is an " Introduc- tion to the Chaldee, Syriac, Armenian, and ten other Languages," (1539.) Died in 1540. See TiRABOSCHi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Ambroise de Lombez, SN'bRwIz' deh l^N'ba'', or de La Peirie, (deh It pa're^) a French devotional Vv-riter, born at Lombez in 1708; died in 1778. Ambrose, Saint, sent Im^broz, [Lat. Sanc'tus Am- BRo'sius ; Fr. Saint-Ambroise, sS.N't6N''bRwaz',] one of the Latin Fathers, was born in Gaul, at Treves, it is supposed, about 340 a.d. His father, a Roman noble, was then praetorian prefect of Gaul. Ambrose was Gov- ernor of Liguria (a province of which Milan was the capital) in 374, when Auxentius, the Arian archbishop of Milan, died. In the attempt to elect a successor, the contest between the Catholics and the Arians was very fierce, and the presence of the governor was necessary to appease the tumult. He addressed them with such eloquence and power that the assembled people declared, w^ith one voice, " Ambrose shall be bishop." He accepted the office with great reluctance, but afterwards fulfilled its duties with unequalled ability, zeal, and disinterested- ness. He sided with the Catholics, and used all his ef- forts and influence for the suppression of Arianism. In 390 the emperor Theodosius, incensed at the insolent disobedience of some of the people of Thessalonica, or- dered an indiscriminate massacre of all the inhabitants. Ambrose was greatly shocked at this crime ; and when, shortly after, the emperor was about to enter the church at Milan, the archbishop sternly forbade him. Theodosius submitted, and, besides undergoing various other humili- ations, was at last obliged to perform public penance. Ambrose died in 397. He left, besides other works, a treatise "De Officiis," on the duties of Christian minis- ters, which was highly esteemed, and expositions of Scripture. He was the author of a method of singing known as the "Ambrosian Chant." "His Letters," says Villemain, "evince a man who, amidst the turbulence and instability of the empire, never had a foible nor stain on his character, whose mag- nanimity was adequate to all trials, and who in a more auspicious period would have placed himself by his writings in the rank of the first orators and the most noble geniuses." See Paulinus, "Vita Ambrosii ;" Godefroi Hermant, "Vie de Saint- Ambroise," 167S ; J. P. Silbert, " Leben des heiligen Am brosiiis," 1841 ; Baronius, "Annales;" " Saint-Ambroise ; sa Vie ei extraitsde ses ecrits," Lille, 1852; " Nouvelle Biographic Genera!e ;" " Encyclopaidia Britannica ;" Villemain, "Saint-Ambroise," Paris, Svo, 1852. Am^'brose, (Isaac,) an English nonconformist min- ister and writer, who cUed in 1664. Ambrosini, im-bRo-see^'nee, (Bartolommeo,) a Bo- lognese physician and writer on botany, born in 1588. He wrote several botanical and medical treatises, and edited four volumes of the works of Aldrovandus on reptiles, quadrupeds, etc. Died in 1657. Ambrosini, (Giacinto,) a botanist, born in 1605, was a brother of the preceding, whom he succeeded as professor of botany at Bologna in 1657. He published the first volume of a botanical dictionary, entitled "Phy- tologia," etc., (1666.) Died in 1672. Ambrosius, am-bro''she-us, (Aurelia'nus,) a British chieftain, who lived in the fifth century, was a rival and the successor of Prince Vortigern, whom he defeated about 466. According to tradition, he fought with suc- cess against the Saxon invaders under Hengist about 485 A.D. See Palsgrave, "Rise and Progress of the English Common- wealtli;" Beda, "Chronicon." Ambrosius of Camaldolt, (kii-mai-do'lee,) [Fr. Ambroise le Camaldule, SN'bRwiz'leh ki'mlKduK ; Lat. Ambro'sius Camaldulen'sis,] an Italian monk, born in the Romagna in 1378, became general of his order in 143 1. Among his-AVorks is an account of an' ofiicial visitation of nunneries and monasteries, entitled " Hodceporicon." Died in 1439. Ambrosius or Ambrose, Archbishop of Moscow, distinguished for his learning, was born in 1 708. Having removed an image of the Virgin, to which the people had resorted for protection from the plague, he was charged with sacrilege, and massacred by a mob, in 1 771. Ambrozy, am-bRo'ze, (Wenzel Bernhard,) [Ger. pron. \^§nt'sel beRn''haRt ^m-bRot'se,] a Bohemian his- torical painter, born in 1723 ; died in 1806. Ambiihl or Ambuehl, im'biil, (Johann Ludvv^ig,) a German school-teacher and poet, born in Switzerland, in the canton of Saint Gall, in 1750. He wrote novels and historical dramas, which were once popular, and among which was one entitled " Wilhelm Tell." Died in 1800. Amedee. See Amadeus. Ameen- (Amiii- or Amyn-) Ahmed-er-R^zee, a-meen' aii^med-er-r5.'zee, written also -Alimed-el- Razy, (or -al-Razi,) a Persian geographer, who lived about the close of the seventeenth century. Ameil, t'maF or t'ma'ye, ( Auguste,) Baron, a French general, born in Paris in 1775. He distinguished him- self at the capture of Munich in 1804, and was wounded at Jena in 1S06. In 181 2 he served in Russia, and ob- tained the rank of general of brigade. He entered the service of Louis xVlII. in 1814, changed sides twice or oftener during the Hundred Days, and led a corps of Napoleon's cavalry at Waterloo in 181 5. Died in exile in 1822. Ameilhon, t'ma'ldN', (Hubert Pascal,) a distin- guished French scholar, born in Paris in 1730. He wrote a "History of the Commerce and Navigation of the Ancient Egyptians," (1766,) which caused him to be chosen a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. Having become a partisan of the Revolution, he was elected a member of the Commission of Monuments in 1793. He is said to have preserved from destruction 800,000 volumes which belonged to various libraries and had been confiscated. Ameilhon was librarian of the Arsenal from 1797 until 1811. He contributed many ar- ticles to the "Journal des Savants" and the "Journal de a, )", 0, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obsairc; fdr, fill, f^t; met; nSt; good; moon; * AMEINOCLES 1 1 1 JMES Verdun," and some valuable antiquarian treatises to the Memoirs of the Institute. Died in Paris in 1811. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire;" Dacier, "Notice sur la Vie et )es Ouvrages d'Ameiihon." A-mei'no-cles, ['A^ueam/T/r,] a Corinthian ship- builder, who lived about 700 B.C. A-meip''si-as, or A-mip'si-as, {'AjieLipLag,'] a comic poet of Athens in the time of Aristophanes, over whom he won the first prize in a dramatic contest, with his Ktjuaarac, 414 B.C. Amel, a^mel, (Hans,) an architect who lived in the first naif of the fifteenth century. He designed the fa9ade and steeple of Antwerp Cathedral. Am'el-gard^ [Lat. Amelgar^'dus,] a Flemish histo- rian, who lived in the fifteenth century. He wrote Latin histories of the reigns of Charles VH. and Louis XI. Amelia or Amelie of Germany. See Amalie. A-me'li-a, (or a-meeKya,) an English princess, daugh- ter of George III., was born in 1783. Her character is highly commended. Died in 1810. Ameliii, d', dtm'l^N', (Jean,) the earliest translator of Livy into the French language, was an officer in the army, and lived in the time of Henry II. He i)ublished a version of the "Third Decade" in 1559. Ameliiie, tm'len'', (Claude,) a French priest, born in Paris in 1624, wrote on the Will, (1684.) Died in 1708. A-me'li-us or A-me'ri-iis, an Eclectic philosopher, who was born in Italy and flourished in the last half of the third century. He was a disciple of Plotinus. His works have not come down to us. A-me'li-us, (Martin,) a distinguished professor of jurisprudence in the University of Freyburg, in Baden, was born in 1526. He contributed greatly to the in- troduction of the Protestant religion into Baden about 1556, and was chancellor of Baden for about thirty years. Died about 1590. Amelot de la Houssaye, initio' deh li hoo'sa', (Abraham Nicolas,) a French historical writer and translator, born at Orleans in 1634. He was secretary of embassy at Venice about 1670, and published a "His- tory of the Government of Venice," (3 vols., 1705,) which had a high reputation. Among his other works are " Historical, Political, Critical, and Literary Me- moirs," (2 vols., 1722.) He translated the "Prince" of Macchiavelli, (1683,) and the first six books of the "An- nals" of Tacitus, (10 vols., 1690,) to which he added notes, historical and political. The last six volumes were translated by Bruys. " His translations with politi- cal notes," says Voltaire, " and his histories are very good ; his memoirs, very faulty. He is the first writer who has made the government of Venice known." Died in Paris in 1706. See MoRERi, " Dictiomiaire historique ;" Querard, "La France Litteraire." Amelotte or Amelote, tm'lot', (Denys,) a French priest and ecclesiastical writer, born at Saintes in 1606; died in 1678. He made a version of the New Testa- ment which was circulated by Louis XIV. and often re- printed. Amelunghi, a-ma-loon^gee, (Girolamo,) a burlesque poet of Pisa in the sixteenth century. He wrote a poem called " The War of the Giants," (" La Gigantea," 1566,) one of the first productions of a kind in which the Italians have excelled. Amendola, ^-mgnMo-ia, (Ferrante.) a historical painter of Naples, born in 1664 ; died in 1 724. His chief merit was in colouring. Pie failed in his eftort to imitate Luca Giordano. Am-e-no'phis or Am-me-no/phis, [Gr. 'Afievudt^,] the name of several of the early kings of Egypt. _ Ameiiophis I., a powerful king of Egypt of the eighteenth dynasty, ascended the throne about 1778 B.C. Amenophis II. of Egypt, is reckoned as the seventh Pharaoh of the eighteenth dynasty. He is identified by some authorities with the Memnon of the Greeks, whose statue was one of the seven wonders of the world. Amenophis III., a famous king of Egypt, a grand- son of the preceding, is supposed to have built the pa- lace or temple of Luxor. His conquests are recorded on the obelisk which now stands near the Louvre in Paris. Amenta, d-mgn'ta, (Niccol6,) an Italian poet, law- yer, and philologist, born at Naples in 1659. He com- posed popular comedies, among which are " Con- stanza," " II Forca," " La Fante," and " La Carlotta." His observations on the Italian language, " Delia Lin- gua nobile d'ltalia," (1723,) are commended. He wrote the Tuscan language with purity. Died in 17 19. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Amerbach, S.^ner-bS.K', (Basil,) a jurist, born at Bale in 1534, was a son of Boniface, noticed below, whom he succeeded as professor. He left some manuscript works on law. Died in 1591. Amerbach, (Boniface,) an eminent scholar, born at Bale in 1495, was a son of Johann, noticed below. Pie taught civil law at the University of Bale for twenty years, and was an intimate friend of Erasmus, who ap- pointed him his residuary legatee. He wrote but little. With the aid of his brothers Basil and Bruno, he cor- rected an edition of Saint Jerome, (1516-26.) Died in 1562. His Latin style was remarkalDly good. See Melchior Adam, "Vitas Germanorum Jurisconsultorum." Amerbach, a^mer-b^K^, (Johann,) an eminent Ger- man printer, born in Suabia. He settled at Bale about 1480. His principal publications are editions of Saint Ambrose, and of Saint Augustine, (1506,) which was printed in a new kind of type, called Saint Augustin. Died about 1 520. Amerbach, (Vitus.) See Amerpach. Amerighi. See Caravaggio. Amerigo Vespucci or Americus Vespuciiis. See Vespucci. Amerling, i'mer-ling^, (Friedrich,) a German painter of high reputation, born in Vienna in 1803. He studied with Horace Vernet in Paris, and visited Italy. He is considered to be eminently successful in portraits. Among his works are " Dido deserted by /lineas," " Moses in the Desert," and a portrait of the emperor Francis I. Amerpach, a^mer-pSK^, (Vitus or Veit,) [Lat Vi'- TUS Amfrpa'chius,] a distinguished German scholar, born at Wendingen, in Bavaria, about the close of the fifteenth century, studied at Wittenberg, and was for several years professor of philosophy at Ingolstadt. He wrote, besides other Latin works, one " On the Soul," ("De Anima," 1542,) and "Six Books of Natural Phi- losophy," (1548.) He also translated some of the speeches of Demosthenes and Isocrates, and wrote com- mentaries on Cicero and on Horace's "Art of Poetry." Died in 1557. Amersfoordt, i'mers-foRt', or Amersvoordt, (Ja- cob.) an eminent Oriental scholar, born at Amsterdam in 1786; died in 1824. He left "A Discourse on the Popularity of the Christian Religion, or its Adaptation to the Popular Mind," ("Oratio de Religionis Christianaj Popularitate," 1818.) See J. W. de Crane, "Vie d' Amersvoordt," 1824, Amersfoort, van, vtn a'mers-foRt^ (Evert,) a Dutch painter, lived in the first part of the seventeenth century. Ames, amz, (Edward,) a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, born at Athens, in Ohio, in 1806. He was educated at the Ohio University, licensed lo preach in 1830, and made a bishop in 1852. Since 1861 he has resided at Baltimore. Ames, (Fisher,) a celebrated American orator and statesman, born in Dedham, Massachusetts, on the 9th of April, 1758. His father and grandfather were physi- cians. The former died when Fisher was only six years old. Plis mother, perceiving the promise of her son, re- solved to give him a classical education, and at the age of twelve he was sent to Plarvard College. At the pre- liminary examination he was pronounced a boy of un- common attainments. He graduated in 1774, but, in consequence of his extreme youth and the straitened circumstances of his family, it was several years before he entered upon his professional studies, the meantime being devoted to teaching and reading the ancient and modern classics. He became a student at law in the office of William Tudor of Boston, and commenced practice in his native town in 1781. Although too young to take an active part in the Revolutionary contest, he watched its progress with deep interest € as k; 9 as s; g Aard; g as J; c, h, k. guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^^See Explanations, x^. 23,) AMES 112 AMICO He acciuired distinction by several political essays which were published in the newspapers under the sig- nature of Brutus and Camillus, and which gave proof of practical wisdom, as well as literary merit, of a higli or- der. They procured his election to the convention which met in Massachusetts in i/SSto ratify the Federal Con- stitution. In this convention he made, on the subject of biennial elections, a speech characterized by extraordi- nary eloquence and power. As a member of the legisla- ture of Massachusetts, he was the principal promoter of a law which placed the common-school system of that State upon an improved basis. Having joined the Fed- eral party, he was elected a member of Congress in 1789 by the voters of his native district, which included Bos- ton. He continued to serve in Congress for eight years, during which he constantly supported the administration of Washington and took a prominent part in the de- bates on all important questions. " He was," says Griswold, "the leader of the Federal party in the House of Representatives during the ad- ministration of Washington, and was applauded for his eloquence and learning, the solidity of his judgment, and the unsullied purity of his public and private conduct." On the 2Sth of April, 1796, he supported Jay's treaty with Great Britain in an eloquent and powerful speech, which has been preserved. At the close of this speech, a member of the opposition moved to postpone the sub- ject, on the ground that the House was in a state of too great excitement to come to a just decision. The health of Ames had been for some time very delicate and de- clining, and on the retirement of Washington, about the end of 1796, he returned to his farm in Dedham. He had married in 1792 Frances Worthington, of Springfield. In 1798 he wrote " Laocoon " and other essays, to arouse the Federalists to a more vigorous opposition to the aggressions of France. On the death of Washington, December, 1799, he pronounced his eulogy before the legislature of Massachusetts. He was elected president of Harvard College in 1804, but he declined the honour, chiefly on account of ill health. He died on the 4th of July, 1808, leaving several sons, of whom one, Nathan- iel, acquired some reputation as an author. In the preparation of his speeches. Fisher Ames did little more, it is said, than draw the outlines, depending for the language, illustrations, and modes of appeal, upon his mental resources at the time of speaking. He was equally distinguished for his delicate wit and brilliant imagination ; and his colloquial gifts were considered by his acquaintances not less remarkable than his powers as an orator. His disposition was amiable, and his character without reproach. In person he was of me- dium height and well proportioned. His letters and other writings were published by his son, Seth Ames, in 2 vols., 1854. See Dr. J. T. Kirkland's "Memoir of F. Ames," prefixed to his Works, 1854; Griswold's "Prose Writers of America;" also, Parker's "Golden Age of American Oratory," Boston, 1857. Ames, amz, (Joseph,) a British naval officer, born in 1619, distinguished himself in a battle against the Dutch in July, 1653. Died in 1695. Ames, (Joseph,) F.R.S., an English antiquary, born at Yarmouth in 1689. In 1749 he published "Typo- graphical Antiquities : being an Historical Account of Printing in England, with some Memoirs of our Ancient Printers, and a Register of the Books printed by them." An improved edition was published by W. Herbert in 3 vols., 1785-90; and another by Dr. T. F. Dibdin in 1S10-19. Died in 1759. See GdUGH, " Memoirs of Joseph Ames," prefixed to the "Typo- graphical Antiquities." Ames, (Nathan P.,) an American machinist and manufacturer of fire-arms, ordnance, and cutlery, born in 1803. He owned extensive works at Chicopee Falls and Cabotville, Massachusetts, and was distinguished as an inventor. Died in 1847. Ames, (Nathaniel,) a son of Fisher Ames, was the author of several sea-sketches. Died in 1835. Ames, (William,) D.D., a learned English Puritan divine, born in Norfolk county in 1576. He emigrated to Holland about 1612, and was professor of theology at Franeker for twelve years. He attended the Synod of Dort in 1618. Among his works are "Marrow of Theo- logy," ("Medulla Theologiae," 1623,) and a book on practical theology, entitled "On the Conscience and its Authority," ("l3e Conscientia et ejus Jure vel Casi- bus," 1630,) which had a high reputation e ven in foreign countries. Died at Rotterdam in 1633. See Brook's "Lives of the Puritans." Amestris. See Ama.stkis. Amfreville, d', d6NT'r-v^K, Marquis, a brave French naval officer, commanded the vanguard at the battle of La Hogue in 1692. He obtained the rank of lieutenant- general of the naval armies, and died at an advanced age. Two of his brothers were also distinguished naval captains. See QuiNCY, " Histoire militaire de Louis le Grand." Amherst, am^erst, (Jeffery or Jeffrey,) usually called Lord Amherst, an English general, born at River- head, in Kent, in January, 171 7. He entered the army in 1 73 1, was aide-de-camp to Lord Ligonier at Fontenoy in 1 741, and became a colonel in 1756. Having ob- tained the rank of major-general in 1758, he commanded at the capture of Cape Breton, and took Ticonderoga from the French in 1759. He performed an imix)rtant part in the conquest of Canada in 1760, (see Wolfe, General,) after which he was commander-in-chief of the armies in America until 1763, when he was ap- pointed Governor of Virginia. He was made lieutenant- general of the ordnance in 1772, received the title of Baron Amherst in 1776, and became commander-in-chief of the English army in 1778. This command was taken from him in 1782, and restored in 1793. He was super- seded as commander-in-chief by the Duke of York in 1795, and was made a field-marshal in 1796. Died in 1797. See "Gentleman's Magazine," September, 1797. Amherst, (William Pitt,) Lord, an English diplo-. matist, born in 1773, was a nephew and heir of the pre- ceding. He was sent as ambassador extraordinary to China in 1816, and arrived at Pekin, but, as he refused to submit to the degrading ceremonies which were the necessary conditions of admission to the Chinese court, his mission was so far a failure. An account of his journey to China was published by Clarke Abel. He was appointed Governor-General of India in 1823, re- ceived the title of earl in 1826, and was recalled to Eng. land the same year. Died in 1857. Amhurst, am'ilrst, (Nicholas,) an English political and satirical writer, born at Marden, Kent, about 1702. Having been expelled from a college of Oxford in 1 719, he published, in 1721, a witty satire against that univer- sity, in a periodical entitled "Tcrrae Filius." Pie after- wards gained distinction as editor of "The Craftsman," a weekly political paper, (commenced about 1730,) which had a very large circulation, (ten or twelve thousand copies,) and in which Lord Bolingbroke and Pulteney were his coadjutors. He was neglected by his political friends when they obtained power in 1742, and died in the same year. See Gibber, "Lives of the Poets." Amici, a-mee'chee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian optician, astronomer, and natural philosopher, born at Modena in 1784. He acquired skill in the construction of optical instruments, especially of mirrors for tele- scopes and lenses for microscopes. About 1827 he pro- duced a dioptric or achromatic microscope which bears his name and is highly esteemed. At the death of L. Pons, (1835,) Amici was appointed director of the Obser- vatory of Florence, \Yhere he gained a high reputation as an observer. He wrote memoirs on double stars, on the diameter of the sun, etc. Died in 1863. Amici, (Tommaso,) an Italian sculptor of the fifteenth century, was living in 1495. Amico, a-mee'ko, (Antonino,) a Sicilian priest, historiographer to Philip IV. of Spain. Died in 1641. He wrote several works on the history and antiquities of Sicily. Amico, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian Jesuit, born in Lucania in 1562, was professor of philosophy at Naples. He wrote a "Commentary on Aristotle," (7 vols., 1623- 48.) Died in 1649. a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, \\, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; I3,r, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; JMICO "3 AMMEN Amico, (Bernardino,) an Italian monk, born at Galiipoli, near Taranto, passed several years at Jerusa- lem from 1596 to about 1600. He published at Rome, in 1609, descriptions and designs of sacred buildings in the Holy Land, entitled " Trattato delle Piante ed im- magini ciei sacri Edifici," etc. The designs were en- graved by Callot. Amico or A-mi'cus, (Diomede,) an Italian medical writer, born at Piacenza, lived about 1600. Amico, (Faustino,) an Italian poet, born at Bassano in 1524. He gave promise of extraordinary talents, but died prematurely in 1558. Among his works is a beau- tiful Latin epistle to his friend Alessandro Campesano, (1564.) He wrote also Italian verses. Amico, (Francesco,) an Italian Jesuit and writer on theology, born at Cosenza in 1578; died in 1651. Amico, (Lorenzo,) an Italian monk and writer on philology and other subjects, born at Milazzo in 1633. Amico, (Luigi,) an Italian diplomatist, born at Asti in 1757 ; died in 1832. Amico, (ViTO Maria,) a learned Sicilian historian and antiquary, born at Catania in 1693. He was for some time professor of philosophy at Catania, He pub- lished "Sicilia Sacra," (1733,) and "Catana Illustrata," (4 vols., 1 741.) Died in 1762. Amiconi, i-me-ko'nee, or Amigoni, J-me-go'nee, (OttaViO,) an Italian painter, born at Brescia in 1605; died in 1661. Amidano, i-me-di'no,(PoMPONio,) an Italian painter, born at Parma in the sixteenth century, was one of the most eminent pupils of Parmegiano. His chief work is an altar-piece in the church of the Madonna del Quar- tiere at Parma, which is highly praised by Lanzi. Died, it is supposed, about 1600. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Amigoni, d-me-go'nee, or Amiconi, S-me-ko'nee, (Jacofo,) an Italian historical painter, whose success appears to have been greater than his merit, was born in Venice in 1675. worked in London about ten years, (1729-39,) during which he painted many portraits. His style was admired by the purchasers of pictures more than by the critics. Among his works is the His- tory of Judith. He was court painter at Madrid when he died in 1752. See Lanzi, "'History of Painting in Italy." Amik, a'inik or i'meek', (of Bokhara,) a Persian poet of the twelfth century. Amilcar. See Hamilcar. Amin-Ahmed-el-Razy, (or -al-Razi.) See Ameen- Ahmed-er-Razee. Amiot or Amyot, t'me-o', (Joseph,) a French Jesuit and missionary, born at Toulon in 17 18. He went to China in 1750, and was invited by the emperor to Pekin, where he remained forty-three years and made great proficiency in the Chinese language. No other writer of the eighteenth century has thrown so much light on the manners and history of the Chinese. He translated several Chinese works, wrote a "Letter on the Genius of the Chinese Language," (1773,) ^'^^l compiled a Manchoo-Tartar-French Dictionary, (3 vols., Paris, 1789-90,) the first ever published. He was author of a large part of the collection entitled " Memoirs con- cerning the History, Sciences, Arts, and Customs of the Chinese," (16 vols., 1 776-1 814.) A life of Confucius by Amiot is included in these Memoirs. Died at Pekin in 1794. See " Lettresedifiantesetcurieuses,"xxviii. 158 ; Staunton, " Mis- cellaneous Notices relating to China;" A. Remusat, "Recherches sur les Langues Tartares;" Ersch und Gkuber, "Allgemeine En- :yklopaedie." Amipsias. See Ameipsias. Am'leth or Ham'leth, an ancient and perhaps fabu- lous prince of Jutland, whose story, as recorded by Saxo Grammaticus, is the foundation of Shakspeare's tragedy of " Ilamlet." He is supposed to have lived before the Christian era. Amling, Sm'ling, (Karl Gustav,) a celebrated Ger- man designer and engraver, born at Nuremberg about '650. He worked at Munich, was patronized by the elector Maximilian II., and excelled in portraits. He rfiso engraved historical paintings, but with less success. He was reputed the best German engraver of his time. Died in 1701. Ammeeus, Jm-ma'us, or Van Amm, vtn Sm, (DoMi NIC,) a Dutch jurist, born at Lceuwarden in 1579, became professor of law at Jena in 1602. He wrote an import- ant work on public or constitutional law, "Discursus de Jure publico," (1617-23.) Died in 1637. Amman, written also Ammann, im'min, (Johann,) a German botanist and physician, born at Schaffhausen in 1707, graduated in medicine at Leyden in 1729. In 1733 he became professor of botany at Saint Petersburg, where he died in 1741 or 1742, leaving the first volume of an unfinished work on the plants of Russia, (1739.) See Sprengel, "Geschichte des Botanik." Amman, (Johann Conrad,) a physician, native ot Schaffliausen, who settled in Holland, where he gained a great and deserved reputation for teaching the deaf and dumb to speak. He wrote " Surdus Loquens," (1692.) Died probably about 1725. Amman, (Johann Jacob,) a German surgeon, born at a little village on Lake Zurich in 1586. He published a book of Travels in the Levant, (3 vols., 1618.) Died at Zurich in 1658. Amman or Ammon, drn'mon, (Jost, or Justus,) a famous Swiss engraver and designer, born at Zurich about 1535. He became a citizen of Nuremberg about 1 560, and probably passed there the rest of his life, of which little is known. He illustrated many books with his designs, which are exceedingly numerous. He en- graved on wood and copper, and excelled in the art of grouping figures. His " Portraits of the Kings of France from Pharamond to Henry HI." appeared in 1576. His wood-cuts are better than his copper-plates. Died in 1591. See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes;" Strutt, "Dic- tionary of Engravers." Amman or Ammann, (Paul,) an eminent German botanist and physician, born at Breslau in 1634. He obtained a chair of botany at Leipsic in 1674, and a chaii of physiology in 1682. He was addicted to paradox, and was a severe critic. Among his works may be mentioned his "Treatment o*" Deadly Wounds," (" Praxis Vulnerum lethalium," 1690 ;) and "Natural Character of Plants," ("Character naturalis Plantarum," 1676.) Died in 1691. See Haller, "Bibliotheca Botanica." Ammanati, am-ma-n3,'tee, written also Ammanato andAmmanate, (Bartolommeo,) a distinguished Ital- ian sculptor and architect, born at Florence in 151 1, was a puj)il of Bandinelli and Sansovino. He imitated Michael Angelo in sculpture. He worked in Rome for Pope Julius III., adorned the Capitol with sculptures, and designed the court and fa9ade of the Roman College. At Florence he constructed the noble bridge called Ponte della Trinita, (which is still standing,) finished the Pitti Palace, and erected several monuments. Among his chief works are three statues which adorn the tomb of Sannazar at Naples, and a colossal statue of Neptune at Florence. Died about 1590. He left a valuable work on public buildings, etc., entitled "The City," ("La Citta.") His wife, Laura Battiferri, was celebrated as a poetess. See Vasari, " Uomini illustri d'ltalia ;" Cicognara, " Storia di Scuhura." Ammanati, Cardinal. See Piccolominl Ammanati, (Giovanni,) an able Italian sculptor, worked at Orvieto from 133 1 to 1355. Ammanati, (Laura Battiferri — bit-te-fgr'ree,) a distinguished Italian poetess, born at Urbino about 1520. She was married in 1550 to B. Ammanati, above noticed. Died in 1589. Ammann. See Amman. Ammar-Ibn-Yisir, Sm-maR' ib'n yi'sir, a famous Arab and companion of Mohammed. He took part in the battle of the Camel, 658 a.d., and was killed at the battle of Sefayn, where he commanded the cavalry for Alee. Am'men, (Jacob,) an American general, born in Vir- ginia, graduated at West Point in 1831. He was after- wards professor of mathematics in several colleges in different parts of the United States. He was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers about July, 1862. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jii^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 114 AMONTONS Am-nii-3 nus, ['A/z//iawf,] a Greek poet, lived about 100-130 A.D.. and wrote epigrams, many of which are found in the Greek Anthology. Am-mi-a'nus Mar-cel-li'nus, [Fr. Ammien Mar- CELLIN, a'me'AN' mSR's.yiaN',] a Roman historian of great merit, born of a Greek family at Antioch in the early part of the fourth century. He entered the army in his youth, took part in a campaign in the East in 350 A.D., and afterwards accompanied Julian in an expedition against Persia. Having retired from the army, he be- came a resident of Rome, where he wrote his history of the Roman Empire, in thirty-one books, of which the first thirteen are lost. The whole work comprised the period from 96 A.D. to 378 a.d. "His fidelity and impartiality are highly commended by Gibbon and other critics. His style, however, is much inferior to the classic models of Roman prose. He died, it is sup- posed, about 395 a.d. It has been disputed whether he was a Christian or a heathen; but there would seem to be little ground for doubting that he was a pagan. See Claude Chifflet, " De Ammiani Marcellini Vita ;" Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap, xxiii. Ammien Marcellin. See Ammianus Marcelli- NUS. Ammirato, tm-me-r3.'to, (Scipione,) an Italian his- torian, born at Lecce, in Naples, in 1531. After various adventures in Venice, Rome, and Naples, he settled at Florence in 1569, and found a patron in the Grand Duke Cosmo, who commissioned him to write the his- tory of Florence. He became a canon in the cathedral of Florence in 1595, and wrote a large number of works, among which is a "Discourse on Cornelius Tacitus," (1594.) His most important work is a "History of Florence," (" Istorie Fiorentine," 1st vol., 1600 ; 2d vol., 1641,) which is the most accurate and complete that has been written on that subject. The Academy Delia Crusca styled him "the modern Livy." Died at Florence in 1601. See DoMENico de Angelis, "Vita di Scipione Ammirato," 1706; TiRABoscHi, "Storiadella Letteratura Italiana." Am'mon [Gr. "A/z/l/wj^] or Hani'mon, an ancient hea- then deity, worshipped in Libya, Egypt, Greece, etc., was called Zeus Ammon by the Greeks, and Juj^iter Amnion bv the Romans. There was a famous temj)le of Ammon at Thebes in E'j;ypt, and another in the oasis of Siwah, in the Libyan Desert. He was represented iii the form of a ram, or as a human being with a ram's head. Ammcii, dm''ni()n, (Cli-MENI',) a German engraver, horn at Frankfort, lived about the middle of the seven- teenth century. Ammon, (Karl Wilhelm,) a Prussian writer on horses, born at Trakehnen, Prussian Lithuania, in 1777. He published a "Natural History of the Horse," (1815,) and a " Complete Manual of Practical Veterinary Medi- cine," (" Vollstandiges Handbuch der praktischen Pfer- dearzeneikunst," 2 vols., 1804-7.) Ammon, von, fon ^m'mon, (Christoph Friedrich,) a German Protestant theologian and popular pulpit ora- tor of wide reputation, was born at Baireuth in 1766. He was professor of theology at Gottingen from 1794 to 1804, in which year he obtained a chair at Erlangen. He removed to Dresden in 1813, and became court preacher to the King of Saxony. He was one of the first apos- tles of what is called Rationalism in German theology. His principal work is " Development of Christianity into the Universal Religion," (" Fortbildung des Christen- thums zur Weltreligion," 4 vols., 1833-40.) Among his numerous works is a "Plan (Entwurf) of a pure Biblical Theology," (3 vols., 1802.) Died in 1820. See Jui.ius Pabst, " Lebens- und Charakterumrisse C. F. von Amnions," Dresden, 1850; Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon;" and "Ch. F. Ammon nach Leben, Ansichten und Wirken," Leipzig, 1850. Ammon or Ammen, von, (Frfedrich August,) a German physician, son of the preceding, was born at Gottingen in 1799. He became ]Drofessor in the medical academy of Dresden in 1829, and royal physician, (Leib- arzt.) He published, besides other works, "Observa- tions on Diseases of the Eye," (3 vols., 1838-41.) Died in i86r. Am-mo'nas or Amoun, i-moon', [Gr. 'Afi/nuvac or 'Auoi'v,] the founder of a celebrated monastic order in Egypt. Died about 320 a.d. Ammonio, dm-mo'ne-o, written also Ammon, (An- drea,) [Lat. An'dreas Ammo'nius,] a distinguished Italian scliolar, born at Lucca in 1477, was an intimate friend of Erasmus. He became about 15 13 Latin sec- retary to Henry VIII. of England, whose victory at Guinegate he celebrated in a Latin poem called " Pane- gyricus," which was praised by Erasmus. He afterwards served Pope LeoX. as nuncio to the court of Henry VIIL, and died in London in 15 17. All his Latin poems are lost, except one eclogue. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Am-mo'ni-us, [Gr. 'AfifMovtog.] There were among the ancients a number of eminent persons of this name : the following are perhaps most worthy of notice : Ammonius, a Greek grammarian, who lived at Alex- andria about 50 B.C., and wrote commentaries on Homer and Aristophanes. Ammonius, a Peripatetic philosopher who taught at Athens or Delphi in the latter half of the first century. He was a preceptor of Plutarch, and endeavoured to reconcile the doctrines of Plato and Aristotle. Plutarch wrote a life of him, which is not extant. Ammonius, a Christian philosopher, who has been confounded with Ammonius Saccas, lived at Alexandria in the third century of our era. He is the reputed author of a Harmony of the Gospels. Ammonius, a Greek grammarian, was priest of a temple in Alexandria about 380 A.D. He wrote a Dic- tionary of Greek Synonyms, which has been often printed. Ammonius surnamed Lithot'omus, a celebrated surgeon of Alexandria, supposed to have lived in the third century B.C. He was the first who contrived a method of breaking the calculus in the bladder when it was too large to be extracted through the opening made by incision ; from which improvement in lithotomy he received his surname. Ammonius surnamed Sac'cas, (because in early life he was a porter, and earned a livelihood by carrying sacks,) the founder of that school of Eclectic philosophy commonly known as New Platonism, was a native of Alexandria, in Egypt, where he died 241 A.D. He was the son of Christian parents, but preferred the heathen religion. Among his numerous disciples were Origen, Lc nginus, and Plotinus. He left no writings, and ex- acted from his disciples a promise not to divulge the mysteries which he taught. See RiTTER, "History of Philosophy;" Dehaijt, " Essai his- torique sur la Vie d'Ammonius Saccas," 1836. Ammonius, son of Hermias, a Greek philosopher, born at Alexandria, lived at Athens in the last half of the fifth century after Christ. He wrote valuable com- mentaries on Aristotle and Porphyry, and belonged to the school of New Platonists. Am'non, a son of David, King of the Jews, was slain by Absalom. (See II. Samuel xiii.) Amo, d'mo, (Antony William,) a learned negro, born in Guinea about 1702. He studied at Halle, be- came a classical scholar, and published a work " On the Law of the Moors," ("De Jure Maurorum," 1729.) He was afterwards a councillor of state at the court of Ber- lin. On the death of his patron, the Duke of Brunswick, he returned to Africa. He was seen by H. Gallaudet at Axoom, (Axum,) in Abyssinia, in 1753. See Gregoire, "De la Litterature des Negres." Amclon, t'moHiN'', or Amnion, t'mii^l6N', a French ecclesiastic, who became Archbishop of Lyons in 841 A.D. He wrote a treatise against the Jews. Died in 852. Am-o-me'tus, ['Aficj/irjToc,] an ancient Greek author, wrote an account of a voyage on the Nile, of which some fragments are extant. Anion, a'mon, a son of Manasseh, King jf Judah, suc- ceeded to the throne of his father, and cvas killed by his own servants, who conspired against him. (See 11. Kings xxi. 19-23 ; also II. Chronicles xxxiii. 21-24.) Ainontons, t'm6N^t(!)N'', (Guillaume,) an ingenious French natural philosopher and mechanician, born in Paris in 1663. He learned architecture, and *vas em- a, e, T, 0, u, y, /on^; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/iorf; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir fill, fit; nigt; ndt; good; moon; AMOR AMPHIARAUS ployed on several public works. He laboured with suc- cess to improve the barometer, thermometer, and hy- grometer, and wrote a treatise on those instruments, (1695.) "He was the real inventor of the telegraphic art," says Biot, "as it is practised at the present day," {i.e. 181 1.) He proposed that signals should be trans- mitted from station to station by operators whose vision was aided by the telescope ; but his plan was not executed until fifty years later. Died in 1705, Amor, the Roman god of love. See Cupid. Amoretti, 3,-mo-ret'tee, (Carlo,) a meritorious Ital- ian naturalist, writer, and translator, born at Oneglia, near Genoa, in 1740 or 1741. He translated Winckel- mann's "History of Ancient Art" into Italian, (1779,) wrote an excellent biography of Leonardo da Vinci, (1784,) and became one of the keepers of the Ambrosian Library, at Milan, in 1797. He was a member of the Italian Institute. Amoretti is author of an important work on the geography and natural history of Lakes Como, Maggiore, ancl Lugano, and the adjacent districts, entitled "Journey from Milan to the Three Lakes," (" Viaggio da Milano ai tre Laghi," 1794.) He trans- lated into French the voyages of Pigafetta and Maldo- nado. Died in 1816. See LoMBARDi, "Sloria della Letteratura Italiana;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Amoretti, (Maria Peregrina,) a learned Italian lady, born at Oneglia in 1756. She wrote a work "On the Right of Dowry among the Romans," ("De Jure Dotium apud Romanos.") Died in 1787. Amoreux, S'mo'ruh', (Pierre Joseph,) a French physician and miscellaneous writer, born at Beaucaire about 1740. He wrote several works on natural history and rural economy, which were received with favour. Died in 1824. Amoros, d-mo'r6s, (Francisco,) a Spanish colonel, born at Valencia in 1769, was the first who introduced gymnastic education into France. During the reign of Joseph Bonaparte he was councillor of state, minister of police, etc. He afterwards became an exile in France, and established a gymnasium with success. In 1831 he ivas appointed director of a normal gymnasium in Paris. Died in 1843. Amorosi, S-mo-ro'see, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, born near Ascoli, lived in the first half of the eighteenth century. He painted humorous subjects, which the Italians call Bambocciate, and displayed much talent for satire. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Amort, i'moRt, (Eusebius,) a German theologian and monk, born near Tolz, in Bavaria, in 1692. He wrote a "History of Indulgences," (1735,) ^'""^ attacked prevailing superstitions in a work "On Revelations, Visions, and Apparitions," (1744.) Died in 1775. See Savioli-Corbelli, " Ehrendenkmal E. Ainorts," 1777. Am'o-ry, (Thomas,) an eccentric English writer, a zealous Unitarian, was born about 1690. He published memoirs of several ladies of Great Britain, (1755,) and is supposed to have represented his own character and experience in "The Life of John Buncle, Esq. ; contain- ing Various Observations and Reflections made in Va- rious Parts of the World," (2 vols., 1756-66.) Died in 1788. Amory, (Thomas,) a distinguished Presbyterian di- vine, born at Taunton, P2ngland, in 1700. He was or- dained in 1730, and became principal tutor of a dissent- ing academy at Taunton in 1738. In 1759 he removed to London, and in 1766 became sole pastor of the chapel at Old Jewry, where he had preached seven years as colleague of Dr. Chandler. He published, besides other works, two volumes of sermons, (1758, 1766,) and "Grove's System of Moral Philosophy, revised, cor- rected, and improved," (1749.) Died in 1774. Amos, a'mos, [Heb. DVj;*,] one of the minor He- brew prophets, lived about 800 11. c. He was a herdsman and gatherer of sycamore-fruit. His book is the third in order of position among the minor prophets, and contains several eloquent and admirable passages. Amoudrou, t'moo'dRoo', (Antoine,) a French architect, born at Dole in 1739 ; died in 1812. He built some nalaces in Warsaw. Amom-, (Saint.) See Saint-Amour. Ampach auf Griinfelden, (or Gruenfelden,) von fon am'pSK owf gRiinTerden, (Johann Georg,) a Ger- man physician, born in 1 784, wrote several veterinary treatises. Died in 1832. Am-peTi-us, (Lucius,) a Roman, known only as the author of a work called " Book of Memory," (" Liber Memorialis,") which was edited by Salmasius. It is a compendium of history, geography, etc. Ampere, SN'paiR'', (Andre Marie,) a celebrated French mathematician and natural philosopher, born at Lyons on the 20th of January, 1775, was the son of a mer- chant. He learned mathematics in early youth at home without a teacher, and eagerly read the poems of Virgil and Horace in the original. He married Julie Carron in 1799. In 1802 he attracted the public attention by a curious work " On the Mathematical Theory of Gaming." In 1805 he obtained by the favour of Delambre the place of repetitetir of analysis in the Polytechnic School, Paris. He became inspector-general of the university in 1808, professor of analysis in the Polytechnic School in 1809, and a member of the Institute in 1814. In 1820 he announced the remarkable discoveries in electro-magnetism which constitute, perhaps, his chief title to celebrity. He demonstrated the influence of a spiral wire conducting a galvanic current, in magnet- izing a needle, proved that two voltaic conductors at- tract each other when the currents have the same direc- tion and repel each other when the currents flow in opposite directions, and inferred from his experiments that the phenomena of natural magnetism depend on electrical currents which constantly pass around the earth from east to west. These results, which he ob tained by the application of the most difficult parts ot mathematical analysis, were communicated to the Acad- emy of Sciences, in several papers, in the autumn of 1820. " The vast field of physical science," says Arago, " perhaps never presented so brilliant a discovery con- ceived, verified, and completed with such rapidity." Ampere gave the name of Electro-Dynamics to this new science. In 1822 he published a '" Collection of Observations on Electro-Dynamics." His theory and discoveries in this science were more amply developed in his work entitled "Theory of Electro-Dynamic Phe- nomena deduced from Experiments only," ("Theorie des Phenomenes electro-dynamiques uniquement deduite de I'Experience," 1826.) Among his later works is a treatise on the undulatory theory of light, (" Memoire sur la Determination de la Surface courbe des Ondes lumineuses, etc.," 1828;) also, an " Essay on the Philosophy of the Sciences, or Ana- lytic Exposition of a Natural Classification of all Human Knowledge," ("Essai sur la Philosophic des Sciences, ou Exposition analytique d'une Classification naturelle de toutes les Connaissances humaines," 1834.) He wrote numerous treatises on optics, natural his- tory, etc., which were printed in the " Memoires" of the Institute, and in other journals. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died in Paris in 1836. He is said to have resembled La Fontaine in good nature, {bonhomie,) simplicity, and absence of mind. See Arago, " filoge d'Ampere ;" Sainte-Beuve et M. Littke, notice in the "Revue des Deux Mondes," February, 1837; Quete- LET, "Notice sur M. Ampere," 1836; Louis de Lomenie, " Gak- rie des Contemporains illustres." Ampere, (Jean Jacques,) a son of the preceding, was born at Lyons in August, i8co. He devoted him- self to literary pursuits, and obtained access to the select society which met at the salon of Madame Recamier. In 1830 he became an assistant or substitute of Ville- main as professor at the Sorbonne, and in 1833 suc- ceeded Andrieux as professor of French literature at the College of France. He was admitted into the Acad- emy of Inscriptions in 1842, and into the French Acad- emy in 1847. Among his works are "The Literary History of France before the Twelfth Century," (" His- toire litteraire de la France avant le douzieme Siecle," 3 vols., 1839,) and a collection of charming articles called " Litterature et Voyages," (1833.) Died in 1864. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Am-phi-a-ra'us, [Gr.'A/^^mpaof,] a famous soothsayer € as 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Vi, guttural; N, 7tasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) AMP MIGRATES ii6 AMURATH ;ind hero of Argos. He took part in the Argonautic expedition, and married Eriphyle, who, bribed by the fatal neckhvce of Harnionia, persuaded him against his will to join in the expedition of the Seven against Thebes. Tradition adds that the earth opened and swallowed him, and that he was afterwards worshipped as a hero. Am-phic'ra-tes, [Gr. 'AfKpiKpuT?]^,] an Athenian ora- tor, who flourished about 70 B.C. For some unknown cause he was banished from Athens, and went to Asia, where he died. Am-phic'ty-on, [Gr. 'Af^p'jitvcjv,] a fabulous king of Attica, was a son of Deucalion, (or, as some say, an autochthon.) He was expelled from his kingdom and succeeded by Erichthonius. He is supposed to have lived about 1490 B.C. Am-phi-lo'-ehi-us, [Gr.'A/j.(j)i2.6xiog; Fr. Amphiloque, SN'fe^lok',] a bishop of Iconium, and a zealous opponent of Arianism, was born in Cappadocia. About 383 a.d. he went to the court of the emperor Theodosius, and instigated him to issue a decree prohibiting the public assemblies of the Arians. Died about 395 a.d. His works are nearly all lost. Ani-phi'on, [Gr. 'AfKpiuv,] a Theban prince, who re- ceived a golden lyre from Mercury, and cultivated music with such success that he built the walls of Thebes by the sounds which he drew from that instrument, the stones arranging themselves obsequiously at his will. The meaning of this fable appears to be that by his elo- quence and persuasive manners he prevailed upon his rude and hitherto intractable subjects to build the walls of their city. He married the famous Niobe. Amphi'on ['A/z^iwx'] ofCnos'sus, a Greek statuary, who lived about 420 B.C. Am'phis, ['A/j.(j)tg,] an Athenian comic poet, who was a contemporary of Plato. His works are not extant. Am-phis'tra-tos, [' Afj.(j)'iaTpaTog,] a Greek sculptor, mentioned by Pliny as the author of a good statue of Callisthenes. He lived about 320 B.C. Am-phi-tri'te, ['AiKptTplrrj,] a Nereid of the Greek mythology, represented as the wife of Neptune, and mother of Triton. She was sometimes styled by the poets the goddess of the sea. Am'pi-us, (Titus Flavianus,) a Roman general, who fought for Vespasian against Vitellius about 70 A.D. Ampsing, Smp'sing, or Amp'zing, (John Assue- RUS,) a Dutch medical writer, born in 1559 ; died in 1642. Ampsing, (Samuel,) a Dutch poet, a son of the pre- ceding, lived in the early part of the seventeenth century. Ampudia, Sm-poo'de-^, (Pedro de,) a Mexican gen- eral, who obtained that rank in 1840. He commanded an army which besieged Campeachy in 1842-43. In 1846 he was in command at Monterey, which was be- sieged by General Taylor, and was taken prisoner in September of that year. Amreeta. See Amrita. Am'ri-ta, [Hindoo pron. iim'rT-ta, from a, priva- tive, and mrita, "dead," also "death,"] sometimes written, but less correctly, Amreeta, the name given by the Hindoos to the water of immortality which was produced by the churning of the ocean. (See KOrma- VATARA.) The term Amrita or Amrit is also applied to the food as well as to the drink of the gods, and hence to any delicious drink. Amroo, Amru, or Amrou, irn'roo,* or, more fully, Amroo-Ibn-Al-Ais, (or -Ass,) — Tb'n il tss, {i.e. " Am- roo the son of Al-Aas,") a famous Arabian general, who conquered Egypt in the reign of the caliph Omar, about 640 A.D. He was afterwards governor of Egypt until Omar's death. In the civil war which followed the death of Othman he fought against Alee. Died in 663 a.d. See Irving, " Mahomet and his Successors," vol. ii.; Abui.feda, "Annales Moslemici;" Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap li.; Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. Amrool-kays, Amrulkais, or Amroulcays, Sm'- rool-kTs', written also Amrolkais, a distinguished Arabian poet, who lived about 600 A.D. He was author of one of the Mo'allakat, poems suspended Oii the Kaaba at Mecca. Amrou or Amru. See Amroo. * See remarks on Oriental names, in the Introduction. Amr-Seebawayh or Amr-Sibawayh, dm'r see'- bi-wlH', the greatest of the Arabian grammarians, lived at Bagdad in the reign of Haroun-al-Raschid. Amsdorf, von, fon SmsMoRf, (Nikolaus,) a Ger- man Reformer, born near Wurzen, in Saxony, in 1483. He became professor of divinity at Wittenberg in 151 1, and a zealous adherent of Lutner, whom he accompa- nied to the Diet of Worms in 1521. He was appointed superintendent and minister at Saint Ulrich in Magde- burg in 1524, and Bishop of Naumburg in 1542. Ams- dorf took part in Luther's translation of the Bible, and wrote numerous polemical treatises on theology. Died in 1565. See Melchior Adam, " Vitse Theologorum Germanorum." Amsler, ims'ler, (Samuel,) an excellent German engraver, born in Switzerland in 1791. He was profes- sor at the Academy of Fine Arts in Munich, and en- graved many pieces after Michael Angelo, Raphael, ar.d Thorwaldsen. Among his works is a " Holy Family" of the second, and "The Triumph of Alexander" of the last-named artist. Died at Munich in 1849. Amstel, (CoRNELis Ploos van.) See Ploos. Amstel, Gijsbrecht or Gysbrecht van, gls'br^Kt or His'bK^KT vtn Sm'stel, a Dutch nobleman of the thirteenth century, infamous as the betrayer of Floris v.. Count of Holland, in 1296. (See Floris V.) The odium of this crime contributed much to the ruin of the power of the Dutch aristocracy. Amthor, im'tSR, (Christoph Heinrich,) a German jurist, born at Stollberg in 1678. He entered the service of Denmark, and was made a counsellor of justice at Copenhagen about 17 18. He wrote some successful political tracts and works on law. Died in 1721. Amulio, a-mooHe-o, or Da Mula, di moo'lS, (Marc- Antonio,) Cardinal, an Italian scholar, born at Venice in 1505. He gained the confidence of Pope Pius IV., who employed him in important commissions, and made him a cardinal in 1561. He wrote Latin poems and orations, and other works of some merit, nearly all of which remain in manuscript. Died in 1570. A-mu'li-us, King of Alba, was a younger brother of Numitor, whom he dethroned about 714 B.C. (See Romulus.) Amurath, d-moo-rat', or Moorad, (Mourad or Murad,) moo'rid', (written also Amurat, Amurad, and Miirad,) I., the first of the Ottoman sultans who made conquests in Europe, succeeded his father Or- khan in 1360. He took Adrianople in 1362, and made it the capital of his European dominions. During a reign of twenty-nine years his arms were everywhere crowned with success. A formidable insurrection having at length broken out in Servia, he hastened to meet this new danger, accompanied by his son, the famous Bayazeed, (Bajazet,) surnamed Ilderim, or "the lightning." His army was inferior in numbers to that of the insurgents ; but, yielding to the ardour of Bayazeed, he resolved at once' to give battle. After a long and terrible conflict on the plain of Kossovo, the forces of Amurath gained a complete victory. The sultan rejoiced all the more over this success because, as the Moslem historians inform us, he had dreamed the night before that he met his death from the weapon of an assassin. While he lingered on the field of battle, one of the bodies on which he chanced to tread suddenly started up and plunged a dagger into the heart of Amurath, who died a few moments afterwards, (June 15, 1389,) aged sixty-three years. Amurath I. has the distinction of having formed the Janissaries (who had been first levied by his father Orkhan) into a thoroughly organized and disciplined body of troops. See "Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale;" Von Hammer, " Histoire de I'Empire Ottoman." Amurath or Moorad (Murad) II., born about 1405, succeeded his father Mahomet I. in 1422. His j reign was marked by various vicissitudes of fortune. j At one time (1422) he threatened Constantinopk with a formidable army. In 1429 he took Thessalonica from the Venetians, and in 1433 took possession of Yanina and razed its fortifications to the ground. In 1442 the famous Huniades defeated the troops of Amurath in two successive battles, in the latter of which the Tu:'ks lost a, e, T, o, u, y, /ono-; k, b, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e. 1, 6, u, y, short: a, e, i, o, obscure; fill, f2,t; m^t; n6t; good; mocn. JMURATH 117 ANACHJRSIS two hundred banners and five thousand prisoners, in- cluding their general-in-chief. In the following year Huniades gained in rapid succession several victories over the Ottoman forces. In one engagement in which the sultan himself was present, Amurath lost six thou- sand men, so that he was compelled to sue for peace. A treaty of peace for ten years was signed between the sultan and the King of Hungary, but it was soon after broken by the latter at the instigation of the papal legate Julian. This want of good faith on the part of the Christians was signally avenged the same year by the defeat of the Hungarians near Varna, and the death of Vladislaus, their king, who was unhorsed by Amurath himself and slain by a janissary. Again in 1448 the Hungarians under Huniades suffered a total defeat in the battle of Kossovo, (October, 1448.) This engage- ment lasted three days ; at last Huniades fled, and his troops were almost annihilated. Twice during his reign Amurath II. abdicated the supreme power and sought in retirement that peace of mind which he could not find on the throne ; but in both instances he was speed- ily recalled by the wishes of his people to the post which he had so lately left. He died in 145 1, leaving behind him the reputation of an able, just, and humane ruler. He was succeeded by his son, Mahomet II., the con- queror of Constantinople. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" Von Hammer, " Histoire de r Empire Ottoman." Amurath or Moorad (Murad) III., born in 1545, succeeded his father, Selim II., in 1574. On the first day of his reign he caused his five brothers to be strangled. He was weak and sensual as well as cruel ; but his mind was not altogether without taste and cultivation. Died in 1595- See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Von Hammer, "Histoire de r Empire Ottoman." Amurath or Moorad (Murad) IV., born about 1610, succeeded his uncle Mustafa in 1623. In 1638 he took Bagdad, which was thenceforward incorporated with the Ottoman Empire : this was the only important event of his reign. He had a vigorous, athletic frame, but a feeble, passionate, and tyrannical disposition ; and these evil traits in his character seemed to increase with his years. He was almost continually intoxicated ; in a fit of drunken rage he would sometimes rush from his palace into the street, sword in hand, killing all whom he met ; at other times he would amuse himself by shooting with his bow from the palace-windows those who happened to be passing beneath. Happily for his people, he died (1640) before he had completed his thir- tieth year. He has been styled "the Turkish Nero." See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Von Hammer, " Histoire de I'Empire Ottoman." Amussat, fmii^sf, (Jean Zulema — zu'la''mt',) a French surgeon, born in Deux-Sevres in 1796. He in- vented several instruments, among which is a probe used in lithotrity, and published a number of treatises. His memoir on "The Torsion of Arteries" (1829) ob- tained a prize of the Institute. Died in 1856. Amy, t'me', a French advocate of Aix, wrote some interesting works on rivers and fountains, among which is " Observations experimentales sur les eaux des rivieres de Seine, de Majne, etc.," (1749.) Died in 1760. Amyn or Amin. See Alameen. A-myn'tas, [Gr. 'kiivvrar,] the name of three kings of Macedonia between 510 and 330 B.C. Also, a Mace- donian general in the service of Alexander the Great. Amyntas I., King of Macedonia, began to reign about 510 B.C. He presented earth and water to the Persian ambassadors in token of submission to the su- premacy of Darius. Amyntas II. of Macedonia, ascended the throne in 394 B.C. He was defeated in battle by the Illyrians, and recovered his kingdom by the aid of the Thessalians. He afterwards strengthened himself by an alliance with Sparta. Died in 370 B.C., leaving three sons, Alexander, Perdiccas, and Philip called the Great. Amyntas III. was a grandson of the preceding, and a son of Perdiccas. He was an infant at the death of his father in 359 B.C., and was the lawful heir to the throne which was usurped by his uncle Philip. He was put to death on the charge of a conspiracy agaii.st Alex ander a short time before the latter invaded Asia. Amyntas, one of the generals of Alexander tht Great. During the campaign in Asia he conducted re- inforcements from Macedonia to the army at Babylon About 330 B.C. he was tried on a charge of complicity in a plot alleged to have been formed by his friend Phi- lotas, and acquitted. Amyntas, son of Antiochus, a Macedonian officer who was in the service of Persia when Alexander in- vaded that country. He commanded some Greek auxil- iaries that fought for Darius at Issus, 333 B.C., after which he led an expedition against Egypt, then in the pos- session of the Persians. After he had gained a victory near Memphis, he was surprised by the Persians and killed, about 330 B.C. Amyntas, a king of Galatia, fought for Antony at Philippi, and against him at the battle of Actium, 31 B.C. Died about 30 B.C. Amyntianus, a-min-she-a'nus, ['A//vrT(av6f,] a Greek author, lived about 170 A.D., and wrote a " Life of Alex- ander the Great," which is lost. Amyot, t'me-o', (Jacques,) a French writer and translator of great merit, born at Melun in 1 5 13. He became professor of Greek and Latin at Bourges about 1540, and was appointed tutor to the sons of Henry II. in 1558. He was made grand almoner of France on the accession of Charles IX. in 1560, and Bishop of Auxerre in 1570. In 1559 he published an excellent translation of Plutarch's " Lives," which is especially celebrated as a model of French style. He also trans- lated from the Greek seven books of Diodorus Siculus, (1554,) Longus's romance of "Daphnis and Chloe," (1559,) and the " Moral Treatises of Plutarch." Died at Auxerre in 1593. Amyot is ranked among the prose writers who have contributed most to the perfection of the French language. See De Thou, "Histoire," book viii. ; Niceron, " M^moires ;" "Sloge d'Amyot," in the "Memoires de I'Academie Frangaise ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." Amyot, (Joseph.) See Amiot. Am'yot, (Thomas,) an English antiquary, born at Norwich about 1775. He embraced the legal profes- sion, and became private secretary to Mr. Windham while the latter was secretary at war in 1806. In 1812 he published the speeches of Windham, with a short notice of his life. He contributed several treatises to the " Archaeologia," and was for many years secretary to the Society of Antiquaries. Died in 1850. Amyraut, S'me^ro', [Lat. Amyral'dus,] (Moses,) a distinguished French Protestant divine and writer, born at Bourgueil, in Anjou, in 1596. He became professor of divinity at Saumur in 1633. In order to promote union among the Protestant churches, he wrote a Latin " Treat- ise on Secession from the Roman .Church, and on Peace among the Evangelical Churches," and was, in conse- quence, involved in a controversy with certain Calvin- istic divines by his attempt to explain Calvin's views on predestination, which he wished to reconcile with the doctrine of universal grace. He was author of many works in French and Latin, among which is "Christian Morality," (6 vols.,) a work of much merit. He was esteemed for his talents and worth by both Catholics and Protestants. Died in 1664. See Charles E. Saigey, " M. Amyraut, sa Vie et ses £crit ;,'* 1849; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Amyrtaeus, am-ir-tee'us, [Gr. 'A/uvpTaloc; Fr. Amyr- t6e, t'meR^ty,] King of Egypt, obtained the throne about 450 B.C. by a revolt against the King of Persia. Anacaona, a-na-ka-o'nS.surnamed Golden Flower, was the wife of Caonabo, a cacique of Hayti when Co- lumbus discovered that island in 1492. She was put to death by Ovando, the Spanish governor. See Irving's " Life of Columbus." An-a-ehar'sis, [Gr. 'Avaxapaic,] a Scythian philoso- pher, contemporary and friend of Solon. He was, ii Is said, the only barbarian admitted to the citizenship ot Athens. He was reckoned by some writers among the Seven Wise Men of Greece. On his return to his native country he was shot dead with an arrow by the Scythian € as k; 5 as s; g ^ard; g as J; o, H, Yi^ guttural ; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^='See Explanations, p. 23.) ANACLETUS ii8 JNAXAGORAS king for performing the Greek rites to the goddess Cy- bele. Some of his witty sayings have been preserved by Diogenes Laertius, Plutarch, and Lucian. Au-a-cle'tus, [Fr. Anaclet, a'nt'cLV,] sometimes called Cletus, the second or third bishop of Rome, was a native of Athens. He is variously represented as the successor or predecessor of Clement. Died, it is sup- posed, about ICG A.D. Aiiacletus the Antipope, was elected by a part of the cardinals in 1130, and disputed the claim of Innocent II. to the popedom. Supported by the populace of Rome, he maintained possession of that city until his death in 1 138, though his rival was recognized by nearly all the European powers. Set- Aktaod de Montor, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes." A-nac're-on, [Gr. 'Ava/v-pec-jv,] a celebrated Greek amatory lyric poet, born at Teos, in Ionia, about 560 B.C. He passed many years in the prime of his life at the court of Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, to which it is sup- posed he was invited about 540. After the death of Polycrates, whose bounty he had largely enjoyed, he re- moved to Athens, which he left probably about 514 B.C. According to some accounts, he attained the age of eighty-five. His death is said to have been caused by a grape-stone or dried grape, by which he was choked. He left odes and songs on love and wine, which are re- garded as models of that species of poetry named from him Anacreontic ; also elegies, epigrams, etc. Numer- ous fragments of his poems are extant. See MuLLER, "Histoire de la Litterature de I'ancienne Grece ;" Bode, "Geschichte der lyrischen Dichtkunst der Helieneu ;" Vos- sius, "De Poetis Gracis." An-a-dy-om'e-ne, [Gr. 'kvadvoiievrj,] {i.e. the god- dess "rising up out" of the sea,) a surname given to Venus, in allusion to the story of her origin. An-a-fes'tus or Anafesto, a-nl-fes'to, (Paoluccio, pow-loot'cho,) the first Doge of Venice. Died in 717 A.D. A-na-i'tis or Anahid, [Gr. 'kvaiTig,] a goddess wor- shipped in Armenia and Asia Minor, was supposed to be identical with the Greek Aphrodite or the Persian god- dess of nature. A'nan, (Ben David,) a Jewish rabbi of the eighth century, is represented as the restorer of the Karaite doctrines and defender of the pure law. Anania, i-ni'ne-a, (Giovanni Lorenzo,) a learned Italian of the sixteenth century, born at Taverna, in Ca- labria. Among other works, he wrote a treatise on the nature of demons, (1581 ; 5th edition, 1669.) Anania, d', dl-nd'ne-i, or Anagny, d', da-n3.n'yee, written also Agnany, (Joannes,) an Italian jurist and canonist. Died in 1458. An-a-ni^as or Hananiah, called Sha'drach, one of three Hebrew captives whom the King of Babylon ordered to be thrown into a fiery furnace. (See Daniel i. and iii.) Ananias, a Jewish general, was a son of Onias who erected a Hebrew temple at Heliopolis, in Egypt. He and his brother Chelcias commanded an army which Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, sent into Judea against her son, Ptolemy Lathyrus, in 103 B.C. Ananias, a Jew, who was appointed high-priest at Jerusalem about 45 or 50 a.d. He was a party to the p2rsecution of the Apostle Paul, and appeared as his accuser before Felix. (See Acts xxiii. 2 ; xxiv. i ; xxv. 2.) He was killed by robbers, or, according to some ac- counts, by the seditious Jews, about 66 a.d. See JosEFHUS, "Jewish Antiquities." Ananias, one of the primitive Christians, was a resi- dent of Damascus, and eminently devout. He was sent by the Lord, who appeared to him in a vision, to restore sight to Saul of Tarsus, who had just been converted. (See Acts ix. 10-18.) A-nan'ta, [Hindoo pron. un-iin'ta — from an, priva- tive, and anta, "end,"] a name signifying "without end," sometimes applied to the great serpent Sesha, the sym- bol of eternity. (See Sesha.) A-na'' pi-US and Am-phin'o-mus, two brothers, who lived at Catania before the Christian era and acquired celebrity by saving their parents from an eruption of Mount Etna. Anar. See Norvi. Anasco, de, di an-ySs'ko, (Juan,) a Sevillian officer, who served under Hernando de Soto in his expedition into Florida in 1539-43. Anassagora. See Anaxagoras. Anastase. See Anastasius. Anastasia, an-as-ta'she-a, [Fr. Anastasie, S'nts'- ti'ze',] Saint, the wife of Publius, a pagan. After his death, having made a public profession of Christianity, she suffered martyrdom in 303 A.D., during the reign of Diocletian. Anastasius, an-as-ta'she^s, [Gr. 'Avaoruaiog ; Fr. Anastase, S^nts'ttz'',] I., a^Uyzantine emperor, born at Dyrrachium (now Durazzo) about 430 A.D. On the death of the emperor Zeno, in 491, his widow, the empress Ariadne, gave her hand in marriage to Anastasius, and raised him to the throne. He persecuted or differed with the orthodox, who rose in arms, and, under the command of Vitalianus, defeated his army in 514. Died in 518 A.D., and was succeeded by Justin I. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Anastasius II., Emperor of the East, succeeded Philippicus by election in 713 A.D. The army which he sent against the Arabs revolted, proclaimed Theodosius emperor, and captured Constantinople. Anastasius was deposed in 716, and put to death by order of Leo HI. about 720 A.D. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Anastasius, Patriarch of Constantinople, was raised to that dignity by Leo about 730 A.D. He favoured the Iconoclasts. The Catholic writers represent him as a disgrace to his profession. Died in 753 A.D. Anastasius, an-as-ta'she-us, [Fr. Anastase, t^nts'- tiz',] I., Pope, a Roman by birth, succeeded Siricius about 398 A.D. He was strongly opposed to the doc- trines of Origen. Died in 402, and was succeeded by Innocent I. Anastasius II., a native of Rome, was elected pope in 496, in place of Gelasius I. He wrote a letter to Clovis, King of the Franks, on his conversion to Chris- tianity. Died in 498 a.d. Anastasius III. became pope after the death of Sergius III. in 911. Died in 913, and was succeeded by Lando. Anastasius IV., a native of Rome, was elected pope in 1 153, as successor to Eugenius III. He is repre- sented as wise and virtuous. He died at an advanced age in 11 54, and was succeeded by Adrian IV. Anastasius surnamed Bibliotheca'rius, (z>. "Li- brarian,") a Roman ])riest of the ninth century, trans- lated from Greek into Latin several works, among which is " Historia Ecclesiastica," composed chiefly of extracts from Nicephorus and Syncellus. Died probably about 890 A.D. Anastasius, surnamed Sinaita (sT-ni-T'ta) from having been a monk on Mount Sinai, became Bishop or Patriarch of Antioch in 561 A.D. He was a zealous de- fender of the orthodox Catholic faith, for which he was expelled from his see by Justin II. in 570 ; but he was restored by the emperor Maurice in 593. Died in 599 A.D. Anastasius, Saint, called " the Apostle of Hun- gary," was born in 954 A.D., and died in 1044. An-a-to'li-us, [Fr. Anatole, t'nt'toK,] an eminent philosopher of Alexandria, lived in the latter part of the third century. He opened a school in Alexandria, and was the first Christian who taught the philosophy of Aristotle. He became Bishop of Laodicea about 270 a.d. Anatolius, a Platonic philosopher, contemporary with the preceding, was a master of lamblichus and friend of Porphyry. A fragment of work, entitled " Sympathies and Antipathies," is ascribed to him. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca." Anatolius, a Greek jurist, born at Berytus, was em- ployed by Justinian in the compilation of the Digest, about 530 a.d. An-ax-ag'o-ras, [Gr. 'Ava^ayopac ; Fr. Anaxagore, t'ntk's^/goR' ; It." Anassagora, S-nas-sag^o-rS,] a cele- brated Greek philosopher, born at Clazomenas, near Smyrna, 500 B.C. He came to Athens about 460 B.C., or, according to some writers, twenty years earlier, an-j remained there about thirty years. Socrates and Eu- a, e, T, o, u, y, lon^; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, s/wr(; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; m§t; nflt; good; moonj JNAXAGORJS 119 AN CHI ETA ripides are said to have been among his disciples. In 432 B.C. he was prosecuted on a charge ot" impiety. Pericles, who had been his pupil, assisted in his defence. To escape from death he fled from Athens, and died at Lampsacus, in Asia Minor, 428 B.C. Anaxagoras wrote a treatise on Nature, of which some fragments have been preserved. He maintained the eternity of matter, the elements of which were, he held, in a state of confusion, till another distinct principle, self-existent, infinitely sub- tile and powerful, which he termed Nous, (or Mind,) re- duced them to order : generation and destruction were only the union and separation of elemental particles which could neither be created nor annihilated ; there was no such thing as chance or accident, these being nothing more than names for unknown causes. Anaxagoras may be regarded as the father of modern science. Of all the ancient philosophers he appears to have been the first to combine, in the investigation of Nature and her laws, close reasoning with careful obser- vation and experiment. He demonstrated that air was a substance, and not mere vacuity according to the popu- lar notion, by showing that when it was confined, as in bladders, it offered a positive resistance and displaced other bodies. His observation that there is no such thing as chance, but that " chance" is merely the name for a "cause unperceived by the human intellect," {tt/v tvxv^', udifAov airiav uvdpcjmvu Xoyia/xC),) evinced rare sagacity, as well as subtlety of thought ; and in teaching that the destruction and production of material bodies are nothing more than the separation and reunion of the elemental particles, he anticipated one of the most important dis- coveries of modern chemistry. See RiTTER, " History of Philosophy," 3 vols. 8vo, Oxford, 1838 ; G. H. Lewes, "Biographical History of Philosophy;" De Ramsay, "Anaxagoras," the Hague, 1778; J. T. Hemsen, "Anaxagoras Cla- zomenius sive de Vita ejus atque Philosoj^hia," 8vo, 1S21 ; Schau- BACH, " De Anaxagora ;" Diogenes Laertius. Anaxagoras, a Greek statuary, born at Ailgina, lived about 480 B.C. He executed a statue of Jupiter placed at Elis after the battle of Plata^a. Anaxagore. See Anaxagoras. An-ax-aii'dri-des, [Gr. 'Ava^avdpu^r]^,] a king of Sparta, reigned from about 560 to 520 B.C. He was the father of Cleomenes and Leonidas. Anaxandrides, a Greek comic poet, lived in the fourth century B.C. He wrote many successful dramas. An-ax-ar'^ehus, [Gr. 'Ava^apxog; Fr. Anaxarque, t^nlk'stRk',] a Greek philosopher, a native of Abdera, was intimate with Alexander the Great, whom he accompanied on his expedition into Asia in 334 B.C. He appears to have been a man of respectable character. After the death of Alexander, Anaxarchus is said to have been put to death by the tyrant Nicocreon, by being pounded in a large mortar ; he bore the torment with stoical fortitude. See Arrian, "Anabasis." A-nax'i-las, [' Ava^lTia^,] an Athenian comic poet, contemporary with Plato, lived about 340 B.C. A-nax-i-la'us [Gr. ' Ava^t/.anc;] or An-ax'i-las, a tyrant or prince of Rhegium, (now Reggio,) in the south of Italy, in the fifth century B.C. Anaxilaus, [Gr. 'Ava^tXao^,] a Pythagorean philoso- pher, born in Larissa, lived at Rome in the reign of Augustus, and was banished from Italy on a charge of magic. A-nax-i-man'der, [Gv.'Ava^l/iiavi)po^; Fr. Anaximan- DRE, a'nik^se'mdNdR',] an eminent Greek philosopher, born at Miletus, in Asia Minor, about 610 B.C., is said to have been a disciple or friend of Thales. The inven- tion of the sun-dial is attributed to him, and Pliny states that he discovered the obliquity of the ecliptic. He taught that the earth is a sphere, that the sun is a globe of fire as large as the earth, and that there is an infinite number of worlds. The statement of his opinions given by Plutarch differs from the above. A book which he wrote is the oldest prose work on philosophy mentioned among the Greeks. Died about 546 B.C. See Ritter, "History of Philosophy;" G. H. Lewes, " Bio- p-aphical History of Philosophy ;" Diogenes Laertius. An-ax-im'e-nes, [Gr. 'Ava^ifievi]^ ; Fr. Anaximene, t'ntk'se'min',] a Grecian philosopher, born at Miletus, flourished probably about 500 B.C. Little is known of his life. His opinions were recorded by Theophrastus. He maintained that Aer (air) is the original principle of which all things are formed and into which all things are resolved, and that this aer is in eternal motion. See Ritter, "History of Philosophy;" G. H. Lewes, "Bio- graphical History of Philosophy ;" J. H. Schmidt, "De Anaxlmenis Vita et Physlologla," 16S9 ; Diogenes Laertius. Anaxiiu'enes of Lamp'sacus, a historian who lived about 350 B.C. He wrote a history of Philip of Macedon and of his son Alexander, which is lost. According to Suidas, he was one of the instructors of Alexander the Great. Pausanias relates that he once saved his native city by his ready wit. When he came as an intercessor to Alexander, (who was greatly exasperated against the citizens of Lampsacus for siding with the Persians,) the conqueror, anticipating his intention, exclaimed, " I swear I will not grant your request !" " I implore you, then," said Anaximenes, "to destroy Lampsacus and reduce its citizens to slavery." Alexander had the mag- nanimity to keep his word. Anaya y Maldonado, cVnl'i e mll-do-ni''Do,(DiEGO,) born at Salamanca about 1350, was made Archbishop of Seville in 141 7 ; died in 1437. Aucseus, an-sec'us, [Gr. 'Aynalog; Fr. Ancee, 6N''sy,] a fabulous son of Neptune, and King of Samos, was the pilot of the ship Argo in the Argonautic expedition. He planted a vineyard, but was warned by a seer that he would never drink any wine of his own production. He made some wine, and was raising a cup of it to his mouth, when he was told that a wild boar was in his vineyard. He left the wine untasted, and attacked the boar, by which he was killed. This event is said to have given rise to the proverb, " There is many a slip between the cup and the lip." An-can'ther-tis, (Claudius,) a physician and histor- ical writer, lived at Vienna between 1550 and 1600. Ancaraiio, an-ka-rS'no, (Gasparo,) an Italian priest and poet of Bassano, lived between 1550 and 1600. Ancaraiio, d', dan-ka-ri'no, (Pietro Giovanni,) an Italian jurist and poet, born at Reggio, in Lombardy, lived about 1550. Ancee. See Anc.^us. Ancelot, ONss^lo', (Jacques Ars^ne Francois Po- LYCARPE,) a French dramatic author, born at Havre in 1794. He was in his youth a clerk in the bureau of the navy department. In 1819 he produced " Lo i:s IX.," a tragedy inverse, which had a great success, and obtained from the king a pension of two thousand francs. His tragedy of " Fiesco" (1824) was also favourably received. He afterwards composed many dramas, comedies, aiid vaudevilles, and succeeded De Bonald in the French Academy in 1841. Died in 1850. His wife, originally Marguerite Virginie Chardon, a painter and authoress, was born at Dijon in 1792. She wrote several plays, and a volume of tales called " Emprunts aux Salons de Paris," of considerable merit. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" Querard, "La France Litteraire." Ancharano, d', dSn-ka-r^'no, (Pietro,) an Italian jurist, born about 1350 ; died probably about 1420. Ancheres, SN'shaiR', (Daniel,) a French poet, born near Verdun in 1586, was patronized by James I. of Eng- land. Anchersen, tng'ker-sen, (Johan Peder,) a Danish antiquary, born at or near Ribe about 1700, was professor of elocution at Copenhagen. He wrote " Origines Dan- icae," (1747,) and other works on Danish antiquities. Died in 1765. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemelne Encyklopaedie." Anchersen, |Lat. Ansga'rius or Ansga'rii,] (Mat- TH.'EUS,) a Danish Oriental scholar, born at Colding in 1682, was made Bishop of Ribe in 1731, and died in 1741. Ancheta, Sn-cha'tS, (Miguel,) a Spanish sculptor of the sixteenth century, was born at Pamplona. He was reputed one of the best sculptors of his time. See Bermudez, "DIccionarlo Hlstorico." Anchieta, de, da Sn-she-a'tJ, (Jos^,) a distinguished Portuguese Jesuit and missionary, commonly called " the Apostle of Brazil," was born at Laguna, in Teneriffe, in 1533. He went to Brazil in 1553, and the same year founded a college for the Creoles and natives. After a € as k; 9 as s; g Aard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; n, 7iasal; r, trilled; th as in this. (S^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ANCHILUS 1 20 JNDERSEN life of peril and unceasing toil, he died, near Espiritu Santo, in 1597. See Vasconcellos, " Vida do Padre Joseph de Anchieta," 1672; " V'lua del Padre J. de Anchieta," by Rodriguez, 1618. Anchilus, ang^Ke-lus, [Fr. pron. dN'sheOiis',] (N.,) a Flemish painter, an imitator of Teniers, born at Ant- werp in 1688^ and worked in London. Died in 1733. An-ehi'ses, [Gr. 'Ay;\;<(7//f ; Fr. Anchise, 6N'sh6z',] a Trojan prince, who was said to have been the father of vEneas by Venus. On the destruction of Troy he escaped With his son, and afterwards died in Sicily. Ancillon, 6N'se'y6N', (Charles,) a French writer, son of David, noticed bfelow, was born at Metz in 1659. He accompanied his father to Berlin, where, under the Elector of Brandenburg, (afterwards King of Prussia,) he enjoyed various honourable offices. He left several mediocre works. Died in 1 71 5. Ancillon, (David,) a learned French Protestant di- vine, born at Metz in 161 7. He was pastor of a church at Metz from 1653 to 1685. After the revocation of the edict of Nantes in the latter year, he went to Berlin, where he died in 1692. He wrote an "Apology for Lu- ther," and a few other works. See "Discours sur la Vie de M. Ancillon," by Charles Ancil- lon, 1698. Ancillon, (Johann Peter Friedrich,) an eminent German writer and statesman, of French extraction, born at Berlin in 1766. He was a Protestant minister in early life. In 1806 he was appointed instructor to the crown prince, and received the title of councillor of state, and afterwards held other important offices. He was minister of foreign affairs from 1831 until his death. He belonged to the French family of Ancillons, and wrote in the language of his ancestors with as much facility as in the German. Among his works are " Me- langes of Literature and Philosophy," in French, (1801,) and *' On the Spirit of Constitutions, and its Influence upon Legislation," in German, (1825.) His " View of the Revolutions of the Political System of Europe since the Fifteenth Century" (in French, 4 vols., 1803) was very popular. Died in 1837. See F. A. A. Mignet, " Notice sur la Vie et les Travaux de M. Ancillon," 1847. Ancillon, (Joseph,) an eminent lawyer, born at Metz in 1626, was a brother of David, noticed above. He emigrated to Berlin about 1685, and became a counsellor of the Elector of Brandenburg. He published a " Treat- ise on the Difference between Personal Property and Real Estate," (1698.) Died at Berlin in 1719. Ancillon, (Ludwig Friedrich,) the father of Johann Peter Friedrich, noticed above, was born in 1744. He was a man of superior talents, and wrote some works on religious philosophy and sacred literature, among which is one on the Cartesian argument for the existence of God, (Berlin, 1792.) Died in 1814. Ancina, an-chee^ii, (Giovanni Giovenale,) an Italian ecclesiastic, born at Fossano in 1545, became Bishop of Saluzzo in 1602 : died in 1604. He wrote several short Latin poems. Anckarstrom. See Ankarstrom. Ancona, d', dan-ko'nl, (Ciriaco,) an Italian traveller, writer, and antiquary, born at Ancona about 1390. He travelled much in the Levant, where he copiecl inscrip- tions and collected manuscripts. He left, besides other works, an " Itinerarium." Died about 1450. Ancora, d', dSN^ko-r^, (Gaetano,) an Italian miscel- laneous writer and antiquary, born at Naples in 1757, was professor of Greek in the university of that city. Died in 1816. Among his works are a "Memoir on the Observance of Silence by the Ancients," (1782,) and "Researches on some Metallic Fossils of Calabria," (1791-) Ancourt, See Dancourt. Ancre, d', dSxkR, [It. D'Ancora, d3.n'ko-rl,] (Con- cino Concini, kon-chee'no kon-chee'nee,) Le Mar6- CHAL, an Italian courtier, born at Florence, went to France in 1600 in the retinue of Maria de Medici, queen of Henry IV. He married Eleonora Galigai, who was the favourite attendant of the queen and had great in- fluence at court. After the death of Henry, in 1610, he became first gentleman of the chamber. Marquis d' Ancre, and marshal of France. He even assumed the powei of prime minister, and made many enemies by nis inso- lence and rapacity. He was assassinated in 161 7 by De Luines, De Vitry, and others, who appear to have per- formed the will of the king in this action. His wife was tried, convicted of sorcery and lese-majeste, and executed, in the same year. It is said that when asked by what magic art she gained an ascendency over the queen, she replied, " By that power which strong minds exercise over the weak." See Bazin, " Histoire de France sous le Regne de Louis XIII G. Salei, " Cenni storico-critichi su la Vita di C. Concini," 1839; SisMONDi, "Histoire des Fran9ais;" D. Sandellius, "De D. Con- cini Vita," 1767. An'cus Martins or Marcius, (mar'she-us,) the fourth king of Rome, a grandson of Numa Pompilius, succeeded Tullus Hostilius about 634 B.C. He is con- sidered the lawgiver or founder of the plebeian order, which seems to have received in his reign a distinct po- litical existence. He waged war with success against the Latins, founded Ostia, and built the Pons Sublicius, (Bridge of Piles.) He died about 610, and was suc- ceeded by Tarquinius Priscus. See NiEBUHR, "Roman History." Ancwitz. See Ankvvitz. Andala, anMi-lS, (Ruard,) a learned professor of the Cartesian philosophy, and afterwards of theology, in the University of Franeker, was born in Friesland in 1665, He wrote " Descartes in reality the Overturner of Spi- nosism and the Architect of Experimental Philosophy," (1719.) Died in 1727. Andelot. See Dandelot. Anderloni, an-dgR-lo'nee, (Pietro,) an Italian en- graver, born near Brescia in 1784. He became director of the School of Engraving at Milan in 1 83 1, and en- graved several works of Raphael and Titian. Died in 1849. An'der-sen, (Hans Christian,) one of the most gifted writers of the present age, was born at Odense, in the island of Fiinen, April 2, 1805. His father was a shoemaker in very indigent circumstances, although he belonged to a family that had once been rich. He used to seek relief from the bitterness of his lot by relating to his children and friends stories of the wealth and splen- dour of his ancestors. Hans was only nine years old when his father died. His mother wished to apprentice him to a tailor, but was prevailed on by a fortune-teller to send him to Copenhagen. Here he tried to obtain a situation at the theatre ; but he was refused because he was so meagre and thin. Having a fine voice, he found employment for a time as a singer. But after six months he lost his voice, and was again thrown upon the world. He was, however, so fortunate as to meet with gen- erous and enlightened patrons. Councillor Collin, who had the sagacity to perceive Andersen's uncommon powers, obtained permission of the king to send the boy to a free academy, to be educated at the expense of the state. At an early age Andersen had written several short poems, among which "The Dying Child" was particu- larly admired. Having obtained pecuniary aid from the King of Denmark, he travelled through Germany, France, and Italy. After his return he produced a successful romance, entitled "The Improvisatore," (1834.) The delineations in this work of the scenery and manners )f Southern Europe have never been surpassed by any writer. Another, called " O. Z.," appeared in 1835, con- taining descriptions of life in the North. "Only a Fid- dler" presents some striking pictures from the story of his own early life. The "Poet's Bazaar" (1842) was the result of a visit to the Levant. His original genius is most conspicuous in his fairy-tales, of which he has published several vol- umes. They are characterized by quaint humour, rich imagination, and sometimes by deep pathos. His numer- ous works have been translated into most of the Euro- pean languages. " For vividness and reality of detail, for breadth and boldness, too, in the description of scenery, and for skill in conveying the impression made on a fine mind and earnest heart by all that is beautiful in nature and true a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f3.ll, fit; mht; n6t; good; moon; JNDERSON 121 ANDERSON in art, he stands without a rival among recent writers of romance." ("Quarterly Review," March, 1845.) See Howitt's "Literature and Romance of Northern Europe," London, 1853; also, "Blackwood's Magazine," vol. Ixii. p. 387. An'der-son, (Adam,) a Scottish political economist, 1 born about 1690, was a clerk in the South Sea House for fort)- years. He was author of a well-known History- of Commerce, entitled an " Historical and Chronological Deduction of the Origin of Commerce, etc.," (2 vols., 1762,) a work of great research. Died in 1765. See Chambers, Biographical Dictionary- of Eminent Scotsmen." Anderson, (Alexander,) an eminent Scottish mathe- matician, born at Aberdeen about 1580, became professor of mathematics at Paris, and died in the early part of the seventeenth century. He published, besides other works, " Supplementum Apollonii Redivivi," (1612.) See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Anderson, (Alexander,) M.D., a British botanist, who pas-sed many years in the West Indies, and was super- intendent of the botanic garden of Saint Vincent. He wrote an ''Account of a Bituminous Lake or Plain in the Island of Trinidad," (1789 ;) a " Description of the Bread- Fruit Tree," (1798;) and an "Essay on the Cultivation of the Clove," (1802.) Died about'1813. Anderson, (Arthur,) M.P., a Scottish gentleman noted for his public spirit and enterprise, was born in Shetland in 1792. He was the principal founder, and for many years the director, of the Peninsular and Orien- tal Steam Navigation Company. Anderson, (Christopher,) a British Baptist min- ister, born in Edinburgh in 17S2. He founded the Edin- burgh Bible Society. His chief works are the " Domestic Constitution," (1826,) and "Annals of the English Bible," (2 vols., 1845.) Died in 1852. See " Life and Letters of Christopher Anderson," by his nephew, 1854; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." An'der-son, (Sir Edmond,) an English judge, noted {i)X his learning, born at Broughton about 1530. He was chief justice of the court of common pleas from 1582 i until his death, and was one of the commissioners who l tried Mary, Queen of Scots, and Sir Walter Raleigh. He treated the Puritans with rigour, but his judicial con- duct is said to have been generally moderate and correct. His " Reports of Cases argued and adjudged in the Com- mon Bench" are esteemed good authority. Died in 1605. See Foss, "Judges of England;" Lloyd, "State Worthies." An'der-son, (George,) a traveller, born in Sleswick. He traversed Persia, India, China, and other countries, between 1644 1650, and published a narrative of his travels, in German, (1669.) Anderson, (George,) an English writer and mathe- matician, born at Weston in 1760; died in 1796. Anderson, (George B.,) an American general, born at Wilmington, North Carolina, about 1834, graduated at West Point in 1852. He commanded a brigade of Lee's army at the battle of Antietam, and received there a wound of which he died in October, 1862. Anderson, (Henry J.,) professor of mathematics, etc. in Columbia College, New York, from 1825 to 1843. He was associated with Lieutenant Lynch in the explo- ration of the Dead Sea, and published "Geology of Lieutenant Lynch's Expedition," (1848.) Anderson, (Isa.\c,) an American Presbyterian min- • ister, born in Rockbridge county, Virginia, in 1780. He was distinguished as a pioneer preacher or mission- ary in the Western States, and as the founder of a theo- logical seminar}- at Marp-ille, Tennessee. Died in 1857. Anderson, (James,) a Scottish antiquary and histori- cal writer, born at Edinburgh in 1662. He became a resident of London soon after the union of England and Scotland. He wrote an " Essay showing that the Crown of Scotland is Independent," (1705,) and spent many years in making a collection of ancient Scottish charters, etc., which was published under the title of " Choice Treasury (or Collection) of the Charters and Coins of Scotland," (" Selectus Diplomatum et Numismatum Scotiae Thesaurus," 1739.) He also published "Collec- tions relating to the History of Mary, Queen of Scotland," (4 vols., 1724-28.) Died m 1728. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionar\- of Eminent Scotsmen." Anderson, (James,) an ingenious writer on agricul ture and political economy, born near Edinburgh in 1739 was a practical farmer. He published valuable " Essays relating to Agriculture and Rural Affairs," (3 vols., 1777,/ and edited a weekly periodical called "The Bee," (1790- 94,) which is highly commended. In 1797 he removed to the vicinity of London, where he issued a monthly periodical called " Recreations in Agriculture, Natural History, Arts, and Literature," (1799-1802,) in which he developed a new theory on rent, that was afterwards adopted by Malthus and others. His scientific informa- tion was extensive and accurate. Besides his other wri- tings, he has contributed several articles to the " Ency- clopaedia Britannica." Died in 1808. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionan.- of Eminent Scotsmen." Anderson, (James,) was physician-general of the East India Company's army at Madras, in the last quar- ter of the eighteenth century. He was noted for long and diligent eftorts to introduce the cochineal, mulberry- tree, silkworm, and other productions, into Hindostan. He published letters to Sir Joseph Banks and others on these subjects. Died about 1810. Anderson, (James,) M.D., an American physician, born in 1752 ; died in Maryland in 1820. See Thacher, "Medical Biography." Anderson, (James Stuart Murray,) an English writer, born about 1798, graduated as B.A. at Oxford in 1820. He became rector of Tormarton about 1850, and published "The History of the Church of England in the Colonies and Foreign Dependencies of the British Empire," (3 vols., 1851.) Anderson, an^'der-son, (Johann,) an accomplished publicist, was born at Hamburg in 1674, and took the degree of doctor of laws at Leyden in 1697. He was afterwards employed by the citizens of Hamburg in va- rious negotiations at different European courts. He became successively syndic, burgomaster, and senior burgomaster of his native city. Died in 1743. He left an "Account of Greenland, Iceland, and Davis' Straits," (1746.) Anderson, (John,) born in Dumbartonshire, Scot- land, in 1726, was appointed professor of natural phi- losophy in the University of Glasgow in 1760. Died in 1796. He deser\-es honourable and grateful remem- brance for having founded in Glasgow an institution, called the Andersonian Institution, for the purpose of imparting by popular lectures a knowledge of the useful sciences to mechanics and others not able to go through a full collegiate course. He published a popular work, entitled "Institutes of Physics," (1786.) See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Anderson, (John,) a Scottish surgeon, born in Mid- Lothian in 17S9, wrote " Memoirs of the House of Ham- ilton," (1825.) Died in 1832. j Anderson, (Rev. John,) a Scottish Presbyterian di- I vine, born about 167 1. He became minister of Dum- I barton in 1704, and removed to Glasgow in 1720. His j chief work is a " Defence of the Church Government, I Faith, Worship, and Spirit of the Presbyterians,'" (1714.) Died about 1722. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Anderson, (Joseph,) United States Senator, bom near Philadelphia in 1757. He was appointed by Wash- ington, in 1791, judge of the territory south of the Ohio. Upon its organization into the State of Tennessee, in 1797, he was elected to the United States Senate, of which he continued an influential member for nineteen years, being twice chosen president /ri? tempore. From 1 81 5 to 1836 he was First Comptroller of the United States Treasury. Died in 1837. Anderson, '(Lars.) See Andre.^:, (Laurentius.) Anderson, {Richard C.,) an American diplomatist, born in Kentucky about 1750. He was a representative in Congress from Kentucky from 1817 to 1821, United States Minister to the Republic of Colombia in 1823, and in 1826 Envoy Extraordinary to the Assembly of American Nations at Panama. Died at Panama in 1826. Anderson, (Richard Henry,) an American general, born in South Carolina about 1822, graduated at West Point in 1842. He became a captain in 1855, resigned € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (^:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) ANDERSON 122 ANDRAL his commission in 1861, and was made a brigadier-gene- ral in the confederate army. He commanded a division at Gettysburg, July, 1S63. Anderson, ( Ruber r,) M.D., a Scottish critic and biographer, born in Lanarkshire in 1750. He resided in Edinburgh from 1790 until his death, and had an ex- tensive correspondence with literary men. He is best known as editor of a good edition of " The Works of the British Poets ; with Prefaces Biographical and Crit- ical," (14 vols., 1 792-1807.) He also published "The Life of Dr. Johnson," (1795,) and " The Life of Dr. Smol- lett," (1803.) Died in 1830. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Anderson, (Robert,) a British poet, born at Carlisle in 1770; died in 1833. Many of his ballads and other poems are in the Cumberland dialect. His works are chiefly of a humorous cast. See "Autobiography of Robert Anderson." Anderson, (Robert,) an American general, born near Louisville, Kentucky, in 1805, graduated at West Point in 1825, He served as captain in the Mexican war, 1846-47, and became a major of artillery in 1857. In the autumn of i860 he took command of the forts of Charleston harbour. He removed his garrison, Decem- ber 26, from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter, which he refused to surrender on the demand of Governor Pickens. The insurgents besieged Fort Sumter, and began to bom- bard it on the 12th of April, 1861. The bombardment was kept up with red-hot shot and with unremitting fury for many hours. Major Anderson's position having at length been rendered untenable by want of provisions and by the combustion of part of the fort, he surrendered on the 13th of April. He was promoted to be a briga- dier-general in the regular army in May, 1861. In con- sequence of ill health, or some other reason, he took no further part in the civil war. Died at Nice in 1871. See Greeley's "American Conflict." Andei"son, (Walter,) a historical and critical writer, who was minister of Chirnside, Scotland, for about fifty years. Among his works are "The History of Croesus, King of Lydia," (1755,) and "The Philosophy of Ancient Greece investigated in its Origin and Progress, etc.," (1791,) which has some merit, but was superseded by Enfield's "Abridgment of Brucker." Died in 1800. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Anderson, (William,) a British naturalist who was surgeon on the Resolution in Cook's second voyage round the world, 1772-75. He wrote several short treatises. Anderson, (William,) a Briti.sh horticulturist, born about 1766, was for many years curator of the botanic garden at Chelsea. Died in 1846. Andersson, Su'der-son, (Charles John,) a trav- eller, born in Sweden in the nineteenth century. Be- tween 1850 and 1855 he passed several years in the ex- ploration of Southern Africa, and made contributions to the natural history and geography of that region. He published a narrative of his adventures. While on a hunting expedition in Southern Africa, he was attacked and killed by a wounded elephant in 1856. An'der-ton, (Henry,) an English painter of history and portraits; died about 1665. Anderton, (James,) an English Roman Catholic con- troveisial writer, who died in 1643. Andhrimnir or Andrimner, ^.n-drim^ner, in the Norse mythology, the name of the cook who boils every day, in the kettle Eldhrimnir, the flesh of the boar Soehrimnir, for the table of the gods and heroes. See Thorpe, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Mallet, "North- ern Antiquities," vol. ii., Fable xx. Andlo (ind'lo) or Andlau, 2.nd'16w, written also An- delo, §.nMeh-lo, (Peter Herman of,) [Lat. Pe'trus de And'lo or And'elo,] a German jurist, of Italian de- scent, lived in the fifteenth century, and wrote in Latin on the Germanic Empire a work which is remarkable as the first atteinpt in Germany to compile a system of public law. An-doQ^i-des, Y kvdoiMrjg an Athenian orator, born about 467 B.C., was called one of the "Ten Orators." He was appointed with Glaucon to command a fleet in 432, and acted a prominent part in political affairs. When the thirty tyrants obtained power in 404 B.C., he went into exile, from which he soon returned. He died about 390 B.C. A few of his orations are extant. Andoque, dN^dok', a French writer of the seven teenth century, author of a History of Languedoc, (1648.) Andrada, an-dka'dd, (Francisco,) a Portuguese poet, flourished about 1600. Andrada, de, da ^n-dRa'Di, or Andrade, de, di dn-dRi'Da, (Alfonso,) a Spanish Jesuit, born at Toledo in 1590, wrote many works on theology. Died in 1658. Andrada, de, da Sn-dR^'da, or Andrade, de, di an- dR.¥dk, (Antonio,) a Portuguese Jesuit, born in Alentejo about 1580. He went as a missionary to India and Thibet, and published a " New Discovery of the Grand Cathay, or Kingdom of Thibet," (1627.) Died at Goa in 1633. Andrada, de, or Andrade, de, (Diogo Lopez,) a Portuguese preacher, born in Santarem in 1569; died in 1635. Andrada, de, or Andrade, de, (Fernan Perez,) a Spaniard, surnamed (in the Galician dialect) O Bo, (" the Good,") was a friend of Henri de Trastamara. He built, about 1388, a noble bridge across the Eume. Andrada, de, (Fernao Perez,) a Portuguese naval oftrcer, commander!, a ship in the fleet of Albuquerque, who in 151 1 appointed him admiral of a fleet often ships at Malacca. He defeated the Sultan of Java in a sea-fight in 15 13, and commanded the first European fleet that appeared on the coast of China, (1518.) He was successful in opening commercial intercourse with the Chinese. Andrada, de, or Andrade, de, (Francisco Rades,) a Spanish writer of great merit, born at Toledo, was author of a " History of the Three Spanish Orders of Chivalry," (1572.) He lived in the latter half of the six- teenth century, and was chaplain to Philip II. Andrada, de, or Andrade, de, (Jacinto,) an excel- lent Portuguese writer, born at Beja in 1597. He was abbot of the monastery of Santa Maria das Chas. Died in 1657. His principal work is the Life of Dom Joao de Castro, Viceroy of India, (1651,) which is a model of fine writing. Andrada, de, (Paolo Gonzalez,) a Portuguese lyric poet of the early part of the seventeenth century. He wrote a volume of Spanish poems, (published at Lisbon in 1629.) Andrada e Sylva, (or Silva,) an-dR^Ma i sel'vS, (Jos6 Bonifacio,) a distinguished Brazilian, born at Santos in 1765. He studied at the University of Coim- bra in Portugal, and returned to Brazil in 1819. He was a man of great courage, ability, and eloquence, and took the lead in those measures which in 1822 severed Brazil from Portugal and created it an independent empire. He was prime minister of Brazil for a short time in 1822-23, and was appointed guardian of the emperor's minor children in 1 83 1. He died in 1838, leaving sev- eral scientific treatises. His brothers, Antonio Carlos and Martin Fran- cisco DE Andrada, born towards the close of the eigh- teenth century, were both distinguished for their talents and eloquence, and both held high positions under the Brazilian government. Antonio Carlos died in 1845. See J. M. Pereira da Svlva, " Plutarco Brasileiro," 1847; E. JoAQuiM DA Svlva Maia, "Jose Bonifacio de Andrada e Sylva, Elogio historico," 1838; Fletcher and Kidder, "Brazil and the Brazilians," 1868. Andrade or Andrada, (Diogo de Payva — d.\ pi'- vS,,) a learned Jesuit, born at Coimbra, in Portugal, in 1528. He distinguished himself by his talents and elo- quence at the famous Council of Trent, and afterwards wrote an elaborate defence of its doctrines against Chem- nitz, a Protestant controversialist. Died about 1575. Andral, Sw'dRtK, (Gabriel,) an eminent French physician, born in Paris in 1797, was a son of Guillaume, noticed below. He published " Clinique Medicale," (4 vols., 1824-27,) and a " Summary of Pathological An- atomy," (3 vols., 1829,) which had a great success. He wrote also various other medical works. In 1S30 he became professor of pathology, and in 1839 succeeded Broussais in the chair of pathology and therapeut.es, in a, e, T, o, u, y, lojig; k, b, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fSll, fit; mSt; nfit; good; moon* ANDRAL 123 ANDREA Paris. He was admitted into the Institute in 1842. The wife of Dr. Andral was a daughter of Royer-Collard. Died in 1S53. See QiERARD, "La France Litteraire." Andral, (Guillaume,) a distinguished physician, the father of the preceding, ^Yas born in Lot in 1769. He became a physician to the army of Italy, and obtained a high position under Murat at Naoles about 1808. Andray. See Andre. Andre. See Andre.^:. Andre. See Andreas. Andre, ox'dRa', called Syl'vius, [in French, Du Bois, dii bwa',] a French chronicler of the twelfth century. Andre, an'dRi, (Christian Karl,) a German teacher and writer, born at Hildburghausen in 1763. He taught near Gotha and at Briinn, and was editor of a popular magazine called "Hesperus," (1809-31.) Among his numerous works are "Useful Walks for Every Day in the Year," (1790,) and a valuable " Geographico-Statis- tical Description of the Austrian Empire," (1813.) Died at Stuttgart in 1831. Andre, (Emil,) a German writer on the culture and management of forests, was born at Schnepfenthal in 1 790. Andre' b^'d^y, or Saint-Andre, siN'tSN'dRi', (Fran(;ois,) a French medical writer, lived about the close of the seventeenth century. Andre, sometimes written Andray, 6N''dRi', (Jean,) a French historical painter, born at Paris in 1662; died in 1753- AndrC; (Johann,) a celebrated German composer, kapellmeister to the Prince of Prussia, was born at Offen- bach in 1 741. He composed many operas and songs. Died in 1799. Andre,. (Johann Anton,) a musical composer, son of the preceding, was born at Offenbach in 1775. He composed masses, concertos, symphonies, etc., and pub- lished some works which Mozart left in manuscript. Died about 1845. Andre, an'dri or an'dre, (John,) an adjutant-general in the British army of the American Revolution, cele- brated for his complicity in the treason of Arnold, was born in London in 1751. His parents were from Geneva, in Switzerland, where he was educated with a view to becoming a merchant. But, being crossed in love, he abandoned the counting-house for the camp, and received his first commission in the British army in 1 77 1. In 1774 he came to America as a lieutenant in the Royal Fusiliers, and was among the officers captured at Saint John's early in the war by Montgomery. His varied and graceful talents and his engaging manners appear to * have obtained for him the appointment of adjutant-gen- eral with the rank of major, without his performing any distinguished military services. He held, moreover, a facile and at times satirical pen, and occasionally amused himself with caricaturing in rhyme the appearance and exploits of the " rebel " officers. After the evacuation of Philadelphia by the British he was employed to carry on a correspondence with a body of loyalists near the Chesapeake, who were conspiring to restore the royal government. He first introduced himself to the notice of Arnold by means of a letter, written August 16, 1779, to Mrs. Arnold, whose acquaintance he had formed in Philadelphia. Major Andre was employed by Sir Henry Clinton to conduct the secret negotiations with Benedict Arnold for the surrender of West Point ; and for rliis purpose he assumed the name of John Anderson. On the 21st of September, 1780, Major Andre and Arnold had an inter- view at the house of Joshua H. Smith. Arnold furnished Andre a number of papers relating to West Point, in- cluding maps and plans and memoranda of the weakest points where an attack might be made with the best advantage. He also gave him a passport through the American lines. After he parted from Arnold, Smith accompanied him beyond the American outposts, and Andre proceeded towards New York City by land. Andre now pursued his journey in confident security until he had crossed a small stream near Tarrytown, when three men, armed with muskets, emerged from a thicket and brought him to a stand. Losing all caution. he exclaimed, "Gentlemen, I hope you belong to oui party " What party asked the leader. " The lower party," said Andre. " We do," was the reply. Andre then declared himself a British ofiicer on important business, who must not be detained a moment. To his consternation, the party now declared themselves Ameri- cans, and told Andre he was their prisoner. Recovering himself, he attempted to pass off his former declaration as a subterfuge, saying he was a Continental officer procuring information from below, and showed a pass from General Arnold. The suspicions of his captors, however, were fully aroused, and, on searching his per- son, the papers furnished him hy Arnold were found between his stockings and the soles of his feet. As a last resort, Andre offered them his horse and watch, or any reward they might name, if they would let him go. But the sturdy republicans were not to be bribed. They conducted him ten or twelve miles to North Castle, and delivered him to Lieutenant-Colonel Jameson. Rec- ognizing the handwriting of Arnold in the papers found, and perceiving that they were of a dangerous nature. Colonel Jameson forwarded them by express to Wash- ington at Hartford, and then, with an obtuseness almost incredible, was about to send Andre to Arnold with a let- ter stating the circumstances of his arrest and the char- acter of the papers found on him. Major Talmadge, ar- riving soon after, immediately suspected Arnold, and, by earnest entreaty, prevailed on Jameson to detain Andre ; but the letter was suftered to go on and furnish Arnold timely warning to make his escape. Andre was tried by a court-martial and condemned to be hung as a spy. He admitted freely who he was, and for what purpose he came within the American lines, but declined disclosing anything implicating any other person. Sir Henry Clin- ton made great efforts to secure his release. It was intimated to him that Andre would be given up on the surrender of Arnold; but this was not to be thought of. Andre requested that his sentence might be commuted to being shot ; but the magnitude of the plot in which he was implicated forbade any indulgence being shown him. He was executed at Tarrytown on the m.orning of Oc- tober 2, 1780, conducting himself with great fortitude to the last. The day before his execution he sketched, with pen and ink, a miniature likeness of himself, which is now in the Trumbull Gallery of Yale College. In 1821 his remains were transferred to England and in- terred in Westminster Abbey. The names of his captors were John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wart. They were liberally rewarded by Congress, and in 1853 a monument was erected to their memory on the site of Andre's arrest. Joshua H. Smith was tried for treason, but acquitted on the plea of his ignorance of Arnold's traitorous designs. See Life of Benedict Arnold, in Sparks's "American Biography;" WiNTHROP Sargent, " Life and Career of Major John Andre," 1861 ; "Atlantic Monthly" for December, 1S60. Andre, 6N'dRi', L'Abbe, a French writer, born at Marseilles, lived between 1750 and 1800. He published an edition of the works of D'Aguesseau, (13 vols., 1759-90.) Andre, (Rudolph,) a German writer on rural econ- omy, born at Gotha in 1792, was a brother of Emil, above noticed, and was a practical cultivator. It is stated that he first described the art of improving races of animals. Died in 1825. Andre, (Marshal Saint.) See Saint-Andr^. Andre, (Valere.) See Andreas, (Valerius.) Andre, (Yves Marie,) a French Jesuit writer, and professor of mathematics at Caen, born in 1675 in Brit- tany ; died in 1 764. He is known as the author of an " Es- say on the Beautiful," (i 741,) a work of considerable merit. Andrea, an-dRa'S, (Alessandro,) an Italian histori- cal writer, born at Barletta in 15 19. Andrea, (Giovanni,) an Italian scholar, born at Vigevano in 141 7, became Bishop of Aleria in Corsica. He is chiefly remembered as the editor of several clas- sical works published at Rome, among wTiich are "Cae- sar's Works," (1469 ;) " The Decades of Livy," (1470 ;) "The Works of Virgil," (about 1470 ;) "Pliny's Natural History," (1470,) and " Cicero's Orations," (1471.) Died in 1475. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural ; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^"See Explanations, p. 23.) ANDREA 124 ANDREI Andrea, written also Andreas, (Onufrio,) a Nea- politan poet, wrote, besides other works, a heroic poem, called *' Italia Liberata," (1646.) He was ranked among the best Italian poets of his time by Crescimbeni. Died about 1650. Andrea Pisano, (pe-si'no,) a celebrated Italian sculptor and architect, born at Pisa about 1270, was a pupil of Nicola and Giovanni Pisani. He was one of the first who abandoned the Gothic style for the antique models of Greece. He was invited to Florence to exe- cute the sculptures of the fa9ade of Santa Maria del Fiore. At the death of Arnolfo di Lapo, Andrea was appointed superintendent of the public works of Flor- ence. He designed the Castello di Scarperia and the church of San Giovanni at Pistoja. His master-piece of sculpture is the bronze rilievi of the gates of the baptistery of San Giovanni at Florence, (1339.) Died at Florence in 1345. His son Nino was an able sculptor, and finished some of his father's works. See CicoGNARA, " Storia della Scultura." Andrea, (Zoan or Giovanni,) a skilful Italian en- graver, who lived in the early part of the sixteenth century. He copied and imitated the prints of Man- tegna. His works are rare, and command high prices. See Ottley, " Early History of Engraving." Andrea, d', din-dRa'i, (Francesco,) an eminent jurist of Naples, born near Amalfi in 1625 ; died in 1698. Andrea del Castagno. See Castagno. Andrea del Sarto or Vannucchi. See Sarto. Andrea di Luigi. See Luigi. Andreae, in-dRa'a, (Abraham,) a Swedish prelate, born in Angermannland. He was elected Archbishop of Upsal in 1593, before which date he had opposed the attempt of King John to restore the Roman Catholic religion in Sweden. He died in prison in 1607. Andreas or Andrea, in-dRa'i, (or Andreas, ^n- dRa'is,) (Jacob or James,) an eminent German Protest- ant theologian, born at Waiblingen, in Wiirtemberg, in 1528. He was ordained deacon at Stuttgart in 1546, after which he became professor at Tiibingen. He performed many long journeys in Germany to organ- ize the Lutheran worship, and acquired great influ- ence by his learning, energy, and eloquence. He was president of a board of five who, in 1580, produced the " Formula Concordiae," a summary and symbol of faith then adopted, and still recognized, by the Lutheran Church. He wrote many polemical works against the Calvinists and Papists. Died in 1590. See Melchior Adam, " Vitae Gernianorum Theologorum ;" J. V, Andrew, " Fama Andreana reflorescens," etc., 1630; Lebret, *' Programmata III. de J. Andreas Vita," 1799. Andreae, SnMre-e or in-dRa'a, [Fr. Andr6, 6n''- dRa',] (Johannes or Giovanni,) an eminent professor of canon law, was born near Florence about 1275. He was professor at Bologna for many years. Died in 1348. He was reputed the most celebrated canonist of the fourteenth century. His " Commentaries on the Decre- tals" were highly esteemed. See Fantuzzi, " Scrittori Bolognesi ;" Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." AndresB, (Johann Georg Reinhardt,) a German apothecary, born at Hanover in 1724, He wrote treat- ises on chemistry, botany, etc., which appeared in the " Hanover Magazine," and " Letters from Switzerland," (2d edition, 1776.) Died in 1793. Andreas or Andrea, [Fr. Andre, SnMr^',] (Jo- hann Valentin,) a German satirical writer of great merit, born at Herrenberg, in Wiirtemberg, in August, 1586, was a grandson of Jacob Andreae, (1528-90.) He became deacon at Vaihingen in 16 14, town-pastor at Calw in 1620, court preacher at Stuttgart in 1639, and ecclesiastic counsellor to the Duke of Brunswick- Wol- fenbiittel in 1642. The institution of the order of Rosi- crucians is ascribed to him by some writers ; but the disputes on this question have not dispelled its obscurity. His principal work is a "Hundred Satirical Dialogues," (" Menippus, sive Dialogorum Satiricorum Centuria," 161 7.) He showed a liberal philosophical spirit in his Latin work entitled *' The Images of the Virtues and Vices of Human Life," (1619.) He also published poems in German, which are praised by Herder. Died in 1654. "Andreas," says Hallam, "was a man above his age, and a singular contrast to the narrow and pe- dantic herd of German scholars and theologians." See Seybold, " Selbstbiographien beruhmter Manner," 1799; W, Hossbach, "J. V. Andreae und seiner Zeitalter dargestellt," 1819; Flogel, "Geschichte der Komischen Literatur." Andreae, (Laurentius,) [Sw. Lars An'derson,] one of the principal agents in the introduction of the Reformation into Sweden. He was converted to the Protestant faith in 1 520, and appears to have become soon after the principal adviser of Gustavus Vasa, who appointed him chancellor. In 1526 he published a translation of the New Testament into Swedish. He afterwards incurred the suspicion and displeasure of his sovereign, and died in obscurity in 1552. See Gezelius, " Biographiskt-Lexicon." Andreae, (Tobias,) a German Cartesian philosopher, born at Braunfels in 1604, was professor of Greek at Groningen. Died in 1676. Andreae, (Tobias,) a German physician and profes- sor of philosophy, was born at Bremen in 1633 ; died at Franeker in 1685. Andreani, in-dRi-^'nee, (Andrea,) a noted Italian engraver, surnamed Mantuano, {i.e. the "Mantuan,") born at Mantua about 1540 ; died in 1623. He carried to great perfection the art of engraving on wood in chiaroscuro. His master-piece is "The Triumph of Caesar." An'dre-as, [Gr. 'k.v6peag,'\ the name of several an- cient physicians, none of whom is of sufficient note to deserve a place here. An'dreas, an archbishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, supposed to have lived about the close of the fifth cen- tury. He wrote a commentary on the Apocalypse. An'dreas surnamed Creten'sis, ("of Crete,") a native of Damascus, who became Archbishop of Crete near the end of the seventh century. Andreas, (Italian.) See Andrea. Andreas, in-dRa''Ss, Archbishop of Lund, in Sweden, wrote " Hexaemeron," a Latin poem on the Creation, and was author or compiler of the "Laws of Zealand." Died in 1228. An-dre'as or An'drew, (of Naples,) called also Andreasso, in-dRi-Ss'so, born about 1324, was the second son of Carobert, King of Hungary. His marriage with Joanna, heiress of the throne of Naples, was cele- brated in 1 33 1, and she became queen regnant in 1334. A conspiracy having been formed against him by sev- eral princes and barons of Naples, he was assassinated in 1345- Andreas, 3.n-dRa'ds, a liberal German prelate. Arch- bishop of Grain, (Carniola,) attempted to reform the Romish Church, the corruptions of which he boldly ex- posed. He was committed to prison and strangled in 1484. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Andreas or Andrew, (John,) surnamed Ratisbo- nen'sis, {i.e. " of Ratisbon,") sometimes called Andreas Magister, {i.e. " Andrew the Master,") a learned Ger- man chronicler who lived about the year 1400. Andreas, (Onuphrius.) See Andrea, (Onufrio.) Andreas, an-dRa'3.s, or Andre, SN^dRi', (Valerius,) a Flemish bibliographer, born in Brabant in 1588. He became professor of Hebrew and of law at Louvain. His reputation is founded chiefly on his " Bibliotheca Belgica," (1623,) a work of some value on the life and writings of eminent Belgians. Died in 1656. See Felix Neve, "V. Andre professeurd'Hebreu, etc.," 1846; E. Vanderlinden, "V. Andre;e Pr^econium," iSso. Andreasi or Andreassi, an-dRi-is'see, (Ippolito,) an Italian painter, born at Mantua, was a pupil of Giulio Romano, and lived about 1600. Andre-Bardon. See DandriS. V Andre du Bois. See Andr6 Sylvius. Andreevsky, Sn-dRa-ev'ske, (Stepan,) a Russian physician, who became minister of finances in 1807 ; died in 1 81 8. Andrei, an-dRa^ or in-dRa', or An'drew, (Yaro- slavitch, yd-ro-sli'vitch,) a younger brother of Alexan- a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fSr, f3.ll, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; ANDREI ANDREW der-Nevsky, waged war against Batoo- (or Batou-) Khan the Mogul. Died in 1264. Andrei or Andrew, surnamed Yoorevitch or You- REVITCH, yoo're-vitch, Grand Duke of Russia, born in mo, was a warlike prince, and extended his dominions by conquest. He was assassinated in 11 74. 'Andreini, in-dRa-ee'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian actor and writer of comedies, born at Pistoja, lived about the close of the sixteenth century. He is supposed to have died about 1620. Andreini, (Giovanni Baitista,) son of the pre- ceding, also an actor and writer, was born at Florence about"i578; died about 1650. Besides other successful works, he wrote a sacred drama entitled "L'Adamo," (li-d^'mo,) (or "Adam," 1613,) from which Milton is by some supposed to have derived the idea of " Paradise Lost." Andreini, (Isabella,) a native of Padua, the wife of Francesco, noticed above, was both an accomplished actress and a poetess. Though greatly admired for her personal attractions, she maintained an irreproachable character. Died in 1604, aged forty-two. Among her poems is "Mirtilla, a Pastoral Fable," (1588.) Andreini, (Pietro Andrea,) a learned Italian an- tiquary, born at Florence about 1650; died in 1720. Andrelini, Sn-dRa-lee'nee, (Publio Fausto,) [in Latin, Pub'lius Faus'tus Andreli'nus,] an Italian writer of Latin poetry, was born at Forli about 1450. In 1489 he was appointed by Charles VIII. professor of classical literature in the University of Paris, where he died in 15 18. His pretensions as a poet were ridi- culed by Erasmus, who said his verses lacked only one syllable, i.e. seiise. Andreoli, Sn-dRi-o'Iee, (Giorgio da Gubbio— d^ goob'be-o,) an Italian sculptor and worker in terra-cotta, lived about 1500. Andreossi or Andreossy, SN'dRiVse', (Antoine Francois,) Count of, a distinguished French military officer and engineer, born at Castelnaudary, in Langue- doc, in 1 761. He served with distinction in Italy, (1796,) became general of brigade about 1797, and went to Egypt in 1798. He contributed, as a member of the Listitute of Cairo, to the labours of the " Commission of Egypt," and wrote excellent memoirs on Lake Menza- leh and the natron lakes. He officiated as chief of the staff of Bonaparte on the i8th Brumaire, 1799, and was made general of division, and appointed succes- sively ambassador to London, Vienna, and Constan- tinople. On the restoration of the Bourbons (1814) he was recalled from the Ottoman Porte, and remained in private life till the revolution of March, 1 81 5, when he again accepted office under Napoleon as the head of the war department. After the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo, he was one of the five commissioners sent to negotiate an armistice with the allied powers, on which occasion he gave his ready consent to the recall of the Bourbons. He became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1826, was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1827, and died in 1828. He left, besides otherworks, a "Journey to the Mouth of the Black Sea, or Essay on the Bosphorus and Delta of Thrace," (1818.) See Marion, "Notice n(5crologique sur le Cointe Andreossi," 1843; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Andreossy or Andreossi, (Francois,) an ancestor of the preceding, born in Paris in 1633. He was an eminent mathematician and engineer, and deserves es- pecial notice as the projector of the Canal of Langue- doc. Died in 1688. Andreozzi, Sn-dRi-ot'see, (Gaetano,) an Italian dra- matic composer, born at Naples in 1763 ; died in 1826. Andres, du'dR^s, (Bonaventura Johann,) a learned Jesuit, born at Nuremberg in 1744; died in 1822. Andres, Sn-dR^s', (Carlos,) a Spanish lawyer, born near Valencia in 1753. He translated into Spanish several 'vorks of his brother Juan Andres. Died in 1820. Andres, (Juan,) a most learned Spanish author, born at Planes, in the province of Valencia, in 1740, joined the Society of Jesuits in 1754. When the Jesuits were expelled from Spain in 1767, he went first to Corsica and afterwards to Italy. The most important and best- known of his numerous works is that entitled " On the Origin, Progress, and Present State of all Literatuic," (" Deir Origine, de' Progressi, e dello Stato attuale d'ogni Letteratura," 7 vols., 1782-99.) He was appointed by Joseph Bonaparte prefect or keeper of the royal library at Naples in 1806. His best works are in Italian, al- though he sometimes wrote in Latin, and occasionally in Spanish. His "Essay on the Philosophy of Galileo" (1776) is particularly commended. Died in 181 7. Sea TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Andres de Gusseme, Sn-dR§s' di goos'si-mi, (ToMAS,) a Spanish numismatist of the eighteenth cen- tury. Andres de Uztarroz, In-dR^s' di ooth-tlr-r6th', (Juan Francisco,) an eminent Spanish historian and antiquary, born at Saragossa about 1606. He obtained the title of chronicler of the kingdom. Among his numer- ous works is one called "Annals of the Crown and Kingdom of Aragon," (1663.) Died in 1653. An'drew, [Gr. 'kidpeaq; Fr. Andre, SnMr^; Lat. An'dreas,] Saint, one of the twelve apostles, was a brother of Saint Peter, and a fisherman of Galilee. He appears to have found the Messiah and become his dis- ciple before any other of the twelve, with perhaps one exception. (See John i. 40.) He is supposed to have preached the gospel in Greece, Thrace, and the coun- tries north of the Danube. Tradition adds that he suf- fered martyrdom at Patrae, (now Patras,) in Achaia. (See Matthew iv. 18, x. 2; Mark i. 16, xiii. 3; Luke vi. 14; John vi. 8, xii. 22.) An'drew or Andrds, on'drSs, the name of three Hungarian kings of the line of Arpad, between 1046 and 1301. Andrew I. ascended the throne about 1046; died about 1060. Andrew II. of Hungary, born about 11 76, began to reign in 1205. In 1222, seven years after King John of England had granted the Magna Charta to his barons, Andrew II., scarcely less weak than his English con- temporary, promulgated the Golden Bull, or Magna Charta of Hungary, in which the following remarkable clause occurs : " If we, or any of our successors, ever at any time wish to act contrary to this our ordinance, then let our bishops and the other barons and nobles of our kingdom, all and sundry, present and to come, have the free power of resisting and contradicting us and our suc- cessors, as a perpetual privilege, without the reproach of any want of fidelity." This provision was confirmed and sworn to by every successive king of Hungary for more than four hundred years. In 1687 it was modified with the consent of the states. Andrew died in 1235, and was succeeded by his son Bela. Andrew III., King of Hungary, a grandson of An- drew II., was born at Venice. He began to reign in 1290. The pope claimed Plungary as a fief of the pope- dom, and made a donation of it to Charles Martel, son of the King of Naples, whose army was defeated by An- drew (1291) at Agram. He died in 1301, and was the last king of the line of Arpad. Andrew of Crete. See Andreas. Andrew, Prince of Russia. See Andrel Andrew of Pisa. See Andrea Pisano. An'drew, (James,) a Scottish mathematician and grammarian, born in 1774; died in Edinburgh in 1833. An'drew, (John Albion,) an American statesman, born at Windham, Maine, in May, 1818. He graduated at Bowdoin College about 1837, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in Boston in 1840. He gained dis- tinction by his opposition to slavery, and was elected a member of the legislature by the Republicans of Boston in 1858. In i860 he was elected Governor of Massa- chusetts for one year. Within a week after President Lincoln's call for seventy-five thousand men, April 15, 1 86 1, he dispatched five regiments in answer to that summons. He was elected Governor the second time, in 1 861, and afterwards re-elected at three successive elections. In his message of January, 1862, he said, " The great rebellion must be put down, and its pro- moters crushed beneath the ruins of their own ambition. The greatest crime of history must receive a doom so swift and sure that the enemies of popular government shall stand in awe while they contemplate the elastic energy and concentrative power of democratic institu- € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, y.^ guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as 2; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ANDREWS 126 JNDRIEUX tions and a free people." Governor Andrew acquired great and well-deserved popularity by his assiduous at- tention to the wants of the soldiers in the field, by the fervid eloquence with which he animated the people during the civil war, and by his persistent efforts for the arming and liberation of the negroes. He died, deeply lamented, in October, 1867, A meeting of members of the legislature of Massachusetts passed a resolution — "That in his decease the commonwealth and the nation alike have suffered an irreparable loss ; that his reputa- tion had become national, and we might well have hoped for him the highest national offices and honours." "Among the many heroic men," says Mrs. Stowe, "who have sacrificed their lives in the great battle of liberty in our country, there is no one who deserves a more honoured memory than John A. Andrew of Mas- sachusetts." See Harriet Beecher Stowe, "Men of Our Times," 1868; P. C. Heauley, "Massachusetts in the Rebellion," p. 18; " Notice of the Official Life of Governor Andrew," (anonymous,) 1868. An'drews, (Annie M.,) an American lady, born about 1835. She devoted herself to the relief of the sick as a nurse during the prevalence of the yellow fever at Norfolk, Virginia, in 1855. Andrews, (I£benezer S.,) an American publisher, born in Boston in 1766. As a partner of Isaiah Thomas, he established a publishing house at Baltimore in 1794, and another at Albany in 1796. Died in 1 85 1. Andrews, (Ethan Allen,) LL.D., an American scholar and writer, born at New Britain, in Connecticut, in 1787, graduated at Yale College in 1810. He was for several years professor of the ancient languages in the University of North Carolina. He was the author of a number of school-books, chiefly designed for those com- mencing the study of the Latin language. Andrews and Stoddard's " Latin Grammar" in particular has had an extensive circulation. His most important work is an excellent Latin-English Lexicon, (1850,) on the basis of Freund's " Worterbuch der Lateinischen Sprache." Died in 1858. An'drews, (Henry,) an English artist and botanist, who resided in London. He published a series of col- oured engravings with descriptions of rare plants, en- titled "The Botanist's Repository," (10 vols., 1 797-1814.) Among his other works is a "Monograph of the Genus Rosa," with coloured figures. Andrews, (James Petit,) an English historical wri- ter, born near Newbury, in Berks, in 1737. He pub- lished a " History of Great Britain connected with the Chronology of Europe," (vol. i., part i., 1794, part ii., 1795,) a work of some merit, which was never finished. It is composed on a new plan, and comprises the period from Caesar's invasion to the accession of Edward IV. Among his other works is a curious and amusing collec- tion of "Anecdotes, etc.. Ancient and Modern," (1789,) and a " Continuation of Henry's History of Great Brit- ain" (i vol., 1796) to the accession of James 1. Died in 1797. See "Gentleman's Magazine," September, 1797. Andrews, (John,) LL.D., an English historian, for whose biography we find scanty materials. His princi- pal works are a " History of the Revolutions of Den- mark," (2 vols., 1774,) and a " History of the War with America, France, Spain, and Holland," (4 vols., 1785-86). He died in his seventy-third year, in 1809. " By his death," says the " Gentleman's Magazine," " the nation is deprived of an able historian and a profound scholar." See "Gentleman's Magazine," February, 1809. Andrews, (John,) D.D., an Episcopal clergyman, born in Cecil county, Maryland, in 1746. In 1789 he was appointed professor of moral philosophy in the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania, and in 1810 became provost of that institution. He published " Elements of Logic." Died in 1813. Andrews or Andrewes, an'druz, (Lancelot,) an English divine of great learning, was born in London in 1555, and educated at Cambridge. Having attained distinction as a preacher, he became one of the chaplains of Queen Elizabeth, who appointed him Dean of West- minster in 1601. He was one of the ten divines selected to translate the Pentateuch in tht reign of James I., and was chosen Bishop of Chichester in 1605. At the re- quest of the king, he wrote a work called "Torture of Tortus," ("Tortura Torti," 1609,) in which he de- fended the authority of kings in ecclesiastical affairs, in answer to Matthew Tortus. He was translated to the see of Ely in 1609 and made a privy councillor. In 1618 he was promoted to the see of Winchester, and became dean of the royal chapel. He died in 1626, leaving a high reputation for piety, moderation, and charity. Among his most popular works we may name his " Manual of Private Devotions and Meditations for every Day in the Week," and a " Manual of Directions for the Visitation of the Sick." He was probably more learned in canon law and ecclesiastical antiquities than any of his English contemporaries. His style was once greatly admired, but is too affected and pedantic to please the critics of the present age. His death was deplored by Milton in a Latin elegy. See Cassan, " Lives of the Bishops of Winchester ;" Fuller, " Worthies of England," and his " Church History ;" Isaacson, " Life of Bishop Andrews," 1650. Andrews, (Miles Peter,) M.P., an English drama- tist, but more noted as a man of fashion than as an au- thor, was a son of a merchant of London, and inherited a fortune. He wrote several comedies, one of which is called "Better Late than Never," (1790.) He repre- sented Bewdley in Parliament from about 1790 till his death. His dinners and entertainments were celebrated. Died in 1814. See " Biographia Dramatica." An'drews, (Thomas,) M.D., F.R.S., a chemist, born in Belfast, graduated at Edinburgh in 1835. He re- ceived from the Royal Society, in 1845, a medal for his researches into the heat produced by chemical combina- tion. He became professor of chemistry at Belfast in 1849. Andri. See Andry. Andria, an^dRe-S, (Nicola or Niccolo,) an able Italian scientific writer, born in Otranto in 1748. He became successively professor of natural history, (1775,) physiology, (1801,) and the theory of medicine, (1808,) at the University of Naples. Among his works are "Elements of Chemical Philosophy," in Latin, (1786,) " Institutes of the Practice of Medicine," (" Institu- tiones Medicinae Practice," 1790,) and "General Ob- servations on the Theory of Life," (1804.) Died in 1814. His Latin works have been translatecl into Italian, and the last of the above-named into French. See Cali.isen, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon." Andrian-Warburg, von, fon in'dRe-in -(^aR^booRG, (Victor,) Baron, an Austrian writer on politics and government, born near Goritz in 1813. Andriessens, in^'dRes'sens, (Anton,) a skilful Dutch landscape-painter, born at Amsterdam in 1746. He was a member of the Academy of that city. Died in 1813. Andriessens, (J.,) a brother of the precedmg, born at Amsterdam in 1742, was a painter of history and land- scape, and a distinguished teacher of art. Several emi- nent artists were pupils of his school at Amsterdam. Died in 1819. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Hollandais," etc. Andrieu or Andrieux, SN^dRe'uh', (Bertrand,) a celebrated French medallist and mint engraver, born at Bordeaux about 1760. He worked in Paris, and ex- celled in minuteness and correctness of execution. He engraved medals for the most iniportant events of the reign of Napoleon. Among his master-pieces are " Na- poleon crossing the Alps," " The Battle of Marengo," and "The Peace of Vienna." Died in 1822, Andrieu, 6NMRe''uh', (Marie Martin Antoine,) a French military officer, born in 1768, became adjutant- general in 1797. Died in vSaint Domingo in 1802. Andrieux, SN'dRe'uh', (FRANgois G^'uillaume Jean Stanislas,) a popular P'rench dramatist and poet, born at Strasburg in 1759. He studied law, which he prac- tised for soine years. In 1787 he produced a successful comedy, " The Giddy-Heads," (" Les Etourdis.") He hailed the Revolution with joy ; he was chosen a mem- ber of the Council of Five Hundred in 1798, and of the Tribunat in 1800. Having been removed from this office, on account of his independence, in 1802, he re a, e, ■}, 5, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, skori; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f;\ll, f^t; met; n6t; good; moonj JNDRIOLI 127 AN BROS nounced politics. In 1804 he became professor of gram- mar and belles-lettres in the Ecole Polytechnique, and librarian of the Senate. He was chosen, at the unani- mous desire of the members of the French Academy, professor of literature in the College of France in 1814, which position he held nearly twenty years. As a lec- turer he was very popular. In 1829 he was elected per- petual secretary of the French Academy. Among his numerous works are several comedies in verse, one of which is called "La Comedienne," (1816,) occasional poems, and " Lectures on the Philosophy of the Belles- Lettres." Died in Paris in 1833. See A. H. Taillandier, "Notice sur la Vie et las Ouviages d'Andrieux," 1850; M. Thiers, " Discours sur Aiidrieux," in the " Recueil de I'Academie Frangaise," 1S30-39; also article by A. H. Taillandier, in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Andrioli, ln-dRe-o'lee,(GiROLAMO,) an Italian painter of Verona, lived about 1610. Andriolli, Sn-dRe-oKlee, (Michel Angelo,) a phy- sician and medical writer of Verona, lived about the end of the seventeenth century. He wrote a " Manual of Practical Medicine," (1700,) and other medical works of some merit. _ An-dris'cus, [Gr. 'k.v6pLaKog,] a native of Adramyt- tium, in Asia Minor, declared himself, about 150 B.C., the son of Perseus, King of Macedon, assumed the name of Philip, (whence he was called Pseudo-Philippus, i.e. the "false Philip,") and made himself master of all Macedonia, He defeated one Roman army, but was at' length defeated himself and taken prisoner by Caecilius Metellus, 148 B.C. Androcle. See Androcles. An'dro-cles, ['AvJpo/cAf/f,] an Athenian demagogue, enemy of Alcibiades, after whose exile, 415 B.C., lie be- came the chief of the democratic party at Athens. He was assassinated in 411 B.C. Androcles or An'dro-clus, [Fr. Androcle, 6n^- dRok'K,] a slave who lived at Rome about the beginning of the Christian era, was the subject of a well-known story, which is briefly as follows. He ran away from his master, and hid himself in a wild region of Africa, where he extracted a thorn from the foot of a lion that he met in a cave. The grateful animal, in return, shared with Androcles the products of the chase for several years. Having been caught by his master, An- drocles was condemned to fight in the circus with a lion, which proved to be his former friend, and received him with caresses. Androcles was then pardoned and set free. This remarkable narrative is related by Aulus Gellius on the authority of one who affirmed that he had witnessed the scene at the amphitheatre. See "The Guardian," No. 139, by Addison; Dion Cassius; AuLus Gellius. An'dro-clus, a son of Codrus, King of Athens, led a colony to Asia Minor, and became King of Ephesus, probably about 1050 B.C. An-dro-9y'des, ['Kv6poKv6rj^,] a Greek painter, a na- tive of Cyzicus, was a rival of Zeuxis, and lived about 400 or 375 B.C. Androcydes, a Greek physician who lived about 330 B.C. An-dro'ge-us, [Gr. 'kvipoyeug ; Fr. Androg^e, 6n^- dRo'zhi',] a son of Minos, King of Crete, vanquished all the Greek athletes at the games of the Panathenasa. It was fabled that yEgeus, moved by envy, caused him to be assassinated, and that Minos waged war against Athens to avenge his death. An-drom'a-ehe, [Gr. ' Ardpoiiuxv ; Fr. Andromaque, 5N'dRo'mtk',] a Trojan lady, the wife of Hector, cele- brated for her beauty and virtue. On the fall of Troy she became the captive of Pyrrhus. She was afterwards the wife of Helenus, a son of Priam. An-drom'a-ehus, [Gr.' kvdpo^axog,] an ancient phy- sician, native of Crete, who became "Archiatros" {i.e. " chief physician") to the Roman emperor Nero. He invented or improved a famous medical compound called "Theri^aca Androm'achi." Andromaque. See Andromache. An-drom'e-da, [Gr. 'AvSpofiedrj ; Fr. Androm^de, Ss'dRo'mid',] a daughter of Cepheus, King of Ethiopia, and of Cassiopeia. According to the Greek poets, she was rescued from a sea-monster by Perseus, and was transformed into a constellation of the celestial sphere. Andronic, the French of Andronicus, which see. An-dro-m''cns [Gr. 'AvdpoviKog] of Olyn^'i-hus, a general of Alexander the Great. In 314 B.C. he fought for Demetrius against Ptolemy. Andronicus, an Egyptian Jew, who lived in the reign of Ptolemy Philometor, in the second century B.C. In a judicial contest between the Jews and Samaritans, re- specting the authority of the temples at Jerusalem and Gerizim in Samaria, Andronicus pleaded the cause of the [ews with success before the king. Andronicus, a Greek poet of high reputation, born in Egypt, lived about 360 a.d. His works are not ex- tant. Androni'cus, (Joan''nes Callis'tus,) a Greek teacher, born at Thessalonica, (Saloniki,) was learned in grammar and philosophy. After the capture of Con- stantinople in 1453, he fled to Italy, and taught the Greek language at Rome and Florence. He was afterwards a professor in the University of Paris. Died about 1478. Andronicus, (Marcus Livius.) See Livius An- dronicus. Andronicus, (Marcus Pomphjus,) an Epicurean philosopher of Syria, taught at Rome about 60 B.C. Androni'cus Rho'dius, (i.e. "of Rhodes,") a Peripatetic philosopher, who collected, revised, and ar- ranged the works of Aristotle about 80 B.C. He is said to have invented the term Metaphysics. His works are lost. Andronicus An'ge-lus, a nephew of Alexis Com nenus, was a general in the reign of Manuel, 1143-80 His sons Isaac and Alexis became emperors. Androni'cus I., Com-ne'nus, [Gr. 'AvdpoviKog Kofi vrjvuc; Fr. Andronic, oN'dRo'n^k',] a Byzantine em peror, remarkable for his talents, personal beauty, strength, profligacy, and cruelty. He was born about 1 1 15, and was a grandson of Alexis I. Comnenus. He succeeded in getting himself appointed regent during the minority of Alexis II. ; but, abusing the powers thus con- ferred, he put that prince and his mother the empress Maria to death, and usurped the throne, in 1 183. Some of the nobles having formed a conspiracy against him, he determined to exterminate the whole body of the aristocracy. When multitudes had already perished, and his cruel purpose seemed on the point of being com- pletely fulfilled, the people of Constantinople rose in insurrection, seized Andronicus, and, after inflicting on him every species of indignity, put him to death, in 1 185. See Nicetas, "Andronicus Comnenus;" Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Androni^cus Cyrrhes'tes, (sTr-r5s't^z,) [Kvji/^^arr/f,] a Greek architect, who is supposed to have designed the Tower of the Winds at Athens, which was intended to show the direction of the wind. Andronicus II., Palaeologus, (pa-le-oKo-gus,) [Gr. Tla2ai6?iOyo^,] a son of the emperor Michael, was born abc^lit 1260, and began to reign in 1283. He manifested a decided hostility to the Roman Pontiff, by whom he was excommunicated in 1307. He waged war with va- rious success against the Turks. In 1328 he was de- posed by his grandson Andronicus, and died about 1332. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Andronicus III., Palaeologus, grandson of the pre- ceding, was born about 1296. The emperor his grand- father resolved, on account of his dissolute habits, to deprive him of his right to the succession. After a civil war of several years between the young prince and his grandfather, the latter abdicated in 1328. Andronicus III. was defeated by the Turks in 1330, and was, from the time of his accession, involved in almost continual wars. Died in 1341, aged forty-five, and v/as succeeded by his son John. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." An'drps, (Edmund,) an English gentleman, born in London in 1637, was in 1672 major in Prince Rupert's regiment of dragoons. In 1674 he was appointed Gov- ernor of New York. He was recalled in 1681, and re- ceived the honour of knighthood. In 1686, James II., having resolved to unite the whole of New England under one government, appointed Sir Edmund Andros f as 9 as s; g /larJ; g as G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ANDROS 128 ANGELIS Governor of the same, and subsequently, in 1688, of New York. In consequence of his arbitrary proceedings, his administration became very unpopular. On the news of the landing of the Prince of Orange in England, the inhabitants of Boston rose in insurrection, (April, 1689,) imprisoned Andros, and restored Bradstreet, the former Governor. In the following July, orders came from King William to send Andros to England ; but, the charges against him having been withdrawn, he escaped -mpunished, and afterwards, in 1692, was appointed Governor of Virginia. He was removed in 1698, and died in England in 17 13 or 1 7 14. See Belknap, "History of New Hampshire;" Neal, "History of New England;" Bancroft, "History of the United States," vols. ii. and iii. ; Hildreth, "History of the United States." An'dros, (Thomas,) an American divine and patriot, born at Norwich, Connecticut, in 1759. He fought at the battles of Long Island and White Plains, was after- wards taken prisoner, and confined in a prison-ship, from which he escaped. He preached more than forty years at Berkeley, Massachusetts. Died in 1845. An-dros'the-nes, [GxJ kvi^poadevrig,] a Greek sculptor of Athens, lived about 420 B.C., and adorned the temple of Apollo at Delphos. Andros thenes of Thasos, a general of Alexander the Great, accompanied Nearchus in the expedition to explore the Persian Gulf. An-dro'ti-on, ['Ai'dponwv,] an Athenian orator and demagogue, a pupil of Isocrates, lived about 350 B.C. We have an oration of Demosthenes against a political measure which Androtion advocated. Androuet du Cerceau, SnMroo^A' dii sSr'sS', (Jacques,) a skilful French architect, born at Paris, (or, as some writers state, at Orleans,) was a Protestant. He was appointed royal architect about 1578, and designed the Pont Neuf, at Paris. He was employed by Henry IV. in the extension of the Tuileries, and is supposed to have commenced the gallery of the Louvre. He pub- lished several architectural works, one of which is called "The Most Excellent Buildings {Bdtimeiits) of France," (1576.) Died about 1592, in exile for his religion. See Dezallier d'Argenville, "Vies des fameux Architectes." Andry, SnMrc', (Charles Louis Francois,) a French physician, born in Paris in 1741. He wrote an able "Treatise on the Induration of Cellular Tissue in New-born Infants," (1788.) He was one of the con- sulting physicians of Napoleon I. Died in 1829. Andry, (Nicolas,) surnamed Boisregard, (bw^R'- gtR',) a French physician and medical writer, born at Lyons in 1658, became dean of the faculty of medicine in the University of Paris in 1724. He lost this position after the lapse of two years. His "Treatise on the Gen- eration of Worms in the Human Body" (1700) was reprinted and translated into English, German, Italian, and Dutch. Died in 1742. Aneau or Anneau, t'n5', (Barthelemy,) a French poet and historian, born at Bourges, was favourable to the Protestant faith. He was killed by a mob in 1561. Anel, t^n^K, (Dominique,) a distinguished French surgeon, born at Toulouse in 1678. He introduced important improvements m the operations for aneurism and fistula lachrymalis. His method for the former was further improved by John Hunter. He practised in Paris with high reputation, chiefly as an oculist, and wrote several surgical works. Died probably about 1725. See "Biographie Medicale." Aneley. See Annesley. Anelli, i-neKlee, (Angelo,) an Italian poet and pro- fessor, born near Brescia in 1761. He became professor of history and eloquence at Brescia in 1802, and of fo- rensic eloquence at Milan in 1809. Among his works are odes, elegies, comedies, and a humorous satirical poem called " The Chronicles of Pindus," (" Le Cronache di Pindo," 181 1,) which is commended. Died in 1820. Anerio, 3.-na're-o, (Felice,) a celebrated Italian composer, was born at Rome about 1560. He composed both sacred and secular music, and succeeded Pales- trina as composer to the chapel of the pope. Died about 1630. See Fetis, "Biographie Unlverselle des Musiciens." Anerio, (Giovanni Francesco,) a composer and musician, a brother of the preceding, was born at Rome about 1567 ; died after 1603. Anesi, ^-na'see, (Paolo,) a painter, born at Florence, lived in the first half of the eighteenth century. An'eu-rin, a Welsh poet of the sixth century. Among his works is a poem of nine hundred lines, called the "Gododin," which is still extant. See E. Jones, " Relicks of the Welsh Bards." Anfossi, ^n-fos'see, (Pasquale,) a successful Italian dramatic composer, born at Naples about 1733. He lived in Paris, London, and Rome, and composed many operas, oratorios, masses, and motets. Among his best operas are "Antigone" and " L'Avaro." He died at Rome about 1795. Anfosso, in-fos'so, (Jacopo,) an able Italian en- graver, worked at Pavia in the sixteenth century. Ange de Saint-Joseph, 6Nzh deh siN'zho'zgf , or Joseph Labrosse, (It'bRoss',) a French missionary, born at Toulouse in 1636, laboured in Persia. Died in 1697. Ange de Sainte-Rosalie, 5Nzh deh s^Nt'ro^zt'le', or FRANgois Raffard, (ri'ftR^,) a French monk, born at Blois in 1655. He wrote a History of the House of France. Died in 1726. Angela of Brescia, or Angela Merici, Sn'ji-U ma-ree'chee, who founded the order of Ursuline nuns, ,was born near Brescia in 1511 ; died in 1540. Angeli, (French and German.) See Angely. An'ge-li, (singular, An'ge-lus,) the name of a By- zantine family, several of whose members were empe- rors of Constantinople ; viz., Isaac Angelus, who died in 1204, Alexis III., (see Alexis,) and Alexis IV. Angeli, in'ja-lee, (Bonaventura,) an Italian writer and jurist, born at Ferrara about 1525 ; died about 1592. His most important work is a "History of Parma," (159 1.) He also wrote several legal treatises. Angeli, in'ja-lee, (Filippo,) an Italian painter of landscapes and battles, born in Rome, was esteemed one of the best landscape-painters of his time. He worked at Florence, to which he removed in 1612, and was pa- tronized by the Grand Duke Cosmo. In his works the aerial perspective is w^ell expressed, and he is said to have been the first painter who applied the strict rules of perspective to landscapes. He was sometimes called Filippo Napolitano, because he lived at Naples in his youth. Died about 1645. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Angeli, (Stefano,) an able Italian mathematician, who lived about 1650, was a pupil of Cavalieri. He taught mathematics at Padua, advocated the Copernican system, and published, besides other works, " Proble- mata Geometrica," (1658.) Angelico, (Era.) See Fiesole. Angelico, in-jSKe-ko, (Michel Angelo,) an Italian apothecary, born at Vicenza, lived about 1600. Angelico, (Michel Angelo,) an Italian poet, born at Vicenza. He entered the service of the emperor Leopold in 1690 as imperial poet, and lived at Vienna. Among his works is a volume of " Lyric Poems," ("Poesie liriche," 1665.) Died at Vienna in 1697. Angelio, an-ja'le-o, or degli Angeli, daKyee ^n'- ji-lee, (PiETRO,) [Lat. Pe'trus Ange'lius,] a distin- guished Italian scholar and writer of Latin poetry, was born at Barga, (whence he was called Barg^us, bar- je''us,) in Lucca, in 15 17. He was professor of belles- lettres, etc. at Pisa for about twenty-five years. Among many other poems, he wrote a Latin epic on the con* quest of Jerusalem by the crusaders, entitled "The Syriad," (" Syriados Libri XII.," 1591,) a work which was greatly admired by his contemporaries and was even compared to Tasso's immortal poem. In the estimation, however, of more recent critics, it possesses but little merit. His poem on hunting, " Cynegeticon, vel de Venatione," (1562,) is commended as his best work. Died in 1596. See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia;" Ginguen^, " Histoire Litteraire d' Italic." Angelis, an'ji-l^s, or degli Angeli, dil'yee Sn'ji-lee, (Alessandro,) an Italian astronomer, born at Spoleto in 1562; died in 1620. a, e, 1, 0, ii, y, long; \ 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, 3?, short; a, i, 9, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; ANGhLIS 129 ANGLESET Angelis, (Filitpo.) See An-geli. 1 Angelis, 6.N''2ha''less'', (Pierre,) a French painter of landscapes and conversation-pieces, born at Dunkirk in 1685. He worked several years in England with suc- cess, visited Rome in 1728, and afterwards settled at Rennes, where he died in 1734. " His manner," says Walpole, " was a mixture of Teniers and Watteau, with more grace than the former, more nature than the latter." See Walpole, " Anecdotes of Painting." Angelis, de, da an'ja-les, (Domfnico,) a Neapolitan biographer, born at Lecce in 1675; died in 1719. Angelis, de,'{GiROLAMO,) a devoted Jesuit mission- ary, born in Sicily in 1567. Fie visited the Japanese islands in 1602, and, after having made many thousand converts, was burnt alive in 1623. Angelis, de, (Paolo,) an Italian antiquary, born in Syracuse ; died in 1647. 'Angelis, de, da ax'zha-les, (Pedro,) a Portuguese publicist, born in Italy, resided at Buenos Ayres. He published in Spanish a work on the history of the prov- inces of Rio de la Plata (in seven volumes, the first of which appeared in 1836.) It is entitled " Coleccion de Obras y Documentos relativos a la Historia," etc. Angell, an'jel, (Joseph K.,) a distinguished Ameri- can writer on law, born at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1794. He published, besides other works, a "Treatise on the Right of Property in Tide-Waters," (1826.) In conjunction with Samuel Ames, he wrote a "Treatise on the Law of Private Corporations Aggregate," (2d edition, 1S43,) which, says Chancellor Kent, is a "very learned, full, and finished treatise, and cannot be too highly praised." Died in 1857. Aiigelo, an'ji-lo, (F.,) an Italian poet of Florence, wrote " I Lucidi," a comedy, and other poems. Died at Rome in 154S. Angelo di Buonarotti, (Michael.) See Michael Angelo. Angelo, (Policiano.) See Poliziaxo. Angelo, di, de Sn'ji-lo, (Jacopo,) a Tuscan, who lived in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and was distinguished for his successful efforts to introduce into Italy the study of Greek literature. Angeloni,'an-ia-lo'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian an- tiquary, born at Terni, in the Roman States, was the uncle and instructor of Bellori. He was secretary to Cardinal Aldobrandini. Among his principal works is "Istoria Augusta," and "The History of Rome from Julius Caisar to Constantine the Great, illustrated by Ancient Medals," (1641.) Died in Rome in 1652. Angeloni, (Luigt,) an Italian politician, born in the Roman Campagna about 1758. He became a tribune in the Roman republic in 1798, and emigrated or fled to Paris in 1799. He entered into a conspiracy against Bonaparte, and was imprisoned for a number of months, about 1810. In 181 1 he published a work on the life and writings of Guido d'Arezzo, who' has been called the restorer of music. He also wrote several political treatises. Died in London in 1842, Angelo Rocca. See Rocca. Angelucci, an-ji-loot'chee, (Teodoro,) an Italian poet and physician, born near Tolentino, in the march of Ancona. He was an admirer of Aristotle's philosophy, in behalf of which he wrote against Patrizzi. He left, besides several medical works, a translation of Virgil's yEneid into blank verse, (1649,) which is praised by some Italian critics. Died at Montagnana in 1600. An'ge-lus, (Christopher,) a Greek scholar, who came to England in 1608, and, after studying in Trinity College, taught at Oxford, where he died in 1638. He left a few unimportant works written in Greek and also in English, and some others written in Greek and Latin. An'ge-lns Sile'sius,(se-lee'she^s,) [Ger. pron. ang'- gi-lus se-la'ze-iis,] otherwise called Johann ScheFfier, a German poet, born at Breslau in 1624. He was author of "The Angelic Book of Wonders," (" Cherubinisches Wunderbuch," 1674.) Died in 1677. Angely or Angeli, 6.\zh'le^ or L'Angely, ISxzh^le', a Vi'itty court fool to Louis XIII. of France. His name is preserved in Boileau's ist Satire. Angely, SNzh'le', (Louis,) a popular German dra- matic writer and actor, born at Berlin about 1775, of a family originally from France. He particularly excelled as a ready and rapid translator of French comedies and vaudevilles. His " Feast of the Craftsmen," and " Seven Girls in Uniform," had great success. Died in 1835. Angennes, d', ddx'zhen', (Charles,) a brother of Claude, noticed below, was born in 1530, and made car- dinal in 1570. Died in 1587. Angennes, d', (Claude,) Bishop of Mans, an influ ential ecclesiastic in the time of Henry HI. and Henry IV. of France. Born in 1538; died in 1601. Angerbode or Angerboda. See Angurboda. Angermayer, c^ng'er-ml'er, (Christoph,) a Bavarian sculptor, born at Weilheim ; died in 1653. Angerstein, ang''er-stTn, (John Julius,) a patron of the fine arts, born at Saint Petersburg in 1735. He re- moved to England, where he became an eminent mer- chant. His rich collection of paintings forms part of the National Gallery in London. Died in 1822. Anghiera, de, da an-ge-a'rS, (Pietro Martire — maR'te-ra,) [Lat. Pe'trus Mar'tyr Axgle^'rius,] an Italian scholar, statesman, and historian, born at Arona, on Lake Maggiore, of a noble Milanese family, in 1455, went to Spain in 148S, and spent several years at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella, whence he was sent in 1 501 on an embassy to Venice and Cairo. He was afterwards appointed a member of the Council of the Indies. Died at Granada in 1526. He left a valuable historical work on the progress of American discovery, entitled "Concerning the Things of the Ocean and the New World," etc., ("De Rebus Oceanicis et Orbe Novo Decades," 1530.) See Prescott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. ;i. part ii. Angilbert, ang''gil-bert, or En'gil-bert, [Fr. pron. Sx'zherbaiR' ; Lat. Angilber'tus or Engilber'tus,] Saint, a pupil of Alcuin, and confidential friend of Charlemagne, became abbot of Saint-Riquier in 793, and died in 814 a.d. He was the author of some short Latin poems. Bertha, a daughter of Charlemagne, was his wife, or at least mother of his children. Angilbert was called the Homer of his time. See Mabillon, "Acta," etc., p. loi et seq. ; " Histoire Litteraire de France." Angiolello, .^n-jo-leFlo, or Anzolello, an-zo-leKlo, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian, who was taken captive in 1469, and became the slave of the sultan Mahomet II. He accompanied the Turkish army in 1473 in its invasion of the dominions of Uzun Cassim, King of Persia, of which expedition he wrote a historical account. Died about 1530. Angiolini, au-jo-lee'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian jesuit and scholar, l)orn at Piacenza in 1738. He trans- lated Josephus into Italian, (1780,) also some dramas of Sophocles and Euripides. Died at Polotsk in i 788. Angivilier, d', d6N'zhe\e'ya', (Charles Claude Labillarderie — la'be''ySRd're^) Count, a French pa- tron of arts and sciences, a favourite of Louis XVI., be- came director of the royal buildings, gardens, manufac- tures, etc. Died in iSio. Anglada, oN'glt'da', (Joseph,) a French physician, born at Perpignan in 1775. He was professor of medi- cine or chemistry at Montpellier, and author of a " Treat- ise on the Mineral Waters of the Pyrenees," (2 vols., 1833,) and a "Treatise on Toxicology," (1835.) Died in 1833. Angleberme or Engleberme, d', ddN^g'l-baRm', (Jean Pvrrhus,) a French jurist, born at Orleans in 1470, was instructed in Latin and Greek by Erasmus. He became professor of law at Orleans, and published, besides other works, a treatise " On the Salic Law," (1613.) Died in 1521. Anglesey, (Arthur.) See Annesley. Anglesey, Earl of. See Annesley. Anglesey, ang'g'l-see, (Henry William Pag''et,) MARQUIS OF, a British general and statesman, born in 1768, was the eldest son of the Earl of Uxbridge, and was styled Lord Paget in his youth. He served in the campaign of Flanders in 1794, and commanded the cav- alry of the army of the Duke of York in Holland in 1799. Having obtained the rank of major-general in 1808, he distinguished himself as a cavalry officer in € as ^; 5 as s; g hard; g as g, H, K,gutt2cral; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in tliis. (g^^See Explanations, p. 2 \.) 9 ANGLICUS AN HALT Spain under Sir John Moore. On the death of his fa- ther in 1 812 he succeeded to the earldom, and entered the House of Lords, He was appointed commander of the cavah-y of the British army in the spring of 181 5, and rendered important services at Waterloo, where he lost a leg. A few days after this action he was rewarded with the title of Marquis of Anglesey. In 18 19 he was promoted to the rank of general. He became master- general of the ordnance on the formation of the minis- try of Canning in 1827, and lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1828. Having declared in favour of Catholic eman- cipation, he was recalled about the end of 1828, but was appointed again to that office by Earl Grey in 1830. He resigned office in 1833, and was master of the ord- nance from 1846 to 1852. Died in 1854, leaving several sons. See Lodgk's "Portraits;" "Gentleman's Magazine," June, 1854. Anglicus. See Gilbertus. Angliviel. See Beaumelle. Anglure, d', dSN'gliiR', (Oger, o^zhaiR',) a French gentleman, who made a pilgrimage to Palestine in 1395 and wrote a narrative of his journey. Anglus, (Thomas.) See White. Ango or Angot (6N'go') of Dieppe, a rich French ship-owner, who, in 1530, blockaded Lisbon on his pri- vate account and obtained compensation for injuries which his vessels had sustained from the Portuguese. Died in 1551. Ango, (Pierre,) a writer on optics, lived at Caen be- tween 1650 and 1700. Angosciola. See Anguisciola. Angot, dN%o^ (Robert,) a French poet of moderate talents, born at Caen in 1581. He published in 1603 a collection of odes, sonnets, epigrams, etc., called " Le Prelude poetique." Angot des Rotours. See Desrotours. Angouleme, d', dSN'goo'lSm', Com te, was the title oi Francis I. before his accession. Charles IX. was styled the Duke of Angouleme before he was king. Angouldme, d , (Charles de Valois — deh vi'lwi',) Due, a natural son of Charles IX. of France, was born in 1573. He distinguished himself at the battles of Arques and Ivry, (1590,) where he fought for Henry IV. He was condemned to imprisonment for life in 1604 for a plot against that king, but was released in 1616. He opened the famous siege of Rochelle in 1628, and was commander-in-chief there until the arrival of the king. He displayed address and talent in civil and military affairs, but was destitute of principle. Died in 1650. See SiSMONDi, "Histoire des Frangais." Angouleme, d', (Jacques,) an eminent French sculp- tor, who worked at Rome about the middle of the six- teenth century. Among his works (which were com- pared to those of Michael Angelo) was a statue of Au- tumn, at Meudon, near Paris. Angouleme, d', (Louis Antoine de Bourbon — deh booR^boN^,) Due, a son of Comte d'Artois, after- wards Charles X. of France, was born in 1775. He emigrated with his father in 1789, and resided some time at Turin. In 1799 he married his cousin Marie Therese Charlotte, a daughter of Louis XVI. Having been re- fused the privilege of asylum by several powers of the continent, they lived in England from 1S06 to 1814. He commanded the French army which invaded Spain in 1823 and restored Ferdinand VH. to absolute power. He assumed the title of dauphin when his father be- came king in 1824. Died at Goritz in 1844. Angouldme, d', (Marie Therese Charlotte,) Duchess, v/ife of the preceding, was a daughter of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette. She was born at Versailles in 1778, and imprisoned in the Temple in August of 1792, with the king and queen. In 1795, by the mediation of Austria, she was released and exchanged for Camus and other members of the Convention. She returned to France with her husband in 1814, and was at Bordeaux when Bonaparte arrived from Elba. The duke, having received a high command as lieutenant-general of the kingdom, assembled an army to oppose the Bonapart- ists. The duchess is said to have acted with more en- ergy and spirit in thib crisis than the other Bourbons. She again became an exile in 1830, and died in 1851. See Mrs. Romer, "Memoirs of the Duchess of Angouleme." Angran d'AUeray, 6N^gR6N' dlKr^V, (Denis Fran- c^ois,) a benevolent French judge, born in Paris in 1715, He was executed in 1794 for sending money to his son- in-law, who had emigrated. Anguier, 6N'ge-a^ (Franqois,) an excellent French sculptor, born at Eu, in Normandy, in 1604. He studied at Rome, and after his return was appointed by Louis XIII. keeper of his cabinet of antiques. Among his best productions are a tomb of Cardinal de Berulle and a mausoleum of the Duke of Montmorency at Moulins. His works are remarkable for truth of expression. Died in 1669. See " Vies des fameux Sculpteurs." Anguier, (Michel,) a celebrated sculptor, a brother of the preceding, born at Eu in 1612. He was a pupil of Algardi at Rome, where he studied and worked ten years. In 1651 he returned to Paris, where he became rector of the Academy. His master-piece is i group of the Nativity, in the church of Val de Grace. Died in 1686. Anguillara, an-gwel-la'rS, (Luigi,) an eminent Italian botanist, born at Anguillara, in the Papal States. He became superintendent of the botanic garden at Padua about 1546, and, according to Sprengel, was professor in that city. In 1561 he resigned his office and retired to Florence. Having travelled in Greece and other foreign lands, and collected many plants, he endeavoured to iden- tify them with those described by the ancient Greek and Roman writers. He was author of a work on " Simples," ("Semplici di Luigi Anguillara," 1561,) which had a high reputation. Died about 1570. See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalla;" Haller, " Bibliotheca Botanica;" Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie. " Anguillara, deir, dSl-lSn-gwil-li^ra, (Giovanni An- drea,) a popular Italian poet, born at Sutri, in the Papal States, about 151 7, is said to have ruined himself by de- bauchery, gaming, and other vices. His principal work is a translation, or rather a free imitation, of Ovid's "Metamorphoses," (1554-61,) which has been extrava- gantly praised by Italian critics, some of whom have preferred it to the original. Died at Rome after 1565; but the exact date of his death is not known. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia;" Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Anguillesi, Sn-gwe-la'see, (Giovanni Domenico,) an Italian writer and scholar, born at or near Pisa in 1766. Died in 1833. He translated Chateaubriand's "Genie du Christianisme," and other French works, into Italian. Anguisciola, Sn-gwe-sho'lS, or Angussola, ^n- goos'so-ld, (SoFONiSBA,) a celebrated Italian painter, born at Cremona about 1535, was a pupil of Bernardino Gatti. She excelled in portraits. liavingbeen invited by Philip II. of Spain, she went to Madrid and painted por- traits of the king and queen. She afterwards worked in Genoa, and was married to Don Fabrizzio de Moncada. About the age of sixty-seven she became blind. It is stated that Van Dyck said he had learned more from her conversation on art than from the study of the best mas- ters. Died about 1620. Her sisters Lucia, Europa, and Anna IMaria were skilful painters. See Bermudez, "DIccionario Historico;" Soprani, " Vite de' Pit- tori Genovesi." Angurboda or Angerboda, Sng^ger-bo'da, (Angr- boda,) j.e. "anguish-boding," written also An'gerbode, (Norse Myth.,)" a female Jotun, who by Loki became the mother of the wolf Fenrir, the Midgards SerpExNT, and Hela, (the goddess of death.) which see. Angus, Earls of. See Douglas. Angus, ang'gus, (Samuel,) a captain in the Ameri- can navy, born in Philadelphia in 1784. In 1814 he commanded the vessel which took Adams and Clay to Ghent to conclude the treaty of peace with Great Britain. Died in 1840. Anhalt, dn'hilt, (Anton Gunther-goon'ter,) Prince of, a general, born in 1653, fought for the allies against Louis" XIV. at Steenkerke and Neerwinden. He re- ceived in 1703 the command of a Prussian army of 15,000 a, e, T, 0, % y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; llr, fall, fit; m^t; n5t: good; moon; AN HAL T-BER NBER G ANKWITZ men in the service of Holland and England. Died in 1 7 14. Anhalt-Bernberg, an'hait beRn'b^RG, (Christian,) Prince of, born in 1568, was an ambitious man, of su- perior talents. He was the master-spirit of the negotia- tions which resulted in a union of the Protestant Ger- man princes against the emperor about 1608, and was appointed second commancler of the army of that " Union." He was successively offered the chief com- mand of the armies of Venice and of France ; but he refused both positions. He commanded the army of Frederick, Elector Palatine, which was defeated at Prague in 1620. Died in 1630. Anhalt-Coethen, (or -Kothen,) Sn^hdlt ko''ten, (LuDWiG,) Prince of, born at Dessau in 1579, was a good classical scholar. He fought for the Protestant party in the Thirty Years' war. Died in 1650. Anhalt-Dessau, Sn^halt de.s''s6w, (Leopold,) Prince OF, a distinguished Prussian general, born in 1676. Pie displayed able generalship at the battle of Blenheim, (1704,) and commanded the Prussian forces under Prince Eugene in Italy and Flanders from 1706 to 17 12. About 1 712 he was made a field-marshal. He was com- mander-in-chief, next to the king, of the army which in 1 715 marched against Charles XII. of Sweden. In 1745 he gained a victory for Frederick the Great at Kesselsdorf. Died in 1747. See Varnhagen von Ense, " Biographlsche Denkmale." Anhalt-Dessau, (Leopold Maximilian,) a son of the preceding, born in 1 700, served the King of Prussia in the war against Austria, and became field-marshal- general. Died in 1751. Anhalt-Zei'bst-Dessau, in'hdlt ts^Rpst d^s'sow, (George IV.,) Prince of, born in 1507, was eminent as a scholar and Protestant divine. He was ordained a priest in 1524, and became an eloquent preacher, both in German and Latin. He was intimate with Luther and Melanchthon. Died in 1553. Some of his sermons were published in 1570. See Melchior Adam, " Vits Germanonim Theologorum." Anhalt-Zerbst-Dessau, (RuDOLni,) Prince of, born about 1460, was distinguished as a warrior. He commanded the Imperial army in the war against the Venetians from 1508 till his death in 15 13. Aniano. See Anianus. A-ni-a'nus, a native of Campania, was a deacon and a friend of Pelagius, whose doctrines he defended at the Council of Diospolis in 415 a.d. He translated the homilies of Chrysostom into Latin. His skill and fidel- ity as a translator are praised by Huet, Simon, and others. Anianus, [It. Aniano, i-ne-^'no; Y\. Anien, t'ne'- ^n',] secretary of Alaric II., King of the Visigoths. His name is connected with a remarkable code of laws promulgated by Alaric about 506 A.D. Anianus, an astronomer and poet of the fifteenth century, wrote in verse "Computus Manualis," (1488.) Anibert, t'ne'baiR', (Louis Matthieu,) a French poet and antiquary, born in 1742; died in 1782. Anicet-Bourgeois. See Bourgeois. A-ni-ce'tus, [Fr. Anicet, t'ne'sa',] SAiNT,was Bishop of Rome about 155 a.d. The date of his death is uncer- tain. Anich, S'niK, (Peter,) a German peasant, born near Innspruck in 1723, studied mathematics and astronomy, and was employed, under the patronage of the empress Maria Theresa, in making maps. Died in 1766. Anichini, d-ne-kee'nee, (Luigi,) a noted Italian cameo- and gem-engraver, born at Ferrara, worked at Venice in the sixteenth century. Anicii, a-nish'e-T, a patrician family of Rome, espe- cially distinguished in the later periods of the empire. Anicius, a-nish'e-us, (Lucius Gallus,) a Roman praetor, who conquered Illyricum in 168 B.C. Aniello, (Tommaso.) See Masaniello. Anien. See Anianus. Animuccia, a-ne-moot'chS, (Giovanni,) an Italian musician, born at Florence about 1500. He became chapel-master of St. Peter's, at Rome. Died about 1570. See F^Tis, "Biographic des Musiciens." Animuccia, (Paolo,) a musician and composer, a brother of the preceding, lived at Rome; died in 1563. Anisio, 3.-nee'se-o, (Giovanni,) a Latin poet, born at Naples about 1472. He sometimes wrote his name Janus Anysius. He published a volume of Latin poem-j in 1 53 1, and had once a high reputation, which has since declined. Died about 1540. Anisson, t'ne'soN', the name of a noted family ol printers at Lyons in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Anisson, (Jean,) a Frenchman, who edited the Greek Lexicon of Du Cange. In i6go he was appointed director of the royal printing-office of the Louvre. Died after 1713- Anisson-Duperron, t'ne'soN' dii'pa'roN', (Alex- andre Jacques Laurent,) a French economist^ born in 1776, was a son of Etienne Alexandre Jacques, no- ticed below. He was appointed director of the imperial printing-office at Paris in 1809, and master of requests. Yxom 1833 to 1842 he sat in the Chamber of Deputies, and was made a peer in 1844. Among his works is a treatise in favour of free trade, (1829.) Anisson-Duperron, (Etienne Alexandre Jac- ques,) born in Paris in 1748, was a grandson of Jean Anisson. He was director of the royal printing-office, 178S-92. He was guillotined in 1794. Anitchkov, a-nitch-kov', or Anitchkof, (Dmitri S.,) a Russian philosopher and mathematician, born in or before 1740. Lie published several works, one of which was publicly burnt because a friend to whom he had lent it added some heretical or skeptical opinions. Died in 1788. Anjoo, Anju, or Andjou, in'joo, a Persian writer, lived about 1600, was one of the chief compilers of the great Persian Dictionary called " Ferhenkee Jehan- geeree," (" Ferhenki Jehangiri,") in honour of Jehan- geer, the Mogul emperor under whose auspices it was completed. See Eksch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Anjou, dn'^joo, [Fr. pron. SN'zhoo',] Duke or Count of, the title of an old and noble house of France which was powerful in the middle ages. Fulke, Count of Anjou, was a leader of one of the crusades, and became King of Jerusalem in 1131. His son, Geoffroy le Plan- tagenet, married Matilda, the daughter and heiress of Henry I. of England, and founded the royal house of Plantagenet, leaving a son, who became King of Eng- land, (Henry II.) The second house of Anjou was a branch of the royal family of P>ance. (See Charles I. of Naples.) Louis, a son of John, King of France, be- came Duke of Anjou about 1360. He assumed the title of King of Sicily, or Naples, in 1382, after which he at- tempted to conquer Naples, (which Queen Joanna I. had bequeathed to him,) but failed. Died in 1384. The title of Duke of Anjou was also borne by several sons of Henry II., by two sons of Louis XIV., and by a grand- son of Louis XIV., who became Philip V. of Spain. Anjou, (Charles of.) See Charles I. of Naples ; also Charles of Anjou, Count of Maine. Anjou, (Fran(;ois,) Due d'. See Alenqon. Anjou, (Rene of.) See Ren^: of Anjou. Ankarkrona, in''kaR-kRoo''na, (Theodor,) a Swed- ish admiral, born at Carlscrona in 1687. He served in the French and British navies in his youth, and returned to the Swedish service in 1711. He conveyed Charles XII. from Straisund to Stockholm in 171 5, after which he obtained the rank of admiral. Died in 1750. See Gezelius, " Biographiskt-Lexicon." Ankarstrom or Anckarstroem, ang'kar-strom', (JoHAN Jacob,) a Swedish nobleman, born in 1759, as- sassinated King Gustavus III. at a masked ball, INIarch 16, 1792. He was condemned to be beaten with rods on three successive days, and on the fourth to be be- headed, his right hand being first cut off. Anker, 9ngnSo Venus wrings her dripping hair with her fingers, and appears covered (or clothed) with the maternal waters," {j.e. the waters from which she sprang.) founded a sect called Apellists, and wrote a work en- titled the "Gospel of Apelles." See EusEBius, " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Lardner, "History of Heretics." Apelles OF Ephesus, a Greek painter, mentioned by Lucian in his treatise on Calumny. He worked in Egypt, and was patrojrized by Ptolemy Philopator, about 220 B.C. He was falsely accused by a rival painter, An- tiphilus, of a conspiracy against the king ; but his inno- cence was proved, and the accuser was condemned to be the slave of Apelles. A-pelTI-con of Teos, [Gr. 'ATieA/li/twv,] a rich Peri- patetic philosopher, who was distinguished by his fond- ness for collecting old and rare manuscripts. He be- came a citizen of Athens, and commander of a force in the island of Delos, where he was defeated by the Ro- mans. It is said that the world is indebted to him foi the preservation of the works of Aristotle, and that he purchased the library collected by that philosopher, in- cluding his autograph manuscripts. Died about 86 B.C A'per, (Marcus,) a distinguished Roman orator of the time of Vespasian. He was a Gaul by birth. None of his works are extant. Apezteguia, a-peth-ta-gee'c% (Don Juan Felipe,) a Spanisji sculptor, worked at Madrid. Died in 1785. A-plia''reus, (or aFa-rus,) ['A(/)api ir,] an Athenian poet and orator, who flourished about 350 B.C., was an adopted son of Isocrates the orator. Fie composed many tragedies, some of which were successful. None of his v/orks are extant. Aph-ro-dis''i-us of Tralles, a sculptor, mentioned by Pliny among the artists who adorned the palace of the Caisars. He lived in the first century of our era. Aph-ro-drte, ['A9po(5ir7/,] the Grecian name of the goddess Venus, which see. Apli-tho'ni-us \^k^QovLoq\ of Antioch, a noted Greek rhetorician, supposed to have lived in the fourth century of our era. He v/rote a popular book of rhetorical exercises, called " Progymnasmata," which was often printed and used in schools in the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries. Apian, d'pe-5n, [Lat. Apia'nus,] or Appian, dp'- pe-an, (Peter,) a noted German astronomer and mathe- matician, born in Misnia in 1495. -^^^^ real name was Pienewitz, (bee'neh-wits.) He taught mathematics at Ingolstadt, and first suggested the method of ascer- taining the longitude by the distance of the moon from a fixed star. His work on Cosmography (1524) had a wide reputation. He also published a treatise on as- tronomy, entitled " Astronomicon Cssareum," (1540.) He was patronized and ennobled by Charles V. Died in 1552. Apian or Appian, (Philip,) a son of Peter Apian, noticed above, born in 153 1, succeeded him in the chair of mathematics. He wrote " On the Utility of the Cylinder," (" De Cylindri Utilitate,") and several other small works. Diecl at Tiibingen in 1589. See LiPENius, " Bibliolheca realis Philosophica ;" Cellius, " Ora- tio de Vita et RJorte P. Apiani," 1591. Apiciu.s, a-pish'e-us, (Marcus Gabius,) a celebrated epicure, lived at Rome in the time of Augustus and Ti- berius. It is related by Seneca that after spending on rare culinary dainties one hundred million sesterces, (about $3,6oo,cco,) Apicius was obliged to look into his accounts. He discovered that he had only ten million sesterces ($360,000) remaining; upon which, unwilling to starve on such a pittance, he poisoned himself! Plis name has become proverbial for gluttony, both in ancient and modern times. Apin, ^-peen', (Johann Ludwig,) a German physi- cian, born at Hohenlohe in 1668 ; died in 1703. He was author of several medical works. Apin or Apinus, S-pee^nus, (Sigismund Jakob,) a philologist, a son of the preceding, was born near Nu- remberg in 1693. He became rector of a school at Brunswick. Among his works is a dissertation "On Pure Intellect," (" De Intellectu puro.") Died in 1732. A'pi-on [Gr. 'A-iwr] surnamed Plistoni^QES, a learned Greek grammarian and historian, was born in Oasis, Egypt, and lived in the reigns of Tiberius, CkVig- ula, and Claudius, (a.d. 15-54.) He became master of € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) i APIS 144 APOLLODORUS a school in Rome about the year 45. He wrote a " His- tory of Egypt," a lexicon to Homer, and other works, among which were annotations on the poems of Homer, and a book against the Jews, in reply to which Josephus wrote his " Anlitjnities of the Jews." He was called "Cymbahun Mundi" ("Cymbal of the World") by Tibe- rius, probably on account of his vanity and egotism. His works are lost, except small fragments. See ScHOELL, "Histohe de la Litteiature Grecque." A'pis, [Gr. 'ATTif,] a mythical king of Argos, and a son of Phoroneus. He is said to have called Pelopon- nesus Apia, and to have reigned also in Egypt. Apis, the Bull of Memphis, the chief idol or object of worship among the ancient Egyptians. According to some accounts, he was sacred to Osiris, in whom the sun was worshipped. The death of this animal caused great mourning among the Egyptians. See GuiGNiAUT, "'Religions de I'Antiquite," vol. i. Ap'john, (James,) F.R.S., an Irish chemist, born at Sunville, county of Limerick, in 1796. He became pro- fessor of chemistry in the University of Dublin in 1850. He wrote a number of treatises on chemistry. A-po-Cau'cuS, [Gr. ' knoaavnoc; ; ¥y. Apocauque, fpo^kSk',] a powerful and corrupt favourite of the em- peror Androni''cus, was assassinated in 1345. Apoiinarius. See Apollinarius. Apollinaire. See Apollinarius. A-pol-li-na'ris, A-pol-i-iia''ri-us, or A-pol-li-na'- ri-us, THE Elder, a grammarian, born at Alexandria, lived about 330 a.d. He taught at Berytus and Laocli- ce^a, and became a presbyter in the Christian Church. He wrote a "Grammar for Christians," and other works. Apollinaris or Apollinarius the Younger, a son of the preceding, was Bishop of Laodicea, and author of the Apollinarian heresy. He was distinguished as an orator and philosopher, and was a man of great abilities and learning. He obtained the bishopric as early as 362 A.D., and died in the reign of Theodosius the Great, between 380 and 392 a.d. He w^as author of many vol- umes of commentaries on the Bible, of "Thirty 15ooks against Porphyry," and of numerous other works, which are nearly all lost. About 375 a.d. he was charged with heresy in relation to the Incarnation. It appears that he taught that Christ had not a rational or human soul, but that it was replaced by the logos, or Divine Spirit. See SozoMEN, "Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Wernsdokff, "Disser- tatio de Apollinare Laodiceno," 1694; Tillemont, "Memoires;" " Vits Apoiiinaris Historia," Paris, 1571. Apollinaris, (Sulpitius Caius,) a distinguished grammarian, said to have been a native of Carthage, taught at Rome in the second century. Apollina'ris Si-do'ni-ns, [Fr. Apollinaire Si- DOiNE, t'po'le''n3:R' se'dwin',] (Caius Sol'lius,) Saint, a bishop and Latin poet, born at Lugdunum (Lvons) in 430 a.d. He married a daughter of Avitus who became Emperor of Rome in 455 and was deposed the next year. He was appointed by Anthemius chief of the senate, prefect of the city, and afterwards patrician. In 471 a.d. he was elected Bishop of Clermont, ( Augustoneme- tum.) He died about 488, leaving various works, some of which are lost. His "Carmina" ("Poems," or " Songs") and " Epistolae" are extant, and are prized for the historical information they afford. See Germaix, " Essai sur Apollinaris Sidonius," 1S40; Fauriel, " Histoire de la Gaule meridionale." Apollinarius. See Apollinaris. A-pol-li-na'ri-us or A-pol-i-na'ri-us, [Gr. 'AttoA- XLvdpiQg ; Fr. Apollinaire, fpo^le^naR',] (Claudius,) Saint, a bishop of Hierapolis, in Phrygia, lived in the reign of Marcus Antoninus. He wrote, besides other works, a defence of Christianity, which Saint Jerome calls an excellent book. His works are not extant. A-pol'lo, [Gr. 'AttoXAwv ,• Fr. ApollOxN, t'po'loN' ; It. Apollone, ^-pol-lo'ni,] the god of archery, music and poetry, medicine, and prophecy, was the son of Ju- piter and Latona. He was born on the island of Delos, whence he is often called Delius, while Diana, his sister, IS named Delia. He is also styled Pythius, or the " Py- thian," because his first great exploit was to slay with his arrows the serpent Python. Apollo was likewise regarded by the later poets of antiquity as the god of the .--un. Homer represents Apollo and the sun-god aa entirely distinct personages. Under the name of Paean, ApolU) was invoked in the character both of a healer 01 protector and a destroyer — for his arrows were supposed to produce the pestilence. Some of tlic poets rejjresented Paean as the healing god, but distinct from Apollo ; but this was not the general opinion. Although Apollo was regarded as the author of the healing art, the title of the "god of medicine" is usually given to his son /Escula- pius. The "god of the unerring bow" (" Childe Harold," canto iv.) was often called Phoebus, or I^haebus Apollo, from the Greek 'I>o/;.%, " bright," or " shining." Apollo is usually represented as a beautiful young man, crowned with laurel, and having in his hand a harp or bow and arrows. See BuTTMANN, " Mythologus ;" G. Hermann, " Dissertatio de Apolline et Diana ;" Hartung, "Die Religion derRomer;" Gui- GNiAUT, " Religions de I'Antiquite," translated from the German of Creuzer, vol. ii.; Keighti.ev, "Mythology." Apollodore. See Apollodorus. Apollodoro, i-pol-lo-do'ro, (Francesco,) some- times called II Porcia, el poR''cha, an Italian portrait- painter, born in Friuli, lived in the first half of the seven- teenth century. A-pol-lo-do'rus, [Gr. 'ATTolXodopog; Fr. Apollodore, t'po'lo'doR^,] a celebrated Greek artist, the founder c>f a new school of painting, was born at Athens about 440 B.C., and was surnamed the " Shadower." He was a rival of Zeuxis, and is said to have been the first who represented the effects of light and shade with success. His works are highly praised by Pliny, who says he was the first who painted men and things as they really ap- peared, {hie prinms species cxprimere instituit.) Among his works was a picture of " Ajax Wrecked." See Pliny, " Natural History." AiDoUodorus, a Greek sculptor, born probably about 350 n.c. He bestowed great labour on his works, and often destroyed them because they did not satisfy him. Apollodorus, a Greek comic poet of high repute, a native of Carystus in Euboea, lived probably in the last half of the fourth century B.C. Apollodorus, an Epicurean philosopher, who became head of the school of Epicurus. He was succeeded by his pupil, Zeno of Sidon, about 84 B.C. According to Diogenes Laertius, he wrote four hundred books, {jStfSXia,) one of which was a Life of Epicurus. Apollodorus, the name of several ancient physicians, one of whom wrote a treatise " On Venomous Animals." Apollodorus, a jurist, employed by Theodosius the Younger in the compilation of a systein of laws known as the Theodosian Code. He lived about 425 a.d. Apollodorus of Athens, a celebrated grainmarian and historian, flourished about 150 B.C., and was a pupil of Aristarchus. He wrote many valuable works, which are all lost except a " Bibliotheca," a manual of Greek mythology, which is incomplete and is regarded by some critics as an abridgment of his original work. It is, however, highly prized as the best work extant on that subject. Some fragments remain of his versified chron- icle of the History of Greece. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grsca;" Schoell, "Histoire de la Litterature Grecque." Apollodorus of Damascus, an eminent architect, born at Daniascus in the first century. He was employed at Rome by Trajan, for whoin he erected many grand edifices, among which were the Forum and Column of Trajan, (which still exists,) a theatre, an odeum, and the Basilica Ulpia. The Forum of Trajan was considereo the most splendid in Rome. His greatest work was a magnificent bridge over the Danube, near the confluence of that river with the Aluta, (Alt,) built in 105 A.D. He was put to death by Hadrian, whose motive is supposed to have been envy or anger because Apollodorus had ridiculed a temple built after the design of Hadrian. See Dion Cassius, " History ;" ^lius Spartianus, " Hadrian." Apollodorus of Gela, a Greek comic poet, who lived probably about 320 B.C. His works are not extant. Apollodorus of Pergamus, a Greek rhetorician, born about 100 B.C. He taught rhetoric at Rome, and was one of the teachers of Octavius, (afterwards the emperor Augustus.) He was the founder of a new school of rhetoric ; but he wrote very little. Died about 22 B.C. a, e, T, o, u, y, /ong; i, h, 6, saine, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fS.ll, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; APOLLODORUS 145 APOLLOPHJNES ApoUodorus of Phalerum, (or Phaleron,) in Attica, a disciple and friend of Socrates. He was a man of eccentric character, and appears to have been deficient in lirmness and in intellectual powei". ApoUodorus surnamed Eph'ilus, a Stoic, who wrote on Ethics and Physics, before the Christian era. ApoUon. See Apollo. A-pol-lon'i-des or A-pol-lon'i-das, [A.'no/luvL6i]q,'\ a Greek poet of unknown date, supposed to have been born at Smyrna. He left a number of admired epi- grams, which are extant in the Greek Anthology. Apolionides, a Greek officer, appointed governor of Argos by Cassander about 315 B.C. Apolionides of Cos, a Greek physician, who prac- tised at the court of Artaxerxes Longimanus of Persia, and is said to have seduced Amytis, a sister of that king, for which oftence he was put to death. Apolionides of Nicaea, a Greek grammarian, of whom little is known. He is supposed to have lived in the reign of Tiberius. His works are lost, Apollonio, d-pol-lo'ne-o, (Jacopo,) an Italian painter, born at Bassano about 1585, was a grandson of Jacopo da Ponte. Among his master-pieces are a Saint Sebas- tian, a Saint Francis, and a Magdalen, in the churches of Bassano. Died in 1654. See Lanzi, " Historj' of Painting in Italy." A-pol-lo'nis or A-pol-lo'ni-a, the wife of Attains I., King of Pergamus. She was the mother of four sons, who were noted for filial piety, and who erected a temple to her memory. A-pol-lo'ni-us, [Gr. 'ATroAAwiYor,] an eminent sculptor of Rhodes, lived probably about 200 B.C. He and his brother Tauriscus were the sculptors of a marble group of Zethus and Amphi^on tying Dirce to the horns of a bull, which Pliny says was brought to Rome by Asinius Pollio. Many critics have identified this work with the group called "Toro Farnese" which is at Naples. Apollonius,a Greek physician, a pupil of Herophilus, often quoted by Galen, lived about 180 B.C. Apollonius, an excellent Athenian sculptor, a son of Nestor, is supposed to have lived before the Christian era. He is known only as the sculptor of a marble statue of Hercules, of which a fragment, called the Torso of the Belvedere, is preserved at Rome. It is one of the most admirable extant specimens of ancient art. The head, arms, and legs have been broken off. Apollonius, a sophist and grammarian of Alexandria, lived in the time of Augustus. He left a Homeric Lexi- con to the Iliad and Odyssey, which is still extant and is highly prized. It was published by Villoison in 1773. Apollonius OF Alabanda. See Apollonius Molon. Apollonius of Athens, a rhetorician, who taught at Athens about 200 A.D., and held several high offices. He gained the victory in a rhetorical contest over Hera- cli'des in the presence of the Roman emperor. Apollonius of Chalcis, a Stoic philosopher, who had so high a reputation that he was invited to Rome by An- toninus Pius to direct the education of Marcus Aurelius, by whom his merit as a teacher is commended. Apollonius of Myndus, an astronomer, who lived in the time of Alexander the Great. His works are all lost. Apollonius of Pergamus, a Greek physician, who lived in the first century B.C. Apollo'nius Citien'sis, a physician, born at Ci- tium, in Cyprus, lived in the first century B.C. He wrote a curious Greek treatise on Articulations, ijlepi updpuv,) which is called the most ancient commentary on Hip- pocrates that has come down to us. Apollo'nius surnamed Dys'colus, (the "morose,") a celebrated Greek grammarian of Alexandria, lived in the reigns of Hadrian and Antoninus, (117-161 a.d.) He was the father of yElius Herodian. He wrote, besides many works which are lost, an able treatise "On the Syntax of the Parts of Speech," {Ilcpl avvru^cug rov 7'jbyov 'lepQv,) which is extant. Priscian calls him the greatest of grammarians. See SuiDAS, "Apollonius;" Fabricius, "BIbliotheca Giasca." ^ Apollonius THE Empiric, a Greek physician, who ived probably about 200 B.C. Apollonius, (L^vi'nus,) a geographer and historian of the sixteenth century, was born near Bruges. He died in one of the Canary Islands, while on a voyage to Peru. He was author of two works of some merit, — an "Account of the Discovery of Peru," (1567,) and "On the Expedition of the French to Florida," ("De Naviga- tione Gallorum in Terram Floridam," 1568.) Apollo^'nius Mo'lon, an eminent Greek rhetori- cian, born at Alabanda, in Caria. He was sent by the people of Rhodes as an envoy to Rome in 81 B.C. He taught at Rhodes both before and after this date. Cicero and Julius Caesar were among his pupils about 78 B.C. His works are not extant. Apollo'nius surnamed PERGyE'us, [Fr. Apollonius LE Pergeen, t'po''lo'ne'us'' leh pgR''zha'6N'',] one of the most profound and original of all the ancient geometers, was born at Perga, in Pamphylia, about the middle of the third century B.C. He lived at Alexandria in the reign of Ptolemy Philopator, (B.C. 222-205.) Little or nothing is known of his life in addition to the facts above stated. It is supposed that he survived Archi- medes. His principal work is a "Treatise on Conic Sections," (in Greek,) seven books of which have been preserved. The eighth book is lost. He also wrote another mathematical treatise, of which an Arabic ver- sion is extant, and other works, which are lost. Apollo- nius was also an astronomer, and is said to have been the first who discovered the method of representing by epicycles the phenomena of the stations and retrograda- tions of the planets. See MoNTUCLA, " Histoire des Mathematiques ;" Schoell, "His- toire de la Litterature Giecque ;" Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grasca ;" " KncyclopjEdia Brltannica." Apollo'nius Rho'dius, [Gr. 'ATroAAcjwof 6 'PoSioc,] a celebrated Greek epic poet and rhetorician, born at Alexandria (or, as some say, at Naucratis) about 235 ]!.c. He was a son of Silleus or Ulcus, and a pupil of the poet Callimachus, with whom he quarrelled. He removed in his youth to Rhodes, where he taught rhetoric for many years with great success and obtained the honour of citizenship. Llaving returned to Alexandria, he was ap- pointed keeper of the celebrated library of that place, as successor to Eratosthenes, about 194 B.C. Only one of his works is extant, namely, the " Argonautica," an e\.\c poem in four books ©n the expedition of the Argonauts, which in general displays more erudition than poetic inspiration. "It is," says Quintilian, "a respectable work, but generally mediocre." Some modern critics, however, think they find in this poem beauties of detail of the first order. See Weichert, " Ueber das Leben iind Gedicbt des Apollonius," 1S21 ; ScHOEix, " Histoire de la Litt^rature Giecque," 1813; E. Ger- hard, " Lectiones Apollonianas." Apollo'nius Tyan^eus, (tl-a-nee'us,) (or "Apollo- nius of Tyana,") [Gr. 'ATTo/Jcjnog Tvavalog ; Fr. Apollo- nius DE '1'yane, S'pono^ne'iis' deh te'tn',] a Pythagorean philosopher who lived about the middle of the first century, was born at Tyana, in Cappadocia. He is the subject of marvellous stories, and is considered by some writei s to have been an impostor, by others a magician of won- drous skill. It appears that he was venerated for his wisdom by his contemporaries, who believed that he had the gift of prophecy and the power of working miracles. His life has been written by Flavins Philostratus, who says he went to India, conversed with the Brahmins, and after his return assumed the character of a moral re- former in Greece and Rome. The only work of Apol- lonius that has come down to us is his " Apology" in reply to Euphrates. His miracles have been compared to those of Christ by some ancient and modern infidels. See Brucker, "History of Pbilosophy ;" Ritter, "History ot Phllosopby;" Philostratus, "Life of Apollonius," in English, 1809, translated by E. Berwick; John Henry Newman, " Life of A]5ollonius Tyana.'us," 8vo, 1853; F. C. Baur, "Apollonius von Tyana und Christus," 1832; Klose, " Dissertationes II L de Apollo- nio Thyanensi," 1724. A-pol-lo'ni-us, (WiLLEM,) a Dutch Reformed theolo- gian, born at Veere ; died in 1657. Apollonius Collatius. See Collatius. Apollonius de Tyane. See Apollonius Tya- N.'EUS. A-pol-loph'a-nes, [Gr. 'Arro^lXo^avT/f,] an ancient physician, born at Seleucia, lived 200 or 250 B.C. He was physician to Antiochus the Great, (or, according to e as k; 9 as s; g //ard; g asy; G, H, Yi, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (Sl^^See Explanations, p. 23.', 10 APOLLOS APPLETON some accounts, Autiochus Soter,) with whom he is said to have Iiacl much influence. A-pol'los, a Jew who became an able and eloquent preacher of Christianity. (See Acts xviii. 24; I. Corin- thians i. 12 ; iii. 4 ; iv. 6.) Aponus, (Petrus.) See Abano, (Pietro di.) Apostoli, d-pos'to-lee, (Francesco,) an Italian writer, born at Venice about 1750. He was once minister from San Marino to Napoleon I. He published, at Milan, a "View or Picture of the Eighteenth Century," (" Rap- presentazione del Secolo XVHI.," 3 vols.,) " History of the Gauls, Franks, and French," ("Storia dei Galli, Franchi e Francesi," i vol.,) and other works. Died poor at Venice in 181 6. Apostoli, (Giovanni Francesco,) a Latin poet, born in Montferrat, lived in the latter half of the sixteenth century. He published in 1580 a volume of satirical Latin poems, entitled "Leisure Hours," ("Succisivae HorK.") Apostoli, degli, daKyee §.-pos'to-lee, (Pietro Fran- cesco,) an Italian ecclesiastic, born at Novara; died about 1650. A-pos-to'li-us, (Michael,) a learned Greek who was born at Constantinople, and fled to Italy soon after the capture of that city in 1453. He published or edited a collection of Greek and Latin Proverbs, printed in 1538. Died about 1480, leaving a son, Arsenius, Bishop of Mal- vasia. Apostool, 3.-pos-toK, (Samuel,) a Dutch Mennonite theologian, born in 1638. He became in 1662 one of the ministers of the Baptist congregations at Amster- dam. A doctrinal dispute between him and one of his colleagues resulted in a division of the sect into two parties, called Apostolians and Galenists. Appel, ip'pel, (Jacob,) a Dutch painter, born at Am- sterdam in 1680, excelled in landscapes, portraits, and history. He worked at the Hague and at Amsterdam. Died in 1751. His son, of the same name, was a success- ful painter. Appslius, ip-pa'le-irs, (JoHAN Hendrik,) a Dutch financier, born at Middelburg about 1767, was minister of finance for many years. Died in 1828. Appelnian, ap^pel-min^, (Barend, or Bernard,) a Dutch landscape-painter, 'born at the Hague in 1640. He studied in Italy, and painted many admired land- scapes of Roman scenery. Died in 1686. Appendini, 3.p-p6n-dee''nee, (Francesco Maria,) an Italian priest and scholar, born near Turin in 1768; died in 1837. He is the author of the best political and lite- rary history of the little state of Ragusa, (2 vols., 1802,) and of a " Life and Examination of the Works of Pe- trarch," ("La Vita e I'Esame delle Opere del Petrarca.") See CosNACiCH, " Memoria storica suiia Vita dei P. F. M. Ap- pet'.dlni," 1838. Ap^per-ley, (Charles James,) an English gentle- man, noted as a fox-hunter and a writer on sporting sub- jects under the pseudonym of " Nimrod," was born in Denbighshire in 1777. Besides many articles for sporting journals, he wrote " Remarks on the Condition of Hunt- ers, the Choice of Horses, and their Management," (1831,) "Nimrod's Hunting Tours," (1835,) and "The Chase, the Turf, and the Road," (1837.) The last ap- peared in the " Quarterly Review" in 1827. Died in 1843. Appert, t'paiR', (Benjamin Nicolas Marie,) a French philanthropist, born in Paris in 1797. He began about 1 816 to establish schools among the poor and others, for mutual instruction, which were eminently successful. Since 1822 he has devoted his time chiefly to the improvement of the condition of prisons and convicts. He has written a " Treatise on the Education of Prisoners," (1822,) "Travels in Belgium," (1846,) and other works. Appert, (Francois,) a brother of the preceding, has given his name to a well-known process for preserving ali- mentary substances in vessels of tin hermetically sealed. Ap'pi-an, [Gr. ' XTrraavo^: ; Lat. Appia'nus ; Fr. Ap- PTEN, a^pe-^N',] an ancient historian, who was born at Alexandria, and removed to Rome probably in the reign of Trajan. He became eminent as an advocate, and ob- tained the higlr office of procurator. He is supposed to have died in the reign of Antoninus Pius, (138-161 a.d.,) or soon after the end of that reign. He is the author of a valuable " Roman History" written in Greek, i^Y^ujiaiKj] 'loTopia,) in which he treats of the different nations of the Roman Empire separately. His style is clear and easy, and his work appears to have been carefully compiled; but he is not ranked among historians of the first order. See Fabricius, " Bibliotlieca Grjeca ;" Domenicus, "Piogramma de indole Appiani Alexandrini," 1844. Appian, (Peter.) See Apian. Appiani, dp-pe-3.'nee, (Andrea,) a celebrated Italian painter, born at or near Milan in 1754.. He imitated the style of Correggio, and painted both in oil and in fresco. In fresco he was probably unrivalled by any painter of his time. About 1805 he was appointed principal painter of Napoleon, (in Italy,) and was made a knight of the Iron Crown. Among his greatest works are the frescos of the church Santa Maria Vergine, Milan, and the fres- cos of the royal palace of Milan. He made good por- traits of Napoleon and others of the Bonaparte family. His works are admired for grace, purity of design, and brilliancy and harmony of colour. Died in 181 7 or 1818. See Nagler, "Nevies Allgenieines Kiinsller-Lexikon ;" G. Longhi, " Elogio storico di A. Appiani," 1826. Appiani, (Andrea,) an able painter, worked at Milan in the first half of the nineteenth century. He was a grandson of the preceding. Appiani, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Ancona in 1702. He worked at Rome and Perugia, and acquired a fair reputation as a fresco-painter. Among his best works is the " Death of San Domenico," at Rome. He continued to paint until his ninetieth year. Died in 1792. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Appiano, 3.p-pe-i'no, (Niccolo,) an Italian painter of the fifteenth century, was a pupil of Leonardo da A'inci. Appiano, (Paolo Antonio,) an Italian preacher and biographer, born at Ascoli in 1639 ; died at Rome in 1709. Appiano, d', dip-pe-3,^no, (Gherardo,) a son of Ja- copo, noticed below, succeeded his father as lord or mas- ter of Pisa in 139S. In 1399 he sold Pisa to the Duke of Milan, reserving for himself the sovereignty of Piom- bino and the island of Elba. His descendants ruled these dominions, with the title of Prince of Piombino, for tv.'o centuries. Died in 1405. Appiano, d', (Jacopo,) an Italian politician, who by the assassination of Pietro Gambacorti (which Appiano appears to have procured, or at least connived at) ob- tained the chief power in Pisa in 1392, and assumed the title of Lord, (Signore.) Died in 1398. Appianus, (the historian.) See Appian. Appien. See Appian. Appion. See Apion. Appius Claudius. See Claudius. Applegath, ap'p'l-gath, (Augustus,) born near Lon- don in 1790, invented improved machines for printing. About 1846 he constructed a rotary vertical machine for printing the London "Times." Appleton, ap'p'l-ton. Commodore, an English naval commander, fought in the harbour of Leghorn in 1652 against the Dutch, who, having a larger number of guns, obtained a dearly-bought victory. Appleton, ap''p'l-ton, (Daniel,) the founder of the publishing-house of Appleton & Comj^any, New York, one of the largest establishments of the kind in the United States, was born in Haverhill, Massachusetts, in 1785. He first opened a bookstore in Boston, but sub- sequently removed to New York, where he died in 1849. Appleton, (Jesse,) D.D., an American divine, born at New Ipswich, New Hampshire, in 1772. He grad- uated at Dartmouth in 1792, and in 1797 was ordained pastor at Hampton, New Hampshire. He was chosen president of Bowdoin College in 1807, and continued in the otiice until his death, in 1819. Appleton, (John,) an American politician and editor, born in Beverley, Massachusetts, in 181 5. He was foi some years editor of the " Eastern Argus," at Portland, Maine. He was appointed Minister to Russia by Presi- dent Buchanan in i860. Appleton, (Nathan,) a Boston merchant, brother of Samuel, noticed below, born in New Ipswich, New Hampshire, October 6, 1779, was one of the three a, e, T, o, TLi, y, lon^; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fdt; met; n6t; good; moon; APPLETON H7 AOUAl/IVA original founders of Lowell. He was elected to Con- gress in 183 1, and re-elected in 1842. He was author of various pamphlets on banking, the tariff, etc., and of a memoir of the Honourable Abbott Lawrence in Hunt's "Lives of American Merchants." Died in 1861. Appleton, (Samuel,) an eminent American merchant and philanthropist, was born at New Ipswich, New Hampshire, in June, 1766. He established himself in business in Boston about 1794 in partnership with his brother Nathan. He was early distinguished for his benevolence, making large donations — for many years $25,000 annually — to worthy charitable objects. He liberally endowed the academy of his native town, and gave $10,000 to Dartmouth College. The needy and suffering ever found in him a kind friend and benefactor. He died without children in 1853, worth nearly $1,000,000, bequeathed to his widow $200,000, and placed in the hands of his executors an equal amount to be applied to " scientific, literary, religious, and charitable purposes." Appony, von, fon ip^poh', (Anton Rodolph,) Count, an Austrian diplomatist, born in 1782, was am- bassador at Paris from 1828 to 1849. Appuleius. See Apuleius. Appuleius, ap-pu-lee''yus, (Marcus,) a Roman, who became quaestor in 44 ILC, and supplied Brutus with money and men in the civil war. Appuleius Saturninus. See Saturninus. Apraxin, 3.-pRik'sin, (Feodor Matveievitch, m3.t- va'e-vitch,) a Russian admiral, the grandfather of the following, was born in 1671. lie obtained the favour of Peter the Great, and was one of his principal coadjutors in his projects of reform. Having been appointed Gov- ernor of Azov in 1700, he built several vessels of war and a haven at Taganrog. He became an admiral and presi- dent of the admiralty in 1707, and captured Viborg from the Swedes in 1710. In 1713 he commanded with suc- cess against the Swedes on the coast of Finland. He afterwards received the titles of admiral-general and senator, and rendered important services in the war which was ended by the treaty of Nystad in 1721. Died In 1728. See Halem, "Leben Peters des Grossen." Apraxin, (Stepan Feodorovitcii,) a Russian gen- eral, born in 1702. He served in the war against the Turks, and obtained in 1756 the rank of field-marshal, [n 1757 he was appointed commander-in-chief of a large Russian army sent against Frederick the Great, and in August of that year he defeated the Prussians at Gross- Jagerndorf In obedience to secret orders from Bes- tuzhef, the chancellor, he omitted to improve the victory, and was recalled in disgrace. Died in 1758 or 1760. See Halem, "Leben Peters des Grossen." Apres de Mannevillette, d', dS'pRV deh mtn've'- llt', (Jean Baptiste Nicolas Denis,) often called sim- ply D'Apres, a distinguished French hydrographer, born at Havre in 1707. He produced a collection, of charts of the Eastern Seas, entitled "Le Neptune oriental," (1743.) Died in 17S0. A'pri-es, [Gr. 'X-ftirjg, 'Arrpiaf,] a king of Egypt, was a son of Psammuthis, (or Psammis,) whom he succeeded about 595 B.C. He is ])robably the Pharaoh-hophra of Scriptures, (Jeremiah xliv.) Pie sent against the Greeks of Cyrene an army which was defeated and afterwards revolted. Apries was dethroned and put to death about 568 B.C., and was succeeded by Amasis. Ap-ro'ni-us, (Lueius,) a Roman general, flourished between 8 and 28 a.d. Aprosio, d-pRo'se-o, (Angelico,) a learned Italian writer and Augustine monk, born at Ventimiglia in 1607, was a noted bibliographer. He acquired a high reputation by his numerous works on literary criticism and other subjects, among which are a moral essay against luxury, entitled "The Shield of Rinaldo," (" Lo Scudo di Rinaldo," 1642,) and "La Biblioteca Apro- siana," (1673.) founded in his native city a library called "Aprosiana." Died in 1681. See Mazzucheli.i, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Ap'sa-ra [Hindoo pron. up'sa-rJ'] or Ap'sa-ras, English plural Ap'sar^s or Ap'sarases, in the Hindoo mythology, a race of celestial nymphs, produced by the churning of the ocean. (Sec Kurmavatara.) The Apsaras (or Apsarases) are described as possessing in- comparable beauty, sweetness, and grace. It is commou among the Hindoo writers to say of a woman of extra ordinary beauty and elegance, that she rivals the Apsa- ras. These charming beings are unfortunately wanting in one important attribute — virtue ; they are the dancing girls of Swerga, (the heaven of Indra,) and seem to corre- spond nearly to the Peris of the Persians. See jMoor, "Hindu Pantheon,'' jip. 96 and 97, also 259, e;c. Apshoven, van, vtn aps^ho'ven, (Theodorus,) a Dutch painter of still life, of the seventeenth century. He was a pupil or imitator of Teniers. Ap'si-nes, ['Ai/uVr/f,] a Greek teacher of rhetoric, born at Gadara, in Phoenicia, taught at Athens in the third century. A work attributed to him, entitled " Art of Rhetoric," is extant, but in a defective state. ApsTey, (Sir Allen,) an English officer, born about 1618, was a son of Sir Allen Apsley, Lieutenant of the Tower of London, and a brother of Lucy Hutchiason the authoress. He fought for the king in the civil wai and was governor of the fort at Exeter when that place was taken in 1646. After the restoration, he was treas- urer of the household and receiver-general to the Duke of York. He was the author of a poem entitled " Order and Disorder, or the World Made and Undone," (1679.) Died in 1683. See Mrs. Hutchinson, "Memoirs of Colonel Hutchinson." Apsley, Lord. See Bathurst, (Henry.) Ap-syr''tus, [^k-^vproq,] written also Absyrtus, a Greek veterinary surgeon, born at Prusa or Nicomedia, in Bithynia, is supposed to have lived in the first half of the fourth century. Ap'thorp, (East,) an eminent divine, born in Boston, Massachusetts, m 1733. He studied at the University of Cambridge, in England. In 1778 he published four letters in reply to Gibbon's attack on Christianity. This work was very favourably received, and was even com- mended by Gibbon himself Shortly after, Apthorp re- ceived the title of D.D. In 1793 he was appointed to the prebend of Finsbury. Died in 1816. Apiilee, the French for Apuleius, which see. Apuleius, a-pu-lee'yus, sometimes called Apule'ius Platon'icus, and Luteins Apule'ius Bar'barus, a naturalist, of whom little is known except that he was author of an extant Latin work on plants, entitled " Her- barium." It describes one hundred and twenty-eight plants, and indicates their medicinal properties. He is supposed to have lived in the fourth or fifth century. Apuleius or Appuleius, dp-pu-lee'yus, [Fr. Apu- LEE, a'pu'hV,] a Latin writer and pagan philosopher of the Platonic school, born at Madaura, in Africa, lived about 150 A.D. He was highly distinguished for talents and eloquence, and possessed a fertile imagination. Having married a rich widow at CEa, (Tripoli,) he was prosecuted by her relatives on a charge that he had in his courtship made use of magical arts. He defended himself on that occasion by an "Apology," which is still extant, and has some literary merit. His most remark- able work is a fable or romance called "Metamorphosis, or the Golden Ass," which is supposed by some to be designed as a satire on magicians, priests, and debauchees. It has been translated into several languages, and often reprinted. He wrote a treatise " On the Doctrines of Plato," which is extant, and several other works, that are lost. See Betoland, "Notice sur la Vie, etc. d'Apulee;" Fr. Hil- DEBRAND, " Conimentarius de Vita et Scriptis Apuleii," 1S35 ; D. W. Moi.LER, " Dissertatio de Lucio Apulejo," i6gi; Bayle, "Histori- cal and Critical Dictionary." Apuleius Celsus. See Celsus. Aquapendente. See Fabrizio. A-qua'ri-us, [It. Aquario, S-kwi're-o,] (Matthias,) an Italian monk, who wrote on the philosophy of Aris- totle. Died in 1591. Aquaviva, (Andrews. Matteo.) See Acquaviva, Aquaviva, a'kwil-vee'vc^, (Claudio,) a general of the Jesuits, born at Naples in 1543, was a son of the Duke of Atri. He wrote a " Plan or Method of Studies," ("Ratio Studiorum," 1586.) Died in 161 5. Aquaviva, (Oct.vvius,) an Italian cardinal, abridged the " SuiTima" of Thon;as Aquinas. Died in 1612. € as k: g as s; g Imi'd; g as /; / : 'ri, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (gC^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) JQUIBA 148 ARAGO Aquiba. See Akiba-Ben-Joseph. Aq'ul-la, a Jew, who was born in Pontus, and, after liis conversion to Christianity, became a companion of the Apostle Paul in a voyage from Corinth to Syria. (See Acts xviii. 2, 18, 26.) Aquila, a'kwe-lS., (Caspar,) an eminent German Prot- estant theologian, born at Augsburg in 1488. His name was originally Abler, (signifying " Eagle,") which, ac- cording to the usage of those times, he changed to its Latin equivalent Aquila. He became professor of }Iebrew at Wittenberg about 1524. He was an intimate fiiend of Luther, and assisted him in his translation of the Old Testament. For his opposition to the " Literim," in 1548, Charles V. declared him an outlaw and set a price on his head. Aquila saved himself by flight. After the treaty of Passau (1552) he returned to his pastorship at Saalfeld, which Luther had procured him in 1527. He published a number of works, mostly controversial. Died at Saalfeld in 1560. See CiiR. ScHLEGEL, " Berlcht vom Leben undTode C. Aquila?," 1737 ; J. AvEMARius, " Kurze Lebensbeschreibung Casparis Aqiiilze," 1718; F. \V. Strieder, " Hessische Gelehrten-Geschichte ;" Hillin- GER, "Memoria Aquilina oder Leben Casp. Aquilae," 1731; Gens- ler, "Vita Mag. C. Aquila;," 1816. Aq'uila, (Julius,) a Roman jurist of unknown date, is called Gallus Aquila in the "Index Florentinus." The Digest contains two excerpts from his " Book of Answers." Aquila, a'kvve-l&, (Pietro,) a distinguished Italian engraver, born at Palermo, was a priest in his youth, and lived at Rome in the latter part of the seventeenth century. His best work is the Farnese Gallery, etc., after Annibale Carracci. He engraved also some works of Raphael. His brother, Francesco Faraone, (fa-ra-o'na,) was also an engraver, but inferior to Pietro. He worked at Rome, and engraved after Raphael, Correggio, and other masters. Aquila, (Pompeo.) See Aquilano. Aq''uila surnamed Pon'ticus, the author of a cele- brated Greek version of the Old Testament, lived about 100 or 120 A.D. According to Epiphanius, he was a native of Sinope, in Asia Minor, and was employed by Hadrian to superintend the building of the city /Elia Capitolina on the site of Jerusalem. He was converted by the Christians, but was afterwards excommunicated for practising astrology, and became, it is said, a prose- lyte to the Jewish faith. His version (of which some fragments now remain) was adopted by the Jews in pre- ference to that of the Septuagint, and was admitted by Origen into his great work the "Hexapla." Aquila, dell', d^l WVysz-X^, or Aquilano, dell', dgl li-kwe-ll.''no, (Serafino,) a celebrated Italian poet and improvisatore, born at Aquila, in A.bruzzo, in 1466. He composed many sonnets, epistles, and capitoli, which were more admired by his contemporaries than by mod- ern critics. He was patronized by Ferdinand II. of Naples, and Caesar Borgia. Died prematurely at Rome in 1500. See TiRABOSCHi, " Storia della Letteratuia Itallana." Aquilano, l-kwe-l&'no, or Dell' Aquila, d§l li'kwe- IS, (Pompeo,) a good Italian fresco-painter, born in the Abruzzo, lived about 1580. Among his works is a " Deposition from the Cross," at Rome. Aquilano, [Lat. Aquila'nus,] (Sebastiano,) an Italian physician, who flourished towards the close of the fifteenth century. He was professor of medicine at Ferrara in 1495, and wrote several medical works. Died about 1 5 13. A-quiPi-us, (Henri,) a Belgian historical writer, lived about 1550. A-qulPi-us, (Sabinus,) a Roman jurist, surnamed "the Cato of his age," was consul in 214 a.d. Aquilius (or Aquillius) Gallus. See Gallus. A-quiPli-us, (Manius,) a Roman general, became consul in loi B.C. He subdued the revolted slaves of Sicily, in which war he received several wounds. The display of these scars in court, and the eloquence of M. Antonius, saved him from condemnation in a trial for malversation in 98 B.C. In 88 B.C. he was sent as pro- consular legate to Asia, where he was defeated and taken prisoner by Mithridates, who put him to death by pour- ing molten gold down his throat. Aquin, d', dt'kdN', (Louis Claude,) a French organ- ist, born in Paris in 1698; died in 1772. Aquin, d', (Pierre Louis,) a son of the preceding, and a mediocre writer; died in 1797. Aquin, d', dt'k^N', or Aquino, d', dd-kwe'no, (Phi- lippe,) a learned Jew, born at Carpentras, and converted to Christianity in the early part of the seventeenth cen- tury. He was baptized at Aquino, in Naples, whence he received his surname. Died about 1650. He pub- lishecl a Hebrew, Chaldee, Talmudic, and Rabbinical Dictionary, (1620,) and other works. A-qui'nas, (Thomas,) [It. Tommaso d'Aquino, tom-mA'so da-kwee'no; Fr. Thomas d'Aquin, to-mi' dS'kiN',] Saint, surnamed the Angelic Doctor, was perhaps the most eminent scholastical teacher that ever lived. He was born of a noble family, probably at Aquino, in the kingdom of Naples, about 1225. His father was a nephew of Frederick I., Barbarossa. He joined the order of Saint Dominic about the age of sixteen, and became a pupil of Albertus Magnus. His extraordinary talents and attainments soon spread his fame over Europe ; but he steadily refused all ecclesias- tical preferment. He taught and preached for some years at Paris and Rome. Died in 1274. He left nu- merous works, chiefly theological, moral, and metaphys- ical, among which the most important is his "Sum of Theology," ("Summa Theologiae.") "The greatest of the schoolmen," says Hallam, "were the Dominican Thomas Aquinas, and the Franciscan Duns Scotus. They were founders of rival sects, which wrangled with each other for two or three centuries." Aquinas was remarkable for modesty and exemplary obedience to his superiors, as well as for purity of life; but he was not deficient in independence. When he once entered the presence of Innocent IV., before whom a large sum of money was spread out, the pope observed, " You see that the Church is no longer in that age in which she said, 'Silver and gold have I none.'" "True, holy father," replied Aquinas; "neither can she any longer say to the lame, 'Rise up and walk.'" (See Acts iii. 2-8.) See Renn Dickson Hampden, "Life of Tliomas Aquinas," in the "Encyclopaedia Metropolitana," and i8mo, 1848; AntoineTou- RON, "Vie de S. Thomas d'Aquin," ly,:;;; Arriaga, " Vida de S. Tomas de Aquino," 164S; RIaffei, " Vita di Tommaso d'Aquino," 1842 ; Tholuck, " Disseitatio de Tlioma Aquinate," etc., 1842 ; P. J. Carle, " Histoire de la Vie et des ficrits de Thomas d'Aquin," 1846 ; C. Moreli.es, "Vita S. Thoma; Aquinatis," Antwerp, 1612 ; But- ler, " Lives of the Saints." Aquino, d', dd-kwee^no, (Carlo,) an Italian writer and Jesuit, born at Naples in 1654. lie became pro- fessor of rhetoric at the College of Rome, and obtained a high reputation by his works in Latin and Italian, among which are Latin poems, "Carmina," (3 vols., 1701-03,) "Lexicon Militare," (1724,) and a translation into Latin verse of Dante's "Divina Commedia, "(1728,) which is regarded as his greatest poetical production Died at Rome in 1737. Aquino, d', (Tommaso.) See Aquinas. Arabella Stuart. See Stuart. A-ra'bi-us S-eho-las'ti-cus, a Greek epigrammatic poet, who lived probably about 550 a.d. Several of his epigrams are found in the Greek Anthology. Arabshah or Arabschah. See Ahmeu-Ibn-Arab- Shah. A-ra-eh'ne, [Gr. 'kpuxvn; Fr. Arachne, t'rtk^ni',] (Myth.,) a Lydian maiden, very skilful in the art of weaving, in which she challenged Minerva to a trial of skill. The offended goddess changed her into a spider. Aradon, t'rt'd^N^ (Jerome,) a French general, fought for the League against Henry IV. about 1590. Arago, ir'a-go or t^ t'go'', (Dominique Francois,) a celebrated French astronomer and natural ]:>hiloso- pher, was born at Estagel, near Perpignan, (Eastern Pyrenees,) on the 26th of February, 1786. He entered the Polytechnic School in 1803, after a profound study of the works of Euler and Laplace, and in 180^ was attached to the Observatory of Paris as secretary co the Bureau of Longitudes. In 1806 Arago and Biot were ordered by the emperor to continue the grand geocesical a, e, T, o, u, y, long; \ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, s/w?'^; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fdt; m?t; n6t; good; moon: V ARAGO 149 A RAG ON A operations of Delambre and Mechain, and extend the measurement of the arc of the meridian from Barcelona to the Balearic Isles. In the performance of this task he was exposed to severe hardships among the moun- tams of Spain, and in 1808 he escaped from the violence of the Spaniards (who suspected that he was a spy) by flight to Algiers. On his voyage from Algiers to France he was taken by a Spanish privateer, and detained in the hulks at Palamos until he was liberated on the demand of the Dey of Algiers. After other dangers and dis- asters, which he describes in his " History of my Youth," he returned to France in the summer of 1809. To re- ward him for these labours, he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in that year, although he had not attained the age required by their rules. He succeeded Monge as professor of analysis in the Polytechnic School in 1809, and lectured there more than twenty years. He was associated with Malus and Fresnel in their optical discoveries, advocated the undulatory theory of light, and made some discoveries in the science of electro- magnetism. He showed that there is no substance which is not capable, under certain conditions, of exhibiting signs of the magnetic virtue, and he proved that the best magnet is a bar of steel enclosed by a helix of cop- per wire. For his discovery of magnetism developed by rotation, he received the Copley medal of the Royal So- ciety of London about 1829. In 1830 he was appointed Director of the Observatory, and became perpetual sec- retary of the Academy of Sciences. The eulogies which he composed on Fourier, Con- dorcet, Ampere, James Watt, Carnot, and others, are regarded as models in this species of composition. He was elected to the Chaniber of Deputies in 1830 or 1831, and became a leader of the ext?'h?ie gmtche, the advanced republicans. Arago was a prominent member of the provisional government formed in February, 1848, in which crisis he united with Lamartine in efforts to enforce order and moderate measures. He acted for a few months as min- ister of war and the marine, and was one of the execu- tive commission of five chosen by the Assembly in May, 1848. He opposed the election of Louis Napoleon, and refused to take the oath of allegiance after the coup d'etat of December, 185 1. In consideration of his eminent merits, his compliance with the law in respect to this oath was dispensed with. He died on the 2d of Octo- ber, 1853, leaving a son Emmanuel, noticed below, and a son Alfred, who is a historical painter. Arago was a man of ardent temperament, and was distinguished for his courage, generosit}', and eloquence. He rendered great services to science, less perhaps by his discoveries than by the admirable talent with which he popularized science, in his lectures on astronomy at the Observatory, in his academical memoirs or reports, and in his notices published in the "Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes." His articles on lightning, steam, and astronomy gave to that journal an immense vogue. " The popularity of M. Arago," says Lomenie, " the F.uropean reputation which he enjoys, his marked posi- tion in politics, have all combined to attach to his name the idea of a species of intellectual royalty." The same writer asks " Whether a marvellous faculty of illumining with bright and unexpected radiance the most abstract theories ; an obstinate ardour in the cultivation of what the learned in x and y call the siibalte^-n science, . . . whether all this does not give genuine claims upon pub- lic gratitude, and constitute one of the finest attributes of genius." Arago and Gay-Lussac founded, about 1816, a scien- tific periodical entitled " Annales de Chimie et de Phy- sique." He was a member of all the principal scien- tific academies of Europe, and a friend of Humboldt, Brougham, Brewster, and Faraday. It is said that he was a favourite of Napoleon I., and that the latter, after the battle of Waterloo, intended to select Arago as his companion and retire with him to the United States, to devote himself to the study of science. Referring to his powers of application, De Lomenie says, "Ask the young astronomers attached to the Observatory ; they w'ill tell you that never did a human brain encounter a more enormous mass of labour ; that he deems every one an idler who does not work fourteen hours a day. Thev will tell you that this formidable man busies' himself with politics, chemistry, physics, mechanics, astronomy philosophy . . . ; and that amid all his various and ab- sorbing occupations he finds time to play the part of one of the most brilliant and delightful talkers of the saloons of Paris." See " History of my Youth," by D. F. Arago ; M. de Lomenie, "Galerie des Contemporaius," tome ii. ; English version of the same, by Robert Walsh, entitled " Sketches of Conspicuous Living Cha- racters," Philadelphia, 1841 ; Charles Robin, "Biographic de D. F. Arago," 1S48; Querard, "La France Litteraire," Supplement; J. A, Barral, " F. Arago," 8vo, 1S53; D. F. Arago, " Histoire de ma Jeunesse." precedee d'une preface par Alexandre de Hum- boldt, etc., 1854. Arago, (Emmanuel,) a son of the preceding, born in Paris in 181 2. He studied law, and practised at the bar with success, especially as counsel for the defence ir political causes. In 1839 he was one of the defenders of Martin-Bernard and Barbes. He was an active pro- moter of the revolution of February, 1848, and was se- lected on the 24th of that month, by a reunion of repub- licans at the office of the " National," to oppose the proclamation of the regency in the Chamber of Depu- ties. A few days later he was sent by the new govern- ment, as commissary-general, to Lyons, and his efibrts are said to have saved that city from a disastrous agita- tion. He was elected in April to the Cc^nstituent Assem- bly, and in May w-as sent as minister to Berlin, On the election of Louis Napoleon, in December, 1848, he re- signed his position and returned to France. He re- nounced political life after the coup d'etat of December, 1851. Arago, (Etienne,) a dramatic writer and politician, a brother of the celebrated D. F. Arago, was born at Estagel, near Perpignan, in 1803. He began about 1824 to produce a long series of comedies and vaudevilles, in which he was assisted by various persons. Many of these were performed with success. His works evince a genius for satire, a talent for observation, and great skill in producing dramatic effect. He is the sole author of the "Aristocrats," (1847,) a successful comedy in verse. In the revolution of 1830 he fought in Paris against the soldiery of Charles X. He became a contributor of political articles to the "Siecle" and "National," and in 1834 was one of the founders of the "Reforme," a daily democratic journal. M. Arago was director-general of the post-ofiice department from the revolution of f^ebru- ary, 1848, until the end of the administration of Cavai- gnac, in December of the same year. In the Constituent Assembly he voted with the gauche, and supported the motion to impeach the President for sending an army to Rome. He was exiled fo»his part in the insurrection of June, 1849. See " Nouvelle Blographle Generale." Arago, (Jacques Etienne Victor,) a litterateur and traveller, brother of the preceding, was born at Estagel in 1790. In 181 7 he accompanied as draughtsman the exploring expedition of Freycinet. After having been wrecked on the Falkland Islands, he returned to France in 1821, and published a "Tour round the World in the Uranie," etc., ("Promenade autour du Monde sur les Corvettes I'Uranie et la Physicienne," 2 vols., 1822.) He produced several dramas, among which is the "Cadet de Gascogne," (1836,) and a "Voyage round the World,"' (with engravings, 5 vols., 1838-40,) which has been often reprinted. Died in 1855. See Querard, "La France Litteraire." Ar'a-gon, de, [Sp. pron. da a-r^-g6n',] (Fernando,) a Spanish historian, became Archbishop of Saragossa in 1539. His father was a natural son of King Ferdi- nand V. Died in 1575. Aragon, de, (Martin,) Duke of Hermola, a Spanish numismatist of the sixteenth century. Aragona, d', di-ra-go^nS, or Aragon, d', d3.-r3.-g6n', (Tullia,) a celebrated Italian poetess and musician, bom in the beginning of the sixteenth century. She was the illegitimate daughter of Tagliavia, (afterwards cardi- nal,) a descendant of the royal house of Aragon. She lived at Rome, Venice, and Florence. She was distin- guished for her beauty, as well as for her genius and learning. Her chief works are a "Dialogue on the C as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as G, ii, K, g7itttiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (Sl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ARAGONESE 150 A RAT US Inriiiity of Love," ("Dialogo dell' Infinita d'Amore," 1547,) and a lomance in verse called "II Meschino o il Guerino," (1560.) Died about 1560. Aragonese, a-rd-go-na^si, (Sebastiano,) an Italian painter and designer of Brescia, lived in the latter part of the sixteenth century. He worked chiefly with the pen, and made drawings of sixteen hundred ancient medals. Araja, i-ra'ya or a-rl'd, (Francesco,) a dramatic composer, born at Naples in 1700. In 1735 he visited Saint Petersburg, where he produced "Cephalus and Procris," (1755,) the first opera written in the Russian ianguage. Pie returned to Italy in 1759. Araktcheief, a-rSk-sha'yef, written also Arakcheev and Arakcejeff, (Alexis Andreevitch,) a Russian count and general, born in Novogorod in 1769. He be- came inspector-general of artillery in 1803, and minister of wni about 1808. He made reforms in several depart- ments of the army, especially in the artillery, and ren- dered important services in the war of 181 2, after which he established the system of military colonies. Died in 1834. Araldi, ^-riKdee, (Alessandro,) an Italian painter, a pupil of Giovanni Bellini, was born at Parma, and painted in what is called the Gothic style. He is praised by Lanzi. Died about 1528. Araldi, (Michele,) an eminent Italian physician and physiologist, born at Modena in 1740. He became pro- fessor of physiology and anatomy at Modena about 1770, and was distinguished for his attainments in a variety of studies. He was perpetual secretary of the National Institute of Italy from 1804 until his death. His chief work is "On the Use of Anastomoses in the Vessels of Animal Machines," (1816.) Died at Milan in 1813. See RoviDA, " Elogio d' Araldi," 1817. Aram, a'ram, (Eugene,) remarkable for his talents and acquirements, as well as his untimely end, was born in 1704 in Yorkshire, England. While acting as an assistant to his father, who was a gardener, he studied mathematics, and gave some attention to the languages. ( )n marrying, he became a school-master, and prosecuted his studies with such diligence and success as to obtain a good knowledge of the Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chal- dee, Arabic, Welsh, and Irish languages. In 1759 he was tried for the murder of Daniel Clark, a shoemaker of Knaresborough, and found guilty. At the trial he made an elaborate and able defence, but after his con- demnation he confessed his guilt. On the night before his execution he made an attempt to commit suicide, by opening the veins of his arms ; but he was discovered before he had bled to death, and the sentence of the law was carried into effect. Th^ story of Eugene Aram forms the subject of one of Bulwer's novels. See " Biographia Britannica ;" "Account of the Trial of Eugene Aram," London, 1759; Scatcherd, "Memoirs of Eugene Aram," 1832. Aramont or Aramon, d', dt'rt'moN', (Gabriel de Luetz — deh lii'a^,) Baron, a French diplomatist, born, it is supposed, about 1500. He was sent as am- bassador to the Ottoman Porte in 1546, and induced the sultan Solyman the Magnificent to send a fleet to ope- rate against Charles V. He accompanied the sultan to Persia. An account of his journeys, written by his sec- retary, Chesnau, was afterwards published. Died in 1553. Aranda, de, da a-rAu'di, (Emanuel,) of Spanish extraction, was born at Bruges about 1608. He was cap- tured at sea by Algerine pirates in 1640, and remained in slavery at Algiers until March, 1642. After his re- lease he published an entertaining narrative of his adven- tures, with a description of Algiers, (1657.) Aranda, (Francisco,) a Spanish sculptor, worked at Toledo about 1 500. His brother Juan was also a sculptor. Aranda, (Juan,) a Spanish writer, born at Jaen, lived about 1550 or 1600. Aranda, (Don Pedro Abarca y Bolea — S-baR'ka e bo-la^a,) Coun t of, an able Spanish diplomatist and statesman, born of a noble family at Saragossa in De- cember, 1 718. He served some vears in the army, and in 1759 obtained the chief command of the artillery. In 1763 he commanded an army which invaded Portugal and took Almeida. He became prime minister, with the title of President of the Council of Castile, in 1766, and initiated various measures of reform. Among the im- portant acts of his administration were the suppression of the order of Jesuits in 1767, and the reduction of the power of the Inquisition. The intrigues of the court of Rome and the hostility of the clergy to Aranda induced the king to dismiss him from power in 1773, but at the same time he was appointed ambassador to France. It is stated that, about the close of the American war, the British ministry having offered to Spain the choice of Gibraltar or Florida, Aranda chose the latter, and signed the treaty of 1783. He was recalled about 1785, and was prime minister for a few months in 1792, before the end of which year he was supplanted by the royal favourite Godoy. Died in 1799, or, according to some authorities, in 1794. See Masdeu, " Historia de Espaaa ;" R. Saint-Hilaire, " His- toire d'Espagne;" Ersch uucWGruber, "AllgemeineEncyklopaedie;" CoxE, "Memoirs of the Kings of Spain." Aranda de Duero, a-ranMd da doo-a'ro, ( Anton\o,) a Spanish monk, published a Description of Palestine, (1545,) which he visited in 1530. Died in 1555. Arantius, a-ran'she-us, or Aranzio, a-ran'ze-o, (Ju- lius C.iiSAR,) an eminent and accurate Italian anatomist, born at Bologna about 1530, was professor in the uni- versity of his native city for many years. Died in 1589. He left several works, among which is one "De humano Foetu," (1564.) Arany, bx'on, (JAnos,) a popular Hungarian poet, born at Nagy Szalonta in 1819. He produced in 1843 ^ prize poem called "The Lost Constitution." His second poem, " Toldi," (1847,) was also successful. He after- wards v/rote the "Conquest of Murany," (1848,) and "Catharine," ("Katalin," 1850.) Aranzio, (Giulio Cesare.) See Arantius. A-ra'tor, [It. Aratore, a-ra-to^ra,] a poet, born at Milan or Brescia about 490 A.D., was appointed "comes privatorum" (count of the domestics) by Athalaric. Hav- ing resigned this office, he entered the Church of Rome, and became a subdeacon. He wrote, in Latin verse, the " History of the Apostles," (" Historiae Apostolicae,'") which is said to be superior to the poetry of his contem- poraries. Died about 560 A.D. A-ra''tus, ["Aparof,] a celebrated Greek poet and as- tronomer, was born at Soli, in Cilicia, and lived between 300 and 250 B.C. He was invited by Antigonus Gonatas to his court, where he passed the latter part of his life. He was the author of an astronomical Greek poem, en- titled " Phenomena," which was greatly admired by the ancients and is remarkable as being the oldest treatise of the kind. It has often been printed. Cicero made of this poem a Latin version, some fragments of which have come down to us, and Hipparchus wrote a com- mentary on it, which is extant. Aratus is supposed to be the ]Doet quoted by Saint Paul in his address to the Athenians in the twenty-eighth verse of the seventeenth chapter of the Acts. He wrofe a poem on the weather, etc., called " Prognostica," which, however, is considered as a division or portion of the " Phenomena." This poem was so much admired by Ovid that he said, "Cum Sole et Luna semper Aratus erit."* — Avior, i. 15. A good edition of Aratus was published by Buhle in 1793-1801. See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grasca ;" Delambre, "Histoire de 1' Astronomic ancienne ;" and a "Life of Aratus," published by P. Vettoki, Florence, 1567. Aratus, a celebrated Greek statesman and general born at Sicyon in 271 B.C. On the murder of his father Clinias, Aratus, then seven years old, escaped to Argos. He liberated his native city from the tyrant Nicocles in 251 B.C., and became the founder of the famous Achaean League, of which he was chosen general {strafe' s^os) in 245, and many times afterwards. He captured Corinth from the Macedonian garrison in 243, obtained the ac- cession of Argos to the league, and proved himself a consummate politician by his successful efforts to coun- teract Macedonian influence in Southern Greece. The Achaeans were involved in war against Sparta in 226 B.C., after which Aratus was defeated in several cam- * "Aratus will always be [associated] with the sun and moon in other words, his fame will last as long as the sun and moon endure. a, e, f, 5, li, y, lo7ig: \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, 0, T, 6, u, y, shoi't; a, e, i, o, obsaire; fdr, fill, fit; met; nSt; good; moon; ARATVS 51 JRBUTHNOT paigns by Cleomenes of Sparta. The latter, however, was totally defeated in 222 B.C. by Antigonus of Macedon, with whom the Achasans had formed an alliance. Ara- tus died in 213 B.C., leaving " Commentaries," or me- moirs of his life, which were praised by Poly bins, but which, unhappily, have not come down to us. See article "Aratus," in Plutarch's "Lives;" Polybius, "His- tory." Aratus, an Achaean general, son of the preceding, obtained command of the army in 219 B.C. He was poisoned by Philip II. Araujo, i-row'zho, (Antonio,) a Portuguese mission- ary, born in the Azores in 1566, laboured in Brazil. Died in 1632. Araujo or Arauxo, ^-row^Ho, (Francisco,) a Span- ish musician, who wrote on the Organ. Died in 1663. Araujo, de, da ^-row'zho, (Jose,) a Portuguese phi- losopher, born in Lisbon in 1667; died in 1743. Araujo, de, da a-row'Ho, (Pedro,) a Spanish sculp- tor, recei\ ed the title of sculptor to the king about 1700. Araujo d'Azevedo, i-row'zho da-za-va'do, (Anto- nio,) Count da Barca, a Portuguese minister of state, born at Ponte de Lima in 1754. He became a profi- cient in the Greek, Latin, French, and English lan- guages, and was distinguished for his literary and scien- tific attainments. After he had resided some years as minister at the Hague, he was sent to Paris in 1797 to negotiate a peace, and in the same year signed a treaty. The cabinet of Lisbon delayed the ratification of this treaty so long that the French Directory annulled it. A report having gained currency that Araujo ex- pected to procure the assent of the Directors by bribery, they resolved to prove their innocence by an act of rigour, ancl confined him in prison several months. He became secretary of state, or minister of foreign affairs, in 1804, and was the principal minister after 1806, but showed his incapacity to guide the state in critical times. A French army entered Lisbon in November, 1807, the house of Braganza ceased to reign, and Araujo retired to Brazil, where he was made minister of marine in 1814. He had been chief minister for a few months, when he died at Rio Janeiro in 181 7. He translated the " Elegy" and other poems of Gray into Portuguese verse. See MendoTrigoso, " Vida do Araujo." and the article on Araujo, by Ferdinand Denis, in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Arauxo, ^-row'sho, (Salgado — sSl-ga'do,) a Portu- guese ec_clesiastic and historian, lived about 1600. Ar-ba'ges, [Gr.'Ap/ia/cr/r,] a Median general under Sar- danapa'lus, against whom he revolted, overthrew the Assyrian monarchy, and established the kingdom of Media, about 876 B.C. Arbasia, aR-bi-see^a, (Cesare,) an excellent Italian painter, born at Saluzzo. He was one of the founders of the Academy of Saint Luke at Rome. He worked at Cordova and Malaga, in Spain, about 1580. Among his works are a picture of the Incarnation, at Malaga, and some frescos in the town-hall of Saluzzo. He is supposed to have died in 1614. See Bermudez, " Diccionario Historico." Arbaud de Porcheres, d', dtRW deh poR'shaiii', (FRANgoiS,) a French poet, born in Provence in the six- teenth century, was a friend and imitator of Malherbe. He wrote several odes, and a version or paraphrase of the Psalms, (1633.) He was one of the' first members of the French Academy, and received a pension from Richelieu. Died in 1640, Ar-be'ti-o (ar-bee'she-o) or Ar-be'ti-on, a Roman general, noted for his ambitious intrigues, was consul in 355 A.D. In 361 he commanded the army of Constan- t'us against the Parthians. Having sided with Valens, he induced many of the troops of Procopius to desert, so that the rebellion of the latter came to naught, in 365 A.D. Arbiter. See Petronius Arbiter. Arblay. See D'Arblay. Ar'bo-gast, [Gr. ' ApiSoyuoTrjc ; Lat. Arbogas'tes ; Fr. Arbogaste, tR'bo'gtst',] a Frank who became an able and distinguished general in the Roman service. He commanded with success against the Germans in the reign of Gratian. Under Valenti nian II. he was com- mander in Gaul, and, having won the favour of his army, defied the authority of the emperor, who was found dead in his chamber in 392 A.D. It is supposed that he was killed by order of Arbogast. The latter was defeated by Theodosius near the river Frigidus (Wippach) in 394, soon after which he killed himself. Arbogast, Saint, a French ecclesiastic, who obtained the favour of King Dagobert, and was made Bishop of Strasburg about 669 A.D. Died in 678. Arbogaste, tR'bo'gtst', written also Arbogast, (Louis Franqois Antoine,) a distinguished French mathematician, born in Alsace in 1759. He became rector of the university at Strasburg, and afterwards professor of mathematics in the Central School of that place. He was a member of the National Convention about 1793, but took no part in politics. His principal work is entitled " Du Calcul des Derivations," (1800,) in which is found the first use of symbols of operation independently of symbols of quantity. Died in 1803, Arborio di Gattinara, ^R-bo're-o de gat-te-na''ri, (Angelo Antonio,) Archbishop of Turin, born at Pavia in 1658 ; died in 1743. Arborio di Gattinara, (Giovanni Mercurino,) a brother of Mercurino, noticed below, was born at Lucca in 1685. He became Bishop of Alexandria. Died in 1743- Arborio di Gattinara, (Luigi,) Abbe de Breme, (or Brema,) an accomplished Italian scholar and writer, born at Turin in 1781, was a son of the Marquis de Breme. He became governor of the pages at the court of Eugene, Viceroy of Italy, and a friend of Silvio Pel- lico. He contributed literary articles to "II Concilia- tore," a celebrated journal of Milan, and wrote a number of occasional poems. Died in 1820. Arborio di Gattinara, (Luigi Giuseppe,) the father of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1754. He served the King of Sardinia as ambassador to Vienna about 1785, and was minister of the interior under Eu- gene, Viceroy of Italy. Died in 1828. Arborio di Gattinara, (MERCURiNO,m§R-koo-ree'- no,) Count, often called simply Count of Gattinara, an eminent diplomatist and jurist, born at Vercelli, in Piedmont, in 1465. lie became president of the Parlia- ment of Buigundy in 1507; after which he was employed as negotiator by the emperor. In 1520 he was appointed chancellor by Charles V., whose favour and confidence he enjoyed until the end of his life. He was the princi- pal negotiator of the treaty of Cambrai in 1 529, and was made a cardinal the same year. He was a friend of Erasmus, and a constant advocate of moderate and libe- ral measures for the reformation of the Church. Died at Innspruck in 1530. See Aubery, " Histoire des Cardinaux;" Guicciardini, " History of Italy;" Carlo Denina, " Elogio storico di M. di Gattinara," 1782; P. Ekerman, " Dissertatio de M. Gattinara," 1761. Ar-bo'ri-us, (.Emilius Magnus,) a Roman advo- cate, noted for eloquence, born in Gaul about 270 A.D., was a son of the following, and an uncle of the poet Ausonius. The emperor Constantine appointed him preceptor of one of his children at Constantinople, Died about 335 A.D. Arborius, (C.-ecie'ius ARGig'ius — ar-jish'e-us,) a learned citizen of Gaul, settled on the site of Bayonne in 264 A.D. His daughter was the mother of the poet Ausonius. Arbrissel or Arbrisselles, d', dlR^bRe'seK, (Rob- ert,) the founder of the abbey of Fontevrault, was born at Arbrissel, in Brittany, about 1047; died in 1117. Arbuckle, ar'buk-k'l, (James,) the author of a mock- heroic poem entitled "Snuff," (1719,) born at Glasgow in 1 700; died in 1734. See Campbell, " Introduction to the History of Poetry in Scot- land." Ar'buckle, (Matthew,) an American general, born in Greenbrier county, Virginia, in 1776. He served in the Mexican war, 1846-47. Died in 1851. Ar-buth'notorAr-buth'net,( Alexander,) a Scot- tish Protestant divine and poet, born about 1538. He was appointed principal of the University of Aberdeen in 1568, and was twice chosen moderator of the Assem- bly, 1573 and 1577. He is the reputed author of several vernacular poems of some merit, one of which is entitled "The Praises of Women." Died in 1583. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." V 9 as s; g Aard; g as/; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23.) ARBUTHNOT ARCHANGELUS Arbuthnot, (Alexander,) a Scottish printer, who printed the first Scotch Bible, in 1579. Died in 1585. Ar'butli-not, [Scottish pron. ar-buth''not,] (John,) a British author, satirist, and physician, celebrated for his ' wit, genius, and learning, was born at Arbuthnot, near Montrose, in Scotland, in 1675. He was educated at Aberdeen, where he took the degree of M.D., and be- came a resident of I^ondon in his youth. His " Exami- nation of Dr. Woodward's Account of the Deluge" (1697) first brought him into notice. His "Tables of the Grecian, Roman, and Jewish Measures, Weights, and Coins" (1705) have a high reputation, and are re- garded as a standard. In 1709 he was appointed phy- sician-in-ordinary to Queen Anne, He became intimate with Pope, Swift, and Bolingbroke, and was employed as a political writer by the Tory ministry. He produced in 1 7 12 the humorous " History of John Bull," an excel- lent political allegory, in which the belligerent powers of Europe were personated by John Bull the Clothier, Nick P'rog the Linen-draper, Louis Baboon, (Bourbon,) etc. Macaulay calls this work "the most ingenious and humorous political satire extant in our language." (" History of England," vol. v. chap, xxiv.) About 1 7 14 he united with Pope and Swift in the formation of the famous " Scriblerus Club," the design of which was to ridicule all false tastes in literature or abuses of learning. His " First Book of the Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus" is regarded as a master-piece of wit and irony. Among his other works is an " Essay on the Effects of Air on Human Bodies," (1733.) He died in 1735, leaving a son George and two daugh- ters. In 1 75 1 appeared "The Miscellaneous Works of Dr. Arbuthnot," (2 vols. ;) but the genuineness of some of these works was denied by his son. Referring to the writers of Queen Anne's reign. Dr. Johnson said, " I think Dr. Arbuthnot the first man among them. He was the most universal genius, being an excellent phy- sician, a man of deep learning, and a man of much hu- mour." (Boswell's "Life of Johnson.") His benevo- lence and integrity are highly commended. " He has more wit than we all have," said Swift, "and his hu- manity is equal to his wit." See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Swift's " Letters." Arbuthnot, (Mariot,) a British admiral, born in 171 1. He became a post-captain in 1747. Having been raised to the rank of vice-admiral in 1779, he obtained the chief command on the American station, and was blockaded by Count D'Estaing in the harbour of New York. He co-operated with Sir Henry Clinton in the capture of Charleston, South Carolina, in 1780, and became an admiral of the blue in 1793. Died in 1794. Arc, Joan d'. See Joan of Arc. Arc, d', or Arcq, d', dtRk, (Philippe Auguste de Sainte-Foix — deh saNt'fw3.',) a French historical writer, published a " History of Commerce and Navigation," (1758,) and other works. Died at Tulle, in 1779. Arcade. See Arcadius. Arcadelt, ak'ka-delt^ or Arcadet, tR'kt'da', (Jac- ques,) an eminent Dutch or Flemish musician and com- poser. He went to Rome in 1536, and was employed in the pontifical chapel in 1540. He composed masses, madrigals, etc. Arcadio, aR-k3.Me-o, (Alessandro,) an Italian medi- cal writer, lived in Piedmont in the seventeenth century. Arcadio, (Gian-Francesco,) an Italian medical writer, born at Bistagno ; died about 1620. Ar-ca''di-us, [' kpKa&tog,] a Greek grammarian, born at Antioch, lived about 200 A.D. He wrote an "Ono- masticon," which is praised by Suidas, and a "Treatise on Accents," which is extant. Arcadius, [Gr. 'kpKd6i.og; Fr. Arcade, tR'ktd',] Emperor of the East, born in Spain in 383 A.D., was the eldest son of Theodosius the Great, who at his death, in 395, divided the empire, leaving the eastern part to Ar- cadius, and the western part to his other son, Honorius. Byzantium was the capital of the Eastern Empire, which included Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, etc. Rufinus be- came guardian or regent, in accordance with the will of Theodosius, but was assassmated by Gainas before the end of the year. (See Gainas.) Arcadius was a very weak prince, and was controlled by his empress I'Aidoxia. He was partial to the orthodox creed, and issued edicts against the Arians. Died in 408 A.D., leaving the throne to his son, Theodosius II. See Socrates, " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" SozoiMEN, "Historia Ecclesiastica;" Gibbon, "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Arcaeus, ar-see-'us, (Franciscus,) [Sp. P'rancisco DE Arce, frin-thes^ko da aR'sa,] a distinguished Span- ish physician and surgeon, born at Fresno about 1494 ; died probably about 1575. He left an able treatise "On the Treatment of Wounds," (1574,) which was translated into English, German, and Dutch. Arcagna. See Orcagna. Arcano, d', daR-kS,'no, (Mauro, mow'ro*) commonly called "II Mauro," a celebrated burlesque poet of Italy, was born of a noble family of Friuli about 1490. He was intimate with the poet Berni, and an enemy to Aretin. His works are similar, and, in the opinion of some critics, almost equal, to those of Berni, They are generally satirical, and are censured for indecency and levity. Died in 1536. Arcasio, aR-ka''se-o, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian jurist, born at Bisagno, in Piedmont, in 1712, was professor of law at Turin. Died in 1791. Arce, de, daaR^tha, (Don Caledonio, ki-la-do'ne-o,) a Spanish sculptor, patronized by Charles IV., born a<" Burgos in 1739 ; died in 1795. Arce, de, (Francisco.) See Arc^us. Arce, de, (Jose,) a Spanish sculptor, who executed in 1657 some statues for the cathedral of Seville. Arcere, tr/saiii'', (Louis Etienne,) a French eccle- siastic, poet, and historian, born at Marseilles in 1698. Among his works is a " History of Rochelle and of Aunis," ("Histoire de la Rochelle et de I'Aunis," 2 vols., 1756-57.) Died in 1782. Arcesilas, the French of Arcesilaus, which see. Ar-ges-i-la'us, \ 'kpKEaLlaoq,'\ a Greek painter of Paros, whom Pliny calls one of the first painters in encaustic. He is supposed to have lived in the fifth century B.C. Arcesilaus, a Greek sculptor, of whom little is known. Among his works was a statue of Diana, on which Simonides wrote some verses. Arcesilaus IV., the last king of Cyrene, was extolled by the poet Pindar. Died about 431 B.C. Arcesilaus, [Gr. 'ApKemlaog; Fr. Arcesilas, tr'sa''ze'- ISs',] a Greek skeptical philosopher, born at Pitane, or Pitana, in ^Eolia, in 316 B.C., was the founder of the New, or, as it is sometimes called, the Middle Academy. He studied philosophy under Theophrastus and Polemo, and admired Plato, but modified his doctrines so much that he was considered as the head of a new school. He opposed the dogmatism of the Stoics, and main- tained that man knows nothing with certainty, — that the evidence of the senses is deceitful. His oratorical talents and ingenuity in argument are highly commended. It is not known that he left any written record of his prin- ciples. He used the Socratic method of teaching, was in the habit of maintaining alternately both sides of an argument, and was noted for the keenness of his replies. Died in 241 B.C. See RiTTER, "History of Philosophy;" G. H. Lewes, "Bio- graphical History of Philosophy;" Diogenes Laertius; Sextus Empiricus, "Adversus Mathematicos." Arcesilaus, an eminent sculptor, who flourished r»j Rome in the first century B.C. "His models,^' saTs Varro, " were more highly prized than the finished works of other artists." Among his productions was a "Venus Genitrix." Arcet. See Darcet. Ar-eliag'a-tlius, a Greek surgeon, who is said to have introduced the practice of surgery into Rome. He lived about 220 B.C. Archange de Clermont, tR'kSNzh'deh kleR'mdN^, a French historian, lived in the first half of the seven- teenth century. Archange de Rouen.. tR''k6Nzh' deh rw6N, rv French theologian, lived about 1 690-1 700. Ar-elian'ge-lus or De Archangelo, da aR-kSn'- ja-lo, (Ottavio,) an Italian poet, born at Catania, lived in the first half of the seventeenth century. a. e, T, d, u, y. lon^; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obsc2ire; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; ijood; moon; ARCHBOLD 153 ARCH US Arch'bold, (J. F.,) an eminent English writer on law, of the present century, has published many legal works, which have been often reprinted, and among which are a "Digest of the Pleas of the Crown," (1813 ;) "The Practice of the Court of King's Bench in Per- sonal Actions," (9th edition, 1855 ;) a "Summary of the Law relative to Pleading and Evidence in Criminal Cases," etc., (i8th edition, 1856.) Arch'dale, (John,) an Englishman, born in Buck- inghamshire, was originally a member of the Society of Friends. In 1694 he became Governor of Carolina, or South Carolina, which enjoyed new prosperity under his administration. He introduced the cultivation of rice, and wrote a "Description of the Province of Carolina," (1707.) See Bancroft's "History of the United States," vol. iii. chap, xix. Arch'dall, (Rev. Mer'vyn,) an antiquary, born in Dublin in 1723. He published in 1786 " Monasticon Hibernicum," or a " History of the Abbeys, Priories, and other Religious Houses in Ireland." He was after- wards rector of Slane, in the county of Meath, where he died in 1791. Arch-de'kin or Ars-de'kin, (Richard,) an Irish Jesuit, born in the county of Kilkenny about 1619. He published a system of theology, entitled "Controversies concerning" Faith reduced to an Easy Method," ("Con- troversise Fidei ad facilem Methodum redactae," 161 7,) which was often reprinted. Died at Antwerp in 1693. Ar-ehe-bu'liis, [Gr. 'kpxeSovAog ; Fr. Archebule, tR'sha'biil'',] a Greek poet, born at Thebes, flourished in the second half of the third century before Christ Archedamus. See Archidemus. Ai;gelied'i-cus, an Athenian comic poet, flourished about 302 B.C. Ar-ehe-la'us, [A.()xe7iaoc,] a king of Sparta, of the race of Agidae, began to reign about 884 B.C. Archelaus, a son of Herod the Great and Malthace, was appointed heir to the kingdom by the last will of his father. His claim was disputed by his brother Herod Antipas, who had many partisans. About i A.D. Archelaus went to Rome to procure the recognition of Augustus Csesar, who divided the kingdom and decided that Archelaus should rule Judea Proper, Samaria, and Idumea, with the title of Ethnarch, ("ruler of nations.") He was banished by Augustus for cruelty in 7 a.d. (See Matthew ii. 22.) Archelaus, an Egyptian writer, of unknown date, four of whose epigrams are found in the Greek Anthol- ogy. He is supposed to be the author of a work called a " Description of Strange or Curious Animals," which is not extant. ^rchelaus, a Greek poet, who wrote a work on al- chemy, lived probably in the fifth century after Christ. Archelaus, a native of Cappadocia, was general-in- chief of the army of Mithridates VI. in his first war against the Romans. In 87 B.C. he led a large army into Greece, and occupied Athens, where he was attacked by Sulla. He defended himself in the Pirasus in a long and famous siege. In 86 he retired to Thessaly, and was defeated by Sulla at Chaeronea and Orchomenus. By order of his sovereign, he signed a treaty of peace with Sulla in 85 B.C. He deserted to the Romans in 81. Archelaus, a son of the preceding, obtained the office of high-priest of Comana about 63 B.C. He won the hand of Berenice, Queen of Egypt, by pretending to be a son of King Mithridates. He was defeated by the Romans and killed in 55 B.C., after a reign of several months. His son Archelaus succeeded him as high- priest, and was deposed by Caesar in 47 B.C. Archelaus, the last king of Cappadocia, was a grand- son of the preceding and Glaphyra. He obtained the throne in 34 B.C. by the favour of Mark Antony, who is said to have been captivated by the beauty of Glaphyra. Having given offence to Tiberius, he was summoned to Rome and detained until his death in 17 a.d. Archelaus, Bishop of Carrha, in Mesopotamia, lived about 276 A.D. He challenged Manes the heretic to a oublic dispute, in which the latter was worsted. His account of this disputation was highly esteemed. Archelaus, King of Macedonia, was a son and suc- cessor of Perdiccas II. He reigned from 413 to 399 B.C., and encouraged Greek literature and arts by attracting to his court several eminent poets and artists, among whom were Euripides and Zeuxis. Socrates also was invited by him, but declined the favour. Archelaus was succeeded by his son Orestes. Archelaus of Miletus, (or, according to some writers, of Athens,) a Greek philosopher, who flourished about 450 B.C., was surnamed Physicus, because he directed his attention to physical rather than moral science. He was a pupil of Anaxagoras, and an instructor of Socrates at Athens. His works, if he wrote any, are entirely lost, and the merits of his system are not well understood. He admitted two principles of generation — heat, which moves, and cold, which remains at rest. Archenholz. See Arckenholtz. Archenholz, aR''Ken-holts^, (Johann Wilhelm,) a popular German writer of history, etc., was born at Dant- zic in 1741. He served in the Seven Years' war, at- tained the rank of captain, and after the peace of 1763 spent many years in travelling in England, France, and Italy. He gave evidence that he was a shrewd observer and agreeable writer, in his descriptive work called "Eng- land and Italy," (2 vols., 1785,) often reprinted. He edited for about twenty years the " Minerva," a success- ful historical and literary journal of Hamburg, which was first issued in 1792. His " History of the Seven Years' War" (2 vols., 1793) was very popular, and was trans- lated into many languages. He was author of other histories. Died in 1812. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Ar'cher, (John,) physician to Charles II, of England, wrote a book called "Every Man his Own Doctor," {1673.) Archer, (John Wykeham,) an English painter, en- graver, and antiquary, born at Newcastle-on-Tyne about 1806. He produced several hundred drawings or sketches of the antiquities of Eondon and its environs, and a book entitled " Vestiges of Old London." Died in 1S64. Archer, (Sir Simon,) an English antiquary of War- wickshire, born in 1581 ; died after 1654. Archer, (Thomas,) an English architect, a disciple or imitator of Vanbrugh, lived in the first half of the eighteenth century. He designed, besides other works, St. Philip's Church at Birmingham, (1719,) and St. John's at Westminster, (finished about 1728,) a remarkable structure of stone, which has been compared to "an elephant lying on its back, with its legs sprawling in the air." Died in 1743. See Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting." Ar'cher, (William S.,) an American Senator, born in Amelia county, Virginia, in 1789. He was a member of Congress from 1820 to 1835, and took a leading part in all matters of national importance. In 1841 he was elected a Senator of the United States by the Whigs of Virginia for six years, during which he was chairman of the Committee on Foreign Relations. Died in 1855. Ar-ehes'tra-tus, ykpxeoTpaTog,] an Athenian general, who succeeded Alcibiades as commander of the fleet in 407 B.C. Archestratus, [Fr. Archestrate, tR^shgs'tRtt',] a Greek poet, born in Sicily, is supposed to have lived about 350 B.C. He wrote a poem on Gastronomy, which is lost. His descriptions of animals were accurate, and were used by Aristotle in his "History of Animals." Archevesque, tRshVfk', (Hue, hli,) a French trou- badour of the thirteenth century, born in Normandy. Archiac, d', dtR^she-tk', (Etienne Jitles Adolphe Desmier de Saint-Simon — dez^me-a' deh s^N'se'- m6N',) VicOMTE, a French geologist, born at Rheims in 1802. He published " Zizim, or the Chivalry of Rhodes," a romance, (3 vols., 1828.) His most important work is a "History of the Progress of Geology from 1834 to 1851," in French, in six or more vols., (1847-56,) pub- lished under the auspices of the minister of public in- struction. Ar-ehi''a-das [kpxui^ag] or Ar-ehi'a-des, \^kpxiu- (5//f,] a Greek philosopher of the fifth century after Christ, was a friend of Proclus. Ar'-ehi-as [Gr. 'kpxiag] of Corinth, founded the city of Syracuse about 733 B.C. £ as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, y., guttural ; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^"See Explanations, p. 23.) ARCH IAS 154 ARCHIMELUS Arcbias surnamed the Hunter of Fugitives gained pa infcimous notoriety by pursuing the Athenian orators ^vho were proscribed by Antipater about 322 B.C. Archias, (Au''lus Licin'ius,) an accomplished Greek poet of A.nti(.)ch, in Syria, became a resident of Rome in 102 l!.C lie enjoyed the friendship of Lucullus and Cicero, and was aclmitted to the rights of citizenship. Among his works were a poem on the Cimbric war of Marius. and one on the Mithridatic war, both of which are lost. His right of citizenship having been contested, Cicero advocated his cause, about 60 B.C., in an ad- mirable oration, Pro Archia,'') and expressed himself deeply iadebted to his client for the direction of his youthful studies and the development of his mental powers. About thirty epigrams, of little merit, bearing the name of A:chias, are preserved in the Greek An- thology ; but it is doubtful whether they were actually written iDy him. The oration of Cicero is the only source of information respecting him. See Wallenius, " Dissertatio de Aulo Licinio Arcliia," 1806; ScHOELi.. '"Histoire de la Litterature Grecque;" Jacobs, "Antho- logia Grxca." Ar-elii-da'miis ['Ap,Y«k//o^-] I., King of Sparta, reigned probably about 600 B.C. He was one of the Proclid (or Eurypontid) line. Arcliidamus II., King of Sparta, was a grandson of Leotychides, and began to reign about 470 B.C. In the Peloponnesian war he commanded an army which in- vaded Attica in 431 B.C. ; but he could not provoke the Athenians to risk a battle. He again invaded Attica in 428, and died in 427 B.C. Arcliidamus III., King of Sparta, was a son of the great Agesilaus. In 367 B.C. he defeated the Argives and Arcadians in a battle which was called "the tearless," because it was won without the loss of a man on the Spartan side. He resisted with success the attack of Epaminondas at Sparta in 362, and ascended the throne in 361 B.C. Having passed over to Italy to aid the Tarentines, he was killed in battle in 338 B.C. He was succeeded by his son, Agis III. Archidamus IV., King of Sparta, was a son of Eudamidas. He \Vas defeated near Mantinea by Deme- trius Poliorcetes in 296 B.C. Arcliidamus V., the last king of Sparta of the Pro- clid line, was a brother and successor of Agis IV., who died 240 B.C. According to Polybius, he was put to death by Cleomenes not long after that date. Arcliidamus, a Greek physician mentioned by Ga- len, lived probably about 400 B.C. Ar-c.{ii-de'mu3, a Stoic philosopher of Tarsus, in Cilicia, lived about 160 B.C. He was author of a Greek work "On the Elementary Principles of Matter." Ar-ehig^e-nes, [Gr. 'Apxqn'Tjr; Fr. Archigene, Ir^- she'zh^n',] a celebrated Greek physician, born at Apamea, Syria. He practised in Rome with great success in the reigns of Domitian, Nerva, and Trajan, (81-1 17 a.d.,) and wrote numerous works, of which some fragments are extant. Many extracts from them have been preserved by Galen, Oribasius, and others. Ar-ehiPo-elius, [Gr. 'ApxiMx^C ; Fr. Archiloque, iR'sheOok',] a celebrated Greek lyric poet and satirist, born in the island of Paros, flourished about 680 or 700 B.C. He emigrated to Thasos in the prime of life, and joined the Thasian army, but fled from the first battle, and threw away his shield. He wrote odes, elegies, and satires, and is regarded as the inventor of the Iambic verse, or the first Greek who composed Iambic verses according to fixed rules. "Archilochum proprio rabies armavit lambo."* Horace, "Art of Poetry." The invention of the Epodic, Trochaic Tetrameter, and other forms of metre is also ascribed to him. Some frag- ments of his works are extant. According to Quintilian, he was a very vigorous, nervous, versatile, and elegant * "Rage armed Archilochus with his own Iambics," {i.e. Iambics nf his own invention.) This line has allusion to a generally received but doubtful story, that Lycam'bes, having promised his daughter Neobu'ie to Archilochus, afterwards broke his word and gave her in marriage to a more wealthy suitor. This exasperated the poet, who wrote against the father and daughter an invective so scathing that •hev hung themselves in despair. writer. Sunima in co vis ; elegantes, vibrantesqic'j seiiten- ti(£ ; pluritnimi sanguinis et nervorum. He was espe- cially distinguished by the severity of his sarcasm. Some ancient critics placed him above all other poets except Homer. There is a tradition that he was killed in a battle between the Parians and the Naxians. See MuLLER, "Literature of Ancient Greece;" Bentley, " Phal- aris;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca;" Bode, "Geschichte der lyrischen Dichtkunst;" Huschke, " Dissertatio de Fabulis Archilo- chi," 1S03. Archiloque. See Archilochus. Arcliimede. _See Archimedes. Ar-eln-me^des, [Gr. ' kpxL[iv67]g ; It. Archimede, aR- ke-maMa; Fr. Archimede, tR'she^mid',] the greatest geometer of antiquity, was born in the state of Syracuse, Sicily, about 287 B.C., and was of Greek extraction. He is supposed to have been a pupil of Conon of Egypt, and a relative of Hieron II., King of Syracuse. He enjoyed the favour and patronage of Hieron and of his son Gelon. Among the few recorded incidents of his life is the following. He was consulted by the king in regard to a gold crown which the latter suspected to be alloyed with silver by a fraudulent artificer. While he was pondering the mode of detecting this fraud, he im- mersed himself in a full bathing-tub, and, with the thought that the water which overflowed must be equal in bulk to his body, he discovered the mode of ascertaining the bulk of the crown compared with an equally heavy mass of pure gold. He was so transported with joy that he ran home undressed, exclaiming. Eureka, (or, rather, Heureka,) " I have found it !" Archimedes was profoundly versed in mechanics and hydrostatics, in which he made many discoveries, and was the inventor of several powerful machines. I^early eighteen hundred years elapsed after his discoveries before any progress was made in theoretical mechanics. It was he who uttered that famous saying, Aof ttoC arUi KoL rov Koajwv Kivf/ou, " Give me where I may stand, and I will move the world," (or " univei'se.") The long re- sistance of Syracuse to the Romans under Marcellus is ascribed to the warlike engines invented by Archimedes. The story that he burned the Roman ships by means of mirrors is discredited, as it is not confirmed by Polybius, Livy, or Plutarch. He was killed at the capture of Syra- cuse, 212 B.C. Of this event Plutarch gives several ver- sions, one of which is as follows : A Roman soldier entered his room and ordered him to follow him to Mar- cellus, but the geometer refused to do so until he had finished his problem, and the soldier, in a passion, drew his sword and killed him. (See article "Marcellus," in Plutarch's "Lives.") He left a number of works, eight of which are extant, viz. : " On the Sphere and Cylinder," (the proportions of which he discovered ;) "The Measurement of the Circle," (in which he proves that the circumference is to the diameter nearly as 3.1428 to I ;) "On the Equilibrium and Centre of Grav- ity of Planes;" "On Conoids and Spheroids;" "On Spirals;" "The Quadrature of the Parabola;" "The Arenarius," {'fa/j.fUTT]^;) and "On Floating Bodies." "That his [Archimedes'] intellect was of the very highest order," says Professor Donkin, of Oxford, "is unquestionable. lie possessed in a degree never ex- ceeded, unless by Newton, the inventive genius which discovers new provinces of inquiry and finds new points of view for old and familiar objects ; the clearness of conception which is essential to the resolution of com- plex phenomena into their constituent elements ; and the power and habit of intense and persevering thought, without which other intellectual gifts are comparative!) fruitless." (See article "Archimedes," in Smith's "Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.") When Cicero was quaestor in Sicily, he found, over- grown with briers, the tomb of Archimedes, marked b) the figure of a sphere inscribed in a cylinder, in com- memoration of his discovery. See G. LiBRi, " Histoire des Math^matiques en Italic ;" Mazzu- CHELLi, " Notizie istoriche e critichi intorno alia Vita ed Invenzion: di Archimede," 1737; Hennert, "Dissertation sur la Vie d' Archi- mede," 1766; J. A. Schmidt, " Dissertatio de Archimede," i6S3;Do- menico Scin'A, " Discorso intorno ad Archimede," I023; "Quarterly Review," vol. iii. Ar-ehi-me'lus, ['Apxtf^V^oc,] a Greek poet^ flourished a. e, I, o, u, y, /ong; i, b, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s//ort; a, e, j, g, obsctire; fSr, f^ll, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; AR CHINTO 155 JR CONFILLE about 225 B.C. One of his epigrams is preserved by Athen^Eus. Archiiito, aR-ken'to. (Alessandro,) a theologian, who received from Charles V. the title of count. Died at Milan in 1567. Arcliinto, (Alessandro,) a Jesuit and writer, born at Milan in 1577 ; died in 1645. Arcliinto, (Carlo,) Count, a learned Italian noble- m?.ii, born at Milan in 1669. He founded an academy of cavalieri, (knights,) (1702,) and an association called Societa Palatina, by which Muratori's great work was printed. He wrote, besides other works, " Tables of Sciences and Arts." Died in 1732. Arcliinto, (Carlo Antonio,) an Italian ecclesiastic and writer, lived in the first half of the seventeenth cen- tury. Archiuto, (Filippo,) Archbishop of Milan, an Italian theologian, born in 1500; died in 1558. Archiuto, (Filippo,) Count, an Italian jurist, born at Milan in 1649. He held several high otfices. Died about 1720. Archiuto, (Girola.mo,) born at Milan about 1671, became Archbishop of Tarsus. Died in 1721. Archiuto, (Giuseppe,) an Italian prelate, born in 165 1. He became Archbishop of Milan and a cardinal in 1699. Died in 17 12. Archiuto, (Ottavio,) Count, an Italian antiquary, born at Milan. He wrote several treatises on the anti- quities of the Milanese. Died in 1656. Ar-ehi'nus, ['Apvn^of,] an Athenian, who with Thra- sybu''lus expelled the thirty tyrants in 403 B.C. and re- stored the democracy. According to Demosthenes, he acted the principal part in this revolution, and distin- guished himself as a statesman on other occasions. Ar-ehip'pus, an Athenian comic poet, of whom little is known. He gained a victory with one of his comedies in 416 B.C. His most celebrated play was entitled "The Fishes." Only small fragments of his works remain. See Vossirs, " De Poetis Gravels." Archon, tR'shoN', (Louis,) a French ecclesiastical writer, born at Riom in 1645 ; died in 171 7. Ar-ehy'tas, [Gr. 'Apxvrai;'] an eminent Greek philos- opher, mathematician, and general, born at Tarentum, lived about 350 B.C. He belonged to the Pythagorean sect, and is said to have saved the life of Plato from the anger of Dionysius the Tyrant. He commanded the army of Tarentum for seven years, and perished in a shipwreck on the coast of Apulia, leaving a high reputa- tion for public and private virtue, Archytas passes for one of the first who applied geometry to mechanics and framed powerful machines on mathematical principles. He left a number of works, which have not come down to us. Fragments of a treatise " On Wisdom," ascribed to him, are extant. Horace calls him " maris et terrae, numeroque carentis arenas, Mensorem,"* in an ode "Ad Archytam," Carm. i. 28. See G. LiBRi, " Histoire des Mntheinatiques en Italic;" G. Na- VARRA, "Tentamen de Arcliyta; Tarentiui Vita." 1820; O. F. Gri'ppe, "Ueber die Fragmeiue des Archylas, etc.," 1S40. Archytas, a Greek epigrammatic poet, mentioned l)y j Diogenes Laertius. Archytas of Mitylene, a writer on music, mentioned by Diogenes Laertius. 'Arcimboldi, aR-ch^m-boKdee, (Antonello,) an Italian Hellenist and priest, was a son of Giovanni An- gelo, noticed below. He translated some works of the Greek Fathers into Latin. Died in 1578. Arcimboldi, (Giovanni,) an Italian cardinal and writer, became Archbishop of Milan in 1484. Died in . 1491. Arcimboldi, (Giovanni Angelo,) Archbishop of Milan, born in 1485, published a " Catalogue of Heretics," (1554.) Died in 1555. Arcimboldi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, born at Milan in 1533' excelled in portraits. He worked for the emperor Ferdinand I., and his successor, at Prague. Died in 1593. * "The measurer of the sea and land, and of the innumerable sands." Arcimboldi, (Guido Antonio,) brother of Gio- vanni the cardinal, became Archbishop of Milan in 14S8. Died in 1497. Arcimboldi, (Ottavio,) a learned prelate, born at Milan in 147 1, was versed in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. Died about 1503. Arcis, tR'se'', (Marc,) a French sculptor, born at Toulouse, became a member of the Royal Academy in 1684. Died about 1740. Arciszewski, aRt-se-shev'ske, (Christopher,) a Polish noble and general, born towards the ciose of the sixteenth century. He entered the Dutch service about 1630, and fought with distinction in Brazil against the Spaniards and Portuguese. He became second in com- mand under Maurice of Nassau, in Brazil, in 1637. Some authorities state that he was Governor of Brazil. Died at Lissa in 1656, (or, as some writers state, in 1668.) Arckenlioltz or Arkenholz, aR^ken-holts', (Jo- HANN,) a Swedish historical writer, born in Finland in 1695. He published, in French, " Memoirs of Christina, Queen of Sweden," (4 vols., 1750-60,) valuable as a col- lection of materials, but not well written, and assisted Mauvillon in a " History of Gustavus Adolphus," (1764.) Died in 1777. See PoRTHAX, "Aminnelse-Tal ofver J. Arckenholtz," 17S1. Arco, aR'ko, (Filippo,) an Italian general in the Im- perial army, was beheaded for treason in 1704. Arco, d', daR'ko, (Giambattista Gherardo,) an Italian political economist, born at Arco in 1739. He became a resident of Mantua, and wrote a number of works, among which are "The Influence of Commerce on Talents and Customs," (" Costumi,"") and "On the Political and Economical Relations between the City and the Country belonging to it," (" Dell' Armonia poll' tico-economica tra la Citta e il suo Territorio," (1771.) He was appointed governor of the duchy of Mantua by the emperor Joseph II. Died in 1791. Arco, d', (XiccoLO,) Count, a good Latin poet, born at Arco, in the Tyrol, in 1479. He was learned in ancient and modern languages, and was intimate with Annibal Caro, Fracastor, and Paolo Giovio. A volume of his poems was published in 1546. His "Dirge for the Death of his Mother," (" N^enia de Morte Matris,") which resembles Cowper's "Lines on his Mother's Pic- ture," is greatly admired. Died in 1546. Arco, del, del aR'ko, (Alonso,) a Spanish painter, who was a deaf-mute, called El Sordillo del Pereda, el soR-del'yo del pa-ra'D^, ("The Little Deaf Man of Pereda,") was born at Madrid in 1625. He studied under Pereda, was a good colurist, and excelled in por- traits. His master-piece, in the opinion of some, is the "Baptism of John the Baptist." Died in 1700. Arcoleo, aR-ko-la''o, (Antonio,) an Italian dramatic poet, born in the island of Candia, lived in the seven- teenth century. Argon, d', cIsr^son', (Jean Claude El6onore le Michaud — leh me'sho',) a French military engineer, born at Pontarlier in 1733, distinguished himself in the Seven Years' war. He was the inventor of floating batteries, which attracted much attention in 1782, al- i though they proved unsuccessful in the siege of Gib- raltar. These vessels, the decks of which were covered with a shell-proof blindage forming two inclined planes, presented to the guns of the fort a thick layer ( anrasse ) of green wood, partly defended by an armour of cables. He wrote, besides other works, " Political and Military Considerations on Fortifications," (1795.) He was a member of the Institute and of the Senate. Died in 1800. See Drinkwater, "Account of the Siege of Gibraltar;" Girod- Chantr.ans, " Notice sur la Vie du General d'Argon," (iSoi.) Ar-co-na'tus, (Jerome,) a German poet, born in Si- lesia in 1553 ; died in 1599. Arcoui, d', dta'ko'ne'', (Cesar,) a French writer on physical science and theology, was iDorn at Viviers ; died in 1681. Arconville, d', dtR^k6NVeK, (Marie,) a learned French authoress, born in 1720. She published many works, among which were romances, poems, biogra- phies, and a " Historv of Francis II. of France," (2 vols., 1783.) Died in 1805". € as y^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, gtittiiral; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) JRCOS 156 ARELLANO Arcos, aR'kos, (Don Rodrigo Ponz de Leon — piiith da li-(i»a',) Duke of, a Spaniard who was ap- pointed Viceroy of Naples in 1646. His exactions pro- voked a formidable insurrection in 1647, (see Masani- ELLO,) and he was obliged to make concessions to the people. Don Juan of Austria in the mean time was sent with a fleet to enforce the royal authority, and the fight was renewed between his troops and the Neapolitans, who proclaimed a republic. The Duke of Arcos was removed from oftice about the end of 1647, and returned to Spain in disgrace. See Leo and Butta, "HIstoire d'ltalie." Arc-ti'nus ['Ap/cnvof] of Miletus, an ancient Greek epic poet, is supposed to have lived before 700 B.C. Little or nothing is known of his life. His works, among which was a poem called "^thiopis," are all lost. Arcudi, aR-koo'dee, (Alessandro Tommaso,) an Italian satirical writer, born at Galatina, in Naples, in 1655, wrote "The Anatomy of Hypocrites," (1699.) Died in 1718. Ar-cu'di-us or Arcudio, aR-koo'de-o, (Peter,) a Roman Catholic priest, born at Corfu about 1570. He was sent by the pope to Poland and Muscovy, where he laboured as a missionary about twenty years. He wrote in Greek "On the Harmony of the Western and Eastern Churches in the Use of the Seven Sacraments," (2d edi- tion, 1619.) Died about 1635. Ar-cuFphus, written also Arculf and Arculfe, a French or Gallic priest who visited and explored the Holy Land about 650 a.d. An account of his travels was writ- ten by Adomnan. Arcussia, d', dtR^kii'se-t', (Charles,) a French gentleman, born in Provence about 1548, was known as the author of a work on Falconry, (1598,) which had great success. Died in 161 7. Arcy, d'. See D'Arcy, (Patrick.) Ar-da-bu'ri-us, [Gr. 'ApJa/iorpiOf,] a general of the Eastern Empire, the father of Aspar, commanded an Imperial army which invaded Persia in 422 A.D. and be- sieged Nisi bis without success. Ardasheer. See x\rdsheer. Ardell, (James Mac.) See MacArdell. Ardemans, aR-da-mdns', (Teodoro,) a Spanish ar- chitect and painter, born at Madrid in 1664. He was appointed cabinet-painter to the king about 1704. He designed the principal part of the palace and collegiate church of San Ildefonso. Died in 1726. Ar'den, (Edward,) an English gentleman and Ro- man Catholic, a third-cousin to Mary Arden the mother of Shakspeare, was born in 153L In 1583 Arden was executed on a charge of treason, with his son-in-law Somerville. Many persons believed that Arden was in- nocent, and that he was the victim of the enmity of the Earl of Leicester, with whom he had quarrelled. He left a son Robert, who was a lawyer. Arden, (John.) See Arderx. Arden, (Richard Pepper,) Lord Alvanley, an English lawyer and judge, born at Bredbury, near Stockport, in 1745. He became a personal ancl politi- cal friend of William Pitt, and was appointed solicitor- general in 1782. Having resigned when Fox and Lord North came into power in 1783, he was reappointed to that office about the end of the same year by Pitt. He was attorney-general from 1784 to 1788, and was made master of the rolls in the latter year. In 1801 he suc- ceeded Lord Eldon as lord chief-justice of the court of common pleas, and was created a peer, by the title of Baron Alvanley. Died in 1804. See Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. viii. Ardene, t^RfdhV, (Esprit Jean de Rome, es^pRe' zhSN deh rom,) a French poet, born at Marseilles in 1684. He published a collection of Fables in verse, (1747,) and wrote odes, ej^igrams, and other verses, (4 vols., 1767.) Died in 1748. Ardene, (Jean Paul de Rome,) a brother of the pre- ceding, born at Marseilles in 1689, was a priest and hor- ticulturist. He published treatises on " Tulips," (1760,) "Carnations," (1767,) and other plants ; also a work on gardening and rural economy, called the " Rural Year," ("Annee champetre," 3 vols., 1769,) which was consid- ered one of the best on those subjects. Died in 1769. Ardenne, d', dtkMen', [Lat. Arduen'na,] (Rema- CLE, reh-mikl',) a Latin poet, born near Maubeuge about 1480. He was secretary of Margaret of Burgundy. He wrote, besides other mediocre poems, " Palamedes," a drama, (1512.) Ardente, aR-d§n'ta, (Alessandro,) an Italian painter, born at Faenza, worked mostly at Turin, He painted portraits and history with success. Among his works are a "Conversion of Saint Paul" and a "Baptism of Christ." Died in 1595. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy,' Ar'dern, (John,) or Johannes de Arderne, an eminent English surgeon, who practised at Newark from 1349 to 1370, when he removed to London. He made some important improvements in surgery, and wrote several works, one of which is a "Treatise on Fistula," (1588.) Ar'derne, (James,) an English clergyman, founded a library at Chester. Died in 1691. Ardeschir. See Ardsheer. Ardha-Nari. See Siva. Ar'di-ges of Corinth, an ancient Greek painter, who, according to Pliny, painted monochromatic pictures. Ardingeili, aR-den-jeKlee, (Niccolo,) an Italian car- dinal, whom Pope Paul HI. sent to France to negotiate a peace between Francis I, and Charles V. Died in 1547, aged about forty-five. Ardizzon, aR-det-s6n', or Ardizzoni, aR-d^t-so'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian writer, died at Naples in 1699. Ardoin. See Arduin. Ardoina, aR-do-ee'iiS, (Anna Maria,) an Italian poetess, born in 1672, was a daughter of the Prince of Palizzo. Died in 1700. Ardslieer (Ardshir or Ardeschir) B^began, ard- sheer' b3.'beh-g^n', a famous king of Persia, the founder of the dynasty of Sassanides, was a man of humble origin. He rebelled against King Artabanus or Arda- van, who was defeated and killed in battle. After he had extended the limits of Persia by conquests, he reigned many years in peace, and had a wide reputation for virtue and wisdom. His maxims are still preserved by the Persians. He died probably about 260 a.d., and left the throne to his son, Shapur or Sapor. He was called Artaxerxes by the Greeks. See Malcolm, " History of Persia ;" Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Ardshir (or Ardsheer) Darazdast. See Artax- erxes Longimanus. Arduenna. See Ardenne. Arduin, arcKwin, Ardoin, or Ardoino, aR-do-ee'no, sometimes written Ardouin and Ardwig, King of Italy, was chosen by several Italian nobles as successor to Otho HI. in 1002. War ensued between him and Henry, Emperor of Germany, who became master of Milan and other cities of Lombardy. Died in 1015. See Provana, "Studj critichi sovra la Storia d'ltalia a' tempi del Re Ardoino," 1849; Muratori, " Annali d'ltalia." Arduini, aR-doo-ee'nee, or Arduino, aR-doo-ee'no, (LuiGi,) an Italian agriculturist, born at Padua about 1750. He became professor, at Padua, of rural economy, and wrote several works on that science. Died in 1833. Arduini, (Pietro,) an Italian botanist, the father of the preceding, was born at Verona. He published in 1766 a work on the culture and use of plants employed in domestic and rural economy. Arduino, aR-doo-ee'no, (Maestro,) a Venetian sculp- tor ancl architect of the fifteenth century. Ar'dys, [Gr. 'Ap(5i»f,] King of Lydia, succeeded his father Gyges about 680 13. c, and reigned about forty- nine years. Aregio, S-ra^ne-o, (Pablo,) a skilful Spanish painter, born in the fifteenth century. He painted subjects from the life of the Virgin, in the cathedral of Valencia, ibout 1506. Areius, (the heresiarch.) See Arius. A-rei'us, [Gr. "Apeio^,] a Stoic philosopher of Alexan- dria, was a friend and preceptor of Augustus Caesar. Arellano, de, di S.-r&l-ya'no, (Gil Ramirez,) a Span- ish antiquary of the first part of the seventeenth cen- a, e, T, o, VL, y, long; a, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, sho7't ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; ARELLANO S7 A RET IN tury. He wrote " Vindication of the Ancient Grandeur of the Counts of Aguilar," (" Memorial en justificacion de la Grandeza antigua de los Condes de Aguilar,") which is a model in its kind. Arellano, de, (Juan,) the best Spanish flower-painter of his time, was born in 1614. Died at Madrid in 1676. A-rel'li-us, a Roman painter, who lived in the first century B.C. The senate ordered his pictures to be re- moved from the temples because he took courtesans as his models. Areniberg, 2.'rem-b§RG,( Auguste Marie Raymond,) Prince of, a son of Karl Leopold, noticed below, was born at Brussels in 1753. He was elected to the French States-General in 1789, and favoured the doctrines of the Revolution. About 1792 he emigrated to Austria, in the army of which he attained the rank of major- general. He was a friend of Mirabeau. Died in 1833. Areniberg, (John of Ligne,) Count, a general of Philip H. of Spain, was probably born in Flanders. He was appointed governor of Fries! and and Overyssel by Philip II., and took sides against the Prince of Orange about 1563. In 1567 he commanded a small army sent by Alva against the French Huguenots. He was de- feated and killed in a battle at Groningen in May, 1568. See Motley, "Rise of the Dutch Republic," vol. ii. chap. ii. Aremberg, (Leopold Philipp Karl Joseph von Ligne,) Duke of, a general born at Mons in 1690, was the father of Karl Leopold, noticed below. He fought for Austria at Malplaquet in 1709, and as major-general contributed to Prince Eugene's victory at Belgrade in 1 71 7. In 1737 he obtained the rank of field-marshal, and the chief command of the army in Flanders. He com- manded an army of Maria Theresa in the war which began in 1741. Died in 1754. Aremberg, von, fon a'rem-beRG, (Karl Leopold,) a field-marshal in the Austrian service, son and suc- cessor of the preceding, distinguished himself in the Seven Years' war. He led the right wing of the Aus- trians at Hochkirchen in 1758, and was defeated by Wiinsch in 1759. Arena, ^-ra'nd, (Bartolommeo,) a politician, born in Corsica about 1760. Pie was elected to the French Legislative Assembly in 1792, and was a partisan of the Revolution and an enemy of Paoli. Asa member of the Council of Five Hundred, he opposed Bonaparte in the contest of the i8th Brumaire, 1799, after which he lived in exile. Died at Leghorn about 1830. Arena, (Giuseppe,) a conspirator, born in Corsica, was a brother of the preceding. He served as adjutant- general at the siege of Toulon in 1793, and was elected to the Council of Five Hundred in 1796. In October or November, 1801, he was arrested at the Opera as an accomplice of Ceracchi and others in a conspiracy to kill Napoleon, and was executed in 1802. Arena, (Giuseppe,) an Italian musician and composer, flourished between 1725 and 1750. Arena, i-ra'nS,, or Harena, (Jacobus,) a Belgian or Italian jurist, born in the thirteenth century, is said to have taught civil law at Padua in 1300. He wrote several legal works, which were printed in the sixteenth century. Arena, d', dt'ri^nS', (Antoine,) the Latinized name of La Sable, (It stbl,) a French jurist and macaronic poet, born at Souliers, near Toulon. Died in 1544. Arenalcs, S-ra-ni'lcs, (Jose,) a South American ge- ographer, was a lieutenant-colonel in the army of Buenos Ayres in 1833. Arend, ^'rent, or Arents, 3,'rents, (Balthasar,) a son of Caius, noticed below, born in Ilolstein about 1640, was a minister, and published several works, chiefly sermons. Died in 1687. Arend or Arents, (Caius or Kay,) a German or- thodox divine, born in Holstein in 1614. He was min- ister at Gliickstadt from 1661 to 1678, and afterwards at Meldorf. He published several sermons. Died in 1691. Arends, S'rdnts, (Jan,) a Dutch painter, born at Dort in 1738. Pie painted marine pieces and other subjects, at his native place and Middelburg, with success. Died in 1805. Arends, written also Arents, (Thomas,) a Dutch merchant and poet, born at Amsterdam in 1652. He composed fugitive poems and dramas. Died in 1700. Arendt, a'rSnt, (Martin Frederik,) a Danish anti- quary, born at Altona in 1769. Pie traversed many countries of Europe on foot in order to investigate anti- quities, copy runic inscriptions, etc., having no resources but the bounty of strangers. He wrote several short antiquarian treatises. Died near Venice in 1824. Arensbeck, a'rgns-bek', (Peter Dietrich,) a Swe- dish linguist, was minister of a church at Stockholm, and teacher of Oriental languages. Died in 1673. Arents. See Arend. Ar'e-sas, ['A^jeaaf,] a Greek Pythagorean philosopher, lived in Italy, and succeeded Tydas as head of the school. Aresi, S-ra^see, (Paolo,) an Italian ecclesiastic, emi- nent as a preacher and writer, was born at Cremona in 1574. He became Bishop of Tortona in 1620. His prin- cipal work is " Sacred Emblems," etc., (" Imprese sacre con triplicati Discorsi illustrate," 1613.) He afterwards enlarged it to seven volumes, (1621-35.) Died in 1644. Areson, 3.'reh-son, (Jon,) a bishop and poet of Ice- land, born in 1484. He became Bishop of Iceland in 1522, and resisted the efforts of the King of Denmark to establish the Protestant religion in that island. Having taken up arms against the king, he was defeated and put to death in 1550. Aresti, a-res'tee, (Floriano,) an Italian composer of operas, born at Bologna, lived about 1700. Aretceus, Ar-e-tee'us, [Gr. 'ApEralog; Fr. Aretee, t'ri''ta',] an eminent Greek medical writer, born prob- ably in Cappadocia, is supposed to have lived in the first or second century of the Christian era. Nothing is known of his life. He wrote a work in eight books 011 the Causes, Symptoms, and Cure of Acute and Chronic Affections, which is still extant, and is highly prized for its matter and the elegance of its style. His work has often been printed in Greek and Latin since 1552. See Sprengel, " Histoire de laMedecine;" Suringar, "Disser- tatio de Aretseo medico," 1837. Ar'e-tas, [Gr. 'ApcTag,'] the name of several kings of Arabia, who reigned between 170 and 40 B.C. One of these defeated Antiochus XII. about 90 B.C., and aftei'wards gained a victory over Alexander Jannaeus. One king of this name was the father-in-law of Herod Antipas. He appears to have been the Aretas who reigned in Damascus when the Apostle Paul escaped from that city. (See II. Corinthians xi. 32.) He waged war against Herod Antipas, who, having been defeated, ap- plied for aid to the emperor Tiberius. The latter ordered Vitellius to march against Aretas ; but the death of Tibe- rius, in 37 A.D., prevented the execution of this design. A-re'te, [Gr. 'Ap//rr/,] a daughter of the celebrated Aristippus, was versed in philosophy, which she learned of her father. She had a son, Aristippus, who-\vas sur- named M>/Tpo6U]aKTog, {i.e. "Mother-taught.") Aretee. See Aretceus. Ar-e-thu^sa, [Gr. 'ApsOovaa; Fr. Ar^thuse, t'ra'- tiiz',] a Nereid and an attendant of Diana, was, accord- ing to a poetical legend, beloved and pursued by Alpheus, and was changed into a fountain in Ortygia, near Syra- cuse. (See Alpheus.) She was invoked by Virgil as a source of poetical inspiration, (Eclogue x. i.) Aretin or Aretino, (Bernardo.) See Accoltl Aretin, von, fon a^reh-teen', (Johann Adam Chris- TOPH [osEPH,) Baron, a Bavarian diplomatist, born at Ingolstadt in 1 769. He represented Bavaria in the Germanic Diet at Frankfort from 181 7 until his death, and published, besides a few other works, a " Manual of the Philosophy of Life," (1793.) Died in 1822. Aretin, von, (Johann Christoph Anton Maria,) Baron, a brother of the preceding, was born at Ingol- stadt in 1772 or 1773. He became aulic counsellor at Munich in 1793, and vice-president of the Munich Acad- emy of Sciences in 1804. He published many and va- rious works, among which are a " History of the Jews in Bavaria," (1803,) and an "Introduction to Mnemonics," (1810.) Died ii. 1824. Aretin, von, (Johann Georg,) Baron, a German writer on rural economy, born in 1771, was a brother of the preceding. Aretin, von, (Karl Maria,) Baron, a German his- torian, born at Munich in 1796, was a son of Johann Christoph Anton Maria, noticed above. He was ap- € as 9 as s; g /lard; g as J; G, H, K, giittiii'al; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in tJiis. (J^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ARETINO 158 ARGELLATl pointed keeper of the archives of Bavaria, and privy counsellor. Among his works is a " History of the Elector Maximilian I.," (1842.) Aretino, a-ra-tce'no, [Lat. Areti'nus; Fr. Ar6tin, S'ra''t:\N'',] (Angelo,) an Italian jurisconsult 6f the fif- teenth century, born at Arezzo. His faniily name was Gambiglioni. He was professor of law at Ferrara and Bologna, and wrote a ''Treatise on Misdemeanours and Crimes," ("Tractatus de Maleficiis," 1472,) and other works, which were highly esteemed. He died after 1450. Aretino, (Carlo.) See Marsuppini, (Carlo.) Aretino, (Francesco.) See Accoltl Aretino, (Leonardo.) See Brunl Aretino, [Lat. Areti'nus ; Fr. Aretin,] (Pietro,) a satirical Italian writer, surnamed THE Scourge of Princes, was born at Arezzo in 1492. He had superior talents, but little learning. In 1527 he became a resi- dent of Venice, and wrote a libel on Pope Clement VIL, then imprisoned or besieged by the Imperialists. He associated with eminent authors and artists, and corre- sponded with several monarchs of Europe, among whom were Francis I. of France, and the emperor Charles V., from whom he received a pension. His conduct was extremely licentious and venal. He wrote numerous works, among which were Dialogues, Comedies, Letters, (6 vols., 1538-57,) Sonnets, and other poems. He died at Venice (where the greater part of his mature life was passed) in 1557. See Berni, "Vita di P. Aretino," 1537; Dujardin, "Vie de Pierre Aretin," 1750; Mazzuchelli, "Vitadi Pietro Aretino," 1763; DuBois-FoNTANELLE, " Vie de Pierre Aretin," 176S. Aretino, (Spinello,) an eminent Italian painter, born at Arezzo about 13 1 5. He adorned the chapel of Santa Maria Maggiore, and other churches of Florence, with frescos. Those of San Miniato, in the same city, are still preserved. The " History of Pope Alexander III.," in the town-hall of Sienna, is called his principal work. In the opinion of Vasari, he was a better painter than Giotto. Died about 1400, See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." Aretins, a-ree'she-us, [Gcr. pron. d-r6t'se-us,] (Bene- Dicr,) a wSwiss Calvinist theologian and botanist, born at Berne. He became professor of languages and theo- logy at that city about 1563. He published, besides other works, "Theological Problems," ("Problemata Theologica," 1574, often reprinted,) and a " Description of the Mountains Stockhorn and Niesen, and the Plants growing on the Same," (1561.) He was a friend of Con- rad Gesner. Died in 1574. Aretins, (Claudius Marius.) See Arezzo. Aretusi, S.-ra-too'see, (Cesare,) also called Cesare Modenese, (mo-da-na''sa,) a skilful portrait-painter, born at Modena (or, as some say, at Bologna) al)out the middle of the sixteenth century. He imitated with suc- cess the style of various masters. His copy of Cor- reggio's " Notte ' is highly commended. Died at Parma about 16 ID. Areus, a'rus or a're-us, [Gr. 'Apsir,] I., King of Sparta, succeeded his grandfather Cleomenes II. in 309 B.C. He repulsed Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, who attacked Sparta in 272 B.C. He was slain at Corinth in 265, in a battle against the Macedonians, and was succeeded by his son Acrotatus. Areus II. of Sparta, a son of Acrotatus, died while still a child, about 256 B.C. Arevalo. See Cano de Arevalo. Arezzo, d-ret^so, (Claudio Mario,) [Lat. ARii'Tius, Clau'dius Ma'rius,] a learned Italian, who was a native of Syracuse and lived about 1550. He was imperial historian to Charles V., whose armies he followed in Italy and Germany. He wrote, besides other works, " Chorographia sive de Situ Sicilice Libellus," (1537,) a description of Sicily. Arezzo, (Tommaso,) an Italian cardinal, born in Tus- cany in 1756, was a grandson of the preceding. He was sent to Saint Petersburg by the pope in iSoi to negotiate for the reunion of the Greek and Roman Churches. In 180S he was appointed Vice-Governor of Rome, and arrested by the French. He was imprisoned in Corsica, whence he escaped in 1813, and was created a cardinal in 1816. Died in 1833. Arezzo, (F. M.) See Casinl Arezzo, d', da-ret'so, (Betrico, bi-tRee'ko,) an Ital- ian poet of the fourteenth century. Arezzo, d', (Francesco,) an Italian pulpit orator and writer on theology, born in 1553 ; died in 1616. Arezzo, d', (Guittone, gw6t-to^ni,) a poet who is called one of the founders of Italian poetry, and of whose life little is known. He wrote thirty-eight son- nets, several canzoni, and a number of letters in prose. His sonnets are remarkable for regularity in rhythm and rhyme. Petrarch ranked him with Dante and Cino da Pistoja. Died in 1294. See GiNGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Arezzo, d', (Guy.) See Guy. Arezzo, d', (Scipione Burali-boo-riOee,) an Italian cardinal, born near Gaeta in 151 1. He employed his great influence with success against the introduction of the Inquisition into Italy. Died about 1577. Arfe, de, da aR^fa, written also Arplie or Darphe, (Henrique,) a silversmith, born in Germany in the lat- ter part of the fifteenth century, removed to Spain. Pie made silver tabernacles, designed with great taste, for the cathedrals of Leon, Cordova, and Toledo. His son Antonio was also a skilful artist and worker in silver. Arfe, de, (Jose,) a Spanish sculptor, born at Seville in 1603, made statues of silver for the cathedral of that city. Died in 1666. Arfe y Villafane, de, da aR'fa e v^l-yJ-fa'na, (Juan,) a son of Antonio, was born at Leon in 1535. He de- signed the tabernacles of Avila, (1571,) Seville, (1587,) and Osmas, which are among the most beautiful in Spain, and was employed by Philip II. to adorn the Escurial. He wrote " Assayer of Gold, Silver, and Stones," (" Qui- latador de Oro, Plata y Picdras," 1572.) See Bermudez, "Diccionario Historico." Arfian, de, da aR-fe-Sn', (Antonio,) an excellent Spanish fresco-painter, a pupil of Luis de Vargas, flourished at Seville about 1550. His son Alonzo was also an able painter. Argaiz, de, da aR-glth', (Gregorio,) a Spanish monk of the seventeenth century, wrote a History of the Span- ish Church, (1667,) derived from spurious documents fabricated by himself. Ar'gall, (Rev. John,) an English scholar, born in London, graduated at Oxford about 1565. He wrote " Introduction to the Art of Logic," (" Introductio ad Artem Dialecticam," 1605.) Died in 1606. Argall, (Richard,) an English poet who wrote in the reign of James I. Among his works is a poem called *' The Bride's Ornaments," (1621.) Argall, (Samuel,) an English adventurer, born at Bristol in 1572. He was deputy-governor of Virginia for two years, (161 7-19) and was accused of many acts of tyranny and rapacit3^ Died in 1639. Argand, tR^g5N', (Atm^:, a'ma',) a Swiss chemist, born at Geneva about the middle of the eighteenth cen- tury, is known as the inventor of the Argand lamp. The wick of this lamp is in the form of a hollow cylinder, through which a current of air passes. He made the first model of the lamp, in England, in 1782, and added a glass chimney to it. A person named Quinquet de- prived him of the profit of the invention. Died in 1803. Argelander, aR'geh-lan'der, (Friedrich Wilhelm August,) an eminent Prussian astronomer, born at Me- mel in 1799. He was a pupil of Bessel, and afterwards his assistant in the Observatory of Konigsberg. ^ In 1823 he became director of the Observatory of Abo, Finland, which was removed to Helsingfors about 1832. He was appointed professor of astronomy at Bonn in 1837, and ])ublis(ied a good celestial atlas, entitled "Uranometria Nova," (1843.) Continuing the great work of Bessel, he determined the position of 22,000 stars, which he made known in his " Observations at the Observatory of Bonn," (1846.) For many years he has been employed in observing the variations in the luminosity and apparent magnitude of certain fixed stars. He also demonstrated the theory that the solar system has a progressive motion in abso- lute space. Argellati, aR-jel-li'tee, (Filippo,) a learned and meri- torious Italian writer, born at Bologna in 1685. He a, e, 1, 5, u, y, Jong; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, sJiort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fdr, fill, fAt; met; n6t; good; moon A RG ELL ATI 159 I ARGER assisted INIuratori in the publication of his " Rerum Itahcarum Scriptores," and edited or republished the works of several Italian authors. He was the author of " Library of Milanese Writers," (" Bibliotheca Scrip- torum Mediolanensium," 2 vols., 1745,) and of a few other works. Died in 1755. Argellati, (Francesco,) a son of the preceding, born at Bologna in 1712. He studied law, and took his doc- tor's degree in 1736. In 1740 he became a royal en- gineer. He wrote, besides other works, " Practice at the Venetian Bar," ("Pratica del Foro Veneto," 1737,) and a " History of the Origin of Science and Literature," (ist vol., 1743; the other volumes were never finished.) Died in 1754. Argens, d', dtR'zhSN', (Jean Baptiste de Boyer — deh bwa'ya',) Marquis, a French litterateur^ born at Aix, in Provence, in 1704. He served in the army until a fall from his horse, after the siege of Philipsburg, disabled him. Having written his famous "Jewish Letters" (" Lettres Juives," 6 vols., 1738-42) and "Chinese Let- ters," (6 vols., 1739-42,) he obtained the patronage of Frederick the Great, who appointed him chamberlain and director of belles-lettres in the Academy. D' Argens was one of the intimate associates of that king. He was also the author of " The Philosophy of Good Sense," and "Cabalistic Letters." Died at Toulon in 1771. Argens evinced great ardour in the pursuit of every kind of knowledge. He took Bayle for his model ; but he was very far inferior to the author of the "Critical Dictionary" in wit and intellect as well as in st3-le. See Thiebault, "Mes Souvenirs de vingt Ans de Sejour a Berlin;" Querard, " La France Litteraire." Argensola, de, da aR-ii^n-so'la, (Bartolome Leo- nardo,) an excellent Spanish 'poet, born at Barbastro, in Aragon, about 1565. He was appointed a canon of Saragossa, and coroiiista or historiographer of Aragon, about 1616. He published a " History of the Conquest of the Moluccas," (1609,) and wrote a number of poems (" Rimas,") which were printed with those of his brother. Lupercio. These brothers, whose genius and works were similar, were called" the Horaces of Spain." Died in 163 1. See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Argensola, de, (Lupercio (loo-p§R'the-o) Leo- nardo,) a brother of the preceding, was born at Barbas- tro about 1563. At an early age he became secretary to the ex-empress Maria of Austria, at Madrid, and pro- duced three successful tragedies, — " Fills," " Isabcla," and " Alejandra." In 1610 he was appointed secretary of state by the Viceroy of Naples. He died at Naples in 1613. His fame rests on his lyric poems. " An understanding at once solid and ingenious," says Bouterw ek, " subject to no extravagant illusion, yet full of true poetic teeling, and an imagination more plastic than creative, impart a more perfect Horatian colouring to the odes and sonnets of Lupercio." See Tici-TNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" LOiNcr-ELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Bouterwek, "History of Poetry and Eloquence from the Close of the Thirteenth Century ;" .Sedano, "Parnaso Espanol ;" N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Argenson, d', dSR^zhSN^soN', (Marc Antoink Rene de Paulmy — reh'na' deh po^me',) a son of Rene Louis Voyer, noticed below, v/as a member of the French Academy. He collected one of the richest libraries ever owned by a private person, and sold it to the Count d'Artois in 1785. It is now the " Bibliotheque de I'Ar- senal." He published "Miscellanies from a Large Library," (" Melanges tires d'une grande Bibliotheque," 65 vols.) Died in 1787. Argenson, d', (Marc Pierre,) Count, a son of Marc Rene de Voyer, (1652-1721,) noticed below, was born in 1696. He was secretary of war from 1742 to 1757, and was an able administrator. The Encyclopedie of D'Alembert and Diderot was'dedicated to him as a lib- eral patron of letters. He was a friend of Voltaire, to whom he furnished materials for his " Siecle de Louis XtV." Died in 1764. See Voltaire, " Correspondance Generale ;" C. Lebeau, " filoge de M. le Comte d' Argenson," 1765. Argenson, d', (Marc Ren^:,) Marquis de Voyer, a French general, born in 1722; died in 1782. Argenson, d', (Marc Rene de Voyer — deh vw^'ya',) a French magistrate, born of a noble family in 1652. He became president of the council of finance and keeper of the seals in 1718. He was a member of the French Academy. Died in 1721. See Fontenelle, "filogede J\L R. de Voyer d'Argenson," 1721. Argenson, d', (Marc Rene de Voyer,) a grandson of Count Marc Pierre, born in 1771. He married the widow of Prince Victor de Broglie. He was prefect of Deux-Nethes from 1809 to 1813, and, as a member of the Chamber of Deputies during the Hundred Days, wa3 joined with La Fayette in a deputation to the allies to obtain the exclusion of the Bourbons. After the restora- tion he was often elected as a deputy, and voted with the opposition. Died in 1842. See "Notice sur la Vie de Voyer d'Argenson," Paris, 1845. Argenson, d', (Rene de Voyer,) Count, a chplo- matist employed by Cardinal Richelieu and Mazarin ; died about 1650. Argenson, d', (Ren6 Louis Voyer,) Marquis, a son of Marc Rene, (1652-1721,) noticed above, was born in 1696. He was appointed minister of foreign affairs in November, 1744, and resigned ofiice in January, 1747. He was a friend of Voltaire, and author of " Con- siderations on the Government of France," (1764,) which Rousseau commended. Died in 1757. See Voltaire, "Correspondance Generale." Argenta, aR-j§n''td, (Jacopo,) an Italian painter, born at Ferrara, flourished about 1560. Argental, d', dSR^zhoNTIK, (Charles Augustin Feriol — faTe'ol',) Count, a literary P'renchman, born in Paris in 1700, was a nephew of Madame de Tencin, the mother of D'Alembert. He corresponded with Vol- taire, who treated him as a confidential friend, lie wrote some short verses, and was suspected of being the author of "Anecdotes of the Court of Edward," which appeared among the works of Madame de Tencin. Died in 1788. See Voltaire, "Correspondance Generate." Argentelle, d', dSR'zh6N''tgK, (Louis Marc Antoine Robillard — ro'be'yiR^) a French naturalist, born at Pont-l'Eveque in 1777, was skilled in making wax models of plants, fruits, etc. Died in 1828. Argenterio, aR-jen-ta're-o, [Lat. Argente'rius ; Fr. Ar(;entier, tR'zhoN'le-a'',] (Giovanni,) an Italian physician, born at or near Chieri, in Piedmont, in 15 13. He was professor of medicine successively at Naples, Pisa, Rome, and Turin. He wrote many medical works, in some of which he attacked the system of Galen and displayed more learning than judgment. Died in 1572. Argenti, aR-jen'tee, sometimes written Arienti, (Agositno,) an Italian poet of Ferrara, wrote a pastoral drama, called "The Unfortunate," (" Lo Sfortunato," 1568.) Died in 1576. Argenti, (Giovanni,) an Italian Jesuit and writer, born at Modena about 1564; died in 1629. Argentier. See Argenterio. Argento, aR-jCn'to, (Gaetano,) an able Italian jurist, born at Cosenza in 1662. He was appointed to a high judicial office in 1709. In 1714 the emperor Charles VI. raised him to the dignity of president of the royal council, and gave him the title of duke. Fie died in 1730, leaving several legal works. Argentre, d', dtR''zh6N'tRa'', (Bertrand,) a learned French jurist, born at Vitre in 15 19. He was one of the commissioners appointed for the reformation of the law of Brittany, but opposed the efforts of Dumoulin to introduce general or equal laws and diminish the power of feudal lords over their vassals. He wrote a "History of Bretagne," (1582,) a work of little merit, and several legal treatises. Died in 1590. See M. DE Kerdanet, " Vie d'Argentre," 1820. Argentre, d', (Charles du Plessis — dii pla'se',) a French theologian, born near Vitre in 1673. He was appointed Bishop of Tulle in 1725. Among his works are " Elementa Theologica," (1702,) and "Lexicon Phi- losophicum," (1706.) iJied in 1740. Argenville. See Dkzallier. Arger, tii^zhaiR'' or tR^zha', (Pierre,) a Flemish con- spirator, who attempted to assassinate Henry IV. of France. He was detected and executed in 1589. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, li, K, guttural; N, 7ur<; il; R, tj'illed; s as z; %h as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ARGHO UN 1 60 ARIADNE Arghoun or Arghun. See Argoon. Argliun Khan. See Argoon. Argillata, de, di aR-jel-la'td, or Argellata, de, di aR-jel-la'tii, (Pietro,) called also Pietro della Cerlata pe-a'lRo dcl-la cheR-la^ta, an eminent Italian physician and anatomist, was professor of logic and medicine at Bologna. He made improvements in surgery, on which he wrote a work, "Chirurgiae Libri Sex," (1480.) Died in 1423. Argis, d', (Boucher.) See Boucher. Argoli, aR-go'lee or aR'go-lee, (Andrea,) an Italian mathematician, born in the kingdom of Naples about 1570. He was professor of mathematics at Padua, and published, besides other works, " Ephemerides," extend- ing to 1700. Died in or after 1650. Argoli, (Giovanni,) a son of the preceding, was born at Tagliacozzo about 1610. He published, in 1626, a poem called "Endymion," which was successful. He was author of several treatises on classical antiquities, among which was a series of notes on Onuphrius Pan- vinius " On the Games of the Circus" (" De Ludis Cir- censibus") and " On Triumphs," (" De Triumphis,") (1642.) Died about 1660. Argonautee, ar-go-nau'tee, [Gr. 'Apyovavrat ; Eng. AR^GONAurs, (/>. the "sailors of the Argo,")] the he- roes celebrated in the old Greek traditions as the com- panions of Jason in a maritime expedition to Colchis, on the Euxine, for the purpose of obtaining the golden fleece. (See Jason.) They derived their name from the ship x\rgo, in which they made the voyage. The expedition of the Argonauts forms the subject of an epic poem by Apollonius Rhodius. Argonne, d', dtR''gon', (Noel, no'eK,) a French Car- thusian monk, born in Paris about 1635. He entered a monastery at Rouen about 1668, and changed his name from Noel to Bonaventure. He published a "Treatise on the Right Method of Reading the Fathers," (" Traite de la Lecture des Peres de I'Eglise," 1668,) which is highly praised by Mabillon and others, and "Melanges of History and Literature," (3 vols., 1699-1701,) under the name of Vigneul-Marville. Died in 1704. Argoon, Argoun, or Argun, ar'goon', written also Arghoun or Arghun, a son of Abaka Khan, succeeded his father as sovereign of Persia (or rather of Central and Western Asia) in 1 281. Through the influence of his minister, Saad-ud-Dowlah, the Christians residing in the dominions of Argoon were protected and treated with great favour. And while the pope (Nicholas IV.) was sending deputations to express his gratitude to Ar- goon, the " true believers," if we may trust the statement of some of the Moslem historians, "trembled lest the sacred temple of Mecca should be converted into a cathedral." Argoon Khan died in 1291. See Malcolm, " History of Persia," vol. i. chap, x.; Price, "Ma- homedan Histor)'." Argote, de, da aR-go'ta, (Jeronimo Contador — kon-ti-doR^,) a Portuguese writer and monk, born at Col- lares in 1676. Among his ])rincipal works are a " History of the Archbishopric of Braga," ("Memorias para a Historia ecclesiastica de Braga," 3 vols., 1732-44,) and " Rules of the Portuguese Language, the Mirror of the Latin Language," (" Regras da Lingua Portugueza, Es- pelho da Lingua Latina," etc., 1721.) Died in 1749. Argote de Molina, aR-go'ti\ da mo-lee'na, (Gon- ZALVO or GoNQALO,) a Spanish writer on history and genealogy, born at Seville in 1549. He wrote, besides other works, "Nobility of Andalusia," ("Nobleza del Andaluzia," 1588.) Died about 1590. Argou, IrVoo', (Gabriel,) a French lawyer, born in the Vivarais. He gained distinction by his work called " Institutes of French Law," (" Institution au Droit fran- 9ais," 1692,) often reprinted. Died about 1705. Argoun. See Argoon. Argout, d', dSR^goo', (Antoine Maurice Apolli- NAiRE,) Count, a French financier, born in Isere in 1782. He became auditor to the Council of State in 1810, and a peer of France in 1819. In July, 1830, he acted as mediator between Charles X. and the popular leaders, and obtained concessions from the former when it was too late. He was appointed minister of the ma- rine in November, 1830, minister of commerce in 1831, minister of the interior m 1833, governor of the Bank ot France in 1834, and minister of finances in 1836. Be- fore the end of that year he exchanged that office for the post of governor of the Bank, which he continued to hold under the republic of 1848. About 1852 he was appointed president of the section of finances, by Louis Napoleon. Died in 1858. Argiielles, aR-gweKyes, (Augustin,) a Spanish min- ister of state, born in the Asturias in 1775. He was a member of the committee which formed the liberal con- stitution of 1 812, and rendered himself popular by his talents and liberal principles. He was proscribed in 1814 and sentenced to an exile of ten years. He was minis- ter of the interior for about one year, in 1820. In 1841 he was appointed tutor to the young queen Isabel. Died in 1844. See Labrador y Ortiz, " Biografia de A. Argiielles," Madrid, 1844 ; EvARiSTo San Miguel, " Vida de D. A. Argiielles," 1850. Arguelles, (Jose de Canga.) See Canga. Argues. See Desargues. Arguijo, de, da aR-gee^Ho, Arguiso, de, da aR-gev.'- so, or Arguizo, de, da aR-gee'tho, (Juan,) a Spanish poet of high reputation, born at Seville in the latter part of the sixteenth century, was a man of fortune. He was eulogized by Lope de Vega and other poets who had enjoyed his bounty. He wrote sonnets and other short poems, the style of which is elegant and natural. Died about 1625. See Varflora, "Hijosde Sevilla." Argun. See Argoon. Ar'gus, [Gr. "Apyoc,] a fabulous personage, whom the Greek poets imagined to have one hundred eyes, some of which were always awake. Having been employed by Juno as guardian of a cow into which lo was trans- formed, he was killed by Plermes. Tradition adds that Juno transferred his eyes to the tail of a peacock. Argus, a mythical king of Argos, supposed to be. a son of Jupiter and Niobe, and the successor of A.pis. Argyle or Argyll, Dukes, Marquises, and Earls OE. See Campbell. Argyll, ar-glK, or Argyle, (George Douglas Camp- bell,) Duke of, a British statesman and author, born in 1823. He was styled Marquis of Lorn before the death of his father, which occurred in 1847. He pub- lished, in 1848, " Presbytery Examined." In the Ho^6; 9 as s; g hard: g as^; g, h, k, ^thcral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (S^="See Explanations, p. 23.) JRISTTLLUS 168 ARLOTTI Ar-i3-tyl'lus, [Gr. 'S.^iOTvKko<;; Fr. Aristylle, t'r^s'- t^K,] a Greek astronomer, lived in the third century B.C. Ariu, a're-00, (Emilio,) a Venetian sculptor of the fifteenth century. A-ri'us or A-rei'us, popularly called A'ri-us, [Gr. 'Apeiof,] the founder of Arianism, and author of the greatest schism that ever divided the Christian Church before the Reformation, was born at Cyrene, in Africa, shortly after the middle of the third century. He was ordained a deacon at Alexandria by the patriarch Peter, and promoted to the highest rank among the clergy by the patriarch Alexander. The controversy which arose between Alexander and Arius about 318 A.D. caused Constantine to summon the first general council, which met at Nicaea (or Nice) in 325 A.D., and condemned with great unanimity the doc- trines of x\rius, who denied that the vSon is coeternal and coessential with the Father. Arius, who had at- tended this council, was exiled to Illyricum by Constan- tine, but this sentence was revoked two or three years later. Arianism spread rapidly in Syria and Asia Minor, and was approved by the Synods of Tyre and Jerusalem in 335 A.D. Soon after this date he returned to Alexandria ; but his presence excited there so great a disturbance that Constantine recalled him to Constantinople, where the Arians were numerous and powerful. According to some writers, he avowed his submission to the creed adopted by the Council of Nice, and was about to be restored to communion, when he died suddenly near 336 A.D. Authorities differ respecting the place of his death and many events of his life. Arianism was patron- ized as the religion of the state by the emperor Con- stantius, and by Valens, The contest between the Arians and Athanasians (see Athanasius) raged for more than two centurici, and carnal weapons were re- sorted to by each party to enforce its arguments. The Goths, Vandals, and Suevi of the fifth and sixth cen- turies were nearly all Arians. The sect became divided into two portions, called " Hetero-ousians" (who were strict or ultra-Arians) and Semi-Arians or " Homoiousians," who admitted the "similar essence" of the Son with the Father. The followers of Arius were often called Eusebians, from Eusebius, Bishop of Nicomedia. See Neander, "Hisiorynf the Christian Church ;" Maimbourg, " Histolre de TArianisme ;" Stark, " Essay on Arianism," (in Ger- man,) 1783: G. M. Travasa, " Storia critica della Vita di Ario," 174S : Eusebius, " Vita Constantini ;" Sozomen, " H^sloria Ecclesi- astical" Epiphanius. " Panarium :" Theodoret, "Historia Ecclesi- a&tica;" Reuterdahl, "Memorabilia Arii ejusque Haereseos," 1813. Arivey, de 1', deh lS're\-a', (Pierre,) a French comic wiiter, born at Troyes, fiouri.shed about 1550-80. Ai"ja, a German spelling of Arya, which see. Arjasp or Argiasp, ak'jasp', a king of Turin or Tartary, reigned about five or six centuries before Christ. He waged war against Gushtasp, King of Per- sia, because the Persians had adopted the religion of Zoroaster. He was defeated and killed by the Persian prince Isfendiyar. See Malcolm's " History of Persia." Arje, aR^Hi, (R. Jacob Judah,) a learned Spanish rabbi and antiquary, born about 1602, resided at Am- sterdam, and wrote a number of works. His great work called "Tabnith Hecal" ('*The Model of the Temple," 1642) was highly esteemed. Avie or Arie, (R. Judah.) See Leo of Modena. Arjona, de, di aR-Ho'na, (Manuel,) a Spanish poet, born at Osuna in 1761, passed the greater part of his life at Seville. He became doctoral of the royal chapel of San Fernando at Seville, and obtained other offices in the church. He wrote an " Ode to the Spanish Nobility," (" Oda a la Nobleza Espanola,") and other poems of some merit, none of which were published during his life. Died in 1820. See QuiNTANA, "Tesoro del Parnaso EspanoL" Ar'ju-na, Ar'joon, or Ar'jun, [Hindoo pron. ur'- jo6-na or ur'jdon,] a mythic hero among the Hindoos, supposed to represent courage, (or, according to some writer.-,, prudence.) He was a companion of Krishna. Arkenholtz. See Arckenholtz. Arkevolti, aR-k^-vol'tee, a celebrated Italian rabbi, grammarian, and poet, died in his native town of Padua in 161 1. Arkwright, ark'rit, (Sir Richard,) an Englishman, whose ingenuicy has contributed greatly to the prosperity of Great Britain, was born at Preston, Lancashire, in 1732, and was a barber in his youth. He is the reputed in- ventor of a machine for spinning cotton, which produced an immense extension of the cotton-manufacture in the British Empire. He set up the machine at Preston in 1 768, and obtained a patent for it in 1769, about which date he formed a partnership with Need and Strutt of Notting- ham. In 1 77 1 they built a spinning-mill on the Der- went at Cromford, which was moved by water-power. This enterprise was very successful. He became the proprietor of other cotton-mills, and controlled the mar- ket of cotton yarn for some years. His right to the patent was contested, and a verdict was given against him in 1781; but his business continued to prosper. He was knighted by George HI. in 1786. Died in 1792. It is stated that he left property valued at nearly half a million sterling. Arkwright is celebrated not only as an ingenious in- ventor, but also as the founder or pioneer of the factory system. He was a man of wonderful energy and perse- verance. " It required," says Dr. Ure, " a man of Napo- leon nerve and ambition to subdue the refractory tempers of workpeople accustomed to irregular paroxysms of diligence, and to urge on his multifarious and intricate constructions in the face of prejudice, passion, and envy. Such was Arkwright, who, suffering nothing to turn aside his progress, arrived gloriously at the goal, and has for- ever affixed his name to a great era in the annals of mankind." See Dr. Ure, " Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain," vol. i., and " Phi.osophyof Manufactures," p. 14 ; " Pursuit of Knowledge under D fficulties," vol. ii.; " Edinburgh Review" for June, 1827, (vol. xlvi. ;) Baines, "History of the Cotton Manufacture u\ Great Britain;" " Encyclopasdia Britannica." Arkwright, (Richard,) the only son of the preced- ing, was born in 1755, and inherited excellent talents for business. He was also a manufacturer of cotton, and accumulated an immense fortune, which, after his death, was sworn by the executors to exceed one million pounds ; but this was a mere statement of form : his actual wealth was far beyond that sum. It has been stated that he was the richest commoner of England. He was well versed in political economy. Died in 1843. Arlaniboeus, aR-lS-ne-bo'us, (Filip,) a Swedish his- torian of the seventeenth century, wrote a work entitled "Swedish Arms," (" Arma Suecica," 1631.) Arlaud, t.^OS', (Benoit,) a Swiss portrait-painter, born at Geneva, worked in London. Died in 17 19. Arlaud, (Jacques Antoine,) an eminent tniniature- painter, born at Geneva in 1668, had great success in his art, both in Paris and London. He formed a friendship with Newton, and, after his return to Geneva, corre- sponded with him. Died at Geneva in 1746. See Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting." Ar-len'sis de Scu-da-lu'pis, (Peter,) an alchemist, lived in the last part of the sixteenth century. ArTer or Arleri, von, fon aR-la'ree, (Peter,) an ar- chitect, born in Bologna about 1333, exercised his art in Germany, and particularly at Prague, where he was for thirty years engaged on the cathedral of Saint Vitus, a fine specimen of the Gothic style. He was living in 1386. Arlincourt, d', dtR^ltN^kooR', (Victor,) Vicomte, a French poet and novelist, born near Versailles in 1789. He was appointed auditor to the Council of State by Napoleon I. He published in i8i8an epic poem called " Charlemagne, ou la Caroleide." His most popular ro- mance is " Le vSolitaire," (1825.) His style is eccentric, and not approved by the critics. Died in 1856. Arlington, Earl of. See Bennet. Arlotti, aR-lot'tee, (Decio,) an Italian dramatist of the eighteenth century, was born at Reggio ; died in 1759. Arlotti, (LuDOVico,) an Italian poet and priest, lived in the first half of the sixteenth century. Arlotti, (Marcantonio,) an Italian poet, lived in the second half of the sixteenth century. Arlotti, (Pompeo,) an Italian physician, born at Reg- a, e, T, 6, vl, y, lon^", 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, j?, short; a, i, 9, obscure; far, 13,11, fit; m^t; nflt; good; moon; i % ARLOTTI 169 ARM FELT gio in the latter part of the sixteenth century, wrote a work on Bleeding in Fevers. Ariotti, (RiDvJLFO,) an Italian poet, born at Reggio, in Lombardy, about the middle of the sixteenth ceniury. He was a friend of Tasso, and had a fair reputation as a poet. Among his works was a poem on tne Conquest of Granada by Ferdinand V. of Castile and Aragon. Died in 1613. Arlotto, aR-lot'to, called II Piovano, ^1 pe-o-vi'no, ("The Curate,") or Ariotto Mdinardl, aR-lot'to mi- naR'dee, a celebrated Italian wit, born at P'lorence in 1396, was originally a wool-comber, but afterwards took holy orders, and travelled extensively. He was a favour- ite with sovereigns for his bonmots, which have been published at various times and in different languages. He died about 1483. Ar-io'tus or Ar'lot de Pra'to, an ecclesiastic, born probably in Tuscany, is said to have compiled the first Concordance of the Bible. Died at Paris in 1287. Arluuo, aR-loo'no, (Bernardino,) an Italian jurist and historian, who lived at Milan about 1500, wrote, be- sides other works, a history of his native city, (" Historia Patriae,") which was never printed, Arluno, (Giovanni Pietro,) brother of the above, was a physician of eminence. He practised at Milan, and wrote several medical works. Arma, aR'ma, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian physician, born in Piedmont. He was appointed first physician to the Duke of Savoy in 1553, and had a re- spectable reputation as a medical writer. Armagnac, d, dlR'mtn'yik', (Bernard,) Count, Constaule of France, succeeded to his title and estate in 1391. He was ambitious, unscrujiulous, and skilful in war. He became the head of the league formed in 1410 by the princes of the blood against the Duke of Burgundy, and was the chief instigator of the civil war which raged between the " Armagnacs" and the " Bur- gundians." (See Charles VI,) Called by Queen Isabeau to defend the kingdom against the English in 141 5, he insisted on being appointed constable and chief minister. Having obtained these oflices, he treated the royal family with contempt, and rendered himself odious to the peo- ple of Paris by his tyranny. In 14 18 Paris was taken by the Burgundians, who massa-cred the Count of Ar- magnac, with many of his partisans. See Rymer, " Fcedeia ;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Fran<;ais." Armagnac, (Jean,) I,, Count of, succeeded to liis coimty in 1319, and distinguished himself in the French service under the kings Philip of Valois, John, and Charles V,, taking a prominent part in most of the mili- tary movements of those sovereigns. Died in 1373. Armagnac, (Jean,) III,, Count of, was a brother of Bernard, and grandson of Jean I, He was appointed captain-general in 1385, and commanded an expedition for the conquest of Milan from Galeazzo Visconti in 1391. He was killed in battle before he reached Milan, in the same year. Armagnac, (Jean,) IV., Count of, succeeded his father Bernard VH. in 141 8, taking sides with the Eng- lish against Charles VII. He assumed independent powers, but was subdued by Lohis XI. (then dauphin) in 1444, and imprisoned for a year. Died in 1450. Armagnac, (Jean,) V., Count of, a son of Jean IV., was born about 1420. He was excommunicated by the pope for incest, and was notorious for various crimes. He joined the League of the Public Good in rebellion against Louis XI. about 1465. After this rebel- lion was terminated by the treaty of Conflans, he again revolted. He was taken prisoner and killed by the royal troops in 1473. Armand, tR'm6N', (Alfred,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1805. He built railway-stations at Ver- sailles, Amiens, Paris, Calais, etc. Armand, (Charles,) Marquis de la Rouarte, deh It roo't're', a French officer who served in the American war of the Revolution and rose to the rank of brigadier- general. He died in France in 1793. Armand, (Francois Huguet,) a celebrated French comedian, born at Richelieu in 1699, and died at Paris in 1765. Armand de Bourbon. See Conti. Armandi, aR-min'dee, (Pierre Damien,) a general born at Fusignano, in Italy, in 1778. He served in the French army during the empire, and obtained on thff field of Bautzen (1813) the rank of colonel. After the restoration of 1815 he was governor of the eldest son of Louis Bonaparte. He fought for the Italian insurgents in 1848-49, and commanded the artillery at Venice. He wrote a valuable work entitled "Military History of Ele- phants," (" Histoire Militaire des Elepharts," 1843.) Died in 1855. Armani, aR-mi'nee, or Armanni, aR-m^n^nee, (Gio- vanni Battista,) an excellent Italian improvisatore, born in Venice in 1768, performed in many cities of Italy, and held several civil offices under Napoleon in his native country. He translated into Italian Chateau- briand's "Genius of Christianity" and "Martyrs," and wrote two dramas which added nothing to his reputa- tion. Died in 1815. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Armani, (Piermartire, pe-^lR-maR'te-ra,) an Italian painter, born near Modena in 1613 ; died in 1669. Armann, aR'man, (Vincenz,) called by the Italians Vincenzo Armanno, a Flemish landscape-painter of great ability, worked a number of years at Rome, and painted in oil, fresco, and distemper. Died at Venice in 1649. Armansperg, von, fon aR'mdn-spgRG , (Joseph Lud- wiG,) Count, a liberal German statesman, born at Kot- zing, in Bavaria, in 1787. He attended the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and was elected to the chamber of depu- ties in 1825. He became minister of finances in 1826, and minister of foreign affairs in 1828. In 1832 he was appointed president of the council of the regency formed for Otho, King of Greece, who was a minor. He directed the affairs of Greece until February, 1837. Died in 1853. Armati, aR-mS'tee, (Salvino, s^l-vee'no,) a Floren- tine, who is the reputed inventor of spectacles. Little is known of his life. His epita])h, preserved by L. del Migliore in "Firenze lUustrata," designates him as the inventor of spectacles, and dates his death in 13 17. Vanni del Busca, who wrote in 1299, mentions spectacles as a recent invention. Armelle, SR^m^K, (Nicole,) a French mystic, born in 1606, was celebrated for her piety. Her life was pub- lished under the title of "School of the Pure Love of God," (Paris, 1704.) Died in 167 1. See Zimmermann's "Solitude." Armellini, aR-m^l-lee'nee, (Carlo,) an Italian patriot and eminent lawyer, was born at Rome about 1780. He was an adherent of the Roman republic formed under French influence in his youth, and continued to be a republican to the last. He was a member of the provisional government formed at Rome in 1848, and one of the committee of three to whom the executive power was confided in 1849. ^'"i the restoration of the pope by the French army he went into exile. Died in 1863. Armellini, (Mariano,) an Italian monk, antifjuary, and writer, born at Ancona about 1662; died in 1737. Armenini, aR-mi-nee'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter, born at Faenza, published in 1587 "True Precepts of Painting," ("Veri Precetti della Pittura.") Armero y Peneranda, aR-mi'ro e pi-na-rin'di, (Francisco,) a Spanish admiral of the present age. He was minister of the marine several times between 1840 and 1850, and attained the rank of chief admiral in 1855. He succeeded Narvaez as prime minister in 1857. Armessin, de 1', deh iSR'mi'siN', (Nicolas,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1684. He engraved portraits and history with success, and received the title of engraver to the king. Died in 1755. His father, of the same name, born in 1640, was an engraver of inferior skill. Armfelt or Armfeldt, aRm'fllt, (Carl,) Baron of, an eminent Swedish general, born in Finland in 1666. He was employed by Charles XII. to defend Finland against the Russians, and disj^layed great skill and valour in a battle near Storkyro, in 1718, but was overpowered by superior numbers. Died in 1736. Armfelt or Armfeldt, (Gustaf Mauritz,) a Swedish general and courtier, born in the province of Abo in 1757, was a great-grandson of the preceding. He was € as g as s; g hard; g as j; o, H, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2!:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) / ARM IN 70 ARMSTRONG a favourite of Gustavus III., and, just before the death of that king in 1792, was appointed governor of Stock- holm. In 1794 he was charged with treason by the regent, who, during the absence of Armfelt on a mission to Naples, procured a sentence of death against him. He was restored to his former dignities by Gustavus IV. in 1799, and appointed governor-general of Finland in 1805. In 1808 he commanded an army which was sent to conquer Norway, but failed. He entered the Russian service in 1810, and obtained several high offices. Died in 1814. See "Autobiography of G. M. Armfelt," 1830. Ar'min or Ar'myn, (Robert,) an English actor in Shakspeare's company, licensed in 1603. He was author of a small work called "A Nest of Ninnies," (1608,) which is of little value. "The Valiant Welshman," a play, (161 5,) is attributed to him. Arminius. See Hermann. Ar-min'i-u3, (Fulgentius, fiil-jgn'she-us,) the Latin n-ame of an Italian writer who became Bishop of Nusco in 1669. Ar-min'i-us, [Dutch pron. aR-mee'ne-iis,] (Jacobus,) a celebrated Dutch theologian, from whom the system of theology called Arminianism takes its name, was born at Oudewater in 1560. His Dutch name was Jacob Har- MENsen, in place of which he used the Latinized form Arminius. The surname Veteraquinas (sometimes given to him) was derived from " Veteres Aquas," the Latin for Oudewater. He was educated at Marburg, Leydeh, and Geneva, 1575-85, visited Rome in 1586, and was ordained a minister at Amsterdam in 1588. He succeeded Francis Junius as professor of divinity at Ley- den in 1603. Before this date he had entertained doubts of the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination, and had incurred the suspicion of heterodoxy. In 1604 he pro- pounded tenets on grace and predestination which were opposed by Francis Gomar and others and excited a violent controversy. His adversaries accused him of Pelagianism, but he denied the charge. Among his adherents were Grotius and Olden-Barneveldt. The Supreme Court of the Hague, after hearing a discussion between Arminius and Gomar in 1608, declared that the difference in their doctrines was of little importance. A national synod was convoked to settle this dispute ; but, before the appointed time, Arminius died in 1609, leaving several able theological treatises, which were published in one volume, (1629.) He was a man of blameless life and moderate temper. His device was, " A good con- science is Paradise." The national synod which met at Dort in 1618 condemned the five articles of the Armin- ian creed, the adherents of which were severely perse- cuted in Holland by Maurice, Prince of Orange. The principles of Arminius have been adopted by the Wes- leyan Methodists, and by many members of the Anglican Church. See Caspar Brandt, "Life of Arminius," (in Latin,) 1724; MqsHEiM, "Ecclesiastical History;" Petrus Bertius, "Oratio in Obitum J. Arminii," 1629; Professor Moses Stuart, "The Creed of Arminius, with a Brief Sketch of his Life and Time," in "The Bibli- cal Repertory," 1831. Ar'mis-tead, (Lewis A.,) an American general, born in Virginia. He served in the Mexican war, 1846-47, and became a brigadier-general in the Confederate army in 1861. He was killed at Gettysburg, July, 1863, Armistead, (Walker Keith,) an^American general, born in Virginia about 1780, He was educated at West Point, and in the second war with Great Britain was chief engineer to the army on the Niagara, and after- wards at Norfolk. In 1828 he was breveted a brigadier- general, and in 1836-37 commanded in the war against the Florida Indians. Died in 1845. Ar'mi-tage, (Edward,) an eminent English painter of the present age, has executed, besides other works, some excellent frescos for the new Houses of Parliament. Armonville, tR'm6N'v^K, (Jean Baptiste,) a French Jacobin member of the Convention, born at Rheims in 1756 ; died in 1808. Arm'stron?, (Archibald,) commonly called Archy or Archee, jester to James I. of England, lost his place by his sarcasms on Archbishop Laud, and died in 1672. Armstrong, (Francis,) an English physician, lived at Uppingham; died in 1789. Armstrong, (George,) M.D., a brother of John the poet, gave peculiar attention to the diseases of children, and founded a dispensary for the relief of the infant poor in London in 1769. Died about 1780. Arm'strong, (James,) an American general, born in Pennsylvania in the early part of the eighteenth century. He took part in the defence of Fort Moultrie and in the battle of GermantowH. He was a representative in Con- gress from 1793 to 1795. Died in 1795. Armstrong, (John or Johnnie,) the hero of a ballad in Scott's " Border Minstrelsy," famous for his freeboot- ing expeditions and levies of black mail in the neigh- bourhood of Langholm. He was hung, by order of James v., about 1529, with thirty-six followers who had come with offers of service. Armstrong, (John,) an eminent British poet and physician, born at Castleton, Roxburghshire, Scotland, about 1709. He took his degree in medicine at Edin- burgh in 1732, soon after which he settled in London and practised with little success. He published anony- mously in 1735 a satirical "Essay for Abridging the Study of Physic ;" and in 1737, "The Economy of Love," a poem, which is censured for indecency. His principal work is "The Art of Preserving Health," (1744,) a didac- tic poem, which was received with favour by eminent critics of that age, and often reprinted. " There is a clas- sical correctness and closeness of style in this poem," says Dr. Warton, " that are truly admirable, and the subject is raised and adorned by numberless poetical images." ("Reflections on Didactic Poetry.") lie afterwards produced " Benevolence, a Poetical Epistle," (175 1,) "Taste, an Epistle to a Young Critic," (1753,) and several other works. He was physician to the army in Germany from 1760 until the peace of 1763, after which he lived on half-pay. In 1773 he published a volume of "Medical Essays." He was a friend of the poet Thomson. Died in 1779. See Chambers, " Biosjraphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" Chalmers, " Lives of the English Poets." Armstrong, (John,) an English military engineer, wrote a "History of Minorca," (1752.) Died in 1758. Armstrong, (John,) an American general, born at Carlisle, in Pennsylvania, about 1758. He served as an officer in the Revolutionary war, at the end of which he wrote the celebrated " Newburg Addresses," in order to obtain redress or relief for the officers of the army. He was sent as minister to France in 1804, and became sec- retary of war in January, 1813. For his ill success in defending Washington against the British, he was re- moved in September, 1814. He died in 1843. (Allen says 1855.) Armstrong, (John,) an eminent English medical writer, born near Sunderland, in the county of Durham, in 1784. He studied in Edinburgh, and practised with success in Sunderland. In 1814 he published a treatise on "Puerperal Fever." His reputation was widely ex- tended by " Practical Illustrations of Typhus Fever," (1816,) which was a very popular work. He removed to London in 1818, and, though rejected at his examina- tion by the College of Physicians, obtained great profes- sional success in the metropolis. He was also a popular lecturer in the Webb Street School of Medicine, of which he was one of the founders. It appears that he expressed a great contempt for medical learning, and regarded him- self as a reformer of the science. He was author of other works besides the above-named. Died in 1829. See " Memoir of the Life of J. Armstrong," by F. Boott, M.D., 1834. Armstrong, (John,) an English writer and prelate, born near Sunderland in 1813. He became Bishop of Grahamstown, South Africa, about 1853. Died in 1856. Armstrong, (Rev. John,^ a Scottish poet and politi- cal writer of much promise, born at Leith in 1771, re- moved to London, and, while expecting church ])refer- ment, supported himself by writing for periodicals. He died of consumption, induced by excessive occupation, at the early age of twenty-seven. Many of his poems appeared in the daily papers of that time. See "Gentleman's Magazine," September, 1797. Armstrong, (John Mostyn,) an English geogra- a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; ^, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; ARMSTRONG ARNAUD pher of the eighteenth century, published an " Essay on the Contour of the Coast of Norfolk," (1791.) Armstrong, (Robert,) a general in the Florida war, was born in Tennessee about 1790. Died at Washing- ton in 1854. General Jackson bequeathed to him his sword. Armstrong, (Samuel T.,) a noted bookseller of Bos- ton, mayor of the city, and Governor of Massachusetts for the unexpired term occasioned in 1836 by the elec- tion of Governor Davis to the United States Senate. Died in 1850, aged sixty-six. Armstrong, (Sir Thomas,) a British subject, born at Nymvvegen, was twice imprisoned by Cromwell for his adherence to the royal cause ; released and rewarded at the restoration, he fell under suspicion of the court as an intimate friend of the Duke of Monmouth and an accomplice in the Rye-House Plot, and suffered death in 1684, under circumstances of great injustice. A com- mittee of the House in 1689 reported that "his execu- tion was illegal, and was murder under pretence of justice." Armstrong, (Sir William George,) F.R.S., an English engineer, inventor of the Armstrong gun, was born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1810. He became pro- prietor of an establishment for the manufacture of hy- draulic engines for the use of mines, etc. About 1856 he invented the wrought-iron rifled cannon which bears his name and is extensively used. Since that date he was appointed engineer-in-chief for rifled ordnance, and superintendent of a foundry at Woolwich. Armstrong, (William Joseph,) an American Pres- byterian divine, born at Mendham, New Jersey, in 1796. He was pastor of the First Presbyterian Church in Rich- mond, Virginia, from 1824 to 1834. He was lost at sea in the steamer Atlantic in November, 1846. A volume of his sermons, with a memoir of his life, has been pub- lished. Armyn, (Robert.) See Armin. Arnal, aR-nSK, (Juan Pedro,) a learned Spanish architect, born at Madrid in 1735. He was appointed vice-director of the Academy of San Fernando in 1774, and director of architecture in the same Academy in 1786. The latter appointment was made by the king. Died in 1805. Ar'nald, (Richard,) an English divine, born in Lon- don near the close of flie seventeenth century, became a fellow or Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and rector of Thurcaston, Leicestershire, in 1733. His principal work is a "Critical Commentary on the Apocryphal Books," which is esteemed judicious and valuable. It is usually printed as a continuation of the commentaries of Lowth and Patrick. Died in 1756. See J. Nichols, " History and Antiquities of Leicester." Arnald, (William,) son of the above, and preceptor to the Prince of Wales, was for twenty years insane, and died in 1802. Arnaldi, aR-nSKdee, (Enea, i-na'S,) an Italian count who was born at Vicenza in 1716, and devoted much at- tention to architecture. He wrote a work on the con- struction of theatres, and another " On Ancient Basili- cas, and particularly those of Vicenza," (" Delle Basiliche antiche, e specialmente di quella di Vicenza," 1767.) Arnaldo (aR-nSKdo) or Arnold o''^ Brescia, bR^sh'a, [in I atin.ARNAL'DUS, Arnul'phus, or Arnol'dus Brix- IEN^sis; Fr. Arnaud (tR'noO de P.rescia,! an eloquent Italian agitator and reformer, was born at Brescia about the end of the eleventh century. He studied under the celebrated Abelard in France, and on his return to Italy became a monk and preacher. At this time the corruption of the clergy was general and notorious. He beejan to preach openly that the clergy ought not to pos- sess temporal property or power, and ou^ht to be con- tented with their tithes and the free offerings of the people. His doctrines were received with favour by many nobles and others, and produced much excite- ment. For this cause he was banished from Italy by Pope Innocent II. in 1139. He retired to France and Switzerland, where he obtained many adherents. In 1143 the populace of Rome, who favoured the opinions of Arnaldo, revolted against the pope. On learning this event, Arnaldo went to Rome and raised there the standard of civil liberty and religious reform. Excited by his harangues, the Romans established a senate, deried the temporal power of the pope, and some of the more violent committed great excesses against the persons and property of the cardinals. The pope, Eugenius HI., was ariven out of Rome in 1146. His successor, Adrian IV.. reduced the people to submis- sion by placing Rome under an interdict in 1 1 54. Arnaldo was driven out of the city, and afterwards seized by Frederick Barbarossa. who delivered him to his ene- mies. He was put to death at Rome in 1155. His vio- lent enemy Saint Bernard admits that his morals were pure. See J. D. KoLER, " Dissertatio de Arnoldo Brixiensi," 1742; D. H. Franke, "Arnold von Brescia," Zurich, 1825; Hodgson, "Re- formers and Manyrs," Philadelphia, 1867; Guadagnini, " Difesa di Arnoldo da Brescia," 2 vols., 1790; D'Achery, " Spicilegium ;" Saint Bernard, " Epistola; ;" Beck, " Arnold von Brescia ;" Qui- RiN, " Essai historique sur Arnaud de Brescia," 1848. Ar-naFdus Vil-la-no-va'nus, [Fr. Arnaud de Villeneuve, tR'no'' deh v^l'nuv'; It. Arnaldo di Vil- LANoVA, aR-naKdo de vel-lS-no'va,] written also Arnal'- dus Novicomen''sis, a celebrated physician, born about 1235. He studied at Paris, at Montpellier, and in Italy, seems to have possessed all the medical and chemical knowledge of his day, and paid particular atten^ tion to alchemy. His medical essays are numerous, as well as others on alchemy and religion. He incurred the charge of heresy at one time for his religious specu- lations. He was also employed in diplomatic affairs by the Kings of Sicily and Naples, and died in 13 13 on his way to Avignon to visit, as a physician, Clement V., who had sent for him. See Campegius, "Arnaldi Vita;" Pierre Joseph Haitze, "Vie d'Arnauld," 1719; N. Antonio, " Bibiioiheca Hispana Vetus." Ar'nall, (William,) a political pamphleteer, editor of the " British Journal," " Free Briton," and an instru- ment of Sir Robert Walpole's, has been condemned to notoriety in Pope's "Dunciad." He died about 1740. Arnas Magnaeus. See Arni-Magnusson. Arnasou, aR'nS-son, (Jon,) a Danish jurist, born in Iceland about 1727 ; died in 1777. Aruason, (Jon,) an Icelandic writer, born at Hof in 1819. He published, besides several biographies and other works, " Icelandic Popular Tales and Adventures," (Leipsic, 1862-64,) an English version of which appeared in 1864. Arnason, (Magnus Jon,) Bishop of Skalholt, and a man of great learning, was born in Iceland in 1665, but studied in Copenhagen. He appears to have been a faithful but rigid ecclesiastical ruler. He died in 1743. Arnau, iR-now', (Juan,) a Spanish painter, boin at Barcelona in 1595, excelled as a colorist. Died in 1693. Arnaud, tR''n6', (Daniel,) a celebrated French Pro- vencal poet, born in Perigord, is supposed to have lived in the latter part of the twelfth century. See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Arnaud, (Francois,) a French abbe, writer, and critic, born near Carpentras in 172 1. He published in 1 754 a " Letter on Music to the Count de Caylus," which was received with favour. He was associated with M. Suard as joint editor of the "Journal Stranger," (1760- 62,) and of the "Gazette litteraire de I'Europe," (8 vols., 1764-66.) In 1771 he was admitted into the French Academy, and became reader and librarian to Monsieur, afterwards Louis XVIII. Died in 1784. Arnaud, (George,) a jurist and classical scholar, of French extraction, born at Franeker, in Holland, in 171 1. Before he attained the age of twenty, he excelled as a classical antiquary and critic. He became professor of law at Franeker in 1739, and died in 1740, leaving seve- ral critical and legal works, which have a high reputa- tion. Arnaud, (Henri,) a warlike pastor of the Waldenses, born at La Tour or La Torre, in Piedmont, in 1641, was noted for his sagacity and ability as a military leader. He led a successful expedition of the Waldenses, (Vau- dois,) who in 1689 recovered by arms their homes, from which they had been expelled by the Duke of Savoy on account of their religion. In their march among or o\ er the Alps towards their native valleys, they defeated the French armies in several battles. An account of this € as k; (i as s: g hard; g as J; g, h, YLyguthiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^="See Explanations, p. 23.) ARNAUD 172 ARNAULD expedition, written by Arnaud, was published in English in 1827. He served as colonel in the armies of the allies 'n the war against the French which began about 1702. Died at Schonberg in 172 1. Arnaud, d', dtR''n6', (pRANgois Thomas Marie Baculard — bt'kii'iSR',) a voluminous French writer of plays, novels, etc., born in Paris in 1718, was patronized in his youth by Voltaire. He afterwards corresponded with Frederick the Great, who addressed to him some complimentary verses. His biographers record with admiration his inswer to Frederick, who, after several atheists had just professed their creed, asked the opinion of Arnaud on the subject. He replied, " I rejoice to be- lieve in the existence of a being greater and wiser than kings." He wrote many novels, which had a temporary popularity. Among his principal works is a collection of anecdotes and essays called " Recreations of the Man of Sensibility," (*'Les Delassements de I'Homme sensi- ble," 12 vols., 1784.) Died in 1805. See QuERARU, " La France Litteraire." Arnaud de Marsan, tR'no' deh mtR''s6N', a Pro- ven9al troubadour, and the author of a poem illustrating the society of the age of the troubadours. Arnaud de Nobleville. See Arnault de Noble- VILLE. Arnaud de Ronsil, tR'n5' deh r^N^s^F or r^N'se'ye, (George,) a skilful French surgeon, born about 1700, devoted himself especially to the treatment of hernia. He practised in Paris, and subsequently in London, with a high reputation. His writings are praised for clear- ness and profoundness. His chief work is a " Disser- tation on Hernias," (2 vols., 1749.) Died in 1774. Arnaud de Villa Nova. See Arnaldus. Arnauld, tk^no', (Ang6ltque,) called also Ange- lique de Saint-Jean, oN^zha'l^k' deh siN'zhSN', an eminent nun, born in 1624, was a niece of Marie Ange- lique and a daughter of Robert Arnauld d'Andilly. She was elected prioress of Port-Royal in 1669, and ab- bess in 1678, after which she was persecuted by the Jesuits. She was considered a prodigy of piety and learning, and it is stated that her father said, " AH m^ children and myself are fools in comparison of Ange- lique." She was the principal author of a biographical work called "Memoires pourservir a I'Histoirede Port- Royal," (3 vols., 1742.) Died in 1684. See Sainte-Reuve, " Port- Royal," and Mary Anne Schimmel- PENNiNCK, "Memoirs of Port-Royal," 2 vols., 1853. Arnauld, (Antoine,) procureur-general to Catherine de Medicis, was a man of eminent abilities, and, though a Huguenot, was saved from the Massacre of Saint Bar- tholomew by Catherine. He died in 1585. Arnauld, formerly written Arnaud, (Antoine,) sur- named L'Avocat, (ll'vo^kS',) or "the Advocate," a cele- brated orator, born in Paris in 1560, was the most eloquent French pleader of his day, and the father of the eminent Arnaulds of Port-Royal. He succeeded his father as procureur-general in 1585. His most celebrated speech was a " plaidoyer" for the University of Paris against the Jesuits in 1594, which is supposed to have been the cause of the persecution which the recluses of Port-Royal suffered after his death. He died in 1619, leaving six daughters and four sons, all of whom were distinguished. Arnauld, (Antoine,) Doctor of the Sorbonne, a celebrated theologian and philosopher, born in Paris on the 6th of February, 161 2, was a son of the preceding and Catherine Marion. He was the most celebrated member of the family of Arnauld, and was sometimes called " le grand Arnauld." He was ordained a priest in 1 64 1, and became a doctor of the Sorbonne about the same time. In 1643 he published an able work " On Frequent Communion," (" De la frequente Communion,") which made a powerful impression, and gave great offence to the Jesuits, of whom he was always a deter- mined antagonist. This work produced a reform in the style of French theologians, and set an example of a purer taste, which was soon followed by Pascal and Boss net. In the controversy respecting grace which arose be- tween Jansenius and his opponents, Arnauld became a zealous Jansenist. He passed some years in the retire- ment and seclusion of Port-Royal, (a convent near Paris,) and wrote many works on theology and philosophy. In 1656 he was expelled from the Society of the Sorbonne for a work which he wrote on the Jansenist question. TMs affair gave rise to the '* Provincial Letters" of Pascal, for which Arnauld furnished some materials. During the persecution to which his party was exposed from 1656 to 1668, he lived in concealment. He published in 1669 "The Perpet'iity of the Faith of the Catholic Church touching the Eucharist defended against Sieur Claude de Charenton," which added to his reputation. A large part of it was written by Nicole. He sought refuge from the enmity of the Jesuits in exile in 1679, after which he lived in various cities of Flanders and Holland until his death, which occurred at Brussels in 1694. Arnauld was remarkable for his simplicity of charac- ter and habits, his impetuosity, and his industry. Boileau wrote his epitaph, and designated him "the most learned mortal that ever wrote," ("le plus savant mortel qui jamais ait ecrit.") His fellow-worker Nicole having expressed a desire for repose and respite from their long literary and dogmatical strife, Arnauld exclaimed, " Will you not have all eternity to rest in?" (" N'aurez-vous pas pour vous reposer I'eternite toute entiere ?") Among his works, which were collected in a good edition oX forty-five closely-printed quarto volumes, (1775-83,) are " La Logique, ou I'Art de Penser," (1662,) an excellent treatise, generally called "The Port-Royal Logic;" "Elements of Geometry," (1667;) a "Treatise on True and False Ideas," (1683 — in opposition to the theory of Malebranche ;) and " The Practical Morality of the Jesuits," (" Morale pratique des Jesuites," 8 vols., 1683-94.) He aided Lancelot in the composition of the " Grammaire generale et raisonnee." See " Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de M. Arnauld," by P. QuESNEL, 1697; "Vie d' Antoine Arnauld," by Larriere, 1783; " Histoire de la Vie etdes Ouvrages de M. Arnauld ;" Sainte-Beuve, " Port-Royal," vol. ii. ; Varin, " La Verite sur les Arnauld," 2 vols., 1847; C. Jourdain, "Notice sur les Travaux philosophiques d'A. Arnauld," 1843; "Biographic Universelle." Arnauld, (Antoine,) commonly called the Abb6, born in 1616, was the son of Robert Arnauld d'Andilly. He first joined the army, but, failing of promotion, re- sorted to the Church. He was a moderate Jansenist. In 1674 Louis XIV. conferred on him the abbey of Chaumes-en-Brie. He died in 1698, leaving some valu- able historic Memoirs, published in 1756. Arnauld or Arnaud, iR^no', (Antoine,) a French general, born at Grenoble in 1749, was of humble birth, but, joining the army in 1 791, he distinguished himself under Dumouriez, in the campaign on the Rhine, at Hohenlinden and other places. He died in Holland in 1804. Arnauld, (Henri,) Bishop of Angers, the sixth child of " L'Avocat" before mentioned, was born in 1597. In his early career he pursued the law, and spent several years at Rome as attache to Cardinal Bentivoglio. On his appointment to the bishopric of Angers, from a com- plete worldling he became a self-denying, charitable, and laborious pastor. He died at Angers in 1692. See Besoigne, " Vie de Henri Arnauld," 2 vols., 1750. Arnauld, (Marie Ang^lique,) de Sainte-Made- leine, a sister of Antoine Arnauld, (1612-94,) was born in 1 591. Her original name was Jacqueline Marie. She became in early youth abbess of Port-Royal, in which she made a reform by enforcing a rigid ascetic regimen, and acquired a high reputation for virtue and intelligence. Died in 1661. Her sister Agnes was also abbess of Port- Royal, and author of two religious books. These sisters were Jansenists. Agnes died in 1671. Arnauld, (SimonJ Marquis de Pomponne. See POMPONNE. Arnauld d'Andilly, iR^no' dSN'de'ye', (Rorert,) the eldest brother of the great Antoine Arnauld, and father of Angeli |ue, (de Saint- Jean,) noticed above, born in Paris in 1589, was distinguished for probity, piety, and literary ability. In early life he had much favour and influence at the court of Louis XITI., who, it is said, offered him the office of secretary of state, which he de- clined. He accepted the place of intend mt of the army in 1634. About 1645 he retired from the world and entered the monastery of Port-Royal. His principal 5, e, I, 5 u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/ior^; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, f^ll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; ARNAULD 173 ARNEMANN works are interesting autobiographical Memoirs, pub- lished in 1734, and an elegant translation of Josephus's History, {1667-69.) He died in 1674, leaving a son, Simon, Marquis de Pomponne. Arnauld (Arnold) de Chartres, tR^no' deh shtRtR, [Lat. Arnol'dus Carnoten'sis,] a French writer on the(yl.)§y, became abbot of Bonneval in 1138. He wrote, besides other works, "On the Principal Works of Christ," (" De Cardinalibus Christi Operibus.") His style is elega.it. Ariiauid de Marveil, ta'no^ deh mSR'vaF or nitR'- va'ye, written also Aruaud de Merueil or de Ma- rueih, a Provencal troubadour, whom Sismondi places highest as an amatory poet of his day. He died in the latter part of the twelfth century. Arnault, SR^n5^ (Lucien Emile,) a French dramatic writer, son of Vincent Antoine, noticed below, was born at Versailles in 1787. He was appointed auditor to the council of state in 1808. He produced a number of tragedies, one of which, entitled " Regulus," was success- ful. After the revolution of 1830 he was prefect of several departments. Arnault, (Vincent Antotne,) a French poet and dramatist, born in Paris in 1766. He began his career by the tragedy of "Marius at Minturnae," (1791,) which had great success. He was author of two other popular tragedies, entitled "Lucrece," (1792,) and " Germanicus," (1816,) and of a number of poems, fables, etc. In 1797 he was charged by Napoleon to organize the government of the Ionian Isles. In 1808 he was appointed chief or director of public instruction. He succeeded Andrieux in 1833 as perpetual secretary of the French Academy, and published "Souvenirs of a Sexagenarian," (4 vols., 1833.) Died in 1834. See JouRDAiN, "Poetes Frangais." Arnault (tR^no^ or Arnaud de Nobleville, deh nobl'veK, (Louis Daniel,) a French physician, noted for his benevolence, born at Orleans in 1701. He devoted himself to the gratuitous service of the poor in his native city. He wrote a "Manual for Charitable Ladies," ("Manuel des Dames de Charite," 1747,) often r-^printed, and a "Natural History of Animals," to serve as a sup- plement to the Materia Medica of Geoffroy, (6 vols., 1 756.) Died in 1778. Aruavon, SR^nt'v^N', (Franqois,) a French theolo- gian, born near Vaucluse about 1740; died in 1824. Arnay, d', dtR'n\hX\ n6t; good; moon; ARNOLD 175 ARNOLD of an able commander. He joined the army of General Montgomery, who had the chief command, and who attacked Quebec about the end of December, but was defeated and killed. Arnold was wounded in the leg at Quebec, and his services in this campaign were rewarded with the rank of brigadier-general. Having obtained command of a flotilla of small ves- sels on Lake Champlain, he encountered a superior force on the nth of October, 1776, and, although he was not victorious, he fought with such skill and deter- mined courage that this action tended to animate and revive the hopes of the patriots. Early in 1777 he was deeply oft'ended because Congress promoted five of his juniors to the rank of major-general. He was soon after raised to the same rank, but the affront still rankled in his heart, for the five previously appointed continued to be above him. He was frequently involved in difficul- ties by his violent and imperious temper and his dis- honesty in pecuniary transactions. He commanded the left wing at the battle of Bemus Heights, September 19, 1777, and there quarrelled with General Gates, who appears to have been jealous of Ar- nold. In consequence of this dispute, Arnold resigned his command soon after the date just named ; but dur- ing the battle of Stillwater, October 7, he entered the field without the permission of General Gates, and dis- played desperate courage or temerity. According to Sparks, " Arnold received no orders during the day, but rode about the field in every direction, seeking the hottest parts of the action, and issuing his commands wherever he went. Being the highest officer in rank that appeared in the field, his orders were obeyed when practicable ; but all accounts agree that his conduct was rash in the extreme, indicating rather the frenzy of a madman than the considerate wisdom of an experienced general." In this battle he received a severe wound, which disabled him for several months, during which Congress accorded to him his full rank. In June, 1778, he was appointed to the command of Philadelphia, which had just been evacuated by the British. He ran deeply into debt, and lived in an ex- travagant style, which he endeavoured to support by peculation and acts of rapacity. He married about 1779 Margaret, a daughter of Edward Shippen, an eminent citizen of Philadelphia. A court-martial called to inves- tigate his official conduct in Philadelphia sentenced him to receive a reprimand from the general-in-chief, (Janu- ary, 1780.) Although the reprimand was administered by General Washington in very mild and conciliatory terms, the vindictive spirit of Arnold was not appeased. About six months before the date last named, he had made treasonable overtures to the enemy. To enhance the value of his treachery, he solicited and obtained command of West Point, (perhaps the strongest and most important position in the United States,) which he proposed to betray into the hands of Sir Henry Clinton. The latter employed Major Andre as his agent in this negotiation. The plot was detected and defeated by the capture of Andre, September 23, 1780, (see Andre, John,) and Arnold narrowly escaped (September 25) in the British sloop Vulture, which was stationed below West Point. It is stated that he received from Sir Henry Clinton £6t,i$ as the reward of his treason or as an indemnity for what he had lost by desertion. Arnold entered the British army as a colonel, and issued two proclamations or addresses to the Americans, designed to vindicate his own course and to persuade others to desert. He was appointed to command an expedition against Virginia, and sailed from New York to Hampton Roads in December, 1780. He ascended the James River, and inflicted much damage on the people of that region, by burning and pillage. In Sep- tember, 1781,^ he commanded a body of troops which took Fort Griswold, Connecticut, massacred the garri- son after they had surrendered, and burned New Lon- don. This was his last exploit in tne war of the Revo- lution. He passed the rest of his life mostly in England, where, according to Sparks, "he was shunned and despised by everybody" except the king and a few per- sons in authority. He died in London in June, 1801, ieaving a son, James Robertson Arnold, who became a major-general in the English army. (See Sparks's "Life of Benedict Arnold," in his "Library of American Biog- raphy," vol. iii.) Arnold, aR'nolt, (Christoph,) a German peasant, distinguished for his knowledge of astronomy, born near Leipsic in 1646. He is said to have discovered the comet of 1683 eight days before Hevelius ; and he was the first to call attention to that of 1686. He also ob- served the transit of Mercury across the sun's disc in 1690. Died in 1695. Arnold, (Christoph,) a German philologist, born at Nuremberg (or, according to some authorities, at Hers- bruck) in 1627, became a professor of history and elo- quence. He wrote a number of works, among which was the "Ornament (or Beauty) of the Latin Language," (" Ornatus Lingua Latinae," 1657.) Died in 1685. Arnold, (Daniel Heinrich,) professor of philosophy and divinity at Konigsberg, born in that city in 1706, was the author of a history of the Konigsberg Univer- sity. Died in 1775. Arnold, (Franz,) a priest of Cologne, and a violent opposer of Luther, against whom he wrote several works. Arnold, (Friedrich,) a German engraver, born in Berlin in 1780 ; died in 1809. Arnold, (Georg,) a German jurist, born at Chem- nitz in 1 53 1, wrote in Latin a "Life of Maurice, Elector of Saxony." Died in 1588. Arnold, (Georg,) an organist, born in the Tyrol, lived towards the close of the seventeenth century. Arnold, (George Daniel,) a jurist, born at Stras- burg in 1780. He was appointed professor of Roman law at his native city in 1811, published a text-book of Roman law, (1812,) and gave in the Alsatian dialect a remarkable picture of manners in his popular comedy of "Whit-Monday," ("Le Lundi de Pentecote,") which was eulogized by Goethe. He also wrote fugitive poems of some merit. Died in 1829. Arnold, (Gottfried,) a German Protestant theolo- gian of high reputation, born at Annaberg, Saxony, in 1666. He preached at Werben and at Perleberg, and received the title of historiographer to Frederick 1. of Prussia. He wrote, besides many other theological works, a mystical book called " Sophia, or the Mysteries of Divine Wisdom," (1700,) and a " History of the Church from the Christian Era to 1688," (3 vols., 1699-17CO,) which offended the orthodox Lutherans, and was noticed in foreign countries. He died in 1 7 14, leaving an auto- biography, (1716.) See also Colerhs, " Historia G. Arnoldi," 1718 ; Petersen, " Ge- retteter Bi nder Arnold," 1718; AdolpheRiff, "G. Arnold, Historian de rfiglise," 1847. Arnold, (Haldrenius Vesaliensis.) See Arnol- DUS. Arnold, (Johann Christian,) professor of philoso- phy, and afterwards of physics, in the University of Erlangen, was born at Weissenfels in 1724 ; died in 1765. See Reinhard, "Memoria J. C. Arnoldi," 1765. Arnold, (Johann Gerhard,) a German publicist and historian, born in 1637; died in 1717. Arnold, (Johann Gottfried,) an eminent musical composer for the violoncello, was born in Hohenlohe in 1773 ; died in 1806. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Arnold, (Johann von Bergel — fon b^R^gel,) a Ger- man poet of the sixteenth century. He wrote a po< ra "On the Invention of the Art of Engraving ©n Coi per or Brass," ("De Chalcographias Inventione," 1541.) Arnold, (John,) one of the greatest improvers of the chronometer, was born at Bodmin, in Cornwall, in 1744. He removed to London, and was patronized by Georgi III. Among his improvements are the detached escape- ment, the expansion balance, the cylindrical balance- spring, etc. Died in 1799. Arnold, (Joseph,) M.D., an English naturalist, born in Suffolk in 1783, entered the navy as assistant sur- geon, visited New South Wales, and made a large col- lection of natural objects, which was destroyed by fire at Batavia. He afterwards accompanied Sir Stamford Raffles to Sumatra, where he died in 1831. Arnold, (Lemuel H.,) born at Saint Johnsbury, Ver- mont, in 1792, was elected Governor of Rhode Island in # < as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, v., guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (2i^===See Explanations, p. 23.) ARNOLD 176 ARNOLD I 1831, re-elected in 1832, and was a member of Congress from 1843 to 1845. Died in 1852. Arnold, (Lewis G.,) an American general, born in New Jersey, graduated at West Point in 1837, and dis- tinguished himself in the Mexican war, and also in the Florida war of 1856. He was appointed a brigadier- general in the Union army in January, 1862. Arnold, (Matthew,) an English poet, a son of Dr. Thomas Arnold of Rugby, was born at Laleham, near Staines, in Middlesex, December 24, 1822. He was educated at Rugby and Oxford, and elected a Fellow of Oriel College in 1845. became in 1847 private secre- tary to Lord Lansdowne, and lay inspector of schools, under the Committee of the Council of Education, in 185 1. In 1848 he published " The Strayed Reveller, and other poems," and in 1856 appeared a "new and complete edition" of his poenis. He was elected jM'ofessor of poetry at Oxford in 1857. "For combined culture and fine natu- ral feeling in the matter of versification," says the " Edin- burgh Review" for October, 1856, "Mr. Arnold has no living superior." In 1865 appeared a volume of " Essays in Criticism," in which Mr. Arnold shows himself to be a critic of 110 common order: his observations "On Trans- lating Homer" are among the very best that have ever been written on that subject. A volume of " New Poems by Matthew Arnold" was published in 1867. Arnold or Arnoldus, (Nicolaus,) a Protestant divine and eminent preacher, born at Lesna, in Poland, in 1618. He became professor of theology at Franeker in 165 1, and wrote in Latin several works on theology. Died in 1680. Arnold, aR'nolt, (Olori'nus or Cygn^'us,) a Dutch writer on theology; died in 1622. Arnold, (Richard,) an English chronicler and mer- chant of London, born about 1450, was the author of a work commonly called "Arnold's Chronicle," but sometimes named "The Statutes of London," (about 1500.) Arnold, (Samuel,) a successful English musical com- poser, born in London in 1740. His opera of the " Maid of the Mill" (1765) was greatly applauded. Among his most popular works are the oratorio of " The Prodigal Son ;" and operas entitled " Rosamond," (1767,) " Inkle and Yarico," (1787,) and "The Castle of Andalusia," (1782.) He was appointed organist and composer to the king in 1783, and organist of Westminster Abbey in 1793. At the request of the king, he published a magnificent edition of Handel's Works, (36 vols.) Died in 1802. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Arnold, (Samuel Benedict,) a German painter of history and portraits, born at Dresden in 1744; died in 1817. Arnold, (Samuel J.,) a son of Samuel Arnold the composer, published a number of dramatic pieces, among which are "Auld Robin Gray," (1794,) "Irish Legacy," (1797,) and "Britain's Jubilee," (1809.) Arnold, (Thomas,) D.D., of Rugby, an English his- torian and teacher of great merit, was born at Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, on the 13th of June, 1795. He en- tered Corpus Christi College, Oxford, in 181 1, took a first-class degree in 1814, and gained the chancellor's prize for a Latin Essay in 181 7. He was distinguished at college for the liberality of his opinions and the inde- pendence of his character. In 1820 he married Mary, a daughter of the Rev. John Penrose. He passed several ensuing years at Laleham, near Staines, where he was employed as a private tutor. In 1827 or 1828 he was ordained a priest, and became head- master of Rugby School, where he found a proper sphere for the exercise of his rare qualifications as a teacher. He raised the character of that school by the influence of Christian principles, enforced by his own example, and diligently cultivated a sense of duty and responsi- bility in the students. He published a pamphlet on Church Reform in 1833, and a valuable edition of Thucydides, (in 1830-35.) His principal work is a " History of Rome," (3 vols., 1838- 40-42,) which comprises the period from the origin of Rome to the end of the second Punic war, and was in- terrupted by his death. This is a work of high reputa- tion, composed on the basis of Niebuhr's discoveries. He contributed articles to the ** Quarterly Review" and "Edinburgh Review." In August, 1841, he vya? ap- pointed regius professor of modern history at Oxford. Soon after he had finished the introductory course of lectures, he died at Rugby, in June, 1842. Among his works are five volumes of sermons, (1828-42,) and " In- troductory Lectures on Modern History," (1842.) " He will strike those who study him more closely," says the " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1844, " as a complete character, — complete in its union of moral and intellectual gifts ; ... for his greatness did not consist in the pre-eminence of any single quality, but in several remarkable powers, thoroughly leavened and pervaded by an ever-increasing moral nobleness." "His sermons," says Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, "are remarkable as being, byiheir simple and natural lan- guage, one of the first practical protests raised in the nineteenth century against the technical and unreal phraseology generally used in English preaching, and as uniting a high religious standard, a strong imagination, and a living spirit of devotion with unaffected good sense, and moral energy and sincerity." " As an historian, his moral qualifications consisted chiefly in his love of truth, his conscientiousness, and his high Christian judgment of all political transactions. Intellectually, his chief excellence lay not so much in the philosophical and biographical department of history as in analyzing laws, parties, and institutions." •See " Life and Correspondence of Dr. Arnold," (2 vols., 1844,) by A. P. Stanley, " Encyclopaedia Britannica ;" "Edinburgh Re- view" for January, 1843 ; " Tom Brown's School-Days at Rugby." Arnold, (Thomas,) an English physician, born in 1742. He took his degree at Edinburgh, and settled at Leicester, where he became senior physician to the in- firmary, and physician to the lunatic asylum. His prin- cipal work is " Observations on the Nature, Kinds, Causes, and Prevention of Insanity, Lunacy, or Madness," (2 vols., 1782-86,) which displays much learning. Died in 1816. Arnold, (Thomas Ker'chever,) an English clergy- man, rector of Lyndon, noted as editor of numerous popular text-books, was born about 1800. Among his publications are school-manuals for the Greek, Latin, French, and German languages. Died in 1853. • Arnold, (William Del'afield,) a son of Dr. Thomas Arnold of Rugby, born in 1828, became an officer in the British army, and afterwards director of public instruction in the Punjab. He was author of a novel called " Oakfield ; or, Fellowship in the East," an exposition of the trials of a young officer who resolves to set an example of fidelity to Christian principles in the army. He died at Gibraltar, on his passage homeward from India, in April, 1859. His brother Matthew has written some beautiful and touching lines on his death. Arnold of Brescia. See Aknaldo. Arnold or Arnolt von Bruck, aR'nolt fon bRook, (or de Prug, deh pRooG,) a German musician of the six- teenth century. Arnold von Biiderich, aR'nolt fon bii'deh-riK', a German theologian, lived in the second half of the fif- teenth century. Arnold Melchthal. See Melchthal. Arnold of Meldorp, a German theologian of the twelfth century. Ar'nold or Ar'nould of Rotterdam, a Dutch theo- logian, whose family name was Geilhoven. Died in 1442. Ar'nold von Wink'el-ried, [Ger. pron. aR'nolt fon ^ink'el-reet',] a brave Swiss patriot, who broke the Aus- trian phalanx at the battle of Sempach in 1386, by rush- ing against the points of their spears and gathering\vithin his arms as many as he could. He fell pierced with mortal wounds, but decided the victory in favour of the Swiss. See "Histoire de la Confederation Suisse," translated from t"he German of J. von Miiller by Monnard and Vuillemin, Paris, 1840-46. Arnoldi, aR-noKdee, or di Arnoldo, de aR-nc^'do, (Alberto,) an eminent Florentine sculptor and archi- tect of the fourteenth century, executed a colossal mar- ble group of the Madonna and Child, in the church of Santa Maria del Bigallo, Florence, (1364,) which was formerly attributed to Andrea Pisano. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, !, 6, ii, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^U, fit; mSt; n5t; good; moon; ARNOLD I 177 JRNTZENIVS Aruoldi, aR-noKdee, (Bartholomew,) a German friar and philosopher, born at Usingen, was an adver- sary of Luther. Died in 1532. Arnoldi, (Daniel,) a German philologer, born at Bergedorf in 1595; died in 1651. Arnoldi, (Wilhelm,) Bishop of Treves, was born at Budan, in the district of Treves, in 1798. He was elected bishop in 1839. In 1844 he induced a great multitude of people to make a pilgrimage to Treves to see or wor- ship a relic called "the holy coat of Treves." This pro- ceeding caused great excitement, and resulted in a schism of the Church. (See Ronge.) Aruoldi, von, fon aR-noKdee, (Johann,) a German diplomatist and historian, born at Herborn, in Nassau, in 1 75 1. He was employed as a negotiator by the Stadt- holder William V. About 1803 he entered the service of William I., King of the Netherlands, who appointed him a privy councillor in 1815. He wrote a "History of the Countries ruled by the House of Orange-Nas- sau," ("Geschichte der Oranien-Nassauischen Lander," 3 vols., 1 799-1816.) Died in 1827. Ar-nol'dus or Arnold, aR'nolt, (Haldre'nius Vesalien'sis,) a learned theological writer, born at Wesel, on the Lower Rhine. He taught Greek at Co- logne, and was chosen canon of the metropolitan chap- ter of that city. Died in 1534. Arnoldus de Villa Nova. See Arnaldus. Arnolfini, aR-nol-fee'nee, (Giovanni Attilio,) an able Italian hydraulic engineer, born at Lucca in 1733. He was charged with the hydraulic department of pub- lic works at Lucca in 1761, after which he improved the river Serchio by confining it between new rocky banks. He died in 1791, leaving in manuscript many volumes on physics, hydrostatics, etc. Ar-noFfo, [Lat. Arnul'eus,] written also Arnoul, of Milan, a historian, who lived near the end of the eleventh century. He wrote a " History of Milan," (from 925 to 1076,) prized for its fidelity and accuracy. It is commended by Muratori. Arnolfo, written also Arnoul, became Archbishop of Milan in 1093, and preached a crusade in company with Urban II. Arnolfo di Lapo. See Lapo. Arnolt von Bruck. See Arnold von Bruck. Arnone, aR-no'ni, (Alherto,) a skilful Neapolitan portrait-painter, born in the seventeenth century, was a pupil of Carlo Maratta. Died at Naples in 1721. Ar'not, (Hugo,) a Scottish writer and advocate, born at Leith in 1749. His original name was Pollock, which he changed when he became heir to the maternal estate of Balcormo. He published an entertaining and valua- ble " History of Edinburgh," (1779,) a " Collection of Celebrated Criminal Trials in Scotland," (1785,) which displays great research, and an " Essay on Nothing," (1777.) Died in 1786. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Ar'nott, (Archibald,) a Scottish physician, born in 1 77 1, served as surgeon in the army in Egypt, Spain, and other countries. His regiment was stationed at Saint Helena while Bonaparte was confined there. In April, 1821, he was called to attend the imperial captive, at whose death he was present. He received from his dying patient a gold snuff-box as a token of his esteem, and published "An Account of the Last Illness, Decease, and Post-Mortem Appearance of Napoleon Bonaparte," (1822.) Died in 1855. Arnott, (James Moncrieff,) a British surgeon, born in 1794. He settled in London about 181 7, and became professor of surgery in King's College of that city. Arnott, (Dr. Neil,) a Scottish physician and eminent experimental philosopher, born near Montrose in 1788, \yas a pupil of Sir Everard Home. He began to prac- tise in London about 181 2, and delivered a course of lectures on natural philosophy in its application to medi- cine, (1823-24,) which he published in 1827 under the title of " Elements of Physics or Natural Philosophy, General and Medical, explained in non-technical Lan- guage." This work was received with great favour and translated into nearly all the European languages. He became one of the physicians-extraordinary to the queen in 1837, and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1838. The Rum ford medal of this society was awarded to him in 1854 for his inventions, among which are the water-bed or floating mattress for the sick, and the "Arnott Stove." He received also a gold medal from the jurors of the Universal Exposition of Paris in 1855. He is author of an " Essay on Warming and Ventilating,'' (1838.) Arnoul. See Arnulfo. Arnoul, Sr^ioo', written also Arnulf, one of the most learned and eloquent French prelates of his time, was appointed Bishop of Orleans in 986. Arnoul, written also Arnulf or Ernulf, born at Beauvais about 1040, became Bishop of Rochester in II 14. Died in 11 24. He was author of some docu- ments relating to the church and see of Rochester, which were published by Hearne in 1720. Arnoul, written also Arnulf, a Norman priest, who served Robert II. of Normandy as chaplain in the first crusade. He obtained by intrigues in 1 1 11 the office of Patriarch of Jerusalem. Died in 1118. Arnoul, written also Arnulf, a French prelate, who became Bishop of Lisieux about 1 140, was a friend of Thomas A Becket. He died in 11 82, leaving many let- ters, which have some historical value. Arnoul of Milan. See Arnolfo. Arnoul, (Rene,) a French poet, born at Poitiers in 1569 ; died in 1639. Arnould. See Arnulf. Arnould, tR'noo', (Ambroise Marie,) a French political economist, born at Dijon about 1750. He pub- lished a successful work "On the Balance of Trade," (1 791,) and was one of the leaders of the party which revolted against the Convention on the 13th Vende- miaire, 1794. Having supported Bonaparte in the Council of Five Hundred in the crisis of the i8th Brumaire, 1799, he was appointed a member of the Tribunat, after the suppression of which he was a counsellor of state. Among his important works is "The Political Maritime System of the Europeans during the Eighteenth Century," (" Sys- teme maritime politique," etc., 1797.) Died in 1812, Arnould, (Sophie,) a popular French actress and opera-singer, born in Paris about 1744, was noted for her conversational powers and bonmots. Died in 1803, See A. Deville, "Arnoldiana," 1813. Arnould of Rotterdam. See Arnold of Rotter- dam. Arnoult, tR'noo', (Charles,) a French jurist, born at Beze in 1750; died in 1793. Arnoult, (Jean Baptiste,) a French writer, born in 1689, published, besides a few other works, "The Pre- ceptor," (1747,) which contains treatises on grammar, the Christian religion, and other subjects. Died at Besan- 9on in 1753. Arnoux, tR^noo', (Jean,) a French Jesuit, born at Riom about 1560, or, as one account states, in 1575. He became distinguished as a preacher and skilful contro- versialist, and was appointed confessor to Louis XIII. in 161 7, but was removed from this position in 1621. He wrote several theological works, some of which were against Calvinism. Died in 1636. Arntzen, aRnt'sen, or Arnt-ze'ni-us, [Ger. pron. aRnt-sa'ne-iis,] (Johann,) a German philologist, born at Wesel in 1702. He succeeded Burmann as professor of history and eloquence at Franeker in 1742. His repu- tation is founded on excellent editions of Aurelius Victor, (i733>) of Pliny's Panegyricus, (1738,) and of the Pane- gyricus of Drepanius Pacatus, (1753.) Died in 1759. See Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." Arntzen or Arntzenius, (Johann Heinrich,) a learned philologist, a son of the preceding, born at Nym- wegen in 1734. He became in 1774 professor of law at Utrecht, where he died in 1797, leaving valuable editions of Arator's poems, (1769,) and of the "Panegyrici Ve- teres," (1790.) Arntzen or Arntzenius, (Ot'to,) a brother of Jo- hann, born at Wesel in 1703, was a good Latin scholar. He was professor or rector at Utrecht and Amsterdam. His edition of Dionysius Cato's " Disticha" (1735) is said to be the best. Died in 1763. See Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." Arntzenius. See Arntzen. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; o, H, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as iji this. (2i:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) 12 JRNU 178 ARRHIDjEUS Arnu, tR'nii', (Nicolas,) a French theologian of con- eiderable reputation, born near Verdun (Meuse) in 1629. Died at Padua in 1692. Arnulf. See Arnoul. Ar'nulf, [Lat. Arnul'phus,] written also Arnoul or Arnould, Emperor of Germany, was a son of Carloman of Bavaria, and a great-grandson of Charlemagne. He was elected King of Germany in 887 or 888 a.d., and defeated the Normans near Louvain in 892, after which he invaded Italy and captured Rome in 896. He was then crowned as emperor by the pope. He died at Ratis- bon in 899, and was succeeded by his son, Louis IV. See ScHWARZ, " Historia Annilphi Imperatoris," 1744; Gagern, "Anuilfi Imperatoris Vita," 1837. Arnulf, a natural son of Lothaire, King of France, became Archbishop of Rheims in 988. Died in 1023. Arnulf, Saint, or Arnoul, an ancestor of Charle- magne, was born about 580 A.D., and became Bishop of Metz in 611. He was a confidential adviser of King Clotaire, and had a high reputation as a statesman. Died about 640 a.d. Arnulfus or Arnulphus. See Arnulf. Arnulfus of Milan. See Arnolf. Arn'way, (John,) D.D., an English divine, born in 1601, suffered much for his attachment to the cause of Charles I., and during his exile in Holland wrote "An Alarum to the Subjects of England," (1650,) containing, among other things, a defence of the character of the late king. He died in Virginia in 1653. Aromatari, degli, diKyee a-ro-mi-ti'ree, (Giu- seppe,) a learned physician and naturalist, born at Assisi, in the Papal States, about 1586. He practised medicine at Venice for about fifty years with such success that he was invited to England by James I. ; but he preferred to remain where he was. He published in 161 1 a "Reply to the Criticisms of Alessandro Tassoni on the Poems of Petrarch." His most important production is a short treatise on the reproduction of plants, " De Generatione Plantarum ex Seminibus," which was prefixed to his work on Hydrophobia, (1625.) He showed the analogy which exists between the seeds of plants and the eggs of animals, and first suggested those principles of germi- nation which have been recognized by modern physiolo- gists. Died in 1660. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia;" Haller, " BIbliotheca Botanica." Aronce. See A runs. Arooj, Aroudj, or Aruj, S-rooj', written also Aruch or Arouds, corrupted intoHorush, Horuc, etc., a Turk- ish pirate, the elder of two brothers who about 1510-40 were the terror of Christendom. See Barbarossa. Aroon. See Aruna. Arouet. See Voltaire. Arpad, aR'pId, founder of the kingdom of Hun- gary, was a chief of the Magyars, who about 890 a.d. migrated from Galicia and conquered the Slavonic princes who then possessed Hungary. A part of his army invaded Italy and defeated Berengarius, on the Brenta, in 900. Died in 907. Andrew III., who died in 1301, was the last king of the Arpad dynasty. See Ersch uhcIGruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Mailath, *' Geschichte der Magyaren." Arpajon, d', dtR'pS'zh^N', (Louis,) Duke, and Mar- quis of Severac, a French general, distinguished him- self at the siege of Montauban in 1621. He had a high command in the Thirty Years' war. In 1645 he was appointed generalissimo by the grand master of Malta, for the defence of which against the Turks he raised two thousand inen. Died in 1679. Arpajon, d', (Louis,) Marquis, a French general, was a grandson of the preceding. Died in 1736. Arpe, aR'peh, (Peter Friedrich,) a learned juris- consult and writer, born at Kiel, in Holstein, in 1682. He was professor of law at Kiel from 171 7 until 1722. In his "Laicus Veritatis Vindex" (1717) he maintained that the division of Christians into clergy and laity is contrary to the law of Moses and to the Gospel. Among his works is "Themis Cimbrica," (1737,) which treats of the institutions and manners of the Cimbri and other Teutonic tribes. Died about 1745. See MoiXER, " Cimbria Literata;" Adelung, Supplement to Jocher's "Allgemelnes Gelehrten-Lexikon." Arpino. See Cesari, (Giuseppe.) Arpino, aR-pee'no, (Jacopo Francesco,) an Italian physician, philosopher, and naturalist, was born in Pied- mont in the early part of the seventeenth century. Arquato, aR-kwi'to, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian physician who wrote a work called " Medicus Reformatus," (1608,) was born in the Venetian States, and lived about the commencement of the seventeenth century. Arquier. See Darquier. Ar-Radhee- (or Ar-Radhi-) Billah, ar-riMee biK- lih, one of the Abbasside caliphs, was raised to the caliphate in 934 a.d. Died about 940. Arraes, ar-ri'Ss, or Arraiz, ar-r^'iz, almost ar-rTz', (Amador, 3.-m^-doR',) a Portuguese classic writer, Ijorn at Beja in 1530. He became Bishop of Portale- gre in 1581, and wrote "Moral Dialogues," (1589) a work of high reputation, in which he took Plato for nis model. Died in 1600. Arraes or Arrais, (Duarte Madeira,) a Portuguese physician, born near Lamego. He became physician to John IV., and wrote several medical works which were often reprinted. Died in 1652. Arragos, t'rt'go', (Guillaume,) [Lat. Guliel'mus Arrago'sius,] a French physician, born near Toulouse in 1513 ; died at Bale in 1610. Arraiz. See Arraes. Arran, Earl of. See Hamilton, (James.) Arras, d', dS'rSs', (Mathieu,) a French architect,born at Arras about 1300. He was employed by John, King of Bohemia, to build the cathedral of Prague, com- menced in 1344. Before the completion of this work, he died, in 1352. Ar-Rasheed or Ar-Rashid, ar-rl-sheed', (^boo- (Abu-) Mohammed-Abdul-Wahed, I'hoo' mo- ham'med ab'dool wi'hed,) a sultan of Western Africa, commenced his reign in 1232, after a hard struggle with his rival, Yahya An-Nasir, in which he took Mo- rocco by siege. He died in 1242. Ar-Rashid. See Haroun-al-Raschid. Arrault, i'ro^ (Charles,) a French jurist, born in the Gatinais in 1643 ; died in 1 718. Arreboe, ar'reh-bo'eh, (Anders,) a popular Danish poet, born in the island of Arroe in 1587. He was chosen Bishop of Drontheim in 1618, but was deposed for disorderly conduct in 162 1. Having partially re- trieved his reputation, he became pastor at Vordingborg in 1626. He was considered the greatest poet that Denmark had produced before Tullin, His principal work is " Hexaemeron," (1641,) a poetical paraphrase of the French poem of Du Bartas. Died in 1637. See Molbech, " Danske Anthologie ;" Kraft og Nyerup, "A1- mindeligt Litteraturlexicon for Danemark," etc. Arredondo, ar-ri-DonMo, (Isidoro,) a Spanish his- torical painter, born at Colmenar de Oreja in 1653. He was patronized by Charles II., who gave him the title of painter to the king. Died in 1702, Ar-rhe'ni-us, [Swed. pron. ar-ru'ne-iis,] (Clas or Claudius,) a Swedish historian, eminent for learning and sagacity, was born at Linkoping in 1627. He became professor of history at Upsal in 1668. His chief work is an " Ecclesiastical Ilistory of Sweden," (" Historias Svecorum Gothorumque Ecclesiasticas Libri IV.," 1689.) He was appointed royal historiographer in 1678, and ennobled in 1684, when he assumed the name of Oernhielm, (Eagle-Helmet.) Died in 1695. See Gezelius, " Biographiskt- Lexicon bfver namnkunnige Svenska Man;" P. Lagerloef, " Memoria C. Arrhenii," 1696; Thysklius, "Dissertatio de Meritis literariis C. Arrhenii," 1791. Arrhenius, (Jacob,) a Swedish scholar, a brother of the preceding, born in 1642, was professor of history at Upsal from 1687 until 1716. He wrote many able treat- ises on points of ancient history, among which are a " Short Sketch of Ancient Egypt," (" Brevis Adumbra- tio Veteris /Egypti," 1694,) and an essay on the office of Roman Consul, (" De Consule Romano," 1705.) Died in 1725. See Gezelius, " Eiographiskt-Lexicon." Arrhidaeus, ir-re-dee'us, or Aridaeus, [Gr. 'kl)btMo<. or 'kpuMoQ ; Fr. Arrhid6e, t're'di',] a son of Philip of Macedon and of a courtesan named Philinna, was a a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t: n5t; good; moon; JRRHID^US 179 ARRIQUIBAR half-brother of Alexander the Great. He had a weak mind, which, according to Plutarch, was the result of poison administered by Olympias. On the death of Alexander he was proclaimed king at Babylon, under the name of Philip. He was controlled by his wife Eurydice, and, after a nominal reign of six years, was put to death by order of Olympias, the mother of Alexander, about 315 B.C. See Justin, books ix., xiii., and xiv. Arrhidaeus, a Macedonian general, who was one of the two regents appointed at the death of Perdiccas in 321 B.C. He and the other regent, Python, resigned in the same year because they were unable to enforce their authority against Eurydice. In the division of provinces made about 320 he received a part of Phrygia. Arrhidee. See Arrhid^us. Ar'ri-a, a Roman matron, eminent for fortitude, was the wife of Caecina Psetus, who was condemned to death in 42 A.D. She killed herself in order to set an example of courage and fortitude to her husband. Arriaga, de, da ar-re-^'gi, (Juan Crisostome,) a Spanish composer of great genius, born at Biiboa in 1808, studied in Paris under Fetis. He displayed great inventive power in his fugue for eight voices, called " Et Vitam Venturi," which Cherubini pronounced a master- piece. In 1824 he published a set of quartets, which are highly praised. Died prematurely in 1825 or 1826. See Fetis, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." Arriaga, de, (Pablo Jos6,) a Spanish Jesuit and missionary, born at Vergara in 1562, laboured in Peru. Died about 1622. Arriaga, de, (Rodrigo,) a Spanish philosopher and Jesuit, born at Logrono in 1592. He taught philosophy with great success for thirteen years at Prague, where he resided from 1624 until his death. He attempted to re- vive the philosophy of the schoolmen in his " Philoso- phical Course," ("Cursus Philosoj^hicus," 1632,) which evinces an acute and subtle mind. He also wrote a work on theology, (8 vols., 1643-55.) I^'^d in 1667. See Adelung, " GeschiclUe der Philosophic." Ar'ri-an, [Gr. 'A^^iavoc; Lat, Arria'nus Fla'vius ; Fr. Arrien, t're-ix',] an eminent Greek historian, born at Nicomedia, in Bithynia, was a pupil and friend of Epic- tetus. He committed to writing, edited, or digested the philosophic doctrines of Epictetus, (who published noth- ing himself) There are now extant a "Manual ("En- chiridion") of Epictetus," compiled by him, and four books of a work called the " Epictetus of Arrian." He obtained the favour of the emperor Hadrian, who in 136 A.D. appointed him governor of Cappadocia. We have no evidence that he held this office, or any other, after the death of Hadrian, 138 A.D. He was at one time priest of Ceres and Proserpine in his native city. His principal work is a " History of the Expedition of Alexander the Great," 'AvujSaatg'ATie^uvSpov, (The Ascent of Alexander,) which is highly prized on account of its intrinsic merit, and because we have no other history of Alexander worthy of equal confidence. Among his qualifications for a historian were a good judgment, ac- curacy in geographical and strategical details, and a cor- rect and simple style. In style, and in other respects, he proposed Xenophon as his model. He was author of many other works, some of which are lost. Among those extant are a "Treatise on Tactics," a "Discourse on Hunting," a "Circumnavigation of the Euxine Sea," and a small but interesting work called " Indica," describing India, its people, customs, products, etc. The date of his death is not known. His abstract of the philosophy of Epictetus, or " Enchiridion," was highly esteemed, both by the pagans and early Christians. See Fabkicius, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" Ellendt, " De Arriane- oriim Librorum Reliquiis," i8.^6; Mauermann, "Arrianus Nicomc- diensis et Quintus Curtius Rufiis," 1835. Arrianus, (the historian.) See Arrian. Ar-ri-a'nus, [Gr. 'Af)fHav6g ; Fr. Arrten, t're-^N',] a Greek author of uncertain date, wrote a treatise on meteors and comets. Arrianus, a Roman jurist, who is supposed to have lived in the time of Trajan, wrote a work on law, en- titled " De Interdictis," ("Concerning Interdicts.") Arrianus, a Greek poet, who wrote a poem on Alex- ander, called "The Alexandriad," and translated Virgil's Georgics into hexameter verse. Arriaza, Sr-re-i'tha, (Juan Bautista,) an eminent Spanish poet, born at Madrid in 1770, was sometime^ called Arriaza y Superviela, (e soo-p^R-ve-i'li.) He published a volume of poems entitled " First-Fruits," or first productions of his genius, (" Las Primicias," 1797,) and soon after that date went to England as secre- tary of legation. In 1803 appeared his poem "Emilia," on the infiuence of the fine arts. He returned to Spain in 1807, and took a prominent part in politics as a friend of absolute monarchy. After the restoration of 1814 he was minister of foreign affairs. Among his works are " Poesias patrioticas," (1810.) Died in 1837. See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon ;" Longfello r_" Foets and Poetry of Europe." Arribas, Sr-ree'Bds, (Pablo Antonio,) a Spanish minister of state, born in 1771, held office under Joseph Bonaparte. Died in 1828. Arrien. See Arrian and Arrianus. Arrighetti, dr-re-gef'tee, (Filippo,) an Italian eccle- siastic, born at Florence in 1582, was distinguished for his knowledge of philosophy and theology. Died in 1662. Arrighetti,(NiccoL6,) a disciple and friend of Galileo, also a poet, born at Florence in the sixteenth century. Died in 1639. . Arrighetti, (Niccol6,) a learned Jesuit, born at Florence in 1709, wrote a "Theory of Fire," ("Ignis Theoria," etc., 1750.) Died in 1767. Arrighetto, dr-re-get'to, or Arrigo da Settimello, Jr-ree'go dS s^t-te-meKlo, a Latin poet and ecclesiastic, born near Florence in the latter part of the twelfth cen- tury. He wrote an elegiac poem on " The Mutability of Fortune and the Consolation of Philosophy," (" De Di- versitate Fortunae et Philosophiae Consolatione,") which is said to have been used in schools and esteemed as a model by mediaeval teachers. Arrighi, dr-ree'gee, (Antonio Maria,) an Italian jurist, and professor of civil law at Padua, born in Cor- sica in 1689, was naturalized as a citizen of Venice in 1 741. He wrote, besides other works, one "On Uni- versal Pontifical Law," ("Dejure Pontificum Universo," 1727,) and a "Life of F. Morosini," (1749.) Died about 1760. Arrighi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian historical painter, born at Volterra, lived in the second half of the seven- teenth century. Arrighi, (Jean Toussaint — too's^N',) Duke of Padua, an able general, born in Corsica in 1778. He entered the French service, and was wounded at Saint- Jean-d'Acre in 1798 or '99, a few years after which Na- poleon gave him the title of Duke of Padua. As colonel he distinguished himself near Ulm in 1805, and he was made a general of division on the field of battle at Ess- ling, 1809. He rendered important services at Leipsic in 1813, and was appointed governor of Corsica on the re- turn of Napoleon from Elba. He lived in exile from 1815 to 1820. In 1852 he became a senator. Died in 1853. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Arrighi Landini, ir-ree'gee lin-dee'nee, (Orazio,) a native of Florence, born in 1718, is reckoned among the good Italian poets of the eighteenth century, Ar- righi was the family name of his father, and Landini that of his mother. He served for some time in the Neapoli- tan army, and afterwards settled at Venice. His prin- cipal works are "The Tomb of Isaac Newton," a poem in blank verse, (1751,) and "La Bibliade," a poetical description of the great libraries, ancient and modern. See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." Arrigho. See Arrighetto. Arrigoni, (Honorio.) See Arigoni. Arrigoni, ^r-re-go'nee, (Carlo,) an Italian musician and composer, born at Florence. He went to London in 1732, and entered into competition with Handel, with but poor success. Arrigoni, (Francesco,) an Italian writer, born at Bergamo in 1610; died in 1645. Arrigoni, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian poet, born at Mantua in the sixteenth century. He published "Madrigali," (1602,) and "Rime," (1604.) Arriquil5ar, Sr-re-kee'b^R, (Don Nicolas,) a Span- € a.s k; 9 as s; g Aard; g as J; g, H, y., guttural ; N, iiasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) JRRIUS JRSJCES ish merchant of Bilboa, who about 1770 composed a work of some merit on political economy, called "Re- creacion politica." Died about 1778. Ar'ri-us, (Quintus,) Roman praetor in 72 B.C., dis- tinguished himself in the servile war and also as an orator. Arrius, (Quintus,) son of the above, was a friend of Cicero. Arrivabene, Sr-re-va-ba'ni, (Andrea,) a Venetian printer and translator of the sixteenth century. Arrivabene, (Ferdinando,) an Italian jurist and I'hilologist, born at Mantua in 1770, was president of a 'jourt at Brescia. He wrote, besides two legal treatises, a historical Commentary on Dante, and an Essay on Forensic Language. Died in 1834. Arrivabene, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian poet, born at Mantua, flourished about the middle of the sixteenth century. His chief works are two maritime eclogues, called "Cloanto" and " Idromanzia," (1547.) Arrivabene, (Giovanni Pietro,) a poet, born at Mantua in the fifteenth century. He wrote a Latin poem, called "Gonzagidos Libri quatuor," in honour of Ludovico Gonzaga, Marquis of Mantua, which was first printed in 1738. Died about 1504. Arrivabene, (Ippolito,) an Italian physician, prac- tised at Rome. Died in 1739. Arrivabene, (John,) Count, an Italian patriot and economist, born about 1785, was a friend of Silvio Pel- lico. He was arrested in 1821 by the Austrian govern- ment, and only escaped imprisonment by exile from his native country. Sie "Memoirs of Count John Arrivabene," written by himself, (London, 1862.) Arrivabene, (Ludovico,) an Italian poet, flourished about 1600. Ar'row-smith, (Aaron,) an eminent English geog- rapher, born at Winston, Durham, in 1750. He became a resident of London about 1770, and made himself master of the theory and practice of map-engraving. In 1790 he published a large map of the world on Merca- tor's projection. He collected a large fund of new in- formation from navigators and other sources, and pub- lished more than one hundred maps, which had a high reputation on the continent, and among which is a " Map of the World on a Globular Projection, with a Com- panion of Explanatory Letter-press," (1794.) Died in ^823. His son Aaron published several school atlases and manuals of geography. Arrowsmith, (John,) D.D., an eminent English divine, born near Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1602. He was educated at Cambridge, and was regarded as one of the ablest as well as most worthy Puritan divines of that age. He preached at Lynn about twelve years, (1631-42,) and became regius professor of divinity at Cambridge in 165 1. He was master of Trinity College from 1653 until his death. His chief works are "Tactica Sacra," (1657,) and a "Chain of Principles," ("Armilla Catecheti:a," 1659.) Died in 1659. See Neal, " History of the Puritans." Arroyo, de, da Sr-ro'yo, (Diego,) an excellent Span- ish miniature-painter, born in 1498, worked at Toledo and Madrid. He was appointed cabinet-painter to Charles V. Died in 1551. Arruntius, ar-rim'shejAS, a Roman physician men- tioned by Pliny, lived probably about 50 A.D. Arruntius, (Lucius,) a Roman consul, 22 B.C., is supposed to have been the author of a " History of the First Punic War," referred to by Seneca. Arruntius, (Lucius,) a son of the above, was consul in 6 A.D., and eminent for his wealth and integrity. Au- gustus is said to have considered him worthy of the em- pire. His merits excited the jealousy of Tiberius, and brought upon him annoyance and persecution, which induced him to commit suicide in 37 A.D. Arsaoe. See Arsaces. Ar-sa'ges or Ar'sa-9es, [Gr. 'ApauKTj^ ; Fr. Arsace, Sr'sIss'; Persian, Ar'shak,] the founder of the kingdom of Parthia and of the dynasty of the Arsacidae. He prob- ably flourished in the third century B.C. ; but his history is involved in much obscurity. He is supposed to have been the chief of a nomade tribe of Scythians, Bac- trians, or Parthians. His memory was so highly hon- oured that his successors assumed the name of Arsaces. Arsaces I., King of Parthia, is identified by some historians with the preceding ; others have regarded him as his son or grandson. In the reign of Antiochus Theos of Syria, the Parthians, who had been subject to the Syrian monarchy, revolted with success about 250 B.C., and Arsaces became their king. After a reign of two years, he was succeeded by his brother Tiridates. Arsaces II., (Tir-i-da'tes,) brother of Arsaces I., began to reign about 248 B.C. He gained a decisive victory, about 238, over Seleucus Callinicus, who at- tempted to regain possession of Parthia. This event was celebrated by the Parthians as a new era, from which their national independence was dated. He is supposed to have died about 220 B.C. Arsaces III. (Ar-ta-ba'nus) was the son and suc- cessor of Arsaces II. He was defeated about 212 B.C. by Antiochus the Great, who invaded Parthia. Peace was restored soon after that event. The length of his reign is unknown. Arsaces IV. (Priapetius, prT-a-pe'sh^s) was a son of the preceding. According to Justin, he reigned fifteen years. Arsaces V., (Phra-a'tes I.,) King of Parthia, son of the above, succeeded his father about 170 B.C. He con- quered the Mardi. Arsaces VI., (Mith-ri-da'tes I.,) brother of the preceding. This king extended his conquests to the Indus. He reigned twenty-five years or more, and died about 135 B.C. Arsaces VII., (Phraates II.,) son of Arsaces VI., after being himself defeated three times by Antiochus VII., King of Syria, conquered and killed the latter in 128 B.C., but was in turn overcome and slain by the Scythians. Arsaces VIII., (Artabanus II.,) uncle of the pre- ceding, was slain, after a short reign, by the Scythians. Arsaces IX. (Mithridates II.) surnamed the Great, was a son of Arsaces VIII. He waged war against the Scythians with success. An embassy sent by him, in 92 B.C., to Sulla, (who was then in Asia,) was the first intercourse between the Parthians and Romans of which we have an authentic account. Arsaces X. Of this king scarcely anything is known. Arsaces XI. (San-a-tro'9es) seems to have been in exile among the Scythians, who restored him to his throne about 70 B.C. He reigned only seven years. Arsaces XII. (Phraates III.) succeeded his father Arsaces XI. in 70 B.C., during the Mithridatic war. His alliance was courted by the Romans and by Mithridates, but he resolved to remain neutral. He made or renewed a treaty with Pompey in 66 B.C., after which he was offended because Pompey cast into chains his son-in- law Tigranes the Armenian, and because he refused to address him (Arsaces) as " King of Kings." He was murdered by his sons Mithridates and Orodes about 60 B.C. Arsaces XIII., (Mithridates III.,) a son of Arsa ces XII., was expelled from his throne by the Parthiai senate on account of his cruelty, and put to death by hir^ brother Orodes about 55 B.C. Arsaces XIV., (O-ro'des.) a son of Arsaces XII.. was King of Parthia when the war began between tha Romans and Parthians. His army, under Surena, gained a great victory over Crassus, who was slain, in 53 B.C. The Parthians under Pacorus, a son of Orodes, invaded Syria in 50 B.C., and were defeated by Cassius. He maintained neutrality in the civil war between Czesar and Pompey ; but after the battle of Philippi, 42 B.C., the war was renewed between him and the Romans. The Parthians were defeated by Ventidius, an officer of Antony, in 39 and 38 B.C., and Arsaces was murdered by his son Phraates about 37 B.C. Arsaces XV. (Phraates IV.) was a son of the preceding. In 36 B.C. the war was renewed by Antony, who led a large army through Armenia, but was repulseo by the Parthians and pursued as far as the Araxes. About 23 B.C. Arsaces made a treaty of peace with Au gustus, to whom he restored the prisoners and standarcb- taken at the defeat of Crassus. Died in 4 A.D. a, e, 1, 6, u, y, lono-; k, b, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, xi, y, s/^or^; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^U, fit; mgt; n6t; good; raooni ARSACES i8i ARSILLI Arsaces XVI., (Phra-a-ta'9es,) said to have been accessory to the death of his father Arsaces XV. He was put to death, after a reign of a few months, in con- sequence of a rebellion caused by his vices. Arsaces XVII. (Orodes II) was also put to death by his subjects, on account of his cruelty, in the same year as his predecessor. Arsaces XVIII., (Vo-no'nes I.,) son of Phraates IV., lived a long time at Rome as a hostage, where he acquired habits which made him unpopular among the Parthians and led to his expulsion from the throne. He was assassinated, it is supposed, by the order of Piso, a Roman officer, about 19 a.d. Arsaces XIX., (Artabanus III.,) a Median king, who expelled Arsaces XVHI., had a stormy reign of twentv-eight years, during which he was twice driven from [lis throne by the aid of Rome, but died at last in possession of Parthia about 44 a.d. Arsaces XX. (Go-tar'zes) and Arsaces XXI., (Bar-da^'nes,) after a struggle for the empire, settled it by the former retiring to Hyrcania and the latter retain- ing Parthia ; but, Pardanes having been assassinated, Gotarzes resumed the royal authority. Gotarzes died about 50 A.D. He was succeeded by Arsaces XXH., whose reign was very short. Arsaces XXIII., ( Vol-o-ge'ses I.,) one of the most distinguished of the Parthian kings, was involved in a long contest with Rome in relation to the sovereignty of Armenia, over which he had placed his brother Tiridates. The difficulty was finally compromised by Tiridates going to Rome to receive the crown from Nero. Vologeses died in 90 a.d. Arsaces XXIV., (Pac'o-rus,) son of the above, after a reign of nearly eighteen years, died about 107 a.d. Arsaces XXV., (-ehos'ro-es,) [Gr. Xoop6r/c; Per- sian, Khos'koo' or KoSREVV,] brother of the preceding, was defeated by Trajan in 114, and finally driven from his throne, on which Parthamaspates was placed by the Roman emperor; but on the death of I'rajan, in 117, Chosroes expelled his rival, and died probably in 122, greatly esteemed by his subjects. Arsaces XXVI., (Vologeses II.,) a son of Arsaces XXV., is said to have gained great advantages over the Romans for a period, but afterwards, having been driven back into his own dominions, he is supposed to have died in 149 a.d. Arsaces XXVII., (Vologeses III.,) son of the pre- ceding, seems, like all his predecessors, to have been in- volved in wars with Rome. Diedin2i6A.D. Somewriters suppose two or more kings to have reii^ned between Ar- saces XXVI. and XXVHl., (as we have numbered them :) on this point see article " Parther," in Ersch and Gru- ber's "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie," by Krause. Arsaces XXVIII., (Artabanus IV.,) also called Ardavan, was a son of Arsaces XXVII., and was the last king of Parthia of the dynasty of the Arsacidas. He began to reign about 216 a.d. In 217 he fought an in- decisive battle against the Romans, under Macrinus, near Nisibis. He then turned his arms against the Persians, who had revolted and were led by Ardsheer or Artax- erxes. Having been defeated and taken prisoner, he was put to death by Ardsheer about 226 a.d. Ar-sa'ges (or ar'sa-sez) I., King of Armenia, was a son of Arsaces XIX. (Artabanus III.) of Parthia. He obtained the throne by the aid of his father in 35 a.d. About a year later he was murdered by his own officers, who were bribed by Mithridates the Iberian. Arsaces II. was placed on the throne of Armenia in 222 or 223 a.d. by his brother Artabanus IV., King of Parthia. He joined Alexander Severus in his expedi- tion against Persia, by which alliance he saved his own kingdom. He died before 260 a.d. Arsaces III. of Armenia succeeded his father Tiri- dates HI. about 340 a.d. He waged war against Sapor, King of Persia, about 360, and entered into an alliance with Julian the Apostate. In the campaign of 363 a.d. he deserted Julian, whose defeat and death near Ctesi- phon are attributed to the treachery of Arsaces. His nobles having rebelled against him, he applied for aid to Sapor, who detained him in captivity until his death. See Ammiamus Marcellinus, book:; xx., xxi., xxiii., xxv., andxxvii. Arsaces IV. was probably a grandson of Arsaces II L He began his reign conjointly with his brother Valarsaces in 382, but, the latter dymg the next year, he reigned alone> till his deposition by Sapor and Theodosius, who divided his kingdom between them about 387 a.d. Arsachel. See Arzachel. Arsacid or Arsacide, ar-sas'sid, the English sin- gular of Arsacide ; employed also as an adjective. The plural form Arsacids or Arsacides is rarely used. Arsacidae, ar-sas'e-de, [Fr. Arsacides, iR^st's^d' ; Ger. Arsaciden, aR-sit-see'den, and Arsakjden, aR- si-kee'den ; a patronymic from Arsaces, which appears to have been a very common name among the ancient Persians, Parthians, etc., j an appellation given to several Asiatic dynasties, but especially to the dynasty of Par- thian kings who reigned from Arsaces I., about 250 B.C., to the death of Artabanus IV., (Arsaces XXVllI., — or XXXL, according to some authorities,) in 226 a.d., and to a dynasty of Armenian kings who reigned between 150 B.C. and 430 A.D. Ai'sakes. See Arsaces. Arsakiden. See Arsacide. Ar-sa'mes, [Gr. 'Apaa/iTjc,] the father of Hystaspes, and grandfather of Darius I., King of Persia. Another of the same name, son of Darius I., accompanied Xerxes in his expedition against Greece. A third was a favourite (illegitimate) son of Artaxerxes Mnemon, A fourth is supposed to have been a king of Armenia in the time of Seleucus II., and the founder of Arsamosata. Arsdekin. See Archdekin. Arsene. See Arsenius. Ar-se'ni-us, [Gr. 'Apoeviog; Fr. Arsene, iR'sin',] Saint, written also Arsennus, born at Rome in 354 or 355 A.D., was appointed tutor to Arcadius, son of the emperor Theodosius, in 383, and remained at the court of Constantinople eleven years, having gained the favour of the emperor. In 394 he retired to a desert in Egypt, where he became noted for his ascetic piety. Died in 449 A.D. Arsenius surnamed Autoria'nus, Patriarch of Constantinople, was born in that city about the end of the twelfth century. He was appointed in 1259, by the Greek emperor I'heodore Lascaris II., guardian of the prince his son, an office for which he seems to have been wholly unfitted. He was circumvented by Michael Palseol- ogus, who usurped the throne and banished the patriarch for his refusal to grant him absolution. Died in 1273. Arsenius, a distinguished Greek scholar and philolo- gist, son of Michael Apostolius, born in the latter part of the fifteenth century, was, it is supposed, a native of Candia (Crete) or of Italy. He became Roman Cath- olic Archbishop of Malvasia, or Monembasia, in the Morea. He edited his father's " Apophthegmata," and a collection of scholia on several dramas of Euripides, (1534.) Died in 1535. See HoDius, " De Giaecis illustribiis." Arsenius, a Greek bishop, who accompanied Jere- miah II., Patriarch of Constantinople, to Russia, about 1588, when he established the Russian Patriarchate, of which Arsenius wrote an account, Arsenius, a Greek monk, founder of a Greek and Latin school at Moscow in the early part of the seventeenth century, and inventor of a type still called the Arsenian. Arsenne, SR^sen', (Louis Charles,) a French painter, born in Paris in 1790, was a pupil of David. He pro- duced some remarkable paintings of religious subjects, among which was " Christ in the Garden of Olives." He also derived from the works of Chateaubriand and Lamar- tine subjects of some designs. Arsennus. See Arsenius. Arises, [Gr. 'Apoyjg,] Nar'ses, [Gr. ^upar/g,] or Oar'- ses, [Gr. 'Oupoi/g,] a son of Artaxerxes III., King of Persia, was placed on the throne in 339 B.C. by Bagoas, who had killed Artaxerxes. After a reign of three years, he was put to death by Bagoas. He was succeeded by Darius Codomannus. Arshenevsky, aR-shi-ngv'ske, (Basil,) a Russian mathematician, born at Kiev in 1758 ; died in 1808. Arshi, aR'shee, also called Chaki, a Turkish poet, born in Roumelia ; died in 1570. Arsilli, aR-s^Klee, (Francesco,) an Italian poet and € as ? as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, Y.,^tMiiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) JRSJNOE 182 JRTJFJSDES physician, born at Sinigaglia about 1470. He practised in Rome many years, and was a friend of Paulas Jovius. He wrote in verse a descriptive catalogue of contempo- rary Roman poets, " De Poetis Urbanis," (1524,) which is interesting to students of literary history. Died in 1540. See TiUABOsCHi, "Storladella Letteiatura Itaiiana." Ar-sin'o-e, [Gr. 'Apaivor],] a concubine of Philip of Macedon, became the wife of Lagus and the mother . of Ptolemy I., King of Egypt. Arsinoe, a daughter of Ptolemy I., King of Egypt, and Berenice, was born about 316 B.C., and was married to Lysimachus of Thrace in 300 B.C. In order to secure the succession for her son, she excited the suspicion of Lysimachus against Agathocles, his son by a former marriage, who was put to death in prison. After the death of Lysimachus, in 281 B.C., she went to Thrace with her sons, who were put to death by Ptolemy Cerau- nus. She then fled to Egypt, and became the queen of her own brother, Ptolemy Philadelphus. A gold medal of Arsinoe is extant. Arsinoe, a daughter of Lysimachus, King of Thrace, and Nicasa, became the wife of Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt, by whom she had three children, Ptolemy, Ly- simachus, and Berenice. She was banished by the king before his marriage with Arsinoe above noticed. Arsinoe, wife of Magas, King of Cyrene, brother of Ptolemy II. of Egypt. Arsinoe, daughter of Ptolemy III., became the wife of her brother, Ptolemy IV., Philopator, by whom she was put to death to make wa) for Agathoclea, his second wife. She appears to have been the queen whom Livy calls Cleopatra. Arsinoe, daughter of Ptolemy XL, Auletes, and sis- ter of Cleopatra, assumed the sovereignty during the siege of Alexandria by Caesar in 48 B.C., who, on the capture of the city, carried her to Rome to grace his triumph. She was put to death by Antony, at Cleo- patra's instigation, 41 B.C. Arslan. See Alp-Arslan. Artabanus of Parthia. See Arsaces III. and XXVIII. Artabasdes. See Artavasdes. Artabaze. See Artabazus. Artabazes. See Artavasdes. Ar-ta-ba'zus, [Gr. 'Apruiia^og; Fr. Artabaze, tR^tS'- hiz',] a Persian general, who lived about 450 B.C. He and Megabysus suppressed the revolt of Inarus in Egypt. Artaljazus, a Median, who formed a devoted attach- ment to Cyrus, King of Persia. See Xenophon's " Cyropjedia." Artabazus, a distinguished Persian general and favourite of Xerxes, whom he accompanied on his inva- sion of Greece in 480 B.C. He was present at the battle of Plataea, 479 B.C. Artabazus, a general of Artaxerxes I., quelled a revolt of the Egyptians about 460 B.C. Artabazus, a Persian general, was a satrap of Asia Minor in the reign of Artaxerxes III., against whom he revolted in 356 B.C. With the aid of the Athenian Chares and other Greeks, he gained several victories. He was afterwards defeated, and fled with his brother-in-law, Memnon of Rhodes, to the court of Philip of Macedon. Having obtained pardon, he returned to Persia, and proved his loyalty to King Darius at the battle of Ar- bela. He was appointed Satrap of Bactria by Alexander the Great about 330 B.C. He died, at a very advanced age, about 320 B.C. See Thirlwall, " History of Greece ;" Diodorus Siculus, books XV. and xvi. Artachaees, ar-ta-kee'^z, [Gr. 'Apraxatrjg,] a Persian, who cut the canal for Xerxes near Mount Athos, by which his fleet avoided the dangerous voyage round the pro- montory. Artaldus. See Artaud. Artale, aR-tl'li, or Artali, aR-ta'lee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian poet, born at Mazzareno, in Sicily, in 1628. He served with distinction in the defence of Candia against the Turks, and was noted as a swordsman and duellist. He published several poetical works of no great merit. Died at Naj^les in 1679. Artapherne. See Artaphernes. Ar-ta-pher'ne§, [Gr. ' ApTa Gr. 'Aau,] King of Judah, and a son of Abijam or Abijah, began to reign in 970 B.C. ac- cording to Hales, or 955 according to Usher. He was distinguished by his zeal against idolatry. He died about 929 B.C. (See I. Kings xv. ; II. Chronicles xiv., xv., xvi.) Asadi (I'slMee) of Toos, a Persian poet, who flour- ished about 950 A.D., was a preceptor of Firdousee, and chief poet at the court of Mahmood of Gazna. Among his works is Gushtasp Nameh, an epic poem. It is said that he wrote the last part of the Shahnameh, which Firdousee left unfinished at his death in 1020. See "Annals of Oriental Literature," 1820. Asam, i'sSm, a Bavarian painter, born in the seven- teenth century. He acquired a great reputation by his frescos, and, with his brother Egid, adorned many churches in Bavaria. Among their works are the pic- tures in the Johannes-Kirche at Munich. Died in 1739. See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." A'san, [Gr. ^kauvrjg ; Lat. Asa'nes,] King of Bulga- ria, reigning about the close of the twelfth century, restored his country to independence by throwing off the yoke of the Greek Empire. Asan II., (Joannes,) son of the preceding, having been compelled to flee to Russia by the usurpation of a relative, returned about 12 17 with a Russian army and drove out the usurper. Died in 1241. Asan III., (Joannes,) the last Bulgarian king of the Asanian dynasty, (whose father King Mitzes was an exile * Pronounced dr'yan or .'ir'e-an, to distinguish it from Artan, {i.e. "belonging to Arius," the great heresiarch.) a, e, T, 0, ii, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ia, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fdt; mhi; nftt; good; mooD ASANDER 187 ASCHENBRENNER at the time of his death,) recovered his kingdom in 1279, but was expelled in 128 1 by the usurper Terter or Ter- teres, and died at Constantinople. A-san'der, [Gr. 'A.nuv6pog; Fr. Asandre, t'zfiNdR',] a Macedonian officer, was a brother of Parmenio, and son of Philotas. He was appointed in 334 B.C. governor of Lydia by Alexander the Great, after whose death he ob- tained the satrapy of Caria. He formed an alliance with Ptolemy the son of Lagus, and extended his power by the conquest of Lycia. From 3 1 5 to 3 1 3 B.C. he waged war against Antigonus. The time of his death is un- known. Asauder, appointed governor of the Bosphorus in the Tauric Chersonesus by Pharnaces H. in 47 B.C., revolted from his master and formed a kingdom in which he was confirmed by Augustus. He is reputed to have built the wall across the Tauric Chersonesus. Asaiidre. See Asander. A'saph [Heb. ^DN] or As'saph, a Hebrew musician or psalmist, who was contemporary with King David. He was the chief of certain Levites whom David appointed to minister before the ark and to thank and praise the Lord. (See I. Chronicles xvi. 5 and xxv. i.) The name occurs at the beginning of many of the Psalms. (See Psalms 1., Ixxiii. ef seq.) As'aph, Saint, a prelate of the seventh century, sup- posed to have been the first Bishop of Saint Asaph in Wales. Several theological works are attributed to him. See H. Wharton, " Historia de Episcopis et Decanis Londinen- sibus, etc." As'both, [Hun. pron. osh'bot,] (Alexander,) a Hungarian patriot, born in 181 1, distinguished himself as an engineer in the war of 1848-49. Having come to the United States, he was made, in i86r, a brigadier- general of volunteers under General Fremont, in Mis- souri. Died in 1868. Asar. See y^LsiR. Asbury, as'ber-e, (Francis,) was born in Stafford- .shire, England, in 1745. He was sent by John Wesley to America as a missionary about 1770, and was ap- pointed in 1784 the first bishop of the Methodist Church then organized upon a new basis in the United States. Died in Virginia in 1816. See "Asbury and his Coadjutors," by W. C. Larrabee. Ascagne. See Ascanius. Ascalus, Js'kS-lus, (Conrad,) a German philosopher, lived about 1600-20. He published "Physica et Ethica Mosaica," (i6i3,)and other works. As-ca'ni-us [Gr. 'AoKuviog ; Fr. Ascagne, ts'ktn'] was, according to Virgil and Livy, a son of ^^neas and Creusa, and the founder of Alba Longa. He was also called lulus (Julus) or Ilus, and was claimed by the Julia gens of Rome as one of their ancestors. There are various traditions about him, according to one of which he succeeded his father as King of the Latins. Ascanius, ^s-k^'ne-us, (Peter,) a Swedish naturalist, who lived about 1750, was for many years inspector of the mines in the north of Norway. He corresponded with Linnaeus, and pulDlished a work on natural historv, entitled " Figures enluminees d'Histoire naturelle," 1767. Ascari^lTi. Ss-ka-rel'lee, written also Ascariel, (De- BORA,) a Jewish poetess, born at Rome, lived about 1600. As'ca-rus, \' koKapot;,] a Theban sculptor, lived about 300 B.C. He made a statue of Jupiter, at Olympia. As'9e-lin, or Ascelino, S-shi-lee'no, (Nicola,) a Dominican who was sent by Innocent IV. on a mission to Tartaiy about 1245. Ascensius. See Badius. Asch, van, vSn Ssk, (Pieter Janzen — ySn'zen,) a skilful Dutch landscape-painter, born at Delft in 1603. He lived to an advanced age, but left few works. Asch, von, fon ^sh, (Georg Thomas,) a physician and anatomist, born at Saint Petersburg in 1729, studied at Gottingen, of which university he was subsequently a liberal benefactor. He was the companion and friend of Haller. He served for some years as a surgeon in the Russian army. Died in 1807. Asch, von, (Peter Ernst,) brother of the above, one of the most esteemed physicians of his time in Moscow, wrote a work " De Natura Spermatis." Ascha. See Maimoon-Ben-Kais. Ascham, is'kam, (Anthony,) an English astrologer and writer on herbs, lived about 1550. Ascham, (Anthony,) an Englishman, born at Bos- ton, in Lincolnshire, entered Cambridge University in 1633. He supported the Parliament in the civil war, and was appointed tutor to the captive Duke of York in 1646. He wrote a work " On the Confusions and Revolutions of Government," (1648.) He was sent soon after as ambassador to Madrid, where he was murdered in 1650 by some English royalists, who were tried and condemned, but released by the influence of the pope. One of them, however, was retaken and executed. See Clarendon's "History of the Rebellion." Ascham, (Roger,) an eminent English classical scholar and writer, was born near Northallerton, in Yorkshire, in 1 5 1 5. He was educated at Saint John's Col- lege, Cambridge, and was elected a Fellow of the same in 1534. In 1544 he was chosen orator of the university, and in 1545 published "Toxophilus, or the School of Shooting." "He designed not only to teach the art of shooting," says Dr. Johnson, "but to give an example of diction more natural and more truly English than was used by the common writers of that age. He has not failed in either of his purposes." He was appointed in 1548 tutor of the Princess Elizabeth, whom he instructed in Greek and Latin until 1550, when he resigned that situation. His motive appears to have been the offen- sive conduct of some attendants of his pupil. On a visit to Lady Jane Grey at her father's counti'y- seat, he found her reading Plato's " Phaedon," in the original. " While the horns were sounding and the dogs in full cry," says Macaulay, "she sat in the lonely oriel with eyes riveted to that immortal page which tells how meekly and bravely the first great martyr of intel- lectual liberty took the cup I'rom his weeping jailer." ("Essay on Lord Bacon.") He was appointed (notwith- standing his Protestantism) Latin secretary to Queen Mary in 1553, and was continued in this office by Queen Elizabeth, (1558,) who also after her accession took les- sons in Greek and Latin from him. He resided con- stantly at court from this time until his death, which oc- curred in 1568. He left a son Giles, and other children. Ascham appears to have had the rare felicity of passing through the worst of times without persecution or dis- honour. His greatest work is "The Schole-Master, or Plain and Perfite Way of teaching Children to under- stand, read, and write the Latin Tonge," (1571,) which is a production of great merit. Dr. Johnson speaks of it as " perhaps the best advice that was ever given for the study of languages." See a "Life of Ascham" (i)robably by Dr. Johnson) appended to an edition of liis English works, 1761 ; Grant, " De Vita Rogeri Ascham;" Wood, " Fasti Oxonienses ;" "Retrospective Review, vol. iv., (1821.) Aschaneus, as-kS-na'us, (Martin,) a Swedish writer of the seventeenth century, obtained the office of "royal antiquarian" about 1630, before which he was a chaplain in the army. He published a translation of the Psalms, (16 19,) and left in manuscript several works, among which was a drama "On the Creation and Fall of Man." Aschbach, ash'b^K, (Joseph,) a German historian, born at Hochst, near Frankfort-on-the-Main, in 1801. He became professor of history at Bonn about 1842. Among his works are a " History of the Visigoths," (1827,) and a "History of the Omeyyades in Spain,'' ("Ge- schichte der Omaijaden in Spanien," 2 vols., 1829-30,) which are commended. Ascheberg, von, fon &s'keh-b§Rg^ or Asch en- berg, von, fon ds'ken-b^Rg', (Rutger, rlit'ger,) Count, an able Swedish general, born at Afgiilden in 1621. He was made a colonel in 1655 for his victory over a greatly superior force of Poles, and defeated the Danes in several actions in 1658-59. In 1670 he attained the rank of lieu- tenant-general. During the war between Sweden and Denmark, which was renewed in 1675, he was charged with the defence of Sweden, The victories of the Swedes at Halmstadt, Lund, and Carlscrona, in 1676, are ascribed to his skill, although the king had the nominal command. He was m.ade a field -marshal in 1680. Died in 1693. See SvEN Lacerbring, " Riitger von Aschebergs Lefverne," 1751. Aschenbrenner, ash'en-bRen'ner,(CHRiSTiAN Hein- € as ^; 9 as s; g kard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s asz; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) JSC UNO 88 ASFELD RicH,1 a German violinist, born at Alt Stettin in 1654. Died in 1732. Asciano, d', cia-shi'no, (Giovanni,) a Siennese painter, lived towards the close of the fourteenth century. Ascione, a-sho'n^, (Angelo,) a Neapolitan fruit- painter, who lived towards the close of the seventeenth century. Asclepi, as-kla'pee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian natural philosopher, born at Macerata in 1706; died in 1776. Asciepiad or Asclepiade, as-klee'pe-ad, the Eng- lish sinoular of Asclepiad^e; used also as an adjec- tive. 2^*" The plural form Asclepiads or Ascle- piades rarely occurs in English. Asclepiadee, as-kle-pT'a-de, [Gr. 'kcKlimudaL ; Fr. AscLEPiADES, ts'kli'pe'ld',] the name of the descend- ants of ^sculapius, who, during several centuries, were the most celebrated physicians of Greece. Aa-cls-pi'a-des, [Gr. 'AaKh/niudr/g ; Fr. Asclepiade, ts'kla'pe'td^]"a Greek lyric poet, inventor of a kind of verse called Asclepiad, is supposed to have lived about 600 B.C. Asclepiades, one of the bishops of Antioch, was dis- tinguished as a writer of commentaries. Asclepiades of Myrleia, a native of Bithynia, said to have taught at Rome in the time of Pompey the Great. To him, or a person bearing the same name, are ascribed various literary works, including a ' History of Bithynia," a work on Spain, and a commentary on the Odyssey. Asclepiades of Phlius, a Greek philosopher, who was a pupil or friend of Menedenius, and lived about 350 B.C. Nothing is known of his opinions or works. Asclepiades, an eminent physician, born in Prusa, in Bithynia, in a.d. 88, was presented by Trajan with the freedom of seven cities. Asclepiades of Samos, a Greek poet, who lived about 280 B.C., is said to have been a teacher of The- ocritus. A number of epigrams preserved in the Greek Anthology are ascribed to him. Asclepiades of Tragilos, (a town of Thrace,) sup- posed to have been a pupil of Isocrates, was the author of some critical works. Asclepi'ades Bithy'nus, a celebrated Greek phy- sician, born at Prusa, in Bithynia, in the second cen- tury B.C. He practised with great success at Rome, where he founded a school which was very popular. Among his pupils were Artorius (noticed in this work) and Themison. His system exercised an important influence on medical science for a long time. He in- dulged the inclinations of his patients in the use of wine and other things, and professed that a physician's duty consists in healing his patients safely, speedily, and pleasantly. He adopted the corpuscular theory of Epi- curus as the basis of his pathology. His works were numerous ; but only small fragments of them remain. He died at a great age, probably between 90 and 60 B.C. See GuMPERT, "Asc'.epiadls Bithyiii Fragmenca," 1798; A. Coc- CHi, "Discorso primo sopra Asclepiade," 1758; Bianchini, "La Medicina d' Asclepiade," 1769. Asclepi'ades Pharma'cion, a Greek physician, lived about 100 A.D. He wrote a work on Pharmacy, in ten books, which is not extant, but is often quoted by Galen. See C. F. Harless, " De Medicis veteribus 'Asclepiades' dictis," 1828. As-cle-pi-o-do'rus, [Gr. 'Arrft:A??mof^upof ; Fr. AscL^;- PIODORE, is'kla'pe'o''doR',] an excellent Greek painter, born at Athens, was a contemporary of Apelles, and lived about 330 B.C. According to Pliny, he surpassed Apelles in symmetry. Asclepiodorus, a general of Alexander the Great, and a satrap of Syria, lived about 330 B.C. As-cle-pl-od'o-tus, \Qxx / kaKlriiriMoTOQ ; Fr. AscLife- PIODOTE, ts'kl^i'pe'o'dot',] a Stoic philosopher, who was a pupil of Posidonius. Asclepiodotus, a Greek physician and mathemati- cian, flourished about 470-500 A.D. Asclepiodotus, a New- Platonic philosopher of Alex- andria, was a disciple of Proclus. Asclepios or Asklepios. See /Esculapius. As-cle'pl-us, [Gr. 'Aa«:A7?7rt6f,] the supposed author of a dialogue in Greek on God, Man, and the World, between Hermes and himself. Asclepius, an ancient Greek commentator on Hip« pocrates, whose period is unknown. He wrote a com- mentary on the "Aphorisms," which is not extant. Asclepius of Tralles, a Christian writer, who lived in the sixth century. He composed a commentary on part of the " Metaphysics" of Aristotle. As-cle'pi-us, (Nicholas,) a German theologian, sur- narned Barba'tus, was a native of Cassel. He pub- lished numerous works in Latin. Died in 1571. Ascoli, d', (Cecco.) See Cecco. Ascoli, d', dis'ko-lee, (David,) a Jew who lived about 1550, and wrote " Defence of the Hebrews," ("Apologia Hebrasorum," 1559,) for which he was imprisoned. Ascoli, d', (Trojano Marulli, tRo-yd'no mi-rooK- lee,) Duke, a Neapolitan officer and personal friend of Ferdinand IV., was remarkable for his loyalty. In 1800 or 1 801 he was appointed director-general of the police of the kingdom. He is praised for the prudence and humanity with which he restored order after the disturb- ances of 1 798-1800. Died in 1823. Ascondo, as-kon'do, (Francisco,) a Spanish archi- tect, born in the province of Biscay in 1705; died in 1 781 at Valladolid. Hfe built several churches and con- vents in Castile. As-co'ni-us Pe-di-a'nus, (Quintus,) an eminent Roman critic and commentator, who flourished about 50 A.D., is supposed to have been a native of Padua. He wrote a Life of Sallust, which is lost, and valuable commentaries on Cicero's orations, some of which are extant. In 1416, Poggio Bracciolini found at Saint Gall, in Switzerland, a manuscript containing commentaries on the following orations; "In Verrem ;" "In Divina- tionem ;" " Pro Cornelio ;" " In Toga Candida ;" " In Pisonem ;" " Pro Scauro ;" and " Pro Milone." His ex- planations and comments are historical, legal, and con- stitutional, rather than grammatical. He became blind at the age of seventy-three, and survived the loss of his sight about twelve years. See Madvig, "De Q. Asconii Pediani Commentariis Disputatio- Critica," 1828. Ascough, (Anne.) See Askev^. Ascough, (Sir George.) See Ayscue. Asdrubal. See Hasdrubal. Asdrubali, as-dRoo-bi'lee, (Francesco,) an eminent obstetrical practitioner and teacher at Rome, died in 1832. He published a useful work, entitled "Elements of Obstetrics," (" Elementi di Ostetricia," 3 vols., 1793.) Aseer-ed-Deen Oomaiiee or Assir-ud-Din Uma- ni, d-seer' ed- (or dod-) deen' 00-ma'nee, a Persian poet of wit and learning, lived in the thirteenth century. Aselli, S-seKlee, or Asellio, i-seKle-o, [Lat. Asel'- lius,] (Gasparo,) an Italian anatomist, born at Cremona about 1580, became professor of anatomy at Pavia, after he had served as surgeon-in-chief in the army. He was at Milan when, in 1622, he made the important discov- ery of the lacteal vessels, which has rendered his name memorable. This discovery was announced in a work entitled " On the Lacteal Veins," (" De Lactibus sive Lacteis Venis," etc., 1627.) Died in 1626. See HOLLER, "Bibliolheca Anatomica ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." A-sel'li-o, (Purlius Sempronius,) a Roman histo- rian, lived about 130 B.C., and was military tribune under Scipio Africanus. He wrote a "History of the Punic Wars," which is not extant. Asellius. See Aselli. A-sel'lus, (Tiberius Claudius,) a Roman knight, whom Scipio Africanus in his censorship reduced to a lower rank in 141 B.C. He became tribune of the peo- ple in 139 B.C. Asen. See ^str. As'e-nath, a datighter of Poti-pherah, an Egyptian priest, became tlie wife of the patriarch Joseph. (See Genesis xli. 45, 50.) Asensio y Mezorada, ^-s^n'se-o e mi-tho-r^'Di, (Francisco,) a Spanish engraver, born in Old Castile. Died at Madrid in 1794. Asfandiy^r. See Isfendiyar. Asfeld,d',dSs'reld',(ALEXFsBidal—be'dt]',) Baron, a French officer of German extraction, born about 1650. He served with distinction in several campaigns against a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, vi, J?, short; a, 9, j, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; ASFELD 189 JSHDOWNE the Germans, and becanie marechal-de-camp in 1688. He defended Bonn with great obstinacy for about four months against a large army, and was mortally wounded in that siege in 1689. Asfeld, d', (Benoit Bidal,) Baron, a brother of the preceding, born in 1658. He fought at Fleurus, (1690,) Steenkerke, (1692,) and Charleroi, (1693,) and obtained the rank of marechal-de-camp in 1696. He was an able and active ofificer of cavalry. Died in 1 71 5. Asfeld, d', (Claude FkANgois Bidal,) Marquis, an able general, brother of the preceding, born in 1667. He served in Flanders in 1690-97, and in 1703 obtained a high command in Spain, where he besieged and took many fortified places. In 1704 he became a lieutenant-general. He contributed to the victory of Almanza, where he com- manded the French cavalry, in 1707. He was rewarded with the title of marquis by Louis XIV. about 17 14. In 1733 he was second in command under Villars in Italy, and gained several victories. He succeeded Ber- wick as commander-in-chief in Germany in 1734, was made a marshal of France, and maintained the field against Prince Eugene until the peace. Died in 1743. See PiNARD, "Chronologie historique militaire." Asfeld, d', (Jacques Vincent Bidal,) a French Jaiisenist theologian, brother of the preceding, born in 1664. Died in 1745. Asgard. See J^sir. As'gill, (Sir Charles,) the first baronet of that name, rose from the station of a clerk to great wealth. He was elected lord-mayor in 1757, and created a baronet in 1761. Asgill, (Sir Charles,) son of the preceding, born about 1763, served under Cornwallis in America, and was selected, by lot, to be hung in retaliation for an American officer who had been ])ut to death by a party of English ; but he was pardoned through the interces- sion of Marie Antoinette. He served under the Duke of York in 1793, and took a conspicuous part in putting down the rebellion in Ireland. He rose to the rank of general, and died in 1823. Asgill, (John,) an English lawyer and pamphleteer, born in the seventeenth century. He publishec^ in 1700 "An Argument proving that Men may be translated to Heaven without Dying, etc," which caused a great sen- sation. The House of Commons, of which he was elected a member in 1707, condemned his book as blas- phemous, and expelled the author. He attributed death to the power of custom and to the fear of death, rather than to necessity. Asgill advocated the cause of the House of Hanover, in several pamphlets. He died in prison for debt in 1738, aged eighty or more. See Kippis, "Biographia Britannica." Ash, (Edward,) an eminent English physician of London, took the degree of M.D. at Oxford in 1796. He was a good scholar, and had excellent conversational powers. He wrote critical articles for a literary paper called "The Speculator," (1790.) About 1797 he dis- covered that when plates of zinc and silver moistened are placed in contact, the zinc is rapidly oxydated. This was a step towards the discovery of the chemical changes and laws on which the action of the galvanic battery de- pends. The discovery of Dr. Ash was published in 1797 by Humboldt, to whom he had written a letter. Died in 1829. Ash, (Dr. John,) F.R.S., an uncle of the preceding, born in 1723, was educated at Oxford. He had a high reputation as a physician, and practised for many years in Birmingham and London. Among his works is a treatise on the mineral waters of Spa and Aix-la-Cha- pelle, (1788.) He was president of the Eumelian Club, of which Sir Joshua Reynolds and others were mem- bers. Died in 1798. Ash, (Rev. John,) an English philologer and dissent- ing minister, born in Dorsetshire about 1724. He was minister of a Baptist congregation at Pershore from 1 75 1 until his death. His principal work is a "New and Complete English Dictionary," (2 vols., 1775,) which is not considered a high authority. Died in 1779. Ash or Ashe, ash, (Saint George,) an Irish prelate, who was born about 1658. During the troubles of James II. 's reign he left for England, and became an attache to Lord Paget, who was ambassador for King William at the court of Austria. On his return to Ireland he was made successively Bishop of Cloyne, of Clogher, and of Derry. He was also a member of the Irish privy council. Died in 17 18. Ash'burne, de, (Thomas,) an English friar, lived about 1350, and wrote a treatise against the "Trialogus" of Wickliffe. Ash-burn'ham, (John,) an English gentleman, a native of Sussex, was a confidential agent of Charles I. in the civil war. He was one of the commissioners for the treaty of Uxbridge in 1644, and was employed in other important missions. Ashburnham and Berkeley were the principal agents and attendants of the king in his escape from Hampton Court in November, 1647, and in his surrender to Colonel Hammond. He was sus- pected of treachery in this transaction ; but his character has been vindicated from this suspicion. He became groom of the bedchamber to Charles II. about 1660. Died in 1671. His grandson was created Earl of Ash- burnham. See Clarendon, "History of the Rebellion;" Whitelocke. " Memorials." Ashburton, Lord. See Dunning. Ash'bur-ton, (Alexander Baring,) Lord, an Eng- lish financier and diplomatist, born in 1774, was a son of Sir Francis Baring, a merchant of London. He passed some of his early years in the United States as a commercial agent of his father, and married a daughter of William Bingham of Pennsylvania, a United States Senator. In 1810 he succeeded his father as head of the great firm of Baring Brothers & Company. He was elected to Parliament in 181 2 and in several subsequent years. In politics he was a Whig until his opposition to the Reform Bill of 183 1 converted him into a sup- porter of Sir Robert Peel. P^or a few months in 1834-35 Mr. Baring was president of the Board of Trade in the cabinet of Peel, through whose influence he was created Baron Ashburton in 1835. Soon after the return of Peel to power in September, 1841, Lord Ashburton was sent on a special mission to the United States to nego- tiate on the subject of a long-disputed boundary between Maine and the British Colonies. For this important service he was selected because his sentiments and an- tecedents were favourable to peace and conciliation. The negotiation on the part of the United States was conducted in a similar spirit by Mr. Webster, and the treaty was signed in 1842. This is usually called the Ashburton Treaty. He was a liberal patron of the fine arts. He died in May, 1848, and left his title to his son, William Bingham Baring, born in 1799. See "Gentleman's Magazine" for July, 1848. Ashbury, ash'ber-e, (Joseph,) a distinguished tragic actor, born in London in 1638. Accompanying the Duke of Ormond to Ireland, he became connected with the Dublin stage, and died in that city in 1720. Ash'by, (Rev. George,) an English antiquary, born in 1724, obtained the living of Barrow, Suffolk, in 1774. He contributed to the works of Bishop Percy, Richard Gough, and Nichols. Died in 1808. Ashby, (Henry,) an English penman and engraver of writing, born in 1744; died in 1818. Ashby, (Sir John,) an English admiral, who became a captain before the revolution of 1688. He led the van at the battle of Ban try Bay in 1689, soon after which he was made a vice-admiral of the red. After the defeat of the Earl of Torrington in 1690, the command of the fleet was given to Ashby and two other admirals jointly. As admiral of the blue, he commanded a squadron of the fleet which gained a victory over the French at La Hogue in 1692. Died in 1693. See Campbell, "Naval History." Ash'by, (Turner,) a Virginian general, born in Fau- quier county, Virginia, about 1824. He took arms against the Union in 1861, and distinguished himself as an officer of cavalry. In May, 1862, he became a brigadier-general in the army of Stonewall Jackson. He was killed near Harrisonburg, Virginia, in June of the same year. Ashdowne, ash'down, (William,) a writer in de- fence of Unitarianism, lived at Canterbury, England, from about 1760 to 1800. Among his works is one en- titled the "Unitarian, Arian, and Trinitarian Opinion € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^^See Explanations, ]x 23. ) 190 ASH WORTH respecting Christ, examined and tried by Scripture alone," (1789.) Ashe, ash, (Andrew,) an excellent flute-player, born at LLsburn, in Ireland, about 1758. He performed at the Italian Opera-House, London. Died in 1838. Ashe, (John,) a patriot of the American Revolution, born in England in 1721, emigrated to North Carolina. He led an expedition against Fort Johnson in 1775, and served as brigadier-general in Georgia in 1778 and 1779. Died in 1781. Ashe, (Samuel,) a brother of the preceding, born in 1725. He became chief-justice of North Carolina in 1777, and Governor of that State in 1796. Died in 181 3. His son, John Baptist, born in 1748, was an officer in the Revolutionary war, and afterwards a member of Con- gress. Died in 1795. Ashe, (Simeon,) an English Puritan minister, who preached many years in London. He became chaplain to the Earl of Manchester about 1642, and favoured the Parliament in the civil war, but after the death of Charles I. was an opponent of the dominant party. He actively promoted the restoration of 1660. A number of his ser- mons were published. According to Baxter, he was a nonconformist of the old stamp, and was eminent for a holy life. Died in 1662. See Neal, " History of the Puritans." Ashe, (Thomas,) an English writer, called Captain Ashe, published, besides other works, "Travels in America," (1808.) Died in 1835. See " Life and Correspondence of T. Ashe," 3 vols., 1814. Ash'e or Ash'i, sometimes written Asser, (Rab or Rav,) a celebrated Babylonian rabbi, born in 353 a.d. He is said to have been the original author or compiler of the " Babylonian Talmud," which is a vast body of traditions, commentaries, and illustrations of the Hebrew laws, especially of the oral law recorded in the " Mishna," which forms the text of the Talmud. This work was not finished until many years after his death. He was considered a man of great learning, genius, and piety. Died in 427 a.d. For many centuries the Jews regarded the Babylonian Talmud as the chief object of their study and the highest authority for the decision of legal ques- tions. In 1554 the Talmud was burnt, by order of the pope, throughout Italy. See Wolf, " Bibliotheca Hebraica;" "Talmud Babylonicum," Amsterdam, 1644. Ash'er, [Heb. Iiy^?,] a son of the Hebrew patriarch Jacob and Zilpah, was the head of one of the twelve tribes of Israel. (See Genesis xxx. 13 ; Deuteronomy xxxiii. 24.) The name signifies happy. Ashler, (R. Ben Jechiel,) was head of the Jewish College of Toledo, in Spain, where he was very highly esteemed. His works, all relating to the Jewish laws and religion, are very numerous. i3ied in 1321. Ash'field, (Edmund,) an English portrait-painter, who lived in the age of Charles 11. He is said to have been the first artist who drew in coloured crayons (now termed pastels) in imitation of oil-painting. Ashi, See Ashe, (Rab.) Ashik, §,sh'ik, a Turkish poet and biographer, born in Roomelia about 15 18. He officiated as judge in several towns. He wrote biographies of about four hundred Turkish poets, and a number of lyrical poems, mostly erotic. His ode on the Danube is called one of the finest specimens of Oriental poetry. Died about 1570. See Von H ammer, " Gsschichte der Osmanischen Dichtkunst." Ash'ley, (Chester,) born in Westfield, Massachu- setts, in 1790, was elected in 1844 from Arkansas to the United States Senate, in which he served as chairman of the Committee on the Judiciary until his death in 1848. Ash'ley, (John,) an English musician and dealer in music. He had a son. General Ashley, an excellent vio- linist, who died in 1818. Another son, John James, was noted as an organist. Ashley, Lord. See Shaftesbury. Ashley, (Robert,) an English translator, born in Wiltshire in 1565. He published translations of " Uranie" from the French of Du Bartas, (1589,) of the "Life of Almansor, King of Spain," from the Spanish, (1627,) and of a few other works. Died in 1641. Ash'mole. (Elias,) an English antiquary, alchemist, and herald, born at Lichfield in 1617, was the founder of the Ashmolean Museum of Oxford. He studied law and astrology, in which he had strong faith. In the civil war he favoured the roj'al cause. He published in 1652 "Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum," a work which con- sists of treatises on alchemy by various authors. In 1660 he was appointed Windsor herald by Charles II. His prin- cipal work, "The Institution, Laws, and Ceremonies of the Order of the Garter," (1672,) was received with great favour, and is still esteemed. About 1682 he presented to the University of Oxford a collection of curiosities, medals, coins, and botanical speciirens, the most of which he had received as a gift from the botanist Trades- cant and his son. The museum thus commenced still bears his name. Died in 1692. He left Memoirs of his own life, (171 7.) See also Allen's " History of Lambeth." Ash'more, (John,) an English poet and translator, who lived in the first half of the seventeenth century. Ash'mun, (Jehudi,) a zealous and efficient promoter of colonization in Liberia, whither he sailed in 1822, from which period he devoted all his time to the cause. He died in Boston in 1828, while on a visit for the re- covery of his health. See the " Life of Jehudi Ashmun," by R. R. Gurlev; "North American Review," vol. xli., (1835;) and "Foreign Quarterly Re- view," vol. xxvi., (1841.) Ash'mun, (John Hooker,) a distinguished American jurist, born at Blandford, Massachusetts, in 1800. He graduated at Harvard in 181 8, and, on the organization of the department of law in that university in 1829, was appointed its first professor. Died in 1833. "He liad gathered about him," says Judge Story, " all the honours which are usually the harvest of the ripest life." Ashoka. See Asoka. Ashraf, dsh'raf, a tyrannical and cruel Afghan chief, who occupied the throne of Persia from 1725 to 1 729. He was defeated by Nadir Shah, who espoused the cause of the deposed prince Tahmasp, and soon after killed, by a follower of the latter, in 1729. See Malcolm, " History of Persia ;" Sir William Jones, " His- toire de Nadir Chah," London, 1770. Ash'ton, (Charles,) an English classical critic, born at Bradway, Derbyshire, in 1665. He obtained a pre- bendal stall in Ely, and became master of Jesus College, Cambridge, in 1 701. His chief work is an edition of Justin Martyr's "Apologies," (1768.) Died in 1752. A.shton, (John,) a gentleman in the service of James II. of England, was executed in 1691, on the charge of conspiring to restore that sovereign. Ashton, (Thomas,) a popular English clergyman, born in 1716, was a friend of Horace Walpole. He was elected preacher of Lincoln's Inn in 1762, and published a volume of sermons in 1770. Died in 1775. Ashton, (Sir Thomas,) an alchemist in the reign of Henry VI., who had a patent for transmuting the baser metals into gold. See Fuller, "Worthies of England." Ash'to-reth [Heb. ; Gr. 'koTapTri] or Ash'- ta-roth, the name of a Syrian goddess, who was wor- shipped also by the people of Israel. (See Judges ii. 13 and x. 6 ; I. Samuel vii. 3 ; and I. Kings xi. 33; also, Milton's "Paradise Lost," book i.) Ash'urst, (Henry,) an English gentleman, who ac- quired considerable wealth in London and was noted for his benevolence. He contributed liberally to the support of Puritan preachers, but he professed to belong to no sect. Died in 1680. Ash'well, (George,) an English theologian, born in London in" 16 12, was rector of Han well, near Banbury, from 1658 until his death. He published "Fides Apos- tolica," "(1653,) an argument for the Apostles' Creed, and a treatise on Socinianism, (1680.) Died in 1693. Ash'worth, (Caleb,) D.D., an English dissenting minister, born in Lancashire in 1722. He succeeded Dr. Doddridge in 1752, in accordance with the will of that divine, as principal of the academy in which young men were educated for the ministry, and which was removed from Northampton to Daventry, where Ashworth was then pastor. He fulfilled the duties of this position in a, e, t, 5, u, y, lonsr; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; flr^ fill, fit; mSt; n5t; good; moon; ASINARI 191 ASPASIA such a manner as fully to justify the recommendation of Dr. Doddridge. Died in 1775. See Chalmers's "Biographical Dictionary." Asinari, S-se-nS'ree, (Federigo,) Count of Camerano, an Italian poet, born at Asti, in Piedmont, in 1527. He was sent as ambassador to Florence in 1570. He wrote, besides sonnets, madrigals, and other lyrical poems, a tragedy in verse, called "Tancred," ("Tancredi," 1587,) which was highly praised by Italian critics. Died in 1576. Asinari, (Ottaviano,) an Italian poet, was a son or brother of the preceding. According to some authorities, he was author of Tancredi," above referred to. Asinelli, a-se-neKlee, (Gerhardo,) an Italian archi- tect, lived about inc. He and his brother erected the fanfous tower of Bologna which bears their name. A-sin'i-us, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian jurist, lived in the second half of the sixteenth century. Asinius Gallus. See Gallus. Asinius Pollio. See Pollio. Asioli, S-se-oMee, (Bonifazio,) an Italian composer, born at Correggio in 1769. He was appointed chapel- master to the viceroy Eugene at Milan, and director of the Conservatorio, about 1800. He composed operas, cantatas, and notturnos, which were admired especially for their ease and grace. Died in 1832. Asir. See /Esir. Asir-ud-Diu Um&ni. See Aseer-ed-Deen. A'si-us, (or a'shejjs,) ['Amof,] of Samos, one of the earliest of the Greek poets, composed both epic and elegiac poetry, some extracts from which have come down to us. He is supposed to have lived about 700 B.C. See Voss, "De Poetis Graecis;" Ulrici, "Geschichte der Hel- lenischen Dichtkunst." Askelof, as'keh-lof, (Johan Christoph,) a Swedish journalist and editor, born in 1787. As'kew, written also Ays'cough and As'cough, (Anne,) an English martyr, born in Lincolnshire in 152 1. Having been convinced of the Reformed doc- trines by reading the Bible, she was turned out of doors by her husband, whose name was Kyme. She was ar- rested in 1545, questioned on the subject of the sacra- ment, and burned at the stake in 1546, after giving proof of invincible fortitude. See Hodgson, "Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867; Fuller, "Church History;" Fox, " Book of Martyrs." Askew, (Anthony,) F.R.S., an English physician, noted as a Greek scholar and a collector of classical books and manuscripts, was born at Kendal in 1722. He travelled in the Levant, and after his return practised in London. He was a friend of Dr. Mead, Dr. Parr, and Sir William Jones. Died in 1774. His books were sold at auction for about four thousand pounds sterling. SeeDiBDiN, "Bibliomania;" Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes." Askew, (George.) See Ayscue. Asklepiadae. See Asclepiad^e. Asklepiades. See Asclepiades. Asklepiodorus. See Asclepiodorus. Asklepiodotus. See Asclepiodotus. Asklepios. See ^Esculapius. Aslacus, as'13-kus, (Cunradus,) a Norwegian, a pupil of Tycho Brahe, born at Bergen in 1564. He became professor of philosophy and theology at Copenhagen about 1600. He wrote, besides other works, a treatise on the " Moral and Physical Doctrines of Moses," (" Phy- sica et Ethica Mosaica," 1613.) Died in 1624. Asmai, Al. See Abd-el-Malek. As'mar, (Maria Theresa,) born near Nineveh in 1804, was a daughter of the Emir Abdallah-Asmar, and was educated in the Christian faith. She travelled over the principal part of Asia Minor, and subsequently visited Italy, France, and England, where she published in 1844 an account of her adventures. See "Memoirs of a Babylonian Princess," London, 1844; " Lon- don Quarterly Review." Asmonaeans, as-mo-nee'ans, or As-mo-ne'ans, [Fr. As.mon6ens, ts'mo'ni'fiN',] a family or dynasty of Jew- ish princes, some of whom were called Maccabees. The name is derived from Asmonasus or Asamonaeus, an obscure person who lived about 300 B.C. His great- grandson Mattathias was eminent as a zealous patriot. and left several sons, who ruled Judea and repulsed the armies of their Syrian persecutors. (See Maccab/EUS.) The sovereignty of Judea remained in this family until the death of Antigonus, about 37 B.C. See JosEPHUS, "Jewish Antiquities;" and the Apocryphal Books of Maccabees. Asmoneans. See Asmon^ans. Asne, r, ISn, (Michel,) an able French designer and engraver, born at Caen in 1596. He engraved after Rubens, Titian, and other masters. Died in Paris in 1667. Asoka or A96ka, a-so'ka, sometimes written Asho'ka, called also Dhar-ma-so'ka, King of Magha- da, one of the greatest sovereigns that ever ruled in India, was a son of Bindusara, and a grandson of Chandragupta, (the Sandracottus of the Greek historians.) He was born at Pataliputtra about three centuries before Christ. Having attempted the life of his father, he was banished to a distant province. On hearing that his father was at the point of death, he hastened to Pataliputtra, and killed all his brothers except one, who was a son of the same mother with himself, and placed himself upon the throne. But, having at length been converted to Bood- dhism, his character became entirely changed ; and whereas he had formerly been called Chandasoka, {i.e. the " raging Asoka,") he now received the name of Dharmasoka, (the "Asoka of the law,") on account of his zeal for the law of Booddha. He is said (with Oriental hyperbole, no doubt) to have erected eighty- four thousand monasteries (vihars) in honour of the eighty-four thousand discourses of Booddha. (See Gau- tama.) He has left monuments with inscriptions in dif- ferent parts of India, proving that his dominion extended over a large part of what is now known as Hindostan. See KopPEN, "Religion des Buddha," p. 168 et seq. Asola. See Asula. Asolano. See Asolanus. Asoora or Asoor, See Asura. A-sop-o-do'rus, a Greek statuary, mentioned by Pliny, was a disciple of Polycletus. Asp, Ssp, (Matthias,) a Swedish scholar, noted for his knowledge of Greek, born at Norrkjoping in 1696. He became professor of poetry and eloquence at Upsal about 1730, and professor of theology there in 1737. He wrote many academical dissertations on ancient literature. Died in 1763. Asp, (Pehr Olof,) a nephew of the preceding, born at Stockholm in 1745, was minister to Constantinople from 1790 to 1795, and to London from 1796 to 1799. He wrote a treatise on Political Economy," (1800,) and "Travels in the Levant," (1805.) Died in 1808. As'par, [Gr. "AoTrap,] a general of the Eastern Empire, was a son of Ardaburius. In 425 a.d. he and his father defeated the usurper John, at Ravenna. He acquired so much power that at the death of Marcian in 457 A.D. he procured the accession of Leo I., whom he caused to be consecrated by a bishop. This is said to have been the first instance of the consecration of an emperor by a bishop. His Arianism, it seems, prevented Aspar from making himself emperor. In 471 A.D. he was killed in the palace by order of Leo. Aspasia, as-pa'she-a, [Gr. 'kaTraaia; Fr. Aspasie, Ss^pfze',] a Grecian woman, celebrated for her beauty, talents, and political influence, was a native of Miletus. She removed to Athens in her youth, and gained the affection of Pericles, with whom she lived as his wife. The laws of Athens, however, did not permit him to marry a foreigner. 1 ne comic poets and other scandal- mongers reported that she instigated Pericles to wage war against the Samians. Her house was frequented by the elite oi Athens, and even by Socrates,.who called himself her disciple. According to Plutarch, who refers to Plato's "Menexenus" as his authority, many Athe- nians resorted to her on account of her skill in the art of speaking. It was commonly reported that she com- posed part of the famous funeral oration which Pericles pronounced over the Athenians who fell in battle. She was once prosecuted by the poet Hermippus on a charge of impiety, but was acquitted through the efforts of Peri- cles. She survived Pericles, who died in 429 B.C., and is said to have formed a similar connection with Lysicles. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^="See Explanations, p. 23.) ASPASIA 192 ASQUINI There is an antique bust which bears the name of Aspa- sia and is supposed to be a portrait of the subject of this article, "Aspasia," says Madame de Stael, " was consid- ered a mode) of female loveliness, as Alexander of hero- ism," ("Aspasie signifiait la plus aimable des femmes, comme Alexandre le plus grand des heros.") See Plutarch, "Pericles;" Suidas, 'Acrn-ao-ia; Burigny, "Vie d'Aspasie." Aspasia the Younger, a beautiful Ionian lady, be- came the wife of Cyrus the Younger, who changed her original name, Milto, to Aspasia. She was distinguished for virtue and intelligence. After Cyrus had been killed at Cunaxa, 401 H.C., she was taken as a captive by the king Artaxerxes, whose favour she gained. When this king appointed his sou Darius as his successor, the lat- ter requested his father to give him Aspasia ; but the old king preferred to consecrate her as a priestess of Anaitis. See Plutarch, "Life of Artaxerxes." Aspasius (as-pa'she-us) [GY.'kaizaaLog] the Peripa- tetic, a Greek writer, Lvcd probably in the first century of the Christian era. His commentaries on Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics" are extant. Aspasius of Byblos, a teacher of rhetoric, lived about 150 A.U., or later, and wrote several works. Aspasius of Ravenna, a sophist of the third century, was secretary of the emperor Alexander Severus, who appointed him principal teacher of eloquence in the school of Rome. Aspegren, ds'peh-gR§n^ (Gustaf Carsten,) a Swe- dish naturalist, a baker by trade, born at Carlscrona in 1791. He contributed to Nilsson's Fauna, Agardh's works on Algae, and other Swedish works on natural history. He published " An Essay at a Flora of Blek- ing," his native province, (1823.) Died in 1828. Aspelin, &s''peh-lin'', (David,) a Swedish poet, born at Langasjo in 1780. He became minister of a church at Tolg, and composed several successful poems on public events. His poem on the union of Norway and Sweden gained the first prize of the Swedish Academy in 1813. Died in 1821. Aspelmayer or Aspelmeyer,as'pel-mT^er, (Franz,) a German composer, died at Vienna in 1786. As'per, a Latin critic and grammarian, of whom little is known, wrote a commentary on Virgil, and a treatise on grammar. He is quoted by Saint Augustine, Saint Jerome, and other writers. Aspsr, (Cauts Julius,) an eminent Roman, whom Caracalla raised to high honour, but in a fickle moment afterwards degraded and banished. Asper, ib'per, (Hans,) an eminent Swiss painter, born at Zurich in 1499. He painted landscapes, por- traits, and animals of various kinds. His style was similar to that of Holbein, his contemporary, whom he nearly rivalled in portraits. He made the original draw- ings for Gesner's Natural History. His works are very scarce, unless some of those sold as the works of Hol- bein were painted by Asper. Died in 1571. His sons Hans and Rudolph were painters. Asper, d', dis'peR, or Aspre, d', dtspR, (Constant Ghilain Charles van Hoobrouck — van ho'bRowk,) Baron, a general, born at Ghent in 1754. He served with distinction in the Austrian army in the war against the French republic, and became a general-major in 1798. In 1805, while covering the march of General Mack, he was taken prisoner near the Danube. He obtained com- mand of sixteen thousand men in 1809, and was rewarded for his conduct at Essling with the rank of general of the ordnance. He was mortally wounded at Wagram in 1809. Asper, d', or Aspre, (Constantin,) Baron, a son of the preceding, was born at Brussels in 1789. He entered the Austrian army in 1806, after which he served several campaigns against the French. In 1825 he be- came a colonel. He fought against the insurgents in Italy in 1830, and obtained the rank of general of divi- sion about 1840. He contributed greatly to the defeat of the revolted Italians in 1848-49, and became a general of the ordnance. Died at Padua in 1850. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Asper tini, as-p^R-tee'nee,or Aspertino, Ss-p^R-tee'- no, (Am ICO, S-mee'ko,) a skilful and eccentric painter, born at Bologna in 1474, was called Maestro Am icq. He painted with both hands at the same time, had great facility of execution, and excelled as a painter of ani- mals. His style was a mixture of all styles, from that of Giotto to that of Giorgione. Died in 1552. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." Aspertini, (Guido,) a brother of the preceding, was a painter, and probably a native of Bologna. Among his works is an "Adoration of the Magi." He died about the beginning of the sixteenth century, at the age of thirty-five. As-per''tus or Ans-ber'tus, Bishop of Ratisbon in 891, but previously private secretary to King Arnulf of Germany. He is thought to have been the author of a part of the " Annales Fuldenses." Aspetti, ^s-pet'tee, (Tiziano,) an Italian sculptor, born at Padua in 1565, was said to be a nephew of the painter Titian. He worked at Venice, Padua, Florence, and Pisa. His works are highly commended. Vasari calls him "Tiziano Padovano," ("Titian of Padua.") He died at Pisa in 1607. Among his master-pieces are a statue of Saint Anthony at Padua, and the statues of Saint Peter and Saint Paul which adorn the fa9ade of Saint Mark at Venice. M. Weiss argues that he could not be a nephew of Titian, who was born eighty-eight years earlier. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters, Sculptors, etc." Aspilcueta, is-pel-kwa'tS, (Juan,) a Spanish mis- sionary, born in Navarre. He went in 1549 to Brazil, where he laboured with success. Died at Bahia in 1555. Aspilcueta, (Martin.) See Azpilcueta. As'pin-wail, (William,) an American physician, born at Brookline, Massachusetts, in 1743, was noted for his skill in treating small-pox, and erected hospitals for inoculation. He served as a volunteer at the battle of Lexington, April, 1775. Died in 1823. SeeTHACHER, "Medical Biography." As'pland, (Robert,) an eminent English dissenting minister, born at Wicken, in Cambridgeshire, in 1782. He was ordained as a Baptist minister about 1802, after which he became a Unitarian. He preached at the Gravel-pit Chapel, Hackney, from 1805 until his death, in 1845. began about 1815 to issue the "Christian Reformer," a monthly magazine, and was author of numerous works. See "A Memoir of the Life of R. Aspland," by his son, Robert B. Aspland, 1850. Asplund, Ss'pldond, (Arnold,) an eminent Swedish ecclesiastic, born at Stockholm in 1736, had a high repu- tation as a preacher, and published several sermons. He was a member of the National Diet about 1790. His life appears to have been passed in Stockholm. Died in 1 81 5. Aspre. See Asper. Aspreniont, d', dtspR'm6N', Vicomte, was governor of Bayonne in the reign of Charles IX. He distin- guished himself by his refusal to massacre the Huguenots in 1572. Aspremont, d', (FRANgois de la Mothe Ville- bert — deh It mot v^KbaiR^,) Vicomte, a French general and engineer, who commanded with success at several sieges in Flanders, 1655-72. He was wounded at Conde, Valenciennes, and Gravelines. Died in 1678. Aspruck, ds'pRook, (Franz,) a German painter and engraver, lived at Augsburg about the beginning of the seventeenth century. As'pull, (George,) an excellent English musician, born at Manchester in 1813. He performed on the piano with applause before the king in 1824, and about the same time gave public concerts. Before he was eleven, he executed with ease the most difficult pieces which were composed as tests of manual skill by Kalkbrennei and Czerny. It is stated that Rossini pronounced him " the most'extraordinary creature in Europe." Died in 1832. See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Asquini, Js-kwee'nee, (Basilio,) an Italian priest and artist, born at Udine in 1682, designed a fine church for his native town, and published a volume of bio- graphies of eminent men born in Friuli, (1735.) Died in 1745. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; ASQUINI 193 ASSENEDE Asqiiini, (Fabiano,) Count, a meritorious rural economist of Italy, was born at Udine in 1726. He is entitled to the greater part of the honour of introducing the cultivation of silk into Friuli. He is said to have been the first to promote in Italy the use of potatoes as food and of turf as fuel. He also enriched himself and the country by extensive plantations of trees. Died in 1818. His' treatise "On the Means of Obviating the Scarcity of Timber" was published after his death. SeeTiPALDO, " Italiani illustri del Secolo XYIII." Assaeed-(as-sa-eedO Abool-Hassan-Alee, (or As- sa'id-Abul-Hassan-Ali,) a'boor has'san i^Iee', twelfth Sultan of Western Africa, was raised to the throne in 1242 A.D., under the title of Al-Mootadhed Billah, and was killed in 1246 in battle at Tlemcen. See CoNDE, "Histoire de la Domination des Arabes," etc. Assafadee or Assafadi, as-sifa-dee^ an Arabian biographer, born at Safada in 1296 ; died in 1362. Assaliiii, as-sS.-lee'nee, (Pietro,) an Italian physician, born at Modena about 1765. He served in the French army in the campaign of Egypt, 1798, and was afterwards appointed by Napoleon first surgeon to the court and surgeon-in-ordinary to the viceroy Eugene. He pub- lished " Observations on the Plague," (1803,) and a work on diseases of the eye, (181 1.) Died about 1840. As-Sahiaanee 'or As-Samaani, ^s-sa-ma-^'nee, surnamed Ka\vam-ed-Deen or Kawwam-ud-DIn, ka- wSm' ed-deen', (the "support or pillar of religion,") a famous Mohammedan writer, born at Merv, in Khoras- san, in 1 1 13, was the author of a History of Bagdad, in 15 vols., a History of Merv, and a work on Genealogy. Died about 1 166. As-Sameel-Ibn-Hatim-al-Kelabee or As-Sa- mil-Ibn-Hatim-Al-Keiabi, as-sa-meel' Ib'n ha'tim dl- ke-LVbee, a distinguished Mohammedan general and governor of Spain under the caliphs, flourished about 750 A.D. He was afterwards poisoned in prison by the order of Abd-er-Rahman. As -samh-Ibn- Malik -Al-Khoulanee, (or Al- Kliauiani,) as-sSmh' Tb'n ma'lik Al-Kow-ld'nee, gover- nor of Mohammedan Spain under the caliphs. He was appointed to that office in 719. In 721 he took Carcas- sonne and Narbonne, in France, but was defeated and killed by the Duke of Aquitaine in the same year. Assa'ndro, as-sSn'dRo, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian jurist, lived at Cremona in the early part of the seventeenth century. Assaph. See Asaph. Assarino, ris-sa-ree'no, (Luca or Lucas,) an Italian historian and popular novelist, son of a Genoese mer- chant, born at Seville in 1607. He resided mostly in Italy. Pie wrote "La Stratonica," (1635,) "L'Arme- linda," (1640,) and other novels, which had a great suc- cess for a time ; also a history of the wars in Italy between 1613 and 1630, ("Delle Guerre e Successi d'lta- lia," etc., 1665.) Died at Turin in 1672. See Soprani, "Scrittori della Ligiiria." Assarotti, as-sS-rot'tee, (Ottavio Giovanni Bat- tista,) a benevolent priest, born at Genoa in 1753, is known as the founder of the Italian institutions for the education of the deaf and dumb. He was for many years a teacher in the schools of his order, called Sct/ole Pie, (benevolent schools.) About 1802 he began to teach in his own chamber a few deaf-mutes, being almost en- tirely ignorant of what had been done for that class in other countries. He received aid from the government in 1812. Died in 1829, See TiPALDO, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Assas, S'si', (Nicolas,) a French officer, was captain of the regiment of Auvergne. In 1760, while he was inspecting the outposts near Klostercamp, he found him- self in the hands of a party of the enemy who were about lO surprise the French. He was threatened with instant death if he gave the alarm ; but he cried out, "A moi, Au- vergne ! voila les ennemis !" and fell pierced with wounds. See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XV." As.scherade3, dsh'er-d'des, (Carl Gustav Schtiltz -shdolts,) a Swedish diplomatist and historian. Died in 1799. Asseline, tss'I^n', (Gilles Thomas,) a mediocre French poet, born at Vire in 1682, was a friend of Thomas Corneille, on whose death he wrote an ode. He became president of the college of Harcourt, Paris, and composed, among other poems, one entitled " Re- ligion," (1725.) Died in 1767. See QuERARD, " La France Litteiaire." Asseline, (Jean Rene,) a French ecclesiastic, born in Paris in 1742, was professor of Hebrew at the Sor- bonne. In 1790 he was appointed Bishop of Boulogne, but he refused to conform to the civil constitution of the clergy, and went into exile. On the death of Abbe Edgeworth he became confessor to Louis XVIII. He published several religious works. Died in 1813. See QuER.^RD, "La France Litteraire." Asseiyn, as'seh-lTn', (|an,) an excellent painter of landscapes, horses, and battles, born in Holland, or at Antwerp, in 16 10, was a pupil of J. Vandevelde. He studied in Rome, and painted a number of landscapes taken from the vicinity of that capital. He imitated the manner of his friend Peter Laer. About 1645 he settled in Amsterdam, where he gained a high reputation. Plis colouring is brilliant and warm, his touch fine, and his composition displays good taste. Died at Amsterdam in 1660. See HouBRAKEX, " Groote Schouburg;" D'Argenville, "Abr^gt? de la Vie des plus fameux Peintres." Asseniani, as-sa-ma'nee, (Giuseppe Luigi or Aloy- Sio,) a theological writer, a nephew of Giuseppe Simone, noticed below, was born in Syria about 17 10, but edu- cated at Rome, where he was appointed professor of Syriac, and at'terwards professor of Oriental la ^uages, at the Propaganda. He died in Rome in 17S2. Asseniani, (Giuseppe Simone,) a learned Maronite, born at Tripoli, in Syria, about 1686, was educated at Rome. He was sent to the Levant by the pope, in search of manuscripts, in 1715, and was appointed keeper of the Vatican Library about 1730. His principal work is " liibliotheca Orientalis Clementino-Vaticana," (4 vols., fol., 1719-28,) which is probably the most ample fund of information on Syriac literature that has ever been amassed. He wrote a valuable work on Oriental Church History, in which he was well versed. Died at Rome in 1768. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Sax, '• Oiiomasticon ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Asseniani, (Simone,) an Orientalist of high reputa- tion, born at Tripoli, or, as some writers state, at Rome, in 1752, was a relative of Giuseppe Luigi. He became professor of Oriental languages in a seminary of Padua about 1785, and professor of the same in the university of that city in 1807. Among his works are an "Essay on the Origin, Religion, Literature, and Customs of the Arabs before the Time of Mohammed," (1787,) and "Globus Ccelestis Cufico-Arabicus," (1790,) the descrip- tion of a celestial globe which belonged to one of the Sultans of Egypt. Died in 1821. Assemani, (Stefano Evodio — i-vo'de-o,) a nephew •of Giuseppe Simone, was born at Tripoli about 1707. He was the princi])al compiler of a valuable catalogue of the manuscripts of the Vatican Library, (3 vols., 1756-59,) and succeeded his uncle as keeper of that library in 1768. He published catalogues of the Orien- tal manuscripts in the Florentine libraries, viz., Medicea, Laurentiana, and Palatina, (1742.) Died in 1782. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Assen, van, vin Ss'sen, (Jan,) a Dutch historical and landscape painter of considerable merit, born at Amsterdam about 1635. His style of painting is very bold, and he is said to have used the prints of Antonio Tempesta for his own pictures. Died in 1695. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Assen, van, (Jan Walther,) a Dutch engraver on wood, born at Amsterdam about 1480. His heads havt much expression, but his design is not very correct. His prints are in great request among amateurs. Assenede, van, vSn Ss-seh-na'deh, (Diderik,) a Flemish poet of the middle of the fourteenth century, translated into Flemish verse the romance of " Flores et Blanche." See Paquot, "Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire litteraire des Pavs-Bas." € as /f; 9 as s; ^hard; g as G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jj^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ASSEOLO 194 ASTBVRY Asseolo. See Osceola. Asser. See Ash6, (Rab.) As'ser, or As-se'ri-us Men-e-ven'sis, a learned iLnglish monk of the ninth century, passed much time at the court of Alfred the Great, who treated him as a friend and employed him as his reader. His name is connected with a Latin "Life of Alfred the Great," (which comprises only the period from 849 to 889,) but some critics maintain that it is the work of some other author. Died about 910. Assereto, as-si-ra'to, (Giovacchino,) an Italian painter in oil and fresco, born at Genoa about 1600, was a pupil of Andrea Ansaldo, whose design he imitated with success. He worked at Genoa, Sarzana, and Rome, and gained a high reputation. Died in 1649. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Assezan, d', dts'zdN^, a French dramatic author, born at Toulouse in 1654. His principal works were the trage- dies of " Agamemnon" and "Antigone." Died in 1696. See Parfait, " Histoire du Theatre Frangais." Asshetori, ash'tun, (William,) an English clergyman, born in Lancashire in 1641, He became rector of Beck- enham, Kent, in 1676, and wrote many religious works, among which is " Toleration Disapproved and Con- demned," (1670.) He was the projector of an unsuc- cessful scheme for the maintenance of the widows of clergymen and others. Died in 1711. Sec Watt, "Life of William Assheton," and Wood, "Athence Oxonienses." Ass'hod, written also Aschod, the name of several princes and kings of Armenia, of the dynasty of the Pagra- tidae, who were of Jewish origin, but who appear to have adopted the Christian religion about 600 a.d. Asshod I. restored the kingdom of Armenia about 856 A.D., and ruled with wisdom and moderation, ex- tending the bounds of his dominions. Died in 889. Asshod II. ascended his throne in 914, after a long warfare with the Arabs, who had usurped for a period the government of Armenia. Died about 930. Asshod III. succeeded his father in 952, and was dis- tinguished for his patronage of industry, trade, and architecture, and for his wars with the Mohammedans. Died in 977. Asshod IV. shared the kingdom of Armenia with his brother John, and both afterwards became tributary to the Greek Empire. In this reign Armenia was much harassed by the Turks. Died in 1039. Assignies, d', dS''sen''ye', (Jean,) a Flemish monk, and writer of devotional works, born in 1562 ; died in 1642. Assigny, d', dS's^n''ye' or dis-seen'ye, (Marius,) a clergyman of the Anglican Church, of French extraction, born in England in 1643, wrote "The Art of Memory," (1699,) and other works. Died in 1 71 7. Assing, as'sing, (Rosa Maria,) a German poetess, a sister of Varnhagen von Ense, was born at Dussel- dorf in 1783. She was married in 1816 to Dr. Assing, a physician, who soon after settled at Hamburg. She wrote numerous poems and tales of some merit. Died in 1840. A volume of her works, entitled " Poetical Remains," ("Rosa Maria's poetischer Nachlass,*") ap- peared in 1 841. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Assisi, d', (Andrea.) See Luigi, (Andrea.) Asso. See Adso. Assollaiit, t'so^]6N', (Jean Baptiste Alfred,) a French novelist, born at Aubusson, Creuse, about 1827. He published, besides other works, "Acacia," " Brancas," (1859,) " Les Aventures de Karl Brunner," (1861,) "Rose d' Amour," (1862,) and " Scenes from Life in the United States," ("Scenes de la Vie des Etats-Unis," 1858.) Assomption, de 1', deh lt's6Mp'se-6N', (Charles,) a Flemish Carmelite, and writer on theology, born in 1625 ; died in 1686. Assoucy, d', dt'soo^se', (Charles Coypeau — kwi'- po',) a French satirical poet of considerable notoriety for his imprudence and misfortunes, was born at Paris about 1604. Died in 1678 or 1679. See Flogei., " Geschichte des Burlesken." Asso y del Rio, de, di Ss'so e d61 ree'o, (Ignazio Jordan — iioR-dSn',) a Spanish jurist and naturalist of the eighteenth century. He published in 1775 "Insti- tutes of the Civil Law in Spain," (" Instituciones del Derecho civil de Castilla,") which is considered the best work on the subject. He also wrote a treatise on the plants of Aragon, (" Synopsis Stirpium indigenarum Aragoniae," 1799.) See Watt, "Bibliofheca Britannica." Assumpgao, de, dk is-soomp-sowN', (Jos^:,) a Por- tuguese theologian, noted as a writer of Latin verse. Died in 1751.^ Assumpgao-Velho, da, di is-soomp-s6vvN' v^Kyo, (Joachim,) a Portuguese natural philosopher, born in 1753, was a canon regular of the congregation of Saint Croix. He studied physical science with great success, and published " Meteorological Observations made in 1783-84," and " Observa9oes fysicas por Occasiao de seis Raios," etc. Died in 1793. " He left unfinished works which," says Correa da Serra, "would have procured for him a great reputation in Europe." Assunto, deir, dSl lis-soon'to, (Onorio,) an Italian monk, and writer on theology, born in 1639 ; died in 1716. Ast, ^st, (Georg Anton Friedrich,) a German scholar and teacher of great eminence, was born at Gotha in 1778. He was educated at Gotha and Jena, and became in 1805 professor of classical literature in the University of Landshut. In 1826, when this university was transferred to Munich, Ast removed thither and retained his professorship. His lectures were eminently suggestive. Among his works (which are mostly philological or philosophical) are a metri- cal German version of the tragedies of Sophocles, (1804,) a "Manual of ^Esthetics," (1805,) an "Introduc- tion to Philology," (1808,) "Elements (Grundlinien) of Philosophy," (1809,) and "The Life and Writings of Plato," (" Platons Leben und Schriften," 1816.) He published an edition of all the works of Plato, with a Latin version and commentary, (11 vols., 1819-32.) Few modern critics have done more to illustrate the works of Plato. Died at Munich in December, 1841. See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." Asta, deir, del Ids'ta, (x^ndrea,) a Neapolitan his- torical painter, born at Bagnuoli about 1673, was a pupil of Solimena. Among his chiefworks is a Nativity. Died in 1 72 1. As-ta'ri-iis or As-ti-a'ri-us, (Blasius,) [It. Biasio AsTARio, be-S'se-o &s-ta're-o,) an Italian medical writer, born at Pavi'a, lived in the first half of the sixteenth cen- tury. Astarloa y Aguirre, de, di is-t^R-lo'I e i-gwer'ri, (Don Pablo Pedro,) a Spanish linguist, born at Du- rango in 1752. He devoted his life chiefly to the study of languages. His principal work is an argument for the antiquity of the Basque language, ("Apologia de la Lengua Bascongada," 1803,) in which he proves its identity with the language of the ancient Iberi. "As- tarloa was the first," says W. von Humboldt, "who studied the Basque language in a really searching spirit." Died in 1806. Astarrita, ^s-tar-ree'tl, (Gennaro,) an Italian dra- matic composer, born at Naples about 1750. He com- posed many operas, which were for the most part suc- cessful, but he was deficient in originality. His most popular production was "Circe and Ulysses," ("Circe e Ulisse.") As-tar'te, [Gr. 'koTaprri; see Ashtoreth,] a god- dess worshipped by the Phoenicians and Syrians, who erected to her a famous temple at Hierapolis. (See I, Kings xi. 33.) She has by some mythologists been iden- tified with Aphrodite or Venus. Astbury, asf'ber-e, (J.,) an Englishman who made great improvements in the manufacture of pottery, was born about 1678. It is stated that by feigning to be an idiot he obtained admission into the workshop of a foreign potter and learned'a secret process used by him. He began business at Shelton, and produced a white stoneware of a very superior quality by mixing pipe- clay with Shelton marl. He was the first British potter who used calcined flint as an ingredient of his fabrics. Died in 1743. See Shaw, "History of the Staffordshire Potteries." a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, shoft ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon j ASTELL 195 ASTOR As'tfll, (Mary,) an English authoress, born at New- castle-upon-Tyne in 1668. In 1697 she published a "Serious Proposal to the Ladies for the Advancement of their True and Greatest Interest," which provoked the ridicule of certain writers of the "Tatler," who gave her the name of Madonella. One of her religious treat- ises having been attacked by Lady Masham, she de- fended her opinions in "The Christian Religion as pro- fessed by a Daughter of the Church of England," {1705,) which was praised for logical ability. She was esteemed by several eminent divines and authors. Died in 1731. See Ballard, "Memoirs of Several Learned Ladies of Great Britain," Oxford, 1752. Astemio. See Abstemius. Aster. See Asterius. Aster, ds'ter, (Ernst Ludwig,) a Prussian general and engineer, born at Dresden about 1778, planned the fortifications of Coblentz and Ehrenbreitstein. Astere. See Asterius. As-te'ri-a, [Gr. 'Aortpla; Fr. Asterie, ts''ta^re',] in classic mythology, was a daughter of the Titan Coeus, a sister of Latona, and the wife of Perses. The poets feigned that to escape from Jupiter she assumed the form of a quail. As-te'ri-us, [Gr. 'AaripLoc,] a Sophist and advocate of Arianism, lived in Cappadocia about 320 a.d. During Maximian's persecution of the Christians, in the early part of the fourth century, he is said to have relapsed into paganism ; but he afterwards renounced this error. He wrote several works, which are not extant. Asterius, [Gr. 'Acrepiog; Fr. Astere, ts'taiR',] written also Aster, Saint, a Father of the Church, supposed to have been born at Antioch about 340 A.D. He became Bishop of Amasea, in Pontus ; but the date of this pro- motion and nearly all the events of his life are unknown. His extant homilies contain some eloquent passages, and teach doctrines considered sound by the Roman Catholics. Astesauo, As-ti-sa'no, (Antonio,) an Italian poet, born near Asti in 1412. Astesati, as-ti-sd'tee, (Giovanni Andrea,) an Italian historian, born at Brescia in 1673 ; died in 1747. Astiariiis. See Astarius. Astle, as^'s'l or as't'l, (Thomas,) F.R.S., an eminent English antiquary, born in Staffordshire in 1 734. He was appointed about 1775 chief clerk in the record office in the Tower, and became keeper of the records several years later. His principal work is "The Origin and Progress of Writing, as well Hieroglyphic as Elementary, illus- trated by engravings, etc.; also, some Account of the Origin and Progress of Printing," (1784,) which is said to be the best work in the language on that subject. Died in 1803. See Nichols, "Literary Anecdotes;" Shaw, "History and Anti- quities of Staffordshire ;" "Gentleman's Magazine," vol. Ixiv., (1804.) Ast'ley, (Sir Jacob,) afterwards Lord Astley, an English royalist general, who had served under Gustavus Adolphus. Having been made a major-general by Charles I. in 1642, he fought at Edgehill, where he was wounded, and commanded the garrison of Reading in 1643. In 1644 he repulsed Waller at the Cherwell, and was created Lord Astley of Reading. He led a division at Naseby in 1645, cominanded the last remnant of the royal army which was defeated at Stow in 1646. Died in 165 1. "Sir Jacob," says Clarendon, "was an honest, brave, plain man, and as fit for the office he exercised, as major- general of foot, as Christendom yielded." See Clarendon, " History of the Great Rebellion." Astley, (John,) an English portrait-painter, born in Shropshire in the early part of the eighteenth century, was a pupil of Hudsoii. He visited Rome, and subse- quently worked with success in London and Dublin. He married the widow of Sir William Daniel, whose large fortune he inherited a few years after his marriage. Died in 1787. See Edwards, "Anecdotes of Painters." Astley, (Philip,) an excellent equestrian, and founder of Astley's Amphitheatre, London, was born at New- castle-under-Line in 1742. He served with distinction in the Seven Years' war, and, having left the army about 176s, began to exhibit equestrian feats to the public. He published "The Modern Riding-Master," (1775,) a " Sys- tem of Equestrian Education," (1801,) and other works. Died in 1814. See " Gentleman's Magazine," 1S14. As-toFphus or As-tuFphus, [Fr. Astolphe, ts' tolF,] written also Aistulf, King of the Lombaids 01 Longobards, succeeded his brother Ratchis in 749 or 75c A.D. He seized Ravenna and the Pentapolis about 752, after which he marched against the duchy of Rome. The pope called to his aid Pepin, King of the Franks, who defeated Astolphus in 754, and compelled him to cede the provinces called the Exarchate and Pentapolis to the see of Rome. This was the origin of the temporal power of the popes. Died in 756 A.D. As'ton, (Antony,) an English writer of comedies, appeared as actor at Drury Lane about 1700. He is supposed to have died about 1750. See " Biographia Dramatica." Aston, (Sir Arthur,) an English royalist, whora Plume calls "an officer of^ reputation," commanded the dragoons at Edgehill, (1642,) and distinguished himself in the defence of Reading. He afterwards went to Ire- land and became commander of a garrison of three thou- sand men at Drogheda, which was taken by Cromwell in 1649. Aston and nearly all his men were massacred by the victors. See Hume, " History of England." Aston, (Sir Thomas,) an Englishman, who wrote a "Remonstrance against Presbytery," (1640.) In the civil war he fought for Charles I., was taken prisoner, and in an attempt to escape was mortally wounded. Died in 1645. See Wood, "Athenas Oxonienses." Aston, (Sir Walter,) of Tixall, in Staffordshire, born about 15S0, was a patron of Drayton the poet. He was sent as ambassador to Spain in 16 19. Died in 1639. Astor, de, da as-toR^, (Diego,) a Spanish copper-plate and die engraver, lived at Toledo. In 1609 he was ap- pointed engraver to the mint of Segovia. See Bermudez, "Diccionario Historico." As'tor, (John Jacob,) a celebrated New York mer- chant, was born near Heidelberg, in Germany, in 1 763. At the age of sixteen he joined his brother in London in the business of making musical instruments, and four years later (1783) embarked for Baltimore, taking a stock of instruments with him. In New York he exchanged his stock for furs, which he took to London and disposed of to great advantage. Thus encouraged, he resolved to devote himself to the fur trade, and with this view made himself acquainted with the various European markets and carefully studied the cHfferent kinds of furs. On re- turning to America he established himself in New York, which was henceforth his usual place of residence. His enterprise and thrift soon enabled him to ship his furs in his own vessels, which brought back cargoes of foreign produce, thereby reaping a double profit. In sixteen years he had acquired a fortune of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars. Such was his diligence, and so great were his talents for business, that when his commerce covered the seas, he was enabled to control the action of his "shipmasters and supercargoes in the minutest details, and rarely if ever was he known to have erred either in judgment or in a knowledge of the facts. He conceived the vast scheme of connecting the fur trade with the Pacific by means of a line of trading-posts ex- tending from the great lakes along the Missouri and Columbia to the mouth of the latter river, where he founded Astoria in April, 1811, to be used as a central depot, and then, by getting possession of one of the Sandwich Islands as a station, to supply China and the Indies with furs directly from the Pacific coast. The disasters which befell two of the expeditions sent out to the Pacific for this purpose, and the desertion of one of the principal agents or partners in the enterprise, and his betrayal of Astor's plans to the Northwest (British Fur) Company, prevented the success of this scheme. Astor invested largely in real estate, erected numerous buildings, both public and private, and thus, from the ! almost unexampled rise in the value of this kind of I property in New York during the first half of the pres- I ent century, added immensely to his rapidly increasing € as 9 as s; g /lard; g as J; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^="See Explanations, p. 23. AST ORG A 196 ATAHUALPA wealth. A this death in 1848 his property was estimated at not less than twenty millions of dollars. For many years Fitz-Gieene Halleck, the poet, was his private secretary. Astor no doubt owed much to fortuitous circumstances, but hi:^ great success was chiefly due to sagacity and close application to business through a long course of years. Among his bequests were four hundred thousand dollars for the establishment of a library in New York, and fifty thousand dollars to his native village in Ger- many ; but almost the whole of his property was left to his son, William B. Astor. William B. Astor subse- quently added to his father's bequest nearly as much more, so that the Astor Library is now one of the most liberally endowed institutions of the kind on the Ameri- can continent. See Washington Irving, "Astoria," 1836, and "Adventures of Captain Bonneville," 1S37; Hunt's "Mercliant's Magazine" for August, 1844; Hunt's "Lives of American Mercliants," vol. ii. Astorga, as-toR^gl, (Antonio Pedro Alvarez Oso- rio — Al'va-reth o-so're-o,) Marquis of, a Spanish statesman and diplomatist, born near the beginning of the seventeenth century, filled the office of ambassador to Rome with great credit. He was also Viceroy of Na- ples from 1672 to 1675. See GiANNONE, " Storia civile del Regno di Napoli." Astorga, d', dis-toR^gi, (Emanuele,) Baron, an ex- cellent musical composer, born in Sicily about 1680. Astorga was a name which he assumed after his father had been executed for a political offence. He was pa- tronized by Leopold L, at whose death (1705) he left Vienna. He afterwards visited many capitals of Europe, but did not perform in public. Among his works are an admirable " Stabat Mater," and cantatas entitled "Quando Penso," and "Torna Aprile." See Fetis, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." Astorga, de, da Ss-toR^gS, (Juan Lorenzo,) a Span- ish poet, lived in the middle of the thirteenth century. See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Astori, is-to'ree, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian antiquary, classical scholar, and priest, born at Venice in 1672, became canon of the ducal church of Saint Mark. Among his works is a treatise "On the Cabiri Gods," ("De Diis Cabiris," 1703.) Among his friends were A. Zeno, Scipio Maffei, and Poleni. Died in 1743. See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." Astorini, is-to-ree'nee, (Elia,) a learned Italian priest, born in Calabria in 165 1. He was a Cartesian in philosophy, and appears in his youth — during a residence in Germany — to have adopted or favoured Protestant doctrines. About 1688 he returned to Italy and to the Roman Church. He became professor of mathematics at Sienna in 1690. Among his works are " Elementa Euclidis," (1691,) and a treatise entitled "On the True Church against the Lutherans," (1700.) Died in 1702. See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia," and Jocher, "Allgenieines Gelehrten-Lexikon." As-tor-pil'co, a son of Francisco Pizarro and Ange- lina, who was a daughter of Atahualpa, Inca of Peru. See Humboldt, "Tableaux de la Nature." Astraea, as-tree^'a, [Gr. 'Aarpala; Fr. Astr^:e, ts^tRi',] a mythical personage, regarded as a daughter of Jupiter and Themis, was sometimes called the goddess of jus- tice. According to tradition, she lived on the earth dur- ing the golden age, at the end of which she ascended to a more congenial sphere among the stars, being the last of the immortals to leave the earth. As-tram-psy'-ehus, [Gr. 'AaTpd/npvxog,] the name of several Persian Magi. One of this name, mentioned by Suidas, wrote a work on the Interpretation of Dreams. Astree. See Astr.'EA. As-tron'o-mer, The, [in Latin, Astron'omus ; Fr. L'AsTRONOME, Its^tRo'nom',] is the appellation given to the unknown writer of a valuable " Life of Louis le Debonnaire." It appears that he was attached to the court of that monarch, and wrote from personal know- ledge, about the middle of the ninth century. See GuizoT, "Collection des Historiens de la France." Astros, d', dts'tRos', (Paul Thi^rese David,) a French prelate, born in Var in 1772. He was imprisoned by Napoleon for several years, ending in 1814, because he was an agent of the pope in his contest against the emperor. In 1830 he became Archbishop of Toulouse. He published several theological works. Died in 1851. See Pi COT, "Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire ecclesiastique du dix-huitieme Siecle." Astruc, ts^tRiik', (Jean,) a French medical writer and teacher of high reputation, born at Sauve, in Lan- guedoc, in 1684. By the aid of an excellent memoi"y and methodical habits, he acquired great erudition. He be- came professor of anatomy at Toulouse in 17 10, and of medicine at Montpellier in 1716 or 1717. About 1728 he removed to Paris, and was appointed consulting physician to the king, and professor of medicine in the Royal Col- lege, in 1730. In 1736 he published his capital work "On Venereal Diseases," ("De Morbis Venereis,") which, according to the " Biographic Universelle," is the most complete work on the subject, in respect to erudition and historical research. Among his works is a "History of the Faculty of Medicine of Montpellier," (" Memoires pour servir a I'histoire," etc.) Died in 1 766. See Lorry, "Vie d' Astruc ;" and Astruc, "Autobiographic," in " Memoires de la Faculte de Montpellier." Astiilphus. See Astolphus. As-ty'a-ges, [Gr. 'kGTvayrjq; Fr. Astyage, ts'te^- tzh',] King of the Medes, was the son and successor of Cyaxares, and grandfather of Cyrus the Great. He was dethroned by Cyrus about 560 B.C., and is called the last king of Meclia. (See Cyrus I.) Herodotus is the authority for this statement. According to Xenophon, Astyages had a son Cyaxares, who succeeded him. As-ty'a-nax, [Gr. 'karvtLva^,'] also called Scaman- drius, son of Hector and Andromache, was killed in infancy by the Greeks at the capture of Troy. As-tyd'a-mas, [Gr. 'korvdajm^,] an Athenian tragic poet, was a son of Morsimus, also a tragic poet. He lived about 380 B.C., and gained prizes for many of his dramas, none of which are extant. The people erected to him a statue, on which he wrote an egotistical inscrip- tion. He had a son Astydamas, who was a tragic poet. Only the titles of his works remain. See Bruncks and Jacobs, " Anthologia Graeca." As-ty-me'des, [Gr. 'AGrvfiT/drjg ; Fr. Astymede, ts'- te''mad'',] a prominent citizen of Rhodes, who sided with the Romans against Perseus of Macedon, about 170 B.C. As-ty'o-elius, [Gr. 'koTvoxog.'] a Spartan admiral, who obtained chief command of the fleet in 412 B.C. He sailed to Chios and Lesbos to expel the Athenians, but failed ; and is said to have sold himself to Tissaphernes. He was deprived of his command in 411 B.C. Asula, a'soo-ia, or Asola, a^So-ia,(GiovANNi Matteo or G. Maria,) an Italian composer, a native of Verona, lived about 1580-1620. A-su-la''nus, Asolano, a-so-la^io, or D' Asola, di¥- so-la, (Andrea,) one of the earliest Italian printers, born at Asola, flourished about 1490-1520. Pie was the father- in-law of the celebrated Aldus Manutius. See Renouard, "Annales de I'lmprimerie des Aides," 1825. As''u-ra or As'oo-ra, [Hindoo pron. us'06-ra,] in common language Asur "or Asoor, usually pronounced lis'oor. In the Hindoo mythology, the Asuras, children of Kas'yapa and Diti, are a race of powerful demons, who are represented as constantly opposing the Suras, (Sooras,) or gods. (See Sura.) The Asuras may be said to correspond, in some of their leading attributes, to the giants, (Jotuns,) and the Suras to the /Esir, of the Northern mythology. See Moor's "Hindu Pantheon." As'y-ehis, [Gr. 'kavxig^ an Egyptian king, whose period is uncertain, but who built 'the eastern propy- la;a of the great temple of Phtha (Vulcan) at Memphis, regarded as the finest work of the kind in Egypt. He also built a brick pyramid, and established the law^ of giving the dead body of the debtor's father as security for debt. Atabalipa. See Atahualpa. Atahualpa or Atahuallpa, S-ta-hwSl'p.^, sometimes written Atabalipa, the last Inca of Peru, was a son of Huayna Capac and a princess of Quito. About 1525 he became King of Quito by the wnll of his father, who left Peru to Atahualpa's brother Huascar, the lawful heir of the whole empire. Atahualpa, who was warlike i, e, I, o, u, y, lo7tg; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, s/i07't; a, e, j, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; n5t; good; m<3on ATAIDE 197 ATHANASWS and ambitious, invaded, with a large army, the domin- ions of Huascar, whom he defeated and took prisoner, (1532.) According to Garcilasso de la Vega, he massa- cred of the royal family all who had the blood of the Incas in their 'veins, except Huascar and his brother Manco Capac. In the same year that he thus usurped the throne of the Inca, Pizarro entered upon the con- quest of Peru. After mutual professions of amity, Atahualpa and Pizarro met in an interview, (November, 1532,) during which the former was seized by the Span- iards and loaded with chains. To obtain his release, the Inca offered to fill with gold, as high as he could reach, the room in which he was con- fined, twenty-two feet long and seventeen feet wide. Pizarro accepted this offer. Before the full amount had been collected, the Spaniards became impatient, and di- vided the spoil. Rumours of a rising among the natives afforded Pizarro a pretext to arraign the captive Inca before a military court. He was condemned to be burned alive, but by abjuring his religion he obtained the privilege of being strangled by the garrote, in Au- gust, 1533. "He is allowed to have been bold, high- minded, and liberal," says Prescott. "All agree that he showed singular penetration and quickness of percep- tion. His exploits as a warrior had placed his valour beyond dispute." See Prescott, "Conquest of Peru," vol. i. ; Garcilasso de la Vega. "Historia general del Peru;" A. von Humboldt, "Ta- bleaux de la Nature." Ataide, a-t^-eeMi, written also Atayde, (Dom Luis,) Count of Tougia, a Portuguese nobleman, who was twice Viceroy of India. He first landed in that country in 1568, at a period when there was a conspiracy between the Nizam and other native princes to drive out the Por- tuguese, which he frustrated. He embarked for Portu- gal in 1572, but returned to India in 1580, where he died shortly after. See A. Pinto Pereira, "Historia da India, etc.," 1616. Atajee, Ataji, a-t3.'jee, or Athadschi, a distin- guished Turkish poet, born at Constantinople about 1583 ; died in 1635. See Von Hammer, "Geschichte der Osmanischen Dichtkunst." At-a-lan'ta or At-a-lan'te, [Gr. 'AraAavr?/ ; Fr. Ata- LANTE, t'tSI^Nt',] in ancient mythology, the most swift- footed of mortals, was distinguished also for courage and martial exploits. She promised her hand to the man who should outstrip her in the race, with the con- dition that if he failed he must forfeit his life. Milanion won the race by dropping three golden apples which he received from Venus, and which tempted her to stop and pick them up. Ata-Malek, dt'^ mM'ek, written also Atha-Melik, (Ala-ed-Deen or Ala-ed-Din, ^-la-cd-deen',) a Persian historian, born in Khorassan about 1227, was appointed prefect of Bagdad after its capture by the Moguls in 1258. He was author of a history of the Moguls, en- titled "The Conquest of the World." Died in 1282. Atanagi, a-ta-n^'jee, (Dionigi,) a distinguished Ital- ian litterateur and editor, born at Cagli, in the duchy of Urbino. About 1532 he went to Rome, where he re- mained twenty-five years in indigence. He removed to Venice in 1560, and died there between 1567 and 1574. He is regarded as a judicious and accurate editor. Among his publications are " Familiar Letters of Thirteen Illus- trious Men," (1554,) and " Poems of Several Eminent Tuscan Poets," (" Delle Rime di diversi nobili Poeti Tos- cani," 2 vols., 1565.) See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." Atanasio. See Athanasius and Athanasio. Atar, a'tar, (Ben David,) a Jewish rabbi and poet, lived at Amsterdam in the second half of the seven- teenth century, translated the Psalms into Spanish verse. Atar, (Ben Samuel,) a Jew of the sixteenth century, published a work on Hebrew traditions. At'a-ulf, Ad'a-ulf, or Ad'olf, [Gr. 'kraovl^oq; Lat. Ataul'phus,] was brother-in-law of Alaric I., King of the Visigoths, whom he succeeded in 411 a.d. He married Placidia, (a sister of the emperor Honorius,) whom he had taken captive at the capture of Roine in 10. In 412 he evacuated Italy and marched into Gaul, where he took Narbo, Burdigala, (Bordeaux,) etc. After he had conquered Aquitaine, he crossed the Pyrenees ta expel the Vandals and Suevi from Spain. He was assas- sinated by one of his officers at Barcelona in 415 A.i>. See Muratori, "Annali d'ltalia." Atayde. See Ataide. Atch'i-son, (David R.,) an American politician, born in Fayette county, Kentucky, in 1807, removed in 1830 to Missouri. He was appointed in 1841 to fill an unex- pired term in the United States Senate, of vs^hich he continued a member till 1855. He at first acted with the Benton wing of the Democratic party, but soon after embraced the extreme views of Calhoun. In the troubles attending the organization of the territory of Kaitsas in 1854, '55, and '56, he not only lent his countenance to the outrages committed by armed men from Missouri, by which the free-soil voters of Kansas were driven from the polls, but also took an active part in those civil dis- turbances and conflicts in that territory, which may be said to have foreshadowed the war of the great rebellion. A'te, [Gr. 'Ar??,] a personage of classic mythology, was said to have been a daughter of Eris, (Discord,) or, according to Homer, of Jupiter. She was called the goddess of evil, or the goddess that avenges crimes. A-te-nuFfus or Afe-nulph, written also Ate- nolphe, became Prince of Beneventum by conquest about 900 A.D., before which he was Count or Prince of Capua. He died in 910, leaving two sons, Landulphus and Atenulphus, who reigned jointly. They defeated the vSaracens on the Liris in 916, and subjected nearly all Apulia. Atenulphus II. died about 940 A.D. See GiANNONE, "Storia civile del Regno di Napoli." Atenulphus II. of Beneventum, reigned jointly with his brother Landulphus. He waged war against the Sa- racens, who were driven out of Italy in 916. Died in 933. Atha-Ben-Hakim. See Al-Hakem-1bn-Atta. Athaji or Athadschi. See Atajfe. A-thaFa-ric or A-thaFiic, [Lat. AthalarFcus,] a Gothic prince, a son of Euthelric or Eutharic, and a grandson of Theodoric I., reigned nominally over the Gothic kingdom of Italy (his mother being regent) from 526 until 534 A.D.,when he died, aged eighteen. Ath-a-lFah, [Heb. rrSn;? ; Fr. Athalie, t'tt']e^[ Queen of Judah, a daughter of Ahab, King of Israel, and the notorious Jezebel. She was married to Jehoram, King of Judah, and became a zealous patron of idolatry. At the death of her son Ahaziah, she usurped the throne, and murdered all the males of the royal family except Joash, by whose adherents she was killed about 878 B.C. The history of Athaliah forms the subject of one of Ra- cine's most admired tragedies. (See II. Kings viii. 18, 26, and xi. ; II. Chronicles xxii. and xxiii.) AtlFa-mas, [Gr. 'A(?a//af,] a mythical person, was a son of iF^olus, and a brother of Sisyphus and Salmoneus. He married Nephele, and afterwards Ino, a daughter of Cadmus. It is said that he became insane and killed his son. (See Ino.) Atha-Melik. See Ata-Malek. A-thaii-a-giFdus [Fr. Athanagilde, i'tt^nS'zh^ld'] became king of the Spanish Visigoths in 554 a.d. by the aid of the emperor Justinian. He fixed his court at To- ledo, where he died in 567 a.d. His daughter Brunehaut was married to Siegbert, King of Austrasia, and her sis- ter Galswinda to King Chilperic. See Mariana, " Historia general de Espana." A-than'a-ric, an able chief of a tribe of Visigoths who inhabited Dacia, made a treaty of peace about 370 A.D. with the emperor Valens, against whom he had waged war several years. He failed in an effort to resist a horde of wild Huns who rushed like a torrent from the north in 376 A.D. Died in 381. Athanase. See Athanasius. Athanasio, a-ti-na'se-o, or Atanasio, (Don Pedro,) a Spanish painter and excellent colorist, born at Granada in 1638, was a pupil of Alonzo Cano. Died in 1688. Athanasius, ath-a-na''she-us, [Gr. 'Mavuctog; Fr. Athanase, t'tt'ntz'; It. Atanasio, l-ta-n3.''se-o,] Saint, an illustrious Greek Father and pillar of the Church, was born at Alexandria about 296 a.d. He was a pupil and secretary of the archbishop Alexander. He attended in 325 A.D. the famous Council of Nice, in which he dis- c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, ii, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^"See Explanations, p. 23.) ATHANJSIUS 198 ATHENAGORAS tinguished himself by his eloquence and zeal against the doctrine of Arius. In the next year he was elected Archbishop of Alexandria by the clergy and the people. It is said that he refused to obey an order which Con- stantine the Great issued in 331, to restore Arius to communion. Having been accused of sacrilege and other crimes by his enemies, he was summoned, in 334 or 335 A.D., before a council at Tyre, which condemned him without proof He was exiled to Treves by Con- stantine, at whose death (337) he was restored to his see by the favour of Constantine II. The Arians prevailed in the Council of Antioch, 341 A.D., and were patronized by the emperor Constantius. Athanasius was again deposed, and retired to Rome, where he was cordially re- ceived by the bishop Julius, and found many friends. In 347 his cause and doctrines were approved by the Co incil of Sardica, and in 349 he returned in triumph to Alexandria. He was considered the leader of the orthodox party, who were sometimes called Athanasians. Athanasius is commended for the fortitude with which he endured long persecution, and the firmness with which he defended the faith against imperial power and pre- sented himself as a barrier against despotism. His in- fluence and reputation were so great that Constantius did not venture to use open violence against him. but by artful and indirect means he procured his condemnation at the Council of Milan, 355 a.d. Athanasius then found a safe refuge among the anchorites of Upper Egypt, where he remained six years and composed several works. On the death of Constantius, 361 A.D., he was restored to his office. He was exiled by Julian (362) and by Valens, (367 ;) but he passed his last five years in the possession of his see, and died in 373 A.D. Among his most important works are, a " Discourse on the Incarnation," " Five Books against Arius," a " Discourse against the Greeks or Gentiles," a " Disputa- tion {b^iiikmroq) with Arius in the Council of Nice," " Epistles to Serapio," "An Apology to the Emperor Constantius," and an "Apology for his own Flight." His style is clear, simple, and forcible. His character appears to have been a rare combination of genius, wis- dom, practical ability, courage, and discretion. It is now generally admitted that the Athanasian Creed, which was a standard of orthodoxy in the Middle Ages, was not composed by this Athanasius, to whom it was formerly ascribed. See Heraiant, "Vie d'Athanase," 1671 ; Mohler, "Athanasius der Grosse," 1827; Socrates, " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Sozomen, "Historia Ecclesiastica;" E. Renaudot, " Hisloire des Patriarches d'A'.exandrie," 1713 ; Photius, " Blbliotheca " Athanasius, Bishop of Ancyra in 360 a.d., was a strenuous advocate of the Nicene Creed against the Eunomians and others. Died about 372 A.D. Athanasius, presbyter of Alexandria, of which city he was a native, lived about 450 a.d. Athanasius, a jurist of Emesa, in Syria, lived in the sixth century. Athanasius, Bishop, was elevated to the see of Naples in 877 by his brother Sergius, duke of that city, whom he afterwards conspired against, put out his eyes and delivered him a captive to Pope John VIII., and took possession himself of the dukedom. See GiANNONE, "Storia civile del Regno dl Napoli." Athanasius, Patriarch of Constantinople, attained that dignity in 1289, and abdicated in 13 10. Athanasius called the Rhetorician, was born at Constantinople (or, according to some authorities, in Cyprus) about 1552. He removed to Paris, where he died in 1663, leaving several Greek works, among which is "The Delight of the Soul, etc.," (1639,) and a "Com- pendium of Moral Philosophy," (1641.) A''the-as, a warlike and prudent king of Scythia, lived about 350 B.C. and waged war against Philip of Macedon. Athelard.' See Adelard. Atheling. See Edgar Atheling. Ath'el-stan^ more correctly .ffithelstan or Ethel- stan — gth-el-stan^, written also Adelstan and Edel- stan, one of the wisest and ablest of the Anglo-Saxon kings, born about 895 A.D., was the eldest son of Edward the Elder, and a grandson of Alfred the Great. He succeeded his father in 925, and soon after annexed to his kingdom Northumbria, which had been ruled by Sig- tric or Sithric, a Danish chief In 934 he invaded Scot- land. Among the important events of his reign was a great victory which he gained in 937 a.d. at Brunenburg, Brunsbury, or Brunford, over an army of Danes, Scots, Picts, etc., led by Anlaf, (a son of Sigtric,) and by Con- stantine of Scotland. His power exceeded that of any previous Anglo-Saxon king. He reigned over all the island except Cumbria, Wales, Cornwall, and Scotland, which were tributary to him. His liberality, and respect for laws, learning, and religion, are commended by Wil- liam of Malmesbury. He died without issue in 941, and was succeeded by his brother Edmund. See Hume, "History of England," chap. ii. ; Freeman, "Nor- man Conquest," vol. i. chap. ii. A-the'na, [Gr. 'Mr]vr] or 'kdrjva,'\ the goddess of wis- dom, one of the great divinities of the Greek mythol- ogy, was fabled to have sprung in full armour from the head of Jupiter. She presided over agriculture, inven- tions, sciences, laws, and industry, and was the reputed creator of the olive-tree. She was the great national divinity of the Athenians, whose capital derived its name from her. Athena, sometimes called Pallas Athena, corresponds to the Minerva of the Romans. (See Mi- nerva.) Athenaeus, ath-a-nee'us, [Gr. 'Adf^vatog ; Fr. Athe- NEE, t'ta'na',] a Peripatetic philosopher, born at Seleu- cia, in Cilicia, lived about 50 B.C. He was a party leader in his native city, and was intimate with Lucius Murena, who conspired against Augustus in 22 B.C. He was ar- rested on this account, but was released because there was no proof against him. Athenaeus, the author of an extant Greek work on Military Engines, addressed to Marcellus, (probably the conqueror of Syracuse.) He is said to have been a con- temporary of Archimedes. Athenasus, an eminent physician, the founder of the medical sect of " Pneumatici," was born in Cilicia, at Tar- sus or Attalia, probably in the first century after Christ. He practised at Rome with success, and wrote many works, of which only small fragments remain. The name of his sect is derived from Trvsviia, spirit, an active prin- ciple which they considered a fifth element. Athenaeus, a distinguished Greek litterateur and an- tiquary, born at Naucratis, in Egypt, flourished about 200 A.D. Little is known of his life, except that he became a resident of Rome, and wrote or compiled an interest- ing work entitled AsnrvoaocpLGTat, " The Banquet of the Learned," or, perhaps, " The Contrivers of Feasts," which is extant. It is in the form of a dialogue, and purports to be a description of a banquet given by Laurentius or Laren- sius, a noble Roman, to a number of eminent men, among whom was Galen. It is an immense mass of anecdotes, criticisms, facts in natural history, and extracts from the works of about seven hundred poets, dramatists, histo- rians, etc., and derives its value chiefly from these ex- tracts from authors whose works are lost. As a work of art it has little merit ; but it affords much information about the private life of the ancient Greeks, and gives proof of great antiquarian research. A good edition of Athenaeus was published by W. Din- dorf, Leipsic, 3 vols., 1827. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Gr^ca :" Schoei.l, " Histoire de la Litterature Grecque ;" " Edinburgh Review," vol. iii., (1803 ;) "Black- vyfood's Magazine," vol. iv., (1S18.) Athenaeus, a Greek epigrammatic poet mentioned by Diogenes Laertius. Two of his epigrams are found in the Greek Anthology. Ath-e-nag'o-ras, fGr. ' kdrivayopag ; Fr. Ath^nagore, t^ta'nt'goR',] an ancient physician to whom is ascribed an extant unedited Latin treatise on the Pulse and Urine. He is supposed to have lived before the Christian era. Athenagoras, a Greek philosopher, born at Athens, was converted to Christianity in the second century, and wrote "An Apology for the Christians," which is still extant. It was addressed to Marcus Aurelius, or, as some say, to Hadrian and Antoninus. He also left an extant treatise in defence of the doctrine of the Resui- rection. His works have considerable literary merit, nnd are highly esteemed in other respects. They have been translated into English by David Humphreys. Athenag- a. e, T, o, u, y, long; h, ^, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, fi, y, sJiort; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon*. ATHENAGORE 199 ATKINSON oras has been accused of alloying Christianity with Pla- tonic philosophy. See Neander, "History of the Christian Church." s Athenagore. See Athenagoras. Athenais. See Eudocia. Athenas, fta'nas'', (Pierre Louis,) a Frenchman distinguished for his efforts to improve agriculture, com- merce, and the useful arts, was born in Paris in 1752. He opened a manufactory of sulphuric acid at Nantes, invented a plough which was much used, discovered the thi-mines of Piriac, and wrote treatises on agriculture, rural economy, etc. He introduced and naturalized the Guinea grass, [Paiiicum alt is simian,) which is valuable for pasture or fodder. Died in 1829. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Athenee. See ATHENi*:us. Athenion. See Aristion. A-the''ni-on, ['A0;?vi(jv,] a famous Greek encaustic painter, born at Maronea, in Thrace, lived about 320 B.C., and was a pupil of Glaucion of Corinth. He is said to have exxelled Nicias, compared with whom he was more austere in colouring. Among his works were " Ulysses detecting Achilles in a female dress," and a " Groom breaking in a horse." Pliny expresses the opinion that he would have surpassed all men in painting if he had not died young. See Pliny, " Natural History." Athenion, a Greek comic poet of the middle comedy, from whose play " The Samothracians" we have a long extract in Atheuceus. Athenion or Athe'nio, a leader of the insurgents in a servile war in Sicily, is said to have been a Cilician by birth. He was defeated by the consul Manius Aquil- lius, who killed Athenion with his own hand, in 102 B.C. See DiODORUS Siculus, "Fragments." Athenion, a Greek physician, mentioned by Soranus as being a follower of Erasistratus, lived probably be- tween 2G0 B.C. and 100 a.d. A-then'o-cles [Gr. ' kdrjvoKlri^l of Cyzicus, a commen- tator upon Homer, is spoken of by Athenaeus as a better critic of Homer's poems than Aristarchus. Another Athenocles is mentioned by Athenaeus as an excellent engraver, and embosser of drinking-cups. Athenodore. See Athenodorus, A-then-o-do'rus, [Gr. ' Mrivodupog ; Fr. Atheno- dore, t'ti^no'doR',] a Greek statuary, was a native of Arcadia and a pupil of Polycletus the elder. He was particularly successful in representing women of rank. He flourished about 350 B.C. Athenodorus, one of the three sculptors of the celebrated group of "Laocoon and his Sons," was a son of Agesander of Rhodes. (See Agesander.) Athenodorus, a Greek physician, who was probably a contemporary of Plutarch. He wrote a work " On Epidemic Diseases," (not extant.) Athenodorus, [Fr. Athenodore,] a Stoic philoso- pher, called Canani'tes, (from Cana, in Cilicia, the birth- place of his father,) was born at Tarsus. He was proba- bly the person whom Cicero calls Athenodorus Calvus, ("Ad Atticum," xvi.) He taught at Apollonia, where Octavius appears to have taken lessons from him, and afterwards removed to Rome. His influence over Oc- tavius, before and after he became emperor, tended to restrain him from excessive severity. Among the lost works attributed to Athenodorus is a treatise against the " Categories" of Aristotle. He died aged eighty-two. See Diogenes Laertius; Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grsca." Athenodorus surnamed Cordyl'io, of Tarsus, a Stoic philosopher, was keeper of the great library of Pergamus. He removed to Rome, where he lived in the same house with Cato Uticensis until his death. Athenodorus of ^nos, a Greek rhetorician, taught at Athens between 150 and 200 a.d. Athenodorus of Teos, a Greek, who performed on the harp at the marriage of Alexander the Great and Statira in 324 B.C. Ath'er-stone, (Edwin,) an English poet, born at Nottingham about 1788, was the author of "Abradates and Panthea," (1821,) "The Last Days of Herculaneum," and "The Fall of Nineveh," (1828,) which are highly commended. He contributed to the " Edinburgh Re- view." See "Blackwood's Magazine," vol. xxvii., and " Edinburgh Re- view," vol. xlviii. Ath'er-tpn, (Charles G.), an American Democratic politician, son of Charles H. Atherton, was born at Am- herst, New H^impshire, in 1804. He graduated at Har- vard in 1822. In 1837 he was elected to Congress, and the next year introduced a series of resolutions, which passed the House of Representatives, requiring that all petitions or papers relating in any way to the subject of slavery should be laid on the table without being de- bated, printed, or referred. These resolutions formed the basis of the famous "gag-law," in the repeal of which John Quincy Adams won immortal renown. In 1843 Atherton was elected to the United States Senate, and re-elected in 1852. Died in 1853. Atherton, (Humphrey,) a major-general in New England, much employed in negotiations with the In- dians, came from England to Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1650. Died in 1653. Athias, a-tee'is, (Isaac,) a Spanish Jew and writer, lived at Amsterdam about 1600-20. Athias, (Rabbi Joseph,) an eminent Jewish printer of Amsterdam, published editions of the Hebrew Bible (1661 and 1667) which were highly esteemed. He was pre- sented with a gold chain by the States-General for these services. The majority of modei-n editors of the Bible have followed the text of Athias. Died in 1700. Athlone, Earl of. See Ginkel. Atia, a''she-a, the mother of the Roman emperor Au- gustus, was a daughter of M. Atius Balbus and Julia, the sister of Julius Caesar. She is praised for the care and wisdom with which she educated her son. Died in 43 B.C. Atienza Calatrava, a-te-§n'th§, ka-lS-tRi'vl, (Mar- tin,) a Spanish painter, one of the founders of the Aca- demy of Seville, lived about 1660. A-til-i-gi'nus, a Roman jurist, who lived in the first century of our era. His works are cited in the Digest. A-til'i-us, a freedman in the reign of Tiberius, chiefly famous for an amphitheatre for gladiators which he erected near Fidenae, but so slightly that it fell when filled with spectators, in 27 A.D., and from twenty to fifty thousand persons are said to have been killed and wounded. He was banished. Atilius, (Caius and Marcus,) Roman decemviri in 216 B.C. Atilius, (Lucius,) was tribune of the people, 311 B.C. Atilius, (Lucius,) a quaestor, 216 B.C., fell at Cannae. Atilius, (Lucius,) commanded the Roman garrison at Locri, 215 B.C. Atilius, (Lucius,) praetor in 197 B.C. Atilius, (Lucius,) a Roman jurist in the second cen- tury B.C. Atilius, (Lucius,) surnamed Sapiens, a Roman jurist, lived between 200 and 150 B.C. Atilius, (Marcus,) an early Latin comic poet, whose period is unknown. His works are not extant. Cicero calls him a very rugged poet, — poeta ditrissimits. At'kins, (PIenry,) a Boston navigator, who in nume- rous trading voyages to Davis Straits, between 1729 and 1758, explored much of the coast of Labrador. A brief account of his observations is published in the " Massa- chusetts Historical Collections." At'kins, (John,) born at Plaistow, Essex, in England, entered the navy as surgeon about 1703. He served in various parts of the world, and published an interesting work entitled "Voyage to Guiana, Brazil, and the West Indies," (1737,) and "The Navy Surgeon, or a Practical System of Surgery," (1737.) Atkins, (Richard.) See Atkyns. Atkins, (Robert,) an English nonconformist divine, born in Somersetshire about 1625. He preached at Exeter, and was ejected for nonconformity in 1662. Died in 1685. At'kin-son, (Benjamin Andrew,) an English Pres- byterian minister, preached in London about 1715-35, and wrote against Popery. Atkinson, (Henry,) an English mathematician, born I near Newcastle-upon-Tyne about 1786. He contributed e as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Y., gtcttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23. ) ATKINSON 200 ATT ALUS to die Ladies' and Gentlemen's Diaries, and was one of the editors of the "Newcastle Magazine." Died in 1831. At'kin-son, (Henry,) an American general, born in North Carolina about 1780. Having in 1820 been made a brigadier-general, he commanded the Western Army at the battle of Bad Axe, in which he defeated the Indians under Black Hawk, August 2, 1832. D^?d in 1842. Atkinson, (Theodore,) a chief-justice of New Hampshire, born at New Castle in 1697 5 died in 1779. Atkinson, (Thomas,) an English clergyman and Latin poet, was rector of Islip, where he died in 1639. He left in manuscript a Latin tragedy, entitled "Man," (" Homo.") At'kin-son, (Thomas,) a Scottish writer, born about 1800, lived in Glasgow. Died in 1833. Atkinson, (Thomas Witlam,) an English artist and traveller, born in Yorkshire in 1799. He painted land- scapes, passed about seven years in the exploration of Siberia, and published " Oriental and Western Siberia, a Narrative of Seven Years' Explorations and Adven- tures," etc., (1858,) and "Travels in the Regions of the Upper and Lower Amoor," (i860.) Died in 1861. At'kyns, (John Tracy,) an English lawyer, who was called to the bar in 1732. Pie was appointed cursitor baron of the exchequer in 1755. " Reports of Cases argued and determined in Chancery from 1736 to 1754" are considered good authority. See Foss, "Judges of England," vol. viii. Atkyns or At'kins, (Richard,) an English gentle- man, born in Gloucestershire about 1615, raised a troop of horse for the king in the civil war. In a work " On the Origin and Growth of Printing," (1664,) he attempted to deprive Caxton of the credit of introducing printing into England. (See Caxton.) Died in 1677. Atkyns, (Sir Robert,) an eminent English lawyer and judge, a son of Edward Atkyns, who was a baron of the exchequer, was born in Gloucestershire in 1621. He was knighted at the coronation of Charles II., and appointed a judge of the court of common pleas in 1672. Re- fusing to be subservient to the designs of the corrupt court, he resigned or was removed in 1680. After the revolution which dethroned James II. he was appointed chief baron of the exchequer in 1689. Among his works are an " Inquiry into the Power of dispensing with Penal Laws," (1689,) and a "Defence of Lord Russell's Inno- cency," (1689.) Died in 1709. See Foss, "Judges of England," vol. vii. Atkyns, (Sir Robert,) a son of the preceding, born near London in 1646 or 1647. He devoted much time to researches in the history and antiquities of the county in which he resided, and is chiefly known as author of " The Ancient and Present State of Glo'stershire," (1712.) Died in 1711. See " Biographia Britannica." At-lan'ti-des, [Gr.'ArAavrHef,] the daughters of Atlas, were also called Hesperides, Pleiades, and Hyades. AtTas, [Gr. 'ArAar,! a mythical personage represent- ed by the ancient poets sometimes as bearing the heavens on his shoulders, and sometimes as the keeper of the pillars which support the heavens. Hesiod calls him a son of Japetus and Clymene. In later traditions the conception of his superhuman personal existence is blended or lost in the idea of the celebrated mountain in Northern Africa. By some he was represented as the leader of the Titans in their war against Jupiter. At'lee, (Samuel John,) an American colonel in the Revolutionary war, born in Pennsylvania in 1738, was elected to Congress from Lancaster in 1780. Died in 1786. Atnian, at'man, or Atm^, It'mS, {i.e. "soul,") called also Paramatm^, (" first or great soul,") the Sanscrit name of the great soul of the world, [in German, Welt- seele,] alluded to in the Vedas as the original or pri- mary principle of nature. This idea is regarded as the germ or commencement of the Brahminical philosophy. See KoppEN, "Religion des Buddha," p. 29. Atondo y Antillon, a-ton'do e an-t^l-y6n', (Don IsiDORO,) a Spanish admiral who explored Lower Cali- fornia and planted a colony there about 1682. See Venegas, " Noticias de la California." A-tos'sa, [Gr. "Aroaaa,] a daughter of Cyrus, King of Persia, became successively the wife of Cam'jyses, of Smerdis the Magian, and of Darius Hystaspes, over whom she had great influence. She was the mother of Xerxes, According to Hellanicus, she was the first person who wrote epistles. Atree^ See Atreus. A'treus, [Gr. 'Arpevg; Fr. Atri^e, t'.tRa',] an ancient king of Mycenae, supposed to have been a son of Pelops and Hippodami^a, and father or grandfather of Agamem- non and Menelaus. The crimes and calamities of Atreus and his family afforded a prolific subject for the Greek poets and fabulists. A-tri^des, [Gr. 'ATpel6T]g,] plural A-tri'dae, ['Arpadai,] a patronymic from Atreus. In the singular it commonly designates Agamemnon, but in the plural the two bro- thers Agamemnon and Menelaus. (See Homer's " Iliad," passim.) A-tro-91-a'nus, [Ger. pron. i-trot-se-a^nus,] (Joan- nes,) a German poet and botanist, lived at Bale and Col- mar in the first half of the sixteenth century. He was a teacher of languages, and published, besides other works, a Latin poem on "The Peasants' War of 1525," ("De Bello Rustico Anni 1525,") (published in 1528,) and an edition of ^^imilius Macer "On the Virtues of Plants." A-trop'a-tes, [Gr. 'ArpoTrarT?^,] a Persian general, commanded a division at the battle of Arbela, 331 B.C., and was made Satrap of Media by Alexander, 330 B.C. Atropos. See Parc.-e. Afsyll, (Richard,) an English engraver, worked for Henry VIII. about 1510-40. See Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting in England." At'ta, (Titus Quintius,) a Roman dramatic poet, wrote comedies about 80 B.C. Some fragments of his writings have been preserved. At-ta-gi'nus, [Gr. 'ArTajlvor,] a Theban, who fa- voured the cause of Xerxes on his invasion of Greece, 480 B.C. Attaignant, t'tan'ySN , (Pierre,) a French printer of Paris, said to have been the first who printed music with movable types. Died in 1556. See Panzer, "Annales Typographicae. " Attaignant, de 1', deh iS^tan'ySN', (Gabriel Charles,) a French versifier, born in Paris in 1697, be- came a canon of Rheims. His works, comprising songs, madrigals, etc., were published in four volumes in 1 757. Died in 1779. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Attaji. See Atajee. Attale. See Attalus. At'ta-li'a-tes or Attali'ata, [Gr. 'ATraTietaTrjc,] (Mi- chael,) compiled a compendium of law at Constanti- nople in the eleventh century. At'ta-lus, [Gr. 'Arralog; Fr. Attale, t'ttK,] a gene- ral of Philip of Macedon, was uncle of Cleopatra whom Philip married in 337 B.C. At a feast which followed this event, he offended the prince Alexander by a wish or prayer for a legitimate successor to the throne. Atta- lus insulted or injured Pausanias, who complained to King Philip ; but the latter, from favouritism to Attalus, refused to give him redress. This offence is supposed to have caused the assassination of Philip by Pausanias. Attalus was put to death, by order of Alexander, in 336 or 335 B.C. See DiODORUs Siculus, book xvi. ; Justin, books ix. and xii. Attains, [Fr. Attale,] an officer of Alexander the Great, and brother-in-law of Perdiccas, was one of the officers left with part of the army in Bactria in 328 B.C., and accompanied Alexander in the invasion of India in 326. In 321 he commanded the fleet of Perdiccas in his expedition against Ptolemy of Egypt. He was de- feated in Pisidia and taken prisoner by Antigonus in 320 B.C. His ultimate fate is unknown. See /Vrrian's "Anabasis." Attains I., King of Pergamus, succeeded his cousin Eumenes I. in 241" B.C. He gained a decisive victory over the Gauls, who had occupied Galatia. Before the year 226 he had made himself master of all Asia Minor west of Mount Taurus. As ally of the Romans and /Etolians, he waged war against Philip of Macedon be- a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, ohsacre; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; ATTAL US 20 1 ATTERBURT tween 210 and 204. In 200 B.C. he met at Athens a Ro- man embassy and formed another league against PhiHp. He died in 197 B.C., and left the throne to his son Eumenes II. Attains had the reputation of a just and wise ruler, and a very able general. See PoLYBius, " History," books iv., v., x., xvi., xvii., xviii., xxii., etc. ; Livv, books xxvi., xxvii., xxviii., xxix., xxxi., etc. Attains II., surnamed Philadel'phus, was the sec- ond son of Attalus I., and was born about 220 B.C. He began to reign in 159, before which he had served Eu- menes II. as general and ambassador to Rome. He adhered constantly to the Roman alliance, and waged war against Prusias of Bithynia. He founded Philadel- phia in Lydia, and patronized the arts and sciences. Horace is supposed to refer to the flourishing finances of Attalus in the phrase Attalicis conditionibus," (Ode I. "Ad Mascenatem.") Died in 138 B.C. See PoLYBius, " History," books iii., xxii., xxv., xxx., xxxi. ; Livv, books XXXV., x.xxvii., xxxviii., xlii., xlv. Attalus III., (Philome'tor,) a nephew of the pre- ceding, and son of Eumenes II., ascended the throne in 138 B.C., soon after which he murdered many of his friends and relatives. Having been seized with remorse, he abandoned public affairs, and applied himself to sculp- ture, and to gardening, on which he wrote a book. He died in 133 B.C., having made a will, in which the Roman people were appointed his heirs. See DioDORUs Siculus, book xxiv. ; Justin, book xxxvi. Attalus, a mathematician, who wrote a commentary on the " Phenomena" of Aratus, is supposed to have flourished between 162 and 128 B.C. Attalus, a Greek physician of the second century, A.D., was a pupil of Soranus, and belonged to the mecli- cal school called Mcthodici, (or "Methodists.") Attalus, an Athenian sculptor of unknown date, who executed the statue of the Lycian Apollo at Argos. Attalus, an able and eloquent Stoic philosopher, who lived at Rome in the reign of Tiberius. He was a teacher of the philosopher Seneca, who speaks of him in very favourable terms and quotes a number of his sayings. He was banished through the influence of Sejanus. See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grsca." Attains, a rhetorician or sophist, who appears to have been a native of Laodicea. He settled at Smyrna, and flourished in the reign of Marcus AurcHus. Attalus, a presbyter of the Christian Church in the fourth century, was condemned for Arianisni, 381 A.D. Attalu-s, (Flavius Priscus,) probably an Ionian by descent, was a pagan by birth, and was converted to Arianism. He was prefect of Rome when that capital was taken by Alaric in 409 A.D., and was then proclaimed emperor by Alaric in place of Floiiorius. He refused the offer of Ilonorius to be his associate in the empire. In 410 he was deposed by Alaric, and in 416 A.D. was banished by Ilonorius to Lipari. His subsequent fate is not known. See SozoMEM, " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Gibbon, ''Decline and Fall of the^Roman Empire." Attalus, (Martyn,) one of the Christians put to death at Lugdunum (Lyons) in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, 177 A.D. Attameemee, (or Atamimi,) an Arabian physician, a native of Jerusalem, gave much attention to pharmacy and materia medica, and wrote numerous medical works. He was living in Egypt in 980 A.D. Attar, at-"taR', or, as he was usually called, Co'gi (or Kho'jah) Attar, was nominally the vizier, but really the ruler, of Ormuz when Albuquerque first arrived before that city. He successfully resisted until his death all the attempts of the Portuguese to take Ormuz. He is believed to have died in 15 13. Attardi, it-taRMee, (Bonaventura,) an Italian theo- logian and Augustine monk of the early part of the eigh- teenth century, became in 1738 provincial of his order in Sicily and Malta. See Mazzuciielli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." Attar-Fereed-ed-Deeii, (or Ferid-ed-Din,) it-tlr' fSh-reed' ed-deen', a celebrated Persian poet, who was distinguished for his profound knowledge of the Soofee doctrines, was born in a suburb of Nishapoor, in Kho- rassan, about 1120 a.d. He wrote forty poetical works, one of which was published at Paris' in 1819, with a memoir. He is said to have been killed by a soldier oi Jengis Khan, 1221 a.d., aged one hundred and one years. Attavante, at-ti-vin^ta, (Fiorentino,) an Italian illuminator and miniature-painter of the latter part of the fifteenth century, worked principally at Venice. See Lanzi, "History of Paintmg in Italy." Attavanti, at-ta-vdn'tee, (Paolo,) an Italian friar and eloquent preacher, born at Florence in 1419, entered the order of Servites, of which he wrote an account, (1727.) Among his works are " Compendium of Canonical Law," ("Breviarium totius Juris canonici," 1479,) and an "Ex- position of the Penitential Psalms," (1479.) Died in 1499. See TiRABOscHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." At-te'ius surnamed Pr^texta'tus, a grammarian, and afterwards called Philologus, He lived in the latter half of the first century B,C., and taught many noble Roman youths, and prepared a Compendium of Roman Flistory for the use of Sallust. Atteius Capito. See Capito. Attendolo, at-ten''do-lo, or Attendoli, at-tgn'do-lee, (Dario, da-ree''o,) an Italian jurist of the middle of the sixteenth century, was born in the duchy of Ferrara. Among his works is a treatise on the Duel, ("Duello diviso in tre Libri," 1560.) See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Attendolo, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian priest, distinguished as a poet and a linguist, was born at Capua. In the dispute respecting Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered," he defended that poet against the Academy della Crusca. He left, besides other workd|i" Rime," ("Poems," 1584.) Died in 1592. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Atterbom, St'ter-bom', (Peter Daniel Amadeus,) a Swedish poet, born in East Gothland, or in the county of Christianstadt, in 1790. He became German teacher of Prince Oscar about 1820, and professor of philosophy at Upsal in 1828. For many years he edited the " Poetical Almanac," (" Poetisk Kalender.") His poems are ad- mired for grace and harmony. He first introduced son- nets and octaves into Swedish poetry. Among his chief works is "The Seers and Poets of Sweden," a contribu- tion to literary history, in five or six volumes, the first of which appeared in 1841. Died in 1855. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Atterbury, at'ter-ber-e, (Francis,) Bishop of Roches- ter, an eminent English writer, pulpit orator, and politi- cian, born at Milton, near Newport-Pagnell, in Bucking- hamshire, in March, 1662, was a son of Lewis Atterbury, noticed below. He entered Christ Church, Oxford, in 1680, published a Latin version of Dryden's "Absalom and Achitophel" in 1682, and married Miss Osborn, a relative of the Duke of Leeds, in 1690, In 1691 he be- came lecturer at Saint Bride's Church, London, Having distinguished himself as an eloquent preacher, he was appointed one of the chaplains to WiHiam and Mary about 1694. He was the chief author of a witty answer to Bentley's "Dissertation on the Epistles of Phalaris," (See Bentley and Boyle.) Fie wrote, in answer to Dr. Wake, "The Rights, Powers, and Privileges of an Eng- lish Convocation stated and vindicated," (1700.) He was ap'pointed chaplain to Queen Anne in 1702, Dean of Carlisle in 1704, and Bishop of Rochester in 1713. Atterbury was a zealous Tory and Jacobite, and was intimate with Pope and Swift. He was an able and adroit politician, and would probably have been primate if Queen Anne had survived a few years longer. It is re- ported that on her death (i 714) he urged Bolingbroke to proclaim the Pretender James. He was committed to the Tower in 1722 on a charge of being engaged in plots to restore the Stuart family, and was convicted by the House of Lords in May, 1 723. The sentence was deprivation of all his offices and benefices and banishment for life. He retired to France, and continued to be a favourite agent and adviser of the Pretender. He died in Paris in Feb- ruary, 1732. Four volumes of his sermons were pub- lished in 1740. According to Boswell, Dr. Johnson reckoned Atter- bury's sermons among the best in the language for style. " He is the glory of our English orators," says Dod- dridge. "In his writings we see language in its strictest e as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (gi^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ATTERBURT 202 ATTWATER purity and beauty." Among his works is an eloquent vindication of Luther, in "An Answer to some Considera- tions on the Spirit of Martin Luther and the Original of the Reformation," (1687.) See his "Epistolary Correspondence," 4 vols., 1783, edited by J. Nichols; Thomas Stackhouse, "Memoirs of the Life of Francis Atterbury," 1727; Hali.am, "Constitutional History;" Swift, "Four Last Years of the Reign of Queen Anne;" Kippis, " Bio- graphia Britannica." Atterbury, (Lewis,) the father of the preceding, was born in 1631. He became rector of Milton or Middleton Keynes, in Bucks, about 1657, and retained that living under the reign of Charles IL Three of his sermons were published. He was drowned near his residence in 1693. Atterbury, (Lewis,) a son of the preceding, was born in the parish of Newport-Pagnell in 1656. He was ad- mitted to priest's orders in 1681, and elected preacher at Highgate Chapel, London, in 1695. ^^'^s one of the chaplains of Queen Anne, who presented him to the rec- tory of Shepperton. He also obtained the rectory of Hornsey in 1719, but continued to preach at Highgate until his death. Two volumes of his sermons were pub- lished in 1699 and in 1703. Died in 1731. Attei'bury, (Luffman,) an English composer of glees and songs, born about 1740; died in 1800. At'ti-cus, [Gr. 'Arn/cof,] a philosopher of the Platonic school, lived in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, about 175 A.D. His works are not extant. Atticus, an Athenian, who was raised from indigence to affluence by the discovery of a vast treasure in his house or land near Athens/ He was the father of He- rodes Atticus the rhetorician. (See Herodes.) He an- nounced his discovery of the treasure to the emperor Nerva, who answered that he might use it or abuse it as he pleased. He left by will an annuity of one mina* to each citizen of Athens. Atticus, a native of Sebaste, in Armenia, was irregu- larly chosen Patriarch of Constantinople in 406 A.D., in place of John Chrysostom, who had been deposed. Pope Innocent refused to recognize the appointment ; but they were finally reconciled. He wrote a treatise " On Faith and Virginity," ("De Fide et Virginitate,") not extant. Died in 425 A.D. Atticua, (DiONYSius,) a Greek rhetorician, a native of Pergamus, lived at Athens about 50 B.C. Atticus, (Titus Pompon ius,) a Roman philosopher and scholar, celebrated for his benevolence, moderation, and mediatorial services, was born in 109 n.C. He be- longed to the equestrian order, and inherited an ample fortune. On becoming heir to his uncle Quintus Cajcilius, he assumed that name, or prefixed it to his original name. During the civil war between Sulla and Marius, he retired to Athens, where he remained many years, and gained the favour of the Athenians by his munificence. He returned to Rome about 65 B.C., and devoted his time chiefly to literature, adhering constantly to a reso- lution, which he had formed in early life, to accept no public office and to maintain neutrality between hostile parties. He was an intimate friend of Cicero, with whom he corresponded regularly for many years, and was on friendly terms with Caesar, Pompey, Brutus, Mark An- tony, and Augustus. When Brutus was forced to fly from Italy, Atticus sent him a million sesterces.t He also afforded relief to the wife of Antony in her adversity. In philosophy he favoured the sect of Epicurus. He wrote an epitome of Roman history, entitled "Annales," comprising a period of seven centuries, and several other works, which are all lost. He was distinguished for fine literary taste, and excelled in the cotnposition of epi- grammatic inscriptions. His daughter Pomponia (or Attica) was married to M. Vipsanius Agrippa, the chief minister of Augustus, and his granddaughter Vipsania Agrippina was the wife of the emperor Tiberius. Many letters of Cicero to Atticus are extant. Died in 32 B.C. See "Life of Atticus," by Cornelius Nepos; Cicero, "Letters to Atticus," in Middleton's "Life of Cicero;"' Huli.emann, "Dia- tribe in T. Pomponium Atticum," ; Drumann, " Geschichte Roms;" Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." * About twenty dollars of our money ; but, owing to the compara- tive scarcity of the precious metals in that age, its relative value was probably very mucli greater. t About forty thousand dollars. See preceding note. Afti-la, [Gr. 'Arn'Aaf ; in German, Etzel, dt'sel, or Atzel, dt'sel,] a famous heathen conqueror, chief of the Huns, surnamed THE Scourge of God, was a son of Mundzuk or Mundzuccus. About 432 A.D. he succeeded his uncle Roas as king of the nomadic Huns who lived in Pannonia and north of the Danube. In a few years he extended his domination over vScythia and Germany. He invaded the Roman Empire in 447 or 446, defeated the armies of Theodosius, Emperor of the East, in several battles, and obliged him to treat for peace, which he obtained by the payment of an annual tribute. Marcian, who began to reign in 450 A.D., re- fused to pay tribute, and said, in reply to the messengers of Attila, "I have gold for my friends, and iron for my enemies." The haughty barbarian sent to the Emperors of the East and West a message in these terms : "Attila, my master and thy master, commands thee to prepare without delay a palace for his reception." He demanded in marriage Honoria, a sister of the emperor Valentinian, but the latter refused his consent. Having led a large army (estimated at seven hundred thousand men) into Gaul, he was defeated in a great battle by the Roman general Aetius and Theodoric the Visigoth near Chalons- sur-Marne in 451 A.D. Soon after this date he invaded Italy, the northern part of which he ravaged without meeting any resistance. The emperor sued for peace by the mediation of Pope Leo- I., who, in a personal inter- view with Attila, induced him to grant a truce and to retire from Italy. He died in Hungary in 453 or 454 A.D., and was buried by night. It is reported that he said " the grass could not grow where his horse had passed." He left sons nained Ellac and Dengezic ; but they did not inherit his abilities nor his power. Attila is the hero of many old German legends and songs, especially of the Niebelungen-Lied. See Jornandes, "De Rebus Geticis;" "Attila," an epic poem, (with notes,) by Rev. William Herbert, 1828 ; Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chaps, xxxiv. and xxxv. ; Calli- machus Experiens, " De Gestis Attilse," 1541 ; Juvencus C^lius Callanus, "Vita Attila," 1502; J. M. Barbieri, "La Guerra d' Attila," 1568; Fessler, "Attila Kbnig der Hunnen," 1794; Ame- DEE Thierry, "Attila dans les Gaules," 1852: Link, " Ueber Attila Konig der Hunnen," 1780; Dr. Hoefer, in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Attinghausen, it'ting-how'zen, a Swiss patriot, who was landamman of the canton of Uri in 1306, and one of the founders of the federation between the cantons of Uri, Schwitz, and Unterwalden. Attiret, t'te'ra', (Claude Franqois,) a French sculp- tor, born at Dole in 1728, worked at Dijon. By order of the magistrates of Dole, he executed a statue of Louis XVI., the first erected to that prince. Died in 1804. Attiret, (Jean Denis,) a French painter and Jesuit, an uncle of the precechng, born at Dole in 1702. He worked at Lyons and Avignon. In 1737 he went to Pekin, in consequence of a request from the French mis- sionaries that an artist should be sent to them. He gained the favour of the emperor Kien-Lung, by whom he was employed in his palace for many years, Kien- Lung also required the artist to accompany him in a military expedition and to paint the battles or pomps which he witnessed, Attiret, from motives of policy, conformed to the Chinese taste, and used water-colours, or distemper, because the emperor disliked the gloss of oil-colours. Died at Pekin in 1768. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Attius, (L.,) a Roman poet. See Accius. At'to or Ac'to [Fr. Atton, t't6N'| Ver-gel-li-en'- sis, a French monk, who was chosen Bishop of Vercelli about 924 A.D, His works were published in 1768, At'tucks, (Crispus,) a half-breed Indian or mulatto, was the leader of the mob in the fray known as the " Boston Massacre," which occurred on the 5th of March, 1770. He was killed by the soldiers on that occasion, and was buried with much pomp. Attumonelli, at-too-mo-neKlee, (Michele,) a dis- tinguished physician and medical writer, born at Andria, in Naples, 1753, in 1799 removed to Paris, where he had an extensive practice. Died in 1826. Att'wa-ter, (Russell,) a soldier of the American Revolution, born in Cheshire, Connecticut, in 1762. In the attack of the British on New Haven he was wounded a, e, T, o, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obsaire; fSr, fSll, fit; m§t; nftt; good; mocn; ATT WOOD 203 AUBERT and ]eft for dead on the field, but recovered. After the defeat of Napoleon at the battle of Waterloo he was employed by the friends of the emperor to purchase a tract of land in Northern New York, which they in- tended as a retreat for the emperor should he succeed in making his escape. But on hearing that Napoleon had given himself up to the English, the project was aban- doned. Died in 1851. Att'wood or Afwood, (Thomas,) an English judge, who officiated in the island of Dominica. He wrote " Observations on the true Method of Treatment of the Negro Slaves in the British West-India Islands," (1790,) and " History of Dominica," (1791.) Died in prison for debt in 1 793. Attwood or Atwood, (Thomas,) a distinguished English composer for the church, theatre, etc., born in 1767, was a favourite pupil of Mozart, at Vienna. He was patronized by the Prince of Wales, (George IV.,) an:I was elected organist of Saint Paul's Cathedral in 1795, and composer to the chapel royal in 1796. His anthem " The King shall rejoice," composed for the coronation of George IV., was much admired. He be- came organist to the chapel royal in 1837. He com- posed a number of popular songs and glees, among which are "The Harp's Wild Notes," and *' In this Fair Vale," several operas, and a grand anthem for the coro- nation of William IV., (1830.) Died in 1838. See Fetis, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." Afwell, (George,) of Cambridge, England, published a "Defence of Astrologv," (1660,) and " The Faithful Surveyor," (1662.) Sir fsaac Newton is said to have expressed a favourable opinion of him. At'wood or Att'wood, (George,) an English mathematician, eminent as a lecturer on natural philoso- phy, was born in 1745. He became a Fellow and tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1784 he published a "Treatise on the Rectilinear Motion and Rotation of Bodies," which was highly esteemed, and contained the first account of the machine since called by the name of "Atwood," by which the laws of simply accelerated mo- tion are verified. His "Dissertation on the Construction of Arches" (1801) is a work of much merit. Accord- ing to some writers, he was financial private secretary to William Pitt. Died in 1807. Atwood, (William,) an English constitutional and political writer, was chief-justice of New Vork, and lived about 1700. He wrote, besides several historical or legal treatises, a tract entitled "The Superiority and Di- rect Dominion of the Crown of England over the Crown and Kingdom of Scotland," (1704,) which was answered by James Anderson. Atzel. See Attila. Aubais.d', do'biV, (Charles de Barchi— deh btR'- she',) a French marquis, noted as a patron of literature, was born near Nimes in 1686. He published, with Leon Menard, " Documents for the History of France, with Notes," (" Pieces fugitives pour servir a I'Histoire," etc., 3 vols., 1759.) Died in 1777. Auban. See Saint-Aup^an. Aubenton. See Daukenton. Auber, o^baiR', a French economist, born at Rouen about the middle of the eighteenth century. He wrote several able reports on Agriculture, Internal Improve- ments, etc., as secretary of the " Societe d'Emulation" of Rouen. Died in 1804. Auber, (Daniel FRANgois Esprit,) an eminent French composer, born at Caen in January, 1784, was a pupil of Cherubini. His first production, " Le Sejour mili- taire," (1813,) was coldly received, but his comic opera "La Bergcre Chatelaine" (1820) was a complete suc- cess. In partnership with Eugene Scribe, he composed the music of many popular operas which are remarkable for originality and grace. His opera "La Muette de Portici," (1828,) commonly known as " Masaniello," had great success, and is called his master-piece. " In this are found,"_ says M. Denne-Baron, "situations strong and impassioned, rendered with admirable energy, mtances which the composer has seized with exquisite delicacy, displaying all the riches of a style diversified to infinity." Among his most popular comic operas are " Era Dia- volo," (1830,) "Lestocq," (1834,) "Le Domino noir," (1837,) and " Haydec," (1847.) He v. as chosen a member of the Institute in 1826. He was for a time director of music in the chapel of Napoleon III. Died in 1871. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens;" " Noiivelle Blograpliie Generale ;" Lomenie, " Galerie des Contemporains. " Auberi. See Aubery. Auberlen, oW'ber-len, (Samuel Gottlob,) a Ger- man composer and organist, born near Stuttgart in 1758. He composed symphonies, cantatas, duets, and music for various instruments. About 1816 he founded a school for choral singing. He was afterwards organist of the cathedral of Ulm. Died about 1830. See S. G. Auberlen, " Leben, RIeinungen," etc. ; Fetis, "Bio- graphie Universelle des Musiciens." Aubernon, o'beR'noN', (Philippe,) a French admin- istrator, born in 1757, became commissary of the army of the Alps in 1792. Died in 1832. Aubert, o'baiR^, (Anais, t'na',) Mademoiselle, a French dramatic artist, born about 1800. Aubert, (Augustin,) a French painter, born in 1781, lived at Marseilles. He painted history, landscapes, and portraits with success. Died in 1832. Aubert, (Esprit,) born near Avignon, was the author of a dictionary in Latin, with synonyms in Greek and French, published at Lyons in 1613. Aubert, Father, a Jesuit, who lived in the first half of the eighteenth century, and wrote several works, principally on natural history. Aubert, (FRANgois,) a French physician and medical writer, born at Dormans, in Champagne, in 1695 ; died about 1760. Aubert, (Francois,) a canon and religious writer, born at Paris in 1709. He wrote a "Refutation of Belimire and his Oracles" — i.e. Rousseau, Voltaire, etc., (1768.) Aubert, (Francois Hubert,) a French advocate, born at Nancy in 1720. He wrote a "Life of Stanislas Lecszinski, King of Poland and Duke of Lorraine, "(1769,) which was praised by Freron. He passed about twenty- five years in the service and at the court of this prince. Aubert, (Guillaume,) an eloquent French advocate, born at Poitiers about 1534. He published a fragment called a " History of the Wars waged by the Christians, under Godfrey of Bouillon, against the Turks," (1559.) Died about 1600. Aubert, (Jacques,) a French physician, born at Ven- dome. He wrote a " Treatise on the Plague," (" Libellus de Peste," 1571,) and other works. Died in 1586. Aubert, (Jean Louis,) ABB^,a French poet, fal^ulist, and critic, born in Paris in 1731, was for many years editor of the " Petitcs Affiches," a journal, which he made popular. In 1756 he published a collection of fables, which had a European reputation. Voltaire found in them philosophy adorned with the charms of wit, and wrote to Aubert, "You have the merit of style and of invention in a department where every thing seemed to have been said. You have placed yourself beside La Fontaine." His drama, in verse, on "The Death of Abel," was less successful. He was appointed professor of French literature in the College Royal, Paris, in 1773. Died in 1814. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Aubert, (Michel,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1700. He engraved some works of Rubens and of several Italian masters, also portraits of painters for D'Argenville's work, "The Lives of the Most Famous Painters." Died in Paris in 1757. Aubert, (Pierre,) a literary French lawyer, born at Lyons in 1642. He published a new and enlarged edi- tion of Richelet's " Dictionary of the French Language," (3 vols., 1728,) and presented to the city of Lyons a large library for the public use. Died in 1733. Aubert, (Pierre FRANgois Olivier,) a violoncellist, musical composer, and author of a History of Music, born at Amiens in 1765. See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Aubert, Saint, became Bishop of Avranches, in France, in the early part of the eighth century. He founded the monastery of Mont Saint-Michel, on a high rock in the sea, on the coast of France. Aubert de la Chesnaye des Bois, o'baiR' deh It shi'ni'da bwi, (FRANgois Alexandre,) a French com- c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K,gjcttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) AUBERT 204 AUBIGNE piler, born at lirnee, in Mayenne or Maine, in 1699. He published " Historical, Pliilosophical, and Critical Cor- respondence in answer to the Lcttrcs Juivcs,^^ (3 vols., 1739,) a "Military Dictionary," and other dictionaries; also, " Critical Letters on the Romans, English, and French," (1743.) Died in Paris in 1784. Aubert (or Gaubert) de Puicibot, 5'baiR' deh pwe'se'bo', a P'rench troubadour, born in Limousin, after a life of dissipation entered a monastery. Died in 1263. Aubert de Vertot. See Vertot. Aubert de Vitry, o'baiR' deh ve'tRe', (Francois Jean Piiiliberf,) a French writer and translator, born in Paris in 1765. He published in 1792 " Studies on Edu- cation," and wrote against the Jacobins in 1793. Dur- ing the republic and the empire of Napoleon he filled several civil offices. He translated " Memoirs of Goethe" from the German, (1823,) and several works from the English. Died in 1849. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Aubert du Bayet, 5'baiR'du bl'ya', (Jean Baptiste Annibal,) a French general, born in Louisiana in 1759. He fought under La Fayette for the United States, and was elected in 179 1 to the French legislative assembly, in which he acted with the popular party. Having re-entered the army, he rose to the rank of general of division, and in 1793 commanded at the famous siege of Mentz, which he surrendered to the Prussians. He was minister of war about three months in 1795, and was ambassador at Constantinople, where he died in December, 1797. Aubert du Petit-Thouars. See Du Petit-Thou- ARS. Aubertin, 5''beR't3.N^ (Dominique,) an adjutant- general in the French army, and author of " Memoirs on the War of La Vendee," born at Luneville in 1751 ; died in 1825. Aubertin, (Edme, §dm,) a learned French Protestant, born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1595, became minister at Charenton, near Paris. He published in 1629 "The Conformity of the Creed of the Church with Saint Augus- tine in Relation to the Eucharist," which was received with favour by the Protestants, and was answered by the great Arnauld. Died in 1652. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Aubert-Roclie, o'baiR' rosh, (Louis,) a French phy- sician, graduated at Paris in 1833, and passed some years in the service of Mehemet Ali, Viceroy of Egypt. In 1839 he published a treatise "On the Plague and Ty- phus of the East," in which he argues that the plague is not contagious. Aubery, 5'bRe', (Antoine,) a French historical wri- ter, born in Paris in 161 6. He published a " General His- tory of Cardinals," (5 vols., 1642-49,) a " History of Car- dinal Richelieu," (1660,) "Memoires pour I'Histoire du Cardinal de Richelieu," (2 vols., 1660,) and a " History of Cardinal Mazarin," (2 vols., 1695,) which Beuchot calls glossed over [fanUe) and inexact. Died in 1695. See NiCERON, "Memoires." Aubery, (Claude,) a French physician, who lived in the sixteenth century. Having adopted the Reformed religion, he removed to Lausanne, where he became pro- fessor of philosophy. His works, on religious and medi- cal subjects, display great erudition. Died in 1596. Aubery, (Jacques,) a French jurist and advocate, lived at Paris between 1550 and 1600. Aubery, (Jean,) physician to the Duke of Montpen- sier, was born in the Bourbonnais in the latter part of the sixteenth century. He wrote several medical works, and a "History of the City of Autun." Aubery, (Louis,) Sieur du Maurier, (mo're-a',) a French historical writer of the seventeenth celitury, studied at Leyden, and travelled in the north of Europe. His chief work is "Memoirs to illustrate the History of Holland and the other United Provinces," ("Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire de Hollande," etc., 1680,) which passed through many editions and is praised for its veracity and impartiality. Died in 1687. Aubespine, de 1', deh lo'bes'p6n^ (Charles,) Mar- quis de Chateauneuf, and Abbe de Preaux, a French diplomatist, notorious for intrigues, born in Paris in 1580, was a son of Guillaume de I'Aubespine. After he had served in several foreign missions, he was appointed keeper of the seals in 1630. He is censured for his severity or injustice to Marshals de Marillac and de Montmorency, at whose trial he presided. He was de- prived of oflice and imprisoned by Richelieu in 1633. Died in 1653. Aubespine, de 1', (Claude,) born about 1508, was secretary of state and finance for a long period, and was employed by several kings in important diplomatic missions. lie was one of the ablest negotiators of his time. He left a son Guillaume. Died in 1567. Aubespine, de 1', (Gabriel,) a brother of Charles, and grandson of Claude, noticed above, was born in 1579. He became Bishop of Orleans in 1604, and dis- played much learning in several works, one of which is entitled "On the Ancient Rites of the Church," ("De veteribus Ecclesias Ritibus," 1623.) Died in 1630. Aubespine, de r,(MADELEiNE,) a daughter of Claude, and aunt of Gabriel, was celebrated for her beauty, talents, and accomplishments. She wrote some poetical and prose compositions, and translated Ovid's Epistles. Aubeterre, d', dab'taiR', (David Bouchard — boo'- shtR^,) VicoMTE, a P'rench officer, born at Geneva, of a Protestant family. He became a Roman Catholic, and was appointed governor of Perigord by Henry IV. He was killed at the siege of L'Isle in 1598. Aubeterre, d', (Franqois d'Esparbes de Lussan — dgs-ptR'biV deh lii'soN^) Vicomte, a French officer who fought for Henry IV. in the civil war, became a mar- shal of France in 1620. Died in 1628. Aubeterre, d', (Joseph Henri Bouchard d'Bspar- bez — boo'shtRM§s'pSR'ba^)MARQUis, a French general, born in 17 14, served with distinction in several campaigns, became marechal-de-camp in 1748 and lieutenant-general in 1758. He was afterwards ambassador to Vienna, Mad- rid, arid Rome, and proved himself an able negotiator. In 1783 he was made marshal of France. Died in 1788. Aubignac, d', do'ben''ytk', (FRANgois Hedelin — had^law',) Abi5E, a mediocre French critic and dramatist, a grandson of Ambroise Pare, born in Paris in 1604. He wrote "Pratique du Theatre," (1669,) which, says La Harpe, " is a dull and tedious commentary on Aristotle ;" " Zenobie," a tragedy in prose, (1647 ;) and epigrams and brocJmres against Corneille and Menage. Died in 1676. Aubigne, d', (Merle.) See D'Aubigne. Aubigne, d', do'b^n'ya^ (Theodore Agrippa — t^gRe^pt'',) a French Huguenot historian, warrior, and poet, remarkable for his learning, wit, and audacity, was born at Saint-Maury, in Saintonge, in 1550. Fie was grandfather of Madame de Maintenon. It is reported that he translated the " Crito" of Plato in his eighth year. At the age of thirteen he was sent to a college in Geneva, from which he ran away two years later. He fought for the Huguenots in 1567 and 1568, a few years after which he entered the service of Henry of Navarre, who prized him highly as a partisan and companion in perilous adven- tures, and also employed him in negotiations. He some- times, however, offended Flenry by his bold sarcasms and epigrams. In 1586 he raised a regiment at his own expense to fight against the League. He rendered im- portant services at the battle of Coutras, (1587,) and was intrusted by Henry IV. with the custody of Cardinal Bourbon, a competitor for the crown. In 1616 he pub- lished the first volume of his valuable History of his own Time, entitled "Histoire universelle depuis I'An 1550 jusqu'al'An 1601," (3 vols., 1616-20,) which is his greatest work. A sentence of death was passed against him by the French court in 1621, but he had previously escaped to Geneva. The pretext for this sentence was that he had used the materials of a ruined church to repair a fortress. He died at Geneva in 1630. Among his works are a satire called "Catholic Confession of Sieur de Sancy," "Adventures of Baron de Foeneste," a satirical romance, (1617-20,) and interesting autobiographic me- moirs, (" Histoire secrete de T. A. d'Aubigne, ecrite par lui-meme," (1729-31.) See M. A. Savous, "Vie d'Aubigne;" Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Davil.a, " History of the Civil Wars in France ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Aubigne de la Fosse, d', do'b^n'yi' deh It fos, (Na- than,) [called in Latin Albin'eus or Albin.^;'us,] a French physician, born near Pluviers in 160 1, was a son a, e, T, o, u, y, loig; h, b, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, 11, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fMl, fdt; met; n6t; good; moon; JUBIGNT JVBUSSON of Theodore Agrippad'Aubigne, (according to Beuchot of the "Biographic Universelle.") He practised at Geneva, the citizenship of which he obtained in 1627, and pub- lished "Kibiiotheca Chemica Contracta," (1654.) He died at an advanced age. Aubigny, d', do'ben^ye', (Robert Stewart,) mar- shal of France, served under Charles VHI. in Italy, and was made a marshal in 1 5 14. He died in 1544. Aubin. See Saint-Aubin. Aubin, 5'b^N', (N.,) a French Protestant minister, born at Loudun in the seventeenth century. He took refuge in Holland on the repeal of the edict of Nantes, 1685. His principal work is " Histoire des Diables de Loudun," (1693,) an account of some nuns said to have been possessed by devils. Aublet, 5'bhy, (Jean Baptiste Christophe Fusee — fii'za.'',) a Fi'ench botanist, born at Salon, in Provence, in 1720. He passed about nine years (1752-61) in the Isle of France, and published a list of plants growing there. In 1762 he was sent by the government as apothe- cary-botanist to French Guiana, in which he collected many specimens. His greatest work is a description of these, with figures, " Histoire des Plantes de la Guiane Fran9oise," (4 vols., 1775,) which was highly esteemed. It describes nearly four hundred new species. His her- barium was purchasedby Sir Joseph Banks. Died in 1778. See "Biographie Medicale ;" " Nouvelle Biographle Generale." Aubree, o'bRa', (Rene,) a French general, born at Rennes in 1763, was killed at Saragossa in 1808. Aubrey, aw'bre, (John,) F.R.S., an eminent English antiquary, born at Easton-Piers, Wiltshire, in March, 1626, inherited several valuable estates. Fie was edu- cated at Oxford, and became a diligent collector of lite- rary and antiquarian materials. In 1656 he was a member of the club of Commonwealth's Men, founded on the principles of Harrington's "Oceana." Soon after 1666 he was reduced to poverty by law-suits and other causes. As a writer he shows much credulity, particularly in his "Miscellanies," (1696,) in which he treats of omens, ap- paritions, oracles, knockings, etc. Anthony Wood's ac- count of Milton was transcribed from a manuscript of Aubrey, who was acquainted with that poet. Died in 1697. He left in manuscript "The Natural History and Antiqui- ties of Surrey," which was published in 17 19, and valuable memoirs of English poets, etc., published in 1813, under the title of " Letters written by Eminent Persons in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries." See "Memoir of John Aubrey'," by John Britton. Aubrey or Aw'brey, (William,) an eminent civil- ian, born in the county of Brecon, Wales, in 1529 or 1530, belonged to the same family as the preceding. He was appointed regius professor of civil law at Oxford in 1553, and afterwards a member of the council of the marches of Wales and a master in chancery. He was distinguished for wisdom and learning. Died in 1595. See Tannek, " Bibliotheca Britannico-Hibernlca." Aubriet, 6'bRe^4', (Claude,) a French painter of flowers, and an able botanist, born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1651. He accompanied Tournefort to the Levant, and on his return was appointed painter to the king at the Jardin des Plantes, He added to the collection of designs of plants on vellum commenced by Nicolas Robert, de- signed the plates of Sebastien Vaillant's " Botanicon Pa- risiensc," (1727,) and illustrated Tournefort's "Elements de Botanique." Died in 1743. See Nagi.er, "AUgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Aubrion, 5'bRe'6N', (Jean,) a French historian of the fifteenth century, was a burgess of Metz, and wrote a "Chronicle of Metz from 1464 to 1500." Died about 1500. Aubriot, 5'bReV, (Hugues,) a prevot (provost) of Paris, who fortified and drained that city by subterranean channels, {egouis,) and, by his strict police, made some powerful enemies, who prosecuted him for heresy and other crimes. He was condemned and imprisoned in 1 381, and liberated by a party of insurgents in 1382. He is said to have died the same year. Aubrussel, 1', lo'bRii'sgK, (Ignace.) a French Jesuit and writer, born at Verdun in 1663 ; died in Spain in 1730. Aubry, o'bRe', (Charles,) a French Latin poet, flourished about 1700, Aubry, (Charles Louis,) a French economist and writer, born at La Ferte-Milon in 1746; died in 1817. Aubry, (Claude Charles,) a PVench general, born at Bourg-en-Bresse in 1773. For his services on the Danube in 1809 he was made a general of brigade. He distinguished himself by the construction of a bridge across the Berezina, which saved the remains of Napo- leon's army retreating from Moscow. He was rewarded with the title of count and the rank of general of division. He was killed at Leipsic in 1813. Aubry, (Etienne,) a successful French painter of por- trait ^nd gem-e, born at Versailles in 1745 ; died in 1781. Aubry, (Francois,) a French revolutionist, born in Paris about 1750, became in 1792 a member of the Con- vention, in which he acted with the Plaine. He protested againstthe proscription of the Girondists, May 31, 1793, and was arrested by the Jacobins. In April, 1795, he was appointed a member of the Committee of Public Safety, and succeeded Carnot in the direction of military operations. Among the acts of his administration was his refusal to employ Bonaparte, who solicited a com- mand in 1795. Aubry belonged to the party which was defeated September 4, 1797, and he was deported to Guiana. Died in exile about 1800. Aubry, (Jacques Charles,) a French jurist, born in 1688 ; died in 1739. Aubry, (Jean,) a French alchemist and quack doctor, practised in Paris about 1650-60. According to Gui- Patin, he was vierus et igiiarus nebtilo, (an "arrant and ignorant knave.") Aubry, (Jean Baptiste,) a learned French Benedict- ine, born near Epinal in 1736. Fie wrote "The Philo- sophic Friend," (" L'Ami philosophique," 1776,) and other works. Died in 1809. Aubry, (Jean Francois,) physician-in-ordinary to Louis XVI. of France, was a native of Luxeuil, where he died in 1795. He published a well-known work called "The Oracles of Cos," (1778.) He was a great admirer of Plippocrates. Aubry, (Marie.) See Gouges. Aubry, (Philippe Charles,) a French translator and poet, born at Versailles in 1744, was a teacher of lan- guages. He published the " Wit of Addison," ("Esprit d'Addison,") a French version of Goethe's "Sorrows of Werther," (1777,) and a volume of lyric poems, called "Le Petrarque Fran9ais," (1799.) Died in 1812. Aubry, d', dd^bRe', or Aubery, d', dob'Re', (Jean,) conmionly known as Abbe Aubry, an ecclesiastic, after- wards a physician and medical writer of considerable celebrity, born at Mont])ellier about 1700. Aubry de Montdidier, S'bRe' deh moN^de'de-a', a French knight, murdered by Richard de Macaire in 137 1. His dog pursued Macaire until the king ordered that the affair should be decided by a combat between the dog and the suspected assassin, who, having been conquered in the contest, confessed his crime. Aubry du Boucliet, ©'bRe' dliboo'sha'', a deputy of the States-General, and originator of the general regis- try of estates, was born in 1740 at La Ferte-Milon, in Aisne. Aubry-Lecompte, 6'bRe' leh koNt', (Hyacinthe Louis Victor Jean Baptiste,) a French designer and lithographer, born at Nice in 1797, produced lithographs of " The Holy Family," after Poussin, and of some works of Raphael, among which is the Sistine Madonna. Died in 1858. AubusEon, d', (pRANgois,) Due de Feuillade. See Feuillade. Aiibusson, d', do''bu's6N', (Jean,) a troubadour of the thirteenth century, was patronized by Frederick II., Emperor of Germany. See Mii-LOT, "Histoire litteraire des Trouljadours." Aubusson, d', (Jean,) a French writer, who lived about 1550. Aubusson, d', (Pierre,) grand master of the order of Saint John of Jerusalem, was born of French family in 1423. He entered that order (at Rhodes) about 1450, and was employed in important missions to Paris and Rome. In 1476 he was elected grand master. He for- tified Rhodes and prepared for a vigorous defence against Mahomet II., who besieged the city of Rhodes in 1480 as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, 11, K, guthiral; n, 7iasal; R, trilled; s as z; t-h as in this. ee Explanations, p. 23.) AUCHMUTT 206 AUDIFFRET with an army of about one hundred thousand men. The Turks were repulsed with great loss, after a severe fight, in which Aubusson was wounded in several places. In 1 50 1 he was chosen captain-general of a league of Chris- tian princes against the Moslems, the formation of which had been the great object of his life. This enterprise failed, partly from the jealousies of the allies. Died in ^503- See BouHOURS, " Histoire de Pierre d' Aubusson," 1676; " Nou- vclle Biographie Generale." Auchmuty, i'mu-te, (?) [Scotch pron. ln'moo-te,] (Robert,) an eminent lawyer of Massachusetts, born in the north of Scotland, settled in Boston early in the eighteenth century. He published a pamphlet entitled "The Importance of Cape Breton to the British Nation." Died in Boston in 1750. Auchmuty, (Robp:rt,) a son of the preceding. He devoted himself to the law, and in 1768 became judge of the court of admiralty. In 1770 he was associated with John Adams in the trial of Captain Preston, but upon the breaking out of the war sided with the royalists. Died in England. Auchmuty, (Samuel,) D.D., a distinguished Epis- copal clergyman, brother of the preceding, was born in Boston in 1725. He graduated at Harvard in 1742, studied divinity at Oxford, and, on returning to America, became assistant rector of Trinity Church, New York, and afterwards had charge of all the Episcopal churches in the city. Died in 1777, Auchmuty, a'mu-te, (?) (Sir Samuel,) a British gen- eral, a son of the preceding, born in New York in 1756. He served in several campaigns against the United States, 1776-78, after which he was employed about twelve years in India. He acted as adjutant-general to the army in Egypt in 180 1 and 1802. Having obtained in 1806 command of the British troops in South Amer- ica, with the rank of brigadier-general, he took the strongly fortified city of Montevideo from the Spaniards in 1807. He was appointed to the chief command at Madras in 1810, and captured Java in 181 1. In 1813 he returned to England, and became a lieutenant-general. Died at Dublin in 1822. See "Narrative of the Operations of a Small British Force em- ployed in the Reduction of Montevideo," London, 1S07. AuckTand, (George Eden,) Earl of, a son of Wil- liam Eden, noticed below, was born in 1784. On his father's death in 1814, he entered the House of Lords, as an adherent of the Whig party. In 1834 he was appointed first lord of the admiralty, and in 1835 sent to India as Governor-General. Among the important events of his administration was the disastrous war against the Afghans, (1838-39.) He was recalled in 1842. Died in 1849. Auckland, (William Eden,) Lord, an English diplomatist, born about 1750, was one of three commis- sioners appointed in 1778 to negotiate with the revolted American colonies and restore the British dominion over them. In 1785 he was sent as ambassador to France, with which lie negotiated a commercial treaty. He ptiblished "The Principles of the Penal Laws," (1771,) a treatise "On the Population of England," (1786,) and other works. Died in 1814. Auclere, o^klaiR^ (Gabriel Andre,) a revolutionist, born in Argenton, France, about 1750, sought to substi- tute paganism for Christianity. Died in 1815. Aucour. See Barbier d'Aucour. Auda, ow'da, (Domenico,) a Franciscan monk and medical writer, born near Nice towards the end of the sixteenth century. Audaeus, au-dee'us, [Gr. kv6aloc^\ or Au'di-us, [Gr, kvuVoQ ; Fr. Audee, 5'da',] the founder of a sect in the fourth century A.D., was born in Mesopotamia. Epipha- nius ascribes his secession from the church to persecu- tion which his zeal against the luxury and vices of the clergy had provoked, rather than to heterodox opinions. Aude, 6d, (Jean,) a French dramatist, born at or near Apt in 1755. He was secretary to the celebrated Buffon, and author of several dramas. He is said to have written a Life of Buffon. Died in 1841, Audebert, od^baiR', (Germain,) a French lawyer and Latin poet, born at Orleans in 15 18, was the author of three Latin poems in praise of Venice, Rome, and Naples, entitled " Venetia," (1583,) "Roma," (1585,) and " Parthenope," (1585.) He was decorated with the collar of Saint Mark by the senate of Venice. Died in 1598. Audebert, (Jean Baptiste,) an eminent French painter, engraver, and naturalist, was born at Roche - fort in 1759. He first attained success as a miniature- painter, and afterwards became an enthusiastic student of natural history. He published, in 1800, a " Natural His- tory of Apes, Lemurs, and Galcopitheci," with sixty-two plates, designed and engraved by himself, and printed in oil-colours by a new method which he invented. The description and engravings of this work are highly com- mended. His costly and splendid " History of Hum- ming-Birds, Fly-Catchers, Jacamars, and Promerops" (i vol., 1802) "is regarded," says Du Petit-Thouars, " as the most perfect work of the kind which has ever appeared." He died in 1800, leaving unfinished works on birds, which were edited by Vieillot and Desray. See "Biographie Universelle ;" Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclo- pedique de la France." Audebert, Saint. See Aubert, Saint. Audee. See Aud^us. Audefroi (odTRwaO the Bastard, one of the most celebrated troubadours of the Langue d'Oil in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. He is thought by some to have been the inventor of the " Romance," Audenaerde, Audenarde, or Oudenaerde, van, pronounced alike vanow-deh-nlr'deh, (Robert,) a Flem- ish portrait-painter and celebrated engraver, born at Ghent in 1663. He was a pupil of Carlo Maratta, many of whose works he engraved. He painted but few pic- tures. Died in 1743. See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands." Audentius, aw-den'she-us, a Spanish theological writer of uncertain age, supposed to have lived in the third or fourth century. Pie wrote a treatise against heretics. Audhumla, (Au<5umla,) 6w-thiim''la or o-%hum'la, written also Audhumbla and CEdumia, [from au'^r, " desert," and hum, " darkness,"] a mythic cow, which, according to the Norse mythology, came into existence simultaneously with the giant Ymir, who was nourished by her milk. She licked the salt frost-covered rocks, and there came forth a mighty being called Buri, whose son Bor was the father of Odin. Her name doubtless has reference to the primeval chaotic darkness in which she arose. See Thorpe's " Northern Mythology," vol. i., pp. 4 and 140. Audibert, o'de'baiR', an antiquary, born at Toulouse about 1720, wrote a treatise on the origin of that city. Died in 1770. Audibert, (Louis Franqois Hilarion — e^lt^re'6N'.) a French litieniieur, born at Marseilles about 1798, was master of requests several years, and resigned in 1830. Among his works is a " Melange of Literature and His- tory," (1839.) _ Audibert, (Urbain,) a French botanist, born at Tarascon (Bouches-du-Rhone) in 1789, was a pupil of De Candolle. He cultivated a nursery near Tarascon, a>nd co-operated with Dunal and Requien in the comple- tion of "Flore du Midi." He took an important part in the redaction of the "Nouveau Duhamel" and "Annals of French Agriculture." Died in 1846. Audierne, 6'de'aRn', (Jacques,) a French geometer, born at Beauchamps about 1 710. He taught mathematics in Paris, and published a "Treatise on Trigonometry," (1756,) and "Elements of Geometry," (1765.) Died about 1785. Audiffred, o'deTR^d', (J. P.,) a French mathematician of the eighteenth century, was joint author (with F, N. Babeuf) of a "Cadastre perpetuel," (1789.) Audiffredi, 6w-d^f-fRa'dee, (Giovanni Battista,) an astronomer and bibliographer, born at Saorgio, near Nice, in 17 14, resided at Rome. Pie published, besides other works, " Celestial Phenomena observed," (" Phie- nomena Coelestia observata," 1 753-56-) 3Jied in 1794. See Delambre, "Histoire de I'Astronomie modeme." Audiffret, oMeTR.V, (Hercule, ^r^kiil',) a French theologian, born at Carpentras in 1603, was considered one of the most eloquent writers of his day. His "Ou- a, e, T, 6, u, y, lono^; h, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, 11, y, s/iorf; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fdt; met; n6t; good; moon; JUDIFFRET 207 AVDRA vrages de Piete" (3 vols.) were published in 1675. He was an uncle of the pulpit orator Flechier, whose educa- tion he directed. Died in 1659. Audiffret, (Jean Baptistk,) a French geographer, born at Marseilles about 1658, published "Geography, Ancient, Modern, and Historical," (2 vols., 1689-91.) Died in 1733. See Watt's " Bibliotheca Britannica." Audiffret, (Polyeucte, po'le^ukt',) a French monk and numismatist, born in Provence about 1750, had a rich cabinet of medals. Died in 1807. Audiffret, d', do'de'fRa'', (Charles Louis Gaston — gts'toN',) Marquis, a French financier and senator, born of an Italian family at Paris in 1787. He served many years as chief clerk in the administration of the finances, and became president of the court of accounts {cmir des comptes) in 1829. His "Financial System of France" (1839) was regarded as the best work to consult on the actual state of French finances. He was appointed a senator in 1852. Audigier, oMe^zhe-a'', a French historical writer of the seventeenth century, wrote a work on the Origin of the French, (1676.) Audigier, a French historian of the eighteenth cen- tury, born at Clermont, was the author of a History of Auvergne, which remains in manuscript. Audiguier, d', do'de'ge-a', (Vital, ve'tlK,) Sieur de la Menor, (m^-noR',) a~^French writer, born near Villcfranche, Guienne, about 1570. He fought for Henry IV. in several campaigns against the League. He gained an extensive but transient reputation by his novels, verses, and other works, among which are "La Philosophic sol- dade," (1604,) and "The Portrait of the World," (" Pour- trait du Monde," 1604.) His versions of Cervantes's Tales ("Novelas," 1618) were included by the French Academy among the best specimens of French writing. He was assassinated about 1625, or, according to some authorities, in 1630. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Goujet, " Bibliotheque Fran^aise." Audiii, 6'd^N', (J. M. V.,) a French historian and biographer, born at Lyons in 1793, became a resident of Paris. Among his chief works are a " Piistory of the Life and Works of Luther," (2 vols., 1839,) and a " His- tory of Leo X. and his Age." Died in 1851. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Audinot, oMe'ni', (Nicolas Medard — miMSR',) a French actor and writer of plays, born at Nancy about 1740; died at Paris in 1801. Audin-Rouviere,6'ddN'roo've-aiR',(JosEPH Marie,) a French physician, born at Cari)entras in 1764, lived chiefly in Paris. He published "La Medecine sans Medecin," (" Physic without a Doctor," 1794,) which was very popular and was translated into many languages. He vended a medicine called "Grains of Life," ("Grains de Vie.") Died in 1832. See QtJERARD, "La France Litteraire." Audius. See Aud.eus. Audley, awd'le, originally de Aldithley, (Henry, the first of the line of Lords Audley. He supported John in his contest with the barons, and otherwise took a conspicuous part in the events of his time, Audley, (James,) Lord, son and successor of the preceding, took a prominent part in the support of Henry HI. against the barons and the Welsh rebels. Died about 1272. Audley, (James,) I,ord Audley of Hclegh, an English nobleman, born about 1314, has been confounded with Sir James Audley, noticed below. Pie served with dis- tinction in the army of Edward HI. Died about 1386. Audley or Au'deley, (Sir James,) a chivalrous at- tendant of the P>lack Prince, and one of the original knights of the order of the Garter. Pie displayed signal courage at the battle of Poictiers, (1356,) in which he was severely wounded. The Black Prince immediately re- tained him as his own knight, and several years later appointed him governor of Aquitaine. Died in 1369. The order of the Garter was instituted in 1344. Audley or Awdeley, (John,) a noted English printer, who lived about 1570, was the reputed author of several ballads and short poems. Audley, (Thomas,) Lord Audley of Walden, lord chancellor of England, was born in Essex about 1488. He became Speaker of the House of Commons about 1529, lord keeper of the great seal in 1532, and lord chancellor in 1533. He presided at the trial of Sir Thomas More, and is censured for his servile compli- ance with the arbitrary will of Henry VHI. in that affai? and in other proceedings. He was created Baron Aud- ley of Walden in 1538. Died without male issue in 1544. See Fuller, "History of the Worthies of England;" Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors;" Foss, "The Judges of England." Audoin. See Alduin. Audoin de Chaignebrun, odV^N' deh shiiVbRuN', (Henri,) a French physician and medical writer, born in 1714 ; died in 1781. Au-do'le-on, [Gr. AidoAcwv,] a king of the Paeonians, reigned about 300 B.C. Audouard, 6'doo-tR', (Mathieu Franqois Max- ence — mtk'soNss',) a French physician, born at Castres, in Tarn, in 1776. He served for many years as physician in the army. About 1822, the legislature voted him an annual pension of two thousand francs. He wrote treat- ises on intermittent fevers and on the yellow fever, (1807 -24.) Died in 1856. Audouin, 6''doo-iN', (Francois Xavier,) a French revolutionist and economist, born at Limoges in 1766. He was commissioner in La Vendee about 1792, and during the republic was a judge of the court of cassation. He wrote a treatise " On Maritime Commerce and its Influence on the Power and Riches of States," (1800.) and a " History of the Administration of the War," (4 vols., 181 1,) which are commended. Died in 1837. Audouin, (Jean Victor,) an eminent French ento- mologist and comparative anatomist, born in Paris in April, 1797, was educated as a physician. He began in 1818 to contribute, to various journals and the Trans- actions of Societies, numerous and valuable treatises on insects, which procured for him the friendship of Cuvier. He was associated with Milne-Edwards in researches upon the Crustacea and Annelida. In 1827 he married a daughter of Alexandre Brongniart. Pie succeeded Latreille as professor at the Museum in 1833, '^"^1 was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1838. Among his chief works is a " History of Insects which infest the Vine, especially the Pyrale, etc.," (1840-43.) He was one of the editors of the " Annales des Sciences natu- relles," and left in manuscript several volumes on the economy of insects when he died, in November, 1841. See " l^loges de J. V. Audouin," par ROL Sekres, Chevreul, and Milne-Edwards, in the "Annales des Sciences naturelles;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Audouin, (Pierre,) a skilful French engraver, born in Paris in 1768. He engraved, for Laurent's "Collec- tion du Musee," " La belle Jardiniere" of Raphael, the " Jupiter and Antiope" of Correggio, and other works. Died in 1822. Audouin de Geronval, oMoo-^n' deh zha'r6N^'tK, (Maurice Ernest,) a French writer and economist, born in Paris in 1802, was secretary of the Academic de ITndustrie. He wrote, besides several historical treat- ises and tales, a " Project of a Model Farm," adopted by the Institute in 1830. He is said to have originated the idea of a model farm. Died in 1839. See Qu^rakd, "La France Litteraire." Audoul, o'dooK, (Gaspard,) an advocate, and mem- ber of the Council of the Duke of Orleans, was born in Provence in the last half of the seventeenth century. He wrote a work upon the origin and powers of the regale. Audra, oMrI', (Joseph,) a French abbe and histo- rian, born at Lyons about I7i2,was a friend of Voltaire. He became professor of history at Toulouse about 1768, and published a "General Plistory from the Time of Charlemagne to the Present Day," (i vol., 1770,) which was eulogized by Voltaire, but censured as irreligious by the Archbishop of Brienne, who deprived him of his office. His chagrin on this account induced a brain- fever, of which he died in 1770. See Voltaire, " Correspondance," and Grimm, "Correspon- dance." € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; c, H, guttural; N, nasal; R, tt'illed; s as z; th as in t/iis. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) AUDRADE 208 AUDUBON Audrade, 6'dRtcK, [Lat, Audra'dus,] called Mod'- icus, a French visionary, wlio professed to be inspired. He wrote a poem called the " Fountain of Life," (" Fons Vitse.") Died about 854 a.d. Audran, 5'dR6N', (Benoit,) an eminent French de- signer and engraver, a son of Germain, was born at Lyons in 1 66 1, and became a pupil of his uncle Girard Audran. Among his best works are The Seven Sacraments," after Poussin, and " The Brazen Serpent," after Le Brun. He also engraved some works of Raphael, Paul Veronese, and other Italians. He was patronized by Louis XIV. Died in 1721. Audran, (Charles,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1594, studied in Rome. He engraved prints after Titian, the Caracci, Domenichino, and other Italian masters. Died in 1674. Audran, (Claude,) a mediocre engraver, born in Paris in 1592, was a brother of the preceding. He set- tled at Lyons, where he died in 1677, leaving three sons, Germain, Girard, and Claude, all distinguished engravers or painters. Audran, (Claude,) a son of the preceding, born at Lyons in 1639 or 1640, was a painter of history. He assisted Le Brun in his " Battles of Alexander," and WaS an imitator of his style. He was admitted into the Academy of Paris in 1675, and became a professor in the same in 1681. Among his chief works is "The Miracle of the Five Loaves." Died in 1684. Audran, (Claude,) eldest son of Germain, a painter of grotesque subjects, was born at Lyons in 1658. Died in 1734. Audran, (Germain,) an engraver, born at Lyons in 1 63 1, was a son of Claude I. He worked at his native city, and died in 1 7 10, leaving four sons, Claude, Benoit, Jean, and Louis, who were artists. Audran, (Girard or Gerard,) regarded by some as the greatest historical engraver that ever lived, was a son of Claude I., and was born at Lyons in 1640. After he had received instruction from his father, he studied several years in Rome, where he designed an- tique statues, copied with the crayon some works of Raphael, and became an excellent draughtsman. He returned to Paris about 1670, and was appointed en- graver to the king, for whom he engraved Le Brun's "Battles of Alexander." These are Audran's master- pieces. Among his other works are two cartoons of Raphael, (the " Death of Ananias" and " Paul and Bar- nabas at Lystra,") " Coriolanus," after N. Poussin, and the " Martyrdom of Saint Agnes," after Domenichino. The point and graver in his hand assumed the powers of the pencil. By a bold mixture of free hatchings and dots, he gave to his works the harmony and effect of a picture in which the colours of objects are finely distin- guished. He published a work called "The Propor- tions of the liuman Figure," (1683.) Died in 1703. See Fo.MTENAi, " Dlctionnaire des Artistes ;" Strutt, "Diction- ary of Engravers;" Hubsr, "Manuel des Amateurs;" Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Audran, (Jean,) son of Germain, born at Lyons in 1667, was, next to Girard, the most eminent artist of this family, and was a pupil of his uncle Girard. He en- graved after more than fifty eminent painters, among wliom are Poussin, Rubens, Le Brun, and Van Dvck. " The Rape of the Sabines," after Poussin, is called his master-piece. Among his best works are " Galatea," after C. Maratta, and "The Victories of Alexander," after Le Brun. He was appointed engraver to the king in 1707. Died in 1756. See FoNTENAi, " Dictionnaire des Artistes ;" Huber, "Manuel des Amateurs." Audran, (Louis,) a brother of the preceding, born at Lyons in 1670, was a skilful engraver. He studied with his uncle Girard in Paris. Among his works, which are not numerous, is " The Massacre of the Innocents," after Le Brun. He died prematurely in 17 12. See Huber, "Manuel des Amateurs." Audran, (Prosper Gabriel,) a French lawyer, born at Paris in 1744. He became professor of Hebrew in the University, and wrote a Hebrew and Arab grammar. Died in 1819. Audrein, oMrc^n', (Yves Marie,) a French politi- cian and writer, was one of the teachers of Robespierre. He became a warm but humane partisan of the princi- ples of the Revolution, and a member of the Convention, in which he voted for the death of Louis XVI. with a respite. He was elected Bishop of Quimper-Corentin in 1798, and was assassinated by the Chouans (royalists) in 1800. He left a treatise on national education, and an "Apology for Religion against Pretended Philosophers," (I797-) Audren de Kerdrel, 5^dRdN' deh keR^ReK, (Jean Maure — mor,) a French monk, author of a History of Bretagne, (1707.) Died in 1725. Audri. See Audry. Audrichi, ow-dRee'kee, (Everardo,) an Italian eccle- siastic of the eighteenth century, who taught philosophy and mathematics, published a collection of Latin plays, and a work on Antiquities. See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." Audry, Audri, 5'dRe', or Aldric, tKdR^k', [Lat. Aldri^cus,] Saint, a French ecclesiastic, born about 775, became Archbishop of Sens. Died in 840. See "Vita Sancti Aldrici;" Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique." Audry de Puyraveau, o'dRe' deh pii-e'rt'vo', (Pierre Franqois,) a French revolutionist, born at Puyraveau in 1783. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1827, boldly avowed himself a republican and was a leader of the popular party in the revolution of 1830. His manufactory in Paris was the rendezvous of the insurgents, whose efforts he directed with great efficiency. It is stated that he was the first to nomi- nate La Fayette as commander of the national guard. Au'du-bon, (John James,) an American ornitholo- gist of great eminence, born in Louisiana on the 4th of May, 1780. Fie was the son of a French naval officer who settled as a planter in Louisiana. He manifested in childhood a passion for observing the habits of birds. Educated partly in Paris, to which he went at the age of fifteen, he studied design in the school of the celebrated painter David. Having returned to America about 1798, he inherited from his father a good farm in eastern Penn- sylvania, and married. About 1810 he commenced a series of excursions through the vast primeval forests, which he explored alone, and in which he passed the greater portion of his time for many years. He pro- duced coloured designs of all the birds he could find, being impelled to this pursuit by his love of nature rather than an ambition to make himself famous. He removed to Henderson, on the Ohio River, where he re- sided for several years with his wife and children. In 1826 he went to England, and began in London the publication of a great work on ornithology. He visited France in 1828, and was received with great honour by Cuvier, Humboldt, and other savants. He obtained numerous subscribers, at one thousand dollars a copy, for his magnificent work entitled "The Birds of America," in folio, illustrated with about four hundred and forty- eight plates of one thousand and sixty-five species of birds of the natural size, beautifully coloured, (1830-39.) It consists of five volumes of engravings designed by him- self, and five volumes of letter-press. Cuvier expressed the opinion that this work " is the most magnificent monument that art has ever erected to orni- thology," ("CVj-/ le plus viagnifique inomiment que Part ait encore elezie h V ornithologies) Audubon returned to America in 1830, after which he explored the coasts, the lakes, the rivers, and the mountains from Labrador and Canada to Florida. He visited England again, to superintend the publication of his "Birds of America." He also published his "Ornithological Biography, or an Account of the Habits of the Birds of the United States of America, accompanied by a Description of the Objects represented in the Work entitled The Birds of America," (Edinburgh, 5 vols., 1831-39.) Having crossed the Atlantic homeward for the last time about 1840, he settled on the Hudson River, in New York. He pub- lished a popular and cheaper edition of his "Birds of America," (7 vols. 8vo, 1844,) and "The Quadrupeds of North America," (3 vols, of letter-press and 3 vols, of plates, 1846-50.) In the latter work he was assisted by his sons Victor Gifford and John Woodhouse. To excellent skill in designing natural objects he added L, e, 1, 5, u, y, long: l\, t, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/iort ; a, e, i, o, ohcnre; f^r, f^ll, fit; mit; n6t; good; moon; JUDWIN 209 an admirable talent for describing them in graphic lan- guage. His character is eulogized by Professor Wilson, of Edinburgh, in the following terms: "The hearts of all warmed towards Audubon, who were capable of con- ceiving the difficulties, dangers, and sacrifices that must have been encountered, endured, and overcome before genius could have embodied these, the glory of its in- numerable triumphs. . . . The man himself is just what you would expect from his production, full of fine enthu- siasm and intelligence, most interesting in his looks and manners, a perfect gentleman, and esteemed by all who know him for the simplicity and frankness of his nature. He is the greatest artist, in his own walk, that ever lived." He died in New York City, in January, 1851. See articleoi: "American Ornithology" in the "London Quarterly Review" for Ju'y> i?32; Griswold, ' Prose Writers of America ;" DuNLAP, " History ol the Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design," etc , (vol. ii. chap, xxviii. ;) " Brief Biographies," by Samuel Smh.es ; Rev. C. C. Adams. "Journal of the Life and Labours of J. J. Audu- bon ;" "Audubon the Naturahst in the New World," by Mks. Horace bAiNT John, London, 1^6; "Democratic Review" for May, 1842. Audwin. See Aldwin. Auenbrugger von Auenbriig, ow'en-bRooG^ger fon 6\v'en''bRdoG, (called Avenbrugger by French and English writers,) (Leopold,) a German physician, who invented percussion as a means of detecting diseases of the thorax or lungs, was born at Gratz, in Styria, in 1722. He became physician to the Spanish-hospital of Vienna. He announced his great discovery in his "Inventum novum ex Percussione Thoracis humani," etc., ("New Discovery by Percussion of the Human Chest," etc., Vienna, 1761.) This was translated into English by Dr. Forbes in 1824. The practice of percussion was neg- lected until it was revived by Corvisart about 1808. Auen- brugger wrote two treatises on insanity. Died in 1809. See "Biographic Medicale." Aue. See Hartmann von Aue. Auer, ow'er, (Anton,) considered the founder of the present school of Bavarian porcelain-painters, was born at Munich in 1778. He was patronized by Prince Lud- wig, (afterwards king.) Died in 1S14. Auer, (JoH.\NN Paul,) a distinguished historical and portrait painter, was born at Nuremberg in 1636, and died in 16S7. Auerbach, ow'er-b.^K', (Bertiiold,) a popular Ger- man author, born of Jewish parents at Nordstetten, in Wiirtemberg, in i8i2. He published "Spinoza," a his- torical romance, in 1837, "The Poet and Merchant," a novel, (1839,) and " The Cultivated Citizen," ("Der gebildete Blirger," 1842.) His reputation rests chiefiy on his " Village Tales of the Black Forest," ("Schwarz- wiilder Dorfgeschichten," 2 vols., 1843,) which were translated into English and other languages. His novel entitled "Auf den Hohen" ("On the Heights") has also been translated into English. See Brockhau.s, " Conversations-Lexikon." Auerbach, (Johann Gottfried,) a German por- trait-painter, born in Saxony in 1697 ; died at Vienna (where he was court-painter) in 1753. Auerell, (William.) See Averell. Auenihammer. See Aurenhammer. Auersperg, von, fon ^w'er-sp^RG', (Anton Alex- ander,) Count, a German poet, whose assumed name is Anasta'sius GRiiN, was born at Laybach in 1806. He has published successful poems, among which are "The Last Knight," ("Der letzte Ritter," 1830,) and "Pro- menades" (or "Excursions") of a Poet of Vienna,". (" Spazicrgange eines Wiener Poeten," 1831,) which is remarkable for wit and humour. See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Auersperg or Auersberg, von, (Herb ard.) Baron, hereditary marshal of Carniola, (Krain,) was famous as the defender of Germany against the Turks. Born in 1525 ; killed in battle in 1575. Auerstadt or Auerstedt. See Davoust. Auffenberg, von, fon 6wf fen-blRG^ (Joseph,) Frei- HERR, a German dramatic poet, born at Freiburg, in Brisgau, in 1798. After serving in the army of Baden, he settled in I5aden about 1836, and received the title of marshal of the court {Jwffmarschall) of the grand duke in 1839. His principal works are "The Alhambra," a AUGER dramatic poem, (3 vols., 1829-30,) and "Louis XL in Peronne." Died in 1857. Auffmann, owf mSn, (Joseph Anton Xaver,) a Ger- man organist and composer, born about 1 720; died in 1778. Auffray, oTRi', (Jean,) a French political economist, who considered the art of printing an injury to litera- ture, but Was an advocate of free trade. Born at Paris in 1733 ; died in 1788. Auffschnaiter, 6wf shnl'ter, (Benedict Anton,) a German musician, lived at Passau about 1700. Au-fid^i-us, (Cneius,) a Roman quaestor in 119 B.C., and tribune in 114. He was the author of a Greek his- tory of Rome. Aufidius, (Titus,) a jurist, who was quaestor in 84 B.C., and afterwards praetor of Asia. Aufidius, (Trrus,) a Sicilian physician, lived in the first century B.C. Aufrere, oTrair', (Anthony,) an English writer, who translated a number of works from the German of Goethe and others, and the editor of the " Lockhart Letters," was born at Norfolk in 1756, and died at Pisa in 1833. Aufreri, 6''fRa''re', (Etiennf,) a distinguished French jurist, who wrote on civil and canon law. He became the official of the Archbishop of Toulouse in 1483. Died about 1 5 10. Aufresne, oTRln', (Jean Rival — re''vtK,) an eminent French actor, was born in Geneva in 1709, and died in Russia (where Catherine IL gave him a distinguished reception) in 1806. Augaron, o'gt'riN', (Jacques,) a French surgeon employed by the King of Navarre about 1570. Auge, d', dozh, JLaL Auge'tius,] (Daniel,) a French philologist and writer, born at Villeneuve-l'Archeveque ; died about 1595. Augeardi O^zhtR', (J.a.cques Mathieu,) a farmer-gen era], (the last who held the office,) and secretary of com- mands to Marie Antoinette, was born at Bordeaux, 1731. Pie left memoirs on the intrigues of the French court in his time, which remain in manuscript. Died in Paris in 1805. Augeard, (Mathieu,) a French jurist and advocate of the parliament of Paris. Died in 1751. Au'ge-as, (or au-ge'as,) [Gr. Avyiag or kvyeiaq ; Fr. Aug6as, 6'zhi^ Ss',or Aug^e, o'zhY,] a mythical king of Elis, said to be a son of Neptune, (or of the Sun.) One of the tasks imposed on Hercules was to cleanse the stables of Augeas, who kept a great number of oxen. He was killed by Hercules because he refused to pay the reward which he had promised for this work. Augee. See Augeas. Augenio, 6w-ja'ne-o, (Orazio,) an Italian physician and medical writer, born in the Romagna about 1527, became professor of medicine at Turin in 1577, and at Padua in 1593. Died in 1603. Auger, o'zha', ( Athanase, t'tt^ntz',) Abb6, a French classical scholar and translator of great learning, was born in Paris in 1734. He was appointed vicar-gen- eral by the Bishop of Lescars. He published a trans- lation of the " Complete Works of Demosthenes and .^schines," (4 vols., 1777,) which is generally correct, but is deficient in spirit. He also translated the works of Isocrates, (3 vols., 1783,) and the Orations of Cicero, (3 vols., 1787.) In 1792 he published an able work " On the Constitution of the Romans under the Kings and during the Republic," (3 vols.) Died in 1792. SeeHERAULT de Sechelles, "filoge d' Athanase Auger ;" Que- RARD, '"La Fiance Litteraire." Auger, (Edmond,) a French Jesuit, born near Troves in 1 515. Pie was one of the missionaries sent by his su- periors to convert the Protestants in the south of France, and became confessor of Henry III. about 1575. His elo- quence is praised by Catholic Vv^riters. Died in 1591. See MoRERL " Dictionnaire Historique." Auger, (Hippolyte Nicolas Just,) a French novel- ist and dramatist, born at Auxerre in 1797. He wrote "Marpha," (1818,) "Rienzi," (1825,) and other novels. Among his successful dramas are "Peter the Great," (1836,) and "Poor Mother!" (" Pauvre Mere!" 1837; with F. Cornu.) Auger, (Louis Simon,) a successful French critic and Utter atciir, born in Paris in 1772. He edited with ability e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, K,o7iftural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in t/iis. (^[^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) AUGEREAU o AUGUSTI the works of numerous French authors, and began to write for the "Journal of the Empire" in 1808. In 1816 he was elected to the French Academy, of which he be- came perpetual secretary in 1827. He wrote many arti- cles for the "Biographic Universelle," among which are those on Moliere and Voltaire, and the " Preliminary Dis- course" of the same work. He also published " Melanges philosophiques et litteraires." He was found drowned in the Seine in 1829, having probably committed suicide. See QuERARD, "La France Litteiaire." Augereau, ozhW, [in Latin, Augurel'lus,] (An- TOINE,) a French printer of Paris. Died in 1544. Augereau, (Pierre Franqois Charles,) Due de Castiglione, {kSs''t^g'le''on',) a celebrated French general, born in Paris in 1757, was a son of a mechanic or domes- tic, and had few opportunities of acquiring an education. He was a fencing-master at Naples before the Revolution. Having enlisted in 1792 as a private, he rose rapidly, and became a general of division about the end of 1793. He contributed mainly to the victory at Loano, in No- vember, 1795, and was one of the most active and suc- cessful of Bonaparte's generals in the campaign of 1796. He took Millesimo in April, and decided the victory of Lodi, by his charge along the bridge, in May, 1796. Among his brilliant exploits were the defence of Casti- glione and his charge at Areola in the same year. In August, 1797, he was appointed commander of the seventeenth military division, (which included Paris,) having been selected because he was a devoted partisan of the new regime. He obeyed the commands of a majority of the Directors with audacity in the couJ> d'etat of the 1 8th Fructidor, (4th of September,) 1797, and was elected to the Council of Five Hundred in 1799. Be- fore this date Augereau and Bonaparte regarded each other with distrust or jealousy. He commanded the Gallo-Batavian army in 1800 and 1 80 1, was made a marshal of France in 1804, and Duke of Castiglione in 1805. He took part in the battle of Jena, 1806, and was severely wounded at Eylau. In 1809 he was employed in Spain. When Napoleon in- vaded Russia in 181 2, he left Augereau in command of an army in Germany to cover his rear. He maintained his reputation at Leipsic in 1813. Having declared his adhesion to Louis XVIII. in 1814, he was confirmed in his rank and dignities ; but he deserted to Napoleon in March, 1815. Died in June, 1816. See Las Cases, "Memorial de Sainte-Helene ;" Bourrienne, 'Memoires sur Napoleon;" " Nouvelle Blographie Generale." Augetius. See Auge. Augier, o'zhe-i', (Emile,) a French dramatist and poet, a grandson of Pigault Lebrun, was born at Valence, in Drome, in 1820. He produced in 1844 a drama entitled "La Cigue," (" Hemlock,") which had a great success. His " Aventuriere," a comedy, (1848,) was received with favour, and his comedy of " Gabrielle" (1849) obtained the Monthyon prize of the French Academy. These comedies are in verse. He published a volume of poems in 1856, and was elected to the French Academy in 1857 in place of M. Salvandy. Augier, (Jean Baptiste,) a French lawyer and gene- ral, born at Bourges in 1769. He served under Napo- leon, and was governor of Konigsberg. During the Russian campaign, as a member of the Chamber of Deputies, he took an active part in the restoration. Died in 1819. See " Dictlonnaire historique des Generaux Frangais." Augier-Dufot, o'zhe-i' dii'fo', (Anne Amable — t'- mftbK,) a French physician, born at Aubusson in 1733, was author of works on various subjects. Died at Soissons in 1775. See Qu^RARD, "La France Litt^raire." Auguis.o'gess'', (Pierre Jean Baptiste,) a French revolutionist, born at Melle, in Deux-Sevres, about 1745. He was elected to the Convention in 1792, voted for the detention or banishment of the king, and courageously opposed the power of Robespierre in 1794. In 1799 he was a member of the Council of Five Hundred. Hav- ing supported Bonaparte on the i8th Brumaire, he ob- tained a seat in tlie legislative body. Died in 1810. Auguis, (Pierre Ren^,) a French litterateur, son of the preceding, was born at Melle, near Niort, in 17S6. He published "The New Odyssey," a poem, (1812,) a " History of Catherine II. of Russia, and of Paul I.," (1813,) "The Genius of the French Language," (1820,) and various other works. In 1830 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, in which he acted with the oppo- sition. Died in 1846. Au'gur, (Christopher Colon,) an American general, born in New York, graduated at West Point in 1843. He served as lieutenant in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and gained the rank of captain in 1852, He commanded a division at Cedar Mountain, Virginia, in August, 1862, and became a major-general in November of that year. He served under Banks, in Louisiana, in 1863, and com- manded the department of Washington from October, 1863, to August, 1866. He holds the rank of colonel in the United States regular army. Augur, (Hezekiah,) an American sculptor and in- ventor, born in New Haven, Connecticut, in 1 791. Among his works maybe mentioned "Jephthah and his Daughter," in the Trumbull Gallery of Yale College. He invented a machine for carving, now in general use. Died in 1858. See TucKERMAN, "Book of the Artists;" Dunlap, "History of the Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design," etc. Augurelli, 6w-goo-reKlee, or Augurello, 6w-goo- reKlo, (Giovanni Aurelio — 6w-ra'le-o,) a Latin poet and critic of superior merit, born at Rimini about 1454, (or, according to Ginguene, about 1441.) He taught Greek and Latin at Venice, and wrote odes, elegies, epistles, and Iambics, which were printed collectively in 149 1 or 1492, and a longer poem entitled " Chrysopoiia," (or " Chrysopoia,") 1515. Died at Treviso in 152401 1537- Au-gu-ri'nus, (Lucius Minucius,) a Roman, who was prcefedus annoncE during a famine in 439 B.C. He exposed the designs of Spurius Melius. Auguriiius, (Marcus Genucius,) a Roman consul in 444 B.C. Under his consulate the law (Lex Canuleia) permitting marriage between patricians and plebeians was passed. Augurinus (Publius Minucius) was a Roman con- sul (492 B.C.) in a year of dreadful famine, which he and his colleague mitigated by importing corn from Sicily, and by founding a colony at Norba, to which many of the poor were sent. Augurinus, (Quintus Minucius,) Roman consul in 457 B.C., led an army against the /Equi and Sabines, and compelled them to abandon the Roman territory and shut themselves up in their own towns. Augurinus, (Sentius,) a Roman poet, who was the friend of the younger Pliny, by whom his verses are highly commended. Augurinus, (Tiberius Minucius,) a Roman consul, who defeated the Samnites in 305 B.C. Augurinus, (Titus Genucius,) brother of Marcus, noticed above, became consul in 451 B.C., and was after- wards one of the first Decemvirate. August, the German of Augustus, which see. AU-GUS' TA, a Latin word signifying "majestic," or " venerable," given as a title to the wives of the Roman emperors. The first who received it was Livia, the wife of Augustus Caesar. ^ Augusta, 6w-goos'ta, (Cristoforo,) a painter of the sixteenth century, born near Cremona, gave great pro- mise of future eminence, but died young. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." . Augusta, 6w-goos'tS, (Johann,) a friena of Luther, born at Prague in 1500, became a minister of the sect of Bohemian Brethren, which is regarded as the origin of the Moravian Church. He was chosen bishop of all their churches in Bohemia about 1 538. Pie differed from Luther in religious opinions. He was imprisoned six- teen years by Ferdinand I. (from 1548 to 1564.) He published several works. Died in 1575. See Pelzer, " Portraits de Savants Bohemes." Augustenburg, Prince of. See Charles Augus- tus, Prince Royal of Sweden. Augusti, ow'gdos'tee, (Christian Johann Wil- helm,) an eminent German theologian, born at Esch- enberg, near Gotha, in 1771. He became professor extraordinary at Jena in 1800, and succeeded llgen as a, e, I. o, u, y, lo),g; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; AUGUST I 211 AUGUSTUS professor of Oriental literature in that city in 1803. In 1807 he obtained the chair of theology at Jena. As an orthodox Lutheran he opposed the philosophical or spec- ulative school. From 181 1 to 1819 he was professor at Breslau, and removed to the University of Bonn in 1819. His chief work is " Memorable Things from Christian Archaeology," (" Denkwiirdigkeiten aus der Christlichen Archaeologie," 12 vols., 1817-35,) which he condensed into a " Manual of Christian Archasology," (3 vols., 1836.) Died in 1841. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Augusti, (Friedrich Albrecht,) a grandfather of the preceding, born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1696, was the son of a Jew. He was converted to Christianity in 1 72 1, and became a Lutheran minister at Eschenberg. He published several learned works on theology. Died in 1782. Augiistin, (Antonio.) See Augustinus. Augustiii, 6'giis'taN^ (Jean Baptiste Jacques,) a distinguished French miniature-painter in oil and ena- mel, was born at Saint-Diez, in Vosges, in 1759. He worked in Paris, was patronized by Louis XVHL, and painted portraits of many eminent persons. He was appointed painter to the king in 1819. Died in 1832. Au'gus-tine, [Lat. Aure'lius Augusti''nus ; Fr. AuGUSTiN, o'giis'tLN'; It. Augustino, ow-goos-tee^io,] S.\int, the most illustrious Latin Father of the Church, was born at Tagasta, in Numidia, on the 13th of No- vember, 354 A.D. He was instructed in religion by his mother Monnica (or Monica,) who was a devout Chris- tian. He also studied Greek, rhetoric, and philosophy at Madaura and Carthage. About the age of nineteen he was captivated with the heresy of the Manichaeans, to which he adhered for nine years. Having taught gram- mar and rhetoric at Tagasta, Carthage, and Rome, he was appointed professor of rhetoric and philosophy at Milan in 384. Amidst a career of immorality mto which strong youthful passions had impelled him, he was seriously impressed by the sermons of Saint Am- brose. He experienced a decided conversion in 386, after deep conflicts, which he has described in his "Con- fessions," an autobiography. Soon after this event he returned to Africa. He was ordained a priest about 391 by Valerius, Bishop of Hippo, whom he succeeded in 396. He dis- tinguished himself as the adversary of the Donatists at the Council of Carthage in 401 A.D., and had a high reputation as an eloquent preacher. About 418 he pro- duced two works against the Pelagians, " On the Grace of Christ," ("De Gratia Christi,") and "On Original Sin," ("De Peccato Originali.") His capital work, en- titled " On the City of God," (" De Civitate Dei,") was intended to subvert the foundations of paganism and establish those of Christianity, and to refute the opinion that the capture of Rome by Alaric, and other calami- ties of the empire, were caused by the prevalence of the new religion. It was finished about 426. He wrote many other works, among which are those "On Faith and Works," ("De Fide et Operibus,") and "On the Soul and its Origin," (" De Anima et ejus Origine.") He died at Hippo, during the siege of that city by the Vandals, on the 28th of August, 430 A.D. His habits were simple and temperate, rather than ascetic. The best edition of his works is that published by the Bene- dictines at Paris, (11 vols., 1679-1700.) "Of all the Fathers of the Latin Church," says Villemain, "Saint Augustine manifested the most imagination in theolog}', the most eloquence, and even sensibility, in scholasticism. . . . He writes as well on music as on free will ; he explains the intellectual phenomena of memory as well as he reasons on the decline of the Roman Empire. His subtile and vigorous mind has often consumed on mystical problems an amount of sagacity which would have sufficed for the most sublime conceptions." See '_' Confessions of Saint Aucciistine ;" Possidius, " Vie de Saint- Augustin ;" George Moringo, "Vie de Saint-Augustin." 1533; GoDEAU, "Viede Saint-Anguslin," 1657 ; Tillemont, "Memoires ecclesiastiques," (vol. xiii.,) 1702; Rivius, "Vita Sancli Augus- tini," 1646; PoujouLAT, "Vie de Saint-Aueustin," 2d edition, 1852; BiNDEMAKK, " Angiistines Leben," ; Butler, "Lives of the Saints;" Bahr, " Christliche Romische Theologie :" Villemain, '•'Tableau de I'Eloquence chretienne au quatricme Siecle," 1849; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Augustine or Austin, Saint, " the Apostle of Eng- land," was prior of a Benedictine monastery at Rome before he was sent by Gregory I. to convert the Anglo- Saxons. He arrived in the island in 596 or 597 A.D., and was well received by Ethelbert, whose wife }3ertha was a Christian. The king and many of his subjects were soon after baptized. Augustine was appointee Archbishop of, Canterbury. The year of his death is variously dated 604, 607, and 614. See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury vol. i. chap. ii. Augustini (6w-go6s-tee'nee) ab Hor'tis, (Chris- tian,) a Hungarian physician, born at Zips in 1598. He became physician to the emperor Ferdinand, and formed a botanic garden at Vienna. Died in 1650. Augustino. See Agostino. Augvistino, (Veneziano.) See Agostino. Au-gus-ti'nus, (Antonius,) [Sp. Antonio Augus- tin, an-to'ne-o 6w-goos-teen',] Archbishop of Tarragona, one of the most learned jurists of Spain, was bornatSara- gossa about 15 16. He gained a high reputation by his "Emendations and Opinions of Civil Law," ("Emenda- tiones et Opiniones Juris Civilis," 1538-43.) In 1555 he was sent as papal nuncio to England, to promote the interests of the Roman Church in that country. He be- came Bishop of Lerida in 1560, and Archbishop of Tar- ragona in 1574. He wrote several works on Roman and canon law, which are called classical, and among which is " De P^mendatione Gratiani Dialogi," (1581.) " His works," says Correa da Serra, in the " Biographic Universelle," "will preserve his celebrity in all ages." Died in 1586. See "A. Augustini Vit^-e Historia," by Gregorius Mayansus Sis- CARius ; N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Augustinus, (Aurelius.) See Augustine, Saint. Augu.sto, 6w-goos'to, [Lat. Augus'tus,] of Udine, an Italian poet, lived in the first half of the sixteenth century. Au-gus'tu-lus, (Romulus,) the last Roman Emperor of the West, was a son of the patrician Orestes. He became emperor in 475 A.D., and was deposed by Odoacer in the following year. ■ AU-GUS' TUS, a name conferred by the Roman sen- ate on Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus, 27 B.C. The word signifies "noble," "majestic," or "venerable." This name was adopted as a title by Tiberius and his suc- cessors. The Greek equivalent of Augustus is Sebastos. Augustus. See Augustus C.^sar. Au-gus''tus [Ger. August, ow'gdost] I., (or II.,) (Frederick,) King of Poland, was born at Dresden in 1670. He was the second son of John George III., Elec- tor of Saxony, and Anna Sophia of Denmark. He was endowed with superior talents, which were well cultivated, and possessed extraordinary physical strength. In 1690 and 1 69 1 he served with distinction in the Imperial army against the French. He succeeded his brother John George IV. as Elector of Saxony in 1694, formed an al- liance with the emperor, and obtained from him the chief command in the war against the Turks, by whom he was defeated in Hungary in 1697. Augustus was elected King of Poland in Mayor June, 1697, having abjured the Protestant religion for the sake of this ])rize. His rival, the Prince of Conti, was the choice of a strong party in the Diet; but Augustus ob- tained possession of the throne without difficulty. He joined Peter the Great of Russia in a league against Charles XII. of Sweden, and invaded Livonia in 1700. His army was defeated by the Swedes on the Duna in 1 701 and at Klissow in 1702. He was expelled from Poland, on the throne of which Charles XII. placed Stanislas Leszczynski, in July, 1704. To save his Saxon dominions from the victorious Swede, he signed a treaty in 1706, by which he renounced the crown of Poland. The defeat of Charles XII. at Pultowa enabled Au- gustus to recover the throne of Poland in 1709, when Stanislas retired without a contest. The Diet in 17 12 demanded the removal of the Saxon troops from Poland, but the king refused to remove them, and thus provoked an insurrection, which was at last appeased by the king's complying with the demand of the Diet. The latter part of his reign was comparatively quiet. He died in Febru- e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; o, n, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (iJ:^=See Explanations, p. 23.) AUGUSTUS 2 AUGUSTUS ary, 1733, leaving a son, Augustus, who succeeded him, and a natural son, Maurice of Saxony, the famous general. Augustus was ambitious, licentious, prodigal, and ex- tremely fond of luxury and splendour. His court at Dresden was more splendid than any other in Europe, except that of Louis XIV. See Fassmann and Horn, " P^Iedrich August desGrossen Leben," 1734 ; Desroches de Parthenay, " Histoire de Pologne sous le Roi Augusts 11," 4 vols., 1734. Augustus (or August) II., (or III.,) (Frederick,) a 9 'U 01 the preceding, born at Dresden in 1696, did not ii herit his father's talents. He was educated as a Protestant, but was converted to the Roman Catholic Church about 1712. He married Maria Josephine, a daughter of Joseph I., Emperor of Austria, in 1 7 19. In 1733 he succeeded as Elector of Saxony, and was elected King of Poland by a party in the Diet, another party choosing Stanislas. In the contest which ensued, Au- gustus, supported by Russia and Austria, prevailed about 1736. He joined the league formed by France and Prussia against Maria Theresa of Austria in 1740 or 1741, but in 1743 he became an ally of that empress against Frederick the Great, who defeated the Saxon army and took Dresden in 1745. In the Seven Years' war, 1756-63, the Saxons were defeated, and Saxony was ravaged by the victorious Prussians. He died in October, 1763, and was succeeded in Saxony by his son, Frederick Christian August. See BoTTiGER, " Geschichte des Kurstaates und Konigreiches Sachsen." Au-gus'tus (or August) I., Elector of Saxony, a son of Henry the Pious, born in 1526, succeeded his brother Maurice in 1553. He was distinguished as a legislator, and had the reputation of a wise ruler ; but he was intol- erant to the Calvinists. Under his aus]Dices, a creed of Lutheran orthodoxy, called " Formula Concordiae," was adopted about 1580. He died in 1586, and was suc- ceeded by his son Christian I. See HoMMEL, " Elector Augustus Saxonise Legislator," 1765 ; Eicn- HORN, "Deutsche Staats- und Rechts-Geschiclite." Augustus II. OF Saxony. See Augustus I. (or II.) OF Poland. Augustus I., Klng of Saxony. See Frederick Au- gustus. Augustus II., King of Saxony. See Frederick Augustus. Augustus, Duke of Saxony, and last Archliishop of Magdeburg, born at Dresden in 1614. He v^^as dispos- sessed and repossessed of his archbishopric several times during the wars between Gustavus Adolphus and the Em- peror of Germany. Died in 1680. Augus'tus, [Ger. August, ow'gdost,] (Emil Leo- pold,) Duke of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg, born at Gotha in 1772, was the eldest son of Duke Ernest II., whom he succeeded in 1804. He was an admirer of Napoleon, and joined the Rhenish Confederation about 1807. He was a liberal patron of the fine arts, and author of several aesthetical novels, among which is " Kyl- lenion, oder Auch ich war in Arcadien," ("I also was in Arcadia," 1805.) He died in 1822, and was succeeded by his brother Friedrich. The daughter of Duke August was the mother of Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria. Au-gus'tus, (Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich,) Prince of Prussia, born in 1779, was a nephew of Frede- rick the Great, and a son of Prince Augustus Ferdinand. He fought at Jena in 1806, where he was taken prisoner. Having obtained in 1813 the rank of lieutenant-general, he displayed skill and courage at Dresden, Kulm, and Leipsic. In 1815 he was appointed commander of a corps-d'armee, and besieged and took many fortified French towns. He was reputed the first artillery officer in the Prussian army. Died in 1843. See "Preussische National-Encyklopadie." Augustus, [Ger. August, ow'gdost,] (Paul Fried- rich,) Grand Duke of Oldenburg, was born in 1783. He served against the French in Russia in 1S12, and began to reign in 1829. He is represented as an en- lightened and liberal prince. About 1848 he granted a constitution which increased the civil and religious freedom of his subjects. Died in 1853. Augus'tus, (William,) Prince of Prussia, an able general, born at Berlin in 1722, was a younger brother of Frederick the Great. He studied the military sciences with zeal, and distinguished himself at Hohen-PViedberg in 1745. As general of infantry, he gave proof of skill at Lowositz in 1756. After the defeat of the Prussians at Kollin, in 1757, Augustus w^as appointed commander of thirty thousand men who covered the rear of the retreat- ing army. He failed in his effort to check the superior force of the enemy, and for this failure was deprived of his command. He died in 1758, leaving a son, Frederick William, who became King of Prussia. See Archenholz, "History of the Seven Years' War," (in Ger- man.) Augus^tus Cae'sar, called by Suetonius Octavius Caesar Augustus, [Fr. Octave Cesar Auguste, ok'- ttv' si'zSR' 6'giist'; It. Ottavio Cesare Augusto, ot- ti've-o cha'si-ra 6w-goos'to,] and subsequently named, as the heir of Julius Caesar the dictator, Ca'ius Ju'liui Cae'sar Octavia'nus, the first Roman emperor, was born at Velitras, not far from Rome, in 63 B.C. He was the son of Caius Octavius and Atia, the daughter of Julia, who was the sister of Julius Caesar. His father died about the year 60, and his mother married L. Mar- cius Philippus, who was consul in 56 B.C., and who superintended the education of young Octavius. At the age of twelve he pronounced a funeral oration in praise of his grandmother Julia, and four years later he assumed the toga virilis. He was adopted as a son by Julius Caesar the dictator, whom he followed to Spain in 45 B.C. According to some writers, he was present at the battle of Munda. He was pursuing his studies at Apollonia when he learned that Ceesar was killed, in 44 B.C., and that he had been appointed the heir of his uncle. In com- pany with his friend Vipsanius Agrippa, he went to Rome to claim his inheritance. He found a dangerous rival in Mark Antony, who had possession of the money and papers of the dictator and refused to give them up. Octavius pursued an artful and temporizing course, by which he gained the support of Cicero and other sena- tors, and showed himself an equal match for old and experienced players in the game of political intrigue. In January, 43, the senate gave him command of an army, and sent him with the consuls Hirtius and Pansa to fight against Antony, who was in Cisalpine Gaul, The army of the senate defeated Antony near Mutina, (M6- dena,) but Hirtius and Pansa were killed in the battle. Soon after this event the command of the army was transferred to D. Brutus by the senate, which had re- solved to check the growing power and ambitious efforts of Octavius. In defiance of the authority of the senate, he marched with an army to Rome, was elected consul in August, 43 B.C., (before he had reached the legal age,) and formed a coalition or triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus against M. Brutus and the other republicans. Antony and Octavius, commanding in person, gained a decisive victory over Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, 42 B.C. According to Suetonius, he treated the van- quished with merciless cruelty. Thousands of persons perished as victims of the proscription which the trium- virs ordered. Octavius and Antony soon quarrelled, but postponed hostilities by a feigned reconciliation, and combined their forces against Sextus Pompey, who was master of Sicily and Sardinia. Octavius gained a deci- sive victory over Pompey in 36 B.C., and, while Antony was engaged in Eastern campaigns or in dalliance with Cleopatra, established his power in Italy. He became consul for the second time in 33 and for the third time in 31 B.C. At length, owing in part to Antony's infatua- tion for Cleopatra, and his neglect of Octavia, (the sister of Augustus,) whom he had recently married, the breach became irreconcilable. Octavius gained a decisive victory at the naval battle of Actium, (31 B.C.,) which rendered him sole master of the Roman empire. He entertained or professed a design to restore the republic ; but he allowed himself to be persuaded to usurp imperial power, partly disguised under the form of a republican government. He was elected consul several times after the year 30, and received the title of Augustus from the senate in 27 B.C. His chief ministers or advisers were Agrippa, Maeceiias, and Asinius Pollio. He accepted in the year 23 the tribimitia potestas (tribunitian power) for life. short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fdll, fit; met; n6t; good; m(56n; AUGUSTUS 21 3 AUMALE Augustus was a liberal patron of the poets Virgil and Horace, whose genius rendered the Augustan age the most illustrious in the history of Roman literature. He greatly increased the architectural splendour of Rome, and boasted that he left that a city of marble which he had found a city of brick. Under his rule the people enjoyed such a share of peace and prosperity as recon- ciled them to the loss of their liberty. He married several wives, namely, Clodia, Scribonia, and Livia Dru- silla. Scribonia bore him a daughter Julia, his only child. In his domestic relations he was not happy. He was temperate or abstemious in his diet, and lived in a comparatively simple style. He applied himself with great diligence to the study of eloquence from his early youth. Although he could speak very well extemporaneously, he never addressed the senate, the soldiers, or the people, unless he had care- fully prepared himself beforehand. He was partial to the study of Greek literature and philosophy, but he never wrote in that language, and did not speak it fluently. Ac- cording to Suetonius, Augustus composed many works in prose on various subjects, including a history of his own life, which extended only to the Cantabrian war. He a'so wrote some epigrams and other verses. Having adopted Tiberius (his step-son) as his successor, he died in August, 14 A. D. See Suetonius, "Life of Augustus," (" Vita Augusti ;") Nicolas Davascenus, " De Vita Augusti ;" Tacitus, "Annales;" Drumann, "Geschichte Roms;" Plutarch's "Life of Marcus Antonius;" NouGAREDE, " Histoirc du Siecle d'Auguste," 1840; Larrey, "Vie d' Augusta," 1S40. ' Augus'tus Fred'erick, Prince of Great Britain, and Duke of Sussex, the sixth son of George HI., was born in 1773. married, at Rome, in 1793, Lady Au- gusta Murray, a daughter of the Earl of Dunmore. The prerogative court having declared this marriage to be null and void, the parties were separated, after the birth of a son. Sir Augustus Frederick d'Este. The Duke of Sus- sex was liberal in politics, voted for the abolition of the slave-trade and slavery, and favoured religious toleration. He was chosen president of the Royal Society in 1830, and retired from that position in 1839. He contributed liberally to benevolent institutions. Died in 1843. Au'laf, written also Anlaf, a Danish chief, who rav- aged Ireland and the north of England, and finally, having conquered Edmund at Leicester, obtained the northern part of the kingdom, which he ruled until his death about 943. Aulaf, King of Norway. See Olaf. Aulagnier,o'ltn'ye-i', (Alexis Franqois,) a French medical writer, born in Grasse in 1767; died in 1839. Aiilaire. See Saint-Aulaire, Au-la^ni-us E-van'der, an Athenian sculptor, who lived in Rome in the time of Augustus. Aulard, o'IIr', (Pierre,) a French general, born in Languedoc in 1763, was killed at Waterloo in 181 5. Aulber, (Erasmus.) See Alber. Aulber, owKber, (Johann Christoph,) a German historian, born at Waiblingen in 1671 ; died in 1743. Aulber, (Matthaeus,) a German reformer, born at Blaubeuren in 1495, became a disciple of Luther about 1 5 18. He preached at Rcutlingen, and induced that city to adopt the Augsburg Confession in 1530. In 1548 he was appointed cathedral preacher at Stuttgart bv Duke Ulrich. Aulbery, o'hWre', (George,) secretary to Charles III., Duke of Lorraine, was author of several poems, a life of Saint Sigisbert, King of Austrasia, and a descrip- tion of Lorraine and Nancy. Auletta, 6w-let'tS, (PirtrRO,) an Italian composer of operas, lived in the first haff of the eighteenth century. Aulich, ow'liK, (Louis,) a Hungarian general, born at Presburg in 1792. He was made a general in the spring of 1849, and contributed to the success of the Hungarians over Windischgratz. He succeeded Gorgey as minister of war in July or August, 1849. After the surrender of Gorgey, he was hung as a rebel by the \ustrians at Arad in October, 1849. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Auliczeck. See Aulizeck. Aulisio, d', dow-lee'se-o, [Lat. Aulis'ius,] (Dome- Nico,] an Italian jurist, linguist, and writer, eminent for his learning, was born at Naples about 1645. He was well versed in the ancient and modern languages, numis- matics, and various sciences, and was professor of civil law at Naples for many years. Among his numerous works are, " On the Architecture of the Mausoleum," ("De Mausolei Architectura,") "On the Timaic Har- mony," ("De Harmonia Timaica,") and "Commentaries on Civil Law," (" Commentaria Juris Civilis," 3 vols., 1719-20.) Died in 171 7. See " Vita di Aulisio," prefixed to his " Scuole Sacra" by Troi- sio, 1723. Aulizeck, 6w'lit-s§k^ or Auliczeck, ovv'lit-ch^k, (Dominic,) a Bohemian sculptor, born at Policzka in 1734; died at Munich in 1803. Aulnaye, de 1', deh 16'na', (Franqois Henri Sta- nislas,) a P>ench writer, born at Madrid in 1739. He translated " Don Quixote" into French, (1824,) and wrote many articles for the "Biographic Universelle." Among his numerous works are a-" History of the Religions and Worships of all Nations," (1791,) "Pax Vobis, or the Anti-Mason," (Philadelphia, 1791,) and an essay "On the Pantomime of the Ancients," ("De la Saltation theatrale," 1790.) "His version of Don Quixote," says Weiss, "is the best in the language." He lived mostly in Paris. Died in 1830. See Querard, "La France Litteraire." Aulon, d', do'loN', (Jean,) a French gentleman, known as a companion-in-arms of Joan of Arc. He was ap- pointed by the king to attend her as intendaiit ox maitre- tVhotd. lie fought at the siege of Orleans. In the cam- paign of 1449 he was made a chevalier. Aultanne, d', doKttn', (Joseph Augustin de Four- nier — deh fooR^ne-i',) Marquis, a French general, born at Valreas in 1759, served at the battles of Zurich and Hohenlinden, but, having connected himself with Moreau, became suspected by Napoleon for a time. He after- wards distinguished himself at Austerlitz and Jena, and was made governor of Warsaw and Toledo. Died in 1828. Aulu-Gelle. See Gellius, (Aulus.) Au'lus, the name of one or more gem-engravers, M'ho lived under early Roman emperors. Aulus Gellius. See Gellius. Aulus Postumius. See Postumius. Auniale, d', do''mtK, (Charles de Lorraine — deh lo'ran',) Due, a French prince, born about 1555, was a son of Claude II., and a first-cousin of Henry, Duke of Guise. After the death of the latter, (1588,) Aumale and the Duke of Mayenne became the chiefs of the League formed against the Huguenots and Henry IV. Aumale commanded a wing of the army of the League at the battle of Ivry, (1590,) and afterwards joined in a trea- sonable design to transfer France to the King of Spain. He was sentenced to death by Parliament in 1595, but had escaped from their power. Died at Brussels in 1631. See De Thou, "Historia sui Temporis ;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." Aumale, d', (Claude de Lorraine,) Due, a French duke, born about the end of the fifteenth century, was a son of Rene II. of Lorraine. He conquered the duchy of Luxembourg in 1542, and was created Duke of Guise by Francis I. Died in 1550. Aumale, d', (Claude II.,) Due, the son of the pre- ceding, born about 1525, was a brother of Francois, Duke of Guise. He had a high command in the war against Charles V., and fought against the Huguenots at Dreux, (1562,) Saint-Denis, (1567,) and Moncontour, (1569.) He was one of the principal instigators of the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, (1572.) He was killed at the siege of La Rochelle in 1573, and left a son Charles, noticed above. See De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis." Aumale, d', (Claude,) a Knight of Malta, son of Claude II., was born in 1563. He was an active, fierce, and cruel member of the League, and declared he would make a Saint Bartholomew of the royalists all over France. He was killed at Saint-Denis in 1591.^ Aumale or Albemarle, d', dtKbeh-mtRK, (Etienne, or Stephen,) Count of, was son of Eudes, first Count € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, guttural ; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) AUMALE 2 14 AURELIO of Aumalc, (and Earl of Holderncss,) and nephew of William the Conqueror. In 1095 a conspiracy was formed to place him on the English throne, but being defeated he was condemned to the loss of his eyes ; Wil- liam Rufus, however, pardoned him. He twice rebelled against Henry I., who burnt his castle in Aumale. He made two pilgrimages to the Holy Land, in the last of which he died, in 11 27. Aumale, d', or Albemarle, (Eudes or Odo,) Count, son of Etienne II., Count of Champagne, being deprived of his inheritance by his uncle Thibaut HI., took refuge with the Duke of Normandy, whose half-sister he mar- ried, and to whom he rendered good service in the conquest of England, for which he was created Earl of Holderness. Having joined Mowbray's rebellion, in 1094, he was imprisoned by William Rufus the rest of his life. Aumale, d', or Albemarle, (Guillaume, or Wil- liam,) Count, son of fitienne, succeeded his father in Aumale and Holderness in 1 127. He supported Stephen in his contest for the crown of England against the em- press Matilda. In 1173 he joined the rebellion of Prince Henry against his father Henry II., but afterwards sub- mitted. Died in 1 180. Aumale, d', (Henri Eugene Philippe Louis d'Or- leans — doR^la'c^N^,) Due, the fourth son of King Louis Philippe, was born in Paris in 1822. He entered the army in 1839, served in Africa in 1840, and became marechal-de-camp in 1842. In 1843 ^""^ gained a victory over Abd-el-Kader, whose camp and treasures fell into the hands of the French. He was rewarded with the rank of lieutenant-general, and in September, 1847, was appointed Governor-General of Algeria. Soon after that date Abd-el-Kader surrendered to him. When the news of the revolution of 1848 arrived in Algeria, the Due d'Aumale submitted to the new regime in a manner that was generally applauded. He retired as an exile to England. Aumale, d', (Jean d'Arcourt — dta^kooR^,) Comte, a French soldier, born in 1396, defeated the English in 1423 between Laval and Vitre. He was killed at the battle of Verneuil in 1424. Aumont, d', do'moN^ (Jacques,) Due, an officer in the national guards in the Revolution, (who was mal- treated by the mob for supposed aid to Louis XVI. in his escape,) served till 1793. He died in 1799. Aumont, d', do'm^N^ (Jean,) an able French gene- ral, born in 1522 of a noble family. He fought against the Protestants in the war which began in 1562, and was niade a marshal of France in 1579. In 1589 he became an adherent of Henry IV., for whom he fought with dis- tinction at Ivry, in 1590. He was killed in battle in 1595. He was renowned for courage and magnanimity. His grandson Antoine, Due d'Aumont, (1601-69,) was a mar- shal of France. See De Thou, "Historia sui Temporls ;" and I.'Estoile, " Me- moires. " Aumont, d', (Louis Marie Alexandre,) Due, a brother of Jacques, born in 1736, was a member of the States-General in 1789, and an adherent of the Bourbons. Died in 1814. Aumont, d', (Louis Marie CiSleste de Pienne — deh pe'en',) Due, a royalist general, born in 1770, was a so:i of Jacques, above noticed. He commanded a band C'f royalists who entered Normandy from the sea during the Hundred Days. Died in 1831. Aumont, d', (Louis Marie Victor,) Due, a French general, a son of Antoine, born in 1632. He distin- guished himself as an officer in the wars of Louis XIV. 1'^ Flanders. Died in 1704. Au-na'ri-us or Au-na-eha'ri-us, [Fr. Aunaire, o'rSr'',] Saint, Bishop of Auxerre, is known by various names. He was born of a noble family at Orleans about 540 A.D., and enjoyed a high reputation for learning and sanctit3^ Aungerville. See Richard de Bury. Aunillon, o^ne'yoN', (Pierre Charles Fabiot — ft'be''o',) Ahbe, born in 1684, was the author of "The Disguised Lovers," a comedy, " Azor, a Fairy Tale," and "The Force of Education," a novel. Died in 1760. Aunoy, o^nw^', (Marie Catherine,) Countess of, a distinguished ornament of the court of Louis XIV., born about 1650. She is known in our times chiefly by her fairy-tales, which have run through numberless editions and been translated into various languages. She also wrote several novels, and, among them, "The History of the Count of Warwick," " Memoirs of the Court of England," and other historical memoirs and ro- mances. Died at Paris in 1705. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire ;" Dunlop, "History of Fiction ;" " Histoire Litteraire des Femmes Frangaiscs." Aupick, o'p^k'', (Jacques,) a French general, born at Gravelines in 1789. He served in several campaigns of Napoleon, became a colonel in 1834, and a general of division in 1847. In 1851 he was ambassador to London. He was appointed a senator in 1853. Died in 1857. Auramazda. See Ormuzd. Aurang-Zebe. See Aurung-Zeb. Aurat, d'. See Dorat. Aurbach, von, ion owR^blK, or Aurpach, owR'piK, (JoiiANN,) a German jurist of Bamberg, lived in the sec- ond half of the fifteenth century, Aurbaclier,6wR''baK-er, (Ludvv^ig,) a German school- master, born in Bavaria in 1784, wrote, besides other works, "The Adventures of Seven Suabians," (1846.) Died in 1847. Au-re'li-a, the mother of Caius Julius Caesar the dictator, was a woman of superior character. , Died in 54 B.C. Aurelia Gens, a plebeian family in Rome, of Sabine origin, containing many illustrious names. C. Aurelius Cotta was the first who obtained the consulship, 252 B.C. Au-reTi-an or Au-re-li-a'nus, [Fr. Aurelien, 5'ra'le''iN',] (Claudius Domitius,) a Roman emperor, who was born of obscure parents ai)out 212 A.D., at Sir- mium, in Pannonia, or, according to some, in Lower Dacia, or in Moesia. He rose by his talents and courage from the rank of private to the highest position in the army of Valerian, and was appointed consul in 25S A.D. On the death of Claudius in 270, Aurelian was proclaimed emperor by the army. About the same time the north of Italy was invaded by the Alemanni, who were defeated at Fanum, in Umbria. The principal event of his reign was an expedition against Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, who reigned over Syria, Egypt, etc., and whose army he defeated near Emesa. Palmyra and the queen were captiu'ed by him in 273 A.D. (See Zenobia.) He punished a revolt of the Palmyrenes, which occurred soon after, with a general massacre, and acted with ex- treme severity on other occasions. He was very success- ful in his military enterprises, and was called the restorer of the empire, but was more competent to command an army than to govern a nation. He was assassinated by his own officers in 275 A.D., and was succeeded by Tacitus. See Vopiscus, "Vita Aurellani;" Trebellius Pollio, "Odena- tus,"and " Zenobia ;" Tillemont, "Histoire des Empereurs;" Gib- bon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap. xi. Aurelian or Aurelianus, Saint, was born about 500 A.D. He became Bishop of Aries, and the pope's vicar for Gaul, about 546. He died at Lugdunum, (Lyons,) 551 A.D. Aurelianus, Saint. See Aurelian, Saint. Aurelianus Caelius. See C^lius Aurelianus. Aurelien, the French of Aurelian, which see. Aurelio, 6w-ra'le-o, King of Asturias, reigned fron-. 768 to 774 A.D. He bound himself by treaty to deliver annually a number of maidens to the Moorish king as tribute. See Paquis and Dochez, "Histoire d'Espagne." Aurelio, 6w-ra'le-o, (Aurelio,) a Venetian p -l^ flourished between 1660 and 1720. Aurelio, Aurelli, 6w-reKlee, or Arelli, d-reFlee, (Giovanni Muzio — moot'se-o,) [in Latin, Joan'nes Mu'tius Aure'lius,] a Latin poet, born at Mantua, lived in the early part of the si.xteenth century. He was appointed governor of Mondolfo by Leo X., became un- popular, and was assassinated a few months after his appointment. He left a hymn to John the Baptist and an epistle to Leo X., which are highly praised by J. C. Scaliger. See BAiLLET,"Jugements des Savants," and Scaliger," Poetica." ii, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, vi, y. s/w?'t; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n5t; good; moon; AURELIO 21 5 JURIFABER Aurelio, (Ludovico,) an Italian historian and Jesuit, born at Perugia, was distinguished for his proficiency in Greek, Latin, and German. He became a canon of the Lateran at Rome. Among his worlds are a " History of the Rebellion of the Bohemians against the Emperors Matthias and Ferdinand," (1625,) and an "Epitome of the Annals of Cardinal Baronius," (2 vols., 1634.) Died in 1637. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Au-re''li-iiS, a famous Roman painter, lived in the reign of Augustus. Aturelius, 6\v-ra^le-us, (iEciDius,) a learned Swedish writer and translator, born at Upsal, lived about 1650. Aurelius, (Joannes Mutius.) See Aurelio, (Gio- vanni Muzfo.) Au-re'li-us An-to-ni'nus, (Makcus,) commonly called Mar'cus Aure'lius,[Fr.MARC-AuRELE,mtR^ko - ral',] sometimes surnamed the Philosopher, a Roman emperor, celebrated for his wisdom, learning, and virtue, was born at Rome in April, 121 a.d. He was a son of Annius Verus, who once held the office of praetor. His own original name was Marcus Annius Verus. He was educated by able teachers, among whom were Fronto, Apollonius of Chalcis, and Herodes Atticus. In philo- sophy he was a disciple of the Stoics, of which sect he became an illustrious ornament by his practice as well as by his writings. Having been adopted by Antoninus Pius in 138 A.D., he assumed the name of M. ^lius Aurelius Verus Caesar. In 139 Antoninus, who had just become emperor, associated him in the administration. Aurelius married Faustina, a daughter of Antoninus, about 146 A.D., and succeeded his adopted father in 161, after he had been urged by the senate to accept the throne. He associated with himself in the empire Lu- cius Commodus, alias Lucius Verus. They reigned har- moniously together until the death of Verus in 169 A.D. His reign was disturbed by many insurrections, and by inroads of northern barbarians, especially the German tribes of the Marcomanni and Quadi. Though he pre- ferred peace, he was almost continually involved in war, in which he acted on the defensive and was generally victorious. He is said to have shown himself a skilful ^ general. He commanded in person the army that drove the Marcomanni out of Pannonia. His victory over the Quadi in 174 a.d. is attributed to a miracle by some writers, who affirm that the thirsty Romans were refreshed by a shower during the battle, while the enemy were assailed by a violent storm of hail and lightning. An ancient tradition ascribes this miracle to the prayers of a Christian legion which formed part of the army of Aurelius. In 175 A.D., Avidius Cassius, an able general, who commanded the Roman army in Syria, revolted, de- clared himself emperor, and made himself master of Egypt and of the part of Asia which lies east of Mount Taurus. He was killed by his own officers in the same year. Aurelius visited Syria, Egypt. Athens, etc., in 176. He was initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries at Athens, and on other occasions conformed to the established re- ligious rites. In 177 he associated his son Commodus with himself in the empire. He was engaged in a cam- paign against the Marcomanni and Quadi, when he died at Sirmium, or at Vindebona, (Vienna,) in March, 180 a.d. Commodus erected to his memory the Antonine column, which stands at Rome in the Piazza Colonna. His thoughts and doctrines were recorded by himself in a Greek work, called "Meditations," which is considered an excellent manual of moral discipline. His biogra- phers find it difficult to explain the persecution which the Christians suffered ia his reign, and which is perhaps the only stain on his memory. We learn from one short passage of his writings that he was prejudiced against the Christians. No monarch was ever more beloved by his subjects. He acquired the boasted equanimity of the Stoic philosophy, without the asperity which was a characteristic of the Stoics in general. A good English version of " The Thoughts of Marcus Aurelius Anto- ninus," by George Long, appeared in 1862. See Cai-itolinus, " Marcus Antoninus Philosophus ;" Tille- MONT, " Histoire des Empereurs;" Ripault, " Histoire de I'Em-- pereur Marc-Antonin," 5 vols., 1820; Dion Cassius, lib. Ixxi.; Fa- BRicius, "Blbliotheca Grasca;" De Suckau, "Etude sur Marc Aurele," 1S57; Aurelius Victor, " De Cassaribus Historia." See also the notice of Marcus Aurelius in Matthew Arnold's "Essays in Criticism." Aurelius Arcadius Charisius. See Charisius. Aurelius Augustinus. See Augustine, Saint. Au-reTi-us Cor-ne'li-us, the Latin name of a Dutch- man whose family name was SoPSEN, better known as the friend of Erasmus (whose preceptor he is said to have been) than by his works, which were principally Latin elegies. He was a native of Gouda. See Erasmus, "Eplstote." Aurelius Cornelius Celsus. See Celsus. Aurelius Cotta. See Cotta. Au-reTi-us Vic'tor, (Sextus,) a Roman historian, who flourished between 350 and 400 A.D., is supposed to have been a pagan. He was appointed prefect of Pan- nonia Secunda by the emperor Julian about 360, and was prefect of the city of Rome under Theodosius. The materials for his biography are very scanty. He wrote "De Caesaribus Historia," which contains the lives of the emperors from Augustus to Constantius, and is ex- tant. He is also the reputed author of two extant works, entitled "Lives of Illustrious Romans," ("De Viris illustribus Urbis Romas,") and "On the Life and Cha- racter of the Emperors," ("De Vita et Moribus Impera- torum," or "Aurelii Victoris Epitome.") Aurelli, (Giovanni Muzio.) See Aurelio, (Gio- vanni Muzio.) Aureng-Zebe. (or Zeyb.) See Aurung-Zer. Aurenhammer, ow'ren-hSm'mer, or Auernham- mer, ow'ern-ham'mer, (Josepha,) a celebrated piano- forte player at Vienna, and a composer of some reputa- tion. She lived at the close of the eighteenth century. Au-re'o-lus, (Caius,) one of the various usurpers called the "Thirty Tyrants" that arose in different parts of the Roman Empire during the reign of Gallienus, was born in Dacia, of an obscure family, and rose by his military merit. After having put down two pretenders to the imperial throne, he assumed the purple about 267 A.D. Having by treachery procured the assassination of his rival Gallienus, he soon after submitted to Claudius II., (the successor of Gallienus,) but subsequently, re volting, was slain, 268 A.D. Aurgelmir. See Ymir. Auria, 6w-ree'a, (Vincenzo,) an Italian antiquary and historian, born at Palermo in 1625, is said to have been chancellor of Sicily. He published numerous useful works, among which arc a " History of the Viceroys of Sicily," ("Istoria de' Signori Vicere di Sicilia," 1697,) and a "Treatise on Tournaments," (1690.) He also wrote verses in Latin and Italian. Died in 1710. See MoNGiTORE, "Vita di Auria," in Crescimbeni's "Vite degh Arcadi illustri." Auria, d', dow're-S, (Giovanni Domenico,) an emi- nent Neapolitan sculptor and architect of the sixteenth century. His master-piece is the Fontana Medina in the Piazza del Castelnuovo at Naples. Died in 1585. See CicoGNARA, "Storia della Scultura." Auria, d', (Giuseppe,) an Italian mathematician, who lived in Naples in the sixteenth century. He wrote a work on the best method of study. He also translated various works of the Greek mathematicians. Aurifaber, ow're-f^'ber, (Andreas,) a Latin form of the name of Andreas Goldschmidt, a German phy- sician, born at Breslau in 15 12, became professor in the University of Konigsberg. He published a treatise "On the Management of Dogs, ("De Cura Canum," 1545,) and wrote a " History of Amber," ("Succini His- toria," 1561.) Died in 1559. Aurifaber, (Johann,) a brother of the preceding, born at Breslau in 15 17, was a Lutheran divine. He gained distinction by settling some religious differences at Lubeck, and became professor of divinity at Konigs- berg about 1555. Died in 1568. Aurifaber, "(Johann,) a German divine, born in the county of Mansfeld about 15 19. He is said to have been private secretary of Luther, at whose death he was pres- ent. He was appointed court preacher at Weimar in 1 55 1, and minister of the principal Lutheran church at Erfurt in 1566. He edited the "Letters of Luther" and € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, H, k, gtdtural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. O^^See Explanations, p. 23.) AURIFERI 6 JUST EN his '* Table-Talk," and was one of the editors of Luther's other works. Died in 1575. See JocHER, "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." Auriferi, ow-ree^fi-ree, (Bernardius,) a botanist of distinction, was born in Sicily, of very poor parents, in [739. He published a work entitled " Hortus Panormi- tanus," (1789.) Died in 1796. Aurigny, d', dd'ren'ye', (Gilles,) a French poet, born at Beauvais, became an advocate in the Parliament of Paris. He produced a number of imaginative works, which were once popular. Among the most admired of these is "The Guardian of Love," ("Tuteur d'Amour," 1546,) a poem. Died in 1553. Auriol, d', dd^re'oK, (Blaise,) a French poet and jurist, born at Castelnaudary, became professor of canon law at Toulouse. His chief poem is " Le Depart d'Amour," ("The Departure of Love," 1508,) intended as a continuation of " La Chasse d'Amour" of Octavien de Saint-Gelais. Died about 1540. Auriol, d', (Pierre,) [in Latin Aure'olus or Auri'- OLUS,] a French theologian, born at Toulouse, became Archbishop of Aix about 1320. See Cardinal Sernano, "Vie de Pierre d' Auriol." Aurisicchio, 6w-re-sek'ke-o, an Italian composer, who died about the middle of the eighteenth century. Aurispa, 6w-res'pa, (Giovanni,) an eminent Italian scholar, who contributed much to the restoration of classical learning among his countrymen. He was born at Noto, in Sicily, about 1370. Having visited Constan- tinople in 141 8, he returned with a rich store of Greek manuscripts, many of which were almost, if not wholly, unknown in Europe. He also contributed not a little to the popularity of Greek literature by his zeal and success as a teacher. Died at Ferrara in 1459. He translated into Latin " Hieroclis Liber in Pythagoroe Aurea Carmina." See TiRABOSCHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Au-ri-viPli-us, (or ow-re-viKle-us,) (Carl,) an emi- nent Swedish Orientalist, born at Stockholm in 171 7, studied at Jena, Halle, and Paris. He became professor of Oriental languages at Upsal in 1772, and was ap- pointed a member of a commission to translate the Bible into Swedish. He translated the Pentateuch, Job, the Psalms, and the Prophets. His academical dissertations are highly commended. Died in 1786. See " Biographiskt-Lexicon ofver namnkunnige Svenska Man." Aurivillius, (Eric,) a Swedish jurist, born at Knutby in 1643 '■> ^^^'^ ii"^ 1702. Aurivillius, (Magnus,) a Swedish minister, who served Charles XII. as chaplain at Pultowa and Bender, was born in 1673. See " Biographiskt-Lexicon bfver namnkunnige Svenska Man." Aurivillius, (Pehr Fabian,) a son of Carl, born in 1756, was for forty years keeper of the principal library of Sweden, at U])sal, of which he compiled a catalogue, (1814.) He was professor of humanities at Upsal, and wrote a biography of Bergman the chemist. Died in 1829. See "Biographiskt-Lexicon bfver namnkunnige Svenska Man." Aurivillius, (Samuel,) a Swedish physician, and pro- fessor of anatomy at Upsal. Died in 1767. Au-ro-gaPlus, (Matthaeus,) a distinguished scholar, cotemporary and friend of Luther, was born in Bohe- mia about 1480. He was for some time professor of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin in the University of Witten- berg, and afterwards rector in that institution. He pub- lished several works, and aided Luther largely in his translation of the Bible. Died in 1543. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Auroux des Pommiers, 5'roo' di po'me-^', (Ma- thieu,) a French ecclesiastic and legal commentator, who lived in the first half of the eighteenth century. Aurpach. See Aurbach. Au-run'cus, (Posthumius Cominius,) a Roman general, who was consul in 493 B.C., when the plebeians asserted their rights on Mons Sacer. Aurung-Zeb, (Aureng(or Aurang) -Zebe,) 6'rting- zab', the " ornament of the throne," afterwards sur- named Alum-Geer or Alam-Gir, i'lum-geeR, ("con- queror of the world,") a celebrated emperor of Hindostan, was born in 1618. Though the third son of Shah Jehan, he managed, by creating dissension among his hi others, and finally by the assassination of the two elder, Dara and Shuja, and the imprisonment of the younger, Moorad, to possess himself of the whole empire, even in the life- time of his father, whom he detained in captivity for seven years. Notwithstanding the unscrupulous means * by which he possessed himself of power, he seems to have used it not unwisely nor very unjustly, so far as his Mohammedan subjects were concerned ; though his bigoted intolerance towards the Hindoos created dis- content and was the cause of the first formidable insur- rection among the warlike Marhattas. Though cool and crafty, he seems not to have beerii cruel, except from mo- tives of policy. During a severe famine which afflicted his empire in the third year of his reign, he showed both wisdom and humanity in the relief of his famishing sub- jects. He added Beejapore and Golconda to his domin- ions, and increased the imperial revenue to ;,^40,ooo,ooo. He died in 1707, in the fiftieth year of his reign. The Mussulmans of India regard him as one of the greatest of their monarchs ; but the decadence of the empire may be traced to his policy. As in the case of Louis XIV. of France, whom he resembled, his religious intol- erance and habits of duplicity ruined the resources and prosperity of the country. See Elphinstone, "History of India;" Bernier, "Voyages et Description de I'Empire Mogol ;" J. Mill, "History of British India ;" Dow, " History of Hindustan." Au'si-us, (or 6w''se-us,) (Henry,) a Swedish Hellen- ist, born in Smaland in 1603, was professor of Greek at Upsal. Died in 1659. Ausone. See Ausonius. Au-so'm-us, [Fr. Ausone, 6'son',] (Decimus Mag- nus,) a celebrated Latin poet, born at Burdigala (Bor- deaux) about 310 A.D. He taught grammar and rhetoric at that city with such success that his fame induced Va- lentinian to appoint him tutor of his son Gratian in 367. After the accession of Gratian to the throne, 375 a.d., Ausonius enjoyed the favour of his former pupil, and obtained, besides other high offices, that of consul in 379. He appears to have been a Christian in profession ; but Muratori and others have affirmed or supposed he was a pagan. He wrote epigrams ; " Idyllia ;" a descrip- , tive poem on the Moselle ; and " Series of Noble Cities," ("Ordo nobilium Urbium.") His poems were greatly admired by his contemporaries, but are less agreeable to the taste of modern critics, who consider his style faulty in many respects. His poem on the Moselle has consid- erable merit, and is called the oldest specimen of descrip- tive poetry. Died about 394 a.d. See M. DE PuvMAiGRE, "Vie d' Ausone ;" Souchay, "Disserta- tio de Vita et Scriptis Ausonii ;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Latina ;" J. Demogeot, "fitudes historiques et litteraires sur Ausone," 1837. Ausonius, [Fr. Ausone,] Saint, born in the French province of Saintonge, is supposed to have been conse- crated first bishop of Angouleme (Engolisma) in 260 a.d., and to have been slain by the Vandals about 270 ; but his history is doubtful. Auspicius, aw-spish'e-us. Saint, Bishop of Toul, was a learned and distinguished ornament of the Church in France in the fifth centu-ry. Died about 480 a.d. Aussigny, d', d5^sen''ye', (Thibauld,) was Bishop of Orleans, France, in the fifteenth century. He wrote a "History of the Acts of Joan of Arc." See Sainte-Beuve, " Tableau de la Poesie Fran^aise au seizieme Siecle." Aus'ten, (Miss Jane,) an English authoress, born at Steventon, Hampshire, in December, 1775, was ^ daugh- ter of a clergyman who was rector of that parish for many years. After the death of her father, she resided at Southampton and at Chawton, to which she removed in 1809. In 1811 she published anonymously her first novel, " Sense and Sensibility," which was very favour- ably received. Pier other works are " Pride and Preju- dice," " Mansfield Park," " Emma," (1816,) "Northanger Abbey," (1818,) and " Persuasion," (1818.) Her charac- ters belong to the middle rank of English society, and are not extraordinary either morally or intellectually. She is considered almost unrivalled in fidelity to nature. Her writings are free from sentimental extravagance, but a, e, T, o, u, y, lo)i<^; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; ndt; good; moon; AUSTEN 217 AUTENRIETH not deficient in tenderness. They have been translated into French, and are achiiired in France. " Edgeworth, Ferrier, Austen," says Sir Walter Scott, "have all given portraits of real society far superior to anything vain man has produced of like nature." Died in May, 181 7. See LocKHART, " Life of Sir Walter Scott ;" " Quarterly Review" for January, 1821; "Atlantic Monthly" for Februar}', 1863; Mrs. Elwood, "Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England Irom the Commencement of the Last Century," vol. ii., 1843. Austen, (Ralph,) a writer on horticulture, fruit-trees, etc., was born in Staffordshire about 1610. Austen or Aus'tin, (William,) an English metal- founder in the reign of Henry VI., was one of the artists employed to execute the splendid tomb of Richard, Earl of Warwick, in Saint Mary's Church at Warwick. See DuGDALE, "Antiquities of Warwickshire." Aus'tin, (Benjamin,) an American political writer of the democratic school, born about 1752. He was a sup- porter of Jefferson. A collection of his writings in the " Boston Chronicle," under the signature of " Old South," was published in 1803 in a volume entitled " Constitutional Republicanism." He died in Boston in 1820. Austin, (Charles,) a son of Benjamin, noticed above, was shot in the streets of Boston (1806) in an attempt to inflict castigation upon one who had attacked his father in the public papers. Austin, (James Trecothic,) an American lawyer and writer, son of Jonathan L. Austin, born in Boston in 1784. He graduated at Harvard in 1802, was advocate of Suffolk county for twenty-nine years, and attorney- general of Massachusetts from 1832 to 1843. He pub- lished a " Life of Elbridge Gerry," and other works. Aus'tin, (John,) an English writer, born in Norfolk county in 1613, became a Roman Catholic about 1640, and afterwards resided mostly in London, He wrote, besides other works, "The Christian Moderator; or, Persecution for Religion condemned," (1651,) the style of which is commended. Died in 1669. See Butler, "Historical Memoirs respecting the English, Irish, and Scotch Catholics." Austin, (John,) an English jurist, born in 1797, was author of "The Province of Jurisprudence determined," (1832,) which is said to be one of the most valuable con- tributions to the philosophy of law and legislation that has been produced in modern times. Diecl in i860. ■ Austin, (Jonathan Loring,) an American patriot, born in Boston in 1748. In 1777 he was sent to Paris with the news of the surrender of liurgoyne. Here he remained two years as Franklin's secretary, and after- wards spent two years as his agent in England. On his return to the United States he was liberally rewarded by Congress. Died in 1826. Austin, (Moses,) an American pioneer, born in Dur- ham, Connecticut, about the commencement of the Amer- ican Revolution. He sold his property in 1820, and pen- etrated to the interior of Texas. At Bexar he forwarded to the Mexican government an application for permission to establish in that country an American colony of three hundred families, and, without waiting for a reply, he set out on his return to Missouri for settlers. He died soon after (June, 1821) from the effect of the hardships to which he had been exposed. His application, however, was successful, and the colony was established by his son, Stephen F. Austin. Austin, (Robert,) an English clergyman, who de- fended the Parliament in a pamphlet entitled "Alle- giance not impeached," etc., (1644.) Austin, Saint. See Augustine, Saint. Austin, (Samuel,) an English poet, son of Rev. Sam- uel, noticed below, was born in 1636; died in 1661. Austin, (Samuel,) D.D., president of the University of Vermont, was born in New Haven, Connecticut, in 1760. He graduated at Yale with distinguished honours in 1783, and, after studying divinity, preached for several years in Fair Haven, and about twenty-five years in Wor- cester, Massachusetts. Died in 1830. ^ Austin, (Rev. Samuel,) an English poet, born in Cornwall in 1606. His principal work is "Austin's Urania, or the Heavenly Muse," (1629.) See Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses." Austin, (Mrs. Sarah,) an English writer, distin- guished as a translator from the German, was a member of the Taylor family of Norwich. She became the wife of John Austin, barrister, of London. She published " Characteristics of Goethe," (3 vols., 1833,) which had a great success, " Considerations on National Education," "Sketches of Germany from 1760 to 1814," and other original works. She also made excellent translations of Prince Piickler-Muskau's "Travels in England," and of Ranke's " History of the Popes," (3 vols., 1840,) of which Macaulay remarks, " It is such as might be expected from the skill, the taste, and the scrupulous integrity of the accomplished lady who, as an interpreter between the mind of Germany and the mind of Britain, has already deserved so well of both countries." (Review of Ranke's "History of the Popes.") Died in 1867. See "Gentleman's Magazine" for September, 1867. Austin, (Stephen F.,) the founder of the State of Texas, was a son of Moses Austin, noticed above. He explored the region watered by the Colorado and Brazos Rivers in 1821, and conducted from New Orleans a party of emigrants, who settled where the city of Austin now stands. About the end of 1822 the grant made to his father was confirmed to him by the Mexican government. In the spring of 1833 the Texan colonists formed a con- stitution and applied for admission to the Mexican con- federacy ; but Austin, who visited the city of Mexico on this mission, found that country in a state of anarchy, and failed to obtain the ratification of the Texan constitu- tion. He was detained at Mexico as a prisoner or hos- tage until September, 1835. About that time the Texans took arms to drive the Mexicans out of Texas, and ap- pointed Austin commander-in-chief In November, 1835, he went as commissioner to the United States to pro- mote the liberation of Texas from the Mexican domi- nation, and to obtain the recognition of Texas as an independent State. Died in December, 1836. Austin, (William,) of Lincoln's Inn, London, was the author of a poem on the passion of Christ, some prose works of a religious character, and a translation of Cicero on "Old Age." Died in 1633. Austin or Aus'ten, (William,) a designer and en- graver, who lived in London about 1750. Views of buildings in Palmyra and Rome are his most noted works. Austin, (William,) an English physician and chemist of high reputation, was born in 1753. He practised at Oxford and in London, and was chosen physician to Saint Bartholomew's Hospital in 1786. He published a "Treatise on the Origin and Component Parts of the Stone in the Bladder," (1791,) and wrote several papers on gases. Died in 1793. Austin, (William,) an American lawyer and writer, born in 1778, rose to eminence at the Boston bar. His principal works are his " Letters from London," in 1802 and 1803, and "Essay on the Human Character of Jesus Christ," in 1807. Died in 1841. Aus-tre-ber'ta, Saint, born in Artois in 633 a.d., was related to the royal family. She died in 704. Austregilde, os^t'r-zhekK, the wife of Gontran, King of Burgundy, notorious for her crimes. Died in 560 a.d. Austremoine, Saint, siN''t6s't'r-mwin', [Lat. Stre- mo'nius,] the first Bishop of Auvergne, converted many pagans in Gaul about 250 A.D. Autelli, 6w-teKlee, (Jacopo,) an Italian worker in mosaic, flourished in the first half of the seventeenth century. There is said to be a curious mosaic in the mu- seum at Florence upon which he worked sixteen years. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Autelz, des, di zoihV, (Guillaume,) a French poet of considerable reputation in his day, but of no great merit, born in Burgundy in 1 529. He is supposed to have died about 1600. See NiCERON, "Memoires." Autenrieth, von, fon 6w'ten-reet',(HERMANN Fried- rich,) a physician, born at Tubingen in 1799, succeeded his father as professor of anatomy in 1835. He has published, besides other works, one " On the Diseases of the Common People of Great Britain," (" Ueber die Volkskrankheiten in Gross-Britannien," 1824.) See Callisen, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon." € as 9 as s; | hard; g as/; g, h, K,guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^=See Explanations, p. 23.) JUTENRIETH 218 AVVERGNE Autenrieth, von, (Johann Hermann Ferdinand,) an able German medical writer and physiologist, born at Stuttgart in 1772, was the father of the preceding. He practised about one year (1794) at Lancaster, Penn- sylvania, and became professor of anatomy, etc. at Tu- bingen in 1797. He was distinguished for his varied knowledge and powers of observation, and wrote nume- rous works, the principal among which is a "Manual of Human Physiology," (" Handbuch der empirischen menschlichen Physiologic," 3 parts, 1801-02.) Died at Tubingen in 1835. Aiiteroche,(CHAPPE d'.) See Chappe d'Auteroche. Authai'is. See Antheric. Authon. See Auton. Authville des Amourettes, d', dot'v^K da zt^- moo'ret', (Charles Lours,) a French tactician, who published several works on military subjects. He was b'-rn at Paris in 17 16, and died there in 1762. Autichamp, d', d5'te'sh6N', (Antoine Joseph Eu- Icilie de Beaumont — uh'lt'le' deh bo'moN'',) Count, born in 1 744, was a brother of the marquis Jean T. Louis, noticed below. He fought for the American cause at Yorktown. Died in 1S22. Autichamp, d', (Charles,) a son of the preceding, born in 1770, was a royalist chief in the Vendean war of 1793. Died in 1852. Autichamp, d', (Charles,) Seigneur de Miribel, a French officer, entered the army about 1640. He dis- tinguished himself at Lerida and Lens. Died in 1692. Autichamp, d', (Jean Therese Louis de Beau- mont — deh bo'moN',") Marquis, was born at Angers, of a distinguished French family, in 1738. He took an act- ive part in the royalist cause during the Revolution until 1797) when he entered the service of Paul L of Russia, where he obtained considerable distinction. Returning to France with the Bourbons in 181 5, he was made lieuten- ant-general, and governor of the Louvre. Died in 1831. See De Courcelles, " Dictionnaire historique des Generaux l''rangais." Au'to-cles, [Avro/vAz/f,] an Athenian general and orator, commanded in Thrace in 362 B.C. Au-toc'ra-tes [/Vi-o/cpur?/f] of Athens, one of the earliest Greek dramatic poets. Autoin. See Alduin. Au-toFy-cus, [AoroAw/cof,] a Greek mathematician, born at Pitane, in yEolis, lived about 320 is.c. He taught mathematics to the philosopher Arcesilaus, and wrote two extant works, " On the Moving Sphere," and " On the Risings and Settings of the Stars." See ScHOELL, " Histoire de la Litterature Grecqiie." Autolycus, a famous thief of antiquity, the son of Hermes. (See Sisyphus.) Au-tom'e-don, [Airo^ueJwy,] the name of a poet to whom are attributed a number of epigrams in the Greek Anthology: He is supposed to have been a native of Cyzicus, and to have lived in the reign of Nerva. 'Automne, r/ton', [Lat. Autum'nus,] (Bernard,) a French jurist, born near Agen about 1570. He wrote, besides other legal works, a " Commentary on the Com- mon Law ( Coiititvie) of Bordeaux." Died in 1666. Auton, Authon, d', d5't6N', or Autun, 5''tiiN', written also Anton and D'Anton, (Jehan or Jean,) a French poet and chronicler, who is supposed to have been born about 1470. His reputation as a poet brought him to the notice of Anne of Brittany, queen of Louis XH., through whom he received the appointment of chronicler to the king. His " Annals of the Reign of Louis XH." are distinguished for their truth and fidel- ity. Died in 1527. See GoujET, " Bibliotheque Frangaise." Au-ton'o-e, [Gr. Airoi-o?/,] a daughter of Cadmus, and a sister of Lio, was the wife of Aristajus, and mother of Action. Au-toph-ra-da'tes, [Gr. AiiroGiparVzr??^,] a Persian general in the time of Artaxerxes HL ancl Darius H. He suppressed the revolt of Artabazus, Satrap of Lydia, and commanded the fleet of Darius in the war with Alex- ander the Great, in conjunction with Pharnabazus. Autran, o'tRdN', (Joseph,) a French poet, born at Marseilles in 1812. He produced in 1838 "Sports for the Winds," ("Ludibria Ventis,") which was received with favour, and in 1848 "The Daughter of ^schylus," a drama in five acts, which shared the prize of the Acad- emy with the " Gabrielle" of Augier. His " Poems of the Sea" (1852) are admired. Autreau, o'tRo', (Jacques,) a French artist of the seventeenth century, was respectable both as a painter and dramatic writer. His comedy of " Port a I'Anglais" (1718) was eminently successful. Died in poverty, at Paris, in 1745, aged eighty-nine. See Heinecken, "Dictionnaire des Artistes." Autrey, o'tRi', (Henri Jean Baptiste Fabry de Moncault — ft'bRe' deh mdN^ko',) Count, born in Paris in 1723. He was commander of a brigade of cavalry of Brittany ; but was chiefly noted for the works he wrote in opposition to the Encyclopaedists, (as the infidel philosophers of the French Revolution were called.) Died in 1777. See Grimm, " Correspondance littcraire." Autrive, d', do'tR^v', (Jacques FRANgois,) an emi- nent French violinist and composer, was born at Saint- Quentin in 1758, and died in 1824. Autroche, d', do'tRosh', (Claude de Loynes — deh Iwdn,) a French translator, born at Orleans in 1744. He published in 1804 a metrical version of Virgil's " /Eneid," which he considered an improvement on the original. He proposed to give an edition of the ^Eneid such as he supposed Virgil would have written if he had lived long enough to make it perfect. In 1808 he produced a mediocre version of " Paradise Lost, separated [degagee) from the superfluous parts which disfigure it." Died in 1823. See QuERARD, " La France Littcraire." Au-tro'ni-us Pce'tus was consul of Rome in 66 B.C., after which he was banished as an accomplice of Catiline, Autumnus. See Automne. Autun. See Auton. Auvergne, 6-vern', [Fr. pron. dV^Rn',] (Bernard,) the first Count of, obtained his title in 864. He joined the league of Charles the Bald in 877, but made his peace with the king in the following year, and afterwards rendered distinguished services to Louis H., who ap- pointed him guardian to his son Louis IH. He was killed in war in 884 Auvergne, d', ao''vaRii', (AntoinE;) a French ope- ratic composer, born at Clermont-Ferrand in 1713, went to Paris, where he became director of the Opera. Died in 1797. Auvergne, d', (Edward,) an English historical writer, born in the island of Jersey about 1660. He was chap- lain to William HL, whom he accompanied in his wars in the Spanish Netherlands, of which he afterwards wrote the history. Died in 1 737. See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses;" Salmon, "History and Anti- quities of Essex." Auvergne, d', (Guillaume,) [Lat. Guliel'mus Ar- ver'nus or Alver'nus,] Bishop of Paris, was born at Aurillac in the latter part of the twelfth century. A doctor of the Sorbonne, he was distinguished by his phi- losophical, mathematical, and theological studies, having written voluminously on the last subject. His chief work is a treatise on "The Universe," ("De Universo.") Died in 1249. Auvergne, d', (Latour.) See Latour d'Auvergne. Auvergne, d', (Martial, mtR''se''tK,) called also Martial of Paris, an eminent French lawyer, poet, and wit, was born in Paris about 1440. Among his works maybe mentioned the " Decrees of Love," (" Les Arrests d'Amour,") partly in prose and partly in poetry, in imi- tation of the subjects treated in the courts of Love as established in that age, and a poem entitled "Vigils of the Death of Charles the Seventh." Died in 1508. See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Auvergne, d', (Peyrols, p^VroK,) a distinguished Proven9al poet, many of whose songs are preserved in the Vatican ancl the Royal Library of Paris, flourished in the twelfth century. See IMiLLOT, "Histoire litteraire des Troubadours;" Sismondi, "De la Litterature du Midi de I'Eiuope." Auvergne, d', (Pierre,) also called Petrus de Al- vernia (or Arvernia) and Petrus de Cros, a pupil of Thomas Aquinas, was born in Auvergne about 1250, a, e, T, o, u, y, long; \, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/i07't; a, e, i, o, obsaire; far, f^ll, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; AUFERGNE 219 AVALOS and became one of the most distinguished philosophers and theologians of his day. He wrote several commen- taries on Aristotle's works, was a socius of the Sorbonne, and canon of the Cathedral of Paris. See BuLEE, " Historia Universilatis Pailsiensis. " ■ Auvergne, d', (PierrI'.) written also Peyre d'Aul- vergne, a famous troubadour of Clermont, flourished about the middle of the twelfth century. He afterwards renounced the world and became a monk. He died, it is supposed, about 1215. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Millot, " Histoire litteraire des Troubadours." Auvergne, d', (Pierre,) a celebrated French scholar, who became rector of the University of Paris in 1272. Died probably about 1300. Auvergne, d', (Theophile Malo Corret de la Tour.) See Latour d' Auvergne. Auvigny, d', d6^•en'ye', (Jean du Castre — dli ktst'R,) a French litth'afair, born in Hainaut about 17 10, is said to have been addicted to pleasure no less than to literature. Among his works are " Lives of Illustrious Men of France," (10 vols., 1739-57,) and a romance called "Memoirs of Madame de Barneveldt," (1732 or 1735.) He was killed at the battle of Dettingen in 1743. See MoRERi, " DIctionnaire Historique." Auvity, 5've^te', (Jean Abraham,) for several years a surgeon of the Foundling Hospital at Paris, was noted for his skill in treating the diseases of children. He wrote several medical essays. Died in 1821. Auvray, o'vRa', (Felix,) a French historical painter, born in 1800, was one of the most distinguished pupils of Baron Gros. Died in 1833. Auvray, (Jean,) a French poet of considerable merit, but whose works are too often disfigured by in- delicate allusions and coarseness of expression, born about 1590; died in 1633. His "Sacred Treasure" seems to have been the best of his productions. Auvray, (Louis Marie,) a French colonel, born in 1762, was prefect of La Sarthe from 1800 until 1814. He published " vStatistics of the Department of La Sarthe," (1S02.) Died in 1833. Auvray, (l^iiiLirp Peter Joseph,) a portrait-painter, born at Dresden in 1778 ; died in 181 5. Auwera, 6w-<\a'ra, (Johann Georg,) an artist who was educated at Rome, but afterwards became court- sculptor in Bavaria, resided at Wiirzburg, where he died in 1756. See Jacic, " Leben und Werke der Kiinstler Bambergs." Auxboeuff, o^buf, (Pierre,) a French priest, emi- nent as a pulpit orator, lived at Paris about 1400. Auxentiu.s, awk-sen'she-us, [Fr. Auxence, 6k'- s6nss',] Bishop of Milan, (Mediolanum,) born in Cappa- docia about 310 a.d. He was at first an Arian, but afterwards recanted, and enjoyed the favour of the emperor "\^alentinian until his death in 374. Aux-Epaules, 6'zi''p6K, [Lat. De Hu'meris, Ad Hu'meros, or De Scap^ulis,] a French soldier of for- tune of the fifteenth century, took an active part in the civil wars under Charles VH., and served for a time in the English army. Died in 1643. See Jean Chartier, " Chronique," and " La Mer des Histoires," Lyons, 1512. Aux-iFi-us, a French theologian, lived about 900, and wrote some treatises against Pope Sergius HL Auxiron, ok'se'rAx', (Jean Baptiste,) a French mathematician, born at Baume-les-Dames about 1680; died in 1760. Auxiron, d',dok'se'r6N',(CLAUDEFRANgois Joseph,) a French ofiuer, born in Besan9on in 1728, wrote some works on the best method of supplying Paris with water, and one (2 vols. i2mo) on " Government." Died in 1778. Auxiron, d', (Jean Baptiste,) a French jurist, born at Besan9on in 1736 ; died in 1800. Auzanet, o'zt'ny, (Barth^lemi,) a French lawyer of high repute, born in Paris in 1591. He was engaged with De Lamoignon in an effort to produce a uniform system of laws throughout France, which, though it failed of its object, produced some valuable legal works. Died in 1673. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Auziron, 5''ze'r6N'', (Jean Baptiste,) a French engi- neer, and writer on political economy, born at Besan9on in 1728 ; died in 1778. Auzoles, d', dS'zoF, (Jacques,) Lord of La Peyre, and author of several works on Chronology and the Bible, was born in Auvergne in 1571, and died at Paris in 1642. See NiCERON, "Memoires." Auzou, 6'zoo'', (Louis Napoleon,) a nonconformist French priest, born at Versailles in 1806, was a disciple of Abbe Chatel, founder of the " French Catholic Church." He wrote " On Sacerdotal Usurpations," (1832,) and other works, and protested against the celibacy of the clergy. In 1839 he retracted his heterodox opinions. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Auzout, 5'zoo', ( Adrien,) an able French astronomer, mathematician, and instrument-maker, born at Rouen, be- came one of the first members of the Academy of Sciences, founded in 1666. He was the inventor of the movable wire micrometer, and published a "Treatise on the Mi- crometer," (1667.) "He shares with Picard," says liiot, " the honour of having applied the telescope to graduated instruments or quadrants." Died at Rome about 1692. See Delambre, "Histoire de I'Astronomie moderne;" Con- DORCET, "ifiloges." Auzoux or Auzou, o'zoo', (Louis,) a French physi- cian, born in the department of L'Eure in 1797. He is distinguished by the invention of a new art of imitating anatomical preparations with paste or pulp, {pate de carton,) which becomes hard when it dries. He gave the name of anatomic clastiqne to his method, which is considered a very valuable invention. Av-a-lo'ni-us, (Elvan,) an English missionary, who is said to have preached the gospel to the Bretons in the second century. See Godwin, "De Episcopiis Angllcis;" Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique." Avalos, d', dd-va'los, sometimes written Davalo (da-VcVlo) by the Italians, the name of a noble family of Spanish origin, who migrated to the kingdom of Naples in the fifteenth century. Avalos, d', (Alfonso,) Marquis of Pescara, an officer and friend of Ferdinand H. of Naples, to whom he ren- dered good service in his war against the French. He died from the effects of a wound in 1495, leaving a son P^rdinand, who was a famous general. Avalos, d', (Alfonso,) Marquis del Vasto, (written also Del Guasto,) an able general, born at Naples in 1502, was a son of Inigo, noticed below, and a first-cousin of the Marquis of Pescara. He entered the army of Charles V. at an early age, and greatly contributed to the victory of Pavia in 1525. He succeeded the Marquis of Pescara in command of the army in November of the same year. In the expedition against Tunis in 1535 he had the chief command of the land-forces. He succeeded De Leyva as captain-general of the Imperial forces in Italy, and became governor of Milan in 1536 or 1537. He was defeated with great loss by the French under Conde, at Cerisoles, in 1544. Died in 1546. His sonnets and Rime are commended. See BoTTA, " Storia d'ltalia ;" Verri, " Storia di Milano ;" Bran- tome, "Vies des grands Capitaines." Avalos, d', (CosTANZA,) a distinguished poetess, sister of the preceding, livecl about 1520. She became the wife of Alfonso Piccolomini, Duke of Amalfi. Her poetical talents, beauty, and virtue are highly praised l3y contemporary writers. Avalos, d', (Ferdinando,) Marquis of Pescara, [in French, Le Marquis de Pescaire,] a famous general, born at Naples about 1490, was a son of Alfonso the elder, noticed above. About 1508 he married Vittoria Colonna, a poetess. (See Colonna, Vittoria.) He was taken prisoner by the French at Ravenna in 1 5 12, and appointed general of the infantry in Italy by Charles V. about 1 5 18. In 1 52 1 he captured Milan from Lautrec, and in 1522 pillaged Genoa after he had taken it by storm. Pescara and the Duke of Bourbon invaded Pro- vence in 1524, but were forced to retreat. The former formed the plan of the battle of Pavia, (1525,) and ap- pears to be entitled to the honour of the victory, although he was not nominally the first in command. (See Lan- noy, and Bourbon, Due de.) Sismondi says Pescara € as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as G, H, K, guttural; N, ttasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) AVALOS 220 A FAUX had the greatest share in ganiing this battle, in which he was wounded. Lannoy having gone to Spain with the royal captive, the chief command devolved on Pescara. At this juncture, several Italian princes formed a secret league to drive the Spaniards out of Italy, and attempted to seduce Pescara into the project; but he divulged the secret to Charles V. Died at Milan, in November, 1525. See Paoio Giovio, "La Vita di Don Feriando Davalo;" Bran- tome, "\ies des Hommes illustres;" Giannone, "Storia civile del Regno dl Napoli ;" Guicciardini, " Istorla d'ltalla;" Botta, " Storia d'ltalia ;" Verki, " Storia di Milano." Avalos, d', (In [GO,) Marquis del Vasto, a younger brother of Alfonso, Marquis of Pescara, noticed above, served under the great captain Gonzalo de Cordova, and died in his service in 1503. Avalos, de, da 3.-vd'l6s, (Inigo,) a Spanish general, who was a constant adherent of Alfonso V. of Aragon. Died in 1481. Avalos, de, (Ruy Lopez,) father of the preceding, was Grand Constable of Castile, and a noted warrior. Died about 1427. A-van-ci''nus, [Ger. pron. d-v3.nt-see'nus,] (Nico- I-AUS,) a learned Jesuit, rector of the colleges of Gratz, Passau, and Vienna, and author of several works on biography, criticism, and theology, was born in the Tyrol in 1 61 2, and died in 1685. See JocHER, "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." Avangoii, d', dt'vdN'soN', (Guillaume,) Archbishop of Embrun, born about 1530, was a violent adversary of the Protestants. Died in 1600. Avantio. See Avanzi. AvaHiius,{HiERONYMUS.) See Avanzi, (Girolamo.) Avanzi, a-v§.n'zee, or Avantio, J-v^n'te-o, [Lat. Avan''tius,] (Giovanni Maria,) a distinguished Italian jurist and poet, born at Rovigo in 1549, was a friend of Torquato Tasso. He resided at Padua from 1606 until his death. He wrote " II Satiro, Favola pastorale," a drama, (1587,) "The Glow- Worm," ("La Lucciola," a poem, 1627,) and other works in prose and verse, which remain in manuscript. Died in 1622, See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittorl d'ltalia." Avanzi, (Girolamo,) an Italian philologist and editor, born at Verona probably about 1460. He assisted Aldus Manutius in preparing the works of Latin authors for the press, and was rather bold and unscrupulous in his conjectural emendation of texts. Among the classics which he edited were Catullus, (1493,) Lucretius, (1500,) and the Younger Pliny, (1504.) He was living in 1534. Avanzi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, born at Fer- rara in 1655, was more noted for the number than the quality of his productions. Lanzi says that he seems to have painted against time. He executed figures, land- scapes, etc. His master-piece is the " Beheading of John the Baptist." .Died in 1718. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Avanzi, (Niccol6,) a distinguished engraver of gems, of the sixteenth century. He was born at Verona, but worked mostly at Rome. SeeVASARi, "Lives of the Painters." Avanzi, d', d^-vin^zee, (Jacopo di Paolo,) an emi- nent Italian painter of the fourteenth century, supposed to have been a native of Bologna or Padua. He worked at Bologna between 1370 and 1400. In his youth he painted Madonnas almost exclusively. He afterwards formed a partnership with Simone de' Crocefissi. His style resembled that of Giotto, whom he surpassed in attitude and expression. The frescos which he exe- cuted in San Felice, Padua, in 1376 were partly restored in 1773 t>y F. Zanoni. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Avanzini, i-vin-zee^nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian ma- thematician and natural philosopher, born at Gaino, in Venetia, in 1753. He became professor of mathematics at Padua about 1797. Having been deprived of this place by the political events of 1801, he was restored in 1806. He was chosen in 1805 a member of the National Institute. He wrote essays on the resistance of fluids, and a "Treatise on the Theory of the Hydraulic Ram," {1815.) Died in 1827. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Ita'iani illustri." Avanzini, (Giustiniano,) an Italian painter, who flom-ishcd in the first half of the nineteenth century. Avanzini, (Pietro Antonio,) an Italian painter, born at Piacenza ; died in 1733. Avanzino, a-vin-zee''no, a painter of many frescos in the churches of Rome, born at Citta di Castello in 1552^ died in 1629. Avanzino, (Giuseppe Maria,) an Italian physician of Roveredo, became professor at Florence. He was a pupil of Vallisnieri, and defended the opinion of his master respecting the origin of springs, in a treatise, (1725.) Died in 1739. Avanzo. See Avanzi. Avaray, d', dt'vt'ra^ (Antoine Louis,) Dug, a French officer, born in 1759, chiefly distinguished for aiding the escape of Monsieur (afterwards Louis XVIII.) from Paris in June, 1791, of which Louis in gratitude published a full account after his accession to the throne. Died in Madeira (whither he had gone for his health) in 1811. Avaray, d'^ (Claude Antoine de Besiade — deh ba^ze'td'',) Due, father of the preceding, was born in 1740. He served in the Seven Years' war, was a deputy in the States-General, a member of the Constituent As- sembly, (1790,) a.nd a zealous royalist. He only escaped the guillotine by the death of Robespierre. In 1814 he carried the address of the Senate to Louis XVIII. Died in 1829. Avaray, d', (Claude Th^ophile de Besiade,) Marquis, a French general, born in 1655. He served in several campaigns before the peace of Ryswick, (1697,) and became marechal-de-camp in 1702. He commanded a wing with great success at the battle of Almansa in 1707, and served under Villars in Flanders in 17 10— 12. Died in 1745. Avas, d-v^s', (R. Moses Judah,) a Jewish theological writer and poet, lived in the seventeenth century. Avattr, ay'a.-tlr', or Avatara, av^a-t^'ra, [from ava, " off," "away," "down," and tara, a " crossing over" or passing from one thing to another,] a term signifying " descent" or " transformation," applied in the Hindoo mythology to an incarnation of one of the principal dei- ties, particularly of Brahma, Siva, and Vishnu. The avatars of Vishnu are especially celebrated ; they are named as follows : I. Matsya, the " Fish ;" 2. Kiirma, (kooRma,) the "Tortoise;" 3. Varaha, the "Boar;" 4. Narasingha, the " Man-Lion ;" 5. Va'mana, (or Wa'ma- na,) the "Dwarf;" 6. Parasura'ma, (called in the com- mon dialect Pur''asooram';) 7. Rama Chandra ; 8. Krish- na ; 9. Booddha, (Buddha;) the tenth, which is yet to come, is called Kalki. The particular Avatars of Vishnu will be treated of more fully under their respective heads. (See Matsya, Kurma, etc.) Avaux. See Felibien. Avaux, d', dt^vo', a violin-player and composer, who lived in Paris in the latter part of the eighteenth century, Avaux, d', (Claude de Mesmes — deh mini,) Count, one of the most distinguished French diploma- tists of the seventeenth century, was born about 1595. He was sent on a mission to Venice in 1627. About 1643 he was appointed a plenipotentiary to conduct the intri- cate negotiations required to terminate the Thirty Years' war. He passed several ensuing years at the Hague, at Miinster, and at various German courts, and is siid to have gained the confidence of foreign powers by his integrity. Before he had completed the negotiations which resulted in the peace of Westphalia, (1648,) he was recalled by Mazarin, in consequence of the in- trigues and jealousy of Servien, who had been sent as his colleague. He died in 1650. He left diplomatic memoirs, which were published in 1674. See Retz, "Memoires;" Flassan, " Histoire de la Diploniatie Francaise." Avaux, d', (Jean Antoine de Mesmes,) Count, a French diplomatist, born in 1640, was a nephew of the preceding, whose talents he is said to have inherited. He was one of the plenipotentiaries who negotiated tha treaty of Nymwegen, (1678,) after which he was ambas- sador to Holland until 1688. In 1689 he was envoy ex- traordinary to James II. in Ireland. He also had some agency in the treaty of Ryswick, (1697.) Died in 1709. e, 1, 5, u, y, lon£^; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, 11, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fdt; n6t; good; moon; A FAUX 221 AFENARIUS The " Negotiations of Count d'Avaux" were published in 6 vols., 1753. See Macaulay, " History of England," especially chap. xii. of vol. iii. ; Saint-SixMON, " Memoires." Avaux, d', (Jean Antoine de Mesmes,) Count, a judge and academician, born in Paris in 1661, was a grand-nephew of Claude, noticed above. He became first president of the Parliament of Paris in 17 12, and courageously headed that Parliament in opposition to several measures of the regency, especially to the finan- cial schemes of Law in 171 8. He was elected in 17 10 to the French Academy. He was noted for his bon- mots. Died in 1723. See D'Alembert, " Histoire des Membres de I'Academie." Avr.ux, d', (JE.A.N Jacques de Mesmes,) a French judge, born in 1640, was a member of the French Acad- emy. Died in 1688. Aved, t'ved', (Jacques Andre Joseph,) a successful I'^rench portrait-painter, born at Douay in 1702, was a pupil of La Belle. He was elected a member of the Academy of Paris in 1734, soon after which he was ap- pointed portrait-painter to the king. Among his works are portraits of Mehemet-Effendi, J. B. Rousseau, and Mirabeau. He is said to have been particularly success- ful in representing character. Died in 1766. See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Av'e-dik, Patriarch of Armenia. Having persecuted or offended the Catholics, he was abducted by the Jesuits about 1704, and imprisoned at Messina. Aveelen. See Avelen. Aveen, 3.-van', (Adrian,) a Dutch engraver, born at Amsterdam, lived about 1700. Aveiro, a-va'e-ro, (Don Josi^; de Mascarenhas — da mds-kJ-ren'y^s,) DuKE of, a Portuguese nobleman of infamous character, born in Lisbon about 1710, is chiefly noted for his having been one of the prime actors in an attempt to assassin-ate the king (Jose L) in 1758, for which he was broken on the wheel, and his property confis- cated. This conspiracy was originated by the Jesuits and discontented nobles in revenge for the protection which the king gave to the Marquis of Pombal. See Smith, "Memoirs of the Marquis of Pombal," and "Gentle- man's Magazine" for February, 1759. Aveis or Aveys, a-vas' or ^-vTs', written also Avis, Sultan, second sovereign of the Persian dynasty of Ilkhanian princes. He became sultan in 1356. He is re- presented as the benefactor of his people and a munifi- cent patron of learning. Died in 1374. Avelen, van den, vdn den a'veh-len, or Aveelen, i'va'len, also written Aveele, (Joiian,) a Dutch en- graver of moderate ability, worked at Stockholm from 1702 to 1712. Aveline, tv^l^n', (Antoine,) a French engraver and designer, born in Paris about 1660. He engraved many landscaj^es and views of cities. Died in 171 2. Aveline, (Francois Antoine,) an engraver of me- diocre abilities, was born in Paris in 1718. He worked chiefly for the booksellers. Died in London in 1762. Aveline, (Jean,) an engraver, born in Paris, was a brother of the preceding. Aveline, (Pierre,) a designer and engraver, born in Paris in 17 10, was a cousin of the preceding. He was the most able artist of the family. lie engraved after Jordaens, Watteau, Teniers, Rubens, Albani, and his own designs. Died about 1760. See Basan, "Dictionnaire des Graveurs.' Avellaneda, de, di a-vel-yS-na'D^, (Alonso Fer- nandez,) the assumed name of a Spanish author who in 1614 published a sequel to the first part of "Don Quixote," before Cervantes had published his second part. This spurious continuation, entitled " Segundo Tomo del ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quixote," was trans- lated into French by Le Sage, (1704,) and into English in 1805. Avellaneda's work is much inferior to that of Cervantes, but has some literary merit. His real name is not known. His prologue contains a scurrilous attack on Cervantes. See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Avellaneda, de, (Don Garcia— gaR-thee'S,) Count of Castrillo, a distinguished Spanish statesman, born about 1600. He was sent by Philip IV. as viceroy to Naples in 1653. During his administration two hundred thousand people are said to have died of plague in the city alone in six months. Avellaneda has been justly cen- sured for the inefficiency of his measures of prevention. See GiANNONE, " Storia civile del Regno di Napoli." Avellaneda, de, (Gertrudis Gomes,) a popular Spanish poetess, born in the island of Cuba in 1816, was a daughter of a naval officer. She settled at Madrid about 1840, and published a volume of "Lyric Poems" in 1 841. Her tragedies, "Alfonso Munio," " Principe de Viana," and " Egilona," had great success. She was married in 1846 to Don Pedro Sabator, who died the same year. She afterwards produced two poems, " The Cross," (" La Cruz,") and the " Last Accent of niy Harp," and several dramas, among which are "The Glories of Spain," (1850,) "The Flower-Girl," ("La Hija de las Flores,") and "La Sonambula." Avellani. See Avelloni, (Giuseppe.) Avellar, de, da a-vel-laR^, (Francisco Gomes,) a Portuguese prelate, born in 1739, became Bishop of Al- garve in 1789. He merited the title of public benefactor by his improvements in agriculture. Died in 1816. Avellino, S-vel-lee'no, (Francesco Maria,) an Ital» ian antiquary and numismatist, born at Naples in 1788. He became professor of Greek in the University of Naples in 181 5. In 1839 he was appointed director of the Museo Borbonico. He wrote many treatises on medals and antiquities. Died in 1850. Avellino, (Giulio,) a Sicilian landscape-painter, called II Messinese, ("the Messinese,") was a pupil of Salvator Rosa. His style resembles that of his master, but is not so wild. He worked at Ferrara, where he died about 1700. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Avellino, (Onofrio,) a skilful Italian painter of his- tory and portraits, born at Naples in 1674, was a pup'l of Solimena. He was especially successful in portraits. He worked at Naples and at Rome, where he died in 1 741. Among his best works is a fresco in the church of San Francesco di Paolo in Rome. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Avellone. See Avelloni. Avelloni, 3.-vel-lo'nee, (Francesco,) a prolific Italian dramatist, born at Venice in 1756. His first play, "Giulio Assassino," was performed with success at Naples. He wrote many plays which were brought on the stage of Naples under the name of the Prince of Sangro, who paid him eight ducats apiece. He was most successful in the sentimental drama, sometimes called the " lachry- mose." Among his works are the " Lantern of Epicte- tus,"and " II Sogno d'Aristo," ("Aristo's Dream.") Died at Rome in 1837. SeeTiPALDO, "Blografia degli Italian! illustri." * Avelloni or Avellani, 3,-vgl-l§.''nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian poet of great imagination, born at Venice in 1761. Among his works is " Padova Riacquistata," (" Padua Recovered," 1790.) Died at Venice in 1817. A'ven, Da'ven, Davent, dt'v6N', or D'Avesnea, an engraver, the time and place of whose birth are un- known. He engraved on copper several works of Pii- maticcio and Giulio Romano. Avenant. See Davenant. Av-e-na^ri-iLS, (Johann,) a German theologian, born at Eger in 1520. His German name was Habermann, (or Hafermann, i.e. " Oatman,") which, according to the cus- tom of the time, he changed to the Latin equivalent Ave- nariiis. He was professor of theology at Jena. He published a Hebrew Lexicon, (1568,) and other works. Died in 1590. Avenarius, (Johann,) a Protestant minister, born at Steinbach in 1670. He preached at Berka and Gera, and wrote several theological and musical works, among which is " E^vangelic Doctrine, or Song-Sermons," (" Evangelische Lehr, oder Lieder-Predigten," 1729.) Died at Gera in 1736. Avenarius, (Johann,) a grandson of Tohann, (1520 -90,) noticed above, was professor of eloquence. He wrote " Synopsis CEconomica," and other works, dated 1608-28. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, K, guttural; n, iias.il; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2;^='See Explanations, p. 23,) Jl^ENJRIUS 222 AFERROES Avenarius, (Thomas,) a German composer, born near Lcipsic, published some songs in 1614. Avenbrugger. See Auenhrugger. Avendaiino, d-ven-dan'no, (Pedro Nunez — noon'- yeth,) a Spanish jurist, lived about 1540. Avenelles, des, di ztv'ncK, (Alhin or Aubin,) a French satirical poet, born in 1480, was canon of Sois- sons. He translated into verse the " Remede d' Amour" of /Eneas Sylvius, (Pius II.) See GoujET, " Bibliotheque Frangaise." Avenelles, des, (Philippe,) a French translator of Plutarch's "Lives," (Paris, 1558.) Avenelles, des, (Pierre,) an advocate of the Parlia- ment of Paris, chiefly known by his disclosure of the Amboise conspiracy (formed in 1560 by the Prince de Conde) to remove the Guise family from about the per- son of Francis II. Avenpace, a\§n-pa'thi, Avempace, a\'§m-p^'tha, Abenpace, or more properly Ibn-Bajah, ib'n-ba^jah, (Aboo-Bekr-Moliam'med-Ibn-Yaliya — yah'hya,) a celebrated Arabian philosopher, born probably at Saragossa. He practised medicine at Seville, which he quitted about 1120 a.d. He afterwards became vizier at the court of Fez, where he is supposed to have died about 1 130. He was one of the teachers of Averroes, and was a devoted admirer of Aristotle. Avenpace wrote treatises on philosophy, metaphysics, etc. See N. Antonio, " Bibliotlieca Hispana Vetus ;" Casiki, "Biblio- theca Arabico-Hispana ;" Wustenfeld, " Geschichte der Arabischen Aerzte." Avenport, d', ddv'en-port, (Francis Christopher,) an English monk, born at Coventry about 1598, was chaplain to Charles II. Died in 1665. Av~en-ti''nus, (or a-ven-tee''nus,) (Johannes,) a histo- rian of much merit, whose family name was Thurmaier or TuiiRNMAiER, was born at Abensberg, in Bavaria, in 1466. Having taught eloquence, etc. at Vienna and In- golstadt, he was invited to Munich in 1512, and became the tutor of the duke's sons. His chief work is a " His- tory of Bavaria," ("Annales Boiorum," 1554,) which was generally esteemed, and highly praised by Leibnitz. The editor of this work suppressed some passages unfavour- able to the Romish Church, which were restored in an edition published by Cisner in 1580. Died in 1534. See J. ZiEGLER, "Vita Aventini ;" D. W. Moller, " Dissertatio de J. Aventino," 169S. Av'en-zo'ar, written also Avenzohar or Aben- zoiiar, a corruption of the Arabic name Ibn-Zohr, (Tb'n zohR,) a celebrated Arabian physician, born probably near Seville, Spain, about 1075. According to some modern authorities, he was a Jew. He was a son of an eminent physician of similar name who wrote several works and died in 1130. The son became vizier of the Sultan Abdel-Moomen. Died at Seville in 1162. His principal work, commonly called "Teiseer," ("Teisir," "Taisir," or "Theizir,") is one of the most valuable works of the Arabian physicians. See Leo Africanus, " De Viris illustribus ;" Fabricius, " Biblio- theca Gra?ca;" Casiri, " Blbliotheca Arabico-Hispana." Avenzoar the Younger, a son of the preceding, born at Seville about 1114, was a distinguished ])hysician and poet. He succeeded his father as chief physician to the Sultan Abdel-Moomen, and was raised to the rank of vizier. He wrote several medical works, which are not extant. Died at Morocco about 1200. By Arabian writers he was accounted the most eminent of the family. See Fabricius, "Bibliotlieca Grasca;" N.Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Vetus." Aver. See Auer. Aver, ^'ver, (Johann Paul,) a German painter, born at Nuremberg in 1636 ; died in 1687. Averani, ^.-vi-ra'nee, (Benedetto,) an eminent Italian professor and classical scholar, born at Florence in 1645, became in 1676 professor of Greek, and after- wards of humanities, in the University of Pisa. He was very successful as a teacher of the Greek and Roman languages and antiquities. His lectures on Thucydides, Euripides, Cicero, Livy, and Virgil were published in three volumes, (1716.) He wrote other works, in prose and verse. Died at Pisa in 1707. See G. Averani, " Benedicti Averani Vita;" Fabroni, "Vitje Italorum doctrina excellentium. " Averani, (Giuseppe,) a celebrated jurist, brother of the preceding, born at Florence in 1662, was also dis- tinguished for his attainments in the physical sciences. He became in 1684 professor of law at Pisa, where he lectured with high reputation for many years. He wrote, besides other works, a "Discourse on the Law of War and Peace," (" Disputatio de Jure Belli et Pacis," 1703,) and " Interpretations of Law," (" Interpretationes Juris," 1716-36.) His Latinity is admired by Italian critics. Died in 1738. See Fabroni, "VitJE Italorum doctrina excellentium;" Tipaldo, " Biogratia degli Italiani illustri ;" Mazzuchelli, " Scrittorid'Italia." Averani, (Niccolo,) brother of the preceding, an eminent Italian advocate and mathematician, who edited the works of Gassendi, was born at Florence about 1650 ; died in 1727. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Averara, a-va-ri'rd, (Giovanni Battista,) an Ital- ian fresco-painter, born at Bergamo, was an imitator of Titian. He was a good colorist, and excelled in paint- ing infants and landscape -backgrounds. He was in the prime of life when he died in 1548, See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Averari, i-va-ra'ree, (Antonio,) an Italian writer and famous preacher, born in Lombardy, lived about 1500. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Averdy, de 1', deh Wvl-Rfdo.^, called also Laverdi, (Clement Charles Francois,) a French statesman, born in Paris about 1720, was made comptroller-general of the finances in 1763. He recommended the abolition of the transit-duties on grain, which was afterwards car- ried into effect, and proposed other salutary measures, but was soon after removed from office. He perishecl by the guillotine in 1793. See Lacretelle, " Histoire de France," and "Vies des Surinten- dants des Finances et des Controleurs-g^neraux." A'ver-ell, also written Auerell, (William,) an English pamphleteer of the sixteenth century, wrote a "Dial for Daintie Darlings," (London, 1590,) and other works. A'ver-ill or A'ver-ell, (William W.,) an American general, born in the State of New York, graduated at West Point in 1855. In the autumn of 1862 he was ap- pointed a captain in the regular army, and brigadier- general of volunteers. He commanded a troop of cav- alry in several actions fought in Virginia in 1863. In P^ecember of that year he conducted a raid into vSouth- western Virginia and destroyed a large amount of stores at Salem. He served under Sigel and Hunter in West Virginia in 1864. Averkam, van, vSn i^^er-kam^, written also Aver- kampen, (Hendrik,) a Dutch landscape and marine painter, born at Kampen about the end of the sixteenth century, was called "the Mute of Kampen." His his- tory is unknown. His drawings are more prized than his pictures, the colours of which have been injured by time. Averois or Averoys. See Averroes. Averoldi, ^-vi-roKdee, (Giulio Antonio,) an Italian antiquary, born at Venice in 165 1, became a resident of Brescia. He formed a rich collection of medals, marbles, etc., and wrote a treatise on the paintings and antiquities of Brescia, (1700.) Died in 171 7. See Brulliot, " Dictionnaire des Monogrammes." Averoni, S-vi-ro'nee, (Valentino,) an Italian theo- logian, born at Florence, lived between 1550 and i6tjC. Averrlioes. See Averroes. Averroes,* a-vgr'ro-ez, or A-ver'ro-is, written also Averois, Averoys, or Averrhoes, the common form of the name of Ibn-Roshd, (Tb'n rosh'd,) one of the most famous of all the Arabian philosophers and physicians, was born at Cordova, in Spain, probably in the first quarter of the twelfth century. lie was a pupil of Aven- pace and Avenzoar. He became cadi (judge) at Seville and Cordova, and enjoyed a high degree of favour at the court of Aboo -Yoosuf-Yakoob -Al - Mansoor - Billah, at Morocco. His celebrity as a writer rests chiefly on his Commentary on Aristotle, which in the middle ages * Chaucer, after Dante, writes the name Averrois. (See I'rologue to the "Canterbury Tales.") a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, \\, y, sho?'t; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f3,ll, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; AVERS A 223 AFICENNA obtained for him the title of " The Commentator/' He is mentioned by Dante, in the "Inferno," canto iv., as " Averrois che il gran comento feo."* His works are extremely numerous. He wrote on medi- cine, theology, law, logic, etc. Some of his works have been translated into Latin and Hebrew. He died at Morocco in 1198. He seems to have been a more de- vout believer in the philosophy of Aristotle than in the religion of Mohammed. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the disciples of Aristotle in Italy were divided into two sects, the Averroists and the Alexandrists. See Leo Africanus, " De Viris illustribus;" N. Antonio, " Bi- bliotheca Hispana Vetus;" Brucker, "History of Philosophy;" Tennemann, " Geschichte der Philosophie ;" E. Renan, "Averroes et Averroisme, " 1852; Dr. F. Hoefer's article on Averroes, in the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Aversa, ^-vCr'sJ, (Tommaso,) an Italian poet and dramatist, born at Amistrato, in Sicily. He was patron- ized by several cardinals and dukes, and gained con- sideral)Ie reputation by his poems, among which are "Piramo e Tisbe," an idyl, (1617,) and "The Pilgrim," ("II Pellegrino," a drama, 1641.) He translated Vir- gil's ".^neid" into Sicilian verse, (1654-60.) Died in 1663. See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." A'ver-y, (Waitstill,) an American lawyer and pa- triot, born in Norwich, Connecticut, near the middle of the last tentury. He removed to North Carolina, of which State he became attorney-general in 1777. Died in 1821. Avesani, d-va-s3.'nee'', (Gioachixo,) an Italian poet, born at Verona in 1741, became professor of rhetoric at Verona in 1775. In 1807 he published a volume of elegant Latin and Italian poems, ("Poesie Italiane e Latine.") Among his works is "The Metamorphoses," ("Le Metamorfosi," a poem, 1812.) His edition of "Orlando Furioso," in which the licentious passages are suppressed, appeared in 1820. Died in 1818. See MoscHixi, "Delia Letteratura Veneziana del Secolo XVIII." Avesbury, (Robert of.) See Robert of Aves- BURY. Avesne, d', (Baudouin.) See Baudouin d'Avesne. Avesne, d', dt'ven', (Francois,) a French fanatic of the seventeenth century, who claimed a divine mission for himself, and made virulent attacks upon the king and his ministers. He is supposed to have died about 1660. See NiCERON, "Memcires." Aveyro. See Aveiro. Avezac, d', dSv'zSk', (Auguste Genevieve Valen- tin,) nephew of Jean Pierre Valentin, noticed below, was a native of Saint Domingo. Having settled in the United States, he became a successful lawyer, and in 1831 was appointed charge-d'affaires to the Netherlands. Died in 1850. Avezac, d', (Jean Pierre Valentin,) son of Pierre Valentin, noticed below, was born in 1756, and was one of the deputies sent to France in 1790 to oppose the revolutionary ideas then prevalent. Died in Saint Do- mingo in 1803. Avezac, d', (Pierre Valentin,) a French lawyer, born at Tarbes in 1719, emigrated in 1748 to Saint Do- mingo, where he became a planter and was distin- guished for his zeal in promoting public improvements. Died in i78l Avezac, d', (Pierre Valentin Dominique Julien,) son of the preceding, born in Saint Domingo' in 1769, removed to New Orleans, where he died in 183 1. He translated Scott's " Marmion" into French. Avezzana, a-vet-ZcVnS, (Giuseppe,) an Italian pa- triot, born in Piedmont in 1797, fought in the repub- lican campaigns of 1821-23, afterwards'served in Mexico under Santa Anna, and took part in the Italian revolu- tion of 1848. Aviani, ^.-ve-S-'nee, an excellent Italian painter of architecture, landscapes, and marine views, born at Vicenza, adorned the ceilings of several churches in that city. Some of his works contain figures painted by Carpioni. He flourished in the first half of the seven- teenth century. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Aviano, a-ve-d'no, (Girolamo,) an Italian poet, born at Vicenza, was, according to Ginguene, one of the most * "Averrois who wrote the great Commentary." successful burlesque poets of his time. He published three satirical chapters, ("Capitoli," 1603,) which are praised by several Italian critics. Died about 1608. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." A-vi-a'iius, (Flavius,) a Roman poet, who is often confounded with Rufus Festus Avienus, was the author of numerous fables in verse, which are sometimes printed with those of x'Esop. His date is uncertain. He proba- bly lived between 200 and 350 a.d. Aviau du Bois de Sanzay, t'veV dii bwi deh sb^'zk', (Charles FRANgois,) Archbishop of Bordeaux, noted for his piety and benevolence, was born in 1736, in the diocese of Poitiers. He emigrated in the Revolu- tion, but, returning in disguise, visited all parts of his diocese, at great personal hazard. Though appointed archbishop by Napoleon, he sided with the pope in his contests with the French emperor. He was named a peer in 181 5, and died in 1826. See J. TouRNON, "Precis de la Vie de Monseigneur C. F. d' Avian," 1829. Av'i-bus, (Gasparo Osello, gls-pa'ro o-seKlo, or Gas'par ab Osel'lo,) an Italian engraver of Padua, lived about 1560-80. He imitated the style and copied some of the prints of Giorgio Ghisi surnamed Manto- vano. See Strutt, "Dictionary of Engravers." Avicebron, i-ve-tha-bRon', (Solomon Ibn Gabi- rol,) a Spanish Jew and philosopher, was author of a work called " Source of Life," (" Fons Vitas,") which was often noticed by Albertus Magnus and Aquinas. He ap- plied the philosophy of Aristotle to the Mosaic doctrines. M. Munck has recently proved the identity of Avicebron with Solomon Ibn Gabirol, who was distinguished as a religious poet, and died at Malaga in 1070. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Av-i-gen'na, [It. pron. a-ve-chgn'nS ; Fr. Avicenne,* a^'e''senn',] the Latin forni of Ibn-Sin^, Tb'n-see'nS, the most illustrious of Arabian physicians, born at Af- shena, a village in Bokhara, 980 A.D. He was a re- markable instance of precocity as well as activity of in- tellect. He is said to have been a thorough master of Moslem theology, and of the chief branches of mathe- matical and physical science then cultivated, including arithmetic, algebra, Euclid's elements, and the Almagest of Ptolemy, before he was sixteen. At this age he began the study of medicine, of natural science, and of the meta- physical writings of Aristotle. Before he was twenty he had the reputation of being the most learned and gifted man of his time. He was patronized in turn by several Mohammedan princes, among whom he had acquired great fame by his extraordinary skill in the cure of dis- eases. Although he applied himself intensely to study and to the composition of his numerous works, he appears to have given himself with scarcely less ardour to the pursuit of pleasure, to the ruin of his constitution, so that it was said of him that his philosophy could not procure him wisdom nor all his medical skill procure him health. He died in 1037, in the fifty-seventh year of his age. Among his numerous writings we may particularly men- tion his " Rule" or " System of Medicine," (" Canon Medicinas,") a great work, the different parts of which treat of anatomy and physiology, materia medica, and the various diseases to which man is subject, with their ap- propriate remedies. It was originally written in Arabic, and has been translated into Hebrew as well as into Latin. He wrote various other works, including a book on animals, said to be little more than a paraphrase of Aristotle's " History of Animals," and a work on the " Soul," (" De Anima ;") also several small treatises on alchemy and other subjects. No man, except Aristotle and Galen, exercised so absolute an authority in science, during the middle ages, as Avicen;ia. For five centuries his " Canon" was regarded as the highest authority in the schools of Europe. See If-n-Khallikan's "Biographical Dictionary," published by De Slane, Paris, 1842; Freind, "History of Physic;" Brucker, "History of Philosophy;" Wustenfeld, "Geschichte der Ara- bischen Aerzte ;" S. Klein, " Dissertatio de Avicenna medico," 1S46 ; Choulant, " Handbuch der Biicherkunde flh- die altere Medicin ;" Abulfaraj, "Oriental History;" Abulfeda, " Universal History." * Chaucer writes the name Avycen. (See the " Pardoneres Tale." € as 9 as s; g /tard; g as J; G, H, v., guttural; n, }iasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in tin's. (3:^^See Explanations, p. 23.) AVIDWS 224 AVITT A-vid'i-us Cas'si-us, a brave and able Roman gen- ' eral, born in Syria, was noted for his extreme severity as a disciplinarian. He commanded under Marcus Aure- lius the army which defeated the Parthians in 165 a.d., and a few years later was appointed governor of Syria. Having several legions under his command, he revolted in 175 A.D. and declared himself emperor. He made himself master of Egypt and of Asia east of Mount Tau- rus. Marcus Aurelius was about to march against him, when Avidius was killed by his own Officers in 175 a.d. A-vi-e'nus, (Rufus Festus,) a Roman poet, who probably lived about 400 a.d. He is supposed to have been a native of Italy, and to have been a pagan. The works which have come down to us under his name are a Latin paraphrase, in hexameters, of the " Periegesis" of Dionysius, a translation of the " Phenomena" and Prognostica" of Aratus, and a fragment (seven hun- dred and three lines) of a poem called " The Maritime Region," (" Ora Maritima.") His style is superior to that of contemporary writers. See Weknsdorf, " PoetiE Latini niinores." Avigador, a-ve-gi-doR', (Solomon Ben Abraham,) a Jewish philosopher and writer, lived about 1400. Aviia, de, (Alfonso.) See Alphonsus Abulensis. Avila, de, da a've-lS, (Francisco,) a Spanish por- trait-painter of Seville, lived in the first part of the seven- teenth century. His portraits were celebrated for their fidelity. Aviia, de, (Gil Gonzalez,) a Spanish biographer and antiquary, born at Avila abjut 1577. He published in 1606 "The Antiquities of Salamanca, with the Lives of its Bishops," and in 1623 a description of Madrid, with the lives of the principal natives, in his " Theatre of the Greatness (or "Glories") of 'Madrid," ("Teatro de las Grandezas de Madrid.") His chief work, " Ecclesiasti- cal Theatre," ("Teatro eclesiastico," 4 vols., 1645-53,) giving the biographies of the bishops and archbishops of the two Castiles, was left unfinished at his death. Died in 1658. See N. Antonio, " Bibllotheca Hispana Nova." Avila, de, (Hernando,) was painter and sculptor to Philip II. of Spain. He appears to have worked chiefly in Toledo, where about 1568 he painted two altar-pieces, — a "John the Baptist" and an "Adoration of the Kings." Died about 1600. See Bermudez, "Dicclonario Historico." Avila, de, (Juan,) an eloquent and zealous Spanish preacher, born in La Mancha about 1500, was called "the Apostle of Andalusia," in which province he laboured with success as home-missionary for twenty years. Among his converts were Saint Francisco Borja and Saint Teresa de Jesus. He died in 1569, leaving, be- sides other religious works, " Spiritual Letters," which were translated into French and (partly) into English. See Luis dr Munoz, "Vida de Juan de Avila," 1635. Avila, de, (Don Sancho,) a Spanish general, born at Avila in 1523. He was an officer in the expedition against the corsair Dragut, in Africa, in 1550. He went to the Netherlands in 1567 with the Duke of Alva, of whose guard he was then commander. It was Avila who arrested the Counts Egmont and Hoorn at Brussels. He failed in an attempt to relieve Middelburg in 1574, but in the same year defeated Count Louis of Nassau at Mook or Mookerheide. In 1577 he with- drew with his army from the Low Countries in com- pliance with the treaty of Ghent. Died at Lisbon in 15S3. According to the Dutch historians, he was as cruel as Alva. See Brantome, " Capitaines etrangers ;" De Thou, " Histoire Universelle ;" Motley, "Rise of the iSutch Republic," vol. ii. Avila y Zuiiiga, de, da ^'ve-lde thoon-yee'ga, (Luis,) a Spanish historian who lived in the reign of Charles V., whose favour he enjoyed. He was ambassador to Rome in the time of Paul IV. and Pius IV., served in the war against the Protestant German princes, and commanded the Spanish cavalry at the siege of Metz in 1552. He wrote " Commentaries of the War of Charles V. in Ger- many in the Years 1546 and 1547," (1548,) which was translated into English and other languages. This work has been praised for the elegance and conciseness of its style, but is considered partial by some judges. He ap- pears to have died about 1560. See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova;" De Thou, " Histoire Universelle." Ayiler, t've'li^ (Augustin Charles,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1653, studied in Rome, with the aid of a pension from the king. He worked some time with Mansard, in Paris, and afterwards erected several fine buildings at Carcassonne, Nimes, and Tou- louse, among which is the palace of the Archbishop of Toulouse. He published a "Course of Architecture," (1691,) often reprinted, and a good " Dictionary of all the Terms of Architecture, Civil and Hydraulic." Died at Montpellier in 1700. See Fontenai, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Avis. See Aveis. Avisenna. See Avicenna. Av'i-son, (Charles,) an eminent English musician and musical critic, born about 1710, passed nearly all his life at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where he was church or- ganist. He was a pupil of Geminiani, and published an ingenious and able "Essay on Musical Expression," (1752,) which displays good taste, scholarship, and sound judgment. It was, however, severely and bitterly criti- cised by Dr. Hayes, professor of music at Oxford. Avi- son's reputation as a composer rests chiefly upon his concertos. Died in 1770. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Avisse, i\-ess', a blind French versifier, born in 1772, became professor in the Institution for the Blind at Paris. Died in 1801. A volume of his poems was pub- lished in 1802. Avisse, (Etienne FRANgois,) a French comic poet, born in Paris about 1694. He wrote " The Divorce," and other comedies, which had a temporary success. Died in 1747. Avitabile, 3.-ve-ta'be-la, (Pietro,) an Italian mission- ary, died at Goa in 1650. See F. Maggi, "Vita d'Avltabile Pietro." Avitabile, d', da-ve-t^'be-la, or Avitable, S-ve-ti'bli, (BiASio Magoli — m^-go'lee,) an Italian writer of poetry and biography, lived at Naples in the seventeenth cen- tury. Avitus. See Elagabalus. A-vi'tus, (Al'cimus EcDig'ius,) Saint, Bishop of Vienne, was born in Auvergne about the middle of the fifth century. He obtained great reputation for learning, and succeeded his father as bishop about 490 a.d. He was a zealous adversary of Arianism, from which he converted Sigismund, Prince of Burgundy. He wrote letters, homilies, and other works, some of which are lost. Among his extant works is a poem, or series of poems, "On the Creation of the World," "On Original Sin," "On the Deluge," ("Diluvio Mundi,") etc. "The analogy of these two poems," says Guizot, referring to Milton's epic, " is a curious literary fact, and that of Saint Avitus deserves the honour of being compared to that of Milton." Died in 525. See Ceillier, "Auteurs sacres;" Bollandus, "Acta Sanc- tonun." Avitus, (Gallonius,) a governor of Thrace in the time of Aurelian. Avitus, (JuLiLTS,) successively governor of Mesopo- tamia, Asia, and Cyprus, which appointments he held under Seve^rus and Caracalla. He was the husband of Moesa, and grandfather of the emperors Elagabalus and Alexander Severus. Avitus, (Marcus M/ECilius,) one of the emperors of the Western Roman Empire, is supposed to have been born in Auvergne about 400 A.D. Before his accession to the empire he had been Prefect of Gaul, and had dis- tinguished himself in the wars against the Huns and Vandals. On the sack of Rome by the latter, and the death of Maximus in 455, he assumed the purple, and after a reign of fourteen months was deposed by Ricimer, and appointed Bishop of Placentia. Died in 457. He was the father-in-law of Sidonius Apollinaris. See Gibbon, "Decline and Faliof the Roman Empire." Avity, d', dtVe'te', (Pierre,) a French writer and soldier, was born at Tournon in 1573. His productions a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fdll, fdt; m§t; n6t; good; moon: AVOGADRO 22 are very miscellaneous, embracing poetry, history, fiction, morals, etc.; but his greatest work appears to have been "A General Description of the Four Quarters of the Globe, its Empires, Kingdoms, States, and Republics," (ist vol., 1626.) Died in 1635. Avogadro, d-vo-ga'dRo, (Alberto,) an Italian poet, born at Vercelli, lived at Florence in the fifteenth century. Avogadro, (Camillo), an Italian poet, born at Milan ; died in 161 7. Avogadro, not Avogrado, as sometimes spelled, (GiROLAMO,) an Italian philologer, jurist, and patron of learning, born at Brescia, lived between 1450 and 1 50c. Avogadro, (Giuseppe,) Count of Casanova, an Ital- ian nobleman, born at Vercelli in 1731. He wrote several treatises on- rural economy, (1783-1810.) Died in 1813. Avogadro, (Lucia,) an Italian poetess of the six- teenth century, born at Bergamo. She had the distinc- tion of being praised by Tasso. Died about 1570. Avogadro, (Ludovico,) was the chief of a band which conspired to expel the French from Brescia in 15 12, and was killed in the attempt. Avogadro, (Nestore Dionigi,) an Italian philolo- gist and friar of Novara, lived in the latter half of the fifteenth century. He composed a Latin Lexicon, which passed through many editions. The oldest known edi- tion is dated 1488. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Avogadro, (Pietro,) an Italian painter of consider- able merit, lived in Brescia in the first half of the eigh- teenth century. "The Martyrdom of San Crispino" is called his master-piece. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Avogadro or Avvocati, Jv-vo-ki'tee, (Vincenzo Maria,) an Italian writer on theology, born at Palermo in 1702. Avogaro or Avogari, (Azzoni Rambaldo.) See AzzoNi Avogari. Avolo, A'vo-lo, (Cesare,) an Italian philosopher of the sixteenth century, wrote "On the Causes of Sympathy and Antipathy," (" De Causis Sympathiae et Antipathiae," 1580.) Avondcuio, S-von-da'no, (Pietro Antonio,) an Ital- ian composer, lived at Naples in the first half of the eighteenth century. Avont, van, vin i'vont' or t'v6N', (Pieter,) a Flem- ish painter and etcher of Antwerp, flourished about 1650. He painted landscapes with figures from sacred history or from mythology. His pictures and etchings are scarce and highly prized. See HuBER, "Manuel des Amateurs;" Heinecken, " Diction- naire des Artistes." Avosani, d-vo-s^'nee, (Orfeo, oR-fa'o,) an Italian organist and composer of sacred music of the seven- teenth century. Avost, d', dt'vo', (Jerome,) a French poet, born in Brittany in 1558 or '59, had an office in the household of Margaret, queen of Henry IV. He translated into French the "Jerusalem Delivered" of Tasso, and other works, and wrote some original verses. Avrigny, d', di''vR^n'ye', (Charles Joseph Loeil- lard — luh'ySR',) a French poet and dramatist, born in the island of Martinique about 1760, lived mostly in Paris. He wrote several operas and vaudevilles, which were moderately successful, and in 1801 an elegant and vigorous " Essay on the Origin and Progress of the British Power in India." His poem on " The Departure of La Perouse," (1807,) and his tragedy of "Joan of Arc," (1819,) are highly commended. He was a censor of the press under the empire. Died in 1823. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Avrigny, d', (Hyacinthe Robillard— ro'be''ytR^) a French Jesuit, and a historian of high and merited repu- tation, was born at Caen in 1675. By his impartial and candid statements of the actions of the Jesuits, he in- curred the censure of his superiors, who mutilated his writings. His grief on this account is said to have has- tened his death, which occurred at Alen9on in 1 719. His chief work is " Memoirs contributory to a General His- 5 AXTEL tory of Europe from 1600 to 1716," (4 vols., 1725,) which we have only in a mutilated state. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique Le Long, "Biblio- theque Historique." Avril, t'vRel' or t'vRe'ye, (Jean Jacques,) Baron, a French general, born at Loudun in 1752 ; died in 1839. Avril, (Jean Jacques,) an eminent French engraver, born in Paris in 1744, was a pupil of J. G. Wille. His numerous works are executed with much taste and tech- nical skill. Among his best plates are "Virginia and Icilius," after Lebarbier, "The Family of Darius," after Lebrun, and several after Rubens and N. Poussin. Died in 1832. See HuBER, "Manuel des Ainateurs." Avril, (Jean Jacques,) a son and pupil of the pre- ceding, born in Paris in 1771, was an able engraver. He obtained in 1810 a gold medal for a plate of "The Woman of Cana," after Drouais. Died in 1831. Avril, (Philippe,) a French Jesuit, who in 1685 made an effort to go by land to China as a missionary. Having reached Astrachan, he encountered some obstacle, and resolved to try another route through Russia. He per- formed his journey as far as Moscow ; but the govern- ment would not permit him to proceed farther. Having returned to France, he published "Travels in various States of Europe and Asia," (1692,) a work of some value. Avrillon, t\Re''y6N', (Jean Baptiste Elie,) an elo- quent French monk, and voluminous author of religious works, was born in Paris in 1652, and died in 1729. Avrillot, S'vRe^yo', (Barbe,) or Madame Acarie — t'kt're', a French devotee, called the founder of the order of Carmelites in France, was born in Paris in 1565. Died in 161 8. See Tronson de Cheneviere, "Vie de Barbe Avrillot." Avvocati. See Avogadro, (Vincenzo Maria.) Avy, t've', (Antoine Sylvain,) Baron, a French general, born in 1776, was killed at Antwerp in 1814. Avycen. See Avicenna. Awbrey, (William.) See Aubrey. Awdeley, (John.) See Audley. Awdeley, (Thomas.) See Audley, (Thomas.) Awhadi (a^va-dee') of Maragha, a Persian poet, of the Soofee (Sufi) sect, was the author of "Jam-i-Jam," a mystical work treating of the doctrines of the Soofees, which is still extant. Died at Ispahan in 1297. Axajacatl, S-Hjl-Hi-kS'tl, sometimes written Axa- jatl, emperor of the Mexicans or Aztecs, was the fathei of the celebrated Montezuma. He reigned about four- teen years, and added a number of provinces to the empire. Died about 1477. Axehielm, Jx'g-hy^lm, (Joannes,) a Swedish anti- quary, born at Norrkjoping in j6o8, became assessor at the superior court of law at Abo in 1637. He left in manuscript several treatises on the antiquities of Sweden. Died in 1692. Axel. See Absalon. Axel, ik'sel, (Isaac,) a Swede, who was secretary Gustavus Adolphus, and wrote a crcatise on morality, (1662.) Axelson, Sk'sel-son^ (Iver, ee'ver,) a Dane, who re- nounced allegiance to Denmark in 1453, and reigned over the island of Gothland. He delivered that island to the King of Denmark about 1467. Axelt, ak's§!t or Atzelt, it'sglt, (Johann,) a Ger- man engraver of portraits, born at Nuremberg in 1654. Axen, Sk'sen, (Petrus,) a German philologist and lawyer, born at Husum, in Sleswick, in 1635. He trans- lated into Latin Galeazzi Gualdi's "History of the Peace between Louis XIV. and Philip IV.," (1667,) and pub- lished" Phaedri Fabulae ^sopicae," (1671.) Died in 1707. Ax-i-o-ni'cus, ['A^wv Azevedo, de, da a-zi-vaMo, (Angela,) a Portuguese dramatic authoress, lived about 1650. She wrote in Spanish, and was attached to the court of Philip IV. of Spain. Azevedo, de, (Francisco,) a Portuguese poet, born at Lisbon ; died in 1680. Azevedo, de, (Ignazio,) a Portuguese Jesuit mis- sionary, born at Oporto in 1527, was noted for his self- denial and ascetic piety. He laboured several years in Brazil, and returned to Europe. On a second voyage to Brazil, of which he was appointed provincial, the ship in which he sailed was attacked near the Canary Islands in 1570 by a fanatical sea-captain in the service of the Queen of Navarre, who massacred Azevedo and many other Jesuit missionaries. See Beauvais et Caroura, "La Vie et le Martyre d' Azevedo," I74S- Azevedo, de, (Jeronymo,) a brother of the preced- ing, was Governor-General of Ceylon from 1595 to 1612, and Viceroy of the Portuguese dominions in India from 161 2 to 16 1 7. He returned to Portugal in 161 7, and died in prison, to which he is said to have been com- mitted for alleged disloyal intrigues. Azevedo, de, (Luis Antonio,) a Portuguese gram- marian, lived at Lisbon about 1800. Azevedo, de, (Luiza,) a Portuguese poetess, born at Villa de Paredes in 1655 ; died in 1679. Azevedo-Coutinho, S-za-va'do ko-t^n'yo, (Joz6 JOAQUIM,) a Portuguese bishop and writer on commerce, was born in Brazil in 1742. Died in 1821. Azevedo-Morato, de, da S-zi-va'do mo-ri'to, (Ma- NOEL,) a Portuguese poet, born at Coimbra, lived about 1710. Azevedo-Tojal, de, da d-zk-vaMo to-zh^K, (P.,) a Portuguese poet, published, in 1716, "Carlos reduzido, € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, K,giittural; N, nasal; R, tr rilled; s as z; th as in this. (SC^^See Explanations, p. 23.) AZEVEDO 230 JZZOOBETDEE Inglatena illustrada," ("Charles restored or reclaimed, and England enlightened,") a heroic poem, of which the conversion of Charles II. of England to Catholicism forms the chief subject. Azevedo y Zuniga, de, di i-thi-va'Do e thoon- yee'ga, (Caspar,) Count of Monterey, was made Viceroy of Peru in 1603, having previously filled the office of viceroy in Mexico. Died at Lima in 1606, Azim-ed-Dowlah-Bahadur,(or -Behauder,) S.'zim ed dow'Iah ba-ha'der, (or ba-hd'ddor,) the last nabob of the Carnatic in India. He ceded the Carnatic to the East India Company in 1801. Died in 1819. Azinhero, a-z6n-ya''ro, (Christovao Rodriguez,) a Portuguese jurist and historian, born at Evora in 1474. Azizi. See Azeezee. Aznar, Jz-naR^, or As-i-na'ri-us, Count of Gas- cony or Vasconie, died in 836 A.D., and left a son Sancho, who became Count of Navarre. Azo, Azzo, at'so, or A-zo-li'nus, (Portius,) one of the most celebrated jurists of the middle ages, was born at Bologna near the middle of the twelfth century. He lectured at the University of Bologna. His chief works, " Summa Codicis" and " Summa Institutionum," were the highest authority in his time. Died about 1220. See Taisand, "Vies des plus celebres Jurisconsultes." Azolinus. See Azo. Azopardi, Sd-zo-paRMee, (Francesco,) an Italian musician, lived at Malta about 1750, and published "Practical Music," ("II Musico prattico.") Azor, a-thoR^, [Lat. Azo'rius,] (Juan,) a Spanish Jesuit and casuist, born at Zamora in 1533. He pub- lished at Rome " Institutes of Morals," (" Institutiones Morales,") the principles of which were censured by Pascal in his "Provincial Letters." Died in 1603. Azpilcueta, ith-p^l-kwa'ta, (Martin,) a celebrated Spanish doctor of canon law, often called the " Navar- rese" or " Navarro," was born near Pampeluna about 1490. He wrote a number of works, which were pub- lished in 3 vols., 1590. At the age of eighty he appeared as counsel for Carranza, an archbishop who was tried for heresy at Rome. He was remarkable for his charita- ble disposition. Died at Rome in 1586. See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Azraki, az'ri-kee, a Persian poet and sage, born at Herat in the eleventh century, flourished at the court of Tugan Shah, at Nishapoor. He was the author or reviser of a work of philosophical and moral maxims called the " Book of Sinbad." Azulai, ^-zoo'll, (Abraham,) a Jewish cabalistic wri- ter, lived at Fez. Died in 1644. Azuni, M-zoo'nee, (Domenico Alberto,) a distin- guished jurist and antiquary, born at Sassari, in the island of Sardinia, in 1749. He published in 1786-88 a valua- ble " Universal Dictionary of Mercantile Jurisprudence," and in 1795 "The General System of the Principles of the Maritime Law of Europe," ("Sistema universale dei Principii del Dritto maritimo dell' Europa," 4 vols.,) a work of high reputation. An improved French version was published by him in 1805. He was appointed by Napoleon president of the court of appeal at Genoa in 1807, and was one of the compilers of the French Code of Commerce. Among his works is a " Civil and Natu- ral History of Sardinia," (1802.) Died at Cagliari in 1827. S(e G. Manno, "Vita d'Azuni;" Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Azurara, de, d^ S-zoo-r^'ri, or Zurara, zoo-ri'r^, (Gomez,) a Portuguese historian, born in the first half of the fifteenth century, was appointed keeper of the Torre do Tombo in 1454. Among his works is a "Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea," He was living in 1472. Azzanello, It-sa-neKlo, (Gregorio,) an Italian writer, born at Cremona, lived about 1400. Azzari, St-s^'ree, (Fulvio,) a historian, born at Reg- gio, in Lombardy, about the middle of the sixteenth century. He wrote a " History of Reggio," in Latin, (1623.) Az-zarkai, az-zar-klK, Abool- (or Abul-) Kasim- Ibn-Abderrahman, S'bool ki'sim ib'n ^b-der-rSH'- man, a distinguished astronomer and mathematician, born at Cordova about 1000 A.D., was the inventor and improver of some astronomical instruments, and the propounder of some ingenious theories in astronomy. Azzemino, dt-si-mee'no, (Paolo,) a Venetian artist, who flourished about 1500-20. He excelled in the art of inlaying on gold, silver, and iron, called in French damasquinage. Azzi, df'see, (Orazio,) an Italian writer on theology, born at Parma, lived about 1700-25. Azzi, degli, dil'yee af'see, (Francesco Maria,) an Italian poet, born at Arezzo in 1655. His sonnets have been commended by Italian critics. Died in 1707. Azzi ne' Forti, degli, dM'ye it'see na foR'tee, (Faustina,) a sister of Francesco Maria, noticed above, wrote verses which were received with favour. Died in 1724, aged about seventy-four. Azzio, at'se-o, [Lat. Actius,] (Tommaso,) an Italian jurist, born in the latter part of the sixteenth century, was the author of a treatise on the game of chess. Azzo, at'so, I., (Albert,) Marquis of Este, was in- volved in war against the Emperor of Germany about 1014. Died in 1029. Azzo II., son of Azzo I., the wealthiest of the Italian nobles, played a conspicuous part in the affairs of Italy, as also did his successors Azzo III,, V., and VI. Azzo VII. was a distinguished leader of the Guelph faction, in which he experienced great variety of fortune, but finally triumphed, and died in Ferrara m 1264. Azzo, (Alberto,) called also Atto or da Alberto, a nobleman of Lucca, who took a distinguished part in the defence of the towns of Lombardy in the latter half of the tenth century, and was created by Otho the Great Marquis of Reggio and Modena. See SisMONDi, "Histoire des Republiques Italieniies." Azzoguidi, it-so-gwee'dee, (Germani,) an Italian physician, born at Bologna in 1740, was the author of an excellent work on the structure of the uterus, and was the founder of the museum of comparative anatomy and physiology in his native city. Died in 1814. Azzoguidi, (Valerio Felice,) an Italian antiquary, born at Bologna in 1651. He published a work " On the Origin and Antiquity of Bologna," ("De Origine et Ve- tustate Bononiae," 1716.) Died in 1728. See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." Azzolini, at-so-lee'nee, (Decius,) an Italian cardinal and poet, born at Fermo in 1623 ; died in 1689. Azzolini or Mazzolini, mat-so-lee'nee, (Giovanni Bernardino,) a Neapolitan painter, who worked at Genoa about 16 10, or, according to some authorities, in 1 5 10. He excelled in expression. See Soprani, " Vite de' Pittori Genovesi." Azzolini, (Lorenzo,) an Italian poet, born at Fermo, was a nephew of Cardinal Azzolini. He became secre- tary to Pope Urban VIII., who appointed him Bishop of Ripatransone in 1630. He wrote, besides other poems, a " Satire against Luxury," (1686,) which was much ad- mired by Italian critics. Died in 1632. See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." Azzoni Avogari, degli, dkl'yee it-so'nee i-vo-g^'- ree, (Rambaldo,) an Italian antiquary, born at Treviso in 1 719, became a canon of the cathedral in that town. He founded a public library at Treviso. His knowledge of the ancient documents and inscriptions of Italy was remarkable. He wrote, besides other works, a treatise "On the Origin and Antiquities of Treviso," (1840.) Died in 1790. See a "Life of Azzoni," prefixed to his " Considerazioni sopra le prime Notizie di Trivigi," 1840. Azzoobeydee or Az-zubeydi, Sz-zoo-ba'dee, a Moslem lexicographer and grammarian, born at Seville about 927 ; died about 990. a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; Hr, fill, fit; m^t; n5t; gi5bd; moon, • BJADER 231: BABER B. Baader, bi'der, (Clemens Alois,) brother of Franz Xaver, noticed below, born in 1762, published a work entitled "Learned Bavarians," ("Gelehrten Baiern.") Died in 1838. Baader, (Franz Joseph,) born at Ratisbon in 1733, was physician to the Elector of Bavaria. Died in 1794. Baader, (Tobias,) a German sculptor, born in Bava- ria, lived in the second half of the seventeenth century. Baader, von, fon bSMer, (Franz Xaver.) a German pHlosopher, born at Munich in 1765, became professor of speculative theology in that city. He was an adherent ot Jacob Bohme, and published several works in oppo- sition to the philosophy of Hegel and Schelling ; also many well-written pamphlets or short treatises. Died in 1841. See F. Hoffmann, " F. v. Baader in seinem Veihaltniss zu Hegel, etc.," 1850. Baader, von, (Joseph,) brother of Franz Xaver, born at Munich in 1763, was the author of a number of treatises on mechanics. Died in 1835. Baah-Deen or Baahdin, ba'ih-deen', a learned Per- sian, supposed to have lived in the seventeenth century, wrote, by command of Abbas the Great, a '* Summary of Civil and Canon Law," (left unfinished.) Baak-Hattigh, bak-hSt'tiG, (Jean,) a Flemish land- scape-painter, flourished about 1640. Ba'al, (orbal,) [Heb. '7^t3,] written also Bel, the princi- pal god of the Phoenicians and several other Oriental nations, represented the sun, while Baaltis, Astarte, or Ashtoreth, the correlative female deity, corresponded to the moon, (queen of heaven.) Baal was also the Bel or Belus of the Babylonians, and his worship became al- most universal under several of the Jewish kings. (See I. Kings xviii. 22.) Baale, van, vSn bi'leh, (Hendrik,) a Dutch dramatic poet, born at Delft, wrote " De Saracenen." Died in 1822. Baan, van, vtn bin, (Jacob,) an able Dutch portrait- painter, son of Jan, noticed below, was born at the Hague in 1673. He accompanied William HL to Eng- land in 1688, and worked for some years in London. Died in Vienna in 1700. Baan, van, (Jan,) a Dutch portrait-painter of high reputation, born at Haarlem about 1633, imitated Van Dyck. He was invited to England by Charles H., whose portrait he painted. Among his master-pieces was a portrait of John de Witt, which was torn in pieces by the mob that murdered that statesman. Van Baan re- fused to paint Louis XIV. in 1672, because he waged an aggressive war against Holland. Died at the Hague in 1702. See Descamps, " Vies desPeintres Flamands, Hollandais, etc. ;" Nagler, " Neiies Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Baardt or Baart, bSRt, (Peter,) a Flemish physician of the seventeenth century, was the author of agricultural poems, which have been compared by his countrymen to Virgil's " Georgics." Baarland or Barland, van, vtn baR'lant, (Adrian,) a Flemish writer and professor of rhetoric at Louvain, born in 1488; died in 1542. See NiCERON, " Memoires." Baarland, van, (Hubert,) a medical writer, born at Baarland, in Holland, flourished between 15 10 and 1550. See De la Rue, " Geletterd Zeeland." Baarsdorp. See Baersdorp. Baart. See Baardt. Baart or Baert, biRt, (Arnaud,) a Flemish jurist, born at Brussels in 1554; died in 1629. Baasha, ba'a-sha, [Heb. ^V}}^2,] a captain of Israel and son of Ahijah, slew King Nadab and usurped the throne about 950 B.C. Died 926 B.C. (See I. Kings XV. and xvi.) Baaz,bats,or Baazius,bSt'se-us,(BENEDiCT,) a Swed- ish writer on morals, etc., was governor of the royal castle at Stockholm. Died in 1650. Baaziiis, bSt'se-fis, (Johan,) a bishop of Wexio, and author of the " Ecclesiastical History of Sweden," born in 1 581, was a brother of the preceding. He had three sons, who distinguished themselves — John, (Archbishop of Upsal,) Eric, and Benedict. Died in 1649. Bab, bSb, (John,) an Armenian theologian, died about the end of the ninth century. Baba, b3.'bS, a Turkish prophet or impostor, flourished about 1240. Baba- Alee or Baba-Ali, bl'bi' 3.'lee', the first inde- pendent Dey of Algiers, was elected successor to Ibra- heem, who was slain in an insurrection of the people in 1 710. He was a man of great abilities and worth. He succeeded in inducing the Turkish sultan to recognize in Algiers an ally instead of a subject. He died in 1718, lamented by Europeans as well as Moslems. Babarczy, bi-bSRt'se, (Anton,) born at Pesth, in Hungary, was a partisan of Austria in the revolution of 1848, and rose to be chief commissioner of civil affairs for Hungary. BaVbage, (Charles,) F.R.S., an eminent English mathematician, born about 1790, was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was Lucasian professor from 1828 to 1839. In 1832 he published an important work on the " Economy of Manufactures and Machinery," which was often reprinted, and translated into several languages. He contributed mai^y papers to the " Phi- losophical Transactions" and other scientific publica- tions. Among his works is "The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise," (1837.) He invented about 1822 a calculating machine, and expended a large sum of money (about 7,000) in its construction; but the government, which had supplied him with funds, having abandoned the enter- prise, the machine was never completed. Died in 1871. See " London Quarterly" for January and March, 1827, (vol. XXXV.;) "Passages from the Life of a Philosopher;" "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1833, (vol. Ivi. ;) " Eraser's Magazine," vol. viii. Bab'bard, (Ralph,) an English mechanical inventor, lived in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Babbini. See Baijini. Babek (bcVbek) Khor'remee or Kho'remi, i.e. "the Sensualist," a famous Persian impostor, who is said to have inculcated an unbounded libertinism. He propa- gated his doctrines with the sword, and for a time defied the utmost power of the caliph Motassem, but was at last taken and put to death in 837 A.D. Babel, barbel, (Hugh,) a writer on logic and gram- mar, was professor of Hebrew, Greek, etc. at Louvain. Died in 1556. Ba'bell, (William,) an English composer and or- ganist, born about 1690, lived in London. Died in 1722. See F^Tis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." BabenoSanct Hnber, ba-ba'nosankthoo'ber,(LuD- wiG,) a German philosopher and Benedictine, born at Leiningen in 1660. He was professor of theology at Salz- burg, and published several works. Died in 1726. B^ber, kVber, written also Babour, a Persian prince, was a grandson of Tamerlane. He dethroned in 145 1 his brother Mohammed, who reigned over Irak and Fans. Died about 1460. Baber (or Babur) Mohammed, bS'ber mo-htm'- med, written also Babour and Baubur, surnamed Za- heered-Deen, (ZAHtR Eddin,) za-heer'ed-deen',("pro- tector of religion,") the illustrious founder of the Tartar or Mogul Empire in India, was born of the race of Tamer- lane in 1482 or 1483. In 1494, when not more than twelve years of age, he succeeded to the throne of his father, King of Ferghana. The career of Baber was marked by a series of extraordinary vicissitudes and wonderful ex- ploits unparalleled even in Oriental history. On one occasion, having been expelled from his paternal king- dom, he resolved to attack with less than three hundred followers Samarcand, then one of the strongest cities of Asia, and defended by a large army. He scaled the walls in the night, and was joined by many of the inhabitants. A panic having seized upon the troops of the city, the king fled, leaving his capital in the hands of Baber. The latter was compelled soon after, by the vicissitudes of € as k; q as s; g hard; g as J; g, H, Y., gtUhiral ; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jy:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) BABEUF 232 BACCHUS war, to retire to Cabool. Here he was at first received with great favour ; but, a formidable insurrection having been raised against him, he successively challenged and slew in single combat five of the principal leaders of the opposing faction. The others, filled with admiration or fear, accepted him as their king. Our limits will not permit us to pursue the various changes of his fortune. Suffice to say that, after having made two incursions into India, one in 1505 and the other in 15 19, he crossed the Indus the third time in 1524, and defeated and slew Ibra- heem. King of Delhi, thus putting an end to the second Gaurian dynasty, in 1526. Baber died in 1530, leaving his throne to his son Humayoon. Baber possessed not only great bodily strength and dexterity, but abilities of a very high order, and was not less distinguished for his courage and generosity. He was, moreover, a mas- ter of the arts of music and poetry. He left an interest- ing as well as highly instructive history of the events of his own life, of which there is an able review in Lord Jeffi-ey's "Essays." See " Life of B.iber, Emperor of Hindostan," by R. M. Calde- cott; "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., second series, 1S2S ; "His- tory of British India," in Harper's Family Library, vol. i. ; Ferishta, " Mahomedan Power in India," translated by J. Bricjgs, 4 vols. 8vo, London, 1829. Babeuf, bi'buf, (liMiLE,) a son of Fran9ois, noticed below, born in 1785, was a zealous partisan of Bonaparte, whom he followed to Elba in 1814. Babeuf, (pRANgois Noel,) a French conspirator and political theorist, born at Saint-Quentin in 1764, assumed the name of Caius Gracchus. He founded in 1794 a journal called the "Tribune of the People," in which he advocated absolute equality and community of property. He became the chief of a numerous band of conspirators who designed to revolt against the Directory and estab- lish the regime of babouvis7ne. Having been betrayed by one of his accomplices, he was executed in 1797. See BuoNAROTTi, "Conspiration pour I'l^galite dite de Babeuf," 2 vols., 1828; SuDRE, " Histoire du Communisme," Paris, 1849. Babey, bt'bi', (Athanase Marie Pierre,) a mem- ber of the French Constituent Assembly, born in 1744, was chosen one of the Council of Five Hundred in 1795. Died in 1815. Babi, bt'be', (Jean Franqcjis,) a French anarchist, born at Tarascon in 1759, was one of a party which at- tacked the camp at Crenelle, for which he was executed in October, 1796. Babie de Bercenay, bt'be-a' deh b^Rss'nk', (Fran- gois,) a prolific French writer on history, etc., born at Lavaur in 176 1. Died about 1830. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Babin, bt'b^N', (FRANgois,) a French ecclesiastical writer, and professor of theology at Angers, born in 1651. Died in 1734. Babinet, bt'be^na', (Jacques,) a French natural phi- losopher, born at Lusignan in 1794, became professor of physics in the College of Saint Louis, Paris. He pub- lished a number of valuable treatises on meteorological optics and terrestrial magnetism, and made important improvements in the air-pump, hygrometer, etc. He became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1840. Among his works is " Studies and Lectures on the Sci- ences of Observation," etc., ("Etudes et Lectures sur les Sciences d'Observation," etc.) Bab'ing-ton, (Anthony,) an English gentleman, and a zealous Catholic, devoted to the cause of Mary Stuart, was executed in 1586 for having conspired against the life of Queen Elizabeth. See Hume, "History of England," chap, xlii.; Froude, "Reign of Elizabeth." Babington, (Charles Cardale,) F.R.S., an English botanist, born about 1808. He became professor of bo- tany at Cambridge, and published, besides other works, a "Manual of British Botany." Babiiigton, (Gervase,) an English prelate, born in Nottinghamshire about 1550, became Bishop of Wor- cester in 1597. Died in 1610. Babington, (William,) F.R.S., a chemist and min- tralogist, was born near Coleraine, Ireland, in 1756. He began to practise medicine in London about 1797, and lectured on chemistry at Guy's Hospital. In 1799 he published a "NeW System of Mineralogy." He was one of the founders of the Geological Society, of which he was chosen president in 1822. Died in 1833. See Richard Bright, " Memoir of the Life and Writings of Wil- liam Babington." Babini, ba-bee'nee, or Babbini, bSb-bee'nee, (Mat- teo,) a celebrated Italian vocalist, born at Bologna in 1754. Died in 1816. See Fetis, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." Babo, bi'bo, (Joseph Maria,) a German dramatist, born at Ehrenbreitstein in 1756, was the author of the historical tragedy of "Otto von Wittelsbach," which is ranked among the best dramas of its kind in the lan- guage. He lived at Munich. Died in 1822. Babo, von, fon ba'bo, (Lambert,) a German culti- vator, born at Manheim in 1790, published several valua- ble treatises on the culture of the vine. Babois, bt^bwi', (Marguerite Victoire,) a French poetess, born at Versailles in 1760, was a niece of Ducis. Her "Elegy on the Death of her Daughter" (1805) was greatly admired. Died in 1839. Babou, bt'boo', (Jean,) Baron de Sagonne, a French general, commanded the artillery at the battle of Saint- Denis in 1567. Died in 1569. See De Courcelles, " Dictionnaire historique des Generaux Fran^ais." Babr, See Baber. Ba^'bri-us [Bd/ipiof] or Ba'bri-as, [Ba/Jpi'af,] a Greek fabulist, supposed to have lived a short time previous to Augustus, made a collection of ^sop's Fables, which he turned into choriambic verse. See Tyrwhitt, "Dissertatio de Babrio," 1776. Babuer or Babure, ba'biiR, (Theodore,) a Dutch painter of interiors, worked about 1600-40. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." Bab'y-las, Bishop of Antioch, suffered martyrdom under Decius in 251 a.d. He was esteemed one of the most faithful and virtuous prelates of his time. Bac, btk, (Theodore,) a French jurist, born at Li- moges in 1808, was associate editor of the journal " L'Europe monarchique," in 1837. He was a deputy to the Constitutional Assembly in 1848. Baocaini,bik-ka-ee'nee or bik-kl'nee, (Benedetto,) an Italian writer, born in 1657, was professor of ecclesi- astical history at Modena. Died in 1721. Bacoalar y Sanna, bak-ki-laR' e sSn'ni, (Vin- CENTE,) Marquis of Saint Philip, a Spanish historian and statesman, who occupied important posts under Charles II. and Philip V. He wrote, in Spanish, a " Hlistory of the Jewish Monarchy" and a "History of Philip V." Died in 1726. Baccanelli, Bacchanelli, bik-kS-nel'lee, or Bac- caneFcius, (Giovanni,) an Italian physician and medi- cal writer of the sixteenth century, born at Reggio. Baccarini, bak-k^-ree'nee, (Giacomo,) an Italian painter, was born at Reggio ; died in 1682. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Baccelli.bat-cheFIee, (Girolamo,) an Italian writer and physician, born at Florence in 15 15, translated Homer's "Odyssey" into Italian verse. Died in 1581. Bacchanelli. See Baccanelli. Bac-ehei'us \^aKxdoq\ or Bac-ehe'us, written also Vacceus, a Greek musician, surnamed the Elder, flourished in the early part of the fourth century. He was the author of an " Introduction to the Art of Music." Bac-ehi''des, a general of Demetrius Soter, invade! Judea 160 B.C., and fought a battle against Judas Mac- cabaeus, who was killed in this action. Bacchini, bS.k-kee^iee, (Benedetto,) a learned Bene- dictine monk, born in the duchy of Parma, or at Flor- ence, in 165 1. He published several religious and mis- cellaneous works. Died in 1721. See Ireneo Affo, "Vita del P. Bacchini," 1797. Bac^-ehus, [Gr. Bu/ctof,] called also in Greek Diony'- sus, [AfOTOCTOf,] the god of wine, is commonly said to have been the son of Jupiter and Semele. He taught men the culture of the vine and the mode of extracting the juice of the grape. According to one account, Bacchus was the son of Ammon, King of Libya, and a beautiful woman named Amalthe'a. Ammon, fearing the jealousy a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sJiort ; a, e, i, o, obsacre; far, illl, f4t; xakX; n6t; good; moon; BJCCHTLIDES 233 BACH of his wife Rhea, had young Bacchus and his mother con- veyed to a town called Nysa, on a delicious island formed by the river Triton. He became, according to this legend, a mighty conqueror and benefactor of mankind, by whom he was at last deified. Among the most important events of his history is his expedition to India. From this and other circumstances, many writers suppose the worship of Bac- chus to have been derived from India. His chariot drawn by panthers or tigers, and the Indian origin of the vine, are cited as incidental evidences of that fact. Bacchus is usually represented as an effeminate young man crowned with vine- and ivy-leaves, with a thyrsus in his hand. See Keightley, " Mythology;" Guigniaut, " Religions de I'An- tiquite," vol. ii. ; G. F. Ckeuzer, "Dionysus seu Commentationes de Rerum Bacchicarum Orphicarumqiie Origine et Causis," 2 vols. 4to, 1808-09. Bac-ehyl'i-des, [Gr. BaK.xv7j^ri^ ; Fr. Bacchylide, bt'lce'l^d',] an eminent Greek lyric poet, born about 512 B.C., in the island of Ceos, was a nephew of Simonides and a rival of Pindar. His extant works have been pub- lished in Bergk's " Poetae Lyrici Graeci." Bacci, bat'chee, (Andre.\,) an Italian physician, natu- ralist, and writer, who lived about 1580. Bacciarelli, bit-chi-reKlee, (Marcelling,) an Italian artist, born at Rome in 1731, was employed by Augustus HI. of Poland as designer of the gallery of engravings at Dresden. He also painted portraits and historical pieces. He settled at Warsaw about 1765, and was patronized by the king Stanislas Poniatowski. Died at Warsaw in 1818. Bacciccio. See Baciccio. Baccio, bdt'cho, or Bacci, bat'chee, [Lat. Bac'cius,] (Andrea,) an Italian physician and naturalist of the six- teenth century, was a native of Milan. Baccio d'AguoIo. See Agnolo. Baccio da Monte-Lupo, bSt'cho d^ mon'ti-loo'po, a Florentine sculptor and architect, born about 1445. His bronze statue of Saint John the Evangelist is re- garded as his master-piece. He was the father of the sculptor Raphael da Monte-Lupo. Died about 1533. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters and Sculptors." Baccio della Porta, bat'cho del-la-poR'tS, an emi- nent Italian painter, known also as Fra Bartolommeo Di San Marco, (fR^ baR-to-lo-ma'o de sAn maR'ko,) was born at Savignano, near Florence, in 1469. He was a pupil of Cosimo Rosselli, and subsequently studied the works of Leonardo da Vinci. He was an adherent and friend of the celel^rated reformer Savonarola, and was so deeply affected by his martyrdom that in 1500 he took the habit of Saint Dominic. After four years, passed chiefly in the convent of San Marco, at Florence, which he adorned with some of his finest pictures, he visited Rome, where his intercourse with Raphael was pro- ductive of benefit to both. Among his master-pieces are the magnificent fresco of the "Last Judgment" in the chapel of Santa Maria Nuova at Florence, the figure of " Saint Mark" in the Pitti palace, the "Marriage of Saint Catherine," a " Virgin on a Throne," and a " Saint Paul" at Rome, which was finished 'by Raphael. Baccio's pro- ductions display great knowledge of chiaroscuro, rich- ness of colouring, and grace in the disposition of the draperies, united to a dignity and sweetness of expres- sion little inferior to those of Raphael, Died in 151 7. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- ing;" Mr.s. Jameson, " Memoirs of Early Italian Painters;" Winck- ELMANN, "Neues Maler-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene- rale." Bacciochi, bit-cho'kee, ( Adorno,) a Corsican officer, who entered the French army in 1761, was an emigrant in 1792, after which he served under Conde until 1801. Bacciochi, (Felice Pasquale,) Prince of Lucca and Piombino, born in Corsica in 1752. He married in 1797 Maria Elisa, sister of Napoleon. He was made a senator, and obtained the rank of general, and other distinctions. Died in 184 1. Baccusi, bSk-koo'see, (Ippolito,) an Italian com- poser, lived at Verona about 1590-1600. Bacellar. See Barbosa Bacellar. Bach, baK, the name of a German family which for more than two centuries was celebrated for musical talent, and produced upwards of fifty distinguished art- ists. Veit Bach, the founder of the family, a native of Presburg, in Hungary, setded in Thuringia about 1600. Bach, (Alexander,) an Austrian statesman, born at Loosdorfin 1813. He became in 1848 minister of justice, and was elected to the Constituent Asseml^ly, where he advocated the centralization of the Austrian monarchy and strongly opposed the democratic party. He favoured the policy which provoked the revolt of Hungary in 1848. In 1849 he succeeded Count Stadion as minister of the interior. See C. WuRZBACH, "A. Bach, politi.sches Charakterbild," iS^o; Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Bach, (Johann August,) a German jurist, and pro- fessor of law at Leipsic, born in 1721, He wrote, in Latin, a "History of Roman Jurisprudence," Died in 1 759. Bach, (Johann Christian,) youngest son of Johann Sebastian, noticed below, born in 1735, was surnamcd the Milanese or English Bach. He resided five years as organist at Milan, and in 1759 became chapel-master at London. He produced a number of popular operas and instrumental pieces. Died in 1782. Bach, (Johann Christoph,) born at Arnstadt, in Thuringia, in 1643, enjoyed the highest reputation as an organist, composer, and contrapuntist. His works are numerous, including ecclesiastical and secular music. He died in 1703, leaving two sons, Johann Nicholas and Johann Christoph, who were distinguished musicians. Bach, (Johann Christoph Friedrich,) a musical composer, a son of Johann Sebastian, born in 1732. He lived at Biickeburg, where he died in 1795. Bach, (Johann Sebastian,) the most illustrious member of the family, born at Eisenach on the 21st of March, 1685, was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach. Having received his first instruction from his brother Johann Christoph, he became for a time a chorister at Liineburg. In 1704 he was appointed organist at Arn- stadt, and in 1 708 court organist at Weimar. During the seven years that he occupied this post, he produced many of his finest ",ompositions for the organ. In 1723 he became musical director at the Saint Thomas School of Leipsic, which situation he filled till his death. Hav- ing been invited to the Prussian court by Frederick II., in 1747, he surprised and delighted that monarch by his wonderful extemporaneous performances. The works of Bach are very numerous, embracing almost every va- riety of sacred and secular music, and so admirable for their grandeur, science, and inventive power as to en- title him to rank among the greatest composers that have ever lived. As an organist, he was esteemed equal to Handel, who was his contemporary ; and his skill as a performer on the piano and other keyed instruments was unsurpassed. Among his best compositions are his orato- rio of "The Nativity," (" Passions-Musik,") and a collec- tion of preludes and fugues, entitled " The Well-tempered Clavier." Bach was twice married, and had eleven sons and nine daughters. Died at Leipsic in 1750. See the "Life of John Sebastian Bach," translated from the Ger- man; Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens;" J. N. For- KEL, " Ueber J. S. Bach's Leben, Kunst und Kunstwerke," 1802, and the English translation of the same; C. L. Hilgenfeldt, "J. S. Bach's Leben, Wirken und Werke," 1850. Bach, (Karl Philipp Emanuel,) son of Sebastian, noticed below, born at Weimar in 1714. He was ap- pointed chamber-musician to Frederick the Great of Prussia in 1740, and in 1767 became director of music at Hamburg. Among his principal compositions are the oratorio of "The Israelites in the Wilderness," and numerous sonatas, symphonies, and songs of great origi- nality and beauty. He also wrote an " Essay on the True Art of playing the Harpsichord," (1797.) Died in 1788. See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." Bach, btk, (Victor,) a French physician and Jaco- bin, born at Villefranche about 1770, practised in Paris. He killed himself about the end of 1799. Bach, (WiLHELM Friedemann — fRee'deh-mIn',) eldest son of Johann Sebastian, born at Weimar in 1710, was surnamed Bach of Halle, from his residence in that city. He studied music under his father, and be- came organist at the church of Saint Sophia, Dresden, (1733,) and afterwards at Halle, (1747.) He attained great excellence both in the theory and practice of music, and as a performer was second only to his father. Owing to his dissipated habits, he died in great poverty in 1784. See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, ttasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2!^='See Explanations, p. 23.) BACH ARTIER 234 BACHOFIUS Bachartier-Beaupuy, bt'shtR'te-i' ba^pv^e', (Mi- CHKL Armand,) a French general, ^rn in 1755, was killed at the battle of Reutlincen in 1796. Bachaumont, bt'sh5'm6N , (Louis,) a French literary gossip and scandal-monger, published a collection of an- ecdotes, songs, facetiae, etc., entitled " Memoires secrets," (6 vols., 1777.) Died in Paris in 1771. See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." Bachaumont, de, deh bt'sho^'moN', (FRANgois le Coigneux — leh kw^n^yuh',) a French lawyer and litte- ratem\ born in Paris in 1624, was the author of a number of witty and satirical poems against Cardinal Mazarin, dixring the war of the Fronde. Died in 1 702. Bache, batch, (Alexander Dallas,) an American philosopher and savant, born in Philadelphia in July, 1806, was a great-grandson of Dr. Franklin. He grad- uated at the military academy at West Point in 1825, and was appointed professor of mathematics in the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania in 1827. In 1836 he was chosen president of Girard College, and visited Europe to study various systems of instruction. He published in 1839 a " Report on the European System of Education." He became in 1841 the first principal of the Philadelphia High School, which he had organized. In 1843 was appointed Superintendent of the United States Coast Sur- vey. His services in this position were most important, and gave general satisfaction. Besides his voluminous ofiicial reports, he contributed many valuable scientific papers to the Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Died in 1867. Bache, (Benjamin Franklin,) an American printer and journalist, son of Richard Bache, was born in Phila- delphia about 1768. He accompanied Dr. Franklin to Paris, and there learned the business of printing and type-founding in the celebrated establishment of the brothers Didot. After his return to the United States, he began, in 1790, the publication of the " General Ad- vertiser," afterwards called the " Aurora," a paper which, under his editorial management and that of his succes- sor, Mr. Duane, exerted a powerful influence in opposi- tion to the administrations of Washington and Adams. Died in 1799. Bache, (Franklin,) a physician and chemist, son of the preceding, and cousin of Alexander Dallas, noticed above, was born in Philadelphia in 1792. He graduated as M.D. in the University of Pennsylvania in 1814, pub- lished a " System of Chemistry for the Use of Students of Medicine" in 1819, and became professor of chemistry in the Franklin Institute in 1826. In 183 1 he was ap- pointed professor of chemistry in the Philadelphia Col- lege of Pharmacy, and in 1841 obtained the same chair in the Jeffei'son Medical College. He was one of the authors of Wood and Bache's " Dispensatory of the United States," (i vol. 8vo, 1833, 13th edition, 1869,) a work of the highest character, and an acknowledged standard in the department of which it treats. He was elected president of the American Philosophical Society in 1853. Died in 1864. (See Wood, George B.) See " Biographical Memoir of Franklin Bache, M.D.," by George B. Wood, Philadelphia, 1S65. Bache, (Richard,) born in England in 1737, emi- grated to the United States, where he married, in 1767, Sarah, only daughter of Benjamin Franklin. He was appointed postmaster-general of the United States in 1776. Died in 181 1. Bache, (Sarah,) only daughter of Dr. Benjamin Franklin, and wife of Richard Bache, was born in Phila- delphia in 1744. She was a lady of superior accom- plishments, and was remarkable for her humane and patriotic efforts to relieve the sufferings of the sick and destitute soldiers of the P.evolution. Died in 1808. Bachelet-Damville,btsh'li' dSN^eK, (Louis Alex- andre,) a French general of brigade, born at Saint- Aubin in 1771, was killed in Saxony in 1813. Bachelier, btsh'le-i', (Jean Jacques,) a French painter of landscapes, fruit, and flowers, born in Paris in 1724. He devoted his fortune of sixty thousand francs to the establishment of a free school of design. He was for many years director of the porcelain manufactory at Sevres. Died in 1805. See Nagler, " Neues AUgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Bachelier, (Nicolas,) a French sculptor and archi- tect, born at Toulouse, was a pupil of Michael Angelo. Bachelin. See Basselin. Bachelot, btsh^lo',- (Jean Alexis Augustin,) a French theologian, born in 1790. Pie went as a mission- ary to the Sandwich Islands about 1826, but he was ex- pelled by the English. Died in 1838. Bachelot de la Pylaie, btsh'lo' deh li pe'iy, (A. J. M.,) a French naturalist and antiquary, born at Fou- geres in 1 786. He published a " Manual of Conchology," (1828,) and a " Plora of Newfoundland," (1829.) See Querard, "La France Liu^raire," (Supp.) Bachelu, btsh'lii', (Gilbert Desire Joseph,) Baron, a French general, born in Dole in 1777, served with dis- tinction in the Egyptian, Austrian, and Russian cam- paigns, and in 18 14 was created lieutenant-general by Louis XVIII., having previously been made an officer of the Legion of Honour. In 1838 he represented Chalons-sur-Saone in the Chamber of Deputies, where he acted with the opposition. Died in 1849. Bacher, bS'sh^', (Alexandre Andre Philippe Fre- deric,) son of George Frederic, noticed below, was born about 1730. He was for many years editor of the "Journal de Medecine." Died in 1807. Bacher, [Lat. Bache'rius,] (George Frederic,) a French physician, born in Upper Alsace in 1709, pub- lished several works on the Treatment of Dropsy. Bacher, (Theobald,) a French diplomatist, born in Alsace in 1748, was charge-d'afifaires at Ratisbon and Frankfort. He died in 1813, leaving "Memoirs on Ger- many and Switzerland." Bachet. See Meziriac. Bacheville, btsh^veK, (Antoine,) a French adven- turer, born at Trevoux, served in the army from 1804 to 1 814. Having been accused of a political conspiracy in 1 816, he escaped and went into exile. He died at Mus- cat in 1820. Bacheville, (Barthelemi,) a brother of the preced- ing, was his companion in his campaigns and in exile, but returned to France, and died in 1835. See " Voyages des Freres Bacheville en Turquie et en Asie," 1822. Bachiacca, bd-ke-ik'ka, a surname of Francesco Ubertini, fRan-ch§s'ko 00-beR-tee'nee, anitalian painter, born at Florence, was a pupil of Perugino. Died in 1557. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." Bachman, bak'man, (John,) D.D., an American naturalist, born in Dutchess county. New York, in 1790. He became pastor of the German Lutheran church of Charleston, South Carolina, about 181 5. He assisted Audubon in the composition of his great work on Orni- thology, and was the principal author of a work on the Quadrupeds of North America, illustrated by Audubon and his sons. He wrote various other works. Bachmann, biK^m^n, (Gottlob, ) a German com- poser, born in 1763 ; died about 1 810. Bachmann, (Gottlob Ludwig Ernst,) a German philologist, and professor of classical literat-ure at Ros- tock, born at Leipsic in 1792. He published an excel- lent edition of Lycophron's " Alexandra," a collection of " Anecdota Grjeca," from the Royal Library of Paris, and other learned works. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Bachmann, (Karl Friedrich,) a German philoso- pher, born at Altenburg in 1785, was professor of moral and political economy at Jena, and wrote several works on philosophy. Died in 1855. Bachmann, de, deh baK'min, (Jacques Joseph An- toine Leger,) Baron, a Swiss general, born in 1733, commanded the Swiss guard which defended Louis X VI. in August, 1 792. He was executed the same year. Bachmann- Anderletz, bSK'niSn Sn'der-llts, (Nico- LAUS Franz,) Baron, a vSwiss general, born in the can- ton of Glarus in 1740, served during the Seven Years' war in the French army, and rose to be major-general under the King of Sardinia. Under the Bourbons he was created commander of Saint Louis. Died in 1831. See Girard, "Histoire des Officiers Suisses qui se sont distingues aiix Services etrangers," 1781. Bachovius, ba-Ko've-us, (Reiniiart,) called also Bachov (bSK'of) of Echt, (eKt,) a Gernian theolo- gian, born in 1544, was the author of several treatises in a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; ilx, fSll, fit; mlX; n6t; good; moon; BACICCIO 235 BACON defence of Calvinism. Died in 1614. His son, of the same name, born in 1575, was professor of law at Heidel- berg in 16 I 3. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Baciccio, ba-ch^t'cho, Bacciccio, bat-ch6t'cho, or Bacici, bS-chee'chee, (Giambattista Gauli — gowHee,) a Genoese painter of portraits and scriptural subjects, born in 1639. His pictures, both in fresco and oil, are numerous. Died in 1709. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Bacici. See Baciccio. Baciochi. See Bacciochi. Back or Baeck, bek, (Abraham,) a Swedish physi- cian, naturalist, and scientific writer, born at Soderhamn in 1 7 13. He became physician-in-ordinary to the king, and president of the Royal College of Medicine, in 1749. He was intimate with Linnaeus, who named the genus Basckia in his honour. Died in 1795. See Gezelius, " Biographiskt-Lexicon." Back, (Sir George,) an English navigator, born at Stockport in 1796. After serving against the French in 1809, he accompanied Sir John Franklin on his Arctic expedition in 1819 and 1823. In 1833 he undertook another voyage in search of Captain Ross. Being in- formed of Ross's safety, he continued his journey, and made several discoveries, of which he gave an account after his return, entitled "A Narrative of the Expedition along the Shores of the Arctic Ocean in 1833-34." See " Quarterly Review" for April, 1836; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1S36. Back, de, deh bik, (James,) a Dutch physician, born at Rotterdam, lived about 1650. He was one of the first to accept the doctrine of the circulation of the blood. Back'er, (George,) an English physician of the eigh- teenth century, was the author of " Researches on the Advantages of Inoculation," (1776,) and other medical works. Backer, bak''ker, (Peter,) a Prussian sculjnor, a pupil of Schlutter, worked at Berlin in the second half of the seventeenth centurv. Backer, van, vSn bik'er, (Adrian,) a Dutch painter of history and portraits, born in 1643, worked at Amster- dam. Died in 1686. Backer, van, (Francis,) an able Dutch painter, lived about 1720, and was court j^ainter to the elector-palatine Johann Wilhelm. Backer, van, (Jacob,) a Dutch painter, brother of Adrian, born at Haarlem in 1608. He worked at Am- sterdam, and had great facility of execution. Died in 1651. See HouBRAKEN, "Viesdes Peintres." Backer, van, (James or Jacob,) sometimes called James of Palermo, a distinguished historical painter and excellent coiorist, born at Antwerp in 1530; died in 1560. Backereel, bak'eh-raK, (Giles,) a Flemish or Dutch painter, born about 1572, worked at Antwerp. His de- sign is said to be as correct as that of Rubens. See Naglek, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Backhouse, bak^'kiis, (William,) an English writer on astronomy and alchemy, born in 1593, was the author of "The Golden Fleece," and "The Complaint of Na- ture." He also translated, from the French, "The Plea- sant Fountain of Knowledge." Died in 1662. Backhuysen or Bakhuysen,bak-hoi'zen,(LuDOLF,) an eminent Dutch marine painter and engraver, born at Emden in 1631. He was the pupil of Van Everdingen, but owed his great excellence chiefly to the study of nature. It was his custom to put out to sea during a storm, to observe the motion of the waves and the agi- tated vessels, and, on his return, finish the sketches he had made. Among his master-pieces is a marine view, for which the burgomasters of Amsterdam gave him thirteen hundred florins, and subsequently presented to Louis XIV. of France. Died in 1709. See Naglek, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Backhuysen, (Ludolf,) a painter of martial scenes, grandson of the preceding, born in 17 17. He died at Rotterdam about 1782. Backmeister, b^k'ml-ster, (Hartmann Ludwig Christian,) director of the German College at Saint Petersburg, born at Dillenburg, in Nassau, in 1 736. He wrote, in German, a " History of the Swedish Nation,' (1767,) "Bibliotheca Russica," (11 vols., 1778,) and othei useful works. Died in 1806. Backmeister, (Lucas,) a German theologian, born at Liineburg in 1530, was the author of a number of commentaries on the Bible. Died in 1608. Backmeister, (Lucas,) a son of the preceding, born in 1570, published several theological and controversial works. Died in 1638. See J. CusTERUS, "MemoriaL. Bacmeisterl Oratione parentali, etc." Backmeister, (Matthew or Matthaeus,) a German physician, born at Rostock in 1580, was the author of a " General Treatise on Practical Medicine," and other medical works. Died in 1626. Back'us, (Azel,) D.D., the first president of Hamilton College, New York, born in Norwich, Connecticut, 1765. He graduated at Yale in 1787, and succeeded the cele- brated Dr. Bellamy as pastor of the church in Bethlehem Connecticut. Died about 181 7. Backus, (Charles,) D.D., an American Baptist di- vine, uncle of President Azel Backus, was born in Nor- wich, Connecticut, in 1749. Dr. Backus was an eloquent preacher and an able theologian. Died in 1803. Backus, (Isaac,) an American Baptist minister, born in Norwich, Connecticut, in 1724. He published nume- rous works, among which is a " History of the Baptists in New England." Died in 1806. Bacler d'Albe, btk'laiR'dtlb, (Louis Albert Ghis- lain — g^z'l^N',) a skilful French painter and engineer, born at Saint-Pol in 1762. He served in the Italian cam- paign of 1796, and took a distinguished part in the battle of Areola, which forms the subject of one of his best pictures. In 1802 he prepared an excellent chart of the theatre of war in Italy, with 54 plates. He was ap- pointed by Bonaparte director of his topographical bureau, and became general of brigade in 181 3. He published "Annales pittoresques et historiques des Pay- sagistes," (1803.) Died in 1824. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Ba'con, (Anne Cooke,) a daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, born about 1528, was married to Sir Nicholas Bacon, and was the mother of Lord Bacon. She was versed in the Greek, Latin, and Italian languages, and translated Bishop Jewel's " Apology for the Church of England" from Latin into English. Died in 1600. Bacon, (Anthony,) an English politician, born about 1 558, was a son of Sir Nicholas, and a half-brother of Lord Bacon. He was a friend of the Earl of Essex and of Plenry of Navarre, whom he visited about 1585. Bacon, (Francis,) [Lat. Francis'cus Baco'nus,*] Baron Verulam, (v^r'u-lam,) Viscount Saint Al- ]!An's, (commonly called Lord Bacon,) one of the most illustrious philosophers of modern times, was born in London, the 22d of January, 1561. His father was Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord keeper of the great seal under Eli- zabeth. His mother was Lady Anne, the daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, and the sister of Mildred, Lord Bur- leigh's second wife. She is represented as a person of bright talents, no inconsiderable learning, and very de- cided religious opinions. While still a child. Bacon was remarkable for his ready wit, as well as for his general in- telligence. When the queen once asked him how old he was, he replied, " Just two years younger than your majesty's happy reign." Queen Elizabeth used to call him, it is said, her "little lord keeper." It is related that on one occasion, while his young com- panions were playing and amusing themselves in Saint James's Park, near his father's house, he stole away to the brick conduit, to find out the cause of a singular echo which was heard there. " Every tale told of him in his childhood," says Dixon," wins on the imagination, whether he hunts for the echo in Saint James's Park, or eyes the jugglers and detects their trick, or lisps wise words to the queen and becomes her young lord keeper." When a little more than twelve years of age, he and his brother * Baco'nus (genitive Baco'ni) is the usual Latin form of Bacon's name. Sometimes, though rarely, it is made a noun of the third de- clension — in the nominative Bacon, (genitive Baco'nis.) € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BACON 236 BACON Anthony were sent to Cambridge, and entered Trinity College, of which Dr. Whitgift, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury, was then master. Francis was a diligent and successful student, and before he was sixteen years old he is said to have conceived a decided dislike to the Aristotelian philosophy, as then taught in the schools. On leaving the University, he entered Gray's Inn as a student of law, and soon after visited France, for the pur- pose of becoming acquainted with the French language, as well as the institutions and customs of the continent. But the death of his father, in 1579, made it necessary for him to return to England. The other brothers had been well provided for, but Sir Nicholas had delayed making any provision for Francis, his youngest son, though intending to do so, when all his plans were cut short by his sudden death. In 1582 young Bacon was admitted to the bar ; he was made a bencher in 1586, and in 1589 became counsel-extraordinary to the queen, at the early age of twenty-eight ; "a grace," says his biographer Rawley, " scarce known before." He had been elected to Parliament for Melcombe Regis in 1585, at the early age of twenty- four, and appears to have sat in every House of Commons from that time until 1614. Ben Jon- son, in his " Discoveries," gives the following description of Bacon's oratory while he was in Parliament : "There happened in my time one noble speaker who was full of gravity in his speaking. His language, when he could spare or pass a jest, was nobly censorious.* No man ever spake more neatly, more pressly, more weightily, or suffered less emptiness, less idleness, in what he uttered. No member of speech but consisted of his own graces. His hearers could not cough or look aside from him without loss. He commanded when he spoke, and had his judges angry or pleased at his devotion. No man had their affections more in his power. The fear of every man that heard him was lest he should make an end." Although a near connection of Burleigh, whose influ- ence during the greater part of Elizabeth's reign was un- rivalled, Bacon appears to have owed little or nothing to the favour of that powerful minister. Nevertheless, the Cecils procured him the reversion of the place of Register of the Star Chamber, an office worth ;^i6oo per annum ; but it did not fall to him until nearly twenty years later, in the reign of King James. Without adopting the sug- gestion of Rawley, that Burleight sought in every way, especially by secret means, to keep Bacon down, " lest if he had risen he might have obscured his glory," it is suf- ficiently evident that the Cecils were little inclined to favour his promotion, possibly because they regarded him as a man of speculation rather than of practical ability. The intellectual powers of Bacon were of a cha- racter too original and profound to be understood and appreciated by those whose chief talent consisted in the facility with which they could adapt themselves to the servile routine of courts. And, although Burleigh may have been somewhat raised above the class referred to, still his mind appears to have been of a very ordinary stamp. Prudence and fidelity to his sovereign were almost the only virtues he possessed ; and even his pru- dence was of a low and vulgar type, the offspring of a cold and plodding experience, rather than the inspiration of an original and far-seeing intellect ; and hence, in an extraordinary emergency, he was really less prudent than many men who had far less experience.! Bacon, being thus left to his own unaided exertions, applied himself diligently to the law, and in time ac- quired a lucrative if not an extensive practice. In 1592 ap- * Censor-like — in other words, severe and dignified in his style. t Alluding to Bacon's failure to obtain any present provision, Raw- ley's words are, it "might be imputed not so much to her Majesty's averseness or disaffection towards him, as to the arts and policy of a great statesman then who laboured, by all industrious and secret means, to suppress and keep him down, lest if he had risen he might have obscured his glory." Some suppose that the person here alluded to was Burleigh's son Robert, a view which, perhaps, better corre- sponds to the known facts of history, although at that date young Cecil could scarcely be termed a " great statesman." " The Cecils," says Lord Campbell, "not only refused to interest themselves for their kinsman, but, that he might receive no effectual assistance from others, they spread reports that he was a vain speculator, and totally unfit for real business." t See Motley's account of Burleigh's conduct during the prepara- tions for the Spanish invasion, (" History of the United Netherlands.") peared his first publication, a pamphlet, in reply to a little book, (or "Libel,") entitled "A Declaration of the True Causes of the Great Troubles." In 1594 he became a candidate for the office of solicitor-general, but was not successful. The Earl of Essex, a kinsman and favourite of the queen, had greatly interested himself in Bacon's behalf, but he was overborne by the superior influence of the Cecils. Essex felt deeply the disappointment of his friend, and generously gave him an estate, near Twickenham, worth ;i^i8oo, a sum very greatly superior in value to what would be represented by the same figures at the present time. Mr. Dixon endeavours to prove that Bacon was under no real obligation to Essex for this magnificent present, — that it was indeed nothing more than a just, though scarcely adequate, payment for Bacon's professional services. But Bacon himself evidently did not regard it in that light ; for he says, referring to the gift of his friend, that it was made "with so kind and noble circumstances as the manner was worth more than the matter." For many years Bacon appears to have entertained the project of making his fortune by a wealthy marriage. About the year 1596 he was paying court to a rich widow named Hatton. Essex again warmly interested himself in the cause of his friend, but with no better fortune than before. "This suit, happily for Bacon," says Macaulay, "was unsuccessful." Lady Hatton afterwards married " that narrow-minded, bad-hearted pedant," Sir Edward Coke, "and did her best," adds the same writer, "to make him as miserable as he deserved to be." Bacon was not insensible to the kindness of his noble friend ; but the difference of character, and still more the difference of policy, of the two men, led necessarily to a coldness between them and to their final estrange- ment. Bacon could not approve the rash and criminal schemes of Essex, and his remonstrances were lost upon the headstrong and infatuated earl. Nevertheless, when fortune and everything else seemed to desert his former friend, he did not desert him, but appears to have used all his influence and eloquence with the queen, even to the risk of her favour, in order to soften her resentment towards her misguided kinsman. And when at length he was called to act as one of her majesty's counsel, he seems to have availed himself of his official position to mitigate, as far as possible, the severity of the charges against Essex.. It is, indeed, difficult wholly to excuse Bacon for the part which he took in this trial ; but it is altogether probable that he sincerely believed — at least in the earlier stages of the business — that what he did was the best for Essex that could be done under the circum- stances. But if, when he found that all his eff"orts to save his former friend and benefactor were unavailing, he had absolutely declined to take any further part in the prose- cution, his character would have been cleared from one of the darkest shadows now resting upon it. According to Mr. Dixon, having done all in his power to satisfy the claims of friendship, Bacon was perfectly right in turning against one who had " proved himself a rebel and a traitor," and that in this "he did no more than discharge his necessary duty to his country and his queen." This might be a valid defence, if there was any good reason to believe that without Bacon's efforts to secure the con- viction of Essex the safety of his country would have been seriously imperilled. But, as the case now stands, the common sense and common feeling of mankind are naturally arrayed against one who, whatever may have been his secret motives, did actually promote his worldly interests and his advancement at court — the object of his life-long ambition — by seeking to convict and brmg to the block one to whom he was once closely bound by gratitude and friendship. After the accession of James I., (in 1603,) Bacon's advancement was all that a man of reasonable ambition could desire. He was raised to the knighthood the day before the king's coronation. Having soon after been chosen by the House of Commons to make a representa- tion of the oppressive acts of the royal purveyors, he performed the duty with such ability and address as to give satisfaction both to the king and to the Parliament. The House gave him a vote of thanks, and the king ap- pointed him one of his counsel. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; BACON 237 BACON In Mav, 1606, Bacon married Alice Barnham, the daughter of a wealthy London merchant and alderman. In 1607 he was made solicitor-general. In 161 1 he be- came one of the judges of the knights-marshal's court, and in 1613 he was appointed attorney-general, and was made a member of the privy council. His law practice wcis now very lucrative, and the emoluments arising from his various offices afforded him what for those times may be called an immense income. He was selected by the king as his agent in the prosecution of Peacham, a cler- gyman who was accused of treason on account of some passages in a sermon found in his house. The sermon had never been preached, and there was no proof that he had any intention of preaching it. Bacon is charged with having sought, contrary to law and justice, to ob- tain the opinions of the judges before the case came up for trial. In March, 1617, Bacon was appointed keeper of the great seal, and in January, 1618, he became lord high chancellor of England, the highest civil office to which an English subject could then attain. In July of the same year he was created Baron Verulam, and took his seat in the House of Peers. In 1620 he was made Viscount Saint Alban's. His sixtieth birthday (January 22, 1620) was celebrated with great state, Ben Jonson furnishing a poem to be recited on that occasion, in which he speaks of the lord chancellor as one *' Whose even thread the Fates spin round and full Oat of their choicest and their whitest wool." The same year he published his " Novum Organum," embodying the ripest and richest results of his life-long studies. In contemplating the life of Bacon, we cannot help calling to mind those words of our great poet, descriptive of the career of one who, though far inferior to him in genius, was in worldly power and splendour fully his equal : " This is the state of man ; to-day he puts forth The tender leaves of hope, to-morrow blossoms, And bears his blushing honours thick upon him. The third day comes a frost, a killing frost. * # # * * * Farewell, a long farewell, to all [his] greatness !" A man named Wraynham, against whom Bacon had decided a suit in chancery, accused the chancellor of accepting bribes ; and, though he did not make good his accusation in regard to his own case, his complaints led to the appointment of a committee in the House of Com- mons, to inquire into the abuses of the courts of justice. In consequence of this inquiry, a number of cases of al- leged corruption on the part of the lord chancellor were presented. The Commons referred the case to the House of Lords, as the only proper tribunal for trying it. In the course of the trial it was shown that in a ma- jority of the cases the presents were received after the suits were terminated, and in some others that the chancellor had decided against the donors. But, unfor- tunately, the accusations could not all be thus disposed of It was alleged that in one instance, when the decision was drawn up but not yet delivered, a timely and liberal present prevailed on the chancellor to reverse his decree. In another, when one of the parties had administered a liberal bribe and was encouraged to hope that the deci- sion would be in his favour, a subsequent and larger gift from the opposite party turned the scale in favour of the latter. At the commencement of the trial Bacon strongly asserted his innocence, but he afterwards abandoned his defence and acknowledged his guilt. His words were, I do plainly and ingenuously confess that I am guilty of corruption, and do renounce all defence."* So that either some of the accusations were well founded, or else, from some motive difficult to conceive of, he was induced to cast away his good name by telling a false- hood. His apologists suggest that he did this to please * No greater stigma can be cast upon the memory of Lord Bacon than to charge him widi insincerity in making the above confession. After the paper containing it had been read m the House of Peers, twelve lords were appointed to wait on him, to ascertain if the signa- ture appended to the confession was genuine. He passionately ex- claimed, " My lords, it is my act, my hand, my heart ! I beseech your lordships to be merciful to a broken reed !" (For a full account of the case the reader is referred to the State Trials.) the king. But such a defence from his friends dishon- ours him, if possible, even more than the accusations of his enemies. An honourable man, to please his sovereign, might indeed sacrifice his life, but not his honour, not his good name for all coming time. On the 3d of May, 1 62 1, he was sentenced to pay a fine of forty thousand pounds and to be imprisoned during the king's pleasure. "The sentence of Bacon," says Macaulay, "was scarcely pronounced when it was mitigated. He was indeed sent to the Tower ; but this was a mere form. In two days he was set at liberty." Not long after, his fine was re- mitted. He was even permitted to present himself at court. He was allowed a pension of twelve hundred pounds, no inconsiderable income for that age. The rest of his life was passed in retirement, and was chiefly occupied in scientific pursuits. He died on the 19th of April, 1626, leaving no children. In person Bacon was of a middling stature, well formed, but not robust. His forehead was high and broad, ancl the expression of his face was benevolent as well as in- tellectual. " In advanced life," says Lord Campbell, " his whole appearance was venerably pleasing, so that a stran- ger was insensibly drawn to love before knowing how much reason there was to admire him." In society he is represented to have been " a most delightful companion, adapting himself to company of every degree, calling, and humour," and "bringing out with great effect his unexhausted stores of jests new and old." Prominent among his good qualities was his entire freedom from all mean jealousy of others, ancl his disposition to patronize merit wherever found. Towards his servants and de- pendants he appears to have been uniformly kind and generous ; if he had a fault in this respect it was in being too indulgent, and their extravagance contributed to his ruin. In contemplating the fall of so great a man, we should not lose sight of the principal cause. With his many and rare accomplishments, and with all the strength of his transcendent intellect. Bacon had one " weakest weak- ness," an inordinate love of splendour and display. The consequence was that he was often embarrassed and in debt, and he was tempted to eke out the deficiency of his large income by accepting presents and bribes. Bacon's greatest work was his " Instauratio Magna,"* of which the " Novum Organum, "t already referred to, is but a part, although the most important part, and his treatise " De Augmentis Scientiarum" (" On the Ad- vancement of the Sciences"t) the opening chapter. Be- lieving, as Bacon did, that the then prevailing mode of studying science (particidarly the science of nature) had become greatly perverted, his aim was to bring men back, so to speak, to the right employment of their powers, and to direct them into such a path of inquiry and examination as would best promote the cause of true science. This he proposed to effect by teaching them a new method of exploring or investigating nature, the principles of which are laid down with great explicilnes.s and fulness in his " Novum Organum." Among Bacon's other works we may mention his "Es- says," (first published in 1598,) perhaps the most popular of all his writings ; " On the Wisdom of the Ancients," ("De Sapientia Veterum,") which appeared in 1610, and of which a good translation, by Sir Arthur Gorges, was published in 1619. His collection of Apothegms con- stitutes one of the most attractive portions of his various works. In regard to Bacon's attainments as a lawyer, and his qualifications as a judge. Lord Campbell observes that " his mind was thoroughly familiar with the principles of jurisprudence," and "that he had made himself complete master of the common law of England." The same able critic pronounces Bacon's "History of the Alienation Office" "a treati.se worthy of Hale, showing a most co- pious and accvuate acquaintance with existing law and with our legal antiquities." " No one ever sat in W^est- minster Hall with a finer judicial understanding ; no one * Literally, the "Great Instauration," (or "Restoration.") t " New Instrument," or new method of pursuing science. X Or, as Bacon himself translates it, [On] "the Advancement of Learning-,'' using the word in a wider sense than is conmion at the present day. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Y., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (Jj^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BACON BACON ever more thoroughly understood the duties of a judge." (" Lives of the Lord Chancellors," vol. ii. chap. Ivi.) Respecting- Bacon's rank as a philosopher a great diversity of opinion prevails. While some claim that to his improved method of studying nature are chiefly to be attributed the prodigious strides which have been made by modern science, others deny to him not merely pre-eminent but even eminent mC.it in this respect, asserting that the present method of scientific investiga- tion is quite different from the method laid down by Bacon. The truth will probably be found between the two extremes. If Bacon's method was not in all respects the same as that pursued by the most enlightened interro- gators of nature at the present day, there can scarcely be a reasonable doubt that by his writings and influence he has contributed far more than any other philosopher to pave the way for that wonderful " advancement of the sciences" which forms the peculiar distinction and glory of modern philosophy. Our narrow limits preclude us from entering, in this place, more fully into the consider- ation of the subject. All that remains for us is to direct the reader's attention to such sources of information as may enable him to form a correct judgment for himself Respecting this question, see particularly Professor Na- pier's Essay on this subject, published in the "Transac- tions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh," (1818,) and G. H. Lewes's article on Bacon, in his " Biographical His- tory of Philosophy ;" Hallam's " Introduction to the Literature of Europe ;" also Macaulay's very interesting "Essay on Lord Bacon," one of the ablest and most brilliant of his many able and brilliant review-articles. See, also, " Personal History of Lord Bacon," by William Hep- worth Dixon, (1859,) who has brought to light some interesting facts which had escaped the researches of previous biographers ; Montagu, "Life of Bacon," added to Bacon's collected works; Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors," containing one of the most impar- tial and, on the whole, one of the best of all the Lives of Lord Bacon ; William Rawley, "Life of Lord Bacon," 1658; David Mallet, " Life of Francis Bacon, Lord Chancellor," 1740 : Robert Stephens, "Life of Lord Bacon," 1734; G. L. Craik, " Bacon, his Writings and his Philosophy," 3 vols., 1846-47; Joseph Sortain, "Life of Lord Bacon," 1851; Remusat, "Bacon, sa Vie et son Influence," 1857; De Vauzelles, "Histoire de la Vie de F. Bacon de Verulam," 2 vols., 1833; PouiLLOT, "Vie du Chancelier F. Bacon," 1755; Kuno Fischer, " Franz Bacon von Verulam," 1856, (a work of great merit ;) OzANAM, "Deux Chanceliers d'Angleterre : Bacon de Verulam et S. Thomas (Becket archeveque) de Cantorbery," 1835; W. Dugdal, "Life of Lord Bacon," in the " Baconiana" of Thomas Tenison, 1679; WiLHELMV, " Dissertatio de Vita et Philosophia F. Baconis," 1843; J. Spedding, "Life of Bacon," in his very complete edition of Bacon's works, of which 11 vols. 8vo have already (1869) appeared. Bacon, (John,) an eminent English sculptor, born in Surrey in 1740. Having gained a number of prizes from the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, he be- came in 1770 an associate of the Royal Academy. Plis principal works are a statue of Mars, a bust of George III., the monument to Lord Chatham in Guildhall, the statue of Blackstone at Oxford, and the statues of How- ard and Dr. Johnson at Saint Paul's, London. Died in 1799. See Richard Cecil, "Memoirs of John Bacon," 1801; Cun- ningham, " Lives of Painters, Sculptors," etc. Bacon, (John.) See Baconthorp. Ba'con, (Leonard,) an American divine, born at De- troit, Michigan, in 1802, graduated at Yale College in 1820, and became pastor of the Centre Church, New Haven, Connecticut, in 1825. He has published many theological works, and distinguished himself as a cham- pion of orthodoxy and of the Congregational Church polity. About 1850 he became one of the editors of the "Independent." Among his works is " Slavery discussed in Occasional Essays from 1833 to 1846," (1846.) Bacon, (Nathaniel,) an English lawyer, a grandson of Sir Nicholas, was a member of the Long Parliament, and a republican in the civil war. Died in 1660. Bacon, (Nathaniel,) a Virginian leader of insur- gents, was born probably in England about 1630. He was an eloquent lawyer, and a popular favourite among the Virginians. He took command of a body of mal- contents who, in 1676, rose in arms partly to defend the province against the Indians and partly to maintain their rights against Governor Berkeley. Bacon obtained suc- cesses over both the Indians and the governor, but be- fore the end of the contest he died, in 1677. See Sparks, "American Biography," vol. iii. of new series. Bacon, (Sir Nathaniel,) an English landscape- painter, a half-brother of Lord Bacon, studied in Italy. Died about 1615. Bacon, (Sir Nicholas,) an eminent English states- man, born at Chiselhurst, in Kent, in 15 10, was the father of the great philosopher Lord Bacon. He was educated at Cambridge, and studied law. In 1537 he was appointed solicitor to the court of augmentations. He was attorney to the court of wards from 1546 until the death of Edward VI., when, having become a Prot- estant, he was removed by Queen Mary. He was ap- pointed lord keeper of the great seal by Elizabeth in 1558, and became a friend of Sir William Cecil, who was his brother-in-law. He held the office of lord keeper for twenty years, during which, by a moderate and pru- dent policy, he contributed much to the prevalence of the reformed religion in England. His mind was sound, well balanced, and vigorous. Referring to Bacon arid other ministers of Elizabeth, Macaulay says, ' It is needless to relate how dexterously, how resolutely, how gloriously they directed the politics of England during the eventful years which followed ; how they succeeded in uniting their friends and separating their enemies ; how they humbled the pride of Philip ; how they backed the unconquerable spirit of Coligni. . . . Among these statesmen Sir Nicholas Bacon was generally considered as ranking next to Burleigh. Lie was called by Camden sacris conciliis alterum columejty (" Essay on Lord Bacon.") Died in 1579. See "A Remembrance of the Woorthie and Well Employed Life of the Right Honourable Sir Nicholas Bacon, etc.," by George Whetstones; Lord Campbell's "Lives of the Lord Chancellors." Bacon, (Phanuel,) an English divine and humorous writer, born in 1700, became rector of Balden, in Oxford- shire. He was the author of dramatic pieces, entitled "The Moral Quack," "The Insignificants," and "The Trial of the Time-Killers," (1757.) Died in 1783. Bacon, (Robert,) an English divine, writer, and popular preacher, born about 1168 ; died in 1248. Bacon, sometimes written Bakon or Baciui, (Ro- ger,) a celebrated English philosopher and monk, called THE Admirable Doctor, was born near Ilchester, in Somersetshire, about 12 14. He was educated at Oxford and Paris, took the vows of the Franciscan order at Ox- ford, and found a liberal patron in Robert Greathead, Bishop of Lincoln. He was profoundly versed in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, metaphysics, theology, philosophy, and several sciences. His learning and skill in mechanics were so great that he was suspected of dealing in magic. He wrote in Latin many works on astronomy, chemistry, optics, physics, theology, etc. " The mind of Roger Bacon," says Hall am, " was strangely compounded of almost prophetic gleams of the future course of science and the best principles of the inductive philosophy, with a more than usual credulity in the superstitions of his own time." "It seems hard to determine whether or not he be entitled to the honours of a discoverer in sci- ence ; that he has not described any instrument analo- gous to the telescope is now generally admitted, but he has some new and important notions in optics. That he was acquainted with the explosive powers of gunpowder, it seems unreasonable to deny." His principal work is entitled " Opus Majus," which was composed about 1265, and first printed in 1733. It treats of nearly all the sciences. In 1278 a council of Franciscans con- demned his writings and committed Bacon to prison, in which he was confined ten years. He died probably at Oxford, in 1292. He is regarded as the greatest philo- sopher of the thirteenth century. "The resemblance between Roger Bacon and his greater namesake," says Hallam, "is very remarkable. Whether Lord Bacon ever read the ' Opus Majus,' I know not ; but it is sin- gular that his favourite quaint expression prarogativa scientiariim should be found in that work. And who- ever reads the sixth part of the ' Opus Majus' upon ex- perimental science must be struck by it as the prototype in spirit of the ' Novum Organum.' " (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") See Anthony X Wood's " History and Antiquities of Oxford;" Leland's " Commentarii de Scriptoribus Britannicis ;" " Biographia Britannica ;" F. Hoefer, " Histoire de Chimie," vol. i., and his article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ia, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moonj BACON 239 BADIA Bacon, (Samuel,) an Episcopal clergyman, employed with two other persons by the United States government as an agent for establishing a colony of blacks in South- ern Senegambia, where they arrived in charge of eighty- two free blacks in 1820. All three of the agents died soon after. Bacon-Tacon, bt'kix' tt'k6N', (Pierre Jean Jacques,) a French antiquaiy, born at Oyonnax in 1738. He was the author of a " Numismatical History of Dif- ferent Nations, Ancient and Modern." Died in 181 7. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Ba'con-thorp, Ba'con-dorp, or Ba'con, (John,) an English monk of the fourteenth century, born in Norfolk, was surnamed the Resolute Doctor. He had a high reputation for learning, and professed the philosophy of Averroes. He WTote, among other works, a commentary on the "Master of Sentences." Died about 1346. Bacoue, bi'koo', (Leon,) a French Catholic theo- logian of the seventeenth century, became Bishop of Pamiers in 1685. He was the author of a Latin poem " On the Education of a Prince," (1671.) Died in 1694. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Bacquere, de, deh bS'kaiR', (BENotT,) a French writer of the seventeenth century, was the author of a medical work entitled " Physician for Old Men," (" Senum Medicus.") Bacquet, bS^kV, (Jean,) a French jurist and legal writer of the sixteenth century; died in 1597. Bacsanyi, boh-chln'yee, (Janos,) a Hungarian writer, born at Tapolcza in 1763. He was one of the founders of the " Magyar Museum," and the author of a poem entitled "The Bravery of Hungary." Died in 1845. Bactishua. See Bakhtlshwa. Bacun, (Roger.) See Bacon. Baczko, bc^tch'ko, called also Glodzlaus, a Polish chronicler of the thirteenth century, was keeper of the library of Posen. He wrote a continuation down to 1 27 1 of the chronicle of Poland, begun by Bagalulphus, Bishop of Posen. See JocHER, " Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." Baczko, von, fon b^ts'ko, (Ludwig,) a German writer, born at Lyck, in East Prussia, in 1756, became blind at the age of twenty-one. He was the author of several romances and dramas, and a " History of Prus- sia." Died in 1823. See his " Geschichte meines Leben," 3 vols., 1824. Bada, (Jos^:,) a Spanish architect, born at Ma- laga about 1690, finished the cathedral of that city. Died in 1756. Badajos, ba-Dj-nds', (Juan de,) a Spanish architect, a native of the city of that name, lived in the sixteenth century. One of his greatest works is the cloister of the monastery of Saint Zoil at Carrion, in Old Castile. Badakhshi, bJ-daK^shee, a Persian poet of the tenth century, was the author of a divan or collection of poems which enjoyed great popularity with his countrymen. Badalocchio, ba-di-lok'ke-o, sometimes called Sis- to Rosa, an Italian painter and engraver, born at Parma in 1 581, was a pupil of Annibal Caracci, who highly com- mended his skill in design. Among his master-pieces we may name a "Saint Francis," and "Galatea." His engravings after Correggio's cupola at Parma are greatly admired. Died in Rome in 1647. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Badaracco, bS-dl-r^k^ko, (Giovanni Raffaello,) a skilful painter, son of Giuseppe, noticed below, born at Genoa in 1648. Died in 1726. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Badaracco, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, called II SoRDO, born at Genoa about 1588. He imitated Andrea del Sarto with success. Died in 1657. Badaro, l)a-dcVro, (Giovanni,) an Italian botanist and writer, born near Genoa in 1793 ; died in 1831. Bad'by, (John,) an English Lollard of the fourteenth century, perished at the stake during the persecutions of his sect under Henry IV., (1409.) Bad'cock, (Richard,) an English botanist, lived about 1745, and wrote on the structure of anthers. Badcock, (Samuel,) an English divine, born in De- vonshire in 1747. He opposed the doctrines of Priestley, and was the author of a number of able criticisms in the " Monthly Review." Died in 1788. Badehorn, b3.Meh-hoRn', (Sigismund,) a German theologian, born in 1585, was professor of Hebrew at Leipsic. Died in 1626. Baden, bd'oen, (Jakob,) a Danish philologist, born at Vordenborg in 1735. studied at Gottingen and Leipsic, and became in 1779 professor of eloquence and the Latin language at Copenhagen. He published school editions of Virgil, Horace, and Phaedrus, and translated several classics into Danish. He was editor of the "University Journal " from 1793 to 1801. His Danish Grammar is highly esteemed. Died in 1804. See Kraft og NvERiJP, "Almindeligt Litteraturlexicon ;" G. L. Baden, " Bidrag til Professoren J. Baden," 1800. Baden, (Jakob Gustav Ludwig,) son of the preced- ing, born in 1764, was the author of several legal and historical works. Died in 1840. See Kraft og Nyerup, "Almindeligt Litteraturlexicon." Ba''den, (Richard de,) founder of University Hall, Cambridge, in 1326. After that building was destroyed by fire, another was erected, which is called Clare Hall. Baden, (Torkel,) a Danish philologist, born at Frede- ricksburg in 1 765, became professor of eloquence at Kiel in 1794. Died in 1804. Baden, (Torkel,) a Danish philologer, born in 1668, wrote " A Demonstration of the Affinity of the Danish and Latin Languages," (" Roma Danica, Affinitatem Lin- gua Danicas cum Romanaexhibens," 1699.) Died in 1732. Baden-Baden, bJMen ba'den, (Ludwig Wilhelm I. ,) Margrave of, a distinguished general, born in Paris in 1655. He served under Montecuccoli against the French, and in 1683 assisted Sobieski in defending Vienna against the Turks. He subsequently defeated the Turks in two engagements. He constructed the celebrated for- tifications called the lines of Stollhofen. Died in 1707. See A. ScHREiBER, "Badische Geschichte," 16:7 Baden-Baden, (Wilhelm I.,) Margrave of, a Ger- man general, born in 1593, was appointed by Ferdinand II. to command the army of the Upper Rhine, which was defeated by Gustavus Adolphus, (1631.) He made several unsuccessful attempts to unite the Catholics and Protestants, at the Diet of Ratisbon. Died in 1677. Badenius, bd-da'ne-us, (Andreas,) a German theo- logian, died in 1667. * Badenius, (Christoph,) a son of the preceding, pub- lished, in 1710, "John's Testimony to the Truth." Badens, b /dens, [Fr. pron. bt'ddN',] (Francis,) a Flemish pain sr of history and portraits, born at Ant- werp in 1571, was surnamed the Italian, from his merits as a col irist. Died in 1604. Badens, (J( hn,) a brother of the preceding, born in 1576, was a ski ful portrait-painter. Died in 1603. See Nagler, " N'eiies Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." Bader, b3.'der, (Karl Adam,) a celebrated German vocalist, born at Bamberg in 1789. Badesi, bi-da'see, (Girolamo,) an Italian poet, lived in the second half of the sixteenth century. Badessa, bd-d^s'sa, (Paolo,) an Italian poet, born at Messina, flourished about 1560. He translated the first five books of Homer's " Iliad" into Italian verse. Badg'er, (George E.,) an American statesman and jurist, born at Newbern, North Carolina, in 1795, grad- uated at Yale College in 1813. President Harrison ap- pointed him in 1841 secretary of the navy, in which office he was continued by Tyler, but resigned on the Presi- dent's vetoing the bill to recharter the United States Bank. In 1846 he was elected to the United States Senate, and was re-elected for a full term in 1848. Badger, (Joseph,) an American missionary, born at Wilbraham, Massachusetts, in 1757. Having served four years in the army, he went to Ohio,where he laboured more than thirty years as a missionary. Died in 1846. Bad'ham, (David C.,) a British physician and natu- ralist, born about 1805. He became a curate of Wymond- ham, in Norfolk, about 1846. He wrote on natural history, particularly on insects. Died in 1857. Badia, bS-dee'S, (Carlo Agostino,) an Italian com- poser of the eighteenth century, was chapel-master to Leopold I. at Vienna. C as k: 9 as g hard; g as j; g, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Ji^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) BADIA 240 BAFFIN Badia, (Carlo Francesco,) an eloquent Italian preacher, born at Ancona in 1675, became president of the University of Turin about 1730 ; died in 1751. Badia, (Tommaso,) an Italian cardinal, born at Modena about 1483, attended the Diet of Worms in 1540. Died in 1547. Badia y Leblich. See Alee Bey. Badiale, bd-de-aOi, (Alessandro,) an Italian painter and skilful engraver, born at Bologna. He is supposed to have died about 1650. Badie, de la, deh li bt'de', (Louis Augustin,) a French general, born in 1696 ; died in 1765. Badier, bS'de-4', (Jean Iitienne,) a French monk and writer, born"lu Dole in 1650; died in 1719. Badile, ba-dee'li, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian painter and admirable colorist, born at Verona in 1480. He was the uncle and preceptor of Paul Veronese, and numbered Zelotti among his pupils. Died in 1560. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Ba-di'nus or Badino, ba-dee'no, (Luigi Donato,) an Italian priest and Latin poet, born at Mondovi in 1675. Died in 1742. Badius, bt'de'iis', (Conrad,) a learned printer, born in Paris in 15 10, was a son of Jodocus, noticed below, and a brother-in-law of Robert Estienne. Having been con- verted to Calvinism, he removed in 1549 to Geneva, where he published fine editions of many works. Died about 1560. See A. F. Didot, "Essai sur I'Histoire de I'lmprimerie." Badius, b^'de^s, (Jodocus, yo-do'kus, or Josse, zhoss,) a celebrated Flemish printer and Latin poet, born in 1462, was surnamed AsCENSius, from Asche, near Brussels, his birthplace. About 1500 he established a large printing-house in Paris, called " Praelum Ascen- sianum," which issued many fine editions of the classics. Died in 1535. See La Caille, "Histoire de I'lmprimerie;" D. M. Manni, "Vita di G. Badio," 1757; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dic- tionary." Badius, biMe-oos, (Raolfo,) an Italian theologian, born at Florence, lived in the second half of the seven- teenth century. Badoaro, bS-do-S'ro, (Federigo,) an Italian diplo- matist, born in Venice in 15 18, was employed by the republic in embassies to the court of Charles V. and Philip II. In 1556 he founded at Venice the Academy della Fama. Died in 1593. Badoaro, (Giacomo,) an Italian dramatic poet of the seventeenth century, was a friend of Paolo Sarpi. Badoaro, (Giov.vnni,) an Italian cardinal and writer on theology. Died in 17 14. See "Vita del Cardinale G. Badoaro," 1766. Badoaro, (Lauro,) an Italian bishop and poet, born at Venice about 1546, wrote "Rime Spirituali," and other works. Died in 1593. Badoero. See Baduero. Badoero, ba-do-a'ro, (Pietro,) was Doge of Venice from 939 to 942 A.D., during which period the independ- ence of Venice was recognized by Berenger II. of Italy. Badolet, bt'do'l^', (Jean,) a Protestant minister, was professor ofthe humanities at Geneva about 1650. Among his works is " Anatomy of the Human Conscience," (" Conscientiae humanae Anatomia," 1659.) Badon, bt'd^N', (Edmond,) a French dramatist and novelist, wrote a "Duel under Richelieu," (1832,) and other works. He died prematurely in 1849. Badoureau, btMoo'ro', (J. F.,) a French engraver, lived in the first half of the nineteenth century. He engraved some works of Raphael and Titian. Badstiiber, bto'stiinjer, (Andrew,) a Danish jurist, born at Copenhagen in 1728; died in 1808. Baduel, h%.'dn'lV, (Claude,) a French Protestant minister, born at Nimes in the fifteenth century. He preached at Geneva, and wrote a work to prove the utility of marriage to literary men, (1544.) Died at Geneva in 1561. Baduero, bd-doo-a'ro, or Badoero, (Ursus I.,) Doge of Venice from 864 to 881 A.D., defeated the Saracens. Baduero, (Ursus II.,) was elected Doge of Venice in 912, and retired to a convent in 932. Baeck. See Back, (Aeraiiam.) Baeck, bak, or Baecx, bsks, (Joachim,) a Dutch theologian, born at Utrecht in 1548; died in 1619. Baehr. See Bahr. Baehrens. See Baiirens. Baeli, bd-a'lee, (Francesco,) an Italian poet and anti- quary, born at Milazzo, in Sicily, in 1639; died in 171c. Baena, ba-a^iS, (Antonio Ladislau Monteiro — mon-ta''_e-ro, ) a Portuguese historian and geographer, served "in Brazil as officer in the army. He wrote some valuable works, one entitled " Chorographic Essay on the Province of Para," (" Ensaio corografico sobre a Provincia do Para," 1839.) Died about 185 1. Baer. See Bar. Baer.bt'aiR', [Ger. pron. bSR,] (Frederic Charles,) a French Protestant professor of theology, and miscel- laneous writer, born at Strasburg in 1719 ; died in 1797. Baerebistes,ber-e-bis'tfez, or Berebistes, [Fr. B6re- BISTE, bi'ra'b^st',] a king of the Dacians about 40-20 B.C., drove the Sarmatians beyond the Dnieper, and rendered Thrace and Macedonia tributary to his kingdom. Baerle.van, vtn bSr^leh, [Lat. Barl/e'us ; Fr. Bar- L^E, btR^iy,] (Gaspard,) a Dutch theologian and dis- tinguished Latin poet, born at Antwerp in 1584. He was professor of logic at Leyden in 161 7, and obtained the chair of philosophy and eloquence at Amsterdam about 1633. Besides numerous Latin poems and orations, he was the author of a valuable " History of Brazil under Maurice of Nassau." He was also engaged in the de- fence of Arminius against the Gomarists. Died in 1648. See CoRViNUS, "Oraison funebre de G. Baerle." Baerle, van, [Lat. Barl^'us,] (Melchior,) an uncle of the preceding, born at Antwerp, lived between 1550 and 1600. He wrote several Latin poems. Baermann. See Barmann. Baersdorp, van, vtn bsRs'doRp, (Cornelis,) a Dutch physician and medical writer of the sixteenth cen- tury, was first physician to Charles V., who also made him his chamberlain and a councillor of state. Died in 1565- See Mersseman, " Notice sur C. van Baersdorp," 1S44 BaersiuiS, bSr'se-us, or Bek'en-stil, a Dutch mathe- matician of the sixteenth century, was a resident of Louvain. He wrote " Tables of the Latitudes and Lon- gitudes of the Planets." Baerstrat, bar'strat, a Dutch marine painter of the seventeenth century. Died in 1687. Baert, bS'aiR' or b^Rt, (Alexandre Balthasar Francois de Paule--deh pol,) Baron of, a French geographer and statesman, born at Dunkirk about 1750. He became a member of the Legislative Assembly, (1791,) and of the Chamber of Deputies, (1815.) Among his principal works is his " Picture of Great Britain, Ireland, and the English Possessions," (1800,) which was highly esteemed by Napoleon. Died in 1825. See Querard, "La France Litteraire." Baert, [Lat. Baer'tius,] (Francis,) a Flemish Jes- uit, born at Ypres in 165 1, wrote a " Commentary on the Life of Saint Basil," and was a contributor to the "Acta Sanctorum." Died in 17 19. Baeumer. See Baumer. Baeza, de, di bS-a'tha, (Diego,) a Spanish theologian, born in Galicia in 1582 ; died in 1647. Baf, Saint. See Bavo, Saint. Baffa, hM'^\, or Baffi, bSffee, (Francesca,) an Italian poetess of the sixteenth century, resided at Venice. Baffi, bSf fee, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian ecclesiastic, published a number of Latin orations. Died at Milan about 1578. Baffi, (Giovanni Battlsta,) an Italian poet and phy- sician, born at Perugia; died in 1596. Baffi or Baffo, bif fo, [Lat. Baf'fus,] (Lucullo,) an Italian poet and physician, born at Perugia; died about 1622. Baffin, (William,) a celebrated English navigator, born about 1580. He made three successive voyages to the Arctic regions in 1612, 161 5, and 1616, and, during the last, discovered the large bay between Greenland and British America, since called by his name. In his ac- count of his voyage in 1612 is first given a method for determining the longitude at sea by an observation of a, e, T, 5, u, y, lottg; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obsacre; fSr, fill, fit; mgt; n6t; good; moon; BAFFO 241 BAG inn the heavenly bodies. Baffin was killed at the siege of Ormuz while fighting against the Portuguese, in 1622. Baffo. See Baffi. Baffo, Mf fo, surnamedTHE Pure, a beautiful Venetian lady, who, being captured by pirates in 1580, was sold as a slave to Amurath III. She subsequently became his sultana, and exercised great influence over him and his successor, Mahomet III. Baffo, (Giorgio,) a Venetian of the eighteenth cen- tury, of the same family as the preceding, was called the most licentious poet of his time. Died in 1768. See TiPALDO, "Biografia degli Italian! illustri." Bafor, von, fon bi'for, (Balthasar,) a German di- plomatist of the sixteenth century, was counsellor of state under the emperors Rudolf, Matthias, and Ferdi- nand. Died in 1620. Bagaeus, bc^-jee'us, a Persian general of cavalry, de- feated Agesilaus the Spartan, near Dascylium, in 396 B.C. Bagard, bt'gSR^ (Cesar,) a French sculptor, born at Nancy in 1639. Among his principal works is a bust of Louis XIV. Died in 1709. Bagarotto, bd-g^-rot'to, or Bagarato, b^-gS-ri'to, an Italian jurist and legal writer of the thirteenth cen- turv, was a native of Bologna. Died about 1242. 6agarris, de, deh bt''gt''ress'', (Pierre Antoine Rascas — rts'kcV,) Sieur, a French antiquary and col- lector of medals, lived about 1600. He received in 1608 from Henry IV. the title of " Maitre des cabinets, medailles," etc. ' Bagatti, ba-gSt'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian com- poser, who was court organist at Milan about 16 10. Bag'by, (Arthur P.,) an American Senator, born in Virginia in 1794. He settled in Alabama about 181 8, and represented that State in the Senate of the United States from 1842 to 1849. Died in 1858. Bagd-ed-Deeii or Bagdeddin, bagd'ed-deen^ (Mo- hammed,) an Arabian mathematician of the tenth cen- tury, wrote, among other works, a "Treatise on the Divi- sion of the Superficies," which was translated into Latin oy John Dee. Bage, (Robert,) an English novelist, born at Derby in 1728. Among his works we may mention " Barham Downs," "The Fair Syrian," and "James Wallace." His life has been written by Sir Walter Scott. Died in 1801. See Scott, "Miscellaneous Prose Works ;" William Hutton, " Memoirs of Robert Bage," 1802. Bagelaar, b.Vgeh-lSR^, (Ernest Willem,) a Dutch designer and engraver, born in 1775; died at Ghent in 1836. Baget, bt'zhi', (Henri Jean,) a French anatomist of the eighteenth century, was the author of a valuable "Treatise on Osteology," (1731.) Baget, de, deh bi'zh^', (Jean Chevalier,) a French general, born in 1743; died in 1821. Bagetti, ba-jet'tee, or Baggetti, bld-jet'tee, (Giu- seppe Pietro,) an Italian landscape-painter, born at Turin in 1764; died in 1831. Bag'fprd, (John,) an English antiquary, born in Lon- don in 1651, made a valuable collection of ancient books and manuscripts for the libraries of Bishop Moore and the Earl of Oxford. Died in 1716. Baggaert, big'gSrt, (Jan,) a Dutch physician, born at Flushing about 1657, was the author of treatises on smallpox, measles, and scurvy. Died in 1710. See Van der Linden, "De Scriptoribus Medicis." Bagge, bag'ggh, (Jakob,) a Swedish admiral, born in the province of Aland in 1499. He served against the Russians in 1555, and afterwards defeated the Danes at Bornholm, but in 1564 was captured by them, and sub- sequently died in prison. See Geyer, " Histoire de la Suede." Bagge, von, fon bdg'geh, (Karl Ernst,) Baron, a German amateur musician of the eighteenth century, was chamberlain to the King of Prussia. He is the subject of one of Hoffmann's tales. Died in 1791. .See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Bagger, bdg'ger, (John,) a learned Lutheran, Bishop of Copenhagen, born in Holstein in 1646. He was a violent opponent of the Calvinists and Huguenots, and used his influence to prevent the Danish government from giving an asylum to the latter. Died in 1693. Bagger, (Karl Christian,) a Danish poet, born in 1807. Among his principal works is a tale entitled "My Brother's Life." Died in 1846. Bag'ge-sen, (or bio'ceh-sen,) (Jens Immanuel,) a celebrated Danish poet, born at Korsor, in Zealand, in 1764. In 1789 he visited Germany, France, and Switzer- land, and while at Bern married the granddaughter of the illustrious Haller. Having become thoroughly versed in German literature and acquired the friendship of several eminent German writers, he wrote a number of his prin- cipal works in that language, and made Klopstock, Voss, and Wieland his models. His "Comic Tales," ("Co- miske Fortallinger,") in Danish, published in 1785, were very well received, and in 1808 he brought out a collection of German poems, entitled " Heath-Flowers," (" Haide- blumen.") His " Parthenais, or the Alpine Journey," in German, (1812,) is an epic idyll in hexameter verse, and is esteemed one of his finest productions. In 1811 Baggesen was appointed professor of the Danish lan- guage and literature at Kiel. Among his other works may be mentioned his " Labyrinthen, or Wanderings of a Poet in Europe," (4 vols., 1792,) a memoir of his own early life, written in Danish prose, and "Adam and Eve," a humorous epic, (1826.) Died in Hamburg in 1826. See D. Fricke, " In Memoriam J. J. Baggesen," (1827;) Long- fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Howitt, " Literatnre and Romance of Northern Europe," 1852; August Baggesen, "J. Kaggesen's Biographie udarbeitet vornemmeligen after han"? ague Haandskrifter," 2 vols. 8vn, 1S42-43 ; Michel Berr, "Notice siir Baggesen, poete Danois," Paris, 1805. Baggetti. See Bagetti. Bagieu, bt'zhe-uh', (Jacques,) a French writer on surgery, lived about 1750. Baglione, b.\l-yo'ni, or Baglioni, bSl-yo'n<'e, (Cf,- sake,) an Italian painter of landscapes, fruits, and flowers, born at Bologna about 1525. Died in 1590. See Lakzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Baglione, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, born at Rome about 1573, was patronized by Pope Paul V. His works in fresco and oil enjoyed a high reputation in his time. Lfe was the author of a valuable work entitled "Lives of Painters, Sculptors, and Architects from 1573 to 1642." He worked mostly in Rome. Died about 1650. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Baglioni. See Baglione. Baglioni, bc^l-yo'nee, (Astorre,) a relative of Gian Paolo, noticed below, served under Charles V. in the war of Tunis, and was afterwards made governor of Famagosta, in Cyprus, by the Venetians. After a brave defence of that city against the Turks in 1570, he was forced to capitulate, and was executed by order of Mus- tafa Pasha in 1571. See Daru, " Histoire de Venise." Baglioni, (Gian Paolo,) an Italian soldier, of a noble family, born in the fifteenth century, rose to be sovereign of Perugia. In 1520 he was summoned to Rome and executed by order of Leo X., who then took his posses- sions. Baglioni, bil-yo'nee,~ (Lelio,) a Florentine professor of theology. Died in 1620. Baglioni, (Malatesta,) son of Gian Paolo, noticed above, became governor of Perugia, but was deprived of his power by the allied army of the pope and emperor in 1529. Died in 1531. Baglivi, bdl-yee'vee, (Giorgio,) an Italian physician, born at Ragusa in 1669. In 1692 he studied under the celebrated anatomist Malpighi, and was afterwards ap- pointed professor of anatomy and medicine at the Col- lege di Sapienza, at Rome. He was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1698. His complete works were published in 1704, under the title of " Opera omnia Medico-practica," and often reprinted. Baglivi is regarded as the founder of the system of soUdism, as opposed to the previous theories, which maintained that in diseases the fluids of the body are the first to be affected. He had a wide reputation as a medical writer. Died in Rome in 1707. See Fabroni, "Vitje Italorum doctrina excellentium," etc.; Fi- LiPPO Ferrario, "Delia Vita e delle Opere di G. Baglivi," 1839. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Vi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (gi^^See Explanations^, p. 23.) 16 BAGNACAVALLO BAIAN Bagnacavallo, ban-ya-ka-va/lo, (Bartolommeo,) originally Bartolommeo Ramenghi, (ra-mCn^gee,) the greatest painter of the Bolognese school, born near Bo- logna in 14S4. He was a pupil of Raphael, whom he assisted in the decoration of the Vatican. Among his master-pieces are a "Virgin and Child with Saint John," and "The Coronation of Charles V. at Bologna." His works were admired and studied by Guido and the Caracci, Died in 1542. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Bagnacavallo, (Bartolommeo,) the Younger, a nephew of the preceding, was a skilful painter of archi- tecture and ornaments. Bagnacavallo, (Giovanni Battista,) a painter, was a son of Bartolommeo the Elder. He worked with Primaticcio in France. Died in 1601. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Bagnara, da, da bdn-yi^ra, (Pietro,) a painter of the Roman school, and a pupil of Raphael, worked about 1 550. Bagnasco, ban-yas'ko, or Bagna Sacco, b3n'ya sSk^vO, (Antonio,) an Italian jurist of the sixteenth cen- tury, was the author of a treatise "On the Succession of the Kingdom of Gaul, "("De Successione Regni Gallia^.") Bagnoii, ban'yo-lee, or Bagnioli, ban-ye-o'lee or bdn-yo'lee, (GiULio Cesare,) an eminent Italian poet, born at or near Ferrara, wrote " The Judgment of Paris," and other works. Died about 1630. Bagnolino, bin-yo-lee'no, (Girolamo,) an Italian poet, lived about 1520-40. Bagnolo, bAn-'yo-lo, (Gian Francesco Giuseppe,) Count, an Italian jurist and mathematician, born at Turin in 1709. His principal work is an "Explanation of the Tables of Gubbio," (1748.) Died in 1760. Bagnuolo, bin-yoo-o'lo. Count, an Italian general, born in the kingdom of Naples. He commanded an army for Philip H. in Brazil, and opposed Maurice of Nassau with success in 1638. Ba-go'as, [Gr. Baywaf,] a Persian eunuch and soldier under Artaxerxes Ochus, said to have been a native of Egypt. Jn 338 B.C. he poisoned the king and his sons, with the exception of Arses, whom he raised to the throne. Having subsequently put him to death, and made Darius Codomaimus king in his stead, Bagoas was beized by the latter, and executed about 336 B.C. Ba-go'as Ca'rus, a favourite of Herod the Great, conspired against that king, and was put to death. Bagolino, b^-go-lee^no, (Giovanni Battista,) a learned Italian physician of Verona, lived about 1580. Bagolino, (Girolamo,) a learned Italian physician of the sixteenth century, was a native of Verona. He wrote a number of medical and philosophical treatises. Bagolino, (Sehastiano,) an Italian poet and painter, born at Alcamo, in Sicily, in 1560; died in 1604. Ba-goph'a-nes, a Persian general, commanded the citadel of Babylon, which he surrendered to Alexander the Great, with the royal treasure, in 331 B.C. Bag''ot, (Sir Charles,) an English diplomatist, son of William, Lord Bagot, born in 1781. He was suc- cessively minister to France, (1814,) ambassador to Saint Petersburg, (1820,) and to Holland, (1824.) He after- wards succeeded Lord Sydenham as Governor-General of Canada, where he died in 1843. Bagot, bt'go^ (Jean,) a French Jesuit and writer, born at Rennes in 1580, was engaged in the controversy with the Port-Royalists. Died 'in 1664. Bagot, (Lewis,) an English prelate, born in 1740, was successively Bishop of Bristol, of Norwich, and of Saint Asaph. He wrote " Sermons on the Prophecies." Died in 1802. Bagot, (Richard,) brother of the preceding, born in 1782, became Bishop of Oxford in 1829, and of Bath and Wells in 1845. was an adherent of Dr. Pusey. Died in 1854. Bagration, ba-gra'shon, [Russ. pron. ba-GRa-te-in',] (Peter,) Prince, a celebrated Russian general, of the Georgian family of the Bagradites, born about 1765. He served under Suwarrow in the cami:)aigns of Italy and Switzerland, and was everywhere consj^icuous for his impetuous and unyielding courage. lie commanded the van-guard under Kootoosov in the Austrian cam- paign of 1805, and on the i6th of November successfully opposed the greatly superior force of Murat and Lannes, ; thus allowing Kootoosov, with the main army, to reach Znaim in safety. Being appointed lieutenant-general soon after, he commanded the van-guard under Liech- tenstein at Austerlitz, and displayed the greatest bravery and skill in the subsequent engagements of Eylau and Friedland. After having several times defeated the Swedes and the Turks, he was mortally wounded at the battle of Borodino, in 1812. See Segur, " Histoire de Napoleon et de la Grande Armee." Bag'shaw, (Christopher,) an English scholar and theologian, born in Derbyshire ; died about 1626. See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." Bagshaw, (Edward,) an English lawyer of the sev- enteenth century, was elected to the Long Parliament in 1640, and distinguished himself by his opposition to the cause of the king and of episcopacy. He wrote, among other works, " The Right of the Crown of England as established by Law." Died in 1662. See Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses." Bagshaw, (Henry,) an English divine, son of the preceding, born in 1632, was chaplain to the Earl of Danby. He was the author of " Discourses against Pa- pists and Socinians." Died in 1709. Bagshaw, (William,) an English nonconformist di- vine and theological v/riter ; died in 1703. Bagutti, ba-goot'tec, (Pietro Martire,) an Italian sculptor, lived at Bologna about 17S0-90. Bag^well, (William,) an English astroj-iomer, who wrote "The Mystery of Astronomy made phiin," (1673.) Bahadar- or Baliadur-Shali. See Beii ad ar-Sii ' ii. Baharam-Kooree, (or Curi,) bdh^a-r^m koo'ree. Sul- tan of Persia, reigned in the first half of the fifth centurv. Bahier, bS'e-a' or bS'ya^, (Jean,) a French ecclesias- tic and Latin poet ; died in 1 707. Bahil, bo^heK, (Mat rut as,) a Hungarian theologian, lived in the second half of the eighteenth century. Bahn, ban, (Jerome,) a German theologian, born at Hamburg; died in 1744. Bahn, (Nicolas,) a German writer on theology, born in 1664 ; died in 1704. Bahnsen, bSn'sen, (Benedict,) a German mystic, horn in Holstein, lived about 1660-90. Bahr or Baehr, baR, (Johann Christian Felix,) a distinguished German scholar, born at Darmstadt in June, 179S, studied at Heidelberg, where in 1826 he became professor of classical literature, liis " History of Roman Literatin-e" (2 vols., 1828) is esteemed a stand- ard work. Lie published editions of the "Alcibiades" of Plutarch, and other class.ics, and made numerous con- tributions to Ersch und Gruber's " Encyklopaedie," and to other publications. Among his other productions is a valuable edition of the works relating to Herodotus, (4 vols., 1832.) Bahr became chief librarian at Heidel- berg in 1833, and has since been created aulic councillor. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Bahr, baR, (Joseph Friedrich,) a German Protestant bishop, and writer on theology, was born in 1713. He preached at Schonfeld and other places. Died in 1775. Bahrdt, baRt, (Karl Friedrich,) a German Protest- ant theologian, born at Bischofswerda in 1741. He was successively professor of Biblical philology at Leipsic, and of philosophy at Erfurt, but was obliged to give up these offices on account of his profligacy and his bold criticisms on the Bible. Lie published, among other deistical works, " Letters on the Bible in a Popular Style." Died in 1792. See his Autobiography, " Geschichte meines Lebens und meiner Schicksale," 4 vols., 1790: Ersch und Gruber, " All-jemeine Enc^'- klopaedie ;" D. Pott, " Leben und Schicksale C. F. Bahrdts," 1790. Bahrens or Baehrens, barrens, (J. E. F.,) a German writer on agriculture, born in 1760 ; died in 1830. Bai, bT, or Bais, bc^'ess, (Tommaso,) an Italian com- poser, born at or near Bologna, was master of the chapel of the Vatican. He composed a MisercTe, which is much admired. Died in 17 14. See Fetis, " Blographie Universelle des Musiciens." Baian, bT-an', written also Baion, [Lat. Baia'nus,] (Andrew,) an Indian convert to Christianity, born at a, e, 1, 0, % y, lojig; h, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/io;^i!; a, C; j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; BAIARDI 243 BAILIES Goa, was ordained a priest at Rome about 1635. He translated the " ^Eneid" into Greek verse, and the " Lu- siad" of Camoens into Latin verse. See Chacdon et Delaxdine, " Diclionnaire Historique." Baiardi. See Bajardi. Baiardi, ba-yaR^dee, or Baiardo, bd-yaR'do, (Otta- v'lo Antonio,)" an Italian antiquary, born about i6go, was the author of a work entitled " Prodromus of the An- tiquities of Herculaneum," (1742.) Died about 1765. Baidii-Khan, biMoo-kln, called also Eaidu-Ogul, a Tartar or Mongol king of the race of Jengis Khan, died in 1294, after a reign of eight months. Baisr, bl^er, (Johann David,) a German theologian, born at Jena in 168 1, was a son of Johann Wilhelm the elder, noticed below. Died at Altdorf in 1752. Baier, (Johann Jacob,) a German physician and nat- uralist, brother of the preceding, born at Jena in 1677. He wrote a number of scientiiic and medical treatises, (in Latin.) Died in 1735. See "AUgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon," Supplement. Baier, (Johann Wilhelm,) a German Lutheran theo- logian, born in 1647, became professor at Halle, (1694.) He was the author of a "Compendium of Theology," (1686,) and other works. Died in 1695. Baier, (Johann Wilhelm,) a theologian and natural- ist, born at Jena about 1676, was a son of the preceding. He wrote a "Dissertation on the Fossil Monuments of the Universal Deluge," ("Disputatio de Fossilibus Di- luvii universi Monumentis," 17 12.) Died in 1729. Baif, de, deh bt'ef , (Jean Antoine,) a French litte- rateur, son of Lazare, noticed below, born at Venice in 1532, was an intimate friend of the poet Ronsard. He was the author of sonnets and various other poems. He was one ^ seven poets called the " Pleiade," and was the repul^ founder of the first literary society in France. Died in 1589. See Lo-VGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetr}- of Europe;" Sainte- Beuve, "Tableau de la Poesie Frangaise au seizieme Siecle." Baif, de, (Lazare,) a French diplomatist and learned writer of the sixteenth century, born near La Fleche, in Anjou, was a counsellor of Francis L He translated the " Electra" of Sophocles and the " Hecuba" of Eurip.i- des into French verse, and wrote, among other works, in Latin, a treatise "On Naval Affairs." Died in 1547. See La Croix DU Maine et Duverdier," Cibliotheque Fian^aise." Bail, bSI or bt'ye, (Charles Joseph,) a French wri- ter and officer, born at Bethune in 1777, served in the Belgian war of 1793. He was the author of "Statistics of the Kingdom of Westphalia," esteemed one of the best works of the kind, a work "On the Jews in the Nineteenth Century," and several other treatises. He also edited " Bernadotte's Correspondence Avith Napo- leon," (1819.) Died in 1827. See Querakd, "La France Litteraire." Bail, (Louis,) a French theologian of the sixteenth century, born at Abbeville, was a doctor of the Sorbonne, and superior of the monastery of Port-Royal. He wrote a treatise " On the Benefit of the Cross," and other reli- gious works, which had considerable reputation in his time. Died in 1669. See Moreri, "Diclionnaire Historique;" Lelon'G, " Bibliotheque Frangaise." Baila, WW or b^-ce'la, (Giuseppe,) an Italian jurist, |)Orn at Monreale in 1585, died in 1645. Bailay. See Bailey. BaiFdpn, (Joseph,) an English musician and com- poser, lived about 1750-70. Bailey. See Bayi.ey. Bailey, ba'le, (Anselm,) an English theologian and writer on music; died in 1724. Bailey, ba'le, (Gamaliel,) an American journalist, distinguished as an opponent of slavery, born at Mount PI oily. New Jersey, in 1807. He was a physician in early life, removed to Cincinnati in 1831, and joined James G. Birney in 1836 as the publisher of an anti-slavery paper called "The Philanthropist." During the first year their office was twice attrxked by a molt, who threw their press into the river. In 1837 he became the sole or chief 'editor of the " Philanthropist." He removed to Washington, District of Columbia, in 1847, began to edit "The National Era," which under his judicious management exerted a considerable influence on politi- cal aftairs. Mrs. Stowe's celebrated novel "Uncle Tom's Cabin" first appeared in the columns of the "National Era." Died in 1859. Bailey, (Jacoh Whitman,) an American microscopist. born at Ward, Massachusetts, about 1808, became pro- fessor of chemistry at West Point. He wrote many treatises on infusoria, algre, etc., inserted in Silliman's "Journal of Science," and in other periodicals. He ac- quired distinction by his microscopic researches in botany and zoology, and made improvements in the construction of microscopes. Died in 1857. Bai'ley, (John,) a dissenting divine, born in Lan- cashire, England, in 1644, emigrated in 1684 to America and settled as a pastor at Boston. Died in 1697. Bai'ley, (John,) a Scotch mechanician and agricul- turist, born in the latter part of the eighteenth century. He was the inventor of a plough which he described in a treatise, afterwards translated into German, (1805.) Bailey or Bai^y, sometimes written Eailay, (Na- than or Nathaniel,) an English lexicographer and school-master at Stepney, published an Etymological English Dictionary, which is said to have formed the basis of Dr. Johnson's work, also a "Domestic Liction- ary," and other educational books. Died in 1742. Bailey, (Peter,) an English writer, born in Cheshire, was editor of a journal called "The Museum." He published "Sketches from Saint George's Fields," a humorous poem, and "A Queen's Appeal," written in the S]".enserian measure. Died in 1823. Bailey, (Philip James,) an English poet, born at Nottingham in 1816. He completed his studies at Glas- gow, and subsequently practised law for a short time. His principal poem, " Festus," published in 1839, pro- duced a great sensation. In the w'ords of a judicious critic, " its defects and merits alike gained for it imme- diate and wide success. Its subject was the highest questions of philosophy and religion, and it abounded in bold and glowing passages. Yet, unlike the ' Faust' of Goethe, which cloubtless suggested ' Festus,' its art was chaotic ; it was wildly extravagant, and often as unintel- ligible as it was fervent, and its few finely imaginative utterances have not been able to retain for the work its first popularity." He was author of two other poems, entitled "The Angel W^orld" and "The Mystic." See " P)lack\vood's Magazine" for April, iJ^oo; R. H. Horne, " New Spirit of the Age." Bailey, (Samuel,) an English writer, born at Shef- field in 1787. His "Essays on the Formation and Publi- cation of Opinions" (1820) was very favourably received, and was commended by Sir James Mackintosh. He after- wards published " Essays on the Pursuit of Truth and Progress of Knowledge," "Theory of Reasoning," and other works on mental philosophy, et-c. Died in 1870. Bailey, (TheodorUs,) an American rear-admiral, born in the State of New York about 1804, entered the navy in 1 81 8. He became a lieutenant in 1827, a commander in 1849, and captain in 1855. He was second in com- mand under Farragut in the great naval battle against the defences of New Orleans in April, 1862. He ren- dered important services in this action, and was the fore- most in entering New Orleans, having been sent by Far- ragut to demand the surrender of that city on the 25th. In November, 1S62, he was appointed commander of the Eastern Gulf Blockading Squadron. It is stated that in about one year and a half he captured more than one hundred and fifty blockade-runners. Eailey, (Thomas,) father of Philip James, noticed above, born in 1785, was the author of the "Advent of Charity," and a " History of Nottinghamshire." Died in 1856. Bailey or Baley, (Walter,) born in Dorsetshire in 1529, was appointed royal professor of medicine at Ox- ford in 1561, and was subsequently physician to Queen Elizabeth. He wrote " Directions for Health," and other works. Died in 1592. Bai'lies, (William,) a celebrated physician, of Eng- lish extraction, was emploved by Frederick the Great of Prussia. He wrote an " Essay on the Bath Waters," and other medical works. Died in 1787. See "Biographic Aledicale." e as k; q as s; g hard: g as j; o. H. k, guttural; N, 7zasal; r, trilled; s as z; ^h as in this. (2[^==See Explanations, p. 23.) BAILLARGER 2+4 B A ILLY Baillarger, bS'ytR^zhy or btl'ytR'zhi', (Jules Ga- briel Francois,) a French physician, born at Mont- bazon in 1806, was distinguished for his skill in mental maladies, on which he published several works. Bailie. See IJayle. Bailies, bt'ySs', (Jacques Marie Joseph,) Bishop of Lugon, and Vicar-General of Toulouse, born in that city in 1 798. Baillet. See Saint-Julien. Baillet,bt'y^^ (Adrien,) a French writer and scholar, born near Beauvais in 1649. His most important pro- duction is entitled "Judgments of the Learned upon the Principal Works of Authors," (Jugements des Savants," etc., 1685, 9 vols. i2mo, unfinished.) He also wrote a 'Life of Descartes," a "History of Holland from the Truce of 1609 to the Present Time," (1690,) and other , works. Died in 1706. See NiCERON, " Memoires." Baillevil. See Baliol. Bailleul, bt'yuK or bt^e-yuK, (Jacques Charles,) a French advocate, born near Havre in 1762, was a mode- rate member of the Convention in 1792, and was pro- scribed in 1793. Died in 1843. See TissoT, " £!loge de Bailleul," 1843. Bailleux, bt'yuh' or btl'yuh', (Antoine,) a French composer and professor of music at Paris, produced a number of symphonies. Died in 179 1. See Fetis, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." Baillie, ba'le, (Joanna,) one of the most eminent British female poets, was born near Glasgow in 1762. She published in 1798 the first volume of a series of " Plays on the Passions," which was very well received. Her tragedy of " The Family Legend" was brought out at JLdinburgh in 1810 with brilliant success. Sir Walter Scott having written the epilogue, and one of the prin- cipal parts having been performed by Mrs. Siddons. Among her other dramas, " De Montfort" and " Basil" enjoy perhaps the highest reputation. Besides the above- named works, she was the author of " Metrical Legends of Exalted Characters," and a number of ballads and songs of great beauty. Miss Baillie resided during the greater part of her life at Hampstead, near London, where her brother, the celebrated Matthew Baillie, was court physician. During her life, which was prolonged almost to ninety years, her house was the resort of the most distinguished persons of her own and other coun- tries. She was a very intimate friend of Sir Walter Scott, who admired her genius and highly esteemed her for her moral and social qualities. She died at Hamp- stead in 1851. "This great work," says the " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1836, referring to her " Plays on the Passions," "is then completed, and in a manner worthy of its commencement : a noble monument of the power- ful mind and the pure and elevated imagination of its author." See also "Quarterly Review," vols. xxxvii.,lv. ; "Edinburgh Re- view," vols, ii., v., xix. ; "Blackwood's Magazine" for August, 1824; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Baillie, (John,) a Scottish Orientalist, born at Inver- ness about 1770, became professor of the Arabic lan- guage and Mussulman law in the College of Fort Wil- liam, Bengal. He published several works upon Arabic grammar, which are ranked among the most valuable that have appeared on the subject. Died in 1833. Baillie, (Lady Grizel.) See Hume, (Grizel.) Baillie, (Matthew,) a celebrated physician and ana- tomist, born in Lanarkshire, Scotland, in 1761, was a brother of Joanna Baillie. He studied at the University of Glasgow, where his father, the Rev. James pjaillie, was professor of divinity. Through the influence of his maternal uncle, the eminent anatomist William Hunter, he applied himself to the study of medicine at Oxford, where he graduated in 1789, and soon after was made a member of the College of Physicians. Li 1783 he suc- ceeded Hunter as lecturer on anatomy. He became phy- sician to George HI. and the royal family about 1810, and acquired a very extensive practice in London. He was distinguished for his skill in diagnosis. His "Mor- bid Anatomy of some of the most Important Parts of the Human Body" (1795) is esteemed a standard work, and has been translated into German, French, and Ital- ian. He also wrote " Lectures and Observations on I Medicine," (1825.) He died in 1823, bequeathing to the i College of Physicians his medical library and anatomical collection. See Cn.^MBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," aTid "An Account of Baillie's Life," prefixed to his works, by James j Wakdkop. ' Baillie, [Lat, Bay'lius,] (Robert,) a Scottish theo- logian, born at Glasgow about 1602. In 1640 he was sent to London by the Scottish lords to protest against the innovations of Archbishop Laud, and was subse- quently principal of the university at Glasgow. In 1649 he was one of the commissioners charged to compliment Charles II. at the Hague in the name of the general as- sembly of the clergy. He was a man of profound learn- ing, and wrote several theological and historical works in English and in Latin. Died in 1662. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" "Westminster Review" for January, 1842. Baillie of Jerviswood, (Robert,) a Scottish patriot, eminent for ability and virtue, was identified with the party or cause of which Lord Russell and Algernon Sidney were the chiefs. He was arrested in 1684, and charged with complicity in the Rye-House plot. He was condemned without evidence, and executed in De- cember, 1684. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." BailTie, (William,) a distinguished engraver, born in Ireland about 1736, served for a time in the army, and obtained the rank of captain. His engravings after Rembrandt are greatly esteemed. See Strutt, "Dictionary of Engravers." Baillif, (Le Roche.) See Riviere, (Roche le Baillif.) Baillon, bt^yoN^ (Emmanuel,) a Frencl^aturalisl, who was a proficient in ornithology and vege^ole physi- ology. He furnished valuable information to Buffon, and wrote several works, one of which was " On the Means of counteracting the Encroachments of Moving Sands on the Sea-Coast." Died at Abbeville in 1802. See Le Bas, " Dictlonnaire encyclopedique de la France." Baillot, bt^yo^ (Pierre Marie FRANgois de Sales — deh stl,) one of the most celebrated French violinists, born at Passy in 1771, was a ]3upil of Viotti. He visited Russia, Holland, and England, where his performances obtained great applause. Died in 1842. Bailloii, de, deh bt'yoo', [Lat. Ballo'nius,] (Guil- LAUME,) a French physician, born in Paris in 1538. He was appointed by Henry IV. first physician to the Dau- phin in 1601. He was the author of several medical works of great merit, among which we may cite " Medical Counsels, in Three Books," (1649,) and "Adversaria Medicinalia." He is said to have been the first who made known the nature of the croup. Died in 16 16. See Rene Moreau, "Vita G. de Baillou Doctoris Medici," 1641 ; "Biographic Medicale ;" Sprengel, " Geschichte der Medicin." Baillu, bt'yii^or btKyli', written also Balliu and Bail- lieu, (Peter,) a Fleinish engraver of the seventeenth century, executed numerous prints after Rubens, Van Dyck, Rembrandt, and other masters. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands. ' Bailly, bt'ye' or bt'e-ye'', (Antoine,) a French in- spector-general of finances. He wrote a " Financial His- tory of France," (" Histoire financiere de la France,") a work of merit. Died in 1851. Bailly, ba'le, (David,) a Dutch painter, born at Ley- den in 1588, acquired a high reputation for his portraits drawn with a pen. See Nagler, "AUgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Bailly, (George,) a French general, born in 1685 ; died in 1759. Bailly, (Jacques,) a French painter, born at Gracay in 1629; died in 1679. Bailly, (Jacques,) a French dramatist, painter, and keeper of the royal pictures, born at Versailles in 1701. The celebrated Jean Sylvain Bailly was his son. Died in 1768. Bailly, ba'le, [Fr. pron. bt'yeM (Jean Sylvain,) an eminent French astronomer, philosopher, and elo- quent writer, was born in Paris on the 15th of Septem- ber, 1736. He was a pupil and friend of La Caille. In a, . T, u, y. /.'-v^'V h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, sAor/; a, e, i, o, obscure; fdr, fill, fdt; met; nSt; good; moon; BAILLT 245 BAINI 1763 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences, to which he had presented some lunar observations. He produced in 1766 an able "Essay on the Theory of the Satellites of Jupiter," and in 1771 a remarkable "Memoir on the Light of the Satellites of Jupiter," which light he had measured by an ingenious method. His eulogy on Leib- nitz gained the prize offered by the Academy of Berlin, and his eulogy on Moliere obtained an accessit at the French Academy. He published in 1775 the first vol- ume of his great work, "The History of Astronomy, Ancient and Modern," (4 vols., 1775-83,) which is written in a brilliant, attractive style and abounds in ingenious ideas. It obtained great popularity. He was elected to the Academic Fran9aise in 1784, and to the Academy of Liscriptions in 1785. Except Fontenelle, he was the only Frenchman who had the honour to be a member of the three great Academies of Paris. Having won the favour of the public by his probity and other virtues, he was chosen a deputy to the States- General in 1789. He was the first president of this as- sembly, over which he presided during the famous ses- sion of the Tennis-court, and was elected mayor of Paris on the i6th of July, 1789. His efforts, in concert with La Fayette, to maintain order and moderate the violence of the Revolution, were not successful. By his order, the national guard fired on a riotous crowd which had as- sembled in the Champ-de-Mars in July, 1791, for the purpose of making a demonstration against the king. This act gave great offence to the popular party. Bailly offered his resignation in September, but was persuaded to retain his oftice until November, 1791. He was arrested by the Jacobins at Melun in 1793, taken to Paris, and condemned to death in November, one of the charges against him being his part in the affair of the Champ-de-Mars. He was executed, after he had suffered many insults and refinements of cruelty, on the 1 2th of November, 1793. To one of the bystanders who said, "Bailly, you tremble," "Yes," he replied, "but it is with cold." "The name of Bailly," says La- martine, "was an inscription on the frontispiece of the Revolution. He was on a level with this destiny by his character, if not by his genius. His administration had been a series of triumphs of the people over the court. When bloody tumults began to stain the victories of the people, he spoke like a sage, and acted like a magis- trate." (" History of the Girondists.") He left Memoirs of the Revolution, ("Memoires d'un Temoin oculaire," etc., 3 vols., 1804.) See "Biographie de Bailly, "^par F. Arago, 1852; " filoge de Bailly," par Lalande, 1794; " filoge de Bailly," par Lacretelle; English version of Arago's " Biographie," Boston, 1859; " Vie privee et politique de Bailly," Paris, 1790; "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1805. Bailly, (Joseph,) a French physician, born in 1779, wrote an "Essay on Artesian Wells." Died in 1832, Bailly, (Josei'H A.,) a skilful sculptor, born at Paris in 1825, came to Philadelphia in 1850. He executed, besides other works, the groups of " Adam and Eve," " Eve and her two Children," and the monument of Washington placed (1869) in front of the State-House in Philadelphia. Bailly de Juilly, bt'ye' (or bt'e-ye') deh zhii'e-ye', (Edme Louis Barth6lemi,) a French politician, born at Troyes in 1760. He was a moderate member of the National Convention in 1792-95, and opposed the execu- tion of Louis XVI. Died in 1819. Bailly de Monthion, bfye' deh m^N^te^oN'', (Fran- cois Gedeon,) Comte, a French general, born in the Isle of Bourbon in 1776. He fought at Marengo, and gained the rank of colonel at Austerlitz, 1805. He was wounded at Waterloo, where he acted as general of divi- sion. Died in 1846. Baily, ba'le, (Edward Hodges,) an eminent English sculptor, born at Bristol about 1788. He was a pupil of Flaxman, and also studied at the Royal Academy, where he successively won the silver and the gold medals. He became an academician in 1820. Among his master- pieces in the department of classic and poetic sculpture we may mention "Eve at the Fountain," "Hercules casting Hylas into the Sea," "Psyche," "The Graces Seated," and "Eve Listening to the Voice." He has also produced statues of Earl Grey, Lord jMansfield, Nelson, and other celebrated men. Baily, (Francis,) an English astronomer, and writei on assurances, annuities, etc., born in 1774, was a mem ber of the Stock Exchange, London. He was one of the founders of the Astronomical Society of London. Among his most useful labours was the reorganization of the "Nautical Almanac," the revision of the society's catalogue of stars, and the republication in England of the catalogues of Lalande and La Caille. He also made valuable contributions to the "Memoirs of the Astro- nomical Society," and published, among other esteemed works, " The Doctrine of Life Assurances and Annui- ties," (1810.) He was the author of a "Life of Ham- steed." Died in 1844. See the "Philosophical Magazine." Baily, (Nathan.) See Bailey, (Nathan.) Baiii, (Alexander,) a distinguished Scottish writer, born at Aberdeen about 1818. He graduated at Maris- chal College, in his native town, in 1840. In i860 he be- came professor of logic in the University of Aberdeen. He has written on a great variety of subjects, including logic, psychology, etc. Bain'bridge or Bam'bridge, (Christopher,) an English prelate, born in Westmoreland about 1450, rose to be Archbishop of York in 1 508. Being afterwards sent by Henry VIII. on an embassy to Pope Julius II., he was made Cardinal of Saint Praxede by the latter. He died at Rome in 15 14, and is supposed to have been poisoned. Bainbridge, (John,) an English astronomer and physician, born at Ashby-de-la-Zouch in 1582, was first Savillian professor of astronomy at Oxford. Among his writings is a " Description of the Comet of 1618." Died in 1643. See " Biographie Medicale." Bain'bridge, (William,) an American commodore, born at Princeton, New Jersey, in 1774. He became^ captain in 1800, and took command of the frigate Phila- delphia, which, having run aground near Tripoli, was captured, with all the crew, in October, 1803, by the gun- boats of Tripoli. He was detained in captivity about nineteen months. Plaving obtained the rank of com- modore, he was appointed, in September, 181 2, com- mander of a squadron consisting of the Constitution, of forty-four guns, the Essex, and the Hornet. He cap- tured the British frigate Java, of forty-nine guns, in December, 1812, after an action in which the British loss was about one hundred and seventy-four killed and wounded, and the American loss thirty-three. After the end of the war, he commanded a fleet in the Mediter- ranean. Died in 1833. See Thomas Harris, "Life of Commodore William Bainbridge," Philadelphia, 1837. Baines, banz, (Edward,) an English journalist, born in Lancashire in 1774. He was for many years editor and proprietor of the " Leeds Mercury," in which he showed himself an able advocate of Catholic emancipa- tion and of other important reforms. He represented Leeds in Parliament from 1834 till 1841. He wrote a "History of the Reign of George III.," a "History of the County Palatine of Lancaster," (4 vols.,) and several other works. Died in 1848. See the " Life of Edward Baines," by his son, 1851. Baines, (Edward,) a son of the preceding, born at Ixeds about 1800, succeeded his father as editor of the " Leeds Mercury." He wrote a " History of the Cotton Manufacture," (1835,) and a "Life of Edward Baines," (his father, 1851.) In 1859 he was elected member of Parliament for Leeds, and was again elected in 1868. He is a decided Liberal in politics. Baines, (John,) an English mathematician, born in Yorkshire about 1786, published valuable contributions to the " Mathematical Repository," " Ladies' Diary," and other periodicals. Died in 1835. Baines, (Matthew Talbot,) an English lawyer, a son of Edward Baines, born at Leeds in 1799. He was returned to Parliament by the Liberal voters of Hull in 1847, and was president of the poor-law board from 1849 to 1855. As chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, he had a seat in the cabinet from 1855 to 1858. He repre- sented Leeds in the House of Commons. Died in 1S60. Baini, ba-ee'nee or bT''nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian I musician, born about 1775, was director of the pontifical € as 9 as s; g hard; g as G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in tJiis. (^J:^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BAINS 246 BAKER chapel at Rome. He composed a number of sacred pieces, and wrote " Historical and Critical Memoirs of the Life and Works of Palestrina," (1828.) Died in 1844. See J. Adrien de Lafage, " Notice sur J. Baini," 1S45. Bains, banz, [Fr. pron. bdx,] (Michael,) a Calvinistic divine, born in 15 13, was a deputy from Louvain to the Council of Trent. Died in 1589. Bainville, bdN^^K, (Charles,) a French painter and versifier, was a relative of l)oileau, who advised him to cultivate painting. Died in 1754. Bairaktar, bi'rak-taR'', or Beirakdar, bl^rik-daR', (Mustafa Pasha,) a Turkish officer, born in 1755. In the contest between Selim HI. and Mustafa he was the adherent of the former. After the murder of Selim by Mustafa, Bairaktar, having deposed the usurper and raised Mahmood to the throne, was made by him grand vizier. On a revolt of the janissaries, in 1808, he put an end to his life. See JucHEREAU DE Saint-Denvs, "Revolutions de Constanti- nople en 1807-1808," Paris, 1S19. Baird, bird, (Absalom,) an American general, born at Washington, Pennsylvania, in 1824, graduated at West Point in 1849. He became a captain in the regular army in 1861, and a brigadier-general of volunteers in May, 1862. Pie served at Chattanooga, November, 1863, and commanded a division of Sherman's army in the cam- paign against Atlanta in 1864. Baird, bird, (Sir David,) a distinguished general, born in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, in 1757. Having en- tered the service in India, he was made prisoner by Hyder Ali in the engagement at Peramboucum, and de- tained captive four years. After his release, he was cre- ated general of brigade about 1797, and in 1799 headed the assault on Seringapatam, which resulted in the cap- ture of that place. For this splendid achievement he received the thanks of Parliament, while Colonel Welles- ley, afterwards Duke of Wellington, was made governor of the town, though he had taken no prominent part in the assault. He accompanied Lord Cathcart to Den- mark in 1807, and afterwards served in the Spanish cam- paign, where he was severely wounded at the battle of Corunna, (1808.) He was soon after created a baronet, and obtained the order of the Bath. Died in 1829. See Theodore Hook, " Life of Sir David Baird," 1S32; Cham- bers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Baird, (Robert,) D D., an American theologian, born in Fayette county, Pennsylvania, in 1798, studied theol- ogy at Princeton, New Jersey. He took a prominent part in the organization of the system of public schools in New Jersey. In 1835 he went to Europe, where he devoted several years to the promotion of Protestant Christianity and the cause of temperance. He became the agent and secretary of the American and Foreign Christian Union. He published, besides other works, a "Visit to Northern Europe," "A View of Religion in America," (1842,) and a "History of the Waldenses, Albigenses, and Vaudois." Died in 1863. See " Life of Robert Baird," by his son, 1866. Baird, (Spencer F.,) LL.D., an eminent American naturalist, loom at Reading, Pennsylvania, in 1823, became professor of natural science in Dickinson College, and afterwards assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- tion. Besides his other labours, he has translated and edited the " Iconographic Encyclopaedia," (4 vols. 8vo, 2 vols, steel plates,) and published reports on the collec- tions in natural history made by Stansbury, Gilliss, Murcy, and others. He has also published, in coiijunction with J. Cassin, "The Birds of North America," (2 vols. 4to, i860,) and the "Mammals of North America," (i vol. 4to, 1 86 1.) He has studied, with great success, the various divisions of the vertebrata and their distribution, and has made valuable contributions to the Journal of the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia, to the pub- lications of the Smithsonian Institution, etc. Baireuth, (Frederica, Margravine ok.) See Fred- erica Sophia Wilhelmina. Bairo, bl'ro, (Piktro,) an Italian physician and medi- cal writer, born at Turin in 1468 ; died in 1558. Baiter, bl'ter, (John George,) a Swiss philologist, born at Zurich in 1801, was professor in the university of that city. He published " Oratores Attici," (1838-43,) and, in conjunction with Orelli, "The Works of Plato, (21 vols.. 1839-42.) Baithe, Wte, written also Beithe, (Stephen,) a Hungarian botanist and Protestant theologian of the sixteenth century, published several works on Botany. See Jocher, " AUgeraeines Gelehrten-Lexikon," (Supplement.) Baitz, bits, (Johann Andreas Hartmann,) a cele- brated organ-maker, born at Utrecht about 1708. Among the best may be named those of the churches of Zierik- zee, of Groningen, and of the Mennonites at Utrecht. Died in 1770. See Fetis, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." Baius, bl^is, (Jacques,) a Flemish theologian, was a nephew of Michael, noticed below. Died in 1614. Baius, ba^'yus, the Latinized name of De Bay, deh ba, (Michael,) a learned Flemish theologian, born at Melin, in Hainault, in 15 13. He was appointed by Charles V. professor of divinity at Louvain in 1551, and subsequently became chancellor of that university, and inquisitor-gen- eral of the Netherlands. Having published, about 1565, his works on free will and grace, in which he advocates the doctrines of Saint Augustine, his dogmas were de- nounced by Pope Pius V., and Baius was obliged to retract. His views were afterwards adopted by the Jan- senists. Died in 1 589. See Sweert, "Athence Belgicas ;" Bayle, "Historical and Criti- cal Dictionary." Bajardi or Baiardi, b^-yaRMee or bl-aR'dee, or Ba- jardo or Baiardo, bi-yaR^do, (Andrea,) a mediocre Italian poet, born at Parma; died after 1520. Bajardo, bi-yaRMo, (Giovanni Battista,) a .skilful Italian painter, born at Geni)a ; died prematurely in 1657. Bajazet, or Bajazid. See Bayazeed. Bajon, bt'zhoN'', a French naturalist, went to Cayenne in 1763, and practised there as surgeon for many years. He published "Memoirs towards the History of Cayenne and Guiana, etc.," (2 vols., 1778.) Bajus. See Baius. Bajza, bl'zoh, (Anton,) a Hungarian writer, born in 1804. In 1830 he succeeded Kisfaludy as editor of a lite- rary journal entitled "The Aurora." He was the author of " Lyric Poems," and several historical works. Bakacs, boh^kotch', (Thomas,) a Hungarian states- man of the fifteenth century, who rose from the condition of a peasant to be secretary of the emperor Matthias Cor- vinus. On the accession of Vladislaus II. to the throne, he was made cardinal primate of Hungary, and papal legate. He afterwards preached a crusade against the Turks, which, however, resulted in a civil war among the Hungarian nobles. Died in 1521. Bake, bi^keh, (Jan,) a Dutch philologist, born in 1787 at Leyden, where he became professor of Greek and Roman literature in 1817. His editions of Posidonius and Cleomedes (1820) are highly esteemed. He was a contributor to the " Bibliotheca Critica Nova," and wrote, in Latin, a number of philological essays of re- markable elegance. Bake, (Lauren r,) a Dutch poet, born at Amsterdam about 1650, was lord of Wulverhorst. He was the author of "Biblical Poems." Died in 1714. B^kee or B^ki, ba'kee, or Abd-el-Bakee, (-Baki,) abd-el-bi'kee, the greatest of Turkish lyric poets, born near the beginning of the sixteenth century. In genius he ranks with the Persian poet Hafiz. Died in 1600, or, according to Ersch and Gruber, in 1599. See Haimmer-Purgstall, " Geschichte der Osmanischen Dicht- kunst, bis auf unsere Zeit;" Ersch und Gruber, "Allgeraeine Ency-' klopaedie." Ba'ker, (Charles,) an English philanthropist, became in 1829 superintendent of the Yorkshire institution for the deaf and dumb at Doncaster. He contributed valu- able articles on the deaf, dumb, and blind, to the " Penny Cyclopaedia" and other publications. Baker, (David or Augustine,) a learned English Benedictine monk, born near Monmouth in 1575, made a valuable collection of documents, v/hich were afterwards used by Cressy in his "Church History," and by Reyner in his "Apostolatus Benedictinorum." Died in 1641. See Wood, "Athenje Oxonienses." Baker, (David Erskine,) an English biographical writer of the eighteenth century, was a son of Henry a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, e, i, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/io)-t; a, fe, i, o, obscure; far, fdll, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; BAKER 247 BALASSI Baker, mentioned below. His " Companion to the Play- house" forms a part of the work afterwards published with the title of "Biographia Dramatica." Died in 1774. Ba'ker, (Edward Dickinson,) Colonel, a Senator of the United States, born in England in 1811, was brought to Pennsylvania in his childhood. He studied law in Illinois, served as colonel in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) was elected to Congress in 1848, and removed to Cali- fornia in 1852. Having gained distinction as an orator of the Republican party, he was elected a Senator of the United States for Oregon in i860. He made an eloquent speech against disunion in the Senate, in answer to John C. Breckinridge. He raised a regiment in New York and Philadelphia, called the California regiment, (after- wards the Seventy-first Pennsylvania,) of which he be- came colonel, and commanded a brigade at Ball's Bluff, where he was killed in October, 1861. Baker, (CxEOFP^roy,) an English mon'k and historian of the fourteenth century. He translated into Latin the history of the reigns of Edward I. and Edward H., written originally in French by Thomas de la More. Baker, (George,) an English surgeon of the sixteenth •century, wrote "On the Nature and Properties of Quick- silver," "The Book of Distillations," and other medical works. He was surgeon-in-ordinary to Queen Elizabeth. Baker, (Sir George,) an English physician and medi- cal writer, born in Devonshire in 1722. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society, of the Society of Antiquaries, and of the Royal College of Physicians, of which he was made president in 1797. He was appointed physician- in-ordinary to George HI. Died in 1809. Baker, (Henry,) an English naturalist, born in Lon- don in 1698. About 1720 he opened a school for the instruction of the deaf and dumb, which was very suc- cessful ; but his method was kept secret. He ]:>ublished a treatise entitled "The Microscope made Easy," (1743,) and "Employment for the Microscope," (1764.) He obtained in 1744 the Copley medal for his microscopic experiments on saline particles. He had married in 1729 the daughter of the eminent novelist Defoe. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Society of Anti- quaries, and founded the Bakerian Lecture of the Royal Society. Died in 1774. See " Biographia Briiannica." Baker, (Humi'HREY,) an English mathematician, pub- lished an arithmetical work entitled "The Well-Spring of Sciences," (1562,) which was esteemed at the time. Baker, (John,) an iMiglish admiral under the reign of Queen Anne and George I., distinguished himself in the expedition against the French which resulted in the capture of Gibraltar, (1704.) He was afterwards em- ploved in several important missions. Died in 1716. Baker, (Sir John,) an English statesman under Henry VIII., Edward VI., and Mary, rose to be chancellor of the exchequer in 1545. As one of the privy council, he signalized himself by his lefusal to sign the bill of Ed- ward VI. excluding his sisters Mary and Elizabeth from the throne. Died in 1558. Baker, (Osman C.,) an American bishop, born at Marlow, New Hampshire, in 1812. He became a pro- fessor in the Methodist Biblical Institute in 1847, ^i^d a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1852. Baker, (Richard,) an English mathematician, wrote a work entitled "An Idea of Arithmetic," (1655.) Baker, (Sir Richard,) an English historian, born about 1568, was the author of a "Chronicle of the Kings of England," which had great popularity in its time. It was composed during the author's residence of more than twenty years in Fleet prison, where he had been confined for debt. Died in 1644. See Wood, "Athens Oxonienses." Baker, (Robert,) an English physician of the latter part of the seventeenth century, was the author of a treatise on the bones, entitled " tursus Osteologicus." Baker, (Sir Samuel White,) an English traveller, born in 1 82 1. He explored in 1861-64 the region lying around the sources of the White Nile. He published accounts of his explorations, entitled "The Albert N'yanza, Great Basin of the Nile," etc., (1866,) and "The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia," (1867,) besides various other works. He was knighted in November, 1866. Baker, (Thomas,) an English mathematician, born in 1625, was the author of "The Geometrical Key; or the Gata of Equations unlocked," (1684.) Died in 1690 Baker, (Th(;mas,) an English antiquary, born near Durham in 1656. He is principally known from his valua- ble manuscript collections on the history and antiquities of the University of Cambridge, which comprise in all thirty-nine volumes folio. He also rendered important as- sistance to Bishop Burnet, Dr. Conyers Middleton. and other contemporary writers, in their works. Died in 1740. See Masters, " Memoirs of the Life of Thomas Baker," 17S4. Baker, (William,) an English printer, born in 1742, wrote " Peregrinations of the Mind, by the Rationalist," (1770,) and "Remarks on the English Language." Bake''well, (Robert,) an English agriculturist, born in Leicestershire about 1726. He is celebrated for the improvements he introduced into stock, the principal of which are the long-horned breed of cattle and the sheep called by his name. Died in 1795. Bakhtishwa, baK'tish'wa, a Nestorian of the eighth century, was physician to Haroun-al-Raschid. Being unable to cure the calii)h in his last illness, he was or- dered by the latter to be put to death ; but the death of the sovereign prevented the execution of the order. Bakhuysen. See Backhuysen. Baki or Abd-el-E^ki. See Bakee. Bakker, bak'ker, (Gerbrand, HeR'bR^nt,) a Dutch physician, and professor of anatomy and physiology at Groningen, born at Enkhuisen in 1771. He wrote a treatise, in Dutch, " On Animal Magnetism," and other works in Latin. Died in 1828. See La Faille, "Hulde aan de Nagedachtenis van G. Bakker," 1828. Bakker, (Peter Huizinga — hoi-zing'na,) a Dutch poet, born about 1 718. He wrote "Satires against the English," a poeni on the inundation of 1740, etc. Died in 1801. See Wagenaar, " Notice sur Bakker." Bakon. See Bacon, (Roger.) Baksai, bok'shl', (Abraham,) a Hungarian jurist and historian of the sixteenth century, wrote, in Latin, a "Chronology of the Dukes and Kings of Hungary." Balaam, ba-la-am or ba'lam, [Heb. D>'S3j] ^ famous Oriental seer, lived about 1490 B.C. (See Numbers xxii., xxiii., and xxiv.) Baiadori. See Beladori. Balaeus. See Bale. Balamio, bi-ld-mee'o, or Bal'amy, (Ferdinand,) physician to Pope Leo X., was a native of Sicily. He translated into Latin several works of Galen. See Van dkr Linden, "De Scriptoribiis Medicls." Balanzac, de, deh bt'16N^ztk', (Francois de Bre- mond — deh breh-moN',) Baron, a French Calvinist and Protestant leader, who fought with distinction under Henry of Navarre, in the battles of Jarnac, Coutras, etc. See Sully, "Menioires;" Anseljvie, " Histoire des grands Offi- ciers de la Couronne." Balarama, (Balarama,) commonly pronounced buK- a-r§,'ma, [from bala, "strength," and rama, "beautiful," "pleasing," denoting perhaps a union of beauty and strength,] the name of a famous Hindoo warrior, the elder brother of Krishna, whom he assisted in his wars. He is regarded as an incarnation of Vishnu. See Moor's " Hindu Pantheon." Balard, bi'ltR', (Antoine Jerome,) a French che- mist, born at Montpellier in 1802, discovered in 1826 the substance called bromium. He became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1844, and in 1851 professor of chemistry in the College of P^rance. He was a con- tributor to the "Annales de Chimie et de Physique." Balard, (Marie Fran^oise Jacquete Alby,) a French poetess, born at Castres in 1776; died in 1822. See QuERAKD, "La France Litteraire." Ba-las'sa, (or boKosh-shoh,) (Valentine,) Count a Hungarian nobleman of the sixteenth century, wro^c Latin poems, and a number of popular lyrics in Hunga- rian. He was killed in 1594, at the storming of Gian. See HoRANYi, " Memoria Himgarorum." Balassi, ba-]as''see, (Mario,) a Florentine painter, born in 1604; died in 1667. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." € as k; g as s; g kard; g as /; G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; t-h as in this. (iJ^^See Explanations, p. 2 -^.\ BALE AN 248 BALBOA Balban-G3ias-ed-Deen, or Balban-Gheias-ed- din, bdl biia gT''as ed-deen', King of Delhi, rose from an obscure position to be vizier of Nasir-ed-Deen-Mahmood, whom he succeeded in 1265. Balban was a man of ability, and was celebrated for the splendour of his court, and for his generosity. His name is sometimes written Bulb UN, according to the common Hindoo pronuncia- tion. He died in 1286, and was succeeded by Kai-Kobad. Sei Ferishta, "History of the Mahomedan Power in India," translated by General Bkiggs. Balbastre, biKbtstr', (Claude Louis,) a celebrated French organist, born at Dijon in 1729, was a pupil and friend of Rameau. He was chiefly distinguished for his great skill as a performer. By substituting the piano for the harpsichord, he effected a revolution in this de- partment of music. Died in 1799. See Feti ■, "Biographic Unlverselle des Musiciens." Balbe, the French of Balbo, which see. Balbi, baKbee, (Adriano,) an eminent geographer, born at Venice in 1782. Having visited Portugal in 1820, he obtained materials for his "Statistical Essay on the Kingdom of Portugal and Algarve compared with other States of Europe," (in French, 2 vols., 1822.) He brought out in Paris in 1826 the first volume of his " Eth- nographical Atlas of the Globe, or Classification of An- cient and Modern Nations according to their Language," (in folio.) This work, in which he has drawn inform- ation from the writings of Humboldt, Champollion, Adelung, and other savants, is ranked among the most valuable productions of its kind. He also published a "Compendium of Geography," ("Abrege de Geogra- phic," I vol. 8vo,) which has been translated into the principal European languages and is esteemed one of the very best works on geographical science. His works are written in French. He resided many years in Paris, which he quitted in 1 832. Died in 1848. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" Brockhaus, " Conversa- tions-Lexikon." Balbi, (DoMENico,) an Italian dramatist of the seven- teenth century, was a resident of Venice. Balbi, (Gasparo,) a celebrated Venetian traveller and merchant, lived in the latter half of the sixteenth cen- tury. He visited India, where he spent nearly ten years, and published, in 1590, "Travels in the East Indies," an interesting and valuable work. See GiNGUENE, "Histoire Litt^raire d'ltalie." Balbi, (Giovanni,) a Dominican monk of the thir- teenth century, sometimes called Januensis, was born at Genoa, in Italy. He was the author of a kind of en- cyclopaedia, entitled " Catholicon," treating of theology, natural history, and other branches of knowledge. It was one of the first works printed by Faust and Schaeffer ; the original edition is dated at Mentz, 1460. See Altamura, " BIbHotheca Ordinis Prasdicatorum." Balbi or Balbo, bil'bo, (Girolamo,) a Venetian ec- clesiastic and scholar, born in the fifteenth century, was a pupil of Pomponio Leto. He was successively professor of belles-lettres at the University of Paris, and of German law at Vienna. Having been made Bishop of Goritz, in Carinthia, he assisted at the coronation of Charles V., on which occasion he wrote a treatise " On the Corona- tion of Princes." Died in 1535. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Balbi, [Lat. Bal'bus,] (Pietro,) an Italian prelate and writer of the fifteenth century, was a relative of .(^^neas Sylvius, afterwards Pope Pius II., under whom he became Bishop of Tropea. Died in 1479. Balbi, de, deh blKbe', La Comtesse, born in 1753, was a favourite or confidante of the Count of Provence before he became King Louis XVlII. She was discarded about 1792. Died in 1836. Balbian, van, vtn bdKbe-an, (Just,) a Dutch physi- cian, born at Alost, was the author of a work which was translated into Italian under the title of " II Specchio della Chimia," ("The Mirror of Chemistry.") Died in 1616. See HoEFER, " Histoire de la Chimie." Balbin. See Balbinus. Balbin, bal-b6n^ or Balbino, bai-bee'no, (Paolo,) an Italian philosopher and poet, became professor of medi- cine at Bologna about 1724. Bal-bi'nus, (Aloysiuc Boleslaus,) a B )hcmian Jes- uit and historian, born at Koniggratz about luii. He wrote, in Latin, an " Epitome of Bohemian History," and " Historical Miscellanies of the Kingdom of Bohemia." Died in 1688 or 1689. See Stanislaus Wydra, " Leben A. B. Balbinus," 1788. Bal-bi'nus, [Fr. Balbin, btKb^N',] (Decimus C/E- Lius,) a Roman senator who, in conjunction with Maxi- mus, was proclaimed emperor in opposition to Maximi- nus. The praetorian guards, dissatisfied with the new emperors elected by the senate, seized them in their palace, and, having put them to death, proclaimed Gor- dianus emperor, 238 A.D. See Julius Capitolinus, "Vita Balbini;" Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Balbis, biKbis or biFb^ss, (Giambattista,) an Italian botanist, born in Piedmont in 1765, succeeded Allioni as professor of botany at Turin in 1800, and in 1819 filled the same chair at Lyons. In conjunction with his friend Nocca, he published the " Flora Ticinen- sis." Died in 1831. Balbis, (Silvio,) an Italian litterateur, born at Ca- raglia, in Piedmont, in 1737, wrote, among other works, a poetical paraphrase on the prophet Nahum. Died in 1 796. Balbo, baKbo, (Cesare,) an Italian writer and states- man, born at Turin in 1789, was appointed by Napoleon, in 1 81 2, commissioner of the Illyrian provinces. In 1843 published a work entitled " Plopes of Italy," (" Speranze dTtalia,") which created a great sensation and obtained extensive popularity. In 1848 he was an earnest advocate of the moderate party and the admin- istration of D'Azeglio, and contributed a number of able articles to the Turin journal "II Risorgimento." His " History of Italy from the Beginning till 18 14," published in 1849, is a work of superior merit. Balbo also trans- lated from the German, into Italian, Leo's " Exposition of the Constitutions of the Lombard States." Died in 1853. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Balbo, (Girolamo.) See Balbl Balbo, [Fr. Balbe, btlb,] (Prospero,) Count of, a Sardinian diplomatist and writer, born in 1762, was am- bassador to the French republic in 1796. He became successively rector of the University of Turin, minister of the interior, and president of the Academy of Sciences. Died in 1837. See L. CiBRARio, " Notizie biografiche del Conte P. Balbo," 1837. Balboa, b^l-bo'a, (Miguel Cavello — ka-veKyo,) a Spanish missionary who visited South America about 1566 and collected materials for a "History of Peru," which was published in French, (Paris, 1840.) Balboa, de, da bal-bo'a, (Don Francisco,) a native of Italy, who became counsellor of the Spanish Inquisi- tion, lived in the seventeenth century. He wrote, in Latin, a treatise " On the Law of Monarchy," (1630.) Balboa, de, (Vasco Nunez,) a celebrated Spanish navigator and discoverer, born at Xeres de los Cabal- leros, in Estremadura, about 1475. Having accompanied Bastidas in his expedition to the West Indies in 1501, he joined, while at Hayti, in 15 10 the party of Enciso, a lieutenant of the navigators Ojeda.- and Nicuesa, both then absent. They founded on the Isthmus of Panama the town of Santa Maria de la Antigua; but dissensions soon after breaking out between them, the partisans of Balboa prevailed, and he was chosen leader of the expe- dition. Having obtained reinforcements from Columbu? at Hispaniola, he proceeded to explore the Isthmus of Darien, and on the 29th of September, 15 13, discovered from the summit of a mountain the vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean. Kneeling, he returned thanks to God for permitting him to make this great discovery, and, having erected a cross upon the spot, he descended to the shore, and, standing in the water, took possession of the sea and the adjacent countries in the name of the sovereigns of Castile. Meanwhile, his rival Enciso had traduced him to the Spanish government, and Pedrarias Davila was sent to supersede and try him for having usurped Enciso's command. Balboa was at length appointed deputy under Pedrarias, but e\-entually fell a victim to the jealousy and ill will of the latter, who caused him to be executed on a charge of treasonable designs, (151 7.) In his intercourse with the Indians Balboa displayed a, e, T, o, u, y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, shoj't; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon. BALBUENJ 249 BALDER great humanity and prudence, and, in the words of a contemporary writer, " was the best lance and the best head that ever protected a camp in a land of idolatrous savages." See W. Irving, "Voyages and Discoveries of the Companions of Columbus;" M. J. Quintana, "Vidas de Espanoles celebres;" " Nouvelle Blographie Generale." Balbuena, de, da bal-bwa'ni, (Bernardo,) a Spanish poet and ecclesiastic, born at Val-de-Penas in 1568, was appointed Bishop of Porto Rico, in the West Indies, in 1620. He was the author of a pastoral romance entitled "The Age of Gold," ("El Siglo de Oro,") which was republished by the Spanish Academy, (1821,) "El Ber- nardo," an epic poem, and a number of lyrics. Died at Porto Rico in 1627. See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature." BaPbus, (L. Cornelius,) surnamedMA'joR, a native of Gades, lived in the first century B.C., served under Metellus, Memmius, and Pompey, and in 61 B.C. accom- panied Caesar to Spain. In the contest between Pompey and Caesar he was an adherent and intimate friend of the latter, and was intrusted by him with the management of his affairs at Rome. After Caesar's death, Balbus attached himself to Octavius, through whose influence he was made consul in 40 B.C., being the first one not born a Roman citizen who had received that honour. He wrote a diary (not extant) of the prominent events of his own and Caesar's life. Balbus, (L. Cornelius,) called Mi'nor, nephew of the preceding, born at Gades, was quaestor to Asinius Pollio in Spain in 43 B.C. After acquiring a large for- tune by oppression and fraud, he went to Africa, where he subsequently became proconsul. For his victory over the Garamantes, a triumph was decreed him at Rome. He built a theatre at Rome supported by pil- lars of onyx. Ballus, (L. LuciLius,) a Roman jurist, supposed to have been a brother of the Stoic philosopher Q. Lucilius Balbus. He was a pupil of Mucins Scaevola. Balbus, (L. Octavius,) an eminent Roman lawyer, who, being informed of his proscription by the triumvirs Augustus, Anton}^, and Lepidus, effected his escape, but, on hearing that his son's life was in danger, returned to his house, where he was slain by the soldiers. Balbus, (M. Atius,) a Roman, who became prastor in 62 B.C., and governor of Sardinia. He married the sister of Julius Caesar, and their daughter Atia was the mother of Octavius. Balbus, (Q. Lucilius,) a Stoic philosopher, and pupil of Pansetius, highly commended by Cicero, who makes him one of the interlocutors in his Dialogue "On the Nature of the Gods." Balbus, (Sp. Thorius,) a Roman orator, became tri- bune about III B.C. He introduced an agrarian law, some fragments of which still remain on bronze tablets. Balbus, (T. Ampius,) a tribune in 63 B.C., and again in 59, was a partisan of Pompey during the civil war. He was subsequently banished by Caesar, but was after- wards pardoned through the intercession of Cicero. Balbus surnamed Men'sor, (the "Measurer,") a Roman engineer, lived in the reign of Augustus, and compiled and superintended a register or census of the Roman Empire. BaPcaii-qual, (Walter,) a Scottish prelate in the time of james I. of England, became Bishop of Dur- ham. He wrote " Letters on the Synod of Dort," and " Declaration of Charles I. concerning the Late Tumults in Scotland." Died in 1642. Bal-car'res or Bal-car'ras, (Colin,) Earl of, a Scottish writer, born in 1649, published a "Brief Account of the Affairs of Scotland relating to the Revolution of 1688," (1 714.) Died in 1722. See Macaulay's " History of England," vol. ili. BiPchen, (Sir John,) an English admiral, born in 1669, served with distinction in the Spanish wars of 1707 and 1739, and was sent in 1744 to the assistance of Sir Charles Hardy, then blockaded in the Tagus by the French. On his return, he perished by shipwreck off the coast of Jersey, together with nearly twelve hundred men. See "Biographia Britannica." Baldacchini, bil-dak-kee'nee, (Filippo,) an Italian poet, born at Cortona, lived in the early part of the six- teenth century. He was patronized by Leo X., and held the offices of prothonotary and apostolic referendary at Rome. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrlttori d'ltalia." Baldassari, bai-dSs-s^'ree, (Giuseppe,) an Italian naturalist and physician, born about 1705, was a resi- dent of Sienna. He made several useful discoveries in chemistry, and wrote treatises on the mineral waters of Tuscany. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Baldasseroni, bSl-dis-si-ro'nee, (Giovanni,) an Ital- ian statesman, born at Leghorn in 1790, became in 1847 minister of finance of Tuscany. As president of the new conservative cabinet, (1849,) he advocated the laws re- straining the liberty of the press. Baldasseroni, (Pompeo,) an Italian jurist, born at Leghorn about 1750. He wrote, among other works, " Laws and Customs of Exchange," (3 vols., 4th edition, 1805,) which has a high reputation. Died in 1807. Baldassini, bal-dfs-see''nee, (Girolamo,) an Italian writer, born at Jesi about 1720, was the author of " His- torical Memoirs of the City of Jesi." Died in 1780. Baldaya, bdl-di'yi or bil-dl'^, (Alfonso GoNgALES,) a Portuguese explorer in the service of the Infant Don Henry, visited the western coast of Africa in 1434. He penetrated thirty leagues beyond Cape Bojador, and the following year arrived at the port since named Puerto de Cavallero, See JoAO DE Barros, "Asia Portugueza, Decada Primeira." Balde, bal'deh, (Jakob,) a learned Jesuit, and one of the best Latin poets of modern times, born at Ensisheim, in Alsace, in 1603. He became court chaplain to the Prince-Elector of Bavaria. His satires, odes, elegies, idyls, and lyrics are highly commended by Schlegel and Herder, and a number of his songs have been translated by the latter. Died in 1668. See F. C. F. Clesca, "Balde's Leben und Schriften," 1842. Balde, bai'deh, [Lat. Bald.^'us,] (Philip,) a Dutch missionary of the seventeenth century, resided ten years in Ceylon. He wrote, in Dutch, a "Description of the Island of Ceylon, Malabar, and Coromandel," (1672.) See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Baldelli, bSl-dSKlee, (Francesco,) an Italian scholar and Latin poet, lived in the latter half of the sixteenth cen- tury, was a native of Tortona. He made translations from Philostratus, Eusebius, Dio Cassius, and other classics. Baldelli, (Giambattista,) an Italian litterateur, born at Cortona in 1766, published editions of Macchiavelli, Boccaccio, and Marco Polo, and wrote an " Essay on Petrarch and his Works." Died in 183 1. SeeTiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Balder, baiMer, or Baldur, blKdiir, [from balldr, "strong," "brave," "good,"*] in the Norse mythology, the second son of Odin, often designated as " Balder the Good," is supposed to represent the brightness of the summer sun. He is very beautiful, and makes all things bright and cheerful : hence he has been called the Apollo of the North. He is the comforter of the un- fortunate, and is beloved by all. His dwelling-place is Breidablik, [i.e. " widely shining,") where nothing im- pure can enter. It is related that Balder dreamed one night that his life was in imminent peril. WHien he told his dream, the gods were exceedingly distressed, and his mother Frigga exacted an oath from all things — from fire, water, iron, stones, from beasts and birds and ven- omous reptiles — that they would not in any way injure her beloved Balder. But from the mistletoe she exacted no oath, because it seemed so feeble and insignificant that it could not possibly be a source of danger. After she had thus bound all nature, as she supposed, to spare her favourite son, the gods were accustomed, by way of sport, to have Balder stand forth while they shot at him with their bows and threw stones at him, to all which assaults he was completely invulnerable. But when Loki, the god of evil, discovered that the mistletoe had * Grimm supposes that, like the Lithuanian balias, the name origin- ally signified both "white" and "good." f »& k; (i as s; g hard; g as G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BALDERIC BALDUCCI taken no oath not to injure Balder, he procured the plant, and came to the assembly of the gods. There he found the blind god Hoder standing apart by himself. Loki asked him why he did not throw something at J3al- der as well as the rest. " Because I am blind," said he, "and have nothing to throw." "Come," said the tempter, "do like the rest; show honour to Balder by casting this trifle at him, and I will direct your hand." Hoder did as he was told, and Balder, pierced through by the fatal mistletoe, fell dead. When they saw what had been done, all the gods were struck speechless, and became paralyzed with astonishment and grief. But after a time Hermod, at Frigga's desire, visited the realm of death, riding Odin's horse Sleipnir. Having reached the world of shades, he besought Hela to release Balder, so greatly beloved by all, that he might return to Asgard, (the habitation of the gods.) Hela answered that if Bal- der was indeed so universally beloved he would be uni- versally lamented ; and if it came to pass that everything wept for him, then he should return to the gods, but if anything whatever failed to weep, he must remain in the realm of death. Thereupon the yEsir sent messengers over all the world, entreating all things to weep for Bal- der. And all did so — everything animate and inanimate — until the messengers came to a cavern where dwelt a giant hag named Thok, (or Thokt.) She answered their request with jeers : "Is Balder dead? and do ye come for tears? Thok with dry eyes will weep o'er Balder's pyre. Weep h;m all other things, if weep they will — I weep him not: let Hela keep her prey."* It afterwards appeared that it was no other than Loki himself (see Loki) who had thus assumed the form of the hag Thok, in order to prevent Balder's restoration to life. The explanations usually given of the myth of Balder are not very satisfactory. See Thorpe's "Northern Mytholocry," vol. i., particularly pp. 185-6; Keyser's "Religion of the Northmen," pp. 144-5; Mal- let's "Northern Antiquities," vol. ii., Fables xii., xxviii., and xxix. ; Petersen's "Nordisk Mythologi." Balderic, bauKder-ik, or Baudry, boMre, [Fr. pron. b5'dRe'; Lat. Balderi''cus,] a French ecclesiastic, born at Meun-sur-Loire about 1050, was created Bishop of Dol in 1 107. Among his works are a " Life of Robert d'Ar- brissel," an enlargement of " Theudebode's History of the First Crusade," and a Latin poem on the Conquest of England by the Normans. Died in 1130. See "Histoire Litteraire de la France," tome vlii. Balderic or Balderi'cus, surnamed Ru'beus, or the Red, a French chronicler of the eleventh century, was Bishop of Noyon and Tournay. His principal work is a "Chronicle of Cambray and Arras, from the Reign of Clovis to 1090." Died in 1097. Baldeschi. See Baldus, (Angelo.) Baldi, baKdee, [Lat. Bal'du.s,] a Florentine physician, and professor of medicine in the College di Sapienza at Rome, was employed by Popes Urban VHL and Lino- cent X. Died in 1645. Baldi, (Bernardino,) called also Baldi d'Urbino — dooR-bee'no, [in French, Baldi d'Urbin — diiR^biln',] abbot of Guastalla, an Italian scholar, celebrated for profound and varied learning, born at Urbino in 1553. He studied mathematics and classical literature at Padua, where Commandino was one of his teachers. Among his works, which amount to nearly one hundred, we may mention a " History of Calvinism," " Life of Federigo Commandino," a number of eclogues, sonnets, and other poems, and a " Chronicle of Mathematicians." He translated the " Automata" of Hero, and wrote valuable commentaries on Vitruvius and the " Mechanics" of Aristotle, (1621.) He also prepared vocabularies of the Turkish and Hungarian languages, and translated into Italian the Geography of Edrisi. Died at Urbino in 161 7. See Baffo, "Vita di Bernardino Baldi;" Isidoro Grassi, "Bal- dus redivlvus seu B. Baldi Vita," Parma, 1717; Ireneo Aff6, "Vita di Monsignor B. Baldi d'Urbino," 1783. Baldi, (Camillo,) an Italian philosophical writer, born at Bologna about 1547, was professor of logic in his native city. Died in 1634. *See the fine poem by Matthew Arnold, entitled " Balder Dead," which is itself almost an epitome of Northern mythology. Baldi, (Giuseppe,) a Florentine physician of the seventeenth century, was the author of a valuable work on mushrooms. Baldi, (Lazarro,) an Italian painter, born at Pistoia about 1623, was a pupil of Pietro da Cortona. Among his master-pieces are the " Repose in Egypt," and an "Annunciation." Died in 1703. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Baldi, (Valentino,) a painter of the Florentine school, born at Pistoia in 1744 ; died in 1816. Baldi deUbaldis, baKdee dk. oo-b^Kd^ss, (Pietro,) an Italian jurist and legal writer of the fourteenth cen- tury, was a native of Perugia, where he became professor of law. Died in 1400. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Baldi d'Urbin. See Baldi, (Bernardino.) Baldinger, biKding-er, (Ernst Gottfried,) an emi- nent German physician, born near Erfurt in 1738. He became professor of medicine at Gottingen in 1773. Among his pupils were Blumenbach and Akermann. He published, besides many other medical and botanical works, a treatise "On the Diseases of Soldiers," (1763.) Died at Marburg in 1804. See G. F. Creuzer, "Memoria E. G. Baldingeri," 1S04. Baldini, bai-dee''nee, (Baccio, bit'cho,) a Florentine engraver of the fifteenth century, was originally a gold- smith. He executed, among other prints, a number of illustrations for Dante. He was the contemporary, and is said to have been the pupil, of Finiguerra. See Le Bi.anc, "IManuel de I'Amateur d'Estampes." Baldini, (Baccio,) professor of medicine at Pisa, and first physician to Cosimo I., Grand Duke of Tuscany, was director of the Laurentian Library. He wrote a " Life of Cosimo I.," (1578,) and other works. Died in 1585. Baldini, (Bernardino,) an Italian mathematician and physician, born near Lake Maggiore about 1515 ; died in 1600. Baldini, (Era. Tiburzio,) an Italian painter of Bo- logna, is supposed to have lived about 1610. Baldini, (Giovanni,) a Florentine painter, lived about 1500, and was the master of Garofalo. Baldini, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian natural- ist and priest, born at Brescia in 1677 ; died in 1765. Bcildinucci, bal-de-noot'chee, (Filippo,) an Italian writer on art, born at Florence about 1624, was patron- ized by the Grand Duke Cosimo HI. He published an important work entitled " Notices of the Professors of Design (Painters) from Cimabue, 1260-1670," ("Notizie de' Professori del Disegno," etc., 6 vols. 4to, 1681-88, 4th edition, 14 vols., 1808,) which is highly esteemed. Died in 1696. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrlttori d'ltalla." Baldit, btlMe', (Michel,) a French physician of the seventeenth century, wrote " Wonders of the Waters of Bagnols," (1651,) and other works. BaPdock or Bau'dake, de, (Ralph,) an English pre- late and statesman of the thirteenth century, was created Bishop of London in 1304. He was lord chancellor of England for a short time under Edward I. He is said to have written a " History of England," Avhich has been lost. Died in 13 14. See " Bioc;raphia Britannica. " Baldovinetti, bll-do-ve-net'tee, or Balduinetti, b§,l-doo-e-net'tee, (Alessio,) a Florentine painter and worker in mosaics, born in 1424, was a pupil of Uccello, and the teacher of Domenico Ghirlandaio. Died in 1499. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." Baldovini, bal-do-vee'nee, (Francesco,) a Floren- tine poet, born in 1635, was the author of a comic idyl entitled "The Lament of Cecco da Varlungo,^' (1694,) which is very popular in Italy. Died in 1716. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'Pialia;" Domenico Maria Manni, "Vita del priore dottore F. Baldovini," 1769. Baldovino. See Baldwin. Baldrighi, bal-dRee'gee, (Giuseppe,) a painter of the school of Parma, born at Pavia about 1722 ; died in 1802. Baldncci, bSl-doot'chee, (Francesco,) a Sicilian poet of the seventeenth century, was a native of Palermo. His lyrics in the Sicilian dialect are highly esteemed, and a, e, T, o, u, y, loftg; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, sJiort; a, e, i, o, obsairc; fSr, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; m'5on: BALDUCCI 251 BALDWIN he is regarded by some critics as one of the best Anacre- ontic poets of Italy. Died at Rome in 1642. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Balducci, (Giovanni,) an Itahan sculptor and archi- tect, born at Pisa in the latter part of the thirteenth cen- tury. Among his master-pieces is the sculptured shrine of Saint Peter in the church of Saint Eustorgio at Milan. He was living in 1347. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Balducci, (Giovanni,) surnamed Cosci, an Italian painter of the sixteenth century, was a native of Florence. Among his best works is "The Finding of the Cross," in the church of La Crocetta. He painted frescos in Fbrence, Rome, and Pistoia. Died at Naples in 1600. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Balduiii. See Baldwin, (Thomas.) Balduin, bdl'doo-een, (Christian Adolf,) a Ger- man savant, born near Meissen in 1632, was the author of a work entitled " Hermes Curiosus," and other chemi- cal treatises. Died in 1682. Balduin, (Friedrich,) a German Lutheran writer, born at Dresden in 1575, was professor of theology at Prague. Died in 1627. See J. G. Neumann, " Programma de Vita F. Balduini," 1709. Balduinus. See Baldwin and Baudouin. Baldung, bdlMoong, (Hans,) sometimes called Griin, an eminent German painter and engraver, born at Gmvind, in Suabia, about 1470. His works include his- torical pictures and portraits ; among the latter niay be named tliose of Maximilian I. and Charles V, His ''Cru- cifixion," in the cathedral of Freiburg, is ranked among his master-pieces. He was a friend of Albert Diirer, to whom he is considered nearly equal. He executed a number of wood-cuts and copper-plates. Died about 1550. Baldus, the Latin of Baldi, which see. BaPdus or Baldeschi, b^l-dcs'kec, (Angelo,) some- times called Augelus Baldus de Ubaldis, an emi- nent Italian jurist, born at Perugia about 1325, was pro- fessor of law successively at Pisa, Bologna, Florence, and Padua. He wrote " Commentaries on the Old and the New Digests," "Lectures on the Three Books of Decre- tals," and other legal works of great merit. Died in 1400. .See Savigny, " GescliiclUe des Romischen Rechts im Mittelalter." Baldwin, baukKwin, [Fr. Baudouin, bod'w^N', or Balduin, btl'dw^N'; Lat. Baldui'nus ; It. Baldo- viNO, bal-do-vee'no,] first Count of Flanders, surnam.ed Bras de Fer, (" Iron Arm,") acquired his title about 860 A.D. Having married Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald, King of France, against the will of the latter, he was excommunicated by the pope, Nicholas I., at the instigation of Charles. He afterwards obtained absolu- tion from the pope, and was reconciled to the king, who made Flanders a county. Died in 877. See Le' Broussart, "Memoires sur les Baudouin, Comtes de FJandre," Brussels, 1820. Baldwin II., Count of Flanders, a son of the preced- ing, was engaged in wars against Charles the Simple, King of France, and Eudes, Count of Paris. He married Alfrith, daughter of Alfred the Great of England. Died in 918. Baldwin III., Count of Flanders, grandson of the preceding, began to reign in 958. He died about 1034. Baldwin IV., Count of Flanders, surnamed the Bearded, succeeded his father, Baldwin III. He in- creased his dominions by the conquest of Valenciennes, and established commercial fairs in the Flemish cities. Died in 1036. Baldwin V., Count of Flanders, surnamed of Lille, and sometimes LE D^bonnaire, (leh di'bo^neR',) was the son of Baldwin IV. He obtained by conquest several considerable districts in Germany, which he retained as a fief of the empire. On the death of Henry I. of Fiance, Count Baldwin became guardian to his son Philip, and regent of the kingdom. He gave his daughter Ma- tilda in marriage to William of Normandy, whom he accompanied in the invasion of England. Died in 1067. Baldwin VI., Count of Flanders, was the son of Baldwin V., and was surnamed the Good, and also OF Mons. He assigned the county of Flanders to Ar- noul, his eldest son, and Hainault to' Baldwin, the second son. Died in 107c. Baldwin VII., Count of Flanders, surnamed Hap- KIN, from a kind of axe used in the execution of outlaws in his reign. He was an ally of Louis le Gros of France against Henry I. of England. Died in 11 19. Baldwin VIII., Count of Flanders and Hainault, was the enemy of Philip Augustus of France until 1192, when he was reconciled and did homage to him. The counties of Flanders and Hainault were united in his reign. Died in 1195. See Le Broussart, "Memoires sur les Baudouin, Comtes de Flandre." Baldwin IX., [Gr. Ba}Ahvlvog ; Lat. Baldui'nus,] son of the preceding. Count of Flanders, afterwards Baldwin L, Emperor of Constantinople, was born in 1171. He joined the fourth crusade in 1200, and on arriving at Zara with a fleet commanded by Dandolo was solicited by Alexius, son of the deposed emperor Isaac, to aid in restoring his father to the throne. He promised them in return to acknowledge the supremacy of the pope arid to grant them pecuniary assistance. The crusaders suc- ceeded in defeating the usurper ; but, the people being unwilling to perform the promises of Alexius, hostilities broke out between them, and after a siege of three months Constantinople was taken in 1204, and Baldwin elected emperor. He was subsequently defeated and made prisoner by the Bulgarians in 1205. He died in 1206, and was succeeded by his brother Henry. See Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire ;" A. C a hour, " Baudouin de Constantinople," 1850; J. J. de Smet, "Memoire historique sur Baudouin IX," 1846. Baldwin II., Emperor of Constantinople, born in 1217, ascended the throne in 1228. In 1261 his capital was taken by Michael Paloeologus, and Baldwin effected his escape to Italy, where he died. He was a nephew of Baldwin I. Baldwin I., | Fr. Baudouin, bod'wiN^; It. Baldo- VINO, bal-do-vee'no,] King of Jerusalem, and a brother of the celebrated Godfrey of Bouillon, whom he ac- companied in 1096 on the first crusade. He fought with distinguished bravery against the infidels, and, being afterwards invited by the Christian inhabitants of Edessa to become their ruler, he assumed the title of Count of Edessa. On the death of his brother Godfrey in 1 100 he succeeded him as King of Jerusalem. He gained import- ant victories over the Saracens, and captured Sidon, Asca- lon. Acre, and other cities. He died in 11 18. Tasso, in his "Jerusalem Delivered," has finely contrasted the charac- ter of Baldwin with that of Godfrey, and represents the former as actuated wholly by ambitious motives. See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Le Beau, "Histoire du Bas-Empire." Baldwin II., surnamed DU Bourg, (dii booR,) a cousin of the preceding, whom he succeeded in 11 18. He was engaged in numerous wars against the Arabs and Sara- cens. During his reign the military orders of Saint John and the Templars were established for the defence of the Holy Land. He died in 1131, leaving the crown tc his son-in-law, Foulques of Anjou. See Oruericus Vitalis, "Historia." Baldwin III., born in 1130, was the son of Foulques of Anjou, whom he succeeded in 1142. His country was invaded in 1145 by Zenghi, Sultan of Aleppo, who took possession of Edessa. Baldwin fought with varying suc- cess against the celebrated Noor-ecl-Deen, (Noureddin,) son of Zenghi. He died in 1163, and was succeeded by his brother, Amalric or Amaury. Baldwin IV., King of Jerusalem, surnamed THE Leper, born in 1160, was the son of Amaury, whom he succeeded in 11 74. In 1182 he gained a signal victory over the famous Saladin near Tiberias, but was after- wards several times defeated by him. He died in 1186, and was succeeded by his nephew, Baldwin V., who died in childhood about 1187. See Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire." Baid'win, (Thomas,) surnamed Devo'nius, [i.e. "of Devonshire,") an English prelate, born at Exeter, Devon- shire, about II 50, became Bishop of Worcester and after- wards Archbishop of Canterbury,(ii84.) Having crowned Richard I. in 1189, he accompanied him the following year to the Holy Land, but died at Acre soon after his arrival. See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. ii. chap. ix. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttin'al; N, uasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (^[^See Explanations, p. 23.) BALDWIN 252 BALGU7 Baid'win, (Abraham,) an American statesman, born in Connecticut in 1754. Having removed to Savannah, Georgia, he was elected a delegate to Congress in 1786, and was a member of the convention which formed the Constitution of the United States. He was elected a Senator of the United States by the legislature of Geor- gia in 1799. He was a brother-in-law of Joel Barlow. Died in 1807. Baldwin, (Henry,) an American jurist, born at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1779. He removed to Pennsyl- vania, where he was several times elected to Congress. He was appointed judge of the supreme court of the United States in 1830. Died in 1844. Baldwin, (Roger Sherman,) a United States Sena- tor, born in New Haven, Connecticut, in 1793. He graduated at Yale in 181 1. In 1844 he was elected by the Whig party Governor of the State, and was re-elected in 1845. From 1847 to 1851 he was a United States Senator. In 1841 Governor Baldwin distinguished him- self as associate counsel with John Qu^ncy Adams in the famous African Amistad trial before the supreme court of the United States. Died in 1863. Baldwin, (Thomas,) D.D., an eminent Baptist divine, born in Norwich, Connecticut, in 1753. He became pastor of the Second Baptist Church in Boston in 1790. He took an imjiortant part in establishing Waterville College, Maine, also Columbia College, in the District of Columbia. Dr. Baldwin was author of a work in defence of the religious views of the Baptists, and of numerous published sermons. Died in 1825. Baldwin, (William,) an English divine and moralist, published a "Treatise of Moral Philosophy," (1549,) and was one of the authors or editors of a " Mirror for Magis- trate_s." Died about 1564. Bale, [Lat. Bal/e'us,] (John,) a learned prelate and biographical writer, born in Suffolk in 1495. Being per- secuted on account of his conversion to Protestantism, he repaired to Holland, where he remained till the acces- sion of Edward VI. After his return he was created in 1552 Bishop of Ossory in Ireland. He was again obliged to leave England during the reign of Mary, and resided in Switzerland until the accession of Elizabeth. His most important work is entitled " Catalogue of the Il- lustrious Writers of Great Britain," (in Latin.) He also wrote a number of dramatic pieces on religious subjects, and several theological treatises. His severe attacks on the Catholics have caused his writings to be prohibited by that church. Died in 1563. See Tanner, " Bibliotheca Britannico-Hibernica ;" Pitseus, "De Scriptoribus Angliae. " Bale, (Robert,) a Catholic theologian of the fifteenth century, was prior of the Carmelites at Norwich. Died in 1503. Balechou, bt'la''shoo', (Jean Joseph Nicolas,) a celebrated French engraver, born at Aries in 171 5. His full-length portrait of Augustus, King of Poland, is esteemed a master-piece of its kind. Among his other works are "The Calm" and "The Tempest," after Ver- net, and " Saint Genevieve," after Vanloo. Died in 1765. See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Balen, van, vtn \A'\qw, or Ballen, biKlen, (Hen- DRIK,) an eminent Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 1560, was a pupil of Adam van Oort, and excelled both in design and colouring. His "Judgment of Paris," " Saint John in the Wilderness," and " Festival of the Gods," are among his master-pieces. He numbered among his scholars Van Dyck and Snyders. Died in 1632, His son John, born in 1611, was a painter. Died after 1650. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands." Bales, balz, (Peter,) a celebrated English calligrapher, born in London in 1547. It is related by Evelyn that he wrote within the circle of a penny the Lord's Prayer, the Decalogue, the Creed, two Latin prayers, his own name, motto, and date. Died in 1610. See " Biographia Britannica." Balestra, bS-lSs'tRi, (Antonio,) an eminent Italian painter, born at Verona in 1666, was a pupil of Carlo Maratta. His " Defeat of the Giants" gained a prize from the Academy of Saint Luke. His " Saint Theresa" and " Descent from the Cross" are also esteemed mas- ter-pieces. Died in 1740. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Baley. See Bailey, (Walter.) Balfe, bilf, (Michael William.) an eminent musi- cian and composer, born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1808. He performed on the violin in his youth, and went to Italy about 1825, after which he produced many operas, and became distinguished as a singer. Among his operas are "Joan of Arc," "The Daughter of Saint Mark," "The Bohemian Girl," which had a great success, " The Maid of Honour," and "The Rose of Castile." Died in 1870. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Balfour, baKfoor or b^Kfur, (Alexander,) a Scottish litterateur, loorn in Forfarshire in 1767, was the author of novels entitled "Campbell, or the Scottish Probationer," and "The Foundling of Glenthorn," (1823.) He also published a volume of poems, and contributed to the " Edinburgh Review." Died in 1829. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Balfour, (Andrew,) a Scottish naturalist of the seven- teenth century, founded at Edinburgh a botanical garden and museum. The " Balfouria," a genus of Australian plants, was named in his honour. Balfour, (Francis,) a Scottish physician of the eigh- teenth century, was a native of Edinburgh. He resided many years in Calcutta, and published a treatise "On the Influence of the Moon in Fevers," (1784,) and seve- ral works on the diseases of hot climates. Balfour, (Sir James,) a Scottish courtier and intriguer of the sixteenth century. He became a lord of session about 1563, and was implicated in the conspiracy against Darnley. In 1567 he was appointed by Queen Mary captain of Edinburgh Castle, which he afterwards deliv- ered to her enemies. He became in 1568 a partisan of Regent Murray, who promoted him to the office of lord president of the court of session ; but he soon deserted to the party of Queen Mary, and was attainted by Par- liament in 1 57 1. He betrayed all parties in turn, and was accessory to the destruction of the regent Morton, who was executed for the murder of Darnley in 1581. Died in 1583. See Knox, " History of the Reformation ;" Chambers, " Bio- graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" Burton, "History of Scotland." Balfour, (Sir James,) a Scottish antiquary and annal- ist. He wrote some treatises on heraldry, and a brief history of the kings of Scotland, which remained in manuscript until 1824. Died in 1657. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Balfour, (John Hutton,) F.R.S., an eminent Brit- ish botanist and physician, was born in Edinburgh in 1808, and succeeded Dr. Hooker as professor of botany at Glasgow about 1840. He published a "Manual of Botany," (1849,) and a valuable "Class-Book of Botany," (1852.) He also wrote the articles on Botany for the "Encyclopaedia Britannica," (8th edition.) In 1845 he succeeded Professor Graham in the chair of botany and medicine at Edinburgh. Balfour of Pilrig, (James,) a Scottish jurist and phi- losophical writer, born near Edinburgh about 1705, was appointed in 1754 professor of moral philosophy in that city. He was the author of "Philosophical Essays," (1768,) and two treatises against the doctrine of Hume, written, however, with such kindness and candoai as to gain for him the friendship of that writer. Died in 1795. Balfour, (Robert,) a learned Scottish philosopher of the seventeenth century, was profoundly versed in mathe- matics and ancient languages. He wrote commentaries on Aristotle, and edited the works of Cleomedes. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Balfour, (Walter,) a prominent Universalist minis- ter, born in Stirlingshire, Scotland, in 1776, emigrated to Massachusetts, where he died in 1852. Balguy, bauKge, (?) (John,) an English divine, born at Sheffield in 1686'^ became in 1729 vicar of Northallerton, in Yorkshire. He was the author of a " Brief Inquiry concerning the Moral Perfections of the Deity," (1730,) " Letter to a Deist concerning the Beauty and Excellence of Moral Virtue," and other similar works. Died in 1 748. See "Biographia Britannica." a, e, T, o, u, y, long; h, h, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obsaire; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; BALGUr 253 BALLARINI Balguy, (Thomas,) an English divine, son of the pre- ceding, born in 17 16, became vicar of Alton, in Hamp- shire, in 1771. He published "Discourses on Various Subjects," and " Divine Benevolence asserted and vin- dicated from the Reflections of Ancient and Modern Skeptics," {1782.) Died in 1795. Bal''i or Beli, written also Baly, [Hindoo pron. buKi,] called also Mah^bali, ma-ha''ba-li, \i.e. the "great Bali,") (Indian Myth.,) the name of a mighty prince, who, though generally virtuous, was so elated with his great power that he omitted the appropriate ceremonies and offerings to the gods. To humble and punish him, Vishnu took the form of a pitiful dwarf, (see Vamana,) and, presenting himself before Bali, asked as a boon as much land oi" territory as he could pass over in three steps. The in- cautious monarch unhesitatingly granted and ratified the request. Thereupon Vishnu revealed himself in his true character, and with two steps deprived Bali of earth and heaven, but, in consideration of his virtues, left him Patala, or the Lower World. As king of the lower re- gions, Bali is by some supposed to be the same as Yama, the god of justice and judge of departed spirits. See Moor's " Hindu Pantheon." Balicour, bt'le'kooR', (Marguerite Therese,) a po])ular French actress, born about 1700; died in 1743. Balin, bt''liN', (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic and his- torian, born at Vesoul about 1570, wrote, in Latin, a " History of the War in Flanders under Ambrosio Spi- nola," (1609.) BaTi-ol or Bal'li-ol, (Edward,) son of John Baliol the rival of Bruce, entered Scotland in 1332, and, having with the aid of Edward IH., King of England, gained several victories over the Scots, was crowned king of that country, but was compelled to resign the dignity in less than three months. With the assistance of Ed- ward, he was victorious in 1333 at Halidon Hill ; but, the English king having crossed over into France, the cause of Baliol declined, and David Bruce became king. Died in 1363. .See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Ba''li-ol or BalTi-ol, [Fr. Bailleul, old Frep':h pron. baryuK,] (John,) an English baron of the thirteenth century, was patronized by Henry HL, whose cause he espoused against the revolted barons. Having married the Scottish princess Dervorgill, he became the father of the Baliol who disputed the crown of Scotland with Bruce. He made arrangements for founding the col- lege at Oxford called by his name, but, dying before they were completed, it was founded by his widow. Died in 1269. Ba'li-ol or BaFli-ol, de, [Fr. Bailt.eui.,] (John,) Lord of Galloway, the son of the preceding, born about 1259, is celebrated as the rival of Bruce for the crown of Scotland. On the death of Margaret, granddaughter of Alexander IH., the succession was disj^uted between Robert Bruce, John Hastings, and John Baliol, the near- est relatives of the deceased king. The case was referred to Edward L of England as arbiter, who decided in favour of Baliol, on condition that he should do homage to the King of England for his crown. His coronation took place at Scone, in 1292. During his short reign he was called King John. He soon repented of his oath to E!dward, and, renouncing his allegiance, marched against the king, who had invaded Scotland. Baliol's army was signally defeated, and he himself, being made prisoner, resigned to the English king his title to the crown. After several years of confinement, he retired to France, where he died in 13 14. See Burton, "History of Scotland," vol. ii. chaps, xix., xx.; LiNGARD, "History of England;" Chambers, "Biographical Dic- tionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Ba-lis'ta, a Roman commander, was prefect of the praetorians under Valerian. When the emperor was defeated by the Persians in 260, Balista was placed at the head of the army, and obtained several victories over the enemy. He is supposed to have been put to death in 264 A.D., by order of Odenatus, King of Palmyra. Balk, baik, (Daniel Georg,) a German physician, born at Konigsberg in 1764, was professor of medicine in the University of Dorpat. He wrote a poem entitled " Human Grandeur," and other works. Died in 1826. Bail, (Sir Alexander John,) a distinguished naval officer, was a native of Gloucestershire. He entered the navy at an early age, and in 1798 commanded the Alexander in the battle of the Nile, where he was con- spicuous for his bravery. He was afterwards appointed Governor of Malta. Coleridge, in his publication en- titled " The Friend," speaks in high terms of Sir Alex- ander Ball, with whom he was intimate. Died in 1809. Ball, (John,) an English preacher, who took a promi- nent part in the insurrection of Wat Tyler in 1381, and was executed in the same year at Coventry, with a num- ber of his fanatical companions. Ball, (John,) an English Calvinistic divine, born near Woodstock in 1585. He was the author of a "Treatise on Faith," and a " Treatise containing all the principal Grounds of the Christian Religion." The latter passed through many editions, and was translated into several languages. The piety and learning of Ball are highly commended by Fuller and Baxter. Died in 1640. See S. Clarke, "Lives of XXXII Divines." Ball, (Robert,) an Irish naturalist, born in the county of Cork in 1802, was secretary of the Royal Zoological Society, and director of the museum of Trinity College, Dublin. Died in 1857. Ballabene, bSl-ld-ba^ni, (Gregorio,) an Italian com- poser, born at Rome about 1730. Plis principal work is a mass of forty-eight notes. Died in 1800. See Fetis, "Biographic Universelle des Musicians." Ballanche, bt'lSNsl/, (Pierre Simon,) a French philosopher and writer on social reform, born at Lyons in August, 1776. Among his principal works are an "Essay on Social Palingenesis," " The Vision of Hebal," and two historic prose poems, entitled " Antigone" and "Orpheus." He was a member of the French Acad- emy, and an intimate friend of Chateaubriand, Madame Recamier, Nodier, and other celebrated writers. Died in June, 1847. He is considered by some French critics as a great writer and ])rofound thinker, but by others his writings are regarded as mystical and obscure. See Victor Laprade, " I-Sallanche, sa Vie at sas ificrits;' Lo- MENiE, " M. Ballanclie, par un homnie de rien," 1841, (first published in Lomenie's "Galerie des Conteniporains ;") J. J. Ampere, "Bal- lanche," 1849; Albert Aubert, " P. S. Ballanche," 1847. Ballantyne. See Bellenden. BalTan-tyne, (James,) a Scottish printer and jour- nalist, born at Kelso in 1772. At the grammar-school of Kelso he first became acquainted with Walter Scott, and laid the foundation of a friendship which continued through their lives. Having removed in 1799 to Edin- burgh, he established a printing-house, from which he issued in 1802-3 Scott's "Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border." He continued for more than twenty years to print the various works of that celebrated writer, and shared in his failure in 1826. He was also editor and proprietor of the " Edinburgh Weekly Journal." Bal- lantyne's abilities as a critic were highly prized by Scott, and' his fine social qualities and admirable recitations are commended in the warmest terms by Lockhart and Professor Wilson. Died in 1833. (See Scott, Sir Walter.) Ballantyne, (John,) brother of the preceding, born at Kelso in 1774, was for a time clerk in the publishing- house of Ballantyne & Company, of which he became nominal head in 1808. He was distinguished for his wit and humour, and is said by Lockhart to have surpassed the comedian Mathews as a mimic. Died in 1821. Ballard. See Balard, (Antoine.) BalTard, (George,) an English writer, born in Glou- cestershire, published in 1752 a popular work entitled " Memoirs of British Ladies celebrated for their W^ritings or Skill in the Learned Languages, Arts, or Sciences." Died in 1755. Ballard, (Volant Vashon,) an English naval com- mander, born about 1774, accompanied the expedition of Vancouver to the northwest coast of America. He afterwards had a share in the capture of Guadeloupe, and was made rear-admiral in 1825. Died in 1833. Ballarini, bll-13,-ree'nee, (Ippolito,) an Italian eccle- siastic and writer, born at Novara ; died in 1558. Ballarini, (Paolo,) an Italian painter, born at Bo- logna in 1 7 12; died after 1782, € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as G, H, Yi, guttural ; N, nasal; r, trilled; s asz; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BALLE 254 BALNAVES Balle, baKleh, (Nikolai Edinger — a'ding-er,) a Dan- ish theologian, born on the island of Laaland in 1744. He became successively professor of theology at Copen- hagen, (1772,) court preacher, (1774,) and Bishop of See- land, {1783.) He published a " j\Ianual of Religion," " Theological Theses," (1776,) and other esteemed works. Died in 1816. Ballenden or Ballaiiden. See Bellenden. Ballenstedt, baKlen-stet', (Johann Georg Justus,) a German theologian, born at Schoningen in 1756, was the author of a valuable geological work entitled " The Primitive World," (" Die Urwelt.") He was pastor at Pabstorf in Prussia. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemelne Encyklopaedie." Ballerini, bdl-la-ree'nee, (Pietro,) an Italian theolo- gian, born at Verona in 1698; died about 1760. Ballester, bal-yes-taiR', (?) or Balester, bii-les-taiR', (Joaquin,) a Spanish engraver, born about 1750. He executed a number of the plates for Yriarte's work on Music ; also the engravings for the splendid edition of "Don Quixote" published at Madrid in 1780. Died in 1795. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Ballesteros, bal-yes-ta^ros, (Don Francisco,) a Spanish general, born at Saragossa in 1770, served against the French in the campaigns of 1793 and 1795. He was for a short time minister of war under Ferdi- nand VH. Died in Paris in 1832. Ballesteros, (Luis Lopez,) brother of the preced- ing, born in Galicia in 1778, succeeded Garay as minister of finance in 1825. Ballet, bi'ia^ (FRANgois,) a French theologian, who wrote a " History of Pagan, Jewish, and Christian Tem- ples," (1760.) Ballexserd, bt'lek^saiR^', (Jacques,) a Swiss physi- cian, born at Geneva in 1726. Pie was the author of a " Dissertation on the Physical Education of Children," (1762,) which obtained a prize from the Academy of Haarlem. Died in 1774. Balleydier, bi'la'de-a^ (Alphonse,) a French his- torical writer, born at l^ns in 1820, published, besides other works, a " History of the Revolutions of the Aus- trian EiTipire," (2 vols., 1853.) Balleydier, (C. J. C.,) a French officer, born at Annecy in 1762, served with distinction in Holland and Prussia. Died in 1807. Balli, bSlTee, (Antonio,) the Elder, an Italian jurist and legal writer, born at Trapani ; died in 1591. Balli, (Antonio,) the Younger, a nephew of the pre- ceding, was judge of the royal court of Palermo. Balli, (Fabio,) an Italian, who was the author of " Sicilian Songs," and a poem in the Neapolitan dialect, entitled " Palermo Liberato," 1612. Died in 1632. See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." Balli, (Giuseppe.) See Ballo. Balliani, bai-le-a'nee, (Giambattista,) a learned Genoese senator, born in 1586, was the author of a valu- able treatise " On the Natural Motions of Pleavenly Bodies." Died in 1666. See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." Balliere de Laisement, btle-aip/ deh laz/mdN', (Charles Louis Denis,) a YxQ.\\c\rutterate'iir and writer on music, born in Paris in 1729; died in 1800. Ballin, bt'lAN', (Claude,) a celebrated French gold- smith, born in Paris in 1615, executed a number of ex- quisite works in gold and silver for Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIV. Died in 1678. See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encydopedique de la France." Ballin, (Claude,) a nephew of the preceding, was also highly distinguished in the same department of art. Ballineri, bal-le-na^ee, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, born at Florence about 15S0, was a pupil of Cigoli. Balling, blKling, (E:manuel,) a Danish novelist, born in 1743 ; died in 1795. BaiTin-galF, (George,) professor of military surgery in the University of Edinburgh, born at that city in 1786. He was the author of " Outlines of Military Surgery," "Observations on the Diseases of European Troops' in India," and other medical works. Died in 1855. Balliol. See Baliol. Ballo, baiTo, or Balli, bil'lee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian priest and savant, born at Palermo in 1567 ; died at Pa- dua in 1640. Ballois, bt'lwi', (Louis Joseph Philippe,) a French writer, born at Perigueux in 1778, founded, in 1802, the "Annales de Statistique." Died in 1803. Ballon, de, deh ba'16N', (Louise Blanche Therese Perrucard— p:i rii'ktR',) a PYench nun, born in Savoy in 1 59 1, founded, in the convent of Annecy, the sister- hood of the reformed Bernardines. Dietl in 1668. Her " Religious Works" were published in 1700. Ballonins. See Baillou. Ballon, bal-loo', (Hosea,) an eminent American preacher and controversialist, the author or founder of " Universalism" in the modern acceptation of this term, was born in Richmond, New Hampshire, April 30, 1771. After he had laboured many years in different parts 0/ New England, he settled at Boston in 181 7. He pub- lished several theological works, among which the most worthy of notice is, perhaps, his "Examination of the Doctrine of Future Retribution." In 1819 he estab- lished the '* Universalist Magazine," the first weekly newspaper devoted to the doctrines of Universalism ever published, and in 183 1, in connection with his nephew of the same name, he issued the first number of the " Uni- versalist Expositor," now known as the " Universalist Quarterly Review," The doctrine preached by Mr. Bal- lon in the early part of his career was that known as " Restorationism," which teaches that all souls will ulti- mately be saved, after undergoing, for a longer or shorter period, punishment designed simply for their purification and preparation for a higher state of happiness ; but in the latter portion of his life he taught the doctrine that there is no punishment whatever in a future state of ex- istence, but that the wicked receive their full punishment in this world, and that all men will be saved without ex- ception, whatever may have been the sins or crimes of their earthly life. His biography has been published by his son, M. M. Ballon, and in three volumes i2mo by the Rev. Thomas Whittemore. Died in 1852. (See Mur- ray, John.) Bally, bi'le', (Victor,) a French physician, born at Beaurepaire, published a treatise " On the Tyj^hus Fever of America," (1814,) and " Plistory of the Yellow Fever in Spain in 1821." See Querard, "La France Litteraire." Bal''mer, (Robert,) a Scottish theologian, born in Roxburghshire in 1787. He preached at Berwick for many years, and became professor of theology in the United Secession (or Presbyterian) Church in 1834. Pie was highly esteemed for talent and moral worth. Died in 1844. Plis "Academical Lectures and Pulpit Dis- courses" were published in two volumes, 1845. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Balmes, b3,l-nies', written also Balmis, (Francisco Xavier,) surgeon to the Spanish court, introduced vac- cination into the Spanish Colonies in 1803, and subse- quently into the Canary and Philippine Islands and China. Balmes, (Jaime Lucio,) an eminent Spanish theolo- gian and philosopher, born at Vich, in Catalonia, in 1810. He was the author of " Political Considerations on the Situation of Spain," (1840,) and "Protestantism com- pared with Catholicism in its Relations to European Civilization," (3 vols., 1S48.) The latter, esteemed his ablest work, was written in reply to Guizot. liis " Filo- sofia fundamental" was translated into English. Died in 1848. See Antonio Soler, " Biografia del D. J. Balmes," 1850; Garcia DE i.os Santos, Vida de Balme.s," 184S ; Blanche-Raffin, "J. Balmes, sa Vie at ses Ouvrages," Paris, 1S49, and a German version of the same, by Karker, 1852. Balnaves, bdl-nav'ess, or Balnav'is, (Henry,) surnamed OF Halhill, a Scottish statesman and Prot- estant writer, born in Fiieshire. He became in 1538 one of the lords of session, and secretary of state under the regent Arran in 1543. In this post he promoted the passing of Lord IVIaxwell's act for allov/ing the Scrip- tures to be read in the vulgar tongue. Being accused of sharing in the conspiracy against Cardinal P-eatoun, he was imprisoned, together with Knox and other reformers, a, e, T, o, u, y, lo}ig; \ b, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, s/zort; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; BALOG 255 BALZAC at Rouen, in France, Avhere he wrote his " Confession of Faith." Having returned to Scotland, he was appointed in 1563 one of the commissioners to revise the "Book of DiscipHne." Died in 1571. See Mackenzie, " Lives of Scottish Writers ;" Chambers, " Bio- graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Balog, bS.-log, or Balogli, (Janos,) a Hungarian states- man, born in 1800, defended the rights of the people against the nobility, in the Diet of 1825. After the de- feat of the patriots in 1849, he escaped with Kossuth into Turkey. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Baloufeau, bt'looW, or Balouffeteau, bi'loof to', (Jacques,) a French adventurer and impostor, born at Saint-Jean-d'Angely. After having, under assumed names, married many women in different parts of Europe, he obtained two hundred crowns from the King of France as a reward for revealing a pretended conspiracy, and two thousand pounds sterling from the English govern- ment for a similar service. He was at last arrested in France and executed in 1627. Balsamiiia, bal-si-mee'nS, (Camilla,) an Italian vo- calist, born at Milan, was prima donna at the court of Prince Eugene, Viceroy of Italy, in 1807. Died in 1810. See Fetis, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." Balsamo, (Giuseppe.) See Cagliostro. Balsanio, MKsa-mo, (Paolo,) a distinguished agri- culturist and writer, born at Termini, in Sicily, in 1763. He was professor of agriculture at Palermo, and trans- lated into Italian Arthur Young's "Pleasures of Agri- culture." Died in 1818. See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani ilkistri." Bal'sa-mo or BaFsa-mon, (Theodore,) a Greek prelate, who became Patriarch of Antioch in 1186. He wrote a " Commentary on the Canons of the Apostles, and the Seven CEcumenic Councils." Died in 1204. BaFsham, written also Belesale, de, (Hugh,) an English prelate, and founder of Saint Peter's College, Cambridge, born in Cambridgeshire, became, in 1257, Bishop of Ely. Died in 12S6. Baltacchini,bal-tak-kee'nee, (Michele,) an Italian philosopher, born in Naples in 1803. He published, besides other works, a "History of Masaniello," (1834,) and "The Life and Works of Campanella," (1840-43.) Baltadschi or Baltadji. See Baltajek. Baltajee (Baltaji, Baltadji, or Baltadschi) Mo- hammed, l)51-ta'jee mo-han/med, a Turkish states- man and commander, rose to be grand vizier under Ah- med HI. He was appointed in 1719 to command the Turkish forces acting with Charles XII. of Sweden against the Russians. After gaining a decided victory over the enemy, he was induced by the empress Cathe- rine to sign a treaty, by which he lost all the advantages he had won, and gave great offence to Charles. Died in 1 712. See Von Hammer, "Histoire de I'Empire Ottoman ;" Voltaire, "Histoire de Charles XII." Baltard, btl'ttR',(Louis Pierre,) a celebrated French architect and engraver, born in Paris in 1765. He fur- nished the design for the Palace of Justice at Lyons, and constructed the chapels for the houses of detention of Saint-Lazare and Sainte-Pelagie. Among his engravings we may name "Paris and its Monuments," (1803,) and " Saint John baptizing on the Banks of the Jordan," after Poussin. Died iii 1846. See J. M. Dalgabio, " £ loge historique de M. Baltard," 1846. Baltard, (Victor,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1805, published in 1847 a " Monography of the Villa Medicis." Baltazariiii, bai-tad-zS-ree'nee, called also Beau- joyeulx, bo'zhwa'yuh', an Italian musician, who was a favourite at the court of Catherine de Medicis. See Eetis, " Biograi^hie Universelle des Musiciens." Balten, or Baltens. See Balton. Balthasar, the French for Belshazzar, which see. Balthasar, bSKtt'zSR', (Christophe,) a French jurist, born at Villeneuve-le-Roi in 1588, was royal advocate at Auxcrre. He wrote a "Treatise on the Usurpations of the Kings of Spain upon the Crown of France." Died in 1670. Balthasar, (Joseph Antoine F^lix,) a Swiss jurist. born at Lucerne in 1737, contributed several articles on Swiss history to Flaller's " Bibliotheca Helvetica," and wrote a "Defence of William Tell." Died in 1810. Balthasar, bai't2.-zaR, or Balthazari, bal-ta-ts^'ree, (Theodor,) a German savant, and professor of mathe- matics at Erlangen, is supposed to have invented the solar microscope, of which he published a description, (1710.) This invention is attributed by some to Lieber- kiihn. See Fischer, " Geschichte der Physik." Balthasar, von, fon biFt^-zaR, (Augustin,) a Ger- man jurist and writer, born at Greifswalde in 1701 ; died in 1779. Baltimore, (Lord.) See Calvert, (George.) Balton, baFton, Baltens, or Balten, bil'tSN', (Pe- ter,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 1540. He painted in the style of Breughel, and his miniature land- scapes and historical pieces are highly esteemed. Died in 1579. See Fiorillo, " Geschichte der Malerei." Baltus, btFtiis', (Jean FRANgois,) a French Jesuit, born at Metz in 1667, wrote a reply to Fontenelle's " History of Oracles," and other works. Died in 1743. Baltzar, balt'sar, (Thomas,) a celebrated German violinist, who in 1658 visited London, where he was ap- pointed director of concerts by Charles II. Died in 1663. See Burn'ev, "General History of Music." Balue, de la, deh It bS'lii^ (Jean,) a French cardinal, born at Poitiers in 1422, was a favourite of Louis XL, by whom he was made Bishop of Evreux and prime minister. For his efforts to abolish the " Pragmatic Sanction" he was made a cardinal by Pope Paul II. in 1467. After having been for many years the instigator and partner of his sovereign's tyranny and vices, he en- deavoured to excite a quarrel between Louis and his brother. For this crime he was imprisoned by the king in an iron cage for eleven years. He was released in 1480, on the intercession of Pope Sixtus IV. He was afterwards appointed protector of the order of Malta, and obtained other high preferments from Pope Inno- cent VIII. Died in 1491. See AuBERY, "Histoire des Cardinaux." BalufS, ba-looFfee, (Cajetano,) an Italian ecclesi- astic, resided many years in New Granada, and published in 1848 a " Religious History of America." Baluze, hi.'\\\z\ (I^tienne,) a French historian, born at Tulle in 1630, was charged by Colbert with the care of his library, and afterwards appointed inspector of the Royal College by Louis XIV. He published in 1709 his " History of the House of Auvergne," in which he proves that the family of Bouillon are descended from the ancient dukes of Guienne, and, consequently, owed no allegiance to the French crown. This \vork gave great offence to the king, who caused it to be suppressed, the author exiled, and his estates confiscated. Baluze also wrote the "Lives of the Popes of Avignon," (1693.) Died in Paris in 1718. See "Vie de Baluze, par liii-meme, continuee par Martin;" J. B. Vitrac, " Eloge de Baluze," 1777. Balzac, btFzik', (Charles Louis,) a French archi- tect, born in Paris, accompanied the expedition to Egypt in 1798, and contributed valuable architectural designs to the Description of Egypt afterwards published by the government. Died in 1820. See Querard, "La France Litteraire." Balzac, de, deh btrztk', (Honore,) a celebrated French novelist, born at Tours in May, 1799. He pub- lished in 1822 a series of tales, under the names of Horace de Saint- Aubin and other pseudonyms, and in 1829 brought out, in his own name, a historical romance en- titled "The Last Chouan," ("Le dernier Chouan.") His next works, the "Physiologic du Mariage," and "La Peau de Chagrin," were very successful, and were soon followed by a series of novels and talcs entitled " Comedie humaine," intended to delineate every phase of French society. Among the most popular of these may be named " Le Pere Goriot," " Eugenie Grandet," and "Balthasar Claes." In 1848 Balzac married the Countess Hanska, a Polish lady to whom he had dedi- cated his novel of " Seraphita." He died in Paris in c as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, ii, y., guttural; x, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (gJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BALZAC 256 BANCROFT August, 1850, and a glowing eulogy was pronounced over his grave by Victor Hugo. Balzac's works enjoy great popularity in France, and have been translated into the principal European languages. He had great acuteness of observation and brilliant fancy ; but his de- lineations are often unnatural and extravagant, and his writings are deficient in moral elevation. See GusTAVE DESNon-," by his son, the Rev. Alfred Barry, 1867. Bar'ry, (Sir David,) a learned physician, born in the county of Roscommon, Ireland, in 1780, was the author ^of "Researches on the Influence exercised by Atmos- pheric Pressure upon the Progression of the Blood in the Veins," etc. Died in 1835. Barry, (Edward,) an English divine, born at Bristol about 1759; died in 1822. Barry, (Sir Edward,) an English physician and me- dical writer, studied under Boerhaave at Leyden, He became professor of medicine at Dublin, and was a Fel- low of the Royal Society. Died in 1776. Barry, (Garret,) an officer, born in Ireland, published in 1634 a "Discourse of Military Discipline." Bar'ry, (George,) a Scottish divine, born in Berwick- shire in 1747, was the author of a " History of the Ork- ney Islands," (1805.) Died in 1804. fearry, (Gerald.) See Giraldus Cambrensis. Barry, (James,) Lord of Santry, writer on law, born in Dublin in 1598, became lord chief-justice of the king's bench in Ireland. Died in 1673. Barry, (James,) an eininent historical painter, born at Cork in 1741. Pie was the son of the master of a coasting-vessel, who destined him for his own profession. He manifested a passion for art at a very early age, pass- ing whole nights in drawing, and " spending all his pocket- money on pencils and candles." One of his first pro- ductions represented the conversion of a king of Cashel by Saint Patrick : it attracted general admiration, and procured for the artist the friendship and patronage of Edmund Burke, by whose pecuniary assistance he was soon after enabled to visit Rome. Having studied five years in that city, he returned to England in 1770, and was subsequently elected an associate of the Royal Acad- emy. In 1775 he published an "Inquiry into the Real and Imaginary Obstructions to the Progress of Art in England," an able refutation of Winckelmann's theory that the climate of England was unfavourable to the high development of art. In 1777 he began a series of six pictures designed to illustrate human improvement. Of these works, which are esteemed his master-pieces, the "Victors at Olympia" deserves particular mention. Barry was elected professor of painting at the Academy in 1782 ; but his unfortunate irritability of temper kept him con- stantly embroiled with his colleagues, and having, as was alleged, made some false accusations against members of the Academy, he was deprived of his office in 1797. He died in 1806, in destitute circumstances. "Barry," gays Cunningham, "was the greatest enthusiast in art which this country ever produced : his passion for it al- most amounted to madness ;" and the same writer adds, " his imagination was second only to that of Fuseli." See Cunningham's " Lives of Painters and Sculptors ;" " Ency- clopjedia Eritannica ;" "Edinburgh Review" for August, 1810 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 1S20. Barry, (John,) Commodore, a naval officer, born in Wexford county, Ireland, in 1745, emigrated to America about 1760. Having obtained command of a United States frigate in 1776, he captured the British vessel Atalanta in May, 1 781, and commanded the Alliance, which conveyed La Fayette to France about the end of that year. Died in 1803, Barry, bt're^ (Marie Jeanne Gomart de Vauber- nier — go^mtk' deh vo^beR^ne-i'', ) Countess of, a mis- tress of Louis XV., of FranceTwas born at Vaucouleurs in 1746. She exercised a powerful influence at court, and received the homage of Chancellor Maupeou and other distinguished men, who obtained through her the most important offices and privileges. During the reign of terror she was arrested as a royalist, and executed in November, 1793. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Barry, (Martin,) a distinguished English physiolo- gist, born in Hampshire in 1802, graduated in medicine at Edinburgh, and finished his studies at Heidelberg in 1834. His principal work, entitled " Researches in Embryology," first appeared in the " Philosophical Trans- actions" from 1838 to 1842, and obtained for him the gold medal of the Royal Society. He also published a treat- tise "On Fibre," and other works relating to animal de- velopment. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1840. Died in Suffolk in 1855. Barry, (Rene,) a French litth-atetir and royal histori- ographer, lived about 1630. Among his works is a "Life of Louis XIII.," (in Latin.) Barry, (Spranger,) a celebrated actor, born at Dub- lin in 1 719, performed with great success in his native city and in London. He is said to have been in some characters scarcely inferior to Garrick. Died in 1777. See " Biographia Dramatica." Bar'ry, (William F.,) an American general, born in New York City in 181 8, graduated at West Point. He was made captain in 1852, and major of artillery in May, 1861. In August of that year he became a brigadier- general of volunteers, and served as chief of artillery, under General McClellan, in the battles near Richmond, June, 1862. Barry, (William Taylor,) an American politician, born in Lunenburg county, Virginia, in 1785. He be- came a citizen of Kentucky, was elected to Congress in 1810, and was subsequently chief justice of that State. He was appointed postmaster-general under President Jackson in 1829, and was the first incumbent of that office who was a member of the cabinet. In 1835 he was sent as minister to Spain. He died at Liverpool, while on his way to Madrid, the same year. Barry or Barri, de, deh bt're', (Paul,) a French Jesuit, born near Narbonne in 1587, wrote a number of mystical religious treatises, which were satirized by Pas- cal in his " Provincial Letters." Died in 1661. Barry Cornwall. See Procter. Barsony (baR-shoh'') of Lovas Bereny, (lo-v6sh' ba-reii',) (George,) a Hungarian Catholic bishop, dis- tinguished for his zeal against the Protestants. Died in 1678. Bar-su'mas or Bar-sau'mas, a prominent leader of the Nestorians, became Bishop of Nisibis in 435 a.d. Bart or Barth, bSR, (Jean,) a celebrated French sea- man, born at Dunkirk in 1651, signalized himself as a privateersman against the Dutch in 1672. After per- forming many brilliant exploits as a cruiser in the Medi- terranean, he was appointed by Louis XIV. chief of a squadron in 1697. He obtained letters of nobility from the French king for having captured a Dutch fleet laden with corn, in 1694. Died in 1702. See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. iv.; A. Richer, "Vie de Jean Bart," 17S0; Vanderest, " Histoire de Jean Bart," 1841. Barta, baR'tl, (Balthasar,) a Hungarian chronicler, born at Szoboszlo, lived about 1770. Bartalini, baR-tS-lee^nee, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Sienna about 1560; died in 1609. Bartas, dii, dii btR^tS.', (Guillaume de Salluste — deh st'iiist',) an eminent French poet and negotiator, born at Montfort, in Armagnac, in 1544, was a Protestant. He was sent by Henry IV. on missions to several foreign courts. His chief work is a poem entitled "The Week of Creation," (" La premiere Semaine, ou la Creation,") which was once greatly admired, and was translated into Latin, Italian, English, and German, He received several wounds at the battle of Ivry, survived a few months, and died in 1590, "His imagination, though extravagant, is vigorous and original," (Hallam's "In- troduction to the Literature of Europe.") See, also, Sainte-Beuve, "Tableau de la Poesie Frangaise." Bartels, baR'tgls, (Ernst Daniel August,) a Ger- man physician, born at Brunswick in 1778, became pro- fessor of medicine at Berlin in 1827, and published many works on physiology, etc. Died in 1838. See Callisen, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon." Bartenstein, baR'ten-stin^, (Johann Christoph,) born in 1690, rose to be vice-chancellor of Austria and Bohemia. He wrote "The Law of Nature and of Na- tions." Died in 1766. Bartenstein, (Lorenz Adam,) a German mathema- tician and scholar, born at Heldburg in 1711, was the author of several critical and mathematical treatises. Died in 1796. See J. C. Briegleb, "Vita L. A. Bartensteinii," 1793. Barth, btRt, (Friedrich Gottlieb,) a German phi- € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^="See Explanations, p. 23.) BARTH 278 BARTHOLD lologist, born at Wittenberg in 1738, published an edition of Propertius with notes, and a '* German and Spanish Grammar," {1778.) Died in 1794. Barth, (Gottfried,) a German jurist and professor of law at Leipsic, born in that city in 1650 ; died in 1728, Barth, (Heinrich,) a celebrated German explorer, born at Hamburg in 1821. He visited Northern Africa in 1845, whence he proceeded to Arabia and Asia Minor, and in 1849 published his " Wanderings along the Shores of the Mediterranean." About this time he received proposals from the British government to join the expe- dition which was then being fitted out for Central Africa. In company with Mr. Richardson and Dr. Overweg, he set out in December, 1849. Having spent nearly six years in his explorations, during which time his two companions died, Dr. Barth returned to Europe in 1855. He published in 1857 his "Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa." Died in 1865. See " Edinburgh Review" for January and April, 1859, vol. cix. Barth, (Jean.) See Bart, (Jean.) Barth, btR, (Jean Raphael Philippe,) a French medical writer, born at Sarreguemines, in Moselle, about 1812. His chief work is a "Practical Treatise on Aus- cultation," (1840.) He was assisted by Henri Roger in the composition of this work. Barth, bsRt, (Karl,) a German engraver, born at Hildburghausen in 1792. Pie engraved some works of Cornelius and Overbeck. Barth, [Lat. Bar'thius,] (Michael,) a German phy- sician, born af Annaberg, in Saxony, about 1650, was the author of " Letters on Medicine," and a number of Latin poems. Died in 1684. Barth, (Paul,) a German Orientalist, born at Nu- remberg in 1635 ; died in 1688. Barth, von, fon baRt, [Lat. Bar'thius,] (Caspar,) a German scholar, born at Ciistrin in 1587, wrote a Latin work entitled " Adversaria," and commentaries on Clau- dian. Statins, and other classics. Died in 1658. See Kromaver, " Programma in C. Barthii obitum," 1658; Ni- ci^RON, " Memoires." Barth-Barthenheim, baRt-blRt'en-hTm', (Johann Baptist Ludvvig Ehrenreich,) Count of, a distin- guished statesman and jurist, born at Hagenau, in Al- sace, in 1784. He rose, through various offices under the Austrian government, to be aulic councillor. He wrote several legal and political works. Died in 1846. Barthe, biRt, (Felix,) a French jurist and statesman, born at Narbonne in 1795. He became minister of pub- lic instruction in 1830, and in 1831 minister of justice under Casimir Perier. In 1834 he was made first presi- dent of the court of accounts, and a peer of France. See " Notice sur la Vie de M. Barthe," 1846. Barthe, (Nicolas Thomas,) a French writer, born at Marseilles in 1734, wrote an epistle "On Genius con- sidered in its Relation to the Fine Arts." Died in 1785. Barthel, baR'tel, (Johann Caspar,) a German jurist, born at Kissingen in 1697, became vice-chancellor of the University of Wiirzburg. He wrote several Latin treatises on canon law. Died in 1771. See "Vita J. C. Bartheli," 1752. Barthel, written also Bartel, (Johann Christian Friedrich,) a German engraver, born at Leipsic in 1775. Among his best works are the "Castle of Hei- delberg," after Primavesi, and a view of Vaucluse. He also produced several paintings. Barthel, (Melchior,) a German sculptor, born in Saxony, worked at Venice ; died in 1674. Barthelemy orBarthelemi, Saint. See Bartholo- mew^, Saint. Barthelemy, blR'tiKme', (Auguste Marseille — mtR'sa'ye,) a French satiric poet, whose works had great popularity, born at Marseilles in 1796. Among the principal we may name the " Villeliade," an attack on the ministry of Villele, ( 1 826,) " Satire against the Capuchins." and" Napoleonin Egypt," (1828.) In conjunction with his friend Mery, he wrote the "Dupinade," (1831,) a mock- heroic poem, and a number of political satires. He re- sided mostly in Paris. Barthelemy, (Franqois,) Marquis of, a French statesman, born at Aubagne in 1747, was a nephew of the author of " Anacharsis." He held various offices under Napoleon, and at the fall of the empire in 1814 presided over the commission of the senate which de- throned the emperor. Under Louis XVIII. he was made a peer and grand oflicer of the legion of honour, and was subsequently appointed minister of state. Died in 1830. Barthelemy, (Jean Jacques,) a celebrated French writer and scholar, born near Aubagne, in Provence, in 1716. Having studied theology and ancient languages under the Jesuits at Marseilles, he visited Paris, wnere he acquired the friendship of Gros de Boze, keeper of the royal cabinet of medals. In 1753 ^''^ succeeded De Boze in this post, having previously been elected to the Academy of Inscriptions. He subsequently travelled in Italy, where he spent several years in antiquarian re- searches and made a large and choice collection of medals for the royal cabinet. Having obtained several lucrative offices through the favour of the Duke of Choiseul, Barthelemy devoted himself to literary pursuits, and published a number of valuable treatises, chiefly on numismatics and ancient inscriptions. In 1788 he brought out his principal work, entitled "Travels of Anacharsis the Younger in Greece," ("Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grece,") on the composition of which he had spent thirty years. It soon obtained great popularity both in France and other countries, and was translated into several languages. In 1789 Barthelemy became a member of the French Academy. Died in Paris in 1795. See Mancini-Nivernais, " Essai surla Vie de J. J. Barthelemy," 1795; M. G. C. Vii.i.ENAVE, "Notice sur les Ouvrages de J. J. Bar- thelemy," 1821; "Encyclopedia Britannica." Barthelemy, (Jean Simon,) a French historical painter, born at Laon in 1742; died in Paris in 1811. Barthelemy, (Louis,) a French writer on grammar, history, etc., born at Grenoble in 1759; died in 1815. Barthelemy, (Nicolas,) a French Benedictine, born in Touraine in 1478, was the author of Latin epigrams and idylls, and a treatise " On Active and Contemplative Life," (1523.) Died about 1535. Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, btR'tiKme' siNt'e'lir', (Jules,) a French journalist and scholar, born in Paris in 1805, was assistant editor of the "Globe," the "Na- tional," and other journals. He became in 1838 pro- fessor of Latin and Greek philosophy in the College of France. He wrote, among other works, a " Commentary on Aristotle," which obtained a prize from the Academy. Barthelmont. See Bartlemann. Barthes. See Barthez. Barthez, btR^ta', or Barthes, btR^ti', (Paul Joseph,) a celebrated French physician and physiologist, born at Montpellier in 1734. In 1757 he was appointed royal censor, and became associate editor of the "Jour- nal des Savants" and the " Encyclopedic Methodique." He obtained the chair of medicine at Montpellier in 1759. Having settled in Paris in 1780, he was made consulting physician to the king, and a councillor of state. He was the author of "New Doctrine of the Functions of the Human Body," (in Latin, 1774,) "New Elements of the Science of Man," (1778,) a "Discourse on the Genius of Hippocrates," (1801,) and other valua- ble works. Died in 1806. See LoRDAT, " Memoires surla Vie de P. J. Barthez," 1818. Barthez, de, deh btR^ti', (Antoine Charles Er- nest,) a French medical writer, born at Narbonne, in Aude, about 1800. Among his works is a "Treatise on the Diseases of Children," (3 vols., 1843.) Barthez (or Barthes) de Marmorieres — deh mtR^- mo^re-aiR', (Antoine,) Baron, sonof Guillaume, noticed below, was born at Saint Gall, in Switzerland, in 1736. He wrote a tragedy entitled " The Death of Louis XVI.," and other works. Died in 1811. Barthez (or Barthes) de Marmorieres, (Guil- laume,) a French engineer of bridges, etc., and writer on mechanics, lived about 1750. Barthius. See Barth, (Caspar von.) Barthold, baR'tolt, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a Ger- man historian, born in Berlin in 1799, became a professor at Greifswalde in 1834. He published a number of well- written works on German history, among which is a " History of the German Cities and Corporations," {'■'■ Burgerthums,''') 185 1. a, e, 1, 5, u, y, lo7ig; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^U, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moonj BARTHOLDT 279 BARTLETT \ Bartholdy. See Mendelssohn, (Felix.) Bartholdy, btR-toKdee, (Jakob Salomo,) a German soldier, diplomatist, and writer, of Jewish extraction, born at Berlin in 1779. He served in the campaigns against the French from 1809 to 1814, and subsequently became consul-general at Rome. He wrote a " History of the Tyrolese War of 1809," and a " Life of Cardinal Consalvi," (1825.) Died in 1825. Barthole. See Bartoll Bartholin, baR''to-lin', [Lat. Bartholi'nus,] (Eras- mus,) a Danish physician and savant, born at Roskild in 1625, was a son of Kaspar, noticed below. He became professor of geometry and medicine at Copenhagen. See NiCERON, " Memoiies." Bartholin, written also Bartholine, (Kaspar,) a learned physician and medical writer, born at Malmo, in Scania, in 1585, was professor of medicine at Copen- hagen, and in 161 8 rector of the university in that city. Died in 1629. See Haller, " Eibliotheca Anatomica." Bartholin, (Kaspar,) a Danish physician, born in 1655, was a son of Thomas Bartholin, (the first of that name.) He became physician to the King of Denmark, and published a number of medical and scientific works, in Latin. Died in 1738. Bartholin, baR-to-leen', or Bartolini, baR-to-lee'nee, (Ricardo,) an Italian litterateur oi ihc sixteenth century, was a native of Perugia. Bartholin, (Thomas,) son of Kaspar the elder, noticed above, born at Copenhagen in 1616, was one of the most eminent physicians of his time. Having studied at Leyden and afterwards visited the principal countries of Europe, he was appointed in 1648 professor of anatomy at Co- penhagen. Among his works, which are written in Latin, are a treatise on the lymphatic vessels, (the discovery of which he claimed,) a dissertation on the functions of the liver, and his "Anatomia," (1641,) which had a high re- putation as a text-book and passed through numerous editions. Died in 1680. See Haller, "Eibliotheca Anatomica;" G. Hann^us, "Oratio in obitum T. Bartholini," 1680. Bartholin, (Thomas,) a Danish jurist, son of the preceding, born in 1659, was appointed keeper of the royal archives, and held other important offices. He was the author of several works on northern antiquities and history. Died in 1690. Bartholine. See Bartholin. Bartholinus. See Bartholin. Bartholomaeus, bar-thol-o-mee'us,an English bishop of Exeter, wrote a compilation entitled a "Penitential," and " Dialogues against the Jews." Died about 1187. Bartholomaeus, baR-to-lo-ma'oos, Bishop of Urbino, in Italy, lived about 1350. Bartholomaeus, baR-to-lo-ma'us, [Fr. Barth^lemi, btR'taKme' ; Sp. Bartolom^:, baR-to-lo-ma',] (a Mar- tyr''ibus; so named from the church of the Martyrs,) a Portuguese prelate, born in 1 5 14. In 1559 he became Archbishop of Braga. At the Council of Trent he distinguished himself by his advocacy of reform in the Catholic Church. Died in 1590. See Lemaistrede Sacv, "Viede Barthelemi," 1663; L. Munoz, "Vida de Fr. Bartolome de los Martyres," 1645; F. A. Vitoria, " Vida do arcebispo Fr. Bartholomeo dos Martyros," 2 vols., 1748-49. Bar-thol-o-mae'us Co-lo-ni-en'sis, or Bartholo- mew of Cologne, a distinguished scholar and writer, born at Cologne about 1460, studied at Deventer, where he became acquainted with Erasmus. Died about 15 14. Bartholomaeus (or Bar-thol'o-mew) de Glan'- ville, a Franciscan monk, called Anglicus, (the "Eng- lishman,") born in Suffolk, lived about 1370. His prin- cipal work is a kind of encyclopaedia, entitled " On the Properties of Things," ("De Proprietatibus Rerum,") which had a high reputation in his time. Bar-thoFo-mew, [Gr. Bapdo7.ofj.alog; Lat. Bartholo- m^e'us,] Saint, (believed by many to be the same as the Nathanael spoken of in John i. 45-49,) one of the twelve apostles, is supposed to have been a native of Galilee. It is stated by Eu.sebius that he preached the gospel in India. The time and place of his death are unknown, and none of his writings are extant. His relics are said to have been brought to Rome, where a church was erected in his honour. (See Matthew x., Mark iii., and Luke vi.) Bartisch, baR'tish, (Georg,) a German surgeon, who lived about 1570, and wrote "On Diseases of the Eye." Bar'tle-mann, [Fr. Barthelmont, bSR^t^Km^N',] written also Barthelemon, (Hippolyte,) a French mu- sician and composer of operas, born at Bordeaux in 1731 ; died in London in 1808. He was an excellent violinist. See " Fraser's Magazine," vol. xlviii. Bar'tle-mann, (James,) an English vocalist, espe- cially distinguished as a bass singer, born at Westmin- ster in 1769; died in 1821. Bart'lett, (Elisha,) an American physician, born at Smithfield, Rhode Island, in 1804 or 1805, graduated in 1826. He practised several years at Lowell, Massachu- setts, obtained the chair of medicine in the University of Maryland in 1844, and afterwards lectured on medicine at Lexington and Louisville, Kentucky. In 1850 he was appointed professor of medicine in the University of New York. He was a popular teacher, and acquired distinc- tion by his medical works, among which is an " Essay on the Philosophy of Medical Science." Died in 1855. See Gross, "American Medical Biography." Bartlett, (Ichabod,) a distinguished American lawyer, born at Salisbury, New Hampshire, in 1786. He grad- uated at Dartmouth College in 1808, and afterwards prac- tised law at Portsmouth. lie was a representative in Congress from 1833 to 1839. Died in 1853. Bartlett, (John Russell,) an American writer, born at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1805. He was a mer- chant in New York in early life, and was appointed in 1850 commissioner to determine the boundary-liiie be- tween the United States and Mexico. He published a "Dictionary of Americanisms," (1848,) and a "Personal Narrative of Explorations and Incidents in Texas, New Mexico, California, etc.," (2 vols., 1854.) Bartlett, (John Sherren,) M.D., a physician and journalist, born in England in 1790. He emigrated to the United States, and in 1822 established in New York "The Albion," a journal of the English conservative school of politics, which he conducted with signal ability. On the introduction of ocean steam-navigation he founded "The European" in Liverpool, intended to furnish the American public a weekly summary of foreign news. His latest enterprise in journalism was "The Anglo-Saxon," commenced in Boston in 1855. Bartlett, (Joseph,) an American satiric poet, born in Plymouth, Massachusetts, about 1763. He graduated at Harvard in 1782. In 1799 he delivered a poem on Physiognomy before the Phi Beta Kappa Society of Har- vard. An edition of this poem was published in 1823, together with a number of aphorisms on various subjects. On the 4th of July, 1823, he delivered an oration in Boston, and recited a poem called "The New Vicar of Bray." Died in 1827. Bartlett, (Josiah,) M.D., an American patriot, born in Amesbury, Massachusetts, in 1729. He was a dele- gate to the Continental Congress in 1776-78, and signed the Declaration of Independence. He was appointed chief justice of the common pleas in 1779, and soon after chief justice of the superior court of New Hamp- shire. In 1790 he became President of New Hampshire, and in 1793 was chosen the first Governor under the new constitution. See Charles A. Goodrich, "Lives of the Signers to the I>eclara- tion of Independence." Bartlett, (Josiah,) an American physician, born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1759. He delivered orations on various subjects. Died in 1820. Bartlett, (William,) a wealthy American merchant, one of the principal founders and benefactors of the Theological Seminary at Andover, was born at Newbury, Massachusetts, in 1748; died in 1841. Bartlett, (William Henry,) an English artist, born in London in 1809, travelled extensively in the East, and published several works illustrated with drawings by himself. Among them are " Walks in and about Jeru- salem," (1844,) "Forty Days in the Desert," (1848,) and " The Nile Boat, or Glimpses of the Land of Egypt," (1849.) Died at sea in 1854 or 1855. See William Beattie, " Memoir of William Henry Bartlett," 1855. € as 9 as s; g Aard; g as /; g, h, yl, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BART LETT 280 BARTON Bartlett, (William H. C.,) an American scientific writer, born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, in 1804, published treatises on "Optics," "Mechanics," and " Spherical Astronomy," and contributed to " Silliman's Journal," etc. Bar'tol, (Cyrus Augustus,) an American Congre- gational minister, born at Freeport, Maine, in 1813. He became pastor of a church in Boston about 1837. He published, besides other works, " Pictures of Europe," and " Discourses on the Christian Spirit and Life." See a notice, by E. P. Whipple, in the " North American Re- view" for January, 1850. Bartoldy, baR-toKdee, (Georg Wilhelm,) a learned German writer, born at Colberg in 1765. He translated Bacon's " Novum Organum." Died in 181 5. Bartoli.baR'to-lee, orBartolo, baR'to-lo, [Lat. Bar'- tolus ; Fr. Barthole, biR'toK,] an Italian jurist and legal writer, born at Sasso-Ferrato in 13 13, was professor of law at Perugia. He enjoyed a very high reputation in his time. Died in 1356. Bartoli, (Cosimo,) an Italian litterateur, lived at Flor- ence, and wrote several scientific, historical, and moral treatises. He was one of the founders of the Academy degli Umidi, formed in 1540. Among his works is a " Life of Frederick Barbarossa," (1559.) See GiNGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Bartoli, (Daniele,) an Italian Jesuit and distinguished writer, born at Ferrara in 1608. His greatest work is a "History of the Company of Jesus," (1653-63,) which gives an interesting account of the missions of the Jesuits in the various parts of Asia, including Japan. He also wrote a "Life of Ignatius Loyola," (1689,) and several moral and scientific treatises, which are highly esteemed. Died in Rome in 1685. See TiKABOSCHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Bartoli, (Domenico,) an Italian poet, born near Lucca in 1629, assisted Beverini in translating the " /Eneid" into Italian. Died in 1698. Bartoli, (Francesco,) an Italian painter of the school of Modena, was a pupil of Bibbiena. Died in 1779. Bartoli, (Giuseppe,) an Italian antiquary, born at Padua in 17 17, became professor of belles-lettres at Turin in 1745. He was a corresponding member of the French Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1788. Bartoli, (Minerva,) an Italian poetess, born at Ur- bino, lived about 1580. Bartoli, (Pietro Santi,) a celebrated Italian en- graver and painter, born at Perugia about 1635. He studied painting under Nicolas Poussin, whose style he imitated with great success. He is chiefly known from his engravings, which are for the most part illustrations of ancient art from the Catacombs and the ruins of Rome. Died at Rome in 1700. He engraved some works of Raphael. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Bartolini, baR-to-lee'nee, (Giuseppe Maria,) an Ital- ian painter of the Bolognese school, born at Imola in 1657 ; died in 1725. Bartolini, (Lorenzo,) a celebrated Florentine sculp- tor, born about 1778. Having studied in Paris under Lemot, he soon after established his reputation by a bas- relief of great beauty, representing "Cleobis and Biton." He was charged by Napoleon with the execution of a number of works, and founded by his order the school of sculpture at Carrara, His colossal bust of Napoleon is ranked among his master-pieces ; also the group of " Hercules and Lycas," and the monument of Lady Stratford Canning at Lausanne, in Switzerland. Bartolini is esteemed by his countrymen as second only to Canova. " No artist," says M. Breton, " not even Canova, ap- proached as near as Bartolini to the ideal purity and the noble simplicity of the works of the age of Pericles." (" Nouvelle Biographic Generale.") He died at or near Florence in January, 1850. Bartolo. See Bartoli. Bartolo, baR'to-lo, or Bartoli, baR'to-lee, (Dome- nico,) sometimes called Domenico d'Asciano, an Italian fresco-painter, born about 1450, was a nephew and pupil of Taddeo, noticed below. Bartolo or Bartoli, (Taddeo,) an Italian painter of Sienna, born about 1350. Among his master-pieces are the frescos in the public palace at Sienna. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Bartolocci, baR-to-lot'chee, [Lat. Bartoloc'cius,] (GiULio,) an Italian scholar and ecclesiastic, born in 1613, is sometimes called di Celano, (de cha-la'no,) from the place of his birth. He was professor of Hebrew in the college di Sapienza at Rome. His principal work is entitled " Bibliotheca Magna Rabbinica," (4 vols., 1675-93,) a valuable synopsis of rabbinical literature. Died in 1687. See Wolf, "Bibliotheca Hebraica." Bartolonimei, baR-to-lom-ma'ee, (Geronimo,) n Italian litterateur, born at Florence about 1584, was the author of several tragedies and poems, among which is " Didascalia, sive Doctrina Comica." Died in 1662. Bartolommei, (Matteo Mario,) an Italian drama- tist, born at Florence in 1640, was a son of the preced- ing. Died in 1695. Bartolommei, (Simone Pietro,) an antiquarian writer, born in the Tyrol in 1709; died in 1764. Bartolommeo, baR-to-lom-ma'o, a Florentine painter who worked about 1250. Bartolommeo, (Maestro,) a Venetian sculptor and architect, lived about 1390. He designed the " Porta della Carta," the chief entrance to the doge's palace at Venice. Bartolommeo della Porta. See Baccio della Porta. Bartolommeo, di, de baR-to-lom-ma'o, (Dionisio,) an Italian architect, worked at Naples about 1580. Bartolommeo, di, (Leonardo,) a Sicilian politician, born at Palermo ; died in 1450. Bartoloni, baR-to-lo'nee, (Pietro Domenico,) an Italian physician and miscellaneous writer, born at Em- poli, near Florence, about 1640. Bartolozzi, baR-to-lot'see, (Francesco,) an eminent Italian engraver, born at Florence about 1725. He studied under Wagner at Venice, and, after residing for a time at Rome, removed to England, where he executed a series of plates from Guercino. On the invitation of the Prince-regent of Portugal, about 1805, he settled in that country, where he died about 181 6. Bartolozzi ex- celled in every department of engraving, and is justly esteemed one of the greatest masters of the art. Among his most admired works are the " Virgin and Child," after Carlo Dolce ; Guido's " Massacre of the Innocents and the "Death of Lord Chatham," after Copley. The number of his prints is estimated at more than two thousand. See Le Blanc, " Manuel de I'Amateur d'Estampes." Bartolus. See Bartoli. Bar'ton, (Benjamin Smith,) an American naturalist and physician, born at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1766, was a nephew of David Rittenhouse. He studied medi- cine in London and Edinburgh, and graduated at Got- tingen about 1788. He obtained in 1789 the chair of natural history in the College of Philadelphia, which was incorporated with the University of Pennsylvania in 1 791. He was appointed professor of materia medicain 1795, and succeeded Dr. Rush as professor of the theory and practice of medicine in 1813. He promoted the diffusion of natural science by his writings, among which are "Elements of Botany," (1803,) and "Collections for an Essay towards a Materia Medica of the United States," (1798.) Died in 181 5. See a " Biography of Benjamin S. Barton," by his nephew, W. P. C. Barton; Thacher, "Medical Biography." Bar'ton, (Bernard,) a member of the Society of Friends, popularly known as "the Quaker poet," was born in London in 1784. He was the author of " Napo- leon, and other Poems," (1822,) "Devotional Verses," (1826,) "Poetic Vigils," "A Widow's Tale, and other Poems," (1827,) and "The Reliquary," (1836.) "His works are full of passages of natural tenderness, and his religious poems, though animated with a warmth of devo- tion, are still expressed with that subdued propriety of language which evinces at once a correctness of taste and feeling." (" Gentleman's Magazine.") Died in 1849. See "Memoirs, Letters, etc. of Bernard Barton," edited by his daughter; "Edinburgh Review" for November, 1820; "Black- wood's Magazine" for December, 1822. a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; BARTON 281 B AS CHI ERA Barton, (Elizabeth,) an English fanatic or impostor under the reign of Henry VIII., commonly called "the Holy Maid of Kent." Having acquired a reputation for being inspired, she was instigated by the partisans of Queen Catherine to prophesy against the marriage of the king with Anne Boleyn. The excitement produced by these revelations among the people was so great that the government, becoming alarmed, caused her to be arrested in 1533, together with a number of priests, her accomplices, and she was executed with them at Tyburn in 1534. Barton, (Thomas,) a learned Episcopal minister, born in Ireland in 1730. He married a sister of David Rit- tenhouse in 1753, and officiated for many years as rector at Lancaster, Pennsylvania. He was the father of Ben- jamin Smith Barton, M.D. Died in New York in 1780. Barton, (William,) Lieutenant-Colonel, an Ame- rican ofiicer, born about 1747. He commanded a small party which surprised and captured General Prescott near Newport, Rhode Island, in July, 1777. Died in 183 1. Barton, (William P. C.,) an American botanist and physician, born in 1786. He was a nephew of Benjamin Smith Barton, whom he succeeded as professor of botany in the University of Pennsylvania. He published "Ve- getable Materia Medica of the United States, or Medical Botany," (2 vols., 1817-25,) "Compendium Ploras Phila- delphicae," (2 vols., 1818,) and " Flora of North America, illustrated by coloured figures," (3 vols., 1821-23.) Died in 1856. Bar'tram, (John,) an eminent American botanist, born in Marple, Delaware county, Pennsylvania, in 1701. His attainments in natural history attracted the attention of Linnaeus, who pronounced him " the greatest natural botanist in the world." He was the first American to establish a botanical garden, which he enriched with exotics and rare native plants. Sir Hans Sloane, Lin- naeus, and other eminent European botanists furnished him with books and apparatus, and he in return sent them new and curious specimens of the natural produc- tions of America. He was chosen a member of several learned societies in Europe, and appointed American botanist to George III. of England, a position which he held till his death in 1777. The results of his observa- tions on the inhabitants, animals, climate, soil, produc- tions, etc., in a journey to Lake Ontario, were published in London in 1751, and a journal of a tour to East Florida in 1766. He also contributed various papers to the "Philosophical Transactions." Mr. Bartram was distinguished in other departments of natural history, possessed some knowledge of medicine, and was an in- genious mechanic. He had a fine botanic garden in the environs of Philadelphia. See William Darlington, "Memorials of John Bartram and Humphrey Marshall," 1849; " Encyclopasdia Americana." Bartram, (William,) a botanist and traveller, born near Philadelphia in 1739, was a son of the preceding. He passed about five years in the exploration of the na- tural productions of the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida, and published "Travels through North and South Caro- lina, Georgia, and East and West Florida," (1791.) He produced a list of American birds, which was the most complete that appeared before the work of Wilson. Died in 1823. See " Encyclopaedia Americana." Bartsch, baRtsh, (Jan,) a Dutch physician and savant, born about 1720, was a friend of Boerhaave and Linnaeus. The latter named the genus Bartsia in his honour. Bartsch, von, fon baRtsh, (Johann Adam Bern- HARt),) a German engraver and writer upon art, born at Vienna in 1747, was keeper of the imperial library and of the prints in the royal collection. His principal work is entitled "The Painter-Engraver," (" Le Peintre- Graveur," 21 vols., 1821,) besides which he prepared a " Catalogue of all the Prints of Rembrandt," with several other similar works. Among his engravings and etch- ings, which amount in all to more than five hundred, we may mention his prints after Rembrandt and Potter. Died in 1820. See I-E Blanc, "Manuel de I'Amateur d'Estampes." Barucco, bi-rook'ko, (Giacomo,) a painter of the Venetian school, born about 1620. Baruch, ba'riik, [Heb. the son of Neriah, wa*. the friend and companion of the prophet Jeremiah, whom he served as a scribe. He accompanied Jeremiah in 588 B.C. into Egypt, where, as stated by some writers, he died ; while others assert that he died in Babylon. The book of Baruch is recognized as canonical by the Cath- olics, but it is regarded by the Protestants as apocryphal. (See Jeremiah xxxii. 12-16; xxxvi. 4, 17, 27.) Baruffaldi, b3,-roof-faKdee, (Geronimo,) an Italian litterateur, born at Ferrara in 1675 ; died in 1753. Baruffaldi, (Geronimo,) an Italian Jesuit and writer, born at P^rrara in 1740, was a nephew of the preceding. Died in 1817. Bar'wick, (John,) an English divine, born in West- moreland in 1612, distinguished himself by his zeal in promoting the restoration of Charles II. Died in 1664. See Peter Barwick's "Life of John Barvvick," 1721. Barwick, (Peter,) brother of John Barwick, was appointed in 1660 physician-in-ordinary to Charles II. He wrote, among other works, a "Defence of Harvey's Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood." Died in 1 705. Bary,bt^re', (Henry,) a Flemish engraver, born about 1625. Among his master-pieces are portraits of Grotius and Admiral Van Tromp, and " Summer and Autumn," after Van Dyck. See Descamps, "Vie des Peintres Flamands," etc. Barye, bt^re', (Antoine Louis,) a French sculptor and engraver, born in Paris in 1795. Among his master- pieces are a "Lion strangling a Boa," a "Group of Young Bears," "Charles VI. in the Forest of Mans," and "The Three Graces." Barzena. See Barcena. Barzini, baRd-zee'nee, (Francesco,) a Florentine writer on astrology and philosophy, born about 1667. Barzizzio or Barziza. See Gasparino. Barzoni, baRd-zo'nee, (Vittorio,) an Italian politi- cal and historical writer, born at Lonato in 1768; died in 1829. See William Thompson, "Life of Vittorio Barzoni," London, 1831 ; "Quarterly Review" for March, 1813. Bas or Basse, bSs, (Martin,) a Dutch engraver, who lived about 1600, left several portraits of superior merit. Bas or Basse, (William,) an engraver, whose prin- cipal work is a "Virgin with the Infant Jesus and Saint John." Nothing is known of his life. See Strutt, "Dictionary of Engravers." Bas,Le. See Le Bas. Basadonna, ba-sA-don'nJ, (Giovanni,) an Italian poet, born at Venice, wrote "Latin Dialogues," (1518.) Basaiti, b5-sl'tee, (Marco,) sometimes called del Friuli, an eminent Italian painter of the fifteenth cen- tury, was a native of Friuli. His " Calling of Saint Peter," in the Academy at Venice, is esteemed his mas- ter-piece. He painted other pictures of great merit, among which we may name an "Assumption," and "The Prayer in the Garden." See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." Basan or Bazan, bt'z6N', (Pierre Francois,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1723. Among his best works are a " Bacchus and Ariadne," after Gior- dano, and "Antiope," after Correggio. He was the author of a " Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Engravers," which is highly esteemed, (3 vols., 1767.) Died in 1797. See Le Blanc, "Manuel de I'Amateur d'Estampes." Basanier, bt'zt'ne-i', (Martin,) a French musician and mathematician, born about 1540, wrote a work on the theory and practice of music. Bascape, bis-ka'pa, (Geronimo,) an Italian jurist and legal writer; died in 1641. Baschenis, bSs-ka'n^ss, (Evaristo,) an Italian painter, born at Bergamo in 161 7, was celebrated for his skilful representations of musical instruments, books, and similar objects of still life. Died in 1677. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Baschi, bis'kee, (Matteo,) an Italian monk, born in the duchy of Urbino, was the founder of the order of Capuchins, so called from a hood o^ peculiar form {cap- pnccio) worn by them. Died in 1552. See Baverius, "Annales Capucinorum." Baschiera, bls-ke-a'rS, (Niccol6,) an Italian artist, € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, Yi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^=See Explanations, p. 23.) BJSCHILOW 282 BASILIDES who designed the magnificent marble front of Saint Peter's at Mantua. Died about 1760. Baschilow. See 13ashilof. Bas^cpm, (Henry B.,) an American Methodist bishop and pulpit orator, born in Western New York in 1796. He was ordained bishop at Saint Louis, Missouri, in 1849 or 1850, and died in the latter year. See M. M. Henkle, "Life of Bishop Bascom," 1857. Basedow, bd'zeh-do'', (Johann Bernhard,) origin- ally JoHANN Berend Bassedau, (bas'seh-dow,) a cele- brated German teacher and educational reformer, was born at Hamburg in 1723. He published in 1774 an elementary school-book entitled " Orbis Pictus," in three volumes and illustrated with one hundred engravings, which soon became widely popular. About the same time he founded at Dessau a school called a " Philan- thropin," in which he sought to render knowledge at- ti-active and adapt it to the comprehension of the young. Died at Magdeburg in 1790. See J. C. Meykr, " Basedows Leben und Schriften," 2 vols., 1792 ; H. Rathmann, "BeiUage zur Lebensgeschichte J. 13. Basedow's," 1791. Baseilhac. See Cosme, (Frere Jean.) Ba-se'li-us or van Basel, vin ba'zel, written also Basie, (Jacobus,) a Dutch historian and theologian, born hi 1530, wrote an "Account of the Siege of Bergen-op- Zoom in 1588." Died in 1598. Baselius, (Jacobus,) a grandson of the preceding, born at Leyden, was the author of an "Ecclesiastical History of Belgium," (1657.) Baselius, (Nicholas,) a Flemish surgeon and writer, wrote, in Latin, a "Description of the Comet of 1577." Baselli, b^-seKlee, (Benedetto,) an Italian physician and surgeon, born at San Pellegrino. Having been re- fused admission to the College of Physicians because he practised surgery, he wrote, in Latin, a vindication of the nobility of surgery. Died in 162L See " Biographic Medicale." Basevi, bas'e-ve, (George,) a distinguished English architect, born at Brighton in 1794. Among his princi- pal works are the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge, and Saint Mary's Hall at Brighton. He also furnished the designs for Belgrave Square. Died in 1845. Bash'aw, (Edward,) an English nonconformist min- ister of Exeter. For refusing to take the oath of allegiance he was imprisoned in Newgate, where he died in 167 L Bashilof, b^sh'Mof, or Baschilow, (Semen,) a Rus- sian savant, born at Moscow in 1740. He was secretary of the senate at Saint Petersburg, and translated several French works, among which was the " Candide" of Vol- taire. Died in 1770. Bashkin, bish'kin, (Matthei Semenof,) a Russian heresiarch of the sixteenth century, who professed doc- trines resembling those of the Arians. Bashuysen, von, fon bas'hoi''zen,(HETNRiCH Jakob,) a German Oriental scholar, born at Hanau in 1679, was appointed to the chair of Oriental languages and history at Zerbst. He published a number of Latin commenta- ries on the Hebrew writers. Died in 1758. See E. L. D. Hugh, " Programma continens Vitam H. J. de Bas- huysen," 1759. Ba'sil, Bishop of Thessalonica, called Ascolius or Acholius, was a friend of Saint Ambrose. He bap- tized the emperor Theodosius. Died about 384 a.d. Ba''sil or Ba-siPi-us, [Gr. 'QaatknoQ or Unatkiog ; It. Basilio, b3.-see'le-o ; Fr. Basile, bt^z6K,] Saint, sur- named the Great, one of the most eminent of the Christian Fathers, born at Caesarea, in Cappadocia, about 329 A.D. He studied law and rhetoric at Constantinople, and subsequently at Athens, where Julian (afterwards emperor) and Gregory Nazianzen were his fellow- students. With the latter he formed an intimate friend- ship, which lasted through life. About 358 A.D. he abandoned his profession, and retired to a cloister in a mountainous region of Pontus, where he was soon joined by Gregory. He here established a system of monastic dis- cipline, which still prevails in Greek and Oriental monas- teries. On the deatt of Eusebius in 370, Basil was elected Bishop of Cassarea. In this station he was distinguished for his extensive charities, his zeal for the reformation of church discipline, and his opposition to the Arian heresy, at that time maintained by the emperor Valens. Among his chief productions (in Greek) are " Nine Homilies on the Six Days' Work," "Two Books on Baptism," " Plomilies on the Psalms," and a collection of "Letters." His writings are characterized by great purity of style, and an elevated moral tone combined with fervent piety. Died in 379 A.D. See Socrates, "Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Godfrey Hermant, "Vie de Saint-Basile," 1674; Sozomen, "Historia;" A. Agresta, "Vita del protopatriarca S. Basilio Magno," 1658; J. E. Feisser, "Dissertatio de Vita Basilii ISIagni," 8vo, 1828; Klose, " Basiluis der Giosse nach seinem Leben," etc., 1835. Basil or Basilius of Cilicia, Bishop of Irenopolis, an ecclesiastical writer of the fifth century. He was the author of a " History of the Church," and several con- troversial works. Basil I., [Lat. Basil'ius ; Fr. Basile, bt'z^K,] sur- named THE Macedo'nian, Emperor of the East, was born about 820, in humble circumstances. He succeeded in winning the favour of the emperor Michael HI., who raised him to be his colleague in the empire, (866 ;) but Basil did not ItDug retain his favour, and, believing his own life to be in danger, he caused Michael to be assas- sinated in 867. He commenced the compilation of the code of laws entitled "Basilica," which was completed by his son Leo. Having conquered a considerable part of Asia Minor, he drove the Saracens out of Italy in 885. He died in 886, and was succeeded by his son, Leo VI. See Le Beau, "Histoire du Bas-Empire;" G. Impaccianti, "Basilio il Macedone," 2 vols., 1809. Basil II., [Lat. Basilius,] Emperor of the East, born in 958, was a son of Romanus II. On the death of the usurper John Zimisces, (975,) Basil succeeded to the throne, his brother Constantine having a nominal share in the government. Basil was one of the greatest com- manders of his time, and was engaged in almost con- tinual wars with the Saracens, Bulgarians, and Germans. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Basil or Basilius, made Bishop of Ancyra in 336 A.D. in opposition to Marcellus, who was deposed by the party of Eusebius. He was a zealous opponent of the Arians. Basil, Bishop of Seleucia. See Basilius. Basil, the founder of the heretical sect of Bogomiles in Bulgaria. He was burnt at the stake, by order of the emperor Alexius Comnenus, in 1118. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Basil, Prince of Moldavia in the seventeenth century, was deposed for his tyranny. Ba'sil-VaPen-tine, [Lat. and Ger. Basil'ius Va- LENTi'nus,] a celebrated German writer on chemistry and alchemy, born about 1410. He was the author of a treatise entitled " The Triumphal Car of Antimony," ("Currus Triumphalis Antimonii,") and other scientific works, which had a high reputation among his contem- poraries. See F. HoEFER, "Histoire de la Chimie." Basile, the French of Basil, which see. Basile, b^-see'li, (Adriana,) a sister of Giambattista, noticed below, was distinguished for her beauty, and her talent for music and poetry, Basile, (Gennaro,) a Neapolitan painter, who about 1756 resided at Briinn, in Moravia, where are most of his works. Basile, (Giambattista,) an Italian poet, born about 15S0 ; died in 1637. Basiletti, bc^-se-let'tee, (Luigi,) an Italian painter of history and landscapes, born at Brescia ; died about 1845. Basili, ba-see'lee, (Pier-Angelo,) an Italian painter, born at Gubbio about 1540 ; died in 1604. Basilico, b^-see'le-ko or bi-siKe-ko, (Ciriaco,) an Italian litteratejir, lived about 1670, and translated into Italian verse the " Satyricon" of Petronius Arbiter. Basilico, (Geronimo,) an Italian jurist, born at Mes- sina, was the author of some legal and other works. Died in 1670^ Bas-i-li'des, [Gr. V>aoL\d6iiQ; Fr. Basilide, bt''ze1^d',] the founder of a sect, lived in Egypt under the reign of Trajan and Hadrian. His doctrine is said to have been a reflection of that of Zoroaster. He taught that ihe a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; \ b, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sho7-t; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; mo<.»n; BASILINA 283 world was produced by two principles, Good or Light, and Evil or Darkness. Died about 130 a.d. See RiTTER, "History of Philosophy." Bas-i-li'lia, the second wife of Julius Constantius, and the mother of Julian the Apostate. She is said to have favoured the doctrines of the Arians. Died in 331 A.D. Basilic. See Basil, Saint. Basilio da Gama, bS-see'le-o d^ gi'ml, (Joze,) born at San Joze, in Brazil, in 1740, was one of the founders of the Brazilian Academy. He was the author of a popular poem entitled " Uruguay," and a number of lyrics. Died about 1795. Bas-i-lis'cus, [Gr. V>aoiXLaKoq ; Fr. Basilisque, ze'lesk',] Emperor of the East, was a brother of the empress Verina, wife of Leo 1. \\\ 468 a.d, he was appointed, under Leo L, commander-in-chief of the great expedition against Genseric, King of the Vandals, who had taken possession of Carthage. His army suffered a total defeat, and Basiliscus was banished to Thrace. On the death of Leo, 474, he usurped the throne, of which Zeno was the rightful heir. Li 476 Zeno defeated and took captive the usurper, who died in prison in 477 or 478. During his reign the great library of Constan- tinople was destroyed by fire. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Basilisque or Basilique, See Basiliscus. Basilius. See Basil, Saint. Ba-sil'i-us, Bishop of Seleucia from 448 till 458, was the author of a collection of homilies. Basil'ius of Glemo'na, a missionary to China, pub- lished a "Chinese Dictionary," (1726,) which has been translated into several languages. Scarcely anything is known of his life. Basilovitch. See Ivan, Czar of Russia. Bas^i-lus, (L. Minucius,) sometimes called M. Sa- trius, a Roman soldier, served under Caesar in Gaul in 54 and 52 B.C. Though a professed friend of Cresar, he took part in his assassination, and was afterwards mur- dered by his own slaves, whom he had treated cruelly. Basin, bt^zdN', (Simon,) a French ecclesiastic and writer, born in Paris in 1608, was chaplain to Anne of Austria, wife of Louis XHI. Died in 1671. Basin or Bazin, bt'zdN', (Thomas,) a French his- torian, born at Caudebec in 1402. He became professor of canon law at Caen, and in 1447 Bishop of Lisieux. He wrote, in Latin, a "History of Charles VH. and Louis XL," which is highly interesting, a "Justification of the Maid of Orleans," and other works. Died in 1491. See " Nouvelle Biographie G^n^rale." Basine or Bazine, bt^z^n', was originally married to the King of Thuringia, whom she abandoned, and be- came the wife of Childcric L of France, and the mother of the celebrated Clovis. Ba'sing or de Ba'sing-stoke, (John,) an English scholar, born in Hampshire, studied at Oxford, and sub- sequently at Athens, where he collected a number of Greek manuscripts. He introduced the Greek numeral letters into England. He wrote several learned works, and translated into Latin a Greek treatise on grammar, entitled "Donatus of the Greeks," ("Donatus Graeco- rum.") Basing was appointed Archdeacon of Leicester. Died in 1252. See ScHOELL, "Histoire de la Litt^rature Grecque." Basinio di Basanii, b^-see'ne-o de bi-sa'ne-ee, an Italian poet, born at Parma about 1425, became pro- fessor of Latin eloquence at Ferrara. H^e wrote a Latin poem entitled " Hesperides." Died in 1457. Basire, (Claude.) See Bazire. Basire, b^ -zeer', (Isaac,) an English divine, born in the island of Jersey in 1607. He was appointed chap- lain to Charles I. about 1640, and held the same office under Charles II. He wrote a "History of the English and Scotch Presbytery." Died in 1676. : Basire, (James,) an English engraver, born in 1730. Among his works are " Pylades and Orestes," after West, and "The Field of the Cloth of Gold ; or the Interview between Francis I. and Henry VIII." The last-named plate was one of the largest ever engraved. Died in 1802. Basire, (James,) son of the preceding, born in 1769, succeeded his father as engraver to the Royal and Anti- BASS quarian Societies. His prints of the English cathedrals after John Carter are among his best works. Died in 1822. Bas''ker-ville, (John,) an English printer, celebrated for the great improvements he effected in typography, was born in Worcestershire in 1706. His English Bible, Book of Common Prayer, and editions of the classics are still admired and sought for. Died in 1775. Baskerville, (Sir Simon,) an eminent English phy- sician, died in 1641. Basmaison Pougnet, de, deh b^^mi'ziN' poon^yi', (Jean,) a French jurist and legal writer, born about 1540, was a native of Riom. Basmaji, bSs-ma'jee, or Basmadji, (Ibraheem,) a Hungarian renegade, who, in conjunction with Seid-Ef- fendi, established the first printing-press in Turkey. He was permitted by the Sultan Ahmed III. to print any- thing except the Koran and the canonical writings. Died in 1746. Basmanov, bis-m^'nov, (Peter,) a Russian general, who, having in 1605 aided the false Demetrius to usurp the throne, was killed in attempting to enter the Kremlin. Basnage, ba'ntzh', (Antoine,) a French Protestant divine, son of Benjamin, noticed below, born in 1610. He took refuge in Holland after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and died as pastor at Zutphen in 1691. Basnage, (Benjamin,) a Protestant theologian, born at Carentan in 1580. He was pastor in his native town, and in 1637 became president of the synod at Alen9on. He wrote a "Treatise on the Church," (1612.) Died in 1652. Basnage de Beauval, bd^nizh' deh bo\tK, (Henri,) son of Basnage du Fraquenay, born at Rouen in 1656, was advocate of the parliament in his native city. He was the author of a "Treatise on Religious Toleration," (1684,) and edited a journal entitled "History of the Works of Savants." He became an exile for religion about 1686. Died at the Hague in 17 10. See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Basnage de Beauval, (Jacques,) an eminent scholar and theologian, brother of the preceding, born at Rouen in 1653. He studied at Savunur under the celebrated Tannegui Le Fevre, and acquired a profound knowledge of the ancient and modern languages. He subsequently devoted himself to theology at Geneva and Sedan, and in 1676 became Protestant pastor at Rouen. He emigrated to Holland about 1685. Through the influence of his friend the grand pensionary Heinsius, he was appointed pastor at the Hague in 1709. About this time he was employed in several political negotiations, in which he displayed such diplomatic ability that Voltaire said of him, "he was fitter to be minister of state than of a parish." Among his numerous and valuable works may be named "The Holy Communion, or Treatise on the Necessity and Means of Communing Worthily," (16S8,) " History of the Church from Jesus Christ to the Present Time," (2 vols., 1699,) and "History of the Jews from Jesus Christ to the Present Time," (5 vols., 1706.) Died in 1723. See NiCERON, "Memoires." Basnage de Flottenianville, bi'ntzh' deh flot'- mSN'v^K, (Samuel,) grandson of Benjamin, noticed above, born at Bayeux in 1638. He became pastor at Zutphen, where he died in 172 1. He wrote several ec- clesiastical works in French and Latin. Basnage dii Fraquenay, bS^ntzh' dii fRtk'nuT^axoq, a "frog,"] a Greek archi- tect of the time of Augustus. With his countryman Saurus, [Sa?)po^^, a " lizard,"] he built two temples at Rome. As they were not allowed to inscribe their names on their work, they carved, it is said, a lizard and a frog on the columns. Batsch, b^tsh, (August Johann Georg Karl,) aGer- man naturalist, born at Jena in 1761. He wrote, among other works, a monograph of the mushrooms in the vicinity of Jena, entitled " Elenchus Fungorum," (1783,) and " Elements ofSystematic Chemistry," (1789.) Gmelin has given the name Batschia to a genus of the order Boraginas. Batsch was professor of natural history, etc. at Jena, where he died in 1802. See " Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale." Batt, bit, (Bartholomew,) a Flemish Protestant, born at Alost in 1515, wrote, in Latin, a treatise "On Christian Economy." Batt, (Charles,) a Flemish physician, translated several medical works from the French. He lived at Dort from 1593 to 1598. Batt, bat, (Conrad,) a Dutch or German physician, born at Rostock in 1573 ; died in 1605. Batt, (Cornelius,) son of James, noticed below, born in Zealand in 1470, was the author of a " Descrii^tion of the World." Died in 1517. Batt, (James,) born in Zealand, was secretary of the town of Bergen-op-Zoom. He was an intimate friend of Erasmus. Batt, (Lievin,) a Flemish physician, son of Bartholo- mew, noticed above, born at Ghent about 1540, was pro- fessor of mathematics at Rostock. Died in 1591. Batt, (William,) an English physician, born at Col- lingham in 1744, became in 1778 professor of chemistry at Genoa, where he introduced vaccination. Died in 1812. Battaglia. See Cerquozzi. Battaglia, bit-t^KyS, an Italian architect of the eigh- teenth century, celebrated for having completed the mag- nificent convent of Catania, in Sicily. Battaglia, (Cesare,) an Italian ecclesiastic, born at Milan in 1605. Battaglia, (DiONisio,) an Italian painter of the Vene- tian school, born at Verona, lived about 1520-40. Battaglia, (Francesco,) a Venetian senator, who distinguished himself by his zeal in the cause of the French Revolution, and proposed an alliance between the republics of France and Venice. Died in 1799. Battaglini, bSt-tai-yee^nee, (Marco,) an Italian pre- late, born near Rimini in 1645, was Bishop of Cesena. He wrote a "Universal History of Councils," (16S6,) and other works. Died in 1 71 7. Battalns. See Batalus. Battara, bat-ta'r^, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian naturalist and physician, born at Rimini, published sev- eral botanical works. Died in 1789. Bat'tel, (Andrev^,) an English traveller, born in Es- sex about 1565, was made prisoner by the Portuguese and detained many years in their settlements in Africa. His adventures are related in Purchas's " Collection of Voyages." Battelli, bat-tel'lee, (Giovanni Cristoforo,) an Ital- ian antiquary, born near Urbino in 1658, became Arch- bishop of Amasia. Died in 1725. Battely, bit'le, (John,) a learned English divine, born at Bury Saint Edmund's in 1647, became Archdea- con of Canterbury. His principal work is an account of the antiquities of Richborough and Reculver, entided " Antiquitates Rutupinas." Died in 1708. Battem. See Bathem. Bat^ten, (Adrian,) an English composer of sacred music, became organist of Saint Paul's Cathedral ir» 1624. a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, % y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; ndt; good; moon; BJTTEUX 289 BAUD ENS Batteux, bi'tuh', (Charles,) a French litth-ateur, born near Vouziers in 1713, was appointed professor of Greek and Latin philosophy in the College of France. He wrote, among other works, a " Treatise on the Fine Arts," and also made a translation of Horace, (1750,) which is valued for its accuracy. He was a member of the French Academy, and of the Academy of Inscrip- tions. Died in 1780. See Madame Dacier, " filoge de Batteux," and a " History of First Causes," or '"Expose sommaire des Pensees des Philosophes sur ie Principe des Etres," 1769. Batthyanyi, bot'yan-yee, or Bathyanyi, (Casi- MiR,) Count, a Hungarian nobleman and patriot, born about 181 7. He took an active part in the revolution of 1848, and in 1849 was appointed minister of foreign af- fairs. After the defeat of the Hungarians he was im- prisoned for a time, and on his release went to Paris, where he died in 1854. Batthyanyi or Bathyani, written also Battyany, (Ig.n'ATIUS,) Count, a canonist, born in Transylvania in 1 741, became Bishop of Weissenburg. He founded an observatory at Carlsburg, and published several works. Died in 1798. Batthyanyi,(CHARLES,) Prince, a Hungarian general, born about 1697. He performed a prominent part in the war of the x^ustrian succession, which ended in 1745. He also had a high command in the Austrian service during the Seven Years' war. Died in 1772. Batthyanyi or Bathyanyi, (Louis,) Count, a Llun- garian patriot and liberal statesman, born atTresburg in 1809. He contended for religious liberty, and becaiiie chief minister of the government formed in March, 1848. In consequence of the hostile movements of Jellachich, Ban of Croatia, who was instigated by the imperial court, he resigned in September, 1848. Civil war ensued, in which the friends of Batthyanyi were vanquished. He was tried by a court-martial, and shot in October, 1849. See HoRVATH, "Louis Bathyanyi, ein politischer Miirtyrer," 1850; and "Graf L. Batthyanyi, sein Leben, Wirken und Ende," Leipsic, 1850. Battle, bit'te^ (William,) an English physician, born ni Devonshire in 1704, was celebrated for his skilful treatment of insanity. His principal work is a "Treatise on Madness," (1758.) He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. Died in 1776. See " Biographie Medicale." Battier, bS'te-i', (Samuel,) a Swiss physician, born at Bale in 1667, was a friend of Malebranclie and Tour- nefort. He published several philosophical and scien- tific works in Latin, Died in 1744. Battiferri, (Laura.) See Ammanatl Baftis-hill, (Jonathan,) an English musical com- poser, born in 1738. His anthems, glees, and songs are highly esteemed. Died in 1801. See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Battista, bc^t-t^s'tS, (Fulgoso,) a Doge of Venice, who, being exiled about 1480, wrote, in Latin, a work entitled "Memorable Examples." Battista or Baptista, (Giuseppe,) an Italian writer, born in the kingdom of Naples. He was the author of Latin epigrams, Italian lyrics, and several prose works. Died in 1675. Battista, (Ignazio,) an Italian writer, who lived about 1540, wrote a "History of the Roman Emperors," and a «ork "On the Origin of the Turks," both in Latin. Battista, (Spagnuoli,) an Italian ecclesiastic and Latin poet, surnamed THE Mantuan, born at Mantua about 1436. His works were greatly admired by his contemporaries, but are now forgotten. Died in 1^16. Battista d'Agnolo, bat-t^s't'S dSn^yo-lo, or Battista del Moro, bJt-t^s'td del mo'ro, an Italian painter of the sixteenth century, born at Verona. He worked at Verona and Venice. Battista del Moro. See Battista d'Agnolo. Battista di Ferrara, bSt-t^s'tS de fer-r^'ri, an Ital- ian writer, born about 1380, was the author of "Chroni- cles of Ferrara," and other works. Battisti, bit-tfes'tee, (Bartolommeo,) born at Rove- redo, in the Tyrol, in 1755, was appointed about 1784 physician to the Emperor of Austria. Died in 1831. Battistin, bJt-t^s-teen', written also Baptistin, (John Baptist Stuck,) an Italian musician and composer, of German extraction, born at Florence about 1677. He was an excellent performer on the violoncello, which he is said to have first introduced into France. Died in 1755. Battistini, bat-tes-tee^nee, (Francesco,) a noted Ital- ian improvisatore, born in 1747, becarne professor of Latin and Italian eloquence in the college De Propa- ganda at Rome. Died in 1825. Batton, bt'toN', (Desire Alexandre,) a French composer of operas, born in Paris in 1797, was a pupil of Cherubini. Battoni, (Pompeo.) See Batoni, Battori. See Bathori. Battum. See Bathem. Bat'tus I., a Lacedaemonian, born at Thera, was the founder of the colony of Cyrene, about 630 B.C. He received divine honours after his death. Battus II., surnamed Felix, was grandson of the preceding, and succeeded Arcesilaus as King of Cyrene. Under his reign the colony was greatly increa,sed by the arrival of colonists from various parts of Greece. Died about 575 P>.c. Battus III., son of Arcesilaus II., reigned abt.ut 544 B.C. Battnta. See Batootah. Battyany. See BatthyAni. Batu-Khan. See Batoo-Khan. Batus. See Bate. Batutah. See Batootah. Batz, de, deh btts, (Jean,) Baron, a French general, born near Tartas in 1760, made several unsuccessful attempts during the Revolution to save Louis XVI. and the royal faniily. Died in 1822. Baiibur or Baiiber. See I^abkr. Bau'gis, (Myth.,) a Phrygian peasant, who, with her husband Philemon, kindly received Jupiter and Mercury when travelling in disguise. For this favour Jupiter changed their cottage into a temple, and made them his priests. At their death they were changed to trees. Baudake. See Baldock. Baiidart, bo'dSR', (William,) a Protestant theolo- gian, born at Deinse, in Flanders, in 1565. In conjunc- tion with Bucer and Bogerman, he translated the Old Testament into Dutch. Died in 1640. Bauddha or Baudha, bow'd'ha, worshipper of Booddha, which see. Baude, bod, (Henri,) a French poei and satirist, born at Moulins about 1430 ; died about 1495, See V. DE Viriville, " Nouvelles Recherches sur H. Baude," 1853 Bandeau, b5'do', (Nicolas,) a French writer on political economy, born at Amboise in 1730, He was a contributor, conjointly with Mirabeau, to the journal entitled " Ephemerides of the Citizen ;" and published, among other works, an " Exposition of the Natural Law," Died about 1792. See Querard, "La France Litteraire." Baudelaire, bod'liiR', (Charles,) a French poet, born in India in the early part of the present century. He wrote, among other things, " Les Fleurs du Mai," (" The Flowers of Evil,") and made translations of the works of Edgar A. Poe, His productions exhibit a mind of uncommon force, but intensely morbid. Died in 1867, See "Atlantic Monthly" for February, 1S69. Baudelocque, bod'lok', (Jean Louis,) a celebrated French surgeon, born at Heilly, in Picardy, in 1746, He studied under Solayres, arid became chief surgeon and accoucheur of the hospital de la Maternite. He was also ap])ointed by Napoleon first accoucheur to the empress Marie Louise. Among his writings, which are esteemed standard works, we may name his "Art des Accouche- ments," (2 vols., 1781.) Died in 1810. See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." Baudelot de Dairval, bod'lo' deh daR'vtK, (Charles Cesar,) a French antiquary, born in Paris in 1648, was the author of a popular work " On the Utility of Travels," etc. He becarne a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1705. Died in 1772. See NiCERON, "Meinoires." Baudens, b5'd5N', (Jean Baptiste Louis,) a French surgeon, born at Aire in 1804, was the author of a " New Method of Amputations," and other surgical works. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, K, gjittural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (S:^=See Explanations, p, 23,) BAVDER 290 Bauder, bowlder, (Johann Friedrich,) born at Hersbruck in 1713, wrote on Fossils, etc. Died in 1791. Bauderon, bod'r^N', (Brice,) a French physician, born about 1540, was the author of a " Pharmacopoiia," which passed through many editions. Died in 1623. Baudesson, b6'cli's6N^ (Nicolas,) a French flower- painter, born at Troyes in 1609 ; died in 1680. Baudet, bo'da'', (Etienne,) a French engraver, bom at Blois in 1643, executed a number of prints after Pous- sin and Le Bran. His "Adam and Eve," after Domeni- chino, is regarded as liis master-piece. Died in 17 16. Baudier, (Dominicus.) See Baudius. Baudier, b5'de-a', (Michel,) historiographer of France, born in Languedoc about 1590. He published a "History of the War in Flanders from 1559 to 1609," "Life of Cardinal Ximenes," "General History of the Religion of the Turks," (1626,) and other works. Died in 1645. Baudin, bdMiw', a French priest, afterwards a mode- rate Jacobin, born about 1766; died in 1830. Baudin, (Nicolas,) a French naturalist, born in the Isle of Re in 1750, was captain of a vessel sent in 1800 on a scientific expedition to New Holland. He died in the Isle of France in 1803. Baudin des Ardennes, bo'di.N' da^zlR^in', (Charles,) son of Pierre Charles Louis, noticed below, born at Sedan in 1784. He served with distinction against the English in 1808-12, and took the fortress of San Juan de Ulloa from the Mexicans in 1838. He v/as made vice-admiral and obtained the grand cordon of the legion of honour in 1848. Died in 1854. Baudin des Ardennes, (Pierre Charles Louis,) a French revolutionist and political writer, born at Sedan in 1748. As a member of the National Convention, he voted for the imprisonment of the king, and the appeal to the people. He was a member of the Institute. Died in 1799. Baudis. See Baudlssin. Baudissin, bow'dis-sin' or bo'de'sS.N', (Otto Fried- rich Magnus,) a German general, born in 1792. Baudissin, written also Bauditz or Baudis, (Wolf Heinrich,) Count of, a distinguished general, of Dan- ish extraction, served under Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years' war, from 1625 to 1633. Died about 1650. Baudissin, (Wolf Heinrich Friedrich Karl,) Count of, a German Utierateur, brother of Otto Fried- rich, noticed above, born at Rantzau in 1789. He trans- lated into German "Henry VIII.," "Othello," "Lear," " Much Ado about Nothing," and other dramas of Shak- speare, which are accompanied with notes by Tieck. Bauditz. See Baudissin. Bau'di-us or Baudier, bS^de-a', (Dominicus,) a Flemish historian and scholar, born at Lille in 1 561. He became professor of history and eloquence at Ley- den in 1602. His " History of the Twelve Years' Truce" is written in elegant Latin, and his Latin poems were likewise greatly admired. Died in 1613. See SwEERT, "Athense Belgicae." Baudoin or Baudoin de Conde, bo'dw^N' deh koN^da', a French poet, lived about 1220. Baudoin, (Jean.) See Baudouin. Baudory, du, dii bS'do're', (Joseph,) a French Jes- uit and miscellaneous writer, born at Vannes in 17 10. Died in 1749. Baudot, bo'do', (Auguste Nicolas,) a French gene- ral, born at Rennes in 1765, served under Moreau and Kleber, and was mortally wounded at Alexandria in 1801. Baudot, (Marc Antoine,) a French Jacobin, mem- ber of the National Convention, voted for the death of the king within twenty-four hours. Died in 1830. Baudot, (Pierre Louis,) a French antiquary, and writer on numismatics, born at Dijon in 1760; died in 1816. Baudot de Juilly, bo'do' deh zhii^e'ye' or zhwe^ye', (Nicolas,) a French historian, born in Paris in 1678. He wrote a " History of the Conquest of England by William of Normandy," and other works. Died in 1759. Baudouin, the French of Baldwin, which see. Baudouin, bo'dwdN', (Benoit,) a French antiquary, born at Amiens ; died in 1632. Baudouin, [Lat. Baldui'nus,] (Francois,) an emi- BAUDUIN nent French jurist and writer, born at x\rras in 1520. He was professor of law successively at Angers, Paris, Strasburg, and Heidelberg, and was created a councillor of state by Henry III. Died in 1573. See NiCEKOiNT, "Memoires." Baudouin, (Gabriel,) a French priest, born at Avesnes in 16S9, founded a hospital at Warsaw. Died in 1768. Baudouin or Baudoin, bo'dw^N', (Jean,) born at Pradelles about 1590, wrote translations of the Latin classics. Died in 1650. Baudouin, (Pierre Antoine,) a French miniature- painter, borii in Paris in 1723 ; died in 1769. Baudouin d'Avesne, bo'dwiN' dt^'in^ a French chronicler of the thirteenth century, wrote " The Genea- logical History of the Counts of Hainault." Baudouin de Ninove, (ne'nov',) a Flemish monk, author of a chronicle from the birth of Christ till 1294. Baudouin (bo'dwiN^) of Paderborn, a priest, lived about 1420, and wrote a " Universal History." Baudoux or Beaudoux, bo'doo', (Robert,) a Flem- ish engraver, born at Brussels, lived about 1620. Baudrais, bo^Ra', (Jean,) a French litterateitr^ born at Tours in 1749, held several offices under the govern- ment, and was one of the witnesses of the last testament of Louis XVI. He passed thirteen years as an exile in the United States, (1804^17.) His works are chiefly ro- mances, tales, and dramas. Died in 1832. Baudrgjii or Baudrand, bo'dRON'', (Michel An- toine,) a French geographer, born in Paris in 1633. He wrote, in Latin, a " Geographical and Historical Diction- ary," (2 vols.,) which was translated into French. Died in 1700. Baudrand, bo'dRSN', (Marie Etienne FRANgois Henri,) Count, a French general, born at Besan9on in 1774, served under Napoleon, and in 1830 became lieuten- ant-general. He was created a peer in 1832, and appointed tutor to the Count of Paris in 1838. Died in 1848. Baudrexel, bow-dRSk'sel, (Philipp Jakob,) a Ger- man musical composer, born in Suabia about 1635 ; died about 1700. Baudricourt, de, deh bo'dRe^kooR^, (Jean,) a French marshal, born at Blois, served successively under Charles the Bold, Louis XL, and Charles VIII. Died in 1499. Baudrigeen. See Baudringheen. Baudrillart, bo'dRe^ylR^, (Henri,) a French econo- mist, born in Paris in 182 1. He gained the prize of the French Academy for his "Eloge de Turgot," (1846,) and his "Eloge de Madame de Stael," (1850.) He also wrote several works on political economy. Baudrillart, (Jacques Joseph.) a French agricultu- rist, born at Givron, in Ardennes, in 1774, published a " Dictionary of Arboriculture and the Management of Forests," (1821,) and other works. Died in 1832. See "Notice biographique sur M. Jacques Joseph Baudrillart," by Baron de Silvestre. Baudrimont, bo'dRe^'m^N', (Alexandre £douard,) born at Compiegne in 1806, was a professor of chemistry at Bordeaux, and wrote " On General and Experimental Chemistry," and other works. Baudringheen, bow^dRing-Han', or Baudrigeen, bowMRe-Han', a Dutch painter, lived at Amsterdam about 1640. Baudron, bS^RoN', (Antoine Laurent,) a French musician, born at Amiens in 1743 ; died in 1834. Eaudry d'Asson, bo^Re' dt's6N^ (Antoine,) a French Jansenist, born in Poitou, was a friend of the celebrated Arnauld. He published various religious and controversial works. Died in 1668. Baudry d'Asson, (Gabriel,) a royalist ofificer, born in Poitou, in France, in 1755, took an active part in the defence of La Vendee, and was killed at Mans in 1793. Baudry des Lozieres, bo^dRe' di lo'ze-aiR'', (Louis Narcisse,) a French traveller, born in Paris in 1761, pub- lished, besides other works, a " Voyage to Louisiana and South America," (1802.) Died in 1841. Bauduer, bd'dli'i', (Gilles Arnaud,) a French scholar and theologian, born near Auch in 1744; died in 1787. Bauduin, b6'dw5,N', (Dominique,) a Flemish theolo- gian, born at Liege in 1742, was professor of history at a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; p\oon; BAUDUINS 291 BAULDRI Maestricht. He wrote, among other works, a defence of the Christian religion. Died in 1809. Bauduins, bo^dwax', (Adrian Francis,) a Flemish painter and engraver, born at Uixmude in 1640, executed several prints after Van der Meulen, who was his brother- in-law. Died in 1700. Baudus, bo'diiss', (Jean Louis Amable,) a French journalist, born at Cahors in 1761, removed to Ham- burg in 1791, and became editor of the "Spectateur du Nord." Died in 1822. Bauer. See Baur. Bauer, bow'er, a German jurist and legal writer, born at Leipsic in 1695 ; died in 1763. Bauer, (Anton,) a German jurist, and professor of law at Gottingen, born at Marburg in 1 772. He was the author of a " Manual of Natiual Law," (1808,) "Introduction to the Practice of Criminal Law," (1837,) and other works. Died at Gottingen in 1843. Bauer, (Aurel Reinhard Eduin,) a German theo- logian, and preacher of th-^ German Catholic congrega- tion at Dresden, born near Grossenhain in 1S16. He wrote, among other works, a " History of the Founda- tion and Development of the German Catholic Church," (1846,) and a treatise " On Primitive Christianity." In 1849 he embraced Protestantism. Bauer, (Bruno,) a German rationalistic theologian, distinguished for the boldness or recklessness of his biblical criticisms, was born at Eisenberg in 1809. In 1838 he published a "Critical Exposition of the Religion of the Old Testament." Among his numerous other works is a " Critique of the Gospels, and History of their Origin," (2 vols., 1850.) See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Bauer, (Christian Friedrich,) a German Protest- ant writer, and professor of theology at Wittenberg, was born at Hofgarten in 1696 ; died in 1782. Bauer, (Chrysostom,) a distinguished German organ- builder, born in Wiirtemberg, lived about 1700. Bauer, (Edgar,) a German political writer, a brother of Bruno, noticed above, born at Charlottenburg in 1821. He was imprisoned four years at Magdeburg for a work entitled "I he Contest of Criticism with the Church and State," (" Der Streit der Kritik mit der Kirche und Staat," 1843-) Bauer, (Ferdinand,) a German painter of objects of natural history, born at Feldsperg in 1744. He accom- panied Dr. Sibthorp to Greece in 1784, and furnished the exquisite designs for the "Flora Grceca," published after the death of Sibthorp. He subsequently joined Captain Flinders's expedition to Australia, and published, after his return, "Illustrations of the Flora of New Hol- land," (1813,) one of the most superb works of the kind. Died in 1826. Bauer, (Georg Lorenz,) a German rationalistic theologian, born at Hiltboltstein in 1755. studied at Altdorf, where in 1789 he became professor of elo- quence, Oriental languages, and moral philosophy, and in 1805 obtained the chair of Oriental literature and ex- egesis at Heidelberg. Among his principal works are his " Hermeneutica Sacra Veteris Testamenti," (1797,) "Biblical Theology of the New Testament," (4 vols., 1800-2,) and " Hebrew Mythology of the Old and New Testament," (1802-3.) He also translated from the Arabic into German the History of Abool-Faraj. Died in 1806. See Meusel, "Gelehites Deutschland." Bauer, (Johann Gottfried,) a German jurist and legal writer, born at Leipsic in 1695 > died in 1763. Bauer, (Johann Jakob,) a German bookseller, born at Strasburg in 1706, began the publication of the "Uni- versal Library of Rare Books," (" Bibhotheca Librorum rariorum universalis.") Died in 1772. Bauer, (Karl Ludwig,) a German philologist, born at Leipsic in 1730. He published a "German-Latin Dictionary," and other educational works. Died in 1799. See J. D. Daniel, " C. L. Bauer, biographisches Denkmal," 1806. Bauerle, bow'eR-leh, (Adolf,) a German dramatist, born at Vienna in 1784, wrote " The False Prima Donna," " The Friend in Need," and other popular comedies. Bauernfeld, bow'^Rn-ffilt", (Eduard,) a German dra- matic writer, born at Vienna in 1804, was the author of "The Confession," and several other successful comedies. Bauffremont, de, deh bofR^miN', (Alexandre Ema- nuel,) Prince, born in Paris in 1773. He fought against the French Republic in 1793-94. Died in 1833. Bauffremont, de, (Alfcjnse,) Due, a son of the pre- I ceding, created a count by Napoleon, served with dis- j tinction at the battles of Moskwa and Dresden, 1813. Bauffremont or Beauffremont, de, deh bofR''m6N', (Claude,) Baron of Senescey, son of Nicolas, noticed below, was a zealous partisan of the Duke of Guise in the war of the League. He wrote several political works. Died in 1596. His son Claude Charles Roger was created Bishop of Troyes in 1562. Bauffremont, de, (Henri,) son of Claude, noticed above, held several offices under the government. Died in 1622. Bauffremont, de, (Nicolas,) Baron of Senescey, and governor of Auxonne, was a zealous Catholic, and fought in the battles of Jarnac and Moncontour. He was ap- pointed grand provost of France under Charles IX. Died in 1582. Baugier, bo'zhe-a^ (Edme,) a French writer, born about 1680, was the author of "Historical Memoirs of the Province of Champagne," (1721.) Baugin, bo^zhS.N'', (Lubin,) a French painter, called LE PETIT Guide, lived in Paris about 1650. Bauhin, ba'^N'', (Gaspard,) a celebrated anatomist and naturalist, of French extraction, born at Bale in Janu- ary, 1560, was a younger son of Jean the elder, noticed below. He studied at Padua under Fabricius ab Aqua- pendente and other eminent teachers, and was appointed professor of anatomy and botany at Bale in 1588. He was also made rector of the university, and obtained other distinctions. He was the author of a number of valuable medical and botanical works, among which we may name his " Pinax Theatri Botanici," (1596,) and " Prodromus Theatri Botanici," (1620.) Plumier named the genus Bauhinia in his honour. Died at Bale in 1624. "Gaspard Bauhin," says Dr. Hoefer, "was not a mere compiler. He had the merit and glory of a legislator; his name for a long time was received as an authorit}^, and even at the present day it is sometimes associated with those of Tournefort and Linnaeus." See "Nouvelle Blographie Generale;" Nicekon, " Memoiies ;" Haller, "Blbliotheca Botanica." Bauhin, (Jean,) born at Amiens in 1511, was first physician to Margaret, sister of Francis I. Having be- come a Protestant, he removed to Bale, in Switzerland, where he was made dean of the College of Physicians. Died in 1582. Bauhin, (Jean,) an eminent botanist and physician, born at Bale in 1541, was a son of the preceding. He studied botany at Tubingen under Fuchs in 1560, after which he accompanied Gesner on a scientific excursion in Switzerland. He also travelled and studied in France, but was compelled to leave the country on account of his being a Protestant. In 1566 he was appointed pro- fessor of rhetoric at Bale, ancl in 1570 he became physi- cian to the Duke of Wiirtemberg at Montbeliard, where he resided until his death. His reputation is founded on two posthumous works, viz.: " Historiae Plantarum generalis nova; et absolutae Prodromus," (1619,) and " Historia universalis Plantarum nova," ("x\ New Uni- versal History of Plants," 3 vols., 1650-51.) Died in 1613. See Peter Brebach, " Christlicher Arzt, Leichenpiedigt auf J. Bauhin," 1614 ; Sfrengel, "Historia Rei Herbaria;:" Haller, " Bibliotheca ]3otanica." Bauhin, (Jean Gaspard,) son of Gaspard, noticed above, born at Bale in 1606, was professor of botany in his native city. In 1659 he was appointed physician-in- ordinary to Louis XIV. Died in 1685. See Sprengel, "Historia Rei Herbarise;" Zwinger, "Oratio in obituni J. G. Bauhin," 1687. Bauhin, (Jerome,) son of the preceding, born in 1637, was also a distinguished physician. Died in 1667, Bauhuis,b6w''hois, [Lat. Bauhu'sius,] (Bernardus,) a Jesuit, born at Antwerp in 1575, was the author of Latin epigrams. Died in 1629. Bauhusius. See Bauhuis. Baulacre, bo'ltkR^ (Leonard,) a Swiss litUrateicr, born at Geneva in 1670 ; died in 1761. Bauldri or Bauldry, bS'dRe', (Paul,) a French € as k; 9 as s; g hard: g as j; o, h, Yi, guttural; N, Jtasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2;::^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BAULIEU 292 BAUMSTARK scholar, born at Rouen in 1629, became i)rofessoi- of sacred history at Utrecht, where he married the daugh- ter of the celebrated Henry Basnage. He published an edition of the " De Mortibus Persecutorum" of Lactan- tius. Died in 1706. Baulieu. See Baulot. Baulme Saint- Amour, de la, deh It b5m siNt^t'- mooR^, ([ean,) a French scholar and Latin poet, born in Franche-Comte in 1539; died about 1578. Baulot, b5'lo', or Baulieu, bo'le-uh', (Jacques,) a r rench surgeon, celebrated for his skill in lithotomy, born near Lons-le-Saulnier in 165 1 ; died in 1720. Baumann, bovv'min, (Christian Jakob,) a Germ.an Protestant and theological writer, born at Berlin in 1725. Baumann, (Nicholas,) professor of history at Ros- tock, to whom some writers attribute the authorship of " Reineke Fuchs," was born about 1450 ; died in 1526. Baimibach, bowm'baK, (Friedrich August,) a Ger- man composer and writer on music, born at Leipsic in 1 753. He was a contributor to the " Dictionary of the Fine Arts" published in 1794. Died in 1813. Baumbacli, (Johann Balthasar,) a German Orien- talist, was professor of Greek and Hebrew at Heidelberg. Died in 1622, Baumchen, boim'Ken, a German sculptor, born at Dusseldorf, worked in Russia. Died in 1789. Baume, bo'ma', (Antoine,) a celebrated French chemist, born at Senlis in 1728. His early instruction was very defective, but he acquired by his own exertions so thorough a knowledge of chemistry that he was ap- pointed about 1752 professor in the College of Pharmacy in Paris. He founded a manufactory of sal-ammoniac, hitherto imported from Egypt, perfected the scarlet dye of the Gobelin tapestry, improved the manufacture of porcelain, and invented a method of dyeing cloth of two colours. He was also the inventor of the areometer called by his name, and made several other important inventions and discoveries. He was elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1773. Among his most valua- ble works are his " Elements of Pharmacy, Theoretical and Practical," (1762, 8vo,) "Plan of a Course of Ex- perimental and Rational Chemistry," (1757,) and "Man- ual of Chemistry," (1763.) Died in 1804. See Cadkt dk Gassicourt, "Eloge de Baume," 1806; "Bio- graphic Medicale;" Querard, "La France Litteraire." Baume, de la, deh li bom, (Nicolas Auguste,) Marc^uis of Montrevel, born in 1645, distinguished him- self by his bravery at the siege of Lille and at the battles of Namur, Luxemburg, and Cassel, and was made a mar- shal in 1703. While dining with the Duke of Biron, he accidentally overturned a salt-cellar, when he exclaimed, " I am a dead man !" and died a few days after, the vic- tim of his superstitious fears, (1716.) See Saint-Simon, "Memoires." Baume des Dossat, de la, deh It b5m da do'st', (Jacques Franqois,) a French litterateu)', born at Car- pentras in 1705 ; died in 1756. Baume Montrevel, de la, deh It b5m moNtR^vgK, (Claude,) Archbishop of Besangon, in France, born in 1531 ; died in 1584. Baume Saint-Amour, de la, deh It bom s4nt^- t'mooF/, (Philippe,) a governor of Franche-Comte, which was conquered from Spain by Louis XIV. of France in 1668. Died about 1670. Baumeister, bow'mi^ster, (Friedrich Christian,) a German philosophical writer, born in Saxe-Gotha in 1 709, studied at Jena under the celebrated Wolf, of whose system he was an advocate. Died in 1785. See Briegleb, " Epistola de Vita, Morlbus, etc. Fr. C. Baumeis- feri," 1766. Baumeister, (Johann Wilhelm,) a German, born at Gmiind in 1804, was appointed in 1839 professor in the veterinary school at Stuttgart. He wrote several treatises on the diseases and management of animals. Dior,) a German jurist and antiquary, born in Saxony in 1752, became professor at the Uni- versity of Moscow, and corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences at Saint Petersburg. Died in 1812. Bausner, bows'ner, (Bartholomew,) a physician and writer, born in Transylvania about 1629; died in 1682. Bausset, de, deh bo^s^, (Louis Franqois,) a distin- guished cardinal and writer, born at Pondicherry in 1748, came at an early age to France, where he rose through various promotions to be Bishop of Alais in 1784. In 1 791 he signed the protest of the French bishops against the civil constitution of the clergy. He entered the Chamber of Peers after the second restoration, and i:? 181 7 was made a cardinal, having previously been elected to the French Academy. His " History of Fenelon" (3 vols.) came out in 1808, and met with the most favour- able reception; it was followed in 1814 by the "History of Bossuet," which was less successful. He was also the author of several miscellaneous treatises. Died in 1824. See M. de Villeneuve, " Notice historique sur le Cardinal de Bausset," 1824; De Quelen, "Discours sur I3ausset," 1829. Bausset-Roquefort, bo'sa' rokToR', (Pierre Fran- gois Gabriel Raymond Ignace Ferdinand,) Count OF, cousin of Louis Fran9ois, noticed above, born at Be- ziers in 1757, became Archbishop of Aix. Died in 1829. Bautain, bo'tiN', (Louis,) a French theologian and philosophical writer, born in Paris in 1796. He was ap- pointed in 1838 dean of the literary faculty at Strasburg, and in 1849 director of the college of Juilly. He was the author of "The Philosophy of Christianity," (1835,) and other similar works. See Querard, "La France Litteraire," (Supplement.) Bauter, bo^ta', (Charles,) a French dramatic poet, born in Paris about 1580; died about 1630. Bautru, bo'tRii'', (Guillaume,) Count of Serrant, a French nobleman, diplomatist, and celebrated wit, born at Angers in 1588, was one of the first members of the French Academy. Died in 1665. Bauvin, b6^'a.N', (Jean Gregoire,) a French littera- teur' and lawyer, born at Arras in 17 14, was professor at the military school in his native city. Died in 1776. Baux, bo, (Pierre,) a French physician, born at Nimes in 1679, wrote, among other works, a "Treatise on the Plague." Died in 1732. Bauza, bow'thS, (Don Felipe,) a Spanish geographer, born about 1750, became director of the hydrographic depot at Madrid. He published some excellent maps of South America. Died in 1833. Bava, kVvi, (Gaetano Emanuele,) Count of San Paolo, a Ptedmontese savant, born at Fossano in 1737, published a " Historical Survey of the Changes and Pro- gress of Sciences, Arts, etc. from the Eleventh to the Eighteenth Century." Died in 1829. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Bava, (Giovanni B.\ttista,) a general, born at Ver- celli, in Piedmont, in 1790, served with distinction in the French armies and in the war of Italian independence. Bavay, de, deh bt'va', (Paul Ignatius,) a Flemish physician and chemist, born at Brussels in 1704, was professor of anatomy and surgery and head-physician of the military hospitals in that city. Died in 1768. Baverel, bSv'ReK, (Jean Pierre,) a French ecclesi- astic and litterateur, born in Paris in 1744; died in 1822. Baverini, bd-vi-ree'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian mu- sician, born about 1420, is said to have composed the music for " The Conversion of Saint Paul," (" San Paolo,") the first opera ever represented. See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Bavia, de, di bi-vee'i, (Luis,) a Spanish historian, born at Madrid, wrote a continuation of Illesca's " His- tory of the Popes." Died in 1628. Baviera, bi-ve-a'rl, (Marcantonio,) an Italian jurist, lived about 1490, was professor of civil law at Pisa and Padua. Baville, bt'v^K, (Arnaud,) a French general, born at Fronton in 1757, died of a wound received at Liegniti. in 1813. Bavisano, ba-ve-si'no, (Francesco Domenico,) bort at Alba, in Montferrat, was appointed in 1570 physician to the Duke of Savoy. Ba'vi-us, a Latin poet in the time of Augustus, who, with his friend Maevius, is known only from his envious and malicious attacks on Horace and Virgil. He is sati- rized by the latter in his " Bucolics." Bavo, bi'vo, or Baf, bif, [Fr. Bavon, bt 'von', J Saint, sometimes called AUowin, born in Brabant about 589, was the patron of the city of Ghent. Died about 653. See Jean de Thielrode, "Chronique de Saint-Bavon i Gand," 1798. Bavo, di, de bi'vo, (Gottofredo,) president of the council of Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy, wrote a valuable work "On Criminal Law," (1607.) € as 5 as s; g| hard; g as j; g, H, ml, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BAVON BATARD Bavon, the French of Bavo, whicli see. Bavoux, bi'voo', (fivARiSTE,) son of Francois Nico- las, noticed below, was a deputy in 1852 to the legislative body. He was the author of "Political Philosophy," (1840,) and other works. Bavoux, (FRANgois Nicolas,) a French jurist and legal writer, born at Saint-Claude in 1774, was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, and about 1830 became coun- sellor in the court of accounts. Died in 1848. Bawd'wen, (William,) an English divine, who pub- lished in 1809-12 two volumes of a translation of the " Domesday-13ook." He died soon after, leaving the work unfinished. Bawr. See Baur. Bawr, bowR, (Alexandrine Sophie Goury de Champgrand — goo^re' deh shdN^RON',) Baroness, a novelist and dramatic w'riter, of French extraction, born at Stuttgart in 1776. She was first married to the cele- brated Count de Saint-Simon, who, not long after, re- quested a divorce on the grounds that it was not fit that he, being the first man in the world, should have any other than the first woman for his wife. She was subse- quently married to the Baron de Bawr, who died soon afterwards. Madame de Bawr published a number of popular works, among which we may name the comedy of " Money and Address," and " Raoul ou I'Eneide," a novel. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire," (Supplement.) Bax'i-us, (NiCAisius,) a Flemish scholar and Latin poet, born at Antwerp about 1595. Bax'ter, (Andrew,) an eminent Scottish philosopher and metaphysician, born at Aberdeen about 1686. His j)rincipal work is entitled " Inquiry into the Nature of the Human Soul," {1737 ;) it is commended by Dugald Stewart and Bishop Warburton, who observes of the book that it is "one of the most finished of the kind that the present times, greatly advanced in true philoso- phy, have produced." Died in 1750. See "Biographia Britannica." Bax^ter, (Richard,) an eminent English noncon- formist divine, born at Rowdon, in Shropshire, on the I2th of November, 1615. He was a man of great learn- ing, though not educated at any college. He was or- dained in 1638, was chosen vicar of Kidderminster in 1640, and soon became distinguished as an eloquent preacher. In the civil war he was disposed to be neu- tral, and to mediate between the hostile parties. About 1645 he accepted the place of chaplain to a regiment of Cromwell's army; but he afterwards showed himself hostile to the government of the Protector. He pub- lished in 1650 "The Saint's Everlasting Rest," a work which is generally and justly admired. At the restora- tion (1660) he was appointed one of the chaplains of Charles II.; but he was separated from the Anglican Church by the Act of Uniformity in 1662, after he had re- fused a bishopric. He subsequently preached at Acton, and after the Act of Indulgence in 1672 he removecl to London, where he lectured in Pinners' Hall. Among his principal works are " Methodus Theologiae," (1674,) "Ci^holic Theology," and a "Call to the Unconverted," (1669,) of which about twenty thousand copies were sold in one year. In 1685 Baxter was tried before the noto- rious Jeffries on a charge of sedition, founded on a pas- sa':;e in one of his works. He was fined five hundred marks, for the non-payment of which he was imprisoned about eighteen months. Died in December, 169.1. In his character, zeal and moderation were happily united. He was the founder of a new school of theology, which Dears his name. " He discovers a manly eloquence," says Doddridge, "and the most evident proofs of an amazing genius, with respect to which he may not im- pro])erly be called the English Dernosthenes.'''' "Pray read with g/eat attention," says Coleridge, "Baxter's Life of himstlf; it is an inestimable work. There is no substitute foi it in a course of study for a clergyman or public man." See his own Narrative of tlie most memorable Passages of his Life and Times," 1696; E. Cai.amy, "Life of Baxter," 1713; Rev. .William Orme, "Life and Times of R. Baxter," prefixed to an edition of Baxter's works in 23 vols.. 1830: August Neandek, " R. Baxter ein Mann der Wahrhaft rechten ALtte," etc., Berlin, 1S33; Macaulay, " History of England," vdI. i. chap, iv., vol. iii. chap, xi. ; ■' Edinburgh Review" for October, 1839. Baxter, (Thomas,) an English mathematician, pub- lished " Principles of Astronomy and Natural Philoso- phy," (1740.) Baxter, (Thomas,) an English artist, especially dis- tinguished as a painter of china, born in 1782. Among his master-pieces are copies of the works of Reynolds and West. Died in 1821. Baxter, (William,) an English scholar, born in Shropshire in 1650, was a nephew of the celebrated Richard Baxter. He prepared editions of Horace and Anacreon, and a Latin Grammar, and wrote, in Latin, a "Glossary of British Antiquities." Baxter's edition of Horace formed the basis of the one subsequently pub- lished by Gesner. Died in 1723. See "Biographia Britannica." Baxter, (William Edward,) a British Liberal poli- tician, born at Dundee in 1825. He was returned to Parliament for Montrose in 1855. published "Ame- rica and the Americans," (1850,) and other works. See "Quarterly Review" for April, 1850. Bay, de, deh ba, (Alexandre,) Marquis, a French general, born at Salins about 1650.. served with distinc- tion in the war of the Spanish succession. He was ap- pointed viceroy of the province of Estremadura in 1705, and created a knight of the Golden Fleece in 1708. Died in 1715. Bayam, ba-yowN^ (Joz6 Pereira,) a Portuguese his- torian and ecclesiastic, born near Coimbra in 1690, wrote a history of Portugal and the achievements of Don Se- bastian, (1737,) also a "Treatise on Purgatory," (1742.) Died in 1743. Bayaiine.bt'ytn', (Alphonse Hubert deLattier — deh It'te-a'',) a French cardinal, born at Valence in 1739, held several offices under the empire, and was made a peer by Louis XVIII. He wrote, in Italian, a valuable work on the malaria in Italy. Died in 181 8. Bayard, bt''ytR', (Ferdinand Marie,) a French writer, born at Moulins-la-Marche in 1763, publisheti "Travels in the Interior of the United btates in 1791," and other v/orks. Died about 181 8. Bayard, bi''ard, (George D.,) an American general, born in New York about 1836, graduated at West Point in 1856. He became a captain of cavalry in the regular army in August, 1861, and a brigadier-general of volun- teers in 1862. He distinguished himself as a leader of cavalry in several actions in Virginia under General Pope. He was killed at Fredericksburg in December, 1862. Bayard, (James A.,) a distinguished American states- man and lawyer, born in Philadelphia in 1767. He graduated at Princeton College in 1784, and commenced the practice of law in Delaware. In 1796 he was elected a member of Congress, in which he acted with the Fede- ral party and acquired a high reputation as an orator and constitutional lawyer. He supported Jefferson for President in preference to Burr when the duty devolved on the House of Representatives to elect one of those two candidates in 1801 ; and the result of this contest is ascribed chiefly to his influence. He represented Dela- ware in the Senate of the United States from 1804 to 1813, and opposed the war of 1812. He was one of the commissioners who negotiated the Treaty of Ghent with Great Britain in 1814, soon after which he was appointed minister to the court of Saint Petersburg ; but he de- clined that mission, saying that he had no wish to serve the administration except when his services were neces- sary. He died in August, 181 5, soon after his return from Europe. His son James A. was elected a Senator of the United States for Delaware in 1850. Bayard, (Jean Baptiste Francois,) a French jurist and legal writer, born in Paris in 1750, was appointed bv the Directory a judge of the court of cassation about 1799. Died in 1800. Bayard, (Jean Franqois Alfred,) a French littera teiir, born at CharoUes in 1796, was the author of nu- merous very popular comedies and vaudevilles ; among others, of "Christine, or the Queen of Sixteen Years," (1828,) and "The Promenade to Vaucluse." Died in Paris in 1853. Bayard, (John,) a patriot of the American Revolution, born in Cecil county, Maryland, in 1738. At the battle a, e. T. o, u, y, long; i, 6, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short: a, e, i, o, ol'srinr; far. fSll. fit; met; n6t: good; moon; BATARD 295 BATLE of Trenton he commanded a battalion of Philadelphia militia. In 1785 he was chosen a member of the Con- gress of the Confederation. Mr. Bayard was an intimate friend of Whiteheld. Died in 1807. Bayard, ba^erd, [Fr. pron. bt'yti ^^^'^ 1804. Beauclerc, bo'klerk'', (Diana,) an English artist, who lived about 1780, furnished designs for the beautiful edition of " Lenore" translated by W. H. Spencer. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Beauclerk, boHvlerk', (Topham,) an English gentle- man of distinguished talents and wit, born in 1739, was an intimate friend of Dr. Johnson. Died in 1780. Beaucousin, bo^koo^z^N', (Christophe Jean FRAN- gois,) a French jurist and biographical writer, born at Noyon in 1723 ; died in 1798. Beaudoiix. See Baudoux. Beauffremont. See Bauffremont. Beaufils, bo'f^ss', (Guillaume,) a French Jesuit, born in Auvergne in 1674; died in 1757. Beaufort, bu'fort, (Sir Francis,) F.R.S., a British rear-admiral, born about 1775, was distinguished as a hydrographer, and produced several charts of sea-coasts. He was hydrographer to the admiralty from 1832 to 1855. Died in 1857. Beaufort, (Henry,) Cardinal, an ambitious English prelate, a half-brother of King Henry IV., was born about 1370. He was a son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and Catherine vSwynford. He became Bishop of Winchester in 1404, after which he appears to have acted as lord chancellor. At the death of Henry V., in 1422, the care of the person and education of the infant Henry VI. was intrusted to Beaufort, who, says Hume, "v;as a prelate of great capacity, but of an intriguing an-i dangerous character." He had a long contest for the ascendency with his nephew the Duke of Gloucester, over whom he eventually prevailed. (See Gloucester, Humphrey, Duke of.) Died in 1447. Shakspeare has no doubt followed the commonly-received estimate of Beaufort's character in his "Henry VI." See Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors ;" Aubery, " Histoire des Cardinaux." Beaufort, (Margaret,) Countess of Richmond and Derby, born in 1441, was descended from John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. She was successively married to Edmund Tudor, half-brother of Henry VI., to Sir Henry Stafford, and to Lord Stanley, afterwards Earl of Derby Her son by her first marriage became king, under the name of Henry VII. She was distinguished for her charities and her patronage of learning, and was the founder of Christ's College (1505) and Saint John's Col- lege, Cambridge. She also established the professorship of divinity called from her name the Lady Margaret professorship. She translated some religious works from the French. Died in 1509. See " Life of Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond," by C. A. Halsted; Walpole, " Royal and Noble Authors." Beaufort, de, deh ho'io^', (Eustache,) a French ecclesiastic, born in 1635, was appointed abbot of Sept- Fonts. Died in 1709. Beaufort, de, (FRANgois de Vendome,) Due, born in Paris in 1616, was the son of Cesar de Vendome, and the grandson of Henry IV. In the war of the Fronde he became, with the Prince of Conti and other nobles, one of the leaders of the disaffected party. Being sent in 1669 to assist the Venetians against the Turks, he was killed in the defence of Candia. See Mascaron, " Oraison funebre du Ducde Beaufort." Beaufort, de, (PIenri Ernest Grout — gRoo,) Che- valier, a French traveller, born at Aubevoye in 1798. He visited Africa in 1824, and explored the Gambia, Bondou, and the country of the Mandingoes. Died in Africa of a fever in 1825. See E. F. Jomard, " Notice sur De Beaufort," 1824. Beaufort, de, (Louis,) a distinguished historian, of French extraction, was tutor to the Prince of Hesse- Homburg. He wrote, in French, a " Dissertation on the Uncertainty of the First Five Centuries of Ron-ian His- tory," (1738,) which is commended by Niebuhr, a " His- tory of Germanicus," (1741,) and a " History of the Ro- man Republic," (1766.) He was a member of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1795. Beaufort de Thorigiiy, boToR' deh to'ren^ye', (Jean Baptiste,) a republican general, born in Paris in 1761, distinguished himself in the war in Flanders, (1793.) Died in 1825. Beaufort d'Hautpoul, b5'foR' d5''poo^, (Edouard,) Marquis of, a French officer, born in Paris in 1782; died in 183 1. Beaugeard, bo'zhSR', (Jean,) a French Jacobin, and member of the National Convention, born at Vitre in 1764. Died in 1832. Beaugeard, (Jean Simon Ferreol,) a French litte- rateur, born at Marseilles in 1754; died in 1828. Beaugendre, bo'zhoNdR^, ( Antoine,) a French Bene- dictine 7iionk. born in Paris in 1628; died in 1708. Beauharnais, de, deh bo'tR^na', (Alexandre,) Vi- comte, a distinguished general, born in 1760 in the island of Martinique, where in 1779 he married Josephine Tascher de la Pagerie, afterwards Empress of France. He served under Rochambeau in the American war, was a deputy to the States-General in 1789, and was twice president of the National Assembly. In 1794 he served under Custine on the Rhine, but, being accused of treason by the revolutionary tribunal for having failed to deliver Mentz from the allies, he was guillotined in that year. See Le Bas, "Dictionnaire encyclopedique dela France." Beauharnais, de, (Claude,) Count, born in 1756, was a son of Marie Anne Fran9oise Beauhari*ais, noticed below. Died in 181 9. Beauharnais, de, (Eugene,) Viceroy of Italy, born in Paris, September 3, 1781, was the son of Alexandre de Beauharnais and Josephine, afterwards Empress of France. After the marriage of his mother with Napo- leon, he accompanied the latter to Egypt in 1798, and was severely wounded at vSaint-Jean-d'Acre. For his conduct at Marengo (1800) he obtained the rank of chef- d'escadron. In 1805 he was appointed arch-chancellor of state, grand officer of the legion of honour, and Vice- roy of Italy. In this high office he distinguished him- self by the ability and justice of his administration. In the Austrian campaign of 1809 he defeated the Arch- duke John at Raab, in Hungary. Pie had married in 1806 Augusta Amelia, daughter of the King of Bavaria, and was soon after declared by Napoleon his adopted son, and heir-apparent to the crown of Italy. He took a prominent part in the Russian campaign of 1812, and c as k; 9 as s; g ha^-d; g as /; G, H, K, guttural: N. nasal: R. trilled: s as z: th as in this. (2i:^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BEAUHARNAIS 300 BEAUMES after the defeat of the French succeeded Murat in the command of the army. His conduct on this occasion was commended in the warmest terms by Napoleon, and his masterly retreat from Moscow contributed in a great degree to save the remnant of the French forces. In 1814 Eugene was compelled to relinquish Italy to the Austrians, upon which he retired into Bavaria, where he was made Prince of Eichstadt and Duke of Leuchten- berg. He died in February, 1824, leaving two sons and four daughters. See Leonard Gali.ois, " Hisloire cUi Prince Eugene de Beauhar- nais," 1S21 ; Antoine Aubriet, "Vie de Euj^ene Beauharnais," 1824 ; ScHONBERG, " Plinz Evigcn und sein Hof," 1825; Armandi, "Vie militaire du Prince Eugene," 2 vols., 1843; Vaudoncoukt, " Histoire politique et militaire du Prince Eugene," 3 vols., 1825. Beauharnais, de, (FRAxgois,) Marquis, born at La Rochelle in 1756, was a brother of Alexandre. He was a devoted royalist, and rose to be major-general ander Conde. He was made a peer under the Bourbons. Died in 1823. Beauharnais, de, (Hortense.) See Hortense. Beauharnais, de, (Josephine.) See Josephine. Beauharnais, de, (Marie Anne FRANgoiSE Mou- CHARD,) Countess, generally called Fanny Beauhar- nais, born in Paris in 1738, was married to Count de Beauharnais, uncle of Alexandre. She was the author of several dramas and poems. Died in 1813. See M adame Briquet, " Dictionnaire des Frangaises." Beaujeu. See Anne de Beaujeu. Beaujeu, de, deh bd'zhuh', (Christophe,) a French soldier and poet, served under Henry HI. and Henry IV. Beaujeu, de, (Edouard,) son of Guichard, noticed below, born in 13 16. He fought against the English under Edward HI., and was present at the battle of Crecy, soon after which he was made marshal of France. He was killed at the battle of Ardres in 135 1. Beaujeu, de, (Guichard,) served under Philip the Fair and several succeeding sovereigns, and in 1328 fought under Philip VI. in Flanders. Died in 133 1. Beaujeu, de, (Humbert,) fought against the Albi- genses under Louis VIII., and became Constable of France in 1240. He accompanied Saint Louis to Pales- tine, and, according to some authorities, died in Egypt in 1250. Beaujeu, de, (Pierre de Bourbon,) Sire, was Con- stable of France. He subsequently married Anne, daughter of Louis XL, and became regent during the minority of Charles VIII. Died in 1502. See Anselme, " Histoire genealogique, etc. de la Maison royale de France." Beaujolais, de, deh hb'zho'W, (Louis Charles d'Orl^ans,) Comte, born in Paris in 1779, was a son of the Duke of Orleans, surnamed £galite, and brother of Louis Philippe, afterwards king. Died in 1808. Beaujon, bo^zhdN', (Nicolas,) a wealthy and philan- thropic French banker, born at Bordeaux in 1718, was the founder of a hospital in Paris which bears his name. Died in 1786. Beaujour, bo'zhooR', (Louis Felix,) a French diplo- matist and writer, born in Provence in 1765 ; died in 1836. Beaujoyeulx. See Baltazarini. Beaulac, bo'ltk', (Guillau.me,) a French jurist and legal writer, born in the department of Herault about 1745 ; died in 1804. Beaulaton, hb'\^'\.bs', a French poet, born at Mon- targis, made an indifferent translation of Milton's " Para- dise Lost" into French. Died in 1782. Beau, Le. See Le Beau. Beaulieu. See Baulot. Beaulieu, bole-uh', almost boKyuh', (Augustin,) a French navigator^~T3orn at Rouen in 1589, visited the East Indies in i6r6. He wrotellan account of his travels, which was published in Thevenot's " Collection of Voy- ages." Died in 1637. Beaulieu, (Claude Francois,) a French publicist and litterateur, born at Riom in 1754, was editor of the "Assemblee Nationale" and other journals, in which he advocated a constitutional monarchy. He contributed a number of articles to the "Biographie Universelle," and wrote " Historical Essays on the Causes and Effects of the French Revolution," (1801.) Died in 1827. See Le Bas, "Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." Beaulieu, (Eustorg,) sometimes called Hector, a French poet and musician, born about 1530. Beaulieu, de, deh bo'le-uh', (Camus de Vernet, kt'miis' deh v^R'ni',) favourite of Charles VII. of France, who appointed him grand master of the horse and director of the finances. He was assassinated, by order of the constable Artus de Richemont, in 1427. Beaulieu, de, (Charles Gilloton — zhe^yo'toN',) a French writer on political economy, lived about 1750. Beaulieu, de, (Jean Baptiste AUais — t'li^) a French calligrapher, was the author of a work entitled "The Art of Writing," (1681.) Beaulieu, de, (Jean Pierre,) Baron, an Austrian general, born in 1725, fought in the Seven Years' war. Being sent in 1796 to Italy, he was signally defeated at Montenotte by Bonaparte. He resigned his command in June, 1796. Died in 1820. Beaulieu, de, (Louis le Blanc,) a Protestant divine, and professor of theology at the Calvinist Academy of Sedan, born at Plessis-Marly, in Limousin, in 1614. He was the author of "Sedan Theses," ("Theses Seda- nenses,") and other religious works. Died in 1675. See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." Beaulieu, de, (S^bastien de Pontault — deh pdN^- to',) first engineer of Louis XIV., wrote a work entitled "The Glorious Conquests of Louis le Grand, or Col- lection of Plans and Views of Places Besieged and the Sites of Battles." Died in 1674. See De Courcelles, "Dictionnaire des Generaux Frangais." Beaumanoir. See Lavardin, (Jean de.) Beaumanoir, bo^mt'nwaR.', Marquis of, a French litterateur and dramatist, born in Brittany about 1720; died about 1795. Beaumanoir, de, deh bo'mt'nwaR', (Jean,) Sire, a French soldier, and companion-in-arms of the famous Bertrand du Guesclin. He fought on the side of the Count of Blois against John of Montfort, and was the leader of the thirty Breton knights who in 135 1 had a combat with and defeated the thirty English champions. See Le Bas, "Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." Beaumanoir, de, (Philippe,) born in Picardy, was one of the most eminent jurists of his time. His prin- cipal work, entitled "The Common Law ( Coictume) of Beauvoisis," still enjoys a high reputation, and was re- published in 1842 by M. Beugnot. Died in 1296. See Montesquieu, " Esprit des Lois ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Beaumarchais, de, deh bo'mtR'sha', (Pierre Au- GUSTE Caron — kt'r^N',) a French dramatist and versatile genius, born in Paris in 1732. He was the son of a watch- maker named Caron, and for a time pursued his father's occupation ; but his skill in music soon procured him ad- mission to court. About this time he entered into busi- ness relations with the famous financier Duverny, by which he was enabled to make a large fortune, and at the com- mencement of the American Revolution made an advan- tageous contract to supply the colonies with arms and ammunition. In this affair he was the secret agent of the French government. In 1775 he brought out "The Barber of Seville," an opera which was very successful, and in 1784 "The Marriage of Figaro." The latter, in which the aristocracy was assailed, was prohibited from being acted by Louis XVI. ; but in spite of the interdiction it was brought on the stage, and was received with the greatest enthusiasm. Among his other works we may name the drama of "Eugenie," which formed the groundwork of Goethe's " Clavigo ;" also a number of memoirs or pleadings written on occasion of lawsuits in which he was engaged, and displaying such powers of wit and satire as to excite the jealousy of Voltaire. He favoured the popula?" cause in the French Revolu- tion, to which his writings had largely contributed. Died in 1799. See Cousin d'Avalon, "Vie de P. A. Caron de Beaumarchais," 1S02 ; M. deLo.menie, " Beaumarchais, saVie et son Temps," in the " Revue des Deux Mondes," October and November, 1S52 ; Saint- Marc Girardin, "Notice sur la Vie de Beaumarchais," 1835 ; E. Berger, " Essai sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Beaumarchais," 1847, "Edinburgh Review," vol. civ., 1856; "Eraser's Magazine," vol. xlix., 1854: "Westminster Review" for September, 1844. Beaume, bom, (Joseph,) a French historical painter, born at Marseilles in 1790, worked in Paris. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, s/wrt; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; n5t; good; moon; BEAUMELLE 301 BEAUMONT Beaumelle, de la, deh It bo'meK, (Laurent Angli- Viel — ox'gle've-el',) a French writer, born at Valle- raugue in 1726. Having published a work entitled "My Thoughts," ("Mes Pensees,") which contained remarks offensive to Voltaire, he was imprisoned in the Bastille, chietly at the instigation of the latter. On his release he wrote a reply to Voltaire's " Supplement to the Age of Louis XIV.," which is esteemed a master- piece of wit and polemics. In 1756 he brought out " Memoirs towards the History of Madame de Main- tenon," for which he was imprisoned about a year. Died in 1773. See M. Nicolas, "Notice sur la Vie, etc. de L. A. de la Beau- melle," 1S52; Charles Nisard, " Les Enneinis de Voltaire, Des- fontaines, Freron et La Beaumelle," 1853. Beaumelle, de la, (Victor Laurent Angliviel,) son of the preceding, born near Mazeres in 1772. He served in the Spanish campaign of 1808, and subsequently under Uom Pedro, Emperor of Brazil. He wrote a treat- ise " On the Brazilian Empire," (1823,) and various other works. Died in 183 1. Beaumes. See Belmeis. Beaumesnil, hb'mk'nhV, (Henriette Adelaide Villard — ve^ySR',) a French comic actress and opera- singer, born in 1748; died in 1803. Beaumetz, de, deh bo'mis', (Bon Albert Briois — bRe^va^) Chevalier, a French jurist, member of the Constituent Assembly, born at Arras in 1759. He made important improvements in the laws, and wrote a valua- ble work, entitled "Penal Code of the Jurymen of the Chief National Court," (1792.) To escape the reign of terror, he emigrated in 1792. Died at Calcutta about 1809. See Querard, "La France Litteraire." Beaumont, bo'mSnt, formerly bu'mSnt, (Basil,) an English naval officer, born in 1669, became rear-admiral under Queen Anne. While on his way to Rotterdam in 1703, he was overtaken in the Downs by a terrible storm ; thirteen vessels were sunk, and the admiral, with fifteen hundred seamen, perished. See BuRCHET, "Naval History'." Beaumont, bo'm6N', (Claude £tienne,) a French architect, born at Besan9on in 1757, studied m Paris I'.rder Dumont. His principal work is the "Salle du Tribunat" in Paris. Died in 1811. Beaumont, bo'mdnt', (Claudio Francesco,) an Ital- ian painter, born at Turin in 1694. Among his best works are the frescos of the royal palace at Turin. Died in 1766. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Beaumont, bo'm^N', (£tienne,) a Swiss lawyer and philosophical writer, born a^ Geneva in 1718, was the author of an anonymous work entitled " Principles of Philosophy," attributed by some to Diderot. Died in See Sexebier, " Histoire litt^raii-e de Geneve." Beaumont, (Felix Bellator,) Count, a French soldier and statesman, born in Paris in 1793, served in the campaigns of 1812-15, and became a senator in 1852. Beaumont, (Francis,) the father of the celebrated dramatist, was one of the judges of the court of common pleas. Died in 1598. Beaumont, (Francis,) an English dramatic poet, son of the preceding, was born in Leicestershire in 1586. He was educated at Oxford, and studied law in the Temple. In London he associated with Ben Jonson and other wits \sho met at the Mermaid Tavern. He married Ursula Isley, by whom he had two daughters. He became the intimate friend of John Fletcher, in conjunction with whom he wrote a number of po]nilar dramas. Among these are "Philaster," (i6ii,) "The Maid's Tragedy," " The Coxcomb," (1613,) and " Cupid's Revenge," (1613.) Beaumont was sole author of "The Masque of the Inner Temple," (161 2,) and of minor poems, among which is a "Letter to Ben Jonson." Diedini6r5. (SeeFLETCiiER, John.) " It cannot be denied," says Hazlitt, "that they are lyrical and descriptive poets of the highest order; every page of their writings is a florilegiimi : they are dramatic poets of the second class in point of knowledge, variety, vivacity, and effect; they are masters of style and versi- fication in alwnst every variety of melting modulation or sounding pomp of which they are capable : in comic wit and spirit they are scarcely surpassed by any writers ■of our age." ("Lectures on the Dramatic Literature of the Age of Elizabeth.") The elder Coleman's prologue to "Philaster," spoken in 1763, has the following apt and admirable lines : " Beaumont and Fletcher, those twin stars that run Their glorious course 'round Shakspeare's golden sun." (Beau.mont and Fletcher's Works, vol. i. p. 203.) See " Biographia Dramatica ;" Campbell's " Lives of the British Dramatists." Beaumont, (Sir George Howland,) an English amateur, landscape-painter, and liberal patron of art, was born in Essex in 1753. He had the principal share in the establishment of the National Gallery, to which he presented sixteen paintings, many of them works of emi- nent artists. He was a friend of Wordsworth and Cole- ridge. Died in 1827. Beaumont, (Jean Francois Albanis — tKbt'ness',) a French agriculturist, born at Chambery about 1755, was the author of several books of travels and antiqua- rian treatises. Died in 1812. Beaumont, (Jeanne le Prince.) See Prince de Beaumont. Beaumont, (Sir John,) elder brother of the drama- tist, born in 1582, was the author of an unpublished reli- gious poem, entitled "The Crown of Thorns," and a collection of poems called "Bosworth Field." Died in 1628. Beaumont, (Joseph,) an English divine, born in Suf- folk in 161 5, became professor of divinity at Cambridge in 1670. His poem entitled "Psyche, or Lovers' Mys- teries," had a transient popularity. Died in 1699. See "Retrospective Review," vols. xi. and xii., 1825. Beaumont, (Pierre Franqois,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1720, executed several prints after Wouwerman and Breughel. Died about 1780. Beaumont, bo'mSnt', (William,) M.D., a surgeon in the United States navy, born in 1796. While stationed at Michilimackinac, in 1822, a young man was brought to him with a wound in his stomach produced by the discharge of a musket at the distance of only three or four feet. By skilful treatment the wound was healed, leaving an aperture of about two and a half inches in diameter, through which could be witnessed the process of digestion. Dr. Beaumont availed himself of this ex- traordinary phenomenon to prosecute a series of obser- vations and experiments on digestion, the results of which have been received as valuable acquisitions to medical science throughout the world. They were first published in 1833, and have been republished in Eng- land and on the continent. Died in 1853. Beaumont, de, deh bo'mdN', (Amblard,) a French jurist, born near Grenoble ; died in 1375. Beaumont, de, (Antoine Francois,) Vicomte, a French naval officer, born in Perigord in 1733, distin- guished himself as commander of a squadron against the English in 1781. In 1789 he was a deputy from Agen to the States-General. Died in 1805. Beaumont, de, (Christophe,) Archbishop of Paris, born in Perigord in 1703. He was a zealous opponent of the Jansenists, and excited so much hostility by his violence that he was at length exiled to La Trappe. Died in 1 781. See P. PiCHOT, " !£loge de C. de Beamnont," 1822; Abbe Fer- LET, "Oraison funebre de Monseigneur de Beaumont," Paris, 1784; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Beaumont, de, (Elie.) See Elie de Beaumont. Beaumont, de, (Geoffroy,) born at Bayeux, was Bishop of Laon and papal legate in Lombardy. Died in 1273. Beaumont, de, (J. T. G. Leprevot — leh^pRaVo',) born in Normandy aboute,i740. He suffered, during the reigns of Louis XV. and Louis XVI., an imprisonment of more than twenty vears, for having discovered a secret coalition for a mono]Joly of grain, known as the pacte de faviine, (" contract of starvation,") which was sanctioned by the government. See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France ;" " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Beaumont, de, (Jean de Hainaut — h^^n5',) Sire, a French soldier, celebrated by Froissart, was a brother of William the Good, Count of Hainaut. He at first f as c as s; g hard; g as c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (Qi^^See Expl anations, p. 2;v ) BEAUMONT 302 BEAUREPAIRE favoured the cause of Edward III. of England, who after- wards married his niece Philippa. In 1345 he went over to the party of Philip of Valois, and distinguished him- self at the battle of Crecy. Died in 1356. See Fkoissart, "Chronicles." Beaumont, de, (Jean Louis Moreau,) a French magisti-ate, born in Paris in 1715, wrote "Memoirs con- cerning Taxes in Europe," (1768.) Died in 1785. Beaumont, van, van bo'moN', (Simon Herbert,) a Dutch botanist and Latin poet, born at Dort in 1574; died in 1654. Beaumont de Brivasac, de, deh bo'moN' deh bRe'- vS'ztk', CoMTE, a French geographer, "born near Tou- louse in 1746, was the reputed author of a work entitled '•Europe and its Colonies." Died in 1821. See QuEKARD, " L:i France Litteraire." Beaumont de Carriere, de, deh ba^moN' deh kl'- re-aiR^, Baron, a French general of division, was aide- de-camp of Murat. Died in 1813. Beaumont de la Bonniere, de, deh bd'moN' deh la bo'ne-aiR', (Gustave Auguste,) a distinguished French publicist and writer, born at Beaumont-la-Chatre, in Sarthe, in February, 1802. In 1831 he accompanied M. de Tocqueville to the United States, in order to study the penitentiary systems of that country. Having re- turned to France, he married in 1836 the granddaughter of I>a Fayette. In 1840 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, and in 1848 became a member of the Con- stituent Assembly, where he voted with the moderate republicans. In August, 1848, he was sent by General Cavaignac as ambassador to England. He wrote a val- uable treatise " On the Penitentiary System of the United States, and its Application in France," (2 vols., 1832,) " Slavery in the United States," (" L'Esclavage aux fitats- Unis," 1835,) and "Ireland, Political, Social, and Reli- gious," (1839.) The two last-named ^works obtained the Montyon prize from the Institute. He resigned his office of ambassador on the election of Louis Napoleon, De- cember, 1S48. About the end of 1851 he was imprisoned for opposition to the coup d'etat of December 2. Died in 1866. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire," (Supplement.) Beaumont de la Bonniere, de, (Marc Antoine,) CoMTE, a French general, born in Touraine in 1760. He served in the principal campaigns from 1795 to 1809, and was made general of division, grand officer of the legion of honour, and count of the empire. In 1814 he was created a peer by Louis XVIII. Died in 1830. See " Victoires et Conquetes des Frangais." Beaumont de Perefixe. See Per^fixe. Beaumont des Adrets. See Adrets. Beaune, de, deh b5n, (Florimond,) a French geo- meter, and an intimate friend of Descartes, born at Blois in 1601. He wrote a treatise, in Latin, "On the Limits of Equations," and invented several astronomical instru- ments. Died in 1652. Beaune, de, (Jacques,) a French minister of finance under Francis I. He lent to the queen-mother money provided for the army, for which offence he was executed in 1527. Beaune, de, (Renaud,) born at Tours, in France, in 1527, became Archbishop of Sens in 1596. He was in- strumental in the conversion of Henry IV. to Catholi- cism. Died in 1606. Beaunoir, bo^nw^R', (Alexandre Louis Bertrand Robineau — ro^je^no',) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1746. Beaunoir is an anagram of Robineau, which was his proper name. Died in 1823. See QuERARO, " La France Litteraire." Beaupere, bS^paiR', (Jean,) a French priest, noto- rious as one of the judges who condemned Joan of Arc in 1430. Died about 1450. Beaiiplan, de, deh bo'plSx', (Guillaume le Vas- seur — leh vt^sUR',) a French geographical writer, born in Normandy, published a "Description of the Ukraine," (1650,) which was translated into German and English; also a valuable map of the Ukraine. Died about 1670. Beaupre, de, deh bd^pRi', (Plat,) a French priest, a member of the Convention of 1792, voted for the death of Louis XVI. Beaup\iis,de, deh bo'pii-e', almost b5'pwe',(CnARLi:s Walon,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Beauvais in 162 1, became director of the Port-Royal schools in Paris, and wrote several " Moral Essays." Died in 1709. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Beaupuy, de, deh bo^pu-e', (Armand Michel Bacmelier,) a French general, born at Mussidan in 1757, served under Moreau on the Rhine, and was killed in the retreat from Bavaria in 1796. Beaupuy, de, (Nicolas Michel Bachelier,) a brother of the preceding, born at Mussidan in 1750, was elected to the Council of Ancients in 1799. Died in 1802. Beaurain, de, deh bS'riN^ (Jean,) born at Aix-en - Essart in 1696, was appointed in 1721 royal geographer. His principal work is a "Topographical and Militaiy Description of the Campaigns of [Marshal] Luxembourg from 1690 to 1694," (1756.) Died in 1771. Beauregard. See IjErigard. Beauregard, boR gia', (Charles Victor,) some- times called Woirgard, a French general, born at Metz in 1764, was killed near Badajos in 1810. Beauregard, (Jean Nicolas,) a French Jesuit and po]Hilar preacher, born at Metz in 1731 ; died in 1804. _Beauregard, bo're-gard', [Fr. pron. bo'reh-gtR' or boR'gtR',] (Peter Gu.stavus Toutant,) an American general, born near New Orleans about 1816. He grad- uated at West Point, the second in his class, in 1838, and was appointed second lieutenant of artillery, but was soon after transferred to the corps of engineers. He was breveted as major for his meritorious conduct in the Mexican war, (1846-47.) He obtained in 1853 the rank of captain, which he resigned in February, 1861, to enter the Confederate army. He directed the bombardment of Fort Sumter, which initiated the civil war, April 12, 1861. In June he took command of the army at Ma- nassas Junction. He commanded at the battle of Bull Run, (July 21,) where he gained a decided victory over the Union forces. In this engagement, according to his own statement, he had 27,000 men, of whom 269 were killed and 1483 were wounded. For this service he was promoted to be a general in the regular army of the Southern Confederacy. Early in 1862 he passed from the Army of the Potomac to that of the Mississippi. On the first day of the battle of Shiloh (April 6) he was next in command under General Albert S. Johnston, on whose death he succeeded to the chief command. He was, how- ever, the next day defeated by General Grant. He then retired to Corinth, which was strongly fortified, and which he defended against the Union army in a long siege. He evacuated Corinth about May 30, 1862, and retreated with but little loss. Having been raised to the full rank of general, the highest inlhe service, he took, in August, 1862, command of the department of South Carolina and Georgia. He defended Charleston with success in 1863 against the Federal navy and army commanded respect- ively by Dahlgren and Gillmore. About the ist of May, 1864, Beauregard moved his forces to Petersburg and reinforced the army of Lee. He was appointed commander of the military division of the West in October, and was sent to Georgia to defend it against Sherman, but proved utterly unable to with- stand the advance of the Union army. He had united his forces with those of General J. E. Johnston in North Carolina when that officer surrendered to Sherman in April, 1865. See "Southern Generals," an anonymous work, 1865; Greei ey "The American Conflict," vol. ii. Beaurepaire, boR^pSR^, (Nicolas Joseph,) born at Coulommiers in 1740, was appointed in 1792 command- ant of Verdun, which was immediately afterwards be- sieged by the Prussians. Finding his efforts to maintain the place unavailing, Beaurepaire destroyed himself. See " Victohes et Conquetes des Francais." Beaurepaire, de, deh boR'paR', (Nicolas Girard,) a French soldier, born in Poitou, was one of the leaders of the Vendeans in the campaign of 1793, and was mor- tally wounded the same year. Beaurepaire-Rohan, de, deh boR^p^R' ro^6N', (Hen- ri,) a Brazilian traveller, of French extraction, born about 1818. Among his principal works is a " Complete Geog- raphy of Matto Grosso. " a, e, T, o, u, y, long ; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, ohsacre; fdr, fill, fSt; m§t; n6t; good; moon ; BEAURIEU 303 BEAUFAU Beaiirieu, de, deh b5'Re-uh', (Gaspard Guillard— ge'ytR',) a French iittcniteuf^ hoxw at Saint-Paul, in Ar- to'is, in 1728, wrote " The Disciple of Nature," and other works. Died in 1795. See QuEKARD, "La France Litteraire." Beausobre, de, deh bo'sobR', (Charles Louis,) a Protestant divine, born at Dessau, in Germany, in 1690, was a son of Isaac de Beausobre, noticed below. lie became a privy councillor of the King of Prussia, and pastor at Berlin. Died in 1753. Beausobre, de, (Isaac,) an eminent French Protest- ant theologian, born at Niort in 1659. On the revoca- tion of the edict of Nantes he took refuge in Rotterdam, (1685,) and in 1694 repaired to Berlin, where he became pastor of one of the French churches, and subsequently court chaplain. He was the author of a " Critical His- tory of Manichasus and the Manicheans," (2 vols., 1739,) which is esteemed a standard work, and of " Critical and Philological Remarks on the New Testament," (1742.) He also contributed a number of valuable articles to the " Bibliotheque Allemande," and wrote a " History of the Reformation," which he left unfinished. Died at Berlin in 173S. Beausobre and Lenfant translated the New Testament into French, (171 8.) See Lachapelle, "Vie de Beausobre." Beausobre, de, (Jean Jacques de Beault — deh bo,) CoMTE, a French general and military writer, born in 1704. He assisted at the sieges of Menin aiid Ypres in 1744, and in 1757 commanded at the blockade of Guel- dres, which he forced to surrender. Died in 1784. See De Courcelles, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Fran^ais." Beausobre, de, (Louis,) son of Isaac, noticed above, born at Berlin in 1730, was the author of "Letters on German Literature," and other works. Died in 1783. Beausoleil, bo'so^laF or bo'so'hVye, (Jean du Chate- let — dii shat'LV,) born in Brabant about 1576, wrote a work on alchemy entitled "Diorismus." Died in 1643. See Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chimie." Beaussier, bo'se-a', (Louis Andr6,) an able naval officer, was a nephew of Louis Joseph, noticed below. Died in 1789. Beaussier de Lille, bo'se-|,'deh 1^1, (Louis Joseph,) a French naval officer, born at Toulon in 1700 ; died in 1765. Beautemps-Beaupre, bo^tSN' bc/pRi', (Charles FRANgois,) a celebrated French hydrographer, born near Sainte-Menehould in 1766, Among his principal works are the Atlas accompanying the account of D'En- trecasteaux's voyage in 1791, an " Atlas of the Baltic Sea," and " General Hydrographic Chart." He was ap- pointed, in 1814, chief hydrographer and keeper of the marine depot, and was a member of the French Institute and of the Royal Society of Gottingen. Died in 1854. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Beauteville, de, deh bot^veK, (Jean Louis Dubuis- son — dii'bu-e^soN', Bishop of Alais, born at Beauteville., in France, in 1708; died in 1775. Beauvais, bd'va', (Charles Nicolas Daui^hin,) a French engraver, son of Nicolas, noticed below, born in Paris about 1720. Beauvais, (Charles Theodore,) a French general, born at Orleans in 1772, was a son of Charles Nicolas Beauvais de Preaux. He served under Napoleon in Italy, Egypt, and Spain. He published, among other works, " The Official and Confidential Correspondence of Napoleon with Foreign Courts," (7 vols., 1819,) and was principal editor of the compilation entitled "Victo- ries and Conquests of the French," (" Victoires et Con- quetes des Fran9ais," 28 vols., 1817.) Died in 1830. Beauvais, (Gilles Francois,) a French Jesuit and moralist, born in Brittany in 1695 5 ^^^^ 1773- Beauvais, (Guillaume,) a French antiquary, born at Dunkirk in 1698, wrote an "Abridged History of the Roman Emperors from Medals," (1767,) and other works on numismatics. Died in 1773. Beauvais, (Jacques,) a French engraver, born about 1750- Beauvais, (Nicolas Dauphin,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1687, was a pupil of Gerard Adrian. Died in 1763. Beauvais, (Philippe,) a French sculptor, son of the preceding, died in 1781. His principal work is a statue of " Immortality," executed for the Empress of Russia. Beauvais, de, deh \yo'\\', (Bertrand Pairier,) a French royalist, born at Chinon about 1755, took an active part in the Vendean war, of which he wrote an account, entitled "View of the War of La Vendee." Died in 1827. See BiLLARD DE Veaux, "Biographie des Personnes marqiiantes de la Chouannerie." Beauvais, de, (Jean Baptiste Charles Marie,) an eloquent French prelate, born at Cherbourg in 1731, be- came Bishop of Senez. He wrote a number of Funeral Orations and Sermons. Died in 1790. See N. Maillet, " filoge de Messire de Beauvais," 1807 ; N. N. DE Sambucy, "Vie de Monseigneur de Beauvais," 1842. Beauvais, de, (Remy,) a French Capuchin, born about 1580, wrote a burlesque poem entitled "La Madeleine." Beauvais de Preaux, bo'vi' deh pRa'5'', (Charles Nicolas,) a French physician and writer, born at Or- leans in 1745. As a member of the National Conven- tion in 1792, he voted for the death of the king. Died in 1794. Beauval, bS'vtK, (Jeanne Olivier Bourguignon — booR'gen'yoN^,) a comic actress, born in Holland about 1643, was patronized by Moliere. Died in 1720. Beauvallet, bo'vt'li', (Pierre Francois,) a French actor and dramatist, born at Pithiviers in 1801. Beauvallet, (Pierre Nicolas,) a French sculptor, born at Havre in 1749, studied under Pajou. Among his best works are busts of William Tell and Marat. Died in 1828. Beauvarlet, bo''vtR''Ly, (Jacques Firmin,) a French engraver, born at Abbeville in 1 73 1, executed several prints after Giordano. Died in 1793. Beauvau, de, deh ho'\o', (Bertrand,) a French statesman, born about 1400, was employed by Charles VII. in several important negotiations, and was appointed royal chamberlain in 1435. Died in 1474. See S. DE Sainte-Marthe, " Histoire genealogique de la Maison de Beauvau." Beauvau, de, (Charles Juste,) marshal of France, born at Luneville in 1720. He commanded the principal attack at the storming of Mahon in 1756, and had a pro- minent share in the victory of Corbach in 1760. In 1789 he became a member of the cabinet of Louis XVI. Marshal Beauvau was elected to the French Academy and the Academy della Crusca. Died in 1793. See S. J. DE BouFFLERs, " £5loge de M. de Beauvau," 1805. Beauvau, de, (Charles Juste Francois Victur- nien — v^k^tiiR^ne-aN'',) Prince, son of Marc litienne, noticed below, was born in 1793. Lie served in the Russian campaign of 1812, and was created a senator by Louis Napoleon in 1852. Beauvau, de, (Henri,) Baron, a French general, served with distinction under Rudolph II. of Germany. He wrote an account of his campaigns and travels, (1619.) Beauvau, de, (Henri,) Marquis, son of the prece- ding, wrote "Memoirs of Charles IV., Duke of Lorraine and of Bar." Died in 1684. Beauvau, de, (Louis,) a French statesman, born about 141 o, became grand seneschal of Provence, and chamberlain of Rene, King of Sicily. Died in 1462. Beauvau, de, (Louis Charles Antoine,) Marquis, a French general, born in 17 10, was killed at the siege of Ypres in 1744. Beauvau, de, (Marc,) Prince of Craon, was governoi of Francis of Lorraine, afterwards Emperor of Germany, and subsequently became Viceroy of Tuscany. He had a high reputation for learning and accomplishments. Died in 1754. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Beauvau, de, (Marc Stienne Gabriel,) born in 1773, bore the title of a prince of the Holy Empire, and was a grandee of Spain. Died in 1849. Beauvau, de, (Ren^,) a distinguished French soldier, fought under Charles of Anjou in Italy in 1265, and was mortally wounded at the battle of Benevento in 1266. Beauvau, de, (Ren6 Franqois,) an excellent French prelate, born in 1664. Appointed Bishop of Tournay in 1707, he did his utmost to relieve the sufferings of the soldiers and citizens during the siege of that place by e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; o, H, K, gjiitiiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in th'n. (J^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) BEAUVILLIERS 304 BECCARIA Prince Eugene, and, after it was captured, refused to perform a Te Deum for the conquerors. He was created Archl)ishop of Narbonne in 17 19. Died in 1739. See MoKEKi, " Dictionnaiie Historique." Beauvilliers, boVe^ye-^', (Antoine,) a noted French gastronome, born in Paris in 1754, wrote "The Art of Cookery," {2 vols., 1814.) Died in 1817. Beauvilliers, de, deh bo've'ye-.V, (FRANgois Hono- RAT,) Duke of Saint-Aignan, born in 1607, was a member of the French Academy. Died in 1687. Beauvilliers, de, (Marie,) daughter of Count Saint- Aignan, born in 1574, was mistress of Henry IV. until superseded by Gabrielle d'Estrees, after which she be- came abbess of Montmartre. Died in 1656. Beauvilliers, de, (Paul Hippolyte,) Duke of Saint- Aignan, born in 1684, wrote a work entitled "Literary Amusements." He was a member of the French Acad- emy. Died in 1776. Beauvoir, de, deh bS^vw^R', (Aimee Leocadie Doze,) a French ch'amatic authoress, the wife of Edouard, noticed below, born in 1823. She wrote several successful dramas, and " Les Confidences et Causeries de Made- moiselle Mars," (3 vols., 1855.) Beauvoir, de, (Edouard Roger,) a French novelist and dramatic writer, born in Paris in 1809. Beauvois. See Belenvei. Beauvois, de, (Palisot.) See Palisot. Beauvollier, de, deh boVo^le-a', (Jean Valot — vS'lo',) a P^rench officer, born near Loudun, served in the Vendean army in 1793, was afterwards taken prisoner by the republicans at Mans, and executed in 1794. Beauvollier, de, (Pierre Louis Valot,) a Vendean leader, brother of Jean Valot, born near Loudun in 1770. He became marechal -de-camp after the second restora- tion. Died about 1825. See De Courcelles, " Dictionnaire des Gendraux Frangais." Beauxa:lmis, bo'ztKme', written also Beaulxamis, (Thomas,) a French ecclesiastic of the order of the Car- melites, born at Melun in 1524. Died in 1589. Beauzee, bo''za', (Nicolas,) a French grammarian and litterateur, born at Verdun in 171 7. Among his prin- cipal works are his " Grammaire Generale," (2 vols., 1767,) for which Maria Theresa bestowed upon him a gold medal, " Dictionary of Grammar and Literature," written conjointly with Marmontel, and " Exposition of the Historical Proofs of Religion," (1747.) Beauzee was a member of the French Academy. Died in 1789. See Le Bas, "Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." Bea'ver, written also Biever or Bever, (John,) known also by the Latin names of Cas'tor, Casto'rius, Fi'ber, and Fibe'rius, was an English Benedictine monk of Westminster, and lived about 1330. He wrote a " Chronicle of England from Brutus down to his own Time." Beaver, (Philip,) an English naval officer of great merit, born in 1760, attempted in 1792 to found a colony on the island of Bulama, off the west coast of Africa, for the purpose of introducing civilization among the natives. Having lost the greater part of his colonists by sickness, he returned to England in 1794, and published soon after an account of his expedition, entitled "African Memo- randa," (1805.) Diecl in 1813. See "Life and Services of Captain Philip Beaver," by W. H. Smyth, London, 1829; "London Quarterly Review" for July and November, 1829. Beaziano, bk-ad-ze-a'no, Beatiano, bi-a-te-S'no, or Beazzano, ba-.^t-si'no, (Agostino,) an Italian poet, born at Treviso, lived about 1550. Beaz'ley, (Samuel,) an English architect and littera- teur, born in Westminster in 1786. He constructed a number of theatres in England and Dublin, and wrote upwards of a hundred dramas, also novels entitled "The Oxonians" and "The Roue." Died in 185 1. Beazzano. See Beaziano. Bebel, ba^'bel, (Balthasar,) born at Strasburg in 1632, was professor of theology at Wittenberg. He wrote " Antiquitates Ecclesias," (3 vols., 1669.) Died in 1686. Bebel, [Lat. Beiie'lius,] (Heinrich,) a German scholar and litterateur, born in Suabia, became in 1497 professor of belles-lettres at Tiibingen, and wrote " Face- tiae," and other Latin works in prose and verse. Died about 1 5 16. See G. W. Zapf, " H. Bebel nach seinem Leben und seinen Schriften," 1802. Bebenburg, von, fon ba'ben-booRc', (Ludolf,) a German professor of canon law, became Bishop of Bam- berg about 1340. Bebootoff or BebutofF, ba-boo-toff^ (Vasili Osi- POViTCH,) Prince, a Russian commander, born in 1792, served with distinction in the Caucasian campaigns of 1828-29, and became lieutenant-general in 1843. Becan,ba''kan, [Lat Goro''phius Becca'nus,1(John,) a Flemish physician, whose original name was Van Gorp, born in Brabant in 1518 ; died in 1572. See MoRHOF, " Polyhistor." Beoan, (Martin,) a Flemish Jesuit and writer, born in Brabant about 1550, was successively professor of theo- logy at Mentz, Wiirzburg, and Vienna, and confessor to the emperor Ferdinand II. Died in 1624. See "Scriptores Societatis Jesu." Becan, (William,) a Flemish poet and Jesuit, born at Ypres in 1608 ; died in 1683. Beccadelli, (Antonio.) See Panormita. Beccadelli, bek-kd-deFlee, or Beccatelli, bgk-ki- tel'lee, (Luigi,) an able Italian litterateur, born at Bo- logna in 1502. He wrote, besides other works, a "Life of Cardinal Pole," which was translated into Latin, (1563,) and a "Life of Petrarch." Pie became Arch- bishop of Ragusa about 1555. Died at Prato in 1572. See Mazzuchei.li, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Becoafumi,b§k-ka-foo'mee, (Domenico,) an eminent Italian painter and sculptor, born at Sienna about 1480, was originally named Mecherino. Among his master- pieces are his " Saint Sebastian," in the Borghese palace, and the designs of the mosaic pavement of the cathedral of Sienna. He was also a wood-engraver, and was skilled in the art of casting bronze. Died at Genoa in 1549. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters, Sculptors," etc. Beocara, bck-k^'ra, or Bechara, ba-ki'ra, (Camil LO,) an Italian poet, born at Placentia, lived about 1550, Beccari, beVkd-ree, (Agostino,) an Italian poet^ born at Ferrara about 1540, was the author of a pas- toral comedy entitled "The Sacrifice," ("II Sacrifizio,") said to have been the first work of the kind ever written, and to have been the model of Tasso's "Aminta." Died in 1590. See Ginguene, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Beccari, (Giacomo Bartolommeo,) an Italian phy- sician and savant, born at Bologna in 1682. He was an intimate friend of Morgagni and other eminent men, whom he assisted in founding the Academy of the "In- cjuieti," (the " Restless,") which was changed or devel- oped by Count Marsigli into the Institute of Sciences and Arts in 1711. Beccari was soon after appointed professor of physics in that institution, and in 1750 succeeded Baz- zano as president, having previously been elected to the Royal Society of London. He wrote several scientific treatises. Died in 1766. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Beccaria, b^k-k^-ree^'d, (Antonio,) an Italian scholar and poet, born at Verona, lived about 1470. Beccaria, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian savant and natural philosopher, born at Mondovi in 1 7 16, was ap- pointed in 1748 professor of experimental physics at Turin. He published a treatise on "Natural and Arti- ficial Electricity," (1753,) and "Letters on Electricity," (1758.) He contributed several articles to the "Trans- actions" of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1781. See A. Tana, " filo^e de J. B. Beccaria," Turin, 17S1 ; G. A. F. G. Landi, "Memorie stonche intorno a gli Studj G. B. Beccaria," 1783. Beccaria, di, de blk-ki-ree'^, (Cesare Bonesana,) Marquis, an eminent philosophical and political writer, born at Milan, in Italy, on the 15th of March, 1738. He early became familiar with the works of Helvetius and Montesquieu, and the latter exercised a powerful influ- ence on the direction of his studies. He published in 1762 a work "On the Abuses of the Coinage in the State of Milan, and their Remedies." In 1764 he brought out his "Treatise on Crimes and Punishments," ("Trat- tatodei Delitti e delle Pene,") which was most favourably a. e, 1, o, u, y, loig; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fdt; met; not; good; mooa; BECCJRLZZI BECK received, and at once established the author's reputation. Never," says a French writer, " did so small a book pro- duce such great effects." It was translated into the principal languages of Europe, including modern Greek, and went through six editions in less than two years. Voltaire, regarding it as the code of humanity, wrote a commentary upon it ; and Catherine II. of Russia caused it to be transcribed into her new code. Under the patron- age of Count Firmian, he had, in 1764, assisted in found- ing a periodical called " II Caffe," on the plan of Addison's " Spectator." In 1 76S Beccaria accepted the chair of pub- lic economy created for him at Milan by Count Firmian. Died at Milan in November, 1793. See TiPALDO, '"Biografia degli Italiani illustn," vol. iii.; Ugoni, "Delia Letteratura Italiana," 1S20-22 ; C. P. Villa, "Vita del :\Iar- chese C. Beccaria," 1S21; Pietro Custodi, "Vita di C. Beccaria;" '■ E:>.cyc!opsEdia Britannica." Beccaruzzi, bek-ki-root'see, (Francesco da Cone- i gliano — dd ko-nal-ya'no,) an Italian painter, born about 1490 at Conegliano, was a pupil of Pordenone. See Lanzi, " History- of Painting in Italy." Beccatelli, bgk-ki-teKlee, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian musician and writer on music; died in 1734. Beccatelli, (Luigi.) See Beccadei.li. Becchio, bek'ke-o, [Lat. Bec'chius,] (Guglielmo,) Bishop of Fiesole, was a native of Florence. Died in 14S0. Beccold. See John of Leyden. Bec-Crespin, du, dubek''kRes'paN', (Jean,) a French theologian, born about 1540, became Bishop of Saint- Malo. He wrote a " History of the Great Tamerlane, taken from the Monuments o'f the Arabs," (1602.) See "Gallia Christiana." Beccuci, b&k-koo'chee, (Domenico Mari.^,) an Ital- ian writer, born at Florence in 1730 ; died in 1800. Beccuti, bdk-koo'tee, or Beccuci, bek-koo'chee, (Francesco,) an Italian burlesque poet, surnamed IL Coppetta, born at Perugia in 1509 ; died in 1553. Bec-de-Lievre, b§k'deh'le-|.vR', (Anne Chris- tophe,) a French royalist, served under Conde against the republicans, and was killed at Oudan in 1795. Becelli, ba-cheFlee, (Giulio Cesare,) an Italian poet and litterateur, born at Verona in 16S3, wrote a number of dramas, and an essay "On Modern Poetry," (1732.) Died in 1750. See Mazzi chelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Becerra, bi-ther'rS, (Domingo,) a Spanish priest, born at Seville, published a "Treatise on Customs," ("Tratado dos Costumbres," 1589.) Becerra, (Fernando,) a Spanish friar, born about 15S0, wrote several religious works. Becerra, (Francisco,) a Spanish architect, born about 1545. built in Spanish America the cathedral of Lima, the church at Cuzco, and other public edifices. Becerra, (Gasparo,) an eminent Spanish painter, sculptor, and architect, born at Baeza about 1520, studied at Rome under Michael Angelo, and afterwards worked for Philip II. His master-piece is a statue of the Virgin, at Madrid. Died in 1570. See Bermudez, "Diccionario Historico." Becerril, bi-ther-rM', (Alonzo,) a Spanish artist, noted for his skilful sculpture in silver, born about 1550. Becerril, (Francisco,) a brother of the preceding, \>as also an artist and silversmith. Died in 1573. See Ijermidez, "Diccionario Historico." Bechada, bk'sht'da^ (Gregoire,) a French poet, I'orn about 1090, wrote "The Concjuest of Jerusalem," (not extant.) Bechard, bi'shtR', (Ferdinand,) a French political writer, born at Nimes in 1799. He published, besides other works, an " Essay on Administrative Centraliza- tion," (2 vols., 1837.) Bechaud, bk'sho', (Jean Pierre,) a French general, born at Befort in 1770, was killed at Orthez in 1814. Beche, de la. See De la Beche. Beclier, beK'er, (Alfred Julius,) of German extrac- tion, was born at Manchester, in England, in 1S04. He studied law at Heidelberg and Berlin, and was subse- quently professor of music at the Hague. On the break- ing out of the revolution of 1848, he edited "The Radi- .-al," a democratic journal, which was suppressed after the storming of Vienna, and Becher was arrested and put to death, (1848.) See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Becher, beK''er, (Johann Joachim,) a German che- mist, born at Speyer about 1630. He was successively professor of medicine at Mentz, aulic councillor at Vi- enna, and chief physician of the Elector of Bavaria, but did not remain long in any place. He was fond of specu- lation, and was the first who attempted to connect by a theory the scattered facts of chemistry. His theory was the basis of that perfected by Stahl. The most import- ant of his numerous works is his " Physica Subterranea," (1669.) Died in London about 1684 ; some say in 1682. See F. HoEFER, " Histoire de la Chimie ;" Urban G. Bucher, "Muster eines niitzlichen Gelehrten in der Person J. J. Bechers," 1722. Becher, (Siegfried,) a German statistician, born at Plan, in Bohemia, in 1806. He published a treatise "On the Austrian Monetary System from 1524 to 1838," and "Population of the Austrian Monarchy from 1819 to 1843." See Brockh.^us, "Conversations-Lexikon." Becherer, bcK^er-er, (Friedrich,) a German archi- tect, born at Spandau in 1746; died in 1823. Bechet, ba sha^ (Antoine,) a French ecclesiastic and litterateur, born at Clermont in 1649 ; died in 1722. Bechet, (Jean Baptiste,) a P'rench antiquary and litterateur, born near Salins in 1759, wrote "Historical Researches concerning the City of Salins." Died in 1830. Bechsteiii, blK'stin, (Johann Matthias,) a German naturalist, born in the duchy of Saxe-Gotha in 1757. He was appointed in i8co director of the Academy of Forest Science at Dreissigacker. He published the " Natural History of Germany," "Insectology of the Forest," " Forest and Hunting Science in all its Departments," (5 vols., 1818,) "Natural History of Cage-Birds," (1840,) and other works. He is regarded as the founder of forest science. Died in 1822. See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." Bechstein, (Ludwig,) a German litterateur, nephew of the preceding, born near Meiningen in 1801. He wrote a number of poems and tales, among which is "Deutsches Mahrchenbuch," (1848.) Bechtold, bcK'tolt, (Johann,) a German artist, lived in Nuremberg about 1584. He coloured many of the engravings of x\lbert Diirer. See Xagler, " Xeues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Becichemi, ba-che-ka'mee, (Marino,) born at Scu- tari, in Turkey, about 1468, became professor of Latin eloquence successively at Venice, Brescia, and Padua. Died in 1526. Becius, ba'se-us, (Jan,) a Dutch Socinian theologian, born in 1622 ; died about 1700. Beck, (Cave,) an English clergyman, published "The Universal Character by which all Nations may under- stand one another's Conceptions," (1657.) Beck, bek, (Christian Daniel,) a German historian and philologist, born at Leipsic in 1757. He became in 1785 professor of Greek and Latin in his native cit)^ and filled other important offices. He published valuable editions of Euripides, Pindar, Apollonius, and other classics, and wrote a "Universal History of the World," (1 787-1806.) Died in 1832. See Carl F. A. Nobbe, "Vita C. D. Beckii," 1S37. Beck, (David.) See Beek. Beck, (David,) a German organ-builder, resided at Halberstadt about 1790. His greatest work is the organ in the cathedral of Groningen. Beck, (DoMiNiCUS,) a German mathematician ar.d Avriter, born near Ulm in 1732 ; died in 1791. Beck, (Franz,) a German musician, born in 1731, composed a number of symphonies and a " Stabat Mater." Died in 1809. Beck, (George,) born in England about 1749, was appointed professor of mathematics in the Royal Acad- emy at Woolwich in 1776, and emigrated in 1795 to America. He translated Anacreon, and a large part of Homer, Horace, and Virgil. Died in 1812. Beck, (Heinrich,) a German comedian and comic writer, born at Gotha in 1760 ; died in 1 803. £ as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^^[^^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 20 BECK 306 BECKER B6ck, bek, /'Jakob Christopii,) a Swiss historian, born at Bale in 1712 ; died about 1770. Beck, (JoiiANN J.,) a German jurist, born at Nurem- berg" in 1684, became professor of law at Altdorf, Died in 1744. Beck, (JoHANN LUDWIG WiLHELM,) son of Chris- tian Daniel, noticed above, born at Leii)sic in 1786, be- came professor of law at Konigsberg in 18 12. He wrote " Corpus Juris Civilis," and other legal works. Beck, bek, (John,) Baron of, a distinguished soldier, fought in the Spanish army in the campaigns of the Netherlands from 1640 to 1648, and became lieutenant- general, and governor of the duchy of Luxemburg. Beck, (John Brodiiead,) an eminent physician, born at Schenectady, New York, in 1794, graduated at Colum- bia College in 1813, and in 1826 succeeded to the chair of materia medica and botany in the College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York City. At the time of his death, in 1851, he was professor of medical jurisprudence in the same institution. He was author of " Infant Thera- peutics," (1849,) '^''^d ^V3.s associated with his brother, T. R. Beck, in the authorship of their great work on Medical Jurisprudence. See S. D. Gross, "American Medical Biography," 1861. Beck, bgk, (Karl,) a Hungarian poet, born at Baja in 1 81 7, wrote "The Poet Traveller," (1838,) "Silent Songs," (" Stille Lieder,") and other lyrics. Beck, (Karl Joseph,) a German surgeon, born in the duchy of Baden in 1794, published a " Manual of Ocular Medicine," (1824,) and other medical treatises. Died in 1838. See C. H. Baumgaertner, " Gediichtnissrede auf Dr. C. J. Beck," 1839- Beck, (Lewis C.,) M.D., an American naturalist, born at Schenectady about 1798, was a brother of John B, Beck, noticed above. He graduated in 181 7, was ap- pointed professor of chemistry at Rutgers College, New Brunswick, New Jersey, in 1830, and mineralogist of the survey of the State of New York in 1836. In 1840 he became professor of chemistry in the Medical College of Albany. He wrote numerous treatises on chemistry, botany, etc. His valuable Report on the Mineralogy of New York was published by the State in 1842. Died in 1853. See S. D. Gross, "American Medical Biography," 1861. Beck, (Matthias Friedrich, ) a German theologian and Orientalist, born in Suabia in 1649; died in 1701. Beck, (Michael,) a German theologian and scholar, born at Ulm in 1653, became professor of the Hebrew language in his native city. Died in 1712. Beck, (Theodric Romeyn — ro'min'',) M.D., an American medical writer, born at Schenectady, New York, in 1 79 1. He graduated at Union College in 1807, prac- tised at Albany until 181 7, and then became principal of the Albany Academy, which he directed for more than twenty-five years. In 1826 he was appointed professor of medical jurisprudence in Fairfield Medical College. He obtained the chair of materia medica in the Albany Medi- cal College about 1840. His principal work is " Elements of Medical Jurisprudence," (1823, loth edition, 2 vols., 1850,) which is highly esteemed. Died in November, 1855. See S. D. Gross, "American Medical Biography," 1861. Becke, von der, fon der bek'keh, (Joiiann Karl,) a German jurist and poet, born at Iserlohn in 1750. Died in 1830. Becker, (Balthasar.) See Bekker. Becker, bek'ker, (Christiane Amalie Luise,) a celebrated German actress, born in 1777, is the subject of Goethe's poem of " Euphrosyne." Her personations of Schiller's and Lessing's dramatic characters were eulogized in the highest terms by Wieland and other eminent critics. She was married at the age of fifteen, and died about 1796, leaving a daughter, the present Madame Werner. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Becker, (Daniel,) a German physician, and professor of medicine at Konigsberg, born at Dantzic in 1594; died in 1655. Becker, (Daniel,) son of the preceding, born at Konigsberg in 1627, was dean of the faculty in his native city. He died in 1670, leaving a son named Daniel Christopher, also a physician. Becker, (Ferdinand,) canon of Paderborn, was born at Grevenstein in 1740. He was imprisoned for a time in the convent of Paderborn for having written works containing heresies. Died in 1 810. Becker, (Ferdinand Wilhelm,) son of Karl Fer- dinand, noticed below, born at Hoxter in 1805. He studied at Frankfort-on-the-Main, and subsequently at Edinburgh. In 1829 he settled as a physician at Berlin. He published a valuable treatise "On Cholera," and a Latin essay "On the Historical Explanation of Medi- cine." Died in 1834. Becker, (Gottfried Wilhelm,) a German physi- cian and litterateitr, born at Leipsic in 1778. He pub- lished sketches of travel, and other works, and ti ans- lated some of Cooper's novels, and "My Prisons" (" Le mie Prigioni") of Silvio Pellico, into German. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Becker, (James,) a skilful German painter of genre and landscapes, born near Worms in 1810. Becker, (Johann,) a German physician and medicai writer, born at Schwerin in 1770; died about 1840. Becker, (Johann Philipp,) a German patriot, born at Frankenthal in 1809. Being compelled to leave his country on account of his liberal opinions, he went to Switzerland, where he took an active part against the Jesuits and the Sonderbund. In conjunction with Esse- len, he published a "History of the Revolution of May, 1849, in Southern Germany." See " Nouvelle Biographle Generale." Becker, (Julius,) a German composer and writer on music, born at Freiberg in 1811. He published a treat- ise " On the Science of Harmony," and composed an opera entitled " The Siege of Belgrade." Becker, (Karl Ferdinand,) a German scholar, born in the electorate of Treves in 1775. He published a " Complete German Grammar,'" " Organism of the Ger- man Language," (1841.) and other works. Died in 1849. Becker, (Karl Ferdinand,) a German organist, born at Leipsic in 1804, was a son of Gottfried Wilhelm, noticed above. He wrote a " Systematic and Chrono- logical Exposition of Musical Literature," (1836,) and other works. Becker, (Karl Friedrich,) a German historian, born at Berlin in 1777, wrote a very popular "History of the World for Children and Teachers," (9 vols., 1801.) Five volumes were subsequently added to it by Woltmann, Menzel, and Loebell. Died in 1806. Bec'ker or Bajert-Becker, [Fr. pron. bt^zhaiR' bcVkaiR',] (Leonard Nicolas,) Comte de Mons, a French general, born at Obernheim in 1770. He was raised to the rank of general of division on the field of Austerlitz. Died in 1840. Becker, (Nikolaus,) a German poet, born at Geilen- kirchen in 1816, is chiefly known as the author of a very popular national song beginning, " They shall not have it, the free German Rhine !" (" Sie sollen ihn nicht haben, den freien deutschen Rhein !") It was written in 1840, in response to a proposed annexation of the valley of the Rhine to France. Died in 1845. See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." Becker, (Philipp Christoph,) a German engraver of seals and medals, born at Coblentz in 1674. He was patronized by Joseph I. and Charles VI. of Austria, and Peter the Great of Russia. Died in 1742. Becker, (Philipp Jakob,) a German painter, born at Pforzheim" in 1763, studied at Rome under Raphael Mengs. Died in 1829. Becker, (Rudolf Zacharias,) a popular German writer, born at Erfurt in 1752, published a number of moral and educational works for the lower classes. One of these, entitled " Instructive Tales of Joy and Sorrow in the Village of Mildheim," (1787,) was so popular that more than half a million copies of it were soon printed in German and other languages. Died in 1822. See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." Becker, (Wilhelm Adolf,) a son of Wilhelm Gott- lieb, noticed below, born at Dresden in 1796, published a "Manual of Roman Antiquities," (1843,) and other works. Died in 1846. a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; BECKER BECON Becker, (Wilhelm Gottlieb,) a German writer on antiquities and horticulture, born at Kalenberg in 1753, published " Augusteum, or Description of the Antique Monuments of Dresden," (3 vols., 1805,) and "Manual for Amateurs of Gardens," {1795-99.) Died at Dresden in 1813. Beckerath, de, deh b§k'keh-rtt', (Hermann,) a Prussian statesman and financier, born at Crefeld in iSoi. He was a deputy in 1848 to the National Assem- bly at Frankfort, where he sided with the liberal con- servative party, and the same year became minister of finance in the ministry of the empire. He resigned both offices in 1849. Beck'et, (ThOiMAS a,) Archbishop of Canterbury, was born in London in 11 17. He became Archdeacon of Canterbury about 11 54, and chancellor of England in 1 158. According to Hume, the chancellor in that age kept the great seal, acted as secretary of state, and was a kind of prime minister. Becket lived in splendid style, per- formed the part of a courtier, and on one or more occa- sions exposed his person in battle in Normandy, whither he had followed the king. He was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury by the influence of Henry H. in 1 162, after which he totally altered his demeanour and affected in his person the greatest austerity. He determined to resist the projects which Henry had formed to limit or diminish the ecclesiastical power. After a contest with the king in relation to the " Constitutions of Clarendon," Becket appealed to the pope, and escaped to France, (1164.) Supported by the pope, he excommunicated Henry's ministers, suspended the spiritual thunder over Henry himself, and persisted in his course with the ut- most obstinacy. In 1 1 70 he was permitted to return, and was reinstated in his office without resigning any of those pretensions which had been the origin of the contest. The haughty prelate continued to defy the authority of the king, and excommunicated two bishops for their com- pliance with Henry's will. Not long after (December 29, 1 1 70) he was assassinated by four barons, servants of Henry. Becket was the first Saxon Archbishop of Canterbury after the Norman conquest. He was re- garded as a martyr not only by the devoted adherents of the church, but by thousands of patriotic Saxons, who beheld in him the champion of their race against Nor- man tyranny. He was canonized by the pope in 1172, and his shrine at Canterbury became the resort of myriads of pilgrims. See Hume, " HistorA' of England," vol. i. chap. viii. ; M.^c.aulay, "History of England," vol. i. ; Canda, "Vie de Saint Thomas Pecket," 1615; Bataille, "Vie de Saint Thomas Becket," 1843; Robert, " Hisloire de Saint Thomas Becket," 1844; Giles, "Life and Letters of Thomas a Becket," London, 2 vols., 1846; James C. Robertson, "Biography of Thomas Becket," 1859; Immanuel Bekker, "Leben des heiligen Thomas von Canterbury," 1838; W. F. Hook, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. ii. chap. xii. Becket, (William,) an English surgeon and writer on surgery, was born at Abingdon in 1684 ; died in 1738. Beck'ett, (Isaac,) one of the earliest English mezzo- tint engravers, born in Kent in 1653. Among his master- pieces are portraits of Charles II. and of Lady Williams. See Walpole's "Anecdotes of Painting." Beck'fprd, (William,) born in the West Indies in i6go, rose through several offices to be lord mayor of l/Ondon. Died in 1770. Beckford, (William,) a celebrated English writer, son of the preceding, born in 1760. He inherited from his father the estate of Fonthill, in Wiltshire, and large estates in Jamaica, producing an annual revenue of more than one hundred thousand pounds. At the age of twenty he published "Biographical Memoirs of Extraordinary Painters," which is characterized by a critic in the " Lon- don Quarterly" as "a series of sharp and brilliant satires on the Dutch and Flemish schools." His romance of "Vathek" came out in 1784. This work, written in elegant French, was commended in the highest terms by Lord Byron, who says, "As an Eastern tale, even Ras- selas must bow before it ; his Happy Valley will not bear a comparison with the Hall of Eblis." An able writer in the "London Quarterly" observes, however, that " its inspiration is too often such as might have been inhaled in the Hall of Eblis." Having visited Portugal in 1794, he built a splendid mansion near Cintra, alluded to by Byron in "Childe Harold," canto i. In 1796 he began the erection of Fonthill Abbey, upon which he ex- pended enormous sums, and filled it with the rarest anc most costly works of art. This magnificent establishment was sold in 1822, and Beckford built another palace in the neighbourhood of Bath. In 1834 he brought out a series of letters entitled " Italy, with Sketches of Spain and Portugal," which are ranked by an English critic "among the most elegant productions of modern litera- ture." Died in 1844. See "London Quarterly Review" for March and June, 1834. Beck''ing-hani, (Charles,) an English dramatist, born in London, wrote, before the age of twenty, his tragedies of " Scipio Africanus," and " Henry IV. of France." Died in 1730. See "Biographia Dramatica." Beck'ing-ton, (Thomas,) an English prelate and di- plomatist, born about 1385, was tutor to Henry VI., under whom he became successively secretary of state, lord privy seal, and Bishop of Bath and Wells. In 1432 he was one of the ambassadors charged to negotiate a peace with France. Died in 1465. See "Biographia Britannica. " Beckmann, bek^min, (Friedrich,) a popular Ger- man comedian, born at Breslau in 1803, acted at Berlin, and afterwards at Vienna. Beckmann, (Johann,) a German naturalist and agri- cultural writer, born at Hoya in 1739. He became pro- fessor of physics and natural history at the Protestant Gymnasium of Saint Petersburg in 1763, and in 1770 professor of economy at Gottingen, where he lectured forty years or more. He wrote, among other works, "Principles of Rural Economy in Germany," (1769,) and "Contribution to the History of Inventions," (" Bei- trage zur Geschichte der Erfindungen," 5 vols., 1786- 1805.) Died in 1811. ^ See G. Hevne, "Memoria Joan. Beckmanni," 1811 ; "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1816. Beckmann, (Johann Friedrich Gottlieb,) born in 1737, was organist at Celle, in Hanover, and one of the most skilful pianists of his time. Died in 1792. Beck'witli, (Sir George,) an English general, born i''^ I753> became successively Governor of Bermuda, (1797,) Governor of Saint Vincent, (1804,) and com- mander of the South American forces in 1808. He sub- sequently took Martinique and Guadeloupe from the French. Died in 1823. Beckwith, (John Charles,) an English general and philanthro])ist, born in 1790. He served on the staff of the Duke of Wellington, and lost a leg at Waterloo, 181 5. He devoted much of his time and money to the welfare of the Waldenses, and opened many schools in Piedmont, where he died in 1862. Beclard, bk^klia', (Pierre Augustin,) a French sur- geon and anatomist, born at Angers in 1785, became surgeon-in-chief of the hospital de la Charite in Paris, and in 1818 professor of anatomy at the School of Medi- cine. He was an excellent teacher of anatomy, and pub- lished "Elements of General Anatomy," (1823.) Died in Paris iii 1825. See C. P. Ollivier, " Notice sur la Vie, etc. de P. A. Beclard," 1827. Becmann, bgk'm§,n, (Gustav Bernard and Otto David Heinrich,) brothers, and German jurists, born in the duchy of Mecklenburg in 1720 and 1722, were professors of law at Gottingen. The first-named died in 1783, the latter in 1784. Becmann, (Johann Christoph,) a German geo- grapher and historian, born at Zerbst in 1641, became professor of Greek and of history at Frankfort-on-the- Oder. Died in 1717. See "Monumentum Becmannianum, hoc est Vita et Scripta J. C. BecmannI," 1719. BecoBur, beh-kuR^, (Charles,) a French painter of history and portraits, born in Paris in 1807. Be'con or Bea'con, (Thomas,) an eminent English divine, and one of the early Protestant reformers, born in Kent about 15 12. He was an excellent writer, and was the author of several works against popery. Froude calls him "the large-minded Becon." Died in 1570. See Froude, "History of England," vol. v. chap, xxviii. c as k; c as s; g hat'd; g as /; g, H, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (g^^See Explanations, p. 23. BECOUEREL 308 BEDELL Becquerel, bek'reK, (Alexandre Edmond,) a natu- ral philosopher, son of Antoine Cesar, born in Paris in March, 1820. He has distinguished himself by researches on electricity, magnetism, and optics, and has been asso- ciated in the labours of his father. He ascertained that oxygen gas has a magnetic power, and discovered a chlo- ride of silver capable of receiving and preserving the coloured impressions of light. In conjunction with his father, he wrote a "Treatise on Terrestrial Physics and Meteorology," (1847.) In 1853 he became professor of physics at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. Becquerel, (Antoine C^sar,) a French savant, dis- tinguished for his discoveries in electro-chemistry, was born at Chatillon-sur-Loing, in Loiret, in March, 1788. He studied in the Polytechnic School, served in the army as an officer of engineers from 1810 to 1815, and then retired, with the rank of major, to devote himself to the study of electricity. Among the results of his early re- searches were the refutation of Volta's theory of contact, and the construction of the first pile with a constant current. He obtained by slow electric action the metals aluminum, silicium, glucium, etc., and invented a method of electrotyping, {coloration elcdriqiie siir or et argent.) He was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1829, and received the Copley medal of the Royal Society of Lon- don in 1837 for various memoirs on electricity. Among his works are a "Treatise on Electricity and Magnet- ism," (7 vols., 1834-40,) and a "Treatise on Electro- Chemistry." He afterwards became professeur-admi- nistrateur in the Museum of Natural History. He has presented more than a hundred memoirs to the Institute. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Querard, " La France Litteiaire." Becquerel, (Louis Alfred,) a physician, son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1814. He wrote several able professional treatises, and was appointed physician to the hospital of Sainte-Perrine in 1851. Becquet, b^'ka', (Antoine,) a learned French monk of the order of the Celestines, born in Paris in 1654, wrote several bibliographical works in Latin. Died in 1730. Becri- (or Bekri-) Mustafa, bgk'ree miis'ta-fa, a favourite of the sultan Amurath IV., lived about 1630. Bectoz,de,deh bek^to',(CLAUDiNE,) a learned French lady, born near Grenoble about 1480, was surnamed THE Scholastic Sister. She was abbess of the convent of Saint-Honorat, in Provence. Died in 1547. See HiLARioN DE CosTE, "Eloges des Femnies illustres." Beczkowski, betch-kov'skee, (Johann Franz,) a Bohemian historian, born at Deutschbrod in 1658. Beda, beh-dt', (Noel,) a French theologian, born in the diocese of Avranches, was noted for the bitterness and violence of his controversial writings. He published a work against Erasmus, which the latter pronounced a " repertory containing one hundred and eighty-one lies, two hundred and ten calumnies, and forty-seven blas- phemies." Died in 1536. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Bedaffa, van, vtn bi-d^ffa, or Bedaff, be-daf, (Antony,) a skilful Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 1787 ; died in 1829. Beddevole, bldVoK, (Dominique,) a native of Ge- neva, in Switzerland, became physician to William HI. of England. Died about 1692. Beddevole, (Jean,) a Swiss jurist, born at Geneva in 1697, made a French translation of Giannone's "Civil History of the Kingdom of Naples," (1742.) Died about I 760. See Senebier, " Histoire litteraire de Geneve." Bed'does, (Thomas,) an eminent English physician and chemist, born at Shiffnal, in Shropshire, in 1760. He studied in Pembroke College, Oxford, and attained great proficiency in Latin and other languages. He also received instruction in medicine from Dr. Cullen of Ed- inburgh. About 1787 he was appointed reader in che- mistry to the University of Oxford. Pie resigned this office about 1792 because his liberal political opinions did not accord with those that prevailed at Oxford. He married a younger sister of Maria Edgeworth. In 1798 he established at Bristol a Pneumatic Institution in order to experiment on the cure of disease by the respiration of gases, and employed Humphry Davy — then a young aspirant for fame — as his assistant. He was the author of numerous works, among which arc a " Popular Essay on Consumption," (1799,) and " Hygeia, or Essays Mo- ral and Medical," (3 vols., 1802.) "He was a remark- able man," says Sir Humphry Davy, "admirably fitted to promote inquiry, better than to conduct it." 13ied in December, 1808. See E. Stock, "Life of Beddoes," 181 1. Beddoes, (Thomas Lovell,) a son of the preceding, born in 1803, was a poet, and an eccentric character. In 1822 he produced "The Bride's Tragedy," a remarkable poem. " With all its extravagancies," says " Blackwood's Magazine," "it shows far more than glimpses of a true poetical genius," (vol. xiv.) His favourite sciences were anatomy and physiology, which he studied in Germany. He died at Bale in 1849, in consequence of a scratch he received while dissecting at Frankfort. A volume of his poems was published after his death. Bede, beed, [Lat. Be''da,] surnamed the Venerable, an English monk and ecclesiastical writer, illustrious for his learning and virtues, was born in the county of Dur- ham about 673, and at the age of thirty was ordained priest. His writings include treatises on astronomy, mathema- tics, grammar, and music, but his reputation rests chiefly on his " Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation," (" Historia Ecclesiastica Gcntis Anglorum.") This work, upon which he was employed many years, was completed about 734, and first printed about 1474. It was trans- lated into Saxon by King Alfred. His severe applica- tion to study brought on a consumption, of which he died, about 735. It is related that on the night of his death he continued dictating to his amanuensis a translation of some work, probably of the Gospel of Saint John, into Anglo-Saxon. He asked the scribe how many chapters remained. "Only one," he replied ; "but you are too weak to dictate." " No," said Bede ; "take your pen and write quickly." After some time the scribe said, " Master, it is finished ;" to which Bede replied, " Thou hast said truly, consummatum est," (it is finished ;) and, having repeated a short prayer, he expired. See Gehle, "De Bedae Venerabilis Vita et Scriptis;" Cave. "Historia Literaiia ;" J. A. Giles, " Life of Bede," prefixed to his complete works, 12 vols. 8vo, 1844. Bede, (Cuthbert.) See Bradley, (Edward.) Bedeau, beh-do^ (Marie Alphonse,) a French gen- eral, born at Nantes in 1804. Pie served in Algeria ten years, (1836-46,) and became a general of division in 1844. Holding a high command in Paris during the revolution of 1848, he favoured the republicans, and was vice- president of the Legislative Assembly in 1849. Bede de la Gormaiidiere, ba'da^ deh IS goR^mSx'- de-aiR', (Jean,) a P'rench jurist, born at Angers, lived about 1620. He wrote, among other works, a treatise "On the Liberty of the Galilean Church." BerdelP, (Gregory Tow^nsend,) D.D., a distinguished Episcopal clergyman, born on Staten Island, New York, in 1793. He graduated at Columbia College in 1811. For the last twelve years of his life he was rector of Saint Andrew's Church, Philadelphia, where he died in 1834. Dr. Bedell was greatly admired as a pulpit orator. He was author of "Ezekiel's Vision," "Onward, or Christian Progression," " Renunciation," two volumes of published sermons, and other religious works, Be-delP, (William,) an eminent English prelate, born in Essex in 1570. Pie accompanied Sir Henry Wotton, ambassador to Venice, as his chaplain about 1604, and, during his residence in that city, acquired the friendship of the celebrated Paul Sarpi, known as Father Paul. Having become thoroughly versed in Italian, he translated into that language the Book of Common Prayer. After his return to England, he was elected provost of Trinity College, Dublin, (1627,) and created Bishop of Kilmore and Ardagh, (1629.) He effected a great re- formation among the Protestants of Ireland, and made numerous converts from the Catholics. He caused the Old Testament, and the homilies of Chrysostom and Leo in praise of the Scriptures, to be translated into Irish. Died in 1642. See Burnet, " Life of Bedell," 16S5 ; H. J. Monck Mason," Life of W. Bedell," 1842. a, e, 1, o, li, y, long; h, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; mocn; BEDENE BEECHER Bedene, bi'dan', or Bidene, be'dan', (Vital,) a French poet, born at Pezenas, lived about 1610. Bed'er-ic, (Henri,) surnamed de Bury, an English monk, born at Bury Saint Edmund's, lived about 1380. He wrote sermons and other religious works in Latin. See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Bed''ford, (Arthur,) an English divine, born in Gloucestershire in 1668, wrote a number of treatises against the stage and the corrupt dramatic literature of the time, also a work entitled "The Great Abuses of Music," (1711.) Died in 1745. Bedford, Duke of. See Russell. Bedford, ( Russell,) first Earl of. He attended Henry VHI. in his expedition against France, was knighted in 1522 for his services, and created Lord Rus- sell in 1539. He was afterwards made Earl of Bedford, and died in 1555, leaving the title to his son Francis. Bed^fprd, (Gunning S.,) ALD., an American phy- sician, born in Baltimore in 181 1, was professor of mid- wifery, etc. in the University of New York. He wrote a treatise on midwifery, a volume of clinical lectures on the Diseases of Women and Children, and other works. Died in 1870. Bedford, (Hilkiah,) an English divine, born in Lon- don in 1663, was fined and imprisoned on a charge of having written the work entitled " Hereditary Right to the Crown of England asserted," of which it is believed George Harbin was the author. Died in 1724. Bedford, (John Plantagenet,) Duke of, the third son of Henry IV. of England, and Mary Bohun, was born about 1390. He was created Duke of Bedford in 1414 or 141 5, and commanded the army in England during the absence of his brother Henry V. in France. By the will of Henry V., who died in 1422, he was ap- pointed regent of France, part of which had recently been conquered by the English. In the same year the Par- liament appointed him "protector" of England during the minority of Henry VI. He is described by Hume as "the most accomplished prince of his age; whose experience, prudence, and valour qualified him for his high office." Having taken command of the army in person, he gained victories over the French at Verneuil (1424) and other places; but his victorious progress was effectually arrested by Joan of Arc at Orleans in 1429. It a])pears that he was not supported and reinforcecl by the English Parliament or the chief ministers. He was one of the chief authors of the judicial murder of Joan of Arc. Died at Rouen in 1435. . See Hume's "History of England." Bedford, (John Russell,) sixth Duke of, an Eng- lish peer, distinguished as a patron of fine arts, was born in 1766. He devoted much time and money to the improvement of agriculture, and was noted for his libe- rality and public spirit. He was the father of Lord John (Earl) Russell. Died in 1839. Bedford, (Thomas,) son of Hilkiah, was the author of a " Historical Catechism," and other works. Died in 1773. See "Biographia Britannica." Bedford, (William Russell,) fourth Earl and first Duke of. He was a member of the Long Parliament which met in 1640, and was a general in the army of the Parliament at the battle of Edgehill, (1642.) He was created Duke of Bedford about 1694. Died in 1700. He was the father of Admiral Lord Russell. Bedinelli, di, de ba-de-neKlee, (Francesco di Pao- lo,) an Italian surgeon and medical writer, who resided at Fano about 1760. Bed'in-ger, (George M.,) an officer in the American army of the Revolution, settled in Kentucky, and was a representative from that State in Congress from 1803 to 1807. Bed'loe, (William,) a notorious English adventurer, vyho was rewarded with ;^500 for his pretended revela- tion of the popish plot, and of the circumstances attend- ing the murder of Sir Edmundbury Godfrey. Died in 16S0. See Hume's "History of England," vol. vi. Bedmar, de, di bgd-maR', (Alfonso de la Cueva — di li kwa'v^,) a Spanish marquis, born in 1572. Having been sent by Philip III. as ambassador to Venice in 1607, he entered into a conspiracy to betray that republic into the hands of Spain. The plot was discovered, and Bedmar was compelled to leave the city. He was mado a cardinal in 1622. Bedmar's conspiracy is said to have suggested the plot of Otway's " Venice Preserved." Died in 1655. See D.\RU, " Histoire de Venise ;" S.a.ixt-Re.\l, "Conspiration contre Venise." Bedoch, ba'dok', ( Pierre Joseph,) a French magis- trate, born in the department of Correze in 1761, wao a representative to the Chamber of Deputies in i8i8. Died in 1837. Bedos de Celles, beh^dos' deh sgl, (Dom Fran- cois,) a learned French ecclesiastic, born at Caux in 1706, wrote "Practical Gnomonics, or the Art of Draw- ing Solar Dials," an excellent work. Died in 1779. Bedouin, beh-dwaN', (Samson,) a French monk of the abbey de la Couture, near Mans, was the author of a number of dramas, satires, and songs. Died about 1563. Bedoyere. See La Bedoyere. Bedriaga, bed-re-a''gd, (Maria E.,) a Russian lady, born at Tver in 1794, was the author of several tales, etc. Died in 1830. Beduschi, ba-doos'kee, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, born at Cremona in 1576, was a pupil of Antonio Campi. Bed'well, (William,) an English divine and Ori- ental scholar, born about 1562, had a share in the trans- lation of the Scriptures published under James I. Died in 1632. Bee, (Bernard E.,) a South Carolinian general, born at Charleston, graduated at West Point in 1845. He became a captain in 1855, and fought against the Union at Bull Run, where he was killed, July 21, 1861. Bee'cher, (Catherine E.,) an American authoress, a daughter of Dr. Lyman Beecher, was born at East Hampton, Long Island, in 1800. She was principal of a female seminary at Hartford, Connecticut, from 1822 to 1832. She published, besides other works, "Domestic Service," a "Treatise on Domestic Economy," "Physi- ology and Calisthenics," (1856,) and "Common Sense applied to Religion," (1857.) Beecher, (Rev. Charles,) an American writer, son of Dr. Lyman Beecher, born at Litchfield, Connecticut, in 1815. He published "Pen-Pictures of the Bible," (1855,) and several other works. Beecher, (Edward,) an American clergyman, a son of Dr. Lyman Beecher, was born in 1804. He graduated at Yale College in 1822, became a tutor in that institution in 1825, and pastor of Park Street Church, Boston, in 1826. He was president of Illinois College from 183 1 to 1844, and pastor of Salem Street Church, Boston, from 1846 to 1856. Among his works is "The Conflict of Ages," (1854.) Beecher, (Harriet.) See Stowe, (Harriet Beecher.) Beecher, (Henry Ward,) a distinguished American minister and WTiter, a son of Dr. Lyman Beecher, no- ticed below, was born in Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 24th of January, 1813. He appears to have given in child- hood but little promise of future distinction. " He had," says Mrs. Stowe, " precisely the organization which often passes for dulness in boyhood. He had great deficiency in verbal memory; ... he was excessively sensitive to praise and blame, extremely diffident, and with a power of yearning, undeveloped emotion which he neither un- derstood nor could express. . . . In forecasting his horo- scope, had any one taken the trouble to do it, the last success that ever would have been predicted for him would have been that of an orator." But even while a boy he proved that, if he did not inherit the eloquence, he inherited at least something of the controversial abil- ity, of his father. "A forward school -boy among the elder scholars had got hold of Paine's 'Age of Reason,' and was flourishing largely among the boys with objections to the Bible. Henry privately looked up Watson's 'Apology,' studied up the subject, and challenged a de- bate with the big boy, in which he came off victorious by the acclamation of his school-fellows." This occurred when he was about eleven years old. He manifested at this period little inclination for severe study, but had conceived a passionate desire to go to sea. His father adroitly used this desire to induce him to commence a € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j\ G, H, v., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) BEECHER BEER course of mathematics with a view to qualify himself to become a naval officer. He applied himself energetic- ally to his new studies, " with his face to the navy, and Nelson as his beau ideal." liut not long afterwards there occurred in that section of the coui^try a religious "revival," and young Beecher, with many others, was powerfully impressed. The result was that the naval scheme was abandoned, and his thoughts were directed to the pulpit as his natural and proper sphere. After going through the preparatory studies, he entered Am- herst College, where he graduated in 1834; and soon after he commenced the study of theology at Lane Semi- nary, under the direction of his father. (See Beecher, Lyman.) He began his ministerial course at Lawrence- burg, Indiana, but removed soon after to Indianapolis. In 1847 he became pastor of the Plymouth Church (of orth )dox Congregationalists) in l>rooklyn, near New York. Here he has gathered around him the largest con- gregation, it is said, in the United States. He is also one of the most popular writers and most successful lecturers in America. His success as a public speaker is due not so much to what is popularly termed eloquence, as to an unfailing flow of racy and original thought, which, though often enlivened with flashes of quaint humour, is not without an under-current of deep moral and spiritual earnestness. In 1850 Mr. Beecher published a volume of "Lectures to Young Men." He was one of the ori- ginators of "The Independent," a weekly religious paper published in New York, which acquired through his con- tributions a wide popularit}-. The articles which he furnished to the paper were signed with an asterisk. A volume of these contributions was published in 1855, with the title of " Star Papers ;" and a second series of the same appeared in 1858. Plis " Life Thoughts" (185S) has had a very extensive circulation. One of his latest productions is a novel, entitled " Norwood," (1868,) which first appeared in the columns of the " New York Ledger." As a reformer, particularly in the causes of temperance and anti -slavery, Mr. Beecher has long stood in the fore- most rank in America. See " Men of Our Times," by Harriet Beecher Stowe, 186S. Beecher, (Lyman,) D.D., an eminent American preacher and theologian, born at New Haven, Connec- ticut, on the 1 2th of October, 1775. He graduated at Yale College in 1797, and studied theology under Presi- dent Dwight. After he had preached several years at East Hampton, Long Island, he became in 1810 minister of the Congregational church of Litchfield, Connecticut. He was a popular pulpit orator, and acquired great influ- ence in the religious world. About 1826 he removed from Litchfield to Boston, in order to uphold the ancient (orthodox) faith against the influence of the Unitarians. He was installed as minister of the Hanover Street Church, Boston. His zealous efforts to prevent defec- tion from the orthodox church are said to have been very successful. In 1832 he became president of Lane Theological Seminary at Cincinnati, and minister of the Second Presbyterian Church in that city. He was an active and earnest promoter of temperance and other moral enterprises, and was distinguished by the boldness and energy of his character. He quitted Cincinnati about 1842, after which he resided for many years in Bos- ton. He wrote, besides other works, "Views in Theol- ogy," and "Skepticism." His sermons on Temperance have had an immense circulation, and have been trans- lated into several foreign languages. His collected works were published under his direction, in Boston, in three volumes. About 1856 he removed to Brooklyn, where he died in January, 1863. Dr. Beecher was thrice mar- ried, and had thirteen children, several of whom became distinguished as writers or ministers. See his "Autobiography and Correspondence," edited by his son, Charles Beecher, 2 vols., 1864. Beecher, (Thomas K.,) a son of Dr. Lyman Beecher, noticed above, born at Litchfield, Connecticut, February 10, 1824. He graduated at Illinois College (Jacksonville, Illinois) in 1843. For about fifteen years he has had the pastoral charge of a Congregational church at Elmira, in the State of New York. He is an eloquent preacher, and a zealous philanthropist. He considers it to be es- pecially his duty to discourage the spirit of sectarianism. and to promote a liberal and fraternal feeling among the various Christian churches. Bee'chey, (Frederick William,) an English navi- gator and naturalist, son of Sir William Beechey, men- tioned below, was born in London in 1796. In 1818 he sailed with P'ranklin on his first Arctic voyage, and in 1819 accompanied Sir Edward Parry to the Polar re- gions. He was charged in 1821, in conjunction with his brother, H. W. Beechey, to make a survey of the northern coast of Africa. In 1825 he sailed, as commander of the Blossom, on another Arctic ex])edition, reached 71° 23' north latitude, and returned in 1828. He had discovered in 1827 two harbours southeast of Cape Prince of Wales, which he named Port Clarence and Port Grantley. He was made rear-admiral of the blue in 1854. He pub- lished in 1828 " Proceedings of the Expedition to explore the Northern Coast of Africa from Tripoli eastward," and in 1 831 a "Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Behring's Strait," which was followed by two volumes treating of the botany and zoology of the voyage. Died in November, 1856. See "London Quarterly Review" for 1831; "Edinburgh Review" for March, 1S31. Beechey, (Sir William,) a distinguished English portrait-painter, born in Oxfordshire in 1753. He was chosen an associate of the Royal Academy in 1793, and was appointed portrait-painter to Queen Charlotte. Among his principal paintings was one of George III. on horseback ; he also painted the Prince of Wales and other members of the rojal family. Lord Cornwallis, Lord Nelson, and John Kemble. He became a Royal Academician in 1797. Died in 1839. Beeck, bak, (Johann Martin,) a German Protest- ant theologian, born at Lubeck in 1665 ; died in 1727. Beek, bak, (David,) a celebrated Dutch portrait- painter, born at Delft in 1621, was one of the most dis- tinguished pupils of Van Dyck. He was appointed by Charles I, of England teacher of drawing to the Prince of Wales and his brothers, and was subsequently pa- tronized by Christina of Sweden, who charged him to paint the portraits of the sovereigns and eminent per- sons of Europe. Died in 1656. See Descamps, "Vie des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Beekkerk, bak'kekk, (Hermann Walter,) a Dutch painter, born at Leeuwarden in 1756; died in 1796. Beeldemaker, bal'deh-ma'ker, or Beeldemaken, baKdeh-ml'ken, (Franciscus,) a Dutch historical paint- er, son of Jan, noticed below, born at the Hague in 1669. Beeldemaker, (Jan,) a Dutch painter, born at the Hague in 1636, was distinguished for his hunting-scenes and animals. Died in 1736. See Descamps, "Vie des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Beer, baR, (Cornelis,) a Flemish painter, worked in Spain about 1630-50. ^ Beer, baR, (Georg Joseph,) a German physician and oculist, born at Vienna in 1763. He invented several surgical instruments, and wrote " Practical Observations on the Cataract," (1791,) " Bibliotheca Ophthalmica," (3 vols., 1799,) and other valuable works. Died in 1821. Beer, (Jakob Meyer.) See Meyerbeer. Beer, Bahr, or Baehr, bar, (Joseph,) a German musi- cian, born at Griinwald, in Bohemia, in 1744 ; died in 181 1, See Sprengel, "Geschichte der Medicin." Beer, (Martin,) a German philosopher and geogra- pher, born at Nuremberg in 161 7. He wrote various works. Died in 1692. See Johann Fabricius, " Memoria M. Beerii," 1693. Beer, (Michael,) a German dramatic writer, brother of the celebrated composer Meyerbeer, born at Berlin in 1800. Among his best works are the tragedies of " Stru- ensee" and "The Pariah," (1826,) which are highly com- mended. Died at Munich in 1833. See Marmier, "Revue Germanique," 1S34. Beer, (Wilhelm,) a German astronomer, brother of the preceding, born in Berlin in 1797. He was an inti- mate friend of Madler, in whose astronomical labours he was associated. They published in 1836 a map of the moon, which obtained the Lalande prize from the Fre-ach Academy. It was followed in 1837 by a commentary, entitled "The Moon in its Cosmic and Individual Rela- tions." Died in 1850. a. e, 1, o, u, y, long: i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, \i, y, sJiort; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; BEER-BING 311 BEHADAR Beer-Bing, b5R bing, (Isaiah,) a Jewish scholar, lived about 1 810. He translated from German into Hebrew the " Phadon" of Mendelssohn. Beering. See Behring. Beers, (Nathan,) an American subaltern officer, born at Stratford, Connecticut, in 1753. He entered the army in 1777, and served until 1783. Died in 1849. Beethoven, van, vtn ba'to-ven, (Ludwig,) a cele- brated composer, of Dutch extraction, was born at Bonn, in Prussia, on the 17th of December, 1770. He was a pupil of Neefe, whom he succeeded as organist at the court of • the Elector of Cologne, who sent him to Vienna to finish his studies under Haydn ; but Haydn, who was about to depart to England, placed Beethoven under the tui- tion of Albrechtsberger. He settled in Vienna at an early age, and gained a high reputation by his extempore fantasias. Desiring to offer homage to the genius of Napoleon, he commenced in 1802 a symphony for that purpose. This master-piece of art and science, in which the genius of the artist is revealed in its greatest majesty, was not finished until 1804. It is said that when he was about to send it to Napoleon he learned that he had usurped imperial power, for which reason he changed the title of the piece to " Sinfonia eroica." In 1805 he pro- duced the celebrated opera of "Leonore" or " Fidelio." He composed many symphonies, overtures, cantatas, sonatas, quintets, quartets, etc., which attest the origin- ality and sublimity of his genius. In 1809 he resolved to accept the office of chapel-master at the court of Je- rome Bonaparte, but was induced to remain at Vienna by the promise of a pension. He was extremely reserved in conversation, and, having become deaf in the prime of life, avoided society, and fell into a habit of gloom and distrust. He was i>ever married. Died at Vienna in March, 1827. "His imagination," says Denne-Baron, "required the vast field of the orchestra to display itself in all its splen- dour. It is in instrumental music, especially in the sym- phony, the compass of which he extendecl beyond the scale laid down by Haydn and Mozart, that Beethoven acquired his chief title to celebrity." In 1831 appeared a volume of "Beethoven's Studies in Thorough Bass, Counterpoint, and the Theory of Composition." See ScHiNDi.ER, " Biographie von L. van Beethoven," 1S40, and an English version of the same, by Moscheles, 2 vols., 1841 ; F. We- GELER unci F. RiES, " Biographische Notizien fiber L. van Beetho- ven," 183S ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for 1831. Beets, bats, (Nikolaas,) a popular Dutch humor- ist and poet, born at Utrecht in the early part of the present century. His " Camera Obscura," a collection of sketches and tales, and a volume of poems entitled " Corn-Flowers," (" Korenbloemen,") have been very favourably received. See " Eraser's Magazuie" for December, 1S54. Beffa-negrini, b^f-fa-ni-gRee'nee, (Antonio,) an Ital- ian historical writer, born at Asola in 1532 ; diecl in 1602. Beffara, bcVfi'rd', (Louis pRANgois,) a French litte- rateur, born at Nonancourt in ^751, wrote contributions to the history of the French drama. Died in 1838. BefFroy de Beauvoir, baTRwd'deh bo^vw^R', (Louis £tienne,) born at Laon in 1754, was ^ deputy to the National Convention, and voted for the death of the king. He afterwards became a member of the Council of Five Hundred. Died in 1825. See Le Bap, " Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." Beffroy de Reigny, bi^fRwi' deh rkn^ye', (Louis Abel,) brother of the preceding, known by his pseudo- nym of " Cousin Jacques," born at Laon in 1757. He was the author of a popular comedy entitled " La petite Nanette," and various other works. Died in 1811. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Bega, ba'gl, (Cornelis,) a Dutch painter and en- graver, born at Haarlem about 1620, was a pupil of Adrian van Ostade, and excelled in the same department of painting. Among his master-pieces are a "Chemist in his Laboratory," and a "Company of Drinkers." Died in 1664. See Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" Strutt, "Dictionary of Engravers." Begarelli, bk-g§.-reKlee, sometimes written Begarilli, (Antonio,) an Italian artist, born at Modena about 1498, was celebrated for his skill in modelling stucco and clay. He was intimate with Correggio, whom he is said to have instructed in his art. Died in 1565, See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Begas, ba'gas, (Karl,) court painter to the King of Prussia, and professor in the Academy of Arts at Ber- lin, born at Heinsberg in 1794. He studied under Philip- part at Bonn, and subsequently in Paris under Gros. Among his best historical pictures are " The Finding of Moses," "The Sermon on the Mount," and "Henry IV. at the Chateau of Canossa." He also painted a number of excellent portraits, including those of Alex- ander von Humboldt, Cornelius, and Meyerbeer. Died in 1854. See Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Begat, beh'gt', (Jean,) a French jurist and legal writer, born at Dijon in 1523, became president of tlie parliament in his native city. Died in 1572. Begault, ba'go'', (Gilles,) a French ecclesiastic, cele- brated as a pulpit orator, born in 1660 ; died about 1715. Begein. See Begeyn. Beger, badger, (Lorenz,) a German antiquary, born at Heidelberg in 1653, wrote, in Latin, a number of treat- ises on numismatics. Died in 1705. Begeyn, ba-gln', (Abraham,) a Dutch landscape- painter, born in 1650 ; died about 1710. Begh, beg, (Lambert,) sometimes called Le Begue, a French ecclesiastic, supposed to have founded at Liege, in the latter part of the twelfth century, the religious order of Beguines, consisting of widows and unmarried women. The foundation of this order is ascribed by some writers to Saint Francis of Assisi. Died in 1 177. See " L'Art de verifier les Dates." Begin, bi^zh^N', (Augusts Smile,) a French liith-a teH7%\>oxn at Metz in 1803. He published a "History of Napoleon, his Family, and his Epoch," (6 vols., 1853 et seq.) Begin, (Louis Jacques,) a French surgeon and writer, born at Liege in 1793 ; died in 1859. Begon, bi'g6N^ (Etienne,) a French lawyer, born about 1658; died in 1726. Begon, (Michel,) a French magistrate and eminent patron of science, born at Blois in 1638, possessed a choice collection of medals and objects in natural his- tory. Plumier named in his honour the Begonia, a genus of South American plants remarkable for the beauty of their foliage and flowers. Died in 1710. See MoRERi, "Dictionnaire Historique." Begon, (SciPiON Jerome,) son of the preceding, boni at Brest in 1681, became Bishop of Toul. Died in 1753. Begue de Presle, le, leh b^g deh pRil, (Achille GuiLLAUME,) a French physician, born near Orleans about 1735. He translated from the English some of the w^orks of Monro and Lewis, and was a contributor to the " Bibliotheque physico-economique." He was a friend of J. J. Rousseau, and wrote an account of his last days. Died in 1807. See "Biographie Medicale. Begue, Le, leh bag or leh b§g, a celebrated French musician and composer, was organist of the church of Saint-Merry, in Paris. Died about 1720. Beguelin, de, deh bc\g^laN', (Nicolas,) a Swiss phy- sician, born at Courlary in 1 7 14, was tutor to Frederick William, afterwards King of Prussia. He subsequently became director of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. Died in 1789. Beguignot, de, deh bi'gen^yo', (FRANgois Barth^:- LEMI,) Comte, a French general, born in 1747, served in the campaigns of 1795 and 1799. Died in 1808. Beguillet, bi'ge'yi', (Edme,) a French agricultural writer ; died in 1786. Beguin, bi'giN', (Jean,) a French chemist, born about 1600, wrote "Tyrocinium Chymicum." Behadar- (Bahadar- or Bahadur-) Khan, be-ha'dar or ba-haMiir Kan, (Ala-ed-Deen-Aboo-Saeed, or Ala-ed-Din-Abu-Said, dKa-ed-deen'' a^joo sa-eed',) last Sultan of the Mongol dynasty in Persia, born in Azerbaijan in 1302. Died in 1335. See Price, "History of Persia." Behadar- (Bahadar- or Bahadur-) Shah, second € as iz; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Yi, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23. ) B EH AGUE 312 BEISCH son of Aurung-Zeb, born about 1642, was also called the Sultan Moazzem, (nio-az'zem.) His brother Moham- med having died, Ikhadar became Emperor of the Moguls on the death of his father in 1707. He died in 1712. See Eli'hinstone, "History of India;" Fkaser, "History of Nadir Shah," etc. Behague, de, deh ba'Sg', (Jean Pierre Antoine,) COiMTE, a P'rench general, was appointed Governor of Martinique in 1792. Behaim, ba'him, written also Behem or Boehm, (Martin,) an eminent navigator and geographer, born at Nuremberg in 1436, is said to have been a pupil of Regio- montanus. About 14S0 he visited Portugal, where he was received with great distinction, and in 1484 was appointed geographer to the African expedition of Diogo Cam, in which they explored the western coast of Africa from the river Gambia to the Congo. After his return to Lisbon he was made a knight by King John H. He subse- , quently settled in the island of Fayal. In 1492 he made a terrestrial globe, (still in the possession of his family,) which is an interesting monument of the geographical science of that time. He died about 1506, leaving a num- ber of valuable maps and charts. See "Geschichte des Seefahrers Ritter Martin Behaim," by F. W. Ghillany, 1853; C. G. VON MuRR, " Diploniatische Geschichte des beriihmten Ritters M. Behaim," 1778. Beliam, ba^iam, sometimes written Bochem, (Bar- riiOLOMAUS,) a distinguished German painter and en- graver, born about 1496, was a pupil of Albert Diirer. Among his master-pieces in engraving are "Triton and the Nereids," and "Cleopatra." Died in 1540. See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Beham, (Hans Sebald,) nephew of the preceding, born at Nuremberg in 1500, was one of the best pupils of Albert Diirer. His prints are of very small size, and include engravings on copper, etchings, and woodcuts. Died about 1550. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines KiinstLr-Lexikon." Behem. See Behaim. Behlen, ba^en, (Stephan,) a German writer, born at Fritzlar in 1784, published treatises on forest science and hunting. Died in 1847. Belim, bam, (Ernst Leopold,) a German Protestant theological writer, born in 1700; died in 1742. Behm, (Johann,) a German Protestant divine, born at Konigsberg in 1578, published, in Latin, a "Chro- nology of the World from the Creation to the Destruc- tion of Jerusalem." Died in 1648. Behm, (Johann,) a German Protestant writer on theology, born in 1687; died at Konigsberg in 1753. Behm, (Michael,) a Protestant theologian and writer, born at Konigsberg in 16 12 ; died in 1650. Behmen. See Bohme, (Jakob.) Behmer, ba'mer, (Friedrich Ehrenreich,) a Ger- man jurist, born at Berlin in 1721 ; died in 1776. Behn, hhw, (Mrs. Aphra,) an English authoress, whose maiden name was Johnson, born about 1640. She wrote, besides plays, a number of poems, tales, etc., remarkable for their licentiousness. She is alluded to by Pope under the name of Astrea, which was her pseudonym. Her novel entitled "Oroonoko the American Prince" was very popular. About 1666 she was employed by Charles ■IL as a secret agent at Antwerp, and captivated several lovers, from one of whom she extorted information of an intended expedition to burn the shipping in the Thames. Died in 1689. See Gibber, "Lives of the English Poets." Behom-t, beh-ooR', (Jean,) a French grammarian and dramatist, iDorn in Normandy, lived about 1600. Behr, baR, (Christian Friedrich,) a German gene- ral, born in Pomerania in 1739, served in the French army in the Seven Years' war. Died in 183 1. Behr, (Christoph,) a German scholar, wrote several works in Latin. Died in 1704. Behr. (George PIenri,) a physician, born in Stras- burg in 1708, was a pupil of Boerhaave. Died in 1761. Behr, (Johann Heinrich August,) a German states- man, born at Freiberg in 1793, became in 1849 minister of finance for the kingdom of Saxony. Behr, (Wilhelm Joseph,) a German publicist, born at Sultzheim in 1775. He became professor of law at Wiirzburg in 1799, and was subsequently twice elected to the Bavarian Diet, in which he supported liberal prin- ciples, and was punished by a long imprisonment. He became a member of the Frankfort Parliament in 1848. He published, besides other works, a " System of Public Law," (3 vols., 1810.) Died in 1851. Behrens, barrens, (Conrad Barthold,) a German physician, born at Hildesheim in 1660. He wrote medi- cal, scientific, and historical treatises. Died in 1736. Behrens, (Georg Henning,) a German physician, born at Goslar in 1662. He wrote " Hercynia Curiosa," a work on the Hartz Forest, (1703.) Died in 1712. Behrens, (Karl Friedrich,) a German traveller, published in 1739 "Visits to Southern Countries." Behrens, (Michael,) a German theologian, born at Buxtehude, in Hanover, in 1657; died in 1728. Behrens, (Rodolf Augustin,) a German physician and medical writer, born at Brunswick; died in 1747. Behring, barring, (Vitus,) a Danish historian and Latin poet, born in Jutland in 161 7, became historio- grapher to the King of Denmark. Died in 1675. See Baillet, " Jugements des Savants." Behr'ing, Beer'ing, or Bearing, [Dan. pron. barring,] (Vitus,) a celebrated Danish navigator, and discoverer of the strait which bears his name, born in Jutland in 1680. Having entered the Russian navy at an early age and served with distinction against the Swedes, he was ap- pointed in 1725 commander of a scientific expedition to the Sea of Kamtchatka, After an absence of more than three years, during which he explored the coast of Kamt- chatka as fai as 67° 18^ N. lat. and ascertained that Asia was not joined to America, he returned to Russia. Appointed captain-commander in 1732, he set out on a second voyage in 1741, and discovered a part of the North American coast, supposed to have been New Norfolk. Both he and his crew being disabled by sickness, they attempted to return to Kamtchatka, but were wrecked on the island of Avatcha, since called Behring's Island, where Behring died soon after. See "Nouvelles Decouvertes faites des Russes entre I'Asie et rAmeriqiie," Paris, 17S1. Beidawee or Beid^wi, (Al,) SI baMi^vee^, written also Beidhawi and Beidhavi, (AbdaFlah-Ben- O'mar,) a learned Mussulman of the thirteenth century, born at Beda or Beida, in Farsistan, was the author of a " Universal Chronology," (in Persian,) and a " Com- mentary on the Koran," (in Arabic.) The latter is highly esteemed by Mohammedans. Beier, bi'er, (Adrian,) a German jurist and legal writer, born at Jena in 1634, was professor of law in his native city. Died in 171 2. Beier, (August.) See Beyer. Beier, (Hartmann,) a Protestant theologian, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 15 16, studied at Wittenberg, where he acquired the friendship of Luther. Died in 1577. Beil, bil, (Johann David,) a German actor and dra- matist, born at Chemnitz in 1734; died in 1794. Beimiram, bT''me-ram', (Isaac,) a Jewish physician of the eleventh century, was a contemporary of Avicenna. He wrote several works. Bein, bin, (Johann,) a designer and engraver, born at Coxweiller-.(Bas-Rhin) in 1789; died in 1857. Beinaschi. See Bena.schi. Beinga-della, ban'gi deKli, the last king of Pegu, who, after having conquered Ava in 1752, was made pris- oner in 1757 by the Burmans, and put to death in 1775. Beinl von Bienenburg, bln'l fon bee^nen-booRC-, (Anton,) a German physician, and professor of pathology at Vienna, born in 1749. He was physician-in-chief of the Imperial armies. Died in 1820. Beinville, b^N^-eK, (Charles Barthelemi,) a French publicist and partisan of Richelieu, wrote a work entitled " French Truths opposed to Spanish Calumnies." Died in 1641. See Lelong, " Bibliotheque historique de la France." Beireis, bi^Ts, (Gottfried Christoph,) a German physician and chemist, born at Miihlhausen in 1730. He wrote on medicine and natural history. Died in 1809. See J. P. Gabler, " Narratio de Vita G. C. Beireisii," 1S12. Beisch, bish, written also Beich, (Joachim Franz.) a German landscape-painter and engraver, born in Suabia in 1,665. Died in 1 748. a, e, T, 6, u, y, lofig; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, ohaire;{^r, fi.ll, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; BEISLER 313 BELDERBUSCH Beisler, bls'Ier, (Hermann,) a Bavarian statesman, born at Bensheim in 1790, filled several important offices under the government, and was appointed in 1848 min- ister of the interior, but held the office only three months. Beissier, ba'se-a', (Jacques,) a French surgeon, born in 1623, in Dauphlny, attended Louis XIV. in his cam- paigns. Died in 1712. Beisson, ba's6N', (FRANgois Joseph £tienne,) a French engraver, born at Aix in 1759 ; died in 1820. Beitar. See Aben-Beitar. Beja, ba'zhS, (Luis,) a Portuguese theologian and writer, born at Perestrello, lived about 1600-50. Beja, de, da ba'zhS, (Frey Antonio,) a Portuguese priest, born in 1493, wrote a treatise against astrology. Bejart, ba'zhlR', (Jacques,) a French comedian, born in Paris in 1622, was a friend of Moliere, and acted some of the characters in his plays. Died in 1659. Bejot, beh-zho', (FRANgois,) a French litterateur, born atMontdidierin 17 18, was professor of Greek at Paris, and a member of the Academy of Liscriptions. Died in 1787. Bek. See Beek, (David.) Beke, (Charles Tilstone,) an English traveller and writer of high reputation, born in 1800, accompanied the expedition of Major Harris to Abyssinia about 1845. wrote " Origines Biblicae, or Researches in Primeval His- tory," (1834,) which was severely criticised in Germany by Paulus and others ; "Essay on the Nile and its Tribu- taries," (1847 ;) " On the Sources of the Nile in the Moun- tains of the Moon," (1848;) and "On the Geographical Distribution of the Languages of Abyssinia," (1849.) See "London Quarterly Review" for November, 1S34. Beketof, bgk'g-toF, or Bek'e-toff', (Nikita,) a Russian administrator, born in 1729, was governor of Astrachan, and a benefactor to the public. Died in 1794. Bekiesz, ba'ke-§ss, (Gaspar,) a Hungarian general in the service of Poland, born about 1530; died in 1579. Bekk, bek, (Johann Baptist,) a German statesman and jurist, born at Tryberg, in Baden, in 1800, became minister of the interior in 1846, which position he resigned after the revolution of 1848. Bekker or Becker, b^k'ker, (Balthasar,) a Dutch theologian, -born in Friesland in 1634, was the author of " Researches on Comets," and " The World Bewitched," ("Betoverde Weereld," 1691.) For the latter, in which he condemned the prevailing superstitions of the time respecting sorcery, he was deprived, by the synod, of his office as preacher. Died in 1698. See J. M. ScHWAGER, " Geschichte der Intoleranz, oder Leben und Schicksale des Dr. B. Bekker," 1780; "B. Bekker in Franeker," Groningen, 1848. Bekker, (Elizabeth,) a celebrated Dutch novelist and poetess, born at Flushing in 1738. She was married to Adrian Wolff, a Protestant preacher, and after his death, in 1777, resided with her friend Agatha Deken, in conjunc- tion with whom she wrote her most admired romances, among which are the " History of William Leevend," and " History of Sara Burgerhart." Died in 1804. Bekker, bgk'ker, (L\i MANUEL,) an eminent German philologist and critic, born at Berlin in 1785. He studied at Halle under Wolf, and was appointed professor of philology and Greek at Berlin about 1807. As a mem- iDer of the Academy of Sciences, he was sent by that body, in 181 7, to Italy, in order to assist in deciphering the "Listitutes of Gains," discovered by Niebuhr. Li 1814 he had published his " Anecdota Grceca," (3 vols.) He produced good editions of the following authors : Plato, (10 vols., 1814-21,) "The Attic Orators," (7 vols., 1823,) Aristotle, (7 vols.,1831,) Thucydides, (3 vols., 1821,) Aristophanes, (3 vols., 1825,) " Scholia for the Iliad," (3 vols., 1827,) and Photius, (2 vols., 1824.) See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Bektash, Bektasch, or Bektach. See Beygtash. Bel. See Belus and Baal. Bel, bg], (Jean Jacques,) a French Htteratetcr, hoxn at Bordeaux in 1693, wrote "Critical Letters on the Ma- rianne of Voltaire," (1726,) and other works. Diedin 1738. See QuERARD, "La France Litt^raire." Bel, b^l, (Karl Andreas,) born at Presburg in 1717, was a son of Matthias, noticed below. He became pro- fessor of poetry at Leipsic. Died in 1782. Bel, [Lat. Be'lius,] (Matthias,) a Hungarian theolo- gian, historiographer to the emperor Charles VI., born at Orsova in 1684. He wrote several valuable works, in Latin, on Hungarian history. Died in 1749. Bel, le, leh bel, (Jean,) a Belgian, born about 1305 wrote a chronicle of his own times, which was recently discovered, and published in 1850. Died about 1390. Be'la I., King of Hungary, succeeded to the throne in 1059. Died in 1063. Bela II., THE Blind, succeeded Stephen in 1131. Bela III. became King of Hungary in 1 1 74. Hungary was first divided into counties in his reign. Died in 1 196. Bela IV., son of Andrew II., ascended the throne in 1235. During his reign the Moguls under Batoo- (Batu-) Khan ravaged Hungai^ with fire and sword. Died in 1270. Bela, de, da ba^'la, Caballero, a Basque historian, born about 1715, wrote a valuable "History of tre Basques," of which only an extract has been published. See QuERARD, " La France Litteraire." Beladori or Beladzori, (Ahmed,) or, more fully, Aboo-l-Hassan - Ahmed -Ton -Yahya-al-Beiadori, (or -Baladori,) cVbool has'san in'med ib'n yih'hyi il ba-ld'do-ree, an Arabian historian and poet, lived at Bagdad in the ninth century. He wrote a history of the early conquests of the Arabs, and translated works from the Pehlevi into Arabic. He died in a hospital for the insane, in 892 A.D. See Ibn-Khali.ikan, "Biographical Dictionary;" " Nouvellc Biographic Generale." Belair, beh-lSR', (Alexandre Pierre Julienne,) a French general, born in Paris in 1747, served in the army of the North in 1793, and rose to be commander of the National Guards. He wrote several works on fortifica- tions. Died in 1819. See De Courcelles, " DIctionnaire des Generaux Frangais." Belair, (Charles,) born in Saint Domingo, was a nephew of the celebrated Toussaint L'Ouverture. He took an active part as general of brigade against the French in 1802 ; but, having been taken prisoner, he was condemned by a military commission and shot. See P. Lacroix, "Memoires sur les Revolutions de Saint-Do- mingue." Belanger,beh-16N^zha', (Franqois Joseph,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1744; died in 1818. Belbeuf, de, deh bel'buf , (Antoine Louis Pierre Joseph Godard — go'dtii',) Marquis, a French jurist, born at Rouen in 1791, became a senator in 1852. BePcamp, van, (John,) a Dutch painter, who worked in London. Died in 1653. Belcari, de, di bll-k^'ree, (Maffeo,) an Italian poet, born in Florence ; died in 1454. Bel'cher, written also Belchier, (Dabridgecourt,) an English antiquary and dramatic writer. Died in 1621. Belcher, (Sir Edward,) an English naval officer and explorer, born in 1799. He sailed with Captain Beechey to the Arctic regions in 1825, and subsequently, in the ship Sulphur, made a voyage round the world. He joined the expedition to China in 1841, and was knighted in 1843. In 1852 he commanded the expedition in search of Sir John Franklin. He published a " Narrative of the Voyage round the World on the Sulphur," (1836,) and several other works. Belcher, (Jonathan,) one of the royal governors in America, born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1681, became one of the principal merchants in New Eng- land. He was Governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire from 1730 to 1 74 1, when his enemies pro- cured his removal. Repairing at once to England, he vindicated his conduct before the king, was restored to the royal favour, and appointed Governor of New Jer- sey about 1747. Died in 1757. Belcher, (Jonathan,) son of the preceding, born in 1711. He graduated at Harvard in 1728, was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia in 1760, and chief justice in 1761. Died in 1776. Belchier, beKcher or bel'chi-er, (John,) an Eng- lish surgeon, and Fellow of the Royal Society, born in Surrey in 1706, became governor of Guy's Hospital. Died in 1785. See Watt, " Bibliotheca Britannica." Belderbusch, beKder-bdosh', (Karl Leopold,) c as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^=T"See Explanations, p. 23.) BELDORI 3H BELKNAP Count, born in 1749, became a member of the senate of the Netherlands in 1810. Died in 1826. Beldori, bel-do''ree, (Giovanni Pietro,) an Italian antiquary, l)orn at Rome about 161 5 ; died in 1696. Belelli, bi-leKlee, (Fulgencio,) an Italian ecclesias- tic, born at Kuccino, in NajDles, about 1682 ; died in 1742. Belenvei, de, deh berSn-va', or Beauvois, bo''vy, (AiMKRY,) a French troubadour. Died in 1264. Bel'e-sis or BeFe-sys, a priest of Babylon, joined Arbaces in overthrowing the old Assyrian Em])ire. He was afterwards governor of Babylon, about 826 B.C. Belestat, de, deh beh-les'tS^ (Gardouch, gtR'- doosh',) Marquis, a French writer, born at Toulouse in 1725 ; died in 1807. Belestat, de, (Pierre Langlois,) a French physi- cian, who lived about 1570, wrote on Egyptian antiquities. Beleze, beh-laz^, (Guillaume Louis Gustave,) a French litterateur, born at Montpellier in 1803. Among his works is a "Universal Dictionary of Practical Life." BeFfour, (Hugo James,) an English dramatist and poet, born about 1802, published, under the pseudo- nym of Saint John Dorset, two dramas, entitled "Mon- tezuma," and "The Vampyre." Died in 1827. BeFfrage, (Henry,) minister at Falkirk, in Scotland, was born in 1774. He published "Discourses for the Young," (181 7,) and other works. Died in 1835. See IMcKerrow, "Life of Henry Belfrage," 1837. Belfredotti, de, dab^l-fRa-dot'tee, (Bocchino,) sove- reign of Yolterra, in Italy, was put to death as a traitor (1361) for attempting to sell his country to the Pisans. See SisMONDi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Belgiojoso, bel-jo-yo'so, (Cristina Trivulzio,) Princess of, an Italian lady, distinguished for her tal- ents and her patriotism, born at Milan in 1808. About 1830 she removed to Paris, where she acquired the friendship of Augustin Thierry, Mignet, and other emi- nent men of the liberal party. In 1848 she warmly ad- vocated the Italian revolution, and raised a battalion of volunteers at her own expense. After the defeat of the pa- triots and the confiscation of her property, she went again to Paris, and became a contributor to the "National." BeFgi-us or BoFgi-us, a leader of the Gauls, who in 279 B.C. gained a signal victory over the Macedonians, in which their king, Ptolemy Ceraunus, was killed. Belgrade, bSl-gR^'do, (Giacomo,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Udine in 1704, wrote (in Latin) on mechanics and natural philosophy. Died in 1789. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Belgrand, bSKgRSN', (Claude Henri,) a French general, born in 1748, commanded at the long siege of Malta in 1800. Died in 1839. Bel-graVi-us or Bel-lo-graVus, (Richard,) an English Carmelite monk under the rergn of Edward II. Belhomme, b^Kom' or ba'lom', (Dom Humbert,) a French Benedictine friar and eloquent preacher, born at Bar-le-Duc in 1653 ; died in 1727. Belhomme, (Jacques Etienne,) a French physician, born in Paris in 1800, wrote several treatises on insanity. Beli. See Bali. Belidor, de, da bk-le-D6R', (Bernard Forest,) a distinguished engineer and military writer, born in Cata- lonia in 1693, became professor in the School of Artillery at La Fere, in France. He served in the German cam- paign of 1742, and afterwards became a member of the Academy of Sciences. Among his principal works are his "Hydraulic Architecture," (1737,) "New Course of Mathematics for the Use of Artillery," (1757,) and a work on engineering. Died in 1761. See QuERARD, "La France Litt^raire." Beliere, dela, deh li beh-le-aiR', (Claude,) a French writer, was born at CharoliesT^nd published, in 1664, " Physionomie raisonnee." Beligatti, bi-le-gdt'tee, (CASSio,),an Italian Capuchin and Orientalist, born at Macerata in 1708, resided as a missionary in Thibet. He published an alphabet of the language of Thibet, and a Hindostanee grammar. Died in 1791. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Belin, beh-IdN' or bl^N, (FRANgois,) a French dra- matist, born at Marseilles in 1672 ; died in 1732. Belin, (Jean Albert,) a learned French writer, born at Besan9on about 1610, became Bishop of Bellay in 1666. Died in 1677. Belin de Ballu, beh-14N' deh bt'lii', (Jacques Nico- las,) a French scholar, born in Paris in 1753, became professor of Greek in the University of Kharkov, in the Ukraine. He translated into French the "Hecuba" of Euripides and the complete works of Lucian, with critical and historical remarks. He also wrote a "Critical His- tory of P21oquence among the Greeks and Romans," (1803.) Died in Saint Petersburg in 1815. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Beling, baling, (Oswald,) a German poet, born at Sleswick in 1625 ; died at Cassel in 1646. BeFing, (Richard,) an Irish Catholic, born in the county of Dublin in 1613. He first fought for the insur- gents in the rebellion of 1641, but afterwards joined the royalist army. He wrote, in Latin, a defence of the Irish Catholics, and other works. He added a sixth book to Sir Philip Sidney's "Arcadia." Died in 1677. Belisaire or Belisar. See Belisarius. Bel-i-saM-us, [Fr. Belisaire, ba'le'zaR' ; Ger. Beli- sar, ba^le-ziR',] a Byzantine general, whose talents were of the highest order, was born at Germania, in Illyria, about 505 A.D. He served in the guard of Justinian before his accession to the throne, (527,) and soon after that event was appointed general-in-chief of the army of the East. He defeated the Persians at Dara, in 530, and quelled a dangerous sedition at Constantinople in 532 A.D. In 533 and 534 he gained decisive victories over the Vandals in Africa, captured their king, Gelimer, and destroyed his kingdom. For this service he was honoured with a tri- umph, and chosen sole consul, in 535. Between 535 and 540 he was employed against the Ostrogoths, who had obtained possession of Italy. He made himself master of Rome, and had nearly reduced Italy, when he was re- called in 540 A.D. He opposed with success on the eastern frontier a Persian army under Cosroes (or Khos- roo) in 542, and at the end of this campaign was de- graded by the influence of the empress Theodora. He was fined and threatened with death, but was pardoned on condition that he would be reconciled to his unfaithful and abandoned wife Antonina, who was a favourite of Theodora. In 544 he renewed the war against the Gothic king Totila in Italy, with a small army, which proved to be inadequate to the expulsion of the more numerous enemy. He returned to the capital in 548, and passed about ten years in inaction. His last service was the repulse of the Bulgarians, who invaded the empire in 559 A.D., after which the jealousy of Justinian or the intrigues of courtiers deprived him of command. In 563 he was falsely accused of a conspiracy against the life of Justinian, for which his fortune was seques- tered. According to Gibbon, his innocence was recog- nized before his death, which occurred in 565 A.D. There appears to be no foundation for the once current tra- dition or fiction that he was deprived of sight and re- duced to support himself by begging. He seems to have been a Christian in outward conformity at least. As a general, he was distinguished for presence of mind and rapidity of movement. He was loyal to the em- peror, humane to the vanquished, and patient towards rivals who falsely accused him. See "Life of Belisarius," by Lord Mahon, 1829: Gibbon, "De- cline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Christian Friedrich Zel- LER, " Belisarius," Tubingen, 1809; C. L. Roth, " Ueber Belisars Ungnade," 1846; "Blackwood's Magazine" for May, 1847. Belknap, bSKnap, (Jeremy,) an American historian and clergyman, born in Boston in 1744. He was ordained pastor of a Congregational church at Dover, New Hamp- shire, in 1767, and in 1787 removed to Boston, where he preached about ten years. He published a " History of New Hampshire," (3 vols., 1784-92,) "American Biog- raphy," (2 vols., 1794-98,) and "The Foresters," an apologue. Died in 1798. See a "Life of J. Belknap," 1847. Belknap, (William G.,) an American officer, born at Newburg, New York, in 1794, served at the liattle of Fort Erie in August, 1 814, became a captain in 1822, and a major in 1842. He distinguished himself at Buenu Vista in 1847. Died in 1852. a, e, 1, o, li, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/wrt; a, e, i, o, ohsaire; fSr, fill, f^t; met; n&t; good; moon; BELL 3J5 BELL Bell, (Andrew,) the founder of the monitorial system of instruction, also called the Madras system, was born at Saint Andrew's, in Fifesliire, in 1752. He was appointed in 1789 chaplain of Fort Saint George, at Madras, where he devoted himself to the gratuitous instruction of the orphans of the military asylum. On his return to Eng- land he published an account of the new method, and soon after a school was established upon this plan by Joseph Lancaster. The success of these experiments caused the system to be generally adopted in England and other countries. Dr. Bell died in 1832, leaving large sums for the endowment of schools on the Madras sys- tem. (See Lancaster, Joseph.) See " Life of the Rev. Andrew Bell," by R. and C. C. Southey; "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1811; Chambers, "Bio- graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Bell, (Beaupre,) an English antiquary, who be- queathed a valuable collection of medals and manu- scripts to Trinity College, Cambridge. Died in 1745. Bell, (Benjamin,) F.R.S., a distinguished Scottish sur- geon, born at Edinburgh, studied under Professor Monro. He published a "System of Surgery," (6 vols., 1782,) and other works of high reputation, which were translated into French and German, Died in 1806. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Bell, (Sir Charles,) an eminent physiologist and anato- mist, born at Edinburgh in 1774, was a son of the Rev. William Bell. He was a pupil of his brother John, noticed below. About 1804 he became a resident of London, where he practised and lectured on surgery. He pub- lished in 1806 an "Essay on the Anatomy of Expression in Painting," which is highly esteemed, and in 1807 his valuable " System of Operative Surgery." In 1814 he was appointed surgeon to the Middlesex Hospital, which he left in a flourishing condition in 1836. He was highly distinguished for his skill as an operator. In 1821 he announced an important discovery in a paper on the " Nervous System," read before the Royal Society. He discovered that the nerves of sensation are distinct from the nerves of motion ; that the former, arising from the posterior column of the spinal marrow, convey sensation from the body to the brain ; and that the nerves con- nected with the anterior column convey the mandates of the will to the members, and are essential to voluntary motion. This has been pronounced the most important discovery in physiology since that of the circulation of the blood by Harvey. In 1824 he published "An Ex- position of the Natural System of the Nerves of the Human Body," and was appointed to the senior chair of anatomy and surgery in the London College of Sur- geons. He was knighted on the accession of William IV., (1830,) and accepted a chair of surgery in the Edin- burgh University in 1836. He died in Worcestershire, on a journey to London, in April, 1842. Among his works are " Illustrations of the Great Operations of Surgery: Trepan, Hernia, Amputation, Aneurism, and Lithotomy," (1821,) "The Hand, its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design," (one of the Bridgewater Treatises, 1833,) and an im- proved edition of his "Anatomy of Expression," with 'llustrations drawn by himself, (1844.) See A. Shaw, " Narrative of the Discoveries of Sir Charles Bell in the Nervous System," 1837: "Quarterly Review" for May, 1843, vnl. Ixxii. ; Amedee PicHOT, "SurC. Bell," Paris, 1846; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Bell, (Currer.) See Bront6. Bell, (George Joseph,) an eminent Scottish jurist, born near Edinburgh in 1770. He published "Com- mentaries on the Laws of Scotland," (1810,) which soon passed through six editions. Its rare merit procured for him a vote of thanks from the Faculty of Advocates. He also wrote "Principles of the Law of Scotland," and other standard treatises on law. In 1 82 1 he was appointed professor of Scottish law at Edinburgh. Died in 1843. Bell, (Henry,) a Scottish engineer and mechanician, born in Linlithgowshire in 1767. He constructed in 181 1 a steamboat, which he launched on the Clyde in 1812, four years after Fulton's first experiment on the Hudson, of which he appears to have been ignorant. He died in 1830, and a monument was erected to his memory near Bowling. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Bell, (Henry Glasford,) editor of the "Edinburgh Literary Journal" in 1830, wrote a '' Life of Mary Queen of Scots," and a collection of poems. Bell, (Henry H.,) an American rear-admiral, born in North Carolina, entered the navy in 1823. He was ap- pointed fleet-captain to P"arragut in April, 1862. He commanded a division of the fleet in the great battle with the forts below New Orleans, April 18-25 of that year. On the capture of New Orleans, he took down, in the midst of an angry mob, the flag of the disunion- ists from the custom-house. During the absence of Farragut in 1863, he commanded the Western Gulf Blockading Squadron, and was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral. He was drowned on the coast of Japan in January, 1868. Bell, (jAMf:s,) born at Jedburgh, in Scotland, in 1769, published a " System of Popular and Scientific Geogra- phy," (6 vols.) Died in 1833. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Bell, (John,) sometimes called Bell of Antermony, from his residence, a Scottish traveller, born in 1691. In 1 7 14 he visited Saint Petersburg, and in 1715 was ap- pointed by Peter the Great surgeon and physician to the expedition then preparing for Persia. He subsecjuently travelled in Siberia, China, and the Caucasus, and in 1737 was sent by the Russian government on a mission to Constantinople. He died in Scotland in 1780. His works had been published in 1763, under the title of " Travels from Saint Petersburg to various Parts of Asia:" they are highly interesting, particularly the por- tion relating to China. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsanen." Bell, (John.) an English printer, born in 1746, pub- lished fine editions of Shakspeare and other English poets. Died in 1831. Bell, (John,) an English artillery officer, born in 1747, was the inventor of the "gun proof" and several other military machines, for which he obtained a silver medal from the Society of Arts. Died in 1798. Bell, (John,) a distinguished British surgeon, born in Edinburgh in May, 1763, was a brother of Sir Charles Bell. He began to lecture on anatoiiiy and surgery in Edinburgh about 1790, in a theatre built for himself, and ]M-actised surgery with great success. In 1 793 he published the first volume of a " System of the Anatomy of the Human Body," (4 vols., 1 793-1804.) He was an eloquent lecturer, a powerful writer in controversy, and one of the most skilful operators of his time. His other principal works are " Discourses on the Nature and Cure of Wounds," (2 vols., 1793-95,) "Principles of Surgery," (3 vols., 1801,) and "Observations on Italy," (1825.) Having visited Italy for the benefit of his health, he died at Rome in April, 1820. "His picturesque de- scriptions of the country are fresh and delightfiil land- scapes, while his remarks on the pictorial and sculptured treasures of Italy are replete with feeling and judgment." (" London Literary Gazette.") See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Bell, (John,) M.D., a physician and medical writer, born in Ireland in 1796, emigrated in 1810 to America. He was for several years lecturer on the institutes of medicine in the Philadelphia Medical Institute, and afterwards became professor of the theory and practice of medicine in the Medical College of Ohio. Bell, (John,) an American statesman, born near Nashville in 1797, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1816. He was elected a member of Congress in 1827, and was re-elected six times between that year and 1841. He opposed Calhoun's project of nullification, and supported General Jackson as candidate for the Presidency in 1832, but protested against the removal of the deposits from the Bank of the United States. He acquired distinction as a debater, and was a constant id- vocate of a protective tariff, and of the improvement of rivers and harbours. About 1833 he separated from the Democratic party and joined the Whigs, who elected him Speaker of the House of Representatives in 1834, when James K. Polk was his competitor. In 1836 he advocated the election of Hugh L. White to the Presi- dency, and was returned to Congress by the voters of the district which contains Nashville and the Hermitage, € as 9 as j; g hard; g as^y G, H, Yi, giithiral ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BELL 31 6 BELLARMINO (General Jackson's residence.) He was appointed secre- tary of war by President Harrison in 1841, but lie re- signed in September of that year, in consequence of Tyler's defection from the Whig party. Having passed about six years in retirement, he was elected a Senator of the United States from Tennessee in 1847. lie favoured the compromise measures of Mr. Clay in 1850, and op- posed the repeal of the Missouri Compromise in 1854. In 1853 he was re-elected a Senator for six years. In i860 a National Convention of a party styling itself the Constitutional Union Party nominated Mr. Bell for Pre- sident and Edward Everett for Vice-President, with a brief "platform," which insisted only on "The Consti- tution, the Union, and the Enforcement of the Laws." He received thirty-nine electoral votes, cast by the States of Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. Died in 1869. Bell, (John,) an English sculptor, born in Norfolk in 1800. Among his master-pieces are " The Eagle-Slayer," (1837,) "Una and the Lion," "Dorothea," {1841,) and "The Babes in the Wood." He has also produced sta- tues of the "Madonna and Child," "Andromeda," and other scriptural and classical subjects. pell, (Luther V.,) an American physician, born at Chester, New Hampshire, in 1806. Pie became, in '1837, superintendent of the McLean Insane Asylum at Charles- town, Massachusetts. Bell, (Robert,) a distinguished journalist and mis- cellaneous writer, born at Cork, in Ireland, in 1800. Plaving removed to London, he became a contributor to the "New Monthly Magazine," "The Atlas," and Lard- ner's "Cabinet Cyclopaedia." In conjunction with Bul- wer and Lardner, he founded, in 1840, "The Monthly Chronicle." He also published a " History of Russia," (3 vols., 1836-38,) " Lives of the English Poets," (2 vols., 1839,) "Outlines of China," (1845,) ^ "Life of George Canning," (1846,) and other works. Died in London in April, 1867. Bell, (Samuel,) an American Senator and lawyer, born at Londonderry, New Hampshire, in 1770. He was Governor of his native State for five years, (1819-23,) and was a Senator of the United States from 1823 to 1835. Died in 1850. Bell, (Thomas,) a distinguished English naturalist, born in Dorsetshire in 1792. He became, in 1825, one of the founders of the "Zoological Journal," and was subsequently elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and president of the Linnaean Society, (1853.) He published a "Monograph of the Testudinata," (1833,) a "History of British Quadrupeds," (1836,) and a "History of the British Stalk-Eyed Crustacea," (1853.) Bell, (William,) an English divine and religious writer, born about 1731, vvas chaplain to the princess Amelia, and was appointed, in 1765, prebendary of West- minster. Died in 1816. Bell, (W^iLLiAM,) an English painter, born at New- castle-upon-Tyne. He obtained the gold medal of the Royal Academy, in 1771, for his picture of "Venus re- questing Vulcan to forge the Arms for yEneas." Died about 1800. Bella, beKla, (Geronimo,) an Italian pastoral poet, born in Piedmont, lived about 1630-60. Bella, della, deKli beKli, (Giano,) an Italian demo- crat, who was exiled from Florence in 1294. Died about 1295. Bella, della, (Stefano,) an eminent Italian engraver, born at Florence in 1610, was commissioned by Cardinal Richelieu to engrave the "Capture of Arras," and other military exploits of Louis XIII. His works are of small dimensions, and number over fourteen hundred pieces. " No one," says Basan, " has surpassed this excellent artist in delicacy and lightness of point." In drawing human figures, it is said, he always began at the feet and worked upwards. On his return to Flor- ence, he was appointed teacher of design to Prince Cosimo II., afterwards grand duke. Among his master- pieces is a " View of Pont-Neuf, Paris," and " Parnas- sus." Died in 1664. See Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Bellacato, b§l-13.-ki'to, (Luigi,) an Italian physician, born at Padua in 1 501, practised in his native city. Died in 1575- Bellagatta, bgl-ia-g?.t'ta, (Angelo Antonio,) an Italian i)hysician, born at Milan in 1704, wrote " Philoso- phic Letters," and other works. Died in 1742. Bellaguet, bi'lt'ga', (Louis FRANgois,) a French litterateur, born at Sens in 1807, translated several works from the Latin and Italian. BePla-mont, (Richard,) Earl of, an English noble- man, who was appointed Governor of New York and Massachusetts in 1695. was a popular governor, and captured the pirate Captain Kidd. Died at New York in 1701. BePla-my, (Anne George,) a noted English actress, born in London in 1733. She died in poverty in 1788, leaving a work entitled "Apology for the Life of G. Anne Bellamy," (London, 1785,) which some writers have at- tributed to Alexander Bicknell. Bellamy, beKla-me, [Dutch pron. beKli-mi,] (Ja- cobus,) one of the most eminent of Dutch poets, born at Flushing in 1757. On the occasion of the war of 1785, he published his "Patriotic Poems," ("Vader- landsche Gezangen.") His other principal works are "Songs of my Youth," ("Gezangen mijner Jeugd,") and a simple and touching story in the ballad form, entitled " Roosje." He contributed greatly to improve the Dutch language and literature and bring them nearer to his favourite German models. Pie died at the early age of twenty-eight. See Q. Knipers, "Notice sur Bellamy;" A. Vereul, " Rede- voeringen over J. Douza en over J. Bellamy," 1791 ; Ockerse en Kleyn, " Gedenkzuil op het Graf van J. Bellamy," 1822; Longfel- low, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Bellamy, (John,) an English writer, published in 1818 " The Holy Bible, newly translated from the Original Hebrew." See "London Quarterly Review," vols. xix. and xxiii. ; "Eclectic Review," vol. x. BePla-my, (Joseph,) a celebrated American theolo- gian, born in Connecticut in 1 7 19, graduated at Yale Col- lege in 1735. He was ordained pastor of the church at Bethlehem, Connecticut, in 1740, and also laboured as an itinerant preacher. He was regarded as a powerful preacher and a learned divine. His system of theology is similar to that of Jonathan Edwards. Several vol- umes of his sermons and other works have been pub- lished. Died in 1790. Bellamy, (Thomas,) an English writer, born at Kings- ton-upon-Thames in 1745, wrote a novel entitled " Sa- daski," and other works. Died in 1800. Bellange, ba''16Nzh^ (Jacques,) a French engraver, born at Chalons about 1610. Among his best prints are "Saint John '■he Wilderness," and "The Death of Virginia." See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Bellange, ba'lSN'zh.V, (Joseph Louis Hippolyte,) a French painter of battles and historical pieces, born in Paris in 1800. Bellange, (Thierry,) a French painter, pupil of Vouet, born at Nancy about 1596; died about 1650. Bellanger, ba'lSN'zha', (Francois Joseph,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1744. Among his works is the iron cupola of the grain-market, {Halle an Ble,) Paris, (1812.) Died in 1818. Bellanger, (Jean Antoine,) a French en^-jraver, who lived about 1745, executed, among other prints, the "Miracle of the Loaves and Pishes," and "The School of Athens," after Raphael. See Heinecken, "Dictionnaire des Artistes." Bellardi, bgl-laR'dee, (Carlo Luigi,) a physician and naturalist, born near Vercelli, in Piedmont, in 1741. Pie wrote several botanical treatises, and contributed to Al- lioni's " Flora Pedemontana." He lived many years in Turin. Died in 1828. See TiPALDO, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Bellarini, bel-la-ree'nee, (Giovanni,) an Italian theo- logian, born at Castelnuovo, entered the society of Bar- nabites in 1575. He wrote "Mirror of Divine and Human Wisdom," (" Speculum humanas atque divinae Sapientice," 1630.) Died in 1630. Bellarmin or Bellarmine. See Bellarmino. Bellarmino, b^l-laR-mee'no, [Fr. Bellarmin, ba'- ItR'miN',] often called in English Bellarmin or Bellar- a, e, T, 6, u, y, lotig; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y. short; a, e, i, o, obsan-e; fdr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good ; moon; BELL ART 317 BELLE-ISLE mine, bel-lar'niin, (Roberto,) an eminent Italian cardinal and champion of Catholicism, born at Montepulciano on the 4th of October, 1542. He entered the order of Jesuits at the age of eighteen, and became professor of theology at Louvain in 1570. On his return to Rome in 1576, he was appointed by Gregory XIII. to teach controversial theology in the college he had just founded. He was made a cardinal by Clement VIII. in 1598, and in 1601 Archbishop of Capua, but upon being appointed librarian of the Vatican, in 1605, he resigned his see. He died at Rome in 1621. Among his principal works are his "Controversies," (" Disputationes de Controversiis Fidei adversos hujus temporis Haereticos," 1581-88, 4 vols., 1688,) " Treatise on the Duty of Bishops," and " On the Power of the Pope in Temporal Affairs," (all in Latin.) Cardinal Bellarmine was distinguished for his elevation of character and mildness of disposition, and, though esteemed one of the ablest controversialists of his time, was accustomed to say that "an ounce of peace was worth more than a pound of victory." "As the century drew near its close," says Hallam, "the Church of Rome brought forward her most re- nowned and formidable cham])ion, Pellarmin. . . , His abilities are best tested by Protestant theologians, not only in their terms of eulogy, but indirectly in the pecu- liar zeal with which they chose him as their worthiest adversary. More than half a dozen books in the next fifty years bear the title of Anti-Bellarminus." ("In- troduction to the Literature of Europe.") See Bellakmino's "Autobiography;" G. Fuligatti, "Vita del Cardinal Roberto Bellarinino," 1622; Daniello Bartoli, "Delia Vitadi R. Bellarmino," 1678; Francesco Marazza, " Ristretto della Vita di R. Bellarmino," 1682; P. Fkizon, "Vie du Cardinal Bellar- min," 1 70S ; and " Leben des Cardinals R. Bellannin, von einem Pries- ter in PVanken," 1846. Bellart, ba^lSR', (Nicolas pRANgois,) a distinguished French advocate, born in Paris in 1761. He was made attorney-general of the royal court, grand officer of the legion of honour, and obtained other distinctions under Louis XVI IL Died in 1826. See BiLLEcoQ, "Notice sur Bellart," 1826. Bellati, b^l-la'tee, (Antonio Francesco,) an Italian theologian, Jesuit, and pulpit orator, born at Ferrara in 1665, wrote " Sacred and Moral Treatises," and other works. Died in 1742. See IMazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." Bellati, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, born in 1745 ; died in 1S08. Some of his works are at Rome. Bellavene, biVlt'v^n', (Jacques Nicolas,) Baron, born at Verdun in 1770, was appointed by Napoleon in 1812 inspector-general of military schools. Lie wrote a " Course of Mathematics for the Use of Military Schools." Died in 1826. Bellavia, b^l-li-vee'c^, (Marcantonio,) a Sicilian engraver and painter, lived about 1600. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Bellay, bala' or ber]cy,( Francois Philippe,) a French medical writer, born at Lent in 1762, practised at Lyons. He published, with Dr. Prion, a good medical journal, (1799-1S04.) Died in 1824. Bellay, du, dii hk'W, (Guillaume,) Seigneur de Langey, a French diplomatist and soldier, born near Montmirail in 1491. He was appointed by Francis 1. Viceroy of Piedmont, and was employed in important embassies to England, Italy, and Germany. He died in 1543, leaving "Memoirs of his Times." See Brantome, "Memoires des Capitaines Franq:ais." Bellay, du, (Jean,) a French cardinal, brother of the preceding, born in 1492, was patronized by Francis I., and became successively Bishop of Paris and of Limoges, and Archbishop of Bordeaux. Died in 1560. See AuEERV, "Histoire des Cardinaux." Bellay, du, (Joachim,) a distinguished poet, nephew of the preceding, surnamed THE French Ovid, was born near Angers about 1524. lie enjoyed the favour of Francis I. and his sister, Margaret of Navarre. Pie wrote Latin poems and sonnets, which were greatly admired in his time. Died in 1560. See Sainte-Beuve, "Tableau de la Poesie Frangaise an seizieme Si^cle ;" and Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Bellay, du, (Martin,) brother of the cardinal, became lieutenant of Normandy. He wrote " Historic Memoirs from 1 5 13 to 1547." Died in 1559. Bellay, du, (Rene,) the youngest brother of Cardinal du Bellay, became in 1 535 Bishop of Mans. Died in 1546. His nephew, Eustache du Bellay, became Bishop of Paris. Belle, bel, (Clement Louis Marie Anne,) a histori- cal painter, born in Paris in 1722; died in 1806. Belle, de, deh bel, (Jean Francois Joseph,) a French officer, born at Voreppe in 1767, served in the Italian campaign of 1799, and subsecjuently under Le Clerc in Saint Domingo, where he fell in battle in 1802. Belle, la, It (Alexis Simon,) a French portrait- painter, born about 1674; died in 1734. Belleau, ba'lo', (Ri:MY,) born at Nogent-le-Rotrou in 1528, was a friend of Ronsard, and was one of the seven poets called "the French Pleiades." He wrote pastorals entitled "Bergeries," and "Amours et nouveaux Es- changes des Pierres precieuses," (1576.) Died in Paris in 1577- See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Bellebuoni, bel-la-boo-o'nee, (Matteo,) an Italian writer, born about 1290, translatecl from the Latin into Italian "The Llistory of the War of Troy." See GiNGUENE, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Bellecombe, de, deh bel'koMb', (Andr^: Ursule Casse,) a French liith'ateiir, born at Montpezat, in Lot- ct-Garonne, in 1822, wrote a "Universal History," (8th volume, 1858; unfinished.) Bellecourt, bgrkooR'', (Jean Claude Gilles,) some- times called CoLSON, a French comedian, born in Paris in 1725 ; died in 1778. His wife. Rose P6tronille Le Roy de la Corbinaye, was also a popular actress. Bellee, bi'la', (Teodoro,) an Italian physician, born near Ragusa. He taught medicine at Paclua for many years. Died in 1600. Bellefonds or Bellefont, de, deh b^lToN', (Bernar- din Gigault — zhe'go',) Marquis, born in 1630, served in Flanders in 1637, and subsequently in Holland, and was made marshal of France in 1668. Died in 1694. Belleforest, de, deh belToW, (Francois,) a French litterateur, born at Sarzan in 1530, was a favourite at the court of Margaret, Queen of Navarre. He published many mediocre works, among which is "Histoires tra- giqucs," translated from Bandello. Died in Paris in 1583. Bellegarde, de, deh b^rgtRd', (Antoine Dubois,) a member of the French National Convention, born in Angoumois about 1740. He became subsequently a member of the Council of Five Hundred and of the Coun- cil of Ancients, (1798.) Died in 1825. Bellegarde, de, (Gabriel du Pac,) a French Jansen- ist theologian, born near Carcassonne in 171 7. He wTote " Historical Memoirs on the Affair of the Bull Unigeni- tus," and other works. Died in 1789. Bellegarde, de, (Henri,) Comte, born at Chambery, in Savoy, in 1755, entered the Austrian service, and fought in the principal campaigns against the French from 1793 to 1800. lie was made field-marshal in 1806. Died in 1831. Bellegarde, de, (Jean Baptiste Morvan,) generally known as the Ai;be de Bellegarde, born near Nantes in 1648. He made translations from Saint Chrysostom, Saint Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and other Fathers, also several of the Latin classics. Died in 1734. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Bellegarde, de, (Roger de Saiiit-Lary — deh s^n'- It^re',) a French marshal, who enjoyed the favour of Catherine de Medicis and Henry IIL, but, having fallen into disgrace, was poisoned by order of the former, (1579.) See F. Secousse, "Memoire historique sur la Vie de Roger de Saint-Lary de Bellegarde," 1764. Bellegarde, de, (Roger de Saint-Lary et de Termes — deh sflN'lS^re'' a deh taRn/,) Due, born al( ut 1563, was a favourite of Henry HI., Henry IV., and Louis XIII. Died in 1646. Bellegingue, berg^Ng'', (Pierre,) a French physician, born at Besancon in 1759; died in 1826. Belle-Isle, de, Due. See Fouquet, (Charles Louis AUGUSTE.) Belle-Isle, de, (Louis Charles Armand Fouquet,) Chevalier. See Fouquet. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, gutticral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BELLENDEN 318 BELLING Bel'len-den, Ballantyne, or Ballentyne, (John,) a Scottish poet, who served James V. as " clerk of his comptis," and became Archdeacon of Moray about 1536. He translated Hector Boece's " History of Scotland" from the Latin into the vernacular language, and wrote several poems. Died at Rome about 1550. See Ballentyne, in Chambers's "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Bellenden, Ballantyne, or Ballenden, (Sir John,) a Scottish statesman and jurist, was appointed a lord of session in 1547, and on the arrival of Queen Mary be- came one of her privy council. Died in 1577. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Bellenden, (William,) a Scottish writer, celebrated for the elegance of his Latinity. He resided many years in Paris, where he is said to have been professor of hu- manities. His principal works are a sort of compilation from Cicero, entitled "Ciceronis Princeps," (1608,) dedi- cated to Prince Henry, " De Statu Reipublicae," and " De Statu prisci Orbis," (1615.) Dr. Middleton has been charged with borrowing from these writings in his " Life of Cicero." Died before 1633. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Bellenger, bi'16N^zha^ (Franqois,) a French philolo- gist and litterateur, born in the diocese of Lisieux in 1688. Pie translated Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and wrote several critical essays. Died in 1749. Bellenghi, bel-len'gee, (Filippo Maria Albertino,) an Italian writer on theology and physical sciences, born at Forlimpopoli in 1758. He became Archbishop of Ni- cosia. Diecl in 1839. Belle-Perclie, de, deh beKpaRsh', (Pierre,) a chan- cellor of France and learned bishop, born in Nivernais ; died in 1307. Beller or Bellere, ba'laiR', [Lat. Belle'rus,] a Flem- ish typographer and writer, published at Antwerp a num- ber of elegant editions of the classics. Died in 1595. Bellermann, beKler-man^, (Christian Friedrich,) son of Johann Joachim, noticed below, a German Prot- estant theologian and writer, born at Erfurt in 1793. Bellermann, (Johann Fkiedrich,) a German litte- rateur, a brother of the preceding, born at Erfurt in 1795. He published in 1840 an edition of the "Hymns of Dionysius and Mesomedes." Bellermann, (Johann Joachim,) a German theolo- gian and antiquary, born in 1754 at Erfurt, where he became professor of theology, (1790.) He wrote a " Manual of Biblical Literature," (1787,) "Remarks on Phoenician and Punic Coins," (1812,) and other works. Died in 1842. See "J. J. Bellermanni, Vita breviter ab ipso descripta," 1804. Bel-ler'o-phon, [Gr. Bc^.Afpo^o?^,] i.e. " Slayer of Belle- rus," originally called Hippon'oiis, in Grecian mythol- ogy, was the son of Glaucus, King of Corinth. Ilaving slain Bellerus, he fled to Proetus, King of Argos, who, at the instigation of his wife, sent him to lobates, King of Lycia, requesting the latter to put him to death. Bellero- phon being sent by lol^ates against the monster Chi- maera, slew him, and afterwards defeated the Amazons. Attempting to soar to Olympus on the winged horse Pegasus, Jupiter caused him to be thrown to the earth, and he was made blind by the fall. Bellerose, bel'roz', (Pierre le Messier— leh ma'- se-a^,) a French comedian, died in 1670. Bellet, ba'la', Abb6, a French antiquary and natural- ist, lived about 1720. ?Ie was canon of Cadillac. Bellet, (Charles,) a French ecclesiastic and religious writer, born in 1702; died in 1771. Bellet, (Isaac,) a French physician, who was in- spector of the mineral waters of France. Died in 1778. Bellet-Verrier, ba'hV va're-a', (Hubert,) a French writer, lived about i68o-i725r^His principal work is entitled "Alphabetical Memorial concerning the Law, Police, and Finances of France." Belleteste, bel'tit', (B.,) a French Orientalist, born at Orleans in 1778, translated from the Arabic a "Treatise on Precious Stones." Died in 1808. Belleval, de, deh bervtK, (Charles Franqois Du- meisniel — du'mi''ne-eK,) a French botanist, born in 1733 ; ^^^^^^ Abbeville in 1790. Belleval, de, (Pierre Richer,) a French physician and botanist, born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1558. He became, in 1596, professor of botany at Montpellier, be- ing the first who taught that science in France except in connection with medicine. The genus Richeria was named in his honour. Died at Montpellier in 1623. See "Recherches sur la Vie de P. R. de Belleval," Paris, 1822. Belleville, b§Kv6K, or Turlupin,tiiR''lu^pflN', (Henri Legrand — leh'gRdN',) a French comedian. Died in Bellevois, beKvwiV, a skilful painter of marine views. Died at Hamburg in 1684. Bellevue, de, deh bSlVii', (Armand,) a French Do- minican monk, born in Provence about 1290. Bellevue, de, (Jacques,) a French jurist, born at Aix, became, in 13 14, professor of law at Perugia. Belley, ba'la', (Augustin,) a French antiquary, born at Sainte-Foi-de-Montgomery in 1697, was a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1771. Belli, bSKlee, (Carlo,) an Italian Jesuit and writer, born at Venice in 1742; died in 1816. Belli, (Ciierubino,) a Sicilian monk and poet, lived about 1 590-1650. Belli, (Francesco,) an Italian theologian and writer, born at Arzignano in 1577 ; died in 1644. Belli, (GiULio,) an Italian writer, born at Capo dTs- tria, wrote a work entitled " Hermes Politicus," (1608.) Belli, [Lat. Bel'lius,] (Honorius,) an Italian physi- cian and botanist, born at Vicenza, lived about 1550-90. He practised in the island of Crete, was well versed in the Greek language, and was one of the first that at- tempted to identify the plants mentioned by the ancients. See JocHER, " Allgeraeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." Belli, (Paolo,) an Italian Jesuit and Latin writer, born at Messina in 1588 ; died in 1658. Belli, (Pietro,) an Italian jurist, born at Alba in 1502; died in 1575. See Veknazza, "Vie de P. Belli," 1783. Belliard, bcVle-tR', (Augustin Daniel,) Comte, a French general, born at P'ontenay-le-Comte in 1769. He became a general in 1796, fought successfully in the campaigns of Italy, Egypt, Austria, and Russia, and in 1814 was made colonel-general of the cavalry of the guard. He was created a peer by Louis XVIII., and in 1 83 1 was sent as ambassador to Belgium. Died at Brussels in 1832. See " AJemoires du Comte Belliard, ecrits par lui-meme," 3 vols., 1834; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Bellicard, ba^eOctR', (Jerome Charles,) a French architect and engraver, born in Paris in 1726, was pro- fessor in the Royal Academy of Architecture. He pub- lished "Observations on the Antiquities of Hercula- neum," (1754.) He was a member of the Academies of Florence and Bologna. Died in 1786. See Le Blanc, "Manuel de I'Aniateur d'Estampes." Bellier, bi^e-i', (Pierre,) a French scholar, who translated a parTof the works of Philo-Judasus, (1575.) Bellievre, de, deh ba'le-avR^ (Albert,) a French prelate, son of Pomponne, noticed below, was appointed Archbishop of Lyons by Henry IV. in 1599. In 1604 he resigned his office to his brother Claude. Died in 1621. Bellievre, de, (Nicolas,) brother of the preceding, born in 1583, rose to be president of the parliament of Paris in 1614. Bellievre, de, (Pomponne,) a French jurist and diplo- matist, born at Lyons in 1529. He was sent on import- ant missions to Sweden and England, and in 1599 was made chancellor of France by Henry IV. Died in 1607 See Jean Papire Masson, " Elogium P. de Bellievre," 1607. Bellin, the French of Bellini, which see. Bellin, ba'liN', (Jacques Nicolas,) a French hydro- grapher and engineer of the marine, born in Paris in 1703. He executed the maps for the Abbe Prevost's " Histoire Generale des Voyages," and published a col- lection of charts entitled " French Hydrography," (1756.) Died in 1772. Bellincioni,b§l-len-cho'nee, (Bernardo,) sometimes called Bellinzona, a Florentine poet. Died in 1491. Belling, von, fon beFling, (Wilhelm Sebastian,) a Prussian general and favourite of Frederick the Great, a, e, T, o, u, y, io/^o-; h, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; BELLINGEN 319 BELLOWS born about 1719, served with distinction in the Seven Years' war. Died in 1799. See Archenholz, "Histoire de ]a Guerre de Sept Ans." Bellingen, de, deh b^^liiN^'zhSN', (Fleuri,) a French grammarian, was the author of " Etymology or Expla- nation of French Proverbs," (1656.) Bellingham, beFling-am, (Sir Edward,) an able sol- dier, and for two years governor or deputy of Ireland under Edward VL Died in 1549. See Froude, "History of England," vol. v. chap, xxvili. BeFling-liam, (Rich.\rd,) Governor of Massachu- setts, born in "England in 1592. He came, to America as a lawyer in 1634, and subsequently filled the ofhce of lieutenant-governor for thirteen years and that of gov- ernor for ten years. He was first elected in opposition to Governor Winthrop in 1641. Died in 1672. Bellini, bel-lee''nee, or Bellino, bel-lee'no, an Italian painter of the Venetian school, lived about 1500. Bellini, (Filippo,) an Italian painter, born at Urbino about 1560. His pictures in fresco and oil are praised. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Bellini, [Fr. Bellin, bi'l^N',] (Gentile,) a celebrated Venetian painter, born in 1421, was a son of Jacopo, no- ticed below. Among his master-pieces are "The Preach- ing of Saint Mark," and "Presentation of the Infant Jesus at the Temple." He was invited to Constantinople by the Sultan Mahomet II., who treated him with clis- tinguished favour and employed him to paint several historical pieces. Died about 1507. See V.\s\Ri, " Lives of the Painters ;" Mrs. Jameson, " Memoirs of Early Italian Painters." Bellini, (Giovanni,) brother of the preceding, born at Venice about 1426, was the most distinguished member of his family, and is regarded as the founder of the Venetian school. He assisted his brother in the embellishment of the senate-house at Venice, and painted a great num- ber of historical pieces. Of these we may name a " Coro- nation of the Virgin," a " Madonna and Child attended by the Angels," "Christ at Emmaus," and "The Saviour giving a Benediction." His works display great richness of colouring and superior arrangement of the draperies. Among his numerous pupils were Titian and Giorgione. His death is variously dated 15 10, 15 12, or 15 16. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Mrs. Jameson, "Memoirs of Early Italian Painters;" Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" " G. Bellini e Pittori contemporanei," Venice, 1840. Bellini, (Jacopo,) a Venetian painter, chiefly distin- guished for his portraits. He was one of the first who painted in oil. Died about 1470. Bellini, (Laurentio,) a celebrated Italian anatomist and physician, born at Florence in 1643. He studied at Pisa under Borelli, whose peculiar system he adopted. (See Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso.) After having filled the chair of anatomy at Pisa for thirty years, he became first physician to the grand duke Cosimo HI. at Flor- ence. He wrote several medical treatises in Latin, which had a high reputation in his time. Died in 1704. Sec Fabroni, "VitiC Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" G. Atti, " Notizie biografiche della Vita di M. Malpighi e di L. Bellini," 1847. Bellini, [Fr. Bellin,] (Vincenzo,) a celebrated mu- sical composer, born at Catania, in Sicily, about 1802. He studied at Naples under Zingarelli. Having produced several symphonies and other musical pieces, he brought out at Milan in 1827 his opera of " II Pirata," which was very successful. It was soon followed by " Fa Straniera," and " I Capuletti ed i Montecchi." " La Sonnambula" came out in March, 183 1, and in December of the same year " La Norma." The two last-named operas were received with enthusiasm throughout Europe, and still retain their popularity. In 1834 he produced "I Puri- tani," which ranks among his best works. He died near Paris in September, 1835, at the early age of thirty-two. See Fetis, " Bioijraphie Universelle des Musiciens ;" F. Gerardi, "Biografia di V. Bellini," 1835. Bellman, bSKmin, (Karl Mickel,) a Swedish poet, born at Stockholm about 1740. His lyrics are princi- pally bacchanalian songs and delineations of low life, and enjoy great popularity in Sweden. Among these may be named " The Temple of Bacchus" and " Fred- man's Sanger og Epistlar," Died in 1795. See CaRL Ploug, " C. M. Bellman's Liv, og Bellman som comisk Dithyrambiker af J. L. Heiberg," 1844. Bello, beKlo, (Filippo,) an Italian litterateur, born at Naples in 1666; died in 1719. Bello, (Marco,) an Italian painter of the Venetian school, lived about 1450. Belloc, ba''lok', (Jean Hilaire,) a French painter ot history and portraits, born at Nantes in 1787. Belloc, (Jean Louis,) a French surgeon, born near Agen in 1730, published a number of works on surgery and legal medicine, and invented several surgical instru- ments. He acquired celebrity as a professor in Paris, where he died in 1807. Belloc, ba'lok', (Louise Swanton,) Madame, a French writer, of Irish extraction, born at La Rochelle in 1799, translated into French a number of the works of Byron, Moore, and Miss Edgeworth, also Goldsmith's "Vicar of Wakefield," and "Uncle Toin's Cabin." See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Bellocq, ba'lok', (Pierre,) a French litterateur and satirist, born in Paris in 1645 ; died in 1704. Bel-lo'na, [Fr. Bellone, ba'lon'; derived from the Latin belhnn, "war,"] the goddess of war of the ancient Romans. She delights in war and carnage ; she is usually represented as the companion, and sometimes as the sister or wife, of Mars. She is described by the poets as armed with a scourge, and bearing a torch in her hand. Her priests were called Bellojiarii. See TiESLER, " Dissertatio de Bellons Cultii," 1842. Belloni, bel-lo'nee, (Geronimo,) a Roman banker, patronized by Benedict IV., wrote an " Essay on Com- merce," which was translated into several languages. Died in 1761. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Belloni, (Giovanni,) an Italian theologian and jurist, was canon of Padua. Died in 1623. Belloni, (Giuseppe,) an Italian sculptor and archi- tect, resided at Venice about 1600-20. Belloni, (Paolo,) an Italian jurist and legal writer, was professor of civil law at Pavia. Died in 1625. Bellori, bel-lo'ree, (Giovanni Pjetro,) an Italian antiquary, born at Rome in 161 5, wrote a number of treatises on Roman history and antiquities. Christina of Sweden appointed him her librarian and keeper of her cabinet. 13ied in 1696. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Bellot, ba'lo', (Joseph Rene,) a French naval officer, born in Paris in 1826, accompanied Captain Belcher in search of Sir John Franklin in 1852. Having afterwards joined Inglefield's expedition, he perished in a storm near Cape Bowden in 1853. He discovered a strait con- necting Prince Regent's Inlet and Peel Sound, which has been named Bellot's Strait. Bellot, (Pierre FRANgois,) a French jurist, born at Geneva in 1776, was professor of civil law. Died at Geneva in 1836. See Cherbuliez, "Notice siir la Vie de P. F. Bellot," 1838. Bellotti, bgl-lot'tee, (Bernardo,) an Italian painter and engraver, surnamed Canaletto, born at Venice in 1724. Died in 1780. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Bellotti, (Pietro,) an Italian painter of the Venetian school, born at Volgano ; died in 1700. Bel-lo-ve'sus, the first Gallic chief who passed the Alps, established himself with his band in Etruria, ac- cording to Livy, about 590 B.C. See DuPLEix, "Memoires des Gaules." BelTows, (Henry Whitney,) D.D., an eminent Unitarian divine, born in Boston in 1814. He took the degree of A.B. at Harvard in 1832, and afterwards stu died in the theological school of that university. In 1838 he became pastor of a church in the city of New York. He was the principal founder of the " Christian Inquirer," (1846,) and was for several years the chief contributor to its columns. Mr. Bellows is an able and eloquent public speaker, and has lectured successfully on a great variety of subjects, especially those connected with social or educational interests, or with patriotic 01 € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K,g7ittural; N, ftasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (g^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BELLOr 320 BELSHAM philanthropic enterprises. Among his publications, his lectures " On the Treatment of Social Diseases," deliv- ered at the Lowell Institute, Boston, in 1857, deserve to be particularly mentioned. He was the principal origin- ator of the United States Sanitary Commission, of which he became the first president in 1862. He held this position as long as that organization continued. Belloy, de, deh ba'lwa^ (Auguste,) Marc^uis, a French poet, born in Paris about 1815. He produced, besides other works, " Orfa," (1853,) and "Flowery Legends," ("Legendes fleuries," 1855.) Belloy, de, (Jean Baptiste,) a Freiich cardinal, and Archbishop of Paris, born near Senlis in 1709; died in 1808. Belloy, de, (Pierre,) a French jurist, born at Mon- tauban about 1540. His principal work is entitled "The Catholic Apology," being a defence of the rights of Henry of Navarre to the throne independent of his Ca- tholicity. In consequence of this he was imprisoned two years in the Bastille by the Guises. See MoKERi, " Dictiounaire Historique." Belloy, de, (Pierre Laurent Buyrette — bU-e'ret' or bwe'ret'',) a French dramatist, born at Saint-Flour-en- Auvergne in 1727, wrote a tragedy entitled "The Siege of Calais." He was a member of the French Academy. Died in 1775. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Bellucci, b§l-loot'chee, or Belluzzi, b§l-loot'see, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, born in 1654, was patron- ized by Joseph I. of Austria. He excelled in painting small figures. Died in 1726. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Bellucci, (Tommaso,) an Italian botanist, born at Pistoia. He became professor of botany at Pisa, and published in 1662 an " Index of Plants in the Garden of Pisa," (in Latin.) Bellune, Due de. See Victor. Bellunello, bSl-loo-neKlo, (Andrea,) an Italian painter, born in the Friuli, lived about 1470. Bellunese, bel-loo-na'sa, (Giorgio,) an Italian por- trait-painter, born in the Friuli, lived about 1550. Belluiio, Duke of. See Victor. Belluti, bel-loo'tee, (Bonaventura,) a Sicilian phi- losopher and ecclesiastic, born at Catania in 1599. He wrote a " Course of Philosophy," and other works, in Latin. Died in 1676. Belluzzi. See Bellucci. Belly, biVle', or Billy, be'ye', (Jacques,) a French painter and engraver, born at Chartres in 1603. Belmas, htYm^\ (Louis,) born at Montreal, in the department of Aude, in 1757, became Bishop of Cam- brai in 1S02. By his advocacy of the liberty of the Gal- lican Church and his submission to the civil constitution of the clergy, he incurred the displeasure of the pope. He was the last constitutional bishop. Died in 1841. See Lasalve, " £loge de M. Belmas," 1848. BePmeis or BePmeys, (John,) called also John of York, a divine of the twelfth century, was Bishop of Poitou. He wrote against Thomas a Becket. Belmeis or Beaumes, de, (Richard,) was conse- crated as Bishop of London about 1 1 50. Belmeis or Beaumes, de, (Richard,) became Bishop of London in 1 108. He expended a large sum of money in the erection of Saint Paul's Cathedral. Died in 1127. Belmissero, bel-mes-sa'ro, or Belmessere, bgl-mes- sa^a, (Paolo,) an Italian physician and Latin poet, born at Lanni, lived about 1530. He was professor of medi- cine and philosophy at Bologna. See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." Belmondi, beKmoN^e', (Pierre,) a French littera- teur, born at Virieux in 1774 ; died in 1822. Belmont, de, deh bermow', (Aimeri,) a troubadour of Provence, lived aljout 1270. Belmontet, bermoN^tiV, (Louis,) ?iY\-ei\ch litterateur and politician, born at Montauban in 1799. He became in 1830 editor of "La Tribune," in which he opposed the Orleans dynasty. He published several republican odes, and a collection of poems entitled "Golden Num- bers," (" Les Noml)res d'Or," 1846.) In 1835 he married a granddaughter of the famous Vergniaud. Among his works is "Une Fete de Neron," a tragedy, (1829,) He is now a Bonapartist in politics. See " Nouvelle Blograpliie Generale." Belmonti, bgl-mon'tee, (Pietro,) an Italian poet, born at Rimini in 1537; died in 1592. BeToe, (William,) an English divine and scholar, born at Norwich in 1756. He made several translations from the Greek, of which his " History of Herodotus, with Notes," (4 vols., 1791,) deserves especial mention. He also wrote a number of original w^orks, and was as- sociated with Archdeacon Nares as editor of "The Brit- ish Critic." Died in 181 7. Belon, beh-liN' or bloN, (Pierre,) one of the most eminent naturalists of his time, born in the department of Sarthe, in P'rance, about 1517. He visited successively Greece, Egypt, and Palestine, and, after an absence of three years, returned to France in 1550. In 1553 he pub- lished an account of his expedition, which was trans- lated into Latin by L'licluse. On his way to Paris, through the Bois de Boulogne, in 1564, he was assas- sinated by an unknown hand. Belon wrote a number of valuable treatises on natural history, geography, and antiquities. His " Plistory of Birds" (1555) is said to be the most important treatise on that subject produced in the sixteenth century. See CuviER, " Hlstoire des Sciences naturelles." Beloselsky, ba-lo-sel'skee, (Alexander,) Prince, a Russian litteratetir, born at Saint Petersburg in 1757, wrote a collection of poems in French. Died in 1809. Beloste, ba'lost', (Augustin,) a French surgeon, born in Paris in 1654, published a treatise on surgery, (1695,) and a "Treatise on the Use of Mercury," (1725.) He adopted some good old methods which had fallen into disuse. He practised at Turin, where he died in 1730. Belot, beh-lo' or bio, (Jean,) a French lawyer, born at Blois about 1590, published an "Apology for the Latin Language." Menage, in his " Requete des Dictionnaires," remarks " that his generous interest in that language is the more praiseworthy, as he had not the honour to be acquainted with it." See Pelisson, " Hlstoire de rAcademie Francaise." Belot, (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic, who lived about 1570, wrote treatises on chiromancy and occult science. Belot, (OcTAViE Guichard,) Madame, a French au- thoress, born in Paris in 1719. She published " Reflec- tions on Rousseau's Discourse concerning the Inequality of Conditions," and translated from the English Dr. Johnson's " Rasselas," and portions of Hume's History. Died in 1805. See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." Below, ba'lo, (Jacor Frederick,) a Swedish physi- cian and naturalist, born at Stockholm in 1669. He was appointed by Charles XII., in 1705, physician to the army. He was taken prisoner at the battle of Pultowa, after which he practised in Moscow. Died in 1716. BePper, (Edward Strutt,) Lord, an English poli- tician, born at Derby in 1801. He represented Derby in Parliament from 1830 to 1848, voting with the Liberals. Belprato, bel-pRa'to, (Giovanni Vincenzo,) an Ital- ian litterateur, lived about 1550. BePsham, (Thomas,) an English Unitarian divine and theological writer, born at Bedford in April, 1750. He became, in 1805, pastor of the Essex Street chapel, London, where he remained until his death. Among his principal works are his " Evidences of the Christian Revelation," and "Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind and of Moral Philosophy," (1801.) He also published a " Translation of the Epistles of Saint Paul, with an Exposition and Notes," (4 vols., 1822.) Died in 1829. See John Williams, "Memoirs of Thomas Belsham," 1833: " London Quarterly Review" for 1S23-24, and " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1S03. Belsham, (William,) an English historian and politi- cal writer of the Whig party, born in 1752, was a brother of the preceding. He i)ublished a " History of Great Britain to the Conclusion of the Peace of Amiens in 1802," (12 vols. 8vo, 1806,) "Essays, Historical, Politi- cal, and Literary," (2 vols., 1789-91,) and other works. His history was commended by Professor Smyth and other critics. Died in 1827. a, e, T, o, u, y, lojig; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obsairc; fir, fS.ll, fdt; met; n6t; good; moon; BELSHJZZAR 321 BEMMEL Bel-sliaz'zar, [Heb. ^'Hm^l ; Fr. Balthasar, btK- tt'ztK',] King of Babylon, began to reign about 554 B.C. He was a descendant of Nebuchadnezzar. In 538 or 539 Babylon was taken by Cyrus the Great, and Bel- shazzar was killed. See Book of Daniel, chap. v. ; D. S. Goebel, " Dissertatio de Belsasaro," 1757. Belsunce, de, deh b^KsiiNss', Comte, a French roy- alist officer, was killed in a mob, at Caen, in 1790. Belsunce, de, (Armand,) a French general, born in 1722. He fought at Fontenoy in 1745, and at Hasten- beck in 1757. Died in Saint Domingo in 1764. Belsunce de Castel-Moron, de, deh b^KsuNss' deh kSs'teK mo'roN'', (Henri Francois Xavier,) a French Jesuit, born in 167 1, was made Bishop of Mar- seilles in 1709, and during the prevalence of the plague in that city {1720) devoted himself to the relief of the sufferers. Died in 1755. See P. Barbet, "filogede Belsunce," 1821. Beltraffio, b^l-tR^f fe-o, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian painter, born at Milan in 1467, was a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci. Died in 15 16. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Beltramelli, bdl-tRi-meKlee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian litterateur, born at Bergamo in 1734; died in 181 5. Beltrami, b^l-tR^'mee, (Faisrizio,) an Italian writer, born at Cetona, in Tuscany, lived about 1630. Beltrando, b^l-tRdnMo, (Hermano DomiiXgo,) a Spanish architect and sculptor, born at Vittoria ; died in 1590. Beltrano, \yh\-\.^\'no, (Agostino,) an Italian painter, born at Naples in 1616; died in 1665. Beltrano, (Ottavio,) an Italian writer and publisher, who lived about 1650. Belurger, beh-liiR'zhi', (Claude,) a French professor of belles-lettres at the College of Navarre. Died about 1622. Be'lus, [Gr. B^/lof,] a mythical king of Phoenicia, re- garded as a son of Neptune and Libya, a brother of Agenor, and father of yLgyptus. He is by some writers identified with the Hebrew Baal, and in a mythic sense signifies the Sun. See GuiGNiAUT, " Religions de I'Antiquite," Paris, 1825-29, vol. ii. book iv. chap. iii. Be'lus or Bel, one of the first kings of Babylon, was the father of Ninus. He is sometimes confounded with the preceding. Belvedere, b^l-vi-da'ri, (Andrea,) an excellent Ital- ian painter of animals, fruits, and flowers, born at Naples about 1646; died in 1732. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Belvezen. See Belenvei. Belyai'd, bi'le-tR', (Simon,) a French poet, who lived about 1580, was a partisan of the League, and wrote against Henry HI. Belzoni, b^l-zo'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) a cele- brated traveller and explorer, born at Padua about 1778. In 1803 he visited England, where he married, and for several years gained a livelihood by exhibiting as an athlete. He possessed great muscular strength, and is said to have supported himself by performing the parts of Hercules and Samson. Having studied hydraulics in his youth, he sought in several foreign countries an opportunity to apply his knowledge of that science. Having travelled in Portugal, Spain, and Malta, accom- panied by his wife, they arrived in Egypt in 1815. One of his first antiquarian labours was the removal of the colossal head incorrectly styled the young Memnon, in which enterprise he was assisted by Mr. Salt, the British consul. With great difficulty it was shipped to England ; and it now forms one of the grandest ornaments of the department of Egyptian antiquities in the British Mu- seum. He soon after visited the temple of Ipsambool, which he was the first to open, and in 181 8 discovered in the valley of Beban-el-Molook a magnificent Egyptian tomb. He made drawings of the chambers and took impressions of the figures and hieroglyphics, which fac- simile he subsequently exhibited in London. This tomb also contained an alabaster sarcophagus, which Belzoni brought to England. He penetrated into the second pyramid of Gizeh, and discovered the ruins of the town of Berenice. On his arrival in England in 1819 he pub- lished a very interesting and well-written narrative of his discoveries. He set out in 1823 for Timbuctoo, in Africa, but died in Benin, after a short illness, in Decem- ber, 1823. See Belzoni, " Narrative of the Operations and Recent Discov- eries within the Pyramids, Temples, Tombs, and Excavations in Egypt and Nubia," London, 1820; "Household Words," vol. ii., 1851, (republished in the "Living Age," vol. xxix.;) C. L. Bkight- WELL, "Annals of Industry and Genius," 1863. Bern, bem, (Joseph,) a distinguished Polish gen- eral, born at Tarnow, in Galicia, in 1795. He served in the campaign of 1812 under Davoust, and about 1819 was made professor in a school of artillery at Warsaw. On the breaking out of the revolution of 1830, he be- came a major in the Polish service. Having joined the Hungarian patriots in 1848, he obtained command of an army, and defeated the Austrians in several battles. After the defeat at Temesvar he took refuge in Turkey, where he became a Mohammedan, and was made a pasha by the Sultan. Died in 1850. See Patakv, "Bem in Siebenbiirgen," 1850; N. N. Lajos, "Lc General Bem," Paris, 1S51. Be-mar'-ehi-us, [B??/iap,xwf,] a Greek sophist, born at Caesarea, in Cappadocia, about 320 a.d. He wrote a "I>ife of the Emperor Constantine," and other works, not extant. Bembo, b^m'bo, (Bernardo,) a Venetian senator and liberal patron of learning, born in 1433, ^'^^ father of the celebrated Cardinal Bembo. Died about 1520. Bembo, (Giovanni,) succeeded Marcantonio Memmo as Doge of Venice in 1615. Died in 1618. Bembo, (Pietro,) an Italian cardinal, celebrated for his learning, born at Venice in May, 1470. He studied Greek under Lascaris, and subsequently became a mem- ber of the academy of Aldus Manutius. In 1512 he repaired to Rome, where Leo X. appointed him his pri- vate secretary and bestowed upon him numerous eccle- siastical preferments. After the death of Leo he retired to Padua, where he formed a valuable library and a col- lection of rare medals. He was made a cardmal by Paul III. in 1539. He died in 1547. Among his principal works are a " History of Venice," (in Latin,) which he afterwards translated into Italian, (1552,) dialogues on the nature of love, entitled " Gli Asolani," and a number of Italian sonnets. His writings are all characterized by great elegance of style. Among his friends were the painter Raphael and Cardinal Bibbiena. His chief literary merit consisted in his being one of the restorers of pure Latinity. His collected works were published in Venice, in four volumes, 1729. "If some praise is due," says Hallam, "as it surely is, to the art of reviving that consummate grace and richness which enchants every successive generation in the periods of Cicero, we must place Bembo among the ornaments of literature in the sixteenth century." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") See Beccadelli, "Vita di P. Bembo;" J. de i.a Casa, "Vita Bembi ;" M. Battaggia, " Elogio del Cardinale Bembo," 1827; Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Auberv, " Histoire des Cardlnaux;" M azzuchelli," " Scrittori d'ltalia;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." B^me or Besme, bem, (Karl Dianowitz — de-S'no- ^its,) a Bohemian, notorious as the assassin of Coligny. He was killed by some Protestants at Saintonge in 1575. Bemetzrieder, ba'mets-ree'der, writer on music, born in 1747, resided in Paris, and subsequently in London. Bemmel, van, vin bem'mel, (Willem,) a Dutch landscape-painter of great merit, born at Utrecht in 1630. Having visited Italy and England, he established himself at Nuremberg. Died in 1708. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres F'lamands, Hollandais," etc. Bemmel, von, fon bem'mel, (Christoph,) a German landscape-painter, son of Peter, noticed below, born in 1707. Bemmel, von, (Joel Paul,) elder son of Johann Georg, born at Nuremberg in 1713, was a painter of landscapes and historical pieces. Bemmel, von, (Johann Georg,) a skilful German painter of landscapes and animals, born at Nuremberg in 1669, was a son of Wilhelm, noticed below. Died in 1725- See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." c as /6; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; § as z; *h as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 21 I B EMM EL 322 BENDLER Bemmel, von, (Johann Noah,) brother of Joel Paul, born dt Nuremberg in 17 16. His works include hunting- scenes, battles, animals, and portraits. Bemmel, von, (Karl Seisastian,) nephew of Chris- toph, mentioned above, born at Bamberg in 1743, painted landscapes, sea-pieces, and night and morning scenes, which are greatly admired and sought for. Died in 1796. See Jack, "Pantheon der Literaten und Kiinstler Bambergs." Bemmel, von, (Peter,) brother of Johann Georg, born at Nuremberg in 1685, painted landscapes, storms, and winter scenes with great effect. Died in 1754. Bemmelen, van, vtn bem'meh-len, (Abraham,) a Dutch writer on physical science, born in 1755, published " Elements of Experimental Physics," and other works. Died in 1822. Ben, hh\, (Sev,) a Polish Jew, born in 1763, was a good Hebrew scholar, and published a Hebrew Lexi- con. Died in Vienna in 181 1. Benaben, beh^nS'bdN', (Louis Guillaume Jacques Marie,) a French journalist and litterateur^ born at Tou- louse in 1774, was associate editor of '* La Minerve," and subsequently edited the " Gazette de France," a journal of Paris. Died in Paris in 1 83 1. Benaglio, ba-niKyo, (Girolamo,) an Italian painter, worked at Verona in the fifteenth century. Benaloazar, bi-nSl-ki'thaR, or Belarcazar, bi-laR- ki'th^R, (Sebastian,) a Spanish soldier, born in Estre- madura. In 15 14 he accompanied Pedrarias, governor of Darien, to South America, where he assisted Pizarro in the conquest of Peru. He was subsequently appointed governor of Popayan. Died in 1550. See Prhscott, "History of the Conquest of Peru ;" Touron, "Histoire generale de I'Amerique." Benamati, bi-na-mi'tee, (Guido Ubaldo,) an Italian poet, born at Gubbio. Among his works is an epic poem, "The Naval Victory," ("La Vittoria navale," 1640.) Died in 1653. Benard, beh-ntR', (Laurent,) a French Benedictine monk and writer, born at Nevers in 1573 ; died in 1620. Benary, ba'nd-ree, (Franz Ferdinand,) a German Orientalist, born at Cassel in 1805. He published in 1830 the Sanscrit poem of " Nalodaya," with a Latin translation and explanation. Benaschi,ba-nSs'kee,( Angela,) daughter of Giovanni Battista, by whom she was instructed in painting, was born in 1666. She excelled in portraits. (See next article.) Benaschi, written also Beinaschi, Benoschi, or Berneschi, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter, born at Turin about 1634, imitated the style of Lanfranco. Among his master-pieces are the frescos of the church of Santa Maria at Naples. Died about 1690. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Benavente, (Luis,) a Spanish poet, born at Toledo about 1630. Benavides, bi-ni-vee'o^s, (Alfonso,) a Spanish Franciscan monk, lived about 1600-40. Benavides, bi-ni-vee'd^s, [Lat. Benavid'ius,] (Mar- co,) surnamed Mantuano, (min-too-^'no,) an eminent Italian jurist and writer, born at Padua in 1489. He was created count palatine by Charles V., and was pro- fessor of law at Padua. He wrote a work entitled *' Polymathia," and legal treatises. Died in 1582. See A. RiccoBONi, "Oratio in obitum M. Benavidii," 1582. Benavides, (Vincent,) a painter, born at Oran, in Africa, settled in Spain, where he obtained the title of painter to Charles II. Died in 1703. Ben''a-ze-eli or Ben'e-ze-eh, (Charles,) an English painter and engraver, born about 1740, worked several years in Paris and Rome. Died in England in 1803. See Le Blanc, "Manuel de I'Amateur d'Estampes." Benazech, (Peter Paul,) an English engraver, born in London about 1744. Beu'bow, (John,) an English admiral of distinguished bravery, born in 1650, entered the service under James II., and was subsequently employed by William HI. In Au- gust, 1702, he had a severe engagement near Jamaica with a Fiench squadron under Ducasse ; but, after maintain- ing a running fight for more than four days, he was mortally wounded. He survived until November, 1702. See Smollett, "History of England;" Campbell, " Lives of the British Admirals." Benbow, (John,) a son of Admiral Benbow, was shipwrecked on the coast of Madagascar in 1701 or 1702. He was compelled to remain on that island several years. Benchaim, bgn-Ka''^m, (Abraham,) an Itahan rabbi, who published in 1488 an edition of the Bible which is said to have been the first printed in Hebrew. Benci, bSn'chee, (Francesco,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Acquapendente in 1542, wrote a number of treatises in elegant Latin. Died in 1594. Bencius, ben^she-us, [It. Benci, bgn'chee,] (Hugo,) called also Hugo oi< Sienna, an Italian physician, who translated several works from the Greek and Arabic medical writers. Died in 1448. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Bencivenni, b^n-che-ven'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian litterateur, born in 1731, wrote a "Life of Dante," and other works. Died in 1808. Benckert. See Benkert. Bencovich, bgn'ko-vik', (Friedrich,) an Austrian painter, sometimes called Federighetto di Dalmatia, lived in the early part of the eighteenth century. See Heinecken, "Dictionnaire des Artistes." Benda, b^n'dS, (Franz,) a German musician and ex- cellent violinist, born in Bohemia in 1709, became in 1771 concert-master to Frederick the Great. Died in 1788. Benda, (Georg,) brother of the preceding, born in 1 72 1, was patronized by Frederick the Great. He pro- duced several popular operas. Died in 1795. His son Friedrich Ludwig, a composer, was born in 1746. Died in 1792. Benda, (Johann Wilhelm Otto,) a relative of the preceding, born at Berlin in 1775, translated into Ger- man the works of Shakspeare and the poems of Sir Walter Scott. Died in 1832. Bendavid, bSn-dd'vit, (Lazarus,) a philosopher and mathematician, of Jewish extraction, born at 13erlin in 1762, was a disciple of Kant. He wrote, among other works, a treatise "On the Jewish Calendar," and several essays in defence of Kant's philosophy. Died in 1832. See his "Autobiography," (" Selbstbiographie,") 1804. Bendeler, bgn'deh-ler, or Bendler, bSnd'ler, (Jo- hann Christian,) a German landscape-painter, born in 1688 ; died in 1728. Bendeler, (Johann Philipp,) a German musician and writer on music, born near Erfurt about 1660; died about 1 7 12. Bendeler, (Salomon,) a German singer, born at Quedlinburg in 1683, is said to have possessed a voice of prodigious strength and compass. Died in 1724. See Fetls, " Biographie Universelle des Musiclens." Bendemann, benMeh-min', (Eduard,) a German painter, of Jewish extraction, born at Berlin in 1811, was a pupil of Schadow. Among his master-pieces may be named "The Jews by the Rivers of Babylon," "Jere- miah on the Ruins of Jerusalem," (a work of very large dimensions,) and the " Two Maidens at a Fountain." In 1838 he became professor at the Academy of Arts at Dresden. He afterwards decorated the royal palace at Dresden with many grand frescos, which are greatly admired. Some of these represent allegories, religious subjects, and portraits of the heroes and legislators of universal history. According to a French critic, he "is distinguished for a peculiar grace and a profound know- ledge of nature. He is one of the few painters of Dusseldorf who have succeeded equally in historical pictures and in genre." See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler- Lexikon." Bender, von, fon b^n'der, (Blasius,) Baron, a medi- ocre Austrian general, born in Breisgau in 1 713. He obtained the chief command in Belgium in 1790. Died in 1798, Bendinelli, b^n-de-nel'lee, (Agostino,) an Italian musical composer, born at Lucca about 1550 ; died about 1620. Ben'dish, (Bridget,) daughter of General Ireton, and granddaughter of Oliver Cromwell, born about 1650, was noted for her energy of character and her eccentricities. She is said to have strongly resembled Cromwell, both physically and morally. Died in 1727. Bendler. See Bendeler. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ij, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; BENDLOWES 323 BENEDICT Bendlowes, bgnd'16z, or Benlowes, (Edward,) an English poet, born in Essex in 1602, published a num- ber of poems in Latin and English. Died in 1676. See Wood, "Athenas Oxonienses." Bendonsky, ben-don'skee, (Symon Symonowicz,) a Polish poet, born in Galicia in 1557, assumed the name of Simon IDES. He wrote elegant poems in Latin and Polish. Died in 1629, Bendtseu, bent'sen, (Bendt,) a Danish scholar, born at Copenhagen in 1763. He was director of the college of Frederiksburg, and published several works. Died in 1830. See J. N. Madvig, " Mindeord over B. Bendtsen," 1831. Benecke, ba'neh-keh, (Georg Friedrich,) a Ger- man philologist, born in the principality of Oettingen in 1762. He wrote " Contributions to the Knowledge of the Old German Language and Literature." Pie was professor and librarian in the University of Gottingen. Died in 1844. .See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Benedek, von, fon ba^ieh-d^k', (Ludwig,) an Aus- trian general, born at Oedenburg, in Hungary, in 1804. He served as colonel in the war against the Italians in 1848-49. Having been raised to the rank of general, he fought against the Hungarian patriots in 1849. He obtained in June, 1866, the command of the grand Aus- trian army of about 200,000 men, with which he was expected to conquer Prussia. Remaining on the defen- sive in Bohemia, he permitted the two Prussian armies to cross a range of mountains and to effect a junction with each other' at Sadowa, where, on the 3d of July, 1866, Benedek was defeated in a battle which decided the issue of the war. The victors took more than one hundred pieces of cannon, and 21,471 prisoners. Benedette, Le. See Castiglione, (Giovanni.) Benedetti, ba-na-def'tee, or Benedicti, bi-ni-d^k'- tee, (Alessandro,) an Italian physician, whose medical and anatomical works had a high reputation in his time. He settled at Venice in 1495. Died after 15 10. Benedetti, (Antonio,) an Italian Jesuit and anti- quary, born at Fermo in 171 5, was professor of rhetoric in the Jesuits' College at Rome. Died in 1788. Benedetti, (Domenico,) an Italian physician, and professor of anatomy at Venice, lived about 1740. He wrote, besides medical works, several poems and dramas. Benedetti, (Francesco,) an Italian dramatic poet, born at Cortona in 1785, wrote several tragedies, and a "Life of Cola di Rienzo," (1831.) Died in 1821, See TiPAi.DO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Benedetti, (Giovanni Battista,) an able Italian mathematician, born at Venice, was a ]:)upil of Tartaglia. He published in 1585 a remarkable work, entitled "Di- vers Speculations of J. B. Benedetti," (" J. B, Benedicti diversse Speculationes.") He made many discoveries in mathematics, and advanced many sound ideas in physical philosophy. Died in 1590. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Benedetti, (Giulio Cesare,) an Italian medical writer, born at Aquila, was professor of medicine at Rome. Died in 1656. Benedetti, (Matteo,) an Italian painter, born at Reggio about 1650. He painted frescos at Brescia. Benedetti, (Michele,) an Italian painter and en- graver, born at Viterbo in 1745, was a member of the Academy of Vienna. Died in 1810. Benedetti, bi-ni-det'tee, (Vincent,) born in Corsica about 1815, was appointed by the French government minister to the kingdom of Italy in 1861. Benedetti, de', dk ba-na-det'tee, (Domenico,) an Italian historical painter, born in Piedmont in 1610; died in 1678. Benedetti, de', (Pietro,) an Italian poet of the early part of the sevanteenth century, born at Genoa, trans- lated eight of the Odes of Horace into Italian verse. Benedetto. See Benedict. Benedetto. See Jacopone. Benedetto. See Marcello. Benedetto da Majano, bi-ni-det'to di mi-yi'no, a Florentine sculptor and architect, born in 1444 ; died 1498. £ee Vasari, " Lives of the Painters and Sculptors." Benedetto da Rovezzano, bi-ni-det'to di ro-vh si'no, an Italian sculptor, born near P^lorence abou. 1480; died about 1550. Ben'e-dict I., [Lat. Benedic'tus ; It. Benedf:tto, bi-ni-det'to ; Fr. BENOi r, beh-nwi',] surnamed Bono'- sus, became pope in 575 a.d. Under his rule the Longo- bards extended their conquests in Italy, and threatened Rome. Died in 578. Benedict II., a native of Rome, succeeded Leo II. as pope in 684. He prevailed upon Constantine IV. to re- nounce the usurped right of confirming papal elections. He died in 685, and was succeeded by John V. Benedict III., successor of Leo IV., was elected pope in 855. He was distinguished for his piety and mildness of character. He died in 858, and was suc- ceeded by Nicholas I. Benedict IV. succeeded John IX. in 900 a.d. The following year he crowned as sovereign of Itah' Louis, son of the King of Provence. He died in 903, and was succeeded by Leo V. Benedict V. was made pope in 964, in opposition to Leo VIII.; but the Emperor Otho I. of Germany, who favoured the cause of Leo, reduced Rome by famine, and exiled Benedict to Hamburg, where he died in 965. Benedict VI. was elected in 972 successor of John XIII. After the death of Otho I., the Romans re- belled against Benedict and put him to death, (974.) Benedict VII. succeeded Benedict VI. in 975. He assembled a council and excommunicated the anti-pope Boniface. Died about 984. Benedict VIII. became pope in 1012. His claims were supported against the anti-pope Gregory by Henry II., whom he crowned at Rome in 1013. He signally defeated the Saracens, who had invaded Tuscany. He died in 1024, and was succeeded by John XIX. Benedict IX. (Theothylac'tus of Tusculum) was the successor of John XIX. in 1034. His vices and op- pressive rule caused him to be expelled by the Romans in 1044, and Silvester III. was made pope in his stead. The date of his death is not known. Benedict X., a native of Capua, succeeded Stephen IX. in 1058, though not regularly elected. He was com- pelled to give up the tiara to Nicholas II. in 1059. Benedict XL, (Niccolo Boccasini — bok-ki-see'- nee,) Cardinal of Ostia, was a native of Treviso, and succeeded Boniface VIII. in 1303. He died in 1304, and was succeeded by Clement V. Benedict XII. (originally Jacques Fournier — fooR'- ne-a',) was a native of France, and succeeded John XXII. in 1334. He was the third pope who reigned at Avignon. He laboured zealously to reform the clergy and the monastic orders, and was the author of several ecclesiastical works. He died in 1342, and was suc- ceeded by Clement VI. See A. DE MoNTOR, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes Romains." Benedict XIII., Cardinal Orsini, succeeded Inno- cent XIII. in 1724. He was distinguished for his private virtues and his pacific disposition, and did much to pre- serve peace among the sovereigns of Europe. He died in 1730, and was succeeded by Clement XII. See Alessandro Borgia, "Vita Benedicti XIII.," 1741 : Mi- chael Ranft, " Lebensbeschreibimg des Papstes Benedict XIII.," 1743; Clemente da Cruz, "Vida do Benedicto XIII.," 1739. Benedict XIV., Cardinal Prospero Lambertini, born at Bologna in 1675, succeeded Clement XII. in August, 1740. His talents were of a high order, and he was profoundly versed in theology, history, and classical literature. He founded acadeinies at Rome, built a number of public edifices, and was a munificent patron of learning and the arts. He died in 1758, leaving the reputation of one of the most learned, prudent, and re- spectable pontiffs who have ever lived. He was the author of several esteemed religious works in Latin. He was succeeded by Clement XIII. See Fabroni, "Vitadi Benedetto XIV.," 1787; "VieduPape Benoit XIV," Paris, 1775; F. Galiani, "Delia Lodi di Papa Benedetto," 1758. Benedict XIII., (Anti-pope,) Pedro de Luna, (pa'dRoda loo'ni,) was born in Aragon about 1334. He was elected pope at Avignon in 1394, but his title wa^ disputed by Boniface IX., who reigned in Rome. This e as ^; 5 as J ; g hard; g as j; g, h, Vi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^^See Explanations, p. 27 ^ BENEDICT 324 BENGER schism caused great perplexity in the church for many years. At length, in 141 5, the Council of Constance de- posed both of the popes. Died in 1424. Beu'e-dict or Benoit ok Aniane, (S'ne'Sn',) Saint, born in Languedoc about 750, became abbot of the mon- astery of Aniane. Died in 821. See Baillet, "Vies des Saintes." Benedict of Appknzell, (dp'p^nt-sSK,) an eminent Swiss musician and contrapuntist, born at Appenzell about 1480. His works are eulogized by Dr. Burney and Fetis. See Burney, "General History of Music." Benedict, surnamed Bis'cop, an Anglo-Saxon monk, and a noted promoter of learning, of the seventh cen- tury, built the monasteries of Wearmouth and Jarrow. Benedict [Fr. Benoist, beh-nwa'] of Peterbor- ough, an English chronicler, became abbot of Peterbor- ough in 1 1 17. He wrote a History of Henry H. and Richard I., and a "Life of Becket." See " Biographia Britannica." Benedict, ba'neh-dikt, (Julius,) a German composer and pianist, born at Stuttgart in 1804. Among his prin- cipal works are the operas of " The Brides of Venice," "The Assassins," and "The Gypsy's Warning." Ben'e-dict, [Lat. BenediCtus ; Fr. BenoIt, beh- nwa' ; It. Benedetto, ba-n^-det'to ; Sp. Benito, bi- nee'to,] Saint, a celebrated Italian ecclesiastic, regarded as the founder of the monastic system in the West, was born at Nursia, near Spoleto, in 480 a.d. He founded an establishment at Monte-Casino, near Naples, about 529, and instituted as the rule of his order, in addition to reli- gious duties, various kinds of manual labour, the instruc- tion of the young, and the transcription of valuable manu- scripts. He was the author of a work entitled " Regula Monachorum," containing the rules of the order of Saint Benedict. Died in 543. See Juan de Castaniza, " Vida de S. Benito," 1583 ; J. B. Plan- CHETTE, "Vie du grand S. Benoit," 1652: Anton Sulgrr, "Vita divi Benedict!," 1601 ; J. G. Waitzmann, " Leben und Wirken des heiligen Benedict," 1825. Benedict, (Traugott Wilhelm Gustav,) a German medical writer, lived at Breslau about 1820. Beuedicti. See Benedetti. Ben-e-dic'tis, de, (da,) (Ben. Tetius,) an Italian canonist, surnamed Capra, (kd'pRa,) lived about 1440. Benedictis, de, (Giamhattista,) an Italian Jesuit, born about 1620. He wrote a number of polemical treat- ises against the philosophy of Descartes and against the Jansenists. Died in 1706. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Benedictis, (Jacob.) See Jacopone da Todi. Benedictus. See Benedict. Ben-e-dic'tus, or Benoit, a learned Maronite, whose original name was Ambarach, born in Phoenicia in 1663. He studied at Rome, and subsequently became professor of Hebrew at Pisa. Died in 1742. Ben-e-dic'tus, (John,) a Polish physician, who pub- lished in 1530 a work in Latin on the sweating-sickness. Benediktov, ben-e-dik'tof, (Vladimir,) a Russian poet, published in 1835 collection of lyrics, which ob- tained great popularity. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Benedix, ba'neh-diks, (Julius Roderich,) a German dramatist and litterateur, born at Leipsic in 1811. Benefiale, ba-ni-fe-i^a, or Beneficiale, bi-na-fe- chi'li, (Marco,) Chevalier, an Italian painter, born at Rome in 1684; died in 1764. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Ben'e-field, (Sebastian,) an English Calvinistic di- vine, born in Gloucestershire in 1559, became professor of divinity at Oxford in 1613. He published numerous sermons and commentaries on Scripture. Died in 1630. Beneke, ba'neh-keh, (Friedrich Eduard,) a Ger- man philosopher, born in 1798 at Berlin, where he be- came professor extraordinary of philosophy in 1832. He published "Psychological Sketches," (1825-27,) "Prag- matic Psychology," (1850,) and other works. He was found in 1856, drowned in a canal; and it is supposed he died by suicide. Benekendorf, b§n'eh-ken-doRf, (Karl Friedrich,) a German writer, born in Brandenburg in 1720, published several popular works on political and rural economy. Died in 1788. Benese, de, de ben-eez', (Richard,) an English ec- clesiastic, who wrote a treatise on mensuration, (1535.) Beneton de Morange de Peyrins, beh-neh-t6N' deh mo'riNzh'deh p.VrdN^, (S itenne Claude,) a French litterateur, published a "History of War," (1741.) Died in 1752. Benetti, bi-net'tee, (Giovanni Domenico,) an Italian physician, born in 1658 at Ferrara, where he became a professor in the university. He was physician to the Duke of Mantua, and wrote a work entitled "Corpus Medico-Morale," (1718.) Benevento or Benevent, Prince of. See Talley- rand. Benevoli, bi-n^v'o-lee, (Antonio,) an Italian sur- geon and skilful oculist, born in the duchy of Spoleto in 1685, published treatises on the cataract and on hernia. He practised at Florence, where he died in 1756. Benevoli, (Orazio,) an Italian musican and com- poser, born at Rome in 1602 ; died in 1672. Benezech, bi^na'zek', (Pierre,) born at Montpellier in 1745, became minister of the interior under the Di- rectory in 1795, and afterwards a counsellor of state. Died in 1802. See Challan, " filoge liistorique de P. Benezech," 1803. Ben^e-zet', (Anthony,) an eminent philanthropist, born at Saint-Quentin, in France, in 1713, was the son of Protestant parents. He joined the Society of Friends, emigrated to Philadelphia in 1731, and became a school- teacher. He was a zealous opponent of the slave-trade, and a benefactor of the negroes, for whom he opened an evening school. He wrote on the slave-trade and slavery several tracts, which, it is said, first drew the attention of Clarkson and Wilberforce to that subject. Among his writings is " Some Historical Account of Guinea, with an Inquiry into the Slave-Trade," (1771.) He was dis- tinguished for his generosity and active kindness to the poor and suffering wherever found. Died in 1784. See Vaux, "Memoir of Anthony Benezet." Benfatto, bgn-fat'to, (Luigi,) an Italian painter, sur- named IL Friso, (^1 fRee'so,) born at Verona in 1551, was a nephew and pupil of Paul Veronese. Died about 1641. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Benfey, hhV{\, (Theodor,) a German philologist, born near Gottingen in 1809. He published a "Dic- tionary of Greek Roots," (1839,) which obtained the Volney prize from the French Academy of Sciences ; also an edition of the hymns of Sama-Veda, with a translation and glossary, and translated the comedies of Terence. His " Sanscrit-English Dictionary" (London, 1866) is highly esteemed. See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." Beng, b6N, or Bengy, bSN'zhe', (Antoine,) a French jurist, succeeded Cujas as professor of law at Bourges in 1595. Died in 1616. Bengel, bgng'el, fLat. Benge'lius,] (Johann Al- brecht,) an eminent Lutheran theologian, born at Win- nenden, in Wiirtemberg, in 1687. Having finished his studies in the theological college at Tubingen, he was employed for many years as pastor at Denkendorf, and about 1749 became prelate at Alpirsbach. His edition of the (jreek Testament, published in 1734, is esteemed a standard work. He also wrote a treatise on the holi- ness of God, entitled "Syntagma de Sanctitate Dei," " Gnomon Novi Testanienti," " Explanation of the Reve- lation of Saint John," (in German, 1740,) and other works of a high character. Died in 1752. See "Memoir of the Life and Writings of J. A. Bengel," trans- lated from the German; J. P. Fresenhjs, "Zuverlassige Nachricht von dem Leben nnd den Schriften J. A. Bengals," 1756; J. C. F. BuRic, "Dr. J. A. Bengel's Leben imd Wirken," 1831. Bengel, von, fon b^ng'el, (Ernst Gottlieb,) grand- son of Johann Albrecht, noticed above, born in 1769, became professor of theology at Tiibingen. Died in 1826. Benger, beng'ger, (Miss Elizabeth Ogilvy,) an English authoress, born at Wells, in Somersetshire, in 1778. She published poems, novels, and dramas; but she owes her reputation chiefly to her historical and biographical works, among which are " Memoirs of Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia ;" " Memoirs of a, e, T, o, u, y, long; \, h, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, \\, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, f^ll, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moAn; BENGTSON BENNET Mary Queen of Scots ;" and " Memoirs of Klopstock and his Friends." Miss Benger was an intimate friend of Mrs. Barbauld, Joanna Baillie, and Mrs. E. Hamilton. Died in 1827. Bengtson, bengt'son, (Johan,) Archbishop of Upsal, in Sweden, born in 141 7; died in 1467. Ben-ha'dad [Heb. nn-p] King of Syria, was contemporary with Asa, King of Judah, whom he as- sisted in repelling the invasion of Baasha, King of Israel. See I. Kings xv. 20. Beuhadad IL, son of the preceding, made war on Ahab, King of Israel, and besieged Samaria. He was afterwards murdered by Hazael, who succeeded him on the throne of Syria, See II. Kings vi. 24; viii. 7-15. Beuhadad III., King of Syria, was the son of Hazael. He carried on a war against Jehoahaz, King of Israel. See II. Kings xili. 3. Benif ba'nee, (Paolo,) a scholar and critical writer, born in the island of Candia about 1552, was successively professor of theology at Perugia, of philosophy at Rome, and of belles-lettres at Padua. Died at Padua in 1625. See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Ginguene, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Be-nig'nus, [Fr. Benigne, bi'n^n',] SaTxNT, supposed to have been a disciple of Polycarp, was sent on a mis- sion to Gaul, and suftered martyrdom at Dijon about 179 A.D. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historiqiie." Benincasa, ba-n^n-ki'sS, (Bartolommeo,) Count, a literary Italian nobleman, born near Modena about 1745 ; died about 1825. He published, in French, " Les ^Iorlaques," (1788,) and founded a journal in Dalmatia. Benincori, bi-n^n-ko'ree, (Angelo Maria.) an Ital- ian musician and composer, born at Brescia in 1770; died in 1821. Beninga, bi-ning'ni, (Eggerik,) a Dutch historian, wrote a "Chronicle of East Friesland." Died in 1562. Benini, bi-nee'nee, (Vixcenzo,) an Italian physician and litterateur, born at Bologna in 1713 ; died in 1764. Beuiowsky or Benyowsky, bi-ne-ov'skee, (Mau- ritius Augustus,) Count, a Hungarian nobleman and adventurer, born in the county of Neutra in 1741. He served in the Seven Years' war, and in 1768 joined the Polish confederation against the Russians. Being taken prisoner, he was exiled in 1770 to Kamtchatka, whence he effected his escape to France in 1772. He was soon after sent by the French government to establish a col- ony in Madagascar; but, having claimed the sovereignty of that island, he was killed in an encounter with the ! French in 1786. See M. A. Bemowskv, " Voyages et Memolres," 2 vols,, 1791, and English version of the same, by W. Nicholson. Benit, beh-ne', (Anne FRANgois,) a French physician, born at Mirecourt in 1796 ; died in Spain in 1823. Benito. See Benedict, (Saint.) Benivieni, bi-ne-ve-a'nee, (Antonio,) a learned i Italian physician, was a friend of Marsilio Ficino and Politiano. Died in 1502. Benivieni, (Domenico,) brother of the preceding, an Italian ecclesiastic, born at Florence, was surnamed Scottino (skot-tee'no) from the subtlety of his theology. He became, in 1479, professor of dialectics at Pisa. He was a warm friend of Savonarola, and wrote in defence of his doctrines. Died in 1507. See Mazzl'Chelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Benivieni, (Geronimo,) brother of the two preced- ing, born at Florence about 1453. He was a friend of Savonarola, and translated from Latin into Italian his "Treatise on the Simplicity of Christian Life," (1496.) He was one of the first Italians who discarded the low and trivial taste which prevailed in the fifteenth century and returned to the standards of Dante and Petrarch. He published in 1500 "II Commento di leronimo Beni- vieni.'' Died in 1542. See GiNGLEN^. ' Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." _Ben'ja-min, [Heb. p'^'j:;,] youngest son of the pa- triarch Jacob and Rachel. He was the favourite of his father, who reluctantly permitted him to accompany his brothers to Egypt. (See Genesis xlii., xliii., xliv.) Benjamin of Tudela, a Jewish rabbi and traveller born in the kingdom of Navarre. He visited, between 1 1 60 and 1 1 73, Egypt, Persia, and the frontiers of China, which countries he describes in his "Itinerary." This work has been translated into several languages, and is interesting as being the first description of those regions given by a European. See Cakmoly, " Notice sur B. de Tudele et ses Voyages," 1837. Ben'ja-min, (Judah P.,) an American politician, of Jewish parentage, born in Saint Domingo about 1812. He studied law, which he practised with success in New Orleans. In 1852 he was elected a United States Senator for Louisiana, and re-elected in 1858 or 1859. In politics he was a Democrat and disunionist. He was secretary of war at Richmond from about September, 1861, to Feb- ruary, 1862, when he became secretary of state to the Southern Confederacy. He retired to Europe soon after the capture of Jefferson Davis, May, 1865. Benjamin, (Park,) an American poet and journalist, born in 1809 at Demerara, in Guiana, where his father was engaged in trade. He studied at Harvard, and graduated at a college of Hartford, Connecticut. He edited the "American Monthly Magazine" of New York in 1837 and 1838. In 1840 'Mr. Benjamin and R. W. Griswold began to publish a literary journal, called "The New York World." He wrote numerous lyrical poems and sonnets. His longest work is entitled a " Poem on the Meditation of Nature." "Many of his pieces," says Griswold, "are distinguished for poetical simplicity of thought and elegance of diction." (" Poets and Poetry of America.") Died in 1864. Benkendorf, ben'ken-doRf, (Karl Friedrich,) a German writer on agriculture and rural economy. Died in 1788. Benkendorf, (Ludwig Ernst,) a German general, born at Anspach in 171 1. He served in the Seven Years' war, and became in 1775 inspector-general of cavalry. Died in 1801. Benk'en-dorff; (Alexander,) Count, a Russian general and diplomatist, born in Esthonia about 1782. He served in the Russian campaigns against the French, and became aide-de-camp to the grand duke Nicholas, afterwards emperor. After the accession of Nicholas he was made a count, and a member of the imperial council. Died in 1844. See Brockh.'KUS, " Conversations-Lexikon." Benkendorff, (Constantine,) brother of the pre- ceding, born in 1784, served against the French in 1813- 14, and subsequently in the Persian campaign of 1826, when he was made lieutenant-general. He died soon after. Benkert or Benckert, b^nk'kert, (Johann Peter,) a German sculptor, born at Neustadt in 1709. He adorned with his works the royal palace of Sans-Souci, in Prussia. Died in 1769. Benkowitz, b§n-ko'vits, (Karl Friedrich,) a Ger- man writer of novels, poems, etc., born in 1764, com- mitted suicide at Glogau in 1807. Benlowes. See Bendlowes. Benn, (\Villiam,) an English dissenting divine, born in Cumberland in 1600 ; died in 1680. Bennati, ben-n§.'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian physi- cian, born at Mantua in 1788, wrote medical treatises, one of which gained the Montyon prize of the French Institute. Died in Paris in 1834. Ben'net, (Benjamin,) an English nonconformist di- vine, born in Leicestershire in 1674, published a " Me- morial of the Reformation," (1721,) and other works. Died in 1726. Eennet, (Christoppier,) an English physician, born in 161 7 ; died in 1655. He practised in London. Bennet, (Henry,) Earl of Arlington, an English statesman under Charles II., born in 1618. He was ap- pointed secretary of state in 1662, and was one of the ministry styled "the Cabal," from the initials of their titles forming that word. On the accession of James II. he was continued in the office of lord chamberlain, which he had previously held. Died in 1685. See M.^C.A.ULAv's "History of England, vol. i. Bennet, (John,) a celebrated English composer ol madrigals, lived under the reign of Queen Elizabeth. C as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, guttural ; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^="See Explanations, p. 23.) BEN NET 326 Bennet, (Robert,) an English dissenting divine, wrote a "Theological Concordance of the Synonymous Words in Scripture," (1657.) Died in 1687. Bennet, ben'net, (Roelof Gabriel,) a Dutch naval officer and writer, born about 1774, published, in conjunc- tion with Van Wyk, a " History of the Navigation of the Netherlands from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries." Died in 1829. Bennet, (Thomas,) an English divine and controver- sialist, born at Salisbury in 1673, published a "Refuta- tion of Popery," "Treatise on Schism," a Hebrew Grammar, and other works. Died in 1728. See "Biographia Britannica." Bennet, (William,) an English musician and com- poser, born about 1767, became organist of the church of .Saint Andrew's at Plymouth. His sacred composi- tions are highly esteemed. Ben'nett, (Agnes Maria,) an English novelist, was the author of "Anna, or Memoirs of a Welsh Heiress," and other works. Died about 1805. Bennett, (Edward Turner,) an English zoologist and writer, born near London in 1797 ; died in 1836. Bennett, (James,) an English dissenter, born in 1774. He wrote (with David Bogue) a " History of the Dis- senters," (3 vols., 1809.) Died in 1862. Ben'nett, (James Gordon,) an American journalist, born in Banffshire, Scotland, about 1800, emigrated to the United States in 1819. He was employed as re- porter or assistant editor of several journals of New York City, and took an active part in politics as a sup- porter of General Jackson. About 1830 he became associate editor of the " Courier and Enquirer," and in 1833 was chief editor of "The Pennsylvanian," in Phila- delphia. He founded in 1835 the "New York Herald," which he has conducted with great ability and success for thirty-four years. Bennett, (John Hughes,) an English medical writer, born in London in 1812. He obtained about 1848 the chair of the institutes of medicine in Edinburgh. He published a "Treatise on Clinical Medicine," (1856,) and other works. Bennett, (William Cox,) an English poet, born at Greenwich about 1820. He published several volumes of poems, and gained distinction as a writer of songs. Bennett, (William James Early,) an English theo- logian, and a leader of the tractarian party, was born about 1805. He became vicar of Frome about 1852. He published, besides other works, a "Treatise on the Eucharist." Bennett, (William Sterndale,) an English pianist and composer, born in 1816. Having studied at the Royal Academy of Music, he visited Germany, where he acquired the friendship and patronage of Mendelssohn. In 1838 he was elected a member of the Royal Society of Music. Benning, bgn'ning, (John Bodecher — bo'deK-er,) a Dutch philosopher and poet, born in 1606, was pro- fessor of philosophy at Leyden. Died in 1642. Benningsen, b^n'ning-sen, written also Bennigsen, (Alexander Levin,) Count, a German politician, a son of General Benningsen, noticed below, was born near Wilna in 1809. He was minister of foreign aftairs of Hanover from March, 1848, until October, 1850. Benningsen, written also Bennigsen, (Levin Au- gust Theophil,) Count, a celebrated military com- mander in the Russian service, born at Brunswick in 1745. He fought in the Turkish campaign of 1788, and against the Poles in 1793. In 1796 he took Derbend from the Persians, and was made lieutenant-general in 1798. Though he headed the conspiracy against the emperor Paul, he was appointed by Alexander, on his accession, Governor-General of Lithuania. He com- manded in 1807 at the battle of Eylau, where the victory was claimed by both parties. On the death of Kootoosof, in 1813, he took the command of the army of reserve, and was soon after created a count. Died in Hanover in 1826. See "Nouvelle Biographia Generale." Ben'no, fFr. Bennon, bcVn^N',] Saint, Bishop of Meissen, in Germany, born in loii, was at first a parti- san of Henry IV. against Gregory VII., but afterwards BENSEN espoused the cause of ^hc pope. Luther wrote on the subject of his canonization (in 1523) a work entitled "The New Idol of Meissen." Died in 1107. See " Leben und Wundertliaten des heiligen Benno," 1844. Ben'nor or Ben'no, a German cardinal, who lived in the last part of the eleventh century, supported the cause of the anti-pope Clement HI. against Gregory VII. He wrote a "Life of Gregory VII.," (in Latin,) which is very unpopular with the Catholics. See AuBERY, " Histoire des Cardinaux." Benoist, beh-nwi', or Benoit, [Lat. Benedic'tus,] Bishop of Marseilles, lived about 1230. Benoist (or Benedict) of Saint-Maure, (mor,) a troubadour in the reign of Henry II. of England, wrote a poem called "The Romance of Troy." "The Chroni- cle of the Dukes of Normandy" (in French verse) is ascribed to him by some critics. See Abbe de la Rue, " Essais sur les Bardes." Benoist, (Marie Guilhelmine Leroux Delaville — leh-roo' deh-lt'v^K,) Madame, wife of Pierre Vincent, noticed below, born in Paris in 1767, studied painting under Lebrun and David. Among her best works are portraits of Napoleon and Marie Louise. Died in 1826. Benoist or Benoit, beh'nwa', (Pierre Vincent,) a French statesman and litterateur^ born at Angers in 1758, rose to be minister of state and member of the privy council in 1828. Died in 1834. Benoist, [It. Benedetto, ba-ni-det'to,] (Zacharie,) a naval officer, of Genoese extraction, gained two vic- tories over the fleet of Pisa in 1284 and 1286. He after- wards became an admiral of France. Benoit. See Benedict. Benoit, beh''nwa', (Antoine Vernier — v^R'ne-S.'',) a Yvench. litterateur, born at Dole in 1769, wrote a "Treat- ise on Religious Liberty," and was a contributor to the " Bibliotheque Historique." Died in 1832. Benoit, (Elie,) a French Protestant theologian, born in Paris in 1640, wrote a " History of the Edict of Nantes," (1693,) and other works. Died in 1728. Benoit, (Jean,) called also Benedicti, a French theologian and Dominican, was born at Evreux. He wrote "Introductions to Dialectics," (" Introductiones Dialecticas," 1538.) Died in 1563. Benoit, (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Carcas- sonne in 1632, wrote a "History of the Albigenses and the Waldenses." Died in 1705. Benoit, (Michel,) a learned French Jesuit, born at Autun in 171 5. In 1745 he was a missionary to China, where he introduced the reflecting telescope, the ?rt of engraving, and other useful inventions. Died in 1774. See " I,ettres edifiantes et curieiises." Benoit, (Pierre Vincent.) See Benoist. Benoit, (Rene,) a French theologian, born near An- gers in 1521. He published in 1566 a French translation of the Bible, which was condemned by Pope Gregory XIII. as favouring Protestantism. He was subsequently confessor to Henry IV., who appointed him Bishop of Troyes. Died in 1608. See MoRERi, "Dictionnaire Historique." Benoli, ba'no-lee, (Ignazio,) called IL Borno, an Italian painter, born at Verona. He imitated Rubens, whose works he copied, but with reduced dimensions. Died in 1724. Benomont, beh-no'm(l)N', (Pierre,) a rich French physician and philanthropist, born at Machault in 1679. He practised in Paris, where he died in 1772. Benoni. See Ruffini. Benoschi. See Benaschl Benouville, beh-noo'v^K, (Francois Leon,) a French historical painter, born in Paris in 1821. He gained the grand prize in 1845, and a medal of the first class in 1853. Among his most admired works are "Judith," " Esther," and " Raphael seeing La Fornarina for the First Time." Benouville, (Jean Achille,) a landscape-painter, brother of the preceding, born in Paris in 1 81 5. He obtained the grand prize of Rome in 1845. Benozzo. See Gozzoli. Bensen, ben'sen, (Karl Daniel Heinrich,) a Ger- man writer, born in 1761, was professor of financial science at Wiirzburg, where he died in 1805. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, \x, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; BENSERADE 327 BENTINCK Benserade, de, deh bdNss^nSd' or b6N''seh-Rtd'', (Isaac,) a French poet, born in Upper Normandy in 1612, was a favourite of Cardinal Richelieu, and acquired great popularity at the court of Louis XIV. by his sprightly and brilliant verses. During twenty years he was employed to compose verses for the ballets, which at that time constituted the favourite diversion of the court. In such performances he displayed great ingenuity and finesse, and was unrivalled among his contemporaries. He also wrote several tragedies, elegies, sonnets, etc. He was a member of the French Academy. Died in 1691. See Senece, "Histoire du Theatre Fran9ais;" C. Perkault, " Paralleles des Anciens at des Mc^ernes. " Bensi, ben''see, (Bernardo,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Venice in 1688, was professor of moral theology at Venice. Died in 1760. Bensi or Benso, b§n'so, (Giulio,) an Italian painter, born near Genoa in 1601, excelled in painting architec- tural perspectives. Died in 1668. Bens''ley, (Thomas,) a celebrated English printer, was associated with Konig in the construction of the steam press first used in the printing of the " London Times" in 1814. (See Konig.) Bensley published a splendid edition of Shakspeare's Works, and of Hume's "History of England." Died in 1833. See Nichols, "Literary Anecdotes," etc. Ben'spn, (George,) an English dissenting divine, born in Cumberland in 1699, originally a Calvinist, after- wards became an Arian. He wrote, among other works, a "History of the Life of Christ," and a "Treatise on Prayer." Died in 1763. Benson, (Joseph,) an English Methodist minister, born in Cumberland in 1748. He preached in several large towns of England, and acquired extensive influence. He published a "Defence of the Methodists," (1793,) an "Apology for the Methodists," (1801,) a "Life of the Rev. John Fletcher," a number of Sermons, and a " Com- mentary on the Holy Scriptures," (5 vols., 1811-18,) which is highly esteemed. " He was," says Adam Clarke, " a powerful and able preacher, and a profound theologian." Died in London in 1821. Benson, (Martin,) born in Herefordshire in 1689, became Bishop of Gloucester about 1734. Died in 1752. Benson, (William,) sometimes called Auditor Ben- son, an English Whig politician, born in 1682, was a member of Parliament in the reign of George I. He published an edition of Virgil's " Husbandry," with notes, and was the first to propose the erection of a monument to Milton in Westminster Abbey. Benson is satirized in Pope's "Dunciad." Died in 1754. Bent, van der, vtn der bint, (Jan,) a Dutch painter born at Amsterdam in 1550, was a pupil of Wouwerman and Van der Velde. Died in 1690. BentaboUe, bSN'tt'boK, (Pierre,) a French Jacotin, became a meml)er of the National Convention and of the Council of Five Hundred. Died in 1798. Bent-Aichah, bent-I'kah, daughter of Ahmed, an Arab poet of Cordova, was celebrated for her poetic talent. Died in 1009. Bentham, bin'tam, (Edward,) an English divine, born at Ely in 1707, became professor of divinity at Ox- ford. Died in 1776. Bentham, (James,) an English divine and antiquary, born at Ely in 1708. He published a "History and An- tiquities of the Conventual and Cathedral Church of Ely from 675 to 1771." Died in 1794. Bentham, bSn'tam or bin'tham, (Jeremy,) a cele- brated English jurist and utilitarian philosopher, was born in London on the 15th of February, 1748, He entered Queen's College, Oxford, about the age of four- teen, and studied law, but soon declined the practice of that profession. His motive is said to have been disgust at the unjust charges to suitors. His first pub- lication was an anonymous " Fragment on Government," (1776.) He visited Paris, Constantinople, Smyrna, and White Russia in 1785-86. In 1787 he published a "Defence of Usury," which, says Sir J. Mackintosh, "is perhaps the best specimen of the exhaustive discussion of a moral or political question, leaving no objection, however feeble, unanswered." His "Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation," though printed in 1780, was not published until 1789. He devoted his life to the reform of legislation, and maintained the theory that " utility is the test and mea- sure of virtue," — that the happiness of the greatest num- ber should be the object of legislation. In his long war- fare against the iniquities of legislation as he found it, he was ridiculed and denounced as a lunatic by many of the leaders of public opinion in England. His works were first appreciated by foreigners. About 1791 he formed a friendship with M. Dumont, who became to him a val- uable coadjutor and translated into French several of his works, viz., "Treatise on Civil and Penal Legisla- tion," (" Traite de Legislation civile et penale," 3 vols., 1802,) and "Theory of Penalties and Rewards," ("The- orie des Peines et des Recompenses," 2 vols., 1818.) These were first published in French. (See Dumont, Etienne.) Among his numerous English works are " Panopticon," a valuable work on prison-discipline, (1791,) "The Ra* tionale of Judicial Evidence," (5 vols., 1827,) and a " Con- stitutional Code." His "Traite de Legislation," etc. (1802) was translated into English by R. Hildreth, Bos- ton, (1840.) "Those who read it," says Lord Jeffrey, " will dissent, we should imagine, from many of the au- thor's fundamental principles; but they will infallibly be delighted with the sagacity and independence which dis- tinguish all his speculations." He died at Westminster on the 6th of June, 1832, having retained to a great age the freshness and serenity of his prime. An edition of his works, in eleven volumes, was published by Dr. Bow- ring in 1843. "Of Mr. Bentham," says Macaulay, "we would at all times speak with the reverence which is due to a great original thinker and to a sincere and ardent friend of the human race. . . . Posterity will pronounce its calm and impartial decision, and that decision will, we firmly believe, place in the same rank with Galileo and with Locke the man who found jurisprudence a gib- berish and left it a science." " In some of the highest de- partments in which the human intellect can exert itself, he has not left his equal or his second behind him." " Never was there a literary partnership so fortunate as that of Mr. Bentham and M. Dumont. The raw mate- rial which Mr. Bentham furnished was most precious, but it was unmarketable. He was assuredly at once a great logician and a great rhetorician. But the effect of his logic was injured by a vicious arrangement, and the effect of his rhetoric by a vicious style. . . . His oracles were of high import, but they were trace'd on leaves and flung loose to the wind. . . . M. Dumont was admirably qualified to supply what was wanting in Mr. Bentham." (See " Dumont's Recollections of Mirabeau," in Macau- lay's Essays.) " It cannot be denied," says Mackintosh, " that Mr. Bentham has done more than any other writer to rouse the spirit of juridical reformation which is now gradually examining every part of law. . . . The true and eminent merit of Mr. Bentham is that of a reformer of jurisprudence. He is only a moralist with a view to being a jurist." See "Memoirs of Jeremy Bentham," prefixed to his works by Dr. Bowring ; " Edinburgh Review" for C3ctober, 1843 ; SiK James Mackintosh, "View of the Progress of Ethical Philosophy." Bentham, (Sir Samuel,) a brother of Jeremy, was born in 1757. He was a ship-builder and naval engineer, and was employed by the government as inspector of naval works. Died in 1831. Bentham, (Thomas,) born in Yorkshire about 15 13, was appointed by Queen Elizabeth in 1559 Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry. Died in 1578. Ben'tinck, (Lord George,) a political leader, whose full name was William George Frederick Cavendish Bentinck, was the third son of William Henry, fourth Duke of Portland. His mother, Henrietta Scott, was a sister of the wife of George Canning. He was born in February, 1802. In 1826 he became private secretary to his uncle Canning, then a member of the cabinet. He was elected in 1827 a member of Parliament for King's Lynn, which he represented to the end of his life. He was more remarkable for his passion for the turf than for his political knowledge or talents. About 1836 he deserted the Whigs, and became a political friend of € as ^; 5 as s; g hard; g as J; g, H, y.^ guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^=°See Explanations, p. 23.) BENTINCK 3z8 BENTLET Sir Robert Peel, whom he served efficiently as "whipper- in," urging and coercing absent members of his party to attend and vote on important questions. Like the ma- jority of the Tories, he was opposed to free trade, and on the repeal of the corn-laws, in 1846, was converted into a violent adversary of Peel. He then became the leader of the Protectionist or Tory party, who chose him in consideration of the energy and skill he had shown in his favourite pursuits. He began to study statistics, spoke often in the House, and maintained a spirited contest against the ministry. He died suddenly, of a disease of the heart, in September, 1848. See B. Disraeli, "Lord George Bentinck, a Political Biogra- phy," 1851; "Edinburgh Review," vol. xcv., 1852. Bentinck, (Henry,) son of William, noticed below, was created Duke of Portland in 1716, and became Governor of Jamaica in 1721. Died in 1726. Bentinck, (William,) a Dutch statesman, born in 1648, was a personal attendant and friend of William, ?rince of Orange, before his accession to the throne. He came to England with that prince in 1688, was cre- ated Earl of Portland in 1689, and served as general in Ireland in 1690. In 1697 he was the principal agent of his government in the negotiation of the treaty of Rys- wick. He is said to have possessed the confidence of William III. in a greater degree than any other person. Died in 1709. See Macaulav's " History of England," vols, ii., iii., and iv. Bentinck, (William Charles Cavendish,) Lord, a British general, born in 1774, was the second surviving son of William Henry, third Duke of Portland. Having served in many campaigns, he became Governor of Mad- ras in 1803, and was recalled about 1805. He was com- mander of the troops sent to aid Ferdinand, King of Sicily, in 1810, and held at the same time the office of plenipotentiary. He gave in 181 2 a liberal constitution to Sicily. In 1814 he led a successful expedition against the French in Italy, and took possession of Genoa. He was appointed Governor-General of India by Canning in 1827. In this position he showed himself a huiriane and enlightened governor. The most important act of his administration was the abolition of the Suttee — the custom which required widows to be burned on the funeral piles of their husbands — in 1829. Lord Bentinck resigned, on account of ill health, in 1835. Died at Paris in 1839. See Macfarlanh, "Our Indian Empire." Bentinck,( William Henry CAVENDisH,)thirdDuke of Portland, an eminent statesman, son of the second duke, born in 1738. He began his public life as a Whig, became Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland in 1782, and was prime minister of the new cabinet formed in 1783 by a coalition of Lord North with Mr. Fox. About 1791 he changed his politics and became a supporter of the Tory ministry. He was appointed first lord of the treasury in 1807. Died in 1809. Bentivoglio, b§n-te-v6Kyo, (Cornelio,) an Italian ecclesiastic and writer, born at Ferrara in 1668, was a son of Ippolito, noticed below. He became Archbishop of Carthage, and papal nuncio in France, and was made a cardinal in 1719. Died in 1732. See SisMONDi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes;" Long- fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Bentivoglio, (Ercole,) an Italian poet and diplo- matist, born about 15 10, wrote sonnets, eclogues, and dramatic works which were greatly admired in his time. Died in 1573. See GiNGUENE, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Bentivoglio, (Giovanni,) an Italian nobleman, and leader of the anti-papal party, was proclaimed sovereign of Bologna in 1401, but after a short rule was defeated and put to death. His son Antonio and his grandson Annibal were also rulers of Bologna. See SiSMONDi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Bentivoglio, (Giovanni II.,) rose to be sovereign of Bologna about 1462. After a rule of more than forty years, he was driven from the city by Pope Julius II. Died in 1508. Bentivoglio, (Guido.) an able writer and diplomatist, born at Ferrara in 1579, became successively Archbishop of Rhodes, papal nuncio in France and Flanders, and cardinal. He wrote an " Account of the War in Flanders," (1633, in Italian,) a volume of "Memoirs,'' (1648,) and a collection of "Letters." Died in 1644, See TiRABOscHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" Ginguene, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Bentivoglio, (Iitolito,) a lyric poet and dramatist, born at Ferrara; died in 1685. Sec SisMONDi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Bentkowski, bent-kov'skee, (Felix,) a Polish au- thor, born in 1 78 1, was professor of history at Warsaw. He published an important work, entitled a * History of Polish Literature," (2 vols., 1814.) Died in 1852. Bent'ley, (Gideon,) an American soldier of the Revolution, born in 1751 ; died in Oswego county, New York, in 1858, aged one hundred and seven years. BentTey, (Sir John,) a British admiral, was knighted for his conduct in an action off Cape Saint Vincent abou'- 1760. Died in 1772. Bentley, (Richard,) a celebrated critic, regarded as the greatest classical scholar that England ever produced, was born at Oulton, in Yorkshire, on the 27th of January, 1662. He entered Saint John's College, Cam- bridge, in 1676, and in 1683 became tutor to Dr. Stil- lingfleet's son, whom he accompanied to Oxford. His first publication was a " Latin Epistle to John Mill, containing Critical Observations on the Chronicle of Joannes Malala," (1691,) which procured him a high Eu- ropean reputation. In 1692 he was honoured with the first appointment to the Boyle lectureship, and chose for his subject the absurdities of atheism. These lectures were much admired, and reached the sixth edition in 1735. He became keeper of the Royal Library in 1693, and chaplain-in-ordinary to the king in 1695. In 1697 he produced his celebrated "Dissertation on the Epistles of Phalaris," in which he affirmed those epistles to be spurious. On this subject he was involved in a contro- versy with Charles Boyle, Atterbury, Pope, Swift, and other wits, who attacked his personal character with as- perity. He replied in another " Dissertation on the Epistles of Phalaris," in 1699. "It was," says Hallam, " the first great literary war that had been waged in Eng- land. Both combatants were skilfid in wielding the sword : the arms of Boyle, in Swift's language, were given him by all the gods ; but his antagonist stood for- ward in no such figurative strer.gth, master of a learning to which nothing parallel had been known in England ; . . . with a style rapid, concise, amusing, and superior to Boyle in that which he had chiefly to boast, a sarcastic wit." Posterity has decided that Bentley was victorious in this affair. He was appointed master of Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1700, and Archdeacon of Ely in 1701. He became involved in a long contest and lawsuit with the Fellows of Trinity College, in relation to which he is censured for his arrogant and arbitrary conduct. Having been elected regius professor of divinity in 1 71 7, he gave great dissatisfaction by the demand of illegal or unusually large fees from candidates for the degree of D.D. For this offence the senate of the university deprived him in 1718 of all his degrees ; but he was restored by a mandamus of the court of king's bench about 1724. He published an excellent edition of Horace, (1711,) and an edition of Terence, (1725,) which is called one of his best perform- ances. His ill-judged attempt to improve the text of Milton's great poem gave much offence to the admirers of that poet. His last work was an edition of Homer, which, however, he did not live to finish. Died in July, 1742. Bentley's daughter was the mother of Richard Cumberland the dramatist. See Monk's "Life of Bentley," 1830; Hartley Coleridge, "Lives of Distinguished Northerns;" " Encyclopasdia Britannica ;" " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1830; "London Quarterly Review" for November, 1831. Bentley, (Richard,) son of the preceding, wrote a comedy entitled "The Wishes," and several other works. Died in 1782. Bentley, (Robert,) an English botanist, born about 1820, became professor of botany in London, and wrote a "Manual of Botany." Bentley, (Thomas,) a nephew of the famous Richard Bentley, was a Fellow of Trinity College. He published an edition of Cicero " De Finibus" in 1718. Bentley, (William,) an American Unitarian minister 1, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; BENTON 329 BERANGER and antiquary, born in Boston in 1758, was ordained pas- tor of a church at Salem in 1783. He wrote a History of Salem." Died in 1819. Ben'tpn, (Thomas Hart,) an American Senator, born at or near Hillsborough, North Carolina, on the 14th of March, 1782. Having removed to Tennessee in early youth, he studied law, and began to practise at Nashville about 181 1. In 1812 he commanded a regiment under General Jackson, with whom he quarrelled. Jackson attempted to strike Benton with a horsewhip at Nash- ville in 1813, and was severely wounded with a pistol by Benton's brother. Colonel Benton settled at Saint Louis, Missouri, in 181 5, and began to publish a political paper. He was elected a Senator of the United States by the legislature of Missouri in 1820. He acted with the Dem- ocrats, became a supporter of General Jackson, and the most prominent politician of Missouri. Having been re-elected to the Federal Senate in 1826, he distinguished himself as an advocate of a gold and silver currency, and received the sobriquet of Old Bullion. He supported President Jackson in his hostility against the United States Bank. About 1832 he was again chosen to repre- sent Missouri in the Senate of the United States, of which he continued to be a member for a period of thirty years. He was a political friend of President Van Buren, voted for the annexation of Texas to the United States in 1845, and opposed Calhoun on the subjects of nullification and State rights. In 1850 he made a speech against Clay's compromise bill. In consequence of a division in the Democratic party in relation to slavery, Mr. Benton was defeated as a candidate for the office of Senator about the end of 1850, and retired from the Senate in March, 1851. He was elected a member of the national House of Rep- resentatives in 1852, and opposed the repeal of the Mis- souri Compromise. In 1856 he was supported by one section of the Democracy as candidate for Governor of Missouri, but was not elected. He advocated the elec- tion of Buchanan to the Presidency in 1856, in preference to Fremont, who was his son-in-law. He published a voluminous work entitled "A Thirty Years' View, or a History of the Working of the American Government for Thirty Years, from 1820 to 1850," (2 vols., 1854-56,) and "An Abridgment of the Debates of Congress from 1789 to 1856," (15 vols., 1857.) He died at Washington in April, 1858. Benton, (William P.,) an American lawyer and gen- eral, born in Maryland, emigrated to Indiana. He be- came a brigadier-general of the Union army in 1862. Bentzel-Steinau, von, fon bent'se! st^R'now, (An- SKLM Franz,) a German statesman, born in 1738, was counsellor to the Elector of Mentz. Died in 1784. Bentzel-Sternau, von,(CHRisTiAN Ernst,) Count, a German statesman and writer, born at Mentz in 1767, became minister of state and finance in the grand duchy of Frankfort, (1812.) He published " The Stone Guest," ("Der Steinerne Gast,") "The Golden Calf," and other popular satirical romances. Died in 1850. See Brockiiaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Bentzen, bent'sen, or Bentzon, (Adrian Benoni,) a Norwegian litteratejir, born at Tonsberg in 1777. Benvenuti, ben-vi-noo'tee, (Carlo,) an Italian ma- thematician and Jesuit, born at Leghorn in 1716. He wrote, in Latin, a " Synopsis of General Physics," and translated into Italian Clairault's " Elements of Geom- etry." Died in 1789. Benvenuti, (Giuseppe,) an Italian physician and medical writer, born in the duchy of Lucca about 1728. Benvenuti, (PiEi RO,) an eminent Italian painter, born at Are/.zo in 1769. He was regarded by some as the best painter of Tuscany in his time. His design is cor- rect and his style elevated. His chief work is a series of frescos of prophets and evangelists on the dome of the chapel of Medici at Florence. Among his other works is " The Woman of Samaria." Died at Florence ui 1844. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Benvenuto, bSn-vi-noo'to, (Giovanni Battista,) cilled Ortolano, an Italian painter of the school of I errara, born about 1480 ; died in 1525. Benvenuto Cellini. See Cellini. Benvoglienti, bgn-v6l-ySn'tee, (Uberto,) an Italian litterateur and patron of learning, born in 1668; died in 1733- Benyowsky. See Beniowsky. Benzel, bent'sel, [Lat. Benze'lius,] (Eric,) born about 1632, was made, in 1700, Archbishop of Upsal by Charles XII. He superintended the Swedish transla- tion of the Bible published by order of Charles XII., and wrote several religious works. Died in 1709. See JoHAN EsBERG, "Libri in E. H. Benzelii Tuniukim," 1712. Benzel, [Lat. Benzelius,] (Eric,) son of the preced- ing, born at Upsal in 1675, became successively Bishop of Gothenburg and of Linkoping, and Archbishop of Upsal. He was one of the founders of the Academy of Sciences at Upsal, and wrote several valuable histori- cal and antiquarian works. Died in 1743. See Olof Dai.in, " Aminnelse-Tal bfver E. Benzelius," 1744. Benzel, (Henry,) brother of Eric, mentioned above, born at Strengnas in 1689, was one of the savants sent by Charles XII., in 1714, on a scientific expedition to the East. He was made Archbishop of Upsal after his return. His journal of his travels is still in manuscript. Died in 1758. See M. Asp, " Likpredikan ofver H. Benzelius med Personalier," 1758. Benzel-Sternau. See Bentzel-Sternau. Benzenberg, bent'sen-blRc', (Johann Friedricii,) a German mathematician and astronomer, born near Elberfeld in 1777. He wrote, among other works, a " Maiuial of Geometry," (1810,) and a treatise "On Falling Stars," (1839.) Died in 1846. Benzi, ben'zee, (Massimiliano Soldano,) a painter and engraver of medals, born at Florence in 1658. Eenzio, ben'ze-o, (Trikone,) an Italian diplomatist and poet, born at Assisi, lived in the latter part of the sixteenth century. He was secretary to Pope Julius HI., and was employed on several missions. Benzon, ben'zon, (Friedricii Wilhelm Karl,) a Danish historian, born at Kioge in 1791. Benzoni, b^n-zo'nee, (Geronimo,) an Italian travel- ler, born about 1520, spent many years in America, of which he gave an account in a work entitled "History of the New World," (1565.) Beolco, bi-oKko, or Biolco, be-oKko, (Angelo,) an Italian dramatic poet, born at ]\idua in 1502, was sur- named Ruzzante, from the number of rustic farces he composed. Died in 1542. Beorn. See Biorn. Beowulf, be-o'woolf, a semi-fabulous naval hero of Denmark, who forms the subject of a celebrated epic poem in Anglo-Saxon, supposed to have been written in the ninth century. It has been translated into English and German. See Turner, "History of the Anglo-Saxons." Bequet, bi'kcV, (^ itenne,) an able French journalist and critic, born in Paris about 1800. He wrote for the "Journal des Debats" for fifteen years. In 1830 he was prosecuted and acquitted for a political article ending with these words: " Unfortunate France ! unfortunate king !" which were afterwards often rej^eated. Died in 1838. Berain, beh-rdN^ (Jean,) a French designer, born at Saint-Michel in 1630 ; died in 1697. Berain, (Pierre Martin,) a French historian, lived about 1 7 10. Beranger, h\'xh^'z\\\' , (Charles,) a French painter of landscapes and genre, born at Sevres in 1816. Beranger, de, deh \A'\bWz\A' , (Pierre Jean,) a cele- brated French lyric poet, born in Paris on the 19th of August, 1780. He lived with his grandfather, who was a tailor, until he was nine years old, after which he went to reside with an aunt, who appears to have acted towards him the part of a true mother, and, while giving him the rudiments of an education, instilled into his mind the principles calculated to make him a good man and a true patriot. For a short time he served as apprentice to a printer. When he was about sixteen, he began to write poetry. Several of his lyrics attracted the attention and procured for him the patronage of Lucien Bonap^irte, and in 181 5 he brought out his first collection of songs. They were received with great favour by the people ; but their bold, patriotic, and often satirical tone gave offence to the government ; and, as Beranger in his succeeding € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; g, H, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BERARD 330 productions abated nothing of the freedom of his satire, he was coiidemued in 1828 to an imprisonment of nine months and a heavy line. He was an ardent repubhcan. After the revolution of 1830, which his poems had con- tributed to bring about, he refused to accept any office under the government. He brought out in 1833 a fifth collection of his songs, leaving memoirs of his life and a number of poems, which were published after his death. In 1848 he was elected to the Constituent Assembly by the voters of the department of Seine, but he de- clined to serve. He died in July, 1857. He is repre- sented as a man of a generous, noble, and independent character. *' His style," says J. F. Destigny, " has a limpidity, precision, and purity which defy criticism. All ordinary eulogy {loiiange baiiale) would cast a shade upon his glory." (" Nouvelle Biographic Generale.") " The great peculiarity of Beranger," says the " Quar- terly Review" for January, 1832, "is the mixture of gayety and pathos which he combines with the happiest effect. He indeed mingles * the grave and gay, the lively and severe,' with a very original and singular felicity." See a posthumous work of Beranger, entitled "Ma Blographie," 1857; BoiTEAU, " Philosophie et Politique de Beranger," 1858; Sa- vinien-Lapointe, " Memoires sur Beranger," 1857; Longfellow, *' Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1833 ; Louis de Lomenie, " Notice sur Beranger," 1844. Berard, ba'rtR', (Auguste,) an eminent French sur- geon, born at Varrains, near Saumur, in 1802. He was the founder of the Societe de Chirurgie of Paris. In 1842 he obtained the chair of surgical diniqiie in Paris. He published a number of able treatises on surgery. Died in 1846. Berard, (Auguste Simon Louis,) born in Paris in 1783, became master of requests to the Council of State in 1814, and founded (with Chaptal) the first company for the production of illuminating gas. He was a liberal member of the Chamber of Deputies in 1827-30, and took a pro- minent part in the revolution of 1830 as a partisan of Louis Philippe. Died in 1859. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Berard, (Fr6d6ric,) a French physician and medical writer, born at Montpellier in 1789, was a contributor to the " Dictionnaire des Sciences medicales" of Paris. Died in 1828. See J. A. DuPAU, "Notice historique sur F. Berard," 1828. Berard, (Pierre,) a French pharmacist and botanist, born at Grenoble about 1630. He wrote a work entitled "Theatrum Botanicum," (unpublished.) The genus Be- rardia was named in his honour. Berard, (Pierre Honor6,) a distinguished French surgeon, brother of Auguste, born at Lichtenberg in 1797. He became in 1831 professor of physiology to the faculty of medicine in Paris, and was subsequently elected to the Academy of Medicine. He began the publication of a "Course of Physiology," (ist vol., 1848.) Died in 1858. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Berardi, ba-raR'dee, (Angelo,) an Italian musician and composer, born near Bologna about 1650, wrote several treatises on music. Berardi, (Fahio,) an Italian engraver, born at Sienna in 1728, was one of the most distinguished pupils of Wagner. Berardier de Bataud, ba'rtR'de-i' deh bt't5', (Francois Joseph,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1720 ; died in 1794. Berardo, ba-raR'do, (Geronimo,) an Italian writer, born about 1 500, translated two of the comedies of Plautus. Beraud, ba'ro', (Antoine,) a French litterateur, born at Aurillac in 1 794. He wrote dramas, political songs, etc. Beraud, (Jean Jacques,) a French savant, born near Castellane in 1753, was professor of mathematics and experimental physics at Marseilles. Died in 1794. Beraud, (Laurent,) a French Jesuit and astronomer, born in 1703 at Lyons, where he was director of the observatory. He published several valuable scientific works. Died in 1777. See Le FfeBVRE, "filoge historique du P. L. Beraud," 1780. Beraudiere, de la, deh It bi''r5Me-aiR', (Franqois,) Bishop of Perigueux, born at Poitiers, wrote a " P'uneral Oration on Henry IV." Died in 1646. BERCHEURE Berauld, bi'ro', (FRANgois,) a French scholar, son of Nicolas, noticed below, born at Orleans about 1510. He wrote Greek and Latin poems, and translated the two books of Appian containing the wars of Hannibal and those of Spain. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Berauld, [Lat. Berai/dus Aure'lius,] (Nicolas,) an eminent French scholar and writer, born at Orleans in 1473. was a friend of Erasmus, and numbered among his pupils D'Andelot and Admiral de Coligny. He published a Greek-Latin Dictionary (1521) and an edition of Pliny's "Natural History," (1516,) and wrote several Latin treatises. Died in 1550. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Berault, ba'rS^ (Claude,) a French philologist, suc- ceeded D'Herbelot as professor of the Syriac language in the Royal College in Paris. He published an edition of " Statius ad Usum Delphini," (1685.) Died in 1705. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Berault, (Jean,) a French litterateur, translated Bar- clay's "Euphormio" from the Latin, (1640.) Berault, (Josias,) a French jurist, and advocate of the parliament of Rouen, born in 1563, wrote a "Com- mentary on the Common Law of Normandy." Died about 1640. Berault, (Michel,) a French Protestant theologian, published in 1598 a "Brief and Clear Defence of the Vocation of the Ministers of the Gospel," in reply to Cardinal Perron. He preached at Montauban. Berault-Bercastel, ba'ro' hhK'\ott ixwd litteratettr, horn in Paris in 1787, was professor in a college at Brussels. Bergery, bCRzh'Re', (Claude Lucien,) a French ma- thematician, and professor of mathematics in the School of Artillery at Metz, born at Orleans in 1787. He pub- lished "Geometry applied to Industry," (1835,) and "Elementary Astronomy," (1832.) Berghaus, b^Rc/hows, (Heinrich,) an eminent Ger- man geographer, born at Cleves in 1797. He was ap- pointed in 1816 geographical engineer in the war depart- ment at Berlin, and in 1824 professor of niathematics in the Academy of Architecture. Among his numerous and excellent works are his "Physical Atlas," (with ninety maps, 1838,) an oro-hydrographic map of France, charts of Asia and Africa, "Elements of Geography," (1842,) " Ethnography," (1846,) and "The Nations of the Globe," ("Die Volker des Erdballs," 1845.) He also published a German edition of Catlin's " Lidians of North America." See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." Berghe, van den, vSn den b^R'neh, (Thomas,) a Flemish physician, born at Dixmude about 161 5, wrote a treatise on the plague of 1669. Berghem,b§Rc/hem, (Nikolaas,) an excellent Dutch landscape-painter, whose original name was Van Haer- lem, was born at Haarlem in 1624. He was a pupil of Van Goyen, Jan Wils, and Weeninx. He had great executive facility, painted with equal success landscapes, animals, and figures, and gave a fine finish to his works without impairing the general effect. His works are ex- tremely numerous, and present a great variety of subjects. Their peculiar charm results partly from a graceful and easy touch, a harmonious colouring, and a natural com- position. He also left designs and etchings of remark- able beauty. Died at Haarlem in 1683. "The delicate degradation of his aerial perspective," says Bryan, "the light floating of his skies, and the transparence of his water, have never been surpassed by any Dutch painter." See Bryan, " Dictionary of Painters;" Nagler, " Neues AUge- meines Kiinstler- Lexikon." Bergier, b§R'zhe-4', (Claude Francois,) a French jurist and litteratetir^oxn at Darnay, in Lorraine, in 1721. He translated Ferguson's " Essay on Civil Society," and other English works, into French. Died in 1784. Bergier, (Nicolas,) a French writer, born at Rheims in 1567, published, among other antiquarian works, a valu- able " History of the Great Roads {grands chemins) of the Roman Empire," (1622.) Died in 1623. See Bayi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Bergier, (Nicolas Sylvestre,) a French scholar and theologian, born at Darnay in 1718, was a brother of Claude Fran9ois, noticed above. He wrote several able treatises in defence of the Christian religion against the attacks of Voltaire, Rousseau, and Baron Holbach, and made a translation of Hesiod, (1767,) which is highly esteemed. Died in Paris in 1790. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Ber'gi-us or Berg, beRg, (Bengt,) a Swedish botan- ist, born at Stockholm in 1723, wrote a "Treatise on Luxuries," and other works. i3ied in 1784. See ScHOENBERG, "Aniinnelse-Tal ofver B. Bergins," 1785. Bergius, (Peter Jonas,) brother of the preceding, was a pupil of the celebrated Linnjeus, and became pro- fessor of natural history at Stockholm. Linnaeus named in his honour the genus Bergia. Born about 1 730; died in 1790. See Olof Svvar'tz, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver P. J. Bergius," 1822. Bergk, b^Rk, (Theodor,) a German linguist and clas- sical scholar, born at Leipsic in 181 2, became professor of philosophy at Marburg in 1842, and at Freiburg in 1852. He published an edition of Anacreon, (1834,) and " Poetae Lyrici Grseci," (1843.) Bergklint, b^Rk'lint, (Glaus,) a Swedish poet of the latter part of the eighteenth century, wrote an " Ode on Adversity," which is very ]:)opular in Sweden. Bergier, beRc'ler, (Joseph,) a statuary and painter, born in the Tyrol in 1718, worked at Vienna, Passau,and Prague. Died in 1788. Bergier, (Joseph,) a German painter, son of the pre- ceding, born at Salzburg in 1753. He executed a series of pictures illustrating the history of Bohemia. Died in 1829. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler- Lexikon." Bergier, (vStephen,) a distinguished philologist, born at Cronstadt, in Transylvania, about 1680. He contri- buted a number of articles to the "Acta Eruditorum" and " Bibliotheca Grajca," and edited several Greek and Latin classics. Died at Constantinople in 1746. See Sax, " Onomasticon." Bergman or Bergmann, bSRc'min, (Torbern Olof,) a celebrated Swedish chemist and naturalist, born at Catherinberg, in West Gothland, in March, 1735. He studied at Upsal, and devoted himself chiefly to natu- ral history, physics, and mathematics. Li 1 761 he was appointed adjunct professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Upsal, where he succeeded Wallerius as professor of chemistry in 1766 or 1767, after which he gave almost exclusive attention to chemistry. He first discovered that fixed air was an acid, and wrote a me- moir entitled "On the Aerial Acid," (1774.) He ascer- tained the distinctive characters of nickel, analyzed many mineral substances with great accuracy, and published a classification of minerals, in which the grand divisions are founded on the chemical nature of the substances. By the application of geometry to the forms of crystals, he laid the basis of crystallography, which was developed by Haiiy. " His researches," says Biot, " have placed Bergman in the first rank of chemists." His theory of Elective Attractions, on which he published an essay, (1775,) was admired, and considered as an important contribution to science. He was a member of the Royal Societies of London, Berlin, Turin, etc. He wrote a € as 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, gzUtiiral; N, 7iasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2!^="See Explanations, p. 23.) BERG MANN 334 BERKELEY *• Physical Description of the Earth," (2 vols., 1770-74,) an " Essay on the Forms of Crystals," a thesis on " Astro- nomical Interpolation," (1758,) and many other works, published under the title of "Opuscula Physica et Chim- ica," (6 vols., 1779-90.) He was an early patron of Scheele the chemist. Died at Medevi in 1784. See P. F. AuRiviLLius, "Aminnelse-Tal ofver T. O. Bergmann,'' 1785; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgenieine Encyklopaedie ;" Biot, arti- cle in the " Biographie Universelle ;" Peter J. Hjelm, "Aminnelse- Tal ofver T. O. Bergman," 1786; Hoefer, " Histoire delaChimie." Bergmann, b^Ro'min, (Gustav,) a German writer on Livonian history, etc., iDorn in 1744; died in 1814. Bergmann, (Joseph,) a German Jesuit and naturalist, born at Aschaffenburg in 1736, became professor of physics and natural history at Mentz. He published several scientific works. Died in 1803. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Bergmann, (Michael Adam,) born at Munich in 1733, wrote contributions towards the " History of Mu- nich," (1780.) Died in 1783. Bergmiiller, b^RG^mul'ler, (Johann Georg,) a Ger- man engraver, born in Bavaria in 1687, became director of the Academy at Augsburg. Died in 1762. Bergoeing, b^R^gwiN', (Francois,) born at Saint- Macaire in 1755, was a member of the French National Convention, and voted for the imprisonment of Louis XVI. Died in 1820. Bergon, b^R'goN', (Joseph Alexandre,) Count, a French statesman, born at Mirabel in 1 741, rose to be councillor of state under Napoleon. Died in 1824. Bergonzoni, bgR-gon-zo'nee, (Lorenzo,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1646, was a pupil of Guer- cino. Died in 1722. Bergstrasser, b^Ro'stR^s-ser, (Johann Andreas Be- NiGNUS,) an eminent German naturalist, born at Idstein in 1732, was professor of philosophy at Hanau. Among his works is a " Description, with Figures, of all the Diur- nal Butterflies of Europe," (1759.) Died in 1812. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Berigard, beh-re^gtR', (Pierre,) a relative of the following, born at Florence, lived about 1620. He trans- lated the "Aphorisms" of Hippocrates into verse. Berigard, de, deh beh-re'gtR^, or Beauregard, b5R^- gtR', (Claude Guillermet,) Seigneur, a French mathematician, born at Moulins about 1591, became pro- fessor of philosophy at Pisa. Died in 1664. See NiCKRON, "Memoires." Bering. See Behring. Beringer, ba'ring-er, (Diephold,) a fanatical German peasant, also called Peringer and Shuster, born about 1490, gained notoridty by preaching against the pope. Beringer, (Joachlm,) a German Protestant theologian, lived between 1600 and 1650. He assumed the name of Joachim Ursinus. Beringer, (Johann Bartholomaus Adam,) a Ger- man physician and naturalist, born about 1680, published several works. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Beringer, (Michael,) a German philologist, born at Uhlbach in 1566, was professor of Hebrew at Tubingen. Died in 1625. See W. ScHiCKARD, "Vita M. Beringeri," 1627. Beringhen, de, deh beh-riN^gSw', (Jacques Louis,) Marquis, born in Paris in 165 1, was first groom of Louis XIV. He served with distinction as an officer of cavalry. Died in 1723. Ber'ing-ton, (Joseph,) an English Catholic historian, born in Shropshire about 1750, f ublished a " Literary History of the Middle Ages," (1814,) one of the best works on that subject ; and a " History of the Reign of Henry II. of England and his Sons," (1790.) Died in 1827. See Butler, " Historical Memoirs of the English, Irish, and Scottish Catholics," etc.; "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1814. Beriot, de, deh bi,'re'o', (Charles Auguste,) a cele- brated Belgian violinist, born at Louvain in 1802, suc- ceeded Baillot as professor at the Conservatory of Music in Paris, (1842.) He had married in 1836 the famous vocalist Madame Malibran. Died in 1870. See F^Tis, "Biographie Universelle des Musicians;" Fayolle, " Paganini et Beriot," 1831. Berkel, van, vtn b^r'kel, [Lat. Berke'lius,] (Abra- HAM,) a Dutch philologist, born at Leyden about 1630, published editions of the "Enchiridion" of Epictetus, and other classics. Died in 1688. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Berkeley, berk'le, (Francis Henry Fitz-Har- dinge,) a liberal English legislator, a younger son of the fifth Earl of Berkeley, born in 1794. He has repre- sented Bristol in Parliament since 1837, and has gained distinction as an advocate of the mode of voting by ballot. Berkeley, (George,) an English bishop and meta- physical philosopher of great merit, was born at Kilcrin, near Thomastown, Ireland, on the 12th of March, 1684, He became a Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, in 1707, and established his reputation as a philosopher by "An Essay towards a New Theory of Vision," (1709.) In 1710 he published a remarkable work, "The Principles of Human Knowledge," in which he maintained his celebrated theory of idealism, affirming that there is no proof of the existence of matter anywhere but in our own perceptions. In 17 13 he visited London, where he became intimate with Addison, Pope, Swift, Arbuthnot, and Steele, and wrote several essays for the " Guardian." In 1718 Mrs. Vanhomrigh (Swift's "Vanessa") left Berkeley a legacy of ^^4000. He was appointed Dean of Derry in 1724, before which he had been chaplain to the Duke of Grafton. He published in 1725 a " Proposal for Converting the Savage Americans to Christianity," and wished to found a college in America for that object, for which he raised a large sum of money by subscrip- tions. He also received a grant or promise of ;i^20,ooo from government, and, having married a Miss Anne Forster, sailed to Rhode Island in 1728. On this subject he wrote a short poem, ending with these lines : "Westward the course of empire takes its way; The four first acts already past, A fifth shall close the drama with the day : Time's noblest offspring is the last." He preached about two years in Newport, but was com- pelled to abandon the project of the college because the ministry failed to send the funds, and he returned to Eng- land. He defended religion against infidels and skeptics in his "Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher," (1732,) a dialogue on the model of Plato. He was chosen Bishop of Cloyne in 1734, and about 1745, in order to set a shining example to churchmen, refused the See of Clo- gher, the revenue of which was twice as great as that of Cloyne. Among his later works are "The Analyst," addressed to an infidel mathematician, (1735,) '^"^ "A Word to the Wise," (1749.) He removed to Oxford in 1752, and died there in January, 1753. " Berkeley," says Dr. Johnson, " was a profound scholar as well as a man of fine imagination." " Ancient learn- ing, exact science, polished society, modern literature, and the fine arts," says Sir J. Mackintosh, " contributed to adorn and enrich the mind of this accomplished man. All his contemporaries agreed with the satirist [Pope] in ascribing 'To Berkeley every virtue under heaven.' Adverse factions and hostile wits concurred only in lov- ing, admiring, and contributing to advance him, . . . His works are beyond dispute the finest models of philo- sophical style since Cicero. Perhaps they surpass those of the orator in the wonderful art by which the fullest light is thrown on the most minute and evanescent parts of the most subtle of human conceptions." (" View of the Progress of Ethical Philosophy.") See " Life of Berkeley," by Dr. Stock, prefixed to his works, 1784; also G. N.Wright, "Life of George Berkeley," prefixed to his works, 184,^; Cousin's French version of Tennemann's " Geschichte der Philosophie ;" " Encyclopjedia Britannica." Berkeley, (George,) an English divine, son of the preceding, born in London in 1733, became prebendary of Canterbury. Died in 1795. Berkeley, (George,) E.\rl of, published " Histori- cal Applications and Occasional Meditations on Several Subjects." Died in 1698. Berkeley, (George Ch.\rles Grantley Fitzhar- dinge,) an English writer, son of the Earl of Berkeley, born in 1802. He published, in 1836, a novel called " Berkeley Castle." Berkeley, (Maurice Frederick Fitz-Hardinge,) a, e, 1, o, tj, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obsaire; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; BERKELEY 335 BERNADOTTE M.P., a naval officer, second son of the fifth Earl of Berke- ley, born in 1788. He became a vice-admiral in 1857. Berkeley, (Rev. Miles Joseph,) an English natural- ist, born at Biggin about 1803, published botanical treat- ises, among which is " Gleanings of British Algce." He is distinguished as a mycologist. Berkeley, (Sir William,) born near London, was appointed Governor of Virginia in 1641, took sides with Charles I. in the civil war, and maintained the royal au- thority in Virginia until the death of the king. He sub- mitted to Cromwell in i65i,and then retired from office. In 1659 he again became Governor of Virginia, He is censured for his cruelty towards the insurgents whom his tyrannical conduct provoked to revolt. (See Bacon, Nathaniel.) He once said, " I thank God there are no free schools nor printing-presses in Virginia." Died in England in 1677. See " Eiicyclopasdia Americana." Berkeley, (Sir William,) a British vice-admiral, born about 1640, served against the Dutch under the Duke of York, and was killed in a naval engagement in 1666. Berkeley, de, (Thomas,) an English baron, was owner of Berkeley Castle, in which Edward H. was con- fined and murdered in 1327. He was not, however, ac- cessary to that crime. Berkely, berk'le, (George Henry Frederick,) an English general, born in 1785, served in the Peninsular war, and subsequently represented Devonport in Parlia- ment. Died in 1857. Berken, written also Berquen, de, deh beR^kgn, (Louis,) a lapidary of Bruges, discovered in 1476 the art of cutting and polishing diamonds. Berkenhead. See Birkenhead. Ber'ken-hout, (John,) an English physician, of Dutch extraction, born at Leeds about 1730, graduated at Ley- den in 1765. He published "Outlines of the Natural History of Great IJritain and Ireland," (1769,) " Bio- graphia Literaria," (1777,) and a "Botanical Lexicon." Died in 1791. Berkeny. See Bercheny, Berkheiden or Berkheyden, b^Rk'hfdSn, (Ge- rard,) a Dutch painter, born at Haarlem about 1645, excelled in architectural pictures. Died in 1693. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Berkheiden, sometimes written Breckberg, (Job,) brother of the preceding, born at Haarlem about 1632, painted landscapes and portraits with skill. Died about 1695. Berkhey, b^Rk'hT, or Berkey, (Jan Lefrancq,) a Dutch poet and savant, born in 1729 at Leyden, where he became professor of natural history. He published a "Natural History of Holland," (1769,) and other sci- entific works, and a collection of Idylls, Died in 1812, Berkeley, (John,) an English royalist officer in the time of Charles I,, wrote "Memoirs of the Negotiations of Charles I, with Cromwell," etc. Berlepsch, von, fon b^R'lgpsh, (Emilie,) a German authoress, born at Gotha in 1757, published "Miscel- lanies in Prose and Verse," which are highly esteemed. Berlichingen, von, fon beR^iK-ing'gn, (Gotz or Gottfried,) a celebrated German knight, surnamed of the Iron Hand, from an artificial hand which re- placed one lost in battle. Having taken part in the war of the peasants against the nobles, he was put under ban of the empire by Maximilian I., and sentenced to pay a heavy fine. According to some writers, he was afterwards mortally wounded while defending his castle against the Imperial troops, (1562.) His achievements form the subject of one of Goethe's most popular dramas, which has been translated by Sir Walter Scott. He left "Memoirs of his Life." See Carl Lang, " Ritter G. von Berlichingen," 1825; F. W. PiSTORius, " Lebensbeschreibung des Ritters G. von Berlichingen," 1738; BuscHiNG, "Leben Gbtz von Berlichingens," 1814. Berlichingen, von, (Joseph Friedrich Anton,) Count, an officer and litterateur, born at Tyrnau in 1759, served in the Austrian army against the Turks in 1788. He translated into Latin verse Goethe's " Hermann and Dorothea." Died in 1832. See Brockhaus, " Conversatlons-Lexikon." Earlier, b§R'le-i', (Theophile,) a French jurist, born at Dijon in 1761, was a member of the Convention, 1792- 95. Died about 1840, Berlin, b^R-leen'', (Johann Daniel,) a German com- poser and musician, born at Memel in 17 10, was organist at Drontheim, in Norway. Died in 1775. Berlinghieri, bcR-len ge-a'ree, (Andrea Vacca,) an eminent Italian surgeon, born at Pisa in 1772, studied anatomy under Desault in Paris and John Hunter in London. He lectured on surgery at Pisa, and published a number of valuable treatises on lithotomy and other branches of surgery. He also improved several surgi- cal processes, and invented a number of surgical instru- ments. Died in 1826. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Berlioz, b§R'le'o', (Hector,) a celebrated French composer, born in the department of Isere in 1803. He visited Rome in 1830 as pensionary of the Academy of Fine Arts, and after his return brought out, in 1833, his symphony of " Harold," His Requiem for General Danremont, performed in 1837, was received with gen- eral applause, and was followed in 1839 by his dramatic syinphony of " Romeo and Juliet," one of his most suc- cessful productions. He also published a number of valuable treatises on music. He was considered by some as the chief of the romantic musical school. Died in 1869. See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Bermann, de, deh b^R^mSN', a French jurist, born at Nancy in 1 741, wrote a "Historic Dissertation on the Ancient Chivalry and Nobility of Lorraine," (1763.) Bermudes, bCR-moo^Dgs, (Geronimo,) a Spanish ecclesiastic, and professor of theology at Salamanca, born about 1530, published several tragedies and poems. Died about 1589, See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature." Bermudes, (Juan,) a Spanish ecclesiastic, born in Galicia, In 1520 he accompanied the Portuguese em- bassy to Abyssinia, where he was appointed patriarch. He died in 1575, leaving an interesting account of Abys- sinia. See VEVSSifeRE la Croze, "Histoire du Christianisme d'lSthiopie et d'Armenie." Bermudez, (Juan Augustin Cean,) See Cean- Bermudez. Bermudez de Castro, b^R-moo'D^th da kis'tRo, (Salvador,) born at Cadiz in 1817, contributed a num- ber of poems to the " Revista de Madrid," of which he was editor. Bermudo, b^R-moo'Do, or Vermudo, v^R-moo'Do, [Fr. Bermude, ber/mud',] I., surnamed the Deacon, was proclaimed King of the Asturias in 788, in opposi- tion to his relative Alfonso II. He subsequently made the latter his colleague on the throne. Bermudo II., son of Ordono, became King of Leon and Asturias in 982. In conjunction with the King of Navarre and the Count of Castile, he gained a signal vic- tory over the Moors at Osma under Almanzor, (998.) Died in 999. Bermudo III. succeeded Alfonso V. as King of Leon and Asturias in 1027. He was killed in 1037, while fight- ing against Sancho, King of Navrre. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Berna or Bernia. See Berni, (Francesco.) Bernabei, beR-ni-ba'ee, (Giuseppe,) a musician, son of the following, born at Rome about 1643, became chapel-master to the Elector of Bavaria. Died at Mu- nich in 1732. Bernabei, (Giuseppe Ercole,) an Italian composer, born at Caprarola, was patronized by the Elector of Ba- varia. Died at Munich in 1690. See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Bernabei, (Pier Antonio,) an excellent Italian fres- co-painter of Parma, flourished about 1550. Bernacchi, bgR-niFkee, (Antonio,) an Italian vocal- ist, born at Bologna about 1700; died about 1750. Bernadotte, ber'na-dot', [Fr. pron. beR'nt'dot',] Carl XIV. Johan, King of Sweden and Norway, Prince of Ponte-Corvo, and marshal of France, was born at Pau, in January, 1764, and was the son of a lawyer. His origi- nal name was Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadotte, (zh6N btp-t^st' zhiil hlK'n%fdoi'.) In 1780 he enlisted as a pri- c as 9 as s; g hard;gz.s j; g, h, yl, guttural ; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BERNAERT 336 BERNARD vate in the royal marines. While a sergeant, in the begin- ning of the Revolution, he saved the life of his colonel from a mob at Marseilles, in 1790. In politics he was an ardent republican. Promoted rapidly in the wars which followed the Revolution, he gained distinction in Flanders and on the Rhine, under Custine, in 1792. In 1794 he became a general of division under Kleber and Jourdan, and distinguished himself at the battle of Fleurus in that year. He served under Bonaparte in Italy in 1797, and was applauded for his conduct at the passage of the Piave and in other actions. In consequence of a dis- agreement with Bonaparte, he applied to the Directory for another command, and was appointed minister to Vienna. The mob of that capital having made a fero- cious attack on him in his hotel in April, 1798, he sud- denly left Vienna, and in the same year married Made- moiselle Clary, a sister in-law of Joseph Bonaparte. In June, 1799, he was appointed minister of war at Paris, and displayed much ability in directing this department, until he was removed in the aututnn of the same year. Though he refused to join in the movements which made Bonaparte consul and emperor, the latter in 1804 created him marshal of France and gave him command of an army in Hanover. In 1805 he joined the grand army which invaded Austria ; and he maintained his repu- tation at Austerlitz, where he and Lannes commanded the French left wing. He was created Prince of Ponte- Corvo in June, 1806, and in October gained a decisive victory over the Prussians at Halle. In 1807 he received the military command of the Hanse Towns and Northern Germany. His conduct at Wagram, in 1809, was severely censured by the emperor. On the death of the crown-prince of Sweden, an im- portant question arose, who should be the successor to the Swedish throne. Bernadotte had gained credit for mod- eration and humanity during the war between France and Sweden in 1807-8. For this and other reasons, the Swedish Diet elected him as heir to the throne in August, 1810. With some difficulty he obtained the as- sent of Bonaparte, who, it is said, wished Bernadotte had refused the crown, but exclaimed, finally, *' Go, then : let our destinies be accomplished !" Bernadotte immediately went to Sweden, and became the colleague of Charles XIII. in the government. They refused to support Na- poleon's continental system by the exclusion of English goods. The French army having invaded Pomerania in anuary, 1812, the Swedish court prepared for hostilities y a treaty of alliance with Russia, in which the annexa- tion of Norway t(} Sweden was stipulated. In the campaign of 1813 he joined the allies in Ger- many with an army of about 28,000 Swedes. Having assumed command of a larger army designed for the protection of Berlin, he gained an important victory over Oudinot at Gross-Beeren in August, and another over Ney at Dennewitz in September. He also contributed to the victory of Leipsic, but was considered rather backward and lukewarm in the cause. The English agent. Sir C. Stewart, having resorted to menaces to drive him into the action, he exclaimed, " Do you forget that I am Prince of Sweden, and one of the greatest generals of the age He did not follow the allies in the inva- sion of France in 18 14, and, returning home, he soon effected the conquest of Norway, which was averse to be transferred to the Swedish crown. On the death of the king, February 5, 181 8, Bernadotte succeeded as Carl XIV. Johan. Ilis reign was peaceful and pros- perous. He introduced many important reforms, and was a zealous promoter of education and internal im- provement in his kingdom. He died on the 8th of March. 1844, and was succeeded by his son, Oscar I. See Touchard-Lafosse, " Histoire de Cliarles XIV;" Heri- couKT, "fitiide biographique sur Cliarles XIV," 1844; Sarrans, "Histoire de Bernadotte," 1845; Ekik G. Geijer, " Konung Karls XIV. Johan Historia," 1844; M. Runkel, "Carl XIV. Johan," 1841 ; Wm. G. Meredith, " Memorials of Charles (XIV.) John, King of Sweden," 1829 ; Carl Grosse, " Carl XIV. Johan von Schweden," 1844. Bernaert, b§R'n§Rt, or Bernaerst, b^R'nlRst, (Nr- CASius,) a Dutch painter, born about 1600; died about 1665. Beniaerts, beR'nSRts, [Lat. Bernar'tius,] (Jean,) a Flemish jurist and litth'ateur, born at Mechlin in 1568. He wrote a "History of the Life and Martyrdom of Mary Queen of Scots," (in Flemish.) Died in 1601. See Svveekt, "AtheniE Belgicje." Bernaldez, beR-ndl'deth, (Andres,) often called El Cura de LOS Palacios, (di hSs pi Id'the-is,) a Spanish historian, born in Leon about 1490, wrote a " History of the Catholic Sovereigns," (still in manuscript.) See Prescott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. ii. parti.; Irving, " Life of Columbus." Bernal Diaz de Castillo. See Castillo. Bernaldus. See Bertholdus. Bernard. See Barnard, (Tean.) Ber'nard, [Fr. pron. bSk'niR'; It. Bernardo, b§R- n^R'do ; Lat. Bernar'dus,] King of Italy, and grandson of Charlemagne, succeeded his father Pepin about 812. He was deposed by his uncle Louis, and put to deatli, .about 818. Bernard, Duke of Septimania and Toulouse, espouse I the cause of Louis le Debonnaire against his revolted sons. Being afterwards accused of treason by Charles the Bald, he was put to death in 844. Bernard of Brussels, a Flemish painter of portraits, hunting-pieces, etc. Died in 1540. Bernard of Tiiuringia, a German visionary, who caused great alarm in Europe by predicting the end of the world, lived about 960. Bernard, bcR^ntR', (Adrien Antoine,) called Ber- nard de Saintes, was born at Saintes in 1750. As a member of the National Convention, he voted for the death of Louis XVI. Died in 1819. Bernard, (Andrew,) a French monk, born at Tou- louse, was historiogra])her to Henry VII. of England. He wrote, in Latin, a History of Henry VII. to the Capture of Perkin Warbcck." Bernard, (Aristide Martin,) a French radical poli- tician, born at Montbrison in 1808. He was imprisoned for political offences from 1840 to 1848. Bernard, (.A^uguste Joseph,) a French antiquary and historical writer, born at Montbrison in 18 11. Bernard, (Catherine,) a French poetess, born at Rouen in 1662, was a relative of Corneille and Fonte- nelle. Her principal works are the tragedies of " Lao- damia," (1690,) and " Brutus," (1691.) She wrote several novels, which exhibit much knowledge of the human heart. Fontenelle was her friend and admirer. Died in 1712. Bernard, (Charles,) historiographer of France under Louis XIII., wrote a "History of the Wars of Louis XII r. against the Rebellious Religionists," (1646.) Bernard, (Claude,) called the Poor Priest, born at Dijon in 1588, was noted for his benevolence, and spent a large fortune in acts of charity. Died in 1640. See Francois de Girv, "Vie de C. Bernard," 1683; F. Gerson, "Vie du Pere Bernard." Bernard, (Claude,) an eminent French physiologist, born at Saint-Julien, in Rhone, in July, 1813. His treat- ise entitled " Researches on the Uses of 'the Pancreas" obtained the grand prize of the Institute in 1849. was admitted into the Institute in 1854, and succeeded Magendie as professor of experimental physiology in the College de France in 1855. Among his works are "Re- searches on the Functions of the Spinal Nerve," and a "Memoir on Animal Heat," (1856.) See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Eer'nard, (Edward,) an English astronomer and philologist, born near Towcester in 1638, published a " Treatise on Ancient Weights and Measures." He was for many years Savilian professor of astronomy at Ox- ford. Died in 1697. See Thomas Smith's " Life of E. Bernard," in Latin, Bernard, (Sir Francis,) an English lawyer, who was Governor of New Jersey from 1758 to 1760, when he became Governor of Massachusetts. He offended the people by bringing troops into Boston, and showed him- self hostile to the popular cause. He was one of the principal instruments employed to enforce the obnoxious measures which produced the Revolution. He was re- called in 1769. Died in 1779. See Bancroft's "History of the United States." Bernard, (Herman Hedwig,) of Cambridge, Eng- a, e,T, 6, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; i\x, f^ll, f^t; mSt; ndt; good; moon; BERNARD 337 BERNARD land, a Hebraist, born in 1785, published "The Main Principles of the Creed and Ethics of the Jews," (1832.) Died in 1857. Bernard, (Jacques,) a French Protestant divine and scholar, born at Nyons, in Dauphiny, in 1658. He wrote several religious and historical treatises, and succeeded Bayle as editor of the journal entitled "Nouvelles de la Republique de Lettres." He passed his latter years in Ilolland. Died in 17 18. See QuERAKD, "La France -Litteraire." Bernard, b^R^niRt, (Jan Frederik,) a writer and bookseller of Amsterdam, published " Memoirs of the Count of Brienne, Minister of Louis XIV.," (1719,) and various other works. Died in 1752. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Bernard, (Jean,) a French writer and Latin poet, born at Dijon in 1576. Bernard, (Jean,) a French physician and medical writer, born at Nantes in 1702. He became professor of anatomy at Douay in 1744. Died in 1781. Bernard, (Jean Baptiste,) a French littcratetir.hoxw in Paris in 17 10, became professor of eloquence in the College of Navarre. Died in 1772. Bernard, (Jean Etienne,) a physician and medical writer, of French extraction, born at Berlin in 1718; died in 1793. Bernard, (John,) an English clergyman, born at Cas- tor, in Lincolnshire, became a Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford, in 1648. He wrote a "Life of Peter Heylin," (1683,) who was his father-in-law. Died in 1683. Bernard, (John,) an English actor, born at Ports- mouth in 1756, performed with applause in England and the United States, and became one of the managers of the Boston Theatre. Bernard, William.) Bernard, (Louis Rose Desir^,) called also Bernard DE Rennes, a French magistrate and writer, born at Brest in 17S8. Bernard, (Nicholas,) an English divine, was a friend of Archbishop Usher, whom he served as chaplain. He took the degree of M.A. at O.xford in 1628. About 1642 he was presented to the rectory of Whitchurch. He wrote a "Life of James Usher," (1656.) Died in 1661. Bernard, (Pierre,) a French lawyer and writer, born at Calais in 1640, published "Annals of Calais," (1715.) Died in 1720. Bernard, (Pierre,) a French litterateur, sometimes called Bernard d'H^ry, born near Auxerre in 1756, pub- lished ' Poetical Preludes," and other works. He also translated Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered" into French verse. Died in 1833. See QuEKARD, "La France Litteraire." Bernard, (Pierre Joseph,) a French poet, born at Grenoble in 17 10, was styled by Voltaire the "Gentil Bernard." His works are of a frivolous and immoral tharacter. Died in 1775, Bernard, (Pons Joseph,) a French mathematician, porn near Draguignan in 1748, published " New Prin- ciples of Hydraulics," (1787.) Died in 1816. Bernard, (Richard,) an English Puritan divine, rec- tor of Batcombe, Somersetshire, born about 1566, wrote "The Key of Knowledge for the Opening of the Myste- ries of Saint John," " The Faithful Shepherd," and other theological works. He translated Terence into English. Died in 1641. Bernard, [Fr. pron. b^R'ntu'; Ger. ]'>ernhard, beRn''- hiRt; It. Bernardo, beR-naRMo,] Saint, an eminent ecclesiastic, born near Dijon, in Burgundy, in 1091. He entered the Cistercian monastery of Citeaux at an early age, accompanied by his five brothers and a number of associates, whom his eloquence had induced to embrace the monastic life. In in 5 he became Abbot of Clair- vaux, near Langres, where, refusing all higher prefer- nient, he exercised a powerful influence on the ecclesias- tical affairs of Europe. He prevailed upon the French and English sovereigns to recognize Innocent II. as pope, in opposition to the cardinal Peter of Leon, and in 1140 was chiefly instrumental in procuring the condemnation Df Abclard's heretical writings. He was also active in promoting the crusade of 1146. He died in 11 53, and was canonized in 1174 by Pope Alexander III. The best edition of his works, including sermons, episdes, and religious treatises, was published by Mabillon in 1709. See Lhmaitre, "Vie de Saint-Bernard," 1649; Bourgoing ue V1LI.EF0RE, "Vie de S. Bernard," 1704: A. Neander, "Der hei- lige Bernard und sein Zeitalter," 1813, (translated into Englibli by Wrench, 1843;) J. L. T. Ratisbonne, "Histoire de S. Bernard," 2 vols., 1841 ; C. MoNTALEMBERT, " Histoire de S. Bernard;" Levin Olbers, "Vita Bernardi Clarasvallensis," 1810; J O. Eli.enuorf, "Der heilige Bernhard," 1837; Eugenio de Corral, " Vida de S. Beinardo," 1782; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Bernard, (Salomon,) a French painter and wood-en- graver, called Petit Bernard, born at Lyons about 1500. Bernard, (Samuel,) a French painter and engraver, born in Paris in 161 5 ; died in 1687. Bernard, (Samuel,) a French banker, son of the preceding, born about 1651. He acquired an immense fortune, and lent large sums to Louis XIV. and Louis XV. Died in 1739. See Saint-Simon, "Memoires." Bernard, (Simon,) a French general and engineer, born at Dole in 1779, served under Napoleon in several campaigns. In 1824 he accompanied La Fayette to America, where he rendered important services as chief engineer of the army. After his return to France he became aide-de-camp to Louis Philippe, lieutenant- general of engineers, and in 1836 minister of war. Died in 1839. Bernard, (Thomas,) a wealthy English philanthropist, born at Lincoln in 1750. He procured the erection of a free chapel in Saint Giles's, London, and in conjunction with Count Rumford founded, about 1800, a scientific establishment, which afterwards became the Royal In- stitution. He wrote several works on the improvemeut and education of the poor. Died in 1S18. See James Baker, " Life of Thomas Bernard," 1819. Bernard, (William Bayle,) son of John Bernard the actor, noticed above, born in 1808, wrote "The Nervous Man," "The Middy Ashore," and other po])ular dramas, and completed and published his father's " Recollections of the Stage." Bernard, de, deh b^R'nta', (Louis Simon Joseph,) a French writer, sometimes called Bernard de Mo.\r- BRisoN, was horn at Saint-Es|)rit in 1768. He was rec- tor of the Acadeniv of Strashiirg. Died in 1832. Bernard de Chartres, beR'nSR' deh shtRtR, a cele- brated Platonic philosopher and theologian of the twelfth century. He directed a school at Chartres, in France, and wrote two works, called " Megacosmus" and " Microcos- mus," which are extant. See Haureau, "De la Philosophie scolastlque." Bernard del Carpio. See Bernardo. Bernard de Mentlion, bCR''niR' deh mSN'toN', Saint, founder of the celebrated establishments of the " Great and Little Saint Bernard," was born near An- necy, in France, in 923. After having converted the pagan inhabitants of the Alpine country to Christianity, he built, on the ruins of heathen structures, two monas- teries for the relief and entertainment of pilgrims. These houses are still inhabited by monks, who render great services to travellers in the Alps. Died in 1008. See Richard, "Vie de Saint-Bernard de Menthon ;" J. C. Le- granu, "Vie de S. Bernard de Menthon," 1743; "Four Eccled- astical Biographies," by J. H. Gurney. Bernard de Morlaix, bgR''ntR'' deh moR'kV, a Bene- dictine monk and Latin poet of the twelfth century, wrote a treatise "On Contempt of the World," ("De Cou- temptu Mundi,") printed in 1597. Bernard de Palissy. See Palissy. Bernard de Saxe- Weimar. See Bernhard. Bernard de Varennes, b^R^ntR' deh vt'rfin', Dom, a French ecclesiastic, born about 1650, published a "History of Constantine the Great," (1728,) and several religious works. Died in 1730. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Bernard de Ventadour, beR''ntR' deh vdN^tt'dooR', a French troubadour of the twelfth century, was patron- ized by lileonore of Guienne. He is noticed and praised by Petrarch in his "Trionfi," iv. See "Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1836; Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Bernard du Grail, de, deh b§R'ntR' dli gRtI or gRt'ye, (Charles,) a popular French novelist, born at Besanfon in 1805. Among his chief works are "The aa k; (; as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, v., guttural; N, Jtasal; R, trilled; s as z; #h as in this. 22 (S^^See Explanations, p. 23 BERNARD 338 BERNHARD Goidian Knot," {1838,) "Gerfaut," (1838,) and "The Serious Man," {1847.) ^^i^d in 1850. See QuERAKD, "La France Litteraire ;" "Blackwood's Maga- zine," voJ. Ixi., 1S47. Bernard Saint-Affrique, b^R'ntii' siN'tt'fR^k', (Louis,) a French statesman, born in the department of Gard in 1745, became a member of the National Con- vention and of tlie Council of Ancients. Beruardes, beR-n^R^des, (Diogo,) one of the most eminent Portuguese poets, born at Ponte de Barca about 1540. His pastoral poems are greatly admired by his countrymen, who have styled him the " Portuguese The- ocritus." Died in 1596. See Adamson, " Lusitania illustrata;" R. Southev, "On Portu- guese Poetry;" Longp-ellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Bar- BosA Machado, " Bibliotheca Lusitana." Bernardi, bcR'ntR^de', (Arnald,) a French theolo- gian, born at Cahors, wrote "Postilla super Apocalyp- sin." Died in 1334. Bernardi, (August Ferdinand.) See Bernhardi. Bernardi, ber-nar'dee, (John,) an English officer, noted for his zeal in the cause of James 11. , whom he followed into France and Ireland. Died in 1736. Bernardi, (Joseph Flzear Dominique,) a French jurist and legal writer, born at Monieux, in Provence, in 175 1, became a member of the Council of Five Hundred, and of the Academy of Inscriptions, (18 16.) Died in 1824. Bernardi or Bernardy, beR'ntR^de^ (Philippe,) a French writer, brother of the preceding, born at Monieux in 1759, was professor of rhetoric at Poitiers. Died after 1815. Bernardi, bCR-n^R^dee, (Stephen,) a German com- poser and writer on music, lived about 1600-40, H6 was chapel-master at Verona. Bernardi del Castel-Bolognese, beR-nSR^dee del kas'tel bo-l6n-ya'sa, (Giovanni,) an Italian lapidary, born at Castel-Bolognese about 1495, was patronized by Charles V. and Pope Clement VII. Died in 1555. See Nagler, "Neues Allgenieines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Bernardin. See Bernardino. Bernardin de Pequigny, bCR'ntR^iN' deh pa'k^n^- ye', a French theologian and writer, born in Picardy about 1663 ; died in 1709. Bernardin de Saint-Pierre. See Saint-Pierre. Bernardini, bcR-ndR-dee^nee, (Marcello,) an Italian opera-composer, born at Capua about 1752. Bernardino, beR-naR-dee'no, [Fr. Bernardin, hh\i'- ntR''diN',] Sain r, of Sienna, an eloquent Italian eccle- siastic, born at Massa di Carrara in 1380. He became Vicar-General of the order of Saint Francis, and is said to have founded more than three hundred monasteries. Died in 1444. See DupiN, " Bibliotheque ecclesiastique." Bernardo, beR-niR'do, [Fr. Bernard, beR^ntn',] an Italian, surnamed IL Trevisano, (le Tr^visan,) born at Padua in 1406, wrote a number of works, in Latin and French, on alchemy. Died in 1490. See F. HoEFER, " Histoire de la Chimie." Bernardo of Pavia, an Italian ecclesiastic, became successively professor of canon law at Rome and at Bo- logna, and Bishop of Pavfa. He published a collection of decretals, and several other works. Died in 1213. Bernardo, (Zenale,) called Bernardino, a painter and architect, born at Treviglio, in the Milanese, was a friend of Leonardo da Vinci, who praises him in his "Treatise on Painting." Died in 1526. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." Bernardo da Bologna, b^R-niR'ao di bo-lin'yS, an Italian theologian and biographer, lived about 1740-50. Bernardo "da Cruz, bgR-n^RMo dS, kRoos, (Frey,) a Portuguese historian, wrote a " History of the Reign of Don Sebastian," (1837.) Bernardo del Carpio, blR-n^R^do del kaR'pe-o, a celebrated Spanish hero of the ninth century, was a nephew of Alfonso the Chaste. He displayed the most brilliant courage in the wars against the Moors, and, ac- cording to tradition, defeated the famous Roland at Roncesvalles. His exploits form the subject of several dramas by Lope de Vega, and of many popular Spanish ballads. See Mariana, " Historia de Espaiia." Bernardoni, b§R-n.^R-do'nee, (Pietro Antonio,) an Italian poet, born at Vignola in 1672 ; died in 1 7 14. Bernasconi, bgR-nas-ko'nee, (Andrea,) a musician, born at Marseilles in 1712. He produced a number of successful operas. Died at Munich in 1784. See Fetis, "liiographie Universelle des Musiciens." Bernasconi, (Laura,) an Italian flower-painter, born at Rome about 1620 ; died after 1670. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Bernauer, b^R^now-er, (Agnes,) the beautiful daugh- ter of a citizen of Augsburg, was privately married to Albert, Duke of Bavaria. His father, having discovered the marriage, caused Agnes to be drowned in the Danube, (1435,) on a charge of sorcery. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Bernazzano, bgR-nat-sa^io, a Milanese painter of landscapes, animals, and still-life, lived about 1540. Bernd, bcRnt, (Christian Samuel Theodor,) a Ger- man writer on heraldry, born at Meseritz in 1775, pub- lished "The Principal Points of Heraldic Science." Bernegger, beR''nek''ker, (Matthaus,) a German scholar and Latin writer, born at Hallstadt in 1582 ; died in 1640. Berner, bSr/ner, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German musician and composer, born at Breslau in 1780, was a skilful organist and pianist. Died in 1827. Berner, (Johann Benjamin,) a German Protestant theologian, born at Greitz in 1727; died in 1772. Berneron, de, deh bCRn^'roN', (Francois,) a French general, born in 1750, served under Luckner and Du- mouriez. Ber'ners, (John Bourchier,) Lord, an English statesman and writer, born about 1474, rose to be chan- cellor of the exchequer under Henry VIII. He is chiefly celebrated for his translation of Froissart's " Chronicles." Died in 1532. Berners, (Juliana.) See Barnes. Berne.schi. See Benaschi. Bernet, beR'naV, (Jacques,) a French cardinal, born at Saint-P'lour in 1770. He became Archbishop of Aix in 1835. Died in 1846. Bernetti, b^R-net^'tee, (Tommaso,) born at Fermo i'-» 1779, was one of the thirteen cardinals who refused to attend the marriage of Napoleon and Maria Louisa, and who were called black cardinals, from their not being al- lowed to wear the purple. He assisted in the conclusion of the concordat with the Netherlands, (1S27,) and was employed in other important negotiations. Died in 1852. See "Biographie du Cardinal Bernetti," 1S52. Berneville, de, deh beRn''veK, (Gilebert,) a famous French poet or tro2i7>cre, born in Artois, lived about the middle of the thirteenth century. See A. Dinaux, "Trouveres de la Flandre." Bernliard, beRnOiaRt, Duke of Saxe-Weimar, one of the most celebrated commanders in the Thirty Years' war, born in 1604, was a son of John HI., Duke of Saxe- Weimar. Having previously served in the armies of Holland and Denmark, he joined Gustavus Adolphus on his arrival in Germany, and distinguished himself in various engagements in 163 1 and 1632. After the death of Gustavus at Liitzen, (1632,) he commanded the left wing of the Swedish army, and by his skill and energy contributed greatly to the victory. In 1633 he obtained the command of half the army, and received the duke- dom of Franconia. Dissatisfied with the terms of the peace of Prague, he entered into a personal treaty of alliance with France in 1635. He subsequently gained a signal victory over the Imperial troops at Rheinfelden, (1638,) and soon after captured Breisach. He died in 1639, of pestilential fever, or, according to some writers, of poison administered by order of Cardinal Richelieu. See Schiller, " History of the Thirty Years' War ;" " History of the two illustrious Brothers Ernestus the Pious, and Bernard, Great Duke of Saxe-Weimar," London, 1740; J. A. C. von Hellfeld, "Geschichte Bernhards des Grossen, Herzogs zu Sachsen-Wciniar," 1797; Bernhard Roese, " Herzog Bernhard der Grosse von Sach- sen-Weimar," 2 vols., 1828-29. Bernhard, (Karl,) Duke of Saxe-Weimar, born at Weimar in 1792. He served in the principal campaigris against the French front 1806 to 1815, and was made lieu- tenant-general in 183 1. He published " Travels in North a, e, T, o, u, y, h7!g; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; BERNHJRD 339 BERNOULLI America,-' (1828,) and "Summary of the Campaign in Java in 181 1." See "London Quarterly Review" for July and November, 1829. Bernhard, b^Rn^haRt, (Karl,) the pseudonym of Saiiit-Aubaiii, a celebrated Danish novelist, of French extraction. Among his most popular works are " Pic- tures of Life in Denmark," (1841,) "The Children's Ball," and "Christian 11. and his Times," (1S37,) a his- torical romance. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale," and Bellman, "Poetes Suedois." Bernhard or Bernhardi (beRn-haR'dee) of Bernitz, (Martin,) a Polish botanist, physician to the King of Poland, lived about 1650. Bernhard, Saint. See Bernard, Saint. Bernhardi, beRu-haR'dee, written also Bernard!, (August Ferdinand,) a German philologist, born at Berlin about 1769. He was a brother-in-law of Tieck, and published conjointly with him " Bambocciaden," a collection of comic tales. He also wrote " Elements of the Science of Language," (" Anlangsgriinde der Sprachwis- senschaft," 1805,) and other works. Died in 1820. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Bernhardi, (Johann Jakob,) a German botanist and medical writer, born at Erfurt in 1774; died about 1840. Bernhardi, (Karl Christian Sigismund,) a Ger- man statesman, scholar, and writer, born at Ottrau in 1799. He succeeded Grimm as first keeper of the library of the museum at Cassel in 1829, and was in 1848 a member of the National Assembly at Frankfort. Bernhardy, beRn-haR^dee, (Gottfried,) born at Landsberg, in Prussia, in 1800, became professor of clas- sical philology at Halle in 1829. Bernhold,' beRnOiolt, (Johann Balthasar,) a Ger- man poet and theologian, born in 1687 ; died in 1769. Bernhold, (Johann Gottfried,) a son of the pre- ceding, born in 1721, wrote several tragedies. Died about 1755- Bernhold, (Johann Michael,) a learned German l)hysician and medical writer, born in 1736 ; died in 1797. Berni, beR^nee, or Bernia, beR'ne-I, (Francesco,) an ennnent Italian burlesque poet, was born at Lampo- recchio, in Tuscany, about 1490. He became a priest, and entered the service of Cardinal Bibbiena at Rome. After the death of Bibbiena he passed seven years in the service of Ghiberti, Bishop of Verona, as secretary. He was appointed a canon of the cathedral of Florence about 1530. He wrote a number of burlesque poems and satires, which are remarkable for the elegance of their style, and are considered the best model of a kind of poetry which derives from him its name, "Poesia Bernesca." Berni also produced a modification {rifacmienio) of Bo- jardo's" Orlando Innamorato," which some critics regard as superior to the original poem. It was published in 1541. "Berni undertook," says Hallam, " the singular office of writing over the 'Orlando Innamorato,' pre- serving the sense of almost every stanza, and inserting nothing but a few introductory passages, in the manner of Ariosto, to each canto. The genius of Berni, playful, satirical, flexible, was admirably fitted to perform this labour; . . . and the 'Orlando Innamorato' has de- scended to posterity as the work of two minds." ("In- troduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1536. See GiKGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d' Italie ;" Mazzuchelli, "Scntlori d'ltalia;" Rev. H. Stebbing, "Lives of the Italian Poets," 1831; " North American Review" for October, 1824, article "Italian Narrative Poetrj'," (by Pkescott.) Berni, (Francesco,) an Italian jurist and dramatic poet, born in 1610 at Ferrara, where he became pro- fessor of belles-lettres. Died in 1673. Bernice. See Berenice. Bernier, bgR'ne3^ (Adhelm,) born at Senlis, in Franc^, published several works on French history, dated 1834-37.^ Bernier, (Etienne Alexandre,) a zealous royalist, born at Daon, in La Mayenne, in 1762, was called "the Apostle of La Vendee." He was appointed Bishop of Orleans by Napoleon. Died in 1806. See Thiers, "Histoire du Consulat et de I'Empire." Bernier, (Franqois,) a celebrated French traveller and physician, born at Angers. In 1654 he visited Syria and Egypt, and subsequently resided many years in India as physician to the Mogul emperor Aurung-Zeb. He published, after his return, a" History of the Last Revo- lution of the States of the Great Mogul," (1670,) and a "Continuation of Memoirs of the Empire of the Great Mogul," (1671.) These are esteemed standard works, and are written in a spirited and attractive style. Ber- nier also wrote several scientific treatises, which were popular in his tirhe. Died in 1688. See Walckenaer, " Vies de plusieurs Personnages celebres;" "Retrospective Review," vol. i., second series, 1827. Bernier, (Jean,) a French physician, born at Blois in 1622, wrote " Medical Essays," and a " History of Blois.'" Died in 1698. Bernier, (Nicolas,) a French musician and com- poser, born at Mantes in 1664, became royal chapel master. Died in 1734. See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiclens." Bernieri, bg,R-ne-a'ree, (Antonio,) a skilful Italian miniature-painter, born in 1516, was apupil of Correggio. Died in 1565. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Berningroth, bCR'ning-rot', (Martin,) a German engraver and designer, born in 1670; died in 1733. Bernini, bCR-nee'nee, (Domenico,) an Italian eccle- siastic, son of Giovanni Lorenzo, noticed below, wrote a " History of all Heresies from the Beginning of Chris- tianity to Innocent XL," (1705.) Bernini, [Fr. Le Bermn, leh bgR^niN'',] (Giovanni Lorenzo,) often called " the Cavalier Bernini," an emi- nent Italian sculptor and architect, born at Naples in December, 1598. At a very early age he was taken to Rome, where his first specimens of sculpture procured for him the favour of Paul V. and Cardinal Barberir.i, afterwards Urban VIII. Among his best works are the Barberini palace, the colonnade before the entrance of Saint Peter's, and the monument of the Countess Ma- tilda. He also executed busts of Charles I. of England, Louis XIV. of France, and other distinguished persons. Pie was patronized and munificently rewarded by the principal sovereigns of Europe, and left at his death, in November, 1680, a fortune of nearly 100,000 sterling. He died in Rome. See QuATREMERE DE QuiNCY, " Dictlonnaire d' Architecture ;" Domenico Bernini, "Vita del C'avallere G. L. Bernini suo Padre," 1713 ; P. B. SiLORATA, " Biografia del Cavaliere G. L. Bernini," 1838. Bernini, (Giuseppe Maria,) a Capuchin missionary to the East Indies, born in Piedmont, translated several works from the Sanscrit. Died in 1753. Bernini, (Pietro,) an Italian painter and sculptor, father of Cxiovanni Lorenzo, above noticed, born in Tus- cany in 1562. Died in 1629. iJernis, de, deh bCR'ness', (Francois Joachim de Pierre,) a French cardinal and diplomatist, born at Saint-Marcel de I'Ardeche in 1715. He was ambassa- dor to Venice, was employed in various negotiations by Louis XV., and subsequently became minister of foreign affairs. He held this office during the Seven Years' war, (1755-62.) He was made Archbishop of Albi in 1764, having been previously elected a member of the French Academy. He wrote a number of poems and prose works. In 1769 he was sent as ambassador to Rome, where he remained until his death in 1794. See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XV," and " Correspondance ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Bernitz, (Martin of.) See Bernhard, (Martin.) Ber''no, [Fr. Bernon, b^R^'noN'',] a learned Bene- dictine monk, became Abbot of Reichenau, near Lake Constance. Lie wrote, in Latin, several treatises on music and theology. Died in 1045. Bernouilli. See Bernoulli. Bernoul. See Bertholdus. Bernoulli, beR'noo''ye^, written also Eernomlli, (Christophe,) nephew of Jacques, (second of the name,) noticed below, was born at Bale in 1782. He studied at Gottingen, where he became professor of natural history in 1817. He published a treatise "On the Phospho- rescence of the Sea," (1802,) and "Physical Anthro- pology," 1811, (in German.) Bernoulli, (Daniel,) a celebrated mathematician and philosopher, son of Jean, (the first of that name,) noticed 9 as s; g /lard; g asy; c, H, K.guthiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (ii^^See Explanations, p. 23.,> BERNOULLI BERQUIN below, was born at Groningen on the 9th of February, 1 700. He studied mathematics and medicine in Italy under Michelotti and Morgagni, and was appointed professor of mathematics at Saint Petersburg about 1725. After his return in 1733 he became professor of anatomy and botany at Bale, and subsequently of physics and specu- lative philosophy. In 1748 he succeeded his father as member of the French Academy of Sciences. He ob- tained the prize of that institution ten times, having shared it once with Euler, and was a member of the principal learned societies of Europe. Among his nu- mejous works, which are written in Latin and French, we may mention his " Treatise on Hydrodynamics," (1738,) and "Physical and Mechanical Researches on Sound," (1762.) Died at Bale in 1782. See CoNDORCET, " filoge de Daniel Bernoulli," 1782; D. Ber- 'jocLi.i, "Vita D. BernouUi," 17S3. Bernoulli, (Jacques or James,) an eminent mathe- matician, born at Bale, in Switzerland, in December, 1654. He studied the philosophy of Descartes, and in 1687 became professor of mathematics in his native city. He improved the differential calculus invented by Leib- nitz, and solved many important problems, among which is the " Isoperimetrical problem." He discovered the properties of the logarithmic spiral, and wrote several treatises on mathematics. In 1699 he was elected a foreign associate of the Academy of Sciences of Paris. Died at Bale in 1705. See Battier, "Vita Jacobi Bernoulli," 1703. Bernoulli, (Jacques,) son of John, (the second of the name,) born at Bale in 1759. He was instructed in geometry and physics by his uncle Daniel, and became professor of mathematics at Saint Petersburg, where he married the granddaughter of Euler. He was drowned in the Neva in 1789. Bernoulli, (Jean or John,) born at Bale in 1667, was a brother of Jacques, (the first of the name.) He dis- covered the exponential calculus, and had a share in the principal discoveries of his brother. He became pro- fessor of mathematics at Groningen, (1695,) and in the University of Bale, (1705.) He was a member of the Academies of Paris, Berlin, and Saint Petersburg, and of the Royal Society of London, His contributions to the "Acta Eruditorum," and other journals, were pub- lished in four volumes, (1742,) and his " Correspondence with Leibnitz" in 1745. Died in 1748. He left three sons, Nicholas, Daniel, and John, who are all noticed in this work. See D'Alembert, "£loge de J. Bernoulli." Bernoulli, (Jean or John,) brother of Daniel, born in 1 7 10 at Bale, where he became professor of mathe- matics. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences of Paris and Berlin, and wrote several scientific works, which obtained the prize from the first-named institu- tion. Died in 1790. Bernoulli, (Jean,) son of the preceding, born at Bale in 1744, became astronomer royal at Berlin. He was a member of the Academy of Saint Petersburg and the Royal Society of London, and published a number of works on astronomy, mathematics, and geography, also "Travels in Germany, Russia," etc., (6 vols., 1779.) Died in 1807. Bernoulli, (Jerome,) a Swiss naturalist, a relative of the preceding, born at Bale h\ 1745 ; died in 1829. Bernoulli, (Nicolas,) eldest brother of Daniel, born at Bale in 1695. He became professor of law at Berne, and subsequently of mathematics at Saint Petersburg, in conjunction with his brother Daniel. Died at Saint Petersburg in 1726. Bernoulli, (Nicolas,) cousin of the preceding, born at liale in 1687. He was, on the recommendation of Leibnitz, appointed in 1716 professor of mathematics at Padua. He made several important mathematical dis- coveries. Died in 1759. Bernstein, blan'stin, (Georg Heinrich,) born near Jena in 1787, became in 1821 professor of Oriental lan- guages at Berlin. He published an edition of the "Arabic Grammar and Chrestomathy" of Michaelis, and of " ?Ii- to])adesa," a popular Sanscrit book of stories or fables. He removed to Breslau in 1843. Bernstein, (Johann Gottlieb,) a German writer on surgery, born in 1747 in Berlin, where he was professor from 1810 until 1821. Died in 1835. Bernstorff, von, fon beRn''stoKf, (Andreas Peter,) Count, an eminent statesman, born in the duchy of Brunswick-Luneburg in 1735. He studied at Gottingen and Leipsic, and became minister of state (1769) under the King of Denmark. He died in 1797, leaving a high reputation for ability and integrity. He was a nephew of Johann Hartwig Ernst, noticed below. See Eggers, " Denkwiirdigkeiten aus dem Leben des Staatsmi- nisters Von Bernstorff," 1800; Rasmus Nyerup, "A. P. Bernstorffs Levnetsbeskrivelse," 1812. Bernstorff, von, (Christian Gunther,) Count, son of the preceding, born at Copenhagen in 1769. He became successively ambassador to Berlin and Stock- holm, and minister of state, (1797.) He represented Denmark at the Congress of Vienna in 18 14, and in 181 5 signed the cession of Norway to Sweden. In 1818 he entered the service of Prussia, and was appointed minis- ter of foreign affairs. Died in 1835. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Bernstorff, von, (Johann Hartwig Ernst,) Count, a celebrated statesman in the Danish service, born at Hanover in 1712. He was employed m various import- ant negotiations, and became minister of foreign affairs in 1 75 1. In 1773 he concluded a treaty by which Russia exchanged Holstein for Oldenburg. He was a generous patron of learning and the arts, and greatly promoted the commerce and manufactures of his country. Died in 1772. A monument was erected to his memory by the serfs whom he had emancipated. See Martin Hubner, " Sorgetale over Greve J. H. E. Bernstorff," 1772; G. L. Ahlemank, " Ueber das Leben und den Charakter des Grafen von Bernstorff," 1777; G. Navarro, ''Vie du Comte J. H. E. Bernstorff," 1822. Bernt, beRnt, (Joseph,) a German writer on legal medicine, born about 1770. He lectured on medical jurisprudence at Prague and at Vienna. Died in 1842. Bernward, bCRn'waRt, Saint, Bishop of Hildesheim, in Lower Saxony, born about 950, was celebrated for his profound and various learning, and his patronage of the arts. Pie was appointed tutor and court chaplain to the emperor Otho HI. Died in 1022. Beroalde, ba'ro^SkK, orBerould, ba'roo',(MATHiEU,) a French Calvinistic theologian, born near Paris about 1 5 10, was professor of Hebrew at Orleans. Died in 1576. Beroalde de Verville, ba'ro'tkK deh v^R-veK, (Francois,) a French mathematician and liticraieitr, son of the preceding, born in Paris in 1558 ; died in 1612. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Beroaldo, ba-ro-.^Kdo, (Filippo,) called the Elder, an Italian scholar and writer of high reputation, born in 1453 at Bologna, where he was for many years professor of belles-lettres. He published numerous commentaries on the Greek and Latin classics, also Orations, and other short works. Died at Bologna in 1505. See Ginguexe, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" Giovanni Pini, "Vita P. Beroa!di Senioris," 1505. Beroaldo, (Filippo,) nephew of the preceding, born at Bologna in 1472, became librarian of the Vatican in 15 16. Died at Rome in 1518. Beroaldo, (Vincenzo,) an Italian poet, son of Bero- aldo the Elder, was born at Bologna; died in 1557. Beroldingen, de, deh ba'rol-ding''en, (Franz,) Ba- ron, a Swiss mineralogist, born at Saint-Gall in 1 740. He wrote a " Treatise on Ancient and Modern Volca- noes," (1791,) and other works, in German. Died in 1798. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Be-ro^sus, [Gr. Br/pwcrof; Fr. B^irose, bi'roz',] aChal- dee historian, sometimes called Bar-Oseas, ("son of Oseas,") lived in the time of Alexander the Great, and was a priest of Belus at Babylon. His principal work was a "History of Babylonia and Chaldaea," written in Greek ; fragments of it are preserved in Eusebius and other Greek writers. See Vossius, " De Historicis Graecis ;" Fabricius, " Bibliot.heca Grasca." Berould. See Beroalde, (Mathieu.) Berquen. See Berken. Berquin, beRO'ciN', (Arnaud,) a French writer, l)orn at Bordeaux in 1749, is chiefly celebrated for his "Chil- dren's Friend," (6 vols., 1784,) and other popular works a, e, T, o, u, y, lo7ig; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obsciire; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; BERQUIN 34> BERRl^ER for the young. He also made a number of translations from the English, Died in Paris in 1791. See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclop^dique de la France." Berquin, de, deh beR'kdN', (Louis,) a French gen- tleman, born in Artois in 1489, was a counsellor of Fran- cis I. He was a friend of Erasmus, whose works he was active in circulating. Being accused of Lutheranism by the theological faculty of Paris, he was burned at the stake in 1529. See SiSMON-Di, "Histoiredes Fran^ais," chap, xvi.; Bayle, " His- torical and Critical Dictionaiy ;" "Quarterly Review" for July, 1859. Berr, beR, (Friedrich,) a German musician and composer of instrumental music, born at Manheim in 1794; died about 1838. Berre, bi'ra', (Jean Baptiste,) a Flemish painter of animals, born at Antwerp in 1777 ; died in 1838. Berredo, de, da ber-ra'do, (Bernardo Pereira,) a Portuguese writer and soldier, born at Villa de Serpa. He became Governor of Maranham, Brazil, and wrote annals of that province, (1749.) Died at Lisbon in 1748. Berrettoni. See Berettoni. Berres, ber'r^s, (Joseph,) a skilful German surgeon, born at Goding, in Moravia, in 1796. About 1830 he became professor of anatomy in the University of Vienna, and published, besides other works, " Anthropologie," (1821,) which was highly esteemed. Died in 1844. Berretoni, (Niccolo.) See Berretti. Berretti, ber-ret'tee, or Berretini, b^r-ra-tee'nee, written also Berretoni, (Niccolo,) an Italian painter, one of the best pupils of Carlo ALaratta, born about 1637 ; died in 1682. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Berrettiui. See Cortona, (Pietro da.) Berri. See Berry. Berriat. See Berryat. Berriat Saint-Prix, ba're-S' siN'pRe', (Charles,) a French jurist and litterateitr, born at Grenoble in 1802, became a counsellor at the imperial court of Paris in 1857. Berriat Saint-Prix, (Jacques,) a French jurist, born at Grenoble in 1769. He published numerous works, and edited the writings of Boileau, (1830-34.) Died at Paris in 1845. See Duchesne, " Notice siir la Vie, etc. de Berriat Saint-Prix," 1847; A. H. Taillandier, "Notice sur la Vie de Berriat Saint- Prix," 1846. Ber'ridge, (John,) born about 1716, became vicar of Everton in 1755, and published "The Christian World Unmasked," (1773.) Died in 1793. . Ber'ri-en, (John McPherson,) an American lawyer and Senator, born in New Jersey in 1781, removed to Georgia, where he was elected to the United States Senate in 1824. He was appointed attorney-general of the United States in 1829, and resigned in 183 1. He was again made Senator in 1840 and in 1846. Died in 1S56. Berrier, ba're-a', (Jean Franqois Constant,) a French litterateur, born at Aire, in Artois, in 1766, wrote birthday odes, vaudevilles, etc. Died in Paris in 1824. Ber'ri-man, (William,) a learned English divine, born in London in 1688, became chaplain to the Bishop of London in 1720. He wrote, among other works, a "Historical Account of the Trinitarian Controversy," (1725.) He was well versed in Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, etc. Died in 1750. See " Biographia Britannica." Berroyer, b^'Rw^'ya', (Claude,) a French jurist, born at Moulins in 1655, was an advocate in the Parlia- ment of Paris. Died in 1735. Berruguete, bgr-roo-ga'ti, ( Alonzo,) a Spanish archi- tect and sculptor, born near Valladolid, was a pupil of Michael Angelo. He restored the Alhambra, and exe- cuted several important works at Madrid. Among his master-pieces was the choir of the cathedral of Toledo. He was made a chevalier by the emperor Charles V. Died in 1561. See Bermudez, "Diccionario Historico." Berruyer, bi'rii-e'i', (Jean Francois,) born at Lyons in 1737, served in the Seven Years' war and in the cam- paigns of the French Revolution, and was made inspector- general of cavalry. Died in 1804. Berruyer, (Joseph Isaac,) a French Jesuit, born at Rouen in 1681 ; died in 1758. Ber^'ry, (Hiram G.,) an American general, born ai Thomaston, (now Rockland,) Maine, in 1824. He served as colonel at Bull Run, July 21, 1861, and became a brigadier-general of volunteers in April, 1862. tie dis- tinguished himself by his skill and courage at Fair Oakift', June I. and in the Seven Days' battles near Richmond, June 26-July I, 1862. About February, 1863, he was appointed a major-general. He commanded a division at Chancellorsville, where he was killed. May 3, 1863, Ber'ry, (Sir John,) an English naval commander, born in Devonshire in 1635 ; died in 1 69 1. Berry, (Mary,) an English lady of distinguished tal- ents and beauty, born in 1762, was an intimate friend and correspondent of Horace Walpole. She wrote a work entitled " England and France," and a " Life of Lady Rachel Russell." Her correspondence and that of her sister Agnes with Horace Walpole came out in 1840. Died in 1852. See " Journals and Correspondence of Miss Mary Berry," edited by Lady Theresa Lewis, 1S66; "London Quarterly Review" for March, 1845; " Edinburgh Review," vol. cxxii., 1865. Berry, (William,) a Scottish seal-engraver, born about 1730 ; died in 1783. Berry or Berri, de, deh b^r're, [Fr. pron. ba're',] (Caroline Ferdinande Louise,) Duchesse, daughter of Ferdinand I., King of the Two Sicilies, was born at Naples in 179S. She was married in 1816 to the Duke of Berry, second son of Charles X. After the assassina- tion of her husband, in 1820, the legitimists supported the claims of her infant son, the Duke of Bordeaux, to the throne. In 1832 a rising in her favour took place in 15rit- tany, but, being betrayed by a pretended friend, she was taken by the enemy, and, after a short imprisonment, retired to Sicily. Died in 1870. See Dermon'Court, "La Vendee et RLadame," Paris, 1834: Al- fred Nettement, " Memoires de Madame la Duchesse de Berry," 3 vols., 1836; "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1S33; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1837. Berry or Berri, de, (Charles,) Due, born in 1446, was a son of King Charles VII., and a younger brother of Louis XI. Impelled by ambition to be king, he con- spired with Charles the iJold against Louis XI. Thi.s was the origin of the League of the Public Good, ( Bien public.) (See Louis XI.) Died in 1472. Berry, de, (Charles,) Due, a grandson of Louis XIV., born in 1686. He married in 1710 the daughter of Philij), Duke of Orleans, afterwards regent of France. Died iu 1 7 14. See Saint-Si.mon, "Memoires." Berry or Berri, de, (Charles Ferdinand d'Ar- tois — dSk'tw^',) Due, a French prince, born at \'er- sailles in 1778, was the second son of Charles X. He emigrated about 1790, and served in the army under the Prince of Conde. In 1816 he married the Princess Caro- line of Naples. He was assassinated by Louvet in Paris in February, 1820. See Chateaubriand, "Memoires touchant la Vie et la Mort du Due de Berry," 1820; F. T. Delbare, "Vie de S. A. R. le Due de Berry," 1820. Berry or Berri, de, (Jean,) Due, born in 1340, was the third son of John II., King of France. Pie was pres- ent at the battle of Poitiers, and in 1360 was one of the hostages delivered up to England by the treaty of Bre- tigny. In 1 38 1 he was, by Charles VI., appointed royal lieutenant for Languedoc, but on account of his tyranny was deprived of his office. After the murder of the Duke of Orleans, he joined the faction of tlie Armagnacs against the Burgundians. He died in 141 6, leaving a valuable collection of manuscripts and works of art. See Ravnal, " Histoire du Berry;" Froissart, "Chronicles." Berry or Berri, de, (Marie Louise Elisabeth d'Orleans — doR^la'SN',) Duchesse, eldest daughter of Philip, Duke of Orleans, born in 1695, was married to the Duke of Berry, grandson of Louis XIV. She was noted for her ambition and profligacy. Died in 17 19. See S.AiNT-SiMON, "Memoires." Berryat or Berriat, ba're-t', (Jean,) a French phy- sician and medical writer; died in 1754. Berryer, ba're-a'' or b^R'ya'', (Antoine Pierre,) a ce- lebrated political orator and chief of the legitimist party, a son of Pierre Nicolas, noticed below, born in Paris on I the 4th of January, 1790. He studied in the college € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Vi, guttural ; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2^"See Explanations, p. 23.) BERRTER 342 BERTHET [uilly, and made his delnit at the bar of Paris in 181 1. Ahhough he favoured the restoration, he thought it ex- pedient to show lenity to the losing party. He was as- sociated with his father in pleading the cause of Marshal Ney in 181 5, and defended with success General Cam- bronne, who had followed Napoleon to Waterloo. As a prelude to his parliamentary career, he gave a course of political lectures, which were very successful, and in 1830 was. elected a deputy for Puy, (in Haute-Loire.) In his first speech, March, 1830, he sustained with magnificent eloquence the bo' :l position that the crown has a right to choose the mii.istry outside of the majority. After the revolution of July, 1830, he remained as champ'on of the legitimist cause, although the members of his ^;arty retired from the Chamber en viasse. He maintained a position independent of the ministerial and he opposition parties. His speech against the abolition >f the hereditary peerage, in 1S31, was very celebrated. In June, 1832, he was arrested as a suspected partisan of the Duchesse de Berry, who attempted to effect a revo- lution b arms, although he had advised her against that course. He was tried and acquitted. About the period of 1835 he was considered the foremost orator in the Chambf r. He opposed, as defective and premature, the motion for the abolition of slavery in 1838, supported the transient coalition of Guizot and Thiers in 1839, and defended the captive Louis Napoleon in 1840. In the Assemblies of 1848 and 1849 he was one of the chiefs of the majority formed by a coalition of several monarchical parties. He opposed the coup d\'tat of Napoleon in De- cember, 1851, after which he remained aloof from politics for some years. He was elected to the French Academy in 1852. Died in November, 1868. See Louis Marie de la Have Cokmenin, " Biographic parle- mentaire de M. Berryer," 1837 ; " Biographie de M. Berryer," Paris, 8vo, 1839; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "Blackwood's Maga- 74ne" for July, 1837; " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1842. Berryer, (Nicolas Rene,) a French statesman, born \i\ Paris in 1703, became keeper of the seals in 1761. Died in 1762. See DucLOS, "Memoires sur le Regne de Louis XV." Berryer, (Pierre Nicolas,) a French jurist and elo- quent pleader, born at Sainte-Menehould in 1757, was the father of Antoine Pierre, noticed above. He had a large practice in commercial causes, and was counsel in several political trials, among which was that of Marshal Ney in 1815. He published an " Allocution of an Old Friend of Liberty to France," (1830,) and "Souvenirs," (1838.) Died in 184 1. .See " Souvenirs de M. Berryer de 1774 a 1838," 2 vols., 1838. Ber'ser-ker, [from ber, "bare," and serk, "coat of mail,"] a legendary Scandinavian hero of the eighth century, celebrated for his strength and valour. He fought without coat of mail or helmet, whence his name. The name Berserkers was also applied to a class of war- riors who, under the influence of a sort of demoniac possession, fought naked, performing marvellous feats of valour, unmindful or insusceptible of wounds. See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexlkon." Bersmann,bgRs'm^n,[Lat. Bersman''nus,](Gregor,) a German scholar, born at Annaberg, in Saxony, about 1536. He translated the Psalms into Latin verse, and published editions of several classics. Died in 1611. See W. Schubert, "De G. Bersmanno Philologo et Poeta," 1853. Berta, b^R^ta, (Francesco,) born about 1719, at Turin, v.Miere he became one of the keepers of the royal library. Died in 1787. Bertaire or Berthaire, Saint, s^N^blR't^R', born about 810, was descended from the kings of France. He became, in 856, abbot of the monastery of Monte-Casino. He was killed by the Saracens in 884. See Mabili.on, "Acta Sanctorum Ordinis Sancti Benedict!." Bertana. b^R-t^'uc^, (Lucia,) an Italian poetess, born about 1530 ; died in 1567. Bertani, beR-ta^iee, or Bertano, (Giovanni Bat- TiSTA,) an Italian painter and architect, was a pupil of Giulio Romano. He worked at Mantua about 1566. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." Bertani, (Lelio,) an Italian musician and composer, born at Brescia about 1520; died in 1600. Bertaut, Bertault, cr Berthaut, pronounced alike b^R'to', born at Valenciennes about 1705, was an excel- lent performer on the violoncello, which he first rendered popular in France. Died in 1756. See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Bertaut, (liLOi,) a French writer, born at Vesoul in 1782, became professor of mathematics at Besan^on about 1800. Died in 1834. Bertaut, (FRANgoiS,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1621, was a favourite with Louis XIII., who ap- pointed him his reader. He was a brother of Madame de Motteville. (See Motteville.) Bertaut, (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic and popular poet, born at Caen about 1560, rose to be Bishop of See?: in 1606, and almoner to Mary de Medicis, queen of Henry IV. It is said that he contributed much to the conver- sion of Henry IV. to Catholicism. He composed pas- torals, songs, elegies, and other poems, which were much admired. Many of them were translated into Greek and Latin. He was an uncle of Madame de Motteville the authoress. Died in 1611. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Sainte- Beuve, "De la Poesie Frangaise au seizleme Siecle." Bertaut, (Leonard,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Autun ; died in 1662. Bertaux, beii'tS', (Duplessi,) a French artist, en- graved the "Campaigns of Napoleon in Italy," after Vernet. Died in 181 5. Bertel, b^R'tel, or Bertels, bgR^tels, (Jan,) a Flem- ish ecclesiastic and historical writer, born at Louvain in 1559 ; died in 1607. Ber''tha or Ber'trade, called also E''dith-ber'ga, a daughter of Caribert, King of Paris, lived about 560 a.d. She w^as married to Ethelbcrt, King of Kent, whom she persuaded to embrace Christianity. See Le Bas, " Dictionnaii'e encyclopedique de la France." Ber'tha, [Fr. Berthe, baRt,] a daughter of Conrad, King of Burgundy, was married to Robert, King of Paris, her cousin in the fourth degree, about 995, and after- wards divorced on account of relationship. Berthaire. See Ijertaire, Saint. Berthault, beR'to', (Louis Martin,) a French archi- tect, born in Paris about 1771, was commissioned by Napoleon to execute a number of public works. He furnished the designs for the principal parks and gardens of France. See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." Berthault, (Pierre,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Sens, lived about 1600-50. Berthault, (Rene,) a French litterateur, translated the "Golden Book" of Marcus Aurelius. Died in 1534. Berthaut. See Bertaut. Berthe. See I'ertha. Berthegene. See Berthezene. Berthelemy, b^R^tarme', (Jean Simon,) a French historical painter, born at Laon in 1743 ; died in 1811. Berthelet, (Gregoire.) See Berthelot. Berthelin, bCRt'ldN', (Pierre Charles,) a French writer on lexicography, born in Paris about 1720; died in 1780. Berthelot, hhvx'W , (Claude Francois,) a French mechanician, engineer, and professor of mathematics, born at Chateau-Chalons in 1718. He published "Me- chanics applied to the Arts, Manufactures, Agriculture, and War," (1782.) Died in 1800. See Le Bas, "Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." Berthelot or Berthelet, (Gregoire,) a French Bene- dictine writer, born at Berain in 1680 ; died in 1745. Berthelot, (Jean FRANgois,) a French jurist, and professor of law in Paris, where he was born in 1749; died in 1814. Berthelot, (N.,) a French satiric poet, born about 1580. Berthereau, bgRt^ro', (Georges Franqois,) a French ecclesiastic and philologist, born at Belesme in 1732; died in 1794. Berthet, beR''ti', (Elie Bertrand,) a French novel- ist, born at Limoges in 181 5. He became a resident of Paris in 1834, and produced many successful novels, among which are "The Poacher," ("Le Braconnier," a, e, T, o, u, y, long; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, \i, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obsaire; far, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; md^m; BERTHET 343 BERTHOUD 1S46,) "The Storks' Nest," ("LeNidde Cigognes," 1848,) and "The Catacombs of Paris," (8 vols., 1854.) Bertliet, (Jean,) a French Jesuit and writer, born at Tarascon in 1622 ; died in 1692. Bertliezene, bCRt'zaN', written also Berthegene, (Pierre,) a French baron, born in Herault in 1775, gained the rank of general of division by his conduct at Bautzen and Lutzen in 1813. He had a prominent part in the conquest of Algeria. Berthier, beR'te-i',(GuiLLAUME Franqois,) a French Jesuit and critic, born at Issoudun in 1704, wrote a con- tinuation (in 6 vols.) of the "History of the Galilean Church." He edited the "Journal de Trevoux" for many years. Died in 1782. Berthier, (Joseph Etienne,) a French Cartesian phi- losopher, born at Aix in 1702, was an Oratorian, He published, besides other works, " The Nature of Comets," ("La Physique des Cometes," 1760,) and "The Princi- ples of Physics," (1763.) Died in Paris in 1783. Berthier, (Louis Alexandre,) Prince of Wagram, was born at Versailles in November, 1753. He served as captain under La Fayette in the United States, (1778- 82,) and in 1796 became chief of staff of the army of Bonaparte, with the rank of general of division. He gained in this campaign the favour and confidence of Bonaparte, whom he followed in 1798 to Egypt, and aided in his victory over the Directory in 1799, soon after which he became minister of war. He was made a marshal of France in 1804, distinguished himself in the campaign against Austria in 1805, and received the title of Prince of Neufchatel in 1806. During the absence of Napoleon, in 1809, Berthier had for a short time the title of general-in-chief of the grande armee. For his services at the battle of Wagram, in 1809, he was created Prince of Wagram. In this and subsequent campaigns he was chief o*i the staff, and usually rode in the carriage of Napoleon, whose plans and orders he digested and despatched with admirable precision and promptitude. He was not, however, equal to the chief command of an army. He shared the disasters of the Russian campaign. In 1814 he was among the first of the generals to give his adhesion to Louis XVIII., by whom he was raised to the peerage. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, Berthier wished to be neutral, and retired to Bamberg, where he met a violent death in March, 1815. Six men in masks (says the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale") threw him from a window into the street, whence he was taken up in a dying condition ; but this story is discre- dited by some writers. See "Memoires d'A. Berthier," Paris, 1826. Berthier, (Napoleon Louis Joseph Alexandre,) Duke of Wagram, the only son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1810. He entered the Chamber of Peers in 1836, and about 1848 became a partisan of Louis Napoleon. In 1852 he was made a senator. He is distinguished as a practical agriculturist. Berthier, (Pierre,) a French mineralogist, born at Nemours in 1772, became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1827. His chief work is a "Treatise on Assays by the Dry Method," (" Traite des Essais par la Voie seche," 11 vols., 1833.) Died in August, 1861. Berthold. See Bertiioldus. Berthold, b^R'tolt, a Saxon ecclesiastic, who was distinguished for his zeal in converting the Livonians to Christianity. He was killed in 1198, while endeavour- ing to propagate his doctrines by force of arms. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgeineine Encyklopaedie." Berthold, a German ecclesiastic and eminent pulpit orator ; died in 1272, Berthold, (Arnold Adolf,) a German savant, born at Soest, in Westphalia, in 1 803, He published a " Man- ual of the Physiology of Men and Animals," (2 vols., 1829,) a " Manual of Zoology," (1845,) and several works on comparative anatomy and physiology. He became a professor at Gottingen in 1836. Diecfin 1861. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Ber-thol'dus or Berthold, bgR'tolt, called also Ber- naldus, Bernoul, and Bertoiil, a German ecclesiastic, \yho lived about 1060, wrote, in Latin, a history of his times, and other works. Bertholet, b^R'to'LV, (Jean,) a Flemish Jesuit, born at Salm, wrote the "Ecclesiastical and Civil History ot the Duchy of Luxembourg," (1741.) Died in 1755. Bertholet-Flemalle. See Flemalle. Berthollet, beu'to'la', (Claude Louis,) a French chemical philosopher of great eminence, was born at Tail lore or Talloire, near Annecy, Savoy, on the 9th of November, 1748. He was educated at Turin, where he took his degree in medicine in 1768. In 1772 he re- moved to Paris, and by the mediation of Tronchin became physician to the Duke of Orleans, with whom he enjoyed facilities for his chemical investigations. He produced " Researches on the Nature of Animal Substances" in 1780, and about this time was admitted into the Acad- emy of Sciences. In 1785 he announced his conversion to the anti-phlogistic theory of Lavoisier, which no other eminent French chemist had yet adopted, and presented a memoir on oxy-muriatic acid, (chlorine.) He discovered the composition of ammonia in 1785, proved that nitro- gen is an essential principle in the composition of animal substances, and in an essay on pruss^c acid (1787) main- tained that oxygen is not necessary to the formation of acids. About this time he rendered an important ser- vice by inventing the process of bleaching by chlorine. In 1790 he published a good work on the art of dyeing, " Elemens de I'Art de la Teinture." He was chosen professor of chemistry in the Polytechnic School in 1794, and was sent to Italy with Monge in 1796 to select works of art and science which should be taken to Paris as spoils. He was associated with Lavoisier and others in reforming the nomenclature of chemistry. Berthollet is said to have been the only one to whom Bonaparte con- fided in advance the secret of his expedition to Egypt, (1798,) which he accompanied. Under the auspices of Monge and Berthollet, the Institute of Egypt was founded; and a number of their pupils made a grand application of the lessons of the Polytechnic School. He explained the formation of the carbonate of soda at Lake Natron, and discovered a valuable mode of obtaining muriatic acid from common salt, then called muriate of soda. Berthollet was one of the few select friends who re- turned to France with Bonaparte in 1799, about the end of which year he was made a senator. His " Researches on the Laws of Affinity" (1801) was translated into English by Farrel, (1804.) In 1803 he published an able "Essay on Chemical Statics," ("Essai de Statique chi- mique," 2 vols.,) which was translated into English and other languages. In the last-named work he controverted the opinions of Bergman on elective affinity. During the empire he received the title of Count ; but he always preserved his simplicity and love of study. He discov- ered how to keep water pure in voyages by carbonizing the inside of the cask or other vessel. On the restora- tion of the Bourbons he was admitted to the Chamber of Peers. He died at Arcueil, near Paris, on the 6th of November, 1822, or, according to some writers, on the 6th of December of that year. See CuviER, "]£loge de Berthollet," 1824; E. F. Jomard, "No- tice siir la Vie et les Ouvrages de Berthollet," 1823; Jui.ia de FoNTENELLE, " Notice histoiique sur Berthollet," 1826; Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Bertholon, beR'toOSN', (Pierre,) a French physi- cian and savant, born at Lyons in 1742, was a friend of Dr. Franklin. He wrote a treatise on the " Electricity of Meteors," (1787,) and other similar works. Died in 1800. See "Biographie Medicale." Berthon, beR'toN', (Rene Th^:odore,) a French artist, born at Tours in 1778, painted history at Vienna and Paris. Berthot, b^R'to', (Clement Louis Charles,) a French writer, born in Haute-Marne in 1758, wrote a "History of the French Revolution," (18 vols., 1792- 1803.) Died in 1832. Berthoud, b^R'too', (Ferdinand,) a Swiss mecha- nician and writer, born in the county of Neufchatel about 1725, was the inventor of marine clocks. He was a member of the Institute of France and of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1807. Berthoud, (Samuel Henri,) a French journalist and litterateur, born at Cambrai in 1804, was successively associate editor of the " Revue des Deux Mondes," the € as <; as s; g hard; g as j; c, H, K, gtittiiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in tJiis. (2i^=See Explanations, p. 23.) BERT I 344 BERTON •* Revue de Paris," and " La Pi esse." He has published romances, poons, and moral and historical treatises. He settled in I'aris ai)out 1832. See (^UEKARD, "La France Litteraire." Berti, bCR^tee, (Alessandro Pompeo,) an Italian ec- clesiastic and historical writer, born at Lucca in 1686. Died in Rome in 1752. Berti, (Giovanni Lorenzo,) an Italian theologian, and professor of ecclesiastical history at Pisa, born at Saravezza in 1696; died in 1766. Berti, (Pietro,) an Italian Jesuit and writer, born at Venice in 1741, was professor of rhetoric at Parma. Died in 1813. Ber'tie, (Richard,) an English Protestant gentleman, who married the Duchess-dowager of Suffolk. In the reign of Mary he retired with his wife to the continent, for refuge from persecution. His son Perp:grine, born in 1555, was an eminent officer, and succeeded Leicester as commander of the English troops in the Low Countries. Died in 1601. Bertie, (Robert,) a son of Peregrine, noticed above, born in 1582, was a military officer, and fought for Charles I. in the civil war. He was created Earl of Linclsey about 1626, and was mortally^ wounded at Edgehill in 1642. • Bertie, (Sir Thomas Hoar,) an English naval com- mander, born in London in 1758. He served against the French in 1778-82, and was made vice-admiral in 1813. Died in 1825. Bertie, (Willoughby,) fourth Earl of Abingdon, an English statesman and political writer. He published " Thoughts on the Letter of Edmund Burke to the She- riffs of Bristol." Died in 1799. Bertier de Sauvigny, beR^te-a' deh soVen^ye', (Louis Benigne Francois,) a French statesman, born about 1742, was intendant of the district of Paris in 1768. He was killed in a mob in 1789, together with his father- in-law Foulon. Bertin, biR'tiN', (Antoine,) a French erotic poet, born in the Isle of Bourbon in 1752. Plis reputation was founded on his poem " Des Amours," (1780.) Died in Saint Domingo in 1790. Bertin, (Antoine,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Droup-Saint-Basle in 1761, became professor of theo- logy at Rheims. Died in 1823. Bertin, (Edouard Francois,) a French landscape- painter, son of Louis Francois, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1797. Among his master-pieces are "The Forest of Fontainebleau," and a "View of the Apen- nines." He became editor or director of the "Journal des Debats" in 1854. Bertin, (Exupere (gk'sii'paiRO Joseph,) a French anatomist of high reputation, born at Tremblay in 1712, published a "Treatise on Osteology," (4 vols., 1754,) and other anatomical and medical works. Died in 1781. See CoNDORCET, "filoge de Bertin." Bertin, (Henri Leonard Jean Baptiste,) a French statesman, born in Perigord in 1719, became controller- general of finance in 1759. Died in 1792. See Lacretelle, " Histoire du dix-huitieme Siecle." Bertin, (Jean Victor,) a French landscape-painter, born in Paris in 1775; died in 1841. Bertin, (Louis FRANgois,) a French journalist and litterateur, born in Paris in 1766. He founded in 1800 the "Journal des Debats," a literary daily paper, to which Chateaubriand and other eminent writers of the time were contributors. Accused by Napoleon of favouring the royalists, he was first imprisoned and afterwards exiled, and in 1811 his journal was confiscated. He had then twenty thousand subscribers or more. In 1814 he resumed its publication. Died in 1841. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Bertin, (Louis Marie Armand,) son of the preced- ing, born in Paris in 1801. He succeeded his father as editor of the "Journal des Debats" in 1841. Died in 1854. Bertin, (Louise Ang^;lique,) daughter of Louis Fran- 9ois, born at Roches in 1805, studied music under Fetis, and composed the operas of " Esmeralda" and " Faust." See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Bertin, (Nicolas,) a French painter, born in Paris in 1667. He became a professor in the Academy of Paris in 1716. Among his works is " Saint Philip baptizing the Eunuch." Died in 1736. Bertin, (Rene Joseph Hyacinthe,) a French phy- sician and medical writer, son of Exupere Joseph, noticed above, born near Rennes in 1767; died in 1827. Bertin, (Th^:odore Pierre,) a French litterateicr, born near Provins in 1751. He translated into French the " Curiosities of Literature" and other English works. Died in 1819. Bertin, Saint, born at Constance, in Switzerland, fjc- came Abbot of Sithieu, at Saint-Omer, about 695. Died in 709. Bertin d'Antilly, b^R't^N' dSN'te^ye', (Louis Au- GUSTE,) a French dramatic writer, a natural son of Au- guste Louis, noticed below, born in Paris about 1760. He died at Saint Petersburg in 1804. Bertin de Blagny, beR'tiN' deh bltn'ye', (Auguste Louis,) a French litterateur, and member of the Academ]' of Inscriptions, lived about 1750. Bertin de Veaux, bgR't^N' deh v6, (Louis Fran- (;:ois,) a French politician and journalist, brother of Louis Fran9ois Bertin, noticed above, born in Paris in 1771. He was one of the founders and managers of the " Jour- nal des Debats." He was twice elected to the Chamber of Deputies, became a councillor of state in 1827, and a member of the Chamber of Peers in 1832. Died in 1842. Bertini, beR-tee'nee, (Antonio Francesco,) an Ital- ian physician, born at Castel-Fiorentino in 1658; died in 1726. Bertini, (Giuseppe Maria Saverio,) a physician and medical writer, son of the preceding, born at Florence in 1694 ; died in 1756. Bertini, ber-tee'nee, (Henri,) a composer and pianist, born in London in 1798, lived many years in Paris. He composed for the piano some works which are highly commended by Fetis. Bertini, (Salvatore,) an Italian musician and com- poser, born at Palermo in 1 72 1, became chapel-master to the king. Died in 1794. Bertius, bSR'te-us, (Peter,) born at Baveren, in Flan- ders, in 1565, was historiographer and cosmographer of Louis XIII., and published a work entitled. "Theatre of Ancient Geography," (in Latin, 1619.) Died in 1629. See NiCERON, "Memoires;" Walckenaek, "Vies de plusieurs Personnages celebres," 1830. Bertlef, beRt^Sf, (Martin,) a German writer, born in Transylvania, was professor at Thorn in 1699. He pub- lished "Solemn and Civil Orations," (or "Assemblies,") (" Solennes et Civiles Conciones," 1695.) Bertling, bgRt'ling, (Ernst August,) a German theologian, born at Osnabrlick in 1721 ; died in 1769. Bertola. See Bertolt. Bertolacci, blR-to-l^t'chee, (Antonio,) a magistrate of Corsican extraction, born in England, was appointed by the government administrator and controller-general of the island of Ceylon, which post he filled for seventeen years. He wrote a " View of the Agricultural, Com- mercial, and Financial Interests of Ceylon," (1817.) Died in 1833. Bertoli, b^R'to-lee, or Bertola, blR^to-lS, (Aurelio Giorgio,) an Italian author and monk, born at Rimini in 1753. He lectured on history at Naples, and \>as afterwards professor of belles-lettres at Pavi'a. He ttans lated the works of Horace, and Gesner's Idylls, into Ital ian, and wrote, besides several able critical essa)S, a poenc on the death of Clement XIV., entitled " Le Notti Cle- mentine," which was received with favour. Died at Rome in 1798. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Bertoli, (Giovanni Domenico,) an Italian antiquary, born at Mereto, in the Friuli, in 1676; died after 1750. Bertolio, bCR^to'le-o', (Antoine Rene Constance,) a French jurist, born at Avignon, was appointed by Napoleon chief judge of Guadeloupe. Died in 1812. Bertolotti, bcR-to-lot'tee, (Giovanni Lorenzo,) an Italian historical painter, born at Genoa in 1640; died in 1 72 1. Berton, b§R't6N', (£mile Adolphe Joseph,) a French physician and writer, born at Din ant in 1801, was a son of "General Berton, executed in 1822. Died in 1855. Berton, (Francois,) son of Henri Montan, noticed a, e,T, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; BERTON 345 BERTRAMS below, born in Paris in 1 784, produced a number of ballads and comic operas. Died in 1832. Berton, (Henri Montan — moN^tS.N',) a popular French composer, son of Pierre Montan, noticed below, born in Paris in 1766. His works include oratorios, songs, and operas, one of which is entitled " Aline, Queen of Golconda." Died in 1844. See Fetis, " Biographie Uiiiverselle des Musiciens." Berton, (Jean Baptiste,) a French general of brigade, born near Sedan in 1769. He was a member of the Carbonari, and in 1822 was executed, by order of Louis XVIIL, for having headed an insurrection against the government. See " JMemoire pour le General Berton," 1822. Berton, (Louis Sebastien,) principal of the military school of Brienne, where he was born in 1745. Among his pupils was Napoleon Bonaparte, who, on becoming First Consul, made him director of the Lyceum of Arts at Compicgne. Diedini8ii. See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." Berton, (Pierre Montan,) a French composer, born in Paris in 1727. He became director of the Opera in 1767. Died in 1780. A great reform in dramatic music was effected under his administration. Ber'ton, (William,) chancellor of Oxford University, lived about 1380. He wrote several Latin treatises against Wickliffe. Bertoni, b§R-to'nee, (Ferdinando,) an Italian musi- cian, born at or near Venice in 1727, composed success- ful operas entitled "Orfeo," "Armida," and "Tancredi." Died in Venice about 1800. Bertotti-Scamozzi, b§R-tot'tee skd-mot'see, (Otta- vio,) an Italian architect, born at Vicenza in 1726. He built several fine palaces near Vicenza, and published an edition of Palladio's works. Died about 1800. Bertoul. See Bertholdus. Bertoux, b^R^too', (Guillaume,) a French Jesuit and writer, born in 1723. Bertrade, See Bertha. Bertram, beR'tRam, (August Wilhelm,) a German physician, born in 1752, became in 1787 professor of medicine at Halle. Died in 1788. Bertram, bcR'tRfiN^, (Bonaventure Corneille,) a French Orientalist, born at Thenars, in Poitou, in 1531, became a Protestant minister and professor of Hebrew at Geneva. He wrote, in Latin, a work on the civil and ecclesiastical policy of the Jews, (1580.) Died in 1594. Ber'tram, (Charles,) an English antiquary and phi- lologist, born about 1700, was professor of the English language in the Royal Marine Academy at Copenhagen. Bertram, (Christian Aucjust,) a German littcrateicr and journalist, born at Berlin in 1751 ; died in 1830. Bertram, (Johann Friedrich,) a German Lutheran theologian, born in 1699 ; died in 1741. Bertram, (Johann Georg,) a German theologian, born at Liineburg in 1670; died in 1728. Bertram, (Philipp Ernst,) a German jurist and writer, born at Zerbst in 1726, was professor of law at Halle in 1761. Died in 1777. Bertrand, b^R''tR6N', (Antoine Marie,) a French revolutionist, was appointed mayor of Lyons in 1792. He was condemned to death by the Directory, and exe- cuted in 1796. Bertrand, b^R'tRfiN', (£lie,) a Swiss naturalist and geologist, born at Orbe in 1712. He became pastor of a church at Berne about 1744, published "Memoirs on the Interior Structure of the Earth," (1752,) a " General Dic- tionary of Fossils," (2 vols., 1763,) and other scientific works. He also wrote some moral and religious treatises. Died about 1790. Bertrand, (Francois Seraphiqiie — sa'rt'fek',) a French jurist and poet, born at Nantes in 1702; died in 1752. Bertrand or Bertrandi, biR-tRinMee, (Jean,) a French statesman and cardinal, born in 1470, was keeper of the seals under Henry II. and afterwards became Archbishop of Sens. Died in 1560. Bertrand, (Jean,) a Swiss divine and miscellaneous writer, brother of £lie, noticed above, born at Orbe in 1708. He wrote several agricultural treatises, and made translations from the English. Died in 1777. Bertrand, (Jean Baptiste,) a French physician, born at Martigue, in Provence, in 1670, practised at Marseilles. He wrote, among other works, a " Historical Account of the Plague of Marseilles in 1720." Died in 1752. Bertrand, (Jean Baptiste,) a French ecclesiastic and litterateur, born at Cernay-les-Reims in 1764, pub- lished several works on Etymology. Died in 1830. Bertrand, (Jean Elie,) a Swiss moralist and religious writer, born at Neufchatel in 1737. He was pastor of a French church at Berne. Died in 1779. Bertrand, (Joseph Louis FRANgois,) a French ma- thematician, born in Paris in 1822, was admitted into the Institute in 1856. He published several able works on Algebra, etc. Bertrand, L'Abbe, a French astronomer, born at Autun in 1755, became professor of physics in the college of Dijon, (1782.) Died in 1792. Bertrand, (Louis,) a Swiss mathematician and geolo- gist, born at Geneva in 1731, was a pupil of Euler. He wrote " Elements of Geometry," (1812,) and other inathe- matical treatises. He obtained a professorship at Geneva in 1761. Died in 1812. See CuviER, " Discourssur las Revolutions de la Surface du Globe." Bertrand, (Louis Jacques Napoleon Aloysius,) a French poet, born in Piedmont in 1807 ; died in 1841. Bertrand, (Philippe,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1664; died in 1724. Bertrand, (Philippe,) a French engineer and geolo- gist, born near Sens in 1730. He published several works on Navigation and Geology, and was engineer of a canal connecting the Rhine with the Rhone. Died iu Paris in 1811. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Bertrand, (Thomas Bernard,) a French physician and medical writer, born in Paris in 1682, became dean of the faculty in 1740. Died in 1751. See "Biographie jNIedicale." Bertrand d'Alamanon, bCR'tRSN' dt'la^mfnoN', or d'Allamon, dt'lS'moN', a French troubadour, born in Provence about iioo. Bertrand de Born. See Born. Bertrand de la Hosdiniere, beR^tRoN' deh It ho' de'ne-aiR', (Charles Ambroise,) a French magistrate, and member of the National Convention, sided with the Girondists, and voted for the death of the king. He became in 1798 a member of the Council of Five Hun- dred. Died in 1819. See Le Bas, "Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." Bertrand de Molleville, de, deh b^R'tRdN' deh mol'- v^K, (Antoine pRANgois,) Marquis, a French states- man, born at Toulouse in 1744. He was appointed minister of the marine in October, 1 791, but held that office only a few months. He wrote a " History of the French Revolution," (14 vols., 1800-1803,) and other works. He was proscribed as a royalist in August, 1792, but escaped by flight. Died in Paris in 181 8. Bertrand, de, deh bgR'tRdN', (Henri Gratien,) Comte, a French general, born at Chateauroux in 1773. He served in Egypt, Austria, and Russia, and in 1815 accompanied Napoleon to Saint Helena. After his re- turn to France, he was elected to the Chamber of Depu- ties. He died in 1844, leaving in manuscript "Memoirs of the Campaigns of Egypt and Syria, dictated by Na- poleon at Saint Helena." They were published in two volumes (1847) by the son of Count Bertrand. See "Victoires et Conquetes des Fran^ais ;" L. de Lomenie, " Galerie des Contemporains ;" Paulin, "Notice biographique sur le General Comte Bertrand," 1847. Bertrandi, bgR-tR^nMee, (Giovanni Antonio Ma- ria,) an Italian surgeon, born at Turin in 1723, wrote several medical and anatomical works, which are highly esteemed. He was professor of surgery in Turin, and chief surgeon to the king. Died in 1765. See "Biographie Medicale." Bertrandi, (Jean.) See Bertrand. Bertrandi, bgR'tRdNMe', (Nicolas,) a French jurist, and professor of law at Toulouse, wrote a historical ac- count of Toulouse, ("De Tholosanorum Gestis," 1515.) Died in 1527. Bertrans, b^R'tRdN', surnamed Clerc, (klCRk,) a French poet and romance-writer of the thirteenth century. € as k; c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BERTUCH 346 BESKOW Bertuch, b^u'tooK, (Friedricii Justin,) a German litterateur -AWfS. journalist, born at Weimar in 1747. He published, in ci)iijiiiictiun with Seckendorf and Zanthier, the "Magazine ol" Spanish and Portuguese Literature," and translated " Don Quixote" into German. His tragedy of "Eltrida," (1775,) and his "Picture-Book for Chil- dren," (" Biiderbuch fiir Kinder,") enjoy great popu- larity. Died in 1822. See r.ROCKHAUS, " Coiiversations-Lexikon ;" "Nouvelle Bio- graphic Geiieiale." Bei'tusio, beR-too''se-o, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter and pupil of the Caracci. Died about 1650. Bertuzzi, bCR-toot'see, (Nicculo,) an Italian painter, born at Ancona, worked at Bologna. Died in 1777. BeruUe, ba'riiK, [Lat. Berul'lus,] (Pierre,) an emi- nent French cardinal and statesman, born near Troyes in 1575, was the founder of the congregation of the Ora- tory (Oratoire) in France, and first superior of the order of the Carmelites, which he also instituted. He was sent on embassies to Spain and to Rome, and was afterwards appointed minister of state, in which post his abilities and virtues excited the jealousy of Cardinal Richelieu. He died in 1629, leaving sermons and controversial writings which are highly esteemed. The piety and learning of Cardinal Berulle are warmly eulogized by Bossuet. See Habert de Cerisy, "Vie de Berulle," 1646: M. M. Taba- RAUD, " Hisloire de P. de HeruUe, Cardinal," etc., 2 vols., 1S17 ; Louis DoNi d'Attichy, "De Vita et Rebus gestis P. Berulli Cardinalis," 1649. Berullus. See Berulle. Bervic, bCR'v^k'', (Charles Clement,) an eminent French engraver, born in Paris in 1756, was a pupil of J. George Wille. Among his master-pieces are a full-length portrait of Louis XVI., a print of Laocoon, the "Rape of Dejanira," after Guido, and the "Education of Achil- les," after Regnault. Died in 1822. See Le Bl.'VKC, "Manuel de I'Amateur d'Estampes." Berville, beR'veK, (Saint-Albin, siN^ttKb^N^,) an advocate-general in the royal court of Paris, born at Amiens in 1788, was a contributor to the "Revue Ency- clopedique" and other journals. Berwick, ber'rik or ber^wik, (James Fitz-James,) Dqke of, born in 1660, was a natural son of James II. of England and Arabella Churchill, sister of the Duke of Marlborough. He served in Austria under Charles of Lorraine, and in 1688, after an unsuccessful attempt to oppose the Prince of Orange, retired with James II. to France. Having been naturalized in 1703, he was appointed commander of the French army in Spain in 1704. He gained a signal victory over the Spaniards at Almanza in 1707, wdiich established Philip V. on the throne. He was created by that sovereign Duke of Liria and Xerica, having previously been made a mar- shal. He was killed at the siege of Philipsburg in 1734. See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. v. ; Monte.squieu, " filoge historique du Due de Berwick;" Due de Berwick, " Me- moires depuis 1685 jusqu'en 1734," 2 vols. Svo, 1778; "Life of J. Fitz-James, Duke of Berwick," Dublin, 1738. Be-ryPlus, [Gr. BepDAXof,] Bishop of Bostra or Bozra, in A.rabia, maintained that Christ had no existence be- fore his incarnation. He was converted from this belief by Origen in 244 A.D. Berze, b^Rz, or Bersil, bgR''seK, (Hugues,) a French satiric poet, lived about 1230. Berzel. See Berzelius. Ber-ze'li-us, [Sw. pron. bgR-zTT'le-us,] (or Berzel, b^Rf'sel,) (JoHAN Jakob,) Baron, a celebrated Swedish chemist, was born near Linkoping, in East Gothland, on the 20th of August, 1779. He is said to have been the son of a parish schoolmaster. He studied medicine and chemistry at the University of Upsal, where he graduated in 1804. In 1806 he became professor of chemistry at Stockholm, and began to edit, in conjunc- tion with Hisinger, " Memoirs of Physical Philosophy, Chemistry, and Mineralogy," (6 vols., 1806-18,) for which he wrote forty-seven important articles. Among his first publications was an able "Treatise on Animal Chemistry, (2 vols., 1806.) He was chosen president of the Academy of Sciences in 1810, and perpetual secre- tary of the same in 1818. He was greatly distinguished by his skill and precision as an annalist, and enriched many departments of chemistry by his researches. His great work is a "System of Chemistry," (" Larebok i Kemien," 3 vols., 1808-18,) which was translated into English and other languages. He contributed much to perfect the atomic tlieory after Dalton, and proposed a chemical nomenclature which was received with great favour in the north of Europe. He discovered selenium, thorium, and perhaps other elementary substances. It was his researches that gave the first impulse to modern organic chemistry. We owe to him a greater number of accurate analyses than to any other chemist of his time. At the recjuest of the academy, he produced "Annual Reports on the Progress of Physics, Chemistry, and Mineralogy," (27 vols., 1821- 48,) which are highly prized and contain many judicious criticisms. He resigned his professorship about 1832, and received from the king the title of " Freiherr," or baron, soon after that date. He married about the age of fifty-two. Died in August, 1848. See B. VON Beskow, "Tai ofver Professoren J. Berzelius," 1848 ; G. ForChhammer, "J. J. Berzelius," Stockholm, 1849; Louyet, " Notice sur la Vie et les Travaux de J.J. Berzelius," 1849; L. de Lomenie, " Galerie des Contemporains." Berzsenyi, bgR'zhan-yee, (Daniel,) a Hungarian lyric poet, born at Heteny in 1776; died in 1836. Besangon, beh-soN^soN^, (Etienne Modeste,) a French litterateur and ecclesiastic, born near Beaune in 1730. He wrote "The Old Market Town," (" Le Vieux Bourg,") a mock-heroic and satirical poem, (1779,) which passed through several editions. Died in 1816. See Querard, "La France Litteraire." Besard, beh-zSR^ (Jean Baptiste,) a French physi- cian and writer, born at Besan9on about 1576. Besborodko, bes-bo-rod'ko, (Alexander,) Prince, a Russian statesman, born in Little Russia in 1742, was patronized by Catherine II., who appointed him secre- tary of state in 17S0. Died in 1799. Bescherelle, bisl/reK, (Louis Nicolas,) an eminent French grammarian and lexicographer, born in Paris in 1802. He was appointed librarian of the Louvre in 1828. He has pul^lished, besides several works on grammar, a French dictionary, (" Dictionnaire National," 2 vols., 1843-46,) which is regarrled as the be-^t in tlie language. A younger brother of the preceding, known as Besche- relle Jeune, born at Paris in 1804, has published a "Complete Course of the French Language," (6 vols., 1852.) See "Notice blograpliique sur I\L Bescherelle aine," 1847. Beschi, bes'kee, (Constantino Giuseppe,) an Italian Jesuit and missionary, resided many years in India. He wrote, in Latin, a "Grammar of the High Dialect of the Tamil Language," and other similar works. Died in 1742. See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." Bescliitzi, bi-shet'see, (Elias,) a Jewish theologian, born at Adrianople about 1420, was surnamed the By- zantine, from his residing at Constantinople. He pub- lished "The Mantle of Elias," esteemed a standard work by the Jews. Died in 1490. See Bartolocci, " Bibliotheca Latino-Hebraica." Beseler, ba'zeh-ler, (Karl Georg Christian,) a German jurist, born near Husum in 1809, became pro- fessor of law at Rostock in 1837. Beseler, (Wilhelm Hartwig,) a German politician, a brother of the preceding, born in Oldenburg in 1806. He w^as an active promoter of the revolt of Sleswick and Holstein against Denmark in 1848. Besenval, de, deh beh-zoN'vtK, (Pierre Victor,) Baron, a Swiss officer, born at Soleure in 1722, entered the French service and attained the rank of lieutenant- general. His " Memoirs" (4 vols.) were published in 1805. Died in 1791. See " Memoiresde M. le Baron de Besenval, ecrits par lui-meme," Paris, 1805. Besenzi, bi-sen'zee, (Paolo Emilto,) an Italian painter, born at Reggio about 1624; died in 1666. Besiers, beh-ze-^', (Michel,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Bayeux iii~T7i9, wrote a "History of the City of Bayeux," (1773.) Died in 1782. Beskow, bes'kov, (Bernard,) a Swedish poet ■^x\^\ dramatist, born at Stockholm in 1796. His tragedy 01 "Torkel Knutsson," esteemed one of the best of Swedish plays, was translated into German and Danish by Oeh- a, e, T, o, li, y, long; \, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obseiwe; fir, f^ll, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; BESLER 347 BESSIERES lenschlager, as well as the tragedies of " Hildegarde," " Gustaf Adolf i Tyskland," and others. He also wrote a collection of poems, and " Recollections of Travel," (" Vandrings-minnen.") In 1833 he was appointed mar- shal of the royal household, and subsequently became perpetual secretary of the Swedish Academy. He ob- tained the rare distinction of being made a doctor of philosophy by the University of Upsal in 1842. See Bkockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Besler, bes'ler, (Basil,) a German botanist and phar- macist, born at Nuremberg in 1561, i^ublished several botanical works in Latin. The genus Eesiera was named in his honour by Plumier. Died in 1629. Besler, (Michael Robert,) a German physician, nephew of the preceding, born at Nuremberg in 1607 ; died in 1661. Besly, bale', (Jean,) a French jurist and writer, born at Couionges-les-Royaux, in Poitou, in 1572 ; died in 1644. Besnard, bes'ntR'',(FRANgois Joseph,) born at Busch- weiler, ii^ Alsace, in 1748, became first physician to Maxi- milian, Count Palatine. He introduced vaccination into Bavaria, and wrote on the abuse of mercury. Died in 1814. Besnier, ba'ne-a'', (Pierre,) a French Jesuit, born at Tours in 1648, wrote a "Discourse on the Science of Etymologies." Died in 1705. Bes'o-dun [Lat. Besodu'nus] or Bcs'ton, (John,) a prior of the Carmelites at Lynn, in England, wrote a " Comi)endium of Moral Theology," (in Latin.) Died in 1428. Besoigne, beh-swSfi', (Jerome,) a French Janscnist, born in Paris in 1686, wrote a "History of the Abbey of Port-Royal," (8 vols., 1756,) and other works. Died in 1763- Besold, ba'zolt, or Besolde, ba-zoKdeh, (Chris- TOPH,) a German jurist, and professor of law at Tubingen, where he was born in 1577. Died in 1638. Besonibes de Saint-Genies, beh-zoMb' deh s^n'- zheh-ne-i', (Pierre Louis,) a French litterateur, born at Cahors in 17 19. Died in 1783. Besozzi, bi-sot'see, (Alessandro,) an Italian musi- cian, born in 1700, was patronized by the King of Sar- dinia. His brothers, Girolamo, Antonio, and Gae- TANO, were distinguished musicians. Besplas, de, deh bes'plS', (Joseph Marie Anne Gros — gRo,) a French theologian, born at Castelnaudary in 1734, wrote an "Essay on Pulpit Eloquence," and other works. Died in 1783. See QuERAKD, " La France Litt^raire." Bessa, bi'st', (Pancrace,) a French painter of flowers and fruits, l)orn in Paris in 1772 ; died after 1830. Bessaraba, bes-sa'ra'bS, a powerful familv, which gave a name to Bessarabia, a region comprised between the Pruth and the Dniester. Bessaraba, (Constantine Brancovan,) was elected vaivode in 1688, and became the secret agent of Leopold of Austria. In order to relieve himself from the Turkish yoke, he formed an alliance with Peter the Great about 1709. But he proved to be a treacherous ally in the war which Peter waged against the Turks in 1711. He was put to death, by order of the Sultan, in 1 714. See Cantemir, "History of the Ottoman Empire.'^ Bessaraba, (Matthew Brancovan,) reigned over Wallachia from 1633 to 1654. Bessaraba, (Michael,) the Brave, born about 1558, was elected vaivode in 1592. He was a warlike prince, and made himself master of Transylvania by conquest. He A^as assassinated in 1601. Bessaraba, (Mirce,) Vaivode of Wallachia, was a son of Rudolph II., and was elected in 1382. He waged war against the Turks, to whom he was forced to become tributary in 1393. Died in 1418. Bessaraba, (Rudolph,) was the founder of the prin- cipality of Wallachia. Died in 1265. Bes-sa'ri-on, (John,) sometimes called Basil, a learned Greek cardinal, born at Trebizond about 1390. He was sent in 1438 by the emjDeror John Palaeologus \o the Council of Ferrara, to assist in effecting a union between the Greek and Latin Churches. He was created Archbishop of Siponto by Nicholas V., and in 1463 ob- tained the title of Patriarch of Constantinople from Pius II. He was a zealous promoter of Greek literature, and translated into Latin the " Metaphysics" of Aristotle and the "Memorabilia" of Xenophon. Died in 1472. See AuBERY, " Histoire des Cardinaux ;" A. Bandini, "DeVitaet Rebus gestis Bessarionis Cardinalis," 1777; O. Raggi, " Conimentario sulIa Vita del Cardinale Bessarione," 1844. Besse, ba'sa', (Guillaume,) a l^rench jurist and writer, born at Carcassonne, wrote a " History of the Dukes, Marquises, and Counts of Carcassonne," (1660.) Died in 1680. Besse, (Pierre,) a doctor of the Sorbonne, born at Rosiers, in Limousin, was preacher to Louis XIII. and the Prince of Conde. He had a high reputation for eloquence, and published " The Christian Democritus," and other religious works. Died in 1639. Besse, de, deh ba'sa', (Henri,) a French writer, was a member and secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions. He is the supposed author of an " Account of the Cam- paigns of Rocroi and Friburg in 1643 and 1644," (1673.) Died in 1693. Besse, de, (Joseph,) a French medical writer, born at Peyrusse, in Aveyron, about 1670. He practised in Paris, and published " Analytical Researches on the Structure of the Parts of the Human Body," (2 vols., 1 701,) and other works. He died at an advanced age. Bessel, bes-'sel, (Christian Georg,) a German moral- ist, born at Minden, wrote in German a curious work, (1673,) which was translated into Latin with the title of the " Artificer of Political Fortune," (" Faber Fortunsp political.") Bessel, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) one of the greatest of modern astronomers, was born at Minden, I'russia, on the 22d of July, 1784. He served an apprenticeship - in the counting-house of a merchant of Bremen for about seven years. Among his first scientific labours was the reduction of Harriott's observations on the comet of 1607, which he performed with success at the age of twenty. He was appointed assistant to Schroter at Lilienthal in 1806, and became director of a new obser- vatory, buiit under his superintendence, at Konigsberg, in 1811-12. He was also professor of astronomy in the university of that ])lace. In 181 8 he published an excel- lent work, entitled "Fundamenta Astronomire," deduced from the observations of J. Bradley. He undertook about 1837 the arduous task of ascertaining the annual ])arallax of a fixed star, 61 Cvgni. The result which he obtained, and which is almost immeasurably small, 0^^.374, is generally received as the truth. Among his chief works are "Tabulas Regiomontanae," (1830,) "Determi- nation of the Length of the Simple Seconds' Pendulum," (1837,) "Measure of the Distance of the Star 61 in the Constellation of Cygnus," (1839,) and "Astronomical Observations," (1841-42.) No observatory has contrib- uted more during the present century to the im])rove- ment of every branch of astronomy than that of Konigs- berg under his direction. Bessel was appointed a privy councillor by the King of Prussia, and received several titles of honour. He was author of a great number of treatises published in the " Astronomische Nachrichten." In early life he married a daughter of Professor Hagen. Died in March, 1846. See J. F. W. Hek'^chel, " Brief Notice of the Life and Discover- ies of F. W. Bessel," 1847; C. T. Anger, "Erinnerung an F. W. Bessels Leben und Wirken," 1846. Bessel, von, fon bgs'sel, (Gottfried,) a German chronicler, born at Buchheim in 1672, became abbot of the monastery of Gottwich in 1714. He wrote a "His- tory of Gottwich," in Latin. Died in 1749. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Bessenyi, b§sl/shan-yee, of Galantai, (George,) a Hungarian litterateur, wrote several tragedies, and trans- lated Pope's " Essay on Man." Died about 1810. Be.sser, von, fon bes'ser, (Johann,) a German poet, born at Frauenburg in 1654, became counsellor to the Elector of Brandenl)urg at Berlin. He entered the ser- vice of Augustus, Elector of Saxony, after 1 7 13. Died in 1729. Bessieres, ba^se-aiR', (Jean Baptiste,) a distin- guished French marsTial, born near Cahors in 1768. He served in the campaigns of Italy, Egypt, and Austria, and was made a marshal of France, and grand officer of the legion of honour, in 1804. In 1805 he defeated the Russian army under Kootoosov, and greatly distinguished c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K,giittii7'al; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in t/iis. (^^^See Explanations, p. 23. ) 348 BET HIST BESSIN hims«'lf at the battle of Austerlitz. Appointed, in 1808, to a command in Spain, he was chiefly instrumental by his \!ctoi"ies in placing Joseph Bonaparte on the throne. He was soon after made Duke of Istria by Napoleon. In 1813 he obtained the chief command of all the cavalry, and, while reconnoitring on the morning before the bat- tle of Lutzen, was killed by a shot from the enemy, the 1st of May, 18 13. See " Vicloires et Conqiietes des Fran^ais;" C. Miramont, " Vie de J. B. Bessieres." Bessin, btVsAN', (Dom Guillaume,) a French Bene- dictine monk, born near Evreux in 1654; died in 1736. Besson, ba'soN', (Alexandre,) a French Jacobin, born near Ornans about 1757, became a member of the National Convention, and of the Council of Five Hun- dred. Died in 1826. Besson, (Jacques,) a French mathematician and writer, born at Grenoble, became professor at Orleans in 1569. He invented several instruments. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Besson, (Jacques FRANgois,) born in Ain in 1756. He became liishop of Metz in 1824. Died in 1842. See "Notice sur J. F. Besson," 1842. Besson, (Joseph,) a French Jesuit, born at Carpen- tras in 1607, spent many years as a missionary in Syria. He published in 1660 a work entitled "Missions of the Jesuits in Syria." Died in 169 1. Besson, L'Ahbe, born at Flumet, in Upper Faucigny, wrote " Memoirs towards the Ecclesiastical History of the Dioceses of Geneva, Tarentaise, Maurienne, etc." Died about 1780. Bes'sus, [Gr, B^aao^-,] a satrap of Bactriana, fought for Darius at Gaugamela, accompanied him in his retreat, and murdered him in 330 B.C. He was taken prisoner by the Macedonians and delivered to a brother of Darius, who put him to death. Best, bSst, (Jean,) a French printer and engraver on wood, born at Toul in 1808. He executed illustrations for works published in Prussia, Austria, and other foreign countries, and obtained a medal of the first class at the Exposition of Paris in 1855. Best, bgst, (Willem,) a Dutch jurist and legal writer, born at Amersfort in 1683, became professor of civil law at Harderwick, Died in 1719. Bestelmeier, b^s'tel-mT'er, (Georg,) a German poli- tician and magistrate, born at Schwabach in 1785. Beston. See Besodun, (John.) Bestoozlief or Bestoujev, b^s-too'sh§f, written also Bestoujef, Bestuschew, and Bestouchef, (Al- exander,) a Russian novelist and soldier, born about 1795, was implicated in a conspiracy against the emperor in 1825, and exiled to Siberia. In 1830 he was permitted to join the Russian army, and fell in 1837 in an engage- ment with the Circassian mountaineers. He had pub- lished in 1823, conjointly with Ryleief, a literary journal entitled "The Polar Star." His romances of "Mullah Nur" and "Ammalath Beg" are highly esteemed by his countrymen, and have been translated into German. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Bestoozhef, Bestoujev, or Bestuschew, (Mi- chael Alexis Petrovitch,) a Russian statesman, born at Moscow in 1693. He enjoyed successively the favour of Peter the Great and the empresses Annaand Elizabeth, by the last of whom he was appointed grand chancellor of the empire. He negotiated important treaties with Eng- land, Denmark, and Sweden, and influenced the Russian government to espouse the cause of Austria in the Seven Years' war. In 1758 he was convicted of treason for having endeavoured to exclude the grand duke Peter from the throne, and was stripped of his titles and ex- iled. He was recalled in 1762 by Catherine II., who created him a field-marshal. He died in 1766. The invention of a chemical preparation called "Tinctura tonica nervina Bestuzewi" is attributed to Count Bes- toozhef. See Manstein, " Histoire de Russia;" Rulhi^;re, " Histoire \t I'Anaichie de Pologne." Bestoozhef, Bestoujev, or Bestuschew Riumin, j'is-too^shev re^'min, (or re-u'meen',) (Michael,) a Russian officer, a relative of the preceding, was engaged in the conspiracy of 1825, having for its object the exter- mination of the imperial family. He was executed in 1826, with three of his accomplices. See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." Besuchet, beh-zii'shy, (Jean Claude,) a French physician, born near Paris in 1790, published a "Treatise on Gastritis," (1837,) and a "History of Free-Masonry from its Introduction into France till 1829." See Querard, "La France Litteraire." Betangos, de, di ba-tdn'thos, or Betanzos, (Do- mingo,) a Spanish missionar}^, born at Leon. He visited Hayti about 15 14, and afterwards resided in Mexico, where he laboured earnestly to convert the natives and save them from the tyranny of their rulers. He died in Spain in 1549. See Ternaux-Compans, " Pieces sur la Mexique." Betangos, de, (Juan,) a Spanish historian of the six- teenth century, visited the West Indies, of which he wrcte an account, (still in manuscript.) See Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Betencourt, de, deh ba'tSN'kooR', (Pierre Louis Joseph,) a French iienedictine monk and antiquarian writer, born at Arras in 1743. Died in 1829. Beth'am, (Edward,) an English clergyman, who gave two thousand pounds for a botanical garden at Cambridge, and founded a charity-school. Died in 1 783. Bethani, (Sir William,) an English antiquary and writer on genealogy, born in Suffolk in 1779. In 1812 he was appointed genealogist of the order of Saint Patrick, and soon after deputy-keeper of the records at Dublin. He wrote " On the Origin and History of the Constitution of England and the Early Parliaments of Ireland," (1834,) "On Parliamentary and Feudal Digni- ties," and " Etruscan Literature and Antiquities Inves- tigated." He was foreign secretary of the Irish Academv, and Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, London. Died in 1853. See "London Quarterly Review" for June, 1845; "Blackwood's Magazine" for April, .1845. Beth'ell, (Sir Richard,) an eminent English lawyer and reformer of law, born at Bradford, in Wiltshire, in 1800. He was appointed queen's counsel in 1840, and returned to Parliament for Aylesbury in 1851. About the end of 1852 he became solicitor-general. He was appointed attorney-general in 1856, resigned in 1858, and was reappointed in 1859. He became lord chancellor, with the title of Baron Westbury, in June, 1861, and re- signed in July, 1865. He belonged to the Liberal party in politics. See Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. Bethencourt or Bettencourt, ba'tSN^kooR', (Jac- ques,) a French physician, who practised at Rouen, lived about 1520. Bethencourt, (Jean,) the conqueror of the Canary Islands, was chamberlain of Charles VI. of France. He died in 1425, and his " History of the First Discovery and Conquest of the Canaries in 1402" was published in 1630. See " Histoire de la premiere Descouverte et Conqueste des Cana- ries," Paris, 1630. Bethencourt y Molina, de, deh bcVtON^'kooR' e mo'le^nS', ^UGUsriN,) a descendant of the preceding, was born in the island of Teneriffe in 1760. He studied engineering at Madrid, entered the Russian service in 1808, and executed many important public works. Died in 1826. Bethisy, de, deh ba'te'ze', (Charles,) Comie, a French general, son of the following, born in 1770. He served in the royalist army, and in 1820 was created a peer of France, and lieutenant-general. Died in 1827. Bethisy, de, (Eugene Eustache,) Comte, a French general, nephew of Jean Laurent, noticed below, was born at Moutiers in 1739. He served under Conde in the campaigns of 1792-93, and, after the restoration, was made lieutenant-general. Died in 1823. Bethisy, de, (Jean Laurent,) a French musician, born at Dijon in 1702, wrote an " Exposition of the The- ory and Practice of Music," (1754.) Died about 1770. Bethisy de Mezieres, de, deh bi'te'ze' deh ma'- ze-aiR^, (Henri Benoit Jules,) brother of Eugene Eus- tache, born in 1 744, became Bishop of Uzes in 1780. Died in 1817. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/io?-^; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fdt; m§t; n6t; good; moon BETHLEN 349 BETTINELLI Bethleii, bet'len, (Gabriel,) or Bethien-Gabor, (gi'bor,) an able Magyar general and ruler, born in 1580, became Prince of Transylvania in 1613. He was a Protestant, a friend of religious liberty, and a patron of learning. Having, as commander of the oppressed Hun- garians, defeated the emperor Ferdinand of Austria, he was elected King of Hungary in 1620 ; but he soon re- nounced or lost that kingdom. Died in 1629. See HoRANVi, "Memoria Hungarorum." Bethlen-Bethlen, bet^len-bet'len, (John,) Count, born in 161 3, became Chancellor of Transylvania. He wrote a " History of Transylvania from 1629 to 1663," (in Latin.) Died in 1687. Bethlen-Bethlen, von, fon bet'len bet'leii, (Nico- las,) Count, a German chronicler, son. of the preceding, was born in 1642 ; died in 1 716. Bethlen-Bethlen, von, (Wolfgang,) Count, Chan- cellor of Transylvania, born in 1648, wrote, in Latin, a " History of Transylvania from 1526 to 1609." Died in 1679. Bethmann, bat^mSn, (Frederike Auguste Conra- DiNE,) a celebrated German actress, originally named Flittner, born at Gotha in 1766 ; died in 1814. Bethmann, (Simon Moritz,) a celebrated German banker and philanthropist, born in 1768, was one of the firm of Bethmann Brothers, at Frankfort-on-the-Main. He was ennobled by the emperor Francis of Austria. Died in 1826. Bethmann-Hollweg, von, fon bat'mSn hoKwec, (MuRiTZ August,) a German jurist and writer, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1795. He studied under Sa- vigny at Berlin, where he became professor of civil law, and, in 1827, rector of the university. See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." Bethmont, b^t'moN', (Eugene,) a French lawyer, bom in Paris in 1804, was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1846, and was afterwards appointed minister of justice. Bethune. See Beaton. Bethune. See Sully. Bethune, befTm or barton, (Alexander,) a Scottish writer, born in Fifeshire in 1804, was a poor peasant. 1.1 conjunction with his brother John, he wrote "Tales and Sketches of the Scottish Peasantry." Died in 1843. His brother John was born in 1810 ; died in 1839. Bethune, (Armand Joseph.) Sec Charost. Bethune, [see next article,] (Divie,) a philanthropist, born at Dingwall, Scotland, in 1771, came to America in 1 792, and settled in New York as a merchant. One-tenth of his income was devoted to the cause of religion. He supported Sunday-schools, and imported Bibles for dis- tribution; he printed at his own expense ten thousand tracts, many of which he distributed with his own hand. Died in 1824. See A. R. Van Nest, "Memoir of the Rev. Dr. Geo. W. Bethune," New York, 1S67. Bethune, be-thoon',* (George W.,) D.D., an Ameri- can divine, scholar, and poet, a son of the preceding, was born in the city of New York in 1805. He commenced his education at Columbia College, in his native city, and afterwards graduated at Dickinson College, in Pennsyl- vania. He studied theology at Princeton, and in 1828 became the pastor of a Dutch Reformed church at Rhinebeck, New York. Two or three years afterwards, he removed to Utica. In 1834 he was invited to Phila- delphia, where he became pastor of the First Dutch Re- formed Church of that city. He was not only an eloquent preacher, but an accomplished scholar and an able and successful public lecturer. In 1849 he removed to Brook- lyn, where he continued to reside, for the most part, during the remainder of his life. The anxieties which he 'elt for his country at the commencement of the civil war Ml 1861, preyed upon his health, on account of which he visited Europe in the autumn of that year. After passing some time in France, he arrived at J'lorence in the spring of 1862. Having, while there, imprudently accepted an invitation to preach in public, he was soon after attacked * The name Bethune is the same in its origin as Beaton, Bea- Toux, and Betton ; and it appears, from the" Rev. A. Van Nest's "Memoir," that the name of Dr. Bethinie's father was pronounced in Scotland precisely like Beaton, — i.e. ba'ton or bet'ton. with cerebral symptoms, and died of apoplexy the fol- lowing night, April 27, 1862. Dr. Bethune was dis- tinguished for his fine culture, his genial spirit, and his vivid appreciation of the varied beauties of nature. Among his religious publications are three volumes, en- titled respectively "The P'ruit of the Spirit," "The His- tory of a Penitent," and " Early Lost, Early Saved." He also edited a volume of "British Female Poets," and Walton's "Complete Angler," (1847,) to which he pre- fixed a valuable bibliographical preface. A collection of his poems, entitled "Lays of Love and Faith, with other Fugitive Poems," appeared in 1848. A volume of his lectures before various literary associations and popular assemblies was published in New York in 1850. See A. R. Van Nest's " Memoir of the Rev. Dr. Geo. W. Be- thune," New York, 1867, and "Obituary Notice of Dr. Geo. W. Bethune," read before the American Philosophical Society, by Dr. Roblev Dunglison, October, 1862. ^ Bethune, (John Drinkwater,) Colonel, an Eng- lish officer, born about 1762. He wrote a " History of the Late Siege of Gibraltar," (1785.) Died in 1844. Bethune, (John Elliot Drinkwater,) an English gentleman, born in 1801, was appointed in 1848 president of the " Council of Education" in India, where he first established schools for the education of native females. Died in 185 1. Bethune, ba'tiin', (Quesnes or Coesnes, kwen,) a French poet, accompanied Baldwin, Count of Flanders, to Palestine, about 1190. Bethune, de, deh ba'tiin', (Hippolytf.,) a benevolent French prelate, grandson of Philippe, noticed below, born in 1647. He became Bishop oi Verdun about 1680, and founded a hospital. Died in 1720. Bethune, de, (Philippe,) Count of Selles and Cha- rost, a French diplomatist and soldier, served under Henry IV. in his principal campaigns. Fie was employed in several important embassies, and concluded the treaty of Pavia in 1619. Died in 1649. See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." Be'tis or Ba'tis, called also Bab-e-me-s^ses, an officer of King Darius, defended Gaza bravely against Alexander the Great ; but that place was at length taken by an assault, in which Betis was killed. Beton, (Cardinal.) See Beaton. Betourne, beh-tooR'ni', (Ambroise,) a French poet, born at Caen in 1795. He wrote fables, ballads, and elegies, some of which were translated into various lan- guages. Died in 1835. Betta dal Toldo, bet't.^ dai tolMo, (Francesco,) an Italian jurist, born at Roveredo in 1526 ; died in 1599. Bette d'Etienville, b^t da'te-^N^veK, (Jkan Charles Vincent,) a French litterateur, born at Saint-Omer in 1759. He was imi)licated in some of the intrigues of the notorious Madame La Motte-Valois, for which he was im- prisoned for a short time. He published " The Effects of Prejudice," (1788,) and other works. Died in Paris in 1830. Bettelini, bgt-ta-lee'nee, (Pietro,) an Italian en- graver, born at Lugano in 1763, was a jnipil of Bartolozzi. Among his master-pieces are an " Assunijjtion" after Guido Reni, and an " Ecce Homo" after Correggio. He also engraved several of the works of Thorwaldsen. See Nagler, " Neues AUgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Bettencourt. See Bethencourt. Bet'ter-ton, (Thomas,) an English dramatist, and one of the most popular actors of his time, born in ^Vestminster, London, in 1635. He excelled in the roles of Macbeth, Othello, and Hamlet, and was commended by Addison, Dryden, and Pope. Died in 17 10. See Chakles Gildon, " Life of T. Betterton," 1710. Betti, bet'tee, (Biagio,) an Italian painter, born near Pistoia in 1545, became a monk in 1572 ; died in 161 5. Betti, (SiGiSMONDO,) a Florentine painter and skilful designer, flourished about 1750. Betti, (Zaccaria,) an Italian poet, born at Verona in 1732, wrote a poem entitled "The Silk-Worm," ("Del Baco da Seta.") Died in 1788. See B. DEL Bene, " Elogio del Conte Z. Betti," 1790. Bettine or Bettina. See Arnim. Bettinelli, bet-te-neKlee, (Saverio,) an Italian Jesuit and author, born at Mantua in 1718. He wrote tragedies, poems, and other works; but his reputation is chiefly € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N. nasal: R, trilled; s as z; t^h as in this. (^[^"See Explanations, p. 23.) BETTING 350 BEUS2' founded on an essay on the " Renaissance of Literature and Art in Italy," (" Risorgimento negli Studj nelle Arti," etc., 2 vols., 1775.) He published his collected works, in twenty-four volumes, 1801. Died in 1808. See TiPAi.DO, " Biografia de.uli Italiani illustri ;" G. F. Napione, "Vita deir Abate S. P.ettinelli " 1S09. Betting de Lancastel, ba'titN' deh ISN'kts^tSK, a French publicist, born in the department of Lower Rhine in 1798, wrote "Considerations on the State of 'he Jews in Christian Society," (1824.) Bettini, bet-tee'nee, (Antonio,) Bishop of Foligno, born at Sienna in 1396, wrote a religious work entitled ' II Monte-Santo di Dio," (1477,) chiefly remarkable for containing the first copper-plate engravings. Died in 1487. See Panzer, "Annales Typographic!. " Bettini, (Domknico,) a skilful Italian painter of flowers and fruits, born at Florence in 1644, was a pupil of Mario Nuzzi. Died at Bologna in 1705. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Bettini, (Mario,) an Italian Jesuit and writer, born at Bologna in 1582 ; died in 1657. Bettkober,bet'ko-ber, (Christian Heinrich Fried- rich,) a German sculptor, born in Berlin in 1746; died about 1822. Bettoni, bet-to'nee, (Carlo,) Count, an Italian agri- cultural writer, born at Bugliaco, near Lake Garda, in 1735 ; died in 17S6. See F. SoAVE, "iMeniorie intorno alia Vita del Conte Bettoni." Bettoni, (Niccolo,) a learned Italian printer and writer, lived about 1800-20. Fie published a complete edition of " Euripides," and Alfieri's tragedy of "Alceste," (1807.) Betts, bets, (John,) born at Winchester about 1620, studied at Oxford, and became physician to Charles II. Bet'ty, (William Henry West,) a precocious Eng- lish actor, generally called "the young Roscius," born at Shrewsbury in 1791. Before the age of thirteen he per- formed with unprecedented success in London, Edin- burgh, and Cork. Having made a large fortune, he retired from the stage in 1807. He appeared again in public in 1812 ; but, as the popular mania had subsided, he was received without enthusiasm. Betuleius, ba-too-ll^iis, (Sixtus,) a German philolo- gist, born at Memmingen, in 1500, was professor of phi- losophy and belles-lettres at Augsburg. Died in 1554. Betussi, ba-toos'see, (Giuseppe,) an Italian litterateur, born at Bassano about 1500. Beucliot,buh'sho',(ADRiEN Jean QuENTiN,)a French bibliographer, born in Paris in 1773. He wrote many articles for the "Biographic Universelle," and published a iiew edition of Bayle's Dictionary, (16 vols., 1821,) and an edition of Voltaire's works, (72 vols., 1827-33,) which is said to be the most complete and valuable that has been issued. Died in 1851. Beudant, buh'doN'', (FRANgois Sulpice,) an eminent French mineralogist and natural philosopher, born in Paris in vSeptember, 1787. He explored the minerals of Hungary at the public expense in 181 8, and became professor of mineralogy in the Faculty of Sciences of Paris about 1820. He published " Researches on the Causes which determine the Variations of Crystalline Forms of the same Mineral Suljstance," (1818,) an im- portant work on the geology and mineralogy of Hungary, (3 vols., 1822,) an excellent "Elementary Treatise on Mineralogy," (2d edition, 1831,) and other works. He be- came a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1824, and was inspector-general of the University. Died in Paris in 1852. See QuERARD, "La LItterature Contemporaine." Beuf, Le. See Le Beuf. Beughem, van, van buh'iiem, (Charles Antoine FRANgois DE Paule,) a Flemish writer and Latin poet, born at Brussels in 1744; died in 1820. Beugnot, de, deh bun^yo^ (Arthur Auguste,) CoMTE, an able French writer and liberal politician, born at Bar-sur-Aube in 1797, was a son of Jacques Claude. His most important work is a " History of the Destruction of Paganism in the West," (2 vols., 1835.) He was elected a member of the Academy of Inscriptions about 1832, became a peer of France in 1841, and a mem- ber of the Legislative Assembly in 1849. He was an emi- nent advocate of the freedom of education in that body. See " London Quarterly Review" for September, 1836. Beugnot, de, (Jacques Claude,) Comte, a French statesman, born at Bar-sur-Aube in 1761. As a member of the Legislative Assembly, (1791,) he was conspicuous for his opposition to the Jacobins. In 1807 he took part in the organization of the kingdom of Westphalia, and became minister of finance under Jerome Bonaparte. He was appointed minister of the interior under the provisional government, (1814,) and director-general of police under Louis XVIH. He acted as minister jf the marine ^oi' a short time in 1815. Died in 1835. '^^^^ memoirs of Comte Beugnot have been published by hi? grandson, Albert Beugnot, in two volumes, Paris, 1866. See "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1867. Beuil, de, deh bul, (Jean,) a Frenci^i warrior, born in Touraine in 1346, had a high command in the army, and gained some victories. He was killed at Agincourt in 1415- Beuil, de, (Jean,) a son of the preceding, commanded with success in many actions between 1420 and 1450, and was called "the Scourge of the English." Died in 1470. Beukels, bul/kels, (Willem,) a Dutch fisherman, to whom Charles V. erected a statue for having discovered the method of preserving herrings. Born in 1397 ; died in 1449. Beulan, bu^an, [Lat. Beula'nus,] an English v/riter, was contemporary with Saint Gregory the Great. He wrote a Latin work "On the Genealogies of Nations." See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Beumler, boim''ler, (Markus,) a Swiss scholar and Protestant theologian, born in the canton of Zurich in 1555. He made translations from Plutarch and Demos- thenes. Died in 1611. Beuree, buh^ra', (Denis,) a French diplomatist in the service of Sweden, was preceptor to Prince Eric, son of Gustavus Vasa: After the accession of Eric to the throne, he was ennobled and made a senator ; but he was subsequently put to death by order of the king, who was insane at the time, (1567.) Beurer, boi^-er, (Johann Ambrosius,) a German naturalist and physician, born at Nuremberg in 1716, was a contributor to the " Opera Botanica" of Conrad Gesner. Died in 1754. Beurmann, de, deh buR'mSN', (Pais (pa) Ernest,) a French general, born at Strasburg in 1775 ; died in 1835. Beurnonville, de, deh buR^noN^vel', (Pierre de RuEL,) Marquis, a French marshal, born at Champi- gnolle in 1752. He served under Dumouriez in 1792, became successively minister of war, (1793,) commander- in-chief of the army of the North, (1796,) a peer and minister of state under Louis XVIH., (1814,) marshal of France, and commander of the order of Saint Louis, (1816.) Died in 1821. See " Victoires et Conquetes des Frangais." Beurrier, buh're^', (Louis,) a French monk of the order of the Celestines, born at Chartres, wrote a " His- tory of the Monastery of the Celestines in Paris," (1634.) Died in 1645. Beurrier, (Paul,) a French theologian, born in 1610, was Abbot of Sainte-Genevieve. Died in 1696. Beurrier, (Vincent Toussaint,) a French preacher and ecclesiastical writer, born at Vannes in 1715; died in 1782. Beurs, buRs, ( Willem,) a Dutch painter of landscapes and portraits, was born at Dort in 1656 ; died near the close of the seventeenth centmy. Beu.st, von, fon boist, (Friedrich Constantin,) a German geologist, born at Dresden in 1806, wrote, be- sides other works, a "Criticjue on Werner's Theory of Veins," (1840.) lie became engineer-in-chief of mines in 1851. Beust, von, (Friedrich Ferdinand,) Baron, an eminent German statesman, brother of the preceding, born at Dresden in 1809. He became minister of foreign affairs in Saxony in February, 1849. October, 1866, he was appointed minister of foreign affairs {i.e. prime minister) of the Austrian Empire. He acquired a high reputation in this position, and effected important changes, which promoted civil and religious liberty, and which a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, g, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon. BEUTH 351 BETGTASH were denounced by the pope in an allocution in the sum- mer of 1 868. Beuth, boit, (Peter Christian Wii.helm,) born at Cleves in 1781, became a member of the Prussian coun- cil of state. Beuther, boi'ter, sometimes written Beuthere, (Mi- chael,) a German theologian and scholar, born at Carl- stadt in 1522, studied under Luther and Melanchthon. He wrote " Commentaries on Livy" and other classics, and "Historical and Chronographical Observations," (in Latin.) Died in 1587. Beutler, boit'ler, (Clement,) a Swiss landscape- painter of great merit, lived in the eighteenth century. Among his master-pieces are "The Garden of Eden," and " Saint Anthony preaching on the Sea-Shore." Beutler, boitHer, (Johann Heinrich Christian,) a German writer, born at Suhl, in Franconia, in 1750; died about 1835. Beuve, (Sainte.) See Sainte-Beuve. Beiivelet, buvOa^ (Mathieu,) a French ecclesiastic and devotional writer, born near Soissons about 1500. Bev'an, (Joseph Gurney,) a member of the Society of Friends, born in London in 1753, was a chemist and druggist. He published a " Life of Robert Barclay," (1802,) and a "Life of the Apostle Paul," (1807,) which is commended by Home and Orme. Died in 1814. Bever. See Beaver. Be'ver, (Thomas,) an English jurist and scholar, born in Berkshire in 1725. He published a "History of the Legal Polity of the Roman State," (1781.) Died in 1 781. Bevereiise, ba-vi-r§n'sa, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, worked in Venice about 1670. Bev'er-idge, (William,) an eminent English prelate and Orientalist, born at Barrow, in Leicestershire, about 1637. He published in 1658 a Latin treatise on the He- brev>', Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, and Samaritan languages. On the revolution of 1688 he became chaplain to Wil- liam and Mary, and in 1704 Bishop of Saint Asaph. Among his principal writings are a " Treatise on Chro- nology," (1669,) and a valuable work on the "Canons of the Creek Church," (1672,) both in Latin ; also "Private Thoughts upon Religion," (1709,) and other esteemed devotional treatises. Died in 1708. See a "Memoir of Bishop Beveridge," by Thomas H. Horne, prefixed to Beveridge's Works, in 9 vols., 1824. Beveriui, bi-vi-ree'nee, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian ecclesiastic and litterateur, born at Lucca in 1629; died in 1686. Beverland, bev^er-lSnt, (Adrianus,) a Dutch writer and classical scholar, born at Middelburg in 1654. Lie was fined by the University of Leyden, and afterwards banished from Utrecht, on account of the obscenity and impiety of his works. Died in 1712. See NiCERON, " Memoires." Bev'er-ley, [Lat. Beverla'cius,] (John of,) one of the most learned men of his time, was the tutor of the Venerable Bede. He became Archbishop of York in 687, and in 704 founded at Beverley a college for secular priests. He wrote several theological works, in Latin. Died in 721. See Pits, "De Scriptoribus Anglise;" "Biographia Britannica." Beverley, (John of,) an English Carmelite monk, was professor of divinity at Oxford about 1390. Bev'er-ly, (Robert,) an American writer, born in Virginia. He was clerk of the Council about 1697, and wrote a "History of the Present State of Virginia," (1705.) Died in 1716. Bevern, ba^'eRn, (August Wilhelm,} a German general, born at Brunswick in 1 715, served in the Seven Years' war. Died in 1782. Beverningk, van, vtn ba'ver-nink^, or Beverning, (Hieron,) a Dutch statesman, born at Gouda in 1614, was called the Pacificator, from his successful negotia- tions. He became curator of the University of Leyden, and contributed greatly to promote the study of botany and other sciences. He first introduced into Europe the Tropaeolum majus, or Nasturtium. Died in 1690. See G. D. J. Schotef., "Jets over H. van Beverning," 1847; Bavle, ''Historical and Critical Dictionary." Beverwyck, van, vtn ba'ver-wlk', [Lat. Beverovi'- Cius,] (Jan,) a Dutch physician and writer, born in 1594 at Dort, where he practised and taught medicine. Died in 1647. ^ Bevilacqua, ba-ve-la'kwa, (Ambrogio,) a Milanese painter, flourished about 1480. See LAiNZi, "History of Painting in Italy." Bevilaqua or Bevilagua. See Salimbeni. BeV'in, (Elway,) an English musician and composer under the reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James, became royal chapel-master, and organist of the. Bristol Cathedral. He wrote "A Briefe and Short Instruction of the Art of Musicke," (1631.) See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Miisiciens." Bev'is, an English astronomer, and secretary of the Royal Society, born in 1696. He assisted in publishing the tables of Halley, and was the inventor of a circular microscope. Died in 1771. Bevy, ba-'ve', (Dom Charles Joseph,) a French Bene- dictine monk, born near Orleans in 1738, was royal his- toriographer for Flanders and Hainault. He wrote, among other works, a " History of the Nobility of the Gauls, French, and other European Nations," (1791.) He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. i>ied in 1830. See QuERARD, "La France Litteiaire." Bewick, bu'ik, (John,) an English artist, born in 1760, was a brother and pupil of Thomas, noticed below. He produced some of the designs of the " History of Quadrupeds," and aided his brother in the illustration of other works. Died in 1795. Bewick, (Thomas,) an English artist, distinguished for his skill in wood-engraving, was born near Newcastle- upon-Tyne in 1753. He studied under Beilby, by whom he was employed to engrave the diagrams of Hutton\s " Treatise on Mensuration," (1770.) Encouraged by the success of this work, he furnished illustrations to Gay's "Fables," for one of which, "The Old Hound," he ob- tained the premium offered by the Society of Arts for the best wood-engraving. In 1790 he published, con- jointly with Mr. Beilby, a "General History of Quadru- peds," for which his brother John furnished a part of the designs. His " History of British Birds," esteemed his greatest work, came out in 1804, in two volumes. He also illustrated Goldsmith's "Traveller" and "Deserted Village," the " Fables of ^sop," and other works. Died in 1828. See Strutt, " Dictionary of Engravers ;" "Pnrsuit of Knowledg-e under Difficulties," vol. ii., 1839; "Blackwood's Magazine" for Julv, 1825. Bexley, Lord. See Vansittart. Bexon, b^'s^N', (Gabriel Leopold Charles Ame,) a French ecclesiastic and naturalist, born at Remiremont in 1748, was a friend of Count de Bufifon, whom he aided in his work on natural history. He published several treatises on agriculture and natural history, and a " His- tory of Lorraine," (i vol., 1777, unfinished.) Died in 1784. Eexon, (Scipion Jerome,) a French jurist and legal writer, brother of the preceding, born at Remiremont in 1753, was charged in 1806 by the King of Bavaria to draw up a criminal code for his states. Died in 1822. See " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1809. Beyer or Eeier, bi'er, ( Adolph,) a German mineralo- gist, lived in Sa.xony ; died in 1768. Beyer or Beier, (August,) a philologist and minister, born in Saxony in 1707, published several bibliograplii- cal works. Died in 1741. Eeyer, (Georg,) a German jurist, born at Leipsic ir. 1665 ; died in 17 14. Beyerlinck or Beierlynck, bi'er-lTnk^, (Laurens,) born at Antwerp in 1578, was canon of the cathedral in his native city. He wrote " The Great Theatre of liuman Life," (7 vols.,) and other works, (in Latin.) Died in 1627. Beygtash orBeygtach, bag't^sh' or big''tash', writ- ten also Bekta-Bch or Bektacli, Haji, (Hadji,) or Vely, (/.^■. the " Saint,") a Turkish Mussulman, was the founder of an order of dervishes called by his name. Being em- ployed by Amurath I. to bless the standard of his militia, he gave them the name of Yeni-Shery, or "new soldiers," which is the origin of the word Janissary. Died about 1368. See Von Haimmer, "Ge'^chichte des Osmanischen Reichs." € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, K,gnttiiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BEYLE 352 BIJNCHI Beyle, (Marie Henri,) a popular and versatile French litterateur, known also by the pseudonyni of Stendhal, born at Grenoble in 1783. Among his prin- cipal works are a " History of Painting in Italy," (2 vols., 1817;) "Lives of Haydn, Mozart, and Metastasio," (1817;) "Rome, Naples, and Florence in 1817;" "Life of Rossini," (1824;) "Memoirs ofaTourist," (1838;) and the romances of "The Carthusian Nun of Parma," (" La Chartreuse de Parme," 1839,) and " Le Rouge et le Noir." His life was adventurous, and diversified by various pur- suits. *He became intendant of the domains of the em- peror Napoleon at Brunswick in 1806, and entered the Council of State as auditor in 1810. He passed seven years at Milan, (1814-21,) and was appointed consul at Civita Vecchia about 1830. Died in Paris in 1842. See Coulomb, " Notice sur la Vie de M. H. Beyle," 1845 ; Honore DE Balzac, " fitudes sur M. Beyle;" "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1S56. Beyma, van, vtn bi'mi, (Julius,) a Dutch jurist, born about 1539, became successively professor of law at Wittenberg, Leyden, and Franeker. Died in 1598. Beyme, bi'meh, (Karl Friedrich,) Count, a Prus- sian statesman, born at Konigsberg in 1765 ; died in 1838. Beyricli, bl^'riK, (Heinrich Ernst,) a German geol- ogist, born in Berlin in i8i!^. Beys, ba, (Gilles,) a P'rench printer; died in 1593. Beys, de, deh ba, (Charles,) a French poet and dra- matist, born in Paris in 1610 ; died in 1659. Beysser, ba'sa', (Jean Michel,) a French republican general, born at Ribeauville, in Alsace, in 1734, distin- guished himself in the war of La Vendee. He was exe- cuted in 1794, on a charge of favouring the royalists. Beytz, bits, (Joseph Francis,) Baron oe, a Belgian magistrate, born at Bruges, became, after the union of Belgium with France, a member of the Council of Five Hundred. Died in 1832. Be'za, [Fr. De Beze, deh baz, sometimes written Besze,] (Theodore,) a celebrated Calvinistic theologian and scholar, was born at Vezelay, in Burgundy, on the 24th of June, 15 19. He studied the classics under Melchior Wolmar, professor in the University of Bourges, and subsequently devoted himself to literary pursuits in Paris. Having abjured Catholicism in 1548, he was soon after appointed professor of Greek at Lausanne. He published in 1554 a treatise in defence of the execution of Servetus, eiititled " De Hjereticis a Civili Magistratu puniendis." lu 1556 he completed his translation of the New Testa- ment into Latin, and in 1559 removed to Geneva, where, through the influence of Calvin, he was appointed rector of the university. On the death of Calvin, in 1564, Beza succeeded him as professor of theology. He died in 1605. He was the author of a " Life of Calvin," " Eccle- siastical History of the Reformed Churches in France from 1521 to 1563," (3 vols,, 1580,) and several controver- sial works. He was profoundly versed in ancient litera- ture, and was one of those in France who contributed most to the great movement of the renaissance. See Boi.ZEC. " Histoire de la Vie de Theodore de Beze," 1577; Taillepikd, " Vie de T. de Beze," 1577 ; La Fay, " De Vita et Obitu T. Bez.^," 1606; Vega, "De Vita et Miraculis Lutheri, Calvini et Beza;," 1646; Ziegenbein, " Leben Calvins und Bezas," 1789; SCHLOSSER, "Leben des The. Beza," 1809. Bezard, ba'ztR', (Leon Louis,) a French painter, born at Toulon in 1800. He painted historical and re- ligious subjects, and gained a first medal in 1836. Bezborodko. See Besborodko. Beze. See Beza. Beziers, (Michael.) See Besiers. Bezons, de deh beh-zoN', (Claude Bazin — bt'z5.N',) Seigneu r, a I rench magistrate and writer, born in Paris in 161 7, succeeded Chancellor vSeguier in the French Academy in 1643. Died in 1684. Bezons, de, (Jacques Bazin,) a French marshal, son of Claude, born in 1646, served under Turenne, in JIol- land, in 1672, and subsequently in the war of the Spanish succession. He became a member of the Council of Re- gency on the death of Louis XIV. Died in Paris in 1 733. Bezout, beh-zoo', (Iitienne,) a French mathemati- cian, born at iSTemours in 1730. He wrote a " Complete Course of Mathematics, for the Use of the Marine, the Artillery, and the Pupils of the Polytechnic School," (6 vols., 1780.) Died in Paris in 1783. Bezzi, bet'see, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna about 1500 ; died in 1571. Bezzuoli, bet-soo-o^ce, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, born at P^orence in 1784. Among his best works are "The Baptism of Clovis," and "The Entrance of Charles VIII. into Florence." Bhairava, b'hi''ra-va, [a Sanscrit word signifying "terror ;" also "terrible,"] one of the many appellations applied to Siva. It is also the name of one of Siva's sons, who is said to be chiefly worshipped among the Mahrattas. See Moor's "Hindu Pantheon." Bharata-Muni (or -Mouni,) b'har'a-tamoo'ni, [Hin- doo pron. b'hiir'a-ta moo'^nT,] sometimes written Bha- ratu-Wouni, an ancient Hindoo writer and sage, com- monly regarded as the inventor of the drama. Bh^ravi, b'hi'ra-vT, a Hindoo poet, author of a poem called " Kiratarjuniya." BIiar''tri-Har''i, [Hindoo pron. b'hur'tri hur'i,] a Hin- doo poet, supposed to have been a brother of King Vikramaditya, wrote, it is said, a grammatical poem en- titled " Karika," (or "Carica.") Another poet of the same name wrote a poem on Rama, called " Bhatticavya." Bhat'ta Nara^yana, [Hindoo pron. b'hut^tu nS ra'- ya-na,] a Hindoo dramatist, supposed to have lived be- tween 800 and 1000 a.d. Bliav'a-bhu^ti, [Hindoo pron. b'hiiv-a-b'hoo'ti,] writ- ten also Bhavabhouti, a Hindoo poet of the eighth century, wrote a popular drama, entitled the " Loves of Malati and Madhava." Bhavani, one of the names of Parvat?, which see. Bhrigu, b'hRig'06, a famous sage or demigod of the Hindoo mythology, was, according to one account, the son of Brahma, according to another, of Varuna ; but it is stated in the "Institutes of Manu" that Manu produced " ten lords of created beings," among which lords Bhrigu is numbered. (Chap, i., v. 32-35.) According to the Sivapurana, Bhrigu was the father of Marichi, who was the father of Kasyapa. See Mook's " Hindu Pantheon." Biacca, be-.Wka, (F'rancesco Maria,) an Italian litterateur and ecclesiastic, born at Parma in 1673, trans- lated the poems of Catullus and Statins. Died in 1735. Biagi, be-a'jee, (Clemenzo,) an Italian antiquary, born at Cremona in 1740, published several works. Died at Milan in 1804. Biagi, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian poet and priest, born at Roveredo in 1724; died in 1777. Biagioli, be-d-joHee, or Biascioli, be-i-sho'lee, (Nic- COLO Giosafatte,) an Italian //7/'6'V£?/t7/r, born at Vezzano, near Genoa, in 1768, published an "Elementary Italian Grammar." In 1799 he was exiled on account of his liberal opinions, and became a resident of Paris, where he taught Italian. lie edited Dante's works, (3 vols., 1 81 8,) and Petrarch's works, (3 vols., 1821.) Died in 1830. Bialobocki, be-A-lo-bot'skee, (John,) a Polish poet of the seventeenth century. Biamonti, be-a-mon'tee, (Giuseppe Luigi,) an Italian littcrateiir, born at Vintimiglia in 1730, translated into Italian prose the works of Sophocles, Homer's " Iliad," and the " Odes" of Pindar, and wrote several tragedies. He was professor of eloquence at Bologna and at Turin. Died at Milan in 1824. Bianca Capello. See Capello. Biancani, be-an-ki'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian ma- thematician and Jesuit, born at Bologna in 1566; died in 1624. Biancardo, be-Sn-kaR''do, (Ugoletto,) an Italian general, lived about 1370. Bianchi, be-an'kee, (Antonio,) an Italian poet and gondolier of Venice, lived about 1760. He wrote an epic poem entitled "II Davide," (1751,) which is highly praised. Bianchi, (Brigida,) an Italian dramatist, lived about 1650. She wrote several comedies under the name of AURELIA. Bianchi, (Federigo,) an Italian painter, born at Mi- lan about 1590. According to the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale," he was one of the best Milanese masters of the seventeenth century. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." a, c, T, o, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sJwrt; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; BIANCHI 353 BIBARS Bianchi, (Francesco,) an Italian composer of operas, born at Cremona in 1752 ; died in 181 1. Bianchi, (Francesco Ferrari,) sometimes called il Frari, an Italian painter, born at Modena in 1447, is said to have been the teacher of Correggio. He was a good colorist. Died in 1510. Bianchi, [Lat. Blan'cus or Plan'cus,] (Giovanni,) an Italian savant, born at Rimini in 1693, became pro- fessor of anatomy at Sienna in 1741. About 1744 he returned to his native place and restored the Academy of the Lyncei. Died in 1775. Bianchi, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian sculptor and painter, born in Lombardy; died at Genoa in 1657. Bianchi, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian litterateur and dramatist, born at Lucca in 1686 ; died in 1758. Bianchi, (Giovanni Battista,) an eminent Italian anatomist, born at Turin in 1681, was professor of anat- omy in the University of Turin for many years. Among his principal works is a " History of the Liver," (" His- toria Hepatica," 2 vols., 1725.) Died in Turin in 1761. See TiRABoscHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Bianchi, (Isidoro,) a Milanese painter, born about 1626, was a pupil of Morazzone. Died about 1670. Bianchi, (Isidoro,) an Italian monk and philosophical writer, born at Cremona in 1733 ; died in 1807. See Louis Bello, "Vie du Pere Bianchi." Bianchi, (Marcantonio,) an Italian jurist, born in 1498 at Padua, where he became professor of criminal law in 1544, Died in 1548. Bianchi, (Orazio,) an Italian philologist and trans- lator, born at Rome; died at Milan in 1756. Bianchi, (Pietro,) an Italian painter, born at Rome in 1694 ; died in 1740. Bianchi, be-6N'ke', (Thomas Xavier,) a French phi- lologist, born in Pans in 1783, became royal secretary and interpreter (secretaire-interprete) for Oriental languages. He published, among other works, a "Turkish-French Dictionary," in which he was assisted by J. D. Kiefifer. Bianchi, (Vendramino,) an Italian diplomatist, lived about 1730. Bianchi, von, fon be-Sn'kee, (Friedrich,) Baron, an Austrian commander, of Italian extraction, born at Vienna in 1768. He served in the principal campaigns against the French, and in 1809 obtained the rank of lieutenant-field-marshal. In 1815 he gained a signal vic- tory over Murat near Tolentino, and was afterwards created Duke of Casalanza. Died in 1855. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Bianchi Giovini. See Giovini. Bianchini, be-in-kee'nee, (Francesco,) an eminent Italian astronomer and antiquary, born at Verona in December, 1662. He published a number of valuable treatises on the antiquities of Rome, and a " Universal History, proved by Monuments and illustrated with Symbols of the Antique," (1697.) He passed the most of his life at Rome, was patronized by the popes Alex- ander VIII. and Clement XL, and was appointed by the latter secretary of the commission charged with reform- ing the calendar. He also drew a meridian-line and erected a gnomon in the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli. Died at Rome in 1729. See FoNTENELLE, " £loge dc Bianchini," 1757; A. Mazzoleni, "Vita di F. Bianchini," 1735; Niceron, "M^moires." Bianchini, (Giovanni Fortunato,) an Italian physi- cian, born in the kingdom of Naples in 1720; died in 1779. Bianchini, (Giuseppe,) an Italian antiquary, born at Verona in 1704, was a nephew of Francesco, noticed, above, several of whose works he completed. Bianco, be-ln'ko, written also Biancho, (Andrea,) a Venetian geographer, lived about 1420. He executed a number of hydrographic charts. Bianco, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian architect, born in the province of Como. Among his best works is the palace of the University at Genoa. Died in 1656. Bianco, del, m be-Sn'ko, (Baccio, bit'cho,) an Italian painter, born at Florence in 1604. Having been invited by Philip IV., he went to Madrid, where he died in 1656. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Biancolelli, be-an-ko-lel'lee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian actor, often called Domenico, (dom-i-nee'ko,) born at Bologna in 1640, performed the part of Harlequin in Paris. Died in 1688. Biancolelli, (Paerre FRANgois,) called likewise Do- minique, (do'me''n^k',) a French actor and dramatic writer, son of the preceding, born in Paris in 1681 ; died in 1734. Biancolini, be-in-ko-lee'nee, (Giovanni Battista Giuseppe,) an Italian chronicler, born at Verona in 1697 ; died in 1780. Bianconi, be-Sn-ko'nee, (Charles,) an Italian, noted as the inventor or originator of the Irish car system which bears his name, was born in the duchy of Milan about 1787. He emigrated to Ireland in early youth, and be- gan in 181 5 to carry passengers in cars. He succeeded, and extended his lines of cars or stages through all parts of Ireland. Bianconi, (Giambattista,) an Italian ecclesiastic and philologist, born in 1698 at Bologna, \^here he be- came professor of Greek and Hebrew. Died in 178 1. Bianconi, (Giovanni Luigi,) an Italian physician and philosopher, nephew of the preceding, born at Bo- logna in 1 71 7. He published "Two Letters on Physics," (1746,) a "Treatise on Electricity," (1748,) and other works. He became physician to the King of Poland about 1750. Died at Perugia in 1 781. Biancucci, be-Sn-koot'chee, (Paolo,) an Italian painter, born at Lucca in 1583, was a pupil of Guido. Died about 1653. Biandrate, be-^n-dRi'ta, (Benvenuto,) an Italian diplomatist and historian, was commander of the order of Saint John of Jerusalem. Died in 1527. Biard, be''tR', (Auguste FRANgois,) a celebrated French painter, born at Lyons in 1800. In 1828 he visited various parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and made valuable collections of materials for the exercise of his art. His " P^'amily of Mendicants," exhibited at the Paris Exposition in 1832, obtained the gold medal, and was succeeded in a few years by " The Strolling Players," "The Mad-House," "Attack of Spanish Rob- bers in the Sierra Morena," "The Wind of the Desert," and "The Slave-Trade." See L. BoiviN, "Notice sur M. Biard," etc.; " Examen critique des Tableaux de Biard," Paris, 1842. Biard, (Paul,) a French Jesuit, born at Grenoble in 1565, was professor of theology at Lyons. In 161 1 he visited Canada, being one of the first Jesuit missionaries to that country. He died in France in 1622. See Charlevoix, "Histoire de la Nouvelle France." Biard, (Pierre,) a French sculptor and architect, born in Paris in 1559; died in 1609. Biarnoy de Merville, be'ti-'nwi' deh mgRS-eK, (Pierre,) a French jurist, born in Normandy, published a work entitled " Regies pour former un Avocat," (" Rules for making a Lawyer," 1711,) which obtained great suc- cess. Died in 1740. Bi'as, [Bmf,] one of the seven sages of Greece, was a native of Priene, and is supposed to have lived about 566 B.C. He enjoyed a high reputation for skill and ability as an advocate, as well as for practical wisdom and love of justice. A number of his maxims are preserved in the writings of Diogenes Laertius, Plutarch, and others. Biascioli. See Biagioli. Biauzat, de, deh be'o'zt', (Gauthier,) a French magistrate, became a member of the Council of Ancients, (1798,) and of the court of cassation, (1799.) Died in 181 5. Bi-bac'u-lus, (M. Furius,) a Latin satirical poet, born at Cremona about 103 B.C. He wrote, in iambic verse, a poem on the wars of Gaul, entitled " Pragmatia Belli Gallici," and a number of epigrams and satires. He is compared by Diomedes with Horace and Catullus. A few fragments of his works are preserved. See Weichert, "Dissertatio de Turgido Alpine S. M. F. Biba- culo," 1822. Bibars or Bibarz, bee'barz, sometimes written Bai- bar.s, called also Bundokd^i', boon'dok-daR', Sultan of Egypt, was the fourth of the Baharite dynasty of Mame- lukes. He ascended the throne in 1260, having murdered his predecessor, Kootooz, (Kutuz.) He defeated the Tartars and ravaged Armenia, but at length died from accidentally drinking poison, in 1277. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as g, h, Yi,guttti'>'al; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 23 BIBARS 354 BIDDLE Bibars or Bibarz, twelfth Sultan of the Baharite Mamelukes, ascended the throne in 1309, and was deposed and put to death in 13 10. Bibaut, be'bo', [Lat. Bibau'cius,] (Willem,) a Flemish preacher, born at Thielt, became general of the order of Carthusians in 1521. Died in 1535. Bibbiena. See Galli, (Ferdinando.) Bibbiena, b6b-be-a'ni, (Angelo Dovizio,) nephew of Cardinal Bibbiena, lived about 1570. He held the office of apostolic prothonotary. Bibbiena, (Bernardo,) called also Bernardo Dovi- zio (do-v6t'se-o) or Devizio, (da-v^t'se-o,) and Ber- nardo di Tarlatti, (de taR-lit'tee,) a celebrated Italian cardinal, born at Bibbiena in 1470. He was intimate with Giovanni de Medici, who afterwards became Pope Leo X. and made Bibbiena a cardinal in 1 5 13. He pa- tronized literary men and artists, and wrote, besides other works in ve^;se and prose, " Calandria," a comedy, which was much admired and passed through many editions. In 15 18 Bibbiena was sent on a mission to the French court to promote a crusade against the Turks. He died suddenly in 1520, not without a suspicion of his having been poisoned. See Paolo Giovio, " Elogio de Bibbiena;" Gingueni^, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie ;" A. M. Bandini, " II Bibbiena, ossia il Ministro di Stato," etc., 1758. Bibbiena, da, di b^b-be-a'ni, (Giovanni Maria Galli,) an Italian painter, born in 1625, was the father of Ferdinando Galli, and a pupil of Albano. Died in 1665. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Bibbiena, da, or simply Bibbiena, b^b-be-a'ni, (Giuseppe Galli,) a painter, born at Bologna in 1696. He worked at Vienna and Dresden. Died in 1756. Biber, bee'ber, (George E.,) a theologian, born pro- bably in Germany about 1800, became curate of Roe- hampton, England, about 1842. He published Bishop Blomfield and his Times," and many theological works. Biberstein, bee'ber-stin", (Marschall,) Baron, a German botanist, born at Wiirtemberg in 1768, travelled in the Crimea and the Caucasus, and published a descrip- tion of the flora of those countries. Died in 1828. Biberstein, von, fon bee'ber-stin', (Ernst Franz LuDWiG Marschall,) a German statesman, born at Wallerstein in 1770, became in 1806 minister of the Duke of Nassau. Died in 1834. Bib-i-a'na, Saint, a Roman virgin, who suffered martyrdom about 360 A.D. Bib'li-an-der, (Theodore,) an eminent Swiss divine and philologist, whose original name was Buchmann, (booK'min,) born at Bischofszell in 1504, was professor of theology at Zurich from 1532 to 1560. He wrote theo- logical treatises in Latin, and translated several books of the Zurich Bible commenced by Leo Juda. Died in 1564. Bibron, be^bR6N', (Gabriel,) a French zoologist, born in Paris in 1806. He wrote, in conjunction with Dumeril, a "Natural History of Reptiles," (about 1833.) Died in 1848. Bib'u-lus, (L. Calpurnius,) a Roman, who became consul in 59 B.C. He was a partisan of Pompey during the civil war, and was afterwards proconsul in Syria, and commander of the fleet in the Ionian Sea, (49 B.C.) Bibulus, (L. Calpurnius,) son of the preceding and of Portia, the daughter of Cato, was made governor of Syria by Antony. He died about 40 B.C., leaving a life of his stepfather Brutus. Bicaise, be'kiz', (Honors,) a French physician, born at Aix-en-Provence in 1590, wrote a work "On the Causes and Cure of the Plague." Bicci, di, de b^t'chee, (Lorenzo,) a painter of the Florentine school, born before 1400. He painted frescos in the cathedral of Florence. Died about 1460. Bicci, di, (Neri,) an Italian painter, son of Lorenzo, noticed above. Died after 1466. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." Bichat, be^sht', (Marie FRANgois Xavier,) a French physiologist and anatomist of great eminence, was born at Thoirette, in Jura, on the nth of November, 1771. He went to Paris in 1793, and became a favourite pupil of Desault, who adopted him as his son. In 1797 he col- lected and edited the " Surgical Works of Desault," and began to lecture on anatomy, surgery, and physiology in a school established by himself. He developed new and important ideas on the anatomy of the tissues, and on the distinction between organic and animal functions, in his " Treatise on the Membranes," ( 1 798,) in " Researches on Life and Death," (1800,) and in his great work, "Gene- ral Anatomy applied to Physiology and Medicine," ("Ana- tomie generale appliquee," etc., 4 vols., 1801,) which established his reputation as a profound philosopher. Bichat was the first who reduced the organs of the body to their elementary tissues and explained the chemical, physical, and vital properties of each primitive tissue. He has also the honour of being the first who recognized the importance of the distinction between organic and animal functions and made it the basis of % classification. He was appointed physician to the Hotel- Die u in 1799 or 1800. He impaired his health by ex- cessive application to study and experiments, and died prematurely in July, 1802, leaving an unfinished work on " Descriptive Anatomy," of which he published two volumes. His pupils Buisson and Roux added three more volumes. " No one," says Corvisart, " has done so much and so well in so short a time." See P. Sue, " £loge de Bichat," 1803; Bilon, " filoge historique de Bichat," 1802; Miquel, "filoge de Bichat," 1823; Roux, " £loge de Bichat," 1851; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Bick'er-stafif, (Isaac,) an Irish dramatist, born about 1735, was for some time an officer of marines. He pro- duced, besides other plays, three comic operas, entitled "Love in a Village," (1763,) "The Maid of the Mill," (1765,) and "Lionel and Clarissa," (1768,) all of which were successful. He died after 1787. Bick'er-steth, (Edward,) D.D., an English writer, born at Acton, in Suffolk, in 18 14, became Archdeacon of Buckinghamshire in 1853. He has published several theological works. Bickersteth, (Rev. Edward,) a distinguished Eng- lish divine and theological writer, born in Westmoreland in 1786. He published in 1814a "Help to the Study of the Scriptures," which obtained great popularity. Having taken orders, he visited Africa in 1816, for the purpose of inspecting the stations of the Missionary So- ciety in that country. He officiated as secretary of that society for about fifteen years. In 1830 he became rector of Watton, in Hertfordshire, where he was active in promoting the cause of religious and benevolent associa- tions. He was one of the founders of the Evangelical Alliance. Among his numerous and valuable works may be named "A Practical Guide to the Prophecies," "A Treatise on Baptism," "The Promised Glory of the Church of Christ," and "The Restoration of the Jews." Died in 1850. See " Memoir of the Rev. Edward Bickersteth," by T. R. Birks, 2 vols., 1851; "Burning and Shining Lights," by the Rev. Robert Steel. Bickersteth, (Henry,) Lord Langdale, an English judge, brother of the preceding, born at Kirkby-Lons- dale in 1783. He practised in the courts of equity, and attained to eminence as a lawyer. He was appointed master of the rolls, and raised to the peerage, in 1836. Died in 1851. See Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. Bick'er-tpn, (Sir Richard Hussey,) an English admiral, born in 1759, served under Lord Keith in 1801, and assisted in the blockade of Alexandria. Pie was created admiral of the blue in 1810, knight-commander of the Bath in 181 5, and subsequently general of the royal marines. Died in 1832. Biclara, be-kU'ra, (Joao,) a Portuguese historian, born at Santarem, flourished between 550 and 600 A.D. Bid'dle, (Clement,) an American officer, born in Philadelphia in 1740, was originally a member of the Society of Friends. Before the Revolution he was a merchant, and a decided asserter of the rights of the colonies. He served as colonel at the battles of Tren- ton, Princeton, Brandywine, and Monmouth. He was appointed marshal of Pennsylvania about 1789 by Gene- ral Washington, who was his friend and correspondent. Died in 1814. Biddle, (Clement Cornell,) a son of the preceding, born in Philadelphia in 1784, was a lawyer and political economist. He served as colonel in the war against Great Britain, (1812-15.) He published, with notes and a, e, I, o, u, y, lo7tg; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, \x, y, sho7't ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moSnj BIDDLE 355 BIELINSKI additions, a translation of J. B. Say's " Treatise on Po- litical Economy," (1821.) Died in 1855. Biddle, (James,) an American naval officer, born in 1783, was educated in Philadelphia. He entered the navy about 1800, and in 1832 signed a commercial treaty with Turkey. Having obtained the rank of commodore, he commanded a squadron on the coast of China in 1847. Died in Philadelphia in 1848. Bid'dle, (John,) the founder of Unitarianism in Eng- land, born in Gloucestershire in 16 15, was a graduate of Oxford. In 1647 he wrote for private circulation a pamphlet in which he attempted to refute the commonly- received opinion respecting the Deity of the Holy Spirit. For this he was summoned before the Parliament, and, after a protracted trial, condemned to five years' imprison- ment. While in prison, he wrote (in 1648) a " Confession of Faith concerning the Holy Trinity," and several other tracts in defence of his peculiar doctrines. After the death of Charles I., Biddle was released ; but he was soon remanded by Bradshaw, president of the council. The act of indemnity and oblivion having been passed in 1651, he was set at liberty, and soon after formed with his ad- herents a society to which was given the name of Unita- rians. He was subsequently twice imprisoned under Cromwell, and his works publicly burned. After the restoration of Charles H. he was again sent to prison, where he died in 1662. See J. TouLMiK, "Life of John Biddle," 1815; John Farring- TON, " Vita J. Bidelli," 1682. Biddle, (Nicholas,) an American naval commander, born in Philadelphia in 1750. He entered the British navy in 1770, and served as midshipman in the same vessel with Lord Nelson. Having returned to America in 1776, he was appointed captain of the Andrew^ Doria, and cap- tured several prizes from the British. In February, 1777, he took command of the Randolph, a frigate of thirty- two guns. During an action with the British ship Yar- mouth, in March, 1778, the magazine of the Randolph ex- ploded, and killed Captain Biddle with nearly all his crew. Biddle, (Nicholas,) an American financier, born in Philadelphia in January, 1786, was a nephew of Commo- dore Biddle, and a son of Charles Biddle, who was for some time vice-president of the commonwealth of Penn- sylvania. He graduated at Princeton in 1801, after which he passed several years in Europe. Having returned in 1807, he edited for a time " The Port-Folio," (a literary journal,) and was elected a member of the legislature of Pennsylvania in 18 10. He served in the Senate of that State from 1814 to 1817, and in 1819 was appointed a director of the United States Bank by President Mon- roe. In 1823 he became president of that bank, which, by virtue of his new financial measures, supplied the country with a uniform currency, until, after an exciting political contest, the bill for the recharter of the bank was vetoed by President Jackson in 1832. In accord- ance with the limitation of its charter, the bank was closed in 1836. A second " United States Bank," designed as a successor to the old one, having been chartered by the State of Pennsylvania, in whose legislature the Whig or Anti-Jackson party had at that time a majority, Mr. Bid- dle was made president of the new institution : it failed, however, in 1841. Mr. Biddle was also president of the trustees of the fund (amounting to 2,000,000 dollars) left by Stephen Girard for the establishment of a college for orphans. " To his exertions alone," says Judge Robert T. Conrad, " the country owes one of the most beautiful structures of modern times, — the Girard College. . . . He proposed the present plan, and, in the midst of wild political excitement and opposition, persisted firmly, and secured a building which every citizen now not only approves, but applauds." His eloquence and literary merits are highly extolled by his biographer just quoted. Died in February, 1844. See a "Memoir of Nicholas Biddle," bv Robert T. Conrad, in the "National Portrait-Gallery," vol. iv., 1839. Biddle, (Richard,) an American lawyer and writer, a brother of the preceding, was born in Philadelphia in 1796. Pie practised law at Pittsburg, and published a " Memoir of Sebastian Cabot ; with a Review of the History of Maritime Discovery," (1831.) He was a member of Congress from 1837 to 1840. Died in 1847. Bid'dulph, (Thomas Tregenna,) an English divine, born in Worcestershire in 1763, wrote "Essays on the Liturgy," (1798,) and other religious works, which have a high reputation. See " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1824. Bidermann. See Biedermann. Bidermann or Biedermann, bee'der-min'', (Jakob,) a German Jesuit and writer, born at Tubingen ; died at Rome in 1639. Bidermann, (Johann Gottfried,) a German writer on genealogy, lived about 1760. Bidermann, (Johann Gottlieb,) a German philolo- gist, born at Naumburg in 1705 ; died in 1772. See HuBLER, "Memoria J. G. Biedermann," 1772. Bidet, be^da', (Nicolas,) a French agriculturist, born in 1709, wrote on the culture of grapes. Died at Rheims in 1782. Biding, be'diN', (Moses Israel,) a French Jew, born in 1775, was professor of Hebrew at Metz. BidTake, (John,) an English divine, born at Ply- mouth in 1755 ; died in 1814. Bidloo, bid'lo, (Godfried,) a Dutch anatomist, born at Amsterdam in 1649. He became physician to Wil- liam III. of England, and in 1694 professor of anatomy and surgery at Leyden. He wrote, in Latin, "Anatomy of the Human Body," with one hundred and five plates by G. de Lairesse, (1685,) and other works. Died in 1713. Bidloo, (Lambert,) a Dutch botanist, brother of the preceding, was a resident of Amsterdam. Bidou, beMoo', (Franqois Simon,) a French medical writer, born at £cos (Eure) in 1769 ; died in Paris in 1824. Bidpai. See Pilpay. Bie, van, van bee, (Adrian,) a Flemish painter, born near Antwerp in 1594; died about 1640. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Bie, van, (Jakob,) a Flemish engraver, born about 1600, resided at Antwerp. Biedermann. See Bidermann. Biedermann, bee'der-min'', (Friedrich Karl,) a German publicist, and professor of law at Leipsic, where he was born in 18 12. He founded in 1842 the German Monthly Journal for Literature and Public Life," and published a treatise " On German Philosophy from Kant to the Present Time," (2 vols., 1842,) and " Fundamental Philosophy," (1837.) About 1850 he began to direct the publication of an extensive encyclopaedic work, called "Germania." See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." Biedermann, bee'der-min', written also Bidermann, (Johann Jakob,) a Swiss landscape-painter, born at Winterthur, lived about 1 780-1820. Biehl, beel, (Charlotte Dorothea,) a Danish au- thoress and dramatist, born at Copenhagen in 1731, made a translation of Don Quixote," which is highly es- teemed. Died in 1788. See Kraft og Nverup, " Litteraturlexicon for Danemark," etc. Biel, beel, (Gabriel,) a German philosophical writer, born at Speyer ; died in 1495. Biel, (Johann Christian,) a German Lutheran theo- logian, born at Brunswick in 1687 ; died in 1745. Biel, (Ludwig,) professor of philosophy at Vienna, wrote a treatise entitled " The Utility of Money," (" Utili- tates Rei Nummariae," 1733.) Biela,von, fon bee'lS, (Wilhelm,) Baron, aGerpian astronomer, born near Stolberg in 1782, discovered in 1826 the comet since called by his name. Died in 1856. Bielefeld, von, fon bee^eh-fglt, (Jakob Fried- rich,) Baron, a German publicist and litterateur, born at Plamburg about 1712, became in 1747 inspector of the Prussian universities. Died in 1770. Bieler, bee'ler, (Benjamin,) a German antiquary and theologian, born in Saxony in 1693 ; died in 1772. Bieler, (Karl Ambrosius,) a German physician, born at Ratisbon in 1693 ; died in 1747. Bielinski, be-a-l^n'skee, (Francis,) a Polish natu- ralist, was appointed by Augustus III. grand marshal of the crown. Died about 1766. Bielinski, (Peter,) a Polish magistrate, born in 1754, became senator palatine, and filled other ofiices under government. Died in 1829. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^=See Explanations, p. 23.) BIELKE 356 BIG BLOW Bielke, be-§l'keh, written also Bjelke, (Nicholas,) Count, a Swedish mineralogist, was director of the de- partment of mines from 1782 to 1789. Bielke, (Sten (or Steno) Karl,) a Swedish naturalist and scientific writer, born at Stockholm in 1709; died in 1754- See Gezelius, " Biographiskt-Lexicon ;" Rosenadler, "Amin- nelse-Tal ofver Sten Karl Bjelke," 1755. Bielowski, be-i-lov'skee, (Augustus,) a Polish lit- terateur, born in Galicia about 1806, published a trans- lation of Goethe's " Faust." Bielski, be-§Kskee, (Martin,) a Polish chronicler, born in 1495. His " Kronika Polska" is admired for the elegance of its style, and is the first important history of Poland written in the Polish language. Died in 1576. His son Joachim wrote a continuation of the "Chronicle of Poland," and published the entire work in 1597. Bienaime,be-J.n''^'ma^(PiERRE Theodore,) a French architect, born at Amiens in 1765 ; died in 1826. Bienaise, be-^n^az', (Jean,) a French surgeon, born at Mazeres, wrote " Operations of Surgery by a Short and Easy Method," (1688.) Died in 1681. Bienayme, be-J_n'i'my, (Pierre Franqois,) a French naturalist, became Bishop of Metz in 1802. He was a friend of Buffon and Daubenton. Died in 1806. Bienne, be-^n'ni', [Lat. Benena'tus,] (Jean,) a French typogra]Sher, published several fine editions of the Greek and Latin classics. Died in 1588. Bienvenu, be-iN'veh-nii', (Jacques,) a Genevese /////- rateur and satiri^ lived about 1570. Bienville, de, deh be-dN^eK, (Jean Baptiste Le- moine — leh-mwSn',) a French captain, born in Canada about 1680. He was a brother of Lemoyne d'lberville, whom he accompanied on his expedition to the mouth of the Mississippi in 1699, and after his death (1706) be- came governor of the French colony which was planted in Louisiana. He founded the city of New Orleans in 1 7 18. Died in France about 1768. Bierbrauer, beeR^bRow'er, (Johann Jakob,) a Ger- man magistrate, born at Hesse in 1705 ; died in 1760. Bierkander or Bjerkander, be-gR^k^n-der, (Klau- DIUS,) a Swedish savant, born in 1735 ; died in 1795. See OEDMANN,"Aminnelse-TalbfverprobstenC. Bjerkander," 1 798. Bierling, beeR'ling, (Conrad Friedrich Ernst,) son of Friedrich Wilhelm, born in 1709, was professor of metaphysics and theology at Rinteln. Died in 1755. Bierling, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German preacher and theologian, born at Magdeburg in 1676, was a friend and correspondent of Leibnitz. Died in 1728. Biermann, beeR'niSn, (Karl Eduard,) a German landscape-painter, and professor in the Academy of Arts at Berlin, where he was born in 1803. Biermann, (Martin,) a German physician, and pro- fessor of medicine at Helmstedt, lived about 1 570-1600. Biernacki, be-^R-nat'skee or by^R-nit'skee, (Alois Prosper,) a Polish nobleman, distinguished for the agri- cultural improvements he introduced into Poland, born in the palatinate of Kalisch in 1778; died in 1856. Biernatzki, becR-nats'kee, (Johann Christoph,) a German Lutheran divine, born at Elmshorn, in Hol- stein, in 1795, published "The Hallig, or Shipwrecks in an Island of the North Sea," (1836,) and other tales. Died in 1840. See C. L. Biernatzki, "Biographie von J. C. Biernatzki," 1852. Bierstadt, beer'stat, (Albert,) an eminent landscape- painter, born at Dusseldorf, in Germany, in 1828. His parents emigrated to New England when he was about two years old. In 1853 he visited Germany, studied for a time at the Dusseldorf Academy, and executed several views of German scenery, which attracted very favourable notice. Having spent a winter in Rome, and made the tour of Switzerland and the Apennines, he returned to the United States in 1857. The following year he ac- companied General Lander's expedition to the Rocky Mountains, where he spent several months in making sketches. In 1863 he produced his magnificent "View of the Rocky Mountains — Lander's Peak," (six feet by ten.) Among his other works may be mentioned his "Sunlight and Shadow," "The Storm in the Rocky Mountains," and "The Domes of the Yo Semite." See Tuckerman's "Book of the Artists." Bieselinghen. See Biezelingen. Biesenthal, bce'zen-tSK, (Johannes Heinrich,) a Hebrew philologist, a friend of the celebrated Neander, born in Posen about 1800. Though born of Jewish parents, he early embraced Christianity. He published in 1840 a Hebrew-Latin Lexicofi, and in 1851 a valuable " History of the Christian Church during the First Three Centuries." Biesmann, bees'min, (Kaspar,) a German Jesuit and professor of philosophy, born at Dusseldorf in 1639. He wrote on rhetoric and ethics. Blester, bees'ter, (Johann Eric,) a German littera- teur and journalist, born at Lubeck in 1749. In 1785 he founded, conjointly with Gedike, the " Berlin Monthly Review," (" Monatsschrift,") and became in 1784 libra- rian of the royal library. He translated from the French Barthelemy's "Travels of Anacharsis." Died in 1816. Biet, be-y, (Antoine,) a French missionary to Ca- yenne, born near Senlis about 1620. Biet, (Claude,) born near Verdun-sur-Saone, became first apothecary to the king. Died in 1728. Biet, (Rene,) a French antiquary, wrote a "Disserta- tion on the True Epoch of the Establishment of the Franks in Gaul," (1736.) Died in 1767. Biett, be-et', (Laurent,) born in the canton of Gri- sons, became physician to the hospital Saint-Louis, (Paris,) into which he introduced important improve- ments. Died in 1840. Biever. See Beaver. Bievre, de, deh be-gvR', (Mar^chal,) Marquis, a French litterateur and wit, born in 1747, published several dramas, and the "Almanac of Puns," (" Calembours.") Died in 1789. Biez, du, dii be-i', (Oudard,) a French marshal, who served against the English in 1523, and in the Italian campaign of 1528. Died in 1553. Biezelingen or Bieselinghen, van, vtn bee'zeh- ling'en, (Christian Jan) a Dutch portrait-painter, born at Delft in 1558. Among his master-pieces is a portrait of William I., Prince of Orange. Died in 1600. BifE, beffee, (Andrea,) a Milanese sculptor, lived about 1600, and executed works for the Milan cathedral. Biffi, (Giovanni,) an Italian litterateur and Latin poet, born near Milan in 1464. Biffi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian musician and composer, born at Milan, flourished about 1580. Bifield, (Nicholas.) See Byfield. Bifrost, bifrost, the name given in the Norse my- thology to the rainbow. See Heimdall. Bigari, be-g^ree, (Vittorio,) an Italian painter and sculptor, born at Bologna about 1692 ; died in 1776. Bigarre, be^gt'ri', (Auguste Julien,) a French gen- eral, born at Palais in 1775 ; died in 1838. Bigelot, b^zh'lo', (Franqois Emmanuel Simeon,) a French litterateur, born at Nancy in 1789; died in 1820. Big'e-low, (Erastus,) born at West Boylston, in Massachusetts, in 1814, invented a machine for weaving counterpanes, which was a great improvement on those previously in use. Bigelow, (Jacob,) M.D., LL.D., an eminent American physician, born in Sudbury, Massachusetts, in 1787, grad- uated at Harvard in 1806. He was for many years phy- sician to the Massachusetts General Hospital, and pro- fessor of materia medica and of clinical medicine in Harvard University. He became president of the Mas- sachusetts Medical Society, and also president of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He served on the committee of five appointed in 1820 to form the "American Pharmacopoeia," and for ten j^ears delivered lectures at Cambridge on the application of science to the useful arts. As the founder of Mount Auburn Cemetery, he displayed great taste in laying out the grounds, design- ing the gateway, etc. His first work, entitled " Florula Bostoniensis," appeared in 1814, (3d edition, greatly en- larged, 1840;) and his "American Medical Botany" (3 vols. 8vo) in 1817-21. He has also published a work entitled "The Useful Arts considered in Connection with the Applications of Science," an excellent " Dis- course on Self-Limited Diseases," and a kindred work, entitled " Nature in Disease." a, e, T, o, ia, y, long; ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obsaire; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; BIG BLOW 357 BIHERON Bigelow, (John,) an American author and journalist, born in Ulster county, New York, in 1817, graduated at Union College in 1835. He has contribi>ted a number of able articles to the "Democratic Review." From 1845 to 1848 he was prison-inspector at Sing-Sing, and origin- ated some important reforms in the discipline of that institution. In 1850 he became associated with Mr. Bry- ant as editor of the New York '* Evening Post." In the same year he visited Jamaica, and published after his re- turn an excellent work, entitled "Jamaica in 1850 ; or the Effects of Sixteen Years of Freedom on a Slave Colony." In 1 86 1 Mr. Bigelow was appointed American consul at Paris ; on the death of Mr. Dayton, in December, 1864, he became charge-d'affaires, and in April, 1865, minister plenipotentiary at the court of France. He resigned this position in Decembei, 1866. Bigelow, (Timothy,) an American lawyer, born at Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1767, graduated at Har- vard in 1786. He rose to the first rank in his profession. In 1807 he removed to Medford, and opened an office in Boston. He was an active Federalist, and was Speaker of the House of Representatives of Massachusetts for eleven years. Died in 1821. Bigeon, be'zhdN', (Louis FRANgois,) a French medi- cal writer, born at La Villee in 1773, practised at Dinan about forty years. Died in 1848. Bigeot, be'zho', (Claude Etienne,) a French diplo- matist in the service of Spain. Died in 1675. Biget. See Marthe. Bigg, (William Redmore,) an English painter of interiors and domestic scenes. Died in 1828. Bigi, bee'jee, (Felice,) an Italian flower-painter, worked at Verona about 1680. Bigio, bee'jo, (Marcantonio Francia,) an Italian painter, born at or near Florence in 1445; died in 1525. Big'land, (John,) an English writer, born in York- shire, published " Letters on the Study and Use of Ancient and Modern History," and a " History of Spain," which has been translated into French. Died in 1832. Bigland, (Ralph,) an English antiquary, born in Westmoreland in 1711, was appointed Garter king-at- arms in 1780. Died in 1784. Biglia, b^KyS, (Andrea,) an Italian scholar, wrote historical works In Latin. Died in 1435. Big'low, (William,) a New England teacher and writer, born in 1773. He graduated at Harvard in 1794, and subsequently became principal of the Boston Latin School, which he conducted with distinguished success for several years. Edward Everett was among his pupils. He prepared several text-books for his school, and was an active contributor to the periodical press. Died in 1844. Bignan, b^n'ySN', (Anne,) a French poet and transla- tor of the classical school, born at Lyons in 1 795, produced good poetical versions of Homer's "Iliad" (1830) and " Odyssey," (1840.) He obtained four prizes of the French Academy for original poems, among which are an " Epis- tle to Cuvier," and "Napoleon in Russia," (1844.) Died in November, 1861. Bigne, de la, deh It b^ii, (Gaces, gts,) a French poet and ecclesiastic, born in Normandy about 1328, was chaplain successively to Philip of Valois, John II., and Charles V., of France. Bigne, de la, (Marguerin, mtRg'riN',) a French doctor of the Sorbonne, born at Bernieres-le-Patry about 1546; died about 1590. Big'nell, (Henry,) an English divine, born at Oxford in 1611 ; died about 1660. Bignicourt, de, deh bin'ye'kooR', (Simon,) a French litterateur, born at Rheims in 1709 ; died in 1775. Bignon,b^n'y6N', (Armand Jerome,) a French jurist, nephew of Jean Paul, noticed below, whom he succeeded as royal librarian, was born in 1711. He was a member of the French Academy, and of the Academy of Inscrip- tions. His son Jean Frederic also became royal librarian. Died in 1772. Bignon, (Jean Paul,) grandson of Jerome, noticed below, born in Paris in 1662, was appointed preacher to Louis XIV., and in 1718 became royal librarian. He was a member of the French Academy. He was a friend and patron of Tournefort, who named in his honour the genus Bignonia. Died m 1743. Bignon, (J6r6me,) a French magistrate and scholar, born in Paris in 1589, became a page and companion ol the dauphin, afterwards Louis XIII. He was subse- quently councillor of state, and on the death of De Thou succeeded him as first keeper of the royal library. He was distinguished for his profound learning, and pleaded many important causes with great eclat. He wrote, among other works, a treatise "On the Grandeur of our Kings, and their Sovereign Power," (1615.) Died in 1656. According to Voltaire, " he left a great name, rather than great works." See P^RAU, "Vie de Jerome Bignon," 1757. Bignon, (Louis Pierre Edouard,) an able French statesman and historian, born at La Meilleraye in 1771. Lie was minister plenipotentiary to Baden in 1809, and soon after administrator-general of Austria. After the battle of Waterloo he was made minister of foreign affairs by Napoleon, was elected to the Chamber of Depu- ties in 1817, and created a peer of France in 1837. He was the author of a "History of France from the i8th Brumaire to the Peace of Tilsit," (6 vols., 1829-30,) and a " History of France under Napoleon from the Peace of Tilsit to 1812," (4 vols., 1838,) also of several political treatises. Napoleon bequeathed to M. Bignon 100,000 francs, and charged him to write the history of French diplomacy from 1792 to 1815. Died in Paris in 1841. See MiGNET, "Notice sur L. P. ]£. Bignon," 1841. Bignoni, de, da b^n-yo'nee, (Mario,) an Italian monk and eminent preacher, born in Venice ; died in 1660. Bignotti, b^n-yot'tee, (Vincenzo,) an Italian eccle- siastic and litterateur, born at Vercelli in 1764; died in 1831. Bigoni, be-go'nee, (Ludovico,) an Italian poet, born at Brescia in 1712 ; died in 1785. Bigonnet, be'go^n^^ (Jean Adrien,) a French revo- lutionist and republican, born in 1755, became a member of the Council of Five Hundred. l3ied in 1832. Bigot, be'go', (£mery,) a French scholar, born at Rouen in 1626. He discovered in the library of Florence the Greek text of the " Life of Saint Chrysostom" by Palladius, which he published in 1680. Died in 1689. Bigot, (Guillaume,) a French poet, born at Laval, in Maine, in 1502, became professor of philosophy at Tiibingen. He published a " Prelude of Christian Phi- losophy," (" Christianae Philosophiai Praeludium," 1549.) Bigot, (Marie,) a celebrated pianist, whose original name was Ki6n6, born at Colmar in 1786, She was in- structed in music by Haydn and Beethoven, by whom her performances were highly commended. Died in 1820. See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclopddique de la France." Bigot de Palaprat. See Palaprat. Bigot de Preameneu, be^o' deh pRk^tm'nuh', (F^:- Lix Julien Jean,) a French jurist, born at Rennes in 1747, was made a count of the empire and grand officer of the legion of honour under Napoleon, and in 1815 a peer of France. He was a member of the French Academy, and a coadjutor of Portalis and others in the reformation of the civil code. Died in 1825. See NouGARfeoE de Fayet, "Notice sur la Vie de Bigot de Pre- ameneu." Bigotier, be'go'te-i', [Lat. Bigothe'rius,] (Claude,) a Latin poet, born at Treffort, in La Bresse, about 1500, was professor of rhetoric at Lyons. Bigotiere, de la, deh IS be^o'te-aiR', (Percham- BAULT, p^R^shdN^bo',) a French officer, born at Rennes, served in the royalist army in La Vendee. Having been made prisoner at Mans, he was shot in 1794. Bigotiere, de la, (Ren6 de Perchambault,) a French jurist, born at Angers about 1640, wrote a treat- ise "On the Common Law of Brittany," and other legal works. Died in 1727. Bigs^by, (Robert,) an English antiquary, born at Nottingham about 1806. He published "Poems and Essays," "The Antiquarian Enthusiast," (3 vols., about 1850,) and other works. Bih^ri L61, bi-h^'ree 151, a Hindoo poet, contempo- rary with Kabir. Biheron, be'r^N' or be'e'r^N', (Marie Catherine,) a French anatomist, was born in Paris in 17 19. She was patronized by the celebrated physicians Jussieu and Vil- loison in Paris, and by Hunter and Hewson in London. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^See Explanations, p. 23.) BILAIN 358 BILLICH Her anatomical cabinet was bought at her death for Cath- erine II. of Russia. Died in 1786. See Chaudon et Delandine, " Nouveau Dictionnaire Biogra- pliique." Bilain, be'l^N', (Antoine,) a French jurist and legal writer, born near Rheims ; died in 1672. Bilderbeck, de, deh hhYdl\' of Eminent Scotsmen." Blangini, bl5n-jee'nee, (Giuseppe Marco Maria Felice,) an Italian composer, born at Turin in 1781, produced a number of operas, canzonets, and other mu- sical pieces. Died in 1841. See Arsene Houssaye, "Philosophers and Actresses," vol. ii. Blankaard, bl^n'klRt, written also Blancard, (Nik- OLAAS,) a Dutch scholar, born at Leyden in 1625. He became professor of the Greek language and history at Franeker in 1669, and published editions of Quintus Cur- tius, the " Enchiridion" of Epictetus, and other classics. Died in 1703. Blankaard or Blancard, (Steven,) a Dutch phy- sician, son of Nikolaas, noticed above, born at Middel- burg, published a number of medical and anatomical works in Latin, the most important of which is "Ana- tomia practica Rationalis," (1688.) Blankenburg, von, fon blin'ken-booRG^ (Christian Friedrich,) a German litterateur zx\A critic, born at Col- berg in 1744. He translated into German Johnson's ' Lives of the Poets," and other English works. Died in 1796. Blankenstein, bian'ken-stln', (Ernst,) Count, a German commander, born in Thuringia in 1733, served in the Austrian army in the Seven Years' war, and be- came lieutenant-field-marshal. Died in 1816. Blankoff. See Blanckhof. Blanpain, bldN'p^N', (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic and historical writer, born in 1704; died in 1765. BlanquartdeBailleul, bldN^kSR'deh bt'yuK,(Louis Edmond Marie,) born at Calais in 1795, became Bishop of Versailles in 1833, and in 1844 Archbishop of Rouen. Blanqiiet, bldN^ka', (Samuel,) a French physician and naturalist, born in the diocese of Mende ; died about 1750- Blanqnet du Chayla, bl6N'k^' dii shi'lt', (Armand Simon Marie,) a French vice-admiral, born in the de- partment of Lozere in 1759 ; died in 1826. See " Notice sur Blanquet du Chayla," Paris, 1852. Blanqui, blSN^ke', (Jean Dominique,) born at Nice in 1759, was a deputy to the National Convention, and in 1795 became a member of the Council of Five Hundred. He wrote a work entitled " My Ten Months' Agony," ("Mon Agonie de dix Mois," 1794.) Died in 1832. Blanqui, (Jerome Adolphe,) a celebrated writer on political economy, born at Nice in 1798. He studied economic science under J. B. Say, and in 1833 succeeded him as professor at the Conservatory of Arts and Trades in Paris. He published a " History of Political Economy in Europe from the Ancients to the Present Time," (1837,) which ranks as a standard work, a "Summary of the History of Commerce and Industry," and a "Journey in England," (1824.) Died in 1854. Blanqui, (Louis Auguste,) brother of the preceding, born at Nice in 1805, has distinguished himself as a political conspirator and socialist. He was several times imprisoned for his seditious attempts previous to 1848. He was a ringleader of the insurgents and outlaws of Paris who took arms against the republic in April and May, 1848. For this offence he was condemned to im- prisonment for ten years. Blarru, de, deh blt'rii', (Pierre,) a French poet, born in 1437, wrote a heroic poem in Latin, entitled "The Nanceid," (1518,) which was once admired, and has been translated into French. Died in 1505. Blasche, blSs'Keh, (Bernhard Heinrich,) a German educational writer, born at Jena in 1766; died in 1852. Blasco, blSs'ko, (Niccol6,) an Italian poet, born at Chiusa, in Sicily, taught philosophy and belles-lettres at Naples and Rome about 1600-25. Blasius, bli'ze-us', (Ernst,) a German surgeon, born at Berlin in 1802, became professor of surgery at Halle in 1834. Bla'si-us or Blaes, bits, (Gerard,) a learned Flem- ish physician, born near Bruges, settled in 1660 in Am- sterdam, where he became professor of medicine. He published several Latin treatises on anatomy and medi- cine. Died in 1682. Blasius, Saint. See Blaise, Saint. Blas'ta-res, (Matth^eus,) a Greek canonist and monk of the order of Saint Basil, lived about 1350. He was the compiler of a "Collection of the Canons and Councils of the Fathers, and Laws of the Greek Em- perors on Ecclesiastical Matters." Blau, blow, (Felix Anton,) a German Catholic the- ologian, born in 1754, wrote against the abuses of the Romish Church. Died in 1798. Blaurer, blow' rer, (Ambrose,) a Swiss Lutherati divine, born at Constance in 1492; died in 1568. Blavet, blt'vcV, (Jean Louis,) a French litteratenr, son of Michel, noticed below, born at Besan9on in 1719. He translated from the English Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations," and Dalrymple's "Memoirs of Great Brit ain and Ireland." Died in 1809. Blavet, (Michel,) a French musician and composer, born at Besangon in 1700; died in 1768. Blavier, blt\e-a', (£douard,) a French geologist and engineer, born in Paris in 1802. Blay'ney, (Benjamin,) D.D., an English philologist, and regius professor of Hebrew at Oxford, had a high reputation as a Biblical critic. He published new trans- lations of Jeremiah and Lamentations, and of Zechariah. Died in 1801. Blaze, bltz, (Elz^: ar,) a French litterateur, brother of Castil-Blaze, born at Cavaillon about 1786; died in 1848. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; o, H, k, guttttral; N, 7iasal; r, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 24- BLAZE 370 BLITTERSWICK Blaze, (FRANgois Henri Joseph,) called also Castil- Blaze, kSs't^Kbltz, a French musical critic and com- poser, born at Cavaillon in 1784. He edited the musical department of the "Journal des Debats" from 1820 to 1831, published a " Dictionary of Modern Music," (1821,) and composed several operas. Died in Paris in 1857. Blaze, (Henri Sebastien,) a French musician and composer, father of the preceding, born at Cavaillon in 1763 ; died in 1833. Ble, du, dii bli, (Nicolas,) Marquis d'Uxelles, a Frencla general, born in 1652, became a marshal of France in 1703. Died in 1730. Blecker, blek'ker, or Blek'er, (Jan Gaspar,) a painter and engraver, born at Haarlem about 1600. Bleda, bla'od, (Jaime,) a Spanish ecclesiastic, born in the province of Valencia about 1550, wrote a "Chro- nology of the Moors of Spain." Died in 1624. Bleeck, van, vtn blak, (Peter,) a Flemish painter and engraver, born about 1700. Among his best works is a portrait of Paul Rembrandt. Died in London in 1764. Bleecker, blee'ker, (Ann Eliza,) an American poet- ess, whose maiden name was Schuyler, born in New York in 1752; died in 1783. See Griswold, " Female Poets of America." Bleek, blak, (Friedrich,) born at Arensbok, in Hol- stein, in 1793, published several valuable critical works on the Scriptures. He became professor of theology at Bonn in 1829. Died in 1859. Blefken, blefken, (Dithmar,) a German traveller, visited Iceland in 1563, and afterwards wrote a descrip- tion of that country, in Latin. Bleg''bo-r9Ugh, (Ralph,) an English physician, born in Yorkshire in 1769, was a member of the Royal College of Physicians. He published " Facts and Observations respecting the Air-Pump Vapour-Bath in Gout, Rheu- matism, etc." Died in 1827. Blegny, de, deh blan^ye', (Nicolas,) a French surgeon and writer, born in 1652, became physician to the king in 1687. Died in 1722. Blein, bliN, (FRANgois Ange Alexandre,) Baron, a French general of engineers, born in Drome in 1767. He served at Austerlitz, Jena, etc., and wrote several scientific works. Bleiswick, van, vtn blTs'v^ik, (Pieter,) grand pen- sionary of Holland, born at Delft in 1724, wrote a Latin treatise "On Dykes." Died in 1790. Blekers, bla'kers, (N.,) a Dutch painter of history and landscapes, born at Haarlem about 1635, was patron- ized by the Prince of Orange. Blende, de, deh blln'deh or bl6Nd, (Barth^lemy,) a Jesuit missionary, born at Bruges in 1675, visited Para- guay, where he was killed by the natives in 1715. Blenker, bllnk'er, (Louis,) a general, born at Worms, Germany, in 181 2. He took an active part in the revo- lutionary movement in his native city in 1849, and after the defeat of the popular party became an exile in New York. He was appointed a brigadier-general in August, 1861, and commanded a division under General Fremont in Virginia in 1862. Died in New Jersey in 1863. Blen^ner-has'set, (Harman,) a wealthy Englishman, noted as an associate or accomplice of Aaron Burr, was born in Hampshire about 1770. He purchased about 1798 an estate on an island in the Ohio River, and ruined his fortune by advancing money to aid Burr in his pro- jects. He was indicted for treason in 1807, but was re- leased on the acquittal of Burr. Died in 1831. See "Life of Harman Blennerhasset," by W. H. Safford, 1853. Bles, de, deh blSs, or Bless, (Henri,) a Flemish landscape-painter of great merit, born near Dinant in 1480. Died in 1550. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Blessebois, bl^ss'bwa', (Pierre Corneille,) an enigmatical personage, of whom nothing positive seems to be known. The name is attached to several French dramas, satires, and poems, published about 1675. Some of these are said to be scurrilous and indecent. Blessendorf, bl^s'sen-doRf, (Samuel,) a German painter in enamel, born in Berlin in 1670, was also an engraver. Blessig, blSs'sic, (Johann Lorenz,) a Protestant minister, born at Strasburg on the Rhine about 1748. He became professor of theology in his native city in 1783, and published several works. Died in 1816. See C. M. Fritz, " Leben J. L. Blessig's," 2 vols., i8i8. Bles'sing-tpn, (Margaret,) Countess of, an Irish lady, celebrated for her beauty, accomplishments, and social qualities, was born in Tipperary county in 1789. She was married when very young to Captain Farmer, and after his death to the Earl of Blessington in 181 8. Lord Blessington dying in 1829, his widow took up her residence at Gore House, in London, which was for many years the resort of the literati and other celebrated persons of England and the Continent. Among her most popular works we may name " The Victims of Society," a novel, " Conversations with Lord Byron," (1832,) " The Idler in Italy," and "The Idler in France." She was a frequent contributor to the magazines, etc. Died in 1 849. See " The Literary Life and Correspondence of the Countess of Blessington," by R. R. Madden ; "Edinburgh Review," vol. Ixvii. Blesson, biys6N', (Ludwig Johann Urban,) a Ger- man ofiicer, born at Berlin in 1790, published a "Survey of the Art of Fortification," (1827,) and other works. Bletterie, de la, deh It bli'tRe' or blet're', (Jean Philippe Ren^,) a French litterateur, born at Rennes in 1696. He was professor of eloquence in the Royal Col- lege, and a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. He wrote a "History of Julian the Apostate," (1735,) made translations from the Latin. Died in 1772. Bleuland, bluh^l^nt, (Janus or Jan,) a Dutch medi- cal writer, born at Utrecht, lived about 1 780-1 800. Bleville, bleh-v^K, (Jean Baptiste Thomas,) born at Abbeville in 1692, published "The L'^niversal I3anker and Merchant," and other works. Died in 1783. Blicher, bliK'er, (Steen Steensen,) a Danish poet and novelist, born in the stiff or province of Viborg in 1782. His "National Novels" are very popular, and in some points have a strong resemblance to those of Sir Walter Scott. He translated the poems of Ossian into Danish. He had studied theology in early life, and in 18 19 entered on the duties of a pastor. He wrote several treatises on rural economy, and an "Autobiography," which was published in a collection of his works, (9 vols., 1847-48.) Died in 1848. See P. L. MoLLER, "Dansk Pantheon." Bligh, blT, (Sir Richard Rodney,) a British admiral, born in Cornwall in 1737; died in 1821. • Bligh, (William,) an English naval officer, born in 1753. By the orders of George HI. he was sent in 1787 to the South Sea Islands, for the purpose of introducing the vegetable productions of those countries into the West Indies. While proceeding with his cargo to Ja- maica, his men mutinied, (April, 1789,) and he, with eighteen of the crew, was sent adrift in the launch. After enduring great hardships, they arrived at the island of Timor in June, and in the spring of 1790 landed in England. He published soon after a "Narrative of the Mutiny on Board H.M. Ship Bounty," which excited great interest. He was appointed Governor of New South Wales in 1806, but, owing to his tyrannous con- duct, was sent back to England in 1808. He died in 181 7. The mutiny of the Bounty suggested to Lord Byron his poem entitled "The Island." (For an ac- count of the mutineers, see Adams, John.) Blin, bl^N, (FRANgois Pierre,) a French physician, born at Rennes in 1756 ; died in 1834. Blin de Sainmore, bl^N deh s^N''moR', (Adrien Michel PIyacinthe,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1733, was appointed by Louis XVI. keeper of the ar- chives, and historiographer. He wrote poems, dramas, and historical works. Died in 1807. See Voltaire, " Correspondance." Blioul, du, dli ble'ooK, (Jean,) a Flemish ecclesiastic, born in Hainault about 1570. Bliss, (James C.,) M.D., an American philanthropist, born at Bennington, Vermont, in 1791. He practised medicine in the city of New York about forty years, and was eminent for his skill and beneficence. He was one of the founders of the American Tract Society. Died in 1855. Blitterswick, van, vtn blit'te.rs-wik^ (Jan,) a Flem- ish ecclesiastic and religious writer, born at Brussels; died in 1661. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short ; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fdt; m§t; n6t; good; moon; BLITTERSWICK 371 BLOND EAV Blitterswick, van, (Willem,) a Flemish jurist and litterateur, born at Brussels ; died in 1680. Blizzard, (Sir William,) a celebrated English anato- mist and surgeon, born in Surrey in 1748. He became, in 1787, professor of anatomy to the old Corporation of Surgeons, being elected a Fellow of the Royal Society the same year. When the Royal College of Surgeons was founded, he was appointed to the chair of anatomy conjointly with Sir Everard Home, and was afterwards twice president of that college. He was the founder of the Hunterian Society, and of several other learned and benevolent institutions. He published a number of works on Surgery and Sanitary Reform. Died in 1835. • See "A Brief Memoir of Sir William Blizard," by William Cooke. Bloch, bloK, (Georg Castaneus,) a Danish botan- ist, born in 171 7, became Bishop of Ribe. Died in 1773. Bloch, (JoHAx\N Erasmus,) a Danish gardener, pub- lished, in 1647, a work entitled " Horticultura Danica." Bloch, bloK, (Markus Elieser,) a German physician and naturalist, of Jewish family, born at Anspach in 1723, practised medicine in Berlin. His " Universal Natural History of Fishes" (12 vols., with 432 coloured plates, 1782) is esteemed a standard work. Died in 1799. Bloch, bloK, or Ballagi, (Moritz,) a learned Hun- garian Jew,^born at Ternova in 1815. He published a " Complete Dictionary of the Hungarian and German Languages," (1846.) Blochmann, bloK'min, (Karl Justus,) a German teacher and educational writer, born at Reichstadt, in Saxony, in 1786. About 1824 he founded at Dresden a large school called Blochman'sche Institut. Died at or near Geneva in 1855. Block, (Albrecht,) a German agricultural writer, born at Sagan in 1774; died in 1847. Block, (Ben7AMIn,) a German portrait-painter, born at Lubeck in 1631. Block, (Daniel,) a German portrait-painter, father of the preceding, born in Pomerania in 1580. He was court painter to the King of Denmark and the King of Sweden. Died in 1661. Block, blok, (James Reugers,) a Dutch painter, born at Gouda about 1580, excelled in perspective and archi- tectural views. l3ied in 1632. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Block, (Joanna Koerten — kooR'ten,) an ingenious female artist, born at Amsterdam in 1650, was celebrated for her skill in cutting with her scissors landscapes, por- traits, and animals. For such works she was paid im- mense prices by several sovereigns of Europe. Died in 1715. Block, blok, (Magnus Gabriel,) a Swedish physician, born at Stockholm in 1669; died in 1722. Blockland, blok'lant, (Anthony de Montfort,) a Dutch painter of history and portraits, born at Montfort in 1532. He worked at Utrecht. Died in 1583. Blod'get, (Samuel,) an American projector, born at Woburn, Massachusetts, about 1720. He raised a valu- able cargo from a sunken vessel, and began the canal around the Amoskeag Falls, at Haverhill," New Hamp- shire, but, before it was finished, was sent to prison for debt. Died in 1807. Bloemaert, bloo'mSRt, (Abraham,) a celebrated Dutch painter, born at Gorkum about 1564 or 1567. He painted landscapes and portraits, but excelled in histori- cal pieces. He was also a skilful engraver. " The Death of Niobe's Sons" is called his master-piece. Died at Utrecht in 1647. Bloemaert, (Kornelis,) an excellent engraver, son of the preceding, born at Utrecht in 1603, studied en- graving in Paris and in Rome. Among his master-pieces are the " Adoration of the Shepherds," after Cortona, and " Meleager," after Rubens. His three brothers, Adrian, Henry, and Frederick, were also engravers. Died at Rome in 1680. See Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." Bloemeii, van, vSn bloo'men, (John Francis,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 1656. He studied in Italy, where he passed his mature life, and where he received the surname of Orizzonte from some peculi- arity of his style. His landscapes are greatly admired, and command high prices. Died at Rome in 1740. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Bloemen, van, (Norbert,) brother of John Francis born at Antwerp in 1672, painted portraits and conver- sation-pieces. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Bloemen, van, (Peter,) surnamed STANDAERT,(stln'- daRt,) a Flemish painter, brother of the preceding, was a native of Antwerp. His principal works represent mili- tary marches, battles, fairs, caravans, etc. He be'.:ame director of the Academy of Antwerp in 1699. Bloeteling, bloo'teh-ling, sometimes written Blote* ling, (Abraham,) a celebrated Dutch designer and en- graver, born at Amsterdam in 1634. Among his prin- cipal works are " Daniel in the Lions' Den," after Rubens, and a portrait of Erasmus, after Holbein. Died in 1676. See Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." Blois. See Blosius. Bloni, blom, (Karl Magnus,) a Swedish naturalist and physician, born in Smaland in 1737, was a pupil of Linnaeus. He was the first to introduce vaccination into Sweden. He wrote several medical and scientific works in Latin. Died in 181 5. Blomberg, blom'beRG, (Barbara,) a lady of distin- guished family in Nuremberg, was the mistress of Charles v., and the reputed mother of Don John of Austria. Blome, blo'meh, (Johann,) a learned German writer, born at Hamburg about 1620 ; died in 1672. Blome, (Richard,) an English historical writer, lived about 1670. Blome'field, (Francis,) born in Norfolk, England, in 1705, published "The Topographical History of Nor- folk," (3 vols., 1739-69.) Died in 1751. Blomfield, bliim'feld, (Charles James,) Bishop of London, born in Suffolk in 1 786. He graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1808, and soon after brought out valuable editions of the " Prometheus" and several other dramas of /Eschylus. He also edited the "Adversaria Porsoni," and contributed to various reviews a number of critical essays on the Greek classics. In 1824 he pub- lished an edition of Callimachus. He became Bishop of London in 1828. Bishop Blomfield distinguished himself by his efforts to improve the condition of the poor, and promoted the erection of a great number of churches in London. His opinions were decidedly "high-church." Died in 1857. See Dr. Biber, "Bishop Blomfield and his Times," 1857; A. Blomfield, "Life of C. J. Blomfield," 1S63; "London Quarterly Review" for January and April, 186S. Blomfield, (Edward Valentine,) a distinguished English scholar, brother of the preceding, was born in 1788. He published a valuable translation of Matthiae's "Greek Grammar," and was a contributor to the "Mu- seum Criticum." Died in 1816. Blommaert, blom^iiaRt, (Philippus,) a Belgian phi- lologist and poet, born about 1809, published editions of several old Flemish poems, and translated the " Niebe- lungen" into Dutch iambics. His best production is a historical work entitled "Aloude Geschiedenis der Belgen of Nederduitschers," (1849.) Blond, le, leh bl6N, (Jacques Christophe,) a min- iature-painter, born at Frankfort in 1670. He worked in London, and made unsuccessful attempts to produce col- oured engravings or copies of paintings. Died about 1 740. Blond, Le. See Le Blond. Blonde, bl6Nd, (Andr^:,) a French jurist, born at Auxerre in 1734; died in 1794. Blondeau,bld)N'do'', (Antoine Francois Raymond,) a French general, born in Franche-Comte in 1747, served under Pichegru in 1794, and in the Italian campaign of 1799. Died in 1825. Blondeau, (Charles,) a French jurist and miscel- laneous writer, born at Mans; died in 1680. Blondeau, (Claude,) a French jurist and legal writer, born in Paris, lived about 1650. Blondeau, (Jean Baptiste Antoine Hyacinthe,) professor of Roman law in the faculty of Paris, was born at Namur in 1784. He became a member of the Academy of Moral and Political Science, and published several works on Roman jurisprudence. e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23. ) BLONDEAU 372 BLOUNT Blondeau de Charnage, bl6N'd5' deh shtR^ntzh', (Claude Francois,) a YxQnc\\ litterateur, born near Pon- tarlier in 17 10. Died in 1776. Blondel, bl(!)N'd§K, [Lat. BLONDELyE'us,] a French troubadour, and favourite of Richard Coeur de Lion, whom he accompanied on his principal expeditions. He is said to have discovered the place of the king's impris- onment in Germany by singing before the fortress part of a song which was answered from within. Blondel, (David,) a French Protestant divine and writer, born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1591. In 1650 he succeeded Vossius as professor of history at Amsterdam. Pie published a number of theological and historical works in Latin and French. Died in 1655. See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Brucker, "History of Philosophy." Blondel, bl6NMeK, (Francis,) a Flemish physician, born at Liege in 1613 ; died in 1682. Blondel, (Francois,) a French architect and mathe- matician, born at Ribemont in 161 7. He was appointed professor of mathematics in the Royal College, and was chosen by Louis XIV. to teach that science to the dau- phin. He published a " Course of Architecture," and various other treatises. The triumphal arch of the Porte Saint-Denis is esteemed his master-piece in architecture. Died in 1686. See FoNTENAY, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Blondel, (Franqois,) a French physician, born in Paris, graduated about 1631, was noted for his opposition to the use of antimony in medicine. Died in 1682. Blondel, (Jacques,) a French surgeon, who lived at Lille about 1580, translated, from the Latin, Godin's "Military Surgery." Blondel, (Jacques Franqois,) a French architect, nephew of Francois the architect, noticed above, was born at Rouen in 1705. He became professor in the Academy of Architecture in Paris. Died in 1774. Blon'del, (James Augustus,) an English physician, of French extraction, wrote several esteemed medical works. He was a member of the Royal College of Phy- sicians. Died in London in 1734. Blondel, (Jean,) a French jurist and legal writer, born at Rheims in 1733, became president of the impe- rial court of Paris in 1803. Died in 1810. Blondel, (Laurent,) a French scholar and theologi- cal writer, born in Paris in 1671 ; died in 1740. Blondel, (Marie Joseph,) a French historical painter, born in Paris in 1781, was a pupil of Regnault. Among his works are " Zenobia on the Shore of the Araxis," and Homer in Athens." He was a member of the Institute. Blondel, (Pierre Jacques,) a French litterateicr, born in Paris in 1674; died in 1730. Blondel, (Robert,) a French poet and moralist, born in Normandy about 1390, was preceptor to the dauphin Charles, a son of Charles VII. Died about 1460. Blondin, bl6N'diN', (Jean Noel,) a French gram- marian, born in Paris in 1753, became secretary and in- terpreter at the Royal Library. He published a " Polyglot Grammar, French, Latin, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and English." Died in 1832. Blondin, (Pierre,) a French botanist, born at Vaudri- court in 1682, was a pupil of Tournefourt. Died in 1713. Blondus, (Flavius.) See Flavio Biondo. Blood, bliid, (Colonel Thomas,) a notorious Irish adventurer, born about 1628, served for a time in Crom- well's army. Having failed in his attempt to surprise the castle of Dublin and take the Duke of Ormond, then lord-lieutenant, he seized the person of that nobleman in Iiis coach in London, (1670,) and was only prevented from hanging him by the resistance of his servants. In 1671 he nearly succeeded in possessing himself of the crown jewels ; but, after a short imprisonment for this crime, he was pardoned by Charles II., and received from him a pension. Died in 1680. See Kennet, "History of England." Bloom'field, (Robert,) an English poet, born at Honington, in Suffolk, in 1766. He was the son of a tailor, and was apprenticed at an early age to a shoe- maker in London. While in this situation he composed his rural poem of "The Farmer's Boy," which, after being refused by several booksellers, was published under the patronage of Mr. Capel Lofft. It was received with extraordinary favour, and was translated into French, Italian, and Latin. Among his other poems we may name " Good Tidings, or News from the Farm," " May- Day with the Muses," and "Ballads and Songs." Of the "Farmer's Boy," Dr. Nathan Drake observes, in his "Literary Hours," that "in true pastoral imagery and simplicity no production can be put in competition with it since the days of Theocritus and a critic in "Black- wood's Magazine" pronounces it "by far the best-written, as to style and composition, of any work of our unedu- cated poets." Died in Bedfordshire in 1823. See " Blackwood's Magazine" for June, 1822, vol. xi. ; " Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. li., 1839. Bloomfield, (S. T.,) D.D., an English divine and scholar, born alDout 1790. He has published an edition of Dr. Robinson's " Greek and English Lexicon to the New Testament," with important additions and correc- tions, which is highly commended by the " Church of England Quarterly;" also the "Greek Testament, with English Notes, Critical, Philological, and Explanatory," (1832,) and other valuable works of the kind. He brought out in 1829 an excellent translation of Thucydides. Bloot, blot, (Pieter,) a Dutch or Flemish painter, whose favourite subjects are drunken frolics, quarrels of peasants, etc. Died in 1667. Blo'si-us or De Blois, deh blwS, (Francis Louis,) a Flemish Benedictine monk of noble family, born near Liege in 1506, became abbot of the monastery of Liesses, in Hainault. He was educated with Prince Charles, after- wards the emperor Charles V. Died about 1565. Blot, bio, Baron de Chauvigny, (deh sho'ven'ye',) a French wit and litterateur in tlie reign of Louis XIII., wrote a number of satires and epigrams against Cardinal Mazarin. Died in 1655. Blot, (Maurice,) a French painter and engraver, born in Paris in 1754, was a pupil of Saint-Aubin. Died in 181 8. Bloteling. See Bloeteling. Blouet, bloo^^', (Jean FRANgois Nicolas,) a French journalist and litterateur, born at Metz in 1745, wrote on agriculture, commerce, and other subjects. Died in 1809. Blount, blunt, (Charles,) Lord Mountjoy and Earl of Devonshire, born in 1563, lived in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, by whom he was treated with great favour. He succeeded to the title of Lord Mountjoy, and became governor of Portsmouth in 1594, and lord deputy of Ire- land in 1600. Having put down the Irish rebellion in 1603, he was created Earl of Devonshire by James I., and obtained other distinctions. Died in 1605 or 1606. He was an intimate friend of the Earl of Essex, whose sister he married. She was a great beauty, and previ- ously the wife of Lord Rich. Lord Devonshire and Lady Rich had five children born before their marriage. Blount, (Charles,) an English writer, son of Sir Henry, mentioned below, born at Upper Holloway in 1654, published a deistical work entitled " Anima Mundi," (1678,) and several others of a similar nature. He also translated from the Greek the " Life of Apollonius Tya- naeus," by Philostratus. He committed suicide in 1693. See Macaulav's " History of England," vol. iv. Blount, (Sir Henry,) born in Hertfordshire in 1602, travelled in Greece, Palestine, and Egypt, of which coun- tries he gave an account in his " Voyage into the Levant," published in 1636. It was translated into French and Dutch. Died in 1682. Blount, [Lat. Blon'dus,] (John,) an English writer, who was prebendary and chancellor in the church of York. He wrote theological works which were highly esteemed by his contemporaries, but they are not known to be ex- tant. Died in 1248. See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." Blount, (Thomas,) an English jurist and writer, born in Worcestershire in 1618. He published "Glosso- graphia," or a dictionary of legal terms, " Lamps of the Law and Lights of the Gospel," (1658,) "The Academy of Eloquence," and other works. Died in 1679. Blount, (Sir Thomas Pope,) son of Sir Henry, noticed above, born in 1649, was several times elected to Par- liament for Saint Alban's and Hertfordshire. He pub- lished a "Critique on Celebrated Writers," ("Censura celebriorum Authorum," 1690,) which is commended by a, e, T, o, II, y, long; \, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fcill, fit; met; u6t; good; m )oni BLOUNT 373 BLUNDEFILLE Hallam, Sir Egerton Brydges, and other eminent critics. Died in 1697. Blouut, bliint, (William,) an American Senator, born about 1744. He was appointed governor of the territory south of the Ohio River in 1790, and was elected a Sena- tor of the United States by the legislature of Tennessee in 1796. He was expelled from the Senate, in 1797, on a charge that he had abetted an attempt of the British to conquer from Spain part of the lower valley of the Mississippi. Died at Knoxville in 1800. Blount (bliint) Mount-joy', Lord Mountjoy, born about 1598, was the eldest son of Charles Blount and Lady Rich. He was created Earl of Newport in 1628, and appointed Constable of the Tower in 1641, but was removed in the same year because the king distrusted his loyalty. He adhered to the royal cause in the civil war, but was regarded as lukewarm. Died in 1665. Blow, (John,) an English musician and composer, born in Nottinghamshire in 1648, became organist of Westminster Abbey. Among his principal compositions are a "Gloria Patri," and a collection of secular pieces entitled "Amphion Anglicus." The celebrated Purcell was one of his pupils. Died in 1708. See BuRXEV, "History of Music." Bliioher, von, fon bloo'ker, [Ger. pron. fon blii'Ker,] (Gebhard Lebrecht,) a celebrated Prussian field-mar- shal, born at Rostock in 1742. At an early age he en- tered the Swedish army, and was taken prisoner by the same Prussian regiment (then under the command of Colonel von Belling) which he afterwards commanded with such distinction. He was prevailed upon by Von Belling to join the army of Frederick the Great, and, after the accession of Frederick William, distinguished him- self in the campaigns of 1793-94 against the French. In 1806 he commanded the Prussian vanguard at Auer- stadt, and effected a masterly retreat to Lubeck, though pursued by Soult, Bernadotte, and Murat. Appointed in 1813 to the chief command of the allied Russian and Prussian army, he obtained a signal victory over Mac- donald on the Katzbach, and soon after took a promi- nent part in the battle of Leipsic. After various en- gagements with the French, he advanced to Paris in March, 1814, and, having stormed the heights of Mont- martre, entered the city with the allied sovereigns. On this occasion he was created Prince of Wahlstadt by the King of Prussia, and received other high distinctions. In 181 5 he again took command of the Prussian army, and though defeated at Ligny, June 16, he appeared on the field of Waterloo in the evening of the i8th and decided the fortunes of that eventful day. With his fresh troops he pursued the flying enemy through the night, and, having arrived in Paris, assisted in re-estab- lishing the Bourbon dynasty. He died in 1819, at the age of seventy-seven. Bliicher was chiefly remarkable for his impetuous courage and the rapidity of his move- ments, which procured for him the name of "Marshal Vorwiirts," ("Forwards.") For the plans of his battles he relied principally upon Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, generals of his staff. W^hen praised for one of his vic- tories, he said, " It is owing to my rashness, Gneise- nau's prudence, and the mercy of the great God." See "Life and Campaigns of Blucher," London, 1815; Foerster, "Blucher und sein Umgebung," 1821 ; Pischon, " Bliichers Leben, Thaten und Ende," 1S42; Varnhagen von Ense, "Bliichers Le- bensbeschreibung," 1827 ; W. Burckhardt, " G. L. von Blucher nach Leben, Reden und Thaten geschildert," 1835 ; " Vie de Blucher," Paris, 1 816. Bludoff or Bloudoflf, bloo'dofF, (Dmitri,) Count, a Russian statesman, born at Moscow about 1783. He has been employed in various embassies, appointed secre- tary of the interior, and president of the legislative department in the council of the empire. Bluet d'Arberee, de, deh blu-.V (almost blw&) dSa'- baiR', (Bernard,) a French litteratettr, and fool by pro- fession, sometimes called the Comte de Permission, was born near Savoy about 1560. He wrote eulogies on his patrons, and a number of prophecies for the people. A copy of his works was sold for five hundred francs at the McCarthy sale in 1816. See Flogel, "Geschichte des Burlesken." Bluf, bloof, (Matthaus. Joseph,) a German physician and medical writer, born at Cologne in 1805 ; died in 1837. Bluhme, bloo'meh, (Christian Albert,) a Danish statesman, born at Copenhagen in 1794, became minister of foreign affairs in 1851, and in 1852 president of the council. Bluhme or Blume, bloo'meh, (Friedrich,) a Ger- man jurist, born at Hamburg about 1798. He became profoundly versed in the Roman law, and was appointed professor of law at Bonn. Among his works are " Iter Italicum," (4 vols., 1824-36,) containing the results of his researches in Italy, " Canon Law of the Jews and Christians, especially in Germany," (1826,) and a " Sketch of the Law of the Pandects," (1829.) Blum, bloom, (Jean,) a Swiss architect, resided at Zurich. He published in 1596 a " Book of Architecture." Blum, bloom, (Joachim Christian,) a German lit- tej'ateur, born at Rathenau in 1739; died in 1790. Blum, (Karl,) a German composer, and director of the Royal Opera at Berlin, born in that city about 1785. He composed numerous operas and songs. Died in 1844. Blum, (Robert,) a German democratic politician, born at Cologne in 1807. In 1840 he founded the Schiller Association at Leipsic, and soon after became a leading contributor to the " Sachsischen Vaterlandsblattern," a political journal. He was the founder of the German Catholic church at Leipsic in 1845. In the revolution of 1848 he was a prominent leader of the Liberal party, and was one of the deputation sent to Vienna with the ad- dress of the parliamentary opposition. On the capture of that city by Windischgratz, he was arrested and shot, November 9, 1848. See Eduakd Duller, "R. Blums Leben und Tod," 1848; Eduakd Franks, " Leben, Wirken, etc. des R. Blum," 1848; LuD- wiG WiTTiG, "Blums letzte Stunden inWien," 1848. Blumauer, bloo'mow'er, (Aloys,) a German poet, born at Steyer in 1755, published a burlesque poem en- titled "Virgil's ^neid travestied," (17S4,) which was very popular in Germany and was translated into Rus- sian. Died in 1798. Blumberg, bloom'b^RG, (Christian Gotthelf,) a German Lutheran divine and philologist, born near Quer- furt in 1664; died in 1735. Blume. See Bluhme. Blumenbach, bloo'men-bik, [Ger. pron. bloo'men- b^K,] (JoHANN Friedrich,) a celebrated German com- parative anatomist and physiologist, was born at Gotha on the nth of May, 1752. He studied at Jena, and after- wards at Gottingen, where he took his degree in medi- cine in 1775. On this occasion he wrote a thesis on the " Varieties of the Human Race," (" De Generis humani Varietate Nativa,") which was translated into many lan- guages. He became ordinary professor of medicine and anatomy at Gottingen in 1778, and continued to lecture there more than fifty years. He published in 1780 a popular "Manual of Natural History," (loth edition, 1830,) and in 1786 a "Description of the Bones of the Human Body." He explained with success the functions of the human system in his " Institutiones Physiologicae," (1787,) which was translated into English and other lan- guages and used as a text-book in schools. Blumenbach was the first who divided the human species into five races, — viz., the Caucasian, Mongolian, Malay, American, and African or Ethiopian. He advo- cated the unity of the human species. " He was the first," says Dr. Hoefer, "who placed natural history on a sci- entific basis, — comparative anatomy." Among his im- portant works is a " Manual of Comparative Anatomy," (1805.) In the number of his pupils was Alexander von Humboldt. He was a member of about seventy learned societies, and corresponded with the most eminent phi- losophers of Europe. He was created a knight of the Guelphic order about 1821. Died at Gottingen in Janu- ary, 1840. See "£loge de Blumenbach," par Flourens, 1846; C. F, H. Marx, "Zum Andenken an J. F. Blumenbach," 1840; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Blumroder, von, fon bloom'roMer, (August Fried- rich,) a German litterateur and soldier, born at Gehren in 1776, served against the French in the campaigns of 1814-15. Bluu'dell, (James,) a British physician and medical writer, born about 1810, practised in London. Blun'de-ville, (Thomas,) an English mathematician, € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BLUNT 374 BOB RUN published in 1594 a popular work, entitled "Exercises, containing Six Treatises." Blunt, (Edmond,) an American hydrographer, son of Edmond M. Blunt, noticed below, born in Newbury- port, Massachusetts, in 1 799. He was for many years engaged in making surveys of the sea-coast of the United States, the West Indies, Guatemala, etc., and since 1833 has been first assistant in the United States Coast Survey at Washington. Blunt, (Edmond March,) an American writer on nau- tical subjects, born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1770. In 1796 he published his "American Coast Pilot," which has since passed through many editions and been translated into several European languages. It con- tains descriptions of every seaport in the United States and of most of those in America, with sailing-directions, Jists of light-houses, etc. He has also published many other valuable nautical works, charts, etc. Blunt, (E[enry,) an English religious writer, born about 1794. In 1835 he became rector of Streathan, Surrey. He published, besides sermons, "Lectures on the History of Saint Paul," (1833,) "Lectures on the History of Elisha," and other popular works. It is said that some of his works have passed through forty editions. Died in 1843. Blunt, (James G.,) an American general, born in Hancock county, Maine, in 1826. He settled in Kansas about 1856, and became a leader of the Free State party. He was appointed a brigadier-general about April, 1862. Pie defeated the enemy at Kane Hill, Arkansas, in No- vember, and at Prairie Grove in December, 1862. Having been promoted to the rank of major-general, he com- manded the department of Kansas in 1863, but was re- lieved in October of that year. Blunt, (John James,) an English divine and scholar, born at Newcastle-under-Lime in 1794. He became in 1839 Lady Margaret professor of divinity at Cambridge. He published " Undesigned Coincidences in the Writ- ings both of the Old and New Testaments an Argument of their Veracity," (1847,) "Vestiges of Ancient Manners in Italy and Sicily," and other works. Died in 1855. See "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1S58, (vol. civ.) Blunthli, bloont'lee, or Bluntschli, bloont'shlee, (Jean Henri,) born at Zurich in 1656, wrote a chronicle of the city and canton of Zurich, entitled " Memorabilia Tigurina." Died in 1722. Bluntschli, bloont'shlee, (Johann Kaspar,) a Swiss jurist, born in 1808 at Zurich, where he became professor of law in 1836. Bluteau, blii'to', (Dom Raphael,) a learned writer, of French extraction, born in London in 1638, became preacher to Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. He published a "Portuguese-Latin Dictionary," (1712, 8 vols, fol.) Died in 1734. Blutel, blii^tlK, (Charles Auguste Esprit Rose,) a French jurist, and member of the National Convention, born at Caen in 1757. He was a member of the Council of Five Hundred. Died in 1806. See " Notice sur M. Blutel," Paris, 1847. Blyenburg, bll'en-biiRG^ (Adrian,) a Latin poet, nephew of Damasus, born at Dort in 1560 ; died in 1599. Blyenburg, van, vSn blT'en-bviRG^, (Damasus,) a Dutch littet'ateur, born at Dort in 1 558, published a com- pilation of the modern Latin poets. B6, bo, (Jean Baptiste Jerome,) a French physician, born near Mur-de-Barrez in 1753, was elected to the National Convention in 1792, and voted for the imme- diate death of the king. Died in 1811. Boabdil, bo-ab-deK, [corrupted from Aboo-Abdillah or Aboo-Abdallah,] surnamed el Ciiico, (cheeHvo,) (or TJIE Little,) the last Moorish king of Granada. His claim to the throne was contested by his uncle, Abdallah- el-Zagal. This dispute was settled by Ferdinand of Aragon, who conquered Granada in 1491, when Boabdil ceased to reign. He retired to Africa in 1496, and died about 1536. Boaden, b5'den, (James,) an English writer, born at Whitehaven in 1762, was an intimate friend of John Keinble. He published several dramas, a " Life of John Philip Kemble," a " Life of Mrs. Jordan," and one of Mrs. Siddons. Died in 1839. Bo-ad-i-ge'a, [Fr. PjOADIC^;e, boTde'si',] written also Boudicea, Boodicia, and Voadica, wife of Prasu- tagus, king of the British tribe of the Iceni, flourished about the middle of the first century. After the death of her husband, Boadicea, incensed by the rapacity and insults of the procurator Catus, took up arms against the Roman colonists and their allies, seventy thousand of whom, according to Tacitus, fell in battle. She was subsequently defeated by Suetonius Paulinus with im- mense loss, and took poison to avoid falling into' the victor's hands. See Tacitus, " Annales," book xiv. Boadicee, the French of Boadicea, which see. Board'man, (George D.,) an eminent Baptist mis- sionary, born at Livermore, Maine, in 1801. He gradu- ated at Waterville College in 1821, studied divinity at the Theological Seminary at Andover, and in 1825 sailed for the East under the auspices of the Baptist Board of Foreign Missions. He arrived at Calcutta in December following, and, after devoting some fifteen months to the study of the Burmese language, established a mission at Maulmain, on the Tenasserim coast. This place sub- sequently became the principal seat of the Baptist mis- sions in that region. The next year he founded another mission at Tavoy. Mr. Boardman continued his work with great zeal and success until his death in 1831. Boardman, (Henry Augustus,) D.D., an eloquent American divine, born at Troy, New York, January 9, 1808. He graduated at Yale in 1829 as valedictorian of his class, and studied theology at Princeton. For more than thirty years he has had the pastoral charge of the Tenth Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia. In 1853 he was elected by the general assembly to fill the chair of pastoral theology at Princeton, but he declined the honour. See Ali.ibone's " Dictionary of Authors." Boaretti, bo-l-ret'tee, (Francesco,) an able Italian litterateur, born near Padua in 1748, became professor of sacred eloquence at Venice about 1785. He trans- lated some of the works of Sophocles and several tra- gedies of Euripides into Italian, (versi sciolti,) and Ho- mer's "Iliad" into ottava rima, (1788.) Died in 1799. Boas, bo'as, (Eduard,) a German novelist, born at Landsberg in 1815, published a supplement to the works of Goethe, (3 vols., 1841,) and other works. Died in 1853. Boat. See Boor. Boaton, de, deh bo't^t^N', (Pierre FRANgois,) born near Aubonne, in the Pays de Vaud, in 1734, translated into French verse Gessner's " Idyls" and " Death of Abel," and Wieland's "Oberon." Died in 1794. Bobadilla, de, dabo-sa-D^Kya, (Francisco,) a Span- ish magistrate, who was charged, in 1500, to ascertain the condition of the colony at Saint Domingo under Co- lumbus. On his arrival he caused that illustrious man to be arrested and sent in chains to Spain, where he was kindly received by his sovereigns and reinstated in his honours. Bobadilla was soon after obliged to resign his post to Nicholas Ovando. See Irving's " Life of Columbus." Bobart, bo'baRt, (Jacob,) a German botanist and physician, born at Brunswick about 1598, became super- intendent of the botanical garden at Oxford in England. Died in 1679. Bobart, (Jacob,) son of the preceding, became pro- fessor of botany at Oxford in 1683. Died in 1719. Bobolina, bo-bo-lee'n^, a modern Greek heroine, who in the revolution of 182 1 equipped three ships at her own expense, one of which she commanded. She offered her vessels to the government for the blockade of Nanplia, which was maintained fourteen months. She was assassinated in 1825 by the friend of a person sup- posed to have been wronged by a member of her family. See PouQUEViLLE, " Histoire de la Regeneration de la Grece." Bobrof, bo'bRof, (Semen Sergeevitch,) a Russian poet, whose principal poem is entitled " Khersonida," being a history and description of Taurida, in Southern Russia. Died in 1810. Bobrun, bo'bRuN', (Charles,) a French painter, born at Amboise in 1604, executed a number of portraits in conjunction with his cousin Henri, noticed below. Died in 1692. Bobrun, (Henri,) a French portrait-painter, born at fl, e, T, o, u, y, long; \ h, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, 11, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; BOCJCCINO 375 BOCCURDO Amboise in 1603, was patronized by Louis XIV. Among his master-pieces are portraits of Louis and of Anne of Austria. Died in 1677. See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Bocaccino, bo-kdt-chee'no, (Boccaccio,) an Italian painter, born at Cremona about 1460. He is praised by Lanzi. Died about 15 18. See Vasaki, "Lives of the Painters," Bocaccino, (Camillo,) surnamed IL Boccalini, (^1 bok-ka-lee'nee,) born at Cremona in 151 1, was a son of the preceding. Among his master-pieces are the frescos in the church of Saint Sigismund at Cremona. Died in 1546. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Bocace. See Boccaccio. Bocaiide, bo'kSN'di', (Bertrand,) a French natu- ralist and geographer, born at Nantes about 1820, resided many years in Africa. He published " Notes on Portu- guese Guinea, or Southern Senegambia." Bocanegra, bo-kl-na'gRa, (Pedro Atanasio,) a Spanish painter, born at Granada about 1638, was a pupil of Alonzo Cano. Died in 1688. Bocarro, bo-kSr'ro, (Antonio,) a Portuguese histo- rian, wrote a continuation of the "Asia Portugueza" of Joao de Barros, (in manuscript.) Bocarro Francez, bo-kdr'ro fRan'sIs, (Manoel,) a Portuguese astronomer and physician, born at Lisbon in 1588, received lessons from Galileo. Died at Florence in 1662. Boccaccio, bo-kSt'cho, [Old English, Boccace or Bocace, bo-kdss'; Fr. Boccace, bo'ktss'; Lat. Bocca'- Tius and BoccAc'cius,] or, more fully, Boccaccio di Certaldo, bok-cSt'cho de chlK-tSlMo, (Giovanni,) the most celebrated of Italian novelists, born in Paris in 13 13, was the illegitimate son of a Florentine merchant and a Frenchwoman. At his father's desire he engaged in mer- cantile pursuits, and afterwards studied canon law, which, however, he soon abandoned. Among his first produc- tions were the romance of " II Filicopo," and a poem in ottava rima, entitled " La Teseide," written at the request of his mistress, the Princess Mary, natural daughter of Robert, King of Naples. After the accession of Joanna to the throne of Naples, Boccaccio wrote, at her desire, his "Decamerone, or Hundred Tales," (1353,) which are esteemed models of Italian prose composition ; but many of them are disgustingly licentious. About this time he was sent on several diplomatic missions, and formed an intimacy with Petrarch, which continued for the remainder of their lives. He was appointed in 1373 to lecture at Florence on Dante, and wrote a commentary on the " Inferno," and a " Life of Dante." Besides his works in Italian, Boccaccio was the author of a number of Latin eclogues and prose essays, and, like his friend Petrarch, rendered important services to classical learning by col- lecting and transcribing ancient manuscripts. He died in 1375, having for many years previously been in a great measure reformed from the profligacy of his early life and writings. The " Decamerone" has furnished Shak- speare with the subjects of several of his dramas, and Chaucer derived from it his poem of " The Knight's Tale." Hazlitt, after remarking that Shakspeare's play of "All's Well that Ends Well" is from Boccaccio, adds, " The poet has dramatized the original novel with great skill and comic spirit, and has preserved all the beauty of character and sentiment zvithoiit iviproviftg tipo?i it, which was impossible. There is indeed in Boccaccio's serious pieces a truth, a pathos, and an exquisite refine- ment of sentiment which is hardly to be met with in any other prose writer whatever. . . . The invention implied in his different tales is immense ; but we are not to infer that it is all his own. He probably availed him- self of all the common traditions which were floating in his time, and which he was the first to appropriate." (See Hazlitt's "Characters of Shakspeare's Plays.") See also Baldelli, "Vita di Giovanni Boccaccio," 1806; Mazzu- CHEixi, "Scrittori d'ltalia;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Gianotti Manetti," Specimen Historiaeliterarias Floren- tinje Seculi XIII. ac XIV., seu Vits Dantis, Petrarchae ac Boccaccii," 1747; J. F. Adry, "Notice sur Boccace," 1802; "Lives of the Italian Poets," by the Rev. Henry Stebbing, London, vol. i., 1831. Bocca di Ferro, bok'k^ de feR'ro, (Girolamo,) an Italian jurist, nephew of Luigi, born at Bologna in 1552; died in 1623. Bocca di Ferro, Bucca Ferri, book'kS f^R^ree, or Bucca Ferra, book'kd (Luigi,) an Italian phy- sician and philosopher, born at Bologna in 1482. He became professor of logic in his native city, and numbered among his pupils J. C. Scaliger and Benedict Varchi. He wrote several Latin commentaries on the works of Aristotle. Died in 1545. Boccage, du, dii bo''ktzh',(MANOEL Maria Barbosa,) a celebrated Portuguese poet and improvisatore, of French extraction, born at Setuval in 1 771. He published nu- merous sonnets, odes, elegies, and epigrams, and made several translations from the French and Latin. It is stated that he could speak French, Italian, and Latin with facility. He became the chief of a poetic school, known under the name of Ehnatiisnie. Died in 1806. See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Boccage, du, (Marie Anne Le Page,) a French poetess, born at Rouen in 1 7 10, was the wife of P. J. Fi- quet du Boccage, noticed below. She was the author of a tragedy entitled " The Amazons," imitations of " Para- dise Lost" and of Gessner's " Death of Abel," and other poems, which enjoyed great popularity in her time, but are now nearly forgotten. She was a member of several foreign academies, as well as of those of Lyons and Rouen. Her letters to her sister, Madame Duperron, are still admired. Died in 1802. See Guilbert, " Notice sur Madame Boccage," 1807. Boccage, du, (Pierre Joseph Fiquet — fe^k^,) a French litterateur, born at Rouen in 1700, wrote "Letters on the English Theatre," and translated several works from the English. Died in 1757. Boccalini, bok-ka-lce'nee, (Trajano,) a witty Italian satirist, born at Loretto in 1556, was the author of " News from Parnassus," (" Ragguagli di Parnaso," 1612,) and other works, which were translated into several languages Among these is a satire called " Pietra del Paragone politico," (1626.) Died at Venice in 1613. See MoRHOF, " Polyhistor." Boccanera, bok-ki-na'rS, (Egidio,) a Genoese admi- ral, was a brother of Simone, Doge of Genoa. Having entered the Spanish service, he assisted in the capture of Algesiras in 1344, and in 1372 defeated the English fleet under the Earl of Pembroke, whom he made prisoner. Died about 1373. See SiSMONDi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Boccanera,(GuGLiELMO,) a Genoese nobleman, raised by the democratic party in 1257 to the sovereign power in Genoa, was deposed in 1262. Boccanera, (Simone,) was elected Doge of Genoa in 1339, removed in 1344, and re-elected in 1356. He gained victories over the Turks and Moors. Died about 1363- See SiSMONDi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Boccherini, bok-ki-ree'nee, (Luigi,) an Italian com- poser of instrumental pieces, born at Lucca in 1740, was patronized by Charles IV. of Spain. Died in 1806. See Fetls, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." Bocchi, bok^-cee, [Lat. Boc'chius,] (Achille,) an Italian scholar, born at Bologna in 1488, became pro- fessor of Greek and Latin literature in his native city. He wrote several Latin works, in prose and verse, on history, philosophy, etc. Died in 1562. Bocclii, (Faustino,) an Italian painter, born at Brescia in 1659 ; died about 1742. Bocchi, (Francesco,) born at Florence in 1548, wrote essays on various subjects, and eulogies on eminent Ital- ians. Died in 1618. Boc'-ehus [Gr. ^bKX0Q\ I., King of Mauritania, was the father-in-law of Jugurtha, and an ally of that prince in the war against the Romans. Having been defeated by Marius, he betrayed Jugurtha to the Romans in 106 B.C. Bocchus II., supposed to have been a son of the pre- ceding, fought for Caesar against Juba, King of Numidia, and was rewarded with a part of the kingdom of Massi- nissa. In a war between Antony and Octavius, Bocchus was a partisan of the latter. Bocciardo, bot-chaR'do, (Clemente,) an Italian *. as k: 9 as s; g hard; g as o, H, Vi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BOCCONE 376 BOCLER pairter, born at Genoa in 1620, was surnamed Clemen- tone, from his large stature. Died in 1658. Boccoue, bok-ko'ni, (Paolo,) a distinguished Sicilian naturalist, born at Palermo in 1633. He published a large number of Latin and Italian treatises on botany and mineralogy. Died in 1704. Bocconio, bok-ko'ne-o, (Marino,) a Venetian con- spirator, who, having failed in his attempt to overthrow the aristocracy of Venice, was executed in 1299. Boccuci, bok-koo'chee, (?) or Bocous,(Jose,) a Span- ish dramatist, probably of Italian origin, born at Barce- lona in 1775, resided for some years in Paris. He wrote successful dramas, and was a contributor to the " Bio- graphic Universelle." Bocerus. See Bocker, (Johann.) Boch, bok, or Bochius, bo'ke-us, (John,) a Flemish poet, called "the Belgian Virgil," born at Brussels in 1555, wrote Latin poems which were much admired. Died in 1609. Bochart, bo'shlR', (Mathieu,) a French Protestant theologian, was the author of a " Treatise against Relics," and a work entitled " Diallacticon," (1662,) advocating the union of Lutherans and Calvinists. Bochart, (Samuel,) an eminent French scholar and Protestant theologian, born at Rouen in May, 1599. He studied divinity and the Oriental tongues under Cameron and Louis Cappel, and was subsequently instructed by Erpenius, at Leyden, in Arabic, Syriac, and Chaldee. He was appointed in 1625 pastor at Caen, where he remained forty-three years and acquired great influence and repu- tation as a preacher. In 1628 he acquitted himself with credit in a public dispute with the Jesuit Veron, who was employed iDy Cardinal Richelieu. His greatest works are his " Hierozoicon," (1663,) or an account of animals mentioned in the Bible, and "Geographia Sacra," (1646.) They are commended by Cuvier and Baron Humboldt. Bochart died at Caen in 1667, with the reputation of one of the most learned men of his time. Several volumes of his sermons were published after his death. " No one," says Hallam, " has left a more durable reputation in this literature [Rabbinical or Hebrew] than Bochart. His ' Geographia Sacra' displays great learning and sagacity." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") See MoRiN, "De Vita et Scriptis S. Bocharti," 1692; Edward Herbert Smith, "S. Bochart: Recherches sur la Vie et les Ou- vrages de cet Auteur illustre," 1833. Bochart de Sarron, bo^shtR' deh st'r6N', (Jean Baptiste Gaspard,) a French mathematician and astronomer, born in Paris in 1730. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences, and first president of the Parliament of Paris. He was guillotined in 1794. See MoNTjOYE, "iSloge historique de B. de Sarron," 1800. Bochat, de, deh bo^sht', (Charles Guillaume LoYS,) a Swiss historian and miscellaneous writer, born at Lausanne in 1695 ; died in 1753. Bocholt, von, fon boK'olt, (Franz,) one of the ear- liest German engravers, lived about 1470. Among his principal works are " The Judgment of Solomon," and "Christ and the Twelve Apostles," (in thirteen plates.) Bochsa, bok'st', written also Bocska, (Robert Nicolas Charles,) a French musician and composer, born at Montmedy in 1789. He studied in Paris under Mehul, and attained great excellence as a performer on the harp. In 1822 he became professor of the harp at the Royal Academy of Music, London. His composi- tions are chiefly pieces for that instrument. Died in Australia in 1856. Bock, bok, (Friedrich Samuel,) a naturalist, born at Konigsberg in 1716, was professor of Greek and the- ology in his native city. He wrote a " History of Socin- ianism in Prussia," (1753,) and several works on natural history. Died in 1786. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Bock, bok, [Fr. Le Boucq, leh book ; Lat. Tra'gus,] (HiERONYMUS,) a German botanist, born at Heidesbach in 1498, was one of the greatest promoters of botanical science in his time. The genus Tragia was named in his honour by Plumier. Died in 1554. Bock, (Karl August,) a German anatomist and physician, born at Magdeburg in 1782, published, among other works, a " Manual of Practical Anatomy of the Human Body," (1819.) He lived many years at Leipsic. Died in 1833. Bock, (Karl Ernst,) an anatomist, a son of the pre- ceding, born at Leipsic in 1809, published a " Manual of Pathological Anatomy and Diagnostic," (1848.) Bock, de, deh bok, (Jean Nicolas £ tienne,) Baron, a French litterateur, born at Thionville in 1747. He wrote an " Essay on the History of Sabeism," and trans- lated from the German the " Life of Baron Trenck," and several works of Wieland and Kotzebue. Died in 1809. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Bockelmann, bok'kel-man', (Johann Friedrich,) a German jurist, born at Steinfurt in 1633 ; died at Leyden in 1681. Bockenberg, van, vtn bok'ken-bgRG^, [Lat. Cor- nelisso'nius Buckenber'gius,]' (Pieter,) a Dutch chronicler, born at Gouda in 1548, was historiographer of the States of Holland. Died in 161 7. Bocker, bok'ker, [Lat. Boce'rus,] sometimes writ- ten Boedeker, (Johann,) a German writer, Latin poet, and professor of law at Rostock, born near Minden in 1525 ; died in 1565. See J. C. Opitz, "De Vita, Fatis et Scriptis J. Boceri," 1750. Bockh or Boeckh, boK, (August,) an eminent Ger- man philologist and antiquary, born at Carlsruhe on the 24th of November, 1785. He studied at Halle under F. A. Wolf, and became in 181 1 professor of eloquence and the Greek language at Berlin. He published an edition of Pindar with a continuous commentary, a Latin translation, and a treatise on Greek versification, (1811,) and in 1817 brought out his "Political Economy of the Athenians," (" Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener,") a work displaying profound learning and research. He likewise published " Metrological Investigations concern- ing the Weights, Coins, and Measures of Antiquity," (1838,) a "Dissertation on the Silver Mines of Laurium in Attica," and other treatises. He began the "Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum," continued by his pupil Franz, and still unfinished. (The third volume was published in 1850.) He was a member of the principal learned so- cieties of Germany and other countries. Died in Berlin in August, 1867. The works of Bockh have marked an era in the history of archseology and philology. Ac- cording to his ideal, the aim of those studies should be to reproduce the entire social and political life of a people during a determinate epoch. See Klausen, "Biographie von Bockh," forming part of Hoff- mann's " Lebensbilder beriihmter Humanisten," 1837. Bockh or Boeckh, boK, (Christian Gottfried,) a German educational writer, born at Memmingen in 1732. Pie assisted in publishing the "Universal Library of Education," (1774.) Died in 1792. Bockh or Boeckh, von, fon boK, (Friedrich,) a German minister of state, brother of the preceding, born at Carlsruhe in 1777. He became a counsellor of finance in 1810, and was minister of ^pance (in Baden) from 1828 to 1844. He was president of the cabinet about two years, (1844-46.) Died in 1855. Bockhorst, van, vtn bok'hoRst, (Jan,) a Dutch painter, born at Dentekoom in 1661, studied under Kneller in London. Died in 1724. See Descamps, " Viesdes Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Bockhorst, von, fon bok'hoRst, (Johann,) a Ger- man painter, born at Miinster about 1610, was surnamed Langhen Jan, from his tall stature. He was a pupil of Jordaens, in Holland, and ranked high among the artists of the time. See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais et Allemands." Booking or Boecking, bok'king, (Eduard,) a Ger- man jurist and legal writer, born at Trarbach, Prussia, in 1802. He became professor of law at Bonn in 1835. Bockler or Boeckler, bok'kler, (Georg Andreas,) a German architect and mechanician, wrote a treatise "On Hydraulic Architecture," (1663.) Bockmann or Boeckmann, bok'niSn, (Jonas,) a Swedish physician, born at Windberg in 1716. He studied anatomy at Berlin under Budaeus, and in 1753 was appointed physician to the King of Sweden. Died in 1760. Bocler or Boeder, bok'ler, (Johann,) a German a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; BOCLER 377 BOD IN physician, born at Ulm in 1651, settled at Strasburg, where he died in 1 701. His son John, born at Stras- burg in 1 68 1, became professor of medicine in his native city. Died in 1733. Bocler or Boeder, (Johann Heinrich,) one of the most learned Germans of his time, born at Cronheim, 'n Franconia, in 161 1. He was invited in 1648 to fill the chair of eloquence at Upsal by Christina of Sweden, who appointed him her historiographer. He wrote a number of historical and critical works in Latin, and edited several classic authors. Died in 1692. See MoRHOF, " Polyhistor." Bocler or Boeder, (Johann Philipp,) son of Jo- hann, (the second of the name,) born at Strasburg in 17 10. In 1738 he succeeded Salzmann as professor of chemistry, botany, and materia medica at Strasburg. Died in 1759. Boder or Boeder, (Philipp Heinrich,) born at Strasburg ini 7 1 8, was a brother of Johann Philipp. Died in 1759. Bocquillot, bo^ke'yo', (Lazare Andr^:,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Avallon in 1649, published a num- ber of theological works, and a " History of the Cheva- lier Bayard," (1702.) Died in 1728. See Letors, "Vie de L. A. Bocquillot," 1745. Bocska. See Bochsa. Bocskai, botch'kl, (Stephan,) a nobleman of Tran- sylvania, who in 1604 joined the Hungarians in a revolt against Austria. Having defeated the Imperial troops, he was proclaimed hereditary King of Hungary by Sul- tan Ahmed I. In 1606 a peace was concluded with the emperor Rudolph, by which religious freedom was se- cured to the Protestants of Hungary, and Bocskai was acknowledged Prince of Transylvania. Died in 1606. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Bocthor, bok'toR', (Elie or Ellious,) a distinguished Orientalist, born at Sioot, in Upper Egypt, in 1784. He settled in France, where he was appointed professor of Arabic in the Royal Library. He published a *' French- Arabic Dictionary," and several translations from the Arabic into French. Died in 1821. See QuERARD, " La France Litteiaire," (Supplement.) Bodaeus a Stapel.bo-da'iisistd'pel, (Jan,) a Dutch botanist and physician of Amsterdam, died young in 1636. Bodard, bo\ltR', (Pierre Henri Hippolyte,) a French botanist and physician, lived about 1800. Bodard de Tezay, bo'dtR' deh teh-zi', (Nicolas Marie Felix,) a French litteratatr and diplomatist, born at Bayeux in 1757; died in Paris in 1823. Boddaert, bodMSRt, (Pieter,) a Dutch poet, born at Middelburg in 1694, published several original works, and translated into Dutch verse the *' Atreus" and •'Thyestes" of Crebillon. Died in 1761. See " Levensgeschiedenis van den vermaarden Dichter P. Bod- daert," Amsterdam, 1836. Boddaert, (Pieter,) a Dutch physician and natu- ralist, a relative of the preceding, born in Zealand about 1730. He translated into Dutch the "Elenchus Zoophy- torum" of Pallas, and John Hunter's "Natural History of the Teeth" (1773) into Dutch and Latin. Died about 1790. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon. " Bode, bo'deh, (Christoph August,) a German phi- lologist, born at Wernigerode in 1722, became professor of Oriental languages at Helmstedt in 1754. He pub- lished an Ethiopic version of the New Testament, and several commentaries on the Scriptures. Died in 1796. See WiDERURG, "Memoria C. A. Bodii," 1796; Ersch und Gru- ber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Bode, (Johann Elert,) an eminent German astrono- mer, born at Hamburg in January, 1747. He published in 1768 a popular work entitled " Introduction to the Knowledge of the Starry Heavens," ("Anleitung zur Kenntftiss des gestirnten Himmels,") and discovered in the same year a comet, which was the first one having a very short period. He was invited to Berlin by Fred- erick the Great, and admitted into the Academy of Sci- ences. Bode has the credit of discovering a law of the planetary system respecting the distances of the planets from each other, called " Bode's Law." Among his chief works is " Uranographia," or "Great Celestial Atlas," (1801,) by which, it is said, twelve thousand stars are added to former catalogues. Died in Berlin in 1826. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale," and Brockhaus, "Conver- sations-Lexikon." Bode, (Johann Joachim Christoph,) a German lit- terateur, born at Brunswick in 1730. He is chiefly noted for his excellent translations from the English ot Gold- smith's " Vicar of Wakefield" and Sterne's " Sentimental Journey," and of Montaigne's " Essays" and Marmontel's " Incas" from the French. He was a zealous advocate of free-masonry, upon which he wrote several treatises. He was also distinguished as a musician and composer. Died in 1793. See C. A. Boettiger, "J. J. C. Bodes literarisches Leben," 1796. Bodega y Quadra, bo-Da'g^ e kwi'DRi, (Juan Frai;- cisco,) a Spanish navigator, who explored the west coast of North America. Died in 1794. Bodekker, bo-dek'ker, (Jan Franciscus,) a Dutch portrait-painter, born in the duchy of Cleves in 1660 ; died in 1727. Bodel, bo'd^K, (Jehan,) a French troubadour, lived about 1270. Bodelschwingh-Velmede, von, fon bo'del-shv^ing' vIKmeh-deh, (Ernst,) a Prussian, born at Velmede, near Hamm, in 1794, became minister of the interior in 1844. Bodenschatz, bo'den-sh^ts^ (Johann Christoph Georg,) a German scholar and antiquary, born at Hof in 1717. He wrote an "Explanation of the New Testa- ment from Jewish Antiquities." Died in 1797. Bodenstedt, bo'den-stSt', (Friedrich Martin,) a German writer and journalist, born in the kingdom of Hanover iivi8i9. He resided as a tutor in the family of Prince Galitzin at Moscow, where he perfected him- self in the Russian language and translated some of the works of Pushkin and other poets into German. He subsequently travelled in Turkey, Greece, and Asia Minor, and published in 1848 "The Nations of the Cau- casus." In 1850 he became editor of the " Weser Zei- tung," He has also made a successful German translation of the Persian poems of Meerza Shalfee, (Mirza Shaffy.) See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." Bodenstein. See Carlstadt. Bodenstein, von, fon bo'den-stin', (Adam,) a Ger- man physician and alchemist, born in 1528, was a dis- ciple of Paracelsus. Died in 1577. See Schmieder, "Geschichte der Alchemic," 1832. Bodewyns, bo'deh-wins'', (Nikolaas,) a Flemish or Dutch landscape-painter, was associated with Francis Bout, who painted figures for the landscapes of Bode- wyns. The latter died at Brussels in 1700. Pilkington states that Bout was born at Brussels in 1660. Bodiker or Boediker, bo'de-ker, (Johann,) a Ger- man writer, born in 1641, published Latin and German poems. Died in 1695. Bodin, boM5,N', (Jean,) a celebrated French political writer, born at Angers in 1530. He studied law, and became secretary to the Due d'Alen9on. His principal work is a treatise on government, published in French, " De la Republique," (1576,) and afterwards translated by him into Latin," De Republica,"( 1586.) He maintains that a limited monarchy is the best form of government. This work is analyzed at length by Hallam, who says, " No former writer on political philosophy had been either so comprehensive in his scheme or so copious in his know- ledge ; none, perhaps, more original, more independent and fearless in his inquiries. Two names alone, indeed, could be compared with his, — Aristotle and Machiavel." " Bodin and Montesquieu are, in this province of political theory, the most philosophical of those who have read so deeply, the most learned of those who have thought so much." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died at Laon in 1596. See LvsER, "Selecta de Vita et Scriptis J. Bodini," 1715; E. CoLOMBEL, "Jean Bodin: Suite d'fitudes sur le seizieme Siecle," 1845; Baudrillart, "J. Bodin et son Temps," 1853; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Guhrauer, "Das Hepta plomeron des J. Bodin," 1841. Bodin, (Jean Franqois,) a French magistrate, born at Angers in 1776, wrote "Historical Researches con- cerning Angers and Lower Anjou." Died in 1829. Bodin, (Laurent,) a French physician and medical writer, born in the department of Indre-et-Loire in 1762. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, i^iittiiral; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; *h as in this. (S^="See Explanations, p. 23. ) BOD IN 378 BOERHAAVE Bodin, (Pierre Joseph FRANgois,) a deputy to the French National Convention in 1792, voted for the im- prisonment of the king. He afterwards became a mem- ber of the Council of Five Hundred. Died in 1810, Bo-dis''co, (Alexander,) a Russian diplomatist, born about 1 780. He was appointed Russian minister at Wash- ington about 1837, and retained that position until his death in 1854. Bod'ley, (John,) an English physician, published a "Critical Essay on the Works of Physicians," (1741.) Bodley, (Sir Thomas,) founder of the library at Ox- ford called by his name, Vv'as born at Exeter in 1544. He studied theology and the ancient languages at Geneva, whither his father had repaired during the persecutions of Queen Mary's reign. Having returned to England on the accession of Elizabeth, he graduated at Oxford in 1566. He became gentleman-usher to the queen in 1583, and was afterwards employed by her on important em- bassies to Denmark, Germany, and France. He was sent in 1588 to the Hague, where he resided many years and was admitted to the Council of State. Soon after his re- turn, in 1597, he founded the Bodleian Library, and, on the accession of James L, was made a knight. Died in 1612. See Thomas Hearne, "Reliquiae Bodleianae." Bodmer, bod'mer, (Georg,) a Swiss mechanician, born at Zurich in 1786, invented numerous machines, and made an improvement in the method of spinning cotton. Bodmer, (Johann Jakob,) a Swiss critic and littera- teur, born near Zurich in 1698. In 172 1 he became asso- ciated with Breitinger as editor of a literary journal en- titled " Discurse der Maler," having for its object the reformation of German poetry. They succeeded, not- withstanding the opposition of Gottsched and other par- tisans of French taste, in bringing to their views several of the principal writers of Germany, and laid the founda- tion of the German school soon after made illustrious by Klopstock, Goethe, and Schiller. Bodmer translated the "Paradise Lost" and Pope's "Dunciad" into German, and also published versions of the " Niebelungen" and other ancient poems. He died in 1 783, having for fifty years filled the chair of Swiss history at Zurich. See Meister, "Ueber Bodmer;" J. J. Hottinger, "Acroamade J. J. Bodmero," 1783; Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Bodoni, bo-do'nee, (Giambattista,) an eminent Italian printer and scholar, born at Saluzzo in 1740. He studied the Oriental languages at Rome, and in 1768 became superintendent of the royal press in Parma. Among his works, which are esteemed models of typo- graphic beauty, may be named editions of " Homer," "Virgil," "Horace," Tacitus's "Annals," and Tasso's "Gerusalemme Liberata." He also wrote a "Typo- graphic Manual," (1818.) Died in 1813. See Gregori, " Biographie de Lagrange, Denina at Bodoni," 1814 ; Lama, "Vita del Cavaliere G. B. Bodoni," 1816. Bodwell. See Bothwell. Boece or Boyce, boiss, [Lat. Boe'tius or Boe'thius,] (Hector,) one of the early Scottish historians, born at Dundee about 1465. He finished his studies and grad- uated at the University of Paris, where he subsequently became professor of philosophy. While there, he ac- quired the friendship of Erasmus, by whom he was highly esteemed. His " History of Scotland" (in Latin, 1526) ranks among the best historical works of that period. It was subsequently translated into the Scottish dialect by Bellenden, at the command of James V. Died about 1536. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Boece, the French of Boethius, which see. Boecio, the Italian of Boethius, which see. Boeckel. See Bockel. Boeckel, book'kel, [Lat. Bocke'lius,] (Jan,) a Flem- ish physician and medical writer, born at Antwerp in 1535, became professor of medicine at Helmstedt in 1575. Died in 1605. Boeckh. See Bockh. Boeckhout, van, vtn book'howt, (Jan Joseph,) a Belgian publicist and political writer, born at Brussels ; died in 1827. Boecking. See Bocking. Boeckler. See Bockler. Boeckmann. See Bockmann. Boediker. See Bodiker. a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, \\, y Boehm, or Boehme. See Bohme and Bohm. Boehmer. See Bohmer. Boehmius. See Bohme. Boel, bool, (Kornelis,) a Flemish engraver, born at Antwerp about 1580, worked in England. Boel, (PiETER,) a skilful Flemish painter of animals, fruits, and flowers, born at Antwerp in 1625. One of his master-pieces is called "The Four Elements." Died 1680. Boemondo, the Italian of Bohemond, which see. Boerhaave, (Abraham Kaau.) See Kaau. Boerhaave, bor'hav, [Dutch pron. booR'hI-veh ; Lat. Boerha'vius,] (Herman,) a Dutch physician and philosopher, whose celebrity has scarcely been equalled by that of any physician in modern times, was born at Voorhout, near Leyden, on the 31st of December, 1668. He was educated for the ministry at Leyden, where he took the degree of doctor of philosophy in 1689, and wrote an inaugural thesis " On the Distinction between the Soul and the Body." At the age of twenty-two he began the study of medicine. He read Hippocrates diligently, and took his degree as doctor of physic at Harderwick in 1693, after which he practised in Leyden, and in 1701 was chosen the successor or substitute of Drelincourt, who lectured on the theory of medicine in the university of that city. His precise definitions, bril- liant eloquence, and immense erudition rendered him a very popular lecturer. He obtained in 1709 the chair of medicine and botany vacated by Hotton at Leyden, on which occasion he pronounced a discourse in favour of simplicity in the practice of medicine. Before this period he had deviated from the Hippo- cratic method, and adopted mechanical and chemical hypotheses, which he advocated in his treatise " De Usu Ratiocinii Mechanici in Medicina," (1703.) His reputa- tion was widely extended by an excellent systematic work entitled "Medical Institutes," etc., (" Institutiones Medi- cas in usus annuas Exercitationis domesticos," 1708.) He gave a classification of diseases, and explained their causes, nature, and treatment, in his "Aphorisms on the Diagnosis and Ciire of Diseases," (" Aphorismi de cog- noscendis et curandis Morbis," 1709,) which is considered a master-piece of learning and of style. His medical system was generally adopted by his contemporaries. Boerhaave was also distinguished as a botanist and a chemist. He published in 1710 a " Description of Plants growing in the Botanic Garden of Leyden." In 1718 he became professor of chemistry, without ceasing to fill the chairs of medicine and botany. He was the first, ac- cording to the "Biographie Universelle," who rendered chemistry popular by treating it in a clear and beautiful style. His " Elements of Chemistry" (" Elementa Che- miae," 1724) is called his chef-d'oeuvre by the work just referred to. In consequence of severe attacks of gout, he resigned his chairs of botany and chemistry in 1727 and 1 729. He was elected rector of the University of Ley- den for the second time in 1730. About this date he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. He died on the 23d of September, 1738, leaving one child, a daughter. He was a man of sincere and earnest piety. Among his admired works are two orations, viz., " De Comparando certo in Physicis," (1715,) and "De honore Medici Servitute," (1731.) The reputation of Boerhaave as a physician and a man of learning is perhaps without a parallel in history. His fame extended not only to every part of Christendom, but to the farthest bounds of Asia. A Chinese mandarin addressed a letter to him with this superscription, " To Boerhaave, Physician in Europe," and the missive was duly received. Although he spent his money freely in the interests of science, yet so extensive and lucrative was his practice that at his death he left, it is said, more than two million florins. His intense application to study, and the exposure incident to his professional duties, had brought upon him (in 1732) a severe illness, which confined him to his bed for several months. When he recovered, the inhabitants of Leyden celebrated the joyful event by a public illumination. See Maty, " ifiloge historique de H. Boerhaave," 1747; Fonth- NELLE, "filoge de Boerhaave," 1763; Dr. S. Johnson, "Life of H. Boerhaave;" Burton, "Life and Writings of H. Boerhaave," a vols., 1743; Carl Wilhelm Ebert, "Dissertatio historico-medica de H. Boerhavio," 1843; "Biographie Medicale." short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; ndt; good; moon; BOERHAFIUS 379 BOGUE Boerhavius. See Boerhaave. Boerio, bo-a're-o, (Giuseppe,) an Italian jurist and legal writer, born at Lendinara in 1754; died in 1832. Boerne. See Borne. Boerner. See Borner. Bo-e'thi-us, [It. Boecio, bo-a'cho, or Boezio, bo-k'- se-o; in French, Boece, bo'^ss',] (Anicius Manlius Severinus,) a celebrated Roman philosopher and states- man, born about 475 A.D. He was liberally educated, and well instructed in Greek philosophy. When about thirty-three, he was elected consul. His administration was beneficent and favourable to the oppressed. He translated the works of Plato and other Greek writers into Latin, wrote commentaries on Aristotle, and acquired a great reputation as an author. He held several high offices under Theodoric the Goth, but, having been ac- cused by some envious courtiers of conspiring against the government, he was unjustly condemned by that king and executed about 525 A.D. His principal work is "On the Consolation of Philosophy," ("De Conso- latione Philosophise,") which was written in prison, where he was confined just before his death. It is com- posed of alternate portions of verse and prose. " Few books," says Hallam, "are more striking from the cir- cumstances of their production. Last of the classic writers, in style not impure, ... in elevation of senti- ment equal to any of the philosophers, and mingling a Christian sanctity with their lessons, he speaks from his prison in the swanlike tones of dying eloquence. Quenched in his blood, the lamp he had trimmed with a skilful hand, gave no more light ; the language of Tully and Virgil soon ceased to be spoken." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") His great work was very popu- lar in the middle ages, and was translated into various languages. It was translated into Anglo-Saxon by Al- fred the Great, and imitated by Chaucer. English ver- sions of it have been produced by W. Causton, Rev. Philip Ridpath, R. Duncan, and others. See Procopius, "History;" Barberini, " Exposizione della Vita de Boezio," 17S3 ; Dom GERVAiSE,"Histoirecle Boece/'ijis ; Heyne, "Censura ingenii Boethii," 1806; "Life of Boethiiis," prefixed to Ridpath's translation, 1785; Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap, xxxix. ; Ersch und Gkuber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Latina;" SiRO CoMi, " Memoria storico-critica sopra S. Boecio." Boethius, (Hector.) See Boece. Boethius, bo-a'te-iis, (Jacob,) professor of theology at Upsal, in Sweden, born in 1647. He was condemned to perpetual imprisonment for having opposed the abso- lute monarchy introduced by Charles XL, but he was released in 1710. Died in 1718. See Erik M. Fant, "Vita J. Boethii," Upsal, 1812. Boetie, de la, deh It bo'i'te', (Etienne,) a French litterateur, born at Sarlat, in Perigord, in 1530. He was an intimate friend of Montaigne, who refers to him in his chapter "On Friendship." He was the author of Latin and French poems, and a political treatise "On Volun- tary Servitude," (written about 1546,) a work of much merit, sometimes called "Le Contr'un." Died in 1563. "La Boetie, in fact," says Hallam, "is almost a single instance of a thoroughly republican character till nearly the period of the Revolution. Montaigne, the stanchest supporter of church and state, excuses his friend, le plus gra7id ho?nme, h mon avis, de notre siecle, (the greatest man, in my opinion, of our age,) assuring us that he was always a loyal subject." See La Feugere, " fitiides sur la Vie de La Boetie," 1845 ; J. F. Payen, " Notice bio-bibliographique sur £. de la Boetie," 1853. Boetius, (Hector.) See Boece. Boetius I3po, bo-a''te-us a'po, a Dutch jurist and writer, born in Friesland in 1529; died in 1599. Boettger or Boettcher. See Bottger. Boettiger. See Bottiger. Boetzlaer, boots''llr. Baron of, a Dutch general, born about 1720, distinguished himself by his brave de- fence of Willemstadt against Dumouriez. Boezio. See Boethius. Boffrand, bo'fRdN', (Germain,) a French architect and engineer, born at Nantes in 1667. Among his works are the palace of Nancy, the castle of Luneville, and the castle de la Favorite, near Mentz. Died in 1754. Bogaert, bo'giRt, (Adam,) a Flemish physician, born at Dort in 1413, was professor of medicine at Louvain for more than thirty years. Died in 1483. Bogaert, (Jacob,) son of the preceding, born at Lou- vain in 1440, succeeded his father as professor of medi- cine in that city. Died in 1520. Bogaert, van den, (Martin.) See Desjardins. Bogaerts, bo'gsRts, (Felix,) a Belgian poet and novelist, born at Brussels in 1805. Among his works are " Bibliotheque des Antiquites," (1834,) and "Lord Straf- ford," (1843.) Died in 1851. See E. DE BusscHER, " F. Bogaerts, Notice biographique," 1851. Bo'gan, (Zachariah,) an English philologist, born in Devonshire in 1625, wrote a " View of Scriptural Threats and Punishments." Died in 1659. Bo-gar^dus, (Everardus,) the first minister of the Reformed Dutch Church in New York, came to this country about 1633. He was drowned on his passage to Holland in 1647. Bo''gart, (Elizabeth,) an American poetess, born in New York in the early part of this century, has contrib- uted to the "New York Mirror," under the jzom de plume of "Estelle." A number of her poems are published in Griswold's " Female Poets of America," which see. Bogatzky, von, fon bo-gatsHvee, (Karl Heinrich,) a German theological writer, author of "The Golden Treasury," was born in Silesia in 1690; died in 1774. Bogdane, bog'dan, (James,) a Hungarian painter of flowers, fruits, and birds, worked in England for Queen Anne. Died about 1720. Bogdanovitch, bog-di-no^'itch, (Hippolytus Fe- DOROVITCH,) an eminent Russian lyric poet, born in Little Russia in 1743. He was appointed in 1761 in- spector at the University of Moscow. His principal work, entitled "Dushenka," ("Psyche,") came out in 1775. It ranks among the finest poems of its kind in the lan- guage, and was received with the greatest favour by all classes. He also translated from the French Vertot's "History of the Revolutions of the Roman Republic." He was appointed in 1788 president of the archives of the empire. Died in 1803. See BowRiNG, "Russian Anthology;" Karamzin, " Biographie de Bogdanovitch." Bogdanus, bog-da'nus, (Martin,) a Prussian phy- sician, born at Driesen about 1640. Bogernian, bo'ger-mSn, [Lat. Bogerma'nus,] (Jan,) a Dutch theologian and controversialist, born in Fries- land in 1576. He sided with Gomarus in his dispute with Arminius, and wrote a polemical treatise against Grotius. He was president of the Synod of Dort, and was one of the translators of the Bible into Dutch. Died in 1637. Boggs, (Charles Stewart,) an American commo- dore, a nephew of Captain James Lawrence of the Chesa- peake, was born at New Brunswick, New Jersey, in 181 1. He entered the navy in 1826, and gained the rank of commander in 1855. He commanded the gunboat Va- runa in the battle by which Farragut captured New Or- leans, in April, 1862. In that action he sunk or burned six gunboats, partly iron-clad. The Varuna having been fatally damaged by an iron-clad running against her. Captain Boggs ran her ashore, tied her to a tree, and continued to fight as long as his guns remained above the water, or "till the water was over the gun-truck." Bogin, bo^zh^N', [It. Bogino, bo-jee'no,] (Jean Bap- TISTE,) born at Turin in 1701, became grand chancellor of Victor Amadeus, King of Sardinia, in 1730, and in 1750 minister of state under Charles Emmanuel. Died in 1784. Bog''o-ris, Prince of Bulgaria, succeeded Baldimir, (or Valdimir.) He was converted to Christianity in 853 A.D., and induced or compelled his subjects to adopt the same religion. Died in 896. Bogros, bo^gRo', (Annet Jean,) a distinguished French anatomist, born m the department of Auvergne in 1786 ; died in 1823. See Verniere, "Notice sur A. J. Bogros," 1824. Bogsch, bogsh, (Johann,) an agricultural writer, born at Deutschendorf, in Hungary, in 1745; died in 1821. Bogue, bog, (David,) a Scottish divine, born in Ber- wickshire in 1750, was one of the founders of the London Missionary Society in 1 795. He was one of the first € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, Y.,g2 Mural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ((J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BOGUET 380 BOHMER editors of the " Evangelical Magazine," and took an act- ive part in promoting the principal religious associations of the day. Died in 1825. See James Bennett, "Memoir of Dr. Bogue;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Boguet, ho'gy, (Henri,) a French magistrate and miscellaneous writer, born in Franche-Comte about 1550. Boguphal, bo'goo-fll, Bishop of Posen, in Poland, wrote a Latin "Chronicle of Poland," (1729,) continued by Baczko. Died in 1253. Boguslawski, bo-gus-lav'skee, (Adalbert,) a Polish dramatist and actor, born in 1752, translated dramas from the French, Italian, and Spanish. Died in 1829. Boguslawski, bo'goo-sliv'skee. (Palm Heinrich LUDWIG,) a Prussian astronomer, of Polish extraction, born at Magdeburg in 1789. Appointed director of the observatory at Breslau in 1 83 1, he discovered in 1834 the comet called by his name. In 1836 he became pro- fessor of astronomy at Breslau. Died in 1851. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Bohadsch, bo'hidsh, (Johann Baptist,) a German physician and naturalist, was professor of natural history at Prague. Died in 1772. Boha-ed-Deen or Boha-eddin, bo^h^-ed-deen', (Ibn-Shedad, ib'n she-did',) an Arab historian, born at Mosul in 1145, was distinguished by the favour of the Sultan Saladin, who appointed him cadi of Jerusalem. His principal work is a " Life of Saladin," which has been translated into Spanish by Borbon. Died in 1232. Bohaire-Dutheil, bo'^R' dii'til', a French dramatist and satirical writer, born about 1750 ; died in 1825. Bolian, de, deh bo'6N',(FRANgois Philippe Lourat,) Baron, a French tactician and military writer, born at Bourg-en-Bresse in 1751 ; died in 1804. Boliemoiid,bo'he-m6nd,[Fr. Boh^mond, bo'i^moN'; It. BoEMONDO, bo-a-mon'do ; Lat. Bohemun'dus,] I., a famous chief' of the crusaders, was the son of Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia and Calabria. Accompanied by his cousin Tancred and several Norman princes, he joined the first crusade, at the head of a large army, in 1096. Having assisted at the capture of Nicaea, he gained possession of Antioch by a strategem, and suc- ceeded in obtaining the sovereignty of that city. He subsequently married the daughter of Philip I. of France. He died in 11 11, and was succeeded by his son, Bohe- mond II. See MiCHAUD, "Histoire des Croisades." Bohemond II. became Prince of Antioch in 11 26. He assisted Baldwin, King of Jerusalem, in his wars against the Saracens. Died in 1130. Bohemond III., grandson of Bohemond II., suc- ceeded to the throne of Antioch in 1163. Died in 1201. Bohemundus. See Bohemond. Bohic, bo'ek', written also Bouhic or Boich, (Henri or I-Ierve,) an eminent French jurist, born in Bretagne in 1310; died about 1390. Bohier, de, deh bo'e-i', [Lat. Boe'rius,] (Nicolas,) a French jurist, born at Montpellier in 1469 ; died in 1539. Bohl, b51, (Johann Christian,) a German physician, and professor of medicine at Konigsberg, where he was born in 1703 ; died in 1785. Bolile, bo'leh, (Samuel,) a German theologian and Hebraist, born in Pomerania in 161 1 ; died in 1689. Bohleii, bo'len, (Henry,) born in Germany, emigrated to the United States in his youth, and became a rich merchant in Philadelphia. In April, 1862, he was ap- pointed a brigadier-general. He served under Fremont and Sigel in Virginia, and was killed near the Rappahan- nock in August, 1862. Bohleii, von, fon bo'len, (Peter,) an eminent Ger- man Orientalist, born near Jever in 1796. Owing to the poverty of his family, he enjoyed few advantages of edu- cation, until enabled to enter the University of Halle through the kindness of several wealthy patrons. He became in 1830 professor of Oriental languages at Ko- nigsberg. Among his principal works are a dissertation on the Arabic poet Montenabbi, (" Commentatio de Mon- tenabbio,") an excellent treatise on Indian antiquities, entitled "Das Alte Indien," (2 vols., 1830,) an edition of Bhartrihari's " Sententiae," and " Genesis Historically and Critically explained," (in German.) He also wrote a very interesting "Autobiography," published in 1841. Died in 1840. Bohm or Boehm, bom, (Andreas,) a German ma- thematician and philosopher, born at Darmstadt in 1720. He published, among other works, a "Magazine for Engineers." Died in 1790. Bohm, (Jacob.) See Bohme. Bohm or Boehm, bom, (John Daniel,) a Hungarian sculptor, born at Wallendorf in 1794. Bohm or Boehm, (Joseph,) a German violinist, born at Pesth in 1798, became professor at Vienna. Bohm or Boehm, (Theobald,) a German flutist, born in Bavaria about 1802, made improvements in the construction of the flute. He also composed music for that instrument. Bohm or Boehm, (Wenzel Amadeus,) a German engraver, born at Prague in 1771. His best works are a Saint Paul, after Sereta, and a portrait of the King of Denmark. Died in 1823. Bohme, bo'meh, Bohm, or Boehm, bom, written also Behmen, [Fr. Bcehm or BoiHme, b|m ; Lat. Boeh'- mius,] (Jacob,) a celebrated German mystic, was born near Gorlitz, in Upper Lusatia, in 1575. He served an ap- prenticeship to a shoemaker, and followed that trade at Gorlitz. He was a devout reader of the Scriptures from his youth, and was a member of the Lutheran Church, which he probably never forsook. According to his own statement, he was divinely illuminated, and thus enabled to perceive the mysteries of nature and grace. He wrote, about 1610, a religious book called "Aurora, or the Morning Redness," which Hallam says was not pub- lished until 1641. He was generally accounted a vision- ary by the clergy, but his opinions were adopted by many in Germany, Holland, and England. Among his ad- mirers or disciples were many men of high rank and high cultivation. He wrote numerous works, which were published, in 10 vols., 16S2. They were trans- lated into English (1764) by the eminent divine William Law, who was an admirer of Bohme. He died at Gor- litz in 1624. " His supernatural illumination," says Hallam, " came without the gift of transferring the light to others, for scarce any have been able to pierce the clouds in which his meaning has been charitably sup- posed to lie hid." See La Motte-Fouque, "Notice sur J. Boehm," 1831; WuL- LEN, "Jacob Bohms Leben," 1836; Johann Adam Calov, "Dis- sertatio de Vita J. Boehmii," 1707; G. L. Gmelin, "Dispiitatio de J. Boehmio," 1708; J. F. Sillig, "J. Boehme: biographischer Ver- siich," iSoi. Bohme or Boehme, (Johann Eusebius,) a German writer, and professor of history at Leipsic, born at Wurzen in 1717 ; died in 1780. Bohmer or Boehmer, boh'mer, (Georg Ludwig,) a younger son of Justus Henning, noticed below, was born at Halle in 171 5. He became professor and dean of the faculty of law at Gottingen. Died in 1797. Bohmer or Boehmer, (Georg Rudolf,) a German physician and botanist, born at Liegnitz in 1723. He became professor of therapeutics at Kemberg in 1783, and afterwards dean of the university in that city. The genus Boehmeria was named in his honour. Died in 1803. See Callisen, " Medicinisclies Schriftsteller-Lexikon." Bohmer or Boehmer, (Georg Wilhelm Rudolf.) a Protestant theologian and writer, born near Magde- burg in 1800, became professor of divinity at Greifswalde in 1830. Bohmer or Boehmer, (Johann Benjamin,) a Ger- man physician, born at Liegnitz in 1719; died in 1753. Bohmer or Boehmer, (Johann Friedrich,) a Ger- man historian and compiler, born at Frankfort-on-the- Main in 1795, published "The Archives of the Roman Kings and Emperors from Conrad I. to Henry VII.," (1831,) and "Fontes Rerum Germanicarum," (1843-53.) Died in 1863. Bohmer or Boehmer, (Johann Samuel Fried- rich,) son of the following, became counsellor to the King of Prussia and director of the University of Frank- fort-on-the-Oder. Died in 1772. Bohmer or Boehmer, (Justus Henning,) a German jurist, born at Hanover in 1674. He became chancellor of the University of Halle, and was created by Frederick the Great a member of his state council. His principal a, e, 1, o, Vi, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, 3^, short; a, e, i, o, obsmre; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; BOHMER 381 BOILEJU work is an " Introduction to Public Universal Law," in Latin, (1709.) Died at Halle in 1749. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemelne Encyklopaedie ;'' A. Stru- ENSEE, "Das griinende und fruchtbare Alter: Gediichtniss-Predigt sum Andenken des J. H. Boehmer," 1749. Bohmer or Boehmer, (Philipp Adolf,) brother of Georg Ludwig, born at Halle in 1717, was first physician to the Duke of Saxe-Weimar. Pie became professor of anatomy at Berlin in 1 741, and in 1787 royal counsellor and dean of the university. Died in 1789. Bohn, bon, (Henry G.,) a distinguished London pub- lisher, of German extraction, born in London about 1800. Among his numerous and valuable publications may be named his "Standard Library," (130 vols.,) "Library of French Memoirs," "Library of British Classics," and "Guinea Catalogue," which describes three hundred thousand volumes. He has made several translations from the German, and edited the " Bibliotheca Parriana." Bohn, bon, [Lat. Bok'nius,] (Johann,) an eminent German medical writer, born at Leipsic in 1640. He became professor of anatomy at Leipsic in 1668, and was the first who attacked successfully the chemical system of physiology maintained by F. de la Boe. He was dis- tinguished in medical jurisprudence. Among his chief works are "Circulus anatomicus physiologicus," (1680,) and " Medicinae forensis Specimina Tria," (1690.) Died in 1718. See " Biographie Medicale." Bohomolec,bo-ho-mo'lits, (Francis,) a Polish writer of dramas, biography, etc. Died in 1 790. Bohren or Bohra. See Bora. Bohse, bo'zeh, (August,) also called Talander, ti'lan-der, a German writer of little merit, born at Halle in 1661. He wrote novels, operettas, etc. Died about 1735. Bohtlingk, bot'link, (Otto,) a distinguished Orien- talist, of German extraction, born at Saint Petersburg in 1 81 5. He has published, among other works, " Kali- dasa's Sakuntala," (text with a translation, 1842 ;) a " San- scrit Chrestomathia," (1845,) ^^"^^ ('i"* conjunction with Roth) a " Sanscrit-German Lexicon," (not yet finished,) a work of unrivalled merit in this department of literature. See Bkockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Bohtori, boh'to-ree, (Al-Waleed or Al-Walid, ai- wa-leed',) an Arabian poet, born about 821. His verses were styled, by his countrymen, chains of gold. Bohtz, bots, (August Wilhelm,) born at Stettin in 1 799, became professor of philosophy at Gottingen in 1 842. Bo'hun, (Edmund,) an English writer, was the author of a "Historical, Geographical, and Poetical Dictionary," (1694,) and several political works. See M acaulav, " History of England," vol. iv. ; Wood, " Athe- nae Oxonienses." Bohusz, bo'hoosh, (Xavier,) a Polish historian, born in 1746, published "Researches on the Historical Anti- quities and Language of Lithuania." Died in 1825. Boianus. See Bojanus. Boiardo or Bojardo, bo-yaR'do, (Matteo Maria,) Count of Scandiano, a celebrated Italian poet, born at Scandiano about 1430. His principal work, the " Or- lando Innamorato," (left unfinished,) was published about 1495, and was afterwards continued by Ariosto under the title of "Orlando Furioso." It was also written over and so greatly improved by Berni that the original is nearly forgotten. The " Orlando Innamorato of Boiardo," says Hallam, "has hitherto not received that share of renown which seems to be its due. In point of novel invention and just keeping of character, especially the latter, he has not been surpassed by his illustrious fol- lower Ariosto ; and whatever of this we find in the Or- lando Innamorato is due to Boiardo alone." ("Intro- duction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1494. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Ginguene, " Histoire Litleraire d'ltalie ;" W. H. Prescott, critique on Boiardo in the " North American Review" for October, 1824, vol. xix. ; G. F. CremokA; " Elogio del Conte M. M. Bojardo," 1827 ; " Lives of the Italian Poets," by the Rev. Henry Stebbing, London, 1831 ; "Quar- terly Reviev/' for April, 1819, article "Narrative and Romantic Poetry of the Italians." Boiceau, bwi'so', (Jean,) a French jurist, born at Poitiers about 1520 ; died in 1589. Boichot, bwi''sho', (Guillaume,) a French sculptor, born at Chalons-sur-Saone in 1738; died in 1814. See Le Bas de Gourmont, "Vie de Guillaume Boichot," 1823. Boie or Boje, bo'yeh, (Heinrich Christian,) a Ger- man litterateur, born at Meldorp, in Holstein, in 1745. In 1770 he published, conjointly with Gotter, the first "Mu- senalmanach," and in 1776 became associate editor of the " Deutschen Museum." Died in 1806. Boieldieu, bwirde-uh', (Francois Adrien,) an emi- nent French composer, born at Rouen in 1775. Among his best operas are "The Caliph of Bagdad," "The White Lady," (" La Dame blanche,") and " My Aunt Aurora," (" Ma Tante Aurore.") In 1803 he was ap- pointed by the emperor Alexander of Russia his chapel- master. Died in 1835. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens ;" Refuveille, (alias Andre Reloi,) "Boieldieu, sa Vie, ses CEuvres," Rouen, 1751. Boigne, bwin, (Benoit le Borgne — leh boRn,) Count, a French general, born at Chambery in 1741, entered the service of the Rajah of the Mahrattas about 1783. He made an immense fortune, a great part of which he bequeathed to charitable purposes in his native city. Died in 1830. See TuRiNA, " £loge historique du Comte de Boigne." Boileau, bwl'ia', (Charles,) a French ecclesiastic, and member of the French Academy, was a native of Beauvais. Died in 1704. See D'Alembert, " £loge de Charles Boileau." Boileau, (Gilles,) a French magistrate, born in 1584, father of the celebrated Nicolas Boileau. Died in 1657. Boileau, (Gilles,) a French litterateur, a brother of the celebrated poet of that name, born in Paris in 163 1. He wrote a " Life of Epictetus," and a number of poems and satires. He also translated the " Enchiridion" of Epictetus. He was a member of the French Academy. Died in 1669. Boileau, (Gilles de Buillon — deh bii-e'yoN^,) a Flemish litterateur of the sixteenth century, translated, from the Latin into French, Albert Diirer's treatise on Fortifications, and made translations from the Spanish. Boileau, (Jacques,) brother of Nicolas Boileau, born in Paris in 1635, was a doctor of the Sorbonne. He wrote several ecclesiastical works. Died in 1716. Boileau, (Jean Jacques,) a French biographer and writer on morals, born near Agen in 1649; died in Paris in 1735- Boileau, boi'lo or bw^'lo', or, more fully, Boileau- Despreaux, bwS'lo' dcVpRa'o', (Nicolas,) an eminent French poet and satirist, born in Paris (or at Crosne, near Paris) on the 1st of November, 1636, was a son of Gilles Boileau, registrar of the great chamber of the Parliament. He was educated for the law or the church ; but his tastes did not incline him to either, and he fol- lowed no profession but that of author. He was a friend of Racine and La Fontaine. His first production was a satire called " Adieu of a Poet to the City of Paris," (1660,) remarkable for purity of style and elegance of versification. In 1666 he published seven satires, which had great success. He afterwards wrote five other sa- tires, at various dates. In the maturity of his poetical power he composed twelve Epistles, which are even more admired than his satires. Among his best works are " The Reading-Desk," ("Le Lutrin," 1674,) and "The Art of Poetry," ("L'Art poetique," 1674,) which, in the opinion of Michaud, ex- cels the poem of Horace in the felicity of the transitions and in the sustained elegance of the style. " Boileau is the analogue of Pope," says Hallam, "in French litera- ture. ' The Art of Poetry' has been the m.odel of the ' Essay on Criticism few poems more resemble each other. Both are uncommon efforts of critical good sense, and both are distinguished by their short and pointed language, which remains in the memory. The ' Lutrin' is the most popular of the poems of Boileau. Its subject is ill chosen. . . . But the poignant wit and satire, the elegance and correctness of numberless couplets, as well as the ingenious adaptations of classical passages, redeem this poem, and confirm its high place in the mock-heroic line." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Boileau was appointed historiographer jointly with Racine, by Louis XIV., and was elected a member of the French Academy in 1684. He has the honour of having effected a revolution in the poetical taste of the French, which was greatly vitiated when he began to write. € as 9 as s; g hard: g as g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^=°See Explanations, p. 23.) BOILEAU 382 BO IS SAT He was visited in 1700 by Addison, whose Latin poems JJoileau had read and greatly admired. '* He certainly opened himself to Addison with a freedom which was a sure indication of esteem. The old man talked on his favourite theme, literature, long and well ; indeed, as his young hearer thought, incomparably well. Boileau had undoubtedly some of the qualities of a great critic. He wanted imagination, but he had strong sense. In mere style, abstracted from the ideas of which style is the garb, his taste was excellent. ... It is easy, we think, to discover in the ' Spectator' and the ' Guardian' traces of the influence, in part salutary and in part per- nicious, which the mind of Boileau had on the mind of Addison." (Macaulay, " Review of the Life of Addison.") He was an intimate friend of Racine, and co-operated with Madame Dacier in the vindication of the merits of the ancient classical authors. His poems, it is said, con- tain no line that would offend the strictest moralist. Probity and benevolence were prominent traits of his character. He had the spirit," says Macaulay, "to tell Louis XIV., firmly and even rudely, that his majesty knew nothing about poetry." Died in Paris in March, 171 1. See D'Alembert, " j5loge de Boileau;" Desmaizeaux, "Vie de Boileau," 1712; Dauxou, "filoge de Boileau," 1787; Michaud, article on Boileau in the "Biographie Universelle ;" Louis Simon Auger, " £!loge de Boileau-Despreaux,"' 1805 ; Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Lives of the Most Eminent P>ench Wri- ters," by Mrs. Shelley, vol. i. Boileau, de, deh bwi'lo', (Marie Louis Joseph,) a French jurist and li/(erateiir, born at Dunkirk in 1741 ; died in 181 7. Boileau de Maulaville, bwal5' deh mo'lt'v^K, (Edme pRANgois Marie,) a French archaeologist, born at Auxerre in 1759, published several antiquarian treat- ises, and was a contributor to the *' Biographie Univer- selle." Died in 1826. Boileux, bwcVluh^ (Jacques Marie,) a French jurist, born at Caen in 1803. He published a " Commentary on the Civil Code," (3 vols., 1828-44.) Boillot, bwi^yo^ (Henri,) a French Jesuit and litte- rateur, born in Franche-Comte in 1698; died in 1733. Boillot, (Joseph,) a French architect and writer, born at Langres in 1560. Boilly,bw3.'ye', (Louis Leopold,) a French painter of portraits and genre, born in 1761 ; died in 1830. Boindin, bwiN'd^N^ (Nicolas,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1676; died in 1751. Boinvilliei'S-Desjardins, bw'iN've'ya' da^zhtrMiN', (Jean Etienne Judith Forestier-fo^rcyte-a^) a French litterateur, born at Versailles in 1764; died in 1830. Boirel, bwcVr^K, (Antoine,) a French surgeon, born in 1625 ; died about 1700. Boiron. See Borron. Bois, (John.) See Boyse. Boisard, bw^zlR^ (J. J. F. M.,) a French fabulist, born at Caen in 1743 ; died in 183 1. Bois de la Pierre, bwi deh IS pe-aiR', (Louise Marie de Lanfernat — deh 16N'fgR■'nS^) a French poetess, born at Verneuil, in Normandy, in 1663 ; died in 1730. Bois, du. See Dubois. Bois-Duval, bwa'dii'vSK, (Jean Alphonse,) a French naturalist, born at Ticheville (Orne) in 1801, wrote several works on insects, and a "French Flora," (3 vols., 1828.) Boisgeliii, de, deh bw^zh'l^N', (Jean de Dieu Raymond de Cuce — de-uh' ra'moN' deh kii'si',) a French theologian, born^lvt Rennes in 1732, became successively Archbishop of Aix and of Tours, and a cardinal about 1803. He w^as elected to the French Academy in 1776. He was the author of several theo- logical and miscellaneous works. Died in 1804. See De Bausset, "Notice historique sur M. de Boisgelin," 1804. Boisgelin, de, (Louis Bruno,) Comte, a French diplomatist, brother of the preceding, born at Rennes in 1773. He was executed in 1794 by order of the Revolu- tionary tribunal. Boisgelin de Kerdu, de, deh bwazh'ldN' deh k^R^- dli', (Pierre Marie Louis,) brother of the preceding, born in the diocese of Saint-Brieuc in 1758. He wrote a continuation of Vertot's " Plistory of the Revolutions of Portugal," (1809,) and a work entitled "Ancient and Modern Malta," in English. Died in 18 16. See Querard, "La France LItteraire," (Supplement.) Boisgerard, bwd'zhyrtR', (Marie Anne Francois Baruuat,) born at Tonnerre in 1767, served in the army of the republic, and was mortally wounded in 1799 at the battle of Capua. Bois-Guilbert or Bois-Guillebert, bwS'giFbaiR', (Pierre le Pesant — leh peh-z6N',) a French litterateur, translated the " History" of Herodian, and published several original works. Died in 1 714. Boisjolin, bwa'zho'l^N^ (Jacques Franqois Marie Vieilli — ve'iF,) a French poet, born at Alen9on in 1761. He was a member of the Tribunat in i8oo-i8or. Died in 1 841. Boisjolin, de, deh bwii'zho'liN', (Claude Augustin ViEiLH,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1788, suc- ceeded Rabbe as editor of the " Biographie portative des Contemporains." Died in 1832. Boislandry, de, deh bwa'16N'dRe', (Louis,) a mem- ber of the French Constituent Assembly, born at Ver- sailles in 1749; died in 1834. Boisleve, bwi'lav', (Pierre,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Saumur in 1745, became honorary canon of Notre-Dame. In iSio, as official of the diocese of Paris, he pronounced the sentence of divorce between the em- peror Napoleon and Josephine. Died in 1830. Boismont. See Briere de Boismont. Boismont, de, deh bwi^moN', (Nicolas Thyrel — te'reK,) a distinguished French preacher, born in Nor- mandy about 1 71 5. He was a member of the French Academy, and was appointed preacher-in-ordinary to the king. Died in 1786. See Rulhiere, " ^filoge de Boismont," prefixed to his " Oraisons fun^bres, etc." Boismorand, bwS^mo'rSN', (Claude Joseph,) a French writer and priest, born at Quimper in 1680. He published "Anecdotes of the Court of Philip Augustus," and other works, and translated " Paradise Lost" into French. Died in 1740. Boismortier, de, deh bwi'moR^te-a', (N. Bodin — bo'd^N'',) a French composer, born at Perpignan in 1691 ; died in 1768. Boisot, bwi^zo', (Jean Baptiste,) a learned French ecclesiastic, born at Besan9on in 1638. He was a con- tributor to the "Journal des Savants." Plaving obtained the library of Cardinal Granvelle, he arranged and pre- served the important documents, treaties, etc. which it contained, and thus rendered a great service to history. Died in 1694. Boisrobert, de, deh bwi'ro'baiR', (FRANgois le Metel,) a French ecclesiastic and litterateur, born at Caen in 1592. His wit and gayety procured for him the favour of Cardinal Richelieu, who made him his com- panion and gave him many preferments. He wrote a number of dramas, poems, and tales. He was one of the first members of the French Academy, which Riche- lieu established at his suggestion. Once, when Richelieu was indisposed, his physician advised him that the com- pany of Boisrobert would be more efficacious than any drugs, and wrote this prescription : — Recipe Boisrobert. Pie was sometimes called Abbe Mondorl Died in 1662. See HippEAU, "Notice sur Boisrobert," 1852; Otpeau, "Notice sur Boisrobert," 1S52. Boissard, bwi'stR^, (George David Fr^d^:ric,) a French Protestant minister, born at Montbelliard in 1783. Pie preached for many years in Paris, and wrote numer- ous religious works. Died in 1836. See RoDOLPHE Cuvier, "filoge de Boissard," 1837. Boissard, (Jean Jacques,) a French Protestant anti- quary and Latin poet, born at Besan9on in 1528. He went to Rome, where he formed a collection of antiqui- ties. He published numerous works, among which are "Emblemata Latina et Gallica," (1584,) "Portraits and Lives of Illustrious Men," (" Icones et Vitas Virorum illustrium," 1592,) and "Romans Urbis Topographia et Antiquitates," (1597.) Died at Metz in 1602. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Morhof, " Polyhistor." Boissat, de, deh bw.VsS', (Pierre,) a French jurist and Hellenist, born at Vienne about 1550. Boissat, de, (Pierre,) son of the preceding, born at Vienne, was the author of a " History of the Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem," (1612.) Died in 1613. a, e, T, Q- u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, f^ll, f^t; m§t; n6t; good; moon; BOISSAT 383 BO IV IN Boissat, de, (Pierre,) poet and soldier, son of the preceding, born at Vienne in 1603. He composed Latin poems, and several prose works. He was admitted into the French Academy. Died in 1662. See Chorier, "De P. Boessatii Vita, Amicisque literatis," 1680. Boisseau, bwa^s5', (FRANgois Gabriel,) a French medical writer, born at Brest in 1791 ; died at Metz in 1836. He left many valuable works, among which is "Nosographie organique," (4 vols., 1828-30.) Boissel de Mouville, bwi''sel'' deh moN'v^K, (Tho- mas Charles Gaston,) Baron, councillor to the Par- liament of Paris, born in that city in 1763. He was the author of fables and dramatic works. Died in 1832. Boisseree, bwiss^'r^, (Melchior,) brother of Sulpice, noticed below, born in 1 7S6, was distinguished for his skill in painting on glass, (see next article.) Died in 185 1. Boisseree, (Sulpice,) an eminent Prussian architect and antiquary, of French extraction, born at Cologne in 1783. In conjunction with his brother Melchior and his friend J. B. Bertram, he formed the celebrated col- lection of paintings called by his name and now in the possession of the King of Bavaria at Munich. In 1824 he began the restoration of the cathedral of Cologne. He published " The Monuments of Architecture on the Lower Rhine, from the Seventh to the Thirteenth Cen- turies," (1830,) and "Views, Plans, and Details of the Cathedral of Cologne," etc., (in folio, 1823.) Died in 1854. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Boisset, b\vi's^',(JosEPH Antoine,) a French Jacobin, born at Montelimart in 1748, became a member of the National Convention, and subsequently of the Council of Ancients. Died in 1813. Boissier, bwi'se-a^ (Edouard Pierre,) a Swiss botanist, born at Geneva in 1810, published "Diagnoses Plantarum Orientalium," (3 vols., 1849-59.) Boissiere, de, deh bwa'se-aiR^, (Claude,) a French mathematician, who was born near Grenoble, lived in the latter half of the sixteenth century. Boissieu, de, deh bwa'se-uh', (Barthelemy Ca- MILLE,) a French physician, born at Lyons in 1734 ; died in 1770. Boissieu, de, (Denys Salvaing— siKviN',) a French jurist and diplomatist, born at Vienne, in Dauphiny, in 1600; died in 1683. See A. DE Tekrebasse, "Vie de Salvaing de Boissieu," 1850. Boissieu, de, (Jean Jacques,) a French engraver and painter, born at Lyons in 1736. His prints are highly esteemed, particularly those after Ruysdael. Died in 1810. See DuGAS-MoNTBEL, "iSloge de J. J. de Boissieu," i8io. Boissonade, bwd'so^n^d', (Jean Francois,) an emi- nent French philologist, born in Paris on the 12th of August, 1774. In 1812 he succeeded Larcher as pro- fessor of Greek literature in the Academy of Paris, and also took his place in the Academy of Inscriptions. He became professor of Greek in the College of France in 1828. Among his works, which relate principally to Greek literature, are editions of Philostratus, Holsten- tius, Nicetas Eugenianus, and other classics. He also published a " Sylloge Poetarum Graecorum,"' (24 vols., 1825,) and a collection of one hundred and twenty-three fables of Babrius, with a commentary and Latin version. He also edited several French classics, and contributed numerous articles to the " Biographic Universelle," and other works of high reputation. " His lectures," says a French biographer, "have been the honour and pride of the university which could match him against the most renowned Hellenists of foreign universities." Died in September, 1857. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire;" " Novivelie Biographie Geneiale;" " Classical Journal," March, 1825. Boissy, bwt'se', (Jean Baptiste Thiaudiere — te'o'd.e-aiR',) a French antiquary, and member of the Academy of Inscriptions, born in Paris in 1666; died in 1729. Boissy, (Louis Michel,) a French historical writer, son of Louis de Boissy, noticed below. Died in 1793. Boissy-d'Anglas, de, deh bwa'se' dSN'gkV, (Fran- cois Antoine,) a French statesman and revolutionist, born at Saint-Jean-Chambre, in Ardeche, in 1756. As a member of the National Convention, he voted for the detention of the king and the appeal to the people. He became successively secretary of the Council of Five Hundred, president of the tribunat, (1802,) commander of the legion of honour, and senator, (1805.) In i8i6 he was elected to the Academy of Inscriptions. He pub- lished a number of political essays. Died in 1826. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Boissy, de, deh bwS^se', (Charles Desprez — di'- pRy,) a P>ench jurist and legal writer, born in Paris about 1730; died in 1787. Boissy, de, (Louis,) a French litterateur, born at Vic in 1694, was the author of a successful comedy entitled "The Man of the Day," ("L'Homme du Jour.") In 1754 he succeeded Destouches as a member of the French Academy. Died in 1758. Boiste, bwSst, (Pierre Claude Victoire,) a cele- brated French lexicographer, born in Paris in 1765. His " Universal Dictionary of the French Language" (2 vols. 8vo, 1800) is esteemed a standard work, holding the same rank in France that Johnson's does in England. He also published a " Dictionary of Universal Geography, Ancient and Modern." Died in 1824. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Boistuau de Launai, bwSs^tii'o' deh Xo't^W (Pierre,^ a French historian, lived in the first half of the sixteenth century. His " Theatre du Monde" was printed twenty times or more. He wrote other works. Boisville, de, deh bwa'v6K,(jEAN Francois Martin,) a French theologian, born at Rouen in 1755, '^^^^ canor of the cathedral of that city. Died in 1829. Boisy, de, deh bw^'ze'", (Artus Gouffier, SR^tiis' goo'fe-a^,) Seigneur, a French statesman and soldier, born aBout 1475. served in Italy under Charles VIII. and Louis XII., and was appointed by the latter tutor to the young prince, afterwards Francis I. On the acces- sion of Francis, he became grand master of France and governor of Dauphiny. Died in 1519. See Anselme, " Histoire genealogique de la Maison de France." Boitard, bw3.^ttR', (Pierre,) a French naturalist and writer on agriculture, born at Macon in 1789. He edited several journals, and published numerous works, among which are "The Cabinet of Natural History," (1821,) " Gardener's Manual," " Natural History of European Birds of Prey," (1824,) and "Manual of Entomology," (1828.) Boiteau.bwi^to', (Dieudonne Alexandre Paul,) a French lit/crateicr, born in Paris in 1830. He wrote, be- sides other works, " The Philosophy and Politics of Be- ranger," (1858.) Boitel, bwa''teK, (Pierre,) a French litterateur, lived about 1620. Boitet de Frauville, bw^'ti' deh fR5'v^K, (Claude,) born at Orleans in 1570, translated Homer's "Odyssey" into French. Died in 1625. Boivin, bwa'vfiN^ (Jacques Denis,) a French general of brigade, born in Paris in 1756, served in the republican army from 1793 to 1805. Died in 1 831. Boivin,(Louis,) a French scholar and historical writer, born in the diocese of Lisieux in 1649, became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1701. Died in 1724. Boiviii, (Marie Anne Victoire Gillain — zhe^yaN',) born near Versailles in 1773, studied anatomy and ob- stetrics, and obtained the degree of M.D. from the Uni- versity of Marburg. She was patronized by Madame Elizabeth, sister of the king, and was appointed in 1801 chief superintendent of the hospital de la Maternite, in Paris. She wrote several treatises relating to her pro- fession. Died in 1841. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Boivin, (Ren^:,) a French engraver, born at Angers in 1530. Among his master-pieces are "Portraits of Ancient Philosophers and Poets," and " ^^Lneas saving his Father." Died in 1598. Boivin, de, deh bwi'v^N', (Francois,) a French his- torical writer, born about 1550 ; died in 1618. Boivin deVilleneuve, bwa'viN' deh v^Knuv',(jEAN,) brother of Louis Boivin, noticed above, born in 1663. He became in 1705 professor of Greek in the College de France. He translated the " CEdipus" of Sophocles and "The Birds" of Aristophanes into French, and wrote in € as k: 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Y., guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BOIZOT 384 BOLINGBROKE reply to Lamotte an "Apology for Homer, and the Shield of Achilles," (1715.) Died in 1726. See QuEKARD, "La France Litt^raire." Boizot, bwcVzo', (Louis Simon,) a French sculptor, born in 1748. He executed statues of Joseph Vernet, Joubert, and Daubenton. Died in 1809. Bojaiius or Boianus, bo-ya''nus, (Ludwig Hein- RICH,) a German anatomist, born in Alsatia in 1776 ; died at Darmstadt in 1827. Bojardo. See Boiardo. Bojer, bo'yer, (Wenceslaus,) a German botanist, born at Prague about 1798. He visited Madagascar and other islands near Africa, and published " Hortus Mauri- tianus," (1837.) Died in 1856. Bo-joc'a-lus, a German warrior and ally of Rome, lived in the first century of the Christian era. He is supposed to have been put to death under Nero, for having refused to take up arms against his people, the Ansibarians. Booker, (George H.,) an American poet, born in Philadelphia in 1824. After graduating at Princeton in 1842, he made a tour of Europe, and has since resided in Philadelphia. Plis first volume, " The Lesson of Life, and other Poems," appeared in 1847; followed in 1848 by "Calaynos," a tragedy, which has been played with success both in England and America. Among his other productions are "Anne Boleyn," a tragedy, " Leonore de Guzman," and his " War Lyrics," which have been much admired. Bokharee, Bokh^ri, or Bokh^ry, bo-Ka'ree, (Aboo Abdallah Mohammed — a'boo ab-dllOah mo- him'med,) a celebrated Mussulman theologian, born in 810 A.D., compiled a collection of traditions or sentences borrowed from Mohammed. Died in 870. Bol, bol, (Ferdinand,) a Dutch painter and engraver, born at Dort about 16 10, was a pupil of Rembrandt. Among his best engravings are a "Sacrifice of Abra- ham," and " Saint Jerome holding a Crucifix." His por- traits are highly esteemed. Died about 1685. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Bol or Boll, bol, (Hans, or John,) a skilful Flemish painter of landscapes, animals, and flowers, born at Mechlin in 1534. He worked at Amsterdam, and was also an engraver. Died about 1590. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Bol, (Kornelis,) a Dutch painter, who lived in Lon- don in 1666, and painted views of the great conflagration which occurred there in that year. Bolanger, bo'lSN'zha', (John,) a painter of history, born in 1606, was a pupil of Guido, and worked for the Duke of Modena. Died in 1660. Bolchowitinow. See Bolkhovitinov. Bold, (Samuel,) an English clergyman, who was vicar of Shapwick, Dorsetshire. He published several theo- logical works. Died in 1737. Boldetti, bol-det'tee, (Marcantonio,) an Italian antiquary, born at Rome in 1663 ; died in 1749. Boldoni, bol-do'nee, (Sigismondo,) an Italian physi- cian, and professor of philosophy at Pavia, born at Milan about 1597; died in 1630. Bolduc, boKdiik', (Jacques,) a French ecclesiastic and theological writer, born in Paris about 1580. Boleslaw, boHls-lS-v^, or Boleslaus, bo'lSs-li^us, I., [Fr. Boleslas, bo'les'lts',] surnamed the Brave, suc- ceeded his father Mieczislaw (Micislaus) as Prince of Poland in 992. He was engaged in a war with Henry II. of Germany, and conquered a portion of Silesia from the Prussians. He died in 1025, and was succeeded by his son, Mieczislaw II. Bcleslaw or Boleslaus II., surnamed the Bold, born in 1042, was a son of Casimir I., whom he succeeded in 1058. Having slain at the altar the Archbishop of Cracow, who had remonstrated against his tyranny, he was anathematized by the pope, and, being deserted by his subjects, fled to Carinthia, where he died about 1090. Boleslaw or Boleslaus III., surnamed the Wry- Mouthed, was the son of Ladislaus, whom he succeeded in 1102. He was engaged in frequent wars with the Hungarians and Russians, and is said to have been vic- tor in more than forty battles. Died in 1138. Boleslaw or Boleslaus IV., surnamed Cris'pus, second son of the preceding, ascended the throne in 1 147, having deposed his brother Wladislaw, (Ladislaus.) His country was invaded by the emperor Frederick Bar- barossa in 1157 ; but the following year a peace was con- cluded between them. Died in ii 73. Boleslaw or Boleslaus V., surnamed the Chaste, succeeded his father Leszko in 1237. His country was laid waste by the Tartars in 1240 and 1260. Died in 1279. Boleyn or Bullen, pronounced alike booKen, (Anne,) was a daughter of Sir Thomas Bullen, afterwards Vis- count Rochford and Earl of Wiltshire, who was allied to the principal nobility in the kingdom. Her mother was Lady Howard, a daughter of the Duke of Norfolk. She was born in 1507, and passed some years at the court of France. About the age of twenty she became a maid of honour to Queen Catherine, and captivated the fancy of Henry VIII., who, from his desire to marry Anne Boleyn, urged the pope to grant him a divorce from Catherine, Henry married her privately in the early part of 1533. She was crowned publicly in June of that year, and became the mother of Princess Elizabeth in September. She favoured the cause of the Reformers. In 1536 she lost the favour of the king, and was accused of criminal intercourse with several men. She was con- demned by a jury of -peers and beheaded in May, 1536. See " Memoirs of Anne Boleyn," by Miss Benger ; Strickland's "Queens of England;" also the Histories of Hume and Lingard, For an examination into the character of Anne Boleyn, see Froude's " History of England," vol. ii. chap. xi. Bolgeni, bol-ja'nee, written also Boligeni, (Gio- vanni ViNCENZO,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Bergamo in 1733, became professor of theology and philosophy at Macerata. He wrote a number of treatises against the Jansenists, Died in 1811. Bolingbroke, boKing-brook, (Henry Saint John,) Viscount, an eminent English author, orator, and poli- tician, born at Battersea, Surrey, on the ist of October, 1678, was a son of Sir Henry Saint John, afterwards viscount. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, and became extremely dissipated. In 1701 he was elected to Parliament, in which he acted with the Tory party. He was appointed secretary of war in 1704, and retained the office until the change of the ministry in 1708. A violent political change occurred in 17 10. The queen, always partial to the Tories, and no longer influenced by the Duchess of Marlborough, dismissed the Whigs from power, and formed a ministry in which Harley was pre- mier and Saint John secretary of state for foreign aifairs. The great question which divided the nation in the en- suing four years was, whether England should make peace with France without exacting from Philip V. a resignation of the crown of Spain. After a violent con- test, the Tories — the peace party — prevailed. Saint John was the principal (English) negotiator of the treaty of Utrecht, (April, 1713,) which ended the long war of the Spanish succession. He was created Viscount Boling- broke in 1 712, and about that time became a rival of Harley, Earl of Oxford, who had been his friend. Sec- onded by the influence of Lady Masham over the queen, he became prime minister in place of Harley on the 27th of July, 1 714. But his triumph was of short duration. The death of Queen Anne (August i, 1714) deprived him of power, and frustrated the plans which he is known to have entertained for the restoration of the Stuart dynasty. In the spring of 171 5 he escaped to France and entered the service of the Pretender, who appointed him his prime minister. He was impeached of high treason in the same year, and, having failed to appear before his judges, was attainted by Parliament. In his exile he corresponded with his old friends Pope and Swift. He married in 1720 the widow of the Mar- quis de Villette, a niece of Madame de Maintenon. He was permitted to return to England in 1723, and recovered his estate, but was not admitted into the House of Lords. Pie maintained a long opposition to Walpole by articles published in the " Craftsman." Among his works are a " Dissertation on Parties," (1735,) " Remarks on the His- tory of England," in twenty-four letters, first published in the "Craftsman," (1743,) and "The Idea of a Patriot King," (1749,) His works have little merit except the style. His talents were rather brilliant than solid. " In a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; m§t; n5t; good; moon BOLIVAR BOLOGNI his reasonings," says Dr. Blair, " he is for the most part flinisy and false ; in his political writings, factious ; in what he calls his philosophical ones, sophistical and irreligious in the highest degree." He was brilliant in conversation, and had a high reputation as an orator. He died in December, 1751, having bequeathed some manuscript essays on metaphysics and morals to David Mallet, who published an edition of his works in five volumes, (1754.) " His political writings," savs the "Ed- inburgh Review" for October, 1835, "are the works of a skiltul partisan — a master in the arts of insinuation and sarcasm. They abound in animated and splendid pas- sages, and contain many sound constitutional truths which are now trite and common, but which had never been so clearly stated nor so well expressed before." See Goldsmith's "Life of Bolingbroke ;" Chesterfield's " Memoirs and Letters;" "Memoirs of Lord Bolingbroke," by G. W. Cooke, 1835; "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1835, Oc- tober, 1863: "Life of Lord Bolingbroke," London, 1770; Thomas Hunter, "Sketch of the Philosophical Character of Lord Boling- broke," 1770; Friedrich von Raumer, "Lord Bolingbroke uiid seine Werke," 2841 ; Charles de Remusat, "Bolingbroke, sa Vie et son Temps," 1853. Bolivar, bo-lee'viR, (Gregorio,) a Spanish mission- ary to Mexico and South America, lived about 1620. Bori-var, [Sp. pron. bo-lee'v^R,] or, more fully, Boli- var y Ponte, bo-lee'v^Re pon'ti, (Simon,) the liberator of South America, was born at Caraccas in July, 1783, and inherited a large estate from his father. He was lib- erally educated at Madrid, and returned to his native land in 1809. In 181 1 he joined the insurgents who had taken u.p arms to liberate their country from the S])an- ish domination, and became a colonel under Miranda. He obtained the command of an army in 1813, defeated the royalists, and declared himself dictator, but was driven out of Venezuela in 1814. In 1815 he took refuge from the victorious Spaniards by flight to Jamaica. He returned to the scene of contest in 1816, and raised another army, which defeated the Spaniards under Morillo in February, 181 7. At a congress of the republic of Venezuela, held in February, 1819, he resigned his dictatorship, or ex- changed it for the title of president. His army in the same year defeated the royalists at Bojaca and other places, and liberated New Granada. In December, 1819, Venezuela and New Granada united to form the repub- lic of Colombia, of which Bolivar became the first presi- dent. He gained a decisive victory at Carobobo in June, 1821, and in 1822 marched with an army to Peru, which, with his aid, was quickly liberated from the Spaniards. The independence of the South American republics was recognized by England and the United States. About the end of 1823 Bolivar was appointed Dictator of Peru. The war having been ended bv a decisive victory over the royalists at Ayacucho in December, 1824, Bolivar resigned the office of Dictator of Peru in January or Feb- ruary, 1825. The same year he visited U])per Peru, which was formed into a separate state, called Bolivia, of which he was declared perpetual protector. He framed for this state a code or constitution by which the executive power was vested in a president for life with irresponsible powers. This caused him to be suspected of designs against popu- lar liberty. During his absence from Coloinbia, Paez rebelled against the government, which was too feeble to suppress his rebellion. The enemies of Bolivar intimated that he fomented this revolt in order to impress on the minds of the people the necessity of a dictator. He re- turned in 1826, and restored order by his presence. In December of that year he was declared president for life of Peru, which had adopted the Bolivian code. About this date he was again elected President of Colombia. He was, however, regarded with distrust by the republicans, and formally resigned in February, 1827 ; but, as the Con- gress refused to accept his resignation, he remained in power. Some writers state that he retired to private life some months before his death. He died at San Pedro in December, 1830. The result of his military services was the independence of three large states, which he also organized with ability. See the " North American Review" for January, 1829, vol. xxviii., (by C. Gushing:) Ducoudrav-Holstein, " M ^'moires de S. Boli- var," 1829, and English translation of the same, 2 vols., 1830. Bolkhovitinov or Bolchowitinow, bol-ko-vee'te- nov, a Russian archbishop and historical writer, born in 1761. He wrote, besides other works, " Literary Russia," which was translated into German by Strahl in 1828. Died in 1837. Bollei, boKla, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian burlesque poet, born at Bergamo about 1540. He wrote verses called "macaronic." BoFlaii, (William,) a lawyer, born in England, re- moved to Massachusetts about 1740. He was sent to England in 1745 as agent of the colony, and remained there many years, during which he rendered valuable services to Massachusetts and wrote several political tracts. Died in 1776. Bollaudus, bol-lin'dus, (John,) a Flemish Jesuit, born in the province of Limburg in 1596. He was the first of the theological writers called Bollandists, the contributors to the great work entitled " Acta Sanc- torum," or Lives of the Saints. In 1643 published, conjointly with Godfrey Henschen, the first two volumes, in folio. Died in 1665. The "Acta Sanctorum" was con- tinued by several learned men, and in 1794 had reached fifty-four volumes. See L. P. Gachard, "M^moire historique sur les Bollandistes," 1835. BoUandus, bol-lSn'dus, or De BoUandt, deh bol'- lint, (Sebastiaan,) a Dutch theologian and philosopher, born at Maestricht. Died in 1645. Bollemont, de, deh bol'm6N^ (Francois Charles Robert Chouet,) a French general, born at Arrancy in 1749, served under Jourdan in Austria, and rose to be inspector-general of artillery. Died in 1810. Bollet, ho'W, (Philippe Albert,) a French Jacobin, and member of the National Convention, (1792,) voted for the death of the king. He subsequently became a member of the Council of Five Hundred, and of the legislative body. Died in 1811. Bollioud-Mermet, bo1e-oo' m^R^mk', (Louis,) a French litterateur, born at Lyons in 1709 ; died in 1793. Bollman, boKman, (Eric,) a German physician, born in Hanover about 1770. Pie made an unsuccessful effort to release La Fayette from prison at Olmutz, and after- wards passed some years in exile in the United States. Died in 1821. Bologna, bo-16n'yS, (Antonio,) an Italian writer, born about 1580. Bologna, (Giovanni Battista,) a Latin poet, born at Milan about 1580, wrote the "Crown of Poets," ("Co- rona Poetarum," 1616.) Bologna, da, di bo-l6n'yl, (Giovanni, or John,) [Fr. [ean de Bologne, zh6N deh bo'lon',] generally called John (Giovanni) of Bologna, an eminent scul])tor and architect, born at Douai, in Flanders, in 1524. He passed the greater part of his life in Italy, principally at Flor- ence, where he became acquainted with Michael Angelo. He was one of the first members of the Academy of Florence. Among his master-pieces in that city are the bronze statue of Mercury in the Imperial Gallery, the " Rape of the Sabines," a statue of Saint Luke, and a "Centaur vanquished by Hercules." The fountain at Bologna, with a colossal bronze figure of Neptune, is ranked among the finest works of the kind; and from this production the artist received his name. He also executed a number of excellent pieces of sculpture at Genoa. As a sculptor he is regarded as inferior only to Michael Angelo. Died in 1608. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters and Sculptors;" Cicognara, "Storia della Scultura;" Fontenay, " Dictionnaire des Artistes ;" Ticozzi, " Dizionario Duthilloeul, " iSloge de Jean de Bologne," 1820. Bologna, de, (Lattanzio.) See Mainardl Bologne, de, deh bo''lon^ (Pierre,) a lyric poet, of Italian extraction, born in Martinique in 1706; died in 1790. Bolognese. See Grimaldi. Bolognetti, bo-16n-yet'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian poet, born at Bologna about 1540. Bolognetti, (Pompeo,) an Italian physician, born at Bologna about 1590. Bologni, bo-l^n'yee, (Girolamo,) born at Treviso in 1454, was the author of Latin poems, and edited several Latin classics. He became a priest in 1479, after he had married. He was crowned as poet-laureate by the em- peror Frederick III. Died at Treviso in 15 17. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Viy guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJJ^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 2; BOLOGNINI 386 BON Bolognini, bo-16n-yee'nee, (Angelo,) an Italian phy- sician and surgeon, born near Padua about 1490, wrote *' On the Cure of External Ulcers," ("De Cura Ulcerum exteriorum," 1 5 14.) He was professor at Bologna. Bolognini, (Carlo,) an Italian painter of architecture, born at Bologna in 1678 ; died at Vienna in 1718. Bolognini, (Giacomo,) a painter, a nephew of the following, was born at Bologna in 1664; died in 1734. Bolognini, (Giovanni Battista,) called the Elder, an Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1611. He was a pupil of Guido, whose works he copied with great suc- cess. He also etched some works after that master. Died in 1688. Bolignini, (Giovanni Battista,) the Younger, an Italian sculptor, son of Giacomo, noticed above, bom at Bologna; died in 1760. Bolognini, (Luigi,) an Italian jurist, legal writer^ and diplomatist, born at Bologna in 1447 ; died in 1508. Bolomier, de, deh bo'lo'me-i', (Guillaume,) secre- tary of Amadeus VIII. of Savoy, rose to be chancellor of the kingdom. He was put to death, on a charge of calumny, in 1446. Bolot, bo'lo', (Claude Antoine,) a French jurist, and member of the National Convention, born in Franche- Comte about 1740. He voted for the death of Louis XVI. with a delay of the sentence. Died in 181 2. Bolsec, boKsek', (Jerome Hermes,) a French phy- sician, born in Paris, wrote virulent attacks on Calvin and Beza. Died in 1585. Bolswert, boKswgRt, or Bolsward, boKswiRt, (Boe- Tius Adam,) an eminent Dutch engraver, born in Fries- land about 1580, lived at Antwerp. Among his works are a ** Last Supper," a '* Resurrection of Lazarus," after Rubens, and landscapes after Bloemaert. Died in 1634. See Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" Huber, "Ma- nuel des Amateurs." Bolswert or Bolsward, (Scheltius,) an excellent engraver, brother of the preceding, born at Bolsward in 1586, resided in Antwerp. His prints after Rubens, Van Dyck, and Jordaens are highly esteemed. See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Boltin, boKtin, (Ivan,) a Russian litterateur and his- torian, born at Saint Petersburg in 1735 ; died in 1792. BoFton or BouFtpn, (Edmund,) an English anti- quary and historical writer, published "The Elements of Armories," a " Life of Henry II.," and "Nero Caesar, or Monarchic Depraved," (1624.) Bolton, (James,) an English naturalist, who lived about 1770-1800. He published a "History of British Ferns," (1795,) " Natural History of British Song-Birds," (2 vols., 1794-96,) and other works. Bolton, (Matthew.) See Boulton. Bolton, (Robert,) an English scholar and Puritan divine, born in Lancashire in 1 572, published " Helpes to Humiliation," and other works. Died in 163 1. See E. Bagshaw, "Life of Robert Boltou." Bolton, (Robert,) Dean of Carlisle, born in 1697, published "Letters and Tracts on the Choice of Com- pany," and other treatises. Died in 1763. BoFton, (Sarah T.,) an American poetess of the present century, born in Ohio, was a contributor to the *' Home Journal" of New York, and other periodicals. See Griswold's "Female Poets of America." Bolts, bolts, (Willem,) born in Holland about 1740, entered the service of the English East India Company, and acquired an itnmense fortune. He wrote "Consid- erations on the Affairs of India," and a work on Bengal. Died in 1808. Bolzani, bol-zi'nee, or Bolzanio, bol-z^'ne-o, (Ur- i?ANO Valeriano,) an Italian monk and Greek scholar, born in 1440, published a Greek grammar. Died in 1524. Bolzano, bol-za'no, (Bernhard,) a German Catholic theologian and philosophical writer, born at Prague in 1781. He published, among other works, "Athanasia, or Proofs of the Immortality of the Soul." Died in 1848. Bom, bom, (Peter,) a Flemish landscape-painter, born at Antwerp in 1530, painted in distemj^er. 13ied in 1572. Bomare. See Valmont de Bomare. Bombaci, bom-bS'chee, (Gasparo,) an Italian, born at Bologna in 1607, wrote a " History of Bologna," (1666.) Bombardini, bom-biR-dee'nee, (Antonio,) an Ital- ian jurist, and professor of law at Padua, where he was born in 1666; died in 1726. Bombasio, bom-bi'se-o, written also Bombace, (Gabriello,) an Italian poet and orator, born at Reggio about 1540. He was patronized by the Duke of Parma. He wrote "Alidoro," a tragedy, and other works. Bombelles, de, deh bom'b^K, (Henri FRANgois,) CoMTE, a French general and military writer, born in 1680, distinguished himself at the battles of Oudenarde, Malplaquet, and Belgrade, (1717.) Died in 1760. Bombelles, de, (Marc Marie,) Marquis, son of the preceding, was born at Bitche in 1744. He served in the Seven Years' war, and was subsequently employed in various embassies to the courts of England, Holland, and Austria. He afterwards entered into orders, and was made Bishop of Amiens, (1819.) Died in 1822. See De Courcelles, "Dictionnaire des G^n^raux Frangais." Bombelli, bom-beKlee, (Rafaello,) a distinguished Italian mathematician, born at Bologna. His principal work is a "Treatise on Algebra," (1572.) He appears to have been one of the first Europeans who were aware that the Arabs derived their knowledge of algebra from the Hindoos. See G. LiBRi, " Histoire des Sciences matWmatiques en Italic." Bombelli, (Sebastiano,) an Italian portrait-painter, born in Friuli in 1635 ; died about 1685. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Bomberg, bom'blRC, (Daniel,) a printer of Antwerp, celebrated for the beauty of his Ilebrew characters. Among his works are several editions of the Hebrew Bible, the " Hebraic Concordance" of Isaac Nathan, and the "Babylonish Talmud." Died in 1549. See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." Bombino, bom-bee'no, (Bernardino,) an Italian jurist, born at Cosenza in 1523; died in 1588. Bomfim, b6N-f^N', (Joz6 Joaquim,) a distinguished Portuguese general and statesman, born in Estremadura in 1790, was one of the partisans of Dom Pedro in Portu- gal, and of Donna Maria on her accession to the throne. He was appointed minister of war and of the marine in 1837. After the downfall of the constitution, he was banished to Africa, whence he was recalled in 1847. See Bkockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." Bo-miFcar, [Gr. BopA/caf or Boc///'A/caf,] a Carthagin- ian admiral, who commanded a fleet which was sent about 209 B.C. to support the army which defended Syracuse against the Romans. He avoided a battle by a hasty retreat, and returned to Carthage. Bomilcar, a Carthaginian general, who aspired to be king of Carthage about 308 B.C., but failed and was put to death. Bommel, van, vtn bom'mel, [Lat. Bomme'lius,] (Hendrik,) a Dutch historical writer. Died in 1542. Bommel, van, (Kornelis Richard Antoon,) a Catholic theologian, born at Leyden in 1790, became Bishop of Liege in 1829. Died in 1852. Bompard, b^N^ptR', (Alexis,) a French physician, born at Conflans in 1782, wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on the Diseases of the Digestive Passages," ("Traite des Maladies des Voies digestives," 1829.) Bompiano, bom-pe-S'no, (Ignazio,) an Italian Jesuit and historical writer, born at Frosinone in 1612, became professor of Hebrew and belles-lettres in the Roman College. Died in 1675. Bon, b6N, (Florent,) a French Jesuit and poet, born about 1580, resided at Rheims. Bon, bon, (Giovanni Filippo,) an Italian phj-^i.iar, and professor in the University of Padua, born in 1520. Bon, (Louis Andr6,) a French general, born at Ro- mans, in Dauphiny, in 1758. He served with distinction under Augereau in Italy, and subsequently in the cam- paigns of Egypt and Syria. He was killed at the siege of Saint-Jean-d'Acre in 1799. See De Courcelles, "Dictionnaire des Gen^raux Fran(;ais." Bon de Saint-Hilaire, b6N deh s^Nt'e'l^R', (FRAN- gois Xavier,) a French savant, born at Montpellier in 1678, was a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and of the Royal Society of London. He published a num- ber of scientific treatises, one of which, entitled a "Dis- a, e,T, o, u y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscitre; fir, fill, f^t; m^t; n6t; good; moon; BONA 387 BONAPARTE sertation on the Spider," (1710,) obtained extensive popu- larity and was translated into Chinese. Died in 1761. See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." Bona, bo'nS, (Giovanni,) an Italian cardinal, born at Mondovi in 1609, was the author of several ecclesias- tical and religious works in Latin. Died in 1674. See Bertolotti, "Vita J. Bonse," 1677; Gouget, "Vie du Car- dinal Bona." Bona, della, deKl^ bo'na, (Giovanni,) an Italian physician, born near Verona in 1712, was professor at the University of Padua. Bonac, de, deh bo'ntk', (Jean Louis d'Usson — dii's^N',) Marquis, a French diplomatist, born about 1672, was employed by Louis XIV. in important em- bassies to Sweden, Poland, and Spain. In 1 7 16 he was ambassador to Constantinople, where he resided nine years. Died in 1738. Bonacci, (Leonardo.) See Leonardo of Pisa. Bonaccioli, bo-ndt-cho'lee, or Bonacciuoli, bo-nit- choo-o'lee, (Alfonso,) an Italian litterateur, born about 1 540. He translated the first and second parts of Strabo's Geography into Italian; also portions of Pausanias. Bonaccioli, (Luigi,) an Italian physician, born at Ferrara about 1480. Bonacina, bo-ni-chee'nS, (Martino,) an Italian ec- clesiastic and theological writer, born at Milan; died in 1631. Bonacossi, bo-ni-kos'see, (Bardellone,) son of Pinamonte, noticed below, having imprisoned his father and brother, caused himself to be proclaimed sovereign of Mantua in 1292. He was deposed in 1299 by his nephew Bottesella. Died about 1302. Bonacossi, (Passerino,) a relative of the preceding, expelled the Guelphs from Mantua, and obtained from the emperor Henry VII. the title of imperial vicar. He was killed in a riot about 1328. Bonacossi, (Pinamonte,) Prefect of Mantua, became sovereign of that city about 1275, having murdered his colleague, and sided alternately with the Guelph and Ghibeline factions. He is mentioned in Dante's " In- ferno." Died in 1293. See SiSMONDi, "Histoire des R^piibliques Italiennes." Bo-na-cos'sus or Buoncossa, boo^n'kos'sa, (Er- COLE,) an Italian physician, and ])rofessor in the Univer- sity of Bologna, was a native of Ferrara. Died in 1578. Bo'na De'a, [Fr. Bonne Di^esse, bon d^'^ss',] (" The Good Goddess,") a Roman divinity, supposed to be the sister or wife of Faunus, and by some authors identified with Ops. She was worshipped by the Roman matrons at an annual festival and with mysterious rites, from which all males were strictly excluded. Bonafide, bo-nd-fee'd^, or Buonafede, bQO^n-i- fa'da, (Francesco,) an Italian botanist, born at Padua in 1474. He founded the botanic garden in that city in 1540. Died in 1558. See R. DE VisiANi, " Notizie della Vita di Bonafede," 1845. Bonafous, bo'ni'foo', ( ?) (Mathieu,) an agriculturist, born at Turin in 1794, wrote on the production of silk and on other branches of rural economy. Died in 1852. Bonair, bo'nSR', (Henri Stuard,) a French histori- cal writer, lived about 1650. Bonal, de, deh bo'ntl', (FRANgois,) born in the dio- cese of Agen, in France, in 1734, was a])pointed Bishop of Clermont in 1776, and was afterwards elected to the States-General. Died in 1800. Bonald, de, deh bo^ntr,(Louis Gabriel Ambroise,) VicoMTE, a French statesman and journalist of the roy- alist party, born near Milhau-en-Rouergue in 1754. He was associated in 1806 with Chateaubriand and Fievee as editor of the " Mercure," became minister of state in 1822 and a peer of France in 1823, He was the author of "The Theory of Political and Religious Power," (3 vols., 1796,) "La Legislation primitive," (3 vols., 2d edition, 1821,) and other works, in which he favours ab- solutism. He was a member of the French Academy. Died in 1840. See Henri de Bonald, "Notice sur le Vicomte de Bonald," 1841. Bonald, de, (Louis Jacques Maurice,) son of the preceding, born at Milhau in 1787, was made Archbishop of Lyons in 1839, became a cardinal in 1841, and a senator in 1851. He was a legitimist in politics. Died m 1870. Bonami, bo^nt'me', (Francois,) a French naturalist and scientific writer, born at Nantes in 17 10. Du Petit- Thouars has called by his name the genus Bonamia. Died in 1786. Bonamici. See Buonamicl Bonamy, bo'nt'me', (Charles Auguste Jean Bat- TiSTE Louis Joseph,) born at Fontenay-le-Comte in r764, served with distinction in the army of Napoleon in Italy, Austria, and Russia, and rose to be general of brigade. Died in 1830. Bonamy, (Pierre Nicolas,) a French historical writer, born at Louvres in 1694; died in 1770. Bonanni, bo-nSn'nee, or Buonanni, boo-o-ndn^nee, (Filipfo,) an Italian naturalist and antiquary, born in Rome in 1638, published, besides other works, " Gabi- netto armonico," (1716.) Died in 1725. Bonaparte, bo-ni-paR'ta, (Carlo,) a Corsican law- yer, born in 1744 was the father of Napoleon I. He was a partisan of Pascal Paoli, with whom he fought against the Genoese. He married the beautiful Letitia (Letizia) Ramolino in 1767, and had five sons and three daughters. Died at Montpellier in February, 1785. Bonaparte, (Caroline Marie Annoimciade,) Queen of Najjles, a sister of Napoleon I., was born at Ajaccio in 1782. She was married in 1800 to General Murat, who became King of Naples in July, 1808. She is said to have exercised a great influence over her husband, and to have taken an active part in the government. After the death of Murat (181 5) she assumed the title of Countess of Lipona, and resided at Trieste for many years. Died at Florence in 1839. Bonaparte, (Charles Lucien Jules Laurent,) Prince de Canino, an eminent naturalist, born in Paris in 1803, was the eldest son of Lucien Bonaparte. He married his cousin Zenaide, a daughter of King Joseph, in 1822, soon after which he became a resident of Phila- delphia and devoted himself to ornithology. He pub- lished a valuable work, entitled "American Ornithology, or History of the Birds of the United States," (Phila- deli)hia, 3 vols., 1825-33,) which is complemertary to Wilson's Ornithology. In 182S he settled in Italy. He took a ])rominent part in organizing the Roman republic, (1848-49.) Among his chief works is " Illustrations of the Italian Fauna," (" Iconografia della Fauna Italica," 3 vols., 1832-41,) which has a high reputation. He had four sons and eight daughters. Died in Paris in 1857. Bonaparte, (J^;r6me,) King of Westphalia, the young- est brother of Napoleon I., was born at Ajaccio in No- vember, 1784. He entered the navy in 1800, obtained the rank of lieutenant, and served in the West Indies. During a visit to the United States he became acquainted with Miss Paterson, of Baltimore, whom he married in 1803 w^ithout the consent of his family. His marriage was declared null in 1805 by Napoleon, who would not permit the wife to enter France ; but he pro- moted Jerome to the rank of rear-admiral in 1806. In the same year he passed from the navy into the army as a general of brigade. He commanded a corps which gained some successes in Silesia in 1807, and was placed on the throne of the new kingdom of West- phalia in July, 1807. In the ensuing month he married Catherine, a daughter of the King of Wiirtemberg. Cas- sel was the cai:)ital of his kingdom. He ceased to reign in October, 1813. After the return of Napoleon from Elba, he joined his standard, and commanded a divisi(Mi at Waterloo. He resided as an exile at Trieste, Rome, and Lausanne until 1847, when he returned to France. He became a marshal of France in 1850, He died in June, i860, leaving two sons, Jerome, (whose mother was Miss Paterson,) and Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul, called Prince Napoleon, issue of his second marriage. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale," (under the head of Nai'o- L^ON.) Bonaparte, (Joseph,) the eldest brother of Napo- leon I., was born at Corte, in the island of Corsica, on the 7th of January, 1768. He was sent to the Col- lege of Autun about 1777, and returned to Corsica in 1784, after which he studied law at Pisa, and was re- ceived as an advocate in Bastia in 1788. Expelled from Corsica by the partisans of Paoli in 1793, he retired to France, and married Julie Clary. In May, 1797, he was € as k; q as s; g /lard; g as j; G, H, K.gutttiral; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See I^xplanations, p. 23.) BONAPARTE 388 BONAPARTE sent as ambassador to the court of Rome, and received from Napoleon instructions in which occur the following sentences : *' Display a grand character. If the pope dies, permit not another to be chosen." On the murder of the French general Du|)hot by the Papal troops, De- cember, 1797, he returned to Paris, and became a mem- ber of the Council of Five Hundred. He negotiated the treaty of Luneville with Austria in February, 1801, and the treaty of Amiens with the English in March, 1802. His manners and talents are said to have been well adapted to diplomacy. He seems to have been rather unambiti us ; but, urged by the imperious will of Napo- leon, he accepted the throne of Naples, February, 1806. On this occasion the imperial egotist addressed to him these words : "All sentiments of affection yield now to reasons of state. I recognize as relatives only those who serve me." In May, 1808, he quitted Naples, and was transferred to the throne of Spain, where he en- countered a far more determined resistance. He entered Madrid with the French army in July, 1808, but received little support from the Spaniards, many thousands of whom took arms against the French. He was forced to retire from Madrid, July 31; but Napoleon arrived in November, gained several victories in rapid succession, and occupied the capital in December, 1808. In 1809 a large portion of Spain was occupied by the French armies, severally commanded by Soult, Victor, and Suchet, over whom the authority of the king was only nominal. Disgusted with his anomalous and vexatious position, he offered his resignation or abdication, (March, 1809,) which Napoleon would not accept. His army fought an indecisive battle against the English under General Wel- lesley, at Talavera, in July, 1809. The war was prose- cuted with various success for several years. (See Mas- sena; Soult ; Wellington.) Joseph was appointed general-in-chief of all the French armies in Spain in March, 1812, and was defeated by Wellington at Vittoria in June, 1813, soon after which event he ceased to reign. When Napoleon departed from Paris for the army, in fanuary, 1814, he left Joseph at that capital, with the title of lieutenant-general. After the battle of Waterloo, he emigrated to the United States, styled himself Count de Survilliers, and resided at Bordentown, New Jersey, with his two daughters. After the accession of Louis Philippe to the throne of France, in 1830, Joseph Bonaparte re- turned to Europe. He passed several years in England, and afterwards settled at Florence, in Italy, where he died in 1844. (See Bonaparte, Napoleon.) See A DU Casse, " Memoires et Correspondance du Roi Joseph," lo vols., 1S54 : Thiers, " Histoire du Consulat et de I'Empire ;" "Biographical Sketch of Joseph Bonaparte," London, 1833; " Nou- velle Biographic Gendrale," (under Napoleon.) Bonaparte, (Letizia or Letitia Ramolino (r^-mo- lee'no) or Ramolini,) the mother of Napoleon I., was born in Corsica in 1750. She was celebrated for her beauty; she was also a woman of amiable character and good sense. Napoleon once declared, " It is to my mother and her good principles that I owe my fortune and all the good that I have ever done ;" and again, " Madame Mere had a great character, energy of soul, much ele- vation and pride." After hevison became emperor, she was styled Madame M^re, and resided in Paris. Died in 1839. Bonaparte, (Louls,) King of Holland, a brother of Napoleon I., was born at Ajaccio in 1778. He entered the army about 1794, and served in Italy at the battles of the Brenta, Areola, (1796,) and Rivoli, (1797.) Hav- ing aided Napoleon in the coup d'etat of the i8th Bru- maire, 1799, he was raised to the rank of colonel. In 1802 he was induced to sacrifice his own inclinations and peace by a marriage with Hortense de Beauharnais, who was also averse to the union. They separated finally in 1S07. He became a general of division in April, 1804, and was raised to the dignity of prince in May of that year. In compliance with the will of Napoleon, he accepted the title of King of Holland in June, 1806. The Dutch submitted quietly, perhaps contentedly, to the authority of Louis, who was disposed to respect their rights and consult their interests; but Napoleon insisted that the policy of Holland should be subservient to his own de- signs. Louis was compelled to sacrifice the mercantile interests of Holland by co-operation with the "Conti- nental System," i.e. the paper blockade of the British ports. On this and other subjects he and the emperor had disputes which ended in a total suspension of friendly relations. In December, 1809, there occurred at Paris a meeting of allied sovereigns, which Louis attended. When he was about to return, he found himself treated as a pris- oner, and was not permitted to leave Paris until he sub- mitted to certain conditions which Napoleon imposed. In January, 1810, the French army began to occupy Holland. Louis abdicated in July, i8io, and Holland was then an- nexed to the French Empire. He retired to private life, and resided successively at Rome and Florence. Died at Leghorn in 1846. He was author of several works, among which may be noticed " Historical Documents and Reflections on the Government of Holland," (3 vols., 1820.) He had three sons, — Napoleon, who died in 1807 ; Napoleon Louis, who died in 1831 ; and Louis Napoleon, now Emperor of France. See " Memoires sur la Cour de Louis Napoleon et sur la Hollande," Paris, 182S; Thiers, "Histoire du Consulat et de I'Empire;" F. WoUTERS, " Les Bonaparte depuis 1815 jusqu'en 1846," 1848. Bonaparte, (Louis Lucien,) a son of Lucien, and nephew of Napoleon I., was born in England in 1813. He was elected to the Constituent Assembly of France in 1848. In 1852 he became a senator, and received the title of prince. Bonaparte, (Louis N.\poleon.) See Napoleon III. Bonaparte, (Lucien,) Prince de Canino, a brother of Napoleon I., born at Ajaccio in March, 1775, was one of the ablest members of the family. He was educated at the College of Autun and the school of Brienne. In the French Revolution he showed himself a zealous republican, and acted with much energy and moderation on several occasions. In 1795 he married Christine Boyer, a poor girl of Provence, and was appointed commissary of war. He was elected to the Council of Five Hundred in April, 1798, acquired great influence, and became an opponent of the Directory, — or rather of the policy of the Directors ; for he supported the Consti- tution of the year III. He united with Sieyes, who was elected a Director in May, 1798, and counteracted the Jacobins. After the return of Napoleon from Egypt, October, 1799, Lucien was elected president of the Five Hundred. He co-operated most efficiently with Napo- leon in the revolution of the i8th Brumaire, November 9, 1799. According to some authorities, he acted with more resolution and firmness in this affair than Napoleon himself. Lucien was appointed minister of the interior in December, 1799, was sent as ambassador to Spain in November, 1800, and became a member of the Tribunat in 1802. He offended the First Consul by marrying, in 1803, a widow named Madame Jouberthon. His first wife had died about 1800. He went into exile in 1804, settled at Rome, and exchanged politics for literature and art. The emperor offered him a throne on condition that he must dissolve his marriage ; but he declined the offer. He was ordered, it is said, to quit the continent of Europe. He embarked for the United States in i8io, was captured during the voyage by an English cruiser, and detained in England until 1814. He was reconciled to Napoleon in 181 5, supported him actively during the Hundred Days, and after his abdication advocated in the House of Peers the claim of Napoleon II. He passed the remainder of his life in exile in Italy, and wrote, be- sides other works, a poem entitled "Charlemagne," (2 vols., 1814,) and "Autobiographic Memoirs," (1836.) He had six daughters and five sons, Charles Lucien the naturalist, Paul, Louis Lucien, Pierre Napoleon, and Antoine. Died at Rome in 1840. See P. W. FoRCHHAMMER, "Denkrede auf den Fiirsten von Ca- nino L. Bonaparte," 1840. Bonaparte, (Lucien,) Cardinal, a son of Charles Bonaparte, Prince of Canino, was born about 1828. His mother was Zenai'de Charlotte Julie, a daughter of Jo- seph Bonaparte. He was ordained a priest in 1853, and became a cardinal in 1S68. He is said to be remarkable for his personal resemblance to Napoleon I. Bonaparte, (Marie Anne £lisa,) usually called Elisa, Princess de Piombino, a sister of Napoleon I., was born at Ajaccio in 1777. She was mairied in 1797 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m8t; n6t; good; moon; BONAPARTE 389 BONAPARTE to Felix Bacciochi, a captain of tlie French army, and vvent to reside in Paris in 1798. In 1805 Lucca and Piombino were erected into a principality by Napoleon, who gave the sovereignty of the same to his sister Elisa. She became Grand Duchess of Tuscany in March, 1809, and governed that country with ability until 1814. Died near Trieste in 1820. Bonaparte, bo'na-part, or Buonaparte, (Napo'- LEON,) [Fr. Napoleon Bonaparte, nt'po'la'dN' bo''- na'p$Rt'; It. Napoleone Bonaparte, (or Buonaparte,) na-po-la-o'na bo'nS-paR^ta, (or boo-o^nS-paR'ti,)] Napo- leon I., Emperor of the French, the greatest general of modern times, was born at Ajaccio, in Corsica, August 15,1769. His father. Carlo Buonaparte, was an officer under General Paoli, and distinguished himself as one of the bravest and most energetic defenders of the liber- ties of his country against the French. In the hardships and dangers of that contest he was accompanied by his wife Letitia, (whose maiden name was Ramolino, rd- mo-lee'no,) a young woman of rare beauty as well as courage. It is said that she was suddenly taken in labour at mass, and, having reached her home in haste, her child was born on a piece of old tapestry on which were represented the battle-scenes of the Iliad. The child thus ushered into the world, the offspring of war- like parents and surrounded by the images of war, is said to have been not only singularly beautiful, but very gentle and easily managed until he was two years old. At this age his character suddenly changed : he became imperious, and was invincibly obstinate to those wlio sought to control him by menaces or by force. In the childish disputes that occurred between him and his elder brother Joseph, Napoleon, it is said, invariably came off conqueror. His mother, however, by com- bining moderation with firmness, succeeded at length in obtaining a complete ascendency over him. He after- wards said, '*It is to my mother, and to the principles which she instilled into me, that I owe my fortune and all the good that I have ever done." "Nevertheless," says his biographer in the " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- rale," "we may well believe that this education, with all its efficiency, was somewhat wanting in tenderness. Napo- leon was educated to be one of Plutarch's heroes. He was not, perhaps, sufficiently imbued with those gentle, refined, and benevolent sentiments which form the very essence of the moral sense. The standard of virtue on which his character was moulded was that of antiquity : it was force mastering itself in order that it might become the master of others." Before he was ten years old, (April, 1779,) Napoleon left Corsica for the military school at Brienne, where he remained until he went (October, 1784) to the military school at Paris to complete his education. While at Brienne he was for some time under the instruction of Pichegru. He was distinguished for his proficiency in mathematics ; but he manifested no fondness for classical studies or for belles-lettres in any form. He was studious, of regular habits, well-behaved, and enjoyed excellent health. He took a particular in- terest in history, in which his favourite authors were Plu- tarch, Caesar, Arrian, and others of this class. His father died in February, 1785, at the early age of thirty-six. In September of the same year Napoleon received a com- mission as sub-lieutenant of artillery ; but he was soon after made first lieutenant in a regiment of artillery sta- tioned at Valence. Having gone to Corsica on a fur- lough, he expressed himself in 1789 very warmly in favour of the revolutionary movement in France. In February, 1792, he was made captain of artillery. While he was in Ajaccio, in April of that year, a serious dispute having occurred between the troops and the inhabitants of the town, Bonaparte was accused of having given orders to fire on the people ; he was in consequence summoned to Paris to answer for his conduct. He was, however, ac- quitted. While in the capital he witnessed the insur- rection of June 20. He was at a coffee-house, when, seeing the mob pass by armed with pikes, axes, etc., he said to his friend Bourrienne, "Let us follow this ca- naille." He saw them break into the palace of the Tuile- ries without meeting any resistance. When the king appeared at the window, wearing the bonnet rou^e, he ex- claimed, " It's all over with that poor man ! How could they permit those wretches to enter the palace ? A few discharges of grape would have sent them all flying. He afterwards witnessed the rising of the loth of Au- gust. Having returned to Corsica, he found the peo])le of that island divided into two parties. Much the larger number, with Paoli, were in favour of seeking the protec- tion of England. The Bonaparte family, though once strongly attached to General Paoli, adhered to the cause of France and the Convention. In the civil war that ensued in Corsica, Napoleon was closely besieged in a tower with only fifty men, who for three days were re- duced to the necessity of living on horse-flesh. He after- wards succeeded in making his escape, and in conveying his mother and the family in safety to Nice, and subse- quently to Marseilles. Napoleon spent a portion of the summer of 1793 in Paris. In the autumn he was ordered to Toulon, then in possession of the Spanish and English. He found the French artillery at that place in a miserable condi- tion, and the troops without any competent commander. A commissioner having arrived from Paris about this time, a council of war was called, and, Bonaparte's plan for the reduction of the place having been decided upon, the execution was intrusted to the young Corsican. It proved a brilliant success, and the name of Bonaparte at once became distinguished throughout France. He was made soon after a brigadier-general. On the fall of Robespierre in July, 1794, Bonaparte was suspended in his command and put under arrest, but was released after a short detention. We find him again actively engaged in military operations towards the close of that and during the early part of the ensuing year. But in the spring of 1795, the army having been reorganized, Bonaparte, for some unexplained cause, was suspended from his duties and placed upon half-pay. He immediately repaired to Paris, and complained to the proper authorities of this unworthy treatment. But his remonstrances were with- out avail : he received for answer only that he was too young to command the artillery of an army. He replied, " One grows old very quickly on the field of battle." His protestations were, however, in vain. He remained for some months without any regular employment. But Fortune seemed resolved not to neglect her favourite son. The 13th Vendemiaire, (October 4,) the famous Day of the Sections, was at hand. A formidable insurrection, headed by the National Guards, threatened the total overthrow of the power of the Convention, which, though provided with troops and artillery, had no officer com- petent to command them. Menou had been selected by the Convention for this duty ; but his indecision had in- creased the confidence of the insurgents and greatly dis- heartened his own party. Barras, Tallien, and the other leaders were in the greatest perplexity and alarm. Barras had fortunately become acquainted with Bonaparte at the siege of Toulon. He said to his colleagues, Tallien and Carnot, "I have just the man for our purpose, — a little Corsican officer, who will not stand upon ceremony.'' The Corsican was accordingly appointed to the com- mand. He had more than five thousand regular troops, about fifteen hundred volunteers, and two hundred pieces of cannon, which his science and skill rendered more effective than ten times the number under the command of an ordinary officer. The insurgents, amounting to more than thirty thousand, fell before the Corsican 's ter- rible artillery like grass before the scythe. Although the National Guards fought with the greatest bravery, the fate of the day was quickly decided. The Convention used the victory thus obtained with great moderation. Only two persons, it is said, suffered death after the con- flict was over. Soon after, Barras proposed that the Con- vention should approve Bonaparte's appointment as second in command of the army of the interior, Barras himself remaining commander-in-chief. The proposal was adopted by acclamation. Although nominally the second in rank, he became by this appointment virtually the commander-in-chief of the army of the interior. Among the intimate friends of Madame Tallien was Josephine Beauharnais, a young widow of rare beauty and accomjjlishments. She was the daughter of M. de la Pagerie, a naval officer of Martinique, where she was born in 1763. Having gone to France with her father € as-*; 9 as s; ghard; g as j; g, h, yl, guttural ; n, nasal; "S., trilled; sas0; th as in this. (2(^='See Explanations, p. 23.) BONAPARTE BONAPARTE ia 1779, she became acquainted with the young Marquis of Beauharnais, to whom she was soon after married, i)eing then scarcely more than sixteen. Her husband had in 1793 risen to the rank of general in the army of the Republic ; but, as he belonged to the noblesse, he naturally incurred the suspicion of those in power, and suffered death by the guillotine in the summer of 1794. Soon after the arrest of General Beauharnais his wife also was imprisoned, and would in all probability have shared his fate had she not been delivered by the timely fall of Robespierre. Bonaparte became acquainted with her, and was deeply smitten with her charms. He had been appointed, March 2, 1796, commander-in-chief of the army of Italy. He married Josephine on the 9th of ]\Iarch, and a few days afterwards set out for Nice to take command of the army. The events of the war which fol- lowed belong to history rather than to biography : suffice to say that the exploits of young Bonaparte surpassed in splendour everything before recorded of modern war- fare. To heighten the romance of the story, the youthful hero, all in the midst of the hardships, excitements, and anxieties of that unequalled campaign, seems to have abandoned himself wholly to the "sweet delirium" of his first love. We find him writing frequent and most impassioned letters to Josephine, — at one time expressing all the tenderness and devotion which he felt for her, at another bitterly reproaching her that she wrote to him so coldly, so briefly, or so seldom. He had sent for his wife to join him in Italy. She arrived at Milan towards the end of June, and spent some days with him at the Serbelloni palace. As she was about to set out under an escort towards Brescia, they found the passage ob- structed by the enemy. She saw the Austrian uniforms and heard the musketry at a little distance. Trembling and weeping, she returned. Bonaparte, touched at the sight of her distress, exclaimed, with emotion, "Wurm- ser shall pay me dearly for the tears which he has caused you to shed." Having defeated and almost annihilated three Austrian armies in succession, and compelled Wurmser, their ablest and bravest general, to take refuge in Mantua, Bonaparte at length brought the war to a triumjjhant close by the capture of that city. Wurm- ser surrendered on the 2d of February, 1797, having re- ceived from the victor the most honourable terms. With true magnanimity, the French commander declined to be present at the capitulation; and thus the Austrian gen- eral was spared the mortification of delivering up his sword to a conqueror so much younger than himself Having subdued the Austrians in Northern Italy, Napo- leon turned his victorious arms against the pope, who, after sustaining several defeats, was compelled to pur- chase a precarious peace by the payment of thirty millions of livres, besides delivering up to the French a number of statues, paintings, and manuscripts. It was resolved at Vienna that another army, under the Archduke Charles, who had distinguished himself in the recent campaigns on the Rhine, should take the field against Bonaparte. But nothing could resist the genius or the fortune of the French commander. By a masterly movement he sur- prised the archduke, who occupied a very strong position on the Tagliamento, and succeeded in crossing the river before the Austrians were prepared to offer any effectual resistance. Nothing remained for them but to retreat. Napoleon, following up his advantages with his accus- tomed promptitude, advanced by rapid strides towards ttie Austrian capital. On the 7th of April he arrived at Leoben, and pushed his advanced guard to within two cr three days' march of Vienna. But as his own situation, s.) far from France, and without sufficient forces to keep open the line of his retreat, was not free from danger, he offered terms of peace, which the Austrian court, trem- bling for the safety of the capital, eagerly accepted. Hav- ing returned to Italy, the young conqueror was for some months occupied in regulating the affairs of that country, of which he claimed to be the liberator. By the treaty of Campo Formio, signed October 17, 1797, Austria ac- knowledged the independence of the new Cisalpine Re- public, which included the larger part of her former possessions in Northern Italy, and guaranteed to France the extension of her boundary to the left bank of the Rhine. In return for these concessions, the French gov- ernment gave up to Austria Venice and the Venetian territory as far as the Adige, besides Istria and Dalmatia. Genoa, having offered some opposition to the French arms, was required, by way of reparation, to establish a democratic form of government, taking the name of the Ligurian ReiJublic. The terms granted to Austria were thought by many of the friends of France to be much too favourable. This treaty appears, indeed, to have been afterwards a subject of regret and mortification to Bona- parte himself This may be inferred from the great anxiety he manifested to defend or apologize for it. The Directory had enjoined it upon him not to make peace with the Emperor of Austria, except on condition that the latter should renounce all claim to Venice and all the Venetian territory except Istria and Dalmatia. But Napoleon, having discovered that some persons con- nected with the government of Venice had made propo- sals for an alliance with Austria, determined to sacrifice that republic to the interests of France and his own am- bition, abandoning, apparently without scruple, those of the democratic party who had been faithful to France, as well as the aristocrats who had sought the protection of the emperor. The Directory, it is said, had thoughts at one time of bringing him to trial for disobeying its orders ; but his unbounded popularity rendered such a step not merely unwise, but extremely perilous. In the early part of 1798 the French government contemplated the invasion of Great Britain ; and the preparations for this great undertaking were intrusted to Bonaparte. With this object he made a survey of the French coast along the British Channel. It was, however, soon after deter- mined to attack the power of England in her remote possessions. A formidable expedition, destined for Egypt and the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, was fitted out, as it was believed that the British empire in India could be most conveniently reached from that side. Thi? enterprise was regarded by the Directory with the more favour, on account of the growing influence and ascend- ency of Bonaparte : the members of the government were not unwilling to send far from France, into a sort of hon- ourable banishment, the object of their anxiety and fears. On the other hand, the scheme was perhaps still more agreeable to Napoleon. Visions of boundless conquest and glory floated before his youthful imagination. It seemed not unreasonable that a young commander, who in his first campaigns had rivalled, if he did not surpass, the most brilliant achievements of Alexander, should think he might carry his victorious banners as far as the Macedonian hero had done two thousand years before. The expedition was got ready with the utmost secrecy. The land-force, consisting principally of the army of Italy, is said to have amounted to near 30,000 men. The arma- ment set sail from Toulon on the 19th of May, 1798, and was joined soon after by a large fleet of transports carry- ing the land-forces under General Desaix. They reached Malta on the lOth of June, and Bonaparte, having come to an understanding with some person within the place, took possession of it without the slightest opposition. As they were passing the impregnable defences, constructed by the famous Knights of Malta, one of his officers said to him, " It is well, general, that there was some one within to open the gates for us ; for we should have had more trouble in entering had the place been empty.'? The expedition arrived at Alexandria on the 29th of June, having by great good fortune escaped the fleet of Nelson, who had rightly guessed the destination of the French armament, and had actually reached Alexandria before the arrival of Bonaparte ; but, hearing nothing of the hostile fleet, the English admiral had set sail for Rhodes. As France was at that time at peace with the Sultan, who had then an ambassador in Paris, the invasion of E^gypt was wholly unexpected, and Bonaparte met with little resistance until the French troops had arrived near Cairo, in sight of the Pyramids, where they encountered a large body of Mamelukes with their Arab auxiliaries. Bonaparte, galloping to the front of the army, exclaimed, with enthusiasm, " Soldiers, from the summit of yonder monuments forty centuries look down upon your actions !'* The battle was fiercely contested, the Mamelukes fighting with all the bravery of desperation; but nothing could withstand the tactics and artillery of the French. The e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, hy 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; ra&t; n6t; good; i roon; BONAPARTE 391 BONAPARTE Mamelukes were almost annihilated : the few who es- caped fled to Upper Egypt and Syria, no one ottering any further resistance to the progress of the invading army. Thus ended the famous "battle of the Pyramids." In his endeavour to regulate the government of the country, Bonaparte earnestly strove to conciliate the good will of the conquered people. With this view, he not only attended with his army the yearly festival of the Nile, but celebrated with great pomp the Feast of the Prophet, which took place the 20th of August. He has been accused by some of childish folly in supposing that by his expressions of respect or reverence for Mohammed he could impose upon the minds of the Moslems or de- lude them into the hope that he was about to turn Mus- sulman. But, in a secular point of view, it was certainly not unwise for a conqueror to show the people whom he had just conquered that he was not an enemy to their religion. It cannot be doubted that they would submit far more patiently to the rule of one who was. *ven in- different than of one who was hostile to their faith, as they would naturally have supposed him to be — coming from Europe, and especially from the country of Saint Louis — had he not taken the pains to convince them of the contrary. The statements about Bonaparte's having made a distinct profession of the Mohammedan faith ap- pear to be erroneous or much exaggerated. But he cer- tainly made use of some expressions which were designed to give an impression to the Mohammedans that he was ^•ery favourable towards their religion. At the same time, assuming an exaggerated or, as we might say, an Orien- tal style of speech, which indeed seemed to be in perfect harmony with his natural character, he assured them that he, like their prophet, was a man appointed by des- tiny, whom it would be as vain as it was impious to re- sist He even went so far as to declare that he could call them to account for their most secret thoughts. But these declarations did not prevent the Arabs and Turks from perceiving that his claims to a supernatural power were made simply with a view to establish more firmly an earthly domination. Meanwhile the Porte, assisted by England, was making vigorous preparations for war. Najjoleon resolved to be first in the field. Leaving Cairo on the loth of Februarv, 1799, he crossed the desert through the Isthmus of Suez, taking successively El Arish, Gaza, and Jaffa, the last of which was carried by storm. From 1 200 to 1 500 Turks and Arabs were taken prisoners, and two davs after- wards marched out of the town and put to death in cold blood by volleys of musketrv or bv the bayonet. The reasons alleged for this inhuman massacre were that the victims had been taken prisoners previously at Gaza and El Arish, and had violated their parole. But the utmost severity of the laws of war could require no more than that they should receive no quarter while they were fighting with arms in their hands : it could never jus- tify the victor in first offering them life, and then taking it again after they had been for two days his prisoners. The apologists for Napoleon allege that it was found im- possible to furnish food to the prisoners, or even to guard them, surrounded as Bonaparte was by swarms of active and exasperated enemies, and that they were at last re- luctantly sacrificed to the urgent demands of the army.* The French general next marched against Acre. But the plague had broken out in the army, and he had no guns suitable for carrying on a siege. The place was ably and obstinately defended by Djezzar Pasha, assisted ty an English force commanded by Sir Sidney Smith. Re- peated and desperate assaults were made by the attack- ing forces, but in vain. One day three hundred chosen men, presenting themselves before the French com- mander, took an oath that they would enter the town or perish in the attempt. They' kept their word : not one of them returned. Napoleon was at last under the ne- cessity of abandoning the place. He afterwards said, " If Acre had fiUen, I would have changed the face of the world." " My fortune was arre.sted bv a grain of sand ;" alluding to some little contingencies which had * Thiers, who will scircely be acrused of hostility to Bonaparte, throv:. upon him the whole respon ^ibil'ty of ihis a:rrc!oiis act. callina: X '"tne only cruel act of his life" (.See "Revolution Fran^aise," ivTC xiiv.) prevented his success. The encampment before Acre was broken up on the 21st of May, 1799, and the army commenced its retreat towards Egypt. Nelson having destroyed the French fleet, August, 1798, all communica- tion with Europe was cut off. Bonaparte could hope neither for reinforcements nor supplies. The retreating army reached Cairo about the middle of June. Having learned (July 15) that the Turkish and English fleets had landed an army of 18,000 men at Aboukir, the French commander instantly made preparations to attack them. After a bloody contest, (July 25,) almost all the Turks were either cut to pieces or perished in the sea. into which they had thrown themselves in the hope of reaching their ships. A few who had sought refuge in the fort of Aboukir were compelled to surrender a few I days afterwards. Soon after this victory, Napoleon, hav- } ing heard of the defeats that had recently been sustained j by the French armies in Italy, and of the unpopularity I of the Directory, at once resolved to return to France. He made preparations for his departure with the utmost I secrecy, taking with him only a few of his best and I most attached officers. Kleber was left in command of the army of Egypt, now reduced, by disease and war, to less than 20,coD men. Bonaparte, and the ofiicers who accompanied him, embarked (August 22) in two frigates, and. after a long passage and several narrow escapes from the English cruisers, he landed at Frejus on the 14th of October. He found the French nation thoroughly dis- satisfied with the existing government, and disheartened by the recent disasters. Taking advantage of the un- certainty and confusion among the political parties, he contrived to have himself chosen First Consul, with a power little short of absolute. The First Consul was assisted by two other consuls, of whom he had the ap- pointment, and a senate entirely dependent uj^on his I will. This revolution is known as that of the i8th and ■ 19th Brumaire, (9th and loth of November.) The news I of Bonaparte's elevation to the supreme power was re- I ceived by the French nation with transports of joy. The I people were in truth tired of revolutions, and they longed I for a government which should possess the ability and I the will to maintain itself unmoved against all enemies from abroad and all factions at home. Commercial con- j fidence was at once restored. Many of the royalists and ! priests who had fled from their native country during j the reign of terror were allowed to return ; and Chris- I tian worship, which had been forbidden under the dif- I ferent revolutionar\- governments, was again permitted i throughout France. The reason Napoleon afterwards ! gave for having recourse to the Concordat furnishes the I key to this new policy : "The restoration of the public I worship will give me the hearts of the people." In this I he was not deceived. In return for the contemptuous I smiles of a comparatively few skeptics, he won the ad- i miration and gratitude of millions in every quarter of ; the empire. On his return from Eg\-pt, Napoleon found France at war with Austria, England, and Turkey. His ; first aim, after he felt himself established in his new 1 power, was to restore to the banners of France the pres- I tige which they had lost during his absence. Early in i May, 1800, he set out for Italy. On the 14th of June he : fought the great battle of Marengo. Late in the after- I noon a large part of the French army was routed, and seemed to be in irretrievable disorder. At this moment I Desaix, at the head of an army of reserve, arrived on the I field. He observed to Napoleon, "The battle is lost : I I suppose all I can do now is to secure your retreat." ! " Bvno means," replied the First Consul : "the battle is, : I trust, gained. Push forward your column : I will rally ' the disordered troops in your rear." This order was : gallantly obeyed, and what seemed a disastrous defeat f was changed into a complete victory ; but General De- : saix himself fell dead, being shot through the breast in i the first charge. Moreau, at the head of the army of the I Rhine, had made a scarcely less successful, though a less brilliant, campaign than Napoleon ; and Austria was compelled to sue for peace. The conditions were settled j by the treaty of Luneville. Soon after, negotiations with England were begun, and at length the definitive treaty of Amiens was signed, March 27, 1802. A decree was passed, April 26, 1801, granting a general amnesty to all € as c as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, k, _^ittu7-al; N, ?iasal; it, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (^:^="See Explanations, p. 23.) BONAPARTE BONAPARTE etnigratils who wished to return to France, on condition that they would take the o ith of fidehty to the govern- ment. From this amnesty were excepted the leaders of armed bodies of royalists, those who had held rank in the armies of the allies, or had been encouragers of war against France, those who had been guilty of treason to the republic, and those who had belonged to the house- hold of the Bourbon family. Such of their property as had not been sold was ordered to be restored to the emigrants who should avail themselves of the amnesty. Soon after the battle of Marengo, negotiations were be- gun with the pope for the establishment of a treaty known as the Concordat, of which the principal provisions were, on the one hand, that the Catholic religion should be acknowledged as the national faith, and its services openly performed, subject to such police regulations as the gov- ernment should deem necessary ; and, on the other, that there should be, under the supervision of the pope and of the French government, a new division of the dioceses, that the bishops should take an oath of fidelity to the government, and observe a ritual containing forms of prayer for the consuls ; those bishops who should de- cline to conform to the terms of the treaty were to be removed, and their places filled by the pope on nomina- tions made by the French government. Lastly, the pope renounced all right to dispute or change tiie sales of chuixh property which had taken place since the Revo- lution. This important treaty was ratified on the i8th of September, 1801. The measure was received very coldly by the members of the government, and with murmurs of dissatisfaction by the army ; but it doubtless contributed immensely towards attaching the mass of the people, especially in the provinces, to Napoleon's gov- ernment and person. The First Consul next directed his earnest efforts towards the organization of a thorough system of police. This was the more necessary because not only the restraints of religion and morality, but the habit of obedience to authority so influential with the mass of the people, had, to a great extent, lost their power. The secret police was organized under the su- pervision of Fouche, who at a later period was himself carefully watched by four counsellors of state, ( conseillers d'etat,) appointed for this purpose. The whole nation, from the highest officer under the First Consul to the lowest peasant, was subjected to a system of the strictest espionage, from which even the privacy of domestic life afforded no shelter. In a society thus organized there was little room for men of character or virtue, except perhaps in the army. In the civil government, men of suppleness and address alone were in request. Fear and self-interest, the lowest motives of human action, were the chief s])rings by which the machinery of government was set or kept in motion. Under these circumstances, the freedom of the press became an impossibility, if not an absurdity. Yet homage was so far paid to liberty that the very restrictions by which she was fettered were enacted in her name. The decree establishing the cen- sorship of the press began with these words : " Pour assurer la liberte de la presse," etc., ("In order to in- sure the liberty of the press," etc.) To this period belong the preparation and completion of Napoleon's celebrated Civil Code, by which, even in the judgment of those least favourable to him, he ren- dered an inestimable service to France. That he might establish an order of nobility based upon merit. Napo- leon instituted what he called the " Legion of Honour," designed to embrace all those, whether in the civil or military ranks, who were sufficiently distinguished by their worth or services to the state. Having established his power at home, he next sought to change the form of government in the Cisalpine Republic. Between four and five hundred deputies from that re])ublic were, at the instance of Napoleon, assembled at Lyons for the purpose of drawing up a new constitution. Anticipating the wishes of the First Consul, they atlopted a report, inviting him to take upon himself the office of protector, of which their state, being still in its infancy, stood so much in need, — an office which n(jne but himself was ca- pable of filling. He graciously acceded to their wishes, promising them the protection of the strongest nation in Euro[)e. Taking advantage of the political dissensions that prevailed among the different Swiss cantons, he offered himself as a mediator in their disputes, at the same time enforcing his authority by the presence of a French army, so that from that time forward, so long as his power lasted, Switzerland was a mere dependcUit of France. The negroes of Saint Domingo, having been given their freed. nn daring the invasion of the isiand by the Spaniards and English in 1793, and their liberty having been confiirned by the National Convention at Paris, had for some years been governed as citizens of a free and independent state by their able ruler, Tous- saint L'Ouverture. In i8oi the First Consul resolved to reduce them again to complete subjection. For this purpose General Leclerc, who had married Napo- leon's sister Pauline, was despatched with a fleet and an army of more than 20,000 men. They arrived at Saint Domingo in January, 1802. After a war of great atrocity on both sides, during which the yellow fever was perhaps even more fatal to the French troops than the arms of their enemies, the invaders were ail-but exter- minated. General Leclerc himself had died of the fever; and his successor, in order to save the feeble remnant of that once fine army, was obliged to surrender at discretion to the English squadron. Meanwhile, Bona- parte had taken possession of the island of Elba and of Parma, and had formally annexed Piedmont to France. These encroachments excited the jealousy of Europe ; England, in particular, complained of them as infractions of the treaty of Amiens, and at length, on the i8th of May, 1803, declared war against France, laying an em- bargo on all the French vessels found in the British ports. Bonaparte retaliated by seizing on all the Eng- lish who, as travellers, or from whatever cause, hap- pened to be in the French dominions. In the early part of 1804 a conspiracy was detected at Paris among the partisans of the Bourbons. The Duke d'Enghien, grand- son of the Prince of Conde, was reported to be in cor- respondence with the conspirators. Although he was ' living at Ettenheim, in Baden, on neutral territory, the ' First Consul ordered him to be arrested. A body of French soldiers entered the territory of Baden, seized the duke in his own chateau, and conveyed him to the;' citadel of Strasburg, whence he was taken to the castle" of Vincennes, near Paris. After a nominal trial, in which ' he was not allowed to have any counsel or to call any witnesses, he was condemned to death. He asked for a confessor in his last moments, but was refused. The trial, or rather inquisition, had commenced at midnight; and the next morning, a little after daybreak, the prisoner was shot on the margin of a grave which had been dug even before the sentence of death was pronounced against him. Napoleon was chosen "Emperor of the French" in May, 1804. About this time he made great prepara- tions for the invasion of England ; but he afterwards abandoned the project, and turned all his energies against Austria, who, aided by Russia, had renewed the war. Sweden and England were also members of the coalition against France. Our limits will permit us to do scarcely more than allude to the chief events of the ensuing struggle. The Austrian general Mack was surrounded and compelled to surrender, with above 20,000 men, at Ulm, October 17, 1805. A few days after the surrender of Mack's army, the great naval battle of Trafalgar was fought, resulting in the almost total destruction of the French fleet. The combined Austro- Russian army, consisting of 80,000 men, commanded by the emperor Alexander in person, was defeated with terrible loss in the great battle of Austerlitz, fought on the 2d of December. An armistice was concluded between Na- poleon and Alexander, and soon after a treaty of peace with Austria was signed at Presburg. The French emperor, being thus left free to carry out his ambitious schemes, apjiointed (March, 1806) his brother Joseph King of Na|>Ies and Sicily, and in June of that year made his brother Louis King of Holland. Nai^oleon had previously (May 26, 1805) been crowned King of Italy at Milan. Soon after he annexed the Ligurian Re- public (Genoa) to France. Prussia had for some time iDeen a sort of timid ally of France. Napoleon, since his recent successes against Austria and Russia, had begun a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, till, fit; mit; n6t; good , moon, BONAPARTE 393 BONAPARTE to treat her with supercilious contempt. The King of Prussia, ofiended at the tone of Napoleon, had the im- prudence to demand that the French troops should be withdrawn from the German territory. The French em- peror replied, with contemptuous defiance, that " to pro- voke the enmity of France was as senseless as to attempt to withstand the waves of the ocean." The battle of Jena, fought October i6, i8o6, seemed to justify the arro- gant boast of Napoleon, and laid Prussia completely prostrate at the feet of the conqueror. On February 8, 1807, the great battle of Eylau was fought between the armies of France and Russia, with tremendous loss on both sides, though neither could justly claim the victory. Bonaparte, having been reinforced at the battle of Fried- land, (June 13,) defeated the Russians, and compelled them to retreat, but without the loss of their baggage or artillery. The treaty of Tilsit between the French and Russian emperors was signed July 7, 1807. Two days afterwards, at the same place, a treaty was signed between France and Prussia. From the time that Bonaparte be- came First Consul, Spain had been the submissive ally of France ; but, a misunderstanding and disjiute having occurred between Charles IV. and his son and heir, the Prince of Asturias, Napoleon made it a pretext for in- terfering with the internal affairs of that country. The result was that Joseph Bonaparte was removed from the kingdom of Naples and placed on the Spanish throne. This event was followed by a long, obstinate, and most cruel war, which ended only with the downfall of Napo- leon in 1814. The French emperor himself had gone to Spain, in order to establish his brother firmly on the throne at Madrid. A despatch from Paris caused him to return with the utmost expedition, Austria was pre- paring for another war. Napoleon took the field with his usual celerity. After gaining a victory at Eckmiihl, and a still more decisive one at Wagram, where 20,000 Austrians were taken prisoners, he made peace (October 14, 1809) with Austria, who was obliged to give up to the conqueror Trieste, Carniola, and a part of Croatia and Galicia. On his return to Paris the French emperor announced to Josephine his purpose of obtaining a di- vorce ; and an act to that effect was passed on the i6th of December, 1809. The reason given for this step was that Josephine had never borne him any children, and it was necessary, for the interests of the empire, that he should have an heir. Not quite three months from that date his marriage was celebrated at Vienna (March 11, 1810) with Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor of Austria. Napoleon was not present, but he was repre- sented in the ceremony by his favourite Bertliier. The young bride, accompanied by the Queen of Naples, set out for Paris a few days afterwards. Although Napoleon's power at this time appeared to be at its greatest height, those who looked beyond the surface might discern not a few elements which were calculated to impair, if not destroy, the stability of that magnificent edifice which he had just succeeded in erect- ing. In every campaign where he conmianded in j^erson he had been successful against the ablest generals and mightiest armies of Europe. His empire extended from Denmark to Naples. The pope, having launched a bull of excommunication against the conqueror of Italy, was seized at midnight in his own palace on the Quirinal by a body of French soldiers, and held a prisoner ; and out of the territories of the Church were formed two French departments. But* while Napoleon sought to extend his sway more and more widely, he neglected to strengthen his empire by any attempts to soothe the irritation or win the affections of the nations whom he had conquered. On the contrary, elated and rendered arrogant by his un- paralleled successes, he appears to have aimed at nothing less than to completely break the spirit, as he had broken the armies, of those who had opposed him. The in- structions which he wrote to his brothers Joseph and Louis reveal his temper and policy, and show us clearly why such a power as his could not, in the nature of things, be durable. Joseph, then King of Najjles, was desirous of governing his subjects mildly, and, if possi- ble, of gaining their affections. Napoleon wrote to him, " Vos proclamations ne sentent assez le maitre. . . . Quel amour voulez-vous qu'ait pour vous un peuple pour qui vous n'avez rien fait ?" (*' Your proclamations have not enough of the tone of a master. What love do you expect a people for whom you have done nothing, will have for you.'"') and he ends with virtually recom- mending his brother not to rely upon tb.eir love, but upon their fears and his own power. To Louis, at that time King of Holland, he wrote, reproving him for some in- dulgence he had shown the people, " Never forget that your Ji?-st duty is towards ME, your second towards France : all your other duties, even those towards the people whom I have called you to govern, must be sub- ordinate to these." Of all the European powers, Eng- land alone continued to offer any effectual resistance to the encroachments of Napoleon ; but her resources seemed as nothing in comparison with those of the con- queror. To crown the good fortune which appeared ever to attend him, on the 20th of March, 1811, Maria Louisa bore him a son, who received the title of" King of Rome ;" Rome being the second capital of his vast empire. (See Reichstadt, Duke of.) But, while his extended do- minions excited their jealousy and fear, the haughty and imperious tone which he assumed deeply wounded the pride of those nations whom he had not yet subdued. A coolness gradually took place between him and Alex- ander. He had demanded of Sweden and Russia that they should strictly enforce his decrees prohibiting all conmierce with the English. Both nations had evaded his demands. Napoleon at first contented himself with simply making complaints to Russia ; but Sweden, being a far less formidable power, was treated with less cere- mony. His armed vessels in the Baltic captured a . great number of Swedish merchantmen. These were confis- cated, on the ground of their being engaged in the con- traband trade with Britain. To resist these aggressions, Sweden signed a treaty of alliance with Russia in the early part of 181 2. Then followed the memorable cam- paign of 1812. Napoleon approached the confines of Russia with an army of about 480,000 men. Aftei the great battles of Smolensk, August 16, and Borodino, Sep- tember 7, Napoleon entered Moscow, and took up his residence in the Kremlin, the ancient palace of the Rus- sian emperors. Soon after a fire broke out, and was spread by the winds to every part of the city, all efforts to extinguisli it being in vain. It is still a disputed point whether Moscow was purposely set on fire by the Rus- sians, or whether the destruction of the city was the result of accident. But, whatever may have been the cause, the effect was fatal to the power of Napoleon. He had designed to take up his winter-quarters in Rus- sia, but the conflagration of Moscow made it necessary for him to retreat ; and, the winter having set in much earlier than usual, nearly the whole of his magnificent army were either taken prisoners, or else perished in battle or with hunger and cold. At Smorgoni, on the 5th of December, Napoleon took leave of his generals, to whom he committed the wreck of his grand army, and, accompanied by Caulaincourt, set out in a sledge for Warsaw and Paris. He reached the French capital on the 18th of December. The Russian historian lioo- toorlin (Buturlin) states the total loss of the French in the campaign of 181 2 at 450,000 men ; of which number, according to his estimate, 125,000 were killed in battle, 132,000 died of fatigue, hunger, and cold, and 193,000, including 3000 officers and forty-eight generals, were taken prisoners. More than nine hundred pieces of can- non belonging to the grand army fell into the hands of the Russians. On his arrival in Paris, Napoleon began immediately to prepare for another campaign. By fresh conscriptions, and by recalling from distant places all the trooi)s that could be spared, he succeeded in assembling on the German frontier, in the spring of 1813, an army of 350,000 men. He won in May the indecisive victories of Lutzen and Bautzen over the combined Russo-Prussian army. Austria at first stood neutral, and offered her mediation ; but, as it was not accepted, she at length, in August, joined the allies. Napoleon might now perceive the fatal mistake he had made not merely in neglecting to use the means in his power to attach the conquered nations to his person and government, but in recklessly wounding and outraging their feelings of national pride and patriot- € as k: 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, gtUtitral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ({J;^='See Explanations, p. 23.) BONAPARTE 394 BONAPARTE ism. When the French soldiers first entered Germany, non a few of the people seem to have regarded them as liberators, and a large proportion were almost indifferent as to the success of either army ; but, after experiencing the insolence and oppression of the French rule, the mass of the population had become so exasperated that the moment there appeared to be some reasonable pros- pect of throwing off the yoke, they arose as with one mind against their oppressors, in unconquerable numbers. The war which ended in the downfall of Napoleon was commonly called in Germany "der Volkskrieg," ("the people's war,"*) because it was not so much a contest of i^rinces to recover their ancestral dominions, as a struggle of the people to regain the liberty which, im- perfect as it was, they had enjoyed under their German rulers. In most of the battles which Napoleon fought during the campaign of 1813, his transcendent military genius gave him the superiority over his foes. But the latter were becoming stronger every moment; and at last, in the fatal battle of Leipsic, about 10,000 of his Saxon allies left him in a body and went over to his enemies. After a disastrous retreat, he crossed the Rhine with only about 70,000 men out of the army of 350,000 with which he had entered Germany in the spring. The French people had at last become weary of the long and ruinous wars which they were compelled to wage under Napoleon. The legislative body, though hitherto it had seemed to be little more than a pageant designed to add dignity to the imperial court, now ventured to advise the emperor to take the necessary steps for obtaining peace, so far as this could be done consistently with the honour and welfare of the country. A new conscription, however, was ordered ; but France had become completely exhausted, and Napoleon was under the necessity of again taking the field, with an army of less than 80,000 men. After the most extraor- dinary display on his part of courage, promptitude, and military skill, against desperate odds, the allies at last succeeded in taking possession of Paris, on the 31st of March, 1814. Soon after he signed an act of abdication, and retired to the island of Elba, of which he was to have the sovereignty, with the title of emperor, and an annual allowance of six millions of francs, to be paid by France. He remained in Elba only about ten months. During the latter part of his sojourn on the island, he kept up a correspondence with the disaffected parties in France. On the 15th. of February, 1815, he left Elba, and landed (March i) in France, near Frejus. His jour- ney to Paris was a triumphal procession. The Bourbons were everywhere deserted by the troops. Marshal Ney, who had been sent by Louis XVHI. to check Napoleon's progress, went over to his old commander. Napoleon was received in Paris as the Emperor of France, on condition of his reigning as a constitutional sovereign. Early in June, having assembled an army of about 125,000 men, he hastened to meet the allied Prussian and English armies in Flanders. He repulsed Bliicher at Ligny, (June 16,) and forced him to retreat with consider- able loss. On the i8th of June the battle of Waterloo was fought between the French army, under Napoleon, and that of the allies, commanded by Wellington. We shall not attempt to give a particular account of this great conflict, as the most contradictory statements are found even among those who are regarded as the best authorities on the subject. Suffice to say that the oppos- ing forces were probably nearly equal, each comprising about 75,000 men. The English troops, however, con- stituted less than one-half of Wellington's army. The battle began between eleven and twelve o'clock, and continued with the utmost fury till near nightfall, when, the Prussian general Bliicher having come up with fresh troops, the French were defeated at every point. The loss of the allies at Waterloo is admitted by Wellington to have been " inunense but the army of Napoleon was irretrievably ruined. After the rout once began, the French fled in the utmost confusion, leaving cannon, baggage, and everything in the hands of the victors. Napoleon seems still to have entertained hopes of re- * It was likewise often called "der Freiheitskrieg," ("the war of freedom.") sisting his enemies ; but France had become utterly exhausted with her long contest against the combined powers of Europe, and was at last thoroughly weary of war. The Chamber of Representatives at Paris declared itself permanent, and demanded the abdication of the emperor. When Lucien Bonaparte spoke to them of the services which his brother had formerly rendered to the state. La Fayette insisted that the three millions of Frenchmen whom Napoleon had sacrificed upon the altar of his ambition should not be left out of the account. " We have followed your brother," he said, " over the sands of Africa and the frozen deserts of Russia : the bones of Frenchmen scattered over every part of the globe attest our long fidelity." The repre- sentatives remained resolute. Some of them declared that there was but one man between France and peace, and demanded that he should be sacrificed to the com- mon good. On the 22d of June Napoleon signed his second abdication. Thus ended the history of the Hundred Days, (the period between the date of his re- suming power after leaving Elba, and that of his final abdication.) He then went to Rochefort, for the pur- pose of embarking for America ; but, finding that there was little hope of escaping the British cruisers, he vol- untarily gave himself up to Captain Maitland, of the British line-of-battle ship Bellerophon. He was, accord- ing to an agreement among the allied powers, who al- leged that the peace of the world required that he should not again be allowed to regain his liberty, carried to Saint Helena, having been removed from the Bellero- phon to the Northumberland, commanded by Sir George Cockburn. He reached Saint Helena on the 15th of Oc- tober, 1815. After an imprisonment of nearly six years, he died, of cancer of the stomach. May 5, 1821. There has probably never been in the history of the world any man who has combined those attributes of intellect and will which confer upon their possessor transcendent military and administrative power, in so high a degree as Napoleon. It has been said, not with- out reason, that as a general Caesar gave proof of greater originality of genius, inasmuch as he never repeated the same stratagem or mode of warfare, but always had a fresh invention for every new emergency. But, even if it be admitted that in fertility of invention Najioleon was inferior to Caesar, it may, on the other hand, be safely aflirmed that not only in his power of combination, — of embracing in one harmonious plan a great niunber of distinct and independent elements, — but also of watch- ing over and directing at one and the same time the complicated movements of mighty armies, the tone of the public press, the operations of foreign and domestic commerce, in addition to the endless intricacies and de- tails of his system of police, and the great measures of his government, not merely in France, but through the whole extent of his vast empire, — he was unequalled by any commander or sovereign that ever lived. But, whatever may be thought of the genius of Napo- leon as compared with that of other great commanders, it cannot be denied that in some respects his career was the most extraordinary, and his destiny the most won- derful, of any recorded in the annals of mankind. Other rulers may have wielded a power as extensive and even more absolute ; but they cannot, like Napoleon, boast of having been the sole architects of their own fortunes, — of having risen, like him, from an absolutely private station to the highest pinnacle of greatness. Cyrtis and Alexander inherited each, as his birthright, a powerful kingdom ; Hannibal and Caesar were respectively the recognizecl representatives of high and influential families. Na- poleon, on the contrary, besides his energy and his ge- nius, possessed not a single advantage that might not have fallen to the lot of the humblest citizen of France. No other sovereign of whom history makes mention ever maintained himself, even for a single day, against such a combination of gigantic powers ; yet Napoleon not only maintained himself, but for twelve years was constantly adding to his dominions in the face of an oppositic /i such as was never before or since arrayed against any single ruler. And he fell at last, so to speak, by his own hand. He seems to have possessed every intellectual endow- ment except wisdom, and every form of power except a, e, T, o, u, y, long; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, r, short; a, j, o, obscure; fir, f^U, f^t; met; ndt; good; moon; BONAPARTE 395 BONAPARTE moral power. His ambition, and the desire to exert his imperious will, often led him to embrace measures which his cooler judgment disapproved.* His invasion of Spain ^ was a remarkable instance of this. No one saw more clearly than he the ditficulties and dangers to be encoun- tered in such a war. In a letter addressed to Murat, March 29, 180S, he says, "Do not imagine that you have only to make a display of your troops in order to conquer Spain. . . . They may raise levies against us en masse which will render the war eternal. I have at present partisans, but if I show myself in the character of a conqueror I cannot retain one of them." Again, with prophetic forecast, he says, " If war once break oyt, ALL IS LOST." Yet, in spite of what he so clearly foresaw, he adopted a course which rendered war inevi- table. He afterwards said, bitterly, " That wretched war was my ruin : it divided my forces, multiplied the neces- sity of my efforts, and injured niy character for morality.'''' Having lost his reputation for morality, his subjects and allies ceased to have any confidence in his word, and his vast empire, no longer cemented by "that faith which binds the moral elements of the world together," was al- ready beginning to crumble, when his fatal campaign in Russia annihilated his grand army and involved him in irretrievable ruin. With all his sagacity, he committed the stupendous error of supposing that he could, in the nine- teenth century, hold Europe in subjection by the mere force of his intellect and will, without the exercise of any strictly moral attributes, and without laying the founda- tions of his power in the affections of the people. Among the writings or productions of Napoleon may be mentioned a " History of Corsica," (" Histoire de la Corse,") which having been shown by the Abbe Raynal to Mirabeau, the latter observed that this little history seemed to him "to indicate a genius of the highest or- der." Napoleon's Correspondence, extending to twelve volumes or more, was recently published in Paris, by order of Nap(jleon III. But his most important contribution to literature is the work entitled " Me- moirs towards the History of France under Napoleon," etc., ("Memoires pour servir ^ I'Histoire de la France sous Napoleon," etc.,) dictated by him at Saint Helena, and written by his generals Gourgaud and Montholon, published in nine volumes 8vo, Paris, 1830. To these may be added his " Military Maxims," (" Maximes de Guerre,") prepared by General Husson, Paris, 1830, and the " Religious Conversations" (" Conversations reli- gieuses") of Napoleon, edited by Beauterne, Paris, 1841. We should fail to do justice to the literary labours of Napoleon did we omit to mention his important contri- butions to the public journals during the consulship and empire. As soon as he became F"irst Consul, he selected the "Moniteur" to be the official organ of his govern- ment, and he became, so to speak, its chief editor ; for if he did not dictate he at least inspired the greater number of the articles that appeared in its columns. In it were published, from time to time, such vindications or expla- nations of his policy, and such statements respecting the measures of his domestic and foreign administration, as he wished the world to receive. It is almost needless to remark that the truth or accuracy of those state- ments and explanations was never regarded by the im- perial editor as a point of vital importance, the great object being to produce the requisite impression upon the mind of France and of Europe. Those who desire fuller information respecting the life and character of Napoleon may consult, besides the publications above referred to, the following works : Biographic des premieres Annees de Napoleon, etc., (Biography of the First Years of Napoleon,) by the Baron de Coston, 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1840. Memoires siir I'Enfance et la Jeunesse de Napoleon jusqu'ci I'Age de vingt-trois Ans, (Memoirs relating to the Infancy and Youth of Napoleon until the Age of Twenty-Three Years,) by T. Nasica, i vol. 8vo, Paris, 1852. Souvenirs de la Jeunesse de Napoleon. (Recollections of the Youth of Napoleon,) published in the " Revue des Deux Mondes," March, 1842. * The writer of the excellent notice of Napoleon I. in the " Nou- velle Biographic Generale" says, " En son genie il y avail plus de volont^ que de raison," (" In his genius there was more of will than of reason.") That notice, it may be remarked, thnueh extreme'y favourable, not to say partial, to Napoleon, contains perhaps the best r^sum^ of his policy that has yet appeared. L'Enfance de Napol6on depuis sa Naissance jusqu'k sa Soitie de I'^cple militaire, (The Cliildhood of Napoleon from his Birth imtil his Departure from the Military School,) by the Chevalier de Beau- terne, I vol. i2mo, Paris, 1846. Memoires anecdotiques sur I'lnterieur du Palais et sur quelques fivenements de TEmpire, etc., (Anecdotical Memoirs relating to the Interior of the Palace and to some Events of the Empire, etc.,) by L. F. J. DE Baus.se t, prefect of the palace, 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1827-29. Memoires de Constant, premier Vaiet-de chambre de I'Empereur, etc., (Memoirs of Constant, first Valet-de-chambre of the Emperor, etc.,) 6 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1830. Memorial de Sainte-Helene, etc., by the Comte de las Cases, 8 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1823. Voice from Saint Helena, by Dr. Barry O'Meara. Memoires du Docleur Antommarchi. ou les derniers Moments de Napoleon, (Memoirs of Dr. Antommarchi, or the Last Moments of Napoleon,) 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1825. Recits de la Captivity de I'Empereur Napoleon, etc., (Accoimt of the Captivity of the Emperor Napoleon, etc.,) by General Montho- lon, 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1847. History of the Captivity of Napoleon on the Island of Saint He- lena, from the Official Documents and Unpublished Manuscript ot Sir Hudson Lowe, by W. Foksvth. Chaboulon's Memoires. Vie politique et militaire de Napoleon, (Political and Military Life of Napoleon,) by Jomini, 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1827. Memoirs of Count Segur, 3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1827. Memoires du Due de Rovigo, (Memoirs of Savary, Duke of Ro- vigo,) 8 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1828. Memoirs of Bourrienne, 10 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1829. Bourrienne et ses Erreurs, etc., (Bourrienne and his Errors, etc.,) 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1830. Memoires sur les Cent Jours, (Memoirs in relation to the Hundred Days,) by Benjamin Constant, i vol. Svo, Paris, 1829. Memoirs and Souvenirs of the Comte Lavaletle, 2 vols. Svo, Paris, 1831. Lord Holland's Diplomatic Souvenirs, etc. Memoirs of the Duke of Ragusa, (Marshal Marmont,) 9 vols. Svo, Paris, 1857. Histoire generale de Napoleon Bonaparte, de sa Vie privee et pub- lique, etc., (General History of Napoleou Bonaparte, of his Private and Public Life, etc.,) by A. C. Thibaudeau, 5 vols. Svo, Paris, 1827. Le Consulat et 1' Empire, (The Consulate and the Empire,) by A. C. Thibaudeau, 8 vols. Svo, Paris, 1834-35. (This work is esj ecially complete in regard to the civil history of t rance under Napoleon.) Histoire de France sous Napoleon, etc., (History of France under Napoleon, etc.,) by Louis Pierre Edouard Bignon, 14 vols. Svo, Paris, 1829-50. (Very complete in regard to the foreign relations of P" ranee during the period referred to.) Histoire de la Republique et de P Empire, (History of the Repub- lic and of the Empire,) by F^Lix Wouter.s, i vol. 4I0, Brussels, 1849. Histoire de la Revolution Frangaise, (History of the French Revo- lution,) by Louis Adolphe Thiers, id vols. Svo, Paris, 1823-27. Histoire du Consulat et de I'Empire, (History of the Consulate and of the Empire,) by Louis Adolphe Thiers, 20 vols. Svo, Paris, 1845-62. Alison's History of Europe, from the Commencement of the French Revolution to the Battle of Waterloo, 10 vols. Svo, 1S33-42. Life of Napoleon Bonaparte, by Sir Walter Scoi t, 9 vols. Svo, London, 1S27. Histoire de Napoleon, by M. de Norvins, 4V0IS. Svo, Paris, 1827. Histoire de Napoleon, by Elias Regnault, 4 vols. i2mo, Pans, 1846. Histoire de Na]")o!eon, de sa Famille, etc., (History of Napoleon, of his Family, etc.,) by M. E. Begin, 5 vols. Svo, Paris, 1853-54. Histoire de Napoleon, by Abel Hugo, 1 vol. Svo, Paris, 1833. Histoire des deux Restauration.s, etc., (History of the Two Resto- rations, etc.,) by A. de Vaui.abeli.e, 6 vols. Svo, Paris, 1844-47. Histoire de Napoleon, by Baron Martin, (de Grey,) 3 vols. Svo, Paris. 1858. (A work of rare merit.) Histoire de la Restauration, (History of the Restoration.) by La- MARTINE, 6 vols. Svo, Paris, 1S51-53. Souvenirs contemporains d'Histoire et de Litt^rature, (Contempo- raneous Recollections of History and Literature,) by A. F. Villemain, 2 vols. Svo, Paris, 1855. Victoires et Conquetes, Desastres, Revers et Guerres civiles des Frangais de 1792 i 1815, (Victories and Conquests, Disa.sters, Re- verses, and Civil Wars of the French from 1792 to 1815,) by a Society of Military Men and Men of Letters, 27 vols. Svo, the ifirst of which was issued in 1818. Histoire de Napoleon et de la grande Armee pendant I'Annee 1812, (History of Najioleon and of the Grand Army din ing the Year 1812,) lay the Comte de Segur, i6th edition, 2 vols. Svo, Paris, 1852. Histoire de r Expedition de Russie, (History of the Campaign in Russia,) by the Marquis of Chambray, 3 vo'ls. Svo, Paris, 1838. Les derniers Jours de la grande Armee, (The Last Days of the Grand Army,) 2 vols. Svo, Paris, 1847. Memoires pour servir I'Histoire militaire sous le D'vectoire, le Consulat et I'Empire, (Memoirs towards the Military History fof France] under the Directory, the Consulate, and the Empire,) by Marshal Saint Cyr, 4 vols. Svo, Paris. 1S31. Memoires du Marechal Ney, published by his Family, 2 vols. Svo, Paris, 1833. Among the smaller publications relating to Napoleon, the reader is particularly referred to Dr. W. E. Channing's able and eloquent review of the life and character of that extraordinary man. Although very severe, it has the merit of being (unlike many of the works pub- lished in France and England) totally free from any partisan or na- tional animosity. See also the article " Napoleon Ter" in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." which contains a very complete bibliography of Napoleon's works and of those pubiicalions wliich relate to his life and history, from which the foregoing bibliographical list is principally taken. C as 9 as s; g hard; g as G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. z\) BONAPARTE 396 BOND Bonaparte, (Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul,) commonly styled Prince Napoleon, a son of Jerome, King of Westphalia, by his second wife, was born at Trieste in September, 1822. His features are said to pre- sent a very striking likeness to those of his uncle Napo- leon I. He passed his youth in various foreign countries until the Revolution of 1848, and was then permitted to enter France. He was elected to the Constituent and Legislative Assemblies, in which he voted with the dem- ocrats. In 1852 he was recognized as a French prince, and heir to the throne in case of the failure of issue of Napoleon HI. He commanded a division in the Crimean war, (1854,) and was appointed minister of Algeria and the colonies in 1858. In 1859 he married Clotilde, a daughter of Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia, and com- manded a corps in the Italian campaign against Austria. He made in 1862 two eloquent speeches, in which he ad- vocated Italian nationality, the principles of the Revolu- tion of 1789, etc., and opposed the temporal power of the pope. About the end of 1862 he visited the United States. Bonaparte, (Pauline or Marie Pauline,) Princesse Borghese, a sister of Napoleon I., born at Ajaccio in 1780. She was the most beautiful of the family, but was inferior to Elisa in talents. In 1801 she was married to General Leclerc, whom she accompanied to SaiiU Do- mingo in 1802. Having lost her first husband by death, she became the wife of Prince Camillo Borghese of Rome, in August, 1803. This prince was a man of feeble cha- racter, and soon separated from her. She was prodigal and voluptuous, but is praised for generosity to the poor. Canova made a statue of her, which is said to resemble the Venus of Praxiteles. She died at Florence in 1825. Bonaparte, (Pierre Napoleon,) the third son of Lu- cien, was born at Rome in 1815. After many adventures in America, Italy, and Greece, he became in 1848 a re- publican member of the French Constituent Assembly. After the cojip d'etat oi 1851 he retired to private life, Bon'ar, (Horatius,) D.D., a sacred lyric poet of great merit, born in Edinburgh in 1808, published in 1856 " Hymns of Faith and Hope," and a second series of the same in 1861. See Cleveland, "Literature of the 19th Century," newed., 1S66. Bonarelli della Rovere, bo-nl-rel'lee del'ld ro-va'ri, (Guidubaldo, gwe-doo-baKdo,) an Italian poet and litte- rateur, born at Urbino in 1563, was the author of " Filli di Sciro," (1607,) a pastoral, which obtained great suc- cess and was translated into French, English, German, and Spanish. Died in 1608. See F. RoNCONi, "Vie de G. Bonarelli della Rovere." Bonarelli della Rovere, (Pietro,) an Italian dra- matist, son of Prospero, noticed below, lived about 1650. Bonarelli della Rovere, (Prospero,) an Italian poet and dramatist, brother of Guidubaldo, noticed above, born about 1588; died in 1659. Bonasoni, bo-ni-so'nee, or Bonasone, bo-n3.-so'ni, (GiULio,) an Italian painter and engraver, born at Bo- logna, lived about 1540-72. He is supposed to have been a pupil of Sabbatini. His engravings after Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Titian possess great merit. See George Cumberland, "Some Anecdotes of the Life of J. Bonasoni," 1793. Bonassieux, bo'nt^se-uh', (Jean Marie,) a French sculptor, was born at La I^issiere in 1810. He obtained medals of the first class in 1844 and 1855. Bonati, bo-ni'tee, (Giovanni,) an Italian historical painter of high reputation, born at Ferrara about 1635. He worked in Rome. Died in i68r. Bonati, Bonato, bo-ni'to, or Bonatti, (Guido,) an Italian astrologer, born at Florence; died in 1596, See BoNCOMPAGNi, "Della Vi a, etc. di Guido Bonati," 1851. Bonati, (Teodoro Massimo,) an Italian mathema- tician, physician, and scientific writer, born near Ferrara in 1724. He became professor of mechanics and hy- draulics at Ferrara, Died in 1820. Bonaventura, bo-ni-v^n-too^rS, (FederiCxO,) an Ital- ian srientific vriter, born at Anconain 1555 ; died in 1602. Bonaventura, Saint, [Fr. Bonavenpure, bo'nS'- vfiN^tiiR',] (Giovanni diFidenza — de fe-d^n'z.^,) an emi- nent scholastic theologian, born at Bagnarea, in Italy, in 1221, was styled " the Seraphic Doctor." He became suc- cessively professor of theology in Paris, (1253,) general of the order of Franciscans, Bishop of Albano, (1273,) and cardinal, (1274.) Among his principal writings are a " Life of Saint Francis," (in Latin,) and a work entitled "Progress of the Mind towards God," (" Itinerarium Mentis in Deum.") He is regarded by the Franciscans as the greatest scholiast of their order ; and Dante has given him a place in his " Paradiso." Died in 1274. He was canonized in 1482 by Sixtus IV. See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis;" J. C. Boule, " Histoire de la Vie de Saint-Bonaventure," 174;; Ignaz A. Fesslkr, " Bona- ventura's mystische Nachte oder Leben and Meinungen desselben,' 1S07. Bonaventure de Saint- Amable, bo'nt'vfiN'tiiR' deh siNt't'mtb'l', a French Carmelite monk, wrote a "Life of Saint Martial," (1685.) Bonavino. See Franchi. Boncenne, b6N''s§n', (Pierre,) a French jurist, born at Poitiers in 1775, published "The Theory of Civil Pro- cedure," (4 vols., 1828.) Died in 1840. Boncerf, b6N'sgRF, (Clal'DE Joseph,) a French lit- terateur^ born in Franche-Comte in 1724; died in 181 1. Boncerf, (Pierre Francois,) a French publicist and economist, born in Franche-Comte about 1745. He wrote, besides other works, an argument against feudal privileges, (1776,) which attracted much attention and was translated into many languages. Died in 1794. Bonchamp, de, deh biN'shdN', (Charles Melchior Artus,) a French royalist general, born in the province of Anjou in 1759. He distinguished himself in the Ven- dean war, and was mortally wounded at Chollet in 1793. By his dying words he saved the lives of five thousand prisoners whom his soldiers were about to massacre. See Chauveau et Dussieux, "Vie de Bonchamp," 1817. Bonoiario, bon-chi're-o, (Marcantonio,) an Italian writer, born near Perugia in 1555; died in 1616. Bonoompagni, b6n-kom-pIn'yee, (Baldassare,) one of the most eminent Italian literati of the present age, born at Rome in 1821, inherited a large fortune. He is a liberal patron of leariting, and has published a number of biographies and other works. Boncore, bon-ko'ra, (Tommaso,) an Italian physician and jurist, lived about 1620. Boncuore, bon-koo o'ra, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian historical painter, born about 1645 ; died in 1699. Bond, (George Phillips,) an American astronomer, son of William Cranch Bond, was born at Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1825. He graduated at Harvard Col- lege about 1845, ^'^^ aided his father in the observatory at Cambridge. He acquired a high reputation as an observer, and wrote several astronomical works, among which are a "Treatise on the Construction of the Rings of Saturn," and "Elements of the Orbits of Hyperion and the Satellite of Neptune," Died in 1865. Bond, (John,) an English scholar, born in Somer- setshire in 1559, wrote commentaries on Horace and Persius. Died in 16 12. See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." Bond, (Oliver,) an Irish revolutionist, born in 1720, was associated with Wolfe Tone and others in the rebel- lion of 1797. He was arrested in 1798, and was soon after found dead in his prison. Bond, (Thomas,) an American physician, born in Maryland in 17 12. He practised in Philadelphia with distinction, and delivered the first clinical lectures in the Pennsylvania Hospital. He was associated with Frank- lin, Bartram, and others in a literary society. P"ed n 1784. See Thacher, "Medical Biography." Bond, (Thomas Emerson,) an American physician and Methodist minister, born in Baltimore in 1782. He practised medicine in his native city, and obtained a chair in the Medical College of Maryland. He was for many years a local preacher among the Methodists, and ac- quired distinction as a defender of Episcopal Methodism during the controversy which resulted in the organization of the Methodist Protestant Church. He edited "The Christian Advocate and Journal" for many years. Died in 1856. Bond, (William Cranch,) an American astronomer, born at Portland, Maine, in 1789 or 1790. He was a a»e, T, 6, u, y, long; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, vi, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; m§t; nfit; good; moon; BONDJM 397 BONICHON watchmaker in early life. In 1838 he was appointed by the government to make observations in connection with the exploring expedition sent to the South Sea. He be- came director of the observatory of Harvard University about 1840. He gained distinction by his observations on Saturn and the fixed stars, and by his operations in celestial photography. Died in 1859. He and his son discovered a satellite of Neptune and the eighth satellite of Saturn. Bondam, bon'dim, (Pieter,) a Dutch jurist, and pro- fessor of law at Utrecht, born at Campen in 1727; died in 1800. Bonde, bon'dlh, (Gustaf,) Count, a Swedish savant, born at Stockholm in 1682, became chancellor of the University of Upsal. He died in 1 764, leaving " Memoirs of Sweden in the Reign of Frederick I.," (in manuscript.) See D. TiLAS. "Aminnelse-Tal ofver G. Bonde," 1766, Bondi, bon'dee, (Clemknte,) an Italian poet and Jesuit, born in the duchy of Parma in 1742, became pro- fessor of history and literature at Vienna in 1815. He translated into Italian verse Virgil's "^^ineid," " Geor- gics," and " Bucolics." His version of the "/Eneid" is considered one of the best in the Italian language. He also translated Ovid's "Metamorphoses." Among his original works are odes, epigrams, idyls, satires, and didactic poems. His style is commended as noble, sim- ple, and refined. Died in Vienna in 1821. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Itaiiani illustri ;" A. Pezzana, " In- tomo a C. Bondi, Epistola," 1821. Bondioli, bon-de-o'lee, (Pietro Antonio,) a distin- guished physician and medical writer, born in Corfu in 1765, became professor of materia medica at Bologna, (1803.) Died in 1808. See Mario Pieki, " Elogio di P. A. Bondioli," 1810. Bondt, bont, (Nikolaas,) a Dutch scholar, born at Voorburg in 1732, wrote a "History of the Confedera- tion of the United Provinces," (1756,) and other works. Died in 1792. Bondy, de, deh boN'de', (Pierre Marie Taille- pied — X.^Y\)qA' or tS ye-pe-a',) Com i e, born in Paris in 1766, became chamberlain to the emperor Napoleon in 1805. He was afterwards created count of the empire and member of the state council, and m 1816 was elected to the Chamber of Deputies. Died in 1847. Bone, (Henry,) a celebrated English enamel-painter, born at Truro, in Cornwall, in 1755. He became an academician in 181 1, and was appointed enamel-painter successively to George III., George IV., and William IV. Among his master-pieces may be named " Bacchus and Ariadne," after Titian ; a " Virgin," after Raphael ; and a collection of eighty-five portraits of eminent persons in the reign of Elizabeth. Died in 1834. Bonefbns. See Bonnefons. Bonelli, bo-neKlee, (BENEDErro,) an Italian theolo- gian, born near Trent in 1704. Bonelli, (Francesco Andrea,) a naturalist and scien- tific writer, l)orn in Piedmont in 1784, became professor of natural history at Turin in 1809. Died in Turin in 1830. £ee TipALDo, " Biografia degli Itaiiani illnstri." Bonelli, (Giorgio,) an Italian physician and botanist, whose principal work, the " Roman Garden," (" Hortus Ronianus," 8 vols, fol., 1772,) has 800 coloured plates. Boner, bo'ner, [Lat. Bone'rius,] (Ulrich,) a German fabulist, who lived in the fourteenth century and wrote a collection of a hundred fables, entitled "The Jewel," ("Der Edelstein," 1461.) Sie Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Bonet, bo-net', (Juan Pablo,) a Spanish philanthro- pist, who lived about 1 590-1630, published a work on the instruction of deaf-mutes, (Madrid, 1620.) Bonet, (Th^ofhile.) See Bonnet. Bonet de Lates, lio'ni' deh iSt, a French physician and astrologer, of Jewish extraction, born about 1480. Bonfadio, bon-fi'de-o, (Jacopo,) born near Salo, be- came professor of philosophy at Genoa in 1545. He wrote a history of the republic of Genoa, (" Annalium Genuentium," 1528 to 1550,) which was translated into Italian. He was executed in 1550, on a charge of having libelled several distinguished persons in his history. He left poems, which are highly commended. See Mazzuchelli, "Vita di J. Bonfadio," 1746. Bonfante, bon-fSn'ti, (Angelo Matteo,) an Italian poet and naturalist, born at Palermo; died in 1676. Boniiglio, bon-fel'yo, or Buonfigli, boo-on -ffeKyee, (Benedetto,) an able Italian painter, born at Perugia about 1420, is said to have been the master of Perugino. Died about 1500. Bonfini,bon-fee'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian litterateur, born at Ascoli in 1427. He was patronized by Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, at whose request he wrote a "History of Hungary," in Latin. Died in 1502. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Vossius, "De Historicis Latinis. " Bonfos, b^N^fos', (Man ahem,) a learned Jew of Per- pignan, in France, published a book of definitions in He- brew, (1567,) explaining scientific and technical terms. Bonfrere, boNTRaiR', [Lat. Bonfre'rius,] (Jacques,) a Flemish Jesuit and Hebrew scholar, born at Dinant in 1573, was professor of theology and Hebrew at Douai. He wrote valuable commentaries, in Latin, on the Pen- tateuch and other books of the Scriptures. Died in 1643. See SwEERT, "Athense Belgicae." Bongars, b6N'gtR', (Jacques,) a learned French Cal- vinist, born at Orleans in 1546, was employed by Henry IV. in several important negotiations. He wrote "Epis- tles," and other works, in Latin, which are admired for the elegance of their style. Died in 1612. See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." Bongars, de, deh boN'gtR', (Jean Francois Marie,) Baron, born in the department of Lower Seine in 1758, served in several campaigns of the Revolution, and was appointed general of division in 1812. He translated into French the " Military Institutes" of Vegetius, ( 1 772.) Died about 1820. Bongarten, bon'gaR^ten, (Anichius,) a German sol- dier of fortune, lived about 1380, and served under sev- eral Italian princes. See SiSMONui, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Bongiovanni, bon-jo-vSn'nee, [Lat. Bonjohan'nes,] (Antonio,) an Italian scholar, born near Verona in 1712, published editions of several classics, and in conjunction with Zanetti, librarian of Saint Mark at Venice, com- pleted a catalogue of the manuscripts in that library. Bongo, bon'go, [Lat Bun'gus,] sometimes written Bonges, (Pietro,) an Italian ecclesiastic and scholar, born at Bergamo; died in 160L BonTiam, (Milledge L.,) an American general, born in South Carolina about 1 81 5, was a member of Con- gress from 1856 to i860. At the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861, he commanded a brigade under Beauregard. He was elected Governor of South Carolina in January, 1863. Bonheur, bo'nUR', (Auguste,) brother of Rosa Bon- heur, born at Bordeaux in 1824. He has painted land- scapes, portraits, etc. Bonheur, (Isidore,) a French sculptor, brother of the preceding, born at Bordeaux in 1827. Among his favourite subjects are horses and cattle. Bonheur, (Rosa,) a celebrated French painter of ani- mals, born at Bordeaux in 1822, was instructed in draw- ing by her father, an artist of talent. Her principal studies, however, were from living models, which she represented with admirable skill and fidelity. Having previously executed several pieces of great merit, she exhibited in 1850 "The Nivernais Ploughing," (" La- bourage Nivernais,") which is esteemed her master- piece and has obtained a place in the gallery of the Lux- embourg. Among her other works may be named "The Horse-Fair," "The Three Musketeers," and "Cows and Sheep in a Hollow Road." Boni, bo'nee, (Giacomo Antonio,) an Italian fresco- painter, born at Bologna in 1688; died in 1766. Boni, (Mauro,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Genoa in 1746, published a number of treatises on antiquities and bibliography. Died in 181 7. Boni, (Onofrio,) an Italian architect and antiquary, born in 1743. He wrote several antiquarian treatises, and a "Eulogy" on his friend Lanzi. Died in 1818. Bonichi, bo-nee'kee, (Bindo,) an Italian poet, born at Sienna ; died in 1337. Bonichon, bo'ne'shoN', (Franqois,) a French eccle- siastic, wrote " Pompa Episcopalis." Died in 1662. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Yi^giUtural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jt^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) BONIFACE 398 BONNJRD Boniface, bon'e-fass, [Fr. pron. bo''ne'ftss' ; Lat. Bo- NitVciLTs; It. BoNiKAZiu, bo-ne-tlt'se-o,] I., Pope, suc- ceeded Zozimus as Bishop of Rome in 419 a.d. His claims were opposed by a party in favour of Eulalius ; bi't the emperor Honorius decided in favour of Boniface. He was a patron of learning, and Saint Augustine dedi- cated to him some of his works. He died in 422, and was succeeded by Celestinus I. See Baronius, "Annales." Boniface II., born at Rome, succeeded Felix IV. in 530 ; died in 532. Boniface ill., born at Rome, was elected pope in 607, and died the same year. He obtained from the emperor Phocas permission for the pope to be entitled universal bishop. Boniface IV., a native of Valeria, in Italy, succeeded Boniface HI. in 608. He dedicated the Pantheon to the Virgin and saints, having first removed the heathen images. Died in 615. Boniface V., a native of Naples, succeeded Deus- dedit in 619. He was noted for his efforts to convert the Britons to Christianity. He died in 624, and was succeeded by Honorius I. Boniface VI., born at Rome, was the successor of Formosus in 895, and survived his election but fifteen days. He was succeeded by Stephen VII. Boniface VII., the anti-pope, (Cardinal Francone, fRin-ko'ni,) was elected in 974, during the rule of Bene- dict VI., who was soon after put to death. Though driven from Rome the following year, he returned in 985, and imprisoned Pope John XIV., who is said to have been starved to death. He died in 985, and was Bucceeded by John XV, See Platina, "Vitae Pontificum." Boniface VIII., (Cardinal Benedetto Gaetani — gi-a-td'nee,) born at Anagni about 1228, succeeded Ce- lestine V. in 1294. The Colonna family having disputed his election, he excommunicated them and all their ad- herents, and destroyed their city of Praeneste, with a number of their castles. He was subsequently involved in a contest with Philip the Fair of France, whom he excommunicated. Philip, in return, charged him with heresy and other crimes, and had him arrested and im- prisoned at Anagni. He was rescued after a few days by his followers, but died soon after, in 1303. Dante, in his "Inferno," mentions Boniface as one of the simon- ists, and dwells on his persecution of the Ghibelines. (See "Inferno," canto xxvii.) See RuBEis, "De Vita et Rebus gestis Bonifacii VIII.," 1651 ; WiLHELM Drumann, " Gcscliichte des Papstes Bonifacius VIII.," 2 vols., 1852; LuiGi TosTi, "Storiadi Bonilazio VIII.," 1S47. Boniface IX., (Cardinal Pie tro Tomacelli — to-mi- chel'lee) a Neapolitan, succeeded Urban VI. in 1389. He had a competitor in Benedict XIII., the anti-pope, who held his court at Avignon. Boniface died in 1404, and was succeeded by Innocent VII. Boniface, [Lat. Bonifa'cius,] a Roman general, born in Thrace, gained the confidence of the empress Placidia, who began to exercise royal power in 424 A.D, By insid- ious arts Aetius induced her to recall him from Africa, where he had the chief command. Boniface then re- volted, and, contrary to the advice of his friend Saint Augustine, invited Genseric the Vandal to invade Africa. Having returned to the service of Placidia, he came to Italy, and was killed in a battle against Aetius in 432 A.D. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Boniface, bo'neTtss', (Hyacinthe,) a French jurist, born at Forcalquier in 1612; died in 1695. Boniface, [Lat. Bonifa'cius,] (Win'frid,) Saint, born in Devonshire, England, about 680, was styled "the Apostle of Germany," and distinguished himself by his zeal in converting the Germans to Christianity. He re- sided among them more than thirty years, and founded numerous cathedrals, schools, and monasteries. In 732 he was appointed by Gregory III. Archbishop and Pri- mate of Germany, and subsequently created Archbishop of Mentz by Pej^in le Bref, whom he consecrated King of the Franks in 752. He was assassinated in 755, with a number of his companions, by an armed troop of pagans. See Wii.LiBAi.D, "Life of Saint Boniface;" Gkorge W. Cox, "Life of Saint Boniface," 1853; J. C. Seiters, "Bonifacius der Apostel der Deutschen." Bonifacio, bo-ne-f?/cho, (Baldassare,) nephew of Giovanni, noticed below, born at Crema about 1586, be- came Bishop of Capo d'Istria in 1653. published poems and treatises on various subjects, in Latin and Italian. Died in 1659. Bonifacio, (Giovanni,) an Italian jurist and writer, born at Rovigo in 1547, wrote a "History of Treviso," (" Storia Trivigiano.") Died in 1635. Bonifacius. See Boniface. Bonifazio, See Boniface. Bonifazio, bo-ne-flt'se-o, or Bonifacio, bo-ne-fl'- cho, (called IL Veneziano, ^1 vi-net-se-S'no ; i.e. "the Venetian,") a skilful painter of Verona, born about 1490, is supposed to have been a pupil of Titian, Among his principal works, which are to be seen at Venice and Rome, is "The Traffickers driven from the Temple," Died in 1553, See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. Bonifazio, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Viterbo in 1637, was a pupil of Pietro da Cortona. Bonilla, de, da bo-neKyS, (Alonso,) a Spanish poet, born at Baeza, in Andalusia, about 1580. See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Benin, von, fon bo-neen', (Eduarb,) a Prussian gen- eral, born at Stolpe in 1793. He commanded the army which fought against the Danes in Sleswick-Holstein in 1848 and 1849. Bon'ing-ton, (Rich\rd Parkes,) an English painter of landscapes and coast-scenery, born near Nottingham in 1801. He studied in Paris under Baron Gros, and subsequently visited Italy. Among his master-pieces are "Views of Venice and Bologna;" "The Tomb of Saint Omer ;" and "The Turk in Repose." Died in 1828. Bonini, bo-nee'nee, (Girolamo,) an Italian painter, born at Ancona; died about 1680. Bonisoli, bo-ne-so'lee, or Bonizoli, bo-n^d-zo'lee,( (Agostino,) an Italian historical painter, born at Cre- mona in 1633 ; died in 1700. Bonito, bo-nee'to, (Giuseppe,) a Neapolitan portrait- painter, born in 1705 ; died at Naples in 1789. Bonjean, b6N''zh6N', (Louis Bernard,) a French jurist and legal writer, born at Valence, in Drome, in 1804. He was appointed a senator in 1855. Bonjour, b6N'zhooR', two brothers, noted as the founders of a new sect of Flagellants, lived about 1780. Bonjour, (Casimir,) a French litterateiiy-, born at Clermont in 1795, published "The Rival Mother," "The Two Cousins," and other popular comedies. Bonjour, (Francois Joseph,) a French chemist, born near Salins in 1754, was a pupil and assistant of Ber- thollet. He published a translation of Bergman's "Chem- ical Affinities," (1788.) Died in 1811. Bonjour, written also Bonjours, (Gutllaume,) a French Augustine monk, born at Toulouse in 1670, went as a missionary to China, where he died in 1714. Bon, Le, See Le Bon, Bonn, bon, (Andreas,) a Dutch surgeon and medical writer, born at Amsterdam in 1738. He was a member of the Academy of Brussels, Died in 1819. Bonnaire, bo^n^R', (Jean Gerard,) a French gen- eral, born in 1 771, was condemned to exile on a charge of being concerned in the attack on Colonel Gordon at Conde in 1816. He died the same year. Bonnaire, de, deh bo'nSR', (Louis,) a French eccle- siastic and moralist, born about 1680 ; died in 1752. Bonnal, (FRANgois.) See Bonal. Bonnard, bo^iSR', (Charles Louis,) a French ma h- ematician and engineer, born at Arnay-le-Duc in 17O9; died in 1828. Bonnard, (Ennemond,) a French general of division, born in Dauphiny in 1756, served in the Revolutionary campaigns from 1793 to 1798. Died in 1819. Bonnard, (Jacques Charles,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1765, was a pupil of Renard, whom he aided in restoring the palace of the Tuileries. Died in 1818. Bonnard, (Jean Louis,) a French missionary to China, born in 1824. He arrived in China in 1850, and was put to death by order of the government in 1852. Bonnard, de, deh bo'nSR', (Bernard,) a French poet, born at Semur-en-Auxois in 1744; died in 1784. a, e, i, o, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/ior^; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, f&t; m§t; n6t; good; moon; BONNARD 399 BONNEVAL Bonuard, de, (Robert Alexandre,) a French geol- ogist, son of the preceding, born in Paris in 1781. He was a member of the Institute, and wrote on geognosy and metallurgy. Died in 1857. Bonna-Storza, bon'ni sfoRt'sd, daughter of Galeazzo Sforza, Duke of Milan, was married in 1518 to Sigismund I., King of Poland. Died in 1557. Boniiaterre, bo^it'taiR', (J. P.,) a French naturalist, born in Rouergue about 1750, was one of the founders of the " Encyclopedie Methodique." He published in this work his " Picture of the Three Kingdoms of Na- ture," being a continuation of the natural history of Daubenton, in the same work. Died in 1804. See QuEKARD, "La France Liueraire." Bonnaud, bo'no', (Jacques Philippe,) a French general of division, born in 1757. He served under Pichegru and Hoche, and was mortally wounded at Gies- sen in 1797. Bonnaud, (Jean Baptiste,) a Jesuit, of French ex- traction, born in America in 1740, was educated in Paris. He wrote several political works, which offended the Jacobins, by whose orders he was executed in 1792. Bonnay, de, deh bo''ni', (Francois,) Marquis, a French statesman and diplomatist, born in 1750, was elected president of the National Assembly in 1789, and sent in 1814 on a mission to Copenhagen. Died in 1825. Bonne, bon, (Rigohert,) a French hydrographer and engineer, born in 1727. He published a "Picture of France," (in 27 maps,) and " Neptune Anierico-septen- trional," (in 18 maps.) Died in 1794. See QuEUARD, "La France Litt^raire." Bonneau, bo'nS', (Jean Ives Alexandre,) French consul to Poland, born at Montpellier in 1739. He was arrested and imprisoned by Catherine II. for having opposed the dismemberment of Poland. He died in 1805, soon after his release. Bonne-Carrere, de, deh bon'kt'raiR', (Guili.aume,) a French revolutionist, born at Muret, in Languedoc, in 1754, was employed by the Directory in several important ne,u,t)tiations. Died in 1825. Bonnechose, de, deh bon'shoz', (Francois Paul Emile Boisnormand — bw^'noR^mfiN',) a distinguished dramatist and historian, born at Leyderdorp, in Holland, in 1801. His "History of France'" (Paris, 1834) enjoys a high reputiition : he has also published a "History of the Four Conquests of England," and a popular tragedy entitled " Rosamond." Bonnechose, de, (Henri Marie Gaston,) born in Paris in 1800, became Bishop of Carcassonne in 1847. Bonnechose, de, (Louis Charles Boisnormand,) brother of Fran9ois Paul, noticed above, born at Nym- wegen in 1812, was one of the pages of Churles X. He was mortally wounded soon after the battle of La Penis- siere, in 1832. Bonnecorse, de, deh bon'koRss', (Balthasar,) a French poet, born at Marseilles, wrote a collection of madrigals entitled "The Watch of Love," (" La Montre d'Amour.") Died in 1706. Bonnefoi, bon'fwl', (Ennemond,) [Lat. Enimun'dus Bonefid'ius,] a French jurist, born at Chabeuil in 1536, became professor of law at Geneva. He published a valuable work on Oriental jurisprudence. He was a friend of Cujacius, and numbered De Thou among his pupils. Died in 1574. Bonnefoi, (Jean Baptiste,) a French surgeon, born in 1756, published a treatise "On the Application of Electricity to the Art of Healing." Died in 1790. Bonnefon.s, bon'f^N', (Amable,) a French writer of devotional works, born at Riom in i6co; died in Paris in 1653. Bonnefons, (Elie BENofr,) a French Benedictine monk, born at Mauriac in 1622 ; died in 1702. Bonnefons, written also Bonefons, (Jean,) a French jurist and Uttcratetir, born at Clermont-en-Auvergne in ^554) wrote amatory poems in Latin, which are com- mended by Menage. Died in 1614. _ Bonnegarde,bon'gtRd', a French compiler, who pub- lished a "Historical and Critical Dictionary," (1771.) Bonnelier, bonle-^', (Hippolytk,) a contemporary French litterateur, has published a number of tales and other works. Bon'n^ll or Bon'nel, (James,) son of an English merchant at Genoa, born in 1653, published "Medita- tions and Prayers." Died in 1699. Bon'ner, (Edmund,) an English prelate, infamous for his persecutions, born in Worcestershire about 1490. He was patronized by Henry VIII., who made him his chap- lain, employed him in several important negotiations, and in 1540 promoted him to the see of London. Having on the accession of Edward VI. refused to take the oath of supremacy, Bonner was deprived of his bishopric and imprisoned. After the death of Edward he was rein- stated in his office by Mary, and took an active part in the persecution which has made her reign infamous. The number of those who suffered martyrdom through his agency is estimated at more than a hundred. On the accession of Elizabeth, Bonner was the only one of the Catholic bishops whom she would not permit to kiss her hand. The queen appears to have fully sympathized with the feeling of the people, among whom he was known as " Bloody Bonner." Bonner's brutality and cruelty contributed greatly to promote the Protestant cause. A published letter, addressed to him by a lady of that time, contains the following passages: "The very papists themselves begin now to abhor your blood- thirstiness and speak shame of your tyranny. . . . You have lost the hearts of twenty thousand that were rank papists within this tw^elvemonth." He was imprisoned for life in the Marshalsea for refusing to take the oath of supremacy. Died in 1569. See Fkoude's "History of England," vol. vi. chap, xxxiii., and vol. vii. chap. i. ; Hume's "History of England;" Foxe's "Book of Martyrs;" "Life and Defence of Bonner, Bishop of London.' Bonnet, bo'n^', (Auguste Bernard,) a French med- ical writer, born at Miramont about 1790, resided at Bordeaux. Bonnet, bo'nk', (Charles,) an eminent naturalist and philosopher, born at Geneva in March, 1720. He pub- lished in 1745 his "Treatise on Insectology," in which he gives the result of his important discoveries on the modes of reproduction and animal functions of butter- flies, caterpillars, etc. His treatise "On the Use of Leaves in Plants" came out in 1754. It is commended by Cuvier as one of the best works extant on vegetable physiology. Having impaired his sight by the use of the microscope, he turned his attention to philosophy, and published in 1762 " Considerations on Organized Bodies." This was followed by his "Contemplation of Nature," (1764,) " Philosoj^hical Palingenesis," (1769,) and "Phi- losophical Researches on the Evidences of Christianity," (1770.) The genus ]»onnetia was named in his honour by Wahl. Died at Geneva in 1793. See H. B. de Saussure, " iSloge historique de C. Bonnet," 17S7; J. I'rembley, "Memoire de la Vie et des Oiivrages de C. Bonnet," 1794; Alrrkt Lemoine, "C Bonnet de Geneve, Philosophe et Naturaliste," 1850; article " Bonnet," in "Biographic Universelle," (by CuviER.) Bonnet, (Jacques,) a French writer on music, born in 1644. He published a " History of Music and its Effects," (171 5.) Died in 1724. Bonnet or Bonet, bo'ncV, (Jean,) a skilful Swiss physician, brother of Theophile, noticed below, born at Geneva in 161 5 ; died in 1688. Bonnet, (Pierre,) physician to the Duchess of Bur- gundy, brother of Jacques, noticed above, born in Paris in 1638 ; died in 1708. Bonnet, (Simon,) a French theologian, born at Puy- en-Velay about 1653, expended some years on a work called "Biblia maxima Patrum." Died in 1705. Bonnet, written also Bonet, (Th^ophilk,) a cele- brated physician, born at Geneva in 1620. His princi- pal works are entitled " Sepulchretimi sen Anatomia Practica," and " Labyrinthus Medicus extricatus," (1679.) Died in 1689. See NiCERON, " Memoires." Bonnetty, bo'ni^te', (Augustin,) a French theolo- gian and Orientalist, born in the department of Lower Alps in 1798. He founded in 1830 a religious journal, entitled "Annales de Philosophic chretienne." Bonneval, de, deh bon^vtK, (Claude Alexandre,) Comte, a French adventurer, born in I>imousin in 1675, served in the Austrian army under Prince Eugene. He subsequently went over to the Turks, and became an 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, y., guttural ; N, 7tasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^="See Explanations, p. 23.) BONNErjL 400 BONTEKOE officer in their army, under the name of Ahmed (Ach- met) Pacha. Died in 1747. See "Meiuoiie sur le Conite de Bonneval," by the Prince de LiGNE, 181 7; David Kassmann, " Leben des Grafen von Honneval," 1740; "Memoirs of the Bagshaw Count Bonneval," London, 1750. Bonneval, de, (Michel,) a native of Mans, was the author of a number of operas and ballets. Died in 1766. Bonneval, de, (Ren^,) a French critic and contro- versialist, born at Mans; died in 1760. Bonneval, de, (Sixte Louis Constant Ruffo,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Aix in 1742, was a deputy from the clergy of Paris to the States-General in 1789. Died in 1820. Bonneville, bon'vil, (Benjamin L. E.,) an officer and traveller, born in France, graduated at West Point, United States, about 181 5. He served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and obtained the rank of lieutenant-colo- nel. He jjublished a "Journal of an Expedition to the Rocky Mountains." In 1837 Irving published a work entitled "Adventures of Captain Bonneville." Bonneville, de, deh bon'veK, (C.,) a French en- gineer and military writer, born at Lyons about 1710; died about 1780. Bonneville, de, (Nicolas,) a French journalist and litterateur, born at Evreux in 1760, was imprisoned as a Girondist in Paris in 1793-94. He wrote a " History of Modern Europe," (3 vols., 1792,) and other works. Died in 1828. Bonnier, ho'ne-Y, (TtnouARD,) a French jurist, born at Lille in 1808, was the author of several legal works. Bonnier d'Alco, bo'ne-i' diKko', (Ange Iilisa- BETH Louis ANroiNE,) a uiember of the French Na- tional Convention, born at Montjjellier in 1750, voted for the death of the king. He was killed by some Aus- trian hussars while returning from an einbassy to Ras- tadt in 1799. Bonnieres, de, deh bo'ne-aiR', (Alexandre Jules Benoit,) a French jurist, bonT at Grancy in 1750. He favoured the royalists, and became a member of the Council of Five Hundred in 1795. Died in 1801. Bonnivard, de, deh bo'neVtR', (Francois,) born at Seyssel, in the clepartment of Ain, in 1496. Having adopted republican opinions, he took sides with the Genevese against Duke Charles IH. of Savoy; but he had the misfortune in 1530 to fall into the power of the latter, who confined him six years in the castle of Chil- lon. Bonnivard is the hero of Byron's "Prisoner of Chillon." Pie wrote a "Chronicle of Geneva," and be- queathed to that city his library and other possessions. He was a man of noble character, and a friend of the Reformation. Died in 1570. See Byron, notes to the "Prisoner of Chillon." Bonnivet, de, deh bo'ne^v^', (Guillaume Gouf- fier — goo'fe-i',) Seigneur, a French admiral, born about 1488, was a~1avourite of Francis L, who sent him on embassies to England and Germany. It was by the ad- vice of Bonnivet that Francis I. fought the disastrous battle of Pavia, (1525;) and the admiral, unwilling to survive a defeat of which he was the principal cause, sought and found death in the thickest of the fight. See Brantome, "Vie de Bonnivet;" "Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." Bonnycastle, bon'e-kas^sel, (John,) an eminent Eng- lish mathematician, born in Buckinghamshire, became professor at the Royal Military Academy of Woolwich. His " Introduction to Mensuration," (1782,) " Elements of Geometry," (1789,) "Treatise on Trigonometry," (1806,) and "Elements of Algebra," (1813,) are esteemed standard works. Died in 1821. Bono, bo'no, (Giambattista Agostino,) an Italian jurist, born near Saluzzo in 1738, became in 1768 pro- fessor of canon law at Turin. Died in 1799. Bonomi.bo-no'mee, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Ital- ian, born at Cremona in 1536, was patronized by the car- dinal Carlo Borromeo, who made him Bishop of Vercelli in 1572. He wrote, in Latin, "The Life and Death of Carlo Borromeo," and other works. Died in 1587. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." Bonomi, (Giovanni Francesco,) born at Bologna in 1626, published a number of poems in Latin and Italian. Bonomi, (Giuseppe.) an Italian architect, born at Rome in 1739, resided mostly in England. He became an associate of the Royal Academy, Among his principal works are the Duke of Argyll's mansion at Roseneath, and Eastvvell House in Kent. Died in 1808. Bo-no'mi, (Joseph,) an antiquary, born in London about 1796, was a son of the preceding. He published "Nineveh and its Palaces," the "Discoveries of Botta and l>ayard applied to the Elucidation of Holy Writ," (1852,) and other works. Bononcini, bo-non-chee'nee, (Giovanni Baitista,) a famous musical composer, born at Modena about 1670, was a son of Giovanni Maria, noticed below. He had composed several operas, when in 1716 the Royal Acad- emy of Music engaged him to go to London. There he became the rival of Handel, and produced a number of operas, among which were " Erminia" and " Astyanax." The Tories were the partisans of Handel, and the W'higs patronized Bononcini. He quitted England about 1733. Died after 1748. Bononcini, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian cotnposer, born at Modena about 1640, was the author of a work entitled " The Practical Musician." His sons Antonio and Giovanni were noted as musicians, Bonone, bo-no'n^, (Carlo,) an Italian painter, born at Ferrara in 1569. His best works are the frescos in the church of Campo Santo at Ferrara, and of Santa Maria in Vado, which are highly commended. As a pupil and imitator of the Carracci, Bonone is sometimes called "the Carracci of Ferrara." Died in 1632. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Bonour.g, de, deh bo^nooR^, (Christophe,) a French officer in the Spanish service, born at Vesoul about 1590, published "The Memorable Siege of Ostend." Bonpland, bdN'plSN', (Aim^;,) an eminent French naturalist and traveller, born at La Rochelle .in 1773. He studied medicine under Corvisart, in Paris, where he formed an intimate friendship with Himiboldt, and in 1799 accompanied him on a scientific tour to South America. They published, after their return, "Travels in the Equinoctial Regions of the New Continent," (12 vols., 1815 et seq.) Bonpland presented to the Museum of Natural History his large and valuable collection of dried plants, (6000 new species,) and was appointed by the empress Josephine superintendent of her gardens at Malmaison. In 1816 he sailed for Buenos Ayres, where he became professor of natural history. At the end of five years he set out on a journey to the Andes, but in passing through Paraguay was captured by the troops of the dictator Francia, After a residence of nearly ten years under strict surveillance, he was released in 1831. He afterwards resided in Uruguay, and died in 1858. Among his other productions we may name his " Nova Genera et Species Plantarum," (7 vols, fob, with 700 plates, 1815,) a magnificent work, in which he was assisted by Kunth, a "Monograph of the Melastomeae," (2 vols., 120 plates,) and " Equinoctial Plants collected in Mexico, Cuba, etc.," (2 vols, fob, 140 plates.) See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Bonsi, bon'see, (Francesco,) Count, an Italian writer on veterinary medicine, born at Rimini about 1720. Bonsi, (Lelio,) an \\.^\\zn litterateiir, hon-\ at Florence about 1552. Bonstetten, de, deh bon'st^t'ten, written also Bon- stettin, (Charles Victor,) a Swiss philosopher, born at Berne in 1745. He was a friend of Voltaire, Rousseau, and the historian MUller. Among his principal works are "Researches on the Nature and Laws of Imagina- tion," (1807,) "Studies on Man," (in French, 1821,) an essay on "National Education," and other treatises, in German. Died at Geneva in 1832. See " Souvenirs de Bonstetten," 1832: and his "Autobiography," contained in a collection of his letters, published by H. Fi;essli in 1827 ; (two other volumes of his " Letters" were published in 1829 ;) Ersch und Gruber, " Ailgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" " Edinburg.h Review" for April, 1864. Bontekoe, bon'teh-koo^ (Kornelts,) a Dutch phy- sician and medical writer, born at Alkmaar in 1648 ; died in 1685 or 1686. See Overkamp, " Reden over het Leven en de Dood van C. Bon- tekoe," 1685; " Biographie Medicale." a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; xnhi; n6t; good; moon: BONTEKOE 401 BOONEiy!' Boutekoe, (Willem Isbrand,) a Dutch sea-captain, who sailed in 1618 to the East Indies. His ship having taken fire and exploded when near Batavia, Bontekoe was thrown unhurt into the sea, and saved himself by means of a mast. He wrote an account of his adven- ture, which was translated into F'rench. See Thevenot, "Relation de divers Voyages curieux." Bontempi, b6n-t^m'pee, or Buontnempi, boo-6n- t^m'pee, (Giovanni Andrea Angelini,) an Italian musician and composer, born at Perugia about 1630, wrote "Musical History," {1695,) and other works. Died about 1700. Bontemps or Bontems, b^N'tfiN', (Marie Jeanne de Chatillon — deh sht'te''y6N',) a literary French lady, born in Paris in 1 718, was the first translator of Thom- son's "Seasons" into French. Died in 1768. Bontius, bon'te-iis, (Gerard,) a Dutch physician, born at Ryswick about 1536, became professor of medi- cine at Leyden. Died in 1599. Bontius, (Jacob,) son of Gerard, born about 1590, obtained a high reputation as a naturalist. He visited India and Persia, and in 1625 settled as a physician in Batavia. He wrote several valuable works on medicine and botany. Plumier named in his honour a genus of American plants. Died in 1631. Bonvicino, b6n-ve-chee'no, written also Buonvi- cino, (Alessandro,) an eminent Italian painter, born in 15 14, was sometimes called IL Moretto da Brescia, (^1 mo-ret'to di bR^sh'yi.) He was a pupil of Titian, whom he imitated admirably. He painted portraits with success, and altar-pieces the dignity and grace of which are highly praised. "Inspired with ardent admi- ration for Raphael," says E. Breton, "he formed for him- self a new style, simple, graceful, and elevated." Died in 1564. See RiDOLFi, "Vite de' Pittori Veneti." Bonvicino, (Ambrogio,) a skilful Italian sculptor, born at Milan in 1552 ; died in 1622. Bonwicke, bon'wik, (Ambrose,) an English non- juring divine, born in 1652, became master of Merchant- Taylors' School. He wrote " Pattern for Young Stu- dents in the University." See W. Beveridge, "Life of A. Bonwicke," 1846. Bonzi, (Paolo.) See Gob bo. Booddha or Buddha, bdod'da or bood'd'ha, fFr. Bouddha, boo'di',] the name of an Asiatic divinity, whose worshippers, called Booddhists, (or Buddhists,) are supposed to constitute about one-third of the human race. The name is derived from the Sanscrit verb bild, to " understand," to "know," and signifies "wisdom," also the "wise one," or the "sage." The term Booddha has been applied to many different individuals or beings. The Booddhists of India and Ceylon teach that, through- out the countless ages of the past, there have appeared, at long intervals, sages who, by the merit they have ac- quired during innumerable transmigrations, have at last attained to unlimited intelligence and power. (See Brah- Manism.) During the long period of their probation, the Bodhisattvas (or "Aspirants to the Booddhaship") are sometimes born as devas, (inferior deities,) and sometimes in the forms of various animals, even insects, but more frequently as men : in their last and most perfect mani- festation as supreme Booddhas, they are always born in the human form. Of these divine sages the most recent and best-known is Gautama, (which see.) Some of the Nepaulese Booddhists believe in an eter- nal, self-existent Being, whom they style Adi Booddha, that is, the " First Booddha," who created all things in heaven and earth, (see Hodgson's " Literature and Religion of the Buddhists," page 63 ;) but the Ceylonese Rooidhists, who appear to have departed the least from the primitive doctrines of Booddhism, are atheists, that is, they do not recognize the existence of any God, prop- erly so called. According to their belief, the highest forms of being are those of glorified men, who, having become supreme Booddhas, are thereby deified ; though they enjoy but a very brief existence in this exalted state, and then pass into Nirwana, which signifies "annihila- tion," according to the Ceylonese Booddhists, but, ac- cording to the Aishwarikas of Nepaul, " absorption" into he eternal essence of AdI Booddha. For a more par- ticular account of the doctrines, and for the history, of Booddhism, see Gautama. See Hardy, "Manual of Bndhism ;" Koppen, "Religion des Buddha," Berlin, 1857; Guigniaut. *' Religions de I'Antiquit^,'* Paris, 1825, vol. i. book i. chap. v. ; Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." Boodt, bot, (Anselm Boetius,) a Flemish physi- cian and naturalist, born at Bruges about 1580 ; died in 1634. Boogrof, Bougrov, or Bugrow, boo'gRof, a Rus- sian astronomer, published a " Dissertation on the Ellip- tic Motion of the Stars." Died in 1822. Boo'ker, (Rev. Luke,) rector of Tedstone, an English writer, born at Nottingham in 1762. He wrote theolog- ical and other works. Died in 1835. Boole, bool, (George,) an English mathematician, born about 1820. He published a "Mathematical Ana- lysis of Logic," (1847,) and an "Investigation of the Laws of Thought." Died in 1864. Boolgarin, Boulgarine, or Bulgarin, bool-gS'rin or bool-ga''ven, (Thaddeus,) a celebrated Russian writer, born in Lithuania in 1789. He studied at the Institution of Military Cadets at Saint Petersburg, and, having made several campaigns in the Russian army, entered the French service. After the fall of Napoleon he became in 1825 associated with Gretsch as editor of "The Northern Bee." He published in 1827 a collection of essays and tales, among which the " Recollections of the War in Spain" deserves especial mention. His novel of " Ivan Vuizhegin" (1829) enjoys great popularity, and has been styled "the Russian Gil Bias." He also wrote a work entitled "Russia in a Historical, Statistical, Geo- graphical, and Literary Point of View." See Friedrich Otto, "Lehrbuch der Russischen Literatur." Boo'mer, (George Boardman,) an American gene, ral, born in Worcester county, Massachusetts, in 1832. He was killed in an attack on Vicksburg in May, 1863. Boon, bon, or Boone, bo'neh, (Daniel,) a Dutch painter, who worked in England. He painted drunken revels, etc. Died in 1698. Boone, (D.\niel,) an American pioneer and explorer, born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in 1735, was a fa- mous hunter from his youth. During his minority he emigrated with his father to North Carolina, where he married. In 1769 Boone and five companions pene- trated into the unexplored forests of Kentucky, where he passed many months in the pursuits of the chase. He was captured by some Indians, but escaped from them, and returned home in March, 1771. Having re- solved to emigrate to Kentucky with his family, he left North Carolina, accompanied by five other families, in September, 1773. After several fights with the Indians, he built a fort at Boonesborough, on the Kentucky River, in 1775. He repulsed several attacks which the savages made on this fort in 1777. In February, 1778, he was surprised and captured by the Indians, who carried him to Chillicothe and Detroit. He, however, gained the favour of the savages, and was adopted as a son by an Indian family. He escaped in June, 1778, and returned to the fort, which was attacked in August by a party of Indians, about four hundred and forty-five in number, fighting under the British flag. Boone, who had about fifty men under him, defended the fort with great resolu- tion and success. Two of his sons were at different times killed by the Indians. Having lost his lands in Kentucky in consequence of a defective title, he removed to Missouri about 1795, and settled on the Femme Osage River. He continued to follow the occupation of hunter and trapper in Missouri, and obtained a large tract of land in that territory, which then belonged to Spain ; but when it was ceded to the United States his title was not admitted to be valid. He died in Missouri in 1820 or 1822. See Sparks, "American Biography," vol. xiii., Second Series; W. H. BoGART, "Life of Daniel Boone," 1857. Boonen, b5'nen, ( ARNOUD,)an eminent Dutch painter, born at Dort in 1669. Among his master-pieces are por- traits of Peter the Great, the Duke of Marlborough, and the painter Van Huysum. Died in 1729. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Boonen, (Kaspar,) a portrait-painter, brother of the preceding, born at Dort in 1667 ; died in 1729. as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, ^ttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (Jl^^'See Explanations, p. 23.' 26 BOORINSKI 402 BORCH Boorinaki or Burinski, boo-rin'ske or boo-r4n'skee, a Russian lyric poet, lived in the early part of the present century. Boos, bos, (Martin,) a German theologian, born in 1762 ; died in 1825. See " M. Boos der Prediger der Gerechtigkeit die vor Gott gilt: seine Selbstbiogiaphie," 1826; C. Bridges, " Life of M. Boos," 1836. Boos, (Roman Anton,) a German sculptor, born in 1735, worked mostly at Munich, where he died in 1810. Booseeree, (or Busiri,) boo-see'ree, written also Bousyry, (Shereef-ed-Deen Aboo-Abdallah-Mo- hammed,) an Arabian poet, born in Upper Egypt in 1210 ; died in 1294. Boot, bot, written also Boat, (Gerard,) a brother of the following, born at Gorkum in 1604, became phy- sician to Charles I. of England. He wrote a work en- titled " Ireland's Natural History." Died in 1650. Boot, van, vtn b5t, (Arnoud,) a Dutch physician, born at Gorkum in 1606; died in 1650. Booth, (Abraham,) a Baptist minister, born in Der- byshire in 1734, published " Paedo-Baptism Examined," (1784.) Died in 1806. Booth, (Barton,) a celebrated English actor, born in Lancashire in 1681, was a relative of the Earl of War- rington. His performances in " Hamlet," " Othello," and Addison's "Cato" were everywhere received with the highest applause. He wrote " The Death of Dido," a drama. Died in 1733. See T. Gibber, "Life of B. Booth." Booth, (EnwiN,) a popular American tragedian, a son of Junius Brutus Booth, noticed below, was born in Baltimore in 1833. He visited England and the continent of Europe in 1861. He has since acted with great ap- plause in different parts of the United States. See "Atlantic Monthly" for May, 1866. Booth, (Sir Felix,) a wealthy English manufacturer, of the firm of Booth & Co., London, born in 1775. He was knighted as a reward for his generous donation of ;(^20,ooo for promoting the expedition of Sir John Ross to the Arctic regions. The most northern tract of land was called, in his honour, Boothia Felix. Died in 1850. See Sir John Ross's Narrative of his Second Voyage in Search of a Northern Passage, etc. Booth, (George,) son of Henry, whose title he in- herited, published " Considerations upon the Listitution of Marriage," (1739.) Died in 1758. Booth, (Henry,) Earl of Warrington, born in 165 1. As a member of Parliament for Cheshire, under the reign of Charles H., he was conspicuous for his opposi- tion to the Papists. In 1689 he was appointed chancellor of the exchequer by William HI. He wrote a number of political tracts, and a vindication of his friend Lord Russell. Died in 1694. Booth, (John Wilkes,) an American actor, notorious as the assassin of President Lincoln, was born in Bal- timore. He was a son of the English actor Junius Brutus Booth. He sympathized with the Southern se- cessionists in the civil war, and, in order to avenge their defeat, formed a conspiracy with J. H. Surratt, Lewis Payne Powell, D. Harold, and others. On the night of the 14th of April, 1865, he entered the private box of the theatre, shot the President in the head, and, rushing to the front of the box, brandished a dagger in his hand, exclaimed, ^'■Sic semper tyrannis T and leaped down to the stage. In his descent his spur caught in the Ameri- can flag, and he broke his leg. He then mounted a horse, which was standing at the back-door, and escaped to Virginia. He secreted hiiriself in a barn near Bowling Green, to which he was tracked by detectives, and, re- fusing to surrender, was shot, on the 26th of April, 1865. Booth, (Junius Brutus,) a popular English trage- dian, born in London in 1796. He visited America in 1 82 1, where he performed with great applause. He was pre-eminently successful in the character of Richard III. He died in 1852, while returning from California. See "Life of Junius Brutus Booth," by his daughter, New York, 1866; OxBERRV, "Dramatic Biography." Booth'by, (Sir Brooke,) an English writer, published " Fables and Satires," and " Sorrows sacred to the Mem- ory of Penelope," (1796.) See "London Quarterly Review" for February, 1810. Booth'royd, (Benjamin,) D.D., an English dissent- ing divine and bookseller, born in Yorkshire in 1768. He published an edition of the Hebrew Bible without points, which is commended by Home and other able critics. Died in 1836. Bootoorlin, (or Bootoorleen,) Boutouiiine, or Buturlin, boo-tooR-leen' or boo-tooR-lin', (Dmitri Pe- TROVicii,) a Russian general and distinguished military writer, born at Saint Petersburg in 1790. He published, in French, an "Account of the Italian Campaign in 1799;" also a "History of Napoleon's Campaign in Russia," (1820, in Russian.) He was a senator, and director of the Imperial Library. Died in 1850. See Otto, "Lehrbuch der Russischen Literatur." Bopp,bop, (Franz,) a distinguished German Oriental- ist, who may be said to be the founder of the modern science of comparative philology, was born at Mentz, in Hesse-Darmstadt, in 1791. He studied in Paris, where he acquired the friendship of S. de Sacy and A. W. Schlegel ; he subsequently visited London and Gottin- gen, and soon after was appointed professor of Oriental languages at Berlin. He published in 1816 a treatise "On the Conjugation-System of the Sanscrit Language," which was succeeded by a " Glossarium Sanscritum," and "Critical Grammar of the Sanscrit Tongue." His greatest work is entitled "Comparative Grammar of the Sanscrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Sclavo nian, Gothic, and German Languages," (1833,) which has been translated into English under the care of H. H. Wilson, late professor of Sanscrit at Oxford, (1845.) also published portions of the Indian poem " Maha- bharata," with a German version and notes. " Professor Bopp," says Wilson, " may be considered to have established, beyond reasonable question, a near relationship between the languages of nations separated by the intervention of centuries and the distance of half the globe, by differeiices of physical formation and social institutions, — between the forms of speech current among the dark-complexioned natives of India and the fair- skinned races of ancient and modern Europe; a rela- tionship of which no suspicion existed fifty years ago, and which has been satisfactorily established only within a recent period." Died in Berlin in October, 1867. See preface to the English translation of Bopp's "Comparative Grammar," I-ondon, 1845; also an excellent article by Professor Whitney, on Dr. Key and M. Oppert, in the " No'-th American Review" tor October, 1867, and "Blackwood's Magazine" for Feb- ruary, 1841. Boquin, bo'k^N', or Bouquiii, boo'kiN', (Pierre,) a French Protestant theologian, succeeded Calvin as pro- fessor of divinity at Strasburg, and was afterwards preacher to the Queen of Navarre. Died in 15S2. Eor or Bore, See Odin. Bor, (PiETER Kristiaan,) a Dutch historian, born at Utrecht in 1559, published a " History of the Nether- lands," (1621,) and several other works. Died in 1635. Bora, von, fon bo'ri, or Bohren, bo'ren, (Katha- RINA,) the wife of Martin Luther, born at Loeben in 1499, was originally a nun in a convent of Saxony. Having, with a number of her companions, been converted to the doctrines of Luther, they were assisted by hiiu in effecting their escape. (See Luther.) Died in 1552. See Walch, "Geschichte der Catharina von Bora," 2 vols., 1754. Mayer, " De Catharina Martini Lutheri Conjuge," 1669 ; Hoffmann "Catharina von Bora," 1845. Borak, bo-rak', or Bur^k, boo-rik', (or, with the article prefixed, Al-Bor^k, i.e. the "lightning,") written also Bur^q, (Myth.,) the naine of a creature on which, according to Mohaminedan legends, the prophet rode from Mecca to Jerusalem, and afterwards to heaven, under the guidance of Jabreel, (Gabriel.) It is variously represented, but usually as an animal, in size between an ass and a horse, having a human face, two wings, and, according to some accounts, a tail like a peacock. See Shea's translation of Mirkhond's "Early Kings of Persia," p. 441 ; Sprenger's " Life of Mohammad," p. 127. Borastus, bo-rSs'tus, (Gregorius Lars,) a Swedish publicist, born at Norrkjoping about 1584, became secre- tary to the King of Poland. Borch, boKK, (Michael John,) Count of, a Polish naturalist, published several treatises on mineralogy, and % e,T, 0, u, y, long; i, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m$t; n6t; good; moon; BORCH BORDONI translated Wieland's " Oberon" into French verse. Died in 1810. Borch, boRK, or Borrich, bor'riK, [Lat. Borrich'- lus,] (Olaus or Oluf,) a learned Dane, born in Jutland in 1626, became professor of chemistry and botany at Copenhagen. He founded in that city a college for in- digent students. He wrote several valuable scientific works in Latin. Died in 1690. See BoRNEMAN, " Ligpraediken over O. Borch," 1690; Nic^ron, '* Memoires." Borcholten, boRK^ol'ten, [Lat. Borchol'dus,] (Jo- HANN,) a German jurist, born at Liineburg in 1535, studied under Cujacius, (Cujas,) and became professor of law at Helmstedt. Died in 1593. Borcht, van der, vtn der boRKt, (Hendrik,) a Flem- ish painter and engraver, born at Brussels in 1583, worked for Charles L of England. Died in 1660. Borcht, van der, (Pieter,) a Flemish painter and engraver, born at Brussels about 1540; died in 1608. Borck, boRk, (Kaspar Wilhelm,) a German diplo- matist and writer, born in Pomerania in 1650, rose to be minister of state. He translated into German Shak- speare's "Julius Caesar." Died in 1747. Borda, boR'dt', (Jean Charles,) a celebrated French mathematician and engineer, born at Dax in 1733. He studied military engineering, and wrote in 1756 a "Me- moir on the Motion of Projectiles," which procured him admission into the Academy of Sciences. In 1757 he fought at the battle of Hastenbeck, soon after which he entered the navy. He published a " Memoir on the Re- sistance of Fluids," (1763.) In 1767 he explained the principles of the calculus of variations discovered by Lagrange, in a memoir of pure analysis, which is highly commended by Biot. About 1776, Lieutenant Borda improved the method of determining the position of points on a coast, for which he adopted astronomical bearings obtained by reflecting instruments. Having obtained the rank of major-general of the naval army, he served in the American war, (1778-82.) He perfected in 1777 an instrument of great value to mariners, called " circle of reflection," or reflecting circle, {cercle a re- flexion.) The utility of the repeating circle invented by him was proved in the measurement of an arc of the meridian from Dunkirk to the Balearic Isles, a vast en- terprise, of which Borda was the master-spirit. " It is to Borda and Coulomb," says Biot, " that we owe the renais- sance oi sound experimental philosophy in France. Borda should also be regarded as one of the men who have most contributed to the progress of the nautical art." Died in Paris in February, 1799. See M. Biot, "Notice sur Borda," in "Memoires de I'Academie des Sciences;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Borda, boR'dl, (Siro,) an Italian physician, born in 1 761 at Pavia, where he became professor of materia medica in 1800. Died in 1824. See G. DEL Chiappa, "Memorie intorno alia Vita del Cavaliere S. Borda," 1834. Bordazar de Artazu, boR-dS-th^R' di 5r-ta-thoo', (Antonio,) a Spanish printer and writer, born at Va- lencia in 1671, published " Spanish Orthography," and other works. Died in 1744. Borde or Boorde, bord, (Andrew,) [Lat. Andre'a Perfora'tus,] an English physician, born in Sussex about 1500. He was the author of " The Breviary of Health," "Merrie Tales of the Wise Men of Gotham," and other works. He was patronized by Henry VIIT. The designation " Merry- Andrew" was originally applied to him. Died in 1549. _ See Wood, "Athena: Oxonienses ;" " Retrospective Review," vol. 1., new series, 1853. Borde, boRd, (Charles,) a French poet and skeptical writer, born at Lyons in 1711, was a friend of Voltaire. Among his works is "Le Catechumene," (1766.) Died in 1781. See Antoine Pericaud, "Notice sur la Vie de C. Borde," 1824. Borde, de la, deh It boRd, (Jean Benjamin,) a French litterateur, a favourite of Louis XV., born in Paris in 1734. He was put to death by the Jacobins in 1794. Bordeaux, de, deh boR'dS', Due, a French prince, son of Charles Ferdinand, Due de Berry, and grandson of Charles X., was born in Paris in 1820. He is some- times called Count de Chambord. He is recognized by the Bourbonists as the legitimate heir to the throne, and is styled Henri V. Bordelon, boRd^l6N', (Laurent,) a Yx^\-\c\\litteratetir, born at Bourges in 1653 ; died in 1730. Bor'den, (Simeon,) an American civil engineer and mechanician, born in Fall River, Massachusetts, in 1798. Having invented a valuable instrument for determining the base-line in the trigonometrical survey of Massa- chusetts, he was appointed in 1834 to superintend the work, which he completed in 1841. This is said to have been the first geodetic survey aver accomplished in the United States. He afterwards ran the bound- ary-line between Massachusetts and Rhode Island, and directed the construction of several railroads. Died at Fall River in 1856. Bordenave, boRd'ntv', (Toussaint,) a French sur- geon, born in Paris in 1728, wrote an "Essay on Phy- siology," (1756,) and translated Haller's "Elements of Physiology," (1766.) Died in 1782. Bordereau, boRd'ro', (Renee,) a French heroine of the Revolution, born near Angers in 1770, served with distinction in the Vendean army. Died in 1828. See "Memoires de Renee de Bordereau," etc. Borderie, boRd're', a French poet, born in Nor- mandy in 1 507. Borderies, boRd're', (Etienne Jean P^RANgois,) born at Montauban in 1764, became in 1827 Bishop of Versailles. Died in 1832. Bordessoulle, de, deh boRd'sooK, (Stienne Tar- DIF,) Coun t, a French general, born at Luzeret in 1771. He gained the rank of colonel at Austerlitz, (1805,) and displayed courage and ability in numerous battles during the first empire. Died in 1837. See MacDonald, (£!tienne J. J. A. de Tarente,) "filoge du General de Bordessoulle," 1839. Bordeu, de, deh boR'duh', (Antoine,) a French physician, born in Bearn in 1696, wrote a "Dissertation on the Mineral Waters of Bearn," (1749.) Bordeu, de, (FRANgois,) a French medical writer, son of the preceding, born at Pan in 1734. Bordeu, de, (Thi^ophile,) a French medical writer of high reputation, son of Antoine, born at Iseste, in Bearn, in 1722. He settled in Paris about 1750, and became physician of the hospital La Charite. Among his important works are " Researches on the Pulse," (4 vols., 1772,) and a "Treatise on Chronic Diseases," (2 vols., 1776-1801.) Died in 1776. See Roussel, " filoge historique de M. de Bordeu," 1778; Riche- RAND, " Notice sur la Vie de T. de Bordeu," 1817. Bording, boR'ding, (Anders,) a Danish poet, born at Ribe in 1619, published a literary periodical in Copen- hagen. Died in 1677. See Kraft og Nyerup, " Litteraturlexicon." Bording, boR'ding, (Jakob,) a Dutch physician, born at Antwerp in 15 1 1, became principal of the college at Carpentras, and subsequently physician to Christian III. of Denmark. Died in 1560. See M. Adam, "Vitas Eruditorum." Bord'ley, (John Beale,) an American writer on agriculture, born in 1728; died in Philadelphia in 1804. Bordone, boR-do'ni, (Paride,) a celebrated Italian painter of the Venetian school, born at Treviso about 1 5 10. He studied first under Titian, but he subsequently formed his style on the model of Giorgione. Among his master-pieces are a " Holy Family," " Fisherman presenting the Ring of Saint Mark to the Doge," "The Martyrdom of Saint Andrew," "The Sibyl," and a " Paradise." His portraits are nearly equal to those of Titian. Died in Venice in 1588, or, according to some writers, in 1570. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" Ridolki, "Vitede' Pittori Veneti ;" Winckelmann, " Neues Maler-Lexikon." Bordoni, boR-do'nee, (Benedetto,) an Italian geog- rapher, born at Padua, wrote a "Description of Italy." Died about 1530. Bordoni, (Placido,) an Italian litterateur, born at Venice about 1740, made several translations from the French and Latin. Died in 1820. See FiLiASi, " Elogio storico di P. Bordoni," 1820. € as k; 9 as j; g hard;^2& j; g, h, Yi, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BORDONIO 404 BORGIA Bordonio, boR-do'ne-o, (Giuseppe Antonio,) an Italian Jesuit, and professor of rhetoric at Turin, where he was born in 1682. Died in 1742. Bo're-as, [Gr. Mopea^ or Bopuf; Fr. Bor^:e, bo'rk',] the North Wind personified by classic poets, who repre- sent him as a son of Astraeus and Aurora, and the father of Zetes and Calais. Boreau, bo'ro', (Victor,) a French poet and miscel- laneous writer, published a " History of the Middle Ages," (1838,) and other works. Boree, the French for Boreas, which see. Boree, ho'ik', (Vincent,) a French tragic poet, born about 1530. Borel, bo'reK, (Petrus,) a French litterateur zwd jour- nalist, brother of Andre Fran9ois, born at Lyons in 1809. Borel, (Pierre,) physician to Louis XIV., born at Castres, in Languedoc, about 1620, published a treatise "On the True Inventor of the Telescope," (in Latin, 1655,) and other scientific works. Died in 1689. See F. HoKFER, " Histoire de la Chimie." Borel d'Hauterive, bo'reK dof'rev', (Andr6 Fran- ^t)is Joseph,) a French historian, born at Lyons in 1812. Borelli, bo-reKlee, [Lat. Borei/lus,] (Giovanni Al- fonso,) a celebrated Italian physician and savant, born at Naples in January, 1608, was one of the founders of the so-called iatro-niatheniatical school, which attempted to apply mathematics to medicine. He studied at Flor- ence and Rome, and became professor of mathematics at Pisa in 1656. His greatest work is entitled "On the Motion of Animals," (" De Motu Animalium," 1680,) and is dedicated to his patroness, Christina of Sweden. He also wrote (in Latin) an " Account of the Eruption of Etna in 1669," and a number of medical and scien- tific treatises in Latin and Italian. Died at Rome in 1679. See Eulogy on G. A. Borelli, prefixed to his "De Motu Anima- lium;" NiCERON, " Memoires ;" Haller, " Bibiiotheca Anatomica." Borelli, bo'ra'le' or bo-rel'lee, (Jean Alexis,) a French litterateur, born in Provence in 1738, resided at Berlin, where he was patronized by Frederick the Great. He published moral and critical essays, and edited some posthumous works of Frederick. Died about 1810. Borelli, (Jean Marie,) a French Jesuit and poet, born in Provence in 1723 ; died in 1808. Borellus, (G. A.) See Borelll Borga. See Barkah Khan. Borgarucci, boR-gi-root'chee, [Lat. Borgaru'tius,] (Prospero,) an Italian physician, born near Gubbio, became professor of anatomy at Padua in 1564. Borger, boRc'er or boR'Her, (Elias A.,) born in Friesland in 1785, became, in 181 5, professor of theology at Leyden. He published poems, and several critical and theological works. Died in 1820. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Willem Bkoes, " Leerrede op E. A. Borger," 1820; Jan Tichler, "Jets over E. A. Borgers Kanselwelsprekenheid," 1835. Borghese, boR-ga'sa, (Camillo,) born in 1552, was elected pope in 1605, under the name of Paul V. Borghese, (Camillo,) son of Marcantonio III., born at Rome in 1775. On the entrance of the French into Italy, he attached himself to their cause, and in 1803 received from Napoleon the hand of his sister Pauline, widow of General Leclerc. He was afterwards created Duke of Guastalla, and governor-general of the trans- alpine provinces, (1810.) He died in 1832, having pre- viously separated from his wife. He left his immense fortune to his brother, Francesco Borghese Aldobrandini. See I'lPALDO, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." Borghese, (Giovanni Ventura,) an Italian painter, born at Citta di Castello about 1640, was a pupil of Pietro da Cortona. Died in 1708. Borghese, (Ippolito,) a Neapolitan painter, lived about 1620. Borghese, (Marcantonio I.,) nephew of Paul V., was created by him Prince of Sulmona and a grandee of Spain. One of his relatives, Marcantonio II., became Viceroy of Naples in 1721. Marcantonio III., of the same family, was celebrated for his patronage of the arts, and his magnificent collection of statues and antiquities in his villa on the Pincian Hill. Borghesi, boR-ga'see, (Bartolommeo,) an eminent Italian archaeologist and numismatist, born at Savignano, near Rimini, about 1780. His principal work is entitled "Nuovi Frammenti di Fasti Consolari Capitolini," (2 vols., 1820.) He has also made valuable contributions to various scientific journals, and is a member of the principal learned societies of Europe. His collection of coins and medals is esteemed one of the best in Italy. His researches and writings have contributed greatly to elucidate the military, political, sacerdotal, and municipal institutions of the ancient Romans. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Borghesi, (Diomede,) an Italian poet and orator, born at Sienna, was an able critic and philologist. He published several volumes of poems and of letters, (1566- 1584.) Died in 1598. See GiNGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Borghi-Mamo, boR^gee-m^'mo, (Adelaide,) an Ital- ian vocalist, born at Bologna in 1830. Borghini, boR-gee'nee, (Rafaello,) an Italian poet and litterateur, wrote a pastoral play called " La Diana pietosa," (1585,) and "II Riposo in cui si tratta della Pittura e della Scoltura," (1584.) Borghini, ( Vincenzo,) a learned Italian antiquary and ecclesiastic, born at Florence in 15 15, wrote a work on the "Antiquities of Tuscany," (1584.) He refused an archbishopric which was offered him by Cosimo de Me- dici. Died in 1580. Borgi, boR'jee, (Giovanni,) an Italian mechanic and philanthropist, born at Rome about 1735, called "the founder of ragged schools." He was encouraged and assisted in his benevolent labours by Pope Pius VII. Died about 1802. Borgia. See Alexander VI. Borgia, boR'ji, (Alessandro,) an Italian theologian, born at Velletri in 1682, became Archbishop of Fermo. Died in 1764. Borgia, (Cesare,) Due de Valentinois, (vt'lfiN^te'- nwi',) was an illegitimate son of Pope Alexander VI., by whom he was made a cardinal in 1492. He was dis- tinguished for cunning, cruelty, and perfidy. In 1498 he was sent to France with a bull of divorce for Louis XII., who gave him the title of Due de Valentinois. He mar- ried a daughter of Jean d'Albret, King of Navarre, in 1499. Having raised an army, he undertook the con- quest of the Romagna, the cities of which were ruled by feudatories of the Roman See. He took Imola, Forli, Pesaro, Rimini, etc. before the end of 1501, and put to death prisoners in violation of his oath. After the death of Alexander VI., in 1503, his power rapidly declined. (See Alexander VI.) His army having been defeated, he was taken prisoner and sent to Spain in 1504. He escaped in 1506, entered the army of the King of Navarre, and was killed in battle in 1507. See ToMASi, "Vila del Diica di Valentino," 1655; French version of the same, 1739 ; and " Lebcn des C. Borgia," Berlin, 17S2. Borgia, (Francisco.) See Francisco, Saint. Borgia, boR'jS, sometimes wTitten Borja, (Fran- cisco,) a Spanish poet, highly esteemed in his time, was a descendant of Pope Alexander VI., and on his mother's side of Ferdinand the Catholic, King of Spain. He was appointed Viceroy of Peru in 1614. Died in 1658. See Antonio, "Bibiiotheca Hispana Nova." Borgia, (Lucrezia,) a daughter of Pope Alexander VI., and a sister of Cesare Borgia, was disttnguished for beauty and talents. She was married to Giovanni Sforza, Lord of Pesaro, in 1493, to Alfonso, a natural son of Alfonso, King of Naples, in 1498, and to Alfonso of Este, a son of the Duke of P'errara, in 1501. Her con- duct gave rise to scandalous reports, which were gener- ally believed by her contemporaries. vShe patronized at Ferrara several literary men, especially Bembo, who cele- brated her in his works. "The compliments of the literati whom she rewarded," says Sismondi, with covert sarcasm, "seem at present to counterbalance the unani- mous testimony of the historians, who accuse her of in- famous conduct." Died in 1523. See BoTTA, "Histoire d'ltalie." Borgia, (Stefano,) an Italian cardinal, nephew of Alessandro, noticed above, born at Velletri in 173 1. He published several antiquarian treatises, and made a val- uable collection of medals and manuscripts. Died in 1804. See AuBiN Loi;is Mii.LiN, " Notice sur la Vie du Cardinal Borgia.* a, e, 1, o, u, y, lon^^; h, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, 5?, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m^t; n5t; good; moon: B ORG I AN I BOROWLASKI Borgiani,' boR-ji'nee, or Borgianni, boR-jii/nee, (Okazio,) an Italian painter and engraver, born in Rome about 1580, worked in Spain and in Rome. Died about 1630. Borgo, boR'go, (Carlo,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Vicenza in 173 1, was professor of theology at Modena, He wrote a panegyric on Ignatius Loyola, and a work on fortitications, which he dedicated to Frederick the Great. Died in 1794. Borgo, [Lat. Bor'gus,] (Pietro Battista,) an Ital- ian soldier and historian, served in the Swedish army in the Thirty Years' war, of which he wrote an account in Latin, entitled "Commentaries on the Swedish War," (1633-) See Mazzucheli-i, " Scrittori d'ltalia." Borgo, di, (Luca.) See Pacioli. Borgognone. See Courtois, (Jacques.) Borgognone, boR-gon-yo'ni, (Ambrogio,) a distin- guished Italian painter, born at Fossano about 1480. Among his master-pieces are the frescos in the church of San Ambrogio at Milan, and a " Madonna with Two Angels" in the Museum at Berlin. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Borgondio. See Burgundio. Borgt, van der, vSn der boRkt, (Hendrik,) a Flem- ish painter, born at Brussels in 1583. Borhan-ed-Deen or Borhan-Eddin, bor-hin' ed- deen', a learned Arab, born about 1200, published "Ad- vice to Students on the Manner of Studying," which has been translated into Latin and Turkish. Borhan-ed-Deen or Borhan-Eddin, (Ibraheem,) an Arab writer, who wrote a "Treatise on the Customs and Maxims of the Ancient Philosophers," and other works. Died in 1480. Borie, bo-ree', (Adolph E.,) an American merchant, of French extraction, born in Philadelphia about 1810. He acquired a large fortune in foreign commerce. During the civil war he was an active and liberal supporter of the Union cause. He was appointed secretary of the navy by President Grant in March, 1869. Borie, bo're', (Pierre Rose Ursule Dumoulin,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Beynat, in the diocese of Tulle, in 1808. He set out on a mission to Tonquin in 1831, where he laboured successfully for seven years; but in 1838 he was put to death by order of the king. See "Vie de Monseigneur Borie," etc., 1844; " Nouvelle Biogra- phic Generate. " Borie-Cambort, bo''re' kSN'boR', (Jean,) a French jurist, and member of the National Convention, voted for the death of Louis XVI. Died in 1805. Bories, bo're', (JeAn Francois Louis Leclerc,) born at Villefranche in 1795, attempted in 182 1, with several accomplices, to excite a revolt against the gov- ernment ; but they failed in their enterprise, and were executed in 1822. Boris. See Godoonof. Borjon, boR'zh^N', (Charles Emmanuel,) a French jurist and legal writer, born at Pont-de-Vaux, in Bresse, in 1633 ; died in 1691. Borkhausen, boRk'how'zen, (Moritz Balthasar,) a German naturalist, born at Giessen in 1760, published the "Natural History of the Butterflies of Europe," (1788,) "Fauna of Germany," (1797,) and other scientific works. Bied at Darmstadt in 1806. See "Biographie Medlcale." Bor'lace or Bor'lase, (Edmund,) an English physi- cian and historical writer, published the " History of the Execrable Irish Rebellion, etc.," (1680,) and other works on Ireland. Died in 1682. See "Biographia Britannica." Bor'land, (Solon,) an American general, born in Virginia, removed to Arkansas. He was elected a Sena- tor of the United States for Arkansas about 1848. He fought against the Union in the civil war. Died in Texas in 1864. Borlase, (Edmund.) See Borlace. Borlase, bor'las, (William,) an English divine and eminent naturalist and antiquary, born in Cornwall in 1696. He was appointed in 1732 vicar of Saint Just, in Cornwall, and in 1750 became a Fellow of the Royal Society. Among his works are " Observations on the Antiquities, Historical and Monumental, of the County of Cornwall," (1754,) "Natural History of Cornwall,'' (1758,) and "Observations on the Ancient and Present State of the Islands of Scilly." He also wrote several religious treatises. He vvas an intimate friend and cor- respondent of Pope. Died in 1772. See "Biographia Britannica." Born, boRn, (Jakob,) a German jurist, born at Leipsic in 1638 ; died in 1709. Born, (Jakob Heinrich,) a German jurist, born at Leipsic in 1717 ; died at Dresden in 1775. Born, de, deh boRn, (Bertran or Bertrand,) a French troubadour and warrior, born in Perigord, took a prominent part in the wars between Henry II. of Eng- land and his sons, and between Philippe Auguste and Richard Coeur de Lion, about 1185-1200. According to Dante, (" Inferno,") Bertran de Born by his verses fomented war, and incited the sons of Henry II. to fight against him and against each other. See MiLLOT, " Histoire des Troubadours;" Vii.i.emain, "Cours de Litterature ;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Born, von, fon boRn, (Ignaz,) an eminent German mineralogist, born at Karlsburg, in Transylvania, in 1742. He wrote "Letters on the Minerals of Hungary," (1774,) " Index of Fossils," (" Lithophylacium Bornianuni, sea Index Fossilium," 2 vols., 1772-75,) "Index Rerum Naturalium Musei Caes. Vindobonse," (1778,) and other works. He made important improvements in mining precious metals, among which was a new method of amalgamation. Died in Vienna in 1791. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Johann Pezzl, " Lebensbeschreibung MontecucuU's, W. Liechtenstein's und Bern's," 1792. Borne or Boerne, boR'neh, (Ludw^ig,) a celebrated journalist, critic, and politician, of Jewish extraction, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1786. He studied at Hei- delberg and Giessen, and subsequently became editor of the " Staats-Ristretto," a democratic journal, which was soon suppressed. Having been previously converted to Christianity, he edited in 1818-21 the " Wage," a period- ical for literature, science, and art. After the revolution of 1830, he founded in Paris " Le Balance," in which he displayed great powers of satire and caustic wit. Among his best works are "Memorial of Jean Paul," ("Denk- rede auf Jean Paul,") "Letters from Paris," (1832,) and " Menzel the Frenchman-Eater," (" Menzel der Franzo- senfresser,") in reply to that critic's attack on the French. Borne was involved in a controversy with Heine, who wrote a severe attack upon him, entitled " Heine iiber Borne." Died in Paris in 1837. See KarlGutzkow, " L. Bbrnes Leben," 1840; Eduard Beur- MANN, " L. Borne als Charakter in der Literatur," 1837; Karl BoELSCHE, "Zwei Repubiikaner," 1850; "Foreign Quarterly Re- view" for August, 1832. Borneil, de, deh boR^n&I' or boR''n4'ye, (Giraud,) a French troubadour, born about 1150, is mentioned by Dante in his "Divine Comedy." Borneniann, boR'neh-min^ (Wilhelm,) a German jurist, born in Pomerania in 1794, became councillor of state in 1842, and in 1848 minister of justice. Borner or Boerner, boR'ner, (Caspar,) a Gentian theologian and mathematician, born at Hayn, in Misnia, lived at Dresden. Died in 1547. See J. A Ernesti, " Eulogium C. Boerneri," 1740. Borner or Boerner, (Chrlstian Friedrtch,) :il of Filippo Lippi. He was patronized by the popes Sixtus IV. and Pius IV., and painted in the chapel of the Vatican frescos which display great power of imagination. Having SI, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; BOTTIGER 411 BOUCHhT returned to Florence, he became a disciple of Savonarola, and neglected his art. Died in 15 15. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." Bottiger or Boettiger, bot'te-ger, (Karl August,) an eminent German archaeologist and litterateur, born at Reichenbach, in Saxony, in 1760, resided at Weimar, and was a friend of Goethe, Wieland, and other eminent German writers. A collection of his essays, etc. (" Kleine Schriften") was published in 3 vols., 1837-38. Died in 1835. See Karl Wilhelm Bottiger, "Karl August Bottiger: biogra- phiscbe Skizze," 1837; NosTiz und Jaenkendokf, " K. A. Bottiger: seiii Bild, sein Denkmal," 1836; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1836. Bottiger or Boettiger, bot'te'ger, (Karl Wilhelm,) an eminent Swedish poet, of German extraction, born at Wtsteras in 1807, is a son-in-law of Tegner. He ob- tained the degree of doctor in philosophy at Upsal in 1833, and has been twice crowned by the Swedish Acad- emy. He has published poems of great merit, and pro- duced a translation of Tasso's " Gerusalemme Liberata," and of Uhland's ballads. Bottiger or Boettiger, (Karl Wilhelm,) a Ger- man historian, and professor of literature and history at Erlangen, born at Bautzen in 1790, wrote a "History of Germany," (1838,) and "History of the Electorate and Kingdom of Saxony." Bottoni, bot-to'nee, (Alberto,) an Italian physician, born at Padua, where he became professor of medicine. Died in 1596. Bottoni, (Domenico,) a learned physician, and cor- responding member of the Royal Society of London, born at Leontini, in Sicily, in 1641 ; died in 1731. Bottrigari, bot-tKe-gS'ree,(EKCoLE,) an Italian mathe- matician and miscellaneous writer, born at Bologna in 1531 ; died in 1612. Botts, (John Minor,) an American statesman, born at Dumfries, Prince William county, Virginia, in 1802. He studied law, joined the Whig party, and was elected a member of Congress in 1839. He was re-elected in 1841, supported Mr. Clay in 1844, and was returned to Congress in 1847. '^^^ one of the few Southern members who co-operated with John Quincy Adams in his defence of the right of petition. After the dissolu- tion of the Whig party he acted with the American party. He opposed the rej^eal of the Missouri Compromise in 1854, and was a constant adherent of the Union during the civil war, after which he supported the Republican party. Died in January, 1869. Bottschild. See Botschild. Boturini Benaduci, bo-too-ree'nee bi-nd-doo'chee, (Lorenzo,) a native of Milan, who visited Mexico in 1735, and was afterwards appointed historiographer of the Indies. He wrote a " General History of North America," (in manuscript.) Died about 1750. See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. i. book i. Botzaris. See Bozzaris. Boubee, boo'bi', (Nei<6e,) a French geologist, born at Toulouse in 1806, published several works on geology. Bouchard or Bouchart, boo^shSR', (Alain,) a French chronicler and jurist, born about 1470. Bouchard, (Amaury,) a French statesman, born at Saint-Jean-d'Angely about 1480. Bouchard, (David.) See Aureterre. Bouchardat, boo'shSR^t', (Adolphe,) a French chemist and pharmacist, born about 1810 in Paris, where he became professor of hygiene in the Faculty of Medicine. He has written various scientific works. Bouchardon, boo'shtR^iN', (Edme,) an eminent French sculptor, born at Chaumont-en-Bassigny in 1698. He studied under the younger Coustou in Paris, and subsequently passed ten years at Rome. He became, after his return, professor in the Academy of Fine Arts. The "Fountain of Crenelle" in Paris is esteemed his master-piece ; his equestrian statue of Louis XV., upon which he was employed twelve years, was destroyed by a mob in 1792. He executed a number of bas-reliefs and bronze statues of great merit, and was also skilled in etching and design. Died in 1762. See A. C. P. de Cayi.us. "Vie d'E. Bouchardon," 1762; Fonte- NAV, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Bouchaud, boo'sho', (Mathieu Antoine,) a French jurist, born in Paris in 17 19, became professor of law in the College of France in 1774. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences, and contributed a number of legal articles to the "Encyclopedic." Died in 1804. Bouche, boosh, (Honor^:,) born at Aix in 1598, wrote a "Description of Provence." Died in 1671. Bouche, boosh, (Martin,) a Flemish engraver of portraits, supposed to have been born at Antwerp, flou- rished about 1680. Bouchel, boo'sh^K, (Laurent,) a French jurist and legal writer, born at Crespy in 1559; died in 1629. Boucher, boo'shi', (Alexandre Jean,) a French musician, surnamed the Alexander of violins, born in Paris in 1770. He was patronized by Charles IV, and Ferdinand VII. of Spain. Boucher, (Franqois,) a celebrated French painter, born in Paris in 1703. He studied under Le Moine, and in 1765 succeeded Vanloo as painter to Louis XV. Among his master-pieces we may name "Venus order- ing Arms for yEneas," and "The Bath of Diana." His works are censured for mannerism, meretricious attrac- tions, and wanton tendencies. Died in 1770. See C. Blanc, "Histoire des Peintres;" Grimm et Diderot, " Correspondance Litteraire." Boucher, (Jean,) a French theologian, born in Paris about 1548, was a violent partisan of the league against Henry IV., and a "trumpet of sedition." Died in 1644. See Mezerav, "Histoire de Henri IV." Boucher, (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Besan- 9on, published his Travels in Palestine, (1626.) Boucher, bow'cher, (Jonathan,) an English philolo- gist and political writer, born near Wigton, in Cumber- land, about 1738. He emigrated to Virginia about 1756, and became rector of Hanover, King George county, in 1 761. He adhered to the royal cause in the Revolution, was forced to resign his charge, and returned to England in 1775. About 1784 he obtained the vicarage of Epsom, in Surrey. He published in 1797 a "View of the Causes and Consequences of the American Revolution." He spent many years in compiling a "Glossary of Archaic and Provincial Words," which was unfinished when he died in 1804. Parts I and 2 of this work appeared in 1832. Boucher d'Argi.s, boo'shk' dtR^zhe', (Andr6 Jean,) son of Antoine Gaspard, born in Paris in 1751. Having publicly denounced Marat, he was condemned to death by the Revolutionary tribunal, and executed in 1794. Bovicher d'Argi-s, (Antoine Gaspard,) a French jurist, born in Paris in 1708, contributed legal treatises to the " Encyclopedic Methodique." Died in 1791. Boucher de la Richarderie, boo'sha' deh It re'- shtkd're', (Gilles,) a French litteratetir, born at Saint- Germain-en-Laye in 1733, published a "Universal Li- brary of Travels," (6 vols., 1808.) Died in 1810. Boucher de Perthes, boo'shi' deh pirt, (Jacques,) a French archaeologist, born at Rethel in 1788. He wrote several dramas, and a dictionary of passions and sensations, entitled " Hommes et Choses," (" Men and Things," 4 vols., 1851.) His reputation is founded chiefly on his work called "La Creation," (5 vols., 1839-41,) and his "Celtic and Antediluvian Antiquities," (1847.) Died at Abbeville in August, 1868. He has been called the founder of the science of archaeo-geology. Boucherie, boosh're', (Auguste,) a French chemist, born at Bordeaux in 1801. He invented a method of rendering wood incorruptible by impregnating it with sulphate of copper. Boucheron, boosh'rdN', (Carlo,) an Italian scholai and writer, of French extraction, born in Turin in 1773. Died in 1838. See T. Vallauri, "De C. Boucherono," 1838. Boucheseiche, boosh'sish', (Jean Baptiste,) a French litterateur, born at Chaumont in 1760, translated the " Historical and Geographical Description of Hin- dostan," from the English of Rennel. Died in 1825. Bouchet, boo'shi', (Claude Antoine,) a French surgeon, born at Lyons in 1785, originated a method of healing by the first intention after amputations. Died in 1839. See Castellan, " Notice sur le Docteur Bouchet," 1840. € as ir; 9 as s; g hard; g as g, h, k, gtittural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) BOUCHET 412 BOUGEREL Bouchet (Fr^:d6ric Jules,) a French architect and designer, born in Paris in 1799. He published several professional works, among which is "Compositions an- tiques," {1850.) Bouchet, (GuiLLAUME,) a French litterateur^ born at Poitiers in 1526; died in 1606. Bouchet, (Jean,) a French writer, born at Poitiers in 1476, published "Annals of Aquitaine," (1524.) Died about 1550. See NiCEKON, "Memoires." Bouchet, du, dii boo'sh^', (Jean,) a French writer on genealogy, born in 1599; died in 1684. Bouchetel, boosh't&K, or Bochetel, bosl/t^K, (Guil- LAUME,) born in the province of Berry, became secretary to Francis I., King of France. Died in 1558. Boucheul, boo'shul', (Joseph,) a French jurist and legal writer, born at Dorat ; died in 1706. Bouchitte, boo'she'ta'', (Louis Firmin Herve,) a French litterateur, and professor of history at Versailles, born in Paris in 1795, published a " History of the Proofs of the Existence of God," (1841,) and other works. Bouchoii-Dubouriiial, boo'sh(5>N' dii'booR'ne^tK, (Henri,) a Yrtnch. litterateur, born at Toul in 1749, trans- lated " Don Quixote," and other works of Cervantes. Died in 1828. Bouchotte, boo'shot', (Jean Baptiste Noel,) born at Metz, in France, in 1754, was minister of war from April, 1793, until April i, 1794. Died in 1840. Boucicault, boo^se'ko', sometimes written Bourci- cault, (Dion,) a dramatist and actor, born in Dublin in 1822. He produced about 1841 a successful comedy called " London Assurance," and afterwards numerous dramas, some of which he translated from the French. Boucicaut, de, deh boo''se'k6', (Jean le Meingre — leh m^NgR',) a French soldier, who became a marshal under Charles V. of France. Died in 1370. Boucicaut, de, (Jean le Meingre,) son of the pre- ceding, born at Tours in 1365, distinguished himself in the war against the Turks in 1396, and became marshal of France in 1412. Being taken prisoner at the battle of Agincourt, he died in England in 1421. See Dk Pilham, " Histoire Marechal Boucicaut," 1697 ; D'Au- BiGNY, "Vies des Hommes illustres," tome vii. Boucquet, boo'ki', (Victor,) a Flemish painter of history, born at Furnes in 1619. "The Judgment of Cambyses" is called his master-piece. Died in 1677. Bouddha or Boudha. See Booddha. Boudet, hoo\W, (Charles Ernest,) a French medi- cal writer, born in 1813 ; died in 1849. Boudet, (Jean,) Com te, a French general of division, born at Bordeaux in 1769. He fought against the Eng- lish in the West Indies in 1794, and in the subsequent campaigns of Holland and Austria. For his services at Aspern and Essling, he was created by Napoleon grand officer of the legion of honour. Died in 1809. See De Coukcelles, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Frangais." Boudewyns, bo\v'deh-<^Tns', (Antoon Franciscus,) a Flemish painter, born at Brussels about 1660, was a pupil of Van der Meulen. His landscapes are highly praised. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Boudewyns, (Michael,) a physician of Antwerp, was professor of anatomy and surgery in that city. Died in 1681. Boudinot, boo'de-not, (Eltas,) an American patriot and philanthropist, born in Philadelphia in 1740. He studied law, which he practised in New Jersey, and was a zealous advocate of the patriotic cause in the Revolu- tion. In 1777 he was appointed commissary -general of prisoners, and elected a delegate to Congress, of which he became president in 1782. He was director of the mint at Philadelphia from 1796 to 1805, after which he resided at Burlington, New Jersey. He was chosen the first president of the American Bible Society in 18 16. Among his writings is "The Star of the West; or, An Attempt to discover the Lost Tribes of Israel." He bequeathed large amounts of money and land to chari- table institutions. Died in 1821. Boudon, boo'd6N', (Henri Marie,) a French eccle- siastic and religious writer, born in the department of Aisne in 1624; died in 1702. Boudot, boo'do', (Jean,) a French printer and book- seller, published in 1704 a "Latin-French Dictionary," which was long popular in schools. Died in 1706. His son, of the same name, was distinguished as a printer and bibliographer. Died in 1754. Boue, boo'y, (Ami,) a French geologist, born at Ham- burg in 1794, published several works on geology, and "Turkey in Europe," ("La Turquie en Europe," 1840.) Bouelles, boo'el', sometimes written Bouilles, [Lat. Bovil'lus,] (Charles,) a French mathematician and philologist, born at Sancour, in Picardy, about 1470, published " The Book of the Art and Science of Geom- etry," (1511,) and "Three Books of Common Proverbs," (" Proverbiorum vulgarium Libri tres," 1531.) Died about 1550. Bouffe, booTi', a popular French comedian, born in Paris about 1800 ; died in 1853. Bouflers, de, deh boo'flaiR', (Louis FRANgois,) Due, a celebrated French marshal, born in 1644, served under Turenne in Holland and Germany. He had a principal share in the victory of Steenkerke in 1692, and in 1693 obtained the rank of marshal. In 1695 he defended Namur a long time against the allies under William III. of England, and in 1708 maintained Lille for nearly three months against Prince Eugene. He received from Louis XIV. the order of Saint Louis and many other distinc- tions, and was created a knight of the Golden Fleece by the King of Spain. The last battle in which he was engaged was that of Malplaquet, (1709,) where he com- manded the right wing ; and his retreat on that occasion was esteemed a master-piece of military skill. Died in 1711. See "Vie du Marechal de Bouflers," Lille, 1852; Charles de la Rue, "Oraison funebre de M. le Marechal de Bouflers," 1711. Bouflers, de, (Marie FRANgoisE Catherine de Beauvau Craon — deh bo'vo' kRS'6N',) Marchioness, a French lady of distinguished talents and accom])lish- ments, was the wife of the Marquis de Bouflers-Reniien- court, captain of the guards to Stanislaus Augustus, King of Poland. She was a friend and correspondent of Vol- taire. Died in 1787. Bouflers, de, (Stanislas,) Marquis, a mediocre French writer, son of the preceding, born at Luneville in 1737 ; died in 181 5. Bouflers-Rouvrel, boo'flai R'roov'r§K,(MARiE Char- lotte HiPPOLYTE,) Countess, born in Paris in 1724, was a friend of Rousseau and other celebrated French writers, and a correspondent of Hume. Died in 1800. See J. J. Rousseau, " Correspondance ;" Hume, "Private Cor- respondence." Bougainville, boo^giN'v^l', (Jean Pierre,) a French litterateur, brother of the navigator, born in Paris in 1722, was a member of the French Academy and secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1763. Bougainville, de, deh boo'g^NV^K, (Louis An- TOINE,) a celebrated French navigator, born in Paris in 1729, accompanied Montcalm to America in 1756, as his aide-de-camp. In 1766 he set sail with the frigate La Boudeuse and the ship L'fitoile for the Falkland Is- lands, being charged by the government with the trans- fer of the French colony of Port Louis, on one of those islands, to the Spaniards. Continuing his voyage, he discovered a number of islands in the South Sea, and gave the name of Navigator's Islands to the Samoan Archipelago. He also saw part of the group afterwards called New Hebrides by Captain Cook. He returned to France in 1769, having been the first French navi- gator who made the circuit of the world. His account of his voyage ("Voyage autour du Monde") appeared in 1 77 1, and was translated into English and German. Bougainville was a Fellow of the Royal Society of Lon- don. Died in 1814. See Marius Pascal, " Essai historique sur la Vie de Bougain- ville," 1831. Bougeant. boo'zhSN', (Guillaume Hyacinthe,) a French Jesuit and historical writer, born at Quimper in 1690, wrote a " History of the Treaty of Westphalia," and other works. Died in 1743. Bougerel, \>ooz\\' xhV , (Joseph,) a French ecclesiastic and litth'ateur, born at Aix in 1680, wrote "Memoirs oi Illustrious Men." 1 »ied m 1753. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, j, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; BOUGET 413 BOULJRD Bouget, boo'zhi', (Jean,) a French Orientalist, born at Saumur in 1692, became professor of Hebrew in the college of the Propaganda at Rome. He published "Rudiments of Hebrew Grammar," and other learned works. Died in 1775. Boughton, baw'tgn, (George H.,) a distinguished contemporary painter of landscapes and genre, was born in England, and resided many years in London and on the continent. He afterwards settled at Albany, in New York, where he has produced many works of great merit. Among these may be named his "Coming through the Rye," "The Ambush," and "Passing into the Shade." See TucKERMAN, "Book of the Artists." Bougouinc, boo'gwiN', (Simon,) a French litterateur, torn about 1490, was a valet of Louis XIL Bougrov. See Boogrov. Bouguer, boo'gaiR', (Pierre,) a celebrated French mathematician, born at Le Croisic, in Lower Brittany, in 1698, Having obtained several prizes from the Acad- emy of Sciences, he became an associate of that body in 1731. His "Treatise on the Gradation of Light" came out in 1729, and in 1736 he accompanied La Con- damine and Godin to Peru, in order to measure a degree of the meridian. He published an account of this opera- tion, entitled "Theory of the Figure of the Earth," (1749.) He also wrote a "Treatise on Mechanics and Dynamics," and a " Treatise on Navigation and Pilotage," (1753,) and invented an instrument which he named the heliometer. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1758. See article" Bouguer" in the " Biographie Universelle,"by BiOT ; LABRkTHONiE, "Relation de la Conversion et de la Mort de Bou- guer," 1784. Bouhier, boo'e-i', (Jean,) a learned jurist, and mem- ber of the French Academy, born at Dijon in 1673, be- came president of the parliament of Dijon in 1704. He published a number of legal works, and valuable criti- cisms on classical subjects. " He was," says Abbe Olivet, "a savant of the first order." Died in 1746. See OuDiN, " Commentarius de Vita J. Bouhierii," 1746 ; D'Ai.em- BERT, " £.OgeS." Bouhours, boo'ooR', (Dominique,) a French Jesuit and etymologist, born in 1628 in Paris, where he became professor of rhetoric and belles-lettres. He published in 1671 "Conversations of Aristes and Eugenius," and " Remarks and Doubts on the French Language." These works were received with great favour by some critics, and severely assailed by Menage and others. He also wrote a " Life of Francis Xavier," which was translated into English by Dryden. Died in 1702. See Nic^RON, " Memoires " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale ;" Andke Dacier, " filoge de Bouhours," 1702. Bouillard, boo'ytR', (Jacques,) a French engraver, born in 1744; died at Paris in 1806. Bouillart, boo'ytR', (Jacques,) a French ecclesiastic and historian, born at Meulan in 1669; died in 1726. Bouillaud, boo'yo', or Bouilliaud, boo'ye-6', (Ts- maei,,) a French astronomer, born in Loudun in 1605; died in 1694. Bouillaud, (Jean Baptiste,) professor of clinics in the Medical Faculty of Paris, born at Angouleme in 1796. He contributed numerous articles to the "Revue Medi- cale" and other journals, and published a "Treatise on Medical Nosography," (5 vols., 1846.) Bouille, de, deh boo'yi', (FRANgois Claude Amour,) Marquis, a distinguished French general, born in Au- vergne in 1739. In the war of American independence, while Governor of Guadeloupe, he defended the French Antilles against the English, and captured several of their islands. He was a devoted royalist, and active in promoting the escape of Louis XVI. from Paris : on the failure of that enterprise, he repaired to Russia, in order to obtain assistance from the empress Catherine. He died in England in 1800, leaving interesting "Memoirs of the French Revolution," which were published in English, (1797,) German, (1798,) and French, (1801.) See Thiers, " Histoire de ia Revokition Frangaise ;" Ren^ de BouiLi.E. " Essai sur la Vie du Marquis de Bouille," 1853 ; Carlyle, " French Revolution." Bouilles. See Bouelles. Bouillet, boo^yi', (Jean,) a French physician, born near Beziers in 1690 ; died in 1777. Bouillet, (Jean Baptiste,) a French geologist, born at Cluny in 1799, has written on minerals and fossils, and on the geology of Auvergne and Puy-de-D6me. Bouillet, (Marie Nicolas,) a French lexicographet, becan>e inspector of the University of Paris, where he was born in 1798. He published a "Classical Diction- ary of Sacred and Profane Antiquity," (1841,) and other works. Bouillier, boo'ye-^', (Francisque,) a French philos- opher, born at Lyons in 1813, published a "History of the Cartesian Philosophy," (2 vols., 1854.) Bouillon. See Godfrey. Bouillon, de, deh boo'yoN', (Emmanuel Theodore de la Tour d Auvergne — deh It tooR do'vakn^) a French cardinal, son of Frederic Maurice, noticed below, was born in 1644. He became chief almoner to Louis XIV. Diedini7i5. Bouillon, de, (Fr6d6ric Maurice de la Tour d'Auvergne,) Due, elder brother of Marshal Turenne, was born at Sedan in 1605. He fought under his uncle the Prince of Orange, and subsequently entered the French service. Appointed lieutenant-general in 1642, he shared with Prince Thomas of Savoy the command of the army of Italy. During the wars of the Fronde he was an ad- herent of the princes fighting against Mazarin. Died in 1652. See " Memoires de la Vie de F. M. de la Tour d'Auvergne," edited by AuBEKTiN, 1692; PiNARD, " Chronologie Milltaire. " Bouillon, de, (Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne,) Due, a French marshal, originally Viscount Turenne, born in 1 555, was a grandson of the Constable of Mont- morency. At an early age he became a Calvinist, and was a zealous partisan of Henry of Navarre, who ap- pointed him lieutenant-general of his armies. He mar- ried for his second wife Elizabeth of Nassau, daughter of William Prince of Orange. One of the sons of this marriage was the celebrated Turenne, Marshal Bouillon was a patron of learned men, and founded at Sedan a college and library. Died in 1623. See J. Marsollier, " Histoire de H. de la Tour d'Auvergne, Due de Bouillon," 1709; Anselme, "Histoire genealogique des Pairs de France." Bouillon, de, (Robert de la Marck,) Due, a French marshal, born in 1492, became lieutenant-general of Normandy. Died in 1556. See Brantome, "Vies des grands Capitaines." Bouillon-Lagrange, boo'ydw' It'gRSNzh', (Edmk Jean Baptiste,) a French chemist, physician, and writer, born in Paris about 1765, became apothecary to the im- perial household. Died about 1840. Bouilly, boo''ye', (Jean Nicolas,) a French drama- tist and miscellaneous writer, born in the department of Indre-et-Loire in 1763; died in Paris in 1842. See E. Legouve, "J. N. Bouilly," 1842. Boulage, boo'ltzh', (Thomas Pascal,) a French ju- rist, born at Orleans in 1769, became professor of French law in Paris. He was one of those who offered them- selves as a hostage for the liberty of Louis XVI. Died in 1820. Boulainvilliers, de, deh boo'liN^ve'ye^', (Henri,) a French historian, born in Normandy in 1^58, was a son of Fran9ois, Count of Saint-Saire. He wrote a "Chro- nological Abridgment of the History of France," and other works on French history, also a "Life of Mo- hammed," (1730.) Died in 1722. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Querard, "La France Litteraive." Boulanger, boo'lfiN'zhi', (Jean,) a French engraver, born at Amiens in 1607 ; died in 1680. Boulanger, (Louis,) a French painter, born in Pied- mont in 1806, was a friend of Victor Hugo, whose works he illustrated. He gained a first medal in 1836. Boulanger, (Nicolas Antoine,) a French Uttera- tetir, born in Paris in 1722, wrote a work entitled "An- tiquity Unveiled," published after his death. Died in 1759- Boulard, boo'ltu', (Antoine Marie Henri,) born in Paris in 1754, was appointed by La Harpe his executor, and published the last part of his " Cours de Litterature." He was the owner of a very large and valuable library Died in 1825. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, h, vl, guttural ; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2[^='See Explanations, p. 23.) BOULARD BOURBON Boulard, (Michel,) a French philanthropist, born in Paris in 1761, became upholsterer {tapissier) to the em- peror. He gave hirge sums of money to the poor, and left a million francs to found a hospital. Died in 1825. Boulay, boo'iy, (Jacques,) a French agricultural writer of Orleans. Died about 1730. Boulay de la Meurthe, boo'li' deh It mURt, (An- ToiNE Jacques Claude Joseph,) Comte, a French statesman, born in 1761. He became successively a member of the Council of Five Hundred and of the council of regency, (1810,) minister of state, and min- ister of justice conjointly with Cambaceres. He had a principal part in drawing up the Civil Code of Napoleon. Died in 1840. See "Biographic de M. Boulay de la Meurthe," 1836. Boulay de la Meurthe, (Henri George,) Comte, son of the j)receding, born at Nancy in 1797. In 1837 he represented the department of Meurthe in the Chamber of Deputies. He was vice-president of the republic from December, 1848, to December 2, 185 1. Died in Paris in 1858. Boulay, du, dii boo'li', [Lat. Bul^^'us,] (C^sar Egasse,) born in the department of Mayenne, was rector and historiographer of the University of Paris. Died in 1678. Boulay-Paty, boo'la' pt'te', (fivARiSTE F^lix Cy- PRIEn,) son of Pierre Sebastien, noticed below, born at Donges, in Brittany, in 1804. He published a collection of "National Odes," (1830,) and other poems, and re- ceived in 185 1 the Montyon prize of the French Academy for his "Sonnets on Human Life." Boulay-Paty, (Pierre Sebastien,) a French jurist, born in Brittany in 1763, filled several offices during the Revolution, and became a member of the Council of Five Hundred in 1798. Died in 1830. Boulduc, boordlik', (Gilles Franc^ois,) a French chemist, son of Simon, noticed below, born in 1675, came professor of chemistry in the Jardin du Roi in 1729. Died in 1742. Boulduc, (Simon,) professor of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi, and member of the Academy of Sciences in Paris. Died in 1729. Boule, bool, (Andr^; Charles,) a French cabinet- maker, born in Paris in 1642, adorned his works with mosaics. He worked for nearly all the sovereigns of Europe. Died in 1732. Boulee, boo'lk', (^tienne Louis,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1728; died in 1799. Boulen. See Boleyn, (Anne.) Boulgai'ine. See Boolgarin. BouUanger, boo'lSN'zha', (Andr^,) a popular French preacher, born in Paris about 1578; died in 1657. Boullemier, boorme-i', (Charles,) a French eccle- siastic and writer, born^t Dijon in 1725; diedin 1803. Boullenger de Rivery, boo'lSN'zha' deh r^v're', (Claude FRANgois Fi^llx,) a French jurist and littera- teur, born at Amiens in 1725 ; died in 1758. BouUenois or Boulenois, boornwi.', (Louis,) a French jurist and legal writer, born in Paris in 1680 ; died in 1762. Boulliau, boo1e-o', or Bouillaud, boo'y5', [Lat. Bul- LIai/dus,] a distinguished French astronomer, born at Loudun in 1605. He wrote " Astronomia Philolaica," (1682,) and other learned works. Died in 1694. Boullier, boo'le-i', (David Renaud,) a Protestant theologian, of French extraction, born at Utrecht in 1699; died in London in 1759. BouUongne, boo'16Nn^ (Bon,) a French painter, son of Louis, noticed below, (the first of the name,) born in Paris in 1649. He became professor in the Academy of Fine Arts, at Paris, in 1678. His design and composi- tion are praised. Died in 171 7. Boullongne, (Lours,) a French painter and engraver, born in Picardy about 1609, worked in Paris. He had remarkable skill as a copyist. Died in 1674. Boullongne, (Louis,) son of the preceding, born in Paris in 1654, became first painter to the king, and director of the Academy of Fine Arts. Died in 1733. See Hrinf.ckem, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Boulogne, de, deh boo'lon', (Etienne Antoine,) born at Avignon in 1747, became Bishop of Troyes in 1807, was deposed by Napoleon in 1811, and appointed Archbishop of Vienne in 181 7. His collected works were published in 8 vols., (1827 et seq.) Died in 1825. BouPt^r, (Hugh,) born in or near London in 1671, became in 1723 Archbishop of Armagh, in Ireland. He was distinguished for his charities, and his zeal in the cause of education. Died in 1742. BouPtpn, (Matthev^,) an English mechanician, born at Birmingham in 1728. He was the friend and coadju- tor of the celebrated Watt, in conjunction with whom he effected great improvements in the steam-engine, which he also applied to new purposes. His coining-apparatus was particularly distinguished for its excellence. His services are mentioned in terms of the highest praise by Watt. Died in 1809. See a "Life of M. Boulton," published at Birmingham, i8og; Henky Howe, " Eminent American and European Mechanics," 1847. Bouma, b6w''ma, (Dominick Acronius,) a Dutch publicist, was professor of eloquence and political his- tory at Franeker. Died in 1656. Bouquet, boo'ki', (Dom Martin,) a French Bene- dictine monk, born at Amiens in 1685, published a "Col- lection of the Historians of Gaul and France," which has been continued by several other writers. Died in 1754. Bouquier, boo'ke-i', (Gabriel,) a French litterateur, born in Perigord about 1750, was a Jacobin member of the Convention, (1792-95.) Died in 1811. Bouquin. See Boquin. Bourbon, boor'bon, [Fr. pron. booR^boN',] the name of a famous P^ ench dynasty, which reigned over France from 1589 to 1848, excepting the period of the republic and the empire of Naj^oleon I. Henry IV. was the first king of the house of Bourbon, The house of Orleans is a younger branch of the same family, the founder of which was Robert, Count de Clermont, a younger son of King Louis IX. Robert died in 13 17. (See Orleans.) Louis de Bourbon, first Duke, and Count of Cler- mont, was a son of Robert, and was born in 1279. He fought with success against the English for Charles le Bel, and was created Duke of Bourbon. He died in 1341. Pierre, the second duke, a son of Louis I., was born in 13 10. He was a brave warrior, and was killed at the battle of Poitiers in 1356. His son, Louis II., third Duke of Bourbon, born in 1337, distinguished himself in battle against the English. In 1391 he led a successful crusade against the pirates of Tunis. Died in 1410. Jean, the fourth duke, born in 1381, was the eldest son of Louis II. He was a leader of the Armagnac party in the civil war. He was taken prisoner by the English at Agincourt, and confined until his death in 1434. His son Charles I., born in 1401, became fifth Duke of Bourbon. He rendered important military services to the dauphin, (Charles VII.,) and defended Orleans against the English in 1428. Died in 1456. Jean II., the sixth duke, born about 1426, was the eldest son of Charles I. He joined the Due de Bretagne and others in the league against Louis XL, {ligue du bien public.) In 1483 he became Constable of France. Died in 1488. The seventh duke was Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon, a son of Charles I., born in 1437. He was a diplomatist and a favourite counsellor of Louis XI. See Desormeaux, "Histoire de la Maison de Bourbon," 5 vols., 1772-S8. Bourbon, (Nicolas,) surnamed the Elder, a French scholar and distinguished Latin poet, born near Bar-sur- Aube in 1503 ; died in 1550. Bourbon, (Nicolas,) the Younger, nephew of the preceding, born near Bar-sur-Aube in 1774. He be- came professor of Greek at the Royal College in 161 1, and was a member of the French Academy. Died in 1644. Bourbon, de, (Antoine.) See Antony of Bour- bon. Bourbon, de, deh booR^bdN', (Charles,)Duc, usually called Constable Bourbon, (Connetable de Bourbon,) a famous French general, born in February, 1490, was a son of Gilbert Bourbon, Count of Montpensier. He married the heiress of the Duke of Bourbon, and ob- tained with her the title of duke. Having served several campaigns in Italy, he received in 1 5 15 the office of a, e, T, o, u, y, long; \ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, sJwrt; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; rah.; n6t; good; moon; BOURBON BOURDOIS constable, the highest military office in the kingdom of France. He contributed to the victory of Marignano, (1515,) and in the next year was chosen viceroy of the Milanese. His loyalty to Francis I. was shaken by various injuries and acts of ingratitude, which historians attribute to the influence of the king's mother, Louisa of Savoy. Her motive is supposed to have been resent- ment for the coldness or contempt with which he treated her amorous overtures. About 1521 he was deprived by legal process of his estates, which were claimed by Louisa of Savoy. This transaction determined the haughty duke to accept the brilliant offers which he had received from Charles V., for whose service he raised a large body of Germans in 1523. He became lieutenant-general of the emperor in Italy, and had a high command at the battle of Pavi'a, (1525.) The victory at this place is attributed by some writers to his skill. (See Avalos, Marquis OF Pkscara.) He was regarded with distrust by Charles v., who neglected to pay the German troops commanded l)y Bourbon Disgusted by the conduct of Charles, he resolved to become an independent prince and to satisfy l)is mutinous troops with the spoils of conquest. His first enterprise was extremely bold, and conducted with great ability. He led his army three hundred miles or more through a hostile country, and assaulted Rome. He was the first who mounted the wall, and was killed among the first, on the 6th of May, 1527. His victo- rious army (which contained many Lutherans) pillaged the city, and committed frightful excesses. He was reputed the ablest French general of his time. I'he Constable Bourbon forms a prominent character in Byron's drama entitled "The Deformed Transformed." See Robertson, " Histoi7 of Charles V.;" Brantome, "Vies des grands Capitaines;" Guicciardini, " Historia d'ltalia ;" Gail- LAKD, " Histoiie de Francois I ;" N. Baudot de Juilly, " Histoire secrete du Coniieiable de Bourbon," 1612 ; Von Sciuvaktzknau, "Der Konnetable Karl von Bourbon, Biider ans seinem Leber.," 1852: Major-General John Mitchell, "Biographies of Eminent Soldiers ot the Last F our Centuries," 1865. Bourbon, de, (Charles,) Cardinal, born in 1520, was a brother of Antoine de Bourbon, and an uncle of Henry IV. of France. He was one of the chiefs of the Catholic League, and was proclaimed king, with the title of Charles X., in 1589. He was recognized as such by the Parliament of Paris and the majority of the people. Died in 1590. See J. DuBREUi., "Vie de Charles de Bourbon," 1612 : Sismondi, " Histoire des FranQais." Bourbon, de, (Charles,) Cardinal Vendome, a rela- tive of the preceding, born about 1 560. He was a son of Louis, first Prince de Conde. Died in 1594. Bourbon, de, (Louis Henri,) Due, son of Louis, born at Versailles in 1692. After the death of Louis XIV,, he was placed at the head of the council of re- gency, and was subsequently first minister of Louis XV. Died in 1740. Bourbon, de, (Luis Antonio,) a younger son of Philip V. of Spain, born in 1727, was made a cardinal about the age of eight, but renounced that ofiire when he arrived at manhood. Died in 1785. Bourbon, de, (Luis Maria,) a Spanish prelate, born in 1777, was a son of the preceding. As president of the regency, he promulgated the Constitution of 1812, and abolished the Inquisition. Died in 1823. Bourbon, de, (Mathieu,) surnamed le grand Ba- TARD, was a son of Jean II., Duke of Bourbon, and was distinguished as a warrior. Died in 1505. Bourbon Conde, de, deh booR'bdN'' k6N'di',(Louis,) Due, a French nobleman and soldier, born in 1668, was a grandson of the great Conde. Died in 1710. Bourbotte, booR'bot', (Pierre,) a French Jacobin, and member of the National Convention, born near Avallon in 1763. Having excited an insurrection, he was defeated, and executed in 1795. See Thiers, "Histoire de la Revolution Frangaise." Bourcet, booR^s^', (Pierre Joseph,) a French tac- tician and military writer, born near Chatellerault in 1700. Died in 1780. Bourchenu, de, deh booRsh'nii', (Jean Pierre Mo- ret,) Marquis de Valbonnais, a French historical writer, born at Grenoble in 1651 ; died in 1730. Bourchier, (John.) See Berners, Lord. Bourchier, boor'chi-er, [Fr. pron. booR'she-i',] Bourgchier, or Bouchier, (Thomas,) an EnglislT^c- clesiastic, rose to be Archbishop of Canterbury in 1454, cardinal, and lord chancellor of England. He crowned Edward IV., Richard III., and Henry VII., and per- formed the marriage-ceremony between the last-named sovereign and Elizabeth of York. Died in i486. See W. F. Hook, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. V. cliap. xxi., i860. Bourcicault. See BoueieAULT. Bourci6r, booR^se-V, (Jean Leonard,) Baron de Montureux, (deh m6N'tii'ruh',) a French jurist and magis- trate, born at Vezelise, in Lorraine, in 1649. He was the principal author of the Leopold Code, adopted in Lorraine. Died in 1726. See M. Salmon, "fitude sur le President Bourcier," 1846. Bourcier, (Jean Louis,) Comte de Montureux, a French magistrate and jurist, son of the preceding, born at Luxembourg in 1687 ; died in 1737. Bourdaille, booR^dSF or booR'dt'ye, (MieHEL,) a French theologian, and doctor of the Sorbonne, Died in 1694, Bourdaisiere, de la, deh It booR'da'ze-aiR', (Jean Babou,) Seigneur, a French statesman, lived about 1570. Bourdaloue, booRMS'loo^ (Louis,) an eminent French pulpit orator and Jesuit, born at Bourges on the 20th of August, 1632. Having been successively pro- fessor of rhetoric, philosophy, and moral theology, he was appointed in 1669 court preacher in Paris, where for more than twenty years he preached the sermons during Lent and Advent. His discourses were enthusiastically admired by Louis XIV. and his court; and the king ob- served that Bourdaloue's "repetitions were better than the novelties of others." Plis main object was to con- vince, and his chief weapon was logic, compared with which he considered pathos of secondary importance. His proofs fortify each other by their connection, and respond by their gradation to the auditor's desire to re- ceive impressions more and more vivid. He is said to have been a shining example of modesty, consistency, and other virtues appropriate to his office. His sermons were published in 16 vols., 1707-34. Died in 1704. See Prignv, "Vie de Bourdaloue," 1705; Villenave, " Noti9e sur Bourdaloue," 1812 ; Jean Laboudkrie, "Notice sur Bourda- loue," 1825; De Saint-Amand, "Notice biographique sur le P. Bourdaloue," 1842. Bourdeille, de, (Claude.) See Montr^sor. Bourdeilles, de, (Pierre.) See Brantome. Bourdelot, booRcl'lo', (Jean,) a celebrated French scholar, published valuable editions of Lucian, Helio- dorus, and Petronius. Died in 1638. Bourdelot, (Pierre Mighon,) Abb6, a distinguished French physician, born in 1610 at Sens, was patronized by Christina of vSweden. He wrote an "Account of Mount ALtna," and "The History of Music and its Effects,'- (1715.) Died in 1685. Bourdic-Viot, de, deh booR^^k' veV, (Marie Anne Henriette Payan de I'Etang — pt'ySN' deh li't6N',) an authoress, born at Dresden in 1746, was suc- cessively married to the Marquis d'Antremont, the Baron de Bourdic, and M. Viot. She published eulogies on Montaigne and Tasso, and other works. She was eulo- gized by Voltaire. Died near Bagnols in 1802. See Querard, "La France Litteraire." Bourdigne, de, deh booR^din'yi', (Charles,) a French poet, born at Angers ; died in 1531. Bourdin, booR'diN', (Gilles,) a French scholar, born in Paris in 1515, published esteemed commentaries on several of the classics. Died in 1570. Bourdin, (Jacques,) a French statesman under Henry TL, Francis II., and Charles IX., became secretary of finance in 1549. He wrote in defence of the rights of the Galilean Church. Died in 1567. Bourdin, (Maurice,) a French prelate, born in Li- mousin, became Archbishop of Braga, and was subse- quently elected pope by the German emperor Henry V., in opposition to Gelasius II. He was soon after deposed, and died in prison in 11 22. See Artaud de Montor, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes." Bourdois de la Mothe, booR'dwi' deh IS mot, (Edme Joachim,) a French physician, born at Joigny in € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; o, H, Yi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (S:^=See Explanations, p. 23.) BOURDOISE 416 BOURGUET 1754. He was physician to Louis XVIII. and Charles X. Died about 1830. Bourdoise, book'dwSz', (Adrien,) a French theolo- gian, born near Chartres in 1584; died in 1655. See Descourveaux, "Viede M. Bourdoise," 1714; Bouchard, "Vie de M. Bourdoise," 1784. Boui'don, booRMAN', (Aim6,) a French physician, born at Canibray in 1638. He published an "Anatomi- cal Description of the Human Body," and "New Ana- tomical Tables." Died in 1706. Bourdon, (Isidore,) an eminent French physician and writer, born at Merry, in Orne, in 1 796. He practised in Paris, and published numerous and valuable works, among which are "Principles of Medical Physiology," (2 vols., 1828,) " Principles of Comparative Physiology, or History of the Phenomena of Life in all Beings which are endowed with it," (1830,) and "Illustrious Physi- cians and Naturalists of Modern Times," (1844.) He is said to be one of the most brilliant writers of his time. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Bourdon, (Pierre Louis Marie,) a French mathe- matician, born at Alen9on in 1799, published "Elements of Algebra," (1843,) ^'""^ other wori notice of Bowditch in the " American Journal of Science," vol. xxxv. Bowd'ler, (Hannah,) sister of Thomas, noticed be- low, published " Poems and Essays," and " Sermons on the Doctrines and Duties of Christianity." Died in 1830. Her sister Jane was also distinguished as a writer. Bowdler, (John,) brother of the preceding, born in London in 1783, published "Select Pieces in Verse and Prose," and other works. Died in 1815. See "Memoir of John Bowdler and Thomas Bowdler;" "Lon- don Quarterly Review" for January and April, 1819; "Edinburgh Review" for August, 181 7. Bowdler, (Thomas,) an English physician, born near Bath in 1754, wrote "Letters from Holland," and edited "The Family Shakspeare." Died in 1825. Bowdoin, boM'n, (James,) a patriotic American governor, born in Boston in 1727, was descended from a Huguenot refugee. He graduated at Harvard College in 1745, and inherited an ample fortune. He was elected president of the Council of Massachusetts in 1775, be- fore which he had served many years in the council and general court. In 1778 he was president of the con- vention which formed the Constitution of Massachusetts. He was chosen Governor of the State in 1785, and again in 1786. Among the events of his administration was Shays's rebellion, which he suppressed with vigour. He was one of the chief founders of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences at Boston. Died in 1790. Bowdoin, (James,) a son of the preceding, was born at Boston in 1752. In 1805 he was sent on a mission to Spain to negotiate the cession of Florida to the United States, and to settle other affairs. He was a benefactor of Bowdoin College. Died in 181 1. Bow'en, (Francis,) an American scholar and author, born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 181 1, graduated with distinction at Harvard University in 1833. He edited the "North American Review" from 1843 until 1854, and published, in 1849, "Lowell Lectures on the Application of Metaphysical and Ethical Science to the Evidences of Religion." In 1853 he became Alford professor of natural religion, moral philosophy, and civil polity in Harvard University. He contributed several articles to Sparks's "American Biography" and to the " Imperial Dictionary of Biography." Among his works is " Principles of Political Economy applied to the Condition of the American Peo])le," (1856,) favourably noticed in the " North American Review" for April, 1856. Bowen, (John S.,) an American general, born in Georgia about 183 1, graduated at West Point in 1853. He became a major-general in the Confederate service, and commanded the army which General Grant defeated at Port Gibson in May, 1863. He died at Raymond, Mississippi, in July or August of that year. Bowen, (Pardon,) M.D., a physician, born in Provi- dence, Rhode Island, in 1757. He published an "Account of the Yellow Fever at Providence." Died in 1826. Bowen, (William C.,) an American physician, born probably in Rhode Island, in 1785. He was a pupil of Sir Astley Cooper of London, and was appointed pro- fessor of chemistry in Brown University in 1812. His experiments on the bleaching-properties of chlorine pro- duced a disease or injury of which he died in 181 5. Bow'er, (Archibald,) a Scottish writer, born at Dundee about 1686, originally a Catholic, professed Protestantism for a time, and afterwards returned to Catholicism. He was a contributor to the " Historia Literaria" and the "Universal History," and wrote a "History of the Popes," Died in 1766. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Bow'er-bank, (John Scott,) an English naturalist, born in London about 1797, published a "History of the Fossil Fruits_and Seeds of the London Clay." Bowie, bol, (John,) an English divine, was a con- tributor to the " Archaeologia" and the "Biographical History of England," and defended Milton against the attacks of Lauder. Died in 1788. Bowles, (Caroline.) See Southey. Bowles, bolz, (William,) a distinguished naturalist, born in Ireland, resided in Spain, where he publisheo, in 1775, an "Introduction to the Natural History ana the Physical Geography of Spain," (in Spanish.) It has been translated into French and Italian. Bowles, (William A.,) was born in Maryland. Dur- ing the American Revolution he instigated the Indians to commit atrocities against the whites. He afterwards incited the savages against the Spaniards, who took him prisoner. He died in prison, at Havana, in 1805. Bowles, (William Lisle,) an eminent English poet, born at King's Sutton, on the border of Northamp- tonshire, in September, 1762. He was educated at Trinity College, Oxford, and chose the clerical profes- sion. After he had been disappointed in love by the death of a lady to whom he was engaged, he composed, in 1789, "Fourteen Sonnets," which were remarkable for grace of expression and an air of melancholy tender- ness. He became rector of Dumbleton in 1 797, married a daughter of the Rev. Dr. Wake, and obtained the valu- able living of Bremhill, Wiltshire, in 1805. He published in 1804 "The Spirit of Discovery," which is his longest poem. Among his numerous other poems are "The Grave of Howard," (1790,) "The Missionary of the Andes," (1822,) and "Saint John in Patmos," (1832.) In 1828 he became a canon of Salisbury Cathedral. He edited the works of Pope, (1807,) and made some criticisms on that author which provoked a long contro- versy between himself and the two poets Byron and Campbell. He published in 1825 his "Final Appeal to the Literary Public relative to Pope." Died in 1850. The poems of Bowles were admired by Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Southey, the last of whom wrote to a friend, " My poetical taste was much meliorated by Bowles." "The Sonnets of Bowles," saysHallam, "may be reckoned among the first-fruits of a new era in poetry. They came in an age when a commonplace facility in rhyming, on the one hand, and an almost nonsensical affectation in a new school, on the other, had lowered the standard so much that critical judges spoke of Eng- lish poetry as of something nearly extinct." ("Address before the Royal Society of Literature.") See a " Life of Bowles," by a relative and Alaric Watts ; " Men I have known," by William Jerdan, London, 1866; "London Quarterly Review" for April and December, 1818, and May and July, 1820. Bow'man, (William,) F.R.S., an English surgeon, born at Nantwich about 1816. He became professor of ])hysiology and anatomy in King's College, London. He published " Lectures on Operations on the Eye," and other works. BowMng, (Sir John,) LL.D., an English statesman and linguist, noted for his attainments in the Sclavonic languages, was born in Exeter in 1792. He published "Specimens of the Russian Poets," (1821,) "Ancient Poetry and Romances of Spain," " Poetry of the Mag- yars," "Servian Popular Poetry," (1829,) and "Ches- kian Anthology," (1832.) He had become in 1825 editor of the "Westminster Review," for which he wrote nu- merous articles on political economy and in favour of free trade. He was elected to Parliament in 1835, re- elected in 1841, continuing in office till 1849, when he was appointed British consul at Hong-Kong and su- perintendent of trade in China. He was knighted in 1854, and made governor of Hong-Kong. He had pub- lished in 1838-39 "The Works of Jeremy Bentham," who was his intimate friend and had appointed him his executor. He returned from China about 1858. See " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1831 ; " Dictionnaire d'fico- nomie politique." Bow'yer, (Sir George,) an English jurist, born in Berkshire in 1811, published a "Treatise on Modern Civil Law," and other works. He became in 1852 a member of Parliament, where he has distinguished him- self as a zealous defender of the policy of the Roman Catholic powers. Bowyer, (William,) a celebrated English printer and scholar, born in London in 1699. Among the numerous and excellent works which issued from his press we may name his " Novum Testamentum Grae- cum," the " Greek Lexicon" of Schrevelius, the " Works e as c as s: g hard; g as/; g, h, y., guttural; N, uasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BOXER 420 BOTER of Selden," (" Seldeni Opera Omnia,") Pocock's "De- scription of the East," Vertot's " Knights of Maha," and "The Coptic Pentateuch." These editions are not only of great typographic beauty and accuracy, but are en- riched with valuable notes, prefaces, and indexes. He also wrote " Remarks on Greek and Roman Money," a treatise " On the Origin of Printing," and " Critical Conjectures and Observations on the New Testament," a work of the highest reputation, which was translated into German by Schulz. He was a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. He was distinguished for the benevo- lence and integrity of his character, and numbered among his friends many of the most eminent scholars of his time. Died in 1777. See "Biographical and Literary Anecdotes of William Bowyer," by John Nichols, 1778. Box^er, (Edward,) an English admiral, born at Dover in 1784, served against the French in the campaigns of 1 80 1 and 1809, and subsequently took part in the Crimean war. Died near Balaklava in 1855. Boxhorn, boks'hoRn, (Marcus Zuerius — zii-a're-us,) an eminent Dutch critic and historian, born at Berg-op- Zoom in 1612. He succeeded Heinsius as professor of history and politics at Leyden. He wrote a large num- ber of Latin works, in prose and verse, among which are "Quaestiones Romance," (1637,) " Chronicle of Zealand," (1643,) and a '* Universal History," (1675.) Died in 1653. See NiCERON, "Memoires;" L. Barl^us, " Oratio funebris in Excessum INI. Z. Boxhornii," 1653. Boyardo. See Boiardo. Boyce. See Boece. Boyce, (William,) an eminent English composer, born in Eondon in 1710. He studied under Dr. Greene, and in 1758 became organist to the Chapel Royal. Among his best works are his grand anthem, " Lord, Thou hast been our Refuge," a " Te Deum," six anthems, and a Jubilate in Dr. Arnold's "Collection of Cathedral Music," and " Solomon," a serenata. He also published a work entitled " The Cathedral Music of the English Masters of the Last Two Centuries," (3 vols, fob, 1760.) Died in 1779. See Fetis, " Blograpliie Universelle des Miisiciens." Boyd, (Andrew K. H.,) a popular Scottish writer and divine, born in Ayrshire in 1825. He published in '* Fraser's Magazine" a number of essays, which appeared in i860 under the title of "Recreations of a Country Parson." He has also been a contributor to the "Atlantic Monthly." Boyd, (Henry,) an Irish litteratetir, published "Dra- matic and Lyric Poems," and translatecl Dante's " Divine Comedy" into English verse. Died in 1832. Boyd, (Hugh Macauley,) a jurist aiid political wri- ter, born in the county of Antrim, Ireland, in 1746. In 1 781 he accompanied Lord Macartney to Madras, where he died about 1792. The "Letters of Junius" were for a time attributed to him. See " Biogvaphia Britannica." Boyd, (Hugh Stuart,) an English writer and Greek scholar. He translated into English some of the works of Chrysostom, Gregory Nazianzen, and Basil, (1806,) and wrote several treatises on theology. Died in 1848. See "Edinburgh Review" for November, 1814. Boyd, (James,) an English classical scholar, born about 1795. He edited, besides other works, Adams's " Roman Antiquities." Died in 1856. Boyd, (John Parker,) an American general, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1768, commanded a small corps in the service of Holkar and other East In- dian princes. He served as a brigadier-general in the American army in the war of 1812, and took part in the battle of Williamsburg, Canada, in November, 1813. Died in 1830. Boyd, (Linn,) from 1853 to 1855 Speaker of the Na- tional House of Representatives, was born at Nashville, Tennessee, in 1800. In 1835 he was elected to Congress, and, with the exception of 1837-38, was regularly re- elected till 1855, a period of twenty years. Died in 1859. Boyd, (Mark Alexander,) a Scottish writer, born at Galloway in 1562, published "Epistolee Heroidum," and other esteemed Latin poems. Died in 1601. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Boyd, (Robert,) a Scottish statesman, and one of the lords of the regency during the minority of James III. He afterwards declared himself sole regent, and pro- moted a marriage between his son, subsequently Lord Arran, and the sister of the king. Being summoned to Parliament by James to answer for his conduct, Boyd escaped to England^' where he died in 1470. See Burton's "History of Scotland," chap. xxix. Boyd, (Robert,) a Scottish divine, born at Glasgow in 1578 ; died in 1627. Boyd, (WiLuiAivi,/ Earl of Kilmarnock, a Scottish Jacobite, born in 1704. He was taken prisoner at Cul- loden, tried for treason, and executed in 1746. Boyd, (Zachary,) a Scottish theologian, lived at Glasgow, and wrote "Zion's Flowers," in verse, and other works. Died in 1653. Boy'dell, (John,) an English engraver and amateur, born in Shropshire, or, as some writers assert, in Staf- fordshire, in 1719. Having previously published a col- lection of engravings, among which were upwards of one hundred of his own views in England and Wales, he began business as a print-seller, by which he acquired an immense fortune. By his patronage of the best Eng- lish painters and engravers he rendered the greatest services to art in his native country. His " Shakspeare Gallery," consisting of illustrations of Shakspeare's dra- mas, by the most eminent English painters, whom he employed, is a splendid monument of his munificence. The engravings from these pictures were published under his patronage in a superb folio volume, (1803.) Boydell had been elected in 1790 lord mayor of London. Died in 1804. See Strutt, "Dictionary of Engravers." Boye, bo'ygh, (Caspar Johannes,) a distinguished poet and divine, born at Kongsberg, in Norway, in 1 791, wrote several poems and tragedies. He also translated Sir Walter Scott's romances, and several German works. See Erslew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." Boyen, bo'yen, (Hermann,) a Prussian statesman and general, born at Kreuzburg in 1771. He served against the French in the campaigns of 1810-12, and became minister of war about 1814. In 1847 he was made a field-marshal, and governor of the House of Invalids at Berlin. Died in 1848. Boyer, bwa''ya', (Abel,) a French lexicographer, born at Castres in 1664, published a "French Dictionary" and " Grammar," a " Dissertation on French Prosody," and other works. Died in 1729. Boyer, (Alexis,) a celebrated French surgeon, born in Limousin in 1757. He became about 1804 first sur- geon of the emperor Napoleon, who made him a baron of the empire and conferred on him the cross of the legion of honour. He was appointed in 1823 consulting surgeon to Louis XVIII., which post he continued to hold under Charles X. and Louis Philippe. He was afterwards chief surgeon of the Hospital of Charity, in Paris, and a member of the Institute. He published a "Complete Treatise on Anatomy," (4 vols., 1799,) and a "Treatise on Surgical Maladies," (ii vols., 1814-26.) Died in Paris in 1833. See a " Notice sur la Vie et les CEuvres de Boyer," prefixed to an edition of his "Traite des Maladies chirurgicales," 7 vols., 1844-53; Roux, "iSloge de Boyer;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Boyer, (Jean Baptiste,) Marquis d'Aguilles, (da'gel' or dt'ge'ye,) a French painter and engraver, born at Aix about 1640 ; died in 1709. Boyer, (Jean Baptiste Nicolas,) a French physi- cian, born at Marseilles in 1693, was conspicuous for his skill and humanity during the prevalence of the plague in that city in 1720. He wrote an "Historic Account of the Plague of Marseilles," and several treat- ises on infectious diseases. Died in 1768. See Querard, "La France Litteraire." Boyer, (Jean Franqois,) a French theologian, born in Paris in 1675, became Bishop of Mirepoix in 1730, and subsequently preceptor to the dauphin, father of Louis XVI. He was a member of the French Academy and of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1741 succeeded Cardinal de Polignac in the Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1755. a, e, T, 0, \\, y, long; \, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, 11, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, f^t; mit; n&t; good; moon; BOTER BOTM Boyer, boiler, [Fr. pron. bw^'yV,] (Jean Pierre,) President of tlie republic of Hayti, born at Port-au- Prince in 1776, was the son of a white creoIe and a free negress. After the capture of Toussaint L'Ouverture in the revokition of 1802, he attached himself to the party of the mulatto general Alexander Petion, then at war with Christophe, and rose to the rank of general of di- vision. On the death of Petion he succeeded him as President of the republic in 1818. The Haytians be- coming dissatisfied with his rule, he was deposed in 1842 and obliged to leave the country. He was succeeded by Herard, also a mulatto. Died in Paris in 1850. See Madion, "Histoire d'Haiti," 1847. Boyer, (Pierre,) a French theological writer, born at Arlanes in 1677; died in 1755. Boyer, (Pierre Denis,) a French ecclesiastic and controversialist, born at Caissac in 1766, became pro- fessor of dogmatic theology in the Seminary of Saint- Sulpice, Paris. Died in 1842. Boyer-Fonfrede. See Fonfrede. Boyle, (Charles,) Earl of Or''rery, a son of Roger, Earl of Orrery, and nephew of the great Robert Boyle, was born at Chelsea in 1676. While a student at Christ Church, Oxford, he published, at the age of nineteen, an edition of the "Epistles of Phalaris," with some reflec- tions on the incivility of Bentley, who was keeper of the king's library, and who had lent to Boyle a manuscript of the Epistles, with a remark that they were spurious. (See Bentley, Richard.) In 1698 appeared a witty and personal attack on Bentley, entitled an "Examination of tlie Dissertation on the Epistles of Phalaris, by the Hon. Charles Boyle," which was written mostly by Atterbury. Boyle fought as major-general at the battle of Malplaquet m 1709. Soon after the accession of George I., he be- came a favourite courtier of that king. Died in 1731. See BuDGELL, "Memoirs of the Lives and Characters of the Family of the Boyles," 1732. Boyle, (Henry,) an able politician, a son of Charles, Lord Clifford, and a great-grandson of the first Earl of Cork. He was chancellor of the exchequer from 1701 to 1708, and in the latter year became secretary of state. He was created Lord Carleton in 17 14, and appointed president of the council. He was a nephew of the famous Robert Boyle. Died in 1725. Boyle, (Henry,) a grandson of Roger, Lord Broghill, became Speaker of the Irish House of Commons in 1732. About 1756 he received the title of Earl of Shannon. Died in 1764. Boyle, (Jeremiah T.,) an American general and law- yer, born in Mercer county, Kentucky, in 1818. He en- tered the Union army in 186 1, and commanded a brigade at Shiloh, April, 1862. Boyle, (John,) son of Charles Boyle, fourth Earl of Orrery, born about 1707. As a member of the House of Lords, he was conspicuous for his opposition to Sir Robert Walpole. He published " Imitations of Two of the Odes of Horace," and " Remarks on the Life and Writings of Swift." Died in 1762. Boyle, (Richard,) the first Earl of Cork, called "the Great Earl of Cork," was born at Canterbury in 1566. He settled in Ireland, acquired a large estate, and held several high offices. In 1620 he was created Earl of Cork. He contributed greatly to the suppression of the Irish Rebellion of 1641. He had seven sons. Died in 1643 or 1644. Boyle, (Richard,) second Earl of Cork, a son of the preceding, born in 1612. He was a partisan of Charles I. in the civil war, and received the title of Earl of Bur- lington. Died in January, 1698. Boyle, (Richard,) fourth Earl of Cork and third Earl of Burlington, born in 1695, was an amateur archi- tect, and a friend of Pope. Died in 1753. Boyle, (Robert,) a celebrated chemist and experi- mental philosopher, born at Lismore, in Ireland, on the 25th of January, 1626, was the seventh son of Richard, the "great Earl of Cork." He studied at Eton and at Geneva, which he left in 1 641, and afterwards travelled in Italy. In 1644 he returned to England, and devoted himself to study and experiments. He resided at Oxford from 1654 to 1668. He improved the air-pump, and dis- covered the law of the air's elasticity, — namely, that its bulk is inversely as the pressure. By his "Skeptica. Chymist" (1661) he contributed to subvert the theories of the iatro-chymists. He taught that the elements of bodies are atoms of different shapes and sizes, the uniou of which gives origin to what are vulgarly called ele- ments. He was one of the founders of the Royal Society, of which he was chosen president in 1680, but he de- clined the honour. " No one Englishman of the seventeenth century after Lord Bacon," says Hallam, "raised to himself so high a reputation in experimental philosophy as Robert Boyle. . . . His 'Disquisition on Final Causes' was a well- timed vindication of that palmary argument against the paradox of the Cartesians, who had denied the validity of an inference from the manifest adaptation of means to ends in the universe to an intelligent Providence. Boyle takes a more philosophical view of the principle of final causes than had been found in many theologians." (" In- troduction to the Literature of Europe.") Boyle learned the Hebrew and Greek languages to qualify himself to write in defence-of revealed religion, and printed at his own expense a translation of the Gos- pels into the Malay language. He refused a peerage, which was offered to him repeatedly. It has been re- marked that he was born in the year of Bacon's death, as the person destined by nature to succeed him ; and he may be accounted the most zealous and successful dis- ciple of Bacon in inductive philosophy. His merits were commemorated by Boerhaave in terms like these : " Mr. Boyle, the ornament of his age and country, succeeded to the genius and talents of Lord Verulam. We owe to him the secrets of fire, air, water, animals, plants, and fossils." Lie was distinguished for his liberality and active benevolence. Among his works are a " Free Inquiry into the Re- ceived Notion of Nature," "Excellency of Theology," a "Discourse of Things above Reason," "On the Great Veneration that Man's Intellect owes to God," "Con- siderations on the Style of the Holy Scriptures," and " Hydrostatical Paradoxes," (1666.) An edition of his complete works (with a Life of the author prefixed) was published by Dr. Birch in 5 vols, folio, 1744. By his last will he left a fund to endow eight sermons in a year in defence of the Christian religion, which are called the "Boyle Lectures." He was never married, and took no part in political affairs. From 1668 until his death he resided mostly in London, where he died on the 30th of December, 1691. A narrative of his early life, written by himself, may be found prefixed to the edition of his works published bv Dr. Birch in 1744. See BuDGEi.L, "Memoirs of the Lives and Characters of the Family of the Boyles;" Thomas Birch, "Life and Writings of the Hon. R. Boyle," 1741 ; Hoefer, "Histoire delaChimie;" " Ency- clopjpdia Britannica." Boyle, (Roger,) Baron Broghill, son of the first Earl of Cork, was born in 1621. Originally a partisan of Charles I., he afterwards fought under Cromwell, and distinguished himself at the siege of Clonmel, in Ireland. He became one of Cromwell's privy council, and, after the restoration of Charles II., filled the same office, was made lord president of the province of Munster, and created Earl of Orrery. He wrote several poems, and a romance called " Parthenissa." Died in 1679. See Hume, "History of England." Boyleau, Boyleaux, bwcVlo', sometimes written Boilesve, (E.stienne,) an eminent French magistrate and jurist, born about 1200. He accompanied Saint Louis in the crusade of 1248, and was appointed after his return provost of Paris. Boyl'ston, (Nichola.s,) the founder of the Boylston professorship of rhetoric and elocution of Harvard Uni- versity, was born in 1716; died in 1771. Boylston, (Zabdiel,) a physician, noted as the first who practised inoculation for the small-pox in America, w'as born at Brookline, Massachusetts, in 1680. He began to inoculate in Boston in 1721, and excited an opposition so violent that the populace threatened to hang him. He was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1766. Boym, boim, (Michael,) a Polish Jesuit, was a m.is- sionary to India and China, where he died in 1659. He wrote an "Account of China," and other works. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23. ) BOTNE 422 BR AD DOCK Boyne loin, (Gustavus Hamilton,) Lord, a British general, born about 1640. Having enlisted in the service of William of Orange, he was appointed governor of Enniskillen in 1689. He served with distinction at the battle of the Boyne, (1690,) and in other battles in Ireland. He was created Viscount Boyne in 171 7. Died in 1723. Boyse, Boys, or Bois, boiss, (John,) an English scholar, born in Suffolk in 1560, assisted in the transla- tion of the Bible under James I., and was one of the com- mittee of six charged to revise it. He also co-operated with Sir Henry Saville in the publication of the works of Saint Chrysostom. Died in 1643. See Pits, "De Scriptoribus Angliae." Boyse, (Joseph,) an English dissenting divine, born in Yorkshire in 1660, belonged to the sect of Brownists, and was a coadjutor of Thomas Emlyn. Died in 1728. Boyse, (Samuel,) an English poet, son of the pre- ceding, born in Dublin in 1708. Although patronized by several persons eminent for rank and talents, he died in extreme poverty, ovying to his dissolute habits, (1749.) He contributed numerous poems to the " Gentleman's Magazine," and published separately "Chaucer's Tales in Modern English," "Albion's Triumph," and other works. Boyseau, de, deh bw3.^z5', (Pierre,) Marquis de Chateaufort, (deh shi't5Tor',) born near Namur in 1659, fought on the side of Philip V. in the war of the Spanish succession, and became Captain-General of Old Castile. Died in 1 741. See De Stassart, "Notice sur P. Boyseau," 1846. Boysen, boi'zen, (Friedrich Eberhard,) a German historian, born at Halberstadt in 1720. He produced a "Universal History," (10 vols., 1767-72,) and other works. Died in 1800. See Ersch imd Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" " F. E. Boysen's Lebensbeschreibung," 2 vols., 1795. Boyssieres, de, deh bwi^se-aiR', (Jean,) a French poet, was born at Clermont-Ferrand in 1555. Boz. See Dickens. Boze, de, deh boz, (Claude Gros,) an eminent French archaeologist, born at Lyons in 1680. He be- came in 1706 perpetual secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 171 5 succeeded Fenelon in the French Academy. He published an " Historical Treat- ise on the Jubilee of the Jews," (1702,) a " Dissertation on the Janus of the Ancients," and several treatises on numismatics. Died in 1753. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Boz'man, (John Leeds,) an American lawyer, poet, and historian, born in Oxford, Maryland, in 1757. He was a contributor to " Dennie's Port-Folio" and other periodicals, and was author of a " History of Maryland," (2 vols. 8vo,) and of several legal works. Died in 1823. Bozzaris or Botzaris, bot'sa-ris, popularly called boz-zir'is, (Marcos,) a celebrated modern Greek patriot, born at Suli, in Albania, about 1790. He enlisted in the French army about 1808, and retired in 1815 to the Ionian Isles, where he married. In the war of independ- ence which began in 1820 he was an able leader and performed many heroic exploits. He was appointed Stratarch of Western Greece late, in 1822, and passed the winter at Missolonghi. In the summer of 1823 he attacked by night a greatly superior force of Turks, and fell mortally wounded in the action, which resulted in a decisive victory of the Greeks. See C. Paganel, "Tombeau de M. Botzaris," 1826; Pouque- viLLE, " Histoire de la Regeneration de la Gr^ce." Bozzoli, bot'so-lee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian litterateur, born at Mantua in 1724, translated Homer's "Iliad" and " Odyssey," and Virgil's " ^Eneid," into Italian verse. Died about 1790. Brabant, bRa^Dlnt or br^-bSnt', (Henry,) Duke of, surnamed le Guerroyeur, or "the Warrior," went on a crusade to the Holy Land. He was the first who bore the title of Duke of Brabant. Died in 1235. Brabant, (John IV.,) Duke of, married in 141 8 his cousin Jacqueline, Countess of Holland and Hainault, who afterwards separated, herself from him in order to marry Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester. In 1425 he ob- tained from the pope a bull for the erection of the Uni- versity of Louvain. He died in 1427, being the last of the sovereign dukes of Brabant. (See Jacqueline.) Braccio da Montone, buat'cho dS mon-to^ii, (An- drea,) a famous Italian mercenary commander or con- doitiere, born in 1368. He took Rome in 141 7, and fought in the service of Naples against Sforza. Died in 1424. Bracciolim. See Poggio. Bracciolini, bRit-cho-lee'nee, (Francesco,) an Ital- ian poet, surnamed dell'Api, dSl-l^'pee, born at Pis- toia in 1566. He became secretary to Cardinal Barberini, afterwards Pope Urban VIII. He wrote "The Cross Regained," (" La Croce Riacquistata,") a heroic poem, ranked by some critics next to Tasso's " Jerusalem De- livered." Died at Pistoia in 1646. See GiNGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie ;" Vossius, " De His- toricis Latinis ;" Paolo Giovio, "Elogia." Brace, (Charles Loring,) an American writer and clergyman, born at Litchfield, Connecticut, in 1826. He travelled in Europe, and published "Hungary in 1851," "Home-Life in Germany," (1853,) and "Norsefolk: Travels in Norway and Sweden," (1857.) He was the principal founder of the Children's Aid Society of New York. Brace, (Jonathan,) an American jurist, born at Har- rington, Connecticut, in 1754. He graduated at Yale College in 1779, and in 1798 was elected to Congress. Died in 1837. Brace, (Julia,) a blind deaf-mute, born near Hart- ford, Connecticut, in 1806. She lost by a severe illness both sight and hearing when she was four years old. She had previously learned to speak and spell a little. After her misfortune she continued to speak for nearly a year, but gradually forgot the few words she had learned. For a very interesting notice of her case, see Dunglison's "Phy- siology," vol. ii. pp. 160, 161. Bracelli, bRi-chel'lee, (Jacopo,) an Italian historian, born at Sarzana, became chancellor of the republic of Genoa. He wrote a " History of the Spanish War," and other works, in Latin, Died in 1460. Brachmann, bRiK'min, (Luise Karoline,) a Ger- man poetess and novelist, born at Rochlitz in 1777. At an early age she acquired the friendship of Novalis and of Schiller, who in 1799 published some of her first pro- ductions in his " Musenalmanach" and "Horen." She committed suicide in 1822. See " Life of Luise Brachmann," prefixed to her works, edited by SCHUTZ. Bracht, van, vtn bR^Kt, (Tielman,) a Dutch Prot- estant theologian, born at Dort in 1625, was pastor of the Mennonites in his native city. Died in 1664. Brack'en-ridge, (Henry M.,) an American judge and writer, born at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, in 1786. He published a " History of the Second War with Great Britain." In 181 7 he accompanied as secretary the commission to the South American republics, and in 1820 produced a "Voyage to South America," which was commended by Humboldt. He also wrote " Recol- lections of Persons and Places in the West," (2d edition, 2 vols., 1869.) He was appointed a judge of the western district of Louisiana in 1821. In 1840 he was elected a member of Congress. Brackenridge, (Hugh Henry,) a writer and poli- tician, the father of the preceding, born near Campbelton, Scotland, in 1748. Having studied law, he settled at Pitts- burg, Pennsylvania, about 1782, and was appointed a judge of the supreme court of the State in 1799. He wrote, besides other works, a humorous and satirical book, entitled "Modern Chivalry, or the Adventures of Captain Farrago," (1792.) Died in 1816. Brac'ton, de, (Henry,) an eminent jurist, and one of the earliest English writers on law, lived under the reign of Henry III. His principal work is entitled " DCj Consuetudinibus et Legibus Angliae," being a complete treatise on legislation and jurisprudence. See Prince, "Worthies of Devon;" "Biographia Britannica." Brad'bury, (Thomas,) an English nonconformist divine and writer, born in London ; died about 1759. Brad'dock, (Edward,) a British general, born about 1 71 5, commanded the army in America in the war against the French and Indians. He was defeated and killed near Pittsburg in 1755. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; xalx.; n6i, good; moon; BRJDDON 423 BRADWARDIN Brad'dpn, (Mary Elizabeth,) an English novelist, born in London about 1837. She wrote poems entitled "Garibaldi" and "Lady Lisle," and a number of popular novels, among which are "Lady Audley's Secret," "Au- rora Floyd," "Eleanor's Victory," and " Henry Dunbar." Brad^ford, (Alden,) LL.D,,an American divine and author, born at Duxbury, Massachusetts, in 1765. His principal work is a " History of Massachusetts from 1764 to 1820." Died in 1843. Bradford, (Andrew,) son of William Bradford, (printer,) was born about 1686. In 1719 he commenced the publication of the " American Weekly Mercury," the first newspaper issued in Philadelphia. Died in 1742. Brad''f9rd, (John,) an English Protestant divine un- der the reign of Henry VHL, born at Manchester, be- came chaplain to Edward VL, and was a popular preacher. After the accession of Mary, he suffered martyrdom at the stake, (1555.) His sermons and other writings were published after his death. See William Stevens, "Life of John Bradford," 1832; W. W. HoRNE, '"Life of John Bradford," 1800. Bradford, (Robert,) a major in the army of the American Revolution, descendant of Governor Bradford, was born in Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1750. He served in the principal battles of the Revolution, com- mencing with that of Bunker Hill and ending with the capture of Cornwallis. For his gallant conduct La Fa- yette presented him with a sword. Died in 1823. Bradford, (Samuel,) born in 1652, became Bishop of Rochester in 1723. Died in 1731. Bradford, (William,) one of the Pilgrim Fathers, born in Yorkshire, England, about 1590. While still very young, for the sake of religious liberty he emigrated to Ilolland. He was one of the enterprising band who crossed the Atlantic in the Mayflower in 1620. In 1621 he was elected Governor of Plymouth Colony, and by annual re-elections held that office for about thirty years. One of his first acts was a treaty of peace with the In- dian Sachem Massasoit. In 1630 the English govern- ment granted to William Bradford, his heirs, associates, and assigns, a patent for the colony. He wrote a history of Plymouth People and Colony from 1602 to 1647, which was published in 1856. He is said to have been distin- guished for piety and wisdom. Died in 1657. See Belknap, "American Biography ;" " New England Register" of 1850. Bradford, (William,) the first printer in Pennsyl- vania, born in Leicester, England, in 1658. Having re- sided for a time in Philadelphia, he removed (1693) to New York, where for upwards of fifty years he was printer to the government. In 1725 he issued the first newspaper (" New York Gazette") published in New York City. Died in 1752. Bradford, (William,) attorney-general of the United States, born in Philadelphia in 1755. Having graduated at Princeton, he served in the war of the Revolution, at- tained the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and in 1780 became attorney-general of Pennsylvania. In 1794 he was ap- pointed United States attorney-general by Washington. Died in 1795. Bradford, (William,) an American landscape-painter of great merit, born at New Bedford, Massachusetts. His favourite subjects are coast-views, rocky shores, and icebergs. Among his chief pictures are " Hailing the Sloop in Martha's Vineyard," "Light-House in Saint John's Harbour," and "The Coast of Labrador." See TucKERMAN, " Book of the Artists." Brad'ley, (Rev. Edward,) an English author, whose assumed name is Cuthbert Bede, born in 1827, became rector of Denton in 1859. Among his works are "Ver- dant Green," a popular novel, and " The Curate of Crans- ton," (1862.) Bradley, (James,) an eminent English astronomer, who united the qualities of observer and theorist in a degree perhaps never surpassed, was born in Gloucester- shire in 1693. He was educated at Balliol College, Ox- ford, was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1718, and Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford in 1721. In order to observe with the utmost exactitude the vari- ations in the positions of the fixed stars, he erected a zenith-sector at Wansted in 1727, about which date he discovered the cause of the phenomenon called the "ab- erration of light." This important discovery furnished the first demonstration of the earth's motion around the sun. He was appointed astronomer royal in 1742, and by a series of observations arrived at another great discovery, the "nutation of the earth's axis," which he announced in 1747. "These two discoveries," says M, Biot, "have had the greatest influence on all astronomy ; for as long as the cause of these petty motions was vmknown, they were confounded with errors in observations, and ren- dered it impossible to detect those errors." The same writer calls Bradley's twelve hundred observations of the moon "a monument of inimitable patience, address, and fidelity." He made successful researches on the law of refiaction, for which he produced an empirical formula. He died at Chalford in July, 1762, leaving in manuscript thirteen volumes of valuable observations, which were presented to the University of Oxford, and published 1 798-1 805. Bessel has rendered a great service to as- tronomy by the reduction of these observations. (See Bessel, F. W.) Sir Isaac Newton pronounced Bradley "the best astronomer in Europe." See a good biographical notice of Bradley, by Professor Rigaud, in the edition of his works published at Oxford in 1832; " Biographia Britannica ;" "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1837. Bradley, (Ralph,) an English lawyer, born in the county of Durham in 1717; died in 1788. Bradley, (Richard,) an English physician and botan- ist, became in 1724 professor of botany at Cambridge. He wrote a " Treatise on Agriculture and Gardening," (1724.) and other works. Died in 1732. Brad'shaw, (Henry,) an English Benedictine monl;, wrote poems and chronicles. Died in 15 13. See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." Bradshaw, (John,) an English republican judge, born about 1586, of a Cheshire family. He studied law in Gray's Inn, and practised with success before the civil war. He was appointed chief justice of Chester by the Parliament in 1647, and was chosen president of the high court of justice which tried Charles I. in Janu- ary, 1649. In answer to Charles, who denied the au- thority of the court, he firmly maintained its superiority above the prisoner. His dignity and moderation on this occasion are commended by some writers ; but Hume says " his style will be esteemed to the last degree auda- cious and insolent." He was afterwards president of the Council of State, and courageously opposed the as- sumption of supreme power by Cromwell. After the death of Cromwell he was president of the council for a short time. He died in November, 1659, leaving the reputation of a staunch and consistent friend of liberty. He was a kinsman and friend of Milton, who in his "Defensio Secunda" has highly extolled Bradshaw's virtue and talents, saying, among other things, that "he was an eloquent pleader, and discharged all the duties of an uncorrupt judge." John Forster ranks Bradshaw among " the purest and loftiest-minded" statesmen of the Commonwealth. ("Life of Henry Marten,") See Hume, "History of England." Bradshaw, (William,) an English Puritan, born in Leicestershire in 1571, preached in London, and wrote several works on theology, among which is "English Puritanism," (1605.) Died in 1618. Brad'street, (Anne,) an English poetess, born at Northampton in 1613, was married to Governor Simon Bradstreet, noticed below. Died in 1672, For speci- mens of her poems, see Griswold's " Female Poets of America." Bradstreet, (John,) a general of the British army in America, commanded a force which took Fort P'rontenac in 1758. Died at New York in 1774. Bradstreet, (Simon,) born in Lincolnshire, England, in 1603, emigrated to New England in 1630. He was Governor of Massachusetts from 1679 to 1686, and from May, 1689, to May, 1692. Died at Salem in 1697. Brad'street, (Simon,) an American divine, born in 1669, was minister at Charlestown, Massachusetts. Died in 1 741. Brad'war-din, (Thomas,) an eminent English pre- late, surnamed the Profound Doctor, born in Sussex in 1290. He was confessor to Edward III., and subse- -£ as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, 11, v., guttural ; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23. ) BRADY BRAHE quently Archbishop of Canterbury. He wrote mathe- matical works, and a theological treatise entitled " The Cause of God against Pelagius," {" Ue Causa Dei contra Pelagium,") etc. Died in 1348. See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. iv. chap. xi. Bra'dy, (Hugh,) an American general, born in Penn- sylvania in 1768 ; died at Detroit in 185 1. Brady, (James T.,) an eloquent American lawyer, born in New York City in 181 5, was admitted to the bar in 1836. He distinguished himself as counsel for the defence in criminal cases. During the civil war he was an influential leader of the party known as " War Demo- crats." Died in 1869. Bra'd^^, (Nicholas,) D.D., a learned divine, born at Bandon, in Ireland, in 1659. He graduated at Dublin University, and subsequently became chaplain to Wil- iiam HI. and Mary. He translated Virgil's " ^neid," and made a popular version of the Psalms in conjunction with Mr. Tate. Died in 1726. See Gibber, "Lives of the Poets." Brady, (Robert,) an English physician and historian, born in Norfolk in 1643, was professor of medicine at Cambridge, which town he represented in Parliament. He wrote an "Introduction to the Old English History," and other works. Died in 1700. Braganza, bR^-gin'zi, the name of a royal family of Portugal, descended from Alfonso the first Duke of Bra- ganza, who was an illegitimate son of King John I. Died in 1461. James the fourth Duke of Braganza was a favourite of King Emmanuel, who in 1489 designated him as his successor in case he should leave no issue. (See John IV, of Portugal.) Bragelongne, de, deh bRtzh'loNn', (Chrlstopre Bernard,) a French mathematician and philologist, born in Paris in 1688, was a member of the Academy of Sci- ences, and a friend of Malebranche. Died in 1744. Bragg, (Braxton,) an American general, born in Warren county. North Carolina, about 181 5, graduated at West Point in 1837. He served with distinction in the Mexican war under General Taylor, with the rank of captain, and resigned his commission in 1856. He be- came a brigadier-general in the Confederate service in 1861, commanded at Pensacola until February, 1862, and was raised to the rank of major-general about that time. He commanded a corps at the battle of Shiloh, April 6 and 7, 1862. In May ensuing he succeeded Beauregard as commander of the army in Mississippi, with the rank of general. Moving from Chattanooga in August, he in- vaded Kentucky with a large army and threatened Louis- ville. He was opposed by an army under General Buell, with part of which he fought a severe and indecisive battle at Perry ville, October 8, 1862. General Bragg retired in the night after this action, and returned to Ten- nessee loaded with spoils captured at Lexington and other places. General Rosecrans, who took command late in October, followed Bragg to Murfreesborough, near which they fought the great battle of Stone River, Decem- ber 31, 1862-January 2, 1863. The Union army, which re- mained master of the field, lost here 1533 killed and 7245 wounded. General Bragg reported that he lost 9000 killed and wounded, and had about 35,000 when the bat- tle began. He retired to Tullahoma, followed slowly by Rosecrans, and thence to Chattanooga. A flank move- ment of Rosecrans compelled him to evacuate that im- portant point on the 9th of September. Having been reinforced, he turned back and attacked the Union anny at Chickamauga on the 19th of .September, 1863. Bragg drove his op])onent from the field, and claimed the vic- tory ; but he is said to have lost 15,000 men in this battle, which lasted two days. He was defeated by General Grant in a great battle on Missionary Ridge, near Chattanooga, November 25, 1863. About the 2d of December, 1863, he was relieved from his command. He led a small army from North Carolina to Georgia in the autumn of 1864. See "Southern Generals," (anonymous,) New York, 1865. Bragi, brS'ge, written also Brage, [supposed to be derived from the Icelandic bragga, to "adorn," and re- lated to the German pracht, "splendour,] in the Norse mythology, a son of Odin, is the god of eloquence and poetry. From him poetry is called " bragr," and men distinguished for the gift of speech are styled "bragr- men." His wife Iduna keeps the apples of immortality, partaking of which the gods never grow old. This myth doubtless refers to the power of poetry to confer immor- tality. Bragi is represented as an old man with a flowing beard, the type of an ancient minstrel. See Thorpe, "Northern Mythology," vol. i.; Key.ser, "Religion of the Northmen;" Phtersen, " Nordisk Mythologi." Bra'ham, (John,) a celebrated English vocalist, born in London about 1774. He performed with brilliant success in London, Paris, and the principal cities of Italy. He composed several operas and popular songs. Died in 1831. See Fins, "Biographle Universelle des Musiciens ;" Oxberrv, "Dramatic Biography." Brahe, bra or bri, [Dan. pron. bRi'eh,] (Tycho,) a celebrated astronomer, descended from a noble Swedish family, was born in December, 1545, at Knudsthorp, in Scania, which at that time belonged to Denmark. He entered the University of Copenhagen in 1559, and was destined for the profession of the law; but the great eclipse of the sun, August 21, 1560, gave a new direc- tion to his studies. In 1562 he was sent to Leipsic to study law under the charge of a tutor. While the tutor was asleep, Tycho read astronomical works, watched the motions of stars and planets, and, with no better instru- ment than a pair of compasses, detected a large error in the Alphonsine Tables. He became in 1569 a resident of Augsburg, where he found two congenial spirits, named John and Paul Hainzel, and employed skilful artists to make a quadrant of fourteen cubits' radius. Having returned to his native land in 1571, he fitted up an observatory, and cultivated alchemy in order to replenish his purse. In 1573 he published a notice of a new star, brighter than Sirius, which suddenly appeared in the constellation of Cassiopeia in November, 1572, and disappeared finally in March, 1574. He off"ended his noble relatives by marrying a peasant-girl in 1573. At the request of the king, he delivered a course of lectures on astronomy at Copenhagen in 1574, having gradually overcome his aristocratic prejudice against the occupations of teacher and author. He proposed to settle in Germany, but was retained by the liberal offers of the king, Frederick II., who gave him a grant for life of the island of Huen, Hven, or Hoene, situated about four- teen miles from Copenhagen, and built for him an obser- vatory on the island. This magnificent structure, called Uraniberg or Oranienberg, (" City of the Heavens,") was ready for use in 1577, and was the most splendid observatory that had ever been erected in Europe. Tycho spent there twenty years, during which he made vast additions to astronomical science by his observations, and merited the title of "the restorer of astronomy." He formed a catalogue of seven hundred and seventy- seven stars, and discovered, it is said, the true theory of comets. He rejected the Copernican system, for which he substituted a hypot-hesis that seemed more consistent with the language of Scripture, — namely, that the earth is stationary in the centre of the universe, and that the sun and stars revolve around that centre. After the death of his royal patron in 1588, a powerful party was formed against Tycho Brahe by courtiers who envied his honours and coveted his revenues. He was deprived of his pensions about 1594, and, being unable to support the expense of his establishment, resolved to transfer his instruments to another place. He emigrated to Germany in 1597, and, having obtained the patronage of the emperor Rudolph, settled at Prague in 1600. In the same year Kepler became the assistant of Tycho, who had invited him to Prague. Among his principal works is "Astronomije Instauratse Progymnasmata," (1587-89.) Died at Prague on the 13th of October, 1601. " As a practical astronomer," says Sir David Brewster, "Tycho has not been surpassed by any observer of an- cient or modern times. The splendour and number of his instruments, the ingenuity which he exhibited in in- venting new ones, and his skill and assiduity as an ob- server, have given a character to his labours and a value to his observations which will be appreciated to the latest posterity. . . . His improvements in the lunar theory were still more valuable. He discovered the a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, s/io?'t; a, e, i, o, odscure/flr, fill, fit; mgt; n6t; good; moon; * BRAHM 425 BRAHMJNISM important inequality called the variation, and also the annual inequality which depends on the position of the earth in its orbit." See Brewster, " Martyrs of Science," 1841; P. Gassendi, "Vie de Tycho Brahe," 1654; P. Pedersen, "Den Danske Astronom T. Brah'e's Liv og Levnet," 183S; A. G. Kaestner, " Ueber T. de Brahe's Wahlspruch," 1771 ; Olaus Schilling, "Dissertatio de Mentis T. Brahe in Astronomiam," Upsal, 1792; P. von uer Weistritz, " Lebensbeschreibung des Sternsehers T. von Brahe," 2 vols., 1756. Brahm, [Hindoo pron. briihm or br'hm,] a Sanscrit word, signifying originally "earnest, intense prayer,"* but now -used as the name of the eternal self-existent Being, of whose attributes or powers the gods of the Indian triad, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, are personifica- tions. His image is the outward universe. In the "In- stitutes of Manu" (chap, i.) he is spoken of as follows : " He whom the mind alone can perceive, whose essence eludes the external organs, who has no visible parts, who exists from eternity, — even he, the soul of all beings, whom no being can comprehend, shone forth in person," in other words, his creative power was manifested or personified, in IBrahma. (See the two following articles.) "Of that infinite, incomprehensible, self-existent Spirit," says Moor, " no representation is made ; to his direct and immediate honour no temples rise; nor dare a Hin- doo address to him the eff"usions of his soul otherwise than by the mediation of a personified attribute, or through the intervention of a priest." The Hindoos have no images of Brahm, but the pious Brahmans meditate in profound and silent awe upon his unspeakable attributes. See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon;" "Religions de I'Antiquite," translated by M. Guigniaut from the German of Dr. Creuzer, Paris, 1825, vol. i. p. et scq. Brahni^, bri'ma, [Hindoo pron. bruh'mS,] a Sanscrit word signifying "worship" or " prayer,"! forming the name of one of the great deities of the Hindoos. Brahma is a personification of the creative power, (see Brahm,) and is usually styled the " Creator." It may be observed that Brahma has no temples or rites exclusively dedi- cated to him, and he is far less worshipped or honoured by the Hindoos than Siva or Vishnu. The votaries of the last-named deities are stimulated by the most power- ful of human motives, — hope and fear ; but, as the act of creation is past, the worshippers of Brahma are influ- enced only by the comparatively feeble principle of grati- tude. Images of Brahma are sometimes found in temples dedicated to other gods. He is commonly represented with four faces or heads, having reference probably to the four corners of the world. The pictures of him are usually red, or of a reddish hue, which is supposed to have allusion to the colour of the all-producing earth, of which Brahma is regarded as a personification. As fire is the symbol of Siva, and water of Vishnu, so earth is the symbol of Brahma. In another relation, Brahma represents matter, Vishnu spirit, and Siva time. (See articles Siva and Vishnu.) See, also, Moor, "Hindu Pantheon;" Coleman, "Mythology of the Hindus," London, 1832; Guigniaut, "Religions de I'Antiquite," Paris, 1825, vol. i. book i. chap. iv. Brah'man-ism or Brah'min-ism, [Fr. Brahma- NisME, bRt'mt'n^zm' ; Ger. Brahmaismus, bRi-mi-is'- mtis, or Brahmanismus, bRa-m3,-nis'mus,] the name of the religious system taught by the BrahmansJ of India. We first find this system developed in the " Insti- tutes of Manu," (or Menu,) a work whose date (like that of all the early writings of the Hindoos) it is impossible * " Brahm" and " Brahma" are from the same root, (brih,) and seem originally to have had essentially the same signification. (See Koppen, "Religion des Buddha," pp. 27, 28.) Brahm is also writ- ten Brahma; but in the popular pronunciation it has but one syllable. t Brahma appears to have originally signified that "earnest, all- prevailing prayer" by which the gods were compelled (according to the Hindoo belief) to grant the request of the suppliant. (See next article.) In like manner, Agni, (or Agnis,) the god of fire, carrying the incense and offerings of mortals to heaven, prevailed upon the gods to grant the prayers of their worshippers. Hence in very early times Agni and Brahma may be said to have been scarcely more than dif- ferent names for one and the same power. (See Koppen, "Religion des Buddha," p. 27.) Afterwards Brahma came to be regarded not as a mediator between the gods and men, but as the external mani- festation of the creative power of Brahm. (See Brahm.) t The term Brahman (or Brahmin) appears to have been derived not from the god Brahma, but from brahma, "prayer," or "worship;" and hence it properly signifies a "praying-man," or " priest." (See Brahma.) to fix with any approximation to exactness.* It is re- markable that the Vedas (the oldest of all the books of the Hindoos) contain so few traces — only a few scattered germs, so to speak — of that elaborate religious system which is presented to us in the " Institutes of Manu" and other later works. In the Vedas the gods are mostly such as would be suggested by the objects or phenomena of external nature : for example, Varuna, (Uranus,) or Heaven, (see Varuna ;) Agni, or the god of fire ; Indra, the god of the atmosphere and clouds ; Mitra, the sun, etc. As, however, the Brahmanical system gradually becomes developed, these divinities retreat into the back- ground and are replaced by the gods of the Hindoo triad, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, who appear as manifestations of Brahm, the eternal, self-existent Spirit. (See Brahm.) Brahma first makes his appearance as the creator of the visible universe, and becomes the source and centre of an endless system of divine sages, inferior gods, celestial nymphs, genii, giants, demons, animals, etc. In the early ages the head of each family among the Aryas (see Aryas) appears to have been his own priest, making offerings to the deities in his own name ; but, as the people abandoned the primitive customs of their ancestors, they had recourse to professional priests, who were supposed to know the mind and wishes of the gods and how best to propitiate their favour. The priesthood, having thus become an indispensable necessity, was not long in becoming the dominant power in the state ; and the Brahmans, having once obtained the ascendency, took every precaution to fortify their power and make it per- petual. With this object, they introduced the distinctions of caste, t not merely as a civil institution, but as resting on and inseparably connected with the very foundations of their religious system. Like the modern advocates of slavery, they taught that these distinctions had been established by the Creator himself. They ingeniously feigned that the priestly class, or Brahmans, were pro- duced from the mouth of Brahma, becoming thus his spokesmen ; while the Kshatriyas,$ or warrior caste, sprang from his arm ; the Vaisyas,§ (herdsmen, agricul- turists, or merchants,) from his thigh ; and the Soodras, (or labourers,) from his foot. The three higher castes are supposed to be of pure Aryan descent ; the Soodras (written also Qudras) were not improbably the earlier in- habitants of India, whom the Aryas subdued and reduced to slavery. In the Mahabharata the Brahman is called white, the Kshatriya red, the Vaisya yellow, and the Soodra black. It may be proper to observe that the Brahmans are not all priests ; but from the Brahmanical caste alone the priests must be chosen. In order to preserve the sanctity of the priestly caste and defend it against all encroachments, a man of any of the lower castes is strictly forbidden to marry a Brahman woman, (Brahmani or Brahmanee,) and the children of such marriages are regarded as irredeemably base. The offspring of a Soodra and a Brahmani is called a Chandala, and is accounted the lowest of mor- tals. His very shadow is shunned as pollution ; and a Brahman is forbidden to take shelter under the same tree with one of those wretched outcasts. The Insti- tutes of Manu abound with passages exhibiting the boundless pretensions of the Brahmans, setting forth their godlike dignity and the respect and adoration due them from persons of the other classes. " From his high birth alone, a Brahman is an object of veneration even to the gods." (chap. xi. 85.) "A Brahman, whether learned or ignorant, is a powerful divinity. . . . Though Brahmans employ themselves in all sorts of mean occu- pation, they must invariably be honoured; for they are something transcendently divine." (ix. 317,319.) "Let * Sir William Jones supposes that the work in question received its present form about 880 B.C.; and it seems to be generally admitted that the greater part, if not the whole of it, was composed some cen- turies before the rise of Booddhism, (about 500 B.C.) t We do not, of course, mean to say that the system as it existed in after-ages was definitely and fully planned from the first, but simply that those who laid its foundations did so in the interest of the priest- hood ; and the same motives which prompted its commencement pre- sided over its completion. X Kshatriya is pronounced kshut're-ya by the modern Hindoos. § Pronounced vis'yaz. € as k; c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. O^^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) BRAHMANISM 426 BRAIN ERD not a king, although in the greatest distress for money, provoke Brahmans to anger by taking their property ; for they, once enraged, could immediately, by sacrifices and imprecations, destroy him, with his troops, elephants, horses, and cars. . . . What prince could gain wealth by oppressing those who, if angry, could frame other worlds and regents of worlds? — could give being to new gods and mortals ?" (ix. 313, 315.) " No greater crime is known on earth than slaying a Brahman. . . . Never shall the king slay a Brahman, though convicted of all possible crimes : let him banish the offender from his realm, but with all his property secure and his body unhurt." (viii. 380, 381.) "A Brahman is born above the world, the chief of all creatures. . . . Whatever exists in the uni- verse is in effect, though not in form, the wealth of the Brahmans : . . . through the benevolence of the Brah- mans, indeed, other mortals enjoy life." (i. 99, 100, loi.) The doctrine of "emanation," as it has been termed, may be said to form the basis of the Brahmanical sys- tem. According to this doctrine, Brahm is the source and centre of all existence, and the various creatures of the universe are nothing more than emanations from Him ; in other words, they are so many parts or mem- bers of the Universal Being, as the bays and creeks on the sea-coast are parts or members of the ocean. And as Brahm is the source whence all things have pro- ceeded or been evolved, so all things will at last return to Him and be absorbed into His essence. This final absorption is regarded by the devout Hindoo as his sal- vation. In consequence of his dislike to motion and excitement, the notion of absolute repose becomes a necessary part in his ideal of perfect happiness. Hence the aim of all his efforts is to bring his transmigrations to an end, that his individual existence may wholly cease, and that his soul may be completely absorbed and swal- lowed up in Brahm. The same general doctrine, though with important modifications, may be said to form the foundation of Booddhism. (See Booddha.) The doctrine of the transmigration of souls (called by the Greeks Metempsychosis, and by the Germans See- lenwanderung, or "soul-wandering") became a powerful engine, in the hands of the Brahmans, for curbing and breaking the spirit of the laity. For neglecting the smallest duties or ceremonies enjoined by the priests, one might have to pass ages in unhappy transmigra- tions ; while, on the other hand, by an implicit and faith- ful observance of those duties and ceremonies he might at length acquire such an accumulation of merit as to raise him above the power of the gods themselves. There is no other example in the history of mankind of an ascendency of one class over another so des])otic and absolute as that which has been obtained by the Brah- mans through the institution of caste. And this has been effected not by any punishment applied to the body, or by any external force, but by gradually acquiring, through an artful employment of hope and fear, an un- limited control over the mind. No inconsiderable part of the twelfth chapter of the Institutes of Manu is occupied in stating the kind and number of transmigrations which one must undergo for each of a long list of sins therein enumerated. Thus, for example, he who steals the gold of a priest (unless he makes in this life expiation by some voluntary and cruel penance) will be born a thousand times in the form of a spider or of some disgusting reptile ; if a man steal meat, he will in the next life become a vulture ; if he steal grain, he will become a rat ; and so on. He who kills a Brahman (after "having passed through terrible regions of torture for a great number of years") may, according to the circumstances of his crime, be born as a dog, a boar, or other low animal, or as a Chandala. A priest who has drunk spirituous liquor will berome a worm or insect feeding on filth. Some learned Hindoos hold that there is no expiation by penance for a voluntary sin ; but this is not the general opinion. To a Brahman who knows the Vedas, all expiation is rendered easy. Although the ancient Hindoos appear to have regarded women with far more tenderness and respect than most other Asiatic nations, Manu shows but scant indulgence towards those who err. He says, in substance, that since a woman is not per- mitted' to know the Vedas, by which her guilt might be expiated, she has no right whatever to commit any sin : her son, however, can perform expiation for her by the repetition of holy texts. (Chap. ix. iS et seq.) Not the least remarkable feature in the religious sys- tem of the Brahmans is the immense importance which it attaches to the performance of prayer and penance. The most efficacious prayer is the committing to memory and repetition of portions of the Vedas. " As fire con- sumes in an instant with its bright flame the wood that is placed upon it, so with the flame of knowledge a Brahman who understands the Veda consumes all sin," ("Institutes of Manu," chap. xi. 247-.) "A priest," says Manu, " who should retain in his memory the whole Rig- Veda would be absolved from guilt even if he had slain the inhabitants of the three worlds," (chap. xi. 262,) a statement which acquires addidonal force when we consider the tender regard for life which distinguishes the Hindoos from most other nations.* The Hebrew and Christian Scriptures teach us that prayer and sacrifice, to be availing, must be acceptable to God.t The Brahmans, on the contrary, believe that prayers, even though prompted by the most unworthy motives and uttered for the most unrighteous purposes, if repeated according to the prescribed form and duly persevered in, can compel the gods to grant the wishes of the suppliant. By the persevering performance, more- over, of prayer, penance, and sacrifice, a man may in time acquire a power superior to that of the highest gods. J See, besides the " Institutes of Manu," already referred to, Moor, "Hindu Pantheon;" Coleman, "Hindu Mytliology:" Koppen, " Rehgion des Buddha," (first part;) Professor H. H. Wilson's Introductions to the several volumes of his translation of the " Rig- Veda," \'i~,oet seq., and '' Essays on the Religion of the Hindus," vol. ii. ; CoLEBROOKE," On the Vedas," in "Asiatic Researches," vol. viii. ; Sir W. Jones, "On the Gods of Greece, Italy, and India," in vol. i. of "Asiatic Researches;"' Max Muller, " Chips," etc. ; Duncker, " Geschichte des Alterthums ;" see, also, the "Vedas," the two Hin- doo epics " Mahabharata" and "Ramayana," and the "Puranas." Braid'wood, (Thomas,) one of the first teachers of the deaf and dumb in Great Britain, founded about 1760 an institution at Edinburgh, and subsequently at Hack- ney, near London. Died in 1806. Braille, bRt'ya', (Louis,) born near Paris in 1809, was blind from his birth, and was distinguished for his intelligence and his rapid acquisition of knowledge, par- ticularly music. He invented a method of writing with points, which has been generally adopted. Brai'nard, (John G. C.,) an American poet, born at New London, Connecticut, in' 1796, graduated at Yale College in 1815. He edited "The ConnecUcut Mirror" (published at Hartford) for about six years, and produced a volume of poems in 1825. Died in 1828. See Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America;" John G. Whit- tier, " Memoir of Brainard," prefixed to his Poems, 1832. Brai'nerd, (David,) an American divine and mission- ary to the Indians, born in I7i8at Haddam, Connecticut. He entered Yale College in 1739, but in February, 1742, was expelled for expressing his belief that one of the tutors was wholly without the grace of God. Says President Edwards, " I never knew his equal of his age and stand- ing for clear, accurate notions of the nature and essence of true religion, and its distinctions from its various false appearances." Among his works may be mentioned a narrative of his labours among the Indians in Massachu- setts, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey, published in 1746, * According to Manu, he who does not wilhngly inflict pain upon any creature, but "seeks the good of all sentient beings, enjoys bliss without end." (chap. v. 46.) It is not, however, true, as many suppose, that the Brahmans or other Hindoos are absohitely forbidden to eat flesh : we are expressly told that the Self-existent created beasts for sacrifice. " He who eats according to law commits no sin, even though every day he tastes the flesh of such animals as may lawfully be tasted." Those animals, moreover, "which have been destroyed for the purpose of sacrifice attain in the next world exaUed births." But he who eats the flesh of animals which have not been duly consecrated for sacrifice to the gods or manes "will, unable to save himself, be devoured in the next world by those animals whose flesh he has thus illegally swallowed." (See, on this subject, the "Institutes of Manu," chap. v. 26-52, and the "Miscellaneous Notice of the Brahmans and Hindus" in Moor's "Hindu Pantheon.") t See Isaiah i. 15, lix. 2 : Proverbs xv. 8 and 29, xxi. 27, xxvni. 9 ; John ix. 31 ; James iv. 3, v. 16., etc. X This doctrine furnishes the groundwork, so to speak, of Southey's celebrated poem, the " Curse of Kehama;" and in the notes to that work the reader will find some curious and striking illustrations of the foregoing remarks. I, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, s/iort; a, e, i, p, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; BRAIN ERD 427 BRAND "Mirabilia Dei inter Indicos," and "Divine Grace Dis- played the two latter being portions of his journal, edited and published by Sereno Dwight Edwards in 1822. His life was written by President Edwards. His journal is one of the most interesting and instructive narratives of the kind ever written. See, also, Sp.arks's "American Biography," vol. viii. Brainerd, (John,) a missionary among the Indians, brother of the Rev. David Brainerd, whom he succeeded in his labours in New Jersey about 1748. Born in 1720; died in 1781. See "Life of John Brainerd," bv the Rev. Thomas Brainerd, 1865. Braith'waite, (John,) an English writer, born about 1690, published an "Account of the Political Events which, on the Death of the Emperor Muley Ismael, took Place in the Empire of Morocco." It was translated into several languages. Braithwaite, (John,) an English mechanician, who, by means of a diving-bell, recovered a considerable amount of the property sunk in the Royal George and other vessels. Died in 1818. Braithwaite, (William,) an English theologian, born about 1560, assisted in the translation of the Bible in the reign of James I. Brakel, van, vtn bRa'kel,(jAN,) a Dutch naval officer, born in 161 8, distinguished himself in several engage- ments with the English, and attained the rank of rear- admiral. He was killed in a battle against the French in 1690. See Ersch iind Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Brakenburg, bRa'ken-bijRG'', (Reinier,) a Dutch painter, born at Haarlem in 1649. See Desc.amps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Bra''m^, (Joseph,) a celebrated English mechani- cian and engineer, born in Yorkshire in 1749. Among his numerous and very valuable inventions are the safety- lock called by his name, the hydrostatic press, the beer- machine for drawing liquor from a cellar, improvements in fire-engines, pumps, steam-engines, and pai)er-making machinery, and the construction of mains or large water- pipes in London. Died in 1814. See Stuart, "Anecdotes of Steam-Engines ;" Samuel Smii.es, "Industrial Biography," 1864; Henry Howe, "Eminent American and European Mechanics," 1847. Bramante, bR^-min'ti, (Donato Lazzari.) a cele- brated Italian architect and painter, born near Urbino in 1444, was a relative of Raphael. He passed many years of his early manhood at Milan, whence he removed to Rome and built the Cancellaria, or palace of the chancery, (about 1495,) a fine specimen of the architecture of the Renaissance. He was patronized by Pope Julius II., and was the architect of the vast structures which joinecl the Belvedere to the palace of the Vatican. Among his master-pieces is the small round oratory or temple in the cloister of San Pietro in Montorio, in the genuine antique style. Bramante was the author of the original design of the basilica or church of Saint Peter, which he liegan to build in 1513, (some say in 1506.) He had finished the four great piers which support the dome, when he died, in 1 5 14. His plan was not adhered to by the succeeding architects, among whom was Michael Angelo. Some critics think the work would have been more noble if Bramante's design had been carried out. His style is admired for its simplicity, grace, and har- mony of proportions. He was a benefactor of Raphael, who through the influence of Bramante obtained the patronage of Julius II. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Pungileoni, " Memo- ria intorno alia Vita di Donato Bramante," 1837; Quatremere DE QuiNCY, " Vies des Architectes celebres ;" Salvetti, "Anedotti sulla Patria dell' Architetto Bramante," 1824. Bramaiitino, da, d^ bRd-mdn-tee^no, (Agostino,) a Milanese painter, flourished about 1525. Bramantino, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian architect and painter, who lived about the middle of the fif- teenth century, and built the church of San Satiro in the Milanese. Brambilla, bRim-b^Kia, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter, who worked in Turin about 1770. Bramer, bRa'mer, (Leonard,) a skilful Dutch painter, born at Delft in 1596. He worked in Italy, and imitated the Italian style. He excelled in the treatment of noc- turnal conflagrations and illumined caverns. Among his works is a " Raising of Lazarus." See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Bram'hall, (John,) born in Yorkshire about 1593, graduated in divinity in 1630, and in 1634 became Bishop of Londonderry. As one of Strafford's coadjutors, he was impeached by the Irish House of Commons in 1640, and was imprisoned for a time. After the restoration he was created Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of Ireland. Bramhall is chiefly known from his contro- versy with Hobbes, entitled "The Question concern- ing Liberty, Necessity, and Chance, clearly stated and debated," (1656.) Died in 1663. See " Biographia Britannica." Bramp'ston or Brani'.ston, (Sir John,) an English judge, born in Essex about 1576. He was chief justice of the king's bench from 1635 to 1642. His conduct was vacillating in the civil war. Died in 1654. See Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Chief Justices ;" Foss, "The Judges of England." Bramp'tpn, de, (William,) an English judge justi- ciar, who was convicted of peculation in 1288 and fined forty thousand marks. B'ram'stpn, (Rev. James,) an English satirical poet, took his degree at Oxford in 1720. He wrote the "Art of Politics." Died in 1744. Brancaccio, bRSn-kat'cho, (Francesco Maria,) an Italian cardinal, patronized by Urban VIII. Died in 1675. Brancadori-Perini, bRan-kS. do'ree pa-ree'nee, (Gi- AMBATi'iSTA,) an Italian writer on chronology, born at Sienna in 1674; died in 171 1. Brancaleone, bRln-ki-la-o'na, (Dandolo, din'do« lo,) Count of Casalecchio, (ka-si-lek'ke-o,) born at Bo- logna, was made a senator by the Romans in 1253, and invested with the powers of a dictator, in order to re- press the quarrels of the nobles. He compelled Pope Innocent IV. to acknowledge the power of the people, waged war with the barons, and restored peace to Rome. Died in 1258. See SisMONDi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Brancas, bR6N^k§,', (Andr6,) a French officer, known as Admiral de Villars, (ve^ytR^,) served for a time in the army of the League, but afterwards went over to Henry IV. Being made prisoner at the siege of Doul- lens, he was killed by the Spaniards for his desertion. See Motley, "History of the United Netherlands," chap. xxxi. ; Anselme, "Histoire generale des Pairs de France." Brancas, de, Due. See Lauraguais. Brancas, de, deh bRSN'kd', (Louis,) Marquis de Cereste, (si'rgst',) served with distinction under Louis XIV. and Louis XV., and was made marshal of France in 1740. Died in 1750. Brancas- Villeneuve, de, deh bR6N'ki' v^Knuv', (Andr^: Francois,) a French astronomer. Died in 1748. Brancato, bR^n-ka'to, (P'rancesco,) an Italian mis- sionary to China, published a "Treatise on the Eucha- rist," and other works, (in Chinese.) Died in 1671. Branch, (John,) born at Halifax, North Carolina, in 1782, became a Senator of the United States in 1823, was secretary of the navy from March, 1829, till 1831, and was appointed Governor of Florida in 1843. Died in 1863. Branch, (Lawrence O'Brien,) an American general, born in Halifax county. North Carolina, in 1820, was a son of the preceding, and represented a district of that State in Congress for several years between 1855 and 1861. He was killed at the battle of Antietam (where he fought against the Union) in September, 1862. Brand, bRint, (Bernard,) a Swiss jurist and magis- trate, born at Bale in 1523, wrote a " Universal History," (in German.) Died in 1594. See Brandmoller, "Vie de Bernard Brand," Bale, 1650. Brand, bR^nt, (Christian,) a German painter, born at Vienna in 1722, was director of the Academy of Land- scapes. Died in 1795. Brand, (John,) an English antiquary, born at New- castle-upon-Tyne about 1741, publishecl "Observations on Popular Antiquities," and " History and Antiquities of the Town of Newcastle," (2 vols., 1789.) Died in 1806, See " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1814. *: as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, Yi,guthiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2i^="See Explanations, p. 23.) BRJND 428 BRANT Brand, (John,) an English divine and writer on poli- tical economy; died in 1809. Brandan, Saint. See Brendan. Brandao, bR^n-dowN', (Alexandre,) a Portuguese, who lived about 1650-90, wrote a "History of the War by which Portugal was separated from Spain," (2 vols., 1689.) Brandao, (Antonio,) a Portuguese historian, suc- ceeded De Brito as chief historiographer of the kingdom, (1617.) Died in 1637. See Barbosa Machauo, " Bibliotlieca Lusitana." Brande, brand, (William Thomas,) F.R.S., an emi- nent English chemist, was born in London in 1788. He l)ecame professor of chemistry in the Royal Institution in 1813, and acquired a high reputation as a lecturer. He published a " Manual of Chemistry," (6th edition, 1848,) and an excellent " Dictionary of Science, Litera- ture, and Art," (1842.) He was for many years super- intendent of a department in the Mint. Died in 1866. See " Edinburgh Review" for November, 181 1, and October, 1813; "Gentleman's Magazine" for April, 1866. Brandel, bR^nMel, (Peter,) a German painter of his- tory and portraits, born at Prague in 1660 ; died in 1739. Brandenburg, Elector of. See Albert Achilles, and Frederick William. Brandenburg, bRanMen-booRo', (Friedrich Wil- helm,) Count of, son of Frederick William IL of Prus- sia by his morganatic marriage with the Countess von Doenhoff, was born at Berlin in 1792. He served in several campaigns against the French, and became lieu- tenant-general. He was appointed prime minister in 1848. Died in 1850. Brander, bR^nMer, (Gustavus,) a Swedish naturalist, resided in London, and was a contributor to the " Philo- sophical Transactions." Died in 1787. Brandes, bRin'dls, (Ernst,) a German statesman and writer, born at Hanover in 1758, published an ''Analysis of Burke's Reflections on the French Revo- lution," and other works. Died in 1810. See Heyne, " Memoria Ernesti Brandes," 1810; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Brandes, [Lat. Brande'sius,] (Heinrich Wil- helm,) born at Groben in 1777, studied at Gottingen, and became professor of mathematics at Leipsic in 1826. He wrote a "Manual of Higher Geometry," and several treatises on astronomy and hydraulics. Died in 1834. See G. Hermann, "Exequiae H. Brandesii," 1834. Brandes, (Johann Christian,) a German dramatist and actor, born at Stettin in 1735. His wife, Esther Charlotte, was a popular actress, and his daughter, Minna, a distinguished vocalist. Died in 1799. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie," and his "Autobiography," 3 vols., 1802-07. Brandes, (Rudolf,) a German pharmacist, born in Lippe-Detmold in 1795. He was the founder of the "Archives of Pharmacy," to which he made numerous contributions. Died in 1842. See L. F. Bley, " Leben des Dr. R. Brandes," 1844. Brandi, bRin'dee, (Giacinto,) an Italian painter, born in the Roman States in 1623, was a pupil of Lanfranc. Died in 1691. Brandis, bR^nMis, (Christian August,) professor of philosophy at Bonn, a son of Joachim, noticed below, was l^orn at Hildesheim in 1790. He published, con- jointly with Niebuhr, the " Rhenish Museum for Phi- ology. History, and Greek Philosophy," (1827-30,) and wrote several critical works. He was chosen a foreign associate of the French Institute in 1855. Died in 1867. Brandis, (Joachim Dietrich,) an eminent German physician and medical writer, born at Hildesheim in 1762. He graduated at Gottingen, became professor of medi- cine at Kiel in 1803, ancl in 1809 physician to Frederick VI. of Denmark. Died in 1846. Brandmiiller, bRint'muKler, (Gregorius,) a Swiss painter, born at Bale in 1661, was a pupil of Lebrun, and worked at Prague and Bale. Among his best works, the design, expression, and colour of which are highly com- mended, is a "Descent from the Cross." Died in 1691. Brandmiiller, (Johann,) a Swiss theologian, born in 1533, was professor of Hebrew at Bale. Died in 1596. Brando, bRc\nMo, Brand, budnt, or Brands, bR^nts, (Johann,) a Flemish chronicler, born near Hulst, wrote a history of the world from the creation to 1413. Died in 1428. Brandolese,bRan-do-la'si, (Pietro,) an Italian bibli- ographer, born in 1754; died in 1809. Brandolini, bRin-do-lee'nee, (Aurelio,) an Italian poet and litterateur, surnamed IL Lippo, born at Florence about 1440. He was a celebrated pulpit orator, was patronized by Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, and became professor of eloquence at Buda. Among his works is one " On the Condition of Human Life," (" De Vitae humanae Conditione," 1541.) Died in 1497. See GiNGUENE, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" Bayle, "Histori- cal and Critical Dictionary." Brandolini, (Raffaello,) a blind Italian littemieur^ brother of the preceding, lived about 1460-1520, and was professor of eloquence at Rome. He had a rare talent for improvising Latin verse. He was patronized by Leo X., who became pope in 1 5 13. Bran'dpn, (Charles,) Duke of Suffolk, a favourite of Henry VIII. of England. He married Mary, a sister of King Henry, the widow of Louis XII. of France. Died in 1545. Brandt or Brand, bRint, a German alchemist, who, in attempting to find the philosopher's stone, is said to have first discovered phosphorus. Died about 1695. See F. HoEFER, "Histoire de la Chimie." Brandt, bR^nt, (Georg,) a Swedish chemist, born in 1694, made various interesting experiments upon metals, of which he gave an account in the " Memoirs of the Academy of Upsal." Died in 1768. See Gezelius, " Biographiskt- Lexicon." Brandt, bRint, (Gerard,) a Dutch Armi^ian theo- logian, born in Amsterdam in 1626. He preached in his native city, and published, besides oth-er works, a " His- tory of the Reformation in the Low Countries," (2 vols., 1671-74.) Died in 1685. See Jan van H'aes, "Leven van G. Brandt," 1740. Brandt, (Sebastian,) a German poet, born at Stras- burg in 1458, wrote " The Ship of Fools," (" Das Narren- schiff," 1494,) a satirical poem, which enjoyed extraor- dinary popularity in its time and was translated into Latin and the principal European languages. Died in 1521. See Flogel, "Geschichte der Komischen Literatur ;" Gervinus, "Geschichte der Deutschen Literatur." Brandt, von, fon bR^nt, (Heinrich,) a Prussian general, born in Westphalia in 1789, published a " His- tory of the Art of War in the Middle Ages," (1828,) a "Manual of Grand Strategy," (1829,) and other military works. Branicki, bR§,-nits'kee, (Francis Xavier,) a Polish statesman, took an active part in the dismemberment of Poland by Russia, and was one of the leaders of the confederation of Targowicza. Having been declared a traitor to his country, he retired to the Ukraine, where he died in 1819. See Ferrand, "Histoire des trois Demembrements de la Po- logne," 1820. Branicki, (John Clement,) grand general of the crown of Poland, born in 1688, was distinguished as the champion of the nobility against the king, Augustus II. Died in 177 1. See Rulhiere, "Histoire de 1' Anarchic de Pologne," 1807. Braniss, bRi'niss, (Christlieb Julius,) a German philosophical writer, born at Breslau in 1792. He wrote a "History of Philosophy since Kant," (1842,) and other works. Brank'er, (Thomas,) an English mathematician and scientific writer, lived about 1650. Bran^'nan or Bran'npn, (John M.,) an American general, born in the District of Columbia about 1821, graduated at West Point in 1841. He became a briga- dier-general in September, 1861, and cominanded a di- vision at the battle of Chickamauga, September 19 and 20, 1863. He served under General Sherman in the campaign against Atlanta, May-September, 1864. Brant, (Joseph,) Thayendanega, (tl-^n-dS-ne'ga,) a famous Indian chief of the Mohawk tribe, was born a, e, T, o, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/wrt; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mit; n6t; good; moon; BRANTOME 429 BRAT in 1742. He fought against the American colonists in the Revolution, and had a commission in the British service. After the end of the war he went to England, and pub- lished the Gospel of Mark in Mohawk. Died in 1807. See W. L. Stone, "Life of Brant." Brantome, bRSN'tom', (Pierre de Bourdeilles — deh booR'dM' or booR^dyye,) a popular French historian, born of a noble family about 1540, was a brave soldier, and a witness of many military events of his time. He was for some time chamberlain to the Duke of Alen9on, and obtained great favour at the court of Charles IX., who gave him a pension. As a historian he is sprightly, naif, and sometimes eloquent, but never profound. His history is valued as a vivid picture of the epoch in which he lived, and of the characters of the principal actors in it. His chief work, entitled " Lives of Illustrious Men and Great Captains, both French and Foreign," (" Les Vies des Hommes illustres et grands Capitaines Fran9ais et etrangers,") was not published until after his death. Died in 16 14. See Nicolas de Monmerqu^, " Notice historique sur Brantome," 1824; "Noiivelle Biographic Generale." Brants or Brantz, bRints, written also Braiit,(JoHN,) a Flemish writer, born at Antwerp in 1559, was father- in-law of the celebrated Rubens. Died in 1639. Bran''white, (Peregrine,) an English poet, born in Suffolk in 1745 ; died in 1794. Brard, bRtR, (Cyprien Prosper,) a French mineral- ogist, born at L'Aigle, in Orne, in 1786. He published, besides other works, "Mineralogy applied to the Arts," (3 vols., 1821,) and "New Elements of Mineralogy," (1824.) Died in 1838. See JouANNET, "Notice sur C. P. Brard," 1839. Brarens, bRi'rens, (Hendrik,) a Danish naval officer, born in 17^1, was the author of a "System of Practical Navigation." Died in 1826. Brascassat, bR^'kt'sS', (Jean,) a French painter of landscapes and animals, born at Bordeaux in 1805. He gained a first medal in 183 1, and was elected a member of the Institute in 1846. Among his works, which are praised for a rare solidity of colour, are "Mercury and Argus," and the "Campagna of Rome," (1833.) Braschi, bR^s'kee, (Giambattista,) an Italian anti- quary, and Bishop of Sarsina, born at Cesena in 1664; died in 1727. Braschi-Onesti, bR^s'kee o-n^s'tee, (LuiGi,) Duke OF, an Italian statesman, born at Cesena in 1748, was a nephew of Pius VI. He was one of the signers of the treaty of Tolentino in 1797, and was afterwards appointed mayor of Rome. Died in 1818. Brash'er, (Abraham,) an American patriot and colo- nel in the war of the Revolution, born in New York in 1734, was the author of numerous popular ballads. Died in 1782. Bras'i-das, [Gr. 'Bpaaida^,] a celebrated Spartan com- mander in the Peloponnesian war, gained several victo- ries over the Athenians, and rendered important services as negotiator. In Plato's " Symposium" he is compared to Achilles, ile was killed in battle at Amphipolis in 422 B.C., after which annual sacrifices were offered to him as a hero. See Thucvdides, books iii., iv., and v. Brassac, de, deh bRt'stk', (Jean Gallard de Bearn— deh ba'tRn',) Comte, a French minister of state under Louis XIII., born in the province of Sain- tonge in 1579 ; died in 1645. Brassavola, bR^s-si-vo'lS, ( Antonio Musa, ) an Italian physician, born at Ferrara in 1500, was patronized by Francis I., Charles V., the popes Paul III. and Clem- ent VII., and other distinguished persons. Died in 1570. SeeGiNGUENE, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" Castellani, "De Vita M. Brassavolae Commentarius," 1767. Brasseur, bRi'suR', (Philip,) a Flemish writer and 1 atin poet, born at Mons about 1597; died about 1650. Brassicanus.bR^s-se-ka'nvis, (Johann Alexander,) a German philologist and Latin poet, whose original name was KoHLBURGER, born at Wittenberg in 1500 ; died in 1539- Brathwayte, brath'wat,(RiCHARD,) an English writer, born in 1588, published "The Prodigal's Tears," "The Golden Fleece," and other poems. Died in 1673. Brattle, brat't'l, (Thomas,) an American merchant and scientific writer, born at Boston in 1657 ; died in 1713. Brault, bRo, (Charles,) born at Poitiers in 1752, be- came Archbishop of Albi in 1823, and was afterwards made a peer of France. Died in 1833. Braun, bRown, (Alexander Karl Hermann,) a German statesman, born at Plauen in 1807, became min- ister of justice and president of the Council in Saxony. (1848.) He resigned office in 1849. Brami, (August Emil,) a German archjeologist, born at Gotha in 1809. He resided many years in Rome, where he became pro-secretary to the Archaeological In- stitute. He wrote a treatise "On the Mythology of Art," ("Kunst-Mythologie," with 100 plates,) and "Antique Marbles," (1843.) I^ied at Rome in 1856. Braun, (Johann Wilhelm Joseph,) a German Catholic theologian, born near Diiren in 1801. He studied at Bonn, under Hermes, whose peculiar views he adopted. He became professor of ecclesiastical his- tory at Bonn in 1833, ^^'^'^ ^^'^^ one of the founders of the "Journal of Philosophy and Catholic Theology." See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Braur. See Brauwer. Brauwer or Brouwer, bRow'wer, written also Brawer or Braur, (Adriaan,) a celebrated Dutch painter, born in 1608 at Oudenarde, or, as some writers state, at Haarlem. He was a pupil of Franz Hals, and was patronized by Rubens, but, owing to his dissipated habits, died in poverty at the age of thirty-t\yo. His works are chiefly tavern-scenes, and other delineations of low life, and rank among the best of their kind. Died in 1640. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, HoUandais," etc. Bravais, bRtVi', (Auguste,) a French natural phi- losopher, born at Annonay in 181 1. He has written able treatises on meteorology, crystallography, and astronomy. In 1854 he was admitted into the Institute, (section of geography and navigation.) His brother Louis F. is a botanist and writer. Bravo, bR^'vo, (Bartolom^:,) a Spanish Jesuit, poet, and grammarian, born about 1560. Bravo, (Juan,) a Spanish physician, born in Castile, lived in the second half of the fifteenth century. Bravo, bR^'vo, (Nicolas,) a Mexican general, born about 1780 or 1790, was elected vice-president in 1824. He took arms against President Vittoria in 1827, but was quickly defeated, and was banished. Died about 1854. Bravo de Sobramonte-Ramires bR&'vo da so- bRd-mon'ta rS-mee'r^s, (Caspar,) professor of medicine and surgery at Valladolid, was physician to Philip IV. and Charles II. Bravo-Murillo. See Murillo. Brawe, bRi's^eh, (Joachim Wilhelm,) Baron of, a German tragic poet, born at Weissenfels in 1738. His tragedies entitled "Der Freigeist" and "Brutus" were edited and published by Lessing after his death, which took place in 1758. Brawer. See Brauwer. Brax'ton, (Carter,) one of the signers of the Decla- ration of American Independence, was born at Newing- ton, King-and-Queen county, Virginia, in 1736. In 1775 he was elected to Congress as successor to Peyton Ran- dolph. Died in 1797. Bray, (Anna Eliza,) an English novelist, whose maiden name was Kempe, born in Surrey about 1800. She was married to Charles Stothard in 1818, and to Rev. Edward A. Bray about 1825. She published a number of novels, among which are " Gaston de Foix," (1826,) "The White Hoods," (1828,) "Talba," (1834,) and "Trelawney," (1837;) also, "Traditions and Legends of Devonshire," (1838.) See "London Quarterly" for October, 1837. Bray, (Sir Reginald,) an English architect, and a favourite of Henry VII., whose chapel at Westminster is supposed to have been designed by him. He also con- structed the nave of Saint George's Chapel at Windsor, Died in 1503. Bray, (Thomas,) an English divine, born in Shrop- shire in 1656, made several voyages to America as a missionary, and founded in 1697'a society for the propa- gation of <^he gospel in the colonies. Died in 1730. See "Biographia Britannica." € asi; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; o, h, y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2^= See Explanations, p. 23.) BRAT 430 BREDERODE Bray, (William,) an English antiquary, born in 1736, published the "Diary and Memoirs of Evelyn," and was J, contributor to the " Archaeologia." He was a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. Died ab'- .t 1830. Bray, de, deh bRc\, (Franqois Gabriel,) a French diplomatist, born at Rouen in 1765, was minister to Berlin and Saint Petersburg, (1808.) He published a "Critical Essay on the History of Livonia," (1817,) and several scientific works, A genus of plants has been called Braya in his honour. Died in 1832. See Martius, " filoge academique du Comte de Bray," 1835. Bray, de, deh bRi, (Jakob,) an excellent Dutch painter of portraits and history, son of Salomon, noticed below, born at Haarlem about 1600 ; died in 1664. Bray, de, (Salomon,) a Dutch painter, born at Haar- lem in 1579 ; died in 1664. Bray'brooke, (Richard Cornwallis Neville,) Lord, an English antiquary, born in London in 1820 ; died in 1861. Braybrooke, (Richard Neville Griffin,) Lord, an English antiquary, born about 1783. He published a "History of Audley End, Essex." Died in 1858. Brayer de Beauregard, bRt'ya' deh boR^gtR', (Jean Baptiste Louis,) a French litterateur, born at Soissons in 1770, wrote several works on political econ- omy. Died in 1834. 4 Bray'ley, (Edward Wedlake,) an English anti- quary and topographer, born in London in 1773. He published numerous works on the antiquities and to- pography of England, among which is " Londoniana," (4 vols., 1829.) Died in 1854. Bray'man, (Mason,) an American officer, born at Buffalo, New York, in 1813, entered the Union army in 1 86 1, and became brigadier-general of volunteers in 1862. Brea, bRa'i, (Lodovico,) an Italian painter, born at Nice, flourished from about 1480 to 15 15. He worked mostly at Genoa. His heads and draperies are com- mended. Breard, bRa'tR', (Jean Jacques,) born at Marennes, in France, in 1760, was a member of the National Con- vention, where he voted for the death of the king. Died in 1840. Brebeuf, de, (Guillaume,) a French poet, born at Thorigny in 1618. He produced a metrical version of Lucan's " Pharsalia," which was once popular, but was severely criticised l3y Boileau in his "Art Poetique." Died in 1661. Brebeuf, de, (Jean,) a French missionary, born in 1593, laboured in Canada, where he was killed by sav- ages in 1649. Brebiette, bReh-be-^t', (Pierre,) a French painter and engraver, born about 1596. Brechten, bR^K'ten, or Verbrechten, v§r-bR§K'ten, (Nikolaas,) a Dutch poet, born at Haarlem about 1240, Breckburg. See Berkheiden. Breck'en-ridge, (James,) an American politician, born in Botetourt county, Virginia, in 1763, was a repre- sentative in Congress from 1809 to 181 7, and was an active leader of the Federal party. Died in 1833. Breckenridge, (John,) attorney-general of the United States under Jefferson from 1805 to 1806, was born in Virginia near the middle of the eighteenth century. Having removed to Kentucky, he was elected in 1801 to the United States Senate. In this body he proposed the repeal of the judiciary system established at the close of Adams's administration, and took a prominent part in the great debate which followed. Died in 1806. Breckenridge, (John,) D.D., an eminent Presbyte- rian divine, son of the preceding, and uncle of John C. Breckinridge, (Vice-President of the United States,) was born at Cabell's Dale, Kentucky, in 1797. He graduated at Princeton in 1818, and subsequently became a professor in that institution. Breckenridge, usually written Breckinridge, (John C.,) an American statesman and general, a nephew of Robert J. Breckenridge, was born near Lexington, Ken- tucky, in 1 82 1. He studied law, became a Democrat in party politics, and was elected to Congress from Ken- tucky in 185 1, and re-elected in 1853. Having been nomi- nated as Democratic candidate for Vice-President, he was elected in November, 1856, when James Buchanan was chosen President. He was nominated for the Presidency in i860 by the disunion Democrats, after they had seceded from the convention which nominated Douglas as a Union Democrat. He had two other competitors, — John Bell and Abraham Lincoln. He received seventy-two elec- toral votes, Lincoln received one hundred and eighty, Bell thirty-nine, and Douglas twelve. All the Southern States, except Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Mis- souri, voted for Breckinridge. He was elected to the Senate of the United States by the legislature of Ken- tucky, and took his seat in March, 1861. After he had defended the cause of the new confederacy by several speeches in the Senate, he went to the South in Septem- ber, 1861, and took arms against the Union, with the rank of brigadier-general. He commanded a division at Stone River, December 31, 1862-January 2, 1863, and at Chickamauga, September 19 and 20, 1863. He defeated General Sigel near Newmarket, Virginia, in May, 1864. His corps formed part of the army of Early, which Sheri- dan defeated near Winchester in Sejjtember, 1864. He was appointed Confederate secretary of war in January, 1865. Soon after the surrender of General Lee, he sailed for Europe. He returned to the United States in 1868. Breckenridge, (Robert J.,) an American Presby- terian divine, born at Cabell's Dale, Kentucky, in 1800, is a son of John Breckenridge, (the first of the name,) no- ticed above. He studied at Yale College, graduated at Union College in 1819, practised law eight years in Ken- tucky, and became pastor of a church in Baltimore in 1832. About 1847 he removed to Lexington, Kentucky. He gained distinction as a preacher and a writer, had much influence in the church, and was appointed pro- fessor of theology in a seminary at Danville, Kentucky, in 1853. Among his works are "Travels in Europe," (1839,) and "The Knowledge of God objectively consid- ered," (1857.) He is said to be the principal author of the common-school system of Kentucky. During the civil war he was a decided and earnest supporter of the Union. Breckinridge, (John C.) See Breckenridge. Brecling, bRek'ling, (Frederik,) a Danish Protest- ant theologian and writer, born near Flensburg in 1629 ; died in 1711. Brecourt, de, deh bR^'kooR', (Guillaume Marcou- reau,) a French actor and dramatic poet. Died in 1685. Breda, van, vtnbReh-dd', (Jan,) a Flemish painter of landscapes, fairs, battles, etc., born at Antwerp in 1683. He copied the works of Breughel and Wouwerman with remarkable skill. His touch and skies and distances are praised by Descamps. Died in 1750. See Descamps, "Viesdes Peintres Flamands," etc. Breda, van, (Pieter,) a Flemish landscape-painter, born at Antwerp in 1630 ; died in 1681. Bredahl, bRi-dlK, (Christian David,) a Danish poet, born in 1784, wrote "Dramatic Scenes taken from an Old Manuscript," and other works. See Erslevv, " Forfatter-Lexicon." Bredahl, (Niels Krog,) a Danish dramatist, born about 1732, wrote several plays, and translated Ovid's "Metamorphoses" into Danish verse. Died in 1778. Bredenbach, bRa'den-baK^ (Tilmann,) a historical writer, born at Emmerich about 1535 ; died in 1587. Brederode, bRaMeh-roMeh, (Gerbrand,) a Dutch poet, born at Amsterdam in 1585. Among his principal works are "The Meditative Song-Book," "The Great Fountain of Love," and a comedy entitled " Spaanschen Brabander." Died in 161 8. See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Brederode, bid-deh-roMeh, (Hendrik,) Count, a Flemish nobleman, born in Brussels in 153 1, was an adherent of Egmont and Horn. In 1566 he presented a petition to the Duchess of Parma for the removal of the Inquisition. He was also one of the principal members of the association called " Les Gueux," (" The Beggars.") Having fought unsuccessfully against the Spaniards, he took refuge in Germany, where he died in 1568. See P. ScHELTEMA, " H. van Brederode te Amsterdam in 1567," 1S47 ; Schiller, "History of the Revolt of the Netherlands;" Motley, "Dutch Republic;" M. C. van Hall, "H. Graaf van Brederode verdedigd," 1845. Brederode, (Pieter Kornelis,) a Dutch jurist, born at the Hague, flourished about 1600. a, e, /, o, 11, Y, lono-; a, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/iort; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fcLr, f^ll, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; BREDOW 431 BRENDAN Bredow, bRa'do, (Gabriel Gottfried,) born at Ber- lin in 1773, became professor of history at Breslau in 1811. He published a "Manual of Ancient History," etc., (1803,) "Memorable Events of Universal History," (1810,) and a series of tables entitled " Historische Ta- bellen," which were translated into English by Major Bell. Died at Breslau in 1814. See KuNiscH, " Bredows Leben," 1816; Eksch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Bredsdorff, bR^Ds'doRf, (Jakob Hornemann,) a Danish naturalist, born in Seeland in 1790, became in 1828 professor of botany and mineralogy at Soroe. He published " Elements of Geognosy," and other scientific works. Died in 1841. See Erslew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." Bree, bRi, (Mathieu Ignace,) a distinguished his- torical painter, born at Antwerp in 1773, ^^^s director of the Academy of Fine Arts in that city. Died in 1839. See F. BoGAERTS, "M. van Bree," 1842. Bree, (Robert,) an English physician, born in War- wickshire in 1759, practised in London. He published " An Inquiry into Disordered Respiration," (1797.) Died in 1839. Breenberg, bRan'b^RC, or Breemberg, bRam'b^RG, (Bartholomeus,) a Dutch painter and engraver, born at Utrecht about 1620, excelled in small landscapes and animals. Died in 1660. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Bregis or Bregy, de, deh bRa^zhe', (Charlotte Saiimaise de Chazan — so'maz' deh sht'zSN',) Com- TESSE, a witty and accomplished French lady, born in Paris in 1619, was a niece of the celebrated Salmasius. She was maid of honour to Anne of Austria. Died in 1693, leaving a collection of letters and poems. See "Memoires de Madame de Motteville." Breguet, bRk'g^', (Abraham Louis,) a celebrated Swiss mechanician and watchmaker, born at Neufchatel in 1747. He made improvements in watches, and in- vented numerous astronomical, nautical, and other in- struments, distinguished for the perfection of their work- manship. He was a member of the French Bureau of Longitude, and of the Academy of Sciences of Paris. Died in 1823. See Fourier, "£loge de Breguet." Breguet, (Louis,) a French watchmaker and natural philosopher, grandson of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1804. He is said to have been the first Frenchman who applied himself seriously to the electric telegraph, on which he produced a treatise in 1845. Bregy. See Br6gis. Brehm, bRam, (Christian Ludwig,) a German or- nithologist, born at Schonau in 1787. He published a "Manual of the Natural History of European Birds," (2 vols., 1823-24,) and other works. Brehmer, bRa'mer, (Heinrich,) a German jurist and diplomatist, born at Lubeck in 1800. Breislak, bRls'lik, (SciPio,) an eminent geologist, of German extraction, born at Rome in 1748. Having been appointed professor in the Nazarene College at Rome, he made valuable contributions to the mineralogical cabi- net of that institution. He subsequently visited Paris, where he became acquainted with Cuvier and other cel- ebrated savants. He published " Physical Topography of the Campagna," (1798,) "Introduction to Geology," (1811,) and other works, in which he favours the vulcanic theory. He died in 1826, leaving his cabinet of minerals to the Borromeo family. See CoNFiGLiACHi, "Memorie intomo alle Opere, etc. del Gef)- logo S. Breislak," 1827; "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1804, and September, 1816. Breithaupt, bRit'howpt, (Joachim Justus,) a German Protestant divine and sacred poet, born in Hanover in 1658, became professor of theology at Halle. Breithaupt, (Johann August Friedrich,) a dis- tinguished German mineralogist, born near Saalfeld, Saxe-Meiningen, in May, 1791, was a pupil of Werner. He became professor of oryctognosy at Freiberg in 1827. He discovered a number of new species of minerals. His chief work is a " Complete Manual of Mineralogy," (3 vols.. 1836-47 ) Breitinger, bRT'ting''er, (Johann Jakob,) a Swiss scholar and writer, born at Zurich in 1701, became pro fessor of Greek and Hebrew in his native city. He was associated with Bodmer in his efforts to reform German literature, and took a prominent part in the controversy with Gottsched. He was the author of a "Critique on the Art of Poetry," ("Kritische Dichtkunst,") and other works. Died in 1776. See J. C. Lavater, " Eloge historique de J. J. Breitinger," 1771. Breitkopf, bRlf'kopf, (Johann Gottlob Emma- nuel,) a distinguished German typographer, born at Leipsic in 1719, introduced great improvements into the form of types, and wrote a work on the invention of printing. Died in 1794. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Hausius, " Biographie J. G. E. Breitkopfs," 1794. Brembati, bR§m-bi'tee, (Isotta,) an Italian poetess, born at Bergamo; died in 1586. Bre'mer, [Sw. pron. bRu'mer,] (Frederika or Fked- RIKA,) a celebrated Swedish novelist, born at Abo, in Fin- land, in 1802. Her parents having removed to Sweden while she was yet a child, her education was finished at Stockholm, where she was subsequently teacher in a fe- male seminary. She early became familiar with German literature, and was an especial admirer of the works of Schiller. Her novel of " The Neighbours" was first made known to the English and American public in 1842, through the excellent translation of Mrs. Mary Ho wilt. It was followed by "The Home," (1843,) "The Presi- dent's Daughters," "The Diary," "The H. Family," "Strife and Peace," "Nina," "Brothers and Sisters," and several others, also translated by Mrs. Howitt. They enjoy great popularity in England and the United States, and have been translated into German, French, Dutch, and other languages. Having visited the United States in 1850, she published, after her return, "The Homes of the New World," (1853,) of which an English and a German translation soon appeared. Among her more recent works are "England in 1851," and a novel entitled " Hertha," (1856.) Died in 1866. See " Life, Letters, and Posthumous Works of Frederika Bremer," edited by her sister Charlotte, New York, i2mo, 1868; "Eraser's Magazine" for November, 1843 ; and an article in the " North Ameri- can Review" for April, 1844, (by Lowell.) Bremond, bRi-m6N^ (Gabrielle,) a French lady, born at Marseilles, travelled in Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, and wrote an account of her journey, which was translated into Italian, (1673.) See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." Bremond, de, deh bReh-m6N', (Charles,) Marquis d'Ars, (d^R,) a French naval officer, born in Saintonge in 1738, was killed in battle against the English in 1761 Bremond, de, deh bRk'm^N', (FRANq'Ois,) a French natural philosopher, born in Paris in 1713. He pro- duced a good translation of the " Philosophical Trans- actions of the Royal Society of London," (4 vols., 1738.) Died in 1742. Bremond, de, (Gabriel,) a French romance-writer, lived about 167c- 1703. Bremond d'Ars, de, deh bReh-m6N' dtRs, (Cha rles,) a French captain, born in 1538, rendered important ser- vices to the king and Catholic party in the civil wars. Died in 1599. See DuPLEix, " Histoire de France." Bremond d'Arses, (or d'Ars,) bReh-m^)N' dtRs, (Louis,) a French commander, born in Saintonge, distin- guished himself in Italy in the reign of Louis XII., and had a high command at Ravenna in 1 511. Bremontier, bRk'm6N^te-i', (Nicolas Theodore,) a French engineer and inspector-general of bridges and highways, born in 1738; died in 1809. Bremser, bRim'ser, (Johann Gottfried,) a German physician and naturalist, born at Wertheim, on the Main, in 1767. He practised in Vienna, and wrote on intestinal worms. Died in 1827. Bren'dan, Saint, written also Brandan, was born in Ireland in the fifth century. According to a legend which obtained currency for several centuries, he made a long voyage in the Atlantic and discovered an island called by his name. Died in 577 a.d. See "Blackwood's Magazine" for June, 1836. € as c ns .f,- g Iiard; g as j; r,, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in fJiis. (^^^^^^ee E.xplaiuitions, p. 23.) B REN DEL 432 BRET Brendel, bR§u'del, (Adam,) a German physician, was professor of anatomy and botany at Wittenberg. Died in 1719. Brendel, (Johann Gottfried,) a German physician, born at Wittenberg in 17 12, became professor of medi- cine at Gottingen. Died in 1758. Brendel, (Zacharias,) a German medical writer, born at Jena in 1592 ; died in 1638. Brenius, bRa'ne-us, (Daniel,) a Dutch theologian, born at Haarlem in 1594, was a disciple of Episcopius. Died in 1664. Brenkenhoff, bR§nk'en-hof , (Leopold,) a German writer on the art of war, born at Dessau in 1750; died in 1799. Brenkenhoff, von, fon bR^nk'en-hof, (Franz Bal- thasar Schoenberg,) a German rural economist, born near Halle in 1723; died in 1780. See Meissner, " Leben des F. B. Schoenberg von Brenkenhoff," 1782. Brenkmann, bRgnk^mSn, (Hendrik,) a Dutch jurist, born at Rotterdam about 1680 ; died in 1736. See Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." Brenner, bR^n'ner, (Elias,) a Swedish antiquary and artist, born in 1647, was appointed miniature-painter to Charles XL Died in 1717. See Ersch und Gkuber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." Brenner, (Henrik,) a Swedish scholar and historian, born in 1669. He translated into Latin the " History of Armenia" of Moses Chorenensis, and wrote an account of the expedition of Peter the Great against Persia. Died in 1732. Brenner, (Sofia Elisabet Weber,) a Swedish poet- ess, born about 1660, was the wife of Elias, above noticed. Died about 1730. Bren'nus, a famous chief of the Sen'ones, a tribe of Gauls, invaded the Roman State about 390 B.C. Having defeated the Roman army, he entered Rome, which he found deserted except by a number of aged senators sitting in ivory chairs, whom the Gauls massacred. The Capitol, however, was defended by a garrison, whom Bren- nus attempted to surprise by night ; but Manlius and his companions, alarmed by the clamour of some geese, repulsed the Gauls. Brennus was induced to depart by the payment of one thousand pounds of gold — plus the weight of his sword, which he threw into the scale, ex- claiming, " Vae victis !" According to the popular story, Camillus, who had been previously banished, came to the relief of his countrymen at the very moment when they were weighing out the money which was to purchase peace with the Gauls : the latter were so utterly defeated that, it is said, not one remained to carry home the news of their overthrow. (See Camillus.) See Livv, " Plistory of Rome," book v. Brennus, a Gallic chieftain, invaded Greece about 280 B.C. with an immense army, and committed great devastation. He was defeated at Delphi, and died soon after that event. Brent, (Nathaniel,) an English jurist and littiraleiir, born in Warwickshire in 1573. He translated into Eng- lish and Latin Paul Sarpi's " History of the Council of Trent." Died in 1652. Brenta, bRen'tS, [Lat. Bren'tius,] (Andrea,) an Italian physician and litterateicr, born at Padua about 1450, was secretary to Cardinal Caraffa. Died in 1483. Brentana, bRgn-tcVnl, (Simone,) an Italian painter, born in 1656 at Verona, or, as stated by some writers, at Venice. Among his master-pieces is a " Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian," at Verona. Died about 1736. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Brentano, bR^n-t^'no, (Clemens,) a German novel- ist and dramatist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1777, was the brother of Bettina von Arnim, the friend of Goethe. Among his most popular works are the dramas of " Ponce de Leon" and "The Foundation of Prague," (" Die Griindung Prags,") a tale entitled " History of the Brave Kaspar and the Fair Annerl," and a collection of national ballads called " Des Knaben Wunderhorn," written conjointly with his brother-in-law, A. von Arnim. Died in 1842. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Brentano, (Lorenz,) a German politician, born at Manheim in 1810, took an active part in the Baden revo- lution of 1848. Being afterwards compelled to leave his country, he took refuge in America. Brentano, (Sophie,) wife of Clemens, noticed above, born at Altenburg in 1761, was originally named ScHU- BART. She published several poems and romances. Died in 1806. Brentel, bR^n'tel, (Frederick,) a painter of Stras- burg, born about 1580, numbered William Bawer among his pupils. Brentius. See Brentz and Brenta. Bren'tpn, (Captain Edward Pelham,) an English naval officer, born in 1774, wrote a "Naval History of Great Britain from 1783 to 1822," (5 vols.) Died in 1839. See "Memoir of Capt. E. Pelham Brenton," by Sir J. Brenton. Brenton, (Sir Jahleel,) a British rear-admiral, bro- ther of the preceding, born in 1770. He published " The Hope of the Navy," (1839,) and other works. Died in 1844. See Henry Raikes, "Memoir of Sir Jahleel Brenton," 1845; "London Quarterly Review" for March, 1847. Brentz, bR^nts, or Brentzen, bR^nt'sen, [Lat. Bren'- Tius,] (Johann,) a German Protestant theologian, and coadjutor of Luther, born at Weil, in Suabia, in 1499. He assisted at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, drew up the "Confession of Wurtemberg," and was present at the Council of Trent. Pursued by the emissaries of Charles V., he was at length protected by Duke Ulric of Wiirtemberg. Died in 1570. See J. W. Camerer, "J. Brentz der Wiirtembergische Reforma- tor," 1840; Carl Dietrich, "Leben des J. Brentz," 1841; Vai- HiNGER, " Leben mid Wirken des Reformators J. Brentz," 1841. Brentzen. See Brentz. Brequigny, de, deh bR^^k^n'ye', (Louis George OuDARD Feudrix — fuh'dRe',) a French historian and antiquary, born at Granville in 1716, was a member of the French Academy and of the Academy of Inscription:». He wrote, in conjunction with Mouchet, a continuation of the " Memoirs of the Chinese," begun by Amiot and others, and assisted in the publication of the " Collection of Laws and Ordinances of the Kings of the Third Race." Died in 1795. See Grimm, " Correspondance." Brera, bRa'rl, (Valeriano Luigi,) an Italian physi- cian and medical writer of great merit, born at Pavi'a in 1772, became professor of therapeutics and clinics in his native city. Died in Venice in 1840. See Tassinari, " Raccolta della Cure e Scritti del Professore V. L. Brera," 1840. Brere'ton, (Jane Hughes,) an English poetess, born in Flintshire in 1685; died in 1740. Brere'wood, (Edward,) an English mathematician and antiquary, born at Chester in 1565. He published "The Patriarchal Government of the Ancient Church," a treatise " On the Weights and Values of Ancient Coins, etc.," (" De Ponderibus et Pretiis Veterum Nummorum,") and other works, in English and Latin. Died in 1613. See Wood, "Athense Oxonienses." Bres, bRi, (Jean Pierre,) a French litterateur, born at Limoges in 1782, was one of the editors of the " Revue Encyclopedique." Died in 1832. Bresohet, bRa^sha', (Gilbert,) a French physician, medical writer, and professor of anatomy in the Faculty of Paris, born at Clermont-Ferrand in 1784. He was a member of the Institute. Died in 1845. Brescia, da, dS bresh'yl or bRa'sha, or Bresciano, bRi-shi'no, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian painter and engraver, born at Brescia about 1460. His brother Giovanni Antonio, born about 1461, was an engraver. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Bresmal, bRi^mlK, (Jean Franqois,) a Flemish medical writer of Liege, lived about 1700. Bressani, bRes-s3.'nee, (Gregorio,) an Italian philos- opher, born at Treviso in 1703, wrote against the doc- trines of Galileo, and in favour of Aristotle. Died in 1771. See GiNGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Bret, bR^, (Antoine,) a French litterateur, born at Dijon in 171 7, wrote a "Commentary on the Works of Moliere," and other works. Died in 1792. a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fdr, fill, f^t; m§t; n6t; good; moon; BRET AG NE 433 BRETDEL Bretagne, de, (Anne.) See Anne of Brittany. Bretagne, de, (Arthur.) See Arthur. Breteuil, de, deh bueh-tuF, (Louis Auguste le Tonnelier — leh ton'le-a'',) Baron, a French diplomatist of the royalist party, Ijorn in Touraine in 1733, was em- ployed in missions to Russia, Sweden, and Naples, and became minister of state about 1783. Died in 1807. Breton, bReh-t6N', (Fran^-ois Pierre Hippolyte Ernest,) a French artist and antiquary, born in Paris in 1812. He published "Monuments of All Nations," (2 vols., 1843, with 300 engravings designed by himself,) which was translated into several languages, and "Pom- peia," (1855.) He wrote many articles on painters for the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Breton, (Cuillaume,) sometimes called Gulielmus Brito-Armoricus, a French ecclesiastic and histoi ian, born in Brittany about 1150. He was chaplain at the court of Philip Augustus, and wrote two histories of his reign, — one, entitled " Philippis," in Latin verse, the other in prose. Died in 1226. See NiCERON, "Menioires." Breton, brit'on, (Nicholas,) an English poet, born in 1555. He wrote pastorals, sonnets, etc. Died in 1624- Breton, (Raymond,) a French missionary to the West Indies, born in 1609, published a " French-Carib and Carib-French Dictionary," and a "Carib Grammar." Died in 1679. Breton de los Herreros, bRi-t6n' dk 16s §r-ra'r6s, (Manuel,) a Spanish dramatist and poet, born in the province of Logrono in 1796. Bretonnayau, bReh-to'nS'yo', (Reni^,) a French sur- geon and writer, lived about 1540-90. Bretonne, de la. See R6tif. Bretonneau, bReh-to'no', ( Francois,) a French Jesuit, theological writer, and pulpit orator, born in Touraine in 1660; died in 1741. Bretonneau, (Pierre,) a French physician and medi- cal writer, born at Tours in 1771. He obtained celebrity as a practitioner, and is the reputed inventor of the ope- ration called tracheotomy. Died in 1862. See CALi.rsEN, " Medicinische Schriftsteller-Lexikon." Bretschneider, bR^t'shnl'der, (Heinrich Gott- fried,) a German litterateur, born at Gera in 1739. He was the author of fables, poems, romances, and satires, and "Travels to London and Paris," a translation of which appeared in "Blackwood's Magazine." He is also supposed to have furnished the principal material for Nicolai's "Travels." Died in 1810. See Eksch und Gruber, "AUgenieine Encyklopaedie." Bretschneider, (Karl Gottlieb,) a German ration- alist theologian, born at Gersdorf in 1776, was general superintendent in Gotha. He published a "Dogmatic Manual of the Evangelical Lutheran Church," (1814-18,) and "Corpus Reformatorum, or Philippi Melanchthonis Opera quae supersunt Omnia," (15 vols., 1834-48.) Died in 1848. See his " Aut-^biography," (" Selbstbiographie,") 1851. Brett, (Thomas,) an English nonjuror, born in Kent in 1667. He became rector of Ruckinge in 1705. He wrote several polemical treatises. Died in 1743. Bretteville, de, deh brgt'v^K, (£tienne Dubois,) a French theologian, born near Caen in 1650 ; died in 1688. Breughel, bRuh'gel or bRuh'Hel, (Abraham,) sur- named the Neapolitan, an excellent painter of birds and of still life, born at Antwerp, resided many years in Rome and Naples. Died in 1690. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Breughel, (Jan,) an eminent Flemish painter, brother of Peter the younger, born at Brussels about 1570, was called Velvet Breughel, from the usual material of his dress. He painted landscapes, fruit, flowers, and animals with admirable skill. Among his master-pieces is the landscape of " Adam and Eve in Paradise," now in the Museum of the Louvre, for which Rubens furnished the figures. In conjunction with that great artist he executed "The Four Elements," and " Vertumnus and Bellona." His death is variously dated from 1625 to 1642. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Breughel, (Peter or Pieter,) an eminent Flemish painter, surnamed THE Droll, born near Breda about 1525, excelled in village festivals and comic subjects. Died about 1590. Breughel, (Peter,) son of the preceding, born at Brussels about 1569, was surnamed THE Hellish, from the nature of the subjects he painted. Died about 1625. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Breuil, du. See Dubreuil. Brev'al, de, (John Durand,) an English officer and writer, published a " History of the House of Nassau," and several poems. Died in 1739. Breves, de, deh bRav, (Francois Savary,) Comte, a French diplomatist, born in 1560, was ambassador to Constantinople and to Rome. Died in 1628. Brev'int, (Daniel,) a Protestant theologian, born in the island of Jersey in 1616. After the restoration of Charles II. he became Dean of Lincoln. Died in 1695. Brew'er, (Anthony,) an English dramatist, lived about 1615-30, and wrote a play entitled "Lingua." Brewer, (Samuel,) an English botanist, was a friend of Dillenius, whom he assisted in publishing his "His- tory of Mosses," ("Historia Muscorum.") Died in 1743. Brewer, (Thomas,) an English musician and lyrical composer, lived under the reign of Charles I. Brews'ter, (Sir David,) an eminent British optician and experimental philosopher, born at Jedburgh, Scot- land, December 11, 1781. He was educated at the Uni- versity of Edinburgh, for the ministry, and was licensed to preach ; but his fondness for scientific research led him to abandon the profession of divine and devote himself to his favourite pursuits. He was editor of the " Edinburgh Encyclopaedia" from its commencement, in 1808, until its completion, about 1829, and wrote many articles for that valuable work. After he had been engaged some years in optical researches, he published, in 1812, a "Treatise on Burning Instruments, containing the Method of build- ing Large Polyzonal Lenses." In 181 5 the Royal Society of London awarded him the Copley medal for his essay " On the Polarization of Light by Reflection," and elected him a Fellow. He invented the kaleidoscope about 181 6. In the same year he received from the French Institute half of the prize of three thousand francs awarded for the two most important discoveries made in Europe in physical science during the two years preceding. Dr. Brewster and Professor Jameson founded the "Edin- burgh Philosophical Journal" in 1819, and the "Edin- burgh Journal of Science," of which sixteen volumes were issued. He invented an improved system of illumi- nating light-houses by polyzonal (or polygonal) lenses, which was adopted in 1833. He married a daughter of Macpherson, the author or editor of " Ossian's Poems." Among his chief works are a "Treatise on Optics," (183 1,) "More Worlds than One, the Creed of the Phi- losopher and the Hope of the Christian," (1854,) and "Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton," (2 vols., 1855.) Among his chief titles to celebrity are his discovery of the law of the polar- ization of light by reflection, and his researches on double refraction. " In the earlier compositions of Sir David, always severe in style and sternly scientific in form," says Hugh Miller,'" there is comparatively little indication of that rich flow of fancy and imagination and that fertility of happy illustration which his later writings exhibit." He was a contributor to the " North British Review" and the "Encyclopaedia Britannica." In 1841 he was appointed principal of Saint Leonard's College at Saint Andrew's. In 1849 he was elected one of the eight foreign associates of the Institute of France, in place of Berzelius. Died in February, 1868. Brewster, (William,) one of the Pilgrim Fathers, was born at Scrooby, England, in 1560. He was one of a company of Puritans who emigrated to Holland, and he removed to Plymouth in 1620. He was a ruling elder in the church. Died in 1644. See " Life and Times of William Brewster," by A. Steele, 1857. Breydel, bRl'del, (Carl,) a Flemish painter of land- scapes, battles, etc., born at Antwerp in 1677 ; died in 1744. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttiiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2;^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 28 BRETDEL 434 BRIGGS Breydel, (Frants,) a Flemish painter of portraits, carnivals, and feasts, brother of the preceding, born at Antwerp in 1679; died in 1750. See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Breyn, bRln, [Lat. Brey'nius,] (Jakob,) a German botanist, born at Dantzic in 1637 ; died in 1697. Breyn, (Johann Philipp,) a German physician and scientific writer, born at Dantzic in 1690 ; died in 1764. Brez, bka, (Jacques,) a botanist, and Protestant min- ister, born in Piedmont in 1771, published a " History cf the Waldenses," (2 vols., 1797.) Died in 1798. Breze. See Maill6-Br6ze. Brezin, bRa'zS.N', (Michel,) a French philanthropist, and manufacturer of locks, machinery, etc., born in 1758. He founded a hospital for aged operatives. Died in 1828. Brial, bRe'lK, (Michel Jean Joseph,) Dom, a French ecclesiastic, born at Perpignan in 1743. He was a con- tributor to the Literary History of France," and wrote other works. Died in Paris in 1828. Bri'an Boroihme, (or Bo-ru',) a king of Ireland, succeeded his father Kennedy on the throne of Munster in 978 A.D. He obtained numerous victories over the Danes, but was killed at the battle of Clontarf, after de- teatingthe King of Leinster and his Danish allies, (1014.) Briaree, the French of Briareus, which see. Bri-a're-us, (or brl'a-rus,) [Gr. B^iapevf ; Fr. Briaree, bRe'S'ry,] a giant or monster who was said to have a hundred arms. According to Homer, he was called /Egaeon by men and Briareus by the gods. He and his two brothers, Gyges and Cottus, conquered the Titans. Bricheteau, bRish^to', (Isidore,) a French medical writer, born in the department of Aude in 1789, was a favourite pupil and assistant of Pinel. He contributed important articles to the " Dictionary of Medical Sci- ences," and published several works, which are highly esteemed. Brigounet, bRe^so''ni', (Guillaume,) a French ec- clesiastic and statesman, rose to be superintendent of finance, and minister of Charles VIII. He was also Archbishop of Narbonne and Cardinal of Saint-Malo. Brigonnet, (Guillaume,) a son of the preceding, was Bishop of Meaux, and a patron of learning. Died in 1533. Bridaine or Brydaine, bRe'din', (Jacques,) a cele- brated French preacher, born at Chuslan (Gard) in 1701. His eloquence is highly commended by Massillon, La Harpe, and other eminent writers. He published "Can- tiques spirituels," (1748.) Died near Avignon in 1767. See La Harpe, " Cours de Littdrature ;" Maury, "Essai sur rfiloquence de la Chaire." Bridan, bReMSw', (Charles Antoine.) a French sculptor, born at Ruviere, in Champagne, in 1730; died in 1805. See C. F. Viel, "Notice sur Bridan," 1807. Bridault, bReM5', (Jean Pierre,) a litterateur of Paris, published "The Manners and Customs of the Romans," (1745.) Died in 1761. Bridel, bRe'd^K, (Jean Louis,) a Swiss littirateiir, born in 1759, became professor of the Oriental lan- guages at Lausanne. Died in 1821. Bridel, (Samuel £lis6e,) Baron, a Swi.ss naturalist and poet, brother of the preceding, born in 1761. He published " Muscologia Recentiorum," (1797,) and other botanical works. He was secretary to the Prince of Saxe-Gotha. Died near Gotha in 1828. Bridge, (William,) an English Puritan and Inde- pendent minister, born in 1600, was ejected from Great Yarmouth in 1662. Died in 1670. Bridge'man, (Sir Orlando,) an English judge, pre- sided at the trial of the regicides, (1660,) and succeeded Lord Clarendon as keeper of the great seal in 1667. His reputation is similar to that of the other ministers of Charles II. Died in 1674. See Foss, "The Judges of England." Bridges, brij'iz, (John,) an English antiquary, born in Berkshire about 1666; died in 1724. Bridg'et, Saint, patroness of Ireland, born in the county of Armagh, lived about 520 A.D. Bridg'et or Bri-git'ta, written also Birgite, Saint. fFr. Sainte-Brigitte, siNt^bRe'zh^t',] born in 1302, was the daughter of Birger, Prince of Sweden. Her work entitled " Revelations" was translated into several languages. Died in 1373. See Baillet, "Vies des Saints;" ^tienne Binet, "Vie de Sainte-Brigitte," 1634. Bridge'wa-ter, (Francis Egerton,) third Duke of, an English peer, born in 1736, was a younger son of Scroop, the first Duke of Bridgewater. His mother was Lady Rachel Russell. He succeeded to the dukedom in 1748. In consequence of his delicate health, his education was neglected. His reputation is founded on important improvements of inland navigation. He projected a canal from Worsley to Manchester, — the first navigable canal constructed in England. It was completed at his expense in 1761. He died, without issue, in 1803. Bridgewater, (Francis Henry Egerton,) Earl of, and Baron Ellesmere, born in 1758, was a son of John, Bishop of Durham. He succeeded to the earl- dom on the death of his elder brother in 1823. He is noted as the originator of the Bridgewater Treatises. In his will he left eight thousand pounds as a premium for the production of several treatises " On the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God." In accordance with his will, the president of the Royal Society selected for this task Rev. Thomas Chalmers, John Kidd, M.D., Peter Mark Roget, Charles Bell, William Whewell, Dr. Buck- land, Rev. William Kirby, and William Prout, M.D. Died in 1829. Bridgewater, [Lat. Aquaponta'nus or Aquipon- TANUS,] (John,) an English Catholic theologian and Jesuit, born in Yorkshire, lived about 1560-1600. See Wood, "Athenje Oxonienses." Bridg'man, (Laura,) a blind deaf-mute, who fur- nishes a remarkable example of the development of intelli- gence under circumstances apparently the most adverse, was born at Hanover, in New Hampshire, in 1829. She had the enjoyment of all her faculties until she was about two years old, when, in consequence of a severe attack of illness, she lost her sight, hearing, and smell, and the sense of taste was at the same time much impaired When about eight years old, she was placed under the tuition of Dr. S. G. Howe, principal of the Perkins In- stitution, in Boston. She learned in a few months to spell and read with a manual alphabet. She afterwards learned to write, and to play skilfully on the piano. See Dltnglison's " Physiology," vol. ii. p. 161; also, "Annual Reports of the Perkins Institution" for 1837 ^^l- Brid'port, (Alexander Hood,) Lord, an English admiral, brother of the celebrated Admiral Hood, born about 1724. He served with distinction against the French in 1793 and 1794. Died in 18 16. Brienne, de, deh bRe^^n', (Jean,) a French noble- man, married Isabella, daughter of Conrad of Montfer- rat, and heiress of the kingdom of Jerusalem. He was subsequently crowned King of Jerusalem, and gained several victories over the Saracens. Died in 1237. See Lafitau, " Histoire de Jean de Brienne," 1727. Brienne Lomenie. See Lom^nie. Briere (or Brierre) de Boismont, bRe'aiR' deh bwa'- m6N', (A.,) a French physician, born at Rouen in 1796, practised in Paris. He wrote " Elements of Botany," (1825,) a treatise on hygiene, and a work entitled "Hal- lucinations," ("Des Hallucinations," Paris, 1852,) which has attracted considerable attention. Briet, bRe'i', [Lat. Brie'tius,] (Philippe,) a French Jesuit, born at Abbeville in 160 1, wrote " Parallels of Ancient and Modern Geography," and other works. Died in 1668. Briey, de, deh bRe'i', (Camille,) Comte, a Belgian diplomatist, iDorn in 1799, was minister of foreign affairs from August, 184 1, to April, 1843. He was a leader of the Catholic party. Brifaut, bReT5', (Charles,) a French litterateur, born at Dijon in 1781, became a member of the French Acad- emy in 1826. His drama called "Ninus II." was very successful. Died in Paris in 1857. Briggs, (Charles Frederick,) an American writer, born in the island of Nantucket, became in early life a resident of New York City. He edited " Putnam's Maga- zine" from 1853 to 1856, and afterwards became an editor \, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; ndt; good; moon; BRIGGS 435 BRILLON of the New York "Times." Among his works is "The Adventures of Harry Franco, a Tale of the Great Panic," (1839.) Briggs, (George Nixon,) an American statesman and philanthropist, born in Berkshire, Massachusetts, in 1796. He was elected to Congress in 1830, and in 1844 was chosen Governor of Massachusetts. He was an earnest advocate of the temperance cause and other im- portant reforms, and became president of the American Temperance Union in i860. Died in 1861. See "Great in Goodness: Memoir of George N. Briggs," by Wil- liam C. Richards. Briggs, (Henry,) an eminent English mathematician, born at Warleywood, near Halifax, about 1556. He was educated at Saint John's College, Cambridge. In 1596 he was chosen professor or reader in geometry in Gres- ham House, (since called Gresham College,) London. He became in 1619 first Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford. He is chiefly distinguished for the improve- ment and construction of logarithms. "Napier found," says Hallam, "a coadjutor well worthy of him in Henry Briggs, professor of geometry at Gresham College. It is uncertain from which of them the change [i.e. from the hyperbolical to the decimal method] in the form of logarithms proceeded." Briggs published in 1624 a great work, " Arithmetica Logarithmica," containing the logarithms of all natural numbers as high as 20,000, and again from 90,000 to 100,000, calculated to fourteen places. Died in 1630. See Ward's " Lives of the Gresham Professors." Briggs, (Henry Perronet,) an English painter of his- tory and portraits, among whose master-pieces may be named the " First Interview between the Spaniards and the Peruvians," and " Othello relating his Adventures to Desdemona." In 1832 he was elected an Academician. Died in 1844. Briggs, (Henry Shaw,) born in Berkshire, Massa- chusetts, in 1824, served in the campaign of 1861, and was made brigadier-general of volunteers in 1862. Briggs, (William,) an English physician, born in 1641, published a " Theory of Vision," and a work en- titled " Ophthalmographia," or description of the eye. Died in 1704. Brigham, brig'am, (Amarlvh,) an American physi- cian, born in Berkshire county, Massachusetts, in 1798, began to practise medicine in 1821. He became super- intendent of the Retreat for the Insane at Hartford, Con- necticut, in 1840, and obtained the same office in the New York State Lunatic Asylum at Utica in 1842. He wrote, besides other works, "Mental Cultivation and Excitement," and "The Anatomy, Physiology, and Pa- thology of the Brain," (1840.) Died in 1849. Brigham, brig'am, (Nicholas,) an English poet, born at Caversham, wrote " Memoirs of Eminent Persons," and other works. Died in 1559. Brigham Young. See Young, (Brigham.) Bright, (Jksse D.,) an American politician, born in Chenango county. New York, removed to Indiana, and was elected to the United States Senate in 1845. was expelled in 1861 for a treasonable correspondence with Jefferson Davis, Bright, (John,) a celebrated English orator and Radi- cal statesman, was born at Greenbank, near Rochdale, on the i6th of November, 1811. He is a member of the Society of Friends. He was the son of Jacob Bright, a cotton-s])inner, and is a partner in the firm of John Bright and Brothers, manufacturers of cotton, at Roch- dale. In 1835 he travelled on the continent and visited Palestine. He enlisted in the Anti-Corn-Law League in 1839, and became a zealous champion of the repeal of the corn-laws. About this time he formed an intimate friendship with Richard Cobden. He addressed many public meetings with powerful and impassioned decla- mation, and was considered second only to Cobden among the advocates of the Anti-Corn-Law League. He was elected to Parliament for the city of Durham in 1843. The repeal of the corn-laws was followed by a general election in 1847, when Mr. Bright was one of the two members sent from Manchester. He was not identified with either of the great political parties, but, in co-operation with Cobden, formed the Manchester school of politics, advocates of electoral reform and non- intervention in foreign wars. He was re-elected by the voters of Manchester in 1852, but, in consequence of his opposition to the war against Russia, was defeated in 1857. Since that year he has represented Birmingham in Parliament. As a consistent friend of liberty and equal rights, he testified his sympathy with the American Republicans in the civil war, by several eloquent public speeches. In the great debate on the Reform Bill of Russell and Gladstone (1866) he took a prominent ))art. After the defeat of this bill he made speeches on the subject of Reform at immense meetings held in Man- chester, Birmingham, Glasgow, London, and other places. "He is endowed," says the "Saturday Review," "with a voice that can discourse most eloquent music, and with a speech that can equally sound the depths of pathos or scale the heights of indignation." Alluding to Mr. Bright's recent efforts in the cause of Reform, the " Eu- ropean Times" of December 8, 1866, remarks, " In all Mr. Bright's previous career, he has never put forth such extraordinary power, such floods of the very highest order of eloquence on the great question of the day, as during the last four months ; and it is not too much to say that no orator of the century has stirred the heart of the country in so short a time, or so effectually, by his own unaided intellect" On the 15th of August, 1867, the queen signed a Reform bill which granted the right of suffrage to every householder in a borough. He made, in March, 1868, a speech on Ireland, which is commended by the London " Spectator," March 21, in these terms : " Mr. Bright's grand speech did more to draw the noblest men of all parties nearer to each other than long years of discussion had effected before." At the general election of November, 1868, he was re- turned for Birmingham. He declined the ofiice of secre- tary for India, which was offered to him, but he entered the cabinet of Mr. Gladstone as president of the Board of Trade in December, 1868. Two volumes of his " Speeches on Questions of Public Policy" were pub- lished in 1868. See "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1869. Bright, (Richard,) an English physician, born in Bristol in 1789. He settled in London, and published an important work entitled "Original Researches into the Pathology of Diseases of the Kidney." He was the first to describe an affection of the kidney which is gene- rally known as "Bright's Disease." Died in 1858. Bright, (Timothy,) an English physician and clergy- man, born at Cambridge, wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on Melancholy," (1586.) Died in 1615. Bright'man, (Thomas,) an English clergyman, born at Nottingham in 1557; died in 1607. Brigitte. See Bridget, Saint. Brignolo-Sale, bR^n-yo'lo s^'li, [Fr, Brtgnole- Sale, bRen'yoK sSl,] (Antonio Giulio,) an Italian wri- ter in prose and verse, born in 1605, was a son of a doge of Genoa. Died in 1665. See J. M. ViscoNTi, "Vita di A. G. Brignolo-Sale," 1666. Bril, bR^l, (Mattheus,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 1550. He was patronized by Pope Gregory XIII., for whom he painted several frescos in the Vati- can. Died in 1584. Bril, (Paulus,) brother and pupil of the preceding, born at Antwerp in 1556. At an early age he joined his brother at Rome, where he soon acquired a very high reputation as a landscape-painter. Among his master- pieces are "The Martyrdom of Saint Clement," in the Vatican, two landsca])es in the Pitti palace at Flor- ence, and " Building of the Tower of Babel," in the Berlin Museum. The figures in several of his pieces were painted by Annibal Caracci. Died at Rome in 1626. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Brillat-Savarin, bRe'yt' st'vS'rdN', (Anthelvie,) a French litterafeur, born at Bellay in 1755, published a popular work on gastronomy, entitled "The Physiolog;y of Taste," (1825,) the style of which is highly praised. Died in 1826. See "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1835. Brillon, bRe'yiN', (Pierre Jacques,) a French jurist and legal writer, born in Paris in 1671 ; died in 1736. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, Vi, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled ; s as 2; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BRINDLE7 43^ BRITTON Brind'ley, (James,) an English engineer and mecha- nician, born at Thornset, in Derbyshire, iii 1716, was an apprentice to a millwright. He had a remarkable faculty of invention, and made improvements in the machinery of mills. About 1758 he was employed by the Duke of Bridgewater as engineer of a canal from Worsley to Manchester, — the first navigable canal made in Great Britain in modern times. He performed this difficult enterprise with success, and exhibited great fertility of resources. He superintended the construction of the Trent and Mersey Canal, begun in 1766, and other simi- lar works. Died in 1772. See " Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. i., 1839 • Henry Howe, "Eminent American and European Mechanics." Brink'ley, (John,) an English divine and astronomer, born in 1763, became professor of astronomy at Trinity College, Dublin. He published, among other works, " Elements of Astronomy," which is esteemed a standard work. He was created Bishop of Cloyne in 1826. Died in 1835. Brinkmann, bRink'min, (Karl Gustaf,) Baron, a Swedish diplomatist and poet, born near Stockholm in 1764, was sent as ambassador to London in 1807. In 1829 he became a member of the Royal Academy of Stockholm. He was a friend and correspondent of Madame de Stael. He died in 1848, leaving to the Uni- versity of Upsal his library of ten thousand volumes. See Bernard von Beskow, "Tal, etc. bfver C. G. von Brink- mann," 1848. BrinsTey, (John,) an English nonconformist min- ister, born in 1600, was a nejihew of Bishop Hall, (of Norwich.) He preached at Yarmouth, and wrote several works. Died in 1665. Brinvilliers, bRiN've^ye-a', (Marie Marguerite d'Aubray — dS'bka',) Marchioness of, a Frenchwo- man, notorious for her crimes, was the daughter of Dreux d'Aubray, civil lieutenant of Paris, and was married in 165 1 to the Marquis de Brinvilliers. She successively poisoned her father and two brothers, having previously exercised her art on the patients at the hospitals. She was at length detected, condemned to death, and exe- cuted in 1676. See " Histoire du Proces de la Marquise de Brinvilliers," Paris, 1676; Madame de Sevigne's "Letters." Brion, bRe-6n', (Luis,) a South American naval officer, born at Cura9oa in 1782. He acquired great in- fluence, took arms against Spain about 1811, and served under Bolivar with distinction. Died in 1821. Briot, bRe'o', (Charles,) a French mathematician, born at Saint-Hippolyte, in Doubs, in 181 7. He became teacher of mechanics and astronomy in the Normal School of Paris in 1855. He published, besides other works, "Lessons in Analytical Geometry," (1851,) in which he was assisted by M. Bouquet. Bris'baiie, (Sir Charles,) an English admiral, served with distinction under Rodney, Hood, and Nelson, was appointed Governor of Saint Vincent, and created vice- admiral in 1820. Died in 1829. Brisbane, (Sir Thomas Macdougal,) a British as- tronomer and general, born at Bishopton in 1773. He commanded a brigade in many actions in the Peninsula in 1812-13, after which he was Governor of Jamaica and of New South Wales. He built an observatory on the river Tweed. Died in i860. Briiasac, de, Due. See Cossi^-Brissac. Brisseau, bRe''so', (Pierre,) a French physician, born in Paris in 1631, published a "Treatise on the Cataract," and other works. Died in 171 7. Brisson, bRe^s^N^ [Lat. Brisso'nius,] (Barnab^,) an eminent French jurist and philologist, born in Poitou in 1 53 1. He was appointed first president of the Par- liament of Paris in 1588 by the League, and was hung in 1 59 1 by the Seize, a committee of sixteen factious persons who had possession of the capital. He was author of a treatise "On the Formulas and Solemn Words of the Roman People," ("De Formulis et solennibus Populi Romani Verbis," 1583,) and other works. See De Thou, "Histoire;" Daniel W. Mollei?, "Disputatio circularis de B. Brissonio," 1696. Brisson, (Barnab^,) a French engineer, born at Lyons in 1777, wrote an "Essay on Navigation," and other works. Died in 1828. Brisson,(MATHURiN Jacques,) a distinguished French naturalist, born at Fontenay-le-Comte in 1723, became professor of physics in the College of Navarre, published "The Animal Kingdom," ("Le Regne animal," 1756,) "Ornithology," (6 vols., 1760,) and a treatise "On the Specific Weight of Bodies," (1787.) Died near Versailles in 1806. Brissot, bRe'so', (Pierre,) a French physician, born at Fontenay-le-Comte in 1478, wrote an able treatise on bleeding for the pleurisy, (1529.) Died in Portugal in 1522. Brissot de Warville, bRe'so' deh vtR^v^K, (Jean Pierre,) a French Girondist leader and political writer, born at or near Chartres in January, 1754. He published in 1 781 "Theorie des Lois criminelles," (2 vols.) In 1785 he was confined in the Bastille on suspicion of having writ- ten an anonymous libel, of which he was innocent. To promote the abolition of the slave-trade, he formed with several friends, in 1788, the Societe des Amis des Noirs, (Society of the Friends of the Negroes,) and made a voyage to the United States to inquire into that subject. Having returned to France on the eve of the Revolution, he became editor of the " Patriote Fran9ais," a journal which would have sufficed to render him famous if he had no other titles to celebrity. He was elected in 1791 to the National Assembly by the voters of Paris, advo- cated a republic, and was recognized as the master spirit of the Girondist party, often called Brissotins. Li the Convention (1792-93) he strenuously opposed the execu- tion of the king and other excesses of the Jacobins. He was imprisoned in June, 1793, and executed in Paris, with twenty-one other Girondists, in October of the same year. He was author of numerous works. See Lamartine, "History of the Girondists;" "Vie privee et politique de Brissot," Paris, 1792; Brissot's " Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire de la Revolution," published by his son, 4 vols., 1830. Bris'ted, (Charles Astor,) an American writer, born in New York in 1820, graduated at Yale College in 1839, and pursued his studies at Oxford, England. He published " Five Years in an English University," (1852.) Bristed, (John,) an Episcopal clergyman, father of the preceding, born in Dorsetshire, England, in 1779. He emigrated to the United States in 1806, and married a daughter of John Jacob Astor in 1820. He preached at Bristol, Rhode Island, and wrote "The Resources of the Unite_cl States." Died in 1855. Bris'tow, (Henry William,) an English geologist and scientific writer, born about 181 7. Bri-tan'ni-cus, (Tiberius Claudius Germanicus,) a Roman prince, born in 42 A.D., was a son of the empe- ror Claudius and Messalina. He was the heir presump- tive to the throne before the death of his mother ; but, through the influence of Agrippina, Nero was preferred as the successor of Claudius. Britannicus was poisoned by Nero at a banquet in 56 A.D. See Tacitus, "Annales." Britard. See Brizard. Brito, de, di bree'to, (Bernardo,) a Portuguese his- torian, born at Villa de Almeida in 1569, wrote a "His- tory of the Portuguese Monarchy," and "Eulogies of the Kings of Portugal." Died in 1617. See Beauvais, "Vie de B. de Brito," 1744. Brito, (Francisco Joz^; Maria,) a Portuguese diplo- matist, born about 1759. He was minister plenipoten- tiary to France in 181 5. Died in 1825. Brito, (Gulielmus.) See Breton, (Guillaume.) Brito-Armoricus. See Breton, (Guillaume.) Brito Freire, de, di bRee'to fRa'e-rii, (Francisco,) a Portuguese admiral, born about 1^0, served with dis- tinction against the Dutch in Brazil. Died in 1692. Brit-o-mar'tis [Gr. B(9<-6,tzapnf] or Bri'to, [Bptrw,] a nymph, the daughter of Jupiter, and favourite com- panion of Diana, was beloved by Minos, to escape frorn whom she threw herself into the sea. She was wor- shipped especially by sailors and fishermen. Britton. See Bracton. Brit'ton, (John,) a celebrated English antiquary, born in Wiltshire in 1 771. Among his numerous works are "The Cathedral Antiquities of England," (14 vols. fol. and 4to, with nearly 300 engravings,) "Architectural a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, h, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fMl, f^t; m^t; n6t; good; moon; BRITTON 437 B ROD HE AD Antiquities of Normandy," (1825,) "A Dictionary of the Architecture and Archaeology of the Middle Ages," (1832,) "Illustrations of Fonthill Abbey," and "Histo- rical Notices of Windsor Castle," (1842.) Died in 1857. See "Men I have known," by William Jerdan, London, 1866; "London Quarterly Review" for June and September, 1826. Britton, (Thomas,) an English coal-dealer, born in Northamptonshire about 1650, was celebrated for his proficiency in music. Died in 1714. See "Annals of Industry and Genius," by C. L. Brightvvell, London, 1863. Brizard, bRe'zlR', or Britard, bRe'ttR', (Jean Bap- TISTE,) a French actor and dramatist, born at Orleans in 1721 ; died in 1791. Brize, bRee'zeh, (Kornelis,) a Dutch painter of still life, bas-reliefs, etc., lived between 1650 and 1700. Brizeux, bRe'zuh', (Julien Auguste Pelage,) a French poet, born at Lorient in 1806. He produced a successful poem entitled "Marie," (1832,) "The Bre- tons," (1846,) which was crowned by the French Acad- emy, and "Primel et Nola," (1850.) Died in 1858. Brizio. See Brizzl Brizzi, bR^t'see, or Brizio, bR^t'se-o, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1574, was one of the most distinguished pupils of the Caracci. Among his best works is the " Coronation of the Madonna del Borgo." Died in 1623. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy.^' Brocario, bRo-ka're-o, a Spanish typographer, pub- lished in 1 5 14-16 the Polyglot Bible of Cardinal Xime- nes, (6 vols, fol.) Brocchi, bRok'kee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian naturalist, born at Bassano in 1772. He became professor of botany at Brescia in 1802, and in 1808 inspector of mines of the kingdom of Italy. Among his principal works are his " Sub-Apennine Fossil Conchology, with Geological Observations on the Apennines and the Ad- jacent Soil," (2 vols., 1814,) and a work "On the Physi- cal Condition of the Soil of Rome," (1820.) Died at Khartoom, in Nubia, in 1826. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri;" G. Larber, "Elogio storico di G. B. Brocchi," 1828; "Edinburgh Review" for February, 1816. Brochant de Villiers, bRo''sh5N' deh ve^ye-i', (An- dr6 Jean Francois Marie,) a French naturalist and scientific writer, born in Paris in 1773. He was a mem- ber of the Academy of Sciences, and inspector-general of mines. Died in 1840. Brochet, bRo'shi', (Jean £tienne,) a demagogue of the French Revolution. He was exiled by Bonaparte to Cayenne, but was soon after permitted to return, and passed the rest of his life in merited obscurity. Died in 1823. Brock, (Isaac,) a British major-general, whose prin- cipal achievement was the capture of General Hull and his army at Detroit, in August, 1812. At the battle of Queenstown, October 13 of the same year, he vvas killed, being pierced by three balls. As a token of the respect which was feU for his high character, the guns of the American forts were fired during his funeral. Brockedon, brok'don, (William,) an English author and artist, born in 1787. He published "Passes of the Alps," illustrated by elegant engravings, (2 vols., 1828,) "Views in Italy," (1842-44,) and "Excursions in the Alps," (1845.) l^iecl in 1854. Brookes, bRok'k^s, (Barthold Heinrich,) a Ger- man devotional poet, born at Hamburg in 1680. He trans- lated Thomson's " Seasons" into German. Died in 1 747. Brock'ett, (John Trotter,) an English antiquary, born in 1788; died in 1842. Brockhaus, bRok'howss, (Friedrich Arnold,) a celebrated German publisher, born at Dortmund in 1772, was the founder of the firm of Brockhaus at Leipsic. Having purchased the co])yright of the " Conversations- Lexikon," he settled at Altenburg in 1811, and began in 18 1 2 the second edition of that work. In 1813 he edited a patriotic journal, entitled "Deutsche Blatter." He removed in 1817 to Leipsic, where, besides six editions of the " Conversations-Lexikon," he brought out Ebert's Universal Bibliographical Lexicon," Von Raumer's " History of the Hohenstaufen and their Times," Ersch's *' Manual of German Literature," and other important publications. He died in 1823; and the firm was con- tinued by his two eldest sons, Frederick and Henry, under whose auspices the " Conversations-Lexikon" reached the tenth edition. To this were subsequently added three accompanying works, entitled " Conversa- tions-Lexicon of the Most Recent Times and Litera- ture," (" Conversatio^is-Lexikon der neuesten Zeit und Literatur," 4 vols., 1832,) "Conversations-Lexicon of the Present," ("Conversations-Lexikon der Gegenwart," 4 vols., 1838,) and "The Present," ("Der Gegenwart," 1848.) They have also published Ersch and Gruber's "Universal Encyclopaedia," (" Allgemeine Encyklopae- die,") the " Pfennig-Magasin," and a number of useful periodicals. Brockhaus, (Hermann,) third son of Friedrich Ar- nold, noticed above, was born at Amsterdam in 1806. He became in 1848 professor of the Sanscrit language and literature at Leipsic. He has published, in German and Sanscrit, a portion of the legends of Somadeva. Brocklesby, brok"lz-be, (Richard,) a distinguished English physician, born in Somersetshire in 1722, was an intimate friend of Edmund Burke. He graduated at Leyden, and in 1758 was appointed physician to the army, which he accompanied to Germany in the Seven Years' war. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the College of Physicians, and published several medi- cal works. Died in 1797. See " Biographie Medicale." Brockmann, bRok'man, (Johann Franz Hiero- nymus,) a celebrated German actor, born at Gratz^ in Styria, in 1745 ; died in 181 2. Brodeau, bRo'do^ (Jean,) a distinguished French scholar, born in 1500, published "Notes on Martial," a " Commentary on the Tragedies of Euripides," and other critical works. Died in 1563. Bro'der-ick, (David Colbreth,) an American Sen- ator, born at Washington, District of Columbia, in 181 8 or 1 819. He worked at the trade of stone-cutter in New York City in his youth, removed to California in 1849, and became a leading Democrat. In 1856 he was elected a member of the Senate of the United States by the legis- lature of California. He acquired eminence as a debater, spoke against the admission of Kansas as a slave State under the Lecompton Constitution, and separated from his party, on the question of slavery, in 1858. He was challenged, and killed in a duel near San Francisco in September, 1859, by Judge David S. Terry, a partisan of slavery, whose motive appears to have been revenge for the speeches which Broderick had made against Senator Gwin and others of the pro-slavery party. Broderip, brod'rip, (William John,) an English naturalist, born at Bristol. He published "Zoological Recreations," (1847,) and " Leaves from the Note-Book of a Naturalist," (1852,) and contributed numerous articles on natural history to Knight's " Penny Cyclopaedia." He was a Fellow of the Linnaean Society and of the Royal Society, and vice-president of the Zoological Society. Died in 1859. See "London Quarterly Review" for December, 1847; "Eraser's Magazine" for April, 1859. Brod'head, (Jacob,) D.D., an American clergyman, born in Ulster county. New York, in 1782. He became pastor of a Reformed Dutch church in New York in 1809, removed to Philadelphia in 1813, and returned to New York in 1826, Died in 1855. Brodliead, (John Romeyn,) an American historian, son of the preceding, born in Philadelphia in 1814, graduated at Rutgers College, New Jersey, in 1831, and studied law. He devoted himself to the study of American history, and, while attached to the United States legation at the Hague, in 1841, was appointed by Governor Seward an agent to procure information re- lating to the colonial history of New York. Pie spent three years in examining the records in Holland, Lon- don, and Paris, and returned in 1844 with eighty volumes of documents. In 1849 the legislature passed an act authorizing their publication in ten volumes quarto. The first volume of the " History of New York from 1609 to 1664" (the period of its occupation by the Dutch) appeared in 1853. € as 5 as s; g hard; g as G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) B ROD IE 438 BROME Bro'die, (Sir Benjamin Collins,) an eminent Eng- lish surgeon, born in Wiltshire in 1783. He studied under Sir Everard Home, and became, in 1832, surgeon to the queen. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal So- ciety, corresponding member of the Institute of France, and obtained the degree of D.C.L. from the University of Oxford, (1850.) Among his principal works are "Ex- periments and Observations on the Different Modes in which Death is produced by Certain Vegetable Poisons," (1811,) "Pathological and Surgical Observations on Dis- eases of the Joints," and " On Local Nervous Affec- tions." Died in 1862. See his "Autobiography," 1865; H. W. Acland, "Biographical Sketch of B. C. Brodie," 1864; "Eraser's Magazine" for January, 1863. and July, 1865. Brodie, (George,) an English historian. He pub- li.-lied a "History of the British Empire from the Ac- cession of Charles I. to the Restoration," (4 vols., 1822,) which was written for the purpose of pointing out the faults or errors of Hume. See "Edinburgh Review" for March, 1824; Professor Smyth, " 1-ectures on Modern History." Brodzinski, brod-zins'kee, (Casimir,) a Polish poet and critic of distinguished merit, born at Krolowko in 1 79 1, became professor of aesthetics at Warsaw. He made a number of translations from the English, Ger- man, and other languages. Died in 1835. Broeck, van den, vSn den bRook, (Barbara,) a Flemish engraver, born about 1560, was a daughter of Crispin, noticed below, some of whose designs she en- graved. Broeck, van den, (Crispin,) a Flemish historical painter and engraver, born at Antwerp about 1530; died about 1 60 1. Broeck, van den, (Elias,) a Flemish painter of flowers, fruits, etc., born in 1657 ; died in 1711. See Descami's, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Broekhuizen, van, vtn bRook'hoi'zen, (Jan,) [Lat. Ja'nus Broukhu'sius,] a Dutch scholar and poet, born at Amsterdam in 1649. He published editions of Tibullus and other classics, and a collection of Latin poems. Died in 1707. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Jocher, " Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." Brofferio, bRof-fa're-o, (Angelo,) an eminent Italian dramatist, orator, and political writer, born at Asti, in Piedmont, in 1802. He produced "Vitiges, King of the Goths," " Salvator Rosa," and other dramas, and a volume of popular songs ; also a " History of Piedmont," (1849-52.) In 1848 he became a member of the Cham- ber of Deputies. In politics he is a radical republican. Broghill, Lord. See Boyle, (Roger.) Broglia, bRoKyS, (Francesco Maria,) born at Chieri, in Piedmont, in 1611, first distinguished himself in the civil war of Savoy in 1638. He afterwards entered the service of France, where he won a high reputation for bravery and military skill. Died in 1656. He was the founder of an illustrious family of French nobles, of whom the following are, perhaps, the most worthy of notice. Broglie, de, deh bRog'le', (Achille L^:once Victor Charles,) Due, a French statesman, born in Paris in 1785 or 1789, was a son of Claude Victor, noticed below, lie married the only daughter of Madame de Stael in 1 816, and in the same year became a member of the Cham- ber of Peers, in which he made a speech against the slave- trade in 1822. After the revolution of 1830, the Due de Broglie and his friend Guizot were the chiefs of the party called Doctrinaires. De Broglie was minister of public in- struction for a few months in 1830, and minister of foreign affairs from October, 1832, to April, 1834. He was elected in 1849 to the Legislative Assembly, in which he voted with the conservative droite. In 1856 he was elected a member of the French Academy. Died in 1870. Broglie, de, (Albert,) Prince, a son of the pre- ceding, born in 1821, is distinguished in literature and ])hilosophy. He has contributed several articles to the "Revue des Deux Mondes." Among his works is a history of Constantine the Great, entitled "The Church and the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century," (2 vols., 1856.) See "Edinburgh Review" for April, i860. Broglie, de, (Albertine Ida Gustavine de Si ael,) Duchesse, born in Paris about 1797, was the only daugh- ter of the celebrated Madame de Stael-Holstein, and the wife of Achille, Due de Broglie, noticed above. She was a zealous Protestant, and the author of " Fragments on Various Subjects of Religion and Morals," (1840,) and other works. Died in 1838. " Whatever might be the eclat of her position," says the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale," "she enhanced it by the admirable example that she gave of all the domestic virtues. Her salon was not only the resort of eminent statesmen, but was one of those to which the elite of Paris came to seek intellectual pleasure." Broglie, de, (Claude Victor,) Prince, son of Victor Fran9ois, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1757. He was president of the National Convention in 1791, and in 1794 was executed by order of the Revolutionary tribunal. Broglie, de, (Franqois Marie,) Due, grandson of Francesco Maria Broglia, noticed above, and son of Victor Maurice, Count of Broglie, was born in 1671, and, made marshal of France in 1734. Ten years before, he had resolutely refused this high promotion, because he believed the claims of his father, who was then still living, were juster than his own. In consequence of this generous refusal, his father was made marshal, which office he held till his death in 1727. The Duke of Brog- lie was a man of great ability, courage, and nobleness of character. Died in 1745. Broglie, de, (Maurice Jean Madeleine,) a French ecclesiastic, born in 1766, became in 1803 almoner to the emperor, and subsequently Bishop of Ghent. Died in 1821. Broglie, de, (Victor FRANgois,) Due, son of Fran- 9ois Marie, noticed above, born in 1718. He served with distinction in the Seven Years' war, commanded in sev- eral battles, and was created marshal of France in 1759. He became minister of war in 1789, and emigrated about 1790. Died at Miinster in 1804. See " Victoires et Conquetes des Frangais." Broglie, de, (Vicior Maurice,) Comte, Marquis de BrezolleS; (deh bReh-zoK,) son of Francisco Maria Broglia, noticed above, born about 1647, rendered im- portant services in Flanders, (1672-90,) and became a marshal of France in 1724. Died in 1727. Brogni, bRdn'yee, Cardinal of, (originally Gio- vanni AUarmet — il-lar-m§t',) an eminent Italian eccle- siastic, born in 1342, was the son of a peasant of Brogni, a village near Annecy. His talents soon raised him to dis- tinction, and in 1385 he was made cardinal. He presided in 141 7 at the Council in which John Huss was con- demned. Fie is said, however, to have manifested the kindest sympathy towards Huss, and to have pronounced his sentence reluctantly, and not till he had tried every- thing to reclaim him which Christian charity could sug- gest. Died in 1426. See MoRERi, "Dictionnaire Historique;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Broke. See Brooke. Broke, brook, (?) (Francis J.,) an officer of the Ameri- can Revolution, and an intimate friend of Washington, was born near Fredericksburg, Virginia, in 1763. He entered the army with his twin-brother John at the age of sixteen, and served his first campaign as a lieutenant under La Fayette. He afterwards joined the army of General Greene, and continued in service to the end of the war. Died in 1851. Broke, brook, (Sir Philip Bowes Vere,) a British rear-admiral, born in 1776. He commanded the Shannon in a fight against the American frigate Chesapeake, which he captured in June, 1813. (See Lawrence, James.) Died in 1841. Brome, (Alexander,) an English poet and lawyer, born in 1620. He wrote a number of satires, songs, and epigrams in ridicule of the Parliamentary party; also a comedy entitled "The Cunning Lovers." Died in 1666. Brome, (James,) an Englishman, who published "Travels in England, Scotland, and Wales," (1700,) and "Travels through Portugal, Spain, and Italy," (1712.) SL, e, T, o, u, y, loftg; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, s/2ort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, ftt; m§t; n6t; good; moon; BROME Brome, (Richard,) an English dramatist, was origin- ally a servant of Ben Jonson. He published fifteen comedies, among which may be named "The Jovial Crew, or the Merry Beggars," and " The Northern Lass." Died in 1652. Bromel, bRo'mSl, (Olaf,) a physician and botanist, father of the following, born in the province of Nericia in 1639 ; died in 1705. Bromel, von, fon bRo'mSl, (Magnus,) born at Stock- holm about 1678, became chief physician to the King of Sweden. Died in 1731. Brom'field, (John,) an American merchant, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1779, lived in Boston. He gave twenty-five thousand dollars to the Boston Athe- naeum. Died in 1849. Brom'field, (William,) an English surgeon, born in 1712, published " Chirurgical Observations and Cases," and other medical works ; also a comedy called " The City Match." Died in 1792. He was one of the founders of Lock Hospital, London. Brorri'ley, (Sir Thomas,) an English judge, born in the county of Salop about 1530. He became solicitor- general in 1570, and lord chancellor in 1579. According to Lord Campbell, "he framed the measures intended to bring Mary Queen of Scots to trial." He presided over the court which condemned her in 1586. Died in 1587. See Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors," vol. ii. ; Foss, "The Judges of England." Bromley, (William,) an English engraver, born at Carisbrooke, in the Isle of Wight, in 1769. Among his principal works are portraits of the Duke of Wellington and Young Napoleon, and the illustrations to " Mack- lin's Bible." Died in 1842. His son John, born at Chelsea in 1795, obtained great excellence in mezzotinto engraving. Died in 1839. Bromp'tou, (John,) an English monk, the reputed author or editor of a "Chronicon" from 588 to 1198. Bronchorst, (Jan.) See Bronkhorst. Brondex, bR^N'd^x', (Albert,) a French wit and poet, born in 1750 ; died in 1786. Brondsted or Bronsted, bRon'st^d, (Peter Oluf,) a Danish antiquary and scholar, born at Horsens, in Jutland, about 1780. Having visited Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor, he was appointed professor of Greek at Copenhagen, (1813,) director of the Royal Museum of Antiquities, and professor of philology and archaeology. He published " Travels and Investigations in Greece," (1826, in German and French,) and other valuable treat- ises on ancient art. Died in 1842. See Ersi.ew, " Forfatter-Lexicon ;" J. P. Mvnster, "P. O. Brondsted's Biographic," 1844. Brongniart, bR6N'ne-ir', (Adolphe Th^:ophile,) a French botanist, son of Alexandre, noticed below, born in Paris in 1801. He succeeded Desfontaines as a mem- ber of the Academy of Sciences in 1834, and about 1840 became professor of botany at the Jardin des Plantes. Among his works may be named " Prodromus of a History of Fossil Vegetables," (1828,) "Botanical and Geological Researches on Vegetables enclosed in the Different Strata of the Earth," (2 vols., 1828 et seq.,) and "Observations on the Interior Structure of the Sigillaria Elegans." He was chosen a foreign member of the Royal Society of London in 1852. See QuER.'VRD, "La France Litteraire," (Supplement.) Brongniart, (Alexandre,) an eminent French chem- ist and mineralogist, born in Paris in 1770, was a son of Alexandre Theodore, noticed below. He served as physician or apothecary in the army in his youth, and was afterwards a professor of natural history. In 1800 or 1801 he was appointed director of the manufactory of porcelain at Sevres. He wrote an "Elementary Treat- ise on Mineralogy," (1807,) which was used as a text- book by many professors. He is said to have been the first who classified reptiles under the heads of Saurians, Batrachians, Chelonians, and Ophidians. In conjunction with Cuvier, he produced a celebrated " Essay on the Mineralogical Geography of the Environs of Paris," (1810.) He was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 181 5, after which he travelled in Sweden with Berzelius. Among his works is "A Treatise on the Art of Pottery," ("Traite des Arts ceramiques," 1845.) Died in October, 1847. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Brongniart, (Alexandre Theodore,) a French ar- chitect, and member of the Academy of Architecture, born in Paris in 1739. He was the first architect of the Palais de la Bourse, (Exchange,) but did not live to finish it. Died in 181 5. See " Nouvelle Biographic Gendrale." Brongniart, (Antoine Louis,) a French chemist, brother of the preceding, was professor in the College of Pharmacy, and apothecary to Louis XVI. He wrote an "Analytical View of the Combinations and Decom- positions of Different Substances." Died in 1804. Bronikowski, bRo'ne-kov'skee, (Alexander Au- gust Ferdinand von Opeln — fon o'p^ln,) a German writer, of Polish extraction, born at Dresden in 1783, published novels entitled "Olgierd and Olga, or Poland in the Eleventh Century," (1832,) and " Hippolytus Boratynski ;" also a " History of Poland." Died in 1834. See "Foreign Quarterly Review" for December, 1834. Bronkhorst or Bronchorst, van, vtn bRonK'horst, (Jan,) a distinguished Dutch painter of animals, born at Leyden in 1648; died in 1726. Bronkhorst, van, (Pieter,) un excellent Dutch painter of architectural pieces and perspective, born at Delft in 1588; died in 1661. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Bronn, bRon, (Heinrich Georg,) a German natu- ralist, born in 1800 near Heidelberg, where he became, professor of natural science in 1833. He published, besides other works, " Universal Zoology," (1850,) and "Lethaea geognostica," a treatise on petrifactions which serve to characterize rocky formations, (2 vols., 1834.) See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." Bronner, bRon'ner, (Franz Xaver,) a German pas- toral poet, born at Hochstiidt, on the Danube, in 1758; died in 1850. See his "Autobiography," 3 vols., 1795-97. Bronsted. See Brondsted. Bronte, bron'te, (Anne,) an English novelist, whose assumed name was Acton Bell, was born in Yorkshire about 1820. She was a sister of Charlotte Bronte. She wrote, besides several short poems, a prose tale called "Agnes Grey," (1847,) and "The Tenant of Wildfeld Hall," (1848.) Died in May, 1849. See a biosraphical notice prefixed by her sister Charlotte to tlw edition of " Wiithering Heights" and "Agnes Grey," 1850. Bronte, (Charlotte,) "Currer Bell," a populai English novelist, born at Thornton, Yorkshire, April 21, 1 816, was a daughter of Patrick Bronte, who be- came curate of Haworth in 1820. She lost her mother when she was a child. While at a boarding-school her healtli was injured by impure air and food of bad quality. Her friend Mrs. Gaskell says she was (about 1833 or 1834) a " little, set, antiquated girl, very quiet in manners and very quaint in dress." In 1835 she became a teacher of the school at Roe Head, and in 1841 a governess in a private family. Charlotte and her sister Emily went to Brussels in 1842 to learn French, etc. The former was afterwards employed there as a teacher of English, at a salary of sixteen pounds a year ; but she returned to Haworth about the end of 1843. In 1846 the Misses Bronte published a volume entitled "Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell," Currer Bell being the assumed name of Charlotte. About two years later, under the pressure of painful domestic trials, she produced "Jane Eyre, an Autobiography, edited by Currer Bell," (3 vols., 1848,) which obtained great popularity and was translated into many languages. "Almost all that we require in a novelist," says "Eraser's Magazine," "the writer has, — perception of character and knowledge of delineating it, picturesqueness, passion, and knowledge of life." Of "Jane Eyre" the "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1850, says, "It is certain that for many years there had been no work of such power, piquancy, and originality. Its very faults were faults on the side of vigour, and its beauties were all original. The grand secret of its success, however, — as of all genuine and •e as k; q as s; g /lard; g as j; g, h, gtithiral ; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) BRONTE BROOKS lasting success, — was its reality." This work was, how- ever, severely criticised by the " Quarterly Review" for December, 1848. "Anyone who has studied her writings," says Mrs. Gaskell, " must have noticed her singular fe- licity in the choice of words." In 1849 she published "Shirley, a Tale." Before this time the death of her iisters had filled her home with desolation. About the end of 1849 she visited London, and became acquainted with Thackeray and Harriet Martineau. Extreme, in- tense solitude had rendered her shy and somewhat taci- turn in the presence of strangers. " Indigestion, nausea, headache, sleeplessness," says Mrs. Gaskell, "all com- bined to produce miserable depression of spirits." About the end of 1852 she finished " Villette," another novel, which "was received with one burst of acclamation." In December, 1852, a proposal of marriage was made to her by Arthur B. Nicholls, who had been curate of Ha- worth for many years, and had seen her almost daily during that period. She at first declined the offer because her father sternly disapproved the match; but he finally consented, and they were married in June, 1854. After a brief taste of domestic happiness, she died at Haworth in March, 1855. " No one in her time," says " Blackwood" for May, 1855, "has grasped with such extraordinary force the scenes and circumstances through which her story moved, or thrown so strong an individual life into place and lo- cality. Her passionate and fearless nature, her wild, warm heart, are transfused into the magic world she has created, — a world which no one can enter without yielding to the irresistible fascination of her personal influence." See "Eraser's Magazine" for 1857; E. C. Gaskell, "Life of Charlotte Bronte," 2 vols., 1857. Bronte, (Emily,) "Ellis Bell," a younger sister of the preceding, was born in Yorkshire about 1819. She was one of the authors of a volume entitled "Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell," (1846.) She also published " Wuthering Heights," a novel, (1847,) the merit of which was variously estimated. Died in Decem- ber, 1848. See a biographical notice of Ellis and Acton Bell, prefixed to an edition of "Wuthering Heights," 1850. Bronte, (Patrick,) the father of Charlotte Bronte, was born in Ireland about 1774. He became curate of Haworth, in Yorkshire, in 1820. He wrote "Cottage Poems," (181 1.) Died in 1861. Bronzino, (Alessandro.) See Allori. Bronzino, bRon-zee'no, (Angelo,) an Italian painter, born at Florence in 1 501. His "Descent of Christ into Hell" is considered his master-piece. Died in 1570. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." Brook, (Benjamin,) an English writer, born in 1775, published "The Lives of the Puritans," (3 vols., 1813.) Died about 1848. Brooke, (Charlotte,) an Irish authoress, a daughter of Henry Brooke, noticed below. She published, about 1788, "Reliques of Irish Poetry," translated from the Celtic. Died in 1793. Brooke, (Frances,) an English authoress, wrote the " History of Julia Mandeville," and other novels, also "The Siege of Sinope," a tragedy, and several poems. Died in 1789. Brooke, (George Mercer,) an officer in the United States army, served with distinction in 1814 and in the Mexican war, and attained the rank of major-general. Died in 185 1. Brooke, (Henry,) a political and miscellaneous writer of considerable reputation in his time, was born at Rantavan, in Ireland, in 1706. Among his princi- pal works are a poem entitled "Universal Beauty," the tragedies of " The Earl of Essex" and " Gustavus Vasa," and " The Fool of Quality," a novel, (1766.) Died in 1783. See Dr. Johnson's "Lives of the Poets." Brooke, (James,) an English politician, succeeded Wilkes as editor of "The North Briton." Died in 1807. Brooke, (Sir James,) a distinguished statesman, of English extraction, born in Bengal in 1803. He sailed in 1838 in his yacht, called the " Royalist," for Borneo, where, as a reward for services rendered lu the sultan of that country, he was appointed in 1841 Rajah and Governor of Sarawak. He formed a code of laws for the natives, and was zealous in his efforts for the extir pation of piracy. On a subsequent visit to England he was made a K.C.B., and obtained the degree of D.C.L., (1847.) Died in England in June, 1868. See "Private Letters of Sir James Brooke," edited by J. C. Tem- PLER, 1853 ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1846. Brooke, (John Charles,) an English topographer and antiquary, born in 1748, published "The Somerset Herald." Died in 1794. Brooke, Lord. See Greville, (Fulke.) Brooke or Broke, brook, (Sir Robert,) an English magistrate and legal writer; died in 1558. Brookes, brooks, (Joshua,) a celebrated English anatomist and surgeon, born in 1 761. The number of his pupils is said to have amounted to seven thousand ; and he formed an anatomical museum of great value. Among his works is a "Treatise on Osteology." Died in 1833. _ Brooks, brooks, (Rev. Charles,) an American Uni- tarian divine, born at Medford, Massachusetts, in 1795. He was a member of the Peace Society, and a prominent advocate of the temperance reform from its commence- ment. He also contributed to the improvement of the public schools of New England and to the establishment of normal schools, which work was finally completed by Horace Mann. In 1839 he visited Europe for the second time, having previously been chosen professor of natural history in the University of New York. After spending four years on the continent, he returned to his professor- ship, which, however, on account of his failing eye -sight, he did not long retain. He wrote a treatise on " Peace, Labour, and Education in Europe," and other works. Mr. Brooks also published one volume of a work on Ornithology, (finely illustrated.) See Livingston's *' Portraits of Eminent Americans," 1854. Brooks, (Charles Shirley,) an English dramatist, born in 1815 or 1816. He produced dramas, entitled " The Creole" and " Honour and Riches," also several novels, among which is "Aspen Court," (1857.) Brooks, (Charles T.,) an American Unitarian di- vine and poet, born in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1813. He graduated at Harvard, and in 1837 was settled as pastor in Newport, Rhode Island. He has published translations of Goethe's "Faust," and of the " Wilhelm Tell" and other poems of Schiller. Brooks, (Erastus,) an American journalist, born at Portland, Maine, in 1815. He became editor of the "New York Express" about 1836, supported the Native American party in 1855 and 1856, and afterwards joined the Democratic party. Brooks, (James,) an American politician, a brother of the preceding, was born at Portland, Maine, in 1810. He became in 1836 associate editor of the " New York Express," and was elected a member of Congress in 1848. Since the rebellion of 1861 he has served for several terms in Congress, and has acted with the Dem- ocrats. Brooks, (James Gordon,) an American poet, born at Claverack, New York, in 1801, graduated at Union College in 1819. He removed in 1823 to New York, where he edited successively "The Minerva," "The Literary Gazette," and "The Athenaeum." He married Mary E. Aikin, a poetess, in 1828. Died in 1841. See Griswold's " Poets and Poetry of America." Brooks, (Maria Gowen,) called Maria del Occi- den te by Southey, an American poetess, born at Med- ford, Massachusetts, about 1795. She was married at an early age to Mr. Brooks, a merchant of Boston, who died in 1823. She published in 1820 a volume entitled "Judith, Esther, and other Poems." About 1823 she removed to the island of Cuba. Her principal work is "Zophiel, or the Bride of Seven," (1825,) which was highly praised by Southey, who spoke of Mrs. Brooks as the " most impassioned and most imaginative of all poetesses." She visited Southey at Keswick in 183 1. Died at Matanzas in 1845. See Griswold, " Female Poets of America;" "London Quarterly Review" for September, 1840. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; BROOKS 44 BROUGHAM Brooks, (Nathan Covington,) an American scholar and poet, born in Cecil county, Maryland, in 1809. In 1848 he became president of the Baltimore Female Col- lege, in which position he has acquired a high reputation as a teacher. He has published a " History of the Mex- ican War," which is regarded as one of the best that has appeared on the subject, and a number of poems, among which we may cite '* Shelley's Obsequies," and " The Fall of Superstition." See Livingston's "Portraits of Eminent Americans," 1854. Brooks, (Peter Chardon,) a distinguished merchant of Boston, born at Medford in 1767. He was active in promoting benevolent enterprises. Died in 1849. His three daughters were married to Hon. Edward Everett, Charles Francis Adams, and the Rev. N. L. Frothing- ham, D.D. See Edward Everett, "Life of P. C. Brooks," in Hunt's "American Merchants." Brooks, (Rev. Phillips,) a popular American cler- gyman, born in Boston, December 13, 1835. He gradu- ated at Harvard in 1855, and studied for the ministry in the Episcopal Theological Seminary at Alexandria, Vir- ginia. Having been ordained in 1859, he became pastor of the Church of the Advent in Philadelphia, in 1862 of the Church of the Holy Trinity, in the same city, and in 1869 of Trinity Church, in Boston. Brooks, (Preston S.,) an American politician, born in Edgefield district. South Carolina, in 18 19. He was elected a member of Congress in 1853 and in 1855. In May, 1856, he acquired notoriety by a personal outrage on Charles Sumner in the chamber of the Senate of the United States, He was censured by the House of Re- presentatives, and resigned his seat, but was re-elected. He died in Washington in January, 1857. Brooks, (William T. H.,) an American general, born in Ohio about 1820, graduated at West Point in 1841. He became a captain in 185 1, and a brigadier- general of volunteers about September, 1861. He com- manded a division at Chancellorsville in May, 1863, and served in the army of the Potomac at Cold Harbour and Petersburg, June-July, 1864. Died in 1870. Broome, (William,) an English poet and divine, who assisted Pope in translating the "Odyssey." Having complained that his services were inadequately paid by Pope, the latter gave him a place in the "Dunciad." Broome's merits as a translator are highly commended by Dr. Johnson. Died in 1745. See Dr. Johnson's "Lives of the Poets." Brosamer, bRos'^-mer, or Bros'haraer, (Hans,) a German painter and engraver, born about 1506, resided at Fulda. Died about 1560. BrosboU, bRos'bol, (Karl,) a Danish novelist and dramatist, born in Jutland in 1820. Among his works is " Madsalune," (1841.) Broschi. See Farinelll Broshamer, (Hans.) See Brosamer. Brossard, de, dehbRo'stR', (S6bastien,) an eminent French musician, died in 1730. His musical library was one of the most valuable ever formed. Brosse, bRoss, physician to Louis XIII., and founder of the "Jardin Royal," (or "Royal Garden,") otherwise called the "Jardin des Plantes," of Paris. Died in 1641. Brosses, de, deh bRoss, (Charles,) a French anti- quary, born at Dijon in 1709. He was a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and published, among other works, a "History of Voyages to Australia," ("Terres australes," 2 vols., 1756,) and a " History of the Seventh Century of the Roman Republic," (3 vols., 1777.) He was the first who used the terms Polynesia and Australasia. Died in 1777. See ViLLEMAiN, "Tableau de la Litterature au dix-huitieme Si6cle." Brosset, bRo'si', (Marie F^licit6,) a French Orien- talist, born in Paris in 1802. He removed to Saint Pe- tersburg, where he became keeper of the great public library, (1842.) He published several works on the his- tory and language of Georgia. Brossette,bRo''sgt',(CLAUDE,) a French advocate and litterateur, born at Lyons in 1671 ; died in 1743, Brotero, bRo-ta'ro, (Felix de Avellar,) an eminent Portuguese botanist, born near Lisbon in 1744, published | " Phytographia Lusitanica," (1827.) He was professor of botany at Lisbon for many years. Died in 1828. See GusMAO, " Notice of the Life of F. A. Brotero," London, 1845. Brothers, briith'erz, (Richard,) an English fanatic, who professed to be the prophet of a new religion and that he was sent to restore the Hebrews to the land of Canaan. He made numerous predictions relative to European affairs, and published several works of a blas- phemous character. Died about 1824. Brotier, bro'te-i', (Gabriel,) a French scholar, born at Tannay in 1723, was librarian in the College of Louis le Grand. He published a valuable edition of Tacitus, and wrote a " Treatise on Roman, Greek, and Hebrew Coins compared with the Coins of France," (1760.) Died in 1789. Brouaut, bRoo'6', (Jean,) [Lat. Johan'nes Brevo' Tius,] a physician and chemist of merit, lived in the Low Countries about 1590. See Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chimie." Brouckere, de, deh bRooOcaiR', (Charles Marie Joseph Ghislain — g^s'l^N',) a Belgian politician and political economist, born at Bruges in 1796, was minister of war from August, 1831, to March, 1832. He pub- lished "Principles of Political Economy," (1851.) Brouckere, de, (Henri Marie Joseph Ghislain,) a brother of the preceding, was born at Bruges in 1801. He became a leader of the Liberal party, and was ap- pointed minister of state in 1847. In October, 1852, he was directed to organize a new ministry, of which he became president. He resigned in March, 1855. Broue, de la, deh ItbRoo, (Pierre,) a French theolo- gian, born at Toulouse in 1643, became Bishop of Mire- poix. Died in 1720. Brougham, broo'am or broo'm, (Henry,) Lord, a popular British orator, statesman, and author, distin- guished for his great learning and versatility, was born in Edinburgh on the 19th of September, 1779. His father w^as Henry Brougham, Esq., of Brougham Hall, West- moreland, and his mother was Eleanor Syme, a niece of Dr. Robertson the historian. He began his classical studies in the High School of Edinburgh, and about the age of fifteen entered the university of that city, where Dugald Stewart and Dr. Black were among his teachers. His favourite studies were the mathematics and physical sciences. At the age of seventeen, he wrote a paper on the Refraction and Reflection of Light, which was printed in the "Transactions" of the Royal Society. Having chosen the profession of the law, he became a member of the Edinburgh Society of Advocates about 1800. In 1802 he united with Francis Jeffrey and Syd- ney Smith to found the "Edinburgh Review," to which he contributed many able articles during a period of twenty-five years, (1803-28.) He published in 1803 an "Enquiry into the Colonial Policy of the European Powers," (2 vols.) Having removed to London in 1807 or 1808, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in the latter year, and chose the courts of common law and the Northern cir- cuit. He had attained a high reputation as a forensic orator, when he was elected a member of Parliament for Camelford by the Whigs in 1810. As a parliamentary debater he soon occupied the first rank, and was pre- eminent in passionate vehemence and invective. For many years he found no equal in the House of Com- mons except Canning, who was his political adversary. Brougham procured the passage of an address to the king for the suppression of the slave-trade in 1810. He lost his election in 1812, and remained out of Parliament four years. He was returned in 1816 for Winchelsea, which he represented until 1830. In 1819 he married a daughter of Thomas Eden of Wimbledon, a brother of Lord Auckland. He denounced the Holy Alliance, and the foreign policy of the Tory ministry, on several occasions, and distinguished hin>self as the advocate of popular educa- tion and political reform. His popularity was greatly increased by his forensic arguments in 1821, before the House of Lords and Privy Council, in defence of Queen Caroline, who had appointed him her attorney-general. He supported the measures of Canning after the latter became prime minister in 1827, although he had once e as k: 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, Yi, guttural; N, 7iasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BROUGHAM 442 BROWN vehemently assailed the integrity of Canning's public conduct. In 1825 he published "Practical Observations on the Education of the People," which was often reprinted, and produced a powerful impression on the public mind. He was chosen lord rector of Glasgow University in 1825, when Sir Walter Scott was his competitor. He rendered an important service to the community as one of the founders of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, (1827,) of which he was the first chairman. His treatise " On the Objects, Advantages, and Pleasures of Science" was the first work published by this society. "There is no second man in the kingdom who could with such admirable art have analyzed, as it were, his mental wealth, and sent it forth in a form at once the simplest, the most convenient, and the most ready of access that it was possible to contrive." ("London Monthly Review.") In 1830 he was returned to Parliament for Yorkshire, after a contest in which, it is said, he addressed eight different electoral meetings in one day. He avowed himself, at the opening of the session, a champion of Parliamentary reform, which was then the principal issue before the country. In November, 1830, he became lord chancellor of England in the new ministry formed by Earl Grey, and received the title of Baron Brougham and Vaux. Among his most celebrated oratorical efforts was a speech for the Reform Bill in the House of Lords, in October, 1831. He manifested prodigious activity in the performance of his duties as chancellor and legisla- tor. He promoted the abolition of slavery in the colo- nies, and reforms in municipal jurisprudence. On the dissolution of the Whig ministry in November, 1834, he retired from office, and ceased to act with the Whig party. His political course from that time was independent of party : he supported, however, several liberal measures, and devoted himself especially to the cause of law-reform. In 1843 published "Letters on Law-Reform, ad- dressed to Sir James Graham." He denounced the Anti- Corn-Law League, but voted for the repeal of the corn- laws in 1846. Lord Brougham was chosen a foreign associate of the Institute of France (class of moral and political sciences) in 1833. He hailed with enthusiasm, or at least cordial favour, the French revolution of 1848, soon after which he signified his desire to become naturalized as a French citizen, but was officially informed that he could not be received as such unless he ceased to be an English peer. Among his principal works are " Sketches of Statesmen of the Time of George III.," (3 vols., 1839-43,) "Politi- cal Philosophy," (3 vols., 1840-44,) " Speeches at the Bar and in Parliament," (4 vols., 1843,) "Lives of the Men of Letters and Science who flourished in the Time of George III.," (2 vols., 1845-46,) and "Contributions to the Edinburgh Review : Political, Historical, and Mis- cellaneous," (3 vols., 1857.) A complete edition of his works was published, under the superintendence of the author, in ten volumes, 1857. It is stated as a fact with- out precedent in the history of English chancellors that he retired from the court of chancery without leaving a single case, which had been heard, in arrear for judg- ment. Died at his rural retreat at Cannes, in France, on the 9th of May, 1868. See "'London Quarterly Review" for December, 1818, and April, 1859; "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1837, and April, 1858; "British Quarterly" for July, i860. Brougham, broo'am, (John,) a popular Irish come- dian, born in Dublin in 1810. He came to the United States about 1842, and performed in New York. He produced several comedies and other works. Broughton, brow'ton, (Arthur,) M.D., an English botanist, published several botanical works, (1782-94.) Broughton, (Hugh,) an English theological writer and Hebrew scholar, born at Oldbury in 1549, was a protege of the celebrated Bernard Gilpin. Died in 1612. See " Biographia Britannica." Broughton, Lord. See Hobhouse, (John Cam.) Broughton, (Richard,) an English theologian, pub- lished an "Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain from the Nativity to the Conversion of the Saxons." Died in 1634. Broughton, (Thomas,) an English divine, born in London in 1704, published "Christianity distinct from the Religion of Nature," and was a contributor to the " Biographia Britannica," Died in 1774. Broughton, (William Grant,) an English divine, born at Canterbury in 1789, became in 1835 first Bishop of Australia. He died on the voyage home to England in 1853. Broughton, (William Robert,) an English navi- gator, born in Gloucestershire in 1763. He accompanied in 1790 the expedition of Vancouver, who gave the name of Broughton's Archipelago to some islands in the Pa- cific, in about 50 degrees north latitude. He published a " Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean," (1804,) which see. Died in 1822. Brouncker or Brounker, briink'er, (?) (William,) Viscount, a distinguished mathematician, born in Ire- land in 1620. He became first president of the Royal Society in 1662, and was subsequently appointed lord of the admiralty and chancellor of the queen. He wrote several scientific treatises, and originated some valuable discoveries in mathematics. Died in 1684. See "Biographia Britannica." Brou.ssais, bRoo'si', (Francois Joseph Victor,) a distinguished French physician and medical writer, born at Saint-Malo in 1772, was professor of pathology in the Faculty of Paris. He was a member of the Institute, and the teacher of a system or theory of medicine called the Physiological. Died in 1838. See " Essai critique sur Broussais," Paris, 1839; Montegre, " Notice sur la Vie, les Travaux et les Opinions de Broussais," 1839; J. B. Priou, "Notice historique sur F. J. V. Broussais," 1841. Broussier, bRoo'se-i', (Jean Baptiste,) Count, a French general, born near Bar-le-Duc in 1766. As gen- eral of brigade, he contributed to the victory at Marengo in 1800. He became a general of division in 1805, and rendered important services in Italy in 1809. Died in 1814. See " Victoires et Conquetes des Frangais." Brousson, bRoo^s6N', (Claude,) a French Protestant theologian and religious writer, born at Nimes in 1647. He was executed in 1698, on a charge of treason. See La Beaumelle, " Lettres k Voltaire;" A. Borrel, "Biogra- phie de C. Brousson," 1S52; "Life of C. Brousson," London, 1853. Broussonnet, bRoo^so^na', (Pierre Auguste,) a French physician and naturalist, born at Montpellier in 1761. He published " Ichthyologia," and "Memoirs towards the History of the Respiration of Fishes." He was professor of botany at Montpellier, and a membei of the Academy of Sciences. Died in 1807. See CuviER, "filogede Broussonnet," 1808; A. P. Decandolle, " £loge de Broussonnet," 1809. Brouwer. See Brauwer. Browall, bRo'\\^il, [Lat. Brovs^al'lius,] (Johan,) a Swedish theologian, naturalist, and scientific writer, born at Westras in 1707. He became professor of natu- ral history at Abo in 1737, and was subsequently Bishop of that city. Linnaeus named in his honour the genus Browallia. Died in 1755. See Gezelius, " Biographiskt-Lexicon." Brower. See Brauwer. Brown. See Browne. Brown, (Aaron Vail,) an American lawyer, born in Brunswick county, Virginia, in 1795, removed to Nash- ville, Tennessee. He was a member of Congress from 1839 to 1845, was elected Governor of Tennessee in 1845, and appointed postmaster-general of the United States in 1857. Died in 1859. Brown, (Albert G.,) an American Senator, born in Chester district. South Carolina, in 1813. He was elected Governor of Mississippi in 1843 and in 1845, was a member of the national House of Representatives from 1847 to 1853, and was chosen a Senator of the United States in the latter year. He was re-elected about 1858, and retired from the Senate, as a secessionist, in 1861. Brown, (Alexander,) an English botanist and sur^ geon, lived about 1670. The genus Brownia was named in his honour. Brown, (Alexander,) the founder of a family of eminent merchants, was born in Antrim county, Ire- a, e, I, o, u, y, lojig; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon. BROWN 443 BROWN land, in 1764. He settled in Baltimore about 1800. Died in 1834. He was the father of William George, John A., and James Brown. Brown, (Antoinette.) See Blackwell. Brown, (Catherine,) a Cherokee convert to Chris- tianity, born in Alabama in 1800; died in 1823. Brown, (Chadd,) an American Baptist divine, who fled from the persecutions of Massachusetts in 1636 to Providence, Rhode Island. For more than two centu- ries his descendants have been among the most distin- guished citizens of that State. Died in 1665. Brown, (Charles Brockden,) an eminent American novelist, born in Philadelphia in January, 1771. His ancestors were Quakers, who came to Philadelphia with William Penn. He was liberally educated, and from his early years he manifested a decided inclination for lite- rary pursuits. He published " Wieland, or the Trans- formation," (1798,) " Ormond, or the Secret Witness," (1799,) and "Arthur Mervyn," (1800.) In the last-named work he gives a graphic account of the scenes exhibited during the prevalence of the yellow fever in Philadelphia in 1793. He was editor of the "Monthly Magazine and American Review," (i 799-1800.) He also founded, in 1803 or 1805, "The Literary Magazine and American Register," which he edited about five years. Among his other works are "Clara Howard," (1801,) and "Jane Talbot," (1804.) He married a Miss Linn, of New York, in 1804. He died of consumption in February, 1810, leaving one son. Referring to his characteristics as a writer, Mr. Prescott observes, " He has been said to have formed himself on Godwin, and has certainly in some re- spects adopted his mode of operation, studying character with a philosophic rather than a poetic eye. But there is no servile imitation in all this. He has borrowed the same torch, indeed, to read the page of human nature, but the lesson he derives from it is totally different. His peculiar merits appeal to a higher order of criticism than is to be found in ordinary and superficial readers. Like the productions of Coleridge or Wordsworth, they seem to rely on deeper sensibilities than most men possess, and tax the reasoning powers j^^.ore severely than is agree- able to readers who resort to works of fiction only as an epicurean indulgence." See William H. Prescott's "Life of C. Brockden Brown," in Sparks's "American Bioprap'.y," vol. i., reprinted in Pkes- cott's "Miscellanies," 1855; W. Dun, ^p's "Life of Brown," pre- fixed to an edition of his works, 1827 ; Griswold's " Prose Writers of America." Brown, (David,) an English clergyman, went to Cal- cutta as chaplain to the East India Company, and be- came provost of the College of Fort William in 1800. Died in India in 181 2. Brown, (David,) a Cherokee, a brother of Cathe- rine, noticed above, was converted by missionaries, who employed him as an interpreter and teacher. Died in 1829. Brown, (David Paul,) an American lawyer, born in Philadelphia in 1795, gained distinction as a pleader in criminal cases. He published "The Forum, or Forty Years' Full Practice at the Philadelphia Bar," (2 vols., 1856.) Brown, (Ford Madox,) an English painter, born at Calais in 1821. Among his works are "King Lear," "Chaucer at the Court of Edward III.," and "The Last of England." See " Eraser's Magazine" for May, 1865. Brown, (Frances,) a blind Irish poetess, born at Stranorlar, in Donegal, about 1816. She published "The Star of Atteghei," and other poems, (1844,) which were received with favour. Brown, (Sir George,) a Scottish general, born near Elgin in 1790, served in the Peninsular war, and in the American campaign of 1814. He became lieutenant- general in 185 1, and distinguished himself in the Cri- mean war at Alma, Inkerman, and Sebastopol. He was made a K.C.B. in 1855. Brown, (George L.,) an American landscape-painter, born in Boston about 1820. He has executed Italian and American landscapes of great merit : among the latter we may name his "Crown of New England," a view in the White Mountains. See TucKERMAN, " Book of the Artists." Brown, (Goold,) an American teacher and gramma* rian, died at Lynn, Massachusetts, in 1857, aged sixty- six years. His principal works are the "Institutes of English Grammar," (1823,) which obtained an immense circulation, and the " Grammar of English Grammars," (1850; 2d edition, 8vo, 1857, pp. 1070,) probably the most extensive treatise of the kind that has hitherto been published. Brown, (Harvey,) an American officer, born at Rah- way. New Jersey, about 1795, graduated at West Point in 1818. He served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) be- came a colonel of the regular army in April or May, 1 861, and conducted a successful expedition for the re- lief of Fort Pickens, of which he had command from April 16, i86r, to February, 1862. Brown, (Henry Kirk,) an American sculptor, born in Leyden, Massachusetts, in 1814. He studied in Italj', and, after his return, produced a bronze statue, said to be the first ever executed in America. One of his most noted works is the colossal equestrian statue of Wash- ington in Union Square, New York. He has also exe- cuted "The Four Seasons," " Pleiades," and other works in marble. See TucKERMAN, "Book of the Artists." Brown, (Jacob,) an American general, born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in 1775. ^799 settled in the northern part of New York. He defended Ogdens- burg in 1812, and Sackett's Harbour in 1813. Having obtained the rank of major-general, he commanded an army which invaded Canada in the spring of 1814. He gained victories at Chippewa and Niagara Falls in July, 1 8 14. In 1 82 1 he became comniander-in-chief of the army of the United States. Died in 1828. See " Encyclopaedia Americana," (Supplement.) Brown, (James,) an Englishman, born in 1709, origin- ated, it is said, "The Directory, or List of Principal Traders in London," (1782.) Died in 1787. Brown, (James,) born in Virginia in 1766, was elected a Senator of the United States from Louisiana in 1813, and re-elected in 18 19. He was minister to France from 1823 to 1829. Died in 1835. Brown, (James,) an American publisher, born in Ac- ton, Massachusetts, in 1800, became a partner of the firm of Little, Brown & Co., Boston. Died in 1855. Brown, (John,) D.D., an eminent English clergy- man and miscellaneous writer, born in 1715 ; died, by suicide, in 1766. Besides other works, he wrote "Bar- barossa," a tragedy, and an "Estimate of the Manners and Principles of the Times." The latter work especially enjoved an extraordinary popularity. Brown, (John,) a Scottish linguist and minister, born in Perthshire in 1720 or 1722, preached at Haddington, He published a "Dictionary of the Bible," (1769,) and "The Self-Interpreting Bible," (2 vols., 1791.) Died in 1787. Brown, (John,) M.D., the author of the Brunonian system of medicine, was born at Dunse, in Berwickshire, Scotland, in 1735. ^ pupil of Dr. Cullen, and afterwards became his enemy. According to some au- thorities, a desire for revenge induced him to form a new system of medicine, which should supplant that of Cul- len, and which he propounded in his "Elementa Medi- cinie," (1780.) This work was translated into many lan- guages. His system was more popular in Germany than in Great Britain. He divided diseases into two classes, the sthenic and the asthenic, the former of which resulted from excess and the latter from deficiency of exciting power. He used alcohol as a remedy for one set of dis- eases, and opium for the other. Died poor, in London, in 1788. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Brown, (John,) an American merchant, brother of Joseph, Moses, and Nicholas Brown, was born in Provi- dence, Rhode Island,' in 1736. He was a zealous pro- moter of all benevolent and educational objects, and one of the most liberal benefactors of Brown University. From 1799 to 1801 he was a representative in Congress. Died at Providence in 1803. Brown, (John,) an American officer, born in Berk- shire county, Massachusetts, in 1744. He served with distinction in the expedition against Quebec in 1775, and € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; o, h, VL.guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^=See Explanations, p. 23.) BROWN 444 BROWN was raised to the rank of lieutenant-colonel in 1776. He was killed in a fight with Indians in October, 1780. Brown, (John,) a Scottish painter and writer upon art, born at Edinburgh in 1752, wrote "Letters on the Poetry and Music of the Italian Opera." Died in 1787. Brown, (John,) an eminent Scottish divine, born in 1784, was a grandson of the author of the "Self-Inter- preting Bible." He studied at the University of Edin- burgh, and in 1822 became pastor of the Rose vStreet Church in that city. He was appointed in 1834 professor of exegetical theology to the United Secession Church. His principal works are " An Exposition of our Lord's Intercessory Prayer," (1850,) "Discourses and Sayings of our Lord Jesus Christ," and a commentary "On the Epistle to the Galatians." Died in 1858. See Rev. Robert Steel, " Burning and Shining Lights," 1864. Brown, (John,) M.D., son of the preceding, a Scot- tish writer, and Fellow of the Royal College of Physi- cians at Edinburgh, born about 1830. He published in 1858 an interesting and popular work entitled " Horse Subsecivae." He has also written "Pet Marjorie : a Story of Child-Life Fifty Years ago." See "Eraser's Magazine" for April, 1859. Brown, (John,) of Ossawatomie, a distinguished champion of liberty, born at Torrington, Connecticut, in May, 1800. His father removed to Ohio in 1805. From the age of fifteen to twenty he worked at the trade of tanner and currier. He married in 1820 Dianthe Lusk. According to Redpath, he conceived in 1839 the idea of becoming a liberator of the Southern slaves. He was a devout member of the Congregational Church, and a man of strict moral character. He possessed unflinch- ing courage and intense earnestness. In 1846 he re- moved to Springfield, Massachusetts, where he was em- ployed as a dealer in wool. He afterwards visited Europe on business. He emigrated in 1855 to Kansas, where he took an active part in the contest with the pnvslavery party. In August, 1856, he gained some advantages at Ossawatomie over a band of Missourians who had in- vaded Kansas and were ten times more numerous than his own company. In May, 1859, he called a secret con- vention of the friends of freedom, which met at Chatham in Canada, organized an invasion of Virginia for the pur- pose of liberating the slaves, and adopted a constitution. In the following July he rented a farm-house about six miles from Harper's Ferry, and collected there a supply of pikes, guns, etc. On the night of October 16, 1859, aided by about twenty men, he surprised Harper's Ferry, seized the arsenal and armory, and took over forty pris- oners. About noon on the 17th the party of Brown w^as attacked by the Virginian militia. After two of his sons and nearly all of his men had been killed, and he himself had been wounded in several places, he was captured. " Enemies and friends," says Redpath, " were equally amazed at the carriage and sayings of the wounded war- rior." He was tried in November, and hung at Charles- town, Virginia, on the 2d of December, 1859. He met his death with serene composure. He was twice mar- ried, and had twenty children. See Redpath, "Life of Captain John Brown," i860; "Life and Letters of Captain John Brown," edited by R. D. Webb, London, 1861 ; Gkeelev, "American Conflict," vol. i. Brown, (John Newton,) a Baptist clergyman and writer, born at New London, Connecticut, in 1803. He published in 1835 the "Encyclopaedia of Religious Know- ledge," which was received with favour. It is stated that he has been engaged for many years on a history of the Church. Brown, (John W.,) an American author, born at Schenectady in 1814, was an Episcopal minister. He produced " Christmas-Bells, a Tale of Holy Tide, and other poems." Died in 1849. Brown, (Lancelot,) an English landscape-gardener, called Capability Brown, was born in Northumber- land in 1715. He was at the head of his profession in England. Died in 1773. Brown, (Matthew,) an English historical and por- trait painter. Died in 1831. Brown, (Moses,) an English poet, born in 1703, was vicar of Olney. He wrote "Percy Lodge," (1756,) and other poems. Died in 1787. Brown, (Moses,) an American merchant, born at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1738, was an uncle of Ni- cholas, noticed below. He joined the Society of Friends in 1773. was a liberal patron of the Friends' Board- ing-School at Providence. Died in 1836. Brown, (Moses,) an American merchant, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1742, was a benefactor of Andover Theological Seminary. He also gave largely to several benevolent institutions. Died in 1827. Brown, (Nicholas,) a distinguished American mer- chant, and munificent patron of Brown University, (for- merly Rhode Island College,) born at Providence in 1760. His donations to the institution at different times amounted in the aggregate to not less than $100,000. He also gave freely to missionary and other charitable objects, and in his will made a bequest of $30,000 to- wards the erection of a Retreat for the Insane. lie died October 27, 1841. For fuller particulars, see Hunt's "Lives of American Merchants." Brown, (Obadiah,) a manufacturer, born at Provi- dence, Rhode Island, in 1 771. He was a member of the firm of Almy, Brown & Slater, cotton-spinners. He gave large sums for various charitable purposes. Died in 1822. ^ Brown or Browne, (Robert,) an English theologian, the founder of die sect called Brownists and afterwards Independents. He taught that all the members of a church are equal, and that the minister should be elected by the members of his congregation. Died in 1630, aged about eighty. He differed from the Church of England about discipline rather than doctrines. See "Biographia Britannica." Brown, (Robert,) a Scottish agriculturist, born at East Linton about 1770, published an esteemed work "On Rural Affairs," (2 vols., 1811.) Died in 1831. Brown, (Robert,) M.D., an excellent British botan- ist, born at Montrose in 1773, was educated at Aberdeen and Edinburgh. He was attached as botanist to the expe- dition sent out in 1801 under Captain Flinders to explore the coast of Australia. He returned in 1805 with a col- lection of four thousand species of jjlants from Australia, and became librarian to Sir Joseph Banks. In 1810 he published " Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae." As an appendix to Flinders's "Narrative," Dr. Brown also published "General Remarks, Geographical and Sys- tematical, on the Botany of Terra Australis," a work of great merit. He adopted and illustrated in his writings the natural method of Jussieu. He contributed many able treatises to the "Transactions" of the Lin- naean Society, and made important discoveries in vege- table physiology, especially in the fecundation of plants. In 1833 he was elected one of the eight foreign asso- ciates of the French Academy of Sciences. His repu- tation was perhaps higher on the continent than in Great Britain ; and Humboldt estimated him as the first of botanists, {botanicorum facile princeps.) Died in London in 1858. See article by Dr. Hoefer in the " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- rale." Brown, (Samuel,) M.D., a Scottish poet and chemi- cal theorist, born at Haddington in 1817, was a grandson of Rev. John Brown, (1722-87.) His talents and attain- ments are said to have been extraordinary. He devoted much time to the subject of isomerism, and laboured to prove that chemical substances which are usually con- sidered simple can be transmuted into each other. In 1850 he produced "The Tragedy of Galileo." Died in 1856. Two volumes of his Essays and Lectures were published in 1858. Brown, (Sir Samuel,) a civil engineer, born in Lon- don in 1776, served in the royal navy, and gained the rank of captain. He acquirecl distinction by improve- ments in suspension bridges. Died in 1852. Brown, (Tarlton,) an American officer, born in Barnwell district. South Carolina, in 1754, served as cap- tain in the Revolutionary war. Died in 1846. Brown, (Thomas,) a satirical and facetious English poet, commonly called Tom Brown, born in 1663, was addicted to buffoonery and immoral practices. Died in 1704. See CiBBER, " Lives of the English Poets," etc. a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i., h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moonj BROWN 445 BROWNE Brown, (Thomas,) one of the most distinguished of the Scottish metaphysicians, was born at Kirkmabreck, near Dumfries, in 1778. He manifested his fondness for metaphysical speculation before he was fifteen years of age. Not long after he attended the lectures of Dugald Stewart in Edinburgh, and attracted the attention of that philosopher by the acuteness of his remarks on a certain theory propounded in one of his lectures. This was the beginning of a life-long friendship between these two eminent men. He published, in 1798, " Observations on Darwin's Zoonomia," which evinced remarkable pre- cocity of intellect and was much admired. Mackintosh calls the " Observations" the " perhaps unmatched work of a boy in the eighteenth year of his age." About 1803 he took his degree as doctor of medicine. He resigned his practice in 1810, and was appointed colleague of Dugald Stewart in the chair of moral phi- losophy in the University of Edinburgh. He obtained great popularity as a lecturer. His lectures were pub- lished under the title of " Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind," (4 vols., 1820.) He wrote a number of poems, one of which is entitled "The Paradise of Coquettes," (1814.) His principal work is "Observa- tions on the Relation of Cause and Effect," (3d edition, enlarged, 1818.) "His first tract on causation," says Sir J. Mackintosh, "appeared to me the finest model of discussion in mental philosophy since Berkeley and Hume." Died in 1820. Dr. Brown possessed, besides an acute and powerful intellect, a poetic temperament, with a lively imagination and refined sensibilities. " His mind," says Mackintosh, "soared and roamed through every region of philosophy and poetry ; but his untravelled heart clung to the hearth of his father and to the children who shared it with him. . . . His heart sought little abroad, but contentedly dwelt in his family and in his study. He was one of those men of genius who repaid the tender care of a mother by rocking the cradle of her reposing age." Respecting the style of Dr. Brown, the same eminent critic observes, " His prose is brilliant to excess ; it must not be denied that its beauty is sometimes womanly ; that it too often melts down precision into elegance ; that it buries the main idea under a load of illustration. ... It is dark- ened by excessive brightness ; it loses ease and liveliness by over-dress ; and, in the midst of its luscious sweet- ness, we wish for the striking and homely illustrations of Tucker, and for the pithy and sinewy sense of Paley, either of whom, by a single short metaphor from a fami- liar, perhaps a low, object, could at one blow set the two worlds of reason and fancy in movement." See Dr. Welsh's "Account of the Life and Writings of Thomas Brown," 1825 ; Mackintosh's " View of the Progress of Ethical Phi- losophy ;" Allibone's " Dictionary of Authors." Brown, (William,) an English botanist, born in 1628, published " Catalogus Horti Oxoniensis." Died in 1678. Brown, (William,) an eminent merchant and banker, born at Ballymena, Ireland, in 1784, settled in Liver- pool. He was senior partner of the firm of Brown, Ship- Icy & Co., and represented South Lancashire in Parlia- ment in 1845. He gave ;i^30,ooo or more for a public library in Liverpool. Died in 1864. Brown or Browne, (William Laurence,) a theolo- gian, born at Utrecht in 1755, I'emoved to Scotland in 1795, and became professor of divinity at Aberdeen in that year. He wrote an " Essay on the Folly of Skep- ticism," (1788,) and an "Essay on the Existence of a Supreme Creator," (1816.) The latter gained a prize of 1 25c. Died in 1830. See Chambers, " Piiographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1804. Browne, (Andrew,) a Scottish physician and medical writer, lived about 1650-95. Browne, (Edward,) an English writer, born in 1642, was physician to Charles 11. He translated some of Plutarch's works, and wrote a book of travels. Died in 1708. Browne, (George,) became Archbishop of Dublin in 1535. He promoted the Reformation. Died about 1558. Browne, (George,) an Irish general, born in 1698, entered the Russian service and fought against the Poles, French, and Turks. He was created a field-marshal an? Governor of Livonia by Peter HI. Died in 1792. See " Histoire de la Vie de Georges Browne," 1794. Browne, (Isaac Hawkins,) an English poet, born at Burton-upon-Trent in 1706, studied law, and became a member of Parliament. He wrote poems " On Design and Beauty," and " On the Immortality of the Soul," (" De Animae Immortalitate," 1754.) Died in 1760. Browne, (John,) an English surgeon and medical writer, born in 1642, was surgeon-in-ordinary to Charles II. Died about 1700. Browne, (John Ross,) an American traveller and writer. He published in 1846 "Etchings of a Whaling Cruise, with Notes of a Sojourn on the Island of Zan- zibar." After a visit to Palestine, he produced a humorous account of his adventures, entitled " Yusef, or the Jour- ney of a Frangi : a Crusade in the East." He was ap- pointed minister to China in 1868. Browne, (Joseph,) an English physician, born about 1650, published a work entitled " Antidotaria," and wrote against the doctrine of the circulation of the blood. Browne, (Joseph,) D.D., an English scholar, born in Cumberland in 1700, was provost of Queen's College, Oxford. Died in 1767. Browne, (Mary Ann,) an English poetess, born in Berkshire in 1812. She produced "Ada," (1828,) "The Coronal," (1833,) " Ignatia," (1838,) and other poems. In 1842 she was married to James Gray. Died in 1846. Browne, brown, (Maximilian Ulysses,) a distin- guished general in the Austrian service, born at Bale in 1705, was a relative of the field-marshal George Browne. He fought in the Silesian war against Frederick the Great, and commanded the right wing at the battle of Mollwitz in 1 741. In 1754 he was made a field-marshal. He was mortally wounded at the battle of Prague in 1757. Fred- erick the Great was accustomed to call Marshal Browne his teacher in the art of war. See Archenhoi.z, " History of the Seven Years' War." Browne, (Patrick,) M.D., born in Mayo county, Ireland, about 1720, published a "Civil and Natural History of Jamaica," (1756.) Died in 1790. Browne, (Peter,) Bishop of Cork, wrote several works on theology. Died in 1735. Browne, (Rohert.) See Brown. Browne, (Simon,) an English Dissenting minister, born in Somersetshire about 1680, preached in London. He wrote against Tindal a " Defence of the Religion of Nature and the Christian Revelation," (1732.) Died in 1732. Browne, (Thomas,) a learned English theologian, born in Middlesex in 1604, was chaplain to Charles I. Died in 1673. Browne, (Sir Thomas,) an eminent English physi- cian, philosopher, and writer, born in London in 1605. He settled in 1636 at Norwich, where he practised medi- cine for many years, and married Dorothy Mileham about 1640. In 1642 he published anonymously his " Religio Medici," which was very successful and has often been reprinted and translated. "A superior genius," says Hallam, "was exhibited in Sir Thomas Browne. His mind was fertile and ingenious, his analogies original and brilliant, and his learning so much out of the beaten path that it gives a peculiar and uncommon air to all his writings." Among his principal works is " Pseudodoxia Epidemica, or Inc[uiries into Vulgar and Common Errors," (1646.) He also wrote a "Treatise on Christian Morals," (1716,) which is highly esteemed. In 1671 he was knighted by Charles II. He died at Norwich, on his seventy-seventh birthday, 1682. See Dr. Samuel Johnson, " Life of Sir Thomas Browne;" Haz- LiTT, "Age of Elizabeth;" "Retrospective Review," vol. i. ; Nice- RON, "Memoires;" Wood, "Athenas Oxonienses." Browne, (William,) an English poet, born at Tav- istock in 1590. He wrote pastoral poems, (1613-16,) which had a temporary popularity. Died about 1645. See "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., 1820. Browne, (Sir William,) an English physician and writer, born in Norfolk in 1692 ; died in 1774. Browne, (William George,) an English traveller, born in London in 1768. He travelled in Egypt, and attempted to explore the interior of Africa, but was de- € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (SJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BROWNE 446 BRUCE tained in captivity in Darfoor for three years. He pub- lished, in 1799 or 1800, "Travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria from 1792 to 1798." Having started on another journey towards Samarcand, he was murdered in Persia in 1813. Browne, (William Laurence.) See Brown. Brbwn'ell, (Thomas Church,) D.D., LL.D., -was born in Massachusetts in 1779. He graduated at Union College, with the highest honours of his class, in 1804, and continued his connection with the institution, as tutor and professor, for many years. He was ordained in 1816, and appointed Bishop of Connecticut in 1819. He was chosen the first president of Washington (now Trinity) College, an institution chartered in 1823, and built up at Hartford under his auspices. In 1852 he became Presiding Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States. Died in 1865. Bishop Brownell was the author of several valuable religious works and various occasional sermons, addresses, etc. His "Family Prayer" has passed through numerous editions, and been received with great favour by Epis- copalians throughout the country. His " Religion of the Heait" (5 vols., partly a compilation and partly original) is also highly esteemed. Brownikowski. See Bronikowskl Brown'ing, (Elizabeth Barrett,) one of the most gifted female poets that have ever lived, was born near Ledbury, Herefordshire, about 1807. She was the daugh- ter of Mr. Barrett, an opulent merchant of London. She was highly educated, and well acquainted with the Greek and Latin languages. She began to write verse about the age of ten, and gave early proofs of poetical genius. Among her first published works was "The Battle of Marathon." In 1826 she published a volume entitled "Essay on Mind, and other Poems." She pro- duced in 1833 " Pi'ometheus Bound," translated from the Greek of /Eschylus, which was a remarkable perform- ance for a young woman, though not a very good trans- lation. She afterwards made an amended version of the same. Her reputation was extended by "The Seraphim, and other Poems," (1838.) She contributed to the "Athe- naeum" a series of able critical papers on the Greek Christian poets. Her health was naturally delicate, and was almost ruined by grief for the death of her brother, who was accidentally drowned. After that event she was confined for several years in a darkened chamber. She published in 1839 "The Romaunt of the Page," "The Drama of Exile," (1840,) and two volumes of poems in 1844. Ii"* 1846 she was married to the poet Robert Browning, with whom she resided in Italy for many years. She produced in 185 1 "Casa Guidi Windows," a poem which treats of the political condition of Italy. "This," says the "North British Review," "is the happiest of Mrs. Browning's performances, because it makes no pretensions to high artistic character, and is really a simple story of personal impressions." Her greatest or most extensive work is " Aurora Leigh," a poem, or novel in verse, (1856,) which is greatly aclmired. A new edition of her poems was published in three volumes in 1856. She died at Florence in June, 1861. " The poetical reputation of Mrs. Browning," says the "North British Review" for February, 1857, "has been growing slowly, until it has reached a heiglit which has never before been attained by any modern poetess, though several others have had wider circles of readers." " She possesses genius," says another critic, "a cultivated mind, a truth-loving heart, quick powers of observation, and luxuriancy of fancy and expression ; but that luxu- riance too often verges — to say the least — on extrava- gance." See "British Quarterly Review" for October, 1865; "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1861. Browning, (Robert,) an English poet, born at Cam- bervvell, a suburb of London, in 1812. He was educated at the University of London, and produced in 1835 his first poem, entitled " Paracelsus," which attracted much attention by its originality and subtlety of thought. His tragedy of "Strafford" (1837) was not successful. He married Elizabeth Barrett the poetess in 1846, since which he has resided at Florence and Paris. He pub- lished a collection of his shorter poems, in two volumes. (1849,) and two volumes of poems, under the title of "Men and Women," in 1855. Among his other works are a drama, called "The lilot in the Scutcheon," (1843,) " Pippa passes," and "The Ring and the Book," (1868.) He is considered by some critics as one of the greatest English poets of his time, but is not popular with the masses.' See "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1865; " Edinburgh Re- view" for October, 1864; "Eraser's Magazine" for February, 1863 ; "Brief Biographies," by Samuel Smiles; R. H. Hukne, "New Spirit of the Age," 1844. BrownTow, (William G.,) an American politician, born in Wythe county, Virginia, in 1805. He was a Methodist minister in the former part of his mature life. He began about 1837 to edit the " Knoxville Whig," which he continued to publish for many years. He opposed the abolition of slavery before the civil war, but in the crisis of 1861 he showed himself a resolute and uncompromising adherent of the Union. He was per- secuted and imprisoned by the secessionists in the win- ter of 1861-62 for several months. He was elected by the Republicans or Radicals Governor of Tennessee in 1865, and again in 1867. In October of the latter year he was chosen a Senator of the United States. Brown'rig, (Ralph,) an English prelate, born at Ips- wich in 1592, became Bishop of Exeter in 1642. Died in 1659. Brown'rigg, (Sir Robert,) born in Ireland in 1775, became Governor of Ceylon in 1813, and conquered the kingdom of Candy, thus reducing the whole island under the British empire, for which service he received the title of baronet in 1816. Died in 1833. Brownrigg, (William,) M.D., F.R.S., an English nat- ural philosopher, born in Cumberland in 17 11. He wrote " The Art of making Common Salt," (1748.) Died in 1800. Brown-Sequard, brown-se-kaR', [Fr. pron. bRown- sa'ktR^,] (Edouard,) an eminent French physiologist, born in the island of Mauritius in 1818. His father, Mr. Edward Brown, a native of Philadelphia, in the United States, married, in Mauritius, a lady of French extrac- tion, named Sequard, and his son, in accordance with a common French usage, adopted the names of both his parents. He studied in Paris, where he graduated as doctor of medicine in 1840. He acquired distinction by his researches and experiments on physiology, especially on the blood, on animal heat, and the spinal cord. His experiments on animal heat indicate that the tempera- ture of the human body is 103° Fahr. He has received several prizes from the French Academy of Sciences. In January, 1869, he was appointed professor in the School of Medicine (Ecole de Medecine) at Paris. Brbwn'spn, (Orestes Augustus,) a versatile Ame- rican writer and theologian, born at Stockbridge, Ver- mont, in 1803. He joined the Presbyterian Church about 1821, became a Universalist minister in 1825, and a Uni- tarian pastor a few years afterwards. Having become a resident of Boston, he founded in 1838 "The Boston Quarterly Review," which he edited until 1843. joined the Roman Catholic Church about 1844. Among his works is " Charles Elwood, or the Infidel Converted," (1840,) a novel. See Grlswold's "Prose Writers of America." Bruant, bRii'dN'', (Liberal,) an eminent French archi- tect, designed the Hotel des Invalides, Paris. He died about 1697. Bruat, bRii't', (Armand Joseph,) a French admiral, born at Colmar in 1796. He succeeded Admiral Hame- lin as commander in the Black Sea in 1854, and took part in the siege of Sebastopol. Died in December, 1855. Brucaeus, bRoo-sa'us, (Hendrik,) a Flemish medical writer, born at Alost in 1531 ; died at Rostock in 1593. Bruccioli, (A.) See Brucioll Bruce, (David.) See David II. of Scotland. Brnce, (Edward,) a younger brother of King Robert Bruce, was a brave warrior, but deficient in prudence. He invaded Ireland in 13 15, was proclaimed king, and waged war against the English for several years. Having rashly engaged in battle against a vastly superior force of English, he was killed near Dundalk in 1318. , Bruce, (Edward,) a Scottish judge a»^d diplomatist, born about 1549. He was sent to England in 1598 on a a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; BR UCE 447 BRUETS mission the object of which was to obtain a recognition of James as the heir to the throne of England. He died in 1611. The Earls of Elgin are descended from him. Bruce, (Sir Frederick,) an English diplomatist, brother of the Earl of Elgin, was born in 1814. He was appointed ambassador to the United States in the early part of 1865. Died at Boston in September, 1867. Bruce, (James,) a celebrated Scottish traveller, born at Kinnaird, in the county of Stirling, in December, 1730. He was related to the royal family of Bruce. He was ap- pointed in 1762 consul at Algiers by Lord Halifax, who proposed that he should explore the antiquities of Bar- bary. Departing from Algiers in 1765, he spent a year or more in examining and drawing the ruins of Barbary, and afterwards visited Baalbec and Palmyra. In 1768 he undertook a journey to Abyssinia to discover the source of the Nile. Passing through Cosseir, Jidda, and Masuah or Masowa, he arrived at Gondar in February, 1770. He was kindly treated by the king, and remained in Abyssinia about two years. He discovered the source of tlie Blue Nile in November, 1770. Return- ing through Nubia, he encountered great danger and hardships, which he overcame by uncommon energy and courage, and arrived in England in 1774. He pub- lished "Travels to discover the Source of the Nile," (5 vols., 1790,) which attracted much adverse criticism. His veracity was questioned by many persons ; but more recent researches tend to confirm his statements. He died at Kinnaird in 1794. See A. Murray, "Life of Bruce," 1805; Chambers, "Biogra- phical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" Francis Bond Head, "Life of James Bruce, the African Traveller," 1832. Bruce, (James.) See Elgin, Earl of. Bruce, (James Daniel,) a Russian engineer, of Scot- tish extraction, born at Moscow in 1670, became grand master of artillery in 17 11. Died in 1735. Bruce, (Sir James Knight,) an English judge, born in 1 791, was appointed lord justice of appeal in 1852. Died in 1866. Bruce, (John,) a Scottish writer on ethics, politics, etc., born in 1744, was professor of moral philosophy at Edinburgh. Died in 1826. Bruce, (John,) an English antiquary, born in London about 1802. He contributed to the " Edinburgh Review" and " Gentleman's Magazine," and edited many old works. Bruce, (John C.,) an English antiquary, born at New- castle-upon-Tyne in 1805, published a " Hand-Book of English History," (1848,) and "The Roman \Vall,"(i85i.) Bruce, (Michael,) a Scottish poet, born in the county of Kinross in 1746. He died at the age of twenty-one, leaving a collection of poems of great beauty and pathos. See Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Bruce, (Peter Henry,) an officer of Scottish extrac- tion, born in Westphalia in 1692* served in Germany and Russia. Hediedin 1751, leaving " Memoirs" of his travels. Bruce, (Robert,) King of Scots, born on the 21st of March, 1274, was descended from Robert de Brus or Bruys, a Norman, wno came over with William the Conqueror. He was the son of Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick, whose father, also named Robert, was the competitor of John Baliol for the throne. He inherited the title of Earl of Carrick. About 1296 he joined Wallace in resistance to the aggressions of Edward L of England, but soon after retired from the contest and made peace with the English king. He formed in 1305 a secret compact or compromise with Comyn, his rival, who promised to support him in an effort to liberate Scotland from English domination, on condition that Bruce should give him extensive landed estate?. Comyn, however, betrayed the secret to Edward, and was killed by Bruce for his treachery. The latter was crowned at Scone in 1306, and raised a small army, which was quickly routed by the English. After he had performed prodigies of valour, Bruce was forced to take refuge in a small island near the coast of Ireland. His brother Nigel was taken prisoner and executed, and other friends of Bruce were treated with barbarity. Bruce renewed the contest in the spring of 1307, and defeated a greatly superior force of English at Loudon Hill. After the death of Edward L, which took place in July of that year, he recovered a number of fortresses from the enemy. A series of successful actions rendered him so strong and bold that he invaded England and ravaged the northern counties. At length, in 13 14, Ed- ward H. marched into Scotland with an army estimated at 100,000 men, over which Bruce gained a decisive victory at the great battle of Bannockburn, June 24, 1314. The war was continued until 1328, when the English king recognized the independence of Scotland. Bruce died in 1329. He had a son David, who succeeded to the throne, and a daughter Marjory, married to Walter the Steward, ancestor of the house of Stuart. See Burton, "History of Scotland," vol. ii. chaps, xxii., xxiii., and xxiv. ; Scott, "Tales of a Grandfather;" Chambers, "Bio- graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Bruce, (Robert,) an able Scottish clergyman, born about 1554. He became minister of a church in Edin- burgh in 1 5S7, and acquired great influence. Died in 1631. Bruce, (Thomas.) See Elgin, Earl of. Bruce, de, (Robert,) Lord of Annandale, was the grandfather of King Robert Bruce. In 1285 John Baliol and Robert de Bruce were rival claimants of the throne, and referred the question to Edward I. of England, who decided in favour of the former. Bruce died in 1295. Brucioli, bRoo-cho'lee, or Bruccioli, bRoot-cho'lee, (Antonio,) an Italian translator, born at Florence, lived about 1525-50. He produced a Tuscan version of the Bible, (1532,) and translated some works of Aristotle, (1547-51-) Bruck, bRook, (Karl Ludwig,) Baron, a German statesman, born at Elberfeld in 1798, became Austrian minister of commerce and public works in 1848. He resigned in 185 1, and was appointed minister of finance in 1855. He killed himself in 1861. He was noted as the originator or chief director of the enterprising com- pany at Trieste known as the Austrian Lloyds. B'rucker, bRook^ker, (Johann Jakob,)' an eminent German historian, scholar, and Protestant divine, born at Augsburg in 1696. He published, besides other works, a "Critical History of Philosophy," ("Historia critica Philosophise," 5 vols., 1741-44,) a work of immense labour and high reputation. It was the first complete and methodical history of the various schools of phi- losophy. His biographies of philosophers are especially valuable. The merit of this work consists in the ample collection of materials ; for it is deficient in critical ana- lysis. Died at Augsburg in 1770. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Bruckman, bRook'ni^n, (Franz Ernst,) a German physician and naturalist, born near Helmstedt in 1697; died in 1753. Bruckner, bRook'ner, (Isaac,) an eminent geometer and mechanician, born at Bale in 1686 ; died in 1762. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Bru^,bRii'i',(ETiENNE Robert,) a French geographer of merit, born in Paris in 1786; died in 1832. Besides several separate maps of great value, he published a "Universal Atlas." See Querard, "La France Litteraire." BruehL See Bruhl. Bruellow. See Brullov. Bruere, de la, deh IS bRli^aiR', (Charles Antoine Leclerc,) a French dramatist, born at Crepy-en-Valois, or, according to some authorities, at Paris, about 1715, wrote a play entitled "Dardamus," (1739.) Died in 1754. Bruerin, bRu'r^N', (Jean Baptiste,) a French phy- sician, born at Lyons about 1500, wrote a treatise on diet, entitled " De Re cibaria." He was physician to Henry II. of France. Brueys d'Aigalliers, bRii'i' di'gt'le-i', (or d^'gtl'- yi',) (Franqois Paul,) a French admiral, born at Uzes in 1753. He commanded the fleet which conveyed the army of Bonaparte to Egypt in 1798. In August of that year he was attacked by Admiral Nelson in Aboukir Bay. He was defeated and killed in this action, and his ship, the Orient, caught fire and exploded just after his death. See Thiers, "Histoire de la Revolution Frangaise." Brueys, de, deh bRii'^', (David Augustin,) a French dramatist and ])riest, born at Aix in 1640, wrote " Le Grondeur," (" The Grumbler,") and other comedicf. Died in 1723. See De Launav, "Vie de David A. de Brueys." e. ;is k; 9 as s; g hard; g as g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^="See Explanations, p. 23.) I BR UGES 448 BRUNE Bruges, (John of.) See Eyck, (John van.) Bru'ges, van, [Dutch, Van Bruggk, vin bRug'geh,] (RU'IGKK,) a Flemish painter, was a pupil of John van Eyck. There are several excellent pictures in the Pina- kothek at Munich attributed to him. Briiggeniann or Brueggemann, bRuG'oeh-mJn, (Karl Hkinrich,) a German publicist and writer on political economy, born at Hopsten in 1810. Bruggen, van der, vtn der bRiig'gen, (Jan,) an ex- cellent Flemish engraver, born about 1650. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Brugiere de Barante. See Barante. Brugman, bRiiG'mdn, sometimes written Brugmans, (Jan,) a celebrated Franciscan preacher of the Nether- lands. Died in 1473. Brugmans, bRuG^mc^ns, (Sebald Justin,) a physician, and distinguished professor of natural history in the Uni- versity of I>eyden, born at Franekerin 1763 ; died in 1819. See Van DER Boon Mesch, " Lofrede op S. J. Brugmans," 1825. Brugnatelli, bRoon-y3,-teKlee, (Luigi Gasparo,) an Italian chemist and natural philosopher, born at Pavia in 1 761. lie became a professor in the University of Pavia in 1796. Among his works are "Annals of Chem- istry," (22 vols., 1790-1805,) and "The Physico-Medical Journal," (20 vols., 1792-96.) Died in 1818. See B. Bizio, " Elogio storico di L. Brugnatelli," 1832. Brugnot, bRun'yo', (Jean Baptiste Charles,) a French poet of merit, born in 1798. His life was one long brave struggle with poverty and misfortune. Died in 1831. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Bruguieres,bRu'ge-a.ir^(jEAN GuiLLAUME,)a French traveller and naturalisX^vas born at Montpellier in 1750 ; died in 1799. Bruhier d'Ablaincourt, bRii'e-k' dSb^liN^koOR', (Jean Jacques,) a French medical writer, born at Beau- vais, practised in Paris. Died in 1756. Briihl orBruelil,von, fonbRiil, (Heinrich,) Count, a German statesman, born at Weissenfels in 1700. He was patronized by Augustus H. of Poland, and, on his death, was instrumental in raising to the throne the Elector Augustus HI. He was loaded with distinctions by the latter, who in 1747 appointed him prime minister. He impoverished the country by his extravagance to such a degree that, on the breaking out of the Seven Years' war, Saxony could furnish but 17,000 men. His library of sixty-two thousand volumes forms a principal part of the Royal Library at Dresden. Died in 1764. See JusTi, " Leben und Charakter des Premierministers H. von Briihl," 3 vols., 1760-65; J. H. Sevfart, "Leben des Grafen von P-uhl," 1764. Bruin. See Bruyn. Bruix, bRii'e', (Eustache,) a French admiral, born at Saint Domingo in 1759. He was minister of the marine about 1798. By a daring effort he carried relief to Mas- sena, besieged in Genoa. He was appointed commander of the flotilla which Napoleon prepared for the invasion of England in 1804. Died in 1805. See Mazeres, " Notice historique sur E. Bruix," 1S05. Bruix, de, deh bRii'e', a French litterateur, born at Bayonne in 1728; died in 1780. Brulart de Sillery. See Sillery. Brulliot, bRii'le'o', (?) (Franz,) a German engraver ar(d writer, born at Dusseldorf in 1780, published a " Dictionary of the Monograms, Initial Letters, etc. by which Artists have designated their Names." He was appointed keeper of the prints of the King of Bavaria. Died in 1836. Brullof or Briillow, bRuKlov, (Alexander,) a Rus- sian architect, brother of Karl, noticed below, built the Observatory of the Academy of Sciences, the Mikhailoff I'heatre, and other edifices, at Saint Petersburg. Brullof or Briillow, (Karl,) an eminent Russian painter, born at Saint Petersburg in 1800. He became court painter to the Czar about 1830. Among his master- pieces is "The Last Day of Pompeii." He excelled in colour and composition. Died in 1852. Brum'mel, (George Bryan,) " Beau Brummel," an English fop, born in London in 1778, inherited an easy fortune. He studied at Oxford, learned to write Latin verse, and became noted for his elegant taste in dress. He was a favourite and companion of the Prince of Wales, lived in splendid style in London, and asso- ciated with the nobility on equal terms. For many years he was regarded as a leader of haut ton, and an oracle in questions of dress, fashion, and etiquette. Having dissipated his fortune, he exiled himself to France about 181 5. He died poor at Caen in 1840. S,ee Captain Jesse, "Life of Beau Brummel," 1844; William Russell, "Eccentric Personages." Brumoy, bRii'mw^', (Pierre,) a French classical scholar and Jesuit, born at Rouen in 1688. He wrote Latin poems ; but his reputation is founded chiefly on his "Theatre des Grecs," (3 vols., 1730,) consisting of translations from Greek dramatists, with analytical re- marks which were highly esteemed. Died in 1742. Brun, bRoon, (Friedrike Sophie Christiane,) a German authoress, born in the duchy of Gotha in 1765, was the daughter of Balthasar Miinter. She was married in 1783 to Constantin Brun. Having visited Russia, Swit- zerland, and Italy, she published " Letters from Rome," (1808,) and "Episodes of Travel," ("Episoden aus Rei- sen," 4 vols., 1816.) She also wrote a number of poems and prose essays. She was intimate with Klopstock, Madame de Stael, and other eminent persons of the time. Died in 1835. See BoNSTETTEN, "Briefe an Friedrike Brun," 1829. Brun, bRoon, (Johan Nordahl,) a Norwegian pul- pit orator of high reputation, born near Drontheim in 1745, became Bishop of Bergen in 1804. He wrote lyric poems, and a drama entitled " Zarine," said to have been the first original tragedy written in the Danish language. Died in 1816. Brun, Le. See Le Brun, (Charles and Pierre.) Brun, (Malte.) See Malte-Brun. Brunaoci, bRoo-nlt'chee, or Brunazi, bRoo-nSd'zee, (Giovanni,) an Italian historian and antiquary, born near Padua in 1711 ; died in 1772. Brunacci, (Vincenzo,) an Italian mathematician and writer, born at Pisa in 1768. He became professor of the higher mathematics at Pavia about 1800. Among his numerous works is a "Course of Higher Mathematics," ("Corsodi Matematica sublime," 4 vols., 1804-10.) Died at Pavi'a in 181 8. See Tipaldo, " Blografia degli Italiani illustri ;" Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." Brunazi. See Brunacci. Brunck, bRoonk, (Richard Franqois Philippe,) a distinguished classical scholar, born at Strasburg in 1729, was educated in Paris among the Jesuits. Entertaining a passionate fondness for the poets of antiquity, and en- dowed with an exquisite critical taste, his editions of the Greek and Latin authors possess great merit ; but, un- fottunately, his emendations of the ancient text, though for the most part ingenious and even felicitous, are too often rash and unjustified by the authority of the best manuscripts. Died in 1803, Among his principal works are editions of Aristophanes, Sophocles, Anacreon, Apob lonius Rhodius, Terence, and Plautus, and a " Greek Anthology," (1776.) See "Meinoria R. F. P. Brunckii," 1803; Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." Brune,bRun, (Christian,) a Frenchlandscape-painter, born in Paris in 1789; died in 1849. His wife, Aimee Pages, born in 1803, is a painter of history and genre. Brune, (Guillaume Marie Anne,) a French general, born at Brives-la-Gaillarde in 1763. He gained the rank of general of division by his services at Areola and Ri- voli, (1796,) and in 1799 commanded an army in Holland, where he gained some victories. He was raised to the rank of marshal about 1804, and became governor-gen- eral of the Hanseatic Towns in 1807. Soon after this date he offended Napoleon, who removed him from command. He remained out of service until 1815, when he took a command under Napoleon on his return from Elba. He was assassinated at Avignon by a royalist mob in August, 1 81 5. See "Notice historique sur la Vie de Marechal Brune," Paris, 1821 ; " Esquisse historique sur le Marechal Brune," 2 vols., 1840. Brune, van, van brii'neh, [Lat. Brun^'us,] (Jan,) a Dutch poet and statesman, born in 1585 ; died in 1658. See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, 3?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; nftt; good; moon; BRUNEHAUT 449 BR UNO Brunehaut, bRiin'ho', the daughter of Athanagildus, King of Spain, was married in 568 to Sigebert, King of Austrasia, (or Ostrasie,) one of the four sons of Clotaire I. She was distinguished in her youth by several noble traits of character, as well as by beauty, talents, and courage ; but after the assassination of her husband in 575, at the instigation of Fredegonda, Queen of Neustria, she aban- doned herself to a reckless desire of vengeance and an unprincipled ambition. Having, after a life of vicissi- tudes, fallen at last into the hands of Clotaire II., son of Fredegonda, she was barbarously murdered in 613. She was tied to the tail of a wild horse, which, being let loose, tore her to pieces. See Thierry, " Recitsdes Temps Merovingiens ;" Alexis Paulin Paris, " Brunehaut," 8vo, 1834. Bru-neF, (Isambard Kingdom,) an eminent British engineer and naval architect, born at Portsmouth in 1806, was a son of Sir Mark Isambard, whose mechanical in- genuity he inherited. He was educated in Paris. He exhibited great energy and skill in the construction of the Thames Tunnel, on which he was employed as assistant or resident engineer. About 1833 he was ap- pointed engineer of the Great Western Railway. He was the chief architect or engineer of the Great Western and Great Eastern steamships, the latter of which was finished about 1859. Among his works is the Hunger- ford Suspension Bridge over the Thames. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. Died in 1859. See " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1862. Brunei, (Sir Mark Isambard,) a celebrated engineer, born at Hacqueville, near Rouen, France, in April, 1769. He displayed great mechanical ingenuity in early youth, joined with an aversion to study and to books, except works on natural philosophy or mathematics. To escape from the reign of terror, (1793,) he emigrated to New York, where he found employment, and built the Bowery Theatre. He removed to England about 1800, and mar- ried Miss Kingdom. He invented an excellent machine for the fabrication of block-pulleys, for which the English government gave him more than 15,000. His greatest work is the Thames Tunnel, which is considered one of the most wonderful triumphs of engineering skill in the world. It was commenced about 1825, and completed in 1843. Died in 1849. See R. Beamish, "Life of M. L Brunei;" E. Fr^re, " Notice historique sur la Vie de M. L Brunei," 1850; William Jerdan, "Men I have known," London, 1866. Brunelleschi, bRoo-nel-les'kee, (Filippo,) a cele- brated Italian architect and sculptor, born at Florence in 1377. He learned the art of goldsmith, and studied in Rome the monuments of ancient architecture, the principles of which he resolved to restore and illustrate. At that time the Gothic style prevailed almost exclusively. He returned to Florence about 1407, and was appointed architect of the cathedral Santa Maria del Fiore, which Arnolfo di Lapo had left unfinished, and over which he raised a majestic dome, one of the largest and most beautiful in the world. It was nearly finished at his death. He also designed the churches of San Lorenzo and Santo Spirito at Florence. Died in 1444. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters, etc.;" Quatremcre de QuiNCY, "Vies des Architectes celebres;" F. Baldinucci, "Vita di F. di Ser Brunellesco," published by D. Moreni, 1812. Brunet or Brunetto. See Latin r. Brunet, bRii'ni', (FRANgois Florentin,) a French theologian, born in Lorraine, wrote " Parallele des Re- ligions," (5 vols., 1792.) Died in 1806. Brunet, (Jacques Charles,) a French bibliographer, born in Paris in 1780, published "Manuel du Libraire et de I'Amateur des Livres," (3 vols., 1810; new edition, 6 vols., 1860-65.) This is probably the most extensive work on the subject, and is called the master-piece of modern bibliography. Died in Paris in November, 1867. See Querard, "La France Litteraire." Brunet, (Jean Baptisj e,) a French general, born at Rheims in 1765, distinguished himself in Italy in 1800, and afterwards in Saint Domingo, where he inveigled Toussaint into his power. (See Toussaint L'Ouver- ture.) Died in 1824. Brunet, (Jean Baptiste,) a commander of the army of Italy in 1793, having been suspected of treasonable correspondence with the enemy, was condemned by the Revolutionary tribunal, and executed in November, 1793- Brunet, (Jean Louis,) a French canonist, born at Aries in 1688; died in 1747. Brunet, (Pierre,) a French physician and writer, born at Nantes in 1770 ; died in 1832. Brunet, (Pierre Gustave,) a Yxtnch. litterateur, born at Bordeaux in 1807. Brunetti, bRoo-net'tee, (Sebastiano,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna about 1609, was a pupil of Guido. Died in 1649. Brunetto or Brunetto Latini. See Latinl Brunfels, bRoon'f^lss, or Brunsfeld, bRoons'fllt, (Otho or Otto,) a German botanist and physician, born near Mentz about 1464. He published, in 1530, " Living Figures (Pictures) of Plants in Imitation of Nature," (*" Herbarum Vivae Icones ad Naturae Imita- tionem," etc.,) which is said to be a capital work. Died at Berne in 1534. See M. Adam, "Vitas Eruditorum." Bruni, bRoo'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian poet, became secretary of the Duke of Urbino. He wrote the " Grove of Parnassus," ("Selva di Parnaso," 1615,) " Epistole eroiche," (1626,) and other poems. Died at Rome in 1635- Bruni, (Leonardo,) a learned writer of Italy, born in 1369 at Arezzo, whence he was often called Leo- nardo Aretino, (a-ra-tee'no.) He settled at Florence, of which city he was appointed chancellor. Besides other works, he wrote a " History of Florence," (in Latin,) and the lives of Dante and Petrarch. Died in 1444. See GiNGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Brunier. See Brunyer. Brunings, bRoo'nings, (Christian,) a German Prot- estant divine, born at Bremen in 1702, wrote a "Com- pendium of Hebrew Antiquities," (1763.) Died in 1763. Brunings, bRii'nings, (Christian,) a distinguished hydraulic engineer, born at Neckarau, in Baden, in 1736, became director-general of the dikes in Holland. He made several useful inventions, among which was the strommesser, an instrument for measuring the rapidity of streams. Died in 1805. Brunius, bRoo'ne-us, (Karl Georg,) a Swedish antiquary and poet, born at Tanum in 1792, became professor of Greek at Lund in 1824, and wrote several Latin poems, and works on Northern antiquities. Brunn, bRobn, (Johann Jakob,) an eminent physician, and medical professor in the University of Bale, where he was born in 1591. He published a "System of Ma- teria Medica," (" Systema Materiae Medicae,") of which numerous editions have been published. Died in 1660. See G. Seger, "Memoria J. J. Brunnii," 1660. Brunner, bRoon'ner, (Balthasar,) a German phy- sician, born at Halle, in Saxony, in 1533 ; died in 1604. Bruno. See Leo IX. Bru'noTHE Great, Archbishop of Cologne, a brother of Otho I., Emperor of Germany, and a man of great influence on the affairs of his age, was a scholar and a patron of learning. Otho committed to him the admin- istration of the duchy of Lorraine. Died in 965. See RuoTGERUS, "Vita Brunonis," Hanover, 1841. Bru'no, [Lat. Bru'nus,] (Giordano,) an eminent phi- losopher, born at Nola, in the kingdom of Naples, about the middle of the sixteenth century. He entered the order of Dominican monks in his youth, but, having found that position irksome to his independent and speculati\ e spirit, he escaped from the convent, and went to Geneva about 1580. He afterwards visited England, France, etc. About 1584 he published "Spaccio della Bestia trion- fante," "Della Causa, Principio e Uno," and "Del irifi- nito Universo e Mondi," ("On the Infinite Universe and Worlds.") He returned to Italy in 1592, and set- tled at Pavfa, where he was arrested by the Inquisition and charged with heresy and apostasy, for which he was burned at Rome in 1600. "His system," says Ilallam, "may be said to contain a sort of double pantheism. The world is animated by an omnipresent, intelligent soul, the first cause of every form that matter can as- sume, but not of matter itself ... In his work 'Del c as /•; c as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^==See Explanations, p. 2 3.) 29 BR UNO 450 BR UTUS infinite Universo,' he asserts the infinity of the universe and the plurality of worlds. That the stars are suns shining by their own light, that each has its revolving planets, were among the enormous and capital offences of Bruno." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") See Bartholm^s, "Jordano Bruno," 1847; Debs, " Briini No- lani Vita et Placita," 1844 ; C. G. von Murk, " Leben und Schriften des G. Bruno," 1805; N. Moeli.er, " G. Bruno, sa Vie et ses Doc- trines," 1S40; F. J. Clemens, '" G. Bruno und Nicolaus von Cusa: philosophische Abhandlung," 1847. Bru'no, (Jacobus Pancratius,) a medical writer, born at Altdorf in 1629, became professor of medicine in his native city in 1662. Died in 1709. Bru'no, Saint, sometimes called "the Apostle of Prussia." After several years spent in converting the heathen, he was killed near Lithuania, together with a number of his coadjutors, in 1008. Bruno, Saint, founder of the order of Qarthusians, was born at Cologne about 1040. He retired in 1086, with several associates, to a mountain near Grenoble, where he formed a religious order which adopted the rule of Saint Benedict, The convent of La Grande Chartreuse was afterwards erected on this spot. He subsequently founded another Carthusian convent in Calabria, where he died in i loi. See Tracy. "Vie de Saint-Bruno," 1785; E. Ducreux, "Vie de Saint-Brunon," 1812. Brunof, Brunov, or Brunow, buoo'nof, (Ernest Philip,) Baron, an eminent Russiaii diplomatist, born at Dresden about 1796. He negotiated the famous treaty of July 15, 1840, by which England, Russia, Austria, and Prussia agreed to settle the Eastern Question without the consent of France. He was Russian minister at London from 1840 to 1854, and resumed that position in 1858. Brunov. See Brunof. Brunow. See Brunof. Brunquel or Brunnquell, bRoon'kw^l, (Johann Salomon,) a German jurist, born at Quedlinburg in 1693, was professor of law at Gottingen, where he died in 1735. He wrote a " History of Romano-German Law," in Latin, (1727.) Sse Jknichen, "Vita J. S. Brunnquelli," 1738. Brunsfeld. See Brunfels. Bruns^wiok, House of, an ancient princely family of Germany, descended from the princes of Este. Er- nest OF Brunswick, the Confessor, born in 1497, was a zealous Protestant, and founder of the houses of Bruns- wick-Liineburg and Brunswick-Wolfenblittel. Died in 1546. His descendant Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick-Llineburg, became Elector of Hanover. (See Ernest Augustus.) Brunswick, (Caroline of.) See Caroline, Queen OF England. Bruns'wick-Lu'ne-burg, [Ger. Braunschweig- LtiNERURG, bRown'shwiG lii'neh-booRG',] (Karl Wil- HELM Ferdinand,) Duke of, a celelDrated German commander, born in 173S, was the eldest son of Duke Karl, and a nephew of Frederick the Great, for whom he fought in the Seven Years' war. Lie married Au- gusta, Princess of Wales, in 1764, and succeeded to the dukedom in 1780. In 1792 he was appointed com- mander-in-chief of the allied armies of Austria and Prus- sia, and invaded France to fight against the Republic. He was l)affled by Dumouriez, and retired from France, In 1793 he fought several battles against Moreau and Hoche, and resigned the command. Having obtained the chief command of the Prussian army in 1806, he was defeated at Jena in October of that year, receiving a wound of which he died in the following November. See Byrom's "Childe Harold," canto iii. stanza xxiii. Bruns'wick-Oels, Bs or ols, (Friedrich August,) Duke of, brother of the preceding, born at Brunswick in 1 740. He wrote " Reflections on Alexander the Great," and other works. Died in 1805. Brunswick-Oels, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) Duke of, born in 1 771, was a son of Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand. He fought against the French in 1792 and 1793. In 1815 he joined the allies, and was killed at the battle of Quatre- Bras. Karl, a son of the preceding, was born in 1804. Dur- ing his minority Brunswick was governed by George IV. of England, who had married an aunt of Duke Karl. In 1830 the people, provoked by his misrule, revolted, and drove Karl out of Brunswick, which was transferred by an act of the Germanic Confederation to his brother William. Brun'ton, (Mary Balfour,) a British novelist, born in one of the Orkney Islands in 1778, married, about the age of twenty, the Rev. Mr. Brunton. She wrote two successful novels, entitled "Self-Control," (1811,) and "Discipline," (1814.) Died in 1818. See Dr. Brunton, "Life of Mary Brunton;" "Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England," etc., by Mrs. Elwood, vol. ii. ; Cham- bers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Bru'nus, [It. Bru'no,] an Italian surgeon, was a friend of Petrarch, and lived at Padua. He wrote in 1352 a work called " Chirurgia magna," etc. Brunyer or Brunier, bRli'ne-i', (Abel,) a French physician, born at Uzes in 1573, practised in Paris. He was physician to the children of Henry IV., and was employed by Richelieu in missions to the Protestants. Died in 1665. Brusantini, bRoo-sSn-tee'nee, or Brusantino, bRoo- sin-tee'no, (Vincenzo,) an Italian poet, born at Ferrara. He wrote " Angelica innamorata," a sequel to " Orlando Furioso," (1550.) Died about 1570. See Ginguene, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalic." Brusasoroi. See Riccio. Brusati, bRoo-ScVtee, (P. Giulio Cesare,) a learned Italian professor of theology, philosophy, and logic, born near Novara in 1693 ; died at Pavia in 1743. Brusch. See Bruschius. Bruschius, bRoosh'e-iis, or Brusch, bRoosh, (Kas- par,) a German poet and writer of ecclesiastical history, born in 15 18. He was assassinated in 1559 by two per- sons whom he was suspected of having satirized. He is said to have favoured the doctrines of Luther. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Fishbeck, "Vita C. Bruschii," 1710. Bruslart, de, deh bRii'llR', (Louis Guerin — ga'riN',) Chevalier, a French officer, born in 1752, became lieu- tenant-general in 1823. Died in 1829. Brusoni, bRoo-so'nee, (Girolamo,) an Italian his- torian and poet, born at Legnano in 1610. He wrote, besides other works, a " History of Italy from 1635 to 1655," (1656.) Died about 1680. See Ginguene, ' Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Brusoni or Brusonio, bRoo-so'ne-o, (Lucio Domi- TIO,) an Italian professor of civil law, born near Rome, lived in the first half of the sixteenth century. He pub- lished " Facetiarum Exemplorumque Libri VII.," (15 18,) a collection of anecdotes, etc. from classic authors. Brutel de Lariviere, bRii^tiK deh It're've-aiR', (Jean Baptiste,) a learned Protestant theologian, born at Montpellier in 1667, lived in Holland. Died in 1742. Bruto, bRoo'to, or Bruti, bRoo'tee, (GiovaNx\i Mi- CHELE,) a distinguished Venetian historian and traveller, born about 15 15. He wrote, besides other works of less moment, a history of Florence, in Latin. Died about 1590. Bru'tus, (Decimus Junius,) one of the murderers of Cassar, had served under him in Gaul, and had been ap- pointed commander of his cavalry. He was slain (B.C. 33) by Camillus, a Gaul, to whom he had fled for refuge, and whom he had formerly loaded with benefits, and his head was sent to Mark Antony. See Dion Cassius, " History of Rome," books xlv. and xlvi. Brutus, (Lucius Junius,) a distinguished Roman patriot, son of Tarquinia, the sister of Tarquin the Proud. The king having put to death the father and elder bro- ther of Brutus, the latter feigned idiocy, gave up all his possessions to his tyrannical uncle, and patiently accepted the reproachful surnaine ofBRUTUS,(/.^."stupid,brutish,") which was destined to become a title of so much glory to his family. Aruns and Titus, the sons of Tarquin, hav- ing been sent to Delphi to consult the oracle, took Brutus with them to serve for their amusement. When they were making offerings to the god, Brutus offered a simple staff, which, however, was hollow and contained a gold ring, — a significant emblem of the character of the giver. After the outrage done to Lucretia by Sextus the son of Tarquin, (see Lucretia,) Brutus threw aside all dis- guise, put himself at the head of the people, expelled the reigning family from Rome, and effected the abolition of i, ,', o, u, ••, /ot/o-: ^, same, less prolonged: a, e, T, o, \\, v, shoft: a, e, i, o, obsaa-e; fir, fSll, fit; mht\ n6t; g0(\^. ; moon: BR UTUS BR rJNT royalty, (509 B.C.) Shortly after, Titus and Tiberius, the two sons of Brutus, accused of conspiring for the resto- ration of Tarquin, were brought before the consular tri- bunal for judgment. Their guilt having been proved, Brutus, then consul, with unconquerable patriotism and inflexible justice, condemned his own sons to death, al- though the people were willing that he should pardon them. In the year 507 B.C., Tarquin, who had never abandoned the purpose of regaining his kingdom, led an army against Rome, and his son Aruns and Brutus met in the field of battle and slew each other. The corpse of Brutus was carried to Rome in triumph, a statue of bronze was erected to his memory, and the Roman matrons wore mourning a whole year for the avenger of the wrongs of Lucretia. See C. L. Crell, "Dissertatio de L. J. Bruto Reipublicae Ro- manae Auctore," 1721 ; P. C. Chompre, "Vie de Brutus premier Consul de Rome," 1730. Brutus, (Marcus Junius,) a Roman jurist and gen- eral, a descendant of Lucius Junius Brutus, was the father of the famous conspirator. He fought for Marius against Sulla in the civil war, and commanded a force which de- fended Mutina (Modena) against Pompey. He surren- dered that place in 77 B.C., and was put to death. Brutus, (Marcus Junius,) a noted Roman, son of the preceding, was born in 80 B.C. Cato Uticensis was his maternal uncle, and afterwards his father-in-law, Brutus having married his daughter Porcia. In the civil wars he sided with Pompey. After the battle of Pharsalia he was treated with great kindness by Caesar, and appears to have been sincerely attached "to him for a time. He was, at the instigation of Caesar's enemies, induced to join the conspiracy against the life of the dictator. Sub- sequently he and Cassius became the leaders of the republican army against Antony and Octavius. At the battle of Philippi, Brutus, who commanded the right wing, was at first completely successful, and drove the troops of Octavius even to their camp ; but Antony, observing the mistake his enemies had committed in pursuing fugitives, instead of assuring the victory to their own friends, turned upon the exposed flank of Cassius and entirely changed the fortune of the day. The re- publican troops were totally defeated ; and Brutus, after seeing many of his bravest and most attached followers lay down their lives in order to prevent his falling into the hands of his enemies, killed himself with his own sword, 36 B.C. See Plutarch, " Lives ;" Appian, " Bellum Civile ;" Quevedo Y ViLLEGAS, " Vida de M. Bruto," 1648. Bruun, bRooN, (Thomas Christoffer,) a Danish poet, born in Zealand in 1750; died in 1834. See Erslew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." Bruyere, de la, deh It bRii-e'yaiR' or brli'yaiR', (Jean,) a distinguished French writer and moralist, born at Dourdan, in Normandy, in 1646. His principal work is entitled *' Les Caracteres de Theophraste, traduits du Grec, avec les Caracteres ou les Moeurs de ce Siecle," ("The Characters of Theophrastus, translated from the Greek, with the Characters or Manners of this Age," 1688,) a satire, (in prose,) exhibiting keen powers of ob- servation, accompanied by a refined and good-humoured wit and an elegant and spirited style. Died in 1696. _ "The Greek writer, [Theophrastus,] with no contemp- tible degree of merit," says Hallam, "has been incom- parably surpassed by his imitator." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") The judgment of posterity has pronounced it to be one of the best books in the French language. La Bruyere, according to some critics, is the greatest painter of manners and character that has written in French. Through the influence of Bossuet, he was appointed teacher of history to a grandson of the great Prince of Conde. See SuARD, "Notice sur La Bruyere," 1781 ; Sicard, " Viede La Bruyere," 1827 ; Walckenaer, " fitude sur La Bruvere," prefixed to his works, 1847 ; M. J. J. Victorin-Fabre, "filoge'de La Bruyere," 1810. Bruyeres, bRii-e'yaiR' or bRii'yaiR', (Jean Pierre,) a French officer, born in Languedoc in 1772, distinguished himself at the battle of Jena in 1806, and was in conse- quence made general, served under Murat in the Russian campaign of 1812, and was killed by a bullet in battle in 1813. I Bruyn, bRoin, (Kornelis,) a Dutch traveller and artist, born at the Hague in 1652. He studied painting in Rome and Venice, and subsequently visited Asia Minor, Egypt, and Russia. His " Voyage to the Levant," pub- lished in Dutch and French, (1698-1700,) contains more than two hundred engravings. His " Travels through Muscovy, etc." (171 1) has three hundred plates, many of them of superior merit. See Nagler, "Allgemelnes Kiinstler-Lexikon." Bruyn, de, deh bRoin, (Abraham,) a Flemish painter and engraver, born at Antwerp about 1540. Bruyn, de, (Nicolaas,) son of Abraham, born at Antwerp about 1570, was a skilful painter and engraver. Bruyn, van, vSn bRoin, (Jan,) a learned professor of mathematics, physics, and philosophy in the University of Utrecht, born at Gorcum in 1620; died in 1675. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Bruys, bRii-e', (FRANgois,) a French litterateur and critic, born at Serrieres in 1708, published a " History of the Popes," (5 vols., 1734.) Died at Dijon in 1738. Bruys, de, dehbRli-e', (Pierre,) [Lat. Pe'trus Bru'- sius,] a French fanatic and iconoclast, suffered death at the stake, in Languedoc, in 1 147. Many of his views corresponded with those of the modern Protestants. See Perrin, " Histoire des Vaudois." Bry, bRe, [Flemish pron. bRi,] (Theodore,) an emi- nent engraver, born at Liege in 1528; died, in 1598, at Frankfort-on-the-Main. His sons, John Theodore (1561- i62o)_and John Israel, were able engravers. Bry'an, (George,) a patriot of the American Revo- lution, born at Dublin, Ireland, about 1730. Having emigrated to America, he was appointed, in 1778, presi- dent of the supreme executive council of the colony of Pennsylvania. Died in 1791. Bry'' an, (Michael,) a noted connoisseur in painting, and author of a "Biographical and Critical Dictionary of Painters and Engravers," (1812,) was born at Newcastle, in England, about 1754; died in 1821. Bry'ant, (Sir Francis,) an English soldier and states- man, served with credit under Lord Surrey in 1522, be- came chief justiciary of Ireland in 1548, and died in 1550. Bryant, (Jacob,) a learned English antiquary, born at Plymouth in 1715. He became secretary to the Duke of INIarlborough in 1756. His reputation is founded chiefly on his " New System or Analysis of Ancient My- thology," (3 vols., 1774-76.) Among his numerous works is a "Treatise on the Authenticity of the Holy Scriptures and the Truth of the Christian Religion," (1792.) Died in 1804. Bry'ant, (John Howard,) an American poet, brother of William C. Bryant, born at Cummington, Massachu- setts, in 1807. He removed to Princeton, Illinois, about 1832, and became a farmer. He is the author of a num- ber of short poems. Bryant, (Solomon,) an American Indian, born in Massachusetts in 1695, resided at Marshpee, where he preached in his own language to the Indians for many years. Died in 1775. Bryant, (William Cullen,) an eminent American poet, born at Cummington, Hampshire county, Massa- chusetts, on the 3d of November, 1794. About the age of thirteen he wrote two poems, "The Embargo," a political satire, and "The Spanish Revolution," which were printed in 1808. He entered Williams College in 1810, distinguished himself by his proficiency in the lan- guages, and became a student of law about 1812. Hav- ing been admitted to the bar in 181 5, he practised law for several years. In 1816 he published " Thanatopsis," which is by many regarded as his finest poem, and in 1 82 1 a volume containing, besides other pieces, a didac- tic poem called "The Ages." He married about this date, removed to New York City in 1825, and became, in 1826, one of the editors of the "Evening Post," which he has continued to edit with great ability to the ])resenl time. A complete collection of his ])oems was published in 1832. He visited Europe in 1834, and returned in 1836, since which he has crossed the Atlantic several times, and in 1849 travelled in Egypt and Syria. Among his prose works are "Letters of a Traveller." Since 1845 has resided at Roslyn, on Long Island. As editor of the "Evening Post," he opposed the extension e as k: c as s; g hard; g as j; c, K, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^=='See Explanations, p. 23.) BRTJXIS BUCHANAN of slavery, and efficiently supported the Union during the civil war. " No poet," says Griswold, " has described with more fidelity the beauties of the creation, nor sung in nobler song the greatness of the Creator. He is the translator of the silent language of the universe to the world. His poetry is pervaded by a pure and genial philosophy, a solemn and religious tone, that influence the fancy, the understanding, and the heart." (" Poets and Poetry of America.") "All who have read this article," says Pro- fessor Wilson, " will agree with what Washington Irving has said of his friend, — that his close observation of the phenomena of nature, and the graphic felicity of his de- tails, prevent his descriptions from becoming general and commonplace." (" Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1832.) See, also, "Foreign Quarterly Review" for August, 1832; "Demo- cratic Review" for March, 1842. Bry-ax'is, \Bpva^Lq,\ a noted Greek sculptor, flour- ished about 380 B.C. Bryczynski, bRit-chin'skee, (Joseph,) a Polish litte- rateur, born near Warsaw in 1798; died in France in 1823. Brydaine. See Bridaine. Brydg'es, (Sir Samuel Egerton,) an able English writer, born at Wootton Court, Kent, in 1762. He studied law, but did not practise it. He induced his brother to prefer a claim to the barony of Chandos. The adverse decision of the House of Peers was a severe disappointment to him. He was a prolific writer of son- nets, novels, essays, letters, etc. Among his chief works are "Sonnets and Poems," (1785,) "Censura Literaria, containing Titles and Opinions of Old English Books," (10 vols., 1805-09,) "Res Literariae," (3 vols., 1821,) and " Letters from the Continent," (1821.) Died near Geneva in 1837. _ . . . • See " The Autobiography, Times, and Opinions of Sir Egerton Brydges," 2 vols., 1834; "London Quarterly Review" for March and June^ i834._ Bry-done', (Patrick,) a Scottish traveller, author of "Travels into Malta and Sicily." Born in 1741 ; died in 1819. Bry-en'ni-iTS, (Nicephorus,) [Gr. 'NiKrjcpopo^ Bpvev- vto^ ; Fr. Nic^phore Bryenne, ne''si'foR' bRe'Sn',] a Byzantine historian and general, was a favourite minister of Alexis Comnenus, and married Anna Comnena. He wrote '"TXr] loToptac." Died about 1 137. Buache, bii^tsh', (Philippe,) an eminent French geographer, born at Paris in 1700, became, when only twenty-nine years old, first geographer to the king. Died in 1773. He wrote several valuable works on geog- raphy, especially that department of it which is termed hydrography. Buache de la Neuville, bii^tsh' deh It nuh^^^K, (Jean Nicolas,) a French geographer, a relation of the preceding, born at Neuville-en-Pont in 1741, was the last Frenchman who bore the title of "first geographer to the king," (" premier geographe du roi.") Died in 1825. See Waixkenaer, "Vies des Hommes c^lebres;" Querard, "I.a France Litteraire." Buat-Nangay, bii't' uSn's^', (Louis Gabriel,) often called simply Comte DU Buat, a French diplomatist and writer, author of an " Ancient History of the Nations of Europe," (2d ed., 12 vols., 1772,) and other works. Born in Normandy in 1732 ; died in 1787. Bube, boo'beh, (Adolph,) a German poet, born at Go- tha in 1802. He published " German Tales," (" Deutsche Sagen,") which had great success, and afterwards "Obo- len," (1827,) "Poems," (" Gedichte," 1836,) "New Poems," ("Neue Gedichte," 1840,) and " Naturbilder," (1848.) Biibna Littiz, boob'n.^ lit'tits, (Ferdinand,) Count OF, (often called simply Bubna,) a very distinguished Austrian general, born at Zamersk, in Bohemia, about 1768, particularly signalized himself in the campaign against Napoleon in 1813. Died in 1825. Bu-buFcus, (Caius Junius,) a Roman statesman who was thrice elected consul, and became dictator in 302 B.C. Buc or Buck, (Sir George,) an iLnglish antiquary and historical writer, was gentleman of the privy chamber to James L He wrote a "Life of Richard JiL," and other works. Died about 1622. Buc, du, dli biik, (Jean Baptiste,) born in Martinique in 171 7, of a noble Norman family, was appointed by Choiseul chief of the bureaus for the two Indias, and in 1770 retired with the title of intendant of the colonies. Died in 1795. Bucer, boof'ser, (Martin,) originally Kuhhorn, (koo'hoRn,) a celebrated German reformer, and friend of Luther, born in 1491 near Strasburg, where he was pro- fessor of theology for twenty years. He assisted at the Diet of Augsburg in 1548, and strongly condemned the so-called Interim of Charles V. At the invitation of Cranmer, he removed to England in 1549, and became professor of theology at Cambridge. He died about 1 550, leaving numerous works in Latin and German, among which is a translation of the Psalms with a commentary. He was an advocate of peace and conciliation among the Protestant sects. His " Commentaries on the Gospels" (1527) are highly esteemed. See Meixhior Adam, " Yitss Theologorum ;" Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" De Thou, "Histoire." Buch, von, fon booK, (Leopold,) an eminent Prus- sian geologist, born at Stolpe, in Uckermark, on the Oder, in 1774. He studied mineralogy under Werner at Freiberg, where Alexander von Humboldt was his fellow-student. In 1797 he published an " Essay towards a Geognostic Description of Silesia," and performed a scientific excursion in Italy in 1798-99. During a sec- ond visit to Italy he witnessed the eruption of Vesu- vius in 1805, and was converted from the Neptunian to the Plutonic theory. The results of his observations appeared in his " Geognostische Beobachtungen auf Rei- sen durch Deutschland und Italien," (2 vols., 1802-09.) He afterwards explored Sweden and other countries, generally travelling on foot. He was the first who no- ticed the gradual elevation of Sweden, and he originated the doctrine of the slow upheaval of continents. Among his more important works is a geological map of Ger- many, (1824.), He was pronounced by Humboldt to be "the greatest geologist of our age, the first to recognize the intimate connection of volcanic phenomena." Died in Berlin in 1853. See English version of Flourens's "Eulogy on L. von Buch," in the " Smithsonian Report" for 1862, p. 358 ; Hoffmann, " Geschichte derGeognosie," 1S38 ; Humboldt, "Cosmos ;" " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1813; H. von Dechen, "Leopold von Buch, sein Ein- fluss auf die Entwickelung der Geognosie," 8vo, 1853. Buchan, biik'an, (David,) a British navigator, born about 1780. He commanded an expedition sent out in 181 8 to discover a passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean through Behring Strait and the Arctic Sea. Died in 1839. See Barrow, " Chronological History of Voyages into the Arctic Regions." Buchan, (David Stuart Erskine,) Earl of. See Erskine. Buchan, biaK'an, (Elizabeth or Elspeth,) the founder of a sect of enthusiasts called Buchanists, was born in Scotland in 1738 ; died in 1791. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Buchan, (John Stuart,) Earl of, born in 1380, was a son of Robert, Duke of Albany, Regent of Scotland, and a grandson of King Robert II. He entered the service of Charles VII. of France in 1420, defeated the English at Bauge, and was appointed Constable of France. Died about 1424. Buchan, (Peter,) a Scottish antiquary. He published " Gleanings of Scotch, English, and Irish Scarce Old Ballads," (1825,) and other works. Died in 1854. Buchan, (William,) M.D., born at Ancrum, in Scot- land, in 1729 ; died in 1805. He practised in .Sheffield, and finally in London. His "Domestic Medicine," pub- lished in 1769, had great success. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen "Gentleman's Magazine" for 1S05. Buchanan, buk-an'an, (Claudius,) a Scottish divine, vice-provost of the College of Fort William, in Bengal, distinguished by his zeal for the propagation of the gos- pel in India, was born near Glasgow in 1766; died in 1815. He wrote "Christian Researches in Asia," (1811.) See Pe.arson, "Life of Claudius Buchanan," 1819; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "London Quar- terly Review" for December, 181 1. a, e, T, 0, u, y, /ono-; i, h, f), same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fS.ll, fit; met; n6t; good ; moon; BUCHANAN 453 BUCHMANN Buchanan, (Francis,) M.D., a Scottish physician, born in Stirlingshire in 1762. Having graduated at Edinburgh, he sailed in 1794 for India, as surgeon in the East India Company's service. He published "Travels in the Mysore," (1807,) which has a high reputation, and a "History of Nepaul," (1818.) He was a Fellow of the R.oyal Society, of the Royal Asiatic Society, and of other learned Institutions. Died in 1829. Sef Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1808. Buchanan, biik-an'an, (Franklin,) an American naval officer, born in Baltimore, entered the navy about 1815. He was a captain when the civil war began, re- signed in 1 86 1, and commanded the iron-clad Merrimac when she destroyed several Federal ships in Hampton Roads, March, 1862. Having been raised to the rank of rear-admiral, he commanded the iron-clad Tennessee in Mobile Bay, August, 1864, where he was defeated by Admiral Farragut, and taken prisoner. Buchanan, (George,) a celebrated Scottish historian, scholar, and Latin poet, born near Killearn, in the county of Stirling, in 1506, was educated in Paris. He was em- ployed as tutor to the Earl of Cassilis for several years, and returned to Scotland about 1537. Having adopted Protestant opinions, and written a satire against the monks, entitled " Somnium," he was thrown into prison ; but he escaped to England, and passed thence to France about 1540. He remained in France until 1547, during which period he taught at Bordeaux and Paris and wrote several Latin tragedies. After he had passed several months in the prison of the Inquisition in Portugal, he returned to France in 1553, and to Scotland in 1560. In 1562 he became classical tutor to Mary, Queen of Scots, and in 1570 or 157 1 was appointed preceptor to the young king, James VL He was an adherent of the regent Murray in the civil war. Among his principal works are a metrical Latin version of the Psalms, (1570,) " Francis .anus," a poetical satire, and a " History of Scotland," (" Rerum Scoticarum Plistoria," 1582.) The last is said to be deficient in impartiality. His Latin writings are celebrated for the purity and elegance of the style. He died at Edinburgh in 1582, after saying, " I am going to a place where there are few kings." His translation of the Psalms shows him to have been a poet of a high order ; though he is perhaps more remarkable for harmony of versification and richness of style than for strength of imagination. See his "Autobiography," 1608; David Irving, "Memoirs of the Life and Writings of George Buclianan," 1807 ; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Bayle, " His- torical and Critical Dictionary;" "Blackwood's Magazine" for June, 1818. Buchanan, (James,) the fifteenth President of the United States, born in Franklin county, Pennsylvania, in April, 1 791. He graduated at Dickinson College, Carlisle, in 1809, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1812. He was elected a member of Congress in 1820, and began his political career as a Federalist. In 1828 he supported General Jackson as candidate for the Presidency, and was again elected to Congress. He was sent as ambassador to Saint Petersburg in 183 1, and elected a Senator of the United States by the legisla- ture of Pennsylvania in 1833. He supported the ad- ministration of Van Buren, (1837-41,) and favoured the annexation of Texas to the United States. Having been re-elected, he sat in the Senate until 1845, and was ap- pointed in that year secretary of state in the cabinet of President Polk. He ceased to hold this office in March, 1849, after which he passed four years in private life. He opposed the Wilmot proviso, and, like most other Democratic leaders, raised his voice against the anti- slavery movement. He was minister of the United States at the court of Saint James from 1853 to 1856. In June, 1856, the National Democratic Convention at Cin- cinnati nominated him for President of the United States. His competitors were John C. Fremont, supported by the Republicans, and Millard Fillmore, "American." Bu- chanan was elected, receiving 174 electoral votes out of 303, which was the whole number. In the first year of his administration, great excitement was produced by an attempt to establish slavery in Kansas, which became the scene of civil war. On this question Buchanan showed himself to be a " Northern man with Southern princi- ples." In his message, December, 1857, he argued that Kansas should be admitted with the "Lecompton Con- stitution," which the pro-slavery party, aided by execu- tive influence, had framed. The majority of Congress, however, refused to admit Kansas as a slave State. He used his influence to obtain by purchase the island of Cuba, in order to secure a due balance of power be- tween freedom and slavery. In 1854 he had united with John Y. Mason and Pierre Soule in the " Ostend Manifesto" on the subject of Cuba. His cabinet was composed principally of disunionists and their friends, namely, John B. Floyd, secretary of war ; Howel) Cobb, secretary of the treasury ; Jacob Thompson, secretary of the interior ; Isaac Toucey, secretary of the navy ; and Jeremiah S. Black, attorney-general. Before the Presidential election of i860, a large number of mus- kets were removed from Northern armories to the South, for the benefit of the disunionists. In his last message, December, i860, the President cast on the Northern people the blame for the disruption of the Union, which was then imminent, and decided that the Constitution has not delegated to Congress or to the Executive any power to coerce a State or to prevent the secession of a State. " How easy would it be," says he, " for the American people to settle the slavery question forever, and restore peace and harmony to this distracted country ! They, and they alone, can do it. All that is necessary to accomplish the object, and all for which the slave States have ever contended, is to be let alone. . . . For this [z>. slavery] the people of the North are not more responsible, and have no more right to interfere, than with similar institutions in Russia or in Brazil." About the 12th of December, Louis Cass re- signed the office of secretary of state, because the Pre- sident declined to reinforce Fort Sumter. The move- ments which the disunionists initiated to found and fortify a Southern Confederacy were facilitated by the supine- ness of the outgoing Federal adininistration. Nearly all the forts, arsenals, and custom-houses in the seceded States were seized by the insurgents in the winter of 1860-61. Mr. Buchanan, after his retirement from office, resided at Wheatland, near Lancaster, where he died in June, 1868. He was never married. He had published in 1866 a work entitled "Mr. Buchanan's Administra- tion." See Greeley, "American Conflict," 2 vols., 1864-66 ; " Edinburgh Review," vol. civ., 1858, and October, 1S60. Buchanan, (Robert,) of Glasgow, a Scottish divine of the present age. He published " The Ten Years' Conflict, being the History of the Disruption of the Church of Scotland," (2 vols., 1849.) Buchanan, (Robert,) a British poet, born in the early part of the present century, has written works entitled " Undertones," " Idyls and Legends of Inverburn," (Lon- don, 1865,) and "London Poems," (1866.) Buchez, bii'shi', (Philippe Joseph Benjamin,) a French publicist, republican, and able philosophical wri- ter, born at Matagne (Ardennes) in 1796. He advanced some original views in his " Science of the Development of Humanity," (1833.) In conjunction with M. Roux, he published "The Parliamentary History of the French Revolution," (40 vols., 1833-38.) His most important work is his " Complete Treatise on Philosophy, from the Catholic and Progressive Point of View," ("Essai d'un Traite complet de Philosophic, au Point de Vue de Catholicisme et du Progres," 3 vols., 1840.) He was president of the Constituent Assembly on the 15th of May, 1848, when that body was invaded by ruffians. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Buchholz, bo'oK'holts, (Andrew Heinrich,) a Ger- man writer of fiction, born at Schoningen in 1607 ; died in 1671. Buchholz, (Paul Ferdinand Friedrich,) a Ger- man litterateur, born at Altruppin in 1768 ; died in 1843. Buchhorn, booK'hoRn, (Karl Ludv^ig Bernhard,) a German artist and amateur, born at Halberstadt in 1770, became professor of engraving in the Academy of Arts at Berlin. He died in 1856, leaving considerable bequests to the Academy. Buchmann. See Bibliander. € a? k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in t/iis. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23, ) BUCHNER 454- BUCKLAND Buchner, booK'ner, (August,) a German scholar, professor of poetry and eloquence in the University of Wittenberg, born in 1591 ; died in 1661. Buchner, (Johann Andreas Elia,) born at Erfurt ill 1 701, was a writer on materia medica, professor of medicine at Erfurt and afterwards at Halle, and con- sulting physician to the King of Prussia. Died in 1769. See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." Bucholtzer, booK^olt'ser, (Abraham,) a German divine, an intimate friend of Melanchthon, born in 1529. He wrote the " Index Chronologicus," and other works. Died in 1584. See Melchior Adam, "Vitae Theologorum." Bucholz, booK^olts, written also Buchholz, (Sam- uel,) a German historian, born at Pritzvvalk in 171 7. He published, besides other works, a " History of the March of Brandenburg," (1759-75.) Died in 1774. See Ersch iind Gruber, "Allgemelne Encyklopaedie." Buchon, bii'shoN', (Jean Alexandre,) a French writer, born in the department of Cher in 1791. He published a "Life of Tasso," (1817,) and other worJ^ere only two great creative minds. One of those minds produced the ' Paradise Lost,' the other the ' Pilgrim's Progress.'" (Essay on Southey's edition of "Pilgrim's Progress," 183 1.) See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. ii. chap. vii. ; Ivimey, "Life of John Bunyan," 1809; Southey, "Life of Banyan;" George Offor, "Life of Bunyan," prefixed to an edition of his works, 3 vols., 1853; "Quarterly Review," vol. xliii., May-October, 1830. Buol-Schauenstein, von, fon boo'ol show'en-stTn', (Karl Ferdinand,] Count, an Austrian statesman, born in Switzerland in 1797. He was sent as ambassa- dor to Saint Petersburg in 1848, and to London in 185 1. In 1852 he became minister of foreign affairs {i.e. prime minister) of Austria, and in December, 1854, signed a treaty which engaged Austria to favour the allies against Russia. He resigned in May, 1859. Buonaccorsi. See Perino del Vaga. Buonafede, boo-o'nS-faMi, (Appiano,) an Italian writer, and professor of theology at Naples, born at Co- macchio in 1716. He published " Poetical, Historical, and Critical Sketches of Various Literary Men," and other works. Died in 1793. See Mazzucheli.i, " Scrittori d'ltalia." a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, h., 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; mlt; n6t; good; moon; BV ON AMI CI 461 BURDETT Buonamici, boo-o-ni-mee'chee, (Castruccio, kis- tRoot'cho,) one of the most elegant Latin writers, born at Lucca, in Italy, in 1710. His "Commentaries on the Italian War" {" Commentarii de Bello Italico") is a work of great merit. Died in 1761. See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'^talia." Buonamici or Bonamici, bo-nl-mee'chee, [Lat. Bo- NAMi'cus,] (Lazzaro,) an Italian scholar and litterateiir, born at Bassano in 1479; died in 1552. See JoHANN G. Eck, " L. Bonamicus," 1768; G. B. Verci, "De Rebus gestis et Scriptis L. Bonamici," 1770. Buonamico. See Buffalmacco. Buouanni. See Bonanni. Buonaparte. See Bonaparte. Buonarotti. See Michael Angelo. Buonaiotti, boo-o-na-rot'tee, or Buonarrotti, (Fi- LIPPO,) an Italian republican and revolutionist, born at Pisa in 1761. He was an enthusiastic partisan of the principles of the French Revolution, in which he took an active part. Having gone to Paris in 1792, he was sent to Corsica with extensive powers in 1793. As an accom- plice in the conspiracy of Babeuf, he was imprisoned several years, (1797-1800.) Died in 1837. See Trelat, "Notice sur Philippe Buonarotti," 1838. Buonarroti, boo-o-nir-ro'tee, ( Filippo,) a distin- guished Italian antiquary; died in 1733. Buonarroti, (Michael (or Michele) Angelo,) an Italian poet, nephew of the famous Michael Angelo, born at Florence in 1568; died in 1646. Buoncompagni. See Boncompagni, Buonconsigli, boo-dn-kon-s^Kyee, (Giovanni,) an Italian ])ainter, born at Vicenza, lived about 1500. Buoncuore. See Boncuore. Buonfigli. See Bonfiglio. Buonfigli, boo-on-f^l'yee, (Giuseppe Costante,) an Italian historian, born at Messina, wrote a " History of Sicily," (1604,) and other works. Buoni, de', dk boo-o'nee, (BuoNO,) a Neapolitan painter ; died about 1465. Buoni, de', (Silves j ro,) a son of the preceding, was a painter. Died in 1484. Buoninsegna. See DucCiO. Buonniattei, boo-6n-mat-ta'ee, (Benedetto,) an able Italian grammarian, born at Florence in 1581. He wrote a treatise "On the Tuscan Langupge," (1643,) other works. Died in 1647. Buono, boo-o'no, a distinguisned Italian architect and sculptor, lived about 1 150, and erected, besides other edifices, the famous tower of Saint Mark, at Venice. Buono, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian architect and sculptor, born at Bergamo. He became architect of the republic of Venice in 1505. Among his greatest works is the " Procuratie Vecchie," at Venice. He also restored the tower of Saint Mark. Died in 1529. Buononcini, (Giovanni Battista.) See Bononcinl Buontalenti, boo-on-ti-len'tee, (Bernardo,) an Ital- ian painter, sculptor, and architect, surnamed della Girandola, (je-ran'do-ia,) born at Florence in 1536. He was appointed by the grand duke Cosimo de' Medici preceptor to his son. Among his master-pieces are the Casino palace at Florence, and the villa of Bratonilo for the grand duke Francis I. de' Medici. Died in 1608. See QuATREMERE DE QuiNCY, " Dictioiinaire d'Architecture ;" CicoGNAKA, " Storia deila Scoltura." Buontempi. See Bontempi. Buonvicino. See Bonvicino. Bu'pa-lus, a Greek sculptor and architect, born in the island of Chios, lived about 550 B.C., and was noted for the enmity between him and the poet Hipponax. Burak or Bur^q. See Borak. Buranello. See Galuppi. Burbage or Burbadge, biir'bij, (Richard,) an emi- nent English actor, was a friend of Shakspeare, whpse principal characters he personated. Died in 1619. Bur'beck, (Henry,) an American officer, born in Boston in 1754. He served as captain in the war of the Revolution, and obtained the rank of brevet brigadier- general in the war of 1812. Died in 1848. Burchard, booR'KaRt, [Lat. Burcar'dus,] sometimes written Bouchard, a German theologian, born in Hesse, became liishop of Worms in 1006. He made a collection of canons, entitled " Magnum Volumen Canonum." DieJ in 1026. Burchard, Saint, first Bishop of Wiirzburg, born in England ; died in 752. Burchiello, booR-ke-el'lo, (Domenico,) a witty Ital- ian poet, published a collection of sonnets, which went through twenty editions. Died in 1448. See " Lives of the Italian Poets," by Rev. H. Stebbing, London, 1S31. Burckhard. See Spalatin. Burckhard, booRk'hiRt, (Frans,) a German phi- losopher, wrote "De Autonomia," (1586.) Died at Bonn in 1584. Burckhard, (James, or Jakob,) a German antiquary, born at Sulzbach in 1681. He wrote (in Latin) " On the Fortunes and Merits of Ulrich Hutten," (1717-23,) and other works. Died in 1753. Burckhardt, bdoRk^h^Rt, (Johann Karl,) a German astronomer, born at Leipsic in 1773. He visited Paris in 1797, and acquired the friendship of Lalande, whom he assisted in his scientific labours. He was afterwards appointed adjunct at the Bureau of Longitude, and in 1807 succeeded Lalande as astronomer in the observa- tory of the Military School. He translated into German a part of Laplace's " Mecanique Celeste," and wrote several astronomical treatises. Died in 1825. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Burckhardt, blirk'hart, [Ger. pron. booRk'hSRt,] (Jo- hann Ludwig,) a celebrated Swiss traveller, born at Lau- sanne in 1784. Having studied at Gottingen, he visited London, where he was introduced to Sir Joseph Banks and other members of the African Association, then about to send out another traveller to Africa. His services being offered and accepted, he set out in 1809, having prepared himself for the journey by a diligent study of the Arabic language, medicine, chemistry, etc. After spending more than two years in Syria, where he assumed the name of Ibrahim and the Oriental dress, he proceeded to Cairo, and, passing through the Nubian desert, arrived in 1814 at Mecca. In the character of a Moslem pilgrim or haji, he performed the pilgrimage to Mount Ararat, and subse- quently visited Medina. He returned to Cairo in 1816, and in October, 181 7, when about to join the caravan for Fezzan, was attacked with a violent fever, of which he died at Cairo. He was buried by the Mohammedans with distinguished honours. His principal works are en- titled "Travels in Nubia," (in English, 1819,) "Travels in Syria and Palestine," (1822,) "Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabees," (1830,) and "Arabic Proverbs," (1831.) He bequeathed his valuable collection of Oriental manu- scripts to the University of Cambridge. Burckhardt pos- sessed in an eminent degree the intellectual and moral qualities requisite in an explorer; and his works are esteemed among the best of their kind. See Sueur-Merlin, "Notice sur la Vie duVoyageur Burckhardt," 1829; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" "London Quarterly Re- view" for March, 1820; "Edinburgh Review" for August, 1820. Burdach, bdoR'diK, (Karl Friedrich,) a German physician, born at Leipsic in 1776, became in 1811 pro- fessor of anatomy and physiology at Dorpat. He wrote a treatise "On the Structure and Life of the Brain and Spinal Marrow," (1819,) and other works. Died in 1847. See his Autobiography, entitled " Riickblicke auf mein Leben ; Selbstbiographie," 1847. Bur'den, (Henry,) a Scottish mechanician, born at Dunblane in 1791, emigrated in 1819 to America, where he made a number of valuable inventions. Among these are a cultivator, a suspension water-wheel, and a machine for making horse-shoes. Bur'der, (Rev. George,) an English dissenting divine, born in London in 1752. He became in 1803 pastor of the Congregational church in Fetter Lane, London, and soon after editor of the "Evangelical Magazine." He published "Evangelical Truth Defended," (1788,) and "Village Sermons," (6 vols., 1799-1812.) Died in 1832. Bur-dett', (Sir Francis,) an English Liberal politi- cian, born in 1770. He married Sophia, daughter of Thomas Coutts, a rich banker, and was elected to Par- liament about 1795. He opposed the war against France, and advocated reform in representation. In 1807 he was returned for Westminster, which he represented for c as k; 9 as s; g ha7'd: g as J; G, H, K, gtUhiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^^[^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) BURDON 462 BURGOTNE nearly thirty years. P'or a publication reflecting on the conduct of Parliament he was committed to the Tower for a few months in 1810. Died in 1844. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Bur'dpn, (William,) an English writer on politics, ethics, etc., horn in 1764. Among his works is "Mate- rials for Thinking," (2 vols., 1803-10.) Died in 1818. Bure, boo^rSh, [Lat. Bur^'us,] (Anders,) a distin- guished Swedish architect and geographer, born in 1 571; died in 1646. Bure, [Lat. Bur/E'us,] (Johan,) a Swedish antiquary, and one of the earliest poets of Sweden, born in 1568, became royal librarian. Died in 1652. Bure, (Katarina,) a Swedish scholar and writer, born in 1602, was a daughter of the preceding. Died in 1679. Bure, de, deh btir, (Guillaume FRANgois,) a noted French bookseller and bibliographer. Died in 1782. Buren. See Biren. Buren. See Egmond, (Maximilian.) Buren, Van. See Van Buren. Burette, hxi'xlt', (Pierre Jean,) a learned French physician, born in 1665 ; died in 1747. He was the au- thor of several valuable dissertations on the gymnastics and the music of the ancients. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" Qu^rard, " La France Litteraiie." Burette, (Theodore,) a French historian, born in Paris in 1804. Among his works are a "History of France," (2 vols., 1839,) and " Modern History," (2 vols., 1843.) Died in 1847. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Biirg or Buerg, biiRG, (Johann Tobias,) a German astronomer, born in Vienna in 1766. He was professor of astronomy at Klagenfurth, and afterwards astronomer at the observatory in Vienna. He produced valuable lunar tables, and received part of a prize offered by the French Institute for the solution of a problem in regard to the moon's motions. Died in 1834. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Biirger or Buerger, biiR^cer, (Gottfried August,) a popular German poet, born near Halberstadt in 1748 ; died in 1794. He particularly excelled in ballads and in romantic poetry. He was thrice married. Among his chief works are " Lenore," (1772,) and "The Wild Huntsman," which have acquired a European celebrity. The former has been translated into English. See H. DoRiNG, "G. A. Burger ; blographisches Denkmal," 1847; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Burgersdicius, biir-gers-dish'e-us,or Burgersdyck, biiR^Gers-dlk', (Franciscus,) a Dutch philosopher, born near Delft in 1590, wrote on logic and moral philosophy. Died in 1629. Burges, biir'jess, (George,) an English dramatist and Greek scholar, born in 1786; died in 1864. Burges,bur''jess, (George,) D.D., an American divine, was born in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1809. After graduating at Brown University, he continued his studies in the Universities of Bonn, Gottingen, and Berlin. In 1847 he was ccnsecrated Bishop of Maine, becoming at the same time rector of Christ Church at Gardiner. His principal works are a versification of the Book of Psalms, " Pages from the Ecclesiastical History of New England," " Last Enemy Conquering and Conquered," and " Sermons on Christian Life," (1854.) Died in 1866. Bur'gess, (Cornelius,) an English nonconformist minister, entered Oxford in 161 1. He preached in Lon- don. Died in 1665. Burgess, (Daniel,) an English dissenting divine, born at Staines in 1645, pi'eached in London many years. He was noted for his facetious sayings. Died in 17 13. Burgess, (Rev. Richard,) an English writer, born about 1796. He became rector of Upper Chelsea. Among his works is " Topography and Antiquities of Rome," (2 vols., 1831.) Burgess, (Thomas,) an English theologian, born at Odiham, in Hampshire, in 1756, became Bishop of Salis- bury about 1825. He wrote numerous religious works. Died in 1837. See Harford, "Life of Bishop Burgess;" William Jerdan, "Men I Inve known," London, 1866; "London Quarterly Review" for (~)ctober and January, 1822. Bur'gess, (Tristam,) an American orator and states- man, born in Rochester, Massachusetts, in 1770. Having studied law, he was admitted to the bar in 1799, and rose to great eminence. He became a leader of the Federal party, and chief justice of Rhode Island in 1815. In 1825 he was elected a member of Congress, in which his fervid eloquence, powerful logic, and formidable sarcasm pro- cured for him a national reputation. He continued to serve in Congress until 1835. Died in 1853. See H. L. Bowen, "Memoir of Tristam Burgess." Burggrave, booRG^gRi'veh, or Burgrave, bdoR^gR^- veh, (Johann,) a German physician, boi'n at Darmstadt in 1673; died about 1746. Burggrave, (Johann Philipp,) a medical writer, son of the preceding, born at Darmstadt in 1700 ; died in 1775. Burgh. See Burgho. Burgh, biir'reh, (James,) an estimable moral and political writer, born in Perthshire, Scotland, in 17 14, was a cousin of Robertson the historian. He wrote, among other works, "The Dignity of Human Nature," (1754,) and "Political Disquisitions," (3 vols., 1774.) Died in 1775. Burgh, de, (Hubert.) See Burgho or Burgo. Burgh, de, (Ulick.) See Clanricarde, Marquis of. Bur'gho, Bur'go, or Bourgo, boor'go, written also Burgh, Bourgh, and Burke, a distinguished Norman family, related to William the Conqueror. Hubert de Burgo was the minister of King John and Henry HI.; but, though faithful to the interests of those sovereigns, he boldly opposed their crimes. From another branch of the same family sprang those invaders, or rather rav- agers, of Ireland, to whom the poet Campbell alludes in his "O'Connor's Child."* Burgho, de, de bur^o or boor'go, (Richard,) a pow- erful baron, became master of Connaught, in Ireland. Died in 1243. Burgho, de, (Walter,) son and successor of the preceding, obtained by marriage the earldom of Ulster. Died in 1271. Biirgi, (Jobst.) See Byrgius. Burgkmair, booRk'mlR, (Hans,) an eminent German painter and wood-engraver, born at Augsburg about 1473. Among his best pictures are a " Saint Sebastian" and a "Virgin and Child" at Nuremberg, and "Saint John at Patmos" in the Pinakothek at Munich. He also exe- cuted a great number of admirable engravings, including a series of one hundred and thirty-five plates called the "Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian I." He was a friend of Albert Diirer, in conjunction with whom he produced several engravings. Died about 1559. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Burgo. See Burgho. Bur'gpn, (John William,) an English poet and biographer, born in London about 1820, published a "Life of Sir Thomas Gresham," (1839,) "Petra," a poem, (1845,) and other works. Burgos, de, da booR'gis, (Don Francisco Xavier,) a Spanish author and politician, born at Motel, in An- dalusia, in 1778. He produced a version of Horace, (4 vols., 1820-23,) which is commended, and wrote several comedies and poems. His " Ode to Reason" is much admired. Burgos, de, (Pablo,) a learned Spanish ecclesiastic, born at Burgos in 1353. He was Bishop of Burgos, and wrote several works. Died in 1435- Burgoyne, bur-goin', (John,) an English general and dramatist. He married a daughter of the Earl of Derby, and was elected a member of Parliament in 1761. In the summer of 1777 he obtained command of an army of about 8000 men, with which he marched from Canada towards Albany. Having been repulsed at Stillwater in September, he was forced to surrender at Saratoga in October, 1777. (See Gates, General.) This event was one of the most important victories gained by the Americans in the war, and produced great exultation among the patriots. He had the reputation of a wit as * " For now De Bourgo's sword and flame Had ravaged Ulster's boundaries, And lighted up the midnight skies. * # * * * And stemmed De Bourgo's chivalry." a, e, T, o, u, y, lofig; k, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mht; n6t; good; mooi^; BURGOTNE 463 BURKE well as of a brave and generous man. He composed three dramas, "The Maid of Oaks," "Bon Ton," and "The Heiress," (1786,) which enjoyed considerable popularity in their day. Died in 1792. See HiLDRETH, "History of the United States," vol. iii. chap, xxxvi. Burgoyne, (Sir John,) an English general, who dis- tinguished himself in the principal battles of the Penin- sular war, and was subsequently appointed inspector- general of fortifications in England, lieutenant-general, (1851,) and Knight Grand Cross, (1852.) In the Crimean war he served till 1855 as chief of the engineering de- partment in the British army. He has also obtained the degree of D.C.L. from the University of Oxford. Burgrave. See Burggrave. Burgsdorf, von, fon booRGs'doRf, (Friedrich Au- gust LuDWiG,) a German naturalist and writer, born at Leipsic in 1747; died in 1802. Burgundio, booR-goon'de-o, or Borgondio, boR- gon'de-o, (Orazio,) an Italian Jesuit and scientific writer, born at Brescia in 1679, became rector of the Roman College. Died in 1 741. Burgundy, Dukes of. With the exception of Louis, noticed below, these will be found under their respective names, as Charles the Bold, John the Fearless, etc. Bur'gun-dy, [Fr. Bourgogne, booR'gon',] (Louis,) Duke of. Dauphin of France, grandson of Louis XIV., and father of Louis XV., was born at Versailles in 1682. The celebrated Fenelon was appointed his principal pre- ceptor, and was instrumental in effecting a thorough change in his character, of which Saint-Simon gives the following portrait: "This prince was born terrible, and continued terrible through his infancy ; incapable of bear- ing the least resistance, even from time and the elements ; obstinate to excess, and given tip to all violent passions From the height of the skies he looked down upon men as atoms with whom he had no resemblance ; even his brothers scarcely appeared to him intermediate between him and the human race. From this abyss came forth a prince affable, gentle, and humane, humble and austere towards himself." He died in 1 7 12, greatly regretted by the nation. See Sai.n't-Simon, " M^moiies ;" Abb^ Fi.eurv, " Portrait du Due de Bourgogne," 1714; J. Martineau, " Recueil des Vertus de Louis de France," 1712; Pkovart, " Viedu Dauphin, Pere de Louis XV," 2 vols., 1778. Burhill, biir^ril, (Dr. Robert,) an English divine, chaplain to Sir Walter Raleigh, whom he is said to have assisted in his "History of the World." Died in 1641. Buri. See Audhumla, and Odin. Bur'i-dan, (John,) [Fr. Jean Buridan, zh6N bii're'- d6N',] a schoolman, born at Bethune, in Artois, about 13 1 5, known as the author of the sophism that, if a hungry ass were placed between two measures of oats so that each should make exactly the same impression on his senses, being incapable of making a choice, he must inevitably die of starvation. He was a professor in the University of Paris, and wrote on logic, etc. Died in 1358. See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Frobes, " Dis- quisitio de J. Buridano ejusque Asino," 1748. Burigny, de, deh bii'rd;n'ye', (Jean L^:vesque,) a French historian, born at Rheims in 1692. He was the author of a " History of Pagan Philosophy," (2 vols., 1724,) "General History of Sicily," (1745,) "History of the Revolutions of the Empire of Constantinople," (1750,) a "Life of Grotius," (1750,) a " Life of Erasmus," (i757>) and a "Life of Bossuet," (1761.) He was for a time associate editor of the journal entitled " L'Europe Savante," at the Hague. He was a member of the Acad- emy of Inscriptions. Died in 1785. _ See Dacier, "filoge de Burigny," 1786; Qu^rard, "La France Litteraire." Burinski. See Boorinskl Burkard, 1 ooR'kiRt, (Waldis,) a German fabulist of the sixteenth century. Burke. See Burgho. Burke, btirk, (.^^danus,) a lawyer, born in Ireland in •743, was appointed a judge of the supreme court of South Carolina in 1778, after which he became a Senator of the United States. He wrote a famous pamphlet against the Society of the Cincinnati. Died in 1802. Burke or Bourke, pronounced alike biirk, (Ed- mund,) an illustrious orator, statesman, and philanthro- pist, born in Dublin in 1730, or, according to some authorities, in 1728. His family was of Norman descent, Burke having been originally the same name as Burgh, De Burgh, l3e Burgho, or De Bourgo.* His father, Richard Burke, was an attorney of the first rank in his profession in Dublin. His mother, whose maiden name was Nagle, was a Roman Catholic, of respectable family. Her great-aunt, Ellen Nagle, was married to Sylvanus Spenser, the eldest son of the immortal poet. Edmund Burke was the second son out of a family of fourteen or fifteen children, all of whom died young except three sons. Garret, Edmund, and Richard, and a daughter, named Juliana. Edmund was of a delicate constitution, and, for the sake of country air, was sent at an early age to Castletown-Roche. O'Halloran, the schoolmaster of this place, used to boast to the end of his life that he was the first who put a Latin grammar into the hands of Edmund Burke. Having spent about five years at Castletown-Roche, he returned to Dublin, and not long after he was placed at Ballitore, under the instruction of Abraham Shackleton, a Quaker schoolmaster of superior learning and rare moral worth. At school he formed for Richard Shackleton, the only son of his preceptor, a warm friendship, which continued to the end of his life. It is related that while at school Burke one day saw a poor man pulling down his own hut, which he had been ordered to do because it was too near the highway. The young philanthropist declared that if he were a man in authority the poor should not be thus oppressed. At Ballitore Burke appears to have imbibed that thorough respect for civil and religious liberty for which he was afterwards distinguished. " He had observed," says Prior, " among the Society of Friends, in which he was domesticated, that differences of opinion on those points made neither worse subjects nor worse men. Reflection, and the remembrance that [his] relatives on the side of one parent were Roman Catholics, probably taught him to extend the same liberality of sentiment towards per- sons of that persuasion." Having spent three years at Ballitore, he entered Trinity College, Dublin, as a pen- sioner. The range of his studies was remarkable, in- cluding the classics, history, philosophy, general litera- ture, and metaphysics, besides less important pursuits. He was accustomed while at college to spend three hours every day in the public library. While he devoted a large part of his time to studies of the severest and most solid character, he did not neglect the lighter kinds of reading, including poetry, novels, and other works of imagination. It is related that when Richard Burke was found one clay in a reverie, shortly after his brother had made a great speech in the House of Commons, and was asked the cause, he replied, " I have been wondering how Ned has contrived to monopolize all the talents of the family ; but then, I remember, wheti we were at play he xuas always at work.'''' Burke gradu- ated as A.B. in 1748. From the first his destination was the bar; and in 1747 his name was enrolled at the Middle Temple. In 1750 he went to London, but in 1 75 1 returned to Ireland, and took the degree of A.M. About the year 1753 he became, it appears, a candidate for the chair of logic in the University of Glasgow, but was not successful. In 1755 Burke felt inclined to try his fortune in America. Several persons whom he con- sulted on the subject highly approved of it ; but his fathei was strongly averse to the scheme, and it was in con- sequence abandoned. In 1756 was published, anony- mously, his "Vindication of Natural Society." It was an imitation, or rather an ironical criticism, of Lord Bolingbroke's writings against Christianity. "The imi- tation of Bolingbroke's style and manner was," says Prior, "so perfect as to constitute identity rather than resemblance. It was not merely the language, style, and general eloquence of the original which had been caught, but the whole mind of the noble author." The work purported to be written by a "late noble writer." Many persons, including Lord Chesterfield and Dr. Warburton, believed it to be a genuine production of Bolingbroke. As Campbell writes it in his poem of " O'Connor's Child." e as k: c as s: g hard; g as j; g, h, y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^"See Explanations, p. 23.) BURKE 464 BURKE In the same year appeared Burke's " Philosophical In- quiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful." This work attracted much attention, and was greatly admired by some of the most distinguished critics of that age. Dr. Johnson, it is said, regarded it as a model of philosophical criticism. In 1757 Burke was united in marriage with Mary Jane, daughter of Dr. Nugent, a physician of Bath, whither the young student and author had gone for the re-establishment of his health. This union appears to have been a singularly happy one, since he was accustomed to say that "every care vanished the moment he entered under his own roof" "An Account of the European Settlements in America," a work in two volumes, was published in 1757. There is strong reason to believe that it was written principally or wholly by Burke. In 1758-59 he established, in con- junction with the publisher Dodsley, the "Annual Register," a periodical of great merit. His society was now sought by many of the most distinguished men in the kingdom, including, among others, Johnson, Garrick, Reynolds, Lyttleton, Hume, and Warburton. Johnson, as Prior tells us, would submit to contradiction from Burke, though twenty years younger than himself, but would tolerate it from no other person, whatever might be his talents or experience. The admiration which they conceived for each other at their first acquaintance never afterwards suffered any diminution. Johnson used to say that "no man of sense could meet Mr. Burke by ac- cident under a gateway to avoid a shower without being convinced that he was the first man in England." Grat- tan, the great Irish orator and patriot, considered Burke the greatest man in conversation he had ever met with. In 1759 Burke was introduced to William Gerard Hamilton, chief secretary to Lord Halifax, then lord- lieutenant of Ireland. The secretary, better known in political history as " Single-Speech Hamilton," appears to have employed Burke as his private secretary. In 1763 the latter received from the government a pension of ^300 per annum, partly or chiefly through Hamilton's influence ; but, finding afterwards that the pension was considered to be the price not merely of his services but of his political independence, he threw it up with indig- nation, having enjoyed it twelve months only. When the Marquis of Rockingham became prime minister, in 1765, Burke was appointed his private secretary. Not long after he was returned to Parliament for Wendover, in Buckinghamshire, and entered the House of Com- mons January 14, 1766. He took an active part in the discussion on American affairs, and at once proved him- self an able and eloquent speaker. Alluding to his extensive and varied knowledge. General Lee (who after- wards took part in the American Revolution) says, in a letter to the Prince of Poland, "An Irishman, Mr. Burke, has sprung up in the House of Commons, who has aston- ished everybody with the power of his eloquence and his comprehensive knowledge in all our exterior and internal politics and commercial interests." The Rockingham ministry was dissolved July, 1766; and soon after Burke wrote a sort of manifesto in its defence, with the title of "A Short Account of a Late Short Administration." In the latter part of the same year an attempt was made to enlist him in the ministerial ranks by the Duke of Grafton, who, in addressing Chatham, spoke of Burke as "the readiest man upon all points perhaps in the whole House." But the scheme was not approved of either by the pre- mier or by Burke himself On the dissolution of Par- liament in 1768, Burke was again returned for Wendover. About the same time he purchased, for above ;^20,ooo, an estate near Beaconsfield, in Buckinghamshire. He wrote to Shackleton, " I have made a push, with all I could collect of my own and the aid of my friends, to cast a little root into this country. I have purchased a house, with six hundred acres of land, in Buckinghamshire, twenty-four miles from London." "About this time," says Prior, "Junius broke forth upon the English world with a vigour and rancour never surpassed." Universal opinion fixed at once upon Burke as the author of the "Letters." Even his own friends at first. Dr. Johnson among the number, believed him to be the true Junius. No one else was supposed to possess either the ability or the knowledge which those letters displayed. His eiiemies made it a ground for heaping upon him unmeasured abuse. Although he unequivocally and repeatedly denied the accusation, his denial was not generally credited ; and it was only after the publication of the " Grenville Papers" that he was completely cleared from suspicion in regard to this charge. In 1770 Burke published a pamphlet entitled "Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents," which is considered one of the most masterly things of the kind in the language. He was rewarded for his thorough acquaintance with American affairs by being appointed, in 1771, agent to the State of New York, a position worth nearly ;^700 per annum. As the state of the American colonies claimed at this time a large share of the attention of Parliament, Burke became more and more prominent as the ablest member of the opposition. But his extensive information and superior abilities were acknowledged not only in regard to the aff"airs of the Western colonies, but also those of the remoter East. He had already made himself acquainted with the con- dition, population, and resources of India. The affairs of the East India Company having fallen into some con- fusion, in 1772 Sir Charles Colebrooke offered Burke, in the name of the directors, " the first position in a su- pervisorship of three, empowered to trace out in detail the whole administrative system of India and to remedy all they could find amiss." (Prior's " Life of Burke.' ) But he declined the offer. The affairs of America were exciting from day to day a deeper interest ; his friends appear to have felt that he could not be spared from Parliament ; and he himself was probably unwilling to abandon a field for which he felt himself peculiarly fitted, and in which he had already won, and was still to win, so many laurels. In 1772 he accompanied his son Richard (then about fourteen) to France, and placed him at school at Auxerre. He himself spent some time in Paris, where he saw for the first tiine the young queen Marie Antoi- nette, of whom he has given so glowing a description in his " Reflexions on the Revolution in France." The state of religion and morals at the French capital filled him even then with apprehension and alarm. Soon after his return, in a speech in Parliament, among other things he uttered these memorable words: "I see propagated principles which will not leave to religion even a tolera- tion, and make virtue herself less than a name." His foresight in regard to affi^irs in America was scarcely less remarkable. Indeed, he alone, among all the members of Parliament, appears to have fully comprehended the difficulties and dangers which menaced that portion of the empire. He remarked indignantly that a robbery on Hounslow Heath would excite more attention than the incipient insurrection which then threatened to dissever the colonies from the British crown. On the 19th of April, 1774, he made a speech on American taxation. It was considered by many as the greatest effort of oratory that had, till then, ever been put forth in the House of Commons. On this occasion an intelligent American, a friend of Dr. Franklin, (Mr. Sampson,) is said to have exclaimed, " You have got a most wonderful man here : he understands more of America than all the rest of your House put together." On the dissolution of Parlia- ment, which occurred in the autumn of 1774, Burke was returned for Malton. While he was expressing to his con- stituents his acknowledgments for the honour done him. a deputation of merchants arrived from Bristol, inform- ing him that he had been nominated to represent their city, and urging him to accept the nomination. Having obtained the ready assent of his Malton friends, he pro- ceeded at once to Bristol. After an obstinate and pro- tracted contest, he was returned on the 3d of November. His speech in Parliament, March, 1775, recommending conciliatory measures towards the American colonies, commanded general admiration. Lord Chatham, on being asked his opinion of it, replied that "it was very seasonable, very reasonable, and very eloquent;" and Fox, nearly twenty years afterwards, said, " Let gentle- men read this speech by day and meditate upon it by night : they would there learn that representation was the sovereign remedy for every evil." Lord Erskine observed, at Edinburgh, " It could only proceed from this cause [the corruption of Parliament] that the im- a, e, 1, o, u, y, lo7ig; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, \\, y, short; a, e, i, o, obsao'e; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; BURKE 465 BURKE mortal orations of Burke against the American war did not produce as general conviction as they did unmingled admiration." But the fault lay perhaps still more with the blindness and obstinacy of the king and the people. At length the arbitrary measures of the government be- gan to produce their legitimate effect. The rejection of all the petitions from the colonies, and the utter disre- gard not only of the rights but of the feelings of Ameri- cans, as exhioited in the furious and insane abuse heaped upon their representative. Dr. Franklin, before the privy council by Wedderburn in 1774, had resulted in a feeling of almost total alienation from the mother-country. Owing, perhaps, to that large foresight which enabled him to realize all the evils and dangers attending such a contest. Franklin had been among the most reluc- tant to commit his countrymen to war, and one of '"he last to abandon all hope of reconciliation. The day previous to his finally quitting London in the spring of 1775, he called on Burke and freely stated his views and feelings in regard to the impending crisis, expressing his deep regret that the unaccommodating and obstinate temper of England seemed to render a separation in- evitable. Before he reached America the war had al- ready begun, and the battles of Lexington and Concord (April 19) had been fought. That of Bunker Hill took place in the following June ; and yet so great was the reluctance of the Americans to separate themselves from the mother-country that more than a year elapsed be- fore they could prevail upon themselves to take the step which rendered reconciliation hopeless, and even then the Declaration of Independence was carried with diffi- culty through Congress. There cannot be a reasonable doubt that, had the conciliatory measures recommended by Burke been adopted, the war of the Revolution would not have taken place, or, at least, it might have been indefinitely postponed. In 1780, Burke delivered one of his most admirable speeches, usually known as that " On the Economical Reform." By his advocacy of the claims of the Roman Catholics, and by his opposition to the policy of repressing the trade of Ireland, — a policy strongly favoured by the merchants of Bristol, — he had lost his popularity with many of his constituents in that city : accordingly, at the next election he offered himself as the candidate for Malton, which he continued to repre- sent for the remainder of his political life. Lord North having been compelled to resign his post as prime minis- ter in 1782, the Marquis of Rockingham and his friends again came into power. Burke was made a privy coun- cillor and appointed paymaster-general of the forces. His disinterestedness while in this office gave another illustration of that high principle by which the conduct of his whole life was guided. No man, by the consent of all impartial persons, had rendered greater services to the country than he ; and none could with a better right have availed himself of the perquisites of this lu- crative Office to repair the deficiencies of his private for- tune. By the reforms which he introduced into the paymaster's department, he saved to the public revenue _;^47,ooo per annum : of this sum above ;[{^25,ooo con- sisted of the usual and acknowledged perquisites which all his predecessors had received. Lord Shelburne having become prime minister on the death of the Marquis of Rockingham, (July, 1782,) Burke, and the other friends of the late premier, resigned. By the coalition between Fox and Lord North, the latter came again into power in 1783, and Burke was restored to his former office. He took a prominent part in the debates on India, with the affairs of which he was perhaps bet- ter acquainted than any other man in England. One of his greatest speeches was delivered on the East India Bill in December, 1783. The bill passed the House of Commons, but was lost in the upper House. This de- feat put an end to Lord North's administration, and Pitt succeeded as prime minister. Burke retired from office, and never afterwards held any position under the govern- ment. He had been elected, November, 1 783, lord rector of the University of Glasgow, and was re-elected the fol- lowing year. Perhaps the most brilliant, and certainly not the least useful, portion of Burke's career was that which he de- voted to the cause of India. The affairs of that country had recently occupied nearly all his thoughts. The op- pression and cruelty of which Warren Hastings, ani* other officers of the East India Company, had beer guilty, filled his soul with irrepressible pity and indigna- tion. In February, 1785, he made an eloquent and mas- terly speech on the debts of the Nabob of Arcot. " It was," says Prior, "one of those outpourings of a fertile and vigorous intellect, which, on an unpromising theme, seemed to combine all that could instruct, dazzle, and even overpower the hearer." At the opening of the session in January, 1 786, he commenced the most arduous and formidable undertaking of his life, — the prosecution of Hastings. The articles embracing the different charges were delivered in April. They were so numerous and extensive as to occupy no inconsiderable part of the at- tention of the House for two sessions. In January, 1787, Sheridan made his celebrated speech on the Begum case. A committee of impeachment was then formed. On the loth of May, Burke, as chairman of the committee, ac- cused Hastings at the bar of the House of Lords, in the name of the Commons of England. After the necessary preliminary proceedings, and delays from various causes, on the 13th of February, 1788, Westminster Hall was opened in form, and Burke, in full dress, proceeded thither, followed by the other managers, the House of Commons, the clerks of Parliament, the masters in chan- cery, the sergeants-at-law, the judges, the House of Peers, and the royal family, the Prince of Wales closing the procession. (For a brilliant description of this imposing scene, the reader is referred to Macaulay's article on Warren Hastings.) Two days having been occupied with preliminary business, on the 15th Burke made his opening speech, of which it is enough to say that it was every way worthy of the occasion and of his great repu- tation. After various delays, some of which at least were unavoidable, extending through a series of years, at length, on the 23d of April, 1795, a verdict of acquittal was passed : the lord chancellor, however, voted with the minority, who thought Hastings guilty. But, although the impeachment was not carried, it would be a great mistake to suppose that the unconquerable zeal and herculean labours of Burke in behalf of India were without avail.* They had the effect of directing the earnest attention of the British nation to the misgovern- ment and oppression of which the agents of the Company had been guilty, and thus led the way to important re- forms in the administrative system of that country. But, long before the trial of Hastings was concluded, the mind of Burke had been intensely occupied with a far different subject, which, in his view, was closely con- nected not only with the welfare of England, but with her very existence as a nation. He had for some time beheld with apprehension the dissemination in France of principles which threatened the total overthrow of all religion and all government. As he had been promi- nent in the eyes of Europe as one of the most zealous friends of liberty, he received from time to time, from those in France who favoured the revolutionary move- ment, the most glowing accounts of the success of their experiment. It was in reply to one of these communi- cations that Burke wrote his " Reflexions on the Revo- lution in France." The success of this work has never been paralleled in the history of political literature. It was published in November, 1790, and within a few months more than thirty thousand copies are said to have been sold. The work was immediately translated into French, and was read with avidity in every part of Eu- rope. So great was the influence of his name, combined with the masterly logic and powerful eloquence of the " Re- flexions," that his work completely arrested the spread of the revolutionary spirit in England, and contributed greatly to check its progress in other European coun- tries. The startling and terrible events which followed soon after in France, by proving that the foresight of Burke was even more remarkable than his eloquence, * "Never," says Lord John Russell, "has the great object of pun- ishment — the prevention of crime — been attained more completely than by this trial. . . . Hastings was acquitted ; but tyranny, deceit, and injustice were condemned. India was saved from abominations dis- graceful to the English name." (" Memorials of Charles Jamss Fox," vol. ii. p. 257.) f as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (S:^=See Explanations p. 2 ■;.) 30 BURKE 466 BURKE raised his fame to the highest point, and seemed fully to justify the eulogium that his letter on the French Revolution was "the most magnificent political prophecy ever given to the world." The uncompromising hostility of Burke to the principles of the French Revolution led not long after, May 6, 1791, to an open rupture between him and Fox, who hailed the revolutionary movement as the dawn of a political millennium. Fox and his fol- lowers charged Burke with having abandoned the prin- ciples of his party, and with being guilty of great incon- sistency, in that, after having shown himself a strenuous friend of liberty during the whole of his former life, he had in his late writings and speeches discountenanced and denounced the struggles which a great nation was making to establish its freedom. Burke published a vindication of his course, entitled "An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs," in which he clearly shows that there is nothing in his recent writings or speeches incon- sistent with the political doctrines which had been the guide of his former life.* The truth is, he never had been an advocate of extreme democratic principles ; he had no confidence in any political system based solely upon theoretical ideas of right and adopted without reference to experience or to the existing condition and usages of the people among whom it was sought to be established. He may perhaps with more justice be charged with having urged his views with too great ve- hemence, with an excessive and almost acrimonious zeal. But who shall presume to exactly measure the degree of zeal with which a patriot, who sees, as he believes, his country menaced with imminent and deadly peril, should exert himself in seeking to save her from destruc- tion } It is certain that in regard to personal affi'onts and injuries Burke often, if not always, manifested a magnanimous forbearance ; but in the cause of his country, or in the higher cause of justice and humanity, he displayed a spirit as uncompromising as it was dis- interested and lofty. It cannot, however, be denied that after his health had been broken and his nerves shat- tered by the toils and vexations of a life which was one long battle with the various forms of misgovernment, oppression, and tyranny, he sometimes exhibited an im- patience and irritability which were mortifying to his friends and which seriously impaired his political and personal influence. One rather amusing example of this kind may be cited. A rough country gentleman in the House of Commons, seeing Burke rise with papers in his hand, exclaimed, " I hope the gentleman does not mean to read that large bundle of papers, and bore us with a long speech into the bargain." Burke is said to have felt so much irritation that, incapable of utterance, he ran out of the house. " Never before," said the w^itty Selwyn, " did I see the fable realized, — a lion put to flight by the braying of an ass." His enemies availed themselves of this weak- ness of the great orator, and when they were wholly un- able to answer they often contrived either to reduce him to silence, or to prevent his being heard, by coughing or continual vociferations. This practice was familiarly termed "muzzling the lion." In 1795 Burke received from the king a pension of £\200 per annum on the civil list, and not long after another of ;!^2500 on the West Indian four-and-a-half per cent. fund. These pensions were granted, it is said, at the express desire of the king, no application having been made on the part of Burke or his personal friends. A part of the design in conferring them was to enable Burke to discharge some serious debts incurred in the performance of a long series of unrequited public ser- vices. Nevertheless, his acceptance of this very mode- rate reward for his great services to his country, caused * Coleridge, referring to the speeches made by Burke at the coiji- niencement of the American war, and those made by him at the breaking out of the French Revolution, remarks "that the principles are exactly the same, and the deductions the same; but the practical itiferences almost opposite in the one case from those drawn in the other; yet in both equally legitimate, and in both equally con- firmed by the results. Whence gained he this superiority of foresight?" Coleridge answers, "Burke possessed, and had sedulously sharpened, that eye which sees all things, actions, and events in relation to the laws that determine their existence and circumscribe their possibility. He referred habitually to principles. He was a scientific statesman, and therefore a seer. For every principle contains in itself the germs of a prophecy." (" Biographia Literaria," chap, x.) his conduct to be asspiled from every quarter. Even the dignity of the House of Lords did not save him from attacks upon his character by two of the peers. In reply, he wrote in 1796 his "Letter to a Noble Lord," one of the most successful and popular of all the ])ro- ductions of his pen. Burke died July 9, 1797. His only son, Richard, a man of superior talents and great moral worth, had died in 1794. The grief occasioned by this irreparable loss contributed, there is reason to believe, materially to shorten his father's life. Of Burke, Macaulay says, he was " ignorant, indeed, or negligent of the art of adapting his reasonings and his style to the capacity and taste of his hearers, but in aptitude to comprehension and richness of imagination superior to every orator, ancient or modern." " If we are to praise a man in proportion to his usefulness," says vSchlegel, " I am persuaded that no task can be more difficult than to do justice to the statesman and orator Burke. This man has been to his own country, and to all Europe, a new light of political wisdom and moral experience. He corrected his age when it was at the height of its revo- lutionary frenzy; and, without maintaining any system of philosophy, he seems to have seen farther into the true nature of society, and to have more clearly compre- hended the effect of religion in connecting individual security with national welfare, than any philosopher of any preceding age." "Of all the men who are," says the learned Dr. Parr, " or who ever have been eminent for energy or splendour of eloquence or for skill and grace in composition, there is not one who, in genius or erudition, in philanthropy or piety, or in any of the qualities of a wise and good man, surpasses Burke." Burke's command of language has always been ad- mired. His style is not a inere trick or artifice designed to give dignity to trivial or point to commonplace ideas : it is simply the clothing of great and glowing thoughts in their most natural and appropriate expression. A collected edition of Burke's works and correspondence (8 vols. 8vo). was published in London in 1852. For some excellent observations on Burke as an orator, see the "Quarterly Review" for January and April, 1858, pages 595-98. We select the following passages in re- gard to Burke and his style of oratory. Referring to his speeches on the Stamp Act, the writer remarks : " This was the appropriate start of a man who, whether as a statesman, a thinker, or an orator, was without an equal. Pitt and Fox were great, but Burke belongs to another order of beings, and ranks with the Shakspeares, the Bacons, and the Newtons. . . . Though his style is never stilted, it has a rare majesty both in thought and expression. . . . His language was nervous, his sen- tences polished, his abundant metaphors grand and original. . . . His commonest fault is a monotony of dignity, which wants the relief of passages dressed in a more familiar garb. . . . His innate genius was un- doubtedly wonderful, but he improved it to thb utter- most. . . . The immense labour which he bestowed on all he did was his constant boast. ... By the incessant practice of composition, he learned to embody his con- clusions in a style more grandly beautiful than has ever been reached by any other Englishman, with either the tongue or the pen." But one result of all this labour was that his speeches were far less interesting and effect- ive when heard in the House of Commons than when read in print. It is related that on one occasion " Ers- kine crept under the benches to escape a speech which, when published, he thumbed to rags." See Prior, "Life of Burke," i vol. 8vo; Bisset, " Life of Burke," 2 vols. 8vo ; McCormick, " Memoirs of the Right Hon- ourable E. Burke," 1797; Dr. George Crolv, "Political Life of the Right Honourable Edmund Burke," 2 vols. 8vo, 1840; P. Burke, "The Public and Domestic Life of Edmund Burke," 1S53 ; Lord Jeffrey, "Miscellanies." For a description of Burke's conversa- tional powers, see Miss Burkey's letter to S. Crisp. Burke, (John,) a English genealogist, born in Ire- land in 1786. His chief work is a " Dictionary of the Peerage and Baronetage of the British Empire," (1826.) The twentieth edition was published by his son, Sir Bernard, in 1858. Died in 1848. Burke, (John Doly,) an Irishman, who emigrated to the United States in 1797 and became an editor in Boston. He wrote a "History of Virginia." Died ii Virginia in 1808. a, ^, ., <■, y, .ong: 6, 6, <:ame, less prnlongcd; a. e, T, o, u, y, sliorf: .7., e, i, o. ohsanr; f5r, fill, f^t: m^t; r.ut; good; moot..- BURKE 467 BURNET Burke, (Peter,) an English jurist and writer, son of John Burke, noticed above, published several works on the law of copyright and patents ; also, "The Public and Domestic Lite of Edmund Burke," (1853.) Burke, (William,) an Irish murderer, was a resident of Edinburgh. In 1828 he was convicted of murder, and he confessed that he and his accomplice had murdered fifteen persons, and had sold their bodies to a surgeon. Burkhart von Hohenfels, booRk'haRt fon ho'en- felss, a German minnesinger, born about 1200. See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Bur'kitt. (William,) an English theologian, born at Hitcham in 1650, wrote "Expository Notes on the New Testament," (1739.) Died in 1703. Burlamacchi, booR-li-m^k'kee, (Francesco,) an Italian revolutionist, who, about 1546, conspired against the party of the pope and the emperor Charles V. The plot being revealed by one of the conspirators, Burla- macchi was executed for high treason. See "Foreign Quarterly Review" for Jtily, 1846. Burlamaqui, biiR'lS^mt'ke', (Jean Jacques,) an emi- nent Swiss jurist, born at Geneva in 1694. He was for many years professor of law in his native city, and a member of the Council of State. His chief works are "The Principles of Natural Law," ("Principes du Droit naturel," 1747,) and " Principles of the Law of Nations," ("Principes du Droit politique," 1751,) both of which were translated into English, German, Italian, and Span- ish. Died at Geneva in 1748. See Sexebier, " Histoire litteraire de Geneve;" Ersch iind Gri;ber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Burleigh, Lord. See Cecil. Burleigh or Burley, bur'le, (Walter,) a learned English philosopher and theologian, born in 1275. He was charged with the education of Edward III., who sent him on a mission to Rome in 1327. Died in 1357. See Brucker, " Historj' of Philosophy." BurTeigh, (William H.,) an American poet and abolitionist, born at Woodstock, Connecticut, in 1812. He became a printer and editor of several papers, among which was the "Christian Witness" of Pittsburg. He contributed to "The New Yorker," and published in 1840 a volume of poems which were much admired. He is a brother of Charles Burleigh, an anti-slavery orator. See Grisvvold, "Poets and Poetry of America." Burliiigame, bur'ling-gam, (Anson,) an American diplomatist, born in Chenango county, New York, in 1822. He studied law, which he practised in Boston. He was elected a member of Congress by the Repub- licans of the fifth district of Massachusetts in 1854, in 1856, and again in 1858. He advocated the election of John C. Fremont in several eloquent speeches, (1856.) In 1 861 he was sent as commissioner or minister to China. About the end of 1867 he was appointed am- bassador from. China to the United States and the great powers of Europe. Died in 1870. Burlington, Earl of. See Boyle, (Richard.) BurPton, (Petkr LIenry,) an English geographer, born in 1804... While making scientific researches in India, he was killed by the natives in 1829. Burmann, buR'm3.n, (Franciscus,) a Dutch Protest- ant divine and scholar, born at Leyden about 1628, be- came professor of theology at Utrecht. Died in 1679. Burmann, (Franciscus,) son of the preceding, born in 1671, was professor of divinity at Utrecht. He pub- lished, among other works, a " Harmony of the Evan- gelists," (1713.) Died in 1719. Burmann, (Jan,) son of Francis the younger, born at Amsterdam about 1707, became professor of botany in that city, and published "Thesaurus Zeylonicus," (1737,) and other botanical works. Died in 1780. Burmann, (Kaspar,) a legal writer and historian, nephew of Peter the elder; died in 1755. Burmann, (Nikolaas Laurens,) son of Jan, born at Amsterdam in 1734. He published a " Flora Indica," with sixty-seven plates, (1768,) and other botanical works. Died in 1793. Burmann, (Pieter,) an eminent philologist, brother of Francis the younger, born at Utrecht on the 6th of filly, t668. He became professor of history, eloquence. and the Greek language at Leyden in 171 5, and subse- quently obtained the chair of historv for the United Provinces. Pie published editions of tiorace, Petronius, Ph^edrus, Suetonius, Lucan, Quintilian, Virgil, and other classics, a treatise on "The Revenues of the Romans," ("De Vectigalibus Populi Romani," 1694,) and various other works, which are esteemed for their learning and accuracy. Died in 1741. See Dr. Johnson's Works; Schacht, "Oratio funebris in Obitum P. Burmanni," 1741 ; "Encyclopsedia Britannica." Burmann, (Pieter,) the Younger, nephew of the preceding, born at Amsterdam in 17 13, became pro- fessor of history at Franeker. He published a number of Latin poems, an "Anthology" of the Latin poets, (2 vols., 1759-73,) and several excellent editions of the classics. Died in 1778. Burmeister, booR'mi'ster, (Hermann,) a German naturalist, born at Stralsund in 1807. He became pro- fessor of zoology at Halle in 1842. He published, be- sides other works, a "Manual of Entomology," (4 vols., 1832-44,) a " History of Creation," (1843,) and "The Animals of Brazil," (2 vols., 1854-56.) Burn, (Richard,) LL.D., an Englishman, author of several popular works on law, born in Westmoreland, was many years vicar of Orton. Died in 1 785. Bur'na-by, (Andrew,) an English divine and travel- ler, born in 1732, published " Travels in North America," "Journal of a Tour to Corsica," etc. Died in 1812. Burn'ap, (George Washington,) an American Uni- tarian clergyman, born in Merrimack, New Hampshire, in 1802, graduated at Harvard in 1824. He was ordained pastor of the First Unitarian Church of Baltimore in 1827. He has published several theological and other works. Bur'nel, (Robert,) an English lawyer and bishop, became lord chancellor in 1274. He filled that office for eighteen years, and was the chief adviser of Edward I. He died in 1292. "As a statesman and legislator," says Lord Campbell, "he is worthy of the highest commend- ation." See Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors," vol. i. Burnes, biirnz, (Sir Alexander,) a distinguished Orientalist and traveller, born at Montrose, in Scotland, in 1805, was a relative of the poet Burns. At an early age he became a cadet in the Bombay army. He set out in 1832 on an expedition into Central Asia, which he accomplished in about a year. On his return to Eng- land he published his "Travels into Bokhara," which had an immense sale and was soon translated into French and German. He was a member of the Royal Asiatic Society, and also of the Royal Geographical So- ciety, which awarded to him the gold medal " for the navigation of the Indus, and a journey across Central Asia." Returning to India in 1835, he was sent in 1836 on a mission to Cabul. On the breaking out of the in- surrection in that city in 1841, he was murdered, with several other British residents. See J. B. EvRifes, "Notice sur A. Burnes," Paris, 1842; Cham- bers," Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement ;) J. W. Kaye, " Lives of Indian Officers," vol. ii., London, 1867 ; " Lon- don Quarterly Review" for November, 1834. Bur'net, (Gilbert,) a British historian and prelate of great eminence, born in Edinburgh on the i8th of September, 1643. He became minister of Saltoun in 1665, and professor of divinity at Glasgow in 1669. About 1670 he married a daughter of the Earl of Cassi- lis. Having resigned his professorship in 1674, he re- moved to London. He published in 1679 the first vol- ume of his " History of the Reformation in England," (3 vols., 1679-1715,) for which he received the thanks of Parliament. Charles II. offered him a bishopric on con- dition that he should support the measures of the court ; but he declined the offer. He published a " Life of Sir Matthew Hals" in 1682. Burnet was a person of much influence in public affairs, and contributed greatly to the revolution of 1688 and the succession of William and Mary. He became chaplain to William III. and Bishop of Salisbury in 1689. " The name of Burnet," sa)'s Mac- aulay, " was odious to the great majority of the Anglican priesthood. . . . This distinction he owed to the promi- nent place which he held in literature and politic?, to the readiness of his tongue and of his pen, and above all to tlie e as k; c as g hard;'g2&j; g, h, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. Explanations, p. 23.) BURNET 468 BURNS frankness and boldness of his nature, — frankness which could keep no secret, and boldness which flinched from no danger." The same author adds, "The utmost ma- levolence of faction could not venture to deny that he ser\ed his flock with a zeal, diligence, and disinterested- ness worthy of the purest ages of the church." (" History of England.") He published in 1699 an " Exposition of the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England," which is considered a standard work. His most re- markable work is his " History of his Own Times," (2 vols., 1724-34,) which was severely criticised by Swift, Pope, and other Tories. He was author of an interest- ing tract entitled " Some Passages in the Life and Death of Lord Rochester," (1680.) Died in 171 5. See " Life of Bishop Bumet," by his son Thomas, prefixed to the "History of his Own Times;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" J. Le Clerc, "Life and Character of Bishop Burnet," I^ndon, 1715 ; " London Quarterly Review" for April and July, 1S23; GuizoT, " Monk's Contemporaries." Burnet, (Gilbert,) a son of the preceding, was chap- lain to George I. He wrote some treatises on theology, and died prematurely. Bur''net, (Jacob,) LL.D., an eminent American jurist, born at Newark, New Jersey, in 1770, was one of the first settlers of Cincinnati. He graduated at Princeton College, and afterwards studied law under Judge Bou- dinot. In 1796 he removed to Cincinnati, where he resided for the remainder of his life. He was appointed in 1 82 1 a judge of the supreme court of Ohio, and in 1828 elected to the Senate of the United States. He assisted in founding the Cincinnati College, of which he became the first president, and contributed liberally to the cause of education. He was the author of " Notes on the Early Settlement of the Northwestern Territory." Through the influence of La Fayette, Judge Burnet was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences. Died in 1853. See Livingston's "Portraits of Eminent Americans." Bur'net, (John,) a Scottish engraver, born near Edin- burgh in 1784. Among his best works are prints after Wilkie's "Blind Fiddler," and "Chelsea Pensioners reading the Gazette of the Battle of Waterloo." He has published a " Practical Treatise on Painting," " Rem- brandt and his Works," (1849,) and "Life and Works of J. M. W. Turner," (1852.) The last-named work was written conjointly with Mr. P. Cunningham. Burnet, (Thomas,) an English divine and eloquent writer, born at Croft, in Yorkshire, about 1635. He be- came a Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, in 1657, and was elected master of the Charter-House in 1685. He had the moral courage to offer the first opposition to the dispensing power which James IL usurped. His reputation is founded on a fanciful but well-written work, in Latin, entitled " Telluris Theoria Sacra," (" The Sacred Theory of the Earth," 1680,) which he translated into English, (1684.) This work has little scientific merit ; but it was greatly admired for the beauty of its imagery and its style. He also wrote " On the State of the Dead," ("De Statu Mortuorum," 1727.) Died in 1 71 5. See Brucker, "History of Philosophy." Burnet, (Thomas,) an English theologian, became prebendary of Sarum. He published several works. Died in 1750. Burnet, (Sir Thomas,) an English judge and political writer, was a son of Bishop Burnet. He edited his father's " History of his Own Times," and wrote a travesty of the first book of the "Iliad." In his youth he was dissipated, and was supposed to be one of the "Mohocks" of Addi- son's " Spectator." Died in 1753. Burnet, (William,) a son of Bishop Burnet, was born at the Hague in 1688. He was appointed Governor of New York and New Jersey in 1720, and ruled those provinces with ability for eight years. In 1728 he be- came Governor of Massachusetts. Died in 1729. Bur'nett, (George,) an English writer, published " Letters on the State of Poland," and other works. Died in 1811. Burnett, (Gilbert Thomas,) an English naturalist, born in London in 1800, became professor of medical botany at King's College, London. He wrote "Outlines of Botany," (1833,) and was a contributor to the "Jour- nal of Science and Art," and other periodicals. Died in 1835. Burnett, (James.) See Monboddo. Bur'nett, (John,) a Scottish advocate and legal wri- ter, born in 1765, became judge-admiral of Scotland in 1 810. He died ihe same year. Bur'nett, (Waldo Irving,) M.D., an American nat- uralist and microscopist, born at Southborough, Massa- chusetts, in 1828. He visited Europe about 1850. He contributed to the "American Journal of Science," and other periodicals. Among his works is an " Essay on the Cell : its Physiology, Pathology," etc. Died at Bos- ton in 1854. Bur'ney, (Charles,) a musical composer and doctor of music, born at Shrewsbury in 1726. His talents and worth procured him the respect and friendship of several of the principal wits of that age, — among others, Dr. Johnson and Burke. In 1773 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. His " General History of Music," completed in 1789, is highly esteemed. Died in 1814. See " Memoirsof Dr. Barney," by his daughter, Madame D'Ar- BLAv; Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Burney, (Charles,) a distinguished Greek scholar, second son of the preceding, born at Lynn in 1757; died in 1817. See "Edinburgh Review" for May, 1811. Burney, (Frances.) See D'Arblay, Madame. Burney, (James,) the eldest son of Dr. Burney the musical composer, born about 1745, entered the naval service at an early age, and accompanied Cook in his last two voyages. He became rear-admiral, and died in 1821. Besides other works, he wrote a valuable "His- tory of Voyages of Discovery in the Southern Ocean," (5 vols., 1804-16.) Burney, (William,) master of the Royal (Naval) Academy of Gosport, and author of " Lives of the Na- val Heroes of Great Britain," born in 1762 ; died in 1832, Burnouf, biiR'noof, written also Bournouf, (Eu gene,) a distinguished French Orientalist, son of Jeai\ Louis, noticed below, born in Paris in 1801. He became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1832, and the same year succeeded De Chezy as professor of San- scrit in the College of France. Among his principal works are "Commentaries on the Ya9na, one of the Liturgic Books of Persia," and " Introduction to the His- tory of Booddhism," (1845.) He died in 1852, having previously been appointed perpetual secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions. See Charles Lenormant, " Eugene Burnouf," 1852; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Burnouf, (Jean Louis,) a French philologist, born at Urville in 1775. He was appointed, in 181 7, professor of Latin eloquence in the College of France. He pub- lished a "Method of Studying the Greek Language," (1814,) a translation of the complete works of Tacitus, and of Cicero's "De Officiis." He was a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and librarian of the uni- versity. Died in 1844. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Burns, (John,) an eminent Scottish medical writer, born in Glasgow in 1775. He became regius professor of surgery in the University of Glasgow in 181 5. His chief work is "Principles of Midwifery," (loth edition, 1843,) which obtained great success. He also published "Principles of Surgery," (2 vols., 1828-38,) and "Prin- ciples of Christian Philosophy," (6th edition, 1846.) He perished in the wreck of the Orion in 1850. Burns, (Robert,) a celebrated Scottish poet, born near the town of Ayr, January 25, 1759. His father, William Burness, (or Burnes — for the name was variously written,) was the son of a farmer, and "was thrown," says the poet, in one of his letters, "by early misfortunes, on the world at large, where, after many years' wanderings and sojournings, he picked up a pretty large quantity of observation and experience, to which I am indel^ted for most of my little pretensions to wisdom." In early life Burns's father had followed the profession of a gardener ; but afterwards he took a lease of a small farm of seven acres, in order to set himself up in the nursery business, and built with his own hands the dwelling in which the a. e. T. 5, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6. u, y, shoj-t; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; mit; n6t; good; moon; BURNS 469 BURNS poet was born. Although his life appears to have been one long struggle with adversity, William Burness spared no pains that he might give his children a good educa- tion. He sent them to school as he had opportunity, and sometimes in the evening, after the day's work was done, assisted their studies himself. "I owed much," says the poet, "to an old woman who resided in the family. . . . She had, I suppose, the largest collection in the country of tales and songs concerning devils, ghosts, fairies, brownies, witches, warlocks, . . . en- chanted towers, dragons, and other trumpery. This cul- tivated the latent seeds of poetry." Robert was the eldest son : he possessed, with a strong intellect and acute sensibilities, a robust and active body, so that when he was only fifteen he is said to have done the work of a man. He was early familiarized with those hardships and sufferings to which the poor are so often subject, and which he has occasionally touched upon in his poems with such pathos and power. In the letter already referred to, he says, " My father's generous mas- ter died, the farm proved a ruinous bargain, and, to clench the misfortune, we fell into the hands of a factor, who sat for the picture I have drawn of one in my 'Tale of Tvva Dogs.' My father was advanced in life when he married; I was the eldest of seven children; and he, worn out by early hardships, was unfit for labour. . . . We lived very poorly. 1 was a dexterous ploughman for my age, and the next eldest to me was a brother, (Gil- bert,) who could drive the plough very well and help me to thrash the corn. A novel-writer might perhaps have viewed these scenes with some satisfaction ; but so did not I : my indignation yet boils at the recollection of the factor's insolent, threatening letters, which used to set us all in tears." In a very interesting and touching account which he wrote of their early troubles, his brother Gil- bert says, I doubt not but the hard labour and sorrow of this period of his life was in a great measure the cause of that depression of spirits with which Robert was so often aftlicted through his whole life afterwards." When the poet was about fifteen, his father gave up his farm near Ayr, and removed to the parish of Tarbolton. A little before Burns had reached his sixteenth year, he "first committed," he says, "the sin of rhyme." In his case, as in that of Sappho, " it was Love that taught [him] Song." A "bonnie sweet sonsie lass" had been assigned as his partner in the labours of the harvest-field, (it was the custom to join a male with a female partner on such occasions.) She sang sweetly, and " the tones of her voice made his heart-strings thrill like an ^olian harp." Her singing first put into his head the idea of writing songs. Somewhat later, he went to a noted school at a distance from home, to learn mensuratior., surveying, etc., where he appears to have made good progress in his studies, until a charming young girl, who lived near by, " overset his trigonometry, and set him off at a tangent from the sphere of his studies. It was," he says, "in vain to think of doing any more good at school." This irre- sistible attraction towards what he terms "the adorable half of the human species" seemed destined to exert a constant and controlling influence upon his life. To use his own words, " My heart was completely tinder, and was eternally lighted up by some goddess or other." The fame which he had acquired by his verses, added to his rare conversational powers, caused his company to be eagerly sought in the social gatherings of the vicinity ; and the promiscuous society into which he was thus thrown appears to have laid the foundation of the irregu- larities and dissipation which unhappily marked the lat- ter part of his life. In his early youth, as he tells us, he regarded illicit love with horror ; but through the in- fluence of some of his new acquaintance his delicacy of feeling on this subject gradually wore away, and before he had reached his twenty-fourth year we find him speaking of his own unlawful amours lightly and almost boastfully. He had recently been initiated into the mys- teries of free-masonry. He was introduced to the lodge at Tarbolton by John Rankin, who, according to I^ock- hart, was "a very dissipated man, with considerable tal- ents,'' and who appears to have exerted a most unfavour- -ible influence on the moral character of the poet. Burns afterwards addressed to him a poetical epistle. Burns's father was a worthy and sincerely pious man. In a beautiful tribute to his memory, the poet speaks of him as "The tender father and the generous friend ; The pitying heart that felt for human woe ; The dauntless heart that feared no human pride ; The friend of man, to vice alone a foe ; ' For even liis failings leaned to virtue's side.' " There is reason to believe that these noble lines ire not chargeable with any of the proverbial falsity of epi- taphs. But, unhappily, at the time above referred to, Burns's character was but too truly expressed by those words of the Roman poet, " Video meliora proboque, deteriora sequor."* In proportion as he rejected the restraints of morality, he appears to have cast off his reverence for religion. " Polemical divinity," says he, " about this time was putting the country half mad ;" and he appears to have been ambitious to show that, while in argument he was not inferior, in wit he was greatly superior, to most of those whom he encountered. He was one day seen "at the door of a public house, holding forth on religious topics to a whole crowd of country-people, who presently became so shocked with his levities that they fairly hissed him from the ground." (See Lockhart's "Life," page 68.) While in this contro- versial spirit, he wrote two satirical pieces which excited no little commotion in that part of Scotland, being as much applauded by one party or class as they were con- demned by the other. These were "The Twa Herds," (or "The Holy Tulzie,") and " Holy Willie's Prayer." Of the latter, Scott speaks as "a piece of satire more ex- quisitely severe than any which Burns ever afterwards wrote, but, unfortunately, cast in a form too daringly profane to be received into Dr. Currie's collection." About the year 1785, Burns formed a liaison (which was, as some writers tell us, according to the usage then prevailing in Scotland, a virtual marriage) with a young woman named Jean Armour, somewhat above his own rank in life. She bore him twins. He had previously given her a written acknowledgment of marriage ; but this did not appease the anger of her father, as Burns was then wholly unable to support a family. It was his purpose to quit Scotland and seek his fortune in Jamaica. " But, before leaving my native country forever," he says, "I resolved to publish my poems. I weighed my productions as impartially as was in my power. I thought they had merit ; and it was a delicious idea that I should be called a clever fellow, even though it should never reach my ears. ... I can truly say that, panz'7'e inconuji as I then was, I had pretty nearly as high an idea of myself and of my works as I have at this moment, when the public has decided in their favour." The poems were accordingly published, and were so favourably re- ceived that, after all expenses had been paid, he cleared about twenty pounds. The success of his first experi- ment as an author, and the encouragement which he received from some who were not unknown in the world of letters, produced an entire change in his plans ; and, instead of going to America, he resolved at once to visit Edinburgh and make the acquaintance of the distin- guished men of letters of that city. He was soon intro- duced to the notice of Dugald Stewart, Dr. Hugh Blair, and many others, eminent in rank and fashion as well as in literature. "The attentions he received," says Stew- art, "from all ranks and descriptions of persons, were such as would have turned any head but his own." Scc»tt has left us an extremely interesting account of Bui ns's appearance at this time, which seems to have made a vivid and deep impression on his youthful mind. " His person was strong and robust, his manners rustic, not clownish, with a sort of dignified plainness and simpli- city which received part of its effect, perhaps, from one's knowledge of his extraordinary talents. . . . There was a strong expression of sense and shrewdness in all l\is lineaments. The eye alone, I think, indicated the poeti- * " I see the better course and approve it, but I pursue the worse." One can scarcely doubt that he felt at times all the force of those lines in his admirable " Epistle to a Young Friend:" " But ne'er with wits profane to range Be complaisance extended: A n atheisCs laugh 'j a poor excha7tge For Deity offended.'''' € as k; 5 as .r,- g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BURNS 470 BURONZO cal character and temperament. It was large and of a dark cast, which glowed — I say literally glowed — when he spoke with feeling or interest. 1 never saw such another eye in a human head, though I have seen the most distinguished men of my time. conversation expressed perfect self-confidence, without the slightest presumption." Among the persons of rank who showed him marked favour, the most prominent was Lord Glencairn, whose kindness the poet ever remembered with the deepest gratitude, and to whose memory he has dedicated one of the most beautiful and touching of all his produc- tions, — the "Lament for James, Earl of Glencairn." Under the patronage of the distinguished men whose acqua'.itance he had made in Edinburgh, he brought out, about the close of 1787, a new edition of his poems, from which he is said to have realized more than five hundred pounds. But, unfortunately, the intoxication of fame, and the continual excitement of his Edinburgh life, furnished a fresh temptation to those irregularities which began some years before. In 1788 he openly declared his marriage with Miss Armour, and soon after was ap- pointed officer of the excise, with a salary of but fifty pounds a year : it was afterwards increased to seventy pounds. In 1791 he removed to Dumfries, where he spent the remainder of his life. His intemperate habits, aggravated by pecuniary distresses, gained more and more the ascendency over him, but not to the extent, as has sometimes been asserted, of rendering him inca- pable of discharging the duties of his office. One* who knew him well during the latter period of his life, in re- futing the charge against him of " habitual drunkenness," says, " He superintended the education of his children with a degree of care that I have never seen surpassed by any parent in any rank of life whatever." Burns died on the 21st of July, 1796. His funeral was attended by many thousand persons, including those of every rank and condition, some of whom came from a great distance. Nearly twenty years after the poet's death, a costly mausoleum was erected in the church- yard at Dumfries, whither the remains were transferred, June 5, 1 81 5. The most striking characteristics of Burns's poetry are simplicity and intensity, — an intensity not limited to feel- ing or passion merely, but belonging equally to his ima- gination and his thoughts, — in which qualities he is scarcely, if at all, inferior to any of the greatest poets that have ever lived. Some of his expressions are like brilliant flashes of light: in an instant the thought or sentiment is impressed upon the mind, never to be for- gotten. His power of concentration is perfectly marvel- lous. In two short lines — "The rank is but the guinea stamp, The man's the gowd for a' that," — he says more than many able men could do in an elabo- rate essay. His "Tam o' Shanter," as has been well observed, is truly an epic, and one of a high order. As an amatory poet, Burns has no equal among British bards ; *' For love's own strain to him was given, 'I'o warble all its ecstasies. In Pythian words, unsought, unwilled. "t He appears, however, through some peculiarity either of his genius or his temperament, to have been disin- clined to undertake any extended poem or other work of imagination. " His poetical temperament," says Camp- bell, ''was that of fitful transports rather than steady inspiration." But this peculiarity may have been at least as much the result of habit, confirmed, if not induced, by the necessities of his outward life, as of the original cast of his mind. Had his education and external circumstances been different, his genius might perhaps have taken another form, and shown itself no less capable of lofty and sustained flights of imagination than it was of bril- liant sallies of wit or of the inimitable expression of pas- sion or sorrow. With his rare insight into the human heart, his intensity of feeling and vividness of imagination, combined with wit and humour as varied as they were exquisite, we can scarcely doubt that had his inclination * The Rev. James Gray. (See Lockhart's " Life," pp. 334-338.) t Campbell's "Ode to the Memory of Burns." and habits of thought led him to attempt some longer work, whether a drama or aii epic, he might have written something not unworthy of a place among the world-re- nowned productions of immortal genius, such as Goethe's "Faust" or Cervantes' ^'Don Quixote." "In the inim' itable tale of 'Tarn o' Shanter,' " says Scott, "he has lef us sufficient evidence of his abilities to combine the ludi crous with the awful and even the horrible. No poet, except Shakspeare, ever possessed the power of exciting the most varied and discordant emotions with such rapid transitions.'^* Respecting Burns's moral character little need be added to what is revealed by his life. He had at least the merit .of not seeking to defend or excuse his own faults, though he has occasionally suggested palliations, as when he says, " What's done we partly may compute, But not what is resisted." His sins were rarely if ever the result of "malice afore- thought ;" and the manner in which he sometimes alludes to them is as fiill of instruction as of pathos. He could not, indeed, as has been justly observed, have so pathetic- ally enforced the truth of some of his moral lessons had he not preached from the text of his own errors. See LocKHART, "Life of Burns," i vol. 8vo, 1828; Curkih, "Life," prefixed to Burns'.s "Correspondence;" A. Cunningham, "Life and Land of Robert Burns," 1840; Alexander Peterkin, "Review of the Life of Robert Burns;" John Wilson, "Genius and Character of Robert Burns," 1S45; S. Tyler, "Robert Burns as a Poet and a Man," 1848; R. Ch.ambers, "Life and Times of Robert Burns;" Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets;" Carlyle, "Miscellanies," article "Burns;" Jeffrey, "Miscellanies." See, also, Fitz-Greene Halleck's beautiful lines on Burns. Burns, (William W.,) an American general, born in Ohio about 1826, graduated at West Point in 1847. became a brigadier-general of volunteers about Septem- ber, 1 86 1. He served in several battles near Richmond, June, 1862. Burn'side, (Ambrose Everett,) an American gene- ral, born at Liberty, Union county, Indiana, in 1824, graduated at West Point in 1847. ^e obtained the rank of first lieutenant, which he resigned about 1853. He became a colonel of volunteers early in 1861, commanded a brigade at Bull Run, July 21, and was appointed a brigadier-general in August. He directed the expedition which, moving by sea and aided by a large naval force, captured Roanoke Island in February, 1862. He took Newbern in the next month, and was promoted to the rank of major-general. In July, 1862, he moved his army to the James River to reinforce that of General McClellan. He commanded a corps at the battle of South Mountain, September 14, and at that of Antietam, — where he distinguished himself, — September 16, 1862. On the 7th of November he succeeded General McClel- lan as commander of the army of the Potomac. On the 13th of December he crossed the Rappahannock and attacked Lee's army, which held a strong and fortified position near Fredericksburg. He was repulsed with a loss of 10,243 killed and wounded, and during the night of the 14th retired to the left bank of the river. At his own request, he was relieved of the command on the 26th of January, 1863. In March or April of that year he took command of the department of the Ohio. Mov- ing through Kentucky, via Mount Vernon and London, into East Tennessee, he occupied Knoxville about the 2d of September. He defended Knoxville with success against (general Longstreet, who besieged it in Novem- ber, 1863. In April, 1864, he obtained command of the ninth corps, which fought under General Grant at the battles of the Wilderness, May 5, 6, of Spottsylvania Court-House, May 9-11, and of Cold Harbour, June 3. He was elected Governor of Rhode Island in 1865, and re-elected several times. Burons. See Borron. Buronzo del Signore, boo-ron'zo dll s^n-yo'ri, (Carlo Luigi,) a learned Italian prelate, born at Ver- celli in 1731, became Bishop of Turin in 1797. He dis- covered a manuscript of the works of Bishop Acto or Atto, " Attonis Vercellensis Ecclesias Episcopi Opera," which he published in 1768. Died in 1806. * "Quaj'terly Review," No. i. a, e. T, 6, u, y, long; ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, vi, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, f^t; m^t; n6t; good; moon; BURR 471 BURTON Burr, (Aaron,) an American theologian, born at Fair- field, Connecticut, in 1715, was a son-in-law of the cele- brated Jonathan Edwards. He became in 1748 president of the College of New Jersey, which was removed about 1756 from Newark to Princeton. Died in 1757. Burr, (Aaron,) an American politician, son of the pre- ceding, and a grandson of the great Jonathan Edwards, was born at Newark, New Jersey, in February, 1756. He graduated at Princeton in 1772, entered the army in 1775, ^"<^ served in the expedition against Quebec. Earlj in 1776 he was raised to the rank of major, and in July, 1777, he became lieutenant-colonel. He resigned his commission in March, 1779, studied law, was admit- te-i to the bar in 1782, and practised with great success ii. the city of New York. He was a very adroit, plau- sible, and insinuating speaker. In 1782 he married a widow named Mrs. Prevost. Having become an active Democrat, he was appointed attorney-general of New York State in 1789, and elected to the Senate of the United States in 1791. In iSoo, Jefferson and Burr were the Democratic candidates for the offices of President and Vice-President, and received an equal number of votes. The election consequently devolved on the House of Representatives, which, after a long and exciting contest, decided that Jefferson should be President and Burr Vice-President. By his effort to supplant Jefferson in this election he lost the favour of the Democrats. In 1804 he presented himself as candidate for the office of Governor of New York, but he was defeated, partly by the agency of General Hamilton, whom with slight provoca- tion he challenged and killed in a duel in July, 1804. This act excited such a storm of popular indignation that he found it expedient to absent himself from the State. After he retired from the Vice-Presidency in 1805 he was suspected of a design to conduct a hostile expedition against Mexico, with the view of establishing a govern- ment there which should also include the southwestern part of the United States. He was arrested on a charge of treason, tried at Richmond, Virginia, in 1807, and ac- quitted. In 1808 he went to Europe, where he passed several years in poverty. He resumed the practice of law in New York in 181 2, but could not recover his former standing. Died in 1836. See Parton, "Life and Times of Aaron Burr," 1858; M. L. Davis, "Life of Aaron Burr," 2 vols., 1836-37. Bur'rhus, (Afranius,) the commander of the prae- torian cohorts, on the death of the Roman emperor Claudius, caused Nero to be proclaimed his successor. He at first restrained, but afterwards yielded to, the sanguinary tendencies of the new emperor. Died A.D. 62. Burriel, boor-re-IK, (Andr^;s Marcos,) a Spanish Jesuit and historian, born in 1719. He published, among other works, a " History of California, and its Temporal and Spiritual Conquest." Died in 1762. See Ersch imd Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Bur'rill, (James,) an American Senator and lawyer, born in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1772. He became chief justice of his native State in 1 816, and a Senator of the United States in 181 7. He opposed the Missouri Compromise and the admission of Missouri as a slave State. Died in 1820. Bur'ritt, (Elihu,) an American reformer and linguist, called "the Learned Blacksmith," was born in New Brit- ain, Connecticut, in 181 1. He was apprenticed to a blacksmith about 1827, and worked at that trade many years, during which he learned, in the intervals of labour, numerous ancient and modern languages. As a public lecturer he advocated temperance and other reforms. He published "Sparks from the Anvil," (1848,) and "Thoughts on Things at Home and Abroad," (1854.) Burrough, bur'ro, (Edward,) an English minister of the Society of Friends, was born near Kendal in 1634. He was convinced by George Fox in 1652, began to preach in London in 1654, and published, besides other works, a " Message to the Present Rulers of luigland," (1659,) and "The Trumpet of the Lord sounded out of Zion." He also wrote many epistles. In the spring of 1662 he was committed to Newgate prison, where he died in the last month of that year. See " Friends' Library," vol. xiv. Burrough, (Stephen,) an English navigator, made a voyage to the Arctic regions in 1556, of which he wrote an account. See Hakluyt, "Voyages and Discoveries." Burroughes, bur'roz, (Jeremiah,) an English Puritan minister, born in 1599, preached in London. He wrote several works, which were highly esteemed. Died in 1646, Bur^'roughs, written also Boroughs, (Sir John,) an Englishman, who wrote "The Sovereignty of the BriSsh Seas proved by Records." Died in 1643. Bur^roughs, (George,) an early New England divine, was executed at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1692, for witch- craft. Bur'row, (Sir James,) an eminent English lawyer; died in 1782. He published "Reports," (5th ed., =5 vols. 1812.) Burrow, (Reuben,) an English mathematician, born in Yorkshire, was appointed professor of mathematics at Calcutta in 1782. He died in 1791, leaving a " Treat- ise on Projectiles," and other works. Bur'rows, (George Mann,) an English physician, of London. He published about 1828 "Commentaries on the Causes, Forms, Symptoms, and Treatment of Insanity." See "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1821. Bur'rows, (William,) an American naval officer, with the rank of lieutenant, born near Philadelphia about 1784. As commander of the brig Enterprise, he cap- tured the British brig Boxer in September, 1 8 13. He was killed in this action. Burser, booR^ser, (Joachim,) a German physician and botanist, born in Lusatia in 1593. He wrote several botanical works, in Latin. The name of Bursera has been given to a genus of terebinths. Died in 16S9. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Bur'ton, (Asa,) D.D., pastor of the church in Thet- ford, Vermont, born at Preston, (now Griswold,) Connec- ticut, in 1752 ; died in 1836. Bur'ton, (Cassibelan,) an English poet, a son of William "the antiquary, born in 1609. He made a trans- lation of Martial into English verse. Died in 1681. Burton, (Edward,) D.D., an English divine, born in 1794, became in 1829 royal professor of divinity at Ox- ford. He published a " Greek Testament with English Notes," (1831,) and other works. Died in 1836. Burton, (Henry,) an English theologian and dis- senter, born in Yorkshire in 1579. He published in 1626 two sermons, for which he was punished with the pillory, the loss of his ears, and an imprisonment of fourteen years. Among his works is "The Baiting of the Pope's Bull," (1627.) Died in 1648. See "Narration of the Life of H. Burton," 1648. Burton, (John,) an English philologist and divine, born in Devonshire in 1696, became professor of Greek at Oxford. He published " Opuscula Miscellanea theo- logica," (2 vols., 1771.) Died in 1771. Burton, (John,) an English physician and antiquary, born in Yorkshire in 1697, published "The Life and Writings of Boerhaave," (1743,) and other works. Died in 1771. Bur'ton, (John Hill,) a Scottish advocate and mis- cellaneous writer, born at Aberdeen in 1809, has pub- lished " Benthamianas, or Extracts from the Works of Jeremy Bentham," "Life and Correspondence of David Hume," (1846,) "The History of Scotland from the Revolution to the Extinction of the Jacobite Insurrec- tion," (1853,) and "History of Scotland from Agri- cola's Invasion to the Revolution of 1688," (1867.) See " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1867. Burton, (Richard Francis,) a celebrated English traveller, born about 1821, published " Sindh, or the Un- happy Valley," (2 vols., 1852.) Under the auspices of the Geographical Society of London, he explored Arabia in 1853, and published a "Personal Narrative of a Pil- grimage to El Medinah and Meccah," (3 vols., 1856,) "The Lake Regions of Central Africa," (i860,) "Abeo- kuta and the Cameroon Mountains," (1863,) and "The Highlands of Brazil," (2 vols., 1869.) He has received for his services to science the gold medals of the English and French Geographical Societies. See "British Quarterly Review" for October, i860; "Edinburgh Review" for October, i860; " Eraser's Magazine" for September, 1855. £ as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, VL,guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (g^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BURTON 472 BUSHNELL Burton, (Robert,) an English philosopher and hu- morist, born at Lindley, Leicestershire, in 1576, was educated at Oxford. He became vicar of Saint Thomas, Oxford, in 16 16, and published in 1621 his famous work " The Anatomy of Melancholy : what it is, with ail the Kinds, Causes, Symptoms, Prognostics, and several Cures of it : Philosophically, Medicinally, Historically opened and cut up. By Democritus Junior." He com- posed this book to cure himself of melancholy. Lord Byron pronounced it " the most amusing and instructive medley of quotations and classical anecdotes I ever perused." Dr. Johnson expressed the following opinion : " There is great spirit and great power in what Burton says, when he writes from his own mind." (Boswell's "Life of Johnson.") Burton obtained the living of Se- grave about 1630. Died in January, 1639 or 1640. See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for September, 1861. Burton, (William,) a brother of the preceding, born in 1575, wrote, among other works, a "Description of Leicestershire, with its Antiquities." Died in 1645. Burton, (William,) an English scholar, born about 1609, taught school at Kingston-upon-Thames, and pub- lished " Graecae Linguae Historia," (1657.) Died in 1657. Burton, (William Evans,) a popular English come- dian and dramatist, born in London in 1804. He resided in the United States after 1834, and was manager of several theatres in New York and Philadelphia. He published a " Cyclopaedia of Wit and Humour," (2 vols., 1858.) Died about i860. Bury, b§r're, (Arthur,) an English theologian, was principal of Exeter College in the reign of William HL His work, entitled "The Naked Gospel," was publicly burned in 1690, and the author deprived of his office. Bury, (Lady Charlotte Campbell,) a British novel- ist, born in 1775, was a sister of the Marquis of Lorn. She patronized Sir Walter Scott when he was young. Among her works are " The Devoted," and " Flirtation." Died in 1861, See "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1838. Bury, (Elizabeth,) an English scholar, noted for her knowledge of Hebrew, was born in Cambridgeshire in 1644. Died in 1720. See a " Life of E. Bury," by her husband, Samuel Bury. Bury, de, deh bii're', (Richard,) a French historian, born in Paris in 1730. He wrote, besides other works, " i'he Heroic and Private Life of Henry IV. of France," (2 vols., 1765.) Died in 1794. Bury, de, (Richard.) See Richard de Bury. Bus. See Bos. Bus, dcdehbiis, (C^sar,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Cavaillon in 1544, founded in 1592 tlie Congregation .)f Christian Doctrine. Died in 1607. See J. DE Beauvais, "Vie de Cesar de Bus," 1645 ; Pierre Du- mas, "Vie du venerable C. de Bus," 1703. Busbecq, bus'b^k orbiis'b^k', Bousbecq, or Boes- bec, boos'bgk, (Augier Ghislen,) [Lat. Auge'rius Ghisle'nius Busbe'quius,] an eminent Flemish scholar and traveller, born at Commines in 1522, was sent by the emperor Ferdinand as ambassador to Solyman H. He afterwards wrote, in Latin, an interesting narrative of his sojourn at the court of the Sultan, " Legationis Turcicae Epistolae quatuor," (1589,) which is replete with valuable information of various kinds. Besides the above work, he wrote " Letters from France to the Emperor Rudolph." Died in 1592. See SwKERT, "Athenae Belgics ;" "Retrospective Review," vol. xiii., 1826; J. G. EcK, "Dissertatio de A. G. Busbequio," 1768; Ni- CKRON, "Memoires." Bus'by, (Dr. Richard,) born in Lincolnshire, Eng- land, in 1606, became master of Westminster School in 1640, and in the fifty-five years during which he held that station he is said to have educated a greater num- ber of distinguished men than any other teacher that ever lived. He died in 1695. Though a very severe disciplinarian, he was kind-hearted and eminently chari- table to the poor.* See Wooi>, "Athense Oxonienses;" " BiographiaBritannica." * "Yet he was kind; or, if severe in aught, The love he bore to learning was in fault." Goldsmith's " Deserted Village." Busby, (Thomas,) an English musician and writer, born at Westminster in 1755, became organist at the church of Saint Mary Wolnoth. He published a " History of Music," a musical dictionary, "The Age of Genius," a poem, and made a translation of Lucretius. Died in 1838. See "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1814. Busch, boosh, or Busel, boo'zel, ( August Ludwig,) a German astronomer, born at Dantzic in 1804. He was the assistant of Bessel, whom he succeeded as director of the observatory at Konigsberg in 1846. Died in 1855. Busche, von dem, fon dam bdosh'eh, [Lat. Bus'- CHius,J (Hermann,) a learned German friend of Luther, born in 1468; died in 1534. Buschetto, boos-kefto, surnamed da Dulichio, (dJ doo-lee'ke-o,) from the place of his birth, a Greek architect and sculptor, built the famous cathedral church of Pisa, which was commenced about 1063. See Quatremere dr Quincy, "Vies des Architectes celebres." Biisching, bii'shiag, (Anton Friedrich,) an eminent German geographer and theologian, born in Schaum- burg-Lippe in 1 724. He became professor of philosophy at Gottingen in 1759, and in 1761 was invited to Saint Petersburg as preacher to the Protestant congregation. His "Description of the Earth" (1754) was esteemed the most complete work of the kind that had then ap- peared, and was translated into the principal languages of Europe. He also published a " Magazine for History and Geography," "Biographies of Celebrated Persons," and a " History of the Lutheran Churches in Poland and Russia," (3 vols., 1784-87.) Died in 1793. See his Autobiography, entitled "A. F. Buschings Lebensge- schichte," 1789. Biisching, (Johann Gustav Gottlieb,) son of the preceding, born at Berlin in 1783. He was appointed royal archivist at Breslau in 181 1, and professor of archae- ology in 1823. He published many works on German literature, art, and mediaeval antiquities. Died in 1829. Busel. See Busch. Busembaum. See Busenbaum. Busenbaum, boo'zen-bowm', or Busembaum, boo'- zem-bown/, (Hermann,) a famous German Jesuit, born at Nottelen, in Westphalia, in 1600. His work entitled "Marrow of Moral Theology" ("Medulla Theologiae Moralis," 1645) went through more than fifty editions; but it was condemned to be burnt, by the parliaments of Paris and Toulouse, for countenancing regicide. Died in 1668. Bush, (George,) an American theologian and biblical scholar, born in Norwich, Vermont, in 1796. He grad- uated at Dartmouth in 181 8, and was appointed in 183 1 professor of Hebrew and Oriental literature in the Uni- versity of New York. In 1832 he published his "Life of Mohammed," and about the same time an elaborate "Treatise on the Millennium," in which he maintained the millennium to have been the period in which Chris- tianity triumphed over Roman paganism. In 1835 ap- peared his "Hebrew Grammar," in 1836 "Illustrations of the Holy Scriptures," and in 1840 he began his series of " Bible Commentaries," in 8 vols. In 1847 he embraced the doctrines of Swedenborg. He edited the " New Church Repository," and officiated as Swedenborgian minister until within a few months of his death in i860. See Griswold, "Prose Writers of America." Bushe, boosh, (Sir Charles Kendal,) an eloquent Irish lawyer and judge, born about 1767, was a member of the Irish Parliament. He became chief justice of Ireland in 1822. Died in 1843. See Brougham, "Statesmen of the Time of George IIL," Third Series. Bush'el, (Thomas,) an English royalist, born in 1594, was master of the royal mines in Wales, and published several works. Died in 1674. Bushnell, bdosh'nel, (David,) an American inventor, born in Saybrook, Connecticut, about 1742, became a captain in the army. He prepared explosive machines which he placed in kegs, that they might be carried by the tide against the British ships in the Delaware. This affair occasioned Hopkinson's ballad of "The Battle of the Kegs." Died in 1826. See Henry Howe, " Lives of Eminent American Mechanics, etc.," 1847. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; BUSH NELL 473 BUTLER Bushnell, (Horace,) D.D., an eminent American divine, born in Litchfield county, Connecticut, in 1802. He graduated at Yale College in 1827, and was after- wards fo some time literary editor of the New York "Journal of Commerce." In 1833 he was ordained pas- tor of the North Congregational Church in Hartford. Dr. Bushnell has long been regarded as one of the most eloquent preachers and accomplished writers in Con- necticut. He has published several volumes, and a great number of discourses and addresses on various subjects, chiefly philosophical and theological, including the " Moral Tendencies and Results of Human History," Unconscious Influence," " Politics the Law of God," "The Age of Homespun," etc. In 1849 he was sum- moned before the Hartford Central Association of Min- isters for the heretical opinions alleged to be contained in his volume entitled " God in Christ." The charge was not sustained ; and in reply Dr. Bushnell published (1851) his " Christian Theology," in which he reviews the various shades of belief that have prevailed in the Church, and arrives at the conclusion that exactness in theological science cannot be attained. In 1858 appeared his most important work, "Nature and the Supernatural as to- gether constituting the One System of God." Biisiri. See Booseeree. Bu-si'ris, [Gr. BovotpLc,] in ancient mythology, a king of Egypt, and son of Neptune, who sacrificed to Jupiter all the foreigners who entered his dominions. He was killed by Hercules. See P. Ekermann, "Dissertatio de Busiride," Upsal, 1743. Busleyden, biis-li'den, [Lat. Buslid'ius,] (Jerome,) a distinguished patron of literature, and friend of Eras- mus, born in the province of Luxemburg about 1470 ; died in 1517. Buslidius, the Latin of Busleyden, which see. Buss, boos, (Franz Joseph,) a German jurist, born at Zell in 1803, was professor of law and political ecouomy at Freiburg in 1836. He published "The Methodology of Canon Law," and other works. Bussey, biiz'ze, (Benjamin,) a wealthy merchant of Boston, born at Canton, Massachusetts, in 1757. He be- queathed a large sum to Harvard College. Died in 1842. Bussieres, de, deh bii'se'aiR', a French writer and poet, born near Lyons in 1607 ; died in 1678. Bussola, boos'so-ld, (Dionigi,) a Milanese sculptor, flourished about 1600-30. Busson, bii^s^N', (J u lien,) a French physician, born in Brittany in 1717; died in 1781. Bussone. See Carmagnola. Bussy, bii'se', (Antoine Alexandre Brutus,) a French ph3'sician and scientific writer, born at Marseilles in 1794, made several discoveries in chemistry. In 1850 he was admitted into the Institute. Bussy d'Amboise, de, dehbii'se' dhs'hw^z' , (Louis DE Clermont,) a French nobleman of the time of Henry III., signalized himself by his cruelty during the Massa- cre of Saint Bartholomew. He was at length murdered by the Count of Montsoreau, whose wife he had seduced. His adventures form the subject of Dumas' romance "La Dame de Montsoreau." See De Thou, " Histoire Universelle." Bussy-Rabutin, de, deh bii'se' rfbii^'tiN', (Roger,) Comte, a French satirist, born in Nivernais in 1618. He published " Memoirs" and " Letters," and a work entitled "Amorous History of the Gauls." He was im- prisoned a year in the Bastille, and subsequently exiled to his country-seat sixteen years, for writing a satire on Louis XIV. Died in 1693. See Le Bret, "Memoires secrets de Bussy-Rabutin," 1767. Bustamante de la Camara, boos-t^-mSn'ta dk la ki'mi-ri, (Juan,) a Spanish naturalist, born at Alcala de Henares. He wrote a work on the animals mentioned in the Scriptures, (2 vols., 1595.) Bustamente, boos ta-men'ti, (Anastasius,) a Mexi- can general, born about 1782. He became President of Mexico in 1830, was soon after banished, was again chosen President in 1837, and was banished a second time in 184L Died in 1851. Bustamente or Bustamante, de, di boos-ti-man'- li, (Don Carlos Maria,) a Mexican archaeologist, born about 1800. He edited, besides other works, Bernardino de Sahagun's "History of New Spain," ("Historia uni- versal de las Cosas de Nueva Espana," 3 vols., 1839.) Busti, boos'tee, (Agostino,) a skilful Italian sculp- tor, sometimes called IL Bustino, (^1 boos-tee'no,) and Bambaia, (bam-bl'yi,) born in the Milanese in 1470. His chief work was a monument to Gaston de Foix at Milan. Died about 1550. Bute, (John Stuart,) Earl of, a British statesman, born in Scotland in 1713. He became in 1738 one of the lords of the bedchamber to Frederick, Prince of Wales, and in this station succeeded in obtaining agreat ascendency over the mind of that prince's son, afterwards George HI. The life of Lord Bute belongs rather to history than to biography. We will merely say here that in 1761 he was made one of the principal secretaries of state, and in May, 1762, he became first lord of the treasury to the young king. As minister he was emi- nently unpopular ; but although he resigned in April, 1763, he still retained the confidence of the king, and continued (as was generally believed) to exert a great influence over the counsels of the cabinet. He passed the last six or seven years of his life in unbroken re- tirement, and died in 1792. Lord Bute was a liberal patron of literature and the arts. He was fond of the sciences, especially of botany, and published an expen- sive work, in nine volumes, on the plants of England. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Ersch und Gruber, "Aligemeine Encyklopaedie ;" JNLacaulay, "Essay on the Earl of Chatham," in the "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1844. Buteo, bii'tk'o', or Borrel, bo^r^K, (Jean,) a French geometer and writer, born at Charpey in 1492 ; died in 1572. Bufler, (Alb an,) a learned English Catholic divine, president of the College of Saint-Omer, author of " Lives of the Saints," (5 vols., 1745,) and other works. Born at Northampton in 1710; died in 1773. See Charles Butler, " Life of Aiban Butler," London, 1799. But'ler, (Andrew Pickens,) an American politician, born in South Carolina about 1796. He was a United States Senator for South Carolina for a number of years between 1846 and 1857. His kinsman Preston Brooks assaulted Charles Sumner in 1856, on account of some remarks off'ensive to Butler. Died in 1857. Butler, (Benjamin F.,) an American lawyer, practised at Albany, in New York State. He was attoiney-general of the United States from December, 1831, to June, 1834, in the 'cabinet of President Jackson. Died in 1858. Butler, (Benjamin Franklin,) an American politi- cian and general, born at Deerfield, New Hampshire, on the 5th of November, 1818. According to Parton, he was "a youth of keen vision, fiery, inquisitive, fearless." He graduated at Waterville College, Maine, about 1838. He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1840, and practised with success. It is said that in fertility of ex- pedients and devices to obtain an acquittal of his client he has seldom if ever been equalled. He was originally what is termed a "hard-shell" Democrat, [i.e. one in- flexibly devoted to the principles of the party.) Pie took an active part in politics, and was a delegate to the National Convention which was held in Charleston in April, i860, and adjourned to Baltimore, where it separated into two bodies. Butler supported Breckinridge for the Presi- dency in November, i860, and thus made himself so un- popular in the North that he received only six thousand votes as candidate for Governor of Massachusetts in that year. On the breaking out of the civil war in 1861 he took command of a brigade, which he moved at once towards Washington ; but, on hearing of the riot in Baltimore, he made a detour to Annapolis. He occupied Baltimore on the 13th or 14th of May, was appointed a major- general on the 1 6th, and on the 22d took command of Fortress Monroe, the most important fort in the Union. Three slaves having come to the fort for protection, But- ler received them, and applied to them the famous phrase "contraband of war." "An epigram," said Theodore Winthrop, alluding to this expression, " abolished slavery in the United States." Butler commanded the land- forces of the expedition which took Fort Hatteras, North Carolina, in August, 1861. In January, 1862, he olDtained € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as G, h, vi, guttural ; n, nasal; r, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BUTLER 474 BUTLER command of an army of about 15,000 men sent by sea to co-operate with the navy in the capture of New Or- leans. The department of the Gulf was then created, and Butler was appointed commander of the same. Admiral Farragut passed the forts on the 24th of April, and transferred New Orleans to General Butler, who entered it on the ist of May. By stern and vigorous measures he reduced the city to order, and, by his wise and strict sanitary regulations, preserved it from the yellow fever in the summer of 1862. He ordered Wil- liam Mumford to be executed for tearing down the flag of the Union from the mint. To obtain funds for the sup]wrt of the poor, he exacted money from rich seces- sionists. A great outcry was made against him for his order "that any female who should insult an officer or Boldier should be regarded and held liable to be treated as a woman of the town, plying her avocation," which, according to Parton, had a salutary effect. General But- ler imprisoned the insolent Mayor Monroe in Fort Jack- son in May, 1862. He armed free coloured men, and obtained from that class recruits for his army. In No- vember, 1862, he was removed from the command, and was succeeded by General Banks, — a change v/hich it would perhaps be difficult to defend on any principles of sound policy. "At New Orleans," says Parton, "he was magnificently right both in theory and practice." In December, 1862, Jefferson Davis issued a proclamation in relation to General Butler, whom he declared to be a felon, and ordered him to be treated as an outlaw. But- ler had gone to New Orleans a pro-slavery Democrat : he came away a decided anti-slavery man and a Radical. He obtained command of the department of Virginia and North Carolina in the latter part of 1863. Having been instructed to operate on the south side of the James River against Richmond, he moved his army, composed of two corps, up the James River on the 4th of May, 1864, and on the 5th occupied City Point and Bermuda Hundred, where he intrenched himself His army was attacked on the 1 6th, near Drury's Bluff, and forced back into its intrenchments, where it was safe, but could not operate efficiently against Richmond. He commanded the land- force of an unsuccessful expedition against Fort Fisher in December, 1864, and soon after this date was removed from command by General Grant, who complained that he had violated his instructions. He was elected a member of Congress in 1866, and was one of the managers selected March 2, 1868, to conduct the impeachment of President Johnson. He was re-elected to Congress in 1868. See Parton, "General Butler in New Orleans; History of the Administration of the Department of the Gulf in 1862," 1864; Gree- ley, "American Conflict," 2 vols., 1864-66. Butler, (Charles,) an English clergyman, scholar, and writer on music, etc., born at High Wycombe in 1559. Among his works are "The Feminine Monarchy, or the History of Bees," (1609,) and "The Principles of Music," (1636.) Died in 1647. Butler, (Charles,) an able and learned English jurist and Roman Catholic writer, a nephew of Alban But- ler, noticed above, was born in London in 1750. He completed the edition of Coke upon Littleton which Har- grave left unfinished. Among his principal works are "PIor^E BiblicDe," (1797,) " Horee juridicae subsecivae," (1804,) "Historical Memoirs of the English, Irish, and Scottish Catholics," and a continuation of Alban Butler's "Lives of the Saints." Died in 1832. See "Reminiscences of Charles Butler," London, 1822. Butler, (Cyrus,) an American merchant, born in 1767, lived at Providence, Rhode Island. He gave forty thousand dollars to endow a hospital for the insane at Providence. Died in 1849. Butler, (Frances.) See Kemble, (Fanny.) Butler, (James.) See Ormond, Duke of. ^ Butler, (James,) an American soldier of the Revolu- cion, born in Prince William county, Virginia, settled in South Carolina, where he distinguished himself in par- tisan warfare against the British. He was killed in the massacre at Cloud's Creek, near the close of the war. Butler, (John,) Bishop of Hereford, an English politi- cal writer, born at Hamburg in 1717. He wrote pamph- lets in support of Lord North's measures. Died in 1802. Butler, (John,) an American tory, born in Connecti- cut, was notorious as the leader of the party which mas- sacred the settlers of Wyoming Valley in July, 1778. Butler, (Joseph,) an English bishop and writer of high reputation, was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, in 1692. He commenced his scholastic education at the grammar- school at Wantage, from which he went to an academy in Gloucestershire, where he had for his fellow-student Seeker, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury. While at this academy " he wrote," says Mackintosh, "private let- ters to Dr. Clarke on his celebrated 'Demonstration,' suggesting objections that were really insuperable, and which are marked by an acuteness which neither himself nor any other ever surpassed." Not long after, he en- tered (3riel College, Oxford. He was admitted into holy orders about 1 716 or 17 17. In 172 1 he became rector of Houghton, and obtained the rich living of Stanhope in 1725. In 1726 he published fifteen sermons preached at the Rolls Chapel, which are highly esteemed. He was appointed chaplain to Lord-Chancellor Talbot in 1733, and clerk of the closet to the queen in 1736. His reputa- tion rests chiefly on his admirable " Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature," (1736.) "This," says Sir James Mackintosh, " is the most original and profound v/ork extant in any language on the philosophy of religion." Lord Broug- ham pronounces it "the most argumentative and philo- sophical defence of Christianity ever submitted to the world." Butler was appointed Bishop of Bristol in 1 738, and Bishop of Durham in 1750. Died in 1752. His character is represented as pure, modest, and amiable. He was never married. See Fitzgerald, "Life of Bishop Butler," prefixed to an edition of his "Analogy," 1848; Mackintosh, "View of the Progress of Ethical Philosophy ;" Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors ;" Thomas Bartlett, "Memoirs of the Life, etc. of Joseph Butler, Bishop of Durham;" "London Quarterly Review" for May, 1830, and October, 1839. Butler, (Pierce M.,) Colonel, born in Edgefield District, South Carolina, in 1798, became Governor of his native State, and was killed at the battle of Churu- busco in August, 1847. Butler, (Richard,) a major-general in the American army, was killed while fighting, under General Saint Clair, against the Indians, in 1791. Butler, (Samuel,) a celebrated English wit and poet, the author of " Hudibras," was born in the parish of Strensham, Worcestershire, about 1612. He became in early life a clerk to Mr. Jeffereys, a justice of the peace, and afterwards entered the service of Sir Samuel Luke, an officer under Cromwell. Luke is supposed to be the original of Hudibras. After the restoration, (1660,) Butler was secretary to the Earl of Carbury, who ap- pointed him steward of Ludlow Castle. He married a Mrs. Herbert, who brought him a fortune, which, how- ever, was lost by investment in unsound securities. The first part of his famous poem was published in 1663, the second part in 1664 ; but the third part did not ap- pear until 1678. He died poor, in London, in 1680. " ' Hudibras,' " says Hallam, "was incomparably more popular than ' Paradise Lost :' no poem in our lan- guage rose at once to greater reputation. Nor can this be called ephemeral, like that of most political poetry. . . . The sense of Butler is masculine, his wit inexhausti- ble, and it is supplied from every source of reading and observation. But these sources are often so unknown to the reader that his wit loses its effect through the ob- scurity of the allusions." ("Introduction to the Litera- ture of Europe.") See Dr. Johnson, "Lives of the English Poets;" A. M. H. Bou- LARD, " Vie de S. Butler Auteur du Poeme d'Hudibras," Paris, 1816 ; " Biographia Britannica ;" A. Ramsay, " Butler and his Hudibras ;" "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., 1S20; "Eraser's Magazine" for March, 1856. Butler, (Samuel,) D.D., an English philologist, born in Warwickshire in 1774. He studied at Saint John's College, Cambridge, and became Bishop of Lichfield in 1836. He published a valuable edition of "/Eschylus," a " Praxis on the Latin Prepositions," and other works. Died in 1839. Butler, (Thomas,) Earl of Ossory, son of James Duke of Ormond, born in 1634. He was raised to the rank of admiral in 1673, and commanded the English a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscw'c; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; 475 BUXTORF BUTLER 'roops in Flanders in the war against the French in 1677. Died in 1680. Butler, (Weeden,) an English divine, born at Mar- gate in 1742, became chaplain to the Duke of Kent. He wrote " Tlie Cheltenham Guide," " Sermons," etc. Died in 1823. Butler, (\ViLLiAM,) an English teacher and writer of school-books, born near Worcester in 1748. Among his works is " Exercises on the Globes," (1798.) Died in 1822. Butler, (William,) an American general, born in Virginia about 1755, was the father of Andrew P. and Pierce M., noticed above. He represented a district of South Carolina in Congress from 1800 to 1813. Died in 1821. Butler, (William Allen,) an American lawyer and poet, son of Benjamin F. Butler the attorney-general, was born in Albany in 1825. His "Nothing to Wear: an Episode in City Life," (1857,) has obtained great popu- larity both in Europe and in this country. Mr. Butler has made contributions in prose and verse to the "Demo- cratic Review," " Literary World," etc. Butler, (William Archer,) a philosopher and poet, born at Annerville, near Clonmel, Ireland, about 1814. He contributed several poems to the " Dublin Univer- sity Magazine." In 1837 he became professor of moral philosophy in Trinity College, Dublin. He wrote "Let- ters on Romanism, a Reply to Cardinal Wiseman," (1854,) "Lectures on the History of Ancient Philosophy," (2 vols., 1856,) and other works. Died in 1848. Butler, (William O.,) an American general, born in Kentucky about 1793. He served in the war of 1812, and in the Mexican war, (1846-47.) In 1846 he was raised to the rank of major-general. He was the Democratic can- didate for Vice-President of the United States in 1848, but was not elected. Butret, de, deh bii'tR^', Baron, a French horticul- turist of Strasburg. He published in 1794 a treatise on the trimming of fruit-trees, " Taille raisonnee des Arbres fruitiers," which was often reprinted. Died in 1805. Butt, (Georcje,) an English clergyman and poet, born in 1741, published numerous sermons. Died about 1795. Butt, (Isaac,) an Irish lawyer and politician, born in Donegal county in 1813. He was elected a member of Parliament in 1852. He published, besides other works, a " History of the Kingdom of Italy," (i860.) Buttafuoco, boot-ta-foo-o''co, (Matteo,) a general, born in Corsica in 1730. He opposed Paoli, and pro- moted the incorporation of Corsica with France. As a member of the States-General in 1789, he favoured the old regime. Died about 1800. Bufter-field, (Daniel,) an American general, born in Oneida county, New York, about 1831. He was ap- pointed a brigadier-general of volunteers in September, 1 86 1. He served at several battles near Richmond in May and June, 1862, after which he was raised to the rank of major-general. Butf'maiin, [Ger. pron. boot'min,] (Philipp Karl,) a learned and profound German philologist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in December, 1764, became in 1796 secretary and in 181 1 librarian of the Royal Library at Berlin. Died in 1829. Buttmann devoted his atten- tion chiefly to the study of the Greek language and an- tiquities. His large Greek Grammar (" Ausfiihrliche Ciriec hische Sprachlehre") is, so far as it goes, jDcrhaps the best work of the kind that has ever been written. Unhappily, he did not live to complete it. He was a friend of Niebuhr, He edited various Greek classics. Among his principal works are his " Greek Grammar for Schools," (1792,) which is an abridgment of a more ex- tensive work, sometimes called the " Intermediate Greek Grammar," (1819,) "Lexilogus, or Explanation of Greek Words," (1818,) and " Mythologus, or a Collection of Treatises on the Traditions of Antiquity," (2 vols., 1828.) See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" Brockhaus, " Conversa- tions- Lexikon." Biitt'ner, (Christian Wilhelm,) an eminent Ger- man philologist and naturalist, born at Wolfenbiittel in 1 7 16. He travelled extensively, and formed rich collec- tions of natural history. He passed many years at Got- tingen in researches into the primitive history of nations and the filiation of languages. To him we owe the first essay of a glossography, or geography of languages. He published several works. Died at Jena in 1801. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Buttner, boot'ner, (David Sigismund August,) a German botanist, born in 1724, succeeded Haller in the chair of botany at Gottingen. Died in 1768. But'ton, (Thomas,) an English navigator, made a voyage to the northeastern part of America in 1612, and discovered the mouth of Nelson River, in about 57° north latitude. He gave the name of Button's Bay to a bay near Nelson River. He is said to have been the first who sailed through Hudson Strait to the western shore of Hudson Bay. Butts, (Sir William,) an English physician, born in Norfolk, is mentioned by Shakspeare in his play of " Henry VIII.," act v. He was physician to Henry VIII. Died in 1545. Buttura, boot-too''ri, (Antonio,) an Italian critic and litterateur, born near Lake Garda in 1 771. He became professor of the Italian language and literature at Saint- Cyr, in France, and in 1817 succeeded Ginguene as pro- fessor at the Athenaeum. Died in 1832. Buttura, bu'tu'rt^ (Eugene Ferdinand,) a land- scape-painter, son of the preceding, born in Paris in 1812 ; died in 1852. Buturlin. See Bootoorlin. Buxbaum, books^bowm, (Johann Christian,) a German botanist, born at Merseburg in 1694, founded, at the command of the Czar, a botanic garden at Saint Petersburg about 1720, and died in 1730. Buxhowden, bdoks^hoMen, sometimes written Bux- hoeden, (Frederick William,) Count, a Russian gen- eral, born in Livonia in 1750. He served in the Polish campaign of 1792, and commanded the left wing of the Russians at Austerlitz. Died in 1811. Buxtehude, (Dip:trich,) a Dutch musician and com- poser, born about 1635, became organist to Saint Mary's Church at Lubeck. He was esteemed one of the best performers of his time, and composed sacred pieces of great merit. Died in 1707, Bux'tpn, (Charles,) an English writer, son of T. Fowell Buxton, noticed below, born in 1822. He wrote " Memoirs of Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton," (3d edition, ,1851.) He became a member of Parliament and of the Liberal party. Buxton, (Jedediah,) an English arithmetician of singular powers of calculation, born near Chesterfield in 1705. His intellect was below mediocrity, with the ex- ception of a wonderful facility in solving the most diffi- cult problems. When on a visit to London, he was taken to the theatre, and employed himself in counting the words used by the actors. Died about 1774. Buxton, (Sir Thomas Fowell,) an eminent English philanthropist, born at Castle Hedingham, in Essex, in 1786. He married in 1807 Hannah Gurney, of Earlham Hall, a sister of Joseph John Gurney and Elizabeth Fry. He represented Weymouth in Parliament from 181 8 to 1837, acquired much influence in public affairs, and succeeded Wilberforce as the leader of the anti-slavery movement. About 1838 he produced a "Treatise on the Slave-Trade." Died in 1845. See a "Life of T. F. Buxton," by his son, Charles Buxton, 3d edition, 1851; A. von Treskow, "Sir T. F. Buxton: ein Biid des Englischen Lebens, etc.," Berlin, 1853; "London Quarterly Re- view" for June, 1848; "Edinburgh Review" for September, 1818. Buxtorf, books'toRf, [Lat. Buxtor'fius,] (Johann,) a distinguished Hebrew scholar, born at Camen, in West- phalia, in 1564. He became professor of Hebrew at Bale in 1591, and published a "Lexicon Hebraicum et Chal- daicum,"(i6o7,) " Biblia Hebraica Rabbinica," or Hebrew Bible with Rabbinical notes, and several treatises on the writings of the Rabbins. Died in 1629. See Daniel TossANUS, "Oratio de Vita et Obitu J Buxtorfii," 1630; NiCERON, "Memoires;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." Buxtorf, (Johann,) son of the preceding, born at Bale in 1599, was also celebrated as a Hebraist. In 1630 he succeeded his father as professor at Bale. He pub- lished a "Chaldee and Syriac Lexicon," "Concordance of the Hebrew Bible," (1632,) left unfinished by his father, and other works. Died in 1664. See L. Gernler, " Oratio parentalis J. Buxtorfii Memoriae dicata," 1655; Niceron, "Memoires." € as k; 9 as j-; g hard; g as G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (;3:^==See Explanations, p. 23.) BUXTORF 476 BTRON Buxtorf, (JoHANN Jakob,) son of the preceding, born in 1645 at Bale, was professor of Hebrew in his native city. Died in 1704, His nepliew John was likewise professor of Hebrew at Bale. Died in 1732. See S. Werenfels, "Vita eximii Viri J. J. Buxtorfii," 1705. Buy de Mornas, bii-e' deh moWn^^, (Claude,) a French geographer, born at Lyons. He published " Me- thodical and Elementary Cosmography," {1770,) and other works. Died in 1783. Buys, bois, (Paulus,) an eminent Dutch statesman, lived about 1550-90. He was honoured with the friend- ship and confidence of William, Prince of Orange, and held for a considerable time the office of advocate of Holland. During the administration of the Earl of Leicester in the Netherlands, Buys was the leader of the opposition party. He is pronounced by Motley one '>f the ablest statesmen of Holland. See Motley, "United Netherlands," vol. i. chap. x. Buzanval, de, deh bii'zSN^iK, (Nicolas Choart,) a French prelate, remarkable for his devotion to the duties of his office and for the apostolic simplicity of his character, born in Paris in 161 r, became Bishop of Beauvais in 1650. Died in 1679. See J. Besoigne, " Vies des quatre fiveques engages dans la Cause de Port- Royal," 2 vols., 1756. Buzot, bii'zo', (FRANgois Leonard Nicolas,) an eminent French Girondist, born at Evreux in 1760, was an advocate before the Revolution. He was sent as a deputy to the States-General in 1789, and to the Na- tional Convention in 1792. In the trial of the king he voted for an appeal to the people. On the 31st of May, 1793, he was proscribed as a royalist with the other chiefs of the Gironde, and fled, first to Calvados ; after- wards they attempted to conceal themselves in the south of France. Buzot and Petion were found dead in a field near Bordeaux in June, 1794. Buzot was an especial favourite of Madame Roland. See Lamartine, "History of the Girondists;" "Vie de Buzot," prefixed to his " Memoires sur la Revolution," edited by Guadet, 1823; article on Madame Roland in this work, and "Memoires de Madame Roland," edited by M. P. Faug^re, 1S64. By'field, (Nicholas,) an English Puritan divine, born in Warwickshire about 1578, was vicar of Isleworth. He wrote commentaries on some books of the New Testa- ment. Died in 1622. Bylderdyck. See Bilderdijk. Byles, (Mather,) an American clergyman and noted humorist, born at Boston in 1706. He preached many years at Boston. In 1776 he adhered to the royal cause. Died in 1788. Bynaeus, bT-na'us, (Antoon,) a Dutch philologist, born at Utrecht in 1654, published several Latin works. Died in 1698. Byng, bing, (George,) an eminent English naval commander, born in 1663, became rear-admiral in 1703, vice-admiral in 1706, and admiral of the blue about 1708. In 1 72 1 he was raised to the peerage, with the title of Viscount Torrington. Died in 1733. Byng, (John,) an English admiral, son of the pre- ceding, born in 1704. Having in 1756, in consequence of the improvidence and inefficiency of the English minis- try, been unsuccessful in an expedition to relieve Minorca, then blockaded by a French fleet of superior strength, he was accused of cowardice by the ministers, who were anxious to avert the public odium from themselves. By a sentence of extreme rigour, he was condemned to be shot. He met his death with the firmness of a hero, March 14, 1757. See Voltaire, "Siecle de Louis XV;" " Correspondance Gene- rale;" J. F. Seyfart, " Leben des Admirals J. Byng," 1757. Bynkershoeck, van, vtn bln'kers-hook', (Kor- nelis,) a celebrated jurist, born at Middelburg, in Hol- land, in 1673. He published, besides other works, "Ob- servationes Juris Romani," (1700-33,) and *' Quaestiones Juris Publici," (1737.) His death is variously dated 1763, 1743, or 1745. See Sax, " Onomasticon ;" Adelung, Supplement to Jocher's "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." Byns, van, vtn bins, (Anne,) a Flemish poetess, born at Antwerp ; died about 1548. Byrd, (William.) See Birde. Byrge, the French of Byrgius, which see. Byr'gi-us, (Justus,) [Fr. Juste Byrge, zhiist b^Rzh,] or Jobst Biirgi, (yopst biiR^Gee,) a Swiss mathemati- cian, born at Lichtensteg in 1552. He was patronized by William IV., Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, for whom he constructed a celestial globe, afterwards bought by the emperor Rudolph H. He was appointed instru- ment-maker to the emperor, and distinguished himself by several valuable inventions. The invention of loga- rithms is ascribed to him by some writers, but is more generally attributed to Napier. Died in 1633. Byrne, birn, (William,) an eminent English en- graver, born at Cambridge about 1744; died in 1805. By'rom, (John,) an English writer and poet, born near Manchester in 1691, contributed several pieces to *' The Spectator," and invented a system of short-hand which still bears his name. His pastoral of "Colin and Phebe," published in the " Spectator," No. 603, was generally admired. Died in 1763. By'rpn, (Anna Isabella Millbanke,) Lady, an English heiress, born in 1792 or 1793, was the only daughter of Sir Ralph Millbanke, afterwards Noel. She was married in January, 181 5, to Lord Byron the poet. They separated the following year. After their sepa- ration she inherited the title of Baroness of Wentworth. She was a woman of superior talents. Died in i860, Byron, (George Anson,) Captain, an English naval officer, born in 1758, was a son of Admiral Byron, noticed below. He rendered important service in the great naval victory gained by Lord Rodney over the French in April, 1782. Died in 1793. Byron, (George Gordon Noel,) an English poet of rare genius, born in London, January 22, 1788. He be- longed to an old family (the name appears to have been originally spelled Burun or Biiriin, afterwards Biron, and last of all Byron) which traced its origin back to the Norman conquest. His grandfather, John Byron, was an English admiral. His father. Captain Byron, married Catherine Gordon, a Scottish heiress, with whom he lived unhappily, and whose wealth he squandered in a life of vice and dissipation. In 1790 the mother of the poet, having been deserted by her husband, retired to Scotland and took up her residence in Aberdeen. Here her son received the first rudiments of his education at a day- school. Not long after he was sent to the grammar-school of Aberdeen. When he was between six and seven years old his mother took him with her on a visit to the Highlands, the scenery of which is said to have made, even at that early age, a deep and indelible impression on his mind. When he was ten years old he succeeded to the estate and title of William, fifth Lord Byron, his grand-uncle, who had resided at Newstead Abbey, in Nottinghamshire, and had died there in May, 1798. Soon after, his mother took him to London and consulted some able surgeons respecting a congenital deformity and lameness of one of his feet ; but the defect proved to be incurable, and continued to the end of the poet's life a source of bitter mortification to him. He was next placed at the school of Dr. Glennie, at Dulwich. During his school-days, Byron exhibited many indications both of the virtues and weaknesses which marked his character in after-life. On the one hand, his sympathetic nature, his generosity and courage, won for him the love and respect of his companions ; while, on the other, his mor- bidly sensitive, wilful, and passionate temper involved him in continual disputes and quarrels. It is related that while at Harrow he saw one day a large tyrannical boy punishing little Peel (the brother of the celebrated Sir Robert Peel) because he refused to be his " fag." Byron was not large enough to resist the tyrant with any hope of success, but, in a voice trembling between terror and indignation, he demanded that he might bear half of the punishment. On another occasion, having seen a small and sickly boy bullied by one much older and stronger than himself, he interfered with success. Soon after he said to his protege, " If any one bullies you, tell me, and I will thrash him if I can." He kept his word ; and they were afterwards inseparable friends. Byron had been with Dr. Glennie rather less than two years, when he left for Harrow. While here he formed a a, e, 1, 6, u, y, lojtg; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; BTRON Ml BTRON romantic and passionate attachment for Miss Chaworth, the heiress of Annesley, an estate adjacent to Newstead Abbey. Miss Chaworth's father had been killed in a duel (or, as some say, in a drunken fight) by Lord Byron, the poet's great-uncle. This very circumstance may not improbably have tended to inflame young Byron's ima- gination. Alluding to his love for Miss Chaworth, he says, " Our union would have healed feuds in which blood had been shed by our fathers." He appears to have always regarded this as the deepest and truest passion of his life, and to have fully persuaded himself that if he had married Miss Chaworth he would have been a better as well as a happier man. But she did not return his affection, and not long after she was married to a gentle- man named Musters. This union appears, however, not to have been a happy one. In 1805 Byron went to Trinity College, Cambridge, which he left two years after with- out a degree. During his stay at the University he pub- lished a volume of poems entitled " Hours of Idleness," (1807,) which was very severely criticised in the "Edin- burgh Review." The poet wrote, by way of retaliation, his " English Bards and Scotch Reviewers," a caustic and scathing satire, which at the time caused a great sensation, and convinced the critics that Byron's genius was not to be terror-stricken or reduced to silence by "paper bullets of the brain." Little, however, can be said in praise of the justice or discrimination shown in this satiric poem. The author reminds one of Moliere's blind man with a club, who lays about him so valiantly, striking down, it may be, friend and foe alike. The sat- irist is, in fact, scarcely less severe against Scott, who had never injured him, than against Jeffrey, the object of his burning and bitter resentment. Byron himself afterwards sincerely regretted the publication of this poem, and did all in his power to suppress its circulation. In 1809, accompanied by his friend John Cam Hob- house, (with whom he had become acquainted at Cam- bridge,) Byron set out on his travels through Europe, visiting Portugal, Spain, Turkey, and Greece. He was absent from England nearly two years. On his return he published the first two cantos of "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage," the success of which was so sudden and extraordinary that, as he tells us, "he awoke one morn- ing and found himself famous." Soon after the publica- tion of "Childe Harold" he took his seat in the House of Lords ; and he appears to have thought seriously at one time of devoting himself to politics. He addressed the House three times. His most important speech was on the Catholic claims : it is said to have been listened to with much attention. But he seems to have soon lost his interest in politics, and to have abandoned all hopes of making a figure in public life. In 1813 he published "The Giaour," {i.e. "Infidel,") an Oriental tale inverse, which contains some of the most exquisite poetry to be found in the English language. Towards the close of the same year appeared "The Bride of Abydos," another poem of the same general character, which added to his already brilliant reputation. In January, 1814, was pub- lished "The Corsair," of which, it is said, at least 14,000 copies were sold in a single day. His other most im- portant poems of this period were " Lara,". "The Siege of Corinth," "Parisina," and "The Prisoner of Chillon." On the 2d of January, 181 5, Byron married Miss Anna Isabella Millbanke, only daughter of the baronet Sir Ralph Millbanke, afterwards Noel. She was esteemed a great heiress. Byron says, however, "All I have ever received, or am likely to receive, (and that has been twice paid back, too,) was 10,000." The match was a very un- happy one ; the incompatibility of their tempers, and, still more, Lord Byron's irregular, not to say licentious, habits, rendered domestic harmony and peace impos- sible. Lady Byron bore him, December 10, 181 5, a daughter, Ada, who became afterwards the Countess of Lovelace. Soon after she left him and went to her father's, taking with her the child ; and he never saw either of them again. In the spring of 1816 he left Eng- land, with the determination of never more returning to his native land. Having passed through Belgium and visited the field of Waterloo, he proceeded to Switzer- land, and resided for some time near Geneva. While here he wrote the third canto of "Childe Harold." He afterwards went to Italy and took up his abode in Venice. He next visited Ravenna : during his sojourn in this city he formed a liaison with the beautiful Countess Guic- cioli, whose sprightly and imaginative character power- fully attracted him. During his stay at Pisa, in 1822, the tragic death of his friend Shelley, who was drowned in a squall near Leghorn, affected him deeply. In the early part of 1822 he was associated with Shelley and Leigh Hunt in conducting a periodical called "The Liberal ;" but, soon after Shelley's death, Byron and Hunt quarrelled, and the journal was discontinued. (See Hunt, Leigh.) In October of the same year he removed to Genoa. Soon afterwards his sympathies for Grecian liberty became strongly excited, and he resolved to de- vote all his energies to the cause. During his sojourn in Italy, Byron had written several of his most remark- able productions, including the fourth canto of " Childe Haiold," "Mazeppa," "Manfred," "Cain, a Mystery," "Marino Faliero," "The Two Foscari," "Sardanapa- lus," " W^erner," and "Don Juan." Having fully em- barked in the cause of Grecian freedom, he left Italy in the summer of 1823, and proceeded first to Cephalonia, where he remained some months. He arrived at Mis- solonghi in January, 1824. He applied himself to busi- ness with great energy, manifesting a good sense and practical judgment which many were not prepared to expect from one who had till then been looked upon merely as a poet and a man of pleasure. The exposure which he incurred while making preparations for the siege of Lepanto, then in possession of the Turks, laid the foundation of the illness of which he died. About the middle of February he had a severe convulsive fit. During the extreme prostration that followed this attack, a crowd of Suliotes, whom he had engaged to fight under him, rose in mutiny, and, bursting into his apartment, brandished their arms and furiously demanded their pay. Byron retained his perfect self-possession, and, by his calm and determined courage, awed them into submis- sion. Count Gamba, (brother of the Countess Guiccioli,) who was almost constantly with Lord Byron during the last few months of his life, says of him, " It is impossible to do justice to the coolness and magnanimity which he displayed upon every trying occasion. Upon trifling occasions he was certainly irritable ; but the aspect of danger calmed him in an instant. . . . A more undaunted man in the hgur of peril never breathed." Having caught a severe cold on the 9th of April, he was attacked with fever and violent rheumatic pains. At last inflammation seized upon his brain and terminated his life on the 19th of April, 1824. As a man, Byron certainly had great faults ; but in palliation of these it should be remembered that he was not only born with violent passions, but that almost every influence of his early life was adverse to the acquisition of habits of self-denial and self-control. By his mother he was treated at one time with the most foolish indul- gence ; at another, exasperated with causeless re- proaches. The fame which he so easily and suddenly acquired, joined to his distinguished rank, may be said to have completed the miseducation which was begun in the nursery. But, in spite of all the disadvantages of education and hereditary temperament, he exhibited many truly noble traits of character, among which were a princely generosity, and a ready and true sympathy for the suffering even in the humblest condition. We are told, in Moore's "Life," that the "inmates" (domes- tics) " of his family were extremely attached to him, and would have endured anything on his account," and that "he was most unostentatious in his charities." With all his professions of liberality in politics, Byron always remained an aristocrat at heart ; and he is said to have been more proud of his Norman descent than he was of the rare endowments of his mind. Among the most remarkable characteristics of Byron's poetry, two are deserving of particular notice. The first is his power of expressing intense emotion, especially when it is associated with the darker passions of the soul. "Never had any writer," says Macaulay, "so vast a command of the whole eloquence of scorn, mis- anthropy, and despair. . . . From maniac laughter to piercing lamentation, there is not a single note of human € as k: 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (Qi^^See Explanations, p. 23.) BTRON 478 CABARRUS anguish of vvliich he was not master." The other is his exquisite taste and marvellous felicity in the use of lan- guage. Take for example that passage in the " Giaour" beginning with the lines " He who hatli bent him o'er the dead Ere the first day of death is fled," etc.* Nothing can exceed the delicacy of perception and taste with which the words are chosen. Of course such exqui- site propriety in the choice of words implies an equally exquisite perception of the proprieties of thought and sentiment. See Moore, "Life of Byron," 2 vols. 8vo; Galt, " Life of Byron ;" "Recollections of the Last Days of Shelley and Byron," by E. J. Trelawney, 1858; the elaborate and excellent article on Byron in Allibone's "Dictionary of Authors," containing some interesting reco'lections of the poet not before published, besides a very complete list .")f bibliographic references; the notice in the " Biographie Uni- verselle," by M. Vi[.t.emain, the celebrated criuc; Jeffrey, " Mis- cellanies ;" Sir V/alter Scott, "Miscellaneous Prose Works;" "London Quarterly Review" for January and July, 1814, October, 1816, April, 1818, July, 1823, and January, 1831 ; " Edinburgh Review" tor December, 1816, August, 1S17, and February, 1822; "Atlantic Mouihiy" for September, 1S69; "Quarterly Review" for October, iMxj ; " I'he 'True Story of T,ady Byron' established," by Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, 1870. Byron, (John,) an English naval commander, born in 1723, was a son of William, Lord Byron. He was to have ac- companied Lord Anson as midshipman on the Wagerin his' voyage round the world. The Wager was wrecked on the eoast of South America in 1741. He returned to England in 1745. The narrative v;hich Byron published of this shipwreck on his return to England is one of the most interesting works of the kind in the language. He com- manded the Dolphin and Tamar in a voyage of discovery in the South Sea in 1764-66. In 1778 he obtained com- mand of a fleet destined to operate against the French in the West Lidies. He fought an indecisive battle against D'Estaing off Grenada in July, 1779, and was promoted about that date to the rank of vice-admiral. He was grandfather of the great poet Lord Byron. Died in 1786. See Charnock's " Biographia Navalis." Bystrom, bii'stRoin, (Johan Nils,) a Swedish sculp- tor, born at Philipsstadt in 1783. He studied in Rome, and, after his return, produced a colossal statue of the crown prince. Among his other works may be named statues of Gustavus Adolphus and of Linnaeus. Bythner, bit'ner, or Biittner, but'ner, ( Victorinus,) a physician and philologist, boni in Poland, became professor of Hebrew at Oxford. He published " Lyra Prophetica Davidis Regis," (1645.) t)ied about 1670. Bzovius, the Latin of BzowsKi, which see. Bzowski, bzhov'skee, [Lat. BzoVius,] (Abraham,) a Polish theologian, born in 1567. He became professor of philosophy at Milan, and afterwards of theology at Bologna. He wrote " Lives of Paul V. and Gregory XV.," "Continuation of the Annals of Baronius," and other works. Died in 1637. C. Caab_or Cab. See Kaab. Ca-ba'des or Ca-va'des, [in Persian. Kobad or Co- bad,' ko-bScK,] a Persian king, father of the celebrated Chosroes, ascended the throne about 486 A.D. He gained several victories over the Romans between 502 and 505, and died in 53 L See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Cabakjee Ogloo or Cabakdji Ogloii, ki-b^k'jee og-loo', an officer of janissaries, one of the ringleaders of the revolt which dethroned Selim HI., was assassin- ated in 1808. Caballero, kl-Bil-ya'ro, (Fern an,) the pseudonym of a Spanish novelist, whose maiden name ivas Cjeciiaa BoHL DE Faber, (bol dch fa^'ber.) She was born at Morgue, in Switzerland, in 1797, has been married several times, and has resided in Spain. She has published " La Gaviota," and other novels, which present brilliant pic- tures of Andalusian life and are highly seasoned with the "Andalusian wit," (" sal Andaluz.") " No living writer," says the "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1861, "has shed so bright a lustre on Spanish literature." Caballero, (Firmin,) a Spanish journalist and states- man, born at Barajas de Melo in 1800. He first attracted public attention by his witty criticisms on Mifiano's "Geographical Dictionary." In 1833 he began to edit the " Boletin del Comercio," and in 1834 established another able journal, the " Eco del Comercio." About 1835 he was elected a deputy to the Cortes, and afterwards became a cabinet minister. He published, besides other works, a " Geographical and Administrative Manual of Spain," (1844.) Caballero, de, di ki-B^l-ya^ro, written also Caval- lero, (Don Jose Antonio,) a Spanish marquis, of Ital- ian descent, born at Saragossa about 1760. He was one of the ministers of Joseph Bonaparte while King of Spain, and on his deposition in 18 14 became an exile in France. Died in 182 1. Caballo, ka-bSKlo, [Lat. Cabal'lus,] (Francesco,) an Italian medical writer, born in Venetia, lived at Padua. Died in 1540. Cabanel, kt'bt'n^K, (Alexandre,) a French histori- cal painter, born at Montpellier in 1823. He obtained a first medal in 1855. Cabanis, kt'bt'n^ss', (Jean Baptiste,) a French advocate, born at Issoudun in 1723. He introduced * See remarks on this passage in a critique in the " Edinburgh Re- view" for July, 1813. improvements in cultivation and rural economy, and wrote a valuable "Essay on Grafting," (1764.) Died in 1786. Cabanis, (Pierre Jean George,) an eminent French philosopher, author, and physician, son of the preceding, was born at Conac, near Saintes, in 1757. He studied medicine under Dubreuil, and settled at Auteuil, near Paris. By a version of some parts of the "Iliad," he gained access to the highest society of Paris, where he was intimate with Diderot, D'Alembert, Condorcet, Franklin, etc. He became the personal and political friend of Mirabeau, whom he assisted with his pen, and whom he attended in his last hours. ?Ie wrote an "Ac- count of the Illness and Death of Mirabeau," (1791.) In 1796 he was chosen a member of the Institute, and in the next year professor of clinical medicine in Paris. He married Charlotte, sister of General Grouchy. In 1802 he produced his most important work, " Relation between the Physical System and the Mental Faculties of Man," (" Rapports du Physique et du Moral de I'Homme,") which obtained celebrity, and will doubtless hold its place among the noble essays of abstruse philosophy. In early life, and until about the beginning of the present century, Cabanis held the atheistical views so prevalent at the time of the French Revolution. He maintained, among other doctrines, that the brain " secretes thought," as the liver secretes bile. He afterw^ards modified his views so far as to recognize in the " primal causes" ("les causes premieres") of the universe the existence of both intelligence and will, and that the same power or powers [i.e. " les causes premieres") command us to practise virtue. Died in 1808. See MiGNET, " filoge de Cabanis :" also the article "Cabanis" in the "Nouvelle IJiographie Generale." Cabanis-Jonval, kt'bt'n^ss' zh6N'vtK, (Pierre,) a French litth-atetir, born at Alais about 1725 ; died in 1780. ■Cabarrus, kt'bt^riis', (Francois,) a French mer- chant, born at Bayonne in 1752, settled in Spain at an early age. By his talents and services as financier he acquired great influence in the government about 1780, and a few years later he was councillor of finances. In the reign of Charles IV. he was made a count, and was sent as minister plenipotentiary to the Congress of Ras- tadt in 1797. In 1808 he became minister of finances under Joseph Bonaparte. Died in 1810. His daughter Therese, a famous belle, became Marquise de Fontenay, then Madame Tallien, and lastly Princesse de Chimay. Cabarrus, (Teresa.) See Chimay, Princess of. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; \ 6, \ same, less prolonged; a, e,T, 6, \x, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mit; n6t; good; moon; CABASILAS 479 CACCIA Ca-bas''i-las, (Ni'lus,) [N«Aof Ka/Jaa^^^a?,] a Greek archbishop of Thessalonica, wrote an able treatise against the infallibility and supremacy of the pope. Died about 1350. Nicholas Cabasilas, nephew of the preceding, whom he succeeded as archbishop in 1350, was also a zealous adversary of the Latin Church or hierarchy, and author of several works on theology. See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grxca." Cabassole, du, dii kt'bt'soK, (Philippe,) born at Cavaillon, in Provence, became bishop of his native town in 1334, and was made cardinal by Urban V. in 1368. He is best known as the friend of Petrarch, by whom he was greatly esteemed for his talents and learn- ing. Died in 1371. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Cabassut, kt'bt'su', (Jean,) a French priest of the Oratory, born at Aix in 1604 or 1605, was eminent for his knowledge of canon law. He wrote " Theory and Prac- tice of Canon Law," and other works. Died in 1685. Cabat, kt'bt^ (Louis Nicolas,) a skilful French landscape-painter, born in Paris in 181 2. He produced in 1840 an admired historical landscape, called "The Sa- maritan," ("Le Samaritain,") and a view of Lake Nemi near Rome. He was before that date termed a realiste ; but his later works indicate a change in his manner. Cabel or Kabel, van der, vtn der k^'bel, (Adrian,) an able Dutch painter of landscapes, seaports, figures, etc., born at Ryswick in 1631 ; died in 1695. Cabestan, kt'bgs't6N', or Cabestaing, de, deh kt'- bSs't^N', (Guillaume,) a Proven9al troubadour, who lived about 1200. Cabet, kt^ba', (£tienne,) a French socialist, and the leader of the " Icariens," was born at Dijon in 1788. He became an advocate, and lived in Paris. In 1830 he was appointed procureur-general for Corsica, but he was recalled in 1831. He became a radical democrat, and was elected to the Chamber of Deputies. In 1842 he published his peculiar socialist or communist notions in his romance entitled " Travels in Icaria," (" Voyage en Icarie.") Having made many proselytes to his Uto- pian scheme among the labourers of Paris, he planted a colony in Texas in 1848. After suffering great privations in Texas, Cabet and his Icariens removed in 1850 to the city of Nauvoo, which the Mormons had recently deserted. They held their property in common, and were subject to the sole authority of Cabet. Died at Saint Louis in 1856. See "London Quarterly Review" for June, 1848. Cabeza (or Cabega) de Vaca. See Nunez, (Alvarkz.) Ca-bi'ri, written also Cabeiri, [Gr. KaSeipoi; Fr. Ca- BIRES, kt'b^R',] ancient divinities worshipped in various parts of the world, especially at Samothrace and Lcmnos. The fable of the Cabiri is very obscure. Their myste- ries were celebrated with great solemnity. They were believed, among other things, to preside over metals. Some writers trace the worship of the Cabiri to the Phoenicians. See Creuzer, "Synibolik," vol. ii. Caboche, kt'bosh', (Simonet,) a butcher of Paris, who became notorious about 1412 as the chief of a fero- cious band called Cabochiens. They were partisans of the Burgundians in the civil war between these and the Armagnacs, and committed many outrages in Paris. See MiCHELET, "Histoire." Caboos, Cabus, or Cabous, ka-boos', surnamed the Sun in its Splendour, a prince, poet, and astron- omer, began to reign in Jorjan in 976 a.d. He had a high reputation for virtue, and was a patron of Avicenna. He was deposed in 1012, and died soon after. Cab'ot, (George,) an American Senator, born at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1751, was distinguished for his knowledge of political economy and commercial affairs. He was elected in 1789 to the Senate of the United States, in which he acted with the Federalists and gained the confidence of Washington. He was highly esteemed for his probity and sound judgment. In 1814 he was president of the Hartford Convention. Died in 1823. Cab'pt or Gabotto, ga-bot'to, (Giovanni,) a Vene- tian pilot and navigator, who lived some time in England and distinguished himself in maritime discovery. In 1496 Henry VII. granted a patent to him and his sons for the discovery of unknown regions. (See Cabot, Sebastian.) See Hakluvt, "Principal Navigations and Discoveries of the English Nation." Cab^ot, (Sebastian,) [It. Sebastiano Gabotto, si- bis-te-d^no g§.-bot'to,] a son of the preceding, and a nav- igator of great eminence, was born at Bristol, England, about 1477. He made several voyages with his father, of which we have no authentic account. In 1497 they dis- covered a part of North America, which some suppose was Labrador, and others Newfoundland. A few years later he sailed southward as far as Cape Florida. From 15 12 until 151 7 he was in the service of the King of Spain, who made him a member of the Council of the Indies. In 1526 he commanded a Spanish expedition which explored the river La Plata. About 1548 he re- turned to England, and obtained the favour of Edward VI., who granted him a pension and consulted him in maritime affairs. He became governor of a new com- pany formed to trade with Russia. He was living in 1557, and probably died soon after that date. See "Memoirs of Sebastian Cabot," by Richard Biddle, Lon- don, 1831 ; Anderson, " History of Commerce ;" " Life of S. Cabot," in Sp.-vrks's "American Biography," vol. ix., First Series. Cabot, kt'bo', (Vincent,) an eminent French jurist, born at Toulouse about 1550. He professed law four- teen years at Orleans and twenty-two years at Toulouse. He wrote a "Treatise on Benefices," and other works. Died in 1621. Cabral, kS-bR^K, (Pedro Alvarez,) an eminent Portuguese navigator, was chosen by Emmanuel, King of Portugal, to command the fleet which that prince sent to the East Indies in 1500. He sailed or was driven so far westward that, by a fortunate accident, he discovered Brazil in the same year. Pursuing his voyage, he reached Calicut, made conquests, and estab- lished the first Portuguese factories in India. He then sailed homeward, and arrived in June, 1 501. See Ramusio, "Voyages;" Lafiteau, " Conquetes des Portu- gais;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Cabral de Vasconcellos, ka-bRM' da vis-kon-seK- los, (Paulino,) a Portuguese poet, who lived about 1780. See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Cabrera, ka-BRa^-S, (Luis,) a Spanish historian, pub- lished a " History of Philip II.," (1619.) Died about 1655. Cabrera, (Don Ramon,) a Spanish general, noted for his cruelty and audacity, was born at Tortosa about 1810. In the civil war between the Christinos and Carlists he joined the lattei", and waged a successful guerilla warfare among the mountains of Aragon and Catalonia. He ob- tained command of a large force, took Valencia in 1837, surprised Morella in 1838, and was created Count of Morella by Don Carlos. The victories of Espartero compelled him to retire to France in 1840. In 1848 he returned to Spain and instigated another rebellion, but was defeated and wounded at Pasteral in 1849, since which he has lived in exile. See Lavallee, " Histoire de I'Espagne;" B. de Cordova, " Vida de R. Cabrera," RIadrid, 1844; "Blackwood's Magazine" for Sep- tember, 1846. Cabrera, de, da ki-BRa^rS, (Juan Tomas Henri- QUEZ,) Duke of Medina del Rio Seco, (mi-dee'n^ dSl ree'o sa'ko,) a Spanish statesman, and admiral of Cas- tile, was related to the royal family. He was prime minister under Charles II. in 1693. In consequence of his attachment to the Austrian interests, he was exiled by Porto Carrero. Died in 1705. See De la Torre, "Memoires et Negotiations secretes." Cabrillo, kd-bReKlo, (Juan Rodriguez,) a Portuguese navigator in the Spanish service. Died in 1543. Cabrol, kt'bRoK, (Barth^lemi,) a French anatomist, born at Gaillac about 1535, became professor at Mont- pellier in 1590. Caccia, kat^ch§,(GuGLiELMO,) a distinguished painter, born in Piedmont about 1568, was usually called IL Mon- CALVO, because he worked at a place of that name. He was one of the most skilful fresco-painters of his time, and also executed admired pictures in oil, among which is a "Deposition from the Cross." Died in 1625. I See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." e as k; c as s: g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in t/iis. (jJ^^'See Explanations, p. 23. ) CACCIANIGA 480 CAD Of^ I US Caccianiga, kIt-chS-nee'gS, (Francesco,) an able painter and engraver, born at Milan in 1700, worked in Rome, where he died in 1781. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Cacciatore, kdt-chS-to'ri, (NiccoLO,) a Sicilian as- tronomer, born in 1780, became director of the Observa- tory of Palermo in 181 7. He published several works on astronomy, (1807-28.) Caccini, kdt-chee'nee, (Giulio,) an Italian composer and musician, born at Rome about 1560 ; died in 1635. Cachet, kt'sha', (Christophe,) a Swiss medical writer, born at Neufchatel in 1572; died in 1624. Caucus, a fabulous Italian robber and giant, called a son of Vulcan. He lived in a cave. Having stolen some cattle of Hercules, he dragged them by their tails into his cave, so that they could not be discovered by their tracks ; but Hercules heard them bellow, and re- covered them, killing Ca-cus. (See "/Eneid," book viii.) Cadahalso. See Cadalso. Ca-da-lous', (?) Bishop of Parma, elected pope in 1061, was styled Honorius II. He was deposecl in 1064. Cadalso, de, da ki-niKso, written also Cadahalso, (Jose,) a successful Spanish poet and satirist, born at Cadiz about 1740. He wrote "Don Julian," a tragedy of some merit, "Fashionable Learning," a prose satire, and anacreontic verses which were admired. He was colonel in the army, and was killed at the siege of Gibraltar in February, 1782. His " Moorish Letters," a witty and satirical work, has been often reprinted. See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Cada Mosto, da, di ki'di mos'to, (Luigi,) a navi- gator, born at Venice about 1432. In the service of Prince Henry of Portugal, he explored the west coast of Africa as far as the mouth of the Gambia, in 1455 and 1456. His account of the voyage is said to be in- teresting, and very well written. Died about 1480. See Ramusio, "Prima Navigazione di Cada Mosto;" Zurla, "Dei Viaggi e delle Scoperte di Cada Mosto," Venice, 1815. Cadaval, de, da ka-dS-vSK, (Nunho Caetano Al- VARES Pereira DE Mello,) Duke, a Portuguese states- man, born in 1798. He became president of the council of ministers in 1828. Died in 1838 at Paris. Cade, (John,) an Irishman and noted rebel in the time of Henry VI., figures in Shakspeare's play as Jack Cade. In 1450, assuming the name of Mortimer, he led a large body of Kentish insurgents towards London, and defeated an army which the king sent against him. The gates of the capital having been opened to him by the citizens or the magistrates, he entered the city and put to death Lord Say, whose political course was obnoxious. After the lapse of a few days, the mob was dispersed by a promise of pardon, and Cade fled to Lewes, where he was killed. See Hume, " History of England." Cadenet, ktd'na^ (Elias,) a troubadour, born in Provence about 1 156; died about 1280. Cader-Billah. See Al-Kader-Billah. Cadet de Gassicourt, kt'da' deh gt'se^kooR', (Charles Louis,) born in Paris in 1769, was a pharma- cist, lawyer, and author, remarkable for his versatile tal- ents and activity. He pleaded some causes with success, espoused the popular side in the Revolution, and in 1806 formed the plan of a new board of health, of which for many years he was secretary. In the campaign of 1809 he accompanied Napoleon, who had appointed him his first apothecary. He published many valuable and suc- cessful works, among which are "Memoir of Mirabeau," *• The Supper of Moliere," a comedy, (1798,) "Domestic Chemistry," (1801,) " History of Templars, Free-Masons, and other Secret Societies," " Dictionary of Chemistry," (1803,) "Travels in Austria, etc.," (1818.) He was a member of many scientific academies. Died in 1821. See QuEKARD, " La France Litteraire." Cadet de Gassicourt, (Louis Claude,) an eminent French chemist, father of the preceding, born in Paris in 1 73 1. He was for some years apothecary-in-chief of the army. About 1765 he was received into the Acad- emy of Sciences, to which he contributed many treatises on chemistry. His collection of drugs was regarded as the finest in France. He was appointed a commissioner of the chemical department at the royal manufactory of Sevres. Died in 1799. See BouLLAY, "Notice snr la Vie de L. C. Cadet," 1805; EusitBE Salverte, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de L. C. Cadet," 1822. Cadet de Metz, kt'd^' deh mis, (Jean Marcel,) a French mineralogist, born at Metz in 1751 ; died in 1835. Cadet de Vaux, ka'da' deh vo, (Antoine,) a French writer and apothecary, brother of Louis C. Cadet de Gassicourt, born in Paris in 1743. In conjunction with M. Suard, he established, in 1777, the "Journal de Paris." He was noted for practical benevolence, and wrote many useful treatises on domestic and rural economy, among which was an "Essay on the Culture of the Vine," and one " On the Means of Preventing Famine." Died in 1828. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Cadijah. See Khadijah. Cad'mus, [Gr. Kad/iof,] a hero or demi-god of Greek mythology, was the son of Agenor, King of Sidon. Having been sent by his father in search of his sister Europa, with the charge not to return unless he found her, he settled in Boeotiaand founded the city of Thebes. He is the reputed inventor of sixteen simple letters of the Greek alphabet. Tradition adds that he killed a dragon and sowed its teeth, from which armed men sprang up. (See Ovid's "Metamorphoses," books iii. and iv.) Cadmus, a native of Miletus, said to have been the first Greek prose writer, flourished about 550 or 600 B.C. He wrote a " History of Ionia," which is not extant. Ca-do'gan, (Henry,) the son of Charles Sloane, Earl Cadogan, was born in 1780. He entered the army in 1797, became lieutenant-colonel in 1805, and served with distinction in the Peninsular war. He was killed at the battle of Vittoria in 1813. Wellington in his dispatch paid a high tribute to his merit, and the Commons voted a monument to his memory. Cadogan, (William,) Earl and Baron Cadogan, an able English general, was a devoted friend of the Duke of Marlborough, under whom he served at lilenheim (1704) and Ramillies. Having obtained the rank of major-general, he rendered important services at Oude- narde in 1708 and Malplaquet in 1709. He resigned his commission when Marlborough was deprived of the command about 17 12. Between 171 5 and 1 718 he was several times sent as minister to Holland. He was cre- ated a baron in 1716, and Earl Cadogan about 1718. In 1722 he succeeded Marlborough as commander-in-chief of the British army. He died without issue in 1726, leaving the title of baron to his brother, General Charles Cadogan, whose son, Charles Sloane, was afterwards made earl. Cadogan, (William,) M.D., born in London in 17 11, was a graduate of Oxford. He published " An Essay on Children," often reprinted, and a "Treatise on Gout." Died in 1797. Cadogan, (William Bromley,) the second son of Earl Cadogan, (Charles Sloane Cadogan,) was born in 1 75 1. Having taken orders, he became vicar of Saint Giles, Reading, and afterwards rector of Chelsea. Plis sermons, letters, etc. were published. Died in 1797. Cadore, de. Due. See Champagny. Cadoudal, kS'doo''dtK, (Georges,) a famous royalist conspirator, born in Brittany in 1769, fought in the Ven- dean war in 1793. In 1795 and 1796 he was one of the Chouan chiefs, and was defeated by General Hoche. He instigated another unsuccessful revolt in 1799. It ap- pears that he refused the offers of Bonaparte, who wished to enlist him in his service, in 1800. Having formed with Pichegru a conspiracy to assassinate or dethrone Bona- parte, he went to Paris in 1803, and remained concealed there for several months. In 1804 he was arrested, and after trial was executed with his accomplices. See Theodore Muret, "Vie de G. Cadoudal," 1845; Cr^ti- NEAU-JoLY, "Histoire militaire de la Vendee;" Scott, " Life of Napoleon." Ca-do'vi-us or MiilTer, (Jan,) a Dutch theologian and physician, born in 1650, wrote "Memoriale Linguae Frisicae Antiquae." Died in 1725. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fdr, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; CAD ROT 481 CjESAR Cadroy, kt'dRvvl', (Pierre,) a French lawyer, born at Saint-Sever in 1753, was a member of the Convention from 1792 to '95, and a moderate Girondist. He opposed the execution of the king. After the fall of Robespierre he was one of the commissaries of the Convention in the south of France, and took effectual measures against the terrorists in Marseilles and Toulon. Died in 1813. Cadwalader, kad-woKa-der, (George,) an American lawyer and general, born in Philadelphia. He served as a brigadier-general in the Mexican war in 1847. In June, 1861, he was second in command under General Patterson in Virginia. He was appointed a major- general of volunteers in 1862. Cadwalader, written also Cadwallader, (John,) an American general, born in Philadelphia in 1743. He served as brigadier-general at Princeton, Brandyw^'ne, Germantown, and Monmouth, 1777-78. Died in 1786. Cadwaladyr, kad-woKa-der, the last king of the Britons. Died at Rome in 703 A.D. Cadwaladyr, a Welsh bard of the sixteenth century. Cadwallon, kad-woKlon, Prince of Wales, the father of Cadwaladyr, was defeated in 622 A.D. by Edwin, and retired to Ireland. Ca''dy,( Daniel,) an American lawyer, born in Colum- bia county. New York, in 1773. He gained distinction as an advocate, became a member of Congress, and after- wards a judge. Died at Johnstown, New York, in 1859. Caecilius Calactinus, se-siKe-us ka-lak-ti^nus, [Kat- Ki7iiog KalanTLVoq,] a Greek rhetorician, born at Calacte, in Sicily, lived in Rome in the reign of Augustus. He wrote many works on grammar and rhetoric, which were approved by the critics of the first and second centuries, but are not extant. See Plutarch, "Lives of the Ten Orators." Caecilius Metellus. See Metellus. Caecilius Metellus, se-siKe-us me-teKlus, a Roman high-priest, (pontifex maximus,) was twice elected con- sul. He gained a victory over the Carthaginians about 250 B.C., and was chosen dictator in 224 B.C. Caecilius Statius, se-siKe-us sta'she-us, a popular Latin comic poet, the friend of Ennius, was born at Milan, and was a slave in his youth. He wrote forty comedies, of which short fragments only are extant. Died in 168 B.C. Cicero censures his style of Latinity, but admits that he is perhaps chief among comic poets. Horace appears to have thought him in some respects superior to Plautus and Terence. (Epist. lib. ii. i.) See "Quintilian," xi. Caecina, se-si'na, ( Aulus,) a Roman orator, was exiled about 48 B.C. for a libellous work against Caesar. He wrote a book on the "Etrusca Disciplina," which Pliny cites as an authority for his second book. Caecina Alienus, se-si'na a-le-ee'nus, (Aulus,) a Roman general, called also A. Licinius Caecina. In 68 A.D. he deserted Galba with a body of troops, and entered the service of Vitellius. In the year 69 he marched with a large force from Germany to Italy, and made a junction with the army of Valens. Caecina and Valens gained a victory over the army of Otho at Bedriacum, which rendered Vitellius master of Italy. Caecina soon deserted to Vespasian, and a few years later formed a plot against him, for which he was killed by order of Titus in 79 A.D. See JosEPHUS, "De Bello Judaico." _ Caeci'na Se-ve'rus, (Aulus,) a Roman general, dis- tinguished in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. He was governor of Moesia in 6 A.D. As legate of Ger- manicus, he commanded an army in Lower Germany, and defeated Arminius (Hermann) in 15 A.D. He lived five years or more after that date. Caedmon, kid'mon or kad'mon, styled " the father of English song," is first mentioned by Bede, who repre- sents him as a "cowherd" attached to the monastery of Whitby. An ode composed by him in praise of the Cre- ator is the earliest specimen of Anglo-Saxon metrical composition extant. Another and longer poem, treating on the creation and fall of man, is attributed to him. He is supposed to have died in 680 A.D. ,^ See Thomas Wright, " Biographia Britannica Literaria;" Long- fellow, '"Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Karl W. Bouterwek, "Dissertatio de Caedmone Poeta," 1845. Caelestius. See Celestius. Caelius. See Ccelius. Caelius (or Ccelius) Aurelianus, see'le-us au-re-le- a'nus, an eminent physician and medical writer, born at Sicca, in Africa, was one of the sect of Methodici, He probably lived between 100 and 300 A.D. He left two valuable Latin works on chronic and acute diseases, which are extant, entitled " De Morbis Chronicis" and "De Morbis Acutis." His writings are said to be more prac- tical than those of any other medical author of antiquity. See Carl J. Kuehn, "Programma de Cslio Aureliano," 1816. Caermarthen, Marquis of. See Danby, Earl of. Caesalpin or Caesalpinus. See Cesalpino. Caesar, see^'zar, [Fr. Cesar, sa'ztR' ; It. Cesare, cha''si-ri,] the cognomen of a patrician family of the Julia gens, which was one of the most ancient in the Roman state, and claimed a descent from lulus, the son of yEneas. The word is derived by some scholars from the Latin ccesaries, or the Sanscrit kesa, which signify "hair." No other name has obtained such celebrity in profane history. The first person bearing the name, who occurs in history, was Sextus Julius Caesar, praetor in 208 B.C. The name was assumed by the emperor Au- gustus, and by his successors ; and, although the family of Caesar became extinct with Nero, the succeeding em- perors retained it as a title. After the time of Hadrian, the title of Augustus was confined to the reigning prince, and that of Caesar was given to the heir-presumptive. Caesar, tsa'zSr, (Aquilinus Julius,) a German his- torian, born at Gratz in 1720. He wrote a " History of Styria," (7 vols., 1788.) Died in 1792. Caesar, (Caius.) See Caius Cy*;sAR. Caesar, (Caius Julius C^sar Strabo Vopiscus,) a distinguished' Roman orator and poet. He commenced his public career by a speech against T. Albucius in 103 B.C. He surpassed all the orators of his time in wit. He composed tragedies, which were rather polished than powerful. In 88 B.C. he was supported by the aristo- cratic party for consul ; but his election was violently prevented by the tribunes. This contest was one of the proximate causes of the civil war between Sulla and Marius. Caesar was killed at Rome by the partisans of Marius in 87 B.C. See Appian, " Bellum Civile." Caesar, (Julius,) [Fr. Jules C^sar, zhiil s^'zIr'; It GiULio Cesare, joo'le-o cha'si-rk ; Ger. Julius Casar, (or Caesar,) yoo'le-tis tsa'zir,] or, more fully, Ca'iua Ju'lius Cae'sar, one of the greatest generals and greatei^t men that ever lived, was born in July, 100 B.C. He be longed to the Julian tribe or family, (Julia gens,) one of the most ancient in Rome, since it boasted its descent from Julus or lulus, the son of yEneas. Through the influence of Marius, who had married Caesar's aunt Julia, he was elected priest of Jupiter ( Flamen Dialis) while yet a mere boy. In 83 B.C. he married Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna. This act gave great off'ence to Sulla, who commanded him to divorce his wife ; and, on his refusing to do so, he was proscribed. He escaped from Rome, and concealed himself for a time in the country of the Sabines. At length, at the intercession of some of Sulla's friends, he was reluctantly pardoned by the dictator, who remarked, it is said, that the young Caesar would some day be the ruin of the aristocratic party, adding, "In that boy there are many Mariuses." Soon after Caesar went to Nicomedes, King of Bithynia, and subsequently served with distinction in the Roman army in Cilicia. Having heard, while here, of the death of Sxilla, he returned at once to Rome. About 76 B.C., while on his way to Rhodes for the purpose of studying oratory under Apollonius Molo, (who was also the in- structor of Cicero,) he was taken prisoner by the pirates with whom the Mediterranean was at that time greatly infested. He was detained by them more than a month, until his friends could raise the sum demanded for his ransom. According to Plutarch, he treated his captors with great contempt, and, whenever he wished to sleep, used to send and order them to keep silence. He even threatened — in jest, as they supposed — to crucify them when he got his liberty. The ransom having at length been paid, he manned some Milesian vessels, pursued and took the pirates prisoners in their turn, and crucified € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (sJ^=^See Explanations, p. 23.) CJESAR 482 C^SAR them according to his promise. Having remained for some time in Rhodes, he returned to Rome, and became a candidate for popular favour. His patrimonial estate being insufficient to supply the means for that un- bounded liberality by which he sought to ingratiate himself with the people, he borrowed for this purpose vast sums from the usurers. It was cast upon him as a reproach, by his enemies, that he was always in debt, and that his poverty ceased only when he had turned his arms against Rome and robbed the public treasury. " Then for the first time," says Lucan, " Rome was poorer than Caesar."* Csesar was elected quaestor in 68 B.C. ; and in the same year his wife Cornelia died. In 67 he married Pompeia, a relative of Pompey the Great, and granddaughter of Sulla the dictator. This was especially intended to con- ciliate Pompey ; and by various other means he sought to ingratiate himself with that great leader. He became asdile in 65 B.C., and purchased the favour of the popu- lace by the exhibition of public games surpassing in magnificence anything of the kind ever before seen in Rome. In 64 B.C. he was elected pontifex maximus. Catiline's conspiracy occurred in 63, and Caesar was by many suspected of being accessory to it. When Cicero called for the opinion of the senators as to the punish- ment which should be inflicted on the conspirators, all the others gave judgment in favour of their death, until it came to Caesar's turn to speak. He contended that it was contrary to justice and to the usage of the Roman commonwealth to put men of their birth and dignity to death without an open trial, except in a case of extreme necessity. He recommended that they should be kept in prison in any of the cities of Italy which Cicero might fix upon, and that these cities should be bound by the severest penalties to keep them safely. Caesar's argu- ments had great influence with the senate ; but Cato, following in an earnest and powerful speech, in which he accused Caesar of being connected with the conspiracy, carried most of the senators with him : the conspirators were condemned to death ; and Caesar himself narrowly escaped. As he was leaving the senate-house, his life was threatened by some of the Roman knights ; and, had it not been for the fear of the common people, it is proba- ble that he might have been included in the accusation with Lentulus, Cethegus, and the rest. He became prastor in 62 B.C., and the next year was sent as propraetor to Spain, where he gained no little distinction both as a general and a civil magistrate, and was saluted by his army imperator. He was elected con- sul, with L. Calpurnius Bibulus as his colleague, in 60, and in 59 B.C. entered upon the duties of his office. One of his first measures was to propose an agrarian law, by which a rich tract of public land was to be distributed among the poorer citizens, especially those who had several children. Although this measure was strongly opposed by his colleague Bibulus, it was carried, chiefly through the influence of Pompey and Crassus. In order that he might strengthen his interest with Pompey still more, he gave him his daughter Julia in marriage, although she had previously been affianced to Servilius Caepio. Soon after Caesar himself married Calpurnia, the daughter of L. Piso, for whom he procured the con- sulship the ensuing year. He formed a secret alliance with Pompey and Crassus, known as the first triumvirate. Supported by such influence, Caesar had no difficulty in carrying through the senate whatever measures he pleased. The government both of Transalpine and Cisalpine Gaul, with that of Illyricum, was decreed to him for five years. The following spring, (58 B.C.,) when L. Piso and A. Gabinius were consuls, Caesar left Rome for Transalpine Gaul, and before winter had ended tri- umphantly two formidable wars, the one with the Hel- vetii, and the other with Ariovistus, a German prince who had some time before crossed the Rhine and, being supported by a powerful army, had established himself in the eastern part of Gaul. The next year he subdued the various Belgic tribes or nations dwelling between the Rhine and the Seine. In 56 B.C., having divided his * " Pauperiorque fuit tunc primum Caesare Roma." Pharsalia, lib. iii. 1. 168. forces, assigning a part of them to his different generals [legati) respectively, he overran nearly all the rest of Gaul, besides quelling the insurrections of several na- tions who had been subdued the year before. In 55 he surprised and cut to pieces two powerful German tribes who had attempted to establish themselves in Gaul. In order more effectually to strike terror into the Germans, he crossed the Rhine by a bridge which he had con- structed for that purpose, and, after ravaging the territo- ries of the Sigambri, he recrossed the river and destroyed the bridge. The same year he invaded Britain, and compelled the submission of several of the tribes. The following year he made another expedition into Britain, defeated Cassivellaunus, one of their princes, who had been chosen generalissimo by the different tribes, and, having demanded hostages and fixed the tribute which Britain should pay to the Romans, he returned to Gaul. The ensuing autumn a most formidable revolt occurred among the Eburones, under their king Ambiorix, who succeeded, by stratagem or treachery, in surprising and cutting to pieces a considerable body of Caesar's troops under the generals Sabinus and Cotta. Fortunately, Caesar had not yet set out for Italy, as he was accus- tomed to do on the approach of winter. Ambiorix, whose army had become much increased in consequence of his recent victory, was soon after defeated by Caesar with great loss ; but the latter deemed it most prudent to remain in Gaul through the entire winter. During the summer of 53 B.C. Caesar was chiefly occupied in re- pressing an extensive conspiracy which had been formed among the different Gallic nations, and in reducing to subjection such as had broken out into an open revolt. The following year a general insurrection took place among the Gauls. It was headed by Vercingetorix, a young nobleman of the Arverni, who proved himself to be a general of no mean capacity ; so that Caesar's situa- tion was for a time extremely critical. There appeared to be the greatest unanimity among the various Gallic nations. Even the .i^ldui, who, from the time when Caesar first obtained the government of Gaul, had been faithful allies to the Romans until now, made common cause with the rest, and joined the revolt. They took Noviodunum, a walled town which Caesar had made the chief depository of his stores ; and he was obliged to retreat to his lieutenant Labienus, beyond the Loire. But, having received reinforcements, he besieged Ver- cingetorix in Alesia, and at length compelled him to surrender. In the next year (51 B.C.) Caesar completed the pacification of Gaul. His daughter Julia, the wife of Pompey, had died in 54 B.C. Crassus, the other mem- ber of the triumvirate, had lost his life in the war against the Parthians. A coldness had gradually sprung up between him and Pompey, who appears to have become jealous of the recent brilliant successes of his colleague. From his first entrance into public life Caesar had at- tached himself to the popular party, and had constantly studied how he might reduce or overthrow the power of the aristocracy. Pompey, on the other hand, a favourite and connection of Sulla, had been one of the staunch- est adherents of the senatorial faction, and, after the death of the dictator, was generally regarded as the chief of the aristocratic party. And although, thrc-ugh the arts and influence of Caesar, he had been induced for a time to take the other side, on the breaking up of their friendship he naturally fell back to his former position. There had been for some time, on the part of the aristocracy, a growing jealousy of Caesar's power and influence in the state. Some of the more violent were resolved to crush him, if possible, at all hazards. In the year 50 B.C. it was proposed to the senate, by Claudius Marcellus, that Caesar, having now finished the Gallic war, should be required to lay down his command. But the tribune Curio, whom Caesar had by large bribes gained over to his interest, interposed his veto. Caesar was, however, on diff"erent pretexts, deprived of two of his legions. Yet, desirous — or seeming to be so — of avoiding a rupture, if possible, he proposed to the sen- ate, through Curio, to resign his command on condition that Pomj/ey would do the same. The senate, however, refused even to consider the proposition. Afterwards, on the motion of Scipio, it was decreed that Caesar a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f3.r, fill, f^t; m§t; ndt; good; moon; C^SAR 485 C^BAR should disband his army against a certain day, otherwise he should be held to be an enemy of the republic. This was a virtual declaration of war ; for few, if any, could suppose that Caesar would give up his army without a struggle. On being informed of the resolution of the senate, he assembled his soldiers and harangued them on the subject of his wrongs. When he found that they eagerly espoused his cause, he determined to strike at once, while his enemies were yet unprepared. With only 5000 infantry and 300 horse — for his other forces were still beyond the Alps — he marched towards the confines of Italy, which, with its then limits, was separated on the east from Cisalpine Gaul by the small river Rubicon. When he arrived at the banks of this stream, as Plutarch informs us, he hesitated for some time, revolving in his mind the arguments for and against the momentous step which he was about to take. At last, exclaiming, "The die is cast!" he crossed the river, and, advancing with the utmost expedition, he occupied successively Ariminum, Arretium, Pisaurum, Ancona, Auximum, be- sides other places. Owing partly to his popularity and partly to the fear which his name inspired, all the towns of Italy seemed ready to open their gates at his approach. His triumphant progress filled Rome with consternation. In the general panic, Pompey, the two consuls, and most of the senators fled from the city in the direction of Capua. Pompey continued his flight to Brundisium, whither he was closely pursued by Caesar. He escaped, however, to Greece. Caesar, being unable to follow, for want of ships, returned to Rome, and not long after set out for Spain, where Afranius and Petreius, Pompey's lieuten- ants, were at the head of a formidable army. In his first engagement with them Caesar was worsted ; but, after encountering for a time great hardships from the want of provisions, he at length triumphed over every obstacle, and compelled Afranius and Petreius to sue for peace, which he granted on condition that they should disband their forces and not again take arms against him during the war. Having overcome all opposition in Spain, — the conquest of which occupied him only about forty days, — and subsequently reduced Massilia, (Marseilles,) he hastened to Rome. During his absence in Spain he had been declared dictator by the praetor M. Lepidus. After eleven days, during which time several important laws had been passed, he abdicated the dictatorship, and immediately set out for Brundisium, where he had ordered his forces to assemble. But he found it impossible to obtain vessels suflicient for their transportation : he was therefore under the necessity of carrying over to Greece only a part of his troops at the first passage. Meanwhile, his situation was critical in the extreme ; for Pompey, on account of the multitude of his ships, had command of the sea, and a strict watch was kept upon the movements of Caesar's vessels, so that the forces of the latter were for a considerable time divided, one part having been landed in Epirus, while the other was compelled to remain in Italy. At length Bibulus, the commander of Pompey's fleet, died ; and, his place not being at once supplied, each of the officers acted according to his own judgment and independently of the others. After a time, the vigilance of the block- ade having been somewhat relaxed, the remainder of Caesar's forces were carried over, under the conduct of his faithful friends Mark Antony and Fufius Calenus. In his first encounter with Pompey, near Dyrrachium, Caesar was repulsed with some loss, and compelled to retreat. He withdrew to Thessaly, whither he was pur- sued by Pompey. At last the two opposing armies met on the plains of Pharsalia ; and although the forces of Pompey (consisting of about 45,000 infantry and 7000 cavalry) were more than double those of his rival, who had about 22,000 foot-soldiers and 1000 horse, they sustained a disastrous defeat. According to Caesar's own statement, about 15,000 of Pompey's men fell in the conflict, and more than 24,000 were taken prisoners. Pompey escaped to Egypt, where he was treacherously murdered. (See Pompey.) The result of the civil war may be said to have been decided by the battle of Phar- salia. But there still remained a formidable army of the Pompeians in Africa, under the command of Scipio and Cato. Caesar did not, however, proceed at once against these enemies. Having followed Pompey to Egypt, he became involved in a dispute respecting the claims of Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra to the throne of that country. Captivated by the charms of Cleopatra, he supported her cause against her elder brother, who per- ished during the war which ensued. Cleopatra was de- clared Queen of Egypt ; but her younger brother, called also Ptolemy, was associated with her on the throne. Before returning to Rome, Caesar marched against Phar- naces, son of Mithridates the Great, King of Pontus, and totally defeated him near Zela. It was concerning this victory that he wrote to the senate the famous letter comprised in three words, ^^Veni, vidi^ via,'''' ("'I came, I saw, I conquered.") He arrived at Rome in Septem- ber, 47 B.C., and before the end of that year set out for Africa. The opposing armies met at Thapsus, near the sea-coast, to the southeast of Carthage. The result was the total defeat, and ail-but extermination, of the forces under Scipio. The Caesarean soldiers, exasperated by the obstinacy with which the war had been protracted, cut to pieces all whom they overtook, killing without mercy even those who offered themselves as prisoners, in spite of the remonstrances and entreaties of Caesar. The cause of the senatorial party having become utterly desperate, Scipio, Juba, Cato, and several others of the leaders, unwilling to fall into the power of the conqueror, put an end to their lives with their own hands. Caesar returned to Rome, the undisputed master of the world. But he had scarcely completed the celebra- tion of his recent victories, when intelligence arrived that Pompey's sons, Cneius and Sextus, had assembled a powerful army in Spain. Caesar hastened with his usual promptitude to meet the new danger. He en- gaged his enemies near Munda, and, after a very severe action, put them to a total rout. According to Plutarch, when Caesar saw his men hard pressed and making but a feeble resistance, he rushed into the thickest of the fight, exclaiming, " Are you not ashamed to deliver up your general into the hands of these boys .'"' — alluding to the youth of Pompey's sons. After the battle he said to his friends that he had often fought for victory ; but then, for the first time, he had fought for his life. This was the last of Caesar's wars. Although he had thus risen to the summit of power on the ruins of the republic, in the exercise of that power he appears never to have lost sight of the true interests of his country and of the world. One of the first sub- jects that claimed his attention was the regulation of the Roman calendar. For this purpose, though well versed himself both in mathematics and astronomy, he availed himself of the skill of the most eminent mathematicians of that age. The improved mode of computing time introduced by him has, with some slight modifications, been adopted by all civilized nations, and his name has become inseparably associated with the new calendar, both in the name of the month July, and in the phrases "Julian year," "Julian period," etc. He procured the enactment of several important and salutary laws, and was revolving in his mind vast projects of public im- provements, including- the preparation of a complete digest of the Roman laws, the clearing out and enlarging of the harbour of Ostia, (at the mouth of the Tiber,) the draining of the Pontine marshes, the cutting of a canal across the Isthmus of Corinth, and the establish- ment of public libraries, when death put an end to his labours and undertakings. After the total overthrow of the partisans of Pompey, he had received from the senate the title of Imperator (whence comes our word " emperor") for life ; he was also declared dictator, and Prcefechis Mortim, ("prefect of manners," or "customs,") both offices being perpetual. As pontifex maxwms, or high -priest, he had control of the religion of the state. To all these honours he wished to add the title of king, {rex,) and thus to hand down his power and dignities to his successor. Having no le- gitimate children, he adopted his grand-nephew Octavius, whose mother Atia was the daughter of Julia the sister of Caesar, as his successor and the inheritor of his name. His devoted adherent Mark Antony, on the occasion of the festival called Lupercalia, perhaps with a view to sound the feelings of the people, publicly offered to € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, Vi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) CjESAR 484 CMSAR Ciesar a regal crown ; but he, perceivingthat it displeased the multitude, refused it, though, as it was thought, with some reluctance. The name of king, from the time of the Tarquins, had always been, and still was, peculiarly odious to all classes of the Romans ; and this considera- tion encouraged Caesar's bitter enemies, of whom there were not a few concealed among the aristocracy, to be- lieve that the taking of his life would meet with many approvers even among the people. There was at length formed against him a conspiracy, in which more than sixty persons were implicated. The principal instigator and leader of the enterprise was Cassius, who had dis- tinguished himself as the lieutenant of Crassus in the Parthian war. M. Brutus was also prominent among the conspirators. He appears to have been actuated by a sincere though mistaken patriotism ; while Cassius, there is leason to believe, was chiefly influenced by per- sonal animosity. It is said that Cassar had many warn- ings of his approaching fate, and that the night before his death his wife Calpurnia dreamed that he was mur- dered in her arms. In the morning she entreated him with te:.rs not to go to the senate-house, as he had in- tended. When he had almost decided to stay at home, Decimu j Brutus, one of the conspirators, to whom, as well as to M. Brutus, Caesar had shown many favours, and in whom he had the greatest confidence, came in, and at length prevailed on him to go with him to meet the senate. It had been arranged, as it appears, that while one of the conspirators, L. Tillius Cimber, was presenting a petition to Ccesar, some of the others should crowd around, as if to urge the same request, when an attack upon him should be made by all at once. At first Caesar resolutely resisted ; but, when he perceived the number of his assailants, he wrapped him- self in his toga and resigned himself to his fate. Ac- cording to one account, Caesar defended himself with spirit until he saw the dagger of M. Brutus among the rest, when he exclaimed, "Et tu. Brute !" ("Thou too, Brutus !") and yielded without any further struggle. Shakspeare, in his tragedy of "Julius Caesar," appears to have followed scrupulously and minutely the popular traditions respecting the death of Caesar. After his death it was found that his body had been pierced with twenty-three wounds. He was assassinated on the Ides of March, 44 B.C., in the fifty-sixth year of his age. Caesar was tall in stature, and of a noble and com- manding presence. He was naturally of a delicate con- stitution ; but by continual exercise and by a frequent exposure to hardships, with the aid of an indomitable will, he became so hardy that few if any could surpass him in enduring the fatigues and privations of a military life. It would seem, however, that his unremitting men- tal exertions and anxieties began at last to tell upon his health ; for Suetonius speaks of his suffering from ill health, assigning it as a reason why he was so reckless of the warnings given him by the soothsayers, as if his life had not been worth the trouble necessary for its preservation. He was subject to occasional attacks of epilepsy; but they were so rare that they do not appear to have seriously interfered with his attention to his multitudinous affairs. Considered as a general, a statesman, and a ruler, we must admit that few, if any, — even among the most re- markable men that ever lived, — have equalled him, espe- cially if we take into account the versatility as well as the greatness of his talents. " As a soldier," says Suetonius, *' it is hard to say whether he was more cautious or more daring. He never marched his army where he was liable to any ambush from the enemy without taking all possible precaution by his scouts. Nor did he pass over into Britain until he had made due inquiry respecting the harbours and what convenience there was for landing his troops. Yet when information was brought him of the siege of a camp of his in Germany, he made his way to his men in a Gallic dress through the enemy's guards. He also went over from Brundisium to Dyrrachium in winter in the midst of the hostile fleets." In the fertility of his resources he appears to have been superior to every other commander of whom history makes mention. He rarely if ever repeated the same stratagem ; but he seems to have had a new expedient or invention for every new occasion, and one which was always adequate to the emergency. Speaking of those extraordinary men who have com- pelled "nations unaccustomed to control" to bow obe- dient to their will, Macaulay remarks that "in this class three men stand pre-eminent, — Caesar, Cromwell, and Bonaparte. The highest place in this remarkable tri- umvirate belongs undoubtedly to Caesar. He united the talents of Bonaparte to those of Cromwell ; and he possessed also what neither Cromwell nor Bonaparte possessed, — learning, taste, wit, eloquence, the senti- ments and the manners of an accomplished gentleman." (See his article on Hallam's " Constitutional History," in the "Edinburgh Review," 1828.) In Caesar the intel- lect, the passions, and the will appear to have main- tained a perfect equipoise. For, strong and fierce as were his passions, he never allowed them to rule him ; thus justifying the well-known line of Pope's " Temple of Fame," — "Csesar, the world's great master, and his own." He never permitted personal pique or animosity to in- terfere in any way with the grand purposes of his life. Although he was, it must be confessed, very far from being a virtuous man, even in the pagan acceptation of the word, he possessed some very noble and rare moral qualities. He appears to have shunned, as by " an im- mortal instinct," everything that was petty, narrow, or vindictive. Generosity and magnanimity seem to have been inseparable parts of his nature. Suetonius, who certainly did not err on the side of partiality, says Caesar was always obliging and kind to his friends, mentioning as an example that when he was on a journey through a wild country with C. Oppius, and the latter was suddenly taken ill, Caesar gave up to him the only sleeping-apart- ment, and lay himself on the ground in the open air. The same writer also observes that he never carried 3 quarrel so far but that he was always ready to lay it down when a reasonable occasion offered. Plis clemency and generosity were conspicuous in every part of his life, but especially so towards the conquered party in the civil war. He was not only a perfect master in the use of arms, and a most skilful horseman, but he was accus- tomed, when occasion required, to swim across rivers rather than permit the slightest delay. In oratory he was, in that age, second only to Cicero ; and it is thought that had he devoted himself more fully to the study he might have surpassed Cicero himself He is said to have been a perfect master of all the learning and science of his time. Besides being a general, statesman, jurist, orator, and historian, he was also a poet, a mathemati- cian, an astronomer, and an architect. As a historian he justly holds a very high rank. His style is distinguished for clearness, ease, and simplicity, and is not without ele- gance. His historical writings consist of the first seven books of the commentaries relating to the Gallic war and the three books concerning the civil war. Besides the above, he wrote various other works, of which only fragments remain. A few of his letters have been pre- served among the letters of Cicero. See Plutarch, "Lives;" Suetonius, "Lives of the Twelve Caesars;" Cvesar, "Commentaries;" Dion Cassius, "History of Rome ;" Appian, " Bellum Civile ;" Drumann, "Geschichte Roms;" Julius Celsus, "De Vita et Rebus gestis C.J. Caesaris," 1697; Ri- chard DE Bury, "Histoire de la Vie de J. C^sar," 2 vols., 1758; Alphonse de Beauchamp, "Vie de J. Cesar," 1823; Napoleon Bonaparte, "Precis des Guerres de J. Cesar, ecrit par M. Mar- chand sous la Dictee de I'Empereur," 1836 ; Enrico Bindi, "Sulla Vita e sulle Opere diC. G. Cesare discorso," 1844 ; P. van Limburg- Brouwer, "Cesar en zijne Tijdgenooten," 4 vols., 1845-46; Jacob Abbott, " Life of Julius Caesar," 1849; Napoleon IIL, "Histoire de Jules Cesar," 2 vols., 1867-68 ; Lucan, "Pharsalia ;" also Byron, "Cliilde Harold," canto iv., 90th stanza. Caesar, see'zar, (Sir Julius,) an eminent English civilian, born in 1557. He was the friend of Lord Bacon, and a favourite of James I., soon after whose accession he was made chancellor of the exchequer. He wrote the "Authority and Proceedings of the Court of Requests." Died in 1636. * See Edmund Lodge, " Life of Sir Julius Cassar," etc., 1810. Caesar, (L. Julius,) a Roman senator, was a nephew of the orator Caius Julius Caesar, and an uncle of Mark Antony the triumvir, who was the son of his sister Julia. He was consul in 64 B.C., and in the next year voted for a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, skort; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; m&t; n6t; good; moon: 485 CAGNURD the death of Catiline's accomplices, among whom was his sister's husband, P. Lentulus Sura, He took no active part in the civil war which began in 49. After the death of the great Caesar in 44 B.C., he joined the senatorial party against Antony, and was included in the proscription by the triumvirs in 43, but was pardoned through the intercession of his sister Julia. Caesar, (L. Julius,) a son of the preceding, fought for Pompey in the civil war, and in 46 B.C. had a com- mand at Utica under Cato, who at his death committed "his son to his care. Having surrendered Utica, he was pardoned by the dictator. See CyESAR, "Bellum Civile." Csesariauus, se-za-re-a'nus, (C^sar,) [It. Cesare Cesariano, cha's^-ri chk-si-re-i'no,] an architect, born at Milan, translated into Italian Vitruvius's work on Ar- chitecture, with a commentary, {1521.) Died in 1542. Ceesarion, se-za're-on, [Fr. Cesarion, sa^zt^re^dN',] the son of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra, was born in Egypt in 47 B.C. He probably accompanied his niother to Rome in the year 46. It is said that Antony once declared in the senate that Caesar recognized Caesarion as his son. In the year 34 he received from Antony the title of king of kings. He was put to death, by order of Augustus, in 30 B.C. Caesarius, se-za're-us, [Fr. C^saire, si'zSR',] Saint, an eminent physician, born about 330 A.D., was the son of Gregory Nazianzen, who is styled a Father of the Church. He was first physician to the emperor Con- stantius at Constantinople until his death in 360. Julian made an exception in his favour when he removed from his court the officers who professed Christianity, and vainly attempted to pervert him from the faith. He was a brother of Saint Gregory Theologus, Died in 369 a.d. See Baii.let, "Vies des Saints." Caesarius, [Fr. C^saire,] Saint, an eminent and in- fluential French prelate, born at Chalons about 470 a.d., was chosen Bishop of Aries in 502. He strenuously opposed Arianism and Semi-Pelagianism. In 505 he was exiled for a short time by Alaric the Goth. He composed a "Rule for Monastic Life," and numerous sermons or homilies, which are still extant. Died in 542. Caesius Bassus, See Bassus. Caetan. See Cajetan. Caffa, kaPfa, (Melchiore,) an able Italian sculptor, born in Malta about 1632, was called "the Maltese," He worked at Rome. Died in 1687, Caffarelli. See Gaffarelli. Caffarelli, kt'ft'ra'le', (Francois Marie Auguste,) a general in the French service, born at Falga in 1766. He served as general of division at Austerlitz in 1805, and was minister of war for the kingdom of Italy from 1806 to 1810, after which he made several campaigns in Spain. In 1814 he escorted the empress Maria Louisa to Vienna. Died in 1849. See Trelat, " Notice sur le G{5neral A. Caffarelli," 1850. Caffarelli du Falga, kt fft'rcVle' du ftKgt', (Louis Marie Joseph Maximilien,) a French general, brother of the preceding, born in Langnedoc in 1756. He served in the army before the Revolution, escaped from the proscription of 1793, after a confinement of fourteen months, and distinguished himself near Dusseldorf in 1795, Having obtained the rank of general of division, he went to Egypt with Bonaparte in 1798 as chief of the corps of engineers. After rendering important services, he was killed at the siege of Acre in 1799. He was a member of the Institute, and author of several brief and able scientific treatises. Bonaparte had a high opinion of his merit. See Degerando, "Vie du General Caffarelli du Falga," 1802; F. d'Ai.deguier, "fitude historique sur la Vie de Caffarelli du Falga," 1849. Caffaro, kiffl-ro, called also Taschifellone, (tSs- ke-f|]-lo'ni,) a Genoese historian, born about 1080. He joined the crusade in iioo, and fought in Palestine. He wrote a '^History of Genoa," in Latin. Died in 1164. Cafii, kSf fee, (Ippolito,) an Italian painter, born at Belluno in 1814, became a resident of Rome, and de- voted himself to monumental views with success. His scene of the Carnival was exhibited at the Paris Expo- sition of 1855. He wrote a "Treatise on Perspective." Caffiaux, kt'fe-o', (Philippe Joseph,) a French nonk and writer, born in 1712; died in 1777. Caflieri, kSf-fe-a'ree, (Filippo,) an Italian sculptor, born in Rome in 1634; died in France in 1716. Caffieri, kaf-fe-a'ree or kt'fe'a''re', (Jean Jacques,) a French sculptor, born probably in Paris in 1723, was the son of Jacques Caffien, who also was a sculptor. The son became sculptor to the king, and professor in the Academy of Painting, Among his finest works are a bust of Corneille and a statue of Moliere, Died in 1792. See FoNTENAV, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Cagliari, k^Kyi-ree, or Caliari, kl'le-i-ree, (Bene- detto,) a painter of the Venetian school, brother of Paul Veronese, born in 1538. " Saint Agatha in Prison"'' is called his master-piece. Died in 1598. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Cagliari or Caliari, (Carlo,) called Carletto, son of Paolo, noticed below, was a painter of merit, and imi- tated the style of his father with success. He died in 1596, aged twenty-six, after completing some woiks which his father left unfinished. See RiDOLFi, " Vite de' Pittori Veneti ;" Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Cagliari or Caliari, (Paolo,) a celebrated Italian painter, called Paul Veronese, (vi-ro-na'si,) was born at Verona about 1530. He received lessons in art from his uncle Badile, and in the early part of his life went to Venice, where he was very successful, especially in the ornamental style. He afterwards worked in Rome and other cities of Italy. Among his master-pieces are "Thf) Marriage at Cana," (in the Louvre,) " The Pilgrims of Emmaus," and "The Rape of Europa." He was re- markable for richness of imagination, and ranks among the greatest masters as a colorist. Died in Venice in 1588, "The sixteenth century," says Ruskin, "produced the four greatest /a////^rj- — that is to say, managers of colour — that the world has seen, namely, Tintoret, Paul Vero- nese, Titian, and Correggio." ("Modern Painters.") See Carlo RiDOLFi, "Vitadi P. Cagliari," 1648; Lecarpentier, " Notice sur P. Caliari," 1816 ; Zabeo, " Elogio di P. Cagliari," 1813. Cagliostro, kSl-yos'tRo, (Alexander,) Count, a celebrated charlatan and arch-impostor, whose ])roper name was Giuseppe Balsamo, (joo-sep'pa bSKsa-mo,) was born at Palermo, in Sicily, about 1745. He assumed the title of count, travelled in many countries under various names, professed alchemy and free-masonry, practised medicine and sorcery, and raised money by various forms of imposture. He was accompanied in his adventures by his handsome vvife Seraphina, who was also a mason, "Masonry," says Carlyle, "with its blazonry and miunmery, sashes, drawn sabres, brothers Terrible, brothers Venerable, (the whole so imposing by candle-light,) offered the choicest element for him. Accordingly he goes forth prospering and to prosper," (Carlyle's " Miscellanies," vol. iv.) He travelled in his own coach, with a numerous retinue in rich liveries. His fame and fortune culminated at Strasburg in 1783, where he made a dupe of the Prince Cardinal de Rohan. In 1785 this cardinal and Cagliostro were imprisoned in the Bastille, Paris, for complicity in the notorious affair of the Diamond Necklace. Released at the end of nine months, the coimt went to England, and thence to Rome, where in 1789 he was arrested and sentenced to per- petual imprisonment for being a free-mason. He died in prison in 1795. Schiller's " Geisterseher" was sug- gested by the history of this personage, who was also the subject of Goethe's drama " Gross-Kcphta," See " Lettres de Mirabeau sur Cagliostro et Lavater," 1786; " Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire du Comte de Cagliosf o," 1785 ; " Coinpendio della Vita, etc. di Giuseppe Balsamo den^ jninato il Conte Cagliostro," 1790; "Life of Count Cagliostro, with his Trial before the Inquisition," 1791; Hildebrandt, " Merkwiirdige Aben-. teuerdes Grafen Cagliostro und Anderer," 1839; William Russell,* " Eccentric Personages," 1866. Cagnati, kSn-yi'tee, (Gilberto,) an Italian botanist, born at Nocera, lived about 1550. He published the "Praises of Gardens," (" De Hortorum Laudibus,") Cagnati, (Marsilio,) [Lat. Marsil'ius Cagna'tus,] a learned Italian physician, born at Padua, published several medical works, (1581-1602.) Died about 1610. Cagniard de la Tour, ktn^ye-tR' deh It tooR, (Charles,) Baron, a Frenchman, distinguished for his € as k: 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (JJ^^'See Explanations, p, 23.) CJGNOLA 4«6 CAILLIAUD mechanical inventions, was born in Paris in 1777. After 181 1 he was attached to the council of state and minis- try of the interior. He invented a portable mill for camps; the sirhie, an acoustic instrument; and other machines. In 185 1 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences as successor to Gay-Lussac. Among his works is the suspended aqueduct of Crouzol. Cagnola, kSn-yo'li, (Luigi,) Marquis, an eminent Italian architect, born in Milan in 1762. His principal works are the triumphal arch of the Porta del Ticino at Milan, (once called Porta di Marengo,) the Campa- nile at Urgnano, (1829,) the churches at Vavallo and Ghisalba, and the marble Porta del Sempione, Milan, commenced in 1807, and finished under the name of "Arco della Pace," ("x^rch of Peace,") about 1835. This is the most magnificent of modern triumphal arches, except perhaps the " Arc de I'fitoile" at Paris. He was chamberlain to the Austrian emperor, and president of the Institute of Milan. Died in 1833. See Valery, "Voyages historiques, etc. en Italic;" N. Gironi, "Necrologia del Marchese L. Cagnola," 1844. Cagnoli, kin-yo'lee, (Antonio,) an Italian geometer, born at Zante in 1743. Pie passed some years in Paris, where he was attached to the Venetian embassy, and applied himself to astronomy. About 1786 he removed to Verona, where he had an observatory. In 1798 he was chosen professor of mathematics at Modena, and he was president of the Italian Society from 1800 until his death. He wrote an excellent "Treatise on Trigo- nometry," (1786,) one on "Conic Sections," (1801,) and several other works. He was a member of the Institute of France. Died at Verona in 1816. See Labus, "Vita di A. Cagnoli," 1816; Carlini, "Notizie sulla Vita di A. Cagnoli," 1819; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Ency- klopaedie." Cahaignes, kt'an', or Cahagnes, kt'tn', (Jacques,) a French medical writer, born at Caen in 1 548 ; died in 1612. Cahen, ki'dN', (Samuel,) a French Jew and eminent Hebraist, born at Metz in 1796, directed the consistorial school of the Jews in Paris from 1823 to 1836. He published a "Manual of Universal History," (1836,) and other works, the most important of which is a French version of the Old Testament, (1851.) Died in 1862. Caiier-Billah. See Al-Kahir-Billah. Cahours, kt'ooR', ( Augus te,) a French chemist, born in 1813. He has distinguished himself by his researches in organic chemistry, has been a teacher of chemistry in the Polytechnic School, Paris, and has exhibited the actual state of chemical science in a methodical and com- plete treatise, entitled "Lessons of General Elementary Chemistry," (1856.) Cahusac, de, deh ki'u'ztk', (Louis,) a French dra- matist, born at Montauban, became a resident of Paris and secretary to the Count of Clermont. He com- posed tragedies, comedies, and operas, the last of which were successful, aided by the music of Rameau. Died in 1759. Caianian, a Persian dynasty. See Kaianian. Caiaphas, ka'e-fas, [Gr. Kaia^af ; Fr. Caiphe, kt'^P,] was high-priest of the Jews in 33 a.d. (See Matthew xxvi. 3 ; Luke iii. 2 ; John xviii. 13.) Caiet. See Cayet. Caietano. See Cajetan. Caigniez, kin'ye-a', (Louis Charles,) a French dra- matist, born at Arr^in 1762, was called the Racine of the Boulevards. His " Judgment of Solomon" and " Pie voleuse" (181 5) were translated into several languages. Died in 1842. Cailhava, ki'ltVa', (Jean FRANgois,) a French comic writer, was born near Toulouse in 173 1. He composed several successful comedies and comic operas, among ' which are "The Guardian Duped," (1765,) "Harlequin Mahomet," and "Egotism," a comedy in verse, (1777.) He was elected a member of the Institute in 1798. Died m 1813. Caillard, kt'ylR', (Antoine Bernard,) a French diplomatist, born at Aignan in 1737. He was ambas- sador at Berlin in 1795, and received the portfolio of foreign affairs during the absence of Talleyrand in 1801. Died in 1807. Caillau, kt'y5',(jEAN Marie,) a French medical wi iter, born at Gaillac in 1765 ; died in 1820. Caille, de la, deh IS kSI or kS'ye, (Nicolas Louis,) a celebrated French astronomer, born at Rumigny, neai Rheims, in Picardy, in March, 1713. He was educated for the church, and obtained the title of abbe, but speedily renounced theology, and applied himself to astronomy under J. Cassini, who gave him a lodging in the observatory at Paris. In 1739 he was employed in the important work of the verification of the meridian, and before the end of the year he finished the triangulation from Paris to Perpignan. By this operation, and others connected with it, he demonstrated that the length of a degree gradually increases from the equator to the pole. In 1740 he was appointed professor of mathematics in the Mazarin College, for the use of which he wrote treatises on geometry, mechanics, astronomy, and optics. He undertook to rectify the catalogue of the stars, and in 1 75 1, at the expense of government, performed a voyage to the Cape of Good Hope. Having accurately observed about ten thousand stars, he returned to Paris in 1754. He proposed a form of Nautical Almanac since generally adopted, published "^Principles of Astronomy," ("As- tronomiae Fundamenta," 1758,) "Tables of the Sun," and Ephemerides. He died in Paris in March, 1762, after which his Southern catalogue (" Coelum Australe Stelli- ferum," i.e. " Southern Starry Heaven") was published. Delambre says his observations will compare favour- ably in accuracy with those of his most celebrated con- temporaries who had more perfect instruments. Again, he says, " Having reviewed and verified, with new means, a great part of the labours of La Caille, ... I have felt, at every step with which I traced his progress, increased admiration for the savant who will ever be the honour of French astronomy." See G. Brotier, " Clarissimi Viri N. L. de la Caille, Vita," 1763; FoucHY, "filoge de La Caille;" Baillv, "filoge de La Caille;" Arago, " Notices biographiques," tome iii. Caille, ki'ya^ or Caillie, kS'e-ya', (Ren^:,) a French traveller, borli at Mauze (Deux-Sevres) in 1799. A pas- sion for travel led him to Western Africa as early as 181 7. He learned the Arab language, and pretended to be a Mussulman. About 1827 he performed a journey from Sierra Leone to Timbuctoo, from which he crossed the desert with a caravan to Morocco in 1828. He had succeeded with his own small resources in an enterprise that had baffled the efforts of many men aided by their government. On his return to France he received a reward of ten thousand francs promised to any one who should visit Timbuctoo, and he published a journal of his travels. Died in 1838. See E. F. Jomard, " Notice historique sur la Vie de Rene Caill^," 1839; " London Quarterly Review" for March, 1830. Caillemote, ktrmot' or ki'ye-mot', a French Prot- estant officer, was a younger son of the Marquis de Ruvigny. He was colonel of a French regiment in the service of William III. of England, and was killed at the battle of the Boyne in 1690. See Macaulav's "History of England," vol. iii. Caillet, ki'ycV, (Guillaume,) a French peasant, born at Mello, near Beauvais, was the leader of the peasantry who in 1358 made an insurrection against the nobles and burned two hundred castles. They called Caillet "Jacques Bonhomme," and themselves "La Jacquerie." The avowed object of the insurgents, whose number was about 100,000, was to exterminate the no- bility. Having been defeated by the dauphin, Caillet was taken and executed in 1359. See SiSMONDi, " Histoire des Fran^ais;" Froissart, "Chron icles." Cailliaud,kt'e-y5',(FR^ DERic),a distinguished French traveller, born at Nantes in 1787. He went to Egypt in 181 5, and in the service of Mehemet Ali made explora- tions along the Upper Nile. He re-discovered in Mount Zabarah the famous emerald-mines which were worked in ancient times, and procured in them ten pounds in weight of emeralds. In 1821 a narrative of his travels, entitled "Journey to the Oasis of Thebes," ("Voyage a I'Oasis de Thebes," etc.,) was published by the govern- ment. Having returned to Paris in 1822, he published a "Journey to Meroe, the White River, the Oasis of Siwah," etc., (1823-26,) and "Researches into the Arts a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, .s/^cjr/; a,e, i, o, obsmre;^^,^^\ik\.\ mgt; n&t; good; moon; CAILLIE 487 CALAMT and Trades and the Civil and Domestic Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, Nubians, and Ethiopians," (1831,) which are highly interesting works. Caillie. See Caill6. Caillot, kt'e-yo', (Joseph,) a popular French comic actor, born in Paris in 1732. He made Ynsdebtit^A Paris in 1766, and performed many years with success. In 1800 he was chosen a correspondent of the Institute of France. Died in 1816. Caillouete, kt'yooW, (Louis Denis,) a French sculptor, born in 1791. His works adorn the Louvre and other palaces of Paris. Cailly, de, deh kt'e-ye', (Jacques,) a French poet, called also D'Aceilly, was born at Orleans in 1604; died in 1673. Cain, kan, [Heb. [Ip.] the eldest son of Adam, was the first who committed homicide. (See Genesis, chap, iv.) In the second century a sect of heretics assumed the name of Cainites. Cain, kiN, (Auguste,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1822. Among his best works are " The Eagle defend- ing his Prey," and "The Frogs wishing for a King." Caiphe. See Caiaphas. Caird, kSrd, (James,) a Scottish agriculturist, born at Stranraer in 1816, published, besides other works, " English Agriculture." He was a Liberal member of Parliament from 1857 to 1865, and became in 1863 chair- man of the royal commission on the sea-fisheries. Caird, (Rev. John,) a Scottish minister and eloquent pulpit orator, born at Greenock about 1822. He preached at Edinburgh and Errol,and about 1857 became minister of the Park Church, Glasgow. He published "Religion in Common Life," (1856,) and a volume of Sermons, (1858,) which had an extensive circulation. See "Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1856; " Eraser's Magazine" for August, 1858. Cairnes, kSrnz, (David,) an Irish lawyer and officer, who distinguished himself by his bravery at the defence of Derry against the forces of James II. in 1689. He afterwards represented that city in Parliament, and be- came attorney-general. Died in 1772. Cairns, karnz,(HuGH McCalmont,) commonly called Lord Cairns, an eminent lawyer and orator, born near Belfast, in Ireland, in 1 819, has represented Belfast in the House of Commons since 1852, and has been con- spicuous as one of the ablest debaters in Parliament. He was solicitor -general for a short time in 1858, became attorney-general on the formation of a new ministry by Lord Derby in July, 1866, was appointed lord justice of appeal in October, 1866, and lord chancellor of England in February, 1868. In December of the same year he resigned with his colleagues. He is now (1869) leader of the Conservative party in the House of Lords. Cairo, kl'ro, (Francesco,) an Italian painter of the Milanese school, born in 1598, was the favourite pupil of Morazzone, whom he is said to have surpassed in design. Died in 1674. Caiumers or Caiumaras. See Peshdadian, (dy- nasty.) Caius. See Gaius. Caius, ka'yus, a Christian writer on theology, lived at Rome about 210 A.D. His works are not extant. Caius, kS'yoos, (Bernardino,) an Italian medical writer, born in Venice, flourished about 1610. Caius, kecz, written also Kaye, Key, or Cay, (John,) an eminent English physician, born at Norwich in 1 5 10, was a graduate of Cambridge University. After prac- tising in Norwich, he settled in London, and was ap- pointed physician successively to Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. He founded at Cambridge the college which bears his name. His talents and learning as a'linguist, antiquary, and physician were proved by numerous works in Latin, among which are a "Treatise on the Sweating Sickness," one "On British Dogs," one "On the An- tiquity of Cambridge University," and translations from Hippoceates and Galen. Died in 1573, See "Lives of British Physicians," London, 1857; Niceron, " Memoires." Caius, ka'yus, Saint, a native of Dalmatia, was elected Bishop of Rome in 283 a.d. as successor to Eutychian, He died in 296. See TiLLEMONT, "Vie de Saint-Paul." Caius, (Thomas,) an English scholar and divine, was a Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, and ?.fter wards prebendary of Sarum. He wrote, in 1566, a i:reatise to prove that Oxford University was more ancient than Cambridge, which was answered by Dr. John Caius. Died in 1572. Cai'us Cce'sar, a Roman prince, born 20 B.C., was the son of M. Agrippa and Julia, the daughter of the emperor Augustus. The latter adopted Caius and his younger brother Lucius as his heirs. In i A.D. he was sent as proconsul into Asia, and subdued the revoked Armenians. He died in Lycia in the year 4. Lucius died in 2 a.d., aged about nineteen. Cajado, kS-zhi'do, (Enrique,) a Portuguese poet, who lived a long time in Italy. He composed Latin poems, ("Eclogae Silva," etc., 1501,) which were praised by Erasmus. Died in 1508. Cajetan or Gaetani, (Benedetto.) See Boniface VIII. Caj'e-tan, (or kl'ye-tan,) [It. Cajetano or Caietano, ki-yi-ta'no,] (Constantin,) a learned Italian monk and writer, born at Syracuse in 1560 ; died in 1650. Cajetan, sometimes written Caetan, [Fr. pron. kt'- a't6N^] (Enrico,) an Italian prelate, born about 1550. He was made a cardinal in 1585, and sent by Sixtus V. as legate to France, where he united with the League in opposing the accession of Henry IV. When Paris was besieged and suffering famine, about 1590, he urged the inhabitants to hold out, but offered no remedy for their misery except preachings and processions. Died in 1599. See SiSMONDi, "Histoire des Frangais." Cajetan, [It. Cajetano or Caietano,] (Thomas de Vio — da vee'o,) received his surname of Cajetan from the city Caieta, (Gaeta,) at which he was born in 1469. He entered while young the order of Saint Dominic, of which he becai^ie general in 1508. Leo X. made him a cardinal in 151 7, and soon after sent him as legate to Germany in order to bring Luther back to fellowship with the Church. He is regarded as the first who main- tained the infallibility of the pope without reserve. He was made prisoner at the sack of Rome in 1527. Died in 1534. See P. Ekerman, "Dissertatiode Cardinal! Cajetano," Upsal,i76i. Cajetano. See Cajetan. Cajot, kt^zho', (Dom Jean Joseph,.) a French Bene- dictine, born at Verdun-sur-Meuse in 1726. ^& pub- lished " The Antiquities of Metz," and other works. Died in 1779. Cakjamuni. See Gautama* Q!akya. See Gautama. Cal or Cala. See Kala. Calaber, (Quintus.) See Quintus Calaber. Calabrese. See Pretl Calado, kS-la'do, (Manoel,) a Portuguese historian, born at Villa Vi9osa about 1584; died in 1654. Calamatta, ka-l^-m&t'tS, (Luigi,) an eminent en- graver, born at Civita Vecchia, Italy, in 1802, worked many years in Paris, where he exhibited his first produc- tion in 1827. Among his master-pieces are a masque of Napoleon I., (1834,) and a portrait of George Sand, after his own design. Calame, kt'ltm', (Alexandre,) an excellent Swiss landscape-painter and engraver, born at Vevay in 1815, studied and worked in Geneva from his early youth. He painted Mont Blanc and other Alpine scenes, also "The Ruins of Paestum," "An Autumn Evening," and "The Lake of the Four Cantons." Among his admired lithographs and etchings are Views of Lauterbrunnen. Cal'a-mis, [Kiikafug,] a celebrated Greek sculptor and embosser, who flourished at Athens about 450 A.D. He excelled in the imitation of horses, and worked both in marble and in bronze. Among his productions was a colossal bronze statue of Apollo, which was brought to Rome by Lucullus. He executed, in marble, another Apollo, which adorned the garden of Servilius in Rome, and which some suppose to be the same as the Apollo Belvedere. Cal'a-m^, (Benjamin,) D.D., a son of Edmund, no- ticed below, belonged' to the High-Church party. He was appointed chaplain to the king in 1677, and in 1683 € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; *h as in this. (2!^=See Explanations, p. 23.) CALAMT 488 CALDARA preached a "Discourse against a Scrupulous Conscience," which made a great sensation. In 1685 he became prebendary of Saint Paul's. His printed sermons are esteemed. Died in 1686. Calamy, (Edmund,) an able English divine, born in London in 1600. From 1626 to 1636 he was one of the lecturers of Bury Saint Edmund's. Having separated from the Episcopal Church and become a Presbyterian, he was chosen in 1639 minister of Saint Mary's, in or near London, where he laboured twenty years and was admired for his eloquence. He was one of the five who wrote " Smectymnus," (1641,) a treatise against Episco- pacy. At the restoration he was appointed chaplain-in- ordinary to Charles H., and a few years later was com- mitted to Newgate for expressing his mind too freely. Died in 1666. See " Biographia Britannica." Calamy, (Edmund,) an eminent nonconformist divine, grandson of the preceding, born in 1671. He becan)e minister at Blackfriars, London, in 1692, and at West- minster in 1703. He published many sermons, "Bax- ter's Life and Times," "The Inspiration of the Scrip- tures," and other esteemed works. Died in 1732. See his "Autobiography," pubHshed by J. T. Rutt, 2 vols., 1830. Calancha, de la, di li ka-ian'chS, (Antonio,) a Peruvian chronicler and monk, born at Chuquisaca; died in the seventeenth century, Calandar, kil-Sn-dar', {}) a Mohammedan saint and scholar, died about 1324. Calandra, ka-lin'dRS, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter of mosaics, born at Vercelli in 1568; died about 1646. Calandrelli, ka-lSn-dRel'lee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian astronomer, born at Zagarola in 1749. He became pro- fessor of mathematics in Rome in 1774, and was em- ployed by Pius VII. to make astronomical observations. He published several treatises on astrono/hy and natural philosophy. Died in 1827. See B. BoNCOMPAGNi, "Biografia dell'Abate G. Calandrelli," 1840. Calandrini, ki-ian-dRee'nee, (Jean Louis,) a Swiss botanist and philosopher, born at Geneva in 1703, wrote various scientific works. Died in 1758. Calandrucci, ka-lSn-dRoot'chee, (Giacinto,) an Ital- ian painter, born at Palermo in 1646; died in 1707. Ca-la'nus, [Gr. KdAai^oc] a Hindoo philosopher, of the sect which the Greeks named Gymnosophists. Plu- tarch reports that his proper name was Sphines. Having been persuaded to follow Alexander the Great, he be- came sick at Pasargada, where, at his own request, he was burned alive on a funeral pile. It is stated that his last words to Alexander were, " I shall soon see you again in Babylon." A few months later, that prince died in Babylon. See Arrian, "Anabasis." Calas, kt'lts' or kt'li', (Jean,) a French Protestant, born in 1698, was condemned by eight judges of Toulouse to be broken on the wheel for an alleged crime of which he was innocent, and suffered death in 1762. In conse- quence of the courageous and generous efforts of Vol- taire, the sentence against the family was annulled, and they were partially indemnified. Louis XV. granted them 30,000 livres ; but their persecutors were not punished. See Voltaire's "Works;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." Calasanzio, de, di kl-ia-sSn'the-o, (Jos^,) a Spanish priest, born in Aragon in 1556, was noted as the founder of the order of chierici regolarl, (derici regidares.) Died at Rome in 1648. See Hoffmann, "Leben J. Calasantii," 1753; Bartolotti, "Vita del J. Calasanzio," 1749. Calasio, de, di kJ-ia'se-o, (Mario,) an Italian lin- guist, born at Calasio, near Aquila, in 1550, became professor of Hebrew at Rome. He published a Hebrew Dictionary, and spent about forty years in preparing a Hebrew Concordance of the Bible, which is his most important work. Died in 1620. Cal-a-ti'nus, (A. Atilius,) a Roman dictator and general in the first Punic war. He was consul in 258 B.C., and again in 254. In 249 he was appointed dictator for the purpose of prosecuting the war against the Carthaginians in Sicily. Though the events of his dictatorship were not important, he left an honourable name in history. Calatrava, kS-lS-tRi'va, (Jos6 Maria,) a Spanish statesman, born at Merida in 1781. He became an emi- nent lawyer, and an eloquent orator of the Liberal party, by which he was elected to the Cortes several times. He was proscribed and exiled from 1814 to 1820, and from 1823 to 1830. After the accession of Isabella, in 1843, he was appointed a senator. Died in 1846. Calau, kS'low, (Benjamin,) a German painter, born in Holstein in 1724, noted as the discoverer of eleodorique, a substance used by ancient painters. Died in 1785. Calcagni, kai-kl.n'yee, (Tiberio,) a sculptor, born at Florence, lived about 1570. He was chosen by Michael Angelo to finish some of his last works. Calcagnini, kdl-kan-yee'nee, (Celio,) an Italian phi- losopher and poet, born at Ferrara in 1479. He was professor of belles-lettres in the University of Ferrara, His chief work is "Three Books of Epistolary Ques- tions," (" Quaestionum epistolicarum Libri tres," 1608,) in which he discussed the great questions of philosophy, and maintained that the earth revolves around the suii. Died in 1541. See T. C. Calcagnini, "Delia Vita, etc. di Celio Calcagnini," 1818: GiNGUENE, " Histoire Litteraired'Italie;" P. Giovio, " Elogia." Calcar or Calkar, von, fon klKk^R, or Calker, kSK- ker, (Johann,) an eminent painter, born at Calkar, in the principality of Cleves, in 1500. He was a pupil of John de Bruges, and formed his style in Italy, where he worked some years. It is stated that his works can hardly be distinguished from those of Titian, whom he imitated. Among his master-pieces is a "Mater Dolo- rosa." He died in Naples in 1546. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Calceolari, kai-chk-o-li'ree, or Cal-ce-o-la'ri-us, (Francesco,) an Italian naturalist, lived at Verona about 1550. He wrote a "Journey on Mount Baldo," (" Iter Baldi Montis," 1566.) The genus Calceolaria was named in his honour. See £loy, " Dictionnaire de la Medecine." Cal'-ehas, [KaA;t'Q^f,] a famous Greek soothsayer, who acted a prominent part at the siege of Troy. He was consulted in the most important affairs by the Grecian chiefs. Calchi, k^Kkee, (Tristan,) a historian, born in Milan in 1462. He was secretary to Duke Francis Sforza and his successors, and wrote a "History of Milan," which is commended. See GiNGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Calcia, kSKchS, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter of the last century, born at Genoa. CaFcraft, (John,) an English politician, entered Par- liament in 1796, and voted for the Reform Bill in 183 1. Caldaiii, kM-di'nee, (Leopoldo Marco Antonio,) an eminent Italian anatomist, born at Bologna in 1725. He professed anatomy with success in his native city, where he published the results of his experiments on Irritability, (1757.) In 1771 he succeeded Morgagni as professor of anatomy at Padua. He wrote a number of treatises on anatomy, physiology, etc., and published a collection of very accurate plates, " Icones anatomicae," (4 vols., 1801-14.) Died in 1813. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Caldani, (Petronio Maria,) an Italian geometer, brother of the preceding, born probably at Bologna about 1735. In 1763 he became professor of mathematics at Bologna. He wrote several able treatises on geometry, etc. His talents and attainments were highly commended by D'Alembert. Died in 1808. See TiPAi.DO, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Caldara, ka.l-d3.'ra, (Antonio,) an Italian composer, born at Venice about 1675, composed the music of eight operas of Metastasio. Died in 1763. Caldara, (Polidoro,) an eminent Italian painter, often called Caravaggio, (ka-rJ-vad'jo,) from the name of the place (in the Milanese) where he was born in 1492. He went to Rome while young, received lessons from Maturino, and soon became so skilful an artist that Ra- phael employed him to paint the friezes in the Vatican. He excelled in landscapes, and painted some admired historical pieces, among which is a "Christ bearing his a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i,-^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, ?, 6, u, y, short; a, e< -i, 9. obscure; far, fl.ll, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; CALDARONE 489 CALDWELL Cross." The last years of his life were passed at Mes- sina, where he was murdered by his servant in 1543. Sec Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, "History of Paint- ing in Italy." Caldarone, kSl-di-ro'ni, or Calderone, kil-da-ro'- jii, (Giovanni Giacomo,) an Italian chemist and physi- cian, born at Palermo in 165 1 ; died in 1 73 1. Caldas, de, di kaiMSs, (Francisco Jos6,) a self- taught South American philosopher, born at Popayan, in New Granada, about 1770. He devoted himself to bot- any, astronomy, and physical geography, assisted Mutis in his exploration, and measured the height of Chim- borazo. About 1806 he was appointed director of the observatory at Santa Fe de Bogota. He published some results of his labours in a periodical named the *' Semenario de la Nueva Granada," which he began to edit in 1807. Having joined the movement in favour of national liberty, he was executed by Morillo in 1816. See J. AcosTA, "Breve Noticia sobre Francisco de Caldas." Caldas Pereira de Souza, k^KdSs pi-ra'e-ri dk s5'zi, (Antonio,) a Brazilian poet and ecclesiastic, born at Rio Janeiro in 1762, was educated in Portugal. After his death, which occurred in Brazil in 1814, a volume of his odes and other verses was published, with the title of "Sacred and Profane Poems." See F. Denis, "Resume de I'Histoire litteraire du Portugal," etc. Caldenbach, kiKden-biK^, (Christoph,) a German professor, born in Silesia in 1613. He wrote, besides other works, a "Compendium of Rhetoric," ("Compen- dium Rhetorices,") which was a popular school-book. Died in 1698. Cai'der, (Robert,) a Scottish Episcopal clergyman, born at Elgin in 1658. Refusing to acknowledge Wil- liam HI., he was deprived of his curacy in 1689, and was imprisoned for nearly a year in Edinburgh jail. He published "The Divine Right of Episcopacy," (1705,) and other works. Calder, (Sir Robert,) a British admiral, born at Elgin, in Scotland, in 1745. Having obtained the rank of captain, he contributed to the victory off Cape Saint Vincent in 1797, and was knighted for that service. He was made vice-admiral in 1804. The next year, in July, he fought an indecisive battle against the combined fleets of France and Spain, returning from the West Indies, and ordered a retreat, for which he was censured by a court-martial. He afterwards served as post-admi- ral in one of the English naval stations. Died in 1818. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Calderari, kSl-di-r^'ree, (Ottone,) Count, an ex- cellent Italian architect, born at Vicenza in 1730. He imitated the style of Palladio with great success, in several palaces and other edifices which he built in Vi- cenza and its vicinity. The Palazzo Cordellina (1776) is regarded by some as his capital work. He was an asso- ciate of the Institute of France, and author of a treatise on architecture. Died in 1803. His plans ("Opere di Architettura") were published by Diedo, 1808-17. See J. LE Breton, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages d'O. Cal- derari," 1804. Calderino, k^l-di-ree'no, [Lat. Calderi'nus,] (Do- Mizio,) an eminent Italian classical scholar, born near Calderio about 1447. became apostolic secretary to Pope Sixtus IV, He published good editions, with commentaries, of Virgil, Juvenal, Ovid, Martial, and Pausanias. Politian, Valla, and Calderino were asso- ciated in a literary triumvirate. Died in 1478. See Rayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Nic^ron, "Memoires;" P. Giovio, " Elogia." Calderinus, the Latin of Calderino, which see. Calderou, kSrd^i'rAN', (Philippe Hermogene,) a painter, born at Poitiers, in France, in 1833. Among his works are "The Return from Moscow," and "The Burial of Hampden," (1864.) Calderon, kai-di-r5n', (Seraf'in,) a Spanish poet, born at Malaga in 1801. He practised law for some time in his native place, and was appointed civil governor of Logroiio in 1836. He has published "Poems of a Solitary," ("Las Poesias del Solitario," 1833,) ai'^ i'"^' genious romance called "Christians and Moors," (1838,) and other works. Died in Madrid in 1867. Calderon, de, Count. See Calleja. Calderon de la Barca, kSl-di-ron' da la bau'kS, Madame, a Scottish authoress, whose maiden name was Frances In'glis. She was married in 1838 to Calderon de la Barca, minister from Spain to the United States, whom she afterwards accompanied in his mission to Mexico. In 1843 she published " Life in Mexico," which was received with favour. Calderon de la Barca, kll-di-r6n' (or kiKde-ron) di la baR^kS, (Pedro,) a celebrated Spanish dramatic author, born of a noble family in Madrid about 1600. He received a liberal education at the University of Salamanca. About the age of thirteen he produced a drama named "El Carro del Cielo," ("The Chariot of Heaven.") His precocity was equalled by the feitility of his genius, as it is stated that he produced at least five hundred dramas. Having acquired fame by his early works, he was invited to court in 1636 by Philip IV., who made him a knight of Santiago. He had pre- viously served as a private soldier in several campaigns in Italy and the Low Countries, About 1652 he entered the church, and obtained a canonicate or chaplaincy at Toledo, after which he wrote only sacred pieces, [autos sacra??ientales.) By some critics he is regarded as equal to Lope de Vega, who in the preceding age had held the highest rank among Spanish dramatists. His brilliant imagination is not restrained by conventional rules or dramatic unities, and his works present much that is absurd or extravagant, while abounding in interesting, natural, and sublime passages. Among his most admired productions are "The Constant Prince," ("El Principe constante,") a tragedy, " The Devotion of the Cross," " Heraclius," "Love is no Joke," (which furnished to Moliere the idea of his "Femmes savantes,") "The Physician of his own Honour," a tragedy, and " Life is a Dream." Several of his best pieces, including "The Constant Prince" and " Life is a Dream," were translated into German by Augustus Schlegel, and are said to be great favourites on the German stage. See an elaborate and able critique in the twenty-fifth volume of the " Quarterly Review," quoted and approved by Hallam, from which we extract the following : " His boundless and inexhaustible fertility of invention, his quick power of seizing and presenting everything with dramatic effect, the unfailing animal spirits of his dramas, if we may venture on the expression, the general loftiness and purity of his sentiments, the rich facility of his verse, the abundance of his language, and the clearness and precision with which he embodies his thoughts in words and figures, entitle him to a high rank as to the imagi- native and creative faculty of a poet ; but we cannot consent to enrol him among the mighty masters of the human breast." " His total want of truth to nature," says Hallam, "even the ideal nature which poetry em- bodies, justifies at least this sentence," ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1683. See Richard C. Trench, "The Life and Genius of Calderon," 1856; TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" J. L. Heiberg, "Commentatio de Poeseos dramatics genere Hispanico, pr^cipue de P. Calderone d2 la Barca," 1817 ; "Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 1839; "Eraser's Magazine" for August, 1849, and April, 1857. CaPder-wood, (David,) an eminent Scottish divine, born in 1575, became minister of Crelling in 1604. For his opposition to Episcopacy he was imprisoned about 161 7, and afterwards banished. He published, in Hol- land, "The Altar of Damascus," and returned home in 1625. His "History of the Church of Scotland" was received with favour. Died about 165 1. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Caldora, kil-do'ra, (Jacopo,) a famous Italian con- dottiere in the service of the Queen of Naples. He defeated Braccio da Montone at the battle of Aquila in 1424. Died in 1439, See SiSMONDi, " Histoire des R^publiques Italiennes." C&.ld'well, (Charles,) an American physician, born in Caswell county. North Carolina, in 1772, studied medicine in Philadelphia under Dr. Rush. He became professor of natural history in the University of Penn- sylvania about 1816. In 1819 he published "The Life and Campaigns of General Greene." He was professor as s; g hard; g as j; o, H, Vi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, {^^^tt Explanations, p. 23.) CALDWELL 490 CALHOUN of medicine in Transylvania University, Kentucky, for many years, ending in 1837. He wrote and translated various works, among which was Blumenbach's "Ele- ments of Physiology," (1795.) Died in 1853. See his "Autobiography," 1855. Caldwell, (Howard H.,) an American poet, born at Newbury, South Carolina, in 183 1. He graduated at South Carolina College in 1851, and settled as a lawyer at Columbia. He has made various contributions to the periodical press, and is the author of two volumes of poems. Caldwell, (Rev. James,) an American patriot, born in Charlotte county, Virginia, in 1734. He became pas- \ tor of a Presbyterian church at Elizabethtown, New / Jersey, and during the Revolution was a zealous and \ very influential supporter of the popular cause. He served as chaplain in the army, and at the same time ' fought as a soldier. His wife was shot dead by the enemy in 1780. He was killed by a sentinel in Novem- ber, 1781. Caldwell, (John C.,) an American general, born in Vermont in 183 1. He became a brigadier-general in June, 1862, after which he served in Virginia. Caldwell, (Joseph,) D.D., for thirty years president of the University of North Carolina, was born in Laming- ton, New Jersey, in 1773. He graduated at Princeton with distinguished honours in 1 791, and for several years acted as tutor to the college. In 1796 he was elected to the principal professorship in the University of North Carolina, and in 1804 was chosen its first president. Died in 1835. Ca'leb, [Heb. the son of Jephunneh, a He- brew warrior, lived about 1500 B.C. He was one of the two Israelite emigrants or fugitives from Egypt that were favoured to enter the promised land. (vSee Numbers xiv. 24, 30 ; Deuteronomy i. 36 ; Joshua xiv. and xv.) Caled. See Khaled. Calef, (Robert,) a Boston merchant, distinguished for his opposition to the witchcraft delusion, published in 1700 a work entitled " More Wonders of the Invisible World," in answer to Cotton Mather's " Wonders of the Invisible World." The book excited great indignation, and was ordered to be burned by Increase Mather, the president of Harvard College. Died in 17 19. Calegari, ki-li-gi'ree, (Antonio,) an Italian sculptor, born at Brescia in 1699 ; died in 1777. Calendario, kl-l§n-di're-o, (Filippo,) a Venetian sculptor and architect. Died in 1355. Ca-le'ni-us, (Walter,) a Welsh historian, flourished about 1 120. Ca-le'nus, (Quintus Fufius,) a Roman consul, who was a partisan of Caesar in the civil war, after having served him as legate in Gaul in 51 B.C. In the year 47 he was chosen consul through the favour of Caesar, after whose death, in 44, he joined the party of Antony. He commanded an army for Antony in Northern Italy, where he died about 40 B.C. See Dion Cassius, "History of Rome." Calenzio, ka-l§n'ze-o, [Lat. Calen'tius,] (Eliseo,) born in Apulia, was reckoned among the good Latin poets of his time. He was appointed preceptor to Prince Frederick, son of Ferdinand II. of Naples. His works consist of epigrams, elegies, epistles, etc. Died in 1503. See TiRABOSCHi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Calepino, ki-li-pee'no, (Ambrogio,) an Italian phi- lologist, born at or near Bergamo in 1435, published a good Latin Dictionary, (1502,) on which he laboured nearly all his life. It passed through many editions. The French word calepin, signifying memorandum- or scrap- book, is derived from his name. Died in 151 1. See Adelung, Supplement to Jocher's "Allgemeines Gelehrten- Lexikon." Caletti, ki-let'tee, (Giuseppe,) called il Cremonese, (^1 kRi-mo-na'sk,) an Italian painter, born at Ferrara in 1600. He painted small historical pieces, demi-figures, etc., with skill. Died about 1660. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Ca'ley, (John,) an English antiquary, born in 1763. He was secretary to the National Record Comm.ission from 1801 to 183 1, and was joint editor of many works on which the commissicners were employed. He con- tributed several articles to the "Archaeologia." Died ia 1834. Calfhill, kaf il, written also Calfill and Cawfield, (James,) an English divine, poet, and distinguished preacher, born in Shropshire in 1530. He was appointed prebendary of Saint Paul's in 1562, and Bishop of Wor- cester in 1570, but died in the same year. One of his poems is called the " Complaint of the Oxford Academy," ("Querela Oxoniensis Academiae.") Calhoun, kil-hoon', (John Caldwell,) a distin- guished American statesman, born in Abbeville district, South Carolina, in March, 1782, was a son of Patrick Calhoun, an Irishman. He entered Yale College in 1802, graduated with distinction in 1804, and studied law. In 1807 or 1808 he was elected to the legislature of his State, in which he served two years. He was chosen a member of Congress in 1810. He entered public life as a Democrat and leader of the war party, and acquired a national reputation before he had com- pleted his first term in Congress. In 1816 he supported a protective tariff and the United States Bank, for which he reported a bill in Congress. He was appointed secre- tary of war by President Monroe in October, 181 7, and was the only member of the cabinet who expressed the opinion that General Jackson transcended or violated his orders by invading Florida in 1818. Mr. Calhoun, in common with most Southern men, approved the Mis- souri Compromise of 1820. In 1824 he was elected Vice-President of the United States by a large majority, receiving the votes of the Jack- sonians and also the friends of Adams. Having identified himself with the opposition, (the Jackson party,) he was re-elected Vice-President in 1828, when General Jackson was chosen President. Before this period, the people of South Carolina had adopted the opinion that the tariff was injurious to their interests. Mr. Calhoun changed his course on this question, and became the leader of the party of free trade. To counteract the passage of the tariff-bill of 1828, he asserted the doctrine of the sove- reignty of the States, and composed on this subject a paper entitled "The South Carolina Exposition," in which he claimed that a State can nullify unconstitu- tional laws. During the first term of President Jackson, Calhoun and Van Buren were the prominent competi- tors for the Presidency. "In the public mind," says Parton, " Calhoun towered above his rival ; for he had been longer in the national councils," etc. But General Jackson favoured Van Buren as his successor, and thus incurred the enmity of Calhoun, who was bitterly dis- appointed by the result. In 1832 he resigned the office of Vice-President, and was chosen a Senator of the United States. Under his influence and direction, a convention, held in South Carolina about the end of 1832, adopted an ordinance to nullify the tariff, and prepared to resist by force the collection of the revenue. But they were overawed by the firmness of General Jackson, who determined that, on the first overt act of treason, Calhoun should be arrested as a traitor. Mr. Calhoun supported Mr. Clay's com- promise tariff of 1833, and acted with the Whigs against General Jackson in relation to the removal of the de- ppsits from the United States Bank. Still aspiring to the Presidency, he thenceforth used the question of slavery as a means of uniting the South in his support. "Calhoun failed," says Parton, "in all the leading ob- jects of his public life except one ; but in that one his success will be memorable forever. He has left it on record (see Benton ii. 698) that his great aim, from 1835 to 1847, was to force the slavery issue on the North." He advocated the test-measures of Mr. Van Buren's administration, and made several speeches on slavery, which he affirmed to be a positive political and social good. In March, 1843, retired from the Senate, and in March, 1844, was appointed secretary of state by Mr. Tyler. He signed in April of that year a treaty for the annexation of Texas to the Union, and resumed his seat in the national Senate in December, 1845. He spoke against the Mexican war in 1846, and the Wilmot Proviso. He died at Washington in March, 1850. Among his principal writings is a posthumous " Treatise a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, x1, ^, short; a, 9, j, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; CALI 491 CALLCOTT on the Nature of Government," in which he advocates the election of two Presidents, one for the North and one for the South, each having a veto on all acts of Congress. See Jenkins, "Life of J. C. Calhoun;" "National Portrait-Gal- lery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii. ; Benton, "Thirty Years' View;" Griswold, " Prose Writers of America ;" Parton, "Fa- mous Americans of Recent Times," 1867; "Democratic Review" for April, 1838; "London Quarterly Review" for December, 1840. Cali. See KalI Caiidasa, (a Hindoo poet.) See Kalidasa. Ca-lid'i-us, (Marcus,) an eminent Roman orator and contemporary of Cicero, whose recall from exile he advo- cated. He was praetor in 57 B.C., and supported Miloin 52 after the death of Clodius. He joined Caesar in the civil war which began in 49. Died in 48 B.C. His ora- tory is highly praised by Cicero. (See "Brutus," 79.) Calignon, de, deh kt'l^n'y6N', (Pierre Antoine d'Ambesieux — d6N'ba'ze-uh',) a French priest, born near London in 1729, was educated in Paris. He preached with success at Geneva, Paris, Lyons, etc. Besides other works, he published a " View of the Great- ness of God in the Economy of Religion, the Order of Society, and the Wonders of Nature." Died in 1795. See QuERARD, "La France Litteralre." Calignon, de, (Soffrey,) a French diplomatist and poet, born at Saint-Jean-de- Voiron in 1550. He aided De Thou in the preparation of the edict of Nantes, and was employed by Henry IV. in difficult negotiations. Died in 1606. Caligny, de, deh kt'l^n'ye', (Jean Antenor Hue,) a French military engineer, born in 1657 ; died in 1731. Ca-lig'u-la, (Caius C^sar,) a Roman emperor, born in 12 A.D., was the son of Germanicus and Agrippina, who was a granddaughter of the emperor Augustus. His childhood and youth were passed among the soldiers, with whom he became a favourite. By deep dissimula- tion he escaped from being a victim to the suspicion of Tiberius, who was the uncle of Germanicus and had adopted the latter as his heir. At the age of twenty-five Caligula succeeded Tiberius, with a general expression of popular favour. The first acts of his reign gave pro- mise of clemency and moderation, by liberating prisoners of state, recalling exiles, etc. Before many months had elapsed, he became a monster of cruelty, and indulged his vicious passions and appetites to the greatest excess. He caused a temple to be erected to himself, and claimed divine honours. It is said that he wished the Roman people had but one head, that he might decapitate them at a single blow. A conspiracy was formed against him by Cassius Chaerea, who assassinated him in the year 41, whereupon his uncle Claudius became his successor. See Suetonius, " Lives of the Twelve Cassars ;" Tacitus, "An- nales;" Dion Cassius, " History of Rome." Calippus. See Callippus. Ca-lix'tus or Cal-lis'tus [Fr. Calliste, kt'l^st', or Calixte, kt'l^kst'] I., a Bishop of Rome, succeeded Zephyrinus in 219 A.D., and died or was killed in 223. There is a doubtful tradition that he suffered martyrdom. Calixtus II., son of William, Count of Burgundy, was elected as successor to Gelasius II. in 11 19, when the church was disturbed by a quarrel with the emperor Henry V., and when the anti-pope Bourdin or Gregory VIII. was supported by a party. After restoring the peace of the church, Calixtus died in 11 24. Calixtus III., (Alonzo Borgia — boR^jS,) a Spaniard, born at Valencia, was elected pope in 1455, as successor to Nicholas V. He waged war against the Turks with little success, and died in 1458, when he was succeeded by Pius II. His nephew. Cardinal Borgia, became Pope Alexander VI. See A. DE Montor, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes." Calixtus, ka-liks'ttis, originally Callisen, kaKle-zen, (Georgius,) a Protestant divine, eminent for his learn- ing and tolerance, was born at Meelby, in Holstein, in 1586. He was professor of theology at Helmstedt, and wrote treatises against several doctrines of the Roman Catholics. His moderation exposed him to the charge of crypto-papism, Calvinism, and heresy. Among his works is an "Epitome of Moral Theology," (1634.) He was among the first who attempted to systematize theo- ■••ogy ; and he had numerous followers, called Calixtines. Calixtus was involved in disputes known as the Syncre- tistic controversy, by which the Lutheran Church was distracted for a long time. Died in 1656. Bossuet called him "the most able Lutheran of our time." See W. C. DowDiNG, "Life of Calixtus," 1864; B. Cellarius, " Leichenpredigt auf G. Calixtus," 1656; J. Hildebrand, "Ab- dankung bei Leichbestattung G. Calixti," 1656; Henke, " G. Ca- lixtus und seine Zeit," 1833. Calkar. See Calcar. Calkoen (sometimes written Calkon) van Beek, kSKkoon vtn bak, (Jan Frederik,) a distinguished Dutch astronomer, born at Groningen in 1772. He was appointed extraordinary professor of mathematics and astronomy at Leyden in 1799, and ordinary professor of the same in 1804. In 1805 he became professor of those sciences at Utrecht. He wrote an "Inquiry into the Origin of the Mosaic and Christian Religion," to refute Dupuis's " Origine de tons les Cultes," and a treatise on the Beautiful, entitled " Euryalus over het Schone," and other works. Died in 181 1. See J. Heringa, " Ter Nagedachtenisse van wijlen J. F. van Beek Calkoen," 1813. can, (Sir John,) an Englishman, born in 1732, be- came chief engineer of the Coromandel coast in India. After his return to England, he was elected to Parlia- ment in 1784. Died in 1801. Call, van, vtn kSl, (Jan,) a Dutch designer and en- graver, born at Nymwegen in 1655. He visited Rome and Germany, and drew picturesque views of the Rhine and other regions. Having settled at the Hague, he engraved with aqua-fortis his own designs. His works were sold for high prices. Died in 1703. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Call, van, (Pieter,) an able Dutch landscape-painter, son of the preceding. Died in 1737. Cal'la-nan, (James Joseph,) an Irish poet, born at Cork in 1795. While a student in Trinity College, Dub- lin, he produced a prize poem on the accession of George IV. After he left college he was employed as tutor in private families and in the school of Dr. Maginn. He wrote "The Recluse of Inchidony," and several success- ful lyrics, among which are " The Virgin Mary's Bank" and "Gouzane Barra," a ballad-ode, much admired for its melody of rhythm and its spirit-stirring power. He went in 1827 ;to Lisbon, where he died in 1829. Callard de la Duquerie, kt'ltR' deh It duk're', (Jean Baptiste,) a French physician, born in 1630, pub- lished an "Etymological Medical Dictionary," (" Lexicon Medicum Etymologicum," 1673.) Died in 1718. Cail'cott, (Sir Augustus Wall,) a distinguished English landscape-painter, brother of John, noticed below, born at Kensington in 1779. He was elected a member of the Royal Academy in 1810, when he exhib- ited his admired view of " Morning." He employed his pencil chiefly in scenes of quiet beauty, and has often been called the English Claude. Among his productions are " Evening," " Returning from Market," " The Ferry," and "Harvest in the Highlands," with figures by Land- seer, (1833,) which is esteemed one of his master-pieces. He was knighted in 1837, and appointed conservator of the royal pictures in 1844. He died in the same year, (See Callcott, Maria.) "He painted everything tole- rably, and nothing excellently," says Ruskin. Callcott, (John Wall,) one of the most eminent English composers, brother of the preceding, born at Kensington in 1766. Without a master, he attained great proficiency in music, which he adopted as his profession. He received three of the four gold medals awarded by the Catch Club in 1785, and in 1789 won all the four prizes. He composed many admired anthems, glees, canons, etc., and published a " Musical Grammar," (1805.) About 1806 he became lecturer on music at the Royal Institution, but was soon compelled by ill health to re- sign that office. He expended much labour on a Musical Dictionary, which was never finished. Died in 1821. Callcott, (Maria,) Lady, daughter of Admiral George Dundas, born in 1 788, was first married to Captain Thomas Graham, R.N. In 1809 she went with him to India, where she passed two years. She afterwards travelled in Italy and South America, and in 1827 was married to Sir A. W. Callcott, noticed above. She published "Travels in India," (1812,) " Memoirs of Poussin," (1820,) € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guthiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (3:^^See Explanations, p. 23.) CALLEJA 492 CALLINUS \n "Essay towards the History of Painting," (1836,) which is commended, and other works. Died in 1843. Calleja, kal-la^Hd, or Callejas, kSl-la^H^s, (Don Felix del Key,) Count de Calderon, (di kil-di-r^n^) a Spanish general, born in 1750. He commanded the royal forces in Mexico in the civil war which began in 1 8 10, and was appointed Viceroy of Mexico in 181 3. Died after 1820. Callenberg, kaKlen-b^Rc', (Gerard,) a Dutch ad- miral, born at Willemstadt in 1642. He commanded a vessel in a battle against the French near Sicily, in 1676, when De Ruyter was killed. The command of the fleet devolved on Callenberg, who was made vice-admiral soon after. He gained applause at the battle of Vigo, (1697,) where he had the chief command. About 1704 he bombarded, with the English, the fortress of Gibraltar, which was forced to surrender. Died in 1722. See Chalmot, " Biographisch Wooidenboek." Callenberg, kiKlen-bgRG^ (Johann Heinrich,) a German author and Lutheran divine, born at Saxe-Gotha in 1694. He became professor of philosophy at Halle in 1727, and professor of theology there in 1739. He was deeply interested in the missionary cause, to pro- mote which he published from his own printing-press many Arabic and Hebrew works. He wrote several works on the subject of missions and on the conversion of the Jews. Died in 1760. See Ersch und Gkuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." CaFleu-der, (James Thompson,) a political writer, born in Scotland, became editor of a paper in Richmond, Virginia. He was a partisan of Jefferson, and attacked "Washington's administration with virulence. Died in 1803. Callet, kt^l^', (Antoine Franqois,) a French his- torical painter and reformer of the French style, born in Paris in 1741 ; died in 1823. Callet, (Jean Franqois,) a French mathematician, born at Versailles in 1744, was educated in Paris. He was chosen professor of hydrography at Vannes in 1788. In 1792 he returned to Paris, where he acquired a high reputation as a teacher of mathematics. In 1795 he published a stereotype edition of tables of logarithms, which have been extensively used. Died in 1798. Calliachi, kil-le-i'kee, (Niccolo,) an Italian scholar, born in Candia in 1645, wrote treatises on the antiquities of Greece and Rome. Died in 1707. CaPli-as, [KaXAmf,] a Greek architect, who lived about 300 B.C. Callias, a Greek historian, who wrote a " History of Sicily'' about 310 B.C. Callias, a Greek dramatic poet, surnamed Schcenion. Cal'li-cles, [KaAAi/c/l^f,] a Greek sculptor, born at Megara, lived about 400 or 425 B.C. Callicles, a Greek painter, who is supposed to have lived about 320 B.C. Cal-lic'ra-tes, [Gr. KaTJuKpaTtig ; Fr. Callicrate, kt''le''kRtt',] was distinguished as one of the architects of the Parthenon at Athens, which was finished 438 B.C. This noble and perhaps incomparable specimen of Grecian art, built under the auspices of Pericles and decorated by the genius of Phidias, after serving as a temple to the Athenians, a church to the Christians, and mosque to the Turks, was ruined by the explosion of magazine during a siege in 1687. It was built of fine hite marble, and surrounded by forty-six columns of he Doric order. (See Ictinus.) See ViTRUvius, "De Architectura ;" Felibien, "Recueil his- orique de la Vie des plus celebres Architectes." Callicrates, a general of the Achaean League, was noted for his treachery. Died in 149 B.C. Cal-li-crat'i-das, [Ka^At/cpandaf,] a Spartan general, who in 406 B.C. succeeded Lysander in the command of the fleet during the Peloponnesian war. He took Me- thymne by assault, and gained a naval victory over Conon, the Athenian general, whom he blockaded in Mitylene. The Athenians sent to the relief of Conon a large fleet, which defeated the Spartans near the Argi- nusae, where Callicratidas was killed in 406 B.C. He was a plain, blunt Spartan of the primitive stamp. See MiTFORD, "History of Greece;" Plutarch, "Life of Ly- sander." Callieres, de, deh kt'le-aiR', almost ktKyaiR', (Fran- cois,) a noted French writer and negotiator, born at Tho- rigny in 1645. He became a councillor of the king, and minister plenipotentiary to Ryswick, in 1693. In 1689 he was received into the French Academy in place of Qui- nault. He published many works on various subjects, among which are "On Wit," (" Du bel Esprit,") a " Treatise on the Manner of negotiating with Princes,'* (1716,) and "The Knowledge of the World," (1717.) Died in 1 71 7. See D'Alembert, "Histoire des Membres de PAcademie Fran- (jaise ;" Macaulay, "History of England," vol. iv. Cal-li-er'gus, written also Calliergi or Calloergi, (Zacharia,) a Greek scholar, born in the isle of Crete, was educated in Venice, where in 1499 he published a " Dictionary of the Greek Language," which was highly esteemed. He afterwards lived in Rome, and edited the works of Pindar and Theocritus. Cal-lim'a-ehus, [Gr. KaTOdiiaxog ; Fr. Callimaque, kt'le'mtk',] an Athenian officer, who commanded the right wing at the battle of Marathon, where he was killed, 490 B.C. Callimachus, a celebrated Greek sculptor and archi- tect, was probably a native of Corinth or Athens. He is supposed to have flourished about 400 or 450 B.C. The honour of having invented the Corinthian capital is commonly ascribed to him, on the authority of Vi- truvius. His statues were remarkable for an exquisite finish ; but his style was censured as too artificial. See ViTRUvius, "De Architectura." Callimachus, [Gr. KaXXifiaxog; Fr. Callimaque, kt'- le'mtk',] a celebrated Greek poet and grammarian, was born at Cyrene, and flourished at Alexandria between 260 and 240 B.C. He was patronized by Ptolemy Philadel- phus, who gave him a place in his museum. He was chief librarian of the famous Alexandrian Library. Among his pupils were Eratosthenes and Apollonius Rhodius. His celebrity surpassed that of nearly all the other Alex- andrine scholars and poets. He was a very prolific \vriter. Besides several important prose works, which are lost, and among which was a history of Greek literature, *' Picture or Account of Writings of all Kinds," {^^Hiva^ TravTodaTviov avyjpafLfLUTtov,'^) in one hundred and twenty books, he composed epic poems called " Hecale" and "Galatea," several tragedies, comedies, elegies, epigrams, and hymns. His hymns and epigrams are the only por- tion of his works that time has spared. Quintilian ranks him at the head of Greek elegiac poets. Ovid thought he displayed more art than genius : quamvis ingenio tion valet, arte valet. Few ancient authors have had more numer- ous and able commentators, among whom were Vossius and Madame Dacier. See Vossius, "De Poetis Gra2cis;" J. G. Zierlein, "Dissertatio de ingenio Callimachi," 1770 ; Schoell, " Histoire de la Litterature Grecque ;" "Blackwood's RIagazine" for December, 1837, and March, 1838; Cleveland, " Compendium of Classical Literature." Cal-lim'a-ehus-Ex-pe'ri-ens, (Philip,) an Italian historian, born in Tuscany, was a member of the family of Buonaccorsi. Callimachus was an assumed name. About 1473 he emigrated to Poland, where he was ap- pointed preceptor to the sons of Casimir HI. Under the reign of John Albert, which began in 1492, he was a pow^erful favourite at court. He wrote a work on " The Exploits of Attila," a " History of King Vladislaus," and a few other works. Died in 1496. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, " Memoires." Callimaque, the French of Callimachus, which see. Cal-lim'e-don, [KaAA^//«c5(ji',] an Athenian orator, who lived about 330 B.C. He supported the Macedonian party. Cal-li-ui'cus, [Gr. ^akXivLKoq^ an architect, born at Heliopolis, in Egypt, was the inventor of the Greek fire, the secret of which has been lost. It is said that by this fire he destroyed a Saracen fleet which attacked Constantinople about 670 A.D. Cal-li'nus \)LaXhlvoc\ of Ephesus, the most ancient of Greek elegiac poets, is supposed to have lived more than 600 years before Christ. Among the fragments of his works which have come down to us is part of a mar- tial elegy of great beauty. It may be found in various collections of the " Poetae Graeci minores," See Brunck, "Analecta." a, e, T, o, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; T, 6, fi, J'', short; a, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; CALLIOPE 493 CALOGERA Cal-li'o-pe, [Gr. Ka/l/l^orr?/,] one of the nine Muses, presided over epic poetry, and was represented as holding a closely-rolled parchment or tablets. She was the re- puted mother of Orpheus and Linus. (See Mus^.) Cal-lip'pus [Gr. KoAAiTTTro^] or Ca-lip'pus [Gr. Ka- ?U7ZTTo^ ; Fr. C allippe, kt'l^p'] of Athens, was a disciple of Plato, in whose school he became acquainted with Dion of Syracuse. After Dion had become master of Syracuse, Callippus entered his service and obtained his confidence. He assassinated Dion in 353 B.C., and usurped the gov- ernment. About a year after that event he was expelled from Syracuse, and in 351 was killed by Leptines, one of his officers. See DioDORUS Siculus, book xvi. Callippus or Calippus of Cyzicus, a Greek as- tronomer, lived about 330 B.C., and was the author of the Calippic period. He was acquainted with Aristotle, who mentions him in his works. Perceiving the in- accuracy of the golden number or period of Meton, (nineteen years,) he invented a new cycle of seventy-six years, which was adopted by astronomers. The Calippic period began in 331 B.C. See Delambre, " Histoire de I'Astronomie ancienne." Callisen. See Calixtus, (Georgius.) Callisen, kaKle-sen, (Adolf Karl Peder,) a Danish physician, born at Gllickstadt in 1786. He became pro- fessor in the Academy of Surgery of Copenhagen in 1829, and received the title of councillor of state in 1839. He published an important work, in German, called " Dictionary of Living Physicians, Surgeons, Phar- maceutists, and Naturalists of all Civilized Nations," (" Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon," etc., 33 vols., 1829-35,) which is said to be an indispensable book for every cultivated physician and naturalist. He was a nephew of Hendrik Callisen, noticed below. Callisen, (Hendrik,) an eminent Danish surgeon, born at Preez, in Holstein, in 1740. He was appointed surgeon-in-chief of the fleet in 1771, and professor of sur- gery in the University of Copenhagen in 1773. Having acquired a high reputation, he became physician to the royal family in 1801. He published a " System of Modern Surgery," (" Systema Chirurgiae hodiernae," 1777,) which is esteemed a standard work, and other professional treatises. Died in 1824. See Erslevv, " Almindeligt Forfatter-Lexicon ;" Rahlff, " Lau- datio in Memoriam H. Calliseiiii," 1825. Callisthene. _ See Callisthenes. Cal-lis'the-nes, [Gr. Kalliadivrjc ; Fr. Callisthene, kt^es't^n',] a rhetorician, born at Olynthus, in Thrace, about 365 B.C., was the son of Hero, a cousin or niece of Aristotle. Having accompanied Alexander the Great in his invasion of Persia in 334 B.C., he rose to a high degree of favour with that prince, who charged him to write a history of the expedition. This history, which is not extant, is said to have been written in a sycophantic spirit. According to Plutarch, he offended Alexander by his austerity, boldness of speech, and refusal to pros- trate himself before the throne. He was charged with complicity in a conspiracy against the king, and some historians state that he was executed for that crime about 328 B.C. See Plutarch, "Life of Alexander;" A. Westermann, "De Callisthenis Olynthii Vita et Scriptis," 1838. Callisthenes, [Fr. CALLTSTHi:NE, kt'l^s'tin',] an Athenian orator, was one of the eight orators whom Alexander the Great required to be delivered to him after the destruction of Thebes in 335 B.C. On this oc- casion Demosthenes is said to have applied the fable of the wolf which demanded from the sheep the surrender of their dogs. The orators were saved from that danger hy the exertions of Demades, who interceded with the victor. See Arrian, "Anabasis." _Cal-lis'to, [Gr. YLallLOTu,'] a daughter of Lycaon, King of Arcadia, and a companion of Diana. Having lost her chastity, she was transformed into a bear by Diana or Jupiter, and placed among the constellations, under the name of Arctos or Ursa major. Cal-lis'tra-tus, [Gr. YLalliaTpaTog ; Fr. Callistrate, kS'l^s^tRtt',] the son of Callicrates, an Athenian, was one of the most eloquent orators of his time. It was the success and applause which attended one of his forensic efforts (366 B.C.) that inspired the emulation of the youthful Demosthenes and determined him to be an orator. After having performed several embassies, he was exiled from Athens, (in 361,) went to Thrace, and founded the city of Datus, (or Datum.) He returned home without leave, and was put to death. See Thirlwall, "History of Greece." Callistratus, a Roman jurist, who lived in the reigns of Severus and his son Caracalla, about 200 a.d. Jus- tinian's " Digest" was partly compiled from his writings. Calloigne, kt'lwdn', (Jean Robert,) a Flemish sculptor, born at Bruges in 1775; died in 1 830. CalTon, [Ka^iAwv,] a Greek sculptor, born in ^gina, lived about 430 B.C. Callot, kt'lo', (Jacques,) an excellent designer and engraver, born at Nancy, France, in 1593. Having studied in Rome, he returned to his native place, and acquired such a high reputation that, in 1628, he was invited by Louis XHI. to design and engrave the siege of Rochelle and the attack on the Isle of Rhe. He de- clined a pension of three thousand livres from the King of France. Though he sometimes used the burin, his etchings are the most admired of his works, atnong which are "The Miseries of War," "The Temptations of Saint Anthony," " The Fair of Florence," and the sieges above named. Died in 1635. He was a great painter of manners, and was surpassed by few in fertility of invention or in the expression of his figures. SeeG. H. Green, "Description of the Works of Callot ;" Maume, " Recherches sur la Vie, etc. de J. Callot." Cally, kt^e', (Pierre,) a French philosopher and ecclesiastic, born near Argentan, is said to nave been the first who professed Cartesianism in France. He was chosen principal of the College of Caen in 1675, and edited, " ad usum Delphini," Boethius " De Consolatione Philosophiae," (" On the Consolation of Philosophy,") in 1680. He wrote a work entitled "Institutes of Uni- versal Philosophy," ("Universae Philosophise Institutio.") Died in 1709. Calmeil, ktrmAI' or ktl'm^ye, (Juste Louis,) a French physician, born at Poitiers (Vienne) in 1798, was appointed chief physician to the Asylum for the In- sane at Charenton. His principal work is " On Insanity considered under the Pathological, Philosophical, His- torical, and Judicial Points of View," (1845.) Calmels, kiVmkV, (Anatole C6lestin,) an eminent French sculptor, born in Paris in 1822. He studied in the School of Fine Arts, and gained in 1839 one of the grand prizes. Among his chief productions are the statue of Denis Papin for the fa9ade of the Hotel de Ville, and those of Calypso and of Massena for the new Louvre. Calmet, ktl'mi', (Augustin,) a French Benedictine monk, born near Commercy (Lorraine) in 1672, was emi- nent for his learning, and for his labours as a commentator of Scripture. He took the monastic vows in 1689, was appointed abbe of Saint-Leopold-de-Nancy in 1718, and ten years later was transferred to the abbey of Senones, where he passed the rest of his life. Calmet published numerous works, among which are "The Bible in Latin and French, with a Literal and Critical Commentary," (1707-16,) a " Historical and Critical Dictionary of the Bible," (2 vols, folio, 1720,) which is regarded as his best production, and has been translated into English, and "Universal History, Sacred and Profane," (17 vols., 1735-71.) Died in Pans in 1757. See DoM Fange, "Vie de Dom Calmet," 1763 ; "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Calmo, kai'mo, (Andrea,) a facetious Italian poet and actor, born in Venice about 15 10, He composed " Rhodiana" and other comedies, which were popular, and published a collection of sonnets, stanzas, canzoni, etc. Died in 1571. Calogera.kl-lo-ja'rS, or Calogiera, k3.-lo-je-a'ra,(AN- GELO,) an Italian monk, eminent as a philologist, born at Padua in 1699. For many years he was an inmate of the monastery of San Michele, near Venice. With the as- sistance of P. Zeno, Muratori, and others, he compiled and published a selection from the treatises read at the various scientific and philological academies of Italy. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^=See Explanations, p. 23.) CALOGIERA 494 CALVERT This valuable work, entitled " Raccolta d'Opuscoli scien- tifici e filologici," ("Collection of Scientific and Philo- logical Tracts,") was issued periodically from 1729 to 1766. Died in 1768. See Adelung, Supplement to Jocher's " Allgemeines Gelehrten- Lexikon." Calogiera. See Calogera. Caro-Jo-an'nes or Joannes II. Com-ne'nus, [Gr. KaAo-lwawT^f 6 Kofivrjvog ; Fr. Calo-Jean, kt'lo' zhdN, or Jean Comnene, zh6N kom'nin',] Emperor of the East, born in 1088, was a son of Alexis I., whom he succeeded in 1 1 18. The surname Calo is supposed to have re- ferred to his intrinsic merit, as his person was the reverse of beautiful. He is said to have been a wise and good prince. He waged successful wars against the Turks and Servians. After many victories over these and other nations or tribes, he conceived the project of conquering the Latin kingdoms of Jerusalem and Antioch, and en- tered Cilicia with an army. While hunting wild boars in that province, he wounded his hand with a poisoned arrow, which produced his death in 1 143. He was suc- ceeded by his son Manuel. See Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire ;" Nicetas, "Joannes Com n en us." Caloniarde, ki-lo-maR'd^, (Francisco Tadeo,) a Spanish minister of state, born at Villel in 1773. He chose the profession of law, became a resident of Mad- rid, and an adherent of the absolutist party. After hold- ing several inferior offices, he was appointed minister of g^ace and justice in 1823. For the ensuing ten years he was the most powerful member of the cabinet, and ap- pears to have been partly responsible for the evil policy and misrule of that period. Failing in an attempt to make Don Carlos king as successor to Ferdinand VH. in 1833, he was disgraced and exiled. Died at Toulouse in 1842. See Lavallee, " Espagne depuis I'Expulsion des Maures jusqu'en 1847;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Calomato, ki-lo-mi'to, (Bartolommeo,) a Venetian painter of the seventeenth century. Calonne, de, deh kt'lon', (Alphonse,) a French journalist, born about 181 5. He published, in 1852, *' Berangere," a tale, and in the same year assisted to establish the " Revue Contemporaine," of which he has since been director, and which has obtained an important place in periodical literature. Calonne, de, (Charles Alexandre,) a French courtier and minister of state, born at Douai in 1734. Having studied law, he became master of requests in 1763, and intendant of Metz in 1768. In 1783 he was appointed controller-general of finances, through the influence of Vergennes. The expenses of the state were greater than the revenue. Calonne, who. was fertile in resources and possessed great powers of application, adopted the policy of disguising the distress by a show of prosperity and by a profuse expenditure of money. He attempted to supply the deficit by loans and tempo- rary expedients, and in 1786 advised an Assembly of Notables, which met next year, thus unintentionally giving the first impulse to the Revolution. The alarm- ing state of the finances then became known, and Ca- lonne was dismissed in 1787. During the Revolution he lived in exile, chiefly in London, and was a zealous roy- alist. He published several able political and financial tracts, of which perhaps the most notable are a " View of Europe in November, 1795," and "On the Finances of France." Died in 1802. See Thiers, " Histoire de la Revolution Fran^aise ;" J. L. Carra, "M. de Calonne tout entier," 1788; "Nouvelle Biographie Gene- rale." Calonne, de, (Ernest,) a French poet and dramatic author, born in Paris in 1822. He wrote "Love and Psyche," a poem, (1842,) which was received with favour, and a play in prose, called " The Doctor in Love," (" Le Docteur ainoureux,") which he ascribed to Moliere. Calov, ki'lof, [Lat. Calo'vius,] originally Kalau, ki^ow, (Abraham,) a German Lutheran divine, born at Mohrungen, Prussia, in 1612. He lectured on theology at Wittenberg, was a violent opponent of Calixtus, and was much addicted to controversy. Among his works is a " System of Theological Subjects," (" Systema Loco- rum Theologicorum.") Died in 1686. Calovius, the Latin of Calov, which see. Calprenede, de la, deh \i. ktl'pReh-nkK, (Gauthier de Costes — deh kost,) Seigneur, a French writer of fiction, born near Sarlat, (Dordogne.) became a resident of Paris about 1632, and gentleman of the chamber to the king in 1650. He wrote " Cassandre," (1642,) " Cleo- patra," (10 vols., 1647,) and other romances, which had a temporary popularity, and several tragedies, of which "The Earl of Essex" (1639) is said to be the best. Died in 1663. "Calprenede," says Hallam, "had but a life-estate in the temple of Fame, though he was a poet of no contemptible powers of imagination." See La Harpe, "Cours de Litterature ;" Malame de S4vign6, " Letters." Cal-pur'm-a, a Roman lady, a daughter of L. Cal- purnius Piso, (who was consul in 58 B.C.,) was the fourth wife of Julius Caesar, to whom she was married in 59, and whom she survived. Alarmed by bad dreams, she entreated her husband not to leave home on the fatal Ides of March, 44 B.C. See Plutarch, " Life of Cassar." Calpurnia, a Roman lady, was the wife of Pliny the Younger, and lived in the first century. Cal-pur'ni-us. (Titus Julius,) a Latin poet, who was surnamed Sic'uLUS, and is supposed to have lived in the third century of our era. Little is known of his history. Several of his Eclogues are extant. They have some merit, and slightly resemble those of Virgil in style. His versification is smooth and sonorous, and his diction is nearly pure. See " Nouvelle Biographie Gdn^rale." Calpur'nius Flao'cus, a Latin rhetorician, who is supposed to have lived in the reigns of Adrian and An- toninus Pius. Caluso. See Valperga di Caluso. Calvart or Calvaert, kiKv^Rt, [Fr. pron. ktrvtR',] written also Calvert, [Fr. pron. ktKvaiR',] (Denis,) an eminent Flemish painter, called by the Italians IL Fiammingo, (el fe-S-m^n'go,) "the Fleming," was born at Antwerp in 1555. He went to Italy while young, studied with Fontana and Sabbatini, and opened a school in Bologna, which became very celebrated. The Bolognese regard him as one of the restorers of their school in respect to colouring. His master-pieces are a " Saint Michael" and a "Purgatory." Among his pupils were Guido, Domenichino, and Albani. Died at Bologna in 1619. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" Pilkington, "Dic- tionary of Painters." Calvel, kiVvlV, (^tienne,) a French writer, who published, besides other works, several treatises on agri- culture. Died about 1830. Cal-ve'na, (C. Matius,) a learned Roman, usually called Matius, was an intimate friend of Cassar the die tator. After the death of the latter, in 44 B.C., he joined the party of Octavius. Tacitus speaks of the power and influence which Matius possessed. He was also intimate with Cicero, who mentions him in his letters. He was perhaps the same as the C. Matius who trans- lated the " Iliad" into Latin verse and wrote an admired work called "Mimiambi." CaFvert, (Cecil or Cecilius,) second Lord Balti- more, was the first proprietor of Maryland, and the son of the first Lord Baltimore. The charter granted to him, June 20, 1632, conferred ample political powers and the ownership of the soil on him and his heirs forever, who, in recognition of their fealty to the British crown, were required to pay annually two Indian arrows and one-fifth of all the gold and silver ore which might ever be found. (See Calvert, George.) Lord Baltimore, who never resided in Maryland himself, and probably never saw it, appointed as his lieutenant his brother Leonard, who arrived in the new colony in 1634 with about two hundred persons, mostly Catholics of gentle birth. The colony formed under auspices so favourable, and named in honour of the queen Henrietta Maria, made rapid progress, and for many years enjoyed a re- markable share of peace and prosperity. The proprietor, who was "the heir of his father's intentions not less than of his father's fortunes," discharged his duties to the colonists in a most liberal spirit, and is entitled to a a, e, T, o, u, y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon: CALVERT 495 CALVIN share of the honour which belongs to the pioneers of civil and religious liberty. He died, at an advanced age, in 1676. Leonard Calvert had died in 1647. The heirs of Lord Baltimore for several generations were proprie- tors of Maryland. See Bancroft, "History of the United States;" Hildreth, "History of the United States," vol. i. chap. viii. Calvert, (Denis.) See Calvart. Calvert, (Frederick,) Lord Baltimore, born in 1731, was the eldest son of Charles, the sixth Lord Baltimore, who died in 1751. The subject of this article then be- came proprietor of Maryland. He published in 1767 a "Tour in the East," and soon after became a resident of Naples, where he died in 1771. He was the author of a work composed in Latin, English, and French, entitled "Gaudia Poetica," ("Poetic Joys.") Calvert, (George,) Lord Baltimore, the founder and enlightened lawgiver of Maryland, born at Kipling, in Yorkshire, England, about 1580, was descended from a noble Flemish family of the same name. He was edu- cated at Oxford University. By his talents and virtues he gained the confidence of James I., who appointed him in 1619 one of the principal secretaries of state. In 1624, avowing his conversion to the Roman Catholic faith, he resigned his office ; but the king retained him in the privy council, and raised him to the Irish peerage as Baron of Baltimore, in Longford county, Ireland. He had pre- viously obtained from James I. an extensive grant of land in Newfoundland, where in 1621 he planted a colony named Avalon, which he supervised in person and sus- tained for a few years at great expense. His motive in this enterprise was partly to obtain liberty of worship for his fellow-professors, who were subject to restraints and disabilities in the mother-country. His first experiment having failed on account of the ungenial climate and the hostilities of the French, he visited Virginia in 1628 and explored the adjacent regions. He returned to England, and received from Charles I. a grant of all the territory included in the present State of Maryland. As Calvert died in 1632, before the grant was legally executed, the charter was issued in the name of his son Cecil, under date of June 20, 1632. This charter, which was doubtless drafted by the first Lord Baltimore himself, guaranteed the civil and religious liberties of the colonists and their exemption from English taxation forever. "Calvert de- serves to be ranked," says Bancroft, "among the most wise and benevolent lawgivers of all ages. He was the first in the history of the Christian world to seek for re- ligious security and peace by the practice of justice and not by the exercise of power ; to plan the establishment of popular institutions with the enjoyment of liberty of conscience ; to advance the career of civilization by recognizing the rightful equality of all Christian sects." He wrote " The Practice of Princes," several letters of state, and a few other works. Several of his speeches in Parliament were published. (See Calvert, Cecil.) See Bancroft, " History of the United States," vol. i. chap, vii. ; J. P. Kennedy, "Discourse on the Life and Character of George Calvert." Calvert, (George Henry,) an American author, and a great-grandson of Lord Baltimore, was born in Mary- land in 1803. He published, besides other works, in prose and verse, "Illustrations of Phrenology," (1832,) "Count Julian, a Tragedy," (1840,) and "Scenes and Thoughts in Europe," (1846,) which were received with favour. Calvert, (Sir Harry,) a British general, descended from the Calverts of Hertfordshire. In early life he served in the United States under Clinton, Howe, and Cornwallis, and was made prisoner at Yorktown in 1781. He was aide-de-camp to the Duke of York in 1794, in the Low Countries, and becair,e adjutant-general in 1799. After assisting to organize the military colleges at High Wycombe and Marlow, he was made major-general in 1803, a baronet in 1818, and a general about 1821. Died in 1826. See "Journals and Correspondence of Sir Henry Calvert," by Sir Henry Verney, London, 1853. Calvert, (James,) an English nonconformist divine, was rector of TopcliflFe. Died in 1698. Calvert, (Leonard,) the first Governor of Maryland, born about 1582, was a younger son of George, Lord Baltimore. He governed Maryland from 1634 until his death in 1647. See Sparks, "American Biography," vol. ix., Second Series. Calvert, (Thomas,) an English dissenting minister, born at York in 1606. He became vicar of Trinity, York, and officiated in the cathedral during the rule of the Pro- tector. By the Act of Uniformity (1662) he was ejected from his living. He published " Honey of Heaven," ("Mel Cosli,") an exposition of Isaiah liii., and a few other works. Died in 1679. Calvi, kSKvee, (LazzaroJ a Genoese painter, born in 1502 ; died in 1607, at the age of one hundred and five years. Among his works is "The Continence of Scipio." See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Calvi, (Pantaleone,) a painter, brother of Lazzaro, noticed above, was born at Genoa; died in 1595. Calvidus Laetus. See Quillett. Calvin, kiKvin, written also Caulvin, Cauvin, and Chauvin, (John,) [Fr. Jean Calvin, zh6N ktl'v^N', (or Chauvin, sho'viw' ;) Ger. Johann Calvin, yo'hSn kai-veen'; It. Giovanni Calvino, jo-vin'nee kSl-vee'no; Lat. Johan'nes Calvi'nus,] after Luther, the greatest of the Protestant Reformers, was born at Noyon, in Picardy, (now the department of Oise,) on the loth of July, 1509. His father, Gerard Cauvin, (ko'viN',) secretary of the diocese, and fiscal procureur of the lordship of Noyon, destined him for the church, and gave him a liberal education. When only about sixteen years old, Calvin was appointed cure of Marteville, and, by exchange, of Pont-l'fiveque, two years later, while still pursuing his studies in Paris. His relative Robert Olivetan induced him, while at the university, to read the Bible, and pointed out the contradictions between the doctrines of the Holy Scriptures and the theology taught by the Romish Church. At Bourges, where he was studying law, — having aban- doned the purpose of dedicating himself to the church, — Calvin became acquainted with Melchior Wolmar, who instructed him in Greek and confirmed him in the doc- trines of the Protestant faith. He began soon after openly to profess and preach the new doctrines. In 1532 he published on Seneca's treatise " De Clementia" a Latin commentary, in which he calls himself Johannes Calvinlis. The design of this work, it would appear, was to lead the French king (Francis I.) to the practice of clemency or toleration towards the Protestants ; but it seems to have had no effect. Having by his zeal for the new faith incurred the displeasure of the Sorbonne, Calvin retired from Paris to Angouleme. For a short period he was protected from persecution by the favour of Margaret of Navarre, sister to Francis I. But being compelled, in 1534, to fly from his native country, he found refuge in Bale, where he published (1536) his "Institutes of the Christian Religion," ("Christianas Religionis Institutio,") which, in an eloquently-written preface, he dedicated to Francis I. The object of this — Calvin's most important work — was to explain and vindicate the views of the Reformed Church. It may, indeed, be pronounced the first systematic and thorough defence of Protestantism that had till then appeared. The doctrines of the Reformation having begun to spread into Italy, Calvin, with the view of aiding in the great work, visited Ferrara, where he was cordially re- ceived by the duchess Renee, (Renata,) daughter of Louis XII. of France, and consort of Hercules (Ercole) d'Este. But even her influence was unable to protect him against the power of the Inquisition ; and he was again compelled to seek safety by flight. Returning to Noyon for the last time, he sold his paternal estate, and, accompanied by his brother, sister, and several devoted friends, withdrew to Switzerland. In one of his letters written about this time, he says, " I am driven from the land of my birth. Every step towards its boundaries costs me tears. Perhaps it is not permitted to Truth to dwell in France : let her lot be mine." In his flight he had arrived at Geneva, (August, 1536,) intending to pro- ceed to Germany. But Farel, through whose influence, chiefly, the reformed religion had been established at Geneva, (1535,) earnestly entreated Calvin to remain with him, and boldly threatened him with the wrath of Heaven if he "would not help to carry on the work of God." Calvin yielded, and was elected preacher and € as k; c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) CALVIN 496 CALVO teacher of theology. Along with Fare!, he prepared a confession of faith and a plan of ecclesiastical discipline, which were approved in a general assembly of the peo- ple, July, 1537. But the severe doctrines and strict discipline of the Reformers were very unpalatable to a large number of the Genevese ; a powerful party was excited against Farel and Calvin, and early in the year 1538 they were banished from the city. Calvin withdrew to Strasburg, where, under his care, a Reformed congre- gation was established, which afforded a pattern to the Protestants of France. During this period (1538-41) he produced the first of his valuable contributions to exe- getical theology. He did not, however, forget the Gene- vese. During his exile, strenuous efforts were made by Cardinal Sadolet, the champion of the Catholic cause, to bring them back to the Church of Rome. Calvin was instrumental in thwarting these designs by a masterly and eloquent refutation (1539) of an epistle whicli had been addressed to them by Sadolet. They already began to regret the absence of the great Reformer; and in 1540 he received from the Genevese senate a pressing invita- tion to return. He was, moreover, urged to this course by Farel and many others of his friends. Calvin appears to have greatly enjoyed the peaceful life which he led at Strasburg, and was extremely reluctant to return to the scene of his former conflicts ; but as he had never ceased to feel the deepest and most affectionate solicitude for the welfare of the church at Geneva, and, above all, as he regarded that city as the post of duty to which Hea- ven had especially called him, the final decision could not be doubtful with one whose devoted and only aim was, not to please himself, but, by every means in his power, to promote the glory of God. On the 13th of September, 1541, he again entered Geneva, and was re- ceived, both by the magistrates and people, "with every demonstration of affection and triumj^h." During his sojourn at Strasburg he had married (1539) a widow named Idelette de Bures, who is described as a woman of exalted virtues. They had but one child, a son, who died in infancy. Calvin's wife died in 1549. The remainder of the life of this great man was spent in untiring efforts to establish the Genevese church and government on a firm foundation, and to render the former a model for all other Protestant churches. Calvin died May 27, 1564, aged nearly fifty-five. The effects of his labours in promoting sound morality and learning, to say nothing of religion, are still felt in Geneva, after a lapse of three hundred years. Montesquieu, referring to the great services which Calvin had rendered to that state, says "the Genevese ought to observe the day of his arrival in their city as a festival." Nothing relating to Calvin is more remarkable than his contempt of riches and the self-denying simplicity of his life. He received from the Genevese only what was sufficient to support him with the greatest parsimony. Although he lived in such poverty, he would never ac- cept a present except for the poor. He repeatedly re- fu.sed to take anything in addition to his regular stipend. Once, during his sickness, the council advanced him the sum of twenty-five thalers, desiring him to accept it as a gift ; but Calvin insisted on repaying it. When some of his friends urged that a person occupying the conspic- uous position which he did before all Europe, ought to live in greater style, he replied by simply referring them to the example of Christ and his apostles. There is in Calvin's history one point which must not be passed without notice, as it has been made by the misinformed and illiberal the ground of much unjust censure. We refer to the part which he took in pro- curing the condemnation of Servetus. The utmost that can be justly said against Calvin on this head is that in regard to religious toleration he was not in advance of the age in which he lived ; nor was he one whit behind it. The doctrine of toleration in its largest sense was not yet recognized, even by men the most liberal and humane.* It must not be forgotten that Calvin was a * It should be borne in mind that Calvin died several years before William the Silent, from motives of policy rather than from any higher considerations, recommended toleration as a wise measure of govern- ment, and more than a century (and tliat, too, during a period of almost unexampled progress) before William Penn taught the great truth that for their religious opinions men are responsible to God alone. Statesman as well as a preacher of the gospel. The community which he had so admirably organized at Geneva was to him both state and church, over which he felt it his duty to watch with the most jealous care. He had reason to fear that the errors of Servetus, associated as they were with great abilities and an arrogant, reck- less spirit, might endanger the welfare of that community to which he had devoted his life, and which was dearer to him than anything else on earth. He was not merely a watchful pastor, but a zealous patriot, who sought to defend his country against what he deemed a formidable enemy. That his hostility to Servetus was not so much directed against his religious opinions as against his dangerous character, is at least rendered probable by his friendly relations vyith Socinus, whose theological views were no less objectionable than those of Servetus. While deeply regretting this blemish on his character, (shared though it was by all the Reformers of that age,) we must not omit to state that, although Calvin approved of the death of Servetus, he did not wish him brought to the stake, dissenting in this from Farel and some of his other friends, who exhorted him to be "firm and severe." Farel at first, in opposition to Calvin, distinctly recom- mended that the punishment should be death by fire. Afterwards, however, he repented of his severity, and earnestly implored the council to mitigate the sentence of Servetus ; but in vain.* The doctrine of unconditional election and reprobation was the central idea in Calvin's theological system : it is to this doctrine, and others growing immediately out of it, that the term Calvinism is usually applied. As a theological writer, Calvin is remarkable for clear- ness, method, and scientific exactness. As a reasoner, he is distinguished for logical acuteness. According to Scaliger, he stood alone among theologians, ("solus inter theologos Calvinus.") Among his numerous works wo may name, besides those already mentioned, his " Com- mentaries on the Harmony of the Gospels," (Geneva, 1 561,) his Commentaries on the New Testament, on the Psalms, etc. His other writings consist chiefly of tracts and letters. See Paul Henry, " Life and Times of Calvin," an excellent and exhaustive work; "Letters of Calvin," collected by Dr. Bonnet; Theodore de Beze, " Histoire de la Vie et la Mort de Calvin," 1564; BoLSEC, " Historia de J. Calvini Vita," 1572; Masson, "Vita J. Calvini," 1598; Tischer, "Calvin's Leben," 1794; Mackenzie, "Memoirs of the Life of J. Calvin," iSog ; John Scott, "Calvin and the Swiss Reformation," 1838 ; Auuin, " Histoire de la Vie de J. Calvin," 1840; T. H. Dyer, "Life of John Calvin," 1849 ; Maim- BOUKG, " Histoire du Calvinisme;" Bayi.e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Guizot, "J.Calvin," 1844; Kahnis, " Lutheranische Dogmatik," vol. ii. ; "London Quarterly Review" for March, 1851. Cal-vi'nus, (Cneius Domitius,) a Roman consul, who entered public life about 62 B.C. In the year 54 he offered himself as a candidate for the consulship, which he obtained by bribery and by the influence of Pompey. He became a partisan of Caesar in the civil war, and commanded the centre at Pharsalia, (48 B.C.) In the year 40 he was again elected consul, and afterwards commanded an army in Spain for several years. Calvinus, kai-vee'nus, (Johann,) a German jurist, whose proper name was Kahl, (kll,) lived about 1630. He published a " Law Dictionary," (" Lexicon Juridi- cum," 1609,) often reprinted. Calvinus, (Johannes.) See Calvin, John. Calvisius, kSl-vee'ze-iis, (Seth,) a German astro- nomer and poet, born at Groschleben, in Thuringia, in 1556. His principal work is " Opus Chronologicum," (1605.) Died in 1615. Calvo, kai'vo, or Calvi, kSKvee, (Juan,) a Spanish physician of the sixteenth century, published several useful medical works. Calvo, (Marco Fabio,) an Italian physician, born at Ravenna, made one of the first Latin versions of Hip- pocrates, (1525.) Died at Rome in 1527. Calvo, de, deh ktl'vo', (Jean Sauveur,) surnamed THE Brave, a French general, born at Barcelona in 162:;. He defended Maestricht against the Prince of Orange in 1676. Died in 1690. * It is a striking proof of the universal intolerance of that age thai the gentle and humane Melanchthon approved of the execution of the sentence against Servetus. (See Melanchthon's letters to Calvin and Bullinger on this subject.) a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; f&r, fill, fit; m§t; nflt; good; moon: CALFOR 497 CAMBRIDGE Calvor or Calvoer, Ml'voR, (Kaspar,) a German historian, born at Hildesheim in 1650, wrote, in Latin, a work on the early history of Lower Saxony. Died in 1725- See J. J. Fahsius, "Vita G. Calvoerii," 1727. Calvus. See Licinius Stolo. Calvus, (C. Licinius Macer.) See Licinius Cal- vus. Ca-lyp'so, [Gr. KaAvii'tj,] a nymph or demi-goddess of Greek mytholog}'. She is described by Homer as the daughter of Atlas, and proprietor of the island of Ogy- gia, on which Ulysses took refuge after a shipwreck. She detained him some years, and promised him immor- tal youth if he would remain ; but he declined it for the sake of Penelope. Calza, kild'zi, (Antonio,) a landscape-painter of the Venetian school, born at Verona in 1653 ; died about 1 7 14. Calzolai, kSl-zo-l^'ee, or Calzolari, kSI-zo-li'ree, (PiETRO,) an Italian monk and historian, born in Tus- cany about 1500. Rewrote a " Historia Monastica," (1561.) Died in 1580. Cam, kowN, ( ? ) (Diogo,) a Portuguese navigator, who in 1484 explored the west coast of Africa, south of the equator. Camadeva or Camadeo. See Kamadeva. Camargo, ki-maR'go, (Alphonso,) a Spanish navi- gator, who explored the Strait of Magellan in 1 540. Camargo, kt^mlR^go', (Marie Anne Cuppi,) a fa- mous danseuse, born at Brussels in 1710. She per- formed in Paris from 1726 to 1 751. Voltaire addressed to her verses beginning, "Ah ! Camargo, que vous etes brillante !" Died in 1770. See Grimm, " Correspondance." Camassei, ki-mis-sa'ee, (Andrea,) an able Italian painter and engraver, born at Bevagna in 1601, worked in Rome. Died in 1648. Cambaceres, de, deh kSN'bS'si'r^ss', (Abb^:,) an uncle of the distinguished statesman, born at Montpellier in 1 72 1, was eminent as a pulpit orator. He pronounced before the French Academy, in 1768, a panegyric on Saint Louis, which was warmly applauded. Several volumes of his sermons were printed. Died in 1802. Cambaceres, de, (Etienne Hubert,) a French car- dinal, brother of the jurist noticed below, was born at Montpellier in 1756. He was appointed Archbishop of Rouen in 1802, and the next year became a cardinal and grand cordon of the legion of honour. Died in 1821. Cambaceres, de, (Jean Jacques Regis— ra'zh^ss',) an able French statesman and jurist, born at Montpellier in 1757. He gained distinction as a lawyer before the Revolution, and in 1792 was elected to the National Con- vention, in which he performed a prominent part, but with such caution and wisdom that he was accused of moderation and temporizing. He mostly voted with the republicans, except in the trial of the king. After the fall of Robespierre (July, 1794) he was president of the committee of public safety, and used his great influence to terminate the reign of terror. He passed into the Council of Five Hundred in 1796, and was one of the first members of the Institute. In 1799, Bonaparte, then first consul, appointed Cambaceres second consul. Under the empire he enjoyed the confidence of his mas- ter, to whom he gave good counsels and adhered with constant fidelity. He was made arch-chancellor, Duke of Parma, president of the senate, president of the coun- cil of state, grand eagle of the legion of honour, etc. He had the principal part in the compilation of the Civil Code. During the Hundred Days he reluctantly served his former chief as minister of justice, and in 1816 was exiled, but was permitted to return in 181 8. He then recovered his civil rights, with the title of duke, but did not hold office under the Bourbons. Died in Paris in 1824. See AuBRiET, " Vie de Cambaceres," 1825 ; Thiers, " Histoire du Lonsulat et de I'Empire." Cambaceres, de, (Marie Jean Pierre Hubert,) Due, a French senator, nephew of the eminent states- man, was born at Montpellier in 1798. He was raised to the peerage in 1837, and appointed a senator about 1852. Since that date he has become grand master of ceremonies in the imperial household. Camberlyn d'Amougies, kam'ber-lTn' (or k6N'b€R'- ISn') dfmoo'zhe', (Jean Baptiste Guillaume,) a Bel- gian poet, born at Ghent in 1760 ; died in 1833. Cambert, kfiN'baiR', (Robert,) a French musician, who was organist of the church Saint-Honore in Paris. About 1659 Perrin and he composed a comic opera which had a great success. It was called the "premiere come- die Fran9aise en musique." They afterwards produced others, entitled "Ariane" and " Pomone." He died in England in 1677, aged about fifty. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Cambiagi, kam-be-i'jee, (Joachim,) a historical writer, born in Tuscany in 1740, became a partner of Gaetano Cambiagi, a noted printer of Florence. He published a "History of Corsica," (1770.) Cambiaso, kSm-be-a'so, (Luca,) also called Lu- CHE'iTO DA Genova, (loo-kef'to dk jk-no'vS,) a cele- brated Italian painter, born at or near Genoa in 1527. He received lessons in the art from his father Giovanni, and became remarkably skilful in foreshortening. He painted in fresco the " Rape of the Sabines," which was greatly admired. Invited by Philip II., he went to Spain in 1583, and adorned the Escurial with frescos, one of which represents the celestial paradise. He worked with great facility, both in fresco and oil. "The Martyr- dom of Saint George," at Genoa, is called his master- piece. Died in 1585. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Winckelmann, " Neues Maler-Lexikon." Cambini, kim-bee'nee, (Andrea,) an Italian histo- rian, born at Florence, lived about 1470. Cambini, (Giuseppe,) an Italian composer, born at Leghorn in 1746, produced a great number of sympho- nies, concertos, oratorios, motets, etc. Died about 1832. See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Cambis-Velleron, de, deh kSN'be' verrdN', (Joseph Louis Dominique,) Marquis, a French historian, born at Avignon in 1706; died in 1772. Cambon, kdN'b^N', (Joseph,) a French republican financier, born at Montpellier in 1756, was a merchant in early life. He was elected to the National Assembly in 1791, and to the Convention of 1792, in which he voted for the death of the king. In 1793 he was one of the committee of public safety, and took a prominent part in the government. He concurred in the overthrow of Robespierre in 1794. As a member of the committee on finances, he rendered important services to the republic, . and made many able financial reports. He is said to have merited an enduring reputation by that report, . which caused the adoption of the great-book, or register of the public debt. In 1795 the rivalry between Cambon and Tallien resulted in a decree for the arrest of the former, who escaped by concealment. Under the reign of Napoleon he lived in a private station, was exiled in 1815, and died in Belgium in 1820. See De Barante, "Histoire de la Convention nationale." Cambon, de, deh kSN^b^N', (Jean Louis Auguste Emmanuel,) Marquis, a French lawyer, born at Tou- louse in 1737. He was first president of the Assembly of Notables in 1787. Died in 1807. Cambray, kSx^bpi', (Baptiste,) a French peasant, . noted as the inventor of a cotton or linen stuff called cambric. He lived in Cambresis, or Cambray, in the. thirteenth century. Cambray-Digny, de, deh kSw^bRa' d^n'ye', (Loots Guillaume,) a French physicist, born in Picard>y in 1723, became a citizen of Florence. He constructed the first steam-engine used south of the Alps. Died about the end of the eighteenth century. Cam'bre-leng or Cam'bre-ling, (Churchill C.,) an American politician, born in North Carolina in 1786. He became a merchant in New York, served in Con- gress from 1821 to 1839, was chairman of the committee of ways and means, and was appointed minister to Russia in the latter year. Died in 1862. Cam'bridge, (Adolphus Frederick,) Duke of, the seventh son of George III. of England, was born in 1774. He entered the army at the age of sixteen, and was taken prisoner by the French at Hondschoote in 1793. He was appointed Governor of Hanover in 1816, and Viceroy of the same in 183 1. Died in 1850. € as k: c as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See ExplanatJ )n?, p. 23.) 32 CAMBRIDGE 498 CAMERJRIUS _________ % Cambridge, ^eorge William Frederick Charles,) Duke of, a British general, son of the pre- ceding, and a cousin of Queen Victoria, born at Hanover in 1 8 19. He became a major-general in 1845, and suc- ceeded to the dukedom in 1850. In 1854 he commanded a division in the Crimea. His conduct at Alma and Inkerman in 1 854 was applauded. He was appointed commander-in-chief of the British army in 1856. Cambridge, (Richard Owen,) an ingenious English writer, born in London in 17 14. He became a member of Lincoln's Inn in 1737. He wrote the " Scribleriad," a heroic poem, which has been much admired ; twenty- one of the best papers in " The World " The Intruder," a poem ; and a " History of the War in India between the French and English from 1755 to 1 761." Died in 1802. See Gary, " Lives of English Poets from Johnson to Kirke White." Cambronne, de, deh kdN^bRon', (Pierre Jacques £tienne,) Baron, a French general, born at Nantes in 1770. He distinguished himself as colonel in the cam- paigns of 1 812 and 1813, and accompanied Bonaparte to Elba in 1814. In 181 5 he was admitted into the Chamber of Peers. He commanded a division at Waterloo, where, after being surrounded, refusing to surrender, he was severely wounded and taken prisoner.* At the revolu- tion of 1830 he was restored to his rank in the army. Died in 1842. See "Victoires at Conquetes des Fran^ais;" "Histoire dii Gene- ra! Ganibronne," Paris, 1845. Cambry, kSN'bRe', (Jacques,) a French litiemteur, born at L'Orient in 1749, was prefect of the department of Oise. He wrote a variety of learned works, among which are an " Essay on the Life and Works of Poussin," (1783,) and ''Travels in Switzerland and Italy." Died in 1807. Cambyse, the French of Cambyses, which see. Cam-by 'ses, [Gr. Ka/Lt6vor]c; Fr. Cambyse, k6N'b6z',] King of the Medes and Persians, succeeded his father, Cyrus the Great, about 530 B.C. Five years later he invaded Egypt, defeated Psammenitus, its king, took Memphis, the capital, and in a few months completed the conquest of the country. He then marched against Ethiopia ; but, having lost many men by famine, he re- turned without success. The cruelties that he after- wards committed, among which was the execution of his brother Smerdis, are ascribed by some to the loss of his reason. He was accidentally wounded by his own sword, and died in consequence in 521 or 522 B.C., leaving no issue. See Herodotus, "History;" Justin, "Historia;" Valerius Maximus; Ramspeck, "Specimen de Cambyse Persarum Rege," 1740. Cam'deii, (Charles Pratt,) first Earl of, an Eng- lish judge and statesman of great merit, born in 17 14, was the son of Chief- Justice Sir John Pratt. At Eton he formed a lasting friendship with William Pitt. Plaving graduated at Cambridge, he was called to the bar in 1738. For many years he obtained but little practice, until his success in defending a bookseller charged with a libel on the House of Commons, in 1752, brought him into notice. He was appointed attorney-general about 1 758, was returned to Parliament, and became chief justice of the common pleas in 1762. He there found the proper sphere for his eminent judicial talents, and gained great po])ularity by his decision against the legality of general warrants in the case of Wilkes. In 1765 he was created Baron Camden, and in the next year became lord chancellor. He held the great seal nearly four years, and performed the duties of that office with dignity, firmness, and integrity. "Among the names that adorn the legal profession," says Lord Brougham, " there are few which stand so high as that of Camden. He was, however, more eminent in the senate than the forum. He brought into Parliament a high professional reputation, and his talents were pecu- liarly suited to shine in debate." The constant and powerful champion of constitutional liberty, he opposed the policy of Lord North in relation to America, and has been called the right arm of Lord Chatham, for his * He is said to have disowned the famous phrase, "The Guard dies, and never surrenders," which was attributed to him. zealous co-operation w'"th that political chief in his long contest with the court. He was president of the coun- cil from the accession of the younger Pitt as premier, until his own death. In 1786 he was created Earl Cam- den. In 1792 he eloquently and successfully maintained the rights of juries in libel-cases, against Thurlow and all the other law lords. Fox's celebrated Libel Act was then carried through the House of Peers by his exer- tions. Died in 1794. See Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors ;" Broug- ham, " Statesmen of the Time of George IIL;" Foss, "The Judge? of England." Camden, (John Jeffreys Pratt,) Marquis of, the eldest son of the preceding, was born in 1759. About 1780 he was returned to Parliament, and appointed a teller of the exchequer. From 1789 to 1794 he was one of the lords of the treasury ; and in the latter year he inherited his father's title and entered the House oi Lords. He was lord lieutenant of Ireland for several years previous to 1798. He afterwards served the public with honour as secretary for the colonies and president of the council, and was raised to the rank of marquis about 1 81 2. Died in 1840. Camden, (William,) an eminent English antiquary and author, born in London in 1 55 1. Having graduated at Oxford, he became second master of Westminster School in 1575. In 1586 he produced, in Latin, his most celebrated work, " Britannia sive Regnorum Angiias, Sco- tice et Hiberniae ex intima Antiquitate Chorographica Descriptio," (a "Description of Great Britain," etc.,) which was the result of his antiquarian studies and re- searches pursued for many years, and is a very important production. The subsequent editions have been enlarged by various editors, and the book has been translated into English by Gibson and Gough. Camden was made head- master of Westminster about 1592, and Clarencieux king- at-arms in 1597. He published, besides a few other works, " Annals of the Reign of Elizabeth," written in elegant Latin, and admired for various merits. " It is written," says Hume, "with simplicity of expression very rare in that age, and with a regard to truth. It would not, perhaps, be too much to affirm that it is among the best historical productions which have yet been composed by any Englishman." He died in 1623, and left an estate with which the Camden professorship of history at Oxford was founded. See Thomas Smith, "Life of Camden," 1691 ; Molin^eus, "Oratio de Vita G. Camdeni," 1652; "Retrospective Review," vol. ix., 1824. Camdenu. See Kamadhenu. Camdeo. See Kamadeva. Camelli, ka-meKlee, or Kamel, k^'mel, (Georg Joseph,) a German botanist, born at Brunn about 1690. He passed some years as a missionary in the Philippine Islands, the plants of which he described accurately in memoirs sent to the Royal Society of London. Linnaeus named the genus Camellia in his honour. See Ray, " Histoire universelle des Plantes." Camenae, ka-mee'nee, [Fr. Cam^:nes, kt'man',] the general name of four divinities or prophetic njanphs in early Roman mythology, viz. : Antevorta, Postvorta, Car- menta, and Egeria or !^geria. The Roman poets some- times applied this name to the Muses. Canienes, the French of Camrn/e, which see. Ca-me-ni-a'ta, (Joannes,) VKauevLura 'Icjuwrjc,] of Thessalonica, a Greek writer, \vTio witnessed and wrote an account of the capture of that city by the Saracens in 904 a.d, Camenz, ka^iients, (Erdmann Gottfried,) a Ger- man antiquary, born in Saxony in 1692 ; died in 1743. Camerarius, ka-mi-ra're-iis, or Cammermeister, kJm'mer-mTs'ter, (Alexander,) a physician, born at Tii- bingen in 1695, was a son of Rudolf Jakob, whom he succeeded as professor. Died in 1736. Camerarius, (Elias,) a son of Elias Rudolf, noticed below, born at Tiibingen in 1673, became first physician to the Duke of Wiirtemberg. He wrote many medical works remarkable for singular ideas. Died in 1734. See fir.oY, " Dictionnaire de la Medecine." Camerarius, (Elias Rudolf,) a German physician and medical writer, born at Tubingen in 1641, was pro- fessor of medicine at that city. Died in 1695. a, c, o, ii, , /o/{<^-: h, 6, snme, less prolonged : a, e, T, o, \\, y, s/wrf: a, e. i, o. obscure: fir, fill, f^t; m§t; n5t; goo.l, moon, CJMERJRIUS 499 CAMILLUS Camerarius, (Joachim,) one of the most eminent German scholars of his time, was born at Bamberg in 1500. His proper name was Liebhard, (leep'hiRt.) He was deputed in 1530 to the Diet of Augsburg, where he took a prominent part as the friend and coadjutor of Melanchthon. In 1535 he became director or principal of the University of Tubingen, and in 1541 reorganized that of Leipsic, of which he was rector for many years. He wrote, besides other Latin works, a "Life of Me- lanchthon," (1566,) Commentaries on Cicero, Aristotle, and other classics, and " Commentaries on the Greek and Latin Tongues," ("Commentarii Linguae Graecas et La- tinae," 1551.) "Budieus, Camerarius, Scaliger, Casau- bon," says Hallam, " appear to stand out as the great restorers of ancient learning, and especially of the Greek language." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died at Leipsic in 1574. See P. Ekerman, "Fata et Merita J. Camerarii," Upsal, 1761 ; AtiGUST W. Eknesti, "Progiamma de J. Camerario," 1774; J. F. EcKHARD, "J. Camerarii Memoria," 1774; Jocher, "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." Camerarius, (Joachim,) a distinguished physician and botanist, son of the preceding, born at Nuremberg in 1534. He practised medicine in his native city, and obtained possession of the botanical library of Gesner, with fifteen hundred wood-engravings which he left. He published several botanical works, among which are the " Medical Garden," (" Hortus Medicus,") and " Epitome Mathioli de Plantis," etc., (1586.) Died in 1598. See De Thou, "Memolres historiques ;" M. Auam, "Vitze Medicorum Germanicorum." Camerarius, (Ludwig,) a German diplomatist, son of Joachim II., born at Nuremberg in 1573 ; died in 1651. Camerarius, (Philipp,) a jurist, son of Joachim I., born at Nuremberg in 1537, was chosen vice-chancellor of the University of Altorf in 1581. He wrote "Leisure Hours," ("Horse subsecivse," 3 vols.,) which passed through several editions. Died in 1624. See J. G. ScHELHORN, " Commentarius de Vita, Fatis ac Meritis P. Camerarii," 1740. Camerarius, (Rudolf Jakob,) a German physician and botanist, son of Elias Rudolf, born at Tubingen in 1665. He was professor of physics at Tiibingen from 1689 to 1695, ^'^cl was then appointed first professor of medicine, including botany, in the same university. In 1694 he published a Latin letter on the sex of plants. "The real establishment of the sexual theory," says Hallam, "is due to Camerarius, professor of botany at Tiibingen, whose letter on that subject did much to spread the theory over Europe." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1721. See Haixer, "Bibliotheca Botanica." Camerata, kl-mi-ra't3, (Andrea,) an Italian archi- tect, born at Venice in 1714; died in 1793. Camerata, (Giuseppe,) a miniature-painter and en- graver, born at Venice about 1700. He worked at Dres- den for the Elector of Saxony. Died about 1764. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Camerer, ki'meh-rer, (Johann Frederik,) a Danish historian, born at Ettingen in 1720 ; died in 1792. Cam-e-ri'nus, a Latin poet, who was a contemporary of Ovid. Cam'er-on, (Sir Alan,) a British general, born pro- bably in Scotland. In 1793 he raised at his own expense a regiment of Cameron Highlanders, with which he fought against the French. He served in the Peninsula as brigadier-general in 1808 and 1810. About 1820 he was made a lieutenant-general. Died in 1828. Cameron, (Archibald,) M.D., a Scottish Jacobite, born about 1698, was a brother of Donald Cameron of Lochiel. He took an active part in the rebellion of 1745, was tried for treason, and hung in 1753. Cameron, (Donald,) of Lochiel, a Highland chief- tain, who fought for the Pretender in the rebellion of 1745, was called "the gentle Lochiel." He captured Edinburgh by surprise, and was wounded at the battle of Culloden, after which he escaped to France in 1746. The disaster of Culloden forms the subject of Campbell's spirited poem entitled "Lochiel's Warning." Lochiel died in 1748. He is commended as a type and model of the Highland chivalry. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement;) "Eraser's Magazine" for December, 1842. Cameron, (Sir Evan or Ewen,) of Lochiel, a Scot tish chief, called "the Ulysses of the Highlands," was born about 1630. He was a zealous Jacobite, took arms against William III. about 1689, and distinguished him- self at Killiecrankie. Died in 17 19. Cameron, (John,) a Scottish divine and statesman, who became keeper of the great seal, and afterwards Bishop of Glasgow, (1426.) He was lord chancellor under James I. and James II., and represented the Church of Scotland at the Council of Bale about 143 1. Cameron, (John,) a liberal Protestant divine and biblical scholai", born at Glasgow about 1580, became eminent for learning and subtlety as a theologian. He went to France in 1600, lectured on Greek and divinity at Bordeaux, Saumur, and Montauban, and published theological works, one of which is called " Myrothecium Evangelicum." He opposed the Calvinistic dogma of predestination. Died at Montauban in 1625. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Haag, "La France protestante." Cameron, (Sir John,) a British general, born in 1773, served in Spain with distinction. Died in 1844. Cameron, (Richard,) a Scottish minister, the founder of the sect of Cameronians, or "Covenanters," was born at Falkland, In the reign of Charles II. he boldly op- posed the attempt to enforce the Episcopal form of wor- ship, and became an itinerant field-preacher. In 1680, attended by about twenty armed followers, he proclaimed at Sanquhar that Charles Stuart had forfeited the crown. A few weeks after that event he was killed in a fight with the royalist troops at Airdsmoss. The sect of Came- ronians has at present numerous churches in Scotland and elsewhere. They call themselves " Reformed Pres- byterians." See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" G. M. Bell, "Life of Richard Cameron," 1843. Cam'er-on, (Simon,) an American politician, born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, in 1799. He learned the trade of printer, and became editor of a Democratic jour- nal at Harrisburg about 1822, after which he acquired a large fortune by operations in banking, railroads, etc. In 1845 he was elected a Senator of the United States for Pennsylvania. His term in the Senate expired March 4, 1849. Having separated from the Democratic party about 1855, he supported Fremont for the Presidency in 1856, and was elected a Senator of the United States about the end of that year. He was secretary of war in the cabinent of Lincoln from March 4, 1861, to Jan- uary, 1862, and was then appointed minister plenipoten- tiary to Russia. He returned home in 1863, and was again elected to the Senate of the United States by the legislature of Pennsylvania in 1866. Camer.s, ki'mers, (Giovanni,) originally Giovanni Ricuzzi Vellini, (jo-vin'nee re-koot'see vll-lee'nee,) an Italian monk and Greek scholar, born at Camerino about 1460. He contributed to the revival of learning by publishing editions of Claudian, Florus, Eutropius, and other classic authors. At one time he was professor of philosophy at Padua. Died about 1550. Cam'idge, (John,) an English musician and com- poser, born at York about 1700 ; died in 1859. Ca-miPIa, [Fr. Camille, lA'mhV or kt'me'ye,] a mythical personage, celebrated for swiftness of foot and martial valour, was said to be the daughter of the Vol- scian king Metabus, and an attendant of Diana. Ac- cording to Virgil, she fought in the army of Turnus, and was killed by Aruns. (See " /Eneid," book xi. 366-830.) Camille, the French of Camillus and Camilla, which see. Camilli, k^-m^Klee, (Camillo,) an Italian poet, born at vSienna about 1550. Camillo, ka-meKyo, (Francisco,) a Spanish historical painter, born at Madrid in 1610; died in 1671. Camillo, ki-mel^'lo, (Julius,) surnamed Delminio, (del-mee'ne-o,) an Italian linguist and writer, born at Forli in 1479. He wrote verses, and treatises on oratory. Died in 1550. Ca-miPius, (Lucius Furius,) a son of Marcus Furius, noticed below, was chosen dictator of Rome in 350 h.c. Camillus, [Fr. Camille, kt'm^F or kt'me'ye,'] (Mar- cus Furius,) a celebrated Roman dictator, whose history € as k; 9 as s: g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^^'See Explanations, p. 23. ) \ CAMINADE 500 CAMPANELLA has been embellished with many fabulous exploits. After serving as military tribune, he was five times chosen dic- tator, and gained victories over the Falisci, Capenates, Volscians, and Fidenates. In his first dictatorship, which began in 396, he took Veii, after a long siege. About 390 B.C. he was condemned for peculation, and was ex- iled to Ardea. The Gauls under Brennus having pillaged Rome, Camillus was recalled, and, according to the popular account, gained two decisive victories over the invaders. He was chosen dictator, for the fifth time, in 367. He is said to have dissuaded the citizens from removing en masse from Rome to Veii after the former city had been ruined by the Gauls. Died in 364 B.C. Plutarch has written a life of Camillus. See Livy, " History of Rome ;" Niebuhr," History of Rome," vol. i. ; Obrecht, " Dissertatio, M. F. Camillum reprjesentans," 1693. Caminade, kt^me'nSd', (Alexandre FRANgois,) a French painter, born in Paris in 1783, was a pupil of David. He gained a grand prize, which procured for him a pension and the privilege of studying in Rome. The "Levite of Ephraim" (1838) is called his best work. Died in May, 1862. Caminatzin, kS-me-n Jt-zeen', (?) a nephew of Mon- tezuma, was Prince of Texcuco. He formed an abortive design to liberate his country from the Spaniards, and was killed at the siege of Mexico in 1521. Caminer, kS-me-naiR', (Domenico,) an Italian writer, born in Venice in 1731. He issued a periodical entitled "Literary Europe" ("Europa Letteraria") from 176810 1774, when he changed the plan, and called it "The En- cyclopedic Journal," (" Giornale Enciclopedico.") He wrote a "Life of Frederick II.," and other historical works. Died in 1796. Caminer, (Elisabetta,) a daughter of the preceding, born in Venice in 1 75 1, was a scholar and linguist. She made translations of the works of Shakspeare, Marmon- tel, Gessner, and others, some of which are esteemed. She also edited the journal above named, after her father relinquished it in 1777. Died in 1796. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Caminha, k^-men''yi, (Pedro de Andrade,) a Por- tuguese poet, born at Oporto; died in 1594. His poems were published in 1791. Caminha, de, da ka-men'ya, (Pedro Vaz,) a Portu- guese explorer, went to India with Cabral in 1500. He formed part of the expedition which discovered Brazil, and wrote a description of that country, published in 181 7. Cammerhof, kim'mer-hof, (Johann,) a German philologist and Lutheran minister, born at Brunswick, lived about 1650. Cammermeister. See Camerarius. Camoenae. See Camen/E. Camoens, kim'o-ens, [Port. DE Camoens, di ka-mo'- Sns,] (Luis or Luiz,) the most celebrated of P^^rtuguese poets, was born of a noble family, probably a Lisbon. The time of his birth is variously stated at 15 17 an.' 1524. He was educated at Coimbra. Soon after he left school, a lady of honour at court inspired him with a passion which became the source of his misfortunes and per- haps also a stimulus to his genius. In consequence of this amour he was exiled to Santarem, where he sought to beguile the pain of separation by writing elegiac verses. When the King of Portugal sent an expedition against Morocco, Camoens joined it, and distinguished himself by his courage in several battles. Finding that liis poetic talents and martial merits were equally neg- lected and depreciated at court, he embarked for India in 1553, exclaiming, with Scipio, " Ungrateful country ! thou shalt not possess my bones !" (" Ingrata patria, non possidebis ossa mea.") After serving in several warlike enterprises, he was exiled from Goa to Macao for a political satire which he entitled "Follies in India." There he composed his greatest work, "The Lusiad," (" Os Lusiadas,") a heroic poem (first printed in 1572) commemorating the martial and nautical exploits of Vasco de Gama and other Por- tuguese heroes. " The national glory of the Portuguese," says Madame de Stael, "is there illustrated under all the forms that imagination can devise. The versification is so charming and stately that even the common people know many stanzas by heart, and sing them with delight." In 1569 he returned to Lisbon in great poverty, which con- tinued to be his portion to the end of his life. His misfor- tunes were aggravated by the degradation and ruin of his country. He died in a hospital in 1579. He has left ad- mired specimens of nearly every species of poetry, among which are numerous sonnets, odes, elegies, and songs. " Camoens," says Robert Southey, "is the 'wellunde- filed' of that fine language, which he more than any other author enriched and refined." (" Quarterly Re- view" for April, 1822.) See F. MoRDANi, " Elogio storico di L. Camoens," 1841 ; John Adamson, " Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Luis de Camoens," 1820; SouzA BoTELHO, " Vida de Luiz Camoens," 1817; Barreto- Feio, "Vida de Camoens;" Henriques Vii.hegas, " Elogio a Me- moria de L. de Camoens ;" " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1805. Camosio, kS-mo'se-o, or Camoti, ki-mo'tee, (Gio- vanni Battista,) an Italian Hellenist, born at Asolo about 1 5 1 5. He translated into Latin the " Metaphysics" of Aristotle, and other works. Died in 1581 or 1 591. See De Thou, "Memoires historiques." Campagna, kim-pin^ya, (Girolamo,) an Italian sculptor, born at Verona in 1552 ; died in or after 1623. Campagnola, kSm-pin-yo'lS, (Domenico,) a skilful Italian painter and engraver, born in 1482, is said to have been a pupil of Titian, whom he imitated. He was an excellent colorist. Died in 1550. Among his engravings are a " Holy Family," and an "Adoration of the Magi." See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Campagnoli, kdm-pSn-yo'lee, (Bartolommeo,) an Italia}! violinist of high reputation, born near Bologna about 1750. He composed instrumental pieces, and pub- lished " Exercises on the Seven Positions." Died in 1827. Campailla, kIm-pl-eKli, (Tommaso,) an Italian phi- losopher and naturalist, born in Sicily in 1668. His chief work is "Adam, or the Creation," a philosophic poem, (1709 ; 5th edition, 1757.) Died in 1740. Campan, kSN^pSN', (Jeanne Louise Henriette Genest — zheh-na',) Madame, a French lady, eminent as a teacher, was born in Paris in 1 752. At the age of fifteen she was appointed reader to the three daughters of Louis XV. About 1770 she became the wife of M. Campan, and lady of the bedchamber to Marie Antoinette. For nearly twenty years she was the first lady of the chamber, and the most intimate confidante of that queen, and con- tinued to serve her until the attack on the Tuileries by the mob, August 10, 1792, when she narrowly escaped death. She afterwards opened a boarding-school at Saint-Ger- main, which became celebrated, and was patronized by Bonaparte and Josephine. Hortense and two of Napo- leon's sisters were her pupils. About 1806 the emperor founded at Ecouen a school for the daughters and sisters of the officers of the legion of honour, and chose Madame Campan as superintendent. She was deprived of this place in 18 14 by the Bourbons, and died in 1822, leaving curious and well-written " Memoirs of the Private I,ife of Marie Antoinette," (3 vols., 1822,) and other works. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Campana, klm-pi^n^, (Antonio Francesco,) an Italian physician, born at Ferrara in 175 1, obtained a chair of physics at Ferrara, and published several medi- cal works. Died in 1832. Campana, (Cesare,) an Italian historian, born at Aquila about 1540. Among his works is a "Life of Philip II. of Spain," (1608.) Died- in 1606. Campana, kSN'pt'nt', (Francois Fr^d^ric,) a French general, born at Turin in 1771 ; died in 1807. Campana, (Pietro,) an Italian engraver, born in 1727 ; died in 1765. Campanaio, kam-pi-n^'yo or klm-pi-nl'o, (Lorenzo DI LoDOVico,) surnamed Lorenzetto, (lo-ren-zet'to,) a Florentine sculptor and architect, born in 1494, As sculptor he was employed at Rome by Raphael, who esteemed him. He was the architect of the Cafifarelli pal- ace, and assisted San Gallo in the repair or completion of Saint Peter's at Rome. Died in 1541. See Cicogn'ara, " Storia della Scultura." Campanella, kam-pa-nel'ld, (Tommaso,) an Italian philosopher and Dominican monk, born at Stilo, in Ca- labria, in 1568. His superior mental powers were very early developed. In 1591 he published, at Naples, " Phi- losophy demonstrated by the Senses," which excited a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; m§t; n5t; good; moon; CAMPANI CAMPBELL against him the partisans of Aristotle. Charged with heresy and a conspiracy against the government in 1599, he was confined in a dungeon at Naples for twenty-six years, during which he was put to the rack several times, but confessed nothing. He was released in 1626 by the mediation of Pope Urban VIII., and removed to Rome, where he was well treated. Several of his important works were written or published while he was in prison at Naples, viz., " Introduction to Philosophy," (" Pro- dromus Philosophic instaurandas," 161 7,) " Kealis Phi- losophia Epilogistica," (1623,) to which was annexed *'Civitas Solis," ("The City of the Sun, or the Idea of a Philosophic Republic") The *' Civitas Solis" has often been reprinted separately, and translated into several lan- guages. For greater security against the cruelty of the Spaniards, he retired in 1634 to France, where he was kindly treated by Richelieu and pensioned by the king. He died in Paris in 1639. Besides those above named, he was the author of many works, among which are a "Treatise on Metaphysics," (1637,) "The Five Parts of Rational Philosophy," (1638,) and an able "Discourse on the Spanish Monarchy," (1640,) which produced much sensation among politicians. " Campanella," says Hallam, " borrowed his primary theorems from Telesio, but en- larged that Parmenidean philosophy by the invention of his own fertile and imaginative genius. He lays down the fundamental principle that the perfectly wise and good Being has created certain signs and types ( statiias afque imagines) of himself, all of which, severally as well as collectively, represent power, wisdom, and love, and the objects of these, namely, existence, truth, and excellence, with more or less evidence. . . . The strength of Cam- panella's genius lay in his imagination, which raises him sometimes to flights of impressive eloquence on this favourite theme," i.e. the sensibility of all created beings, including plants and minerals. ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") See" Vita e Filosofia di T. Campanella," by Baldacchini, Naples, 1840; Cyprian, "Vita et Philosophia T. Campanellae," Anisteidam, 1705 ; Dareste, "Thomas Moras et Campanella," Pans, 1843 ; Ten- nemann, "Histoire de la Philosophie ;" " Fraser's Magazine" for March, 1844. Campani, kam-p3.'nee, ( Giovanni Antonio, ) a learned Italian bishop, born at Cavelli in 1427. He wrote epistles, orations, verses, etc., which were printed in 1495. Died in 1477. Campani, (Giuseppe,) a brother of Matteo, noticed below, was an optician and practical astronomer. He published some observations, (1664.) Campani, (Matteo,) an Italian optician, born near Spoleto, was curate of a parish in Rome, in the pon- tificate of Alexander VII. In 1678 he published a work on the construction of clocks. He surpassed all the artists of his time in polishing telescopic object-glasses of great size, and made for Louis XIV. one of one hun- dred and thirty-six feet focal length, with which Cassini discovered two satellites of Saturn. Campanile, kam-pS-nee'li, an Italian priest, born in 1762, laboured as a missionary in Kurdistan, and wrote a " History of Kurdistan and its Sects." Died in 1835. Campanius, kam-pa'ne-us, (Thomas,) a Swedish writer, published in 1702 "A Description of the Prov- ince of New Sweden, now called Pennsylvania," which contains historical and other details of some interest. Campano, kdm-pi^no, [Lat. Campa'nus, ] (Gio- vanni,) an Italian geometer, who first translated Euclid from the Arabic, (printed at Venice in 1482,) the Greek text having not yet been found in his time. He was a native of Novara, and is supposed to have lived in the eleventh or twelfth century. Campanus, kim-pi^niis, (Johann,) a German Prot- estant theologian, separated from the Lutherans in 1530, and formed a sect called Campanites. Campbell, kim'el,* the name of an ancient and power- ful clan of the Scottish Highlands, which has performed an important part in history since the thirteenth cen- tury. Their original name is said to have been O'Dub- bin. Among the warlike chiefs of the clan was Diarmid, from whom they derive the appellation of the "sons of * Some families who write their name as above pronounce it Diarmid." About the middle of the thirteenth century the chief of the clan was Colin or Callum, surnamed More, (the " Great.") Niel Campbell, a son of Colin, was an adherent of Robert Bruce, whose sister he mar- ried. Died in 1316. His son Colin fought for Edward Bruce in Ireland, and aided King David in the expulsion of the English from Scotland. Died in 1340. Campbell, kS,n/e], (Alexander,) D.D., founder of the religious sect known as the "Disciples of Christ," was born in the county of Antrim, in Ireland, in 1 788. He came to the United States in 1809. His mind was early impressed with the importance of religion, but he did not find among the various Christian sects any whose religious system he could entirely adopt. He subse- quently declared against all human creeds, and com- menced forming religious associations with the Bible as their only rule of faith. In 1841, Dr. Campbell founded Bethany College, in Virginia, of which he was long the president, and established the "Christian Baptist and Millennial Harbinger," which became the organ of his peculiar religious system. Died in 1855. See Richardson's "Memoirs of Alexander Campbell," Philadel- phia, 1868. Campbell, (Sir Alexander,) a British general, born in Perthshire in 1759, entered the army about 1776. After serving with distinction for several years in India, he became colonel in 1803, and succeeded Sir Arthur Wellesley in the command of Seringapatam, Mysore, etc. in 1805. He was wounded at Talavera in 1809, obtained the rank of major-general in 1810, and that of lieutenant- general in 1814. In 1820 he was appointed commander- in-chief at Madras. Died in 1824. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Campbell, (Archibald,) second Earl of Argyle, was killed at the battle of Flodden in 15 13. Campbell, (Archibald,) fourth Earl pf Argyle, was the son of Colin, and grandson of the preceding. He was a zealous Protestant, and the first of his family that adopted the Reformed religion. Died about 1558. His son Archibald, fifth Earl of Argyle, was also a stren- uous promoter of the Reformation. He fought for Mary Queen of Scots at Langside in 1568, and afterwards became lord chancellor. Died without issue in 1575. Campbell, (Archibald,) Marquis of Argyle, a pa- triotic Scottish peer, born in 1598, was the son of Archibald, seventh Earl of Argyle, and was styled "Lord Lorn" in his youth. At the death of his father, in 1638, he becaine Earl of Argyle, and in the same year avowed himself an adherent of the church in its contest with the court of Charles I., signed the Covenant, and took part in the General Assembly which abolished episco- pacy. In 1641 the king visited Scotland, and, in order to strengthen himself against the English Parliament, courted the favour of the Covenanters. Argyle was raised to the rank of marquis. In the civil war that ensued he took arms against the royalists, became the leader of the Covenanters, and commanded the army sent against Montrose, by whom he was defeated in 1644 and 1645. He took a prominent part in the coronation of Charles II. at Scone in 1651, and fought for him against Cromwell. At the restoration of 1660 he was convicted of submission to the usurpation of the Protector, and was executed in 1661. He appears to have possessed political talents of a high order. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Hume, " History of England." Campbell, (Archibald,) Lord Lorn, the eldest son of the preceding, was the ninth Earl of Argyle. He fought for the royal cause at Dunbar in 1650, and on other occasions. In 1663 the title of earl and the estate of his father were restored to him, and he was appointed one of the lords of the council. Beiiig required to take the oath called the Test, in 1681, he added, by way of explanation or reservation, "as far as is consistent with the Protestant faith." For this offence he was condemned to death ; but he escaped to Holland. He returned with armed retainers in 1685, was taken prisoner and executed the same year. It is stated that he slept soundly a few hours before his execution. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen i" Macaulay, "History of England," vol. i. chap. v. € as k; c as s; ghard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23.) CAMPBELL 502 CAMPBELL Campbell, (Archibald,) a sou of the preceding, tenth Earl of Argyle, was made a lord of the treasury in 1690, and lord of sessions in 1694. He was created Duke of Argyle in 1701, and died in 1703, leaving his title to his son John. Campbell, (Archibald,) Earl of Islay, (i'lay,) and third Duke of Argyle, born about 1682, was a brother of John the second duke. He had great influence in the ])olitical affairs of Scotland, and was for many years keeper of the great seal. Died in 1761. Campbell, (Archibald,) a Scottish divine, who be- came Bishop of Aberdeen about 1720. Besides other works, he wrote "The Doctrines of a Middle State be- tween Death and the Resurrection." Campbell, (Arthur,) an officer of the American Revolution, born in Augusta county, Virginia, in 1742. He served, while a boy, in the frontier wars, was made pi isoner by the Indians and adopted by the chief, but escaped after a three years' captivity. He served through- out the Revolution, and rose to the rank of colonel, Campbell, (Colin,) first Earl of Argyle, was for a long time chancellor of Scotland. He received the title of earl, about 1457, and was succeeded by his son Archibald. Campbell, (Colin,) third Earl of Argyle, was the son of Archibald. He was justice-general in the reign of James V. Died in 1542. Campbell, k^m'el, (Colin,) an English architect, became surveyor of the works at Greenwich Hospital. He published a work on architecture, called " Vitruvius Britannicus," (1715.) Died in 1734. Campbell, (Colin,) Lord Clyde, a British general, born in Glasgow in 1792. He entered the army in 1808, served in the Peninsula until 1814, and obtained the rank of major in 1825. In 1842 he became a colonel, and served in the expedition against the Chinese. As gen- eral of brigade, he distinguished himself in India between 1848 and 1852. He commanded the Highland brigade in the Crimean war, and contributed to the victories of the Alma and Balaklava in 1854. In this year he was pro- moted to the rank of major-general, and in 1855 received the grand cross of the Bath. In July, 1857, Sir Colin was appointed commander-in-chief of the army of India, and departed at once to suppress the rebellion of the Sepoys. His relief of Lucknow in November, 1857, is considered a. brilliant achievement. He defeated the Sepoys at Cawnpore, and succeeded in crushing the rebellion in 1858. He was the same year raised to the peerage, with the title of Lord Clyde. Died at Chatham in 1863. See " Blackwood's Magazine" for October, 1858. Campbell, (George,) D.D., a Scottish divine, emi- nent for talents and learning, born at Aberdeen in 1719. He became minister at Aberdeen in 1756, and principal of Marischal College in 1759. He published in 1762 an able "Dissertation on Miracles," in answer to Hume; and in 1766, "Philosophy of Rhetoric," which is highly commended, and said to be his best work. This was followed by a "Translation of the Gospels, with Notes," " Lectures on Ecclesiastical History," etc. Died in 1796. See Keith, " Life of George Campbell ;" Chambers, " Biographi- cal Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Campbell, (George John Douglas.) See Argyll, Duke of. Campbell, (George W.,) born in Tennessee in 1768, embraced the profession of law. From 1803 to 1809 he was a representative in Congress, and for two years chairman of the committee of ways and means. He was elected to the United States Senate in 1811, and was appointed secretary of the treasury in 1815, but the next year resumed his seat in the Senate, in which he served until 1818, when he was sent by Mr. Monroe as minister to Russia. Died in 1848. Campbell, (James,) an American jurist, born in Phila- delphia about 1 81 2. He was appointed in 1841 judge of the court of common pleas of Philadelphia, and in 1852 attorney-general of the State. He became postmaster- general under President Pierce in 1853. See Livingston's "Portraits of Eminent Americans." Campbell, (Sir James,) a British general, entered the army about 1794. Died in 1835. Campbell, (John,) second Duke of Argyll, (Argyle,) an able commander, born in 1678, was the son of Archi- bald, first Duke of Argyle. He inherited his father's title in 1703, and in 1705 was created an English peer, as Baron Chatham and Earl of Greenwich. Between 1705 and 1 710 he served with distinction at the battles of Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and was pro- moted to the rank of lieutenant-general. On the acces- sion of George I., Argyle was ai^pointed commander-in- chief of all the forces in Scotland. He rendered important services in suppressing the rebellion of 1 715, and opposed with success at Dunblane a superior force of the Pre- tender under the Earl of Mar. He changed sides several times in politics, and was accused of trafficking or intri- guing with the Jacobites. He died, without male issue, in 1743, when the dukedom of Argyle passed to his brother Archibald. See Robert Campbell, "Life of the Duke of Argyle," 1745; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Imminent Scotsmen." Campbell, (John,) LL.D., a Scottish writer on his- tory, biography, politics, etc., was born in Edinburgh in 1708, and was taken to England in childhood. He adopted the profession of author, in which he obtained considerable success. Among his numerous works are " History of Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlbo- rough," "Lives of British Admirals," and "A Political Survey of Britain," which is variously estimated, but said to be his most important work. He made many and valuable contributions to the "Biographia Britannica" and to the "Universal History." Died in 1775. "I think highly of Campbell," says Dr. Johnson. "In the first place, he has very good parts ; in the second place, he has very extensive reading." See "Biographia Britannica;" Chambers, "Biographical Dic- tionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Campbell, (John,) Lord, an eminent British lawyer and statesman, born near Cupar, in Fifeshire, Scotland, in 1779, was a son of the Rev. George Campbell, noticed above. He was called to the bar by the Society of Lin- coln's Inn in 1806. In 1830 he entered Parliament as a Whig and an ardent Reformer. He was appointed so- licitor-general in 1832, attorney-general in 1834, and lord chancellor of Ireland in 1841. He was raised to the peerage, as Baron Campbell, in the latter year. In 1846 he published "The Lives of the Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal of England," (7 vols.,) which the "London Quarterly Review" designates as "a work of sterling merit, one of very great labour, of richly di- versified interest, and, we are satisfied, of lasting value and estimation." He was appointed chief justice of the queen's bench in 1850. On the accession of the Liberal ministry in 1859 he became lord chancellor of England. He published several volumes of Reports, and "Lives of the Chief Justices of England," (3 vols., 1849-57.) Died in June, 1861. See the "Quarterly Review" for December, 1845, and December, 1S47: Foss, "The Judges of England;" "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1857. Campbell, (Rev. John,) born in Edinburgh in 1766, was pastor of the Independent Church in Kingsland from 1804 until 1840, and edited "The Youths' Maga- zine" for many years. In 1812 he visited the missionary stations of South Africa, and after his return published "Travels in South Africa," (1815,) and other works. Died in 1840. Campbell, (Rev. John,) a Scottish editor and author, was born in Forfarshire about 1794. He was minister of the Tabernacle, Moorfields, London, for many years, until ill health induced him to retire froin the pulpit. Since that time he has edited the "British Banner," commenced in 1849, "The Christian Witness," and other successful journals. He has also written " Jethro," a prize essay, " The Martyr of Erromanga," " Maritime Discovery and Christian Missions," and other religious works. Campbell, (John N.,) an eloquent American Pres- byterian minister, born in Philadelphia in 1798. He preached at Albany, New York, from 183 1 until near his death in 1864. Campbell, (Sir Neil,) a British officer, born about 1770, served with distinction as colonel in the Peninsula , from 1810 to 1812. In March, 1814, while charging the a, e, T, 0, il, y, hug; h, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/ior^; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n5t; good; moon; CAMPBELL CAMPENON French at Fere-Champenoise, he was wounded by a Cos- sack who mistook him for a Frenchman. In the same year he was chosen as commissioner to attend Bonaparte to Elba, to reside with him as a sort of accredited diplo- matist and to act as a spy on his movements. While Campbell was absent on a visit to Florence, in February, 1815, the ex-emperor escaped. About 1816 he was sent to explore the sources of the Niger, and in 1826 was appointed Governor of Sierra Leone, where he died in 1827. Campbell, (Samuel,) Colonel, an American officer, born in New Hampshire in 1738, removed to the State of New York. He served in the French war and in that of the Revolution. Died in 1824. Campbell, (Thomas,) an eminent British poet, born at Glasgow in 1777, was the youngest son of a merchant of that city. At the university of his native place he dis- tinguished himself as a superior classical scholar. When in his thirteenth year, he carried off a prize from a com- petitor twice his age. His translations of the Greek dramatists were regarded as the best any pupil in the university had ever made. In 1799 he produced "The Pleasures of Hope," of which the success has perhaps had no parallel in English literature. It passed through four editions in the first year, and was pronounced by Lord Byron "one of the most beautiful didactic poems in our language." " No poet at such an age," says Moir, "ever produced such an exquisite specimen of poetic mastery, — that is, of fine conception and high art com- bined. Sentiments tender, energetic, impassioned, elo- quent, and majestic are conveyed to the reader in the tones of a music forever varied, — sinking or swelling like the harmonies of an ^olian lyre." Campbell visited the continent in 1800, and witnessed the battle of Hohenlin- den, which furnished him with the subject of one of the most exquisite lyrics to be found in any language. On his return to Scotland, after residing for some time in Edinburgh, he removed to London. Soon after his return from the continent he had published " The Exile of Erin," "Ye Mariners of England," "Lochiel's Warning," and other short poems. In 1803 he married his cousin, Miss Sinclair, and settled near Sydenham. The government (Fox then being prime minister) granted him in 1806 an annual pension of two hundred pounds. In 1809 he published several of his finest poems, — " Gertrude of Wyoming," which surpasses the " Pleasures of Hope" in simplicity, and, if less per- fect as a work of art, is perhaps not inferior in imagi- native power; "O'Connor's Child," which, for a certain wild, romantic beauty and exquisite pathos, is unequalled by any of his other productions ; and "The Battle of the Baltic," one of the most spirited odes in the language. In 1819 Campbell published "vSpecimens of the British Poets; with an Essay on English Poetry." From 1820 to 1830 he edited the "New Monthly Magazine," which, under the auspices of his distinguished name, was emi- nently successful. He was elected lord rector of the University of Glasgow in 1827, and made a journey to Algiers in 1832. Among his later works are a not very accurate "Life of Mrs. Siddons," "The Life and Times of Petrarch," and "The Life of Frederick the Great." He died in 1844, and was buried in Westmin- ster Abbey. In a conversation with Washington Irving, Scott ex- pressed his regret that Campbell wrote so seldom. "He has," says Scott, "wings that would bear him to the skies, and he does now and then spread them grandly, but folds them up again and resumes his perch, as if he were afraid to launch away. The fact is, Campbell is in a manner a bugbear to himself : the brightness of his early success is a detriment to all his further efforts. He is afraid of the shadow which his OT.vn fame casts before hiiyi.'''' " It is on his lyrics," says Professor Aytoun, " that the future reputation of Campbell must principally rest. They have taken their place, never to be disturbed, in the popular heart; and, until the language in which they are written perishes, they are certain to endure." See "The Life and Letters of Thomas Campbell," edited bv Wm. Beattie, 1850, 3 vols. Svo; the "Account of Campbell's Life" in "Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1844; Gilfillan's "Essay on the Genius and Character of Campbell ;" also the excellent critique on Campbell in Hazlitt's " Miscellaneous Works," vol. v. Campbell, (William,) Lord, a brother of the Duke of Argyle, was the last royal governor of South Carolina. He was expelled by the patriots in 1776, and died in 1 778. Campbell, (Willl\m,) an American soldier, born in Virginia in 1745. He distinguished himself as a colonel at the battle of Guilford, and was killed at Eutaw Springs in September, 1781. Campbell, (William B.,) an American politician, born in Sumner county, Tennessee, about 1807. He was elected Governor of Tennessee in 1851, after he had served as member of Congress. In 1862 he was appointed a brigadier-general in the Union army. Died in 1867. Campbell, (William W.,) born at Cherry Valley, New York, in 1806. He became a judge of the supreme court of New York. He published "The Border Wars of New York," (1831,) and a "Life of De Witt Clinton," (1849.) Campe, kam'peh, (Joachim Heinrich,) a German philanthropist and popular writer on education, was born at Deensen, Brunswick, in 1746. Pie was appointed superintendent of schools in Brunswick in 1787, and be- came proprietor of an extensive publishing house. He published a good " Dictionary of the German Language," (5 vols., 1807-11,) and wrote many juvenile books, which were received with great favour. His " Robinson the Younger" (" Robinson der Jiingere") has been translated into many languages. Died in 1818. See Michel Berk, "Notice biographique sur Campe," 1819 ; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Campeggi, kim-ped'jee, (Benedetto,) a poet, born at Bologna, narrated the important events of his time in a Latin poem, "Italidis Libri X.," (1553.) Died in 1566. Campeggi, (Giovanni,) an Italian jurist, born in 1438, wrote numerous works on civil and canon law. Died at Mantua in 151 1. Campeggi or Campeggio, kam-pkFjo, (Lorenzo,) a learned Italian ecclesiastic, born at Bologna in 1474, was made a cardinal by Leo X., who employed him in im- portant missions to Germany and England. Clement VII. sent him as legate to the Diet of Augsburg, famous for its Protestant Confession of Faith, and to England (1528) as one of the judges in the question of the divorce of Catherine of Aragon. He became Archbishop of Bologna. Died in 1539. See Carlo Sigonio, " Vita L. Campegii Cardinalis," 1581; Au- BERV, " Histoire des Cardinaux." Campeggi or Campeggio, (Tommaso,) Bishop of Feltri, nephew of the preceding, was born in 1500. He was nuncio from Paul III. to the Conference of Worms in 1540, and was a member of the Council of Trent in 1545. Besides other works, he wrote a "Treatise on the Authority of Councils." Died in 1564. Campeggio or Campegio. See Campeggl Campellensis. See Champeaux. Campello, kam-peKlo, (Bernardino de' Conti — d^ kon'tee,) an Italian litterateur, born at Spoleto in 1595. He wrote a "History of Spoleto," (1672,)^ and other esteemed works, in prose and verse. Died in 1676. See Tiraboscui, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Campello, (Paolo de' Conti,) an Italian scholar, 5on of the preceding, born at Spoleto in 1643 > ^'^^^ i/^S- Campen. See Kampen. Campen, van, vtn kSm'pen, (Jakob,) a Dutch ar':hi- tect, born at Haarlem. Having studied in Rome, he returned and built the Hotel de Ville at Amsterdam, one of the grandest edifices of Holland, and designed other buildings in that city. Died in 1638. See Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Campen or Kampen, van, [Lat. Campen'sis,] (Jan,) called also Van den Campen, a Dutch phi- lologist, born at Campen in 1490. He was pi ofessoi of Hebrew at Louvain from 15 19 to 1531, and produced a Hebrew Grammar, and a good Latin version or para- phrase of the Psalms, (1532.) Died in 1538. See Felix Neve, "Notice sur la Vie et les Travaux de J. Cam- pensis," 1845. Campenon, k6N''peh-n6N', (Vincent,) a French poet, born at Guadeloupe in 1772. He was educated at Paris, and afterwards resided in France. In 1795 he wrote, in verse and prose, a "Journey from Grenoble to Cham- bery." He became an intimate friend of the poet Ducis € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, yl, gtittural ; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) CAMPENSIS CJMPOLONGO in 1802, soon after which he produced an admired didactic poem called "The Country-House," ("La Maison des Champs.") His " Prodigal Son," a poem, (181 1,) was also very successful. He was chosen a member of the French Academy in place of Delille in 1813. Died near Paris in 1843. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Campensis. See Campen, (Jan van.) Camper, kim'per, (Pieter,) a distinguished Dutch anatomist and naturalist, born at Leyden on the nth of May, 1722. He studied medicine under Gaubius and Albinus. Having graduated, in 1746 he visited Eng- land and France, associating with the most eminent men of science of both countries. He filled successively the chairs of philosophy, anatomy, and medicine at Amster- dam and Groningen, where he lectured with eminent ability. Among his discoveries is that of the presence of air in the bones of birds, (1771.) He wrote many works on anatomy, physiology, etc., among which are "Anato- mico-Pathological Demonstrations," (" Demonstrationes anatomico-pathologicae," 1760-62,) " 13issertation on the Natural Varieties which mark the Physiognomy of Men of Different Climates," and "The Sense of Hearing in Fishes." In 1785 he was chosen foreign associate of the Academy of Paris, — an honour which had been con- ferred on only one other Dutchman.* He was also a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died at the Hague in 1789. See CoNDORCET, "filogede Camper;" Vic-d'Azyr, " iSloge de Camper;" A. G. Camper, " Levensschets van P. Camper," 1791, and French version of the same; "Notice sur P. Camper," 1803; J. Ml'i.der, " Verdiensten van p. Camper," Amsterdam, 1809; "En- cyclopedia Britannica." Camperdown. See Duncan, Admiral. Caiiipesani, de', dk klm-pa-si'nee, (Benvenuto,) an Italian poet of high reputation, was born at Vicenza about 1260. Only fragments of his works are extant. Died about 1324. Campesano, kim-pa-s§.'no, (Alessandro,) an Ital- ian poet, born at Bassano in 1521 ; died in 1572. Camphausen, klmp^how^zen, (Ludolf,) a Prussian statesman, born at Hiinshoven in 1803. He was chosen representative of Cologne in the diet of the Rhenish provinces in 1842, and president of the council of minis- ters at Berlin in March, 1848. He resigned in June of the same year, and was appointed minister of state, and ambassador to the central power, {Centralgetvalt.) In politics he was a moderate Liberal. He was the author of the circular of January 23, 1849, which proposed a German confederation under the direction of Prussia. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Camphausen, (Otto,) a brother of Ludolf, noticed above, was born at Hiinshoven in 1812. He has filled several offices in the public service. Camphausen, (Wilhelm,) a German painter of battles, born at Dusseldorf about 1818. He enlisted in a regiment of hussars in order to study his art. Among his works are "Cavaliers and Roundheads," "Charles I. at Naseby," and " Prince Eugene at Belgrade." Camphuys, kimp'hois, (Jan,) an able Dutch officer, born at Haarlem in 1634. At the age of twenty he entered the service of the East India Company, and in 1684 was appointed Governor-General of the Dutch pos- sessions in India. He wrote a " History of the Founda- tion of Batavia." Died in 1695. See Zeeman, " Leven en Daden van J. Camphuys," 1833. Camphuysen, klmp^hoi'sen, written also Kamp- huizen, (Theodorus Raphael,) an eminent Dutch landscape-painter, born at Gorkum about 1580. He is said to have been the first painter of Holland that exe- cuted landscapes in the proper manner. His sunset and winter scenes are especially admired. In early life he renounced painting for theology, joined the Socinians, and wrote a few theological works. Died in 1627. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Campi, kim'pee, or Campo, kSm'po, (Antonio,) a skilful Italian architect and painter, born at Cremona. He published a " History of Cremona," illustrated with engravings designed by himself. His favourite model in * Boerhaave. art was Correggio, whom he imitated with success. He died in or after 1591. Campi, (Bernardino,) a painter, born at Cremona about 1525, acquired a high reputation for portraits and historical pictures. A "Nativity" in one of the churches of Cremona is among his master-pieces. Died about 1 590. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Campi, (Galeazzo,) a painter, born at Cremona in 1475, ^'^'^ the father of three eminent artists, Giulio, Antonio, and Vincenzo. Died in 1536. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Campi, (Giulio,) an eminent historical painter, born at Cremona about 1500, was the master of Bernardino and brother of Antonio. He studied under Giulio Romano, and opened a successful school at Cremona. He excelled in colour, grace, and elevation of style. His subjects are mostly taken from sacred history. Died in 1572. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Campi, (MiCHELE and Baldassare,) two brothers, who were botanists, and lived at Lucca about 1650. They published " Spicilegio Botanico," ('1652.) Campi, (Vincenzo,) an Italian painter, born at Cre- mona before 1532, was a brother and pupil of Giulio Campi. He was a good colorist, and excelled in por- traits and pictures of fruit. He also painted religious subjects. Died in 1591. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Campian. See Campion. Campidoglio, kdm-pe-d6Kyo, (Michelangelo,) a skilful painter of fruits and flowers, born at Rome in 1610 ; died in 1670. Campiglia, kdm-p^KyS, (Alessandro,) an Italian historian, who lived about 1600. His principal work is a well-written history of Henry IV. of France, (1614.) Campiglia, (Giovanni Domenico,) an excellent de- signer and painter, born at Lucca in 1692, worked at Rome and Florence. The engravings of the "Capitoline Museum" were chiefly designed by him. Died about 1750- See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Cam'pi-on or Cam'pi-an, (Edmund,) a Catholic priest, eminent for talents and eloquence, born in Lon- don in 1540. He took orders in the Anglican Church, and was soon after converted to that of Rome. In 1573 he went to Rome, and joined the Jesuits, who in 1580 sent him to England. Having challenged the Protest- ants to dispute with him in print, and having, as Hume says, "been detected in treasonable practices," a con- fession of guilt was extorted from him by the rack, and he was hanged in 1581. He left a "Universal Chro- nology," a " History of Ireland," and other works. See Hume, " History of England ;" Bombino, "Vita et MartyTium E. Campiani," 1618. Campion or Champion, (Thomas,) an English poet and musician, lived about 1600. Campistron, de, deh k6N'pes'tR6N',(jEAN Galbert,) a French dramatist, born at Toulouse in 1656. He imi- tated Racine, and produced several successful tragedies, among which are "Andronicus," "Alcibiades," and " Ti- ridates." His works ran througlr-ten editions. La Harpe says, " His plans are judicious ; but he has no well-marked character, no striking situation nor nervous lines." He was for many years secretary to the Due de Vendome, and was received into the French Academy in 1701. Died in 1723. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Campo. See Campi, (Antonio.) Campo-Basso, da, di kam'po bSs'so, (Niccolo,) Count, a Neapolitan condotfiere, who about 1476 entered the service of Charles the Rash of Burgundy, whom he is said to have betrayed. See Barante, " Histoire des Dues de Bourgogne ;" Sir Walter Scott, "Anne of Geierstein." Campolo, k§.m'po-lo, (Placido,) a'historical painter, born at Messina, Sicily, in 1693 ; died in 1743. Campolongo, kSm-po-lon'^go, (Emmanuele,) an Ital- ian poet and antiquary, born in Naples in 1732. He became eminent as a professor of humanities in Naples, where he began to lecture in 1765. Among his numer- a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s^ort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; xs\lX\ nftt; good; moon; CAMPOMANES SOS CANAL ous works are " La Polifemeide," and " The Proteus," (" II Proteo,") a collection of verses in which he assumes the form of various celebrated poets. Died in 1801. See M. RoBERTi, " Biographie de Campolongo;" Tipaldo, "Bio- grafia degli Italian! illustri." Campomanes, kdm po-mi'nes, (Pedro Rodriguez,) Count, a Spanish author and minister of state, eminent for probity and liberality, was born in Asturias about 1720. Having acquired a high reputation as a juriscon- sult, he was appointed in i"]^^ fiscal of the royal council of Castile. He was made president of the same council in 1788, and afterwards minister of state. His writings on political economy acquired for him a European reputation, and were commended by Robertson in his *' History of America." On the recommendation of Dr. Franklin, he was chosen an honorary member of the Philosophic Society of Philadelphia. He wrote "A Dis- course on the Promotion of Popular Industry," (1774,) "Discourse on the Popular Education of Mechanics," an "Appendix to the Education of Mechanics," (in 4 vols.,) and other works. Died in 1802. See Robertson, "History of America;" Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedle ;" "Eraser's Magazine" for June, 1831. Campra, kSN^pRt', (Andr^;,) an eminent French com- poser, born at Aix in 1660, produced sacred music and many popular operas. Died in 1744. See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Campredon, koN'pRa'doN^ (Jacques David Mar- tin,) a French general, born at Montpellier in 1761. He was appointed minister of war by Joseph Bonaparte in 1809, and served in the Russian campaign, (1812.) Died in 1837. _ See "Vie du General Campredon," 8vo, 1838. Camps. See Descamps. Camps, de, deh k6N, (Francois,) a French abbe, born at Amiens in 1643, Ijecame grand vicar of Serroni, the Archbishop of Albi. He applied himself to the study of medals, of which he made an excellent collection, and wrote treatises on history and numismatics. Died in 1723. Camuccini, ka-moot-chee'nee, (Vincenzo,) a distin- guished painter of history, born in Rome in 1775, In his youth he copied the works of Raphael and other old masters, and afterwards acquired celebrity by a series of pictures from ancient Roman history, among which were " lioratius Codes" and " The Continence of Scipio," He also painted " The Conversion of Saul," and other scrip- tural subjects. He was chosen president of the Academy of Saint Luke, and a member of the Institute of France. His style is rather conventional than natural. Died in 1844. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Camus, kt'miis', (Armand Gaston,) a republican legislator and writer, born in Paris in 1740, He pub- lished in 1783 a translation of Aristotle's " Plistory of Animals," which procured him admission to the Acad- emy of Inscriptions, Elected to the Constituent Assem- bly in 1789, he had the principal part in framing the civil constitution of the clergy. Pie was an active mem- ber of the Convention, which appointed him in 1792 one of the committee of public safety. With three other commissaries of the Convention, he attempted in April, 1793) to arrest Dumouriez at the head of his army; but that general sent them prisoners to the Austrian camp. In 1795 he was exchanged for the daughter of Louis XVI., and passed into the Council of Five Hundred. He was a member of the Institute, and author of several able works, among which is a "Journey through the Departments recently united." Died in 1804. See Toulongeon, " filoge historique de A. G. Camus," 1806; Thiers, "History of the French Revolution." Camus, (Charles Etienne Louis,) a French mathe- matician, born at Crecy-en-Brie in 1699. In 1727 he wrote a treatise on the Masting of Vessels, which opened to him the Academy of Sciences. He was one of the Academicians who in 1735 went to Lapland with Mau- pertuis to determine the figure of the earth. He wrote a work on Hydraulics, and a Course of Mathematics, which was valued at the time. The Royal Society of London elected him a Fellow about 1765. Died in Paris in 1768, See Grandjean de Fouchy, "Elogede C. E. L. Camus." Camus, (Jean Pierre,) Bishop of Belley, was born in Paris in 1582. He preached and wrote zealously against the mendicant monks. For this Richelieu repri- manded him, and added, " If it were not for this fault, I should canonize you." Camus replied, "We should then both have what we wish : you would be pope, and I would be a saint." He wrote " Dorothee," and other religious romances, which had great success at the time. Died in 1652. See NiCERON, " Memoires ;" Depery, " Notice sur la Vie de J. K. Camus." Camus, de, deh kt'miis', or des Camus, da kt'miis', (Francois Joseph,) a French mathematician, born in Lorraine in 1672, became a resident of Paris. He was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1 716, and pub- lished in 1722 a curious "Treatise on Moving Forces." Died in England in 1732. Camus de Mezieres, le, leh ki'miis'' deh \\\\'- ze-aiR', (Nicolas,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1721. He designed the Corn-Market (Halle an ble) of Paris, and wrote "The Genius of Architecture," (1780,) and other works. Died in 1789. Camus, le, leh kt'mlis^ (Antoine,) a celebrated French physician, born in Paris in 1722. He was ap- pointed professor in the University of Paris in 1762, His reputation was increased by his literary talents and the original character of his medical works, among which are "The Medicine of the Mind," (1753,) and " Maladies of the Region of the Heart," He wrote "Love and Friendship," a comedy, and " The Medical Amphi- theatre," a poem, (1745.) Died in 1772. See BouRRU, "filoge historique de M. le Camus," 1772. Camus, le, (IStienne,) born in Paris in 1632, became Bishop of Grenoble in 1671, and performed the duties of that office with great charity and diligence. On the occasion of a curate's complaining to Camus that he could not prevent the people from dancing on festival- days, the bishop replied, " Oh, permit them at least to give their misery a shake," He received a cardinal's hat in 1686. Died in 1707. See Lallouette, "Abrege de la Vie de M. le Camus," 1720. Camusat, kt'mii'zt', (Jean,) a learned French pub- lisher of Paris, was printer to the Actdemie Fran9aise. Died in 1639. Camusat, (Nicolas,) a French priest and antiquary, born at Troyes in 1575. He was a canon of the church of Troyes, and author of "Melanges historiques," (a collection of acts, treaties, and letters, 1619,) and other works. Died in 1655. Canaan, kalian or ka'ni-an, [Heb. jJ^JD,] a patri- arch, was a son of Ham, and ancestor of the Canaanites who inhabited Palestine before it was conquered by the Israelites. (See Genesis ix. 18, and x.) Can'a-Ghus, [Kava.YOf,] a Greek sculptor, born at Sicyon, lived about 400 B.C. He was a brother of Aristocles the artist, and a pupil of Polycletus. Canal, ka-nSK, or Canaletto, k^-na-let'to, a Venetian painter, whose proper name was Bernardo Belotto, (bgR-naR'do ba-lot'to,) born in Venice in 1724. He was a pupil of his uncle, Antonio Canal, whom he imi- tated with success. He worked in Dresden, London, and other places, and painted buildings and scenes in the environs of towns. He excelled in perspecti\e. Died at Warsaw in 1780. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Canal or Canaletto, (Antonio,) an eminent Italian painter of perspective views, born at Venice in 1697, was a scene-painter in early life. Having studied in Rome, he returned to Venice, and became a successful artist. His subjects are mostly views of the Venetian palaces, canals, etc., which are highly prized. As he painted with great facility, his works are numerous. He is said to have been the first who used the camera ob- scura in painting. Died in 1768, His pictures of Vene- tian buildings, etc. are called admirable by some critics, but by others his art is censured as mere mechanism. "The mannerism of Canaletto," says Ruskin, "is the most degraded I know in the whole range of art." ("Modern Painters.") See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." € as k; c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Vi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^==See Explanations, p. 23.) CAN ALE 506 CANDIANO Canale, kS-nc^'li, (Niccol6,) a Venetian admiral, who commanded against tlie Turks in 1469. He was removed in 1470 for his dilatory conduct or timidity. See SisMONDi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes;" Daru, " Histoiie de Venise." Canaletto. vSee Canal. Canani, lzir et simple. In August, 1793, he was chosen a member of the committee of public safety, and found the proper sphere for his genius in the functions of war-minister of the republic. The formation of plans of the campaigns, the selection of generals, the organi- zation of the army, etc. imposed on him an immense and arduous labour, which he performed with such suc- cess that it was said that he had " organized victory." He displayed not only the talents of an administrator of the first order, he showed also the science and genius of a great general in the direction of fourteen armies at once so as to insure co-operative action. Absorbed in the urgent labours of defending France from invading armies, he had no share in the proscrip- tions and cruelties of the reign of terror. He was chosen a member of the Institute in 179^- After the dissolution of the Convention, he was chosen at one time as repre- sentative by fourteen departments. Although he op]:)osed the establishment of the Directory, he was elected one of the Directors in 1795, and again acted as minister of war. Having opj^osed the measures of Barras and the majority of the Directors, he was proscribed in 1797, and condemned to deportation ; but he escaped to Germany. He returned about the end of 1799, and was minister of war for a short time in 1800. In 1802 he became a c as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas z; th as in this. (2[^==See Explanations, p. 23.) CARNOT CJRON member of the Tribunat, in which he opposed Bona- parte's assumption of imperial power, deeming it absurd to reward the restorer of liberty by the ruin or subversion of that very liberty. He declined to hold office under the empire until 1814, when he served as governor of Antwerp. The small fortune with which he retired from office is mentioned as an evidence of his rare probity. Carnot was appointed minister of the interior during the Hundred Days of Napoleon, who felt the necessity of giving some pledges to the friends of liberty. He was also a member of the provisional government formed in June, 181 5. On the restoration of Louis XVHI. he was proscribed, and became an exile in Germany. He died at Magdeburg in 1823. He published several excellent mathematical works, among which are " Reflections on the Metaphysics of the Infinitesimal Calculus," (1797,) and "Geometry of Position," (1803,) in which he gives many entirely new theorems. He was also author of some political treatises. See D. F. Arago, "Biographic de Carnot," 1850; Wii.helm KoRTE, "Das Leben Caniots," 1820; P. F. Tissor, " Memoires historiqiies sur Carnot," 1S24 ; C. Doris, "Vie privee, politique et morale de Carnot," 1816; Thiers, "History of the French Revo- lution;" A. Serievs, "Carnot, sa Vie politique et privee," 1816; "North British Review" for 1851. Carnot-Feulins, kSii'no' fuh'l^N', (Claude Marie,) a French officer, born at Nolay in 1755, was a brother of the preceding. He was a captain of engineers when the Revolution began, and was elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1 791. In 1792 he was chosen director of the department of fortifications, and performed several important military missions. He was proscribed with his brother in 1797, but was restored on the fall of the Directory in 1799. He obtained the rank of general of brigade, but resigned about 1802, and did not return to the service until the restoration. In 1815 he retired from the army, with the rank and pension of lieutenant- general. Died in 1836. See " Nouvelle Blographie G^nerale." Caro, ki'ro, (Annibale,) one of the most popular Italian authors of his time, was born at Citta Nova, in the March of Ancona, in 1507. In 1543 he became sec- retary to Farnese, Duke of Parma, and from 1548 until his death he was secretar}?^ to Cardinal Farnese. He wrote a pure and elegant Italian style in prose and verse, wliich spread his reputation throughout Italy. His principal production is a poetical version of Virgil's " y^ineid," which is called one of the master-pieces of the language, and is a model of elegance and grace. He wrote also original poems and letters, which were greatly admired. An ode, or canzone, which he composed in honour of the King of France, was criticised by Castelvetro, which occasioned an intemperate and rather scandalous war of words between that critic and the author. Died at Rome in 1566. See Crasso, " Elogj d'Uomini letterati ;" Seghezzi, "Vita del Caro," 1742; MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Caro, kt'ro', (Elme Marie,) a French littemteur, born at Rennes in 1825. He is one of the editors of the "Revue Contem)Doraine," and has published, besides a few other works, " Moral vStudies on the Present Time," (1855,) which was crowned by the French Academy. Caro, k3.'ro, (Don Ventura or Bonaventura,) a Spanish general, born at Valencia about 1742. He re- ceived cdmmand of the Spanish army in 1793, when war was declared against the French, and obtained some successes on the frontier. In 1802 he was promoted to the high rank of captain-general of the armies. He died in or soon after 1808. Carolan. See O'Carolan. Carolina Maria, ki-ro-lee'ni mi-ree'S, Queen of Na- ples, born in 1752, was the daughter of Francis I. and Maria Theresa of Austria. In 1768 she was married to Ferdinand, King of the Two Sicilies. Being ambitious and high-spirited, she acquired a paramount and evil influence over that imbecile prince. She induced him to join the coalition against Bonaparte about 1805, in consequence of which they were expelled from Naples in 1806, and retired to the island of Sicily. She died in Vienna in 1814. Her daughter had become the wife of the Emperor of Austria, Francis I. See " Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale." Car'o-line, Queen 01 England, was a daughter of John Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg- Anspach. She was married in 1705 to the Electoral Prince of Hanover, who became George II. of P^ngland, She had great in- fluence over the king as long as she lived, and was popu- lar with the nation. " Her character," says Lord Mahon, "was without a blemish, and her conduct always marked by judgment and good sense." She was the mother of four daughters and two sons, Frederick and William. Died in 1737. See an excellent notice of her character in " Blackwood's Maga- zine" for February, 1868. Car'o-line A-me'li-a E-liz'a-beth, Queen of Eng- land, born in 1768, was the daughter of the Duke of Brunswick, and Augusta of England, who was the sister of George III. In 1795 she was married to her cousin the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., who was a reluctant party to the union. His aversion became so decided that a complete separation took place in 1796, after the birth of the princess Charlotte. In 1814 she left England, and passed the ensuing years on the con- tinent, until the accession of George IV. in 1820, when she returned to London. The king then instituted against her a trial for adultery, which made a great excitement. The people mostly sympathized with the queen. Caro- line was defended by Henry (afterwards Lord) Brougham, who gained great applause by his successful efforts in her behalf, and the government abandoned the prosecu- tion. She died in 1821. See Thomas Ashe, " Memoirs of the Life of Princess Caroline," 1812 ; Brougham's Works, vols. ix. and x.; " Memoireset Documents sur la Vie et le Proems de la Reine Caroline," Paris, 4 vols., 1821. Car'o-line Ma-tiPda, [Dan. Caroline Mathilde, kS-ro-lee'neh mS-til'deh,] Queen of Denmark, born in 1751, was a sister of George III. of England. In 1766 she was married to Christian VII. of Denmark, a weak and profligate prince, by whom she was neglected or ill treated. Struensee, an ambitious physician, acquired great influence over her and the king, and became prime minister. A conspiracy or coup cfetat in 1772 resulted in the execution of that favourite, and the banishment of Caroline Matilda to Zelle, where she died, asserting her innocence, in 1775. (See Struensee.) See Lenzen, "Die letzten Stunden der Konigin Caroline Ma- thilde," 1775; Heimburger, "Caroline Matliilde Konigin von Dane- mark," 1851. Carolostadt. See Carlstadt. Carolus Magnus. See Charlemagne. Caron. See Beaumarchais. Caron, kS^oN', (Augustin Joseph,) a French officer and Bonapartist, born in 1774. He served in the army during the first republic and the empire, and rose to the rank of lieutenant-colonel in 1814. In 1822 he formed a plot to rescue some prisoners who were accomplices in the Befort conspiracy. He failed, was tried by a council of war, and shot at Strasbourg, in 1822. Caron, kt'r^N', (Francois,) born in Holland, of French parents, went to Japan in his youth, and lived there some years. He became a member of the Dutch Council of the Indies. Having entered the service of the French, he was appointed by Colbert director-general of French commerce in India in 1666. In 1674 he was recalled to Europe, and was drowned at Lisbon just as he arrived. He had published a "Description of Japan," (1636.) Caron, (Jean Charles F6lix,) a French surgeon, born at Amiens in 1745. He practised in Paris, and be- came chief surgeon of the Cochin Hospital in 1782. He wrote treatises on Respiration, on the Croup, etc. Died in 1824. Caron, (Jean Marie,) a meritorious French judge, born at Pornic in 1798. He officiated as judge in sev- eral places, and afterwards was justice of the peace (jit,s^e de paix) at Nantes. He wrote, besides other legal works, one "On the Civil Jurisdiction of Justices of the Peace." Died in 1841. Car'on, (Raymond,) an Irish Catholic priest, born in 1605, passed some years on the continent. He defended the doctrine of the Gallican Church on the independence of kings and against the infallibility of the pope, in a Latin work entitled " Remonstrance of the Hibernians against the Ultramontane Censiires," (1665,) which made much noise at the time. Died in 1666. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, 5^, short; a, e, i, q, obscure; f^r, fill, tit; m^t; nfit; good; moon; CJROMDELET 525 CARPI Carondelet, kfrixcl'l^' or kfroN^deh-l^', (Jean,) a Burgundian prelate and writer, born at Dole in 1469. He was appointed by Charles V, president of the Council of Brussels in 1527. He subsequently became Chancellor of Flanders, secretary to the emperor, and Archbishop of Palermo. Erasmus, who was his friend, dedicated to him his " Saint-Hilaire." Died in 1544. See M. C. Murray, "Memoire historique sur la Vie de J. de Carondelet," 1786; Foppens, " Bibliotheca Belgica." Caroprese, ki-ro-pRa'si, (Gregorio,) a learned Ital- ian writer and critic, born near Cosenza in 1620. He resided mostly in Rome and Naples. He wrote a refu- tation of Machiavel's " Prince," a letter on " Orlando Furioso," and a few other works. Died in 1 715. Caroselli, ka-ro-seflee, ( Angiolo,) an Italian painter, born in Rome in 1585. He had a remarkable talent for imitating the manners of different masters. Skilful connoisseurs were deceived by his imitations of Titian, Raphael, etc. He also painted portraits with success. Died in 1653. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Carotto, ki-rot'to, or Caroto, ki-ro'to, (Giovanni Francesco,) an eminent Italian painter, born at Verona in 1470, was a pupil of A. Mantegna. whom he surpassed in majesty and harmony. He excelled in portraits. Died in 1546. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." Giovanni Carotto, a younger brother of the pre- ceding, was distinguished as an architect. Carouge, kt'roozh', (Bertrand Augustin,) a French astronomer, born at Dol in 1741. He went to Paris and associated himself with Lalande, for whom he made cal- culations which were inserted in Lalande's "Astronomy." He prepared tables for calculating the phases of the moon for sixty years, which were published in the "Con- naissances des Temps," (1801.) In 1795 he was ap- pointed admini5t7'ateur -general des fostes. Died in 1798. Carove, kS'ro'vi', (Friedrich Wilhf.lm,) a German critic and philosophical writer, born at Coblentz in 1789 ; died in 1852. Carpaccio, kaR-pSt'cho, [Lat. Carpa'thius,] (Vit- TORE,) an Italian painter, sometimes called Scarpazza, born about 1450. He worked in Venice, and was a rival of Bellini. By some writers he is ranked among the first painters of his time. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Carpani, kaR-pJ'nee, (Giu.seppe,) an Italian poet and theologian, born at Rome in 1683. He wrote several Latin tragedies, and other works. Died about 1765. Carpani, (Giuseppe,) an eminent Italian dramatic poet, born at Villa Albese, in the Milanese, in 1752. He became editor of the "Gazette" of Milan in 1792, and wrote against the French Revolution. In conse- quence of the French invasion in 1796, he removed to Vienna, where he settled permanently about 1810. He became a friend of Haydn, whose oratorio of the "Crea- tion" he successfully rendered into Italian. In 1812 he published " Le Haydine," or " Letters on the Life and Works of Haydn," which are commended as elegant and interesting. He produced numerous operas, dramas, and cantatas, among which are "La Camilla," a drama, and "The Judgment of Apollo," a cantata. Died in Vienna in 1825. SeeTiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri ;" Fetis, "Biogra- phie Universelle des Musiciens;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate." Car'pen-ter, (George,) Lord, an English general, born in Herefordshire in 1657, entered the army in 1672. In 1707 he commanded the cavalry at the battle of Al- manza, Spain, where his conduct was applauded. He was made a lieutenant-general in 1 7 10, and was second in command at the battle of Almenara. In 171 5 he com- manded the army which defeated the adherents of the Pretender at Preston. A few years later he received the title of Baron. Died in 1731. See " Life of George Lord Carpenter," London, 1736. Carpenter, (Lant,) an English divine, born at Kid- derminster in 1780, was the father of Dr. W. B. Carpen- ter the physiologist. From 1805 to 181 7 he officiated as Unitarian minister at Exeter, and during that period he published his "Introduction to the Geography of the New Testament," and " Unitarianism the Doctrine of the Gospel." He became minister of the Unitarian church at Bristol in 181 7. In 1839 he visited the con- tinent on account of his health. While passing from Naples to Leghorn, he was drowned, in April, 1840. He left numerous works, among which his "Apostolical Harmony of the Gospels" (1838) is perhaps the principal. See " Memoirs of the Rev. Lant Carpenter," by his son, 1842. Carpenter, (Margaret Geddes,) an English por- trait-painter, born at Salisbury in 1793. She was mar- ried to W. H. Carpenter, noticed below, in 181 7. Carpenter, (Mary,) an English philanthropist, daugh- ter of Lant Carpenter, was born about 1820. She founded a reformatory institution for females at Bristol, and wrote several works on education, etc. Carpenter, (Nathaniel,) an English scholar and clergyman, born in Devonshire in 1588. He published, besides other works, "Philosophia Libera," (1621,) one of the first attacks on the philosophy of Aristotle. He lived some years in Dublin, where he died about 1630. See Wood, "Athenje Oxonienses." Carpenter, (Richard,) an English priest, who twice or thrice was converted from Protestantism to Catholi- cism. He published several works, one of which is entitled "Experience, History, and Divinity," (1642.) He also wrote "The Pragmatical Jesuit," a comedy. See Wood, "Athenas Oxonienses." Carpenter, (William,) an English author and bibli- cal critic, born in London about 1798, published several valuable works, among which are "Calendarium Pales- tinae," (1825,) " Scripture Natural History," (1828,) and "A Guide to the Practical Reading of the Bible," (1830.) Carpenter, (William Benjamin,) an eminent Eng- lish physiologist, son of Lant Carpenter, noticed above, was born about 1812. He became a student of medicine in University College, London, in 1833, and graduated in Edinburgh in 1839, before which date he had pub- lished a treatise " On the Unity of Function in Organized Beings," and a few other short works. In 1839 he pub- lished an important and remarkable work, entitled " Prin- ciples of General and Comparative Physiology." About 1840 he settled in Bristol. He produced, in 1846, " Princi- ples of Human Physiology," a work of great merit, and scarcely equalled by any other on that subject. "We know of no work on physiology from which the student is likely to derive so much advantage." ("British and Foreign Medical Review.") Dr. Carpenter is, or was, professor of medical jurisprudence in University Col- lege, London, and a Fellow of the Royal Society. Among his later publications are "Zoology and Instinct in Ani- mals," (1848,) and "On the Microscope: its Revelations and Uses," (1856.) In 1849 he received a prize of one hundred guineas for an "Essay on Alcoholic Liquors." His brother, Russell Lant Carpenter, was Unitarian minister at Birkenhead, and published memoirs of his father, the Rev. Lant Carpenter. See "Westminster Review" for July, 1863. Carpenter, (William H.,) born in London in 1792, became in 1845 keeper of the prints and drawings of the British Museum. Carpentier, kSR'p6N'te-i', (Pierre,) a French Bene- dictine friar and antiquary, noted for his learning, was born at Charleville in 1697. He performed the principal part of the improved edition of Du Gauge's "Glossarium mediae et infimae Latinitatis," (1736.) In 1766 he pub- lished a valuable supplement to the work above named, with the title of " Glossarium novum," etc. Died in Paris in 1767. See Tassin, " Histoire litteraire de la Congregation de Saint- Maiir." Carpi, da, d^ kaR'pee, (Girolamo,) a skilful Italian painter and architect, born at Ferrara about 1500. He imitated Correggio with such success that some of his copies passed for the original works of that artist. He adorned the churches of Bologna and Ferrara with fres- cos and oil-paintings. "The Adoration of the Magi" is called one of his master-pieces. Died in 1556. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters, Sculptors, etc.;" Baruf- FALDi, " Vitadi G. da Carpi Pittore," 1841. Carpi, da, (Ugo,) an eminent Italian wood-engraver and painter, is said to have been born in Rome about € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2!^^See Explanations, p. 23.) CARP IN 526 CJRR i486. He is the reputed inventor of clair-obscur en- graving, or printing in light and shade. Among his works are " Diogenes and his Tub," after Parmegiano, and "^neas bearing off Anchises," after Raphael. He used three blocks, the first for the outline, the second for the middle tints, and the last for the shadows. Carpin, kaR-peen', or Carpini, kaR-pee'nee, (Johan'- NES DE Pla'ko,) an Italian monk, noted for his travels and adventures among the Tartars or Mongols who had ravaged the eastern parts of Christendom. In 1246 he was sent by Pope Innocent IV. on a mission to Tartary, with the design to pacify those barbarians or convert them to Christianity. With great courage and patience he penetrated to the court of the Grand Khan, whom he calls Kujak, and who dismissed him with a letter to the pope. On his return home, in 1248, he wrote a narrative of his journey, which is considered tolerably faithful and accurate, (making allowance for the prevalent ignorance, etc.,) and imparted to Europeans their first knowledge of the country of the Mongols. Hakluyt translated it, and inserted it in his " Collection of Voyages," etc. Car- pini afterwards was provincial of Germany, and preached the gospel in Bohemia, Norway, and Denmark. See De Guignes, " Histoire generale des Huns." Carpioni, kaR-pe-o'nee, (Giulio,) an Italian painter and engraver, born at Venice in 161 1. He painted fabu- lous and fantastic subjects with success. Died in 1674. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Carpocrate. See Carpocrates. Car-poc'ra-tes, [Fr. Carpocrate, ktR'po^kRtt',] a heresiarch of Alexandria, lived in the reign of Adrian, in the second century. He is said to have taught that the world was created by angels, that Christ was only a human being of pre-eminent goodness, and that the souls of men existed before their entrance into this world. He also taught doctrines subversive of morality, a kind of Gnostic Antinomianism, and had numerous followers. See Matter, "Du Gaosticisme," 2d edition, 1S3S. Carpov, kaR'pof, ([akob,) a German theologian, born at Goslar in 1699. He lectured at Jena, where he made many enemies by attempting to treat theology according to philosophic methods. Having removed to Weimar, he was there chosen professor of mathematics in 1742. He wrote an " Inquiry whether the Earth is a Machine or an Animal," and other works. Died in 1768. See Ersch und Gruber, '* Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Carpzov, kaRp'tsof, [Lat. Carpzo'vius,] (August,) a German diplomatist, son of Benedict, noticed below, born at Colditz in 1612. He became chancellor of the high court of Saxony, and represented that power at the treaty of Westphalia, (1648.) In 1675 he was appointed a privy councillor at Gotha. Died in 1683. See Stltrz, " Commentatio de Vita A. Carpzovii," 1750. Carpzov, (Benedict,) a distinguished German juris- consult, born in Brandenburg in 1565. He was appointed professor of law at Wittenberg in 1599, and wrote seve- ral volumes of "Legal Disputations," (" Disputationes JuridiccE.") He died in 1624, leaving several sons, who gained distinction in the same career. Carpzov, (Benedict,) a son of the preceding, born at Wittenberg in 1595, was a more able jurisconsult than his father. He was a privy councillor to the Elector of Saxony, and author of many works, among which is " Practice in Criminal Causes," (" Practica Rerum cri- minalium," 1635.) " He deserved to be regarded," says Boissonade, *' as the first of German practitioners." Died in 1666. See Lange, " Predigt bei der Leichen-Bestattung B. Carpzovii," 1667; Kromayer, " Programma in B. Carpzovii finiere," 1666. Carpzov, (Johann Benedict,) a Protestant theolo- gian, brother of the preceding, born at Rochlitz in 1607. He was professor at Leipsic. Died in 1657. Carpzov, (Johann Benedict,) an Orientalist, a son of the preceding, born at Leipsic in 1639, was professor of Hebrew, etc. in that city. He wrote treatises on sacred ])hilology. Died in 1699. PUs brother, Friedrich Benedict, (1649-99,) was notea as a philologist. He contributed to the "Acta Eruditorum." See JoLHRR, " Allgeineines Gelehrten-Lexikon ;" Cyprian, " Pro- gramma in funere J. B. Carpzovii," 1699; Crell, "Oratio F. B. Carpzovii IMemorije sacra," 1700. Carpzov, (Johann Benedict,) a historian and jurist, nephew of the preceding, born at Dresden in 1675. He published several works. Died in 1739. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Ernst F. Haupt, "Ueber J. B. Carpzov als Historiker," 1842. Carpzov, (Johann Gottlob,) a Lutheran theologian, born at Dresden in 1679. He was professor of Oriental languages at Leipsic from 1719 to 1730, and in the last year removed to Lubeck, where he preached many years. He wrote, besides other works, "Sacred Criticism on the Old Testament," ("Critica sacra Veteris Testa- menti.") Died in 1767. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Peter H. Becker, " Leben G. Carpzovs," 1767; Overbeck, " Memoria Vitae J. G. Carpzovii," 1767. Carpzovius. See Carpzov. Carr, (Eugene A.,) an American general, born in Erie county, New York, about 1830, graduated at West Point in 1850. He became a captain about 1858, com- manded a division at Pea Ridge, March, 1862, and was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers the same month. He served in Arkansas in 1864. Carr, (George,) a minister of the Anglican Church, born at Newcastle, England, in 1704. From 1737 to 1776 he was senior clergyman of the Episcopal Chapel, Edin« burgh. Several volumes of his sermons were published. "To his merits as a preacher, great as they were," says r^r. Beattie, "the lustre of his private character was still superior." Died in 1776. Carr, (John,) an English architect, born near Wake- field, Yorkshire, in 1721. He gained an extensive prac- tice in the north of England, where he erected many fine edifices. Among them are the Town-Hall of Newark, Harewood House, Yorkshire, and the mausoleum of Lord Rockingham at Wentvvorth. He was chosen lord mayor of York in 1770, and again in 1785. Died in 1807. Carr, (John,) LL.D., an English schoolmaster, born in the county of Durham in 1732. He taught a grammar- school at Hertford for many years with credit, and made a translation Of Lucian's "Dialogues," which is said to be excellent. He also wrote other works. Died in 1807. Carr, (Sir John,) an English writer of travels, born in Devonshire in 1772, was educated for the law. During the brief peace which followed the treaty of Amiens he visited France, and produced in 1803 " The Stranger in France," which was very successful, partly because for many ensuing years the scenes which he described were inaccessible to English tourists. He afterwards pub- lished " Northern Summer, or Travels around the Baltic," a "Tour through Holland," and a few other works. He was knighted about 1806. Died in 1832. See "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1807. Carr, (Joseph B.,) an American officer, born at Albany about 1825, served in the campaigns of 1861-62, and was made a brigadier-general in 1862. Carr, written also Carre or Ker, (Robert,) Earl of Somerset, a Scottish courtier, born about 1589. In 1610 his handsome person attracted the notice of the king, James I., of whom he soon became the prime favourite. "James created him Viscount Rochester," says Hume, ". . . and bestowed on him the supreme direction of all his business and political concerns." In 1613 Carr married Lady Frances Howard, lately divorced from the Earl of Essex, and was created Earl of Somerset. He was for some time on very intimate terms with Sir Thomas Overbury ; but they afterwards quarrelled, and in 1616 Somerset and his wife were convicted cf procuring the death of Overbury by poison, but, through the favour of the king, they escaped the just penalty of their crime. After an imprisonment of several years, he was released, and died in obscurity. See Gardiner's " History of England from 1603 to 1616," vol. ii. chaps. X., xi., and xiii. ; Hume's "History of England," chap, xlvii. Carr, (Sir Robert,) one of the royal commissioners of New England, appointed in 1664 by Charles II. In conjunction with Nicolls, he took New Amsterdam from the Dutch, and changed the name of that city to New York, in honour of the Duke of York, afterwards James II. Carr, (Rev. Wflliam Hoiavell,) an English patron of the fine arts, born in 1759. He bequeathed many pictures to the National Gallery. Died in 1830. a. e, T, o, u, y, lottg; \ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; CARRA 527 CARREL Carra, kt'rS', (Jean Louis,) a French revolutionist, born at Pont-de-Vesle in 1743. He went to Paris in 1789, and became the editor of a journal called "Annales Patriotiques," which was very radical in politics. p{e was elected to the Convention in 1792, and, having joined the Girondists, was proscribed by Robespierre, and exe- cuted in October, 1793. " He took refuge in the Gironde," says Lamartine, "to oppose the excesses of the people." He had published several historical and scientific works. See Lamartine, " History of the Girondists." Carra Saint-Cyr, ki'rt' siw's^R', (Jean FRANgois,) Count, a French general, born in 1756. As general of brigade, he contributed to the victories of Marengo and Hohenlinden, (1801.) He became a general of division in 1801, and commanded the army of occupation in Naples in 1805. He was Governor of French Guiana in 181 7-19. Died in 1834. See " Victoires et Conqueles des Fran^ais." Carracci. See Caracci. Carrach, kSr'raK, (Johann Tobias,) a Prussian jurist, born at Magdeburg in 1702. In 1763 he was chosen rector of the University of Halle, in which he had pre- viously been professor of law. He published many legal treatises. Died in 1775. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Konig, "Leben und Schriften des Herrn J. T. Carrach," 1776. Carrache. See Caracci. Carradori, kSr-ri-do'ree, (Gioachino,) an Italian physician, born at Prato, in Tuscany, in 1758. About 1802 he wrote a prize essay "On Fertility of Land," ■which is regarded as a classic work. He contributed able scientific articles to the journals of Milan and Pavia, and published a treatise on Galvanism. Died in 1818. See Sii-VESTRi, " Elogio de G. Carradori," 1818 ; Tipaldo, " Bio- grafia degli Italiani illustri." Carranza, kir-rin'thi, (Bartolom6.) a Spanish pre- late, born at Miranda in 1503. Charles V. sent him to the Council of Trent in 1546. He accompanied Philip II. to England, where he becaine confessor to Queen Mary and displayed a fanatical zeal against the Prot- estants. About 1556 he was appointed Archbishop of Toledo. This promotion appears to have excited the envy of his enemies, who obtained from the Inquisition a censure of a Catechism which he published, and ac- cused him of perverting the mind of Charles V. in his last illness. He was confined in prison ten years or more, and soon after his release he died, in 1576. See Salazar de Mendoza, "Vida y Sncesos de B. de Carran/.a y Miranda," 1788 ; Prescott, " History of Philip II.," vols. i. andii. Carrara, (Giovanni Michele Alberto,) an Italian physician and author, born at Bergamo, was one of the most learned and prolific writers of his time. Among his works are a " History of Italian Affairs in his Own Times," and a Latin poem "On the Venetian War." In 1488 the emperor Frederick III. made him a count palatine. Died in 1490. See Vo.ssius, "De Historicis Latinis;" A. Suardi, "Vitadi G. M. A. Carrara," 1784. Carrara, (Pietro Antoni*o,) a native of Bergamo, published, in 1701, a version of Virgil's "/Eneid" in ottava rima. Carrara, (Ubertino,) an Italian poet and Jesuit, born at Sora about 1640. He was for many years professor of belles-lettres in the Roman College, and wrote a heroic poem called "Voyage of Columbus," of which the invention is more poetic than the style. Died in 1715. Carrara, da, di kSr-r^'ra, a noble family of Italy, which ruled over Padua in the middle ages and adhered to the Guelph party. Jacopo da Carrara, after commanding the army in the war against Can della Scala, was elected Lord of Padua in 1318. Died in 1324. His nephew, Marsilio, who succeeded, made an alliance with Can della Scala, of Verona, to whom in 1328 he transferred the title of Lord of Padua; but he contintied to be the actual ruler. The heirs of Della Scala were expelled in 1337. Mar- silio died in 1338, and was succeeded by his nephew, Ubertino. During his government hostilities were renewed with the Lord of Verona, and were terminated by a peace in 1343. He died, without issue, in 1345. Francesco I., a grand-nephew of Jacopo, above no- ticed, obtained the chief power in 1355, and at the same time was chosen to command the army of the league formed by Ferrara, Mantua, Verona, and Padua against the Visconti of Milan. After several indecisive battles, peace was made in 1358. In 1378 he joined the Geno- ese in a war against Venice, which brought the latter state to the brink of ruin. About 1387 he was deposed by Gian Galeazzo Visconti, and confined in prison until his death in 1393. See SisMONDi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Carrara, da, (Francesco II.,) called Novello, (no- veKlo,)the son of Francesco I., noticed above, recovered the lordship of Padua in 1390, by the favour of the Vene- tians. He waged war against the Visconti, and, by seizing Verona in 1404, involved himself in war with Venice. Having been vanquished by that power, he was taken prisoner and put to death, with his sons, in 1406, after which Padua was annexed to Venice. See SisMONDi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Carre. See Carr. Carre or Carree, kt'ri', (FRANgois,) a Dutch painter, father of Hendrik, noticed below, was born in Friesland in 1636 ; died in 1669. Carre, kt'ri', (Guillaume Louis Julien,) a French jurisconsult, born at Rennes in 1777. He became pro- fessor of law in the Faculty of Rennes in 1806, and gained a high reputation as a lecturer. He published "Laws of Civil Practice," (1824,) and other works of merit. Died in 1832. See A. Chauveau, " Notice sur Carr^," 1841. Carre, (Hendrik,) a Dutch landscape-painter, born about 1656, was a pupil of J. Jordaens. He became a resident of Amsterdam, where he worked many years with success. Descamps praises his colour and touch. Died in 1721. See Descamp.s, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Carr^, (Jean Baptiste Louis,) a French writer and tactician, born at Varennes in 1749. Besides other works, he published one entitled "Panoply," (Panoplie," 1795,) a treatise on armour, weapons, and military affairs in general. Died in 1S35. See Qu^rard, "La France Litt^raire." Carre, (Louis,) a French geometer, born at a village in Brie in 1663. After having served Malebranche as amanuensis, he became a teacher of mathematics and philosophy. In 1697 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences. His principal work is a " Method for the Measurement of Surfaces, Solids," etc., which was once highly prized. Died in 171 1. See Fontenelle, "J!loge de Carre;" NiciSron, " M^moires." Carre, (Michael,) a brother of Hendrik, born about 1658, was a pupil of N. Berghem, and a skilful painter. He was employed by Frederick I. of Prussia, after whose death he returned to Amsterdam. Died in 1728. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Carre, (Narcisse Epaminondas,) a French jin-ist, born in Paris in 1794, was councillor in the Cour Impe- riale of Paris. He published an edition of the works of Domat, (9 vols., 1822,) and a "Code des Femmes," (1828.) Carre, (Pierre Laurent,) a French litterateitr, born in Paris in 1758, obtained the chair of rhetoric at Tou- louse, where he lectured with eclat. He wrote an epistle to his friend Delille the poet. He left many odes, epis- tles, and other poems. Died in 1825. Carrel, kt'reK, (Nicolas Armand,) a celebrated French journalist and publicist, was born at Rouen in 1800. He entered the army as sub-lieutenant about 1820, with sentiments of hostility to the dynasty restored by foreign troops. "When the government sent an army to Spain to support the cause of absolutism, he resigned in 1823, and joined the army of Spanish liberals. Hav- ing been inade prisoner, he was sentenced to death by a council of war; but, on account of informalities in the process, he was released. Finding himself destitute of resources except in his literary talents, he became secre- tary of the historian Augustin Thierry, He soon quitted this service, which imposed too much .constraint on his independent spirit, and began to write for the "Constitu- tionnel," the " Revue Francaise," and other journals and reviews of Paris. About 1828 he published a " Resume of the History of Modern Greece," and a " History of € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, giitiitral ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in tkis. (J^='See Explanations, p. 23.) CAR RENO 528 CJRRO the Counter-Revolution in England," which is highly esteemed. '* The reigns of the last two Stuarts," says the "Edinburgh Review," "have been written with the mind of a statesman and the hand of a vigorous writer, by Armand Carrel." In 1830 Thiers and Carrel became chief editors of the '* National," a daily journal, which the latter first projected, and which was the organ of the liberal opposition. After the revolution of 1830, (in which Carrel took a prominent part,) Thiers entered the new ministry, and left the chief control of the journal to his late colleague, whose eloquence and judgment soon raised the "National" to the highest point of influence and popularity. He gained much applause by the utter- ance of his indignant abhorrence of the execution of Marshal Ney, while he was pleading a cause before the Chamber of Peers, the majority of which had pronounced the sentence in that case. He was imprisoned by the government of Louis Philippe on account of his writings, although he was the moderator as well as the champion of the popular party. He was killed in a duel by Emile de Girardin, editor of the " Presse," in July, 1836. " His sterling honesty," says Brougham, "was only exceeded by his brilliant talents." See " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale ;" Carl Boelsche, " Zwei Republikaner," (containing the life of Carrel and L. Borne, 1850;) C. Nisard's article in the "Revue des Deux Mondes" for October i, 1837. Carreno de Miranda, kir-rin'yo dk me-rSn'dS, (Don Juan,) a skilful Spanish painter of history and portraits, was born in Asturias in 1614. In 1669 Philip IV. gave him the title of First Painter to the King, which he retained under Charles II. His works, which illustrate scriptural subjects, are at Madrid, Toledo, etc. Died in 1685. He was an excellent colorist, in which respect he is ranked by Spaniards between Titian and Van Dyck. See QuiLLiET, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols;" Bryan, " Dictionary of Painters ;" Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler- Lexikon." Carrer, kSr-raa', (Luigi,) an Italian lyric poet, born at Venice in 1801, wrote, besides other poems, "The Ring of Seven Gems." Died in 1850. CaxTera, kdr-ra'rS, (Pietro,) an Italian antiquary, born in Sicily in 1571, wrote "Ancient Syracuse illus- trated," and other works. Died in 1647. Carrera, kSr-ra'ri, (Rafael,) a statesman, of Indian extraction, born at Guatemala about 1814. In the civil war (1837-39) he fought with success against the Fede- ral government, and became commander-in-chief of the insurgents. He was elected President of Guatemala in 1847, arid re-elected in 1851. Carreras, kar-ra'ris, (]os± Miguel, Juan, and Luis,) three brothers, citizens of Chili, who were noted as patriots, and took part in the war of independence against Spain in the early part of the present century. Juan and Luis were put to death in 1818, and Jose Miguel in 1822. Carrere, ki'raiR', (Joseph Barth6lemi Franqois,) a French physician, born in 1740 at Perpignan. In 1773 he settled in Paris, and was appointed inspector-general of the mineral waters of Roussillon, and royal censor. He published many professional works, among which are " A Manual for the Service of the Sick," a " Treatise on Inflammatory Diseases," (1774,) and a "Biographical Dictionary of Medical Writers," (2 vols., 1776,) which was continued only to "Coivart." Died in 1802. See ^Lov, "Dictionnaire de la M^decine ;" "Biographic M^di- cale ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale." Carrere, (Thomas,) a French physician, father of the preceding, born at Perpignan in 17 14; died in 1764. Carreri, kir-ra'ree, (Giovanni Francesco Gemellt,) an Italian, born in Naples, visited Asia in 1693, and published "Tour of the World," (1699.) Carrero, kir-ra'ro, (Pedro Garcias,) a skilful Span- ish physician, born at Calahorra, lived about 1600, ac- quired a high reputation, and became physician to Philip III. His commentaries on Galen and Avicenna prove him to have been a man of extensive learning. See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Carretto, del, d§l kSr-ret'to, (Francesco Saverio,) Marquis, a Neapolitan minister of state, born at Sa- lerno. In his youth he served in the army with distinc- tion, and rose to a high rank. He was chosen minister of police in 183 1, and rendered himself odious by the severe and tyrannical measures with which he suppressed popular revolts. In consequence of a transient success of the popular party in 1848, he was banished by Fer- dinand II.; but he was soon recalled, and loaded with favours, by that king. Carrier, ki're-i', almost ktR'yk', (Jean B.,) a French Jacobin of infamous memory, was born in 1756. He was elected to the Convention in 1792, and in the next year was sent to Nantes, to execute the bloody will of the dominant party. He sacrificed great numbers of prison- ers and citizens without trial, and spared neither women nor children. Multitudes were crowded into boats and sunk in the river Loire, and others were shot or guillo- tined. The first mode of destruction was called republi- can baptism. Soon after the fall of Robespierre the public voice called for justice against Carrier, who, after a trial by the tribunal at Paris, was executed in 1794. See De Barante, " Melanges ;" "Nouvelle Biographic G^n^- rale." Carriera. See Rosalba. Carriere, kfre-aiii', (Denis Di^sir^,) a French poet, born at Nancy in 1813 ; died in 1853. Carriere, (Joseph,) a French theologian, born in 1795. He became professor of theology in the seminary of Saint-Sulpice, Paris. He has published an esteemed work on theology, written in Latin, comprising the fol- lowing subjects : " On Matrimony," " On Justice and Law," and "On Contracts." Carriere, kS're-aiR', (Moritz,) a German philosophi- cal writer, was bornat Griedel,in Hesse, in 181 7. He was appointed professor of philosophy at Giessen in 1849. Among his principal works are a treatise " On Aristotle the Friend of Plato," in Latin, (1837,) "The Philosophic Contemplation of the World at the Time of the Refor- mation," (1847,) and a poem, "The Last Night of the Girondists," ("Die letzte Nachtder Girondisteu," 1849.) See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." Carriferes, de, deh kt're-aiR', (Louis,) a French bib- lical commentator, born near Angers in 1662. His com- mentary was inserted in the French version of the Bible by Sacy. Died in 171 7. Carrillo, kSr-r6l'yo, (Martin,) a Spanish historian, born at Saragossa; died about 1630. Car'ring-ton, (Noel Thomas,) an English poet, born at Plymouth in 1777. After serving a short time in the royal navy, which he left about 1797, he taught school at Maidstone and Devonport. He wrote several didactic poems of some merit, among which are "The Banks of Tamar," (1820,) " Dartmoor," (1826,) and "My Native Village." " Dartmoor," which is called his best work, was received with great favour. Died in 1830. See "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iv. chap. ii. Carrion, kt're'6N', (Louis,) a Flemish critic, born at Bruges about 1547. He became professor of civil law and of canon law at Louvain, where he died in 1595. Among his works are an edition of the "Attic Nights" of Aulus GelHus, and " Commentaries on Ancient Read- ings," ("Antiquarum Lectionum Commentarii.") Carrion, de, di kir-re-6n', (Manuel Ramirez,) a learned Spaniard, born about 1590. He attained great success in the instruction of deaf-mutes, and is said to have been the first who, in Spain, taught letters to that class. Carrion-Nisas, ki're-6N' ne^zJ', (Antoine Henri FRANgois,) a French author, born at Lezignan in 1794. He has published a " Roman History from the Foun- dation of Rome to the Reign of Constantine," (1815,) "Principles of Political Economy," (1824,) and other works. Carrion-Nisas, de, deh kt're-6N' ne'zJ', (Marie Henri Franqois,) Marquis, a French politician and military officer, born at Montpellier in 1787, was the father of the preceding. Died in 1841. Carro, de, deh kt'ro', (Jean,) a Swiss physician, born at Geneva in 1770. He practised many years in Vienna, and was noted for his zealous efforts to propagate vac- cination, on which he published a work, (1801.) He lived at Carlsbad from 1825 until his death in 1857. See Weitenweber, "Biographic des Dr. J. de Carro," 1844. a, e, T, o, 11, ) ^ong; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, q, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; CARROLL CARTE Car'rpU, (Charles,) of Carrollton, an American pa- triot, born at Annapolis, Maryland, in 1737. He was educated as a Roman Catholic in France, and studied law in Paris and London. Having returned to America about 1764, he inherited a very large estate in land in his native province, and was reputed to be the richest man in Maryland. Before the Revolution began, he defended, by his writings, the rights of the colonies against the oppressive measures of the British ministry. He was elected a delegate to the Provincial Convention in 1775, and a delegate to Congress in July, 1776. He signed the declaration of Independence, and, in order to iden- tify himself more fully with the danger as well as honour resulting from that manifesto, wrote his name Charles Carroll of Carrollton, after some one had remarked that there were several persons named Charles Carroll. He was elected a Senator of the United vStates for Mary- land in 1788. In 1810 he retired from public life. He was the last surviving signer of the Declaration of Inde- pendence. Having attained the age of ninety-five years, he died in 1832. See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- pendence ;" "National Portrait- Gallery," vol. i., 1S39. Carroll, (John,) a Roman Catholic prelate, born in Maryland in 1735, a cousin of the preceding. He joined the order of Jesuits. In 1776 he went to Canada, at the request of Congress, in company with Benjamin Franklin and two others, who were sent on a political mission. He was appointed Bishop of Baltimore in 1789, and afterwards received the title of Archbishop. Died in 1815. See " Encyclopaedia Americana." Carron, kt'r6N', (Gui Toussaint Julien,) Abb6, a French priest and moralist, noted for his works of cha- rity and benevolence, was born at Rennes in 1760. Re- fusing to take the prescribed oath in 1791, he was exiled to Jersey, and thence removed to London. In each of these places he founded schools, hospitals, etc. In 1814 he returned to Paris, and took part in various benevolent enterprises. He published "Christian Thoughts," Lives of the Just," '* The Confessors of the Faith in France," and many other works. Died in 1821. See " Notice sur Carron," prefixed to his works. Carroza.kir-rod'za, (Giovanni,) an Italian physician, born at Messina in 1678; died after 1730. Carrucci. See Pontormo. Cars, kin, (Laurent,) a skilful French engraver, born at Lyons in 1703, was a pupil of Lemoyne in Paris. He was received into the Royal Academy in 1733. " Hercules and Omphale" is one of his master-pieces. Died in 1771. Car''son, (Christopher,) commonly known as Kit Carson, a famous trapper and mountain-guide, born in Kentucky in 1809, passed a large portion of his time in the Rocky Mountains and the adjacent territories. He rendered important services as a guide to Fremont in his explorations. In 1847 he was made lieutenant in the rifle-corps of the United States army. Died in 1868. Car'stairs or Car'stares, (William,) a Scottish theologian and negotiator, born at Cathcart in 1649. Having received a good education and studied theology at Utrecht, he became chaplain and private secretary to ^vill iam, Prince of Orange, who sent him to England on r a secret mission in the reign of Charles II. As acces- sary to the conspiracy of Monmouth's friends, he was arrested and put to the torture, which he bore with for- titude, and confessed nothing important. After the Prince of Orange became King of England, in 1688, Carstairs enjoyed his confidence, and had great influence in the affairs of Scotland. It is stated that by strenuous efforts he dissuaded the king from severe and impolitic measures against the Scottish Presbyterians. In 1704 ne was chosen principal of the University of Edinburgh, and became minister of the Grey-Friars' Church in that city. Died in 1 71 5. "William had," says Macaulay, "one Scottish adviser who deserved and possessed more influence than any of the ostensible ministers. This was Carstairs, one of the most remarkable men of that age. He united great scholastic attainments with great aptitude for civil busi- ness, and the firm faith and ardent zeal of a martyr *'ith the shrewdness and suppleness of a consummate politi- cian." See Macaui-av, "History of England," vol. ii. chap, ix., and vol. ill. chap. xiii. ; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" McCormick, "Life of W. Carstairs," 1774. Carstares. See Carstairs. Carstens, kaR'stens, (Adolf Gothard,) a Danish writer and critic, born at Copenhagen in 1713 ; died in 1795- See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Carstens, (Asmus Jakou,) an excellent Danish his- torical painter, born near Sleswick in 1754. After he left school he was compelled to serve an apprenticeship of five years to a wine-merchant, and on obtaining his liberty went to Copenhagen, in the Academy of which he studied painting a few years. In 1783 he performed a pedestrian journey to Milan, intending to visit Rome ; but want of funds compelled him to return before he reached that point. He worked in Lubeck about five years, during which he supported himself by painting ])ortraits, and thence removed to Berlin, where he pro- duced " The Fall of the Angels." The merit of this procured his appointment as professor in the Academy of that city. In 1792 he went to Rome, where he studied with fond admiration the works of Michael Angelo and Raphael and acquired a wide reputation by his com- positions. Among his master-pieces are " The Visit of the Argonauts to the Centaur Chiron," and "Gidipus Tyrannus." Died in Rome in 1798. His subjects were mostly taken from the great poets, ancient and modern. See Fernow, " Leben des Kiinstler Carstens," 1806; Nagler, " Neues AUgemeines Kiinstler- Lexikon." Carsughi, kaR-soo'gee, (Raniero,) an Italian Jesuit and Latin poet, born in Tuscany in 1647; died at Rome in 1709. Cartagena, de, di kaR-ti-ha'ni, (Alonso,) a Spanish poet, who became Archbishop of Burgos. Died in 1456. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Cartajo, kaR-tl'yo, (Antonio Maria,) an Italian poet, lived about 1530. Cartari, kaR-t^'ree, (Vincenzo,) an Italian writer, born at Reggio, lived about 1550. Little is known of his life, except that he was in the service of Cardinal Ippolito d'Este. He wrote a popular work, entitled "Images of the Gods of the Ancients," etc., (" Le Im- magini degli Dei degli Antichi," 1556.) See GiNGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Cartaud de la Vilate, ktR^to' deh 13 veitt', (Fran- (^Ois,) a French author and priest, born at Aubusson about 1700. He published in 1736 a " Historical and Philosophical Essay on Taste," an ingenious and elo- quent work, which attracted much attention. He dis- played a fondness for paradox in his "Thoughts on Mathematics." Died in Paris in 1737. Cartaux or Carteaux, ktR'to', (Jean Francois,) a French general, born in Franche-Comte in 1751. In 1793 he defeated the royalists at Orange, for which ser- vice he was made on the same day general of brigade and of division. He commenced the siege of Toulon, where Bonaparte served under his orders, but was de- prived of the command before the place was taken, in 1793. During the empire he was not in active service. Died in 1813. See Thiers, "Histoire de la Revolution Fran^aise." Carte, kart, (Samuel,) an English divine and anti- quary, born at Coventry in 1653, became prebendary of Lichfield. He published a "Chronological Table of Archiepiscopal and Episcopal Sees in England and Wales," also several sermons. Died in 1740. Carte, (Thomas,) an English historian, son of the pre- ceding, was born at Clifton in 1686. Having entered into holy orders, he became reader in the Abbey Church, Bath. From his partiality to the house of Stuart, he refused to take the oaths on the accession of George I. In 1715 orders were issued to arrest him as a party to the rebellion ;• but he escaped to France, where he re- mained about twelve years. After his return to England, he published a "History of the Life of James, Duke of Ormond," which, says Dr. Johnson, "is considered as a book of authority ; but it is ill written. There is no ani- mation, no compression, no vigour." He also wrote € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2!^=*See Explanations, p. 23. ) 34 CARTE AUX 530 CART I GEY A a "History of England," (4 vols., 1747-55,) which was coldly received. Hume refers to Carte as an "author of great industry and learning, but full of prejudices." Died in 1754. Carteaux. See Cartaux. Cartellier, ktR^ti'le-i,', (Pierre,) an eminent French sculptor, born in 1757 in Paris, was a pupil of C. A. Bridan. His reputation was established by the figure of War which adorns the palace of the Luxembourg. His statues of Aristides and Vergniaud were greatly admired, but exist only in plaster models. In i8io he was elected a member of the Institute, and about that time produced statues of Napoleon and of Louis Bonaparte. He executed many other excellent works. Several distinguished artists were formed in his school. Died in 1831. See QuATREM^RE DE QuiNCY, " Notice historique sur la Vie de Cartellier." Car'ter, (Elizabeth,) an English lady, distinguished as a profound classical scholar and an authoress, was born at Deal, Kent, in 171 7. Her father, Nicholas Car- ter, D.D., curate of Deal, was a good classical scholar, and instructed her in the learned languages. She also made herself mistress of Italian, German, French, and Spanish. In 1738 she published anonymously a small volume of poems, and the next year acquired reputation by translating a work on Newton's philosophy from the Italian of Algarotti. Her "Ode to Wisdom" (1746) is one of her best poems. At an early period of her author- ship she became a friend of Dr. Johnson, for whom she wrote Nos. 44 and 100 of the " Rambler." He once remarked r>f some eminent scholar, "Sir, he is the best Greek scholar in England except Elizabeth Carter." Her translation of Epictetus from the Greek (1758) ex- tended her celebrity beyond the limits of her own coun- try. Warton expressed the opinion that "it excels the original." She was never married. Her character was adorned by modesty, piety, and other Christian graces. Several volumes of her Letters have been published. Died in London in 1806. See Pennington, "Memoirs of E. Carter;" Mrs. Elwood, "Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England," etc., vol. i., 1843. Carter, (Francis,) an English writer, who resided some vears in Spain, and published " A Journey from Gibraltar to Malaga," (1777.) He left a work in manu- script, entitled " Historical and Critical Account of Early- Printed Spanish Books." Died in 1783. Car'ter, (James Gordon,) an American educationist, born at Leominster, Massachusetts, in 1795, graduated at Harvard in 1820. He furnished some valuable con- tributions on the subject of education to the " Boston Patriot" in 1823. As chairman of the committee on edu- cation, in the Massachusetts legislature, he did much to promote the interest of free schools. He drafted the bill establishing the Massachusetts Board of Education, of which he was appointed chairman by Governor Everett. Died in 1849. Carter, (John,) an eminent architect and antiquary, born in London in 1748. From 1780 to 1794 he issued, in numbers, "Specimens of Ancient Sculpture now re- maining in England," which was followed by " Views of Ancient Buildings in England." He was employed more than twenty years on an important national work, entitled "The Ancient Architecture of England," (1795 -1816,) which is highly prized by students of that art. Died in 1817 or 1818. Carter, (John,) a silk-weaver, born at Coggeshall, England, in 1815. By injuries received in falling from a tree, his body below his neck became paralyzed. He lived for eighteen years in this condition, and learned to draw with wonderful skill, holding the brush in his ^outh. His chief work is a " Rat-Catcher and his Dogs," the design and execution of which have been full of interest to the leading artists; and all his productions exhibit great sesthetic powers. Died in 1850. See William James Dampier, " Memoir of John Carter," Lon- don, 1850; Frederick J. Mills, "Life of John Carter," New York, 1868. Carter, (Nathaniel H.,) an American writer, born at Concord, New Hampshire, in 1787 or 1788. He be- came, about 1820, editor of the New York " Statesman," which supported De Witt Clinton, He published, after a visit to Europe, "Letters from Europe," (2 vols., 1827.) Died at Marseilles in 1830. Carter, (Samuel P.,) an American general, born in East Tennessee in 1819, served in the navy in his youth. He was appointed a brigadier-general about May, 1862. He commanded a division under Schofield, in North Carolina, in February, 1865. Car't^r, (Thomas,) an Irish musician and composer of vocal music, born about 1768; died about 1802. Car'tfr-et, (Sir George,) an English naval officer, born about 1600, was an adherent of Charles I. and Charles II. in the civil war. Died in 1679. Carteret, (John,) Viscount Carteret and Earl Gran- ville, an able English statesman and orator, born in 1690, was the son of George, Lord Carteret, of Bedfordshire. He graduated with high honours at Oxford, and in 17 11 entered the House of Lords, where he soon became prominent as a speaker and a supporter of the Whig ministry. He represented England at the Congress of Cambrai in 1720, and was made secretary of state in 1721. Between 1724 and 1730 he was lord lieutenant of Ireland, and after the latter date he acted with the o])position. "Of all the members of the cabinet," says Macaulay, " Carteret was the most eloquent and accom- plished. His talents for debate were of the fiist order; and his knowledge of foreign affairs superior to that of any living statesman. But there was not room in the government for him and Walpole, and Carteret retired." After the defeat of Walpole (1741) he became secretary of state, and for some months was chief minister, — or sole minister. In 1744 he was removed by the influence of the Pelham party. About 1750 he was appointed president of the council. The historian above named says, " His knowledge of modern languages was prodi- gious. No public man had such profound and extensive learning." His temper was bold, open, and impetuous. Died in 1763. See Macaulay, "Essay on Walpole's Letters to Sir Horace Mann," 1833; also his article entitled "Thackeray's History of the Earl of Chatham," 1834. Carteret, (Philip,) Captain, an English navigator, who, in 1766, commanded one of the two vessels sent out to make discoveries in the South Sea, under the orders of Captain Wallis. Having discovered numerous small islands, one of which bears his name. Captain Car- teret returned home in 1769, after which Hawkesworth published an account of the voyage. Carteromacho. See Forteguerrl Cartesius, or Cartes, Des. See Descartes. Carthaeuser. See Carthauser. Car'tha-lo or Car'tlia-lon, a Carthaginian general of the first Punic war. He commanded a fleet which was sent against the Romans in 249 B.C. Before any general action was fought, the Roman fleet was destroyed by a storm, from which the superior skill of the Cartha- ginians saved them. Carthalon, a commander of the cavalry of Hannibal in his invasion of Italy, and at Cannae in 216 B.C. Soon after that action he was sent to Rome to negotiate for the ransom of prisoners, but was ordered by a lictor to quit the Roman territory before sunset. He was taken prisoner in 208 B.C., and killed by a Roman soldier. Carthauser, Carthaeuser, or Cartheuser, pro- nounced alike k^Rt'hoi'zer, ( Friedrich August,) a German physician, son of Johann Friedrich, noticed be- low, was born at Halle in 1734. He became professor of medicine and surgery at Giessen in 1766. He ]-)ublished "Elements of Mineralogy," " Rudiments of Hydrology," (both in Latin,) and other works. Died in 1796. Carthauser, Carthaeuser, or Cartheuser, (Johann Friedrich,) a learned German physician, born at Hayn in 1704. He experimented on many plants and medica- ments, and made a reform in the materia medica. In 1740 he was chosen professor of chemistry, jDharmacy, etc. in the University of Frankfort-on-the-Oder. He published (in Latin) "Elements of Experimental Chem- istry, etc.," (1736,) "Elements of Materia Medica, Gene- ral and Special,'" (1749,) and other works. Died in 1777. See ^LOY, " Dictionnaire de la Medecine;" "Biographie Medi- cale." Carticeya or Cartikeya. See Kartikey.\. .a, e, 1, 6, xxy'^ylang; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; C ARTIER 531 CARVAJAL Cartier, kta'te-i', (Jacques,) a French navigator, the first discoverer'of the Saint Lawrence River, was born at Saint-Malo in 1494. Being sent by Francis I. to explore North America in 1534, he entered the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, advanced as far as Gaspe Bay, and re- turned to France. He renewed the enterprise in 1535, and ascended the river as far as the site of Montreal. Being kindly treated by the natives, he passed the winter in Canada, and arrived at Saint-Malo in July, 1536. A narrative of the voyage was published. See " Voyage de Decouvertes au Canada, etc," Quebec, 1843. Cartier, (Louis Vincent,) a French physician and writer on surgery, born in Dauphine in 1768 ; died at Lyons in 1839. 'Car-ti-mand'u-a or Car-tis-man'du-a, Queen of the Brigantes in Britain, lived about 50 A.D. She be- trayed Caractacus to the Romans. Cartouche, ktR'toosh',(Louis Dominique,) a French robber of extraordinary skill and audacity, born in Paris in 1693, was executed in 1721. Carfwright, (Christopher,) a learned Englishman, born in 1602, is said to have been the first who applied the more ancient uninspired writings of the Jews to the illustration of the Bible. He published several theolo- gical works, including one on the Targum, (1648.) Died in 1658. Ceurtwright, (Edmund,) the inventor of the power- loom, was born at Marnham, England, in 1743. Having taken orders, he obtained the living of Brampton, and afterwards that of Goadby-Marwood. He wrote a num- ber of poems, among which were "The Prince of Peace" and " Armina and Elvira." The latter, a poetical legend, passed through nine editions. About 1785 he invented the power-loom, the use of which was opposed by the weavers, who destroyed five hundred of his machines. He obtained patents for many other inventions. In 1809 Parliament voted him _;^io,ooo for the service he had rendered the public by the invention of the power- loom. Died in 1823. See "Memoirs of (he Life, Writings, and Mechanical Inventions of Edmund CartwTight, " London, Svo, 1843; " Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. ii., 1839. Cartwright, (George,) an English traveller, born at Marnham in 1739. In the Seven Years' war he served in Germany and obtained the rank of captain. He after- wards made several voyages to Labrador, and in 1792 published a "Journal of a Residence of Sixteen Years on the Coast of Labrador." "The annals of his cam- paigns among the foxes and beavers," savs Coleridge, "interested me more than ever did the exploits of Marl- borough or Frederick." Died in 1819. Cartwright, (John,) Major, a brother of the pre- ceding, was born at Marnham in 1740, and passed some years in the royal navy previous to the American war. Prompted by his love of liberty, he refused to fight against the United States, and wrote " Letters on Ameri- can Independence," (1774,) besides other political tracts. He was a zealous advocate of parliamentary reform and universal suffrage. Charles J. Fox thought him "one whose enlightened mind and profound constitutional knowledge placed him in the highest rank of public character, and whose purity of principle and consistency of conduct commanded the most respectful attention to his opinions." He was a coadjutor of Tooke, Hardy, etc. in the cause of reform. Died in 1824. See F. D. Cartwright, "Life of Major J. Cartwright," 1826. Cart'wright,( Peter,) an eminent Methodist preacher, born in Amherst county, Virginia, in 1785. While he was still a child, his parents removed with him to Ken- tucky. When scarcely sixteen years old, he was con- verted, and joined the Methodist'Episcopal Church. At an early age he began to preach, and continued to labour in the cause with great zeal and success for more than fifty years. It is estimated that he preached in all not fewer than fifteen thousand sermons. See " Autobiographv of Peter Cartwright, the Backwoods Preacher," edited by W. P. Strickland, New York, 1856. Cartwright, (Thomas,) an English Puritan divine, eminent for learning and talents, was born in Hertford- shire about 1535. ""He became a Fellow of a college at Cambridge in 1560, and professor of divinity there in 1570. A few years later he was deprived of these offices, and imprisoned several times, for his Puritanism. He published a " Body of Divinity," (1616,) a " Directory for Church Government," commentaries on seveial books of the Bible, and other works. Died in 1603. See B. Brook, "Memoir of the Life of T. Cartwright," 1845. Cartwright, (Thomas,) born in 1634, is supposed to have been a grandson of the preceding. He became Bishop of Chester in 16S6, and was one of the commis- sioners who seconded James II. in his despotic attempt to impose a Roman Catholic president on the Fellows of Magdalen College. Died in 1689. See AL^CAULAV. "History of England," vols. ii. and iii. Cartwright, (William,) an English poet, born at Northway in 161 1. He gradi^ated at Oxford, took orders in 1638, and became an eloquent preacher. Wood calls him " the most florid and seraphical preacher in the university." He w^as chosen junior proctor of Oxford University, and reader in metaphysics in 1643, died the same year. He left tragi-comedies and other poems, which were greatly admired by his contemporaries, but are now neglected, except soine of his dramas, one of which is entitled " The Ordinary." See Campbell, " Specimens of the British Poets ;" Baker, " Bio- graphia Dramatica ;" " Retrosjjective Review," vol. ix., 1824. Ceirus, ki'rus, (Friedrich August,) a Protestant German theologian, born at Bautzen in 1770. He ac- quired distinction as professor of philosophy in the University of Leipsic, (1796 to 1807.) He published, besides other works, a " History of Psychology," and a " History of the Psychology of the Hebrews," which is said to be a profound and well-written work. Died in 1807. See ScHWARZE, "Zum Andenken des Professor Cams;" Schott, "Recitatio de F. A. Cari Virtutibus," etc., 1S08. Carus, (Karl Gustav,) an eminent German physi- ologist and physician, born at Leipsic in 1789. He w-as appointed assistant professor of anatomy in his native city in 1811, and professor of obstetrics at Dresden in 1815. In 1827 he became physician to the King of Saxony, with the title of privy councillor. He also practised painting with success. Among his principal writings are an "Essay on the Nervous System," (1814,) a "Manual of Zootomy," (1818,) "Principles of Com- parative Anatomy and Physiology," (3 vols., 1828,) and a "System of Physiology," (3 vols., 1838-40.) See Callisen, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon ;" " Nou- velle Biographic Generale." Ca'rus, (Marcus Aurelius,) a Roman emperor, born at Narbo, (now Narbonne.) Under the emperor Probus he held the high office of prefect of the prastorium. At the death of Probus in 282 A.D., Carus was elected his successor by the army. In 283 he marched against the Persians, leaving his son Carinus to govern Italy. Having taken Seleucia and Ctesiphon, he was about to pursue his conquests, when he died suddenly, (283,) or, as some report, was killed by lightning. See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" VoPiscus, " Carus." Ceiruso, ki-roo'so, or Carusio, ki-roo'se-o, (Giovan- ni Battist.^,) an Italian historian, born near Palermo in 1673. He published "Historical Memoirs of Sicily," (3 vols., 1716-45.) Died in 1724. Caruso, (Luigi,) a popular Italian composer of operas, born in Naples about 1750. He was living in 1800. Carvajal, kaR-vi-HiK, or Carbajal, kaR-Bi-Hai', (Tomas Jos6 Gonzalez,) a Spanish writer and states- man, born at Seville in 1753. He was chosen president of the junta of finances in 1812. At the restoration in 1814 he was imprisoned for political reasons. In 1819 he produced a Spanish version of the Psalms, which is greatly admired. He afterwards held several high civil offices, among which was that of a member of the Coun- cil of the Indies, and became a peer in 1834. He died the same year. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Carvajal, de, di kaR-vS-niK, or Carbajal, kaR-B^- hIK, (Bernardino,) born at Palencia, in Spain, about 1456, was made a cardinal in 1493. In 15 11 he supported the interest of Louis XII. of France against Pope Julius € as c as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) CARVAJAL 532 CJSJBIANCA II., for which ofifence he was excommunicated. Having confessed his fault, he obtained pardon in 15 13. Died in 1523. See Fabroni, "Vita Leonis X. ;" Paolo Giovio, "Elogia." Carvajal, de, or Carbajal, (Francisco,) a famous Spanish captain, born about 1464, was conspicuous for courage at the battle of Pavi'a in 1525, and at the sack of Rome in 1527. He afterwards went to Mexico and Peru, and in 1542 became a major-general. He joined the party of Gonzales Pizarro in his revolt against the King of Spain, and gained several victories over the royalists about 1546. In 1548 he was made prisoner a. id hung. He was notorious for cruelty. See Robertson, "History of America." Carvajal, de, or Carbajal, written also Caravajal, de, ( [UAN,)an eminent Spanish prelate, born at Truxillo, was made a cardinal in 1446. He gained a high reputa- tion by his missions as papal legate in Germany and Hungary. Died at Rome in 1469. See Ei?scH and Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Carvajal or Carbajal, de, (Lorenzo Galindez,) was born at Placencia in 1472. He was professor of law at Salamanca, was a councillor of Ferdinand and Isabella, and held high offices under Charles V. He left unfinished a " History of Spain," which, with other works, remained in manuscript. Died in 1527. See Prescott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. iii. chap. XXV. Carvalho. See Freire de Carvat.ho. Carvalho, kaR-vSKyo, (Antonio Nunez,) a Portu- guese bibliographer, born about 1790, was living in 1855. Carvalho, (jozE da Silva,) a Portuguese minister of state, born in 17S2; died in 1845, Carvalho d'Acosta, kaR-vdl'yo dS-kos'tS, (Anto- nio,) a Portuguese geographer and priest, born in Lis- bon in 1650. He published in 1706 a " Topographical Description of Portugal," which treats of the natural and civil history of the principal places, and is esteemed the best work on that subject. He also wrote a " Com- pend of Geography," and other works. Died in 1715. See Barbosa Machado, " Bibliotheca Lusitana." Carvalho e Mello. See Pombal. Carvallo, kaR-vil'yo, (Manuel,) a South American jurist and diplomatist, born at Santiago, in Chili, in 1808, was charge-d'affaires at Washington. Carvaxal. See Carvajal. Car'ver, (John,) the first governor of Plymouth col- ony, was born in England. He was one of a company of Puritans who emigrated to Holland, and came over in the Mayflower in 1620. He is said to have been a prudent and able governor. Died in 1621. Carver, (Jonathan,) an American traveller, born in Connecticut in 1732, served as captain in the war against the French in Canada. He passed about three years (1766-68) in the exploration of North America, which he crossed to the Pacific Ocean, and i^ublished in 1778 " Travels through the Interior Parts of North America." Died in London in 1780. Ca'ry, (Alice,) an American authoress, born near Cincinnati, Ohio, about 1822. She first attracted atten- tion by her contributions to the "National Era," under the title of Patty Lee; and she afterwards published several volumes of poems and other works, including three novels, — " Hagar, a Story of To-Day," '* Married not Mated," and " Hollywood." Her sketches of West- ern life, entitled " Clovernook," have obtained extensive popularity both in America and Europe. Died in 1871. Phcehe Cary, a sister of Alice, has also contributed to periodical literature, and in 1854 published a volume entitled " Poems and Parodies." See Griswoi,d's "Female Poets of America;" Cleveland's " Compendium of American Literature." Cary, (Colonel Archibald,) a Virginian patriot, born about 1730. He favoured the cause of independence, and took a prominent part in the Convention of 1776 which framed the constitution of Virginia. He was afterwards a member of the Senate of Virginia. Died in 1786. Cary, Earl qf Monmouth. See Carey, (Henry and Robert.) Cary, kt're', (F6lix,) a French antiquary and numis- matist, born at Marseilles in 1699, formed a fine collec- tion of antique medals. His principal production is a " History cf the Kings of Thrace and of the Cimmerian Bosphorus," which is regarded as a classic work. In 1752 the Academy of Inscriptions chose him as a corre- spondent. Died in 1754. Cafxf, (Rev. Henry,) an English scholar and writer, son of Henry F. Cary the translator of Dante. He has published "Testimonies of the Fathers," (Oxford, 1835,) and " Memorials of the Great Civil War in England from 1646 to 1652," (1842.) He has also edited his father's version of Dante, " Early French Poets," etc. Cary, (Rev. Henry Francis,) an English poet, emi- nent as the translator of Dante, was born at Birmingham in 1772. While a student at Oxford, he gave much at- tention to Greek, Latin, French, and Italian, and before he left college he had published a number of sonnets and odes. In 1797 he was appointed vicar of Bromley Ab- bot's. He produced in 1806 an excellent translation, in blank verse, of Dante's " Inferno," and in 1814 completed the other portions of the " Divina Commedia." This version is highly applauded by the most eminent judges, including Southey, who said it was " a translation of magnitude and difficulty, executed with perfect fidelity and admirable skill." He afterwards published "The Early French Poets, a Series of Notices and Transla- tions," and other works. Died in 1844. See "Memoir of H. F. Cary," by his son, Henry Cary, 2 vols., 1847; " Fraser's Magazine" for May, 1847. Cary, (John,) of Bristol, an Englishman, published, between 1695 and 1745, "Treatises on Political Econo- my, etc." His "Discourse on Trade," a work of little merit, was made the basis of a better work, published in French, at Paris, 1755. Cary, (Lorr,) an African preacher, was born a slave in Virginia, and accompanied the first emigrants sent to Liberia by the American Colonization Society in 1 82 1. He officiated as pastor, physician, and soldier to the colony, was elected vice-agent in 1826, and on the withdrawal of Mr. Ashmun, whose entire confidence he enjoyed, discharged for about six months the duties of governor. He was killed in November, 1828, by the accidental explosion of a magazine. Cary, (Lucius.) See Falkland, Lord. Cary, (Robert.) See Carey, (Robert.) Cary, (Robert,) a learned English clergyman, born in Devonshire about 161 5. He became Archdeacon of Exeter in 1662, and wrote an esteemed work entitled " Palaeologia Chronica." Died in 1688. Car'yl, (John,) of Sussex, an English dramatic wri- ter, was intimate with Pope the poet. He wrote " The English Princess," a tragedy, and a few other works. He was secretary to Mary, queen of James II., whom he followed into exile in 1688, and who gave him the empty title of Earl Caryl. Caryl, (Joseph,) an English divine of the sect of Independents, born in London in 1602, was ejected for nonconformity in 1662. His principal work is an "Ex- position of Job," (in 12 vols.,) which is much praised. Died in 1673. See Nral's " History of the Puritans." Caryophilus. See Garofalo, (Blaise.) Casa, della, del'ld ki'sS, (Giovanni,) an Italian poet and priest, born near Florence in 1503, was one of the most elegant writers of his time. He became a re- sident of Rome, and in 1544 Archbishop of Benevento. Paul IV. on his election to the papal see made Casa his secretary of state. He wrote lyric poems in Italian, which were much admired, and were compared to those of Bembo for purity of style. The first edition api^eared in 1558. His most popular prose work is "Galateo, ovvero de' Costumi," which treats of the rules of j^olite- ness. He translated Plato into Latin, and wrote Latin "Carmina," and other works. Died at Rome about 1556. See " Life of Della Casa," prefixed to his works, by G. B. Casotti, (edition of 1707 :) Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Fi- Lippo Gerardi," Biografia di Giovanni della Casa," 1836 ; Ginguenk, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" Er.sch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Nicif,RON, "Memoires." Casablanca, ka'sS-be-an'ka, (Louis,) a naval officer, born at Bastia about 1755. He was sent as a deputy to a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; CASABUNCA 533 CAS AV BON the French National Convention in 1792, and voted for the detention of the king. In 1798 he was captain of L'Orient, the flagship of the fleet which conveyed Bona- parte and his army to Egypt. At the battle ot the Nile, August I, 1798, after he was mortally wounded, he made a heroic defence of the burning ship, which finally was destroyed by a terrific explosion. Casabiaiica, (Raphael,) a French general, brother of the preceding, was born in Corsica in 1738, and be- came general of division in 1794. In 1806 he was made a count. Died in 1825. See De Courcelles, " Histoire des Generaux Frangais." Casa-Irujo, de, di ki'sS e-roo'Ho, (Carlos Maria Martinez,) Marquis, a Spanish statesman, born at Cartagena in 1765. From 1795 to 1808 he was minis- ter to the United States, where he married the daughter of Thomas McKean. He was plenipotentiary at the Congress of Aix-Ia-Chapelle in 181 8, and ambassador to Paris in 1821. In 1823 he was appointed minister of foreign affairs, and president of the council. Died in 1824. Casal, ki-siK, (Gaspar,) Bishop of Leiria, in Portugal, born at Santarem in 15 10. He became counsellor and confessor of John III., whose j^receptor he had once been. He wrote a treatise " On the Justification of Man," (in Latin,) and other works. Died about 1580. See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Casal, de, di ki sSK, or Cazal, ka-zAK, (Manuel Ayres,) a Portuguese geographer, who emigrated to Brazil in his youth, explored parts of that region, and lived for some time in Rio Janeiro. In 181 7 he jiublished a valuable "Historical and Geographical Description of Brazil." He died in Lisbon many years after 181 7. Casali, kS-sA'lee, (Giovanni 'Battista,) a Roman antiquary, who published a treatise *' On the Sacred and Profane Rites of the Ancients," ** The Splendour of Rome and the Roman Empire in Ancient Times," (1650,) and other esteemed works. Casali, (Giuseppe,) an antiquary and priest, born in Rome in 1744. He formed a rich collection of medals and antique remains, was a liberal patron of artists, and wrote a few treatises on numismatics. Died in 1797. Casanova, ki-sa-no'vd, (Francesco,) a painter, born of Italian parents, in London, about 1728. At the age of twenty-five he went to Paris, where he gained a high reputation for his battle-pieces and landscapes, and was admitted into the Royal Academy. He afterwards worked in Vienna, where the Empress of Russia em- ployed him to illustrate her victories over the Turks. Died in 1805. See Charles Blanc, "Histoire des Peintres." Casanova, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter, brother of the preceding, was born at Venice about 1725. He was a pupil of R. Mengs, and professor in the Academy of Fine Arts of Dresden. He gained dis- tinction by his " Dissertations on Ancient Monuments of Art." Died in 1798. Casanova, (Giovanni Giacomo de Seingalt — deh Mn'gilt or deh s^N'gtlt',) a celebrated Italian adven- turer, remarkable for his wit, accomplishments, learning, and intrigues, was born in Venice in 1725, and was a brother of the preceding. His parents were play-actors. For many years he led a wandering and dissipated life in the various cajjitals of Europe, frequenting the most aristocratic society, and having no regular business. He was confined about two years in the dungeon of Venice, (1755-57,) and escaped by stratagem. In the course of his life he fought several duels. He became librarian to Count Waldstein, a Bohemian grandee, with whom he passed the last fourteen years of his life, and died in 1803, leaving "Memoirs of his Life," which are sprightly and entertaining. He translated the " Iliad" into ottava rima, and wrote a few other works. See Casanova, " Memoirs," in German and French, 8 vols., 1830 ; Barthold. "Die geschichtlichen Personlichkeiten in J. Casanova's Memoiren," Berlin, 2 vols., 1846; see, also, " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Casanova, (Marcantonio,) an Italian poet, born at Rome in 1476. He wrote epigrams against Clement VII. Died about 1527. Casar. See C^sak. Casaregi, kS-si-ra'jee, [Lat. Casare'gis,] (Giovanni Bartolommeo,) an Italian poet, born at Genoa in 1676, was a brother of the jurist noticed below. He lived at Rome and afterwards at Florence, and was a member of the Academy della Crusca. He wrote elegant lyric poems, '* Sonnetti e Canzoni," and translated the Proverbs of Solomon into verse. Died in 1755. See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe.* Casaregi, [Lat. Casare'gis,] (Giuseppe Lorenzo Maria,) a distinguished Italian jurist, born at Genoa in 1670. He was reputed a high authority in questions of commercial law, on which he wrote several treatises, — " Discursus legales de Commercio." Died in 1737. Casaregis. See Casaregi. Casas, de las, dh. lis ka'sis, (Bartolome,) a be- nevolent Spanish missionary, noted for his zeal in behalf of the oppressed Indians, was born at Seville in 1474. In 1493 accompanied Columbus in his second voyage to America. Some years later, having become a Domin- ican friar, he went to Hispaniola as a missionary, preach- ing the gospel to the natives, and humanity to the Spanish conquerors who had enslaved them. His efforts to ame- liorate the condition of this class having been opposed and frustrated, he visited the court of Spain in 15 16, and afterwards repeatedly crossed the ocean to plead their cause. He also addressed to Charles V. several letters or treatises on the subject. He was appointed Bishop of Chiapa, in Mexico, some years before 1550. In 1 55 1 he returned to Spain, where he died in 1566, leaving a " History of the Indies," still in manuscript. The charge that he advised the importation of negro slaves as a substitute for Indians appears to be without foundation: "it has," says the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale," "been completely refuted by M. Gregoire." See Arthur Helps. " Life of Las Casas," 1S68 ; Ravnal, " His- toire pliilosopliique des Deux Indes;" Gregoire, "Apologie de Las Casas," (published in the "Memoires" of the Institute;) Moreki, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" Michael Pig, " Vie de Las Casas," 1618. Casati, kS-s3.'tee, (Paolo,) a learned Italian Jesuit, born at Piacenza in 161 7. He taught mathematics and theology at Rome, and is said to have converted Queen Christina of Sweden to the Catholic faith. He wrote treatises on Mechanics, on Optics, and on Fire. The last is commended. Died at Parma in 1707. See Niceron, " Memoires." Ca-sau'bon, [Fr. pron. kt'z6'b6N'; Lat. Casaubo'- Nus, I (Isaac,) one of the most eminent critics and scholars of his time, was born of French Protestant parents, at Geneva, on the 8th of Febuary, 1559. In 1582 he became a professor of Greek iii the College of Geneva, and soon after began to publish the editions of Greek authors which caused his celebrity as a critic. His "Athenaeus" (1600) "has always been deemed," says Hallam, "a noble monument of critical sagacity and extensive erudition. In conjectural emendation of the text, no one hitherto had been equal to Casaubon." He married Florence, a daughter of the eminent scholar Henry £tienne, about 1585. He was professor of Greek at Montpellier from 1596 to 1599. In 1600 Henry IV. invited him to Paris to give lessons in Greek, and appointed him royal libra- rian. He published an excellent Edition of Polybius in 1609. In 1610 he removed to England, where he was received with favour by James I., who made him pre- bendary of Canterbury. Joseph Scaliger once said of Casaubon, " He is the most learned man now living," although he himself was equal to Casaubon in general learning, but not in a critical knowledge of Greek. Ca- saubon died in London in 16 14. He was a moderate Protestant, and wrote a treatise " De Libertate eccle- siastica," (" On Ecclesiastical Liberty.") Among his productions were editions of Aristotle's Works, (1590,) and of the "Characters" of Theophrastus, (1592.) See Almkloveen, "Vie de Casaubon :" C. Nisard, " Le Trium- virat litteraire, Juste-Lipse, Scaliger et Casaubon," 1851 : Wolf, " Casauboniana," Hamburg, 1710: Niceron, "Memoires;" "Nou- velle Biographie Generale ;" " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1853. Casaubon, (Mertc,) the son of the preceding, was born at Geneva in 1599. He took orders in the Anglican Church, and obtained the living of Ickham, and in 1628 a prebend in the church of Canterbury. During the civil war he was deprived of these places, and, it is said, € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, H, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jl^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) CASJUBONUS 534 CJSPJRl declined the proffered gifts and patronage of Cromwell, who desired him to write a history of the war. At the restoration of 1660 he recovered his benefices. He was a writer of moderate ability, and published a variety of works, among which are a "Treatise on Enthusiasm," and one "On Credulity and Incredulity," Died in 1671. See Wood, "Athenae Oxoiiienses;" Nicekon, "Memoires." Casaubonus. See Casaubon. Cas'ca, (P. Servilius,) a Roman conspirator, was a tribune of the people when he assisted at the assassina- tion of Caesar in 44 B.C. He fought at the battle of Philippi, (42 B.C.,) and died shortly afterwards. Cas-gel'li-us, (Aulus,) an eminent and eloquent Roman jurist, was a contemporary of Cicero and Tre- batius. He was a firm and consistent republican, and shewed his independent spirit by refusing, in 41 B.C., to sa.iction by legal forms the spoliations of the triumvirs. Horace (in "De Arte Poetica," 1. 371) speaks of Cascel- lius as a jurisconsult of rare learning. Sie Gkotius, "Vitse Jiirisconsultoruin ;" Lagemans, "Disser- tatio de A. Cascellio," 1823. Case, (John,) M.D., born at Woodstock, England, was noted as a disjiutant and philosopher. He taught philosophy at Oxford, and published the " Mirror of Moral Questions, according to the Ethics of Aristotle," ("Speculum Moralium Questionum in Ethicam Aristo- telis,") and other works. Died in 1600. Case, (John,) a famous English astrologer and quack, born at Lyme- Regis. He flourished in the reign of Queen Anne, (i 701-14,) and was the successor of Lilly in astro- logy. He inscribed on his sign, " Within this place Lives Doctor Case," and is said to have made more money by that distich than Dryden received for all his works. He published "Compendium Anatomicum," and a few other works. Case, (Thomas,) an English nonconformist minister, born in Kent about 1598, was ejected from Erpingham, Norfolk. He was afterwards rector of Saint Giles-in- the- Fields. Died in 1682. Casearius, kS-se-i're-us, (Jan,) a Dutch botanist, who lived in India about 1670, and was one of the authors of the " Hortus Malabaricus." Casel. See Caselius. Caselius, ki-za'le-us, [Ger. Casel, kS'zel ; Fr. Ches- SEL, shi'sel',] (Johannes,) an eminent German philolo- gist and writer, born at Gottingen in 1533. He was professor of philosophy in the University of Helmstedt from 1590 to 1613. He wrote Latin with elegance, and was author of many works on philosophy and other subjects. The most generally known of his productions were Letters, (in Latin,) which were addressed to his eminent contemporaries, and which are admired for ingenious thoughts and graces of style. Died in 1613. See M. Adam, " Vitze Eruditorum ;" J. Sigfried, "De Vitaet Obitu J. Caselii," 1613. Caseneuve, de, deh ktz'nuv', [Lat. Caseno'va,] (Pierre,) a French priest and philologist, born at Tou- louse in 1591. He wrote a "Treatise on Freehold," and a dictionary, entitled " Origin of the French Language," ("Origines de la Langue Fran9aise.") Died in 1652. See Medon, "Vita Viri illustris Casanova," 1656. Cases, ktz, (Pierre Jacques,) a skilful French painter of history, born in Paris in 1676. Among his master- pieces is a "Holy Family." Died in Paris in 1754. Cases, Las. See Las Cases. Ca'sey, (Silas,) an American general, born in Rhode Island in 1807, graduated at West Point in 1826. He served as captain in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and became a lieutenant-colonel in 1855. ^^'^^ appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers in August, 1861, and a colonel of the regular army in October, and commanded a division at Fair Oaks, May 31, 1862. Cas'i-mir [Polish, Kazimierz, ka^ze-me-^Rzh'] I. of Poland, surnamed the Pacific, was still an infant when his father, Micislaus (Mieczislaw) II., died in 1034. His mother carried him to France, where he took the mo- nastic vows in the abbey of Cluny. Having been invited by the Poles to reign over them, he was crowned in 1041, and married the sister of Yaroslaf, Duke of Russia. His reign promoted the prosperity and civilization of Poland. Died in 1058, leaving the throne to his son, Boleslaus II. Casimir II., King of Poland, born about 1137, was a younger son of Boleslaus III. In 11 77 his brother Micis- laus was deposed, and Casimir was chosen king. He is said to have ruled with wisdom, and to have gained the favour of the people. He waged a successful war against the Prussians, who procured peace by paying tribute. He died in 1194, and was succeeded by his son, Lesko V. Casimir III., surnamed the Greai", became King of Poland at the death of his father, Vladislaus, (or Ladis- laus,) in 1333. He married Anne, daughter of the Duke of Lithuania. About 1345 he defeated the King of Bo- hemia, and in 1366 subdued Red Russia. He founded hospitals, colleges, etc. He died in 1370, and was the last of the royal line of Piast. His nephew, Louis of Hungary, was his successor. See "Nouvelle Blographie Generale." Casimir IV. of Poland, born about 1425, was the second son of Vladislaus IV. or V., (who before his ac- cession was Yagello, Duke of Lithuania.) He succeeded his elder brother, Vladislaus, in 1445, and married the daughter of the emperor Albert II. He waged a long war against the Teutonic knights, who were finally de- feated in 1466, when Casimir became master of a great part of Prussia. In this reign the constitution of the Diet was changed by the admission of deputies who were not nobles. He died in 1492, leaving five or six sons, three of whom became successively kings of Poland, — John Albert, Alexander, and Sigismund. Casimir V, of Poland, second son of Sigismund III. and Constance of Austria, was born in 1609. About 1645 he was made a cardinal. In 1648 he was elected king on the death of his brother Vladislaus. He was involved in a war wi*:!! the allied Cossacks and Russians, whom he defeated. Poland was afterwards invaded by Charles Gustavus of Sweden, who took Warsaw after a victory over the Poles ; but his progress was arrested by a coali- tion of several powers, and peace was concluded in 1660. Weary of contending against his foreign and domestic enemies, he abdicated in 1668, and died in France in 1672. See " Lebensbeschreibung Casimiri V., weyland Konigs in Polen," Nuremberg, 1680; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "Histoire generale de Pologne, d'apres les Historiens Polonais." Cas'I-mir Sar-bi-e'vi-us, a Latin lyric poet and Jesuit, born in Poland in 1595, lived some years at Rome. His verses were praised by Rapin the poet. According to Hallam, he obtained a much higher reputation than Sidonius Hoschius. Died about 1640. Casiri, k^-see'ree, (Michael,) a learned Orientalist and Maronite, born at Tripoli, in Syria, in 1710. He removed to Spain in 1748, and became chief librarian of the Escurial in 1763. His principal work is "Biblio- theca Arabico-Hispana Escurialensis," ("Arabic-Spanish Library of the Escurial,") which is said to be an in- dispensable treasure to students of Oriental literature. Died in 1791. See Zenker, " Bibliotheca Orientalis." Cas'ley, (David,) an English bibliographer, published a "Catalogue of the MSS. in the King's Library," 1734. Cas'lpn, (William,) an English letter-founder and engraver, born at Hales-Owen in 1692; died in 1766. Casmann, kSs'mSn, (Otho,) a German theologian, who was rector at Stade, in Hanover. Died in 1607. Casolani, kS-so-lS'nee, (Alessandro,) an eminent Italian painter, born at Sienna in 1552. He excelled in design and composition. Died in 1606. Casotti, ki-sot'tee, (Giovanni Batitsta,) an Italian writer, born at Prato, in Tuscany, in 1669. He was pro- fessor of philosophy and history in Florence, and author of several learned works, among which was " Historical Notices of the Life and Works of Giovanni della Casa." Died in 1737. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Caspari, kis'pd-ree. (Karl Paul,) a learned German biblical critic, born at Dessau in 1814. He became and member of the faculty in the University of Chris- tiania. He has published, besides other works, " Studies of Biblical Theology and Apologetic Criticism," (1842,) and an "Introduction to the Book of Isaiah and the History of his Time," (1848.) 1, e, J, 6, u, y, /ono;; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon- CASPER 535 CASS ER 10 Casper, kls'per, (Johann Ludvvig,) a distinguished German physician, born in 1796. He became assistant professor in the University of Berlin in 1825, and ge- heifn-tnedicinalrath in 1834. In 1833 he began to edit the ' Weekly Journal of Medicine." He was appointed proff ssor of medicine in the University of Berlin in 1839. He is regarded as one of the most renowned practitioners of Germany. Among his works is " Essays on Medical Statistics and Officinal Medicine," (1825-37.) Cass, (Jonathan,) an American officer in the war of the Revolution, was born in Salisbury, Massachusetts, in 1753. He entered the army in 1775, obtained the rank of captain, and served until the end of the war. Died in 1830. Cass, (Lewis,) an American patriot and statesman, a son of the preceding, was born at Exeter, New Hamp- shire, in October, 1782. He studied law at Marietta, Ohio, and began to practise at Zanesville about 1802. In 1812 he became colonel of a regiment which, under the command of General Hull, invaded Canada. The cam- paign was ended by the disgraceful surrender of Hull at Detroit in August, 1812. Colonel Cass was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general about March, 1813, and was appointed Governor of Michigan in 1814. While he governed that unsettled territory, he was also for many years Superintendent of Indian Affairs, and nego- tiated many treaties with the Indians. He resigned the office of Governor in 1831, and was appointed by Presi- dent Jackson secretary of war the same year. In 1836 he was sent as ambassador to France, and jiublished in 1840 a work entitled "France, its King, Court, and Gov- ernment." He returned to the United States in 1842, and was elected a Senator of the United States by the legislature of Michigan in the winter of 1844-45. In his letter to Mr. Nicholson, dated December, 1847, he opposed the Wilmot Proviso, and questioned the power of the Congress to exclude slavery from the territories. *' This letter," says Mr. Greeley, " is notable as the first clear enunciation of the doctrine termed " Popular (other- wise Squatter) Sovereignty." ("American Conflict.") Cass was nominated as the Democratic candidate for the Presidency by the Baltimore Convention in 1848, but was defeated in the ensuing election by General Taylor, the Whig candidate, who received one hundred and sixty- three electoral votes, General Cass receiving one hun- dred and thirty-seven. About 185 1 he was again elected to the Senate of the United States for six years. He voted for Douglas's Kansas-Nebraska Bill in 1854. He was appointed secretary of state by President Buchanan, March, 1857. He resigned this office in December, i860, on account of his dissatisfaction with the do-nothing policy of Buchanan, who, even after the secession of South Carolina, declined to reinforce the garrison of Fort Sumter. Died in June, 1866. See H. R. Schoolcraft, "Life of General Cass," 1848; W. L. G. Smith, "The Life and Times of Lewis Cass," 1856. Cassagnes, kS'stfi', or Cassaigne, kt'scin',( Jacques,) a French writer and priest, born at Nimes in 1636. His early poems opened for him the French Academy in 1662. He was afterwards librarian of the Royal Library, and one of the four first members of the Academy of Inscriptions. He published a translation of Sallust, and a few other works. Died in 1679. Cassaigne. See Cassagnes. Cassana, kSs-s^Vna, (Giovanni Agostino,) called Abb^; Cassana, a successful Italian painter of portraits and animals, born about 1658 ; died at Genoa in 1720. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Cassana, (Giovanni Francesco,) a historical painter of the Genoese school, father of the preceding, was born at Cassana in 1611. He worked in Venice and Miran- dola, and gained a high reputation. Died in 1691. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Cassana, (Niccol6,) a portrait-painter, born at Venice about 1656, was the son and pupil of the preceding. Having acquired a high reputation, he was invited to England by Queen Anne, whose portrait he painted, and who appointed him her first painter. Died in 17 13. Cas-san'der, [Gr. Y^aaaav^poq ; Fr. Cassandre, kt'sdNdk',] a Macedonian prince, was the son of An- tipater, who, at the death of Alexander the Great, ob- tained the regency or government of Macedonia. In 318 B.C. Antipater died, having appointed Polysperchon his successor, in preference to his own son. A war ensued between these two parties, and Cassander, aided by An- tigonus, soon became master of Athens, where he re- stored the aristocracy under Demetrius Phalereus about 316. Cassander then invaded Macedonia with success, obtained possession of the infant son of Alexander the Great, and married Thessalonice, the sister of the latter prince. In 311, Antigonus and other generals signed a treaty stipulating that Cassander should be regent of Macedonia and Greece until the young prince should attain his majority. In 309 he put to death that prince and his mother Roxana, and usurped the throne. He died in 297 B.C., and was succeeded by his son Philip, See Akrian, "Anabasis;" Thiklwall, " History of Greece." Cassander, kis-sanMer, [Fr. CASSANDRE,kt's6NdR',] (George,) a learned theologian, born in the isle of Cad- sand, Flanders, about 151 5. The emperor Ferdinand referred to him as a mediator the chief points in the controversy between the Reformers and the Catholics ; and, with a view to reconcile them, Cassander wrote his famous "Consultation on the Articles of Faith contro- verted between Papists and Protestants," (" Consultatio de Articulis Fidei inter Papistas et Protestantes con- troversis.") He was one of the most moderate of the Catholic writers of that time. Died in 1566. See Arnold, " Kirchen- und Ketzer-Historie ;" Niceron, " Me- moires;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." Cas-san'dra, [Gr. Kacr(7uff5pa ; Fr. Cassandre, kt'- s6NdR',J a daughter of Priam and Hecuba, was celebrated for her prophetic powers ; but, according to tradition, Apollo had ordained that her prophecies, though true, should be disbelieved. During the siege of Troy she ])redicted the impending calamities, but was treated as a lunatic by Priam and others. Agamemnon became enamoured of her, and took her to Mycenae, where she was killed by Clytemnestra. Cassandre. See Cassander and Cassandra. Cassandre, kt's6NdR', (Francois,) a French writer, principally known by his excellent translation of Aris- totle's " Rhetoric," which was highly prized by Boileau. He wrote several other works, in prose and verse. Died in 1695. His whole life was passed in poverty, — which Voltaire ascribes to his morose temper and unsocial habits. Cassard, kt'stR',(jACQUES,) a brave and skilful French naval officer, was born at Nantes in 1672. As captain of a privateer, he took many prizes from the English. Having obtained command of a small squadron, he reduced the Ca'i^e Verd Islands and captured Surinam in 1712. After the peace of 17 13 he presented claims for money which he had advanced ; but they were disregarded, ancl he was confined in the castle of Ham for offensive language to the minister. Died at Ham in 1740. See Graincourt, " Homnies illustres de la Marine Franfaise;'' "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Cassas, kt'sSs', (Louis FRANgois,) an eminent French landscape-painter and architect, born in the department of Indre in 1756. He accompanied to Constantinople the ambassador Choiseul-Goufifier, who employed him to illustrate his "Travels in Greece." He afterwards visited and sketched the monuments of Baalbec, Palmyra, and the Holy Land. In 1799 he began to publish these sketches, in his "Voyage pittoresque de la Syrie, de la Palestine et de la Basse-Egypte." He also published "Picturesque Views of the Principal Sites and Monu- ments of Greece, of Sicily, and of the Seven Hills of Rome," (1813.) Died in 1827. See Nagi.er, " Neues Ailgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Cassel, kSs'sel, (Johann Philipp,) a German philolo- gist, born in 1707 at Bremen, where he became professor of eloquence. He published "Historical Notices and Documents of Bremen," (1766,) and other works. Died in 1783. See Charles, "Vie de Cassel;" Meusel, "Gelehrtes Deutsch- land." Cassentino. See Casentino. Casserio, kJs-sa're-o, (Giui.io,) an eminent Italian physician, born at Piacenza in 1556. He became a lesi- dent of Padua, where he acquired a high reputation, and ■€ as k; 9 as s; g ha7-d; g as 0,11, Y^, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) CJSSIJN 536 CASSIUS \n 1609 was appointed professor of surgery in the uni- versity. He left, besides other works, a treatise on the anatomy and physiology of the senses, and " Anatomical Plates." Died in i6i6. See Thomasini, "Elogia." Cassian,kash'e-an, [Fr. Cassien, kt^se'^N'; Lat. Cas- sia'nus,] (John,) a monk, born probably in Provence about 350 a.d. In 415 a.D. he went to Marseilles, where he founded the monastery of Saint-Victor. He wrote an esteemed work on " Monastic Institutions," and a " Treat- ise on the Incarnation." His doctrines on grace were opposed by Saint Augustine, as a modified Pelagianism. Died about 433. See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis ;" Photius, " Bibliotheca ;" Louis F. Meyer, "J. Cassien ; sa Vie et ses ficrits," 1840. Cassiani, kSs-se-S'nee, (Giuliano,) an Italian lyric poet, born at Modena in 1712, became professor of elo- quence in the university of his native city. He wrote sonnets and other verses, which were much admired, especially " The Rape of Proserpine," (" II Ratto di Proserpina.") Died in 1778. Cas-si-a'nus Bas'sus, a Greek writer of the third or fourth century, was a native of Bithynia. He is supposed to have been the author of an extant work on agriculture and rural economy, entitled " Geoponica," (printed in Greek in 1539.) Cassibelan. See Cassivelaunus. Cassibelaunus. See Cassivelaunus. Cassien. See Cass i an. Cas'sin, (John,) an American ornithologist, born in Delaware county, Pennsylvania, in 1813. He resided many years in Philadelphia, and was a member of the Academy of Natural Sciences, He published " Illus- trations of the Birds of California, Texas, Oregon, British and Russian America," (1855,) " Mammalogy and Orni- thology of the United States Ex])loring Expedition under lieutenant Wilkes," and "American Ornithology: A General Synopsis of North American Ornithology ; con- taining Descriptions and Figures of all North American Birds not given by former American Authors, etc.," (1856.) Died in January, 1869. Cassini, kSs-see'nee, [Fr. pron. kt'se'ne',] (C^:sar Francois,) usually called Cassini de Thury, (deh tii're',) born in Paris in 1714, was the son of Jacques, noticed below. As an astronomer, he was received into the Academy of Sciences at the age of twenty-one, and in 1756 he became director of the Observatory. His most important contribution to science was the trian- gulation or geometrical description of France, accom- panied with an excellent map of France. This is said to be the greatest piece of topography ever executed. He published "The Meridian of Paris verified, etc.," in 1744; and the records of the Academy contain many of his writings. Died in 1784. See CoNUORCET, " filoge de C. F. Cassini ;" Montucla, " His- toire des Mathematiques ;" Querard, "La France Litteraire." Cassini, kis-see'nee, (Giovanni Domenico, or Jean Dominique,) a celebrated astronomer, born near Nice on the 8th of June, 1625. After leaving college in Genoa, he pursued the study of astronomy with success, and in 1650 became professor of that science in Bologna. In 1665 he made the important discovery that the rotation of Jupiter is performed in nine hours and fifty-six min- utes, and soon after ascertained the diurnal periods of Mars, Venus, and the Sun. He published in 1668 his Ephemerides of the satellites of Jupiter, which Biot calls " an immense and admirable work." Colbert wished to enlist the talents of Cassini in the service of the new Academy of Sciences in Paris, whither the latter removed in 1669. For more than one century subsequent to that date, Cassini and his descendants of three generations presided over the Observatory of Paris. His celebrity was extended in 1684 by the discovery of four satellites of Saturn, of which Huyghens had before discover<^d one. A royal medal was struck to comme- morate this event. He was more remarkable for his activity and success as an observer than for his power as a philosopher, and appears to have been the most popular astronomer of his time, because his discoveries were level to the most common capacity. In the latter part of his life he was employed for several years in the measurement of an arc cf the meridian. He is reputed the discoverer or first observer of the zodiacal light. His writings on astronomy are numerous. Died in 1712. See "Vie de J. D. Cassini, ecrite par lui-nieme ;" Fontenelle, " filoge de J. D. Cassini ;" Nicekon, " Memoires ;" and Dr. Hoe- fer's article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Cassini, (Jacques,) an astronomer, and a son of the preceding, was born in Paris about 1670. He was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1694, and a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1696. In 1 71 2 he succeeded his father as director of the Ob- servatory in Paris, where he made some discoveries re- specting the orbits of the moons of Saturn, the obliquity of the ecliptic, etc. He is principally known by his efforts to determine the figure of the earth. About 1700 he co-operated with his father in measuring the arc of the meridian southward to Canigou, and in 171 8 he alone continued the work northward to Dunkirk. He pub- lished in 1720a treatise "On the Magnitude and Figure of the Earth," containing results which have since been corrected by La Caille and Delambre. He died in 1756, leaving a few other works, among which is " Elements of Astronomy." His son Cesar Fran9ois, noticed above, was his successor in the Observatory. See Delambre, " Histoire de I'Astrononiie moderne ;" Fouchv, " filoge de J. Cassini," in " Histoire de I'Academie des Sciences." Cassini, de, deh kS^se^ie', (Alexandre Henri Ga- briel,) Coun t, a French botanist, born in Paris in 1784, was the son of Count J. D. Cassini, astronomer royal. Having studied law, he was made in 1810 a judge of one of the Parisian tribunals. In 1816 he became a judge of the royal court. In 1827 he was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences, as a botanist. He wrote several botanical treatises. Died in 1832. See GossiN, " Notice siir A. H. G. de Ca.stiini," 1832. Cassini, de, (Jacques Dominique,) Count, a French astronomer, son of Cassini of Thury, was born in Paris in 1748. He was elected a member of the Acadeiny in 1770, and succeeded his father as director of the Observatory in 1784. He was the first of the family that fully adopted the physical principles of Newton. In 1793 the Conven- tion decreed that the direction of the Observatory should be committed to four persons, who should officiate in ro- tation. Cassini was one of the newly-chosen directors; but, being displeased with this innovation, he resigned in September, 1793. He was imprisoned for several months by the terrorists in the next year, and thenceforth renounced the pursuit of astronomy. Died about 1845. See Devic, " Histoire de la Vie et des Travaux de J. D. Cassini," 1851 ; Querard, "La France Litteraire." Cas-si-o-do'rus, [Fr. Cassiodore, kt'se^o'doR',] (Magnus Aurelius,) a Latin historian and minister of state, born at Scylacium, (Squillace,) in Italy, about 470 A.D. He held a high office under Odoacer, who was deposed and killed by Theodoric the Goth in 493, and he afterwards became secretary or chief minister of Theo- doric. He resigned his office in 524, but was again in the public service under the successor of Theodoric, and left the reputation of an eminent scholar and wise min- ister. He wrote a " History of the Goths," of which only an abridgment is now extant, treatises on grammar, logic, arithmetic, music, and other works. He died about the age of one hundred, at the monastery of Viviers, which he had founded. See Sainte-M arthe, "Vie de Cassiodore," 1694; A. Olleris, "Cassiodore, Conservateiir des Livres de TAntiquite Latine," 1841. Cas-si-o-pe'i-a, Cas-si-e-pe'i-a, or Cas-si'o pe, [Gr, KaaoLoneia, Kaaatemia, or KaamoTTTj ; Fr. CasSIOPI^ or Cassiop^e, kt'se''o'pi',] the wife of Cepheus, and mother of Andromeda. According to classic mythology, she was placed among the stars, forming the constellation which bears her name. Cassito, k^s-see'to, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian jurist and litterateur, born at Bonito in 1763 ; died in 1822. Cassius. See Cassius Longinus. Cassius, kash'e-us, an ancient Roman physician, who practised in Rome under the reign of Tiberius and was employed professionally by that emperor. Celsus calls him " the most ingenious physician of his age ;" and Galen also highly praises him. Some scholars have ascribed to him the authorship of a medical work called " Medi- cinales Quaestiones," etc. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ia, y, short; a, i, o, obscure; fSr, fall, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; CJSSIUS 537 CASTEL Cassius, kash'e-us, [Ger. pron. kSs'se-us,] (Andreas,) a German cliemist^id physician, born at Slesvvick. He graduated as doctor of medicine in 1668, and practised at Hamburg with much success. He invented the mode of producing the oxide of gold, which bears his name (purple of Cassius) and affords a fine purple colour to painters on porcelain. See HoEFER, "Histoire de la Chimie." Cassius, (AviDius,) a Roman general, noted for au- dacity and severity of discipline. He gained several victories over the Parthians in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, against whom he rebelled in 175 A.D. He was proclaimed emperor by his army, but a few months later he was killed by some soldiers who conspired against him. Cassius, (Christian,) brother of Andreas, noticed above, was chancellor of the Bishop of Lubeck, and a friend of Grotius. He performed several diplomatic mis- sions with honour. Died in 1676. Cassius Chaerea. See Chorea. Cassius Dion. See Dion Cassius. Cas'sius Fe'lix, surnamed Iatrosophis'ta, a Greek medical writer, supposed to have lived in the first century. Cassius Hemiiia. See Hemina. Cas'sius Lon-gi'nus, (Caius,) a Roman, elected con- sul in 171 B.C., and censor in 154. He erected a theatre which was demolished by the senate. Cassius Longinus, (Caius,) a Roman jurist of high reputation, flourished about 50 A.D., and wrote "De Jure Civili." He was banished by Nero in 66 A.D. Cassius Longinus, (Caius,) a famous Roman patriot and general, who conspired with Brutus against Caesar. His early zeal for liberty was manifested at school, where he struck Faustus, the son of Sulla, for boasting of his father's absolute power. He married a sister of his friend M. Brutus. He acted as quaestor of Crassus in his disastrous expedition against the Parthians in 53 B.C., and, after the defeat of the Romans, saved the remains of the army by a skilful retreat. Having resumed the offensive, he signally defeated the Parthians in Syria. In the civil war he commanded a fleet for Pompey, and, after the battle of Pharsalia, (48 B.C.,) surrendered to Caesar. After the fatal event of the Ides of March, 44 B.C., (see C/ESAR and Brutus,) he commanded in Syria with success against Dolabella, captured Rhodes, then, effecting a junction with the army of Brutus, was finally defeated at Philippi by Antony, and killed himself in 42 B.C. Brutus is said to have called him "the last of the Romans." Cassius forms a conspicuous character in Shakspeare's "Julius Caesar." See Plutarch, "Life of Brutus;" Dion Cassius, " History of Rome ;" Drumann, " Geschichte Roms." Cassius Longinus, (Lucius,) a Roman judge, noted for his strictness or severity. He became consul in 625 A.U.C, or 127 B.C., and censor two years later. Having been chosen praetor, he was sent in 641 to Numidia, to bring Jugurtha to Rome, in which he was successful. Rigid judges were called, after him, Cassiani jtidices. Cassius Longinus, (Quintus,) a rapacious Roman officer, was quaestor in Spain in 54 B.C., and tribune of the people in 49 B.C. He was a partisan of Caesar in the civil war. Died about 46 B.C. Cas'sius Par-men'sis, a Latin poet, whose name is sometimes written Ca'ius Cas'sius Seve'rus, was pro- bably born at Parma. By some critics he has been confounded with Cassius Etruscus, who was ridiculed by Horace, (Serm. i. 10, 61.) He was one of the conspira- tors who killed Caesar the Dictator, and in the war that ensued fought under Brutus. After the defeat and death of Brutus he entered the service of Antony, and fought against Octavius, by whose order he was put to death about 30 B.C. He wrote epigrams and elegies of some merit, of which only small fragments are extant. See A. Nicolas, "De Cassio Parmensi Poeta," 1852; A. Wei- chert, " Commentationes II. de Cassio Parmensi Poeta," 1834. Cas'sius Se-ve'rus Lon-gu-la'nus, a Roman orator, born at Longula about 50 B.C., was noted for his libels against patricians. He introduced a new style of oratory. It is supposed that the sixth epode of Horace is directed against him. Cas'sius Vis-cel-li'nus, ( S pu r i u s, ) a Roman general , who was thrice chosen consul, and proposed an agrarian law. On a charge of aspiring to supreme power, he was put to death in 485 B.C. Cas-sl-ve-lau'nus or Cas-si-be-lau'nus,sometimes Anglicized as Cas-sib'e-lan, a British chief, wlio ruled the country which lies on the north side of the Thames. He was commander-in-chief of the Britons when Caesar invaded their island in 54 B.C.; and he made a brave re- sistance. Having obtained information from the Trino- bantes, Caesar made a successful attack on the capital of Cassivelaunus, which was surrounded with forests, and compelled him to submit and pay tribute. See C^sar, "De Bello Gallico." Castaglione, kis-til-yo'ni, or Castiglione, kSs-t^l- yo'ni, (Giuseppe,) an Italian antiquary, born at Ancona ; died in 1616. Castagniza, de, di kSs-tag-nee'thS, or Castaniza, kis-tS-nee'tha, (Juan,) a Spanish monk, who became almoner of Philip II., censor of theology, etc., and wrote "The Perfection of the Christian Life," which is said to be the original of a famous work called " Spiritual Conflict." Died in 1598. Castagno, del.dSl kis-tin'yo, (Andrea,) a celebrated Florentine painter, born at Castagno about 1408. He adorned several churches of Florence with his works, the best of which have been destroyed. He learned from Domenico of Venice the process of oil-painting, which had recently been invented, and then murdered that artist in the dark. This crime was confessed by him on his death-bed. He excelled most of his predecessors in per- spective and foreshortening. Died about 1480. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Mrs. Jameson, "Me- moirs of Early Italian Painters." Castaldi, kis-tlKdee, (Cornelio,) an Italian poet, born at Feltre in 1480; died in 1536. Cas-taTi-o or Castalion, kts'tt'le'^N', sometimes written Castellio, (S^bastien,) a liberal Protestant divine, whose family name was ChAteillon, (sht^ti^- y6N',) born in Dauphine about 1515. He became inti- mate with Calvin, who procured for him a chair in the College of Geneva about 1542. Dissenting from Calvin in relation to reprobation, etc., he resigned or was de- prived of this place, and went to Bale, where he taught Greek. He is said to have written a tract against the persecution of heretics. He published a new Latin ver- sion of the Bible, (1551,) which is censured for its devia- tion from the simplicity of the original. He also wrote " Sacred Dialogues for the Instruction of Youth," and other esteemed works. Died at Bale in 1563. See Sainte-Marthe, " Elogia Gallorum ;" Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Arnold, " Kirchen- und Ketzer-Historie ;" J. C. FuEssLi, " Lebensgeschichte S. Castellio's," 1775. Castalion. See Castalio. Castanheda, kas-tin-ya'c^a, (Fernando Lopez,) a Portuguese historian, born about 1500. He went to India while young, and spent many years in collecting materials for a history which he published in 1551, viz., " A History of the Conquest of India by the Portuguese." It is esteemed for fidelity. Castaniza. See Castagniza. Castafios, de, d^ kds-tin^yis, (Francisco Xavier,) Duke of Baylen, (bT-l§n',) an able Spanish general, born at Madrid or in Biscay about 1755. He. became a lieu- tenant-general in 1798, soon after which he was exiled from Madrid by Godoy, whom he had opposed. In 1808 he obtained command of a corps, and defeated the French under Dupont at Baylen, where he took about 18,000 prisoners. He was appointed general-in-chief of the fourth corps of the army in 181 1, and displayed great skill at the battle of Vittoria, June, 1813. Pie became captain-general in 1823, and councillor of state in 1825, and favoured a policy of moderation. After the fall of Espartero, in 1 843, he was guardian of Queen Isabella. Died in 1852. Casteels, kSs'tals, (Pieter,) a Fle-nish painter and engraver, born at Antwerp in 1684, went to England in 1708. He painted birds, flowers, etc. Died in 1749. Castel, kts'tSK, (Louis Bertrand,) a French mathe- matician and Jesuit, born at Montpellier in 1688. He became a resident of Paris in 1720, and acquired repu- tation by his writings, among which are a "Treatise on Universal Gravity," (1724,) and "Universal Mathe- € as /6; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, Yi^ guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jj!^='See Explanations, p. 23.) CASTEL 538 CASTELNAU matics," (1728.) The latter gained for hiin admission into the Royal Society of London. He wrote many articles for the "Journal de Trevoux," and invented a machine named "ocular harpsichord." Died in 1757. See Abb^ de la Port, " Esprit et Singularit^s de L. B. Castel," 1763. Castel, (Ren6 Richard Louis,) a French poet and botanist, born at Vire in 1758, was educated in a Parisian college. He was a moderate member of the Legislative Assembly, (1791.) About 1797 he published a descrip- tive poem on plants, ("Des Plantes,) which was much admired and gained the decennial prize. He was pro- fessor of rhetoric in the Imperial Lyceum of Paris about ten years, and inspector-general of the university from 1808 to 1814. He wrote a poem entitled "The Forest of Fontainebleau," and a few other works. Died in 1832. See " Nouvelle Biographie Geneiale." Castel-Cicala. See Ruffo, (Fabrizio.) Castel-Mellior, de, di k3.s-tel-mgl-y5r', (Joao Ro- DR.GO de Vasconcellos — dk vis-kon-seKl6s,) Count, a Portuguese general, who repulsed the Spanish army in 1643, and was commander-in-chief in 1645. Died in 1658. His son, Luis SouzA, was the favourite of Alfonso VL, and prime minister from 1663 to 1667. Casteleyn, de, deh kSs'teh-lIn', (Mathieu,) a Flem- ish poet, born at Ouclenarde, lived about 1550. He wrote an "Art of Poetry," ("De Konst van Rhetoriken," etc., I555-) Cas'tell, (Edmund,) an English Orientalist, was born in Cambridgeshire in 1606. After graduating at Cam- bridge, he resided there many years, while compiling his great work, a " Lexicon of the Hebrew. Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, Samaritan, Persian, and Ethiopian Languages," (1669,) on which he spent ;^i2,ooo, to the ruin of his for- tune. "This work," says Dibdin, "has long challenged the admiration and defied the competition of foreigners." In 1666 he was appointed chaplain to the king, and pro- fessor of Arabic at Cambridge. Died in 1685. See Wood, "Athense Oxonienses." Castellan, kSs't^'ldN', (Antotne Louis,) a French landscape-painter and architect, born at Montpellier in 1772. Having visited Italy and Greece, he published several interesting works, illustrated by himself, among which are "Letters on the Morea," (1808,) " Manners and Customs of the Ottomans," (1812,) and "Letters on Italy," (1819.) He wrote numerous articles for the "Biographie Universelle," and "Studies on the Chateau of Fontainebleau, considered as one of the Types of the Renaissance of the Arts in. France," (1840,) which is called an excellent work. Died in 1838. See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Castellane, de, deh kis't^'ltn', ( Esprit Victor ELISA13ETH Boniface,) Count, a French marshal, born in Paris in 1788. He entered the army as a private in 1804, fought at Eckmuhl, Essling, and Wagram, (1809,) and distinguished himself in the Russian campaign, (1812.) After the restoration he served in Spain, became marechal-de-camp in 1824, and lieutenant-general in 1833. He was raised to the peerage in 1837. Amidst the agi- tation which followed the revolution of 1848, he main- tained order in Rouen by his firmness. He was created a marshal of France in 1852. At the beginning of the war against Austria in Italy, April, 1859, Castellane was appointed commander of the army of Lyons. Died in September, 1862. See Charras, " Les trois Mar^chaux, Saint-Arnaud, Maguan et Castellane," 1853. Castellani,kls-t51-lS'nee. (Luigi Francesco,) an Ital- ian medical writer, born near Mantua, lived about 1770. Castellanus. See Duchatel, (Pierre.) Castellesi, kis-t^l-la'see, (Adrian or Adriano,) an Italian prelate and accomplished Latin writer, born in Tuscany. He published treatises, in Latin, "On True Philosophy," (1507,) and "On the Latin Language," (1513.) He entered into a conspiracy against Leo X., and was detected and fined. Castelli, the Italian of Chasteau, which see. Castelli, kls-teKlee, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian phy- sician, born at Messina, published a " Lexicon Medicum Graeco-Latinum," (1607,) often reprinted. Castelli or Castellio, kis-tel'le-o, (Benedetto,) an Italian monk, and an eminent disciple of Galileo in philosophy, was born at Brescia in 1577. He taught mathematics with honour at Pisa, and at the college di Sapienza, in Rome. He is regarded as the author of a new branch of hydraulics, the theory of running waters. Pope Urban VIII. applied to him for an improved plan of confining the rivers which damaged his territories, on which occasion he wrote a valuable treatise "On the Mensuration of Running Waters," ("Delia Misura deir Acque correnti.") He left other scientific works. Died at Rome in 1644. See "Vita Benedicti Castelli," Dresden, 1746; Tanfoglio, " Elogio di B. Castelli," 1819. Castelli or Castello, kSs-tel'lo, (Bernardo,) an eminent painter, born at Genoa in 1557. He became a resident of Rome, where the pope employed him to paint a picture for Saint Peter's. He was a friend of Tasso, for whose great poem he made some designs, which were engraved by Agostino Caracci. Died in 1629. SeeMoscHiNi, " Memoria sulla Vita del PittoreB. Castelli," 1810. Castelli or Castello, (Gab riello Lancelotto,) an Italian antiquary, born at Palermo in 1727; died about 1792. Castelli, (Giovanni Battista.) See Castello. Castelli, kAs-tel'lee, (Ignaz Friedrich,) a popular German dramatic author, born in Vienna in 1781. He produced a great number of comedies, some of which are said to be imitations of Eugene Scribe. In 1809 he composed war-songs for the Austrian anny, which were distributed by the government and were very popular. Died in 1862. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Castelli, (Pietro,) a learned physician and botanist, born at Messina. He became a professor of medicine in a college of Rome, and afterwards professor of botany in Messina. He wrote several popular works on medicine, chemistry, and botany. Died about 1656. Castelli, (Valerio,) born in 1625, was a son of Ber- nardo, noticed above, and was a successful painter, espe- cially of battle-pieces. He worked in Genoa, the palaces and churches of which he adorned. His works were in request among the French and English. His design and colour are praised. Died in 1659. See Ratti, " Vite de' Pittori Genovesi." Castellio, (Benedetto.) See Castelll Castellio, (Siibastien.) See Castalio. Castello. See Castelli. Castello, kas-tel'lo, or Castelli, kls-tel'lee, (Gio- vanni Battista,) a skilful Italian painter and architect, born at or near Bergamo about 1506, was surnamed IL Bergamasco, (^1 b^R-gi-mis'ko.) He is said to have been a pupil of Michael Angelo. He studied in Rome, where he formed a friendship with Luca Cambiaso, and he worked with that artist in Genoa. After he had painted some admirable frescos in Genoa, he went to Madrid, and became painter to the king. He died at Madrid about 1575. His design was correct, and his colouring excellent. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy :" Ticozzi, " Dizionario." Castelnau, de, deh \As'ilVnb', (Jacques,) Marquis, a French general, born in 1620, served with distinction in many campaigns against the Spaniards and Imperialists. At Friburg he received six wounds without leaving his post. In 1655 he commanded with success in Hainault, and, in the absence of Turenne, in 1656, commanded the army of Flanders. He obtained a marshal's baton in 1658, and was killed at Dunkirk the same year. Castelnau, de, (Michel,) an able French diplomatist and general, grandfather of the preceding, was born in Touraine about 1520. In the reign of Henry II. he per- formed missions to several foreign courts. In the civil wars that began about 1560 he fought against the Prot- estants at Rouen, Dreux, etc. He was minister to Eng- land from 1574 to 1584. After the accession of Henry IV. he obtained a high command in the army. He died in 1592, leaving "Memoirs" of the events from 1559 to LS7o< (3 vols., 1731,) which are said to be impartial and trustworthy. See Le LAnouREiJR, "Vie de Michel de Castelnau," 1659; "Nou- velle Biographie Generale." a, c, T, 0, u, y, long; ^, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; CASTELVETRO 539 CASTILLO Castelvetro, kSs-tgl-va'tRO, (Ludovico,) a celebrated Italian critic, born at Modena in 1505. His severe criti- cism on a canzone of Caro about 1555 occasioned a noto- rious and acrimonious controversy between the poet and the critic. About 1558 he was imprisoned in Rome on suspicion of favouring the doctrines of the Reformers. Having escaped by night, he was condemned as a contu- macious heretic in 1 561, and took refuge in Lyons and Geneva. His greatest work is a commentary on tlie "Poetics" of Aristotle, (1570,) which, tliough marred by sophisms and minute subtleties, "may justly claim re- spect," says Hallam, "not only as the earliest exposition of the theory of criticism, but for its acuteness, erudition, and independence." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1571. See MuRATORi, "Vie de Castelvetro," prefixed to his "Opera varie criiiche," 1727; J. B. Venturi, " Elogio di L. Castelvetro," 1778; Glnguene, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie ;" Lebret, "Anec- dota de L. Castelvetro ejusque Scriptis," 1763; Niceron, "Me- inoires." Castex, kts't^ks', (Bertrand Pierre,) Baron, a French general, born in Languedoc in 1771 ; died in 1843. Casti, kds'tee, (Giovanni Battista, or Giambat- TISTA,) a popular Italian poet and priest, born in the Roman States in 1721. In his early years he was a pro- fessor in an academy at Montefiascone. About 1769 he was presented to Joseph II. of Austria, who was pleased with his witty conversation. Casti accompanied embas- sies from Vienna to several courts of Europe, and, having returned to Austria, was appointed court poet in 1782. In 1793 he published " Novelle galanti," poetical tales, which are admired for vivacity, originality, and elegance. Between 1790 and 1796 he left Vienna, and became a resident of Florence and Paris. His most celebrated work is a poem called "Speaking Animals," ("Animali parlanti," 1802,) a political satire, which Mr. Rose trans- lated or imitated in his "Court and Parliament of Beasts." He also wrote burlesque dramas, and an amusing poem entitled "The Three Groats," (" I tre Giulj,") which was translated into English, (London, 1826.) Died in Paris in 1803. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri ;" " Narrative and Romantic Poetry of the Italians," in the " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1819. Castiglione, kSs-t^l-yS'ni, (Baldassare,) one of the most elegant Italian writers of his time, was born at Casatico, near Mantua, in 1478. In early life he became one of the ornaments of the polished court of the Duke of Urbino, by whom in 1505 he was sent as ambassador to England. He was several times employed on mis- sions to Popes Leo X. and Clement VII. In 1525 the latter sent him as ambassador to Charles V. at Madrid. He died at Toledo in 1529. His principal work is "The Courtier," ("II Cortegiano," 1528,) which is regarded as excellent in thought and style. He wrote several small poems in Latin and Italian, which are esteemed models of elegance. See Serassi, "Vita del Castiglione," in an edition of his poems, Rome, 1760; GiNGUKN^, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie ;" P. Giovio, "Elogia;" Niceron, " Memoires ;" Girolamo Ferri, "DeVitaet Scriptis B. Castiglionis," 1780. Castiglione or Castiglioni, kSs-til-yo'nee, (Carlo Ottavio,) Count, an eminent Italian linguist and an- tiquary, born at Milan about 1790. He directed his attention to languages and numismatics, and published in 1819 a "Description of the Cnfic Coins of the Mu- seum of Milan." In the same year Angelo Mai and Castiglione published fragments of a Gothic version of the New Testament, by Bishop Ulphilas, which Mai had recently found in palimpsests. Castiglione produced in 1826a valuable work entitled "Geographical and Numis- matical Memoir on the Part of Barbary called by the Arabs Afrikiah." See TiPALDO, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Castiglione, (Giovanni Benedetto,) an excellent Italian painter and engraver, surnamed IL Grechetto, {h\ gRi-ket'to,) was born at Genoa in 1616. He was a pupil of G. B. Paggi and of G. Andrea de' Ferrari. He worked at Florence, Genoa, Venice, Rome, and Mantua, and excelled in history, portraits, landscapes, and ani- inals. As a painter of animals he was not surpassed by any artist of Italy. Among his master-pieces is a " Na- tivity," in a church of Genoa. He produced numerous admirable etchings, among which are " Diogenes with his Lantern," and "The Entrance of the Animals into the Ark." He died at Mantua in 1670. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Soprani, " Vite de' Pittori Genovesi ;" Bryan, " Dictionary of Painters." Castiglione, (Valerio,) an Italian scholar and wri- ter, born at Milan in 1593. He wrote " Clio," a poem, (1616,) a " History of the Revolution of Piedmont," and other works. Died in 1668. Castiglione, de, Due. See Augereau. Castiglioni. See Castiglione. Castil-Blaze. See Blaze. Castilho, de, di kSs-t^Kyo, (Antonio FELiciANO,)a popular Portuguese poet, born in Lisbon in 1800, is some- times called "the Blind Poet of Portugal." About 182c he published " Letters from Echo to Narcissus," a poem, which had great success. Among his other works are "Day in the Spring," (1822,) "Night at the Castle," ("Noite do Castello," 1830,) and "Poetical Medita- tions." He is considered the most pure and harmonious of modern Portuguese poets. He has written several prose works, one of which is " Historical Portraits of Portugal," (" Quadros historicos de Portugal.") Castilhon or Castillon, kts'te'ydN', (Jean Louis,) a French litteratezir, born at Toulouse in 1720. He wrote for many periodicals, and published numerous works, among which are a " History of Philosophic Dogmas and Opinions from Ancient Times to the Pres- ent," (3 vols., 1769,) and "The Last Revolutions of the Globe." Died about 1793. Castilla, kSs-t^Ky^, (Don Ramon,) a Peruvian gen- eral and statesman, born at Tarapaca about 1795. He fought against the King of Spain in the war of inde- pendence which began in 1821. He was made a gen- eral of brigade in 1834, and served in the civil war that ensued. In 1845 he was elected President of Peru. He has the credit of restoring order and peace to that coun- try. In 1851 he transmitted the government to his suc- cessor, Jose Rufino Echenique. In 1855 he usurped or obtained the chief power. He was re-elected President in 1858. Died in 1867. Castille, kSs't6I'orkts''te'ye, (Charles Hippolyte,) a French political writer and^T^velist, born at Montreuil- sur-Mer in 1820. He published " The Chase after Chime- ras," (1854,) and other novels, and wrote political articles for several journals. His most considerable work is a " History of the Second French Republic," (1855,) in which absolutism and the Revolution are represented as natural allies. Castillejo, de, di kSs-t^l-ya'Ho, (Cristoval,) a Spanish poet, born at Ciudad Rodrigo in 1404. He passed much of his life at the court of Don Ferdinand, brother of Charles V. He wrote canzones of a playful and witty character, and satires. Died in 1556. See TicKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" Longfellow " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Castillo, de, di kSs-t^Kyo, (Augustin,) a Spanish painter, born at Seville in 1565 ; died in 1626. Castillo, de, (Enriquez,) a Spanish historian, born at Segovia, was chaplain and historiographer to Henry IV., and a member of his privy council. He wrote a "Chronicle of the Reign of Henry IV.," which was re- cently published by Don J. M. de Flores, secretary of the Spanish Academy of History. See Prescott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i part i. Castillo, de, (Fernando,) a Spanish Dominican, born at Granada about 1529, wrote a "History of San Do- mingo and his Order," (1584.) Died in 1593. Castillo, del, c\h\ kls-t'^Kyo, (Bernal Diaz,) a Span- ish officer, born at Medina del Campo. He assisted Cortez in the conquest of Mexico,whither he went about 1520, and afterwards settled in that countrv. He wrote a "History of the Conquest of New Spain," which is said to have some merit, though the style is far from elegant See "Memoirs of Bernal Diaz del Castillo," by himself, trans- lated by J. Ingraham Lockhart, 1844; Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. ii. book v. < as ; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; o, h, k, ^ittural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. Explanations, p. 23.) CASTILLO CASTRO Castillo, del, ( Jos6 Maria,) a South American jurist, was appointed by Bolivar president of the council of state, (1828.) Castillo, del, (Juan,) a Spanish historical painter, brother of Augustin, noticed above, was born in Seville in 1584, and was the master of Murillo and Alonzo Cano. Died in 1640. Castillo Solorzano, del.d^l kJs-t^l'yo so-loR-thi'no, (Alonzo,) a famous Spanish romance-writer and poet of the seventeenth century, who was highly praised by Lope de Vega. He produced numerous works in prose and verse, among which are " La Garduiia de Sevilla," and the " Hall of Recreation," (" Sala de Recreacion," 1629,) a novel. See Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Castillo y Saavedra, del, dl\ k.^s-t6Kyo e sl-va'- DRi, (Anton 10,) a Spanish painter of history, portraits, and landscapes, born at Cordova in 1603, excelled in design and composition. In 1666 he visited Seville, where the works of Murillo appeared to him so inimitable that he gave up in despair, and died in less than a year. See Quii.LiET, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." Castillon. See Castilhon. Castillon, de, deh kts't^Ky^N' or kts'te'y^N', (Gio- vanni Francesco Salvemini,) an able geometer, born at Castiglione, in Tuscany, in 1709, became professor of philosophy at Utrecht in 1751. Frederick the Great in- vited him to Berlin, and made him a professor of mathe- matics. In 1787 he succeeded La Grange as director of the mathematical class in the Academy of Berlin. He translated into French Locke's " Elements of Physics," Cicero's " Academics," ("Academicae Questiones,") and other works. Died in 1 791. See QuiSRARD, "La France Litteraire." Castillon, de, deh kts'te'ydN', (Jean Francois Andr6 Le Blanc,) a French lawyer, eminent for his learning, eloquence, and philosophic spirit, born at Aix in 1719. He became attorney-general of the parliament of Provence. Died in 1800. Castleniain, kas's'l-man', (Roger Palmer,) Earl OF, was the husband of the Duchess of Cleveland, and amiiassador from James II. of England to the pope about 1686. He wrote, besides other works, "An Account of the Present War between the Venetians and Turks," (1666.) Died in 1705. Castlereagh, kasVl-ra', (Robert Stewart,) Lord Viscount, Marquis of Londonderry, a British statesman, born in the county of Down, Ireland, in 1769, was the eldest son of Robert Stewart, first Marquis of London- derry, and Sarah F. Seymour, daughter of the Marquis of Hertford. In 1794 he entered the British House of Commons, with a strong tendency to Toryism. By the promotion of his father in 1796, he became Viscount Castlereagh. He was chosen keeper of the privy seal for Ireland in 1797, and secretary to the lord lieutenant in 1798. He performed a prominent part in the suppres- sion of the Irish rebellion of the latter year. " The union of Ireland with Great Britain," (1800,) says Alison, "was carried in the Irish Parliament chiefly through the power- ful abilities of Lord Castlereagh." (" History of Europe.") In 1802 he was appointed by Pitt president of the board of control, and in 1805 secretary of state for the depart- ment of war and the colonies. The failure of the Wal- cheren expedition in 1809 exposed him to censure, and occasioned a duel between him and Canning, his col- league in the ministry. Just before the duel the parties resigned office. In February, 1812, Lord Castlereagh be- came secretary of state for foreign affairs, (in the ministry of Lord Liverpool,) and the leader of the Tory party, in preference to his rival Canning. He represented Eng- land at the peace of Paris and the Congress of Vienna in 1814, at the Congress of Paris in 1815, and at that of Aix- la-Chapelle in 1818. He was one of the master-spirits of the coalition against Bonaparte. In 1821, by the death of his father, he became Marquis of Londonderry. After showing symptoms of insanity, he committed suicide in August, 1822. As he left no issue, the title passed to his half-brother Charles. (See Londonderry.) His success as a statesman is ascribed to great talents for business, invincible firmness or moral courage, and adroitness in the management of men. As he had obtained nobility only in the Irish peerage, his parliamentary services were confined to the House of Commons. His " Memoirs and Correspondence" (8 vols., 1848) forms a very valuable contribution to modern history. See Alison, " History of Europe ;" Harriet MARTrwEAU, "His- tory of tlie Thirty Years' Peace;" " Noiivelle Biograpliie Gen^rale;" " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1S48, and Jaiuiary, 1862; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1S62 ; " Foreign Quarterly" for July, 1831; "Blackwood's Magazine" for March, 1862; " Eraser's Maga- zine" for December, 1848. Cas'tor and PoFlux or Pol-y-deu'9e§, [Gr. Kuarup, and UoXvdevKTjg,] heroes of the Greek mythology, called also Dioscu'ri, ("sons of Jove,") were, according to one account, twin-brothers, sons of Leda and Tyndareus, and brothers of Helen, whence they were called Tyndar''idae. According to another legend, they were the sons of Leda and Jupiter. Castor was an expert horseman and cha- rioteer, and Pollux a renowned pugilist. They took part in the Calydonian hunt, in the Argonautic expedition, and other famous enterprises. The ancient poets feigned that Pollux was immortal, and that when Castor was killed in a fight Pollux offered to share his fate. It was, therefore, permitted that the boon of immortality should be divided between them, and that they should exchange places every day, dying and reviving alternately. See Keightlev's "Mythology." Castor [KuaTup] of Rhodes, a Greek grammarian, who is supposed to have lived about 150 B.C. Castor, (Antonius,) a Roman or a Greek physician, who lived at Rome one hundred years, from the reign of Augustus to that of Titus, (80 A.D.) Pliny speaks of his high reputation, and of his botanic garden, which is the first mentioned in history. Castracani. See Castruccio, Castrejon, kas-tRi-Hon', (Antonio,) a Spanish painter, born in Madrid in 1625. He was an excellent colorist, and had great facility of invention, which en- abled him to succeed equally in heroic subjects and in domestic or familiar scenes. His "Michael contending with the Dragon" is one of his master-pieces. Died in 1690. See Qun.LiET, "Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." Castren, kis-tran' or k^s-trnn', (Matthias Alex- ander,) an eminent philologist, born in the province of Uleaborg, Finland, in 1813. He was a diligent student of the Finnish language and literature, in the illustration of which he spent his life. In 1838 he travelled through Lapland on foot to obtain information about the ancient mythology and language of that region. In 1841 he produced a Swedish translation, in verse, of the popu- lar Finnish poem " Kalevala," which attracted much admiration. Between 1844 and 1849 he pursued his researches among the Samoieds on the Arctic Sea. In 1 85 1 he was appointed jDrofessor of the Finnish lan- guage at Helsingfors, where he died in 1852 from the effects of his last journey. He left grammars of several dialects of Northern Russia, and other works. See "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1854. Castries, kts'tRe', (Charles Eugene Gabriel de la Croix — deh It kRwk,) Marquis of, an able French general, born in 1727. Having distinguished himself in many campaigns, he was made lieutenant-general in 1758, and gained an important victory at Wesel in 1760. He was afterwards Governor-General of Flanders, minis- ter of marine in 1780, and marshal of France in 1783. In the Revolution of 1789 he emigrated, found an asylum with the Duke of Brunswick, and died in 1801. Castriot, (George.) See Scander-Beg. Castro, kis'tRo, (Jos6 Rodrigo,) a Portuguese Jew and physician, born about 1545, settled in 1596 in Ham- burg, where he became professor of philosophy and medi- cine. He published several valuable works. Died in 1627. Castro, da, d^ kSs'tRo, (Paolo,) an eminent juriscon- sult, born at Castro, in Italy. He professed Roman law at Padua, Florence, Bologna, etc., and wrote treatises on the Digest and Code. Died about 1450. Castro, de, di kis'tRo, (Alfonso,) a noted Span- ish theologian and pulpit orator, born at Zamora about 1495, entered the order of Saint Francis. He accompa- nied Philip II. to England when he went to marry Queen Mary. In the latter part of his life he resided in the a, e, 1, 6, u, y, /on^; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, short; e, j, o, obscure; fJr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; CASTRO 54> CATALDI Low Countries. His principal work is a Latin treatise on "Heresies," (1534,) whicli was very successful, and passed through ten editions in twenty-two years. Died in 1558. See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Castro, de, (Don Alfonso Nunes,) a Spanish his- torian, who lived about 1670. He was historiographer to Philip IV., and wrote a "Chronicle of the Goths, Castilians, and Austrians," ("Coronica Gothica, Cas- tillana y Austriaca," 1708.) Castro, de, (Alvarez Gomez,) a Spanish writer, born in the diocese of Toledo in 1521. He became professor of Greek in Toledo, and wrote, in prose and verse, numerous works, among which are "The Life of Francis Ximenes," (1569.) Died in 1586. Castro, de, di kis'tRo, (Esteban Rodrigo,) a re- nowned Portuguese physician, born at Lisbon about 1560. He emigrated to Italy, and was professor of me- dicine in the University of Pisa for twenty-two years. He composed, in Latin, many works, among which are " De Complexu Morborum," (1624,) " Posthuma Varie- tas," (1639,) and " Medical Consultations," (" Medicae Consultationes," 1644.) He was styled "the Phoenix of Medicine." Died in 1637. See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova;" Van der Lin- den, "De Scriptoribus medicis." Castro, de, (Felipe,) an eminent Spanish sculptor, born at Noya (Galicia) in 1711. He studied in Rome, and gained the first prize of the Academy of Saint Luke in 1739. He afterwards worked in Madrid, and was ranked among the greatest Spanish sculptors of the age. Died in 1775. Castro, de, (Gabriel Pereira,) a Portuguese poet a^d jurist, born at Braga. He became a senator at Lisbon, and wrote, besides other works, a heroic poem called " Ulisea," (1636.) He has been ranked among the fine geniuses of Portugal. Died in 1630. Castro, de, (Guillem,) a Spanish dramatist, born at Valencia about 1569. He was for some time commander of a citadel in the kingdom of Naples, and passed the latter years of his life in Madrid, where he enjoyed the friendship of Lope de Vega. He acquired a European celebrity by his " Spanish Cid," a drama, which was the original of Corneille's tragedy of the same name. Cor- neille acknowledged that he owed part of the beauty of his piece to Castro. The latter wrote " Dido and ^^^neas," "Payar en propria Moneda," and other dramas, a vol- ume of which was printed in 1621. Died in 1631. Some account of his life was published by Lord Holland in 1817. See TiCKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature." Castro, de, (Inez.) See Inez de Castro. Castro, de, (Joao,) a celebrated Portuguese general and navigator, born at Lisbon in 1500. He studied ma- thematics under Pedro Nuiiez, and became profoundly versed in that science, as well as in ancient languages. About 1538, as commander of a vessel, he made a voy- age to India with the viceroy Garcia de Noronha. He accompanied the expedition which, under Estevao da Gama, explored the Red Sea in 1540. He wrote an exact scientific description of that sea, of which he also made charts. The results of these hydrographic labours were first published in 1833, with the title of "The Log- Book of Don John de Castro on the Voyage which the Portuguese made to the Red Sea," (" Roteiro de Dom Joam de Castro da Viagem que fizeram os Portuguezes ao Mar roxo.") He was appointed Governor of India '".1545' and gained a great victory over the Moors at Diu, after performing prodigies of valour. He received the title of Viceroy of India in 1547, and died in 1548, in the arms of Saint Francis Xavier. He left in manuscript a " Journal of a Voyage from Lisbon to Goa." See J. Freyre de Andrada, " Vida de Joani de Castro," 1651, and English version of the same, 1664; Faria v Souza, "Asia Portugiieza ;" Lindau, "Juan de Castro; Gemalde eines Helden- lebens," 1813; JoSo de Barros, "Decada secunda da Asia;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Castro, de, (Jos6 Rodrigo,) a Spanish Orientalist and bibliographer, born in Galicia in 1739. He wrote three poems, (1759,) in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, on the accession of Charles III., to whom he became librarian. In 1781 he published the first volume of "Bibliotheca Espanola," (" Spanish Library,") which had great success- The second volume appeared in 1786. Died about 1798. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Castro, de, (Pedro,) a Spanish painter of still life, excelled in colouring and perspective. Died in 1663. Castro, de, (Vaca,) a Spanish officer, born at Leon, became a judge of the royal court, at Valladolid. In 1540 Charles V. sent him as governor to Peru, which was then disturbed by the rebellion of Almagro. In 1542 a battle was fought at Chupas, in which Almagro was defeated and made prisoner. By the order of Cas- tro, he was executed on the spot. Castro was superseded in 1544, and returned to Spain, where he was imprisoned several years. Died in 1558. See Prescott, "History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. i. Castro-Sarmento, de, di kJs'tRo saR-mln'to,(jAGO,) a Portuguese physician, born about 1692, practised in London, and became a Fellow of the Royal Society. He wrote "Letters on the Diamonds of Brazil," and "Ma- teria Medica," etc., (1758.) Died in 1762. Castriicci, kSs-tRoot'chee, (Pietro,) an Italian com- poser, born at Rome about 1690, served Hogarth as the model of his "Enraged Musician." Died in London in 1769. Castruccio-Castracani, k.^s-tRoot'cho kSs-tRi-ki'- nee, a chief of the Ghibeline party, born in Lucca about 1282. His family name was Antelminelli or Inter- MINELLI. In consequence of a revolution in 1316, he be- came master or seigneur of Lucca, from which he expelled the Guelphs. He waged a successful war against the Florentines, (1320-25,) .gained a great victory over their general, Raymond de Cardona, in 1325, and by his cour- age and political talents became a powerful prince. The emperor Louis recognized him as Duke of Lucca, Pistoia, Volterra, and Lunigiano, and created him a count pala- tine. He died in 1328, leaving several minor sons, who did not inherit any share of his power. Macchiavelli has written a romance purporting to be a life of Castruccio, but in which historic truth is not respected. " He joined craft and duplicity," says Sismondi, "to the most bril- liant valour and to extraordinary talents." See Sismondi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes;" Negrini, "Vita Castruccii Castracani," 1496; Macchiavelli, "Vita di Cas- truccio-Castracani," 1534, and French translation of tl>e same, by Dkeux du Radier, 1753; Aldo Manucci, "Azioni di Castruccio- Castracani," 1590 and 1.S20. Cas'well, (Richard,) an American lawyer and gene- ral, born in Maryland in 1729, removed to North Caro- lina in his youth. He was chosen Governor of North Carolina in 1777, and was re-elected several times. He was a member of the convention which formed the Federal Constitution in 1787. Died in 1789. Caswini. See Cazweenee. Casy, k^'ze', (Joseph Gr^goire,) born in 1787, be- came vice-admiral of France in 1845, and senator in 1852. Casyapa. See Kasyapa. Cat, Le. See Le Cat. Catalan, kS'tS'l^N', (Eugene Charles,) a French geometer, born in 18 14. He acquired distinction as a teacher, and ]niblished several ajjproved works, among which are "Elements of Geometry," (1843,) " Manual for Candidates for the Polytechnic School," (1858.) Catalani, kd-tS-l^'nee, (Angelica,) a famous Italian vocalist, born at Sinigaglia about 1782. She made her debut at Rome in 1802 with iminense success, which was repeated in the principal cities of Italy. Her concerts were applauded with the greatest enthusiasm in Paris and London. She was married to a Frenchman named Valabregue, and passed many years in England and Paris. She retired from the stage about 1830, after which she resided at Florence. Her merit consisted principally in a voice of extraordinary volume and power. Died in Paris in 1849. See Fetis, "Biographic Universelle des Musiclens." Catalani, (Michele,) an Italian antiquary, born at Fermo, in the March of Ancona, in 1750 ; died after 1800. Catalano, kS-tS-lS'no, (Antonio,) a skilful Italian painter, born at Messina in 1560; died in 1630. Cataldi, kS-taiMee, Cataldo, kS-tiKdo, written also Catuldi, (Pietro Antonio,) an able Italian mathema- € as k; c as s; g hard; g as j; o, H, Yi, guitttral ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 2;^.) CATALDO 542 CATHERINE tician, born at Bologna about 1548. He was for many years professor of mathematics in Bologna, and wrote several works, which display an inventive genius and extensive learning. One of them is entitled " Algebra Applicata," (1622.) Died in 1626. Cataldo. See Cataldi. Cataneo. See Cati aneo. Cat'cptt, (Alexander,) an English theologian, pub- lished in 1762 a "Treatise on the Deluge," and a volume of sermons. He was one of the most eminent of the Hutchinsonian philosophical school. Catel, kS't^K, (Charles Simon,) a French musical composer, born at L'Aigle (Orne) in 1773, became pro- fessor of harmony in the Conservatory of Paris in 1795. He composed the music of " Semiramis," (1802,) " Wal- lace," (1817,) and other operas; also a "Traite de Har- monic," (1802.) In 1815 he was chosen a member of the Institute. Died in 1830. See Fetis, "Biographic Uiiiverselle des Musicians " Catel, ki'tel, (F'ranz,) a German painter of landscapes, history, and genre, born at Berlin in 1778; died in 1856. Catel, (GuiLLAUME,) a French historian, born at Toulouse in 1560. He was a councillor in the parliament of Toulouse, and author of an. esteemed history of Lan- guedoc. Died in 1626. Catel, (Samuel Heinrich,) a German scholar, born at Halberstadt in 1758. He was professor of Greek in the French gymnasium of Berlin. He published Bion, Moschus, Anacreon, and Sappho, in German verse, and other works. Died about 1835. Catelan, kit'ldw', sometimes written Catalan, (Lau- ren r,) a French ])harmacist, published a "Discours sur la Theriaque," (1614.) Died after 1639. Catelinot. See Cathelinot. Catellan-Caunioiit,de, deh kt''ti'16N'k5'm6N',(jEAN Antoine,) Marquis, a meritorious French judge, born at Toulouse in 1759; died in 1834. Catellan de la Masquere, kt'ti'lSN' deh It mts'- kaiR', (Claire Priscille Marguerite,) a French poet- ess, born at Narbonne in 1662; died in 1745. Catellano, ki-tgl-la'no, (Francesco,) an Italian poet, born at Leghorn; lived about 1750. He produced a version of Anacreon, (1753.) Catena, ki-ta'nd, (Pietro,) an Italian mathematician, born in Venice, wrote several works. Died in 1577. Catena, (Vincenzo,) a distinguished Italian painter of history, born at Venice in 1470. Several of his works are preserved in Venice. His style resembles that of Giorgione. Died in 1530. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Caterino, ka-t^-ree'no, (Luioi,) an Italian scholar, born at Saint Cyprian in 1786 ; died at Naples in 1834. Catesby, kats'be, (Mark,) F.R.S., an eminent Eng- lish naturalist and artist, born about 1680. He visited Virginia in 1712, and returned home in 1719. Sir Hans Sloane and others persuaded him in 1722 to go to Caro- lina to delineate its plants and animals. He returned to England in 1726, and in 1731 began to publish his "Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands," with coloured figures drawn and etched by himself, — the finest work of the kind that had appeared in England. He wrote " Hortus Britanno-Americanus," and a few other works. Died in London in 1749. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Catesby, (Robert,) an English Roman Catholic and conspirator, who originated the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. He is called "a gentleman of good parts" by Hume, who says he " first thought of a most extraordinary method of revenge, and opened his intention to Percy." When Fawkes was arrested, Catesby and his accomplices hur- ried down to Warwickshire, where they resolved to make a desperate stand. Catesby was killed in the act of re- sisting the officers who came to arrest him, in November, 1605. (See Fawkes, Guy.) Cathala-Coture, de, deh kt^ta'li'ko'tiiR', (Antoine,) a French antiquary and jurist, born at Montauban in 1632. He wrote a " History of Quercy," (3 vols., 1785.) Died in 1724. Cathalan, kt'tt15N', (Jacques,) a French Jesuit, dis- tinguished as a pulpit orator, was born at Rouen in 167 1 ; died in 1757. Catharin. See Catharinus. Ca-tha-ri'nus, [Fr. Catharin, kt'tS'rdN',] (Ambro- sius,) an Italian theologian, born at Sienna in 1483. His original name was Lancelot Politus or Politi, (po-lee'tee,) which he changed when he became a monk. He acquired celebrity by his numerous writings, among which are "Treatises on Original Sin," and "On Grace." He affected to forsake the beaten routes, and disowned the authority of Saint Thomas and the Fathers. In 1552 he was appointed Archbishop of Conza. Died in 1553. See NiCERON, " M^moires ;" Touron, " Hommes illustres de rOrdre de Saint-Dominique." Cath'cart, (Charles Murray,) second Earl of, a British general, eldest son of William, the first Earl, born in 1783. In the Peninsular war he distinguished himself at Salamanca and Vittoria, (June, 1813.) He led a regiment of cavalry at Waterloo, (1815.) He was Governor of Canada some time between 1840 and 1846. Cathcart, (Hon. Sir George,) a brave English gene- ral, born in London about 1790, was the third son of the Earl of Cathcart, noticed below. He went to Russia in 1812 as aide-de-camp of his father, who was ambas- sador to that country. He made the campaigns of 1813 and 1814 with the allied army, and witnessed the battles of Lutzen, Dresden, Leipsic, etc. In 1815 he became aide-de-camp to the Duke of Wellington, whom he attended at Waterloo. He served several years with honour in Jamaica, Canada, etc. In 1852 he was Gov- ernor of Cape Colony, and the next year, having obtained the rank of lieutenant-general, he was sent to the Crimea. He was killed at Inkerman, November 5, 1854. His "Commentaries on the War in Russia and Germany in 1812-13" are highly commended. Cathcart, (William Shaw,) first Earl of, a British general and diplomatist, born at Petersham in 1755. He took part in the American war, and in 1778 became aide-de-camp of Sir Henry Clinton. In 1788, and at several subsequent periods, he was chosen one of the representatives of the Scottish peerage. He was made major-general in 1794, and served against the French in Holland, etc. In 1807 he commanded the expedition which captured the fleet and capital of Denmark, and was created a British peer, with the title of Viscount Cathcart. He was ambassador to Saint Petersburg in 1813, and became an earl in 1814. Died in 1843. Cathelineau, ktt'le'no^ (Jacques,) a French peasant, born near Saint-Florent about 1760, was one of the leaders of the royalist insurrection which broke out in La Vendee in 1793. By his virtue, eloquence, and talent for command he acquired great influence over the in- surgents. Just after the Vendeans had gained a great victory at Saumur, (June, 1793,) where they took eighty pieces of cannon, Cathelineau was chosen general-in-chief. A few days later he was killed in an attack on Nantes. See MuRET, "Vie populaire de Cathelineau," 1845; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Cathelinot or Catelinot, kSt'le'no', (Dom Ilde- FONSE,) a French monk, noted for learning, was born in Paris in 1670. He left many works in manuscript. Died in 1756. Catherine, kath'er-in, [in Russian, Ec.a.tarina, i-ki- ti-ree'nS,] I., Empress of Russia, was born, of poor parents, at Marienburg, in Livonia, about 1688. Several contradictory versions of her romantic story have been published. She was taken captive at Marienburg by the Russians in 1702, after having been married to a subal- tern Swedish oflicer. Her beauty attracted the notice of Peter the Great, who in 171 1 recognized her as his wife. She accompanied him in a campaign against Tur- key in 1711, and rendered him an important service by negotiating a treaty when the Russian army was in a critical position. Peter caused her to be crowned in 1724. She was proclaimed empress at his death in 1725, and died in 1727. She had several children by her second marriage, one of whom became the empress Elizabeth. See Voltaire, " Histoire de Russie," and " Histoire de Charles XII ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Catherine [in Russian, Ecatarina] II., Empress of Russia, born at Stettin in 1729, was the daughter of the Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst. Her original name was Sophia a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; f^r, fill, filt; m§t; nftt; good; moon, CATHERINE CATILINE AUGUbTA. In 1745 she was married to the nephew of Elizabeth, Empress of Russia, and then took the name of Catherine Alexievna. Her husband, who was much inferior to her in abilities, became emperor in 1762, under the title of Peter III. He had long been estranged from her, and now proposed to repudiate her ; but, by a conspiracy of her friends, he was deposed in Ju]}^, 1762, when she became mistress of the empire. (See Peter III.) Though extremely profligate and cruel, she had too strong a mind to be enslaved by her passions or to allow them to interfere with her ambitious policy. She promoted agriculture, commerce, and education, and liberally j)atronized scientific men, such as Diderot and Euler. Ill 1772 she became a party to the infamous partition of Poland, by which she obtained Polotsk and Mohi'-elev, (Mohilev.) She waged a successful war against the Turks, and extended her dominions on the Black Sea. In 1793, by a new partition of Poland, she acquired Volhynia and Podolia. She died in 1796, and was succeeded by her son, Paul I. " Her capacity," says Brougham, " was of an exalted order. Her judg- ment was clear and sure ; her apprehension extraordi- narily quick ; her sagacity penetrating ; her providence and circumspection comprehensive. There have been few abler monarchs in any part of the world ; and the history of princes affords few examples of such talents and such force of character on a throne, perverted to the working of so much mischief" She wrote " In- structions to the Commission for composing a Code of Laws," and various other works. See Caster A, "Vie de Catherine II," T796; Struve, "Vita Catherinae II.," 1798; TfX)KE, "History of Catherine II.," 1803; Tannenberg, " Leben Catherinens II.," 1797; C.J de Ligne, *' Portrait de Catherine II," 1797; Segur, "History;" Brougham, "Statesmen of the Time of Georsre III.," vol. ii.; Auguis, " His- toire de Catherine II et de Paul I," 1813; N. Karamzin, "Lob- red" 3"f Catherine II.," translated into German from the Russian by J G. RiCHTER, 1820; JoHANN R. F oRSTER, " Kufzc Ucbersicht des Lebens der Kaiserin von Russland Caiharina II.," 1797. Catherine (or Catharine) of Aragon, written also Katharine, Queen of England, born in i486, was the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. She was married in 1501 to Arthur, the eldest son of Henry VII. of England. Arthur died in 1502, and the next year she was affianced to his brother, Prince Henry, who was six years younger than herself. Soon after he ascended the throne (1509) the marriage was solemnized. In I5i6she gave birth to a daughter, Mary, who afterwards became queen. In 1527 Henry raised the question of divorce, which was pending several years. (See Henry VIII.) She died in 1536, much respected for her many virtues. See Hume, " History of England ;" Lingard, " History of Eng- land;" Strickland, "Queens of Enp.land ;" Froude, "History of England;" Shakspeare, "Henry VIII." Catherine of Bourhon, (boor'bpn,) [Fr. Cathe- rine DE Bourbon, ktt'r^n' deh booR'b^N',] Princess of Navarre and Duchess of Bar, born in Paris in 1558, was a sister of Henry IV. of France. She was married to the Due de liar in 1599. Died in 1604. Catherine, of France, Queen of England, born in 1401, was the daughter of Charles VI. of France and Isabella of Bavaria. In 1420 she was married to Henry V. of England, and became the mother of Henry VI. Soon after the death of Henry V. (1422) she became the wife of a Welsh gentleman, Owen Tudor ; and from this union descended Henry VII. and the house of Tudor. Died in 1438. Catherine, of Portugal or Braganza, Queen of England, the daughter of John IV. of Portugal, was born in 1638. She was married to Charles II. of England in 1661, but did not succeed in gaining his affection. In 1693, after Charles's death, she returned to Lisbon, and in 1 704 was appointed Regent of Portugal by her brother Pedro. (See Charles II.) Died in 1705. See Macaulay's " History of England," vol. i. Catherine, Saint, of Alexandria, supposed to have suffered martyrdom under the reign of Maximin, about 307 A.D., was regarded as the patroness of philosophy, learning, and eloquence ; and her history has been illus- trated by many artists of the middle ages. See Mrs. Jameson, " Sacred and Legendary Art." Catherine, [It. Caterina, ki-ti-ree'na,] Saint, of Genoa, born about 1448, was the daughter of Giacopo Fieschi, who was Viceroy of Naples. She became the wife of Julian Adorno, a dissolute and prodigal patrician, whom, after many years of sorrow, she converted from the error of his ways. She devoted her latter years to the service of the sick in the hospital of Genoa, and died in 1 5 10, leaving two works which were esteemed by the mystics. See Miratoli, "Vita della R. Caterina di Genova," 1580. Catherine, Saint, of Sienna, born at Sienna in 1347, took the habit of a nun about 1366, and became distin- guished for her fervent charity and devc^tion. She medi- ated a peace between the Horentines and Pope Urban VI. in 1378. She favoured the same pope when his autho- rity was contested by Clement VII., and made strenuous efforts to terminate the scandalous schism. She died in 1380, and was canonized in 1461. Her letters, and other writings, are admired. See Chavan de Malan, " Histoire de S. Catherine de Siennp, ' 2 vols., 1846: Raymond de Capoue, "Vie de S. Catherine dc Sienne," 1853. Catherine (or Catharine) HSw'ard, Queen of Henry VIII., was the daughter of Edmund, Lord How- ard, who was a son of the Duke of Norfolk. She was married to Henry in August, 1540, and was executed in February, 1542, on the charge of unchastity before her marriage, and adultery afterwards. See Froude, " History of England," vol. iv. chap, xix.; Strick- land, "Queens of England." Catherine de' Medici, (di mSd'de-chee,) [Fi . Ca- therine de M6DICIS, kSt'ren' deh mi^de's^ss',] born at Florence in 15 19, was the daughter of Lorenzo de' Medici, Duke of Urbino, who was a nephew of Leo X. In 1533 she was married to Henry of France, who in 1547 became King Henry II. She had five sons, three of whom became kings of France, — namely, Francis II., Charles IX., and Henry III. The^death of Francis II., in 1560, rendered her mistress of the kingdom, with the title of regent for Charles IX., who was a minor. She was artful, perfidious, and cruel. To increase her po- litical influence, she corrupted the morals of her sons. She fomented civil war among her subjects, and insti- gated the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, August, 1572. (See Charles IX.) The palace of the Tuileries is a monument of her munificence as a patron of art, — per- haps the only respectable trait of her character. Died in 1589. See Motley, "History of the United Netherlands," vol. i. p. 44, and vol. ii. pp. 426 and 559 ; also his " Rise of the Dutch Reputs- lic,"vol. iii. pp. 577 and 578; Eugenic Alberi, "Vita di Caterina de* Medici," 1834 ; German version of the same, by Beck, 1847 • J- F. Destigny, "Histoire mysterieuse de Catherine de M^clicis," 1847; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1840. Catherine (or Catharine) Parr, the sixth and last wife of Henry VIII. of England, was the widow of Lord Latimer when, in 1543, she was married to that king. She once offended him, it is said, by dissenting from his opinions in theology, so that her life was in peril ; but she dexterously averted the storm by feigning that she did this to afford him the pleasure of refuting her, and to render their conversation more animated. "Is it so, sweet-heart ?" said the king : " then we are perfect friends again." She survived Henry, and in 1548 married Tho- mas, Lord Seymour, Admiral of England. Died in 1548. See Strickland, "Queens of England." Catherine Paulowna, [Ger. pron, kS-teh-ree'neh pow-lov'nS,] Queen of Wiirtemberg, daughter of Paul, Emperor of Russia, was born in 1788. In 1809 she was married to the Duke of Oldenburg, who died in 1812. She was a favourite sister of the Czar Alexander, and is said to have been endowed with noble and amiable quali- ties. She was married in 1816 to the Prince of "VViir- temberg, who became King William I. Died in 1819. Catherinot, ktt're'no', (Nicolas,) a French anti- quary, born near Bourges in 1628; died in 1688. Cat'i-line, [Lat. Catili'na,] (Lucius Sergius,) a famous Roman demagogue and conspirator, born of a patrician family about 108 B.C. He first appears in his- tory as a partisan of Sulla in the civil war, and rendered himself infamous by his complicity in the murders and robberies that followed the success of his party. In 68 B.C. he was chosen prsetor at Rome. Four years later he began to canvass for the consulship, and to organize a € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k, giittiiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. O^^See Explanations, p. 23.) CJTINAT 544 CATO faction of desperate and profligate men like himself. A remarkable union of audacity and craft, joined with elo- quence and other popular qualities, rendered him a fit leader of such a party. Defeated in the election for con- sul, he formed a conspiracy against the republic in 63 B.C., (690A. (J.c.) Our knowledge of this atfair is derived chiefly from the partial statements of Cicero and from the his- tory of Sallust, who, however, agree in representing that Catiline designed nothing less than a general massacre and conflagration. Cicero, who was then consul, having received notice of the plot from Curius, denounced the treason of Catiline to the senate in October, and the consuls were invested pro tempore with absolute power for the emergency. On November 8, Cicero uttered in the senate an oration of great power against Cataline, who attempted to reply ; but the senate refused to hear him. He then hastily left Rome and joined the army of his partisans, which had been mustered in Etruria, leaving Lentulus and other conspirators in Rome. Cer- tain deputies from Gaul, who had been tampered with, aided Cicero in obtaining more positive evidence, by which Lentulus and others were convicted and executed. The army of the senate overtook the rebels near Pis- toria (now Pistoia) in 62 B.C. Catiline animated his men with an eloquent harangue, and fought the battle with skill and determined valour, but was defeated, and fell in the thickest of the fight, with about three thousand of his partisans. See Sallust, "Bellum Catilinarium ;" Cicero, "Orationes, in Catilinam ;" Dion Cassius, " History of Rome ;" H. Wolf, "Cati- lin^e Conjuratio ex Fontibus narrata," 1803; Rose, "History of Catiline's Conspiracy," 1813; G. F. Sidney, "History of Catiline's Conspiracy," 1795; Muksinna, "Catilina; historisches Gemalde," 1797- Catinat de la Fauconnerie, kt'te^nt' deh It ib'- kon're', commonly called simply Catinat, (Nicolas,) a marshal of France, eminent for talents, integrity, and generosity, born in Paris in 1637. He distinguished himself in the campaigns against the Spanish and Aus- trians in Flanders between 1667 and 1678, and was wounded at Seneffe in 1674. Having been made lieu- tenant-general, he commanded the army which invaded Savoy, and gained the battle of Staffarda in 1690. In 1693 he received a marshal's baton. Louis XIV., in reading a list of the marshals, exclaimed, at the name of Catinat, "Here is Virtue crowned !" In 1701 he was placed at the head of the army of Italy, as antagonist to Prince Eugene, but was soon superseded by Villeroi. Died in 1712. See " Memoires pour servir k la Vie de Catinat," par M. D. C, Paris, 1775: GuiBERT, " filoge de Catinat;" La Harpe, " fi'.oge de N. de Catinat," 1775; Lebouyer de Saint-Gekvais, "Memoires et Correspondance de Catinat," 3 vols., 1818; " Nouvelie Biographie Generale." Catineau - Laroche, kt'te^i5' It'rosh', (Pierre Marie S6bastien,) a French civil officer, born at Saint- Brieuc in 1772. After holding several offices, he was appointed chief clerk in the bureau of commerce and the colonies in 1826. He published a " Portable Vocabulary of the French Langruage," (1797,) and an "Account of French Guiana," (1^822.) Died in 1828. Catius, ka'she-us, an Epicurean philosopher, born in Gaul, (Transpadane.) Died about 45 B.C. Cat'lin, (George,) an American traveller and artist, born in Pennsylvania. He acquired distinction by his adventures and studies among the North American Indians, with whom he passed about eight years. He represented the character and life of the red men in a series of paintings, and published " Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North Ameri- can Indians," with engravings, (2 vols., 1841,) which, according to the London "Athenaeum," "is a book of extraordinary interest and value." Having exhibited his Indian Gallery and collection in Europe, he pub- lished "Notes of Eight Years' Travel and Residence in Europe," (2 vols., 1848.) See TucKERMAN, "Book of the Artists;" "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1842. Ca'to, (DiONYSius,) a Latin moralist, for whose bio- graphy no materials exist, and respecting whom many conflicting opinions have been adopted. His name is connected with a small work entitled "Disticha de Moribus ad Filium," which was extensively employed as a catechism of morals in the schools of the middle ages, and was commended for its literary merit by Eras- mus and Scaliger. It consists mostly of moral i>recepts, each of which is expressed in two hexameter verses. See Fabkicius, " Biblioiheca Latina." Cato, [Gr. Kurwv .• Fr. Caton,* kt't6N'; It. Catone, k^-to'ni,] (Marcus Porcius,) often called Ca'io Cen- so'rius, (or Censori'nus,) i.e. "Cato the Censor," also surnamed the Elder, an eminent Roman patriot and statesman, was born of a plebeian family at Tusculum in 234 B.C. At the age of seventeen he served in the army against Hannibal, and in 209 he took part in the siege of Tarentum under Fabius. He contributed to the victory over Hasdrubal on the Metaurus in 207. In the intervals of war he worked on his Sabine farm, and accustomed himself to a hardy, simple mode of life, disciplined in aus- tere virtues and in all branches of practical and useful knowledge. By pleading causes for the poor, he had become an oracle among his rustic neighbors, when Va- lerius Flaccus, a liberal patrician, recognized his merit, and persuaded him to seek in the Forum of Rome an ampler sphere of usefulness. He soon gained eminence as an orator, and became a candidate for office. He was elected qusestor (paymaster) in 204, and prsetor in 198 B.C., when he obtained Sardinia as his province. In 195 he was raised to the consulship, with his early patron, V. Flaccus, for his colleague, and commanded the army in Spain with ability and success, for which he received a triumph on his return. Elected censor in 184, he reformed many abuses, and enforced his principles of economy and sobriety with a severity which pro- cured him many enemies. He was one of the chief ad- visers of the third Punic war, and author of the phrase (which he often repeated in the senate) Delenda est Car- thago, ("Carthage must be destroyed."^ He wrote a treatise on agriculture, (" De Re rustica,") which is extant. His son, M. Porcius Cato, became an eminent jurist. Died in 149 B.C. In Plutarch's parallels, Cato the Censor is the counterpart of Aristides. Few names occur in the Latin classics oftener than that of Cato, who was venerated as a model of pristine Roman virtue. See Plutarch, "Lives;" Livy, " History of Rome;" Corne- lius Nepos, " Cato ;" Cicero, " Cato Major, seu de Senectute ;" Drumann, " Geschichte Roms ;" E. Sciiober, "De M. P. Catone Censorino," 1825 ; Weber, " Programma de M. P. Catonis Vita et Moribus," 1831. Cato, (Marcus Porcius,) a Roman general, was an uncle of Cato of Utica. Pie was tribune of the people in 100 B.C., and in that office opposed Apuleius Satur- ninus. He defeated the Etruscans in the year 90, and was consul in 89 B.C. He was killed in a skirmish with the Marsians. Cato, (Marcus Porcius,) surnamed the Younger, and Uticen'sis, {i.e. "of Utica,") a celebrated Roman Stoic philosopher and patriot, born in 95 B.C., was a great- grandson of Cato the Censor, whom he took for his model in private and public life. He studied the doctrines of the Stoics under Antipater, and inured himself to hardships and privations. His first campaign was in the servile war against Spartacus, (72 B.C.,) in which he gave proof of courage ; but martial pursuits did not prove congenial to his taste. After performing the duties of quaestor with honour, he was elected tribune of the people in the same year that Cicero was consul. He appears to have been the only eminent Roman that heartily seconded Cicero in opposing the traitorous designs of Catiline, 690 A.U.a His sincere devotion to liberty prompted him to strenu- ously oppose the ambitious coalition of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus ; but his success was perhaps hindered by his inflexible and uncompromising policy. In 54 B.C. he was elected praetor, and, by his efforts to prevent bri- bery at elections, gave great offence to the politicians. He failed in his candidacy for the consulship, because he would not resort to corrupt means to procure his elec- tion. When the rivalry of Pompey and Caesar, whom he vainly attempted to reconcile, ripened into civil war in 49 B.C., Cato joined the party of the former as the lesser evil, and, after the death of Pompey, commanded an army in Africa. He resigned the coinmand to Scipio, * The manusci ipts of Chaucer have Caton and Catoun. (See the "Tale of Melibeus," and the " Nonnes Prestes Tale.") a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; nSt; good; moon; CATO 545 CATULLE who was defeated in the year 46. Cato then wished to defend Utica against the victor ; but other counsels pre- vailed. Unwilling to survive the ruin of the republic, which he had predicted and opposed with all his power, he died at Utica by his own hand, in his forty-ninth year. Cxsar, on hearing of the event, exclaimed, "Cato, I envy thee thy death, since thou hast deprived me of the honour of saving thy life." Cato has generally been regarded as one of the purest and noblest of all the Romans. His lofty and spotless virtue (as virtue was then understood) seemed almost to justify that fine though somewhat ex- travagant line of Lucan's "Pharsalia :" " Victrix causa Deis placuit, sed victa Catoni."* Plutarch makes a comparison between Cato and Pho- cion, whose virtues, he says, were perfectly similar in form and colour. It may be said, however, that rhe former excelled in active, the latter in passive, virtues. Cato's son Marcus was killed at Philippi, fighting for Brutus and Cassius. See Tacitus, "History," iv. 8; Valerius Maximus, vi. ; Dru- MANN, "Geschichte Roms," vol. v. Cato, (Valerius,) a Roman poet and grammarian, who flourished at Rome in the first century B.C. He had a high reputation for his skill as a teacher, and wrote several treatises on grammar. His poems entitled " Lydia" and " Diana" were his most celebrated works ; but they have not come down to us. There is extant, under his name, a small poem called "Dirae," which some persons ascribe to Virgil. See Suetonius, " De Grammaticis illustribus ;" Bukmann, "An- thologia." Cato Ceusorius or Censorinus. See Cato (M. PoRCius) THE Censor. Ca'to Li-9iii-i-a'nus, (Caius Porcius.) a son of Marcus Porcius, noticed below, became consul in the year 1 14 B.C., and commanded an army in Thrace, where he was defeated. He was afterwards employed as legate in Africa, and was charged with a dishonourable intrigue with Jugurtha. Cato Licinianus, (Marcus Porcius,) an eminent Roman jurist, was the son of Cato the Censor by his first wife, and was esteemed a wise and virtuous man. He entered the army in his youth, and distinguished himself at the battle of Pydna m 168 B.C., soon after which he devoted himself to the law. He wrote several legal works. Died in 152 B.C. Cato Uticensis. See Cato (M. Porcius) the Younger. Caton, the French of Cato, which see. Catone, the Italian of Cato, which see. Catrou, kt'tRoo', (Francois,) a French Jesuit and writer, born in Paris in 1659. He edited the "Journal de Trevoux" about twelve years, (i 701-12,) with a fair reputation as a critic. He published, besides other works, a "History of Aurung-Zeb," (1702,) and a "Roman History," in twenty-one volumes, which was popular at the time. Died in 1737. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Catrufo, ki-tRoo'fo, (Giuseppe,) an Italian composer, born at Naples in 1771. He composed comic operas. Cats, kats, (Jakob,) sometimes spelled Catz, [Lat. Cat'sius,] an eminent and popular Dutch poet, born at Brouwershaven, in Zealand, in 1577, holds a conspicuous place among the creators of Dutch poetry and literature. He studied law, which he practised with success ; and he performed with credit the highest functions in the public service. He was ambassador to England in 1627 and in 1651. From 1636 to 1651 he served as grand pensionary of Holland. He wrote a poem entitled "Country Life," ( " Buitenleven," ) and numerous "Mo- ral Emblems," fables, allegories, songs, etc., which are admired for ease, simplicity, and clearness of style, and display a deep knowledge of the human heart. Bilder- dijk, one of the greatest of Dutch poets, says, "Dear Father Cats, What endless treasures dost thou not contain !"t " His imagination," says Hallam, " is gay, his morality * "The victorious cause was favoured by the gods, but the con- quered by Cato." t " Dierbre Vader Cats, Wat behelst ge niet al schats." popular and useful. No one was more read than Father Cats, as the people call him ; but he is often trifling and monotonous." Died in 1660. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Alsche, " Commentatio de J. Catsio," 1828; Siegendeek, " Over de Ver- diensten van J. Cats als Staatsman," 1836 : Foppens, " Bibliotheca Belgica;" " Fraser's Magazine" for May, 1854. Cattaneo, kit-tS'ni-o, (Carlo,) an Italian economist and able writer on philosophy, statistics, and politics, born at Milan about 1815. He is a republican, and took a prominent part in the revolution at Milan in 1848. Among his works are "The Insurrection at Milan in 1848," and "Natural and Political Account of Lom- bardy," (" Notizie naturali e civili della Lombardia.") Cattaneo, (Danese,) an Italian sculptor and poet, born at Carrara about 1500. He worked in Venice and Verona, and was eminent as an artist and poet. He was author of a poem called "The Love of Marfisa," ("L'Amor di Marfisa.") Cattaneo, (Felice,) an Italian painter, born at Milan, lived about 1730. Cattaneo or Cataneo, kJ-ti-na'o, (Giovanni Ma- ria,) a learned Italian writer, born at Novara, became a resident of Rome. In early youth he composed a com- mentary on Pliny the Younger, which was admired, and was printed in 1500. He left an unfinished poem on the " Conquest of Jerusalem by the Crusaders." Died about 1528. Cattani,kat-t§,'nee, (Gaetano,) an Italian missionary, born at Modena in 1696. He went to Paraguay in 1729, and afterwards wrote three long letters on that country, which Muratori inserted in his collection with high and merited praise. Died in 1733. Cattani da Diacceto, kit-ti'nee di de-it-cha'to, (Francesco,) an Italian philosopher and writer, born at Florence in 1446. He succeeded Marsilio Ficino as professor of philosophy. Died in 1522. See B. Varchi, "Vita di F. Cattani da Diacceto," 1561 and 1843 Cattapane, kat-ta-p^nk, (Luca,) an Italian painter, born at Cremona, lived about 1500. Catteau-Calleville, kfto' ktKv61', (Johann Peter Wii.HELM,) a historian and geographer, of French origin, born at Angertnunde, in Prussia, in 1759. He became minister of the French Protestant church at Stockholm in 1783, and settled in Paris in 1810. He published a "General Description of Sweden," (1789,) "Travels in Germany and Sweden," (1810,) a "History of Christina, Queen of Sweden," (1815,) and other works. Died in 1819. See Qu^RARD, " La France Litteraire." Cattenburg, van, vtn kSt'ten-buRG, (Adriaan,) a Dutch theologian, born at Rotterdam in 1664, He was one of the chief men of the sect of Remonstrants or Ar- minians, and author of several works, among which were a "Life of Hugo Grotius," (1727,) and "Treatise on the Wisdom of Moses," (" Syntagma Sapientiae Mosaicae," 1737.) Died about 1737. See Feller, "Dictionnaire Historique." Cat'ter-mole, (George,) an eminent English painter, born at Dickleburgh, Norfolk, in 1800, His works are mostly paintings, in water-colours, of subjects derived from history or from the imaginations of Shakspeare and Scott. Among his capital productions is a large picture of " Luther at the Diet of Spire." At the Exposition of Paris in 1855 he received a first-class medal. After that date he painted chiefly in oil. Died in 1868. Cattermole, (Rev, Richard,) an English author, bro- ther of the preceding, became vicar of Little Marlow, in the county of Bucks. He published "The Literature of the Church of England," (2 vols.,) "Illustrated His- tory of the Great Civil War of the Times of Charles I. and Cromwell," (2 vols., 1846-52,) and other valuable works. Cattho or Catto, kSt-to', ( Angelo,) a learned bishop, born at Taranto, became chaplain to Louis XI. of France. He was reputed to be skilful in astrology and the pre- diction of future events. Died in 1494. Cattier, kt'te-i', (Isaac,) a French medical writer, born in Paris, lived about 1640. CatuldL See Cataldi. CatuUe. See Catullus. € as 9 as s; g hard; g zsj; o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 35 CATULLUS 546 CAULAIN COURT Ca-tuFlus, [Fr. Catulle, kt'tuK,] (Caius Valerius,) an eminent Latin poet, born at or near Verona about 77 B.C., (some authorities say 87 B.C.) He went to Rome at an early age, and by his literary merit obtained ad- mission into the society of Cicero, Caesar, Poliio, and others. His indulgence in vicious and expensive pleas- ures soon reduced him to poverty, which, however, did not subdue his hilarity. His superior genius as a poet is generally admitted by ancient and modern critics. He wrote numerous poems, which are still extant, including odes and epigrams of great beauty and pathos. He also excelled in heroic verse, and was the first Roman that cultivated lyric poetry with success. His longest poem is " The Nuptials of Peleus and Thetis," in hexameter verse. Some critics estimate the " Atys" as the great- est of his works. " His ' Atys,' " says Professor William Ramsay, "is one of the most remarkable poems in the whole range of Latin literature. Rolling impetuously along in a flood of wild passion, bodied forth in the grandest imagery and the noblest diction, it breathes in every line the fiery vehemence of the Greek dithyramb. . . . We admire by turns, in the lighter efforts of his muse, his unaffected ease, playful grace, vigorous sim- plicity, pungent wit, and slashing invective." He imi- tated Greek models, and seemed like a Greek poet writing in Latin. He is supposed to have died about 45 B.C. ; though Scaliger maintains that he lived about thirty years after that date. See Sellar, "Roman Poets of the Republic," chap. xil. ; Fa- rRicius, " Bibliotheca Latina ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" 'Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1842; " Fraser's Magazine" for March, 1849. Cat'u-lus, tCAius LuTATius,) a Roman commander, was chosen consul for the year 242 B.C., when the first Punic war had been waged more than twenty years. The Roman navy had been defeated in several battles, and was nearly annihilated. Catulus took command of a new fleet, and gained a decisive victory over Hanno in 241 B.C. He then terminated the war on terms favour- al)le to Rotne. Catulus, (QuiNTUS Lutatius,) a Roman general and scholar, noted for the purity and grace with which he spoke and wrote Latin. After several repulses, he was elected consul with C. Marius for the year 102 B.C., when Italy was threatened by the victorious Cimbri. Two Roman armies, commanded by Catulus and Marius, united and defeated the Cimbri in a great battle near Vercelli in loi B.C. Plutarch says the whole honour of the day was ascribed to Marius, although the chief brunt of the battle fell on the army of Catulus. He became a partisan of Sulla in the civil war, was proscribed by Marius in 87 B.C., and killed himself He left a his- torical work on the Cimbrian war, and several poems. Except two epigrams, none of his works are extant. See Appian, " Bellum Civile;" Plutarch, "Marius" and " Sulla ;" Cicero, " De Oratore." Catulus, (QuiNTUS Lutatius,) a son of the preceding, was a prominent leader of the aristocracy, and one of the most moderate and pure of the statesmen of his time. He was consul in 78 B.C., and censor in 65. He was called "illustrious" (" vir clarissimus") by Cicero in his oration "pro Lege Manilia." Catulus was a strong supporter of Cicero in his efforts to defeat the conspiracy of Catiline in 63 B.C. According to Sallust, he urged Cicero to include Caesar among the conspirators. Died in 60 B.C. See Sallust, "Bellum Catilinarium ;" Tacitus, "Historia." Cauclie, kosh, (pRANgois,) a French traveller, born at Rouen, lived about 1650. He passed several years in Madagascar. On his return to France, he published "An Account of the Voyage of F. Cauche to Madagas- car," (165 1,) which was commended by Du Petit-Thouars. Cauchois - Lemaire, ko'shwd' leh-m^R', (Louis FRANgois AUGUSTF,,) a French journalist, born in Paris in 1789. He wrote for the " Constitutionnel" from 1820 to 1832, and was noted for his bold and sarcastic political articles. In 1832 he became chief editor of the "Good Sense," ("Bon Sens,") a democratic journal. He was imprisoned several times for his writings between 1820 and 1830. He wrote a "History of the Revolution of .1830," and other works, mostly political. Died in 1862. See Qu^RARD, "La France Litt^raire." Cauchoix, ko'shwi', (Robert Aglae,) a French op- tician, born in Seine-et-Oise in 1776. His telescopes are said to be among the best in use. Cauchon, k6'sh6N', (Pierre,) Bishop of Beauvais, in the fifteenth century, was a fanatical partisan of the English. He rendered his memory infamous as judge of Joan of Arc (1431) by the perfidious means he used to effect her condemnation and by the atrocious sentence which he pronounced upon her. Died in 1443. See SiSMONDi, " Histoire des Fran^ais ;" J. des Ursins, "His- toire de Charles VII." Cauchy, ko'she', (Augustin Louis,) a French mathe- matician, son of Louis Fran9ois, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1789. After gaining the first prize for Latin poetry in the Central School, he entered the Polytechnic School as second scholar in 1805. He passed from that to the School of " Ponts et Chaussees," and was after- wards employed as engineer at the port of Cherbourg. In his youth he was distinguished for his researches into difficult questions, and demonstrated Euclid's celebrated theorem respecting polyhedra. In 181 5 the Institute awarded him the grand prize for his " Memoir on the Theory of Waves," which was destined to become the basis of an admirable theory of light. He was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences and professor of mechanics in the Polytechnic School in 1816. He pub- lished for his pupils a "Course of Analysis," (1821,) " Lectures on the Differential Calculus," (1826,) and other works. Refusing to swear allegiance to Louis Philippe in 1830, he lost his professorship. In 1833 he became tutor to the Duke of Bordeaux at Prague. He returned to Paris in 1838, and resumed his place in the Academy of Sciences, for which he wrote many ingenious memoirs. In 1849 he succeeded Biot as professor of physical astronomy in the Faculty of Sciences. Among his later works was a " Memoir on the Dispersion of Light," (1836.) He displayed considerable poetic power in his verses "On Charles V. in Spain," (1834.) Died in 1857. See " Nouvelle Biographie G^n^rale ;" Qu^rard, " La France Litteraire." Cauchy, (Louis Francois,) a French poet, father of the preceding, was born at Rouen in 1755. He com- posed an "Ode to the First Consul," (1802,) and "The Battle of Austerlitz," (1806,) both in Latin. He was successively archivist of the senate and of the Chamber of Peers. Died in 1847. Caulaincourt, k5'ldN'kooR', (Auguste Jean Ga- briel,) a French general, brother of Armand Augustir Louis, noticed below, born in the department of Somme in 1777. He was wounded at Marengo in 1800, and fought in the Peninsula as general of brigade. For his services in the passage of the Tagus in 1809 he was made a general of division. He was killed at the battle of Borodino, September 7, 1812. He was equally distin- guished for courage and talents. See Segur, " Histoire de la Campagne de Russia." Caulaincourt, de, deh ko'liN^kooR', (Armand Au- gustin Louis,) Duke of Vicenza, (ve-ch^n'zi,) a French diplomatist, born of an ancient family of Picardy in 1773. H^e entered the army as a private soldier, became colonel in 1799, and made the campaign of 1800 under Moreau with distinction. Bonaparte sent him on a mis- sion to Russia in 1801, and after his return employed him as aide-de-camp and grand equerry of the palace, (1804.) In the latter function he acquitted himself with dignity. About 1808 he was appointed minister to Rus- sia, where he performed his duties with loyalty and address until 1811, when he asked to be recalled. He appears to have warned his infatuated master against the invasion of Russia, in which he took part. The emperor signified his continued confidence by choosing Caulaincourt as his companion in his hurried return to Paris in December, 1812. In 1813 he was chosen min- ister of foreign affairs, which were in such a desperate state that no diplomacy could avail ; but he shared the fortunes of Napoleon to the last, and, after the battle of Waterloo, retired with honour to private life. He had been made Duke of Vitenza in 1808. Died in 1827. See Thiers, " Histoire du Consulat et de I'Empire;" " NouvelU Biographie Generale." 4,^;, 1, 6, u, y, long: \, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; mSt; nftt; good; moon CAULET 547 CAVAIGNAC Cavilet, de, deh ko'li', (Etienne FRANgois,) a French bishop, (of Pamiers,) born in 1610; died in 1680. Caiilfield. See Charlemont, Earl of, Caul'field, (James,) an English writer, born in Lon- don about 1764, became a dealer in engravings. He published " Portraits and Memoirs of Remarkable Per- sons," (1794,) a " Gallery of British Portraits," and other illustrated works. Catiliac. See Chauliac. Cauls. See Caus, (Salomon.) Caulvin. See Calvin. Caumartin, de, deh kS'mtR^tiN', (Jean Francois Paul Lefevre,) born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1668, became Bishop of Vannes and of Blois. He was ad- mitted into the French Academy in 1694. Died in 1733. Se^ MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Caumartin, de, (Louis Urbain Lefevre,) a French statesman, brother of the preceding, born in 1653, was successively master of requests, intendant of finances, and councillor of state. At his chateau of Saint-Ange, Voltaire first formed the idea of his " Henriade." Died in 1720. See Saint-Simon, " Memoires." Caumont. See Force, (Marshal,) and Lauzun. Caumont, de, deh k6'm6N', ( Arcisse,) a French anti- quary, born at Bayeux (Calvados) in 1802. He founded about 1833 the Scientific Congress, a reunion of savants, who meet annually in different cities of France, and a "Society for the Conservation of Monuments." He has published several important works, among which are "Lectures on Monumental Antiquities," (lovols., 1830,) and a " History of Art in the West of France," (1831-40.) See RiCHELET, " Notice sur M. de Caumont." Caumont, de, (Joseph de Seytres — deh sitR or sStR,) Marquis, a French antiquary, born at Avignon in 1688. His various and extensive acquirements caused him to be chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and correspondent of the French Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1 745. Caurroy, du, dii ko'rwi', (FRANgois Eustache,) a French musician and famous composer, born in Picardy in 1549; died in 1609. Caus, ko, (Isaac,) a French engineer, a relative of Salomon Caus, noticed below, was born at Dieppe. He published an interesting work, in French, entitled a " New Invention to raise Water higher than its Source," (London, 1644.) Caus, Cauls, or Caux, de, deh k5, (Salomon,) a celebrated French engineer and architect, born in Nor- mandy. He was in the service of Charles, Prince of Wales, in London in 1612. From 1614 to 1620 he lived at Heidelberg as engvneer of the Elector Palatine Frede- rick. In 161 5 he published a work on motive powers, " Les Raisons des Forces mouvantes avec diverses Ma- chines," etc., which contains a theorem on the expansion and condensation of steam. The French maintain that the Marquis of Worcester derived from Caus the dis- covery of the utility of steam as a motive power. Arago calls him "a man whom posterity will perhaps regard as the first inventor of the machine h fen,''' (steam-engine.) Caus is supposed to have died in France about 1630. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Causeur, ko'zUR', (Jean,) a French peasant, noted for longevity, was born at Lanfenot in 1638, and died in 1775, at the age of one hundred and thirty-seven. His habits were temperate. Caussidiere, k6'se'de3iR', (Marc,) a French radical politician, born at Lyonsabout 1809. He fought on the side of the revolutionists of Paris in February, 1848, was appointed prefect of police by the provisional gov- ernment which was then formed, and was afterwards elected to the Constituent Assembly. In August, 1848, the Assembly passed a vote of accusation against him in relation to the revolt of Mav 15, which he was suspected of secretly favouring. He'escaped to London. "His heart was honest and generous," says Lamartine : "one could confide in his nature, if not in his opinions." Died in 1 86 1. Caussin, ko's^N', (Nicolas,) a French writer and priest, born at Troyes about 1582, joined the Jesuits in 1607. His success as a preacher attracted the notice of Richelieu, who made him confessor to Louis XIII. For attempting to supplant Richelieu in the favour of the king, he was dismissed nine months after his appoint- ment. He published, besides other devotional works, "The Holy Court," (5 vols.,) which had an immense circulation. Died in 1651. See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." Caussin de Perceval, ko's^N' deh p^Rs'vtK, (Ar- MAND Pierre,) a French Orientalist, son of Jean Jacques Antoine, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1795. He studied and travelled in Turkey and Syria several years, and about 1822 was appointed professor of Arabic in the College of France. In 1824 he became Arabic in- terpreter to the ministry. He published an "Arabic Grammar," and " Essays on the History of the Arabs before Islamism, during the Time of Mohammed, and down to the Reduction of all the Tribes under his Do- minion," (1847.) He became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1849. See QuERARD, "La France Litt^raire." Caussin de Perceval, (Jean Jacques Antoine,) a French scholar, father of the preceding, was born at Montdidier in 1759. In 1783 he became professor of Arabic in the College of France, Paris, and in 1809 a member of the Institute. He translated from the Arabic a "Sequel to the Thousand and One Nights," and other works. He published a good edition of the Fables of Lokman. Died in 1835. Cauvin. See Calvin. Cau'vin, (Joseph,) an English scholar, chiefly known as an assistant editor of Brande's " Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art," (1842.) (See Brande,'W. T.) He published an improved edition of "Lempriere's Classical Dictionary," (1845.) Caux. See Caus, (Salomon.) Caux, de, deh ko, (Gilles,) a French poet, born about 1682, was a descendant of the great Corneille. His best works are the tragedy of "Marius," (1715,) and "The Hour-Glass," a small poem. Died in 1733. Caux de Cappeval, ko deh ktp'vtK, a mediocre French poet, born near Rouen. He published " Par- nassus, or an Essay on the Campaigns of the King," (1752,) and other poems, and produced a Latin version of V^oltaire's "Henriade." Died in 1774. See Grimm, " Correspondance." Cavacci, kS-vSt'chee, (Jacopo,) a historian and monk, born at Padua in 1567; died in 1612. Cavaceppi, kS-vi-chep'pee, (Bartolommeo,) a Ro- man sculptor, who flourished about 1770. Cavagna, kS-vin^yd, (Giovanni Paolo,) a skilful Italian painter, born at Bergamo about 1560. He took Paul Veronese for his model. Died in 1627. Cavaignac, kS'vin'ytk', (Godefroy,) a French re- publican chief, brother of General Louis Eugene Cavai- gnac, was born in Paris in 1801. He fought on the side of the revolutionists in the three days of July, 1830, was one of the founders of the " Society of the Friends of the Peo- ple," and became one of the most popular leaders of his party. In 1834 he was imprisoned for political reasons, but escaped in 1835 and went into exile. He returned to France in 1841, and became assistant editor of the journal called "La Reforme." He died in 1845. "Godefroy Cavaignac," says Lamartine, "was a name equal to the name of Carrel in republican estimation. He had died before the triumph ( avenement) of his idea, and that idea rendered homage to him [in 1848] in the person of his brother." He published a work called "Cardinal Du- bois ; or, Every Road leads to Rome." See Qu^RARD, "La France Litteraire." Cavaignac, (Jean Baptiste,) a French revolutionist, born at Gordon in 1762, was the father of General Louis Eugene Cavaignac. In 1792 he represented Haute-Ga- ronne in the Convention, and voted for the death of the king. In the insurrection of the sections of Paris against the Convention, October, 1795, he was chosen to co-ope- rate with Barras in directing the army of the Convention. He was one of the Council of Five Hundied in 1796. The fall of his friend Barras, in 1799, injured his political prospects. He was afterwards councillor of state under c as k; c as s; g hard; g as G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as. a; th as in this. (S:^=See Explanations, p. 23.) CAVAIGNAC 548 CAVALLVCCI Murat, King of Naples. He was exiled from France as a regicide in 1816, and died in Brussels in 1829. See GoNON, " Biographic de J. B. Cavaignac," 1848. Cavaignac, (Louis Eugene,) a distinguished French general and republican statesman, a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1802. He entered the Polytechnic School in 1820. In 1828 and 1829 he served in the Morea as captain of engineers. He was sent to Africa in 1832, and soon became eminent for the best qualities of a soldier and an officer. In 1836 he was selected for the perilous post of commander of the garrison of Tlemcen, which he defended with success for more than a year. He became a lieutenant-colonel of zouaves in 1840, and colonel in 1841. For his services at Isly in 1844 he obtained the rank of marechal-de-camp. He was ap- pointed governor of the province of Oran in 1847, and was in Algeria when the revolution of 1848 occurred. In March of that year the provisional government ap- pointed him Governor-General of Algeria, with the rank of general of division. In April, Lamartine, through the mediation of Madame Cavaignac, (who was called "the mother of the Gracchi,") invited General Cavaignac to come to Paris for the defence of the government against the mob. He arrived in Paris on the 17th of May, two days after a great insurrection had begun, and was ap- pointed minister of war when that office was generally considered an unenviable position. As commander-in- chief of the army and of the national guard, he defeated the insurgents in a great battle in Paris which began on the 23d of June and continued three days. He was ap- pointed dictator by the Assembly on the 24th, and dis- played great skill and energy on that occasion. Having resigned the dic^?*orship, he was recalled to power on the 28th of June, with the title of chef du pouvoir exectc- tif, or President of the republic. He maintained order in the capital, and pursued a moderate policy, by which many ultra-republicans were alienated from his support. The Assembly on the 25th of November declared that he had deserved well of the country. About this time an election for President by universal suffrage resulted in the choice of Louis Napo- leon Bonaparte, who received about 6,000,000 votes, while Cavaignac received 1,448,302. On the 20th of December, 1848, Cavaignac retired from power, and took his seat in the Assembly among the moderate re- publicans. He was arrested in December, 1851, and detained a few days. In 1852 he was elected a deputy by the voters of Paris ; but, as he refused to swear alle- giance to the emperor, he did not obtain the seat, and retired from political life. He was again elected a deputy from Paris to the corps legislatif, but died a few weeks later, in October, 1857. He had published in 1839 a work entitled " De la Regence d' Alger." Few men who have possessed the chief power in difficult circumstances have preserved so pure a reputation. See Henri Montfort, " Hiographie du General Cavaignac," 1848 ; *' Lebensbeschreibung des Generals Cavaignac," Strasburg, 1848 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Cavaignac, de, deh kS'vin'ytk', (Jacques Marie,) ViCOMTE, a P'rench general, born at Gordon in 1773, was an uncle of the preceding. He served with distinction in the armies of the republic in Italy, and in 1806 was nominated by Napoleon commandant of the legion of honour at the battle of Austerlitz. As general of brigade, he took part in the expedition to Moscow in 1812. He was afterwards raised to the rank of lieutenant-general. The date of his death is unknown. Cavalca, ka-vSKkl, (Domenico,) an Italian ascetic writer, born in Tuscany, was contemporary with Dante. He wrote "The Fruits of the Tongue," and other works, which are cited by the Academy Delia Crusca as authority. Died about 1340. Cavaicabo-Baroni, kS-vai-ka'bo hi -ro'nee, (Gas- PARo Antonio,) a painter of the Venetian school, born near Roveredo in 1682 ; died in 1759. Cavalcanti, ka-vSl-kdn'tee, (Bartolommeo,) an Ital- ian writer, born of a noble family at Florence in 1503. Having removed to Ferrara, he was sent by Cardinal Ip- polito II. on a mission to the French court. Pope Paul III. also employed him as a negotiator. He wrote a " Treatise on Rhetoric," (1559,) and other works. Died in 1562. Cavalcanti, (Guido,) a Florentine poet, was a friend of Dante, and an ardent Ghibeline. Pie was one of the poets of that age who made the nearest approach to a good style. His canzone on " Love" was the most popu- lar of his works. Died in 1300. See GiNGUENE, "Histoire Litt^raire d'ltalie." Cavaleri. See Cavalieri. Cavalier, kt'vt'le-i', (Jean,) a French peasant, born at Ribaute in 1679, was the most able and popular chief of the Camisards, (persecuted Protestants of Cevennes,) who revolted in 1702. By his courage and skill he foiled the generals of the king and obtained an honourable treaty from Villars, (1704.) He afterwards entered the service of the English, fought at Almanza in 1707, and became a general in the English army. Died in 1740. See Antoine Court, " Histoire des Camisards." Cavaliere, ki-vd-le-a'ri, or Cavalieri, ki-vi-le-a'ree, an Italian composer, born about 1550, made some im- provements or inventions in music. Died about 1600. Cavalieri, kd-vA-le-a^ree, or Cavaleri, kS-vi-la'ree, (Bonaventura,) an eminent Italian geometer, born in Milan in 1598, was one of the few whose discoveries form an epoch in the history of geometry. He entered the order of Hieronymites or Jesuates, and became a pupil of Galileo at Pisa. Having devoted himself to researches respecting the proportions of different solids, he discovered, about 1626, his method of indivisibles. He conceived that a line is formed of an infinite number of points, a surface of an infinity of lines, etc., and pub- lished in 1635 his " Geometry of Indivisibles." A few years earlier he had been chosen professor of mathe- matics at Bologna. He wrote a "Treatise on Conic Sections," and several other works. Died at Bologna in 1647. See MoNTUCLA, "Histoire des Math^matiqiies ;" Paolo Frisi, " Elogio di Galileo Galilei e di B. Cavalieri," 1776; G. Piola, " Elogio storico di B. Cavalieri," 1844. Cavallerii, da, di ki-vSl-la're-ee, (Giovanni Bat- TTSTA,) a mediocre Italian engraver, born at Lagherino about 1530, engraved many works after Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Titian. Died in 1597. Cavallero. See Caballero. Cavallero, ki-vai-ya''ro, or Caballero, ki-Bil-ya'ro, (Don Juan,) a Spanish general, born in Naples in 1712, commanded the engineers at the siege of Gibraltar in 1779. Died in 1791. Cavalli, ki-vSKlee, (Francesco,) born at Venice, was an organist, and one of the first composers of his time. He became chapel-master of the church of Saint Mark, and was one of the first who composed grand operas. Between 1637 and 1669 he produced thirty-eight success- ful operas. Died in 1676. See F^Tis, "Biographie Universelle des Mus'ciens." Cavallini, ki-vil-lee'nee, (Pietro,) a celebrated painter and sculptor, born in Rome about 1270, is said to have been a pupil of Giotto. He adorned with frescos the churches of Rome, Florence, and Assisi, where some of them may still be seen. His "Crucifixion" at Assisi is well preserved, and is called his master-piece. Died about 1350. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. Cavallino, kS-vSl-lee'no, (Bernardo,) a historical painter, born in Naples about 1620. His works are ad- mired for grace, colouring, and charming expression. He excelled most in pictures of small proportions. Died in 1656. Cavallo, kS-vil'lo, (Tiberio,) a philosopher, distin- guished for his experiments in electricity, was born at Naples in 1749. In 1771 he went to London, where he passed the most of his mature years. Having made dis- coveries or inventions in electricity and magnetism, he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1779. He invented a micrometer, an electrometer, and a condenser of electricity, and made interesting experiments with a kite in relation to the electric state of clouds. He wrote, besides other works, " A Complete Treatise on Elec- tricity," and a " Treatise on the Nature and Properties of Air." Died in 1809. Cavallucci, ki-vai-loot'chee, (Antonio,) an Italian historical painter and excellent colorist, born at Sermo- a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mlt; nfit; good; moon; CAVAM 549 CAFENDISH neta in 1752. A picture of "Saint Bona taking the Veil," at Pisa, is called his master-piece. Died in Rome in 1795. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Cavam-(or Cawam-)ed-Dowlah, ki-vlm'ed-dow'- ]ah, originally Ket-bo'ga, Prince of Mosul, a Turkish general, defeated by the crusaders at Antioch in 1098. Cavanilles, ki-vi-n^Ky^s, (Antonio Jos6,) a Spanish priest and eminent botanist, was born at Valencia in 1745. He was professor of philosophy at Murcia, when he was chosen preceptor of the children of the Duke del In- fantado, ambassador to Paris. He passed twelve years in Paris, {1777 to 1789,) in which time he produced his dissertations on the class Monadelphia. Having re- turned to Spain, he published " Icones et Descriptiones Plantarum," etc., an excellent description of Spanish plants, with fine engravings drawn by himself, (6 vols., 1791.) This was followed by "Observations on the Natural History, Geography, etc. of Valencia," (2 vols., 1795-97,) which is said to be the most useful work of that kind ever published in Spain. In 1801 he was chosen director of the royal botanic garden of Madrid. He adhered to the artificial or Linnaean system of botany. Died at Madrid in 1804. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Cavarazzi, ki-vi-rit'see, (Bartolommeo,) called Crescenzi, (kRi-sh^n'zee,) an Italian painter, born at Viterbo about 1590 ; died in 1625. Cavazzi, ki-vdt'see, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian monk, born at Montecuculo. He was sent as a missionary to Congo in 1654. In 1670 he was chosen superior-gen- eral of the missions in Congo, Angola, etc., where he laboured many years. He published a "Description of Congo, Angola, and Matamba." Died at Genoa in 1692. Cave, (Edward,) an English printer, born at Newton in 1691, is memorable as the founder of "The Gentle- man's Magazine,'' first issued in January, 1731, under the name of Sylvanus Urban. It was very successful in his hands until his death, and still flourishes, with a high reputation. He patronized Dr. Johnson when the latter was a young and needy author ; and Johnson wrote a biography of Cave. Died in 1754. See Dr. Johnson's Works. Cave, (William,) D.D., a learned English divine and scholar, born in Leicestershire in 1637, became vicar of Islington in 1662, canon of Windsor in 1684, and vicar of Isleworth in 1690. He devoted much attention to ecclesiastical antiquities, and wrote many esteemed works, among which are "Primitive Christianity," (1672,) " History of Christ and the Apostles," (1675,) "Lives of the Fathers of the Church in the Fourth Century," (1682,) and " Literary History of Ecclesiastic Writers from the Birth of Christ to the Fourteenth Century," ("Scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Historia lit- teraria," 2 vols., 1688-89.) The three first named are said to be the best works on those subjects. Died in 17 13. See "Biographia Britannica ;" Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses." Cavedone, ki-vi-do'ni, (Gi.\COMO,) an eminent Ital- ian painter, born at Sassuolo, near Modena, in 1577. He studied under the Caracci and Guido, and worked at Bologna, both in oil and fresco. He excelled in design and colouring, and had great facility of execution. Among his master-pieces are a "Nativity," a "Virgin and Child borne upon the Clouds," a " Holy Family," and "The Adoration of the Magi." Died at Bologna in 1660. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Cayeirac, de, deh kt'v&'rtk', (Jean Novi,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Nimes in 1713. He wrote, besides other works, "An Apology for Louis XIV. and his Council in Relation to the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, with Observations on Saint Bartholomew," (1758.) Voltaire designated this work an "Apology for Saint Bartholomew." Died in 1782. Cavelier. See Lasali.e, (Robert.) Cavelier, ktv'le-i', (Pierre Jules,) an eminent French sculptor, boiMi in Paris in 1814, was a pupil of David of Angers and of Delaroche. He obtained in 1842 the grand prize of sculpture, and passed the five en- suing years in Rome. In 1849 he produced "Penelope Asleep," which was greatly admired, and in 1853 a statue of "Truth," which was placed in the palace of Luxembourg. His works are remarkable for elegance of form and grace of attitude. Cav'fii-dish, (Charles,) a younger son of the sec- ond Earl of Devonshire, born in London in 1620, was a royalist general in the civil war. He defeated the army of Parliament at Donnington in 1643, and was killed soon after in an engagement with Cromwell near Gains- borough. Cavendish, (Lord Frederick,) a British general, born about 1730, was a younger son of the third Duke of Devonshire. Died in 1803. Cavendish, (Georgp.,) of Glemsford, an English writer, a brother of Sir William Cavendish, noticed be- low. He is said to have been the author of a well-written " Life of Cardinal Wolsey," which was once ascribed to Sir William. It was first printed in 1641. Cavendish, (Henry,) an eminent English chemist and natural philosopher, born at Nice in 1730 or 1731, was the younger son of Lord Charles Cavendish, and grandson of the Duke of Devonshire. Having been educated at Cambridge, he devoted himself exclusively to scientific pursuits, renounced society, and was re- markable for his eccentric habits. He was a profound mathematician, and ranks among the first of chemical philosophers. He first discovered the distinctive prop- erties of hydrogen gas. laid the foundation of pneumatic chemistry, and demonstrated the proportions of oxygen and nitrogen in common air, (1783.) By burning oxy- gen and hydrogen in a tight glass vessel, he made the brilliant discovery of the composition of water, in 1784. The results of his experiments (which had never been surpassed in accuracy) were published in the " Philo- sophical Transactions" from 1766 to 1809. He was chosen an associate of the French Institute in 1803. About 1773 ^'-^^ inherited an immense fortune from an uncle. He was never married. Died in London in 1810. " Whatever he accomplished," says Sir Hum- phry Davy, "was perfect at the moment of its pro- duction. His processes were all of a finished nature. . . . The accuracy and beauty of his earliest labours have remained unimpaired amidst the progress of dis- covery, and their merits have been illustrated by discus- sion and exalted by time." ("Chemical Philosophy.") " He was well versed in high geometry," says Biot, "and made a happy application of this knowledge in a very important question of physics, — the determination of the mean density of our globe." See G. Wii.soN, " Life of H. Cavendish ;" F. Hoefer, " Histoire de la Cliimie," tOTne ii. ; " Encyclopaedia Britannica." Cavendish, (Lord John,) an English Whig states- man, brother of Frederick, noticed above. He was an opponent of Lord North, whom he succeeded as chan- cellor of the exchequer in 1782. Died in 1796. Cavendish, (Margaret,) an English authoress, was the daughter of Sir Charles Lucas, and wife of William Cavendish, Duke of Newcastle. She wrote various works, among which are poems and plays, remarkable for absurdity and bad grammar. She became a maid of honour to the queen of Charles I. in 1643, and was married in 1 645. Horace Walpole calls her "a fertile pedant, with an unbounded passion for scribbling." Died in 1673. See Rev. Alexander Dyce, "Specimens of British Poetesses ;" Sir E. Bryucjes, "Imaginative Biography;" and "Retrospective Review," vol. i., 1853. Cavendish, (Sir Robert Spencer,) an English naval officer, born in 1791. He served against the French and the Americans, 1812-14. Died in 1830. Cavendish or Can'dish, (Thomas,) an English navigator, born in Suffolk in 1564, was the second of his nation that circumnavigated the globe. In July, 1586, he sailed with three small ships, chiefly fitted out at his expense, with the design to plunder the Spaniards in Peru, Chili, etc. Having taken rich prizes, among which was the Spanish galleon laden with silver, he crossed the Pacific, and, returning by the Cape of Good Hope, reached England in September, 1588. He rendered some services to the sciences of geography and hydrography. Died in 1593. See J. Barrow, "Memoirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen Elizabeth's Reign," 1845. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; o, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z: th as in this. (2i:^="See Explanations, p. 23.) CAVENDISH 550 Cavendish, (William,) Duke of Newcastle, an Eng- lish general and author, born in 1592. He was raised to the peerage about 1620, as Baron Ogle, and in 1643 be- came Marquis of Newcastle. In the civil war he com- manded the king's army in the north, and gained several battles in 1643, especially at Atherton Moor. In 1644 Prince Rupert effected a junction with the army at York, and, pretending positive orders from the king, involved the royalists in a decisive defeat at Marston Moor, against the advice of Newcastle. The latter then abandoned the cause and went to France. He returned home in 1660, and was made a duke in 1664. He wrote a treatise on horsemanship, several bad comedies, and other works. Hume represents him as " the ornament of the court and of his order, polite and elegant in his taste." Died in 1676. See Clarendon's " History of the Great Rebellion." Cavendish, (William,) first Duke of Devonshire, an eminent English statesman, eldest son of the third Earl of Devonshire, was born in 1640. In the reign of Charles II. he represented Derby in the Commons, with the title of Lord Cavendish, and opposed the measures of the court. In 1679 he was chosen one of the new privy council. On the death of his father, in 1684, he became Earl of Devonshire. He promoted the accession of William III., who appointed him lord steward of the royal household in 1689, and created him a duke in 1694. He wrote an *' Ode on the Death of Queen Mary," which Dryden is said to have praised, and other works. His mansion at Chatsworth is an admired monument of art and taste. Died in 1707. See Macaulay's " History of England." Cavendish, (Sir William,) the founder of the Eng- lish house of Devonshire, was born about 1505. After he had served Cardinal Wolsey as gentleman-usher, he became a privy councillor of Henry VIII. about 1546. He is the reputed author of a "Life of Wolsey." (See Cavendish, George.) Died in 1557. Cavendish, (William Charles.) See Bentinck. Caventou, kt'vdN''too', (Joseph Bienaime,) a French chemist, born at Saint-Omer in 1797, became a resident of Paris. He published a "New Chemical Nomenclature," (1816,) and an "Elementary Treatise on Pharmacy," (1819.) He was associated with Pelletier in the discovery of sulphate of quinine about 182 ■), for which the Institute awarded them a prize of 10,000 francs in 1827. See QuEUARD, "La France Litteraire." Caviceo, ki-ve-cha'o, (Jacopo,) an Italian priest, born at Parma in 1443. He wrote "II Peregrino," a romance. Died in 151 1. Cavino, kS-vee'no, (Giovanni,) a skilful Italian en- graver, surnamed "the Paduan," and "the prince of for- gers." Antique medals being sought for with avidity by students in his time, he employed his talents in counter- feiting them with success. About 1565 he and Bassiano fabricated a great number of spurious medals, which were bought by the antiquaries as genuine. Cavoie, de, deh kS'vwS', (Louis d'Oger,) Marquis, a French courtier, born in 1640. He was celebrated for his bravery, honour, and politeness, and was admired at court as "the glass of fashion and the mould of form." He accompanied Louis XIV. in his campaigns, and shared his bounty. He was the friend of Turenne and of Racine. Died in 17 16. See Saint-S:mon, "Memoires." Cavolini, kl-vo-lee'nee, (Filtppo,) an Italian natu- ralist, born at Naples in 1756. He became professor of zoology in the University of Naples, and was distinguished for his researches in inarine polypi. He wrote a " Treat- ise on Marine Polypi," one on the "Generation of Fish," (1787,) and other works. Died in 1810. See MoNTiCELLi, "Vita Philippi Cavolini," 1812; Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Cavour, di, de kS-vooR', (Camillo Benso,) Count, an illustrious Italian statesman, born at Turin on the loth of August, 1810, was a son of the Marquis Michele Giuseppe Benso di Cavour, a merchant of Nice, who ac- quired a large fortune in trade and was ennobled by King Charles Albert. His mother was a Swiss or French lady of Geneva, named Adelaide Sellon. The French was the CAKTON language of his infancy. In his youth he assisted his father in the grain-trade, and passed several years in foreign travel. In 1847 he founded, with Count Balbo, a liberal journal, "II Risorgimento," ("The Uprising,") which was very successful. During the war against Austria in 1848-49, he defended the cause of Italian in- dependence in his speeches and editorial articles. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1849, proved himself to be a powerful debater, and succeeded in uni- ting the moderate democrats and liberal conservatives in a party of which he became the leader. He was ap- pointed minister of commerce in 1850, and minister of finance in 1851. In 1852 he became president of the council, or prime minister of Sardinia. He secured the liberty of the press, and favoured religious toleration and free trade. Among the important measures of his admin- istration were his rebellion against papal domination, and his alliance with France and England in the war against Russia in 1855. After the close of that war he devoted his efforts to the liberation and unity of Italy, undismayed by the angry ful mi nations of the Vatican. With the aid of the French emperor, he waged, in 1859, a war against Austria, which resulted in the an- nexation of Lombardy, Tuscany, Parma, and Modena to Sardinia. Cavour resigned in July, 1859, because he was displeased with the treaty of Villa-Franca. He resumed the place of premier in January, i860, and, after the con- quests of Garibaldi in Sicily and Naples, was the first minister of the kingdom of Italy. In the new parliament, which met about the beginning of 1861, his policy and ascendency were fully maintained. A serious disagree- ment occurred between Cavour and Garibaldi on the question of the attack on Venetia which the latter pro- posed ; but they were reconciled by the mediation of Victor Emmanuel. Cavour died, after an illness of a few days, on the 6th of June, 1861. His death was generally deplored as an irreparable loss to Italy. On the next day after his death. Lord Palmerston, in the House of Com- mons, paid the following tribute to his memory: "The moral which is to be drawn from the life of Count Cavour is this, — that a man of transcendent talents, of indomi- table energy, and inextinguishable patriotism, may, by the impulses which his own single mind may give to his countrymen, aiding a righteous cause, and seizing favour- able opportunities, notwithstanding difficulties that at first sight appear insurmountable, confer on his country the greatest and most inestimable benefits." " His great- ness," says the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1 861, "wore the unassuming garb of common sense, — but a common sense of colossal proportions, exalted by perpetual direc- tion to the pursuit of what was great and lofty." He was never married. See " Reminiscences of the Life and Character of Cavour," trans- lated from the French by Edward Romillv; "Cavour, a Me- moir," by Edward Dicey; "Cavour, sein Leben und Wirken," in the " Jahrbuch zum Conversations- Lexikon" for 1859, (published by Brockhaus, Leipsic ;) "London Quarterly Review," July, 1861. Caw'thorne, (James,) an English poet, born at Shef- field in 1719, became master of Tunbridge School about 1744. Among his poems is "The Perjured Lover." Died in 1761. Caw'tpn, (Thomas,) an English Puritan divine and Orientalist, born in Norfolk in 1605. He assisted Wal- ton in his " Polyglot Bible," and Castell in his " Lexicon." He preached for some time in London. Died in 1659. His son Thomas, born in Essex in 1637, was a cler- gyman, and was learned in Oriental languages. He wrote a " Dissertation on the Use of the Hebrew Tongue in Philosophy." Died in 1677. See Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses." Caxes or Cajes, ki'nes, (Eugenio,) a Spanish paint- er, was born at Madrid in 1577. He obtained the title of painter to the king in 1612. Died in 1642. Cax'ton, (William,) an English scholar and printer, celebrated as the first who introduced printing into Eng- land, was born in Kent about 141 2. He was a prominent merchant of London, and about 1442 visited the Low Countries as a commercial agent. In 1464 he was em- ployed by Edward IV. to negotiate a treaty of commerce with the Duke of Burgundy. He received an appoint- ment in the court of the Duchess of Burgundy in 1468, a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; \ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^l, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 551 CEAN-BERMUDEZ and by her order translated from the French a ** History of Troy," which he printed about 1474. This was the first book printed in the English language. The time of his return to England is supposed to have been be- tween 1474 and 1476. He established a printing-office in Westminster Abbey, and printed sixty-four different books, many of which were translated by himself An attempt was made by Richard Atkyns (1664) to deprive Caxton of the honour of being the first to introduce printing into England ; but the documents on which that writer relies to establish his point are, beyond all reason- able question, either erroneous or spurious. Died in 1492. See J. Lewis, "Life of Caxton," 1738 ; Charles Knight, " W. Caxton: a Biography," 1844. Cay. See Caius. Cayet, kt'y^', (Pierre Victor Palma,) a French theologian, born in Touraine about 1520. He was a Protestant in his youth, and was employed as chaplain by Catherine de Bourbon, who took him to court about 1590. He abjured Calvinism in 1595, and in the next year was chosen professor of Hebrew in the College of Navarre, Paris. He wrote many polemical and other works, among which is a " History of the War under Henry IV. from 1589 to 1598." Died in 1610. See NiCERON, "Memoires;" Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Cayla, kk'lt', (Jean Mamert,) a French litterateur and journalist, born at Vigan (Lot) in 1812. He pub- lished, among other works, a volume of " European Cele- brities," and a "History of the City of Constantinople." Cay'ley, (Arthur,) an English writer, published "The Life of Sir Walter Raleigh," (1805,) and a "Me- moir of Sir Thomas More," (1808.) Cayley, (Arthur,) an English mathematician, born at Richmond, Surrey, in 1821, became a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Having studied law, he was called to the bar in 1849, after which he devoted much time to pure mathematics. In 1852 he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. Among his works is a treatise "On the Theory of Linear Transformations." Cayley, (Sir George,) an English scientific writer, born about 1773. He wrote on aerial navigation, and other subjects. Died in 1857. Caylus, de, deh ki'liiss', (Anne Claude Philippe de Tubiere.s, (deh tii'be-aiR',) de Grimoard, (gne'mo- Ir',) de Pestels, (])§s't^,) de Levi, (li've',)) Count, Marquis of Esternay, (Ss't^R^i^',) a French author, born in Paris in 1692. He ajiplied himself with success to the study of antiquities and fine arts, of which he was a liberal patron. In 1742 he was admitted into the Acad- emy of Inscriptions, for which he wrote many valuable antiquarian treatises. Among his principal works are a "Collection of Egyptian, Etruscan, Greek, Roman, and Gallic Antiquities," (7 vols., 1752-67,) "Tableaux drawn from the Iliad, Odyssey, and ^neid," (1757,) and a "Collection of Ancient Paintings after the Designs of Bartoli," with beautiful coloured engravings. Some of his works are illustrated with fine plates engraved by himself. He wrote " Fairy Tales," and other works of fiction. Died in 1765. See Skrievs, "Souvenirs du Comte de Caylus," 1805: C. Le Beau, "filoge historique de M. le Comte de Caylus," 1766. Caylus, de, (Marthe Marguerite de Villette,) Marquise, an accomplished French lady, mother of the preceding, born in Poitou in 1673. '^^'^^ was educated at court as the protegee of her aunt, Madame de Maintenon, and in 1686 was married to the Marquis de Caylus, who died in 1704. She left a work, which was edited by Vol- taire in 1770, entitled "Souvenirs de Madame de Caylus," in which she relates what she had witnessed, with great candour and naivete and in an agreeable style. Died in 1729. See Sainte-Reuve," Causeries du Lundi :" and a Notice prefixed to an edition of her " Souvenirs" by L. S. Auger, 1803. Cayot-Delandre, kt'yo' di'lSNdR', (Francois Ma- rie,) a French antiquary^ born at Rennes in 1796. He wrote on French history and antiquities. Died in 1848. ^ Cayx, ki, (R^mi Jean Baptiste Charles,) a French historian, born at Cahors about 1795. He published a "History of France in the Middle Ages," (1835,) and an "Epitome of the History of Alexander's Successors,"! which were approved by the council of the universit) and used in colleges. About 1840 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, and in 1845 was appointed in- spector-general of studies. Cazal. See Casal, (Manuel Ayres.) Cazales, de, deh kS'zt'l^s', (Edmond,) a French writer and ecclesiastic, son of Jacques Cazales, noticed below, was born at Grenade-sur-Garonne in 1804. He became professor of history at Louvain in 1835, and a deputy to the National Assembly in 1848. He con- tributed articles on political history and literary criticism to the " Revue des Deux Mondes," and published " His- torical Studies on Contemporary Germany," (1853.) Cazales, de, (Jacques Antoine Marie,) an eloquent French royalist, was born at Grenade-sur-Garonne in 1752. In 1789 he was deputed by the noblesse to the States-General, and soon became one of the ablest champions of monarchy. He had never made a public speech in his life until the chance which raised him upon the tribune disclosed to him that he was an orator. He refused to follow his order when it joined the Tiers-Etat in the National Assembly, but afterwards obeyed the command of that body to take part in its deliberations. His speech in defence of the clergy was one of his most brilliant efforts. "The character of his eloquence," says Lamartine, " was that of a desperate cause. He pro- tested more than he debated ; he opposed to the violent triumphs of the Left (gauche) his ironical defiance, his bitter indignation." (" History of the Girondists.") He emigrated in 1792, travelled in Italy, England, etc., and returned to France in 1801. Died in 1805. See M. Chare, "Notice sur la Vie de Cazales," prefixed to his speeches, 1821; Thiers, "History of the French Revolution;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Cazalet, kt^zt'li', (Jean Andr^:,) a French chemist, born in Medoc in 1750 ; died in 1821. Caze, kSz, (Jean Francois,) a French publicist, born at Montauban in 1781; died at Madrid in 185 1. Cazes, kSz, (Pierre Jacques,) a French historical painter, born in Paris in 1676, was a pupil of Boullongne the elder. He was admitted into the Academy in 1704, and acquired a high reputation, though he did not attain the first rank. He adorned many of the churches of Paris with his works, among which are an " Adoration of the Magi," and " Tabitha raised from the Dead." His composition, design, and colouring are praised. Died in 1754. See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Cazotte, kt'zot', (Jacques,) a French poet, born at Dijon in 1720. His principal works are " OUivier," a poem, and the " Lord Impromptu," which were success- ful. His verses entitled "The English Brunette" were ascribed to Voltaire. As a royalist, he was executed by the terrorists in 1 792. See Sainte-Beuve. " Causeries du Lundi." Cazweenee or Cazwini, kiz-wee'nee, written also Cazouyny, Cazwyiiy, or Caswini, (Zacharia ben Muham'mkd,) an Arabian naturalist, born at Casbin, (or Cazwin, whence he derived his name,) in Persia, is called "the Pliny of the Orientals." He wrote an important treatise entitled " The Wonders of Nature," designed to be a resume or summing up of all the best previous works on natural science. This plan is executed in such a philosophic spirit that the work is preferred to the originals which treat of the same subjects. Died in 1283. See Haji-Khalfa, "Bibliographical Dictionary." Cean-Bermudez, thi-^n' b^R-moo'D^th, (Juan Au- GUSTIN,) a Spanish writer on art, born at Gijon, in As- turias, in 1749. He became a resident of Madrid, and a student of architecture and design. Having devoted himself to the history of Spanish art, he published a " Dictionary of the most Eminent Professors of the Fine Arts in Spain," (" Diccionario Historico," etc., 6 vols., 1800,) a " Dialogue on the Art of Painting," " Notices of Spanish Architects and Architecture," (4 vols., 1829,) and other works. He founded an Academy of Painting at Seville. Died about 1830. See Sebastian de Minano," Viede Cean-Bermudez :" Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature;" "London Quarterly Review" for 1 March, 1846. € as k; c as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. {^^^Stt Explanations, p. 23.) CEBA 5 CELAKOWSKY Ceba, cha'bS, (Ansaldo,) an Italian writer, born at Genoa in 1565, published many mediocre works in prose and verse, and two popular tragedies, entitled " Alcippo" and "Gemelle Capuane." Died in 1623. 9e'be§, [Gr. Ke/iw; Fr. C^:hes, sa'bis',] sometimes written Kebes, a Greek philosopher, born at Thebes, was the disciple and friend of Socrates. He is introduced by Plato as one of the interlocutors in the "Phasdon." He wrote several works, one of which is extant, namely, " Pinax," (" The Tablet," or "Picture,") a dialogue on human life, its trials, etc., and which has been often re- printed. Its spirit and style are said to be worthy of a disciple of Socrates. See A. Knoi-l, " Kebes des Thebaners Gemalde ;" Flade, " Ueber den Cebes." Cecchi, chek'kee, (Giovanni Maria,) an eminent Italian comic poet and lawyer, born at Florence in 15 17. He wrote ten comedies, which were printed, and a mul- titude of dramas, (in manuscript.) Among his published plays are "II Corredo," ("The Feast,") and " II Don- zello," ("The Bachelor.") Died in 1587. " This author," says Ginguene, "is worthy to be placed nearly in the same rank as Machiavel and Ariosto, for truth of cha- racter, vivacity of dialogue, and comic power." See Ginguene, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" Negri, "Istoria degli Scrittori Fiorentini." Cecchini, ch§k-kee'nee, (Pietro Maria,) an Italian comic author and actor, born at Ferrara, lived about 1620-50. Cecco d'Ascoli, chek'ko dSs'ko-lee, a learned Italian astrologer, originally named Francesco Stabili, (sti'- be-lee,) was born at Ascoli. He taught astrology at Bo- logna, from which he removed to Florence in 1325. He wrote a Latin commentary on Sacrobosco's "Sphaera Mundi," and a poem called "Acerba," which passed through many editions. It treats of natural science, philosophy, astrology, etc. He was condemned as a heretic by the Inquisition, and was burnt alive in 1327. See TiRABOscHi, "Storiadella Letteratura Italiana ;" Bernini, "Storie degli Eretici," 1707. Cecil, ses'il or sfs'il, (Richard,) an English clergy- man, born in London in 1 748, was ordained a priest in 1777. He became eminent as a preacher, and in 1780 accepted a call to Saint John's, in London. In 1800 he was presented to the livings of Chobham and Bisley, in Surrey. He wrote a "Life of the Rev. John Newton," one of "John Bacon the Sculptor," and a collection of sermons. Died in 18 10. Cecil, (Robert,) Earl of Salisbury, (saulz'ber-e,) an able English statesman, born about 1560, was the second son of Lord Burleigh, and first-cousin of Lord Bacon. He was appointed second secretary of state in 1596, after having been initiated in the mysteries of diplo- macy and court intrigue. At the death of his father, in 1598, he succeeded him as prime minister. James I., who ascended the throne in 1603, retained Cecil as prime minister, and created him Viscount Cranborne in 1604, and Earl of Salisbury in 1605. In 1608 he succeeded Lord Dorset as lord treasurer of England. He was an adroit negotiator, and was regarded as one of the ablest statesmen of his time. His disposition is said to have been cold and selfish. He is censured for promoting the ruin of Raleigh and Essex, who were his rivals. He is charged with having received a pension from the Span- ish government on the conclusion of the peace between England and Spain in 1604. He wrote the "State and Dignity of a Secretary of State." Died in 1612. See Motley, "History of the United Netherlands," vol. ii. chap, xviii. p 359 et seq. ; Gardner, " History of England from 1603 to i6i6," particularly chaps, ii. and x. Cecil, (Lord Robert.) See Cranborne, Lord. Cecil, (William,) Baron Burleigh or Burghleigh, (biir'le,) an eminent English statesman, who was prime minister of England for about forty years, was born at Bourne, in Lincolnshire, in 1520. After graduating at Cambridge, he studied law at Gray's Inn, and married Mildred, daughter of Sir Anthony Cook, director of the king's studies. He was appointed master of requests in 1 547, and secretary of state in 1548 by Lord- Protector Somerset. He refused to co-operate in the exclusion of Mary and Elizabeth from the throne, but signed as a witness an instrument to that effect. On the accession of Mary in 1553 he retired from office and entered Par- liament, where he opposed the measures of the court. When Elizabeth became queen, in 1558, she appointed Cecil secretary of state ; and from that time until his death he was the principal director of the government. "Sir William Cecil," says Hume, "was the most vigi- lant, active, and prudent minister ever known in Eng- land ; and, as he was governed by no views but the in- terests of his sovereign, his authority over her became every day more predominant." He was created Baron Burleigh in 1571, and lord treasurer in 1572. He died in 1598, leaving two sons, Thomas, Earl of Exeter, and Robert, Earl of Salisbury ; also three hundred distinct landed estates. "Lord Burleigh," says Macaulay, "can hardly be called a great man. He was not one of those whose genius and energy change the fate of empires. Nothing that is recorded either of his words or actions indicates intellectual or moral elevation. But his talents, though not brilliant, were of an eminently useful kind. He had a cool temper, a sound judgment, great powers of application, and a constant eye to the main chance. He never deserted his friends until it was very inconve- nient to stand by them, and was an excellent Protestant when it was not very advantageous to be a papist." In sagacity and foresight he seems to have been far inferior to Walsingham and other statesmen of that age. Lord Bmieigh left numerous state papers, letters, etc., many of which have been published. See Motley, " History of the United Netherlands," especially chaps, vi., viii., and xviii. ; Froude, "History of England," vol. v. chap. XXV. ; Arthur Collins, " Life of William Cecil," 1732; Ed- ward Nares, "Memoirs of the Life, etc. of W. Cecil," 3 vols., 182S-32; also Hume, " History of England." Cecile. See Cecilia. Ce-9iPi-a, [Fr. Cecile, si's^l',] Saint, is supposed to have been a Roman virgin who suffered martyrdom in the second or third century. Fortunatus of Poitiers, the most ancient author that speaks of her, states that she died in Sicily about 180 A.D. She is regarded as the patroness of musicians, and is the subject of celebrated paintings by Raphael and Domenichino. See Baillet, "Vies des Saints;" Mrs. Jameson, "Sacred and Legendary Art." Cecilianus, See Donatus, Bishop. Cecilius. See C/ecilius. Cecille, si'siK, (Jean Baptlste Thomas M^d6e,) a French vice-admiral, born at Rouen in 1 787. He was raised to the rank of senator in 1852. Cecina. See C/^:cina. 9e'crop,s or Ke'krops, [Gr. KinpuTp ; Fr. C:6crops, Sci'kRops',] a hero of the Pelasgian race, who, according to ancient legends, was the first king and legislator of Attica. He was regarded as the author of the earliest civilized customs and institutions of the Athenians, whom he instructed in marriage, agriculture, navigation, and the worship of Jupiter. The people of Attica were some- times called Cecrop'idae. See Thirlwall's " History of Greece." Cedmon. See C^edmon. Ce-dre'nus, (Gp:orgius,) \Teo)pyioc 6 Ke6p7]v6^,] a Greek monk, supposed to have been the author or com- piler of a chronicle from the creation to 1057 A.D., en- titled Xvvo}pig LGTopiuv, "A Synopsis of History." It is written without judgment and in a barbarous style. Cei, cha'ee, (Francesco,) an Italian poet, was born at Florence. His contemporaries ranked him with Pe- trarch, but his fame has since declined. He wrote sonnets, canzone, etc. He died in or after 1523. Ceillier, si'ye-i', (R]^:mi,) a French Benedictine monk, born at Bar-le-I)uc in 1688. He became titular prior of Flavigny, and wrote a " History of Sacred and Ecclesi- astic Authors," (23 vols., 1729-63,) which is esteemed for accuracv, and is more complete than that of Dupin. Died in 1761. See QuiiRARD, "La France Litteraire." Celakowsky, chi-lS-kov'skee, (Frantisek LADHi- LAVV,) a Bohemian poet and philologist, born at Strako- nice, or vStrakonitz, in 1799. He became an enthusiastic student of the Slavonic languages, and in 1822 began to publish a collection of Slavonic national songs. A few a, e, T, 6, u, y, k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y. sAor^; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; CELER 553 CELSIUS {ears later he was professor of Bohemian literature in the Jniversity of Prague. About 1832 he was deprived of this place for having censured the Czar Nicholas in one of his writings. He translated some Russian national songs, and published popular original poems, one of which is "The Hundred-Leaved Rose." From 1842 to 1848 he was professor at Breslau. He died at Prague in 1852. Ce'ier, a Roman architect of the first century, em- ployed by Nero. Celer and Severus were the architects of the famous palace called the Golden House, built by order of Nero on Mounts Palatine and Esquiline. Its site was afterwards occupied by the Coliseum. Celeste, si'list', or Celeste-Elliot, (Madame,) a famous dansetise and actress, born in Paris about 18 14. At the age of fifteen she made a successful debut in the United States, where she was married to Mr. Elliot. She next visited England, and performed in London with applause. Since 1837 she has lived in London, and has taken a part in the dramas at Drury Lane and other theatres. Celesti, chk-]§s'tee, (Andrea,) Cavaliere, an emi- nent painter, born at Venice in 1637. He painted history, landsca])es, and genre, (at Venice,) and excelled in rich- ness of colouring and in design. Among his works are "The Pool of Bethesda," and an "Adoration of the Magi." His landscapes are highly prized. Died in 1706. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Celestin. See Cei.estine. Cel'es-tine or Cel-es-ti'nus, [Fr. Celestin, sil^s'- tiN'; It. Celestino, ch4-l§s-tee'no,] a Roman by birth, was chosen pope in 422 a.d. as successor* to Boniface I. By his influence a council was called at Ephesus, and Nestorius was there deposed. He died in 432, and was succeeded by Sixtus III. Celestine II., Pope, was originally called Guido di Casieli.o, from his birthplace, Citta di Castello, in Tuscany. He succeeded Innocent II. in September, 1 143, and died in March, 1144. Celestine III., (Giacinto Orsini — oR-see'nee,) suc- cessor of Clement III., was elected pope in 1 191, at the age of eighty-five. He crowned the emperor Henry VI., stimulated the princes of Europe to join the crusade, and excommunicated Leojjold, Duke of Austria, for de- taining in prison Richard Coeur de Lion. Died in 1198. Celestine IV., a native of Milan, was elected as suc- cessor to Gregory IX. in September, 1241, but died about three weeks later, before he had been crowned. His original name was Goffredo Castiglione, (gof-fRa'do kSs-til-yo'ni.) See Artaud de Montor, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes." Celestine V. (Pietko da Murrone (di moor-ro'ni) or Morone) was born in Apulia in 121 5. After the death of Nicholas IV. the cardinals failed to unite on a successor for twenty-seven months. In 1294 they chose an ignorant monk or hermit, who took the name of Cel- estine. A few months after his election, he abdicated his office, which was too heavy a burden for him. He was succeeded by Boniface VIII., who confined him in prison until he died, in 1296. See V. Spinei.ii, "Vita del S. Pietro del Morone Papa," 1664; L. Marino, "Vita di S. Celestino V.," 1637. Celestino or Celestinus. See Celestine. Ce-les'tl-us, written also Coelestius or Caelestius, a friend and coadjutor of Pelagius. He went from Rome to Carthage in 409 A.D., soon after which he was condemned by the Council of Carthage for denying the dogma of original sin, and other doctrines. He appealed to the pope, Zosimus, who at first recognized that his con- fession of faith was Catholic, but afterwards concurred with the Council of Carthage. He found a protector in Nestorius, at Constantinople, and presented himself at the Council of Ephesus in 430 a.d., but was not received. (See Pklaghjs.) Celio Magno, cha'le-o min'yo, au eminent Italian lyric poet, who flourished about 1600. Celius. See CyEuus. Cellamare, ch^l-la-mi'ri, (Antonio Giudice,) Duke of Giovenazzo, (jo-vi-njt'so,) Prince of Cellamare, a dis- tinguished politician, born in Naples in 1657. In the war of the Spanish succession, which began in 1701, he fought for Philip V., and in 1 7 12 was made a cabinet minister. He was sent in 171 5 as ambassador to France, where he was the master-spirit of a conspiracy against the regent Orleans. Having been detected, he was sent home in 1 7 18, and became captain-general of Old Castile, Died in 1733. See Saint-Simon, " Memoires :" Vatout, "La Conspiration de Cellamare, episode de la Regence," 1832. Cellarius, s&l-ld're-vis, (Andreas,) a German geo- grapher and mathematician, originally named Keller, (kel'ler,) became rector of the College of Horn. He published "Military Architecture," (1656,) and a "De- scription of Poland," (1659.) Cellarius, (Christoph,) an eminent German phi- lologist and author, whose proper name was Keller, (keKler,) born at Schmalkalden in 1638, was appointed rector of the College of Weimar in 1673, and professor of eloquence and history in the University of Halle in 1693. He published good editions of many Latin classics, and several original works. His "Antibarbarus Latinus," on the Latinity of the middle ages and subsequent period, appeared in 1695. His most celebrated work is " An- cient Geography," ("Notitia Orbis Antiqui," 1 701,) which was more complete and extensive than any previous work on that subject. " The merit of this work," says Walckenaer, "does not respond to its celebrity." Died at Halle in 1707. See August Hermann Francke, " Leichenpredigt auf C. Cel- larium, nebst dessen Lebenslauf," 1708. Cellarius, (Johann,) a German Protestant scholar, born at Kundstadt in 1496, was professor of Hebrew at Louvain, Tiibingen, and Wittenberg. He became eminent as a preacher at Leipsic, and wrote several works on theology. Died at Dresden in 1542. See JocHER, " Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." Cellini, ch^l-lee'nee, (Benvenuto,) a celebrated Ital- ian artist, born at Florence in 1500. He learned music in obedience to his father's will ; but he preferred the arts of gold-worker, engraver, and sculptor, in which he excelled. Having wounded a man in a quarrel, he fled from Florence to Rome, and fought in defence of that city in 1527, when it was stormed by Constable Bourbon, whom he boasted of having killed on that occasion. He was employed by Pope Clement VII. as engraver to the mint, and he engraved medals with great success. He afterwards worked in Paris for Francis I., and in Flor- ence for Cosimo de' Medici. Among his master-pieces is a bronze group of "Perseus and Medusa." He died at Florence in 1570, leaving an entertaining and curious autobiography, ("Vita di B. Cellini," 1720,) which was translated into German by Goethe, (1811,) into French by Farjasse, (1833,) and into English by Roscoe, (1822.) See, also, B. Gamba, " Raccordi di B. Cellini," 1831 ; Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." Celnart, sSKntR', (Elisabeth F^licie,) a French writer of educational works, born at Moulins in 1796. Cels, sSl, (Jacques Martin,) a French botanist, born at Versailles in 1743. He formed a fine botanic garden near Paris, which furnished Ventenat the subject of his book entitled " Jardin de Cels." He was a member of the Institute, had a large part in the preparation of the rural code, and published "Instructions" on agriculture. Died in 1806. See Silvestre, "Notice sur Cels," 1806. Celse. See Celsus. Celsius, seKse-us or sgl'she-us, (Anders,) a Swedish astronomer, a grandson of Magnus, noticed below, was born at Upsal in 1 701. He was chosen professor of astro- nomy at Upsal in 1730. In 1736 he was selected by the French government to assist Maupertuis and others in the measurement of the length of a degree in Lapland. He afterwards erected an observatory at Upsal, where he extended his reputation by his observations and by his writings on astronomy. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and a member of other learned socie- ties or institutions. Died in 1744. See HoEPKEN, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver A. Celsius," 1745. Celsius, (Magnus Nils,) a Swedish savant, born in Helsingland in 162 1. He became professor of mathe- matics in Upsal, and wrote a treatise on Fish, and an- other on the Plants of Upsal. Died in 1679. ■e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) CELSIUS 554 CENTO RIO Celsius, (Olaus,) a Swedish botanist and divine, born at Upsal in 1670, was the son of the preceding, and the father or uncle of Andrew, above noticed. He became professor of theology and Oriental languages in Upsal, and gained distinction by his researches to identify plants mentioned in the Bible. His capital work, " Sacred Bo- tany," (" Hierobotanicon," 1745,) contains the results of those labours, and displays great erudition. He is re- garded as the founder of natural history in Sweden, and had the honour of directing the early studies of Linnasus, whom he received into his family. He pub- lished a " Flora of Upsal," and several works on theo- logy, antiquities, etc. Died in 1756. See A. Baeck, " Aniinnelse-Tal ofver O. Celsius," 1758. Celso. See Celsus. Cel'sus, [Fr. Celse, slls ; It. Celso, chSKso,] an Epicurean philosopher, who lived in the second cen- tury, in the reign of the Antonines, and was probably a Roman. He was a friend of Lucian. He is supposed to be the author of the attack on Christianity called " A6}of aA?7&7f," (a "True Discourse,") which was ably confuted by Origen, and which has not come down to us. Some have regretted that the early Christians in their zeal destroyed the work of Celsus, which might now be used to refute some arguments of infidels. He is said to have been the first pagan author that wrote against the Christian religion, and to have used the weapons of sophistry and irony with formidable power. See Origen, "Adversus Celsum ;" Neander, " Geschlchte der Christliche Kirche." Celsus, (Aurelius Cornelius,) a celebrated Latin writer on medicine, of whose history little is known. It is supposed that he lived in Rome in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. Of numerous works which he wrote on rhetoric, agriculture, medicine, etc., only one has been preserved, — namely, his excellent treatise " De Medicina," in eight books. His style is elegant, con- cise, clear, and equal in purity to that of the classic authors of the Augustan age. He adopts mostly the doctrines of Hippocrates and Asclepiades, (of Bithy- nia,) and treats impartially the prevailing sects of his time, the Empirics, Methodists, and Dogmatics. His treatise has been much used as a text-book in modern times. Fifteen editions were issued in the sixteenth century. See C. Kissel, "Celsus, eine historische Monograpbie," 1844; M. W. Schilling, "Quaestio A. C. Celsi Vita," 1824; F. Valori, " Dissertatio de A. C. Celso," 1835; Haller, "Bibliotheca Medica Practica." Celsus, (Minos,) [It. Minio Celsi, mee'ne-o cheKsee,] a learned Italian Protestant, was born at Sienna about 1500. He resided at Bale as corrector of the press, and published a Latin treatise against the capital punishment of heresy, (1577.) Celsus, (P. Juventius,) a Roman jurist of the second century, was the son of Juventius Celsus, who was also a jurist, mentioned by Uljiian. Celsus the Younger was a favourite of Nerva and of Trajan, and was consul the second time in 129 A.D. He wrote a work entitled "Digesta," fragments of which are preserved in the compilation of Justinian. Celsus, (P. Marius,) a Roman general, who became consul in 62 A.D. In the year 68 he obtained command of an army under Galba, after whose death he gained the favour of Otho, whom he served with fidelity in the war against Vitellius. He was one of the generals defeated by Caecina and Valens at Bedriacum in 69 A.D. Cel'sus Al-bin-o-va'nus, a Roman poet, was a friend of Horace, who addressed to him one of his Epistles. Celtes, tslKt^s, (Conrad,) a German poet and scholar, surnamed PRO rucrus, (pRO-toot'se-iis,) was born at Wip- feld in 1459. His family name was Meissel, (mTs's&l.) He received the title of imperial poet, or poet-laureate, about 1487. He was afterwards professor of eloquence in Vienna. He wrote the "Art of Making Verses," ("Ars Versificandi,") a volume of Odes, a poem on the customs of Germany, (" De Situ et Moribus Germaniae,") and other works. Died in 1508. See Vossius, "De Historicis Latinis;" Melchior Adam, "Vitae Eruditorum ;" P. Ekrrman, " Dissertatio de C. Celle ejiisque Sodali- tate literaria," 1:763 ; Kluepfel, " Programmata II. de Vitaet Scriptis C. Celtis Protucii," 1827. Cenci, ch^n'chee, (Beatrice,) a Roman lady of patri- cian birth, famous for her beauty and tragical fate. Her father was an infamous person, who treated his family with such cruelty that several of them conspired and caused him to be assassinated. She was executed for that crime at Rome in 1599. Her story has been dra- matized by Shelley. See MuRATORi, " Annalcs;" "Vita de B. Cenci tratta dal Mano- scritto antico," Rome, 1849. Cennini, ch^n-nee'nee, (Bernardo,) a Florentine goldsmith, is reputed to have been the first who intro- duced the art of printing into Florence. A "Commen- tary of Servius on Virgil" (1471) is the only extant work printed by him. See F. Fantozzi, " Memorie biografiche di B. Cennini," 1839. Cennini, (Cennino,) an old Italian painter, born at Colle, in Tuscany, about 1360. He wrote an esteemed "Treatise on Painting," first printed in Rome in 1821. ^ He was living in 1437. Cen-so-ri''nus, a Latin grammarian, who lived in the reigns of Alexander Severus and Gordian, and wrote, about 238 A.D., a small work, entitled "On the Natal Day," ("De Die natali,") which is useful in chronology. It displays learning and good judgment. Censorinus, (Appius Claudius,) was chosen by the army Emperor of Rome in 269 A.D., after having been twice consul. He was killed by his mutinous soldiers a few days after his elevation. Censorinus, (C. Marcius,) a Roman general, was a partisan of Marius in the civil war. He killed the con- sul Octavius in 87 B.C., and commanded an army which was defeated by Pompey in the year 82, soon after which he was taken prisoner and killed. Cen-tau'ri, [ Eng. Cen'taurs ; Fr. Centaures, s&N't5R'; Gr. KevravpoL, supposed to be derived from KEVTeu, to "pierce" or "goad," and ravpog, a "bull," in allusion, perhaps, to their driving off the cattle of the neighbouring districts,] a fabulous race of animals, half men and half horses, said to have been the offspring of Ixi^on and a cloud, (see IxiON,) and to have lived in Thes- saly. The battle of the Centaurs and the Lapithae was a favourite subject with the ancient Greek artists. In the "Iliad" the Centaurs are called ^pec, i.e. drjpe^, or "wild beasts :" the idea of their compound nature — of their being half men and half horse — was the invention of a later age. It has been conjectured that the fable of the Centaurs originated among a people who had never seen men on horseback, and who mistook the horse and rider for one animal. (See Palaephatus, " De Incredibilibus.") Centenera, thgn-ti-na'rS, (Martin del Barco,) a mediocre Spanish poet, born in Old Castile. He took part in a military expedition to South America in 1573, and wrote a description of the same in Spanish verse. See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature." Centeno, th§n-ta'no, (Diego,) a Spanish officer, born in Castile in 1505, obtained command of an army in Peru, and was defeated at Guarina (or Huarina) by Gonzalo in 1547. Died in 1549. Centlivre, sent-liv'er or sent-lee'ver, (Susanna,) an English dramatic writer, born about 1675, was the daugh- ter of Mr. Freeman, of Lincolnshire. She was thrice married, and her third husband was J. Centlivre, chief cook to Queen Anne. She wrote numerous successful comedies, among which were "The Busybody," "The Wonder," "A Bold Stroke for a Wife," also "The Per- jured Husband," a tragedy. She was noted for wit and beauty. Died about 1723. See CiBBER, " Lives of tlie Poets;" Baker, " Biographia Dra- matica ;" "Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by Louisa S. Costello, 1844. Centofanti, chln-to-fln'tee, (Silvestro,) an Italian professor and writer, born at Calci, near Pisa. He published a poem "On Perfect Sovereignty," (1814,) in honour of Ferdinand III., "QEdipus," a tragedy, (1830,) " Stanzas on Dante," and other minor works. He acquired a high reputation as professor of history and philosophy in the University of Pisa from 1842 to 1848, and in the latter year was deprived of the chair on account of his liberal political principles. Centorio degli Ortensi, chln-to're-o diKyee or- tSn'see, (Ascagno,) an Italian writer, born at Rome, a, e, T, 6, u, y, /on^; h, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, short; a, i, o, obscure; fdr, fSU, fdt; m^t; ndt; good; moon; ) CEO 555 CERESOLA served in the army many years with honour. He wrote a volume of verses, ("Amorose Rime,") and two esteemed works, entitled " Memoirs of the War of Transylvania," {1565,) and "Memoirs of the Affairs of Europe," (1569.) See GiNGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Ceo, do.dosa'o, [Fr. Du Ciel, dii se-§K,] (Violante,) a Portuguese poetess, born at Lisbon in 1 601, was called " the Tenth Muse." She produced the " Portuguese Par- nassus of Divine and Human Poetry," {" Parnaso Lusi- taneo de divinos et humanos Versos,") and other admired poems. At the age of sixteen she entered a convent. Died in 1693. See BowRiNG, "Ancient Poetry and Romances of Spain ;" Long- fellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Ceolfrid, choKfrid, (?) or Ceolfirth, an Anglo-Saxon writer, born in Northumbria about 642 A.D.; died in 716. ' Cephale. See Cephalus. Ce-phaTi-on or Ceph-a-lae'on, [Kf^aA/wv or Kf(^a- "kaiuv,] a Greek historian, supposed to have lived in the second century. He wrote an epitome of general history from the time of Ninus to that of Alexander the Great. Ceph'a-lus, [Gr. Ke^aAof ; Fr. Cephale, si'fil',] a personage of the Greek mythology, was the husband of Procris. Incited by jealousy, she watched him when he was hunting, and he killed her by accident. Cephalus, [Kc0a?.of,] an eminent Athenian orator, who flourished about 400 B.C. and contributed largely to the overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants. According to some, he was the father of Lysias the orator. Cephisodore. See Cephisodorus. Ce-phis-o-do'rus, [Gr. Kr/cptaodupoc; Fr. Cephiso- dore, sa'fe'zo'doR',] an eminent Athenian orator, was a disciple of Isocrates, for whom he wrote an apology against Aristotle. He was perhaps the same with Cephisodorus, author of a " History of the Sacred War." Cephisodorus, a celebrated Greek painter, men- tioned by Pliny, is supposed to have lived about 420 B.C. Cephisodote. See Cephisodotus. Ceph-i-sod'o-tus, [Gr. K/^ench advocate, born at Rheims in 1800, was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1831, 1837, and 1844. About the end of 1857 he became procureur- general at the imperial court of Paris. Chalais, de, Prince. See Talleyrand, (Henri de.) Chalbos, shtl'bo', (Francois,) a French general, born at Cubieres ; died in 1803. ■€Jhal-9id'I-us, a Platonic philosopher, of whose na- tivity and life nothing is known. He is supposed to have lived between the beginning of the fourth and the end of the sixth century. He produced a Latin version of the first part of Plato's "Timaeus," with a learned commentary on the same. It is doubtful whether he was a Christian or a pagan. See Cave, " Historia Literaria." Chalcondylas. See Chalcondyles. •ehal-con'dj^-las, [Fr. Chalcondyle, ktl'k6N'dll' ] (Dembitrius,) a learned Greek, born at Athens about 1424. Invited by Lorenzo de' Medici, he went to Flor- ence about 1480, and there taught Greek until the death of that prince in 1492. He then became professor oi Greek in Milan, where he died about 15 10. The first edition of Homer ever printed was edited by Chalcon- dylas in 1488. See P. Giovio, " Elogia ;" C. F. Borner, " Programma de D. Chalcondyle," 1711. Chalcondyle. See Chalcondylas. ■ehal-con''dy-le§ or -ehal-con'dy-las, (Laon'icus or Nicola'us,) [Gr. AaoviKoc or NiKo'Auog Xa/iKovdv'Ar/^,] an able Byzantine historian and statesman, was a native of Athens, and a relative of Demetrius, noticed above. In 1446 he was ambassador from John VII. Palaeologus to Sultan Murad II. He wrote a "History of the Turks and of the Byzantine Empire from 1298 to 1463," which is an important work and considered reliable. His name is sometimes written Chalcocondyles. See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Graeca;" Von Hammer, "Histoiro de I'Empire Ottoman." Chales. See Challes, (Claude F. Millet de.) Chaies. See Chasles. Chalgrin, shtl'gRiN', (Jean FRANgois Th^ir^se,) an eminent French architect, born in Paris in 1739. Hav- ing gained the grand prize of the Academy, he went to Italy with a royal pension. Among his principal works are the College of France, many hotels of Paris, the restoration of the Luxembourg Palace, and the "Arc de rfitoile," a magnificent triumphal arch at Paris. He was a member of the Institute. Died in 1811. See Viei^ "Notice sur J. F. T. Chalgrin," 1814. Chalier, sht'le-i', (Marie Joseph,) a violent French Jacobin, born near Suza, Piedmont, in 1747. He was a merchant in Lyons when the Revolution began. He became the leader of the Jacobins of that city, and a fa- natical admirer of Marat. A plot which he had formed to massacre the aristocrats having been detected, he was guillotined at Lyons in 1793. See Thiers, " Histoire de la Revolution." Chalkhill, chauk'il, (John,) the supposed author of a pastoral poem published in 1683 by Izaak Walton, with the title of "Thealma and Clearchus." Some critics believe this work was written by Walton, as his state- ment respecting the authorship is not supported by other evidence. Chalkley, chauk'le, (Thomas,) a minister of the So- ciety of Friends, born in London in 1675, removed to Pennsylvania about 1700. He resided at Frankford, near Philadelphia. While on a religious visit to the West Indies, he died in Tortola about 1742, leaving an interesting journal of his life, which was published in 1747. Challamel, sht'lS'mgK, (Jean Baptiste Marie Au- GUSTIN,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1818, published "A Summer in Spain," (1843,) a "Popular History of France, the Revolution, and Napoleon," (1851,) and other works. ■. Challan, sht'16N',( Antoine Didier Jean Baptiste,) a French lawyer, born at Meulan in 1754. He was elected to the Council of Five Hundred in 1798, was president of the Tribunat in 1802, and served in the legislative body from 1807 to 1814. He was the author e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f3r, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; CHALLE $6i CHJLONER or redadeur of the act by which the latter declared that Bonaparte was deposed in 1814. Died in 1831. Challe, shSl, (Charles Michel Ange,) a painter and architect, born in Paris in 17 18. He became pro- fessor of perspective in the Academy, (i753>) and de- signer for the cabinet of the king. His fine taste and skill in antique monuments procured for him also the direction of public festivals. Died in 1778. Challes, de, deh shtl, (Claude Francois Milliet,) a Frencli mathematician, born at Chambery in 1621, was professor of mathematics in the Jesuits' College at Lyons. His principal work is a *' Course of Mathematics," (1674,) which was highly prized at the time. Died in 1678. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Chal'lis, (Rev. James,) an English divine, born in 1803, became professor of astronomy in the University of Cambridge about 1836. He published a work entitled "Creation in Plan and Progress," (1861.) Chal'lpn-^r, (Richard,) an English Catholic writer, born at Lewes, Sussex, in 169 1. He was made coadjutor to Petre, the titular Bishop of London, in 1 741, and suc- ceeded him in 1758. He wrote a "Church History," the "Grounds of the Old Religion," and other works against the Protestants. Died in 1781. See J. Barnard, "Life of R. Challoner," 1784. Chalmel, shSl'm^K, (Jean Louis,) a French repub- lican and historian, born at Tours in 1756; died in 1829. Chalmers, chiKmerz or chaw'merz, (Alexander,) a British editor and critic, born at Aberdeen in 1 759. About 1778 he came to London, where he wrote for literary periodicals, and edited the "Spectator," "Tatler," and various other works. His edition of Shakspeare (1809) is commended. He edited a "General Biographical Dictionary," (32 vols., 1812-17.) Died in 1834. See "Gentleman's Magazine" for February, 1835; Chambers, " Bio5;raphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Chalmers, (George,) a Scottish writer and lawyer, born at Fochabers in 1742. He resided many years in London, and was a clerk of the board of trade from 1786 until his death. He wrote " Political Annals of the United Colonies," a " Life of Mary Queen of Scots," and various other works. He devoted many years to a great topo- graphical and historical account of Great Britain, called "Caledonia," (1807-24,) which is said to be more elabo- rate and copious than any work on British history or antiquities which ever came from one author. ("London Quarterly Review" for November, 1810.) Died in 1825. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Chal'm^rs, [Scottish pron. chaw'merz,] (Rev. Tho- mas,) the most eminent Scottish divine of the present century, was born at Anstruther, in Fifeshire, on the 17th of March, 1780. He was a son of John Chalmers, a dyer, ship-owner, and general merchant. He entered the University of Saint Andrew's in 1791, and acquired great proficiency in mathematics, which was his favourite sci- ence. Even after he had been enrolled as a student of divinity, (1795,) he gave more attention to geometry than to theology. He was licensed as a minister of the .Scot- tish Church in 1799; after which he passed two winters in attending the lectures of Dugald Stewart, Robison, Playfair, and Hope in Edinburgh. At this time his thirst for literary distinction was greater than his interest in vital religion. \\\ the autumn of 1802 he became assistant professor of mathematics at Saint Andrew's, and "threw himself into the duties of the mathematical classes," says Mr. Hanna, " with all the fervour of an overflowing enthu- siasm." He was ordained minister of Kilmany in 1803. In 1807 he published an " Inquiry into the Extent and Stability of the National Resources," which was received with favour, and in 1809 became a contributor to the " Edinburgh Encyclopaedia," for which he wrote an ex- cellent article "On Christianity." About this time a great change was effected in his spiritual life, and in his religious principles, which had been anti-Evangelical. He married Miss Grace Pratt in 1812. Having acquired a wide reputation for eloquence and wisdom, he was elected minister of the Tron Church in Glasgow, to which he removed in 1815. In 1816 he delivered, on Astronomy in its Connection with Religion, a series of discourses, which were greatly admired. They were published in 1817, and ran through nine editions within the first year. **To this day," says his biographer, "they command a larger sale than any other portion of Dr. Chalmers's writ- ings." He became the most celebrated pulpit orator of Scotland, or probably of Great Britain, during the eight years which he passed in Glasgow. He appears ro have wisely estimated the popular applause which he so largely shared, the dangers of which lie thus described : "There is a far-sounding popularity, which is a most worthless article, . . . which, by elevating man above his fellows, places him in a region of desolation, where he stands a conspicuous mark for the shafts of malice, and envy, and detraction, — a popularity which, with its head among storms and its feet on the treacherous quicksands, has nothing to lull the agonies of its totter- ing existence but the hosannas of a drivelling generation." In 1819 he was translated to the parish of Saint John's, Glasgow. He accepted in 1823 the chair of iTJoral philo- sophy at Saint Andrew's, where he remained about five years. From 1828 to 1843 ^^^^ professor of theology in the University of Edinburgh. During this period he produced many important works, among which are his " Political Economy," (1832,) and the Bridgewater treat- ise " On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man," (1833.) Dr. Chal- mers was the principal chief of the " Evangelical" party in the controversy which resulted in the disruption of the Church of Scotland in 1843. He and his friends then seceded from the Established Church, and organized what is known as the "Free Church." He was a cor- responding member of the French Institute. Died in Edinburgh in May, 1847. See "Memoirs of his Life and Writings," 4 vols., 1850-52, pub- lished by his son-in-law, Mr. Hanna, who has also edited his posthu- mous works ; Francis Wavland, " Memoirs of the Christian La- bours of Thomas Chalmers ;" " North British Review" for August, 1847, February, 1848, May, 1852, and November, 1S56 ; " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1832; "London Quarterly Review" for Oc- tober, 1852; "Blackwood's Magazine" for May, 1853; "Eraser's Magazine" for August, 1S47, and July, 1852; Rev. Robert Steel, "Burning and Shining Lights." Chal'on, (Alfred Edward,) an English portrait and historical painter of the present century. He painted the portrait of Lady Russell, and designed some of the figures of Finden's "Gallery of the Graces," (London, 1832.) He has also designed illustrations for the works of Sir Walter Scott. Chal'ou or CharTon, (John James,) an English painter of genre, brother of the preceding, born about 1785 ; died in 1854. Chal'pn-^r, (Edward,) D.D., son of Sir Thomas, born at Chiswick in 1590, became chaplain to James I., and principal of Alban Hall, Oxford. Died in 1625. Chaloner, (James,) a brother of the preceding, wrote a "Description of the Isle of Man." He was a member of the Long Parliament, and one of the judges who tried Charles I. Died in 1661. Chaloner, (Thomas,) a brother of Edward and James, noticed above, became a member of the Long Parlia- ment, and sat as judge in the trial of Charles I. At the restoration (1660) he was excepted as a regicide from the amnesty, and escaped to Holland, where he died, it is supposed, about 1662. See Wood, " Athens Oxonienses." Chaloner, (Sir Thomas,) an eminent English states- man and author, born in London about 15 15. About 1 541 he accompanied Charles V. in his disastrous expe- dition against Algiers, and nearly perished by shipwreck. For his gallant conduct at Musselburgh in 1547 he was knighted. Soon after the accession of Elizabeth (1558) he was employed with credit as ambassador to Ferdinand I. of Germany, and a few years later became minister at the court of Spain. He wrote, in Latin, a work "On the Right Ordering of the English Commonwealth," and some Latin verses. Died in 1 565. See "Biographia Britannica." Chaloner, (Sir Thomas,) a son of the preceding, and father of Edward, James, and Thomas, noticed above, was born in 1559. He became a favourite of James I., who appointed him, in 1603, director of the education and household of Prince Henry, which position he held until the death of Henry. He was author of a treatise on the virtue of Nitre. Died in 161 5. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 36 562 CHAMBERS CH A LOT A IS Chalotais, de la, d?h It sht'lo't^', (Louis Reni^ de Caradeuc, deh kt'rt'duk',) a French lawyer and magis- trate, born at Rennes in 1701, became attorney-general at that place. He contributed to the suppression of the Jesuits by a compte-retidu which he read before the par- liament at Rennes in 1761. It produced much excitement. For his part in a quarrel between the court and parliament he was imprisoned in 1765, and, after a long and famous trial, was exiled to Saintes. He wrote an " Essay on National Education," which was praised by Vpltaire and Grimm. Died in 1785, Chalvet, shSl'vi', [Lat. Calven'tius,] (Mathieu,) a French scholar, born in Auvergne in 1528, produced a translation of Seneca. Died in 1607. Chalybaeus. See Chalyhaus. Chalybaus or Chalybaeus, Ka-le-ba'us, (Heinrich MoRiTZ,) a German philosopher, born at Pfaffroda, in Saxony, in 1796. He published in 1836 a "History of the Development of Speculative Philosophy from Kant to Hegel," which was well received. In 1839 he became professor of philosophy in the University of Kiel. His principal work is a " System of Speculative Ethics, or Philosophy of the Family, of the State, and of Morality as connected with Religion," (1850, 2 vols.) Cham. See Ham. Chambard, shdN'btR', (Louis Leopold,) a French sculptor, born at Saint-Amour (Jura) about 1812, gained the grand prize in 1837. Among his works are "A Girl "listening to the Murmur of a Shell," and a '* Cupid Chained," (1857.) Chambarlhac, de, dehshSN'bSR^ltk', (Jean Jacques Vital,) a French general, born in 1754; died in 1826. Cham'ber, (John,) an English physician, who prac- tised in London about 1520. He became physician to Henry VIII., and was one of the founders of the College of Physicians. Died in 1549. Chamberet, sh6N'bRi', (Jean Baptiste,) a French medical writer, born at Limoges in 1779. He was one of the editors of the " Dictionary of Medical Sciences," and of the "Encyclopedic Methodique." Chamberlain. See Chamberlen, (Hugh.) Chamberlain or Chamberlayne, cham'ber-lin, (Robert,) an English poet, wrote epigrams, comedies, pastorals, etc. Died in 1637. Chamberlain or Chamberlayne, (William,) an English poet and physician, born in Dorsetshire in 161 9. He wrote "Love's Victory," a tragi-comedy, (1658,) and "Pharronida, a Heroic Poem," (1659.) Southey calls him "a poet who has told an interesting story in uncouth rhymes, and mingles sublimity of thought and beauty of expression with the quaintest conceits and most awkward inversions." Died in 1689. ;v^ii>xlU See Campbell, " Specimens of the British Poets." ' ' ** Chamberlaine or Chamberlayne, cham'ber-lin, (Edward,) an English writer, born in Gloucestershire in 1616, was tutor to the Duke of Grafton. He wrote, besides other works, "The Present State of England," (1668,) partly statistical, (often reprinted.) Died in 1703- Chamberlaine, (John,) F.R.S., a son of the preced- ing, was an excellent linguist. He translated several works from the Dutch and French, among others, "The Lives of French Philosophers," by Fontenelle ; and he continued the publication of his father's work, above named. Died in 1723. Chamberlayne. See Chamberlain and Cham- berlaine. Cham'ber-len or Chamberlain, (Hugh,) an Eng- lish physician, born in 1664, was the inventor of an obstetric forceps, and practised in London with success. He was noted for his skill as an accoucheur. He wrote several treatises, one of which is named " Practice of Phvsic." Died in 1728. dham'bers, (David,) a Scottish historian, born about •1530. He was an adherent of Queen Mary, who in 1564 created him a privy councillor and lord of session, with the title of Lord Ormond. About 1568 he was removed from office, and retired to France, where he published, in French, a " History of the Kings of France, England, and Scotland," and a few other works. Died in 1592. See CyAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Cham'b^rs, (Ephraim,) the author of Chambers's " Cyclopaedia," was born at Kendal, in England. He served an apprenticeship with Senex, a globe-maker of London. In 1728 he produced the first edition of his " Cyclopaedia," in two volumes, which was very success- ful and speedily procured him a Fellowship in the Royal Society. It was the most complete and extensive work of the kind that had appeared, and suggested the idea of the great French " Encyclopedic" of Diderot. The most of the articles were written by the editor himself, who was a learned and very industrious compiler. The sixth edition was enlarged by Dr. Rees, (1785,) who also made Chambers's work the basis of a more extensive one, called " Rees's Cyclopaedia." Died in 1740. Chambers, (George,) an English painter, who ex- celled in marine views, was born at Whitby about 1780. Having learned the trade of house-painter, he went to London, where he worked seven years on Horner's Panorama of London. He painted battle-scenes, which were much admired, and was appointed marine painter to William IV. and to his queen. Among his works is the "Bombardment of Algiers in 1816." Died in 1840. Chambers, (Robert,) LL.D., a well-known Scottish writer and publisher, born at Peebles in 1802. He be- came in his youth a bookseller in Edinburgh, and pub- lished, in 1824, "Traditions of Edinburgh," which was followed by several popular works on Scottish history. In 1832 he entered into partnership with his brother William in the publication of "The Edinburgh Journal," (published weekly,) which was very successful. (See Chambers, William, 2d.) They subsequently issued popular books, entitled "Information for the People," " Chambers's Miscellany," "Papers for the People," etc. Nearly two hundred thousand copies of " Information for tlie People" have been sold in England and the United States. Robert published a valuable " Biographical Dic- tionary of Eininent Scotsmen," with portraits, (1835.) He was principal editor of the "Cyclopaedia of English Lit- erature : Selections from the Works of English Authors, connected by a Critical and Biographical History," (1844,) which obtained a large circulation. Died in 1871. Chambers, (Sir Robert,) an eminent English lawyer, born at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1737. In 1762 he suc- ceeded Sir William Blackstone as Vinerian professor of law at Oxford. He was appointed a judge of the supreme court of judicature in Bengal in 1774, and chief justice of the same in 1 791. He returned home in 1799, and died in 1803. Chambers, (Sir William,) an eminent architect, of Scottish descent, born at Stockholm, Sweden, in 172^. At an early age he settled in London, where he was suc- cessful in his profession. George III., who had received lessons in drawing from Chambers, employed him to lay out the royal gardens at Kew. His principal works are Somerset House, in London,Milton Abbey in Dorsetshire, and the Marquis of Abercorn's mansion, near Edinburgh. The first of these, begun about 1775, is greatly admired. He published a "Treatise on Civil Architecture," (1759,) which, says Horace Walpole, "is the most sensible book ever written on that science," and a "Dissertation on Oriental Gardening," (1774.) Died in 1796. See "Gentleman's Magazine," March, 1796. Chambers, (William,) a Scottish editor, brother of Robert Chambers, noticed above, distinguished for successful enterprise in the publication of cheap and useful literature, was born at Peebles in 1800. In 1830 he pro- duced "The Book of Scotland," a description of the custotns, laws, and institutions of that country. In 1832 William and Robert Chambers began to edit "Cham- bers's Edinburgh Journal," which obtained a circulation of fifty thousand in 1834. Having entered into partner- ship, they established a publishing-house, which has become one of the most extensive in Scotland. They have compiled and published numerous works which are well adapted to the wants of the masses. (See Chambers, Robert.) Among the most important of their recent publications is "Chambers's Encyclopjedia for the People," begun in 1859 and completed in 1868. William is the author of a volume called "Things as they are in America." In 1865 he was made lord pro- vost of Edinburgh. a, e, r, o, n, y, Jc7ig; \ h, 6. same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sJkort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; CHAM BERT 563 CH AMOR IN Chambert, sh6N'baiR', (Germain,) a French en- graver, born in Languedoc in 1784 ; died in 182 1. ChamboUe, shdN^boK, (Adolfhk,) a French jour- nalist, born at La Chataigneraye in 1802, was chief editor of the " Siecle" from 1837 to 1848. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1838, and to the Constituent and Legislative Assemblies of 1848. Having voted against President Napoleon, he was exiled for a few months in 1852. Chambon, shftN'bdN', (Antoine BENotr,) a French republican, who was deputed from Correze to the Con- vention in 1792. He was one of the proscril^ed Girond- ists who escaped from the Convention on the 31st of May, 1793. Having been declared a traitor by the terrorists, he was arrested near Lubersac, and executed, in 1793. Chambon de Montaux, sh6N'b) (Frederick Henry,) a Swedish vice-admiral and skilful naval architect, born in 1 721. He published a "Treatise on Naval Architec- ture," (1775,) which was translated into many languages. Gustavus III. appointed him to direct the construction of vessels for his navy. Died in 1808. See Hallstroem, "Minne ofver F. H. Chapman," 1817. Chap'man, (George,) an English dramatic poet, and the earliest English translator of Homer, was born in 1557, at what place is not known. Having become a resident of London, and an author by profession, he enjoyed the society and friendship of Spenser and Shakspeare. His most memorable production is the translation of Homer into English verse. The "Iliad" appeared in 1598, the "Odyssey" in 1614. These versions were ad- mired by Dr. Johnson, Pope, and Coleridge. " A daring, fiery spirit," says Pope, "animates his translation, which is something like what one might imagine Homer to have written before he had arrived at years of discretion." He wrote many comedies and tragedies, which are now forgotten. "The drama," says Campbell, "owes him very little." " His ' Bussy d'Amboise' is a piece of frigid atrocity." Died in London in 1634. See Gibber, "Lives of the Poets," etc.; "Minor Elizabethan Dramatists," in the ''Atlantic Monthly" for Deced," vol. i. chap. i. ; Pkter Heylin, " Life of Charles L," 165S; William Harris, " Life of Charles L,"i758; Disraeli, "Life and Character of Charles L," 1828; Sir Philip Warwick, " Memoirs of the Reign of Charles L;" Lucy Aikin, " Memoirs of the Court of King Charles L" Charles II., King of England, the eldest surviving son of Charles I., was born on the 29th of May, 1630. a* e, I, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; lai, j, o, obscure; ftr, f^ll, fit; mlX; n6t; good; moon; CHARLES CHARLES After the decisive triumph of the Parliament at Naseby, in June, 1645, he retired to Jersey, and the next year he joined his mother in Paris. In 1649 he was proclaimed king by the Scottish Parliament, "on condition of his good behaviour." Having received an invitation from the Covenanters and signed the Covenant, he landed in Scot- land in June, 1650, and was crowned at Scone about the first of the next year. The austere religionists of Scot- land required him to sign "articles of repentance," and treated him as a captive rather than a king, Cromwell having defeated the royalist army at Dunbar and re- duced a great part of Scotland, Charles marched with his Scottish army into England, closely pursued by the enemy. His hopes that the English would rally to his standard were disappointed, and the enterprise termi- nated in his signal defeat at Worcester, September 3, 165 1. Charles escaped by flight, and, after many ad- ventures in various disguises, he embarked in October and found safety in France. The restoration of Charles to the throne is ascribed to the loyalty and prudence of General Monk, seconded by the favour of the people and the law of reaction. Charles entered London in May, 1660, with ample demonstrations of popular joy. He appointed Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, prime minister. In 1662 he married Catherine of Bra- ganza, daughter of the King of Portugal. Episcopacy was restored, and the Presbyterian clergy were ejected. In 1665 Charles declared war against the Dutch, who, after losing several naval battles, entered the Thames and burned some ships of war at Chatham. Peace was restored by the treaty of Breda in 1667. The next year, England, Holland, and Sweden formed against Louis XIV. of P'rance a coalition, called the Triple Alliance, which was very popular with the English. The counsels of the ministry called the Cabal (a word which the initial letters of their names happened to compose) soon effected a change of policy and a secret treaty with Louis XIV., who supplied Charles with revenues, so that he might reign more absolutely and be independent of Parliaments. War was again declared against the Dutch in 1672, and several doubtful battles were fought at sca. Public opin- ion in England compelled the court to make peace in February, 1674. The popularity with which Charles had begun his reign had long been expended. He was suspected of leaning towards popery, and he had actually in secret entered the Catholic communion, which he avowed at the hour of death. A rumoured popish plot in 1678 convulsed the nation with fear and furious excitement. The Parliament, which had existed since 1661, became so insubordinate that the king dissolved it in 1678. In 1679 the habeas- corpus act was passed. About this time the words whig and tory originated, and were applied respectively to the opponents and the partisans of the court. Charles died in February, 1685, without lawful issue, and was succeeded by his brother, James II. His reign was remarkable as an era of libertinism in morals and of servility in politics. He was sensual, indolent, unambitious, and good-tem- pered. "Honour and shame, to him," says Macaulay, "were scarcely more than light and daikness to the blind." See Hume, " History of England," chaps. Ixiii. to Ixix.; Mac- aulay, "History of England," vol. i.; William Harris, "Life 01 Charles II.," 1765: Morlrv, "Character of King Charles II.," 1660; McCoRMicK, "History of King Charles II.," 1740: Lord Halifax, "Character of Charles II.," 1750; Count Grammont, 'Memoirsof the Court of Charles II.;" Armand Carrel, "His toire de la Contre revolution en Angleterre sous Charles II et James II," 1827 ; George Brodie, "History of the British Empire from the Accession of Charles I. to the Restoration of Charles II.," 1822. Charles the Bat.d, [Fr. le Chauve, leh shov,] or Charles L, King of France, the fourth son of Louis le Debonnaire, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 823 A.D. His father died in 840, after dividing his empire among his sons, Lothaire, Louis, and Charles, the last of whom had all of France lying west of the Khone. Lothaire having claimed the pre-eminence, the other two united against him, and defeated him at the great battle of Fontenai, in 842. In the reign of Charles the Bald, France was ravaged by the Normans, who took Paris, Rouen, and other cities. Charles, being unable to expel them by arms, was twice reduced to purchase peace from them, in 845 and 861. On the death of Louis II. of Italy without issue, Charles invaded Italy in 875, and was crowned emperor by Pope John VIII., after defeating the army of his brother, Louis le Germanique. He was continually at war with his neighbours or subjects. His empire comprised Italy and all France except Lorraine, Alsace, and part of Burgundy. He died in 877, leaving the throne to his son, Louis le Begue. As emperor, he is reckoned Charles II. ; as King of France, Charles I. See Michelet, "Histoire de France;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Fran^ais." Charles III. of France, called the Simple, [Fr. ll Simple, leh sdMpl,] born in 879 a.d., was a younger soti of Louis le Begue, who died in that year. Two elder brothers having died before he had attained his majority, Eudes, Count of Paris, was chosen king by the nobles in 888. Charles was crowned by his partisans in 893, and at the death of Eudes, in 898, he became nominally sok king ; but his power was greatly restricted by the growing spirit of feudality. The remarkable event of his reign was the treaty by which Rollo, a Norman chief, acquired the sovereignty of Neustria, (Normandy.) About 920, Robert, Duke of France, aspired to the crown, and a civil war ensued, in which Robert was killed ; but his party gained the victory, and elected Raoul or Rodolph of Burgundy king in 923. Charles was treated as a captive until his death in 929. He left a son, Louis Outremer. See Sis.MONDi, "Histoire des Fran9ais;" A. Borgnet, " Sur le R^gne de Charles le Simple," 1843. Charles IV. of France, surnamed le Bel, (leh b§l,) "the Handsome," was the third son of Philippe le Bel, and was Count de la Marche when, on the death of his brother, Philippe le Long, in 1322, he became king. He married Marie, daughter of the emperor Henry VII. He was involved in war with Edward II. of England, from whom he claimed homage for the duchy oi Gui- enne. Edward's queen Isabella, who was the sister of Charles, went to France to negotiate the question, and there obtained the means by which her husband was deposed. The efforts of Charles to procure his election as Emperor of Germany were not successful. He died, without male issue, in 1328, and Philippe of Valois be- came king. See SisMONDi, "Histoire des Franfais;" Michelet, "Histoire de France." Charles V., called the Wise, [Fr. le Sage, leh sSzh,] King of France, born at Vincennes in 1337, was the son of John II., who was made prisoner by the Black Prince at Poitiers. He acted as regent while his father was a captive from 1356 to 1360, and at the death of his father, in 1364, became king. He frequently summoned the States-General to obtain subsidies for the war which he waged against the English invaders. This war, after a truce of several years, was renewed in 1370, Charles resolved not to lead his armies in person, and ordered his generals to avoid a general action. This policy was very successful. The French general Du Guesclin gained frequent advantages, and expelled the English from Poi- tou, Saintonge, and other provinces. Before his death, Charles had recovered nearly all the territory which had been conquered by Edward III., except Calais and Bor- deaux. He had married Jeanne de Bourgogne, and had several sons, one of whom succeeded him as Charles VI. He patronized learning, and founded the Royal Library of Paris. Died in 1380. See E. Roy, "Histoire de Charles V," 1849 ; Michelet, "His- toire de France;" La Harpe, " £ loge de Charles V," 1767 ; Jean Sylvain Bailly, "£loge de Charles V," 1770. Charles VI., called the V^^ell-Beloved, [Fr. le Bien-aime, leh be'iN' i'mi',] King of France, born at Paris in 1368, was the son of Charles V. He was the first French prince that bore the title of Dauphin, which he derived from the province of Dauphine, given to him as an apanage. His reign nominally began in 1380, when his uncles, the Dukes of Anjou, Burgundy, and Berry, dis- puted with each other for the power of regent. Charles married Isabelle, daughter of the Duke of Bavaria, in 1385, and in the next year he fitted out a great arma- ment against the English. The number of vessels of his fleet is stated at 1287. The designed invasion, however, € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, K,^ttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) CHARLES 574 CHARLES was quickly abandoned. In 1388 he assumed the func- tions of royalty, which had before been shared by his uncles. Charles became deranged in 1392, and the prosperity of the kingdom was sacrificed to the rivalry of the Duke of Burgundy and the Duke of Orleans, the king's brother. The former had the ascendency for several years preceding his death, in 1404. His son Jean, inheriting his title and ambition, caused Orleans to be assassinated in 1407, and jjrovoked a civil war which raged between the Burgundians and the Armagnacs. In 1413 the dauphin Louis seized, or attempted to seize, the throne. Henry V. of England, taking advantage of these intestine troubles, invaded France, and in October, 141 5, won the great battle of Agincourt. The dauphin having died in 141 5, his brother Charles, who favoured the Armagnac faction, became dauphin. The civil war still continued. The Burgundians, supported by Queen Isabelle, with a shameful disregard of the claims of their country, made, in 1420, a treaty with Henry V., which stipulated that he should be King of France on the death of Charles VI. The latter died in 1422. See DovAL-PiNEU, " Histoire de France sous le R^gne de Charles VI," 2 vols., 1842; Juvenal des Uksins, "Histoire de Charles VI," 1614; Le Laboureur, "Histoire de Charles VI," 1663; De LussAN, (Baudot de Juilly,) "Histoire de Charles VI ;" Saint- Remv, "Histoire de Charles VI," 1663. Charles VII., the Victorious, [Fr. le Victo- RIEUX, leh v^k^to're'uh',] born in 1403, was the son of Charles VI. He became dauphin in 1416, and king in October, 1422, when "malice domestic and foreign levy" grievously afflicted France, (^ee Charles VI.) Death had just removed his most formidable rival, Henry V. of England ; but the son of the latter was recognized by a ])owerful French faction, who were masters of the capital. In 1428 the English besieged Orleans, which was bravely defended by the citizens, who were loyal Armagnacs, and, after a long siege, was delivered in 1429 by the heroism of Joan of Arc, the " Maid of Orleans." The enthusiasm which she inspired into the French armies rendered them victorious in many succeeding encounters. Charles was crowned again at Rheims in 1429, made peace with the Duke of Burgundy in 1435, and entered Paris without opposition in 1436. Nor- mandy was reconquered in 1450, and Guienne in 145 1, and a few years later Calais was the only place in France which the English retained. In the early part of his reign he had married Marie of Anjou. He displayed much political ability in the various difficulties which beset his reign, and is reckoned among the kings to whom France owes great obligations. By the " Prag- matic Sanction" (1438) he protected the liberties of the Gallican Church against papal usurpation. He also made an^important reform in the army, which before his time was a scourge to the citizens and peasants of France. He died in 146 1, and was succeeded by his son, Louis XI. See Baudot de Juilly, " Histoire de Charles VII," 1697 and T754 ; P. Clement, "Jacques Coeur et Charles VII ; ou la France au XVe Si^cle," 1853. Charles VIII., King of France, surnamed the Affahle, was the son of Louis XI. and Charlotte of Savoy, and was born at Amboise in June, 1470. He ascended the throne in 1483. During his minority his sister Anne of France was invested with the chief power. In 1491 he married Anne, Duchess of Brittany, who was previously affianced and married by proxy to Maxi- milian of Austria. The latter, resenting this affront, declared war, and formed a coalition with Henry VII. of England. Charles hastened to settle this difficulty by negotiation, in order that he might be at liberty to pursue his favourite design of the conquest of Naples, which was ruled by a prince of the house of Aragon. In 1494, with an army of 30,000 men, he marched into Italy, found an ally in Ludovico Sforza, and in February, 1495, took Naples without serious resistance. Ferdinand of Spain, the emperor, and several Italian powers, com- bined against Charles, who, after staying a few months in Naples, marched homeward with 8000 men, and defeated a much larger army of the allies at Fornovo. The small army which he had left in Naples was soon expelled by the Spaniards. Charles is represented as having been amiable and gracious in the highest degree. He died in 1498; and, as he left no children, the crown passed to the Duke of Orleans, Louis XII. See T. GoDEFROv, "Histoire de Charles VIII;" Philippe de Segur, "Histoire de Charles VIII," 1835: Antoine Varillas, "Histoire de Charles VIII," 1691 ; Philippe d& Comines, "M^- moires." Charles IX., King of France, the second son of Henry II. and Catherine de Medicis, was born at Saint- Germain-en-Laye in 1550. Succeeding his brother, Francis II., he ascended the throne in December, 1560. During his minority his mother was the master-spirit of the government, and Antoine de Bourbon, King of Navarre, was lieutenant-general. Before his accession the question of religious reform had arrayed against each other two powerful parties, the Catholics and the Huguenots, the latter of whom had been persecuted in the preceding reign and were determined to assert by force their religious liberty. The Duke of Guise was the leader of the Catholic party, which was supported by the court and the people of Paris. The Protestants, led by the Prince of Conde, by Coligni, etc., formed the majority in the south and west of France. Catherine, who was jealous of the influence of the Guise family, adopted the subtle policy of holding the balance of power ; and her intrigues tended rather to foment the civil war, which began in 1562. The King of Navarre, who commanded the Catholic army, was killed at the siege of Rouen, in the same year. In Feb- ruary of the next year the Duke of Guise was assas- sinated while pressing the siege of Orleans ; and a few weeks later a treaty of peace was signed between the two factions. Charles was declared of age in 1563 ; but he remained under the control of his mother, who had infused into him her perfidious principles. The war was several times renewed, and suspended by treaties in which neither party had confidence. The Protestants were defeated at Saint-Denis, (1567,) and Jarnac, (1569,) where the Prince of Conde was killed. In 1570 Charles married Elizabeth, the daughter of the emperor Maximilian II., and made overtures which resulted in a treaty of peace with the Huguenots. The terms were favourable to the latter ; but it is generally believed that the treaty was part of a scheme of deeply- meditated treachery, on the part of Catherine at least. If Charles was accessary to the plot, he must have acted the part of a consummate dissembler. He invited Co- ligni and the other chiefs of that party to court, treated them with favour and apparent cordiality, and succeeded in allaying their suspicions, especially after he had con- tracted a marriage between his sister Margaret and Henry of Navarre, which was celebrated in August, 1572. While the Protestant chiefs were sharing the nuptial festivities in Paris, on the night of August 24, (" Saint Bartholomew's Day,") the signal for the massacre was given. The fanatical populace of Paris, instigated by princes, nobles, and the high officers of the court, be- came willing agents in the murderous work. The mas- sacre continued several days in Paris, where the number of victims was computed at about ten thousand ; and similar scenes were enacted in the provinces. Charles admitted that he had consented to this enormous crime, but sought to palliate it by affirming that a conspiracy against his life had been detected. His brother, the Duke of Anjou, appears to have been one of the prime managers of the plot. After suffering the agonies of remorse, Charles died, without issue, in 1574, and was succeeded by the Duke of Anjou as Henry III. See Varillas, " Histoire de Charles IX," 1683: Sismondi and H. Martin, " Histoire de France ;" Walter Anderson, " History of France during the Reigns of Francis II. and Charles IX.," 5 vols., 1769-82. Charles X., King of France, born at Versailles in October, 1757, was the son of the dauphin, (who was eldest son of Louis XV.,) and was the youngest brother of Louis XVI. He received at birth the name of Charles Philippe and the title of Comte d'Artois. In 1773 he married Maria Theresa of Savoy, daughter of the King of Sardinia, by whom he had two sons, the Due d'An- gouleme and the Due de Berry. He constantly opposed all concessions to the Revolution from the first, and was one of the foremost to join in the royalist emigration of 1789. In the ensuing years he visited several courts of a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; ky 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, (1.11, ftt; mSt; ndt; good; moon; CHJRLES 575 CHARLES Europe, soliciting aid and levying war against the French republic. After the death of Louis XVI. he received the title of Monsieur. Having persuaded Charette, the Vendean chief, to renew the civil war, and having ob- tained an army in England, he commanded the expedition of Quiberon in 1795, which was a disastrous failure. Without landing on the soil of France, he returned to England; and Charette wrote to Louis XVIIL, "The cowardice of your brother has ruined all." Bonaparte having ceased to reign, the Count d'Artois entered Paris with the allied army in April, 1814, and exclaimed, " There is nothing changed in France : there is only one Frenchman the more!"* He ascended the throne, September 16, 1824, under favourable circumstances, and his accession was attended with general rejoicing. Vil- lele and other ministers of the late king were retained ; but a conclave of ecclesiastics obtained an ascendency in the royal council, to which the misfortunes of his reign are ascribed. In 1825 the sacerdotal party procured the passage of a law against sacrilege, punishing with death the profanation of "sacred vases" and "holy wafers." This excited much indignation. In 1827 Charles dis- banded the national guard, which had shown symptoms of disaffection. In January, 1828, the ministry of Villele was superseded by that of M. de Martignac, which was formed by a compromise between the extreme royalists and the liberals, and did not enjoy the confidence of the king, w ho said to them, " Villele's system was mine ; and I hope you will conform yourselves to it." The ministers having been defeated in the Chamber of Deputies, Charles dismissed them in August, 1829, and formed an extreme royalist ministry, at the head of which was the Prince de Polignac, who was also the confidant of the king. The Chamber, which met in March, 1830, voted an ad- dress hostile to the ministers, who, having appealed to the country by a new election, were defeated by a large majority. The king and cabinet then resolved on a coup d'elnt. On the 25th of July, 1830, they issued the ordi- nances which infringed the charter and caused an ex- plosion of the monarchy. After a bloody contest of three days' duration m the streets of Paris, between the people and the army inider Marmont, the revolution was com- pleted, on the 30th of July, and the Bourbon dynasty ceased to reign. Charles abdicated in favour of his grandson, the Due de Bordeaux, retired to England, and died at Goritz in October, 1836. The qualities of his heart are eulogized by Lamartine and others ; but his intellectual capacity was small. Lord Brougham represents him as a furious bigot and a declared enemy of liberty. See Vaui.abei.le, "Histoire des deux Restaurations Mont- BRi., "Derniere fipoque de I'Histoire de Charles X ;" Lamaktine, " History of the Restoration ;" Baili.eul, "La France sous le R^gne de Charles X," 1824; Lorieux, "Histoire du Regne de Charles X"z834. Charles I. of Anjou, King of Naples, Count of An- jou and Provence, born about 1220, was the youngest son of Louis VIII. of France. He married Beatrice, daughter of Raimond Berenger, Count of Provence, -who appointed him the heir of his dominions. He joined his brother. Saint Louis of France, in a crusade against the Saracens of Egypt, about 1250. Instigated by Pope Urban IV. and his successor, Clement IV., he attacked Manfred, King of Naples, defeated him in 1266, and ob- tained his throne. (See Manfred.) He was an able but tyrannical ruler, and was the head of the Guelph party. His cruelties or extortions provoked the people of Sicily, who revolted, and massacred several thousand French- men at Palermo, on the 30th of March, 1282. This event is called "the Sicilian Vespers." He died in 1285, after he had failed to repress the rebellion in Sicily. See Saint-Priest, "Histoire de la Conquete de Naples par Charles d' Anjou." Charles II., King of Naples, the son of the preceding, was born in 1248. He was more humane and just than his father. He married Mary, daughter of the King of Hungary; and their eldest son, Charles Martel, obtained the crown of Hungary in 1290. Charles II. died in 1309, leaving the throne to his son Robert. See SiSMONDi, "Histoire des Fran^ais." * This famous saying was the suggestion of Talleyrand. Charles III., sometimes called Durazzo, (doo-rSt'so,) King of Naples, was a descendant of Charles II. In 1378 he commanded the army which Louis of Hungary sent against the Venetians. The pope. Urban, invited him to conquer Naples, which was then ruled by Joanna (or Joan) I. He entered Naples with an army in 1381, and, having put Joanna to death, made himself master of the kingdom. About 1385 a party in Hungary offered him the crown of that country, which he accepted. Soon after he had taken possession of his new kingdom, he was assassinated, in 1386. Charles II., surnamed the Bad, [Fr. le Mauvais, leh mo'vy,] King of Navarre, born in 1332, was the son of Philip, third King of Navarre, and Jeanne of France, who was a daughter of Louis X. He became king in 1350, and married the daughter of King John. He was distinguished for talents, courage, and address. Having allied himself with the King of England, he waged war against Charles V. of France. His life was nearly all passed in wars and plots, which, though not successful, inflicted great calamities on France. Died in 1387. See Secousse, " Histoire de Charles le Mauvais." Charles III., King of Navarre, surnamed the Noble, born about 1360, was the son of Charles the Bad, whom he succeeded in 1387. In 1404 he signed a treaty with the French court, by which he renounced his claims to Champagne, Brie, and Evreux, and obtained Nemours, with the title of duke. Died in 1425. Charles IV., King of Navarre, born in 142 1, was a son of John II. His mother, Blanche, was a daughter of Charles III. He was a good scholar, and translated the " Ethics" of Aristotle into Spanish. Died in 1461. Charles (Carlos) I. of Spain. See Charles V. Charles (or Carlos) II,, King of Spain, the son of Philip IV., was born in November, i66l He was pro- claimed king in October, 1665, under the regency of his mother, Anne of Austria. A war between Spain and France was terminated by the treaty of Nymwegen in 1678, when Charles married Louise d'Orleans, a niece of Louis XIV. He was a feeble and indolent ruler, and left the direction of affairs to his ministers. In 1689 he joined a coalition of the great powers against Louis XIV., his brother-in-law. The peace of Ryswick in 1697 ended this war, in which th^ Spanish armies had been unfortu- nate. As he was childless, and as distempers of body and mind foreboded his early death, he became anxious about the succession to his crown. He made a will in favour of the Prince of Bavaria ; but the will had scarcely been signed when that prince died. The principal claimants now were Philip of France, Duke of Anjou, and the Archduke Charles of Austria. The court of Madrid was divided, and the dying king was distracted by a long contest between their partisans. At last he signed, in 1700, the meiTiorable testament which recognized the claim of the Bourbon prince, who became Philip V., and caused the long European war of the Spanish succession. Died in November, 1700. See Macaulay, "History of England," vol. iv.; John Dunlop, " Memoirs of Spain during the Reigns of Philip IV. and Charles IL," 2 vols., 1834; "Spain under Charles IL : Extracts from the Corre- spondence of Alexander Stanhope," edited by Philip Henry Ma- HON, 1840; " Leben S. M. Caroli II. Kbnigsin Spanien," Leipsic, 1708. Charles III., King of Spain, the second son of Philip V. and Elizabeth Farnese, was born in January, 1716. His father ceded to him the crown of the Two Sicilies in 1734. He married Amelia, a Saxon princess. His reign in Naples was rather prosperous and peaceful until he ascended the throne of Spain, left vacant by the death of his elder brother, Ferdinand VI., in August, 1759. He became the ally of France in the war against England in 1762, in accordance with the Family Compact which had been formed between the branches of the house of Bour- bon. He directed his attention to the improvement of the condition of his subjects, by promoting industry, arts, and education, in which he was seconded bv his ministers Florida, Blanca, and Campomanes. When his reforms excited a sedition atnong the populace of Madrid, Charles said, " My subjects are like infants, that cry when one goes to wash them." He restricted the power of the Inquisition, and expelled the Jesuits en masse from Spain and all his dominions, in 1767. In € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^See Explanations, p. 23.) CHARLES 576 CHARLES 1779 Charles declared war against England, which was then involved in a contest with France. The combined fleets and armies of France and Spain failed to capture Gibraltar, after a long siege ; but Spain recovered Mi- norca and Florida from the English. He died in 1788, and was succeeded by his son, Charles IV. His reign appears to have been beneficial to Spain. He possessed a good disposition and sound judgment. See Beccatini, "Storia del Regno di Carlo III.," 1796; Cabar- rus, " Elosio de Carlos III.," 1789; Coxe, "Memoirs ot the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon," 1813. Charles IV., King of Spain, the second son of Charles in. and Maria Amelia of Saxony, was born in Naples in November, 1748. He followed his father to Spain in 1759, and then received the title of Prince of the Asturias. In 1765 he married his cousin, Maria Louisa Theresa of Parma, a woman of very vicious morals. He became king in December, 1788, and retained Florida Blanca as prime minister. In 1792 the latter was disgraced by the influence of the queen, and his place was supplied by her unworthy favourite, the upstart Godoy. In March, 1793, the French republic declared war against Charles, who had shown his hostility by expelling French resi- dents from Spain. The French defeated the Spanish in many battles, and reduced them to sue for peace, which was concluded in July, 1795, when the French conquests in Spain were restored. Charles testified his joy at this result by creating Godoy Prince of Peace, generalissimo, etc. Tiirough the influence of French diplotnacy, the Spanish court declared war against England in 1796, and Charles gave up the direction of the government to the queen and her favourite. His son and heir, Ferdinand, in 1807, wrote to Bonaparte complaining of Godoy's misrule and asking protection. After scandalous dis- sensions in the royal family, Charles resigned the throne in favour of his son in March, 1808. Bonaparte then procured an interview with Charles and his son at Bayonne, and extorted from both a renunciation of the Spanish crown. Charles received a liberal pension, became a resident of Rome in 181 1, and died in 1819. See Thiers, " Histoire du Consulat et de I'Empire;" Scott, "Life of Napoleon Buonaparte." Charles [Sw. Karl or Carl, kaRl] VII., King of Sweden, ought perhaps to have been designated Charles the First. Historians generally agree that the first six Charleses, mentioned by Magnus, are imaginary per- sonages ; yet they have followed usage in recognizing their existence. Charles VII. was the son of Sverker I., King of Gothland. King Eric IX. having been assas- sinated in 1 160, the Swedes elected Charles as his suc- cessor. He married Christina, a niece of the King of Denmark. Canute, a son of Eric IX., supported by a faction of Swedes, killed Charles in 1168 and reigned in his stead. Charles VIII., King of Sweden, called Canutson or Knutson, (knoot'sQn,) was the son of Canute Bonde, and descended from Eric IX. At the age of twenty-seven he became marshal of the kingdom. Eric XIII, having been dethroned about 1438, Charles was chosen admin- istrator of Sweden in 1440. On the death of Christo- pher, in 1448, he was elected his successor. Christian, King of Denmark, by the aid of his partisans in Sweden, expelled Charles in 1457. and usurped the throne. Charles was restored in 1467, and reigned until his death in 1470. His successor was Stenon Sture, his nephew. See Gever, " Histoire de la Suede." Charles IX., King of Sweden, born in 1550, was the fourth son of Gustavus Vasa. About 1568 he co-oper- ated with his brother John and other nobles in dethron- ing Eric XIV. When John died, in 1592, Charles be- came a competitor for the crown against Sigistnund, (the son of John,) who was a Catholic and had been chosen King of Poland. In 1593 the legislature decreed that Lutheranism only should be tolerated in Sweden. Charles gained a victory over the army of Sigismund in 1598, and was soon after declared regent. In 1604 he was elected king by the States. He waged war against Russia with success, and founded Gothemburg and other cities. He died in 161 1, leaving the throne to his son, Gustavus Adolphus. See Anders Frvxell, "Carl IX.," 1831. Charles X.,(or Charlee GuBta'vus,)King of Sweden, born at Nykoping in 1622, was the son of John Casimir, Prince of Deux-Ponts, and Catherine, a daughter of Charles IX. In his youth he learned the art of war under Torstenson, commander of the Swedish army. The Estates of the kingdom, in 1649, in accordance with the will of Christina, the queen-regnant, declared him the heir-apparent. On the abdication of Christina, in June, 1654, he began his enterprising and eventful reign. The genius of his uncle Gustavus Adolphus had raised Sweden to a high rank among European powers. The pretensions made by the King of Poland to the Swedish crown having provoked a war, Charles, in 1655, invaded Poland, took Warsaw, the capital, and in three months became master of the whole kingdom. While he was absent, the Danes attacked Sweden. He then made a rapid march against the new enemy, and, crossing the ice in January, 1658, dictated to the vanquished Danes a treaty of peace, by which he acquired Scania and other provinces. He died in February, 1660, and was suc- ceeded by his son Charles, whose mother was Hedwige Eleonor of Holstein-Gottorp. See S. PuFFENDORF, "De Rebus gestis Caroli Gustavi," 1696; LuNDBLAD, "Konung Carl X. Gustafs Historia," 2 vols., 1823-29. Charles XI., King of Sweden, the son of Charles X., was born in December, 1655. In 1660 a treaty of peace was made with the restored King of Poland, by which the Swedes retained their conquests on the east shore of the Baltic. Charles began to exercise royal power in 1672, and made an alliance with Louis XIV. of France, which in 1674 involved him in a war with Prussia and other powers. Charles defeated the Danes, who invaded Sweden in 1677, but suffered reverses in his German provinces. In 1679 he concluded a peace, and married Ulrica Eleonora, sister of the King of Denmark. He then resolved to observe neutrality in the wars of Europe, and the rest of his reign was peaceful and prosperous, though rather despotic. He promoted manufactures, commerce, sciences, and arts, subverted the power of the senate, and when he died, in 1697, left a flourishing kingdom to his son, Charles XII. ^ See John Robinson, "Account of Sweden," 1717; E. Puffen- DORF, "Anecdotes de Suede." Charles XII., King of Sweden.a celebrated conqueror, born at Stockholm, June 27, 1682, was the eldest son of Charles XI. and Ulrica Eleonora of Denmark. He was invincibly obstinate from childhood. The only way of moving his will was through the sentiment of honour. He made himself master of Latin, French, and German. He succeeded his father in April 15, 1697, and followed the counsels of Count Piper, who was in fact, though not in name, the prime minister. An opportunity to exert and develop his extraordinary martial genius was soon presented by the cupidity of three kings, who pro- posed to take advantage of his youth and to partition his dominions among themselves. These were Peter T. of Russia, Frederick IV. of Denmark, and Augustus, King of Poland, who, in 1700, formed a league against him. With intrepid alacrity he prepared for the unequal contest. He became extremely frugal in his dress, food, and mode of living. His body, by severe exercise, was made proof against fatigue. Denmark having begun the war by attacking the Duke of Holstein, Charles, at the head of his well-disciplined army, left Stockholm (to which he never returned) in May, 1700. Having effected a descent on the isle of Zealand, he besieged Copen- hagen until the Danish king sued for peace, which was concluded in August, 1700. Without delay he marched with 20,000 Swedes against the Czar Peter, who, with about 80,000 men, was besieging Narva, Before the arrival of his main army, Charles began the attack with 8000 men, and gained in November, 1700, a complete victory, which filled his adversaries with consternation. In the next campaign he invaded Poland, and, after several victories, formed the design of deposing Augustus, which, by the aid of a strong domestic faction, he easily eff"ected. He designated for his successor Stanislas (or Stanislaus) Leczinski, who began to reign in 1704. Augustus having retired to Saxony, of which he was Elector, Charles invaded that country, fixed his camp near Leipsic, and in 1707 dictated conditions of peace a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fllr, fllll, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; CHARLES sn CHARLES to the Elector, who then renounced the crown of Poland. He received here the ambassadors of various powers, and among them the Duke of Marlborough, who came to sound his intentions. In September, 1707, with an army of 43,000 men, he marched towards Moscow to dethrone the Czar, whose armies, in the absence of Charles, had seized Ingria and invaded Poland. In June, 1708, he crossed the Berezina, the passage of which Peter disputed without success, and soon after gained some advantages over the Russians. About this time, according to Voltaire, Peter made overtures for peace, to which Charles answered, " 1 will treat with the Czar at Moscow." At Smolensko he changed his course, and marched southward to the Ukraine, where he found an ally in Mazeppa, hetman of the Cossacks. In this march many of his men perished from cold and want of provisions. His operations were suspended in the winter of 170S-09, which was more severe than usual. In the spring his army was reduced to 18,000 Swedes and about as many Cossacks ; but he persisted in his design. While he was pressing the siege of Pultowa, and just after he had re- ceived a wound in the foot, the Czar, with 70,000 men, came to the relief of the city. In the decisive battle of Pultowa, July 8, 1709, Charles was defeated, with a loss of 9000 killed and 6000 j^risoners. With a small body of men he retreated to Turkey, where he was received hospitably by the Sultan, who gave him an asylum at Bender. The agents of Russia urged the Sultan to drive him out of Turkey. When the Turks attempted to re- move him, in February, 1 713, he fought madly and des- perately in resistance, was made prisoner, and taken to Demotica. There, feigning to be sick, he kept his bed about ten months. At last he quitted Turkey, and, pass- ing through Hungary and Germaiiy incognito, arrived with one attendant at Stralsund in November, 17 14. The Danes, Prussians, and Russians besieged Stralsund, which Charles was forced to surrender in December, 1715. WHiile Sweden was threatened with invasion by the allies, Charles invaded Norway, and was killed by a ball at the siege of Frederikshall on the nth of Decem- ber, 1718. He was never married. His sister, Ulrica Eleonora, the wife of Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, was chosen as his successor. See Voltaire, "Life of Charles XII. ;" Adlerfeld, " Histoire de Charles XII," 1740; Nokdberg, "Karls XII. Historia," 1740; Samuel Faber, " Ausfiihrliche Lebensbeschreibung Konig Karls XII. von Schweden," 10 vols., 1705-19; Lundblad, " Konung Carls XII. Historia," 2 vols., 1830 ; Jacob le Long, " Leven van de held- haftigen Karel XII.," 6 vols., 1722; Po.sselt, "Geschiclite Carl's XII.," 1S04; Frederick II. of Prussia, "Reflexions sur les Talents militaires et sur le Caractere de Charles XII," 17S6. Charles XIII., King of Sweden, born October 7, 1748, was the second son of King Adolphus Frederick and of Louisa Ulrica, who was a sister of Frederick the Great of Prussia. He was educated for the navy, having been made titular grand admiral in his infancy. In 1772 he seconded his brother, Gustavus HI., in the revolution by which he depressed the aristocracy and initiated a more liberal constitution. For this service he was made Duke of Sudermania. He commanded the fleet in the war against Russia, 1788-90, and fought several indeci- sive battles. In 1792 he was chosen regent during the minority of his nephew, Gustavus IV. He favoured the French Revolution, and refused to join a coalition against France. In 1796 he resigned the government to Gusta- vus JV. By his insane and fanatical conduct the latter proAcked the States of Sweden to dethrone him, and Charles was chosen king, June 5 or 6, 1809. As Charles had no heir, the Swedish Diet in 1810 designated as his successor the French general Marshal Bernadotte, who accepted the dignity of crown-prince and was adopted as a son by Charles XIII. In 1812 the King of Sweden acquired Norway by a treaty with Russia and with the assent of several other powers. Died in February, 1818. See Geyer, "Histoire de Suede;" LindgrEiN, "Menioria divi CaroH XIII.," 1818. Charles XIV. of Sweden. See Bernadotte. Charles (or Carl) XV., (Louis Eugene,) the son of Oscar I., King of Sweden and Norway, was born in 1826. He married Wilhelmina, a daughter of Prince Frederick of the Netherlands, in 1850, and succeeded his father in July, 1859, Charles, (or Karl,) Archduke of Austria, a celebrated general, born at Florence in I77i,was a younger son of Leopold II., Emperor of Germany. He joined the armv in 1793, fought against the French in Flanders, and com'- manded a wing at the battle of Neerwinde. In the spring of 1796 he vi^as appointed commander-in-chief of the army of the Rhine. In this campaign he defeated the French under Jourdan at Wurtzbuig and other places, and, by his skilful generalship, forced Moreau to repass the Rhine. He commanded the Austrians and their allies in Germany and Switzerland in 1799. In 1800 he retired from service on account of ill health. He was command- ing in Italy when Bonaparte invaded Austria in 1805, and, on learning the successes of the French, marched his army of 80,000 men to cover Vienna, but did not arrive until after the capture of that city and after the battle of Austerlitz. In 1806 he became chief of the Aulic Council and generalissimo of the Austrian armies. In 1809 he invaded Bavaria, where he encountered Na- poleon and was defeated at Eckmiihl in April. He was compelled to retreat into Bohemia, while the French army entered Vienna in triumph. He commanded at the bat- tie of Aspern, (May, 1809,) which, says Alison, "was the first great action in which Napoleon had been defeated." He maintained his reputation at the great battle of Wa- gram, (July, 1809,) where the loss was nearly equal, but the French remained masters of the field. Soon after that event he obtained an armistice from the victor, and resigned the command. He wrote two excellent works, namely, "Principles of Strategy," (1814,) and a "His tory of the Campaign in Germany and Switzerland in 1799," (1819.) Died in 1847. His son, Archduke Al- bert, has also distinguished himself as a general. See Thiers, "Histoire du Consulat et de I'Empire;" Eduarh Duller, " Erzherzog Carl," 1845 ; Scott, " Life of Napoleon Buona- parte;" Schneidawind, "Carl Erzherzog von Oesterreich," 1840; "Erzherzog Carl, sein Leben," etc., Berlin, 1847; "London Quar- terly Review" for March, 1S20. Charles de Blois, shtRl deh blw^, or de Chatillon, deh shi'te^'y^N', Duke of Bretagne, (breh-ttn',) was a nephew of Philip of Valois, King of France. Having married Jeanne of Bretagne, he claimed the dukedom of Bretagne at the death of Duke Jean HI., (1340.) 'J'his- claim was disputed by Count de Montfort, a brother', of the late duke, and occasioned a war of twenty-three.- years, in which De Montfort was aided by Edward HI. of England. The army of Charles, commanded by Du ^ Guesclin, was defeated in 1364, at the battle of Aurai, in^ which Charles was killed. See Froissart, "Chronicles." Charles, Duke of Bkun.swick. See Brunswick. Charles the Bold, [Fr. Charles le Hardy, (or Hard:,) shtRl leh hlR^e'; Ger. Karl (or Carl) der KiiHNE, kaRl deR kii'neh ; Lat Car'olus Puc/nax, i.e. "Charles the Quarrelsome" or "Warlike,"] sometimes called Charles the Rash, [Fr. Charles le Tem^- RAIRE, leh ta'ma^r^R',] Duke of Burgundy, born at Dijon in 1433, ^'^s the son of Philippe "the Good" and Isa- bella of Portugal. He was styled Count de Charolais before the death of his father. In 1467 he succeeded his father, and the next year married Margaret, the sister of Edward IV. of England. His violence and ambition rendered him the scourge of adjoining nations. He waged war against Louis XI. of France, and Rene, Duke of Lorraine. Having invaded Lorraine, he was defeated , and killed in battle near Nancy, in 1477, by Rene and his Swiss allies. His daughter Mary was the heiress of his dominions, (which included the Low Countries,) and became the wife of the emperor Maximilian I. She was a grandmother of the emperor Charles V. See Kirk, " History of Charles the Bold," 1863 ; Comines, " Me- molres;" Slsmondi, "Histoire des Fran^ais ;" Jules Michhi.et, "Louis XI et Charles le Temeraire," 1853; Becker, " Kari der Kuhne, Herzog von Burgiind," 1792. Charles (de Franck,) shtRl dehfR6Nss, Charles I. of Lorraine, (lo'rin^) second son of Louis IV. Outremer, was born in 953, and became Duke of Lorraine. He waged war with Hugh Capet for the throne of France, was made prisoner and confined until his death in 993. Charles II., Duke of Lorraine, born at Toul about 1364, was the son of Jean I., whom he succeeded in 1390. About 1396 he fought for the Teutonic knights against € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, itasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^'See Explanations, p. 2 j.) 37 CHARLES 578 CHARLES the King of Prussia, whom he took prisoner. He fought at Agincourt in 1415, after which he was chosen Con- stable of France. He died in 143 1. His daughter and heiress was married to Rene of Anjou. Charles III, called the Great, Duke of Lorraine, born at Nancy in 1543, was the son of Francis I., who died in 1545. He married Claude, the daughter of Henry H. of France, in 1559. He died in 160S, leaving the duchy to his son Henry. Charles I., (or Charles Frederick,) Duke of Hol- stein-Gottorp, (hoKstIn got'toRp,) born at Stockholm in 1700, was the son of Frederick IV., whom he succeeded in 1702. He married, in 1725, Anne of Russia, a daughter of Peter the Great. He lost Sleswick, which was con- quered by the Danes. Died in 1739. Charles of Anjou, Count of Maine (man) and Duke of Calabria, a French prince of the fifteenth century, was the son of Charles, Count of Maine, and was a nephew of Rene, King of Sicily, by whose will, in 1480, he be- came Count of Provence. Charles died in 1481, and bequeathed Provence to Louis XL of France. Charles of Denmark, Count of Flanders, was the son of Canute, King of Denmark. At an early age he distinguished himself in the crusade against the Saracens of Palestine, and in 1 1 19 became Count of Flanders, at the death of Baldwin, who chose him for his heir. His repu- tation for piety and virtue was such that the throne of Jeru- salem was offered to him during the captivity of Baldwin II.; but he declined it. He was assassinated in 1127. Charles of Lorraine. See Lorraine. Charles (Carlo) II., (Louis de Bourbon — deh booR^bdN^,) Prince of Parma, etc., born in 1799, is a son of Louis, King of Etruria, and of Maria Louisa of Spain. He inherited the duchy of Lucca in 1824, and ceded the same to Tuscany in 1847. At the death of Maria Louisa (ex-Empress of France) in 1847, ^''^ became Archduke or Prince of Parma. He abdicated in favour of his son, Carlo III., in 1849. Charles (Carlo) III., (Ferdinand Joseph Victor Balthasar de Bourbon,) Duke of Parma, the son of the preceding, was born in 1823. He became duke in 1849, before which he had married a French princess, daughter of the Due de Berry, and granddaughter of Charles X. He was assassinated in Parma in 1854. Charles (Carlo) I., Duke of Sav^oy, born in 1458, succeeded his brother, Philibert I., about 1472. Died in 1489. Charles (Carlo) II., a son of the preceding, born in 1489 ; died in 1497. Charles (Carlo) III., Duke of Savoy, was born in Bugey in i486, and succeeded his brother, Philibert II. He was an uncle of Francis I. of France. In 152 1 he mar- ried Beatrix, a daughter of Emmanuel, King of Portugal. She was a sister of the queen of the emperor Charles V., and influenced her husband to become the ally of Charles in the war against Francis I. The army of the latter overran Savoy in 1535, and Geneva shook off the yoke of the duke, who thus lost the greater part of his do- minions. Died in 1553. He was succeeded by his son, Emanuel Philibert. See Vincent, " Histoire de Savole." Charles, shtRl, (Claude,) a French painter, born at Nancy in 1661 ; died in 1747. CIiarle.s, (Jacques Alexandre Cesar,) a PVench savant, noted for his experiments in electricity and bal- loc^ning, was born at Beaugen'cy in 1746. He acquired a wide reputation by repealing Franklin's experiments which proved the identity of lightning with the electric fluid, and became a popular lecturer on physical science in Paris. He made a great improvement in the balloon which Montgolfier invented, by substituting hydrogen gas for heated air. He and M. Robert were the first persons who ventured to ascend in a balloon. They ascended from the Tuileries in December, 1783, to the height of 7000 feet, and came down safely nine leagues from the place of ascent. He was a member of the In- stitute, and was pensioned by Louis XVI. Died in 1823. Charles, (Elizaisetii Rundle,) a popular English writer, the only child of the late John Rundle, formerly member of Parliament for Tavistock, Devonshire, was born about 1826. She was married about 185 1 to Andrew P. Charles, Esq., of London. She has published a num- ber of fictitious works, which have enjoyed an extensive and deserved popularity. Among the most important of these are the "Chronicles of the Schonberg-Cotta Family," (1863,) and the " Diary of Mrs. Kitty Trevylyan," (1864.) She has also written "The Martyrs of Spain and Liberators of Holland," and other works. Charles APbert,[ It. Carlo Alberto, kaii'lo Sl-blR'- to,] King of Sardinia, born in 1798, was a son of Prince Charles Emanuel of Savoy-Carignan. He married in 1817 Maria Theresa, a daughter of the grand duke Ferdinand of Tuscany. In 1829 he was appointed Viceroy of the island of Sardinia. He succeeded Charles Felix as king in April, 183 1, and made some liberal reforms in the government. About the time of the election of Pope Pius IX. he granted a constitution to his subjects, and rendered himself popular. He put himself at the head of the movement for Italian independence in the spring of 1848. After gaining several victories over the Aus- trians, his army was entirely defeated at Novara, March, 1849. He abdicated in favour of his son, Victor Eman- uel, and died in July, 1849. See Andrhozzi, "Vitadi Carlo Alberto," 1850 ; Martini, "Me- inorie intonio alia Vita del Re Carlo Alberto," 1850. Charles Au-gus'tus, (of Sleswick Holstein Sonder- burg,) Prince-Royal of Sweden, and Prince of Augusten- burg, was born about 1766. He commanded a Danish army against the Swedes in 1808, and gained the esteem of the latter. In 1809 he was adopted as son by Charles XIII., and designated as the heir to the throne by the States of Sweden. Died in 1810. Charles d'Orleans, shtRl doR'la'SN', Comte d'An- gouleme, (d6N'goo^l§m'',) born in J^aris in 1391, was the son of Louis, lJuke of Orleans, who was the brother of Charles VI. of France. In the civil war of the Arma- gnacs and Burgundians he was a leader of the former. At the battle of Agincourt, in 141 5, he was made ])risoner, and as such detained in England until 1440. He com- posed numerous verses admired for elegant simplicity, and is said to have been one of the best writers of his time. He died in 1465, leaving a son, who became King Louis XII. Charles de Valois.shtRl deh vt'lwi', Count of Maine and Anjou, born in 1270, was the third son of Philip HI. of France. He was reputed one of the greatest captains of his time. He drove out of Florence the Ghibelines, including Dante, waged war against Frederick of Aragon, and conquered part of Sicily. He commanded with suc- cess against the English in Guienne a short time before his death, which occurred in 1325. See SiSMONDi, " Histoire des Francais." Charles Edward Stuart, called the Pretender, born at Rome in 1720 or 1 721, was a grandson of James II. of England. His father James having resigned his claim to the throne in favour of Charles Edward, the latter passed from France to Scotland, with a few attend- ants, in July, 1745. Plis standard was joined by a large body of Highlanders, and he entered Edinburgh on the 17th of September. A few days later they encountered at Preston Pans a royal army, which was seized with a panic and fled in disorder. The Pretender marched south as far as Derby, then retreated to Scotland, pursued by the Duke of Cumberland, who defeated the rebels at Culloden in April, 1746. Charles Edward concealed himself in the Western Isles, had many romantic adven- tures, and, by the aid of Flora Macdonald, escaped from his pursuers to France in September, 1746, He passed the latter part of his life at Rome, became intemperate, and died in 1788. His wife was afterwards married to Alfieri. See Amedee Pichot, " Histoire de Charles fidouard," etc. Charles Eman'uel I., Duke of Sav'oy, surnamed THE Great, born in 1562, succeeded his father, Philibert Emanuel, in 1580. He married Catherine, the daughter of Philip II. of Spain. He was ambitious and warlike, and waged a long war against Henry IV. of France. Died in 1630. His son, Vic TOR Amadeus I., succeeded him. Another son, Thomas, Prince of Carignano, was a distinguished general. See SisMONDi, "Histoire des Francais." a. c, T, o, u, V, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, \\, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; ilx, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good ; moua- CHARLES 579 CHARLOTTE Charles Emanuel II., Duke of Savoy, born about 1633, was the son of Victor Amadeus I., whom he suc- ceeded in 1638. His reign was mostly pacific. Died in 1675. Charles Emanuel III., King of Sardmia, the son of Victor Amadeus II., was born at Turin in 1701, and succeeded his father in September, 1730. In 1733 he joined France and Spain in a war against Austria, and, at the head of the allied armies, conquered the Milanese. Ill the general war which began in 1741 he declared for Maria Theresa of Austria, and fotight against the French and Spaniards, who defeated him at Coni in 1744. He died in 1773, with the reputation of a wise and able ruler, and left the throne to his son, Victor Amadeus HI. See Semeria, "Storia del di Sardegna Carlo Emmanuele," 2 vols., iS^r. Charles Emanuel IV., King of Sardinia, the eldest son of Victor Amadeus HI., was born at Turin in May, 1 75 1. In 1775 he married Marie Clotilde, a sister of Louis XVI. of France. In 1792 Savoy and Nice were conquered by the French, who, in 1796, dictated the terms of peace. Charles Emanuel became king in Oc- tober, 1796, and found the kingdom in a miserable con- dition. His reign was disturbed by insurrections proba- bly fomented by the French Directory. His fortresses, arsenals, etc. having been seized by French troops, he was compelled to abdicate in December, 1798, when he retired to the island of Sardinia. In 1802 he abdicated in favour of his brother, Victor Emanuel I. Died at Rome in 1819. See Bettoli, "Elogio storico di Sua Maesta Carlo Emmanuele," 1814. Charles Fe'lix [It. Carlo Felice, kaR'lo fi-lee'- cha] I., King of Sardinia, born at Turin in 1765, was the fourth son of Victor Amadeus HI., and was styled Due de Genes, (or Genoa.) In 1807 he married Maria Chris- tina, daughter of the King of Naples. When his brother, Victor Emanuel, recovered Piedmont in 1814, Charles Felix remained in the island of Sardinia as vicero}-. In March, 1821, a revolution occurred in Piedmont, and Victor Emanuel, rather than accept the constitution of- fered by the insurgents, abdicated the crown, to which Charles Felix, as the lawful heir, succeeded. He sup- pressed the revolt by vigorous measures, and reigned in peace until his death in 183 1. He left no issue, and was the last king of the elder branch of the house of Savoy. The crown then passed to Charles Albert, Prince of Carignano. Charles Gustavus, See Charles X., King of Sweden. Chai-les le Chauve. See Charles I. of France. Charles le Gros. See Charles HI., Emperor. Charles le Hardy, (or Hardi.) See Charles the Bold, page 577. Charles le Mauvais. See Charles the Bad, King of Navarre. Charles le Sage. See Charles V. of France. Charles le Simple. See Charles HI. of France. Charles le Temeraire. See Charles the Bold. Charles Mar'teF, [Fr. pron. shtid mtR'tSK,] King of the Franks, and grandfather of Charlemagne, was born about 694 A.D. Pie was the son of Pepin d'Heristal, Duke of Austrasia, and mayor of the palace under the last Merovingian kings. About'715 he succeeded his father as mayor of the palace, and king in reality, while Chilperic II. was only the phantom of royalty. 'A large army of Saracens from Spain having invaded his kingdom, he gained an important victory over them near Poitiers in 732. He received his surname of Mar tel (hammer) in consequence of this victory, which gave a fatal blow to the power of the Saracens. He was successful in wars against the Saxons and other German tribes. He died in 741 A.D., and was succeeded by his sons Carloman and Pepin le Bref. See Eduard Cauer, "Dissertatio de Karolo Martello," 1848; SiSMONDi, "Histoire des Frangais;" Hakon de Nilinse, " Charles Martel: Histoire des Maires du Palais," 1851. Charles Martel of Hungary, was a son of Charles II. of Naples, and Mary, Princess of Hungary. He ob- tained the crown of Hungary in 1290, and died in 1295, leaving it to his son Charobert. Charles PhiPip, Duke of Suderma''nia, etc., born at Revel in 1601, was the son of Charles IX. and brother of Gustavus Adolphus. The Swedish army, having con- quered many provinces of Russia, the regency of Novo- gorod offered the throne to Charles Philip in 161 1. After a long delay, he went to Viborg to accept the offer; but Michael Romanow was proclaimed king at Moscow. Charles formally renounced the crown in 1614, and died in 1622. Charles Quint. See Cilvrles V., Emperor of Ger- many. Charles Robert. See Charobert. Charles the Rash. See Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, page 577. Charlet, sWtvi'lk', (Nicolas Toussaint,) a French painter, designer, and lithographer, born in Paris in 1792. Plis painting of an " Episode of the Russian Campaign" is highly praised. Died in 1845. See Jules Janin, "N. T. Charlet, Artiste," 1847. Charleston, (Lewis,) an English bishop, (of Here- ford,) noted for learning. Died in 1369. Charle'tpn or CharPton, (Robert M.,) an American lawyer and poet, born at Savannah, Georgia, in 1807. Pie published a volume of poems in 1838, and was elected United States Senator in 1852. Died in 1854. Charleton or Charlton, (Walter,) F.R.S., an emi- nent and learned English ' physician, born at Shepton- Mallet in 1619. Having graduated in 1642, he became physician to Charles I., and practised some years in London. After the restoration (1660) he was physician- in-ordinary to Charles II. In 1689 he was chosen pres- ident of the College of Physicians. He wrote, besides professional works, "Epicurus his Morals," "Chorea Gigantum," a treatise on Stonehenge, and " Onomasti- con Zoicon," a valuable work, in which he attempts to determine the class, order, genus, and species of animals vaguely designated by authors under diverse names. Died in 1707. See NiCEKON, " Memoires ;" fii.ov, " Dictionnaire de la Mede- cine." Charleval, de, deh shtRl\tK, (Charles Faucon de Ris — f6'k6N' deh re,) Seigneur, a P'rench versifier, born in Normandy about 1612. " He was one of those," says Voltaire, " who acquired celebrity by the delicacy of their wit, without devoting themselves ( se livrer trop) to the public." He wrote fugitive poems, and the famous " Conversation of Marshal d'Hocquincourt with P. Ca- naye," printed in the works of Saint-Evremond. Died in 1693. See Feller, "Dictionnaire Historique." Charlevoix, de, deh shtR-leh-vw3.' or shtRPvwl', (Pierre Francois Xavier,) a French Jesuit and author, born at Saint-Quentin in 1682. Pie went to Canada as a missionary in 1720, explored Lakes Huron and Michi- gan, descended the Mississippi to its mouth, and re- turned to P^rance by way of Saint Domingo in 1722. He wrote many years for the "Journal de Trevoux," and compiled a " History and Description of Japan," (171 5,) and a " History of Canada," (3 vols., 1744,) the latter containing a journal of his travels. These works are valuable, though not free from partiality and credulity. Died in 1761. See Feller, "Dictionnaire Historique." Charlier, shtRHe-a.'', (Charles,) a French Jacobin, born at Laon, was a member of the National Conven- tion in 1792. Died in 1797. Charlier, (Jean.) See Gerson. Charlotte (shar'lot) of Cyprus, was the daughter of John HI. of Lusignan, King of Cyprus. She was married, in 1459, to Louis of Savo}'. She failed in her attempt to obtain the throne of Cyprus, of which she was the legal heiress. Died in 1487. See E. DE Lusignan, "Histoire de Chypre." Char'lotte Au-gus'ta, Princess of Wales, commonly known as Princess Charlotte, the daughter of George IV. of England and his queen Caroline, was born at Carlton House in 1796. When a final separation took place between the king , and queen, she was regarded as the future queen of England. The English court favoured a marriage between Charlotte and the Prince % as k; c as s; g hard; g as /; g, H, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this, (2i:^^See Explanations, p. 23.) CHARLOTTE 580 CHARPENTIER of Orange ; but she preferred Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, to whom she was married in 1816. She died in childbirth in November, 181 7, universally regretted by the British people. See " Memoir of the Life of the Princess Charlotte," by Robert HuisH, London, 1818 ;" Autobiography of Miss Cornelia Knight," London, 1861 ; "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1862. Charlotte Elizabeth. See Tonna, Mrs. Charlton. See Charlkton. Charma, shSR'mt', (Antolne,) a French writer, born in the department of Nievre in 180 1, became professor of philosophy at Caen about 1830. He published "Lessons of Social and Logical Philosophy," (1840,) an "Essay on Oriental Philosophy," (1842,) and other works. Charmeil, shtR'maF or shSR^ma'ye, (Pierre Marie Joseph,) a French surgeon, born in 1782 ; died in 1830. Charmetton, shtR'ma'toN^ (Jean Baptiste, ) a French surgeon, born at Lyons in 1710; died in 1781. See FiGUET, "Vie de M. Charmetton," 1781. •ehar'mi-des, [Xap//i(%f,] an Athenian philosopher, born about 450 K.c, was a maternal uncle of Plato, and first-cousin of Critias, one of the Thirty Tyrants. He was a pupil of Socrates. Having been appointed one of the ten tyrants whom Lysander established in the Piraeus, he was killed in battle by the army of Thrasybu'lus about 404 B.C. See Plato, "Charmides;" Xenophon, "Memorabilia." ■ehar'mis, a physician, born at Marseilles, settled at Rome in the reign of Nero. His favourite remedy was the cold bath. Charnace, de, deh shtR^nt'sa', (Hercule Girard,) Baron, an able French di])lomatist, born in Anjou or, according to some authorities, Bretagne. Through the influence of Richelieu, he was appointed ambassador to Sweden in 1628, and negotiated an important alliance with Gustavus Adolphus. He was killed at the siege of Breda, (1637,) where he fought, with the rank of colonel, for the Prince of Orange. See Bayi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" "Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale." Charnage. See Dunod. Charlies, de, deh shtRn, (Jean Antoine,) a French abbe, born at Avignon in 1641, was preceptor of the son of Louvois in Paris. He published a "Life of Tasso," abridged from the Italian of G. B. Manso. Died in 1728. Char'nock, (John,) an English writer, born in 1756. After leaving Oxford, he studied naval and military tactics, and served some time in the navy. He wrote several esteemed works, viz., " Naval Biography," ("Bio- graphia Navalis," 6 vols., 1796,) a "History of Marine Architecture," (1800,) and a "Life of Nelson," (1806.) Died in 1807. Charnock, (Stephen,) an eminent English noncon- formist divine, born in London in 1628. After preaching some time in Dublin, he was ejected for nonconformity in 1662. For about fifteen years he was a popular min- ister of a dissenting congregation in London. He wrote " Discourses on the Existence and Attributes of God," (1682,) a powerful and original work, highly commended by competent critics, and a " Discourse on the Salvation of Sinners." Two volumes of his sermons were pub- lished in 1682-83. His style is a model of sententious brevity. Died in 1680. Chamois, de, deh shtR'nwS', (Jean Charles Leva- cher — leh-vt'sha^) a French journalist and litterateur, born in Paris about 1750. He was executed in Septem- ber, 1792. Charobert, shS''ro''baiR', Caribert, ktVe^baiR', or Charles Robert, King of Hungary, was a son of King Charles Martel, and a grandson of Charles H., King of Naples. He began to reign in 13 12, and raised Hungary to a high degree of power and splendour. He died in 1342, leaving the throne to his son, Louis I. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Charolais, Count de. See Charles the Bold. •€Jha''ron, [Gr. Xapwv,] the ferryman who conveyed the souls of the dead across the rivers of Hades. The }oets represent him as the son of Erebus and Nox. See ViKjZL's "^Eneid," book vi. Charon [Xf/pwv] of Lampsacus, an ancient Greek historian, who was anterior to Herodotus, and lived probably about 500 B.C. He wrote a " History of Persia," and several other histories, of which only small fragments are extant. Charon of Thebes was a ])rominent actor in the con- spiracy or revolution which, under the direction of Pelo- pidas, subverted the power of the aristocratic party in Thebes in 379 B.C. Pelopidas, Charon, and Melon were then chosen chief magistrates of that state. Charon, sht'roN^ (Viala,) a French general and senator, born in Paris in 1794. He served in Algeria as officer of engineers with distinction from 1835 to 1845, '^"cl after the fall of Louis Philippe, in 1848, became general of division. He was afterwards chosen president of the committee of fortifications, and a senator. ■eha-ron'das, [XapwvtJaf,] an emir^ent Greek legisla- tor, born at Catania, in Sicily, lived about 650 B.C. His laws, which were in verse, were adopted by the Athe- nians and other nations. See Aristotle, "Politica;" Cicero, "De Legibus." Charost, de, deh sht'ro', (Armand Joseph de Be- thuue — deh ba'tiin',) Due, an opulent French philan- thropist and economist, born at Versailles in 1728, was a descendant of the statesman Sully. He served in the army from 1745 to 1763, and became a lieutenant-general, He founded hos])itals and other benevolent institutions, and made improvements in agriculture, on which he pub- lished several treatises. Louis XV. once said, pointing to him, " There is a man who vivifies three of my pro- vinces." In the reign of terror he was imprisoned for six months, ending on the 9th Thermidor, 1794. Died in 1800. See De Saint-Amand, "Biographic du Due de Bethune-Cha- rost;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Charpentier, shtR^pdN'te-a', (Franqois,) a French author, born in Paris in 1620. He became in 165 1 a member of the French Academy, of which he was also perpetual director. He was one of the first members of the Academy of Inscriptions, and the principal designer of the medals struck in 1702 to commemorate the events of the reign of Louis XIV. Among his numerous works, which display talents and learning, are " A Life of Socra- tes," (1650,) "The Excellence of the French Language," (1695,) and "A Journey to the Tranquil Valley," a tale. Died in 1702. He warmly maintained that inscriptions on monuments in France should be in French rather than in Latin. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Charpentier, (FRANgois Philippe,) an ingenious French mechanician, born at Blois in 1734, invented a process for making coloured engravings from paintings, which procured him the title of mechanician to the king; also, a fire-engine, which was generally used. Died in 1817. Charpentier, (Henri FRANgois Marie,) a French general, born at Soissons in 1769, entered the army in 1 791. For his services at Marengo in 1800 he was made general of division. He made the campaign of Austria in 1809, and contributed to the victories of Lutzen and Bautzen in 1813. Soon after the restoration he was made a grand officer of the legion of honour. Died in 1831. See De Courcelles, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Frangais." Charpentier, [Lat. Carpenta'rius,] (Jacques,) a French physician, born at Clermont in 1524. He be- came professor of mathematics in the College Royal, Paris, in 1566, and physician to Charles IX. As a par- tisan of Aristotle, he wrote several discourses against Ramus. He published, in Latin, a " Description of Nature, after Aristotle," and other works. Died in 1574. Sec INIoRERi, "Dictionnaire Historique;" Jean Papire MassoNj "Vita J. Carpentarii," 1574. Charpentier, (Jean Pierre,) a learned and accom- plished French critic, was born at Saint-Prest (Eure-et- Loire) in 1797. He was professor of eloquence in the Faculty of Paris for many years. He published, besides other works, an "Essay on the Literary History of the Middle Ages," Moyen Age,'' ) (1833,) a " History of the Renaissance of Letters in Europe in the Fifteenth Cen- tury," (1843,) and a translation of Virgil's "Bucolics" and " Georgics." Charpentier, (Marc Antoine,) an excellent French musician and composer, born in Paris in 1634. After he a, e, 1, o, u, y, lo7ig; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obsaire; fdr, fill, fit; net; n6c; go< d: moon; CHARPENTIER 581 CHASE had gained a high reputation in Italy, he returned to Paris, where he became a rival of LuUy, and director of the music of the Duke of Orleans. He composed the music of "Medea" and other operas. Died in 1702. See Fetis, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." Charpentier, [Lat. Carpenta'rius,] (Pierre,) a French jurist, born at Toulouse. He became a Calvin- ist, and lectured on law at Geneva. Having quarrelled with Beza, he removed to Paris just before the massacre of 1572, during which he found refuge in the house of Bellievre. He published in 1572 an apology for the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, and was rewarded with the office of royal advocate. See De Thou, "Histoire." Charras, sht'rSs', (Jean Baptists Adolphe, ) a French officer and military writer, born at Puy-deT)6me in 1808. He was a republican member of the Constituent Assembly in 1848-49. He wrote a masterly strategic work — "Histoire de la Canipagne de 1815 — Waterloo," (2 vols. 8vo, 1858; 5th edition, 1863.) Died in 1865. Charrierde la Roche, sht're-a' deh larosh, (Louis,) a French bishop, born at LyonsTn 1738, was elected to the States-General in 1789. He became first almoner of Napoleon in 1804. Died in 1827. Charriere, sht're-iik', (Ernest,) a French litterateur, born at Grenoble in~r8o5, published "Saint Helena," a lyric poem, (1826,) and a work on political history, entitled "La Politique de I'Histoire," (1842.) Charriere or Charrieres, de, deh sht^re-aiR', (Ma- dame Saint-Hyacinthe,) a novelist, who was born in Holland about 1746. She married M. de Charriere, and settled nfear Neufchatel, about 1766. She was a friend of Madame de Stael, and was highly gifted, morally and intellectually. She wrote several works of fiction, among which "Calliste" (1786) is said to be the most remarka- ble. Her pictures of life are faithful and very diversified. Died in 1805. See Sainte-Beuve, "Portraits des Feinmes," 1844. Charrieres. See Charriere. Charrin, sht'r^N', (Pierre Joseph,) a French drama- tist and /////r^z/^'z/r, born at Lyons in 1784, wrote melo- dramas, songs, etc. Charron, shi''r6N', (Pierre,) a French philosopher and Catholic priest, born in Paris in 1531. He became eminent as a preacher, and was successively theologal, or lecturer, at Lectoure, Agen, Bordeaux, Cahors, and Con- dom. He was an intimate friend of Montaigne, from whose Essays he has borrowed largely. In 1594 he pub- lished a religious book, called " Treatise on the Three Truths," (" Traite des trois Verites.") His principal work is a "Treatise on Wisdom," ("Traite de la Sagesse," 1601,) which was censured as irreligious or skeptical by the Jesuits and others, but had great popularity. Died in Paris in 1603. " It becomes difficult," says Hallam, "to estimate the place of Charron as a philosopher, because we feel a good deal of uncertainty whether any passage be his own. He appears to be a man formed in the school of Montaigne, — not much less bold in pursuing the novel opinions of others, but less fertile in original thoughts, . . . with more reading than his model, with more disciplined habits, as well of arranging and distributing his subject as of observing the sequence of an argument ; but, on the other hand, with far less of ingenuity in thinking and of sprightliness of language." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") See Niceron, "Memoires;" Luchet, "Analyse raisonnee de la Sagesse de Chanon," 1763; Brucker, " Historia Philosophise." Chartier, shtR'te-i^ (Alain,) a French poet of great celebrity in his timeTwas born in Normandy about 1385. He was confidential secretary to Charles VI. and to Charles VII., and appears to have been idolized by cul- tivated men of that age. A majority of French critics agree that their language owes great obligations to him ; and he appears to have contributed to the moral and political reformation of his country. Among his French poems are the " Breviary of the Nobles," and the " Book of the Four Ladies," (" Le Livre des quatre Dames.") He wrote " Le Curial," and other prose works. Died about 1455. See G. Mancel, "Alain Chartier : iStiide bibliographique," 1850 ; Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Chartier, (Guillaume,) brother of the preceding, born at I3ayeux about 1400, became Bishop of Paris in 1447. Died in 1472. Chartier, (Jean,) a brother of the preceding, received from Charles VII. the title of historiographer. He pub- lished " Chronicles of France," and a " History of the Reign of Charles VII.," both of which are esteemed. Died in or after 1461. Chartier, (Jean,) a son of Rene, noticed below, born in Paris in 1600, graduated in 1634, and became physi- cian to the king. Died in 1662. Philippe, a younger brother of Jean, was also physician to the king, and pro- fessor in the College Royal. Died in 1669, aged thirty-six. Chartier, (Rene,) [Lat, Rena'tus Charte'rius,] a French physician, born at Vendome in 1572. He gradu- ated at Paris in 1608, was appointed physician-in-ordinary to the king in 16 13, and professor of surgery at the Col- lege Royal in 161 7. He acquired a high reputation by an excellent edition, in Greek, of Hippocrates and Galen, with a Latin version and notes, (1639-79.) Died in 1654. See "Nouvelie Biographic Generale." Charton, shtk'toN', (£douard,) a French litteratetir, born at Sens in 1807. He established in 1833 the " Pic- torial ( Pittorcsqiie) Magazine," which he conducted more than twenty years. In 1848 he was elected to the Na- tional Assembly. He contributed to several journals of Paris, and published, besides other works, "Ancient and Modern Voyagers," (1855.) Chartran, shtR'tudN', (J. H. S.,) a French general, born at Carcassonne in 1779. He was made a general of brigade for his services at Culm in 1813, and was put on half-pay by the Bourbons in 1814. He took the field for Bonaparte in 181 5, and distinguished himself at Waterloo. He was tried by a military court, and executed in 1816. Chartres, Duke of. Several French princes have borne this title. (See Louis Philippe; and Orleans, Philippe, Duke of.) Chartres, de, deh shtRtR, (Renaud or Reginald,) Archbishop of Rheims, was born about 1380. He was appointed chancellor of France in 1428, and acquired great influence with the king, Charles VII. He was jealous of Joan of Arc, whose bold and extraordinary measures did not accord with his mean and tortuous policy, and made no effort to prevent her tragical death. Died in 1444. Chas, shis, (J.,) a prolific French writer and compiler of history, biography, etc., was born at Nimes about 1750 ; died about 1830. Chase, (Irah,) D.D., a Baptist divine and theologian, born in Stratton, Vermont, in 1793. He was the ])rin- cipal founder, in 1825, of the Baptist Theological Semi- nary at Newton, Massachusetts, and professor in that institution until 1845. I^ied in 1864. Chase, (Philander,) an American Episcopal bishop, born in Cornish, New Hampshire, in 1775, gi'^iduated at Dartmouth College in 1795. He became rector of a church at Hartford, Connecticut, about 1812, and in 181 7 began to labour as a missionary in Ohio, where he planted the Episcopal Church. In 1819 he was elected Bishop of Ohio, and in 1835 became Bishop of Illinois. He founded Kenyoii College, in Ohio, and Jubilee Col- lege, in Illinois. Died in 1852. See "Reminiscences of Bishop Chase: an Autobiography." Chase, (Salmon Portland,) an eminent American statesman, a nephew of the preceding, was born at Cornish, New Hampshire, on the 13th of January, 1808. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1826, taught a classical school at Washington, District of Columbia, from 1826 to 1829, studied law under William Wirt, and settled at Cincinnati about 1830. He attained eminence as a lawyer, supported General Harrison in the Presi- dential election of 1840, and took a prominent part in the formation of the Liberty party about 1841. He was one of the chief promoters of the convention of Free- soilers which met at Buffalo in 1848 and nominated Martin Van Buren for the Presidency, He acted as counsel for the defence of several fugitive slaves. In February, 1849, he was elected a Senator of the United States by the Democratic members of the legis- lature of Ohio. He made in the Senate a speech against the Compromise Bill in 1850. On the nomination of € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, H, K, giittitral; n, nasal; R, trilted; s as 2; th as in this. (2[^^See Explanations, p. 23. ) CHASE 582 CHASSELOUP Mr. Pierce in 1852, he separated from the Democratic party, which was then committed to the support and ex- tension of slavery. He opposed the Nebraska-Kansas Bill, by which the Missouri Compromise was repealed in 1854, and offered several amendments to the same. He proposed to add a clause that " the people of the territory, through their appropriate representatives, may, if they see fit, prohibit the existence of slavery therein." This amendment was rejected by a vote of ten yeas and thirty-six nays. He advocated the Homestead Bill, and maintained that the Federal Government should aid in the construction of a railroad to the Pacific. He was elected Governor of Ohio for two years by the Republicans in October, 1855, and supported J. C. Fremont for the Presidency in 1856. In 1857 he was re-elected Governor. At the National Republican Con- vention which met in Chicago in May, i860. Governor Chase received forty-nine votes for the office of Presi- dent on the first ballot. Having been appointed a mem- ber of the Peace Conference which met at Washington in February, 1861, he there made a speech on the subject of fugitive slaves, and proposed that the Northern States should compensate their masters for them. " We cannot surrender [them,"] said he, "but we can compensate." He was appointed secretary of the treasury in the cabinet of Lincoln, March 4, 1861. In January, 1862, he recom- mended that the notes of the United States should be made a legal tender. When he accepted the office of secretary, the public credit was low, and the public reve- nue was scarcely sufficient to support the government even in a state of peace. He raised money by the issue of treasury notes, called "greenbacks," which bore no interest, and by loans which were taken at moderate rates, mostly by the people of the United States. His services as a financier are eulogized by Horace Greeley in these terms: "Governor Chase had filled in the public service, through years of doubt, depression, and disaster, the second place in importance, and the first in the magnitude of its requirements, and had dis- charged its duties with pre-eminent ability, energy, and courage." (" American Conflict.") He resigned his office on the 30th of June, 1864, about which time his friends made a movement to procure his nomination as candidate for the Presidency, but without success. He was re- garded with special favour by the radical Republicans. He supported the re-election of President Lincoln, who appointed him chief justice of the supreme court of the United States, in the place of Roger B. Taney, who died in October, 1864. In the controversy about the reconstruction of the seceded States he did not take a decided or prominent part ; but in 1865, after the end of the civil war, he made a tour of observation in several of the Southern States, and made speeches to the freed- men. He identified himself with the Radicals on the question of impartial suffrage. He presided over the court of impeachment (March, 1868) for the trial of Presi- dent Johnson. He is understood to have favoured the acquittal of the President, and by his course on that occasion gave much offence to the radical Republicans. He was an" unsuccessful candidate for the Democratic nomination for President in July, 1868. See Mrs. Stovve's "Men of our Times." Chase, (Samuel,) an American judge and eloquent lawyer, born in Somerset county, Maryland, in 1 741. Pie became a leader of the patriots of Maryland in the Revo- lution, was a delegate in Congress from 1774 to 1778, and signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776. In 1791 he was appointed chief justice of the general court of Maryland, and in 1796 was nominated an associate justice of the supreme court of the United States. He was impeached in 1804 for misdemeanour in relation to certain political trials. John Randolph of Roanoke instigated and conducted this impeachment, which re- sulted in the acquittal of Judge Chase in March, 1805. Died in 181 1. See " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. ; " Encyclopaedia Americana." Chasles or Chiles, shdl, (Louis,) a French Jacobin and priest, born at Chartres in 1754, was a member of the Convention, (1792-95,) and voted for the death of the king. Died in 1826. Chasles, (Michel,) an eminent French geometer, born at lijiernon (Eurc-et-Loire) in 1793. He entered the Polytechnic School in 1812. In 1837 he published a resume his previous works, in a volume entitled "His- torical View ( Apejyu ) of the Origin and Development of Methods in Geometry," followed by a " Memoir on two General Principles of the Science, Duality and Homog- raphy." In this work he established the basis of a new theory of conic sections and of surfaces of the second order. He was appointed professor of astronomy and mechaiiics in the Polytechnic School in 1841. He was very successful in researches in pure geometry, several important theories of which he extended and simplified. In 1846 he obtained the chair of higher geometry in the Faculty of Sciences, Paris, and in 1852 published a "Treatise on Higher Geometry," ("Traite de Geometrie superieure.") He was admitted into the Institute in 1851. By an ingenious algorithm he has introduced the principle of signs into pure geometry, and has created a new branch of mathematics, characterized by uniformity of method. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Chasles, (Victor Euphemion Philarete,) a. suc- cessful French Uttemtenr, a son of Louis Chasles, noticed above, was born near Chartres in 1799. He has been for more than twenty years an editor of the "Journal des Debats," and has contributed to the " Revue des Deux Mondes." His principal articles, written for these and other periodicals, have appeai'ed under the general title of "Studies on Comparative Literature," (in 11 vols.,) among which are " Studies on Spain," " Studies on Ame- rica," etc. He is, or was recently, professor of foreign languages and literature in the College of France. He has shown himself an able critic of English literature, and has reproduced for the " Revue Britannique" many articles from English reviews. He published, in 1862, "Galileo, sa Vie, son Proces et ses Contemporains." See QuER.'VRD, " La France Litteraire." Chasles or Challes, de, deh sh^l, (Gr^goire,) a French writer, born in Paris in 1659. He was the author of "Illustrious Frenchwomen," ("Les illustres Fran- 9aises," 17 13,) often reprinted. Died about 1720. Clrasles de la Touche, shai deh It toosh, (Theo- dore Gaston Joseph,) a P'rench historical writer, born at Le Teil in 1787; died in 1848. Chassaignac, sht'san'ytk', (E ....,) a French phy- sician, born at Nantes in 1805, published several works on anatomy. Chasse, sht'sk', (David Hendrik,) Baron, a brave Dutch general, born at Thiel in 1765, entered the French service about 1790. He distinguished himself in the Prussian campaign of 1806, and displayed great bravery in Spain in 1808-09. He was created a baron about 181 1, and became a general of division in 1814. He fought for the allies at the battle of Waterloo, (1815,) after which he became governor of Antwerp. His reso- lute defence of Antwerp against the French in 1832 was much admired. Died in 1849. See Campo, "Life of Chasse." Chassel, sht^seK, (Charles,) a French sculptor, born at Nancy in 1612, became a resident of Paris. He re- ceived the title of sculptor to Louis XIV., for whom he made a mimic army when that prince was a boy. Chassel, (REmi Francois,) a grandson of the pre- ceding, born at Metz in 1666, worked at Nancy, and was successful in monumental sculpture. Died in 1752. Chasseloiip-Laubat, de, deh shts'loo' lo'bt', (FRANgois,) Marquis, a French general, born near Marennes in 1754. As chief engineer, he served with applause under I^onaparte in Italy in 1796 and 1797. In 1799 he was raised to the rank of general of division. He was employed for several years in fortifying Mantua, Alessandria, and other cities of Italy. In 1812 he ob- tained for the seventh time the chief command of the engineers of the grand army. After the restoration he received the title of Marquis. Died in 1833. See "Victoires et Conquetes des Frar.gois." Chasseloup-Laubat, de, (Justin Prudent,) Mar- quis, a French general, son of the preceding, i3orn in Paris in 1800. He became a captain of cavalry in 1830, a, e, T, 6, li, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obsaire; fdr, fill, f4t; mit; n6t; good; moon; CHASSENEUX 583 CHATEAUBRIAND and a few years later accompanied General Maison as aide-de-camp in an embassy to Vienna. From 1837 to 1848 he was a member of the Chamber of Deputies. He was made a general of division in 1853. His brother, Count Justin Napoleon, a lawyer and a Bonapartist politician, was born in 1805. He was a member of the Assembly in 1849, and afterwards of the Corps Legislatif In November, i860, he was appointed minister of state for the marine and the colonies. Chasseneux, shts'nuh', (Barth^lemf,) a learned French judge and legal writer, born near Autun in 1480. He was appointed president of the parliament of Pro- vence in 1 532. He wrote, among otlier works, " Con- silia," and "Catalogus Gloriae Mundi," a work designed to explain and determine questions of rank, precedence, etc. Died in 1541. Chasseriau, sht'si're-o', (Theodore,) a French painter, born at Samana, in Hayti, in 1 819, worked in Paris, where he received several medals between 1836 and 1855. His works, among which is "The Supper of Macbeth," are said to display a fine imagination. Died in 1856. Chassignet, de, deh sht''s^n'ya', (pRANgois,) Baron, was born at Besancon, France, in 165 1. Having entered the Austrian service, he Cjuickly rose to a high rank in the army. He became the preceptor of the emperor Leo- pold's eldest son, (Joseph I.) In 1700 he was sent to Naples to manage a conspiracy against the Spanish government. He failed in this attempt, was arrested and confined in the French Bastille until 1 7 14. Chassiron, de, deh sht'se'roN^ (Pierre Charles Martin,) Baron, a French economist, noted for his im- provements in agriculture, was born at La Rochelle in 1753. He wrote several esteemed letters on agriculture, and articles for Rozier's " Cours d'Agriculture." Diecl in 1825. See Sii.vESTRE, " Notice sur le Baron Chassiron," 1826. Chasteau, sh^'to', [It. Castelli, k^s-teKlee,] (Guil- LAUME,) a French engraver, born at Orleans in 1635. He studied and worked in Italy, and afterwards removed to Paris, where he was patronized by Colbert. He en- graved after Poussin, Annibale Caracci, and other mas- ters. Died in 1683. See By\SAN, '"Dictionnaire des Graveurs." Chastel. See Chatel. Chastel, sha'teK, (Pierre Louis Aim^,) Baron, a French general, born at Vergi, in Chablais, in 1774. While serving in the army of Egypt, in 1798, he dis- covered the zodiac of Denderah. He dis])layed courage and capacity in the campaigns of Austerlitz and Jena, and, as general of division, distinguished himself at Boro- dino in 1 812. After the campaign of 181 5 in l')elgium, he retired to private life. Died at Geneva in 1826. See " Victoires et Conquetes des Fran9ais." Chastel, du. See Duchatel. Chastelain, shat'l^N'', (Claude,) a French liturgist, born in Paris about 1640; died in 1712. Chastelain, shitldN', (Georges,) a celebrated Flem- ish chronicler, born in Flanders in 1403. He lived at the court of Philip, Duke of Burgundy, and of his son, Charles the Bold His chief work is a " General Chroni- cle of Events from 1420 to 1474." Died in 1475. Chastelard, de, deh shat'ltR', (Pierre de Bosco- sel — deh bos''ko'zeK,) a French poet, born about 1540. He became enamoured of Mary Queen of Scots, con- cealed himself in her bedchamber, and was detected. Having repeated the offence, he was executed at Edin-^ burgh in 1563. See MiGNET, "Histoire de Marie Stuart;" Brantome, "M6- moires." Chasteler, du, dii shSt'li', (Jean Gabriel,) Mar- quis, an eminent general in the Austrian service, born at Mons iii 1763. He entered the army at the age of fifteen, and, after serving several campaigns in Flanders and Italy, was made quartermaster-general in 1799. In 1805 he was chief of the staff of the Archduke Charles in Italy. In 1808 he commanded in the Tyrol against the French, and in 1813 became general of artillery. About 1 81 5 the emperor aj^pointed him governor of Venice, where he died in 1825. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Chastelet or Chatelet, du, dii shat'li', (Paul Hay,) Sieur, an eloquent French lawyer, born in Bretagne in 1592, became attorney-general at Rennes, and coun- cillor of state. He was the first secretary of the French Academy, and wrote, besides other works, a "Life of Du Guesclin." Died in 1636. Chastellet, du, dii sh§,^ti^la', or Chatelet-Lomont, du, dii shit'lk' lo'm^N^ (Florent Louis Marie,) Due, the son of the following, was born at Semur, France, in 1727. He served with distinction in the army, was created a duke in 1777, and afterwards became colonel of the French guards. In the States-General of 1789 he was a moderate royalist. He was proscribed in the reign of terror, and executed in December, 1793. Chastellet, du, or Chitelet, shat'la', (Gabrielle Emilie le Tonnelier de Breteuil — leh ton'le-a' deh bReh-tuF or bReh-tu'ye,) Marquise, a ceiebratedTi-ench savante, born in 1706. She was learned in mathematics and other sciences, and in Latin, English, and Italian. In 1740 she published a work on Physical Philosophy, entitled " Institutions de Physique." She afterwards made a good French translation of Newton's *' Prin- cipia," which was revised by Clairaut. In early youth she was married to the Marquis du Chastellet-Lomont. She lived some years with Voltaire at Cirey between 1735 and 1747. Her liaison with Voltaire injured her reputation, and will probably be remembered after her writings are forgotten. Died in 1749. Chastellux, de, deh shS'ta^liiks^ (Francois Jean,) Marquis, a French general and author, born in Paris in 1734. He wrote an admired "Essay on Public Happi- ness," ("De la Felicite publique," 1772,) which Voltaire preferred to Montesquieu's "Spirit of I^aws." In 1775 he was admitted into the French Academy. In 1780 he went to the United States, where he served with honour as major-general in the army of Rochambeau for three years. He published, among other works, "Travels in North America," (2 vols., 1786.) He was a personal friend of Washington. Died in 1788. See Grimm, " Correspondance Litt^raire ;" Alfred de Chas- tellux, "Notice sur le Marquis de Chastellux," 1822. Chastilloii. See Chatillon. Chastillon, de, deh shi^te''y6N', (Alexis Madeleine Rosalie,) Due, born in 1680, was a descendant of Gaucher, noticed below, and became marechal-de-camp in 1719. As lieutenant-general, he commanded the cav- alry at Guastalla in 1734. In 1735 he was appointed governor of the dauphin, the son of Louis XV. Died in 1754- Chastillon, de, (Eudes.) See Urban II., Pope. Chastillon, de, (Gaucher,) Count of Crecy, a French general, born in 1250, fought bravely at Courtray in 1302, and was made Constable of France in the same year. He gained a victory at Cassel in 1328. Died in 1329, Chateau. See Chasteau, (Guillaume.) Chateaubriand, de, deh sha'to'bRe'SN^ (Franqois AuGUSTE,) Viscount, the most celebrated of the French authors who wrote during the first empire, was born of a noble family, at Saint-Malo, in September, 1768. He was educated at Dol and at Rennes, where he made great progress in the ancient languages and in mathematics. His youth was passed mostly on the shore of the ocean, where his imagination was nourished by lonely reveries among the winds and waves. " A divine breath," says he, "passed over me. I began to lisp forth verses as if they had been my natural language. I wrote for a long time in verse before attempting prose." He was des- tined for the church, but preferred the army, which he entered as sub-lieutenant in 1786. He was in Paris and a spectator of the capture of the Bastille in 1789, but did not partake of the popular enthusiasm. "I had neither adopted nor rejected the new opinions," says he. " I wished neither to emigrate nor to follow the military pro- fession. I retired." Impelled by a desire to travel, he sailed for the United States in 1791, ostensibly in search of a Northwest passage. He dined in Philadel])hia with Washington, of whom he says, "There is virtue in the look of a great man. I felt myself warmed and refreshed by it during the rest of my life." H avinsr traversed the primeval forests from Niagara to Florida, he returned c as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, y., guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jj^^See Explanations, p. 23. CHATEAUBRIANT 584 CHATELET to France in 1792. He had not found a Northwest pas- sage, but he had discovered the germs of a new and romantic literature. To please his sister, he married Mademoiselle de Lavigne, whom he appears not to have found a very congenial companion. In 1792 he joined the army of royalist emigrants, was wounded at Thion- ville, and left for dead in a ditch. From 1793 until 1800 he was an exile in England, where he was reduced to extreme poverty, and partly supported himself by trans- lations for the booksellers. Having been converted from skepticism by the death of his mother, in 1798, he began to compose his celebrated work, "The Genius of Christianity," ("Genie du Chris- tianisme,") He returned to France in 1800, and pub- lished in 1801 his romance of "Atala," a picture of abori- ginal American life, which extorted from Europe a general exclamation of surprise and admiration. In 1802 ap- peared his "Genie du Christianisme," to which " Rene," a romance, was attached as an episode. The publication of these brilliant works made a revolution in French literature, and caused him to be recognized as the literary glory of his age. He ijerformecl, in 1806 and 1807, a tour through Greece, Asia Minor, Palestine, and Spain, partly with a view to familiarize himself with the regions in which he proposed to lay the scene of a new work. This was a prose epic, entitled "The Martyrs, or the Triumph of the Christian Religion," which ap- peared in 1809. In 181 1 he was elected a member of the French Acad- emy, and published his " Itinerary from Paris to Jerusa- lem." His long and implacable enmity to the emperor found utterance in his famous and eloquent pamphlet, " Bonaparte and the Bourbons," (1814.) Under the resto- ration, from 1 814 to 1824, he showed himself an ultra- royalist. He was ambassador to Berlin in 1820, and to London in 1822, after he had fiercely and effectively op- posed the Liberal minister Decazes, whose feet, he said, " had slipped in blood." He was appointed minister of foreign affairs in 1823, and dismissed by his rival, Vil- lele, in June, 1824, after which he became a formidable assailant of the ministry in the "Journal des Debats." In 1828 he was sent as ambassador to Rome by Mar- tignac ; but he resigned the embassy on the accession of Polignac as prime minister. After the revolution of 1830 he refused to take the oath to Louis Philippe, and defended the exiled Bourbons in several tracts, for which he was prosecuted and im])risoned a short time in 1832. His waywardness and inconsistency in politics were thus indicated in his own words : " I am a Bourbonist by honour, a royalist by reason and conviction, and a repub- lican by taste and character." He died on the 4th of July, 1848, after seeing the advent of the second repub- lic. He left posthumous memoirs, (" Memoires d'Outre- Tombe,") 1849, which attracted general attention as a rare combination of genius and egotism. He had no children. His last years were passed in retirement and in a despondency which even the charming society and devoted attentions of Madame Recamier could not ex- hilarate. See Vii.i.EMAiN," M. de Chateaubriand, sa Vie, ses Merits, son In- liience," etc., 1858; Count de Marcellus, "Chateaubriand et -.on Temps," 1859: L. de Lomenie, " Galerie des Contemporalns Uustres," tome i.; Scipion Marin, " Histoire de la Vie et des Ou- vrages de Chateaubriand," 1833; Cesare Cantij, " Cliateaubriand, Discorso," Milan, 1835; F. Z. Collombet, "Chateaubriand, sa Vie et ses ficrits," 1851 ; Ancei,ot, "Vie de ChSteaubriand," 4to, 1853 ; Sainte Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi," tomes i. and ii.; Pres- COTT, "Miscellanies;" "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1816; "Blackwood's Magazine" for June, 1837, September, 1849, and July, 1850; " Fore.gn Quarterly Review" for October, 1831, October, 1832, and April and January, 1837 ; " North British Review" for August, 185S ; "Memoirs and Correspondence of Madame Recamier," translated from the French and edited by Miss Luvster, Boston, 1867. Chateaubriant, de, deh sha'to'bRe'SN', (FRANg;oiSE,) CouNi'KSs, a i)eautiful French lady, born in 1475, ^^"^^ the daughter of the Count de Foix, and sister of Marshal Lautrec. After her marriage with Seigneur de Chateau- briant, she became an ornament of the court of Francis I., who said that a court without ladies "is like a year without spring and a spring without roses." The current rumour that she was the mistress of Francis is denied oy some writers. Died in 1537. See Varillas, "Histoire de Frangois I." Chateaubrun, de, deh shi'to'bRuN', (Jkan Baptiste Vivien,) a French dramatist, born at Angouleme in 1686. He composed dramas, which for many years he refused to present on the stage, through fear of displeasing the Due d'Orleans, to whom he was attached as maitre- d' hotel, (steward.) He was received into the French Academy in 1753. The next year his tragedy "The Trojan Women" was performed, and was received with great favour. Died in 1775. Chateauneuf, de, deh sha't5'nuf, (L'fipiNE,) a French diplomatist, born about 1753, was a cousin of General Dumouriez. He was consul-general at Tunis in 1787, and minister to Geneva a short time about 1792. He translated the " Idyls" of Theocritus into French verse. Died in 1800. Chateauneuf-Randon, de, dehshi^to'nuf'rSN'd^N', (Alexandre,) Count, a French' Jacobin and regicide, born probably in Gevaudan. In 1789 he was deputed by the noblesse of Mende to the States-General, and in 1792 to the Convention, in which he voted for the exe- cution of the king. He made himself notorious for his cruelty and crimes at Lyons, whither he was sent by the Convention in 1793. Died in obscurity in 1816. Chateau-Regnaud, de, deh shi'to' reh-no^ also written Chateau-Renaud and Chiteau-Regnard, (FRANgois Louis de Rousselet,) Count, a French vice- admiral and marshal, born in 1637. As chef-d'escadre, or commodore, he defeated the Dutch fleet under De Ruyter in 1673. In 1678 he gained a victory near Cadiz over Eversen, a Dutch admiral. He defeated the English in the Bay of Bantry, and was appointed lieutenant-general of the naval armies, in 1688. In 1701 Philip V. of Spain gave him the title of Captain-General of the Ocean. He received a marshal's baton in 1703. Died in 17 16. Chateauroux, shd'to'roo', (Marie Anne,) Duchess of, was born of the noble family of Nesle. After the death of her husband, the Marquis de la Tournelle, she became the favourite of Louis XV. of France, who gave her the title of Duchess. She retained influence over him until her death in 1744. Chatel. See Duchatel. Chatel or Chastel, sha'tgK, (Jean,) a Frenchman, born in Paris about 1575. In December, 1594, he en- tered tlie Louvre and attempted to kill Henry IV. with a knife, but only inflicted a slight wound. He was ar- rested, and, when questioned respecting his motive, said that he had been taught at a college of Jesuits that it was lawful to kill a heretical king. He was executed, and the Jesuits were expelled from Paris. " See SisMONDi, "Histoire des Frangais." Chatel, du, dii shi't^K, (Franqois,) a skilful Flemish historical painter, born at Brussels in 1626. He was a pupil of Teniers, whose style he imitated with success ; and he excelled in design and colouring. A picture of the King of Spain receiving the Oath from the Estates of Flanders in 1666 is one of his most admired works. He often chose for his subject a festival, a social assem- bly, or a family group. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Chatel, du, (Tanguy or Tanneguy,) a French gene- ral, who served at Agincourt in 141 5, and was chief of the Armagnac party. He was appointed Governor of Provence by Charles VII. in 1446. He died at the age of ninety. Chatelain, shat'eh-lan', ( ? ) (John Baptist,) a skilful designer and engraver, born in London in 1710. He was reckoned among the best engravers of landscapes, many of which he executed after Gaspard Poussin, N. Pous- sin, and Cortona. He also engraved his own flesigns. Died in London in 1771. See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." Chatelain, (Ren^: Th6ophile,) a French writer, born at Saint-Quentin in 1790, served in the army from 1808 to 1815. In 1819 he became chief editor of the "Courrier Frangais," a paper of liberal politics, and acquired a high reputation as a journalist. His princi- pal work is entitled " Letters of Sidi Mahmoud," (1825.) Died in 1838. Chatelet. See Chastellet and Chastelet. Chatelet-Lomont. See Chastellet. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; ^, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; CHATHAM 585 CHAUDR UC Chatham, chat'am, (John Pitt,) Earl of, born in 1756, was the eldest son of the great Earl of Chatham. He was first lord of the admiralty in the ministry of his brother, William Pitt, and commanded the unfortunate expedition against Walcheren in 1809. He died, without issue, in 1S35. Chatham, Lord. See Pitt, (William.) Chatillou. See Chastillon and Charles de Blois. Chatillon, sha'te'yoN'', (Andre Marie,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1782, gained the grand prize (de Rome) in 1809. Chatillon or Chastillon, (Nicolas Claude,) born at Chalons, in Champagne, in 1547, was reputed one of the ablest engineers of France, He was employed as engineer by Henry IV. and Louis XHI. He built the Pont-Neuf (New Bridge) in Paris, and left a work entitled " French Topography," containing views of castles, cities, etc. Died in 1616. Chat'ter-ton, Lady, a British authoress of the pres- ent century. She has published " Rambles in the South of Ireland^" (1838,) "A Good Match," a novel, (1839,) "The Reigning Beauty," (1858,) and other works. Chatterton, (Thomas,) an English poet, celebrated for his genius, precocity, and literary impostures, was born at Bristol in 1752. His father was sexton of Red- cliffe Church. In childhood he was averse to study, and was pronounced by his teacher a dull boy. After he attained the age of eight, he made rapid progress, and became fond of antiquarian pursuits. About the age of twelve he wrote verses which evinced talent. In 1767 he was apprenticed to an attorney of Bristol, When the new bridge was opened in 1768, Chatterton published a " Description of the Friars first passing over the Old Bridge," which he professed to derive from ancient manuscripts found in the muniment-room of Redcliffe Church, He soon produced poems, which he ascribed to Rowley, a monk of the fifteenth century, and other in- genious fabrications, which excited among literary men no little sensation. A long and animated controversy ensued respecting the authenticity of the Rowleian poems, which the majority pronounced to be forgeries. In April, 1770, he went to London in search of literary employment, and was at first successful. He was em- ployed by several booksellers, and, in letters to his mother, represented his prospects as extremely brilliant. He wrote sermons, songs, and political articles for the public journals. He soon became despondent, was re- duced to a state of starvation, and in August, 1770, was found dead, probably by suicide. It appears that he had shown symptoms of insanity for some years before his death. His principal poems are " The Tragedy of Ella," "The Battle of Hastings," "Ode to Ella," " The Tour- nament," and a " Description of Canynge's Feast." " This youth," says T. Warton, " was a prodigy of genius, and would have proved the first of English poets had he reached a mature age." " No English poet," says Thomas Campbell, " ever equalled him at the same age, Tasso alone can be compared to him as a juvenile prodigy. His thirst for knowledge was that of a being taught by instinct to lay up materials for the exercise of great and undeveloped powers." See Warton, " History of English Poetry;" Campbell, "Speci- mens of the British Poets :" John Dix, "Life of T. Chatterton," 1837 ; George Gregory, "Life of T. Chatterton," 1789; " Biographia Britannica ;" H. Puettmann, "Chatterton," Barmen, 2 vols., 1840; Gary, "Lives of English Poets from Johnson to Kirke White;" "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1804, (by Sir Walter Scott.) Chau'cer, [Lat. Chaucf/rus,] (Geoffrey,) the father of English poetry, was born in London in 1328. The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge both claim him as their alumnus. He enjoyed the favour of Edward HI., and passed much time at court. About 1358 he served in the army which invaded France, where he was made prisoner. In 1373 he was employed on an em- bassy to Genoa, where perhaps occurred the interview with Petrarch which he mentions in his works. Soon after his return he was appointed comptroller of customs in London. He was elected a knight of the shire for Kent in 1386, and about that time is said to have been persecuted as a Wickliffite. He received an annual pen- sion from 1367 until his death, excepting a few years when he was out of favour. In the latter part of his life he wrote his principal work, the celebrated " Canterbury Tales," in a language so different from modern English that few persons can now enjoy their beauties. The plot is thought to be taken from the " Decameron" of Boc- caccio ; and the work purports to be a series of stories told by pilgrims travelling in company to Canterbury. Among his other poems are "The Court of Love," "The Legend of Good Women," "The House of Fame," and "Troilus and Cresseide." He died in 1400. " Our greatest poet of the middle ages, beyond com- parison," says Hallam, "was Chaucer; and I do not know that any other country except Italy produced one of equal variety in invention, acuteness of observation, or felicity of expression." ("Introduction to the Litera- ture of Europe.") " I take unceasing delight in Chaucer," says Coleridge. " His manly cheerfulness is especially delicious to me in my old age. How exquisitely tender he is, yet how free from the least touch of sickly melan- choly or morbid drooping !" " Chaucer stands in the first rank," says Southey, " with Spenser, Shakspeare, and Milton." He had a son. Sir Thomas, who became Speaker of the House of Commons, and a daughter Alice, who married the Duke of Suffolk. The poet himself had married Philippa Rouet, a maid of honour to the queen, and sister-in-law of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. See W. Godwin," Life of Chaucer," 1804; Todd, "Lives of Gower and Chaucer," 1810; H. Nicholas, "Life of Chaucer," 1843; H. GoMONT, "G. Chaucer, Poete Anglais," 1847; Villemain, " Cours de Litterature ;" " Edinburgh Review" for June, 1815 ; "Retrospective Review," vol. ix., 1824, and vol. xiv., 1826; article on Chaucer (by Sir Walter Scott) in the " Edinburgh Review" for Jaiiuary, 1804; "Eraser's Magazine" for April, 1856. Chaucerus. See Chaucer. Chaudesaigues, shod'zig', (Charles Barthelemi,) a French writer of songs, born in Paris in 1799. Chaudet, sho'di', (Antoine Denis,) an eminent French sculptor, born in Paris in 1763, was a pupil of Stouf. In 1784 he gained the grand prize of the Acad- emy for a bas-relief of " Joseph sold by his Brethren." Having studied several years in Rome, he returned to Paris in 1789, and soon acquired the reputation of one of the first of modern sculptors. About 1805 he was chosen a member of the Institute, and one of the committee on the "Dictionary of the Language of the Fine Arts." Among his master-pieces are an " CEdipus," a statue of "Napoleon," "Paul and Virginia," and " Cincinnatus." He was also a skilful painter. Died in 1810. See Nagler," Neues AllgemeinesKiinstler-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Chaudet, (Jeanne Elisabeth,) a French painter, wife of the preceding, born in 1767 ; died about 1830. Chaudon, sh6^d6N', (Esprit Joseph,) a French lit- terateiir, born at Valensole (Lower Alps) in 1738. He became a priest of the Oratory, and taught in several colleges of that order. He published a useful work, called "The Library ( Bibliotheque) of a Man of Taste, or Advice on the Choice of the Best Books in our Lan- guage," (1772,) and a "Dictionary of the Latin Names in Ancient and Modern Geography," (1778.) Died in 1800. See Qu^rard, "La France Litt^raire." Chaudon, (Louis Ma'ieul — mt'yuK,) a brother of the preceding, born at Valensole, near Riez, in 1737, was emi- nent as a biographer. He was a monk of the fraternity of Cluny, and is usually called Don Chaudon. In 1766 he produced a "New Historical Dictionary," which was superior to any work of that kind, and was very success- ful. The ninth edition, enlarged to twenty volumes, appeared about 1810. He afterwards published anony- mously the "Anti-Philosophic Dictionary," (2 vols., 1769,) to refute the skeptical doctrines of Voltaire, "Lec- tures on History and Chronology," (2 vols., 1781,) and other works. He assisted his brother in the " Library of a Man of Taste," (1772.) Died in 1817. See Querard, "La France Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Chaudron-Rousseau, sh6''dR6N' roo^so', ( Pierre GuiLLAUME,) a French general, born in 1775, was killed at Chiclana in 1811. Chaudruc de Crazannes, shoMRlik' deh kRt'ztn', (Jean C^;sar Marie,) a French antiquary, born near Saintes in 1782, € as k: 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Vi,guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23,) CHAUFFARD 586 CHAUNCr Chauffard, sho'tlr/, (Marie Denis Etienne,) a Frencli medical writer, born at Avignon in 1796. He published ''\Nox\^^ ( (Euvi-es) of Practical Medicine," (3, vols., 1848,) which were received with favour. Chaiiffepie, de, deh shof pe-i^ (Jacques George,) a Dutch Protestant minister, of French descent, born at Lee u warden in 1702. He preached at Flushing and Delft for some years. From 1743 until his death he was em- ployed in Amsterdam. He published in 1750 "A New Historical and Critical Dictionary, supplementary to that of Bayle," (4 vols.,) a valuable work, in which he gives proof of much erudition. He translated, from the Eng- lish, part of a "Universal History" (46 vols.) composed by a society of literary men. Died at Amsterdam in 1 7S6. See QuERARD, "La France Litt^raire." Cliauliac, de, deh sh50e-tk', ( Gui, ) an eminent French surgeon, born at Chauliac. He lived in Avignon, where he was successively physician to Popes Clement VI., Innocent VI., and Urban V., between 1340 and 1370. He wrote, in Latin, an excellent treatise on Surgery, (" Inventarium Partis chirurgicalis Medicinas," 1363,) which for about two centuries was considered a classic and standard work. A French writer, Chaumeton, says he did more than any one to render surgery a regu- lar art. The great Haller observes that "his work may be regarded as an excellent historical sketch of surgery down to his epoch." See I5loy, " Dictioiinaire de la Medecine." Chaulieu, de, deh sho'le-uh', (Guillaume Amfrye,) a French lyric poet, was born at Fontenay, in Normandy, in 1639. He was patronized by the Dukes of Vendome, who caused him to be appointed Abbe d'Aumale and procured him other rich benefices. He became distin- guished for his wit, fine taste, and Epicurean morals, and was called the " Anacreon of the Temple." " Chaulieu," says Hallam, "was an original genius. His poetry is a happy mixture of a gentle and peaceable philosophy with a lively imagination. His verses flow from the soul, and, though often negligent through indolence, are never in bad taste or affected." ("Introduction to the Litera- ture of Europe.") Voltaire praises him in his "Temple du Gout," the presiding genius of which advises Chaulieu not. to estimate himself as the first of good poets, but the first of negligent poets, (poetes negliges.) He wrote an " Ode to Inconstancy," " Stanzas on the Solitude of Fontenay," "La Goutte," and other poems. Died in 1720. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire ;" Sainte-Beuve, " Cause- ries du Lundi ;" Voltaire, " Correspondance." Chaulnes, de, deh shon, (Honore d' Albert — dtK- baiR^,) Due, a French general, a brother of Luynes, the favourite of Louis XIII., became a marshal of France in 1619, and was created Due de Chaulnes in 1 62 1. He was made Governor of Picardy in 1633, and commanded against the Spaniards in Artois in 1635. Died in 1649. Chaulnes, de, (Louis Auguste d'Albert d'Ailly — dtKbaiR' dt'ye',) Due, a French general, born in 1676, was the father of Michel Ferdinand, noticed below. Died in 1744. Chaulnes, de, (Marie Joseph Louis,) Due, a French savant, son of Michel, noticed below, born in 1741, cul- tivated the physical sciences with success, and became a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1793. Chaulnes, de,^(MieHEL Ferdinand d'Albert d'Ailly,) Due, a French general, born in 1714. He was noted as a patron and votary of physical science, and spent a large revenue in constructing apparatus and forming collections. In 1743 he was chosen an honorary member of the Academy of Sciences. He wrote several ingenious treatises, which were published by that acad- emy. Died in 1769. Chaumeix, de, deh sho'mi', (Abraham Joseph,) a French critic, born near Orleans about 1730, was noted for his zeal against the skeptical philosophers. Lie pub- lished a refutation of the "Encyclopedic," and was satirized by Voltaire in "The Poor Devil," ("Le pauvre Diable.") Died in 1790. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Chaumeton, sh5m't6N', ( Franqois Pierre, ) a French physician, eminent as a writer and a critic, born at Chouze, on the Loire, in 1775. He devoted much attention to the literary history of medicine, and wrote many able articles for the " Magasin Encyclopedique," the " Bibliotheque Medicale," and other scientific jour- nals. For the "Biographic Universelle" he furnished notices of many eminent physicians. Pie undertook the " Medical Flora," of which he composed the text as far as the letter G. Died in 1819. See ViREY, " Notice siir la Vie, etc. de Chaumeton." Chaumette, sho'mit', (Pierre Gaspard,) a French demagogue and Jacobin of infamous memory, born at Nevers in 1763. In 1789 he joined the Cordeliers Club in Paris, and acquired influence over the populace by his violent harangues. As procureur of the commune, (1792,) he was accessary to the worst crimes of that ])eriod. He was one of the chiefs of the atheistical faction called Hebertists, and was the author of the Festivals of Reason. As chief priest, he officiated at the profane orgies by which the worship of Reason as the only national religion was inaugurated in the cathedral of Notre-Dame, December, 1793. He was proscribed by Robespierre, and executed in 1794. See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution." Chaumonot, sh5'mo'no', (Pierre Marie Joseph,} a French Jesuit, born in 161 1, laboured as a missionar} among the Indians of Canada. Died in 1693. Chaumont, de, deh sh6^m6N',(CHARLES d'Amboise — dSN^bwSz',) Seigneur, a French general, nephew of the Cardinal d'Amboise, was born in 1473. ^'^'^ appointed governor of Milan in 1500, and distinguished himself at the battle of Agnadello. In 1510 he invested Pope Julius II. in Bologna, and would have captured him if he had not resorted to negotiations. Died in 151 1. See SiSMONDi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Chaumont, de, (Paul Philippe,) a French eccle- siastic and author, succeeded his father as keeper of the books of the king's cabinet, (1667.) In 1654 he was admitted into the French Academy, and in 1671 became Bishop of Apt. He wrote an esteemed work entitled " Reflections on the Christianity taught in the Catholic Church," (1693.) Died in 1697. See NiCERON, "Memoires." Chauncey or Chauncy, chin'se or chawn'se, (Charles,) a distinguished lawyer, born at Durham, Connecticut, in 1747. He taught jurisprudence for many years, and became a judge of the superior court of Con- necticut in 1789. Died in 1823. Chauncey, (Charles,) an eminent American lawyer, a son of the preceding, was born at New Haven, Con- necticut, in 1777. He removed about 1798 to Philadel- phia, where he soon rose to distinction, although he had among his competitors several of the most accomplished lawyers in the United States. Died in 1849. See an interesting notice of his characler as a lawyer and a man, by Horace Binney, in "Wallace's Reports," vol. ii., 1854, p. xii. et seq. Chauncey, (IsAAe,) an American commodore, born in Connecticut about 1772. He obtained the rank of cap- tain about 1806, ancl was appointed commander of the naval forces on the northern lakes in 1812. His squadron, aided by a land army under General Pike, took York (Toronto) in April, 1813. He defeated the British fleet on Lake Ontario in September, 1813, and gained a high reputation for ability. Died in 1840. Chauncy, (Charles.) See Chauncey, (Charles.) Chauncy or Chauncey, ch^n'se or chawn'se, (Charles,) an English Puritan, born in Hertfordshire in 1592, became professor of Greek at Cambridge, and vicar of Ware. He emigrated to Massachusetts in 1638, preached some years at Scituate, and became president of Harvard College in 1654. Died in 1672. Chauncy, (Charles,) a writer on theology, a de- scendant of the preceding, was born in 1705. He was minister of a church in Boston, Massachusetts, for many years. Died in 1787. . Chauncy, (Sir Henry,) a British antiquary and law- yer, born in 1632, became reader and treasurer of the Middle Temple, and ])ublished " Historical Antiquities of Hertfordshire," (1700.) In 1688 he was made a Welsh judge. Died in 17 19. a, e, T, o, u, y, lotig; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon«. CHAUPr 587 CHAZELLES Chaupy, de, deh i;h6''pe', (Capmartin Bertrand,) a French antiquary and priest, born near Toulouse in 1720. In 1756 he removed to Rome, where he sp§>nt ten years in collecting materials for a "Description of Ancient Italy," a part of which was published. Died in 1798. Chaussard, sho'stR'', (Pierre Jean Baptiste,) an ingenious and prolific French writer, born in Paris in 1766. He was an ardent partisan of the Revolution, and obtained the important place of chef des bureaux of the committee of public safety about 1792. In 1805 he was appointed professor of literature at Nimes, and two years later he was authorized by Fontanes to reside in Paris as director of classical studies, retaining his title and sa'ary. lie wrote an admired ode *' On Industry and Arts,'" "Theory of Criminal Laws," (1789,) " Esprit de Mirabeau," (2 vols., 1797,) and various other works. In his youth he adopted the name of Publicola. Died in Paris in 1823. See Hereau, "Notice sur Chaussard." Chausse. See La Chausse. Chau.sse, de la, deh It shoss, (Michel Ange,) a French antiquary, born in Paris about 1660, became a resident of Rome. He gained a high reputation by his antiquarian works, among which are " Romanum Mu- seum," an illustrated treatise on ancient gems, images, insignia, etc., (1690.) Died after 1738. Chaussee, de la, deh It sho^sa^ (Pierre Claude Nivelle,) a French dramatic author, born in Paris in 1692. In 1732, in partnership with La Faye, he wrote an '•Epistle from Clio," ("Epitre de Clio,") in verse. His pathetic or sentimental comedy "Prejuge a la mode" ("Prejudice a la mode," in verse, 1735) obtained a tri- umph which time has confirmed. La Chaussee first introduced what the French call the ge7ire larmoya)it, (pathetic comedy.) He wrote other popular dramas, among which we may name " False Antipathy." He was a member of the Frencli Academy. Died in 1754. See La Harpe, "Coiirs de Litteiature." Chaussier, sho'se-a', (Francois,) a celebrated French physician, was born at Dijon in 1746, and graduated in 1780. He had taught anatomy and chemistry at Dijon for some years, when the government called him to Paris, in 1794, to aid Fourcroy in reorganizing the medical insti- tutions. The result was the "Ecole de Sante," in which he obtained the chair of anatomy. In 1804 he became professor of chemistry in the Polytechnic School, where he lectured until 1815. He wrote many medical and scientific treatises, which were inserted in various peri- odicals, and rendered impoitant services to legal medi- cine and physiology. Among his most useful works is a series of " Synoptical Tables on Zoonomy," (1799-1826.) Died in Paris in 1828. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Chauveau, sh6^•6', ( Adolphe,) a French jurist, born about 1790, became professor of law in Toulouse in 1821. He published a "Theory of the Penal Code," (1834-43,) and a "General Formulary," (1853.) In the former work M. Helie co-operated. Chauveau, (Franqois,) a skilful French designer and engraver, born in Paris about 1620. He engraved works of Raphael, Poussin, Giulio Romano, etc. Died in 1676. See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Chauveau, (Rene,) an ingenious French sculptor and architect, son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1663. Louis XIV. employed him in various works for the de- coration of his ])alaces. Died in 1722. Chauveau-Lagarde,sh5'v5' lt'gtKd'',(CLAUDE Fran- cois,) an eloquent and courageous P'rench lawyer, born at Chartres about 1760. After having gained reputation by defending Miranda and Brissot 'in times when the advocate shared the peril of the accused, he was desig- nated by the judge to be counsel for Charlotte Corday. He was one of the counsel chosen by the queen Marie Antoinette, for whom he made an unavailing plea, in October, 1793. Soon after this date he was committed to prison, and detained until Juty, 1794. In the reign of Napoleon he was advocate of the Council of State. He published a " Narrative of the Trial of Marie Antoinette," (1816.) Died in 1841. See Louis Aime Martin, "Quelques Esquisses sur la Vie de Chauveau- Lagarde," 1841. Chauvelin, sh5v0iN', (Henri Philippe,) Abbe, a French lawyer, son of Germain Louis, noticed below, acquired reputation by his bold and successful attacks on the Jesuits, which resulted in the suppression of the order about 1762. He was canon of Notre-Dame, and a counsellor in the Parliament of Paris. Died in 1770, aged fifty-four. Chauvelin, de, deh shov'liN', (FRANgois Bernard,) an able French politician, born in 1766. He favoured the popular party in 1789, and in 1792 he was sent as ambassador to London in company with Talleyrand, who, though not formally accredited, was the real director of the negotiations. When the death of Louis XVI. became known in England, Chauvelin was ordered to leave the island within eight days. Under the regime of Bonaparte he served as member of the Tribunat and prefect of Lys, and received the title of Count. After the restoration (1816) he was for about ten years a prominent member and speaker in the Chamber of Deputies, in which he actecl with the Liberals. Died in 1832. See " Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale." Chauvelin, de, (Germain Louis,) an able French minister of state, born in 1685. In 1727 he became keeper of the seals and secretary of foreign affairs. He was thenceforth the second and confidant of Cardinal de Fleury, the prime minister, to whom he is said to have been superior in political talent. He was removed from office in 1737, and died in 1762. Chauvin, sho'vclN', (Etienne,) a learned French Protestant divine, born at Nimes in 1640. He became an exile about 1685, and went to Rotterdam, where in 1688 he taught philosophy in place of Bayle during the long illness of the latter. He published the results of his studies in the history of philosophy, in a work called " Rational Lexicon, or Philosophical Treasury," (" Lexi- con Rationale, sive Thesaurus Philosophicus," 1692.) In 1695 he obtained the chair of philosophy in the royal French College of Berlin. Died in Berlin in 1725. See MINL Haag, "La France protestante." Chauvin, (Jean.) See Calvin. Chavagnac, de,deh sht'vtn^ytk',(GASPARD,)CoMTE, a French officer, born in 1624, published a volume ul Memoirs, (1699.) Chavee, sht'vi', (Honore Joseph,) a Belgian lin guist, born at Namur in 181 5. He attempted to d.s- ]irove the unity of the human race in his "Lexicologie Indo-Europeeime," or Essay on the Knowledge of San- scrit, Greek, Latin, French, and Russian Words, (1849.) Chaves, de, di shcVvgs, (Manuel de Silveyra Pinto de Fonseca — da sel-va'e-r3, p^n'to da fon-sa'- ka,) Marquis, and Count of A^rante, ( ^-ma-r^n^ti, ) a Portuguese general, born at Villareal. He served in the Peninsular war from 1809 to 1814. In the civil war of 1823 he was a prominent partisan of Don Miguel and the absolutists, for whom he gained a victory. He again raised the standard of absolutism in 1827, and was defeated by Villaflor near Coimbra and Oporto. Died in 1830. Chavignard. See Chavigny. Chavigny, sht'v^n^ye', or Chavignard, sht^'^n^'tR', (Theodore,) a French diplomatist, and one of the most able negotiators of his time, born at Beaune, in Bur- gundy, was an uncle of Count de Vergennes, He rep- resented France at the Congress of Ratisbon, and was minister to England in 1731. About 1745 he negotiated, at Frankfort, the treaty of alliance between the emperor Charles VII., the King of Prussia, and other powers. Died in 1771. Chazal, sht'ztK, (Antoine,) a French painter and designer, born in Paris in 1793, was one of the most eminent painters of the Museum of Natural History of Paris, He designed the plates for the "Floie Pitto- resque," and for several scientific works. Chazelles, de, deh sht'zIK, (Jean Mathieu,) a French mathematician and hydrographer, born at Lyons in 1657, became, in 1685, professor of hydrography at Marseilles, where he made a chart of the coast of Pro- vence. In 1693 he visited Greece and Egypt, where he measured the Pyramids and observed that the sides of one faced the cardinal points. In 1695 he became an Associate of the Academy of Sciences. Died in 1710. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, Y^.guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (S^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) CHEATHAM 588 CHEMNITZER Cheatham, cheet'am, (Benjamin F.,) an American general, born at Nashville, Tennessee. He took arms against the Union in 1861, commanded a division at Perryville, October, 1862, at Stone River, December 31, 1862, to January 2, 1863, and at Chickamauga, Sep- tember 19 and 20, 1863. Chedeaux, sheh-do', (Pierre Joseph,) a French economist, born at Metz in 1767; died in 1832. Chedel, sheh'd^K, (Quentin Pierre,) a French en- graver, born at Chalons, in Champagne, in 1705. He etched landscapes after the best Dutch painters. His works are numerous and much admired. Died in 1762. See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Chee'ver, (Ezekiel, ) an eminent New England teacher, born in London in 1615. Having received a superior classical education, he came to America in 1638, and assisted in founding the colony in New Haven, of which he was a teacher for twelve years, and in 1646 was a representative in the General Assembly. He was subsequently for eleven years a teacher in Ipswich, • Massachusetts, nine years in Charlestown, and thirty- eight years in Boston, where he died in 1708. Cheever, (George B.,) an American author and preacher, born at Hallowell, Maine, in 1807, graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825. He was ordained minister of a Congregational church at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1832. About 1835 he wrote a satirical allegory called l3eacon Giles's Distillery," for which he was prosecuted on a charge of libel and sentenced to imprisonment for thirty days. He became a resident of New York City in 1839, and preached in the Allen Street Church. He published "Studies in Poetry," (1830,) "Lectures on Pil- grim's Progress," (1843,) " Wanderings of a Pilgrim in the Shadow of Mont Blanc," (1846,) and other works. Since 1846 he has been pastor of the Congregational Church of the Puritans, New York. He has particularly distinguished himself as an opponent of slavery and an advocate of temperance. See Griswoi.d, " Prose Writers of America." Cheever, (Henry T.,) an author and Congregational minister, brother of the preceding, has published, besides other works, "The Island-World of the Pacific," (1851.) Cheffontaines, de, deh sha-f6N'tan', (Christophe,) a French theologian, born in Brittany about 1532, be- came Archbishop of Caesarea about 1586. He wrote, besides other works, a " Defence of the Faith of our An- cestors," (1570,) and a " Treatise against certain Dogmas of Scholastic Theology," (1586.) Died at Rome in 1595. Chegaray, shi'gt^a', (Michel Charles,) a French advocate and legislator, born at Bayonne in 1802. He became a judge of the court of cassation in 1853. Cheiron. See Chiron. Cheke or Cheeke, (Sir John,) an eminent English scholar and Hellenist, born at Cambridge in 1514. He became in 1540 the first professor of Greek in the uni- versity of that city. In 1544 he was appointed Latin tutor to Prince Edward. About 1550 he was knighted by his former pupil, Edward VI., and in 1553 was chosen secretary of state. As a zealous Protestant, he favoured the attempt to raise Lady Jane Grey to the throne. After the accession of Mary he retired to the continent, to es- cape persecution. In 1556, by order of Philip II. of Spain, he was arrested in Flanders and conveyed to the Tower of London. Being required to choose between death by fire and conversion to the Catholic faith, he accepted the latter. Remorse for this act hastened his death, which occurred in 1557. He had translated several religious works into elegant Latin, and contributed much to the levival of learning in England. See Strype, "Life of Cheke," 1705. Chelard, sheh-ltR', (Hippolyte Andri^; Jean Bap- TISTE,) a French musician and composer, born in Paris in 1789. His opera "Macbeth" (with words by Rouget de Lisle) was very successful, and procured for him the place of chapel-master to the King of Bavaria. He pro- duced other operas, cantatas, etc. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musicians." Chelius, Ka'le-us, (Maximilian Joseph,) a German physician, born at Manheim in 1794, was appointed pro- fessor of medicine in the University of Heidelberg in 1819, and privy councilloi in 1826. His principal work is a " Manual of Surgery," which has been extensively used. The Seventh edition appeared in 1851. Chelmsford, chSmz'ford, (Sir Frederick Thesiger — thes'e-jer,) Lord, an eminent English lawyer, born in London in 1794. He was returned to Parliament in 1840, after practising some years as leader of the home circuit, became solicitor-general in 1844, ^^^^ attorney- general under Sir Robert Peel in 1845. resigned his office in 1846, and was reappointed in 1852. On the accession of the Conservative party in 1858, he was appointed (by Lord Derby) lord chancellor of England, and was raised to the peerage as Lord Chelmsford. Pie resigned, in consequence of the defeat of the Derby min- istry, in June, 1859, and was lord chancellor again from July, 1866, to February, 1868. See Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. CheFsum, (James,) an English clergyman, born in Westminster in 1740, published "Remarks on Gibbon's History," (1772.) Died in 1801. Chemin, du, dii sheh-m^N', (Catherine,) a French flower-painter, born in Paris in 1630 ; died in 1698. Chemiiiais de Montaigu, sheh-me'na' deh mciN'- ta'gii', (Timol^on,) a French Jesuit, distinguished as a pulpit orator, was born in Paris in 1652. Pie preached in several pulpits of Paris and Versailles until he was disabled by ill health, but for which he would probably have become one of the greatest orators of his age. Died in 1689. "Many persons," says Bayle, "esteem his sermons as highly as those of Bourdaloue." Chemineau, sheh-me'n5', (Jean,) a French general, born inLaCharente in 1775. He lost a leg at the battle of Lutzen in 1813, and in the same year became a general of division, and governor of Strasbourg. Died in 1852. See General Foy, "Histoire de la Guerre de la Peninsule." Chemnitius, (Martin.) See Chemnitz. Chemnitz, K^m'nits, (Johann Jerome,) of Magde- burg, a German naturalist and divine, born in 1730. He published, in German, several works which contributed to the progress of natural history, especially of concho- logy. His " Systematic Cabinet of Shell-Fish," (12 vols. 1776-1800,) says Du Petit-Thouars, "is one of the most beautiful and complete works of that kind." Died in 1800. Chemnitz, [Lat. Chemnit'ius,] (Martin,) an emi- nent German Protestant divine, born at Treuenbrietzen, in Brandenburg, in 1522. He studied mathematics, as- tronomy, and theology at Wittenberg, and about 1550 was chosen librarian to Duke Albert of Prussia. In 1554 he became minister of a church at Brunswick. He published in 1565 " Examen Concilii Tridentini," a sound and acute argument against the doctrines asserted by the Council of Trent. He took a prominent part in the formation of the doctrinal system of the Protestant Church. Chemnitz and Morlin composed the " Corpus Doctrinae Prutenicae,"* (1566.) He was chosen superin- tendent at Brunswick in 1567, and wrote a confession of faith, which was adopted by the churches of Lower Sax- ony in 1571. His "Theological Topics" ("Loci Theo- logici," 1591) was esteemed high authority among his contemporaries, and regarded as superior to all similar works in learning and method. He died at Brunswick in 1586, leaving unfinished a " Harmonia Evangelica," which was published about 1600. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" Johann H. Wolff, " Programnia, M. Chemnitius ipsiusque in Ecclesiani Lutheranain Merita," 1719 ; Jocher, "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." Chemnitz, von, fon K^m^iits, (Philipp Bogislav — bo'gis-l§.v,) a historian, grandson of the preceding, born at Stettin in 1605. He entered the service of Christina of Sweden, who ennobled him and gave him the office of councillor. He wrote, in German, a valuable history of the war waged by Gustavus Adolphus in Germany, (1648-52,) and a political work on the theory or method of government in the German Empire. Died in 1678. Chemnitzer, Kem-'nit-ser, (Ivan Ivanovi tch,) a Rus- sian fabulist, of German descent, born in Saint Petersburg in 1744. After serving for some time in the army, he retired about 1778 from the service, in order to indulge * " Body of Prussian doctrine ;" so called because it was prepared under the auspices of the Duke of Prussia. a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, ^, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon, CHEMNIZER 589 CHE RON his taste for literature, and then published a part of his fables, which the Russians compare to those of La Fon- taine. He excels in vivacity of dialogue and naivete of expression. He was appointed consul-general to Smyrna in 17S2, and died there in 1784. See Otto, " Lehrbuch der Russischen Literatur." Chemnizer. See Chemnitzer. Chenard, sheh-ntk', (Simon,) a French actor and singer, l)orn at Auxerre in 1758; died in 1831. Chenavard, sheh-nS'vtR', (Paul,) an eminent French painter of history, born at Lyons in 1808. He studied some years in Italy, and acquired a reputation by his picture of " Mirabeau rei)lying to the Marquis de Dreux- Breze." After the revolution of 1848 he received a com- mission to paint fifty large compositions for the decora- tion of the Pantheon. Among these are " The Deluge" and "The Passage of the Rubicon." The Pantheon having been restored to the Catholic worship, he was not permitted to finish the task. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Chenedolle, de, deh shin'do^la', (Charles Julien Pioult — i)e^oo^) a French poet, born at Vire in 1769. He emigrated in 1 791, served in the royalist army, and returned to France about 1800, before which date he had composed several odes. He became intimate with Fon- tanes and Chateaubriand. In 1807 he produced "The Genius of Man," ("Le Genie de I'Homme,") a poem, which is admired for elevated thought and brilliant style. He was appointed professor at Rouen in 1810. Iw 1820 he published a volume of his early odes, with some new poems, among which were "The Last Day of Harvest" and " Moonlight in May," containing fine descriptions of nature. He was chosen inspector-general of the university in 1830. Died in 1833. See Louis Blanc, "Histoire de dix Ans;" Chateaubriand, " Memoires d'Outre-Tombe ;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Sainte-Beuve, "Revue des Deux Mondes" for June, 1849- Chen'e-vix, (Richard,) an Irish writer, noted for versatility of talents. He was a Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh. He published various esteemed works, among which are " Chemical Nomenclature," (1802,) an "Essay on National Charac- ter," (published after his death,) and " Henry Seventh," a tragedy, (1812,) " which," says the "Edinburgh Review," "is the most successful imitation of the general style, taste, and diction of our elder dramatists, that has ap- peared in the present times." Died in 1830. See " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1812. Chenier, shi'ne-i', (Marie Joseph,) a popular French poet and dramatist, born at Constantinople in 1764, was a brother of Andre Chenier. He was educated in Paris, where he also resided. He produced in 1789 "Charles IX.," a tragedy, which had prodigious success, especially with the popular party. In 1792 he became a prominent republican member of the Convention. He served the interests of liberty and order in the several Legislative Assemblies of the ensuing ten years. His tragedy of "Timoleon," in verse, (1794,) after being performed once with applause, was prohibited by the ruling powers. He composed other tragedies, and admirable odes, satires, and songs, in which he displayed a great variety of talent. His patriotic "Song of Departure" ("Chant du Depart," 1794) was said to be more popular than any other except the ** Marseillaise." He wrote, besides other prose works, an excellent " Historical Treatise ( Ta- bleau) on the State and Progress of French Literature since 1789," (1808.) He was a member of the Institute. Died in 1811. See Lingay, "filo2;e de M. J. Chenier;" Arnault, " Sur J. Chenier;" Daunow, " Notice sur M. J. Chenier," in his Complete Works, 8 vols., 1823-26 ; Felix Pyat, "M. J. Chenier et le Prince des Critiques, (Jules Janin,)" 1844. Chenier, de, deb shi'ne-i', (Andr6,) an admirable French i)oet, born in Constantinople in October, 1762, was the son of Louis Chenier, noticed below. He was educated in Paris, and became an excellent classical scholai". He began his literary career by beautiful eclogues of antique simplicity, and elegies admired for sensibility. In 1787 he went to England as secretary of legation. In the Revolution he pursued a moderate course. Some letters which he published in the "Jour- nal de Paris" rendered him obnoxious to the dominant party; and he was committed to prison as a Girondist "There," says Lamartine, " his ideal reveries found their reality in Mademoiselle de Coigny, confined in the same prison. He addressed to her those immortal verses, 'The Young Captive,' ('La jeune Captive,') the most melodious sigh that ever issued from the crevices of a dungeon." He was executed in July, 1794, two days be- fore the fall of Robespierre. He left unfinished poems, entitled " Hermes," and "America," and a completed poem, " L'Invention," which is praised by Villemain. See H. DE Latouche, " Notice sur Andre Chenier ;" Bibliophile Jacob, "Notice sur Andre Chenier;" Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries da Lundi," tome iv., and "Portraits contemporains," tome iii. (Sainte-Beuve estimates Andr^ Chenier as "the greatest French classic in verse since Racine and Boileau;'") article by Leo Jou- bert, in the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Chenier, de, (Louis,) a French historian, born at Montfort, in Languedoc, in 1723, was the father of the two poets Andre and M. J. Chenier. He was consul- general at Constantinople from 1753 to 1764. For several years preceding 1784 he was charge-d'affaires at Morocco. He composed two works of merit, — viz., "Researches in the History of the Moors," and " Revolutions of the Ottoman Empire," (1789.) Died in 1796. Chenier, de, (Louis Joseph Gabriel,) a French military writer, a nephew of the poet Andre Chenier, was born in 1800. He published a "Manual for Coun- cils of War," (183 1,) and other works on the criminal legislation for the army. Chenot, sheh-no', (Claude Bernard Adrien,) a French engineer, born at Bar-sur-Aube in 1803. In 1832 he invented an apparatus for the fabrication of metallic sponges. About ten years later he began a series of important researches relative to a new system of metal- lurgy, the first results of which appeared at the Industrial Exhibition of 1849. Died in 1855. Chenu, sheh-nu', (Jean Charles,) a French physi- cian and naturalist, born at Metz in 1808. He published "An Essay on the Action of Mineral Waters," (1841,) " Illustrations of Conchology," (1842-45,) and an " Ency- clopaedia of Natural History," (14 vols., 1858.) ■Ghe'ops, [Gr. Xeot/;,] King of Egypt, is supposed to have begun his reign about 1 178 B.C. " He changed the government," says Herodotus, "into a despotism, and oppressed his subjects with forced labour in the construc- tion of the great pyramid which bears his name." He was succeeded by his brother, Cephren or Chephren. Cherbonneau, sh^R'bo^no^ (Jacques Auguste,) a French Orientalist, born in Inclre-et-Loire in 1813. He has published "The Fables of Lokman," (1846,) and other works. Cherbuliez, sheR^bii^le-a', (Victor,) a French writer, born at Geneva in 1832, has produced several popular romances, among which are " Le Comte Kostia," " Le Prince Vitale," " Paul Mere," and " Le Roman d'une honnete Femme." Cherea, the French of Chorea, which see. Chereau, sha''r6', (Francois,) a skilful French en- graver, born at Blois in 1680, executed portraits and historical subjects. He became engraver of the royal cabinet. Died in 1729. Chcremon. See Ch^eremon. Cherephon. See Ch^rephon. Cherile. See Chcerilus. Cherin, shi'r^N', (Louis Nicolas Henri,) a French general, born in Paris in 1762. He was appointed com- mander-in-chief of the guard of the Directory in Sep- tember, 1797, and chief of the staff of the army of the Danube in 1799. He was killed at Zurich in that year. See De Courcelles, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Francais." Cherler, sh^R^la', (Jean Henri,) a physician and botanist, was a citizen of Bale. He married the daughter of J. Bauhin, the eminent botanist, whom he aided in the composition of his "General History of Plants," which appeared in 1650, some years after the death of Cherler. See ISloy, " D'ctionnaire de la Medecine." Cheron, sha'r^N', (Charles,) a skilful French en- graver, born at Luneville in 1635. He was invited to Paris by Louis XIV., who gave him a pension, and employed him to engrave the medals which were struck to commemorate his actions. Died in 1698. € a.s k; 9 as s: g Juird : '^-^i^ J; g, h, ■^.guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as z; %h as in this. (Si^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) CHER ON CHESTERFIELD Cheron, (Elisabeth Sophie,) a skilful French artist and poet, born at Paris in 1648. She excelled in music, painting, and engraving, and wrote agreeable verses. She was very successful in portraits and in history. The exact likeness, it is said, was the least merit of her por- traits. In 1672 she was admitted into the Academy of Painting. She executed a series of engravings called "Gems drawn from the Principal Cabinets of France." Died in 1711. See FoNTENAY, "Dictionnairedes Artistes;" Fermelhuis," filoge de E. S. Cheron," 171 2. Cheron, (FRANgois,) a French writer, born in Paris in 1764. He became director of the " Mercure" in 1815. He composed an ode entitled " Napoleon, ou le Corse devoile," ("The Corsican unveiled," 1814,) and a few other works. Died in 1828. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Cheron, (Louis,) a French painter and engraver, brother of Elisabeth Sophie, noticed above, born in Paris in 1660. Compelled to leave France as a Protestant about 1690, he went to England, where he was successful as a painter of history and a designer. Died in 1723. See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Cheron, (Louis Claude,) a French writer of prose and verse, a brother of Fran9ois, noticed above, was born in Paris in 1758. In 1791 he was elected to the Legislative Assembly, where he supported moderate measures. In 1805 he was chosen prefect of the depart- ment of Vienne. He produced, besides other dramas, an imitation of Sheridan's " School for Scandal," entitled " Le Tartufe des Moeurs," which was successful, and translated, from the English, Fielding's "Tom Jones." Died in 1807. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Cherrier, de, deh shk're-k/, (Charles Joseph,) a French officer and writer, born at Neufchateau (Vosges) in 1785. He published in 1841 a "History of the Con- test between the Popes and the Emperors of the House of Suabia." Cher'ry, (Andrew,) an Irish actor and comic writer, born in 1762. He produced "The Soldier's Daughter," and other comedies. Died in 1812. ■eher'si-phron, [Gr. Xepo'uppcjv,] a famous Cretan architect, whose name is sometimes written Ctesiphon, flourished about 600 B.C. He was the first architect and designer of the temple of Diana at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. After his death, the un- finished work was directed by his son Metagenes, and others. This temple was adorned by one hundred and twenty-seven Ionic columns of solid marble, sixty feet high. Its length was four hundred and twenty-five Roman feet, and its breadth two hundred and twenty. It is said that two hundred years elapsed during its construction. The roof was burned by the agency of Erostratus in 356 B.C. ; but the edifice was soon restored to its former splendor. See HiRT, "Tempel der Diana von Ephesus," 1807. Cherubin, sha'rii'b^N', Le Pere, a Capuchin friar of Orleans, France, noted as a geometer and optician, lived in the reign of Louis XIV. He made an improve- ment in the binocular telescope, and wrote a valuable treatise on "Ocular Dioptrics," (167 1.) Cherubini, ka-roo-bee'nee, ( Maria Luigi Carlo Zenobi Salvador,) a celebrated Italian musical com- poser, born at Florence in 1760. He was instructed in music by the Felicis and by Bizzari and Sarti. About the age of fourteen he began to attract attention by his productions. He visited London in 1784, and there pro- duced the successful operas " The Pretended Princess" ("La finta Principessa") and "Giulio Sabino." After 1786 he resided mostly in Paris, where his opera " Lo- doiska" was performed with great ajiplause in 1791. Soon after that date he produced "Elisa," "Medee," " Anacreon," etc. As a composer of sacred music he attained the highest rank. Among his best works in this department are his " Requiem," and his mass it trois voix. He was a member of the Royal Academy, and a professor in the Conservatory, of which he was director for twenty years. His last dramatic work was the opera " Ali Baba," (1833.) • Died in 1842. Haydn and Beethoven pronounced him the first dramatic com- poser of his time. See Louis de Lomenie," M. Cherubini, parun Homme dc Rien," 1841; MiEi,, "Notice sur la Vie de Cherubini," 1842; Raoul- Rochette, " Notice sur ia Vie et les Ouvrages de Cherubini;" L. PiccHiANTi, "Notizie sulla Vita e sulle Opere di L. Cherubini," 1843; Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Cheruel, sha'rii^eK, (Auguste,) a French historian, born at Rouen in 1809, published a " History of Rouen," and a "Historical Dictionary of the Institutions, Man- ners, and Customs of France," (1855.) Chervin, shgR'v^N', (Nicolas,) a French medical writer, born near Lyons in 1783 ; died in 1843. Chery, sha're', (Philippe,) a skilful French i^ainter of history, born in Paris in 1759, was a pupil of Vien. He was admitted into the Academy in 1791, when he exhibited the " Death of Alcibiades." In a concourse for the representation of the peace of Amiens, he obtained the prize in 1803. He was patronized by Napoleon, who charged him to paint a scene on the battle-field of Jena. Died in 1838. Cheryf-Ed-Dyn-Aly. See Shereef-ed-Deen. Cheseaux, de, deh sha^zS', (Jean Philippe Loys,) a Swiss savant, born at Lausanne in 17 18. He wrote "Essays on Physics," (1743,) "Treatises on Natural History," and several memoirs on astronomy, (1764.) Died in Paris in 1751. See Ersch und Gruher, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Chesebro', cheez'bro, (Caroline,) an authoress, born at Canandaigua, New^ York. Among her works is "Dream-Land by Daylight," (1851,) and a novel entitled "Victoria, or the World Overcome," (1856.) Ches'el-den, (William,) an eminent English surgeon and anatomist, born in Leicestershire in 1688. He was a pupil of the great anatomist Cowper. About 1711 he began to lecture on anatomy in London, and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society before he was twenty-five, (one account says at thirty-three.) He published in 1713 "The Anatomy of the Human Body," which was generally used as a text-book for many years. After that date he was appointed chief surgeon of Saint Thomas's Hospital, consulting surgeon to Saint George's and to the Westminster Hospital, and surgeon to Queen Caroline. He was one of the most skilful operators of his time, and excelled especially in lithotomy. His fame was extended, in 1728, by an operation which restored sight to a young person, whose novel sensations afforded to Locke and Diderot a subject of metaphysical obser- vations. He published in 1733 his "Anatomy of the Bones," a valuable work. Died at Bath in 1752. Pope, who was his intimate friend, says, " He is . the most noted and most deserving man in the whole profession of chirurgery." See Hutchinson, " Biographia Medica;" ^loy, "Dictionnaire historique de la Medecine." Chcsnaye-Desbois, de la, deh It sha'na' dcVbwd', (Franqois Alexandre Aui?ert,) a French writer, born in Maine in 1699. Of all the compilers of the eighteenth century, he published the greatest number of diction- aries. Among these is a "Military Dictionary," and a " Genealogicai and Historical Dictionary," (7 vols., 1757- 65.) All his works are mediocre. He diecl in a hospital at Paris in 1784. Chesne. See Duchesne. Ches'ney, (Francis Rawdon,) an ofiicer distin- guished for his explorations in the East, was born in Ireland in 1789. About 1830 he began to explore a route from Europe by the Red Sea to India. Having received aid from the government, and having been appointed commander of an expedition, he descended the P^u- phrates in a steamer, in 1836, from Beer (Bir) to its mouth. In 1850 he published "The Expedition for the Survey of the Euphrates and Tigris," (4 vols.) He ob- tained the rank of major-general in 1855. He wrote a work on "The Russo-Turkish Campaigns of 1828-29." Chessel. See Caselius. Ches''ter-field, (Philip Dormer Stanhope,) fourth Earl of, an English courtier, orator, and wit, renowned as a model of politeness and an oracle of taste. He was born in London in September, 1694, and was the eldest son of Philip, third Earl of Chesterfield, and Elizabeth Saville, who was daughter of the Marquis of Halifax. a, e, 1, o, u, y, long ; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon CHETARDIE 591 CHEFREUL flaving gracluafed at Cambridge, he made the tour of Europe in 17 14, during which he contracted an invete- rate passion for gaming. In 1715, through the influence of his uncle, General Stanhope, he was appointed a gen- tleman of the bedchamber to the Prince of Wales, and was elected to Parliament. He supported the party of the heir-apparent in the quarrel between the latter and his father, George I. He was one of the most brilliant and effective debaters of that period. Walpole says that on one occasion Chesterfield made "the finest oration he ever heard." On the death of his father, in 1726, he passed into the House of Lords, and in 1728 was ambassador to Holland. A few years later George n. appointed him lord steward of the household. " He was at the head of ton,'" says Macaulay, "in days when in order to be at the head of tojt it was not sufficient to be dull and supercilious." In 1733 he married Melusina Schulemburg, Countess of Walsingham. Though a Whig in politics, he was dismissed from office by Walpole in 1734, and joined the opposition. In 1745 he was lord lieutenant of Ireland, where his conduct was discreet and very popular. He accepted the office of principal secretary of state in April, 1746, which he resigned in 1748. He was intimate with Pope, Swift, Voltaire, Mon- tesquieu, etc. His intercourse with Dr. Johnson was abruptly closed by a well-known indignant letter from the lexicographer. Chesterfield's fame as an author is founded chiefly on his "Letters to his Son," which ap- peared in 1774 and were admired for the beauty of the style and prized for the knowledge of the world which they teach. " Take out the immorality," says Dr. John- son, "and it should be put into the hands of every gentleman." Lord Chesterfield wrote two numbers of "The World," and other brief productions, which were published under the title of " Miscellanies" in 1777. He died in 1773. His only son had died in 1768. See Maty, " Life of the late Earl of Chesterfield," London, 2 vols., 1774; for a very interesting notice of Chesterfield, see " Black- wood's Magazine" for May. iS58 ; see also " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1845; " London Quarterly Review" for September, 1845. Chetardie, de la, deh It shi'tSa'de', (Joachlm Jacques Troiti,) Marquis, a French diplomatist, born in 1705. He was sent as ambassador to Russia in 1739, and became the favourite of the empress Elizabeth. In 1744 she dismissed him abruptly and ordered him to leave the country. He afterwards had a command in the French army. Died in 1758. See Levesque, " Histoire de Russia." Chet'ham, (Humphrey,) an English merchant, noted as the founder of a college and public library at Man- chester, was born about 1580; died in 1653. Chet'tle, (Henry,) an English dramatist, who was a contemporary of Shakspeare, and flourished about 1600. He wrote numerous plays, of which only four have been preserved. One of these is " Hoffman," a tragedy. Chet'wood, (Knighi'LY,) born at Coventry in 1652, became Dean of Gloucester about 1707. He wrote seve- ral biographies and small poems. Died in 1720. Chetwood, (William Rufus,) an English drama- tist. Died in 1766. Chet'wynd, ( ? ) (John,) an English divine, born in Somersetshire in 1623, published "Anthologia Historica," (1674.) Died in 1692. Chevalier. See Lechevalier. Chevalier, sheh-vt1e-^^ almost shvtlejj,', (Antotxe RoDOLPHE,) a noted French Protestant^d Hebraist, born near Vire in 1507. While he was an exile in England he gave French lessons to Queen Elizabeth before her accession. He was afterwards professor of Hebrew at Geneva, and was employed by Calvin as interpreter of books in that language. He published a Hebrew Gram- mar. Died in 1572. Chevalier, (Charles Lours,) a French optician, born in Paris in 1804. He invented and improved instruinents used in optics and natural philosophy. Died in 1859. Chevalier, (fixiENNE,) born about 1410, became trea- surer of France in 1452. Died in 1474. Chevalier, (Michel,) a celebrated French economist, born at Limoges in 1806. About 1833 he was sent by M. Thiers on a mission to the United States to exainine the subject of railroads. In 1836 he published " Letters on North America," which were highly commended. He produced in 1838 an important work "On the Material Interests of France," ("Des Interets matcriels en France,") which was often reprinted. About 1840 he was chosen a councillor of state, professor of political economy in the College of France, and chief engineer of mines. His "History and Description of the Ways of Commu- nication in the United States" appeared in 1840. He has greatly contributed to the triumph of free trade in France. In 1851 he was elected to the Institute, (class of moral and political sciences.) See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Chevalier, (Nicolas,) a French antiquary and Prot- estant minister, born at Sedan, emigrated to Holland after the edict of Nantes was revoked in 1685. He was the author of a "History of William III. of England," and other works. Died about 1740. Chevalier, (Paul.) See Gavarnl Chevallier, sheh'vt'le-a, (Jean Baptiste Al- PHONSE,) a chemist, was born at Langres, in France, in 1793, and was for many years editor of the "Journal of Medical Chemistry." He has given special attention to questions relative to public hygiene, and has published a "Dictionary of Adulterations of Alimentary, Medicinal, and Commercial Substances," (1852.) Chevanes, sheh-vtu', (Jacques Auguste;) a French jurisconsult, born at Dijon in 1624; died in 1690. Chevert, de, deh sheh-vaiR', (FRANgois,) a successful French general, born at Verdun, on the Meuse, in 1695, distinguished himself at Prague in 1742, and was made lieutenant-general in 1748. The victory at Hastembeck, in 1757, was ascribed to him. Died in 1769. Cheverus, sh§v'e-rus, [Fr. de Cheverus, deh sheh- vRus^] (Jean Louis Anne Madeleine Lefebvre,) a French cardinal and philanthropist, born at Mayenne in 1768. He visited the United States as a missionary in 1795, and, having spent some time among the Indians of Maine, was made first Bishop of Boston by Pius VII. in 1808. During the prevalence of the yellow fever in Boston he was conspicuous for his efforts in behalf of the sufferers. He afterwards returned to Prance, and became Archbishop of Bordeaux in 1S26, and a cardinal in 1836. He died the same year. See HuEN-DuBOURG, "Vie du Cardinal de Cheverus," (1838,) and an English translation, by Mr. Walsh, Philadelphia, 1839. Cheves, cheevz, (Langdon,) an American statesman, born in Abbeville district. South Carolina, in 1776. He studied law, and became eminent in that profession. He was elected a member of Congress about 1811, and served two or more terms in that body. He was Speaker of the House of Representatives in the second session of the Thirteenth Congress, (1814-15,) and gave a casting vote against the re-charter of the United States Bank in 1815. The bank having been re-chartered in 1816, he afterwards became its president, which position he held for about three years. Died in 1857. Chevillard, sheh-ve'ytR', (Franqois,) a French poet, born at Orleans. He excelled in elegiac verse. Died in 1678. Chevillier, sheh-ve'ye-i', (Andr^,) a learned French ecclesiastic, born at Pontoise in 1636. He wrote a " Criti- cal Dissertation on the Origin of Printing in Paris," (1694.) Died in 1700. Chevreau, sheh-vRo', (Urbain,) an ingenious French writer, born at Loudun in 1613. He was versed in many languages and sciences, and travelled extensively. About 1652 he was secretary to Christina of Sweden, and after- wards was councillor to the Elector Palatine at Heidel- berg. His " History of the World,"(i686,) poems, dramas, and " Chevraeana," had a transient popularity. Died in 1701. See NiCERON, "Memoires." Chevret, sheh-vRi', (Jean,) a French moralist and writer, born at IVIeulan in 1747 ; died in 1820. Chevreul, sheh-vRuK, (Michel Eugene,) an eminent French chemist, born at Angers in 1786, studied under Vauquelin in Paris. He became successively professor in the College Charlemagne, examiner at the Polytechnic School, and professor of special chemistry at the Gobe- lins. In 1823 he published an analytical treatise, called " Chemical Researches on Fat Substances of Animal e as k; c as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, giitttiral ; n, ftasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^5^=See Explanations, j). 23.) CHEFREUSE 592 CHICHELE Origin," which established his reputation, and announced discoveries that produced important results in the arts. He was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1826, and succeeded Vauquelin as professor of applied chem- istry in the "Jardin des Plantes" in 1829. In 1831 he published "Lectures on Chemistry applied to the Art of Dyeing," and in 1839 a remarkable work " On the Law of the Simultaneous Contrast of Colours, and on the Distribution ( Assortiment) of Coloured Objects," which is highly esteemed. He contributed many memoirs to the "Annales de Chimie," and to the collections of the Institute. In 1852 the Societe d'Encouragement awarded him a prize of 12,000 francs for his work on " Fat Sub- stances," ("Corps gras,") above noticed. See " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Chevreu.3e, de, deh sbeh-vRuz^ (Marie de Rohan — deh ro'6N'',) Duchesse, a fascinating French lady, noted for her political ambition and influence, was born in 1600. She was married to Claude, Duke of Chev- reuse, about 1622. Having intrigued against Richelieu, she was sent into exile, from which she returned at his death. During the troubles of the Fronde she acted with the enemies of Mazarin. Died in 1679. See Retz, "Memoires." Chevrier, sheh-vRe-i', ( FRANgois Antoine, ) a French writer, born about 1720 at Nancy. He removed to Paris in his youth, and indulged too freely his pro- pensity to satire in several pamphlets, by which he made many enemies. He published a libellous book called "Le Colporteur," which had some success, and various other works. Died at Rotterdam in 1762. See Gkimm, " Correspondance." Cheyne, chan or cheen, (George,) an eminent Scot- tish physician, born about 1670, was a pupil of Dr. A. Pitcairn. About the year 170c he settled in London. His treatise on Fluxions (1705) procured his election as Fellow of the Royal Society. He wrote a work called " Philosophical Principles of Natural Religion." In 1725 he produced his " Essay on Health and Long Life," which was successful, and was followed by a popular work on nervous diseases, entitled "The English Mal- ady," (1733.) His writings are pervaded with a sincerely religious spirit. Died in 1742. See his Autobiography, "Dr. Cheyne's own Account of Himself," 1743; " Blographia Britannica;" Chambers, "Biographical Diction- ary of Eminent Scotsmen." Cheyne, (James,) a learned Scottish philosopher, born in Aberdeenshire. He was professor of philosophy in the Catholic College of Douay, France, and author of several scientific works. Died in 1602. Cheyne, (John,) a Scottish physician, born at Leith in 1777. He settled in Dublin in 1809, and there prac- tised with great success until 1830, when his health failed. From 1820 to 1830 his annual receipts amounted to a,bout five thousand pounds. He published " Treatises on the Diseases of Children," (1801,) and other medical works. Died in 1836. Chey'nell, (Francis,) an English nonconformist di- vine, born at Oxford in 1608. He became rector of Petworth in 1643, and published "The Rise, Growth, and Danger of Socinianism," (1643,) in which he accused Chiilingworth of heresy. He rendered himself notorious by his animosity towards Chiilingworth, at whose funeral he made a violent speech. He also threw into the grave a book of the deceased author. Died in 1665. See Dk. Johnson's Works. Cheay, shi'ze', (Antoine,) an eminent French civil engineer, born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1718. The canal of Burgundy was one of his works. Died in 1798. Chezy, de, deh sha'ze', (Antoine Leonard,) son of the preceding, born at Neuilly in 1773, was an eminent Oriental scholar, and a pupil of De Sacy. He spoke Persian and Arabic with facility, and understood Hebrew, Syriac, Sanscrit, Greek, etc. A violent illness prevented him from accompanying the expedition to Egypt in 1798, which Bonaparte had invited him to join. Students of all Euroi^ean countries resorted to Paris to receive from him lessons in Sanscrit, which he esteemed the most beautiful and perfect language of the world. In 1815 a chair of Sanscrit was founded for him at Paris. W. Humboldt and A. Schlegel were among his pupils. He published admirable translations of "Medjnoun and Leila," and of the Sanscrit poem " Sakoontala," by Cali- dasa, (1830.) He also left in manuscript an "Analysis of the Ramayana," a "Persian Anthology," a Sanscrit grammar, and other works. Died in 1832. See SiLVESTRE DE Sacv, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. de Chezy," 8vo, 1835; Querard, " La France Litteraire." Chezy, von, fon shk'ze', (Wilhelm,) a German author, born in 1806, wrote "The Travelling Student," ("Der fahrende Schiiler," 1835,) and other novels. Chezy, von, (Wilhelmine Christine,) a German authoress, born in Berlin in 1783, was the mother of the preceding. She was married to the French Orientalist above noticed, about 1803, and separated from him in 1811. She produced, in German, successful romances, tales, and lyric poems, among which were "Euryanthe," (1823,) and " Stundenblumen," (1824.) Chiabrera, ke-d-bRa'ri, (Gabriello,) a celebrated lyric poet of Italy, born at Savona, near Genoa, June 8, 1552, was the founder of a new school of poetry. He was educated in Rome, where he resided some years, in the service of Cardinal Cornaro. His poetical genius was not developed early. An admiration of Pindar rendered him an imitator of that great model, after which he formed a stjde which distinguishes him from other Italian lyric poets. His sublime odes and canzoni soon extended his fame throughout Italy. After he became an author he resided chiefly in Florence and Genoa, and received many honours from several Italian rulers. In allusion to his innovations in style, he compared himself to Columbus, and said, " I resolved to discover a new world or perish in the attempt." He wrote much, and in many varieties of verse. Died at Savona in October, 1637. " He borrowed from Pindar," says Hallam, "thai grandeur of sound, that pomp of epithets, that rich swell of imagery, that unvarying majesty of conception, which distinguish the odes of both poets." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") He rivalled Anacreon in his lighter odes, which are exceedingly beautiful, graceful, and spirited. See Larcher, " Lives of Literary and Scientific Men of Italy ;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Lives of the Italian Poets," by Rev. Henry Stebbing, London, 1831; "Vita di G. Chiabrera," (written by himself,) Milan, Svo, 1821 ; Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letreratura Italiana." Chiaramonti, (B. Luigi.) See Pius VI 1. Chiaramonti, ke-i-ri-mon'tee, (Giovanni Bat- TISTA,) an agreeable Italian writer, born at Brescia in 1731, published an "Essay on the Paternal Power of the Ancient Romans," (1754,) and other works. Died in 1796. Chiaramonti, (Scipione,) an Italian astronomer, born at Cesena in 1565, became professor of philosophy at Pisa. He wrote against Tycho Brahe a treatise on comets, entitled "Anti-Tycho," (1621,) a Latin "History of Cesena," (1641,) and other works. Died in 1652. See NiCERON, " Memoires." Chiari, ke-S,^ree, (Fahrizio,) an Italian painter and engraver, born at Rome in 1621; died in 1695. Chiari, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, born at Rome in 1654, was a pupil of Carlo Maratta, whose style he imitated successfully. Many of his easel-pictures are dis- persed in Italy and England. His frescos in the Barberini palace and the Colonna Gallery at Rome are commended. Died in 1727. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Chiari, (Pietro,) an Italian comic poet and ])riest, born at Brescia. He produced, in rivalry with Goldoni, many mediocre comedies, among which was "The Chi- nese Slave." Died about 1788. Chiarini, ke-a-ree'nee, (Luigi,) an Italian ecclesiastic and philologist, born in Tuscany in 1789. He published a "Theory of Judaism applied to the Reform of the Is- raelites," etc. Died at Warsaw in 1832. Chiaverini, ke-^-vi-ree'nee, (Luigi,) an Italian phy- sician, born at Palena in 1777 ; died at Naples in 1834. Chiavistelli, ke-^-v^s-teKlee, (Jacopo,) an Italian painter, born at Florence in 1618; died in 1698. Chichele or Chichely, chitch'e-le, (Henry,) an emi- nent English prelate, born about 1362, w^as noted as the founder of All Souls' College, Oxford. He performed several diplomatic missions to France. About 1414 he was chosen Archbishop of Canterbury. He opposed the a, c, 1, o, u, y, lofi^; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fdr, fill, f^t; m§t; n6t; good,: moon; CHICHESTER 593 CHILD ERIC growing pretensions of the court of Rome, and also the principles of Wickliffe. Died in 1443. See Arthur Duck, " Life of H. Chichele," 1699: O. L. Spencer, "Life of H. Chichele," 1783 ; W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Arch- bishops of Canterbury," vol. v. chap, xviii. Chich'es-ter, (Arthur,) an English military officer, born near Barnstaple. He was appointed lord deputy of Ireland about 1604, and received the title of Baron of Belfast in 1612. Died in 1624 or 1625. Chichester, Earl of. See Pelham, (Thomas.) Chick'er-ing, (Jonas,) an American manufacturer of piano-fortes, born at New Ipswich, New Hampshire, in 1798, lived in Boston ; died in 1853. Chicoyneau, she'kwS^no', (FRANgois,) a French phy- sician and botanist, born at Montpellier in 1672, was a son-in-law of Pierre Chirac. He became a professor in his native city, and in 1720 was honoured for his services in Marseilles during the prevalence of the plague. He was first physician to the king from 1732 to 1752, and author of a work on the plague. Died in 1752. Chicoyneau, (pRANgois,) a son of the preceding, was born in 1699. He succeeded his father as professor of medicine at Montpellier. Died in 1740. Chiesa, ke-a''sa, (Silvestro,) an Italian painter, born at Genoa in 1625 ; died in 1657. Chievres, she'ivR', ( Guillaume de Croy — deh kRwS,) Lord of, a Flemish courtier and general, born about 1458. He distinguished himself under Charles VIII. and Louis XII. of France in the conquest of Naples and Milan. About 1508 he was appointed governor of the prince, afterwards Charles V. He gained the favour of his pupil, and was his prime minister from his acces- sion, in 1516, until 1521. He offended the Spaniards by his avidity for money, and by the preference which he showed for the Flemings. He attended Charles V. to Germany in 1520, and died in 1 52 1. Chifflet, she'fli', (Jean Jacques,) a learned physician, born at Besan9on, in France, in 1588. Having become eminent in his profession, he was invited to Spain by Philip IV., whom he attended as his first physician. He wrote a "History of Besan9on," political tracts against France, a "Treatise on the Tomb of Childeric I.," discovered in 1653, and other works. He was the most eminent of a family which produced many learned men. Died in 1660. Chifflet, (Philippe,) a brother of the preceding, born at Besan9on in 1597. He published "Notes on the Council of Trent," and translated "The Imitation of Christ" into French. Died about 1658. Chifflet, (Pierre Franqois,) a brother of the pre- ceding, born in 1592, was professor of Hebrew, and keeper of the medals of the King of France. He wrote some religious works. Died in 1682. Child, (Sir Josiah,) an English merchant, eminent as a writer on commerce and political economy, was born in London about 1630. He became very wealthy, and was one of the directors of the East India Company. In 1668 he published " Observations concerning Trade and the Interest of Money," in which he argues that the rate of interest should be reduced or kept low by legal restrictions. About that time he became chairman and autocrat of the East India Company. He afterwards wrote a "Treatise on the East India Trade," and a few other works. " Some of the principles advanced by Child," says McCulloch, "are so sound, and so forcibly and concisely expressed, that they assume the shape of maxims." Died in 1699. He left several children, who intermarried with various noble families of England. Child, (Mrs. Lydia Maria,) a popular American writer, whose maiden name was Francis, was born at Med ford, Massachusetts, in 1802. Her first publication was "Hobomok, an Indian Story," (1824,) which was followed by "The Rebels: a Tale of the Revolution," (1825.) In 1826 she became editor of the "Juvenile Miscellany," which she conducted with ability and suc- cess for eight years. She was married in 1828 to Mr. David Lee Child, an able lawyer of Massachusetts. Soon after the commencement of the anti-slavery agita- tion she published an "Appeal in behalf of that Class of Americans called Africans," esteemed one of the most valuable works on that subject. She was editor of the "National Anti-Slavery Standard" (New York) from 1841 to 1843, during which she wrote her "Letters from New York," (published in 2 vols., 1844.) Among her other productions may be named "The Mother's Book," "The Oasis," "Flowers for Children," "Fact and Fiction," and " Philothea : a Grecian Romance." She has also published " Progress of Religious Ideas," (3 vols. 8vo, 1855,) which, though giving proof of some learning and of great diligence, is a work of doubtful merit* See Griswold's " Prose Writers of America;" " North American Review" for July, 1833, to January, 1S37. Child, (William,) an English musical composer, born at Bristol in 1607 ; died in 1697. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musicians." ChiPde-bert [Fr. pron. sh^Kdeh^baiR'] I., King of the Franks, was the third son of Clovis and Clotilde. He inherited the kingdom of Paris, and began to reign in 511 a.d. In league with his brothers Clotaire and Clodomir, he conquered Sigismund, King of Burgundy. He died in 558; and, as he left no male issue, Clotaire became sole King of the Franks. This was the first precedent in French history of a custom or regulation which was afterwards recognized as the "Salic law." See SiSMONDi, "Histoire des Frangais." Childebert II., King of Austrasia, born in 570 a.d., succeeded his father Sigebert in 575. His mother, Brunehaut, was regent during a part of his minority. By the will of his uncle Gontran, he acquired Orleans and Burgundy. He died in 596, leaving an infant heir, Thierri, whose kingdom was usurped by Clotaire II. See MiCHELET, "Histoire de la France." Childebert III., the son of Thierri III., was born about 683 A.D. In 695 he succeeded his brother, Clovis III., as nominal King of France, the real power being exercised by the mayor of the palace, Pepin le Gros. He died in 711, leaving a son, Dagobert III., who was, like his father, one of the rois faineants^ (idle or mimic kings.) Chn'de-brand, [Fr. pron. sh^l'deh'bRON',] a Frank- ish prince, whose history is very obscure, and on whom much has been written by modern historians and gene- alogists. He is supposed to have been a son of Pepin 1 le Gros, and a brother of Charles Martel, whom he ac- companied in 737 A.D. in an expedition against the Saracens. See Sainte-Marthe, "Histoire gen^alogique de la France." Childeric, chilMer-ik, [ Fr. pron. sh^Kdi'r^k',] I.. King of the Franks, is reckoned the fourth king of the Merovingian race. He succeeded his father Merovee (or Merovaeus) in 458 A.D. We have little authentic history of his reign. He is said to have died about 480, leaving the kingdom to his son, Clovis I. His tomb, found near Tournai in 1653, contained his seal, medals, arms, etc., an account of which was published by J. J. Chifflet, (1655.) Childeric II. was the second son of Clovis II. He inherited the kingdom of Austrasia, and began to reign in 660, at the age of seven. At the death of his elder brother, Clotaire III., he annexed to his realm Neustria and Burgundy. He was assassinated in 673, when his eldest son was also killed. His younger brother, Thierri, then became king. See SiSMONDi, " Histoire des Fran^ais." Childeric III., the son of Chilperic II., was the last King of France of the first race, (Merovingians.) He is called Childeric II. by some historians. He was perT * The imaginative and philanthropic writings of Mrs. Child, unitins; as they do with fine powers of delineation a most genial, kindly, awd liberal spirit, command our heartfelt respect and sympathy. We regret all the more that she should have expended so much time and labour on a work affording little or no opi^-ortunity for the exercise of those gifts which have been the delight of so many readers, but demanding qualifications of a totally different kind. To render such a work as the " Progress of Religious Ideas" of any real value, the writer should possess not only accurate, profound, and varied learning, but also a sound critical judgment ; because in such an undertaking it is no less important to reject what is false than to present what is true. 1"he work, as we now have it, contains, along with a great deal of correct information, much that is totally untrustworthy; and this intermixture vitiates the whole. As the authorities on which the various statements rest are given only occasionally, the ordinary reader is without the means of forming any correct judgment as to their comparative value, and is quite as likely to accept the false as the true. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23 .) 38 CHILD ERS 594 CHIPMAN mitted, in 742 A.D., to assume the name and form of roy- alty by Pepin le Bref and Carloman, but was deposed by them about 750, and died in a monastery a few years later. ChiFders, (Hugh Culling Eardley,) born in Lon- don in 1827, graduated at Cambridge in 1850. He was returned to Parliament for Pontefract in i860, became a lord of the admiralty in 1864, and in 1865 financial secre- tary to the treasury. In December, 1868, he was ap- pointed first lord of the admiralty. CluPdren, (John George,) an English chemist and electrician, born at Tunbridge in 1777. He was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1807. He constructed a galvanic battery, with plates of extraordinary size, (four feet long by two wide,) by which he demonstrated that the quantity of electricity is in proportion to the size of the plates, while its intensity depends on the number of plates. Among the results of his interesting experiments with the battery was the formation of steel by the combination of iron with diamond. Died in 1852. Chil'drey, (Joshua,) an English clergyman and natu- ral philosopher, born in 1623 ; died in 1670. Childs, (George W.,) an American publisher, distin- guished for his liberality and enterprise, was born in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1829. He came to Philadelphia at an early age, and about 1849 became a member of a publishing firm afterwards known as that of Childs & Peterson. In 1864 he became the proprietor of the " Public Ledger," which has been very successful under his able management. ChiPling-worth, (William,) a celebrated English writer and divine of the Arminian school of theology, was born at Oxford in 1602. His father, of the same name, was mayor of Oxford. At college he was noted for his subtlety and acuteness as a disputant in theology. About 1630 he was converted to the dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church by a Jesuit, John Fisher, alias John Perse, and entered the Jesuit College at Douay. But by the agency of Laud, then Bishop of London, he was restored to the Protestant communion, and he re- turned to Oxford in 163 1. In 1637 he published his great work, " The Religion of Protestants a Safe Way to Sal- vation," in answer to a Jesuit named Knott. Although he had scruples against some of the Thirty-Nine Articles, he was induced to subscribe to that creed as a bond of peace and union, and was made chancellor of Salisbury and prebendary of Brix worth. He was a zealous roy- alist in the civil war. In 1643 he was taken prisoner, and, while thus detained, died, in January, 1644. Lord Mansfield esteemed Chillingworth "a perfect model of argumentation." Tillotson styled him "the incom- parable Chillingworth, the glory of this age and nation." " His chief excellence," says Hallam, " is the close rea- soiiing which avoids every dangerous admission," etc. " His work may be understood and appreciated without reference to any other, — the condition perhaps of real superiority in all productions of the mind." ("Intro- duction to the Literature of Europe.") See Des Maizeaux, "Life of Chillingworth," 1725; Dr. Birch, " Life of Chillingworth," prefixed to his works, 1742 ; " Retrospective Review," vol. vii., 1823; August Neander, " Erinnerung an den evangelischen Gottesgelehrten W. Chillingworth," Berlin, 4to, 1832; KiPPis, " Biographia Britannica." CliiPmead, (Edmund,) an English scholar, born in Gloucestershire about 1610. He was chaplain of Christ Church, Oxford, from 1632 to 1648. He wrote a Latin treatise " On Ancient Greek Music," and translated several works from the French and Spanish into English. Died in 1653. ■ehiTo or ■ehi'loii, [Gr. Xolitician of Boston, was convicted of a treasonable cor- respondence with Governor Gage in 1775, and was ini- nrisoned for that offence, but was released in 1776. Church, (Frederick Edwin,) an eminent American 'andscape-painter, born at Hartford, Connecticut, in 1826, was a pupil of Thomas Cole. His earliest productions were views of the Catskill Mountains, among which he resided, and a view of East Rock, near New Haven, which attracted very favourable notice. In 1853 he visited South America, and found in the magnificent scenery of that country materials for several of his most admired pictures. After his return he executed his " View of Niagara Falls from the Canadian Shore," regarded by many as the most successful representation of the great cataract. " In the rush of water, and the fine atmos- pheric effects," says a foreign critic, " it realizes the idea of sound as well as of motion." Among his other works are "The Heart of the Andes," "Cotopaxi," "Morning on the Cordilleras," " Under Niagara," "The Icebergs," and " Sunrise on Mount Desert Island." See TucKERMAN, "Book of the Artists." Church, (John Hubbard,) an American Congrega- tional divine, born at Rutland, Massachusetts, in 1772, preached at Pel ham. New Hampshire. Died in 1840. Church, (Sir Richard,) an English general, born about 1785, served in the British army in his youth. In 1827 he was chosen by the insurgent Greeks commander of their land army ; but peace was made before he had performed any very important actions. He was ordered to leave Greece in 1830 by Capo d'lstrias, whose enmity he had incurred. After the death of Capo d'lstrias, in 183 1, he was again for a short time at the head of the army. Died in 1850. Church, (Samuel,) a jurist, born in Salisbury, Con- necticut, in 1785. He became a judge of the superior court in 1833, and chief justice of Connecticut in 1847. Died in 1854. Church, (Thomas,) an English theologian, born in 1707 ; died in 1756. Church'ill, (Charles,) a popular English poet and satirist, born at Westminster in 1731. At school he was the fellow-student and friend of William Cowper. He married a Miss Scott privately when he was about seventeen, and soon after applied for a studentship at Oxford, but was rejected. Against his own inclination, he unwisely adopted the profession of his father, who was a curate. In 1756 he was ordained priest, and began to officiate at Rainham. Two years later he succeeded his father as curate and lecturer of Saint John's, West- minster. It is usually stated that a sudden or total change occurred in his habits at this period, after which he became dissipated and licentious. Macaulay, who dissents from this opinion, thinks he never was or pro- fessed to be religious, and intimates that, " with violent recoil from the hypocrisies, he outraged the proprieties of life," because his youth had been misdirected to a profession from which his heart was estranged. Resolving to abandon that profession, he produced, about 1760, two poems, "The Bard" and "The Con- clave." His " Rosciad," a pungent satire on the per- formers and managers of the stage, appeared in 1761, and was successful beyond his most sanguine hopes. He vindicated himself against the malice of the " Critical Reviewers" by the " Apology," a poem, which is much admired. He became very intimate with John Wilkes, the profligate pseudo-patriot, whom he assisted in " The North Briton." In 1763 he produced "The Prophecy of Famine," a political satire on the Scotch, which was immensely popular. " The Conference," a poem, is one of his master-pieces. While on a visit to France, he died in 1764. "His vices were not so great as his virtues," says Macaulay. Besides the works already noticed, he wrote " The Author," " Gotham," and other poems. Cowper was a warm admirer of his poetry, and said that "he well deserved the name of 'the great Churchill.'" See TooKE, " Life of Churchill ;" Macaulay's Essay entitled "Charles Churchill," 1845; John Forster, "Historical and Bio- graphical Essays," vol. ii. ; " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1845 Churchill, (John.) See Marlborough. Church'ill, (Sylvester,) an American officer, born at Woodstock, Vermont, about 1783. He became in- spector-general of the army about 1841. Churchill, (Sir Winston,) born in Dorsetshire, Eng- land, in 1620, was the father of the Duke of Marlborough. He was a royalist in the civil war, and was knighted by Charles II. about 1662. He wrote a work of little merit on the lives of British kings, entitled " Divi Britannici." Died in 1688. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. Church^man, (William H.,) a blind man, born in Baltimore in 1818, was educated in the Pennsylvania Institution for the Blind. He has been successively superintendent of similar institutions in Tennessee, In- diana, and Wisconsin. Church'yard, (Thomas,) an English versifier, born at Shrewsbury about 1520, became a domestic of the Earl of Surrey, after whose death he served in the army. He wrote a " Legend of Jane Shore," and other poems. Died in 1604. See CiBBER, "Lives of the Poets;" Disraeli, "Calamities of Authors." Churruca y Elorza, de, dk choor-roo'ki e i-loR'- tha, (C. Damian,) an able and meritorious Spanish naval officer, was born in Guipuzcoa in 1761. He was em- ployed in an expedition sent to survey the Straits of Magellan, and wrote a valuable "Diary of the Explora- tion of Terra del Fuego," which was published in 1793, He commanded an exploring expedition to the Gulf of Mexico in 1791, from which resulted numerous charts of the coasts. He was killed at the battle of Trafalgar,(i8o5.) Chur^'tpn, (Edward,) an English theologian and writer, son of Rev. Ralph Churton, born about 1800. Churton, (Ralph,) an English clergyman, born in Cheshire in 1 754. He was appointed Archdeacon of Saint David's in 1805, and published sermons, and several well-written biographies. Died in 183 1. Chyr-Shah. See Sher-Shah. Chytraus, Ke-tRa'us, [Fr. Chytr^;e, she'tkk'; Lat. Chytr^'us,] (David,) a German Protestant theologian and scholar, whose proper name was Kochhaff, (koK'- hdf,) was born at Ingelfingen, Suabia, in 1530. He was a favourite disciple of Melanchthon, and became pro- fessor of divinity at Rostock in 1 55 1. He published a large number of Latin works, among which are a " History of the Augsburg Confession," (1578,) and a "Chronicle of Saxony," (1593.) Died in 1600. See Ulrich Chytraus, "Vita D. Chytrsei," 1601. Chytraus or Chytraeus, (Nathan,) a brother of the preceding, was born at Menzingen in 1543. He was professor of Latin and of poetry at Rostock, and author of "Iter Italicum et Gallicum," ("Journey to Italy and France,") and other poems in Latin. Died in 1598. Ciacone and Ciaconius. See Chacon. Cialderi, chal-da'ree, (Girolamo,) an Italian painter, born at Urbino in 1593. Cialdini, ch3.1-dee'nee, (Enrico,) an able Italian gen- eral, born at Modena about 1814. He served in the campaign of' 1848 against the Austrians, and fought by the side of Charles Albert at Novara in 1849. As gen- eral of division, he gained an advantage over the Aus- trians at Palaestro in June, 1859. He defeated the papal army under Lamoriciere at Castelfidardo in 1S60, and commanded the Sardinians at the siege of Gaeta, which he took in February, 1861. In June, 1861, he was ap- pointed lieutenant-general of Naples, then disturbed by brigands and rebels. He commanded one of the armies operating against the Austrians in 1866, and became chief of the royal staff in August of that year. Ciamberlani, cham-bgR-l^'nee, or Ciamberlano, cham-bgR-ia'no, (LuCA,) an Italian painter and skilful engraver, born at Urbino about 1580; died in 1641. Ciampelli, chdm-peFlee, ( Agostino, ) an Italian painter, born at Florence in 1578. He was employed by Clement VIII. in the Vatican, and was successful in fresco and oil. His style is noble and his design correct. Died at Rome in 1640. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Ciampi, chSn/pee, (Sebastiano,) an Italian littera- teur, born at Pistoia in 1769. Among his works are " Memoirs of Cino da Pistoia," and " Carteromaco." Died in 1847. a, e, T, o u, y, long; \ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; mooni CIAMPINI 603 CICERO Ciampini, chSm-pee'nee, (Giovanni Giustino,) a learned Italian writer and antiquary, born at Rome in 1633. He obtained an office in the apostolic chancery. He studied sciences and belles-lettres with success, and, under the auspices of Christina of Sw^eden, founded at Rome, in 1677, an academy of natural and exact sciences. He composed several esteemed works, among which are "The Sacred Editices built by Constantine," (1693,) and "Vetera Monumenta," a treatise on ancient buildings, mosaics, and rites. Died in 1698. See NiCERON, " j\Iemoires ;" Fabiani, " Vitadi G. G. Ciampini." Ciampoli, cham'po-lee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian lyric poet, born at Florence in 1589. He studied philosophy under Galileo at Padua. His youthful essays in poetry procured for him the favour of Cardinal Bar- berini. Having removed to Rome, he was appointed secretary of briefs by Pope Gregory XV. His poems, which appeared in 1628, though marred by inflation and affectation, were received with applause. As an adherent of Galileo, he was disgraced and exiled from Rome in the pontificate of Urban VIII. Died in 1643. See Crasso, " Elogi d'Uoniini letterati." Cianchettini, chJn-ket-tee'nee, (Pio,) a musical com- poser, of Italian extraction, born in London in 1799. Cianci, chan'chee, (Ignazio,) a Neapolitan poet and theologian, lived about 1720-60. Cianfanini, ch&n-fS-nee'nee, (Benedetto,) an Italian painter, who was esteemed one of the best pupils of Fra Bartolommeo di San Marco. Ciarpi, chaR'pee, (Baccio, bSt'cho,) an Italian painter, born at Florence in 1578; died in 1642. Ciassi, chls'see, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian bota- nist, born at Treviso in 1654. He advanced some sound opinions on the phenomena of germination in his " Me- ditations on the Nature of Plants," (" Meditationes de Natura Plantarum," 1677.) Died in 1679. Cib'ber, (Caius Gabriel,) a successful sculptor, born in Holstein, (Denmark,) became a resident of London a short time before the restoration of 1660. He executed the bas-reliefs of the London Monument, and the two figures of Madness in Bethlehem Hospital. He was the father of Gibber the dramatist. Died about 1700. Cib'ber, (Colley,) a witty English dramatic author and actor, son of the preceding, was born in London in 167 1. He became a comic actor in 1689. In 1695 he produced his first play, " Love's Last Shift, or the Fool in Fashion," which was very successful. " The Careless Husband," which is considered his best production, was performed with great applause in 1704, Gibber himself enacting a principal role. His comedy the "Nonjuror," (1717,) an imitation of Moliere's "Tartuffe," procured him a pension of £200 from George I. He was one of the managers of Drury Lane for many years. In 1730 he was chosen poet-laureate. He wrote an amusing " Apo- logy for the Life of Colley Gibber," which Dr. Johnson pronounced "very well done." Gibber is a prominent hero of the "Dunciad." Died in 1757. See Pope's " Dunciad," books i., ii., iii.; "Retrospective Re- view," vol. i., 1820. Gibber, (Susanna Maria,) a celebrated English ac- tress, born probably in London in 1716, was the sister of Dr. Arne the musician. She became the wife of Theophilus Gibber in 1734. She made hex debzit m 1736, and was very successful in tragedy. Died in 1766. Gibber, (Theophilos,) an English comedian, son of Colley Gibber, born in London in 1703. He was a suc- cessful actor, but a very immoral and prodigal man. He altered several plays from Shakspeare, and published in 1753 "Lives of the British Poets," said to have been chiefly written by Robert Shiels. Gibber perished by shipwreck in a voyage to Ireland in 1758. See Baker, "Biographia Dramatica." Gibo. See Cybo. Gibot, se^bo', ( Francois Barth^lemy Michel Sdouard,) a French painter of history and genre, born in Paris in 1799. He obtained a first medal in 1843. Gibot, (Pierre Martial,) a French missionary and Jesuit, born at Limoges in 1727, was learned in the sciences and languages. From 1760 to 1780 he was em- ployed at Pekin, where he wrote valuable treatises on the arts, manners, etc. of the Chinese. Died in 1780. Gibrario, che-bRl're-o, (Luigi,) an Italian historian and jurist, born at Turin in 1802, was employed by King Charles Albert as a diplomatist. Among his v/orks are a "History of the Princes of Savoy," (1825,) a "His- tory of the Monarchy of Savoy," (1840,) and "Novels," ("Novelle," 1836.) Giccarelli, ch^k-ki-reKlee, (Alphonso,) an Italian physician, born at Bevagna. He was put to death for forgery in 1580. Cicci, chlt'chee, (Maria Luisa,) an Italian poetess, born at Pisa in 1760; died in 1794. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." Giccione, ch^t-cho'na, (Andrea,) an eminent Italian sculptor and architect, born at Naples ; died about 1440. Giceri, s^s''re'', (Pierre Luc Charles,) a French scene-painter of wide reputation, was born at Saint- Cloud in 1782. He worked in Paris and other places. Gig'e-ro, [Gr. Kmepuv; It. Cicerone, che-chi-ro'nk ; Fr. Ciceron, se'sa'r5N'; Ger. Cicero, tsits'g-ro; Sp. Ciceron, the-thi-ron',] (Marcus Tullius,) often called Tully by English writers, an illustrious Roman orator, philosopher, and statesman, was born at Arpinum, (now Arpino,) about seventy miles east-southeast of Rome, on the 3d of January, 106 B.C., (647 A.u.c.) He was a son of Marcus Tullius Cicero, an opulent citizen of the. equestrian order, who owned an estate near Arpinum and devoted much time to literary pursuits. His mother's name was Helvia. His early education was directed by Archias the Greek poet, Q. ^lius the grammarian, and other teachers, at Rome. During his minority he com- posed a number of poems, among which was " Pontius Glaucus," which is lost. • His disposition was genial and amiable. He learned to speak Greek fluently, and was profoundly versed in Greek literature and philosophy. Having assumed the manly gown (toga virilis) in his sixteenth year, (91 B.C.,) he applied himself to the study of law under Mucius Scaevola the Augur, an eminent jurist and statesman. In the year 89 B.C. he served a campaign under Gneius Pompeius Strabo in the Social war, in obedience to the law which then required every citizen to perform military service. During the six ensuing years after this cam- paign he passed his life in studious retirement, and took no part in the bloody civil war between Marius and Sulla. He attended the lectures of the Greek philoso- pher Philo, the chief of the New Academy, studied logic with Diodotus the Stoic, and was instructed in rhetoric by Apollonius Molo of Rhodes. " He had," says Plu- tarch, "both the capacity and inclination to learn all the arts, nor was there any branch of science that he de- spised : yet he was most inclined to poetry. ... In process of time he was looked upon as the best poet as well as the greatest orator in Rome. His reputation for oratory still remains ; . . . but, as many ingenious poets have appeared since his time, his poetry has lost its credit and is now neglected." In his admirable oration " Pro Archia," Cicero informs us that Archias the poet exerted great influence over the formation of his taste and the development and direction of his genius. Among his early productions was a heroic poem entitled "Ma- rius," which is not extant : also a treatise on rhetoric, entitled " De Inventione Rhetorica." Having laid a solid foundation for his fame by the severe and systematic discipline of his rare talents, and by assiduous efforts to perfect his elocution by the prac- tice of declamation, he began, at the age of twenty-five, his career as a pleader in the Forum. An argument which he made in 81 B.C. for his client P. Quinctius, in a civil suit, is still extant. The first important criminal trial in which he was employed was that of Sextus Roscius Amerinus, who was accused of parricide by an agent of the dictator Sulla, the dread of whose power and cruelfy was so great that all the other advocates declined to ap- pear for the defence. Cicero defended him with success, denounced the malice and iniquity of the prosecutor, and gained great applause by his courage and eloquence. This event occurred in the twenty-seventh year of his age. His physical constitution in his youth was so deli- cate that his medical friends advised him to abandon the bar. "My body," says he, "was very weak and € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2!^=See Explanations, p. 23.) CICERO CICERO emaciated, my neck long and small, which is a habit thought liable to great risk of life, if engaged in any fatigue or labour of the lungs." He therefore resolved to improve his health by travel, and to linish his educa- tion by visits to the famous seats of learning and art in Greece and Asia. Having departed from Rome in 79 i;.c., he spent about six months in Athens, where he pursued his favourite studies with Antiochus of Ascalon, Zeno the Epicurean, and Demetrius Syrus. He also enjoyed in Athens the society of Pomponius Atticus, with whom he formed a lasting and memorable friend- ship. He afterwards travelled extensively in Asia Minor. " He came back again to Italy," says Middleton, " after an excursion of two years, extremely improved, and changed, as it were, into a new man : the vehemence of his voice and action was moderated, the redundancy of his style and fancy corrected, his lungs strengthened, and his whole constitution confirmed." In 76 B.C. he was elected quaestor (paymaster) by the unanimous suffrage of all the tribes. The quaestors were sent annually into the several provinces, one with every proconsul or governor, to whom he was next in authority. The office of quaestor was the first step in the gradation of public honours, and entitled him to an ad- mission into the senate for life. He officiated as quaestor in Sicily, and performed his duties with such integrity, moderation, and humanity that he won, it is said, the love and admiration of all the Sicilians. As he was re- turning to Rome (74 B.C.) somewhat elated with his suc- cess, and entertaining the idea that the great capital was resounding with his praises, he met one of his acquaint- ances, a person of eminence, and inquired what they said and thought of his actions in Rome. The answer was, " Why, where have you been, then, Cicero, all this time ?" He then perceived that the reports of his conduct and services had been lost in Rome, as in an immense sea, and had added little or nothing to his reputation. About 76 B.C. he married a rich heiress, named Terentia. The law prescribed that five years should elapse after his election to the quaestorship (or that he must attain the age of thirty-eight) before he could hold the office of aedile, which was the next in the ascending scale. • The orations which he pronounced during this period have not been preserved. His principal rival in forensic elo- quence was Hortensius, whom he soon surpassed. Ac- cording to Plutarch, "it was not by slow and insensible degrees that he gained the palm of eloquence : his fame shot fojth at once, and he was distinguished above all the orators of Rome." He excelled in sarcasm and witty repartees, \vith which he often seasoned his forensic arguments. All the resources of his genius, his art, his learning and influence were freely devoted to the defence of those whose lives or dignity or reputations were judicially assailed. He received no pay for his services as an advocate. He deviated from his general rule and practice of pleading for the defendant, in the case of the infamous Caius Verres, who in 70 B.C. was impeached by the Sicilians for atrocious acts of cruelty and rapine, but was supported by the most powerful families of Rome, including the Metelli. At the urgent request of the Sicilians, Cicero conducted the prosecution of Ver- res, who employed Hortensius to defend him ; but the evidence against the accused was so overwhelming that his counsel declined to plead, or had nothing to say, the defence suddenly collapsed, and Verres himself, antici- pating his sentence, went into exile. Cicero, therefore, actually spoke only two of his seven celebrated orations against Verres ; but the others were published, and re- main a noble and imperishable monument of his versatile and almost universal genius. Having acquired great popularity, he was elected to the aedileship, in 70 B.C., by a majority of the voters of every tribe. As asdile, he had the care of the sacred edifices, and was required by law or usage to gratify the people with public games and shows and costly page- ants, partly at his own expense. In the year 67 he offered himself as a candidate for the office of praetor, which was one grade higher than that of aedile, and next in dignity to the consulship. Although he had several eminent competitors, he was elected the first praetor urbanus by the suffrages of all the centuries. The duty of the praetors was to preside as judges in the highest courts, and their jurisdictions were assigned to them by lot, which decided that Cicero should judge in cases of extortion and rapine of which governors of provinces were accused. "As a president in the courts of justice, he acted with great integrity and honour." (Plutarch's "Life of Cicero.") While he held the office of praetor (66 B.C.) he made an important and famous political ora- tion for the Manilian Law, ("Pro Lege Manilla,") the design of which was to appoint Pompey commander- in-chief in the war against Mithridates the Great. This was the first occasion on which Cicero ever mounted the rostrum. The Manilian Law, although strenuously opposed by the nobles, or optimates, and many powerful senators, was adopted. In the same year he defended A. Cluentius, (who was accused of poisoning his father- in-law,) in a plea which is still extant. At the expiration of his praetorship, Cicero would not accept the government of a foreign p'rovince, which, says Middleton, " was the usual reward of that magistracy, and the chief fruit which the generality proposed from it. . . . The glory which he pursued was to shine in the eyes of the city as the guardian of its laws, and to teach the magistrates how to execute, the citizens how to obey them. But he was now preparing to sue for the consul- ship, the great object of all his hopes." The most for- midable obstacle to his ambition was the jealousy of the nobles or aristocrats, who regarded the highest office as their birthright, and who would oppose the election of a " new man," ( novus hoi?io,) as they called all men whose ancestors were mere private citizens. He offered him- self as a candidate for the consulship in his forty-third year, 64 B.C., with six competitors, among whom were P. Sulpicius Galba, C. Antonius, and L. Sergius Catilina. The last two formed a coalition against Cicero, and were favoured by Caesar and Crassus. During the canvass Cicero uttered a severe invective on the habits and char- acters of Catiline and Antonius, in his oration "In Toga Candida." The election resulted in the choice of Cicero andC. Antonius, the former of whom received the votes of all the centuries, and was the only " new man" that had been chosen consul in forty years. Among the events of this year was the birth of his only son. He had also a daughter, Tullia, who was born several years earlier and was the object of his warmest affection. She was a very amiable and accomplished woman. He entered upon the office on the ist of January, 63 B. C., and found the republic in a very critical and peril- ous condition, distracted by pestilent laws and seditious harangues and undermined by pervading corruption and traitorous conspiracies. The difficulty was increased by the fact that his colleague Antonius was a man of bad (though feeble) character and was opposed to the policy of Cicero. The latter, however, secured the co-opera- tion, or at least the neutrality, of Antonius, by a bargain that he should have the best and most lucrative of the provinces which were to be assigned to the consuls at the expiration of their term. He promoted the cause of liberty and order by another capital stroke of policy when he induced the senators and the equites (knights) to form a political alliance and unite in a common party. " He was," says Middleton, " the only man in the city capable of effecting such a coalition, being now at the head of the senate, yet the darling of the knights." By an artful and powerful speech he persuaded the people to reject an agrarian law proposed by Rullus, a tribune of the people. According to Niebuhr, this was " one of the most brilliant achievements of eloquence." He de- fended Rabirius, (accused of the murder of L. Saturninus, who had been dead about forty years,) in an oration which is extant. The most memorable part of his administration ap- pears in the ability, courage, and elastic energy with which he detected and baffled the nefarious designs of Catiline and his accomplices. Catiline was a candidate for the consulship in the election of 63 B.C., and hired assassins to kill Cicero in the Campus Martins when he should come to preside at the election ; but, as the con- sul came guarded by armed men, the plot failed, and Catiline was not elected. This second repulse rendered him furious. He conspired to seize the chief power by a, e, T, o, il, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, s/ior^; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; CICERO 4 CICERO the burning of the city and a general massacre of the senators and the friends of order. His capacity and resources for such an enterprise were very great, and he was abetted by vast numbers of disaffected and des- perate men, some of whom were of high rank and great influence. The leaders of this plot met on the 6th of November, and arranged the immediate execution of the same ; but their plans were revealed to Cicero by Fulvia, the mistress of one of the conspirators, and when two of them went to his house next morning to assas- sinate the consul they found it well guarded. On the 8th of November, Cicero delivered in the senate the first of his famous orations against Catiline, who was present, and, at the end of that grand explosion of indignant eloquence, rose to speak; but his voice was drowned by cries of "Traitor!" and "Parricide!" Catiline hastily quitted Rome in the ensuing night, to join his army in Etruria, and Cicero on the next day addressed to the assembled people his second Oration "In Catilinam." After he had delivered two more orations on the sub- ject, Lentulus, Cethegus, and several other conspirators were condemned to death by the senate, and executed by the order of the consul, who was censured by many for putting citizens to death without a trial. During this perilous crisis, and before Catiline was defeated and killed, Cicero defended Murena against a charge of bribery, in an oration remarkable for wit and good- humoured raillery. For his preservation of the state from this conspiracy Cicero received unbounded hon- ours. He was saluted as the father of his country by Catulus and Cato, and hailed as the saviour of Rome by the people : "Roma Patrem Patriae Ciceronem libera dixit." Juvenal, Sat. viii. When he ceased to be consul at the end of the year, he declined the government of a province, and remained at Rome as a private senator. He now purchased an elegant mansion on the Palatine Hill. His favourite country residence was the Tusculan Villa, a few miles from Rome. He also owned villas near Arpinum, For- miae, Cumae, and other places. When P. Clodius was tried for polluting the mysteries of the Bona Dea by his presence, Cicero appeared as a witness against him, and thus incurred his bitter enmity. Soon after this event, Cicero defended the poet Archias, his teacher, in an oration which is much admired. About the end of the year 60, Cajsar, Pompey, and Crassus united to form the first Triumvirate, which Cicero was urged to join by one or more of the parties ; but he declined, as he regarded the coalition of the triumvirs as dangerous to the public liberty. He was on friendly terms with Pompey, who he hoped would prove loyal. Forsyth, who thinks that Cicero always distrusted Pom- pey, and that Pompey disHked Cicero, states that the latter " held aloof, determined to temporize." His enemy Clodius, who became tribune of the people in December, 59 B.C., and who was supported by Caesar and Pompey, now manifested his vindictive malice against Cicero by a law which he proposed, "that whoever has put to death a Roman citizen without due form of trial shall be in- terdicted from fire and water." According to custom, Cicero put on mourning and appealed to the compassion of the people. It is said that 20,000 young nobles and equites expressed their sympathy with him by a change of dress ; but, as the consuls were his enemies, he an- ticipated the passage of the law, and retired into exile in April, 58 B.C. Several writers censure him for the abject spirit which they say he now exhibited in adver- sity. He was banished by law, his property was confis- cated, and his house on the Palatine Hill was burned by Clodius. He chose Greece as his place of exile, which he did not endure with the fortitude or apathy of a stoic ; on the contrary, he appears from his letters of this period to have been extremely dejected. In a letter to his wife, Terentia, he wrote, " It is not my crimes, but my virtue that has crushed me." The violence and excessive insolence of Clodius soon produced a reaction : the tribunes who entered office in the year 57 were mostly friends of Cicero, whose recall was demanded by the senate, by Pompey, and by the new consuls. In August a bill for his restoration was ap- proved by the almost unanimous suffrage of the people of all Italy, voting by centuries. "There had never been known so numerous and solemn an assembly of the Roman people as this." (Middleton.) His return to Rome in September, 57 B.C., was like a triumphal progress, and was hailed with almost universal enthu- siasm. That day, he said, seemed to him like immortality ; "unus ille dies mihi quidem immortalitatis instar fuit, quo in patriam redii." (" Oratio in Pisonem.") During the period of five years that followed his re- turn, he pleaded a number of causes and wrote two im- portant political works, entitled " De Republica," ("On the Republic, or the Principles of Government,") and " De Legibus," a philosophical treatise on the origin, principles, and perfection of law. The former of these treats on the best form of government and the duties of the citizen. This work, which was one of his greatest productions, is lost, except a large fragment discovered by Angelo Mai on a palimpsest about 1820. He also wrote, about 55 B.C., his "De Oratore," a systematic work on oratory, which is extant. In 52 B.C. he com- posed a celebrated oration in defence of T. Annius Milo, who was tried for killing P. Clodius ; but this oration was not actually delivered in the court. He wrote a history of his consulship, in verse, which has not come down to us. About the end of the year 52 Cicero was appointed pro- consul or governor of Cilicia, Pisidia, etc. He accepted this office with reluctance, regarding it as a kind of hon- ourable exile. He had under his command in his province an army of about fourteen thousand men, which he di- 'rected in successful operations against some predatory tribes, and was saluted by his soldiers with the title oi "Imperator." His adm-inistration is extolled as a rare model of purity, moderation, and clemency. Having governed that province for one year, he returned to Rome about the end of 50 B.C., and found the country on the verge of civil war between the senate and Julius Caesar. He offered himself as a mediator, advising the senate to make concessions to Cassar ; but after the latter had crossed the Rubicon he joined the army of Pompey and the senate, not without much hesitation. "He fluc- tuated greatly," says Plutarch, "and was in the utmost anxiety; for he says in his letters, 'Whither shall I turn ? Pompey has the more honourable cause ; but Caesar manages his affairs with the greatest address, and is most able to save himself and his friends. In short, I know whom to avoid, but not whom to follow.' " Whec Pompey asked him, "Where is your son-in-law?" (Dola- bella,) Cicero answered, " He is with your father-in-law.'* To one who reproached him for coming late to the camp of Pompey, he said, " By no means late ; for I find nothing ready here." He wrote almost daily to Atticus, with whom he always corresponded frequently, (except when they lived at the same place,) and expressed his opinions without reserve. After the battle of Pharsalia, (August, 48 B.C.,) in which he took no part, Cicero returned to Italy and submitted to the power of Caesar, who treated him with much clemency and respect. He devoted himself to studious retirement and composition, and produced in the next four years numerous important works on philosophy and rhetoric, which demonstrate his immense intellectual activity and his vast learning, as well as the versatility of his mind. The following works are preserved entire : " De Finibus Libri v.," ("An Inquiry into the Supreme Good,") " Cato Major, seu De Senectute," (" Essay on Old Age,") "Brutus, seu De Claris Oratoribus," (a critical history of Roman orators, in the form of a dia- logue,) "De Natura Deorum Libri iii.," ("On the Na- ture of the Gods,") "De Amicitia," ("A Dialogue on Friendship,") " Tusculanarum Disputationum Libri v.," (Discussions on various questions in Philosophy,) "Ora- tor, seu de optimo Genere Dicendi," ("The Orator, or on the Best Manner of Speaking,") "De Partitione Oratoria," ("Analysis of Oratory," or Rhetorical Cate- chism,) " De optimo Genere Oratorum," " De Divina- tione Libri ii.," (" On Divination,") and " De Ofificiis Libri iii.," ("On Duties,") an excellent treatise on ethics. He also wrote "Academicorum Libri iv.," and "De Fato," ("On Fate,") both of which remain in a mutilated state. His treatises " De Gloria ' (" On Glory") and " De Virtu- € as c as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S:^=See Explanations, p. 23. ) CICERO 606 CICOGNINI tibus" ("On the Virtues") are lost, except small frag- ments. In philosophy he preferred the principles of the New Academy. In the year 47 he uttered in the senate a beautiful oration for Marcus Marcellus, and in the next year he defended Ligarius with success before Caesar, who is said to have trembled and changed colour as he heard this speech. Cicero divorced his wife Terentia in 46 B.C., and married a young lady named Publilia, who was his ward ; but he re- pudiated her also in the year 45. He was not an accom- plice in the assassination of Ccesar, (March, 44 15, c. ;) iDut he afterwards applauded that action, which he had witnessed. He boldly denounced the ambitious and cor- rupt conduct of Mark Antony, in a series of fourteen orations, called Philippics, the first of which was spoken in the senate in September, 44, and is considered one of his master-pieces. The second Philippic was not in- ferior to the first, but it was not spoken. His favour was courted by young Octavius, with whom he co-operated after Antony had fled from the capital. Between the months of December, 44, and May, 43, B.C., he delivered the last twelve Philippics, which were greatly applauded. "His power at this time," says Plutarch, "was at its greatest height; he carried every point that he desired." The coalition of Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus, which was formed in November, rendered his patriotic efforts unavailing. He was proscribed by the triumvirs, and was killed by the soldiers of Antony, near his Formian villa, on the 7th of December, 43 B.C. It appears that he made little effort to escape, and met death with fortitude. Cicero was tall in stature, with features regular and well formed. His gestures were natural and graceful, his pres- ence manly and commanding. No greater master of com- position and of the music of speech has ever appeared among men. He invented a style which adapts itself with rare felicity to every class of subjects, and which has been the model of succeeding ages. In his " Intro- duction to the Literature of Europe," Mr. Hallam ex- presses his admiration of the "consummate grace and richness which enchants every successive generation in the periods of Cicero." His orations display a profound knowledge of human nature, as well as a consummate art in the use of words. His diction is copious and flowing, his periods are sonorous, and the structure of his sentences is eminently ingenious and exact. He amplifies everything, and is more diffuse than Demos- thenes. His chief foible was his vanity, manifested in a habit of self-laudation, which he indulged to an excess- ive degree. But there is a certain grace and charm even in these exhibitions of his vanity. " How shocking soever," says Addison, "this great man's talking of him- self might have been to his contemporaries, I must con- fess I am never better pleased than when he is on this subject." (" Spectator," No. 562.) According to Niebuhr, " the predominant and most brilliant faculty of his mind was his wit. In what the French call esp-it — light, un- expected, and inexhaustible wit — he is not excelled by any among the ancients." About fifty of his orations are extant, besides fragments of many others. The titles of those which have not been already named in this article are the following : " Pro Scamandro," "Pro C. Mustio," "In Q. Ca2cilium," "Pro A. Csecina," "De Lege Agra- ria," "Pro P. Cornelio Sulla," "Pro Scipione Nasica," " Pro L. Valerio Flacco," " Post Reditum in Senatu," " Post Reditum ad Quirites," " Pro Domo Sua," " Pro P. Sextio," "Pro M. Coelio Rufo," "Pro L. Cornelio Balbo," " De Provinciis Consularibus," " In L. Pisonem," " Pro Cn. Plancio," and " Pro Rege Dejotaro." Among his extant works are more than eight hundred letters on politics, literature, domestic affairs, etc., which are con- sidered as equal in value to any of his productions, and are rich in materials for a history of his time. They are also highly prized as models of exquisite Latinity, and as exhibiting a freshness and vivid reality which are seldom if ever found in a historical narrative. William Melmoth published an English version of about four hundred and twenty " Letters of Cicero to several of his Friends ;" and his letters to Atticus have been translated by William Heberden, M.D. Among the best editions of his com- plete works are those of Ernesti, Halle, 5 vols. 8vo, ^IIA-n Elzevir, Leyden, 10 vols., 1642; Olivet, Paris, 9 vols. 4to, 1742 ; Schiitz, Leipsic, 20 vols. 8vo, 1814-23 , and Orelli, Zurich, 9 vols. 8vo, 1826-37, which is said to surpass them all. See CoNYERs Middleton, " History of the Life of Cicero," 1741; Plutarch, "Life of Cicero;" F. Fabricius, " Historia Ciceronis," 1563; Facciolati, "Vita Ciceronis Literaria," 1760; Meierotto, "Ciceronis Vita, exipsiiisejusScriptisexcerpta," Berlin, 1783; Orelli, "Onomasticum Tullianum;" Pekicaud, " Ciceroniana," 1812; Dku- mann, " Geschiclite Roms ;" Niebuhr, " Roman History ;" Abeken, "Cicero in seinen Briefen," 1835, (one of the best works on the sub- ject ;) English version of the same, 1854; William Forsyth, "Life of M. T. Cicero," 2 vols., 1864; Mommsen, " Romische Geschichte," 2 vols., 1854; J. MoRABiN, " Histoire de Ciceron," 3 vols , 1745 ; De QuiNCEY, "Historical and Critical Essays," vol. i. ; Peter Kker- MAN, " Dissertatio de Cicerone," 1758 ; A. F. Gautier, "Ciceron et son Siecle," 1842; Linsen, "Momenta Vitse M. T. Ciceronis," 1839; Lamartine, "Ciceron," 1852; Hollings, "Life of Cicero," 1839; "Memoirs of Celebrated Characters," (1856,) by Lamartine; also the article " Ciceron" in the " Biographic Universelle," (from the masterly pen of M. Villemain;) "Westminster Review" for Octo- ber, 1855. Cicero, (Marcus Tullius,) the only son of the great orator and Terentia, born in 65 B.C. He served in the army of Pompey in the year 49, after which he studied at Athens under Cratippus. After the death of Caesar he was appointed military tribune by Brutus, and de- feated C. Antonius. In the year 30 B.C. he became con- sul as colleague of Octavius. He is said to have been dissipated and intemperate. Cicero, (Quintus Tullius,) a brother of the great Roman orator, was born about 100 B.C. He was elected praetor about the year 62, and obtained the government of Asia, which he held for three years. , As legate or lieu- tenant, (legahis,) he accompanied Caesar to Britain in 55. While commanding a legion in winter quarters (54 B.C.) he defended his camp with great courage and skill against the forces of the Gauls under Ambiorix until the arrival of Csesar, (See Csesar, " De Bello Gallico," lib. v.) In the year 51 he served as legate to his brother Marcus in Cilicia. He fought on the side of Pompey in the civil war, and made his peace with Cjesar in 47 B.C. Having been proscribed by the triumvirs, he was killed, by the orders of Antony, in 43 B.C. He had composed several tragedies, which are lost, and a few small poems. Cicero, (Q. Tullius,) a son of the preceding, was born about 66 B.C. His mother was a sister of Pompo- nius Atticus. He served under his uncle, the great orator, in Cilicia, in the year 51. After the battle of Pharsalia (48 B.C.) he violently denounced his uncle, with the design, it is supposed, of courting the favour of the victor, by whom he was pardoned. Having joined the party of Brutus and Cassius, he was proscribed by Antony, and put to death in 43 B.C. Cicogna, che-k6n''yS, (Emmanuel Antonio,) an Ital- ian litteratetir^hoxw at Venice in 1789. He published, besides other works, " Venetian Inscriptions," (" Iscri- zioni Veneziani," 10 vols.) Cicogna, (Pasquale,) Doge of Venice, succeeded Nicholas da Ponte in 1585. In his reign Henry IV. of France was recognized king by the Venetians, the Rialto was built, and the superb edifices on the Piazza of Saint Mark were finished. Died in 1595. See Daru, "Histoire de Venise." Cicognara, da,da che-k6n-ya'ra,(LEOPOLDO,) Count, an eminent Italian antiquary and writer on art, was born at Ferrara in 1767. He studied the fine arts in Rome, and settled at Modena about 1795. Between that date and 1808 he was minister from the Cisalpine republic to Turin, and councillor of state. He published in 1808 " Del Bello Ragionamenti," (a " Treatise on the Beauti- ful.") About this time he was appointed president of the Academy of Fine Arts at Venice, over which he pre- sided many years. His capital work is a " History of Sculpture from the Renaissance of that Art to the Pres- ent Century," (" Storia della Scultura dal suo Risorgi- mento in Italia," 3 vols., 1813-18,) which procured him a European reputation. He afterwards produced two splendidly illustrated volumes of the "Remarkable Edi- fices of Venice," (" Le Fabbriche piu conspicue di Vene- zia," 1815-20,) and other works. Died at Venice in 1834. See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri ;" Becchi, " Elogio del L. Cicognara," 1837; Zanetti, "Cenni puramente biografici di L. Cicognara," 1834. Cicogiiini, che-k6n-yee'nee, (jACOPO,)an Italian poet, born at Florence about 1610. a, e, 1, 0, u, y, loug; i, h., 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good, moon; CID 607 CIMON Cid, sid, [Sp. pron. th^D,] the Moorish appellation of a celebrated Castilian hero, who was born at Burgos about 1040, and whose proper name was Rodrigo or Ruy Diaz de Bivar. He was also surnamed Cam- PEADOR, (the "Champion.") After he had fought with distinction under Sancho II. of Castile, he was excluded from the favour of his successor, Alphonso VI., who banished him from court. He gained a victory over five Moorish kings who invaded Rioja, and was recalled to court. He afterwards performed many martial exploits, which are celebrated in poems and chronicles and em- bellished by fabulous inventions. These have furnished Corneille the subject of an admired tragedy. A poem of which the Cid is the subject, composed by "the Ho- mer of Spain," an author whose name is unknown, is thought to be the oldest poem in the Spanish language. Died in 1099. See "Vie du Cid," 1837, translated from the Spanish of M. J. QuiNTAKA, whose original work is found in his "Vidas de Espa- noles celebres," 1807; Belorado, "Coronica del famoso Cavallero Cid," 1498; Robert Southey, "Chronicles of the Cid," 1808; " London Quarterly Review" for February, 1807; Ticknor, "His- tory of Spanish Literature," vol. i. chap. ii. Ciega de Leon. See Cieza. Ciel. See Ceo. Cienfuegos, ///e-?n-fwa'gAs, (Alvarez,) a Spanish Jesuit, born in Asturias in 1657. He was employed in negotiations by the emperors Joseph I. and Charles VI., and was made a cardinal in 1720. He wrote "The Life of Francis Borgia," and other works. Died in 1739. Cienfuegos, (Bernardo,) a Spanish botanist, born at Tarragona in the sixteenth century. He was a pro- fessor in the University of Alcala, and left in manuscript a "History of Plants," with excellent figures. Cienfuegos, de, di ///e-^n-fwa'g6s, (Nicasto Alva- rez,) a Spanish poet and dramatist of brilliant promise, was born at Madrid about 1764. He was a friend and imitator of Melendez. In 1798 he published a volume of poems, among which were odes, epistles, elegies, etc. His drama "Pitaco" was successful, and opened to him the Spanish Academy. He was editor of the official gazette in Madrid when Spain was invaded by the French in 1808; and, as he refused to comply with the directions of Murat, he was condemned to death. This sentence was commuted into transportation to France, where he died in 1809. See T iCKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature," vol. iii. chaps, v., vi. Cieza or Ciega de Leon, ///e-a'thS di li-6n', (Pedro,) a Spanish historian, born at Seville about 1520. He served under Pizarro in the West Indies, and resided many years in Peru. He was the author of a "Cronica del Peru," (1553,) which is commended by Prescott. It is said to be more geographical than historical. See Prescott, "Conquest of Peru," vols, i., ii. Cifra, chee'fRS, (Antonio,) an Italian composer, born about 1575 ; vvas living in 1629. Cigna, ch^n'yS, (Giovanni Francesco,) an eminent Italian physician and anatomist, born at Mondovi in 1734, was a nephew of Beccaria the jurist. In 1770 he became professor of anatomy at Turin, He published treatises on Electricity, Respiration, etc. Died in 1790. Cignani, ch^n-y^'nee, (Carlo,) Count, an eminent Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1628, was a pupil of Albano, whom in some respects he surpassed. He worked in fresco and oil at Bologna, Parma, and Forli. In design he almost rivalled Correggio. He was a good colorist, and excelled in chiarosairo. In 1708 he was chosen president of the Clementine Academy. His master- piece is a large fresco at Forli of the " Assumption of the Virgin." Died at Forli in 1719. See Zanettf, "Vita del eran Pittore C. Cie^iani," 1722; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Tardini, "Vitadi C. Cignani," 1722. Cignani, (Felice,) an able painter of Bologna, a son of the preceding, was born about 1660 ; died ni 1724. Cignani, (Paolo,) an Italian painter, nephew of Carlo, was born at Bologna in 1709 ; died in 1764. Cignaroli, ch^n-y^-ro'lee, (Giovanni Bettino,) one of the most renowned Italian painters of his time, born near Verona in 1 706, was a pupil of Balestra. He painted almost exclusively in oil. Among his master-pieces are a " Flight to Egypt," at Parma, and a "Transfiguration,'' at Verona. He declined the invitations of several sove- reigns, and passed most of his life at Verona. He com- posed verses, and wrote short essays on art, which proved him to be a good critic and scholar. Died in 1770. See Bevilacqua, " Memoriedella Vitadi Cignaroli," 1771 ; Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Cigoli, da, dJ chee'go-lee, (LuDovico Cardi,) Cava- LIERE, sometimes called Civoli, a celebrated painter, born at Cigoli, in Tuscany, in 1559. He was a pupil of Santo di Titi, and a successful imitator of Correggio. He worked at Florence, Rome, etc., and was patronized by the Grand Duke of Tuscany. As a colorist he ranks with Rubens and Van Dyck. His subjects are mostly scriptural. Among his most admired productions are "The Lame Man healed by Saint Peter," at Rome ; .an " Ecce Homo," and " The Martyrdom of Stephen," both at Florence. He was also an architect, and wrote a treat- ise on Perspective. He has been called " the Florentine Correggio." Died in 1613. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Cilano, de, da se-Ii'no, (George Christian Mar- TENUS,) a physician, born at Presburg, in Hungary, in 1696. He published Latin treatises on natural philo- sophy, Roman antiquities, etc. Died in 1773. Cima, chee'mS, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter, called le Conegliano, (li ko-nil-y&'no,) was born at Conegliano, in the March of Treviso, about 1460. He is said to have been a pupil of Bellini, whom he re- sembles in manner. Among his works are several Ma- donnas and saints at Venice, Milan, etc. He was living in 151 7. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Cimabue, che-mS-boo'i, (Giovanni,) a historical painter, celebrated as the restorer of painting in modern times, was born in Florence in 1240. He received his first lessons in design from two Greeks who worked at Florence. Having acquired reputation by his reforms, which tended to a natural style, he was employed to adorn the church of Saint Francis at Assisi. At Flor- ence he painted a Madonna which excited general en- thusiasm. He worked in fresco and distemper, and excelled in design and composition, but was ignorant of perspective. A few of his works are still extant. Giotto was his pupil. A noble style, a severe and correct de- sign, and a natural expression are the chief merits of Cimabue. Died about 1300. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- ing in Italy;" Mrs. Jameson, "Memoirs of Early Italian Painters." Cinialine, che-mS-lee'ni, (Giovanni,) a Florentine painter, who flourished about 1300. Cimarosa, che-m^-ro'sS, (Domenico,) a celebrated Italian composer, born in Naples in 1755, was a pupil of Durante. Before he was twenty-five he had obtained many successes on the princi])al theatres of Italy. His comic operas are especially remarkable for verve and originality. "The Secret Marriage" ("II Matrimonio segreto") is still popular. He also produced admired serious operas, among which are " The Horatii and Curiatii," and " L'Olimpiade." He passed several years at Saint Petersburg, whither he was invited by Cathe- rine II. in 1787. Died at Venice in 1801. See Feti.s, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens;" Arnold, "D. Cimarosa's kurze Biographie," 1809. Cim'ber, (L. Tillius,) a Roman, who was a partisan of Caesar in the civil war which began in 49 B.C. He en- tered into the conspiracy against the dictator, and gave the signal for his assassination by seizing Caesar's robe. ^i'mon or Ki'mon, [K/^wv,] an eminent Athenian general and statesman, born about 500 B.C., was the son of Miltiades the victor of Marathon, and Hegesijiyle, a Thracian princess. He paid the fine imposed on his father, who died in prison about 489. He distinguished himself at the battle of Salamis. Cimon and Aristides commanded the forces which Athens sent to co-operate with other Greeks against the Persians, 476 B.C. These two Athe- nians were elected to the chief command by the allies in preference to Pausanias of Sparta ; and, as Aristides soon returned to Athens, Cimon became sole general-in-chief. He defeated the Persians on the Strymon, and in 466 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, gidtiiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^=See Explanations, p. 23.) CIMON 608 CINQ-MARS B.C. gained another great victory, at the mouth of the Eurymedon, in Pamphylia, where he sunk or captured two hundred ships. On the same day he defeated an army on land, and thus effectually humbled the power of Persia. At home he made a munificent use of his riches, and improved Athens by planting trees, building walls from the city to the Piraeus, etc. He opposed the attem]:)ts of Themistocles and Pericles to increase the power of the people. In the year 461 he was exiled by ostracism for ten years, but was recalled in 456, with the concurrence of his rival Pericles. In 449 he obtained command of a large fleet destined for Egypt ; but he first besieged Citium, in Cyprus, where he died in that year. According to most authors, he died a natural death. He was a liberal conservative in politics, and left the reputa- tion of an honest and able statesman. His life has been written by Plutarch, who draws a comparison between him and Lucullus. See, also, Grote, " History of Greece ;" Thirlwall, "History of Greece;" Cornelius Nepos, "Cimon;" Diodokus Siculus, books xi. and xii. ; C. T. H. Lucas, " Versuch einer Charakteristik Cimon's," 18^5. Q!imon [Kiiiidv] of Cleonae, a celebrated Greek painter, who lived about 700 B.C. Pliny attributes to him an invention which he calls " catagrapha," and which he explains by these words: "hoc est, obliquae imagines." By this some understand foreshortening. Qin''a-don, [Gr. Ktvu^uv,] the leader of a conspiracy against the Spartan oligarchy, was put to death by the ephori in 397 B.C. Cinamus. See Cinnamus. Cinchon. See Chinchon. Cincinato. See Cincinnato. Ciiicinnato, ch^n-chfen-ni'to, or Cincinato, ch^n- che-na'to, (Romulo or RoMOLO,) an Italian painter, born at Florence about 1525. He was employed many years by Philip II. of Spain, for whom he painted beautiful frescos in the Escurial. His " Circumcision," at Cuenca, is a celebrated picture. Died in Madrid about 1600. His son, Diego Romulo, was a successful portrait- painter. Died in Rome in 1626. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Cin-cin-na'tus, (Lucius Quintus,) a celebrated Roman patriot, patrician, and dictator, born about 520 B.C. Having reduced himself to poverty by paying a fine for his son, he was cultivating with his own hands a small farm, when he was chosen consul in 457 B.C. He was a strenuous opponent of the plebeian party. At the end of his official term he returned to his former employment. The Romans, having been unfortunate in war with the ^qui, chose Cincinnatus dictator about the year 456 B.C. He gained a decisive victory, and then abdicated the dictatorship, which he had held only fifteen days. About the age of eighty he again reluc- tantly acted as dictator, on the occasion of the treason of Spurius Melius, who was promptly defeated and slain. Niebuhr is skeptical as to the cause of his poverty above assigned. See Livv, "History of Rome;" Niebuhr, "History of Rome." Cincius Alimentus, (Lucius.) See Aijmentus. Qin'e-as, [Gr. Ktveaj-,] a Thessalian orator and nego- tiator, studied rhetoric under Demosthenes, and was re- nowned for eloquence. He visited Epirus, and became a favourite minister of King Pyrrhus, with whom he held a well-known conversation respecting his ambitious projects. After Pyrrhus had gained a victory over the Romans (280 B.C.) he sent Cineas to Rome to negotiate an alliance with them ; but his art was bafiled by Appius Claudius. On his return he reported to Pyrrhus that the senate appeared to him like an assembly of kings. He was living in 278 B.C., after which he is not mentioned in history. See Plutarch, "Life of Pyrrhus." Cinelli Calvoli, che-nel'lee kai-vo'lee, (Giovanni,) an Italian physician, born at Florence in 1625. Having free access to the library of the grand duke, he made researches in literary history, the results of which ap- peared in his " Biblioteca Volante," (1678-82,) which consists of the titles of rare and fugitive works, with notes by the editor. Died in 1706. See Cagliardi, "Vita di G. Cinelli Calvoli," 1736. Qi-ne'si-as, [KLvrjaia^,] an Athenian dithyrambic poet, lived about 400 B.C. Cingaroli, ch^n-gd-ro'lee, (Martino,) an Italian painter, born at Verona in 1667, produced admirable landscapes with figures. Died in 1729. Cin-get'o-rix, a chief of the Treviri, noticed in Caesar's "Commentaries," (" Eello Gallico," lib. v.) Cini, chee'nee, (Giovanni P)A'rTiSTA,) an Italian writer of dramas, poems, etc., born at Florence about 1530. Cin'na, (C. Helvius,) a Roman poet, was a com- panion and friend of Catullus, who admired his poetry. He is supposed to be the Cinna favourably mentioned by Virgil in his ninth Eclogue. Plis chief work was an epic poem called " Smyrna," of which only a few lines are extant. We are not informed what the subject of this poem was. On the day of the funeral of Julius Cffisar, (44 B.C.,) Cinna, though a friend of the dictator, waslcilled by a Roman mob which met him in the street and mistook him for L. Cornelius Cinna, an accomplice of Brutus. See Suetonius, " De illustribus Grammaticis Appian, "Belliim Civile;" August Weichert, " Commentationes IL de C. H. Cinna Poeta," 1S22-23. Cinna, (Lucius Cornelius,) a Roman demagogue of patrician rank, who, as the partisan of Marius, acted a prominent part in the civil war between the latter and Sulla. Having been elected consul (665 a.u.c.) in 86 or 87 B.C., he attempted to reinstate Marius, who was in exile. A fight between the two parties resulted in the expulsion of Cinna from the city. While Sulla was absent in Asia, Cinna raised an army and besieged Rome in concert with Marius, who had just returned from Africa. Having become masters of the city, they massacred a large number of the opposite party. Cinna was again chosen consul with Marius, and was about to lead an army against Sulla returning from the Mithridatic war, when he was killed by his mutinous soldiers in 668 a.u.c, or 84 B.C. His daughter Cornelia became the wife of Julius Caesar. . See Livv, " History of Rome ;" Plutarch, "Pompey," "Ma- rius," and " Sylla." Cinna, (L. Cornelius,) a son of the preceding, was a brother-in-law of the dictator Caesar, and a son-in-law of Pompey the Great. He was chosen praetor in 44 B.C., and was privy to the conspiracy against Caesar in that year. His son Cn. Cornelius Cinna was a partisan of Antony in his contest with Octavius, but was pardoned by the latter, and was chosen consul in 5 B.C. 9in'na-mus, written also Cinamus or Sinnamus, (Joannes,) [Gr. 'louwrjg Kivvafiog or 'Llvvafio^; Fr. Cin- NAME, se^ntm',] an able Byzantine historian and states- man, who flourished between 1140 and 1180. He was an imperial notary of Manuel Comnenus, whom he ac- companied in his military expeditions. As a historian he is considered to have surpassed all his contemporaries. His History (in Greek) comprises the reigns of Calo- Joannes and his successor, Manuel Comnenus, and the period from 11 18 to 11 76. It displays great political knowledge and considerable critical ability. See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Graeca." Cino da Pistoia, chee'no dS p6s-to'y3, a noted Ital- ian jurist and poet, whose family name was Sinibaldi, was born at Pistoia in 1270. He published in 13 14 a com- mentary on the Code, which had a great reputation, and afterwards professed civil law at Perugia and Florence. He wrote verses in praise of a lady named Selvaggia, and was reputed one of the best poets of his time. He was a friend of Dante. Died about 1326. See GiNGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie ;" S. Ciampi, " Me- moria della Vita di Cino da Pistoja," 1808. Cinq-Arbres or Cinquarbres, s^Nk^tRbR', (Jean,) a French Orientalist, born "at Aurillac. He translated some works of Avicenna into Latin, (2 vols., 1572,) and taught Hebrew in Paris. Died in 1587. Cinq-Mars, de, deh saNk^nSRss',(HENRY Coifiier de Ruze — kw&^fe-a' deh rii^za',) Marquis, a French cour- tier, a son of Antoine, Marquis d'Effiat, (da^fe^S',) born in 1620. He became a favourite of Louis XIII., and was made grand equerry of France at the age of nineteen. Richelieu, hoping to find in him a compliant instrument, favoured his promotion at first ; but they soon became a, e, T, 0, u, y, /mg-; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y. short; a, e, j, o, obsaire; fir, f^ll, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; CINpUARBRES 609 CIVITALI rivals and enemies. On a charge of complicity in the treasonable designs of Gaston, the king's brother, Cinq- Mars was executed in 1642. See Alfred de Vigny " Ciiiq-Mars, ou una Conjuration," 1826; Capefiglk, ••R.che)ieu, Mazarin, ia t'ronde," etc., 8 vols., 1S36; " Blackwood's Magazine" lor February, 1820. Cinquarbies. See CiNcj-ARBRES. Cintra, de, di s^n^ki, (GoNgALO,) a Portuguese navigator, discovered the Bay of Cintra, on the coast of Africa. Died in 1445. Ciofano, cho-fa'no, (Ercole,) an Italian poet and critic, b(^rn at Suhnona, wrote admired "Commentaries on the Works of Ovid," (1575,) and other short works. Cionacci, cho-nit'chee, (Francesco,) an Italian writer, born at Florence in 1633 ; died in 1714. Cione, (Andrea.) See Okcagna. Cipelii. See Egnazio. Cipierre, de, deh se'pe-aiR', (Philibert de Mar- silly — deh mtR'se'ye',) Seigneur, a French general who served in the Catholic army in the civil war, (1562.) He was governor of the king's son, who became Charles IX. De Thou represents him as an able general and a good man. Died in 1566. See De Thou, "Histoire Universelle." Cipriani, che-pRe-l'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) a skilful Italian artist, born at Florence about 1730. He removed to London about 1755, after which he devoted himself principally to engraving. He was one of the first members of the Royal Academy of London. His paintings are not numerous. His designs, engraved partly by himself and partly by Bartolozzi, are admired for correctness and grace. Among his engravings are "The Death of Cleopatra," after Cellini, and a "De- scent from the Cross," after Van Dyck. Died in 1785. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Qir'ge, [Kfp/c??,] a sorceress of the Greek mythology, celebrated for her skill in magic arts, was said to be a daughter of the Sun. She lived on the island .^laea, and tempted voyagers with a beverage which transformed those who drank it into swine. (See the " Odyssey," book X.) Circignano, ch^R-ch^n-yi'no, or Circignani, ch^R- ch^n-ya'nee, (NiCCOLO,) a painter, born at Pomerance, in Tuscany, in 15 16, was called IL Pomerancio. He painted some halls of the Vatican. His manner was grand, his design pure and correct. Died about 1590. His son, Antonio, was an able painter. He worked at Rome with his father. Died about 1620. Cirillo, che-r^Klo, (Do.menico,) an Italian physician and savant of great merit, born at Grugno in 1734. In his youth he accompanied Lady Walpole to England, and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society of Lon- don. On his return to Italy he became professor of medicine and an eminent practitioner in Naples. He published an excellent work on botanical philosophy, "Fundamenta Botanica," (1771,) which displays great knowledge of physiology ; a Flora of the Kingdom of Nai)les, (" Plantarum rariorum Regni Neapolitani," 1788-93,) and several other scientific and medical treat- ises. In 1799 he was chosen a legislator in the new Parthenopean republic; but the royalists recovered power, and he was put to death in the same year. The king offered him his life if he would beg for pardon ; but this he refused, saying that he did not fear death. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Cirillo, (N1CCOL6,) born in Naples in 1671, became professor of medicine in that city in 1706. He wrote a "Memoir on Earthquakes," published in the Loudon " Pnilosophical Transactions." Died in 1734. Giro, the Italian of Cyrus, which see. Giro Ferri. See Ferri, (Ciro.) Giruelo, the-roo-a'lo, (Pedro,) a Spanish mathema- tician and writer, born in Aragon, was one of the pre- ceptors of Philip II. Died about 1550. Gisinge, de, deh se'ziNzh', (Jean,) commonly called, in Latin, Ja'nus Panno'nius, a Latin poet, ''born in Hungary in 1434. At the age of twenty-six he was chosen Bishop of Fiinfkirchen. His poems have passed through many editions. Died in 1472. Cisner, tsis'ner, (Nicholas,) a German historian, born at Morbach in 1529. He became professor of law at Heidelberg, and was afterwards councillor of the im? perial court at Spire for fourteen years. He wi jte good Latin verses, and published historical works, among which is an edition of Krantz's " History of Saxony." Died in 1583. See NiCERON, "Memoires." Cisneros. See Ximenes, Cardinal, Citois, se'tw^', [Lat. CiTo''sius,](FRANgois,) a French medical writer, born at Poitiers in 1572 ; died in 1652. Citolini, che-to-lee'nee, (Ai.essandro,) an Italian poet, born at Seravalla about 1520. Citri de la Guette, se'tRe' deh It g^t, an authoi whose nationality is unknown, lived about 16S0-1700. He published in Paris several esteemed works, viz., " History of the Conquest of Jerusalem by Saladin," (1679,) "History of the Two Triumvirates," (1681,) and " History of the Conquest of Mexico," translated from the Spanish, (1691.) Cittadella. See Lombardt, (Alfonso.) Cittadella, ch^t-ta-deKl^, (Giovanni,) Count, an Italian historian, born at Padua in 1806. His principal work is a " History of the Domination [of the family] of Carrara," (" Storia della Dominazione Carrarese," 1S42.) Gittadini, chet-ti-dee'nee, (Celso,) one of the most learned Italian writers of his time, born in Rome in 1553, published a "Treatise on the Origin and Progress of our Language," " Rime Platoniche del Celso Cittadini," (" Platonic Rhymes," etc.,) and other works. Died in 1627. See "Vita di C. Cittadini," prefixed to his works by G. Gigli, Rome, 1721. Cittadini, (Pietro Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Milan about 1615, and surnamed IL Milanese, was a pupil of Guido. After painting a few historical pieces, which gave promise of high excellence, he re- nounced tliat branch of art, and confined himself to easel- pictures of animals, flowers, fruit, etc. Died in 1681. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." QJiva. See Siva. Civerchio, che-veR'ke-o, (Vtncenzo,) an Italian painter and engraver, called IL Vkcchio di Crema, (^1 vek'ke-o dee kRa'm.^,) was born at Crema, and flourished about 1500-30. He worked mostly at Milan. See V.ASARi, "Lives of the Painters." Civiale, se've'tK, (Jean,) a French physician, born at Thiezac (Cantal) in 1792. He distinguished himself by discoveries or improvements in the operation of li- thotrity, and published several works on that specialty, among' which is a "Treatise on the Calculous Disease,* ("Traite de I'Affection calculeuse," 1838.) He was elected to the Institute in 1847. Died in June, 1867. Ci-vi'lis, (Claudius,) a chief of the Batavi, who served twentv-five years in the Roman army, and was converted into an enemy of Rome by the unjust execution of his brother, lulius Paulus, and the ill treatment of himself. His remarkable heroism and exploits are elaborately described bv Tacitus, who devotes to the subiect a large part of the last two books of his history. ^Vhile Vitel- lius and Vespasian contended for the empire of Rome, some partisans of the latter persuaded Civilis to make a show of insurrection, in order to detain in Gaul the Roman army, which was mostly favourable to Vitellius. Having raised a large force, 69 A.D., he rebelled in earnest, was joined by many Germans and Gauls, gaired several victories, and was hailed as the liberator of his country. Vespasian sent another army, under Cerealis, who, after defeating Civilis in battle, induced him, by a promised amnesty, to desist from hostilities, in 70 a.d. The history of Tacitus ends abruptly in the midst of a speech of Civilis, in his interview with Cerealis, on a bridge across the Vahalis or Nabalia. "There is," says Motley, "more than a fanciful resemblance between Civilis and William the Silent, — two heroes of ancient German stock." ("Rise of the Dutch Republic," vol. i.) See, also, " Levensgeschiedenis van C. Civilis," the Hague, 1841 ; J. ^L\RCH.^L, "Notice sur ITnsurrection de Civilis," 1846. Civitali, che-ve-ti'lee, (Matteo,) an eminent Italian sculptor, born at Lucca about 1435. He was a barber until he had attained the age of thirty, after which he became so skilful in art that his works were compared to those of Michael Angelo. He worked in Lucca and € as c as s; g hard; g as j; o, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. ( J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 39 CIVOLI 6io CLAPPERTON Genoa, the cathedral of which contains several statues by him. Died about 1500. See Vasaki, "Lives of the Painters and Sculptors." Civoli. See Cigoli. Claesson, klas'son, (Arnold,) a Dutch painter, born at Leyden in 1498; died in 1564. Clag'ett, (Nicholas,) U.D., an English divine, born in 1654, became Archdeacon of Sudbury in 1693, He published "Truth Defended," in answer to Whiston, and other works. Died in 1726. Clagett, (William,) D.D., born in 1646, wrote many theological works, chiefly controversial. Died in 1688. Clag'gett, (John Thomas,) born in Prince George county, Maryland, in 1742, became in 1792 the first Episcopalian bishop in that State. Died in 1818. Clai or Clay, klT, [Lat. Cla'jus,] (Johann,) a Ger- man poet and philologist, born at Herzberg, Saxony, about 1533. He was professor of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew in several colleges in Saxony and Silesia. Among his chief works are a " Grammar of the German Language," the best that had then appeared, and "Al- kumistica," (1586,) a poem against the alchemists, prized as a monument of early German poetry. Died in 1592. See GoTTscHED, "Kritische Beitrage." Claiborne, kla'burn, (William C. C.,) an American statesman, born in Virginia, became Governor of Mis- sissippi Territory in 1801, and in 1803 Governor-General and Intendant of Louisiana. Died in 181 7, aged forty-two. See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. Clairac, de, deh kla'rtk', (Louis Andre de la Ma- mil,) a French writer and engineer, born about 1690. He wrote a " History of the Revolutions of Persia," and a "Treatise on Fortification." Died in 1750. Clairault. See Clairaut. Ciairaut or Clairault, khVrS', (Alexis Claude,) an eminent French geometer, born in Paris in 17 13. About the age of ten he mastered L'Hopital's analysis of " Li- finitesimals," (" Infiniment Petits,") and in his thirteenth year presented to the Academy of Sciences a Memoir on Four Remarkable Curves. In 1731 he produced his "Researches on Curves of Double Curvature." Though under the regular age, he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in the same year. He assisted Maupertuis in measuring a degree of the meridian in Lapland in 1735, and published in 1743 his "Theory of the Figure of the Earth." His " Theory of the Moon derived from the Simple Principle of Attraction" (1750) is another of his titles to celebrity as the successor of Newton. He was the first who ajjplied the theory of Newton to esti- mate the perturbing influence of planets on the motions of comets. Aided by Lalande and others in his immense calculations of the action of Jupiter and Saturn, he pre- dicted the return of Halley's comet in 1759, and missed the exact time by about twenty-two days, — part of this error being caused by the action of Uranus, then un- known. Fur this grand demonstration he had prepared the formulas with the simplicity and clearness which characterize all his works. He published in 1760 a "Theory of the Motion of Comets." In addition to the books which we have named, he published two admirable works, entitled "Elements of Geometry" and "Elements of Algebra." Died in 1765. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire;" "Biographic Univer- selle ;" " Nouvelle Biographic GeneraiC." Claire, kli^ra', (Martin,) a French poet, born in 1612, wrote elegant Latin hymns. Died in 1690. Clairfait. See Clerfayt. Clairfontaine, de, deh klaR''f6N'tin', (Pierre Andr^: Peloux — ]ieh-loo',) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1 727. He composed about 1 750 the tragedy of " Hec- tor," the style of which is admired. Died in 1788. Clairon, kbVroN^ (Mademoiselle Claire Josephe Leyris de la Tude, bVre' deh It tiid,) a famous French actress, born near Conde (Flanders) in 1723. She made her debut at the Opera of Paris in 1 743, and before the end of that year at the Comedie Fran9aise, where her success was complete. She retired from the stage in 1765, and died in 1803, leaving a volume of "Memoirs," (1799.) See Lemontey, "Notice sur Mile. Clairon," 1823; "Nouvelle Biographic G^n^rale ;" " Eraser's Magazine" for September, 1853. 1, e, T, 6, u, y, long; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, Clairval, kliR'vtK, the assumed name of Jean Bap- TiSTE Guignard, (zhftN btp't^st' ghn'yiK',) a popular French actor, born at fitampes in 1735. He performed in Paris from 1758 to 1792. Died in 1795. Clairville, klaR'v^l', (Louis Francois Nicolaie,) a French dramatist, born at Lyons in 181 L He has pro- duced a great number of successful farces, vaudevilles, etc., among which are " Clarissa Harlowe," (1846,) "The Bourgeois of Paris," (1850,) and "The Side-Scenes iisses) of Life," (1852.) Claissens, kli's6N', (Antoine,) a Flemish pannte'- who lived about 1490, was a pupil of Quentin Mat.sys of Antwerp. He painted two pictures of the "Judgment o.' Cambyses." They were taken to the Museum of Paris in the reign of Napoleon I. Clajus, the Latin of Clai, which see. Clamenges, de, deh klt'm6Nzh', or Clemangis, kli'- mSN'zhiss', (Mathieu Nicolas,) a French theologian, was born at Clamenges, near Chalons, about 1360. He was chosen rector of the University of Paris in 1393. Among his works (in Latin) is one "On the Corrupt State of the Church." He wrote an elegant style, and had as high a reputation as any writer of that age. Died about 1440. See Adolphe Muntz, " N. de Clemangis; sa Vic et ses Merits," 1846; Cave, "Scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Literaria Historia." Clam-Martinitz or Clam-Martinicz, klim-mlR- tee'nitz, (Karl Joseph,) Count, an Austrian general, born at Prague in 1792. He accompanied Napoleon to Elba in 1814, and was called to take part in the Con- gress of Vienna, (1815.) About 1824 he was sent on a diplomatic mission to St. Petersburg. He became first aide-de-camp to the Austrian emperor in 1835, and field-marshal-lieutenant in 1837. Died in 1840. Clan'cy, (Michael,) M.D., an Irish dramatist, wrote " The Sharpers," ( 1 737,) and other plays. Died about 1 760. Clanricarde, klai/re-kard, (Ulick,) Marquis of, and Earl of Saint Alban's, born in London in 1604, was the chief of the noble family of Burgho or De Burgh. He was appointed governor of Galway in 1641. In the civil war he supported Charles I. and held a high com- mand in Ireland. He died about 1658, leaving " Memoirs respecting the Rebellion in Ireland," (1737.) Clap, (Thomas,) a clergyman, born in Scituate, Mas- sachusetts, in 1703. In 1739 he was elected president of Yale College, to which he rendered important ser- vices. Died in 1767. Claparede, klt^pt'rid'. Count, a French general, born at Gignac (Herault) in 1774. He commanded a brigade at Austerlitz, (1805,) and at Jena, (1806.) About 1808 he was made a general of division. He distinguished himself at Ebersberg, Essling, and Wagram,in 1809, and was wounded at the passage of the Berezina in 181 2. He became inspector-general of infantrv about 1816, and was raised to the peerage by Louis XVIII. Died in 1841 or 1842. See De Courceli.es, " Dictionnaire des Gdneraux Frangais;" "Notice sur le General Claparede," 1843. Clapisson, klt'pe's6N', (Louis,) a French composer of successful operas, was born at Naples in 1809. Clapp, (Theodore,) an eloquent Unitarian minister, born in Easthamjiton, Massachusetts, in 1792, graduated at Yale College in 1814. In 1822 he became pastor of a church in New Orleans, where he preached about thirty-five years, during the prevalence of many fatal epidemics. He published, in 1858, "Autobiographical Sketches." Died in 1866. Clapp, (William W.,) Jr., an American journalist, born in Boston in 1826, succeeded his father in 1847 as editor of the Boston "Saturday Evening Gazette." Clap'per-tpn, (Hugh,) Captain, a Scottish traveller and explorer of Africa, was born at Annan, Dumfries- shire, in 1788. He served some years in the British navy. In 1822, under the auspices of Lord Bathurst, he was associated with Dr. Oudney and Dixon Denham in an expedition to Timbuctoo. They arrived in February, 1823, at Lake Tchad, where Clapperton parted from Denham and pursued his journey until he reached Sac- catoo. From that point he returned homeward by the same route, and arrived in England in 1825. (See Den- ham, Dixon.) In the same year hi was raised to the short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; CLARAC 6ii CLARENDON rank of captain, and renewed the perilous enterprise with a more numerous party, among whom was his faithful servant, Richard Lander, Approaching tiiis time from the west, he penetrated the Bight of Benin to Sac- catoo in the spring of 1826, There he was detained about a year by the native prince ; and he died of dys- / entery near that town in April, 1827. An interesting journal of his second expedition was published in 1829. Denham and Clapperton made important contributions to the geography of Africa, though they failed in the chief object of their exjjedition, — to discover the course and termination of the Niger. See Lander," Records of Captain Clapperton," 1830 ; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Clarac, de,deh klt'rSk', (Charles Othon FRiiD^Ric Jean Baptiste,) Count, a French antiquary and artist, born in Paris in 1777. After a visit to South America, from which he brought many designs, he was appointed keeper of the Museum of Antiques in the Louvre about 1816. His most important work is called "Museede Sculpture," (1826-52,) in which a vast number of antique statues, etc. are reproduced by engravings. Died in 1847. See Hericart de Thury, " Notice sur le Comte de Clarac," 1848. Claramonte, de, dakli-ri-mon'ti, (Andres,) a Span- ish dramatist, whose reputation was founded chiefly on a comedy called "The Brave Negro in Flanders," ("El Negro valiente en Flandes.") Died at Murcia in 1610. Clare, (John,) an English peasant and poet, born in Northamptonshire in 1793, was a son of a poor labourer. A "Sonnet to the Setting Sun" (1818) was the first of his works that attracted public attention. He published in 1820 "Poems descriptive of Rural Life and Scenery," which have considerable merit. A small annuity was settled on him by subscription ; but he failed to support his increasing family, and fell into a state of despondency, followed by mental derangement. Died in 1864. See Samuel Smii.ks, "Brief Biographies;" "London Quarterly Review" lor May, 1820. Clare, (John Hollis,) Earl of, a learned nobleman of the seventeenth century, was father-in-law of the famous Earl of Strafford. He wrote comments on Bacon's " Essay on Empire," and other works. Clarence, Dukk of. See William IV. of England. Clar'en-don, (Edward Hyde,) first Earl of, an eminent English historian and statesman, born at Dintcn, Wiltshire, in 1608, was the third son of Henry Hyde, of that place. After leaving Oxford University he studied law, under the direction of his uncle, Nicholas Hyde, who was afterwards chief justice. In 1632 he marViod Frances Aylesbury, by whom he had several children. In his youth he made it a rule to associate only with persons eminent for rank, fortune, or other advantages. He was elected to Parliament in the spring of 1640, and again to the Long Parliament, which met near the end of that year. During the first year of his political course he acted with popular party in their efforts for reform, and in the impeachment of Strafford ; but in the great crisis of 1642 he espoused with zeal the royalist cause. He soon became one of the confidential advisers of the king, who requested him, with two others, to con- duct his affairs in the House of Commons. He was the author of the able state papers issued by the king about the beginning of the civil war, (1642.) In 1643 he was appointed chancellor of the exchequer, and privy coun- cillor. He was selected in 1645 as a counsellor to the Prince of Wales, whom he followed in his flight to Jersey in 1646. Remaining there when Prince Charles went to France, Hyde began his great work, the " History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars." After the execution of the king he received the title of lord chancellor, and was employed in the service of Charles II., and became his chief adviser while he was an exile in France, Holland, etc. At the restoration of 1660 Hyde became prime minis- ter of Charles II., lord chancellor of England, and in 1661 Earl of Clarendon. Soon after his promotion it was announced that his daughter, Anne Hyde, was rec- ognized as the wife of the king's brother, the Duke of York. " For some time," says Hume, " no minister was ever possessed of more absolute authority, and all the counsels which he gave the king tended equally to pro- mote the interest of prince and people." In the opinion of Macaulay, "the circumstance that he had long been an exile completely disqualified him for the supreme direction of affairs. . . . His virtues and vices alike con- tributed to his ruin." By opposing popery he lost the favour of Charles, and by various measures he ruined his popularity with the nation. He was deprived of the great seal in August, 1667, and was impeached by the Commons ; but before the case was decided he retired to France, and was doomed by act of Parliament, De- cember, 1767, to perpetual exile. After passing four years at Montpellier, he died at Rouen in December, 1674, leaving his title to his son Henry, noticed below. Two of his granddaughters, Mary and Anne Stuart, be- came queens of England. His celebrated History was published in 1702. "His majesty and eloquence," says Horace Walpole, "his power of painting characters, his knowledge of the subject, rank him in the first class of writers : yet he has both great and little faults." " His style is prolix and redundant," says Hume, "but it dis- covers imagination and sentiment, and it pleases us at the same time that we disapprove of it" "He was wise," says the "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1839, " neither for himself nor for his country. Belonging to the past rather than the future, he associated himself with causes which must fail and with parties whom he despised." See " Life of Edward, Earl of Clarendon," by himself, 1759 ; T. H. Lister, "Life of Lord Clarendon," 3 vols., 1838; AIacaulay, " History of England ;" Hume, '* History of England ;" George A. Ellis, " Historical Inquiries respecting the Character of Edward Hyde," etc. ; Campbell, " Lives of the Chancellors ;" Foss, "The Judges of England ;" "Monk's Contemporaries," by Guizot. Clarendon, (George William Frederick Vil- liers,) fourth Earl of, an eminent English statesman, the eldest son of the Hon. George Villiers, who was a younger son of the Earl of Clarendon, was born in January, 1 800. He was minister plenipotentiary at the court of Madrid about five years, (1833-38.) In 1838 he succeeded, by the death of his uncle, to the title of Earl, and in 1840 was appointed lord privy seal in the Whig ininistry. He married in 1839 a sister of the Earl of Verulam. He retired from office on the formation of a new ministry by Sir Robert Peel in 1841, and became ])resident of the Board of Trade on the return of the Whigs to power in 1846. He was loid lieutenant of Ireland from May, 1847, until February, 1852. His administration of that country, then greatly agitated, displayed a union of moderation, energy, and prudence. In January, 1853, he accepted the office of secretary of foreign affairs in the ministry of Lord Aberdeen. He maintained his high reputation as a diplomatist in the negotiations which resulted in a coalition against Russia, and was retained in the foreign department when a new ministry was formed by Lord Palmerston in February, 1855. He was the principal negotiator on the part of Great Britain at the Congress of Paris by which peace was concluded between the allies and Russia in 1856. Lord Clarendon resigned office with Palmerston on the defeat of the latter in 1858. He succeeded Earl Russell as secretary of foreign affairs, November 3, 1865. In conse- quence of the defeat of the Reform Bill, he resigned, with his colleagues, in June, 1866, and refused to take office in the coalition ministry which Lord Derby attempted to form. He was appointed secretary of foreign affairs by Mr. Gladstone in December, 1868. Died in 1870. Clarendon, (Henry Hyde,) second Earl of, the eldest son of the historian, was born in 1638. After the banishment of his father, he opposed the court party. In 1685 his brother-in-law, James II., appointed him lord privy seal, and, a few months later, lord lieutenant of Ireland. His brother, the Earl of Rochester, was then prime minister ; but because he refused to renounce his religion he was dismissed in 1687, and Clarendon, though a very obsequious courtier, was involved in his fall. "The dismission of the two brothers," says Mac- aulay, "is a great epoch in the reign of James." In December, 1688, he deserted James, and joined the party of the Prince of Orange. The next year he re- fused to take the oath to William HI., and in 1690, lor complicity in a Jacobite plot, was confined in the Tower about six months. He died in 1709, leaving a son Henry, who was Lord Cornbury. In 1828 was published "The € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S:^==See Explanations, p. 23 CLARET CLARKE Clarendon Papers," a work of great historical value, consisting of the correspondence of Henry Hyde with his brother, the Earl of Rochester. See Macau LAV, " History of England," especially vols. ii. and iii. ; and " Monk's Contemporaries," by Guizot. Claret de Fleurieu. See Flkurieua Clari, kla'ree, (Gian Carlo Maria,) an Italian mu- sician and composer, born at Pisa in 1669. He com- posed vocal duets and trios, published in 1720. Clarici, klS^'re-chee, ( Paolo Bar tolommeo, ) an Italian botanist and priest, born at Ancona in 1664. He died at Padua in 1724, leaving unfinished works on his- tory and geography, and a valuable treatise on botany, entitled "History and Culture of Plants which are most desirable for the Flowers," etc., (1726.) Clai'^idge, (Richard,) an eminent writer and minister ( f the Society of Friends, born at Farmborough, Eng- land, in 1649. Plaving graduated at Oxford, he took orders, and became rector of Peopleton in 1673. In 1697 he joined the Society of Friends, among whom he became an esteemed minister. He published several religious works, one of which was entitled "Gospel Light," ("Lux Evangelica.") Died in 1723. See Joseph Hesse, " Life of R. Claridge," 1726. Clarisse, klS-ris'seh, (Jan,) a Dutch theologian, born in 1770 ; died in 1846. Cla'ri-us or Clario, klS're-o, (Isidore,) a learned Italian, born near Brescia in 1495, Bishop of Foligno. He distinguished himself by his talents and eloquence at the Council of Trent, (1546,) which followed his advice in recognizing the Vulgate version of Scripture as the most authentic. He published a revised edition of the Vulgate. Died in 1555. See Nici^RON, "Memoires;" De Thou, "filoges." Clark, (Ahraham,) an American patriot, born at Elizabethtown, New Jersey, in 1726. He was elected in 1776 a delegate to the Continental Congress, in which he signed the Declaration of Independence. He was re-elected to Congress several times. Died in 1794. Clark, (Alvan,) an American portrait-painter and mechanician, born in Ashfield, Massachusetts, in 1804. He distinguished himself as a fabricator of telescopes and achromatic object-glasses. Clark, (Davis W.,) a Methodist minister, born on the island of Mount Desert, Maine, in 1812. He was elected editor of books at the " Methodist Book Concern" in Cin- cinnati in 1852. He wrote several works on theology, etc. Clark or Clarke, (George Rogers,) an American general, born probably in Virginia about 1752. He took a British fort and garrison at Vincennes in 1779, and built Fort Jefferson, on the Mississippi River. In 1780 he fought against Benedict Arnold in Virginia. He was raised to the rank of brigadier-general in 1781, and, after the end of the war, settled in Kentucky. He died in 1808, or, as some say, 181 7. See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. Clark, (Sir James,) a distinguished British physician, born at Cullen, Banffshire, in 1788. He was educated at Aberdeen, Edinburgh, and London, practised eight years in Rome, between i8i8 and 1826, and settled in London about 1828. In 1829 he published his valuable work "On the Sanative Influence of Climate," which is perhaps the most ])hilosophical treatise on that subject. He was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1832, and became physician to the Duchess of Kent and the Princess Victoria in 1835. His "Treatise on Pulmonary Consumption and Scrofulous Diseases" (1835) is highly commended. On the accession of Victoria, in 1837. he was api^ointed her physician-in-ordinary. He was made a baronet in 1838. Died in 1870. Clark, (John.) See Clarke. Clark, (John,) a Scottish physician, born at Roxburgh in 1744. He was for some years surgeon in the service of the East India Company, and also practised at New- castle. He published a " Treatise on Fevers," and other professional works. Died in 1805. Clark, (John,) an English critic and scholar, was master of a grammar-school at Hull. He published an "Essay on Study," and edited several Latin authors. Died in 1734. Clark, (Jonas,) a patriotic clergyman, born at New- ton, Massachusetts, in 1730. He preached for many years at Lexington, in that State. Died in 1805. Clark, (Lewis Gaylord,) an American writer, born at Otisco, New York, in 1810. He became in 1834 editor of the " Knickerbocker Magazine," which he con- ducted many years with ability and success. He jjub- lished, in 1852, " Knick-Knacks from an Editor's Table." Clark, (Sheldon,) born at Oxford, Connecticut, in 1785. He gave to Yale College a large sum of money, with directions that twenty thousand dollars should be applied to found a professorship of moral philosophy. Died in 1840. Clark, (William,) an American general and explorer, born in Virginia in 1770, was a brother of George Rogers Clark. Captain M. Lewis and he were the leaders of an exploring expedition which by order of the government crossed the continent from Saint Louis to the mouth of the Columbia River in 1804. He was afterwards ap- pointed a brigadier-general, and was Governor of Mis- souri Territory from 1813 to 1820. Died at Saint Louis in 1838. See " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1815. Clark, (William Tierney,) F.R.S,, an English civil engineer, born at Sion House, Somerset, in 1783. In 181 1 he became engineer of West Middlesex Water- works. He built a suspension bridge over the Thames at Hammersmith, finished about 1827. The principal monument of his skill is the suspension bridge across the Danube between Buda and Pesth, finished about 1850. Died in 1852. Clark, (Willis Gaylord,) an American poet, born at Otisco, New York, in 1810, was a twin-brother of Lewis Gaylord, noticed above. He produced in 1833 "The Spirit of Life," his longest poem, and about that time became associate editor of the "Columbian Star." He contributed to the " Knickerbocker Magazine" a series of amusing papers called " Ollapodiana." During the last years of his life he was editor and owner of the " Philadelphia Gazette." Died in 1841. See Griswolu'.s "Poets and Poetry of America." Clarke, (Adam,) LL.D., an eminent Methodist min- ister, particularly distinguished as a biblical commen- tator, was born near Londonderry, Ireland, in 1762. He was educated in the principles of the Methodists, and, by the favour of John Wesley, was admitted into a school at Kingswood, near Bristol. In 1782 he became an itinerant preacher, and for more than twenty years he continued to preach with accejitance in various parts of England. About 1805 he settled in London, and began his princi- pal work, a "Commentary on the Holy Bible," which was published between 1810 and 1826, and is a wonderful monument of his learning and industry. Some persons, however, think that he is too fond of innovations, and that many of his comments are exceptionable. He was the author of other esteemed works, among which are a "Bibliographical Dictionary," (1802,) "The Succession of Sacred Literature," (1807,) "Memoirs of the Wesley Family," and " The Eucharist." He had been from child- hood eager in the pursuit of knowledge, and had acquired extensive Oriental learning, although he never had the advantage of a systematic or collegiate education. Died of cholera in London in 1832. See J. P.. Clarke, " Relierious and Literary Life of Adam Clarke,* 1833; James Everett, "Adam Clarke Portrayed," 3 vols., 1850. Clarke, (Alured,) an English clergyman, born in 1696, was Dean of Exeter. Died about 1740. Clarke, (Sir Arthur,) an English or Irish medical writer and philanthropist, born in 1773. He wrote an "Essay on Bathing," "Diseases of the Skin," and other works. He founded a hospital in Dublin. Died in 1857. Clarke, (Edward,) an English clergyman, born in 1730, became rector of Pepperharrow in 1758. Having visited Spain as chaplain to an embassy, he published "Letters concerning the Spanish Nation," (1765,) which treat of antiquities and literature. Died in 1786. Clarke, (Edward Daniel,) LL.D., a distinguished English traveller, son of the preceding, was born at Wil- lingdon, in Sussex, in 1769. In 1790 he became tutor to a nephew of the Duke of Dorset, with whom he made the tour of Great Britain. As companion to Lord Ber- 3i e, T, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sAor^; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; CLARKE 613 CLARKE wick, he visited France, Switzerland, and Italy in 1792. About 1798 he was elected a fallow of Jesus College, at Cambridge. In 1799, in company with Mr. Cripps, he started on the extensive tour by the description of which he has acquired such merited and durable celebrity. They were absent more than three years, during which they traversed Northern Europe, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Greece, Turkey, etc. He published in 1810 the first volume of his "Travels in Various Parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa," (6 vols.,) one of the most delightful and popular books of travel that have ever appeared. In 1808 Cambridge University founded for him a professorship of mineralogy, in which he was well versed, and on which he published a treatise, "The Mineral Kingdom." Having taken orders, he obtained the living of Yeldham about 1810. Died in 1822. See William O'iter, "Life and Remains of Edward Daniel Clarke," London, 1824; "London Quarterly Review" for August, 1810, and March, 1813; "Edinburgh Review" for August, 1810, and June, 1S26. Clarke, (Elijah,) an American general, born in North Carolina. He served in the Revolutionary war. Died about 1800. Clarke, (George Rogers.) See Clark. Clarke, klikk, (Henri Jacques Guillaume,) Due de Feltre, (feltK,) an able French general and minister of state, was born at Landrecies in 1765. As lieutenant- colonel he served in the campaign of 1792, and had be- come general of brigade, when the Convention in 1793 deprived him of his command on account of his being a noble. In 1794, by the influence of Carnot, he was placed at the head of the topographical bureau in the ministry of war. For his important services in this office he was made general of division in 1795. The next year the Directory, alarmed at the success of l)(jnaparte in Italy, sent Clarke to negotiate with Austria, and to oversee or control the victorious general, who soon won him over to his interest. About 1804 l>()naparte appointed him councillor of state, and employed him in his cabinet as secretary. On the capture of Vier:na by the French, (1805,) he was appointed governor of that city and of several Austrian provinces, which he ruled with probity and moderation. In 1806-07 he was governor of Berlin. From 1807 to i8i4he performed the functions of minister of war with such success that he received the title of Due de Feltre in 1809. Having concurred in the depo- sition of Napoleon in 1814, he was created a peer by Louis XVTII., whom he served as minister of war in 181 5 and 1816, and who made him a marshal of France. Died in i8i8. See " Victoires et Conquetes des Francais ;" " Nouvelle Bioeranhie G^n^rale." Clarke, (Henry,) an English mathematician, born at Salford, near Manchester, in 1745. After he had lec- tured on mathematics and natural philoso])hy at Man- chester, he was chosen professor in the Royal Military College at Marlow aj^out 1802. He published "The Summation of Series," " Practical Perspective," and other works. Died in 181 8. Clarke, (Henry Hyde,) an English philologist and writer, born in London in 1815, became a civil engineer. He published in 1855 a "New Dictionary of the English Tongue," which is very complete. He has written va- rious scientific works. Clarke, (James Freeman,) an American writer and Unitarian minister, born in 1810. He has preached for many years in Boston, and has distinguished himself as an opjjonent of slavery. Among his works are "The Christian Doctrine of Forgiveness," (1852,) and "The Christian Doctrine of Prayer," (1854,) also several poems. Clarke, (James Stanier,) an English writer, a brother of Edward D. Clarke, noticed above. He attended Lord Nelson as chajjlain at Trafalgar, and was afterwards do- mestic chaplain of George IV., and canon of Windsor. He ])ublished "The Progress of Maritime Discovery," "The Life of James II.," and other works. He assisted Dr. McArthur in a "Life of Lord Nelson." Died in 1834- Clarke, (Jeremiah,) an English composer of church- music. He became organist of Saint Paul's Cathedral a few years before 1700. He published "Lessons for the Harpsichord," and composed the admired anthems " I will love thee," and " Bow down thine ear." Having been unfortunate in love, he killed himself in 1707. Clarke, (John.) See Clark, (John.) Clarke, (John,) one of the founders of Rhode Island, was born in England. He emigrated to Rhode IslancJ about 1638, and founded at Newport a Baptist church, of which he was pastor. In 165 1 he was sent to Eng- land with Roger Williams as an agent of the colony, for which he procured a new charter. Died in 1676. Clarke, (John,) a Scottish engraver of portraits, born about 1650, worked in Edinburgh. Died in 1721. Clarke, (John,) D.D., an English divine, born at Norwich, was a brother of Dr. Samuel Clarke, (born in 1675.) He became chaplain-in-ordinary to the king, and finally Dean of Sarum. He published "Sermons at the Boyle Lecture," and translated into English Rohault's "Physics" and Grotius on the "Truth of the Christian Religion." Died in 1759. Clarke, (John,) an American officer, a son of Elijah, noticed above, was born in 1766. He served in the Revolutionary war, and became Governor of Georgia after 18 16. Died in 1832. Clarke, (MacDonald,) an American writer, known for many years in New York as " the Mad Poet," was born in 1798. He published in 1820 his " Review of the Eve of Eternity, and other Poems," which was followed by "The Elixir of Moonshine: a Collection of Prose and Poetry, by the Mad Poet," in 1822. Died in 1842. Clarke, (Mary Cowden,) an English authoress, born in London in 1809, was a daughter of Vincent Novello, the composer. She was married in 1828 to Charles Cowden Clarke, the associate of Lamb, Keats, Shelley, etc., and soon after began "The Complete Concordance to Shakspeare," (1846.) This work, on which she spent the labour of sixteen years, was very successful. She also published "World-Noted Women," New York, 1858. Clarke, (Richard,) an Episcopalian divine, born in England, became rector of Saint Philip's, Charleston, South Carolina, about 1750. He wrote several theolo- gical works. Clarke, (Samuel,) an English theological writer, born at Woolstf)n in 1599. He preached successively at War- wick, Alcester, and in London. In 1662 he was ejected for nonconformity, and thenceforward ceased to appear in the pulpit He published a " Mirror for Saints and Sinners," (1645,) ^ "General Martyrology," (1651,) and "Lives of Sundry Eminent Persons," (1683,) which are considered valuable works. Died in 1682. Clarke, (Samuel,) an English scholar and Oriental- ist, was born at Brackley in 1623. About 1655 he was master of a boarding-school at Islington, and at the same time assisted Walton in his " Polyglot Bible." He pub- lished " Various Readings and Notes on the Chaldaic Paraphrase," and other works. Died in 1669. Clarke, (Samuel,) an English divine, son of Samuel, ( 1 599-1682,) born in 1626, was a Fellow of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge. He expended the labour of many years on "Annotations on the Scriptures," (1690,) a work which has been recommended by Owen, Baxter, Howe, and Calamy. Died about 1700. Clarke, (Dr. Samuel,) a celebrated English philoso- pher, metaphysician, and divine, born at Norwich in October, 1675, was the son of Edward Clarke, alderman of that city. In 1691 he entered Caius College, Cam- bridge, where he made great progress in mathematics, and about the age of twenty-one, by an ingenious strata- gem, substituted the Newtonian for the Cartesian phi- losophy. He effected this change by producing a more classical Latin version of Kohault's " Physics," (the text- book used at Cambridge,) with notes that virtually re- futed the text. Having diligently studied theology' and the ancient languages, and been ordained, he became I chaplain to More, Bishop of Norwich, in 1698. The next j year he published three essays on Confirmation, Baptism, and Re])entance, which were followed by his" Paraphrase on the Four Gospels," (1701.) About this time he be- came rector of Drayton. In 1705 appeared his celebrated "Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God," consisting of eight sermons preached at the Boyle Lec- ture, Oxford, and designed as a confutation of Hobbes and Spinoza by the argument a priori. The merit of € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23. ) CLARKE 614 CLAUDE this performance is variously estimated by orthodox divines ; and Pope thus alludes to it in the "Dunciad :" " We nobly take the high priori road, And reason downward till we doubt of God."^ He translated Newton's "Optics" into Latin in 1706. Through the patronage of Bishop More, he became, about 1709, rector of Saint James's, London, and chaplain to Queen Anne. In 17 12 he produced a good edition of Caesar's '* Commentaries," and "The Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity," which occasioned a long controversy and exposed him to the charge of Arianism. He wrote in defence of the Newtonian philosojihy against Leibnitz, with whom he had a discussion on Philosophical Liberty and Necessity. Li 1724 he was chosen master of Wigs- ton Hospital, and published a volume of sermons. He contributed mathematical treatises to the " Philosophical Transactions" in 1728, and published in 1729 an edition of Homer, with a Latin version and notes, which long enjoyed a high reputation, and is still used by students of Homer. He died in May, 1729. Addison calls Dr. Clarke "one of the most accurate, learned, and judicious writers this age has produced." Voltaire regarded him as a mere reasoning-machine, ( tin moulin a raisonmment.) " With a mind," says Dugald Stewart, " far inferior to that of Locke in comprehensive- ness, originality, and fertility of invention, he was never- theless the more wary and skilful disputant of the two." See HoAULY, "Life of S. Clarke;" Wii.ijam Whiston, " His- torical Memoirs of Samuel Clarke," 174S; D. Sthwart, " Prelimi nary Dissertation" in the " Encyclopaedia Britannica." Clarke, (Samuei,,) D.D., a grandson of Dr. Samuel Clarke of Norwich, was pastor to a congregation of dis- senters at Saint Alban's. He published a " Collection of the Promises of Scripture under their Proper Heads," Died in 1769. Clarke, (Sarah J.) See Lippincott. Clarke, (William,) an English priest and antiquary, born in Shropshire in 1696. He became rector of Bux- ted in 1724, and prebendary of Chichester in 1738. He published " The Connexion of the Roman, Saxon, and English Coins." Diedini77i. Edward Clarke, author of " Letters on the Spanish Nation," was his son. Clark'son, (David,) an eminent nonconformist di- vine, born at Bradford, England, in 1622. He was ejected from the living of Mortlake in 1662, and succeeded Dr. Owen in 1683. Baxter calls him "a diviiie of extraor- dinary worth." He published sermons and other theo- logical treatises. Died in 1686. Clarkson, (Thomas,) an English philanthropist, vv^hose name is memorably identified with the abolition of the slave-trade, was born at Wisbeach, Cambridge- shire, in 1760. He gained the first prize for a Latin dis- sertation in Saint John's College, Cambridge, in 1784. In the next year his interest was first excited in the question of slavery, when the vice-chancellor announced that the senior bachelors would compete for the prize by Latin essays on this subject : " Is involuntary ser- vitude justifiable ?" He composed an essay, which vfas successful ; and he was so deeply impressed with the iniquity and miseries of the slave-trade that he con- tinued to meditate on and investigate the subject, until, from a sense of duty, he resolved to devote himself en- tirely to the cause of the slaves. His essay led him into communion with William Dillwyn, George Harrison, and a few other " Friends'" of London, who as early as 1783 had formed themselves into an anti-slavery com- mittee. The Society of Friends had been the earliest pioneers in this reform, having in 1760 refused the privi- leges of fellowship to all who took part in the "guilty traffic." Clarkson collected and diflfused information on the subject with unwearied zeal and diligence, and never quailed before the violence and threats of those whom self-interest made his enemies. He found a ])Owerful coadjutor in Wilberforce, who in May, 1789, made an eloquent speech in the House of Commons against the traffic. In 1790 he spent several months in Paris, where he conferred with Mirabeau, who asked and received from him amjjle assistance in composing a speech on the subject. The immense efforts of Clarkson and his friends were often defeated in Parliament ; and the tri- umph of the cause was reserved to the ministry of Fox. In March, 1807, the "Magna Charta of Africa was com pleted." In 1808 he published "The History of the Abolition of the Slave-Trade," (2 vols.) He was chosen in 1823 vice-president of the Anti-Slavery Society, just formed, and lived to witness the abolition of slavery in the West Indies in 1838. He was the author of a " Portraiture of Quakerism," and of " Memoirs of the Life of William Penn," (1813.) Died in 1846. See Thomas Taylor, " Life of T. Ciarkson ;" "Thomas Clark- son : a Monograph," by James Elmes, London, 1854. Clarus, kli'rus, (Johann Christian August,) a German physician, born at Buch-am-Forst, in Franconia, in 1775. He was professor of medicine at the University of Leipsic for nearly forty years, beginning in 18 10. He published " Views on the Progress of the Cholera," (1831,) and other works. Cla'son, (Isaac,) an American poet and actor, born in New York in 1789. He produced a continuation of Byron's " Don Juan," (1825,) and a collection of poems, entitled " Horace in New York," (1826.) He committed suicide in London in 1834. See Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America." Clauberg, klow'beRG, (Juhann,) a Cartesian philo- sopher, born at Solingen, in Westphalia, in 1622. He taught at Herborn and Duisburg. He was one of the most profound disciples of I^escartes. His works were published under the title of "Opera Philosophica," (2 vols., 1691.) Died in 1665. See MoRHOF, " Polyhistor Literarius." Claude, the French of Claudius, which see. Claude, kiod, (Jean,) an eminent French Protestant minister, born at La Sauvetat, near Agen, in 1619. He preached at Niuies and Montauban, and in 1666 became pastor of Charenton, near Paris. His eloquence and wisdom rendered him one of the most influential leaders of the Protestant cause in France. He had several dis- putes with Bossuet and Arnauld on theology. When the edict of Nantes was revoked, (1685,) he retired to the Hague, where he died in 1687. " Bossuet," says Hallam, " was the acknowledged champion of the Roman Church in France ; Claude was in equal pre-eminence on the other side." He was the author of a " Defence of the Reformation," (1673,) and many other works. See Abel Rodoi.phe de Laderizk, " Abrepe de la Vie de M. Claude," 1687; F>avle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Nic6- RON, " Memoires." Claude, (Jean Jacqites,) a grandson of the preceding, was born at the Hague in 1684. He became pastor of the French church in London in 1710, and died in 1712. Claude de France, klod deh fR6Nss, the daughter of Louis XII., was born at Romorantin in 1499. She was married to Francis I. in 15 14. Historians praise her eminent virtues. Died in 1524. Claude de Turin. See Claudius of Turin. Claude Lorrain,* klaud (or klod) lor-rai/, [Fr. pron. klod lo'r^N',] the prince of landscape-painters, was born at the Chateau de Chamagne, in Lorraine, in 1600. His proper name was Claude Gelee, (zheh-li'.) He went to Rome in early youth, and studied u. der G. Waals at Naples about two years. He then beiame a pupil of Agostino Tassi, a landscape-painter of Rome. There is a doubtful tradition that he served Tassi as cook, also that he was originally an apprentice to a pastry- cook. He observed with constant attention the Italian scenery, and the phenomena of nature rs modified by the ever-changing hours and seasons. After a tour of two years in France and Gerni-iry, he returned to Rome in 1627, was patronized bv Urban VIII., and rose rapidly to pre-eminence in h^s department of art. His works are not exact transcripts of real nature, but combinations of picturesque scenes, selected with taste and idealized with inimitable art. " Every period of the day, with all its elemental vicissitudes, has been successfully embodied by his magic pencil." His colouring is rich, delicate, and harmonious. His aerial perspective has probably nevei * The last part of this name is often incorrectly written Lorraine. It should be remembered that it is an adjective, agreeing with Claude, in the masculine gender, which is always without the final e. The whole name signifies " Claude the Lorrainer." In case we should say Claude of Lorraine, it should then be written w'Xh the e, as refer- ence is made to the province of Lorraine, wliich is feminine. a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; ^, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, 5^, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; nfit; good; moon; CLAUDER 615 CLAUDIUS been equalled. Among his master-pieces are "Esther and Ahasuerus," "A Seaport at Sunset," and "The Embarkation of Saint Ursula." Died in Rome in 1682. In respect to the merit of Claude, Ruskin, the " Magnus Apollo" of art and prince of parodox, dissents from the great majority of critics. " Claude's capacities," says he, " were of the most limited kind ; but he had tenderness of perception and sincerity of purpose, and he effected a revolution in art. This revolution consisted mainly in setting the sun in heaven. Till his time, no one had seriously thought of painting the sun but conventionally. . . . Claude made the sun his subject, and painted the effects of misty shadows cast by his rays over the land- scape, and other delicate aerial transitions, as no one had ever done before, and, in some respects, as no one has done in oil-colour since. There was a certain fool- ir.h elegance in his work ; but it resembled nothing that ever existed in the world." Reynolds used to say that "there would be another Raphael before there was an- other Claude." See Ruskin, "Modern Painters;" Bryan, "Dictionary of Painters;" Dussieux, " Les Artistes Franfais a I'fitranger." Clauder, klow'der, (Gabriel,) a German medical writer, born at Altenburg in 1633 ; died in 1691. Clau'di-a Gens, a patrician house of Rome, which produced many dictators, consuls, censors, etc., and from which the emperors Tiberius and Claudius were descended. The surnames of the patrician Claudii were Caecus, Crassus, Pulcher, Sabinus, etc. They were dis- tinguished for their pride and despotic character. Clau'di-an, (It. Claudiano, klow - de -i'no ; Fr. Claudien, Ido'de-dN',] (Claudius Claudianus,) a dis- tinguished Latin epic poet, born at Alexandria about 365 A.D. He became a resident of Rome, and a favourite of Stilicho, who was regent duri)ig the minority of Arcadius and Honorius. He acquired by his poems such celebrity that a statue was erected to him in the Forum of Trajan by the emperor and the senate. His princijDal works are "The Raj^e of Proserpine," a "Eulogy of Stilicho," ("De Laudibus Stilichonis,") "The War against the Getae," (" De Bello Getico,") and satires against Eutro- pius and Rufinus. Some ])ortions of these have been lost. He has a rich imagination, a picturesque style, and harmonious versification. In his religious opinions he appears to have been a pagan. The date of his death is unknown ; but he was living in 408 A.D. He is regarded as the last of the Latin classic poets. SeeT. Mazzo, "Vita di Claudiano," 166S ; Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap. xxx. ; Ersch und Gkuber, "AUgemeine Encyk'opaedie," and the prefatory remarks in J. M. Gesnek's edition of Claudian's Works, 1759. Claudiano. See Claudian. Claudien. See Claudian. Claudini, klovv-dee'nee, or Chiodini, ke-o-dee'nee, (GiULio Cesare,) an Italian physician, born at Rologna, won a high reputation by his writings, among which are "Crises and Critical Days," (1612,) and " Rational Prac- tice," (" Empirica rationalis," 1653.) Died in 1618. Clau'di-us, [Fr. Claude, klod,] or, more fully, Tibe- rius Claudius Drusus Nero, fourth Emperor of Rome, born at Lyons in 10 B.C., was the son of Drusus Nero by Antonia Minor, (who was a daughter of Mark Antony,) and was a nephew of the emj^eror Tiberius. Being feeble in mind and body, he took no part in pub- lic affairs during the reign of Tiberius. Caligula, who was his nephew, gave him the office of consul in 37 A.D. On the death of Caligula, in 41, Claudius was pro- claimed emperor by the mutinous soldiers ; and the sen- ate, though they preferred a republic, acquiesced in the choice of the army. His accession, as usual, was sig- nalized by acts of justice and clemency. He recalled exiles, diminished taxes, and built an aqueduct in Rome. The prmcipal military event of his reign was his success- ful invasion of liritain in person. His wife, the infamous Messalina, acquired an ascendency over him, and caused senators and other innocent persons to be put to death. After she became so shameless as to marry Caius Silius, she was executed, by the order or permission of Clau- dius. He afterwards married his niece, Agrippina the Younger, who by a former husband had a son, L. Do- mitius. Having persuaded him to adopt this son, she poisoned Claudius in 54 A.D., when her son, assuming the name of Nero, became emperor. See Suetonius, "Claudius;" Tacitus, "Annales;" Dion Cas- sius, " History." Claudius, (Apriys,) surnamed Crassus, a Roman decemvir of patrician rank, was elected consul in 451 B.C., soon after which he became one of the decemviri. He was notorious for his nefarious attempt to enslave and dishonour Virginia, who was rescued from his power bv a tragical death. (See Virginia.) Appius was imprisoned, and, according to Livy, committed suicide. Claudius, (Marcus Aurelius,) surnamed Goth'i- cus, an emperor of Rome, was born in Illyricum in 214 A.D. After having a high cominand under Valerian, he was proclaimed emperor by the army at the death of Gallienus, in 268. The senate confirmed this choice. The same year he defeated the rebel Aureolus in battle. In 269 he gained a decisive victory over the Goths or Scythians near Nissa, in Servia, and assumed the name of GoTHicus. He died of an epidemic disease at Sirmium in 270, leaving a good reputation for virtue and talents. His brother, Quintilius, was proposed as his successor ; but the army preferred Aurelian. See Trebellius Poi.lio, " Claudius," in the " Historia Augusta ;" TiLLEMONT, "Histoire des Empereurs." Claudius, klow'de-us, (Matthias,) surnamed Asmus, and THE Messenger of Wandsbeck, a popular German poet and prose writer, born at Rheinfeld, near Lubeck, in 1743. Pie was appointed controller (revisor) of the Bank of Altona in 1778, and resided mostly at Wands- beck. His works consist of essays, fables, epigrams, humorous and serious poems, etc. He was the author of the famous "Rhine-Wine Song," (" Rheinweinlied.") Died at Hamburg in 181 5. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" Hennings, "Asmus: Beitrag zur Geschichte der Literatur," etc., 1798. Clau'di-us of Turin [Lat. Clau'dius Tauri'nus; Fr. Claude de Turin, kl5d deh tii'rclN'] was born in Spain towards the close of the eighth century. He became the chaplain of Louis le Debonnaire, who ap- pointed him Bishop of Turin. He was very zealous in his efforts to reform the abuses which had gradually crept into the Church, and vehemently opposed the worship of images and of the cross ; in consequence of which he has been styled "the Protestant of the ninth century." He was a man of great learning, and wrote commentaries on various portions of vScripture. He was publicly charged with heresy ; but his death, which occiu red about 840, saved him, probably, from a determined persecution. See Hodgson, "Reformers and Martyrs before and after Luther," Philadelphia, 1867; Neandek, "Church History." Claudius Albinus. See Albinus. Clau'dius Cae''cus, (see'kus,) (Appius,) a Roman patrician, who was censor from 312 to 308 B.C. During this period he constructed the Appian Way from Rome to Capua. He was afterwards consul, and interrex, (or regent,) and became blind, as his surname indicates. He wrote a poem, and a legal work in prose. Claudius Civilis. See CiviLis. Claudius Claudianus. See Claudian. Claudius Herodes. See Herodes, (Atticus.) Claudius Marius Victor. See Vic tor. Claud'i-us PuPcher, (Appius,) a son of Publius Claudius Pulcher, was chosen praetor in 215 B.C., and in the next year was legate under Marcellus in Sicily. He was elected consul in 212, and commanded an army in the second Punic war. He was killed in a battle with Hannibal at Capua about 210 B.C. Claudius Pulcher, (Appius,) a brother of theClodius killed by Milo, was praetor in 57 B.C. and cotisul in 53, after which he misgoverned Cilicia about two years. On his return he was prosecuted by Dolabella, but was acquitted by the influence of Pompey and Hortensius. He became censor in the year 50, and in the exercise of that office ex- pelled Sallust and others from the senate. Having taken the side of Pompey against Csesar^he obtained conmiand in Greece, where he died about 48 B.C. Claudius Pulcher, (Publius,) a Roman general, son of Api^ius Claudius Caecus, noticed above, was distin- guished for his insolence and pride. He was ele:ted € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g> h, Kygtitttcral; n, nasal; R> trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) CLAUDIUS 616 CLAXTON consul in 249 B.C., during the first Punic war. He took command ot the fleet, and, though the auspices were unfavourable, attacked the Carthaginians, who gained a decisive victory. Soon after this event he was deprived of office and disgraced. Claudius Tauriuus. See Claudius of Turin. Ciaugh'ton, (Rev. Thomas Le(;h,) an English clas- sical scholar, born about 1808. He was professor of :)oetry at Oxford from 1852 to 1857. Ciausade, de, deh klo'zad', (George Jacques Am^;- DEK,) a French lawyer and writer, born in 1809. Among his works is a "Voyage to Stockholm." Died in 1847. Clausberg, klovvs'bSKG, (Chrisilieb,) a German mathematician, born in 1689, was preceptor of the prince- royal at Copenhagen, and published a "Treatise on the Law of Commerce," and an excellent "Demonstrative Arithmetic," (1732.) Died in 1751. Clausel, klo'zeK, (Berirand,) Count, a French marshal, born at Mirepoix (Ariege) in 1772. He be- came general of brigade in 1799, and general of division about 1804. He served with distinction in Austria in 1809, and commanded with eclat at Salamanca (where he was severely wounded) in 181 2. Having fought for Napoleon during the Hundred Days, he was forced to fly for his life, and went to the United States in 1815. He returned to France in 1820, obtained conmiand of the army in Africa in 1830, received a marshal's baton in 1S31, and became Governor-General of Algeria in 1835. For his ill success in an expedition against Constantine, he was recalled in 1837. Died in 1842. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Clausel de Coussergues, kia'zeK deh koo^s^Rg', (Jean Claude,) a French politician, noted for intoler- ance, was born in Aveyron in 1759. He emigrated about 1790, and returned about i8oo. After the restoration he became an ultra-royalist, and was chosen a judge of the court of cassation in 181 5. Died in 1846. Clausen, klow'zen, (Henrik Georg,) an eminent Danish preacher, born in Slesvvick in 1759. He became pastor of a church of Copenhagen in 1797, and con- tinued to preach there about forty years. Died in 1840. See Ekslew, " Fortatler- Lexicon." Clausen, (Henrik Nicolai,) a Danish theologian and statesman of great ability and influence, a son of the pre- ceding, was born at Maribo, on the island of Laaland, in 1793. He became professor of theohjgy in the Univer- sity of Copenhagen in 1820, and developed his rational- istic doctrines in many works remarkable for learning and eloquence. Among them are " Aiigustin of Hippo the Interpreter of Scripture," ("Augustinus Hipponensis Sacrae Scripturae Interjires," 1826,) " Popular Discourses on the Reformation," (1836,) and "The Augsburg Confession explained Historically and Dogmatically," (both in Danish, 1851.) In politics he is a champion of liberal principles and Danish nationality. He was elected a de|)uty to the States in 1840, and was the leader of the movement which resulted in the constitutional reform of 1848. About the end of that year he was appointed privy councilU)r and minister without a portfolio. He re- signed office in 185 1. See Erslkvv, " Forfatter-Lexicon." Clausewitz, von, ton klow'zeh-wits^, (Karl,) a dis- tinguished Prussian general and writer on war, born at Burg in 1780. He entered the service of Russia in 1812, served on the staff in the Russian army in 1813, and published in 1814 an "Account of the Campaign of 1813," which was favourably received. He was ap- pointed director of the Military Academy ( allgemeine Kriegschiile ) of Prussia in 1818, with the title of major- general. He died in 1831, after which ai)peared his "Posthumous Works," (10 vols., 1832-37.) Among these is a treatise entitled "On War," (" Vom Kriege,") which is said to be a work of extraordinary merit. See Bkockhaus, " Coaversations-Lexikon." Clavena, kli-va'ni, (Niccol6,) an Italian botanist, born at Belluno, lived about 1600. Claver, kld-vaiR', (Pedro,) a Spanish missionary, born about 1582. He laboured in the West Indies, and was noted for his kindness to the slaves. Died in 1654. See Su AREz. " Vida del P. P. Claver," 1657 : Fleuriau, " Vie du R. P. Claver," 1751. Claveret, kltv'ri', (Jean,) a French dramatist, born at Orleans in 1590 ; died in 1666. Claverhouse. See Graham, (John.) Clavier, ki^'ve-i', (EriENNE,) a French Hellenist and judge, was born at Lyons in 1762. He was judge of the crinrinal ct)urt in Paris under the Directory and under the empire until 1811. When the judges were urged to condemn Moreau to death, and were assured by Murat that the executive would pardon him, Clavier repelled the idea, saying, " But who will pardon us.-*" In 1809 he was admitted into the Institute. He contributed to the " Biograjihie Universelle," and published several works, among which is " Pausanias, Description de la Grece," (6 vols.,) an edition of the Greek text, with a good French version. Died in 1817. Claviere, klt've-aiR^, (Etienne,) a Swiss financier and author, was born at Geneva in 1735. He removed to Paris, where, before the Revolution, he was engaged in banking. About 1789 he became a political associate of Mirabeau, who had a high opinion of his talents, and who availed himself of those talents in composing his speeches, essays, etc. In 1791 he was chosen deputy suppliant to the National Assembly, and was the Giron- dist minister of finance from March to June in 1792. Having been thrown into prison by the Jacobins, and doomed to die, he killed himself in December, 1793. He wrote treatises on Finance. " He was," says Dumont, "a man of superior intellect, and was the author of almost all Mirabeau's works on finance." ("Recollections of Mirabeau.") See Vii.LAUME, " Histoire de la Revolution." Clavigero, kli-ve-Ha'ro, (Francisco Saverio,) a Mexican historian, hoxw at Vera Cruz about 1720. He was employed about thirty years as a Jesuit missionary among the Indians of Mexico, whose history and tra- ditions he diligently studied. In consequence of the suppression of the Jesuit order about 1767, he went to Europe, and found an asylum at Cesena, Italy, where he published, in Italian, his "Ancient History of Mexico," (1780.) It is the most complete account that has been written of the history, religion, customs, arts, and natural history of that country. Died in 1793. See P'eli.kr, "Biographic Universelle;" Prescott, "Conquest of Mexico," vol. i. book i. Clavijo, de, d4 kli-vee'no, (Ruy Gonzalez,) a Span- iard, who in 1403 was sent by Henry HI. of Castile as ambassador to Tamerlane, whom he found at Samarcand. Having returned home in 1406, he published a " History of Tamerlane," with an account of the journey, which is said to be veracious and valuable. See Mariana, " Historia de Espana." Clavijo y Fajardo or Faxardo, kll-vee'iio e fJ- HaR'do, (Jose,) a Spanish writer, born in one of the Canary Islands in 1726. He published in Madrid a successful periodical, "The Thinker," (" El Pensador,") and was appointed officer or keeper of the archives in the department of state. It appears that about 1764 he was gjilty of a breach of promise to Marie Caron, a French lady, whose brother, the famous Beauniarchais, appealing to the code of honour, obtained some revenge or satisfaction and published his version of the affair. This story has been dramatized by Goethe. Clavijo was editor of the " Mercurio," a political journal, from 1773' to 1793. Died in 1806. See Beaumarchais, "Fragment de mon Voyage d'Espagne en 1764." Clavius, kli've-iis, (Christoph,) a learned German mathematician and Jesuit, born at Bamberg in 1537. Having visited Rome, he was employed in 1581 by Gre- gory XIII. to reform the calendar. He enjoyed a great reputation in his time; though he was criticised with much acrimony by Scaliger. He published many works, which were often reprinted, and among which were "Geometria Practica," (1604,) and an "Explanation of the R(nnan Calendar of Gregory XIII.," in Latin, (1603.) Died in 1612. See Baillv. "Histoire de I'Astronomie moderne;" Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Clax'tou, (Alexander,) a commodore in the United States navy, born in Maryland about 1790; died on the coast of Chili in 1841. a, e, s 6, u, y, long; 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, \ 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; flr, fill, fit; met; nftt; good; moon; CLAY 617 CLAT Clay, (Cassius Marcellus,) an American statesman, a son of General Green Clay, noticed below, was born in Madison county, Kentucky, in 1810. He studied law, and was elected a member of the legislature of Kentucky several times between 1835 and 1841. His acknowledged abilities and rare force of character seemed to anticipate a distinguished political career ; but his anti-slavery prin- ciples prevented the brilliant success he might other- wise have achieved. He raised his voice boldly against slavery, and opposed the annexation of Texas to the Union. He advocated the election of Henry Clay to the Presidency in 1844 by speeches in the Northern States. In 1845 began to edit "The True American," an anti-slavery paper, published at Lexington, Kentucky. He encountered violent opposition, and defended him- self courageously against the mob in several bloody con- flicts. He served as captain in the Mexican war with distinction, (1846-47.) About 1850 he separated from the Whig party. He favoured the election of Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency in i860, and received a com- mission as general of volunteers in 1861. In 1862 or 1863 he was appointed minister to Russia, which position he held until the spring of 1869, when Governor Curtin, of Pennsylvania, was ap])ointed in his place. His writings and speeches were edited and published by Horace Greeley in 1848. Clay, (Clkment C.,}an American lawyer and Senator, born in Halifax county, Virginia, in 1789, removed to Alabama about 1812. He was elected Governor of Ala- bama by the Democrats in 1835, and a Senator of the United States in 1837. Died in 1866. Clay, (Clemkn t C.,) Jr., a son of the preceding, born in Madison county, Alabama, in 1819. He practised law, was elected to the Senate of the United States in 1853 by the Democrats, and re-elected about 1857. He was a zealous disunionist in 1860-65. Clay, (Green,) General, a pioneer and legislator, born in Powhatan county, Virginia, in 1757. He mi- grated to Kentucky about 1776, and served many years in the legislature of that State. In 1813 he defended Fort Meigs with success against a strong force of British and Indians. Died in 1826. Clay, (Henry,) an eminent American statesman and •orator, born in a district called " the Slashes," in Hanover county, Virginia, on the 12th of Ajiril, 1777. He was a son of John Clay, a Baptist minister, who died about 1782, and who left but little property to his children. Having acquired the rudiments of education in a com- mon school, Henry became, in 1792, a co]->ying clerk in the court of chancery at Richmond, and there attracted the notice of the eminent judge George Wythe, from whose counsels and influence he derived much benefit. He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1797, and removed in the same year to Lexington, Kentucky, where his practice was crowned with a rapid and brilliant suc- cess. In 1799 he married a daughter of Colonel Thomas Hart, of Lexington. When the people of Kentucky were about to adopt a State Constitution, in 1799, Mr. Clay, by his writings and speeches, advocated the gradual abolition of slavery. He began his political career as a Jeffersonian Democrat, was elected to the legislature of his State about 1804, and was sent in 1806 to fill for a short term a seat in the Senate of the United States, made vacant by the resignation of a Senator. Having been again chosen a Senator in 1809, he made a speech in favour of the protection of American manufactures, and one against the United States Bank. His term in the Senate having expired in 181 1, he was then chosen a member of the House of Representatives, and was elected Speaker of the House in November of that year. He was a zealous advocate of the war of 1812, and pro- bably contributed more than any other man to the suc- cess of the war party. He was re-elected Speaker of the House in May, 1813, resigned that office in January, 1814, and was then sent to Europe as a commissioner to treat for peace with Great Britain. The treaty of Ghent having been signed by Mr. Clay and his colleagues in December, 1814, he returned home in September, 1815. In Dfcember, 181 5, (and thrice afterwards,) he was again elec t'jd Speaker of the House of Representatives. He supported in 1816 the bill to charter a Bank of the United States, on which question he acknowledged that he had changed his opinions. In 1818 he made a great speech for the recognition of the South American re- publics. He was one of the most prominent supporters of the Missouri Compromise, by which, in 1821, after a long and exciting contest, Missouri was admitted into the Union with slavery, and slavery was prohibited in the territories north of 36'' 30' north latitude. Before this time he had acquired great popularity as a statesman and an orator. "At thirty," says Parton, "he was, to use the language of the stump, 'Kentucky's favourite son,' and incomparably the finest orator in the Western country. Kentucky had tried him, and found him per- fectly to her mind. . . . In familiar conversation he used language of the most Western description ; and he had a singularly careless, graceful way with him, that was in strong contrast with the vigour and dignity of his public efforts. During the thirteen years of his Speakership not one of his decisions had been reversed, and he had presided over the turbulent and restive House with that perfect blending of courtesy and firmness which at once restrains and charms." Mr. Clay was one of the four candidates for the Presi- dency of the United States in 1824, and received thirty- seven electoral votes. When the election of President devolved on the House of Representatives, he preferred Mr. Adams to General Jackson, and his influence de- cided the result. He thus gave the partisans of Jackson some pretext for the calumnious charge of "bargain and corruption" which impaired his popularity for a time. In March, 1825, he was appointed secretary of state. In April, 1826, he fought a bloodless duel with John Randolph, who had spoken of the coalition of Mr. Adams and Mr. Clay as a "combination of the Puritan and the blackleg." He was elected a Senator of the United States for six years, 1831-37, and was the candidate of the anti- Jackson party in the Presidential election of 1832. He received the votes of only six States, viz., Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, and Kentucky. Mr. Clay was the author of the Compromise Tariff of 1832-33, occasioned by the danger of a violent collision between the nullifiers of South Carolina and the Federal government. Although he was the favourite leader of the Whig party recently organized, he declined to be a candidate for the Presidency in 1836. About the end of that year he was re-elected a Senator of the United States. He su|)ported General Harrison as a candidate for the office of President in 1840. In the Senate he ad- vocated a national bank and the distribution of the pro- ceeds of the public lands among the States. He resigned his seat in the Senate early in 1842, and rethed to his residence at Ashland, near Lexington. The Whig Na- tional Convention of May, 1844, with great unanimity, nominated him for the Presidency, He opposed the an- nexation of Texas, (which was advocated by Mr. Polk, the Democratic candidate,) and declared that no earthly power should ever induce him to consent to the addition of one acre of slave territory to the United States. Mr. Clay received one hundred and five electoral votes, cast by Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Vermont, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, North Carolina, Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee ; but he was not elected. He joined the Protestant E])iscopal Church in 1847. In December, 1848, he was again elected to the national Senate, in which he afterwards made numerous speeches, especially on the controversy occasioned by slaverv. The Compromise of 1850, which postponed for ten } ears the conflict between freedom and slavery, was chiefly his work. In one of his speeches on the Compromise Bill he said, " I owe a paramount allegiance to the whole Union, — a subordinate one to my own State." He died at Washington, June 29, i8$2. He had five sons and six daughters. "Take him for all in all," says Parton, "we must regard him as the first of American orators; but posterity will not assign him that rank, because pos- terity will not hear that matchless voice, will not see those large gestures, those striking attitudes, that grand man- ner, which gave to second-rate composition first-rate effect. . , . His speeches will long be interesting as the relics of a magnificent and dazzling personality, and for the light they cast upon the history of parties ; but they € as /'/ 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K,gtittural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (St^See Explanations, p. 23.) CLJT 6i8 CLEEF add scarcely anything to the intellectual property of the nation." See Parton, " Famous Americans of Recent Times," 1867 ; Epes Sargent, " Life of Henry Clay," 1844; Calvin Colton, '"Life of Henry Clay," 2 vols., 1846; "National Portrait-Gallery of Distin- guished Americans," vol. i.; " North American Review" for October, 1827, October, 1831, (by A. H. Everett,) and January, 1866; "Lon- don Quarterly Review" for December, 1840; Edward G. Parker, "Golden A^e of American Oratory," Boston, 1857. Clay, (James B.,) a son of Henry Clay, was born in 181 7. He joined the Democratic party, and was elected a member of Congress in 1857 to represent a district in Kentucky. He was a secessionist in 1861. Died in 1864. Clay, ( JoHANN.) See Clal Clayborne, kla'bprn, (William,) an early settler and explorer of Virginia, occupied Kent Island, in Chesa- peake Bay, about 163 1. He was involved in disputes and violent conflicts with Lord Baltimore and Leonard Calvert. He became secretary of state about 1652. Clay'tpn, (AuGUsriN Smuh,) born at Fredericks- burg, Virginia, in 1783, became a judge of the superior court of Georgia in 1819, and a member of Congress about 1832. Died in 1839. Clay'ton, (John,) an English botanist, born in Kent about 1690. lie emigrated in 1705 to Virginia, where he practised medicine and botanized extensively. He wrote articles on the natural history of Virginia, which were published by the Royal Society of London. In 1739 Linnaeus and Gronovius published a "Flora of Virginia, exhibiting the Plants which J. Clayton has collected." A genus of herbaceous plants was named Chiyfonia in his honour by Gronovius. Died in 1773. Clayton, (John Middlkton,) an American states- man, born in Sussex county, Delaware, in 1796. He graduated at Yale College in 1815, and studied law, which he practised with success in Delaware. He gained a high reputation as a pleader. In 1829 he was elected a Senator of the United States for Delaware. Having joined the Whig party, he was re-elected to the Federal Senate in 1835. He was chief justice of Dela- ware from 1837 to 1839, and represented that State in the United States Senate from 1845 i^49- ^'^ March, 1849, he was appointed secretary of state by President Taylor. He negotiated with the British government in 1850 the celebrated " Clayton-Bulwer treaty." He resigned office on the death of President Taylor, July, 1850, and was again elected a Senator of the United States for six years, 1851-57. He married in early life, and had several children, whom he survived. He died in November, 1856, leaving a fair reputation for ability •and integrity. Clay'toii, (Robert,) F.R.S., a learned Irish divine, born in Dublin in 1695. He became Bishop of Killala in 1730, of Cork in 1735, and of Clogher in 1745. He published an "Introduction to the History of the Jews," and other works. His " Essay on Spirit" (1751) gave much offence to the Anglican Church by its advocacy of Arian or Unitarian doctrines. Died in 1758. See " Biographia Britannica." Cle-an'der, [Gr. KAmv(5pof; Fr. Cl^andre, kli'- 6NdR',] a corrupt prime mii^ister of Commodus, Em- peror of Rome, was originally a Phrygian slave. He was put to death about 189 A.D. Cle-a'nor, [KAmj^wp,] a Greek officer, born in Arcadia, lived about 400 B.C. He entered the service of Cyrus the Younger, and was one of the chiefs of that army of 10,000 whose famous retreat is described by Xenophon. Cleanthe. See Cleanthks. Cle-an'thes, [Gr. Y^UavQnq ; Fr. CL^iAN'rHE, kli'SNt',] a Greek Stoic philosopher, born at Assos, in Asia Minor, about 300 B.C. He became a resident of Athens, and a pu|)il of Zeno, with whom he studied many years, sup- porting himself by drawing water and other hard labour. At the death of Zeno, about 260 H.c, he became his suc- cessor as head of the Stoic school. He wrote many works, which are nearly all lost, except a hymn to Jupi- ter, remarkable for elevation and grandeur of thought. Chrysij^pus was his pujiil and successor. The original oc- cupation of Cleanthes was that of athlete. He was solid rather than brilliant, practical rather than sj^ecnlative. See Diogenes Laertius : W. T Kkug, " Dissertatio de Cle- anthe," 1819: Cicero, " De Natura Deorum." Cle-ar'-ehus, [Gr. KAfap;\;of ; Fr. Cl6auque, kli'Suk','^ a Spartan general, who, having been condemned to death for crimes committed while he commanded at Byzan- tium, escaped, and entered the service of Cyrus the Younger. He commanded a body of Greeks in the war between Cyrus and his brother Artaxerxes. After the battle of Cunaxa, in which Cyrus was killed, the King of Persia by treachery obtained possession of Clearchus and the other Grecian generals, and put them to death about 400 B.C. New generals were then chosen, under whose direction the Greeks successfully accomplished the famous retreat known as *'the Retreat of the Ten Thousand." See Xenophon, "Anabasis." Clearchus, tyrant of Heraclea, a Greek city of Pon- tus, had been a pupil of Plato at Athens. After he had reigned twelve years, and committed many acts of cruelty, he was assassinated by Chion and others, about 352 B.C. Clearchus, an Athenian comic poet, lived probably in the third century B.C. Clearchus of Soli, a Greek philosopher, and a pupil of Aristotle, wrote on various subjects numerous works which have not come down to us. Among the titles were "On Friendship," (" Philia,") "On Paintings," "Oh Anatomy," and "On Sleep." See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca;" Vossius, "De Historicis Gr^cis." Clearque. See Clearchus. Cleaveland, Cleveland, or Clieveland, kleev'land, (John,) an English poet, born at Loughborough in 1613. He was once a tutor at a college in Cambridge. In the civil war he fought for the royal cause. He wrote the "Rustic Rampant," "The King's Disguise," and other poems, which were greatly admired by many in his own time, but are marred by perverse conceits, and are now neglected. Died in 1659. See " Retrospective Review," vol. xii., 1825. Cleaveland, kleev'land, (Parker,) LL.D., an emi- nent American mineralogist, was born in Massachusetts in 1780. He graduated at Harvard in 1799, and from 1805 till his death was professor of chemistry, mineral- ogy, etc. in Bowdoin College, Maine. His work on " Mineralogy and Geology," (2 vols. 8vo,) issued in 1816, introduced him to the notice of Sir Humphry Davy, Cuvier, and other illustrious scientific men, with several of whom he corresponded. At his death he was an honorary member of the principal scientific associations in Europe. Died in 1858. Cleaver, klee'ver, (William,) an English divine, born in 1742, became successively Bishop of Chester, (1787,) of Bangor, (i8cG,) and of Saint Asaph, (1806.) He was editor of an Oxford edition of Homer, and published, besides other works. Sermons, and " De Rhythmo Graecorum Liber," (1789.) Died in 1815. Cle'burn or Cle'burne, (Patrick,) a general, born in Ireland about 1828. He was a lawyer in Arkansas before the civil war, in which he fought against the Union. He commanded a division at Stone River, December 31, 1862-January 2, 1863, and at Chickamauga, Sep- tember, 1863. He was killed at the battle of Franklin, November 31, 1864. "The loss of Patrick Cleburne — the ' Stonewall Jackson of the West,' " — says Greeley, "would of itself have been a rebel disaster." ("Ame- rican Conflict.") Cleef, van, vtn klaf, or Cleeve, kla'veh, (Hendrik,) a skilful Flemish landscape-painter, born at Antwerp about 1 5 10. He spent some years in Italy. Died in 1589. His brother Mar tin, born about 1520, was a historical l^ainter of merit, and was employed by several landscape- painters to paint the figures of their works. Tlie two brothers sometimes worked on the same piece of canvas. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Cleef, van, (Jan,) an eminent Flemish painter, born at Venloo in 1646, was a puj^il of Caspar de Crayer. He became one of the most skilful Flemish artists of his time, and adorned the churches of Antwerp, Ghent, etc. He excelled many or all Flemish painters in the treat- ment of drapery. Among his master-pieces is "The Redemption of the Captives." Died in Ghent in 17 16. See Descamps. " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, short; a, 9, j, 9, obscure; fir, f^ll, f^t; mSt; ndt; good; moon. CLEEF 6i 9 CLEMENT Cleef, van, (Joosr,) a Flemish painter, born at Ant- werp about 1490. He was an excellent colorist. In the latter part of his life he worked in Madrid, and is said to have become insane. His father, VVili.em, was a skilful historical painter. Cleeve. See Clkef. Cleg'horn, (George,) an able Scottish physician, born in Edinburgh in 17 16. Having passed thirteen years in Minorca, he published "The Diseases of Mi- norca," (1751,) which Dr. Fothergill calls "a just model for future writers." It treats on the botany, climate, etc. of that island. In 175 1 he settled in Dublin, where he practised with success, and became professor of anatomy in the university. Died in 1787. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Cleisthenes. See Clisthenes. Cleitarchus. See Clitarchus, Cleitus. See Clitus. Cle'land, (John,) an English writer, born about 17 10, was the son of Colonel C'eland, the original of the Spec- tator's " Will Honevcomb." In his youth he was consul at Smyrna. Beside.) other works, he wrote "The Man of Honour," and "I'he Way to Things by Words, and to Words by Things." Died in 1789. See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes," etc. Cle'land, (Lieutenant-Colonel Wili.tam,) a Scottish poet, born about 1660, was a zealous Covenanter. He was lieutenant-colonel of Lord Angus's regiment, and was killed in battle at Dunkeld in 1689. His poems were published in 1697. See Macaulay's " History of England," vol. iii. chap. xiii. Clemangis or Clemangius. See Ci.amenges. Clemence Isaure, kli'm^Nss' c'zor', a French lady, who lived at Toulouse about 1470. vShe reaniniated the literary spirit of her countrymen by instituting or en- dowing the Floral Games, (Jeiix floranx,) which were held annually on the ist of May at Toulouse. She bequeathed a fund, part of which was to be paid in prizes for the best poems. Her death is supposed to have occurred soon after 1500. See Salvan, " C. Isaure, fitude historique." i?53 : J. B. Noulet, "Dame Clemence Isaure," etc., 1852; Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Clemencet, kli'miN^sJ', (Charles,) a French Bene- dictine, born at Painblanc in 1703. He ])ublished, be- sides other works, a " History of Port-Royal," (10 vols., 1756,) and "The Art of Verifying Dates," (1750,) which displays great erudition. Died in 1778. Clemencin, klk-mgn-th6i/, (DiF.r.o,) a Spanish states- man and author of merit, born at Murcia in 1765. Soon after he left college he was employed as tutor in the family of the Duke of Osuna, and became a resident of Madrid. He was editor of the Official Gazette in Madrid in 1808, and a member of the Cortes of Cadiz in 1812. When the Constitutional party, with which he was identified, prevailed in 1820, he was elected to the Cortes, of which he became president. In 1823 he was banished from Madrid by the Absolutists. About 1833 he was appointed librarian to the queen and was made a peer of the kingdom. Among his principal writings are a "Eulogy on Isabella of Castile," (1821,) which was then the best w^rk on the subject, and an excellent "Commentary on Don Quixote," (1833,) Died in 1834. Clemens, kla'mgns, (Friedkich,) a German poet, born in Westphalia about 1800. Among his works are "The Eccentric People," and "The Manifesto of Reason," ("Manifest der Vernunft," 1836.) Cle'mens, (T. Flavius,) a Roman consul, was a cousin-german of the emperor Domitian, and his col- league in the consulship, 95 a.D. He is reckoned among the Christian martyrs, having been put to death by order of Domitian on a charge of impiety towards the heathen gods. Clemens Romanns. See Clement T. Clem'ent [Lat. Ci.e/mens, or, more fullv, Trrus Fla- vius Clemens; Fr. Clement, kl4'm6N']'oE Alexan- dria, an eininent Father of the Christian church, born about the middle of the second century. According to some writers, he was a native of Athens, and in his youth a disciple of the Platonic philosophy. After studying with various pagan teachers, he became a disciple of Pantaenus, who was master of a Christian school in Alexandria. He succeeded Pantaenus, and was ordained a presbyter in the church of that city. It is stated that in 202 A.D., to escape irom persecution, he retired to Syria, and preached in Antioch and other cities. A few years later we find him again employed as teacher of catechumens in Alexandria. He died about the year 220. Eusebius, Chrysostom, and others extol his learning, wisdom, and virtue. Origen was the most eminent of his pupils. Clement left several esteemed works, written in Greek, which are still extant, and which afford various information on religion, history, and phi- losophy, viz., " Exhortation to the Greeks," " Paedago- gus," and "Stromata," (Gr. 2rp(j//are/f.) The last is a medley of Christian thoughts, maxims of philosophy, anecdotes, etc., without methodical arrangement. He is more addicted to speculation, and more favourable to the ancient Greek philosophy, than many of the other Christian Fathers. See Eusebius, " Ecclesiastical History ;" Kaye, "Account of the Writings, etc. of Clement of Alexandria," London, 1835; Matter, " Essai historique sur rficole d'Alexandrie ;" Neandek, "History of the Church ;" Cave, " Historia Literaria;" Reinkens, "De Cle- mente Presbytero Alexandrino," 1851. Clement I., (or Cle'mens Roma'nus,) a bishop of Rome, of whom we have little ])ositive information. Ac- cording to various authorities, he succeeded Linus in 67 A.D., or Anacletus in the year 91. He is supposed to be the Clement whom Saint Paul calls his fellow-labourer, (Philip, iv. 3.) Eusebius states that he died in 100 A.D., having been bishop nine years. He is reckoned among the martyrs ; but there is some doubt whether he died a violent or a natural death. On the occasion of a dis- sension in the church of Corinth, Clement wrote to that church an excellent epistle, which is still extant, and is highly prized as a monument of antiquity and memorial of the primitive Church. It was often read publicly in the churches as late as the fourth century. Eusebius informs us that the other works ascribed to Clement are not genuine. His epistle is divided into more than fifty chapters. His authority tends to prove the genuineness of certain books of the New Testament which he quotes, viz., Matthew, Luke, and several epistJes. See Neander, "History of the Church;" Tillemont, " Me- moires." Clement II., a native of Saxony, whose name was Suid'ger, was elected pope in 1046 as successor to Gregory VI. He crowned as emperor Henry HI. in the same year, and died in October, 1047, when Benedict IX. was chosen pope. Clement III., a Roman by birth, was elected pope at Pisa in December, 1187, after the death of Gregory VIII. Jerusalem having just fallen into the power of Saladin, Clement made successful efforts to enlist the Christians in another crusade against the Saracens, which was led by Richard I. of England and Philip of France. He died in March, 1 191, and was succeeded by Celestine HI. Clement IV. (Guy Foulques, or Guido Fulcodi) was born at Saint-Gilles, in France. He had been secre- tary to Louis IX., whom he served many years in im- portant affairs. In February, 1265, he succeeded Urban IV. He favoured Charles of Anjou in his conquest of Naples, which was then ruled by Manfred, and which the last pontiff had granted or given to Charles. He died in 1268, and was succeeded by Gregory X. Clement v.. Pope of Rome, succeeded Benedict XT. in June, 1305. He was a Frenchman, named Ber trand DE Got. In 1299 he had been made Archbishop of Bordeaux. He was crowned as pope at Lyons, and to gratify his patron, Philippe le Bel, he chose Avignon as his residence and the capital of the popedom. This innovation caused great discontent, and was the origin of a long division in the Church. He co-operated with Philippe le Bel in his cruel persecution of the Tem])lars. He is represented as immoral and venal. He died in 1314. John XXII. was chosen as his successor in 1316. See De Guasco, " Histoire du Pape Clement V," 2 vols., 1756. Clement VI., elected pope in 1342, succeeded Bene- dict XH. at Avignon. He was a native of Limousin, in France, and was named Pierre Roger, (ro'zhi'.) He € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, K^giitttiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) CLEMENT 620 CLEMENT purchased from Joanna of Naples the sovereignty of Avignon. During his pontificate the famous Rienzi attempted to effect a revolution in Rome, but failed. Clement ordained the celebration of a jubilee every fifty years. He died in 1352, and was succeeded by Innocent VI. See Aktaud de Montor, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes." Clement "VII., (Giulio de' Medici — m^d'e-chee,) a natural son of Giuliano de' Medici, and a cousin of Leo X., succeeded Adrian VI. in November, 1523. In the pontificate of Leo X. he had been made Archbishop of Florence, and received a cardinal's hat. Alarmed at the growing power of Charles V., he made a league against him with the Venetians and Francis I. of France. The army of Charles V., commanded by Constable Bourbon, took Rome by assault in 1527, treated the citizens with great cruelty, and made the pope a prisoner. His dispute with Henry VIII. of England respecting the divorce of Queen Catherine produced results of great political importance. He issued a famous bull against Henry in 1534. He died in September of that year, and was succeeded by Paul HI. See GuicciARDiNi, " Historia d'ltalia," 1564; Ranke, "History of tlie Popes." Clement VIII. (Ippolito Aldobrandini — il-do- bRSn-dee'nee) succeeded Innocent IX. in January, 1592. He was a native of Fano, in Italy, and became cardinal in 1585. He negotiated with Henry IV. of France with respect to his abjuration of Protestantism, which occurred in 1595. During his pontificate commenced the dispute on the doctrine of grace, which caused the long and angry controversy between the Molinists and the Jansenists in the seventeenth century. Clement a]D])ears to have been neutral in this question. He annexed the duchy of Ferrara to the Papal States. He died in 1605, and was succeeded by Leo XI. See CiCARELLA, " De Vita Clementis VIII.;" Luc Wadding, *' Vita Clementis VIII.," 1723 ; De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis. " Clement IX., elected pope in June, 1667, succeeded Alexander VII. He was born at Pistoia in 1600, and was originally named GiULio DE Rospigliosi, (ros-j^^l -yo'- see.) He was made a cardinal by Alexander VH. One of the principal events of his short pontificate was a com- promise or transient ])eace which he made between the Jesuits and Jansenists of France. He died in Decem- ber, 1669, regretted on account of his probity and other virtues. His successor was Clement X. See Artaud ue Montor, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes." Clement X. (Emilio Altieri — ll-te-a'ree) succeeded Clement IX. in 1670, at the age of eighty. He was an Ital- ian, and probably a native of Rome. He had been made a cardinal by the preceding pontiff. Cardinal Paluzzi Altieri had the chief control of affairs in this pontificate, the events of which were not very important. Clement died in 1676, and was succeeded by Innocent XI. Clement XI. (Gian Francesco Albani — i1-ba'- nee) was born at Pesaro, in Central Italy, in 1649. He was made a cardinal in 1690, and elected pope in No- vember, 1700, after the death of Innocent XII. About 1707 he was involved in war with the Emi^eror of Austria, whose army entered the States of the Church and com- pelled the pope to sue for peace. In his pontificate the Jansenist controversy was renewed in France by the bull Vineam Domini, which denounced the Jansenist doctrines as heretical. In 17 13 he raised a great commotion among the French religionists by the famous bull Unigeiiittis, which condemned one hundred and one propositions of a book, written by Pere Quesnel, on Grace and Predes- tination. This bull was supported by the [esuits and the cotu't, and opposed by the Jansenists. The book of Quesnel had been approved by De Noailles, Archbishop of Paris. Clement assisted the Pretender in his attempt to obtain the British crown in 1715, and after his failure received him with regal honours at Rome. He died in March, 1721, leaving a fair reputation for morality and learning. He was a liberal patron of art and literature. His successor was Innocent XIII. See Artaud DE Montor, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes;" Lafitau, "Vie de Clement XI," 1752; Battelu, "Vita de- mentis XI.," 1723. Clement XII. (Lorenzo Corsini — koR-see'nee) was born at Florence in 1652, and received a cardinal's hat in 1706, before which he had been treasurer of the apostolic chamber. He succeeded Benedict XIII. in July, 1730. He failed in an attempt to make himself master of Parma and Piacenza. He died in 1740, and was succeeded by Benedict XIV. See Artaud de Montor, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes Romains ;" A. Fabroni, "De Vita et Rebus gestis Clementis XIL," 1760. Clement XIII. (Carlo Rezzonico — rgt-so-nee'- ko.'') succeeded Benedict XIV., July, 1758. He was born in Venice in 1693, '^"'^^ became a cardinal in 1737. In 1762 he formally condemned Rousseau's " Emile" as heretical. By impolitic attempts to assert his prerogatives he provoked the hostility of France, Spain, and other powers. After the Jesuits had been proscribed in France and Spain, about 1767 he issued a bull in their favour and for their full justification. He was deprived of Avignon by the French and of Benevento by the Kuig of Naples, and the papal authority in his reign was greatly reduced. His private character is said to have been virtuous. He died in 1769, and was succeeded by Clement XIV. See Artaud de Montor, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes." Clement XIV. (Giovanni Vincenzo Antonio Ganganelli — g&n-gi-nel'lee) was born at Saint Arcan- gelo, near Rimini, in 1705. Having become eminent for his learning, he was made a cardinal by Clement XIII., whom he succeeded in May, 1769. The Catholic powers watched with great interest this election, which was protracted for several months by party intrigues. He took prompt measures to conciliate the various courts which Clement XIII. had offended, and adopted a more moderate policy. The most memorable act of his pon- tificate was the suppression of the order of the Jesuits, which, after weighing the subject in the "balance of the sanctuary" for several years, he formally decreed in July, 1773. He died so soon after this event, in September, 1774, that suspicion of poison was excited; but no evi- dence of the crime was discovered. He had respectable abilities, and was more liberal and enlightened than many of the popes. His habits were moral and simple. The Clementine Museum is an evidence of his munifi- cence and taste for the arts. See Caraccioli, "Vie de Clement XIV," 1775; Theiner, "Ge.schichle des Pontificals Clements XIV.," 3 vols., 1853, and French version of llie same, " Histoire du Pontificat de Clement XIV ;" " London Quarterly Review" for June, Clement VII., Anti-Pope, was elected by a party of cardinals, as a rival of Urban VI., about 1378. Clement, a learned Irish ecclesiastic, was one of the scholars whom Charlemagne invited to his court and employed as a teacher. Died after 800 a.d. Clement, kli'mSN', (Amhroise,) a French economist, born in Paris in 1805. He published in 1846 a work entitled "Researches into the Causes of Indigence^" which is highly commended. He was one of the chief authors or compilers of the " Dictionary of Political Economv," (1852-53.) Died in September, 1862. Clement, kla'ment, (David,) a bibliographer of great erudition, was born at Hofgeismar, Hesse, in 1701. He became pastor of a church in Hanover in 1743. He pub- lished, in French, a work called "Catalogue raisonne of Books Difficult to Find." (9 vols., 1750-60.) Died in 1760. See Sax, " Onomasticon." Clement, (Dom Franqots,) a learned French Bene- dictine, born near Dijon in 17 14. He was called by his superiors to Paris to work at the continuation of the "Literary History of FVance." He afterwards published the twelfth and thirteenth volumes of "The Collection of the Historians of France," and "The Art of Veri- fying Dates," which was very successful. In 1783-87 he produced an improved edition of the latter work, (in 3 vols.,) which Jourdain calls "the finest monument of erudition of the eighteenth century." He was a "free associate" of the Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1793. See "Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale." Clement, (Jacques,) a fanatical French monk and regicide, born at S )rbonne about 1566. When Henry III. was besieging Paris, then occupied by the forces of the Catholic League, Clement conceived a design to assassi- a, e, T, 6, u, J, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f3,r, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; CLEMENT 621 CLEOMENES nate hirr.: in which he was encouraged by his superiors and by the Duke of Mayenne. Having been admitted to the palace as the bearer of a letter to the king, he stabbed him with a knife, on August I, 1589. The as- sassin was killed on the spot by the king's attendants. See SiSMONUi, "Histoire des Franyais;" De Thou, " Histoire." Clement, (Jean Marie Bernard,) a French littera- and critic, born at Dijon in 1742. He was noted for the severity of his criticisms and for his attacks on Voltaire, who surnamed him "Inclement." Among his best works are an " Essay on Tragedy," and an ** Essay on the Manner of Translating Poets into Verse." He also wrote satires and poems. Died in 181 2. See Grimm, " Correspondance." Clem'ent, (John,) a learned English physician, born about 1490. In 1529 he was sent by Henry VIII. to attend Cardinal Wolsey, who was then sick. He trans- lated some Latin epigrams, and the " Letters of Gregory Nazianzen." Died in 1572. Clement, (Julien,) a French surgeon and accoucheur, born at Aries, was patronized by Louis XIV. Died at Paris in 1729. Clement, kla'm^nt, (Knut Jungbohn,) a Danish linguist, born in the isle of Amram in 1803, settled in 1835 at Kiel, where he lectured several years. Among his works are one "On the Origin of the Teutons," (1836,) a "Journey through Holland and Germany," (1847,) ^"fl "The French and their Language," (1848.) Clement, (Margaret,) an English lady and Latin scholar, born in 1508, was a niece of Sir Thomas More. Died in 1570. Clement, (Nicolas,) born at Toul, in France, in 1647, was assistant librarian in the Royal Library. Died in 1 712. Clement, kli'mftN', (Pierre,) a critic and dramatist, born at Geneva in 1707, was a preacher in Paris in his youth. In 1748 he began to issue a critical review, called "Nouvelles litteraires de France," which he continued about five years. His criticisms are said to be judicious and liberal. He was the author of " Merope," a tragedy. Died in 1767. See Senebier, " Histoire litteraire de Geneve." Clement, (Pierre,) a French advocate of free trade, and a member of the Institute, was born in the depart- ment of Var in 1809. He published in 1846 a " History of the Life and Administration of Colbert," which was crowned by the French Academy and followed by other successful works on French history and finances. Clementi, kli-men'tee, (Muzio,) a celebrated pianist and composer, born in Rome in 1752. At the age of nine or ten his skill was such that he obtained a place as organist in Rome. After this period he became a pupil of Santarelli and Carjiini. About the age of thir- teen he went to England with Mr. P. Beckford, who made to his father a generous offer in respect to his education. He learned ancient and modern languages and various sciences, without neglecting music. At the age of eigh- teen he surpassed all his contemporaries on the piano, and composed his " Opera 2," which is regarded as " the basis on which the whole fabric of modern sonatas for the piano has been founded." In 1780 and 1781 he performed with great applause in Paris and Vienna. He played alternately with Mozart before the Austrian em- peror. In 1800 he became the head of a firm which was successful in the publication of music and the fabrication of pianos in London. He wrote " Practical Harmony" and " Gradus ad Parnassum," and composed one hundred and six Sonatas. Died in 1832. See Fetis, " Riogiaphie Universelle des Musiciens;" Tipaldo, " Biografia decli Italiani illustii." Clementi, (Prospero,) an eminent Italian sculptor, born at Reggio. Several of the family were noted as sculptors before him. Many of his works are at Reg- gio, Parma, and Mantua. A monument to Bishop An- dreassi is called his master-piece. Died in 1584. He was styled "the Correggio of Sculpture" by Algarotti. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. Clementone. See Bocciardo. Clenard, kli'ntii', Cleynaerts or Kleinarts, kll'- n^Bts, (Nicholas,) a Flemish grammarian, born in Bra- bant in 1495. After he had been professor of Hebrew and Greek in Louvain, he was employed by John III. of Portugal to finish the education of his brother, who was afterwards Henry I. Died in 1542. His Greek Grammar (1530) had great success. Clen'nell, (Luke,) an English painter and engraver, born near Morpeth in 1781, was a pupil of Bewick the engraver. He wc^rked in London, and painted history, landscapes, etc. Died in a lunatic-asylum in 1840. Cle'o-bis and Ei'ton [Gr. KAfo/3if and Birwr] were sons of the priestess of Juno at Argos, and once drew her chariot to the temple. Their mother having prayed that the goddess would reward them with the greatest of blessings, they fell asleep and never awoke. Cleobule. See Cleobulus. Cle-o-bu'lus, [Gr. IL'Kw^ov'koq; Fr. Cleobule, kliV- biil',] one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece, was King of Lindus, in Rhodes, in the sixth century B.C. He claimed a descent from Hercules. His favourite maxim, "kpLGTov fierpov, inculcates "Moderation in all things." Another of his sayings was, " Be swift to hear, and slow to speak." His daughter Cleobuline was celebrated for her skill in enigmas and in poetry. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca." Cleombrote. See Cleomhrotus. Cle-om'bro-tus or Kle-om'bro-tus, [Gr. KAfo//- (ipoTog ; Fr. Cleombrote, kia'SN'bRot',] the fourth son of Anaxandrides, King of Sparta, was the brother of Leonidas, the hero of Thermopylae. He commanded the army after the death of Leonidas, 480 B.C. Pausanias, the victor at Plataea, was his son. Cleombrotus I., King of Sparta, was the son of Pau- sanias, and grandson of the preceding. He ascended the throne at the death of his brother Agesipolis, 380 B.C. In 371 B.C. he commanded the Spartans at the battle of Leuctra, where he was defeated and killed by the The- bans under Epaminondas. He left two sons, Agesipolis II. and Cleomenes II. Cleombrotus II. was the son-in-law of Leonidas II., King of Sparta. By the aid of Agis and Lysander, he succeeded in deposing Leonidas about 243 B.C., and reigned for a short time in his place. Leonidas was restored, and his rival was exiled, about 240. Cleombrotus of Ambracia, a Greek Academic phi- loso])her, drowned himself in the sea after reading the " Phaedon" of Plato, in his eagerness to verify the doc- trine of a future state. Cleomede. See Cleomedes. Cle-o-me'des, [Gr. K'Aeo/if/Srjc : Fr. Cl^:omede, kli' o^mid',] a Greek astronomer,whose birthplace, residence, and era are unknown. He is the author of an interesting treatise on astronomy and cosmography, entitled "The Circular Theory of the Heavenly Bodies," ("Kv/i^f/c^ deupia fi£Teo)puv.'''') He maintains that the form of the earth is spherical, that the number of the fixed stars is infinite, and that the moon's rotation on its axis is per- formed in the same time as its synodical revolution. The refraction of light is noticed in this work for the first time. He ridicules the physical theories of the Epicureans, and often quotes from Posidonius, who lived in the first century B.C. His work has been printed several times. See Delamhrr," Histoire del' Astronomic ancienne ;" Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Gizeca;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale. " Cleomene. _ See Cleomenes. Cle-om^e-nes or Kle-om'e-nes [Gr. KleofjEvrj^ ; Fr. Cl^:omene, kli'o'min'] I., King of Sparta, was the son of Anaxandrides, whom he succeeded about 518 B.C. Demaratus at the same time reigned jointly with him. In 510 he liberated Athens from the rule of the Pisis- tratidas, whom he expelled by arins ; but he afterwards made an abortive attempt to restore Hippias. In 500 he refused a large bribe offered to induce him to aid the lonians against Persia. About 491 the Spartans sent him to punish the people of ^gina for giving earth and water as signs of homage to Darius. By tampering with the priestess of Delphi, he caused Demaratus to be de- throned. Herodotus says that he killed himself, in a fit of insanity, in 489 B.C. His half-brother Leonidas succeeded him. See Herodotus, "History;" Grote, "History of Greece;' Thirlwall, "History of Greece." € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; o, h, y^, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled, s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) CLEOMENES 6^4 CLERC Cleomenes II., King of Sparta, of the elder branch, succeeded his brother Agesipolis II. in 370 B.C. He died in 309 B.C., and left the throne to his grandson Areus. Cleomenes III., King of Sparta, of the Agidae line, succeeded his father Leonidas II. in 236 B.C. He had before married Agiatis, the widow of Agis IV., and daughter of Gylippus. Having formed a design to re- stcne the ancient Spartan virtue and discipline, he de- clared war against the Achaean League, with the idea that war was conducive to his purpose. He gained a signal victory over Aratus near Megalopolis in 226 B.C. Finding the powers of the ephori an obstacle to his design, he put them all to death except Agesilaus, who escaped. He then made a new division of property or land, restored the old social system, abolished the office of ephorus, and made his brother Euclidas his partner in the throne. He afterwards defeated the Achaeans in several battles, until the latter were reinforced by Anti- gonus, King of Macedon, who obtained a decisive victory over Cleomenes at Sellasia in 222 B.C. He then fled to P2gypt, where he killed himself in the year 220. Plutarch extols his magnanimity, and says, '* he showed himself in all respects the great man." He may be justly ac- counted the last great man of Sparta. See Plutarch, "Cleomenes" and "Aratus;" Franz van Cap- PEI.LE, " Dissertatio de Cleomeiie Lacedsmoniorum Rege," 1845; Dkoysen, " Gescliichte der Hellenen." Cleomenes, [Fr. Cl6om^:ne,] a Greek sculptor, is mentioned by no ancient author except Pliny, who says the group of Muses placed by Pollio in his house in Rome was the work of Cleomenes. His name would perhaps have been forgotten if it had not been carved on that exquisite tvpe of grace and beauty, the Venus de Me- dici, thus : KAE0MENH2 AnOAAOAS2POT AGHNAIOS Eni2IH2EN, "Cleomenes, son of Apollodorus, an Athe- nian, made [this.]" He is supposed to have lived about 200 or 300 B.C. See ViscoNTi, " Notice critique sur les Sculpteurs Grecs qui ont porte le Noni de Cleomenes." Cleomenes, a Greek of Naucratis, in Egypt, was appointed by Alexander the Great receiver-general of tribute in Egypt, and was notorious for his rapacity. He was also employed to superintend the building of Alexandria. He was put to death by King Ptolemy about 322 B.C. Cle'on or Kle'on, [K/lewv,] an Athenian demagogue, noted for his insolence, venality, and facility of speech, first appears in history about 428 B.C. He was a favour- ite and leader of the popular party, or lower classes, while Nicias was the chief of the opposite party. He conducted a successful expedition against the Spartans at Pylos in 425, which raised his credit and filled him with presump- tion. Though he was ignorant of the military art, he again obtained command of an army sent against the Spartan general Brajidas, by whom he was defeated at Amphipolis in 422 B.C. Cleon and Brasidas both fell in this action. See Grote, "History of Greece;" Thucvdides, "History;" Plutarch, " Pericles" and " Nicias." Cleon, a Greek sculjitor, born at Sicyon, was a pupil of Antiphanes. He flourished about 388 B.C. Pliny speaks of a statue of Admetus as his master-piece. Cleon made two bronze statues of Jupiter for the temple at Olympia. Cle'o-pas or Cle'o-phas, one of the primitive and immediate disciples of Christ. (See Luke xxiv. 18; John xix. 25.) Cle-o-pa'tra, [Gr. KAeoTrarpa,] the daughter of Philip of Macedon and Olympias, was the sister of Alexander ,the Great. In 336 B.C. she became the wife of Alexander, King of Epirus, her maternal uncle. After the death of her brother she was assassinated by order of Antigonus. Cleopatra, the daughter of Antiochus the Great, was married to Ptolemy Epiphanes of Ii^gypt in 193 B.C. Cleopatra, an ambitious queen of Syria, was the daughter of Ptolemy Philometor. She was the wife of three successive kings of Syria, — Alexander Balas, De- metrius Nicator, and Antiochus Sidetes. It is said that she caused the second to be killed. ^ Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, a daughter of Ptolemy Ei)iphanes, was married first to Ptolemy Philometor, and next to Ptolemy Physcon. Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, a daughter of the pre- ceding, was married to Ptoleiuy Physcon. Died 89 B.C. She had a daughter Cleopatra, who became the queen of Ptolemy Lathyrus. Cleopatra, [Gr. KAcoTrarpa; Fr. Cl^opatre, kli'o'- pitk',] a queen of Egypt, celebrated for her personal charms, her various accomplishments, and her dramatic history, was the daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, and was born in 69 B.C. Her father died in the year 51, leaving the throne to her in partnership with her brother Ptol- emy. She was richly endowed with mental qualities and captivating graces, and was mistress of many languages besides the Greek, her mother-tongue. In 48 B.C., Julius Caesar, who had entered Egypt with a small army, having been caught "in her strong toils of grace," restored her to the throne, from which her brother had expelled her. War ensued between Caesar and Ptolemy, who was de- feated and killed. She then became the actual sovereign, though her young brother nominally shared the throne. She followed Caesar to Rome in the year 46, and was an inmate of his palace until his death in 44 B.C., when she returned to Egypt. Her brother, above mentioned, was killed about this time, — it is said, by her order. In the year 41 she formed a liaison with the triumvir Mark An- tony, who became her devoted admirer, and oflered, as Plutarch says, at her shrine of luxury the sacrifice of his precious time. The great modern dramatist has described his infatuation and his dalliance with the voluptuous and dusky Egyptian while the empire of the world was passing into the hands of Octavius. Cleopatra was present at the naval battle of Actium, in 31 B.C., and was the first to order a retreat, in which Antony followed. After An- tony had killed himself, she became the prisoner of Octa- vius, with whom she had an interview, and whose favour she failed to gain. Intending to lead her as a captive in his triumph in Rome, he took strict measures to secure her from suicide ; but, according to Plutarch, she effected her purpose by means of an asp, which was conveyed to her in a basket of fruit, and died in 30 B.C., leaving a son, Caesarion, (whose reputed father was Julius Caesar,) besides several other children. She was the last of her dynasty that reigned in Egypt. See Plutarch, "Antony;" C.«:.sar, " Bellum Civile;" Giulio Landi, " Vita di Cleopatra," 1551 ; J. F. Kinoerling, " Hekubaund Cleopatra," 1S04; Dion Cassius, books xlii., xliii., xlviii., and xlix. Cleopatra surnamed Sele'ne, the daughter of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, was taken to Rome at the death of her parents, 30 B.C. She became the wife of Juba, King of Mauritania. Cleop^tre. See Cleopatra. Cle-o-phan'tus, [KXeb^avTog,'] a Corinthian, whom Greek tradition commemorates as the first who applied colour to designs. Respecting the time in which he lived we have nothing but conjecture. Cle'o-phon or Kle'o-phon, [KAco^wv,] an Athenian demagogue, who dissuaded the people from acceptmg the terms offered by the Lacedemonians after the battle of Arginusae. He was condemned and executed by the senate in 405 B.C. Cleostrate. See Cleostratus. Cle-os'tra-tus or Kle-os'tra-tus, [Gr. KXeoaTpan)^; Fr. Cleostrate, kli'o'stRtt',] a Greek astronomer, born in Tenedos, is supposed to have lived about 500 B.C. He is said to have divided the zodiac into signs. Clerc, klaiR, (Nicolas Gabriel,) a French physician, born in Franche-Comte in 1726. He became first phy- sician of the French army in Germany in 1757. A few years later he went to Russia, where he had the title of chief physician to the grand duke. He published seve- ral medical works, one of which was very successful, namely, "Medicine restored to its First Simplicity," and a " History of Russia, Ancient and Modern," (6 vols., 1783-94,) which, says M. Weiss, (in the " Biographie Universelle,") "is still the most complete work we have on that subject." Died at Versailles in 1798. See Qu^rakd, "La France Litt^raire ;" fiLOV, " Dictionnaire de la Medecine." Clerc de la Forrest, le, leh klaiR deh It fo^ri'. (Antoine,) a French scholar, noted for his beneficence, was born at Auxerre in 1563. Among his works are "Letters and Maxims," (1644.) Died in 1628. See his life, entitled "The Perfect Layman," (in French,) 1644. a, e, J, 5, u, y, lono-; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, n, y, sAorf : a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; CLERC 623 CLEVES Clerc, Le. See Le Clerc. Clerc, le, leh klaiR, (Jean,) surnamed le Chevalier, (leh .sheh-vS'le-4',) a French painter, a pupil of Carlo Veneziano, was born at Nancy in 1587. He worked for many years at Venice. Died in 1633. Clei'ck, k'.eRk, (Karl,) a Swedish entomologist, and pupil of IJnnasus, was the author of esteemed works, entitled "Swedish Spiders," ("Aranei Suecici," 1757,) and *' Figures of Rare Insects," (" Icones Insectorum rariorum,") which was highly praised by Linnsus in a note to his " Systema Naturae." Clerembault, de, deh klk'rSN'bo', (Philippe,) Count de Palluau, (pt'lii^o',) a marshal of France, born in 1606; died in 1665. Clerfayt or Clairfait, de, pron. alike deh kl^R'fi', (FRAxgois Sekastien Charles Joseph de Croix — deh IcRwl,) Count, an eminent Austrian general, born near Binche, in Flanders, in 1733. He fought against the Prus- sians in the Seven Years' war, (1755-62,) and became general-major in 1773. For his victory over the Turks, near Korammeck, he was promoted to the rank of gen- eral of artillery in 1790. He commanded a division at the battle of Jemmapes, (November, 1792.) The victory of the Austrians at Neerwinden, (1793,) where he com- manded the left vving, is attributed to him. He was de- feated near Tournay in 1794. He received the baton of field-marshal, with the command of the army of the Rhine, in 1795, forced Jourdan to repass the Rhine, and gained a victory over another French army at Mentz. In 1796 he was superseded by the Archduke Charles, and became a member of tlie council of war in Vienna. Died in 1798. See JoMiNi, " Histoire critique, etc. des Guerres de la Revolution." Clerion, kli're'oN', (Jacques,) a French sculptor, born near Aix in 1640. His principal works are in the park of Versailles. Died in 1714. Clerisseau, kli're'so', (Charles Louis,) a successful French painter and architect, born in 1720, built the Hotel of the Govenmient at Metz, and published "An- tiquities of France." Died in 1820. Clerjoii, kllR'zh^N', (Pierre,) a French litterateur, born at Vienne in 1800, wrote a "History of Lyons," (1831,) and other works. Died in 1832. Clerk, (John,) a Scottish naval tactician, born at Eldin about 1730. He is the reputed inventor of the manoeuvre in naval tactics called "breaking the line," which was first tried with success by Sir George Rod- ney in April, 1782, when he defeated De Grasse in the West Indies. He published, in 1782, an " Essay on Naval Tactics." Died in 1812. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Clerk, (John,) Lord Eldin, a Scottish judge and eloquent advocate, son of the preceding, born about 1757. He lived in Edinburgh. Died in 1832. Clerke, (Charles,) an able English navigator, born in 1 741. He accompanied Captain Cook in his voyages around the world between 1768 and 1776, and upon the death of Cook he became commander of the expedition. He died at sea in 1779. See Cook, "Voyages;" W. Smith, " Voyages around the World." Clermont, de, deh klgii'moN', (Louis de Bourbon Conde— deh booR'bdN' koN'da',) Comte, a French prince, born in 1709. He displayed courage and ability in several campaigns between 1 733 and 1 750. About 1 754 he was admitted into the P rench Academv. He com- manded the army in Hanover in 1758, and was defeated at Crevelt. Died in 1770. Clermont-Tonnerre, de, deh kleR'm6N' to'naiR', (Aim6 Marie Gaspard,) Due, a French minister of state, born in Paris in 1780, was a son of Gaspard Paulin, and nephew of the cardinal. He entered the Chamber of Peers in 1815, was appointed minister of the marine in 1821, and was minister of war from 1823 until 1827. Clermont-Tonnerre, de, (Anne Antoine Jules,) Cardinal, born in Paris in 1749, was a son of Jules Charles Henri, noticed below. He became Bishop of Chalons in 1782, and acted with the royalists in the States-General of 1789. In 1820 he was made Archbishop of Toulouse, and a cardinal in 1822. Died in 1830. Clermont-Tonnerre, de, (FRANgois,) a Frenchman, born in 1629, became Bishop and Count of Noyon. He was admitted into the French Academy in 1694, and founded the annual prize of poetry offered by that insti- tution. Died in 1701. See Saint-Simon. "Memoires." Clermont-Tonnerre, de, (Gaspard,) Marquis, a French general, born in 1688. He commanded the left wing at Fontenoy, and had a prominent part in the battle of Laufeld in 1746. In the same year he was made marshal of France. Died in 1781. Clermont-Tonnerre, de,(S rANiSLAS,)CoMTE, grand- son of the preceding, was born in 1 747. He was elected by the noblesse of Paris to the States-General in 1789. He was liberal in politics, and was one of those nobles who joined the Tiers-Etat. By his eloquence and other talents he acquired much influence in the Assembly, but was too moderate to please the party which became dominant. He advocated the absolute veto, and the civic equality of Protestants with all other Frenchmen. He perished in the massacre of August 10, 1792. "Clermont-Ton- nerre and Malhouet," says Lamartine, "were statesmen rather than orators : their sure and deliberate speech impressed the reason only. They sought an equilibrium between liberty and monarchy, and believed they had found it in the English system of two chambers." (" His- tory of the Girondists.") Clerselier, klgR'sa'le-i', written also Clersellier, (Claude,) a French metaphysician, born in 1614, was a partisan of the Cartesian philosophy. He edited the "Principles of Philosophy" and other works of Descartes, l^ayle calls him the "ornament and pillar of Cartesian- ism." Died in 1684. Clery, kli're', (Jean Baptiste Cant Hanet,) the last servant of Louis XVI. of France, was born at Ver- sailles in 1759. He served that king as valet-de-chambre in prison, and published a "Journal of the Captivity of Louis XVI. in the Temple." Died near Vienna in 1809. See Madame Campan, *' JMemoires Vigee le Bkun, "Sou- venirs." Clesinger, kleh-z3,N'zhi', (Jean Baptiste Auguste,) a successful French sculptor, born at Besan9on about 1820. His statue of a "Woman bitten by a Serpent" (1847) is called one of his best works. About 1856 he exhibited in Paris an equestrian statue of Francis T. Cleve, van, vtn kliv, (Cornelius,) a French sculp- tor, of Dutch extraction, born in Paris in 1645. After studying at Rome six years, he returned home in 1677, and worked in Paris with success. He was a member of the Royal Academy. Died in 1732. Cleveland. See Cleaveland. Cleveland, kleev'land, (Charles Dexter,) an Ame- rican scholar and writer, born in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1802. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1827, and in 1830 .was appointed Latin and Greek professor in Dick- inson College, Pennsylvania. In 1834 he established a Young Ladies' Seminary in Philadelphia, which soon acquired a high rej^utation. He has published, besides other works, "A Compendium of Grecian Antiquities, with Maps and Illustrations ;" " Compendium of F^nglish Literature from Sir John Mandeville to William Cow- per," (1850;) "English Literature of the Nineteenth Century," (1851 ;) a critical edition of Milton's Poetical Works, (1853;) a "Compendium of American Litera- ture," (1858 ;) and a "Compendium of Classical Litera- ture," (1861.) All the last-named works have enjoyed an extensive and deserved popularity. Died in 1869. CleV'en-ger, (Shobal L. Vail,) an American sculp- tor, born at Middletown, Ohio, in 1812. He learned the trade of a stonecutter, which he followed in Cincin- nati. Having attracted attention, he removed to Boston, where he made busts of Webster, Clay, and others, which were much admired. He afterwards studied for several years in Italy, and died at sea, while on his passage home, in September, 1843. See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists;" "Democratic Review" for February, 1844. Cleves, de, deh kl^v, (Marie,) Duchess of Orleans, born in 1426, was a daughter of Adolphus IV., Duke of Cleves, and a niece of'Philip the Good of Burgundy. She was married in 1440 to Charles d'Orleans the poet. She wrote ballads and other verses. Her son became Louis XII., King of France. Died in 1487. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this, (gi^See Explanations, p. 23.) CLEVER 624 CLINTON Cleyer, klT'er, (Andreas,) a German botanist, born at Cassel, passed some years in Java, and enriched the science of botany with his observations and memoirs. Du Petit- Thouars says he visited China and Japan and returned to hlurope about i68o. Cieyn, kiln, (Franz,) a Danish painter, born at Ros- tock, worked in England, and received a pension from James I. Died in 1658. Cleynaerts. See Cl^nard. Clichtove, kliK'to'veh, (Jossk,) a Flemish theologian, born at Nieuwpoort. He Ijecame professor of theology in Paris, and acquired a high rejiutation as a preacher and writer. His most popular work was an argument against Lutiier's doctrines, called '* Anti-Lutherus," (1524.) His writings were commended by Erasmus as " uberrimus rerum oplimarum fons," (" an abundant fountain of the best things.") Died in 1543. Clicquot de Blervache, kle'ko' deh bl^R^tsh', (SiM(JN,) a meritorious French economist, born at Rheims in 1 723, became inspector-general of commerce in 1765. He wrote an " Essay on the vState of Commerce in France from Hugh Capet to Francis I.," (1756.) Died in 1796. Clieveland. See Cleavkland. Clifford. See Cliffort. CiiFford, (.\nne,) Countess of Dorset, an Engb'sh lady, eminent for her virtue, intelligence, and high spirit, born at Skipton Castle in 1589, was the daughter of George Clifford, Earl of Cumberland. She was married first to the Earl of Dorset, and then to Philip Herbert, Earl of Pembroke. She built two hospitals and several churches. In the reign of Charles H. Sir Jt)seph Wil- liamson nominated to her a candidate whom he wished to be returned to Parliament for Appleby. In reply she wrote this famous letter: "I have been bullied by an usurper, I have been neglected by a court, but I will not be dictated to by a subject : your man sha'n't stand." Died in 1676. See "Autobiographic Memorials;" L. S. Costello, "Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," London, 1844; Hartley Colekiuge, "Lives of Distinguished Northerns," vol. ii. Clifford, (Arthur,) an English writer, born of a noble family in 1778. He was author or editor of several works, among which are " Carmen Seculare,"and " State Papers and Letters of Sir Ralph Sadler." Died in 1830. Clifford, (George,) third Earl of Cumberland, born in England in 1558, was famous for his gallantry. He was often the champion of Queen Elizabeth in tourna- ments. In 1588 he fought as captain against the In- vincible Armada. He afterwards commanded several expeditions against the Spaniards. Died in 1605. See J. Barrow, "Memoirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen Elizabeth's Reign," 1845; Campbell, "Lives of the British Ad- mirals." , Clifford, (John,) Lord, called Black CLiFFORn, an English warrior, notorious for cruelty, fought for the house of Lancaster in the war of the Roses. He was killed in 146L See Shakspeare's "Henry VI." Clifford, (Martin,) an English writer, published "Observations on Human Reason," and other works. Died in 1677. Clifford, (Thomas,) eighth Lord, an English Lancas- trian chief, performed an important part in the war of the Roses. He was the father of the " Black Clifford" noticed above. He was killed at the battle of Saint Alban's in 1455. (See Shakspeare's " Henry VI.") Clifford, ( f HOMAS,) Lord, an English politician, born in 1630, became in 1660 a member of Parliament, in which he distinguished himself. In 1668 he was chosen a com- missioner of the treasury, and in 1671 he with four others formed the notorious cabinet called the Cabal because the initial letters of their names happened to form that word. He was created Baron in 1672, and was lord treasurer for a short time, but resigned office in 1673. Macaulay calls hii i the most respectable member of the Cabal. Died in 1673. See Macaulay's "History of England." Cliffort, kliFfort, or Clifford, (George,) a rich banker of Amsterdam, whose name is rendered memorable by nis connection with Linnaeus. Having a taste for natural history, he formed near Amsterdam a fine garden, with a rich collection of objects in natural history. When Lin- naeus was a poor student, he was employed to arrange and direct this museum and garden, which he described in his " Hortus Cliffortianus," (1737,) a richly-illustrated work. Clift, (William,) F.R.S., an Engli.sh naturalist, born near Kodmm in 1775, was employed as artist and clerk by the great John Hunter. He became conservator of the Hunterian Museum about 1800. Died in 1849. Clirt9n,( Francis,) F,R.S.,an English physician, prac- tised in London with a high reputation, and became physician to the Prince of Wales. He translated several treatises of Hippocrates, and wrote "The State of Physic, Ancient and Modern," (1732.) Clifton, (William,) an American poet, born in Philadelphia in 1772. He left an unfinished poem, caJled "The Chimeriad," a "Poetical Epistle to William Gif- ford," and other poems. Died in 1799. See Griswold's " Poets and Poetry of America." Climaque. See Climacus. Clim'a-cus, (Joannes,) [Gr. 'luawrj^ 6 Kll^aKOQ ; Fn Climaque, kle^mtk',]a monk, noted for his learning and ascetic writings, was born about 525 a.d., and received the surname of Scholastic us. He passed many years as a hermit in the deserts of Sinai. In 600 he was chosen abbot of the monastery of Mount Sinai. He wrote (in Greek) several works, one of which is called "Climax, or the Ladder of Paradise," and has often been reprinted. Died in 605. See Fabrich;s, " Bibliotheca Gra:ca." Clinchamp, kliN'shSN', (FRANgois Etienne Vic- tor,) a French writer and historical painter, born at Toulon in 1787. He published a "Complete Course of Perspective, Linear and Aerial," (1840,) and " The Id'om of Painting," etc. Cline, ( Henry,) an English surgeon, born in London about 1750, wrote an esteemed " Essay on the Form and Breeding of Domestic Animals," (1815.) Died in 1827. Cling'man, (Thomas L.,) born in Surry county, North Carolina, was elected a member of Congress in 1843, as a Whig, and was re-elected several times. Having joined the Democratic party, he was elected to the Senate of the United States in 1858. Clin'i-as, the father of Alcibiades, was killed at the battle of Coronea in 447 B.C. Clinias, a Pythagorean philosopher, and friend of Plato, born at Tarentum, lived about 400 B.C. Cli-nom'a-ehus, [Fr. Clinomaque, kle^no'mtk',] a philosopher of the school of Megara, was born at Thu- rium, and lived about 350 B.C. Clin'tpn, (Charles,) Colonel, the father of Gov- ernor George Clinton, was born in 1690 in Longford, Ire- land. He emigrated to America in 1729, and settled in Ulster county. New York. He was judge of the county court, and a lieutenant under Bradstreet at the capture of Fort Frontenac. Died in 1773. Clin'ton, (Charles John Fynes,) an English clergy- man, born in 1799, edited or published "The Literary Remains of Henry Fynes Clinton," (1854.) Clin'ton, (De Witt,) an eminent American states- man, born at Little Britain, Orange county. New York, March 2, 1769, was a son of General James Clinton and Mary De Witt. He was a nephew of George Clin- ton who was chosen Vice-President of the United vStates in 1804. He graduated at Columbia College, New York, in 1786, and studied law, but never practised it to much extent. About 1790 he became private secretary of his uncle, George Clinton, then Governor of New York. "The life of Clinton," says Renwick, "was from this moment one of political strife, into which he threw all the force of his ardent temperament and brilliant talents." He began his career as a Republican or Anti-Federalist. He married, about 1796, Maria Franklin, of New York City. In 1797 he was elected a member of the legisla- ture, and in 1798 a Senator, of the State of New York. Among other pursuits, he applied himself with ardour to the study of natural history and other sciences. Having become the most influential leader of the Democrats of New York, he was elected a Senator of the United States in 1801 or 1802. He made a powerful speech on the navigation of the Mississippi, and opposed a war against Spain, which disputed the right of the Americans to navigate that river. He possessed in high perfection the gift of commanding eloquence. Accord- 5, e, 1, o, u, y, long; \ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; CLINTON 625 CLINTON ing to Professor Renwick, "he was on all sides looked u]j to as the most rising man in the Union," when he was appointed mayor of the city of New York in 1803. This office was then more important than it is at the present time ; for the mayor was also the president of the council and chief judge of the common pleas and of the criminal court. He continued to serve as mayor until 1807, was again appointed in 1809, and removed in iSio. He filled'"the same office from 181 1 to 1814 in- clusive, and by his wise and efficient administration con- tributed much to the prosperity of the city. Under his auspices the Historical Society and the Academy of Fine Arts were established. He also served as Lieutenant- Governor for two years, 1811-13. He was one of seven commissioners apj^ointedin 1809 to examine and survey a route for a canal from the Hudson to the lakes. De Witt Clinton and Aaron Burr were political rivals ; and, after the latter fell into disgrace, Daniel D. Tomp- kins became a competitor for the leadership of the New York Democracy. Tompkins excelled in the art of gaining the favour of the people, while Clinton was deficient in popular arts and found it more difficult to ingratiate himself with strangers. His popularity was impaired by his disagreement with President Madison in relation to the war of 1812, for which he thought the country was not well prepared. He was nominated for the office of President of the United States in 181 2, and received eighty-nine electoral votes, cast by New Hamp- shire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland, but was defeated by James Madison, He was the first president of the Literary and Philo- sophical Society, founded about 1814. According to Mr. Renwick, "the charge of being opposed to a war with Great Britain, which has been so often urged against him, is devoid of foundation." Li 1815 he gave a new impulse to internal improvement by an able memorial in favour of the immediate construction of the Erie Canal. The merit of this memorial, together with his subsequent services, was such as to entitle him to stand first in the list of the promoters of this vast and beneficent enter- prise, on which his political prospects and reputation were staked. Li the spring of 181 7 a bill authorizing the construction of the Erie Canal passed the legislature. Mr. Clinton was almost unanimously elected Governor of New York about May, 181 7 ; but his opponents soon formed against him a powerful party, called " Bucktails," who denounced the projected canal as visionary and impracticable. The canal policy was the chief point at issue in the election of 1820, and Governor Clinton was then re-elected in preference to his old rival, Daniel D. Tompkins; but the opponents of Clinton obtained majorities in both branches of the legislature. He was pre-eminent among statesmen for his compre- hensive views and his liberal patronage of learning and schools. In a message to the legislature he affirmed, "It cannot be too forcibly inculcated, nor too generally understood, that in promoting the great interests of moral and intellectual cultivation there can be no prodigality in the application of the public treasure." While he filled the office of Governor he was also president of the Board of Canal Commissioners. Having lost his first wife in 1818, he married Catherine Jones about 1820. He declined to be a candidate for Governor in 1822, and the election of that year resulted in the success of his adversaries, who removed him from the office of canal commissioner in 1824. This act excited the just indig- nation of the people, who elected him Governor in the autumn of 1824 by a majority of about 16,000, a greater majority than any candidate had ever received. The Erie Canal was completed in 1825, and Governor Clinton lived to witness the unexampled prosperity which it pro- duced. The opening of the canal was celebrated with pomp in October, 1825, when the Governor was conveyed in a barge through a triumphal progress from Lake Erie to the city of New York. He was re-elected Governor for two years in 1826. In 1825 he declined the position of minister to England, offered to him by President Adams. He wrote several short treatises on natural his- tory, which were published in the "Transactions" of the Literary and Philosophical Society, (of New York,) and contributed to the Historical Society a valuable discourst on the history of the Indians of New York. He died at Albany in February, 1828, leaving several sons and daughters. His stature was tall, his person well formed, his manners dignified, and his presence majestic. See James Renwick, " Life of De Witt Clinton," 1840 ; " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii. ; " Life of De Witt C'linton," by William W. Campbell, 1849; " Memoir of De Witt Clinton," by David Hosack, 1829 ; " North American Review" for October, 1829. Clinton, (Edward.) See Lincoln, Earl of. Clinton, (George,) fourth Vice-President of the United States, youngest son of Colonel Charles Clinton, was born in Ulster county, New York, in 1739. He practised law with success, and became the head of the Whig party in the Colonial Assembly of New York. Elected to the Continental Congress in 1775, he voted for the Declaration of Independence ; but, being called shortly after to take command of a brigade of New York militia, his name does not appear among the signers of that instrument. Chosen Governor of New York at the first election under the State Constitution in 1777, he held the office, by successive re-elections, for eighteen years. In 1788 he was chosen president of the conven- tion called to adopt or reject the Federal Constitution, which he opposed, as giving too much power to the cen- tral government and too little to the States. Governor Clinton was thenceforth the leader of the Republican parly in New York, and at the close of Washington's first term, in 1792, received fifty electoral votes for Vice- President. He was again chosen Governor of New York in 1801, and in 1804 he was elected Vice-President of the United States, with Jefferson as President. In the national canvass of 1808 he was re-chosen Vice-Presi- dent, James Madison being President. As President of the Senate by virtue of this office, he gave the casting vote against the re-charter of the United States Bank in 181 1. Died at Washington in April, 1812. See "Encyclopaedia Americana." Clinton, (Sir Henry,) an English general, born about 1738, was a grandson of Francis Clinton, sixth Earl of Lincoln. He became a captain in the Guards in 1758, and had risen to the rank of major-general in 1775, when he took a prominent part in the battle of Bunker Hill. In January, 1778, he was appointed commander-in-chief instead of General Howe, who was recalled. He evacu- ated Philadelphia in June, and retired through Jersey to New York City. He sent an expedition against Savannah, which was successful, in 1779, and he led an army against Charleston, South Carolina, which he cap- tured in May, 1780. In the same year he negotiated with General Arnold, and co-operated with him in his treasonable project. He was superseded by General Carleton in 1781, and returned to England in 1782. Died at Gibraltar in 1795. See Bancroft, "History of the United States;" "Encyclopaedia Americana." Clinton, (Sir Henry,) an English general, born about 1765. In 1798 he acted as aide-de-camp of Lord Corn- wallis in Ireland. He was made adjutant-general in 1802, and served in the East Indies until 1805. He obtained the rank of major-general in 1810, and served with dis- tinction in several campaigns in the Peninsula under Wel- lington. As lieutenant-general, he commanded a division at Waterloo in 1 81 5. For his conduct on this occasion he was rewarded with the title of knight of various orders. Died about 1830. Clinton, (Henry Fynes,) an eminent English clas- sical scholar and writer, born at Gamston, Notting- hamshire, in 1 781, was a descendant of the second Earl of Lincoln. He graduated at Oxford in 1805. He represented Aldborough in Parliament for about twenty years previous to 1826. After long and close application to the study of Greek and Roman authors, he produced in 1834 an important work, entitled "Fasti Hellenici : the Civil and Literary Chronology of Greece," which is indispensable to students of ancient history. His "Chronology of Rome" ("Fasti Romani," 1845-50) is also highly prized. Died in 1852. See "Literary Remains of H. F. Clinton," by C. J. F. Clinton, 1854. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, H, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^(^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 40 CLINTON 626 CLODIUS Clinton, (Henry Pelham.) See Newcastle, Duke OF. Clinton, (James,) a distinguished ofificer in the Ameri- can Revolution, fourth son of Colonel Charles Clinton, and father of De Witt Clinton, was born in Ulster county, New York, in 1736, He greatly distinguished himself in the English and French war, was appointed by Con- gress a colonel at the breaking out of the Revolution in 1775, and the same year accompanied Montgomery in his expedition to Canada. In 1777 he commanded, as brigadier-general, under his brother George, noticed above, at the defence of Fort Clinton against Sir Henry Clinton, with a force of 3000. He afterwards rendered valuable service in Sullivan's expedition against the In- dians, and was for a long time stationed, in command of the Northern department, at Albany. In 1781 he assisted at the siege of Vorktown. After the war he filled various important civil offices in New York. Died in 1812. See "Encyclopaedia Americana." Cli'o, [Gr. KTiSicj,] one of the nine Muses, presided over history, and was represented as holding in one hand a half-opened roll, and in the other a harp, (cithara.) See Mus.^. Clisson, de, deh kle'sdn', (Olivier,) a famous French captain, born in l^retagne about 1335. He became in 1370 a companion-in-arms of Du Guesclin, and in 1380 was made Constable of France. In 1382 he commanded the vanguard at the battle of Rosbecq. He was deprived of the command in 1391, and died in 1407, leaving a repu- tation tarnished by an unscrupulous avidity for money. See La Fontenelle de Vauxdore, " Histoire d'Olivier de Clis- son, " 1825. Clisthene. See Clisthenes. Clis'the-nes, a tyrant of Sicyon, waged war against Argos, and prohibited his subjects from singing the poetry of Homer. Died about 5S0 B.C. Clisthenes, Cleis'the-nes, or Kleisthenes, [Gr. Kleiadevrjg; Fr. Clis thene, kl^s'tan',] an Athenian states- man, who flourished about 500 B.C., was the grandfather of Pericles, and grandson of the preceding. He made im- portaiit changes in the constitution, tending to increase the power of the commons, and thus became very popular. He changed the number of tribes of Attica from four to ten. After his rival Isagoras was exiled, Clisthenes was for some time the foremost man in the state. It is said that the mode of banishing by ostracism was instituted by him. See Herodotus, " History," books v. and vi. ; Grote, " History of Greece;" Thirlwall, " History of Greece." Cli-tar'-ehus or Clei-tar'-ehus, [Gr. YUehapxog Fr. Clitarque, kle''tiRk',] a son of Dinon the historian, lived about 330 B.C. He followed Alexander the Great in his expedition to Asia, and wrote a history of the same, which has not come down to us. The veracity of this work is discredited by Quintilian and Cicero. See Vossius, " De Historicis Graecis." Clitarque. See Clitarch us. Cli-tom'a-Ghus, [Gr. KAar6/za,Yor-,] a Carthaginian philosopher, who about 150 B.C. became a resident of Athens and a disciple of Carneades. At the death of the latter, in 130 B.C., he succeeded him as the head of the Academy. He wrote numerous works, which are not extant. Cicero often quotes him with respect. See Brucker, "History of Philosophy." Clit'o-phon, [K/lfiro^wi',] a Greek historian of an uncertain epoch, was born at Rhodes. Plutarch quotes or borrows from several of his works. Cli'tus or Clei'tus, [Gr. Kldrog,] a Macedonian offi- cer, who accompanied Alexander in the invasion of Persia. He saved the life of that prince at the battle of the Grani^cus, (334 B.C.,) and afterwards obtained com- mand of a division of the royal guards. In the year 328 he was appointed Satrap of Bactria. At a feast given in honour of the Dioscu'ri in that year, an angry dispute arose between Clitus and Alexander, who, being excited with wine, killed the former with a spear. See Plutarch, "Alexander." Clive, (Catherine,) an eminent English actress, born in 1711, made htx delnit at Drury Lane about 1730. She performed in comedy for about thirty years, with distin- guished success. She was married early to a Mr. Clive, from whom she soon separated. Died in 1785. Clive, (Robert,) Lord, the founder of the British empire in India, an able and successful general and statesman, was born, of rather poor parents, near Market Drayton, Shropshire, in 1725. At school he made little progress in study, and was noted for his fiery passions and propensity to mischief. In his eighteenth year he went to Madras, as a writer in the service of the East India Company, then merely a trading corporation own- ing but a few acres of Indian ground. /Vs his pay was small and his health was impaired by the climate; he became so weary of life that he attempted to kill himself; but his pistol twice missed fire. About that time war began between the English and French in India; and Clive entered the service of the Com]: any as ensign in 1747. By his courage and sagacity he lose rapidly to distinction. The brilliant successes of the French gov- ernor Dupleix alarmed the English, and produced a crisis in the politics of India. Captain Clive, having obtained command of a few hundred men in 1750, turned the tide of fortune at Arcot, and gained several victories over the French and native armies combined. Having married Miss Maskelyne, a sister of the astronomer-royal, he returned to England for his health in 1753, and found himself an object of general favour and applause. In 1755 the directors sent him back as governor of Fort Saint David. The next year Surajah Dowlah, Na- bob of Bengal, captured the British garrison of Fort William, and smothered them in the "Black Hole" of Calcutta. Clive was sent to avenge this outrage. He recovered Calcutta, and compelled the nabob to sue for peace in 1757. But the war was quickly renewed, and in June, 1757, the fate of India was decided at the battle of Plassey, where Clive with 3000 men defeated about 60,000 of the enemy. Surajah was deposed, and was put to death by order of Meer Jaffier, who had been raised to the throne of Bengal in place of Surajah Dow- lah. In the negotiations which preceded the battle of Plassey, Clive is censured for a breach of faith, which is not denied by his friends. The directors, on receiving news of his victory, appointed Clive Governor of Bengal. In 1759 he defeated a Dutwh armament which had en- ' tered the Hoogly. In the next year he returned to Eng- land, immensely rich, and was raised to the Irish peerage as Lord Clive, Baron of Plassey. He was elected to Parliament, where he acquired great influence. In 1764 he was again sent to India, with supreme command, and remained about a year and a half. He returned home in ill health in 1767. His enemies arraigned his official conduct, and Burgoyne in 1773 accused him in the House of abusing his power in the acquisition of riches. The result of the inquest was that they "tempered a gentle censure with a liberal eulogy." PVom his youth he had been subject to fits of constitutional gloom, which were now aggravated by physical maladies. He resorted to the use of opium for relief, and gradually became enslaved by its insidious power. In November, 1774, he died by suicide. " His name," says Macaulay, in a strain of some- what exaggerated eulogy, "stands high on the roll of conquerors. But ijj,is found in a better list, — in the list of those who have clone and suffered much for the hap- piness of mankind." See Macaulay, "Essays;" Sir John Malcolm, "Life of Lord Clive," 3 vols., 1836; G. R. Gleig, "Life of Lord Clive," 184S; " Biographia Britannica ;" C. Caraccioli, "Life of Lord Clive,' 4 vols., 1776. Clodion, klo'de'dw', (Claude Michel,) a French sculptor, born at Nancy about 1745 ; died in 1814. Clodius, kloMe-us, (Christian August,) a German poet and professor, born at Annaberg, in Saxony, in 1738, was a son of Christian Clodius, who published several works in prose and verse. He obtained the chair of philosophy at Leipsic in 1764, and that of logic in 1778. He became professor of ]-)oetry in the same city in 1782. His writings display a brilliant imagination, good taste, and extensive knowledge of the ancients. Among his chief works are "Essays on Literature and Morality," (1769,) "Latin Poems," (1787,) and " New^ Miscellanies," (" Neue vermischte Schriften.") Died at Leipsic in 1 784. See Ernrstl "Elogium C. A. Clodius:" Mkusel, " Lexiko der vom Jahr 1750 bis 1800 verstorbenen Deutschen Schriftsteller." a., e, T, 6, li, y, long; i, k, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f4t; mit; n6t; good; moon; CLODIUS 627 CLOUET Clodiiis, (JoHANN Christian,) a German Orien- talist, wlio became professor of Arabic at Leipsic in 1724. He publislied a work on the Arabic language, entitled "Theoria et Praxis Linguae Arabicse," and a "Hebrew Lexicon," (1744.) Died in 1745. Clodius, (Juliana Stolzel,) the wife of Christian August, noticed above, born at Altenburg in 1755, was eminent for her literary talents and attainments. Died in 1805. Clo'di-us, (LiCiNius,) a Roman historian, who lived probably about 100 B.C., wrote a work called "'E.Txyxog Xpovcjv, ("Trial of the Times.") Clodius, (PuBLius,) surnamed Pul'cher, a Roman demagogue of very profligate character, was descended from the patrician house of Claudia, and was a brother of Appius Clludius Pulcher, noticed in this work. In his youth he served in Asia under Lucullus, his brother- in-law. In 62 B.C. he committed an act of sacrilege by procuring admission to the mysteries of Bona Dea in the disguise of a woman. For this he was tried, but ac- quitted by means of bribery ; and he became a violent enemy of Cicero, who had appeared in evidence against him. He was chosen tribune of the people in 59, and in the next year caused Cicero to be proscribed and driven into exile. (See Cicero.) He raised several bloody riots against the friends of Cicero when they proposed and passed the decree for his restoration, 57 B.C. Milo, who succeeded Clodius as tribune, and was a partisan of Cicero, had several conflicts with the former. While Clodius was a candidate for the praetorship, and Milo for the consulship, they casualty encountered each other with their armed retainers, and Clodius was killed, in the year 52 B.C. See Cicero, "Oratio pro Milone;" Drumann, "Geschichte Roms." Clo'di-us Ma'cer, (Lucius,) a Roman general, who, on the death of Nero, raised the standard of revolt in Africa, and aspired to the power of emperor. He was put to death by order of Galba in 68 a.d. Clo'do-mir, [Fr. pron. klo'do''m^R',] the second son of Clovis, King of the Franks, became King of Orleans in 511 A.D. He was killed in battle with the Burgundians in 524. He left three sons, two of whom were put to death by their uncles, and the third, Clodoald, (Saint- Cloud,) became a monk. Clodovaeus. See Clovis. Clodwig. See Clovis. Clonard, de, deh klo''nSR', (Joseph Ernest,) a French dramatist, born in 1765, wrote numerous come- dies. Died in 1816. Clon-cur'ry, (Valentine Lawless,) Lord, an Irish politician, born at Dublin in 1773, was a member of the Society of United Irishmen, and a friend of Emmet and Grattan. He wrote "Thoughts on the Projected Union between Great Britain and Ireland," (1797.) Died in 1853. See "Personal Recollections of the Life and Times of Lord Clon- curry." Clootz, de, deh klots, (Anacharsis,) Baron, a Prus- sian enthusiast, born near Cleves in 1755, ^^^■'^ ^ ne])hew of Cornelius de Pauw. Having inherited a large fortune, he became a resident of Paris, and a fanatical partisan of the Revolution. Assuming the title of the " orator of the human race," he appeared at the bar of the Assembly in 1790, at the head of a pretended deputation from foreign nations. In 1792 he was elected to the Con- vention by the dominant party. He was proscribed by Robespierre, and executed in March, 1794. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" " Biographie Universelle." Clopinel. See Meun. Cloquet, klo'ki^ (Hippolyte,) a distinguished pro- fessor of anatomy, was born in Paris in 1787. He wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on Descriptive Ana- tomy," (1815.) Died about 1840. Cloquet, (Jules Germain,) an eminent French phy- sician and surgeon, a brother of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1790. He acquired a high reputation as professor, writer, and practitioner. In 1831 he was appointed professor of clinical surgery in the Faculty of Paris. He wrote "Human Anatomy," ("Anatomic de I'Homme," 5 vols., 1821-30.) and other professional works. He was elected a member of the Institute in 1855. Clos. See Laclos. Close, (Francis,) an eloquent English preacher, born about 1798, was for many years vicar of Cheltenham. He published "Discourses on Genesis," (1826,) several volumes of sermons, and other works, which maintain the doctrines of the Evangelical school. He was ap- pointed to the deanery of Carlisle about 1856. Closs, klos, or Clossius, klos''se-us, (Johann Fried- rich,) a German physician and poet, born at Marbach in 1735. He wrote several Latin poems on medical subjects. Died in 1787. Closterman, klos'ter-mJn'', (Johann,) a German portrait-painter, born at Osnaburg in 1656, worked in England. Died in London in 17 10. Clostermann. See Klostermann. Clot, klo, or Clot-Bey, klo bi, (Antoine,) a French physician, born near Marseilles about 1796. He became chief surgeon of Mehemet Ali, Viceroy of Egypt, about 1823, and founded a medical school in that; country. He published "Observations on Egypt," (2 vols., 1840.) In 1849 I'le returned to France. Died in 1868. See "Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1841. Clot-Bey. See Clot, (Antoine.) Clotaire, klo't^R^ [Lat. Clota'rius,] I., the fourth son of Clovis, King of the Franks, was born in 497 a.d. At the death of Clovis, in 511, he became King of Sois- sons. He extended his dominions by murdering his nephews, the heirs of the kingdoms of Orleans and Austrasia, and before his death he became ruler over all the territory which Clovis had divided among his sons. Paris was his capital after 558. He died about 560 a.d., leaving four sons, — Caribert, Gontran, Sigebert, and Chilperic I. See Jean Bouchet, " Histoire et Chronique de Clotaire I," 1584; SiSMONUi, "Histoire des Fran^ais." Clotaire II., the son of Chilperic I. and of Frede- gonde, was an infant when he became heir to the king- dom of Soissons in 584 a.d. His mother was regent until her death in 597. By dethroning Brunehaut, Queen of Austrasia, whom, with her sons, he put to death, he made himself master of all France about 615. He was the first who conceded to the mayor of the palace a ten- ure of office for life. His abilities and success procured him the surname of "the Great." He died in 628, and was succeeded by his son Dagobert. See SisMONDi, "Histoire des Fran^ais." Clotaire III., the eldest son of Clovis II., King of the Franks, was a minor when his father died, in 655 A.D. ; and, the kingdom being divided into two portions, he inherited Neustria and Burgundy. He died, without issue, about the age of eighteen, Clotaire IV., King of Austrasia, was raised to the throne in 717 A.D. by the policy of Charles Martel, but was only a nominal king. It is not known who was his father. Died in 720. See AuGUSTiN Thierry, "Recits Merovingiens." Clotho. See Parc^. Clo-til'da, [Fr. Clotilde, klo't^ld',] Saint, Queen of France, the daughter of Chilperic, King of Burgundy, became the wife of Clovis I. in 493 a.d. By her beauty and virtue she acquired much influence over Clovis, and was instrumental in converting him to the profession of Christianity. She adhered to the Catholic creed in opposition to Arianism, which was then very prevalent. Died in 545. See Renaud de Rouvray, "Histoire de Sainte-Clotilde," 1840; J. Desmay, "Viede Sainte-Clotilde," 1613; Madame de Renne- viLLE, "Vie de Sainte-Clotilde," 1809. Clotilde. See Clotilda. Clotilde de Vallon-Chalis. See Surville. Clotz. See Klotz. Cloud, kloo, or Clo'do-ald, Saint, youngest son of Clodomir, became an ecclesiastic, and founded a monas- tery at Nogent-sur-la-Riviere, since called by his name. Died about 560. Clouet, kloo'i', an able French chemist, born at Singly, near Mezieres, in 1 751, became professor of chemistry at Mezieres. He discovered the important secret of making cast steel, which the English had found out before. Having gone to Cayenne to make some scientific inquiries, he died of fever in 1801. € as k; 9 as s; g Aar(/; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) CLOUET 628 CLVVER Clouet, (FRANgois,) an eminent French painter, called Janet, (zhS'ny,) born about 1510, was valet-de-chambre and painter to the king. His works are extolled by Konsard and other poets. Died about 1580. His por- trait of Henry H. is regarded as a master-piece. His lather, Jkan, (1485-1545,) was also distinguished as a painter. Clouet, klow'et, written alsoClowet, Clouvet, kloo^- vV, or Clovet, (Peter,) a Flemish engraver, born at Antwerp in 1606. He engraved history, landscapes, and portraits witli success, and worked mostly in his native city. The works of Rubens employed much of his time and talent, and the " Death of Saint Anthony" is called his master-piece. Died about 1670. His nephew, Al- HEK i', born at Antwerp in 1624, was a skilful engraver. He worked in Rome and Florence. Died in 1687. See Nac.i.er, "Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Clough, kliif, (Arthur Hugh,) an English poet, born in Liverpool in 1819 or 1820. He was educated at Rugby and Oxford, and was a tutor in Oriel College. He produced in 1848 " Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich : a Long Vacation Pastoral," (2 vols.,) which is much admired. Between 1849 ^^''d 1852 he was professor of English lite- rature in University College, London. In 1852 he visited the United States, where he gained the friendship of Longfellow and other poets. Among his works are a version of Plutarch's "Lives," (Boston, 5 vols., 1859,) and poems called " Ambarvalia." Died at Florence in November, 1861. The "Long Vacation Pastoral," says the "Spectator," "belongs to a class of poems of which Goethe's ' Hermann and Dorothea' is perhaps the most perfect specimen ; though in vigour and breadth of imagination Mr. Clough's pastoral is certainly not inferior. . . . Here we must close our notice of a truly noble poem — not without threads of unhealthy sentiment, but still broad, bright, buoyant, and tender." See "Blackwood's Magazine" for November, 1862; "Eraser's Magazine" for January, 1849 : North American Review" for Octo- ber, 1867. Clouvet. See Clouet. Clovet. See Clouet. Clovio, klo've-o, (Don GiULio,) an eminent Italian painter, born in Croatia in 1498, was a pupil of Giulio Romano. He is considered the most excellent minia- ture-painter that Italy has produced. He also painted some historical works, among which is a " Descent from the Cross." "His portraits," says Landon, "may be compared to those of Titian for vigour and natureiy Died in 1578. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." CloVis [Fr. pron. kh/v^ss' ; Lat. Clodov.e'us] I., called also Chlodwig and Hlodwig, (which is said to have become corrupted into Ludwig, Ludovicus, Louis, etc.,) King of the Franks, was born about 466 A.D., and educated as a pagan. In 481 he succeeded his father Childeric, who reigned over the Salian Franks at Tour- nay. By a victory over the Romans and Gauls in 486 he became master of Soissons, which he chose for his capital. In 493 he married Clotilda, a fair Christian princess, and in 496 he became a convert to her religion. This change induced the cities of Armoricato place themselves under his dominion and protection. In 507 he fixed his court at Paris. Alaric, King of the Visigoths, then pos- sessed the region between the Loire and the Pyrenees. Clovis defeated and killed him in a great battle near Poi- tiers in 507, and added Aquitaine to his kingdom. He died in 511, leaving four sons, Thierri, Clodomir, Childeric, and Clotaire, among whom France was divided. "With the reign of Clovis," says Walckenaer, "commence the glory, empire, religion, laws, and usages of the French." W\% glory, however, was tarnished by many acts of cruelty. His descendants are called Merovingians, from Merovig, (in Latin, Merovaeus,) the grandfather of Clovis. See ViAi.LOK, "Clovis le grand premier Roi cbrelien," 3 vols., 1788; Aug. Thierkv, " Recits Merovingiens ;" Sismondi, " His- toire des Frangais;" "Biographic Universelle ;" " Nouvelle Bio- graphie (^enerale." Clovis II., the second son of Dagobert I., King of the Franks, was born about 633 A.D., and became King of Neiistria and Burgundy in 638. Little is known of his reign, except that by revolts against the royal family of Austrasia he became sole ruler of the heritage of Clovis I. He died in 655, leaving two sons, Clotaire III. and Childeric II. Clovis III., soji of Thierri I., King of France, suc- ceeded his father in 691 A.D., at the age of nine. Pepin le Gros was in reality king, under the title of Mayor of the palace. Clovis died in 695, leaving the title to his brother, Childebert III. See Sismondi, " Histoire des Franpais." Clowes, klouz, (John,) an English Swedenborgian writer, born at Manchester in 1743. He was rector of Saint John's in Manchester about sixty years. He trans- lated Swedenborg's "Celestia Arcana," and published several works, one of which is " Restoration of the Pure Religion." Died in 1831. See De Quincey, "Autobiographic Sketches," and "Literary Reminiscences," vol. i. Clowes, (William,) an eminent English surgeon, who practised in London between 1570 and 1600, and was for some years chief surgeon of Bartholomew's Hospital. Fie published several professional treatises, the principal of which is "The Approved Practice for all Young Surgeons," (1591.) Clowes, (William,) an enterprising English printer, born at Chichester in 1779. He became a master-printer in London about 1804, and twenty years later began to print by steam. His establishment eventually became, it is said, the largest and most complete in the world. Among the productions of his presses were the " Penny Magazine" and the " Penny Cyclopaedia." He operated more than twenty steam-presses at once. Died in 1847. Clowet. See Clouet. Cliibbe, kliib, (John,) an English clergyman, born in 1703, was rector of Wheatfield. He published, besides other works, a " History and Antiquities of the Ancient Villa of Wheatfield or Whatfield," (1758,) an excellent piece of satire, directed against modern antiquaries. Died about 1772. See Nichols, "Literary Anecdotes," etc. Clubbe, (William,) a son of the preceding, was vicar of Brandeston. He published a translation of six Satires of Horace, (1795,) "The Epistle of Horace on the Art of Poetry, translated into English Verse," (1797,) and other works. Died in 1814. Clugny de Nuis, kliin'ye' deh nii-e', (Jean £tienne Bernard,) a French financier, succeeded Turgot as controller-general of finances in April, 1776. He coun- teracted the policy of Turgot, and resorted to a royal lottery as a source of revenue. He died in office in October, 1776. Clu'ny, (Alexander,) was the author of the "Ame- rican Traveller," London, 1769, said to have been pub- lished under the auspices of Lord Chatham. It excited much interest in England and America at the time. Cluseret, klii'zeh-ri', (Gustave Paul,) a French general, born in Paris in 1823. He served in the Cri- mean war, and gained the rank of captain. In 1859 he enlisted in the army of Garibaldi, under whom he fought with the rank of major. He offered his services to the United States, and became a colonel in the Union army about January, 1862. He commanded the advance of Fremont's army at Strasburg and Cross Keys, June, 1862. Clusius. See Lecluse. Clutius. See Cluyt. Clut'ter-buck, (Rohert,) an eminent English an- tiquary, born in Hertfordshire in 1772. He published a complete "History and Antiquities of the County of Hertford," (1815-27,) with excellent plates. He resided mostly at Watford, his native place. Died in 1831. Cluver, kloo-vaiR', or Cluwer, [Fr. Cluvier, klii'- ve-i'; Lat. Cluvf/rius,] (Philip,) a learned linguist and geographer, was born at Dantzic in 1580. He visited England, France, Germany, and Italy in pursuit of in- formation, and of materials for his works, among which are " Germania Antiqua" and "Italia Antiqua," (1624.) The latter is commended for accuracy. Died in 1623. "His works," says Hallam, "form a sort of epoch in ancient geography." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") See Niceron, "Memoires;" Daniel Heinsius, " Oratio in P. Cluverii Obitum," 1623. e, T, o,. u, y, lojtg', i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, short ; a, e, i, o, obsaire; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; CLUFERIUS 629 COBBETT Cluverius. See Cluver. Cluvier. See Cluver. Cluyt, kloit, (Auger,) a Dutch botanist, a son of Theodore, noticed below, was born at Leyden about 1590. After making botanical researches in several countries, he became director of the botanical garden at Leyden. He wrote *' Instructions for packing and conveying Trees, Plants, etc. to a Distance," (1631,) and a few other works. See "Biographic Medicale." Cluyt, [Lat. Clu'tius,] {Theodore Auger,) a Dutch botanist, was director of a public botanical garden founded at Leyden in 1577, which became, under his charge, one of the best that then existed. He wrote a "History of Bees," (1598.) Clym''e-ne, [Gr. KAv/uev?]; Fr. Climene or Clymene, kle'min',] an ocean nymph, regarded as a daughter of Oceanus, the wife of Japetus, and the mother of Atlas, Prometheus, and Epimetheus. Cly'mer, (George,) an American statesman, born in Philadelphia in 1739. He became about 1773 an active supporter of the pojjular cause, was chosen a member of Congress in 1776, and signed the Declaration of In- dependence. In 1780 he was re-elected to Congress. He was a member of the convention which framed the Federal Constitution in 1787, and was the founder of the Pennsylvania Agricultural Society. Died in 1813. See GooDKiCH, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- pendence." Clyt-em-nes'tra, [Gr. Klvraifiv^aTpa ; Fr. Clytem- NESTRE, kle't^m'n§stR',J the wife of Agamemnon, and the sister of Castor. Having formed a guilty connection with yEgisthus during the absence of her husband, she murdered the latter on his return from Troy. She was killed by her son Orestes. Clytemuestre. See Clytemnestra. Ciyfi-a or Clyt'I-e, [Gr. KAyna or KAkt/t;,] a nymph beloved by Apollo, (the sun :) having been deserted by her lover, she was changed into a heliotrope. See Ovid, " Metamorphoses," book iv. Cuut. See Canute. Cnutzen. See Knutzen. Coad, kod, (John,) an English carpenter, who was engaged in the rebellion of the Duke of Monmouth in 1685, for which he was transported to Jamaica. He wrote a curious narrative of his adventures. See "Memorandum of the Wonderful Providences of God," etc., by John Coad. Cobad. See Cabades. Cobb, (Howell,) an able American politician, born in Jefferson county, Georgia, in 181 5. He was elected a member of Congress by the Democrats in 1843, twice re-elected. In December, 1849, was chosen Speaker of the House of Representatives, He was Governor of Georgia in 1851 and 1852, and was apjjointed secretary of the treasury by President Buchanan in March, 1857. He resigned before the end of i860, was president of the Congress of secessionists which met in February, 1861, and became a major-general in the Confederate service. Died in 1868. Cobb, (Howell,) an American lawyer, born at Sa- vannah, Georgia, in 1795. He published, in 1845, ^ work on legal forms. Cobb, (James,) an English dramatic poet, born in 1756. He was employed as clerk or secretary by the East India Company about 1772. He composed "The Humorist," "The Strangers at Home," (1786,) and other dramas. Died in 1813. See Baker, "Biographia Dramatica." Cobb, (Joseph Beckham,) son of Thomas W., no- ticed below, was born in Oglethorpe county, (Jeorgia, in 1819. lie was a contributor to the "American Review," and wrote, among other works, a novel entitled "The Creole." Died in 1858. Cobb, (Nathaniel R.,) a philanthropic merchant of Boston, was born in Falmouth, Maine, in 1798; died in 1834. Cobb, (Samuel,) an English poet, who graduated at Cambridge in 1702. He published a volume of poems, (1707,) "The Oak and Brier," a tale, and the "Female Reign." Died in 1713. Cobb, (Thomas R. R.,) a lawyer, born in Jeffersotv county, Georgia, in 1820, published in 1851 a "Digest of the Laws of Georgia." He became a general in the Confederate service, and was killed at Fredericksburg in December, 1862. Cobb, (Thomas W.,) born in Columbia county, Georgia, in 1784. He was elected to Congress in 1816, and became a Senator of the United States in 1824. In 1828 he was made a judge of the superior court. Died in 1830. Cobbe, kob, (Frances Power,) a rationalistic writer on religion and morals, a descendant of Charles Cobbe, Archbishop of Dublin, was born in that city in 1822. In early youth Miss Cobbe seems to have been left very much to herself. She read not only the Bible and "Pil- grim's Progress," but also some books of a very different character. Shelley appears to have been a special favourite with her. We need not be surprised that, with such com- panions for her solitude, her mind should sometimes become a prey to universal doubt. As she was one day musing on the great problem of existence, she said to herself that, although she knew nothing of God, or of any law beyond her own soul, she would at least be true to that and merit the approbation of her own conscience. This resolution, we are told, brought almost immediately a renewed faith in God, — "a sense that somehow such an effort must be pleasing to her Creator, who had given her that iniier law." From that hour slie was a theist. Meeting not long afterwards with some of 'I'heodore Parker's writings, she read them with great avidity and delight. Her mother's death having vividly ])resented to her mind the great question of a future life, she wrote to Mr. Parker, asking him why he believed in immor- tality. His "Sermon of the Immortal Life" was his reply. (See Parker, Theodore.) Among the most important of Miss Cobbe's produc- tions are her "Intuitive Morals," (London, 1855,) and her " Religious Duty," both of which works evince strong powers of reasoning, joined with great earnest- ness of character. Miss Cobbe has been pronounced the best interpreter of the views of Theodore Parker; and "since his death," says Mr. Chadwick, " no one has done more to perpetuate his influence aiul increase his fame." See "Cliristian Examiner" for November, 1867. Cob'bett, (John Morgan,) a son of William Cobbett, noticed below. He published a selection of his father's political works, in 6 volumes, (1842.) In 1852 he was elected a Liberal member of Parliament for Oldham. Cobbett, (William,) a popular and vigorous poli- tical writer, born at Farnham, England, in 1762. He was the son of a farmer, and was self-educated. About 1784 he enlisted in the army, and served with honour in North America until 1791. Having left the service, he emigrated to the United States in 1792, and became a resident of Philadelphia, where he issued "Peter Porcu- pine's (Jazette," a Federalist paper. He was fined $5000 for a libel on Dr. Rush. In 1800 he returned to Eng- land, and established in London "The Weekly Poli- tical Register," which at first was a Tory paper ; but after the lapse of several years he became a strenuous opponent of Pitt and of the Tories. For his political libels or satires on members of government he was several times fined heavily, and in 1810 was sentenced to imprisonment for two years. He continued to issue the " Register" for thirty-three years. After two unsuc- cessful attempts to enter Parliament for Oldham, he was finally returned in 1832, and again in 1834. He died in 1835. He was the author of many successful works, among which are "The Emigrant's Guide," "Cottage Economy," "Advice to Young Men and Women," and "Rural Rides." His style is described as "the perfec- tion of the rough Saxon English." He was remarkable for his mastery of the weapons of sarcasm and the re- sources of conmion sense, and had great powers of ob- servation and description. "Cobbett," says Hazlitt, " is a very honest man, with a total want of principle. I mean, he is in downright earnest in the part he takes at the time ; but in taking that part he is led entirely by headstrong obstinacy, caprice, novelty, pique, or personal motive of soine sort. He has no comfort in fixed principles. As soon as anything is settled in his € as /6; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, VL, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) COBDEN 630 CO CC EJUS own mind, he quarrels with it. If nobody else can argue against him, he is a very good match for himself." See the piquant but not ill-natured article on Cobbett, in Haz- litt's " Miscellaneous Works," vol. v. ; " Life of William Cobbett," Philadelphia, 1831 ; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1807, and Febru- ary, 1S23 ; "Blackwood's Maj^azine" for September, 1823; "Eraser's Magazine" for August and October, 1835; "Westminster Review" for October, 1835; Sik H. L. Bulwek, "Historical Characters," London, 1868 Cob'den, (Edward,) D.D., an English divine, who became prebendary of Saint Paul's, and obtained several livings in London. He published Sermons, Poems, and Essays. Died in 1764. Cobden, (Richard,) an eminent English Liberal statesman and economist, was born at Dunford, near Midhurst, Sussex, in June, 1804. He was the son of a farmer who owned a small estate in land. After having been initiated in business in the warehouse of his uncle in Loridon, he removed to Manchester and established a manufactory of fine cotton goods, (prints,) in which he was successful. Between 1834 and 1838 he visited Egypt, Greece, the United States, France, and Germany. He published, about 1836, a ])amphlet entitled "England, Ireland, and America," and another on Russia. He be- came in 1838 a prominent advocate of the free importa- tion of bread-stuffs, and was soon known as the principal champion and orator of the National Anti-Corn-Law League, a powerful political organization, formed in 1839. In 1841 he was elected member of Parliament for vStock- port. On this new arena he acquired great influence by his extensive information, oratorical talents, and indomi- table energy. He also addressed many public meetings of the Anti-Corn-Law League, until the contest ended in the repeal of the Corn-Laws in June, 1846. On this occasion Sir Robert Peel made a remarkable speech, in which he generously declared that the merit of this im- portant reform belonged to Mr. Cobden more than to any other man. After the close of the session he per- formed an extensive journey on the continent, and during his absence (1847) was returned to Parliament for the West Riding of Yorkshire, including Leeds and Shef- field. He was an active member of the Peace Congress of Paris in 1849, and of that held at Frankfort in 1850. Mr. Cobden and John Bright were the leaders of the Manchester party or school, which holds an independent position with respect to the Whigs and Tories. He was in favour of the vote by ballot, of electoral reform, of the French alliance, of a pacific foreign policy, and of non-intervention in foreign quarrels. He opposed the war against Russia, (1854,) and the Chinese policy of Palmerston in 1857, with such a loss of popularity that h(i was defeated at the election of 1857 as candidate for Hnddersfield. He was, however, elected by the voters of Rochdale in 1859. While he was absent on a visit to the United States, in 1859, a new ministry was formed by Lord Palmerston, who offered him a seat in the cabinet, (as president of the Board of Trade,) which he declined. As British commissioner, he negotiated, in i860, an important commercial treaty with the French, which has greatly increased the trade between England and France. Referring to this treaty, Mr. Gladstone (August, 1866) said, "I don't believe that the man breathed upon earth at that epoch, or now breathes upon earth, that could have effected that great measure, with the single exception of Mr. Cobden." He was one of the few British statesmen who cordially favoured the cause of liberty and humanity in the United States during the civil war. Died April 2, 1865. See Loi;is de Lomenie, " R. Cobden, ywr iin Homme de Rien," 1844: " Life of Richard Cobden," by J. McGilchrist, 1865; Joseph Garnier, " R. Cobden, les Lii^ueurs et la Ligue," 1846; " Brief Bio- graphies," by Samuel Smiles: "British Quarterly Review" for January, i866; "North British Review" for March, 1867. Cobenzl, von, fon ko-blnt'sl, or Cobentzel, ko- bdnt^sel, (JoHANN Philipi',) Count, a diplomatist, born at Laybach in 1741 ; died in 18 10. Cobenzl or Cobentzel, von, (Karl,) Count, an Austrian diplomatist, born at Laybach in 1712. He was placed in 1753 at the bead of the government of the Austrian Netherlands. Died in 1770. Cobenzl or Cobentzel, von, (Louis,) Count, an Austrian diplomatist, son of the preceding, was born at Brussels in 1753. He was ambassador to Russia in 1780, and signed the treaty of Campo Formio in 1797. In 1801 he negotiated the treaty of Luneville with the French, and became a minister of state at Vienna. Died in 1808. See Segur, "Memoires." Cobham, kob'am, (Sir John Oldcastle,) Lord, an English nobleman, was the head of the sect of Lollards, whom the Catholics stigmatized as heretics. " His high character, and his zeal for the new sect," says Hume, " pointed him out as the proper victim of ecclesiastical severity." He was condemned to the flames in 1413, but escaped, and instigated his friends to an open rebellion. Hume states that he designed to seize the king at Eltham. The insurgent Lollards were overpowered in 1414; but Cobham escaped until 1418, when he was hanged. (See Lollard.) See T. Gapsey, "Life and Times of the Good Lord Cobham,'* London, 1844. Cobo, ko'Bo, (Barnab6,) a Spanish missionary, born at Lopera in 1582, passed fifty years in Peru, Mexico, etc. He wrote a work on the natural history of those countries, (still in manuscript.) Died in 1657. Cobo, (Juan,) a Spanish monk and missionary, born near Toledo. He went to Manilla in 1586, learned the Chinese language, and compiled a dictionary of the same. In 1592 he was sent on a mission to Japan, with the ruler of which he negotiated a treaty favourable to the Spaniards. On his return the ship was wrecked at Formosa, and he was massacred by the natives, in 1592. Cobourg. See Coburg. Co'burg, written also Cobourg,[Ger.pron. ko'bdoRG,] (JosiAS,) Prince, an Austrian general, born in 1737. He commanded the Austrian army which, with the aid of Suwarrovv, defeated the Turks in 1789. In the spring of 1793 he was appointed generalissimo of the army of the allies, and gained a victory over the French at Neerwinden. He invaded France the same year, and took Conde and Valenciennes. Having been defeated by Jourdan at Wattignies in October, 1793, he resigned the command. Died in 1815. "He belonged," says Alison, "to the old methodical school of Lacey, and was des- titute of either decision or character." ("History of Europe.") Coccaie, (Merlin.) See Folengo. Coccapani, kok-kS-pi'nee, (Sigismondo,) an Italian painter and architect, born at Florence in 1585. He was one of the architects employed on the fafade of the Duorno of Florence. Died in 1642. Cocceius. See Coccejus, (John.) Coc-ge'ius, (kok-see'yiis,) (Ner'va,) an eminent Ro- man jurisconsult, who was chosen consul in 22 a.d. He was the grandfather of the emperor Nerva. He obtained the favour and confidence of Tiberius, whose measures, it seems, he did not approve. His legal learning is highly extolled by Tacitus, and he is often cited in the Digest. He died by voluntary starvation about 33 a.d. His son, of the same name, was a distinguished jurist, the author of several treatises, and is supposed to have been the father of the emperor Nerva. Cooceji. See Coccejus. Coccejus, von, fon kot-sa'yus, or Cocceji, kot-sa'- yee, ( Heinrich,) Baron, a German jurist,born at Bremen in 1644. He was professor of law at Heidelberg and at Utrecht, and wrote, besides other works, a commentary on Grotius " De Jure Belli et Pacis," published by his son, (1744-48.) Died in 17 19. See LucAN'us, " Lebensbeschreibung des H. von Cocceji," 1741. Coccejus, Cocceius, or Cock, (John,) an emi- nent theologian, born at Bremen in 1603. He became professor of Hebrew at Franeker in 1636, and from 1649 to 1669 was professor of theology at Leyden. He was the founder of a school of theologians which became numerous in the United Provinces under the name of "Coccejans." He carried the system of figurative in- terpretation to the extreme. His fundamental rule of interpretation was that we should understand the words and phrases of Scripture in all the senses of which they are susceptible, and that almost every passage, in addi- tion to its literal meaning, had a figurative signification. "Two natives of Holland," says Hallam, "opposite in character, in spirit, and principles of reasoning, and consequently the founders of opposite schools of dis- sL, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, hy 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon- COCCEJUS 6^1 COCKBURN ciples, stand out from the rest, — Grotius and Coccejus." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") He pub- lished " Summa Doctrinae de Foedere et Testamento," (1648,) and other works. Died in 1669. See JoNCOURT, " Eiitretiens sur las Cocceiens;" Niceron, "Me- moires ." Mosheim, "Ecclesiastical History." Coccejus or Cocceji, (Samuel,) a German jurist, a son of Heinrich, noticed above, was born at Heidelberg in 1679. He was appointed by the King of Prussia min- ister of state and of war in 1727, and grand chancellor in 1746. His reputation is founded chiefly on the new code of laws which he composed, by order of Frederick the Great, about 1746. Died in 1755. See Mei'sel, " Lexikon der verstorbenen Gelehrten." Cocchi, kok'kee, (Antonio,) a learned Italian phy- sician, born at Benevento in 1695, was professor of medicine at Pisa, and subsequently of philosophy at Florence. He published several works on medicine and other subjects. Died in 1758. He had been a regular correspondent with Sir Isaac Newton. See Fabroni, " Vitae Italorum doctrir.a excellentium." Coccia, kot'chi, (Carlo,) an Italian composer, born at Naples in 17S9. Among his most popular works are the operas " Clotilde" and "Maria Stuart." Coccopani, kok-ko-pi'nee, (Giovanni,) an Italian artist, born at Florence in 1582, was versed in many sciences and arts. In 1622 he was invited to Vienna by the emperor, who employed him as a military engi- neer. He afterwards designed the palace called Villa Imperiale at Florence. Died in 1649. Cochard, ko'shtii', (Nicolas Fkanqois,) a French litterateur, born near Lyons in 1 763; died in 1834. Cochereau, kosl/ro', (Mathieu,) a P>ench painter of genre, born at Montigny, became a pupil of David in 1807. He died at the age of twenty-seven. Cochet, ko'shi', (Jean,) born at Faverges, in Savoy, became professor of philosophy in the College Mazarin of Paris. He wrote, besides other works, a treatise on Logic, said to have been the best elementary work on that subject that had appeared in French. Died in 1771. Cochin, ko^shi.N', (Charles Nicolas,) a skilful French artist, born in Paris in 1688. He engraved with the burin and point his own designs, and some works of Lemoine, Coypel, and Watteau. Died in 1754. Cochin, (Charles Nicolas,) an eminent French designer and engraver, born in Paris in 171 5, was the son and pupil of the preceding. He was chosen keeper of the designs of the king's cabinet in 1752. In 1756 he published an excellent work, entitled " Picturesque Journey in Italy," ("Voyage pittoresque d'ltalie,") which was often reprinted. Louis XV. granted to him letters of nobility. Cochin etched a great number of his own designs, and some works of Vernet and other masters. The number of his designs and engravings is about fifteen hundred. Died in 1790. See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." Cochin, (Henri,) an eminent French advocate and orator, born in Paris in 1687, was admitted to the bar in 1706. Though very eloquent in public, he was taciturn and timid in conversation. Several volumes of his pleas have been published. Died in 1747. See C. Lenormand, " ^loge de Cochin," 1825. Cochin, (Jacques Denis,) a French priest, writer, and founder of the hospital which bears his name, was born in Paris in 1726; died in 1783. Cochlaeus. See Cochlaus. Cochlaus, koK la'us, [Fr. Cochl^e, kok'li'; Lat. CocHL^'us,] (JoHAN.N,) a German theologian and con- troversialist, born near Nuremberg in 1479. He became a canon of Worms, Mentz, and Ureslau. He was a zeal- ous op])nnent of the Protestant Reformation, and wrote " Remarks ( Coyyinientaria ) on the Actions and Writings of Luther," (1549,) and other works. Died in 1552. See Spckendorf, " Historia Liitheranismi Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" De Thou, " History." Cochlee. See Cochlaus. Cochcn de Lapparent, ko'sh^N' deh Ifj^iS'rSN', (Cf)unt Charles,) a French jjolitician, born in 1749. He was a deputy from Poitiers to the States-General in 1789, and afterwards a prominent republican member of the Convention. He was appointed prefect at Ant- werp in 1804, and a member of the senate in 1809. Died in 1825, Co-eh'ran, (William,) a Scottish painter of history and portraits, Ijorn at Strathaven in 1738 ; died at Glas- gow in 1785. Cochrane. See Dundonald, Earl of. Cochrane, kok'ran, (Alexander Dun das Baillie,) a British writer, son of Admiral Sir Thomas John Coch- rane, born in 1814, became a member of Parliament in 1841. lie published "The Morea, with Remarks on Greece," (1841,) "Young Italy," (1850,) and "Ernest Vane," a novel. Cochrane, (Sir Alexander Inglis,) a British admi- ral, brother of Archibald, noticed below, born in 1758. He was made a post-captain in 1782, and rear-admiral in 1804. For his services in a battle against the French in 1806, near Hayti, he was knighted. In 1809 he obtained the rank of vice-admiral, and in 1815 assisted the British land-forces in the attack on New Orleans. He became admiral of the blue in 1819. Died in 1832. Cochrane, (Archibald,) Earl of Dundonald, a Brit- ish chemist, born in 1749, was the son of Thomas, Earl of Dundonald, whom he succeeded in 1778. He pub- lished a "Treatise on Coal-Tar," a "Treatise on the Connexion of Agriculture and Chemistry," (1795,) and a valuable work on "The Application of Chemistry to Agriculture." Died in 1831. His son was a distin- guished admiral, Lord Cochrane. (See Dundonald, Earl of.) See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Co-eh'rane, (John,) an American general, born in Montgomery county. New York, about 1813, He was elected a member of Congress by the voters of New York City in 1856 and 1858. He was appointed a bri- gadier-general about July, 1862. Cochrane, (John Dun das,) Captain, an eccentric British naval officer, surnamed " the Pedestrian Travel- ler," was born about 1780. In 1820 he resolved to per- ' form a journey around the world on foot, in pursuance j of which design he traversed Russia and Siberia as far ! as Kamtchatka. Having married a native of that region, j he changed his mind, and returned by way of Russia I to England in 1823. Of this journey he ])ublished a I narrative, which is said to be curious aiid amusing. Died j in South America in 1825. I Cochrane, (Sir Thomas John,) a British admiral, son of Admiral Sir Alexander Inglis Cochrane, born about 1790, served as captain under his father in the war against the United States in 1814. He was elected to I Parliament in 1837. Having been made a rear-ad- \ miral, he commanded on the East India station from 1842 ; to 1846, and became a vice-admiral about 1850. j Cock, kok, (Jerome,) a Flemish engraver and dealer ! in prints, was born at Antwerp about 15 10. He pub- j lished several collections of his engravings, among which are many portraits of historical personages. Some of I his works are highly prized. Died in 1570. Cock, (John.) See Coccejus. Cock or Cocke, (Matthew,) a landscape-painter of Antwerp, born about 1500, was a brother of Jerome, noticed above. He was one of the first Flemish painters that abandoned the Gothic style. Died in 1554. Cockaine. See Cokaine. Cockburn, ko'bern, (Catherine,) an English dra- matic writer, whose maiden name was Trotter,, was born in London in 1679. She became in 1708 the wife of the Rev. Patrick Cockburn. She composed suc- cessful tragedies, entitled "Agnes de Castro," "Fatal Friendship," etc. In 1747 she produced "Remarks on the Nature and Obligations of Virtue," which was praised by Warburton. Died in 1749. See Cibber, " Lives of the Poets." Cockburn, ko'bern, (Sir George,) G.C.B., a British adtniral, born about 1772, was a relative of Lord Cock- burn, noticed below. He entered the navy in early youth, and about 1812 obtained the rank of rear-admiral. He took part in the capture of Washington City in 1814, and conveyed Napoleon to Saint Helena in 1815. He was a lord of the admiralty from 1818 to 1828, and sat in Parliament for many years. Died in 1853. € as k; c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, giittttral ; N, nasal; R> trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) COCKBURN 632 COEHORN Cockburn, (Henry Thomas,) Lord, an able Scot- tish judge, born in 1779. He was ai^pointed solicitor- general tor Scotland in 1830, and became one of the Lords of Session in 1834. He wrote articles for the "Edinburgh Review," and j^ublished "The Life and Correspondence of Lord Jeffrey," (1852.) Died in 1854. See "North British Review" for November, 1856; "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1852; " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1857 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for September and October, 1S52. Cockburu, (Patrick,) a Scottish linguist, born at Langton, was for some years professor of Hebrew and Syriac in the University of Paris. Having become a Protestant, he returned to Scotland, and jDreached at Haddington. He was reckoned one of the first scholars of his time, and wrote several religious works in Latin, one of which is "The Utility and Excellence of the Word of God." Died in 1559. Cockburn or Cockburne, (William,) an English medical writer, born about 1650 ; died about 1736. Cocke, kok, (Philip Saint George,) a general, born in Virginia about 1808, graduated at W^e-st Point in 1832. He took arms against the Union, and became a brigadier-general in 1861. He killed himself in De- cember of the same year. Cock''er, (Edward,) an English teacher and educa- tional writer, born in 1632, was a resident of London. His " Arithmetic" obtained a very large circulation, and passed through fifty-five editions between 1677 and 1758. Died about 1677. Cock'er-ell, (Charles Robert,) an eminent English architect, born in London in 1788. He was elected a Royal Academician in 1836, and became professor of architecture in the Royal Academy in 1840. He de- signed the New Library at Cambridge in 1840, the Uni- versity Galleries at Oxford, the College of Lampeter, and other public edifices. He was for some years chief architect of the Bank of England, in which he made considerable alterations. Mr, Cockerel! was partial to the classic style of architecture. He was a foreign asso- ciate of the Institute of France. Died in 1863. Cock'er-ill, (John,) a Belgian engineer and machinist, noted for his enterprise and talents, was born of English parents in 1790. He fabricated steam-engines, etc. at the great iron-foundry of Seraing, in which King William of Holland was once a partner. Died in 1840. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Cock'son, (Thonl\S,) an English engraver of por- traits, flourished about 1620-30. Cock'ton, (Henry,) an English writer, born about 1808. He published, besides other works, "The Ven- triloquist : being the Life and Adventures of Valentine Vox," (1840.) Died in 1853. Co'cles, (HoRAi ius,) a Roman hero, who acquired renown, about 500 B.C., by the defence of the Sublician bridge against the army of Porsena while the Romans were cutting off the communication with the opposite shore. When the bridge had been made impassable, he plunged into the river and saved himself by swimtiiing. This legend forms the basis of Macaulay's spirited ballad in his "Lays of Ancient Rome." See NiEBUHR, " History of Rome." Coco, ko'ko, (Vincenzo,) an Italian writer, born at Carnpomarano in 1770, lived mostly in Naples. He pub- lished a i^hilosophic romance called "Plato in Italy," {3 vols., 1806,) which was very successful, and a " History of the Revolution of Naples." Died at Naples in 1823. See TiPAi.DO, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." Cocoli, kok'o-lee, (Domenico,) an Italian geometer, born at Brescia in 1747, was for thirty years professor of natural philosophy and mathematics in his native city. He published " Elements (jf (Geometry and Trigonome- try," and f)ther works. Died in 1812. Cocquard, ko'ktk', (Franqols P)ERNARn,) a French poet and prose-writer, born at Dijon in 1700; died in 1772. Coda, ko'dl, (Bknedei to,) an Italian painter, born at Ferrara about 1460 ; died about 1520. His son, Bar tolommeo, born at Ferrara, was a painter of good reputation. He was living in 1558. Codagora, ko-da-go'rS, ( Vivian<3,) an Italian painter, who lived about 1650, excelled in perspective and in pic- tures of ruined buildings. Codazzi, ko-ddt'see, ( Ac.osriNO,) an Italian erigineer and geographer, born at Lugo in 1792. He emigrated to Santa Fe de Bogota, in South America, about 1826, and was afterwards employed in the sin vey of Venezuela. The results of his labours were published in a work on the "Geography of Venezuela," with maps, (" Resumen de la Cieografia de Venezuela," 184L) Cod' ding-ton, (William,) the founder of the colony of Rhode Island, was born in Lincolnshire, England, in 1601. He emigrated to Massachusetts in 1630, and, in consequence of a disagreement with Governor VVinthrop on religious subjects, removed with a party of settlers to Rhode Island in 1638. In 1640 he was chosen governor of that colony, which position he held for seven years. Pie was a member of the Society of Friends. Died in 1678. Co-di'nus, (Georgius,) [Teupyiog Ki^kvog b KvpoiraTui- r??f,] surnamed Curofala'tes, a Greek compiler, who lived at Constantinople about 1450. He compiled two works, which treat of the public offices in church and state, and of the antiquities of Constantinople. Codomannus. See Darius HI. Co-dra'tus, [Ki'j^paTog,] a Greek physician and Chris- tian martyr, born at Corinth, was put to death about 258 A.D. CodMng-ton, (Christopher,) a British officer, born at Barbadoes in 1668, wrote some Latin verses, and gave ;/^io,ooo to form a library at Oxford. Died in 1710. Codrington, (Sir Edward,) G.C.B., an English ad- miral, born in 1770. He was made a captain in 1794, and received a medal for his conduct at Trafalgar in 1805. He was raised to the rank of rear-admiral in 1814, and served at the battle of New Orleans in 1815. In 1821 he became vice-admiral. He commanded the fleet of the English, French, and Russians which defeated the Turks at Navarino in 1827. He obtained the rank of full admiral in 1837. Died in 1851. See Campbell's " Lives of British Admirals." Codrington, (Robert,) an English writer, born in 1602, wrote a "Life of Robert, Earl of Essex," and made translations from the Latin and French. Died in 1665. Codrington, (Sir William John,) K.C.B., an Eng- lish general, son of Admiral Sir Edward Codrington, born in 1800, entered the army in 1821, became colonel in the Coldstream Guards in 1846, and major-general in June, 1854. He distinguished himself at the Alma and at Inkerman, (1854,) and was promoted to the command of the light division. He directed the attack on the Redan of Sevastoi^ol in September, 1855. In November of the same year he succeeded General Simpson as com- mander-in-chief of the British army in the Crimea, and was appointed governor of Gibraltar in 1859. Codronchi, ko-dRoi/kee, (BArrisrA,) an eminent Italian physician and writer, born at Imola about 1550. Co'drus or Ko'drus, [Kof5pof,] the last king of Athens, is supposed to have reigned about 1060 B.C. An oracle having declared that the Dorians would be victorious in war against the Athenians provided they spared the life of the Athenian king, Codrus went in disguise to the Dorian camp and provoked a quarrel, in which he was killed. His son, Medon, became archon of Athens. Codrus, a Roman poet, was a contemporary of Virgil, who mentions him in his seventh Eclogue. Coeberger. See Koeherger. Coeck, (Peter.) See Koeck. Coeifeteau, ko'lfto', (Nicolas,) a French Dominican and theologian, born in Maine in 1574. Henry IV. gave him the title of his preacher. At the request of Gregory XV., he wrote a work to refute A. de Dominis, who had attacked the papal power. In 161 7 he became titular Bishop of Dardania. His version of the history of Florus was highly praised as a master-piece of French style. Died in 1623. See NiCEKON, " Hommes illustres." Coehorn or Cohoi'n, ko'horn, [Fr. pron. ko'oRn',] (Louis,) a French general, born at Strasburg in 1771, was a relative of Menno van Coehorn, noticed below. He was made a general of brigade in 1807, was wounded at Fried- land, and displayed great bravery at Ebersberg in 1809. He took part in the battles of Aspern, Wagram, and Lutzen, and was mortally wounded at Leipsic in 1814. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/ior^; a, e, i, o, obscure; far; fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; CO E HORN 633 COHEN Coehorn, van, vtn koo'hoin. written also Cohorn, (MKNNOor Mennun,) Baron, a famous Dutch engineer and general, born in Friesland in 1632, or, as some say, in 1641. Having acquired skill in mathematics, he en- tered the army as captain at an early age, and served with distinction in the campaigns of 1673 and 1674. At the siege of Namur, (1692,) which city he had fortified, he was opposed to the French engineer Vauban. Three years later he was employed as engineer in the recapture of Namur. Among his master-pieces are the fortresses of Nymwegen, Breda, Namur, and Bergen-op-Zoom. He became lieutenant-general in 1703, and published his "New Method of Fortification," an excellent work. According to some biographers, this was published in 1685. Died at the Hague in 1704. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Macau- i.AY, " Hi.story of Engiaiid," vol. iv. ; Nicolaus Ypky, "Narratio de Rebus gestis Mennoiiis Cohorni," 1771 ; Dutch version of the same, 1772. Ccelestinus, Pope. See Celestine. Ccelestius. See Celkstius. CcBlius. See Rufus Ccei.ius. Cce'xi-us or Cae'ii-us (see'le-us) An-tip'a-ter, (Lu- cius,) a Roman historian and jurist, who wrote, about 125 li.C, a " History of the Second Punic War," which was highly esteemed until it was surpassed by Livy. Only fragments o{ it are extant. Coelius was the first Roman historian that aimed at the ornaments of style. Marcus Brutus valued his work so highly that he made an abridgment of it. Coello, ko-iKyo, (Alonzo Sanchez,) a skilful Spanish painter, born in 15 1 5. He studied at Rome in the school of Raphael, and was afterwards em])loyed by Philip H. of Spain to adorn the Escurial. He also painted por- traits of that king and his courtiers. Died in 1590. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Coello, (Claudio,) a celebrated Spanish painter, born at Madrid in 162 1. He was a pupil of Ricci. Abcjut 1680 he was chosen painter to the king, (Charles H.) His master-piece is the "Collocation of the Host," which adorns the sacristy of the Escurial, and which is sufficient to immortalize his name. He is said to equal Cant) in design, Murillo in colour, and Velasquez in effect. Died at Madrid in 1693. See QuiM.iET, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." Coelmans, kooKmins, (Jacques,) a Flemish engraver, boni at Antvvtr]) in 1670; died at Aix, France, in 1735. CoeLii. See Coln. Ccelus. See Uranus. Coen, koon, (John Peterson or Pieterzon,) a Dutch colonial governor, born at Hoorn about 1587. He founded Batavia in 1619, and was chosen president of Bantam. Died in 1629. Coenrads. See Conrad, (Abraham.) ^oenus, see'nus, [Gr. KoZrof,] an able Macedonian general, a son-in-law of Parmenio, accompanied Alex- ander the Great in the invasion of Persia, 334 H.c. He distinguished himself at the battle of Issus, and, when Alexander proposed to march beyond the Hyphasis, he insisted on returning. He died in India in 327 H.C. Ccessin, ko^^^sdw', (F. G.,) a French ultramontane religionist, born at Lisieux in 1782, was noted for his eccentric mysticism. Died about 1842. Ccetlogon, de, deh ko'^i'lo'g6N', (Alain Emma- N'UEL.) Marquis, a French admiral and marshal, born in 1646 ; died i\i 1730. Cce-logon, de, (Jean Bapttste F^i-icit^;,) Count, a French poet, born at Versailles in 1773. He wrote an epic poem, entitled "David," (1820,) which the royal council of instruction judged worthy to be given as a prize to students. Died in 1827. Ccetlosquet, de, deh ko'et^los^ki', (Jean Gii.les,) a French priest, born at Saint-Pol-de-Leon in 1700. He became Bishf)p of Limoges in 1739, and preceptor of the Duke of Burgundy in 1758. He was also preceptor of the Duke of Berry, afterwards Louis XVI., and a member of the French Academy. Died in 1784. Coeur, kuR, (Jacques,) a French merchant and able financier, born at Bourges, acquired an immense fortune. Charles VH. appointed him director of his finances. In 1448 he lent that king 200,000 crowns of gold. It is stated that he transacted more commerce than all the other merchants of France. He was falsely accused of various crimes, and in 1453 was fined 400,000 crowns and banished. He went to Rome, and received from Calixtus HI. the command of part of a fleet which he sent against the Turks. He died at Scio about 1456. See Baron Trouve, " Histoire de Jacques Coeur," 1840 ; Louisa S. CosTELi.O, " Jacques Coeur, the French Argonaut, and his Times." Coeur, (Pierre Louis,) a French bishop and eloquent preacher, born at Tarare (Rhone) in 1805. He removed to Paris in 1835, and became a fashionable pulpit orator. He was appointed Bishop of Troyes in 1848. His ser- mons are compared to those of Massillon. Coeur de Lion. See Richard I. Coffin, ko'f^N', (Charles,) a French scholar and poet, born at Buzancy in 1676. He succeeded RoUin in ti e College of Beauvais, at Paris, in 17 12, and was cho^.en rector of the University of Paris in 1718. His " C>er of the Academy of Sci- ences, and wrote a treatise on the negotiations from the treaty of Ryswick to the peace of Utrecht. Died in 1746. Colbert, (Jules Armand,) a French general, a son of the eminent statesman, was mortally wounded at the battle of Blenheim in 1704. Colbert, (Pierre David,) a French general, born in Paris in 1774. He made the campaign of Austerlitz (1805) as aide-de-camp to Berthier, and became a general of division in 1813. He fought for Nai)oleon at Waterloo, but entered the service of Louis XVIH. in 1816. In 1838 he was made a peer of France.. Died in 1853. See "Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." Colborne, (Sir John.) See Seaton, Lord. CoPburn, (V/arren,) a mathematician, born at Ded- ham, Massachusetts, in 1793, graduated at Harvard in 1820. He became a school-teacher in Boston, and pub- lished in 1821 his "Mental Arithmetic," which had an iinmense circulation in Europe as well as in the United States. He also published a Sequel to the above work. Died in 1833. Colburn, (Zerah,) a mathematical prodigy, born at Cabot, Vermont, in 1804. Before he was seven years old he displayed such wonderful expertness in mental arith- metic that his father began, in 1810, to exhibit him in public. He could solve with accuracy and rai)idity the most difficult questions in involution, evolution, etc., without the use of figures. Being asked the number of seconds in 1813 years, 7 months, and 27 days, he quickly answered, 57,234,384,000. About 1825 he became a Methodist preacher. He lost his faculty of computation as he grew up to manhood. Died in 1840. See his "Autobiography," 1833. CoPby, (or koKbe,) (Thomas,) an English engineer, was born at Rochester in 1784. In 1802 he was appointed assistant in the Ordnance Survey, with which his history is inseparably connected. He was raised to the rank of captain in 1807. He evinced great energy and endurance in the survey of Scotland, 1813-17. In 1820 he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society, a member of the Board of Longitude, and succeeded General Mudge as superintendent of the survey. He next ])ursuecl the same task in Ireland, where he used with advantage the "compensation-bars" invented by himself. The maps /- engraved under his direction are said to be more accu- rate than any previously made. He was raised to the rank of major-general in 1846. Died in 1852. CoPohes-ter, (Charles Ahbot,) Lord, an English peer and vice-admiral, born in 1798, was postmaster- general during the ministry of Lord Derby in 1858-59. Colchester, Lord. See Abbot, (Charles.) CoPden, (Cadwallader,) a physician, born at Dunse, Scotland, in 1688, emigrated to America about 1708. He wrote a " History of the Five Indian Nations of Canada." He was a correspondent of IJnnaeus, to whom he sent several hundred American plants. He was lieutenant- governor of New York from 1761 until his death in 1776. Colden, (Cadwallader D.,) a grandson of the pre- ceding, was born in Queen's county. Long Island, in 1769. He practised law in New York, was elected mayor of that city in 1818, and a member of Congress in 1822. He wrote a "Life of Robert Fulton." Died in 1834. Coldore, koKdo'ra', a French engraver of precious stones, appears to have been the same as Julien de Fontenay, whom Henry IV., in his letters-patent of 1608, entitles his valet-de-chambre and engraver of gems. His portraits of Henry and others are prized almost as highly as antique gems. He engraved a portrait of Queen Elizabeth, which she preferred to all others. Cole, (Charles Nelson,) an English legal antiquary, born in 1722; died in 1804. Cole, (Sir Galbraith Lowry,) an officer of the British army, born in 1772, was a son of the Earl of Enniskillen. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2!^=See Explanations, p. 23.) COLE 636 COLERIDGE He became colonel in i8oi, and served with distinction in tlie Peninsular war, (1808-14.) Died in 1842. Cole, (Henry,) an English Catholic theologian, be- came Feliow of New College, Oxford, in 1523. He was chosen provost of Eton in 1554, and had a disputation with Cranmer in that year. He wrote "Letters to Bishoj) Jewel," and a few other works. Died in 1579. Cole, (Henry,) C.B., an English art-critic and editor, noted as the promoter of " Art-Manufactures," was born at Bath in 1808. In his youth he became assistant keeper of the public records, and by his writings caused the establishment of a general record office. He was one of the executive committee of the Exhibition of the Crystal Palace in 185 1, the success of which is in great measure ascribed to him. Mr. Cole was the J>ritish commissioner for the Universal Exposition of Paris in 1855. Cole, ( Thomas,) an eminent landscape-painter, born in Lancashire, England, in 1801, at an early age ac- companied his parents to Ohio. Having had no instruc- tions in art except what he received from an itinerant portrait-painter, he set out in 1822 to seek his fortune. After a short sojourn in Western Pennsylvania and Phila- delphia, he arrived in New York City, where his works soon attracted the notice of artists and connoisseurs. His reputation was now established, his landscapes, in- cluding views of the Catskills and the White Mountains, were eagerly sought for, and he was soon enabled to visit Europe. He set out in 1829, and, after a residence of two years in London, repaired to Florence and Rome. He returned to New York in 1832, bringing with him a number of Italian landscapes, which, though perhaps no improvement on the style of his previous works, are highly esteemed by many amateurs. Cole, who in one of his letters had said, "Neither the Alps nor the Apen- nines, nor even Etna itself, have dimmed in my eyes the beauty of our own Catskills," now again devoted him- self to his favourite subjects. The result of these labours were his "Cross in the Wilderness," "The Hunter's Return," "Home in the Woods," "Mountain Ford," and other admirable illustrations of American scenery. His great allegorical series (in four pictures) of " The Voyage of Life" is ranked among his master-pieces. Among his other pictures may be named "The Course of Empire," (in 5 parts,) "View of Mount Etna, taken from Taormina," " Kenilworth Castle," and "Dream of Arcadia." Died in 1848. See L. NoBi.E, " Life of 1". Cole;" Tuckerman, "Book of tlie Artists :"" North American Review" for October, 1853: "Oration on the Death of Thomas Cole," by W. C. Rkyant, New York, 184S. Cole, (Rev. Thomas,) an English dissenter and reli- gious writer, was one of the teachers of John Locke. Died in 1697. Cole, (William,) an English botanist, born at Adder- bury in 1626. His works are "The Art of Simpling," and "Adam in Eden." Died in 1662. Cole, (William,) an English physician, who graduated in 1666, and practised at Bristol. He published treatises on Fevers, on Animal Secretions, etc. Cole, (William,) an English antiquary and divine, born in Cambridgeshire in 17 14. He became rector of Bletchley in 1767, and vicar of Burnham in 1774. He contributed to the antiquarian works of Grose, Ducarel, Gough, etc., and collected manuscripts for an account of Cambridge scholars in imitation of Wood's "Athenae." Died in 1782. See NiCHf^i.s, " Literary Anecdotes," etc. Colebrooke, koKbrdok, (Henry Thoal\s,) an enn'- nent Oriental scholar, born in England in 1765. He went to India in 1782, and held several high positions in the service of the East India Company. He published a "Grammar" and a "Dictionary of the Sanscrit Lan- guage," (1808,) and " Remarks on the Husbandry and Irternal Commerce of Bengal," which, says McCulloch, "is by far the best and most trustworthy work on tlie subject." He was chosen professor of Sanscrit at the College of Fort William soon after the same was founded, and was atone time a member of the supreme council of Bengal. He wrote valuable treatises, which were inserted in the Transactions of the Asiatic Society. He returned to England before his death, which occurred in 1837. See Walckenaer, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Cole- brooke." Cole'man, (William,) an American journalist and lawyer, born in Boston in 1766. He settled in New York about 1794, and became in 1801 editor of the "Evening Post," the organ of the Federalists, which he edited with ability for about twenty years. He was intimate with Alexander Hamilton. Died in 1829. Co-len'so, (John William,) an English theologian, born in 18 14, graduated at Cambridge in 1836. He be- came Bishop of Natal, in South Africa, in 1854. He published, besides other works, "The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua critically exammed," (1862,) which was condemned by both houses of Convocation of the pro- vince of Canterbury in 1864. He denies the inspiration and historical accuracy of several books of the Old Tes- tament. See "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1863; "Westminster Review" for January, 1863 ; " British Quarterly Review" for January, 1863. Coleoni, ko-li-o'nee, or Coglioni, k6l-yo'nee, (Bar- TOLOMMEO,) an Italian general, born near Bergamo in 1400. In the war between the Venetians and Milanese he fought for and betrayed both by turns. He was gen- eralissimo of the Venetian state from 1454 until his death in 1475. He passed for the best tactician of that age. See SiSMONDi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Co'ler, (Johann Christoph,) a German theologian, born near Langensalza in 169 1, published a journal called "Auserlesene theologik Biblioihek," (1724-36,) in which he gave an analysis of recent works on theology. Died in 1736. See JocHER, " Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." Coleridge, koKrij, (Rev. Derwent,) a son of the celebrated poet S. T. Coleridge, was born at Keswick in 1800, and educated at Cambridge. He was ordained about 1826, and became a prebendary of Saint Paul's, London. In 1839 he published "The Scriptural Char- acter of the P^nglish Church considered." He succeeded his slifeter (Sara H.) as editor of his father's unpublished works. His " Memoir of Hartley Coleridge" is highly praised. He is, or was recently, principal of Saint Mark's College, Chelsea. Coleridge, (Har i'ley,) an English poet and prodigy, born at Clevedon, near Bristol, in 1796, was the eldest son of the eminent poet. In 1800 his father removed to Keswick, in the Lake region. Hartley was a deep thinker in childhood, and was in all periods of his life dreamy, wayward, and fantastic. While he was a "baby in his mother's arms," he exclaimed, on seeing the lamps of London, " Oh, now I know what the stars are : they are the lamps that have been good on earth and have gone up to heaven." When he was six years old, Wordsworth addressed to him these lines : •' O thfiu ! whose fancies from afar are brought, Who of thy woids dost make a mock apparel. And fittest to unutterable thought The breeze-like motion and the self-born carol," etc. He graduated at Oxford with honour in 1818, and was elected a Fellow of Oriel College. About a year after that event he forfeited the Fellowship by intemperance, which became habitual. The formation of this habit is partly ascribed to physical deformity and a morbid sen- sitiveness on that subject. His jjersonal appearance is said to have been very grotesque, and his conversational powers most extraordinary. The latter half of his life was passed at Grasniere and Rydal Water, with no occu- pation but literary pursuits. He wrote articles for " Black- wood's Magazine," and " The Worthies of Yorkshire and Lancashire," which is highly esteemed. A volume of his poems, published in 1833, contains Sonnets which are greatly admired. He also left Essays on various subjects. Southey in one of his letters wrote, " It is iinpossible to give you any adequate idea of his oddities ; for he is the oddest of all God's creatures, and grows quainter every day." Died in 1849. See a " Memoir of Hartley Coleridsie," prefixed to his " Poems," by his brother, Rev. D Coleridge ; " Brief Biographies," by Sam- uel Smiles, i860: " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1851 ; "Eraser's Magazine" for June, 1851. Coleridge, (Henry Nelson,) an English lawyer and distinguished scholar, born ab(jut 1800, was the son of Colonel Coleridge, and a nephew of the celebrated poet. He was a graduate of King's College, Cambridge. In a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i,, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, j, o, obscure; fSr, fSll, f4t; met; n6t; good; moon; COLERIDGE 637 COLETTI 1825 he made a voyage to Barbadoes with his uncle, Bisht)p Coleridge, and published " Six Months in the "West Indies," which was favourably received. Having been called to the bar in 1826, he acquired extensive practice. In 1830 he published an "Introduction to the Study of the Greek Classic Poets," which was followed by the "Table-Talk of Samuel T. Coleridge." He ren- dered valuable services to the public as editor of his uncle's writings, viz., "Literary Remains of S. T. Cole- ridge," (1836,) "The Friend," "Biographia Literaria," etc. Died in 1843. Coleridge, (John Duke,) an English orator, son of Sir John T. Coleridge, noticed below. As a Liberal mem- ber of Parliament for Exeter, he made an able speech for the Reform Bill in April, 1866. In December, 1868, he became solicitor-general. Coleridge, (Sir John Taylor,) an English lawyer, a nephew of the eminent poet S. T. Coleridge, was born at Tiverton in 1 790. He published an edition of " Black- stone's Commentaries" in 1825, and was appointed a judge of the court of king's bench in 1835. In 1858 he was admitted to the privy council. See Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. Coleridge, (Samuel Taylor,) an eminent English poet, critic, and speculative genius, was born at Ottery Saint Mary, in Devonshire, on the 21st of October, 1772. He was the youngest among many children of John Cole- ridge, vicar of that parish, and did not inherit the favours of fortune. Before he was fifteen he was deeply interested in metaphysics. He entered Jesus College, Cambridge, in 1791, gained high distinction by his classical attain- ments, but abruptly left the university without a degree in 1793, in consequence of the rejection of his addresses by a young lady of Cambridge. In a reckless state of mind, and with an empty purse, he enlisted in a regiment of dragoons, under the assumed name of Silas Tom- ken Comberback ; but his friends soon procured his discharge. In 1794 he became intimate with Robert Southey, whose politics and creed were then, like his own, democratic and Socinian. They resolved to emi- grate to America and to found on the Susquehanna a Utopian republic or pantisocracy, with a community of goods, the idea of which originated with Coleridge. This romantic reverie, however, was never realized, as they had not sufficient capital even for the outfit. Coleridge had already begun to write poetry, and to display his marvellous aptitude and passion for lecturing in all places and on all occasions. In 1794 he sold to his generous friend Mr. Cottle, of Bristol, for thirty guineas in advance, the first volume of his poems, which were printed in 1796. Early in 1795 he gave lectures on political and moral subjects at Bristol, and was warmly applauded. In the same year he married Sarah Fricker, a sister of Southey's wife, and took a cottage at Cleve- don, whence, after a few months, he removed to Bristol. He formed many literary projects, among which was "The Watchman," a weekly periodical, of which he issued ten numbers in 1796, but it did not ])ay expenses. For two or three years he lived at Nether Stowey, where he wrote the "Ancient Mariner," a poem, and " Osorio, or Remorse," a tragedy, both of which are greatly admired ; also " Lyrical Ballads," in conjunction with Wordsworth, and other poems. He made some essays in preach- ing for the Unitarians ; but his absence of mind, insta- bility, and want of punctuality disqualified him for the regular duties of the pulpit. In 1798 he visited Germany with Wordsworth, and studied German literature, etc. at Gottingen. In 1800 he removed to Keswick, in the Lake district, where Southey and Wordsworth also resided, and from which charming locality the three friends received the appellation of " Lake Poets." About 1805 he renounced Unitarianism for the creed of the Anglican Church. He lectured on Shakspeare and the Fine Arts at the Royal Institution in 1808, and in 1809 published a periodical entitled "The Friend." About 1810, leaving his wife and daughter dependent on Southey, he departed from Keswick, and resumed his wandering habits. Between 1816 and 1825 he produced "Christabel," a "Lay Sermon.," (181 7,) "Zapoyla," a drama, (1818,) "Biographia Literaria," and "Aids to Re- flection," (1825.) His health having failed, he contracted a habit of using opium in excess, (a pint of laudanum per day,) which increased his natural infirmities and caused much remorse. Some years before his death he was enabled to overcome that pernicious habit. In 1816 he was kindly received in the house of Mr. Gillman, a physician of London, with whom his last years were passed. He died in 1834, after which appeared his "Literary Remains," " Table-Talk," and other works. "Born alike poet and orator, he might in either walk, or in both, have left a fame of the highest rank, but for the disease implanted in his fabric, and an indulgence which operated until the day was far spent in tarnishing the rightful glory of his gifts and acquisitions." ("London Quarterly Review.") "Pie displays," says John Foster, "more of what we mean by the term genius than any mortal I ever saw." The eloquence and affluence of his conversation, or rather monologues, have perhaps never been equalled. As a poet he was one of the most ima- ginative of modern times, and as a critic his merits are of the highest order. See Joseph Cottle, " Reminiscences of Coleridge and Southey," 1847; James Gillman, "Life of S. T. Coleridge," 1838; Lord Jef- frey, critique on Coleridge's " Biographia Literaria," in the " Edin- burgh Review" for August, 1817; and "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1848, on Coleridge and Southey ; " Quarterly Review" for July, 1868; De QuiNCEY, "Literary Reminiscences," vol. i. Coleridge, (Sara Henry,) the only daughter of the preceding, whose genius she inherited, was born at Kes- wick in 1803. Her early years were passed in the hiome of her uncle, Robert Southey, at Keswick, wherem i*ie enjoyed the society of Wordsworth the poet. In 1822 she produced an excellent version of Dobrizhoffer's Latin work on the Abi pones, an equestrian people of Para- guay. She was married in 1829 to her cousin, Henry N. Coleridge, whom she assisted in editing her father's works. She was sole editor of the "Aids to Reflection," and a few others. Her imaginative faculty is displayed in her " Phantasmion," a tale, which is much admired, and has all the charms of a beautiful poem except the form and colour of verse. Died in 1852. Coleridge, (William Hart,) D.D., an uncle of Henry Nelson, noticed above, was born in 1 790. He was appointed, in 1824, Bishop of Barbadoes, which office he resigned in 1841. Died in 1850. Coles, (Captain Covvper Phipps,) an English naval officer, born in 18 19, was noted as the inventor of shot- proof rafts or floating batteries, and claimed the invention of the turret system first used in the American Monitor. He was lost at sea in 1870. Coles, (Elisha,) an English teacher, born in North- amptonshire about 1640. He taught school in London, and published, besides other educational works, one on "Short-Hand," an "English Dictionary," and a "Dic- tionary English-Latin, Latin-English," which passed through eighteen editions between 1677 and 1772. CoFet, (John,) an eminent scholar, born in London in 1466, and educated at Oxford. He became rector of Dennington in 1485, and Dean of Saint Paul's in 1505. His lectures are said to have contributed to the Refor- mation, which occurred in the following generation. A few years before his death he founded and endowed Saint Paul's .School, London. He published " Daily De votions," a "Latin Grammar," and other works. Colet was an intimate friend of Erasmus, and was persecuted for his liberal opinions. Died in 1519. See Samuel Knight, "Life of Colet," 1724; "Biographia En- tannica. " Colet, ko'la', (Louise,) a popular French poetess, born at Aix, in Provence, in 1815. Her maiden name was R6voiL. She gained three prizes at the Academic Fran9aise for three poems, " Le Musee de Versailles," (1839,) "The Monument of Moliere," (1843,) ^^^^^ "The Acropolis of Athens," (1854.) Among her chief pro- ductions is a poem on Woman, (" Le Poeme de la Femme,") designed to develop the various phases of the life of woman, in six parts. The first of these, called "La Paysanne," appeared in 1853. See Cuvillier-Fleurv, " l^tudes historiques et litteraires." Coletti, ko-let'tee, (Giovanni Domenico,) an Italian Jesuit, born in 1727, published a "Geographical Dic- tionary of South America," (2 vols., 1771,) and other works. Died in 1797. •e as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^=See Explanations, p. 23.) COLFAX 638 COLINS CoFfax, (ScHUYLKR,) an American statesman, born in the city of New York on the 23d of March, 1823, a short time after the death of his father. He was a grand- son of General William Colfax, who commanded Gen- eral Washington's life-guards throughout the Revolu- tionary war. Owing to the limited circumstances of his widowed mother, he had scarcely any opportunities for obtaining a school education. In 1836 he removed with his mother to Northern Indiana. Not long after he was- appointed deputy auditor for Saint Joseph county. He employed his leisure hours in reading law, in which he made great proficiency, although he appears not to have taken up the study with any view of adopting it as a profession. About 1845 he established at South Bend, Indiana, a weekly paper, called the " Saint Joseph Valley Register," which he edited for many years, and which was an able organ of the Whig party. He was secretary of the National Convention which nominated General Taylor for the Presidency in 1848. As a member of the Convention which framed the Constitution of Indiana in 1850, he opposed the clause which prohibited free col- oured men from settling in that State. He was the Whig candidate for Congress in 185 1, but was defeated by a small majority. In 1854 he was elected a member of Congress by the voters of the ninth district of Indiana, which he represented until he entered upon his duties as Vice-President. Soon after his entrance into Congress he^^niade an eloquent speech on the Kansas question, of Wiff'^vh, according to the New York " Tribune," five hun- dred thousand copies were printed and circulated. He was elected Speaker of the House of Representa- tives by the Republicans in December, 1863 ; and he was afterwards twice re-elected to the same position, each time with an increased majority. In 1867 he was chosen Speaker of the Fortieth Congress. During the civil war he was an intimate friend and confidential adviser of President Lincoln. In 1865 he made an excursion across the continent to California. " As a presiding officer," says " Putnam's Magazine," " Mr. Colfax is tlie most popular the House has had since Henry Clay. . . . He is eminently representative. A glance at his broad, well-balanced, practical brain indicates that his leading faculty is the sum of all the faculties, — judgment. His talents are administrative and executive rather than deliberative. He would make a better President, or Speaker of the House, than Senator." (See "Putnam's Magazine" for June, 1868. ) In person he is not above middle stature. His hair is brown, and his eyes blue. His moral character is represented as irreproachable. On the 21st of May, 1868, he was nomi- nated as the Republican candidate for the office of Vice- President of the United States, General Grant being the nominee for President. They were triumphantly elected, receiving 214 electoral votes against 80 which were given to Seymour and Hlair. His peculiar fitness for the office and rare popularity induced the Convention to disregard those geographical considerations which usually require that the President and Vice-President shall not be taken from the same section of the country. See Harriet Beecher Stowe, "Men of our Times," 1868; Moore, " Life of Schuvler Colfax," 1868 ; " Life and Public Services of Schuyler Colfax," by E. M. Martin, 1868; "Grant and Col- fax," by C. A. Phelps. Coli, ko'Iee, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, born at Lucca in 1634, was a pupil of P. Cortona. Died in 1681. Coligni, (FRANgois.) See Dandelot. Coligni or Coligny, de, deh ko'lfen'ye', (FRANgois,) a son of the admiral, was born in 1557. Having escaped the massacre in which his father perished, he took refuge in Geneva in 1572. Two years later he returned, and took part in the war which was renewed between Catho- lic? and Protestants. He was chosen colonel-general b) Henry IV. while the latter was fighting against the League. Died in 1591. Coligni or Coligny, de, (Gaspard,) a French gen- eral, the father of Admiral Coligni. After the battle of Marignan, (15 15,) where he commanded a corps, he was made marshal of France. He married Louise, a sister of the Constable Montmorenci. He had just been ap- pointed commander of the army sent against Spain, when he died, in 1522. See SisMONui, " Histoire des Frangais." Coligni, ko-leen'ye or ko'l^n'ye', or Coligny, de, [Lat. Colin'ius,] (Gaspard,) a renowned Huguenot chief and French admiral, son of the preceding, was born at Chatillon-sur-Loing, February 16, 1517. He served first in the campaign of 1543, and was knighted by Conde on the field of Cerisoles in 1544. A few years later he was appointed colonel-general of infantry, and in 1552 ad- miral of France. He was taken prisoner by the Spaniards at Saint-Quentin in 1557. Soon after this date he was converted to the Reformed religion. When the civil war began in 1562, Coligni was chosen second in com- mand of the Protestant army under the Prince of Conde. He succeeded to the chief command at Jarnac in 1569, after Conde had been killed, and was defeated at Mon- contour in the same year. In 1570 the court granted the Protestants peace on terms so favourable that they suspected it to be treacherous. These suspicions, how- ever, were artfully dispelled, and Coligni went to Paris to attend the marriage of Henry of Navarre with the king's sister, in August, 1572. After he had been warmly caressed by the king, he was wounded in the arm, as he ])assed along the street, by a partisan of the Duke of Guise. Two days later occurred the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, in which Coligni was killed in his cham- ber in the presence of the Duke of Guise. (vSee Charles IX.) Though not fortunate as a general, his prudence, firmness, and ability rendered him formidable even after defeat. See Brant6me, *' Discours sur I'Amiral de Chatillon ;" Perault, "Vie de Coligni;" De la Ponneraye, "Histoire de I'Amiral de Coligni," 1830; Jean de Serres, "Gasparis Colinii Vita," 1575; SisMONDi, "Histoire des Fran^ais ;" Dufey, "Coligny, Histoire Frangaise," 4 vols., 1824; " Nouvelie Biographie Generale." Coligni, de, (Gaspard,) a French general, called Mar- shal de Chatillon, a son of Fran9ois, noticed above, was born in 1584. He obtained at an early age the rank of colonel-general of infantry. He became a marshal in 1622, and gained several victories over the Spaniards in Flanders and Piedmont between 1630 and 1640. Died in 1646. See Mor^ri, " Dictionnaire Historique." Coligni, de, (Henriette,) Countess de la Suze, (deh It siiz,) a French poetess, daughter of the preceding, was born in 1618. She became the wife of the Count de la Suze, from whom she was divorced in 1653. She acquired considerable renown by her elegies, odes, songs, etc., and was admired for her personal and mental graces. Died in 1673. Coligni, de, (Odet,) Cardinal de Chatillon, (shl''te'- yiN',) a brother of the admiral, born in 15 15, became a cardinal in 1533. About 1560 he made an open profes- sion of the Reformed religion. After the battle of Saint- Denis (1567) he retired to England, where he died in 1571. See Brantome, "Memoires." Colignon, ko'16n'y5N', (Francois,) a distinguished French engraver, born at Nancy about 1621; died in 1671. Coligny. See Colignl Colin, koKin or ko'liN', (Alexander,) an eminent Flemish sculptor, born at Mechlin in 1526. Invited by Ferdinand I., he went to Innspruck in 1563, and executed a magnificent monument to the emperor Maximilian I. It is composed of numerous marble figures in alto-relievo, and is a very admirable specimen of art He was ap- pointed sculptor to the emperor Ferdinand I., and exe- cuted other monuments in Innspruck. Died in 1612. Colin, ko'llN', (Jacques,) a French poet, born at Auxerre, was secretary to Francis I. He composed verses in Latin and French. His "Dialogue between Venus and Cupid" is an ingenious poem, in French. Died in 1547. Colines, de, deh koO^n', (Simon,) an eminent French printer of the sixteenth century. He became a partner in Paris of Henry Estienne, whose widow he subsequently married. He published many editions remarkable for correctness and elegance. Died about 1546. Colini. See Collinl Colinius. See Colignl Colins, ko''l£lN^ (Pierre,) Lord of Heetyelde, a Flemish soldier and historian, born at Enghien in 1560. served under Alexander Farnese from 1581 to 1583. He wrote a " History of the most Memorable Events from 1 130 to the Present Time," (1634.) Died in 1646. a, e, I, o, u, y, /ono-; k, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, it, y, s/io7-f; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, f^t; m^t; n6t; good; moon; COLLADO 639 COLLETET Collado, kol-yS'oo, (Diego,) a Spanish missionary, born in Estreniadura, went to Japan in 1619, and preached there many years. He published in Rome a valuable " Jaoanese Grammar" and a " Dictionary of the Japanese Language." Died at sea in 1638. Collado, (Luis,) a skilful Spanish anatomist, born at Valencia, lived about 1550. He made discoveries in the structure of the ear, and wrote several professional works. Collado, (Luis,) a Spanish military engineer of the first part of the sixteenth century, was the author of a "Practical Manual of Artillery," (1586.) CoUadon, koKlt'doN^, (Th^;odore,) a Genevese phy- sician and medical writer, lived about 1610-40. CoUaert, kol'lSrt', (Adrian,) an eminent Flemish engraver, born at Antwerp about 1 520. He studied in Italy, where he formed the grand manner which cha- racterizes his works. He published many engravings designed by himself, and others, among which is "The Annunciation." Died at Antwerp in 1567. His son John, born about 1545, was a skilful engraver, and worked with his father. He executed many admired engravings after Rubens and other masters. Collalto, kol-lal'to, (Antonio,) an Italian mathe- matician, born at Venice about 1750. He obtained the first chair of mathematics at Padua about 1808. He pub- lished a work on "Analytic Geometry," (1802.) Died in 1820. Collalto, (Antonio Mattiuzzi.) See Colalto. CoPla-mer, (Jacob,) LL.D., an American statesman and Senator, son of Samuel Collamer, a patriot of the Revolution, was born in Troy, New York, in 1792. At an early age he accompanied his father to Burlington, Vermont, and graduated at the university in that town in 1810. He served as a lieutenant in the first campaign of the second war with Great Britain, was admitted to the bar in 1813, and rose to eminence in his profession. He was from 1833 to 1841 jndge of the supreme court of Vermont. Elected to Congress in 1842, he was re- elected in 1844, and again in 1846, and in March, 1849, was appointed by President Taylor postmaster-general of the United States. On the death of the President, in July, 1850, Judge Collamer resigned, with the other members of the cabinet, and in the following autumn was again elected judge of the supreme court of Vermont, to which office he was annually re-elected till chosen United States Senator in 1854. Pie was re-elected to the Senate in i860. Died in 1865. CoUanges, de, deh kol'ldNzh', (Gabriel,) a French mathematician, born in Auvergne in 1 521. He was valet- de-chambre to Charles IX., and, though a Catholic, was killed in the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew in 1572. He published a work on cabalistic writing. CoUantes, kol-yin'tis, (Francisco,) a skilful Spanish painter of landscape and history, was born in Madrid in 1599. He composed with great facility. Among his chief productions are a " Saint Jerome" and a " Resur- rection." I!)ied in 1656. CoUard. See Royer-Collard. Collas, ko'lts', (ACHILLE,) born in Paris in 1795, invented about 1836 a machine by which statues can be copied or reproduced on a smaller scale. Died in 1859. Collas, Le PiRE, a French Jesuit, born at Thion- ville about 1730, was well versed in the exact sciences. In 1767 he went as missionary to Pekin, where he was employed by the emperor as mathematician. Died in Pekin in 1781. Col-la-ti'nus, [Fr. Collatin, ko'lt-t^N',] (L. Tar- QUiNius,) was a relative of Tarquin, the last King of Rome, and was the husband of Lucretia, whose tragical fate occasioned a revolution in 509 B.C. Collatinus and J. Brutus were the first consuls of the new Roman state. Before the end of the year he resigned, or was deposed. See LiVY, books i. and ii. ; Niebuhr, " Commentary on the Story of the Last Tarciuinius," in his "History of Rome." Col-la'tius, ( Petrus Apoi.lonius, ) or CoUazio, kol-ISt'se-o, (PiETRO Apollonio,) an Italian poet, born at Novara in the fifteenth century. Pie wrote a poem " On the Destruction of Jerusalem," (" De Eversione Urbis Jerusalem," 1481,) and several other works. C0II6, ko''la', (Charles,) a French comic poet, born in Paris in 1709. He became reader to the Duke of Orleans, and received a pension for his song on the cap- ture of Port Mahon. In 1763 he produced the comedy " Dupuis et Desronais," which was very successful. His " Hunting-Party of Henry IV.," and "Truth in Wine," were much admired. He wrote other dramas and songs. Died in 1783. See his " Toiirnal Historique," 3 vols., 1805-07; "Nouvelle Bio- graphic G^nerale." Colle, kol'li, (Giovanni,) an Italian physician, born at Belluno in 1558. He practised with success in Venice, and lectured at Padua, where he died in 1630, leaving several able Latin treatises on medicine. Colle, koKleh, or Colli, koKlee, (Hippolyte,) written also CoUibus, a Swiss jurist, born at Zurich in 1 561, was professor of law at Heidelberg. Died in 161 2. Colle, kol, (Jean Thi^odore,) a French general, born in the department of Meurthe in 1734, served in the Seven Years' war, and subsequently in several campaigns of the Revolution. Died in 1807. Colle, dal, dJl koKli, (Raffaellino or Raphael,) an eminent Italian painter, born at Colle, in Tuscany, about 1490. He was a pupil of Raphael and of Giulio Romano. The latter had so high an opinion of his skill that he employed his pencil on his own works. Colle's style was noble, his design correct, and his colouring warm and brilliant. He painted frescos in the Vatican, where he is said to have worked under the direction of Raphael. Among his master-pieces is a picture of the Deluge. Died in 1530. Collenuccio, kol-li-noot'cho, (Randolph or Pan- DOLFO,) a learned Italian historian and jurist, born at Pesaro in the fifteenth century. He was chosen podesta of several towns, and was employed with honour as a negotiator. His principal work is a "History of the Kingdom of Naples," (1539.) He was strangled in prison by John Sforza about 1500. CoUeoni or Colleoiie, (Bartolommeo.) See Co- leonl CoUeoni, kol-li-o'nee, (Geronimo,) an Italian writer, born at Correggio in 1742, was learned in languages, history, and philosophy. Pie was employed in several high offices, and wrote "Notices of the Authors who were Natives of Correggio," (1776.) Died in 1777. CoUeoni, (Girolamo,) an Italian painter, born at Bergamo about 1490, went to Madrid, and was patronized by the king. CoUes, koKlis, (Christopher,) a philosophic Irish inventor and projector, born about 1738. He emigrated to Pennsylvania before the Revolution, and devised va- rious plans and projects for the public welfare, but never obtained much success. It is stated that he was the first person who proposed to connect the Hudson River with the lakes by a canal. Died in 1821. Collet. See Colet. CoPlet, (John,) an English humorous painter, born in London about 1725 ; died in 1780. Collet, ko'li', (Joseph,) born in the Isle of Bourbon in 1768, entered the French navy, and distinguished himself at the siege of Antwerp in 1814. He was made rear-admiral in 1828, and died the same year. Collet, (Philibert,) a French writer, born at Cha- tillon-les-Dombes in 1643. became an advocate at the parliament of Burgundy, and was author of works on various subjects, among which are a " History of Reason," (in Latin,) and an "Essay on Botany." Died in 1718. Collet, (Pierre,) a French theologian, born near Montoire in 1693, wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on the Ploly Mysteries," (1768.) Died in 1770. CoUetet, koKti', (Guillaume,) one of the first mem- bers of the French Academy, was born in Paris in 1598. Richelieu having persuaded him to write for the theatre, he produced " Cyminde," a tragi-comedy. He composed some admired epigrams, an able " Essay on the Epigram," (1653,) a "Treatise on Pastoral Poetry," (1658,) and other works. He was a royal advocate. Died in 1659. His son Franqois, born in Paris in 1628, was a poet of inferior merit, whom Boileau ridiculed in his satires. He wrote, besides other works, " La Muse coquette," and a "Treatise on Foreign Languages." •€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jf^^See Explanations, p. 23.) COLLETON 640 COLLINGWOOD Col'le-ton, (James,) Governor of South Carolina from 1686 to 1690, came from the Barbadoes, and in 1687 procured a change in the fundamental laws of the colony. His unpopular measures resulted in his final expulsion from the office of Governor. CoUetta, kol-lefta, (Pietro,) an Italian historian and general, born in Naples in 1775. He was appointed a general in 1812, and director-in-chief of the military en- gineers in 1813. He was a warm partisan of the French regime. The revolution of 1820 raised him for a short time to the post of minister of war. Having been exiled in 1821, he retired to Florence, and wrote a "History of the Kingdom of Naples," (from Charles VH. to Fer- dinand IV.,) (1834,) which passed through four or more editions. Died in 1833. See "Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1835. Colli, koKlee, Baron, a Piedmontese general, born at Alessandria in 1760, was made a lieutenant-general in 1792, and gained a victory over the French in 1793. In 1794 he obtained the chief command of the Sardinian army. He was defeated at Mondovi by Napoleon in 1796. Died in 1812. His wife was a sister of the poet Altieri. Collier, koKyer, (Arthur,) an English philosopher, born near Sarum, in Wiltshire, in 1680. He obtained the living of Langdorf-Magna about 1704. His reputa- tion is founded on a metaphysical work called "Clavis Universalis, or a New Inquiry after Truth," (1713,) in which he proposes to demonstrate the non-existence of the material world. Died in 1732. Collier, (Henry Watkins,) an American jurist, born in Virginia in- 1801. He rose to eminence as a lawyer in "]\iscaloosa, Alabama, was many years chief justice of that State, and Governor from 1849 to 1853. Collier, (Jeremy,) a famous English theologian and non-juring bishop, born at Stow-Quy, in Cambridgeshire, in 1650. He was educated at Cambridge, and ordained a priest in 1677. In 1685 he obtained the office of lecturer at Gray's Inn, London. His talents and attainments were of a high order. In politics he was an ultra-Tory ; his religious opinions were nearly identical with modern Puseyism. In 1688 he was so zealous a Jacobite that he renounced his preferments rather than take the oaths to William III. ; and he wrote several works against the new regime. In 1696 he gave absolution to Freind and Parkins, as they were about to be executed for treason and attempt to murder. To escape prosecution for this, he absconded, and was outlawed, but continued to re- side in London and to write with impunity. In 1698 he published his celebrated work, a *' Short View of the Pro- faneness and Immorality of the English Stage," which, says Macaulay, "threw the whole literary world into commotion. . . . There is hardly any book of that time from which it would be possible to select specimens of writing so excellent and so various. He was complete master of the rhetoric of honest indignation. The spirit of the book is truly heroic." Congreve appeared in de- fence of the stage, but his answer was a complete failure ; and a great reform in the English drama was the result of Collier's work. Between 1697 and 1705 he published, in 3 vols., " Essays on Several Moral Subjects," which have great merit. He also translated Moreri's " His- torical Dictionary." In 17 13 he was consecrated as a bishop by Dr. Hickes, a non-juror. Died in 1726. Re- specting Collier's character Macaulay says, " We believe him to have been as honest and courageous a man as ever lived." See "Comic Dramatists of the Restoration," in Macaulav's " Essays." Collier, (John Payne,) an eminent English critic and antiquary, born in London in 1789. He produced in 1820 "The Poetical Decameron, or Ten Conversa- tions on English Poets and Poetry," which is highly prized. In 1831 he published an excellent "History of English Dramatic Poetry to the Time of Shakspeare, and Annals of the Stage to the Restoration," (3 vols.,) and in 1844 an edition of "The Works of Shakspeare, the Text formed from a New Collation of the Old Edi- tions," (8 vols.) His collection entitled " Shakspeare's Library" (1848) is accounted valuable. Great excite- ment was produced among critics and antiquaries by the publication, in 1852, of his "Notes and Emendations to the Text of Shakspeare's Plays." These Emendations he had found in the margin of a copy of Shakspeare printed in 1632. See " Blackwood's Magazine" for August, September, and October, 1853; "London Quarterly Review" lor April, 1856. Collier, (Sir Robert Porrett,) an English lawyer, born in 1817, was called to the bar in 1843. He was returned to Parliament for Plymouth in 1852, was soli- citor-general from October, 1863, to July, 1866, and was appointed attorney-general in December, 1868. Collin, kol-leen', (Heinrich Joseph,) a German phy- sician, born at Vieinia in 1 731, was the father of the poet Heinrich Josejjh von Collin, noticed below. He was chief physician of the hospital of Vienna, and wrote several medical works. Died in 1784. Collin, koKlin, (Jonas,) a distinguished Danish states- man and economist, born at Copenhagen in 1776. He became chief secretary or first commissioner of the treas- ury in 1841. He took a prominent part in many public affairs and benevolent institutions, and wrote discourses on rural economy, geography, and statistics, one of which is entitled " For Historic og Statistik isaer Faedrelan- dets," (1825.) Collin, (Matthaus,) a poet and critic, born at Vienna in 1779, was a brother of Heinrich Joseph von Collin, noticed below. He became professor of aesthetics at Cracow in 1808, and, when that city was taken by the Russians, he obtained a chair of philosophy in Vienna. He was chosen preceptor of the Duke of Reichstadt (son of Napoleon I.) in 1815. He wrote "Marius," and other dramas. Died in 1824. Collin, ko'l^N^, (Nicolas,) a French theologian, born in the early part of the eighteenth century. He wrote a number of religious works. Died in 1788. Collin, von, fon kol-leen', (Helnrich Joseph,) a German dramatic poet, born at Vienna in 1772. After filling several civil offices with credit, he became aulic councillor, and held a high position in the ministry of finances. He produced six tragedies in verse, among which are " Regulus," (1802,) "Coriolanus," and " Bal- boa." He also composed several patriotic war-songs, which were much admired. Died in 181 1. Collin d'Ambly, ko'ldN' dSM'ble', (FRANgois,) a French writer, born at Ambly-sur-Meuse in 1759, was the author of many educational works. Died about 1830. Collin de Bar, ko'l^N' deh biR, (Alexis Guh^laume Henri,) a flench historical writer, born at Pondicherry, India, in 1768, was president of the superior court at the capture of that place in 1803, and then removed to France. He wrote a "History of Ancient and Modern India," (1814,) a work of some merit. Died in 1820. Collin de Plancy, ko'liw' deh plSN'se', originally Collin Danton, (ddN'toN',) (Jacques Alhin Simon,) a French litterateur, a nephew of the famous Danton, was born at Plancy in 1793. Having written several heretical works, among which was "The Infernal Dictionary," he changed his course about 1837, and produced "Legends of the Holy Virgin," "Legends of the Wandering Jew," and other books of a so-called religious character. Collin-Harleville, ko'l^N' haRl'v^K, (Jean Fran- cois,) a French comic poet, born at Maintenon, near Chartres, in 1755. He produced in 1786 his first drama (in verse,) the " Inconstant," (" Inconstant Lover,") which obtained great success. His master-piece is the "Old Bachelor," which was received in 1792 with gen- eral applause. He was admitted into the second class of the Institute. La Harpe thought his "Optimiste" superior to the "Inconstant." Died in Paris in 1806. ColTings or Collinges, (John,) an English non- conformist minister, born in 1623. His sermons and other theological works are highly commended by Cotton Mather and Calamy. Died in 1690. CoFling-wood, (Cuthbert,) Admiral Lord, an eminent English adniiral, born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1750. Having entered the navy in I76i,he served at Bunker Hill in 1775, and was made a post-captain in 1780. He contributed to Lord Howe's victory over the French, June i, 1794, and displayed great skill and courage in the action off Cape Saint Vincent in 1797. In 1799 he obtained the rank of rear-admiral, and in 1804 that of vice-admiral. He was second in command a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; 6, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; mSt; n6i; good; moon; COLLINGWOOD 641 COLLOREDO at the battle of Trafalgar, {1805,) and when Nelson was killed he succeeded to the chief command. Soon after this event he was raised to the peerage. He com- manded for several years with honour in the Mediterra- nean, and died at sea near Port Mahon in 1810. He was greatly distinguished as a naval tactician. The memoir of his life published by G. L. N. Collingwood is highly esteemed. ^ See, aiso, Campbell, " Lives of the British Admirals;" "Edin- burgh Review" for May, 1828. Collingwood, (Thomas,) an English physician, noted for his learning and versatile talents, was born near Berwick-on-Tweed in 1 751. He practised in Norham, Sunderland, and London. He published "The Hermit," and other poems, and left in manuscript some mathe- matical works, etc. Died in 183 1. CoUini, kol-lee'nee, (Cosimo Alessandro,) an Italian writer, born at Florence in 1727. About 1750 he went to Berlin, where he met Voltaire, whom he served as secretary from 1752 to 1756. In 1759 he became secre- tary of the Elector Palatine, and director of the Cabinet of Natural History at Manheim. He wrote " My Resi- dence with Voltaire," (1807, in French,) and several his- torical and scientific treatises. Died in 1806. See Voltaire, " Correspondance." Col'lins, (Anthony,) an English writer on theology, born of a rich family at Heston, in Middlesex, in 1676, was an intimate friend of John Locke. He studied law, but did not practise it. He published an " Essay on Reason," (1707,) "Priestcraft in Perfection," (1709,) a " Vindication of the Divine Attributes," and a " Dis- course on Free-Thinking," (1713.) These works gave offence to the orthodox, and were attacked by several able divines, among whom was Bentley. In 1 718 he was chosen treasurer of the county of Essex. His "Discourse on the Grounds and Reasons of the Chris- tian Religion" (1724) excited great commotion among the clergy, some of whom treated him as an infidel. He was a subtle disputant, and a writer of much ability. Died in 1729. See " Biographia Britannica ;" Thorschmidt, " Kritische Le- bensgeschichte A. Collins," 1755; " Noiivelle Biographic Generale." Collins, (Arthur,) an English antiquary, born in 1682. He published, besides other woiks, the "Peer- age of England," (3 vols., 1709,) "English Baronage," and "The Life of Lord Burleigh," (1732.) The first work, augmented by Sir E. lirydges to nine volumes, (1812,) is highly prized. Died in 1760. Collins, (David,) a grandson of the preceding, was bom in 1756. He became an officer in the British army, and Governor of Van Diemen's Land. He wrote a curious and interesting " Account of the English Colony of New South Wales," (1798-1802.) Died in 1810. CoPlins, (Isaac,) an American publisher, born in Delaware in 1746, lived at Burlington, New Jersey, at Trenton, and New York, He published an octavo Bible, the text of which was very correctly printed. Died in 181 7. See " Memoir of Isaac Collins of Burlington," 1848. Collins, (John,) an eminent English mathematician, born at Wood Eaton, near Oxford, in 1624. He pub- lished good elementary works on geometry, arithmetic, and navigation, and contributed papers to the Royal So- ciety, of which he was chosen a f^ellow in 1667. He was a correspondent of Sir Isaac Newton. Died in 1683. See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." Collins, (Samuel,) an English physician, who gradu- ated at Oxford in 1659. Soon after that date he went to Russia, and practised nine years at the court of the Czar. He published in London, in 1671, "The Present State of Russia," and a "Treatise on Anatomy, Physiology, etc.," (1685.) He became physician to the queen, and died about 1700. See Wood, " Athenas Oxonienses." Collins, (William,) an eminent English lyric poet, born at Chichester in 1720. Having graduated at Ox- ford, he went to London about 1744, with little resources except his poetical genius. There he became the friend of Dr. Johnson, who speaks well of his character, and adds that "his great fault was irresolution." His ex- cellent odes on "The Passions," "To Mercy," "To Evening," etc. appeared in 1747, but were treated with unmerited neglect. In 1749 he received a legacy of ^2000 from his uncle, Colonel Martin. The latter part of his short life was darkened by melancholy, and he was for some time an inmate of a lunatic-asylum. He died in 1756. Besides the above-named pieces, he wrote " The Dirge in Cymbeline," and a few other short poems. T. Campbell, comparing them with Milton's early works, remarks, "If they have rather less exuberant wealth of genius, they have more exquisite touches of pathos." See Johnson, "Lives of the Poets;" Mrs. Bakbauld, "Essay on Collins;" Drake, "Literary Hours;" Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets." Collins, (William,) an English landscape-painter, born in London in 1787, was a pupil of Morland. He was elected a Royal Academician in 1820, and visited Italy in 1836. He represented homely rural scenery and views on the sea-coast with great success, and acquired an extensive reputation. Among his most admired pictures are " Cromer Sands," " Prawn-Fishers," and a " Frost Scene," the last of which he sold for five hundred guineas. His works are finely finished, and are admired for fidelity to nature. (See a "Memoir" published by his son, W. Wilkie Collins, 1848.) Died in 1847. His son, Charles Alston, born about 1828, is also a painter. See " Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1850. Collins, (William Wilkie,) an English novelist, born in London in 1824 or 1825, is a son of the landscape- painter above noticed. He published a well-written "Life of William Collins," (his own father, 1848,) "Rambles beyond Railways," (1851,) and several suc- cessful novels, among which are " Antonina," (2d edition, 1850,) "Basil," (1852,) "The Dead Secret," (1857,) and "The Woman in White," published in "All the Year Round," (1859-60.) ColTin-son, (John,) an English writer, published, in 1791, the "History and Antiquities of the County of Somerset." Died in 1793. Collinson, (Peter,) an English merchant and natu- ralist, who rendered great services to science, especially to botany, was born in Westmoreland in 1693. lived in London, and availed himself of his mercantile connections to procure seeds and plants from foreign lands. He was a member of the Royal Society, for which he wrote several memoirs, and was a liberal pa- tron of the Philadelj^hia Library, whose connriissions he executed gratis for thirty years. " He was the means," says Southey, "of procuring national advantages for his country, and possessed an influence which wealth cannot purchase. Franklin's first essays on electricity were originally communicated to this good man. They were read in the Royal Society, 'where they were not thought worth so much notice as to be printed in their Transac- tions ;' and his paper in which the sameness of lightning with electricity was first asserted, was laughed at by the connoisseurs." (See Franklin, Benjamin.) Collinson was a member of the Society of Friends. Linnaeus named the genus Collinsonia in honour of him. Died in 1768. See "Biographia Britannica;" Fothergh.l and Collinson, "Account of the Late Peter Collinson ;" and "Tribute to the Mem- ory of Peter Collinson," by William Dillingham. ColTi-us, (Francesco,) an Italian theologian, born near Milan about 1590, was the author of two learned works, remarkable for singularity of opinions, one of which is entitled "On the Souls of the Heathens," ("De Animabus Paganorum.") He decides adversely to the salvation of Aristotle. Died in 1640. Colin or Coelln, von, fon koln, (Daniel Georg Conrad,) a German rationalistic theologian, born in Lippe-Detmold in 1788; died in 1833. Collombet, ko'16N'ba^ (FRANgois Z6non,) a French Catholic writer, born at Sieges (Jura) in 1808, published a "History of Saint Jerome," (1844,) other works. Died in 1853. CoUoredo, kol-lo-ra'do, (Franz G.,) born in 1731, was Austrian ambassador to Spain in 1767, and became vice-chancellor of the empire in 1789. Died in 1807. CoUoredo, (Rudolph,) Count of Waldsee, a general of the Imperialist army, born in 1585, distinguished him- self in the Thirty Years' war, and in 1648 defended Prague with success against the Swedes. Died in 1657. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, gtitUiral; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jr^See Explanations, p. 23.) 41 COLLOT 642 COLOMBT CoUot, ko'lo', (Jean FRANgois Henri,) a French writer, born near Charleville in 17 16, was a contributor to the " Encyclopedic" of Diderot, and published other works. Died in 1804. Collot. wSee Colot. CoUot-d'Herbois, ko^o' deRH^wi', (Jean Marie,) a notorious French Jacobin, born about 1750, was a stroll- ing player before the Revolution, and author of several comedies. He was deputed by the people of Paris to the Convention in 1792, became a partisan of Robes- pierre, and was one of the Committee of Public Safety in 1793. He rendered himself infamous by his cruelties at Lyons, where many hundred persons perished by his order, in 1793. In this he is said to have been actuated by revenge, having once been hissed on the stage of Lyons. He presided over the Convention on the 9th Thermidor, 1794, and contributed to the ruin of Robes- pierre. In 1795 he was transported to Cayenne, where he died miserably in 1796. See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" " Biographie Universelle." CoUucio. See Coluccio. Coll'yer, (Joseph,) an English engraver, born in London in 1748, was a son of Mary Collyer, the suc- cessful translator of Gesner's " Death of Abel." He ex- celled in the stippled style of engraving. Died in 1827. Collyer, (William Bengo,) an English divine, was minister of the Independent Chapel, Peckham. He published several volumes of lectures "On Scripture Facts," "On Scripture Prophecy," "On Scripture Doc- trine," etc., (1807-22.) Died in 1854. CoFman, (Benjamin,) an American clergyman, born in Boston in 1673. He became pastor of a church in his native city about 1700, and published sermons, poems, etc. Died in 1747. CoFman, (George,) an eminent English dramatic author, was born about 1733 at Florence, where his father was British minister. He was a graduate of Ox- ford. In 1760 he produced "Polly Honeycomb," a drama, which was warmly applauded, and in 1761 "The Jealous Wife," which was also very popular. He made an excellent translation of Terence into verse in 1764. Between 1767 and 1775 he was acting manager of Covent Garden Theatre, and was afterwards proprietor of the 'Haymarket Theatre. He published a translation of Horace's "Art of Poetry," and several other works. In 1789 he lost his reason. Died in 1794. See Baker, " Biographia Drainatica." Colman, (George,) "the Younger," a son of the preceding, was born in 1762. He inherited his father's dramatic taste and talent, and succeeded him as director of the Haymarket Theatre in 1785. He wrote many popular comedies and farces, among which are " The Iron Chest," (1796,) "John Bull," "Inkle and Yarico," and "Heir at Law." For "John Bull" he received the largest sum that had ever been paid for any drama. He also composed comic tales, called " Broad Grins" and " Poetic Vagaries," (1812,) and memoirs of his own life, entitled "Random Recollections," (2 vols., 1830.) Died in 1836. See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica;" R. B. Peake, " Memoirs of the Colman Family ;" " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1841. Colman, (Henry,) a Unitarian minister, and writer on agriculture, born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1785. He was pastor at Salem from 1825 to 1831, after which he was appointed agricultural commissioner for the State of Massachusetts. He went to Europe in 1842, and pub- lished " European Agriculture and Rural Economy," and other works. Died in London in 1849. Colman, (Samuel,) an American landscape-painter of the present century. Among his best works are " Lake George," " Barges on the Hudson," and an "Autumn Landscape." See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." Colmar, koFmiR, (Johann,) a German educational writer, born at Nuremberg in 1684; died in 1737. Colmeiro, kol-ma^-ro, (Manuel,) a Spanish writer on political economy, was born at Santiago de Galicia in 181 8. He became professor of political economy at Madrid in 1847. Colmenar, de, di kol-mk-naR', (Juan Alvarez,) a historian and compiler, who was the reputed author of two esteemed French works, viz., "Annals of Spain and Portugal," (1741,) and a " Description of Spain and Por- tugal," (5 vols., 1707.) It is suspected that J. A. de Col- menar was an assumed name of the French compiler. Colmenares, de, da kol-mk-na^rgs, (Diego,) born at Segovia, in Spain, in 1586, wrote a " History of Segovia and Compendium of the Histories of Castile," (1634.) Died in 1651. Coin or Coeln, von, fon koln, (Wilhelm,) called Meister Wilhelm, an excellent German painter, lived at Cologne about 1370. He painted religious subjects in distemper. Colnet, de, deh koKni', (Charles Joseph Auguste Maximilien,) often called Colnet de Ravel, a French satirical poet and journalist, born in Picardy in 1768. He became a bookseller at Paris in 1797. In 1810 he pro- duced an ingenious poem, entitled "The Art of Dining Out, ( en ville,) for the Use of Authors." Pie wrote editorials for the "Journal de Paris" and the "Gazette de France" between 1811 and 1832. Died in 1832, See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Colocci, ko-lot'chee, [Lat. Colo'tius,] (ANGEL0,)an Italian poet, born near Ancona in 1467, became a resi- dent of Rome and secretary of Leo X. He lived in grand style, and had a fine library, which was burned when Rome was sacked in 1527. He gained a temporary reputation by his Latin poems. Died in 1549. Colocotroni. See Kolocotroni. Cologne, de, deh ko'loh', (Peter,) a Protestant di- vine, was a native of Ghent. Died in 1558. Coloma, ko-lo'ma, (Don Carlos,) a Spanish general and historian, born at Alicante in 1573. He rose to the highest rank in the army, and became Governor of the Milanese. He received from Philip IV. the title of Marquis of Espina, and wrote a history of the war in Flan- ders from 1588 to 1599, ("Las Guerras de los Estados Baxos," 1625,) a work of considerable merit. Died in 1637. Colomb. See Columbus. Colomb, ko^'loN', written also Columb, (Michel,) a French sculptor, born in Bretagne in the fifteenth century. His master-piece is the tomb of Francis II. (Duke of Bretagne) at Nantes, which is much admired. Colomba, See Columha. Colomban. See Columkan. Colombe, koH^Mb', (Marie Th^rese,) a famous actress, born at Venice in 1757, made a successful debut in Paris in 1772. She retired from the stage in 1788, and died in 1837. Colombel, ko''l6N'b§K, (Nicolas,) a French painter of history, born near Rouen in 1646, was the most emi- nent pupil of Le Sueur. He studied in Rome, and after- wards worked in Paris with success. Died in 171 7. Colombier, ko'loN'be-a', (Jean,) an able French physician, born at Toul in 1736, became inspector-general of the hospitals of the kingdom in 1780, and of the mili- tary hospitals a few years later. He died in 1789, leaving, besides other medical treatises, one entitled "Precepts on the Health of Soldiers, or Military Hygiene," (1775.) Colombiere, de la, deh It ko'l^N^be-aiR', (Claude,) a French Jesuit, born near Lyons in 1641; died in 1682. Colombiere, de la, (Vulson.) See Vulson. Colombo, ko-lom'bo, (Domenico,) an Italian pas- toral poet, born at Gabiano in 1749. He published pas- toral Poems, and an " Essay on the Drama and Tragedy of Italy," (1794.) Died in 1813. Colombo, (Realdo,) [Lat. Real'dus Colum'bus,] a distinguished Italian anatomist, born at Cremona, suc- ceeded Vesalius, in 1544, as professor at Padua. He afterwards taught in the Universities of Pisa and of Rome. He is said to have first discovered the pulmo- nary circulation. His reputation is founded on his work " De Re Anatomica," (1559,) a most important contribu- tion to anatomy for that period. Died about 1576. See Hallek, " Bibliotheca Anatomica;" Sprengel, "Geschichte der Arzneikunde." Colomby, de, deh ko'l^N^be', (FRANgois Cauvigny — k5'v^n''ye',) Sieur, a French writer, born at Caen about 1588. He was one of the first members of the French Academy, and published a translation of Justin's "His- tory," Died about 1648. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; \ h, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fS,ll, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; COLO MIES 643 COLOT Colomies, ko'lo'me-es', (Paul,) a French Protestant writer on biography, theology, etc., was born at Rochelle in 1638. He removed to England in 1681, and became librarian to Archbishop Bancroft at Lambeth. He pub- lished, besides many other learned works, " Eastern Gaul," ("Gallia Orientalis," 1665,) "Protestant Rome," ("Rome protestante," 1675,) and "Historical Miscella- nies," (" Melanges historiques,") reprinted with the title " Colomesiana," Died in 1692. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, " Memoires." Coloni, ko-lo'nee, (Adam,) the Old, a Dutch painter, born at Rotterdain in 1634, worked in London. L[e painted landscapes and rural subjects. Died in 1685. Coloni, (Henry Adrla.n,) called the Young, a painter, son of the preceding, born in 1668; died in 1701. Colonia, de, deh ko'lo''ne^t', (Dominique,) a French Jesuit, born at Aix in 1660, became professor of rhetoric and theology in Lyons. He composed a " Literary His- tory of Lyons," and several tragedies. Died in 1741. Colonna, ko-lon'ni, the name of an illustrious Roman family, which acquired distinction as early as the twelfth century. They were adherents of the Ghibeline party, and rivals of the Orsini. Giovanni Colonna was made a cardinal in 12 16, and took part in the fifth crusade. Died in 1245. His nephew, of the same name, became Archbishop of Messina in 1255. He wrote a "Chronicle, or History of the World," to the time of Louis IX. of France. Cardinal Giacomo Colonna was chief coun- cillor of the court of Rome during the pontificate of Nicholas IV., which ended about 1292. He died in 1318. SciARRA Colonna was one of the chiefs of a successful conspiracy against Boniface VIII. in 1303. He died in exile about 1328. Stephen, a brother of Sciarra, was created Count of Romagna about 1290, and was for many years chief of the Guelphs at Rome. In a conflict with Rienzi he was killed about 1350. Otho Colonna was elected pope in 141 7. (See Martin V.) Antonio, a nephew and favourite of Martin V., was made Prince of Salerno and Duke of Amalfi in 1419. In 143 1 Pope Eu- gene IV. declared war against Antonio and his brothers, who had seized the treasury of the late pontiff. Antonio was the father of Prosper Colonna. See SisMONDi, "Histoire des Repiibliques Italiennes;" O. di Agostino, "Istoria della Famiglia Colonna." Colonna, (Angelo Michele,) an Italian painter, born at Ravenna in 1600, was invited to Spain by Philip IV., for whom he painted in the Escurial. Among his master-pieces are "Fortune" and "Prometheus." He died at Bologna in 1687. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Colonna, (Ascagno,) an Italian cardinal, born about 1560, became Viceroy of Aragon. He WTOte, in Latin, a treatise "On the Sicilian Monarchy." Died in 1608. Colonna, (Egidio,) [Lat. /I'Lgid'ius Roma'nus; Fr. Gii.LK.s de Colonne, zh^l deh ko^Ion',] a theologian and writer, born at Rome, studied under Thomas Aquinas in Paris. He became preceptor to the Dauphin of France, Philippe le Bel, for whom he wrote a treatise entitled "De Regimine Principis," Died in 1316. See Angelo Roccha, " Vita ^Egidii," prefixed to Colonna's work called " Defensorium," Naples, 1644. Colonna, (Fahio.) See Coi.umna. Colonna, (Fabrizio,) an Italian general, was first- cousin to Prospero, and schi of Edoardo, Duke of Amalfi. He served successively Frederick, King of Na])Ies, and Ferdinand the Catholic, who in 1507 appointed him grand constable of the kingdom of Naples. Having passed into the service of the i)ope, Julius II., he was taken prisoner by the French at Ravenna in 15 12. Died in 1520. See SiSMOKDi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes."' Colonna, (Fra Francesco,) an Italian writer, born at Venice about 1435, or, according to another account, in 1449. He became a Dominican monk, and j^rofessor of theology at Padua. He acquired celebrity by a fan- tastic and singular work, entitled " Hypnerotomachia Poliphili," (Venice, 1499,) in which he teaches that all human passions are but dreams. (For a more particular account of this strange production, see "Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale.") The language is a mixture of Italian, Greek, Latin, Hebrew, etc. Tiraboschi designates the work " a confused melange of fables, history, architecture, and antiquities." Died in 1527. Colonna, (Francesco Maria Pompeo,) an Italian alchemist, born about 1650. He lived many years in Paris, and published numerous works, among which was a "Natural History of the Universe," (1734.) He perished by a fire which consumed his lodgings in Paris in 1726. See F. HoEFER, "Histoire de la Chimie." Colonna, (Giovanni Paolo,) one of the most emi- nent Italian composers of his time, was born at Brescia. He composed only sacred music. His science was pro- found and his style brilliant. Died in 1695. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Colonna, (Marcantonio,) Duke of Palliano, an Italian general, who obtained in 1570 command of the twelve galleys which the pope sent to aid the Venetians in defence of Cyprus. The chief command of the allies was claimed by Colonna, Doria, and Zeno, neither of whom would yield. To obviate the difficulty and danger arising from this dispute, Philip of Spain gave the com- mand of his ships to Don John of Austria, from whom Colonna consented to receive orders ; and they defeated the Turks at Lepanto in October, 1571. "He had the fortune," says Sismondi, " to attach his name to the greatest exploit of the sixteenth century, the battle of Lepanto," He was afterwards appointed Viceroy of Sicily by Philip II, Died in 1584. See Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Colonna, (Pompeo,) an Italian prelate, nephew of Prosper Colonna, noticed below. He was a turbulent and violent character, and was hostile to Leo X., by whom he had been made a cardinal. After having decided the election in favour of Clement VII,, he quarrelled with him, and attempted to seize him with a troop of soldiers. But he served the same pope efficiently when the latter was held in durance by the army of Constable Bourbon. Died in 1532, See AuBERY, " Histoire des Cardinaux." Colonna, (Prosper or Prospero,) the son of Anto- nio, above noticed, was one of the greatest generals that Italy has ])roduced. In 1494 he fought for the French king Charles VIH. in his invasion of Naples. After the exi)ulsion of the French he served under Gonsalvo de Cordova against France. In 1513 he won for Ferdinand of Spain a great victory over the Venetians near Vicenza. He was taken prisoner by the French at Villa Franca by a surprise in 1515. He took Milan in 1521, and de- feated Lautrec, a French general, at Bicoque in 1522. Died in 1523. See Brantome, " Grands Capitaines ;" Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Colonna, (Vittoria,) daughter of Fabrizio, above noticed, was illustrious as a poetess and as a woman. She was born in 1490, and was married in 1507 to the Marquis of Pescara, who became a celebrated general. She was extolled as the most eminent of her sex in Italy for beauty, virtue, and talents. After the death of her husband, in 1525, she wrote poetical laments on that subject, and also religious verses. In 1541 she retired into a convent, first at Orvieto and then at Viterbo. She is reputed one of the most successful imitators of Petrarch. "The rare virtues and consummate talents of this lady," says Hallam, "were the theme of all Italy in that brilliant age of her literature." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1547. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Mrs. Henky RoscoE, "Vittoria Colonna: her Life and Poems," 1868; "Lives of the Italian Poets," by Rev. H. Stebbing, London, 1S31. Colonne, de, (Gilles.) See Colonna, (Egidio.) Colot, ko'lo', or CoUot, the name of seveial French lithotomists. Germain Colot, a French surgeon, who lived about 1480, was the first of his countrymen who practised lithotomy. Lauren t settled in Paris in 1556, and was patronized by Henry II. Philippe, a descend- ant of Laurent, born in 1593, had a high reputation, and was employed at court. Died in 1656. Francois, a son or grandson of Philippe, lived about 1690. His repu- tation attracted ]Datients from foreign countries. He left a " Treatise on Lithotomy." •€ as c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, v., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in tJiis. ( J:^='See Explanations, p. 23.} COLOTES 644 COLUMBUS Co-lo'tes, [Ko^r/?f,] a Greek sculptor, a native of Paros, lived about 450 B.C. He assisted Phidias in the colossal statue of Jupiter at Olyinpia. His master-piece was an ivory statue of /Esculapius. Colpani, kol-p3.'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian poet, born at Brescia in 1738; died in 1822. Colquhoun, ko-hoon', ? (Lady Janet,) an Irish au- thoress, born in I78i,was the daughter of Sir John Sin- clair of Ulster, and the wife of Sir James Colquhoun. Besides other religious works, she wrote " Impression of the Heart," (1825,) and "The World's Religion con- trasted with Christianity," (1839.) Died in 1846. .See James Hamilton, " Memoirs of Lady Colquhoun," 1849. Colquhoun, ko-hoon', (Patrick,) a Scottish political economist and practical reformer, born at Dumbarton in 1745. He became a Glasgow merchant about 1768, and lord provost of Glasgow in 1782. He promoted the fabrication of muslin in Scotland, and developed other resources. In 1789 he removed to London, where he initiated reforms in the police. He published a valuable "Treatise on the Police of the Metropolis," (1796,) a " Treatise on the Population, Power, and Resources of the British Empire," (1814,) and other works on manu- factures, trade, and education. Died in 1820. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." CoPquitt, (Walter T.,) an American lawyer and Senator, born in Halifax county, Virginia, in 1799. He settled in Georgia, and was elected a member of Con- gress in 1838 and in 1840. In 1842 he was elected to the Senate of the United States by the Democrats. Died in 1855. CoPrane, (Henry Hare,) Lord, an English scholar and collector of prints, books, and antiqi^ities, born in Surrey in 1693 ; died in 1749. Colson, koKsdN', (Guillaume pRANgois,) a French historical painter, born in Paris in 1785, was a pupil of David. Colson, (Jean FRANgois Gille,) a French painter and architect, born at Dijon in 1733 ; died in 1803. CoPspn, (John,) an English mathematician, who was chosen professor of mathematics in Cambridge in 1739, before which he taught school at Rochester. He trans- lated from the Latin Newton's " Fluxions." Died in 1760. CoPston, (Edward,) an opulent English merchant and philanthropist, born at Bristol in 1636, was noted for his munificence. He founded and endowed a number of charitable institutions in Bristol. Died in 172L Colt, (Samuel,) an American inventor, born at Hart- ford, Connecticut, in 1814. He went to sea as a sailor- boy about the age of fifteen. In 1835 he took out a patent for a pistol, called a revolver, which he had in- vented. About 1848 he began to manufacture revolvers on a large scale at Hartford, where he built one of the most extensive armories in the world. His revolvers have a high reputation in every part of the world. Died in 1862. Coltellini,kol-tg]-lee'nee, (AGOSTiNO,)an Italian poet, born at Florence in 1613. He founded in his own house, in 1 63 1, the celebrated academy of Apatisti at Florence. Died in 1693. CoPtpn, (Caleb C.,) an English clergyman, vicar of Kew and Petersham. He wrote " Hypocrisy," a Poem, (1812,) and other works, the most remarkable of which was " Lacon,"(i820,) an excellent collection of apothegms and sententious precepts. In consequence of his addic- tion to the vice of gaming, he absconded to America in 1828. He killed himself at Fontainebleau in 1832. CoPton, (Calvin, )an Episcopal clergyman and writer, born in Longmeadow, Massachusetts, in 1789, graduated at Yale College in 1812. He published, besides other works, "Four Years in Great I^ritain," and a "Life of Plenry Clay," (3 vols., 1844.) He also wrote "Junius Tracts" in support of the Whig party about 1840-44. Died in 1857. Colton, (George Hooker,) a son of the preceding, was born in Otsego county, Nevv^ York, in 1818. He wrote a poem entitled " Tecumseh, or the West Thirty Years Since," (1842.) In 1845 he became editor of the "American Whig Review." Died in 1847. Colton, (Walter,) an American clergyman and wri- ter, born in Rutland, Vermont, in 1797. He became a chaplain in the navy in 1831, and published, besides other works, "Ship and Shore in Madeira, Lisbon, etc.," (1835,) "Deck and Port," (1850,) and "Three Years in Cali- fornia," (1850.) He established the first newspaper in California, now called the " Alta California." Died in 185L See Grisvvold's "Poets and Poetry of America." Coluccio, ko-loot'cho, (Salutato,) an Italian writer and friend of Petrarch, born at Stignano in 1330. He became secretary to Pope Urban V. and to the republic of Florence. He acquired renown as a Latin poet, and translated part of Dante's " Divina Commedia" into Latin verse. Died in 1406. See TiRABOSCHi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Columb. See Colomh. Co-lum'ba, Saint, called "the Apostle of the High- landers," was born in Ireland about 520 a.d. He is re- garded as the first who preached Christianity in Scotland, which he visited about 565. He founded in lona, one of the Hebrides, an abbey and college, which became a renowned seat of learning. Died in 597 A.D. See Burton's "History of Scotland," vol. i. chap. vii. ; Butlkr, "Lives of the Saints;" Dr. Johnson, "Journey to the Hebrides." Co-lum'ban, written also Colomban, [Lat. Co- lumba'nus,] Saint, an eminent Irish monk, born in Leinster about 540 a.d. He preached in France, founded a monastery at Luxeuil, near Besan9on, and acquired celebrity as the teacher and author of a monastic rule. " He was the man," says Montalembert, " who gave the greatest impulse to the monasticism of the seventh cen- tury." Died in Italy in 615 A.D. See A. GiANELi.i, "Vita di S. Colombano," Turin, 1844. Columbanus. See Columban, Saint. Co - lum'bus, (Don Bartholomew,) a younger brother of the great navigator, who in 1488 sent him to solicit the patronage of Henry VII. of England. In 1493 he accompanied his brother in the second voyage to America, and was appointed adelantado, or governor, of Hispaniola.. On this island he founded, in 1496, the town of Saint Domingo. He displayed much ability in subduing the revolts of the natives. (See Columbus, Christopher.) " He united in a singular degree," says Irving, "the sailor, the soldier, and the legislator. His portrait has been suffered to remain too much in the shade : it is worthy of being brought into the light as a companion to that of his illustrious brother." He died in Saint Domingo in 15 14. See Irving, " Life of C. Columbus." Columbus, (Christopher,) [Lat. Christoph'orus Colum'bus; It. Cristof'oro Colom'bo ; Sp. Cristo- VAL Colon, kRes-to'vSl ko-16n'; Fr. Christophe Co- LOMB, kR^s'tof' ko'l^N^; Ger. Christoph Columbus, kRis'tof ko-loom'bus,] the most illustrious of navigators and discoverers, was born of poor parents, at Genoa, about 1440. His birth is variously dated between 1435 and 1445, (Irving prefers 1435,) and his early history is involved in obscurity. The family name Colombo was Latinized into Columbus by the subject of this article, who afterwards adopted the Spanish form, Cristoval Colon. At an early age he evinced a fondness for geo- graphy, and a strong attraction towards the sea and the mysterious regions which his imagination suggested be- yond its horizon. A.i the University of Pavia he pursued for a short time the congenial studies of geometry, as- tronomy, navigation, etc. According to his own state- ment, he entered on a nautical life at the age of fourteen. During many years he was employed in the Mediter- ranean, sometimes in commercial adventures and some- times in warlike enterprises. About 1470 he removed to Lisbon, which, under the auspices of Prince Henry, was then the chief seat of nau- tical science, and there married a lady of Italian extrac- tion, — Felipa Monis de Palestrello. He sailed with several Portuguese expeditions to the west coast of Africa, and when on shore supported his family by the construction of maps and charts. Amidst a general excitement about maritime discovery, attended with various fanciful theo- ries and fabulous rumours, he gradually matured the idea of his own sublime enterprise. A lofty and religious en- thusiasm sustained him in surmounting the difficulties and repulses which he was destined to meet. He expected a, e, T, o, u, y, lo7tg; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, f^ll, fit; m§t; n&t; good; moon; COLUMBUS 645 COLUMN A that by sailing westward he would reach Cipango, (Japan,) or the eastern part of Asia, after a voyage of moderate length. According to Irving, he meditated the discovery of a western route to India as early as the year 1474. He made a northern voyage, of which we have no memorial except this passage in one of his letters : " In 1477 I navigated one hundred leagues beyond Thule," (sup- posed to be Iceland.) Soon after the opportune application of the astrolabe to navigation, he solicited the patronage of John II. of Portugal in the execution of his favourite project. That king, while he protracted the negotiation, secretly sent a vessel to explore the Atlantic ; but the timid pilots, after a voyage of a few days, returned to Lisbon. Indignant at this treatment, Columbus left Portugal in 1484, and applied to the court of Spain for assistance. He was then so poor that he begged some bread at the convent near Palos while he was on his way to the court. His project was referred to a council, and by them disapproved. Al- though tantalized, neglected, and repulsed by the min- ions of office, he continued to urge his claims with ardour and eloquence. At length, after the capture of Granada, which he witnessed, in 1492, Queen Isabella was induced to furnish him with two small vessels : a third was added by himself or his friends. On the 3d of August, 1492, he sailed from Palos with one hundred and twenty men, in the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Nina. After passing the Canaries, the propitious trade -wind wafted them swiftly over a tranquil sea for many days. The variation of the needle, then first observed, alarmed his crew, who were also dismayed by the idea of being lost in a shoreless ocean. About the 20th of September they were cheered by the visits of several birds of song ; but the farther they advanced the more their impatience increased. Their heroic chief, however, was resolute in "pursuing his dim and perilous way." A few days before the discovery of land his crew became openly mutinous, and talked of throwing him overboard. On the morning of October 12, 1492, his voyage was crowned with triumph by the discovery of San Salvador, (or Cat Island,) one of the Bahama Isles, which he found inhabited. Sup- posing it to be on the coast of India, he called the natives Indians ; and they received their visitants as citizens and messengers of heaven. Having visited Cuba and Hayti, (Hispaniola,) he sailed homeward, and arrived at Palos in March, 1493. In his progress through Spain he was received with rapturous demonstrations and more than regal homage. In accordance with a previous contract, he obtained the titles of Admiral and Viceroy of the New World. "Thus honoured by the sovereigns," says Irving, "and idolized by the people, Columbus for a time drank the honeyed draught of popularity." " His discovery burst with such sudden splendour upon the world as to dazzle envy itself." In the autunui of 1493 made a second voyage across the Atlantic, with seventeen ships, and, after the dis- covery of Jamaica, Porto Rico, etc., returned to Spain in June, 1496. He sailed again in May, 1498, with six ves- sels, and discovered Terra Firma at the mouth of the Orinoco. Envy and malice had at last produced an ebb in the tide of his popularity, so that in 1500 Ferdinand appointed Francisco de Pobadilla governor in place of Columbus, who was sent to Sj)ain in chains. It has been questioned whether the king had authorized the infamous conduct of Bobadilla ; for he pretended to disavow it, after the indignation of the Spanish public had been loudly expressed. Columbus was received with smiles and favour by the king and queen, but was not reinstated in his high office. In May, 1502, he sailed on his fourth voyage, hoping to find a more direct passage to India than that just discovered by Vasco da Gama. He ex- plored the coasts of Honduras, Costa Rica, etc., and, after suffering from famine, mutiny, and other disasters, he returned to Spain in 1504. He died in poverty and neglect, at Valladolid, in 1506. Columbus was tall in stature, with blue eyes, and an aquiline nose. He possessed a commanding presence and a fluent elocution. His temper was impetuous, though benevolent, and his mind was highly imaginative and poetical. He left two sons, noticed below. He died in ignorance of the real grandeur of his discovery, sup- posing that Cuba, Terra Firma, etc. were only remote parts of Asia. See Irving, "Life of Columbus;" Prescott, "Ferdinand and Isabella," chaps, xvi. and xviii. of Part First, and viii. and xviii. of Part Second; Fernando Colon, " Historia del Almirante ;" Hek- RERA, " Historia de las Indias Occidentales ;" Navarrete, "Colec- cion deViages;" Oviedo, "History of the Indies;" Bernaldez, " Reyes Catolicos ;" MtiNOZ, "Historia del NuevoMundo;" Ben- ZONI, " Novi Orbis Historia;" Hossi, "Vita di Colombo," 1818; Forester, "Christoph Columbus," (in German,) 1842 ; Reta, "Vita di Colombo," 1846; Arthur Helps, "Life of Columbus," 1869; A. DE Lamartine, "C. Colomb," 1853; H. Roscoe Saint-John, "Life of Columbus," 1850; Bonnafoux, "Vie de C. Colomb," 1853; Schneidawind, "C. Columbus America's Entdecker," 1843; A. Sanguinetti, "Vitadi C. Colombo," 1846. Columbus, (Diego or Giacomo,) was a priest, and a brother of the great navigator. He governed Saint Do- mingo for a short time in 1500, and soon after that date was sent to Spain, with his brother, in chains. In 1509 he embarked again for the New World with his nephew Diego. Columbus, (Don Diego,) the eldest son of the great admiral, was born probably at Lisbon about 1472. He was in early youth a page in the court of Ferdinand and Isabella. At the death of his father he urged his claim to the office of viceroy which was promised to Christo- pher Columbus and his heirs, and about 1509 he obtained the office of Governor of the West Indies. He had married Dona Maria de Toledo, whose father and uncle were the most powerful grandees of Spain. Charles V., about 1520, recognized his right to the office of viceroy. He died in Spain in 1526, leaving two sons. "He ap- pears to have been," says Irving, "a man of great in- tegrity, of respectable talents, and of a generous nature." See Irving, " Life of Christopher Columbus." Columbus, (Fernando,) born at Cordova about 1488, was the son of Christopher Columbus and Beatrix Enriquez. He was educated at the court of Isabella of Castile, whom he served as a page. In 1502 he accom- panied his father in his fourth voyage to America. He resided some years at Seville, where he formed a rich library and devoted himself to study and authorship. His most important work is a "History of Admiral C. Columbus," ("Vida y Hechos del Almirante D. C. Colon," Madrid, 1530.) Died in 1539. See Irving, "Life of C. Columbus;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Columbus, (Realdus.) See Colombo. Col-u-mePla, [Fr. Columelle, koOii''m§K,] (Lucius Junius Moderatus,) the author of the most important Latin work on ancient agriculture, was born probably at Cadiz, (Gades,) and wrote in the first half of the first century. He resided at or near Rome, after having travelled over many parts of the Roman empire. He was the owner of a large estate, and was a practical cul- tivator. His work entitled "De Re Rustica" is a volu- minous and systematic treatise on rural affairs, in twelve books, of which the tenth is in verse. His Latinity is nearly as pure as that of the Augustan age, and his pre- cepts have much intrinsic value. He is cited by Seneca and eulogized by Pliny. See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Latina ;" Schoell, "Histoire de la Litt^rature Romaine ;" Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklo- paedie." Columelle. See Columella. Co-lum'na, (Fabius,) [It. Fabio Colonna, fi'be-o ko-lon'n^,] one of the greatest botanists of his time, was born of a noble family at Naples in 1567. He received a classical education, and attained skill in music, design, painting, etc. From early childhood he manifested a taste for botany. His first work, "Touchstone of Plants," (" Phytobasanos," 1592,) was remarkable for the accuracy of the descriptions and the correctness and beauty of the figures. He was the first to use copper plates to delineate plants. In 1606 he produced the first part of his " Ecphrasis," a history of rare plants, in which he laid down the true basis of the science by recognizing and employing the distinction of genera. About 16 16 he went to Rome, and assisted in founding the Academy of Lyncei, which had great influence on the revival of natural philosophy. In his notes to the work of Her- nandez he still further developed the principles of botany with great clearness. He appears to have been the only botanist of his time who appreciated the lumi- € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23 J COL UMNA 646 COMESl'OR nous ideas which Cesalpino had previously presented. Died in Naples in 1650. See Eksch und Gkuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" !£loy, '■ Diciioniuiire de la Medecine ;" "Biographic Universelle." Columna, de, (Guido,) or Guido de Columnis, the name of a celebrated Italian chronicler. See Guido DKI.LE COLONNE. Co-lu'thus, [KoXovdog,] a Greek poet, who lived about the end of the fifth century, was born at Lycopolis, in Egypt. His works are all lost except " The Abduction of Helen," a small poem of little merit. Col'ville, (Sir Charles,) a British general, ayounger son of Lord Colville, born in 1770, served in Spain for several years, and was wounded at Vittoria. He com- manded a division at Waterloo in 1 81 5, and was made a gc-neral in 1837. Died in 1843. Colville, (John,) a Scottish politician, became mas- ter of requests about 1580. In 1591 and 1592 he was an adherent of the Earl of Bothwell in an unsuccessful re- bellion against the king. He published, in 1600, "The Palinode," and, having become a Catholic, he wrote several treatises against Protestantism. Died in 1607. Col'vi-us, (Andrew,) a learned Dutch divine, born at Dort in 1594. He was a friend of Paul Sarpi, whose " History of the Inquisition" he translated into Latin. CoPwell, (Stephen,) an American writer on trade and finance, born in Brooke county, Virginia, in 1800. He practised law several years, and afterwards became a merchant of Philadelphia. Died in 187 1. Comazzi, ko-m^t'see, (Giovanni Battista, ) an Italian moralist, of whom nothing is known except that he wrote an able essay "On the Morals of Princes." An English version appeared in 1729. Combalot, koN'bi'lo^ (Theodore,) a French abbe and eloquent preacher, was born at Chatenay (Isere) in 1798. From 1830 to 1840 he was the principal rival of Lacordaire in the pulpits of Paris. He published "The Dogma of the Incarnation regarded as the Final Reason of all that Exists," (1841,) and other works. Combalusier, k^N^bt'lii^ze-^'', (FRANgois de Paule,) a French physician, born in Vivarais in 17 13. He published " Pneumatic Pathology," (1747,) and other works. Died in 1762. Combe, koom, (Andrew,) M.D., an eminent Scottish writer, born in Edinburgh in 1797. He began to prac- tise medicine in that city in 1823, having previously be- come a believer in phrenology. He acquired distinction as a writer on physiology and other scientific subjects. His " Principles of Physiology applied to the Preserva- tion of Health" (1834) has been very successful, having passed through about sixteen editions. In 1836 he was appointed consulting physician to the King of Belgium. Among his principal works are "Observations on Men- tal Derangements" and "The Physiology of Digestion." Died in 1847. was a brother of George Combe. See "Life of Andrew Combe," by G. Combe, 1850; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Smiles, "Brief Biographies," 'i860 ; " Westminster Review" for July, 1850. Combe, koom or k5m, (Charles,) M.D., an English antiquary, born in London in 1743. He published a " Description of the Ancie-nt Medals in the Cabinet of Dr. William Hunter," and another work on numismatics. Died in 1817. Combe, (George,) an eminent phrenologist, born in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1788, was a brother of Andrew, noticed above. He studied law, and practised in his native place about twenty-five years. In 1816 he heard Spurzheim on the subject of phrenology, in which he soon became a firm believer. He published in 1819 " Essays on Phrenology," a later edition of which was entitled " System of Phrenology." His principal work, "The Constitution of Man considered in Relation to External Objects," (1828,) passed through eight or more editions. He married a daughter of the actress Mrs. Siddons in 1833, and about that time delivered in sev- eral places " Lectures on Popular Education," which were published, (3d edition, 1848.) In 1838 he visited the United States, in which he passed two or three years and gave many lectures on phrenology. He afterwards published "Notes on the United States of America," (1841,) and other works. Died in 1858. George Combe has been called the ablest writer that ever advocated the peculiar doctrines of Phrenology. See "Edinburgh Review" for September, 1826; "North British Review" for May, 1852 ; "Eraser's Magazine" for November, 1840. Combe, koN, (Michel,) Colonel, a brave French officer, born at Feurs in 1787. He was killed at Con- stantine, in Africa, where he led an assault, in 1837. Combe, (Taylor,) an English antiquary, son of Charles Combe, noticed above, born in 1774. He was chosen keeper of the antiquities and coins of the British Museum in 1807, and published, besides other works, "Ancient Marbles in the British Museum," (7 vols., 1812-35.) Died in 1826. Combe, La. See Lacomhe. Combefis, kiivibTe' or k6N^beh-fe', (Franqois,) a French Dominican friar and Hellenist, born at Mar- mande in 1605. He undertook to restore the text of the Fathers to its purity, and spent nearly fifty years in this task. He published man) learned works. Died in 1679. See NiCERON, "Memoires." Combelle, kdN'b^l', (Jean Antoine FRANgois,) a French general, born at Pouzat in 1774, served with dis- tinction in Syria and Spain. He was killed at Dresden in September, 1813. Comber, kum'ber, ? (Thomas,) D.D., a learned Eng- lish theologian, born in Kent in 1644. He obtained the living of Thornton in 1678, and was chosen Dean of Durham in 1691. lie wrote a "Companion to the Temple," (3 vols., 1672-75,) and other esteemed works. Died in 1699. Comber, (Thomas,) a grandson of the preceding, became rector of Morborne and Buckworth. He wrote a "Vindication of the Revolution of 1688," and a few other works. Died in 1778. Com''ber-mere, (Stapleton Cotton,) Viscount, an English general, born in 1773, was a son of Sir R. S. Cotton. He served several campaigns in India, joined the army in Spain in 1808, and distinguished himself in many actions. He was second in command at the battle of Salamanca, (1812,) where he was severely wounded. He w^as appointed commander-in-chief of the army in India in 1822, and received the title of Viscount for his services in that country about 1825. In 1855 he was made a field-marshal. Died in 1865. See "iSIemoirs and Correspondence of Viscount Combermere," by Lady Combermere and Captain W. W. Knollys, London, 1866; " Eraser's ALagazine" for November, 1866. Combes, k6Mb, (Charles Pierre Mathieu, ) a French engineer, born in 1801. He became a member of the Institute, and inspector-general and professor in the ficole des Mines. He published a "Treatise on the Exploitation of Mines," (3 vols.,) and other works. Comella, ko-m§KyS, (Luciano Francisco,) a popu- lar Spanish dramatic poet, born in 1716; died in 1779. Comeniu.s, ko-ma^ne-iis, (John Amos,) an eminent German philologist, born at Komna, in Moravia, in 1592. His family name is lost, having been superseded by the above name, derived from Komna or Comna. He became a minister of the Moravan sect at Fulnek, whence he was driven by persecution in 162 1. He retired to Lesna, in Poland, where he taught school, and published, in Latin and Bohemian, his " Janua Linguarum reserata," ("The Gate of Languages Unlocked, or a New Method of Learning Languages," 1631,) which procured for him a great reputation and was soon translated into twelve or more languages. He was invited to several foreign countries for the purpose of reforming the methods of ])ublic instruction. He went to England in 1638, and to Sweden about 1642. In 1648 he returned to Lesna, which was pillaged and burnt in 1657, when he lost his books and manuscripts. He then settled in Amsterdam, and published " Opera Didactica," (1657,) and "Orbis Sensu- alium Pictus," (165S,) a kind of encyclopaedia with wood- cuts. He was author of other works. Died in 1671. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Adelung, " Geschichte der menschlichen Narrheit." Comes Natalis. See Conti, (Noel.) Co-mes'tor, [Fr. pron. ko'm^s'toR',] (or Devourer,) (Pierre,) (thus surnamed because he dtn'ojired many books,) a French theologian, born at Troyes, became mas^r of the school of theology in Paris in 1 164, and a, e, 1, o, ij, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscicre; fir, fill, fit; met; ndt; gdod; moon; COMET 647 COMNENUS wrote " Scholastica Historia," It was received with great favour, and was for about three centuries esteemed an excellent body of positive theology. Died in 11 78 or 1 185. Comet, 'ko'mhf, (Charles Jean Baptisi e,) a French physician, born in Paris in 1796, published many medical works. Co-me'tas, called Scholas'ticus, a poet, who lived probably in the ninth century, was the author of six epigrams in the Greek Anthology. Comiers, ko'me-a', (Claude,) a French priest, born at Embrun, was professor of mathematics in Paris for some years, and an editor of the " Journal des Savants" in 1 676-78. He wrote treatises on astronomy, theology, language, etc. Died in 1693. Comines, de, deh ko'men', (Philippe,) Lord of Ar- genton, an eminent historian, was born near Menin, in Flanders, in 1445. He became a confidential adviser of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, and acquitted himself with ability in negotiations. In 1472 he passed into the service of Charles's rival, Louis XL of France, who loaded him with favours and made him Seneschal of Poitou. After the death of Louis, Cotnines favoured the party of the Duke of Orleans, and in 1488 was sen- tenced to banishment. He attended Charles VIII. in his invasion of Italy in 1494, and served him in a diplo- matic capacity. Soon after that date he began to write his " Memoirs," which narrate the historical events from 1464 to 1498. This work, which was printed in 1523, is highly prized for its fidelity, candour, sound judgment, agreeable style, and deep insight into men and things. "Comines," says Macaulay, "was one of the most en- lightened statesmen of his time." Died in 1509. See Macaulay, "History of Englanci," vol. i. ; Vili.emain, " Essais de Litterature ;" Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries dii Lundi ;" F^Lix VAN HuLST, "P. de Comines," Liege, 1845; "Noiivelle Bio- graphie Generale;" "Retrospective Review," vol. vii., 1823. Comitolo, ko-me-to^o, (Paolo,) an Italian Jesuit and casuist, born at Perugia in 1545 ; died in 1626. Commandine. See Commanding. Commandino, kom-mSn-dee'no, written also Com- mandine or Commandin, (Federigo,) an eminent Italian mathematician, born at Urbino in 1509. In 1535 he went to Padua, where he studied medicine ; but he renounced that profession for mathematics. The latter part of his life was passed at Verona, where he taught mathematics to the Duke of Urbino. He published good editions and Latin translations of many ancient geome- ters, including Euclid and Archimedes. Montucla calls him the moclel of commentators for the pertinence and sufficiency of his notes. Died in 1575. See Montucla, " Histoire des Math^matiques ;" Bayle, "His- torical and Critical Dictionary." Commelin. See Commelyn. Commelin, kom^iN', written also Commelyn, (Je- rome,) a French printer, born at Douai. Having be- come a Protestant, he removed to Geneva. Some years later he was chosen librarian to the Elector Palatine at Heidelberg. There he published Greek and Latin edi- tions which were noted for correctness. Scaliger and Casaubon praise him highly. Died in 1598. Commelyn, kom'meh lTn^, written also Commelin, (Caspar,) a Dutch botanist, born at Amsterdam in 1667, was the nephew of John, noticed below. He became professor of botany in his native city, and developed a great knowledge of that science in several works. He published, with fine plates, the second volume of his uncle's work on the "Plants of the Botanic Garden of Amsterdam," and a Flora of Malabar, (1696.) The genus Commelina was named in honour of these botanists. Died in 1731. See Haller, "Bibliotheca Botanica." Commelyn or Commelin, [Lat. Commeli'nus,] (Isaac,) a Dutch historical writer, born in Amsterdam m 1598. He published a "History of the Dutch East India Company," a "Life of William L," and other works. Died in 1676. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Commelyn or Commelin, (John,) an eminent bo- tanist, born in Amsterdam in 1629, was the son of the preceding. He contributed to the advancement of botany as professor in the botanic garden of his native city, and as author of several treatises, among which are a " Catalogue of the Indigenous Plants of Holland," (1683,) and a "Description of the Plants of the Botanic Garden of Amsterdam," (1697.) Died in 1692. See Haller, " Bibliotheca Botanica." Commendoni, kom-mln-do'nee, [Fr. Commendon, ko'mSN'ddN'',] (Gian Francesco,) Cardinal, born at Venice in 1524, was an able negotiator, and was sent by the pope on a secret mission to England in 1553. About 1561 he was employed as nuncio in Germany in order to check the progress and defeat the designs of the Protestants. He persuaded the King of Poland to accept the decrees of the Council of Trent, and was made a cardinal in 1565. Died in 1584. See Flechier, "Vie du Cardinal Commendon," 1671 ; A. M. Grazl^ni, " De Vita J. F. Commendoni Cardinalis," i6og. Commerson, ko''mgR's6N', (Philibert,) an excellent French botanist, born at Chatillon-les-Dombes in 1727. He formed a rich botanic garden at his native place. In 1764 he removed to Paris, and soon after that date was chosen naturalist of the exploring expedition of Bougain- ville, which sailed in 1767. Having visited South Ame- rica, and many islands of the South Sea, he explored the Isle of France and Madagascar, where he remained a long time. He died in the Isle of France in 1773, be- fore he was ready to publish the results of his researches. "Commerson," says Cuvier, "was a man of profound science. If he had published his observations, he would hold one of the foremost ranks among naturalists." His manuscripts and collections were deposited in the Jardin des Plantes. See Cuvier, " Histoire des Sciences naturelles ;" "Nouvelle Bingraphie Generale." Commire, ko'm^R', (Jean,) a modern Latin poet and Jesuit, born at Amboise, in France, in 1625. He was for many years professor of theology, and gained distinction by his Latin poems, consisting of odes, fables, epigrams, etc., published collectively in 1678. They are remarka- ble for elegance and correctness of style. Died in Paris in 1702. Commode. See Commodus. Commodi, (Andrea.) See Commodo. Com-mo~di-a'nu.s, [Fr. Commodien, ko'mo'de-dN',] (Gaz/EUS, ga-zee'us,) a Christian poe^ who lived proba- bly in the third or fourth century. The place of his birth is not known. He wrote a Latin poem entitled "Instructions against the Gods of the Gentiles," (1650.) See Cave, "Historia Literaria." Commodien. See Commodianus. Commodo, kom'mo-do, or Comodi, kom'o-dee, (Andrea,) an Italian painter, born at Florence in 1560. He had a remarkable talent for copying the most beau- tiful paintings with such fidelity that it was almost im- possible to distinguish the original from the copy. He worked in Florence. The "General Judgment" is called his master-piece. Died in 1638. Com'mo-dus, [Fr. Commode, ko^mod',] (Lucius ^Lius Aurelius,) a Roman emperor, born in 161 A.D., was the son of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina. He suc- ceeded his father in 180, and found the empire prosper- ous. Though he had been "carefully educated, he soon exhibited a character which inspires unmixed detestation. He resigned the direction of the government to his favourites Perennis and others, and indulged his cruel temper and evil passions without restraint. He ordered his wife Crispina to be put to death, and took a concu- bine named Marcia. His subjects were required to offer homage to him as Hercules. Many senators and others were doomed to death by his cruelty. His officers L^e- tus and Eclectus having conspired with Marcia against him, he was poisoned and strangled in 192 A. D., and Per- tinax then became emperor. See TiLLEMONT, "Histoire des Empereiirs ;" Dion Cassius, " History of Rome;" Lampridius, "Commodus." Comnene. See Comnenus. Com-ne'nus, [Gr. Kofivrjpog; Fr. Comnene, kom'- n^N',] the name of an illustrious Byzantine family of Italian origin, which first acquired historical importance in the tenth century, and from which descended six em- perors of the East, all the emperors of Trebizond, and many generals, statesmen, etc. (See Alexis I., Andro- V 9 as s; g ^ard; g as/; g, H, ml, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^=See Explanations, p. 23.) COMNENUS 648 COMTE Nicus I., David Comnenus, Isaac L, Manuel L, and Anna Comnena.) Comnenus, (Demetrius,) born in Corsica about 1750, claimed to be a descendant of David, the last em- peror of Trebizond. He was a captain in the French service, and emigrated as a royalist about 1792. He returned to France about 1800, and died in 1820. Comodi. See Commodo, (Andrea.) Comonfort, ko'mon-foRt' or kom'on-fort', (Ignacio,) a Mexican general and President, was born at Puebla about 1810. He served in several civil wars in his youth, was elected a member of the Mexican Congress in 1842, and a senator about 1848. In 1854 he joined Alvarez in a revolutionary movement against Santa Anna, who was forced to abdicate in 1855. Alvarez having retired or abdicated in December, 1855, Comonfort then obtained the chief pow^ as provisional President. The clergy and conservatives raised a revolt, which was suppressed by an army in March, 1856, soon after which he issued a decree to confiscate the property of the Church. In December, 1857, he was declared constitutional Presi- dent. The disaffection of the array and the hostility of the clergy rendered his position untenable. The capital was taken by the rebels in January, 1858, and Comonfort went into exile. In 1863 he commanded an army which fought for the Liberal cause against the French. He was murdered by bandits in November of that year. Comontes, de, da ko-mon't^s, (Francisco,) a Span- ish painter, born at Toledo ; died in 1564. Compagni. See Domenico degli Camei. Compagni, kom-pin'yee, (Dino,) an Italian magis- trate, born at Florence, wrote a " History of Florence from 1270 to 1312," which is praised for veracity and elegance. He held the office of prior of Florence in 1289 and in 1301. Compagnon, kdN^ptn'y^N', a French traveller, who in 1 7 16 was factor of the French company at Senegal. He ascended the Senegal, and explored Galam and Bam- book, which had not then been visited by Europeans. The narrative of his journey was published by Labat. He died in Paris about 1750. Compagnoni, kom-pin-yo'nee, (Giuseppe,) an able Italian litterateur, born at Lugo in 1754, lived at Venice, Milan, etc. He published an " Essay on the Hebrews and Greeks," "liRe Evenings of Tasso," (" Le Veglie del Tasso,") a " History of America," and various other works. He was a republican, and held several high offices under the French regime, among which was that of councillor of state at Milan. Died in 1834. See Iiis Autobiography, "Vita letteraria di G% Compagnoni," 1834; TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Compans, k6N^p6N', (Jean Dominique,) Count, a French general, born at Salies (Haut-Garonne) in 1769. He served several campaigns among the Alps and in Italy during the republic. He was chief of the staff of Lannes at Austerlitz in 1805, and became a general of division in 1806. In the campaign of Saxony, 1813, his conduct was highly praised by Napoleon. He was taken prisoner at Waterloo, 1815. Died in 1845. Comparetti, kom-pa-ret'tee, (Andrea,) an eminent Italian naturalist and physician, born in Friidi in 1746. He was for many years professor of medicine in the University of Padua. In 1787 he published, in Latin, "Observations on the Refraction of Light," and in 1789 " Observations on the Anatomy of the Ear," which is much esteemed. He produced a celebrated work entitled " Medical Comparisons or Collations of Masked Period- ical Fevers," (" Riscontri medici delle Febbri larvate periodiche," 1795,) and an Italian treatise "On the Animal Dynamics of Insects," (1800,) which Cuvier designates as " very curious, instructive, and full of new views on the organs of locomotion." Died in i8or. See D. Palmaroli, " Saggio sopia la Vita, etc. di Andrea Com- paretti," 1802; " Biographie Medicale." Compte, Le. See Lecompte. Conip'tQn, (Henry,) an eminent English prelate, born at Compton in 1632, was the youngest son of Spencer Compton, Earl of Northampton. He became Bishop of Oxford in 1674, and of London in 1675. Charles II. confided to him the education of his nieces Mary and Anne. For his zeal against popery he was suspended from the episcopal office in i636. On the accession of William HI. (at whose coronation he sup- plied the place of the primate Sancroft) he was restored to the bishopric and admitted to the privy council. He wrote a " Treatise on the Communion," " Letters to the Clergy," and other works, and nade great efforts to unite the Dissenters with the Anglican Church. Died in 1713. See Burnet, " History of his Own Times ;" Macaulay, "His- tory of England ;" " Life of Dr. Compton, Lord Bishop of London," London, 1716. Compton, (Spencer,) second Earl of Northampton, the son of William Compton, the first Earl, was born in 1601. He attended Prince Charles to Spain in 1622 as master of his robes. In the civil war which began in 1642 he fought for the king, and was killed in 1643 Hopton Heath, refusing to give or take quarter. Comstock, kiim'stok, (John Lee,) M.D.,a compiler of school-books, born in Lyme, Connecticut, in 1789. He published, besides other works, a " System of Natu- ral Philosophy," (1831,) and "Elements of Chemistry," which had a large circulation. Died in 1858. Comte, k6Nt, (Achille Joseph,) a French naturalist, born at Grenoble in 1802, became professor of natural history in the College Charlemagne. He published several popular educational works, among which are "Physiology for Colleges," (1834,) and a "Complete Treatise on Natural History," (1844-48.) His wife Ara- bella, formerly Madame Laya, has written "Julien," (1841,) a comedy called " Veuvage," ("Widowhood,") and several other works. See QuERARD, " La France Litteraire." Comte, (AuGUSTE,) a French philosopher, the founder of the system called Positivisme, or Positive Philosophy, was born at Montpellier in January, 1798. His father was a treasurer of taxes. He entered the Polytechnic School in 1814, and gave much attention to mathematics and the physical sciences. About 1818 he became a dis- ciple and coadjutor of Saint-Simon, whose doctrines he undertook to expound in a work entitled " System of Positive Politics," (" Systeme de Politique positive," 1822.) His connection with Saint-Simon continued about six years, and they separated in 1824, mutually disgusted and completely estranged. Before 1824 he had discov- ered his law of Social Evolution. He formed a new system, which is described as a combination of the doctrines of Fourier, Saint-Simon, and Hegel, and was developed in his " Cours de Philosophic positive," (6 vols., 1830-42,) a work which exhibits intellectual powers of a high order. He married in 1825 ; but the union proved to be un- happy. Soon after this event he was seized with an acute attack of insanity, and attempted to commit sui- cide by drowning ; but he was rescued by a soldier. He rapidly recovered, and was entirely restored to sanity before the end of 1827. His new system of philosophy attracted great attention and was adopted by numerous disciples. In 1832 he was appointed a professor or tutor in the Polytechnic School of Paris. About 1842 he was finally separated from his wife, and two years later he formed a " passionate friendship" with Clotilde de Vaux. He speaks of her as " having inspired him with a happi- ness of which he had always dreamed, but which he had never hitherto experienced." He published, besides other works, " Discours sur I'Es- prit positive," (1844,) a " Philosophic Treatise on Popular Astronomy," (1844,) "Catechisme positiviste, ou Som- maire Exposition de la Religion universelle," (1852,) and " Systeme de Politique positive, ou Traite de Sociologie, instituant la Religion de I'Humanite," (4 vols., 1851-54.) According to Comte, all the knowledge which man can possibly acquire is comprised in six pure sciences, viz., mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology or physiology, and sociology or social science. He proposed to introduce and propagate a new religion, — the worship of humanity, — and assumed the title of chief priest of that religion. "To himself and a few followers," says the "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1868, "he appeared the philosopher of the age, who had summed up the course of past thought, the legislator of a new era, the author and chief minister of a new religion, which was to supersede all religions. . . . No one who has studied 2, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, il, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; COMTE 649 CONDE his great work can be insensible to his services. His undoubted influence lies in certain great conceptions with which he has enriched and illuminated the modern mind. . . . He not only took up the Baconian method, but he purified and extended it. He has at once given it a wdder application than any previous thinker, and far more clearly understood its import." Died in Paris in September, 1857. See George H. Lewes, "Comte's Philosophy of the Sciences," 1853 ; Harriet Martineau, "The Positive Pliilosophy of Auguste Com te," freely translated and condensed, 2 vols., 1854; John Stuart Mill, "Auguste Comte and Positivism," 1865 ; E. Littre, "Auguste Comte et la Philosophic positive," 1863; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1838; "Westminster Review" for 1865; "British Quarterly Review" for July, 1866; " North British Review" for May, 1S54. Comte, (FRANgois Charles Louis,) a French publi- cist, born in the department of Lozere in 1782, He pub- lished, in 1826, a "Treatise on Legislation,'' for which he received the Montyon prize of the Institute. In 1831 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies. He was perpetual secretary of the Academy of Moral and Politi- cal Sciences. Died in 1837. See F. A. A. Mignet, "Notice historique sur la Vie de M. Comte," 1846. Comyns, kum'ins, ? (Sir John,) a British jurist, who became lord chief baron of the exchequer, and was author of a "Digest of the Laws of England," (1762-67,) which is considered high authority. Died about 1740. Conaeus, the Latin of Cone, which see. Co^'nant, (Hannah 0"Brien Chaplin,) an American linguist and writer, born at Danvers, Massachusetts, about 1811. She married Thomas J. Conant, a He- braist, about 1833. She translated some of Neander's commentaries, and published, besides other works, a "History of the English Bible," (1859.) Died in Brook- lyn in 1865. Co'nant, (John,) an English divine, born in Devon- shire in 1608. He became professor of divinity at Oxford in 1654, Archdeacon of Norwich in 1676, and prebendary of Worcester in 1681. Several volumes of his sermons were published. Died in 1693. Conant,(THOMAS J.,) D.D., an eminent biblical scholar, born in Vermont in 1802. He graduated at Middlebury, Vermont, in 1823, and has since filled jDrofessorships in Waterville College, Maine, and in the Baptist Theologi- cal Seminaries at Hamilton and Rochester, New York. For many years he has been engaged on a translation of the Bible, of which the book of Job was published by the American Bible Union in 1857. His "Gesenius's Hebrew Grammar" is one of the most popular text- books of the kind in use. Couca, kon'ka, (Sehastiano,) a skilful Italian painter in oil and fresco, was born at Gaeta about 1678. He studied under Solimena of Naples for sixteen years, and then removed to Rome, where he worked with great success. Clement XI. employed him to adorn the church of Saint Clement. His renown extended beyond the limits of Italy; but modern critics think his merit was overrated. Among his master-pieces is a " Piscina Pro- batica," ("Pool of Bethesda,") at Sienna. Died in 1764 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Conc'a-nen, (Matthew,) an Irish wTiter, who came to London in his youth. He published a volume of poems in 1724. In a public journal he attacked Pope, who took revenge in the "Dunciad." In 1732 he was appointed attorney-general of Jamaica. Died in 174Q. Concha, de la, di 1^ kon'chi, (Don Jose,) a Spanish general, born in Madrid about 1800, served against the Carlists in several campaigns of the civil war. He was twice appointed Captain-General of the island of Cuba. In 1862 he was sent as minister to France. He was appointed nominal prime minister by the queen just after the revolution broke out in Spain, in September, 1868. Concha, dela, (Manuel,) a Spanish general, brother of the preceding, was born in Madrid in 1794. He served with the rank of general against Don Carlos, (1834-40.) In 1844 he was appointed Captain-General of Catalonia. He was banished for political reasons in January, 1854, but on the return of Espartero to power, in July of the same year, he was restored, and promoted to the rank of marshal. Conchillos-Falco, kon-ch^l'y6s fiKko, (Juan,) a Spanish painter, born at Valencia in 1641 ; died in 17 11. Conchylius. See Coquille. Concina, kon-chee'nS, (Daniele,) an Italian theolo- gian, born in Friuli about 1686, entered the Dominican order. He gained eminence as a preacher and as author of several works, (in Latin,) one of which is called "Christian Theology, Doctrinal and Practical," (1749.) Died in 1756. See "Vita di D. Concini," 1768. Concini. See Ancre, d'. Marshal. Condamine, La, It koN'dt'm^n^ (Charles Marie,) an eminent French savant and author, born in Paris in 1 701. He travelled in the Levant in his youth. Under the auspices of the Academy of Sciences, he went in 1736 with Bouguer to Peru, to determine the size and figure of the earth. He returned in 1745, and published an "Account of a Journey in South America," (1745,) "The Figure of the Earth Determined," (1749,) "Jour- nal of an Expedition made by Order of the King to the Equator," (1751,) and other works. In 1760 he was ad- mitted into the French Academy, in consideration of his high reputation as a traveller and of his literary merit. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. His gayety, courage, and curiosity are said to have never failed. M. Biot praises the elegant facility of his style. Died in Paris in 1774. See CoxDORCET, " Eloge de La Condamine ;" Voltaire, "Dic- tionnaire Philosophique," article "Curiosite;" L. Brightwell, "By-Paths of Biography." Conde, konMi, (Antonio Jos6,) a Spanish historian and Orientalist, born about 1760. He gave special atten- tion to Hebrew and Arabic, and collected many historical documents in Arabic. Fie was for many years one of the keepers of the Royal Library, and during the reign of Joseph Bonaparte was chief librarian. In 1814 he became an exile in France. It appears that he returned to Madrid about 1818, and died in 1820 or 1821. His principal work, a " History of the Dominion of the Arabs in Spain," (" Historia de la Dominacion de los Arabes en Espana," 3 vols., 1820-21,) has acquired a European reputation. See Prescott, "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. L part i. Conde, de, deh k6N^dk', (Henri I. de Bourbon — deh booR^b6N',) Prince, the son and heir of Louis I., Prince of Conde, was born in 1552. He escaped the massacre of August, 1572, (Saint Bartholomew,) by a promise to abjure Calvinism, and fled to Germany. He afterwards joined the Protestant army, was excommu- nicated (with his cousin, Henry of Navarre) by the pope in 1585, and died by poison, administered by his domes- tics, in 1588. "He was," says Brantome, "a liberal, gracious, and eloquent prince, and promised to be as great a captain as his father." ("Vies des Hommes illustres.") Conde, de, (Henri II. de Bourbon,) Prince, born at Saint-Jean -d'Angely in 1588, was a son of the pre- ceding, and father of " the great" Conde. He was the first prince of the blood, and was educated at court as a Catholic. During the minority of Louis XIII. he put himself at the head of the malcontents, for which he was arrested by the regent and imprisoned three years at Vin- cennes. He afterwards obtained command of an army, and took several places from the Spaniards. Died in 1646. See Renaudot, "Abrege de la Vie du Prince de Conde," 1647; SiSMONDi, "Histoire des Fran^ais." Conde, de, (Henri Jules de Bourbon,) ~ rince, the only son of the great Conde, was born in 1643. He distinguished himself at the siege of Tournay in 1665, and in 1674 took part in the battle of Seneffe, where he is said to have saved his father's life. Saint- Simon gives an unfavourable view of his character. Died in 1709. See Saint-Simon, "Memoires." Conde, de, (Louis I. de Bourbon,) Prince, a famous French general, born at Vendome in 1530, was the youngest son of Charles de Bourbon, Due de Vendome, and uncle of Henry IV. His promotion was retarded by the enmity of the Guises. About 1560 he openly avowed himself a Calvinist, and soon became the general- € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Yi, guttural ; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^See Explanations, p. 23.) CONDE 650 CONDORCET in-chief of the Protestant army in the civil war. He was defeated and made prisoner at Dreux in 1562, and released the next year. After the war had been sus- pended a few years, Conde fought, in 1567, the indecisive battle of Saint- Denis, where his army was greatly inferior in number to that of the enemy. At Jarnac, in 1569, he lost anotiier battle, was wounded, and then killed after he had surrendered. See Dk Thou, " Histoire Universelle ;" Desormeaux, " Histoire de la Maisoii tie Conde." Conde, de, (Louis II. de Bourbon,) Prince, styled "the great Conde," a celebrated French general, born in Paris on the 8th of September, 1621, was the first prince of the blood, and the son of Henri II., above noticed, and Charlotte de Montmorenci. He made his first campaign at the age of seventeen, with the title of Due d'Enghien. In 1641 he married Claire Clemence de Maille-Breze, a niece of Cardinal Richelieu. In May, 1643, he gained a great victory over the Spaniards at Rocroi, and in 1645 defeated the Germans, commanded by Mercy, at Nordlingen. He was equally successful at Lens in 1648, where the once invincible Spanish infantry was ruined. During the civil war of the Fronde he commanded the royalists at first, (1649;) he was arrested by the queen or Mazarin in January, 1650, and imprisoned one year. Burning for revenge, he raised an army and attacked the royalists under Turenne, at Paris, in 1652. Having been sentenced to death in 1653, he entered the service of Spain, and commanded in several campaigns in Flanders, where he was opposed by Tu- renne, and was far less successful than he had been when he fought for his own country. The treaty between France and Spain in 1659 procured an amnesty for his offences, and he returned to France. In 1672 he received command of an army against Holland, and in 1674 he defeated William of Orange at Senefife. The next year he retired from the service on account of the gout. " He was born a general," says Voltaire: "the art of war seemed in him a natural instinct." Died in 1686. He possessed an ardent temperament, an admirable co7ip- cfceil^ and abundant resources. His education is said to have been brilliant and complete. His funeral oration was pronounced by Bossuet. See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. ii. ; Desormeaux, " Histoii-e de Louis Prince de Conde," 4 vols., 176S ; " Memoires du Cardinal de Retz ;" "Memoires du Comte deOrammont;" "Me- moires de La Rochefoucauld ;" Cousin, " Histoire de Madame de Longueville ;" Lord Mahon, " Life of the Prince of Conde," 1840 ; CosTE, "Histoire de Louis Prince de Cond^," 1693; Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" Adrien Lemercier, " Histoire du grand Conde," 1844 : Voivkeuil, " Histoiredu grand Conde," 1847 ; " Lives of the Warriors of the Civil Wars of France and England," by Sir Edward Cust, London, 1S67. Conde, de, (Louis Henri Joseph,) styled Duke of Bourbon and Prince of Conde, born in 1756, was the last of the line of Conde. He fought in several cam- paigns against the French Republic between 1792 and 1800. After the restoration, his chief occupation was the chase. He was found dead in 1830, with circumstances that indicated either suicide or assassination. He was the father of the Due d'Enghien executed in 1804. See Albert de Calvimont, " Le dernier des Conde," 1832. Conde, de, (Louis Joseph de Bourbon,) Prince, born in Paris in 1736, was the only son of the Duke of Bourbon who became prime minister about 1724. In the Seven Years' war he signalized his courage at Has- tembeck in 1757, and was successful at Johannisberg in October, 1762. Having become obnoxious to the popular party in 1789, he emigrated, and became commander of the emigrants who took arms against the new regime in 1792. He gained a victory at Berstheim in 1793, and shared the defeats of the Austrians in 1796 and 1799. In 1 801 he disbanded his corps and retired to England. He returned to France in 1814, and died in 1818, leaving a son, Louis ?Ienri Joseph. See Chambei.land, "Vie du Prince de Conde," 3 vols., 1820. Con'der, (John,) an English dissenting minister, who was born in 1 7 14, and preached in London. He pub- lished an "Essay on the Ministerial Character," and several sermons between 1755 and 1768. Died in 1781. Conder, (Josiah,) an English author, born in London in 1789, became a bookseller in that city. From 1814 to 1837 he edited the "Eclectic Review," to which Robert Hall, Dr. Chalmers, and other eminent writers contrib- uted. He published many learned works, among which are " The Modern Traveller," (33 vols.,) a " History of Italy," and a " View of All Religions." In the latter part of his life he edited "The Patriot," the organ of the Baptists and Congregationalists. Died in 1855. See E. R. Conder, "Life of Josiah Conder," 1857. Condillac, de, deh k6N'de'yik', (Etienne Bonnot — bo^no',) Abbe de Mureaux, (mii'ro',) an eminent French philosopher and metaphysician, born at Grenoble in 1715. In his youth he was intimate with J. J. Rousseau and Diderot; but tiiis friendship declined or ceased in his mature years. In 1746 appeared his first work, an "Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge," (" Sur rOrigine des Connaissances humaines,") in which he ad- vanced new and ingenious ideas. He produced in 1749 his "Treatise on Systems," ("Traite des Systemes,") and in 1754 his "Treatise on Sensations," ("Traite des Sensations,") a luminous and admirable work, which extended his celebrity throughout Europe. Soon after this date he was chosen preceptor of the Duke of Parma, for whose use he composed " The Art of Writing," "The Art of Thinking," and other works, forming a series entitled "Cours d'Etudes." He was admitted into the French Academy in 1768. He has been much praised for his discoveries in relation to the progress and in- fluence of language. According to him, man owes the development of his faculties to the use of signs, and we are able to reflect only because we are able to speak. He was a brother of the Abbe de Mably. Died near Beaugency in 1780. His moral character was virtuous and discreet, — at least according to the French standard. An edition of his works, in 32 vols. i2mo, was published in 1803, See La Harpe, "Cours de Litterature ;" Tennemann, "Ge- schichte der Philosophic;" Sacchi, " Elogio di Condillac," 1819; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Condivi, kqn-dee'vee, (Ascanio,) an Italian painter, born in the March of Ancona about 1520, was a pupil of Michael Angelo, whom, it is said, he never quitted. He wrote a "Life of Michael Angelo," (1553,) which is accounted valuable. See Lanzi, "History of Painting m Italy." Condorcet, de, deh kowMoR^sa', (Marie Jean An- toine Nicolas Caritat — kt're'tS^) Marquis, a cele- brated French mathematician and philosopher, born at Ribemont, in Picardy, on the 17th of September, 1743. His parents were noble, but not rich. After leaving the College of Navarre he became a resident of Paris in 1762. His "Essay on the Integral Calculus," and that on the " Problem of Three Bodies," opened to him in 1769 the Academy of Sciences, of which a few years later he was chosen perpetual secretary. He was an intimate friend of D'Alembert, and an admirer of Vol- taire. In 1782 he was elected a member of the French Academy in preference to Bailly. He wrote in favour of American independence, and sowed in his works the germ of republican principles. He embraced with ardour the popular cause in 1789, published many able political treatises, and was deputed by Paris to the Legislative Assembly in 1 791. In the Convention he was one of the most popular and prominent members, and voted generally with the Girondists, but did not vote for the death of Louis XVI. He was chosen a member of the Committee of Public Safety in 1792. Proscribed as a Girondist in May, 1793, he remained secreted in the house of Madame Vernet, in Paris, for eight months, during which he wrote his treatise " On Human Perfectibility," in which he was a believer. Impelled by a longing to enjoy the open air and the vernal season, he imprudently departed from his asylum in April, 1794. In a few days he was arrested on suspicion, and thrown into prison at Bourg-la-Reine, where he ended his life by poison. His wife was a sister of General Grouchy. (See following article.) As a geometer he stands high in the second rank. He composed admired eulogies on Buffon, D'Alembert, Franklin, and others. His "Historical Sketch of the Progress of the Human Mind" ("Esquisse d'un Tableau historique des Progres de I'Esprit humain," 1795) is a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; nflt; good; moon; CONDOR CET 651 CONFUCIUS called his greatest work. His character was noble and benevolent. "Thus died," says Lamartine, "this Seneca of the modern school. Placed between two camps to combat the old world and moderate the new, he per- ished in the shock without regret. The day of recog- nition (reconnaissance) has not come for him; but it will come, and will exculpate his memory from reproach." The best edition of his works is that published in Paris, in 12 vols., 1847-49. See Arago, " Notice sur Condorcet," read before the Academy of Sciences in December, 1841 : Lamartine, "History of the Giron- dists;" " Quarterly Review" for July, 1850, vol. Ixxxvii. ;D. F. Arago, " Biographie de iM. J. A. N. C. de Condorcet," 4to, 1849; S. F. Lacroix, "Notice historique sur la Vie de Condorcet," 8vo, 1813; ISAMBERT, Notice in the " Nouvelle Biographic Geiierale;" "Lives of the Most Eminent French Writers," by Mrs. Shelley; "Lon- don Quarterly Review" for September, 1S55, vol. xcvii. Condorcet, de, (Sophie de Grouchy — deh gRoo'- she',) Marquise, born in 1765, was a sister of Marshal Grouchy, and was one of the most beautiful women of her time. In 1786 she became the wife of the Marquis de Condorcet. In the first years of the new regime she shared with Madame de Stael the homage of the Parisian salojts. She made a good French translation of Adam Smith's "Theory of Moral Sentiments." Died in 1822. Her daughter married General O'Connor. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Condren, de, deh Ic^nMrSn', (Charles,) an emi- nent French ecclesiastic, born near Soissons in 1588. He entered the society of the Oratory in 161 7, and was elected general of the same in 1629. He modestly refused the rank of cardinal and archbishop. When he died, (1641,) the king exclaimed, "The most holy and dis- interested man in the realm is dead." He left a few religious treatises. See Amelotte, "Vie du Pere Condren," 1643. Cone or Cowne, [Lat. Con.^;'us,] sometimes writ- ten Conei, (George,) a Scottish Roman Catholic writer, resided at Rome. He wrote a " Life of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots," (1624.) Died in 1640. Cone, (Spencer Houghton,) an eloquent Baptist minister, born at Princeton, New Jersey, in 1785. He was in early life a popular play-actor, and began to preach about 1814. He was pastor of a Baptist church in the city of New York from 1823 till 1841, and was the prin- cipal founder of the American Bible Union. Died in 1855. See "Life of S. H. Cone," by his sons, 1S56. Conecte or Connecte, ko^nekt', (Thomas,) a French Carmelite monk and popular preacher, born at Rennes. He declaimed against the disorders of the clergy, and maintained that they should be permitted to marry. He was condemned as a heretic at Rome, and was burnt to death in 1434. Conegliano. See Cima. Conegliano, Due de. See Moncey. Conei. See Cone. Co^ney, (John,) an English engraver, born in London in 1786. He published "Ancient Cathedrals of France, Holland, and Germany," with fine engravings, " English Ecclesiastic Edifices of the Olden Time," and other works. Died about 1833. Conflans, de, deh k^N'flSN', (Hubert de Brienne — deh bRe^^n',) Count, a French marshal, born about 1690. He was made a captain in 1734, lieutenant-gen- eral in 1752, and vice-admiral in 1756, and afterwards obtained the rank of marshal of France. In 1759 he was defeated with great loss by the English near Quibe- ron. Died in 1777. Conflans, de, (Louis de Brienne,) Marquis d'Ar- mentieres, (dSR'mSN'te'aiR',) a French general, born in 17 II, was made marshal of France in 1768. Died in 1774. Confucius, kon-fu'she-us, [the Latinized form of KoNG-Foo-TSE Or Kong-FlT^tse, kongToot'seh' or kong- foot'siih', or Khoong-Foo-tse,* written also Koung- * The initial letter of this name (K) is followed by something simi- lar to the aspirate which occurs so frequently in Hindoo words, as ^hora. ^ "horse," (pronounced almost g'ho'ra, but in two syllables mly.) To indicate this peculiar sound, some writers use an apostrophe ^fterthe K,— K'ung. The tsett in the French spelling, Khoung-Fou- fSEU, is used to indicate a sound expressed by the Germans with tse, that is, tsi;h or tsuh. See remarks on Chinese pronunciation in the Introduction. Fou-tse, Kung- Foo-tsze, and Khoung- Fou-tseu, k'hdong-foo'tsiih', sometimes simply Khoong-tse or Khoung-tseu. Khoong-Foo-tsze signifies " the master Khoong," Khoong or K'ung being the name of the family: he was also called Ne, (or Ni,) and Chung-Ne, (or TcHOUNG-Ni,)] the most illustrious of Chinese phi- losophers, was born, according to the best authorities, 551 B.C., in the kingdom or state of Loo, (included in the modern province of Shan-toong.) His father, Shuh- Liang-Heih, (in French, Chou-liang-he,) a soldier of ex- traordinary strength as well as bravery, was descended from a long line of illustrious ancestors. He had had by his first wife nine daughters, but no son. Having become a widower, he married in his old age a young lady of rare virtues, whose only son, the subject of this notice, was destined to acquire a renown scarcely paralleled in the history of the human race. It is related among the legends concerning Confucius that just before his birth the Ki-lin, a supernatural being, who never appeared among men except to announce some extraordinary event, left in the garden of the house of Shuh-Liang- Heih a piece of precious stone, on which was written, " A child is about to be born, pure as the crystal wave : he shall be a king, but without any [territorial] domain." The young Confucius was commonly called Kew, or K'ew, (in French, Kieou,) because, as Pauthier informs us, his mother soon after her marriage visited a neigh- bouring hill, (called Ne-Kew, or Ni-Kieou, — that is, the "hill Ne,") in order to offer her prayers to Heaven that she might be blessed with children. Hence also, as it appears, the sage was called Ne, (or Ni.)* "The vener- able Ne" was a title often applied to hiin after his death. As a child, Confucius was remarkable for his entire obedience to his mother, for the respect which he always showed to elderly people, and especially for a careful observance of all the requisite ceremonies in honour of the living and the dead. While other children found their diversion in childish sports, it was his favourite pastime, the Chinese historians tell us, to go through all the various forms of politeness observed among per- sons of high education. At school he was distinguished for his obedience, gentleness, and modesty, as well as for a marvellous quickness of intellect. He acquitted him- self with particular credit as a monitor; (for the moni- torial system of instruction, commonly supposed to be a modern invention, appears to have been practised in China from a very early period.) At the age of nineteen he married, and about this time he was made a man- darin, though of a subordinate grade. In fulfilling the duties of his office he exhibited extraordinary industry, faithfulness, and intelligence. He su]:)erintended the pub- lic markets, and took care that nothing should be sold as food that was injurious to the health of the people, and that the poor should not have to pay an unreasona- ble price for the necessaries of life. He was afterwards put in charge of the public fields and lands, with the care of the sheep and cattle. Through his diligence and sagacity the most extraordinary improvements in agriculture were introduced, so that in a few years the face of the country presented a totally different appear- ance. Scarcity was followed by abundance, penury by affluence, among the cultivators of the soil. When about twenty-two, Confucius came forward for the first as a public teacher. He never refused his in- struction, however small the fee his pupils were able to pay him. All he required was an earnest desire to learn, joined to a respectable capacity. After he had shown his pupils the paths which lead to wisdom, he expected them to pursue the same, without continually looking to him for further instruction. " When I have presented," he said, " one corner of a subject to any one, and he can- not from it learn the other three, I do not repeat my lesson." When he was only twenty-four years of age, his mother died. After the appropriate ceremonies were performed, he caused her remains to be buried by those of his father, observing that " those who had been united in life should not be parted after death." Following the * According to Pauthier, the name of Tchoun^-Ni was given in allusion to the hill Ni, (visited by his mother after her marriage,) and to the fact of his being the heir (or eldest son) of his father. See Legge's "Life and Teachings of Confucius, ' chap. v. p. 58. € as k; c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) CONFUCIUS 652 CONFUCIUS usag- of his country, he mourned for his mother three yeari, during which time he filled no public office. When in his thirtieth year, he is said to have taken lessons in music under the celebrated master Siang, (or Seang.) The following story will serve to give us some idea of the estimation in which music was held by Confucius and the Chinese of that age, as well as to show us the enthusiastic wonder with which his talents were re- garded by his followers. Siang spoke to Confucius of music as the most precious gift conferred by Heaven upon men, on account of its power not only to calm the tumultuous passions, but also to purify and exalt the nobler sentiments of the heart. The master played a piece composed by a former Chinese musician of mar- vellous skill. Confucius listened as if his very soul would pass into the instrument. Some days afterwards the teacher repeated the same lesson, and his pupil continued to study it with unremitting application. At length Siang told Confucius that, as he had already attained in that particular piece a skill equal to his master's, he had better pass on to something new. But Confucius begged that he might be allowed to study the same lesson a few days longer. At last he told his teacher why he desired to dwell so long on that one piece. After playing it a number of times, he had caught, as he believed, a glimpse of the design and spirit of the composer. As he con- tinued to play, he seemed to be penetrated with the same spirit as that which inspired the author while composing it. At length he seemed not only to hear the voice, but to see the person, of the gifted but unknown musician. Confucius then described his general figure, the expres- sion of his eyes, and even his very features. He was not mistaken. It was the celebrated Wen- Wang, an illustrious sage as well as musician. Siang, astonished beyond measure at his pupil's marvellous powers, pros- trated himself before him, saying that he could teach him no longer, but that he himself must in future become the pupil of Confucius. (See Pauthier's "Chine," pp. 128-9.) Passing over some of the less important events of his life, we find Confucius in 499 B.C. one of the chief ministers of the King or Prince of Loo. The forces of the neighbouring King of Tsi (or Ts'e) had upon some frivolous pretext taken possession of three frontier towns belonging to the King of Loo. In order to settle the dispute, it was agreed between the two princes that they should have a friendly interview on the common frontier of their respective states. Confucius, who is described as possessing a wonderful power of reading the characters of men, suspected the King of Tsi of a design to seize the person of the King of Loo. He therefore ordered that a very strong military force should advance and occupy a position where it would be out of sight and yet within signalling-distance of the place appointed for the interview. The result showed a deep-laid scheme of treachery on the part of the King of Tsi and his ministers ; but the foresight, vigilance, and resolute courage of Confucius baffled all their plans, and they were fain to restore the disputed t/)wns to their lawful ruler. (For a particular account of this extraor- dinary interview, see Pauthier's "Chine," pp. 152, 153, and 154.) Confucius held for some time the office of minister of crime. A father having brought an accusation against his son, Confucius kept them both in prison for three months. One of the chief men objected that the min- ister did not act consistently with his own teachings, for he had always taught that filial duty was among the first of human obligations. Confucius replied, "When supe- riors fail in their duty, and yet go to put their inferiors to death, they are not just. This father has not taught his son to be filial : to listen to his charge would be to slay the guiltless."* After the three months had elapsed, the minister called both father and son before him. The father acknowledged his fault. Confucius said to him, kindly, "Go, and instruct your son in his duties." To the young man he said, "Do not forget that filial piety is the first of all your obligations." * It appears that, according to the old Chinese law, every serious offence against a parent was punishable with death. Even at the present day, to strike a parent is a capital crime. But the King of Loo found the precepts of the sage too high and difficult for his feeble virtue ; and Con- fucius, perceiving that his services had ceased to be in request, retired from public life, and spent his time in travelling and study. The following passage may serve to show his manner of making any remarkable occur- rence the occasion of imparting instruction to those around him. "As he was journeying, one day, he saw a woman weeping and wailing by a grave. Confucius inquired the cause of her grief 'You weep as if you had experienced sorrow upon sorrow,' said one of the attendants of the sage. The woman answered, ' It is so : my husband's father was killed here by a tiger, and my husband also ; and now my son has met the same fate.' 'Why do you not remove from the ])lace ?' asked Con- fucius. On her replying, ' There is here no oppressive government,' he turned to his disciples, and said, ' My children, remember this : — Oppressive government is more cruel than a tiger.'" After leaving the service of the King of Loo, he ap- pears to have spent the greater part of his time in dis- seminating his doctrines while travelling from one pro- vince to another, on which occasions he was always attended by some of his disciples. On one of these journeys their provisions became exhausted, and they were unable to procure a fresh supply. The disciples were overcome with hunger; and one of them said to the master, " Must the superior man indeed suffer in this way .^" The sage replied, " The superior man may indeed have to suffer want ; but the mean man, when he is in want, gives way to unbridled license." The last five years of his life were passed in Loo, his native state, in teaching, and in finishing the works which he had before commenced. Among the pupils of Confucius there were a number who gave promise of becoming distinguished lights of philosophy ; but all the warmest affections and fondest hopes of the Chinese sage appear to have been centred in his favourite and gifted disciple, Yen-Hoei, (or Hwuy,) to whom he looked, when he himself should be no more, to uphold and extend those lofty principles of wisdom and virtue which had constituted the one supreme object of his life-long pursuit. All these bright hopes were, however, destined to be crushed by the death of his beloved pupil, cut off in the very flower of his life. In the anguish of this unutterable sorrow, he could only exclaim, from time to time, " Heaven has destroyed me ! Heaven has destroyed me !" On this occasion some of his disciples said to him, " Master, your grief is excess- ive." " Is it excessive ?" said he. " If I am not to mourn bitterly for this man, for whom should I mourn.''" The great stress laid by Confucius upon the external forms of politeness and propriety might naturally sug- gest the idea that he was deficient in the spontaneous affectiQus of the heart. But we have sufficient evidence that this was not the case. He appears, indeed, to have considered the observance of external forms to be not only directly beneficial to society, but also indirectly useful, through their influence upon the minds of those who practised them, on the same general principle that the practice of outward acts of morality tends to give strength and vitality to our moral convictions. We have just seen, in the case of Yen-Hoei, that his affections were so strong that he found the greatest difficulty in conforming his conduct to those principles of propriety which he had always so strongly inculcated. The fol- lowing anecdote may show how his views of propriety were sometimes modified by the feelings of his heart. Once, as he passed by a house where he had formerly been lodged, learning that the master was dead, he went in to condole with the family. On coming out, he told a disciple to take one of the horses from his carriage and give it as a contribution towards the expenses of the funeral. The disciple remonstrated that the gift was too great for the occasion. The sage replied that, when he entered, his presence caused a fresh burst of grief from the chief mourner, with whose tears he mingled his own. "I dislike," he said, "the thought of my tears not being followed by anything. Do it, my child." (Legge's "Confucius," chap. v. sect, i.) As he drew near the close of his career, he appears to a, e, T, o, u, y, /. "supreme divine Ruler") was anciently used as the name of the Divine Being. Confucius preferred to speak of Heaven. His influence, according to the view of the above writer, has been unfavourable to the development of true religious feeling among the Chinese. (See Legge's '' Life and Teachings of Confucius," p. 100.) _ The most valuable and trustworthy source of informa- tion respecting the character and genius of the Chinese sage is to be found in his " Analects," called in Chinese Lun-Yu, — that is, the "digested conversations" of Con- fucius. The whole of the " Analects" are well worthy of a perusal by every one who wishes to understand the * In regard to the high intellectual character of the Chinese, and the peculiarity of their civilization, see some excellent remarks in Whitney's "Lectures on Language," pp. 332-334. t The descendants of Mencius should perhaps form an exception to this statement: they do not, however, rank with the posterity of Confucius. (See Leggr's "Chinese Classics," vol. ii' p. 40.) spirit and scope of the Confucian philosophy.* The> seem fully to justify the high eulogiums that have been pronounced upon the wisdom of Confucius. It may well be doubted whether among all the pagan writers of the Western nations anything can be found superior, or even equal, to many of these sayings, in respect either to practical wisdom or high morality. The following are some of his remarkable sayings : " He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place, and all the [other] stars turn towards it." " In the book of poetry are three hundred pieces ; but the design of them all may be embraced in that one sen- tence, ' Have no depraved thoughts.'' " " Learning without thought is labour lost ; thought without learning (or knowledge) is perilous." Which perhaps may be para phrased thus : The knowledge of facts, without the intel- lect necessary to apply them wisely, is useless ; on the other hand, speculation or thought, however powerful, without a basis of positive knowledge to rest on, or with- out facts to serve as landmarks to direct its course, is in imminent danger of going astray. " I do not know how a man without truthfulness is to get on." " He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray." " When we see men of worth, we should think of equal- ling them ; when we see men of a contrary character, we should turn inwards and examine ourselves." "Good government obtains when those who are near are made happy and those who are far off" are attracted." Being asked what were the essential requisites of government, he replied, " Sufficiency of food, military equipment, and confidence of the people in their ruler." When asked which, incase of necessity, could best be dispensed with, he answered, "The military equipment." When again asked which of the remaining two might best be dis- pensed with, he said, " Part with the food : from of old, death has been the lot of all men ; but if the people have no faith in their rulers there is no standing for the state," We have in one place a negative statement of the golden rule : " What you do not like when done to your- self, do not do to others." In another place he says, "The man of perfect virtue, wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others ; wishing to be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others. To be able to judge of others by what is nigh^ \i. e. in ourselves^ this may be called the art of virtue." "I am not con- cerned that I have no place, (or office ;) I am concerned how I may fit myself for one. I am not concerned that I am not known ; I seek to be worthy to be known." " When the accomplishments and solid qualities are equally blended, we then have the man of complete vir- tue." "The superior man thinks of virtue; the small man thinks of comfort. The superior man thinks of the sanctions of law ; the small man thinks of the favours which he may receive." "The superior man is affable, but not adulatory ; the mean man is adulatory, but not affable." One of the disciples of Confucius said of him, "There were four things from which the master was entirely free. He had no foregone conclusions, no arbitrary predeter- minations, no obstinacy, and no egoism." He appears to have held that mankind are naturally good, or, at least, that under favourable circumstances they readily become good. (See Mencius.) He taught that if rulers were virtuous the people would be virtuous as a matter of course. He said, " If good men were to govern a country for a hundred years, they would be able to transform the violently bad, and dispense with capital punishment." Again, " If a superior man love righteousness, the peo- ple will not dare to refuse to submit to his example. If he love good faith, the people will not dare to be in- sincere." Confucius was very bold in reproving men in power. To a usurping ruler who complained of the multitude of thieves, he said, " If you, sir, were not covetous, although you should reward them to do it, they would not steal." He justly attached great importance to the power of example ; but his own later experience * These have been presented to the English reader in a convenient form in the excellent version made by the accomplislied Chinese scholar, Dr. James Legge, published by Trubner& Co., London, 1867. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, VL, gtittural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^=See Explanations, p. 2^^) CONFUCIUS 654 CONGREFE might have convinced him that he overestimated its in- fluence. As we have already seen, he bitterly lamented, near the close of his life, that all his teachings, though enforced — if we may trust the unvarying testimony of Chinese writers — by an admirable example, had availed so little towards promoting true virtue among his coun- trymen. He once said, doubtless in a moment of great discouragement, *' I have not seen a person who loved virtue, or one who hated what was not virtuous." There is a total difference in kind between the philoso- phy of Confucius and the philosophies of Plato, Aris- totle, Bacon, and Locke. The Chinese sage did not aim to investigate the mysteries of the universe, or even the hidden laws of nature or of the human mind. His great object was to lay down such rules as would best promote the happiness and virtue of the community at large. And it must be acknowledged that in the practical wisdom of his precepts, both to rulers and subjects, he has never been surpassed by any philosopher of any age or nation. That wise and beautiful thought which is the basis of Chinese government — that the ruler or officer should be as a father, and the people as children — dates, there is reason to believe, from a very remote antiquity. Confu- cius did not originate this idea ; but he did everything in his power to give it practical efficacy. But if, on the one hand, he never wasted his thoughts on subjects too high or too profound for the human in- tellect, it must, on the other, be confessed that his maxims are often deficient in depth and comprehensiveness. While his writings everywhere abound with admiralDle practical precepts, they rarely contain the statement of any profound principle. He did not pretend or aim to improve upon the wisdom of the ancient Chinese sages, — to attempt which he would have deemed the height of folly and presumption, — but only to expound and enforce those maxims and doctrines which, with the lapse of ages, had become neglected or misunderstood. In explaining and enforcing the teachings of antiquity, he was indeed admirable. In the clearness, simplicity, power, and poetic beauty of his expressions, as well as in the practical wisdom of his views, he excelled all his countrymen, either before or since his time. The great defect of his philosophy is that it does not contain within itself any elements of progress or expansion: hence it is not only immeasurably inferior, even as a practical system, to Christianity, but is in the point above referred to far below most of the philosophies of the Western nations. His moral precepts, having no root in any definite religious faith, are wanting in vitality and power. Confucius was undoubtedly great and noble in his way, — far superior to his system. We need not hesitate to admit what his disciples claimed for him, that "from the birth of mankind till now there has never been [among the Chinese] one like our master." But his intellect appears to have been sagacious and penetrating, rather than comprehensive or profound in the highest sense of these terms. He did not shed any new light upon the great problems respecting the condition and destiny of man. "He did not," says Dr. Legge, "speculate on the creation of things or the end of them. He was not troubled to account for the origin of man, nor did he seek to know about his hereafter. He meddled neither with physics nor metaphysics." (Legge's "Confucius," p. 99.) He was content to follow in the wake of the sages of antiquity : he sought neither to rise above nor to change the course of their teachings. It appears to have never once occurred to him to call in question the wisdom of his ancestors. If he modified at all any of the doctrines or precepts handed down to him, he seems to have d(jne so unintentionally. Even his very virtues — his reverence and humility — contributed, it would seem, to mislead him. Otherwise a man of his rare sagacity and insight could scarcely have failed to see tlie insuffi- ciency and poverty of that stereotyped conservatism wliich durst not advance one step beyond the teaching of a remote antiquity, but which required the wheels of civilization to run for all time in the well-worn grooves of the past. A very little force, as is well known, is sufficient to keep a train of cars in motion on a smooth and level or descending track. This may suggest one of the essential points of difference between the system of Confucius and Christianity. The one never ran counter to, nor ever rose much above, the general ten- dency of the national character. The other, beginning at a period which was confessedly one of the darkest and most corrupt known in history, moving, not in accord- ance with, but against, the most cherished prejudices of the people among whom it rose, instead of finding a track ready made and rendered smooth by the attrition of ages, had to make its own way, ever upwards, and over countless obstacles, any one of which would have been insuperable to anything less than divine power. The influence that Confucius has exerted upon nearly one-third of the human race, during so many successive centuries, in addition to his own inherent greatness, and the fact that, since the opening of the ports of the Celes- tial Empire to an intercourse with other countries, a new and more general interest in all that relates to China is felt among the nations of the West, must constitute our apology — if any apology be needed — for extending this notice to so great a length. See, in addition to tlie works referred to in the foregoing article, P. Regis, " Antiquissimus Sinarum Liber," Stuttgart, 1839; Med- hurst's translation of the " Shoo-King ;" Collie's translation of the Chinese classical works commonly called "The Four Books," Malacca, 1828 ; " Mencius et Confucius ; Les quatre Livresde Philoso- phie morale et politique ne la Chine," translated from the Chinese by G. Pauthier, Paris, 1851 ; Rhmusat, " L'invariable Milieu," Paris, 1817; Amiot, "Memoires concernant les Chinois;" "Confucius and the Chinese Classics," by Rev. A. W. Loomis," San Francisco, 1S67 ; Oi.OF Celsius, " Exercitatio historica Confucium Sir.arum Philoso- phum adumbrans," 1710; Cortin, " Disputatio de Confucio," 1743 ; Dressler, "Compendium Confucii Sinensium Phiiosophi i)rincipis VitjE et Doctriuje," 1701 ; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1S69. Congleton, kong'gl-ton, (Henry Brooke Parnell,) Lord, a British statesman, son of Sir John Parnell, born in 1776. He married Lady Dawson, a granddaughter of the Earl of Bute. In 1806 he became lord treasurer of Ireland. When the Whig party obtained power in 1831, he was appointed secretary at war. From 1835 to 1 84 1 he was paymaster of the forces. He published several treatises on currency, exchange, trade, etc. His principal work is entitled " On Financial Reform," (1830.) Died in 1842. Cougreve, kong'grev, (William,) a popular, witty, and original English dramatic poet, was born near Leeds in 1670. On leaving college he entered the Middle Temple as a student of law, but devoted himself to lite- rature and society. He produced in 1693 "The Old Bachelor," which was performed with brilliant success, and the next year the " Double-Dealer," which was highly extolled by Dryden. "Love for Love," (1695,) and "The Mourning Bride," a tragedy, (1697,) were received with great applause, and rendered Congreve the most popular dramatist of his time. "We believe," says Macaulay, "that no English writer, except Lord Byron, has at so early an age stood so high in the esti- mation of his contemporaries." Montagu, a member of the ministry, bestowed on him several lucrative offices. For the licentiousness and immorality of his works he received a severe and merited castigation in Collier's " View of the Profaneness, etc. of the English Stage," (1698,) which produced an immense effect. Congreve's defence was admitted to be a complete failure. In 1700 he produced "The Way of the World," which, though brilliantly written, was so coldly received that he re- nounced the drama in disgust. In 17 14 he was appointed secretary of Jamaica. Pope dedicated to him his " Iliad," about 1 715, — an evidence that he was still held in high estimation. Johnson praises the magnanimity of Pope in thus preferring Congreve to peers and statesmen, who would have been proud of the honour. Congreve's ambition to pass for a man of fashion caused him to disclaim the character of poet, saying that his i:)Iays were trifles produced in an idle hour. "The peculiar excel- lence of Congreve," says Hallam, "is his wit, incessantly sparkling from the lips of almost every character." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1729. See Johnson, " Lives of the English Poets ;" Macaulay, " Essay on the Comic Dramatists of the Restoration ;" " Bio2;raphia Rritan- nica;" Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Cibeer, " Lives of the English Poets ;" Charles Wilson, " Memoirs of the Life of W. Congreve," 1730; "Lives of British Dramatists," by Campbell, Gifford, etc. i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; \ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, \\, y, short ; a, e, i, o, ohsctire; fir, fill, felt; mSt; n6t; good; moon; CONGREFE 655 CONRAD Congreve, (Sir William,) an English officer and engineer, born in Middlesex in 1772, inherited a baronetcy from his father, of the same name, who was a general. He rose in the army to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and distinguished himself in 1808 by the invention of the rocket which bears his name. He was elected to Parlia- ment several times. In 1816 he was selected to attend the grand duke Nicholas of Russia in a tour through England. He published a " Treatise on the Mounting of Naval Ordnance," (1812,) and other works. Died at Toulouse in 1828. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Coninck, ko'nink, (Solomon,) a Dutch painter of his- tory and portraits, born at Amsterdam in 1609. Among his works, which are highly prized, is " David and Bath- sheba." Coninck, de, deh ko'nink, (David,) a skilful Flemish painter of animals, flowers, and fruit, born at Antwerp in 1636; died in Rome in 1689. Coningsloo. See Cooninxloo. Co'ning-ton, (John,) an English classical scholar, born at Boston in 1825, was educated at Oxford. He became professor of Latin at Oxford in 1854. He made a poetical version of Horace's " Odes" in 1863, and trans- lated Homer's "Iliad" into verse, (1866.) Died in 1869. See " Blackwood's Magazine" for January, 1867; " North British Review" for December, 1866. ConkTing, (Roscoe,) an American Senator and law- yer, son of Judge Alfred Conkling, was born at Albany in 1828. He settled at Utica about 1846, was elected a member of Congress by the Republicans of Oneida county in 1858, and was re-elected in i860. He repre- sents the State of New York in the Senate of the United States for the term extending from 1867 to 1873. distinguished as a debater. Conneau, ko'no'', (Henri,) a French physician, born at Milan about 1802. He removed to Marseilles about 1832, and subsequently became the physician of Hortense Bona])arte, who obtained from him a promise that he would never abandon her son, Louis Napoleon. In 1840 he followed the latter to the prison of Ham, and shared his captivity until 1846, when the prince escaped. He has continued in the service of Louis Napoleon, and in 1852 received the title of first physician to the emperor. Connecte. See Conecte. Con'ner, (David,) an American naval officer, born in Mifflin county, Pennsylvania, about 1792. He served with distinction as lieutenant in the war against Eng- land, 1812-14, and became a captain about 1835. Died in 1856. Connor. See O'Connor. Con'nor, (Bernard,) F.R.S.,an Irish physician, born in Kerry in 1666. He became physician to King John Sobieski of Poland about 1694, and returned to England in 1695. lectured with success at Oxford and Cam- bridge, and published, besides other works, " Evange- lium Medici," (1697,) an effort to explain on natural principles the miraculous cures performed by Christ. Died in 1698. Co'non or Ko'non, [Kowjv,] an eminent Athenian general, the son of Timotheus. He first appears in history in 413 B.C., when he commanded a fleet. In 407 he was chosen one of the ten generals, and in 405 was defeated by Lysander at .-^^gospotami. He then took refuge with Evagoras in Cyprus. Having obtained command of a fleet of allied Persians and Athenians, he defeated the Spartans near Cnidos in 394 B.C., with important results, among which was that Sparta lost the empire of the sea. On his return to Athens he rebuilt the long walls, and afterwards went as ambassador to Persia, where he was imprisoned. Historians differ about the time and manner of his death. See Plutarch, "Artaxerxes ;" Xenophon, "Hellenica;" Cor- nelius Nepos, "Conon;" Diodorus Siculus, books xiii. and xiv. Conon, born in Eastern Europe, was elected pope in 686 A.D., as successor to John V. He died in 688, and was succeeded by Sergius II. Conon OF Samos, a celebrated Greek geometer and astronomer, who lived at Alexandria about 250 B.C., and was a friend of Archimedes. The latter expresses in one of his works a high admiration of his sagacity and attain- ments. The works of Conon are entirely lost. He was the inventor of the curve called the "Spiral of Archimedes." Seneca informs us that he collected the observations of solar eclipses made in Egypt; and Virgil mentions him in his third Eclogue. His name is connnemorated in the ode of Callimachus " De Coma Berenices." See Delambre, " HIstoire de rAstronomle ancienne." CQn'rad [Ger. pron. 'kow'xlX ; Fr. pron. koN'rtd'; Lat. Conra'dus ; It. CORRADO, kor-r.Vdo] I., Emperor of Germany, was elected to the imperial throne in 911, before which date he was Count of Franconia. He waged war against Henry the Fowler, Charles the Simple, and Arnulf of ])avaria. He was killed in battle in 918, and was succeeded by Henry the Fowler. See Schwartz, " Konig Conrad I. der Franke," 1850. Conrad II., called the Sal'ic, was a son of Henry, Duke of Franconia. He was elected King of Germany in 1024, after which he marched into Italy, and was crowned as emperor by the pope at Rome in 1027. He became master of Burgundy at the death of Rodolph, who was an uncle of Conrad's wife. Conrad is regarded as the author of the written feudal law of Germany. He died in 1039, and was succeeded by his son, Henry III. See LuDEN. " Histoire de I'Allemagne ;" Venningen, "Disser- tatio de Conrado Salico," 1783. Conrad III. of Germany, born in 1093, was a son of Frederick of Flohenstaufen. His mother was a daugh- ter of Henry IV. He was elected eni])eror in 1138; but his title was disputed by Henry the Proud, Duke of Saxony. A civil war ensued between these competitors. Welf, a brother of Henry the Proud, commanded one of the arnn'es in the battle of Weinsberg, which is memo- rable as the origin of the party names of Guelph and Ghibeline. The battle-cry of the Saxons was Welf, and that of Conrad's men was Weiblmgen, a town connected with the origin of the Hohenstaufen family. Ghibeline is the Italian version or modification of Weiblingen. Conrad gained a victory at Weinsberg, (1140,) and the war then ended. In 1 147 he conducted a large army of crusaders to Palestine. He besieged Damascus, but failed to take it, and returned in 1149. He died in 1152, and was succeeded by Frederick Barbarossa. See Mascovius, " Comnientarius de Rebus Imperii sub Con- rado III.," 1753; LuDEN, "Histoire de I'Allemagne ;" Gundling, "Geschichte und Thaten Kayser Conrads III.," 1720. Conrad IV., born in Apulia in 1228, was a son of Frederick II., Emperor of Germany and King of Italy. He was crowned King of the Romans in 1237. At the death of his father, in 1250, he took the title of emperor, which was also claimed by William of Holland. The latter was favoured by the Guelphs and by Pope Inno- cent IV., who excommunicated Conrad, the chief of the Ghibelines. Conrad led an army into Italy in 125 1, and took Naples and other places. He died in 1254, leaving a son, Conrad V., or Conradin. See Von Raumer, "Geschichte der Hohenstaufen;" Gundling, "Geschichte und Thaten Conrads IV.," 1719. Conrad V., or Con'ra-din, [Lat. Conradi'nus ; It. Conradino, kon-ri-dee'no,] born in 1252, was the son and heir of Conrad IV. The kingdom of Naples was usurped by his uncle Manfred, and was offered by the pope to Charles of Anjou, who defeated Manfred in 1265 and made himself master of Naples and Sicily. Con- radin attempted to enforce his rights, but was defeated at Tagliacozzo in 1268, taken prisoner, and ]Hit to death. See Von Raumer, " Geschichte der Hohenstaufen ;" W. Jaeger, " Geschichte Conradins II. Konigsbeider Sicilien," 17S5 ; C. M. Ric- cio, " Alcuni Studii storici intorno a Manfredi e Conradino," 1850. Conrad, Marquis of Tyre and Montferrat, was a fa- nous captam of the crusaders. He defended Tyre against Saiadin about 1188. and compelled him to raise the siege. He had just been elected King of Jerusalem, when he was assassinated, at Tyre, in 1192. Conrad of Kirchberg, a German minnesinger, was a native of Suabia, and lived about 1150-90. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Conrad of Wurtzburg, an eminent German minne- singer or troubadour, of whose life little is known. He wrote, besides other works, an epic poem on the Trojan war. Died in 1287. See Gr^vinus, "Geschichte der Altdeutschen Poesie;" Long- fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." €. ^s, k; ?iS s ; g hard; gzs,j ; g,yi,v., guttural ; 'a, nasal; ^^trilled; %zs>z; thasin this. (2i^="See Explanations, p. 23.) CONRAD 656 CONSTANCE Conrad, kon'rdt, or Coenrads, koon'rSts, (Abra- ham,) a skilful Dutch designer and engraver, flourished about 1650. His works are mostly portraits. ConVad, (Charles M.,) a lawyer, born at Winchester, Virginia, about 1804, removed in his youth to Louisiana. He was appointed secretary of war by President Fillmore in August, 1850, and held that office till March, 1853. He was a member of the Confederate Congress in 1862-64. Conrad, (Robert T.,) an American dramatist, orator, and judge, born in Philadelphia about 1809. He pro- duced two tragedies, entitled "Conrad of Naples," and " Aylmere," which were performed with success. About 1840 he became a judge of the court of general sessions in Philadelphia. He published a volume of poems in 1852. In 1854 he was elected mayor of Philadel])hia by the American party. "His 'Aylmere,'" says R. W, Giiswold, "has proved the most successful American drama yet written." Died in 1858. See Grisvvold's "Poets and Poetry of America." Conrad, (Timothy Abbott,) an American concho- logist and palaeontologist, born in New Jersey about 1804. He published, besides other works, "Fossil Shells of the Tertiary Formations of North America," (1832,) and " Palaeontology of the State of New York," (1838-40.) He was one of the naturalists employed by the State of New York about 1838. He is a member of the Imperial Society of Natural History of Moscow, and of other learned societies. Conradi, kon-raMee,(JoHANN Wilhelm Heinrich,) a German physician, born at Marburg in 1780, became in 1837 professor of medicine at Gottingen. He wrote a "Manual of General Therapeutics," (1833,) and other medical works. Conrart, koN'rta', (Valentin,) born in Paris in 1603, was one of the founders of the French Academy, which first met in his house, and which was chartered in 1635. He was then chosen its perpetual secretary. He was a councillor and secretary to the king. Died in 1675. Conring, kon'ring, (Elisa Sophia,) a German poet- ess, was a daughter of Hermann Conring, noticed below, and wife of the Baron von Reichenbach. She trans- lated into German verse the " Wisdom of Solomon," and wrote other poetry. Died in 1718. Her sister, Maria Sophia, was also a poetess. Conring, kon'ring, [Lat. Conrin'gtus,] (Hermann,) a very learned writer on history, law, medicine, etc., was born at Norden, in East Friesland, in 1606. He was chosen professor of natural philosophy at Helmstedt in 1632. In 1650 he received the title of Physician to Christina of Sweden. He was soon after appointed professor of law at Helmstedt, and by his lectures and writings acquired such renown that he was consulted by several kings on important questions. He published, in Latin, many excellent works, among which are a " Com- mentary on the Origin of German Law," (1643,) " On the Causes of the Physical Constitution ( corporis habitii ) of the Ancient and Modern Germans," (1645,) and "On the Limits of the German Empire." Died in i68r. See A. Froei.ing, " Leichenpredigt auf H. Conringiuin nebst seinem Lebenslauf," 1682; Ersch iind Gruber, "AUgemeine En- cyklopaedie ;" Niceron, " Memoires." Conringius. See Conring. Con'ry, written also Conroy, [Lat. Con'rius,] (Flo- rence,) an Irish theologian, born at Galvvay in 1560. He became Roman Catholic Archbishop of Tuam, and published a " Compendium of the Doctrines of Saint Augustine," (1634.) Died at Madrid in 1629. Consalvi, kon-saKvee, (Ercole,) Cardinal, an emi- nent Italian statesman, born in Rome in 1757. At an early age he obtained the office of auditor ds Rota, a member of the highest civil court. In 1800 he was appointed secretary of state, or first minister, of Pius VII., and in 1801 negotiated the Concordat with Bonaparte in Paris. In compliance with the wish of the French emperor, he was dismissed from office in 1806, and exiled from Rome about 1810. From 1814, when he was reinstated in the office of secretary, to 1823, the Papal States experienced the benefits of his liberal and humane policy. Capital punishment for heresy, and the torture, were abolished, and new codes of law were enacted. Died in 1824. See Eartholui, "Ziigeaus dem Leben des Cardinal Consalvi," 1823: "Cenni biografici sul Cardinale Consalvi," Venice, 1824. Consbruch, kons'bRooK, (Georg Wilhelm Chris- toph,) a German medical writer, born in Westphalia in 1764. Conscience, koN^se'SNss', (Henri or Hendrik,) a popular Flemish novelist, born at Antwerp in 181 2. He entered the army in 1830, but retired from that service a few years later, after comi)osing some popular songs. In 1837 he produced, in Flemish, a successful romance, "The Year of Miracles, 1566," ("In het Vonderjaer,") and another entitled " Phantasia." His re])utation was confirmed by "The Lion of Flanders," (1838.) He was appointed a professor in the University of Ghent in 1845. Among his numerous v/orks are a " History of Belgium," (1845,) "Pages from the Book of Nature," (1846,) and "The Poor Gentleman," (1851.) See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Consentius, kon-sen'she-us, a Greek grammarian, lived at Constantinople in the fifth century. Consetti, kon-set'tee, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, born at Modena in 1686; died in 1766. Considerant, koN'se'da'rSN', (Victor,) a French socialist, born at Salins in 1805. He became a disciple of Fourier about 1831, and on the death of the latter, in 1837, was recognized as the chief apostle of Fourierism. In 1845 he began to issue in Paris the "Democratic Pa- cifique," a daily political journal. After the revolution of 1848 he was elected to the Assembly, in which he acted with the party called the " Mountain." About 1854 he founded a colony in Texas. He wrote, besides other works, "Destinee sociale," (3 vols., 1834-44.) See Klanqui, " Histoire de I'ficonomie politique." Con'sta-ble, (kiln'sta-b'l,) (Archibald,) an eminent Scottish publisher, born at Kellie in 1776. He opened a shop in Edinburgh in 1795, and in 1802 began to pub- lish the " Edinburgh Review," which he managed twenty- four years. He published Scott's first original work in 1805, and gave that author one thousand pounds for " Marmion" in 1807. Constable & Company also pub- lished Scott's prose works, (1813-26.) In consequence partly of his generosity and want of prudence, he failed in 1S25 for about ;^25o,ooo, in which failure Sir Walter Scott was largely involved. Died in 1826. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Con'sta-ble, (Henry,) an English poet, who gradu- ated at Cambridge about 1580. He published a volume of sonnets, which were commended by Ben Jonson and others. See Warton, "History of English Poetry." Constable, (John,) an eminent English landscape- painter, born at East Bergholt, Suffolk, in 1776, was the son of a miller. His early love of art was encouraged by Sir George Beaumont. In 1799 he became a student in the Royal Academy. He exhibited in 1819 a large picture of a " Scene on the River Stour," usually called "The White Horse," which is among his best works. The public and the artists were slow to appreciate his simplicity of style, fidelity to nature, and contempt of conventionalities. He was elected a Royal Academician in 1829. Among his master-pieces are "The Corn- Field," (1826,) and "The Valley Farm," (1835.) Died in 1837. " His early associations," says Ruskin, " induced in him a morbid preference of subjects of a low order. His works are eminently wanting in both rest and refine- ment. Yet, with all these deductions, they are to be deeply respected as thoroughly original, honest, free from affectation, and manly in manner." ("Modern Painters.") See C. R. Leslie, "Life of John Constable." Constance. See Constantius. Con'stance, Empress of Germany, was a daughter of Roger, King of the Two Sicilies, and was born in II 55. She was married in 11 85 to the emperor Henry VI., and became the mother of Frederick II. In 1194 she inherited the throne of her father. Died in 1198. See MuRATORi, "Annali d'ltalia." Constance, Queen of Sicily, was the daughter of King Manfred. She became the wife of Pedro of Aragon in 1261. She reigned in the island of Sicily from 1283 until her death, in 1298. See SiSMONDi, "Histoire des R^publiques Italiennes." a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; ilx, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; CONSTANCE 657 CONSTANTINE Con'stance, (Faulcon, Faulkon, or Phaulkon,) an ambitious Greek adventurer, whose proper name was Con'stan-tiii, was born in Cephalonia about 1648. After having been a trader in the East Indies, he went to Siam, where about 16S0 he became jDrime minister. He made an alliance with Louis XIV. of France, who sent a body of troops to Siam. Having attempted to establish there the Roman Catholic religion and the French domination, he was killed by some natives, who conspired against him, about 1688. See P. d'Orleans, "Vie de M. Constance;" " Biographie Uni- verseile;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Constance Chlore. See Constantius I. Constancio, kon-stSn'se-o, (Francisco Solano,) a Portuguese physician and writer on science, born at Lis- bon in 1777. From 1820 to 1829 he was minister from Portugal to the United States. Died in Paris in 1846. Con'stans [Fr. Constant, k^N'stdN^] I., (Flavius Julius,) the third son of the emperor Constantine the Great and Fausta, was born about 320 A.D. At the death of his father, in 337, he inherited the sovereignty of Italy, Africa, and Western Illyricum. His brother Constan- tine, having invaded his dominions, was defeated and killed in battle in 340, when the victor became master of the whole Western Empire. He was indolent, weak, and depraved. He favoured Athanasius, who had been proscribed by the Arians. Magnentius having revolted in Gaul, Constans fled towards Spain, but was overtaken near the Pyrenees, and killed, in 350 A.D. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Le Beau, "Histoire du Bas- Empire." Constan,5 II., (Flavius Heraclius,) born at Con- stantinople in 630 A.D., was the son of Constantine III., Emperor of the East, whom he succeeded in 641. He waged unsuccessful war against the Saracens, who con- quered Egypt and Rhodes from him. He favoured the Monothelites, and issued an edict which prohibited the discussion of religious questions. In 655 he was signally •defeated by the Arabs at sea. His cruelty, avarice, etc. rendered him generally detested. He was assassinated at Syracuse in 668, and was succeeded by his son, Con- stantine IV., (Pogonatus.) See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Abool- FEUA, " Annales ;" Le Beau, "Histoire du Bas-Empire." Constant. See Constans. Constant de Rebecque, k6N'st6N' deh reh-bSk', (Benjamin,) commonly called simply Benjamin Con- stant, a French publicist, orator, and politician, was born of French Protestant parents at Lausanne in 1767. He was a fellow-student of Erskine and Mackintosh at Edinburgh. Li 1795 he entered Paris as a protege of Madame de Stael, (of whom he was a life-long admirer,) and in 1799 became a member of the Tribunate. His opposition to the First Consul resulted in his removal and banishment in 1801. He visited several courts of Europe during the ensuing years. In 1813 he composed his celebrated pamphlet "On the Spirit of Conquest and Usurpation," which procured him the favour of the allied powers. As an editor of the "Journal des Debats," he denounced Napoleon in 1815, but was persuaded to accept a place in his council during the Hundred Days. After the second restoration he became a popular chief of the opposition, and in 1819 was chosen a deputy for La Sarthe. He was one of the most powerful and witty debaters of that period, and was for some time the leader and moderator of the Liberal party. Just after the revo- lution of 1830, in which he was not an actor, he was appointed president of the council of state. He died in Paris in December, 1830, leaving, besides many political works, a treatise "On Religion, considered in its Source, its Forms, and its Developments," (5 vols., 1823-31.) He had great facility in composition. His letters are models of grace and finesse, but seem very deficient in heart. He has been called a second Voltaire, and was reputed the most brilliant converser among the men of his age. Though a professor of the Protestant religion, he appears to have been profoundly skeptical. See Lamartine, "History of the Restoration;" Louis Blanc, " Histoire de dix Ans ;" Sainte-Beuve, articles in the " Revue des Deux Mondes" for 1844 and 1845; De Cormenin, " Le Livre des Orateurs;" J. Pharaon, "Notice sur B. Constant," 1830; Louis de Lom^nie, "B. Constant," 1841; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Constant de Rebecque, (David,) great-grandfather of Benjamin Constant, was born in 1638. He was a Protestant minister, and lived in Geneva and Lausanne. He wrote an " Epitome of Politics," and edited some of the works of Cicero, Pylorus, and Erasmus. Died in 1733. Constant-Prevost. See Prevost. Constantia, kon-stan'she-a, (Flavia Valeria,) a half-sister of Constantine the Great, born about 300 A.D., was married in 313 to the emperor Licinius. The mu- tual attachment between her and Constantine appears to have continued even after Licinius was killed by his order. She used her influence in favour of the Arian creed. Died about 330. Constantin. See Constantine, Constantin, k^N'stdN^tiN', (Abraham,) a skilful Swiss painter on porcelain, born at Geneva in 1785, worked in Paris. He copied some pictures of Raphael on porcelain. Constantin, k6N'st6N'tiN', (Robert,) a French scho- lar and eminent linguist, born at Caen. He graduated as a physician in 1564, and practised at Montauban. For the sake of religious freedom he retired to Germany, where he died in 1605. He had compiled a "Lexicon Graeco-Latinum," (1562,) which was highly esteemed. See NiCERON, "Memoires." Con'stan-tine, [Lat. Constanti'nus ; Gr. Kuvardv- TLvoc ; Fr. Constantin, k6N'st6N't4N'; Ger. Constan- tin, kon-stJn-teen'; It. Constantino, kon-st^n-tee'no ; Dutch, KoNSTANTijN, kon-stan-tin',] (Flavius Vale- rius AuRELius,) surnamed the Great, the first Chris- tian emperor of Rome, born in 272 a.d., was the son of the emperor Constantius Chlorus and his wife Helena. Before his accession, his talents, courage, and martial ser- vices had rendered him a favourite of the army, and an object of jealousy to Galerius, one of the two emperors then reigning. He was at York when his father died there, in July, 306, and was proclaimed emperor by the legions under his command. Galerius accorded to him only the title of Csesar, and conferred the rank of Au- gustus on his own son, Severus. At Rome, Maxentius and his father Maximian, in the absence of Galerius, raised a successful revolt, (307,) after which six emperors and Caesars at one time ruled the provinces of Rome. About 307 Constantine married Fausta, daughter of Maximian; but a war soon ensued between these em- perors, and Maximian, having been defeated, was put to death in 309. Galerius died in 311, after which Licinius and Maximin remained masters of the provinces east of Italy. In 312, Constantine, who reigned in Gaul, marched against Maxentius, who was defeated and killed near Rome in that year. About this time, according to tra- dition, he was converted to Christianity by a miraculous vision, in which he saw in the heavens the sign of a cross, with this inscription, "Thou shalt conquer by this sign," (" In hoc signo vinces.") Having obtained undisputed supremacy over the West, including Italy and Africa, he began to favour more openly the Christians, and displayed wisdom in the promotion of order and prosperity among his subjects. In 314 he fought in Thrace an indecisive battle against Licinius, his only remaining rival, and then made a peace, which lasted nine years. During this period he was employed in political reforms, and adopted a more humane code of laws, by which Christianity was recog- nized as the religion of the state, but the pagan worship was still tolerated. In 323 he gained a complete victory over Licinius near Adrianople, and another opposite Byzantium, after which he was the sole emperor. He assembled at Nicaea in 325 the first general council, in which Arianism was condemned and a famous Catholic creed was adopted. In the next year he was guilty of an act which has left a deep stain on his memory, the execution of his eldest son, Crispus, falsely accused of a crime by Fausta, who was his step-mother. About 328 he transferred his court to Byzantium, which he enlarged, and the name of which he changed to Constantino])le, — "City of Constantine." The duration of the Eastern Empire so many centuries after the fall of the Western seems to approve the wisdom of his policy in this affair. A few years before h«is death he favoured the Arians, and recalled some banished € as k: c as s; g ^ard; g as j; G, H, K,gitttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 42 CONSTJNTINE 658 CONSTANTINE bishops of that ])arty. He died at Nicomedia iii 337 a.d., having divided the empire between his three sons, Con- stantine, Coustantius, and Constans. Ilis character is variously estimated ; but it is admitted that he iiad many of the quahties of a great statesman and general. He was far from being a saint, and in the opinion of Niebuhr was not even a Christian, though he permitted himself to be baptized just before his death. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Euse- Bius, "Vila Constantini ;" Vogt, " Historia Constaiitini Magni," 1720; TiLi.EMONT, " Histoire des Emjiareurs ;" Joseph Fletcher, "Life of Constantine the Great," 1852; J. C. F. Manso, " Leben Constantin's des Grossen," 1817; Jakob Burckhardt, "Die Zeit Constantin's des Grossen," 1853. Constantine (or Constantinus) II., (Flavius Claudius,) a Roman emperor, the eldest surviving son of the preceding, was born at Arelatum (now Aries) in 312 A.D. In 335 he was intrusted with the adminis- tration of Gaul, Britain, and Spain, and at the death of his father, in 337, inherited the sovereignty of the same provinces, with a part of Africa. Having invaded the dominions of his brother Constans, he was defeated and killed in battle near Acjuileia in 340. He left no issue. See EusEDius, "Vita Constantini;" Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Constantine (or Constantinus) III., (Flavius Heraclius,) called No'vu.s, Emperor of the East, born in 612 A.D., was the son of the emperor Heraclius and Eudoxia. At the death of his father, in 641, he became a partner in the empire with his half-brother Heracleonas. After a reign of three months, he died, or was poisoned by Martina, his step-mother. He left a son, Constans H. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Constantine (or Constantinus) IV., surnamed Pogona'tus, a Roman emperor of the East, succeeded his father, Constans H., in 668 A.D. A powerful Arabian fleet in 672 blockaded Constantinople, his capital, which was defended by the Greek fire newly invented. After ftghting several years, the Arabs purchased peace by the payment of an annual tribute. In 680 he assembled a council at Constantinople, by which the Monothelites were condemned. He died in 685, and left the throne to his son, Justinian II. See Le Beau, "Histoire du Bas-Empire." Constantine (or Constantinus) V., surnamed Co- pron'ymus, [6 KonpC)vviiO£,] Emperor of the East, born in 719 A.D., was the son of Leo IH., (Isaurus,) whom he succeeded in 741. In 743 he defeated Artavasdes, who had rebelled and had made himself master of the capital. He was a zealous iconoclast and a persecutor of the orthodox. In 754 he assembled a council which con- demned the worship of images. He appears to have been unprincipled and superstitious. He died in 775, and was succeeded by his son, Leo IV. See Cedrenus, "Compendium;" Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Constantine (or Constantinus) VI., (Flavius,) born in 771 a.d., was the son of Leo IV. At the death of his father, in 780, he became emperor at Con- stantinople, under the regency of his mother, the am- bitious Irene. (See Irene.) A council held at Nicaeain 787 restored the worship of images. After the end of his minority, Irene, who still wished to rule, was kept in confinement. In 797 she conspired against him with success, and injuries were inflicted on him which caused his death. Irene then became his successor. See Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire." Constantine (or Constantinus) VII., Emperor of the East, surnamed Porphyrogen'itus, [Gr. 6 IIop^upo- yevvrjToc, i.e. " Born in Purple,"] the son of the emperor Leo VI., was born in 905 a.d. His father died in 911, soon after which Romanus Lecapenus usurped the gov- ernment and ruled as emperor until 944. The popular favour then restored Constantine, who in his long se- clusion from public life had cultivated learning and science with success. He gained the affection of his sub- jects by his humanity and love of justice, and composed several valuable works, among which is a "Treatise on the Government of the Empire." He was poisoned in 959 by his son and successor, Romanus II. See Leichius, "De Vita et Rebus gestis Constantini Porphyro- geniti," 1746; Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca." Constantine (or Constantinus) VIII. was the son of Romanus Lecapenus the usurper. He and his brother Stephen reigned a few months between the deposition of Romanus Lecapenus and the restoration of Constan- tine VH., 944 A.D. Died about 946. Constantine (or Constantinus) IX., Emperor of the East, born in 961 A.D., was the second son of Ro- manus II. In 976 his brother Basil II. and he were proclaimed emperors. He took no part in the affairs of state until the death of Basil, in 1025. His reign was disgraced by cruelty and other vices. He died in 1028, without male heir, and was succeeded by Romanus Argyrus. Constantine (or Constantinus) X., surnamed Mo- nom'achus, [6 Movo/iaxoc,] became Emperor of the East in 1042 by marriage with Zoe, the daughter of Constan- tine IX. His surname was given on account of his courage in war. A memorable event of his reign was the schism between the Greek and Roman Churches, which began in 1054 and has continued to the present time. Died, without issue, in 1054. Constantine (or Constantinus) XL, surnamed Du'cAS, [Gr. 6 AovKag,] Emperor of the East, was chosen as his successor by Isaac Comnenus, who abdicated in 1059 A.D. He had obtained a high reputation as a gen- eral, but proved rather incompetent as a ruler. He died in 1067, leaving three minor sons, Michael, Androni'cus, and Constantine ; but Romanus Diogenes was his suc- cessor. The youngest of the three sons was styled Con.stantine XII., about 107 1; but his reign was only nominal. Constantine (or Constantinus) XIII., surnamed Pal^EOLOGUS, (pa-le-oKo-gus,) the last Emperor of Con- stantinople, was the fourth son of Manuel 11. , and was born in 1394. He succeeded his brother, John VII., in 1448. By the encroachments of the Turks the empire had been reduced within a very small compass. In 1453 Mahomet II. besieged the capital with 250,000 men, and, after an obstinate contest of several weeks, took it by storm. Constantine was killed in the fight just as the Turks entered the walls. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Von Ham.mer, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." Constantine, (or Constantinus,) surnamed the African, was a native of Carthage, and was one of the most learned men of his time. He studied at Babylon, visited India, and afterwards lived at Salerno. He pub- lished works on medicine and other sciences, and trans- lated into Latin some of the best Greek and Arabic books. Died in 1087. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Constantine, (or Constantinus,) Pope, a native of Syria, succeeded Sisinnius in 708 a.d. He is said to have approved the worship of images, in opposition to the Patriarch of Constantinople. He died in 714, and was succeeded by Gregory II. Con'stan-tine, (Nikolaevitch,) Grand Duke of Russia, the second son of the eniperor Nicholas, was born September 21, 1827. During his childhood he re- ceived the title of Grand Admiral of the Fleet. Under the instructions of Admiral Liitke, he acquired great proficiency in naval science. His talents and disposition rendered him a favourite, especially with the old Russian party. He married the Princess Alexandra of Saxe- Altenburg in 1848. He was a strenuous supporter of the late war against France and England, and commanded the fleet in the Baltic in 1854-55. By his cautious de- fensive operations he prevented the British from gaining any decisive victories over his fleet. He was appointed Viceroy of Poland in the spring of 1862. Constantine, (Pavlovitch,) Grand Duke, the second son of the emperor Paul of Russia, was born a' Saint Petersburg in 1779. In 1796 he married Juliana, Princess of Saxe-Coburg, an aunt of Queen Victoria. His martial conduct was applauded at Austerlitz, (1805,) where he cominanded a corps. In several ensuing cam- paigns he maintained his reputation for courage. He was appointed generalissimo of Poland in 1814. In 1820, having obtained a divorce from his first wife, he married a Polish lady named Grudzinska, by which he appears to have injured his prospects or forfeited his claim as heir- a, e, I, o, xi, y, /on^; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; CONSTANTINE 659 CONTESSA presumptive to the throne. At the death of Alexander without issue in 1825, Constantine renomiced his right in favour of his younger brother Nicholas, who had oifered to acknowledge him as Czar. He became Viceroy of Poland, wiiere his tyranny provoked a revolt in 1830. In the war which ensued he acted an inferior part, and died of cholera in 183 1. See Harro Hakring, "Der Grossfiirst Constantin wie er war," .832. Constantine Manasses. See Manasses. Constantino, the Italian of Constantine, which see. Constantino, kon-stdn-tee'no, (Manoel,) a Portu- guese historian, born at Funchal, in Madeira, became professor of theology in Rome, and wrote a " History of the Kings of Portugal," (1601.) Died in 1614. Consteintinus, the Latin of Constantine, which see. Con-stan-ti'nus, a Greek or Roman jurist, was one of those whom Justinian selected, in 528 A.D., to frame the first Code. Constantinus, (Julius Celsus,) the author of a well- written commentary on the "Life of Caesar," which first appeared as an appendage to "Ceesar's Commentaries" in 1473. Walckenaer has endeavoured to prove that he wrote in the tenth century and lived in Constantinople. Con-stan'ti-us (kon-stan'she-us) I., commonly called Constantius -Chlo'rus, [Fr.^^oNSTANCE Chlore, koN'stSNs' kloR,] (Flavius Valerius,) a Roman em- peror, born about 250 A.D., was the son of Eutropius, and father of Constantine the Great. In 292, Diocle- tian and Maximian, in order to divide the labours of the administration, chose Galerius and Constantius, each of whom received the title of Caesar. Gaul, Spain, and Britain were allotted to the latter, who was required to repudiate Helena and marry Theodora, the daughter of Maximian. He became emperor in 305, on the ab- dication of Diocletian, and died at York in 306, leaving the reputation of a just and humane ruler. His son Constantine was his successor. See Eutropius; Aukelius Victor, "Caesares." Constantius [Fr. Constance, koN'stSNs'] II., (Fla- vius Julius,) the third son of Constantine I., Emperor of Rome, was born at Sirmium in 317 A.D. Py his fiither's will he inherited the Asiatic provinces and Egypt in 337. It is said that he ordered or permitted the massacre of his father's nephews, brother, etc. at the time of his ac- cession. During nearly all his reign he was at war with the Persians, by whom he was often defeated. In 350 the revolt of Magnentius resulted in the death of Con- stans. Emperor of the West. Constantius turned his arms against Magnentius, whom he defeated at Mursa, on the Drave, in 351, and in Gaul in 353, after which he was master of the whole empire. In 355 he appointed his cousin Julian, Caesar and commander in Gaul, and in 357 visited Rome for the first time. He favoured the Arians, and banished the orthodox bishops. Julian having been proclaimed emperor by his army in Gaul, Constantius was marching to attack him, wiien he died near Tarsus in 361, and was succeeded by Julian. His reputation is not high either for talents or for virtue. See EusEBius, " Vita ConstaiUii ;" Th.lemont, " Histoire des Empereurs;" Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Constantius III., Emperor of the West, a native of Illyria. His merit had raised him to the rank of gen- eral in 411 A.D. He married Placidia, sister of Hono- rius, who in 421 gave him the title of Augustus and received him as a partner in the empire. Fie died in 421, leaving a son, who became Valentinian HI. See TiLLKMONT, "Histoire des Empereurs;" Le Beau, "His- toire dii Bas-Empire." Constanzo, (Angelo.) See Costanzo, dl Contades, de,dehk6N'ttd', (Louis George Erasme,) Marquis, born in 1704, became a marshal in 1758, and commanded in Germany, where he took several fortified towns, but was defeated at Minden in 1759, and was soon recalled. Died in 1795. See Dk Courceli.es, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Frangais." Contamine, deh, deh k^N'tt'm^n', (Theodore,) Vi- COMTE, a French general, born at Givet (Ardennes) in 1773. took part in the battle of Trafalgar, (1805.) Died in 1845. Contant, kdw^tSN', (Paul,) a French botanist and poet, born about 1570, established a botanic garden a Poitiers. He described the plants and animals which he had collected, in a poem called "Jardin et Cabinet poetique," (1609.) Died in 1632. Contant d'lvry, kcjN'tdN' dev're', (Pierre,) an emi- nent French architect, born at Ivry-sur Seine in 1698, studied design under Watteau. He designed the church of Conde in Flanders, that of Saint-Waast at Arras, and the greater part of the Palais Royal of Paris. His plans for the church of the Madeleine were adopted ; but he died before it was finished, in 1777. Contant d'Orville, koN'tSn' duR^^K, (Andr6 Guil- LAUME,) a French litterateur, born in Paris about 1730. He published an " Account of the Different Nations," etc., (6 vols., 1772,) and other works. Died about 1800. Contarini, kon-ti-ree'nee, a noble family of Venice, which has produced many doges, senators, etc. Do- MExNico was doge from 1043 to 107 1. GiACoMO was doge from 1275 to 12S0. Andrea Contarini was chosen to that office in 1367. About 1380 the Genoese, having taken Chiozza, threatened the existence of the Venetiaii state, which Contarini saved in that year by a decisive victory. He died in 1382, aged about eighty. Domenico II. became doge in 1659, when the republic was at war with the Turks for the possession of Candia. The cele- brated siege of Candia ended in the capitulation of the Venetians in 1667, after the Turks had lost 100,000 men. Died in 1674. See Daru, " Histoire de Venise ;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Rii- pubiiques Italiennes." Contarini, (Ambrogio,) a Venetian senator and tra- veller, was sent in 1473 ambassador to the King of Persia. Passing through Poland, Russia, etc., he found the king at Ispahan and made a treaty with him. Plaving returned to Venice in 1477, he published a curious jour- nal of his mission. Contarini, (Gasparo,) Cardinal, born of a noble family at Venice in 1483. He was employed as nego- tiator in important missions, and was made a cardinal ^535- wrote treatises on the " Immortality of the Soul," and other works. Died in 1542. See Daru, "Histoire de Venise;" L. Beccateli.i, "Vita de Cardinale G. Contarini," 1746. Contarini, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter of history and portraits, born at Venice in 1549, was an imitator of Titian. He excelled in the adornment of arches and ceilings. He worked in Germany for the emperor Rodolph il. Died in 1605. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Contarini, (Vincenzo,) born at Venice in 1577, be- came ])rofessor of eloquence at Padua at the age of twenty-six. He published a volume of "Various Read- ings of Classic Authors," and a few other works. Died in 1617. Contat, koN'tt^ (Louise,) a popular French actress, born in Paris in 1760; died in 1813. Conte. See Lecon ie. Conte, k6N^ta', (Nicolas Jacques,) a French painter, chemist, and mechanician, born in Normandy in 1755. In 1798 he followed the French army to Egypt, where he rendered great services, as artist and savant, in the invention or fabrication of arms, tools, machines, etc. Having returned to France, he was selected to direct the execution of the great work on Egypt published by the Egyptian Commission. He invented a machine by which he engraved with surprising facility. Died in 1803. See E. F. Jomard, "Vie, Travaux et Services de N. J. Cont^," 1852; "Nonvelle Biographle Generale." Conte, del, del konTa, (Jacopino,) a skilful portrait- painter, born at Florence in 1502, worked in Rome, where he painted several popes and princes. Died in 1598. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Contessa, kon-tes'sS, (Karl Wilhelm Salice,) a German novelist, born at Hirschberg in 1777, wrote, besides other novels, "The Talisman," (1810.) Died in 1825. His brother Christian, born in 1767, was the author of several tales and dramas in verse. He died in Berlin in 1825. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23 ) CONTI 660 COOK Conti, kon'tee, (Antonio Schinei.la,) Abb±, an Italian poet and ])hilosopher, born at Padua in 1677, removed to Venice in 1699, and became a priest. In 171 5 he was admitted, through the influence of Newton, into the Royal Society of London. He studied sciences and philosophy in Paris for several years. He was one of the Italian authors who contributed most to impress a phi- losophic character on the literature of his country. In 1739 he ])ublished the first volume of his works, which were designed to form a grand treatise on the Beautiful, conformed to the doctrine of Plato. It comprised a philosophic poem, entitled "The Sphere of Venus," ('* II Globo di Venere.") Died at Padua in 1749. See Mazzucheixi, "Biografia degli Uomini illustri ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Conti, (Giovanni Francesco,) sometimes called, in Latin, Quintia'nus Sto'a, an Italian author, born at Quinzano, near Brescia, in i486. He wrote many and ^'arious works. Died in 1557. See CossANDO, "Vitae Quintiani Stose," 1694; Niceron, "Ma- moires." Conti, (M. Antonio.) See Majoragio. Conti, [Lat. De Comit'ibus,] (Niccol6,) an Italian traveller, born in Venice, travelled twenty-five years, between 1419 and 1444, in India, China, and the Asiatic islands. The narrative of his travels in Ramusio's col- lection is commended. Conti, (Noel,) [Lat. Nata'lts Co'mes,] a learned Italian writer, born at Milan, lived in Venice. He was the author of Latin odes and epigrams, a "Treatise on Mythology," and a general history of his own time. Died about 1582. Conti, de, deh k^N'te', (Armand de Bourbon — deh booR'boN',) Prince, a brother of the great Conde, was born in Paris in 1629. In the frivolous civil war of the Fronde he commanded an army in opposition to Conde. He married a niece of Cardinal Mazarin. In 1654 he commanded in Guienne, and took two towns from the Spaniards. He wrote a tract against stage-plays. " He ought rather," says Voltaire, " to have written against civil wars." Died in 1666. See Cardinal de Retz, "Memoires;" La Rochefoucauld, " Memoires." Conti, de, (FRANgois Louis de Bourbon,) Prince, a French general, son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1664. He became so renowned for his courage and his admirable personal and mental endowments that he was elected King of Poland in 1697 ; but Augustus of Sa.xony, chosen by another party, obtained possession. He dis- tinguished himself at Steenkerke in 1698. In consequence of the jealousy or prejudice of the king, he did not obtain command of an army until 1709. He died in the same year, as he was about to open the campaign in Flanders. Saint-Simon, who is sparing of praise, represents him as "the delight of the world and the court, the idol of the soldiers, and the hero of the officers." See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV ;" Saint-Simon, " Me- moires ;" "Journal de Dangeau." Conti, de, (Louise Marguerite de Lorraine — deh lo^-^n',) Princess, a French lady, distinguished for her wit and talents, born in 1577. She was a daughter of Henry, Duke of Guise, and became the wife of a Prince of Conti, after whose death (16 14) she was married se- cretly to Marshal Bassomjiierre. She wrote a " History of the Amours of Henry IV." Died in 163 1. See Bassompierre, " Journal ;" Tallemant des Reaux, " His- toriettes de la Princesse de Conti." Conti, de', c\h kon'tce, (Giusto,) an Italian poet and orator, surnamed da Val Montone, (d^ vSI mon-to^ia,) from the place of his birth, near Rome, is considered one of the most faithful imitators of Petrarch. Died in 1449. A volume of his poems, entitled "The Beautiful Hand," (" La bella Mano,") in honour of the beautiful hand of the lady whose praises the poet sang, was published in 1472. See GiNGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Contile, kon-tee'li, (Luca,) an Italian writer, born at Cetone, near Sienna, in 1506. He published a volume of poems, ("Rime," 1560,) several comedies in prose, and other works. Died in 1574. Contreras, de, di kon-tRa^rSs, (Hieronimo,) a Span- ish poet and novelist, born in Andalusia, lived about 1600. He was appointed historiographer by Philip II. Among his works is " Selva de Aventuras." See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Contri, kon'tRee, (Anix)NIO,) an Italian painter of landscapes and flowers, born at Ferrara about 1680, settled at Cremona. He is the reputed inventor of the art of transferring frescos to canvas. Died in 1732. Contucci, kon-toot'chee, (Andrea,) called also San- sovino, (s^n-so-vee'no,) an eminent Italian sculptor and architect, born at Sansovino, in Tuscany, in 1460. He worked at Florence and Rome, and became one of the first sculptors of his age. His figures of the Virgin and Child, in Rome, were much admired. He built a palace for the King of Portugal, and other edifices. Died in 1529. See Vasaki, " Lives of the Painters, Sculptors," etc. Con'way, (Henry Seymour,) P^ield-Marshal, an English general and statesman, second son of the first Lord Conway, was born in 1720. He was aide-de-camp to the Duke of Cumberland at CuUoden in 1746. As lieutenant-general, he commanded in Germany in 1761. From 1765 to 1768 he was secretary of state in the Whig cabinet. In 1782 he became commander-in-chief of the army, and made in Parliament a motion to terminate hostilities against the United States, in allusion to which Burke remarked, " All England, all America, joined in his applause." " He was," says Macaulay, "versed in the learning of his profession, and personally courageous, but wanted vigour and capacity." Died in 1795. Mrs. Damer the artist was his only child. His state papers have been published. Con'way, (Thomas,) a native of Ireland, removed in 1777 to America, and served a short time in the repub- lican army. He was a partisan of General Gates, and a secret enemy of Washington. Conybeare, kun'e-bair, (John,) an eminent English theologian, born near Exeter in 1692. He became Dean of Christ Church in 1732, and Bishop of Bristol in 1750. He ])ublished an admired "Defence of Revealed Reli- gion," in answer to Tindal, and a number of sermons, which had a high reputation. Died in 1755. See " Biographia Britannica." Conybeare, (J'JHn Josias,) an English antiquary and clergyman, born in London in 1779. He obtained the professorship of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford in 1807, and that of poetry in 181 2. He was a canon in the cathe- dral of York. He published "Illustrations of Anglo- Saxon Poetry," and other learned works. Died in 1824. Conybeare, (Rev. William Daniel,) Dean of Llan- daff, a distinguished English geologist and divine, born near London in 1787. He graduated at Oxford in 1811, and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1819. He discovered the Plesiosaurus, an antediluvian mon- ster, and rendered important services to the science of geology by his writings on the coal-fields and other strata of Britain. He published, in conjunction with W. Phil- lips, "Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales.'"' In 1839 he preached the Bampton Lectures. He was appointed Dean of Llandaff in 1845. Died in 1857. Conybeare, (Rev. W. J.,) a son of the preceding, was a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and prin- cipal of the Collegiate Institution, Liverpool, In 1850- 54 he and J, S. Howson produced the " Life and Epistles of Saint Paul," which is highly esteemed. He is said to have translated nearly all the Epistles in this book. He also published some Essays, and Sermons preached in the Chapel Royal, Whitehall, in 1844. Died in 1857. See " North British Review" for February, 1S54. Conz or Konz, konts, (Karl Philipp,) a German poet, born in Wiirtemberg in 1762, was professor at Tii- bingen. Among his works is " Conradin," a tragedy. Died in 1827. Cooglien or Kooghen, van der, vtn der ko'nen, (Leonard,) a Dutch painter and engraver, born at Haar- lem in 1610; died in 1681. Cook, kook, (Charles,) a British missionary in France who laboured with great zeal and success, and became president of the French Weslevan Conference. Died in 1858. Cook, (Eliza,) a popular English poetess, born in Southwark, London, in 181 7. At an early age she be- I came a contributor to the " New Monthly Magazine" and a. e, 1, 6, u, y, /on£-; k, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fdr, fill, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; COOK COOKESLET other periodicals. A volume of her poems and songs published in 1840 was received with favour. In 1849 she began to publish " Eliza Cook's Journal," which was con- tinued several years. Among her popular productions are "The Old Arm-Chair" and "Home in the Heart," Cook, (George,) a Scottish historical writer and theo- logian, born at Saint Andrew's about 1780, published a ^' History of the Reformation in Scotland," (3 vols., 181 1,) a " History of the Church of Scotland," (3 vols., 181 5,) and other works. Died in 1845. Cook, (Captain James,) a celebrated English circum- navigator, born of poor parents at Marton, Yorkshire, in 1728. He followed the sea, in the coal-trade, for several years, and had attained the position of mate, when in 1755 he entered the royal navy as a volunteer. He served as master of a sloop at the capture of Quebec by Wolfe in 1759, and displayed great skill in the formation of a chart of the river from Quebec to the sea. In 1764 he was chosen marine surveyor of Newfoundland. Four" years later he was selected to command a vessel sent by government to the South Pacific to observe the transit of Venus and make discoveries in geography and other sciences. He sailed in August, 1768, stopped at Tahiti to observe the transit, explored the east coast of Aus- tralia, and, returning by the Cape of Good Hope, reached home in June, 1771, having performed his mission with ability and success. In 1772 he was again sent, in the Resolution and Adventure, to search for a Southern con- tinent. He circumnavigated the globe in high southern latitudes without finding the Tet'ra Aiistralis ; but he dis- covered a large island, which he named New Caledonia. The most southern point he reached was 71°, where his progress was arrested by ice. He arrived at Portsmouth in July, 1775, and ])ublished a Journal of his voyage, (2 vols., 1777,) which is a model of simplicity and precision. He had given proof of remarkable courage, sagacity, and nautical skill in this enterprise. In 1776 he was chosen Fellow of the Royal Society, which gave him the Copley Medal for his services in preserving the health of his crew. He sailed the same year on a third voyage, in search of a northern passage between the Atlantic and Pacific. In 1 778 he discovered the Sandwich Islands, explored Beh- ring Strait, and advanced northward as far as the 70th degree. He returned to winter in the Sandwich Islands. One of the ship's boats having been stolen by the natives of Hawaii, Captain Cook went ashore with a few of his men to recover it. The violent resistance of the natives caused him to retreat towards his boat; and, after firing in self-defence, he and four of his men were killed on the shore, February 14, 1779. See A. Kippis, "Life of Captain James Cook," 17S8; George Young, "Life and Voyaees of Captain J. Cook," 1836; Hartley Coleridge, "Lives of Distinguished Northerns," vol. iii. ; Van 1'enac, " Histoire generale de la ALirine ;" J. H. WieumaniN, '"Leben und Schicksale des Capitans J. Cook," 2 vols., 1789-90. Cook, (John,) an American officer, born in Saint Clair'county, Illinois, in 1825. He commanded a brigade at Fort Donelson, and became a brigadier-general in 1862. Cooke, kook, (Sir Anthony,) an English scholar, grandfather of Lord Bacon, born about 1506, was emi- nent for learning and virtue. He was appointed tutor of Edward VI. As a Protestant, he was exiled during the reign of Mary, and returned home about 1558. Died in 1576. His daughters were noted for their classical acquirements. Mildred was married to Lord Burleigh, Anne to Sir Nicholas Bacon, the father of Lord Bacon, and Elizabeth to the son of the Earl of Bedford. Cooke, (Benj.amin,) an English musical composer and organist, born in London in 1739, was a pupil of Pepusch. From 1752 to 1789 he was conductor of the Academy of Ancient Music. In 1762 he was appointed organist of Westminster Abbey. He composed anthems and other admired pieces of sacred music, and several popular glees, among which are " How Sleep the Brave," " In the Merry Month of Mav," etc. Died in 1793. Cooke, (Ei.iZAiiETH.) See Ru.ssell, Lady. Cooke, (George,) a skilful English engraver, born in London in 1781. He engraved numerous landscapes and scenes on the coast of England, and in partnership with his brother, William B., published several illustrated works, among which is "The Southern Coast of Eng- land." Died in 1834. Cooke, (Sir George,) a British officer, born in 1767, served in the Peninsula in 181 1, 1812, and 1813, and became a major-general. He commanded a division of the Guards at Waterloo, where he lost his right arm. Died in 1837. Cooke, (George Frederick,) a popular English actor, was born in Westminster in 1755. He made his debut the Haymarket, in London, in 1778, soon after which he went to Dublin, where he performed with great success for many years. In 1800 he returned to London, and acted Richard HI., lago, etc. with great applause. For several years Cooke and J. Kemble were the chief favourites of the London stage. In 18 10 he crossed the ocean to New York, where he died in 181 2. His death was hastened by intemperance. See " Memoirs of the Life of George Frederick Cooke," by Wil- liam Dunlap, 1813. Cooke, (George Wingrove,) a British lawyer and writer, born in 1814, edited a "Life of Lord Shaftes- bury," (1836,) and wrote " Memoirs of Lord Bolingbroke," (2 vols., 1835,) a " History of Party," (2d edition, 1840,) which is commended, and several legal treatises, (1844- 52.) After a visit to China in 1857, he published "China and Lower Bengal." Died in 1865. Cooke or Cook, (Henry,) an English painter, born in 1642, was a pupil of Salvator Rosa. He was em- ployed by the king to restore the cartoons of Raphael. Died in 1700. See Walpole, " Anecdotes of Painting in England." Cooke, kook, (John Esten,) a novelist and lawyer, son of John Rodgers Cooke, noticed below, was born at Winchester, Virginia, in 1830. He contributed to several periodicals, and published, besides other works, "Leather Stocking and Silk," (1854,) "The Virginia Comedians," (1854,) and "The Last of the Foresters," (1856.) Cooke, (John Rodgers,) an American lawyer, born in Bermuda in 1788. He practised with distinction in Virginia for many years. In 1829 he was associated with John Marshall and Ex-President Madison in the committee which drafted the Constitution of Virginia. Died in 1854. Cooke, (Philip Pendleton,) an American poet, son of the preceding, was born at Martinsburg, Virginia, in 1 8 16. He graduated at Princeton, New Jersey, and studied law. He wrote, besides other poems, "Florence Vane," "Rosa Lee," and "Chevalier Merlin." He con- tributed to the " Southern Literary Messenger." Died in 1850. Cooke, (Philip Saint George,) an officer, a brother of John Rodgers, noticed above, was born in Virginia in 1809. He defeated the Comanches in New Mexico in 1855, and had a high command in Kaiisas about 1857. He afterwards served in the expedition against the Mormons. Cooke, (Thomas,) an English poet, born at Braintree about 1705. He composed the "Battle of the Poets," a poem, and translated Hesiod and Plautus. Pope, whom he had offended in his writings, avenged himself on him in the "Dunciad." Died in 1756. See J. Mawbey, "Life of Thomas Cooke." Cooke, (William,) a poet of considerable merit, born at Cork, became a resident of London and adopted the profession of author. His poem entitled the "Art of Living in London" was received with favour, and was followed by a prose "Essay on the Elements of Dra- matic Criticism." In 1796 he produced an admired didactic poem, entitled "Conversation," which is his principal work. Died in 1824. Cooke, (William,) an eminent English lawyer and writer on law, born in London in 1757. About 1786 he published a "System of Bankrupt Laws," which was long the standard upon the subject, but is now obsolete. Died in 1832. Cooke, (William Fothergill,) an Englishman, born in Middlesex in 1806, was a partner of iProfessor Wheatstone, and constructed the first magnetic tele- graph in England, in 1838-39. Cookesley, kdoks'le, (Rev. William Gifford,) an English classical scholar, born in Kent in 1802. He edited Pindar, (1842-49,) and published some essays. e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, y., guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) coo KM AN 662 COOPER Cookman, kook'nian, (George G.,) an eloquent Methodist divine, born in Kingston-upou-Hull, England, in 1800, came to America in 1821. He was twice elected chaplain to Congress. In March, 1841, he embarked for 7Curope in the ocean-steamer President, which was never Afterwards heard of. Cookson, kook'son, (George,) an English general, born in Hampshire in 1760. He directed the artillery at the siege of Aboukir about 1798, and took part in the Walcheren expedition in 1809. In 1830 he was pro- moted to the rank of lieutenant-general. Died in 1835. Coo'ley, (Thomas,) an Irish architect, born in 1740. He designed the Royal Exchange of Dublin, one of the noblest edifices of that city, erected about 1770. He was the first architect of the "Four Courts," which he did n ^t live to finish. Died in 1784. Coolhaas, koKhass, (Caspar,) a German Protestant theologian, born at Cologne in 1536; died in 1615. Coomans, ko^nSns or l«/m6N', (Jean Bapi iste Ni- colas,) a Belgian writer, born at Brussels in 1813. He edited the "Journal of Brussels" from 1841 to 1845, ^'^^^ the "Courier of Antwerp" from 1845 to 1848. He pub- lished a "History of Belgium," (1836,) and other works. His brother, Pierre Olivier Joseph, born in 1816, gained distinction as a painter of history, genre, etc. Coombe, koom, (William,) an ingenious English writer, born at Bristol in 1741. Having spent a hand- some fortune in fashionable dissipation, he was reduced to the necessity of writing for a subsistence. He excelled in humour and satire, and published several successful works, namely, "The Diaboliad," a poem, "The Dance of Life," "Tour of Dr. Syntax in Search of the Pictu- resque," and " Tour of Dr. Syntax in Search of a Wife." The last two are in verse. Died in 1822. See R. Hawker, "Life of William Coombe," 1802. Cooninxloo, de, deh k5'ninks-l5', written also Co- nigsloo and Coniiigsloo, (Gilles,) an eminent Flemish landscape-painter, born at Antwerp in 1544. After work- ing some years in Paris, he settled in Antwerp, and was patronized by the King of Spain and the emperor. " He was," says the "Biographic Universelle," "the greatest landscape-painter of his time." See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Cooper, (Anthony Ashley.) See Shaftesbury, Earl of. Coo'per, (Sir Astley Paston,) a celebrated English surgeon, was born at Brooke, in Norfolk, in 1768. He went in 1784 to London, wdiere he studied under Mr. Cline, who in 1791 employed him as assistant in his lectures. In 1792 he attended lectures in Paris. He was chosen surgeon of Guy's Hospital in 1800, and a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1805. His reputation was greatly extended by the publication of his work on Hernia, (1804-07,) and a few years later he had acquired an immense practice. His annual income is said to have amounted to 1,000. He was employed by George IV. in 1820, and was made a baronet in 1821. In 1822 he published an important work " On Dislocations and Fractures." He was appointed surgeon to the king in 1828. He published the "Anatomy and Diseases of the Breast," and other works. Died in 1841. See B. B. Cooper, "Life of Sir Astley P. Cooper," 1843; "Lon- don Quarterly Review" for March, 1843; "Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1849; G. Coen, " Biografia scientifica di Sir A. Cooper," Venice, 1841 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Ginerale." Cooper, (Bransby B.,) a nephew of the preceding, born about 1792, was for many years surgeon to Guy's Hospital. He published "Lectures on Anatomy," and "The Principles and Practice of Surgery," (1851,) and a "Life of Sir Astley P. Cooper," (1843.) Died in 1853. Coo'per, (James,) an American general and Senator, born in Frederick county, Maryland, about 1810. He studied law, settled in Pennsylvania, and was elected to Congress as a Whig about 1840. He represented Penn- sylvania in the Senate of the United States from 1849 to 1855. became a brigadier-general of the Union army in 1861, and served in several actions. He died at Colnmbus, Ohio, in March, 1863. Cooper, (James Fenimor?:,) a popular American novelist, born at Burlington, New Jersey, in September, 1789, was a son of Judge William Cooper. His mother's maiden name was Fenimore. About 1790 his father set- tled at Cooperstown, which he founded on the shore of Lake Otsego, New York, where he owned a large tract of land, then covered with forests and lying on the fron- tier of civilization. He entered Yale College in 1802, remained there about three years, and became a midship- man in the navy in 1806. Having retired from the navy in 1811, he married Susan De Lancey, of New York, a sister of Bishop De Lancey. His first literary pro- duction was "Precaution," a novel, (1819,) which was inferior to his later works. He published next "The Spy, a Tale of the Neutral Ground," founded on inci- dents connected with the Revolutionary war, which was very successful and was republished in many parts of Europe. It was translated into several languages. "He has the high praise," says the "North American Review," "and will have, we may add, the future glory, of having struck into a new path, — of having opened a mine of exhaustless wealth. In a word, he has laid the foundations of American romance." In 1823 he pro- duced "The Pioneers" and "The Pilot," which were also very popular. His next novels were "Lionel Lincoln" and "The Last of the Mohicans," (1826,) in which Indian life and character were well represented. During a visit to Europe he published "The Prairie," (1827,) "The Red Rover," (1827,) "The Wept of Wish-ton- Wish," (1829,) "The Bravo," (1831,) and other works. Alluding to his admirable delineations of life at sea in the " Pilot" and the "Red Rover," the "Edinburgh Review" says, "The empire of the sea has been conceded to him by acclamation." He satirized the foibles of his own coun- trymen in "The Monikins," (1835,) " Homeward Bound," (1838,) and " Home as Found," (1838,) which were not so popular as his former works. In 1839 he published a " His- tory of the Navy of the United States," which is a work of much labour and some merit. Among his later works are "The Pathfinder," (1840,) "The Deerslayer," (1841,) " Wingand Wing," (1842,) " Wyandotte," ( 1843,) "Afloat and Ashore," (1844,) "The Chain-Bearer," (1845,) "Oak Openings," (1848,) and "The Ways of the Hour," (1850.) Lie died at Cooperstown in September, 1851. "His writings," says William H. Prescott, "are instinct with the spirit of nationality. In his productions every Ameri- can must take an honest pride. For surely no one has succeeded like Cooper in the portraiture of American character, or has given such glowing and eminently truth- ful pictures of American scenery." "The same sort of magical authority over the spirit of romance," says the " North American Review" for July, 1826, " which belongs in common to Scott, Radcliffe, Walpole, and our coun- tryman Brown, is, for us at least, possessed by this writer in an eminent degree." " We consider Mr. Cooper," says the same authority, (April, 1831,) "as possessing in a very high degree the first qualification to which we have ad- verted, — that of power in description. ... It is, however, most strikingly displayed in one department, in which no- body has preceded him or has yet attempted to become his rival. Whatever opinion may be entertained of his success in other respects, all will agree that his boldest and most triumphant march is on the mountain wave. He treads the deck with the same conscious pride with which the Highland outlaw stood upon his native heath." "He wrote for mankind at large," says W. C. Bryant: "hence it is that he has earned a fame wider than any [American] author of modern times. The creations of his genius shall survive through centuries to come, and only perish with our language." See Griswold, " Prose Writers of America ;" " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1816 and 1837 ; " North American Review" for July, 1822, July, 1826, July, 1828, January, 1838, January, 1852, and October, 1859; "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Ameri- cans," vol. i.; A LLi bone's "Dictionary of Authors;" "Atlantic Monthly," January, 1862. Cooper, (John Gilbert,) an English writer, born in Nottinghamshire in 1723, was educated at Cambridge. His principal works are "The Power of Harmony," a poem, (1745,) a "Life of Socrates," (1749,) and "Letters on Taste," (1754,) which are commended for splendour of style and imagery. Died in 1769. Cooper, (Peter,) a benevolent and enterprising American manufacturer, born in the city of New Yori in 1 791. He conducted with success various industrial a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obsaire; far, fdll, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; COOPER 663 COPE enterprises on a large scale. He founded in his native city the " Cooper Institute," devoted to the instruction and improvement of the working-classes, at a cost of ^^500,000 or more. Cooper, (Richard,) a painter, called " the British Poussin," studied in Italy, and excelled in landscapes. Died after 1806. Cooper, (Richard,) an English designer and en- graver, born in 1730, studied in Paris under Le Bas. Among his works is a "View of Saint Peter's, at Rome." Died about 1820. Cooper, (Samuel,) an eminent English miniature- painter, born in London in 1609. He was a pupil of his uncle, John Hoskins. He surpassed all the artists in his line during the Commonwealth and the reign of Charles II., and painted an admirable portrait of Crom- well, which was engraved by Vertue. He visited France, where he painted many celebrated men. His works are still highly prized. Died in 1672. See Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting." Cooper,(SAMUEL,) D.D., an eminent American divine, born in Boston in 1725, graduated at Harvard in 1743, and in 1746 succeeded his father as pastor of the church in Brattle Street, Boston. He soon became known as one of the most accomplished orators and scholars in New England. He was intimate with Franklin and Adams, and an influential patriot in the Revolution. He was active in establishing in Boston the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, of which he was chosen the first vice-president in 1780. Died in 1783. Cooper, (Samuel,) an American general, born in the State of New York about 1795, graduated at West Point in 1815. He obtained the rank of captain in 1836, and served in the Mexican war as assistant adjutant-general, 1846-47. In 1852 he became adjutant-general, with the rank of colonel. He resigned his commission in March, 1861, and offered his services to Jefferson Davis, who appointed him adjutant-general. He held throughout the civil war the rank of full general, — the highest in the Confederate army. See "Southern Generals," (anonymous,) New York, 1865. Cooper, ( Samuel, ) a distinguished surgeon and medical writer of London, was born about 1780. He published, in 1807, "First Lines of the Practice of Sur- gery," which passed through seven or more editions. He afterwards produced a " Dictionary of Practical Surgery," (1809,) and other professional works. Died in 1848. Cooper, (Susan Fenimore,) an American authoress, a daughter of James Fenimore Cooper, was born about 1825. In 1850 she published an attractive and popular work entitled " Rural Hours." Among her other pro- ductions is " Rhyme and Reason of Country Life," (1854.) Cooper or Cou'per, (Thomas,) a learned English divine and eminent preacher, born at Oxford about 15 17, became Bishop of Lincoln in 1570, and of Winchester in 1584. He published some sermons, an "Epitome of Chronicles," and a valuable " Latin Dictionary." Died in 1594. Cooper, (Thomas,) a natural philosopher and lawyer, born in London in 1759, emigrated with his friend Dr. Priestley to America about 1792. He was a zealous and active Democrat, and wrote political essays, etc. In 1820 he became president of Columbia College, South Carolina, where he was also professor of chemistry. Died in 1840. Cooper, (Thomas Arthorpe,) an English tragedian, born in 1776, performed with success in England and America. Died in Pennsylvania in 1849. Cooper, (Thomas Sidney,) an English painter of animals, was born at Canterbury in 1803. He rose from a humble position, and acquired the art of drawing almost without the aid of masters. About 1820 he began to paint scenery for the theatre of Canterbury. Having studied the works of the Dutch and Flemish schools, he devoted himself to animal-painting with great success. His favourite subjects are cattle and sheep, in the representation of which he is perhaps unrivalled by any British artist. He was chosen an associate of the Royal Academy in 1845. See "Autobiographic Memoir" in the "Art Journal" for Novem- ber, 1849. Coopmaiis, kop'mans, (Gadso,) a Dutch physician, son of George, noticed below, born in 1746, was pro- fessor at Franeker, Kiel, and Copenhagen. He wrote a Latin poem of merit on the small-pox, "Varis, sive Carmen de Variolis." Died at Amsterdam in 1810. Coopmans, (George,) a distinguished Dutch physi- cian, born at Makkum in 171 7, published a work entitled " Neurologia," (1789.) Died in 1800. Coornhert. See Cornhert. Coote, koot, (Sir Charles,) an Irish judge, who pro- moted the restoration of Charles II. in 1660, and was made Earl of Montrath. Died in 1661. Coote, (Sir Eyre,) a British general, born in Ireland in 1726. He distinguished himself at the battle of Plassey, in India, in 1757. Returning to England in 1762, he was thanked by the Commons for the capture of Pondicherry. In 1780 he was appointed a member of the supreme council, and commander-in-chief of the army in Bengal. In that year he completely defeated Hyder Ali at Porto Novo. Died near Madras in 1783. Cootwyk, kot'\^Tk, sometimes written Cootwich, (John,) a Dutch traveller, born at Utrecht. He travelled in France, Italy, Syria, Palestine, etc., and published in 1619 an account of those countries. Cop, kop, (Guillaume,) a Swiss physician, born at Bale, tinished his studies in Paris, and graduated in 1495. He was successively chief physician of Louis XII. and of P^rancis I. Though he published no original work, he rendered great services to medical science by his trans- lations of Hippocrates, and of Galen's " Treatise on the Causes and Differences of Diseases and Symptoms." Died in 1532. See M. Adam, " Vitae Eruditorum." Cope, (Sir Anthony,) an English scholar, was the author of a " History of Annibal and Scipio," (1544.) Died in 1551. Cope, (Charles Wesi ,) an English historical painter, born at Leeds about 1812, was the son of a drawing- master. He studied in the Royal Academy, in which he began to exhibit in 1831. His cartoon of "The First Trial by Jury" gained a prize of three hundred pounds awarded by the Royal Commission of the Fine Arts in 1843. After that date he painted with success several frescos in the House of Lords. Among his chief oil-paintings are "Lear and Cordelia," (1850,) and "Othello relating his Adventures," (1853.) He was elected Royal Academician in 1848. Cope, (Henry,) an Irish ])hysician, who lived about 1690-1740, studied under Boerhaave at Leyden, and practised with success in Dublin. Cope, (Sir John,) a British general, the time and place of whose birth are unknown. He was commander- in-chief of the army in Scotland when the rebellion of 1745 began. At the first approach of the Pretender's army, Cope retired from the Highlands southward. The rebels took Edinburgh, and a few days later routed the king's army at Prestonpans, September, 1745. General Cope was much censured for hi:; conduct on this oc- casion, and was superseded in the command. Died in 1760. Cope, (Thomas Pym,) a distinguished merchant of Philadelphia, born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, August 26, 1768. His parents were "Friends," and he was educated in the principles of that society. He commenced business in Philadelphia in 1790. In 1807 he built his first ship, which he named in honour of his native county, Lancaster. In 182 1 he established the first regular line of packet-ships between Philadelphia and Liverpool. This line, we may remark in passing, was sustained through all those adverse circumstances which for a time threatened the destruction of the foreign commerce of Philadelphia, and continued in full vigour until the breaking out of the civil war. When Thomas P. Cope retired from business, it passed into the hands of his sons, (Henry and Alfred Cope,) and afterwards into those of the Cope Brothers, (Francis and Thomas P., sons of Henry Cope.) To the foresight, liberality, and indefatigable energy of Thomas P. Cope, Philadelphia was principally in- debted for her first abundant supply of pure water from the Schuylkill, before her increasing population rendered € as 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) COPELAND the present extensive water-works a necessity. The water was pumped from the river by means of a steam- engine, and conveyed to a reservoir in a building at the intersection of Broad and High Streets, whence it was distributed by pipes to different parts of the city. This plan was first carried into operation in 1801. Mr. Cope was for many years president of the Board of Trade of Philadelphia; he was also one of the originators and principal promoters of the Mercantile I.iljrary, of which he was president for more than a quarter of a century. He closed his long and useful life November 22, 1854, leaving a high character for spotless integrity as well as for commercial ability. Edward D. Cope, an eminent naturalist, author of the "Origin of Genera," "Extinct Batrachia and Reptilia of North America," etc., is a grandson of Thomas P. Cope, and a son of Alfred Cope. See Hunt's "Lives of American Mercliants," vol. i. Copeland, kop'land, (Thomas,) an English surgeon, born about 1780, practised in London, and published several professional works. Died in 1855. Copernic, See Copernicus. Co-per'ni-cus or Koper'nicus, the Latinized form of Kopernik or Copernic, [Fr. pron. ko'pgR^n^k^j written also Zeperilic and Zopernic, (Nicholas,) a celebrated astronomer, the author of the Copernican Sys- tem, was born, according to the best authorities, at Thorn, in Prussia, in February, 1473. After learning Greek ancl Latin at home, he pursued his studies at Cracow, where he gave attention to j^hilosophy, medicine, mathematics, design, and astronomy. At the age of twenty-three he visited Italy, formed an intimacy with Regiomontanus, and obtained at Rome a chair of mathematics, which he filled with high reputation for a few years. Having returned to his native land, he was appointed canon of Frauenburg by his uncle, the Bishop of Warmia. Thence- forth his time was spent in his religious services, in astronomical studies, and in gratuitous visits to the poor who required medical aid. Observing the complexity and discordance of the systems of astronomy then received, he began to com- pare them with each other and with the celestial pro- cesses of nature, in order to found a system more simple, symmetrical, and stable. He knew that the Pythagoreans favoured the theory that the sun was the centre of the system, and that Philolaus had given the earth a rotation on its axis in addition to its motion around the sun ; but these sublime paradoxes were combated by ancient pre- judices, and were apparently negatived by the dictates of common sense. After he had adopted his own system, he spent many years in proving it by observations and calculations, and he then expounded his beautiful theory and discoveries, in a work entitled "The Revolutions of the Celestial Orbs," ("De Orbium Celestium Revolu- tionibus,") which appears to have been finished about 1530. Although he was assured that he had solved the grandest problem which pertains to astronomy, he de- layed to publish his work, probably from a presentiment of the persecution which is reserved for great reformers and innovators. His theory, which he was careful to propound as a hypothesis, was accepted as true by sev- eral astronomers, and, after much persuasion on the part of his friends, he consented to print the work in 1543, with a dedication to the pope. While it was in the press at Nuremberg, he approached the end of his career; and he died on the same day that he received the first copy, (May 24, 1543,) having only strength sufficient to touch it with his hand. The progress of his system, even among astronomers, was extremely slow, and the clergy and the masses were generally hostile to it. "The whole weight of Aristotle's name," says Hallam, " which in the sixteenth century not only biassed the judgment but engaged the passions, connected as it was with general orthodoxy and preservation of established systems, was thrown into the scale against Copernicus. It must be confessed that the strongest presumptions in favour of his system were not discovered by himself. One of the most remarkable passages in Copernicus is his conjecture that gravitation was not a central tendency, but an attraction common to matter, and probably extending to the heavenly bodies." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") It is proper to observe that the system COQUILLE which bears his name has received important modifica- tions since his time by the genius of Galileo, Newton, etc. See Gasshndi, "Vita Coperiiici," 1654; Percy, '"Notice bio- graphique siir Copernic," 1824; Sniadkcki, " Discours siir N. Copernik," Warsaw, 1803; D. Szule, " Hiographie de Kopernik," 1855; L. Pkowh, "Ziir Biogi-aphie von N. Copernicus," 1853; West- piiAL, " N. Copernicus," Constance, 1822; Czvnski, "Kopernik at ses Travaiix," 1846; F. Akago, " Eloge de Copernic." CopTand, (James,) an eminent Scottish physician, born at Deerness, in one of the Orkney Isles, in 1792, settled in London about 181 8. He published, besides other works, an excellent "Dictionary of Practical Medi- cine," (3 vols., 1833-58,) a work of great labour and research. Died in 1870. Copleston, kop'el-ston, (Edward,) D.D., an English bishop, born in Devonshire in 1776. He became a Fel- low of Oriel College, Oxford, in 1795, and professor of poetry in the university in 1802. In 1813 he published, in elegant Latin, his "Academic Lectures," (" Praelec- tiones Academicae,") which were much admired. He wrote an " Enquiry into the Doctrines of Predestination," (1821.) In 1827 he was appointed Bishop of Llandaff, and Dean of Saint Paul's, London. Died in 1849. See Wit.LiAM James Copi.eston, "Memoirs of E. Copleston, with Selections from liis Diary," etc., 1851 ; Richard Whatei.v, "Remains of the late Edward Copleston," etc., 1854; " P'raser's Magazine" for September, 1851 ; "North British Review" for Feb- ruary, 1852. CopTey, (John Singleton,) an eminent historical painter, born at Boston, Massachusetts, in 1737. He is said to have had no instructor except nature. He exhibited at the Royal Academy of London, in 1760, a picture of a "Boy and Tame Squirrel," which was greatly admired. In 1774 he visited Italy, and in the next year became a resident of London, where he painted portraits and his- torical subjects with success. He was elected a member of the Royal Academy in 1783. "The Death of Lord Chatham" is one of his chief productions. He died in 18 1 5, leaving a son, who became Lord Lyndhurst, and chancellor of England. See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." Copley, (John S.) See Lyndhurst. Coppetta. See Beccuti. Coq. See Lecoq. Coqueau or Cocqueau, ko'ko', (Claude Phili- BERT,) a French architect, born at Dijon in 1755. He was guillotined in 1794. Coquebert de Montbret, kok^baiR' deh miN'bRi', (Charles Etienne,) Baron, a French mineralogist and botanist, born in Paris in 1755 ; died in 1831. See SiLVESTKE, "Notice sur le Baron Coquebert de Montbret," 1832. Coquelin, kok'l^N', (Charles,) a French economist, born at Dunkirk in 1803, wrote, besides other works, one on "Credit and Banks," (1848.) Died in 1852. See MoLiNARi, "Notice sur C. Coquelin," 1853. Coquereau, kok'ro', ( Fj^lix, ) a popular French preacher, born in 1808, published "Souvenirs of Saint Helena." Coquerel, kok'r^K, (Athanase Laurent Charles,) a French Protestant divine, born in Paris in 1795. He began to preach in Paris about 1830, and became eminent as a pulpit orator. He was elected in 1848 to the Con- stituent Assembly, in which he voted with the moderate republicans. His religious opinions were liberal. He published, besides other works, "Sacred Biography," (1837,) "Modern Orthodoxy," (1842,) and many volumes of sermons. Died in 1868. See Qu^RARD, " La France Litteraire ;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for May, 1838. Coquerel, (Charles Augustin,) a brother of the preceding, born in Paris in 1797. He was one of the founders of the " Revue Britannique," and wrote a " His- tory of English Literature," (1828.) Died in 1851. Coques, kok, ( Gonzales, ) a Flemish miniature- painter, born at Antwerp in 161 8. He imitated Van Dyck with success, and acquired a high reputation by his portraits. He was employed by Charles I. of England, and other princes. Died about 1684. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Coquille, ko'k^F or ko'ke^, [Lat. Conchyl'ius,] (Gui,) Sieur de Romenay, a meritorious French jurist, 664 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, ohscia-e; f^r, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moonr CORAM 665 CORD AT born at Decize about 1524. He advocated civil and re- ligious liberty in his writings, among which are a " Treat- ise on the Liberties of the Gallican Church," and several Latin poems. He was a friend of Lord Bacon and of Brantonie. Died in 1603. See Taisand, "Vies des Juiisconsiiltes." Co'ram, (Thomas,) a benevolent Englishman, born about 166S, was bred to the sea, and became captain of a merchant-vessel trading to the West Indies. He founded in 1740 a " Hosjiital for Exposed and Deserted Children." In 1756 Parliament voted ;^io,ooo to the in- stitution. The result was a great increase of the number of infants exposed. Died in 1751. Coraucez, de, deh ko'rdN'sa'', (Louis Alexandre Olivier,) a French litterateur and savant, born in Paris in 1770, was sent in r8o2 as consul-general to Aleppo. He published a " Description of the Northern Part of Syria," and other esteemed works. Died in 1832. Coras, de, deh ko'rds', (Jacques,) a French poet, born at Toulouse in 1630, wrote "Jonas, or the Repent- ance of Nineveh," (1663.) Died in 1677. Coras, de, (Jean,) an eminent French jurist, born at Toulouse or Realmont in 15 13. He became chancellor to the Queen of Navarre, and judge in the parliament of Toulouse. Having joined the Protestants, he was killed at the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew in 1572. Among his works is one entitled " Miscellanies of Civil Law," (" Miscellanea Juris Civilis.") Co'rax, [Gr. Kopa^,] a famous Sicilian orator, who flourished about 470 B.C. He was called the creator of the rhetorical art, and wrote a treatise on that subject, (not extant.) Coray, ko''ra', written also Koray, and Korais, (DiA- MAN r,) [Gr. Ada/^avnof Ko/ja;>;,] an eminent modern Greek philologist and patriot, born at Smyrna in 1 748. He made himself master of Greek and other languages. In 1782 he began to study medicine in Montpellier, and six years later removed to Paris. Resolving to devote himself to the freedom and regeneration of Greece by means of education, he published good editions of old Greek au- thors, with notes and translations, and some original political tracts. About 1802 the First Consul employed hini to translate Strabo's "Geography." He died' in 1833, with the reputation of one of the best Hellenists of his time, and one of the influential restorers of Greek nationality. (.See his "Autobiography," entitled "Biof 'Ada/iavTiov Koi>ar/ Trapu rov l6lov," Paris, 1833.) Corazzi, ko-rdt'see, (Ercole,) an Italian mathemati- cian and scientific writer, born at Bologna in 1689. He was professor of mathematics in Turin. Died in 1726. Corbaux, kor-bo', (Fanny,) an English painter and author, born in 1812. She became a self-taught artist, with a view to support her parents, and painted por- traits and historical subjects with success. In 1830 she received the gold medal for a miniature portrait. She has written dissertations on Hebrew archaeology or Biblical literature. Corbeil, (Gilles.) See ^gidius Couboliensis. Cor^bet, (John,) an English nonconformist minister, born at Gloucester in 1620 ; died in 1680. Corbet, (Richard,) an English poet and pulpit ora- tor, born in Surrey in 1582, became a chaplain of James I. He was appointed Bishop of Oxford in 1629, and of Norwich in 1632. Though he was a partisan of the High Church, and required by Laud to act against the Puri- tans, he was respected for his moderation. He composed humorous poems, among which w^ere a "Journey to France" and " Farewell to the Fairies." Died in 1635. See " Retrospective Review," vol. xii., 1825. Corbet, (William,) a general, born in Ireland in 1 781, served some years in the French army. He went to Greece in 1828, fought against the Turks, and obtained command of the Greek army. Died in 1842. Corbiere, koR'be-aiR', (Edouard,) a French novelist, born at Brest in 1793, was a naval officer in his youth. He published "The Banian," (1835,) "The Slaver," and other marine stories. Corbiere, de, deh koR^be-aiR', (Jacques Joseph Guillaume Pierre,) CouNX^French politician, born near Rennes about 1767. In 1820 he was appointed a minister of state, and in December, 1821, minister of the interior. He retired from office with Villele in January, 1828. Died in 1853. See LajMahtine, "History of the Restoration." Corbiere, di, de koR-be-a'ri, (Pieiro,) an Italian priest, who, by the authority of the emperor Louis of Bavaria, was elected anti-pope in 1328 as a rival to John XXII. He assumed the title of Nicholas V. Failing to obtain ])opular support, he abjured his usurpation in 1330, was imprisoned, and died in 1336. ^Corbineau, koR'be'no', (Claude Louis,) a French general, born at Laval in 1772, became a general of brigade in 1806, and was killed at Eylau in 1807. Corbineau, (Jean Baptiste Juvenal,) a French general, brother of the preceding, born at Marchieimes in 1776. For his services in Russia in 181 2 he was made aide-de-camp general to Bonaparte. He became general of division in 1813, and is said to have saved the life of Napoleon at Montmirail, 1814. He directed the arrest of Louis Napoleon at Boulogne in 1840. Died in 1848. See " Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." Corbinelli, koR-be-neKlee, (Jean,) a French writer, of Italian descent, born about 1615, became secretary to Queen Marie de Medicis. He published "The Old Latin Historians reduced to Maxims," and a few other works. Died in 17 16. Corbould, kor''b5ld, (Edward Henry,) an English painter in water-colours, born in London in 1815. His subjects are mostly historical. His " Plague of London" (1843) obtained a prize of £100. Among his best pro- ductions are "The Fair Rosamond," and "The Eglinton Tournament," (1839.) Cor'bu-lo, [Fr. Corbulon, koR'bii'liN',] (Cn. Domt- Tius,) a celebrated Roman commander, who flourished under Claudius and Nero. He commanded with success in a war against the Parthians under Tiridates, and ex- cited the jealousy of Nero, who ordered him to be put to death in 67 a.d. He was reputed the ablest general of his time. See Pliny, "Natural History," books ii., vi., and vii. ; Tacitus, " Amiales," books ill. and ix. Corbulon. See Corbulo. Cor'co-ran, (Michael,) an officer in the United States army, born in Ireland in 1827. Having acquired dis- tinction in the campaign of 1861, in Virginia, he was made a brigadier-general in 1862. Died in 1863. Cordaire. See Lacordaire. Cordara, koR-dS'rS, (Giulio Cesare,) an Italian Jesuit, born in Piedmont in 1704. He was chosen to continue Orlandini's "History of the Jesuits," of which he published one volume, (Rome, 1750.) The style of this work (in Latin) is pure and elegant. He wrote also Latin and Italian poems. Died in 1784. See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian; illustri." Corday d'Arnian.3, de, deh koR''da' dtR'mfiN', (Marie Anne Charlotte,) usually called snnply Charlotte Corday, born of a noble family, in Nor- mandy, in 1768, was a descendant of the celebrated poet Corneille. She passed several years in a convent at Caen, where, says Lamartine, "she was a model of piety." Her disposition was thoughtful and imagina- tive. In person she was tall, her face serenely beauti- ful, her air dignified and commanding. She adopted with enthusiasm the principles of the new regime, and sympathized deeply with the Girondists proscribed in May, 1793. The infamous Marat being then at the zenith of his political influence, she formed a secret reso- lution to sacrifice herself for the liberties of her country. Once, in spite of the watchful reserve under which she veiled a deep and terrible purpose, a few tears chanced to escape from her. To her aunt, who inquired the cause, she said, " I weep for my country. ... So long as Marat lives, no one's life is secure for a single day." Soon after, her aunt, accidentally entering Charlotte's chamber, found a Bible open at the tenth chapter of the apocryphal book of Judith, and the passage marked which contains the prayer of the ancients of the city that God would prosper the enterprise of Judith for the deliverance of Israel. Confirmed in her resolution by such meditations, she came to Paris. But Marat, sus- picious of attempts against his life, could not readily be € as 9 as s; g /lard; g as j; G, H, Y., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^="See Explanations, p. 23.) CORD E IRQ 666 GORILLA approached. She therefore, though with extreme reluc- tance, resorted to a stratagem, pretending that she was the bearer of important information from the provinces. He received her while in his bath ; and, as he was fore- telling to her the speedy doom of the surviving Giron- dists, she stabbed him to the heart, with a knife which she had concealed in her bosom. In prison she wrote an eloquent letter to Barbaroux, manifesting in every line that courageous and lofty spirit which never left her, even on the scaffold. She was executed in July, 1793. "There are deeds," says Lamartine, " so mingled with pure intentions and culpable means, that we know not whether to pronounce them criminal or virtuous." " In beholding her act of assassination, history dares not applaud ; nor yet, while contemplating her sublime self- devotion, can it stigmatize or condemn." See Cheron de Villiers, "JNI. A. Charlotte de Corday d'Ar- mans, sa Vie, son Temps, ses ficrits," etc., Paris, 1S65 ; Lamartine, " History of" tlie Girondists," book xliv.; and the article "Corday" in the " Biographie Universelle." Cordeiro or Cordeyro, koR-da^-ro, (Antonio,) a Portuguese historian and priest, born in the isle of Ter- ceira in 1641. He wrote a "History of Madeira, Ter- ceira," etc., (171 7,) which is commended. Died in 1740. Cordemoy, de, deh koRd'mwS.^ (Geraud,) a French historian, born in Paris, became a member of the French Academy. Bossuet employed him as reader to the dau- phin, and persuaded him to write a "History of Charle- magne," which is a work of merit, though not attractive in style. He left a few other minor essays. Died in 1684. See NiCEKON, "Memoires." Corder, koR^'der, or Cordier, koR'de-i', [Lat. Corde'- Rius,] (Balthasar,) a Flemish Jesuit, theologian, and Hellenist, born at Antwerp in 1592, became a professor of theology at Vienna. He published several works. Died in 1650. Cordeiius, (Balthasar.) See Corder. Cor-de'ri-us, [Fr. Cordier, koR'de-a^jiMATHURiN,) a celebrated Protestant school-teacher, born in France in 1479. He was the preceptor of Calvin, who dedicated to him one of his works ; and he published several popular school-books, among which is " Scholastic Collocjuies," ("Colloquia scholastica," 1564,) a work which was long very extensively used. He lived some years in Geneva. Died in 1564. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" " Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale." Cordes, koRd, or Cor-de'si-us, (Jean,) a learned French ecclesiastic, born at Limoges in 1570, collected a library of 8300 volumes. Died in 1642. Cordeyro. See Cordeiro. Cordier, (Balthasar.) See Corder. Cordier, (Mathurin.) See Corderius. Cordier, koit'de-i', (Nicolas,) a French sculptor of high reputation, boni in Lorraine in 1561, worked in Rome. He made a bronze statue of Henry IV. for the church of Saint John de Lateran. Died in 1612. Cordier, (Pierre Louis Antoine,) a French geolo- gist and mineralogist, born at Abbeville in 1777. As engineer, he accompanied the expedition to Egypt in 1798, and obtained the grade of engineer-in-chief in 1808. In 1819 he was chosen professor of geology in the Museum of Natural History at Paris, and in 1822 was admitted into the Institute in place of Haiiy. He published an able "Essay on the Internal Temperature of the Earth," (1827,) and other scientific memoirs. He was made a peer about 1840. Died in March, 1861. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Cor'di-ner, (Charles,) a British antiquary and to- pographer, born about 1746; died in 1794. Cordova. See Gon salvo. Cordova, koR^do-vi, (Jos^,) a South American gen- eral, born at Antioquia, New Granada, in 1797. He fought under Bolivar about 1820, and contributed to the victory of Ayacucho, (1824,) after which he was made general of division. In 1829 he revolted against Bolivar, but was defeated and killed the same year. Cordova, de, dk koR'do-v.^, (Adriano,) a Spanish historical painter and monk ; died about 1630. Cordova, de, (Fernando Fernandez,) a Spanish general, born in Madrid in 1792. He opposed Espartero in i84i,and afterwards joined the xx\odtr?itQ Progresistas. In 1850 he was appointed Captain-General of New Cas- tile, and in 185 1 Captain-General of Cuba. He was driven into exile by the revolution of July, 1854, and returned to Sjjain in 1856, on the fall of Espartero. Cordova, de, (Francisco Hernandez,) a Spanish navigator, commanded a small expedition which sailed from Havana in 15 17, discovered Yucatan, and, in re- turning, touched at Florida, He died in Cuba, a few days after his return, in 1518. Cordova, de, (Luis Fernandez,) a Spanish general, a brother of Fernando Fernandez, noticed above, was born at Cadiz in 1799. He was a favourite of Ferdinand VII., and was sent as ambassador to Berlin about 1828. In the civil war which began in 1833 ^''^ was a partisan of Isabella. Having been an unsuccessful rival of Espar- tero, he retired to Portugal about 1838, and died in 1840. Cor'du.s, (AuLUS Cremutius,) a Roman historian, who wrote a " History of the Civil War of Rome and of the Reign of Augustus," (not extant.) He was accused of treason by Sejanns because he had praised Brutus and Cassius in his history. Being assured that his death was resolved on, he ended his life by starvation in 25 a.d. See Tacitlts, " Annales," book iv. ; Seneca, "Siiasoria." Cordus, koR'diis, (Eurich or EuRicius,) a German poet and physician, born at Simtshausen, in Hesse, about 1480. He became professor of medicine at Marburg about 1527. He corresponded with the most distin- guished men of his time, and composed Latin poems (1614) and prose works, among which is " l^otanologicon, a Dialogue on Plants," (1534.) Died in 1535. See Kahi.er, "Vita E. Cordi," 1744 ; Ersch und Gruber, "All- gemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Nicekon, "Memoires." Cordus, (Valerius,) an eminent ])otanist, son of the preceding, born at Simtshausen in 1 5 15. He explored the botanical riches of Germany, and proved himself a good observer. In 1535 he published a valuable "Dis- pensatory," (" Dispensatorium Pharmacorum,") and in 1542 visited Italy on a botanical excursion. He died prematurely, in Rome, in 1544. The results of his labours appeared in 1561, in a work which was edited by Conrad Gesner and entitled a " History or Description of Plants," etc., (" Historias Stirpium Libri quatuor a Conrado Ges- nero collectas.") His merit as a botanist is highly eulo- gized by Gesner. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Niceron, "Memoires." Coreal, ko-ri-^K, (Francisco,) a Spanish traveller, born at Cartagena in 1648. He spent about thirty years in the West Indies and South America between 1666 and 1697, and left an interesting narrative, which was published in French, in 3 vols. 1722. This purported to be a translation from the Spanish. Corella, de, dk ko-r^KyS, (Alfonzo,) a Spanish medical writer, born at Corella, Navarre, lived about 1550- Corelli, ko-reKlee, (Arcangelo,) a famous Italian musical composer and performer, born at Fusignano, near Imola, in 1653. He published in Rome, in 1683, his first work, "Twelve Sonatas for two Violins and a Bass." In 1686 he was leader of an orchestra of one hundred and fifty musicians in an opera performed at Rome under the auspices of Christina of Sweden. His reputation had then extended over Europe. He was patronized by Cardinal Ottoboni, who appointed him director of his music. Among his most popular pro- ductions is "Concerti Grossi," (1712.) Died in 1713. See Fetis, "Biograpliie Universelle des Musicians ;" Favolle, " Notices sur Corelli, Tartini," etc., 1810. Corenzio, ko-r^n'ze-o, (Belisario,) a skilful painter, l)orn in Greece, was a pupil of Tintoretto, and settled in Naples about 1590. He was noted for his invention and facility of execution, and worked mostly in fresco. Among his chief productions is "The Feeding of the Five Thousand." His memory is branded with the charge of tyrannical treatment of Guido and other foreign artists at Naples. Died in 1643. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Corilla, ko-r^Kia, (Maria Maddalena Fernandez,) an Italian improvisatrice, born in 1740. She was pub- licly crowned at Rome about 1775. Died in 1800. a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short: a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r; fill, fit; mgt; nftt; good; moon; COR INN J 667 CORNAROS Co-rin'na, [Gr. Koptwa ; Fr. Corinnk, ko'r^n',] a celebrated Greek lyric poetess, born at Tanagra, in Boe- otia, lived about 500 B.C. Contemporary with Pindar, she is said to have instructed him in poetry, and was five times victorious in competition with him. Pausa- nias ascribes her triumph partly to her beauty. She was surnamed Mvta, ("The Fly.") Only a few fragments of her poems are now extant. See SuiDAS, "Corinna;" Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grjeca ;" J. B. ScHUPP, " Corinna die ehibare und scheinbare Hure," 1660. Corinne. See Corinna. Corio, ko're-o, (Bernardino,) an Italian historian, born at Milan in 1459. Under the patronage of Ludovico Sforza, he wrote, in Italian, the "History of Milan," (1503.) Died in 15 19. Coriolan. See Coriolano and Coriolanus. Coriolano, ko-re-o-li'no, or Coriolan, ko-re-o-l^n', (Bartolommeo,) Cavaliere, a skilful Italian designer and engraver, son of Cristoforo, noticed below, was born at Bologna in 1590. He was a pupil of Guido. He dedicated to Pope Urban VIII. many wood-cuts in chia- roscuro, after Guido and the Caracci. Died in 1654. See HuBER, "Manuel du Graveur." Coriolano,ko-re-o-la'no,[Fr.CoRiOLAN,ko'reVl5N',] (Cristoforo,) an eminent wood-engraver, born at Nu- remberg about 1550. His original name was Lederer, (la'der-er.) He removed to Venice, where he engraved, besides other works, the portraits of Vasari's biographical work. Died at Bologna about 1600. Coriolano, (Giambattista,) a son of the preceding, born at Bologna in 1595, was a painter, and engraver on copper and wood. He engraved many pictures by Guido, the Caracci, and other masters. Died in 1649. Co-ri-o-la''nus, [Fr. Coriolan, ko're'o'lSN'; Ger. Coriolan, ko-re-o-ldn', or Coriolanus, ko-re-o-li'niis,] (Caius (or Cneius) Marcius,) the hero of an early Roman legend, was said to be a descendant of King Ancus Marcius. According to the poetical traditions on the subject, he obtained the surname Coriolanus for his victory over the Volscians at Corioli about 490 B.C. During a famine he advised that corn should not be dis- tributed gratis to the commons unless they gave up their tribunes. For this offence he was banished ; and, having obtained command of a Volscian army, he besieged Rome. The Romans were imable to resist him or to avert his anger, until his stern purpose yielded to the tears of Ve- turia his mother and of Volumnia his wife, who led a de- putation of Roman matrons to his tent. Pie is supposed to have passed the rest of his life among the Volsci, (Smith's " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography ;") but, according to the popular tradition, he was killed by the Volsci immediately after he abandoned his purpose of taking Rome. This legend is the subject of Shak- speare's drama of "Coriolanus." See Plutarch's " Lives ;" Niebuhr, " History of Rome ;" Fr. RocHLiTZ, "Helden des alten Roms und des neuen Frankreichs, Coriolan und Dumouriez," 1796. Coriolis, ko'reVl^ss', (Gaspard Gustavf.,) a French mechanician, born in Paris in 1792 ; died in 1843. Co-rip^pus, (Flavius Cresconius,) a Latin poet of the sixth century, who is supposed to have been born in Africa and to have been a bishop. He wrote several ■works, which have some merit and are still extant. Among them is an ej)ic poem called "Johanneis," and a panegyric on the emperor Justin, (" De Laudibus Jus- tini minoris.") See Fabricius, " Bibliotlieca Latina ;" "Nouvelle Biogiaphie Geneiale." Cork, Earl of. See Boyle, (Richard.) Cormenin, de, deh koRm'niN', (Louis,) Baron, a French journalist, son of Louis Marie, noticed below, born in Paris in 1826. In 1852 he supported the government, and obtained the direction of the "Moniteur Ofificiel." Cormenin, de, (Louis Marie de la Haye — deh It hi,) VicoMTE, an eminent French political writer and jurist, born in Paris in January, 1788. He was appointed auditor of the council of state in 1810, and master of requests (by Louis XVIII.) in 181 5. In 1828 he was elected deputy for Orleans. He was often re-elected by the Liberal party, became a popular pamphleteer, and exercised great influence on political affairs. His pamph- lets appeared under the pseudomyn of "Timon." He opposed the government of Louis Philippe. In 1838 he published a work called " Studies on Parliamentary Orators," ("£tudes sur les Orateurs parlementaires," 17th edition, 1854.) He was president of the committee which framed a new constitution in 1848. After the coup d'etat of December, 1851, he deserted the Liberal party and became a member of Louis Napoleon's council of state. He was admitted into the Institute in 1855. Among his important works are his "Administrative Law," ("Droit administratif," 1822,) and "Letters on the Civil List," (1831,) which passed through twenty- five editions. M. Cormenin also distinguished himself as a practical philanthropist, and took part in founding numerous charitable institutions. Died in May, 1868. See LoMENiE, "Galerie des Contemporains ;" " Nouvelle Bio- grapliie Geaerale;" Chapuis-Montlaville, " £tude sur Timon," 184S. Cormontaingne, de, deh koR^mdN^t^Nn', (Louis,) an eminent French military engineer, born about 1695. Between 1734 and 1745 he directed the sieges of Menin, Ypres, Tournay, etc. The great works added in the reign of Louis XV. to the fortifications of Metz and Thionville were constructed on his plans. He obtained the rank of marechal-de-canip. He made improvements in the art of fortification, on which he also wrote several esteemed treatises. Died in 1752. Cornacchini, koR-nak-kee'nee, (Marco,) an Italian medical writer, flourished at Pisa about 1610. His father, ToMMASO, was professor of medicine at Pisa, and author of "Tabulse Medicae," 1605. Cornarius. See Cornarus. Cornaro, (Angelo.) See Gregory XII. Cornaro, koR-na'ro, (Caterina,) Queen of Cyprus, was born in Venice about 1454. She became the wife of James de Lusignan, King of Cyprus, and was adopted as daughter of Saint Mark by the senate of Venice. At the death of the king, in 1473, ^'""^ ascended the throne, which she abdicated in 1489, when the Venetians became masters of Cyprus. Died in 1510. See Daru, "Histoire de Venise." Cornaro, or Cornelio, koR-na'le-o, sometimes writ- ten Corner, (Flaminio,) a Venetian senator, eminent for learning, born in Venice in 1693. He published a " History of the Churches of Venice," (1758,) and several religious works. Died in 1778. Cornaro, (Giovanni I.,) Doge of Venice, succeeded Francis Contarini in 1625. He waged a war against Austria, which he left unfinished when he died in 1629. Cornaro, (Giovanni II.,) was elected Doge of Venice in 1709. During his, administration the Turks made war on Venice, and took fhe Morea about 1715. He obtained peace in 1718. Died in 1722. See Daru, "Histoire de Venise." Cornaro, (Luigi,) a Venetian gentleman, born about 1463, gained distinction by his successful experiments on diet and by his writings on the preservation of health. In his youth, by intemperance and sensuality, he ruined his health, which was naturally delicate. About the age of forty he reformed his habits, became very abstemious, and found the results of his change highly satisfactory. After he was eighty years old he published a "Treatise on a TemjDerate Life," which had a wide circulation, and was translated into English and French. He died, it is said, in his 103d year. Addison, in his "Spectator," No. 195, says Cornaro passed his hundredth year, and commends the good sense and cheerful spirit of his book. See "Biographic Medicale." Cornaro-Piscopia, koR-nl'ro p^s-ko'pe-^, (Elena LucREZTA,) an illustrious Italian scholar and writer, born at Venice in 1646, was a relative of the preceding. Her attainments in languages, ])hilosophy, etc. spread her fame throughout Europe. She made a vow of celibacy, and observed the rules of a monastic order. She com- posed admired verses and academic discourses. Died in 1684. See NiCERON, "Memoires:" M. Deeza, "Vita di E. L. Cornaro- Piscopia," 16S6; Antonio Lupis, " L'Eroina Veneta, ovvero la Vita di E. L. Cornaro-Piscopia," 1689. Cornaros, koR-nl'ros, (Vincent,) a Greek poet of the sixteenth century, born in the island of Crete. His € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^==See Explanations, p. 23.) CORNARUS 668 CORNELIE life is involved in obscurity. He is styled "the Homer of modern (Greece," and wrote a poem in rhymes entitled " Erotocritos," which is admired, and is an interesting monument for the history of the Greek language. See Bkandis, " Mittheilungeii iiber Griechenland." Cor-na''rus or Cornarius, koR-nd're-us, the Latinized name of Johann Hagenhuit, (ha^gen-bdot,) a German physician, l)orn at Zwickau, Saxony, in 1500. He prac- tised at Frankfort and Zwickau, and was professor of medicine at Marburg and Jena. He gained a wide repu- tation by his Greek edition of Plippocrates, (1538,) and a Latin version of the same, (1546.) He translated some works of Plato, Saint Basil, and other Greek wa iters into Latin, and wrote several medical treatises. Died in 1558. See M. Adam, "Vitse Eruditorum ;" fii.oY, "Dictiounaire de la Medecine." Cornazzani, koR-nSt-sS''nee, or Cornazzano, koR- nSt-sd^io, (An ION 10,) an Italian poet, born at Piacenza or Ferrara, lived about 1500. He wrote lyric poems (printed in 1502) and some prose works. Cornbury, korn'ber-e, (Edward Hyde,) Lord, son of the second Earl of Clarendon, was one of the first of James H.'s officers to desert his standard in 1688 and go over to the Prince of Orange, (afterwards William HI.,) who in return for this service appointed him Gov- ernor of New York, where he arrived in 1702. His avarice, despotic measures, and frivolous character soon drew upon him the execration of the people, and in 1708 procured his removal from office. Died in 1723. Cornbury, (Henry PIyde,) Lord, eldest son of the Earl of Clarendon, wrote a comedy called " The Mis- takes, or the Happy Resentment," which w\is printed in 1758. He was killed by a fall from a horse in France in 1753- Come, koRn, (Hyacinthe,) a French publicist, born at Arras in 1802, was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1837. He wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on Civil Courage." Corneille, koR'nkF or koR'ni'ye, (Jean Baptiste,) a French historical painter and engraver, born in Paris in 1646, was a son of Michel, noticed below. He received the grand prize in 1668. Died in 1695. Corneille, (Michel,) a French painter and engraver, born at Orleans in i6or, was a pupil of Vouet. He painted religious subjects, and was one of the first mem- bers of the Academy of Paris. Died in 1664. Corneille, (Michel,) a skilful French painter, son of the preceding, born in Paris in 1642. He studied in Italy, and on his return, in 1663, was received into the Royal Academy. He was employed by the king, and adorned several churches of Paris with his ^rks. Died in 1708. Corneille, kor'naK, [Fr. ])ron. koR^naF or koR'nVye,] (Pierre,) a celebrated French dramatic author, the founder of the French drama, and the writer who has perhaps contributed most to the development of the national genius, was born at Rouen on the 6th of June, 1606. He studied law, which he practised a few years without success. His first work, a comedy called "Me- lite," (1629,) and others which quickly followed, were performed with applause, which they owed partly to the vicious taste of the public. His "Medea" (1635) gave a new tone of grandeur and dignity to the French tragedy, though it contained much bombast and vain declamation. In 1636 he astonished and enraptured the public with the tragedy of " The Cid," (an imitation of a Spanish drama of that name,) which, by nervous eloquence and mastery of dramatic resources, eclipsed everything that had hitherto appeared on the French stage. To silence his detractors, who called him a mere imitator, he produced, in 1639, " Les Ploraces," and "Cinna," which were admired for invention and style. Many persons consider " Cinna" as his master-piece ; while others prefer "Polyeucte." "A deeper interest," says Hallam, "belongs to 'Polyeucte;' and this is his only tragedy wherein he affects the heart. The beautifiil character of Pauline would redeem much greater defects than can be ascribed to this tragedy. It is the noblest, perhaps, on the French stage, and conceived with ad- mirable delicacy and dignity." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") His "Menteur" ("Liar," 1642) was the first comedy of character and intrigue which was an honour to France. His subsequent efforts indicate a decline of his power; but his opera called the "Golden Fleece" ("Toison d'Or") was performed with success in 1661. He had been admitted into the French Academy in 1647. He died in Paris in October, 1684, leaving several children. The French call him the "grand Cor- neille," not only to distinguish him from his brother Thomas, but from the rest of mankind. Fontenelle, who was his nephew, preferred him as a poet to Racine ; but Voltaire, La Harpe, and other critics reverse that judgment. It is generally admitted that in impressive declamation, in dignity, in sublime thoughts, in condensed and noble style, he has not been equalled by any succeed- ing dramatist. In private life his manners were simple and his conversation rather dull. He is represented as a man of pure morals and amiable character. " It is diffi- cult," says a recent French critic, "to draw the portrait of Corneille and to do justice to the subject. His most magnificent eulogy is perhaps in this verse of Voltaire : " ' Le grand Conde pleurant aux vers du grand Corneille.' "* "When the Academy was endeavouring to correct the language which Pascal was destined to fix and Racine to polish, Corneille formed and created it, by giving it force and precision in reasoning, energy and profoundness in discourse, elevation and sublimity in sentiment, dignity and majesty in the utterances of kings and heroes." ("Nouvelle Biographie Generale.") See Fontenelle, " P^loge de Corneille;" Sainte-Beuve, "Por- traits litteraires," tome i. ; GuizoT, "Corneille et son Temps," 1852 ; Taschereau, " Histoire de la Vie et des Oiivrages de Corneille," 1829; Jean Sylval^j Bailly, "filoge de Corneille," 1768; M. J. J. Victorin-Fabre, " filoge de Corneille," 1808 ; Louis Simon Auger, "filoge de Corneille," 1808; " Biograpliie Universelle ;" Longfel- low, "Poets and Poetry of" Europe;" "Lives of the.Most Eminent P'rench Writers," by INIrs. Shelley, London, 1840; "Blackwood's Magazine" for October, 1852. Corneille, (Thomas,) a popular French dramatist, brother of the preceding, was born at Rouen in 1625. On leaving college he became a resident of Paris. His first play, "Engagements du Hasard," appeared in 1647. In the ensuing eight years he produced several other comedies. In 1656 he composed " Timocrate," a tra- gedy, which was very popular, and was performed eighty ' times in six months. It was followed by " Darius," " vStili- con," and many other tragedies, which had a transient success. His tragedies "Ariane" and "Earl of Essex" obtained more durable favour, and still keep their place on the stage. He succeeded his brother in the French Academy in 1685. "He was," says Voltaire, "a man of great merit and of vast learning; and, if we except Racine, he was the only French author of his time worthy to be ranked next to his brother." Died in 1709. SeeNiCERON, "Memoires;" La Harpe, " Coursde Litterature." Cornejo, koR-na'Ho, (Pedro,) a Spanish historian, who lived about 1550-80, wrote, among other works, a "Summary of the Civil Wars in Flanders," (1577.) Cor-neTi-a, [Fr. Cornelie, koR'ni'le' ; It. Corni- GLIA, koR-neKya,] a noble Roman matron, the daughter of P. Scipio Africanus, and the wife of T. Sempronius Gracchus. She was eminent for virtue and mental cul- tivation. After the death of her husband she refused an offer of marriage from Ptolemy, King of Egypt. As the daughter of Scipio and the mother of the Gracchi, she had as high a position as any woman in Roman history. A Campanian dame, having dis])layed to her the jewels with which she was adorned, expressed her curiosity to see those of Cornelia. The latter, pointing to her sons, Tiberius and Caius, exclaimed, "These are my jewels and ornaments." See Plutarch, " T. Gracchus" and "Caius Gracchus;" L. Mercklin, " Programma de Cornelias, Gracchorum Matris, Vita, Moribus et Epistolis," 1844. Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna, was the first wife of Julius Cffisar the dictator, to whom she was married in 83 B.C. She died young, leaving a daughter, Julia, who became the wife of Pompey the Great. Cor-ne'li-a Gens, a patrician family or tribe, which produced more illustrious men than any other in Rome. Among them were the Cinnas, Lentulus, Rufinus, the Scipios, and Sulla. Cornelie. See Cornell\. * " The great Conde weeping at the verses of the great Corneille." a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fdr, fill, fit; m§t; ndt; good; moon; CORNELIO 66g CORNWALLIS Cornelio, (Flaminio.) See Cornaro. Cornelis, koR-na'lis, [PV. Corneille, koR-nkl', (or koR-iicVye,) or Cornille; Ger. Cornelius, koK-na'le- us,] a famous Dutch painter of histoi y and portraits, was born at Haarlem in 1562. He studied under Porbus and Coignet at Antwerp, and settled in Haarlem. He ex- celled in design and colouring, and imitated nature with fidelity. Among his master-pieces is a large picture of "The Deluge." Died in 1638. His brother, Henry, was a sculj^tor and painter. He was most successful in landscapes and marine views. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Cornelisz, koR-na'lis, (Jacob,) a Dutch painter of history, born at Oost-Sanen about 1471, worked at Amsterdam, where he died in 1567. Cornelisz, (Lucas,) a Dutch painter, born at Leyden about 1492, removed to England, and was patronized by Henry VHI. Died in 1552. Cor-ne'li-us, Bishop of Rome, succeeded Fabianus in 251 A.D. He was a Roman by birth. Novatian, having refused to recognize him, was chosen Bishop of Rome by his partisans ; and thus arose the schism of the Novatians. Cornelius was banished to Civita Vecchia by Gallus in 252, and died the same year. Cor-ne'li-us, (Elias,) an American clergyman, l)orn in 1795. He became secretary of the American Educa- tion Society in 1826. Died in 1832. Cornelius Nepos. See Nei'os. Cor-ne'li-us Se-ve'rus, (Publius,) a Latin epic poet, of whose life but little is known. He lived in the reign of Augustus, and died ])reniaturely, leaving unfinished a poem called "The Sicilian War," ("Bellum Siculum,") which is praised by Quintilian. A beautiful fragment on the death of Cicero has been preserved. Cornelius, von, fon koR-na'le-us, (Peter,) the greatest German painter of his time, born at Dusseklorf on the i6th of September, 1787, was a son of the in- spector of the Dusseldorf gallery of paintings. At the age of nineteen his genius revealed itself in painting the cupola of the old church of Neuss. From 181 1 to 1819 he studied and worked in Rome, where he formed an iiitimate friendship with the artist Overbeck, who sym- pathized with his enthusiasm for the old Italian masters. About 1814 he finished his " Illustrations of Faust," one of his most remarkable productions. His original genius was also displayed in a series of designs illustrating the " Niebelungen-Lied." After the completion of these he devoted himself to fresco-painting, which had been long neglected. He is considered the restorer of this art among the Germans. In 1819 he removed from Rome to Munich, whither he had been invited by the crown - prince, (afterwards King Ludwig,) and was appointed director of the Academy of Dusseldorf. He was com- missioned by Prince Ludwig to adorn the Glyptothek of Munich with frescos. In the Hall of Heroes of that edifice he painted on a large scale a series of subjects from the " Iliad" of Homer. Among his grandest produc- tions is a picture of the "Last Judgment," in the church of Saint Louis, in Munich. It is about sixty feet high, and more than thirty feet wide. In the Pinakothek of Munich he illustrated, in a series of frescos, the "His- tory of Painting," with that profoundness of conception which characterizes his genius. At the invitation of the King of Prussia, he went to Berlin in 1841, and painted in the Campo Santo several frescos, among which are "The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse." Died at Berlin in 1867. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Bio- grapliie Generale." Corner. See Cornaro, (Flaminio.) Coroner, (Julia,) an English authoress, born about 1815. She published "The Baronet," a novel, (1835,) "Edward Castleton," "Questions on the History of Europe," and several useful books for children. Cornet, de, deh koR^ni', (Mathieu Augustin,) Count, a French politician, born at Nantes in 1750. He promoted the revolution of the i8th Brumaire, 1799, was made a senator the same year, and in 1804 received the title of count. Under the restoration he entered the Chamber of Peers. Died in 1832. See Thiers, " History of the Frencli Revolution." Cornhert, koRn'hgRt, written also Coornhert, (Die- DRIK,) a Dutch author and Reformer of great merit, born at Amsterdam in 1523. He was a zealous promoter of the Protestant Reformation, although he was never a sectarian, and dissented from the doctrines of Calvin. He rendered important services to the Prince of Orange in his contest with Spain. He composed, besides other works, a poem " On the Use and Abuse of Fortune," and a "Treatise against the Capital Punishment of Heretics." The national air of " William of Nassau," which was very popular with several generations, is conmionly attributed to him ; though Motley and som.e other writers ascribe it to Marnix de Saint Aldegonde. He sometimes sup- ported himself, at Antwerp and Cleves, by his skill as an engraver. In 1572 he was appointed secretary of state in Holland. "He formed with Spiegel and Visscher," says the "Biographic Universelle," "the triumvirate that restored the Dutch language and poetry." Died at Gouda in 1590. See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" "Eraser's Magazine" for February, 1S54. Corniani, koR-ne-i'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) an eminent Italian litterateur, born at Orzi-Nuovi in Feb- ruary, 1742, obtained an office in the magistracy. He wrote, besides various other works, an " Analysis of Taste and Morality," (1790,) and a "History of Italian Litera- ture," (9 vols., 1804-13.) The latter contains critical no- tices of authors who wrote between the eleventh century and the middle of the eighteenth, and is a work of high reputation. " His erudition appears to me considerable," says Hallam, "and his judgments generally reasonable." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died at Brescia in November, 1813. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri ;" G. Labus, " No* tizie intorno alia Vita di G. B. Corniani," 1S14; Camillo Ugoni, " Elogio storico di G. B. Corniani," 181S. C-ornic-Duohene, koR'nek' dii'shin', (Charles,) a French naval officer, born at Morlaix in 1 731; died in 1 809. Cornificius, kor-ne-fish'e-us, (Quintus, ) a Latin poet, who lived about 50 B.C., was a friend of Catullus. Cornificius, (Quintus,) a Roman who supported the party of Caesar in the civil war, and became governor of Syria. Died about 40 B.C. Corniglia, the Italian of Cornelia, which see. Cornille. See Cornelis. Cornille, kor-neeK, or Corneille, otherwise called Cornelius Engelbrechtsen, (gng'hel-bR^Kt'sen,) a Dutch painter, born at Leyden in 1468. He painted in oil and fresco with success. The famous Lucas van Leyden was his pupil. His son, Cornille Kunst, born at Leyden, inherited his father's talent for painting. He worked at Leyden and at Bruges. Among his best works is a " Descent from the Cross." He died in 1544, aged fifty-one. Cornu, koR^iii', (S^bastien Melchior,) a French painter, born at Lyons in 1804, obtained at Paris a medal of the first class in 1845. Cornuole, delle, deKli koR-noo-o'li, or Carniole, kaR-ne-o'li, (Giovanni,) an Italian engraver of gems, who worked in Florence about 1580. His productions compare favourably with those of the ancient Greeks. His portrait of Savonarola was celebrated. Cornut. See Cornutl Cornuti, koR''nii^te', or Cornut, koR'nli', (Jacques Philippe,) a French botanist and physician, born in Paris. He published a " Descrij^tion of the Plants of Canada," (1635,) with numerous figures. Died in 1651. Cor-nu^tus, (Lucius Ann^us,) a Roman philoso- pher, born at Leptis, in Africa. He taught the Stoic philosophy in Rome, and counted among his pupils the poets Lucan and Persius. Nero banished him about 68 A.D. He wrote, in Greek, a commentary on Aristotle and other philosophical works. See SuiDAS, "Cornutus;" Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grseca ;" G J. DE Martini, " Disputatio de L. A. Cornuto," 1825. Cornwall, (Barry.) See Procter, (Bryan W.) Cornwallis, korn-woKlis, (Caroline Frances,) ai English writer on philosophy, religion, etc., was born ii 1786. She produced anonymously a series of twenty- two essays, entitled " Small Books on Great Subjects," € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) CORNJVJLLIS 670 CORREA the last of which, "The State of Man subsequent to the Promulgation of Christianity," was pubhshed in 1854. These works are highly esteemed. Died in 1858. A volume of her letters and poems was published in 1864. See "Selections from the Letters of Caroline F. Cornwallis." Cornwallis, (Charles,) Earl and Marquis, a Brit- ish general, commonly known as Lord Cornwallis, born in 1738, was the eldest son of the first earl, before whose death he was styled Lord Brome or Broome. He served on the continent as aide-de-camp of the Mar- quis of Gran by in 1761, and inherited his father's earl- dom in 1762. Though he was aii aide-de-camp and favourite of the king, he opposed the measures which caused the American war. He joined the army in 1776, antl, as major-general, took part in the battles of Brandy- wine and Germantown in 1777, after being foiled at Tren- ton by Washington. In 1780 he commanded an army in Carolina, and defeated Cieneral Gates at Camden. The next year he gained an unimportant advantage over General Greene at Guilford, and invaded Virginia. He marched to Yorktown, intending to embark theie, but was prevented by a French fleet, while the army of Washington attacked him by land. He surrendered, with about 8000 men, on the 19th of October, 178L Li 1786 he was appointed Governor-General of Ben- gal, and commander-in-chief of the army in India. The principal event of his administration was the war against Tip[)oo Saib. Cornwallis in person took Bungalore in 1 791, and defeated the enemy at Seringapatam in 1792. Tippoo then obtained peace by ceding half of his domi- nions to the British and their allies. Lord Cornwallis, having returned to England in 1793, was made a mar- quis, and appointed master-general of the ordnance. In 1798 he became lord lieutenant of Ireland, which was then in rebellion, and which he pacified by a moderate policy. He negotiated the treaty of Amiens in 1802. In 1805 he was again appointed Governor-General of Inilia, and died the same year at Ghazapore. Without brilliant talents, he filled with credit a prominent place on conspicuous stages in several trying epochs of British history. He is generally admitted to have been by far the ablest British general who took part in the war of the American Revolution. See Adolphus and Bissett, " History of the Reign of George in.;" J. \V. Kaye, "Lives of Indian Officers," 1867; "London Quarter!}' Review" for January, 1859. Cornwallis, (Sir Charles,) an English gentleman, whom James I. sent as ambassador to Spain. He wrote the Life of Henry, Prince of Wales. Died about 1630. His son. Sir William, ])ublished "Discourses upon Seneca," and essays on various subjects, (1600-32.) Cornwallis, (Frederick,) a son c^f the Earl of Corn- wallis, became Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1749, and Archbishop of Canterbury in 1768. He publis.!ied several volumes of sermons. Died in 1783. Cornwallis, (William,) an English admiral, brother of Lord Cornwallis, born in 1744. After serving in the American war, he commanded a squadron in the East Indies from 1789 to 1793, and was made vice-admiral in 1795. In that year he received the thanks of Par- liament for his conduct in an action with the French. From 1801 to 1806 he was commander-in-chief of the Channel fleet. He died in 1819, with a fair reputation for talents and courage. See "Annual Register." Corona, ko-ro'na, (Leonardo,) an Italian painter of the Venetian school, was born at Murano in 1561. His manner is said to resemble that of Tintoretto. Among his admired works is a "Crucifixion." Died in 1605. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Coronado. See Vasquez. Coronelli,ko-ro-neKlee,(MARCoViNCENZO,) a learned Italian geographer and monk, born at Venice about 1650. He passed some years in Paris, where he made globes twelve feet in diameter, (1683.) In 1685 he was chosen cosmographer of the Venetian state. He published many maps and volumes on geography, among which were a " Description of the Morea," (1685,) and "An- cient and Modern Rome," (1716.) Died in 1718. See TiRABOsCHi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana. " Coronini-Cronberg, von, fon ko-ro-nee'nee kRon'- b§RG, (JoHANN,) Count, an Austrian general, born at Goritz in 1794. He was chosen preceptor to Francis Joseph (the present emperor) in 1836, and obtained the rank of field-marshal in 1849. I" 1854 he was appointed commander of the army which occupied the Danubian principalities. Corot, ko'ro', (Jean BaptisteCamille,) a successful French landscajje-painter, born in Paris in 1796, Among his works are "The Roman Campagna," (1827,) a " Sou- venir of the Environs of Florence," (1839,) " Homer and the Shepherds," (1845,) a "Sunset Scene," (1857.) Corr, (Erin,) a Belgian engraver of high reputation, born at Brussels in 1803, was a son of an Irishman. He engraved "The Descent from the Cross," after Rubens, and several works of Van Dyck and Da Vinci. Died in Paris in 1862. Corradi. See Ghirlandaio. Corradi, kor-r^^dee, (Ottavio,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna. He copied the works of great masters with success. Died in 1643. Corradini, kor-rd-dee^iee, (Pietro Marcelltno,) an Italian antiquary and jurist, born at Sezza in 1658. He was made a cardinal in 17 12. Among his works is "Ancient Latium, Sacred and Profane," (" Vetus Latium profanum et sacrum," 1704.) Died in 1743. See TiPALDO, " Blografia degli Italian! illustri." Corrado, the Italian of Conrad, which see. Corrado, kor-ra'do, (Carlo,) an Italian painter, born in Naples in 1693, was employed for some years by the King of Spain at Madrid. Died in 1768. Corrado, (Sehastiano,) an Italian scholar and writer, born in the duchy of Modena. He became professor of eloquence at Reggio in 1540, and professor of Greek and Latin in the University of Bologna in 1545. He published in 1537 an interesting work, entitled "Quaes- tm"a," in which the life of Cicero is related, and his character vindicated from unjust charges. Died in 1556. See FiMPPO Re, " Elogio di S. Corrado," 1812; A. Fappani, " Elogio di S. Corrado," 1S20;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale.'' Correa, kor-ra'a, (D. Payo Perez,) a renowned Por- tuguese general, was chosen grand master of the order of Santiago in 1242. He gained many victories over the Moors, and was rejnited the greatest captain of his time. The old Spanish writers assert that he once arrested the course of the sim, like Joshua. Died in 1275. See Laclede, "Histoire de Portugal." Correa, (Gasi'AR,) a Portuguese historian, served in several ex]:)editions in the East Indies, and wrote a valuable "History of India," (" Historia da India," in manuscript.) Died at Goa about 1560. Correa, (Thome,) an eloquent Portuguese orator, poet, and grammarian, born at Coimbra in 1537. He professed rhetoric at Rome and Bologna with great suc- cess, and wrote treatises on eloquence, grammar, etc., among which was a commentary on Horace's " Art of Poetry." Died in 1595. Correa de Saa, kor-ra'a da st, (Salvador,) a dis- tinguished Portuguese admiral, born about 1594. He was for many years Governor of Brazil, where, between 1625 and 1640, he gained several victories over the Dutch. In 1648 he commanded an expedition to Africa, and conquered Benguela and Angola. Died in 1680. Correa de 'Serra, kor-ra^i di ser'rS, (Jos^: Fran- cisco,) a distinguished Portuguese botanist and savant, born at Serpa in 1750. He was chosen perpetual secre- tary of the Academy of Sciences of Lisbon about 1780. To escape persecution for religion, he retired to France in 1786 and to England in 1796. About 1S14 he sup- plied the place of Mr. Barton as professor of botany in Philadelphia. From 1816 to 1S21 he was minister from Portugal to the United States. He was the author of some "treatises on vegetable physiology and other sub- jects, and wrote several articles for the " Biographic Universelle." Died in 1823. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Correa Gargao, kor-ra'A gaR-sowN', (Pedro Anto- nio,) a Portuguese poet, born about 1750, was the author of lyric poems which are in style excellent imitations of a, e, T, o, n, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obsan-e; fSr, fill, fit; mit; n6t; good; moon; CORREGGIO 671 CORTEZ Horace. "No one," says Longfellow, "since Ferreira had approached so near the ancient prototype." See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Correggio, da, da kor-red'jo, [Fr. Le Correge, leh koR'uazh^ it may be observed that in French he is nearly always called Le Correge, in Italian II Correggio, i.e. "the Correggio,"] (Antonio AUegri— al-la'gRee,) an illustrious Italian painter, the founder of a new and original style of art, was born at Correggio (whence his surname) in 1494. We have little positive information respecting him. Vasari and others state that his origin was humble and that his life was passed in poverty; but there is good reason to believe that he enjoyed a com- fortable subsistence. Among his supposed teachers in art were his uncle, Lorenzo Allegri, and Francesco Bianchi ; but he was the sole former of his own style. He probably never saw Rome or Venice. He worked at his native city and at Parma. He died in 1534. Correggio not only surpassed all former artists in the magic of the chiaroscuro, but he was also distinguished by his admirable skill in foreshortening. His forms are exquisitely soft and beautiful ; his colours are as pure and as delicate as those of Titian. The art which Angelo exalted to sublimity, which Titian enriched with the magic of colouring, and which Raphael inspired with the soul of expression and grace, may be said to have received its complement of perfection in the softness, tenderness, and harmony of Correggio. One of his master- pieces is the Assumption of the X'irgin, — a fresco in the Cathedral of Parma. Among his admired oil-paintings are a Holy Family, known as " La Yierge au Panier ;" an "Ecce Homo;" a i)icture of the Nativity, at Dresden, called "Notte," or "Night;" and a Saint Jerome, which Annibal Caracci preferred to Raphael's Saint Cecilia, One of his most remarkable j^roductions is a " Penitent Magdalen," in the gallery at Dresden : for this picture, only about eighteen inches square, one of the Saxon kings is said to have paid 6000 louis-d'ors, (30,000 dol- lars.) His representations of women and children are especially admirable. ^L1ny of his female countenances possess an ineffable and almost divine beauty. Correggio is said to have been remarkably modest. After gazing on a production of Raphael, he exclaimed, exultingly, Anc/iio soil' [ittorc ! ("I also am a painter!") "The liarmony of Correggio," says Fuseli, "though assisted by exquisite hues, was entirely independent of colour : his great organ was chiaro csciiru m its most extensive sense. The bland light of a globe gliding through lucid demi-tints into rich reflected shades, composes the spell which pervades all his performances." The celebrated Danish j^oet Oehlenschlager has made Correggio the subject of one of his most successful tragedies. See " Meniorie istoriche di A. Allegri detto il Correggio," Parma, 1817; Vasaiu, " Lives of the Painters," etc.; "Lives""of Correggio and Pannegiano," London, 1823; "Biographle Universelle ;" " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Corregio, kor-ra'jo, (Giberto,) an able chief of the Gue]j)h party, who in 1303 obtained the sovereignty of Parma. He' was expelled in 13 t6. Died in 1321. Ccr're-iis, a chief of the Bellovaci, a tribe of Gaul, who, at the head of an army, encountered Caesar, and, after a brave resistance, was killed. Cor'rie, (D.aniel,) an English clergyman, born about 1776, became Bishop of Madras in 1834. He translated part of the Bible into Hindostanee. Died in 1837. See " Memoirs of Daniel Corrie," by his brothers, 1847. Corrodi, kor-roMee, (Henry,) a learned Swiss writer, born at Zin-ich in 1752. He published (in German) a number of works on i^hilosophv and theology, among which is a" History of Millenarism,"(i78i.) Died in 1793. See L. Meister, " Lebensbeschreibung H. Corrodi's," 1793. Corse, (John M.,) an American general, who, in Oc- tober, 1864, defended Allatoona with success against a superior force of Confederate troops, while General Sherman, from the top of Kenesaw Mountain, signalled that lie should hold out to the last. He commanded a division of Sherman's army in its march through Georgia and Carolina. Corsetti, koR-set'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian poet, born at Sienna about 1700; died in 1774. Corsignani, koR-s^n-yi^iee, (Pietro Antonio,) an Italian historian, born at Celano in 1686; died in 1751. Corsini, koR-see'nee, (Andrea,) born at Florence in 1302, was renowned for his piety and ascetic life. He became Bishop of Fiesole about 1360. Died in 1373. See F. Vk.nturi, "Vita di S. A. Corsini," 1620; Axgulo, " Vida di S. A. Corsini," 1630. Corsini, (Edoardo,) an eminent Italian antiquary and monk, born at Fanano in 1702. In 1735 he became professor of logic, and in 1746 of moral philosophy, at Pisa. He published "Fasti Attici," (1744-56, 4 vols.,) a capital work on Grecian chronology and history, and other antiquarian treatises. Died at Pisa in 1765. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." Corsini, (Lorenzo.) See Clement XII, Cort, koRt, (Cornelius,) a skilful Dutch designei and engraver, born at Horn about 1530. After visiting Venice about 1566, and engraving some works of Titian, he settled in Rome, where he opened a school of engra- ving. He produced many prints after various masters, among which is "The Transfiguration of Raphael." Died in Rome in 1578. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Cort, (Henry,) an English mechanician, who effected great improvements in the manufacture of iron, was born at Lancaster in 1740 ; died in 1800. See Smiles, "Industrial Biography." Cortambert, koR'tSN'baiR', (Pierre FRANgois Eu- gene,) a French geographer and writer, born at Toulouse in 1805. Corte, (Cesare and Valerio.) See Cortl Corte, de la, da la koR'ta, (Juan,) a skilful Spanish painter of landscapes and battles, born at Madrid in 1597 ; died in 1660. His son, Gabriel, (1648-94,) was a painter of flowers. Corte-Murari, della, deKli koR^tk moo-ra'ree, (GiROLAMO,) Count, an Italian poet, born at Mantua in 1747 ; died in 1S32. Cortenaer or Cortenaar, koR'teh-naR^ (Egbert,) a famous Dutch admiral. He distinguished himself as captain in a battle against the Swedes in 1658, and was killed near Lestofif in 1665. Cortenovis, koR-ta-no'v^ss, (Angelo Maria,) an Italian antiquary, born at Bergamo in 1727, wrote a tieatise "On the Purple of the Ancients." Died in 1801. Corte-Real or Ccrtereal, koR-ta-ra-^K, (Caspar,) a Portuguese navigator, commanded in 1500 an exploring expedition to the region since called Canada. In 1501 he again sailed from Lisbon towards the Arctic regions, and was never afterwards heard of. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Corte-Real, (Jeronymo,) a Portuguese poet, com- posed several admired poems, of which the "Shipwreck of Sepulveda" (1594) is the most popular. Died in 1593. See SisMON'Di, '"Histoire de la Litterature du Midi de TEurope." Cortes. See Cortez. Cortes, (DoNO.so.) See Donoso Cortes. Cortes, koR-tgs'', (Martin,) a Spanish geographer, who lived at Cadiz, published in 1561 an excellent work on geography and navigation, called "Breve Compendio de la Esfera y de la Arte de navegar." Cortese. See Cortez. Cortese, koR-ta'sa, (Giulio Cesare,) an Italian poet, born in the kingdom of Naples about 1570. He wrote several facetious and satirical poems, one of which, called the " Vajasseide," (1604,) passed through sixteen editions in fourteen years. See GiNGUENE, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Cortesi. See Courtois, (Jacques.) Cortesius. See Cortez. Cor'tez, [Sp. Cortes, koR-tgs'; It. Cortese, koR- ta'sa; Lat. Corte'sius,] (Hernando (or Hernan) 01 Fernando,) the conqueror of Mexico, was born at Medel- lin,avillageof Estremadura,in Spain, in 1485. Resolving to seek his fortune in the New World, he sailed to His- paniola in 1504, and became a planter. He displayed courage and ability in the conquest of Cuba, which Vela:- quez began in 1511, and was rewarded with an estate in that island. In 15 18 he was appointed by Velasquez com- mander of an expedition sent against Mexico, which had just been discovered, and which presented a most bril- liant theatre for ambition and enterprise. The armada. € as 5 as s; g hard; g asy; o, h, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (gi^See Explanations, p. 23.) CORTI 672 COR WIN which consisted of eleven vessels, ten cannon, and about seven hundred men, sailed from Cuba in February, 15 19, its primary ostensible object being the conversion of the infidels. This process he initiated by a battle at Tabasco, where he defeated a native army. He next landed on the site of the present Vera Cruz, where he made friendly demonstrations and learned that he had entered the wide empire of Montezuma. The Aztec artists by their pic- ture-writing informed the monarch of the arrival of the Spaniards. Having destroyed his ships, in order that his soldiers might be forced to conquer or perish, Cortez marched to Mexico, or Tenochtitian, the capital of Ana- huac, which, after several bloody victories over the Tlas- calans, he entered in November, 15 19, without resistance. Montezuma, after receiving them with due hospitality, was made prisoner by his audacious guests in his own palace. He was induced to swear allegiance to the em- peror Charles V., and to pay an immense tribute in gold and silver; but he refused to profess the creed of the Spaniards. In the mean time, Velasquez, jealous of the success of Cortez, whom he regarded as a rival or rebel, sent against him an army of about 1000 men, under Nar- vaez, who arrived in Vera Cruz in April, 1520. Leaving a small garrison in the capital, Cortez marched with about 250 men against Narvaez, whom he defeated and took prisoner near Zempoalla in 1520. Having per- suaded the soldiers of Narvaez to join his standard, Cortez returned to Mexico, which he found in revolt against him. After several days of severe fighting, in which Montezuma was mortally wounded by the natives, the Spaniards were expelled from the city of Mexico, with a loss of several hundred men. The great victory at Otumba in July, 1520, restored the ascendency of Cortez, and in 1521 he again became master of the capi- tal, where he committed acts of infamous atrocity, and the conquest of Mexico was completed. In 1522 he was appointed by the Spanish court Governor and Captain- General of New Spain, (Mexico.) In 1525 he executed Guatemozin, the last emperor of the Aztecs. To vindi- cate himself from the accusations of his enemies, he re- turned in 1528 to Spain, where he was graciously received by Charles V. ; but when he went again to Mexico, in 1530, he no longer had the supremacy there. An exploring expedition which he fitted out discovered California in 1535. He revisited Spain in 1540, and took part in the disastrous invasion of Algiers in 1541. Died at Seville in 1547. His virtues and vices are thus summed u]3 by Prescott : " He was avaricious, yet libe- ral ; bold to desperation, yet cautious and calculating in his plans ; magnanimous, yet very cunning ; lax in his notions of morality, yet a sad bigot. The great feature in his character was constancy of purpose." See Robertson, "History of America;" Prescott, "History of the Conquest of Mexico;" " Despatclies of Hernando Cortes," New York, 1S43; Antonio de Solis y Ribauenevra, "Historia de la Conqaista del Mexico," 16S4 ; English version of the same, by Thomas Tovvnsend. 1724; Gomara, " Historia de F. Cortez," Rome, 1556; Cari. Curths, " F. Cortez der Eroberer Mexiko's," 181S; "Lives of Nunez de Balboa, Hernan Cortes, and Francis Pizarro," 1847. Corti, koR^tee, or Corte, koR'ti, {CESARE,)a painter of portraits and history, a son of Valerio, noticed below, was born at Genoa about 1554; died about 1612. Corti, [Lat. Cur^'tius,] (Matteo,) an Italian medical writer, born at Pavi'a in 1475 5 ^^'^^ 'i'' 1542- Corti or Corte, (Valerio,) an Italian portrait-painter of merit, born at Venice in 1530, was a pupil of Titian. Died at Genoa about 1580. His son Marcantonio was an excellent designer. Corticelli, koR-te-cheKlee, (Salvadore,) an eminent Italian philologist, born at Piacenza in 1690. He pro- duced an excellent Italian grammar, (1745,) which, says Roquefort, "is the best in the language." Died in 1758. See Tii'ALuo, " Biografia degli Italiaiii ilkistri." Cortona, da,dakoR-to'na, (Pietro BERRETTiNr,)[Fr. Pierre de Cortone, pe-aiii' deh koR''ton^] an eminent Italian painter, born at Cortona about 1600. He ])ainted some pictures in the Pitti palace, Florence, and afterwards settled in Rome, where he worked with success. He excelled in composition, and had a certain freedom and facility of style. Mengs, however, says that he neglected the study of principles founded on reason, and aimed only to gratify the eye of the spectator. He was also architect of several Roman edifices. Died in Rome in 1669. Among his oil-paintings is "The Conversion of Saint Paul." The Barberini palace, Rome, contains one of his principal frescos. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy ;" Bryan, " Dictionary of Painters." Cortone, de. See Cortona. Cortot, koR'to', (Jean Pierre,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1787, won the first prize of the Institute in 1809. Among his finest works are "The Soldier of Marathon" and the bas-relief which adorns the Chamber of Deputies. Died in 1843. Cortvisi, koR-too'see, (Giacomo Antonio,) an Italian botanist, and director of the botanic garden at Padua. He published a description of the plants growing in that garden, (159L) Died in 1593. Cor-un-ca'ni-us, (Tiberius,) an eminent Roman jurist and senator, was elected consul in 280 B.C., and pontifex maximus about 254. He was the first plebeian who attained the latter dignity. His talents and virtues are highly praised by Cicero. He was appointed dic- tator in 246 B.C., soon after which he died. See Cicero, "De Legibus," and "De Oratore ;" Wuerffel, " Commentatio de T. Coruncanio," 1740. Corvetto, di, de koR-vet'to, (Luigi Emmanuele,) Count, a financier, born at Genoa in 1756. In 1805 he became a member of Bonaparte's council of state. From 181 5 to 1 81 8 he was minister of finance in France. Died in 1822. See SoLARi, "Elogio storico del Conte L. E. di Corvetto," 1824. Corvi, koR'vee, (Do.menico,) an Italian painter, born at Viterbo in 1623, excelled in nocturnal scenes. Died in 1703. Corvin. See Corvinus. Corvinu.s, koR-vee'nus, (Johann August,) a Ger- man engraver, born about 1682, worked for booksellers of Augsburg. Died in 1738. Cor-vi''nus, jFr. Corvin, koR''viN',] (Matthias,) King of Hungary, born at Klausenburg in 1443, was the son of John Huniades. He was elected king in 1458. His reign was marked by a series of wars with the emperor Ferdinand HI., the Turks, and the Kings of Poland and Bohemia. In the intervals of peace he promoted the arts and sciences. He was eminent for military talents, and made himself master of Austria and Vienna in 1485. He died at Vienna in 1490, leaving the reputation of a wise ruler. Vladislaus, King of Bohemia, was his successor. See TuROTZ, "Chronica Himgaria;" Galeottus Martius, "De Dictis et Factis Regis Matthise ;" Fesscer, "Matthias Kbnig von Huiigarn," 1793; Wenzei., "Matthias Corvinus," 1810. Corvisart-Desmarets, korVe^ztR' da'mi^ra', (Jean Nicolas,) an eminent French physician, born in Cham- pagne in 1755. Having attended the lectures of Petit, Desault, and others, he was received as doctenr-regeiit of .the faculty in 1782. In 1788 he was chosen professor of clinic at the hospital La Charite, and in 1797 professor of practical medicine in the College of France. He was very successful as a lecturer, and had a rare sagacity in diagnosis. About 1800 he was appointed chief physician to Bonaparte, and a few years later received the title of liJaron. He jjublished an "Essay on the Diseases and Organic Lesions of the Heart," (1808,) and other works. 15onaparte once said he " was an honest and able man, but rather blunt," (brtisque.) Died in 1821. See Ferrus, "Notice sur Corvisart," 1821; "Biographic Medi- cale;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." CorVus, (M. Valerius,) a famous Roman general, born about 370 B.C. He was chosen consul in 348, and was re-elected five times. In 343 he gained two im- portant victories over the Samnites near Gaurus and Suessula. He was chosen dictator in 342. Again sum- moned to the dictatorship in 301 B.C., he defeated the Marsi and Etruscans. He was elected consul the sixth time in 299. Died about 270 B.C. See Valerius Maximus; Niebuhr, "History of Rome." Cor'win, (Thomas,) an American statesman and orator, born in Bourbon county, Kentucky, in July, 1794. His parents removed to Ohio while he was a boy. He studied law, was admitted to the bar about 181 8, and soon acquired celebrity as a lawyer and an orator. He a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, xi, y, sAor^; a, e, i, o, obscure; tlr, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; CORY AT 673 supported John Quincy Adams for the Presidency in 182S, was elected a member ot Congress by the voters of the Warren district in 1830, and acted with the Whig party. In 1840 he advocated the election of General Harrison by numerous speeches at mass-meetings, for which his popular style of oratory was especially adapted. He w%ns elected Governor of Ohio for two years in Octo- ber, 1840, and represented that State in the Senate of the United States from 1845 to 1850. He opposed the Mexican war, on which he made an able speech in 1846. In Tuly, 1850, he was appointed secretary of the treas- ury by President Fillmore. On his retirement from office, March, 1853, he resumed the practice of law at Lebanon, Ohio. He was elected a member of Congress for the seventh district of Ohio in October, 1858, and again in i860; but soon after the latter date (in 1861) he ^vas sent as minister to Mexico. He returned home in 1864, and died at Washington in December, 1865. Cor'y-at or Cor^y-ate, (George,) an English clergy- man, noted as a writer of Latin verse, became rector of Odcombe about 1570. Died in 1606. Coryat or Coryate, (Thomas,) an eccentric Eng- lishman, a son of the preceding, was born at Odcombe rectory in 1577. In 1608 he traversed France, Italy, and Germany on foot, and published, in 161 1, "Crudities hastily gobbled up in Five Months' Travel, etc." This work was accompanied by numerous pieces of humorous or ironical verse by Jonson, Drayton, Chapman, and many other poets. In his youth he appears to have officiated as court jester, or king's fool, in the service of Henry, Prince of Wales. ]3etween 16 12 and 161 7 he journeyed on foot through Palestine and Persia to Hin- dostan. Died at Surat in 161 7. See "Retrospective Review," vol. vi., 1822. Cor-y-bau'tes, [Gr, Kopi'/3ar-ef,] the priests of Cy- bele, sometimes called also Galli. They celebrated the festivals of Cybele with orgiastic dances and loud cries, beating on timbrels, clashing cymbals, and cutting their flesli with knives. Cosa, de la, di II ko'sS, (Juan,) a Spanish navigator, who served Columbus as pilot in his second voyage to America. He was skilful in the construction of maps or charts. He was killed by some natives at Tabasco in 1509. Cosimo, kos'e-mo, (Jacopo or Giacomo,) a celebrated engraver of gems and cameos, was born at Trezzo, in the Milanese. He worked at Madrid for Philip II. Cosimo, (Pietro,) an Italian painter of high reputa- tion, also called Rossellt, was born at Florence in 1441. He excelled in bacchanalian scenes. Died about 1525. Cosimo de' Medici. See Medici. Cosin or Cozen, kuz'en, (John,) an English divine, born at Norwich in 1594. He became Dean of Peter- borough in 1640. During the civil war he retired to Paris, where he preached several years. About 1660 he returned, and was appointed Bishop of Durham. He published "A Scholastic History of the Canon of Holy Scripture," and other works. Died in 1672. Cosini, ko-see'nee, (Silvio,) an able sculptor, a pupil of Michael Angelo, born near Florence, lived about 1550. Cos'mas, [Gr. Koa/zds,] an Egyptian geographer, sur- named Indicopleus'tes, ("Ind'ian navigator,") lived about 540 A.D. In his youth he was a merchant, and made voyages to India and other countries. He after- wards became a monk at Alexandria, and wrote, in Greek, several works, one of which, entitled "Christian To- pography," {ToTToypaipLa XpioTtavLKp,) is still extant. He argues that the earth is not spherical. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" Mannert, "Geographie des Anciens." Cosmas of Jerusalem, a poet and monk of the eighth century, wrote thirteen Greek hymns, which are extant. Cosmas [Fr. Cosme, kom] of Prague, born in 1045, was the earliest historian of Bohemia whose work has come down to us. He was a priest, and secretary to Henry IV. of Germany. About 1125 he finished Kis "Bohemian Chronicle," ("Chronicon Bohemorum.") Died in 11 26. Cosme OF Prague. See Cosmas. Cosme, kom, (Jean Baseilhac,) called Fr^re Cosme, a French surgeon, born in the diocese of Tarbes in 1703, lived mostly in Paris. He was reputed one of the first lithotomists of his time in France, and invented an in- strument used in lithotomy. Died in 1781. Cosmico, kos''me-ko, (Niccolo Helio,) a Latin poet, born at Padua about 1440 ; died in 1489. Cosmo (or Cosimo) de' Medici. See Medicl Cosiiac, de, deh kos'nak', (Daniel,) a French bishop, noted for his address, vivacity, and talent for intrigue, was born in Limousin about 1630. He became Arch- bishop of Aix in 1687. Died in 1708. He left "Me- moires," which were published in 1852. See Abbe Choisy, " M^moires," liv. viii. ; Saint-Simc-n, " M^- moires;" Sainte-Beuvr, "Causeries du Lundi," tomevi.; " Nou- velle Biographic Generale." Cospean, de, deh kos^pk'5N', sometimes incorrectly written Cospeau, (Philippe,) a Flemish prelate, born in Hainaut in 1568, was eminent as a preacher. Moreri gives him credit for purging the pulpit of quotations from profane authors. He became Bishop of Nantes in 1622. Died in 1646. See Rene Lemee, " Le Pr^lat accompli, ou la Vie de P. de Cos- pean," 1646; R. Bordeaux, " Notice relative i P. Cospeau," 1852. Cospeau. See Cospean. Cosroes. See Khosroo. Cossa. See John XXIII., (Pope.) Cossale, kos-si'li, or Cozzale, kot-sS'li, (Orazio,) an Italian painter, lived at Brescia about 1600. Cossali, kos-s§.'lee, (Pietro,) an Italian geometer and Theatin friar, born at Verona in 1748, was professor of natural philosophy and astronomy at Parma, and after- wards of mathematics at Padua. He wrote, besides other works, a "Critical History of Algebra," (2 vols., 1779,) which was highly prized. Died in 1815. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Cossart, ko'sSR', (Gabriel,) a learned French Jesuit, born at Pontoise in 1615 ; died in 1674. Cosse, de, deh ko'sa', (Arthur or Artus,) Comte de Secondigny, (seh-k6N''d^n''ye'',) a French general, born about 1 5 12. He became a marshal of France in 1567, after which he served in the civil wars against the Cal- vinists. Died in 1582. See Brantome, "Vies des grands Capitaines." Cosse, de, (Charles,) Comte de Brissac, (bRe'stk',) an able French general, brother of the preceding, born in Anjou about 1505. Having s<;rved in several cam- paigns in Italy and Flanders, he was made grand master of artillery in 1547. In 1550 he became a marshal of France, after which he fought successfully in Piedmont against the Spaniards. He died about 1564, with the reputation of one of the greatest captains of his age. See De Thou, "Memoires;" Brantome, "Vies des grands Capitaines." Cosse, de, (Charles,) Due de Brissac, a son of the preceding, was a partisan of the League against Henry III. , and was the first who employed the Barricades in Paris, (1588.) He was appointed by the Duke of May- enne governor of Paris, which he surrendered to Henry IV. in 1594. He was afterwards made a marshal and a duke. Died in 1621. See Perefixe, "Vie de Henri IV." Cosse, de, (Louis Hercule Timol^on,) Due de Brissac, a French royalist, born in 1734. He was ap- pointed commandant of the royal guard in 1 791, and was massacred in September, 1792. Cossiers, ko'se-a', (Jean,) a Flemish historical painter, born at Antwerp in 1603, was patronized by the King of Spain. Among his best works is a " Pre- sentation in the Temple." Died in 1652. Cossigny de Palma, ko's^n'ye' deh ptKmS', (Joseph Francois,) a French naturalist, born at Palma, in the Isle of France, in 1730. He published a "Treatise on the Fabrication of Indigo," (1779,) and other esteemed scientific works. Died in Paris in 1809. Cossin, ko'sdN', (Louis,) a French engraver, born at Troyes in 1633 ; died at Paris in 1682. Cos'sus, (AuLus Cornelius,) a patrician Roman general, who was appointed dictator in 385 B.C., during the Volscian war. He gained a decisive victory over the Volscians soon after that date, and on his return to Rome committed Manlius Capitolinus to prison. See LiVY, " History of Rome." € as k; 5 as s; g Aard; g as g, h, y., guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) 43 COS s us 674 COTE LIE R Cossus, (Servius Cornelius,) a Roman warrior, who killed in single combat Lar Tolumnius, King of the Veii, about 437 B.C. He was the second person among the Romans that obtained the spolia opima. He was chosen consul in 428 li.c. See NiEBUHK, " History of Rome." Cossutius, kos-su'she-us, a Roman architect of high reputation, lived about 170 B.C. He was the first Roman who built in the Greek manner. He rebuilt the grand temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens. See Pliny, "Natural History," book xxxvi.; F^libien, "Vies des plus celebres Architectes." Costa, kos'tS, (Lorenzo,) the Elder, an Italian painter, born at Ferrara about 1450 ; died about 1530. Costa, (MiCHELE,) an Italian composer, born in Na- ples in 1810. Among his chief works are "Don Carlos," an opera, and "Eli," an oratorio. Costa, (Paolo,) an Italian writer, born at Ravenna in 1771, was one of the editors of the "Great Dictionary of the Italian Language," (1819-26.) He published two editions of Dante, (1819 and 1830,) and wrote various works, among which is a novel called " Demetrio di Modone." Died in 1836. See Rambelli, " Elogio di P. Costa," 1837; Filippo Mordani, "Biografia di P. Costa," 1840. Costa, da. See Da Costa. Costa, da, di kos'td, (Antonio Rodriguez,) a Por- tuguese historian, born at Setuval in 1656; died in 1732. Costa, da, di kos'ti, (Claudio Manoel,) a Brazilian poet, born in 1729. He was educated at Coimbra, and returned to Brazil. He wrote " Villarica," and other poems, which are commended. Died in 1789. Costa-Cabral, da, di kos'ti ki-bRil', (Antonio Bernardo,) Count de Thomar, (to-maR',) a Portuguese politician, born in 1803, was several times prime minister between 1838 and 1851. Costa de Beauregard, de, deh kos'tt' deh bor^^R', (Joseph Henri,) Marquis, a general and historian, born in Savoy in 1752, was educated at Paris. He fought against the French between 1792 and 1800. He pub- lished (in French) " Historical Memoirs of the House of Savoy." Died in 1824. Costa e Sylva, da, dd kos'tl \ s^l'va, (Joz6 Maria,) a Portuguese poet and critic, born in 1788. He wrote " The Sepulchre of Mary," and other poems. His prin- cipal work is a " Biographical and Critical Essay on the Best Portuguese Poets," (" Ensaio biographico-critico sobre os melhores Poetas Portuguezas," 7 vols., 1850-54,) which he did not live to finish. Died in 1854. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Costanzi, kos-tln'zee, (Carlo,) a skilful engraver on precious stones, born in Naples in 1703, worked in Rome. He copied antique gems with great success, and engraved on diamonds a Leda, and a head of Antinoiis. "Few artists," says the "Biographie Universelle," "have re- ceived from their contemporaries so many testimonials of admiration." See Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Costanzi, (Placido,) an Italian painter, born at Rome in 1688; died in 1759. Costanzo, di, de kos-tin'zo, (Angelo,) a popular Italian historian and lyric poet, born at Naples about 1507. He published in 1582 a " History of the Kingdom of Naples from 1250 to 1489," which, says Ginguene, "is regarded as one of the best works on that subject." As a poet he held a high rank among his contempora- ries. The Academy of Arcadians, near the close of the seventeenth century, selected him as the best model for imitation. Died about 1590. See TiRABOscHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" Long- fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Cos'tard, (George,) an English clergyman, noted as an Oriental and classical scholar, was born in 17 10. He became Fellow and tutor of Wadham College, Oxford, about 1733, vicar of Twickenham in 1764. His principal work is a "History of Astronomy," (1767,) which obtained a wide reputation. Died in 1782. Coste. See Lacoste. Coste, kost, (Jean FRANgois,) an eminent French phy- sician, born at Ville (Ain) in 1741. He was chief physician of the French army which fought for the United States in 1778-83. In 1790 he displayed courage and firmness as mayor of Versailles. He was physician-in-chief of the grand army in the campaigns of Austerlitz, Jena, and Eylau, (1805-09.) He published a treatise on "Military Hospitals," and other able works. Died in 1819. See " Biographie Medicale;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Regnault, "Notice sur J. F. Coste," 1819. Coste, (Jean Jacques Cyprien Victor,) a French naturalist, born at Castries in 1807, was professor of embryology ( emhryogenie ) in Paris, and became a mem- ber of the Academy of Sciences in 1851. He published a "Voyage of Exploration on the Coasts of France and Italv," (1855,) and other works. Coste, (Pi erre,) a French litterateur and Protestant, born at Uzes in 1668, took refuge in England about 1700. He translated into French Locke's great work, and Newton's "Optics," and edited several French authors. Died in Paris in 1747. Coste, kost, (Xavier Pascal,) a French architect, born at Marseilles in 1787, was employed by the Viceroy of Egypt from 1818 to 1827. He published a magnifi- cent work entitled "Arabian Architecture, or Monuments of Cairo," (1827.) Costello, (Louisa Stuart.) a popular authoress, was born in Ireland in 181 5. She wrote, among other works, "Suinmer amongst the Bocages and Vines," (1840,) a "Pilgrimage to Auvergne," (1842,) "Memoirs of Emi- nent Englishwomen," (4 vols., 1844,) and "The Rose Garden of Persia," an admired translation from the Per- sian poets, (1845.) Died in 1870. Costeo, kos-ta'o, [Lat. Cost^'us,] (Giovanni,) an Italian physician and writer, born at Lodi ; died at Bologna in 1603. Cos'ter, [Lat. Coste'rus,] (Bernard,) a Dutch his- torical writer, born at Woerden in 1645 ; died in 1735. Coster, kos'ta', (Joseph Francois,) a meritorious French economist and financier, born at Nancy in 1729, filled the position of chief clerk (premier comtnis) of the finances under eleven successive ministers. He wrote an " liloge de Colbert," and other works. Died in 1813. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Blau, " filoge de M. Cos- ter," 1808. Coster or Costar, (Laurent Janszoon.) See KOSTER. Coster, (Samuel,) M.D,, an eminent Dutch dramatic poet, called the founder of the theatre of Amsterdam, was born about 1580 or 1590. He produced five come- dies and six tragedies between 1615 and 1644. His "Iphigenia," a tragedy, (1626,) was perhaps the most popular of his works. " His characters," says the " Bio- graphie Universelle," "are well sustained, and his style is often noble and energetic." See JocHER, "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." Costha-Beii-Louka. See Kosta-Ibn-Looka. Cos'way, (Richard,) a successful English painter, born at Tiverton in 1740, was a pupil of Hudson. He had great skill in miniature-painting, in which he was employed by persons of the highest rank. Died in 1821. His wife, Maria Hadfield, was an excellent portrait- painter and musician. Her musical parties in London were frequented by the noble and fashionable, attracted partly by the paintings and other works of art with which the house was profusely adorned. Cota, ko'ta, (Roderigo,) a Spanish poet, born at Toledo ; died in 1470. He was the reputed author of the famous tragi-comedy " Calisto and Melibea," (some- times called " Celestina,") and of "Mingo Rebulgo," a satire. See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature." Cotan, ko-tin', (Juan Sanchez,) a Spanish painter of flowers and fruit, born at Alcazar de San Juan in 1561 ; died in 1627. Cotelerius. See Cotelier. Coteiier, kot'le-i', [Lat. Cotele'rius,] (Jean Bap- TiSTE,) a French iTellenist of great merit, born at Nimes in 1627. As professor of Greek in the Royal College of Paris, he ofiiciated with great distinction. He pub- lished " Monuments of the Greek Church," (3 vols., 1677-86,) and other works. Died in 1686. See NiCERON, "M^moires." a, e, 1, o, ii, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, f^t; m^t; n6t; good; moon; COTES 675 COTTLE Cotes, (Fkan'CIS,) an English artist, born in London in 1725, was one of the founders of the Royal Academy. He was very successful as a portrait-painter, both in oil and in crayon. Died in 1770. Cotes, (Roger,) an eminent English mathematician, born at Burbage in 1682. He became Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1705, and Plumian professor of astronomy in 1706. In 1713 he took orders, and pub- lished the second edition of Newton's " Principia," with a preface which was greatly admired. His premature death, in 1716, was deeply lamented by the learned. Newton exclaimed, "If Cotes had lived, we should have known something." He left a mathematical work, — "Harmonia Mensurarum," ("Harmony of Measures.") Cotignola, da, dd ko-t^n-yo'Ia, (Francesco,) an Ital- ian painter, lived at Parma about 1520. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." Cotin, ko^tix', (Charles,) a French author, born in Paris in 1604, owed the publicity of his name in a great measure to the satires of Boiieau and IMoliere. He was almoner to the king, and a member of the French Academy. He was author of a volume of verses and of several prose works. Died in 1682. See " Menagiana." Cot'maii, (John Sell,) an able English artist, born at Norwich in 1780. He gained a high reputation in en- graving and architectural drawing. He published "Archi- tectural Antiquities of Norfolk," (1812,) "Architectural Antiquities of Normandy," (1820,) and other works. His etchings are highly prized. Died in 1843. Cotolendi, ko'to'lSx'de', (Charles,) a French litte- ratetir, born at Aix or Avignon; died about 1710. He wrote a "Life of Saint Francis de Sales," (1689,) and other works. Coton. See Cotton. Cotta, kot'ta, (Bernhard,) a distinguished German geologist, born in Thuringia in 1808. He became pro- fessor in the school of mines at Freiberg in 1842. He wrote, besides other works, "Letters on the Cosmos of Humboldt," (1848-51,) and " Geological Letters from the Alps," (1850.) His theory of the production of organic bodies may be regarded as a refined and improved exhibition of Epicurean philosophy. He maintains that the higher orgariisms are develoi:)ed from the lower. Cot'ta, (Caius Aurelius,) a Roman general, noted for his strict discipline, became consul in 252 K.C. He commanded with success against the Carthaginians in Sicily, and was elected consul again in 248. Cotta, (Caius Aurelius,) a Roman orator, born about 125 B.C. He obtained the consulship in 75 B.C., and the province of Gaul was allotted to him in the ear 74. He was one of the most eminent orators of is time, and was one of the interlocutors in Cicero's "De Oratore." Died about 70 B.C. Cotta, kot'tS, (Giovanni,) an Italian poet, born near Verona about 1480. , Pie was for some time in the ser- vice of the Venetian general Alviano. "He acquired," says Ginguene, "by a small number of verses (in Latin) a high and merited reputation." Died in 15 10. His "Carmina" were published with the poems of Sannazar in 1527. See TiRABOSCHi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Cotta, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian poet and pulpit orator, born at Tende, near Nice, in 1668. He became professor of logic at Florence in 1693, and com- posed sonnets, hymns, and other poems. Died in 1738. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Giacinto DELLA Torre, " Elogio storico di G. B. Cotta," 1738. Cotta, (Heinrich,) a German naturalist, father of Bernhard, noticed above, was born in 1763. He pub- lished "Principles of the Science of Forests," (1832,) and other scientific treatises. Died in 1844. Cotta, (JoHANN Friedrich,) an eminent German theologian, born at Tubingen in 1701. He was professor of Oriental languages at Gottingen, and subsequently of theology at Tubingen, (1740.) "He wrote many works, among which was " Plan of a Complete Church History," ("Entwurf einer ausfiihrlichen Kirchenhistorie," 1768,) and published an edition of Gerhard's " Loci Theologici," (1762-77.) Died in 1779. See Meusel, "Gelehrtes Deutschland." Cotta, (JoHANN Friedrich,) Baron von Cottendorf, (kot'ten-doRf,) a distinguished publisher, born at Stutt- gart in 1764, was a grandson of the preceding. In 1793 he founded at Tubingen the "Allgemei»#f Zeitung," an important daily journal, since published at Augsburg He became intimate with Goethe and Schiller, whose works he published, and with many other authors, of whom he was a liberal patron. He established a steam- press at Augsburg in 1824, and introduced steam-navi- gation on the Rhine about 1825. Died in 1832. See Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Cotta, (L. Aurelius,) a brother of C. Aurelius, noticed above, became praetor in 70 B.C., and then procured the passage of the "lex Aurelia," which deprived the senate of the exclusive right to dispense justice. He was consul in the year 65, and supported Cicero against Catiline in 63. Cotta made the first motion in the senate for the recall of Cicero from exile. He sided with Caesar in the civil war, 49 B.C. See Cicero, "In Pisonem," Philippic H. Cotta, (L. AuRUNCULEius,) a Roman officer, who distinguished himself in Gaul as legate of Julius Caesar. In 54 B.C. he and Sabinus commanded a body of troops encamped for the winter among the Eburones. He was killed during that winter, in a fight with the Gauls, who attacked his camp. Cotta, (Marcus Aurelius,) a Roman general, was a brother of Caius Aurelius Cotta the orator. He be- came consul with L. Lucullus in 74 B.C., and obtained for his province Bithynia, then the seat of war against Mithridates, by whom he was defeated with great loss at Chalcedon. Cotte, kot, (Louis,) an eminent French meteorologist, born at Laon in 1740. He was one of the first in France who made and recorded observations on the weather three times a day ; and he began to publish the results in 1765. He wrote a "Treatise on Meteorology," (1774,) and other works. Died in 1815. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Cotte, de, deh kot, (Robert,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1656. He was appointed first architect of the king in 1708. Among his works are the colonnade of the Grand Trianon, and the gallery of the Hotel de la Vrilliere, now the Bank of France. Died in 1735. See Pixgeron, " Vies des Architectes." Cottenham, kot'ten-am, (Charles Christopher Pepys,) Earl of, an English statesman, born in 1781. He was appointed solicitor-general in 1833, and lord chancellor in the Whig ministry in 1836. Having been superseded in 1841, he again obtained the same ofiice in August, 1846. He was raised to the peerage, as Baron Cottenham, in 1836, and created an earl in 1850, when he retired from office. Died in 185 1. See Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors;" Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. Cottereau, (Jean.) See Chouan. Cot^ter-el, (Sir Charle.s,) an English scholar, was master of requests to Charles II. He translated from the French La Calprenede's romance of "Cassandra," and from the Italian Davila's " History of the Civil Wars of France," (1647.) See Wood, "Athens Oxonienses. " Cottin, ko'tiN', (Sophie Ristaud, ) a Protestant French authoress, born at Tonneins in 1773. She was married at the age of seventeen to M. Cottin, a banker of Paris, and was left a widow after the lapse of three years. Gifted with a vivid imagination, she amused her solitude with composition, without aspiring to literary fame. Her first production was a romance named " Claire d'Albe," which was much admired. She afterwards wrote "Malvina," (1800,) "Amelie Mansfield," (1802,) and other popular novels, of which the best-known is "Eli- zabeth, or the Exiles of Siberia." Died in 1807. See AuGULS, "Notice historique sur la Vie, etc. de Madame Cot- tin;" A. Petitot, "Notice sur la Vie de Madame Cottin," 1817; "Edinburgh Review" for Januaiy, 180S ; Sainte-Beuve, "Biogra- phic portative dcs Contemporaiiis." Cot'tle, (Amos,) an English poet, brother of Joseph Cottle, noticed below, translated the Icelandic " Edda" into English verse, and wrote some original poetry. Died in 1800. € as ki 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, gutttiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (g^^See Explanations, p. 23.) COTTLE 676 COULOMB Cottle, (Joseph,) an English poet, born in 1770 or 1774, was a kind friend to Coleridge and Southey in their early adversities, — "When friends were few, and fortune frowned." In his youth he was a bookseller and publisher in Bris- tol, lie published the first poems of the authors just named, in 1796. Southey, many years later, expressed his gratitude and esteem for his benefactor. Cottle was the author of " Malvern Hills," " Alfred," " The Fall of Cam- bria," and other poems, also of interesting " Reminis- cences of Coleridge and Southey," (1847.) Died in 1853. Coftpn, (Charles,) an English translator and hu- n.orous poet, born in Staffordshire in 1630, was an adopted son of Izaak Walton. He wrote an addition to the " Complete Angler," made an approved transla- tion of Montaigne's " Essays," and composed several poems, among which are "The Wonders of the Peak," a "Voyage to Ireland," and "Virgil Travestie." The latter is a coarse and disgusting parody. Died in 1687. See Sir J. Hawkins, "Life of Cotton;" Cibbek, "Lives of the Poets;" " Biographia Britannica." Cotton, (George,) an English divine of the present century, became Bishop of Calcutta in 1858. He was conspicuous for his zeal in discharging the duties of his office, and for his exertions in the cause of education. He was drowned in the Ganges in 1867. See "British Quarterly Review" for January, 1S67. Cotton, (John,) a learned English Puritan minister, born at Derby in 1585. He became vicar of a church at Boston (England) about 1612, and emigrated to Mas- sachusetts in 1633. He afterwards preached at Boston, where he acquired great influence, and was an antagonist of Roger Williams, in reply to whom he asserted the right of magistrates to interfere in religion. Died in 1652. See Norton and Mather, "Life of J. Cotton." Cotton, (Nathaniel,) an English poet and physician, born in 1707, was noted for his skill in the treatment of insanity. The poet Cowper, who was an inmate of his private lunatic-asylum at Saint Alban's, afterwards spoke of him in very favourable terms. He wrote "Marriage, a Vision," and other works, in prose and verse. Died in 1788. See Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets." Cotton, ko't^N', or Coton, (Pierre,) an eminent French Jesuit, born at Neronde in 1564, became a popu- lar preacher, and is said to have converted many Prot- estants. He was confessor of Henry IV. for some years before the death of that king, whose favour he enjoyed in a high degree. Somebody remarked that Henry "had cot(o7t in his ears." He officiated as confessor to Louis XIII. from 1610 to 1617. Died in 1626. See Pere d'Orleans, "Vie de Cotton," 1688. Cotton, (Sir Robert Bruce,) an eminent English antiquary, the founder of the Cottonian Library, born at Denton, in Huntingdonshire, in 1570, graduated at Cam- bridge in 1585. He gave special attention to antiquarian researches, and to the collection of historical records and documents. At the accession of James I. (1603) he was knighted. He was often consulted and employed by the king and ministers, by whom he was regarded as an ora- cle. In 1628 he was a member of Parliament. He died in 163 1, leaving to his heirs his valuable library, which was increased by his son. Sir Thomas, and was deposited in the British Museum about 1755. Rol^ert wrote a ' Life of Henry HI. of England," and many political and historical treatises. See "Biographia Britannica;" "Life of Sir R. Cotton," prefixed to Dr. Smith's Catalogue of Cotton's Library, i6g6. Cotton, (Stapleton.) See Combermere. Cotton, (Sir Sydney,) an English general, born in 1792, served in India during the mutiny of 1857-58, and was knighted for his services in that crisis. Cottret, ko'tRcV, (Pierre Marie,) a French bishop and writer, born at Argenteuil in 1768; died in 1841. Cotugno, ko-toon'yo, (Domenico,) an eminent anato- mist, born at Ruvo, in the kingdom of Naples, in 1736. He became surgeon of the Hospital of Incurables in Naples in 1754, and professor of anatomy in the Univer- sity in 1766. He was afterwards employed by the royal family. Among his most important works are a "Treat- ise on the Anatomy of the Internal Ear," (1761,) and one on "Sciatica," (1765.) He made some discoveries in anatomy. Died at Naples in 1822. See "Biographic Medicale;" Folinea, " Elogio del Cavaliere D. Cotugno," 1823. Co'tys, [Gr. Korvg,] a king of Thrace, waged war against the Athenians. Died about 356 B.C. Couailhao, koo'a'ltk', (Louis,) a French dramatist and journalist, born at Cahors in 1810. Couch, (Darius N.,) an American general, born in Putnam county. New York, about 1822, graduated at West Point in 1846. He was appointed a brigadier- general of volunteers about August, 1861. He com- manded a division at Fair Oaks, May 31-June i, became a major-general in July, 1862, and directed a corps at Chancellorsville, May 3-5, 1863. He commanded the Department of the Susquehanna from June, 1863, to December, 1864. Couch, (Richard Quillar,) an English naturalist and surgeon, born in Cornwall in 1816. He practised at Penzance, and wrote a number of essays on marine animals, and on the geology of Cornwall. Died in 1863. Coucke, kow'keh, (Jean,) a Belgian landscape- painter of the present century, was born at Ghent. His works are dated from 1808 to 1834. Coucy, de, deh koo'se', (Raoul or Renaud,) a French minstrel, who went to Palestine as a crusader, and was killed in battle in 1192. Pie wrote a number of songs, which were once popular. See La Borde, "Memoires historiques sur Raoul de Coucy," etc., Paris, 1781. Coucy, de, (Robert,) a famous French architect, born at Rheims (or Coucy, according to some authori- ties.) He was chief architect of the cathedral of Rheims, a master-piece of the Gothic style, and of the church of Saint-Nicaise, in the same city, both of which had been begun by Libergier. Died in 1311. See D. Marlot, " Histoire de la Ville de Reims," 1846. Couder, koo'daiR', (Louis Charles Auguste, ) a French historical painter, born in Paris about 1790, was a pupil of David. He established his reputation by the "Levite of Ephraim," (1817.) His "Soldier of Mara- thon" is admired for grandeur of style. Among his later productions are "The Battle of Laufeld," (1836,) and "The Oath at the Tennis-Court," (1848.) He was admitted into the Institute in 1839. Coudray, du. See Tronqon. Coudrette, koo'dR^t', (Christophe,) a French priest, born in Paris in 1701. He became an adversary of the order of Jesuits, and wrote, besides other works, a " His- tory of the Rise and Progress of the Jesuits," (1761.) Died in 1774. Coulanges, koo'lfiNzh', (Marie Ang:6lique du Gue Bagnoles — dii gi btn'yoK,) a French lady, born in 1641, becatne the wife of the Marquis de Cou'langes, noticed below. She was a friend of Madame de Sevigne, and author of letters which were published. Died in 1723. Coulanges, de, deh koo'ldNzh', (Philippe Ema- nuel,) Marquis, a French song-writer, born in Paris in 1 63 1, was noted for his wit and bon-mots. He was cousin-german to Madame de Sevigne. Died in 1716. See Madame de Sevigne, "Lettres." Coulet, koo'LV, (Anne Philiberte,) a French en- graver, born in Paris in 1736. She engraved after Vernet and other masters. Coulomb, de, deh koo'16N', (Charles Augustin,) a French savant, eminent for his discoveries in experi- mental physics and electricity, was born at Angouleme in 1736. His "Theory of Simple Machines" (1779) gained the prize offered by the Academy of Sciences, and opened to him the doors of that Institution. In 1784 he was appointed intendant of the waters and springs of France. At an early stage of the Revolution he retired from public service. He wrote for the Acad- emy many able treatises on mechanics, electricity, etc. He invented the Torsion Balance, which he used in suc- cessful experiments on the laws of magnetic and electric attraction and repulsion. By the same means he de- termined the laws of the distribution of electricity on the surface of bodies, and of magnetism in the interior. He was admitted into the Institute about 1796. Died a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; ndt; good; moon; COULON ^77 COURT A IS in 1806. M. Biot remarks that the labours of Poisson have illustrated the admirable sagacity of Coulomb as an observer, as well as the accuracy of his experiments. See QuEKARD, "La France Litteraire;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." Coulon, koo'ldN', (Louis,) a French geographer, born at Poitiers in 1605. He published a "Treatise on the Rivers of France," (2 vols., 1644,) and several historical compilations. Died in 1664. Couloii de Theveuot, koo^loN' deh tav^no', (A.,) the inventor of French tachygraphie, or short-hand, was born about 1754. In 1792 he served La Fayette in the army as chief secretary. Wq published " The Art of Writing as rapidly as One speaks," (1794.) Died in 1814. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Coupe, koo^py, (Jean Marie Louis,) a French litti- rateta\ born at Peronne in 1732. Among his works are " Literary Evenings," (" Soirees litteraires," 20 vols., 1795-1801,) and " CEuvres d'Hesiode." Died in 1818. Couperin, koop''r5.N', (FRANgois,) a French organist and composer, called " le Grand," was born in Paris in 1668 ; died in 1733. Couplet, koo'pli', (Philippe,) a Flemish missionary, born at Malines about 1628. He went to China in 1659, and became deeply versed in the language and history of that empire. He and several of his colleagues published a Latin version of the works of Confucius. Died at sea in 1692. Courayer, le, leh koo^rt'ya', or Courrayer, (Pierre Francois,) a French Catholic priest, born at Rouen in 1681. He published in 1723 a work in favour of the va- lidity of ordinations in the Anglican Church. In conse- quence of the persecution to which this subjected him. he retired to England, where he died in 1776, without having renounced the Roman Catholic communion. He left a good French version of Sarpi's "History of the Council of Trent," (2 vols., 1736,) and other works. See " London Quarterly Review" for December, 181 1. Courbes, de, deh kooRb, (Jean,) a French engraver, born about 1 592, engraved a portrait of Sir Philip Sidney. Courbet, kooR'ba', (Gustave,) a French painter, born at Ornans (Doubs) in 1819. His works are chiefly landscapes and portraits. Courbiere, de, deh kooR'be-aiR', (Wilhelm Ren6,) Baron de Homme, a Prussian^^neral, born at Gronin- gen in 1733; died in 1811. Courbon, de, deh kooR'b^N', Marquis, a French officer, noted for his ability and romantic adventures, was born in 1650. He obtained a high rank in the Venetian army, and was killed at Negropont in 1688. See AiMAR, "Vie du Marquis de Courbon," 1692. Courcelles, de, deh kooR's^K, [Lat. Curcell^e^us,] (Etienne,) an eminent Protestant divine, born at Ge- neva in 1586. After preaching at Amiens, he removed to Amsterdam, where he succeeded Simon Episcopius as professor of theology. He translated into Latin the Philosophy of Descartes, and published several theolo- gical works. Died about 1660. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Courcelles, de, deh kooR'sSK, (Etienne Chardon,) a French physician, born at Rheims in 1705. He wrote, besides other works, a " Manual of Surgical Operations," (1756.) Died in 1775. Courcelles, de, (Jean Baptiste Pierre Julien,) Chevalier, a French writer, born at Orleans in 1759. He was the author of a " Historical Dictionary of French Generals since the Eleventh Century," (Paris, 1820- 23,) a " Genealogical History of the Peers of France," etc., (1830,) and other works. Died in 1834. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Courcelles, de, (Thomas,) a French theologian, born in 1400, was one of the judges who condemned Joan of Arc to death. Died in 1469. Courcillon. See Dangeau. Couret de Villeneuve.koo'rydeh v^l'nuv', (Louis Pierre,) a French litterateur zx\A printer, born at Orleans in 1749. He wrote and translated many works, in prose and verse. He was drowned in the Lys in 1806. Courier, koo're-i', (or Courier de Mere— deh mi'- ri,') (Paul Louis,) an ingenious and popular jprench author and pamphleteer, born in Paris in 1772 or 1773, was liberally educated, and was an excellent Greek scho- lar. He entered the army as engineer in 1792, became a captain in 1795, and fought in the campaign of Rome in 1798. In 1803 he obtained the brevet of chef d'esca- dron, (major.) During the intervals when active service was suspended, he pursued his literary studies and trans- lated from Cicero, Isocrates, etc. His last campaign was that of Austria in 1809, after which he resigned his commission. Pie published an excellent edition and version of Longus, (1810,) and translated Xenophon " On the Command of Cavalry," and other classics. (See Longus.) In 1814 he married a daughter of Etienne Clavier. He produced numerous political pamphlets and letters which display much humour and satirical power. In politics he was liberal or independent. He was as- sassinated by one or two of his servants on his own estate in Touraine in 1825. "The merits of his works," says Lord Brougham, " are of a very high order. They abound in strong masculine sense, illustrated with clas- sical allusions and seasoned with wit more brilliant than is almost anywhere else to be found ; for it has the keen edge of Swift's satire, and the easy playfulness of Vol- taire, without his pertness and flippancy. He is truly a writer of extraordinary powers ; and nothing could have prevented him from attaining a very eminent place among the literary men of his age, but his never having com- posed a work of considerable magnitude on a subject of permanent importance." ("Edinburgh Review.") Ar- mand Carrel pronounced his " Pamphlet des Pamphlets" (1824) "the most finished work in respect to taste, and the most wonderful in respect to art, in the language." See A. Carrel, " Essai sur la Vie et les Q^uvres de P. L. Cou- rier," 1838 ; Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi ;" Querard, " La France Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" "Edinburgh Review" for March, 1829; "Westminster Review" for April, 1S66. Cournot, kooR'no', (Antoine Augustin,) a French mathematician, born in 1801. He published, besides other works, an " Exposition of the Theory of Chances and Probabilities," (1843,) ^'"'d a French version of Sir J. Herschel's "Treatise on Astronomy." Courrayer. See Courayer. Courson, de, deh kooR's^N', (Aur^lien,) a French historian, born at Port Louis, He de France, in 181 1, be- came librarian of the Louvre, Paris. Among his works is a " History of the Breton Peoples of Gaul and the British Isles," (1846.) Court, kooR, (Antoine,) a French Protestant divine, born in Vivarais in 1696. He laboured with success to reorganize the Protestant churches after the civil war, and discouraged a factious resistance to the government. He was president of a theological seminary at Lausanne from 1730 to 1760, and wrote a " History of the War of the Camisards." Died in 1760. See De Faliac, " Histoire des Protestants de France ;" "Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Court, (Joseph Desir^:,) a French historical painter, born at Rouen in 1797, won the grand prize in 1821. His reputation was established by the " Death of Caesar." (1827,) which is placed in the Luxembourg Gallery. Court de Gebelin, kooR deh zhib'ldN', (Antoine,) a French scholar and Protestant, son of Antoine Court, noticed above, was born at Nimes in 1725. He became a resident of Paris about 1760, and devoted much time to the study of antiquity, mythology, the filiation of lan- guages, etc. Between 1773 and 1784 he published nine volumes of his " Primitive World Analyzed and Com- pared with the Modern," a work of great learning, which was never completed. The French Academy twice awarded to him the annual prize founded for the most useful work. He co-operated with Dr. B. Franklin and others in editing a periodical called "The Affairs of England and America," (15 vols., Paris, 1776 et seq.) Died in 1784. See Rabaud SAiNT-firiENNE, "Lettres sur la Vie, etc. de Court de Gebelin," 1784; Theodore Fournier, "Notice sur A. Court de Gebelin," 1848; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Courtais, de, deh kooR'ti', (Amable Gaspard Henri,) a French general, born at Moulins in 1786, was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1842. Soon after the revolution of 1848 he was appointed commander of the national guard of Paris. He was censured and € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, h, y., guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S:^=See Explanations, p. 23.) COURTANFJUX 678 COUSIN removed because he failed to prevent the invasion of the Chamber by the mob in May, 1848. Courtanvaux, de, deh kooR''t6N'vo', ( Francois Cesar Letellier — leh-t.a'■]e-i^) Marquis, a French savant, was born' in Paris in 1718. He was admitted in 1764 to the Academy of Sciences, for which he wrote memoirs on chemistry, etc. Died in 1781. Cour'ten, ki'u''ten, ? (William,) an English naturalist, born in London in 1642. He made a rich collection of medals, etc. Died in 1702. Courten, (Sir William,) an eminent merchant of London, of Flemish descent, born about 1570, made large loans to James L and Charles L Died in 1636. Courtenay or Courtnay, kiirt'ne, (John,) an Irish politician and writer, born about 1740. He was elected in 1780 to the British Parliament, in which he sftt many years, and voted with the Whigs. In 1806 he was ap- pointed commissioner of the treasury, and a few months later retired from the public service. He wrote tracts on the French Revolution, "Manners, Arts, and Politics of Prance and Italy," in verse, and a few other works. Died in 1816. Courtenay, de, deh kooRt'na', (Pierre,) a French count, who succeeded his father in 1183, was one of the most powerful princes of his time. He joined a crusade to Palestine in 1190. In 1216 he was chosen Emperor of Constantinople. He was defeated, made prisoner, and put to death about 1220, by Theodore, a Greek prince. See MiCHAUD, " Histoire des Croisacles." Courtenay, (Hon. Thomas Peregrine,) M.P., an English scholar and writer of the present century, of whose life we have no details. He published a "Life of Sir William Temple," (1836,) which Macaulay com- mends for "diligence, good sense, and impartiality." See Macaui.ay's Essay on "Sir William Temple." Courtilz de Sandras, de, deh kooR^telz' deh s6n^- dRts', (Gatien,) a French littcrateii7\ born in Paris in 1644. He published, anonymously, a " Life of Coligny," a " History of the War in Holland," (1672-77,) and many mediocre works, which purport to be memoirs, historical or biographical, but contain much fiction or falsehood. He was imprisoned in the Bastille nine years, (1702-11.) His style is praised by Bayle. Died in 1712. See NiCEKON, "Memoires." Courtin, kooRTiN'', (Antoine,) a French negotiator and moralist, born at Riom in 1622. He became private secretary of Christina of Sweden in 1651, and after her abdication was ambassador from Sweden to France. About 1662 he was employed by Louis XIV. in a nego- tiation with England. He published a number of moral essays. Died in 1685. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Courtin, (Eustache Marie Pierre,) a French law- yer and editor, born at Lisieux in 1768, became advo- cate-general in the imperial court, Paris, in 1811. Be- tween 1824 and 1832 he published the "Encyclopedic Moderne," (24 vols.,) a work of merit. Died in 1839. Courtivron, de, deh kooR't^''vR6N', (Gaspard le Compasseur de Crequi-Montfort — leh kdN'pt'suR'' deh kRa'ke' m6N■'foR^) Marquis, a French scientific writer, born in Burgundy in 171 5. He became an officer in the army, and saved the life of Marshal Saxe in 1742. He wrote a "Treatise on Optics," (1752,) and other works. Died in 1785. See CoNDORCET, " iSloge de M. le Marquis de Courtivron." Courtnay. See Courtenay. Courtney or Courtenay, kiart'ne, the name of a noble English family, to which the Earls of Devonshire belong, and which came from Normandy with William the Conqueror. One of this name was made Earl of Devon- shire by Queen Mary about 1554. He was " nearly allied to the crown," says Hume, and received overtures of mar- riage with the queen, which he neglected, from his partial- ity "to her sister E^lizabeth. (See Devonshire, Earl oe.) Courtney, (William,) a younger son of Hugh Court- ney, Earl of Devonshire, born about 1340, became chan- cellor of England and Archbishop of Canterbury in 1381. He persecuted the disciples of Wickliffe. Died in 1396. His mother, Margaret, was a daughter of Edward I. See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. iv. chap. xvi. Courtois, kooR''twa', (Edme Bonaventure,) a French politician, born at Arcis-sur-Aube about 1755, became a member of the National Convention in 1792, and a political friend of Danton. He favoured the triumph of Bonaparte in November, 1799, and became a member of the Tribunate. Died in 181 6. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Courtois, [It. Cortesi, kor-ta'see,] (Guillaume,) a distinguished f>ench painter, born in 1628, was a pupil of Pietro da Cortona. He worked mostly in Rome, and was patronized by Pope Alexander VI. "The Miracle of Joshua suspending the Motion of the Sun" is one of his master- pieces. He aided his brother Jacques in some of his works. Died in I^ome in 1679. Courtois or Curtois, (Jacques,) [It. Jacopo Cor- tesi, ya'ko-po koR-ta''see,] an eminent painter of battles and history, often called II Borgognone, (el boR-gon- yo'ni,) or Le Bourguignon, (leh booR'gen'yoN'',) born at Saint-Hippolyte, in Franche-Comte, in 1621, was a brother of the preceding. He studied with Guido at Bologna, and worked some time in Florence. About 1658 he became a Jesuit or monk, and settled in Rome, where he painted many works, among which are the "Battle of Arbela," and some sacred subjects. He ex- celled in freedom of design, facility of execution, and in the disposition, variety, and movement of the figures. Died in Rome in 1676. See Bryan, " Dictionary of Painters;" Nagler, " Neues Allge- meines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Courtois, kooR''twi'', (Richard Joseph,) a Belgian naturalist, born at Verviers in 1806, was the author of a "Compendium Florae Belgica;," (3 vols., 1827-36.) Died in 1835. Courtonne, kooR'ton^ (Jean,) a French architect, born in Paris about 1670 ; died about 1740. Courvoisier, kooR^wS^ze-a^ (Jean Baptiste,) a French jurist, born at Arbois in 1749 ; died in 1803. Courvoisier, (Jean Joseph Antoine,) a French lawyer and politician, son of the preceding, born at Be- san9on in 1775. He emigrated as a royalist about 1790, and became minister of justice in 1829. He resigned in May, 1830, and died in 1835. See Lamartine, "History of the Restoration." Cousin, koo^ziN^ [Lat. Cogna'tus,] (Gilbert,) a classical scholar and writer, born at Nozeroy, in Franche- Comte, in 1506. He lived about five years with Erasmus, who employed him as secretary or amanuensis and treated him as a companion and friend. He afterwards opened a school in his native place. Conrad Gesner states that he was the first who caused learning to flourish in Burgundy. Cousin wrote notes on Lucian, Aristotle, Ovid, etc., and Latin works on theology and other sub- jects. Suspected of Protestantism, he was imprisoned, and during his trial died at Besanjon in 1567. See NiCERON', " Memoires ;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." Cousin, (Jacques Antoine Joseph,) a French geo- meter, born in Paris in 1739. He was for many years professor of physics in the College of France. In 1795 he became a member of the Institute, and senator in 1799. He published a "Treatise on the Differential and Integral Calculus," and other works. Died in 1800. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Cousin, (Jean,) an eminent French painter and sculp- tor, born at Souci, near Sens, about 1500, worked many years in Paris. He is regarded as the first Frenchman who gained distinction by painting history. The most celebrated of his works was "The Last Judgment," a large oil-painting. His correctness of design was his chief merit. He painted on glass more than in oil. He also wrote able treatises on perspective, geometry, and the jDroportions of the human body. Died about 1590. See Fi^LiBiEN, " Entretiens sur las Vies des Peintres." Cousin, (Louis,) a French lawyer and learned trans- lator, born in Paris in 1627, became president of the court des 77ionnaies. In 1697 he was admitted into the French Academy. He published a " History of the Church," (1675,) a "History of the Empire of the West," {1683,) and other works, all of which are translations from Greek and Latin authors. Died in 1707. See NiCERON, "Memoires." a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; COUSIN 679 COUTTS Cousin, (Victor,) a celebrated French philosopher and metaphysician, born in Paris on the 28th of Novem- ber, 1792, was the son of a clockmaker. He gained the first prize of honour at the Lycee Charlemagne in 1810, after which he attended Laro'miguiere's lectures on phi- losophy. In 1815 he succeeded Royer-Collard as sub- stitute professor of philosophy at the Sorbonne, where he delivered eloquent and popular lectures on the history of philosophy. He was deprived of the professorship by the government in 1820 or 1821 for his liberal principles, and then commenced a translation of Plato. He pub- lished in 1826 an edition of Descartes, in eleven volumes, and Philosophic Fragments," ("Fragments philoso- phiques,") an important original work. After being im- prisoned six months in Berlin on suspicion of liberalism, he was again appointed professor of philosophy at the Sorbonne in 1828. His lectures displayed an admirable combination of sensibility, imagination, and reason, and he shared with his colleagues, Guizot and Villemain, an immense popularity. The revolution of 1830 opened to him a new career. Retiring from the chair of philosophy, he became councillor of state, and a member of the coun- cil of public instruction. He was elected to the French Academy in 1830 in place of Fourier, and was made a peer of France in 1832. M. Cousin was minister of public instruction about eight months in the cabinet formed by M. Thiers in March, 1840. He displayed superior oratorical powers in his speeches in the Cham- ber of Peers. After the revolution of 1848 he took no part in public affairs. Among his principal works are an excellent French translation of Plato, (13 vols., 1825-40,) a "Treatise on the Metaphysics of Aristotle," (1838,) a "Course of Moral Philosophy" ("Cours de Philosophie morale") from 1816 to 1820, (5 vols., 1840,) a new series of " Philosophic Fragments," (1838-40,) "Lectures on the Philosophy of Kant," (1842,) a "Biography of Jac- queline Pascal," (1845,) '1"*^^ "The True, the Beautiful, and the Good," ("Du Vrai, du Beau et du Bien," 1853.) He published a collective edition of his works, in 22 vols. i8mo, (1847.) His system of philosophy may be briefly characterized as eclecticism, or a union of sen- sualism and idealism. He is regarded as one of the first philosophical writers of his time. Died in January, 1867. See Marbach, " Schelling, Hegel und Cousin ;" C. Fuchs, "Die Philosophie von Victor Cousin," 1847; Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries duLundi;" Sir William Hamilton, critique in the " Edinburgh Review," vol. 1.; Louis de Lomenie, "M. V. Cousin, par un Homme de Rien," 1842 ; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" " North British Review" for March, 1867. Cousin d'Avallon, koo'z^N' dt^vt^l^N', (Charles Yves,) a French compiler, born in 1769, published many collections of anecdotes with titles ending in a/ia. His *' Pironiana" ran through eleven editions. Died about 1840. Cousin-Despreaux, koo'z^N' cWpRk'o^, (Louis,) a French writer, born at Dieppe in 1743, published two esteemed works, viz., a "History of Greece," (16 vols., 1780-89,) and "Lessons on Nature," (1802.) Died in 1818. Cousinery, koo'ze^ni're', (Esprit Martf,) a French- man noted for his skill in medals, born at Marseilles in 1747, wrote "Letters on the Rosetta Stone," "Travels in Macedonia," (1831,) and several treatises on medals. He was a member of the Institute. Died after 1830. Cousinet, koo'ze'n^, (Elisabeth,) a French en- graver, born about 1726. Cousinot, koo'ze'no^ (Guillaume,) a French poet and historian, born about 1400 ; died about 1484. Coussemaker, de, deh koos'mt'kaiR', (Charles Edmond PIenri,) a French antiquary, born at Bailleul (Nord) in 1805. He wrote a prize essay "On the Flar- mony of the Middle Ages." Constant, koo^stSw', (Pierre,) a French Benedictine monk, born at Compiegne in 1654. He aided in revising and editing the works of Augustine, and published an edition of Saint-Hilaire, (1693,) which he showed much critical judgment. Died in Paris in 1721. Coustou, koos'too', (Guillaume,) an able French sculptor, born at Lyons in 1678, was a pupil of his uncle Coysevox. After studying in Rome, he settled in Paris. Among his best productions are two groups, each of which is composed of a horse prancing and a groom, a bronze figure of the river Rhone, and the bas-relief which adorns the entrance of the Hotel des Invalides. Died in 1746. His son Guillaume, born in Paris in 17 16, was also a skilful sculptor. He became in 1746 a professor in the Academy of Arts, of which he was afterwards rector. He made statues of Mars and Venus for the King of Prussia. Died in 1777. See D'Argenvili.e, "Vies des Architecte? et des Sculpteurs;" Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." Coustou, (Nicolas,) an eminent sculptor, a brother of Guillaume the elder, was born at Lyons in 1658. Having gained the grand prize, he went to Rome with a pension about 1682. He afterwards settled in Paris, where he was patronized by Louis XIV. Among his most admired works are a group of the junction of the Seine and Marne, the " Berger Chasseur," (" Shepherd Huntsman,") and a "Descent from the Cross." Died 1733- See Cousin de Contaminh, "filoge historique de N. Coustu I'Aine," 1837; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Cousturier or Couturier, koo'tii're-i', (Pierre,) [Lat. Pe''trus Su''tor,] a French monkTwho had a dis- pute with Erasmus respecting the version of the New Testament published by the latter. Died in 1537. Coutan, koo'tSN', (Amable Paul,) a French painter of history, born in Paris in 1792. He gained the first prize in 1827. Died in 1837. Coutelle, koo'teK, (Jean Marie Joseph,) a French engineer and balloonist, born at Mans in 1748; died in 1835. Couthon, kooT6N', (Georges,) a French Jacobin, born at Orsay, in Auvergne, in 1756. He was a lawyer before the Revolution, and entered the Convention in 1792. He voted for the death of the king, and became a partisan of Robespierre. He has been accused of the crimes and cruelties committed at Lyons, whither he was sent as commissioner in 1793 ; but Lamartine asserts that he restrained the excesses of his party on that occasion. After the committee of public safety was divided into two parties, Robespierre, Couthon, and Saint-Just formed a triumvirate, which for some time controlled the govern- ment. He was involved in the fall of Robespierre on the 9th Thermidor, and was guillotined July 28, 1794. See De Barante, " Histoire de la Convention Nationale." Coutinho, ko-t^n'yo, (Dom Francisco,) Count of Redondo, a Portuguese officer, was appointed Viceroy of India in 1561. He was a friend of Camoens, who connnemorated, in verse, his virtues and benefactions. Died in 1564. See Laclede, " Histoire de Portugal." Couto, de, di ko'to, (Diogo or Diego,) a Portu- guese historian, born in Lisbon in 1542. He went to India about 1556, served in the army several years, and settled at Goa. He received from Philip II. of Spain the title of historiographer of India, and between 1602 and 1616 published a continuation of Barros's valuable work entitled "Decades of Asia," ("Decadas da Asia,") containing an account of the discoveries and conquests of the Portuguese in the East. Died at Goa in 1616. See S. DE Faria, "Vida de Diogo de Couto;" "Nouvelle BIo- graphie Generale." Couto-Pestana, do, do ko'to pes-t^'ni, (Jozi^,) a Portuguese poet, born in Lisbon in 1678. He became controller of the treasury at Lisbon, and wrote a poem entitled "Quiten'a la Santa." Died in 1735. Coutts, koots, (Angela Georgiana Burdett,) an English lady noted for wealth and munificence, a daugh- ter of Sir Francis Burdett, was born in 1814. Having become the heiress of a vast fortune left by her grand- father, Thomas Coutts, a banker, she assumed his name. She has given large donations to benevolent and reli- gious societies, and built a fine church in Westminster, (1847.) Coutts, (Thomas,) an eminent banker of London, born at Dundee about 1733, acquired a very large for- tune. Died in 1821 or 1822. He left three daughters, Frances, married to the Marquis of Bute, Sophia, married to Sir Francis Burdett, and Susan, married to the Earl of Guilford. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." •€ as 9 as s; g Aard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^='See Explanations, p. 23.) COUTURE 680 COWLET Couture, koo'tiiR', (Guillaume,) a French architect, born at Rouen in 1732. He was chief architect of the church de la Madeleine, Paris, which he left unfinished at his death, in 1799* It has since been completed, with some variations irom his design. Couture, (Jean Baptiste,) a French writer, born at Saint- Aubin in 1651. He was professor of eloquence in Paris, and a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. He wrote an "Abridged History of the Assyrian, Per- sian, Macedonian, and Roman Empires," (1699,) and some minor works. Died in 1728, Couture, (Thomas,) a French painter of history and genre, was born at Senlis in 1815. He produced "The Love of Gold" in 1844, ^'^'^ 'i"^ ^^47 a picture of " The Romans of the Decadence," which obtained the gold medal at the Salon. Coutures, des, di koo'tiiR', (Jacques Parrain — pt'rdN^,) Baron, a French translator, born at Avranches. He published a French version of Lucretius, (1685,) with notes, and several other works. Died in 1702. Couvay, koo'vi', (Jean,) a skilful French artist, born at Aries in 1622. He engraved after Raphael, Guido, Poussin, and other masters. " The Martyrdom of Saint Bartholomew," after Poussin, is his chef-d'ceuvre. Couvreur. See Le Couvreur. Covarruvias, ko-vir-roo've-is, or Covarrubias, (Don Antonio,) an eminent Spanish jurist and Hellenist, born in 1524. He was professor of law at Salamanca, and member of the royal council of Castile. He wrote a "Commentary on the Politics of Aristotle." Lipsius calls him " Hispaniae magnum lumen." Died in 1602. See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Covarruvias y Horozco, ko-vir-roo've-is e o-roth'- ko, (Don Juan,) a nephew of the preceding, was born at Toledo. He became Canon of Seville, and after- wards Bishop of Girgenti, Sicily, where he established a printing-press. He was author of " Moral Emblems," (1591,) "Christian Paradoxes," (1592,) and other works, (in Spanish.) Died in 1608. See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature." Covarruvias y Leyva, ko-v§,r-roo've-is e la^-vi, (Diego,) a brother of Antonio, noticed aboveT^was born at Toledo in 15 12. He became Bishop of Segovia in 1565, president of the council of Castile in 1572, and of the council of state in 1574. He was reputed one of the first jurists or canonists of his time, and wrote seve- ral legal works. Died in 1577. See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Co'vel or Co'vell, (John,) an English divine, born in Suffolk in 1638, wrote an "Account of the Greek Church," (1722.) Died in 1722. Covelli, ko-veKlee, (Niccol6,) an Italian chemist and mineralogist, born at Cajazzo in 1790. He investi- gated the phenomena of Vesuvius by chemical analysis, and published, besides other works, " Prodromo della Mineralogia Vesuviana," (1825.) Died in 1829. See TiPALDO, "Biografia degll Italiani illustri." Coventry, kuv'en-tre, (Henry,) an English scholar, a Fellow of Magdalene College, was one of the authors of the "Athenian Letters." (See Yorke, Charles.) He published " Letters of Philemon to Hydaspes," (on "False Religion,") 1736-44. Died in 1752. Coventry, (Thomas,) Baron, an English lawyer, born in Worcestershire in 1578. He became attorney- general in 1621, and lord keeper of the great seal in 1625. He was also made a baron, with the title of Lord Coven- try. Died in 1640. Coventry, (Sir William,) M.P., the youngest son of the preceding, was born in 1626. He filled seve- ral civil offices with credit, and jiublished "England's Appeal from the Cabal, etc." The " Character of a Trimmer," commonly attributed to Lord Halifax, is by some ascribed to Coventry. Died in 1686. Cov'er-dale, (Miles,) an English bishop and Re- former, was born in Yorkshire in 1487. He became an Augustine monk, and entered holy orders in 15 14. He was one of the first Englishmen that embraced the Reformed religion, which he zealously promoted. In 1535 I'le published, with the royal sanction, the first entire Bible which appeared in the English language. translated by himself. He also edited the Cranmer or "Great Bible," in 1539. He was appointed Bishop of Exeter in 155 1. In the reign of Mary he was imprisoned two years and then exiled. He returned about 1558, but was not reinstated in the bishopric. Died about 1568. See "Memorials of the Right Rev. Myles Coverdale, Bishop of Exeter." Covilham or Covilhao, da, dS ko-v^l-yowN', (Don Pedro,) a Portuguese explorer, was born about 1450. He was sent by John II. in 1487 to search for Prester John and to explore a route to India. He visited India, and obtained about commerce and geography important in- formation, which he sent home. About 1492 he visited Abyssinia, the prince of which induced or constrained him to remain in his service. He was living there in 1525. See JoAo DE Barros, "Asia," vol. i. ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Covilhao. See Covilham. Covillard, ko've'ytR', written also Couillard, (Joseph,) a French surgeon, born in Dauphine, was noted for his skill in lithotomy. He lived about 1630. Cow'ard, (William,) an English physician, born in 1656, published, besides some medical works, " Second Thoughts concerning the Human Soul," (1702,) which favoured materialism and excited much indignation. It was burned by order of Parliament. Died in 1725. See " Biographia Britannica." Cow'din, (Robert,) an American officer, born at Ja- maica, Vermont, in 1805. He fought in the campaigns of 1 86 1, and became a brigadier-general of volunteers in 1862. Cow'ell, (John,) an English jurist, born in Devon- shire in 1554, wrote "The Interpreter." Died in 1611. CowTey, [formerly pronounced and sometimes writ- ten CooTey,] (Abraham,) a celebrated English poet, was born in London in 1618. At the age of fifteen he published a volume of poems, called " Poetic Blossoms," and in 1636 entered Trinity College, Cambridge, from which he was ejected as a royalist in 1643. In 1646 he went to Paris with the queen, and was employed as agent of a correspondence in cipher between her and Charles I. He produced in 1647 "The Mistress," a series of poems replete with frigid conceits which then passed for wit. " It is the most celebrated perform- ance," says Hallam, " of the miscalled metaphysical poets." Having returned to England about 1656, he published an edition of poems, including " Pindaric Odes," "Miscellanies," and "The Davideis," an epic. By his contemporaries he was more admired than any other poet of his age. At the restoration he failed to receive the expected reward of his loyalty, and, retiring from the world in disgust, settled at Chertsey as a farmer in 1665. He died in 1667. "His 'Pindaric Odes,'" says Hallam, " contain very beautiful lines ; but his sen- sibility and good sense — nor has any poet more — are choked by false taste. Cowley, perhaps, on the whole, has had a reputation more above his deserts than any English poet." " It may be affirmed," says Dr. John- son, " that he brought to his poetic labours a mind re- plete with learning, and that his pages are embellished with all the ornaments which books can supply ; that he was the first who imparted to English numbers the en- thusiasm of the greater ode and the gayety of the less ; and that he was equally qualified for sprightly sallies and for lofty flights." His prose essays are perspicuous and unaffected in style, and are among the earliest English models of good writing. See Johnson, "Lives of the English Poets;" Dr. Sprat, "Life of A. Cowley," 170c ; " Biographia Britannica ;" Campbell, " Speci- mens of the British Poets;" "North British Review" for February, 1847; "Retrospective Review," vol. i., 2d Series, 1S27. Cowley, (Mrs. Hannah,) whose maiden name was Parkhouse, an English dramatist, born at Tiverton in 1743, was married to Captain Cowley, an officer of the East India Company. She composed, besides other plays, two successful comedies, called "The Runaway" and "The Belle's Stratagem." She also wrote "The Maid of Aragon," and other poems. Died in 1809. See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica ;" " Gentleman's Magazine," i8og. Cowley, (Henry Richard Wellesley,) Lord, a British diplomatist, eldest son of Sir Henry Wellesley, a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mlt; n6t; good; moon; cow LET 68i COW PER fiist Lord Cowley, and nephew of the Duke of Welling- ton, was born in 1804. He was appointed secretary of legation to Constantinople in 1831, minister to Switzer- land in 1848, and ambassador to Paris in 1852. Lords Clarendon and Cowley represented England in the Con- gress of Paris which in 1856 concluded peace with Russia. Cowley, (Henry Wellesley,) the first Lord, an English diplomatist, born in 1773, was a brother of the Duke of Wellington. He was ambassador at Paris and other courts for many years. Died in 1847. Cow'per, (Edward,) an Englishman distinguished as an inventor and improver of printing-machinery, was born in 1790. We have little information respecting his life. He was for some time a partner in an extensive printing-office in London. In his later years he was professor of mechanics, etc. in King's College, London, where his lectures were highly popular. He contributed to the " Penny Cyclopaedia." Died in 1852. Cowper, (Spencer,) an English lawyer, was a younger brother of the first Earl Cowper, (1664-1723,) and grand- father of the great poet. After being tried for the mur- der of Sarah Stout, and acquitted, he became a judge in the court of common pleas, and a member of Parliament. See Macaulay, "History of England," vol. v.; "Blackwood's Magazine" for July, 1861. Cowper, (William,) a British divine, born in 1566. He preached about twenty years at Perth, after which he became Bishop of Galloway. He published Sermons, and other works on theology, which are commended. Died in 1619. Cowper, (WiLifAM,) an eminent English surgeon and anatomist, born in Hampshire in 1666. He settled in London, and became a Fellow of the Royal Society. He published a treatise on Muscles, entitled " Myotomia Reformata," (1694,) and the "Anatomy of the Human Body." His name has been applied to certain glands of the urethra. Died in 1709. See Thompson, "History of the Royal Society." Cowper, (William,) Lord, an eminent English judge and orator, born in the castle of Hertford in 1664, was the son of Sir William Cowper, and a great-uncle of the poet of that name. He entered the Middle Temple in his eighteenth year, and was called to the bar in 1688. Few men have had finer endowments for that profession ; and it appears that in a short time he was the leader of the home circuit. In 1695 he was elected to Parliament, where he acted with the Whig party. "The younger Cowper," says Lord Campbell, " like the younger Pitt, is a rare instance of a member of the House of Com- mons being considered from his maiden speech a con- summate debater." He was appointed king's counsel, and became the leader of the Whig party in the House of Commons. He was made lord chancellor, or keeper of the great seal, in 1705, and was raised to the peerage, as Baron Cowper, in 1706. The Tories having come into power in 17 10, he resigned the great seal, which was again confided to him on the accession of George I. in 1 7 14. For some years he was the king's chief adviser in political affairs, in which capacity he appears to have acted with wisdom and moderation. He re- signed the office of chancellor in 1718, and was created an earl. He died in 1723, leaving several sons. He had a high reputation for integrity. See Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors;" Foss, "The Judges of England." Cowper, (William,) an English clergyman and geo- meter, born in London in 1713, became Dean of Durham. He was a younger son of Earl Cowper. Died in 1772. Cow'per, (or koo'per,) (William,) one of the most eminent and popular of English poets, was born at Great Berkhamstead, in Hertfordshire, on the 26th of November, 1731. His father, John Cowper, a nephew of Earl Cowper, was rector of that parish, and chaplain to George II. Having lost his mother, whose maiden name was Donne, at the age of six years, he was then placed at the boarding-school of Dr. Pitman at Market Street, on the line between Bedford and Hertford coun- ties. Here his sensitive spirit and delicate organization suffered much from the cruelty of a larger boy. Between the ages of ten and eighteen he was a student of West- minster School, and became a good classical scholar. He entered the Middle Temple about 1752, and was called to the bar in 1754, but had little if any practice. While he was a student in the Temple, "he was struck," he says, " with such a dejection of spirits, as none but they who have felt the same can have the least con- ception of. To this moment I had felt no concern of a spiritual kind. Ignorant of original sin, insensible of the guilt of actual transgression, I understood neither the law nor the gospel." Thus it appears that religion was not, as some assert, the original cause of his terrible mental malady. He was tenderly attached to his cousin, Theodora Cowper, who favoured his suit, but whose parents forbade their union, — "With a little hoard of maxims preaching down a daughter's heart." In 1763, when his funds were nearly exhausted, he accepted the ofter of the place of clerk of the journals of the House of Lords ; but, when required to pass an examination before the bar of that House, his morbid nervousness was such that he could not endure the ordeal. After vain and agonizing efforts to brace him- self for the trial, he made abortive attempts to commit suicide, and his miseries produced insanity, which, he says, he had ardently wished for, and during which his dominant idea was despair of his salvation. Under the skilful treatment of Dr. Cotton, at Saint Alban's, he recovered in 1765, and became an inmate in the family of the Unwins at Huntingdon. After the death of Mr. Unwin, in 1767, Cowper and Mrs. Unwin removed to Olney, than which it would be difficult to select a worse locality for an invalid. The adjacent land was low, damp, and miasmatic, and there was no genial society within their reach. Then came a nervous fever, followed by a renewal of his insanity or delusion, which began about 1773, abated in 1776, but did not cease entirely until several years later. He was nursed in this period, as in other times of need, by his constant friend, Mary Unwin. About 1780 his friends persuaded him to cultivate his poetical powers. " Encompassed by the midnight of absolute despair," says he, "I first commenced as an author." In 1782 he published a volume of didactic poems, entitled "Truth," "Table-Talk," " Hope," "Cha- rity," " Conversation," etc. At the suggestion of Lady Austen, he wrote "John Gilpin," and " The Task," which appeared in 1785 and speedily obtained great and uni- versal favour. It was more popular than any other poem of equal length in the language. He spent about a year in its composition. In 1784 he began the translation of Homer into blank verse, — a labour of six years which were among the happiest of his life. In 1786 he was visited by his cousin. Lady Hesketh, with whom he had corresponded many years, and removed to Weston, a pleasant village about two miles from Olney. Lady Hesketh and others were very assiduous in providing for his comfort. But the last six years of his life were passed in a state of hopeless dejection. He died April 25, 1800. " His familiar letters sparkle with playful hu- mour. They are the pleasantest and most genial ever written." ("North British Review.") "I have always considered the letters of Cowper," says Robert Hall, "as the finest specimen of the epistolary style in our language. To an air of inimitable ease and carelessness they unite a high degree of correctness, such as could result only from the clearest intellect combined with the most finished taste." His version of Homer, considered with respect to fidelity to the original, is perhaps the best that has appeared in English. Besides the works above named, he composed numerous minor poems, and some of the " Olney Hymns," of which his friend John Newton was the principal author. Plis "Lines on his Mother's Por- trait" are exquisitely beautiful and touching. The chief characteristics of his poetry are originality, good sense, simplicity, piety, and warmth of heart. He was emphati- cally a Christian poet. No English poet, except Shak- speare, is more frequently quoted. " The great merit of this writer," says Lord Jeffrey, "appears to us to consist in the boldness and originality of his composition, and in the fortunate audacity with which he has carried the dominion of poetry into regions that had been considered as inaccessible to her ambition, . . . The great variety and truth of his descriptions, the minute and correct paintings of those home scenes and private feelings with which € as >6; 5 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K,gtiiticral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^='See Explanations, p. 23.) 682 COZZA COW PER every one is internally familiar, the sterling weight and sense of most of his observations, and, above all, the great appearance of facility with which everything is exe- cuted, and the happy use he has so often made of the most common and ordinary language, all concur to stamp upon his poems the character of original genius, and remind us of the merits that have secured immortality to Shakspeare." ("Edinburgh Review" for April, 1803.) See T. S. Gkimshaw, "Life of Cowper," 1835; Southey, "Life of W. Cowper," 2 vols., 18^8 ; Hayley, "Life of W. Cowper," 4 vols., 1803-09; Thomas Taylor, "Life of W. Cowper," 1833; " Edinbuiyii Review" for July, 1804. Cowpei-, (William Francis,) M.P., an English poli- tician, a younger son of the fifth Earl Cowper, was born in Hertfordshire in 1811. He became a lord of the trea- sury in 1837, and served under Lord John Russell as lord of the admiralty from 1846 to 1852. He was a step-son of Lord Palmerston, who appointed him president of the Board of Health in 1855, and vice-president of the Board of Trade in 1859. Cox, (David,) an English landscape-painter, born at Birmingham in 1793. He has attained distinction in painting in water-colours, chiefly British scenery. His works, though rather rough and not minutely finished, represent the phenomena of nature and of the weather with eminent success. He published a "Treatise on Painting in Water-Colours," (1814.) Ruskin praises "the purity and felicity of some of the careless, melting, water-colour skies of Cox," and says, " His foliage is alto- gether exquisite in colour, in its impressions of coolness, shade, and mass." ("Modern Painters.") Cox, (Francis Augustus,) D.D., an English theolo- gian, born about 1783, published, besides other works, a "Life of Melanchthon," (181 5,) and " Our Young Men," a prize essay, (1838.) Died in 1853. Cox, (Jacob D.,) an American general, born at Mon- treal about 1828, was a lawyer before the civil war. He was appointed a brigadier-general in May, 1861, soon after which he commanded a force in Western Virginia. In the autumn of 1862 he became a major-general. He served under General Sherman in the campaign against Atlanta, May-September, 1864, and commanded a divi- sion at the battle of Nashville in December of that year. Pie was elected Governor of Ohio by the Republicans in October, 1865, and appointed by President Grant secre- tary of the interior, in March, 1869. Cox, (John Edmund,) an English clergyman, born at Norwich in 1812, wrote a " Life of Cranmer," a "Life of Luther," and other works. Cox, (Leonard,) an English classical scholar, who wrote several works in Greek and Latin. Died in 1549. Cox, (Richard,) an English prelate, born in the county of Bucks in 1499. He was employed as tutor to Prince Edward, after whose accession as Edward VL he was almoner to the king, and Dean of Westminster. In 1559 he became Bishop of Ely. He translated for the "Bishops' Bible" the four Gospels, the Acts, and the Epistle to the Romans. Died in 1581. Cox, (Sir Richard,) an Irish writer, born in the county of Cork in 1650. He was made lord chancellor of Ireland in 1703. He published a " History of Ireland," and a few other works. Died in 1733. See Croker, " Researches in the South of Ireland." Cox, (Samuel Hanson,) D.D., a Presbyterian theo- logian, born at Leesville, New Jersey, in 1793. He was pastor of a church in Brooklyn, New York, from 1837 to 1854. He wrote "Quakerism not Christianity," and other works. Cox, (William Sands,) F.R.S., an eminent English surgeon and writer, born at Birmingham in 1802. He founded Queen's College, and the Queen's Hospital, both in Birmingham. Coxcie. See Coxie. Coxe, koks, (Arthur Cleveland,) an American Episcopal clergyman, a son of Dr. S. H. Cox, noticed above, was born at Mendham,- New Jersey, in 1818. He published, besides other works, "Christian Ballads," (1840,) "Saul, a Mystery," and "Impressions of Eng- land," (1856.) In 1859 he became rector of Grace Church, in the city of New York, and in 1865 became Bishop of Western New York. See Gkiswold's " Poets and Poetry of America." Coxe, koks, (Richard Charles,) an English theolo- gian and poet, born in 1799, was Archdeacon of Lindis- farne. Died in 1865. Coxe, (Tench,) an American writer on political econ- omy, commerce, manufactures, etc., was born in 1756; died in 1824. Coxe, (William,) a successful English historian and writer of travels, born in London in 1747. He became curate of Denham in 1 771, after which he travelled on the continent as tutor of the Marquis of Blandford and other young members of the nobility. He published "Travels in Russia, Poland, Sweden, and Denmark," (1784,) which are highly prized and interesting, and "Travels in Switzerland," (1789.) He was appointed chaplain to the Tower about 1796, and Archdeacon of Wilts in 1805. Among his most important works are a " History of the House of Austria," (1792,) "Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole," (3 vols., 1798,) "Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon, 1 700-1 788," (3 vols., 1813,) and "Memoirs of the Duke of Marlbo- rough," (181 7-19.) Died in 1828. See article on the " Life and Works of Archdeacon Coxe," in the "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1833; "Edinburgh Review" for April, 180S. Cox'e-ter, (Thomas,) an English critic and collector of rare books, was born in Gloucestershire in 1689. He assisted Ames in his "Typographical Antiquities," and Warton in his " History of English Poetry." He was making a collection of old English poets for publication when he died in 1747. Coxie or Coxcie, kok'see, (Michael,) a celebrated Flemish painter, born at Mechlin in 1497, was a pupil of Van Orley. After studying the works of Raphael in Rome, he returned home, and acquired a large fortune by his art. He had a fertile invention, a correct design, and a brilliant colouring. Among his best-known works is a copy of Van Eyck's " Adoration of the Lamb," which Coxie made for Philip II. of Spain. He was killed by a fall in 1592. See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flaniands," etc. Coyer, kwa^yi',(GAERiEL Francois,) Abbe, a French writer, born in Franche-Comte in 1707, published " Moral Bagatelles," a "History of John Sobieski," "The Com- mercial Noblesse," and other works. Died in 1782. Coyne, koin, (Joseph Sterling,) a dramatist, born in King's county, Ireland, in 1805, produced many suc- cessful farces. Died in 1868. Coypel, kwi^pSK, (Antoine,) an eminent French painter, born in Paris in 1661, was the son and pupil of Noel Coypel, with wliom he studied in Rome. About 1680 he returned to Paris, where he acquired a high reputation. In 1715 he received the title of first painter to the king. His style, though aifected and artifidal, was much admired by his contemporaries. He was a skilful engraver. Died in 1722. Plis son Charles, born in 1694, though an inferior artist, became first painter to the king. Died in 1752. See Bryan, " Dictionary of Painters." Coypel, (Noel,) a successful French painter, born in Paris in 1628. In 1655 he was employed by the king to adorn the Louvre and other edifices, and was received into the Royal Academy in 1663. Louis XIV. appointed him director of the Academy at Rome in 1672. His ordonnance and colouring are admired. To distinguish him from his sons Antoine and Noel Nicolas, he was sometimes called "Coypel le Poussin." Died in 1707. Coypel, (Noel Nicolas,) the son and pupil of the preceding, was born in Paris in 16S8. He obtained a high reputation as a historical painter, but his works are now less prized than in his own time. Died in 1734. Coysevox,kwSz\oks',(ANTOiNE,)an eminent French sculptor, of Spanish origin, born at Lyons in 1640. He studied under Lerambert in Paris, of which he became a resident, and was admitted into the Academy in 1676. Among his celebrated works are two statues of Louis XIV,, the tomb of Colbert, and two winged horses sur- mounted by Fame and Mercury, at the Tviileries. He excelled in busts and portraits. Died in 1720. Cozen. See Cosin. Cozza, kot's^, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born in Calabria in 1605 ; died in 1682. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; nSt; good; moon; COZZA 683 CRAIG Cozza, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter, born at Milan in 1676; died in 1742. Cozzens, kuz'enz, (Frederick Swartwout,) an American writer, born in New York in 1818. A volume entitled " Prismatics," made up of his contributions to the "Knickerbocker Magazine," appeared in 1853. He published, also, " Sparrowgrass Papers," in 1856, (ori- ginally contributed to '* Putnam's Magazine,") besides other works in prose and verse. Died in 1869. Craanen, kRa'nen, (Diedrik,) a Dutch medical writer, lived at Leyden ; died in 1688. Crabb, (George,) an English philologist, born about 1778, was a graduate of Oxford. He published a number of useful works, among which are " English Synonymes," (1816; loth edition, 1852,) a "Universal Historical Dic- tionary," (1825,) and " Mythology of All Nations," (1847.) Died in 1854. "As an etymologist, Mr. Crabb seems to have some dictionary knowledge of many languages, but to be unacquainted with the philosophy, or history even, of language in general." ("London Quarterly Review," vol. XXV.) Crabbe, krab, (George,) a popular English poet, born at Aldborough, in Suffolk, in 1754. His father filled the humble office of collector of salt-duties. He learned the profession of surgeon, which, however, he abandoned at an early age. Conscious of talents above the common order, he resolved to seek his fortune as an author, and in 1780 went to London with five pounds which he had borrowed. After his first productions had been rejected by the booksellers, he published, on his own account, " The Candidate," a poem, which brought him neither fame nor profit. In great pecuniary distress, he asked and received the generous patronage of Edmund Burke, who gave him a room in his own house, intro- duced him to Fox, Thurlow, and others, and enabled him, in 1 781, to publish "The Library," which was re- ceived with favour. He was ordained a priest in 1782, and soon after became chaplain to the Duke of Rutland at iBelvoir Castle. He published in 1783 "The Vil- lage," which confirmed his reputation as a powerful and original poet. At this period he married Sarah El my, the object of his early affections. Between 1785 and 1813 he officiated as curate or rector successively at Strathern, Muston, and Parham, After an interval of more than twenty years since his last appearance as a poet, he ])roduced "The Parish Register," (1807,) "The Borough," (1810,) and "Tales in Verse," (1812.) In 1813 he was presented to the living of Trowbridge, Wilt- shire, where he passed his last years. About 1819 he received ^^3000 for his "Tales of the Hall," and for the unexpired term of former copyrights. Died in 1832. His moral character was amiable and excellent. As a poet he is remarkable for vigour, truth in description, and a " Chinese accuracy" of observation. " Mr. Crabbe," says Lord Jeffrey, " is the greatest mannerist, perha])s, of all our living poets. The homely, cjuaint, prosaic style, the eternal full-lengths of low and worthless characters, with their accustomed garnishing of sly jokes and fami- liar morali/Jng, are all on the surface of his writings. . . . An unrivalled and almost magical power of ob- servation, — an anatomy of character and feeling not less exquisite and searching, . . . are interspersed by fits and strangely interwoven with the most minute and humble of his details. Add to all this the sure and profound sagacity of the remarks with which he every now and then startles us ; the weight and terseness of the maxims which he drops like oracular responses; and that sweet and seldom-sounded chord of lyrical inspiration, the lightest touch of which instantly charms away all harshness from his numbers and all harshness from his themes." See " Life of George Crabbe," by liis son, 1S38, new edition, 1847 ; Jeffrey,^ "Miscellanies;" "Quarterly Review" for November, iSio; " Edinbiirch Review" for April, 1810, and November, 1812; " Blackwood's Magazine" for July, 1819. Crabet See Crabeth. Crabeth or Crabet, kRi'bet, (Thierry or Dirk and Vautier,) excellent Dutch painters on glass, are sup- posed to have been born in Gouda. They were brothers. They executed (between 1560 and 1570) on the glass windows of the church of Gouda pictures which were considered inimitable. Dirk died in 1601. See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Fiamands," etc. Crab'tree, (William,) an English astronomer, who was associated with Jeremiah Horrox in scientific pur- suits. His observations were printed by Wallis in 1672. He died at an early age in 1641. Cradock, (John Francis.) See Howden, Baron. Crad'ock, (Joseph,) an English gentleman and au- thor, born at Leicester in 1742, inherited an easy fortune, and lived in London. He published "Village Memoirs," a work of fiction, "Zobeide," (1771,) a tragedy, which was performed with success, " Literary Memoirs," (4 vols., 1826,) and other works. Died in 1826. Cradock, (Luke,) an English painter of birds, etc. Died in 171 7. Cradock, (Samuel,) an English nonconformist di- vine, born in 1620. Fie became rector of North Cad- bury, from which he was ejected in 1662. Besides other works, he published "Knowledge and Practice," "The Harmony of the Four Evangelists," and "Apostolical History," which were highly esteemed. Died in 1706. Cradock, (Zachary,) a brother of Samuel, noticed above, was born probably in England in 1633. He left two sermons which have been greatly admired, the subjects of which are Providence and the Design of Christianity. Died in 1695. Craesbeke, van, vtn kRls'bi''keh or kR^s^bik', (Joseph,) a skilful Flemish painter, born at Brussels in 1608, was a pupil of Brauwer, whom he imitated. He preferred low and sordid subjects, such as drunken brawls and parties of smokers. Died in 1668. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Fiamands," etc. Craft. See Crato. Crafts, (Samuel C.,) born at Woodstock, Connecticut, in 1768, was a member of Congress from 1816 to 1824, and was chosen Governor of Vermont in 1828, 1829, and 1830. Died in 1853. Crafts, (William,) a lawyer and poet, born at Charles- ton, South Carolina, in 1787; died in 1826. See S. Oilman, "Memoir of W. Crafts," 1828. Craggs, (James,) an English politician, was a friend of Addison, whom he succeeded as secretary of state in 1 7 18. " He was a young man," saj'^s Macaulay, "whose natural parts were quick and showy, whose graceful per- son and winning manners had made him generally acceptable in society, and who if he had lived would pro- bably have been the most formidable of all the rivals of \Val]Dole." ("Essay on the Life and Writings of Addi- son.") Died in 1720. Cragius. See Craig, (Nicholas.) Craig, (James,) a Scottish divine, born in East Lothian in 1682, became one of the most popular preachers of Edinburgh. He published several volumes of sermons and religious poems. Died in 1744. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionaiy of Eminent Scotsmen." Craig, (James,) an American officer, born in Pennsyl- vania about 1820, served in the Mexican war, and was made a brigadier-general of volunteers in 1862. Craig, (John,) a Scottish Reformer, born about 1512, was a monk in early life. He visited Italy, where he was employed as teacher and rector in a school. Having been converted to the Protestant faith and made an open profession, he was sentenced at Rome to die by fire ; but in consequence of the death of the pope his prison was broken open by a mob, and he escaped from that doom, and returned to Scotland. He became a prominent coadjutor in the work of reformation in Scotland, and was chosen minister of Aberdeen in 1574. In 1577 he removed to Edinburgh, was appointed chaplain to James VI., and in 1580 composed the "National Covenant." Died in 1600. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Craig, (John,) a Scottish mathematician, the dates of whose birth and death are unknown. He contributed to the "Philosophical Transactions," (1698-1712,) and published a work on fluxions, entitled " De Calculo Flu- entium," (1718,) and a few other treatises. He first made known in England the differential calculus discovered by Leibnitz, See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Craig, krag, [Lat. Cra'gius,] (Nicholas,) a Danish writer, probably of British extraction, born at Ripen in € as k; c as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, y., guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) CRAIG 684 CRANACH 1549, became professor of Greek in Copenhagen, and -ector of the university. He published a book on the Republic of Sparta, (1593,) which was highly esteemed, and a few other Latin works. In 1598 he was sent on a political mission to England. He was a friend of Scali- ger. Died in 1602. See Kraft og Nyerup, " Litteraturlexicon." Craig, (Sir Thomas,) of Riccarton, an eminent Scot- tish lawyer and antiquary, born in Edinburgh about 1540, was a relative of John Craig, (1512-1600.) After pur- suing his studies in Paris, he passed advocate in Edin- burgh in 1563, and became a judge (justice depute) in 1564. He wrote several admired Latin poems, one of which is on the birth of James VL In 1603 he completed his celebrated work on " Feudal Law," (" Jus Feudale,") which was not published until 1655, and which is re- garded as an authority all over Europe. He was emi- nent for modesty and other virtues. Died in 1608. See P. F. Tytler, "Life of Sir Thomas Craig," 1823; Cham- bers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Craig, (William,) a Scottish minister, born at Glas- gow in 1709 ; died in 1784. Craig, (William,) a literary Scottish judge, born in 1745, succeeded Lord Hailes as judge in 1792. He con- tributed numerous papers to the " Mirror." Died in 1813. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Craik, (George Lillie,) an able historical and criti- cal writer and editor, born in Fifeshire, Scotland, in 1799. He became a resident of London about 1824, and pro- duced "The Pursuit of Knowledge under Ditftculties," (183 1.) He contributed many historical and biographi- cal articles to the "Penny Cyclopaedia." Mr. Craik and C. Macfarlane were the principal editors or authors of the " Pictorial History of England" published by Knight, (1840-49.) He wrote the chapters on religion, commerce, industry, and literature in that work, and other useful works, among which are " Bacon : his Wri- tings and his Philosophy," (3 vols., 1846,) " Romance of the Peerage," (1848-50, 4 vols.,) and a " History of English Literature," (2 vols.) In 1849 he was chosen professor of English literature in Queen's College, Bel- fast. Died in June, 1866. See "Gentleman's Magazine" for August, 1866. Craik, (James,) a physician, born in Scotland in 1731. He accompanied Washington in an expedition against the French and Indians in 1754, and served as physician under General Braddock in 1755. After the Revolution- ary war he settled near Mount Vernon, and became the family physician of Washington. Died in 1814. Craik, Mrs. See Muloch. Crak'aii-thorp or Crakanthorpe, (Richard,) an English divine, born in Westmoreland in 1567. He was an eloquent Puritan preacher, and author of several works, among which is " Defence of the English Church," ("Defensio Ecclesise Anglicanae.") Died in 1624. Craniail, de, deh IcRi'mtF or kRt'mS'ye, (Adrien de Montluc — moN'liik',) Count, a French writer, born in 1568, was a grandson of Marshal de Montluc. He was imprisoned in the Bastille from 1630 to 1642 for alleged intrigues against Richelieu. His farce called "LaCo- medie des Proverbes" (1616) was much admired. Died in 1646. Cramer, kRi^iier, (Andreas Wilhelm,) a Danish professor, son of J. Andreas Cramer, the eminent poet, was born at Copenhagen in 1760. He became professor of law in his native city, and wrote several esteemed treatises on law and philology. Died in 1833. See NiETZSCH, " Memoria A. W. Crameri." Cramer, kRa'mer, (Carl Friedrich,) a litterateur, born at Kiel about 1750, was a son of Johann Andreas, noticed below\ He was for some time professor of ancient literature in Copenhagen, and removed to Paris about 1795. He translated Schiller's "Joan of Arc," and other German works, into French, and published a good German-French Dictionary, (1805.) Died in Paris in 1808. See "Conversations-Lexikon ;" Qu^rard, " La France Litteraire." Cramer, kR^'mer, (Daniel,) a German Protestant theologian, born at Reetz in 1568. He was professor at Wittenberg and Stettin, and author of several works, among which is " Schola Prophetica," (1606-12.) Died in 1637. Cramei', (Franz,) a German composer of instrumental music, born at Munich in 1772 ; died in 1848. Cramer, kRi'mer, (Gabriel,) an eminent Swiss geo- meter, born at Geneva in 1704. He cultivated many sciences with success, and in 1750 was appointed pro- fessor of philosophy in his native city. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. One of his most im- portant works is "An Analysis of Algebraic Curves." Died in 1752. See Senebier, " Histoire litteraire de Geneve." Cramer, (Jean Jacques,) a Swiss Protestant professor of Hebrew and theology, was born near Zurich in 1673. He wrote, in Latin, " Theology of Israel," (1705.) Died in 1702. Cramer, (Johann Andreas,) a German mineralogist, born at Quedlinburg in 17 10, made important discoveries in metallurgy. He published, in Latin, " Elements of the Docimastic Art," (1739,) and in German, " Principles of Metallurgy," (1774-77,) both valuable works. Died in 1777. See Adelung, Supplement to Jocher, " AUgemeines Gelchrten- Lexikon." Cramer, (Johann Andreas,) an eminent German poet and prose-writer, born at Johstadt, in Saxony, in 1723. He was invited to Copenhagen by Frederick V., and appointed preacher to the court in 1754. In 1765 he became professor of theology in the university of that city. He translated Bossuet's "Universal History" into German, published "The Northern Spectator," (1759 -70,) a series of essays which was successful, and three volumes of poems, "Sammtliche Gedichte," (1783.) The Germans reckon him among their best lyric poets. In 1774 he obtained the chair of theology at Kiel. Died in 1788. See Christiani, "Oration {Geddchtnissrede) in Honour of J. A. Cramer," 1788; Hirsching. " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." Cramer, (Johann Baptist,) an excellent German composer and pianist, was born at Manheim in 1771, and taken to London in infancy. He passed most of his life in England. His " Studies for the Piano" are said to be unsurpassed in richness and harmony. Died in 1858. See " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Cramer, (Johann Friedrich,) a German jurist, was preceptor of the prince-royal of Prussia. Died in 171 5. Cramer, (Johann Rudolph,) a Swiss theologian and Hebraist, born near Zurich in 1678; died in 1737. See J. ZimMermann, "Vie de J. R. Cramer." Cra'mer, (John Antony,) an eminent scholar, born at Mitlodi, Switzerland, in 1793, removed to England in his youth. He became pastor of Binsey in 1822, and professor of modern history at Oxford in 1842. He pub- lished a "Description of Ancient Italy," (1826,) a "De- scription of Asia Minor," (1832,) "Anecdota Greeca," (1837,) and other able works. Died in 1848. Cramer, kRi'mer, ( Nicolaas, ) a Dutch portrait- painter, born at Leyden in 1670, was a pupil and imitator of Karl Moor. Died in 17 10. Cramp'ton, (Sif Philip,) a naturalist and physician, born in Dublin in 1777. He wrote several professional treatises. Died in 1858. Cranach or Kranach, von, fon kran'ak or kR^'naK, (Lucas,) a celebrated German painter and engraver, born at Cranach, near Bamberg, in 1472. His family name was Sunder. He painted history and portraits, and worked about fifty years at Wittenberg in the service of three Electors of Saxony, the last of whom was John Frederick. He was an intimate friend of Luther and Melanchthon, whose portraits he painted and engraved. Among his master-pieces are "The Preaching of John the Baptist," and a "Crucifixion." Plis works are said to be more admirable for thought or invention than for execution. He was a good colorist, but very deficient in design. Died at Weimar in 1553. See Schuchardt. " L. Kranachs des Aeltern Leben und Werke," 1851 ; Heller, " Versuch iiber das Leben, etc. L. Cranachs," Bam- berg, 1 82 1. Cranach, von, (Lucas,) a son of the preceding, born in 15 1 5, was also an eminent painter. He was a burgo- master of Wittenberg. Died in 1586. a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mgt; n6t; good; moon; CRANBORNE 685 CRAS Cran'borne or Cran'bourne, (Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoigne Cecil,) Lord, a younger son of the Marquis of Salisbury, born in 1830. He was formerly called Lord Robert Cecil. In 1853 he was elected to Parliament by the voters of Stamford, which he repre- sented for many years. He is one of the foremost de- baters of the Conservative party. He became secretary for India in the cabinet of Lord Derby in July, 1866, and resigned in March, 1867. He inherited the title of Marquis of Salisbury in the spring of 1868, and then passed into the House of Lords. Cranbourne. See Cranborne. Cranch, (Christopher P.,) a poet and landscape- painter, a son of William Cranch, noticed below, was born at Alexandria, Virginia, in 1813. He visited Italy about 184S, after which he resided many years in Paris. He wrote "The Last of the Huggermuggers," (1856.) See Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America;" Tuckerman, " Hook of the Artists." Cranch, (William,) LL.D., an eminent American jurist, born at Weymouth, Massachusetts, in 1769, gra- duated at Harvard in 1787. In 1801 he was appointed by President Adams an associate judge of the United States circuit court for the District of Columbia, of which he was made chief justice by Jefferson in 1805. The duties of these two positions Judge Cranch dis- charged with unwearied assiduity -imtil his death; and, during this period of more than half a century, it is said that only two of all his decisions were overruled by the United States supreme court and sent back for amend- ment. His legal attainments were varied and profound, and his industry and powers of application were extra- ordinary. He made careful reports of cases decided in the circuit court for the District of Columbia from 1801 to 1841, published in 6 octavo vols., and, as reporter to the supreme court of the United States, issued 9 vols, from 1801 to 1815, and others in 1835. Died in Sep- tember, 1855. Crane, (Thomas,) an English nonconformist minister of Lancashire, wrote a " Prospect of Divine Providence," (1672.) Died in 17 14. Crane, (William M.,) an American commodore, born at Elizabethtown, New Jersey, in 1776. He served with distinction in the war of 1 81 2. In 1827 he was ap- pointed commander of a squadron in the Mediterranean, and in 1842 became chief of the bureau of ordnance. Died in 1846. Cran'mer, (Thomas,) Archbishop of Canterbury, an English statesman, divine, and Reformer, was born at Aslacton, in Nottinghamshire, in 1489. He became a Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge, and was learned in Greek, Hebrew, and theology. In 1529 he obtained the favour of Henry VIIL by proposing that the question of his divorce should be referred to the universities. The king appointed him his chaplain, and sent him to Rome to procure the assent of the pope to the divorce. Having failed in this mission, he returned home in 1530, and infringed the rule of his church by marriage with a niece of Osiander. He was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in 1533, and became Henry's favourite ad- viser, or prime minister. He had secretly adopted the principles of the Reformers, and he used his influence to subvert the power of the pope in England and to abolish the monasteries. A few years after his elevation to the primacy he openly favoured the Reformation, assisted in compiling the "Bishops' Book," and in 1538 opposed without success the law of the Six Articles, or "Bloody Statutes." Though he resisted the royal will on this and other occasions, he was protected by Henry when the Catholic courtiers conspired to ruin him in 1544. In 1547 he was chosen one of the regency during the mi- nority of Edward VI. He was the head of a commission which composed the English Liturgy in 1548. "The man who took the chief part," says Macaulay, " in settling the conditions of the alliance which produce'd the Anglican Church, was Thomas Cranmer. He was the representative of both the parties which at that time needed each other's assistance. In his character of divine, he was ready to go as far in the way of change as any Swiss or Scottish Reformer. In his character of states- man, he was desirous to preserve that organization which had served the purposes of the bishops of Rome and might be expected to serve equally well the purposes of the English kings and their ministers. His temper and his understanding eminently fitted him to act as media- tor." Notwithstanding his general moderation, he went so far as to condemn two persons to death for heresy. By the entreaties of King Edward VI. he was induced in 1553 to sign the patent which settled the crown on Lady Jane Grey, and in the same year was committed to tlje Tower for treason against Queen Mary. His enemies, in order to subject him to a more cruel punishment, withdrew the charge of treason, and prosecuted him for heresy. He was excommunicated in 1555. Tempted with the hopes of life, and overcome by the fear of tor- ture, he agreed to subscribe to the doctrines of the papal supremacy and the real presence. Repenting of this lapse, which would not have saved him from the stake, he suffered with fortitude martyrdom by fire in 1556. " He was undoubtedly," says Hume, " a man of merit ; possessed of learning and capacity, and adorned with candour, sincerity, and all those virtues which were fitted to render him useful and amiable in society. His moral qualities procured him universal respect, and the courage of his martyrdom made him the hero of the Protestant party." Others, including Macaulay, form a less favour- able estimate, and call him an unscrupulous time-server. For Froude's view of the character of Cranmer, formed, as it appears, from a very careful examination of his life and acts, see the first six volumes of his " History of England," but more particularly chap, xxxiii. Cran- mer was author of many theological treatises. See Archdeacon Todd, "Life of Cranmer," 1831 ; Strype, "Memorials of Cranmer:" "Lives of Eminent British Statesmen," in " Lardiier's Cabinet Cyclopjedia ;" Macaulay, " History of Eng- land," vol. i.; LiNGARD, " History of England ;" W. F. Hook," Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury;" A. van Deinse, " Leven van T. Cranmer," Amsterdam, 1S43 ; Shakspeare's "Henry VIIL" Cran'tor, [Kpuvrwp,] a Greek Academic philosopher, born at Soli, or Soles, in Cilicia, lived about 300 B.C. After he had become distinguished in his own country, he went to Athens, and studied in the school of Xeno- crates. He is cited by Horace as an eminent moralist. He wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on Afflic- tion," {Tlepl Ylevdovc;,) which was highly praised, and from which Cicero borrowed largely in his " Consolatio." See Diogenes Laertius; Kayser, "Dissertatio de Crantora Academico," 1841. Crantz, (Albert.) See Krantz. Crantz, kR^nts, (Heinrich Johann Nepomucenus,) a German botanist, born in 1722, was a professor of medicine at Vienna. Cran'wprth, (Robert Monsey Rolfe,) Baron, an English judge, born at Cranworth, in Norfolk, in 1790. He was elected to Parliament by the Liberals in 1832, appointed solicitor-general in 1834, and a baron of the exchequer in 1839. In 1850 he became vice-chancellor, and was raised to the peerage, as Baron Cranworth. On the formation of a ministry by Lord Aberdeen in Decem- ber, 1852, he was appointed lord chancellor of England. He retired from office when Lord Derby came into power, in February, 1858, was again appointed lord chancellor in July, 1865, and resigned with his colleagues in June, 1866. Died in July, 1868. See Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. Cranz, kRSnts, (David,) a Moravian missionary and historian, born at Neugarten, Pomerania, in 1723. He became secretary of Count Zinzendorf in 1747, after which he laboured in Greenland. He wrote a "History of Greenland," (1765,) and a " History of the Moravians," (1771.) Died in Silesia in 1777. Crapelet, kRSp'la', (Georges Adrien,) a French publisher and writer, born at Paris in 1789. He trans- lated into French verse "The Marriage of Thetis and Peleus," by Catullus, (1809,) and wrote "Souvenirs of London," (181 7.) Died in 1842. Crapone, de, deh kRfpon', (Adam,) a French en- gineer, born at Salon in 15 19, was skilled in hydraulic architecture. He constructed the most ancient canal in France, called the "Canal of Crapone," finished about 1560. Died in 1559. Cras, kR^s, (Hendrik Constantin,) a Dutch jurist, born at Wageningen in 1739 ; died in 1820. See M. Kemper, "Memoria H. C. Cras," 1825. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, Yi.guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^[^See Explanations, p. 23.) / CRASHAW 686 CRATO Crash'aw, (Richard,) an English poet and priest, born in London. He became a Fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge, in 1637, before which he had published some Latin poems in one of which occurs this much-admired line on the miracle at Cana : " Lympha piidica Deum vidit et erubuit."* He was ejected from the university in 1644 for refusing to take the Covenant, and went to France, where he was converted to the Roman Catholic faith. In 1646 he published " Steps to the Temple," " Sacred Poems," etc., which display a rich imagination. Pie was a canon of the church of Loretto, Italy, when he died about 1650. See " Retrospective Review," vol. i., 1820. Crasset, kki'sa^ (Jean,) a French Jesuit, born at Dieppe in 1618, lived many years in Paris. He published several ascetic works, and a " History of the Church of Ja])an," (1689.) Died in 1692. Ci'asso, kkds'so, (Francesco,) an Italian jurist of high reputation, lived at Milan in the sixteenth century. Crasso, (Lorenzo,) an Italian author, of whose life we have no details, was born at Naples. His works, in prose and verse, display talent, but are marred by the bad taste of that time. Among the principal of them are "Heroic Epistles," (1655,) and "Eulogies on Literary Men," (1656.) Crasso, (Niccol6,) a Venetian historian, born in the sixteenth century, wrote, besides other Latin works, " Eulogies of Illustrious Venetians,"(i6i2,) and a treatise "On the P^orm of the Venetian Government," (" De Forma Reipublicas Venetse.") Cras'sus, (Lucius Licinius,) a famous Roman orator and lawyer, born about 140 B.C., (612 A.u.C.) He was elected consul in 95 B.C., and censor about two years later. He was considered the most excellent orator of his time, and was highly praised by Cicero, who assigned to Cras- sus a part of the dialogue in his treatise " De Oratore." His orations are not extant. Died in 90 or 91 B.C. See Cicero, "Brutus" and "De Oratore;" Dfjumann, "Ge- schichte Roms;" Meyer, "Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta." Crassus, (Marcus Licinius,) a Roman triumvir, noted for his great wealth, was born about 108 B.C. He was chosen praetor in 74 B.C., (680 A.u.c.,) and defeated Spartacus, the leader of a servile revolt. In the year 71 he was chosen consul with Pompey, and a few years later he united with Pompey and Cxsar to form the first triumvirate, which ruined the power of the senate. Crassus and Pompey were elected consuls in 56 B.C., and, while CiEsar commanded in Gaul, Crassus obtained command of Syria for five years. He is said to have manifested extravagant joy at the prospect of increasing his fortune in the East. Having resolved to invade Par- thia, he crossed the Euphrates, and, after taking a town in the year 54, returned to Syria, where he passed the winter. The next season he entered Mesopotamia, and was defeated with great loss by the Parthian general Surena near Carrhae, (the Haran of the Bible.) He was then compelled by his mutinous troops to meet in conference with Surena, who had made overtures for peace, and was there treacherously killed in 53 B.C. Plis ruling passion was avarice. He was a man of great industry, a keen speculator, and a large dealer in slaves. See Plutarch, "Crassus:" Drumann, " Geschichte Roms;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Crassus, (Publius,) a son of the triumvir Crassus, served as legate of Caesar in Gaul in 58 B.C. He fought bravely against the Parthians, and was killed at the battle near Carrhae in 53 B.C. Crassus, (P. Licinius,) a Roman general, who was chosen pontifex maximus in 212 B.C. In 205 he became consul with Scipio Africanus, and gave proof of military talents in the war against Hannibal. Died in 183 B.C. Crastoni, kR^s-to'nee, or Crestoni, kR§s-to'nee, (Giovanni,) an Italian Hellenist and monk, born at Piacenza, is said to have compiled the first Greek-Latin Dictionary, printed about 1478. Cratere. See Craterus. Crat'e-rus, [Gr. Kparfpof; Fr. Crat^ire, kRt'taiR',] one of the most eminent of the generals and successors of Alexander the Great, whom he followed in the invasion * "The modest water saw its God and blushed." of Persia. He was a rival of Hephaestion in the royal favour. His character is said to have been noble and highly esteemed by the king. In 324 B.C. he was selected to conduct the veterans back to Macedonia. At the death of Alexander (323) he was associated with An- tipater in the government of Macedonia and Greece. He commanded an army in Cappadocia, where he was defeated by Eumenes, and killed in battle, in 321 B.C. See Plutarch, "Alexander," and "Phocion." Cra'tes [KparT/f] of Athens, an excellent Greek comic poet, who flourished about 450 15. c. In his youth he was the principal actor in the plays of Cratinus. He indulged in personalities less than other writers of the old comedy. Among the titles of his plays are "The Neighbours," (Feirovef,) and "The Games," i^at^iat.) The fragments of his works which have come down to us are admired for purity and elegance of style. See Fabkicius, " Bibllotheca Grasca;" Meineke, " Quaestiones Scenicas," and his "Fragmenta Comicorum GrjEcorum." Crates of Athens, a philosopher of the old Academy, flourished about 280 B.C. He was a pupil and intimate friend of Polemo, whom he succeeded in the chair of the Academy. His writings are lost. Crates of Thebes, a famous Cynic philosopher, was a son of Ascondas. He became a disciple of Diogenes, at Athens, probably about 330 B.C., and was highly esteemed for his probity and wisdom. He was noted for his self-control, abstinence, and preference of poverty to riches. He wrote essays on philosophy, tragedies, which were praised by Diogenes Laertius, and small poems, all of which are lost. Crates was living in 307 B.C. See Brucker," Historia Philosophias ;" Posthumus," Dissertatio de Cratete C^'nico," 1S23 ; Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grjeca." Crates, an eminent grammarian and Stoic, born at Mallus, in Cilicia, left, besides many other works, a cor- rected or annotated edition of Homer, fragments of which are extant. Fie lived at Pergamos, and about 156 B.C. was sent by the king of that country as ambassador to Rome, where he gave lectures on grammar. He founded a flourishing school of grammar at Pergamos. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca;" Suetonius, "De illustri- bus Granimaticis." Cra-te'vas, [Kpare^af,] a Greek botanist, who lived about 80 B.C., is often quoted by Pliny and Dioscorides. He wrote on Materia Medica. Cra-ti'nus, [Kpanj'of,] a celebrated Athenian poet of the old comedy, born about 519 B.C., was a son of Callimedes, and a rival of Aristophanes. He was the first comic writer who made the drama an instrument of personal satire, and was noted for the audacity of his sarcasms. Pericles was often the object of his unsparing invective. He produced numerous plays, nine of which gained prizes. None of his works exist in a complete state. In 423 B.C. he obtained a triumph over Aristophanes for his "Wine-Flask." He died in 422, aged about ninety- six. The extant fragments of Cratinus were edited by Runkel, 1827. See MeinhivE, "Historia Critica," and "Fragmenta Comicorum Graecorum;" C. W. Lucas, "Cratinus et Eupolis," 1S26. Cratippe. See Cratippus. Cra-tip^pus, [Kp(m7r;To^-,] a Greek historian, who lived about 400 B.C., and continued the work of Thucydides. Cratippus, [Gr. Kpa-iTr-o^-; Fr. Cratippe, kRt't^p',] a Greek Peripatetic philosopher of Mitylene. He was a teacher and friend of Cicero, who estimated him as the first philosopher of that age. When Pompey, retreat- ing from Pharsalia, passed through Mitylene, Cratippus conversed with him on Providence. About 48 B.C. he opened a school at Athens, to which Cicero sent his son Marcus. Brutus attended his lectures at Athens in 44 B.C. Cratippus appears to have left only one work, a "Treatise on Divination by Dreams." The date of his death is unknown. See Cicero, "De Officiis" and " De Divinatione ;" Plutarch, "Pompey" and "Cicero;" Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dic- tionary." Crato, kR^'to, or Craton, kR^'ton, (Johann,) a Ger- man physician, originally named Craft or Crafft, was born at Breslau in 15 19. He studied under Luther and Melanchthon at Wittenberg, and' was the favourite pupil of Montano in medicine. He practised many years at a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s^ort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; CRATTLUS 687 CREBILLON Augsburg, and became chief physician of the emperors Ferdinand I. and Maximilian II. He published "Intro- duction to Medicine," ("Isagoge Medicinae," 1560,) and other medical works. Died in 1585. See NicERON, "Meinoires:" Adam, "Vitae Germanorum Medi- corum;" Mokeri, " Dictionnaire Historique." Crat'y-lus, [Kpam/of,] a Greek philosopher, who lived in the htth century B.C., and professed the doctrines of Heraclitus. He was one of the teachers of Plato. Craiiford. See Crawford and Craufurd. Crau'furd or Craw'furd, (John,) a British officer and writer of the present era, published several valuable works on Oriental affairs, among which are a " History of the Indian Archipelago," (1820,) " Siam and Cochin China," (1828,) and a " Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay Language," (1852.) Craufurd, Crau'ford, or Craw'ford, (Quintin,) a Scottish author, born in Ayrshire in 1743, went to India in his youth, served the Company as military and civil officer, and about 1780 returned to Europe with an easy fortune. He lived some years in Paris, where he had intimate relations with the queen Marie Antoinette and the empress Josephine. He published " Sketches of the History, Religion, and Maimers of the Hindoos," (1790,) "Melanges of History and Literature," (1809,) and other works, which are commended. Died in 1819. Crause. See Krause. CraVen, (Charles,) became Governor of South Caro- lina in 1712. He successfully defended the colony against the Yemassee Indians in 171 5. Craven, (Thomas T.,) an American rear-admiral, born in the District of Columbia, entered the service in 1822. He distinguished himself as commander of the Brooklyn in the victory by which Farragut captured New Orleans in April, 1862. Craven, (Tunis Augustus,) an American naval officer, born in New Hampshire, entered the navy about 1829. Pie became a lieutenant in 1841, and afterwards a captain. He was captain of the iron-clad Tecumseh, and was drowned when it was sunk by a torpedo in the attack on the defences of Mobile, August 5, 1864. Cra'ven, (William,) an English clergyman, born in 1731, was professor of Arabic in Cambridge, and pub- lished "Sermons on a Future State," and "Discourses in Answer to Hume," (1802.) Died in 1815. Craveta, kR^-va'ta, ( Aimone,) an Italian jurist, born in Piedmont in 1504; died in 1569. Craw'fprd, (Adair,) F.R.S., an eminent British chemist and physician, born in 1749. He was professor of chemistry at Woolwich, and a member of the Philo- sophical Society of Philadelphia. He acquired reputa- tion by an ingenious work entitled "Experiments and Observations on Animal Heat," (1779.) Died in 1795. Crawford, Earl of. See Lindsay, (John.) Craw'fprd, Crau'ford, or Craw'fiird, (David,) a Scottish historian, born in 1665. He was appointed historiographer royal for Scotland by Queen Anne, and in 1706 published "Memoirs of the Affairs of Scotland, 1566-81," which is charged with partiality. Died in 1726. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Craw^ford, (George W.,) an American lawyer, born in Columbia county, Georgia, in 1798. He was elected Governor of Georgia in 1843, and re-elected in 1845. He was appointed secretary of war by President Taylor in March, 1849, ^"cl resigned, in consequence of the death of the President, in July, 1850. _ Crawford, (Nathaniel Macon,) an American Bap- tist minister, born near Lexington, Georgia, in 1811, was a son of William H. Crawford, noticed below. He was chosen president of Mercer University, Georgia, in 1854, resigned in 1856, and was re-elected about 1858. He is distinguished as a pulpit orator. Crawford, (Quintin.) See Craufurd. Crawford, (Robert,) a Scottish poet, acquired repu- tation by the admired lyrics of "Tweedside," and "The Bush aboon Traquair." Died in 1733. Crawford, (Samuel W.,) an American general, born in Franklin county, Pennsylvania, in 1829. He became a surgeon in the 'army about 1851, and was one of the garrison of Fort Sumter in April, 1861. In the spring of 1862 he was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers. He commanded a division at Antietam, September 17, 1862, and at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. Crawford, (Thomas,) an eminent American sculp- tor, born in New York in 1814. He visited Italy about 1835, and studied under Thorwaldsen at Rome, where he worked many years. About 1840 he produced a statue of " Orpheus," which was much admired. He received in 1849 a- commission from the State of Virginia to exe- cute a colossal equestrian statue of Washington, which is at Richmond. Among his numerous works are several religious and mythological subjects, and a colossal statue of the Genius of America for the Capitol at Washington. Died in London in 18^7. See TucKERMAN, " Eook of the Artists;" "Democratic Review" for May, 1843; "Atlantic Monthly" for July, 1869. Crawfoi-d, (William,) a Scottish divine, born at Kelso in 1676, wrote a work entitled " Dying Thoughts," Died in 1742. Crawford, (William Harris,) an American states- man, born in Amherst county, Virginia, in 1772, re- moved with his father to Georgia in his childhood He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1798, and set- tled at Lexington, Georgia. In 1807 he was elected a Senator of the United States by the Democrats, and in 1813 he was appointed minister to France. He became secretary of war in 181 5, and secretary of the treasury in 1816. He continued to hold this position throughout the administration of President Monroe, which ended in March, 1825. In 1824 he was nominated for the Presi- dency by the Congressional caucus, the right of which to select a candidate was disowned by the majority of the pcirty. His competitors were General Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and Henry Clay. Crawford received only forty-one electoral votes. He was afterwards a circuit judge in Georgia. Died in 1834. See " National Portrait- Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. Crawfurd, (David.) See Crawford. Craw'furd, (George,) a British historian, of whose life we have no details, born probably in Scotland. He published an esteemed "History of the Family of the Stuarts," (1710,) and the "Peerage of Scotland," (1716.) Crawfurd, (John.) See Craufurd. Crayer, de, deh kri'yer or kkfya^ (Caspar or Gas- pard,) a celebrated Flemish historical painter, was born at Antwerp in 1582. He worked for a time at Brussels, and afterwards for many years at Ghent. He adorned the cities of Flanders with many large altar-pieces and other pictur||5. His design is generally correct, and his colour- ing good. He neaily equalled Van Dyck in portraits. Among his master-pieces are " Saint Catherine passing up to Heaven," and the "Martyrdom of Saint Blaise," painted in his eighty-sixth year. Died at Ghent in 1669. See Bryan, " Dictionary of Painters;" Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flaniands," etc. Crayon, (Geoffrey.) See Irving, (Washington.) Crea'sy, (Sir Edward Shepherd,) an English his- torian and lawyer, born at Bexley, in Kent, in 1812. He was called to the bar about 1837, and appointed pro- fessor of history in University College, London, in 1850. He published in 1852 "Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World," which has passed through nine or more edi- tions, and in 1856 "The Rise and Progress of the Eng- lish Constitution," which is commended. In i860 he was appointed chief justice of Ceylon. The first volume of his "History of England" (in 5 vols.) appeared in 1869. Crebillon, de, deh kRa'be'yoN'', (Claude Prosper Jolyot — zho'le-o',) a French novelist, son of Prosper Jolyot, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1707. He wrote several licentious novels which were once in vogue. His own conduct is said to have been strictly moral. Died in 1777. See Grimm, " Correspondance ;" Abbe de Voisenon, "Anec- dotes litteraires et critiques," etc. Crebillon, de, (Prosper Jolyot,) an eminent French dramatic poet, born at Dijon in 1674. He was sent to Paris to study law with a M. Prieur, an amateur of the theatre, who persuaded him to compose tragedies. His " Idomenee" was successful in 1705, and his "Atree" (" Atreus," 1707) added to his reputation. In 1711 he produced his " Rhadamiste," which is pronounced by € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; #h as in this. (2[^=See Explanations, p. 23.) CREDl 688 CREQUI La Harpe and others not only his master-piece, but one of the finest tragedies which have appeared on the French stage. His "Pyrrhus" (1726) was much admired. During the twenty-two years which followed, he wrote nothing. In 1731 he was admitted into the French Academy, on which occasion he pronounced a poetical address, in which occurs this applauded line: " Aucun fiel n'a jamais empoisonne ma plume."* He produced in 1749 his "Catilina," which had been long expected, and in reference to which the public exclaimed, with Cicero, " How long, O Catiline, wilt thou abuse our patience.'*" It was performed with immense applause; though critics think it betrays a decline in power. He died in 1762, having won a place among the dramatists of the first crder next to Corneille and Racine. He preferred to live in liberty and poverty rather than cringe for hivour at the feet of power. See D'Alembert, " filoge de Crebillon ;" La Harpe, "Lycee;" Abbe DE LA PoKTE, " Biographic de Crebillon ;" " Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale ;" Amanton, "Revelations sur les deux Crebil- lon," 1S35 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for September, 1851. Ci-edi, di, de kRa'dee, (Lorenzo Sciarpelloni — shaR-pel-lo'nee,) an excellent Italian painter, born at Florence in 1453. He imitated with success Leonardo da Vinci, his fellow-pupil. A "Nativity" at Florence, and a "Madonna and Child" in the Louvre, are reck- oned among his best productions. He died at Florence about 1535. His name is sometimes written Lorenzo Andrea di Credi. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." Credner, kR^d'ner or kR^t'ner, (Karl August,) a German theologian, born near Gotha in 1797, became professor of theology at Giessen in 1832. Among his works are an "Introduction to Biblical Studies," (1832- 38,) and a "History of the New Testament," (1852.) Creech, (Rev. Thomas,) an English scholar, eminent as a translator, was born at Blandford, Dorsetshire, in 1659. He was educated at Oxford, and became a Fellow of All Souls' College. In 1682 he published his trans- lation of Lucretius, in verse, which is much admired. He also translated Horace, Theocritus, and portions of other classic authors. He committed suicide in 1701. "Creech is a much better translator," says Dr. Warton, "than he is usually supposed to be. He is a nervous and vigorous writer." See " Biographia Britannica." Creech, (William,) a Scottish bookseller of Edin- burgh, noted for his facetious talents and penuriousness, was born in 1745 ; died in 181 5. <^ See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Cregut, kRa'goot, (Friedrich Christian,) a German medical writer, born at Hanau in 1675 ; died in 1758. Creighton, kra'ton, 1 or Creichton, (John,) an Irish- man, who was born in 1648, fought against the Scottish Covenanters, and wrote "Memoirs" (1731) of events which he witnessed. Died in 1733. Creighton, kra'ton, (John Orde,) an American com- modore, born in New York City; died in 1846. Creighton or Crighton, kri'ton, (Robert,) Bishop of Bath and Wells, was born at Dunkeld in 1593. He was chaplain to Charles II. during his exile. Died in 1672. Creighton, (Robert,) an English clergyman, son of the preceding, born in 1639. He had great skill in church- music, and composed the admired anthem for four voices, "I will arise and go to my Father." Died in 1736. Crell, kRgl, (Christoph Ludwig,) a distinguished German jurist, born at Leipsic in 1703. He was pro- fessor of law at Wittenberg, and wrote many legal dis- sertations. Died in 1758. See Sperbach, " Merita et Memoria C. L. Crellii," 1758. Crell, (Johann.) See Crellius. Crell, ( Ludwig Christian, ) a German classical scholar, father of Christoph Ludwig, noticed above, was born at Neustadt in 1671. He became professor of philosophy at Leipsic. Died in 1733. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Crell, (NiKOLAUS,) born in Leipsic about 1550, be- came prime minister of Christian I,, Elector of Saxony. * " I ne'er in gall dipt my envenomed pen." He was imprisoned and put to death by order of Frede- rick William, the successor of Christian, in 1601. Crelle,kReKleh,( August Leopold,) a German mathe- matician, born at Eichenwerder, Prussia, in 1780. In 1828 he was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin. Amon^ his works are an " Essay on a General Theory of Analytic Functions," (1826,) and a "Manual of Geometry," (1827.) He edited the "Journal of Mathematics," (Berlin, 1826-51.) See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Crellius, kRcKle-ils, or Crell, kR§l, (Johann,) a Ger- man Socinian theologian, born near Nuremberg in 1590. He became rector of a Socinian school at Cracow, where he died in 1633. His most important work is a " Vindi- cation of Religious Liberty," (" Vindicia pro Re'iigionis Libertate," 1637.) See J. F. Mayer, "Programma de J. Crellio," 1706. Cremieux, kRi'me-uh', (Isaac Adolphe,) a French politician and eloquent advocate, was born at Nimes in 1796. He removed to Paris about 1830, and became advocate to the court of cassation. In 1842 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, in which he acted with the radical party, (extreme gauche. ) On the abdi- cation of Louis Philippe, February, 1848, he declared in favour of a republic, and became minister of justice in the provisional government. He retired from office June 7, 1848, and favoured the election of Louis Napoleon to the Presidency. In 1849 ^'^^'^ 1850 he was an orator of the opposition in the Assembly. Since the cotip d'etat of December, 1851, he has lived as a private citizen. See Lamartine, " Histoire de la Revolution de Fevrier." Cremonese dei Paesl. See Bassi, (Francesco.) Cremonini, kRk-mo-nee'nee, (Cesare,) an Italian Peripatetic philosopher, born at Cento in 1550. For forty years he taught philosophy in the University of Padua, and was one of the chiefs of the rigid Aristote- lians. He was widely renowned in his day, but his works are now neglected. Died in 163 l See Ginguen^j "Histoire Litterairc d' Italic ;" Bayle, "Histori- cal and Critical Dictionary ;" Ritter, " History of Philosophy." Cremonini, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter of perspective and of sacred history, born at Cento about 1560, worked at Bologna, and was the master of Guer- cino. Died in 1610. - Cremutius. See Cordus, Crenius, kRa'ne-iis, (Thomas,) a German writer, whose proper name was Crusius, (kRoo'ze-us,) was born in Brandenburg in 1648. He was employed as corrector of the press at Leyden, and published several mediocre Latin works, among which was " Historical and Critical Dissertations," (10 vols., 169L) Died in 1728. See MoRERi, "Dictionnaire Historique." Cre'on, [Gr. Kpewv,] a fabulous king of Thebes, was a brother of Jocasta. He succeeded Laius, and gave the throne to CEdipus to reward him for liberating Thebes from the Sphinx. He became king again after CEdipus went into exile. See Sophocles, "CEdipus" and "Antigone." Cre-o-phy^lus, [Kpfw^vAo^,] an ancient Greek epic poet, who is supposed to have been a contemporary and friend of Homer. Crepin, kR^'p^N^ (Louis Philippe,) a French painter of marine views, born in Paris in 1772 ; died about 1845. Crepu, kreh-pii', (Nicolas,) a Flemish painter, born at Brussels in 1680. He painted flowers, camps, and other subjects with success, in Brussels. Died in 1761. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Crequi, de, deh kR^'ke', (Antoine,) Seigneur de Pont de Remi, (poN deh rk'me',) a famous French cap- tain, who for a time defended Therouane against Henry VIII. of England, (1513.) He was killed about 1525. Crequi, de, (Francois de Bonne,) Due de Lesdi- guieres, (hVde^ge^aiR',) an able French general, born about 1624, was made a marshal of France in 1668. After Turenne died, in 1675, Crequi was the senior of the marshals. He gained victories over the Duke of Lor- raine, in Lorraine and Alsace, in 1677 and 1678. Died in 1687. "He had the reputation," said Voltaire, "of one who was destined to supply the place of Turenne." See SisMONDi, "Histoire des Franfais;" Voltaire, "Si^lede Louis XIV." a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, x\, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; CREQUI 689 CREUrZ Crequi de Blanchefort, de, deh IcR^'ke' deh bldNsh'- foR^, (Charles,) Marquis, afterwards Due de Lesdi- guieres, a French general, who became marshal of France in 1622. He defeated the Duke of Feria in Piedmont in 1625. He was killed at the siege of Brema in 1638. See N. Chorier, "Histoire de la Vie de C. de Crequi," 1683: SiSMONDi, "Histoire des Frangais." Crequi de Blanchefort, de, (Charles,) Due, a French general, brother of Fran9ois, noticed above, born about 1624. He served in several battles in Flanders, and was sent as ambassador to Rome, where he was in- sulted by the papal guards in 1662. Louis XIV, forced the court of Rome to apologize for this insult. Died in 1687. Crescence. See Crescentius. Crescentini,kRi-shgn-tee''nee, (Girolamo,) a famous Italian singer, born at Urbania in 1769, made his debut at Naples in 1788. In 1809 Napoleon appointed him first singer of his court. Died in 1846. See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musicians." Crescentius, kres-sen'she-us, [Fr. Crescence, kRa'- s6nss',] a Roman chief, who obtained the title of con- sul in Rome in 980 A.D. He attempted, says Sismondi, to restore to Rome its liberty and former glory. His designs, however, were thwarted by Pope Gregory V. and the emperor Otho III., who entered Rome with an army in 998. Crescentius, having capitulated to Otho, was put to death. See Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Crescenzi, (Bartolommeo.) See Cavarazzl Crescenzi, kRi-shgn'zee, (Giovanni Battista,) a skilful Italian painter and architect, born in Rome about 1595. He went to Spain in 161 7, and was employed by Philip III., for whom he designed the beautiful Pantheon of the Escurial, begun about 1620. He received from Philip IV. the title of Marquis de la Torre. Died at Madrid in 1660. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Crescenzi, Crescenzo, kRi-shgn'zo, or Crescen- zio, kRa-shln'ze-o, (NiccoLO,) a physician of Naples, lived about 1 700, and wrote some valuable medical works. Crescenzi, de', di kRi-shgn'zee, (Pietro,) an Italian senator, called "the restorer of agriculture," was born at Bologna in 1230. He wrote, in Latin, a "Treatise on Rural Economy," ("Opus ruralium commodorum,") — a remarkable monument, says Du Petit-Thouars, "in the history of agriculture." It obtained a great circu- lation, and was translated into many languages. He be- came a senator at the age of seventy. Died about 1320. See GrNGUENE, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie ;" Filippo Re, " Elogio storico di P. de' Crescenzi," 1812. Crescimbeni, kRi-sh^m-ba'nee, (Giovanni Maria,) a distinguished Italian poet and critic, born at Macerata, in the March of Ancona, in 1663. He was received as doctor of law at the age of sixteen, and in 1681 began to practise law in Rome. He founded there in 1690 "the celebrated Academy of Arcad ians. After composing a number of lyric poems, he published in 1698 a "History of National Poetry," ("Istoria della volgar Poesia,") a learned and valuable work. In 17 19 he took orders, and received several benefices in Rome. Died in 1728. "Crescimbeni," says Hallam, "has made an honourable name by his exertions to purify the national taste." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") See TiRABOSCHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" F. M. Mancurti, "Vita di G. M. Crescimbeni," 1729; Niceron, "Md- moires." CresconiiLS. See Corippus. Cres'i-las, [Kpeai'kag,] an Athenian sculptor, spoken of 'by Pliny, was a contemporary of Phidias. The name is sometimes improperly written Ctesilas or Ctesilaus. Crespi, kR^s'pee, (Daniele,) a historical painter, born in the Milanese about 1590. His works are ad- mired for expression and vigour of colour. He painted at Milan, in fresco, "The Resurrection of Saint Bruno," which is called his master-piece. Died at Milan in 1630. Crespi, (Giovanni Battista,) called II Cerano, (^1 cha-r^'no,) an Italian painter and architect, born at Cerano in 1557. He worked at Milan, and was presi- dent of the Academy of that city. Died in 1633. Crespi, (Giuseppe Maria,) Cavaliere, a skilful Italian painter and engraver, born at Bologna in 1665, was a pupil of Cignani. He was surnamed Spagnuolo, (spin-yoo-o'lo,) (the "Spaniard,") on account of the magnificence of his dress. He imitated Correggio and the Caracci with success, and had great facility of execu- tion. Among his admired works are an " Ecce Homo," and " Seven Sacraments." He was a capricious artist, and produced many bizarre compositions. Died in 1747. His sons LuiGi and Antonio were painters of a different style. Luigi was a writer on Art. Among his works is the "Lives of Bolognese Painters." Died in 1779. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Crespin, kRes'piN^, or Crispin, Icr^s^p^n', (Daniel,) a Swiss philologist, who lived at Lausanne about 1690. He edited Sallust and Ovid (1681) "ad usum Delphini." Crespin, (Jean,) a French Protestant writer, born at Arras. He removed to Geneva in 1548 with Theodore de Beza, and established there a printing-press, from which many excellent editions were issued. He was author of " The Book of Martyrs," (" Le Livre des Mar- tyrs," 1554.) Died in 1572. See Bavi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" M.Adam, " Vitae Eruditoruni." Cres'sey or Cres'sy, de, (Hugh Paulin,) an Eng- lish Catholic writer, born at Wakefield in 1605. He was chaplain to Lord Wentworth and to Lord Falkland. During a visit to Rome in 1646 he became a Roman Catholic, and afterwards changed his name to Serenus DE Cressey. After the restoration of 1660 he was chap- lain to the Queen of England. He wrote a " Church History of England," (unfinished,) and several treatises in defence of the Roman Church. Died in 1674. See Wood, "Athenje Oxonienses." Cres'spn, (Elliott,) president of the Pennsylvania Colonization Society, was born in 1796; died in 1854. Cress''well or Cres'well, (John A. J.,) an American lawyer and Senator, born at Port Deposit, Maryland, in 1828. He was elected a member of Congress in 1862, and a Senator of the United States for a short term in 1865. He supported the Radical policy. In March, 1869, he was appointed postmaster-general of the United States. Cressy. See Cressey. Cresti. See Passignano. Crestoni. See Crastonl Cresus. See Crcesus. Creswell. See Cresswell. Cres'wick, (Thomas,) an eminent English landscape- painter, born at Sheffield in 1811. He became a student of the Royal Academy, London, in 1828, and an asso- ciate of the same in 1842, and afterwards exhibited many admired views of British scenery. Among his principal works are a " London Road a Hundred Years ago," (1847,) "The Weald of Kent," "Home by the Sands," (1848,) a " Shady Glen," and " Wind on Shore," (1850.) His pictures are mostly faithful transcripts of nature. Died January i, 1870. Cretet, kR^tcV, (Emmanuel,) Comte de Champmol, (shdN'moK,) born in Dauphine, France, in 1747, was minister of the interior from 1807 to 1809. Died in 1809. Creti, kRa'tee, (Donato,) an Italian painter, born at Cremona in 1671. His master-piece is a Saint Vincent. Died in 1749. Cretin or Chrestin, kpa^tiN', (Guillaume,) a French poet, whose proper name was Dubois. Died about 1525. Cretineau-Joly, kRa'te'no' zho^e', (Jacques,) a French historian, born at Fontenay- Vendee in 1803. Among his works is a " History of the Jesuits," (6 vols., 1844-46.) Crette de Palluel, kR.Vta' deh priii'^K, (Francois,) a French writer on agriculture, born near Paris in 1741. He invented several farming-implements. Died in 1798. Cre-u^sa, [Gr. Kpeovaa ; Fr. Cri^use, kRi'iiz^] a daughter of Priam, and wife of /Eneas. W'hen Troy was captured by the Greeks, she fled with her husband by night, but was separated from him in the confusion, and mysteriously disappeared. See Virgil's ".iEneid," book ii. 738-794. Cr6use. See Creusa. Creutz, (F. K. C.) See Creuz. Creutz, kRg^dots, (Gu.stavus Philip,) Count of, a Swedish poet and statesman, born in Finland in 1726. e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^=See Explanations, p. 2;,. ) 44 CREUTZFELDER 690 CRINESIUS He wrote two admired poems, " Atys and Camilla," and an " Epistle to Daphne." For twenty years he resided as minister at Paris, where he was intimate with Dr. Frank- lin, with whom he negotiated a treaty in 1783. In that year he became minister of foreign affairs in Sweden. Died in 1785. See ScHROEDERHEiM, " AiTiinnelse-Tal ofver Riks Radet Grefve Creutz," 1787 ; Marmontel, "Memoires." Creutzfelder, kRoits'f§l''der,(JoHANN Georg,) a Ger- man portrait-painter, born at Nuremberg in 1570; died in 1633. Creutziger, kRoit'sio-er, [Lat. Cru'ciger,] (Gas- PARD,) a German theologian, born at Leipsic in 1504. He became a professor at Wittenberg, and aided Luther in his translation of the Bible into German. He wrote (in Latin) " On the Dignity of Theological Studies," and a few other treatises. iJied in 1548. Creuz or Creutz, kRoits, (Friedrich Karl Casi- MiR,) a German didactic poet, born at Homburg-vor- der-Hohe in 1724. His reputation is founded chiefly on "The Tombs," ("Die Graber," 1760,) a philosophic poem, which is much esteemed. He wrote " Essays on Man," and other prose works. He contributed to the reformation of the style of German literature. Died in 1770. ^ See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Creuze de Lesser, kRuh'za' deh li^sa', (Auguste Franqois,) Baron, a P'rench poet and dramatist, born in Paris in 1771. He was a member of the legislative body for six years, (1800-06,) and after the restoration was prefect of Herault. He published poems entitled "The Knights of the Round Table," (1812,) " Roland," (1814,) and "The Last Man," (1832,) and also several dramas, among which is "The Revenge," (1815.) His "Travels in Italy" (1806) passed through three editions. Died in 1839. Creuzer, kRoit'ser, (Georg Friedrich,) a learned and ingenious German philologist and antiquary, was born at Marburg in 1771. He became professor of phi- lology and ancient history at Heidelberg in 1804. He acquired a European reputation by his " Symbolism and Mythology of Ancient Peoples, especially the Greeks," (" Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Volker, besonders der Griechen," 1810-12, 4 vols. 8vo ; 2d edition, 6 vols., ,1820-23.) The opinions and method of this work were attacked by G. Hermann in " Letters on Homer and Hesiod," and by other critics. In 1826 he was appointed privy councillor to the Grand Duke of Baden, and in 1848 he resigned his chair at Heidelberg. He was the author of numerous antiquarian treatises. Died in 1858. A masterly French translation of his " Symbolik" was published by J. D. Guigniaut, 1825-36. See his Autobiography, " Aus dem Leben eines alten Professors," 1847 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Crevecoeur, de, deh kRiv^kuR', (Hector Saint- Jean,) a French writer, born at Caen in 1731. He emi- grated to America in 1754, and settled on a farm near New York. In 1782 he published a flattering descrip- tion of the United States, in " Letters of an American Farmer," and was appointed consul for France at New York. He enjoyed the friendship of Washington and Franklin. Died in France in 1813. Crevecoeur, de, (Philippe,) an able French general in the service of Louis XL, commanded the French at the battle of Guinegate (or battle of the Spurs) in 1479. He became marshal of France in 1492. Died in 1494. See CoMiNES, " Memoires." Cr^vier, kRa've-4^ (Jean Baptiste,) a French his- torian, born in Paris in 1693, was a pupil of Rollin. He filled the chair of rhetoric in the College of Beauvais for twenty years with success. He wrote eight volumes in continuation of Rollin's "Roman History." Besides other works, he published a " History of the Roman Emperors down to Constantine." He has merit; but his style is less agreeable than that of Rollin. Died in 1765. Crew or Crewe, kRu, (Nathaniel,) an English divine, born at Stean in 1633, l>ecame Bishop of Dur- ham, and an abettor of the arbitrary policy of James 11. Died in 1721. Crichna. See Krishna. Cricliton, kRi'ton, (James,) commonly styled "the Admirable Crichton," a Scottish prodigy, born at the castle of Cluny, Perthshire, about 1560, was the son of Robert Crichton, lord advocate of Scotland. At the age of fourteen he graduated as A.M. in the University of Saint Andrew's, and before he was twenty could speak ten languages. He was handsome in form and feature, and excelled in drawing, fencing, dancing, music, and other accomplishments. In the course of a continental tour, about 1580, he challenged the doctors and scholars of Paris to dispute with him, at an appointed time, on any question and in any one of twelve specified lan- guages. Having by this means assembled a numerous company of professors and others, he acquitted himself to the general admiration. Proceeding thence to Italy, he repeated his exhibition, and obtained similar triumphs in Rome, Venice, and Padua, Aldus Manutius describes the er/(i^ with which he sustained for three days a contest in philosophy and mathematics at Padua. The Duke of Mantua employed Crichton as tutor to his son Vin- cenzo, a dissolute youth. One night, about 1582, he was attacked by six persons in masks, whom he repulsed. Having disarmed one of them and found it was his pupil, he returned the sword to Vincenzo, who plunged it into the heart of Crichton. He left four short Latin poems, which, says Dr. Kippis, " will not stand the test of a rigid examination." " He was a man of very wonder- ful genius," says Scaliger, "more worthy of admiration than esteem. He had something of the coxcomb about him, and only wanted a little common sense." See P. F. TvTLER, "Life of the Admirable Crichton," 1823; F. Douglas, "The Life of J. Crichton," 1760; D. Irving, "Lives of the Scottish Writers," 1839; Sir Thomas Urquhart, "Life of J. Crichton;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Crillon, de, deh kRe^y^N', (Louis Athanase des Balbes de Berton — da btlb deh b^R'toN',) a brother of the Due de Crillon-Mahon, was born in 1726. He became a priest, and wrote " Philosophic Memoirs of the Baron de * * * ," (2 vols., 1779,) said to be a work of merit. Died at Avignon in 1789. Crillon, de, (Louis des Balbes (or Balbis) de Ber- ton,) a famous French warrior, born in Provence in 1 541. He fought against the Protestants in the civil wars, sig- nalized his courage at Lepanto in 1571, and had a high command in the army of Henry III. during the war of the League, (1580-89.) After the death of that king, he entered the service of Henry IV., who called him the "bravest of the brave." He took part in the battle of Ivry, and commanded in Savoy in 1600. The king wished to make him a marshal, but was dissuaded by the Duchess de Beaufort. Died in 161 5. See Mademoiselle de Lussan, "Vie de Balbes de Crillon," 1757; Serviez, " Histoire du brave Crillon," 1844; Montrond, " Histoire du brave Crillon," 1845 ; Abbe de Crillon, "Vie de L. de Balbis de Berton de Crillon," 3 vols., 1826; De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis." Crillon-Mahon, de, deh kRe'yiN' mt'oN', (Louis Antoine FRANgois de Paul — deh pol,) Due, a Spanish general, the grandson of the following, born in Paris in 1775. He obtained command of a division in 1801, and was chosen Captain-General of Guipuscoa, Alava, and Biscay in 1808. Soon after this he took an oath to Joseph Bonaparte, who appointed him lieutenant-general, and Viceroy of Navarre. Died in 1832. See FoY, "Histoire des Guerres de la Peninsule." Crillon-Mahon, de, (Louis de Berton des Balbes de Quiers — deh ke'aiR',) Due, a French general, born in 1718, contributed to the victory of Fontenoy in 1745. Having obtained the rank of lieutenant-general in ^lie Seven Years' war, (1755-62,) he passed into the ser- vice of Spain. He took Minorca in 1782, was made Captain-General of Spain, and received the title of Dake of Mahon. He commanded without success in the famous siege of Gibraltar, about 1782. Died in 1796. See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XV." Cri-nag'o-ras, [Kpivayopac,] a Greek poet, who was born at Mitylene and lived in the reign of Augustus. Crinesius, kri-nee^she-us or kRe-na'ze-us, (Christo- pher,) born in Bohemia in 1584, became professor of Oriental languages at Wittenberg and Altdorf. He published "Gymnasium Syriacum," (i6ri,) a work on I, c, T, c;, u, y, /on^: h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, s/iort: a, e, i, o, obscure: fir, fill, fit; m§t: nftt; good; moon. CRINITO 691 CROCUS the Syriac language, a " Syriac Lexicon," (1612,) and a "Treatise on tlie Confusion of Tongues," ("De Con- fusione Linguarum," 1629.) Died in 1629. Crinito, kRe-nee'to, [Lat. Crini'tus,] (Pietro,) an Italian litterateur, born at Florence about 1465. He wrote Latin verses, which approach the elegance of Politian, and two popular prose works, " De honesta Disciplina," ("On Honest (or Honoural)le) Instruction," 1500,) and " Vitae Poetarum Latinorum," ("Lives of the Latin Poets.") Died about 1504. See TiRABOSCHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Criuitus. See Crinito. Crishna. See Krishna. Crisp, (Stephkn,) an eminent minister of the Society of Friends, born at Colchester about 1628. He was con- verted to the principles of the Friends in 1655. As a minister of the gospel, he travelled many years in Great Britain, Holland, and Germany. He published a " Plain Pathway Opened," "A Faithful Warning to Friends," several Epistles, and other works. Died in 1692. See Samuel Tuke, "Memoirs of the Life of S. Crisp," 1824. Crisp, (Tobias,) an English theologian, noted as a chief of the Antinomians, was born in London in 1600. He became rector of Brinkworth in 1627. In 1642 he was engaged in a great controversy, on the subject of free grace, with fifty-two opponents. His sermons have been published. Died in 1642. Crispin. See Crespin. Cris'pin, (Gilbert,) a Norman of noble rank, was Abbot of Westminster. Died about 1 115. Crispo, kR^s^'po, [Lat. Cris^'pus,] (Antonio,) an Ital- ian medical writer, born at Trapani, in Sicily, in 1600; died in 1688. Crispo, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian writer and priest, born at Gallipoli, (Naples,) was a friend of Tasso and Annibal Caro. Among his works is a "Life of Sannazaro," (1583.) Died in 1595. Cris'pus, (Flavius Julius,) the eldest son of the Roman emperor Constantine I., was born about 300 A.D. He served in the wars against the Franks and against Licinius, and gave proof of courage and abilities. Being falsely accused by his step-mother Fausta of an attempt to seduce her, he was put to death, by his father's order, in 326 A.D. Cristiani, kR^s-te-a'nee, (Bertrando,) Count of, an Italian statesman of high reputation, born at Genoa in 1702. He was appointed by the empress Maria Theresa grand chancellor of the Milanese. Died in 1758. Cristofori, kR^s-tof o-ree, (Pietro Paolo,) a cele- brated Italian painter in mosaic, adorned the church of Saint Peter at Rome. Died at an advanced age in 1740. Critias, krish'e-as, [Kptrkf,] or Critics, krish'e-os, a celebrated Athenian statuary, who flourished about 470 B.C. Among his master-pieces were statues of Harmo- dius and Aristogi^ton. Critias, an Athenian orator and poet, and one of the Thirty Tyrants, was a relative of Plato and a pupil of Socrates. Having been exiled from Athens for an un- known cause about 406 B.C., he returned with the Spartan general Lysander in 404, and became one of the thirty who tyrannized over the state. Pie put Theramenes and others to death. He was killed in battle when Thrasy- bu''lus liberated Athens in 404 B.C. His eloquence was highly praised by Cicero. He wrote elegies and other works. See W. E. Weber, ''Dissertatio de Critia Tvranno," 1824; Plu- tarch, " Alcibiades Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Grote, " History of Greece ;" Xenophon, " Hellenica." Critics. See Critias. Crito. See Criton. Crit-c-la'us, \)^(iiTokaQ<;^ a Greek philosopher, was a native of Phaselis, in Lycia. He studied at Athens under Ariston of Ceos, became after his death the head of the Peripatetic school in Athens, and acquired a high reputation as a philosopher and orator. About 155 B.C. he was sent to Rome on an important embassy with Carneades and Diogenes. He wrote a treatise to prove the eternity of matter. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grasca;" Vossius, "De Historicis Grsecis." Critcla'us, an Achaean general and demagogue, was one of the chief authors of the war against Rome which resulted in the destruction of Corinth and the subjugation of Greece. In 146 B.C. he was defeated by Metellus in Locris. As he was never heard of after this action, it was supposed he died by poison. Cri'tcn or Critc [Kperale ;" " Britisli Quarterly Review" for July and October, 1866. Daguesseau. See Aguesseau. Dahl, dll, (John Christian Clausen,) a Norwegian landscape-painter, born at Bergen about 1780, settled in Dresden in 1818, and acquired a high reputation. He chose the subjects of his master-pieces among the grand and sombre scenery of Northern Europe. His marine views are much admired. Died in 1857. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Dahl, dll, (Mikael,) a Swedish portrait-painter, born at Stockholm in 1656, studied in Paris and in Italy, and settled in London in 1688. He became a fashionable artist, and was patronized by the royal family. Died in 1743- Dahl, dal, (Vladimir Ivanovitch,) a popular Rus- sian novelist of the present century, was born at Saint Petersburg. He has published^ under the name of " Ko- sak Luganski," several novels, among which is "The Dream and the Awaking." He served some years in the army, from which he retired about 1835. He excels in the delineation of the characters and manners of the lower classes. Dahlberg, dSKb^Rg, (Eric,) an eminent Swedish engineer and general, born in 1625, became director- general of all the fortresses. He planned the success- ful expedition of Charles Gustavus when the latter marched over the ice against the Danes in 1658. In the reign of Charles XI. he was made Governor-General of Livonia, field-marshal, and count. He formed the plan and drew the designs of the work entitled " Ancient and Modern Sweden," (" Suecia antiqua et hodierna," 1700.) Died in 1703. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; o, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) DAHLBOM 708 DALBY Dahlbom, dSKbom, (Anders Gustaf,) a distin- guished Swedish entomologist, born at Forssa, in East Gothland, in 1806. He is the author of numerous Latin works on insects, among which is " The Hymenoptera of Northern Europe," (" Hymenoptera Europea praecipue Borealia," 2 vols., 1845-52.) He became professor of natural history at Lund about 1844. Dahlgren, dil'gr^n, (John A.,) a rear-admiral, of Swedish extraction, born in Philadelphia in 1809. He became a lieutenant about 1838. He devoted several years to experiments under the direction of the bureau of ordnance, made important changes in naval armament, and invented the shell-gun which bears his name. In 1855 he obtained the rank of commander. He took com- mand of the navy-yard at Washington in May, 1861, and was appointed chief of the bureau of ordnance in July, 1862. In June, 1863, he became commander of the South Atlantic squadron, employed in the siege of Charleston. He attacked Fort Sumter by night in September, 1863, and attempted to take it by storm, but was not successful. Died in 1870. Dahlgren, dal'gR§n, (Karl Johan,) a Swedish poet, born near Norrkjoping in 1791, was minister of a church in Stockholm. He published "Juvenile Writings," ("Ungdomskrifter," 1829,) and "Collected Writings or Works," ("Samlade Skrifter," 1834.) Died in 1844. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Dahlgren, (Colonel Ulric,) an American officer, born in 1842, was a son of Rear- Admiral Dahlgren, noticed above. He became aide-de-camp successively to Generals Sigel, Burnside, and Hooker, and distinguished himself by heroic courage in several actions. In July, 1863, he led a charge at Hagerstown, where he lost a leg. He com- manded a body of cavalry in a raid against Richmond, the outer works of which he assaulted, but was repulsed. He was killed in his retreat, March 4, 1864. Dahlmann, daKmin, (Friedrich Christoph,) a German historian, born at Wismar, in Mecklenburg, in 1785. He became professor of political science at Got- tingen in 1829, and published an important work called "Original Documents for German History," (" Quellen- kunde der Deutschen, Geschichte," 1830.) Having pro- tested boldly against the subversion of the constitution of Hanover in 1837, he was deprived of his chair at Got- tingen. In 1840-43 he published his excellent " History of Denmark," (3 vols.) He was appointed professor of history and political science at Bonn in 1842. In 1848 he was elected to the Parliament of Frankfort. See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." Dahm, dim, (Johann Michael,) a German jurist, who was professor at Mentz. Died about 1772. Daignan, din'ySN', (Guillaume,) a French phy- sician, born at Lille in 1732. Under the republican regime he became first physician to the armies. He published many able medical works. Died in 181 2. Daigue, dig, (£tienne,) a French naturalist, born about 1490, wrote on Tortoises, Frogs, Snails, etc. Died about 1560. Daille, dt'ya', [Lat. Dall^e'us,] (Jean,) an eminent French Protestant divine, born at Chatellerault in 1594. From 1626 to 1670 he ministered at the church of Cha- renton, near Paris. He was one of the most learned and eloquent Protestants of his time, and published several works on theology, among which are a celebrated "Treatise on the Rigljt Use of the Fathers in De- ciding Religious Disputes," (1628,) and an "Apology for the Reformed Churches," (1633.) The former is called by Hallam "a well-timed and important book." " He was the first who boldly attacked the new school of historical theology in their stronghold." Died in 1670. See "Abrege de la Vie de Daille," by his son Andre, prefixed to a volume of his Sermons, 1670. Daillon, di'y6N', (Jacques,) a French Protestant minister, born at Anjou in 1645 ; died in London in 1726. Dailly. See Ailly. Daimbert, diw^baiR', or Dagobert, dt^o'baiR', commanded the Pisan and Genoese army in the first crusade, and arrived in Palestine soon after the con- quest of Jerusalem, (1098,) of which he became the first Latin patriarch. He aspired to the throne at the death of Godfrey ; but his rival, Baldwin L, was preferred. Died in Sicily in 1107. See MiCHAUD, " Histoire des Croisades." Daire, d^R, (Louis FRANgois,) a French writer and monk, born at Amiens in 1713, wrote a "History of Amiens," and other works. Died in 1792. Dairval. See Baudelot. Daitya, dlt'ya, (English plural, Daityas,) in Hindoo mythology, the sons of Dm, (which see.) They are regarded as evil beings or demons, and, according to sotne writers, are the same as the Asuras. See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." Da'kins, (William,) one of the English translators of the Bible in the time of James I., was employed on the Epistles of Paul, and other Epistles. Died in 1607. Dak'sha, [common Hindoo pron. diik'sha,] a Hindoo deity, usually regarded as an avatar (but by some as a son) of Brahma. Daksha having offended Siva, the latter killed him by cutting off his head : he afterwards restored him to life, but the head, having accidentally been burnt up, was replaced by that of a goat. This explains why Daksha is usually represented with a goat's head. See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon;" Coleman, " Mythology of the Hindus." Dalayrac, di'la'rik', (Nicolas,) a skilful French musician and composer, born at Muret in 1753, went to Pari6 in 1774, and worked twenty-eight years for the Comic Opera. He was very successful in various kinds of music. Among his master-pieces are "The Little Savoyards," "Camille," and "Nina." Died in 1809. See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Dalberg, (Johann Friedrich Hugo,) a canon at Worms, wrote on music, and a work on Oriental religions, called a "History of a Druse Family." Died in 1812. Dalberg, daKb^RO, (Nils,) a Swedish physician, was president of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm. The genus Dalbergia was named in honour of him by Linnaeus. Died in 1820, aged about eighty. Dalberg, von, fon dSKb^RO, (Emeric Joseph,) Duke, a German diplomatist, born at Mentz in 1773, ^^^^ ^ ^^'^ of Wolfgang Heribert. He was made a peer of France and councillor of state by Napoleon in 1810. Died in 1833. Dalberg, von, (Johann Camerer,) a German bishop, was born at Oppenheim in 1445. He became Bishop of Worms in 1482, two years before which he founded at Heidelberg the most ancient academy of Germany, called " Societas Literaria Rhenana." He contributed much to the progress of learning among the Germans. Died in 1503. Dalberg, von, (Karl Theodor Anton Maria,) an eminent German author and prelate, was born of a noble family at Herrnsheim in 1744. He was appointed governor of Erfurt by the Elector of Mentz in 1772. In 1802 he became Archbishop of Mentz, and arch-chancellor of the empire. He received from Napoleon the titles of Prince Primate of the Confederation of the Rhine, (1806,) and Grand Duke of Frankfort in 1810. On the fall of Napoleon he was deprived of these dignities, but retained the archbishopric of Ratisbon. He was author of several popular works, among which are " Contemplations on the Universe," (" Betrachtung liber das Universum," 1777,) and "The Influence of the Sciences and Fine Arts on the Public Tranquillity," (1793.) Died in 1817. SeeZAPK, "Dalberg Grossherzog von Frankfurt," 1810; Cramer, "Karl Theodor von Dalberg," 1821 ; Brockhaus, "Conversations- Lexikon;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Dalberg, von, (Wolfgang Heribert,) Baron, a German poet, born in 1750, was a brother of the pre- ceding. He was a liberal patron of arts and sciences. He wrote dramas entitled "Cora," (1780,) and "Mon- tesquieu," (1787,) and others translated or imitated from Shakspeare. Died in 1806. Dalborgo, dai-boR'go, (Flaminio,) an Italian jurist and historian, born at Pisa in 1706, was for many years professor of Roman law in the university of that city. His principal work is a volume of "Essays on the His- tory of Pisa." Died in 1768. D'Albret. See A lb ret. D&l'by, (Isaac,) an English mathematician, born in Gloucestershire in 1744, received a very defective edu- cation, and is numbered among the self-taught men who a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f4t; mSt; n6t; good; moon ; DALE DALLAS have attained eminence under great disadvantages. He went to London in 1772, and engaged as a teacher in Archbishop Tenison's school. From 1787 to 1790 he assisted General Roy in a trigonometrical survey for the purpose of connecting the meridians of Greenwich and Paris. He was appointed professor of mathematics in the Royal College of High Wycombe in 1799. He pub- lished a valuable "Course of Mathematics," (2 vols., 1805.) Died in 1824. Dale. See Van Dale. Dale, (David,) a Scottish philanthropist, born at Stewarton in 1739, was the first proprietor of the Lanark Mills, well known as the scene of experiments in social economy, made by Robert Owen, who married the daughter of Mr. Dale. The latter was noted for his benevolence to his operatives. Died in 1806. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," vol. V. Dale, (Richard,) an American commodore, born near Norfolk, Virginia, in 1756. He served with distinction in the Revolutionary war, and obtained the rank of captain in 1794. He resigned his commission in 1802. Died in 1826. See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. Dale, (Samuel,) F.R.S., an English physician and botanist, born in 1659, practised medicine at Bocking. He published a work on "Materia Medica," (1693,) the "Antiquities of Harwich and Dover Court," (1730,) and treatises on botany, etc. Died in 1739. Dale, (Thomas,) an English divine and poet, born in London in 1797. He produced in 1818 "The Widow of Nain," and in 1824 a version of Sophocles. He be- came canon of Saint Paul's in 1843, and vicar of Saint Pancras, London, in 1846. Several volumes of his ser- mons have been published. He wrote other popular religious works, among which is the " Sabbath Com- panion," (2d Series, 1844.) Died in 1870. See "London Quarterly Review" for December, 1824; "Black- wood's Magazine" for November, 1820. Dale, (Sir Thomas,) an English magistrate, who was sent to Virginia in 1611 with a number of colonists, and founded the town of Henrico, on the James River. Dalechamps, dSl'shSN', (Jacques,) a learned French physician and botanist, born at Caen in 1 5 13. In 1552 he settled at Lyons, where he practised with success until his death. He formed a project to unite in a single work all previous acquisitions in botanical science, and, after expending thirty years on it, left the completion of it to Desmoulins. The result was a "General History of Plants," (1586,) a work of much merit, containing 2731 figures. He also published editions of Pliny and Athenaeus, and several medical treatises. Died in 1588. See Sprengel, " Historia Botanica ;" Haller, " Bibliotheca Botanica." D'Alembert. See Alembert, d'. Dal-e-mi'lus, written also Dalemile, was born at Mezritsch, in Bohemia, and wrote in verse a history of his country, which was finished in 13 14, and is said to be the oldest monument of the Bohemian language. Dalen, van, vin d3.'len, (Cornelis,) a skilful Dutch engran^er, born at Haarlem in 1640. He engraved his- torical pictures after Rubens and other masters, and portraits of eminent persons. Dalens, van, vtn cWMns, (Dirck or Thierry,) a Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam in 1659, painted landscapes with success. Died in 1688. Dal-gar'no, (George,) born at Aberdeen about 1626, taught a private grammar-school in Oxford for about thirty years. In 1661 he published his "Art of Signs," ("Ars Signorum," etc.,) from which, it appears. Bishop Wilkins derived the idea of his "Essay toward a Real Character." He wrote also "The Deaf and Dumb Man's Tutor," (1680,) and has the credit of inventing the first manual alphabet. Died in 1687. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1835. Dalgas, dil'gis, (Carl Frederic Isaac,) a Danish writer on agriculture, born at Fridericia in 1787. Dalhousie, Earl of. See Panmure, Lord. Dalhousie, dil-hoo'ze, (George Ramsay,) ninth Earl of, a Scottish general, born in 1770, was a son of the Earl of Dalhousie. He fought under Wellington in the Peninsular war, was made a major-general in 1813, and distinguished himself at Waterloo. He was appointed Governor-General of Canada in 1819, and commanded the army in India from 1829 to 1832. Died in 1838. Dalhousie, (James Andrew Ramsay,) first Marquis of, a British statesman, son of the preceding, was born near Edinburgh in 181 2. He was returned to Parliament for Haddington in 1837. On the death of his father, in 1838, he became tenth Earl of Dalhousie, and entered the House of Lords. His political principles are desig- nated as Liberal-Tory. About 1845 he was appointed, by Sir Robert Peel, president of the Board of Trade, in which department he displayed so much practical ability that when a new Whig ministry was formed, in 1846, he was retained in office. He was appointed Governor- General of India in 1847. His administration appears to have been generally approved by the British. He waged a successful war against the Sikhs, annexed the Punjab, Pegu, Oude, etc. to the British dominions, and developed the resources of Hindostan. In 1849 he was created Marquis Dalhousie. He constructed railroads, promoted manufactures, and made various public im- provements. He returned to England in 1856, and died, without male issue, in December, i860. His cousin, Lord Panmure, succeeded to the earldom of Dalhousie. See " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1863 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for August, 1856; "Eraser's Magazine" for August, 1855. Dalibard, dS'le'blR', (Thomas Franqois,) a French botanist, born at Crannes about 1703. He published in 1749 a work on the plants growing near Paris, — "Florae Parisiensis Prodromus," — and was the first botanical writer of France that adopted the system of Linnaeus, who named in honour of him the Rubiis Dalibarda. He was the first Frenchman who employed the lightning-rod, the idea of which he obtained from Franklin's writings. He erected at Marly an iron rod, with which he drew the electric fluid from the sky in May, 1752, one month before Franklin's experiment with the kite. Died in Paris in 1779. See B. Haureau, "Histoire litteraire du Maine;" " Biographic Medicale." Dalibray or Dalibrai, dS'le'bRy, (Charles Vion,) SiEUR, a French poet, born in Paris about 1590. He made poetical versions of Tasso's "Aminta"and "Toris- mena," and of other Italian and Spanish works. He also wrote some original verses. Died in 1654. Dalin, von, fon di'lin, (Olof,) an eminent Swedish historian and poet, born at Winberga in 1708. He be- came librarian to the king in 1737, and acquired repu- tation by a poem on Swedish liberty in 1743. He was soon after employed by the Diet to write a history of Sweden, which was issued from 1747 to 1762 and was received with favour. About 1750 he was appointed preceptor to the heir of the crown, afterwards Gus- tavus III. He received a title of nobility and the order of the Polar Star, and in 1763 was appointed chancellor of the court. His writings, among which are several odes, and a tragedy named " Brunehilde," form a new era in Swedish literature, which before his time was almost uncultivated. Died in 1763. ^See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon ;" Olof Celsius, "Aminnelse-Tal bfver O. af Dalin," 1764. Dallaeus. See Daill6. Dallamano, dSl-li-mi^io, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, born at Modena in 1679; died in 1758. DaPlans, (Ralph,) an English organ-builder ; died about 1672. Dallas, (Alexander James,) an American states- man and lawyer, born in the island of Jamaica in 1759. He emigrated to Philadelphia in 1783, acquired distinc- tion as a lawyer, and became an active supporter of the Republican party. In 1801 he was appointed district attorney of the United States by President Jefi'erson. He became secretary of the treasury in the cabinet of Madison in October, 1814, when, in consequence of the war against Great Britain, the financial condition of the country was extremely depressed. Mr. Dallas at once recommended to Congress, in a report which is still re- garded as one of the ablest ever issued from the treasury € as k; 9 as j; g hard; g as j; G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2!^=See Explanations, p. 23.) DALLAS DALRTMPLE department, the establishment of a national bank. The energy which he brought to his branch of the public ser- vice enabled him in a few months to procure a loan on favourable terms, and in January, 1815, United States treasury notes were negotiable at par with interest added. In March he undertook the additional trust of secretary of war. In November, 181 6, Mr. Dallas retired from public life, and resumed his profession in Philadelphia. Died in 181 7. He edited for some time the "Columbian Magazine," and in 1790 published "Reports of Cases in the Courts of the United States and Pennsylvania," (4 vols. 8vo,) which, says Lord Mansfield, "do credit to the court, the bar, and the reporter." He also published the "Laws of Pennsylvania from 1700 to 1801," (4 vols. 8vo,) •'Exposition of the Causes and Character of the Late War," (181 5,) and various other works. DaPlas, (Alexander Robert Charles,) an English clergyman, first-cousin of George M. Dallas, and a son of Robert Charles, noticed below. After serving as an ofiicer in the army for some years, he became a priest of the Anglican Church at Wonston. He published, besides other works, "The Pastor's Assistant," (1842,) and "The Cottager's Guide to the New Testament," (6 vols., 1839-45.) He distinguished himself as a mis- sionary in the west of Ireland between 1844 and 1852. Dallas, (Sir George,) M.P., an English political writer, brother of Sir Robert, noticed below, was born in London in 1758. About 1776 he went to India as a clerk in the service of the East India Company, where he published the " India Guide," a poem. Having re- turned home, he wrote a pamphlet in defence of Warren Hastings, (1789,) and "Remarks on the Policy of a War with France," (1793.) His "Letters to Lord Moira on Ireland," published in the "Anti-Jacobin," attracted much attention, and were approved by Mr. Pitt. He was knighted in 1798. Died in 1833. Dallas, (George Mifflin,) an American statesman, a son of Alexander J. Dallas, was born in Philadelphia in July, 1792, He graduated at Princeton College in 1810, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1813. In 1 83 1 he was elected by the Democrats to the Senate of the United States, in which he advocated a protective tariff and the recharter of the United States Bank. In 1837 he was appointed minister to Russia, from which he returned in 1839, He was elected Vice-President of the United States when James K. Polk was chosen President in 1844. In 1846 he gave in the Senate a casting vote for a new tariff-bill, which was obnoxious to the protectionists and was designed merely for revenue. In February, 1856, he was appointed minister to England, and was recalled in 1861. Died in December, 1864. See "Democratic Review" for February, 1842; "Letters from London," by G. M. Dallas, Philadelphia, 1869. Dallas, (Sir Robert,) M.P., an English judge, was the eldest son of Robert Dallas of Kensington. Having gained reputation as a lawyer, he was employed as counsel for Warren Hastings in 1785. He was first returned to Parliament in 1802, and appointed president of the court of common pleas in 1818. Died in 1824. See Foss, "The Judges of England." Dallas, (Robert Charles,) a brother of A. J. Dallas, noticed above, a British author, born in Jamaica in 1754, was educated in London. He eventually settled in Eng- land, where he published many able works on various subjects, among which are "Miscellaneous Writings," (1797,) a "History of the Maroons," (1804,) " Percival, a Novel," and " Recollections of the Life of Lord Byron." He was intimate with Byron, (whose uncle had married a sister of Mr. Dallas,) and is said to have persuaded him to expunge some offensive passages of "Childe Harold." He was the father of A. R. C. Dallas, noticed above. Died in 1824. Dal'la-way, (James,) an English divine and author, born at Bristol in 1763, became vicar of Leatherhead in 1801. He published an essay on the "Origin and Progress of Heraldry," (1793.) Having accompanied an embassy to Turkey as chaplain, he produced, on his return, "Constantinople, Ancient and Modern," (1797.) He wrote an esteemed work on "English Architecture," a "Treatise on Ancient Sculpture," (1816,) and other antiquarian works. Died in 1834. Dallemagne, dtrmtn', (Claude,) Baron, a French general, born at Perieux in 1754, served in the United States about 1778-82. He subsequently distinguished himself at Castiglione and Roveredo, and in 1798 took command of the army of Rome. Died in 1813. Dallery, dtKre', (Charles,) a French organ-builder, born at Amiens in 17 10; died in 1780. His nephew, Pierre Dallery, born in 1735, was an eminent organ-builder. Among his works was the organ of Notre-Dame, Paris. Died in 1800. Dallery, (Thomas Charles Auguste,) an ingenious French mechanician, son of Charles, noticed above, was born at Amiens in 1754. He constructed a steamboat in 1803, and ruined his fortune by experiments in steam navigation. Died in 1835. DalTing-ton, (Sir Robert,) an English writer, born at Geddington about 1560, became secretary to the Earl of Rutland. He wrote a " Survey of Tuscany," (1604,) a " Method for Travel," and other works. Fuller, in his "Worthies," says " he had an excellent wit and judgment ; witness his most accurate aphorisms on Tacitus." Died in 1637. Dalloz, dt'loz', (Victor Alexis Desire,) a French advocate and jurist, born at Septmoncel (Jura) in 1795, practised with eclat at the bar of Paris. "He published an important " Methodical and Alphabetical Repertory of General Jurisprudence," (2d edition, 40 vols., 1845,) which has been translated into other languages. Dalmasio, dal-m.Vse-o, (Lipro,) an Italian painter, who worked at Ik^logna between 1376 and 1410. Dalmatia, Duke of. See Soult, Marshal. Dalmatiii, dai-md-teen', (George,) born in Slavo- nia, became a Lutheran minister at Laybach. He made a Slavonian translation of the Bible, which the Archduke Charles in 1580 forbade him to publish in the Austrian dominions; but it was printed at Wittenberg in 1584. He was exiled for his religion in 1598. Dalmatius, dal-ma'she-us, (Flavius Julius,) a Ro- man prince, born in Gaul, was the nephew of the em- peror Constantine, who invested him with the title of Csesar in 335 a.d. Soon after this date he commanded in Thrace and Macedonia. He was killed in 338 by his soldiers, who, it is said, were instigated by Constantius. DaFrym-ple, (diKrim-pl,) (Alexander,) F.R.S., an eminent Scottish hydrographer, born at New Hailes in 1737, was a brother of Lord Hailes, and seventh son of Sir James Dalrymple. He entered the service of the East India Company at Madras, as writer, at the age of sixteen. In 1759 he resigned his clerkship, made a voy- age of observation from Madras to the Eastern Archi- pelago for the promotion of commerce, and returned to England in 1765, after which he published charts of the Eastern seas. In 1779 he was appointed hydrographer to the East India Company, and in 1795 obtained a simi- lar office from the admiralty. He published an " Ac- count of the Discoveries in the Southern Ocean," (1767,) and other valuable works on navigation and geography. Died in 1808. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Dalrymple, (Sir David,) a Scottish lawyer, the young- est son of Viscount Stair, was created a baronet infi700. He was appointed lord advocate of Scotland in 1709, and died in 1721, leaving a son James, who was the father of David, (Lord Hailes.) Dalrymple, (Sir David,) afterwards Lord Hailes, an eminent British judge and antiquary, born in Edinburgh in 1726, was the son of Sir James, and a great-grandson of the first Viscount Stair. He was admitted as an ad- vocate at the Scottish bar in 1748, and became a judge of the court of session in 1766, when the title of Lord Hailes was conferred on him. Ten years later he was appointed a lord of justiciary. He published a number of able works on history and antiquities, of which the most im- portant and popular is his "Annals of Scotland," (1779,) a "book which," says Dr. Johnson, "will always sell ; it has such a stability of dates, such a certainty of facts, and such punctuality of citation." His " Remains of Christian Antiquity," a work of great erudition, was also admired. He left no issue, except two daughters. Died in 1792, See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen :" " Encyclopaedia Britannica." a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, f^t; m§t; n6t; good; moon; DJLR TUPLE 711 D ALTON Dalrymple, (Sir Hew,) a Scottish judge, born in 1652, was the third son of the first Viscount Stair, He was admitted an advocate in 1677, and was appointed presi- dent of the court of session in 1698. Died in 1737. His son. Hew Dalrymple, was made a lord of ses- sion in 1726, with the title of Lord Drummore. Died ""i 1755- Dalrymple, (Sir Hew Whiteford,) of Highmark, a British general, born in 1750, was a descendant of Sir Hew Dalrymple, noticed above. After several campaigns in the war against France, he was appointed in 1808 to command the British army in Portugal, where he entered into the convention of Cintra with Junot. He was made a general in 1812, and a baronet about 1815. He wrote a Memoir of his proceedings in Portugal. Died in 1830. Dalrymple, (James,) first Viscount Stair, an eminent Scottish statesman and jurist, born at Dummurchie, Ayrshire, in 1619, was the son of James Dalrymple of Stair, and was the ancestor of many distinguished men. In 1641 he obtained a chair of philosophy in the Uni- versity of Glasgow. He studied law, was admitted an advocate in 1648, and became eminent in the profession. In 1657 Cromwell appointed him a judge of the court of session, and in 1661 Charles II. made him one of the lords of session. He was president of the court of ses- sion from 1671 to 1681. In the latter year he published " Institutions of the Law of Scotland," an excellent and authoritative work, which is still the great text-book of Scottish lawyers. In consequence of his refusal to take the test-oath in 1681, he was deprived of office,and suffered so much persecution that he preferred exile, and retired to Holland in 1682. Returning with the Prince of Orange in 1688, he again became president of the court, and in 1690 was raised to the peerage, as Viscount Stair. He died in 1695, leaving four sons, — ^John, James, Hew, and David. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Macaulay, "History of England," vol. iii. chap. xjii. ; "Encyclo- paedia Britannica." Dalrymple, (John,) first Earl of Stair, a son of the preceding, born in 1644, was admitted an advocate in 1672, and appointed lord advocate of Scotland in 1685. After the lapse of a year he exchanged this office for that of lord of session, but in 1690 resumed the former func- tion. From 169 1 to 1695 he was secretary of state, and incurred great odium by his complicity in the massacre of Glencoe, of which he was regarded as the chief author. He inherited his father's title in 1695, and was made an earl in 1703. He died in 1707, leaving a son, John, the great general. Respecting the guilt of the Earl of Stair in relation to Glencoe, see Macaulay, "History of England," vol. iv. chap, xviii.; "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1868; J. Paget, "New Examen," London, 1861. Dalrymple, (John,) second Earl of Stair, an able general, a son of the preceding, born in Edinburgh in 1673, entered the army in 1692. In 1702 he served as aide-de-camp to the Duke of Marlborough in Flanders. He inherited his father's title in 1707, and was chosen one of the representative peers in the first British Parlia- ment. He commanded the Scottish Greys at the battles of Oudenarde, Malplaquet, (1709,) and Ramillies, where his conduct was much applauded. On the accession of George I. (171 5) he was made a privy councillor, and was appointed commander-in-chief in Scotland. He per- formed with credit a diplomatic mission to Paris, whence he returned in 1720 and lived many years in retirement. In 1743 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the forces in Great Britain. He died without issue in 1747, when a son of his brother William became heir to the earldom. See Andrew Henderson, "Life of John, Earl of Stair," 1748; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Dalrymple, (Sir John,) of Cranston, a Scottish law- yer and author, born in 1726, was a great-grandson of Viscount Stair. He was a baron of exchequer in Scot- land from 1776 to 1807. He gained much reputation as a historian by his " Essay towards a General Plistory of Feudal Property," (1757,) and his admirable " Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland from 1681 to the Battle off La Hogue," (1771.) From the records of the French foreign office he obtained evidence which convinced him that Algernon Sidney and other Whigs were in the pay of Louis XIV. Died in 1810. He had a son who became Earl of Stair. DaPrym-ple, (John,) an English surgeon and oculist, born at Norwich in 1804, began to practise his profession in London in 1827. He published in 1834 an excellent treatise on the "Anatomy of the Human Eye," and in his later years gave his attention chiefly to ocular surgery. He wrote a treatise on the " P2ye of Fishes," and other papers on natural history, which procured his election as F.R.S. in 1850, Died in 1852. D&Ptpn, (John,) an English divine, born in Cumber- land in 1709, became prebendary of Worcester and rec- tor of Saint Mary-at-Hill, London. He adapted Milton's " Comus" for the stage, and wrote a number of sermons, (1745-55,) and some short poems. Died in 1763. Dalton, (John,) an English chemical philosopher, cele- brated as the author of the atomic theory, was born at Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth, September 5, 1766. He was the son of Joseph Dalton, a farmer. From 1781 to 1793 he was employed as usher in a school at Kendal, where he was assisted in his scientific studies by Mr. Gough, a blind philosopher. Through the influence of this friend he obtained in 1793 the chair of mathematics in New College, Manchester, which thenceforth was his permanent residence. He devoted his leisure to obser- vations and experiments in various branches of physics, published "Meteorological Essays," (1793,) and an ac- count of a singular defect in his vision, in consequence of which certain colours — red, blue, and green — appeared to him alike. This peculiarity of vision has since been termed "Daltonism." After the New College was re- moved to York, (1799,) Dalton taught mathematics and philosophy in private schools, and gave public lectures on physical science at Manchester, London, and other cities. In 1802 he propounded his important theory of "The Constitution of Mixed Gases," (in a contribution to the " Transactions of the Manchester Society,") which is now universally adopted. In 1803 he began to develop the inost important and fundamental principles of chem- ical philosophy, in connection with the atomic theory, which he announced in a lecture in London in 1804, and explained in the first volume of his " New System of Chemical Philosophy," (1808.) This discovery cou' tributed immensely to perfect the processes of chemical analysis and synthesis, which have since attained almost mathematical precision. From this theory, which sup- poses that each body is composed of atoms of definite size and weight, he deduced the following laws of com- bination : I, each compound consists invariably of the same constituents ; 2, the elements of every compound unite in definite and constant proportions ; 3, when ele- ments combine in more proportions than one, those proportions are multiples, etc. About 1821 Dalton was elected Fellow of the Royal Society; and in 1826 that body unanimously awarded him one of two gold medals which the king ordered to be given to those who had most distinguished themselves by discoveries in science. He was a foreign associate of the French Institute. An annual pension of £^,00 was settled on him in 1836. In 1827 he published the third volume of his "System of Chemical Philosophy." Besides the works above men- tioned, he wrote many which were inserted in the " Philo- sophical Transactions," " Nicholson's Journal," etc. He died in July, 1844. He excelled in generalization, and had an extraordinary sagacity in tracing the relations of natural phenomena. His moral character was excel- lent, his disposition unassuming and rather reserved. He never married. He was a member of the Society of Friends, whose meetings he constantly attended. The citizens of Manchester testified their high estimate of his merit by a magnificent public funeral. " Dalton," says the "Edinburgh Review," "first gave clear declaration to the principle [of definite proportions] and illustrated its applications, mighty in their universality, with a simple sagacity belonging to the genius and habits of the man." See Dr. Henry, "Life of Dalton," 1854; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyclopaedie ;" "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1858; "Quarterly Review" for January, 1855; "Eraser's Magazine" for November, 1854; "London Quarterly Review" for December, 1854; " North British Review" for October, 1857; " Westminster Review" for March, 1846. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, h, vl, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^=='See Explanations, p. 23.) D ALTON 712 DAMER D^Ftpn, (John C.,) a distinguished American physi- ologist, born at Chehnsford, Massachusetts, February 2, 1825, graduated at Harvard in 1844, and in 1847 ^o^k the degree of M.D. in the medical department of that uni- versity. His " Essay on the Corpus Luteum," &c. (1851) won the prize of the American Medical Association. His "Treatise on Human Physiology" (ist edition, 1859; 4th edition, revised and enlarged, 1867) placed him at once in the first rank of American physiologists. He has since written, besides other works, a " Treatise on Physiology and Hygiene for Schools, Families, and Colleges," (1868.) Dalton, (Michael,) M.P., an English lawyer, born in 1554, was chiefly noted as the author of " The County Justice," a standard legal work. Died about 1620. Dalton, (Richard,) an English artist, was a brother of the Rev. John Dalton, (1709-63.) He studied painting in Rome, travelled in the Levant, and, on his return, became keeper of the medals and pictures of George IH. He published "Antiquities and Scenery in Greece and Egypt," (1791.) Died in 1791. Dalyell, A\-h\', ? { Sir John Graham, ) a Scottish naturalist and author , born in 1777. He published, besides other works, " Fragments of Scottish History," (1798,) "Monastic Antiquities," (1809,) and "Rare and Remarkable Animals of Scotland," (1847.) The last is highly commended. Died in 1851. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Dalzell, dk-hV, (Andrew,) F.R.S., a Scottish pro- fessor, eminent as a Greek scholar, born at Ratho, near Edinburgh, about 1750. He was professor of Greek in the Edinburgh University, and secretary of the Royal Society of that city. He published selections from Greek authors, with the titles of "Analecta Graeca Minora" and "Collectanea Graeca Majora," (1802,) which were, and still are, extensively used in schools. He also translated Chevalier's " Plains of Troy," (1791.) Died in 1806. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of- Eminent Scotsmen ;" "London Quarterly Review" for October. 1822. Damain, dt^m^N', (Jacques,) a French Catholic priest, born at Orleans about 1530, wrote an "Account of the Events at Orleans during the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew" in 1572. His humanity was conspicuous in that dreadful crisis. Died in 1596. Damas, dt'mJs', (Ange Hyacinthe Maxence,) Baron, a French general and statesman, born in Paris in 1785, was minister of war in 1823, and afterwards of foreign affairs from 1824 to January, 1828. Died in 1862. Damas, (Francois Etienne,) a French general, born in Paris in 1764. As general of brigade, he distinguished himself at the passage of the Rhine in 1795. He served as chief of the staff of Kleber in Egypt in 1798-99, and as general of division at the battle of Heliopolis. He returned to France in 1801, and was appointed military commandant of the grand duchy of Berg in 1807. He maintained his reputation in the Russian campaign of 1812, and after the restoration of 1815 was employed as inspector in the army. Died in 1828. See " Victoires et Conquetes des Fran^ais." Damas, de, deh dt'mds', (Joseph Francois Louis Charles C6sar,) Due, a French peer, born in 1758. As colonel of dragoons, he was charged with the impor- tant duty of expediting the passage of the royal family in their attempt to escape to the frontier in 1791. On this occasion he was deficient in energy and presence of mind. He emigrated about 1792, and became aide-de- camp of the Count d'Artois, (Charles X.) After the restoration, Louis XVHL made him a peer and lieu- tenant-general. Died in 1829. See Chastellux, " filoge du G^n^ral de Damas," 1829. Damas, de, (Roger,) Comte, a brother of the pre- ceding, born in 1765. As France was at peace with all nations, he indulged his martial passion in the service of Russia against the Turks. He fought with the royalists against the French republic from 1793 to 1797. In 1798 he entered the service of fhe King of Naples, and ob- tained command of a division. In 18 14 he returned to France, and recovered his titles. Died in 1823. Damascene. See Damascenus. Dam-as-9e'nus, (Joannes,) [Gr. 'luuwric AafiaoKijvS^ ; Fr. Jean Damascene, di'mWshV, or de Damas, deh dt'mSs',] a noted theologian, born in Damascus about 700. He succeeded his father in the office of councillor to the caliph. In the prime of life he retired to the monastery of Saint Saba, near Jerusalem, where he be- came well versed in dialectics, philosophy, and theology, and gained a great reputation by his writings, of which the principal is entitled " Summary of the Orthodox Faith." This served as a model to several generations of Schoolmen. He also wrote a treatise against Icono- clasts. He first applied to scholasticism the philosophy of Aristotle. Died about 760, though some say 780 a.d. See Cave, " Historia Literaria." Damascenus, (Nicolaus,) [NtKoXaog AafiaaKTjvog,] 3l Greek historian and philosopher, born in Damascus in 74 B.C., was a contemporary of the emperor Augustus, and a friend of Herod, King of Judea, at whose court he lived. He wrote a "Universal History," of which fragments are extant, and other works, including poems. His History is praised for its style and other merits. Damascius, da-mash'e-us, [Gr. AafidoKLog,] a pagan philosopher, born in Damascus about 480 a.d. He studied under Isidorus and others, at Athens, where he afterwards taught the Neo- Platonic philosophy. Justinian having in 529 prohibited the pagans from teaching, Damascius retired to the court of Chosroes, King of Persia. He wrote a work called " Doubts and Solutions of the First Principles," which is still extant, and is accounted an important contribution to the history of philosophy. See Photius, " Bibliotheca ;" Ritter, " History of Philosophy." Damase. See Damasus. Damas-Hinard, dt'mas' he'ntR', (Jean Joseph Sta- nislas,) a French litterateur, born at Madrid in 1805, pro- duced French versions of Calderon, (1841-44,) of Lope de Vega, (1842,) and of "Don Quixote," (1847.) He became private secretary of the empress Eugenie in 1853. Da-mas'tes [Aa^acrrT^f] of Sig^um, a Greek histo- rian, who lived in the fifth century B.C. See Vossius, "De Historicis Graecis." Dam'a-sus [Fr. Damase, dt'mtz'] I., a Spaniard by birth, was elected Bishop of Rome, as successor to Liberius, in 366 a.d. A competitor named Ursinus was also chosen by a party of the clergy ; and this double election gave rise to violent tumults, in which many persons were killed. Damasus was recognized by the bishops and by the emperor Valentinian, who exiled Ur- sinus. He called councils at different tii^es to oppose the Arians and other schismatics. Saint Jerome, who was his secretary, speaks favourably of his character. He died in 384, and was succeeded by Siricius. See Cave, "Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Historia;" Tillemont, "M^moires ecclesiastiques." Damasus II., Poppo or Poppon, Bishop of Brixen, was elected pope in 1048 in place of Benedict IX. He died about three weeks after his election. See Artaud de Montor, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes." Damaze de Raymond, dS'mtz' deh ri^m^N', a French journalist, born at Agen in 1770; died in 1813. Dambourney, ddN'booR'ni', (Louis Auguste,) a French chemist and botanist, born at Rouen in 1722, was intendant of the botanic garden of that place. He made useful experiments and discoveries in vegetable dyes, and wrote a treatise on the " Colours which In- digenous Plants of France impart to Wool," which was printed at the expense of the state, (1789.) Died in 1795. Dambray, d6N'bRi', (Charles Henri,) chancellor of France, born at Rouen in 1760, removed to Paris ir 1779. Having acquired distinction as an eloquent advo- cate, he was appointed in 1788 attorney-general in the Parliament of Paris. He favoured the royalist cause, and during the reign of terror lived in retirement. In 1814 he was appointed chancellor of France by Louis XVIII., and was raised to the rank of a peer. The seals were taken from him in 181 5, after which he was president of the Chamber of Peers for some years. His character is represented as excellent. Died in 1829. See De Laporte-Lalannk, "Notice sur Charles Henri Dambray, etc.," Paris, 1830; Lamartine, "History of the Restoration." Da'me-as, \Aa^aq^ written also Damias, a Greek statuary, born in Arcadia, lived about 410 B.C. Da'mer, (Anne Seymour,) an English lady, eminent as a sculptor, born in 1748, was the daughter of General a, e, T, 6, ii, y, long; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon. DAMER 713 DAMPE Conway, and the friend of David Hume and Horace Walpole. In 1767 she became the wife of Hon. John Damer, who killed himself in 1776. She then devoted her time to sculpture, and produced a statue of George III., a bust of Nelson, and other works. Died in 1828. See Cunningham's "Lives of Painters, Sculptors," etc. Damer, Hon. Mrs., an English writer of the present age, and a descendant of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, published an interesting " Diary of her Tour in Greece, Turkey, and the Holy Land," (1841.) Damery, dSm^re', (Walter,) a Flemish painter, born at Liege in 1614. His "Translation of Elijah" is highly commended. Died in 1678. Damesme, dt'mSm', (Edouard Adolphe Marie,) a French general, born in 1807, was killed in June, 1848. Damiani, di-me-i'nee, (Felice,) called Felice da GUBBIO, (goob'be-o,) a painter of the Roman school, born at Gubbio about 1550 ; died after 1606. His picture of the "Decapitation of Saint Paul" is highly praised. Damiani, di-me-d'nee, (JAnos,) of Tuhegli, a Hun- garian Catholic theologian, born at Tuhegli in 1710. He published "Doctrine of the True Church of Christ," ("Doctrinaverae Christi Ecclesiae," 1762.) Died in 1768. Damiani, [Fr. Damien, dS'me'iN',] (Pietro,) an Italian prelate, born at Ravenna about 988 A.D. In 1057 the pope appointed him Cardinal Bishop of Ostia. He made zealous efforts to reform the evil practices of the clergy, especially simony, and, as legate of the pope, performed several missions with success, and had great influence in the Church. He wrote several religious works. Died in 1072. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire HIstorique ;" Baronius, "Annales;" Laderchi, "Vita S. P. Damiani," 3 vols., 1702. Damiauics or Damjanics, dim-yd'nitch, (Janos,) a Hungarian general, born in 1804. In the insurrection of 1848 he obtained a command, and gained several vic- tories. Having been raised to the rank of general, he distinguished himself at Nagy Sarlo and Comorn in April, 1849. He surrendered to the Russians at Arad, and was hung by the Austrians in August, 1849. See Balleydier, "Histoire de la Guerre de Hongrie." Da-mi-a'nus, [Gr. Aa/ziavof,] a celebrated rhetorician of Ephesus, lived about 200 A.D., and was a pupil of .^lius Aristides. See SuiDAS, " Damianus." Damianus, a physician, said to have been born in Arabia. In company with his brother Cosmas, he suf- fered martyrdom about 310 A.D. Damien, the French of Damiani, which see. Damiens, dt'me'iN', [Anglicized pron. da'me-enz,] (Robert FRANgois,) a French fanatic, born in the diocese of Arras about 17 14, became a domestic in Paris. He was repeatedly dismissed by his employers for vicious con- duct. He became violently excited on the subject of a controversy between the pope and the Jansenists, which then distracted the Church. In January, 1757, as Louis XV. was entering a coach, Damiens darted through the guards aiid wounded him slightly with a knife. He was seized and put to the torture, but persisted in denying that he had any accomplice. On his trial he said he did not wish to kill the king, but to induce him to do right. He was condemned to be broken alive by horses, which doom was carried into effect. See "Vie de R. F. Damiens," 1757; Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XV." Damilaville,dt'me''ltV^K,(£TiENNE Noel,) a French infidel writer, born about 1721, was a correspondent of Voltaire. He wrote "Christianity Unveiled," which pro- voked even the censure of Voltaire, who called it " Im- piety Unveiled." Died in 1768. See Voltaire, " Correspondance." Damini, See Damino, (Pietro.) Damino, di-mee'no, or Damini, di-mee'nee, (Gior- gio,) an Italian portrait-painter, was a brother of Pietro, noticed below. Died about 1630. Damino or Damini, (Pietro,) a Venetian painter and self-taught artist, born at Castel-Franco in 1592. He worked in Padua and Venice, and acquired a wicle repu- tation, but died prematurely in 163 1. His "Crucifixion," in a church of Padua, is considered his master-piece. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Damiron, dS'me'r6N', (Jean Philibert,) a French philosopher, born at Belleville (Rhone) in 1794, studied in Paris under Cousin. About 1830 he became professor of philosophy in the Faculty of Letters, Paris. He was chosen a member of the Institute in 1836. He published an " Essay on the Histoiy of Philosophy in France in the Nineteenth Century," (1828,) and an "Essay on the History of Philosophy in France in the Seventeenth Century," (2 vols., 1846.) Died in Paris in 1862. See Louandre et Bourquelot, " Litterature Fran9aise ;" " Nou- velle Biographic Generale." Damjanics. See Damianics. Damm, dSm, (Christian Tobias,) a German scholar, born near Leipsic in 1699. He was rector of the gym- nasium of Berlin for about twenty years, ending in 1764. He published a valuable Greek Lexicon, (1765,) and translated into German the poems of Homer, (1769-71,) and other classics. Died in 1778. See Meusel, " Gelehrtes Deutschland." Dammartin. See Chabannes, de, (Antoine.) Da'mo, [Gr. Aa^uw,] a daughter of Pythagoras, to whom he intrusted the writings containing the secrets of his philosophy. Though suffering from extreme poverty and tempted with liberal offers of money, she adhered to her father's injunctions, and handed down the precious documents inviolate to her daughter Bistalia. Dam'o-cles, [Gr. Aa/zo«A^f,] a Syracusan courtier, whose admiration of the luxury and pomp of royalty is said to have been cured by Dionysius, who invitecl him to a sumptuous repast, over which a sword was suspended by a hair. This anecdote is related by Cicero. Da-moc'ra-tes or De-moc'ra-tes, [Gr. AafioKpuTrjc or ArjfiOKpuT7jg,] a Greek physician, who lived at Rome about 50 A.D., was commended by Pliny. Damoiseaii, dt^mw§.'z6', (Marie Charles Theo- dore,) a French astronomer, born at Besan^on in 1768. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences, and wrote on the Lunar theory. Died in 1846. Daemon [Aufiuv] of Athens, an eminent Greek musi- cian, was the teacher of Pericles and Socrates, both of whom respected him highly. His penetration and finesse are praised by Plato in his " Republic." Plutarch inti- mates that he was a "politician who, under the pretence of teaching music, concealed his great abilities from the vulgar." He was ostracised in the latter part of his career, from jealousy of his political influence. See Plutarch, "Pericles;" Diogenes Laertius. Damon and Pyth'i-as or Phin'ti-as were two Syracusans, and disciples of Pythagoras, who exhibited a remarkable instance of faithful friendship. It is said that Pythias was condemned to death by Dionysius, and obtained leave to go and settle his affairs, while Damon remained as a hostage for his return. Pythias, having returned punctually, was pardoned by the astonished king, who desired to be admitted into their friendship. See DiODORUs Siculus; Jamblichus, "Vita Pythagorse." Da-moph'i-lus [Gr. Aa.fc6(pi?iog ; Fr. Damophile, dt'moT^K] or De-moph'i-lus, a Greek painter and sculptor of uncertain date, who adorned the temple of Ceres, in Rome. Dam'o-phon, [Aafiocpuv^cL Greek sculpto-r, born in Messenia or Messene, flourished probably between 300 and 400 B.C. He was the only famous sculptor that Messenia produced. After he had gained a high repu- tation, he was chosen to restore or repair the ivory statue of Jupiter which was the master-piece of Phidias. See Pausanias, iv. and viii. Damoreau, dt'mo^ro', (Laure Cinthie,) originally named Montalant, (m6N^tt''16N^) a P>ench vocalist, called in Italian Mademoiselle Cinti, (ch^n'tee,) born in Paris in 1801, became a public favourite about 1822. See Fetis, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." Damours, dt^mooR', (Louis,) a French jurist, born at Lude about 1720; died in 1788. Dampe, dtm'peh, (Jacob Jacobson,) a Danish phi- losopher, born at Copenhagen in 1790. He became principal of a school in his native city, and wrote, be- sides other works, one " On the Harmony of Liberty with the Spirit of Christianity," (1819.) He was imprisoned for his liberal doctrines from 1821 to 1841. Died in 1850. See Erslew, " Forfatter- Lexicon." € as 9 as s; g Aard; g as j; g, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) DAMPIER 714 DANA Dam'pier, (William,) an enterprising English navi- gator, born in iSomersetshire in 1652, served in the navy in the war with Holland about 1673. He afterwards sailed with an expedition to Campeachy to cut logwood, and in 1678 returned to London with a journal of his observations. In 1679 he joined a party of filibusters, who cruised about the Isthmus of Darien and infested the Spanish settlements for several years. About 1685 he made a voyage to the East Indies, in which he had some perilous adventures. Returning to England in 1691, he published an interesting narrative of his "Voy- age round the World." In 1699 the admiralty gave him command of a vessel, and sent him to make discoveries in the South Sea. He explored the western coast of Australia, the coasts of New Guinea and other islands, and passed through the straits which bear his name. He returned home in 1701, and published the results of his voyage. He went to sea again, but not in the service of government, A remarkable faculty for observation and description renders his writings valuable and attractive. See " Nouvelle Biographie Gendrale;" "Retrospective Review," vol. ix., 1824. Dampierre, dSN^pe^iR', (Jean,) a French poet, born at Blois ; died in 1550. Dampierre, de, deh d6N'pe-aiR', ( Auguste Henri Marie Picot,) a French general, born in Paris in 1756. In 1 791 he was aide-de-camp to Marshal Rochambeau. He commanded a division at Jemmapes, (1792,) the vic- tory of which was attributed partly to his bravery and skill. He distinguished himself in several other actions under Dumouriez. When he learned the defection of that gene- ral, (April, 1793,) he decided in favour of the republic, and was made commander-in-chief in place of Dumouriez. He was killed in battle near Vicogne in May, 1793. See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution;" De Cour- CELLES, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Frangais." Dampierre, de, (Gui,) Count of Flanders, was born in 1225, and began to reign in 1280. He became involved in war with Philip V. of France, who conquered Flanders about 1300 and kept Gui in prison. The Flemings re- volted, and gained a victory at Courtrai in 1302. Gui died in prison in 1305. See SisMONDi, " Histoire des Frangais." Dampmartin, de, deh dSN^mtR^tiN', (Anne Henri,) a French litterateur, born at Uzes in 1755, served in the army as colonel before the Revolution. He returned from the emigration about 1800, and in 1810 was appointed imperial censor of books. In 1813 he was a deputy to the legislative body, and in 1814 was reinstated in the office of censor by Louis XVIII. He wrote a "History of the Rivalry between Carthage and Rome," (1789,) essays on education, and other works. Died in 1825. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Damremont, See Danr^mont. Dan, [Heb. p.] a son of the Hebrew patriarch Jacob, was born, it is supposed, about 1788 B.C. See Genesis, chaps, xxx., xxxv., and xlix. Dan, a prince who, according to Malte-Brun, founded the kingdom of Denmark about the end of the third century, and from whose lume are derived the words "Dane" and "Danemark," {i.e. country of Dan.) See Mallet, " Histoire de Danemarck." Da'na, (Francis,) LL.D., an American statesman and jurist, son of Judge Richard Dana.was born at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1743. He graduated at Harvard in 1762, was admitted to the bar in 1767, and was engaged as counsel in many of the most important trials of that stirring period. As a member of the " Sons of Liberty," he took a prominent part in the discussions on the Stamp Act and other aggressive measures that produced the Revolution. He served in the first provincial Congress of Massachusetts in 1774. From 1776 to 1780 he was a member of the Massachusetts council, at that time the supreme authority in the State. He was a delegate in the Congress which formed the Confederation in 1777, and in the Congress of 1778 was chairman of the com- mittee charged with the responsible duty of reorganizing the army. In November, 1779, he embarked for Europe as secretary to John Adams in his embassy to negotiate a treaty of peace and commerce with Great Britain. Having been appointed minister to Russia, Mr. Dana, in July, 1 781, proceeded to Saint Petersburg ; but, failing to obtain a recognition of the claims of America, he re- turned to Boston in 1783. He was again a delegate to Congress in 1784. In January, 1785, he was appointed by Governor Hancock judge of the supreme court of Massachusetts, and from 1791 to 1806 was chief justice of the State. Mr. Dana was in the National Convention which met at Annapolis in 1 786, and was chosen a delegate to the convention that framed the Federal Constitution in 1787 ; but ill health and judicial duties prevented his at- tendance. He served in the Massachusetts convention for ratifying the Federal Constitution in 1788, and was among its most prominent supporters. Died at Cam- bridge in 1811. Judge Dana combined eminent talents with thorough attainments and rare excellence of charac- ter. He was throughout a zealous Federalist. Dana, (James Dwight,) a distinguished American naturalist, born at Utica, New York, in February, 1813, graduated at Yale College in 1833. He was appointed the geologist and mineralogist of the exploring expedition sent out by the United States government about 1838 under Captain Wilkes, In 1837 he published a " System of Mineralogy," (5th edition, 1858. In 1868 appeared the first volume of a new and greatly improved edition of this work.) He married a daughter of Professor Benjamin Silliman in 1844. Since 1846 he has been one ot the editors of the " American Journal of Science," and has re- sided at New Haven. In connection with the exploring expedition above mentioned, he wrote a "Report on Zoophytes," (1846,) a "Report on the Geology of the Pacific," (1849,) "Report on the Crustacea," (1852-54,) etc. He was elected to the chair of natural history and geology at Yale College about 1850, but did not enter immediately upon the duties of that position. One of his most important works, and that on which his reputa- tion chiefly rests, is his excellent " Manual of Geology," (1862.) Professor Dana combines with the faculty of close and accurate observation so necessary to every student of nature, intellectual powers which place him in the very highest rank of philosophic naturalists. He is a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and of other learned societies. See "North American Review" for October, 1863. Dana, (James Freeman,) born at Exeter, New Hampshire, in 1793, studied medicine, and was appointed professor of chemistry at Dartmouth College about 1819. He published an "Epitome of Chemical Philos- ophy," (1825.) Died at New York in 1827. Dana, (Napoleon J. T.,) an American general, born in Maine in 1822, graduated at West Point in 1842. He became a brigadier-general about February, 1862, and served in several battles near Richmond in June of that year. He was wounded at the battle of Antietam, Sep- tember 17, 1862, and disabled. In July and August, 1863, he commanded the defences of Philadelphia. He resigned in May, 1865. Dana, (Richard,) an able American lawyer, the father of Francis Dana, noticed above, was born at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1699. He practised law with great distinction at Boston, and, as a supporter of the cause of liberty, took a prominent part in the movements which preceded the Revolution. Died in 1772. Dana, (Richard Henry,) an American poet and essayist, born at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in No- vember, 1787, was a son of Chief-Justice Francis Dana. He was educated at Harvard College, which he left without a degree in 1807, after which he studied law, and was admitted to the bar of Boston in 1811. In 1814 he began to contribute to the " North American Review," of which he became associate editor in 1818. He pro- duced the "Dying Raven," a poem, (1821,) and "The Buccaneer," (1827,) which was highly commended by Professor Wilson in "Blackwood's Magazine" of 1835. "We pronounce it," says he, "by far the most powerful and original of American poetical compositions. The power is Mr. Dana's own ; but the style — though he has made it his own too — is coloured by that of Crabbe, of Wordsworth, and of Coleridge. He is no servile fol- lower of those great masters, but his genius has been inspired by theirs, and he almost places himself on a level with them by this extraordinary story, — we mean a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, f^t; m§t; nSt; good; moon DJNJ 7 IS DAN COURT on the level on which they stand in such poems as the ♦ Old Grimes' of Crabbe, the ' Peter Bell' of Wordsworth, and the 'Ancient Mariner' of Coleridge." In 1833 he published an edition of his poems and prose writings, including "The Buccaneer," with some new poems and essays, which originally appeared in " The Idle Man," a periodical issued in 1821-22. " The Idle Man," says W. C. Bryant, " notwithstanding the cold reception it met with from the public, we look upon as holding a place among the first productions of American literature." ("North American Review" for January, 1828.) He de- livered a course of ten lectures on Shakspeare in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia in the winter of 1839-40. See Griswold, "Poets of America," and "Prose Writers of America;" Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors ;" Duyckinck, " Cy- clopedia of American Literature;" " Nortlr American Review" for January, 1851. Dana, (Richard Henry,) Jr., an American lawyer and author, a son of the preceding, was born at Cam- bridge, Massachusetts, in August, 1815. He was edu- cated at Harvard, which he entered in 1832. Having been compelled to suspend his studies by an affection of the eyes in 1834, he performed as a common sailor a voyage to California, of which he wrote an admirable narrative in his "Two Years before the Mast," (1840,) which obtained a wide celebrity. He graduated at Har- vard in 1837, studied law under Judge Story, and was admitted to the bar of Boston in 1840. He has since attained eminence as an advocate. In 1841 he published "The Seaman's Friend, containing a Treatise on Practi- cal Seamanship, etc." Mr. Dana was one of the founders of the "Free-Soil party," and acted with the Republicans in the Presidential election of 1856. Dana, (Samuel Luther,) an American chemist and writer on agriculture, born at Amherst, New Hampshire, in 1795. He became chemist of the Merrimac Print Works at Lowell in 1833, and invented a mode of bleaching cotton goods, which was generally adopted. He acquired distinction as a writer on agriculture, and discovered that phosphate of soda has the property of fixing mordants. Died in March, 1868. See "American Journal of Science," May, 1868. Dan'a-e, [Gr. Aava??,] a daughter of Acrisius, King of Argos, who confined her in a brazen tower or cell because an oracle had declared her son would kill her father. In spite of his precaution, she became the mother of Perseus by Jupiter, who is fabled to have obtained access to her apartment in the form of a golden shower. Dangeus. See Daneau. Da-na'i-des, [Gr. Aai'aidef,] the fifty daughters of Da- naus, were married to their cousins, the sons of /Egyptus. By the order of their father, each of them killed, on the wedding-night, her bridegroom, except Hypermnestra, who spared her husband, Lynceus. (See next article.) Dan'a-us, a son of Belus, after his father's death reigned conjointly with his brother yEgyptus on the throne of Egypt. Jealous of the power of the fifty sons of .^^gyptus, or, as some say, terrified by an oracle, he gave his fifty daughters in marriage to the sons of his brother, with a secret command that they should kill their husbands on the wedding-night. (See Danaides.) Danaus is said to have reigned fifty years. See Keightlev, "Mythology." D^nava, di'na-va, (Hindoo Myth.,) a demon or evil spirit, one of the children of Danu. Danby, Earl of. See Danvers. Dan'by, (Francis,) an eminent landscape-painter, born near Wexford, Ireland, in 1793. He became a resident of England in his youth, and about 1824 pro- duced a " Sunset at Sea after a Storm," which was much admired. Between 1825 and 1829 he gained a high re- putation by historical landscapes, among which was the "Embarkation of Cleopatra on the Cydnus," (1827.) Among his later works are "The Deluge," "Departure of Ulysses from Ithaca," and "Caius Marius amidst the Ruins of Carthage," (1848.) He is regarded by some as unrivalled in historical or poetic landscapes among the English artists. His son Thomas is a successful landscape-painter. Dan'by, (Thomas Osborne,) Earl of. Marquis of Caermarthen, Duke of Leeds, an English statesman, born in 1631. He entered Parliament about 1660, supported the measures of the court, and acquired the favour of the king. In 1673 obtained the chief direction of affairs, as lord treasurer, and in 1674 was created Earl of Danby. Having been accused of treason, he was committed to the Tower by the Commons in 1678, and was detained there five years. In 1689 he was appointed president of the council by William III. " In practical ability and official experience," says Macaulay, "he had no superior among his contemporaries. . . . Yet the Whigs regarded him with unconquerable distrust and aversion. Even in becoming a rebel he had not ceased to be a Tory." (" History of England," vol. iii. chaps, xi., xv., and xvi.) He was made Duke of Leeds in 1694. Died in 1712. Dancarville. See Hancarville. Dance, (George,) an English architect, who held the office of city surveyor of London. He was the architect of the Mansion House, built about 1740, and of several churches in London. Died in 1768. Dance, (George,) Jr., an English architect, son of the preceding, born probably in London in 1740, succeeded his father as city surveyor. He was one of the first mem- bers of the Royal Academy, in which he was professor of architecture. His reputation is founded chiefly on the erection of Newgate prison, which was begun in 1 770. He also designed the front of Guildhall, and other buildings in London. Died in 1825. Dance, (Sir Nathaniel,) an English painter, brother of the preceding, was born in 1729. After acquiring some reputation as a painter, he married a rich Mrs. Dummer, and assumed the name of Holland. He was made a baronet in 1800. Died in 1811. Dan'cer, (Daniel,) a notorious English miser, born about 1 715, subjected himself to extreme privations while he had large sums of money hoarded. Died in 1774. See " Memoirs of Celebrated Misers." Danchet, dftN^sh^', (Antoine,) a French dramatic poet, born at Riom in 1671, studied in Paris, where he resided after 1696. He wrote four tragedies, one of which is entitled "Cyrus," and numerous operas, which were more successful, especially " Hesione," which is ranked by La Harpe above those of Duche and Fonte- nelle. Danchet was a member of the French Academy and of the Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1748. See Sabatier, " Les trois Siecles de la Litterature." Danckelmann. See Dankelmann. Danckert, dc^nk'keRt, almost dtnk'keRt, or Danc- kerts, dank'kcRts, (Cornelis,) a Dutch engraver, born in Amsterdam in 1561, treated with success portraits, landscapes, and history. He settled in Antwerp as a dealer in engravings, and was the head of a family who were long eminent in the same art. Danckert, (Peter,) a son of the preceding, born in Antwerp in 1600, surpassed his father as an engraver, and used the burin and the etching-point together. He engraved after Berghem and Wouwerman, and also his own designs. Died about 1660. Peter left two sons, Henry and John, who were skilful artists, and settled first in Amsterdam. John afterwards went to England, where he engraved in partnership with Hollar. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" Basan, " Dictionriaire des Graveurs." Danckerts. See Danckert. Danckerts de Ry. See Dankers. Dancks or Danks, dSnks, almost dSnks, (Francis,) a Dutch painter of history and portraits, born at Amster- dam in 1650; died about 1700. Dancourt, dSN^kooR', (Florent Carton,) a popular French comic author, born at Fontainebleau in 1661. He chose the profession of law, in which he acquired some reputation, but, falling in love with an actress. La Thorilliere, he exchanged the bar for the stage in 1685, as one of the king's comedians. Pie was successful both as an actor and an author. Having a mind fertile in invention, he produced " Le Chevalier a la Mode," and about sixty other plays, — chiefly farces, in which the dialogue is spirited, humorous, and piquant. Voltaire observed, " What Regnard was in respect to Moliere in the high comedy, Dancourt was in the farce." Died in 1726. See Grimm, " Correspondance ;" Hippolyte Lucas, "Moliere et Dancourt ;" " Nouvelie Biographic Generale." C as ^; 5 as s; g hard; g as J; o, H, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2!:^=°See Explanations, p. 23.) DANDELIN 716 DANGEJU Dandelin, d6Nd'liN', (Germinal Pierre,) a French engineer and scientific writer, born near Paris in 1794, became a citizen of Belgium in 1816. Died in 1847. Dandelot, dSNd'lo', (FRANgois de Coligny — W- l^n'ye',) an able French general, born at Chatillon-sur- Loing in 1 521, was a brother of the admiral Coligny. For his conduct at Cerisoles he was knighted on the field. As general of infantry he took a prominent part in the battle of Saint-Quentin in 1557. ile was a warm adherent of the Reformed Church, and in the civil war between Protestants and Catholics which began about 1562, he fought at Dreux, at Chartres, and at Jarnac, (1569,) a few days after which battle he died of fever. See SiSMONDi, " Histoire des Frangais." Dandini, ddn-dee'nee, (Cesare,) a painter, born at Florence about 1595 ; died in 1658. Dandini, (Ercole Francesco,) an Italian jurist and legal writer, born at Ancona in 1695, became professor of law at Padua, where he died in 1747. See Fabroni, " Vitse Italorum doctrina excellentiuin." Dandini, (Girolamo,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Ce- sena in 1554, professed philosophy in Paris, and theology at Padua. In 1596 he was sent by the pope on a mis- sion to the Maronites of Mount Lebanon, of which he published an account. Died in 1634. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Dandini, (Pietro,) a skilful Italian painter, born at Florence in 1647, was the son of Vincenzo. He painted with equal success in fresco and in oil, (at Florence,) and acquired distinction by the brilliancy of his colouring and the richness of his composition. Died in 1712. Dandini, (Vincenzo,) a successful painter, born at Florence about 1607, was a pupil of Cortona, and a brother of Cesare, noticed above. He was patronized by the Grand Duke of Tuscany. Died in 1675. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Dandolo, din'do-lo, (Andrea,) a Venetian historian and doge, born about 1306. Having acquired a high reputation for ability and virtue, he was elected doge in 1342. He was a friend of Petrarch, and was author of a valuable Latin Chronicle of Venice, terminating in the year 1339. He waged war against the Genoese for several years between 1348 and 1354. Died in 1354. See Marino Sanuto, " Vite de' Duchi." Dandolo, (Enrico,) a renowned Venetian statesman and general, who greatly increased the maritime power of Venice, was born about 1105. He was elected doge in 1192, before which he had become nearly blind. At this period the Venetian state was the greatest commer- cial and naval power in the world. In 1201 the leaders of the fourth crusade applied for means of transport to the Venetians, who, through the influence of the doge, furnished ships and made an alliance with the crusaders. Their combined forces, commanded by Dandolo, reduced Zara, which had revolted against Venice, and next at- tacked Constantinople, which was ruled by a usurper. That city was taken by storm in 1204, and the throne was offered to Dandolo, who declined it, but accepted the office of despot of Romania. He obtained the cession of several islands and ports of the Levant to the Venetian state. He died in 1205. Byron calls him " blind old Dandolo, Th' octogenarian chief, Byzantium's conquering foe." Ckilde Harold, canto iv. See MiCHAUD, "Histoire des Croisades ;" Daru, "Histoire de Venise ;" Marino Sanuto, "Vite de' Duchi;" A. Dandolo, "Chronicon," in the "Collection" of Muratori. Dandolo, (Francesco,) was Doge of Venice from 1328 to 1339. During his administration the Venetians extended their dominion over the adjacent terra firma, by annexing Treviso, etc. Dandolo, (Giovanni,) was Doge of Venice from 1280 to 1289, during which period the cities of Pirano and Isola were added to the republic, and Trieste shook off its allegiance. See Daru, " Histoire de Venise." Dandolo, (Vincenzo,) Count, an Italian chemist and economist, born in Venice in 1758. He united and digested the recent discoveries of French chemists, in a work called " Fondamenti della Fisico chimica," etc., ("Principles of Physical Chemistry," 1796.) When Venice was annexed to Austria (1797) he removed to Milan, and was there appointed a member of the grand council. From 1804 to 1809 he was governor or proveditor of Dal- matia under Napoleon. He wrote valuable treatises on the production of wine, wool, and silk, and on other sub- jects of rural economy. Died in Venice in 18 19. See EvRSCH und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyclopaedie ;" M. Bona- Fous, " Eioge historique de V. Dandolo," 1839; "Nouvelle Biogra- pliie Generale." D'Andrada. See Andrada, d'. Dandre, d6N'dRi', (Antoine Balthasar Joseph,) born at Aix in 1759, was appointed in 1814 by Louis XVIII. director of the police and steward (intendant) of his domains. Died in 1827. See Vaulabelle, "Histoire des deux Restaurations." Dandre-Bardon, dSN'dRa' biR'd6N',(MiCHEL Fran- gois,) a French painter and writer on art, born at Aix in 1700, founded an academy of painting at Marseilles. He published a "Treatise on Painting and Sculpture, with a Catalogue Raisonne of the Most Famous Artists of the French School," also an illustrated work on the costumes of ancient nations. Died in 1783. Dane, (Nathan,) an American jurist, born in Ips- wich, Massachusetts, in 1752, graduated at Harvard in 1778. He was one of the most eminent lawyers in New England. He was a member of the Continental Con- gress in 1785-87. In the last-naiued year he framed the important ordinance for the government and organiza- tion of the Northwest Territory, and inserted a clause prohibiting slavery. He published "An Abridgment and Digest of American Law," (9 vols., 1823-29.) Died in 1835. Daneau, di'no', [Lat. Dan^'us,] (Lambert,) a French Calvinistic divine, born at Beaugency in 1530, preached at Geneva, Castres, and other places. He published many treatises on theology, which were once esteemed. Died at Castres in 1596. See Melchior Adam, " Vita; Theologorum Exterorum;" NiCE- RON, " Memoires ;" Haag, " La France protestante." Danedi, d3.-naMee, (Giovanni Stefano,) an Italian historical painter, called Montalto, born at Treviglio in 1608. He adorned many edifices of Milan with his works, which display a rich imagination. Died in 1689. Danedi, (Giuseppe,) brother of the preceding, born in 1618, was also a skilful painter, and a pupil of Guido. He worked in Milan and Turin, sometimes in company with Giovanni Stefano, his brother. Died in 1689. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Danes, dt'nes', (Pierre,) a French scholar, born in Paris in 1497. In 1530 Francis I. appointed him first professor of Greek in the Royal College, and in 1545 ambassador to the Council of Trent. In the reign of Henry II. he was preceptor to the dauphin, afterwards Francis II., and in 1557 he was made Bishop of Lavaur. He published an edition of Pliny, a few letters, etc. Died in 1577. See De Thou, "filoges, avec les Additions de Teissier;" P. H. Danes, "Vie de P. Danes," 1731. Danet, dt'ni', (Pierre,) a learned French priest, born in Paris about 1650. The Duke of Montausier selected him, with others, to edit classic authors for the use of the dauphin, and assigned Phaedrus to him. He gained more reputation by his " Latin and French Dictionary, for the Use of the Dauphin," (1685.) Died in 1709. See Feller, " Biographic Universelle." Dangeau, de, deh dfiN^zho', (Louis de Courcillon — deh kooR^se^y^N',) AB156, a brother of the Marquis of Dangeau, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1643. Descended from Du Plessis-Mornay, he was educated a Protestant, but was converted by Bossuet. He was employed as reader to Louis XIV. from 1671 to 1687, and was admitted into the French Academy in 1682. "He was," says Voltaire, "an excellent academician." He was a candidate for the office of preceptor to the Duke of Burgundy ; but Fenelon was preferred. He wrote several treatises on grammar, and some other works. Died in 1723. See D'Alembert, " filoges ;" Saint-Simon, "Memoires." Dangeau, de, (Philippe de Courcillon,) Marquis, an accomplished French courtier and officer, born in 1638. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; DANGER 717 DJNIELL He became a favourite of Louis XIV., and colonel of the king's regiment in 1655. In 1667 he was governor of Touraine. He afterwards attended the king as aide- de-camp in several campaigns. He was elected to the French Academy in 1668, partly in consideration of his facility in composing verses, ( vers dc societe.) He died in 1720, leaving in manuscript a voluminous "Journal of the Court of Louis XIV.," (comprising the period from 1684 to 1720,) said to contain much important and curious matter. It has since been published, (1854.) See Saint-Simon, "Memoires;" Madame de Genlis, "Abrege du Journal de M. de Dangeau," 4 vols., 1817 ; Voltaire, " Journal delaCour;" Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi ;" "Edinburgh R J >iew" for January, 1S64. Danger, ddN^zhi', (E. P.,) a French chemist, born about 1800, has gained distinction by experiments on arsenic and mercury. Dangeville, ddxzh'v^K, (Marie Anne Botox,) a French actress, born in Paris in 17 14; died in 1796. Danhaver, din'hi^ver, a German portrait-painter of great merit, born in Suabia, settled in Saint Petersburg, where he was patronized by Peter the Great. He died in Saint Petersburg about 1735. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Danhawer or Danhower. See Dannhauer, Danican, dt'ne'k6N', (Franqois Andre,) surnamed Phil'idor, a French composer and famous chess-player, born at Dreux in 1727. In early youth he was a choris- ter in the chapel of Louis XV. He wrote for the Comic Opera of Paris with success. About 1777 he visited London, where he published a "Treatise on the Game of Chess," to which in his later years he was almost exclusively addicted. He found no equal in the chess- clubs of Paris and London, and was the victor in three simultaneous games which he played blindfolded against skilful opponents. Died in 1795. See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens ;" George Allen, "Life of Philidor," 1866. Daiiiel, dan'yel, [Heb, "^N'JI,] one of the four greater Hebrew prophets, was a member of the tribe of Judah. In his childhood, about 605 B.C., he was carried cap- tive to Babylon, where he was educated at the court of Nebuchadnezzar and became proficient in learning and wisdom. (See Daniel i. 17.) Having by divine inspira- tion interpreted an important dream of the king, he was promoted to be ruler of the province of Babylon and chief of the Magi. About 580 he interpreted another dream of Nebuchadnezzar. The next event recorded of Daniel is that he read and explained the handwriting on the wall at Belshazzar's feast, (chap, v.,) about 538 B.C. Shortly after that date he obtained the favour of Darius the Mede, (Cyaxares,) and became the first of three presidents who had authority over the one hundred and twenty princes or satraps of the empire. For an account of his miraculous preservation in the lions' den, see Daniel, chap. vi. After the death of Darius, Daniel "prospered in the reign of Cyrus the Persian," (chap, vi. 28,) and saw his last recorded vision in 534 B.C. He is generally believed to have been the author of the book which bears his name, and which has been designated " the last form of prophecy and the first philosophy of history." His high character as a prophet appears to be attested by the Saviour, in Matthew xxiv. 15. See, also, Ezekiel xiv. 14, and xxviii. 3; Bittelmaier, "Dispu- tatio de Vita Danielis," 1676. Daniel, di'ne-^l, (Christian Friedrich,) a Ger- man physician, born at Halle in 1753, published several medical works. Died in 1798. Daniel, dt'ne'^K, (Gabriel,) a French author and Jesuit, born at Rouen in 1649, lived in Paris, and ob- tained from Louis XIV. a pension of 2000 francs, with the title of historiographer of France. He wrote a " Reply to Pascal's Provincial Letters," which was ad- mired by the Jesuits, and many other works, of which the most important is his " History of France," (1713.) Walckenaer thinks this is justly celebrated ; but he admits that there is some foundation for the severe criticisms of Voltaire and others, who charge him with being par- tial and inaccurate. Died in 1728. See Lambert, "Histoire litteraire du R^gne de Louis XIV;" JoLV, " Eloges de quelques Auteurs Frangais." Daniel, dan'yel, (George,) an English poet and anti- quary, born about 1790. He published "The Modern Dunciad, and other Poems," (1835,) and " Merry England in the Olden Time," (2 vols., 1842.) Died in 1864. Daniel, (Joseph Henri,) a French sculptor, born at Nantes in 1804. He obtained several gold medals for his works, among which are a marble statue of Cleopatra, (1847,) ^iid a group representing Music, ordered for the Louvre. Daniel, dan'yel, (Peter V.,) a lawyer, born in Staf- ford county, Virginia, about 1785. He was a member of the privy council from 1812 to 1830, and became an associate justice of the supreme court of the United States in 1840. Daniel, (Pierre,) a French antiquary and scholar, born at Orleans in 1530 ; died in 1603. Daniel, (Samuel,) a meritorious but neglected Eng- lish poet, born at Taunton in 1562, was educated at Oxford. He became tutor to Anne Clifford, who was afterwards the Countess of Pembroke, and he lived some years in London, where he associated with Shakspeare, Marlowe, and other poets. The report that he succeeded Spenser as poet-laureate is doubted by some ; but it is evident that he was highly appreciated by his contempo- raries. He wrote "The Tragedy of Cleopatra," (1594,) a "History of England," (1613-18,) a historical poem on "The Civil Wars of York and Lancaster," (1595,) " Musophilus," (1599,) and other poems. "Though very rarely sublime," says Headley, "he has skill in the pa- thetic ; and his pages are disgraced by neither pedantry nor conceit." Hallam thinks "his English is eminently pure, free from affectation and pedantic innovation, with very little that is now obsolete." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1619. See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica ;" Fuller, "Worthies of England ;" "Life of S. Daniel," prefixed to his " Poetical Works," 2 vols., 1718; Headlev, "Beauties of Ancient English Poetry;" " Retrospective Review," vol. viii., 1823. Daniel, (William Barker,) an English clergyman and writer, produced a work on "Rural Sports, or Treatises on Hunting," etc., (2 vols., 1801.) Died in 1833. Daniel de Volterra. See Volterra. Daniele, d^-ne-a'li, or Danieli, dl-ne-a'lee, (Fran- cesco,) a Neapolitan antiquary, born near Caserta in 1740. Having written a work called " Codice Frederi- ciano," he was appointed historiographer royal in 1778. In 1787 he became perpetual secretary of the Herculanean (or Ercolanese) Academy, founded for the publication of discoveries made at Herculaneum and Pompeii. He was chosen Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Among his works are a "Dissertation on the Caudine Forks," (1778,) and one on the " Ancient Coins of Capua," (1802.) Died in 1812. See Castaldi, " Vita di Francesco Daniele," 1812; Ciampitti, "De Vita F. Danielis Commentarius," 1S18. Danieli. See Daniele. Dan'iell, (John Frederick,) an eminent English natural philosopher, born in London in 1790. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1814. In 1816 he was associated with Professor Brande as joint editor of the "Quarterly Journal of Science," twenty volumes of which were edited by them. He produced an im- portant work entitled "Meteorological Essays," (1823,) and an "Essay on Artificial Climate," (1824.) He was professor of chemistry in King's College from 183 1 until his death. For his invention of the pyrometer, the Royal Society in 1832 awarded him the Rumford medal, and in 1837 he received the Copley medal for an im- provement in the Voltaic battery. In 1839 he published his admirable "Introduction to Chemical Philosophy." He wrote several smaller treatises on chemistry and other sciences, and obtained in 1842 another royal medal. He is said to be the only person who has ever received all the three medals in the gift of the Royal Society. Died in 1845. Danieli, (Samuel,) an English artist, born in 1777. He spent a few years at the Cape of Good Hope, and after his return home published "African Scenery and Animals," (1808.) He also visited Ceylon, and illus- trated its scenery and animals. Died in Ceylon in 181 1. Danieli, (Thomas,) R.A., an eminent landscape- painter and engraver, born about 1750, was an uncle of € as 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z.; th as in this. (Jj^See Explanations, p. 23.) DANIELL 718 DANTE William Daniell, noticed below. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Antiquarian Society. Died in 1840. (See next article.) Daniell, (William,) R.A., an English landscape- painter and engraver, born in 1769, went to India with his uncle Thomas in 1784, and spent ten years in sketch- ing the magnificent scenery of that region. They en- graved a great number of views, which were published in several volumes, entitled "Oriental Scenery," (1808.) He also painted in oil several Indian landscapes. From 1814 to 1825 he was employed in drawing and engraving views for a great work entitled " Voyage round Great Britain." Died in 1837. Danielle, da-ne-eKlo, (Bernardino,) an Italian critic, who wrote "La Poetica," (1536,) translated Virgil's " Georgics" into verse, (1556,) and wrote a "Commen- tary on Dante," (1568.) Died in 1565. Danilevski, di-ne-lev'skee, (Mikhaelovski,) a Rus- sian general, served in several campaigns against the French, and against the Poles in 183 1. He wrote "An Account of the Campaigns of 1812," (1834,) and other similar works. Died in 1848. See " Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1S39. D&nishw^r or D&nischv&r, da'nish-vaR', a Persian poet and historian, born about 600 A.u., was celebrated as the compiler or author of poetical traditions connected with Persian history. Dankelmann, dink^el-m^n, or Danckelmann, dSnk'kel-min, (Erhard Christoph Balthasar,) a Prussian minister of state, born in Lingen in 1643. He became in 1663 preceptor to Prince Frederick, son of the Elector. His pupil, having ascended the throne in 1688, appointed Dankelmann prime minister. He founded the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and the University of Halle. By the intrigues of the courtiers, he was dis- missed in 1697, and unjustly imprisoned until 1713. Died in 1722. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgenieine Eucyklopaedie." Dankers (dink'ers) orDanckerts (or Danckaerts) de Ry, dank'keRts deh rl, (Cornelis,) a Dutch archi- tect, born at Amsterdam in 1561. He held for forty years the office of architect of his native city, where he erected many public buildings. The most remarkable of these is the Exchange, finished in 1613. Died in 1634. See PiNGERON, "Vies des Architectes." Danks. See Dancks. Danloux, ddN'loo', (Pierre,) a French historical painter, born in Paris in 1745. During the Revolution he retired to England, where he painted history and por- traits, among which is a portrait of the poet Delille, who complimented him in his poem on " Pity." Died in Paris in 1809. Dannecker, von, fon dan'n^k-ker, (Johann Hein- Ricii,) a celebrated German sculptor, born at or near Stuttgart in 1758. He was educated in the school of design at Ludwigsburg with Schiller, who became his friend. About 1780 he was appointed sculptor to the Duke of Wiirtemberg. He studied in Paris under Pajou in 1783 and 1784. In 1785 he visited Rome, where he remained about five years and associated with Goethe, Herder, and Canova. On his return to Stuttgart in 1790 he was chosen professor of plastic arts in the Academy of that place. He made admirable busts of Schiller, Lavater, Gluck, and others. In 1809 he commenced a statue of Ariadne, which is highly commended. Among his greatest works are a colossal statue of Christ, finished in 1824, and a statue of John the Baptist. Died in 1S41. See "Life of Dannecker," published at Hamburg in 1841 ; Nag- LER, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- rale ;" Mrs. L. M. Child's "Looking towards Sunset," p. 279. Dannemayer, dSn^neh-mf er, (Matthaus,) a German theologian, born in Suabia in 1741 ; died in 1805. Dannhauer, dan'how'er, written also Danhawer or Danhower, (Johann Conrad,) a German Lutheran divine, born at Kendring in 1603. He was professor of eloquence and theology at Strasburg. Died in 1666. Danr^mont, de, deh d6N^ri^m6N', (Charles Marie Denis,) Count, a French general, born at Chaumont (Haute-Marne) in 1783. He entered the army in 1804, became a lieutenant-general in 1830, and was made a peer of France in 1835. In February, 1837, he was appointed Governor-General of Algeria. He was killed in October of that year, at the siege of Coiistantine, where he was commander-in-chief. See "Revue des Deux Mondes" for August 15, 1845. Dansse. See Villoison. Dantal, doN'ttK, (Pierre,) a French grammarian, born at La Souchere in 1781 ; died in 1820. Dantan, doN'tSN', (Antoine Laurent,) a French statuary, born at Saint-Cloud in 1798. Having gained the first prize in 1828, he went to Rome as a pensioner. He returned in 1833, and worked in Paris with success. Among his works are a bas-relief of Silene, and a bust of Josephine of France. Dantan, (Jean Pierre,) a distinguished sculptor, brother of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1800. He displayed a remarkable talent for caricature in grotesque figures of celebrated contemporaries, and attained pre eminence in this novel branch of art. He has produce.' busts of Cherubini, (1847,) Maine de Biran, (1850,) Rosa Bonheur, and other persons, which are good likenesses without caricature. Dan'te, [[t. pron. Fr. Dante, dSxt or daNt,*] or, more fully, Durantet Allighieri, (or Alighieri,) doo-r^n'ti a-le-ge-a'ree, [Lat. Dan'tes Alige'rius,] an illustrious Italian poet, regarded as the greatest poetical genius that flourished between the Augustan and the Elizabethan age, was born in Florence in May, 1265. He was instructed in liberal studies and arts by Brunetto Latini and other eminent scholars, and became well versed in Latin, philosophy, and theology. He also acquired skill in music, painting, and other accomplish- ments. He is said to have studied at Padua, Bologna, and Paris. In early youth (1274) his spiritual life and imaginative faculty were awakened by his love for Bea- trice Portinari. This passion inspired his first poetic efforts, and exerted on his mind a profound and lasting influence. In his "Vita Nuova," a beautiful reverie, written about 1290 in alternate prose and verse, he has commemorated this tender passion, which, it appears, was not unrequited, though, for some unknown reason, they were not united. The tradition that she married another is not confirmed by any passage in his writings. After her death (in 1290) his friends persuaded him to marry Gemma Donati, a lady of a noble family ; but the parties were so uncongenial that they finally separated. She complained of his unsocial habits. Florence and Italy were then distracted by the impla- cable feuds of the Guelphs and Ghibelines. Dante's family being Guelphs, he espoused their cause with character- istic ardour, and fought for it at Campaldino, in 1289, with signal bravery. His eloquence and address were displayed in several political missions to foreign courts. In 1300 he was elected to the high office of Prior of P'lo- rence, where the Guelph party was divided between two factions, called Bianchi and Neri, (Whites and Blacks.) The Donati were the leaders of the Neri, and Dante favoured the Bianchi. The Neri prevailed, and in 1302 condemned Dante, with many others, to perpetual ban- ishment, and the confiscation of his estate, on a charge of peculation. From this time he wandered without a home, and suffered much from poverty in addition to his other afilictions. It appears that his wife and children did not follow him in exile. The events of his life subsequent to his banishment are mostly involved in uncertainty. Like his fellow-ex- iles, he joined the Ghibeline party, and made unsuccess- ful attempts to recover his rights. Among the princes whose hospitality he enjoyed in his exile were Cane Grande de la Scala, of Verona, and Guido Novello, of Ravenna, to the former of whom he dedicated his " ]'a- radiso." About 13 16 the privilege of returning to Flo- rence was offered to him, on condition that he would pay a fine and confess his guilt. This offer he rejected with indignation ; though he expressed a desire to be restored on any terms "consistent with the fame and honour of Dante." He died at Ravenna, September 14, 1321. The * Chaucer has Daunt or Daunte, (Wyf of Bathes Tale,) which seems to be merely an English representation of the Frencli pronun- ciation. t Durante, his original name, was contracted in popular parlance into Dante. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obsaa-e; f^r, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; DJNTE 719 following lines inscribed on his tomb are supposed to be his own composition : "Hie claudor Dantes patriis extorrls ab oris, Quern genuit parvi Florentia mater amoris."* Soon after his death appeared his sublime and unique poem, the "Divina Commedia," which is supposed to have been written during his exile; but the time and place of its origin are not ascertained. It was first printed in 1472. The subject of this poem is the author's own ex- perience, real or imaginary, and the scene is laid in the infernal regions, purgatory, and paradise. It is certainly a surprising phenomenon to appear in that dark period of transition between ancient and modern literature. "Dante," says Hallam, "is among the very few who have created the national poetry of their country. Of all writers he is the most unquestionably original. . . . No poet ever excelled him in conciseness and in the rare talent of finishing his pictures by a few bold touches, — the merit of Pindar in his better hours. . . . The great characteristic excellence of Dante is elevation of senti- ment, to which his compressed diction and the emphatic cadences of his measure admirably correspond." (" In- troduction to the Literature of Europe.") " I suppose," says Ruskin, " that the powers of the imagination may always be tested by accompanying ten- derness of emotion ; and thus (as Byron said) there is no tenderness like Dante's, neither any intensity nor serious- ness like his, — such seriousness that it is incapable of perceiving that which is commonplace or ridiculous, but fuses all down into its white-hot fire." "Ah, from what agonies of heart and brain, What exiihations tramphng on despair, What tenderness, what tears, w hat hate of wrong, What passionate outcry of a soul in pain, Uprose this poem of the earth and air. This medieval miracle of song !" Longfellow's "Divina Commedia." Dante was taciturn, inclined to solitude, and familiar with but few. Voltaire, who did not appreciate his genius, wittily says, " His reputation will go on increasing, be- cause scarcely anybody reads him." To this it may be replied that he is read, if not by ordinary readers, at least by all those who can appreciate originality and power in the expression of human passion. Dante wrote, in Latin prose, a political work "On Monarchy," (" De Monarchia,") and "DeVulgari Eloquio," a treatise on the structure of the Italian language ; also, in Italian prose, "II Convito," a mystical commentary on three of his odes. The style of his prose is pure, elegant, and nervous ; that of his verse is still more admirable. Two of his sons, Pietro and Jacopo, had literary tastes, and wrote valuable commentaries on their father's poem. Gary's translation of the "Commedia" into English blank verse is highly commended. We have also an excellent English version of the "Divina Commedia" by Long- fellow, remarkable for its literalness. See Boccaccio, "Vita di Dante," 1544; Chabanon, "Vie de Dante," 1773; Fabroni, " Elogj di Dante, di Poliziano," etc., iSoo; Artaud de Montor, " Histoirede Dante," 1841 ; R. de Vericour, " Life and Times of Dante," 185S ; Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Fauriel, " Dante et les Origines de la Langue et la Lit- t^rature Italiennes," 2 vols., 1854; Ampere, "Voyage Dantesque" in the "Revue des Deux ^Iondes," 1839; Macaulay, "Essay on Milton ;" F. X. Wegele, " Dante's Leben und Werke," 1852 ; Ce- sare Balbo, " Vita nuova di Dante," 1839 ; English version of the same, by Bunvan, 1852; Missirini, "Vita di Dante Alighieri," 1840; Emil Ruth, ".Studien iiber Dante Alighieri," 1S53 ; Ugo FoscoLO, "Discorso sul Testo di Dante," 1825; Rev. Henry Stebbing, "Lives of the Italian Poets," London, 1831. Dante, din'ti, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian mathematician, born at Perugia, lived about 1500. He attempted to fly with artificial wings, but fell, and broke his leg. Dante or Danti, dSn'tee, (Girolamo,) a Venetian painter of the sixteenth century, was a pupil of Titian, 'Dante or Danti, (Ignazio,) an Italian geometer, born at Perugia in 1537, entered the Dominican order. Cosimo I. invited him to Florence to teach mathematics. In 1583 he was made Bishop of Alatri. He wrote several treatises on astronomy and mathematics, and was the first modern who made a gnomon by which the equinoxes and solstices could be determined. His "Mathematical * Literally, "Here [I] Dante, whom Florence, a mother of little love, bore, am enclosed, an exile from my native country." DANTZ Science reduced to Tables" is a work of great erudition. Died in 1586. Dante or Danti, (Pietro Vincenzo,) an Italian poet and mathematician, born at Perugia, wrote a commen- tary on the Sphere of Sacrabosco, (1544,) and verses in imitation of the great poet Dante. Died -n 1512. Dante or Danti, (Vincenzo,) an emment Italian architect and sculptor, born at Perugia in 1530, was employed by the grand duke Cosimo de' Medici. His statue of Julius III. at Perugia is esteemed a master- piece. He was a near relative of Ignazio, noticed above. He made for the Escurial designs which Cosimo I, sent to Philip II. of Spain. Died in 1576. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. Dantes Aligerius. See Dante. Danti. See Dante. Dan tine, dSN'ten', or D'Antine, (FRANgois,) a French Benedictine monk, born in the diocese of Liege in 1688, lived some years in Paris. He was one of the editors of Du Gauge's "Glossary," (1733,) and the first principal editor of the " Art of Verifying Dates," a valua- ble work on chronology. Died in 1746. Danton, dan'ton ordfiN't^N', (Georges Jacques,) an arch-demagogue of the French Revolution, born at Arcis- sur-Aube in 1759, was a lawyer by profession. With a large, muscular frame, a passionate temperament, an audacious spirit, and the voice of a Stentor, he was well constituted for a political agitator. "Nature has given me," said he, " the athletic form and the harsh expres- sion of liberty." He instituted the club of Cordeliers, perhaps even more inteniperately radical than that of the Jacobins, and became the chief orator of the Parisian populace. He instigated and directed the sanguinary insurrection of the loth of August, 1792, which subverted the French monarchy. The supreme power then fell into the hands of Danton, Marat, and Robespierre, the first of whom, obtaining the ofiice of minister of justice, had the chief control of the capital. In the alarm caused by the invasion of France by the Prussians, he spoke with confidence, and urged the adoption of a bold and resolute policy. He appears to have been responsible for the massacre of the im- prisoned royalists in September, 1792, as he made little or no effort to protect them. On his election to the Convention he resigned the office of minister of justice, became the leader of the Mountain, and voted for the death of the king. His ])ower soon declined, as his crimes disgusted the honest republicans and his success excited the jealousy of Robespierre. He used to say, "All will go well as long as men say, 'Robespierre and Danton ;' but woe to me if ever they should say, 'Dan- ton and Robespierre.'" In 1793 he was chosen a mem- ber of the committee of public safety. At the crisis of his struggle with Robespierre, Danton's decision failed. Though he knew his death was resolved on, he declined to fly or to strike the first blow. In March, 1794, he was arrested with Lacroix and others, and taken before the fatal tribunal which he had himself instituted. Little formality was observed at his trial, — or rather his con- demnation ; for the judges refused to hear his defence. When the judge asked him his name, residence, etc., he answered, " My name is Danton ; my dwelling will soon be in annihilation; but my name will live in the Pantheon of history." He maintained his usual assurance and lofty bearing at the scaffold, where he perished April 5, 1794. According to Lamartine, " Nothing w^as wanting to make Danton a great man, except virtue." See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution ;" Lamartine, "History of the Girondists ;" Michelet, " Histoire de la Re\ola- tion Frangaise :" Villaume, " Histoire de la Revolution ;" Lord Broi^gham, " Statesmen of the Time of George III.;" Barante, " Histoire de la Convention ;" Des Jardins, " Vie de Danton," 1851 ; " Encyclopjedia Britannica;" "Blackwood's Magazine" for Febru- arv, 1823; " Foreign Quarterly" for April, 1844; "^British Quarterly" for April, 1866. Danton, (Joseph Arsene,) a French editor, nephew of the preceding, was born at Plancy (Aube) in 1814. In 1840 he was employed by M. Villemain, minister of public instruction, as c/ief de cabinet. He edited in 1839 "Cousin's Lectures on Philosophy delivered in 1819-20." Dantz or Danz, ddnts, (Johann Andreas,) a German Orientalist, born near Gotha in 1654, was professor of € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2l^="See Explanations, p. 23.) DJNTZIC DARCET Oriental languages, and afterwards of theology, at Jena. He published grammars of the Hebrew and Syriac lan- guages, and many works on the history and antiquities of the Jews. Died in 1727. Dantzic, Duke of. See Lefebvre, (Francois Joseph.) Danu, [Hindoo pron. dun'06,] in Hindoo mythology, a daughter of Daksha, and the mother of the Danavas. (See Danava.) Dan'vers, (Henry,) Earl of Danby, an English offi- cer and courtier, born in Wiltshire in 1573, served as captain in the army which Elizabeth sent to aid Henry IV. of France, and was knighted for his conduct in that war. He was afterwards major-general under the Earl of Essex in Ireland. Charles I. created him Earl of Danby and a member of the privy council. He founded a botanic garden for the University of Oxford. Died in 1644. Danville. See Anville, d'. Danz. See Dantz. Danz, dints, (Ferdinand Georg,) a German phy- sician, born in the duchy of Darmstadt in 1761, pub- lished several useful medical works. He was professor at Giessen, where he died in 1793. Danzer, dint'ser, (Jakob,) a German Catholic theo- logian, born at Langenfeld in 1743 ; died in 1796. Danzi, ddnt'see, (Franz,) a German composer of operas and church-music, was born at Manheim in 1763 ; died in 1826. Daph'ne, [Gr. Aa^vjy,] a nymph of classic mythology, beloved by Apollo. According to the poetical legend, she fled from Apollo, who pursued her, and was trans- formed into a laurel-tree, which was afterwards sacred to Apollo. Daph'nis, [Gr. Aa^wV,] a shepherd and hero of Sicily, the reputed inventor of pastoral poetry, was called a son of Mercury. The poets relate that he was the favoured lover of a Naiad, who punished him with blindness for his infidelity to her. See the First Idyl of Theocritus and the Fifth Eclogue of Virgil. Da Polite, da pon'ti, (Lorenzo,) an Italian poet, born at Ceneda in 1749. Having been banished from Venice fbr some satirical verses, he went to Vienna, where he became Latin secretary to Joseph II. Here he wrote several operas for the Italian theatre. After the death of Joseph II. he passed some years in Lon- don, whence, in 1805, he emigrated to New York. About 1829 he was appointed professor of Italian in Columbia College. He wrote "Don Giovanni" (or "Don Juan") and other dramas, and sonnets. Da Ponte, (Lorenzo,) a son of the preceding, born in London in 1805, became professor of belles-lettres in the University of New York. He wrote a " History of the Florentine Republic," (1833,) Died in 1841. Dapper, dSp'per, (Oliver or Olfert,) a Dutch physician and geographer, published several extensive and interesting works, among which are a "Description of Africa," (1668,) a " Description of the Chinese Em- pire," and a "Description of Asia." His works contain many maps and excellent plates. Died in 1690. Daquin or D'Aquin. See Aquin, d'. Daquin, dt'kiN', (Joseph,) a noted physician, born at Chambery in 1757, wrote, besides other works, "La Philosophic de la Folie," ("The Philosophy of In- sanity," 2d ed., 1804.) Died in 1815. D^r^ or D^r^b, the Persian of Darius, which see. Dara-Shikoh, di^rl shi-koh', written also Dara- Chekouh, a Hindoo prince, born in 161 6, was the favourite son of Shah Jehan. He was defeated in battle by his brother Aurung-Zeb, and put to death by his order in 1643. Daran, dt'rSN', (Jacques,) a skilful French surgeon, born at Saint-Frajon in 1 701, practised with success in Milan, Turin, and Messina. At the last place he gained credit by his professional services and humanity during the plague. He was settled at Marseilles, when the fame of his skill in disorders of the urethra induced the king to invite him to Paris, where he resided until his death. The king granted him letters of noblesse in 1755. Daran invented the bougies which bear his name, and wrote a few professional works. Died in 1784. See "Biographic Medicale." D'Arblay, dar'bla or dtR'bli', Madame, (originally Frances Bur'ney,) a celebrated English novelist, born at Lynn-Regis in 1752, was the daughter of Dr. Charles Burney, an eminent musician and author of the " History of Music." She was a shy and silent child, and at the age of eight did not know her letters. Pier mother having died when Frances was about ten, no teacher or governess was provided for her ; but her fond father's negligence was compensated by her own efforts in self-education. In 1760 Mr. Burney removed to London, where he gained admission into the highest literary society, and his house was frequented by Johnson, Burke, Garrick, and many others. His concerts, at which the greatest Italian vocalists performed gratis, attracted a throng of the most noble as well as the most fashionable of the metropolis. By such social influences, rather than by books and schools, was her mind trained and matured; though she seldom performed any part on this scene but that of a silent and diffident observer. About 1776 her novel " Evelina" — commenced some years before — was ready for the press. Observing a strict secrecy respect- ing the authorship of the book, she sent the manuscript to Dodsley without her name; but he refused to publish it on such conditions. After much delay, it was sold for twenty pounds, and appeared anonymously in 1778. The admiration and applause with which it was received were much increased when the secret transpired that the author was a reserved, obscure young woman. Her book was warmly eulogized by Burke, Johnson, Gibbon, and Sheridan, the first of whom sat up all night to read it, and the second pronounced her superior to Fielding. "She found herself," says Macaulay, "on the highest pinnacle of fame." Her second book, "Cecilia," (1782,) did not disappoint the high expectations of the public. "It was placed," says Macaulay, "by general acclama- tion, among the classical novels of England." In 1786 she had the misfortune to be appointed second keeper of the robes to Queen Charlotte, with a salary of two hundred pounds. This situation was peculiarly and extremely irksome to a person of her fine sensibility, as she was debarred from all congenial society and subject to the constant restraints of despotic etiquette. For five years, in deference to her father's wishes, she sacrificed her health and domestic happiness for the privilege of standing in the presence of royalty. In 1793 she married Count D'Arblay, an amiable and estimable French officer, then an exile. From 1802 to 1816 she resided with her husband in France. She died at Bath in 1840. Besides the above-named works, she wrote "Camilla," and other fictions. Her "Diary and Letters" (7 vols., 1842-46) is a work of rare interest. See Macaulay, "Essay on Madame D'Arblay." Dar'by, (William,) an American geographer, born in Pennsylvania. He published a valuable and interesting work, entitled a "View of the United States," with a particular account of the various river-basins, and other information. Died in 1854. Dare, (Joan.) See Joan of Arc. Darcet, dtR^s^', (Jean,) a distinguished French che- mist and physician, born at Doazit, in Guienne, in 1727. About 1742 he acquired the friendship of Montesquieu, who employed him as tutor to his son in Paris. After the death of that patron, Darcet devoted himself to chemical researches in concert with Count de Laugarais. He made successful experiments in the fabrication and improvement of porcelain, the components of which he discovered by analysis about 1766. At the death of Macquer (1784) he was chosen in his place a member of the Academy of Sciences, and director of the manu- factory of Sevres. He was also inspector-general of the assay-office, and a professor in the College of France. He demonstrated that the diamond is combustible, and invented the metallic alloy which bears his name, and which is fusible at the temperature of boiling water. He was the author of several chemical treatises. Died in 1801. See J. J. DiZE, " Precis historique surla Vie de J. Darcet," 1802; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Darcet, (Jean Pierre Joseph,) an eminent chemist, son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1777. He was appointed assayer of the mint in 1801, and afterwards a, e, T, o, u, y, long; 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; DARCON 721 DARLING founded or directed several manufactories of chemical pro- ducts which he improved, and among which were soda and soap. In 1823 he succeeded Berthollet as chemist in the Academy of Sciences. He wrote many useful treatises on sanitary and economical questions, one of which is " On the Principal Salt-Mines of Europe," (1824.) Died in 1844. See " Notice sur J. P. J. Darcet," Paris, 1844. Dar9on. See ARgoN, d'. D'Ar'cy, (Patrick,) Count, an Irish engineer and scientific author, born at Galloway in 1725, removed to France in early youth, and served in the French army in 1744. He was skilled in mechanics and other sciences, and wrote an "Essay on Artillery," a "Memoir on the Duration of the Sensation of Sight," and other works. Condorcet composed his eulogy in the Academy of Sci- ences. Died in Paris in 1779. Dar'da-nus, [Gr. Aapdavof,] a mythical or semi-fabu- lous personage, who is represented as a son of Jupiter and Electra, and the ancestor of the Trojans. Homer reckons five generations between Dardanus and Priam. Dardel, dtR'dSK, (Robert Guillaume,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1749; died in 1821. Dardi, daR'dee, (Bembo,) an Italian Hellenist, born at Venice about 1560, translated the works of Plato into Italian. Died about 1640. Dareau, dt'ro', (Francois,) a French jurist, born near Guevet in 1736; died about 1783. Daremberg, dt'rdN'baiR', (Charles Victor,) a French physician, born at Dijon in 1817. He published (in French) "Select Works of Hippocrates," (1843,) an edition of Galen, (1854,) and other works. In 1849 he became librarian of the Mazarin Library. Da'res [Gr. Auprfg ; Fr. Dares, dt'r^s'] of Phrygia, a priest of Vulcan, is mentioned in the "Iliad" of Homer, who praises his wisdom. He is supposed to have been present at the siege of Troy. There existed in the early ages a history of the destruction of Troy, which was re- garded as the work of Dares, and as older than Homer's " Iliad." A prose work in barbarous Latin has come down to us which purports to be a version of that of Dares. It was popular in the fifteenth century, and was often printed with the work of Dictys Cretensis. See J. G. EcK, "Dissertatio de Darete Phrygio," 1768. Dareste, dS'r^st', (Antoine Elisabeth Cl6ophas,) a French historical writer, born in Paris in 1820. Daret, dS'ri', (Pierre,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1610, published a collection of the portraits of eminent persons of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, which was highly prized, also a "Life of Raphael, translated from the Italian," (1651.) Died in 1675. Dar'gan, (William,) an eminent Irish engineer and contractor, born in Carlow county about 1800. He super- intended the construction of several railways and canals in Ireland. He was the chief promoter of the Dublin Exhibition of 1853, on which he expended many thou- sand pounds of his own money. Dargaud, dtR'go', (J. M,,) a French writer, a friend and imitator of Lamartine, born at Paray-le-Monial in 1800, published, among other works, "Solitude," (1838,) a "History of [Queen] Mary Stuart," (1850,) and poetical versions of Job and the Psalms of David. See Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi." D'Argenson. See Argenson, d'. D'Argental. See Argental, d'. D'Argentre. See Argentr^, d'. D'Argenville. See Dezallier. D'Argonue. See Argonne, d'. Daries, di're-gs, or Darjes, daR'ygs, (Joachim Georg,) a German jurist and philosopher, born at Giis- trow in 17 14. He began in 1738 to teach philosophy at Jena, and in 1763 was appointed by Frederick the Great professor of law at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, with the title of privy councillor. He published many able works, among which are "The First Principles of Finance," (in German, 1756,) and "Institutes of Universal Juris- prudence," (in Latin, 1766.) Died in 1791. See J. H. FiCHTE, "Beitrage zur Charakteristik der Neueren Philosophen ;" C. R. Hausen, "J. G. Daries als academischer Leh- rer geschiidert," 1791. Da-ri'us* [Gr. Aapelog ; It. Dario, dS-ree'o ; Persian, Dara, di'rS, or Darab, di-rSb'] I., or Da-ri'us Hys- tas'pis, (known as Gushtasp (goosh-tSspO in the legend- ary history of Persia,) King of Persia, was the son of Hys- taspes, a member of the noble family of Achaemenidae. In 521 B.C., having killed the usurper Smerdis, he ascended the throne recently vacated by the death of Cambyses. He first organized the extensive empire which Cyrus and Cambyses had acquired by conquest, and divided it into twenty grand satrapies. After suppressing a revolt of the Babylonians, he led a great expedition against the nomadic Scythians of Europe, which was not success- ful. To chastise the Athenians for aiding some Ionian insurgents, he sent Datis and Artaphernes with a large army, which was completely routed at Marathon in 490 B.C. He was preparing to renew the contest, when he died in 485, and was succeeded by his son Xerxes. Darius was a ruler of superior ability. See Herodotus; Grote, " History of Greece ;" Thirlwall, "History of Greece;" Carl L Struve, •' Feldzug des Darius gegen die Scytheii," 1812; Justin, books i., ii., and vii. Darius II., called Da-ri'us O'-ehus or No'thus, was the natural son of Artaxerxes Longimanus, who gave him in marriage his daughter Parysatis. Having deposed Sogdianus, who had killed Xerxes II., the lawful heir, he became king in 424 B.C. He died in 405, leaving two sons, Artaxerxes Mnemon and Cyrus the Younger, the former of whom was his successor. See Xenophon, " Hellenica" and "Anabasis." Darius III. or Cod-o-man'nus, the last king of the ancient Persian monarchy, was a descendant of Darius Nothus. He began to reign at the death of Arses, in 336 B.C. In the second year of his reign Persia was invaded by Alexander of Macedon, who gained a victory at the river Grani'cus. Darius, having taken command of his army, was defeated at Issus in 333, and at Arbela in 331 B.C. He then retreated towards Bactriana, pursued by the Macedonians, who were on the point of taking him prisoner, when he was killed by Bessus, one of his own satraps, in 330. With his expiring breath he expressed his thanks to the victor for his humane treatment of the royal captives, his wife and daughters. Alexander married his daughter Statira. See the Histories of Arrian, Justin, andQuiNTUs Curtius. Darius Hystaspes. See Darius I. Darius Ochus. See Darius IL Darius the Mede, of the Bible, is supposed to be the Cyaxares II. of profane history. See Daniel vi. Darjes. See Daries. Darke, dark, (William,) an American officer, born in Pennsylvania in 1736. He served with distinction in the Revolutionary war. Died in 1801. Dar'ley, (Felix O. C.,) an eminent American de- signer, boni in Philadelphia in 1822. He removed to New York about 1848. He has illustrated Irving's " Sketch-Book," "Knickerbocker's New York," "Rip van Winkle," and other humorous works, with success ; also the novels of J. Fenimore Cooper, and the works of Dickens. His outline illustrations of Judd's " Mar- garet" are greatly and justly admired. See Tuckekman, "Book of the Artists." Dar'ley, (George,) a poet and mathematician, born in Dublin in 1785, removed to London in 1825. He gained distinction by his critical contributions to the " Literary Gazette" and " Athenaeum," and wrote several poems, one of which is called " Sylvia, or the May Queen," (1827,) and treatises on geometry and algebra. Died in 1849. Dar'ling, (Grace,) an English heroine, born at Bam- borough in 181 5, was the daughter of the keeper of the Longstone light-house, on one of the Fame Islands. The Forfarshire steamer having been wrecked in that vicinity, September 6, 1838, she went out in a small boat, at the imminent peril of her life, and rescued nine persons who were clinging to a rock. A public subscription of about £^00 was raised by the people of the United Kingdom as a testimonial to her heroic conduct. Died in 1842. * Darius, in Persian D3ra or Darab, and in Hebrew Daryavesh, sig- nifies "prince," or "lord:" hence Darius Hystaspis would signify the "lord or king [son of] Hystaspes or Gushtasp." (See Gushtasp.) € as ^; 9 as s;'ghard;g2&j; g, h, K,gt(ttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^='See Explanations, p. 23. i 46 DARLING 72 2 DARWIN Darling, (James,) an English bibliographer, born in 1797, was for many years a bookseller in London. He published (1852-57) a valuable work, entitled "Cyclo- paedia Bibliographica : a Library Manual of 'I'heological and General Literature," (2 vols.) Died in 1862. Dar'ling-ton, (William,) M.D., an eminent Ameri- can botanist, born in Birmingham, Chester county, Penn- sylvania, in 1782. He practised medicine at West Ches- ter, and was elected a member of Congress in 1814 by the voters of his native county, which he also represented for two other terms, (1819-23.) He published a valuable work on the plants of Chester county, entitled "Flora Cestrica," (1837,) which was commended by eminent botanists of Europe ; also, " Memorials of John Bartram and Humphrey Marshall," (1849.) Died in 1863. See " Obituary Notice of William Darlington," read before the American Philosophical Society, February 19, 1864, by T. P. James. Darluc, dSR'luk', (Michel,) a French physician and naturalist, born at Grimaud in 1707 or 1717, obtained the chair of botany in the University of Aix. He wrote the "Natural History of Provence," (3 vols., 1782-86,) and several medical works. Died in 1783. Darmagnac, dtk^mtn'ytk^ (Jean Barth^lemi,) VicoMTE, a French general, born at Toulouse in 1766, distinguished himself at Austerlitz in 1805, and, as gen- eral of division, rendered important services at Vittoria (June, 1813) and Toulouse, (1814.) Died in 1855. Darmaing, dtR'm^N', (Jean Jerome Achille,) a French journalist, born at Pamiers in 1794, began in 1825 to publish the " Gazette des Tribunaux," which was very successful. About 1832 he became chief editor of the " Constitutionnel." Died in 1836. Darnau, dtR'n5^ (Jacques,) Baron, a French gen- eral, born in Loiret in 1768 ; died in 1830. Darn'ley, (Henry Stuart,) Lord, a Scottish noble, born in England about 1545, was the son of the Earl of Lenox and Margaret Douglas, a niece of Henry VHL of England. His father was descended from the house of Stuart, and his mother was a half-sister of James V. His relation to the royal family and his comely person caused him to be selected in 1565 as the husband of Queen Mary. She treated him at first with much kind- ness, but was soon disgusted by his stupidity, insolence, and profligacy. He instigated the murder of Rizzio, which she deeply resented and resolved to revenge. During a fit of illness Darnley lodged in an isolated house called the Kirk in th^tField, which was blown up by gunpowder, Darnley being killed, February 9, 1567. Respecting the responsibility of this crime, see Mary Stuart. See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. iv. chaps, xliii.-xlviii.; Robertson, " History of Scotland ;" Froude," History of England," vol. viii., chaps, viii., ix., x.; Mignet, " Histoire de Marie Stuart." Darondeau,di:^r6NM6',(STANiSLAS,) a French painter of genre and religious subjects, born about 1800; died in 1842. Darquier de Pellepoix, diR'ke-a' deh pgl^pw^', (AuGUSTiN,) a French astronomer, born at Toulouse in 1718, had an observatory at his own house, and hired persons to calculate. He wrote a Uranography," (177 1,) which Lalande commended, "Astronomical Ob- servations," (1777-82,) and a few other scientific works. He was an associate of the Institute. Died in 1802. Darracq, dt'rtk', (FRANgois Balthasar,) a French legislator, born at Mont-de-Marsan about 1750, was a member of the Council of Five Hundred, (1795-99.) Died about 1808. Darrigol, dt're^goK, (Jean Pierre,) a French priest, born in 1790. He wrote an able "Critical Dissertation on the Basque Language." In 1829 he won a prize from the French Academy for his "Analysis Raisonnee of the Grammatical System of the Basque Language," when William Humboldt was a competitor. Died in 1829. Darriule, dt're^uK, (Jean,) Baron, a French general, born at Arudy in 1774; died in 1850. Dart, (John,) an English antiquary, flourished about 1725, and wrote "Antiquities of Westminster Abbey," (2 vols., 1723.) Darthe, dtR^tV, (Augustin A. J.,) a French Jacobin, born at Saint-Pol in 1769. He was executed as an ac- complice of Babeuf in 1797. Dartmouth, Lord. See Legge, (George.) Dartois de Bournonville, dSR^twi' deh booR'n6N'- vhV, (P'RANgois ViciOR Armand,) a French dramatist, born at Beauvais in 1 788, wrote many vaudevilles. Daru, dS'rii', (Martial Noel Pierre,) Baron, born in Paris in 1774, was a brother of Count Pierre Antoine Noel. He was commissary of war during the republic, and gained distinction as an able administrator under Napo- leon I., who appointed him intendant of Vienna in 1809, and intendant of the crown at Rome in 1811. He left in manuscript an unfinished " History of Rome during the French Occupation." Died in Paris in 1827. Daru, (Napoleon,) Count, a son of the statesman noticed below, was born in Paris about 1804. He entered the army, and served as captain in Algeria. In 1832 he became a member of the Chamber of Peers. He acted with the moderate republicansin the Assembly of 1848-49. Daru, (Pierre Antoine Noel Bruno,) Count, an eminent French statesman and author, born at Mont- pellier in 1767. About 1790 he wrote "Washington," an epic poem. He favoured the Revolution, and in 1791 became a commissary in the army of Brittany. While imprisoned during the reign of terror, he translated into French verse the Odes and Epistles of Horace. About 1800 he was appointed secretary of war, and in 1802 a member of the Tribunate, in which he advocated the cause of public instruction. Between 1804 and 1806 Bonaparte made him a councillor of state, a count of the empire, and intendant-general of the imperial household. In the campaigns of 1806 and the ensuing years he ac- companied Bonaparte, who had much confidence in his ability and employed him as commissary-general, finan- cier, and negotiator. Having become chief minister of state in 1811, he opposed the Russian expedition, but, when other counsels prevailed, made extraordinary exer- tions to meet its exigencies. In 1815 he was chosen presi- dent of the French Academy, an office for which he was well adapted by his dignity, his good taste, his sonorous voice and lucid diction. As an author his merit is con- spicuous. His "History of Venice" (1819) is esteemed the best work on that subject, and his poems and eulo- gies on Volney and others are admired. Died in 1829. See Sainte-1^)EUve, " Causeries dii Lundi ;" Lamartine, " filoge du Comte Daru;" Viennet, "Notice sur Daru," prefixed to his " Histoire de Venise ;" Armanu Marrast, " Notice sur M. Daru," 1829; "London Quarterly Review" for March, 1825. Darvieux. See Arvieux. Dar'wiii, (Charles,) a son of Erasmus Darwin the poet, was born at Lichfield in 1758. While a student of medicine at Edinburgh, he gained a first-prize medal. Died in 1778. Darwin, (Charles,) F.R.S., an eminent English naturalist and geologist, a grandson of the poet Dr. Darwin, was born at Shrewsbury, February 12, 1809. He accompanied Captain Fitzroy in the Beagle in a voyage of exploration, 1831-36, and recorded his obser- vations respecting geology, etc. in his " Voyage of a Naturalist round the World," which obtained great popularity. " The author," says the " London Quai terly Review" for December, 1839, "is a first-rate landscape- painter with the pen, and the dreariest solitudes are made to teem with interest." In 1839 he published a "Journal of Researches into the Geology and Natural History of Countries visited by H.M.S. Beagle." His " Monograph of the Family Cirripedia," (which includes the Barnacle,) published in 1851-53, is a remarkable and excellent work. He produced arguments against the immutability of species, in a work entitled " The Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection," (1859,) "which," says the "Edinburgh Review" for April, i860, " was perused with avidity not only by professional natu- ralists, but by the far wider intellectual class which new takes interest in the higher generalizations of all the sci- ences. The same pleasing style which marked his earliest work, and a certain artistic disposition and sequence of arguments, have recalled the attention of thinking men to the hypothesis of the inconstancy and transmutation of species." Among his works are a treatise " On the Fertilization of Orchids," (1862,) and "The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication," (1868.) See "London Quarterly Review" for July, i860: "Westminster Review" for April, i860; "Darwin and Jus Reviewers," in "Atlan- tic Monthly," October, i860. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; \ fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; ndt; good; moon; DARWIN 723 DJUBENTON Darwin, (Erasmus,) M.D., an ingenious English poet and physiologist, born at Elton, near Newark, in 1731. Having graduated at Cambridge, he settled at Lichfield, where he married, and practised with success until 1781, when he removed to Derby. His principal poem, "The Botanic Garden," (1791,) had a great popularity among his contemporaries, which has since rather declined. It was composed on an original plan, and displayed great powers of description ; but the style is too ornate. His "Phytologia" (1800) presented many novel ideas and analogies in physiology, some of which are now received as true. He also wrote " Zoonomia, or the Laws of Or- ganic Life," "The Temple of Nature," a poem, and other works. A writer in the "Edinburgh Review" for 1803 says of the " Botanic Garden," "The novelty of its plan, an imposing air of boldness and originality in his poetical and philosophical speculations, and a striking display of command over the sources of poetical embellishment, were sufficient to secure him the approbation of even fastidious readers." Died in 1802. See Anne Seward, "Memoirs of the Life of Dr. Darwin;" Gary, "Lives of English Poets from Johnson to Kirke White;" " Edinburgh Review" for Ju]y, 1803, and April, 1804. Darwin, (Robert Waring,) an English physician, brother of the preceding. He published " Principia Botanica, or an Introduction to the Sexual System of Linnaeus," (3d edition, 1810.) Daschkow or Daschkoff. See Dashkof. Da'sent, (George Webhe,) a British writer, born about 1818, published "The Norsemen in Ireland, "(1855,) " Popular Tales from the Norse," (1859,) and other simi- lar works. See "Blackwood's Magazine" for March, 1859; "Edinburgh Re- view" for October, 1861. Dashkof or Daschkow, dish'kof, written also Dashkov, (Ekaterina Romanovna,) a Russian prin- cess, eminent for her talents and achievements, born in 1744, was the daughter of Count Roman Woronzof. About the age of sixteen she was married to Prince Dashkof. In 1762 she was the master-spirit of the con- spiracy which dethroned Peter III. and made his wife autocrat as Catherine II. Having lost the favour of the empress, she travelled several years in foreign coun- tries, and returned in 1782, when she was appointed president of the Academy of Sciences at Saint Peters- burg. Under her auspices was founded the Russian Academy, (literary,) of which she became the first presi- dent in 1784. She planned and in part compiled the Dictionary published by this academy, and wrote several plays, etc. On the accession of the emperor Paul, in 1796, she was deprived of her offices and banished from the capital. Died in 1810. She left "Memoirs of her Life," which were published (in English) in 1840. See Otto, " Lehrbuch der Russischen Literatur;" Voltaire, " Correspondance." Dassdorf, dSs'doRf, (Carl Wilhelm,) a German scholar, born at Staubitz, Saxony, in 1750 ; died in 1812. Dassier, dt'se-a', (John,) a S wiss engraver of medals, was born at Geneva in 1677. The medals which he executed of many eminent persons in the age of Louis XIV. have been used as models by other artists. Died in 1763. His son, Jacob Anthony, born at Geneva in 171 5, was also a skilful engraver, and was employed about 1740 in the London Mint as second engraver. He then removed to Saint Petersburg, where he worked for some time. He engraved medals of the most illustrious men of science, which are highly prized. Died in 1759. Dassouci, dl'soo'se', (Charles Coypeau,) a French burlesque poet and musician, born in Paris about 1604 ; died after 1675. Dat'a-mes, [Gr. Aara//7/c ; Fr. Datame, dS'ttm',] a Persian general, distinguished for his military talents, revolted against Artaxerxes Mnemon, and was killed about 362 B.C. See Cornelius Nhpos, "Lives of Eminent Commanders." Dathe, di'teh, [Lat Da'thius,] (Johann August,) an able German Orientalist and theologian, born at Weis- senfels. Saxony, in 1731, obtained the chair of Oriental languages at Leipsic in 1762. His capital work is a Latin version of the Old Testament, (published in sepa- rate parts from 1773 to 1789,) which is commended for fidelity and for elegance of style. Died in 1791. See August W. Ernesti, "Elogium J. A. Dathii," 1792. Datheen,da-tan', [Lat. Dathe'nus,] (Peter,) a Dutch poet, born at Ypres, became a Protestant minister at Frankfort in 1555, and returned to the Low Countries about 1566. He acquired great celebrity as a preacher, and composed a Dutch poetical version of the Psalms, which was used in the churches of Holland for about two centuries. In consequence of his seditious speeches against the Prince of Orange, he exiled himself, took the name of P. Montanus, and practised medicine with success at Stade and Elbing from 1585 until his death in 1590. See Motley, " Rise of the Dutch Republic," vol. i. ; De Vrifs, " Histoire de la Poesie Hollandaise." Dati, di'tee, (Agostino,) an eminent Italian orator and writer, was born at Sienna in 1420. He opened a school of rhetoric in that city, and was often chosen to make public orations in Latin by his fellow-citizens, who also raised him to high ofiices in the republic. He wrote, in Latin, a " History of Sienna," and other works, his- torical and religious, among which is a "Treatise on the Immortality of the Soul." Died in 1478. See N. Bandiera, "De Augustino Datho," Rome, 1733; Ni- CEKON, " Memoires ;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." Dati, (Carlo Roberto,) usually called simply Carlo Dati, an eminent Italian scholar, born at Florence in 1619, was a descendant of Goro Dati. He studied geom- etry under Galileo. In 1638 he formed an intimate friend- ship with Milton, who visited Florence in that year, and who has commemorated their friendship in Latin epistles. Dati was one of the most learned of Italian philologists. He was appointed professor of Greek and Latin literature at Florence in 1648. He published, besides other works, a " Discourse on the Necessity of Speaking one's own Language correctly," (1657,) and "The Lives of Ancient Painters," ("Vite de' Pittori antichi," i vol., 1667,) " which," says Ginguene, " is one of the best works on ancient painting." Died in 1676. See G. Negri, " Istoria degii Scrittori Fiorentini ;" Niceron, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" F. Fontani, " Elogio di C. R. Dati," 1794. Dati, (Giuliano,) an Italian writer, born at Florence in 1445 ; died in 1 524. Dati, (GiULio,) an Italian poet, born at Florence about 1560, wrote "La Contessa di Parione," (1596.) Died about 1630. Dati, (GoRO DI Staggio,) a noble Florentine, born in 1363, was one of the priors of the republic in 1425, and gonfalonier in 1428. He wrote, in Latin, a " Histoi y of Visconti, First Duke of Milan," which was not printed until 1735. Died in 1436. Dati, (Leonardo,) an Italian ecclesiastic of high re- putation, brother of the preceding, was born at Florence about 1360. He was employed by the republic of Flo- rence as ambassador to various courts between 1409 and 1422. Died in 1425. Da'tis, [Gr. Aan^,] a Persian general, who, in con- junction with Artaphernes, conmianded the army which was defeated at Marathon, 490 B.C. D'Attaignant. See Ati aignant. Daub, dowp, (Karl,) a German theologian, born at Cassel in 1765, became professor of theology at Hei- delberg about 1795. He published volumes of lectures entitled "Daub's Vorlesungen," (1838,) "Prolegomena to Moral Theology and the Principles of Ethics," (1839,) and "The System of Christian Dogmatics," (1841,) and other works. Died in 1836. See RosENKRANZ, " Erinnerungen an C. Daub," 1837 Daubanton, do'b6N^t6N', (Antoine Gr^goire,) a French judge and jurist, born in Paris in 1752, wrote a "Dictionary of the Civil Law," a "Dictionary of the Commercial Code," and other legal works. Died in 1813. Daubasse, do'btss', (Armand,) a French poet, born in Quercy in 1664. His works were all improvised. Died in 1727. Daubenton, d5n)6N't6N', (Guillaume,) a French Jesuit, born at Auxerre in 1648. About 1700 Louis XIV. appointed him confessor to his grandson, Philip V. of Spain, over whom he acquired a great influence. Ac' € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, guttural; N, jtasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^=='See Explanations, \\ 23.) DJUBENTON 724 DJUMER cording to Voltaire, Daubenton revealed, in a letter to the French regent, the secret of Philip's intended abdi- cation, and the regent sent the letter to Philip. The latter then showed it to his confessor, who fainted, and soon after expired, in 1723. See Voltaire. " Si^cle de Louis XV." Daubenton, (Louis Jean Marie,) a celebrated French naturalist, born at Montbar on the 29th of May, 1716, was sent to Paris by his father to study theology; but he preferred medicine. Having graduated as M.D. in 1 741, he returned home with the intention to practise. Buffon, who was also a native of Montbar, and his former schoolmate, having been chosen intendant of the Jardin du Roi at Paris, (now Jardin des Plantes,) engaged Dau- benton in 1742 to assist him in his projected scientific works. By his sound judgment, invincible patience, and unerring accuracy, he was admirably qualified for such a task. In 1745 he was appointed curator and demon- strator of the cabinet of natural history. He enriched Buffon's "Natural History" with an immense number of facts and descriptions, cautiously avoiding the bold hypotheses to which Buffon was rather prone. In 1778 he obtained a chair of natural history in the College of France. He wrote many articles on that science for the first " Encyclopedic," and for the "Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences." He made great improvements in the cabinet of natural history, of which he had charge fifty years. About 1794 the Jardin du Roi was converted into a school, styled the Museum of Natural History, in which he was appointed professor of mineralogy. He merited public favour by promoting the propagation of Spanish sheep, and wrote several popular treatises on the subject, one of which is entitled " Instruction for Shepherds." In 1799 he was elected a senator. He died January i, 1800. See CuviER, " Notice sur la Vie et las Ouvrages de Daubenton," in the " Menioires de I'lnstitut," tome iii. ; LACEpfeuE, " filoge his- torique de Daubenton," 1790; " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." Daubenton, (Marguerite,) cousin and wife of the preceding, born at Montbar in 1720, was married in 1749. Her romance of "Zelie in the Desert" is written in a natural style, and was received with favour. Madame Buffon was her niece. Died in 1818. Daubeny, d5b'ne or dawb'ne, (Charles,) D.D., an English divine, born in 1744, became prebendary of Salisbury in 1784, and Archdeacon of Sarum in 1804. He published a "Guide to the Church," and other works on theology. Died in 1827. Daubeny, (Charles Giles Bridle,) an English chemist and naturalist, born at Stratton in 1795, was for many years professor of botany and rural economy in the Uiiversity of Oxibrd. In 1824 he published an "Essay on the Geology and Chemical Phenomena of Volcanoes." He wrote an important work called " Description of the Active and Extinct Volcanoes, with Remarks on their Origin," (1826,) treatises on the Geology of North Ame- rica and Italy, and several memoirs on chemistry. He was president of the British Association in 1856. Died in December, 1867. D'Aubigne, db'hhx\'y\', (Jean Henri Merle,) a Swiss divine and popular historian, was born at or near Geneva in 1794. His father, Louis Merle, was descended from the French Calvinist family of D'Aubigne. He was educated for the church, and was pastor of a French church in Hamburg for five years. Between 1823 and 1830 he preached at Brussels. About 1830 he became professor of Church history in a college at Geneva. He published in 1835 ^^^t volume of his capital work, a " History of the Reformation in the Sixteenth Cen- tury," (" Histoire de la Reformation au seizieme Siecle,") which obtained a great popularity, especially in England and the United States. Among his other works are "The Protector, (Cromwell,) a Vindication," (1848,) and "Germany, England, and Scotland," (1848.) See Haag, " La France protestante ;" Charles de Remusat, "Melanges de Litt^rature et Philosophic." D'Aubigne, (Theodore Agrippa.) See Aubign^, d'. Daubigny,d6'b^n'ye',(CHARLES Francois,) a French landscape-painter, born in Paris in 1817. He has pro- duced many pictures of French scenery, some of which have been purchased by the emperor and the ministers of state. Among his works are a " View of the Seine at Charenton," and a "Sunset," (185 1.) Daubigny, (Pierre,) a French painter in miniature, an uncle of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1793. Daubree, do'bR^i', (Gabriel Auguste,) a French geologist, born at Metz in 1814. Daubus, dS'biis', written also Daubuz, (Charles,) a French Protestant, born at Auxerre, lived about 1625, and was for a long time minister at Nerac. He published "L'£chelle de Jacob," ("Jacob's Ladder," 1626,) and "Bellarmin reforme," ("Bellarmin Reformed," 163 1.) Daubuz. See Daubus. Daubuz, do'biiz', (Charles,) a French Protestant divine, born about 1670, removed to England on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, (1685,) and became vicar of Brotherton. He was author of a " Commentary on Revelation," (1712,) which is much esteemed. Died about 1740. Daucourt, dS'kooR', (Bonaventure,) a French ge- ologist, who lived about 1630, and wrote a treatise on volcanoes, deluges, etc. Daude, dow'deh, (Adrian,) a German historian, born in Franconia, wrote a " Universal History," (4 vols., 1748-58.) Died in 1755. Daude, do'di', (Pierre,) a French Protestant min- ister and writer, born in 1681 ; died in England in 1754. Daudet, do'di', (Robert,) a French engraver, born at Lyons in 1737; died in 1824. Daudiguier. See Audiguier, d'. Daudin, doM^N', (FRANgois Marie,) a French natu- ralist, born in Paris about 1774, was in childhood afflicted with an infirmity which almost entirely deprived him of the use of his legs. His wife assisted him in the com- position of his works, for which she designed the figures. His principal works are a "Treatise on Ornithology," (1800,) which was never finished,, and a " Natural History of Reptiles," (1802.) The latter, according to Cuvier, was the most complete work on that class of animals which had then appeared. Died in 1804. Daugier, d5^zhe-i', (Franqois Henri Eugene,) Count, a noted French admiral, born at Courtezon in 1764. He commanded one of the four grand corps of the flotilla destined for the invasion of England in 1804, and distinguished himself at the battle of Baylen in 1808. Died in 1834. Daulle, do'W, (Jean,) a skilful French engraver with the burin, born at Abbeville about 1705. He removed to Paris, and engraved portraits and history with a high reputation. Among his master-pieces are a portrait of the Countess of Feuquieres, and a " Magdalene," after Correggio. Died in 1763. Daum, dowm, [Lat. Dau'mius,] (Christian,) an emi- nent German teacher, born at Zwickau, Saxony, in 1612. He became regent of the College of Zwickau in 1642, and rector of the same in 1662. He published editions of several Latin authors, and left, in manuscript, unfinished works, among which was a " History of the Poets." Died in 1687. See Winter, " C. Daumii Poetaeclarissimi," etc., 1688 ; Loescher, " Memoria C. Daumii renovata," 1701 ; Niceron, "Menioires." D'Aumale. See Aumale, d'. Daumas, dd'mls', (Melchior Joseph Eugene,) a French general and writer, born in 1803. He went to Algeria in 1835, and learned the Arabic language. About 1 841 he was placed by General Bugeaud at the head of the political affairs (affaires indigenes) of Algeria, which he managed wdth credit. He published an "Expose of the Actual State of Arab Society and Government,"(i845,) " Manners and Customs of Algeria," and other works of merit. In 1850 he was chosen director of affairs of Algeria in the ministry of war. He obtained the rank of general of division in 1853. Daumat. See Domat. Dauraer, dow'mer, (Georg Friedrich,) a German pantheist, born at Nuremberg in 1800. He was pro- fessor at Nuremberg a few years between 1822 and 1830. He published a "System of Speculative Philosophy," (1831,) "Philosophy, Religion, and Antiquity," (1833,) translations from the Persian poet Hafiz, (1846,) and other works. His system resembles the pantheism of Hegel. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, 5?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f!lll, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; DAUMESNIL 725 DAVID Daumesnil, do'mi'n^K, (Pierre,) a brave French general, born at Perigueux in 1777, served in Italy and Egypt from 1795 to 1800, and became chef d'escadron about 1806. He lost a leg at Wagram in 1809. In 181 2 he was made general of brigade and governor of Vin- cennes castle, which he defended obstinately against the allies in 1814 and 1815. He obtained the rank of lieu- tenant-general in 1831. Died in 1832. See " Vie du General Daumesnil," Paris, 1832. Daumont. See Aumont, d'. Daun, von, fon down, (Leopold Joseph Maria,) Count, an able Austrian general, born at Vienna in 1705. He made his first campaign against the Turks. About 1748 he obtained the rank of field-marshal. He commanded at the battle of Kolin, June 18, 1757, where Frederick the Great was defeated with great loss. In the same year the Austrians, under Charles of Lorraine and Daun, lost a great battle at Leuthen. Having sur- prised the Prussian king at Hochkirchen, (1758,) Daun gained a victory, for which he was rewarded with 300,000 florins, a sword from the pope, and many honours. He was defeated in turn by Frederick at Torgau in 1761. After the peace of 1763 he became president of the Aulic Council, and enjoyed great favour at court until his death in 1766. See Archenholz, " Historj' of the Seven Years' War," 1793; "Memoirs of Count Von Daun," by A. Henderson, London, 1757- Daunou, do'noo', (Pierre Claude Franqois,) a meritorious French statesman and author, born at Bou- logne in 1761, entered the order of Oratorians. In 1792 he was elected to the National Convention, in which he supported moderate measures, opposed the proscription of the Girondists, and was one of the framers of the con- stitution of the year III., (1795.) He was the first presi- dent of the Council of Five Hundred, and a member of the committee appointed to frame the constitution of the year VIII., (1800.) In 1807 he was chosen keeper of the archives of France. He was chief editor of the "Jour- nal des Savants" from i8i6to 1838, and about 1818 ob- tained a chair of history in the College of France. He contributed many articles to the "Biographic Univer- selle." In 1838 he was chosen perpetual secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1839 was created a peer. Among his numerous useful works are an " Essay on the Temporal Power of the Pope," (1810,) and a " Course of Historical Studies," in 20 vols., the first of which was published in 1842, Died in 1840. "He was so simple, so modest, so firm and consistent," says Villenave, " that envy was compelled to pause, and criti- cism reduced to silence, before the renown of his talents and his virtues." See A. H. Taillandier, "Documents biographiques sur Dau- nou," 1841; Victor Leclerc, "Notice sur Daunou;" Sainte- Beuve, " Portraits contemporains ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^- rale ;" Walckenaer, " Notice sur la Vie, etc. de M. Daunou," 1841. Daunt or Daunte. See Dante, Dauphin, do'f^N', (Augustin Anne,) a mediocre French poet, born at Niort about 1759; died in 1822. Daurat. See Dorat. Dausque, dosk, (Claude,) a learned French Jesuit, born at Saint-Omer in 1566; died in 1644. Dauvergne. See Auvergne, d'. Dauvigny. See Auvigny, d'. Dauxiron. See Auxiron, d'. Dauz, dowts, (Johann Andreas,) a German Orien- talist, born near Gotha in 1654, is known as the author of a system of Hebrew grammar. Died in 1727. Dauzats, do'zt', (Adrien,) a French painter and lithographer, born at Bordeaux in 1808. As a painter of genre, he obtained medals of the first class in 1835, 1848, and 1855. Daval, da-vtK, ? (Peter,) an English mathematician, was a Fellow of the Royal Society. Died in 1763. DavanzatiBostichi, di-vin-za'tee bos-tee'kee,( Ber- nardo,) an Italian writer and merchant, born at Florence in 1529. He cultivated literature with success, and filled several civil offices with credit. The perfection of the Tuscan language was his favourite pursuit. His most remarkable work is an Italian version of Tacitus, (1658,) which, says Ginguene, " is a master-piece of purity of style, of vigour, precision, and elegance." It is said to be more concise than the original. He also wrote a treatise on "The Tuscan Cultivation of the Vine and other Trees," (1600.) Died in 1606. See G. Negri, "Istoria degli Scrittori Fiorentini ;" Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Dav'en-ant, (Charles,) LL.D., an English writer on finance and political economy, a son of Sir William Davenant, was born in 1656. In 1685 he was returned to Parliament, and appointed inspector of plays. In 1695 he gained reputation by his " Essays on the Ways and Means of Supplying the War," which was followed by several treatises on the revenues, trades, etc., the merit of which was variously estimated. In 1703 he was ap- pointed inspector-general of exports and imports. Died in 1 7 14. See Macaulav, " History of England," vol. i. chap. iii. ; " Bio- graphia Britannica." Davenant, (John,) an English prelate, born in Lon- don in 1576. In 1618 James I. sent him to attend the Synod of Dort, and in 1621 appointed him Bishop of Salisbury. He had previously been professor of divinity in Cambridge University. He published an excellent "Exposition of Paul's Epistles," (in Latin, 1627,) and several other works. Died in 1641. Davenant, (Sir William,) an English dramatic poet, born at Oxford in 1605. Having written "Albovine" and another tragedy, he was chosen poet-laureate in 1637 as successor to Ben Jonson, He was a royalist in the civil war, and was knighted by Charles I, in 1643. He was confined in the Tower about two years for political reasons, and owed his safety to Milton. His principal production is " Gondibert," an unfinished epic poem, which was much admired by Cowley, Waller, and others, but is now neglected. He was associated with Dryden in an alteration of Shakspeare's "Tempest." lie died in 1668, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. See SouTHEY, " British Poets ;" Campbell, " Specimens of the British Poets;" "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., 1820. Davenant, (William,) a son of the preceding, trans- lated La Mothe le Vayer's work on the Greek and Latin historians. He was drowned near Paris in 1681. Dav'en-port, (Christopher,) an English Catholic friar, born at Coventry in 1598, assumed the name of Sancta Clara, and was chaplain to Queen Henrietta. He wrote several theological works. Died in 1680. Davenport, (John,) an English Puritan, born at Cov- entry in 1598, emigrated to Massachusetts in 1637. He was the first minister of New Haven, Connecticut, where he preached about thirty years, and had much influence in the civil affairs of the colony. Died in 1670. Davenport, (Richard Alfred,) an English editor and biographer, born about 1780, published, besides other works, a " Dictionary of Biography," (i vol. i2mo, 183 1.) Died about 1852. Daverhoult, di'ver-howlt', [Fr. pron. di'v^R^hoo',] (Jean Antoine,) a native of Holland, was a member of the French Legislative Assembly in 1791-92. He was one of the founders of the club of Feuillants. Died in 1792. Da'vid, [Heb. in or TH; Gr. Aapointed pro- fessor of clinic surgery in the Ecole de Sante, then just instituted. The French estimate him the most skilful sur- geon of his time. Bichat published " Surgical Works" which contain the doctrines of Desault. Died in 1795. See Petit, " iSloge de Desault," 1795 ; Caii.lau, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ecrits de Desault," 1800; Bichat, "Notice sur Desault," in the " Magasin Encyclopedique." De Saussure. See Saussure, de. Desbarreaux. See Barreaux, des. Desbarres, da-b^R', ? (Joseph Frederick,) an Eng. lish hydrographer, of French descent, born in 1722. He rose to the rank of colonel in the army, was aide-de-camp to General Wolfe at Quebec, and was made governor of Prince Edward's and Cape Breton Islands about 1784. He published, at the expense of the government, "The Atlantic Neptune," (1777,) which is said to be the finest collection of charts, plans, and views ever issued. He taught navigation to Captain Cook. Died in 1824, aged one hundred and two years. Desbillons, da'be'yoN', (Francois Joseph Ter- rasse,) a French Jesuit, born in Berry in 1711, excelled in Latin poetry. He professed rhetoric at Nevers, Caen, and La Fleche, and wrote (in Latin verse) numerous fables, (" Fabulae .^^isopicae,") the "Art of being Well," (or "Art of Preserving Health,") ("Ars bene Valendi,") and other poems. After the dissolution of his order he retired to Manheim. Died in 1789. See QuERAKD, "La France Litteraire ;" Feller, " Dictionnaire Historique." Desboeufs, da'buf, (Antoine,) a French sculptor and engraver on gems, born in Paris in 1795, ^'^^ ^ pupil of Cartellier. He obtained a medal of the first class in 1843. produced statues of History and Science for the Chamber of Peers, one of Voltaire, and other works. Desbois. See Chesnaye. Desbois de Rochefoit, da^bwi' deh losh'foR', (Louis,) born in Paris in 1750, became physician to the hospital La Charite, where he lectured to a large class with eminent ability. He left a work on "Materia Med- ica," (1789,) which was for a long time the best on that subject. Died in 1786. Desbordes-Valmore, da'boRd' vtKmoR', (Madame Marceline,) a popular French writer, born at Douai in 1787; died in 1859. She has left romances, and several beautiful poems indicating true poetic feeling and deep religious sentiment. Desborough. See Desborow. Desborow or Desborough, dez'bur-uh, an English republican general in the time of Charles I., was a brother-in-law of Oliver Cromwell. He strenuously opposed the project to make the Protector king, in 1657. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Yi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^=See Explanations, p. 23.) DESBROSSES 7 so DESCHAMPS Soon after the death of Oliver, he joined the cabal of the Wallingford House, and by threats induced Richard Cromwell to dissolve the Parliament in 1659. The suc- ceeding Parliament cashiered him soon after that date. Desbrosses, di'bRoss', (Marie,) a P'rench comic actress, born in Paris in 1764; died after 1855. Desbureaux, d^'bii'ro', (Charles FRANgois,) a French general, born at Rheims in 1755 ; died in 1835. Descamps, di^'kdN', (Jean Baptiste,) a French painter and writer, born at Dunkirk in 17 14. He was chosen director and professor of a free school of design at Rouen, and a member of the Royal Academy of Paris. He was moderately successful as a painter of familiar scenes, but derives his reputation chiefly from a work entitled " Lives of Flemish, German, and Dutch Painters," (" Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais, et AUemands," 4 vols., 1753-63,) which, however, is incomplete and often inaccurate. He also published a "Picturesque Journey in Flanders and Brabant," (i vol., 1769.) Died at Rouen in 1791. See Descamps, " Notice sur J. B. Descamps, Peintre duRoi,"i8o7. Descartes, di'ktRt', (Ren^,) [Lat. Rena'tus Car- Te'sius,] an illustrious French philosopher and mathe- matician, born at La Haye, in Touraine, March 31, 1596. He was educated at the College of La Fleche, where he formed a lasting friendship with Mersenne, and cherished a partiality for mathematical science, in which he was destined to make most important dis- coveries. On leaving college, at the age of nineteen, his first step was to renounce all his books, to efface from his mind all scholastic dogmas and prejudices, and then to admit nothing that could not bear the test of reason and experiment. It is difficult to realize at the jwesent day how bold was such an attempt, how arduous such a task, at a time when the philosophy of Aristotle still maintained despotic sway, and when to question his decisions was generally deemed by learned men the height of arrogance. To perfect his education, he re- solved to travel ; and, as it was usual in that age to make the military profession subservient to such a design, he entered the Dutch army in 1616, and passed into the service of the Duke of Bavaria in 1619. He gave proof of courage at the battle of Prague in 1620, but soon after renounced a profession that was not congenial to his favourite studies. He continued his travels for several years in France, Italy, etc., and in 1629 settled in Hol- land, (where he hoped to find more freedom and seclusion than in France,) to meditate on metaphysics, chemistry, mathematics, and astronomy. Some years passed before he published any extensive work on mathematics ; but 'his genius for this science had often been manifested by the facility with which he resolved the most difficult questions. In 1637 he produced his celebrated "Dis- course on the Method of Reasoning well, and of inves- tigating Scientific Truth," (" Discours sur la Methode pour bien conduire sa Raison, et chercher la Verite dans les Sciences,") which contains treatises on meta- physics, dioptrics, and geometry. The last treatise announced important discoveries in algebra and geo- metry, among which are the employment of algebraic formulae in the construction of curves, and the appli- cation of the notation of indices to algebraic powers. "One man," says Hallam, "the pride of France and wonder of his contemporaries, was destined to flash light upon the labours of the analyst and point out what those symbols, so darkly and painfully traced, might represent- and explain. The theory developed by Descartes in this short treatise displays a most consummate felicity of genius." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") His treatise on Dioptrics affords ingenious geometric a])plications, and announces the first discovery of the law of the refraction of light. His style is so admirably pure, clear, and concise that he is entitled to a high rank among the creators and reformers of the French language. In 1 64 1 he published, in Latin, his great metaphysical work, " Meditationes de Prima Philosophia," the specu- lations of which gave a wonderful impulse to philoso- phical inquiry in his own and succeeding times. They manifest an original, daring, and independent genius, endowed with great force and subtlety of thought. He performed the same service in the philosophy of mind that Bacon performed in natural science. Taking his departure from universal doubt, he found the basis of all positive knowledge in self-consciousness expressed by this enthymem, "Cogito; ergo sum," "I think; there- fore I exist." His bold innovations and brilliant para- doxes excited much hostility as well as admiration. His book was condemned by the College of Cardinals at Rome ; and Voet, a professor of Utrecht, accusing Des- cartes of atheism, instigated the civil power to persecute him, but his malice was partially frustrated. Cartesian- ism became modified by his admirers into systems quite dissimilar or opposite. Thus, Spinoza derived from it his pantheism, and Berkeley his pure idealism. He published in 1644 " Principles of Philosophy," (" Principia Philosophise,") in which he propounds his theory ot the world, and the doctrine of Vortices. He su])posed that the sun is the centre of a vortex of an all- pervading ethereal fluid, whose whirling motion produces the revolution of the planets. In 1647 the French court granted him a pension of 3000 livres. Soon after this date Christina, Queen of Sweden, offered him an asylum at her court, which he accepted. There he was treated with much honour ; but the change in his habits, together with the rigour of the climate, was too much for his con- stitution, Whi> li was always delicate. He died at Stock- holm in February, 165c. He was never married. His works, including some not named above, were pub- lished in nine volumes, (1690,) with the title of "Opera Omnia." His influence, which was almost universal in the seventeenth century, has declined since Gassendi reformed the philosophy of mind and Newton demon- strated his more simple physical principles. But he still has just and various claims to celebrity, in the noble thoughts, the precious truths, the wise maxims, which, along with some brilliant errors, he has transmitted to posterity. "He worked a more important change in speculative philosophy," says Haliam, "than any who had preceded him since the revival of learning; for there could be no comparison in that age between the celebrity and effect of his writings and those of Lord Bacon." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") See Brucker, " Historia Philosophias ;" G^. H. Lewes, " Bio- graphical History of Philosophy ;" Mercier, " Eloge de Descartes;" Thomas, " ^ loge de Descartes," 1765; Aurien Baillet, " Vie de Descartes," 2 vols., i6gi ; Pierre Borel, " Vitse Ren. Cartesii Com- pendium," Paris, 1656; G. H. Gaillard, "filoge de Descartes," 1765 ; Bord.\s-Dumoulin, " Le Cartesianisme," 2 vols., 1843 ; BouiL- LiER, " Siir la Philosophie Cartesienne," 2 vols., 1854; Garnier, "Descartes;" D. Nizard, "Descartes et son Influence," etc., in the "Revue des Deux Mondes," December i, 1844; Carl F. Hock, " Cartesius und seine Gegner," 1835 ; " Edinburgh Review" for Jan- uary, 1852. Descemet, dis^m^ or di'seh''mi', (Jean,) a learned French physician and anatomist, born in Paris in 1732, discovered the internal lamina of the cornea. He prac- tised medicine with success. Died in 1810. Deschamps, da'shSN', (Antoine,) a French poet, brother of Emile, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1800. He published a translation of Dante's " Divina Commedia," (1829,) and several volumes of poems. Deschamps, (Claude FRANgois,) a French priest, born at Orleans in 1745, devoted his talents and fortune to the instruction of deaf-mutes, in which he followed the system of Pereira. He published an "Elementary Course of Education for Deaf-Mutes," (1779,) and a few other treatises on that subject. Died in 1791. Deschamps, (£mile,) a popular French poet and dramatist, born at Bourges in 179L He produced in 1818 two comedies, called " Selmours et Florian," and " Le Tour de Faveur," both of which had great success. With Victor Hugo and others, he founded the "Muse Fran^aise" in 1827. He published a collection of poems entitled "French and Foreign Studies," ("Etudes fran- 9aises et etrangeres," 1828,) which contains some trans- lations, and a volume of "Poesies completes," (1840.) which were received with favour. He also wrote several tales and critical articles for the journals. Died in 1871. Deschamps, (Eustache,) sometimes called Morel, a French poet, born about 1320. Among his works is the "Miroir du Mariage." Died about 1400. Deschamps, (Jean Marie,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1750, was secretary to the emj^ress Josephine, and remained in her service until her death, (1814.) He a, e, T, o, u, y, long; hy 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sho?-t: a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mhi; n6t; good; moon; DESCHAMPS 751 DESHATS was the author of " Piron with his Friends," and other dramatic pieces, and published a translation, in verse, of Monti's " Bard of the Black Forest." Died in 1826. Deschamps, (Joseph P'ran^ois Louis,) a French physician, born at Chartres in 1740. He succeeded De- sault as surgeon-in-chief of the hospital La Charite in 1788. When Corvisart became first physician to Na- poleon, Deschamps was chosen one of his consulting surgeons. In 181 1 he became a member of the Institute. He published a " Treatise on Cystotomy." Died in 1824. See "Biographic Medicale." Deschizeaux, di'she'zo', (Pierre,) a French bota- nist, born at Macon in 1687; died about 1730. Deseine, deh-san', (Francois,) a French bookseller and writer, born in Paris, became a resident of Rome. He was author of a work entitled "Rome, Ancient and Modern," (10 vols., 17 13,) which is prized for its accuracy. Died at Rome in 17 15. Deseine, (Louis Pierre,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1750 ; died in 1827. Deseiiue, deh-sen', (Alexandre Joseph,) an eminent French designer, born in Paris in 1783. After the death of Moreau, in 1814, he occupied perhaps the first place in his art. He embellished the works of Rousseau, Delille, Boileau, Voltaire, etc. Died in 1827. Desericius. See Deseriz. Deseriz or Deseritz,da'zeh-rits, [Lat. DESERig'ius,] (Joseph Innocent,) a Hungarian cardinal, born at Nitra in 1702, was the author of several works, of which the principal treats on the origin and early history of the Hungarians, " De Initiis ac Majoribus Hungarorum," (1748.) Died in 1765. See HoRANYi, " Memoria Hungarorum." Desessarts, da'za'sSk', (Nicolas Lemoyne — leh'- mwS.n',) a French litterateur^ born at Coutances in 1744, lived in Paris. He published, besides other works, "Celebrated Trials," ("Causes celebres," 196 vols., 1773-89,) and a "Dictionary, Historical and Critical, of all French Writers to the End of the Eighteenth Cen- tury," ("Siecles litteraires de la P'rance, ou Nouveau Dictionnaire historique, critique et bibliographique," etc., 6 vols. 8vo, 1800.) Died in 1810. See QuERARD, " La France Litt^raire." Deseze. See SfezE, de. Desfaucherets, di''f6sh'Ri', (Jean Louis Brousse,) a French dramatic writer, born in 1742; died in 1808. Desfontaines, di't^N'tin', (Guillaume FRANgois FOUQUES Deshayes,) a French dramatist, born at Caen in 1733, became librarian of Monsieur, (Louis XVIII.) He produced numerous successful comedies, among which were "The Marriage of Scarron," and the "Tra- veller Incog.," (" Le Voyageur inconnu.") Died in 1825. Desfontaines, (Pierre Francois Guyot,) Abb6, a French critic, born in Rouen in 1685. In 1724 he was invited to Paris to write for the "Journal des Savants," to which he imparted new vitality. Devoting his pen to polemic criticism, he issued successively several pe- riodicals, such as " Le Nouvelliste du Parnasse," (1731,) and "Judgments on New Works," (1745.) His critiques involved him in a quarrel with Voltaire, which was prose- cuted with much rancour. Desfontaines published a "Neologic Dictionary," (1726,) and other works. His version of the "^neid" (1743) is said to be the best prose version in the French language. Died in 1745. See De la Porte, "L'Esprit de I'Abbe Desfontaines," 4 vols., 1757; Charles Nisard, " Les Ennemis de Voltaire; Desfontaines, Freron et Beaunielle," 1853. Desfontaines, (Ren^ Louiche,) an eminent French botanist, born at Tremblay, in Bretagne, about 1752. He studied medicine in Paris, and made such progress in botany that he was received into the Academy of Sciences in 1783. Through the influence of Lemonnier, the gov- ernment furnished him with means to make a botanical excursion in Barbary, from which, after two years' ab- sence, he returned in 1785. He was appointed by Bufifon professor of botany in the Jardin des Plantes in 1786. About 1795 he was admitted into the Institute. In 1798 he published his most important work, the result of his researches in Africa, entitled " Flora Atlantica," (2 vols. 4to.) Vegetable physiology is indebted to him for the valuable discovery of the difference in the growth and structure of monocotyledons and dicotyledons. He pub- lished " Lectures on Botany," a " Description of the Trees and Shrubs of France," (1809,) and numerous treatises on new genera which he discovered. Died in November, 1833. See " Biographie des Naturalistes," in the "Dictionnaire univer- selle des Sciences naturelles;" A. P. de Candolle, "Notice his- torique sur la Vie et les Travaux de M. Desfontaines," 1834 ; Pierre Flourens, " filoge historique de R. L. Desfontaines," 1837 ; " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Desforges, d^'foRzh', (Pierre Jean Baptiste Chou- DARD,) a French dramatic writer, born in Paris in 1746, was a comic actor in his youth. He retired from the stage in 1782, and then produced "Tom Jones at Lon- don," a comedy in verse, of which La Ilarpe says, "The situations are interesting, the dialogue is rapid and animated, and the style ingenious and easy." He was author of many other comedies, and of successful operas, among which is "Joconde." Died in 1806. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Desfourneaux, di'fooR'n6',(EDME Etienne Borne,) a French general, born in 1767, commanded an expedition to Saint Domingo, from which he expelled the British in 1796 or 1797. In 1802 he was sent back to that island, though not as general-in-chief, and gained some advan- tages over the negro insurgents. Died in 1849. Desgallards, da^gt'ltk', (Nicolas,) a Protestant theologian, born about 1520, became minister in Geneva about 1552, and planted a French church in London in 1560. He was much esteemed by Calvin, and was ap- pointed preacher to the Queen of Navarre in 1571. He translated several of Calvin's works into French, and published an edition of Saint Irena^us, (1570.) Desgenettes, dazh''net' or da'zheh-n^t', (Nicolas RENlfe DUFRICHE,) Baron, an eminent French physician, born at Alen9on in 1762. He became chief physician of the army of Italy about 1794, and in 1798 served in the same capacity in Egypt, where he displayed great skill and courage. He attended the grand army during the empire, and at Waterloo in 181 5. On the restoration of Louis XVIII. he lost his position in the army, and in 1823 he was dismissed from a chair of medicine which he had obtained in Paris about 1800. He was chosen chief physician of the Invalides in 1832. Pie published, besides other medical works, " The Medical History of the Army of the East," (1802,) and wrote articles for the " Biographie Universelle." Died in 1837. See Pariset, " :£loge du Baron R. Desgenettes," Svo, 1838; Desgenettes, " Souvenirs de la Fin du i8me Si^cle et des Com- mencements du igme, ou Memoires de R. D. G.," 2 vols., 1836; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Desgodets, di'go'da', (Antoine,) a PVench architect, born in Paris in 1653, was chosen pensioner of the king at the Academy of Rome in 1674. On his return he published, by order of Colbert and at the public expense, "The Ancient Edifices of Rome, designed and measured accurately," a work of considerable merit. Died in 1728. Desgoffe, da'gof, (Alexandre,) a French historical and landscape painter, born in Paris in 1805. Among his works are "The Roman Campagna," and " The Sleep of Orestes," (1857.) Desgranges, da'gRSNzh', (Jean Baptiste,) a French medical writer, born at Macon in 1751 ; died in 1831. Deshauterayes, da'zofra', (Michel Ange Andr6 LE Roux,) a French linguist, born near Pontoise in 1724, was a nephew and pupil of Etienne Fourmont, who taught him Hebrew, Arabic, Chinese, etc. From 1752 to 1784 he was professor of Arabic in the College Royal, Paris. He wrote a "Life of F'ourmont," and ])ublished some letters on Oriental languages. Died in 1795. Deshayes, di'z^' or dcVhi', (Louis,) Baron ofCour- memin, a French diplomatist, born about 1590. He was sent by Louis XIII. on a mission to the Levant in 1621, and on his return published a "Journey to the Levant," an interesting and valuable work. Having joined in some intrigues against Richelieu, he was beheaded in 1632. Deshays, di'za', (Jean Baptiste,) an eminent French historical painter, born at Rouen in 1729. Pie studied under Vanloo, and afterwards visited Rome. In 1758 he was admitted to the Royal Academy of Paris, on which occasion he exhibited his "Venus embalming the Body ■e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^==See Explanations, p. 23.) DESHOULIERES 752 DESMARS of Hector." This established his reputation as one of the best painters of his time. His '* Saint Benedict Dying" is also much admired. Died in 1765. See C. N. Cochin, " Lettres sur la Vie de Deshays," 1765. Deshoulieres, d^'zoo'ie-aiR', Madame, {7tee Antoi- nette du Ligier de la Garde — dii le'zhe-i' d'li gSud,) a French poetess, born in Paris about 1634. She was beautiful, graceful, and learned. In 165 1 she became the wife of Seigneur Deshoulieres, an officer in the army. She was much caressed and complimented by the poets, who called her the tenth Muse. Voltaire said that "she was the most successful of all the French ladies who have cultivated poetry." Her idyls, one of which is entitled ** Les Moutons," are said to be the best in the language, and are more admired than her other poems, among which are eclogues, odes, elegies, etc. Her " Moral Reflections" are also much esteemed. A pension of two thousand francs was granted her in 1688. Her works were often read in the public sessions of the French Academy. She was a faithful wife and mother, and did not sacrifice her domestic duties to literary fame. She wrote a tragedy, " Genseric," which was so unsuccessful that some one, alluding to her pastoral above named, applied to her the popular proverb, " Retournez a vos moutons," {" Return to your sheep.") Died in 1694. See Voltaire, "Siecle de Louis XIV," and " Le Temple du Gout;" A. Pekicaud, "Les deux Deshoulieres," 1853: P. E. Le- MONTEY, "Notice sur Madame Lafayette et Mesdenioiselles Des- houlieres," 1822. Deshoulieres, (Antoinette Th6 r^:se,) the daughter of the above, born in Paris in 1662, was also a poetess. In 1687 she gained the prize of the French Academy for her ode on the following subject : "The Care which the King bestows on the Education of the Nobility." M. Caze, her accepted lover, having been killed in battle in 1692, she composed elegiac verses to his memory. She also wrote songs and epistles. Died in 17 18. Desideri, d^-se-da'ree, (Ippoli to,) an Italian mission- ary, born at Pistoia in 1684, went to Thibet about 1715, and passed ten years in Lassa. He translated into Latin the " Kangiar," the sacred book of Thibet. Died at Rome in 1733. Desiderio da Settignano, di-se-da're-o di s§t-t6n- y§.'no, an eminent Italian sculptor, born in Tuscany in 1457. Among his works is a mausoleum of Carlo Mar- suppini in the Santa Croce at Florence. Died in 1485. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Ticozzi. " Dizionario." Des-i-de'ri-us, [Fr. Didier, de'de-i',] the last king of the Lombards, was Duke of Istria~at the death of Astolph, whom he succeeded in 757 a.d. In 770 Charle- magne married his daughter ; but he repudiated her the next year. In 772 Desiderius was involved in war with Pope Adrian, in whose defence Charlemagne marched an army into Italy and besieged Desiderius in Pavi'a. The latter surrendered in 774, and was confined in a monastery, where he ended his days. See MuRATORi, "Annali d'ltalia;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Frangais." Desjardins, d^'zhtRM^N', (Jacques,) a French gen- eral, born at Angers in 1757. He served as general of division in 1794 under Pichegru in Holland. He was mortally wounded at Eylau in 1807. Desjardins, [Lat. Horten'sius,] (Jean,) born near Laon, in France, became one of the physicians of Francis I., and had so great a reputation that it was believed he could cure all diseases, provided the fatal hour had not arrived. Some punster applied to him this proverb : " Contra vim mortis, non est medicamen in hortis." Died in 1549. Desjardins, d^'zhtR^diw', (Maritn van den Bo- gaert — bo'gart,) a skilful Dutch sculptor, born at Breda in 1640, removed to Paris, where he made a colossal grou]) in honour of Louis XIV., which was destroyed in the Revolution. Died in 1694. Deslandes, di'ldNd', (Andr6 Francois Boureau — boo^'6',) a skeptical French writer, born at Pondicherry, in India, in 1690, came to France in his youth. His "Critical History of Philosophy" (1737) had great suc- cess. Voltaire criticised the style of this, and called the author " un vieux ecolier precieux, un bel-esprit provinciel," ("an affected pedant, a provincial witling.") Deslandes also wrote " Reflections on Great Men who have died jestingly," and other works. Died in 1757. See QuERARu, " La France Litt^raire." Deslyons, d4''le-6N', (Jean,) a French theologian, born at Pontoise in 161 5 ; died at Senlis in 1700. Deslys, di'l^ss', (Charles,) a French litterateur, born in Paris about 1820. Desmahis, da'mt'e', (Joseph Francois Sdouard de Corsembleu — deh koR's5N'bluh',) a French poet, born at Sully-sur-Loire in 1722. At the age of eighteen he went to Paris, and by the favour of Voltaire obtained access to the society of the elite. He wrote " Le Voyage de Saint-Germain," and other fugitive poems, which had considerable popularity, and several comedies, one of which, "The Impertinent," (1750,) was performed with success. " It sparkles with wit," says La Harpe, " but at the expense of naturalness," (natitrel.) Died in 1761. See Desessarts, "Siecles litteraires." Desmaiseaux, di'ma'zo', (Pierre,) a learned writer, born in Auvergne, France, in 1666, emigrated to England in his youth, and there associated with eminent authors. He was chosen Fellow of the Royal Society. He wrote, in English, a "Life of Boileau," (1712,) and a "Life of Bayle, (1722,) and translated into English Bayle's " Dic- tionary," Fenelon's " Telemachus," and other works. His writings are said to be valuable for literary history. Little is known of the events of his life. Died in Lon- don in 1745. See MoRERt, " Dictionnaire Historique." Desniarais. See Regnier-Desmarais. Desmares. See Champmesl^. Desmares, da'nitR', (Toussaint Gui Joseph,) a French Jansenist preacher and writer, born at Vire in 1599 ; died in 1687. Desmarets. See Maillebois, Marshal de. Desmarets or Desmarais, (Francois Seraphin Regnier.) See Regnier-Desmarais. Desmarets, da'mt'ra', (Nicolas,) a French states- man and financier, was the nephew and pupil of Colbert. He became director of finances in 1702. The resources of France were exhausted by long wars, and the finan- cial fabric raised by the skill of Colbert was falling to ruin, when Desmarets was appointed controller-general in 1708. His administration was wise, honest, and par- tially successful. On the death of Louis XIV., in 1 715, he was deprived of office. Died in 1721. His son be- came distinguished as the Marshal de Maillebois. See Voltaire, "Siecle de Louis XIV;" Saint-Simon, "M^- moires." Desmarets, (Nicolas,) a French natural philosopher and geologist, born at Soulaines in 1725. In 1753 he wrote a prize essay on the ancient junction of Great Britain with the continent. He was admitted to the Academy of Sciences in 1771. He was one of the editors of the " Encyclopedic Methodique." His " Treatise on the Origin and Nature of Basalt," in the opinion of Cuvier, who wrote his eulogy, should secure for him a durable reputation. Died in 1815. Desmarets, [Lat. Mare'sius,] (Roland,) born in Paris in 1594, was a brother of Jean Desmarets de Saint- Sorlin. He wrote " Latin Letters" in verse, (1625,) often reprinted. Died in 1653. Desmarets, (Samuel,) a French Protestant divine, born at Oisemont in 1599, preached at Laon, Sedan, Bois-le-Duc, Groningen, etc. He wrote many wf)rks on theology, which are praised by Bayle. Died in 1673. Desmarets de Saint-Sorlin, deh siN'- sor'I^n', (Jean,) a French poet, born in Paris in 1595, was one of the first members of the French Academy. He wrote successful dramas, entitled "Aspasia," and " The Visionaries ;" and " Clovis," an epic poem, (1657,) which was justly ridiculed by Boileau. Desmarets was prominent in the party that studiously depreciated the ancients, and was a fanatical opponent of the Jansenists. He pretended to be inspired, and wrote some visionary devotional works. Died in 1676. See Bayi.e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Niceron, " Memoires." Desmars, di-mtR', a French writer on medical to- pography and natural history, lived at Boulogne-sur-Mer. Died in 1767. a, e, T, 6, ii, y, long; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; m§t; ndt; good; moon; DESMASURES 753 DESPJRTS Desmasures, di'mt'ziiR', (Louis,) a mediocre French poet, born at Tournay about 1516, made a translation of the "yEneid" into French verse. Died about 1580. Desmeunier, See Demeunier. Desmichels, di'me'sh&l', (Louis Alexis,) Baron, a French general, born at Digne in 1779, fought as cap- tain at Austerlitz. (1805,) and as colonel at Waterloo, (1815.) He became lieutenant-general in 1835, and was afterwards Governor of Corsica. Died in 1845. Desmichels, (Ovide Chrysanthe,) a French his- torian, born in the department of Var in 1793, was professor of history in Paris from 18 18 to 1831. His "Histoi) of the Middle Ages" (1825; 12th edition, 1846) is regarded as a classic work. Desmolets, da'mo'la', (Pierre Nicolas,) a learned French compiler, born in Paris in 1678, became a priest of the Oratoire. He was employed as editor or com- piler of many useful works, among which were a new and improved edition of Lami's "Apparatus Biblicus," (1723,) and " The Continuation of Memorials of History and Literature, by Sallengre," (i i vols., 1726-31.) Died in 1760. See QuERARD, "La France Litteralre." Desmonceaux, di'm^N^sS', Abp^:, a French oculist, born in Paris in 1734, wrote a "Treatise on Diseases of the Eves and Ears," and other works. Died in 1806. Del''mond, (Catherine Fitzgerald,) Countess of, an Irish lady, the wife of James XIV., Earl of Desmond, was born in the county of Waterford. She was presented at the court of Edward IV., danced with his brother, Richard III., and lived through five subsequent reigns. It is said that she reached the age of one hundred and forty, and died after the accession of James I., (1603.) See "Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by Louisa S. Cos- TELLO, London, 1844; "London Quarterly Review" for March, 1853. Desmouliiis, di'mooOiN', (Antoine,) a French nat- uralist, born at Rouen in 1796. He wrote a "Natural History of the Human Races of Northern Europe and Asia," etc., (1826,) and published in a short treatise the results of researches in the nervous system, (1824.) Died in 1828. Desmoulins, (Camille,) a prominent French demo- crat and political writer, born at Guise, in Picardy, in 1762, was educated in Paris, where Robespierre was his schoolmate. An enthusiastic partisan of the Revolution, he took an active part in the storming of the Bastille, became a devoted follower of Danton, and acquired dis- tinction by his pamphlets, which were written with great ability. He assumed or received the title of " Attorney- General of the Lamp-post," for his share in the death of those who were hung by the mob in the street. He had an impediment of speech, which prevented his suc- cess as an orator. In 1791 he married an amiable lady named Lucile Duplessis. Some writers accuse him of complicity in the massacre of September, 1792, but add that on that occasion he saved the lives of several worthy persons. He was elected to the Convention in 1792, and voted for the death of the king and the destruction of the Girondists, but subsequently advocated milder mea- sures, for the promotion of which he began to issue the " Vieux Cordelier," a periodical which had much cele- brity and is still admired for its literary merit. He in- curred the implacable enmity of the fanatical Saint-Just by saying that this demagogue "carried his head like the holy sacrament," and was involved in the proscrip- tion of his friend Danton, with whom he was executed, April 5, 1794. His wife soon after shared the same fate. "The talent which he displayed as a writer," says Lord Brougham, " may not be of the highest order, were we considering the merit of one who was a mere author. But he also played a great part among the actors in the scenes of the time, and of those he stands certainly highest as a master of composition." " No one," says Lamartine, "could so well personify the populace, with its tumultuous movements, its mobility, its inconstancy, and its quick transitions from fury to i)ity for its victims. A man at once so ardent and so volatile, so trivial and so inspired, so undecided between blood and tears, must have influence over an insurgent people in proportion as his nature is congenial with theirs." (" History of the Girondists,") " A fellow of endless wit and soft lambent brilliancy," says Carlyle ; "a man for whom art, fortune, or himself would never do much, but to whom Nature had been very kind." See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution;" Carlyle, " French Revolution ;" E. Fleuky, " l^iograpliie de C. Desmoulins," 1850, and enlarged edition, entitled " fitudes revoiutionnaires," etc., 2 vols., 1851 ; Carlyle, "Miscellanies;" Brougham, "Statesmen of the Time of George IIL" Desnoiresterres, di'nwSR'taiR', (Gustave le Bri- soys — leh bRe'zwi',) a French novelist and critic, born at Bayeux in 181 7. He wrote several novels, one of which is entitled " Entre deux Amours," (1845.) SeCi^' Noiivelle Biographie Generale." Desnoyer, da^nwi'yi', (Louis FRANgois Charles,) a prolific French dramatist, born at Amiens in 1806; died in 1858. Desnoyers, di'nwi'yi', (Auguste Gaspard Louis Boucher,) Baron, a celebrated French engraver and designer, was born in Paris in 1779. He studied under Lethiere and Darcis, and gained distinction by a copper- plate engraving of " La belle Jardiniere" of Raphael, (1804,) which he afterwards surpassed in works after various masters. He produced in 1808 a portrait of Napoleon, by Gerard, and in 18 14 pne of Raphael's Madonnas, ("Vierge a la Chaise.") In 1816 he was elected tq the Institute. He afterwards devoted his burin chiefly to the works of Raphael, witli a success which perhaps has never been surpassed. Among his master-pieces is "The Transfiguration," (1840.) He received the title of baron in 1828. Died in 1857. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "Arcliives des Musees Imperiaux." Desnoyers, (Jules Pierre Franqois Stanislas,) a French geologist and antiquary, born at Nogent-le- Rotrou (Eure-et-Loir) in 1800. He was chosen librarian of the Museum of Natural History at Paris in 1834. He has written, besides other works, "Observations on the Tertiary Formations of the West of France," (1832,) and "Ecclesiastic Topography of France," (1853.) See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Desnoyers, (Louis Claude Joseph,) a French lit- teratciir, born at Replonges (Ain) in 1805. He founded in 1832 the " Charivari," which he edited with success until 1836, in which year he became one of the proprietors of the " Siecle" in Paris. He also wrote several popular tales, among which are "The Adventures of Jean P. Choppart," (1836,) and "Gabrielle, or Every Road leads to R(Miie," (1846.) Desorgues, di'zoRg', (Joseph Theodore,) a satirical French poet, born at Aix in 1764; died in 1808. Desormeaux, d^'zoR'md', (Joseph Louis Ripault,) a French historian, born at Orleans in 1724, lived in Paris. He wrote a " History of Spain and Portugal," (1758,) and a "Life of the Marshal de Luxembourg," (1764,) which were very successful. He was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1771. Died in 1793- (S^e Ding6, Antoine.) See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." DesormeaiTX, (Marie Alexandre,) a French physi- cian and professor of obstetrics, born in Paris in 1778; died in 1830. De Soto, dk so'to, (Hernando or Fernando,) a Spanish explorer, born in Estremadura about 1500, served with distinction under Pizarro in Peru. He con- ducted an expedition from Spain to Florida in 1539, discovered the Mississippi River, and died in Louisiana in 1542. See Lambert A. Wilmer, "Life, Travels, and Adventures of Ferdinand de Soto," Philadelphia, 1858; Bancroft, " History ot the United States," vol. i. Des'pard, ? (Edward Marcus,) an Irish conspirator, born in Queen's county. He became a colonel in the British army, but was afterwards suspended or disgraced. He formed a conspiracy to kill the king, for which ht was executed in 1803. Despars or Desparts, d^'ptR', (Jacques,) a FrencI physician, born at Tournay, graduated in Paris in 140Q and practised there with great reputation. He became first physician to Charles VII., founded and endowed : medical school in Paris, and wrote a " Commentary or Avicenna." Died in 1457. Desparts. See Despars. "C as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, H, Yi^guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (J^^^See Explanations, p. 23. 48 DESPAUTERE 754 DESSAIX Despautere, di'po'taiR', (Jean,) a noted Flemish grammarian, born at Ninove about 1460, was tlie autlior of a Latin work on grammar, (" Commentarii Gram- matici,") which was very popular, and was used in the schools of France. "Too long," says Boinvilliers, "it caused the despair of youth, who shed many tears over its obscurities." His Flemish name was Van Pau- TEREN. Died in 1520. Despaze, di'ptz^ (Joseph,) a French satirical poet, born at Bordeaux in 1776, lived in Paris. Died in 1814. Despeisses, d.Vpciss', (Antoine,) an eminent French jurisconsult, born near Alais in 1594, was one of the authors of a "Treatise on Successions." Died in 1658. See MoREKi, " Dlctionnaire HIstorique." Despence. See Espence, d'. Despencer, le, (Hugh.) See Spenser. Desperiers, da'peh-re-i', or Desperriers, di'pi'- re-a', (Bonaventurp:,) alFfench skeptic, born at Arnay- le-Duc, was valet-de-chambre of Marguerite, sister of Francis I. He wrote, in French, a work called "Cymbal of the World," ("Cymbalum Mundi,") the object of which was to throw ridicule on revealed religion. He also wrote poems and tales — " New Recreations," (" Nou- velles Recreations") — which were admired. Died in 1544. See " Les vieux Conteiirs Fran^ais," 1840: Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Charles Nouier, " B. Desperriers et Cyrano de Bergerac," 1841 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." De.sperriers. See Desperiers. Desplaces, da'pliss', (Louis,) a skilful French en- graver, born in Paris in 1682. fie engraved after Rubens, Paul Veronese, and other Italian masters. Died in 1739. Despois, da^pvvi', (Eugene,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1818. He contributed able articles to the "Revue des Deux Mondes." Desport, di'poR', (FRANgois,) a French surgeon, born about 1700. Having practised with success in the army for several years, he was chosen surgeon-in-chief of the army of Corsica in 1 738. He passes for one of the greatest military surgeons that France has produced. He wrote a "Treatise on Gun-Shot Wounds," (1749,) which w^as then the most complete on the subject. Died about 1760. Desportes, di'poRt', (Auguste,) a French poet, born at- Aubenas ( Ardeche) in 1 798. He made a good poetical version of the "Satires" of Persius, (1841,) and wrote " Moliere at Chambord," a comedy, (1843.) Desportes, (Charles £douard Bosclieron — bosh'roN^,) a French lawyer and litterateur, born in Paris in 1753. He embraced the royal cause in the Revolu- tion, for which he suffered in prison and in exile. In 1814 he became president of the imperial court of Orleans. Died in 1832. See BuzoNNi^RE, " Notice sur C. E. Boscheron Desportes," 1832. Desportes, (Claude Francois,) a French painter, a son of the following, whom he imitated, died in 1774. Desportes, (FRANgois,) an eminent French painter, born in Champagne in 1661, resided in Paris. He was received into the Royal Academy in 1699, when the king gave him a pension. He painted portraits with skill ; but he excelled in representing dogs and other animals. He executed many works of this kind for Louis XIV. and for his successor. Died in 1743. Desportes, (Jean Baptiste Poup^:e,) a French phy- sician, born in Bretagne in 1704, practised in Saint Domingo. He wrote a " History of the Diseases of Saint Domingo," in 3 vols., (1770,) one of which is de- voted to botany. Died in 1748. Desportes,'(PHiLiPPE,) a French poet, bornatChar- itres in 1545 or 1546, was an uncle of the satirist Regnier. He enjoyed the favour of Henry HI., who gave him rich .benefices and chose him for reader in his cabinet. He wrote elegies and erotic poems, and excelled in Ana- creontic verse. " Desportes wrote more purely than Ronsard," says La Harpe, " and removed the rust which covered our versification." " He rejected," says Hallam, "the pedantry and affectation of his predecessors, and gave a tenderness and grace to the poetry of love." (("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1606. See Sainte-Beuve, "Tableau de la Po^sie Fran(;aise an sei- zxhmQ Si^cle ;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Despreaux. See Boileau. Despreaux, dcVpR^'o', (Jean £tienne,) a popular French dramatist and song-writer, born in Paris in 1748; died in 1820. Desprenienil. See Espr^:mesnil. Despres, di'pRi', (Jean Baptiste Denis,) an accom- plished French writer, born at Dijon in 1752. In 1805 he became secretary of Louis, King of Holland, who made him a councillor of state. About 1810 he was chosen a member of the council of the University of Paris. He wrote several dramas, among which are the " Alarmiste" and the " Satiric Poet." Died in 1832. Des- pres and Campenon made an elegant version of Horace. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Despres, di'pR^', or Depres, written also Desprez, di'pRa', (JosQUiN,) a famous Flemish musician, born in Hainault about 1450 or 1460. He was a singer in the pontifical chapel under Pope Sixtus IV., after whose death he was attached to the court of Louis XII. of France. He composed masses, motets, and songs. Died about 1530. "Many poems and epitaphs," says Denne- Baron, "attest the regret caused by the death of this musician, whom all Europe proclaimed the greatest com- poser of his time." See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Despretz, da'pRi', (C6sar Mansuete,) a French savant, born at Lessines (Hainault) in 1792. He taught physical sciences in the College Henri IV., Paris, and was appointed professor in the Sor bonne about 1837. He published an " P^lementary Treatise on Physics," (1825,) which was adopted by the Council of Public instruction, and "Elements of Chemistry," (1830.) He produced from carbon or charcoal minute black crystals, said to be a good substitute for diamond-dust in polishing precious stones. Died in 1863. Desprez, (Josquin.) See Despres. Desprez, da'pRa', (Louis,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1799. He obtained the grand prize in 1828 for "The Death of Orion." Among his other works are a statue of General Foy and a bronze statue of Diana, (1845-) Desprez, (Louis Jean,) a French artist, born in Lyons about 1745, was appointed painter and archi- tect to Gustavus HI. of Sweden. He displayed a rich imagination as a painter. The " Battle of Suenskund" is one of his master-pieces. Died in 1804. Desprez de Boissy. See Boissy. Desrenaudes, di'reh-nod', (Martial Borye,) an able French litterateur, born at Tulle in 1755, became grand vicar of the Bishop of Autun, (Talleyrand,) whom he served as secretary. He is the reputed author of the famous report on public instruction presented by Talleyrand in 1791. He was imperial censor under Napoleon I. Died in 1825. Desrochers, dWvo'shif, (Etienne Jehandier — zh6N'de-a',) a French engraver of portraits, was born at Lyons ; died in Paris in 1 741. Desroclies, di^rosh', (Jean,) a learned historian of Belgium, born at the Hague in 1740. In 1783 he pub- lished a well-written Latin "Epitome of Belgian His- tory," (2 vols.,) and left (unfinished) an "Ancient History of the Austrian Netherlands," (1787.) Died in 1787. Desroohes de Parthenay, di'rosh' deh paRt'na', (J. B.,) a French historian, born at La Rochelle, pub- lished, besides other works, a "History of Denmark," (6 vols., 1730,) and a " History of Poland under Augustus IL," (4 vols., 1734.) Died in 1766. Desrotours, daWtooR', (Noel Franqois Mathieu Angot — 6N''go',) a French numismatist and writer, born at Falaise in 1739, was chief clerk of the administration of the mint before the Revolution. Died in 1821. Dessaix, da'sa', (Joseph Marie,) a French general, born at Thonon, Savoy, in 1764. As major he served in Italy in 1796, was a deputy to the Council of Five Hundred in 1798, and became a general of division in 1809. For his conduct at Wagram (1809) he was made a count of the empire. He was chosen grand officer of the legion of honour in 1811. He joined the army of Napoleon in March, 1815, and was in consequence excluded from office after the restoration. Died in 1834, See De Courcelles, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Frangais." a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; DESSAIX 75? DEUTSCH Dessaix, (de Veygoux.) See Desaix. Dessalines, di'^^t'I^i/, (Jean Jacques,) a negro em- peror of flayti, born in or near Guinea about 1 760, was brought to Hayti as a slave. In the servile war which fol- lowed the French Revolution he was distinguished for his courage and cruelty, and became first lieutenant of Tous- saint L'Ouverture. He massacred all the whites and mulattoes who fell into his power. In 1802 he made a desperate resistance to the French army under Leclerc, especially at Saint-Marc. After Toussaint was trans- ported to France, Dessalines became general-in-chief of the blacks, and expelled the French from the island in 1803. He ordered a general massacre of the white residents, who had remained under a promise of protec- tion. In October, 1804, he assumed the title and power of emperor. Two of his officers, Christophe and Petion, conspired against him and assassinated him in 1806, when the former became President of Hayti. See Louis Dubroca, "Vie de J. J. Dessalines," 1804. Dessalles, da'sil', (Jean L^on,) a French philologist, born at Le Bugue (Dordogne) in 1803. Dessau, d^s'sow, (Prince Leopold Anhalt,) a Ger- man general, born in 1676, distinguished himself in the war of the Spanish succession, and was made field-mar- shal in 1 7 12. He obtained command of an army of Frederick II. of Prussia, with which he invaded Silesia in 1744 and repulsed the Austrians in 1745. He after- wards defeated the Saxons near Dresden. Died in 1747- Dessen van Cronenburg. See Dessentus. Des-se'ni-us, [Ger. pron. dSs-sa'ne-iis,] or Dessen van Cronenburg, des'sen vtn kRo'nen-buRG, (Ber- nard,) a skilful Dutch physician, born at Amsterdam in 15 ID, practised at Cologne. He published a work "On the Compounding of Medicines," (" De Compositione Medicamentorum," 1555,) and another on the Plague. Died in 1574. DessoUes, di'soK, (Jean Joseph Paul Augustin,) Marquis, an able French general and statesman, born at Auch in 1767, served several campaigns under Bona- parte in Italy between 1793 and 1797, and in 1799 be- came general of division. He served under Moreau in 1800, and contributed to the victory of Hohenlinden, (i8oi.) In this year he was made councillor of state and secretary of war. From 1808 to 1810 he commanded a division in Spain. In 18 14 he was appointed by the provisional government general-in-chief of the national guard of Paris, with command of the first military division. On the first restoration of Louis XVIII. he became minister of state and a peer of France. He was appointed minister of foreign affairs and president of the council, or premier, on the formation of the Liberal ministry in December, 1819. The ultra-royalists, whose policy he opposed, procured his dismissal from power in 1820. Died in 1828. See Lamartine, " History of the Restoration ;" De Courcelles, "Dictionnaire des Generaux Frangais ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." De Stael. See Stael, de. D'Estaing. See Estaing, d'. Destaing, dls't^N', (Jacques,) a French general, born at Aurillac in 1764, commanded the light infantry at the battle of Aboukir, and was made a general of division in 1801. He returned to France, and was killed in a duel by General Reynier in 1802. Destandoux. See Cailhava. Destouches, dcVtoosh', (Philippe Nericault— ni'- re^ko',) a popular French dramatic writer, born at Tours in 1680, is said to have been an actor in his youth. His comedy "Le Curieux impertinent" was performed in 1 7 10 with success. He was sent on a mission to Eng- land in 1 71 7, and married an English lady. In 1723 he was received into the French Academy. He gained great eminence among comic authors by his "Married Philosopher," (1727,) which is his master-piece, "The Boaster," ("Le Glorieux,") and many other comedies. Died in 1754. See Villemain, "Tableau de la Litt^rature an dix-huiti^me Siecle;" D'Alembert, " Eloge de Destouches," 1755; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." D'Estrees. See Estr^es, d'. Destutt de Tracy. See Tracy. Des Vergers. See Noel des Vergers. Desvignoles, di'ven'yoK, ( Alphonse, ) a French Protestant minister, born in Languf doc in 1649, preached at Lausanne, Berne, Berlin, and Brandenburg. He be- came a member of the Royal Society of Berlin in 1701, and one of the editors of the " Bibliotheque Germanique" in 1 711. In 1738 he published a "Chronology of Sacred History," which was esteemed one of the best works on that subject. Died in 1744. See Haag, "La France protestante." Desyveteaux or Des Yveteaux, di'z^v'to', (Nico- las Vauquelin — vok'liN',) Seigneur, a Frenchman, born near Falaise about 1560, was preceptor to the Duke of Vendome, and to the dauphin, (Louis XHI.,) for the former of whom he wrote a poem called "The Education of a Prince." In 1611 he was dismissed from court on account of his immoral habits. Died in 1649. See Ratheky, "Vauquelin des Yveteaux," 1854; J- TraverSj "Addition h. la Vie et aux CEuvres de V. des Yveteaux," 1856 ; " Nou- velle Biographic Generale." Detharding, det'haRMing, [Lat. Dethardin'gius,] (Georg,) a learned German physician, born at vStralsund in 1671. He became professor of medicine at Rostock in 1697, and at Copenhagen in 1732. He gave evidence of a philosophic and ingenious mind in numerous works, (in Latin,) among which are a "Guide to Long Life," (" Dissertatio de Manuductione ad Vitam longam," 1724,) "Principles of Semiology," (1740,) and " Principles of the System or Art of Healing," ("Fundamenta Methodi Medendi," 1743.) Died in 1747. See Kampfer, " Publicum Virtutis et Eruditionis Monumentum G. Dethnrdingio erectum." Detharding, (Georg Christoph,) a son of the pre- ceding, born at Rostock in 1699, was professor of medi- cine at Copenhagen from 1747 to 1760. He wrote many dissertations on medicine. Died in 1784. See "Biographic M^dicale." Detmold, d^t'molt, (Johann Hermann,) a Gei-man statesman, born at Hanover in 1807, was elected to the National Assembly in 1848, and was in 1849 for a short time minister of justice and of the interior for the em- pire. He wrote several satirical works. See Brockhaus, " Convcrsations-Lexikon." De Tocqueville. See Tocqueville, de. Detroy, deh-tRwl', (Franqois,) a French portrait- painter, born at Toulouse in 1645, worked in Paris. Died ill 1730- Deu-ca'li-on, [Gr. LevKa7do)v ,'\ a personage of the Greek mythology, was said to be a son of Prometheus. According to popular tradition, he escaped in a ship with his wife Pyrrha from a general deluge, and landed on Parnassus ; after which they threw stones behind them, which were transformed into men and women. See Ovid's " Metamorphoses," book i. DeurhofF, duR'hof, (Willem,) a Dutch writer on theology, born at Amsterdam in 1650 ; died in 1717. Deusdedit. See Dieudonn^;. Deusing, doi'zing, (Anton,) a learned German phy- sician, born at Meurs, in Westphalia, in 1612. He was versed in Oriental languages, philosophy, etc. In 1646 he became first professor of medicine at Groningen. He published, in Latin, "The Universal Theatre of Nature," (1645,) a " Synopsis of Medicine," (1649,) "The Economy of the Animal System," (1660,) and other works. Died in 1666. See Niceron, "Memoires;" Samuel Maresius, " Oratio in Obitum A. Deusingii," 1666 ; "Biographic Medicale." Deusing, (Hermann,) born in 1654, was a son of the preceding, and a partisan and admirer of Cocceius. He wrote an "Allegorical History of the Bible," (1690,) and other works on theology. Died in 1722. Deutsch, doitsh, (Nicolas Emanuel,) a Swiss painter and engraver, born at Berne in 1484. His engravings are more prized than his paintings, and both are rare. His most remarkable work is a series of six engravings representing the Wise and Foolish Virgins. Died in 1530- His son, Jean Rodolphe, produced engravings which are valued ai showing the picturesque state of the great cities of Europe in the sixteenth century. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K,guthiral; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) DEFA 756 DEVOS DEVA, da'va,* a Sanscrit word signifying "god," and forming part of several compound names in the Hindoo mythology, as Kamadeva, the "god of love," Mahadeva, the "great god," (one of the many names applied to Siva,) etc. The feminine of Deva is Devi, (da'vee,) which signifies simply a "goddess," but is more usually applied to Parvati, the consort of Siva. Devaines, deh-van', (Jean,) a French litterateicr, born before 1750, was chief clerk of the treasury under Turgot. Died in 1803. Devaris, da-va'ris, or Devarius, di-v^'re-us, (Mat- thew,) a Greek scholar, born in Corfu, lived about 1540, and became, under Paul III., corrector of Greek manu- scripts in the Vatican. His chief work is a "Treatise on the Particles of the Greek Language," (1588.) Devarius. See Devaris. Devaux. See Vaux, de. Devaux, deh-v6', (FRAwgois Antoine,) a French litth'aieur, born at Luneville in 1 71 2, enjoyed the con- stant friendship of Voltaire. In 1752 he produced a successful comedy, " Rash Promises," (" Engagements indiscrets.") Died in 1796. See VoLTAiRK, " Correspoiidance de 1739 k 1761 ;" "Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale." Devaux, (Gabriel Pierre FRAwgois Moisson — mwi^s6N',) a French botanist, born at Caen in 1742, formed near Bayeux a garden which became well known as the "Jardin Devaux." Died in 1802. See Laik, " Notice historique sur Moisson- Devaux," 1803. Devaux, (Jean,) a skilful French surgeon, born in Paris in 1649, practised in that city for sixty years with a high reputation. He was author of a popular treatise on the "Art of Preserving Health by Instinct," (1682,) and other able professional works. He also translated several foreign medical books. Died in 1729. See Sue, "£iOge historique de Devaux," etc., Amsterdam, 1772. Devaux, deh-vo', (Paul Louis Isidore,) a Belgian statesman, born at Bruges in 1801. He was one of the leaders of the party called "Doctrinaire" before the revolution of 1830. In the congress which met soon after that event, he took an important part in framing the constitution of Belgium, and promoted the election of Leopold. He exercised great influence as editor of the " Revue Nationale." Devaux, (Pierre,) Baron, a French general, born at Vierzon in 1762. He distinguished himself at Lutzen in 1813. Died in 1818. Dev'ens, (Charles,) an American officer, born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1820, distinguished him- self at the battle of Ball's Bluff, and became brigadier- general of volunteers in 1862. Deventer, van, vtn dev'en-ter or da'v§n-ter, (Hen- DRIK,) an eminent Dutch physician, born at Deventer in the second half of the seventeenth century. He was repeatedly called to attend the King of Denmark, Christian V. He published some esteemed works on obstetrics. Died in 1739. See I^LOY, " Dictionnaire de la Medecine." De Vere, de veer, (Aubrey,) an English poet and dramatist. He published "The Song of Faith," (1842,) "The Waldenses," (1842,) "Mary Tudor," a drama, (1847,) and other works. Died in 1846. See " London Quarterly R.eview" for May, 1843. De Vere, (Edward.) See Vere. De Vere, (Maximilian Schele,) a writer and scholar, born in Sweden in 1820. He came to the United States, and in 1844 was appointed ])rofessor of modern languages and belles-lettres in the University of Virginia. His prin- cipal works are his " Outlines of Comparative Philology," and " Stray Leaves from the Book of Nature." Devereux. .See Essex, Earl of. Devergie, deh-v^R'zhe', (Marie Guillaume Al- phonse,) an eminent French physician, born in Paris in \ 1798, became professor of chemistry, etc. in 1825. His most important work is "Legal Medicine, Theoretical and Practical," (3 vols., 1836.) * This word is etymolos;ically related to the Latin Detts and Divjis ; in some of the popular dialects it is ciiansjed to Deo: hence we have Kamadeo and Mahadeo, instead of Kamadeva, Mahadeva, etc. Deveria, deh-viWi', (Eugene FRANgois Marie Joseph,) a French historical painter, born in Paris in 1805. Among his works are "Marco Bozzaris at Misso- longhi," (1827,) and "The Flight into Egypt," (1838.) Deveria, (Jacques Jean Marie Achille,) a French painter and lithographer, brother of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1800. He produced, among other historical paintings, a " Repose of the Holy Family," and a "Visitation." About 1849 he became keeper of engravings in the Imperial Library. Died in 1857. Deveze, deh-viz', (Jean,) a French physician, born at Rabastens in 1753, went to Hayti in 1775. He escaped from massacre in 1793 by going to Philadelphia, where he had charge of a hospital during the prevalence of the yellow fever. Returning to France, he became physi- cian-in-ordinary to the king. Died in 1829. He wrote able "Treatises on the Yellow P'ever." Ddvi, da'vee, [the feminine form of the Sanscrit Deva, a " god,"] a common Hindoo word, signifying " goddess," but usually applied to Parvati (or Kali) par excdleiice. (See ParvatI) Devienne, deh-ve'§n', (Franqois,) a French musi- cian and composer, born at Joinville in 1759 ; died in 1803. De Vigny. See Vigny. Deville, deh-v^K, (Antoine,) an eminent French en- gineer, born at Toulouse in 1596, passed some years in the service of the Duke of Savoy. He wrote an im- portant treatise on fortifications. Died about 1656. Deviller3,deh-ve'y^', (Charles,) a French naturalist, born in 1724, lived at Lyons. His chief production is an edition of Linnaeus's "Entomology." Died in 1809. Dev'is, (Arthur William,) an English historical painter, born in 1762; died in 1822. Devonshire, first Duke of. See Cavendish, Wil- liam. Dev'on-shire, (Edward Courtney or Courtenay,) Earl OF, an accomplished English nobleman, born about 1526, was the son of Henry Courtenay, Earl of Devon- shire, whose mother was a daughter of Edward IV. He was confined in the Tower from 1538 till 1553, for fear that he might avenge his father, who had been unjustly executed. Queen Mary released him and restored to him the earldom. According to several historians, she was inclined to marry him, but he treated her advances with indifference, because he was attached to her sister Elizabeth. He was again confined for a short time in the Tower during Mary's reign, and then obtained leave to go abroad. He died at Padua in 1556. Devonshire, (Elizabeth Hervey,) Duchp:ss of, a beautiful and accomplished English lady, born in 1759, was the daughter of the Earl of Bristol. She married as her second husband W. Cavendish, Duke of Devonshire, who died in 1814. After this event she resided in Italy, and published an elegant edition of the Fifth Satire of Horace, and other works. Died at Rome in 1824. Devonshire, (Georgiana,) Duchess of, an English lady, eminent for her beauty, talents, and accomplish- ments, born in 1757, was the daughter of Earl Spencer. In 1774 she was married to William Cavendish, Duke of Devonshire. She wrote some admired poetical effu- sions, one of which is "The Passage of Mount Saint Gothard." She was a personal and political friend of Charles James Fox, for whom, it is said, she purchased votes by granting electors the privilege of kissing her. Died in 1806. Devonshire, (William Spencer Cavendish,) sixth Duke of, born in 1790, was the only son of the fifth duke and Georgiana Spencer. He was styled Marquis of Hartington before the death of his father, in 181 1. He favoured the Whig party, and was sent as ambassador to Russia in 1826. Died in 1858. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Devos or De Vos, deh-vos', or Van Vos, vtn vos, (Martin,) a skilful Flemish painter, born at Antwerp about 1534. He studied at Rome and Venice, and co- operated with Tintoretto, who employed him to paint the landscapes of his pictures. He returned to Antwerp about 1559, and produced historical paintings and por- traits of great merit. Among his works is a picture of the great rivers of Asia and Africa. Died in 1604. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; DEFOSGES 7S7 DE WITT Devosges, deh-vozh', (Franqois,) a French designer, born at Gray in 1732. He founded at Dijon a free school of design, which was successful with aid from the govern- ment. " He ought to share with Vien," says M. Weiss, "the honour of contributing to the study of the antique and the imitation of nature." Died in i8ii. Devoti, d^-vo'tee, (Giovanni,) an Italian prelate, born in Rome in 1 744, became eminent as professor of canon law in the college di Sapienza. About 1804 he was made Bishop of Carthage. He published a work on canon law, (*' Institutiones Canonicas.") Died in 1820. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Devrient, dgv're-6N^ (Gustav Emil,) an eminent German actor, of French extraction, nephew of Ludwig Devrient, was born in Berlin in 1803. He made his debut at an early age, and performed in Berlin and other cities of Germany with great success, both in tragedy and comedy. Devrient, (Karl August,) born in 1798, made his debiU in 1819, and became a popular comic actor. He married the famous singer Wilhelmine Schroeder, from whom he was divorced in 1828. Devrient, (Ludwig,) a popular German actor, uncle of the preceding, born in Berlin in 1784. He became the chief favourite of the public of Berlin, where he first performed in 1815, and received the surname of "the German Garrick." He excelled both in tragedy and comedy, and performed many parts in the tragedies of Shakspeare. Died in 1832. See H. Schmidt, "L. Devrient, eine Denkschrift," 1833 ; Carl F. KuNZ, "Aus dem Leben zweier Schauspieler; Ifflands uiid De- viients," 1838. Devrient, (Philipp Eduard,) an actor and dramatic writer, brother of Gustav Emil, noticed above, was born in Berlin in i8or. Among his works are the comedies of "The Little Gray Man" and "The Favour of the Moment," (" Die Gunst des Augenblicks,") and a " His- tory of the Dramatic Art in Germany," (1848-51.) Devrient, (Wilhelmine.) See Schroeder. Devuez, deh-vii'y, (Arnould,) an excellent painter of history, born near Saint-Omer in 1642. He worked in Rome, and afterwards in Paris, where he was patron- ized by Louvois. " His compositions are in the manner of Raphael," says the "Biographic Universelle," "and his design is correct." Died at Lille in 1724. Dew, (Thomas R.,) an American writer, born in Virginia in 1802, became professor of political economy, history, and metaphysics in William and Mary College in 1827, and president of that institution in 1836. His principal works are "The Policy of the Government," (1829,) an "Essay in Favour of Slavery," (about 1833,) and a " Digest of the Laws, Customs,' etc. of Ancient and Modern Nations." Died in 1846. Dewaal. See Wael, de. Dewailly. See Wailly, de. De-wees^ (William Potts,) an American physician, born at Pottsgrove, Pennsylvania, in 1768. He practised in Philadelphia for many years, and was chosen professor of obstetrics in the University of Pennsylvania in 1834. He published a " System of Midwifery," and other works. Died in 1841. D'Ewes, duz, (Sir Symonds,) an English antiquary, born at Coxden in 1602, was elected to Parliament in 1640, and was made a baronet in 1641. In the civil war he was a moderate opponent of the royal cause, and was one of the members who were expelled from Par- liament by Colonel Pride's "purge" in 1648. He was a laborious collector of historical records, medals, etc., and compiled a useful work, entitled "Journals of all the Parliaments during the Reign of Elizabeth," which was published after his death. Died in 1650. His "Autobiography and Correspondence" was published in 1845 by J. O. Halliwell. De Wette. See Wette, de. Dewey, du'e, (Chester,) an American botanist, born at Sheffield, Massachusetts, in October, 1784. He was professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Wil- liams College for seventeen years, and became in 1836 principal of the Collegiate Institute at Rochester, New York. He was eminently successful as a teacher. He contributed to the "American Journal of Science" a series of papers on Caricography, (or the Carices of North America,) which was continued, with few interruptions, for forty-two years. Died in December, 1867. Dewey, (Orville,) D.D., a distinguished Unitarian divine, born in Sheffield, Massaciiusetts, in 1794, gradu- ated at Williams College in 1814. He became an assistant oY Dr. Channing, in whose pulpit he preached about two years, was pastor at New Bedford from 1823 to 1833, and in the city of New York from 1835 to 1848. In 1858 he became pastor of the New South Church, Boston. Among his writings are " Discourses on Human Life," and "The Unitarian Belief." He has contributed to the "North American Review" and "The Christian Exami- ner." Dr. Dewey is a strong and original thinker. Dewez, deh-v^', (Louis Dieudonne Joseph,) ?. Bel- gian writer, born at Namur in 1760. In 1821 he was chosen perpetual secretary of the Academy of Brussels. He wrote a "General History of Belgium," (1805-07,) and other historical works. Died in 1834. De Winter. See Winter, de. De Witt, de wit, (Cornelius or Kornelis,) a Dutch naval officer and statesman, born at Dort, was an elder brother of John de Witt. At an early age he was chosen burgomaster of Dort and governor of Putten. In 1666 he held a high command under De Ruyter when the latter burned the English shipping in the Thames. He dis])layed skill and courage in the great naval battle of Solebay in 1672, soon after which he returned home, sick. A man of infomous character accused him of at- tempting to bribe him to poison the Prince of Orange. Though no proof was found to convict him, the judges condemned him to banishment. The populace then assembled round his prison, and he fell a victim to their rage. (See De Witt, John.) See JossELiN, " Eer en Leer van wijien den Heer C. de Witt ver- dedigt," 1774; J. A. Oostkamp, " Leven voornaamste haden en lotgevallen van C. de Witt," 1831. De Witt, (Emanuel,) a Dutch painter, born at Alk- maar in 1607, excelled in perspective and architectural views. Died in 1692. De Witt or Wit, (Jakor,) a Dutch painter of history, born at Amsterdam in 1695; died in 1744. De Witt, (John,) one of the most et'ninent statesmen that the Dutch nation has produced, was born at Dort in 1625. His father, Jacob, was a burgomaster of Dort and a deputy to the States of Holland. At the age of twenty-three he wrote a "Treatise on Curve Lines," which evinced his profound knowledge of mathematics. About 1650 he was chosen pensionary of Dort. His political principles were republican, and hostile to the encroachments of the house of Orange. He opposed without success the war against the English which began in 1652. The great losses of the Dutch in this war ren- dered his pacific policy so popular that in 1653 he was elected (for a term of five years) Grand Pensionary of Holland, by virtue of which office he became the presi- dent or most influential member of the vStates-General. He was now the leader of the republican on- anti-Orange party, and had the chief direction of the government in the United Provinces. The Stadtholder had died, and his heir (William III.) was then an infant. In 1654 De Witt negotiated a treaty of peace with Cromwell, which contained a secret article that no member of the Orange family should ever be made Stadtholder. At the expira- tion of his term of office he was re-elected in 1658, and again unanimously in 1663. Having failed in his efforts to prevent the renewal of war with England in 1664, he conducted it with energy and ability. When the Dutch admiral Opdam was defeated and killed, De Witt took command of the fleet, and gave proof of great capacity for naval affairs. In 1666 the Dutch fleet under De Ruyter entered the Thames and burned several English ships of war, soon after which peace was restored. About this time the young Prince of Orange placed himself under the tuition of De Witt. When Louis XIV. in 1667 began to assert his claim to Flanders, De Witt formed an alliance with England and Sweden to resist him. But the French king, having seduced Charles II. to favour his design, invaded Holland in 1672 with a large army, which the Dutch could not effectually resist, and several towns were taken by the invaders. The ■€ as k; 9 as r; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) DE WITTE 758 DUGORJS fickle populace imputed the blame of these disasters to De Witt, and William of Orange was chosen captain- general of the army, and Stadtholder. The pensionary thereupon resigned his office. His brother Cornelius, charged with a conspiracy against the life of the Prince of Orange, had been ac- quitted. The pensionary visited him in his prisoUj^^on which occasion the infuriated mob, probably instigated by the dominant party, burst into the prison and mur- dered them both, August 20, 1672. Hume represents John de Witt as "a minister equally eminent for great- ness of mind, for capacity, and for integrity." See Macaui-ay, "History of England," vol. i. clinp. ii.; Pieter Simon, " J. de Witt en zijn T ijd," 3 vols., 1832-35 ; F. A. van Hall, " Lofrede op J. de Witt," 1827; E. van dhk Hoeven, " Leven bedrijf en Dood der doorghigtigte Heeien Gebroeders C. en J. de Witt," 1705 ; French version of the same, by Zoutelandt, 1709. De Witte, (Pieter.) See Candido. Dews^bur-y, (William,) an eminent English minis- ter of the Society of Friends, was born at Allerthorpe, in Yorkshire, probably about 1620. In order to obtain relief from spiritual conflicts, and actuated by a zeal for religious liberty, he entered the army of the Parliament in 1642, but soon, from a sense of duty, renounced the use of carnal weapons. In 165 1 he met George Fox, whose doctrines he recognized as (he true gospel which had been already revealed to himself, and of which he soon became a powerful preacher. He was imprisoned in Warwick jail nearly eight years, ending in 1671, and again in the same place from 1678 to 1685 on the charge of being a Jesuit. " I entered prisons," said he, " as joy- fully as palaces, telling my enemies to hold me there as long as they could." In 1688 he preached in London an impressive sermon, which is preserved in Sewel's "History of the Quakers." Died in 1688. See Edward Smith, "Life of W. Dewsbury," 1836; and the same reprinted in " Friends' Library," Philadelphia, vol. ii., 1838. Dex-ip'pus or Di-ox-ip'pus, [Or. Ae^OTTrof or Atw^- iTTTTog ; Fr, Dexippe, dSk'sep', or Dioxippe, de'ok''sep',j a Greek physician of Cos, lived in the fourth century B.C., and was a disciple of Hippocrates. Dexippus, [Ai^iTTTzoc,] a Greek philosophic writer of the fourth century of our era. He composed a com- mentary on the " Categories" of Aristotle, which is extant, and is said to be interesting. •Dexippus, (PuBLius Herennius,) a Greek historian, born in Attica, flourished in the third century of our era. He wrote "Chronike Historia," a history from the fabu- lous times to Claudius Gothicus, and " I^iwdcKu," a history of the invasion of the Scythians or Goths, fragments of which are extant. Died about 280 a.d. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca." Dex'ter, (Samuel,) an American jurist, born in Bos- ton in 1761, graduated at Harvard in 1781, and was admitted to the bar in 1784. He joined the Federalist party, and was chosen a Senator of the United States in 1798. He was appointed secretary of war in 1800, and secretary of the treasury about January, 1801. In 1801 or 1802 he retired from political life, and resumed the practice of law in Boston. He was highly distinguished as a lawyer and as an advocate before the supreme court at Washington. In 1812 he supported the war against Great Britain, disagreeing with the Federalists on that question. Died in 1816. Deyeux, di'yuh', (Nicolas,) a French chemist and apothecary, born in Paris in 1753; died in 1837. Deyling, dialing, (Salomon.) a German Orientalist, born at Weida in 1677. He wrote " Observationes Sacrae," (4 vols., 1708-36.) Died in 1755. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgenieine Encyklopaedie." Deyns. See Denys, (Jacques.) Deynum, van, vSn dl'niim, (Jean Bapttste,) a Flem- ish miniatine-painter, born at Antwerp in 1620. Deyster, dT'ster, (Anne,) a painter, born at Bruges, was a daughter of Louis de Deyster, whose works she cojiied skilfully. Died in 1746. Deyster, de, deh dl'ster, (Louis,) a Flemish historical painter, born at Bruges in 1656. He studied in Rome and Venice, and worked in his native place, painting mostly scriptural subjects, among which is "The Appa- rition of Christ to the three Marys." This is praised by Descamps, who considered Deyster as equal to the great Flemish masters in chiaroscuro. Died in 1711. See Descamfs, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Deyverdun, di'v^RMuN'', (George,) a Swiss writer, born at Lausanne about 1735. He was a friend of the historian Gibbon, whom he assisted in his literary labours. He wrote "Literary Memoirs of Great Britain for the Years 1767 and 1768." Died in 1789. Dezallier d'Argenville, deh-ztne-i' dti<'zh6N'vM', (Antoine Joseph,) a mediocre P'rench writer, born in Paris in 1680, published a "Treatise on Gardening," another on " Conchology," and " The Lives of Celebrated Painters," with portraits, (1745.) This contains the lives of one hundred and eiglity painters. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1765. His son, Antoine Nicolas, published " Lives of Architects and Sculptors," (1787,) which is said to be incomplete and inexact. Died in 1794. Dezobry, deh-zo'bRe', (Charles Louis,) a French writer, born at Saint-Denis (Seine) in 1798. He pub- lished in 1835 a historical and antiquarian work called "Rome in the Augustan Age, or A Journey of a Gaul to Rome," (4 vols.,) which is accounted a very successful representation of the life and manners of the ancient Romans. He edited a " General Dictionary of Biography and History," (2 vols., 1857.) Dezoteiix, deh-zo'tuh', (Franqois,) a French physi- cian and surgeon, born at Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1724. He was a zealous promoter of inoculation. He wrote with Valentin an able "Historical Treatise on Inoculation." Died in 1803. Dhaher, di'her, a famous Arab sheik of Palestine, who at first possessed only the little town of Safed, to which he added Tiberias and Acre. For thirty years he waged war against various parties, and extended his power by courage and policy. In 1771 Dhaher and Ali Bey defeated the Turkish pasha of Damascus. He was afterwards defeated and killed about 1775. See VoLNEV, " Voyage eii E^ypie et en Syne." Dharmasoka, Diianiiajoka, or Diiarmashoka See AsoKA. D Hilliers. See Hilliers, d'. D'Hozier, do''ze-a,', (Charles Rene,) a son of Pierre, noticed below, was born in 1640. He was well versed in heraldry, and wrote several works by order of Louis XIV. Died in 1732. D'Hozier, (Pierre,) a French genealogist, born at Marseilles in 1592, was noted for his knowledge of heraldry. He was appointed judge of arms of France in 1641, steward of the king's household in 1642, and councillor of state in 1654. He wrote "The Genealogy of the Princijjal Families of France," (in 150 vols.,) and several other worUs. Died in 1660. Boileau wrote a few verses under his portrait, one of which is, " Ses talents surprendront tousles ages suivants."* D'Huxatime, diik^st't^m', a French poet, born in Dauphine, lived about 1470. See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Di-a-du-me-ni-a'nus, [Fr. Diadumenien, de^i'dii'- mi'ne'iN', or Diadum^ne, de'SMii'min',] (Marcus Opilius Antoninus,) was the son of the Roman emperor Macrinus, who began to reign in 217 A.D., and then conferred the title of Cxsar on the subject of this article, at Antioch. After a reign of about a year, Macrinus was defeated by Elagabalus, and the son, who was still a minor, was put to death in 218. He is sometimes reckoned among the emperors, as some of his medals bear the title of Augustus. Diago, de-S'go, (Francisco,) a Spanish historian and friar, born at Bibel, in Valencia. He received from Philip HI. the title of historiograi^her, and wrote, besides other histories, "Annals of the Kingdom of Valencia," (1613.) Died in 1615. Di-ag'o-ras,[Aiay6paf,] a Greek poet and philosopher, born in the island of Melos, lived about 420 B.C. lie is said to have been a disciple of Democritus of Abdera, and was cominonly stigmatized as an atheist, because he dissented from the popular notions about the gods. He * " His talents (or attainments) will surprise all succeeding ages." a, e, T, o, u, y, /on^; k, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; mooni DIAMANTE 759 DIBDIN fled from Athens about 411 B.C., to avoid prosecution for impiety, and a reward was offered to any one who should kill him. His moral character appears to have been good. His works are not extant. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" Reuthen, " De Atheismo Diasorse," 1812: Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" J. L. MouNiER, "Dissertatio de Diagora Melio," 1838. Diamante, de-^-man'ti, an Italian painter and Car- melite monk, born at Prato, in Tuscany, was a pupil of Filippo Lippi. He was esteemed a good artist by his contemporaries, and promoted the renaissance of art in Italy. Died about 1440. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Diamante, de-a-mSn'ti, (Juan Bautista,) a popular Spanish dramatist, lived about 1640. Among his works are "The Siege of Zamora," (" El Cerco de Zamora,") and "The Jewess of Toledo," ("La Judia de Toledo.") See Ticknor's " History of Spanish Literature." Diamantini, de-a-man-tee'nee,(GiovANNi Giuseppe,) an Italian painter and engraver, born in the Romagna about 1650. He settled in Venice, where he painted many works, among which is an "Adoration of the Magi." He left many fine engravings after his own designs. He died about 17 15. Di''an, a poetical form of Diana. See Diane. Di-an'a, [Fr. Diane, de'tn',] the Roman name of the goddess of the chase, corresponding to the Ar'te-mis ['Afjre/z^f] of the Greeks. She is often called Delia, from the island Delos, her birthplace. She was represented as the daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and the counter- part of her brother Apollo, like whom she appeared armed with a bow and arrows. She was also the goddess of the moon, in which character she is called Phoebe, Cynthia, and other names. She was regarded as the patroness of chastity; and all her attendants were virgins. There was at Ephesus a magnificent temple of Diana, which was regarded as one of the wonders of the world. See GuiGNiAUT, "Religions de I'Antiqiiite," Paris, 1825-29, vol. ii. book iv. chap. iv. ; Arnoi-di, " Commentatio de Diana Ephesia," 1708; Meyen, "Di.ssertatio de Diana Taiirica et Anaitide," 1835; Keightley, "Mythology." Diana, de-i'nS, (Benedetto,) a painter of the Vene- tian school, lived in the fifteenth century. Di-an'a of France, [Fr. Diane de France, de'tn' deh fK6Nss',J a daughter of Henry II. and Philippa Due, was born in 1538, and became in 1557 the wife of Francois de Montmorency, afterwards marshal. She had much influence with her brother, Henry HI., and in 1558 mediated successfully between him and the King of Navarre, who was then recognized as the heir to the French crown. Davila praises her prudence and political ability. Died in 1619. See De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis." Diane, (Anglicized as Di'an.) See Diana. Diane de i'rance. See Diana of France. Diane de Poitiers, dt'tn' deh pwa'te-i , a beautiful French lady, born in 1499. Having been left a widow in 1 53 1, she soon after gained the affection of the king's son, who in 1547 ascended the throne as Henry II. and gave her the title of Duchess of Valentinois. She had a complete ascendency over the king, who allowed her to exercise royal power and to control even the foreign policy of the government. De Thou attributes to her the misfortunes of Henry's reign and the persecution of the Protestants. By her graces and talents she retained her influence over Henry until his death in 1559. Died in 1566. See De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis;" Brantome, " Femmes galantes." Dias. See Diaz. Dias Gomes, dee'is go'mis, (Francisco,) a Portu- guese poet, born in Lisbon in 1745, wrote odes, elegies, tragedies, etc., some of which are commended for cor- rectness and classic taste. Died in 1795. Diaz, dee'Az or dee'Ss, or Dias, (A. GoNgALVRZ,) a Brazilian poet, born in the province of Maranliam in 1823. He published a volume of poems in 1846, and *'Segundos Cantos" in 1848. Diaz, dee'ds or dee'dz, or Dias, (Balthazar,) a Por- tuguese poet, born in the island of Madeira, lived about 1550. He wrote plays called "Autos sacramentales." Diaz or Dias, (Bartolomeu,) a Portuguese navigator, was sent in i486 to explore the west coast of Africa, and, sailing southward, was driven by violent winds as far as Great Fish River, without being aware that he had doubled the cape of which he was in search. On his return he discovered in 1487 this cape, which he named Tormentoso ; but this was subsequently changed to Cabo de boa Esperanga, (or " Cape of Good Hope.") In 1500 he sailed for India, as captain of a ship, in the fleet commanded by Cabral, and perished by shipwreck during the voyage the same year. See JoAO de Bakros, "Asia, Decada I. ;" Ramusio, "Voyages;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Diaz, dee'ath, or Dias, dee'Ss, (Diego Valentin,) a Spanish painter, born at Valladolid ; died in 1660. Diaz or Dias, (Francisco,) a vSpanish missionary, born in Old Castile, went to the Philippine Isles in 1632. He afterwards preached in China, and was killed in 1646. Diaz, (Caspar,) a Portuguese painter, who flourished about 1530, was a pupil of Raphael. But little informa- tion can be found respecting him. He was called "the Portuguese Raphael." In the estimation of Boissonade, he was a great painter and expressed the passions ad- mirably. His subjects were mostly religious. Diaz or Dias, (Juan Martin,) a Spanish general, surnamed EL Empecinado, l\ gm-iii-the-n§,'Do, (a word which literally signifies "covered with pitch" or "shoe- maker's wax," — supposed to have been applied to him because most of the inhabitants of his native village were shoemakers,) was born at Castrillo in 1775. He became in 1808 the leader of a band of guerillas, and fought against the French invaders with such success that he obtained the rank of general under the regency. In 1814 he was deprived of his command by Ferdinand. He favoured the Constitution of the Cortes in 1820, for which he fought against the absolutists. He commanded a division of the army of Placencia in 1823. After the triumph of the absolutists, he was executed for treason, in 1825. See "Military Exploits, etc. of Don Juan Martin Diaz," London, 1823; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Diaz or Dias, (Miguel,) a Spanish captain, born in Aragon, was a companion of Columbus. He discovered a gold-mine in Hayti. Died about 1 5 14. IDiaz or Dias, (Pedro,) a Spanish missionary, born near Toledo in 1546 ; died at Mexico in 1618. See Machatjo, " Vida del P. P. Diaz," 1632. Diaz de Bivar. See Cm. Diaz de la Pena, dee'ath di Ii pin'ya, (Narcisse,) a French historical painter, of Spanish extraction, born at Bordeaux in 1809, gained the first medal in 1848. Among his works are " The Nymphs of Calypso," (1840,) and "The Dream," (1841.) Diaz de Lugo, dee'ath di loo'go, (Juan Bernardo,) a Spanish jurist, born at Seville, was appointed a mem- ber of the grand council of the Indies by Charles V., and became Bishop of Calahorra. Died in 1556. Diaz (or Dias) de Novaes, dee'is di no-vS'es, (Paulo,) a Portuguese general, was a grandson of ]^ar- tolomeu, and commanded an expedition sent in 1574 to Angola, where he planted a colony. Died in 15S9. Diaz del Castillo. See Casi illo. Dib'din, (Charles,) an English bard, actor, and dramatist, born at Southampton in 1745, went to Lon- do!i about the age of sixteen. His essays as a performer on the stage were not successful. About 1778 he became musical manager of Covent Garden Theatre. In 17S9 he began to give musical entertainments in which he was the sole performer, and which were accompanied by popular songs of his composition. The success of this enterprise enabled him to open the Sans-Souci Theatre in 1796. His fame is derived chiefly from his songs, which amount to one thousand or more. His sea-songs especially have obtained dnrable poi)ularity, and "have been the solace of sailors in long voyages, storms, and battles." "Tom Bowling" and " Poor Jack" are two of his most popular ballads. Died in 1814. See " 'I'he Professional Life of C. Dibdin," by hiimself 4 vols., 180^: William Jerdan, " Men I have known," London, ib'6. Dibdin, (Thomas,) son of the preceding, born in 1 77 1, was also an actor and a dramatic writer. About 1791 he joined a company of strolling players, and after € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as g, h, k, gttttural ; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) DIBDIN 760 DICKINSON the lapse of several years returned to London. He then performed in Covent Garden, and wrote numerous comedies, farces, etc., some of which were successfv,). In 1828 he published " Reminiscences," (of the Theatre.) Died in 1841. Dibdin, (Thomas Frognall,) D.D., an eminent English bibliographer, born in Calcutta in 1776, was the nephew of Charles Dibdin, noticed above. He was edu- cated at Oxford, and entered the priesthood in 1804. In 1809 he produced his amusing work entitled " Biblio- mania," which was favourably received. The next year he began to issue a new and improved edition of " Ames's Typographical Antiquities of Great Britain," which is perhaps his most important performance. He instituted in 181 2 the Roxburghe Club, devoted to bibliography, of which he was chosen vice-president. In 1817 ap- peared his " Bibliographical Decameron, or Ten Days' Pleasant Discourse on Illuminated MSS.," which is greatly admired by amateurs. Another admirable and costly specimen of typography was furnished by his " l)ibIiographic, Antiquarian, and Picturesque Tour in France and Germany." Died in 1847. See Dibdin's "Reminiscences of a Literary Life," 2 vols., 1836; "Quarterly Review," vol. xxxii. ; William Jekdan, "Men 1 have known," London, 1866. Di-bu'ta-des [Fr. Dibutade, de'bii^ttd'] of vSicyon, a Greek artist of uncertain epoch, is said to have invented the art of modelling bas-reliefs. Dicaearchus, di-se-ar'kus, [Gr. AiKalapxo^ ; Fr. DiCE- arque, de'sa'^Rk',] an eminent Greek Peripatetic philo- sopher and writer, born at Messina, in Sicily, was a disciple of Aristotle, and lived about 300 K.c. He wrote numerous works on geography, history, etc., which are lost except small fragments. It is said he denied the immortality or existence of the soul. Cicero highly praises him as a sage, an excellent citizen, a great man, an able historian, and one of the most eloquent disciples of Aristotle. Among his principal works was a treatise on Greek geography, history, institutions, and politics, entitled "The Life of Greece," ('"EAAacJof jSiog."} See Vossius, " De Historicis Graecis ;" Brucker, " Historia Phi- losophias." Dicearque. See Dic^archus. Di9'e-to, de, (Ralph,) an English historian, was Dean of Saint Paul's, London. He wrote, in Latin, a " History of the Kings of Britain." Died in 1283. Dick, (Sir Alexander,) a Scottish physician, born in 1703, wrote a treatise on Epilepsy, ("De Epilepsia," 1725.) Died in 1785. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Dick, (John,) D.D., a Scottish divine, born at Aber- deen in 1764, was a minister of the United Secession Church. He wrote an esteemed work on the " Inspira- tion of the Scriptures," " Lectures on Theology," and other religious books. Died in 1833. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Dick, (Thomas,) LL.D., a Scottish author, born near Dundee in 1772, was in early life a minister of the Se- cession Church at Stirling. He exchanged this avocation for that of a school-teacher, which he pursued at Perth for a number of years. He devoted much attention to physical sciences, and wrote many popular scientific and religious works, viz.: "The Christian Philosopher," "The Philoso]jhy of Religion," "The Philosoj^hy of a Future State," "Celestial Scenery," "The Solar System," and other works. Died in 1857. Dick'eiis, (Charles,) one of the most po])ular of English novelists, born at Landport, Portsmouth, in February, 1812, was a son of John Dickens, who served in the navy pay department and afterwards became a reporter of Parliamentary debates. Young Dickens was designed for the profession of the law, and was placed in the office of an attorney, after he had studied in a col- lege near Rochester. Finding the jDursuit of law uncon- genial to his taste, he soon abandoned it, and became a reporter for the daily press ^f London. He began his literary career by " Sketches of Life and Character," whicn first api)eared in the "Morning Chronicle," and were pu])lished collectively as "Sketches by Boz," (2 vols., 1836.) These exhib't great acuteness of observa- tion, and were received by the public with much favour. In 1837 he produced a work called "The Posthumous Papers of the Tickwick Club," which in a certain de- partment of humour is probably unrivalled by anything in the English language. The success of this work was almost without example ; and it is still perhaps the mo^ popular of all Mr, Dickens's productions. In 1838 he married a daughter of George Hogarth, a musical critic. He published in rapid succession "Oliver Twist," a novel, (3 vols., 1838,) "The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby," (3 vols., 1839,) "Master Hum- phrey's Clock," (1840-41,) and " Barnaby Rudge," (2 vols., i84L) Having visited the United States in 1841, he published in 1842 " American Notes for General Cir- culation." His next work was the " Life and Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit," (3 vols., 1843-44.) About the end of 1845 he became the chief editor of the "Daily News" of London, a Liberal paper, then just founded; but he held this position for a short time only. Among his later works (most of which were first issued as serials) are " Dombey and Son," (1847-48,) "The Personal History of David Copperfield," (4 vf)ls., 1850,) " l^leak House," (1852,) "Hard Times," ( 1854,) " Little Dorrit," (1857,) " A Tale of Two Cities," (i860,) "Great Expecta- tions," (1862,) and "Our Mutual Friend," (1864-65.) In 1850 he began to issue, weekly, a periodical called "Household Words," which had a large circulation. In 1859 he began to publish "All the Year Round," a weekly literary paper. Fie revisited the United States in 1867, and gave in the principal cities of the Union public readings which attracted crowded audiences. He died of apoplexy in 1870, leaving an unfinished work, entitled "The Mystery of Edwin Drood." "One of the qualities we most admire in him," says the "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1838, "is his comprehensive spirit of humanity. The tendency of his writings is to make us practically benevolent, — to excite our sympathy in behalf of the aggrieved and suffering in all classes, and especially in those who are most removed from observation. , . , We think him a very original writer, well entitled to his popularity, and not likely to lose it, and the truest and most spirited delineator of English life, amongst the middle and lower classes, since the days of Smollett and Fielding." The following strictures, however, are not without justice, at least as regards many of the actors in Mr. Dickens's works: "The good characters of Mr. Dick- ens's novels," says the " North British Review," (vol. iv.,) " do not seem to have a wholesome moral tendency. The reason is that many of them — all the author's favourites — exhibit an excellence flowing from constitution and tem- perament, and not from the influence of moral or religious motive. They act from im]iulse, not from principle." " He [Dickens] has revived," says Mr. Whipple, "the novel of genuine practical life, as it existed in the works of Fielding, Smollett, and Goldsmith; but at the same time he has given to his materials an individual colouring and expression peculiarly his own. . . . Dickens's eye for the forms of things is as accurate as Fielding's, and his range of vision more extended ; but he does not probe so profoundly into the heart of what he sees, and he is more led away from the simplicity of truth by a tricksy spirit of fantastic exaggeration." ("North American Review" for October, 1849.) See "London Quarterly" for October, 1837; "Edinburgh Re- view" for October, 1838, June, 1839. and March, 1843; "Black- wood's Magazine" for April, 1855; "British Quarterly" for July, 1862 ; " Westminster Review" for October, 1864 ; " Atlantic Monthly' for i\Liy, 1867. Dick'in-son, (Anna,) an American female orator, born in Philadel})hia, October 28, 1842, was originally a member of the Society of Friends. She gained great distinction during the civil war by her public speeches against slavery and disunion. She is one of the most popular public lecturers in the United States. She is author of a novel entitled "What Answer?" (1868.) See "Eminent Women of the Age," 1S68. Dickinson, (Daniel Stevens,) an American Sena- tor, born in Goshen, Connecticut, in Septembei, 1800. He was educated in Central New York, whither his parents removed when he was a child. He studied law, became an active Democrat, and in 1836 was elected to the Senate of New York. In 1842 he was chosen Lieu- e, I, o, u, y, /ou^-; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, s/iort; a, e, j, o, obscure; fSr, fl.ll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; mtmn; DICKINSON 761 DIDEROT tenant-Governor of New York for two years. He repre- sented that State in the Senate of the United States from December, 1844, to March, 1851, during which period he voted with the Democratic party on the Wihnot proviso, the slavery question, etc. He gained distinction as a de- bater, and was recognized as the leader of the " Hunker" Democrats in New York. He resided at Binghamton in the latter part of his life. In 1861 he was elected attorney-general of the State of New York. During the civil war he cordially supported the Federal government in its efforts to supjjress the rebellion, and acted with the Union Republican party. He was appointed district attorney for the southern district of New York by Presi- dent Lincoln about March, 1865. Died in April, 1866. See " Speeches, Correspondence, etc. of Daniel S. Dickinson, with a Biographical Sketch," by his brother, John R. Dickinson, 2 vols., 1867. Dick'in-son, (Edmund,) an eminent English physi- cian, born at Appleton in 1624, gained reputation by the publication of " Delphi Phoenizicantes ;" but it appears that the real author was Henry Jacob. He settled in London in 1684, practised there many years, and became physician to Charles H. and James IL Died in 1707. See "Account of the Life, etc. of Edmund Dickinson," London, 1739- Dickinson, (John,) an English author, born about 1554. Among his works is " Speculum Tragicum." Died in 1606. Dickinson, (John,) an American statesman and law- yer, born in Maryland in 1 732. He was chosen a mem- ber of the Continental Congress in 1774, and wrote several important state papers issued by that body. 1\\ June, 1776, he opposed the Declaration of Indepen- dence, which he thought premature. Having declined to sign that declaration, he impaired his popularity, and lost his election to the next Congress. He afterwards served as a private soldier against the British. In 1779 he was again elected to C(3ngress from Delaware. He was President of Pennsylvania about three years, 1782- 85. He was an able debater, and distinguished for his elegant manners and superior culture. Died in 1808. See " National Portrait-Gallery of DistinRiiislied Americans," vol. iii. ; Hanckoft, "History of the United States," vol. viii. Dickinson, (Jonathan,) a Presbyterian minister, born in Hatfield, Massachusetts, in 1688, graduated at Yale College in 1706. He preached for many years at Elizabethtown, New Jersey, and acquired distinction as a writer on theology. Pie was elected president of the College of New Jersey in 1746. Died in 1747. Dickinson, (Philemon,) a patriot of the American Revolution, was born in New Jersey about 1740. He took an active part in the struggle for independence, and at the battle of Monmouth displayed great spirit and gallantry in command of the New Jersey militia. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1782 and 1783, and a United States Senator from 1790 to 1793. Died in 1809. Dick'ons, Mrs., an English singer, whose maiden name was Poole. Died in 1833. Dick'son, (Adam,) a Scottish clergyman, born in East Lothian. From 1750 to 1770 he was minister of Dunse. He wrote a valuable "Treatise on Agriculture," and "The Husbandry of the Ancients," (1788,) which, says McCuUoch, "is the best work on the subject in the English language." Died in 1776. Dickson, (David,) an eloquent Scottish preacher, born at Glasgow in 1583, became professor of divinity at Glasgow in 1643, and afterwards in the University of Edinburgh. He published an "Exposition of all the Epistles," an " Exposition of the Gospel of Saint Matthew," and other works, which were received with favour. Died in 1663. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Dick'son, (James,) an English botanist, born in 1738. He published, besides other works, a "Collection of Dried Plants," (1788.) Died in 1822. Dick'son, (Samuel Henry,) an AmeHcan physician and writer, born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1798, graduated in the University of Pennsylvania in 1819. In 1858 he was ajjpointed professor of the practice of medi- cine in the Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia. See Ai.i.ibone's "Dictionary of Authors." Dicquemare, d^k'mtR', (Jacques Francois,) a French naturalist and priest, born at Havre in 1733, became professor of natural history in that city. He made discoveries in tlie nature and habits of Radiata and other marine animals^ on which he wrote many treat- ises inserted in the "Journal de Physique." He also published "The Knowledge of Astronomy rendered Easy." Died in 1789. Dic'tys Cre-ten'sis, [Fr. Die tys de Cr^:te, d^k't^ss'' deh kkit,] a Greek, who is said to have followed Idome- neus to the siege of Troy, and to have written a narrative of the same. There exists in Latin prose a "History of the Trojan War," which purports to be a version of the work of Dictys, and has little literary merit. The works of Dictys and Dares were the chief channels through which the heroic legends of the Greeks and 'I'roja.is passed into the literature of the middle ages, and were often printed in the fifteenth century. See Perizoniu.s, " Dissertatio" prefixed to Smids's edition of tlie poem of Dictys Cretensis, 1702. Dictys de Crete. See Dictys Cretensis. Dic'uil, an Irish monk and geographer, wrote, about 825 A.D., a treatise "On the Measurement of the Earth," (" De Mensura Orbis Terrae,") which was published by Walckenaer in 1807. Diday, de'da', (Francois,) a Swiss painter, born at Geneva in 181 2, has exhibited several Alpine landscapes. He obtained a medal of the first class in 1841. Diderot, d^d^ro', (Denis,) an eminent French phi- losopher and savant, born at Langres, in Champagne, in 1 7 12 or 1 7 13, was the son of a cutler, who gave him a good education. Having quitted the study of law in dis- gust, he went to Paris in his youth, with a ruling passion for literary pursuits. He was obliged to support him- self by teaching and translating, and passed many years in poverty and obscurity, but contented in his ample intellectual resources. About the age of thirty he mar- ried a Miss Annette Champion. In 1746 he published "Philosophic Thoughts," ("Pensees philosophiques,") which produced considerable sensation. The book was condemned to the fire by Parliament, its doctrines being thought unsound. A few years before this period he had formed a friendship with J. J. Rousseau and with D'Alembert. He was imprisoned a few months in 1749 for the publication of his " Letter on the Blind, for the Use of those who see." In partnership with D'Alembert, he commenced the great work on which his reinitation is founded, the " En- cyclopedic, ou Dictionnaire raisonne des Sciences, des Arts et Metiers." The project was one of immense labour and difficulty, and was accomplished chiefly by the ardent zeal and resolution of Diderot. He wrote the articles on ancient philosophy and oir the arts and trades, ( arts et metiers,) and, in conjunction with D'Alem- bert, supervised the other parts of the work. The first volume was issued in 1 751, and attracted great attention. Its publication was suspended several times by govern- ment, and D'Alembert retired from the enterprise in 1759 ; but it was completed about 1765. Much complaint was made, and not without reason, of the infidel tendency of the work, and its partiality to the new philosophy. It has also other defects, arising from the incompetence and haste of some of the contributors. Catherine II. of Russia settled a handsome pension on Diderot in 1765, and invited him to her capital, which he visited in 1773 ; but he soon returned to Paris. He is the author of numerous works, among which are two novels, "The Nun," and "James the Fatalist," ("Jacques le Fataliste,") and two dramas, entitled "The F'ather of a Family," and "The Natural Son." His " Essay on the Reigns of Claudius and Nero," chiefly devoted to the vindication — or rather eulogy-— of Seneca, is esteemed by some as one of his ablest productions. He also contributed largely to some of the most popular French works of his time, such as Raynal's " Philosophic History," " L'Esprit," by Helvetius, and "The System of Nature," by D'Holbach. As a writer he displays talent and eloquence, but is deficient in judgment and taste. " He has written fine passages," says Marmontel, "but could not produce a good book." Grimm thought " he had perhaps the most encyclopedical ■c as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (S^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) DIDIER 762 DIE CM AN head that ever existed." He is regarded as the chief of the skeptical school known as Encyclopedists ; and it is asserted that he was a professed atheist. But F. Genin ("Nouvelle Biographic Generale") defends him from this charge. It is said that he taught his daughter to read the Bible. In reference to this fact, Voltaire wrote, in 1767, *'I am displeased with 'Tonpla,'" (anagram of Platon, (Plato:)) "they say he permits his daughter to be educated in the principles which he detests." The doors of the Academy were kept closed against him, although Voltaire solicited his election. He died in Paris in July, 1784. See Dk Vandeul, " Notice sur Diderot ;" Naigeon, " Memoires sur Diderot," 1821 ; Gkimm, " Correspondance ;" " Vie de Diderot," prefixed to his "Select Works," (" OEuvres choisies," 2 vols.;) Carlyle, "Essay on Diderot;" Damiron, " Memoire sur Diderot," 1852; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1833. Didier, (King of the Lombards.) See Desiderius. Didier, deMe-A.', (Charles,) a French writer and traveller, was born at Geneva in 1805. He has published, besides other works, "Helvetian Melodies," (1830,) and "Subterranean Rome," ("Rome souterraine," 1833; 10 editions in France.) Did'I-us, (JuLiANUS Severus,) a Roman emperor, born at Milan in 133 a.d., was the son of Petronius Di- dius Severus. He served in the army with distinction, and was made consul with Pertinax. After the murder of this emperor, in 193, the Praetorians offered the em- pire at public auction to the highest bidder. The chief competitors were Sulpitianus and Didius, who was im- mensely rich. The latter made the highest bid, (6250 drachmas for each soldier,) and was proclaimed emperor. But Septimius Severus and other generals refused to recognize him, and, after a reign of about two months, he was killed by the soldiers in his palace. Severus was his successor. See Dion Cassius, " History of Rome ;" Tillemont, "Histoire des Enipereurs." Didius, (Titus,) a Roman general, was consul in 98 B.C., after which he gained some victories in Spain. Di'do, [Gr. AaJw; Fr. Didon, deMow',] called also E-lis'sa or E-li'sa, [Fr. £lise, a'lez',] a Phoenician princess, celebrated as the founder and queen of Car- thage. Her story forms a beautiful episode in the "yi!^neid" of Virgil, who commits an anachronism when he represents her as a contemporary of ^Eneas. Tra- dition teaches that she was a sister of Pygmalion, King of Tyre, who put to death her husband, Acerbas or Sichaeus. After this event she embarked secretly with a party of friends, and founded Carthage, in the ninth century before Christ. See Virgil, "^Eneid," books L, ii., and iv. Didon. See Dido. Didot, deMo', (Ambroise Firmin,) a son of Firmin, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1790. He was a printer, engraver, and type-founder, and became in 1827 the head of the great publishing-house of Firmin Didot Freres. He published many important works, among which are the " Dictionary of the French Academy," Estienne's "Thesaurus Linguae Graecae," (improved,) and a " New General Biography," (" Nouvelle Biogra- phic Generale," 46 vols., 1857-66.) The processes and specimens of this house obtained the first medal in many annual expositions. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" "Nou- velle Biographic Generale." Didot, (Firmin,) a celebrated French "^-jublisher, ty- pographer, and engraver of types, son of Fran9ois Am- broise, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1764. In 1794 he invented or improved the process of stereotype printing, which differs from that now used. He issued beautiful editions of Virgil and of Horace, and many other works, and translated into French verse the " Bu- colics" of Virgil and the " Idyls" of Theocritus. These versions have considerable nierit. He was a chevalier of the legion of honour, and became a member of the Chamber of Deputies in 1827. He was for some time in partnership with his elder brother Pierre. His sons Ambroise, Firmin, and Hyacinthe are celebrated printers and publishers of Paris. Died in 1836. See Eksch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Didot, (FRANgois Ambroise,) an eminent French printer and type-founder, born in Paris in 1730, was the son of Fran9ois Didot, the first printer of this name. He brought the art of printing to a high degree of perfection, and produced correct and elegant editions of various works. Louis XVI. employed him to print a series of French classics for the dauphin. He was succeeded in his business by his sons Pierre and Firmin. Died in 1804. Didot, (Pierre,) a son of Fran5ois Ambroise, born in 1760. He published magnificent editions of the Latin classics, called "du Louvre," ("of the Louvre.") His "Racine" was pronounced by a jury "the most perfect typographic production of all ages." He translated into verse the fourth book of Virgil's epic, and the first book of the Odes of Horace. Died in 1853. Didron, deMR6N', (Adolphe Napol^;on,) an emi- nent French archaeologist, born at Hautvillers (Marne) in 1806. He began in 1844 to issue a periodical devoted to mediaeval art and antiquities, with the title of " An- nales archeologiques." His most important work is " Christian Iconography," (" Iconographie chretienne," 1843,) which is highly prized. Didyme. See Didymus. Did'y-mus, [Gr. Af(5y//of; Fr. Didyme, de'd^m',] a celebrated grammarian of Alexandria, surnamed Chal- CEn'terus, born about 62 B.C., was remarkable for his fecundity as a writer. According to Seneca, he wrote four thousand treatises on various subjects, mostly frivo- lous, among which were inquiries respecting the native place of Homer, the mother of ^neas, and the morals of Anacreon. None of his works are extant. There were several other ancients of this name, one of whom was an Academic philosopher who wrote a work on the "Solution of Probabilities." See SuiDAS, "Didymus;" W. M. Schmidt, "De Didumo Chal- centero," 1852. Didymus of Alexandria, [Fr. Didyme d'Alexan- DRIE, deMem' dt'l^k'sfiN^dRe',] a teacher of the Alex- andrian Church, born about 308 A.D., lost his sight in childhood, but became eminent for his attainments in theology, philosophy, and in various sciences, and num- bered among his disciples Saint Jerome, Isidore, and Rufinus. He was the author of numerous works, of which four have been preserved, viz. : " On the Trinity," "On the Holy Spirit," "Against the Manicheans," and " On the Canonical Epistles." Died about 395. See Socrates, "Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Cave, " Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Historia;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grasca." Diebitsch, dee'bitch, or, more fully, Diebitscli- Sabalkanski, dee'bitch sS-bil-kan'skee, (Hans Karl Friedrich Anton,) a Russian count and field-marshal, born at Grossleippe, in Silesia, in 1785, was the son of a major-general in the Russian service, which he also entered at an early age. In 1805 he was wounded at the battle of Austerlitz. Attached to the staff of Count Witt- genstein in 1812, he performed important services, and was raised to the rank of major-general. He gave j^roof of skill at the battles of Dresden and Leipsic, and was made a lieutenant-general at the age of twenty-eight. In 1814 he urged the advance of the allies to Paris. About 1820 he was appointed chief of the imperial staff, and was a constant attendant on the emperor in his journeys until the death of the latter in 1825. He took Varna from the Turks in 1828, and in the next year, being appointed general-in-chief, gained several victories, and performed the famous passage of the Balkan, which ])ro- cured him the title Sahalkanski (" Trans-Balkanian") and the rank of field-marshal. A treaty of peace was soon after signed at Adrianople. In January, 1831, he commanded the army sent to subdue the revolted Poles, with whom he fought indecisive battles near Praga and Ostrolenka. His success was hindered by bad weather, sickness, etc. ; and he died of cholera in June, 1831. See ScHUEMBERG, " Graf Diebitsch-Sabalkanski," Dresden, 1830 ; Sturmer, "Der Tod des Grafen Diebitsch," 1832. Diebolt, de'i'boK, (Georges,) a French statuary, born at Dijon in 1816, gained the grand prize at Paris in 1841. Died in 1861. Diecman, deek'man, (Johann,) a German divine and philologist, born at Stade in 1647, was professor of theology at Kiel. He wrote good prefaces to five Z% e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; noon; DIEDERICHS 763 DIETRICH editions of Luther's version of the Bible, and many dissertations, one of which is "On Naturalism," ("De Naturalismo," 1683.) Died in 1720. Diederichs, dee'deh-riKs',(JoHANN Christian Wil- HELM,) a distinguished German Orientalist, born at Pyr- mont in 1750, became professor of Oriental languages at Konigsberg in 1780. He published a Hebrew grammar, and otlier works. Died in 1781. See Ersch und Grubek, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Diedo, de-a'do, (Giacomo,) an Italian historian, born in Venice in 1684, published a " History of the Republic of Venice," (1751,) which is esteemed for its style and lust reflections. Died in 1748. Diefenbach, dee'fen-baK', (Lorenz,) a German phi- lologist, born at Ostheim (Hesse) in 1806, published works entitled " On Life, History, and Language," (1835,) "Celtica," (5 vols., 1839-42,) a "Comparative Lexicon of the Indo-Germanic Languages," (1846-51,) and several small poems. Dieffenbach, deef'fen-blK', (Ernst,) a German natu- ralist, born at Giessen in 181 1, visited New Zealand, and wrote "Travels in New Zealand," (1843.) Dieffenbach, (Johann Friedrich,) a skilful Prus- sian surgeon, born at Konigsberg in 1792. He graduated in 1822, and settled in Berlin, where he practised surgery and soon acquired a wide reputation. About 1832 he be- came professor in the University of Berlin. He was very skilful in the formation of artificial noses, lips, etc., and in the cure of strabismus. His chief work is "Operative Surgery," ("Die operative Chirurgie," 1844-48.) Died in 1847. See Bkockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." Diego de Yepes, de-a'go di ya'pgs, a Spanish his- torian and prelate, born near Toledo in 1531, was con- fessor to Philip H. Died in 1614. Diel, deel, (August Friedrich Adrian,) a German pomologist and physician, born at Gladenbach in 1756. He wrote a " Systematic Nomenclature or Description of the Finest ( vorziiglichsten ) Fruits of Germany," (1818,) and other works on pomology. Died in 1833. Diel du Parquet, (Jacques.) See Duparquet. Dielhelm, deeKhelm, (Johann Hermann,) a German antiquary, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main. He ])ublished "The Antiquary of the Rhine," (1739,) and a "Diction- ary of all the Rivers of Germany," (1741.) Died in 1764. Diemen, van, vSn dee'nien, (Anthony,) a Dutch officer, born at Kuilenburg in 1593, went to Lidia as a cadet, and rose rapidly from grade to grade. In 1631, as admiral, he conducted the fleet to Holland, and in 1636 was appointed Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies, which he governed with ability until his death. In 1642 he sent out an exploring expedition under Abel Tasman, who discovered the island of Van Diemen. Died at Batavia in 1645. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Diemerbroeck,van,vtn dee'mer-bRd6k',(IsBRAND,) a skilful Dutch physician, born at Montfort in 1609, be- came professor of medicine and anatomy in the Univer- sity of Utrecht, of which he was twice chosen rector. He published able treatises on Anatomy, on the Plague, and other di-^eases. His "Anatome Corporis Humani" appeared in 1672, and was often reprinted. Died in 1674. See " Biographie Medicale." Dien, de'^N', (Claude Marie FRANgois,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1787, obtained the first medals in 1838 and 1848. Among his works are a " Holy Fam- ily," after Raphael, and a "Madonna," after Murillo. Diepenbeck, van, vSn dee']3en-bek', written also Diepenbeke, (Abraham,) an eminent Dutch historical painter, born at Bois-le-Duc about 1606, was one of the best scholars of Rubens. He was chosen director of the Academy of Antwerp in 1641, and acquired a high reputation by his skill in composition and colouring. He also excelled in painting on glass, and made many designs for the booksellers. Among his chief works is a series of fifty-eight designs, called "The Temple of the Muses," a "Life of Saint Paul," on glass, at Antwerp, and a " Virgin and Child," in oil, at Berlin. Died in 1675. See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Diepenbeke. See Diepenbeck. Diereville, de^aiR^^K, a French traveller, born in Normandy, made a voyage in 1699 to Acadia, (Nova Scotia,) and, after his return in 1700, published a De- scription of that region. Tournefort, the botanist, named the genus Dierevilla in honour of him. Dieringer, dee'ring-er, (Franz Xaver,) a German Catholic theologian, born at Rangendingen in 1811, be- came professor of theology at lionn about 1 843. Dies, deess, (Albrech J ,) a German landscape-painter, born at Hanover in 1755, studied in Rome, and settled in Vienna. Died in 1822. Dies, (Caspar.) See Diaz. Diesbach, von, fon dees'blK, (Johann Friedrich,) an Austrian general, born at Freyburg in 1677, was made a field-marshal in 1723. Died in 1751. See Eksch und Grubkr, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Diesbach, von, (Nicholas,) an able Swiss states- man, born at Berne in 1430, was employed about 1470 to negotiate with Louis XI. of France. Died in 1475. Dieskau, von, ion dees'kow, (Ludwig August,) a German officer in the French service, went in 1755 to Quebec as marechal -de-camp. He was wounded and taken prisoner by the British and colonial troops near Fort Edward, in Washington county, New York. Died near Paris in 1767. Di-eia'pi-ter, a surname of Jupiter, which see. Diest, deest, (Heinrich,) a German theologian and Hebrew scholar, born at Altena in 1595; died in 1673. Diest, van, vtn deest, (Adrian,) a Dutch landscape- painter, born at the Hague in 1655, worked in England. Died in 1704. Diesterweg, dees'ter-weo', (Friedrich Adolph Wilhelm,) a German teacher, born at Siegen in 1790, taught at Berlin, and wrote many educational works. Dieterich. . See Dietrich. Dieterichs, dee'teh-riKs^, (Joachim Friedrich CHRisriAN,) a German writer on veterinary science, born at Stcndal in 1792. Dieterici, dee'teh-reet'see, (Karl Friedrich Wil- helm,) a Prussian economist and statistician, born in Berlin in 1790. He entered the civil administration about 1815, and became a privy councillor in 1831. In 1834 he obtained a chair of political economy in Berlin, and in 1844 was appointed director of the national bu- reau of statistics. He published, among other works, "Statistics of the Principal Objects of Commerce and Consumption in Prussia," etc., (1842-51,) and a work called "Public Welfare in the Prussian States," ("Der Volkswohlstand im Preussischen Staate," 1846.) Dietmar, deet'maR, or Dietmar von Ast, deet^m^R fon Sst, a German minnesinger of great merit, lived about II 80. See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Dietrich, dee'tRiK, (Albrecht,) a German botanist of the present age, became ])rofessor of botany in the Uni- versity of Berlin. He published a "Flora of the King- dom of Prussia," ("Flora Regni Borussici," 1833-44.) Dietrich, written also Ditrich and Dietiicy, de- tReet'see, (Christian Wilhelm Ernst or Johann Wilhelm Ernst,) an excellent German painter, born at Weimar in 1712. He was a jiujiil of Alexander Thiele, and was patronized in the early part of his career by Augustus, King of Poland, who enabled him to visit Rome about 1744. Having returned to Dresden, he gained a high reputation by his skill in imitating various masters in history and landscape. His touch is broad and mellow, and the verdure of his landscapes rivals that of Claude. Among his finest works is an "Ado- ration of the Magi." He al^o produced many etchings of historical subjects. He was chosen professor in the Academy of Dresden in 1763. Died at Dresden in 1774. See Nagler, " Nenes Allgemeines Kiinstler- Lexikon ;" J. F. LiNCK, "Monographie der von deni vormals koniglich Polnischen Hofmaler, C. W. E. Dietrich," etc., Berlin, 1846. Dietrich, (David Nathanael Friedrich,) a Ger- man botanist, and director of the botanic garden of Jena, was born near Jena in 1800. Among his works are a "Flora of Germany," (7 vols., 1833-51,) and an "Encyclopaedia of Plants," with engravings, (1841-51.) Dietrich, (Friedrich Gottlieb,) a German horti- culturist, born in 1768. He published a "Dictionary of € as y^; 9 as j; g hard; g as j; G, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (5(^="See Explanations, p. 23.) DIETRICH 764 DIGGES Botany and Gardening," (10 vols., 1802-10,) and other works! Uied at Eisenach in 1850. Dietrich or Dieterich, dee'teh-RiK, (Johann Con- rad,) a German philologist and historian, eminent for learning, was born at Butzbach in 161 2. He became professor of Greek at Giessen in 1653, and was author of numerous Latin works, among which are a " History of the German Emperors of Saxon Race," (1666,) and ••Greece in Exile," (" Graecia exulans.") Died in 1669. Dietrich, de, deh dee'tkiK, (Philippe Frederic,) Baron, a mineralogist, born at Strasburg in 1748, held several civil offices, among which was that of mayor of his native city. He translated into French Scheele's chemical treatise on air and fire, and wrote a valuable *' Description of the Deposits of Ore and the Forges of France," (3 vols., 1786-1800.) He was guillotined at Paris by the Jacobins in 1793. Rouget de Lisle lodged in the house of Dietrich when he wrote the " Marseillaise" hymn. See QuERARD, " La France Litteraire." Dietrichstein, von, fon dee'tRiK-stin'', (Adam,) a German diplomatist, born in 1527, was employed by the emperor Maximilian. Died in 1590. Dietrichstein, von, (Franz,) Prince, a son of the preceding, was born at Madrid in 1570. He became a cardinal, and president of the council of state of the Emperor of Germany. Died in 1636. See his Life, by Voigt, 1792; Ersch und Gruber, *' AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." Dietricy. See Dietrich. Dietzsch, deetsh, (Johann Christoph,) a German landscape-painter, born at Nuremberg in 1710; died in 1769. Dieu, de, deh de-uh', (Louis,) a Dutch Protestant minister and Orientalist, born at Flushing in 1590. In 1619 he became assistant professor in the Walloon Col- lege, Leyden. He wrote a " Grammar of the Hebrew, Syriac, and Chaldaic Languages," (1628,) "Rudiments of the Persian Tongue," (1639,) and several commenta- ries on Scripture, ("Critica Sacra," 1693.) His Persian Grammar was for a long time the only one existing in Europe. Died in 1642. His father, Daniel, was an eloquent minister of Brussels and Flushing, and a good linguist. See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Polvander, *' L. de Dieu Oratio funebris," 1643. Dieu, de, deh de-uh', ? (Saint-Jean,) a devout Por- tuguese, born at Monte-Major-el-Novo in 1495, was a shepherd at the age of forty, when he consecrated him- self to works of charity. In 1540 he opened a house in Granada for the reception of the indigent sick, which was the origin of the order of charity since widely propagated. He died in 1550, and was canonized by the pope in 1690. Dieudonne, de-uhMo'ni', [Lat. A De'o Da'tus or De'us De'dit,] I., was elected pope in 614 a.d. as suc- cessor to Boniface IV. He was a native of Rome. He died in 618 or 617, and was succeeded by Boniface V. Dieudonn^ II., elected pope in 672, was a Roman by birth. He died in 677. Dieudonne, de-uh'do'ny, (Jacques Augustin,) a French sculptor and engraver of medals, born in Paris in 1795. Dieulafoy, de-uh^lt^fwi', (Joseph Marie Armand,) a French dramatist, born at Toulouse in 1762, wrote suc- cessful comedies, etc. Died in 1823. Dieve, van, vtn dee'veh, (Peter,) a Flemish histo- rian, born at Louvain in 1536; died in 1591. Diez, deets, (Friedrich Christian,) a German pro- fessor, regarded as the founder of Romance (Romanisch) philology, was born at Giessen in 1794. He produced in 1825 a work on Provencal poetry, "Beitrage zur Kennt- niss der Romantischen Poesie," and in 1829 "The Life and Works of the Troubadours." He was appointed professor of modern literature in Bonn in 1830, and published a "Grammar of the Romance Language," ("Grammatik der Romanischen Sprachen," 1842.) Diezel or Diez. See Tetzel. Dig'bj^, (Sir Everard,) an English Catholic, born in 1581, inherited a fortune from his father, Everard Digby, who was author of " Theoria Analytica" and other learned works. The son was knighted in 1603. Hume says " he was as highly esteemed and beloved as any man in England." In 1605 he was induced by mistaken zAl to become an accomplice in the Gunpowder Plot, to which he contributed largely in money, arms, etc. For this crime he was tried and executed in 1606. See Hume's " History of England." Digby, (George,) Earl of Bristol, son of John Digby, noticed below, was born in Madrid in 1612. He was remarkable for his inconsistency in politics. At the trial of Strafford he deserted from the popular party to that of the court. As a royalist he was exiled, and went to France and Spain, where he became a Catholic. After the restoration he returned home, and sat in the House of Lords, having inherited his father's title of earl. Among his rash and violent actions was his impeach- ment of Lord Clarendon, in 1663, which impaired his own credit. He published several letters, and "Elvira," a comedy. Died in 1676. Horace Walpole speaks of him as "a singular person, whose life was contradiction." See Wood, "Athenas Oxonienses." Digby, (Sir Henry,) an English admiral, born about 1770 ; died in 1843. Digby, (John,) Earl of Bristol, born in 1580, was descended from a Warwickshire family. He was knighted in 1606, sent as ambassador to Spain in 1611, and to the Emperor of Germany in 1621. The next year he was employed by James I. to negotiate a marriage between the king's son Charles and the Infanta of Spain, and was created Earl of Bristol. His efforts for the Spanish match were frustrated by the Duke of Buckingham. Hume represents Digby as an able negotiator. He was the author of several minor poems. He favoured the cause of Charles I. in the civil war, was exiled, and died in Paris in 1653. See Hume, "History of England;" Gardiner, "History of England from 1603 to 1616," chaps, x., xi. Digby, (Sir Kenelm,) F.R.S., an English courtier and author, son of Sir Everard, noticed above, was born in Buckinghamshire in 1603. In the reign of Charles I. he was gentleman of the bedchamber, and filled other high offices. He married the famous beauty Venetia Anastasia Stanley. In the civil war he favoured the royalist cause, and retired to France, where he associated with Descartes and other learned men. He was reputed to be versed in occult philosophy, on which and other subjects he wrote numerous treatises. Among these are a "Treatise on the Nature of Bodies," (1644,) " Insti- tutiones Peripateticse," (1651,) "The Body and Soul of Man," and " Chemical Secrets." " He possessed," says Lord Clarendon, " all the advantages which nature and art and an excellent education could give him." After the restoration he returned to England, where he died in 1665. See "Private ^femoirs of Sir Kenelm Digby," by himself, 1827; "Biographia Britannica." Digeon, de^zh6N',( Alexandre Elisabeth Michel,) a French general and viscount, born in Paris in 1771. For his conduct at Austerlitz he received the badge of the legion of honour in 1805. As general of brigade he was sent to Spain in 1808, and in 1812 was appointed commandant of Cordova and Jaen. He became a gene- ral of division in 1813. Died in 1826. Digges, digz, (Sir Dudley,) a son of Sir Thomas Digges, born in 1583, was eminent as a politician and a writer. He went as ambassador to Russia in K.18, and in 1621 was elected to Parliament, where he dis- played talents and zeal for the rights of the people. He wrote a "Defence of the East India Trade," (1615,) "Political Discourses," and "The Complete Ami)assa- dor," (1655,) a collection of diplomatic letters respecting the marriage between Elizabeth and the Duke of Anjou. Died in 1639. Digge.s, (Dudley,) a son of the preceding, born about 1612, wrote a tract on "The Unlawfulness of Subjects taking Arms against their Sovereign." Died in 1643. See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." Digges, (Leonard,) an eminent English mathema- tician, born at Barham, Kent, was educated at Oxford. He wrote "Tectonicum," (a work on mensuration, 1556,) a, e, 1, 6, u, y, k, hy 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, sAo7'f; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; valx; n6t; good; moon; DIGGES 7bs DINARCHUS a military treatise named " Stratioticos,"and a few other ingenious works. Died about 1574. See Woou, "Athenae Oxonienses." Digges, (Leonard,) grandson of the preceding, and son of Thomas Digges, born in 1588, translated from the Latin Claudian's " Rape of Proserpine," and from the Spanish a work named "Gerardo." The author of •* Athenas Oxonienses" says he was "a great master of the English language, a good poet, and no mean orator." Died in 1635. Digges, (Thomas,) the son of Leonard, (the first of that name,) and father of Sir Dudley Digges, was one of the greatest geometers of his time. After graduating at Oxford, he was appointed commissary-general of the troops sent by Queen Elizabeth to aid the Dutch. He edited his father's works, and wrote several original treatises, viz., a '* Description of the Celestial Orbs," (1592,) a "Treatise on Military Arithmetic," (1599,) and "England's Defence." Died in 1595. See Wood, "Athense Oxonienses." Dilherr, diKh^R, (Johann Michael,) a German phi- lologist and Protestant divine, born at Themar (Saxe- Meiningen) in 1604. He wrote many learned works on sacred philology and ethics. Died in 1669. Dilke, dilk, (Charles Wentworth,) an English editor and critic, born in 1789. He edited in 1814 a collection of old English plays, (6 vols.) About 1830 he purchased the "Athenaeum," of which he became editor, and which he rendered a flourishing and able literary journal. He retired from that position in 1846, and was manager of the " Daily News" until 1849. Diedini864. Dilke, (Charles Wentworth,) a son of the pre- ceding, born in 1810. As a member of the executive committee, he rendered important services in the Great Exhibition of 1851. Died in May, 1869. His son, Charles Wen 1 WORTH, wrote a valuable work entitled "Greater Britain," (1868.) Dilkes, dilks, (William Thomas,) a British general, born in 1765 ; died in 1841. Dil'len, [Lat. Dillf/nius,] (Johann Jakob,) an emi- nent botanist, born at Darmstadt in 1687, was a graduate in medicine. In 17 19 he gained a wide reputation by his "Catalogue of Plants growing near Giessen," with plates. Having been invited by William Sherard, a rich amateur of botany, he went to London in 1721, and pre])ared a new edition of Ray's " Synopsis of British Plants," which appeared in 1724. In 1732 he produced his "Hortus Elthamensis," with figures drawn and engraved by him- self. This was one of the most excellent botanical works that had then appeared, both in respect to the text and the figures, and was highly commended by Linnaeus. His reputation was raised still higher by his " History of Mosses," (1741,) which, says Du Petit-Thouars, "is a fundamental work, and will always be consulted." Dillen obtained the chair of botany in Oxford, founded by his friend Sherard, about 1728. Died in 1747. Linnaeus gave the name Dillenia to a genus of Indian trees. See "Vie ae Linnee," Paris, 1832; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene- rale." Dillen, (Philipp Everhard,) a German physician, born at Darmstadt in 1644, was the father of Johann Jakob, noticed above. Died in 1720. Dillenius. See Dillen. Dillens, diKlens, (Henri,) a Belgian painter of history and genre, born at Ghent in 1812. Dillis, von, fon diKlis, (Georg,) a German artist, born m Upper Bavaria in 1759, became teacher of land- scape-painting in the Academy at Munich, (1805.) Died in 1 841. DilTon, (Arthur,) Count, born in Roscommon county, Ireland, in 1670, was the third son of Theobald, Lord Dillon, who fought for James II. in the civil war of 1688. He entered the service of Louis XIV. of France, as colonel, at the age of twenty, gained a rapid promotion by his brilliant conduct, and became a lieutenant-general at thirty-six. He was employed under Marshal Villars in 1708, and under Marshal Berwick in 1709. In the last year he commanded in chief a corps, and gained a victory near Brian9on. He died in 1733. His son James was killed at the battle of Fontenoy in 1745. Another son, Edward, fell at Laufeld. Arthur Richard, the youngest, became Archbishop of Toulouse, and then of Narbonne, and was twice president of the General Assembly of the French clergy. See "Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." DUlon, de'l^N^, (Arthur,) Count, a French general, born in 1750, was the grandson of Count Arthur, noticed above. He commanded a regiment in the West Indies in 1777, and took part in the capture of Grenada, Tobago, and Saint ChristojDher. He was governor of Tobago when he was chosen a deputy to the States-General in 1789. In 1792 he was appointed to the command of a corps-d'armee under Dumouriez, and, although he was disaffected towards the new regime, he consented to defend France from foreign invasion, and obtained some successes in the forest of Argonne. He was recalled in 1793, imprisoned, and perished on the scaffold in April, 1794. See De Courcellhs, " Dictionnaire des Genei"aiix Fran^ais." Dillon, (Jacques Vincent Marie de Lacroix,) born at Capua, in Italy, in 1760, was of Irish descent. Having studied engineering, he was appointed professor of arts and trades in Paris. He displayed his skill as an engineer in the construction of the Pont des Arts, the first iron bridge made in France, and was chosen chief engineer of bridges and roads. Died in 1807. Dil'lon, (John Talbot,) an English traveller, resided many years in Vienna, where he was created a baron of the empire. He wrote "Travels through Spain," (1780.) Died in 1806. DiFlon, (Peter,) a British navigator, who, in 1827, visited Vanikoro and found evidence that La Perouse was wrecked there. Died in 1847. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generate." Dillon, (Roger Henri,) Abb6, born at Bordeaux in 1762, was a brother of Arthur, noticed above. He published a "Universal History," (10 vols., 1822,) and other works. Died in 1829. Dillon, de, deh de'l6N', (Theobald,) Count, a bro- ther of Arthur Dillon, was born in Dublin about 1744. He entered the French army at an early age, and obtained the grade of marechal-de-camp in 1783. He favoured the popular cause in the Revolution, and served under Rochambeau on the frontier of Flanders. While moving his division from Lille to Tournay, in April, 1792, he met a division of the enemy, and, in obedience to the orders of his superiors, declined a battle. A panic seized his soldiers, who ascribed his conduct to treachery and fled in confusion to Lille, abandoning their cannon. During this retreat, or on the arrival at Lille, he was massacred by his own mutinous troops. See De Coukcelles, " Dictionnaire des Gen^raiix Frangais." Dillon Wentworth. See Roscummon, Earl of. DilPwyn, (Lewis W.,) an English naturalist, born in 1778. He published a " Synopsis of British Confervae," (1802-09,) and (with D. Turner) "The Botanist's Guide through England and Wales." Died in 1855. DiPworth, (Thomas,) an English school-teacher of Wapping, published several popular school-books, among which were an "Arithmetic" and a " Spelling-Book." Died in 1780. Dims'dale, (Thomas,) M.D. and F.R.S., an eminent English physician, born in Essex in 1 712, practised at Hertford. Having gained distinction by inoculation for the small-pox, he was invited to Russia about 1768 by the empress Catherine, who rewarded his professional services to her by the titles of baron and first physician and a pension of £^00 per annum. He returned to England, and published, in 1776, a treatise on "Inocu- lation." He afterwards became a London banker, and * a member of Parliament. Died in 1800. See " Biographie Mddicale." Di-nar'-ehus or Dei-nar'-ehiis, [Gr. Aeivapxo^ ; Fr. DiNARQUE, de'ntkk'',] a Greek orator, born at Corinth about 360 B.C. About the year 335 he removed to Athens, and connected himself with the Macedonian party and Demetrius Phalereus. He gained a high repu- tation for eloquence by writing arguments, especially when Demosthenes and other orators were in exile. Accused in 307 of an attempt to subject Athens to the Macedonian yoke, he fled to Chalcis, where he remained € as 5 as s; g Aard; g asy; G, H, Y., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^See Explanations, p. 2^.) J DINJRQUE 766 DIOCLETIAN fifteen years, and then returned to Athens, 292 B.C. He is reckoned the last of the ten Athenian orators. Three only of his orations are extant, of which one is against Demosthenes for his transactions with Harpalus. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" Plutarch, " Vitae Decern Oratoruiii ;" J. G. Aulek, " Dissertatio de Dinarchi Oratoris Vita et Dictlone." Dinarque. See Dinarchus. Dinaux, de'no^ (Arthur Martin,) a French anti- quary and writer, born at Valenciennes in 1795. He published, among other works, '* The Trouveres, Jug- glers, and Minstrels of the North of France," (1833-43,) and furnished articles for Midland's " Biographic Uni- verselle." Dindorf, din'doRf, (Ludwig,) a German philologist, born in 1805. He puljlished good editions of Xenophon, Diodorus Siculus, and other Greek authors. He assisted his brother Wilhelm as editor of the series of Greek ^ classics published by Firmin Didot, Paris. Dindorf, (Wilhelm,) a distinguished German phi- lologist, born at Leipsic in 1802, was a son of a professor of Oriental languages. From 1828 to 1833 he was pro- fessor of literary history in Leipsic, after which he was associated with his brother Ludwig and M. Hase in the renovation of Stephanus's Greek "Thesaurus." He produced an excellent edition of Demosthenes for the University of Oxford, (1849,) and commentaries on Ms- chylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Dinez da Cruz. See Diniz da Cruz. Dinge, d^N'zhi', (Antoine,) a French litteratetir of great learning, born at Orleans in 1759. According to Villenave, he was the author of several popular works which appeared under the name of J. R. Desormeaux, viz., *' History of the House of Bourbon," *' Life of Conde," etc. He published several poems, one of which is called "Henry IV. on the Pont-Neuf," (1818.) He left voluminous manuscripts, among which are a " Universal Biography," numerous poems, and various other works. Died in 1832. Dingelstedt, ding'el-st^t^, (Franz,) a German poet, born at Halsdorf, in Hesse, in 1 814. He acquired much popularity among the German Liberals by his political poems called " Lieder eines kosmopolitischen Nacht- wachters," (" Songs of a Cosmopolitan Night-Watch," 1840.) In 1843 received from the King of Wiirtem- berg the title of councillor, and the office of librarian at Stuttgart. He published several novels, one of which is called " Heptameron," (1841,) and a successful tragedy, entitled "The House of Barneveldt," (1850.) Among his later poems is "Night and Morning," (1851.) See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Weber, "Geschichte der Deutschen Literatur." Ding'ley, (Robert,) an English writer and Puritan minister, born about 1620 ; died in 1659. Dini, dee'nee, (Pietro,) an Italian scholar and pre- late, born at Florence about 1570; died in 1625. Diniz, de-n^z', anglicized as Den'nis or Den'is I., King of Portugal, born in 1261, was the son of Alfonzo III. He ascended the throne at the age of eighteen, and married Elizabeth of Aragon in 1282. The king- dom prospered under his wise government. In 1290 he founded the University of Lisbon. He built many cities and fortresses, and planted the forest of Lein'a, which, two centuries later, furnished materials for the naval power of Portugal. He was reputed the most liberal and magnificent prince of his time. He died in 1325, and was succeeded by his son, Alfonzo IV. See Faria y Souz'a, " Europa Portugueza ;" Schoeffer, " His- tory of Portugal," (in German,) 5 vols. Diniz (de-n^z') or Dinez da Cruz, de-n?z' d^ kRooz, (Antonio,) a Portuguese lyric poet and lawyer, born at Castello de Vide in 1730. He was a good classical scholar, and associated himself with some friends to form the Society of Arcadians in Lisbon, which made successful efforts to improve the language and literary taste of the nation. In 1759 he composed an admired ode on the subject of an attempt against the life of the king. He afterwards wrote epistles, sonnets, idyls, and a mock- heroic poem entitled "Goupillon." Some critics esti- mate him the greatest Portuguese poet of the eighteenth century. He was a member of the supreme council of the colonies. He died at Rio de Janeiro about 1798. See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Din'nies, (Anna Peyre,) an American poetess, a daughter of Judge Shackleford, of South Carolina, was married in 1830 to J. C. Dinnies. She published a volume of poems called "The Floral Year," (1846.) Her no7n-de-phwie was " Moina." See Griswold's " Female Poets of America." Dino, dee'no, [Lat. Di'nus,] a famous Italian jurist, born at Mugello. He was professor of law in Bologna, and was employed by Boniface VHI. in the compilation of the sixth book of " Decretals.'' Died in 1303. Dinocourt, de'no'kooR', (Pierre Theophile Ro- BERT,) a French writer, was born at Doullens in 1791. His "Cours de Morale sociale" ("Lectures on Social Morality") obtained the Montyon prize in 1840. Died in 1862. Dinocrate. See Dinocrates. Di-noc'ra-tes or Dei-noc'ra-tes, [Gr. AeivoKpaTijc; Fr. Dinocrate, de'no^kRtt',] an eminent Greek archi- tect, who lived in the time of Alexander the Great, and proposed to cut Mount Athos into a statue of that prince which should hold in one hand a large city. Alexander employed him in the building o^ Alexandria, about 332 B.C. It is said that he rebuilt the temple of Ephesus, burnt by Erostratus. See Plutarch, "Alexander." Dinocrates, a profligate Messenian politician, was an enemy of Philopoemen, for whose death he was chiefly responsible. He killed himself in 182 B.C. Di'non, [Aelvuv or Alvuv,] a Greek historian, lived in the fourth century B.C. He wrote a " History of Persia." Di-nos'tra-tus, [Gr. Aetvoarparog; Fr. Dinostrate, de''no'stRtt',] a Greek geometer, who lived about 400 B.C. His works are all lost. According to Proclus, he was a pupil of Plato. Dinoth, de'riot', (Richard,) a French Protestant historian, born at Coutances, wrote " De Bello Civili Gallico," (1582.) Died about 1590. Dinouart, dee'noo-tR', (Joseph Antoine Tous- saint,) a mediocre French compiler and translator, born at Amiens in 17 16 ; died in 1786. Dinter, din'ter, (Gustav Friedrich,) a meritorious German teacher and writer on education, was born at Borna, in Saxony, in 1760. He became minister of a church at Gornitz in 1807, and professor of theology in Konigsberg in 1822. He laboured zealously to promote reforms in popular instruction, and published many popular books, among which are "Malvina, a Book for Mothers," (1819,) and a "Bible for the Use of School- masters," ("SchuUehrerbibel," 1825-28.) Died in 1831. See his Autobiography, "G. F. Dinter's Leben," 1829. Dinus. See Dino. Din-wid'die, (Robert,) born in Scotland about 1690, was Governor of Virginia from 1752 to 1758. He was incompetent and unpopular. Died in 1770. Dio Cassius. See Dion Cassius. Di^o-cles, [Alok?l7)c,] a Syracusan, celebrated for his code of laws, lived about 410 B.C., and was a leader of the democratic party of Syracuse. Diodes, a Greek poet of the old comedy, lived in the fifth century B.C. Diodes, a Greek geometer, of whom nothing is known except that he solved the problem of the dupli- cation of the cube. Eutocius has preserved this solution, which consists in describing in a circle a curve called the " cissoid." Di'o-cles Ca-rys'ti-us, [AiOKXrjg 6 Kapvanog,] an eminent Greek physician, born in Euboea, lived in the third century before Christ, and belonged to the sect of Dogmatics. He was ranked by the ancients next to Hippocrates. He wrote several works, of which some fragments are extant. See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grsca ;" A. Rivinus," Programma de Diocle Carystio," 1655. Diodetian, dT-o-kle'she-an, [Lat. Diocletia'nus ; Fr. DioCL^TiEN, deVkli'te^N',] or, more fully, Cai'us Vale'rius Aure'lius Diocletia'nus, a Roman empe- ror, was born of obscure parents at Dioclea, in Dalmatia, a, e, T, 6, u, y, /on^; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, \\, y, sAort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, Et; mSt; n6t; good; moon; DIOCLETIEN 767 DIOGENES about 245 A.D. He entered the army young, served under Aurelian, and obtained a high command under Probus. He accompanied Carus in his expedition against Persia, and at the death of that prince, in 283, he became com- niander of the imperial guards of his successor, Nume- rianus. The latter having been assassinated by Aper, the army at Chalcedon proclaimed Diocletian emperor in 284. In 286 he adopted Maximian as his colleague in the empire, and gave him the title of Augustus. They were successful in suppressing revolts in Gaul and other parts of the empire. About 292 they nominated two Cssars to divide the labours of the administration, — namely, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus. Diocletian reserved to himself Asia and Egypt, and fixed his court at Nicomedia. He assigned Italy and Africa to Maxi- mian, Gaul and Spain to Constantius, and Thrace and Illyricum to Galerius. The supremacy of Diocletian was recognized by the other three, and general pros- perity resulted from this arrangement, (Jne design of this policy was to prevent the revolt of the armies in favour of their commanders, by which so many emperors had been ruined. After this division the Roman arms were successful in Egypt, Persia, and Britain. In 297 a peace was made with Persia, which was maintained forty years. The Christians had enjoyed the favour and pro- tection of Diocletian ; but in 303 Galerius, by false accu- sations, persuaded him to issue an edict against them. This persecution, to which he unwillingly assented, is the chief error of a reign otherwise honourable and happy. In 304 he had a long attack of sickness, and in the next year he abdicated in favour of Galerius, and retired to Salona, where he turned his attention to the cultivation of a vegetable-garden, and died in 313. His political talents were superior, and entitle him to a place among the most eminent Roman emperors. See TiLLEMONT, " Histoire des Empereiirs ;" Gibbon, "Decline and hall ot the Roman Empire;" Aukelius Victor, "De Csesari- bus ;" J. C. SiCKEL, " Diocletianus et Maximinus," 1792. Diocletien. See Dioclkiian. Diodati, de-o-di'tee, or Deodati, (Charles,) born in London about 1608, was of Italian extraction, and a nephew of John Diodati. He was Milton's most inti- mate companion at school, and his correspondent in later years. He became a physician, and practised in Cheshire. On hearing of his death, in 1608, Milton wrote, in Latin, "Epitaphium Damonis." Diodati, de-o-da'tee, (Domenico,) an Italian anti- quary, born at Naples in 1736. His principal work is an ingenious essay, " De Christo Graece loquente," (1767,) in which he endeavoured to prove that Greek was the vernacular language of Christ and the apostles. Died in 1801. See "Vita di D. Diodati," Naples, 1815; Tipaldo, " Biogiafia degli Italian! illustri." Diodati, de-o-dl'tee, (John,) a Protestant theologian, of Italian extraction, born at Geneva in 1576. He made so great progress in the study of ancient languages that Beza thought him qualified, at the age of twenty-one, to fill the chair of Hebrew in the University of Geneva. In 1609 he was chosen professor of theology, and in 1618 was deputed by the Church of Geneva to the Synod of Dort, in which he performed an important part. He made Italian and French translations of the 15ible, (1644,) and a French version of Sarpi's " History of the Council of Trent," (1621.) He also wrote several treatises against the doctrines of the Roman Church, and "Annotations on the Bible," (1607.) Died in 1649. See Brandt, " Historj' of the Reformation;" Senebier, "His- toire litteraire de Geneve;" Lipenius, " Bibliotheca Theologica," 1685; ScHOTEL, "J. Diodati," 1844. Diodore de Sicile. See Diodorus Siculus. Di-o-do'rus [Gr. A(6(5(jpof ; Fr. Diodore, deVdoR'] of Antioch, a Christian bishop and writer of high repu- tation, was appointed to the see of Tarsus about 375 A.D. He wrote commentaries on the Scriptures, and other works, which are all lost. Diodorus surnamed Periege'tes, a Greek historian, lived al)out 320 B.C. He wrote " Ilfpt dr^/xuv." Diodorus of Sinope, an Athenian poet of the new comedy, lived about 350 B.C. Diodorus of Tyre, a Peripatetic philosopher, flou- rished about 130 b!c. He succeeded Critolaus as the head of the Peripatetic school at Athens. Di-o-do'rus Cro'nus, a Greek logician and philoso- pher of the school of Megara, lived about 300 B.C., and was one of the masters of Zeno the Stoic. His skill in dialectics is praised l)y Cicero. He was the reputed author of a famous sophism against motion. Di-o-do'rus SiC'u-lus, [Fr. Diodore de Sicile, de'o'doR' deh se's^K,] often called simply Diodorus, an eminent historian, was born at Agyrium, in Sicily, and lived in the first century B.C. He travelled many years in Europe and Asia to collect materials for a universal history, and then settled in Rome, where he produced his " Historical Library," in Greek, (" Bi6?uo0fjKri larofUK^,") which contained, in forty books, the history of the world from the earliest times to 60 B.C. Only fifteen of these books have been preserved entire. He is supposed to have finished this history about 10 B.C. His merit as a historian is not estimated very highly, but his work sup- plies many important facts which would otherwise have been lost to posterity. He is very deficient in criticism and judgment. See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Graca ;" Schoeli., "Histoire de la Litteratiire Grecque ;" Heyne," De Fontibus Historiarum Diodori," 1782; Daunou, article on "Diodorus Siculus" in the '" Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Di-od'o-tus, [Gr. AcoSotoc ; Fr. Diodote, deVdot',] a Stoic philosopher, lived at Rome, and taught dialectics to Cicero. Died in 59 B.C. Diogene. See Diogenes. Diogene d'Apollonie. See Diogenes of Apol- LONIA. Diogene Laerce. See Diogenes Laertius, Di-og'e-nes, [Gr. Atoyevjjg ; Fr. Diogene, deVzhin'; It. Diogene, de-o'jk-na,] a Cynic philosopher, 1:)orn at Sinope, in Asia Minor, lived for some time at Athens, where he was a disciple of Antisthenes. He affected an extravagant contempt for the comforts of life and for the customs of society, and inured himself to severe privations, relying on alms for the supply of his simple wants. It is said that he lodged in a cask or tub. He was noted for witty and sarcastic sayings. When Alex- ander the Great visited him, and inquired, " \Yhat can I do for you ?" Diogenes replied, " Stand from between me and the sun." Alluding to this interview, Juvenal thus moralizes : " Sensit Alexander testa quum vidit in ilia. Magnum habitatorem, quanto felicior hie qui Nil cuperet, quam qui totum sibi posceret orbem."* Sat. xiv. Plato having defined man as a featherless biped, the Cynic plucked a fowl, and exclaimed, "Behold the man of Plato !" It is stated that he was taken by pirates and exposed for sale in the market of Crete, and, being asked what he could do, he replied, " I can govern men : therefore sell me to some one who needs a master." He was purchased by Xeniades, a rich citizen of Corinth, by whom he was kindly treated. He is said to have died in 323 B.C., aged about ninety. If he wrote any works, as some assert, they have not been preserved. See Lucian, "Cynicus," and "Dialogues of the Dead;" Gri- MAi.Di, "La Vita di Diogene Cinico," 1777; Ritter, "History ot" Philosophy;" G. H. Lewes, "Biographical History of Philo- sophy. " Diogenes of Apollonia, [Fr. Diogene d'Apol- lonie, de'o'zhan' dS'po'Io'ne',] a Greek philosopher, born in Crete, was a disciple of Anaximenes, and was probably born about 500 B.C. He taught philosophy at Athens, and wrote a work on cosmology, of which Diogenes Laertius has preserved a fragment. Like his teacher, he considered air as the first principle of all things. See G. H. Lewes, "Biographical History of Philosophy;" Rit- ter, " History of Philosophy." Diogenes the Babylonian, an eminent Stoic phi- losopher, was a native of Seleucia. He studied under Chrysippus at Athens, and became the master of the Stoic school in that city. He was associated with Car- neades in a memorable embassy to Rome in 155 B.C. He wrote on various subjects, but his works are not extant. See C. F. Thierri, " Dissertatio de Diogene Babylonico," 1830. ♦ Literally, "When Alexander beheld the noble dweller in that tub, [i.e. the tub of Diogenes,] he perceived (or felt) how much hap- pier [was] he who desired nothing, than he who demanded for himself the whole world." € as 9 as s; g Aart/; g as/; G, H, }^,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^'See Explanations, p. 23.) DIOGENES 768 DIONTSIUS Diogeues of Tarsus, a Greek Epicurean philosopher, is supposed to have lived in the first or second century before Christ. His works are lost. Di-og'?-nes La-er'ti-us, (la-er'she-us,) [Gr, Atoyevifg 6 AaEpTiof: ; Fr. Dioc^NE Laerce, de'o'zhin' It'ikss',] a Greek author, who was so called because he was born at Laertes, in Cilicia. Some suppose that he lived in the reign of Severus or Caracalla, 211-235 A.D.; but nothing is known of his history, except that he wrote a very im- portant work on the lives and doctrines of the ancient philosophers. He evidently lacked the critical ability and judgment to do justice to such an enterprise ; but at the same time he has collected and preserved valuable contributions to the history of philosophy. The title of it is '* Btot Kal Tvtjfiai ruv h ^i'?ioaoion Chrysostom. He lived in Rome, was a senator in the reign of Commodus, and governor of Smyrna and Pergamos under Macrinus. By the favour of Alexander Seve'rus, he was elected consul with that emperor in 229 A.D. He wrote in Greek several works, the principal of which is his " History of Rome" (" Tw- fiaiKTj 'laTopia") from the arrival of /Eneas in Italy to the year 229 A.D., in eighty books, of which the first thirty-five are lost except fragments, and the last twenty exist only in the abridgment of Xiphilinus. As a historian he is esteemed for elegance of style, accuracy in dates, and diligence in search of the truth, for which his official position afforded him facilities. His work is a rich collection of documents on the later years of the re- public and the first ages of the empire. His knowledge of Roman institutions was more exact and extensive than that of previous historians. See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Graeca;" Reimarus, " De Vita et Scriptis Cassii Dionis," 1752; Schlosser, "Dissertation on Dimi Cassius," prefixed to Lorenz's German version of Dion, 1826; Niii- BUHR, "Lectures on Roman History." Di-o'ne, [Gr. AtuvTj,] a female Titan, according to some authorities a daughter of Uranus, according to others of Ocean us or ^ther. The poets feigned that she was beloved by Jupiter, by whom she became the mother of Venus. Dionigi, de-o-nee'jee, (Marianna,) an Italian artist, born in Rome in 1756. She acquired skill in painting, and gave much attention to archaeology, especially to the researches of Cyclopean walls. She wrote a suc- cessful work, entitled "On the Five Cities of Latium said to have been founded by Saturn," ("Sulle cinque Citta del Lazio che diconsi fondate da Saturno.") Died in 1826. Dionis, de''o'n^ss', (Pierre,) an eminent French sur- geon, born in Paris, became first surgeon to the queen Maria Theresa and the dauphin. Louis XIV. appointed him professor of anatomy in the Jardin des Plantes. He possessed great learning, and wrote several excellent works, among which are a "Treatise on Operations," and a Treatise on Anatomy, ("Anatomic de I'Homme, suivant la Circulation du Sang," 1690.) Died in 1718. See £lov, " Dictionnaire de la Medecine." Dionis du Sejour, de'o'n^ss' dii si'zhooR', (Achili.e Pierre,) a French geometer, born in Paris in 1734. In 1765 he was admitted to the Academy of Sciences, which he enriched with many treatises on eclipses, comets, on Saturn's ring, etc. He afterwards published these col- lectively, with the title of "Analytical Treatise on the Apparent Motions of the Heavenly Bodies," (1786,) " which," says Nicollet, " is a monument raised to the glory of astronomy, and will form an epoch in the his- tory of that science." Died in 1794. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Dionisi, de-o-nee'see, (Filippo Lorenzo,) an Italian antiquary and priest, born at Rome in 1 712; died in 1789. Dionisi, (Giovan.ni Giacomo,) an Italian philologist, born at Verona in 1724. He published an edition of Dante's "Divina Commedia," 1795.) Died in 1808. Dionysius, dT-o-nish''e-us, [Gr. Aiowa^of,] the Elder, [Fr. Denys l'Ancien, deh-ne' ISn^sc'^n',] a celebrated i tyrant of Syracuse, was born about 430 B.C. The Car- thaginians having invaded Sicily and threatened Syra- cuse, (which was then a republic,) he was appointed one of the generals ; and in 405, by his artful policy, he persuaded the people to invest him with the supreme direction of the government. He confirmed his power by increasing the pay of the troops, suppressed several revolts, and in 397 declared war against Carthage, which a, e, T, 6, u, y, /on^; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fdll, fdt; mSt; n6t; good; moon; DIONTSIUS 769 DIOPHANTUS held some cities in Sicily. The fleet of Dionysius was defeated, and the victorious army of Himilco or Imilkon encamped under the walls of Syracuse ; but a pestilence broke out in the besieging army, and a successful attack from the Syracusans completed their ruin. Dionysius then subjected several towns of Sicily, made some con- quests on the Italian peninsula, and became one of the most powerful princes of his time. Many anecdotes are related to show how suspicious he was, and what pre- cautions he observed against personal danger, as that his bedchamber was surrounded by a wide ditch crossed by a drawbridge. His brother-in-law, Dion, persuaded him to invite Plato to his court ; but the king was so offended by the philosopher's lectures that he soon sent him away, directing the captain of the ship to sell him as a slave in the first port which he should enter. Ambitious of literary fame, he sent some verses to the Olympic games ; but his offerings were rejected with contempt. One of his tragedies, however, gained a prize at Athens, by which he was much elated ; and, during a feast which he gave on the occasion, he died suddenly, in 367. His death was ascribed by some to intemperance, by others to poison. See Grote, " History of Greece," part ii. chaps. Ixxxi.-lxxxiii. ; DiODORUS SicuLUs; Th,)kkil Baden, "Res gestae Dionysii Syra- cusii recognitse," 1795; F. \V. Roloff, "Dissertatioiies de Dionysiis Sicilias Tyrannis," 1736. Dionysius the Younger, [Fr. Denys le Jeune, deh-ne' leh zhuN',] a son of the preceding, succeedecl him without opposition in 367 B.C. He was inferior to his father in political ability, and was early addicted to licentious habits, from which Dion endeavoured to reclaim him. Dion also prevailed on Plato to exert his eloquence for this purpose. The latter was received with honour, and for a time seemed to exercise a beneficial influence ; but evil counsels effected the banishment of Dion, and Plato soon followed him. The capricious prince, it is said, induced Plato to return to Syracuse, on condition that his friend should be restored from exile ; but this promise was not fulfilled. In 357 Dion led a successful expedition against Dionysius, who, not being supported by his subjects, was expelled from Syracuse and retired to Locri, (See Dion.) After tyrannizing over the Locri'ans several years, he recovered possession of Syracuse about 346. To assist them in expelling Dio- nysius and in repelling a threatened invasion of the Carthaginians, the Syracusans invoked the aid of the Corinthians, who sent Timoleon with an army in the year 344. Dionysius was again deposed, and banished to Corinth, where, it is said, he employed himself in teaching school. See Grote, "History of Greece," part ii. chaps. Ixxxiv.-lxxxv. ; Plutarch, " Life of Dion ;" DiODORUS Siculus, books xv., xvi. ; P. Ekerman, "Dissertatio de Tyrannide Dionysii utriusque Syracu- sani," Upsal, 1757. Dionysius the Areopagite is said to have been a judge of the Areopagus in Athens when the Apostle Paul appeared before that tribunal. (See Acts xvii. 19.) He was converted to Christianity by Paul, (Acts xvii. 34.) Tradition adds that he was appointed firs'- Bishop of Athens, and that he suffered martyrd )m about 95 a.d. See Ritter, "History of Christian Philosophy;" Baumgar- ten-Crusius, " Programma de Dionysio Areopagita," Jena, 1823; Etienne Binet, "Vie de S. Denys I'Areopagite," 1624. Dionysius of Byzantium, a Greek writer, of whom little is known. He is supposed to have lived before 200 A.D., and is mentioned by Suidas as the author of the "Voyage of the Bosphorus," ("AvuTrAouf BooTtopov.") Dionysius [Fr. Denys] the Carthusian, a monk, born near Liege, was eminent for learning. He entered a monastery at Ruremonde in 1423, and wrote a large number of works. His "Mirror of the Conversion of a Sinner" (1473) is said to be the first book printed in Belgium with a date. Died in 147 1. Dionysius surnamed Chai/cus, [6 XaXnovg,] an ancient Attic poet and orator, flourished about 450 B.C. He was surnamed Chalcus because he advised the Athenians to coin brass money. His poems (including elegies) are quoted or noticed by Aristotle and other critics. Dionysius of Colophon, a celebrated Greek painter of the age of Pericles, lived about 450 B.C. He excelled in portraits, and imitated the style of his contemporary Polygnotus with success. " Polygnotus," says Aristotle, "painted portraits more beautiful than the originals, Pauson made them worse, and Dionysius painted exact likenesses." Another Dionysius flourished as a painter at Rome in the first century before Christ, and is favour • ably mentioned by Pliny. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, [Gr. Atowawf 6 'AAt- Kapvaaod'^; Lat. DiONYs'ius Halicarnas'seus or Hali- carnassen'sis ; Fr. Denys d'Halicarnasse, deh-ne' di;''le''ktR'ntss',] a Greek historian and critic of high reputation, born at Halicarnassus, in Caria, about 70 B.C. All our knowledge of him is derived from his writings, which inform us that he came to Rome in 30 B.C. and spent more than twenty years there in studying Latin and composing his history (in Greek) entitled " Roman Antiquities," (" T(j//ai'/c^ 'Apx^i^oAo-yla.") It embraces the period from the origin of Rome to the year 265 B.C. The greater part of this work is extant. Pie is accused of partiality to the Greeks, and is not esteemed a high authority as a historian. He also wrote a "Treatise on Rhetoric," another on the eloquence of Demosthenes, a " Criticism on the Style (ISlu^utov ) of Thucydides," and other critical works, which are highly appreciated. Some persons assign him a place in the first rank of ancient critics. See article by Jacobs, in Ersch und Gruber's "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Niebuhr, " Lectures on Roman History;" C. J. Weismann, "De Dionysii Halicarnassehsi Vita," 1837; Busse, " De Dionysii Halicainassensi Vita," 1848 ; P. F. Schulin, " De Dio- nysio Halicarnassensi historico," 1821 ; F. Matthai, "De Dionysio Halicarnassensi," 1779. Dionysius of Heraclea, [Fr. Denys d'H^racl^e, deh-ne' dWxt'kW,] a Greek philosopher, lived about the end of the third century B.C. He was a Stoic in his youth, and afterwards an Epicurean. Dionysius surnamed Iam'bus, a Greek poet, lived about 300 B.C. Dionysius of Miletus, an early Greek historian, who wrote about 500 B.C. Among his principal works, which are all lost, was a " History of Darius I. of Persia." Dionysius, [Fr. Denys,] Saint, a disciple of Origen, was a native of Alexandria, and in the year 248 a.d. was made patriarch of that city. During the persecution of the Christians by Valerian in 257 he was exiled to Libya, whence he was restored in 260. He wrote numerous letters and treatises against various errors in doctrine that prevailed ; but they have not been preserved. Died in 265 A.D. Dionysius surnamed Thrax, or "the Thracian," an eminent Greek grammarian, was a disciple of Aristarchus. He taught rhetoric at Rome with great distinction about 80 B.C., and composed many works on grammar, etc. His "Te^YT^T? ypa/z/zarf/c^," ("Art of Grammar,") which has come down to us, was a standard work for centuries, and served as a basis to many other treatises. Dionysius Cato. See Cato, (Dionysius.) Di-o-nys^i-us (dT-o-nish'e-us) Pe-ri-e-ge'tes [Fr. Denys le Peri^:gete, deh-ne'' leh pk're'a'zh^t'] is the author of a Greek poem entitled " liept^yTjOLc rfj^ P^f," ("Journey round the Earth.") Nothing is known re- specting the time and place of his birth ; but he proba- bly lived between the Augustan age and the fourth century. His poem was once popular, and has been often reprinted and translated. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca;" Ukert, " Geographle der Griechen ;" MATTHiEi, " De Dionysio Periegeta," 1788. Di-o-ny'sus, [i^iovvaog ox ^Luvvaog,'] the original name in Greek mythology of the god of wine, afterwards called Bacchus, which see. Di-oph'a-nes, [Gr. Atocpavrjc ; Fr. Diophane, deV- ftn',] a Greek orator, born at Mitylene. Pie taught at Rome, where Tiberius Gracchus was his pupil. Diophante. See Diophantus. Di-o-phan'tus [Gr. Ato^avTuc ; Fr. Diophante, de'- oTSNt'] OF Alexandria is the author of the most ancient treatise on algebra which is extant. The time in which he lived is very uncertain. The question has been much discussed whether he was the inventor of algebra, or whether he derived it from the Hindoos. Lagrange favoured the former opinion. Hypatia, who lived about 400 A.D., wrote a commentary on Diophantus. Of the € as k; 9 as g hard; g as /; o, h, k, ^ittural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^See Explanations, p. 23.) 49 DIOPHJNTUS 770 DISRAELI thirteen books which composed his remarkable work, seven have been lost. See MoNTUCLA, " Histoire des Mathematiques." Diophaiitus, an Athenian orator, a contemporary of Demosthenes, lived about 350 B.C. Di-o-pi'thes, [AwTraf^r/f,] an Athenian general, the father of the poet Menander, lived about 344 B.C. Dioscore. See Dioscorus. Dioscoride. See Dioscorides, Dioscorides, (a Greek artist.) See Dioscurides. Di-os-cor'I-des, [Fr. Dioscoride, de''os'ko'rW,] a Greek historian, a disciple of Isocrates, lived in the fourth century B.C. He wrote " 0/ irap'Onr/pcj vofioi,'^ a treatise on the customs and laws recognized in the Homeric poems. Dioscorides of Alexandria, a Greek poet of an un- known epoch. He is author of numerous epigrams preserved in the Greek Anthology. Di-os-cor'i-des Pe-da'ni-us, [^LoaKovpLdrjgUeddviog,] a Greek botanist, born at Anazarbns, in Cilicia, lived about the first century A.D., and is the author of a cele- brated Greek work on Materia Mcvlica, in which more than five hundred plants are described or named. A passage of his book informs us that he traversed Asia Minor, Greece, and a part of Italy, to qualify himself for such a task. For sixteen centuries this book was considered the highest authority, and was universally studied by medical students and botanists. It is com- posed without regard to order in the arrangement of the matter, and is defective in other respects, but is still highly prized as a memorial of the state of science in that age. Galen speaks of Dioscorides in very high terms, and says that he surpassed all who wrote before him on plants. His work became the basis of modern treatises on botany, which science derives nearly all its nomenclature from him. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grseca ;" Sprengel, "Geschichte der Botanik ;" Haller, " Bibliotheca Botanica." Di-os'oo-rus [Gr. AiooKopoi^ ; Fr. Dioscore, de'os'- koR'] was chosen Patriarch of Alexandria in 444 A.D., as successor to Cyril. Having sided with Eutyches, who was deposed for heresy by Flavian of Constantinople, he obtained the convocation of a council at Ephesus in 449. Dioscorus was president of this council, by which Flavian was condemned, and which was conducted with such violence that it was stigmatized as a scene of rob- bery, ( Latrociiiium Ephesimi7n.) A schism resulted, and Pope Leo decided against Dioscorus, who was exiled in 451, and died in 454 A.D. Di-os-cu''ri, [Gr. LLooKovpoi ; Fr. Dioscures, de'o^- skiiR',] i.e. "sons of Jupiter," a name applied to Castor and Pollux, which see. Di-os-ou'ri-des or Di-os-cor''i-des, a Greek artist, who lived at Rome in the reign of Augustus, was re- puted the greatest gem-engraver of ancient times. He engraved the portrait of Augustus, which was one of his master-pieces. Diotallevi, de-o-til-la'vee, (Alessandro,) an Italian pulpit orator and religious writer, born at Rimini in 1648; died in 1 72 1. Di-o-ti'mus, [Gr. AtoTif^og ; Fr. Diotime, de'o^t^m',] a Greek poet of uncertain epoch, author of numerous epigrams preserved in the Greek Anthology. Diotisalvi, de-o-te-sSKvee, a celebrated Italian archi- tect, designed the beautiful baptistery of Pisa, commenced about 1 1 52 and finished in 1161. It is one of the earliest examples of the renaissance of the art in Italy. Diphile. See Diphilus. pipli'i-lus, [Gr. AMog ; Fr. Diphile, de'f^K,] an eminent Athenian comic poet of the new comedy, was a native of Sinope, and flourished about 300 B.C. He produced about one hundred comedies, of which some fragments remain. His style is admired for simplicity and elegance. Diplovatazio.de-plo-vi-tit'se-o, (Tommaso,) a jurist, born at Corfu in 1468. He published " Synopsis Juris Grasci," and other works. Died at Pesaro in 1541. Dippel, dip'pel, (Johann Conrad,) a German alche- mist, noted for his aberrations and vagaries, was born near Darmstadt in 1673. He studied medicine, and pro- fessed to be an adept in the hermetic arts. He was ad- dicted to wandering habits and to theological controversy, and was imprisoned at various places. By accident he discovered the valuable pigment prussiate of potasJi, or Prussian blue. About 1710, to escape the power of the law, he took refuge in Holland, and practised medicine for several years. After many adventures in Denmark, Sweden, etc., he died in 1734. See " Biographic Medicale;" Hoffmann," Leben und Meinungen J. C. Dippel's," 1783. Dirae. See Eumenides. Dirichlet, de'resh'lcV, (Gustav Lejeune or Peter GusTAV,) an eminent German geometer, born at DUren, in Rhenish Prussia, in 1805. He became professor of mathematics in Berlin in 1828, and a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1832. He wrote dissertations on the most difficult parts of mathematics, and was esteemed one of the first mathematicians of the age. In 1855 he succeeded Gauss as professor at Gottingen. Died in May, 1859. Dirk or Dirck, (dirk,) a Dutch painter, born at Haar- lem, was living in 1462. He was one of the ablest artists of his time. Diroys, de'rwa^ (Francois,) a French theologians- born in 1620, became canon of Avranches. He wrote "Proofs and Presentiments (Pt'ejuges) in favour of the Christian and Catholic Religion," (1683.) Died in 1691. Discepoli, de-sh^p'o-lee or de-sha'po-lee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter, born at Lugano in 1590 ; died in 1660. Disdier, de'de-i', (Henri FRANgois Michel,) a skil- ful French surgeon, professor of anatomy, and writer, was born at Grenoble in 1708; died in 1781. Dis'ney, (John,) a learned English divine, born at Lincoln in 1677, studied law, and for many years dis- charged the duties of magistrate with much credit. In 1 7 19 he was ordained a priest of the Anglican Church, and in 1722 became Vicar of Saint Mary, Nottingham. He wrote "Essays on Laws against Immorality and Profaneness," and other works. Died in 1730. Disraeli, diz-ra'el-e, (Benjamin,) a distinguished Eng- lish statesman and author, a son of Isaac, noticed below, was born in London in December, 1805. He produced in 1826 his first work, "Vivian Grey," a fashionable novel, which was received with great favour : it was followed by "The Young Duke," (1830,) and "Contarini Fleming," (1832.) In 1829 and 1830 he visited Greece, Egypt, Syria, and other parts of the Levant. He com- menced his political life as a radical, and was an unsuc- cessful candidate for Parliament in 1 83 1. Having become a Tory candidate for Taunton, he was again defeated in 1835 ; but he was returned by the Conservatives of Maid- stone in 1837. His ambitious or pretentious maiden speech was a complete failure, and excited the ridicule of the House. On this occasion he exclaimed, " I shall sit down now, but the time will come when you will hear me !" In 1839 he married the rich widow of Wyndham Lewis. He has represented Buckinghamshire in Parlia- ment since 1847. He gradually attained success as a parliamentary debater, and about 1841 became the leader of the " Young England" party. Among his most bril- liant efforts were his speeches against the Free-Trade measures of Sir Robert Peel in 1845 ^'^cl 1846, in which he displayed great powers of invective and sarcasm. In 1844 he published "Coningsby, or the New Genera- tion," a political novel, which was very successful. He became about 1848 the recognized leader of the Protec- tionist party in the House of Commons. He was chan- cellor of the exchequer in the Tory ministry of Lord Derby, which lasted from March to December of 1852. On the defeat of Palmerston in February, 1858, power passed into the hands of the Tories, and Disraeli again became chancellor of the exchequer in the Derb /-Dis- raeli ministry. (See Derby, Earl of.) He introduced an electoral Reform bill, which was rejected by the House in March, 1859, and resigned with his colleagues in June of that year. A Tory writer in the " London Quarterly Review" for April, i860, ascribes to Disraeli " unrivalled powers for conducting his party into the ditch," and adds, his Reform bill "had that fatal and damning defect, that the complication of its details ex- posed it to the suspicion of stratagem and finesse. It a. e, T, 5, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, sho7't; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; \ DISRAELI 111 DIX ■was not statesmanlike : it was only ingenious." He is said to have annoyed his party by voting for the admis- sion of Jews into the House of Commons. " Gradually, almost imperceptibly," says the London " Times," " Mr. Disraeli has weaned his party from their most flagrant errors. He has taught them to profess, at any rate, and probably to feel, a sympathy for the great body of their countrymen." He opposed the bill for electoral reform which Russell and Gladstone introduced, and which was defeated in June, 1866. In consequence of this defeat the Liberal ministers resigned, and Disraeli again became chancellor of the exchequer. Derby and l3israeli then exhibited a surprising change of front on the subject of electoral reform, and supported a more liberal or radical bill than that which they opposed in 1866. As leader of the House of Commons, Disraeli was the chief author and manager of the Reform bill of 1867, which extends the right of suffrage to every householder in a borough, every forty-shilling freeholder, etc. This bill was signed by the queen, August 15, 1867. Much admiration has been expressed at the dexterity with which he induced his party to abandon their preju- dices or principles in the support of this measure. " His triumph," says Goldwin Smith, " is a triumph over pub- lic morality and over the self-respect of the nation." He became premier about February 25, 1868. He and his party opposed the resolutions which Mr. Gladstone moved to abolish or disendow the Irish Church as a state establishment. On this important question he was defeated in the House by a majority of fifty-six votes, April 3, 1868, and again on the ist of May by a majority of sixty-four. It was expected that he would resign or appeal to the country ; but, after a visit to the queen at Osborne, he and his colleagues made statements which resolved themselves into the simple proposition that they had determined neither to resign nor to dissolve Parliament. The Liberal party having gained a decisive victory in the general election of November, Disraeli and his colleagues resigned on the 2d of December, 1868. See "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1853; "Blackwood's Maga- zine" for March, 1854; " Eraser's Magazine" for January and Feb- ruary, 1847, and February, 1852 ; " Westminster Review" for Sep- tember, 1844; Samuel Smiles, "Brief Biographies." Disraeli, (Isaac,) an English litterateur, born at En- field, near London, in 1766, was the son of a Venetian merchant of Jewish extraction, who left him a large fortune. He preferred literature to all other professions or pursuits, and, directing his attention to literary history and anecdotes, he produced in 1790 the first volume of "Curiosities of Literature," which was received with favour and followed by several other volumes of the same work. He published " Calamities of Authors," (1812,) "Quarrels of Authors," (1814,) "The Life and Reign of King Charles I.," (1828,) "Amenities of Lite- rature," (1841,) and a few other works. " The numerous editions which have been printed of the 'Curiosities of Literature,'" says T. H. Horne, "amply attest the value of this instructive and amusing work." Lord Byron de- nominates him "that most entertaining and searching writer, whose works in general I have read oftener than perhaps those of any other English writer whatever." Died in 1848. He was the father of the eminent states- man Benjamin Disraeli. See B. Disraeli, "Notice of I. Disraeli," prefixed to his "Curi- osities of Literature," Boston, 4 vols., 1858; "London Quarterly Review" for September, 181 2. Dissen, dis'sen, (Georg Ludolf,) a distinguished German philologist, born near Gottingen in 1784, studied philology under Heyne, and became professor of classical literature at Gottingen in 1813. He published good edi- tions of Pindar (1830) and of Tibullus, (1835.) He gave especial attention to the philosophy of the ancients, and wrote a work on the moral philosophy of Socrates, as handed down to us in the writings of Xenophon. Died in 1837. Distelmeyer, dis'tel-mfer, (Lambert,) a German jurist, born at Leipsic in 1522, was appointed chancellor by the Elector of Brandenburg in 1558. Died in 1588. See GuNDLiNG, " Distelmeyer's Leben," 1722. Dithraar or Ditmar, dit'mSR, a German chronicler, born about 978, was chosen Bishop of Merseburg in 1009. He wrote a Latin chronicle of the reigns of the emperors Henry I., Otho L, Otho II., Otho HL, and Henry II., which was edited by Leibnitz, who calls it a valuable work. Died in 10 18. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Dithmar or Ditmar, (Justus Christoph,) a German historical writer, born at Rottenburg (Hesse) in 1677, became successively professor of history and of natural law at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. He published a " Life of Pope Gregory VII.," (1710,) "Tacitus's Germany, with a Coinmentary," (1725,) and other works. Died in 1737. Diti, dit'i, in the Hindoo mythology, the mother of the Daityas, or demons. She was one of the wives of Kasyapa, (or Ka9yapa,) and would seem to be opposed to Aditi, whose children, the Adityas or Suras, are in eternal antagonism to the Daityas or Asuras. See Moor's " Hindu Pantheon." Ditmar. See Dithmar. Ditmar, dit^m^R, (Theodor Jakob,) a Prussian his- torian, born in Berlin in 1734, was professor of history in his native city, and wrote a "Method of Teaching Universal History," and other works. Died in 1791. Ditmer, dit'mer, or Ditmar, (Jan,) a Dutch en- graver, born about 1538; died in 1603. Ditricli. See Dietrich. ' Ditters von Dittersdorf, dit'ters fon dit'ters-doRf, (Karl,) a celebrated German composer, born in Vienna in 1739. He formed a friendship with Metastasio, and composed the music of four oratorios of that poet, viz., " Isaac," " David," "Job," and " Esther." Pie composed many successful operas, symphonies, etc. His master- pieces are "Esther," an oratorio, (1785,) and "The Doc- tor and Apothecary," (1786,) a comic opera. Died in 1799. See his Autobiography, (" Selbstbiographie,") 1801 ; Fetis, " Bio- graphie Universelle des Nlusiciens." Ditt'mer, (or d^f'maiR',) (Adolphe,) a French littera- teur, born in London in 1795. He wrote, with M. Cave, " Les Soirees de Neuilly," dramatic and historic sketches, (1827,) which had great success. Died in 1846. Dit'tpn, (Humphrey,) an eminent English mathema- tician, born at Salisbury in 1675, became minister of a dissenting church at Tunbridge. Having attained great proficiency in mathematics, he attracted the notice of Sir Isaac Newton, by whose influence he was chosen mathe- matical master of Christ's Hospital. Pie gained a high reputation by his writings, among which are " Laws of Nature and Motion," (1705,) a "Treatise on Fluxions," (1706,) " Synopsis Algebraica," (1709,) a "Treatise on Perspective," (1712,) and a "Discourse on the Resur- rection of Christ." Died in 171 5. See "Biographia Britannica;" Whiston, "Memoirs." Divini, de-vee'nee, (Eustachio,) an Italian optician, born at San Severino about 1620, excelled in the fabri- cation of telescopes. Diviiio, EL See Morales, (Luis.) Divitiac. See Divitiacus. Div-i-ti'a-cus, [Fr. Diviitac, de've^te'^k',] a chief of the ^dui, a tribe of Gaul, was the friend of Caesar, and the brother of Dumnorix. His tribe, being attacked by the Germans, sent him to Rome to solicit aid. He rendered services to Caesar in his war against Ariovistus and against the Belgae. See CiESAR, "De Bello Gallico;" A. Thierry, " Histoire des Gaulois." Dix, (Dorothea L.,) an American philanthropist, was born in Worcester, Massachusetts. In her youth she supported herself by teaching school, but about 1830 iii- herited sufficient property from a relative to relieve her from the necessity of daily toil. Previous to this she had become deeply interested in the condition of criminals, lunatics, and paupers. She has visited almost every State in the Union in her efforts to relieve the unfortunate and the wretched. Her exertions have contributed largely towards the establishment of lunatic-asylums in New York, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and several other States ; and, by her heroic persistency in memorializing Congress, a bill was finally passed in 1854, appropriating 10,000,000 acres of the public lands to endow hospitals for the indigent insane. But the bill was vetoed by Presi- dent Pierce. Besides tracts for prisoners, memorials to legislatures, etc., she has published several works anony- € as c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Y.^ guttural ; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) DIX 772 DOBNER mously, among which maybe mentioned the "Garland of Flora," issued in 1829, "Evening Hours," etc. Due, (John A.,) an American general and statesman, born at Boscawen, New Hampshire, in 1798. He be- came a lawyer, and a resident of Cooperstown, New York. Having joined the Democratic party, he was elected secretary of state in 1833, and represented the State of New York in the Senate of the United States from 1845 to March, 1849. From December, i860, to March, 1861, he held the position of United States secretary of the treasury. In May, 1861, he was appointed a major-general, and took command at Fortress Monroe in July, 1862. In June, 1863, he moved an army up the York River, threatened Richmond, and cut Lee's com- munications. He commanded the department of the East in 1864. He was sent as minister to France early in 1867. General Dix is the author of two works of travel, — "A Winter in Madeira," (1851,) and "A Sum- mer in Spain and Florence," (1855.) Dixmerie, de la, deh It d^z'meh-re', (Nicolas Bri- CAIRE,) a French //■//m^/^'z/r, born in Champagne in 1730, resided in Paris. He was the author of "The Two Ages of Taste and Genius under Louis XIV. and Louis XV.," (1769,) and other works. Died in 1 791. Dix'on, (Archibald,) an American lawyer, born in North Carolina in 1802. Having removed to Kentucky, he was in 1843 elected by the Whig party Lieutenant- Governor. On the resignation of Mr. Clay, in 1852, he was chosen to fill the vacancy. He afterwards became a pro-slavery Democrat. See Livingston's "Portraits of Eminent Americans." Dix' 911, (George,) Captain, a British navigator, who discovered a number of small islands near the northwest coast of America, and a strait called Dixon's Entrance. He published a "Voyage round the World, 1785-88." Died about 1800. See F. Denis, "Genie de la Navigation." Dix''on, (James,) an English Methodist minister of the present century. He wrote, about 1842, " Methodism, its Origin, Economy, and Present Position," and other works. Dixon, (William Hep'worth,) an able and popular English writer and critic, born in the West Riding of Yorkshire in 1821. He became a resident of London about 1845, published a " Life of John Howard," (1850; 5th edition, 1854,) a work of decided merit. "Wil- liam Penn, a Historical Biography," in which Penn is ably and successfully defended against the charges of Macaulay, appeared in 1851. "His style is good and easy," says the "Edinburgh Review:" "there is life in his narrative and vigour in his descriptions." Since 1853 he has been chief editor of the "Athenaeum." In addition to the works mentioned above, Mr. Dixon has written a "Personal History of Lord Bacon," (1861,) "The Holy Land," (1865,) "New America," (1867,) " Spiritual Wives," (1868,) and "The Tower of London," (1869.) "Mr. Dixon," says the London " Star," referring to " Spiritual Wives," " has, on the whole, treated a very difficult and delicate subject with great refinement and judgment." It has been objected to his " New America" by some critics, and not altogether without reason, that a reader who had little acquaintance with the condition of society in the United States would be apt to suppose many things to be of common occurrence in this country which are in fact so rare as to be unknown even to the most intelligent and best-informed Americans, except a few who have made them the subject of especial inves- tigation. Dix'well, (John,) Colonel, an English republican, born in 1608. He was one of the judges of Charles 1. When his party lost power, he escaped to New England and changed his name. Died in 1689. Diziani, dit-ze-a'nee, (Gasparo,) an Italian painter, born at Belluno in the seventeenth century; died in 1767. Djaafar or Djafar. See Mansoor. Djami or Djamy. See Jamee. Djannaby. See Jannabee. Djayadeva. See Jayadeva. Djehan-Guir, (or -Guyr.) See Jahan-Geer. Djehan-Guiie. See Ja^an-Geer. Djelal-Eddin-Roxuni. See Jelal-ed-Deen. Djem. See Jem. Djemchyd or Djemchid. See Jemsheed. Djemlah. See Jumlah. Djemschid or Djemschyd. See Jemsheed. Djenghiz or Djenghis. See Jengis Khan. Djenguiz or Djenguyz. See Jengis Khan. Djerir. See Jereer. Djevhery. See Jevhery. Djezzar. See Jezzar. Djihanguire. See JahAn-Geer. Djihan-Guyr, (or -Guir.) See Jahan-Geer. Djordjani. See Jorjanee. Dlugosz, dloo'gosh, [Lat. Longi'nus,] (Jan,) an emi- nent Polish historian, born at Brzesnica in 141 5. He was employed by Casimir IV. as ambassador to several foreign courts, and as preceptor of his sons. He opened a new era in Polish historical literature by his Latin "History of Poland," a work of much merit, which con- sists in the matter rather than the style. It was not all printed until 1711. He died in 1480, soon after he had been chosen Archbishop of Lemberg. See LsLEMBiowsKi, " Les HIstoriens Polonais," 1826; " Nouvelle Biograpliie Gen^rale." Dmitri. See Demetrius, Czar of Russia. Dmitrief or Dmitriev, dmee'tre-gf, (Ivan Ivano- vitch,) a Russian poet, born in Simbeersk (Simbirsk) in 1760, served some years in the army, and passed into the civil service. In the reign of Alexander he became minister of justice and privy councillor. He cultivated literature in the intervals of his public employments, and produced popular odes, poetical tales, satires, and fables. His fables are among the best in the language. Died at Moscow in 1837. See Otto, "Lehrbuch der Russischen Literatur." Dmochowski, dmo-Kov'skee, (Francis Xavier,) a Polish poet and historian, born in 1762. He translated the " Iliad" and " Paradise Lost" into Polish. Died in 1808. Doane, don, (George Washington,) an American poet and ecclesiastic, born at Trenton, New Jersey, in 1799. He was ordained an Episcopalian priest in 1821, and preached for several years in New York City and Boston. In 1832 he was elected Bishop of New Jersey, He founded Burlington College in 1846. He published several theological works, and a volume of poems, (1824.) Died in 1859. See Griswold's "Poets and Poetry of America." Dob'bin, (James Cochrane,) an American statesman of the D^ocratic party, born in Fayetteville, North Carolina, in 1814. He graduated at the University of North Carolina, and in 1845 represented the Raleigh district in Congress. He was a delegate to the Baltimore Convention in 1852, and was active in pronKsting the nomination of Franklin Pierce, who in 1853 appointed him secretary of the navy. Died in 1857. See Livingston's " Portraits of Eminent Americans." Dob'bin, (Thomas,) a native of Ireland, who removed to Baltimore in 1790 and published the Baltimore "Tele- graph," the first daily newspaper of that city. Do-belP, (Sydney,) an English poet, born in Kent, or in a suburb of London, in 1824, was first known as Sydney Yendys. He was employed for some years in the counting-house of his father, who was a wine- merchant at Cheltenham. He produced in 1850 "The Roman," a poem, and in 1854 "Balder," which were admired by some and censured as spasmodic by others, Mr. Dobell and Alexander Smith published in 1855 a volume entitled "Sonnets on the War." Among his other poems is "England in Time of War," (1856.) Dobereiner or Doebereiner, do'beh-rrner,(JoHANN Wolfgang,) an eminent German chemist, born at Plof, in Bavaria, in 1780. He became professor of chemistry at Jena in 1810, and, aided by Goethe, made some useful and curious discoveries, among which is the property of spongiform platinum to inflame hydrogen. He pub- lished, besides other works, " Essays on Physical Chem- istry," (1824-36,) and " Principles of General Chemistry," (3d edition, 1826.) Died in 1849. See August Vogel, " Denkrede aut" J. \V. Dobereiner," 1849. Dobner, dob'ner, (Felix Job, otherwise called Ge- lase,) a Bohemian historian and monk, born at Prague a, e, 1, 6, u, y, lo7tg; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon ; DOBREE 773 DODDRIDGE in 1 719. He taught in the colleges of his order in Vienna, Prague, etc., and left works on the history of Bohemia and Moravia which are prized for extensive research and judicious criticism. The most important of these is " Historical Monuments of Bohemia," (" Monumenta historica Bohemiae," 6 vols., 1764-86.) Died in 1790. See Ersch und Gkuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedle." Do-bree', (Peter Paul,) an English critic, born in Guernsey in 1782, was a Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- bridge, and a friend of Porson. He superintended the publication of the notes on some Greek authors, which Porson left at his death, and became professor of Greek at Cambridge about 1823. He left an edition of De- mosthenes unfinished at his death in 1825. Dobrentei, do'bRgn-ta', or Dobreutey, do^bkln-tl^, (GAbor,) an eminent Hungarian author, born at Nagy Szollos in 1786, became about 1820 a resident of Pesth, where he held several public offices. He edited a valuable magazine called the *' Transylvanian Museum," ("Er- delyi Muzeum,") wrote odes, elegies, and other poems, and translated several of Shakspeare's dramas. His principal work, "Ancient Monuments of the Magyar Language," is highly commended. Four volumes of it were published between 1825 and 1850. He was engaged on this work when he died in 1851. Dobreutey. See Dobrentei, Dobrizhoffer, do'bRits-hoffer, (Martin,) a Jesuit missionary, born at Gratz, in Styria, in 1 717. He went to Paraguay in 1749, and laboured about eighteen years among the natives, one tribe of whom were called Abi- pones. In 1784 he published at Vienna, in Latin, a *' History of the Abipones, an Equestrian and Warlike Nation," (3 vols.,) a work of some interest for history and geography. It was translated into English by Sara Coleridge. Died in 1 791. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Dobrowski, do-brov'skee, (Joseph,) an eminent Bo- hemian author and philologist, born near Raab in 1753, was the most learned of those who have cultivated Bohemian literature. He was educated at Prague, and joined the Jesuits. He assisted Pelzel in his " Biogra- phies of Bohemian Authors and Artists," and gained distinction by his researches into the language and lite- rature of the Slavonic nations. He wrote numerous works, of which the most important are a "Grammar of the Bohemian Language," a " History of the Bohemian Language and Literature," (1792,) a "German and Bo- hemian Dictionary," and " Principles of the Old Slavic Dialect," (" Institutiones Linguae Slavica; Dialecti Vete- ris," 1822,) which is highly prized by the Russians. He was subject to frequent attacks of insanity, and in 1801 was in a lunatic-asylum. Died in 1829. See Brockhaus, " Conveisations-Lexikon F. Palacky, "J. Dobrowski's Leben und Wiiken," 1833. Dob'spn, (Matthew,) F.R.S., an English physician, who practised at Liverpool and Bath. He wrote a " Medical Commentary on Fixed Air," and some other scientific treatises. Died in 1784. Dob'son, (Thomas,) a bookseller and writer of Phila- delphia, republished the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," (21 vols. 4to, 1798-1803,) and wrote "Letters on the Character of the Deity, and the Moral State of Man," Died in 1823, Dobson, (William,) a successful English painter of portraits and history, born in London in 1610, was apprenticed to a picture-dealer. Van Dyck introduced him to Charles I., whose portrait he painted. After the death of Van Dyck, Dobson succeeded him as court painter, and was considered the most excellent English portrait-painter of his time. Died in 1646. Docampo, do-klm'po, (Florian,) a Spanish his- torian, born at Zamora in 1 5 13, became canon of the metropolitan church of Granada. At the request of Charles V,, he undertook to write a history of Spain, and published in 1578 "The First Five Books of a General Chronicle of Spain," which throws much light on the origin and antiquities of that nation. It appears that he left the work unfinished when he died in 1590. See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Doccum, van, vin dok'kiim, or Doccom, (Jan,) a Dutch jurist, born at Doccum; died in 1540. Doche, dosh, (Joseph Denis,) a French composer of airs, etc., born in Paris in 1766; died in 1825. Dod, (Albert Baldwin,) D.D., an American divine, son of Daniel Dod, noticed below, was born in Mend- ham, New Jersey, in 1805. He graduated at Princeton in 1822, and became tutor in that college in 1827, and professor of mathematics in 1830. Died at Princeton in 1845. Dr. Dod was an eloquent preacher, and one of the ablest contributors to the "Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review." A collection of his writings h. ^ been published. Dod, (Charles Roger,) an English journalist born in 1793. For about twenty years he was connected with the London "Times," for which he wrote notices of eminent men who died in that period, and reported debates in Parliament. He published an annual called " The Peerage, Baronetage, and Knightage of Great Britain," (1840-56.) Died in 1855. Dod, (Daniel,) an American machinist, born in Vir- ginia in 1788. He built the engine for the Savannah, which in 1819 made the first voyage across the Atlantic ever accomplished by steam. He was killed by a boiler- explosion on the East River, New York, in 1823. Dod, (John,) an English Puritan divine, born at Shot- ledge, in Cheshire, in 1547, ministered at Han well for about twenty years, and was suspended for noncon- formity about 1598. He excelled in the knowledge of Hebrew, and is often called "the Decalogist," from his "Commentaries on the Decalogue," (1606.) In 1624 he became rector of Fawesley. Fuller, in his " Worthies," says, "John Dod was by nature a witty, by industry a learned, and by grace a godly divine." Died in 1645. Dodart, do^'dSR', (Claude Jean Baptiste,) a son of Denis, noticed below, was chosen first physician to Louis XV. in 17 18, and died in 1730, aged sixty-six. Dodart, (Denis,) an eminent French physician, born in Paris in 1634, became physician to Louis XIV. He was chosen a professor of pharmacy in 1666, and was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1673. He contributed to this institution several treatises on natural history, medicine, etc., and made many experiments on insensible perspiration, the results of which were pub- lished in a work called " Statica Medicina Gallica," (1725.) He wrote the preface of a work which the Academy pub- lished on the " History of Plants." Died in 1707. See FoNTENELLE, " £loge de Dodart," 1707. Dodd, (Charles,) the assumed name of an English Catholic priest, who resided at Harvington and wrote "The Church History of England, 1 500-1688," said to be rare and curious. It was intended as an antidote to Burnet. Died about 1745. Dodd, (Ralph,) an English engineer, born in North- umberland about 1756, resided in London, He was the first projector of the Thames Tunnel, which, however, was not made in his time. He also planned the Surrey Canal, Vauxhall Bridge, and other works of public utility, and wrote an "Account of the Principal Canals in the World." Died in 1822. Dodd, (Robert,) a skilful English painter of marine views, born in 1748. Among his works is "The Storm which sunk the Jamaica Fleet in 1782." Died about 1810. Dodd, (William,) D.D., an English clergyman, born at Bourne, in Lincolnshire, in 1729, was ordained in 1753, and became an eloquent and fashionable preacher of London. He was appointed chaplain to the king and preceptor to Philip Stanhope (Earl of Chesterfield) about 1 764. He gained reputation by his writings, among which are " Reflections on Death," " The Visitor," " Sermons," "The Beauties of Shakspeare," and "Commentaries on ^ Scripture." In 1777 he was convicted of forging the signature of Lord Chesterfield to a bond for ;i^4000, fox which he was executed. While confined for this offence, he wrote a poem entitled "Thoughts in Prison." See " Memoirs of Dodd," prefixed to his " Thoughts in Prison ;" Georg Forster, "Leben Dr. W. Dodd's," Berlin, 1779. Dodd'ridge, written also Doderidge, (Sir John,) an eminent English lawyer, born at Barnstaple in 1555. He was appointed the king's principal sergeant-at-law in 1607. From 1613 until his death he was a judge of the court of king's bench. He was a good scholar and € as k; c as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^=See Explanations, p. 23.) DODDRIDGE 774 / DODWELL a learned antiquary, and author of several works, among which are "The Lawyer's Light," "The English Law- yer," and "The Laws of Nobility." Died in 1628. See Foss, "The Judges of England." Doddridge, (Philip,) an eminent English dissenting minister, born in London in 1702, was a relative of the preceding, and was the twentieth child of a London merchant. After finishing his studies in a theological seminary at Kibworth, he began to preach at the same place in 1722. In 1729 he opened an academy for the education of candidates for the ministry at Northampton, where he was also employed as the minister of a dissent- ing church from that date until his death. He married a Miss Maris in 1730. As a minister, he was remarkal)le for his earnestness, fidelity, and fervent devotion. He wrote a large number of excellent and popular religious works, of which the most important are " The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul," {1744,) and "The Family Expositor," {3 vols., 1738,) which is an exposi- tion of the Bible. These have been translated into many languages. The Rev. Robert Hall, in one of his letters, says, " Doddridge is now my prime favourite among divines." His work on the "Evidences of Chris- tianity" has long been used as a text-book at Cambridge, England. He composed some of the best hymns which are used in the dissenting churches. Li 1751 he visited Lisbon for his health ; he died there the same year. See " Memoirs of the Life and Writings of P. Doddridge," by Job Orton ; "Life of Doddridge," by Rev. Dk. Kippis; D. A. Harsha, "Life of Philip Doddridge;" Schmidt, " Leben des Dr. P. Doddridge," 1830. Dodd'ridge, (Philip,) an American lawyer, born in Brooke county, Virginia, in 1772. He acquired distinc- tion as an advocate in trials by jury. Li the Constitu- tional Convention of 1829-30 he represented several counties of western Virginia, and was the leader of the party which preferred a white basis of representation. Died in 1832. Doderidge. See Doddridge. Doderlein, do''der-ln/, (Johann Alexander,) a German historian and antiquary, born in Franconia in 1675 ; died in 1745. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Doderlein or Doederlein, (Johann Christoph,) an eminent German Protestant divine and critic, born at Windsheim, in Bavaria, about 1746, was versed in the Oriental languages. He was chosen professor of the- ology at Altdorf in 1772. He made from the Hebrew text a Latin version of Isaiah, with notes, (1775,) which, says Silvestre de Sacy, "is written in an elegant style." Among his chief works are a " Summary of the Instruc- tion of a Christian Theologian," ("Summa Institutionis Theologi Christian!," 1782,) and (in German)" The Chris- tian Doctrine adapted to the Wants of our Time," (1785.) He contributed to introduce a new theological system opposed to the doctrines of the first Reformers. In 1782 he became professor of theology at Jena. Died in 1792. Doderlein or Doederlein, (Ludvvig,) a son of the preceding, born at Jena in 1791, was a distinguished philologist. He became professor of philology at Er- langen in 1827. He published "Latin Synonyms and Etymologies," (6 vols., 1826-38,) a " Manual of Latin Synonymy," (1839,) an edition of "Tacitus," (1847,) and other works. Died in 1863. Dodge, (Grenville M.,) an American general, born at Danvers, Massachusetts, in 1831. He commanded a brigade at Pea Ridge, March, 1862, and a corps in the army of General Sherman in the campaign against At- lanta, May to September, 1864. Dodge, (Mary Abigail,) a popular and piquant Ame- rican writer, born in Hamilton, Massachusetts, about 1838. She has written on a variety of subjects under the pseudonym of Gail Hamilton, (composed of the last syllable of her Christian name and the name of her birth- place.) Among her works maybe mentioned "Coun- try Living and Country Thinking," (1862,) "Gala Days," (1863,) "A New Atmosphere," (1864,) and " Woman's Wrongs: a Counter-irritant," (1868.) No inconsider- able portion of her writings originally appeared as con- tributions to the "Atlantic Monthly." Dod'ing-ton, (George Buhh,) Lord Melcombe, an English courtier and politician, born in 1691. He was elected to Parliament in 1715, and sent as ambassador to Spain. In 1720 he inherited a large fortune from his uncle, George Dodington, whose name he then assumed. In 1724 he became a lord of the treasury and a partisan of Walpole, whom he deserted in 1740. In 1761 he was raised to the peerage, as Lord Melcombe. He wrote some poetical pieces, and left a Diary, which gives an insight into the cabals and intrigues of his time, together with a candid exposure of his own venality and egotism. He was the patron of Young, Thomson, and Fielding. Died in 1762. Dodoens, do-doons', [Lat. Dodon^'us ; Fr. DoDO- n6e, do'do'na',] (Rembert,) an eminent botanist and physician, was born at Malines, or, according to some authorities, in Friesland, about 1 5 18. He was one of those who contributed most to the progress of botany in the sixteenth century. He became physician to the emperor Maximilian II. in 1570, and to Rodolph II. in 1576. About 1580 he was chosen professor of medicine at Leyden. Before that date he had published several works on botany, with fine figures. The plates of some of these wei-e lent to him by L'£cluse. In 1583 he summed up his previous labours in a " History of Plants," (" Stirpium Historiae Pemptades,") a work of great eru- dition, illustrated with 1300 engravings. He was author of " Praxis Medica," and other works. Died in 1585. See FoppENS, "Bibliotheca Belgica ;" Niceron, " Menioires ;" Van Meerbeck, " Recherches sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Do- doens," 1841 ; AvoiNE, " filoge de R. Dodoens." Do-do-nae'us, a surname of Jupiter, which see. Dodonee or Dodonaeus. See Dodoens. DodsTey, (Robert,) a noted English bookseller and author, born near Mansfield in 1709, lived in London. He was a footman in early life, and in 1732 published a volume of verses entitled "The Footman's Miscellany." His drama " The Toyshop" gained him the friendship of Pope, and was performed with great success in 1735. He then opened a bookstore in Pall Mall, which was much frequented by authors and literary amateurs. He prospered in business, and became one of the principal booksellers in London. In 1737 he produced the farce of "The King and the Miller of Mansfield," which was greatly applauded. The popular and ingenious " Econ- omy of Human Life," which appeared anonymously in 1750, is generally ascribed to him. His tragedy of " Cleone" was performed in 1758 with complete success. Dr. Johnson said, " If Otway had written it, no other of his pieces would have been remembered." He published a "Select Collection of Old Plays," which is highly prized. He purchased Dr. Johnson's poem of " Lon- don" (1738) for ten guineas, and his "Vanity of Human Wishes" for fifteen guineas. Dodsley was the author -of other works, not named above, and was the projector of literary enterprises in which the most eminent talents of the time were enlisted. Died in 1764. See " Biographia Britannica;" Johnson, "Lives of the English Poets." Dod'spn, (James,) an English mathematician, pub- lished various works on mathematics. Died in 1757. Dods'worth, (Roger,) an English antiquary, born in Yorkshire in 1585, wrote 122 volumes on antiquities, which remain as manuscripts in the Bodleian Library. He co-operated with Dugdale in the " Monasticon Angli- canum." Died in 1654. He was patronized by General Lord Fairfax, who bequeathed the above-mentioned manuscripts to the Bodleian Library. Dodvens, See Doudyns. Dod'well, (Colonel Edward,) a British antiquary and artist, produced in 1818 a "Classical and Topo- graphical Tour through Greece," richly illustrated, which is esteemed one of the best works on that subject. It was followed by a costly volume, entitled "Thirty Views in Greece," (1821.) From 1800, when he left college, until his death, he passed the most of his time on the continent. He died in Rome in 1832, leaving drawings of " Cyclopean or Pelasgic Remains in Greece and Italy," which have since been published. Dodwell, (Henry,) a theologian and chronologist, born in Dublin about 1642, settled in London in 1674, and adopted the profession of author and critic, in which he displayed great learning and industry. In 1688 he was chosen Camden professor of history at Oxford ; but. a. e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, s/ior^; a, e, i, o, obscw-e; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon DODWELL US DOLET refusing to take the oath of allegiance to William III., he was removed about 169 1. He wrote several works on theologv and chronology, among which are " Annals of Thucyd'ides and Xenophon," (1696,) "Annotations on the Greek Geographers," " Dissertations on the Ancient Cycles of the Greeks and Romans," etc., (1701,) and a discourse proving that the soul is naturally mortal, and that the bishops have the power of giving immortality, (1706.) The last work excited much controversy, and naturally gave especial offence to the dissenters. Died in 1711. See Brokesby, "Life of Henry Dodwell," 1715; Macaulay, ' History of England," vol. iii. Dodwell, (William,) a son of the preceding, born in 1709, became prebendary of Salisbury and Archdeacon of Berks. He published sermons and treatises on theology, among which is "The Sick Man's Companion." Died in 1785. Doebereiner. See Dobereiner. Doedeilein. See Doderlein. Doellinger. See Dollinger. Doenniges. See Donniges. Doerfel. See Dorfel. Doei-flinger or Doerfling. See Derfflinger. Doeringk. See Doringk. Does, van der. See Dousa. Does, van der, vtn der doos, (Antoon,) a Dutch engraver, born at the Hague in 1610; died about 1680. - Does, van der, (Jacob,) called the Elder, a Dutch landscape-painter, born at Amsterdam about 1620, was a pupil of N. Moyaert. He finished his studies in Rome, and settled at the Hague. He imitated Van der Laer with success, and painted animals and figures with skill. Died in 1673 at Amsterdam. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Does, van der, (Jacob,) the Younger, a Dutch painter of history, son of the preceding, was born at Amsterdam in 1654. He studied under Dujardin and Lairesse. Died in Paris in 1693. Does, van der, (Peter,) a Dutch admiral, who acted a brilliant part in the war which liberated the Dutch from Spanish domination. About 1598 he obtained com- mand of a large fleet, with which he attacked the coast of Spain and pillaged several colonies. Died in the island of Saint Thomas, in the West Indies, in 1599. See Van dek Aa, " Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden." Does, van der, (Simon,) a son of Jacob the elder, born at Amsterdam in 1653, was a skilful landscape-painter. He worked at the Hague, Antwerp, and other places. His works have found their way into the cabinets of various foreign countries. Died about 1700. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Doeveren, van, vtn doo'ver-en, (Wouter,) a Dutch medical writer, born in Zealand in 1730, became pro- fessor of medicine at Leyden in 1771. Died in 1783. Dog''gett or Dog'get, (Thomas,) an Irish actor, born in Dublin ; died in 1721. Dogiel, d6g'yel, (Matthew,) a Polifeh historian, born about 1715, became rector of a college at Wilna. He wrote an important work on Polish diplomacy, "Codex Diplomaticus Regni Poloniae," (1758.) Died in 1760. Doglioni, d6l-yo'nee, (Giovanni Niccol6,) a Vene- tian historical writer, born at Udine, published in 1598 a "History of Venice from its Origin to 1597." Dohm, dom, (Christian Wilhelm,) a German diplo- matist and historical writer, born at Lemgo in 175 1. He entered the civil service of Prussia about 1778, became privy councillor in 1783, and was employed in several missions. He represented Prussia in the Congress of Rastadt in 1797. In 1807 he entered the council of state of Jerome Bonaparte. He wrote, besides other works, "Memoirs of my Time," (1814-19, 5^vols.,) which is regarded as an important work. Died in 1820. See Gronau, " Dohms Biographie," 1824; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgenieiiie Encyklopaedie." Dohna, von, fon do'na, (Alexander,) Count, a Prussian general, born in 1661, was governor of the prince Frederick William who became King of Prussia. He was afterwards appointed first minister of Frederick 1. and Frederick William II. Died in 1728. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie.'' Dohna, von, (Christoph,) born in Prussia in 1702, was made lieutenant-general in 1751, and served with distinction in the Seven Years' war. He commanded the right wing at the battle of Zorndorf, and defeated Haddik in 1758. Died in 1762. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Doig, (David,) a Scottish writer and classical scholar, born in 17 19, taught school at Stirling. He contributed several articles to the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," and addressed to Lord Karnes two " Letters on the Savage State," (1792,) Died in 1800. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Doigny du Ponceau, dwin^ye' dii pdN'so', a French poet, born in Maine about 1750; died in 1830. DoLssin, dw^'siN', (Louis,) a French Jesuit, born in America in 1721, excelled in Latin poetry. He wrote, besides other works, " Sculptura, Carmen," (1752,) a poem on sculpture, and " Scalptura," a poem on en- graving. Died in Paris in 1753. Dokkalfar. See Elves. Dol-a-belTa, (Publius Cornelius,) a Roman of pa- trician rank and ])rofligate habits, born about 70 B.C. He married Cicero's daughter Tullia. He was an adherent of Caesar in the civil war, and fought for him at Phar- salia. He obtained the consulship soon after the death of Caesar, 44 B.C. At first he favoured the senate against Antony ; but he soon went over to the interest of the latter, who probably gave him a large bribe. He com- manded an expedition to Syria, where he was defeated by Cassius, and, being besieged in Laodicea, committed suicide, 43 B.C. See Plutarch, "Antony;" Dion Cassius, "History of Rome." Dolabella, do-lS-bel''ll,(ToMMASO,) an Italian painter, born at Belluno in 1570, worked in Cracow. Died in 1650. DoPben, (John,) an English prelate, born at Stan- wick in 1625. He fought for the king at Marston Moor and at York in the civil war. In 1656 he was ordained, and officiated at Oxford several years. He was rewarded with several benefices at the restoration, (1660,) became Bishop of Rochester in 1666, lord high almoner in 1675. und Archbishop of York in 1683. A few of his sermons were printed. Died in 1686. Dolce, doKchk, or Dolci, doKchee, (Carlo,) an emi- nent Italian painter, born at Florence in 1616, was a pupil of Jacopo Vignali. He confined his talents to re- ligious subjects, except a few portraits. The Emperor of Germany invited him to his court, where he painted several portraits of the imperial family. Among his master-pieces are "Christ on Mount Olivet," and a " Holy Family." His works have an exquisite finish, a soft and harmonious colouring, and are remarkable for a tender and sentimental expression. His pictures are prized as ornaments in many well-chosen collections. Died at Florence in 1686. "Three pen-strokes of Raf- faelle," says Ruskin, " are a greater and better picture than the most finished work that ever Carlo Dolci pol- ished into inanity." See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Dolce, (LuiGi,) an Italian litterateur, born in Venice in 1508. He translated Cicero's Orations, and other ancient authors, and wrote, among other works, "Jo- casta," a tragedy, (1549,) a "Life of Charles V.," (1551,) and a Dialogue on Painting, called "Aretino," (1557.) Died about 1568. See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Dolci. See Dolc?:, (Carlo.) Dolendo, do-]§nMo, (Bartholomeus,) a Dutch en- graver, born at Leyden about 1560. He was a pupil of Goltzius. Dolendo, (Zacharias,) an able engraver, born at Leyden, was a pupil of Jacob von Ghein. Lie was living in 1590. Dolet, d^o'W, (fiTiENNE,) a learned Frenchman, born at Orleans in 1509, gained a wide reputation by his writings on theology, literature, etc., which also exposed him to persecution. He livell for some time at Lyons, where he established a printing-press and published some of his own works, for which he was imprisoned. In 1543 the Parliament condemned his books to be burned, as too favourable to the new doctrines. About € as/^; 9 as g hard; g as/; G, H, y., guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ([^[^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) DOLGOROUKi 77b DO MAT 1546 the author himself, on a false charge of atheism, suffered death by fire. Among his works, in Latin, are a "Dialogue on the Imitation of Cicero," written against Erasmus, a " Commentary on the Latin Language," (1536,) and " Summary of the Acts of Francis L," (1540.) He was a friend of Bonaventure Desperiers. " The French language," says A. F. Didot, " owes him much for his treatises, translations, [from Cicero and Plato,] and poesies." See Bayi^, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" A. F. Didot, " Essai sur la Typographic." Dolgorouki. See Dolgoruki. Dolgoruki or Dolgorouki, doKgo-roo^kee, (Ivan MiKHAiLOViTCH,) Prince, a Russian poet, born at Mos- cow about 1760, attained high dignities in the public ser- vice. From 1802 to 1812 he was Governor of Vladimir. He wrote many articles for literary journals, and gained a high reputation by his poetical epistles and satires. Died in 1823. See Otto, " Lehrbuch der Russischen Literatur." Dolgoruki, (Vassili Vladimirovitch,) a Russian prince and field-marshal, born in 1667. He was sent as ambassador to France and Germany by Peter the Great. In 1726 Catherine I. appointed him general-in-chief, and sent him on an expedition against Persia. Peter II. raised him to the rank of field-marshal in 1728. Soon after this date he lost the favour of the court, and was imprisoned, but was restored in 1741. Died in 1746. Dolgoruki, (Yakof Feodorovitch,) a Russian prince, born in 1639. He distinguished himself in the campaigns of 1696 and 1697 against the Turks, and ob- tained the rank of general. In 1700 he was made prisoner at Narva by the Swedes, who detained him ten years. He was made a senator by Peter I. Died in 1720. Doligny, do'l^n'ye', (Louise Adelaide,) afterwards Madame Dudoyer de Gastels, dii'dwa^ya' deh gts^- thV, a French comic actress, born in Paris in 1746; died in 1823. Dolivar, do-le-vaR', (Juan,) a Spanish engraver, born at Saragossa in 1641 ; died in Paris in 1701. Doll or Doell, dol, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German sculptor, born at Hildburghausen in 1750; died in 1816. Dollinger or Doellinger, doKling^er, (Ignaz,) a German physiologist, born at Bamberg in 1770. In 1826 he became professor of anatomy at Munich. Among his principal works are "Elements of Physiology," (1835,) and "On the Importance of Comparative Anatomy." Died in 1841. See P. F. VON Walther, "Rede zum Andenken an Dr. I. Dol- linger," 1841. Dollinger or Doellinger, (Johann Joseph Ignaz,) a learned Catholic theologian, son of the preceding, born at Bamberg in 1799. He became professor of ecclesias- tical history and canon law at Munich in 1826. He has published a "Treatise on the History of the Church," (1838,) "Origin of Christianity," and other works. See "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1862; " British Quarterly Review" for July, 1862. Dol'lond, (John,) an eminent English optician, born in London in 1706, was descended from French refugees. He learned the trade of a silk-weaver, and followed the same for many years, improving his leisure in the study of sciences and languages. He thus became a profound mathematician and a good linguist. About 1752 John Dollond retired from the trade of weaver, and became a practical optician in partnership with his son. They made improvements in the art, and became celebrated for the fabrication of telescopes. About 1757 he made an important discovery respecting the dispersion (or aberration) of light, and wrote a treatise on the subject, for which the Royal Society awarded him the Copley m&dal. The result of this discovery was the achromatic telescope. In 1761 he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society, and became optician to the king. Died about 1 76 1. See John Kelly, "Life of J. Dollond." Dollond, (Peter,) ascJIi of the preceding, born about 1730, was a worthy successor of his father, under whose tuition he attained great proficiency in mathematics. From 1766 until 1804 he and his brother John were partners, and maintained a high reputation by their skill as opticians. In 1804 John died, and Peter took as a partner his nephew, George Huggins, who then changed his name to Dollond. Peter died in 1820. George died in 1832. The former had improved Hadley's quadrant, and written a treatise on telescopes. Dolomieu, de, deh do'lo'me-uh',(DEODAT Gui Syl- vain Tancrede de Gratet^gRS'ti'',) a celebrated French geologist and mineralogist, born at Dolomieu, in Dauphine, in 1750, was the son of the Marquis of Do- lomieu. He was admitted into the order of Malta, in which he remained until about 1770, when he killed one of his companions in a duel. While confined for this offence, he became a student of the natural sciences. After his release he formed a friendship with La Rochefou- cauld, by whose influence he was chosen a correspondent of the Academy of Sciences. About 1777 he returned to Malta, where he was promoted to some offices in the order. From Malta he made scientific excursions to Sicily and Italy for several years, during which he wrote treatises on volcanoes. He returned to France in 1 791, composed some important articles on geology for the "Journal de Physique," and traversed on foot all parts of that country, with the geologist's hammer in his hand. In 1796 he was appointed professor in the Scht)oI of Mines, and was chosen a member of the Institute. He was one of the savants selected to attend Bonaparte in his expedition to Egypt in 1798, and was delighted with such an opportunity to pursue his favourite studies in a new field of inquiry. After a hasty survey of a part of Lower Egypt, he sailed for France in March, 1799, and was taken prisoner by the Neapolitans, (then at war with the French,) who kept him in a dungeon and treated him with great cruelty. Efforts were vainly made by several sovereign powers for his release, which could not be obtained until the victory of Marengo compelled Naples to make a treaty in which his liberation was positively stipulated. He arrived at Paris in March, 1 80 1, and found that he had been appointed professor of mineralogy in the Museum of Natural History. He delivered one course of lectures, then made a journey to the Alps, and died in November, 1801. "Dolomieu," says Cuvier, "seemed to be born for geology. To a decided passion for that study he joined all the physical and moral faculties requisite for success." Though adverse fortunes did not permit him to fully develop his powers as the author of any system of geology, yet the science is much indebted to his treatises. During his imprisonment, though deprived of pen and ink, he wrote a "Treatise on Mineralogical Philosophy" and a "Memoir on Mineral Species," using the smoke of his lamp as a substitute for ink. See notice, by Cuvier, in the "Biographic Universelle ;"_ Lac^- PEDE, " Notice historique sur la Vie de Dolomieu," 1802; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1804. Dolscius, dols'tse-us, (Paul,) a German Hellenist, born at Plauen in 1526, was a friend of Melanchthon. Died in 1589. Domairon, do'mWxb'n', (Louis,) a French Jesuit, born at Beziers in 1745, wrote "The General Principles of Belles-Lettres," (1785,) and other works. Died in 1807. Domard, do'mtR', (Joseph Franqois,) a French engraver of medals and gems, born in Paris in 1792; died in 1858. Domat, do'mt', or Daumat, dS^mt', (Jean,) an emi- nent French jurist, born at Clermont in Auvergne in 1625. He had intimate relations with the recluses of Port- Royal, especially with Pascal, who at his death intrusted to him his private papers. The details of his virtuous and useful life have not been recorded. His reputation is founded on a great systematic work entitled " The Civil Laws in their Natural Order," (1689.) Many per- sons had attempted to systematize the confused and ill- digested materials of Roman law ; but no one succeeded so perfectly as Domat, who is considered the most emi- nent jurist of his age. He received a pension from Louis XIV. D'Aguesseau, a most competent judge, spoke of him with profound respect. Domat was for many years king's advocate in the presidial court of Clermont. Died in Paris in 1695. See Eugene Cauchv, " Etudes sur Domat," 1852 : Victor Cousin's article in the " Journal des Savants," 1843 ; Sainte-Beuve, " Port-Royal ;" Carre, " Notice historique sur Domat," prefixed to his works, Paris, 1822. a, e, 1, o, iu, y, lon^; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obsatre; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; DO MB AT 717 DOMINICI Dombay, von, fon dom'bi, (Franz,) an Austrian Orientalist, born in Vienna in 1758, was appointed inter- preter to the court for Oriental languages in 1792. He published " Geschichte der Scherifen," a "History of the Shereefs." (princes of Morocco,) (1801,) a "Persian Grammar," (1804,) and other works, which are com- mended by Silvestre de Sacy. Died in 1810. Dombey, doN'bcV, (Joseph,) a French botanist and physician, born at Macon in 1742, studied botany at Paris under Jussieu. He received a commission from Turgot, the prime minister, to visit South America and collect such useful plants as could be profitably culti- vated in France, and arrived at Callao in 1778. He traversed Peru, Chili, etc., discovered mines of gold and quicksilver, and had many romantic adventures. Returning home, he landed at Cadiz in 1785 with an immense collection, of which, it is stated, the Spanish officials confiscated half and damaged the other half. Buffon procured for him a pension of six thousand livres. Dombey was living at Lyons when it was be- sieged in 1793, after which he obtained a mission to the United States. On the voyage thither he was taken by privateers, and imprisoned in Montserrat, where he died about 1794. The French regard him as one of the most enterprising and successful explorers of the domain of botany in the eighteenth century. As he was unable to defray the expense of publishing the results of his researches in Peru, he placed his herbal in the hands of L'Heritier, who prepared a Flora of Peru, which he left in manuscript. See Deleuze, "Notice sur Dombey," in the "Annales du Museum d'Histoire natuielle;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Dombrowski, dom-brov'skee, (John Henry,) an able Polish general, born in the palatinate of Cracow in 1755. In the effort for independence which the Poles began about 1791, he took a prominent part, and ob- tained the rank of general. He was compelled to sur- render to Suvvarrow in November, 1794, when his nation ceased to exist. In 1797 he entered the service of the Cisalpine Republic, for which he formed and commanded a Polish legion. He displayed great valour and ability at Trebbia, (1799,) where he commanded a wing of the French army. After the battle of Jena (i8o6) Bona- parte called him to Poland, where he raised an army of 30,000 Poles. As general of division, Dombrowski gained victories at Dirschau and at Bromberg in 1809. He was wounded at Berezina in 1812, but continued to fight for Bonaparte until 1814. Died in 1818. See L. Chouzko, "Histoire des Legions Polonaises en Italie," 1829; "Nouvelle Biographie Gendrale." Domenichi, do-m^n'e-kee or do-ma'ne-kee, (LuiGi,) an Italian litterateur, born at Piacenza, lived at Venice and at Florence, where he was patronized by Duke Co- simo I. He translated into Italian Plutarch's "Kves," (1555,) Pliny's "Natural History," (1561,) and other works. He also wrote several original works, among which are "The Nobility of Women," ("La Nobilita delle Donne,") and "The Court Lady," ("La Donna di Corte.") Died in 1564. See TiRABosCHi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Domenichi, da, di do-mgn'e-kee or do-ma'ne-kee, (DoMENiCO,) a learned prelate, born in Venice in 1416, lived many years in Rome. He was made referendary by Calixtus III., nuncio by another pope, and Bishop of Brescia by Paul II. He wrote a "Treatise on the Episcopal Dignity," and many other works on theology. Died in 1478. Domenichino, do-m^n-e-kee'no, [Fr. Dominiquin, do'me'ne'kdN',] an eminent Italian painter, whose proper natne was Domenico Zampieri, do-m^n'e-ko dzSm-pe- a'ree, was born at Bologna in 1581. He studied under Annibal Caracci in Rome, where he remained some years and was patronized as a painter and architect by Gregory XV. He afterwards worked in Naples, where he died in 1641. He painted in oil and in fresco, was a good colorist, and excelled both in history and land- scapes. Among his master-pieces are "The Martyrdom of Saint Agnes," and the "Communion of Saint Je- rome," finished about 1612, which is to be seen in the Vatican opposite Raphael's "Transfiguration." Some judges, as Caracci and N. Poussin, estimate him as scarcely inferior to any painter except Raphael, Cor- reggio, and Titian. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy ;" Malvasia, " Felsina Pittrice ;" Bolognini-Amorini, " Vitadi Domenico Zampieri," 1839 ; Bellori," Vitede' Pittori;" Nagler," Neues Allgemeines Kiinstlei- Lexikon;" Lecarpentier, "Notice sur D. Zampieri," 1812. Domenici, do-m§n'e-chee or do-ma'ne-chee, (Fran- cesco,) an Italian painter, born at Treviso, lived about 1530, and died at the age of thirty-five. He is called one of the best pupils of Titian. Domenico. See Dominic, Saint. Domenico, do-men'e-ko, {Alexis,) [Fr. Dominique le Grec, do''me'n^k' leh gR^k,] called il Greco, (^1 gRa'ko,) an artist, born in the Greek Archipelago about 1547, was a pupil of Titian in Venice. He excelled in painting, sculpture, and architecture, and imitated the manner of Titian with success. In his later years he worked in Toledo and other cities of Spain, where he produced many admired paintings and formed some able pupils. Pie designed a church in Toledo, and adorned it with sculptures and pictures. Died in 1625. See Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Domenico d'Asciano. See Bartolo, (Domenico.) Domenico de' Barbieri, do-m^h'e-ko da baR-be- a'ree, or Domenico Fiorentino, (fe-o-rgn-tee'no,) a painter, sculptor, and engraver, born at Florence in 1506 ; died in 1560. Domenico degli Camei, do-mln'e-ko daKyee ki- ma'ee, an Italian artist, born at Milan, derived his sur- name from his skill in engraving gems in relief, or cameos. His family name was Compagni. Vasari speaks with admiration of his portraits of Ludovico Sforza and other princes, which are among the most precious monuments of modern iconography. Died about 1490. Domenico Veneziano, do-m§n'e-ko va-n^t-se-i'no, or Domenico of Venice, an Italian painter, born about 1408, is said to have been the first who painted in oil at Florence. He was assassinated by Castagno, the painter, about 1462. (See Castagno.) See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." Domergue, do^miRg', (Francois Urbain,) a French grammarian, born at Aubagne in 1745, settled in Paris about 1790, and a few years later was chosen a member of the Institute. He was the author of " Orthographic Exercises," and other grammatical works. Died in 1810. Dom'ett, written also Domott, (Sir William,) an English admiral, born in Devonshire about 1754, served under Rodney and Nelson against the French. Died in 1828. Domingo, do-m^ng'go, (Luis,) a Spanish painter and sculptor, born at Valencia in 1718; died in 1767. Domingo de Guzman. See Dominic, Saint. Dom'i-nic, [Sp. Domingo de Guzman, do-meng'go da gooth-mSn' ; Fr. Dominique, do''me^nek'; It. Dome- nico, do-men'e-ko,J Saint, the founder of the order of Dominicans, was born at Calahorra, in Old Castile, in II 70. Having become noted for his zeal and elo- quence as a preacher, he was admitted in 1198 into the chapter of the Bishop of Osma, whom he assisted in his efforts to convert the Albigenses in France. According to the Catholics, he performed many miracles, and offered to sell himself as a slave in order to raise money for charitable purposes. He appears to have been one of the instigators of the crusade against the Albigenses about 1 212, in which many thousands of those people perished. In 1215 he founded the order of Preaching Friars, or Dominicans, which was approved by the pope in 12 16 and wa-s rapidly multiplied in Christendom. Their rules exact rigorous fasting and total abstinence from flesh. The design of the founder was to make the conversion of heretics their special pursuit. In France they were often called Jacobins. Dominic became the first general of the order. The pope created in his favour the ofiice of Master of the Sacred Palace, which is always filled by a Dominican. He died in 1221, and was canonized by Gregory IX. in 1234. SeeTouRON, "Vie de Saint-Dominique," 1739; Castillo, "His- toria del Santo Domingo," 1612-22; Lacordaike, " Vie de Saint- Dominique," 1840 ; BoTTONi, " Vita di San Domenico," 3 vols., 1789. Dominici, da, dS. do-mee'ne-chee, (Bernardo,) a Neapolitan artist, published " The Lives of Neapolitan Painters, Sculptors, and Architects," (3 vols., 1742-45.) € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) DOMINIKUS DONATl Dominikus, do-mee'ne-kCis, (Jakob,) a German his- torian, born at Rheinbergen in 1764. Among his works, which are highly commended, are "Ferdinand, Duke of Alva," (1796,) and "Henry IV. of France," (2 vols., I797-) Dominique. See Domenico and Dominic, Saint, Dominique Barriere, do^me'n^k' bt're-aik', a French engraver, born at Marseilles in 1622, worked at Rome. Dominique le Grec. See Domenico, (Alexis.) Dominiquin. See Domenichino. Dominis, de, di dom'e-n^ss, (Marcantonio,) an Italian theologian, born in the isle of Arba, near Dal- matia, in 1566. He gained early distinction as professor of philosophy and mathematics at Padua, ancl became Archbishop of Spalatro. Before this promotion he wrote a curious treatise on light, " On the Rays of Light and Vision in Perspective Glasses and in the Rainbow," (" De Radiis Visus et Lucis in Vitris perspectivis et Iride," 1611,) in which the phenomenon of the rainbow was explained for the first time. About 1615 he removed to England, turned Protestant, and was appointed Dean of Windsor by James I. He published arguments against Popery in his work " On the Ecclesiastical Repnblic," (" De Republica Ecclesiastica," 1617.) He returned to Italy in 1622, and abjured the doctrines of that work. On a suspicion that he was about to recant again, he was imprisoned at Rome, and died in prison in 1624. See VoLTAiKE, "Lettres philosophiques;" Limborch, "Historia Inquisitionis." Domitian, do-mish'e-an, [Lat. Domitia'nus; Fr. DoMiTiEN, do^me'se'^N"^ or, more fully, Ti'tua Fla'- vius Domitia'nus, a Roman emperor, the second son of Vespasian, born in 51 A.D., succeeded his brother Titus in 81. Though his character was depraved and cruel, he at first affected a zeal for public virtue and jus- tice. He was defeated by the Dacians, and made a dis- graceful treaty, by which he bound himself to pay them tribute. His armies were generally unsuccessful, except in Britain, which was conquered by Agricola. He mar- ried Domitia Longina, to whom he gave the title of Augusta. Many innocent persons fell victims to his suspicions, his cruelty, or his rapacity. He banished the philosophers and literati, among whom was Epictetus. One of his favourite pastimes was hunting and killing flies. A conspiracy was formed among his guards and courtiers, and he was killed in his palace in 96 A.D., when the senate chose Nerva as his successor. See Tacitus, " Historia ;" Suetonius, "Domitianus ;" Niebuhr, " Romische Geschichte," vol. ii. ; J. Arrhenius, " Vita Imperatoris Domitiaui," 1696. Domitianus. See Domitian. Domitianus, do-mish-e-a'nus, (Lucius Domitius,) a Roman general, who assumed the title of emperor in the reign of Diocletian. He was put to death in 288 A.D. Dom-i-til'la or Domitia, do-mish'e-a, the wife of the emperor Vespasian, was the mother of Titus and Domitian. She died before the accession of Vespasian. Domitius Afer. See Afer. Domitius Ahenobarbus. See Ahenobarbus. Dommartin, do'mtR^tiN', (Elzeard Auguste,) a French general, born in 1768, distinguished himself at the battle of the Pyramids and at El Arish. He was killed at Rosetta in 1799. Domnus. See Donus. Don, (David,) a Scottish botanist, born at Forfar in 1800. He went to London in 1819, and gained repu- tation by a "Monograph on the Genus Saxifraga." In 1822 he was appointed librarian of the Linnaean Society, to which he contributed several able botanical treatises. In 1825 he produced a valuable work on the plants of Nepaul, " Prodromus Florae Nepalensis." He became professor of botany in King's College, London, in 1836. Died in 1840. Don, (George,) father of the preceding, born about 1770, was proprietor of a nursery and botanic garden at Forfar, and was a good botanist. Died in 1814. Don, (Sir George,) a British general, born in 1756; died in 1832. Don, (George,) a botanist, born in 1798, was a brother of David Don, noticed above. He made scientific ex- cursions to Africa and South America, and published an excellent " System of Gardening and Botany," (4 vols., 1831-38.) Died in 1856. Don'ald I., King of Scotland, is said to have been the first Christian king of that country. Died about 216 A.D. Donald II., King of Scotland, reigned about four years, and died about 864 a.d. Donald IV. or VI., King of Scotland, reigned from 892 to 904 A.D. Donald VII. See Duncan. Donald VIII., sometimes called Donald Bane, usurped the throne of Scotland in 1093. He was de- posed by Edgar Atheling in 1098. Don'ald-son, (John,) a skilful Scottish portrait- painter, born in Edinburgh in 1737, lived some years in London. He published an " Essay on the Elements of Beauty," and a volume of poems. He was a very suc- cessful artist, especially in miniature. Died in 1801. See Chambers, " Biograpliical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Don'ald-son, (Professor John,) an eminent British agriculturist of the present age. He published a " Treat- ise on Manures and Grasses," (1842,) "Cultivated Plants of the P'arm," (1847,) and "Agricultural Biography," (London, 1854,) which is said to be an excellent work. Don'ald-son, (Rev. John William,) an English philologist, born in 1812, published Greek, Latin, and Hebrew grammars, and other works. Died about 1861. Donaldson, (Thomas Leverton,) an English archi- tect, born in London about 1795. He published a " Collection of Doorways from Ancient and Modern Buildings in Greece and Italy," (1833.) In 1843 be- came professor of architecture in University College, London. Pie was architect of All-Saints Church, Lon- don, and of other churches in or near that city. Donaldson, (Walter,) a Scottish writer, born at Aberdeen about 1575, published " Synopsis OEconomica." Donat. See Donatus. Donatello, do-nl-teKlo, ( Donato di Belto di Bardo,) an eminent sculptor, born in Florence in 1383, worked in Florence, Venice, Rome, and Padua, and was highly successful. He was patronized by the famous Cosimo de' Medici. Among his best productions are bronze figures of Saint George, of Saint Mark, and of "Judith holding the Head of Holofernes." He excelled in the representation of historical events by bas-reliefs. His character was noble and liberal. Died in 1466. His works are commended for correctness of form, for pro- priety of attitude, and for power and truth of expression, sometimes reaching the pathetic and sublime. See Andrea Francioni, " Elogio di Donatello," 1837; Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Donatello, (Simone,) a Florentine sculptor, brother of th^ preceding. He was invited to Rome in 143 1 by Pope Eugene, and spent about twelve years in adorning one of the doors of Saint Peter's with bas-reliefs. Donati, do-ni'tee, a noble and powerful Guelph family of Florence, which flourished about the end of the thirteenth century. Gemma Donati, the wife of Dante, was a member of this family. Donati, (Alessandro,) an Italian Jesuit, poet, and antiquary, born at Sienna in 1584, professed rhetoric in Rome with distinction. He wrote, in Latin, a poem on the " Poetic Art," an epic poem named " Constantinus," (1640,) and an excellent work on the edifices of Rome, ("Roma vetus et recens," 1633,) which was perhaps superior to anything previously written on the antiquities of that city. Died in 1640. Donati, (Antonio,) a Venetian naturalist, born in 1606 ; died in 1659. Donati, do-n^'tee, (Bindo,) an Italian poet, born at Florence, wrote in the Tuscan language. He was ranked by Crescimbeni among the first writers of his time. Died about 1300. Donati, (Corso,) a Florentine noble, who was a leader of the Guelphs. By his talents and rank he acquired great influence in public affairs. About 1300 the people of Florence were divided into two factions, the Neri and Bianchi, (Blacks and Whites.) Corso Donati was the chief of the former party, which, by the aid of foreign troops under Charles de Valois, obtained power in 1301, a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sho7-t ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t ; n6t good; mooni DON ATI 779 2) 07V/ when they banished, or killed their principal rivals, of whom Dante was one. Donati soon lost his influence with his own party, was accused of tyrannical designs, and, failing to appear at the trial, was condemned in 1308, and destroyed himself. See SisMONDi, "Histoiie des Republiques Italiennes." Donati or Donate, do-na'to, (Marcello,) Count di Ponzano, (de pon-zi'no,) an Italian physician, born at Correggio in 1538. He wrote " De Medica liistoria niirabili," (1586.) Died in 1602. See Castellani, "Vita del celebre Medico M. Donati," 1788. Donati, (Vitaliano,) an Italian physician, eminent as a naturalist, was born at Padua in 17 13. Promi:)ted by a passion for botany and other natural sciences, he tra- versed Italy for about eight years, and was employed by Pope Benedict XIV. to make collections for his college. He then explored Illyria, and undertook a description of the productions of the Adriatic. In 1750 an outline of his intended work on the "Natural History of the Adriatic" was published. He also visited Syria and Egypt for scientific purposes, and sent home many ob- jects of natural history. On his voyage homeward he perished by shipwreck in 1763. See Gennari, " Elogio di V. Donati," 1839. Donato. See Donatello. Donate, do-na'to, (Bernardino,) an Italian philolo- gist, was born at Zano, near Verona. He was professor of Greek at Padua about 1532. He translated Xeno- phon's book " On Economy," and other Greek works. He was the first editor of " Chrysostom on Saint Paul" in Greek. Died about 1550. Donato, (Francesco,) Doge of Venice, was elected in 1545, and died in 1553, leaving a good reputation for eloquence and wisdom. He maintained the neutrality of Venice in the war between Charles V. and Henry II. of France. See Daru, " Histoire de Venise." Donate or Donati, (Geronimo,) a Venetian states- man, negotiated a peace between the pope and Venice in 1510. His abilities were extolled by Erasmus. Died in 1 5 13. Donate, (Leonardo,) was Doge of Venice from 1606 to 1612. He firmly resisted Po])e Paul V., who wished to deprive the republic of its jurisdiction over the clergy, and who laid the state under an interdict in 1606. This was finally removed without any concession on the part of Venice. Died in 1612. See Andrea Morosini, "Vita Leonardi Donati," 1628 ; Pierre Marcel, "Viise Donatoruni." Donate, (Niccolo,) a Venetian diplomatist, born in 1705. He wrote "L'Uomo di Governo," ("The States- man,") which was translated into French by Robinet, (1767.) Died in 1765. Donato, (Zeno,) an Italian painter, born at Verona, flourished about 1500. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. Do-na'tus, [Fr. Donat, do^nt',] Bishop of Casas Nigrae, in Numidia, the chief author of the schism of Donatists, which began about 305 A.D., disturbed the church for more than a century, and filled Africa with dire calamities. With an affected zeal for discipline, he formed a party against Cecilianus, Bishop of Carthage, as being identified with some who, through fear of per- secution, had given up the sacred books and were hence called "Traditores." He taught that the Church was not infallible ; but it does not appear that he made inno- vations in doctrine. This party became very numerous in Africa, and, it is said, burned the churches, of the Catholics and massacred the members of that party. At the Council of Aries, in 314, the question was decided in favour of Cecilianus. The Donatists, however, in- creased until 410, when the emperor Honorius convoked a council at Carthage, which condemned them as here- tics. This result is ascribed chiefly to the efforts of Saint Augustine. They became divided into several sects, and about the sixth century had sunk into insignificance. See Saint Augustine, "De Ha;reticis;" Tillemont, "Me- moires;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Donatus, the second of this name, was elected Bishop of Carthage in 316 a.d. by the Donatists, of whom he became the master-spirit. He is said to have been learned and eloquent, but haughty. His partisans gave him the surname of Magnus, (the "Great.") He died in exile about 355. The Donatists in his time were nearly as numerous in Africa as the Catholics. See Pluquet, " Dictionnaire des Heresies." Donatus, [Fr. Donat, do'nt',] (/Elius,) a celebrated Latin grammarian, born about 333 a.d. He taught rhetoric in Rome, and was a teacher of Saint Jerome, who speaks highly of his talents. His "Elements of Grammar" ("Ars Grammatica") served as the basis of nearly all subsequent elementary works on that subject, and was generally used in the schools of the middle ages. He also wrote an able commentary on Terence, which is extant. See L. ScHOPFEN, "De Terentio et Donato," 1824. Donckers. See Donkers. Dondi, don'dee, (Giacomo,) born at Padua, was emi- nent as a philosopher and physician. Fie wrote " Store- house of Medicine," (" Promptuarium Medicinae,") and made a famous clock in Padua in 1344. Dondi, (Giovanni,) a son of the preceding, born in 1318, was a physician and mathematician, and the friend of Petrarch, who addressed to him several letters. He invented a celebrated clock, which was placed in Pavi'a and procured for him and his descendants the surname of HoROLOGius, or Dale' Orologio. Died in 1389. See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Dondi dair Orologio, don'dee dai-lo-ro-lo'jo, (Carlo Antonio,) Marquis, an Italian naturalist, was born of a noble family of Padua about 1750. He de- voted his life chiefly to natural history and chemistry. He wrote an "Introduction to the Natural History of the Euganean Hills," (1780,) and a few other scientific works. Died in 1801. Dondini, don-dee'nee, (Guglielmo,) an Italian poet and Jesuit, born at Ancona in 1606, was professor of eloquence in Rome for many years. Among his works are a Latin poem "On the Birth of the Dauphin of France," (1639,) and a " History of the Actions, in France, of Far- nese. Prince of Parma," (1673.) Denducci, don-doof'chee, (Giovanni Andrea,) an Italian painter, surnamed IL Mastelletta, ^1 mas-tel- let'ta, was born at Bologna in 1575. "He had a rich imagination," says Auguis, "a pure design, and vigorous colour." His reputation was high in his own time, but has since declined. He died in 1637, or, according to another account, in 1655. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Doneau, do'no', [Lat. Donel'lus,] (Hugues,) an able French jurist and Protestant, born at Chalons- sur-Saone in 1527. He was teaching jurisprudence at Bourges in 1572, when, by the aid of his scholars, he escaped the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew and fled from France. He afterwards professed law at Heidel- berg, Leyden, and Altorf, where he died in 1591. He is the author of voluminous and esteemed commentaries on civil law. See Taisand, "Vies des Jurisconsultes ;" Moreri, "Diction- naire Historique ;" Zeidler, "Spicilegium Observationum Vitam H. Donelli ilkistrantium," 1766. Donellus. See Doneau. Don'el-ly, (Sir Ross,) a British admiral, who entered the navy at an early age. He fought with distinction under Lord Howe in June, 1794, and commanded the squadron before Toulon in 1803. For his conduct at Montevideo in 1807 he received the thanks of Parlia- ment. He was made rear-admiral in 1 814, and full admiral in 1838. Died in 1841. Dengelberge, de, deh dong'el-bgRG^eh, (Henri Charles,) a Belgian historian, born probably at Brussels in 1593 ; died in 1660. Dongeis, d6N^gw3,^ (Nicolas,) a French jurist, born in Paris about 1634, was a nephew of the poet Boileau, and an acquaintance of Voltaire. Died in 171 7. Doni, do'nee, (ADONE,)an able painter of the Roman school, born at Assisi, worked about 1540. He is re- puted the greatest painter that Assisi ever produced. Doni, (Antonio Francesco,) an Italian litia-ateier, born at Florence about 1508. He lived a wandering life, and gained a scanty subsistence by his writings, some of € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Sl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) DON I 780 DONZELLI which were facetious, humorous, or satirical, and had a temporary vogue. Among his works is a treatise on painting and sculpture, entitled " Disegno partito in piu Ragionamenti," "The Gourd," ("LaZucca," 155 1,) "The Marbles of Doni," (1552,) and "La Libraria del Doni," (1550,) a bibliographical work, which passed through many editions, but is very defective. Died in 1574. See TiRABOsCHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" Negri, "Istoriade' Fioreiitini Scrittori;" Niceron, " Memoiies." Doni, (Giovanni Battista,) an eminent Italian scho- lar and antiquary, born in Florence in 1593. The study of antiquities became his ruling passion, and he made an immense collection of rare objects. In 1623 he removed to Rome, where he was patronized by Cardinal Barberini and was made secretary of the Sacred College. He re- turned to Florence in 1640, and was chosen professor of eloquence. He wrote several Latin poems, (" Carmina," 1628,) and treatises on ancient music, one of which is named "Lyra Barberina," (1773.) Died in 1646. See Bandini, "De Vita et Scriptis J. B. Donii," 1755. Doni d'Atticlii, do^ne' di'te'she', } (Louis,) a French bishop and biographer, born in 1596; died in 1664. Donini, do-nee^nee, (Girolamo,) a skilful Italian painter, born at Correggio in 1681, was a pupil of Carlo Cignani, and worked at Bologna. He excelled in design and colour, and is said to have finished his works with greater care and delicacy than any eminent painter ex- cept Carlo Dolce. Died about 1740. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Donis, do'nis, (Nikolaus,) a German monk and geo- grapher, lived in the monastery of Reichenbach about 1450. He produced a Latin version of Ptolemy's Geo- graphy, to which he added graduated maps, and an ori- ginal treatise (in Latin) " On the Wonders of the World." He presented a copy of this work to the pope in 1471. Donizetti, don-e-zet'tee or do-nid-zet'tee, (Gaetano,) an excellent Italian musical composer, born at Bergamo in 1798, studied music under Mattei at Bologna. He served several years in the army, which he quitted about 1822. After many essays, he produced in 1830, at Milan, his opera "Anna Bolena," which was much admired. It was followed by many other operas, which were very suc- cessful and still retain their popularity, among which are "Lucrezia Borgia," (1833,) "Lucia di Lammermoor," (1835,) and "Linda di Chamouni," (1842.) In the latter part of his life he was professor of counterpoint in the Royal College of Naples, and chapel-master and com- poser to the court of Vienna. Died at Bergamo in 1848. See A. DE Lafage, " Notice sur Donizetti ;" Scudo, "Donizetti etl'licole Italienne depuis Rossini ;" Fetis, " Biographic Universelle des Miisiciens." Donkers, donk'ers, or Donckers, (Jan or Pieter,) a Dutch painter, born at Gouda about 1610, died pre- maturely. His works are highly praised. Donkers, Donckers, or Donoker, (Pieter,) a Dutch painter of history and portraits, born at Gouda about 1612. He worked at Rome. Died in 1668. Donn or Donne, don, (Abraham,) an English mathe- matician, born at Bideford in 1718; died in 1746. Donnadieu, do''ni:'de-uh', (Gabriel,) a French gene- ral, born at Nimes in 1777; died in 1849. Donne, do'na', (Alphonse,) a French savant, born at Noyon in 1806. He wrote treatises on the physiology of milk, blood, mucus, and saliva, Donne, don, or Donn, (Benjamin,) an English mathe- matician of Bideford, born in 1729, published several treatises. Died in 1798. Donne, (John,) an eminent English poet and divine, born in London in 1573, was educated in the Catholic religion, which he renounced in favour of the Church of England. He was secretary to Lord-Chancellor Eger- ton, when he privately married a niece of that nobleman and consequently lost his office. In 1610 he wrote the " Pseudo-Martyr," which procured him the favour of James L, who persuaded him to take holy orders about 1614, and made him one of his chaplains. He gained celebrity for his eloquence as a preacher, and in 162 1 was appointed Dean of Saint Paul's. Donne was the first and Cowley the second of the school which John- son denominates "metaphysical poets," who laboured after conceits and novel turns of thought. " Donne," says Hallam, " is the most inharmonious of our versifiers. Of his earlier poems many are very licentious ; the later are chiefly devout. Few are gooa for much ; the conceits have not even the merit of being intelligible." Dryden styles him "the greatest wit, though not the greatest poet, of our nation." He wrote satires, elegies, and other poems. His Sermons, published in 1640, are much ad- mired for learning and subtlety. He died in 163 1. His life was written by Izaak Walton, (1640.) See, also, H. Alford, " Life of Donne," 1839; "Retrospective Review," vol. viii., 1823. Donneau de Vize, do'no' deh xe'zhf, (Jean.) a French critic and journalist, born in Paris in 1640. He wrote several successful comedies, and founded about 1680 the " Mercure galante," a monthly review, in which he attacked Racine and Moliere and published nev/s of the court, etc. This was probably the earliest French journal or newspaper. Died in 1710. Donner,don'ner, (Georg Raphael,) a skilful German sculptor, born at Essling in 1695 ; died in 1741. Donnet, do'n.y, (Ferdinand Francois Auguste,) a French prelate, born at Bourg Argental in 1795, became Archishop of Bordeaux in 1837, and a cardinal in 1852. Donniges or Doenniges, don'niG-es, (Wilhelm,) a German publicist, born near Stettin in 1814. He wrote, besides other works, a " History of the German Empire in the Fourteenth Century," (1842,) Donnino, don-nee'no, (Agnolo,) a painter, born at Florence, lived about 1500. He is praised by Vasari. Donnissan, de, deh do'ne'sdN', Marquis, a French royalist officer, who took a prominent part in the civil war of La Vendee in 1793. He died on the scaffold about the end of 1793. Dono, (Paolo dl) See Uccello, (Paolo.) Donoli, do-no'lee, (Alfonso Francesco,) an Italian medical writer, born in Tuscany in 1635 ; died in 1724. Donoso, do-no'so, (Jose,) a Spanish painter, born in New Castile in 1628, worked in Madrid, several churches of which he adorned with paintings. His manner is said to resemble that of Paul Veronese. Died in 1686. Donoso Cortes, do-no'so koR-tgs', (Juan,) Marquis de Valdegamas, (val-da-g§.'mSs,) a Spanish statesman and writer, born in Estremadura in 1809. He was a classical scholar, and displayed poetical talents at an early age. He at first favoured the Liberal party in politics. At the death of Ferdinand VII. (1833) he supported the cause of Isabella and her mother, Christina, against Carlos. About 1840 he was secretary to the queen-mother Chris- tina, then an exile in France. In 1844 he was chosen secretary to the queen Isabella, and was made Marquis of Valdegamas. In his later years he became conserva- tive, and wrote political works which are admired for their literary merit. In his "Essay on Catholicism, Liberalism, and Socialism" (1851) he appears as a zeal- ous champion of the Catholic Church. He was sent as minister to Berlin in 1848, and was Spanish minister at Paris when he died in 1853. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Donoughmore. See Hutchinson, (Richard Hely.) Don'o-van, (Edward,) an English naturalist, author of an esteemed " Natural History of British Insects," (16 vols., 1792-1816.) About 1797 he produced a "Natural History of British Birds." Between 1798 and 1805 he issued a series of works on the insects of Cliina, India, and other parts of Asia, which were favourably received. "A great number of species," says Swainson. ' are here delineated for the first time." He also wrote ' Descrip- tive Excursions through South Wales," ar.d edited a periodical called "The Naturalist's Repository." Died in 1837. Do'nus I., or Dom'nus, a native of Rome, was chosen pope in 677 A.D., as successor to Dieudonne II., (Adeo- dat.) Died in 678. Donus II., or Domnus, elected pope in 974, accord- ing to some authorities was the successor of Benedict VI. He is supposed to have died in December, 975. Dony, do''ne', (Jean Jacques Daniel,) a Belgian metallurgist, born at Liege in 1759 ; died in 1819. Donzelli, don-zel'lee, (Ippolito and Pietro,) Italian painters, who were brothers, and worked at Naples about 1460-90. a, e, 1, o u, y, long; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; DONZELLINI 781 DORIA Donzellini, don-zel-lee'nee, (Girolamo,) an Italian medical writer, born in the province of Brescia ; died at Venice about 1560. Donzello. See Donzelli. Doo, (George Thomas,) an eminent English his- torical engraver, was born in Surrey in 1800. He was elected Royal Academician about 1857, having previously received the title of historical engraver to the queen. Among his works, which are mostly line engravings, are the "Ecce Homo," after Correggio, the "Infant Christ," after Raphael, and "Italian Pilgrims coming in Sight of Rome," after Eastlake. Doo'dj^, (Samuel,) an English botanist, born in Staf- fordshire, was director of a botanic garden at Chelsea, lie made discoveries in cryptogamous plants, and con- tributed to the " Synopsis" of Ray, who was his friend. Died in 1706. Doo'lit-tle, (Thomas,) an English nonconformist minister, was born at Kidderminster in 1630. He wrote "The Complete BDdy of Practical Divinity," and other apprv)ved works. Died in 1707. Doo'ly, (John Mitchell,) an American judge, was born in Georgia about 1772. He embraced the profes- sion of law, and became judge of the Western Circuit of Georgia in 1816. He was afterwards twice elected judge of the Northern Circuit of Georgia. Died in 1827. Judge Dooly was a noted wit and humorist. Doorree, Dourri, orDurri (door're) Effendi, (Ah- med,) a Turkish diplomatist and writer, born in Erzroom, was sent as ambassador to Persia in 1720. Died in 1722. See Von Hammer, "Geschichte des Osmanlschen Reichs." Doppelmayr, dop'pel-mlR^ written also Doppel- maier and Doppelmayer, (Johann Gabriel,) a Ger- man mathematician, born at Nuremberg in 167 1. He was professor of mathematics at Nuremberg from 1704 until 1750. In 1713 he was chosen Fellow of the Royal Society of London. He was skilful in polishing mirrors and grinding lenses for telescopes. Among his principal works are an "Introduction to Geography," (1714,) a "Celestial Atlas," in Latin, (1742,) and "Electric Phe- nomena recently discovered," (1744.) Near the end of his life he distinguished himself by his electrical experi- ments. Died in 1750. Sfee " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Doppert, dop'p^Rt, (Johann,) a German scholar, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1671 ; died in 1735. Doppet, do'pi', (Francois Amedek,) a physician and general, born at Chambery in 1753. He entered the army of the French republic about 1792, became general- in-chief of the army of the Alps, and directed the siege of Lyons in 1793. He exerted his power to prevent carnage and pillage at the capture of this city, and after- wards commanded in Spain. On account of ill health, he retired from service in 1794. He wrote medical and political treatises, romances, and memoirs of his own life. The last is his best work. Died about 1800. See Lamartine, " History of the Girondists ;" " Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale." Dop'ping, (Anthony,) Bishop of Meath, was born in Dublin about 1642; died in 1697. Doppler, dop'pler, (Christian,) a German mathe- matician, born at Salzburg in 1803, loecame professor of experimental physics at Vienna in 185 1. Do^ran, (John,) an English author, born in London in 1807. He was tutor of several young members of the English nobility, and passed some years in France. In 1822 he produced "The Wandering Jew," a melodrama. He contributed many articles in prose and verse to the periodicals, and wrote, among other works, " Table Traits," (1854,) "Habits and Men," "Knights and their Days," and " Monarchs Retired from Business," (1857,) which were favourably received. See " Eraser's Magazine" for August, 1855. Dorange, do'rSNzh', (Jacques Nicolas Pierre,) a French poet, born at Marseilles in 1786; died in 181 1. Dorat, do'rt', (Claude Joseph,) a French poet, born in Paris in 1734, inherited an easy fortune, and had no profession but that of author. He wrote "Zulica," and other tragedies, some of which were moderately successful, several comedies, and numerous odes, poetical tales, and fugitive verses, which were favourably received. His " Theatrical Declamation" is considered his best poenu He was severely criticised by contemporary writers foi his mannerism and persiflage. Died in 1780. See Grimm, " Correspondance ;" Madame de Genlis, "Me- moires;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Dorat or Daurat, d5'r3', [Lat. Aura'tus,] (Jean,) a French poet, born at Limoges, in Limousin, about 1500. In 1560 he was appointed professor of Greek in the Royal College at Paris. Scaliger thought him a judicious critic. Dorat was one of the celebrated poetic " Pleiade," i.e. one of the seven most admired poets of the age. He wrote, in Latin, epigrams, odes, anagrams, etc. Charles IX. gave him the title of poet-royal. Died in 1588. Sec "Menagiana;" J. B. Vitkac, " ^loge de J. Dorat," 1775. Dorat, (Madeleine,) a daughter of the preceding, born in 1548, was versed in Greek, Latin, and other languages. Died in 1636. Dorbay, doR'ba', (Francois,) a French architect, born in Paris, was a pupil of L. Levau. He directed the execution of his master's designs for the College of Quatre-Nations, and was employed as architect on the Louvre and the Tuileries. He also gave the designs of several churches of Paris. Died in 1697. Dordoni, doR-do'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian artist, born at Busseto, near Parma, in 1528, was one of the most excellent gem-engravers of his time. His works are very rare. Died in Rome in 1584. Dore, do'ra', (Gustave,) a French engraver and de- signer, born at Strasbourg about 1833, has acquired great popularity as an illustrator of the Bible and other works, among which are Tennyson's "Idylls," "Don Quixote," Dante's " Inferno," Rabelais, La Fontaine's " Fal)les," and " Paradise Lost." Dore is remarkable for the power and richness of his imagination, but is, generally speaking, more distinguished for the strength than for the delicacy or refinement of his conceptions. See " North British Review" for September, 1867. Dore, (Pierre,) [Lat. Pi'/trus Aura'tus,] a French theologian, born at Orleans about 1500, was a violent adversary of Protestantism. Died in 1559. Doreid. See Ihn-Doreid. Dorfel or Doerfel, doR'fel, (Georg Samuel,) a German astronomer of the latter half of the seventeenth century, was minister at Plauen, in Saxony. He wrote "Observations on the Comet of 1680," and discovered that the orbit of each comet is a parabola, of which the sun occupies the focus. Dorfeuille, doR'fuI' or doRTuh'ye, (Antoine, ) a French Jacobin, born about 1750, rendered himself in- famous by the massacre of a multitude of people at Lyons in 1793. He was killed in 1795. Dorfling. See Derfflinger. Dorfling or Doerfling, von, fon doR'fling, (Georg,) a German general, born at Dorf, in Bohemia, in 1606. He fought for the Elector of Brandenburg, distinguished himself in many campaigns against the Poles, Swedes, and French, and was raised to the rank of field-marshal in 1670. Died in 1695. Doria, do're-S, one of the four most noble and power- ful families of Genoa. The Dorias and Spinolas were Ghibelines, and the Grimaldi and Fieschi were Guelphs. The family of Doria was distinguished in the twelfth century. In 1339 these four families, which had long disturbed the state by their rivalry, were all exiled, and the nobles were excluded from power. Lamba Doria was admiral of the Genoese fleet in 1298, when he gained a decisive victory over the Vene- tians near Corzola. Paganino Doria, a famous admiral, commanded in the third war against Venice. In 1352 a great naval battle was fought near Constantinople, between Admiral Doria and the Venetian admiral Pisani, in which the former was the victor. Doria gained another victory over Pisani in 1354. PiETRO Doria commanded the fleet in 1379, when he attempted to take Venice, but was defeated and killed in January, 1380. Doria, (Andrea,) known in English Histories as Andrew Doria, the restorer of Genoese liberty, born at Oneglia in 1468, was of the same family as the preced- ing. After serving several years in the armies of France € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K,gutticral; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) DORIA 782 DORPIUS and Naples, he entered the French navy about 1490, and soon acquired the reputation of the first admiral of his time. He commanded the fleet of Francis I. in his war with Charles V., and gained an advantage over the Im- perialists at Marseilles. In 1528, suspecting the French court of treacherous designs against his country and him- self, he made a treaty with Charles V., and stipulated for the liberation of Genoa, which was subject to the misrule of two rival factions, — the Adorni and Fregosi. He en- tered Genoa, was received with joy by the citizens, and gave them a free constitution, which has lasted, without any important change, until the present century. The senate voted to him the title of " Father of his Country." He declined the office of doge, that he might serve Charles V. as admiral against the Turks. In 1541 he commanded the fleet in Charles's unfortunate expedition against Algiers. That emperor rewarded him with the order of the Golden Fleece, and the titles of Prince of Melfi and Marquis of Tursi. At the age of eighty-five he conducted his fleet to the relief of Corsica, invaded by the French, from whom he took the sea-port of San Fiorenzo. He died, without issue, at Genoa, in November, 1560. See Capem.oni, " Vita del Principe Doria,"is65 ; Carlo Sigonio, "De Vita et Gestis Andreje Dori^e," 1586: Andke Richer, "Vie d'Andre Doria," 1789.; J. B. Giraldi, "De Gestis Andrese Doria;," 1696; Antonio Bianchini, " Elogio del Principe Andrea Doria," 1781. Doria, (Antonio,) a Genoese officer, who served with distinction under Charles V. He wrote an account of events which occurred in his time, "Compendio d'A. Uoria," (15.71.) Doria, (Oberto,) a Genoese admiral, commanded the fleet which gained a decisive victory over the naval force of Pisa in 1284. Doria, (Paolo Matteo,) a philosopher, born at Naples in 1675, wrote, besides other works, " The Idea of a Perfect Republic," (suppressed by government.) Died in 1743. Dorigny or Dorigni, do''r6n'ye', (Louis,) a French painter and engraver, born in Paris in 1654, was the son of Michel, noticed below, and was a pupil of Le Brun. He studied in Rome, and painted with success in Venice and Verona. In 171 1 he was invited to Vienna, where he adorned the palace of Prince Eugene. His frescos in the cathedral of Trent are much admired. Died about 1742. Dorigny or Dorigni, (Michel,) a painter and en- graver, born at Saint-Quentin in 1617, was the pupil and son-in-law of Simon Vouet. He engraved with aqua-fortis, after Vouet and other masters. He died in 1663, leaving two sons, Louis and Nicolas, who were artists. Dorigny, (Sir Nicolas,) an eminent French engraver, born in Paris in 1657, was the son of the preceding. He studied his art in Rome, where he remained twenty- eight years and engraved many master-pieces, among which are "The Transfiguration," by Raphael, and "The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian," by Domenichino. In 1711 he was invited to England, where he engraved the Cartoons of Raphael in Hampton Court, and was knighted by George I. In 1725 he was chosen a member and professor of the Academy of Painting in Paris. Died in 1746. He was perhaps second only to G. Audran among French engravers of history. He is praised as a " noble artist" in Addison's " Spectator," No. 226. See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." Dorimon, do're^m6N', a French comic author and actor, flourished between 1650 and 1690. Doring or Doering, do'ring, (Georg Christian WiLHELM AsMus,) a German novelist, born at Cassel in 1789 ; died in 1833. Doringk or Doeringk, written also Doring and Dorink, do^-ink, ( Matthaus, ) a German theologian, born in Thuringia. He wrote a Chronicle of Misnia and Thuringia. Died about 1464. Doriole or Doriolle, do're'ol', (Pierre,) a French statesman, born at La Rochelle in 1407, was employed by Louis XI. in important missions. He became chan- cellor of France in 1472. Died in 1485. Doriolle. See Doriole. Dorion, do're'(5»N', (Claude Auguste,) a French poet, born at Nantes about 1770. He produced in 1809 " The Battle of Hastings," an epic poem, which obtained an honourable mention in the report on the decennial prizes. He also wrote "The Conquest of Palmyra," a poem, and several odes and idyls. Died in 1829. Do'ris, [Gr. Awpff,] a goddess of the sea,was a daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, and the wife of Nereus. The name was sometimes applied by the poets to the sea itself. Dorislaus, clo'ris-l§,'us, (Isaac,) a Dutch lawyer, who removed to England and in the civil war acted with the republicans. He was employed by them at the trial of Charles I., and in 1649 was sent as minister to Holland. Soon after his arrival at the Hague he was murdered by some English royalists, in 1650. Dorival, do're'vtK, (Claude Francois,) surnamed Plume d'Or, (pliim doR,) a French jurist, born at Pe- san9on in 1656; died in 1733. Dorleans, doR''li^6N^ or D'Orleans, (Louis,) a Frenchman, born in Paris in 1542, was a partisan of the League, and wrote libels against Henry IV. Died in 1629. Dorleans or D'Orleans, (Pierre Joseph,) a French historian, born at Bourges in 1644. He professed belles- lettres in various colleges of the Jesuits, and was employed in preaching. Voltaire has remarked that he was the first historian who chose revolutions as his special subject. He produced in 1693 a " History of the Revolutions of England," which was esteemed even by fastidious critics, and was followed by a " History of the Revolutions of Spain." He had the art of discerning what events were most worthy of notice, and of narrating them in an agree- able manner. Died in 1698. Dorleans de la Mothe, doR^li^8N' deh la mot, (Louis Francois Gabriel,) Bishop of Amiens, was born at Carpentras in 1683 ; died in 1774. Dormans, de, deh doR''m5N', (Jean,) a French car- dinal, born at Dormans. He was Bishop of Beauvais when Charles V., about 1364, appointed him chancellor of France and keeper of the seals. In 1368 he was made a cardinal. He founded the College of Beauvais at Paris in 1370. Died in 1373. Dorn, doRn, (Johann Christoph,) a German biblio- grapher, born at Schleusingen. He published " Biblio; theca theologico-critica," (2 vols., 1721.) Died in 1752. Dornau, doR^now, (Caspar,) a German physician and writer, born in Thuringia in 1577; died in 1632. Dorner, doR'ner, (Isaac Alk^ust,) a German Prot- estant theologian, born at Neuhausen-ob-Eck, in Wiir- temberg, in 1809, became in 1849 pi'ofessor of theology at Bonn. He wrote a " History of the Development of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ," (1839,) an excel- lent and exhaustive work, and a "History of Protestant Theology, particularly in Germany," (" (jeschichte der Protestantischen Theologic, besonders in Deutschland," etc., 1867,) which disj^lays not only profound learning, but great critical ability. Dornmeyer, doRn'mi'er, (Andreas Julius,) a Ger- man critic and philologist, born at Lauenstadt in 1674. His chief work is "Philologia Sacra." Died in 1717. Dor-o-the'a, [Fr. Dorothek, do^-o'ta',] Saint, a Christian virgin of Alexandria, lived about 310 A.D. She is said by some writers to have suffered martyrdom ; but Eusebius states that she was deprived of her property and banished. Her life has furnished the subject of Massinger's drama of "The Virgin Martyr." See Eusebius, "Ecclesiastical History;" Mrs. Jameson, "His- tory of Sacred and Legendary Art." Dorothee. See Dorothea and Dorotheus. Do-ro'the-us, [Gr. Awp6(?£-of ; Fr. Dorothek, do^rc'- t4',] a Greek author, of whom little is known. He wrote a " History of Alexander the Great," which is quoted by Athenceus. Dorotheus, an eminent jurist, lived at l^er'ytus, and vi^as one of the compilers of Justinian's "Digest." Ho flourished about 533 A.D. Dorotheas of Sidon, a Greek poet, lived probably before the Christian era. Dorow, do'ro, (Wilhelm,) a German antiquarj^, born at Konigsberg in 1790. He visited Italy in 1827, and made a large collection of Etruscan antiquities, which are now in the museum of Berlin. He published " Monu- ments of Ancient Art and Language," (1824,) "Etruria and the Orient," (1829,) and other works. Died in 1846. Dorpius, doR^pe-us, (Martin,) a Dutch scholar, born at Naeldwyck about 1480. He professed eloquence and i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fdt; m§t; n6t; good; moon; DORR 783 DOSITHEUS philosophy at Lille, and was the head of a college in Louvain when he died in 1525. He was highly esteemed by Erasmus, who wrote his epitaph. Dorpius left a dis- course in praise of Aristotle, and a few other small works. See FOPPENS, " Bibliotheca Belgica." Dorr, (Thomas W.,) an American politician, born at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1805. He became the leader of the suffrage party, which in 1841 framed a new Constitution, under which he was elected Governor. These movements were treated as seditious by the gov^ ernment acting under the old charter, and both parties appealed to arms, (1842.) Dorr was arrested, convicted of treason, and sentenced to imprisonment for life. He was pardoned in 1847. Died in 1854. See "Democratic Review" for August, 1842. Dorsanne, doR''stn', ( Antoine,) a French priest, born at Issoudun, was a friend of Cardinal De Noailles, Archbishop of Paris, who appointed him a canon of his church. He took a prominent part against the Jesuits and the bull Unigenitus, and was employed by Cardinal de Noailles in the negotiations with which he amused the court of Rome and France. Dorsanne left a "Journal of what passed at Rome and in France on the Subject of the Bull Unigenitus." Died in 1728. Dorsch, doRsh, (Everard,) a German engraver of gems, born at Nuremberg in 1649 ; died in 1712. Dorsch, (JoHANN Christoph,) a German gem-en- graver, son of the preceding, born in 1676 ; died in 1732. Dorsenne, doR's^n', ( Jean Marie FRANgois, ) a French officer, born at Ardres (Pas-de-Calais) in 1773. In 1809 he became a general of division, and in 1811 commanded an army in the north of Spain. Died in 1812. Dor'set, (Charles Sackvili.e,) sixth Earl of, son of Richard, Earl of Dorset, born in 1637, was a distin- guished courtier, wit, and patron of letters. In youth he bore the title of Lord Buckhurst, and was a decided libertine ; but his courage, good nature, and other re- deeming qualities rendered him a general favourite. He had too little ambition, or too much indolence, to raise himself to the highest political positions to which his talents were adequate. "He became," says Macaulay, " an intellectual voluptuary, and a master of all those pleasing branches of knowledge which can be acquired without severe application. . . . Such a patron of letters England had never seen. His bounty was bestowed with equal judgment and liberality. Dryden owned that he had been saved from ruin by his princely generosity." In 1665 he served as volunteer in the naval war against the Dutch, during which he wrote the admired song beginning "To all you ladies now on land." He became Earl of l3orset at the death of his father in 1677, after which he married the daughter of the Earl of North- ampton. At the accession of William III. (1689) he accepted the office of lord chamberlain, which he re- signed in 1697. Died in 1706. He was the author of a few songs and satires, which, says Macaulay, "sparkle with wit as splendid as that of Butler." Pope wrote his epitaph, which contains these lines, — " Bless'd courtier, who could king and country please, Yet sacred keep his friendships and his ease." See Macaulay, "History of England," vol. ii. chap, viii., vol. iii. chap, i., and vol. iv. cliap. xxii. Dorset, (Edward Sackville,) fourth Earl of, born in 1590, was the grandson of the first earl. He was sent on an embassy to France in 1621. In 1624, by the death of his brother Richard, he became Earl of Dorset. He was chosen president of the council in 1641. In the civil war he was a royalist, and fought bravely at Edge- hill. He died in 1652, leaving his title to his son Rich- ard. A number of his speeches were published between 1620 and 1644. He was an excellent master of speech and composition. Clarendon says " his wit was pleasant, sparkling, and sublime." (" History of the Rebellion.") See, also, Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Dorset, (Richard Sackville,) third Earl of, the eldest son of Robert, Earl of Dorset, was born in Lon- don in 1589. In 1609 he married Anne Clifford, who was eminent for her noble spirit, attainments, and munifi- cence, and was afterwards known as the Countess of Dor- set and Pembroke. (See Clifford, Anne.) He died in 1624, when the title passed to his brother Edward. Dorset, (Richard Sackville,) fifth Earl of, born in 1622, was the father of Charles, the celebrated courtier and patron, and the son of Edward, Earl of Dorset, noticed above. He wrote a " Poetical Address to the Memory of Ben Jonson." Died in 1677, Dorset, (Thomas Sackville,) first Earl of, an English statesman and poet, born at Buckhurst in 1536, was the son of Sir Richard Sackville. He was a gradu- ate of Cambridge, and a lawyer by profession. In his youth he cultivated poetry with success. He wrote the much-admired " Induction to the Mirror for Magistrates," (see Baldwin, William,) and the tragedy of " Gorbo- duc, or Ferrer and Porrex," (1565,) which, says Sir Philip Sidney, "is full of stately speeches and well- sounding phrases, climbing to the height of Seneca's style, and as full of notable morality." It was the first regular or respectable tragedy that appeared in the Eng- lish language. He was created Lord Buckhurst in 1566, and was minister to France in 1570. In 1587 he was sent to the Netherlands to inquire into the difficulties between the States and Leicester, the governor-general. He fulfilled this mission with great sagacity and impar- tiality ; but, having expressed a judgment unfavourable to Leicester, he was banished from court and imprisoned in his own house till the death of that favourite. (See Motley's "United Netherlands," chaps, xv. and xvi.) In 1598 he succeeded Lord Burleigh as lord treasurer of England, which office he retained with honour until his death, in 1608. He had been created Earl of Dorset by James I., and left the title to his son Robert. See " Biographia Britannica." Dor'sey, (John Syng,) M.D., an eminent physician and surgeon of Philadelphia, was born in that city in 1783. He studied in London, where he attended the lectures of Humphry Davy, the distinguished chemist; he afterwards attended the medical schools of Paris. In 1813 he was appointed to the chair of materia medica in the University of Pennsylvania, and in 181 8 succeeded Wistar as professor of anatomy, but died the same year. His "Elements of Surgery" (1813) had a European reputation, and was long popular in this country. Dr. Dorsey was a nephew of the celebrated Dr. Physick. See S. D. Gross, "American Medical Biography." Dorsten, doR'sten, (Johann Daniel,) a German medical writer, born at Marburg in 1643 ; died in 1706. Dorthes, doRt, (Jacques Anselme,) a French ento- mologist, born at Nimes in 1759; died in 1794. Dortoman, doR^to-man', (Nicolaas,) a physician, born at Arnheim, in Holland, became professor of medi- cine at Montpellier, and afterwards physician-in-ordinary to Henry IV. of France. Died in 1596. Dortous. See Mairan. Do'rus, [Gr. AfZipoj-,] a mythical person, from whom the Dorians claimed their descent. He was co-mmonly regarded as a son of Hellen. Dorval, doR^SK, (Marie Am^lie Thomas Delau- NAY,) Madame, a popular French actress, born at Lo- rient in 1801 ; died in 1849. Dorvigny, doR\6n^ye', (Louis,) a French comic writer, born at Versailles in 1743. His comedy of " Janot, ou les Battus payent I'Amende," (1779,) obtained great success. Died in 1812. Dorville. See Contant d'Orville. Dorvo, doR'vo', ( Hyacin lhe, ) a French poet and dramatic writer, born at Rennes in 1769. He wrote many popular comedies. Died in 185 1. Dosi, do'see, (Girolamo,) an eminent Italian archi- tect, born at Carpi in 1695, was a pupil of Fontana. He went to Rome, and became the architect of Pope Clement XII. He displayed his talents on the Villa Cibo, the Lazaretto of Ancona, the basilica of Santa Maria Mag- giore, and other edifices. Died in 1775. Do-si'a-das of Rhodes, a Greek poetaster of an unknown epoch, is mentioned by Lucian. He wrote a poem in the figure of an altar, which is extant. Dosio, do'se-o, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian sculptor, born in 1533. He made statues and bas-reliefs for the Belvedere palace, Rome. Died about 1600. Do-sith'e-us of Colone, a Greek geometer, lived about 220 B.C. Archimedes dedicated to him several treatises. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard;'^2& j; g, h, y., guttural ; N, nasal; r, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) DOSITHEUS 784 DOUGLAS Dositheus, [Fr. Dosith^e, do^ze'ti',] a Jewish im- postor or magician of Samaria, lived in the first century. He pretended to be the Messiah. Dositheus surnamed Magis'ter, a Greek gram- marian, lived about 300 a.d. See Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology." Dosma-Delgado, dos'md dSl-gi'Do, (Rodrigo,) a Spanish theologian and linguist, born at Badajos in 1533 ; died in 1607. D'Ossat. See Ossat. Dossi, dos'see, (Dosso,) an Italian painter, born at or near Ferrara in 1474, was the friend of Ariosto, who has commemorated him among the eminent artists of that age. He painted an admirable portrait of Ariosto. He had a brother Giobattista, who worked with him in Ferrara and was an excellent landscape-painter. As Dosso excelled in the human figure, they were often em- ployed on the same picture. Dosso died in 1558. Among their master-pieces is an oil-painting of the four Fathers Ambrose, Augustine, Gregory, and Jerome consulting together. See Nagler, " Neues AUgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Dos'sie, (Robert,) an English apothecary or chemist, who lived in London, published " Institutes of Experi- mental Chemistry." Died in 1777. Dost- (dost) Mo-ham'med, Emir of Cabool, an Affghan chief, was born about 1798. He began to reign at Cabool about 1826, was expelled by a British army in 1840, and was restored in 1843. He was an ambitious and warlike ruler. Died about 1857. See MoHUN Lal, "Life of Dost-Mohammed," 2 vols., 1846. Dotteville, dofv^K, (Jean Henri,) a French trans- lator, born at Palaiseau in 1 7 16, produced a translation of Sallust, (1749,) which is commended, and aversion of the "Annals" of Tacitus, (1774.) Died in 1807. Dotti, dot'tee, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian satirical poet, born at Valcanonico in 1642, lived some years in Venice. His personal satires gave great offence. He published a volume of verses called " Rime e Sonnetti," ("Verses and Sonnets,") and wrote " The Carnival" and other satires. He was assassinated in 17 12. Dottori, di, de dot-to''ree, (Carlo,) Count, an Italian poet, born at Padua in 1624, wrote " Aristodemo," a tragedy, often reprinted, and other poems. Died in 1686. Dou, (Gerard.) See Dow. Douaren, doo^S'rSN', or Duaren, dii't^rSN', [Lat. Douare'nus,] (Francois,) a French jurist, born in Bretagne about 1509. He professed law at Bourges for some years, and in 1548 began to practise in Paris. He was reputed one of the most learned jurists of his time, particularly in civil law, and published many legal works. He also wrote a curious treatise on Plagiaries. Died at Bourges in 1559. See Zeidler, "Vita Douareni," 1768; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Double, doobl, (FRANgois Joseph,) a French phy- sician, born at Verdun-sur-Garonne in 1776, practised in Paris with success. He had a share in the discovery and application of quinine by Pelletier, his brother-in-law. Died in 1842. Doub'le-day, (diib'Kda), (Abner,) an American gen- eral, born in Saratoga county. New York, about 1820, graduated at West Point in 1842. He was a captain before the civil war, and was one of the garrison of Fort Sumter, April, 1861. He commanded a division at the battle of Antietam, September 17, 1862, and a corps at Gettysburg, July 2 and 3, 1863. In September, 1867, he obtained the rank of colonel in the regular army. Doub'le-day, (Edward,) an English naturalist, born in 1810. He visited the United States for scientific pur- poses. After his return home he was one of the curators of the British Museum, where he gave much attention to the study of insects. His principal work is "On the Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera," which he continued to issue in parts until his death. He also published a treatise on the "Nomenclature of British Birds," and other works. Died in London in 1849. Doublet, doo'bli', (FRANgois,) a French physician, born at Chartres in 1751. In 1794 he was appointed professor of pathology in the £cole de Sante, Paris. He wrote medical articles for the " Encyclopedie Metho- dique," a treatise on "Reform in Prisons," and one on "Puerperal Fever." Died in 1795. See Doublet de Boisthibault, "Notice sur la Vie de F. Dou- blet," 1826. Douce, dowss, (Francis,) an English antiquary, born in 1762. He was a diligent collector of rare and curious books, prints, coins, etc., was a Fellow of the Antiqua- rian Society, and at one time keeper of the manuscripts in the British Museum. He wrote several papers for the " Archasologia," and published " Illustrations of Shak- speare," (1807.) Died in 1834. See William Jerdan, "Men I have known," London, 1866. Doucet, doo'sV, (Charles Camille, ) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1812. Doucin, doo''siN^ (Louis,) a French Jesuit, bcrn at Vernon in 1652. He gained a reputation by his writings, among which are a "History of Nestorianism," (1693,) and a " History of Origenism," (1700.) These are said to be interesting and well written. He took a prominent part as the supporter of the bull " Unigenitus" against Jansenism. Died in 1726. Doudeauville, de, deh doo'do'v^K, (Ambroise Poly- CARPE de la Rochefoucauld, deh It roshToo'ko',) Due, a philanthropic nobleman, born in Paris in 1765; died in 1841. Doudyns, dow'dins, or Dodvens, (Willem, ) a Dutch painter, born at the Hague in 1650. He studied in Rome for twelve years, after which he returned to the Hague and worked with great success. Descamps praises his composition, design, and colour. One of his works represents "Time, which discovers Truth and Deception." Died in 1697. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Doueli-al-Basri. See Duali-al-Basree. Douffet or Douffeit. See Duffet. Dougados, doo'gS'dos', (Jean FRANgois,) a French poet, born at Carcassonne in 1763. In his youth he turned monk, and assumed the name of Pere Venance. He entered the army in 1791, rose to the rank of adju- tant-general, and was executed by the Jacobins in 1794. He was author of a "Christmas Hymn," and of other verses. Doughty, dow'te, (Thomas,) an American landscape- painter, born in Philadelphia in 1793. He learned the trade of a tanner and currier, but relinquished that business about 1820 for landscape-painting, which he followed many years in the United States, and afterwards in London and Paris. Died in New York in 1856. See TucKERMAN, "Book of the Artists." Douglas, dug'lass, an ancient noble family of Scot- land, which traces its ancestry as far back as the twelfth century. The Earls of Douglas, the Earls of Angus, and the Earls of Morton belonged to this family. Sir James Douglas, surnamed the Good, was the founder of their fame and grandeur. He commanded the left wing at Bannockburn in 13 14, and was killed by the Sa- racens in Spain about 1330, in a pilgrimage to Palestine, whither he was going to deposit the heart of Robert Bruce. As he left no lawful issue, he was succeeded by his brothers Hugh and Archibald. The latter, who was killed at the battle of Halidon Hill in 1333, left a son William, who became the first Earl of Douglas and mar- ried for his third wife the heiress of the Earl of Angus. He died in 1384, leaving two sons, James, second Earl of Douglas, and George, Earl of Angus. James, second Earl, married Margaret, a daughter of King Robert II. He was a famous warrior, and was killed at the battle of Otterburn in 1388. As he left no male issue, the earl- dom passed to Archibald the Grim, third Earl, who fought for the French at Poitiers and died about 1400. He was succeeded by his son Archibald, fourth Earl, who married a daughter of King Robert HI. He displayed great courage at the battle of Shrewsbury, (1403,) where he fought against Henry IV., and rendered important military services to Charles VII. of France, who rewarded him with the duchy of Touraine. He was killed at the battle of Verneuil, in France, in 1424. His son Archi- bald, the fifth Earl of Douglas, was chosen a member of the regency at the death of James I., (1437.) He died in 1438, leaving his title to his son William, the sixth Earl, a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; DOUGLAS 785 DOUGLAS who was born about r425. William, charged with am- bitious designs or contempt for the authority of the infant king, was beheaded in 1440, or, as some say, in 1437. The earldom of Douglas then passed to J^mies, an uncle or grand-uncle of William. James was suc- ceeded by William, eighth Earl. (See separate article.) See Robertson, "History of Scotland." Douglas, (Archibald,) fifth Earl of Angus, grand- son of George, above named, was lord chancellor about the end of the fifteenth century. He was a powerful, am- bitious, and lawless subject. He was called "the Great Earl of Angus," and also surnamed *' Bell-the-Cat." He had several sons, one of whom was Gavin, the poet and bishop. (See separate notice below.) Died about 1514. Archibald VI., grandson of the fifth Earl of Angus, and son of George, was lord chancellor about 1527. He married in 15 14 Margaret, queen-dowager of James IV. and sister of Henry VIII. He died in 1567, leaving a daughter, who was the mother of Lord Darnley. George, a nephew of the sixth Earl, inherited his title, and had a younger brother, who became Earl of Morton, after- wards Regent Morton in the time of Queen Mary Stuart. William, the son of the tenth Earl of Angus, in 1633 was created Marquis of Douglas, and his son Archibald was created Earl of Ormond by Charles II. Douglas, (Sir Charles,) a Scottish naval officer, the father of General Sir Howard Douglas. He commanded a squadron in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence in 1775. In 1 781 he was appointed first captain to Admiral Rodney, and contributed to the victory gained by him over the French in the West Indies, April 12 of that year. In 1787 he was made rear-admiral. Died in 1789. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Douglas, (David,) an eminent Scottish botanist, born at Scone, in Perthshire, in 1 798. He served an apprentice- ship as a gardener, and worked in the botanic garden of the University of Glasgow. About 1823-24 he was em- ployed by the London Horticultural Society as a botanical collector in the United States, and extended his re- searches as far as Oregon and California. He returned in 1827 with many valuable acquisitions for English flower-gardens. A few years later he sailed for America on a similar mission, and visited the Sandwich Islands, where he was killed, in 1834, by a wild bull which had been entrapped in a pit, he himself having soon after accidentally fallen into the same pit. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Douglas, diig'lass, ( Frederick, ) a distinguished American orator, originally a mulatto slave, born in Tal- bot county,. Maryland, about 181 7. He escaped from his master in 1838, and went to New Bedford, Massa- chusetts. About 1 841 he began to deliver lectures against slavery, which attracted much attention throughout the Northern States. He published his Autobiography in 1845, ^^^^^ which he visited England, where he made anti-slavery speeches and drew large audiences by his earnest and brilliant eloquence. He edited at Rochester, New York, a paper called "The North Star." "His glow and fervour," says Mr. T. W. Higginson, "are extraordinary, and so is his dramatic power ; and he surpasses in his perception of the finer felicities of the English language all other self-made men whom I have ever known." See "My Bondage and my Freedom," by Frederick Douglas. Douglas, (Gavin or Gawin,) a Scottish poet, born about 1474, was the third son of Archibald, fifth Earl of Angus. He finished his education in the University of Paris, and entered the Church. In 1515 he was appointed Bishop of Dunkeld. His reputation as a poet is founded chiefly on his translation of Virgil's "^neid" into Scottish verse, (1513,) which was the first version of a classic into any British language. "This translation," says Warton, "is executed with equal spirit and fidelity. The several books are introduced with metrical prologues, which are often highly poetical." His principal original poem is "The Palace of Honour." Died in 1522. See Irving, " Lives of the Scottish Poets;" Chambers, "Bio- graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Douglas. See Morton, Earl of, and Ormond, Earl of. Douglas, diig'lass, (Sir Howard,) a British general, born at Gosport, in Hampshire, in 1776, was a son of Admiral Sir Charles Douglas. He served in the Pen- insula from 1808 to 1812, and published an "Essay on Military Bridges," (1816.) His " Treatise on Naval Gunnery," approved by the admiralty, was published in 1819, (4th edition, 1855.) He was Governor of New Brunswick from 1823 to 1829, was elected to Parliament in 1842, and obtained the rank of general in 1851. Died in November, 1861. See "Blackwood's Magazine" for May, 1863, Douglas, (James,) ninth and last Earl of, a brother of William the eighth Earl, raised an army against the king, but was taken prisoner, and confined until his death in 1488. Douglas, (James,) M.D., an eminent Scottish anato- mist, born in 1675, resided and practised in London. He gained a high reputation as a surgeon and a writer on anatomy, and became physician to the king. He lec- tured many years on anatomy and surgery. Haller, who visited him, calls him a " learned and skilful person." He published a " Description of the Peritonaeum," " Myogra- phiae comparatae Specimen," (1707,) and other works. Died in 1742. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Douglas, (John,) a brother of the preceding, was surgeon to the Westminster Infirmary. He was distin- guished as a lithotomist^ and was the author of several professional works, among which is a "Treatise on the Utility of Bark as a Remedy for Mortification." See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Douglas, (John,) F.R.S., a Scottish bishop, born in Fifeshire in 1721. He was eminent for learning and literary ability. In 1750 he published a "Vindication of Milton from Lauder's Charge of Plagiarism," and in 1754 "The Criterion of Miracles," in which he refuted the sophistries of Plume. He was appointed one of the king's chaplains in 1761, Bishop of Carlisle in 1787, and of Salisbury in 1 791. As a member of Dr. John- son's Club, he is noticed in Goldsmith's "Retaliation" in these terms : " Here Douglas retires, from his toils to relax, The scourge of impostors, the terror of quacks." Died in 1807. See a " Memoir of Bishop Douglas," prefixed to his Select Works, by W. Macdonald, 1820. Douglas, (Stephen Arnold,) an American politician, born at Brandon, Rutland county, Vermont, in April, 1813. He studied in an academy at Canandaigua, New York, from 1830 to 1833. He adopted the profession of law, removed to Illinois in 1833, and began to practise at Jacksonville. He soon became an active politician and a popular orator of the Democratic party, who, in allu- sion to his small stature, gave him the name of "the Little Giant." He was nominated for Congress in 1838, but was defeated by a small majority. In the canvass for President in 1840 he distinguished himself as a "stump speaker." He was elected a judge of the supreme court of Illinois in February, 1841. In 1843 he was elected a member of Congress, in which he advocated the annex- ation of Texas to the Union. He repiesented Illinois in the Senate of the United States from March, 1847, to 1853, during which term he was chairman of the com- mittee on territories. He married a Miss Martin in 1847. He supported Clay's " Compromise measures" of 1850, and in relation to the extension of slavery in the territories maintained that Congress should not inter- fere, but that the people of each territory should be permitted to decide whether it should be a free State or a slave State. This was called the doctrine of " Popular Sovereignty," of which Douglas was the reputed author. He was re-elected a Senator of the United States for a term of six years, 1853-59. In January, 1854, he re- ported from the committee on territories an important bill to organize the territories of Nebraska and Kansas. This bill, which was afterwards passed, and by which the Missouri Compromise was repealed, produced a great excitement, and was denounced by many Northern Demo- crats, who on this account separated from their party. In the National Democratic Convention of 1856, Buch- anan and Douglas were rival candidates for the nomina- € as k; c as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, Yi,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^="See Explanations, p. 23.) 50 DOUGLAS 786 DOUFILLE tion, which the former obtained. Douglas opposed the admission of Kansas in 1857 under the Lecompton Con- stitution, and was thus involved in a controversy with President Buchanan and a majority of his party in the Senate. This affair caused a division in the Democratic party, and those who acted with Douglas were styled Anti-Lecompton Democrats. Henceforth Buchanan and Douglas were bitter enemies. In 1858 Illinois was the arena of a memorable contest between Douglas and Abraham Lincoln, who were competitors for the office of Senator of the United States, and canvassed the State in joint discussions at various places. (See Lincoln, Abraham.) Douglas gained his election as Senator, receiving 54 votes out of 100. He was supported by a majority of Northern Demo- crats as candidate for President at the National Con- vention which met at Charleston in April, i860. This convention adopted a platform which was in accordance with his policy and was not satisfactory to the extreme Southern politicians. The delegations of Alabama, Mis- sissipi^i. South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Florida then withdrew from the convention. On the first ballot Douglas received 145 votes, and no other candidate received more than 42. Having taken more than fifty ballots without effecting a nomination, the convention adjourned, to meet in Baltimore in June. He received 181 votes at Baltimore, and was declared the regular nominee. The seceders nominated John C. Breck- inridge, and thus rendered the election of Douglas almost hopeless. The latter, however, advocated his cause by many public speeches in the Northern and Southern States. At the end of the contest Douglas received only twelve electoral votes. After the rebellion began, he supported the government in efforts to suppress it. On the 25th of April, 1861, he made a patriotic speech at Springfield, Illinois, before the legislature. He died at Chicago in June, 1861, leaving several children. See J. W. Sheahan, " Life of Stephen A. Douglas," i860. Douglas, (Sylvester,) Lord Glenbervie, a Scottish lawyer, born at Ellon in 1743, lived in England. He attained eminence in his profession, and published " Re- ports in King's Bench," which are high authority. He was appointed secretary for Ireland in 1793, was made Lord Glenbervie in 1800, and held several high civil offices. His wife was a daughter of the celebrated Lord North. He was repeatedly elected to Parliament. Died in 1823. Douglas, (William,) Lord of Nithsdale, called "the Black Douglas," was a formidable enemy to the English. He was assassinated by Lord Clifford, about 1390. Douglas, (William,) eighth Earl of, was an im- perious and turbulent person. Having defied the royal authority, he was killed by King James II. during a conference in 1452. Douglas, (William,) first Marquis of, the son of the tenth Earl of Angus, was created a marquis in 1633. His son Archibald became Earl of Ormond; his second son, William, was made Earl of Selkirk, and, after his marriage with the Duchess of Hamilton, obtained the title of Duke of Hamilton. (See Hamilton.) The third Marquis of Douglas was made Duke of Douglas, and died in 1761, when the dukedom became extinct, and the marquisate devolved on the seventh Duke of Hamilton. The Dukes of Queensberry are also a branch of the house of Douglas. Douglas, (Sir William,) Knight of Liddesdale, was a natural son of " the good Sir James," and was called " England's scourge and Scotland's bulwark." He was assassinated in 1353. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Douglas, (Sir William,) of Glenbervie, a son of Archibald " Bell-the-Cat," was killed at the battle of Flodden, (1513.) His brother George, Master of Angus, was also killed in the same battle. Douglass, dug'lass, (David Bates,) LL.D., an Ame- rican engineer, born in Pompton, New Jersey, in 1790. He was for many years professor of natural philosophy, engineering, etc. at West Point. He was chief engineer in projecting the New York Croton Aqueduct in 1833 -34, and president of Kenyon College, Ohio, from 1840 to 1844. Died in 1849. Doujat, doo'zhS', (Jean,) an eminent French scholar and jurist, born at Toulouse in 1606. In 1650 he was received ii\ the P'rench Academy, and in 1655 was ap- pointed doctor-regent of the Faculty of Law in Paris, and afterwards historiographer of France. He wrote a " History of Canon Law," (1677,) and other works, and edited Livy "ad usum Delphini." Died in 1688. See Taisand, "Vies des lurisconsultes." Doulcet. See Pont^coulant. Doulet-Shah or Douletschah, dow'let-shlh', a Persian of the fifteenth century, who wrote " Memoirs of Persian and Arabian Poets," (1487.) Doultreman. See Oultreman, d'. Dounot, doo^no', a French mathematician and jurist, born at Bar-le-Duc, produced the first complete French version of "Euclid," (1610.) He was highly esteemed by Descartes. Died in 1640. Dourga. See Durga. Douri, doo're', (Fr^:min,) a French scholar and poet, born in Normandy in 1512; died in 1578. Dourri. See Doorree. Dousa, dow'si, (Georg,) a Dutch scholar, son of Jan Dousa, noticed below, was born about 1574. He wrote verses in Greek and Latin, and translated a work of Codinus. In 1597 he visited Constantinople, where he collected old manuscripts and inscriptions. After his return he published a " Letter on a Journey to Con- stantinople." Died about 1600. Two younger brothers of the preceding, Francis and Theodore, were literary men, and editors of several works. Dousa, or Van der Does, vtn der doos, written also Douza, (Jan,) Lord of Noordwyck, a distinguished Dutch Protestant statesman and scholar, born at Noord- wyk in 1545. He concurred in the efforts to liberate Holland from Philip II. of Spain, and was governor of Leyden in 1574 when it was besieged by the Spaniards. He displayed wisdom and firmness in this memorable siege. After the siege was raised, the University of Leyden was founded by his agency, and he was chosen first curator. In 1585 he was appointed keeper of the archives of Holland. Dousa and his son John wrote the "Annals of Holland," in Latin verse and prose, (160 1,) which added to his high reputation. He was a diligent student of history, and wrote Latin odes for recreation. He also published notes on Horace and other classics. Died in 1604. See Motley, " Rise of the Dutch Republic," part iv. chap. ii. ; Daniel Heinsius, " Laudatio J. Dousse," 1605. Dousa, (Jan,) a son of the preceding, born in 1571, was proficient in the languages and scien- es. He was chosen librarian of the University of Leyden in 1 59 1, assisted his father in the " Annals of Holland," and wrote the first part of an admired Latin poem on astronomy, (" Rerum Coelestium Liber,") which was not finished when he died prematurely in 1596. Joseph J. Scaliger lamented his death in an "Epicedium." See Veruel, " Redevoeringen over J. Dousa en over J. Bellamy," 1791 ; M. Siegenbeek, " Laudatio J. Dousse," 1812. Doussin-Dubreuil, doo'siN^dii^bRuF or dii'bRuh'ye, (Jacques Louis,) a French physician, born at Saintes in 1762 ; died at Paris in 183 1. Douven, dow'ven or doo'ven, (John Francis,) a skilful portrait-painter, born at Roermont, near Cleves, in 1656. He removed to Dusseldorf about 1684, and afterwards worked in Vienna, Denmark, and Florence. He received the title of first painter to the emperor Leopold, and is said to have painted three emperors, five kings, and seven queens. Died at Prague in 17 10. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Douville, doo^^K, (Jean Baptiste,) a French tra- veller, born in Manche in 1794. He returned to France in 1 83 1, after an absence of some years, with an accojnt of pretended discoveries in Congo, and published a book called "Travels in Congo," (1832,) which was at first received with favour by the learned, who were soon con- vinced that they had been deceived. He visited in 1833 the valley of the Amazon, where he is supposed to have been killed. See Douville, "Trente Mois de ma Vie," etc., 1833; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for August, 1832. a, e, T 6 u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mgt; ndt; good; moon; DOUFRE 787 DOYLE Douvre, de, deh doo'ver, (Thomas,) born in 1027, became Archbishop of York in 1070. Died in 1 100. Douw. See Dow. Douza. See Dousa. Dovalle, do'vtl', (Charles,) a distinguished French poet, born at Montreuil-Bellay in 1807, was the author of an admired poem, entitled " L'Oratoire du Jardin," and a song on Liberty, which was commended by Beranger. He was killed in a duel by M. Mira in 1829. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Dove, do'veh, (Heinrich Wilhelm,) an eminent German meteorologist, born at Liegnitz, in Silesia, in 1803, became professor of physics in the University of Berlin in 1829. He made extensive observations and researches into the laws of climate and atmospheric phenomena, and published many works, among which are "Meteorological Researches," (1837,) a "Treatise on the Electricity of Induction," (1843,) "On Elec- tricity," (1848.) Dover, Lord. See Ellis, (George J. Wellbore Agar.) Dovizi or Dovizio. See Bibbiena. Dow, (Alexander,) Colonel, a Scottish writer, born at Crieff, became secretary to the Governor of Bencoolen. He published a "History of Hindostan," (1767,) from the Persian of Ferishta, preceded by an "Inquiry into the State of Bengal," and an "Essay on the Origin and Nature of Despotism in Hindostan," which are works of merit and display much acquaintance with Oriental literature. Died in 1779. Dow or Douw, dow, (Gerard,) a celebrated Dutch painter, was born at Leyden in 1613. In the school of Rembrandt he made himself expert in colouring and chiaroscuro. He sought the ideal perfection in minute precision and exquisite delicacy of finish, which he be- stowed on all the most trivial accessories of the picture. It is said that he spent three days in finishing a broom- handle. It is only by the aid of a microscope that one can appreciate his exact imitation of nature in all its minutiae. His works are marvels of technical skill, but not of inventive genius. He chose his subjects from the scenes of common life. Among his master-pieces are "The Dutch Cook," "The Dropsical Woman," "The Charlatan," and "The Village Grocer," His paint- ings, though of small dimensions, command high prices. Mieris was his most noted pupil, Dow resembled Rem- brandt in harmony of colour, and is said to have obtained Rembrandtesque effects notwithstanding his excessive elaboration. Died at Leyden in 1680, See Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres." Dow, (Lorenzo,) an eccentric Methodist preacher, born in Coventry, Connecticut, in 1777, He preached in many parts of the United States and in England, He was noted for his earnestness and courage, as well as for some singularities of dress and expression. He died in 1834, leaving a journal of his life and travels, Dow, (Neal,) the originator of the celebrated " Maine Law," was born at Portland, Maine, about 1803, He was elected a member of the legislature of Maine, in which he procured the passage of a law to prohibit the sale of ardent spirits. He was twice mayor of Portland. He became a brigadier-general of volunteers about April, 1862, and served under General Butler in Louisiana. Dowd'all, (George,) was appointed Archbishop of Armagh by Henry VIII. in 1543, The pope refused to confirm this nomination ; but Dowdall occupied the see for some years. Died in 1558, D5wTaud, (John,) an English musician, born in or near London in 1562, was a friend of Shakspeare, He composed songs, airs, etc, and wrote several treatises on music. Died after 1625, Dow'ler, (Bennet,) an American physician, born in Ohio county, Virginia, in 1797, graduated in the Univer- sity of Maryland in 1827, He settled in New Orleans about 1835, and, by his numerous experiments on the human body soon after death, made discoveries in rela- tion to muscular contractility, capillary circulation, etc, Downame, See Downham. Downe, down, (John,) an eminent English divine, was a nephew of Bishop Jewel. He published sermons, (1633,) and other works. Downes.downz, [Lat. DuNyE''us,](ANDREW,) an Eng- lish scholar, born in Shropshire about 1 550, became professor of Greek at Cambridge in 1586, and was one of the translators of the Bible. He ]:>ublished " Prelec- tions on Lysias," (1593.) Died in 1627. Downes,"d6wnz, (John,) an American naval officer, born at Canton, Massachusetts, in 1786. He served as lieutenant in the Essex, under Captain Porter, in the war against Great Britain, (1812-14,) after which he fijught with distinction against the Algerines. About 1817 he became a captain. He obtained in 1832 command of a squadron in the Pacific Ocean, and destroyed Quallah Batoo, in Sumatra, in retaliation for an outrage com- mittecl on an American vessel. Died in 1855. Downham, down'am, or Down'ame, (George,) an English theologian, born at Chester. He professed logic at Cambridge, was chaplain to James I., and was appointed Bishop of Derry in 16 16. He wrote "The Po])e the Antichrist," ("Papa Antichristus," 1603,) a "Treatise on Justification," (1623,) and other works. Died in 1634, Downham, (John,) a brother of the preceding, was a clergyman, and author of several approved religious works, one of which is "The Christian Warfare," (1609- 18.) Died in 1644, Down'ing, ( Andrew Jackson, ) a distinguished American landscape-gardener and pomologist, born at Newburg, New York, in October, 181 5, He was the son of a nurseryman, and his tastes early led him to the study of botany, rural architecture, and kindred pursuits. About 1841 he published an excellent "Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape-Gardening," which was received as a standard work on the subject of which it treats. His " Fruits and Fruit-Trees of America" (1845) was very successful, and had passed through four- teen editions in 1852. He also jjrotluced a work called " Cottage Residences," and was editor of " The Horti- culturist," a monthly published at Albany, from 1846 until his death. He was a passenger on the North River steamboat Henry Clay on the 28th of July, 1852, and was drowned while attempting to escape from the burn- ing vessel. In 1854 a collection of his " Rural Essays" was published, with a Memoir of the author by George W. Curtis. As a landscape-gardener Mr, Downing stood pre-eminent among his countrymen ; and he probably had few superiors in this department even in Europe. His writings have contributed greatly to the introduction and diffusion of a taste for rural architecture and other rural imj^rovements in America, DQwn'man, (Hugh,) M.D., an English poet, born near Exeter in 1740. He was a graduate of Baliol Col- lege, and practised medicine at Exeter, He wrote several dramas, and "Infancy, a Poem," (1774-88,) which ran through seven editions in his lifetime. Died in 1809, Dowse, douz, (Thomas,) an American book-collector, born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1772, He was a leather-dresser by trade, and enjoyed few advantages of education. He became the owner of a library of 5000 volumes, which, a short time before his death, he pre- sented to the Massachusetts Historical Society. He also obtained by lottery a choice collection of engravings after the old masters, which he gave to the Boston Athenseum. Died in 1856, Doyen, dwcVy6N', (Gabriel FRANgois,) a French historical ])ainter, born in Paris in 1726, was a pupil of Vanloo, He gained the grand prize of painting in 1746, studied in Rome about seven years, and returned to Paris, where he produced a successful picture of the " Death of Virginia," and was admitted into the Academy in 1758. His reputation was increased by the picture of " Sainte- Genevieve des Ardents," which is called his master-piece. About 1790 he went to Saint Petersburg, where the empress Catherine employed him to adorn her palaces. Died in Saint Petersburg in 1806. See Charles Blanc, "Histoire des Peintres." Doyere, dwd'yaiR', (Louis,) a French naturalist, born in Calvados in 1811, has written on anatomy and phy- siology. Doyle, doil, (Sir Charles William,) a general, born in Ireland, entered the British army about 1793. He dis- tinguished himself in Spain between 1808 and 1812, and € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) DOYLE 788 DRAKE obtained the rank of general in the Spanish army. For his conduct at Valenciennes and Lannois he was made a knight-commander of the Guelph in 1819. He became a major-general in 181 5, and lieutenant-general in 1837. Died in 1843. Doyle, (James,) a learned Irish Catholic priest, born about 1786, was appointed Bishop of Kildare in 1819. He wrote a " Letter to Daniel O'Connell on the Poor- Laws of Ireland," a "Vindication of the Religious and Civil Principles of the Irish Catholics," (1823,) and several polemical treatises. Died in 1834. See W. J. FiTZPATRiCK, " Life of Bishop Doyle," 1862. Doyle, (Sir John,) a British general, born in Dublin about 1756. He made several campaigns in America. In 1796 he was made a colonel, and soon after was secretary-at-war in Ireland. He served as brigadier- general in Egypt in 1800. He was made a lieutenant- general in 1808, and obtained the rank of full general several years later. Died in 1834. Doyle, (Richard,) an English artist, distinguished in caricature, was born in London in 1826. He is a son of Mr. Doyle, an artist, whose political sketches, signed " H. B.," obtained much popularity. He contributed humorous and satirical designs to the London "Punch" for some years. His skill in design, and his moral tendency, are highly praised. D'Oyly, doi'le, (George,) D.D., an English clergy- man, born in 1778. He became rector of Buxted in 1815, of Lambeth and Sundridge in 1820. He contributed to the " London Quarterly Review," and published several volumes of sermons. Dr. D'Oyly and the Rev. R. Mant prepared an annotated Bible, published in 1814 by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, which had a large sale. Died in 1846. Dozy, do'ze, ? (Reinhart,) a Dutch Orientalist, born at Leyden in 1820. He became professor of history at Leyden in 1850, and wrote several works which attest his extensive attainments and critical judgment. Among these is "Researches into the Political and Literary His- tory of Spain during the Middle Ages," (1849.) Drabicius, dR^-bit'se-us, ( Nikolaus, ) a German visionary or impostor, born in Moravia in 1587, pretended to be a prophet. He was executed at Presburg in 167 1. Dra'co or Dragoon, [Gr. H^puauv ; Fr, Dragon, dRi'- k6N',] an Athenian legislator, celebrated for his sangui- nary penal code, was archon in the 39th Olympiad, about 624 B.C. He was the author of the first written laws among the Athenians, and made even the least theft a capital crime, so that, as Demades remarked, "his laws seemed to be written with blood instead of ink." See Grote, "History of Greece;" Thirlwai.i,, "History of Greece;" Carl F. Hermann, "Disputatio de Dracone Legislatore Attico," 1849. Dracon. See Draco. Draconites, dR3,-ko-nee'tls, (Johann,) a German Lutheran divine, born at Carlstadt in 1494 ; died in 1566. Dracontius, dra-kon'she-us, a Latin poet of Spain, wrote a poem called " Hexaemeron," describing the crea- tion of the world. Died about 450 a.d. Draeseke. See Draseke. Draexler-Manfred,dR&ks'ler mSn'fRet, (Carl Fer- dinand,) a German novelist and poet, born at Lembergin 1806. Among his novels is " Gruppen und Puppen,"(i836.) Draghi, dRi'gee, (Antonio,) an Italian composer of dramatic music, born at Ferrara in 1642, was noted for prolific talent. Died in 1707, Draghi, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter, born at Genoa; died in 1712. Dragoncino, dRa-gon-chee'no,(GiovANNi Battista,) an Italian poet, flourished about 1500. Dragoiietti, dk^.-go-nef'tee, (LuiGi,) an Italian liter- ary journalist, born at Aquila about 1800. Dragut, dra'gut, a Turkish corsair, born in Natolia, rose to high command in the navy under Barbarossa. He committed many piracies against the Spaniards and Italians, and was once taken prisoner by the Genoese admiral Doria, but was liberated after a few years' deten- tion. He gained a victory over the Spaniards at Gerbes in 1560, and was killed at the siege of Malta in 1565. See Von Hammer, " GeschichtedesOsmanischen Reichs ;" Bran- t6me, "Viede Dragut;" Prescott, " History of Philip II.," vol. ii. Drake, (Daniel,) M.D., an American physician and author, was born at Plainfield, New Jersey, in 1785. He took the degree of M.D. at the University of Pennsylva- nia in 1816. He was connected at different periods with the schools of medicine in Cincinnati, Lexington, Louis- ville, and Philadelphia. It was chiefly through his efforts that the Medical College of Ohio was founded at Cin- cinnati in 1 819. Dr. Drake was distinguished as a lecturer. He edited for many years the " Western Jour- nal of Medical Science," published at Cincinnati. He was also author of various medical and other works, the most important of which is his " Systematic Treatise on the Principal Diseases of the Interior Valley of North America, as they appear in the Caucasian, African, In- dian, and Esquimaux," (2 vols. 8vo, 1850-54.) Died at Cincinnati in 1852. See E. D. Mansfield, "Life ofD. Drake," 1855 ; S. D. Gross, "American Medical Biography." Drake, (Sir Francis,) a celebrated English navigator and naval hero, born in Devonshire about 1540. After learning navigation in the coasting-trade, he commanded a vessel in Sir John Hawkins's disastrous expedition to the Spanish Main in 1567, in which he lost all his property. In 1570, with a commission from the queen, he cruised with some success against the Spaniards in the West Indies. In 1572 he sailed with two vessels on a marauding expedition against the Spanish shipping and settlements of America, from which he returned next year with prizes of great value. From the Isthmus of Darien he had obtained a view of the Pacific Ocean. With five small vessels, in December, 1577, he embarked on a buccaneering enterprise to the Pacific through the Straits of Magellan. He obtained immense treasures by plunder on the coast of Chili and Peru, and, in the hope of finding a passage to the Atlantic, sailed northward as far as 48 degrees north. Failing in this design, he returned to San Francisco, and thence steered across the ocean to the Moluccas, a.nci came home by the Cape of Good Hope in 1579, having circumnavigated the globe. Drake was knighted by Queen Elizabeth, who dined on board his vessel at Deptford and directed the ship to be preserved as a monument of his memorable achievement. He was appointed commander of a fleet in 1587, and sent to "singe the King of Spain's beard," — that is, to burn his ships in the Spanish harbours. In the port of Cadiz he burnt, sunk, or captured one hundred vessels destined for the invasion of England. In the next year^ as vice- admiral, he contributed to the victory of the English over the Invincible Armada. He was elected to Par- liament in 1592. In 1595 an expedition was fitted out against the West Indies, and the command was divided between Drake and Hawkins, who disagreed and conse- quently failed. After losing many men by disease, Drake died near Puerto Bello in 1595. See Barrow, "Life, Voyages, etc. of Sir Francis Drake," 1843 ; Samuel Clarke, "Life of Sir Francis Drake," 1671 : Campbell, "Lives ot British Admirals;" Motley, "United Netherlands," vol. ii. chap. xi. ; Samuel Johnson, " Life of Sir Francis Drake," London, 1767; J. Barrow, "Memoirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen Elizabeth's Reign ;" "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1S44. Drake, (Francis,) an English surgeon and antiquary of York. He published "The History and Antiquity of the City of York," (1736.) Died in 1770. Drake, dR^'keh, (Friedrich,) a celebrated German sculptor, born at Pyrmont in 1805. He became a pupil of Rauch in Berlin. One of his early works, a " Ma- donna and Child," was purchased by the Empress of Russia. His reputation was increased by his allegorical group of the "Eight Provinces of Prussia," (1844,) and by marble statues, busts, and statuettes of eminent Ger- mans, among which are the Humboldts, Rauch, Oken, and Frederick William III. Drake, (James,) M.D., an English physician and po- litical writer, born at Cambridge in 1667. He published in 1702 "The History of the Last Parliament," and soon after " Historia Anglo-Scotica," which gave great offence to the Scots and was burnt by the hangman. He wrote several other works in favour of Toryism ; also a " New System of Anatomy," a work of merit. Died in 1707. Drake, (Joseph Rodman,) an American poet, born in the city of New York in August, 1795, was educated at Columbia College. He studied medicine, and mar- a, e, T, o, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sAor^; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; m§t; n5t; good; moon; DRAKE 789 DRAYTON ried Sarah Eckford about 1816. In 1819 he wrote hu- morous and satirical verses which were published in the "Evening Post" under the signature of " Croaker." He was an ultimate friend of Fitz-Greene Halleck. His principal works are "The Culprit Fay," a beautiful ima- ginative poem, and the much-admired verses on " The American Flag,"* (1819.) He died prematurely in Sep- tember, 1820, in New York, leaving one daughter, who afterwards became the wife of Commodore De Kay. Halleck wrote a poetical tribute to his memory. See Griswold, "Poets an4 Poetry of America;" Duyckinck, "Cyclopedia of American Literature." Drake, (Nathan,) M.D., an English critic and essay- ist, born at York in 1766. From 1792 until his death he practised medicine at Hadleigh, in Suffolk, and produced numerous excellent literary works, among which are "Literary Hours," (1798,) "Essays illustrative of the Tatler, Spectator, and Guardian," (1805,) and "Shak- speare and his Times," (1817.) Of the last. Archdeacon Nares says, "No work has hitherto appeared in which so much of agreeable and well-digested information on this subject will be found, as in this masterly production. It may be considered as a magnificent temple dedicated to the genius of Shakspeare." He published some pro- fessional treatises. Died in 1836. Drake, (Samuel Gardner,) an American writer, born at Pittsfield, New Hampshire, in 1798, became a bookseller in Boston. He published " Indian Biography," (1832,) "The Book of the Indians, or History and Bio- graphy of the Indians of North America," (1833,) and other works. Drakenberg, dR^'ken-b^Rg^ (Christian Jacobsen,) a Norwegian, remarkable for longevity and strength, born at Blomsholm in 1626. He served as a common sailor about fifty years, and was held as a slave by the Algerines and others about sixteen years. At the age of one hundred and ten he married, and several years later was able to perform long journeys on fooL Died in 1772, aged one hundred and forty-five. Drakenborch, dRa'ken-boRK',( Arnold,) an eminent Dutch scholar, born at Utrecht in 1684. He was educated at Utrecht and Leyden. In 1704 he wrote " De Praefectis Urbis," a treatise on the office of prefect in Rome, by which he gained a high reputation. In 17 16 he became professor of history and eloquence in Utrecht, where he remained till his death. He published an edition of Silius Italicus, and one of Livy, which is a master-piece lOf accuracy and erudition. Died in 1747. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Dran, Le. See Ledran. Draut, (Thomas,) D.D., an English divine, known as the first English metrical translator of Horace, in 1567. He published sermons and other works. Died about 1578. Draparuaud, dRt'ptR'n5', (Jacques Philippe Ray- mond,) a French naturalist and linguist, born at Mont- pellier in 1772. He was professor of natural history at Montpellier, and wrote many scientific memoirs, some of which were commended by the Institute of France. Among his principal works is "The Natural History of MoUusks." Died in 1805. See "Biographic Medicale;" Jacques Poitevin, "Notice sur la Vie de NL Draparuaud," 1805. Dra'per, (Eliza,) Mrs., an English lady, was a friend and correspondent of Laurence Sterne, who addressed to her the "Letters of Yorick to Eliza." Dra'per, (John William,) M.D., a distinguished chemist and physiologist, was born in Liverpool, Eng- land, in 1811. He came to America in 1833, and in 1836 graduated at the medical department of the University of Pennsylvania. In 1839 he accepted the chair of chem- istry in the University of New York. He took a promi- nent part in establishing the medical department of the New York University in 1841, and has since been a pro- fessor in that institution. Professor Draper has devoted much attention to the chemical action of light, and written able treatises on this subject. He has made numerous contributions to the "Edinburgh Scientific Journal." Among his most important works are his "Human * Tlie last four lines of "The American Flag" were written by Fitz-Greene Halleck. Physiology, Statistical and Dynamical, or the Conditions and Course of Life in Man," (8vo, 1856,) and his " His- tory of the Intellectual Development of Europe," (1863,) a work which has attracted much attention, having been as warmly praised by some as it has been severely criti- cised by others. He has also written "Thoughts on the Future Civil Policy of America," (1865,) and a "History of the American Civil War," (2 vols., 1867-68.) See "North American Review" for October, 1867. Draper, (Sir William,) a British ofticer, born at Bristol in 1721, commanded as colonel at the capture of Manilla from the Spaniards in 1763. He is best known by his controversy with Junius, against whom he under- took to defend the Marquis of Granby in 1769. Four of the letters of Junius were addressed to Draper, who, being foiled by the keen wit and sarcasm of his oppo- nent, endeavoured to provoke him to a duel. The intem- perate and somewhat scurrilous letters of Draper are published with those of his antagonist. Died in 1787. Drapiez, dRt'pe-a', (AuCxUste,) a Belgian savant, born at Brussels in 1790, published several works on mineralogy and other sciences. Draseke orDraeseke, dRa'zeh-keh, (Johann Hein- RICH Bernhard,) a distinguished German pulpit orator, born at Brunswick in 1774. He became first preacher of the cathedral of Magdeburg in 1832. He published numerous sermons, and " Faith, Love, and Hope," (1813 ; 6th edition, 1834.) Died in 1849. Draud, dKowt, (Georg,) a German bibliographer, born at Dauernheim in 1573, published " Bibliotheca Classica," (1611,) the most complete and methodical bibliography of printed books that had then appeared. Died about 1630. Dray'ton, (Michael,) an English poet, born at Harts- hill, in Warwickshire, in 1563. The events of his early life are nearly all unknown. He was patronized in youth by Sir Walter Aston, and in the decline of life he found a comfortable home at the seat of the Earl of Dorset. About 1596 he published his.torical poems, entitled "The Barons' Wars" and " England's Heroical Epistles." His principal production, "The Poly-Olbion," (1613,) is greatly admired, and is regarded as good authority in reference to English antiquities. It is a poetical descrip- tion of all the rivers, tracts, mountains, forests, etc. of Great Britain, with notices of traditions and stories connected with them. " Drayton is a sweet poet," says Coleridge, "and Selden's notes to the earlier part of the * Poly-Olbion' are well worth your perusal." He received the title of poet-laureate in 1626. The next year he published several short poems, among which is his admirable " Nymphidia," a fairy poein. Died in 1631. "There is probably," says Hallam, "no poem of this kind in any other language comparable together in ex- tent and excellence to the 'Poly-Olbion;' nor can any one read a portion of it without admiration for its learned and highly-gifted author." ("Introduction to the Litera- ture of Europe.") See Johnson, " Lives of the English Poets;" Sir S. E. Brydges, "Imaginative Biography;" Disraeli, "Amenities of Literature ;" Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets." Dray'ton, (Percival,) an American naval officer, born in South Carolina about 181 2, entered the navy about 1828. He obtained the rank of commander in 1855, and maintained his loyalty to the Union in the civil war. He was promoted to the rank of captain in 1S62, and commanded the monitor Passaic in the attack on Fort Sumter in April, 1863. He was highly esteemed by Admiral Farragut, who selected him to command his flag-ship in his operations against the defences of Mobile Bay, August, 1864. Died in August, 1865. Drayton, (William,) a judge, born in South Carolina in 1733. became, after the Revolution, an associate justice of his native State, and a judge under the Federal government. Died in 1790. Drayton, (William,) an American politician, born in South Carolina. Pie was from 1825 to 1833 ^ repre- sentative in Congress. Originally a Federalist, he was the leader of the Union party in the nullification move- ment of South Carolina in 1830. He succeeded Nicholas Biddle as president of the United States Bank in 1839. Died in 1846. € as 5 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JiJ^See Explanations, p. 23.) DRAYTON DRINKER Drayton, (William Henry,) an American patriot and judge, born on Ashley River, in South Carolina, in 1 742. He became chief justice of South Carolina in 1 776, and delivered to the grand jury an able charge, which gave an impulse to the popular cause. He was an active and prominent member of Congress, when he died sud- denly in Philadelphia in 1779, in the thirty-sixth year of his age, and left historical memoirs of the Revolution, published by his son, (in 2 vols., 1821.) See "Encyclopaedia Americana." Diebbel, van, van dkeb-'bel, (Cornelts,) a Dutch philosopher, born at Alkmaar in 1572. The latter part of his life was passed in England, where he was patron- ized by James I. and is said to have invented an air ih irmometer and some curious machines. He published, iji Dutch, a work "On the Nature of the Elements," and one on " Quintessence." He pretended that he had dis- covered a perpetual motion. Died in 1634. See F. HoEFER, "Histoire de la Chimie." Drelincourt, dReh'lA.M'kooR', (Charles,) an eminent French Protestant minister, born at Sedan in 1595. He became minister of Charenton, near Paris, in 1620, and acquired great popularity as a preacher. He wrote against the Church of Rome a number of polemical treatises, which had great influence in confirming his fellow - professors. His work entitled "Consolations against the Fear of Death" (1651) was translated into English and German, and often reprinted. He also jDublished " Charitable Visits," etc., (" Les Visites charita- bles pour toutes Sortes de Personnes atitiigees," 5 vols., 1669.) His sermons were especially remarkable for their unction. Died in Paris in 1669. See Haag, "La France protestante." Drelincourt, (Charles,) a son of the preceding, born in Paris in 1633, was a physician and author of high reputation. Pie took his degree as doctor in 1654, soon after which he was appointed first physician to the army of Turenne. In 1663 he became physician-in-ordinary to Louis XIV., and in 1668 obtained the chair of medicine at Leyden. He was an eloquent and learned writer. Among his works are " Prieludium Anatomicum," (1670,) and " Homericus Achilles," (1693.) He was employed as physician by William Prince of Orange, and was the precepter of Boerhaave. He died in 1697, leaving a son Charles, who was a physician. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." Drelincourt, (Laurent,) a brother of the preceding, born in Paris in 1626, became minister at Rochelle and Niort, and was distinguished as a preacher. He pub- lished Sermons, and "Christian Sonnets." Died in 1680. Dren'nan, (Wu.liam,) M.D., an Irish poet and politi- cal writer, born at Belfast in 1754; died in 1820. Dre-pa'ni-us, (Lati'nus Paca'tus,) a poet and ora- tor, born at Bordeaux or Agen, in France, was deputed to Rome, in 388 A.D., to congratulate Theodosius on his victory over Maximus, and then pronounced a panegyric on that emperor, which is still extant. His poems, which are praised hy Ausonius, have not been preserved. Drepanius Florus. See Florus. Dresig, dRa'zic, (Sigismond Friedrich,) a German scholar and writer, born in 1700, lived at Leipsic; died in 1742. Dres'ser, [Lat. Dresse'rus,] (Matthaus,) a learned German professor, born at Erfurt in 1536, was a disciple of Luther, and studied at Wittenberg. He succeeded Justus Lipsius as professor of history at Jena in 1574. In 1 581 he became professor of humanities at Leipsic, where by his influence the Confession of Augsburg was adopted in the University. He wrote, besides other Latin works, a "Treatise on Rhetoric," (1585,) and a "Life of Luther," (1598.) Died in 1607. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Dresserus. See Dresser. Dressier, dR^s'ler, (Ernst Christoph,) a German musician and writer of songs, was born at Greussen in 1734 ; died in 1779. Dreux du Radier, dRuh dii rt'de-i', (Jean Fran- gois,) a French lawyer and writer, borlT'at Chateauneuf- en-Thymerais in 1714. He wrote a "Historical and Critical Library of Poitcu," (1754,) which is regarded as an excellent work, " Historical and Critical Memoirs and Anecdotes of France," (1764,) and "Recreations, His- torical, Critical, and Moral," (1767.) Died in 1780. See Ersch, "La France Litteraire," 5 vols., 1797-1806; Lastic- Saint-Jal, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de J. F. Dreux du Radier," 1842. Dreux et de Breze, de, deh dRuh i deh hvs.\'z^\ (Henri Evrard,) Marquls, was grand master of cere- monies when the States-General met in 1789. An order which he conveyed from the king, that this body should disperse, provoked a famous reply from Mirabeau. Died in 1829. Drevet, dReh-v|', (Pierre,) an excellent French en- graver, born in Lyons in 1664. After receiving lessons from Germain Audran, he went to Paris,where he devoted his talents to portraits. Among his best works are por- traits of Louis XIV., Cardinal Fleury, the dauphin, and Boileau. He was perhaps unrivalled by any engraver of his time except his son, who surpassed him. Died in 1 739. See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." Drevet, (Pierre,) a son and pupil of the preceding, born in Paris in 1697. He engraved a number of por- traits, which are master-pieces, and treated subjects of history with nearly equal success. His portrait of Bos- suet, after Rigaud, (1733,) is called his best work. It is said that he was able to imitate articles of dress and fur- niture so that the various colours, textures, and other qualities of those accessories can be recognized by the least practised eyes. He was a member of the Academy of Painting. Died in 1739. See Basan, "Dictionnaire des Graveurs." Drew, (Samuel,) an English writer, born in Cornwall in 1765, was a shoemaker, and supplied the defects of his education by studying in the intervals of labour. He was converted from infidelity in early life, and joined the Methodist Church. He published " The Immateriality and Immortality of the Soul," (1802,) which is highly praised, and other religious works. He became editor of the "Imperial Magazine" in 1819. Died in 1833. See " Life, Character, and Literary Labours of Samuel Drew," by his son, 1834. Drex-eTi-us, [Ger. pron. dR§k-sa'le-iis,] (Jeremias,) a German Jesuit and pulpit orator, born at Augsburg in 1 58 1, wrote some ascetic works. Died in 1638. See Ersch und Gruber, " AUgenieine Encyklopaedie." Dreyer, diu'er, (Johann Matthias,) a German poet, born at Hamburg in 1716; died in 1769. Dreyschock, dRl'shok, (Alexander,) a celebrated pianist, born in Bohemia in 181 8. He has acquired distinction by his concerts in the principal capitals of Europe. Dreyse, von, fon dRl'zeh, (Johann Nikolaus,) the inventor of the celebrated "needle-gun," was born at Sommerda, in Prussia, November 20, 1787. He was the son of a locksmith, and he himself followed the same trade. His attention having been directed to the extra- ordinary clumsiness of the muskets used by the Prussians at the battle of Jena, he was convinced that, until she was provided with better arms, his country could never become a first-rate military power. His invention was made in the early part of 1828, but was not put to the proof until the war of 1866. The great improvement of his gun is his new contrivance for igniting the cartridge, which is still a secret. Died December 9, 1867. See "London Examiner" for September 8, i866. Driander. See Dryander. Dridoens. See Driedo. Driedo, dRe^do', or Dridoens, dRee'doons, (Jan,) a Flemish theologian and prominent adversary of Luther- anism. He was a canon of the church of Louvain, and wrote several works, one of which is " On the Writings and Doctrines of the Church," (" De Scripturis et Dog- matibus ecclesiasticis.") Died in 1535. See PossEViN, "Apparatus Sacer." Driesche. See Drusius. Drink'er, (Anna,) an American poetess, who wrote under the assumed name of Edith May, was born in Pennsylvania. She published a volume of poems, (1851,) which were commended by N. P. Willis. See Griswoi-d's " Female Poets of America." a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obsaire; fir, fill, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; DRIVERE 791 D ROTS EN Drivere, dReVaiR', [Lat. Thrive'rus,] (Jeremias,) born at Braeckel, in Flanders, in 1504, became professor of medicine at Louvain. He wrote many medical works, besides commentaries on Hippocrates. Died in 1554. See P. J. Haan, "Notice sur la Vie de H. Thriverus," 1846; NicERON, " Memoires." Drobisch, dRo'bish, (Moritz Wilhelm,) a German philosopher, born in 1802 at Leipsic, where he became professor of mathematics in 1842. Drolling, dRo'l^N' or dRol'ling, (Martin,) a French painter, born at Oberbergheim (Haut-Rhin) in 1752. He painted familiar scenes, interiors, etc. with success, and was a good colorist. Died in 181 7. Drolling, (Michel Martin,) a skilful historical painter, son of the preceding, born in Paris in 1786. He g.iined the first prize in 1810 for a picture of " The Wrath of Achilles." Among his best productions is "Orpheus losing Eurydice," (1817.) He also painted many por- traits. Died in 185 1. See Saint-Maurice-Cabany, " M. M. Drolling, Peintre," 1851. Drollinger, dRoKling-er, (Karl Friedrich,) a Ger- man poet, was born at Durlach in 1688. His odes on "The Immortality of the Soul," and "On Divine Providence," were much admired. Died in 1742. See BuxTORF, " Brevis Historia Vitae et Obitus C. F. DroHingeri," 1742; Adelung, Supplement to Jocher's "Allgejneines Gelehrten- Lexikon." Dro'mon, [Apo/zwv,] an Athenian comic poet, lived in the fourth century B.C. Drooch-Sloot, dRoK'slot, (J. C.,) a Dutch painter, born at Gorcum about 1600. Among his works are views of Holland and of village festivals. Drossander, dRos-slnMer, (Anders,) a Swedish physician and philosopher, born at Upsal in 1648. He wrote several scientific works. Died in 1696. See " Blographie Medicale." Drost, dRost, a skilful Flemish painter, and a pupil of Rembrandt, was living in 1670. Droste-Hiilshoff, von, fon dRos'teh hiils'hof, (An- nette Elisabeth,) a German lyric poetess, born near Munster in 1798; died in 1848. Droste zu Vischering, von, fon dRos'teh tsoo fish'er-ing, (Clemens August,) Freihekk, a German Catholic prelate, born near Munster in 1773. He be- came Archbishop of Cologne in 1835. Died in 1845. See Stoeveken, "C. A. Droste zu Vischering in selnem Leben," etc., 1846. Drouais, dRoo'i', (Hubert,) a French painter, born in Normandy in 1699, was a grandfather of Jean Ger- main, noticed below. He excelled in portraits. Died at Paris in 1767. Drouais, (Jean Germain,) an eminent French painter, born in Paris in 1763, was the son of Henri Drouais, a portrait-painter, who died in 1775. 1780 he be- came a pupil of David. About the age of twenty-one he gained by a unanimous vote the grand prize of the Academy by his picture of the " Woman of Canaan at the Feet of Christ," which established his reputation. He then went to Rome, where he painted " Marius at Minturnas," and died prematurely in 1788. Goethe, in one of his works, expresses his admiration of the last- named picture. See Chaussard, "Notice sur Drouais;" Nagler, "Neues All- gemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Drouet, dRoo'i', (Stienne,) a French editor and compiler, born in Paris in 171 5. He published the last and best edition of Moreri's Dictionary, (10 vols., 1759,) and a new edition of Lenglet-Dufresnoy's " Method for the Study of History," (15 vols., 1772.) Died in 1779. Drouet, (Jean Baptiste,) a French revolutionist, born at Sainte-Menehould in 1763, was the son of the postmaster of that town. He acquired notoriety by his agency in the arrest of Louis XVI. at Varennes in 1791. In 1792 he was elected a member of the Convention, in which he voted for the death of the king and the destruc- tion of the Girondists. Soon after Bonaparte obtained the chief power, Drouet was appointed sub-prefect of Sainte-Menehould. In 1807, as he gave him the cross of the legion of honour, the emperor said to him, "You have changed the face of the world." Died in 1824. See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution." Drouet de Maupertuy, dRoo'4' dieh ma'p^R^tu-e', (Jean Baptiste,) a French writer and priest, born in Paris in 1650 ; died in 1730. Drouet d'Brlon, dRoo'^' d§R^]6N', (Jean Baptiste,) Count, and Marshal of France, born at Rheims in 1765. He entered the army as a private in 1782, served under Hoche in 1797, and was made a general of brigade in 1799. He became a general of division in 1800, and contributed by a skilful movement to the victory at Jena, (1806.) In March, 1815, he was arrested on a charge of being an accomplice of Lefebvre-Desnouettes in his design to seize the Bourbon family, and in the ensuing June he was created a peer by Napoleon, for whom he commanded a corps at Waterloo. He passed ten years in exile, returned to France in 1825, and was restored to his rank in the army in 1830. He was chosen Governor- General of Algeria in 1834, and obtained the rank of marshal in 1843. Died in 1844. See " Notice sur la Vie militaire de Drouet d'Erlon," by himself, 1844; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Drouineau, dRoo'e'no', (Gustave,) a French drama- tist and novelist, born at La Rochelle in 1800. He pro- duced "Rienzi," (1826,) a tragedy, and "Ernest," (1829,) a novel, both of which were popular. About 1830 he became one of the editors of the " Constitutionnel." He was author of other dramas and tales. Died in 1835. Drouot, dRoo'o', (Antoine,) Count, an able French general of artillery, born at Nancy in 1774. He fought as captain at Hohenlinden in 1800, and gave proof of courage and skill at Wagram, (1809,) and at Borodino, (1812.) For his conduct at Lutzen and Bautzen, (1813,) where he commanded the artillery of the imperial guard, he was made a general of division and aide-de-camp to Napoleon, whom he followed to Elba, of which he was chosen governor. He was at the side of Napoleon at the battle of Waterloo, June, 181 5, soon after which he was commandant of the imperial guard at Paris. After the restoration he lived as a private citizen. Died in 1847. " France was astonished in 1814 to learn," says C. Hequet, "that she had possessed for a long time the best officer of artillery in Europe." (" Nouvelle Biogra- phic Generale.") He was surnamed by Napoleon " the sage of the grand army," ("le sage de la grande armee.") See J. Nollet-Fabert, " Biographic du General Drouot," 1850; Henri Le Page, " Le General Drouot," 1847 '• Lacoruaire, " filoge du General Drouot," 1847. Drouyn de Lhuys, dRoo'^N' deh lii-e', (Edouard,) a French diplomatist and minister of state, was born in Paris in 1805. He became in 1833 charge-d'affaires at the Hague, where he gave proof of high diplomatic ability. In 1840 he was appointed director of commer- cial affairs in the ministry of foreign affairs. He was brought into frequent contact with Guizot, whose ])olicy he disapproved. As a member of the Chamber of Depu- ties, he voted against the ministry in 1845, ^^^^ ^lis- missed from office. He was elected to the National Assembly in 1848, and became minister of foreign affairs in the first cabinet of President Louis Napoleon. In June, 1849, he was sent as ambassador to London. He was a conservative member of the National Assembly in 1851, and again became foreign minister in July, 1852. His diplomatic letters on the occasion of the estab- lishment of the empire added to his reputation. He represented France at the Conference of Vienna in 1855, at the close of which he retired from office because he differed from his colleagues on the Eastern question. In October, 1862, he was again appointed minister of foreign affairs. He was removed from this office about September, 1866. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Drovetti, dRo-vet'tee, (Bernardino,) an Italian an- tiquary, born at Leghorn in 1775. ^'^^ consul in Egypt, where he formed two rich collections of antique objects. The King of France purchased one of these collections for 250,000 francs. Died in 1852. Droysen, dRoi'zen, (Johann Gustav,) a German historian, born at Treptow, in Pomerania, in 1808. He obtained the chair of history at Kiel in 1840, before which he had been professor in Berlin. In 1851 he became professor of history at Jena. His " History of Prussian Politics" (" Geschichte der Preussischen Politik," 2 vols € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^^='See Explanations, p. 23.) DROZ 792 DRURT 1855) is called his most important work. He has also published a "History of Alexander the Great," (1833,) a " History of Hellenism," (" Hellenismus," 2 vols., 1836- 43,) and a " Life of Field-Marshal Graf York von War- tenburg," (185 1.) See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Droz, dRo, (FRANgois Xavier Joseph,) a French writer and moralist, born at Besan(;;on in 1773. He served in the republican army from 1792 to 1796, and became a resident of Paris in 1803. After several unsuccessful attempts as an author, he published in 1806 an " Essay on Happiness," (" Essai sur TArt d'etre heureux,") which was received with more favour. He became a contributor to several journals. In 1824 he gained the Montyon prize for his treatise " On Moral Philosophy," and in the next year was admitted to the French Acad- emy. His " History of the Reign of Louis XVL" (3 vols., 1839-42) is esteemed his most important work. "A mild solemnity of tone," says Sainte-Beuve, "was the habitual rhythm of his thoughts." In conjunction with Picard, he wrote "Memoirs of Jacques Fauvel," (1823,) which is represented as a Gil Bias less witty but more moral than that of Le Sage. He became in 1832 a member of the class of Moral and Political Sciences in the Institute. Died in 1850. See F. A. Mignet, "Notice historique sur la Vie de M. Droz," 1852; Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi." Droz, dRo, (Henri Louis,) a son of Pierre Jacquet, noticed below, born in 1752, inherited his mechanical and inventive talent. He produced an automaton in the form of a girl, which played tunes on the harpsichord and at the end of the performance would rise and salute the company. He also made artificial hands. He lived some years at Geneva, where he was much esteemed for his character as well as his talents. Died in 1791. Droz, (Jules Antoine,) a sculptor, a son of Pierre Jean, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1807. Among his works are the marble statues of Winter and Summer which adorn the palace of the Luxeinbourg. Droz, (Pierre Jacquet,) a skilful mechanician and watchmaker, born in Neufchatel in 1721. He improved the pendulum by using two metals of unequal expansi- bility, and made a writing automaton which displayed great ingenuity. Died in 1790. Droz, (Pierre Jean,) a Swiss engraver of coins and medals, born at Chaux-de-Fond in 1746. He settled in Paris in 1766, and invented a method to engrave stamps for the coinage of money with celerity. About 1 790 Watt and Boulton took him into their service, and his skill was exercised in the fabrication of English coins. He returned to France, and during the empire was the chief engraver of public medals and coins. His portraits of Napoleon are praised. Died in 1823. Druey, dRii'i', (Charles,) a Swiss politician, born about 1800, was a leader of the radicals, or the party of progress. In 1845 he was chosen president of the pro- visional government formed after the resignation of the council of state. Under the new constitution adopted in 1848, he was one of the chiefs of the executive power. Died in 1855. Drumann, dRoo'mIn, (Karl Wilhelm,) a German historian and philologist, born near Halberstadt in 1786, became professor of philology at Konigsberg in 181 7. His capital work is a "History of Rome," ("Geschichte Roms," 6 vols., 1834-44,) which is highly commended. Died in 1861. Driimel or Druemel, dRii'mel, (Johann Heinrich,) aGermanwriter, born at Nuremberg in 1707; died in 1770. Drum'mond, (Alexander,) a British traveller, who was consul at Aleppo in 1744, and published " Travels in Germany, Greece, and Asia," (1754.) Died in 1769. Drum'mpnd, (George,) a Scottish officer, noted for public spirit, was born in 1687. He fought against the Pretender at Sheriffmuir in 1715. He was chosen lord provost of Edinburgh in 1725 and at several subsequent periods. The Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh was founded chiefly by his efforts in 1736. Died in 1766. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Drum'mond, (Henry,) M.P., an English writer on theology and politics, born in 1786. He was a disciple of Edward Irving. Drummond, (James,) Earl of Perth, was appointed lord chancellor of Scotland in 1684. He was a cruel per- secutor of the Covenanters. On the expulsion of James II. from the throne he was exiled. Died in 17 16. Drummond, (Maurice,) the ancestor of the Scottish family of that name, was a grandson of Andrew, King of Hungary. He was a resident of England at the Nor- man conquest, (1066,) and he followed Edgar Atheling to Scotland about 1068, and was made seneschal of Lennox. Annabella Drummond, his descendant, was married to Robert III., King of Scotland. Drummond, (Robert Hay,) a British prelate, born in London in 1711, was the second son of the Earl of Kinnoul, and a grandson of Harley, Earl of Oxford. In 1737 he was appointed chaplain-in-ordinary to George II. He became Bishop of Saint Asaph in 1748, of Salisbury in 1 76 1, and Archbishop of York in the same year. Some of his sermons have been published. Died in 1 776. His son Robert became ninth Earl of Kinnoul. See Chambers, " liiographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Drummond, (Thomas,) Captain, known as the in- ventor of the " Drummond Light," was born in Edin- burgh in 1797. In 1 81 3 he entered, as cadet, Woolwich Military Academy, where he displayed superior talents for mathematics and mechanics. He became one of the royal engineers, and was employed in the trigonometrical survey of Scotland about 1824, when he conceived the idea of using the incandescence of lime, instead of the argand lamp, for rendering distant stations visible. The experiment was very successful. In 1825 he invented the heliostat, and, through the influence of Lord Brougham, received a pension of ^^300 a year. In 1835 he was made under-secretary for Ireland. Died in 1840. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Drummond, (William,) of Hawthornden, an emi- nent Scottish poet, born of a noble family in 1585. He studied civil law at Bourges, in France, but soon re- nounced that profession for literature. In 1610 his father. Sir John, died, and left him his beautiful seat at Haw- thornden, remarkable for picturesque scenery. He was of a melancholy temperament, and inclined to retirement. In 1619 Ben Jonson performed a journey of several hun- dred miles for the purpose of visiting Drummond, who has preserved some curious and famous notes of the conversation which passed between them. These were published after his death, and are perhaps more known and read than any of his works. Drummond has been censured for leaving these notes and betraying the con- fidence of his guest ; but his friends say he did not intend them for publication. Southey represents Drummond as the first Scottish poet who wrote well in English. Among his most admired productions are " The River Forth Feasting," "The Praise of a Solitary Life," and his son- nets. " The sonnets of Drummond," says Hallam, " are polished and elegant, free from conceit and bad taste, in pure, unblemished English." In his forty-fifth year he married Elizabeth Logan. Died in December, 1649. See P. Cunningham, "Life of W. Drummond;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Campbell," Speci- mens of the British Poets;" "Retrospective Review," vol. ix., 1824; " Encyclopjedia Britannica." Drummond, (Sir William,) of Logic Almond, a British scholar and ingenious writer, was returned to Parliainent for vSaint Mawes in 1795, and a few years later was minister to Naples. About 1802 he was ambassador to the Ottoman Porte. He published, besides other works, a good translation of Persius's Satires, (1798,) "Academical Questions," (1805,) "Odin," a poem, and " Origines, or Remarks on the Origin of Several Empires, States, and Cities," (4 vols., 1824-29,) a critical work of considerable merit. Died at Rome in 1828. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" " Edinburgh Review" forOctober, 1805 ; " Encyclopaedia Britannica." Drum'mond de MePfort, (Louis Hector,) Count OF, born in 1726, was the descendant of Maurice Drum- mond, noticed above. He served with distinction in the French armies as colonel, inspector-general, and lieutenant-general. He published in 1776 a valuable "Treatise on Cavalry." Died in 1788. Dru'ry, (Drew,) an English naturalist, published a work on entomology called " Illustrations of Natural a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; DRURT 793 DRTDEN History," (1770,) which was commended by Linnaeus and others. "The exquisite work of Drury," says Sir James Edward Smith, "displays the complete insect in a degree of perfection that leaves nothing to be desired." Died in 1804. Drury, (Rev. Joseph,) an English scholar, born in London in 1750, was head-master of Harrow from 1785 to 1805. Lord Byron, who was his pupil, has expressed in his works gratitude and respect for him. Died in 1834. Drury, (Robert,) an English sailor, born about 1687. He was shipwrecked in 1702 on the coast of Madagas- car, where he was kept a captive fifteen years. He re- turned to England and published (1722) a journal of his adventures, and an account of Madagascar, regarded as authentic. Dru-sil'la, a daughter of Herod Agrippa, King of Judea, became the wife of Felix, the Roman governor of Judea. She was present when Saint Paul preached before Felix, in 60 A.D. (See Acts xxiv. 24.) Tacitus says that Drusilla the wife of Felix was a granddaughter of the famous Cleopatra. Drusilla, (Livia.) See Livia Drusilla. Drusius, dRii'se-us, ( Jan, ) a Flemish Protestant scholar and eminent biblical critic, whose proper name was Van den Drifsche, (dRees'keh,) was born at Oude- narde in 1550. He professed Oriental languages at Oxford, in England, from 1572 to 1576, and obtained a similar chair at Leyden in 1577. He was professor of Hebrew at Franeker from 1585 until his death, in 1616. He wrote commentaries on Scripture, and several treat- ises on grammar, one of which is a Hebrew Grammar, entitled "Grammatica Linguae sanctae nova." See Abel Curiander, "Vita J. Drusii," 1618; Bayle, "His- torical and Critical Dictionary." Drusius, (Jan,) a son of the preceding, born at Ley- den in 1588, was a prodigy of learning and of precocity. At the age of nine he could read Hebrew without points, and at seventeen he addressed the King of England in a Latin oration. Scaliger thought he excelled his father in Hebrew. Died in 1609. Dru'sus, a Roman prince, was the second son of Germanicus and Agrippina, and a brother of the emperor Caligula. His disposition, according to Tacitus, was violent and unruly. He appears to have been a victim of the ambitious intrigues of Sejanus. Having been condemned to death by the senate, he was confined by Tiberius, who permitted him to die by starvation in 33 A.D. Drusus, (Claudius Nero,) a Roman general, born 38 B.C., was the son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia, whose second husband was the emperor Augustus. He married Antonia, the daughter of Mark Antony, In the year 13 b,c. he commanded an army on the Rhine, and defeated several German tribes. Horace composed an admired ode in honour of this victory, (lib. iv. 4.) In the ensuing campaigns he extended his conquests as far as the Elbe, after which the senate gave him the surname Germanicus. He died at the age of thirty, leaving a fair reputation for talents and virtue. The emperor Tibe- rius was his brother. It is said that Augustus intended to give a portion of the empire to Drusus, who was born a few months after the marriage of the former with Livia. Drusus left two sons, Germanicus, and Claudius who became emperor. See Dion Cassius, books xlviii. and liv. ; Tacitus, "Annals;" Ersch und Cruder, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Drusus, (Marcus Livius,) a Roman tribune, was a colleague of Caius Gracchus in the tribuneship in 122 B.C. The senate, alarmed at the innovations of Gracchus, procured the election of Drusus because he was popular and eloquent, in order to undermine the influence of Gracchus. Drusus founded many colonies, and courted the popular favour with success, at the same time pro- moting the interests of the optimates. He was chosen consul for 112 B.C., obtained Macedonia as his province, and defeated the Thracian Scordisci. See Plutarch, "Caius Gracchus;" Livv, "Epitome," book ixiii. ; NiEBUHR, "History of Rome." Drusus, (Marcus Livius,) a son of the preceding, and uncle of Cato Uticensis, was called Drusus Junior. He was an ambitious politician, and a champion or patronus of the senate, which at that period was involved in a contest with the equites respecting the judicial power. In 91 B.C. he was chosen tribune of the people, whose favour he gained by largesses and agrarian laws. The consul Philippus was arrested by his order, and the senate voted that the laws of Drusus were null. He became the leader of a conspiracy or party which de- signed to give the right of citizenship to the Italiotes and to make other changes. He was assassinated by an unknown hand in 91 or 90 B.C. See NiEBUHR, " History of Rome ;" Cicero, " Brutus," " De OfiS- ciis," and "Pro Milone;" Appian, "De Bello Civili ;" Bemmel, "Dissertatio de M. L. Drusis Patre et Filio," 1826. Dru'sus Cae'sar, (see'zar,) sometimes called Drusus Junior, a son of the emperor Tiberius, married Livia, a sister of Germanicus. His character was depraved by cruelty and other vices. Died in 23 A.D., from poison. See Tacitus, "Annals." Druth'mar' or dRoot'mir', (Christian,) a monk and grammarian, who lived at Corbie, France, about 850 a.d. Dry'ad, [Gr. dpuaf, plural dpuucJef, (from (5p{'f, an "oak" or any " tree ;") Lat. Dry'ades ; Fr. Dryades, dRe'td'.] The dryads, in classic mythology, were nymphs or god- desses presiding over woods and groves. The Ham'a- DRY^ADS [from the Greek u//a, " together with"] were supposed to be attached to some particular tree, with which they lived and died. See " Blographie Universelle," (Partie mythologique.) Dryades. See Dryad, Dryander, dRe-SnMer, (Johann,) orEichmann, Tk'- m3.n, a German astronomer, born at Wetteren, in Hesse. He published esteemed works, among which are "De Cylindro" and "The Terrestrial Globe." Died in 1560. Dryander, dRe-iu'der, (Jonas,) a Swedish naturalist, born in 1748, was a pupil of Linnaeus. About 1780 he removed to England, where he made an excellent Cata- logue of Sir Joseph Banks's Library, (1798.) He wrote some botanical treatises, and was one of the founders of the Linnaean Society. Died in London in 1810. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Dry'den, (Charles,) the eldest son of the great poet, was educated as a Catholic. In 1692 he obtained an office in the palace of Pope Clement XL, but resigned it to his brother John, and returned to England. He was the author of some fugitive poems. He was drowned, while swimming in the Thames, in 1704. Dryden, (John,) a celebrated English poet, born at Aldwinckle, in Northamptonshire, on the 9th of August, 163 1. He was the eldest son of Erasmus I)riden, a rigid Puritan of gentle birth. After passing under the disci- pline of Dr. Busby at Westminster, he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1650. He left college in 1657, and became a citizen of London. One of his first poetic essays was " Heroic Stanzas on the Death of Cromwell," (1658,) of whom he was at that time an admirer. He hailed with alacrity the restoration of 1660, in a poem named "Astrasa Redux." In 1662 he produced his first drama, " The Wild Gallant," which did not make much impression on the public mind. About 1663 he married Lady Howard, the daughter of the Earl of Berkshire. In 1667 appeared his " Annus Mirabilis," or " Year of Won- ders," and a tragi-comedy entitled "The Indian Empe- ror." He succeeded Davenant as poet-laureate in 1668, and published his excellent prose "Essay on Dramatic Poesy," which entitled him, as Dr. Johnson observed, to be considered the father of English criticism. He after- wards produced many successfiil comedies and tragedies, among which are " Marriage a-la-Mode," " All for Love," (1678,) " Aurengzebe," and "Don Sebastian," (1690.) His dramas are eminent examples of genius perverted, and abound in passages of disgusting indecency. He also acquired great celebrity in satire and in lyric poetry. His " Absalom and Achitophel" (1681) is a poetical satire against the party of which Lord Shaftesbury was the master-spirit and the Duke of Monmouth the nominal head. It had a prodigious success. In reference to this poem, Hallam remarks, "The spontaneous ease of expression, the rapid transitions, the general elasticity and movement, have never been excelled." About 1686 he avowed himself a convert to the Roman Catholic Church, which was then favoured at court, and wrote € as 5 as s; g hard; g asy; g, h, y^, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) DRTDEN 794 DUBOIS " The Hind and the Panther," an allegory in verse. The subject is the controversy between the Romish Church (the Hind) and the Church of England, represented by the Spotted Panther. In the latter part of his life he gradually ceased to write for the stage, and acquired with a purer taste a more natural style. " He had turned his powers in a new direction," says Macaulay, " with success the most splendid and decisive. His taste had gradually awakened his creative faculties. The fiist rank in poetry was be- yond his reach, but he secured the most honourable place in the second. . . . His command of language was immense. With him died the secret of the old poetical diction of England, — the art of producing rich effects by familiar words. . . . Dryden was an incomparable reasoner in verse." Among his later productions are translations of Juvenal and Virgil, (1697,) and the celebrated "Ode for Saint Cecilia's Day," (about r/oo,) which Macaulay pronounces "his greatest work, and a master-piece of the second class of poetry." Some critics esteem it the finest ode in the language. " His translation of Virgil," says Pope, "is the most noble and spirited translation I know in any language." Brougham speaks of his prose as "the matchless prose of Dryden, rich, various, natural, ani- mated, pointed," etc. He died on the ist of May, 1700, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. See Johnson, " Lives of the Poets ;" Sir Walter Scott, " Life of Dryden," prefixed to an edition of Dryden's works, 18 vols., 1808; Macaui-AV, " Essays," articles "Dryden" and "Comic Dramatists of the Restoration ;" also, " History of England," vol. ii. chap, vii. and vol. iv. chap. xx. ; Malone, "Life of Dryden;" Vii.i.e- MAiN, " Tableau de la Litterature au dix-huitieme Siecle ;" Prof. John Wilson, "Critique on Dryden," in "Blackwood's Magazine" for February, March, and April, 1845 ; " Edinburgh Reviev/" for July, 1855; "Retrospective Review," vol. i., 1820; "Eraser's Magazine" for August, 1854, and August, 1865; "Westminster Review" for April, 1855. Dryden, (John,) son of the preceding, born about 1668. He translated the 14th Satire for his father's ver- sion of Juvenal, and wrote a comedy, "The Husband his own Cuckold," (1696.) Died at Rome in 1701. Erasmus Henry, the third son of the great poet, in- herited the title of baronet from a kinsman of his father, and died in 1710. Drys'dale, (John,) D.D., a Scottish divine and elo- quent preacher, born at Kirkaldy in 1718. In 1766 he was a]jpointed one of the ministers of the Tron Church in Edinburgh. Died in 1788. His sermons were pub- lished in 1793. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Dschafer or Dschaafar. See Mansoor. Dschami. See Jamee. Dschehan- or Dschahan-Ghir. See JahAn-Geer. Dschelal-Eddin. See Jelal-ed-Deen. D-schemschid. See Jemsheed. Dschengis. See Jengis Khan. Dschihan-Ghir. See JahAn-Geer. Dschingis. See Jengis Khan. Duali- (or Douali-) al-Basree, (or -Basri,) ddo-il'e il bis'ree, written also Dueli- (Doueli-) and Duwali-el- Basri, ( Abool- (or Abu-1-) Aswed-Zklim- (or Sdlim-) Ibn- Amroo-Ibn-Sofy^n, i'bool ^s'wed zi'lim ib'n Sm'roo Ib'n so-fe-Sn',) an eminent Arabian grammarian and miser, born at Bassora (Basra) about 600 A.D., (or 630, according to some authorities ;) died at the age of eighty-two. See Hammer-Purgstall, " Literaturgeschichte der Araber;" Ibn-Khallikan, " Biographical Dictionary." Du-ane', (Willl\m,) an American politician, born near Lake Champlain, New York, in 1760. He learned the trade of printer, and went to India about 1784. He afterwards passed several years in England. Having re- turned to the United States about 1795, he became editor of "The Aurora," a Democratic paper which was pub- lished at Philadelphia, and acquired much influence. He edited "The Aurora" for many years. Died in 1835. Parton, in his "Life of Jackson," says that "Jackson formed a very high idea of his character and talents." Du-ane', (William J.,) an eminent lawyer and states- man, born at Clonmel, Ireland, in 1780, was a son of the preceding. He was admitted to the bar in 1803, and practised in Philadelphia. About 1821 he represented that city in the legislature of Pennsylvania. He was the legal adviser of Stephen Girard, whose last will he wrote in 1831. He was appointed secretary of the treasury in January or June, 1833, and was ordered by President Jackson to remove the deposits of public money from the Bank of the United States. Having refused to comply with this order, he was removed from office in September, 1833. He passed the rest of his life as a private citizen. He published "The Law of Nations Investigated in a Popular Manner," (1809.) Died in Philadelphia in 1865. Duaren. See Douaren. Duarte I., King of Portugal. See Edv^ard. Duault, dii'o', (FRANgois Marie Guillaume,) a French poet, born at Saint-Malo in 1757, translated "The Vicar of Wakefield," and wrote elegiac poems which are commended. Died in 1833. Duban, dii'bdN', (Ffinx Louis Jacques,) a French architect, and member of the Institute, born in Paris about 1798. He finished the Palace of Fine Arts, com- menced by Debret, and was chosen architect of the Louvre in 1848. Du Bartas. See Bartas. Dubayet. See Aubert du Bayet. Dubellay. See Bellay. Dubeux, dii'buh', (Louis,) an Orientalist, born of French parents in Lisbon about 1795. He wrote a work entitled "Persia," ("La Perse," 1841,) and became pro- fessor of Turkish in Paris in 1848. Diibner or Duebner, diib'ner, (Friedrich,) a Ger- man philologist, born in 1802, published an edition of Justin, (1831.) He afterwards edited for Firmin Didot's " Bibliotheca Grasca" several authors, among whom are Arrian and Maximus of Tyre, Duboccage. See Boccage. Dubois, dii'bwa', (Antoine,) an eminent French sur- geon and physician, born at Gramat (Lot) in 1756. He was chosen royal professor in the School of Surgery in Paris in 1790, and in 1802 surgeon-in-chief of the hospital which bears his name, the Hospice Dubois. He possessed rare sagacity and dexterity, and was regarded by the French as one of the first physicians of Europe. He attended the empress Maria Louisa on the occasion of the birth of her son. His medical principles have been published by several of his pupils. Died in 1837. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Dubois, du-bois' or dil'bwa', (Edward,) an English satirical writer, born about 1775, published, besides other works, "The Wreath," (1799,) an edition of Boccaccio's "Decameron," (in English, 1804,) and "My Pocket- Book," a satire, (1807.) Died in 1850. Dubois, (Francois,) a French painter of history, born in Paris in 1790. He gained the grand prize in 1819, and a first-class medal in 1831. Dubois, (Francois Noel,) a French botanist, born at Orleans in 1752 ; died in 1824. Dubois, (Fr6d]^ric,) an able French medical writer, born at Amiens about 1796, succeeded Pariset in 1847 perpetual secretary of the Academy of Medicine, Paris. Among his works is a " Treatise on General Pathology," (2 vols., 1837.) Dubois, (Fr6d6ric,) a Swiss naturalist and traveller, born in 1798, published "Travels in the Crimea, Colchis, and Georgia," and became professor of archaeology at Neufchatel in 1843. Died in 1849. Dubois, (Girard,) a French priest, born at Orleans in 1628, wrote, in I>atin, a " History of the Church of Paris." Died in 1696. Dubois, (Guillaume,) a French troubadour, sur- named Cretin, wrote a " History of France" in French verse, (still in manuscript.) A collection of his songs, etc. was published in 1527. Died in 1525. See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Dubois, (Guillaume,) a French cardinal and minis- ter of state, born at Brive-la-Gaillarde, in Limousin, in 1656. In the reign of Louis XIV. he^was appointed preceptor to the Due de Chartres, (afterwards Duke of Orleans and Regent of France,) whose favour he gained by pandering to his baser passions and appetites. The appointment of his pupil to the regency in 1715 favoured the ambitious designs of Dubois, who was then made a a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, |, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fdt; m^t; n6t; good; moon; DUBOIS 795 DUBUFE councillor of state, although the regent's mother entreated him not to employ one whom she stigmatized as a most arrant knave. He displayed great address and astute- ness in political intrigues, and had an important part in the triple alliance of 1717. Soon after this he became minister of foreign affairs, and, in spite of his scandalous life, Archbishop of Cambray. After much opposition, he obtained a cardinal's hat in 1721, and was made prime minister the next year. He exiled all who resisted his will, and he retained power until his death in 1725. See Saint-Simon, " Memoires ;" Duci.os, " Memoires secrets sur les Regnes de Louis XIV et XV;" Paul Lacroix, "Memoires du Cardinal Dubois," 4 vols., 1829. Dubois, [Lat. Syl'vius,] (Jacques,) a learned French physician, born at Amiens in 1478. He lectured on medicine in Paris, and in 1550 became a professor of medicine in the College Royal. He wrote several able professional treatises. Died in 1555. See Rene Moreau, "Vita Sylvii," prefixed to an edition of his works; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Dubois, (Jean,) a Flemish or French medical writer, born at Lille ; died at Douai in 1576. Dubois, (Jean,) a French sculptor, born at Dijon in 1626, was a grandfather of the poet Alexis Piron. Died at Dijon in 1694. Dubois, (Jean Antoine,) Abb6, a French missionary, who laboured many years in Hindostan, was born in Ardeche in 1765. He wrote, in English, "The Charac- ter, Manners, Customs, and Institutions of the People of India," which was published by the East India Com- pany in 1816. It is said to be one of the best works on that subject. Died in Paris in 1848? Dubois, (Jean Baptiste,) a French writer, born in Burgundy in 1753, resided for a time in Poland, where he became a councillor at court. Having retm-ned to Paris, he became the friend and assistant of Malesherbes. After the reign of terror he held a high office in the ministry of the interior. He wrote a " Notice of the Life and Labours of Malesherbes," and other works. Died in 1808. Dubois, (Louis Francois,) a French litterateur, born at Lisieux in 1773, published a voluminous treatise on Agriculture, entitled "Cours complet d'Agriculture," (1825-32,) and a French version of Orderic Vital's "History of Normandy," (1827.) Died in 1855. Dubois, (Paul,) a French surgeon, son of Antoine, noticed above, was born in Paris in 1795. He i)ublished in 1849 the first part of a "Complete Treatise on the Art of Accouchements." He was accoucheur to the empress Eugenie. Died in October, i860. Dubois, (Paul Alexis,) a French general, born about 1754, was killed at Alia, in the Tyrol, in 1796. Dubois, (Paul FRANgois,) a French journalist and professor, born at Rennes in 1795. He was one of the editors of the " Globe," a liberal daily journal of Paris, for several years, ending in 1830, and sat in the Chamber of Deputies from 1831 to 1848. He became professor of French literature in the Polytechnic School in 1834, and succeeded Victor Cousin as director of the Normal School in 1840. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Dubois, (Philippe Goibaud — gwi'bo',) a French writer, born at Poitiers in 1626, was tutor of the Due de Guise, (Louis Joseph.) He made translations of the works of Saint Augustine, and of Cicero " De Officiis," "De Senectute," etc., which procured his admission into the French Academy in 1693. Died in 1694. Dubois, dii'bwa', (Simon,) a Flemish painter of por- traits and animals, born in Antwerp after 1622, worked in England. Died in 1708. Dubois-Craiioe. See Dubois de Cranc^:. Dubois de Crance, dii^bwa' deh kRSN'si', or Du- bois-Crance, (Edmond Louis Alexis,) a French gen- eral and Jacobin, born at Charleville in 1747. He was elected to the Convention in 1792, became a partisan of Danton, and was one of the first members of the com- mittee of public safety. He directed the siege of Lyons, from which he was recalled by the Convention on the charge of moderantistne in 1 793. He was inspector-gen- eral and minister of war in 1799, but lost all his offices when Bonaparte obtained power. Died in 1814. Dubois de Jancigny, dii'bw^' deh zhSN's^n'ye', (Adolphe Philibert,) a French writer, a son of Jean Baptiste Dubois, noticed above, was born in Paris in 1795. He spent many years in British India, and was sent on a mission to China in 1841. He wrote several books on India, China, etc. Two of these, namely, " India," (1845,) and "China and the Birman Empire," (1850,) form part of Firmin Didot's series entitled " L'Univers." Dubois [Lat. Syi/vius] de la Boe, dii'bwl' deh It ho'W, (Franciscus,) a German or Dutch physician, of French extraction, eminent for learning and eloquence, was born at Hanau in 1614. He practised about fifteen years at Amsterdam, and obtained the chair of practical medicine at Leyden in 1658. He gave an impulse to the study of chemistry by his zeal and eloquence. "It is to Dubois," says Fournier, " that we owe the first idea of clinic instruction and the initiative in the study of pathologic anatomy." He published several works, among which is " Disputationum Medicarum decas," (1663.) Died in 1672. See £lov, " Dictionnaire historique de la Medecine." Dubois-Fontanelle, dii'bwa' fiN'tt'nSK, (Jean Gas- pard,) a French dramatist and litterateur, born at Greno- ble in 1737; died in 181 2. His drama of "Ericie," against monastic vows, was prohibited by the censor. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Dubos. dii'bo', (Charles Francois,) a French eccle- siastic and writer, born in 1661 ; died at Lu9on in 1724. Dubos, (Jean Baptiste,) a French writer and nego- tiator, born at Beauvais in 1670. He studied public law, and was employed in many important and secret negoti- ations with foreign courts by De Torcy and Dubois. He wrote, besides other works, the " History of the League of Cambray," (1712,) which Voltaire said was "profound, politic, and interesting," and "Critical Reflections on Poetry and Painting," (17 19,) which the same critic praised as "the most valuable book ever written on those subjects in any nation of Europe." He was chosen in 1722 perpetual secretary of the French Academy, into which he had been admitted in 1720. Died in 1742. See Qu^RARD," La France Litteraire ;" Auguste Morel," fitude sur I'Abbe Dubos," 1851 ; V. Tremblav, "Notice sur I'Abbe Du- bos," 1848. Dubosc. See Bosc, du. Duboscq, dii'bosk', (Jules,) a French optician, born in 1 81 7, invented or improved several instruments, among. which is the stereoscope. Duboulay. See Boulay, du. Dubouloz, dii'boo^lo', or Dubouleau, dii^boo^lo', (Jean Auguste,) a French painter of history, born in Paris in 1800. Dubourcq, dii^booRk', (Pieter Lodewijk,) a Dutch painter of landscapes and genre, born at Amsterdam in 1815. Dubourg-Butler, dii'booR' biitlaiR', (Fr^:d^ric,) a French general, born in Paris in 1778. He took an active part against Charles X. in July, 1830. Died in 1850. Duboury, dii'boo're', (Lodewijk P'abricius,) a skil- ful Dutch painter and engraver, born at Amsterdam in 1 69 1. Y\.\s tableaux de botidoir 2iXQ, ^x\z^di. Died in 1775. Dubraw, doo'bRlv, (Johann,) a Bohemian historian, born at Pilsen. His family name was Skala. He be- came Bishop of Olmutz, and wrote, in Latin, a "History of Bohemia," (1552,) which is accounted accurate. Died 1553- Dubreton, du'bReh-t6N', (Jean Louis,) Baron, a French general, born in Bretagne in 1773 ; died in 1855. Dubreuil, dii'bRuF or dii'bRuh'ye, (Alphonse,) a French horticulturist, born at Rouen in 1811. He founded at Rouen the Ecole d'' Arbres frteitiers, the first of the kind. In 1846 he published a work on the culture of trees, entitled " Cours d'Arboriculture," (2 vols.,) which has been often reprinted and translated. Dubreul, dli'bRuK, (Jacques,) a French antiquary, born in Paris in 1528, wrote on the Antiquities of Paris. Died in 1614. Dubufe, du'buf, (Claude Marie,) a French painter of history and portraits, born in Paris in 1790. He was a fashionable portrait-painter for many years. Died in 1864. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (S^="See Explanations, p. 23.) DUBUFE 796 DV CHAT EL Dubufe, (fiDOUARD,) a successful French portrait- painter, son of the preceding, born in Paris about 1818. Dubuisson, du'bu-e''s6N', (FRANgois Rene Andk6,) a French naturahst, born at Nantes in 1763. He became in 1810 director of the Museum of Natural History at Nantes, where he made a rich collection of minerals. He published an " Essay of a Geological Method," (1819.) Died in 1836. Dubuisson, (Paul Ulrich,) a mediocre French writer of dramas, etc., was born at Laval in 1746. He was guillotined in 1794. ^ Duby, dii'be', (Pierre Ancher Tobieseii — 6n'- shaiR^ to'be''z6N',) a Swiss linguist and medallist, born in the canton of Soleure in 1721, received the title of interpreter to the Royal Library of Paris. He wrote a treatise on Medals relating to Sieges, entitled "Recueil de Pieces obsidionales." Died in 1782. Due. See Leduc and Ducq. Due, diik, (Joseph Louis,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1802, gained the grand prize in 1825. In 1854 he was selected to enlarge the Palais de Justice. Due, du, dii diik, (Fronton,) a French Jesuit, born at Bordeaux in 1558, was professor of theology at tlie College of Clermont in Paris. He published a good edition of the works of Chrysostom, (1609-24,) edited the works of some other Fathers, and wrote a curious book on the Maid of Orleans, entitled " The Tragical History of the Pucelle de Domremy, newly divided into Acts and represented by Personages," (1581.) Died in 1624. See NiCERON, "Memoires." Duea, del, d^l dooHci, (Giacomo,) an Italian archi- tect of the sixteenth century, born in Sicily, was a pupil of Michael Angelo. Among his works are the Palazzo Panfili, Palazzo Strozzi, and the Villa Mattei, all at Rome. Du Camp or Dueamp, dii'kON', (Maxime,) a French writer and artist, a son of Theodore J., noticed below, was born in Paris in 1822. Having twice visited Asia Minor, Greece, etc., he published "Souvenirs et Pay- sages d'Orient," and an elegant work entitled "Egypt, Nubia, Palestine, and Syria," (1852,) with photographic illustrations, DuCamp, (Theodore Joseph,) a skilful French sur- geon, born at Bordeaux in 1793, improved the metliod of treating diseases of the urinary organs. Died in 1824. Ducaneel, dii'kSN^sSK, (Charles Pierre,) a French dramatist and lawyer, born in 1766 ; died in 1835. Du Cange or Ducange, dii'kdNzh', (Charles du Fresne — dii'fRin',) Sieur du Cange, a French historical writer, born at Amiens in 1610. He was educated for the law, but did not practise it long. He was learned in the languages, history, geography, law, antiquities, etc., and wrote a great number of works, among which are a " His- tory of the Empire of Constantinople under the French Emperors," "Byzantine History Illustrated," and "Glos- sary of Latin Words used in the Dark and Middle Ages," ("Glossarium ad Scriptores medise et infimas Latinita- tis,") which is highly prized. He left many manuscripts on various subjects. In 1668 he became a resident of Paris. "One is appalled," says Voltaire, "at the im- mensity of his learning and his labours." Died in 1688. See DuFRESNE d'Aubigny, "Memoires historiques pour servir i I'Histoire de C. du Fresne du Cange;" Hardouin, " Essai sur la Vie, etc. de Du Cange;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Dueange or Du Cange, (Victor Henri Joseph Brahain — bRt'dN',) a French novelist and dramatist, born at the Hague in 1783. For the liberal political opinions expressed in his novel of "Valentine," (1821,) he was imprisoned six months. He wrote, among other works, two novels, entitled "Leonide" (1823) and "La Lutherienne," (1825,) and many dramas. Died in 1833, See QuERARD, "La France Litteraiie." Duearel, duOca-r^K or dii'kt'reK, (Andr6 Coltee — koKti',) a learned antiquary, born at Caen, in Normandy, about 1 7 14. He passed his mature life in England, and was appointed commissary of Saint Catherine's and commis- sary of Canterbury about 1755. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. Besides other works, he wrote a " Treatise on the Anglo-Gallic Medals of the Ancient Kings of Eng- land," (1757,) and "Anglo-Norman Antiquities," (1767,) which is esteemed valuable. Died in London in 1785. See " Biographia Britannica." Duearla-Bonifas, dii'klR'lt' bo'ne'fas', (Marc,) a French physicist, born at Vabre in 1738 ; died in 181 6. Du Cart, dii k^Rt, or Dueart, (Izaak,) a Dutch painter of flowers, born at Amsterdam in 1630. He painted flowers on satin and vellum with a fidelity at that time unequalled. His productions are still prized by amateurs. Died in 1694. Ducas. See Constantine Ducas. Du'eas, (Michael,) \}llixarik 0 AoC/caf,] a Greek his- torian, who was descended from the imperial family of Ducas, and flourished about 1450. He wrote a " History of the Decadence of the Byzantine Empire, 1355 to 1453," which forms part of the collection called " His- toria Byzantina." It is esteemed judicious and impartial, but is written in a barbarous style. He was living at Lesbos in 1462. See Von Hammer, " Geschichte des Osmanischen Raichs." Dueasse, dii^ktss', (FRANgois,) a French doctor of theology, eminent as a canonist; died in 1706. Dueasse, (Jean Baptiste,) a successful French naval officer, born in Bearn. He was a captain in the marine when he was appointed Governor of Saint Domingo in 1691. He defended that island against the English and Spaniards, and defeated Admiral Benbow in 1702, near Sainte-Marthe. In 1703 he was made chief of a squad- ron, and retired from the office of governor. He was raised to the grade of lieutenant-general, and commanded the fleet which -invested Barcelona in 17 14. Died in 1715. See Van Tenac, " Histoire de la Marine;" "Nouvelle Biogra- phie Generale." Dueasse, (Jean Marie Auguste,) a skilful French physician and writer^^born at Toulouse in 1786. Dueaurroy de la Croix, dii'ko'rwa' deh It kRwl, (Adolphe Marie,) a French jurist, born in Normandy in 1788. He published "The Institutes of Justinian newly explained," (4 vols., 1835 ; 8th edition, 1851,) which had a great and durable success. Died in 1850. Duecio di Buoninsegna, doot'cho de boo-6n-^n- san'yft, an eminent Italian painter, born in or near Sienna, flourished between 1280 and 1340. He was a pupil of Segna or Boninsegna, and was one of the most famous artists of his time. About 1310 he produced his great work, the altar-piece of the Sienna cathedral, which represents the Virgin and many saints. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Dueereeau. See Androuet du Cerceau. Du Chaillu, dii sht'yii', (Paul,) a French traveller, born about 1830, became a citizen of the United States. He travelled in the interior of Africa in 1855-56, and published in 1861 his "Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa." His veracity has been questioned by some critics. He was the first European that discovered and described the gorilla. See " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1861. Duehal, du-shaK, ? (James,) an Irish Protestant writer on theology, born at Antrim in 1697; died in 1761. Duehalais, dii^sht^'li', (Adolphe,) a French anti- quary and numismatist, born at Beaugencyin 1814; died in 1854. Duehange, dii'shSNzh', (Gaspard,) a skilful French engraver, born in Paris in 1662, was a pupil of Jean Audran. He was especially successful in reproducing the works of Correggio, after whom he engraved " Leda" and "Danae." Died in 1756. Duehanoy, d^i'sha'nwa^ (Claude Francois,) a French physician and writer, born at Vauvilliers in 1742 ; died in 1827. Duehat, Le, leh dii^shS', (Jacob,) a French critic and editor, born at Metz in 1658. He became a Protestant exile in 1700, and retired to Berlin, where he was ap- pointed a judge. He published valuable editions of the works of Rabelais, (1711,) of the "Apology for Herodo- tus" by Stephanus, (1735,) and of other old French works. Died in 1735. See J. H. S. Formev, "Ducatiana," 2 vols., 1738; Niceron, "Memoires." Duehatel, dl/shi't^K, (Charles Marie Tanneguy — ttn'ge',) Comte, a French minister of state, born in Paris in 1803, was a son of a peer of France. In Sep- tember, 1836, he became minister of finance, and in April, a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; ^, d>, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, 11, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n5t; good; moon; DU CHAT EL 797 DUCKER 1837, retired with Guizot, whose political opinions he ap- proved. He was minister of the interior from October, 1840, until the revolution of 1848. Duchatel, (Francois.) See Chatel, du. Duchatel, (Gaspard,) a French Girondist, born in 1766, was a deputy from Poitou to the National Con- vention in 1792. In the trial of the king he voted for banishment, as the most practicable mode of saving his life. He was one of the twenty-two Girondists pro- scribed by the Jacobins and executed in 1793. Duchdtel, [Lat. Castella'nus,] (Pierre,) a French bishop and scholar, born at Arc, in the diocese of Langres. In his youth he worked with Erasmus at Bale on editions of Greek authors. Curiosity led him to visit Egypt, Palestine, and Syria. On his return he became reader to Francis I., who said, " He is the only man of letters that I have never exhausted in discourse." He w-as ap- pointed Piishop of Macon in 1544, grand almoner in 1547, and Bishop of Orleans in 1551. He died in 1552, leaving the reputation of a virtuous and tolerant prelate and one of the most learned and eloquent men of his age. He op- posed the persecution of the Vaudois and Protestants. See Galland, "Vita Castellani," 1674; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Duchatel, (Tanneguy.) See Chatel, du. DuChatelet. SeeCHASTELLET,(GABRIELLE£MILIE.) Duche, du-sha', (Jacob,) D.D., an Episcopal clergy- man, distinguished for his talents and eloquence, was born in Philadelphia about 1739. He graduated at the College of Philadelphia in 1757. On the assembling of the first Continental Congress, in 1774, he was elected chaplain ; and his opening prayer was remarkable for its earnestness and pathos, and contributed much towards reconciling the discordant elements of that body. He was subsequently chosen chaplain of several successive Congresses. Yet, when the British had taken Philadel- phia, he not only made his peace with England, but wrote a letter to Washington urging him to follow his example. This letter Washington laid before Congress. Uuche was declared a traitor, and fled to England. He afterwards returned to Philadelphia, and died in 1798. Duche de Vancy, dii'sha' deh v6N'se^(JosEPH Fran- qois,) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1668. He was a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and a friend of Jean Baptiste Rousseau. Among his best produc- tions are the tragedy of "Absalom," which La Harpe pronounced a work of merit, and the opera "Iphigenia in Tauris," of which Voltaire said, "It recalls a grand idea of what was most excellent in the Greek tragedy." Died in December, 1 704. Duchemiii. See Duclos. Ducheuius. See Duchesne. Duchesne, dii'shfn', [Lat. Duche'nius or Querce- ta'nus, 1 (Andre,) one of the most learned historians of France, was born in Touraine in 1584. After finishing his studies in Paris, he became geographer and histo- riographer to the king. His numerous and valuable works have procured for him the title of " the father of French history." Among them are "The Antiquities and Researches of the Grandeur of the Kings of France," (1609,) "Ancient Historians of the Normans," in Latin, (1619,) and "Contemporary Writers of the History of the Franks," ("Historias Francorum Scriptores coe- tanei," 1636-49^^ He was run over by a carriage and killed, near Paris, in 1640. See NiCERON, "Meinoires;" Lelong, " Bibliotheque Histo- rique." Duchesne, (Antoine Nicolas,) a learned French naturalist, born at Versailles in 1747, wrote a " Manual of Botany," (1764,) and other works. Died in 1827. Duchesne, (Francois,) a son of Andre, noticed above, born in Paris in 1616, cultivated history with zeal, and o'otained the title of historiographer. He wrote a " History of the Chancellors of France," (16S0,) and published editions of several works of his father, viz. : "The Anti- quities of the Cities and Castles of France," (1647,) ^^id "The History of the Popes," (1653.) Died in 1693. Duchesne, (Henri Gabriel,) a French naturalist, born in Paris in 1739, published, conjointly with M. Mac- quer, a " Naturalist's Manual," (1771,) and a " Dictionary of Industry," (3 vols., 1776.) Died in 1822. Duchesne, (Joseph,) a French physician and chemist, born in Armagnac about 1544. In 1593 he went to Paris, where he became physician-in-ordinary to Henry IV. He published " Pharmacopoeia dogmaticorum restituta," and other medical works. Died in 1609. See £lov, " Dictionnaire de la Medecine." Duchesne de Gisors, dii'shin' deh zhe'zoR', (Jean Baptiste Joseph,) a French miniature-painter, born at Gisors (Eure) in 1770. He became court painter during the restoration, and painted on ivory the portraits of the royal family. In 1840 he was employed to continue for the Louvre a collection of enamels' begun by Petitot. / Among his master-pieces are miniatures of Napoleon I. and of the Duchess of Berry. Died in 1856. Duchesnois, dii'sha'nwa', (Catherine Josephine,) a popular French tragic actress, whose proper name was Rafix, was born near Valenciennes in 1777. She made her debut at the Theatre Fran9ais in 1803, with complete success, and continued to be a favourite actress until she retired in 1820. Died in 1835. See A. DiNAUX, " Notice biographique sur Mademoiselle Du- chesnois." 1836. Duchoul, dii^'shooK, [Lat. Cau'lius,] (Guillaume,) a French antiquary, born at Lyons, lived about 1550. He wrote a " Discourse on the Religion of the Ancient Romans," (1555.) His son Jean was a naturalist, and published several treatises. Ducis, dii's^ss', (Jean Francois,) an eminent French dramatic poet, born at Versailles in August, 1733. He jM-oduced in 1769 aversion of Shakspeare's " Flamlet," which was very successful. His " Romeo and Juliet" (1772) was received with equal favour. He succeeded Voltaire in the French Academy in 1778, after which he produced imitations of "King Lear" and "Macbeth," (1784.) He favoured the Revolution of 1789, but took no active part in it. His "Othello" was performed by Talma with great success in 1792. In 1795 he composed an original drama, " Abufar, or the Arab Family," which I is called his master-piece. He refused a pension offered I to him by Bonaparte. " Ducis," says Villemain, " was one of those men most adapted to impress the imagina- tion and to leave a long remembrance. Amidst that sort of uniformity which involves the secondary minds of an epoch, he had something rare and original. . . . He meddled not with the petty affairs of the world, nor Avas j his life infested with petty ambitions. A distinctive trait j in his character was a noble independence. He submitted to no yoke, not even to that of his age ; for in that skep- tical age he was very religious. His taste and solitary choice was the reading of the Bible and Homer. This explains how he resisted the influence of the eighteenth century, and was an original thinker compared with his contemporaries." Died at Versailles in March, 1816. See Villemain, " Cours de Litterature ;" M. O. Leroy, " Etudes sur Ducis," 1832; Campenok, " Essais de Meinoires, ou Lettres sur la Vie et les Ecrits de J. F. Ducis," 1824; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Ducis, (Louis,) a French historical painter, nephew of the preceding, was born in 1775. He was a pupil of David, and was one of the artists employed in 1814 to restore pictures in the palace of Versailles. About 1817 he produced " Francis I. knighted by Bayard," which is in the palace of Compiegne, and " The Death of Tasso." i He painted portraits of Napoleon I., Talma, and many others. His uncle once said to him, "I have sought to be a painter in verse ; I see with pleasure that you aim to be a poet on canvas." Died in 1847. See Gl'vot de Fere, "Biographie des Artistes Frangais." Duck, (Arthur,) an eminent English civilian, born near Exeter in 1580. He became chancellor of London, and master of requests. In the civil war he adhered to the royal cause. He wrote a treatise on the Civil Law of the Romans. Died in 1649. See Wood, "Athene Oxonienses." Duck, (Stephen,) an English peasant-poet, born at Charlton, in Wiltshire. He was self-taught, became a clergyman, and published rude specimens of poetry. In a fit of insanity, he drowned himself in the Thames in 1756. See Joseph Spence, "Life of S. Duck." Ducker. See Duker. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Vi, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^ff^Stt Explanations, p. 23.) DUCKWITZ 798 DUDITH Duckwitz, dook'x^its, (Arnold,) a German political economist, horn at Bremen in 1802, has written on the commerce and cnstoms of Germany. Duck'worth, (Sir John Thomas,) an English admi- ral, born at Leatherhead, in Surrey, in 1748. He entered the navy in 1759, and became post-captain in 1780. In June, 1794, he won great distinction by his skill and cour- age in Lord Howe's victory over the French. About 1800 he was made rear-admiral, and two years later was com- mander-in-chief at Jamaica. In 1806 he defeated the French near Saint Domingo, for which Parliament voted him thanks and a large pension. As vice-admiral, he performed a daring exploit by entering the Dardanelles in 1807. He was knighted in 1813. Died in 1817. See Thiers, " Histoire du Consulat at de I'Empire ;" Van Tenac, " Histoire generale de la Marine ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Duclerc, dii'klaiR', (Charles Theodore Eugene,) a French financier and writer on political economy, was born in Hautes- Pyrenees in 181 2. Duclercq, dii'klaiR', (Jacques,) a French chronicler, born in 1420, wrote on the events of his own time. Died after 1467. Duclos, dii'klo', (Charles Pineau — pe'no',) a witty and ingenious French writer, born at Dinan in 1704, was liberally educated in Paris. He acquired reputation by his romances "The Baroness of Luz," (1741,) and "Confessions of Count * * a series of tableaux and satirical portraits. He was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1739, and into the French Academy in 1747, and was chosen perpetual secretary of the latter in 1755. His most admired work is a series of moral essays, entitled " Considerations sur les Moeurs de ce Siecle," (1750.) He wrote a "History of Louis XL," (about 1744,) and obtained the title of historiographer of France. D' Alembert said of him, " He has more wit in a given time than any man I know." Rousseau designated him as one who was at the same time droit et adroit, ("upright and adroit,") Plis "Secret Memoirs of the Reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV." are highly praised. Died in 1772. See Auger, "Notice sur Duclos;" Villenave, "Notice sur Duclos," prefixed to his works, published by Belin, 1821 ; Sainte- Beuve, "Causeries du Luudi," tome ix. ; "Memoires sur la Vie de Duclos, ecrites par lui-nieme ;" Rousseau, "Confessions." Duclos, (Jean Francois,) a French poet, born at Toulouse in 1705, wrote an ode on Enthusiasm, and translated portions of Tibullus and Horace into verse. Died in 1752. Duclos, afterwards Duohemin, dii'sheh-m^N', (Ma- rie Anne,) a French actress, born in 1664. She mar- ried an actor named Diichemin. Died in 1748. Duclos, (Samuel Cotreau — kot'ro',) a French phy- sician, born in Paris, was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1666, and was at one time physician-in- ordinary to the king. He wrote " Observations on the Mineral Waters of France." Died in 171 5. Ducloz-Dufresnoy, dii'klo' diiTRa'nwa', (Charles Nicolas,) a French financier, born at Montcornet in 1734. He was elected alternate deputy to the States- General by the citizens of Paris in 1789. He wrote seve- ral able treatises on the public finances, (1790.) He perished on the scaffold in 1794. He was the putative father of the savant Walckenaer, who wrote an article on him in the "Biographie Universelle." Ducornet, dii^koR^na', (Louis Cesar Joseph,) a French painter, born at Lille in 1806. Having been born without arms, he learned to paint with his feet, and received a pension of 1200 francs in 1824. Among his works, which have gained several prizes, are " The Parting of Hector and Andromache," and " Saint Louis dispensing Justice." Ducos, dii'ko', (Jean FRANgois,) a French repub- lican, born at Bordeaux in 1765, He was a deputy to the Convention from the department of Gironcle in 1792, and voted for the death of the king. When the Girondist leaders were proscribed in May, 1793, he was at first omitted from the list ; but, having bravely asserted their innocence in the Convention, he was consigned to the same prison with them. He suffered death, with his brother-in-law Fonfrede and others, in October, 1793, See Lamartine, " History of the Girondists." ^ a, e, T, 0, u, y, long^; bi, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, Ducos, (Nicolas,) a French general, brother of Roger Ducos, noticed below, was born at Dax in 1756, He fought bravely at Areola, etc, in 1796, and obtained the rank of general of brigade in 1802. He served with eclat in the campaigns from 1805 to 1808. Died in 1823, Ducos, (Roger,) a French lawyer and politician, born at Dax about 1750, Deputed to the Convention by the department of Landes in 1792, he was a moderate i^arti- san of the new regime, and sat with the members of the Plain. He voted, however, for the death of the king. In 1796 he was elected to the Council of Elders, and in 1799 was chosen a member of the Directory. He appears to have favoured Sieyes in his intrigues against their col- league Barras, and he co-operated with Bonaparte in the coup d'etat of the i8th Brumaire, (November 9,) 1799, after which Ducos became Third Consul ; but he soon resigned this office, and was made a senator. He was exiled as a regicide in 181 6, and died the same year. See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Ducos, (Thi5:odore,) a French minister of state, a nephew of the preceding, born at Bordeaux in 1801. He was elected in 1834 to the Chamber of Deputies, in which he acted with the opposition. In the Constituent Assem- bly of 1848 he opi^osed socialism, and caused to be in- serted in the constitution this phrase : " The republic is based on the family, property, and public order," He supported Louis Napoleon, and was minister of marine from December, 185 1, until his death in April, 1855, See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Ducq or Due, Le, leh diik or diik, (Jan,) a Dutch painter and engraver, born at the Hague in 1636, was a pupil and imitator of Paul Potter, His subjects are mostly animals, robbers, and guard-rooms. In 1671 he became director of the Academy at the Hague. Died about 1695. See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." Ducq, diik or diik, (Joseph FRANgois,) a Belgian painter, born at Ledeghem in 1762, He gained several prizes at the expositions of Paris, where he lived many years. In 181 5 he became court painter to the King of the Netherlancls. Among his master-pieces is "Venus rising from the Sea," Died at Bruges in 1829, Ducray-Duminil, dii'kRcV dii'me'neK, (Francois GuiLLAUME,) a popular French novelist, born in Paris in 1761 ; died in 1819, Ducrest, du'kki', (Charles Louis,) born near Autun in 1747, was a brother of Madame de Genlis, He be- came a colonel in the army, and wrote on political econ- omy. Died in 1824. Ducrest de Villeiieuve, dii'kR^' deh vfeKnuv', (Alexandre Louis,) a French admiral, born near Vitre in 1777 ; died in 1852, See Salvandy, "Notice sur Ducrest de Villeneuve," 1852. Ducreux, dii'kRuh', (Francois,) a French historian, born at Saintes in 1596, wrote a " History of Canada," (" Historia Canadensis," 1664.) Died in 1666. Ducreux, (Gabriel Marin,) a French priest, born at Orleans in 1743, wrote a history of Christianity, en- titled " Siecles Chretiens," (10 vols., 1775.) Died in 1790. Ducreux, (Joseph,) a French portrait-painter, born at Nancy in 1737; died in 1802. Ducros, dii^kRo', (Pierre,) a Swiss 4)ainter and en- graver, born in 1745. He removed to Rome, where, with the assistance of Volpato, he produced fine views of Roman scenery and monuments. In partnership with Montagnani, he published admirable views of Sicily and Malta." Died in 1810, Du Deffand. See Deffand, du. Dudevant, Madame, See Sand, (George.) Dudinck, diiMink, (Josse,) a learned Dutchman, pub- lished a work on bibliography, entitled " Palatium Apol- linis et Palladis," ("The Palace of A]3ollo and Minerva,") Dudith, doo-deet', (Andrew,) a Hungarian Reformer, born at Buda in 1533. About 1560, Ferdinand II. gave him the bishopric of Tina. In 1562 he was sent by that emperor and the clergy of Hungary to the Council of Trent, in which he spoke eloquently in favour of the mar- riage of priests and other reforms. He married Reyna Strazzi, resigned his bishopric, was excommunicated, and short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon- DVDLET 799 DUER became an avowed Protestant. He was learned in lan- guages and sciences, and wrote numerous Latin works on theology, etc. Among them are a treatise on comets, and several poems. He translated Dionysius of Hali- carnassus into Latin. Died at Breslau in 1589. See Reuter, "Vita Dudithi," prefixed to his Orations, 1610 ; Samuelfy, "Dissertatio de Vita et Scriptls A. Dudithi," 1743; NiCERON, "Memoires." Dud'ley, (Ambrose,) Earl of Warwick, a son of the Duke of Northumberland, was born about 1530. He was condemned to death as an accomplice in his father's treason in 1553, but was pardoned. In 1557 he fought with distinction for the Spaniards at Saint-Quentin. After the accession of Elizabeth he was created Earl of Warwick, and held several high offices. Died in 1589. Dud'ley, (Benjamin Winslow,) M.D., an American surgeon, born in Virginia in 1785. He took the degree of M.D. at the University of Pennsylvania in 1806, and afterwards pursued his professional studies in London and in Paris. On his return to America, in 1814, he established himself as a surgeon in Lexington, Kentucky. He was successful in a multitude of difticult operations in surgery, and contributed various essays to medical journals. Died in 1870. Dudley, (Charles Edward,) a Senator of the United States, born in Staffordshire, England, in 1780. He be- came a resident of Albany, New York, about 181 2, and represented New York in the Federal Senate from 1828 to 1833. He erected at Albany the Dudley Observatory, to which his widow gave seventy thousand dollars or more. He died in 1841. Dudley, (Edmund,) an English lawyer, notorious as the minister employed by Henry VII. in extorting money from his subjects, was born in 1462. He was chosen Speaker of the Commons in 1504. Soon after the acces- sion of Henry VIII., Dudley and Empson were tried on a charge of treason, and, to appease the popular clamour, were executed in 15 10. His son John became Duke of Northumberland. Dudley, (Lord Guilford,) the fourth son of the Duke of Northumberland, married Lady Jane Grey in 1553. He was beheaded, with his wife, in February, 1554. Dudley, (Sir Henry Bate,) an English clergyman, eminent as a magistrate and journalist, born at Fenny Compton in 1745. He established the " Morning Post," (1775,) and the "Morning Herald," (1780,) and wrote "The Rival Candidates," (1775,) and other plays. He became rector of Willingham in 1812, and prebendary of Ely in 1816. In 1812 he was rewarded for his services as magistrate by a baronetcy. Died in 1824. Dudley, (Lady Jane.) See Grey. Dudley, (John,) Duke of Northumberland, born in 1502, was the son of Edmund Dudley, noticed above. He was created Viscount Lisle in 1542, and was after- wards appointed by Henry VIII. lord high admiral of England. On the accession of Edward VI. (1547) he became Earl of Warwick. Two years later he formed a successful conspiracy against the Protector Somerset, obtained the chief control of the government, and was made Duke of Northumberland in 1551. He persuaded Edward VI. to appoint Lady Jane Grey successor to the crown. At the death of Edward (1553) he vainly resisted the accession of Mary, and was executed for treason. Robert, Earl of Leicester, was his son. See Froude, " History of England," vols. v. and vi. ; also Hume's and Lingard's Histories of England. Dudley, (John William Ward,) a son of Viscount Dudley Ward, was born about 1781. He was elected to the House of Commons in 1802, and distinguished himself by his talents for business. At the death of his father, in 1823, he entered the House of Lords. He was secretary of state for a few months in the ministry of Canning formed in April, 1827. He was a friend of the poet Byron, and author of a " Life of Home Tooke." Died in 1833. Dudley, (Joseph,) born in Massachusetts in 1647, was a son of Thomas, noticed below. He became chief justice of Massachusetts in 1686, chief justice of New York in 1690, and was governor of his native province from 1702 to 1 71 5. Died ini 720. Dudley, (Paul,) F.R.S., chief justice of Massachu- setts, a son of the preceding, was born in 1675. He graduated at Harvard College in 1690, and, having com- pleted his law studies at the Temple in London, was attorney-general of Massachusetts from 1702 to 1 718. In 1745 he was appointed chief justice of Massachusetts. Died in 1751. He was a man of eminent talents and powerful eloquence. Upon a bequest of his was founded the Dudleian Lecture at Harvard. Dudley, (Robert,) Earl of Leicester, a son of John Dudley, noticed above, was born about 1532. He married Amy Robsart about 1550. Soon after the accession of Queen Elizabeth, 1558, he became her chief favourite. This partiality is attributed to his handsome person, po- lite address, and skill in the arts of a courtier. She made him Earl of Leicester and privy councillor, and bestowed on him titles and estates with a lavish hand. His wife died in 1560, not without the strongest suspicions that she perished by violence and that Leicester was privy to her murder. (See Robsart.) In 1578 he married the widow of the first Earl of Essex, by which act he excited the violent anger of the queen. He was suspected by many of having hastened the death of Essex. In 1585 the Earl of Leicester commanded an army sent to aid the Low Countries, which gave him the title of Governor. His operations there were not successful, and proved his incapacity as a general. When England was threatened by the Spanish Armada, in 1588, he was appointed lieu- tenant-general. He died in the same year. According to Hume, " he was proud, insolent, ambitious, without honour, without generosity, without humanity, and atoned not for these bad qualities by such abilities or courage as could fit him for that high trust and confidence with which she [the queen] had honoured him." Motley, while admitting that Leicester was vain, arrogant, and often unjust, says he was "always generous as the sun." See Motley's "United Netherlands," chaps, vi. to xvi., par- ticularly chap. vii. vol. i., and chap. x. vol. ii. ; also Frouue's "His- tory of England," vols, vii., viii., ix., x. Dudley, (Sir Robert,) born in Surrey in 1573, was the illegitimate son of the Earl of Leicester and Lady Douglas Sheffield. He was knighted for his conduct at the capture of Cadiz in 1596. Having been outlawed for the abduction of Miss Southwell, he settled at Flor- ence, where he lived in grand style, assumed the title of Earl of Warwick, and was made a duke of the Holy Roman Empire. He wrote a treatise on navigation, en- titled " Deir Arcano del Mare," and a few other works, and improved the harbour of Leghorn. Died in 1639, or, according to some authorities, in 1649. See Campbell's "Lives of British Admirals." Dudley, (Thomas,) one of the early governors of Massachusetts, was born in Northampton, England, in 1576. He served for some time in the army, but, having joined the nonconformists, came to America in 1630 as deputy-governor of Massachusetts. He was zealous in promoting the temporal and religious interests of the colony, and was governor from 1634 to 1640, and again from 1645 to 1650. Died in 1652. Dudoyer. See Doligny. Duebner. See Dubner. Duelli, doo-eKlee, (Raimond,) a German priest and antiquary, born about 1670, published, besides other works, a " History of the Teutonic Knights Hospitalers of Jerusalem," (1727.) Died in 1740. Duentzer. See Duntzer. Du'er, (John,) LL.D., an eminent American jurist and legal writer, born at Albany, New York, in 1782. His father, Colonel William Duer, was a soldier of the Revolution. After serving two years in the army, he embraced the profession of law, and commenced practice in Orange county, but removed to New York City about 1820. He was appointed one of the commissioners to revise the statutes of the State in 1825. In 1849 he was elected judge of the superior court of the city of New York, and in 1857 succeeded Chief-Justice Oakley as presiding judge. Died August 8, 1858. His " Law and Practice of Marine Insurance," (2 vols. 8vo,) published in 1845-46, says the "London Magazine and Quarterly Review of Jurisprudence," "so far as it has gone, is the most complete and able treatise on the subject which has ever appeared in our language." He was also author of other legal works. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^See Explanations, p. 23.) DUER 800 DUFRENOr Duer, (William Alexander,) a jurist, brother of the preceding, was born in Dutchess county, New York, in 1780. He was admitted to the bar in 1802, became a judge of the supreme court of New York in 1822, and was elected president of Columbia College in 1829. He wrote a "Treatise on the Constitutional Jurisprudence of the United States," (1856.) Died in 1858. Duenihoffer. See Durnhoffer. Du Fail, dii'ftl' or dii'ft'ye, (Noel,) a French writer of tales, lived about 1550. Dufau, du-'ib', (Fortun^,) a French historical painter, born in Saint Domingo. He became a pupil of David in Paris, and a partisan of the Revolution. Among his most admired works is " Ugolino in Prison." Died in 1821. Dufau, (Pierre Armand,) a French author, born at Bordeaux in 1795. He wrote, with Guadet, a "History of France from Charles IX. to Henry IV.," (7 vols., 1821,) and other historical works. He also published a " Treat- ise on Statistics," which was crowned by the Academy of Sciences in 1841, and several works on political econ- omy. From 1840 to 1855 he was director of the Royal Institution for the education of the blind in Paris. Dufaure, dUToR', (Jules Armand Stanislas,) a French orator and minister of state, born at Saujon (Charente-Inferieure) in 1798. He practised law in Bor- deaux, and in 1834 was elected to the Chamber of Depu- ties, in which he acted with the opposition. In 1839 he became minister of public works in the coalition ministry of Soult, which was dissolved in March, 1840. He after- wards exerted much influence in the Chamber as the chief of a third party. Under the republic of 1848 he was a leader of the moderate democrats, became minister of the interior in October, and resigned in December of that year. He filled the same office for five months in 1849. Since the coup d'etat of December, 1851, he has not held office, but has attained great eminence at the bar. See VicoMTE de Cormenin, (Timon,) "fitudes sur les Orateurs parlementaires." Dufay, dilTa', (Charles FRANgois de Cisternay — deh ses't§R'na^) a French savant, born in Paris in 1698, served for a time in the army. Having been admitted into the Academy of Sciences, he retired from the service, and wrote treatises on chemistry and five other sciences, which the Academy thought worthy to be published. He originated the theory of two kinds of electricity, namely, vitreous and resinous. About 1732 he was chosen director of the Jardin des Plantes, which he greatly enlarged and rendered the finest in Europe. Died in 1739. See FoNTENELLE, " Elogc de Dufay." Dufay, (GuiLLAUME,) a French or Flemish composer, lived about 1400, and made important improvements in the art of music. Duff, (Alexander,) D.D., a Scottish Presbyterian mis- sionary, born in Perthshire about 1806. In the service of the Church of Scotland he went to India in 1830, and laboured zealously as a missionary. He published, besides other essays, a volume entitled "On India and India Missions," (1839,) which is highly esteemed. He adhered to the Free Church, organized in 1843, since which he has been the chief agent of the mission sus- tained by that church at Calcutta, where he laboured as a missionary for many years with devoted zeal and emi- nent success. He visited the United States in 1854, sailed a second time for India in 1855, and returned to England in 1863. Duff, (Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant,) called Grant Duff, a British politician, born in 1829. He published " Studies in European Politics." In 1857 he was elected to Parliament, as a Liberal, for Elgin. He was appointed under-secretary for India in December, 1868. Durfer-in, Lady, a granddaughter of Richard Brins- ley Sheridan, and a sister of Mrs. Norton. Her maiden name was Selina Sheridan. She composed a number of popular ballads, among which is " The Irish Emigrant's Lament." She was married in 1825 to Baron Dufiferin, (Price Blackwood,) who died in 1841. Dufferin, (Frederick Temple Blackwood,) Lord, a British peer, author, and scholar, only son of the pre- ceding, was born at Florence about 1826. He published, in 1856, "Letters from High Latitudes, being some Account of a Voyage to Iceland and Spitzbergen," which is highly praised. Duffet, dliTi', Douffet, or Douffeit, dooTi', (Ge- rard,) an eminent Flemish painter of history and por- traits, born at Liege about 1600. He studied and worked some years in Rome, and returned to Liege, where he acquired a high reputation. Among his master-pieces are a "Discovery of the Holy Cross," (at Dusseldorf,) and a picture of himself and B. Flemael employed in painting each other's portraits. His works are admired for originality of composition, boldness of design, beauty of colour, and variety of expression. Died about 1660. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Duffy, (Charles Gavan,) an Irish journalist, and a leader of Young Ireland, was born in Ulster in 1816. In 1842 he founded in Dublin a journal called "The Nation," which supported the policy of O'Connell. Dufieu, duTe-uh', (Jean Ferapied — fRi-pe-a',) a French writer on physiology, born at Tence in 173^77 died in 1769. Duflcs, dii'flo', (Claude,) a French engraver with the burin, born in Paris in 1678, was the most skilful rival of Francois Poilly. His works, after various Italian and French masters, are engraved with great neatness. Among them is " The Pilgrims of Emmaus," after Paul Veronese. Died in 1747. Du Fosse. See Fosse. Dufouart, duToo'tR^, (Pierre,) a skilful French sur- geon, born in the department of Bigorre in 1737, was chosen in 1791 inspector-general of the hospitals of Paris. He published an excellent treatise on gun-shot wounds, entitled "Analyse des Blessures d'Armes-a-feu, et de leur Traitement," (1801.) Died in 1813. See " Biographie Medicale." Dufour, diiTooR', (Gabriel Michel,) a French jurist, born at Moulins (AUier) in 1811. His "Treatise on Administrative Law Applied" (4 vols., 1844) is said to be the most complete on that subject. Dufour, (Georges Joseph,) a French general, born in Burgundy in 1758; died in 1820. Dufour, diiTooR^, (Guillaume Henri,) a Swiss gen. eral, born at Constance in 1787, entered the French army in 1809. He wrote a "Manual of Tactics," (1842,) and other military works. The unity and integrity of the Swiss republic having been menaced by the Sonderbund, a Catholic faction, he was appointed in 1847 commander- in-chief of the Swiss federal army. He quickly sup- pressed the rebellion, after giving proof of his modera- tion as well as military skill. Dufour, (Leon,) a French naturalist, born about 1782, practised medicine at Saint-Sever. He published " Ana- tomical and Physiological Researches on the Hemiptera," (1833,) and other works. Dufour, (Louis.) See Longuerue. Dufour, (Philippe,) a French Protestant antiquary, born at Manosque in 1622. His family name was Syl- vestre, which he exchanged for Dufour, his mother's name. He formed a cabinet of medals, and corresponded with many eminent literati. He wrote, among other works, "Moral Instructions of a Father for his Son," (often reprinted.) Died in 1687. Dufrenoy, dii'fRa'nwi', (Adelaide,) an eminent French poetess, whose maiden name was Gillette- Billet, born in Paris in 1765. She lived mostly in Paris, where her soirees were frequented by Condorcet, La Harpe, etc. Her husband having lost his fortune, she resorted to authorship for a living, and wrote several poems which entitle her to a place in the first rank of the female poets of France. Her poem "The Last Moments of Bayard" was crowned by the Institute in 181 5. Among her works are odes, elegies, tales, dramas, etc., whose merit consists in the genuine expression of a loving and suffering heart. Died in 1825. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Dufrenoy, (Charles Alphonse.) See Dufresnoy. Dufrenoy, (Pierre Armand,) an eminent French geologist, a son of Adelaide, born at Sevran (Seine-et- Oise)"in 1792. In conjunction with £lie de Beaumont, he was ordered in 1823 to make a geological survey of France, the important result of which was a large geo- a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; DUFRESNE 80 1 DVGVA logical map, with three volumes of explanatory text, (1841.) This text develops the theories of the two authors, which are entirely accordant. He published, besides other works, an excellent "Treatise on Mineral- ogy," (4 vols., 1847.) A new theory propounded in his memoir " On the Volcanic Formations of the Vicinity of Naples" has become one of the laws of geology, lie was a member of the Institute, inspector-general of mines, and for many years professor of mineralogy in the Museum of Natural History. Died in March, 1857. See "Nouvelle Biographie Geneiale." Dufresne. See Francheville and Quinault. Dufresiie, diiTRen', (Bertrand,) a French financier, born in Beam in 1736. He was chief clerk of finance under Necker, who made him director of the public treasury about 1790. During the reign of terror he was imprisoned by the Jacobins. He was elected to the Council of Five Hundred in 1795, and in 1800 was ap- pointed director-general of the treasury, which prospered under his skilful management. Died in 1801. Dufresnoy. See Dufresny. Dufresnoy. See Lenglet-Dufresnoy and Ducloz. Dufresnoy, diiTRk''nwa', (Andre Ignace Joseph,) a French physician, born at Valenciennes in 1733. He was appointed physician-in-chief of the army of the North in 1793, but was soon discharged for an act of humanity to a royalist. He was the first who cultivated in France the Rhus radicals, and in one of his letters he ex- pressed his impatience to see his dear r//?/j-. This letter was intercepted by certain officious patriots, who de- nounced him to the Tribunal for a traitorous correspond- ence with the Russians. He was arrested on this charge, but was released from danger by the revolution of the 9th Thermidor, Died in 1801. See "Biographie Medicale." Dufresnoy, written also Dufrenoy, (Charles Al- PHONSE,) a French historical painter and poet, born in Paris in 161 1, was the son of an apothecary. Having received lessons from Perrier and Vouet, he visited Rome and studied the works of Ra])hael. He went to Venice in 1653, and returned to France in .1656. He had a fair reputation for correctness of design, and was a good colorist. He wrote, in Latin verse, a critical treatise on painting, "De Arte Graphica," which was much ad- mired, and was translated into English by Dryden. Died in 1665. See Qu^RARD, " La France Litteraire ;" Lecarpentier, " Notice sur A. Dufresnoy," 18 12. Dufresny, du''fRk'ne', or Dufresnoy, diiTRi'nwi', (Charles RiviiRE,)^a witty French dramatist and artist, born in Paris in 1648, was a great-grandson of Henry IV., and a valet-de-chambre of Louis XIV. He had a natural talent for music and painting, excelled in land- scape-gardening, and was appointed controller of the royal gardens. He wrote several successful comedies, among which are "The Spirit of Contradiction," in prose, (1700,) "The Village Coquette," in verse, (1715,) and "Le Faux-sincere." "He sparkles with wit," says La Harpe, "and his wit is perfectly original." ("Cours de Litterature.") Died in 1724. See Voltaire, " ^crivains du Siecle de Louis XIV;" Qu^rard, "La France Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Dufresse, diiTRiss', (Simon Camille,) Baron, a French general, born at La Rochelle in 1762 ; died in 1833. Dufriohe-Valaze. See Valazi^. Dufrische. See Frische. Duganne, du-gan', (Augustine Joseph Hickey,) an American poet and litth-ateiir, born in Boston in 1823, published, among other works, a "Comprehensive Sum- mary of General Philosophy," (1845,) and "Class-Book of Governments and Civil Society," (1859.) His principal poetical works are "Home Poems," (1844,) "The Iron Harp," (1847,) and "The Lydian Queen," a tragedy. Du-gard^ (William,) an eminent English teacher, born in Worcestershire in 1605, became master of the Merchant-Tailors' School, London, about 1642. He published a Greek grammar, a " Lexicon Graeci Testa- menti," and other school-books. Died in 1662. Dugas-Montbel, dii'g^s' m6N'bgK, (Jean Baptiste,) an excellent French Hellenist, born at Saint-Chamond in 1776, was a merchant of Lyons in early life. At the age of thirty he began to study Greek, and settled in Paris in 1810. He produced a translation of Homer, (1815-18,) which is regarded as the best prose version in the French language. A copious commentary accom- panies it. He was a free associate of the Academy of Inscriptions. He represented Lyons in the Chamber of Deputies in 1831-33. Died in 1834. See J. B. Dumas, " filoge de Dugas-Montbel," 1835; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." • Dugazon, dii^gt'ziN', (Jean Baptiste Henri Gour- gault — gooR^go'',) a popular French comedian, born at Marseilles in 1743; died in 1809. His wife, Louise LEPfevRE, born at Berlin in 1755, was a successful actress. Died in 1821. Dug'dale, (Sir William,) an eminent English anti- quary, born at Shustoke, in Warwickshire, in 1605. He became a resident of London in 1638, and was appointed a pursuivant-at-arms, by the name of Blanch Lyon. In 1640 he was made rouge-croix pursuivant-in-ordinary. He was a royalist in the civil war. In 1655 Dugdale and Dodsworth published the first volume of their great and celebrated woVk on English monasteries, "Monasticon Anglicanum," (3 vols., 1655-73.) This contains a record of the history and descent of the greater part of the landed property of England. He wrote several other valuable works, among which are "The Antiquities of Warwick- shire," (1656,) "Origines Juridiciales," (1666,) and "The Baronage of England," (1675.) In the reign of Charles II. he was knighted, and obtained the office of Norroy king-at-arms. Died in 1686. See "Life, Diary, and Correspondence of W. Dugdale," edited by Hamper, 1827; " Biographia Britannica." Duges, dii^zhi', (Antoine Louis,) an eminent French physician, born at Mezieres (Ardennes) in 1797. He became professor of pathology and operative medicine at Montpellier about 1825, and published, besides other works, a "Manual of Obstetrics," (1826,) and an able " Treatise on the Comparative Physiology of Man and Animals," (3 vols., 1838.) He was a member of the Academy of Sciences. Died in 1838. See Queraru, "La France Litteraire;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Dughet, dii'ga', (Gaspard,) a distinguished landscape, painter, sometimes called Le Guaspre, (leh gtspR,) or Gaspre Poussin, (poo'sAn',) was born of a French family at Rome in 1613. He was a pupil of the famous Nicolas Poussin, who married his sister. It is stated that he hired four houses at the same time near Rome and Tivoli, that he might observe a great diversity of scenes. He had great executive facility, and a vague, agreeable manner. His works present a great variety of compo- sition and of effects. He painted many real scenes in the vicinity of Rome, enriched with details of his own invention. He excelled in the treatment of clouds and the foliage of trees, which he represented in their char- acteristic forms. Among his master-pieces is " Abraham and Isaac going to the Sacrifice." Died in Rome in 1675. See Pascoi.i, "Vite de' Pittori e Scultori moderni," 1730-36: Bryan, " Dictionary of Painters ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Dughet, (Giovanni,) a younger brother of the pre- ceding, born about 1615, was also a pupil of N. Poussin. He renounced painting at an early age, and devoted him- self to engraving with the burin and point. He worked in Rome, and engraved many works of N. Poussin, amjong which is "The Seven Sacraments." Dugommier, dii'go'me-i', (Jean Franqois Co- quille — ko'ke'ye,) a French general, born in the isle of Guadeloupe in 1736. He favoured the popular cause in the Revolution, and went to Paris in 1792. As general of division, he commanded at the successful siege of Toulon in 1793, where Bonaparte acted under his orders. The next year he was appointed to command the army of the Eastern Pyrenees, and gained advantages over the Spaniards at Saint-Elme and other places. He was killed in November, 1794, at the battle of Sierra Negra, near Figuieres, where the Spaniards were defeated. Bona- parte mentioned him in his last will, honoris catisd, and left a legacy to his son. See Lamartine, "History of the Girondists." Dugua, dii'gii'S', (Charles Franqois Joseph,) a French general, born at Valenciennes in 1744. For his € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, h, k, ^ittural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 5» DVGVAT-TROVIN 802 DUHESME services at the siege of Toulon in 1793 he was made a general of division. In 1798 he accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt. In the absence of Kleber, who had been wounded, Dugua commanded his division at the battle of the Pyramids. He went to Saint Domingo in 1801 as chief of the staff of Leclerc, and died there in 1802. See A. DUiMEGE, " Memoires du General Dugua," 4 vols., 1838. Duguay-Trouin, dvighf tRoo'dN', (Ren6,) a brave and successftil French admiral, born at Saint-Malo in 1673. Having obtained command of a privateer frigate in 1 69 1, he performed several daring exploits, and took many prizes from the English. In 1694 he was taken prisoner by an English squadron and carried into port, but soon escaped, and returned to France. He entered the royal marine in 1697, and displayed great skill and prudence as captain in the war of the Spanish succession, which began in 1702, Between 1703 and 1705 he cruised on the coasts of England, defeated a Dutch fleet, and captured several ships. In 1707 his squadron, united to that of Forbin, intercepted a large English convoy and took three of the ships of war by which it was escorted. He gained great glory by the capture of Rio Janeiro in 171 1. In 1 71 5 he was appointed vice-admiral, and lieutenant-general in 1728. His disposition was modest and generous. He died in 1736, leaving Memoirs of his life, which were published in 1740 and translated into English in 1742. See, also, M. de la Landei.le, " Histoire de Duguay-Trouin," 1844 ; AuRiEN Richer, " Vie de R. Duguay-Trouin," 1784 and 1835 ; Antoine Thomas, " Eloge de Duguay-Trouin," 1761 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Duguernier, dii'ggR'ne-i', (Louis,) a French por- trait-painter, born about 1550, acquired celebrity in min- iatures, which he painted on vellum. He painted the portraits of the most distinguished personages of his time. Duguernier, { Louis, ) a son of the preceding, was a skilful portrait-painter, and worked in Paris. Nagler states that he was exiled on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, ( 1685 ;) but, according to another account, he died in Paris in 1659. He left three sons who were painters, one of whom, named Pierre, was reputed the best painter on enamel of his time. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Du Guesclin or Duguesclin, dii'gi'kl5.N', (Ber- TRAND,) a famous French captain, born near Rennes about 1314. He distinguished himself in fighting against the English, who then held many places in P'rance. In 1356 he defeated the Duke of Lancaster at Rennes, and forced him to raise the siege. About 1364 Charles V. gave him command of an army, with which he defeated the King of Navarre. The next year he led a large army against Pedro the Cruel of Castile, who was unable to resist him until the English Black Prince came to his assistance. In a battle that followed in 1367 the Black Prince was the victor, and took Du Guesclin prisoner, but soon released him. In 1369, when the war was renewed between the French and the English, he was appointed Constable of France. After he took the command the English ceased to conquer, and in 1374 he had expelled them from nearly every province of France. Died in 1380. " He seems to have been," says Hume, " the first consummate general that had yet appeared in Europe." See Froissart, "Chronicles;" Claude Menard, "Histoire de B. Duguesclin," 1618; Guvako de Bervu.le, "Vie de Dugues- clin," 1767; Jamison, "Life of Duguesclin," 1864; Fkeminville, " Histoire de Bertrand Duguesclin," 1841. Duguet, dii^gi', (Jacques Joseph,) a French theolo- gian, born at Montbrison in 1649. He became a priest of the Oratory in 1667, and was attached to the principles of the Jansenists. He published many esteemed works on religion and morality, among which are " Conduct of a Christian Lady," (1725,) "The Work of Six Days," (1732,) and a "Treatise on the Principles of the Chris- tian Faith," (1736.) Died in 1733. See Andr^, "L'Esprit de J. J. Duguet," etc., Paris, 1764. Du Haillan, See Haillan, d'. Duhalde, dii'hSkK, (Jean Baptiste,) a French Jesuit, born in Paris in 1674. He was employed by his supe- riors to digest and edit the letters received from the foreign missionaries of the Society. The result of his labours is a work entitled "Lettres edifiantes et curi- euses ecrites des Missions etrangeres," which contains much interesting and valuable information. In 1735 he published a " Historical, Geographical, and Physical Descrii)tion of the Chinese Empire," the first work in which China had been described with such detail and exactness by a European. Died in 1743. See MoREKi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Duhamel or Du Hamel, dii'ht'm^K, (Jean Bap- tiste,) a French philosopher and savant, born at Vire in 1624, became curate of Neuilly-sur-Marne. He was a diligent student of natural philosophy and other sciences, and gained reputation in 1660 by a treatise on Astro- nomy, ("Astronomia Physica.") At the formation of the Academy of Sciences (1666) he was chosen perpetual secretary. He published an interesting " History of the Royal Academy of Sciences," {1698,) a "Treatise on the Old and New Philosophy," for the use of colleges, (1678,) and other scientific works, which were once highly prized, but are not much read at present. Died in 1706. The above-named works are all in Latin, which he wrote with great purity and elegance. See NiCERON, "Memoires;" Fontenelle, "Eloges des Acade- miciens;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Du Hamel, (Jean Marie Constant,) a French mathematician, born in 1797, became in 1851 professor in the Faculty of Sciences. He succeeded Poisson as member of the Institute in 1840. He wrote a work on analysis, (" Cours d'Analyse de I'ficole Polytechnique," 1841.) Duhamel or Du Hamel, (Jean Pierre Franqois Guillot — ge''yo',) a French savant and metallurgist, born at Nicorps in 1730. He made improvements in the art of mining and working metals ; and, when the School of Mines was founded, about 1787, he was chosen professor of metallurgy, etc. In 1786 he was received into the Academy of Sciences. About 1795 he was chosen a member of the Institute and inspector-general of mines. He was a savant of the old school, — profound, practical, unassuming. He wrote, besides other works, a manual for miners, entitled "Subterranean Geometry," (1788,) "which," says Cuvier, "is an indispensable work, and is at the present time the manual of all who practise the art of mining in France." Died in 1816. See Cuvier, " filoges historiques," tome iii. ; " Nouvelle Biogra- phie G^n^rale." Duhamel du Monceau, dxx'ht'mhV dii m6N''so', (Henri Louis,) an eminent economist and botanist, born in Paris in 1700, was one of the most remarkable French savants of the eighteenth century, in respect to the extent, variety, and utility of his researches in botany, phy- siology, agriculture, etc. He was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1728, after which he wrote more than sixty memoirs, nearly all on important sub- jects. He published, besides other works, a "Treatise on the Culture of Land," (1751,) a "Treatise on the Trees and Shrubs which grow in France in the Open Ground," (1755,) and one entitled "De la Physique des Arbres," (1758,) treating of the structure, anatomy, and physiology of plants. This is regarded as his most important work. See Cuvier, "Histoire des Sciences naturelles;" "Biographie Universelle ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "Encyclopaedia Britannica." Duhan, dii^hSN', (Charles Gilles,) a French Prot- estant, born in Champagne in 1685, removed to Ber'in, where he became preceptor to the prince-royal, (Frede- rick the Great.) After the accession of that prince (1740) Duhan was made a privy councillor. Died in 1746. Duhan, (Laurent,) a French philosopher, born at Chartres about 1656, published " Philosophus in utram- que Partem," (1694.) Died in 1726. Duhem, dli'SN' or dii-hgn/,(PiERRE JoSEPH,)a French Jacobin, born at Lille in 1760, was a member of the Con- vention, 1792-95. Died in 1807. Duhesme, dii'him', (Philippe Guillaume,) Count, a French general, born in Burgundy in 1766. He was made general of division in 1794 for his services at Gran- jean and Maestricht. His passage of the Rhine at Diersheim, in 1 797, was much applauded. He afterwards commanded in Italy and Spain, where he gained several a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fdr, fill, f^t; mli; n6t; good; moon; DUIGENAN 803 DULON victories, and received the title of count in 1814. In the Hundred Days he took arms for Napoleon, and was wounded and taken prisoner at Waterloo, where he was massacred by a Prussian soldier, June 18, 1 81 5. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Duigenan, doog'e-nan, (Patrick,) an Irish civilian, born in 1735, in the county of Leitrim. He was a judge, privy councillor, and member of Parliament, and wrote several political pamphlets. He promoted the Union, and opposed Catholic emanci]jation. Died in 1816. Du-iFi-us or Du-il'Ii-us, (Caius,) a Roman general, elected consul in 261 B.C., is noted as the first Roman who obtained a naval victory over the Carthaginians. In the first Punic war he built a number of ships after the model of one captured from the enemy. This fleet under his command defeated that of Carthage, near the Lipari Islands, in 260, on which occasion the Romans used vrith great advantage the new invention of grappling-irons, and boarded the ships of the enemy. He afterwards com- manded the land-army, and defeated the Carthaginians in Sicily. See PoLYBius, book i. ; Diodorus Siculus, book xxiii. Duilius, (Marcus,) a Roman tribune, who, about 450 B.C., persuaded the people to assume an attitude of determined hostility to the decemvirs by withdrawing to Mons Sacer. Duisbuig, doo'is-bdoRG, written also Duisbourg, (Peter,) a German chronicler, lived about 1320. He wrote a '* History of Prussia." Duiven, doi^en, (Jan,) a Dutch portrait-painter, born at Gouda in 1610; died in 1640. Dujardin, dli'zhtR'diN', (Benigne,) a French author who assumed the name of Boispr^;aux, (bw^'pRk''5',) flourished about 1740. Dujardin, (Felix,) a French naturalist, born at Tours in 1801. He cultivated geology, botan}^ and zoology, and became professor of mineralogy at Toulouse in 1839. Among his chief works are a "Natural History of Infu- soria," (1841,) and a "Manual of the Observer with the Microscope," (1843.) Died in April, i860. Dujardin, dii'zhtRMiN', sometimes written De Jar- dyn, (Karel,) an eminent Dutch painter, was born in Amsterdam about 1640. He is called the most excellent pupil of Berghem. He studied and worked in Rome, and returned to his native place, where he was very suc- cessful. He painted history, animals, pastoral scenes, and other familiar subjects. He excelled in colour, expression, and chiaroscuro. Some of his works are regarded as master-pieces, and brijig high prices. His "Charlatan" is said to be one of the most highly-prized tableaux of that kind which the gallery of the Louvre contains. Having visited Italy a second time, he died at Venice in 1678. See Descamps, "Vies des Pelntres Flamands," etc. Duke, (Richard,) an English clergyman, born in Devonshire, was a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and prebendary of Gloucester. He wrote several medi- ocre poems, and published sermons which are com- mended. He co-operated with others in the translation of Ovid and Juvenal. Died in 171 1. Duker, doo^ker, (Karl Andreas,) a German scholar, born at Unna, Prussia, in 1670. He studied under Perizonius at Franeker. In 1716 he was associated with Drakenborch in the chair of history and eloquence at Utrecht vacated by Burmann. His principal work is an edition of Thucydides, (1731,) which attests his profound knowledge of Greek and was for a long time the best edition of that author. He also edited Florus, (1722.) He resigned his chair in 1734. Died at Mydrecht in 1752. See Ersch und GRUBER,"Al!gemeiiie Encyklopaedie ;" C. Saxius, "Laudatio C. A. Dukeri," 8vo, 1788. Duker, doo''ker, (Karl Gustavus,) a Swedish gen- eral, distinguished in the wars of Charles XII. He fought at Pultowa in 1709, when he was made prisoner. In 1 712, as lieutenant-general, he commanded a corps in the isle of Riigen, and surrendered Stralsund after a brave defence in 1715. He was afterwards made a field- marshal, senator, and count. Died in 1732. See Ersch und GKUBER,"Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Voltaire, "Histoire de Charles XII." Dulac. See All^on. Dulard, diiHtR', (Paul Alexandre,) a French poet, born at Marseilles in 1696; died in 1760. Dulauloy. See Randon. Dulaure, dii'loR^ (Jacques Antotne,) a French re- publican, known as an able and prolific writer, was born at Clermont-Ferrand in 1755. In 1788 he published the first volumes of a "Description of France." Elected to the Convention in 1792, he voted for the death of the king. He wrote many political pamphlets, was pro- scribed as a Girondist in 1793, and saved his life by flight. He was one of the Council of Five Hundred in 1796-98. He produced a "History of Paris from the Earliest Times," (10 vols., 1821, ) and "Historical Sketches of the Revolution," (6 vols., 1825.) Died in 1835. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale:" Taillandier, "Notice sur J. A. Dulaure." Du Laurens or Dulaurens, dul6'r6N', (Andr^:,) a learned French physician, born at Aries about 1550, became first physician to Henry IV. in 1606. He pub- lished several professional works in Latin, one of which was very successful, viz., " Anatomical Description of the Human Body," (1595.) Renauldin praises the elegance of its style. Died in 1609. See H. RoDRiGUES, "Notice sur Dulaurens," etc., Montpellier, 1842. Dulaurens, (Henri Joseph,) a French writer and abbe, born at Douai in 17 19. Among his works are a "Satire against the Jesuits," (1761,) and "The Evangile of Reason." In 1767 he was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment as author of anti-religious work-s. Died in 1797. Dulaurier, dli'lo^-e-i', (Edouard,) a French Orien- talist, born at Toulouse in 1807, became professor of the Javanese and Malay languages at Paris in 1841. Dulcino, dool-chee'no, [Lat. Dulci'nus,] an Italian theologian, and leader of a sect called Dulcinists, was born at Novara. He was put to death in 1307. Dulcis, diirs^ss', (Catherin,) a Protestant noted as a linguist, was born in Savoy in 1540. He was professor of modern languages at Wittenberg and at Cassel, and wrote "Principles of the Italian Languages," and other works. Dulin, dii'liN', (Pierre,) a French painter of history, born in Paris in 1670, gained the grand prize in 1696, and died in 1748. Du Lis, dii l6ss, or Dulis, (Charles,) a Frenchman descended from a brother of Joan of Arc, was born about 1560. He was a privy councillor of Henry IV. He wrote a valuable notice of the genealogy, actions, and arms of Joan of Arc, (,1610.) Died about 1632. Dulk, ddolk, (Friedrich Philipp,) a German chemist, born at Schirwindt, in Prussia, in 1788, became professor of chemistry at Konigsberg. He published a " Manual of Chemistry," (1834,) and other works. Dullaert, diil'laRt, (Heyman,) a skilful Dutch painter of history and portraits, born at Rotterdam in 1636. He was a pupil of Rembrandt, whose manner he imitated with such success as to puzzle Houbraken and other connoisseurs. His " Hermit Kneeling" is an instance of this imitation. In consequence of feeble health, he did not produce a great number of pictures. He was skilled in many languages, wrote verses with facility, and translated Tasso's epic poem. Died in 1684. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc Duller, dooKler, (Eduard,) a popular German poet and historian, born in Vienna in 1809. He produced a successful drama, "Master Pilgrim," (1828,) and "The Prince of Love," a poem, (1842") He settled in Mentz (Mayence) in 1849, after which he devoted himself to history. Among his works are a " History of the German People," (2 vols., 1840,) and a continuation of Schiller's "History of the Revolt of the Netherlands," (3 vols., 1841.) He published a volume of poems, "Gesammelte Gedichte," (1845.) l^ied in 1853. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" Weber," Geschichte der Deutschen Literatur." Dulon, doo'lon, (Ludwig,) a Prussian performer on the flute, born in 1769, became blind in infancy. He composed music for the flute. Died in 1826. € as c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, Vi, guttural; N, tiasal; R, trilled; s as 2; %h as in this. (2^= See Explanations, p. 23.) DULONG DUMAS Dulong, du'l6N', (Pierre Louis,) a French chemist and natural philosopher, born at Rouen in 1785. He studied chemistry with Berthollet, and discovered the chloride of nitrogen in 181 2. In co-operation with Ber- zelius, he analyzed water, and made researches in the animal heat produced by respiration and the combustion of carbon in the lungs. He succeeded Petit as professor of physique in the Polytechnic School, and in 1823 was admitted into the Academy of Sciences, for which he wrote memoirs on the theory of heat, the elastic force of steam, etc. Died in Paris in 1838. See JStienne Arago, " Dictionnaire de la Conversation ;" " Nou- velle Biographic Generale." Dulong de Rosnay, dii^lSN' deh ro'ni', (Louis Henri,) Comte, a French general, born in Champagne in 1780 ; died in 1828. Du Lorens, dii lo^rSw', (Jacques,) a French satirical poet, born at Chateauneuf in 1583; died about 1650. Dumaniant,dii'mt^ne^6N'',(ANTOiNE Jean,) a French comic author, whose family name was BouRLiN, (booR^- IcLn',) born at Clermont in Auvergne, or Clermont-Fer- rand, in 1754. He lived in Paris, where for some time he performed on the stage. He wrote many comedies, some of which were successful, especially his "Open War, or Ruse against Ruse," (1786.) Died in 1828. Diimanoir,du'mt'nwiR',(PHiLiPPE,) a French drama- tist, born in Guadeloupe in 1808. Dumanoir le Pelley, du^mt^nw^R' leh pa^li', (Pierre Etienne Ren6 Marie,) Count, a French admiral, born at Granville in 1770. As chef-de-division he conducted the convoy attached to the army which invaded Egypt in 1798. The next year he commanded one of the two ships which escorted Bonaparte back to France, and was made a rear-admiral. At the battle of Trafalgar in 1805 he commanded the vanguard, and escaped with four ships, which were taken a few days later. He was made a count in 1814, and vice-admiral in 1819. Died in 1829. See " Nouvelle Biographic Gdnerale." Dumaresq, du-mt-r^sk', (Henry,) a brave British officer, born in 1792, served in the Peninsula, was se- verely wounded at Waterloo, and obtained the rank of lieutenant-colonel in 181 7. Died in 1838. Dumarest, dii'mS'ri', (Ramberi',) a skilful French engraver of medals, born at Saint-Etienne, in Forez, in 1750. He resided in Paris, and became a member of the Institute. About the time of the Revolution his medal of J. J. Rousseau gained the first prize. He en- graved the medal which the Institute gives to each of its members, and one for the Peace of Amiens. Died in 1806. Dumarsais, dii'mtR^sa', (Q^sar Chesneau,) an emi- nent French grammarian, born at Marseilles in 1676, became a citizen of Paris about 1702. His works are more highly appreciated by posterity than they were by his contemporaries, and his "Treatise on Tropes or Figures" is especially commended. He also wrote a "Treatise on Logic," and "Principles of Grammar." "He was," says Voltaire, " one of those obscure sages who judge soundly of all," etc. Died in 1756. See De Gerando, " Eloge de Du Marsais," 1S05; D'Alembert, "filogc de Du Marsais," in the " Encyclopedie," tome vii. Dumas, dii^mi.', (Adolphe,) a French poet, cousin of Alexandre, noticed below, born at Bompas (Vaucluse) in 1806 ; died in 1861. Dumas, (Alexandre,) a celebrated French novelist and dramatist, born at Villers-Cotterets (Aisne) in 1803. His early education was very defective. At the age of twenty he went to Paris to seek his fortune, and by the favour of General Foy obtained a clerkship in the bureau of the Duke of Orleans. He produced in 1828 "Henri III," a drama, the great success of which was a triumph of the new romantic school over the classic. He wrote many other successful dramas, among which are "An- tony," a tragedy," ( 1831, ) and "Mdlle. de Belle Isle," a comedy, (1837.) The immorality of "Antony" was pro- nounced scandalous even by the French. He excels in the construction of plots, and exhibits a marvellous exam- ple of literary fecundity. Dumas also obtained great popularity as a novelist. Among his principal romances are "The Three Musketeers," ("Les trois Mousque- taires," 1844-45, 3° vols.,) and "The Count of Monte- Christo," (" Le Comte de Monte-Christo," 1845, 12 vols.) These are much admired for the verve and faculty of improvisation which they display. Pie made, it is said, a free use of the assistance of other writers in the com- position of his works. Died in December, 1870. See L. DE Lomenie, "Notice sur M. A. Dumas," 1845; Alex- andre Dumas, "Memoires," Paris, 10 vols., 1850-52; EucitNE de MiRECouRT, "Fabrique de Romans: Maison A. Dumas et Com- pagnie," 1846; Charles Robin, "Notice sur A. Dumas," 1848. Dumas, (Alexandre,) a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1824, and is widely known as a romancer and comic author. Among his romances are " Cesarine," (1848,) and "Trois Hommes forts," (4 vols., 1850.) He produced in 1852 "La Dame aux Camelias," a comedy, which was highly applauded. His comedy " Demi- Monde" (1855) was also very successful. His works are censured as immoral. Dumas, (Alexandre Davy de la Pailleterie — pt^yeh-tre',) a French general, born at Jeremie in 1762, was the father of Alexandre, noticed above. His mother was a negress, named Dumas. He was made a general of brigade in July, 1793, and general of division in Sep- tember of that year. He defeated Wurmser at Mantua in 1796, and for his services in the Tyrol in 1797 was saluted by Bonaparte with the title of "the Horatius Codes of the Tyrol." In 1798 he commanded the cavalry in Egypt, and was at the battle of the Pyramids. He died in 1806, having been disabled by ill health for several years. See "Victoires et Conquetes des Frangais;" "Nouvelle Biogra- phic Generale." Dumas, (Charles Louis,) an eminent French phy- sician, born in Lyons in 1765, graduated at Montpellier. In 1795 he obtained the chair of anatomy and physiology in that city. He was afterwards chosen professor of clinic medicine, dean of the Faculty, a corresponding member of the Institute, member of the legion of honour, etc. He wrote many learned works, of which the most im- portant are "Principles of Physiology," (4 vols., 1800,) "The Future Progress of the Science of Man," (1804,) and "Doctrine of Chronic Diseases," (1812.) The last is highly praised. Died at Montpellier in April, 18 13. See Prunelle, "Eloge de C. L. Dumas," 1814; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Dumas, (Jean Baptiste,) an eminent French chem- ist and senator, born at Alais (Gard) in July, 1800. He went about 1814 to Geneva, where he studied chemistry and botany and became the scientific associate of Pre- vost. Having removed to Paris in 1821, he was chosen tutor of chemistry in the Polytechnic School in 1823. He married the daughter of the celebrated chemist A. Brongniart. He acquired a wide reputation by his re- searches on isomerism, the law of substitutions, the atomic weights of elements, and other parts of chemical philosophy. His labours have contributed greatly to simplify the study of organic chemistry. He was elected to the Institute in 1832, and became professor of organic chemistry in the School of Medicine in 1834. He pub- lished many important works, among which are a " Treat- ise on Chemistry applied to the Arts," (8 vols., 1828-45,) and " Lectures on Chemical Philosophy," (" Le9ons sur la Philosophic chimique,"( 1837.) His works are remarkable for elegance of style. From October, 1849, to January, 1 85 1, he was minister of agriculture and commerce. He was nominated senator and vice-president of the council of public instruction about the end of 1851. France is indebted to him for the organization of a system of in- struction in agriculture, and the institution of a European sanitary congress. See " Galerie historique des Membres du Senat;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Dumas, (Louis,) a French musician, born at Nimes in 1676. He wrote "The Art of Music, taught and prac- tised by the Method of the Typographic Bureau," and "La Bibliotheque des Enfants." He was tutor of the Marquis de Montcalm who fell at Quebec. Died in 1744. Dumas, (Mathieu,) Count, a French general and historian, born at Montpellier in 1753. He was aide-de- camp of Count de Rochambeau in the United States, where he served three campaigns, 1780-82. In the revolution of 1789 he was identified with the party of La a, e, T, 6, u, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fJr, fill, fit; mit; n5t; good; moon; DUMAS 805 DUMONT Fayette, and was charged with several important missions. In 1791 Colonel Dumas commanded the troops which guarded Louis XVI. on his return from Varennes, and was raised to the rank of marechal-de-camp. He was a moderate member of the Legislative Assembly in 1791 and 1792, and was condemned to death in the reign of terror, but escaped to Switzerland. About 1800 he ob- tained the rank of general of brigade, and was appointed councillor of state. He became a general of division in 1805, and, as aide-major-general of Napoleon, made the campaigns of Ulm and Austerlitz, and that of Austria in 1809. He accompanied the grand army to Moscow (1812) as intendant-general of the administrative service. In 1814 he entered the service of Louis XVIII., and in the Hundred Days accepted a command from Napo- leon. He published a narrative of the French campaigns from 1798 to 1807, entitled " Precis des Evenements mili- taires," (19 vols., 1816-26,) which is highly prized. He co-operated with La Fayette in the revolution of 1830, after which he was created a peer of France. Died in Paris in October, 1837. See his autobiographic memoirs, entitled "Souvenirs," 3 vols., 1839, and English version of the same; " Histoire des Generaux Frangais;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Dumas, (Rene FRANgois,) a French Jacobin, born at Lons-le-Saulnier in 1757, was notorious for cruelty as president of the Revolutionary Tribunal in 1793. As a partisan of Robespierre, he was guillotined, July 28, 1794. Dumay, dii'ma', (Louis,) a French publicist, born in the first part of the seventeenth century. He published, besides other works, "The Science of Princes, or Con- siderations on Coups d'fitat by Naude, with Reflections," (1673,) which was greatly esteemed. Died in 1681. Dumay, (Paul,) a French poet, born at Dijon in 1626, associated or corresponded with the most eminent scholars, and wrote admired Latin verses. His poem in honour of the Due d'Enghien, entitled '* Enguinneis," (1643,) was praised by Gronovius. Died in 171 1. Dumee, dii'mi^ (Jeanne,) a French astronomer, born in Paris in the seventeenth century. She published a "Discourse on the Opinion of Copernicus respecting the Mobility of the Earth," which has some merit. Dumerbion, dii'm^R'be'^N', (Pierre J.,) a French general, born at Montmeillant in 1734; died in 1797. Dumeril, du'nicVr^K, (Andr6 Marie Constant,) a French physician and naturalist of high reputation, born at Amiens on the ist of January, 1774, was a pupil of Cuvier. He was chosen professor of anatomy a la fa- ctdte in Paris in 1800, and admitted into the Institute about 181 5. For four years he supplied the place of Cuvier as professor of natural history in the Ecole Cen- trale. In 1822 he exchanged his chair of anatomy for that of physiology, and in 1825 succeeded Lacepede as professor at the Jardin des Plantes. He published in 1803 a "Treatise on Natural History," a fourth edition of which was entitled " Elements des Sciences natu- ■felles," (2 vols., 1846.) His greatest work is a "Natural History of Reptiles," (" Erpetologie generale," 9 vols., 1834-54,) in which Bibron co-operated. About 1830 he became professor of medical pathology in the Faculty of Medicine at Paris. Dumesnil, (Jean Baptists.) See Gardin-Dumes- NIL. Dumesnil, dii'm^'n^K, (Louis Alexis LemaJtre,) a French litterateur, born at Caen in 1783, wrote a " His- tory of Philip II. of Spain," (1822,) and other historical works. Died in 1858. Dumesnil, (Marie Franqoise,) a celebrated French actress, born near Alen9on in 171 1. She made her debut in Paris in 1737. She was most successful in tragedy, and in the expression of fierce or sublime passions. It has been said that she created the role of Meroi>e in Vol- taire's tragedy of that name. Voltaire, La Harpe, and other poets have paid tributes of admiration to this actress. Dorat, in his poem "Theatrical Declamation," speaks of her in high terms. She retired from the stage in 1776, and died about 1802. See Voltaire, " Correspondance ;" Marmontel, "Memoires." Dum'mer, (Jeremiah,) an American writer, born in Boston about 1680. He was sent to England as an agent of Massachusetts, and became a friend of Lord Boling- broke. He wrote an able defence of the charters of New England, (1721,) and other works. Died in 1739. Dum'no-rix, an ambitious chieftain of the ^dui, a nation of Gaul, was the brother of Divitiacus. He figures largely in the " Commentaries" of Caesar, who, for the sake of Divitiacus, once pardoned Dumnorix for a conspiracy against the Romans. Having subsequently disobeyed the order to follow Caesar in the invasion of Britain, he was killed by Caesar's soldiers about 59 B.C., exclaiming, with his latest breath, "I am a free citizen of a free state." See C^SAR, "De Bello Gallico." Dumolard, dii'mo'lSR', (Joseph Vincent,) a French politician, born in Dauphine in 1766; died in 1820. Dumolin. See Dumoulin. Dumolinet, dU''mo'le'ni', (Claude,) a French priest and antiquary, born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1620, wrote a " History of the Popes by their Medals," and disserta- tions on several points of antiquity. Died in 1687. Dumon, dii''m6N'', (Pierre Sylvain,) a French states- man, born at Agen in 1797, became minister of finance in 1847. Dumonceau, dii^miN^so', (Jean Baptiste,) a French general, born at Brussels in 1760. He entered the French army in 1792, and in 1794 fought in Holland under Piche- gru, who gave him command of the Hague. He became general-in-chief in the service of the Batavian republic in 1805, obtained a marshal's baton' in 1806 or 1807, and repulsed the English at Walcheren in 1809. In 1813 he gained a victory over the Russians at Pirna. Died in 1821. See " Victoires et Conquetes des Frangais." Dumont, dii^niiN^, (Andr^,) a French Jacobin, born in Picardy in 1764, was a member of the Convention, 1792-95. He took side against Robespierre on the 9th Thermidor. Died in 1836. Dumont,( Augustin Alexandre,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1801. He gained the grand prize in 1823, and went to Rome with a pension. He executed marble statues of Poussin, (for the Institute,) Saint Louis, (for the Luxembourg,) and of several other Frenchmen. In 1838 he was chosen a member of the Institute. Among his later works are figures of Glory and Immortality, for the new Louvre, (1857.) See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Dumont, (Charles Henri Fr^d^ric,) a French writer, born near Abbeville in 1758, was the author of a " Manual for Mayors," a " Dictionary of Forests," (" Dic- tionnaire forestier," 1802,) and other useful works. Died in 1830. Dumont, Comte de Gages. See Gages. Du-m6nt^ (Ebenezer,) an American general, born at Vevay, in Southern Indiana, about 181 5, was a lawyer before the civil war. He became a brigadier-general about September, 1861, and gained a victory at Lebanon, Kentucky, in May, 1862. He represented the sixth dis- trict of Indiana in Congress in 1863-65, having been elected by the Republicans. Dumont, (Francois,) a sculptor, born in Paris in 1688. He gained the first prize of the Academy at an early age, and was received as a member of the same in 1 712, when he produced in marble his "Thunderstruck Titan," ("Titan foudroye.") Died in 1726. Dumont, (Gabriel,) a learned Protestant minister and Orientalist, born in Dauphine in 1680; died in 1748. Dumont, (Gabriel Martin,) a French architect, born in Paris about 1720. He was living in 1790. Dumont, (George,) a statistical writer, born in Paris in 1725 ; cUed in 1788. Dumont, (Jacques Edme,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1761, was a grandson of Fran9ois Dumont, noticed above, and the father of Augustin Alexandre. He adorned the Louvre, Luxembourg, and other public edifices with statues and bas-reliefs, among which are statues of Marceau, Colbert, (1808,) and Malesherbes, (1829.) Died in 1844. Dumont, (Jean,) a historian, born in France about 1650, became a resident of Vienna. The Emperor of Germany a])pointed him historiographer, and gave him the title of baron. He wrote a " History of the Treaties of Peace of the Seventeenth Century," ("Corps univer- sel diplomatique du Droit des Gens," 8 vols., 1726,) a € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as G, H, Y^, guttural ; N, nasal- R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (2[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) DUMONT 806 DUMOURIEZ '•Collection of Treaties made from the Time of Charle- magne to the Present Time," and other works. Died in 1726. Dumont, (Jean,) a French historical painter, called "the Roman," was born in Paris in 1700, and studied in Rome. "His talent," says Auguis, "was not equal to his reputation." He was admitted into the Academy of Paris in 1728. Died in 1781. Dumont, dii'mdN', (Pierre Etienne Louis,) an eminent Swiss author, born of a French family at Geneva in 1759. He was ordained minister of a Protestant church in Geneva in 1781. In consequence of the defeat of the Liberal party in the Swiss state, he emigrated about 1782, and went to Saint Petersburg. There he gained reputation as an eloquent preacher ; but, after a residence of eighteen months, he accepted an invitation from Lon- don to become the tutor of the sons of Lord Shelburne. He became intimate with Bentham and Romilly. In 1789 and 1790 he was in Paris, where he was patronized by Mirabeau, whom he assisted in composing his speeches and reports. About 1792 he returned to England, and, as secretary or coadjutor of Bentham, he began the im- portant task of polishing and popularizing his great works on legislation, which were then in a rude and con- fused state. " M. Dumont was admirably qualified," says Macaulay, "to supply what was wanting in Mr. Bentham. In the qualities in which the French writers surpass those of all other nations, — neatness, clearness, precision, condensation, — he sur]3assed all French wri- ters." Among the works of Bentham edited by Dumont (in French) are "Traites de Legislation," (1802,) and "Theoriedes Peines et des Recompenses," (1810.) From 1814 until 1829 he lived in Geneva, where he became a member of the representative council. He died in Milan in 1829, leaving "Recollections of Mirabeau," ("Sou- venirs sur Mirabeau,") since published, which, remarks Macaulay, "is a very amusing and instructive book, and a relic of a wise and virtuous man." See Macaulay, Review of Diimont's "Recollections of Mira- beau;" A. P. Decandolle, "Notice sur la Vie et les Merits de M. Dumont," 1829 ; Simonde de Sismondi, "Notice necrologique sur M. Dumont," 1829; "Encyclopedia Britannica." Dumont de Courset, dii'm6N' deh kooR-sa', (Georges Louis Marif^) Baron, a French botanist, born near Boulogne in 1746. At his chateau De Courset he formed gardens famous for their extent and beauty. He wrote a successful work entitled "Le Botaniste- Cultivateur," (1798, 5 vols.,) containing a description of 8700 foreign and indigenous plants. Died in 1824. Dumont d'Urville, dii'miN^ diiR^eK, (Jules S^:bas- TIEN C6sar,) a celebrated French navigator and bota- nist, born at Conde-sur-Noireau, Normandy, in 1790, entered the navy in 1807. Having been raised to the rank of captain, he commanded the corvette Astrolabe, which was sent in 1826 to obtain tidings of La Perouse and to make hydrographic observations. In this voyage he made coast-surveys of New Zealand, New Guinea, New Britain, etc., and found evidence that La Perouse had been wrecked on one of the Solomon Islands named Vanikoro. The results of the expedition, which made rich contributions to natural history, were published under the title of "Voyage de Decouvertes autour du Monde," (22 vols., 1832-34.) In 1837 he sailed with the Astrolabe and Zelee on a voyage of Antarctic discovery. In January, 1840, he discovered land, which he named Terre Adelie, situated in latitude 66^ 30' south and lon- gitude 138° 21^ east. On his return in November, 1840, he was made a rear-admiral, and began the publication of his " Voyage au Pole sud et dans I'Oceanie," (24 vols., 1841-54. Eleven volumes of this work were written by the other naturalists of the expedition. He was killed by a railway-accident near Versailles in May, 1842. See De Barins. " Vie et Voyages de TAmiral Dumont d'Urville," 1844; Lesson, " Notice historique sur Dumont d'Urville," 1846; Isidore Lebrun, " Biographic de Dumont d'Urville," in the "An- nates maritimes." Dumortier, dii'moR^te-i', (Barthijilemy CiiArles,) a Belgian botanist, was born at Tournay in 1797. Dumoulin, du^moo'liN', or Dumolin, dii'mo^^N', [Lat. MoLiN^'us,] (Charles,) an eminent French jurist, born in Paris in 1500, was a relative of Queen Anne l^oleyn. He embraced the Protestant religion, for which he was often persecuted and was once driven out of France by violence. He resided at Paris, Orleans, Lyons, etc. In 1564 he published a work against the acts of the Council of Trent, which made a great sen- sation. The French estimate him as one of the greatest jurisconsults and most learned men of his time. "His name," says De Thou, "was venerated not only for his solid judgment and profound learning, but also for his probity and purity of character." He died in December, 1566, leaving several volumes of legal works. See Brodeau, "Vie de Dumoulin," prefixed to his works, dated 1681, 5 vols, folio; notice by Dupin aine in " Encyclopedie des Gens du Monde;" Henrion de Pansey, "filoge de C. Dumoulin," 1769; NiCEKON, "Memoires;" Hello, " Essai sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de C. Dumoulin," 1839; " Nouvelle Biographic Generate." Dumoulin, (Evariste,) a French journalist, born in the Gironde in 1776, favoured the popular cause in the Revolution. In 1815 he removed to Paris and became one of the editors of the " Constitutionnel," a new journal which opposed the government.- His articles contributed greatly to the popularity of this journal. Next to Thiers he. took the most prominent part in the protest of the journalists against the ordinances of July, 1830. Died in 1833. Dumoulin, (Pierre.) See Moulin. Dumouriez, dii'moo're-i', (Anne FRANgois Du- perier — dii'pa^re-a',) a French poet, born in Paris in 1707. He was appointed commissary of war in 1732, and intendant of the army of De Broglie in 1759. He wrote "Richardet," a poem in imitation of Forteguerri, (1766,) and other poems. Died in 1769. Dumouriez, (Charles FRANgois,) a celebrated French general and statesman, born at Cambrai in 1739, was a son of the preceding. In early youth he was initiated in the arts of diplomacy by an uncle who was in the foreign office. At the close of the Seven Years' war (1763) he had obtained the rank of captain and re- ceived twenty-two wounds. He served with distinction as quartermaster-general in the expedition against Cor- sica in 1768. About 1770 the Duke of Choiseul sent him on a secret political mission to Poland, whence he was soon recalled in consequence of the dismissal of tliat minister. He was then confined nearly a year in the Bastille for some political reasons or pretexts, and was released in 1774. Before the Revolution he was for more than ten years commandant of Cherbourg, where he ably directed the construction of the port and the great naval works which he had planned. In 1790 he favoured the moderate or constitutional party, and became intimate with the Girondist leaders, who discerned in him a rare combination of the qualities requisite for those critical times, both as a general and a diplomatist. His mind was at once powerful, flexible, and resolute. He possessed, besides, a spontaneous, direct, and captivating eloquence. In March, 1792, he was appointed minister of foreign affairs, and became the master-spirit of the government. He gained the confi- dence of the king, to whom he appears to have been loyal. A few weeks after Dumouriez became minister, war was declared against Austria. In June, 1792, he resigned his office, and in August of the same year be- came general-in-chief of the army in place of La Fayette. He defended the passes of the forest of Argonne against a superior Prussian force which was marching in triumph towards Paris. It is now admitted that the dilatory movements of the Prussian general were caused by secret negotiations pending between him and Dumouriez for the restoration of Louis XVI. The Prussians having abandoned the invasion of France in October, Dumouriez undertook a campaign against Planders with about 100,000 men. In November, 1792, he defeated the Austrians at the battle of Jemmapes, (the first pitched battle that had been gained by the republican army,) which was followed by the speedy conquest of Belgium. At this ])eriod, as Lamartine says, Dumouriez "was the virtual dictator of all parties," and such he might have continued if he had not striven against the tide which imi)elled him on to fortune." But, from loyalty to the Bourbons, hostility to the Jacobins, or soine other cause, he paused in the career of victory, and plotted a counter-revolution in concert with the Austrians. Rumours of his defection having reached a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; DUMOUSTIER 807 DUN COMBE Paris, the Convention sent four commissioners, in April, 1793, to summon him to their bar. On his refusal to obey this summons, they ordered his soldiers to arrest him. "This is too much !" exclaimed Dumouriez. "It is time to resist such audacity !" and the deputies were instantly seized by his hussars and taken as prisoners to the Austrian camp. His army, however, refusing to join in his designs, he was compelled to escape with a few adherents, and passed the rest of his life in exile. He was pensioned by England, and died near Henley-on- Thanies, in Buckinghamshire, in 1823, leaving memoirs of his life and several political treatises. See "Memoires de Dumouriez," written by himself, 2 vols., 1794, and an English translation of the same, by John Fekwick ; also, Ledieu, "Dumouriez et la Revolution Frangaise," 1826; Thiers, "History of the French Revolution ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Gene- rale." Dumoustier, du'moos''te-i', ( Pierre, ) Count, a French general, who was born at Saint-Quentin in 1771. For his conduct at Pultusk he was made general of bri- gade about 1806. After he had served several campaigns in Spain, he became general of division in 181 1. He took part in the battle of Lutzen, (1813.) Died in 1831. Dumoutier, dii'moo^te-a', (Daniel,) a skilful French portrait-painter, was born^n Paris about 1550. He holds a high rank among the early French artists, and has left portraits of several kings, from Henry H. to Louis XHI. Died in 1631. Dun, Lord. See Erskine, (David.) Duuasus, the Latin of Downes, which see. Dun-bar'', (George,) a Scottish scholar, born in 1774. He was professor of Greek in the University of Edin- burgh from 1805 until 1851. He published several use- ful educational works, of which the most important is an excellent "Greek and English Lexicon," (1840.) Died in 1857. Dunbar, (William,) one of the greatest of the early Scottish poets, was born at Salton about 1465. He be- came a Franciscan friar and itinerant preacher. He was afterwards employed by James IV., probably as clerk or secretary of embassy, and in 1500 he received the grant of a small pension, which was eventually increased to ;^8o. In 1 503 he produced " The Thistle and the Rose," an allegory in honour of the marriage of James IV., which is one of his best works. He excels in allegory and in didactic and humorous poetry. Sir Walter Scott thought him " unrivalled by any poet that Scotland had yet pro- duced." Among his principal poems are "The Golden Terge or Targe," "The Merle and Nightingale," and "The Jousts between the Tailor and Souter." Died about 1530. See Warton, "History of English Poetry;" Ellis, "Specimens of Early English Poetry;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets;" " Encyclopsedia Britannica." Dunc'an I., King of Scotland, was the son of Beatrix, who was a daughter of King Malcolm H. After a reign of a few years' duration, he was murdered at Elgin about 1040 by Macbeth, whose story has been dramatized by Shakspeare. Duncan's son, Malcolm III., became king. Dunc^an, (Adam,) Viscount of Camperdown, an able British admiral, born at Dundee in 1731. He entered the navy about 1746, and was made a post-captain in 1761. He distinguished himself at Cape Saint Vincent in 1780, and was made a rear-admiral in 1789, and vice- admiral in 1795, when he commanded in the North Sea. During the war against the Dutch, an alarming mutiny broke out in the English navy in 1797, and Duncan was deserted by nearly all his ships. The mutineers having returned to their duty, he gained a decisive victory over the Dutch near Camperdown in October, 1797, for which he was created Viscount Duncan of Camperdown. Died in 1804. He had married the daughter of Lord-Presi- dent Dundas, and left two sons. See Campbell, "Lives of the British Admirals;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" " Encyclopsedia Britannica." Duncan, (Andrew,) a Scottish physician, born in Edinburgh in 1745. He delivered clinical lectures in the University of Edinburgh from 1773 to 1776, and wrote some medical treatises. Died in 1828. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Dunc'an, [Fr. pron. duN'kSN^] (Daniel,) an eminent French physician, of Scottish descent, born at Montau- ban in 1649. After graduating about 1673, he lived some years in Paris. In 1685, to escape persecution as a Prot. estant, he retired to Geneva, and thence to I^erne, where he was professor of anatomy. He practised a number of years at the Hague, and about 17 14 settled in London, where he died in 1735. ^'^^ author of "La Chimie naturelle," (1680,) and of several other works. Duncan, (Henry,) D.D., a Scottish minister and author, born near Dumfries in 1774, was presented to the church of Ruthwell in 1799. He was the founder of savings-banks, and author of several works, among which are "The Cottage Fireside," and "The Sacred Philosophy of the Seasons," (4 vols., 1836.) Died in 1846. See a "Memoir of Dr. Duncan," published by his son in 1848; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Duncan, (John,) D.D., grandson of Daniel, noticed above, was born in 1720. He published an "Essay on Happiness," a poem, and other works. Died in 1808. Dunc'an, (Johnson K.,) an American general, born in Pennsylvania, graduated at West Point in 1849. He took arms against the Union, and commanded Forts Jackson and Saint Philip, below New Orleans. He surrendered those forts about April 29, 1862, after tho Union fleet had passed them. Died in 1863, aged about thirty-six vears, Duncan, (Joseph,) an American general and politician, born in Kentucky about 1790. He served with credit in the second war with Great Britain, and at its close settled in Illinois. While in the legislature of that State, he was chiefly instrumental in the passage of the law estab- lishing common schools. Pie was afterwards Governor of Illinois, and from 1827 to 1835 a representative in Congress. Died in 1844. Duncan, (Mark,) a Scottish physician, was the an- cestor of Daniel, noticed above. He became principal of the Calvinist college at Saumur, France, and wrote a treatise on Logic, (" Institutiones Logicae," 1612.) Died in 1640. His son Mark was a distinguished poet and soldier. (See Cerisantes.) Duncan, (Philip Bury,) an English scholar and philanthropist, born in South Warnborough in 1772. He lived mostly at Oxford and Bath, was a Fellow of New College, Oxford, and keeper of the Ashmolean Museum. He contributed largely to charitable purposes. He wrote " Essays on Various Subjects," and other works. Died near Bath in 1863. Duncan, (Thomas,) a Scottish artist, born in Perth- shire in 1807. He painted subjects of Scottish history., Died in Edinburgh in 1845. Duncan, (William,) a Scottish writer, born at Aber- deen in 1717. He became a resident of London about 1740. His translation of Cicero's "Select Orations," with notes, and his "Elements of Logic," (1748,) were esteemed and often reprinted. In 1752 he was chosen professor of philosophy in Marischal College, Aberdeen. Died in 1760. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Duncker, doonk'ker, or Dunker, (Baltiiasar An- TOINE,) a painter and engraver, born at Saal, in Pome- rania, in 1746. He studied and worked some years in Paris, where he painted history and landscapes. He also made etchings of paintings in the cabinet of the Due de Choiseul. Died at Berne in 1807. Duncker, (Maximilian Wolfgang,) a German his- torian, born in Berlin in 1812. He became professor of history at Halle about 1840, and was a prominent mem- ber of the National Assembly of Frankfort in 1848. He has published " Origines Germanicae," (1840,) a " History of Antiquity," ("Geschichte des Alterthums," 1852,) and other works. Dun'combe, (Rev. John,) an English writer, born in 1730, became vicar of Heme. He published a few sermons, " The Feminead," a poem, and a version of the emperor Julian's works. Under the signature of "Crito," he contributed to the " Gentleman's Magazine" for many years. Died in 1785. Duncombe, (Thomas Slingsby,) an English radical legislator, born in 1796. He was elected to Parliament •e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, H, K,gtitiural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (^[^See Explanations, p. 23.) BUNCOMBE 808 DUNGLISON 1826, and represented Finsbury (London) from 1834 until his death. He was a witty and fluent speaker, and very popuhir with the voters. No man ever sat so long for any metropolitan borough. lie constantly advocated the vote by ballot, extended suffrage, and other reforms. In 1858 he carried an important motion, which resulted in the relief of the Jews from political disabilities. Died in November, 1861. See a "Life of Thomas S. Duncombe," by his son Thomas, 2 vols., 1868. Duncombe, (William,) an English writer, father of the Rev. John Duncombe, noticed above, was born in London in 1690. He published several successful works, among which are a translation of Racine's "Athalie," a poetical version of Horace, (in which he was assisted by his son,) and " L. J. Brutus," a tragedy. Died in 1769. Dun-das', (Sir David,) a British general, born in or near Edinburgh about 1735. He entered the army in 1752, was aide-de-camp to General Elliott in 1761, and obtained the rank of colonel in 1781. In 1788, after studying tactics in Prussia, he wrote " Principles of Military Movements," which were adopted as rules for the royal army. He obtained the grade of major-general in 1790, and distinguished himself at Tournay in 1794. In 1804 he was made governor of Chelsea Hospital and knight of the Bath, and in 1809 he succeeded the Duke of York as commander-in-chief of the British army. Died in 1820. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Dundas, (Henry,) Lord Melville, a Scottish lawyer and statesman, born about 1740. He was appointed lord advocate of Scotland in 1775, and treasurer of the British navy in 1783. He was one of Pitt's most useful and steadfast supporters. He became a member of the cabinet as secretary of state for the home department in 1 791, and a few years later exchanged that office for the place of secretary at war. Having resigned this office at the dissolution of Pitt's ministry, he was raised to the peerage, as Viscount Melville, in 1802. Lord Brougham says " he was an admirable man of business, and a skil- ful debater." In 1804 he was appointed first lord of the admiralty. The next year the Commons impeached him for misapplication of the public money, for which he was tried by the Lords and acquitted. Died in 1811, leaving the title to his son, Robert Saunders. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Brougham, "Statesmen of the Time of George III." Dundas, (Sir James Whitley Deans,) a British ad- miral, born in 1785, was a son of Dr. James Deans. He assumed the name of Dundas about 1808. He became rear-admiral in 1841, and commanded the fleet which operated against Russia in the Black Sea in 1854, but did not perform any important action. He resigned, or was recalled, about the end of 1854, and Sir E. Lyons succeeded to the command. Died in 1862. Dundas, (Richard Saunders,) a British admiral, born at Melville Castle, Scotland, in 1802, was a son of the third Viscount Melville. He entered the navy in 1 81 7, and became a post-captain in 1824. About 1840 he served with distinction in the Chinese war. He obtained the rank of rear-admiral in 1853, and the com- mand of the fleet in the Baltic, vice Sir Charles Napier, in February, 1855. His principal exploit was the very effective bombardment of Sweaborg in 1855. He was made a vice-admiral in 1858. Died in 1861. Dundas, (Robert,) an eminent Scottish lawyer, born in 1685, was the father of Lord Melville. He was ap- pointed lord advocate of Scotland in 1720, and lord president of the court of session in 1748. Died in 1753. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Dundas, (Robert,) a Scottish lawyer, son of the pre- ceding, was born in 1 713. After filling other high offices, he was appointed president of the court of session in 1760. Died in 1787. Dundee. See Graham, (John.) Dundonald, Earl of. See Cochrane, (Archi- bald.) Dun-don'ald, (Thomas Cochrane,) tenth Earl of, a distinguished British admiral, born in 1775, was the eldest son of Archibald, Earl of Dundonald. (See CocH rane, Archibald.) He entered the navy in 1793, and obtained the rank of post-cai>tain in 1801, after capturing many prizes from the P'rench, In 1809 he commanded the fire-ships that destroyed the French fleet in the Basque Roads, and was rewarded with knighthood for that daring and successful exploit. About this time he was elected by the Whigs to Parliament, where he was an active opponent of the ministry. In 1814 he was accused of spreading a false report of Napoleon's death, which caused a great rise in the funds, and by the influ- ence of party spirit was convicted, fined ^ 1000, sen- tenced to imprisonment for one year, and dismissed from the naval service. Before the expiration of his term of imprisonment, his constituents, believing him to be inno- cent, re-elected him to Parliament. The injustice of his condemnation was recognized many years before his death. He commanded the fleet of Chili from 1818 to 1822, and that of Brazil in 1822 and 1823. In 1827 he distinguished himself as admiral of the Greeks in their revolt against Turkey. He inherited the earldom in 1831, and was restored to his rank in the navy in 1833. He was made vice-admiral of the white in 1851, and full ad- miral about 1854. Died in i860. His " Autobiography of a Seaman" has since appeared. " He performed greater actions with smaller means," says the "North British Review" for February, 1861, "than any other captain or commander recorded in history. He combined the chivalrous audacity of Sir Sydney Smith and the cal- culated dash of Nelson, with an originality of conception to which neither of them so much as approximated." See, also, "Blackwood's Magazine" for February, i860. Dunfermline, Baron. See Abercromby, (James.) Dungal, diin-gauK, a scholar and teacher, sujDposed to have been a native of Ireland, became a resident of France. Charlemagne having consulted him respecting an eclipse of the sun which occurred in 810, he an- swered in a long, letter, which is extant. Dunglison, dflng^gll-son, (Robley,) M.D., a physi- cian and author, distinguished for his profound and varied learning, as well as for his numerous valuable contribu- tions to medical literature, was born at Keswick, county of Cumberland, England, January 4, 1798. His medical education, begun at Keswick, was carried on in London. He subsequently attended a course of lectures at the University of Edinburgh, and also a course at the Ecole de Medecine of Paris. He graduated in medicine in 1823 at the University of Erlangen, in Germany. In 1824 he was engaged by the University of Virginia, then newly established, to fill a chair of medicine (including anatomy and physiology) in that institution, and, in accordance with this arrangement, he came to America in the autumn of the same year. He held this position until October, 1833, when he accepted the professorship of materia medica, therapeutics, etc. in the University of Maryland. In the summer of 1836 he was appointed professor of the institutes of medicine in the Jefferson College of Philadelphia, that chair having been newly created for him. He continued to fulfil the duties of this position with the highest credit to himself and to the institution until within a year of his death. It was owing in a great measure to his talents, reputation, and personal influence that the Jefferson College rose rapidly, from the inferior position which it had held before his accession to its faculty, to the very first rank among the medical schools of America. He died the 1st of April, 1869. Dr. Dunglison enjoyed the friendship and confidence of the ex-Presidents Jefferson and Madison, both of whom he attended in the capacity of medical adviser. To Mr. Madison he dedicated his first inrportant work,— his " Human Physiology." Although assiduous in the cultivation of the sciences more immediately connected with his profession, he found time to give a share of his attention to a great variety of subjects, including philo- logy and general literature. Among the many objects of his benevolence, he took a particular and deep interest in the Philadelphia Institution for the Blind, and gave liberally of his time and services, that he might lighten the privations and enhance the enjoyments of that un- fortunate class for whose sake it had been established. As a man. Dr. Dunglison was distinguished for his free- a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; \ k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, it, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; DUNHAM 809 DUNS SCOTUS dom from prejudice, for a dispassionate fairness in all his judgments of men and things, as well as for a liberal and kindly spirit which constantly prompted him to acts of courtesy and beneficence. His character commanded the universal respect, esteem, and confidence of that large circle who enjoyed the privilege of his friendship. Among his numerous works we may name his " Hu- man Physiology," (2 vols. 8vo, 1832 ; 8th edition, 1856,) his "Dictionary of Medical Science," of which the first edition appeared in 1833, " Elements of Hygiene," (1835 ; 2d edition, published under the title of " Human Health," 1844,) " General Therapeutics, or Principles of Medical Practice," (1836; 6th edition, 1857,) "New Remedies," (1839; 7th edition, 1856,) "Medical Student," (1837; 2d edition, 1844,) and his " Practice of Medicine," (2 vols., 1842 ; 3d edition, 1848.) He made numerous contributions not only to the prin- cipal medical and surgical journals published in the United States, but also wrote articles for several of the scientific and literary periodicals of Great Britain. Of all his works his "Medical Dictionary" is probably the most widely known: its success has scarcely had a parallel in this department of literature. The number of copies sold, from the date of its first publication up to the present time, (1869,) has reached nearly 60,000. (For a particular account of Dr. Dunglison's various publications, the reader is referred to Allibone's " Dic- tionary of Authors.") See the notice of Dr. Dunglison in the "American Joumal of the Medical Sciences" for July, 1S69, by Dr. S. H. Dicksox : and "Memoir of Dr. Robley Dunglison," by his son, Dk. R. J. Dun- glison, 1870. Dunham, diin'am, (S. Astley,) LL.D., an English author of the present century. He wrote the following able works; "History of Poland," {1830,) " History of Spain and Portugal," (1832,) "History of Europe during the Middle Ages," and "Plistory of the Germanic Em- pire," (1837.) Died in 1858. Duni, doo'nee, (Egidio,) a Neapolitan composer, born at Matera in 1709. He settled in Paris, and composed successful operas. Died in 1775. Dunker. See Duncker. Dunk'iii, (Rev. William,) an Irish poet, was a friend of Dean Swift. He published a volume of Epistles in 1 741. After his death his Poetical Works were pub- lished in 2 vols., (1774.) Dun'lap, (William,) an American painter and au- thor, was born at Perth Amboy, New Jersey, in 1766. He was a pupil of Sir Benjamin West in London. On his return to America he devoted himself to portrait- painting and dramatic composition in New York, and was manager of the Park Theatre from 1798 till 1805. Thenceforth his efforts were variously directed to his profession as an artist, to literature, to the career of a theatrical manager, etc. In 1821, when Dunlap was in his fifty-fifth year, appeared his first great painting, "Christ Rejected," (18 feet by 12,) after the plan of West's picture on the same subject, and in 1828 he painted "Calvai-y," (18 feet by 14,) both of which were exhibited with success in the principal cities of the United States. His " History of the American Thea- tre" was published in 1833, and his "History of the Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in the United States" appeared in 1834. He also wrote a "Life of Charles Brockden Brown." Died in 1839. Dun'lop, (Alexander,) a distinguished scholar, of Scottish extraction, born in 1684. He was appointed professor of Greek in the University of Glasgow in 1720. His Greek Grammar was long used in the Universities of Scotland. Died in 1742. Dunlop, (John,) a British author, born probably in Scotland. He published a "History of Fiction," (Lon- don, 1814,) which passed through several editions, a " History of Roman Literature," and " Memoirs of Spain during the Reigns of Philip IV. and Charles II.," (1834,) said to be a work of merit. See "Edinburgh Review" for November, 1814; "Quarterly Review" for July, 1815. Dunlop, (William,) a brother of Alexander, noticed above, was born at Glasgow in 1692. He was an eloquent preacher, and became professor of divinity in the Uni- versity of Edinburgh in 1716. He published a valuable "Collection of Confessions of Faith, Catechisms, Books of Discipline," etc. Died in 1720. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Dunn, (Samuel,) an English mathematician, born at Crediton. He taught mathematics at Crediton and Chelsea, and published several works on astronomy and navigation, (1759-93.) Died in 1792. Dun'ning, (John,) Lord Ashburton, an eminent English lawyer, born at Ashburton in 1731. He was called to the bar in 1756, and a few years later was re- corder of Bristol. In 1767 he was appointed solicitor- general, and soon after was returned, by the borough of Calne, to Parliament, in which he acted with the Whigs. He was very successful in his profession, and was re- garded by many as the first advocate in England at that time. His style of oratory was brilliant, witty, and sarcastic ; but his gestures were not graceful, and his per- son was the reverse of imposing. In 1780 he married Elizabeth Baring. He was raised to the peerage, as Baron Ashburton, in 1782, and was appointed chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, Died at Exmouth in 1783. See Sir William Jones's Eulogy on Dunning, in his Works,voi. iv. Dunod, dii'no', (Pierre Joseph,) a French antiquary, born near Saint-Claude in 1657; died in 1725. Dunod de Charnage, du''no' deh shtR'ntzh', (Fran- cois Ignace,) a French jurist, born at Saint-Claude in 1679. He was appointed professor of law at Besan5on in 1720. He wrote a "History of Burgundy," (1735,) which was much esteemed, and several able legal works. Died in 1752. Dunod de Charnage, (Sophie £douard,) a French administrator, born at Besan^on in 1783; died in 1826. Dunois, dii'nwi', (Jean,) the "Bastard of Orleans," a famous French captain, born in Paris in 1402, was a natural son of Louis, Duke of Orleans, who was a brother of the king, Charles VI. He defeated the Eng- lish at Montargis in 1427, and shared with Joan of Arc the honour of raising the siege of Orleans in 1429. In 1436 he made himself master of Paris. Having obtained the chief command, with the title of lieutenant-general, he conquered Normandy from the English about 1448, and expelled the same enemy from Guienne in 1453. In reward for these services, Charles VII. declared him a prince of the blood, with the title of Count of Orleans. Dunois is one of the most popular names among the national heroes of France. Died in 1468. He left a son Fran(JOIS, Count of Dunois and Longue- ville, ancestor of the celebrated Due de Longueville. See Aime-Champollion, "Louis et Charles d'Orleans;" An- SELME, " Histoire genealogique ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Dunoyer, di^nw^'ya', (Anne Marguerite Petit,) Madame, a French writer of fiction, born at Nimes about 1663, was a Protestant, and became an exile. She wrote "Lettres historiques et galantes," (7 vols., 1704.) Died in 1720. Dunoyer, (Charles Barthelemi Pierre,) a French economist, born at Carennac (Lot) in 1786. During the restoration he edited (with Charles Comte) the"Cen- seur," an able and liberal periodical. He was admitted into the Institute in 1832, and was prefect of La Somme from 1833-37. His chief work is "On the Liberty of Labour," (3 vols., 1845.) Duns Escoto. See Duns Scotus. Duns-Scot. See Duns Scotus. Duns Sco'tus, [Fr. Duns-Scot, duN^sko' ; It. Duns EscoTO, doons Ss-ko'to,] (John,) surnamed the Sub- tle Doctor, a famous theologian and metaphysician, supposed to have been born about 1265 at Dunse, in Scotland. The Irish and English, however, claim him as their countryman. He was a Fellow of Merton Col- lege, Oxford, and a Franciscan friar. In 1301 he was chosen professor of theology at Oxford, where he is said to have lectured to an immense class. About 1307 he professed theology in Paris. He wrote many works on metaphysics, theology, etc., and was reputed one of the greatest doctors of his time. He founded a new school, the Scotists, which for several centuries maintained a rivalry with the Thomists, or disciples of Aquinas. Died at Cologne in 1308. " The greatest of the Schoolmen," says Hallam, " were Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus. They were founders of rival sects, which wrangled with € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, VL, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ((J^=^See Explanations, p. 23.) DUNSTABLE 8io DUPERRET each other for two or three centuries." Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") See J. CoLGAN, "Tractatusde Vita Joannis Scoti," 1655; Cham- bers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Alonzo de Guzman, " Vida de J. Duns Scoto," 1671 ; Lucas Wadding, " Vita J. Duns Scoti," Lyons, 1644. Dunstable, dun''sta-b'l, or Dunstaple, (John,) an English musical composer, born at Dunstable about 1400 ; died in 1458. Dun'stan, Saint, an eminent and ambitious English prelate and statesman, born at Glastonbury in 925 A.D. He became noted for monkish austerity, and obtained the chief power in the reign of Edred, which began in 946. King Edgar made him Bishop of London, and in 959 Archbishop of Canterbury. L)unstan exerted his paramount influence in this and the next reign to secure the papal supremacy. He exalted and enriched the monks at the expense of the secular clergy, who were expelled from their livings. On the accession of Ethelred n., in 978, Dunstan lost his political power. Died in 988. See W. Robinson, "Life of Saint Diinstan," 1844; Eadmer, " Life of Dunstan ;" William of Malmesbury, " History;" W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. i. chap. vii. Dun'ster, (Charles,) an English clergyman, was for many years rector of Petworth. He published " Notes on Paradise Regained," and other works. Died about 1816. Duiister, (Henry,) an English divine, who on his arrival in Massachusetts in 1640 was chosen the first president of Harvard College. He was an excellent Oriental scholar, but was compelled to resign in 1654 for preaching against infant baptism. Died in 1659. Dun''t9n, (John,) an eccentric English author and bookseller, born at Graffham in 1659. Having served an apprenticeship to a London bookseller, he opened a shop of his own in London about 1685. He married an aunt of the celebrated John Wesley. He failed in busi- ness once, or oftener. He wrote a great number and variety of curious books, among which are " The Athe- nian Mercury," (20 vols., 1690-96,) "The Dublin Scuffle," (1699,) and "The Life and Errors of John Dunton, with the Lives and Characters of a Thousand Persons," (1705.) He was a dissenter, a supporter of the Whig party, and a person of great fertility in projects. Died ^'n 1733- Diintzer, dunt'ser, or Duentzer, (Johann Hein- rich Joseph,) a German writer and philologist, born at Cologne in 1813. Among his numerous works are "The Eaust of Goethe," (2 vols., 1836,) " Homer and the Epic Cycle," (1839,) and a " Commentary on the Poems of Horace," (5 vols., 1840-44.) Dunz, doonts, (Johann,) a skilful Swiss painter of portraits and flowers, was born at Berne in 1645 ; died in 1736. Dupain-Montesson, dii'piN' m6N^ti^s6N', a French geometer and writer on military tactics, born about 1720 ; died about 1790. Du Pan. See Mallet du Pan. Dupanloup, dii'pSN^loo', (F^lix Antoine Phili- BERT,) a distinguished French bishop, born at Saint- Felix, Savoy, in 1802. He was naturalized in 1833, and made Bishop of Orleans in 1849. In 1854 he was elected to the French Academy. Among his works is a popular treatise on Education,("Deriiducation," 3 vols., 1855-57.) See Lavedan, " Monseigneur Dupanloup," 1849; "Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale." Duparquet, dii'ptR^ki', (Jacques Diel,) a French officer, was appointed Governor of Martinique in 1638. In 1650 he planted a colony in Grenada, and soon after purchased those two islands, together with Saint Lucia, from the King of France, who gave him the title of lieu- tenant-general. He is praised for his kind and generous treatment of the aborigines. Died in 1658. Dupasquier, dii'pfs'ke-i', (Gaspard Alfonse,) a French chemist, born at C!Kassy (Rhone) in 1793; died in 1848. Dupaty, dU''pS''te', (Charles Marguerite Jean Baptiste Mercier,) a French litterateur and magistrate, born at Rochelle in 1746. He was successively advo- cate-general and president inortier in the parliament of Bordeaux. He wrote a valuable work called " His- torical Reflections on the Criminal Laws," (1788,) and "Letters on Italy," (1788,) which had a brilliant success and were often reprinted. La Harpe designated the latter as "a melange of good sense and false wit." Died in 1788. Two of his sons became eminent, one as sculptor and the other as author. See Voltaire, " Conespondance." Dupaty, (Charles Mercier,) an eminent French sculptor, born at Bordeaux in 1771, was a son of the preceding. He was a pupil of Lemot in Paris, where in 1799 he gained the grand prize for sculpture for his " Pericles visiting Anaxagoras." He studied several years at Rome, and adopted the antique style with great success. In 1816 he was chosen a member of the Insti- tute. He was patronized by the government, for which he executed a statue of Louis XIII. His " Ajax pursued by Neptune" is considered his principal work. Died in November, 1825. See CoupiN, "Notice sur Charles Dupaty," 1825; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Dupaty, (Louis Emmanuel Charles Mercier,) a French poet, brother of the preceding, was born in the Gironde in 1775. He produced a successful comedy, "The Military Prison," (1803,) several comic operas, and a poem entitled the "Informers," (" Delateurs," 1819.) He was elected to the French Academy in 1835. Died in 1851. Duperac, dii^pk'rtk', (Etienne,) a French architect and painter, born in Paris, published a work "On the Antiquities of Rome," which is highly prized. Died in 1601. Duperche, dii^p^Rsh', (J. J. M.,) a French dramatist and able translator, born about 1775. He produced many successful dramas and novels. Died in 1829. Duperier, du'pi''re-i', ( Charles, ) a French poet, born at Aix, in Provence, became a resident of Paris. His verses in honour of the king gained the prizes of the Academy in 1681 and 1683, and he acquired still higher reputation by his Latin poems. He excelled most in the ode. Menage calls him the prince of the lyric poets of his age. Died in 1692. See " Menagiana." Duperray, dU''pi^ra', (Michel,) a French jurist and advocate of high reputation, born at Mans about 1640; died in 1730. Duperre, dii'pa'ra', (Victor Guy,) Baron, an able French admiral, born at La Rochelle in 1775. He was made captain of a frigate in 1806, and in 1808 defended himself with success against two English ships near L'Orient. In 1809 he was sent to India with one frigate, and captured several vessels of the enemy. He became baron and rear-admiral in 1810, and vice-admiral in 1826. He commanded the fleet of one hundred and three ves* sels of war which Charles X. sent in 1830 to attack Algiers. ( See Bourmont. ) For his services in the capture of Algiers he was raised to the peerage and to the rank of admiral in 1830. Died in 1846. See F. Chasseriau, " Vie de I'Amiral Duperre ;" L. deLom^nie, "Galerie des Contemporains ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Duperret, dii'pi^ra', (Claude Romain Laus,) a French republican, born about 1746. In the Convention of 1792 he acted with the Girondists, and voted for the banishment of the king. He was elected as deputy, says Lamartine, as the most honest man, against his own wish. He shared the proscription of his party, and was executed in October, 1793. Duperrey, dii^pi^ri', (Louis Isidore,) a French navi- gator and savant, born in Paris in 1786. He served as hydrographer in the Uranie, under De Freycinet, who made explorations in the North Pacific, 1817-20. He commanded an expedition sent out in 1822 to explore the hydrography and natural history of the islands in the Pacific. He surveyed parts of Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, etc., discovered several groups of islands, one of which received the name of Duperrey, and re- turned, without the loss of a man, in April, 1825. His "Voyage around the World in the Corvette LaCoquille" (1826-30) is considered a very valuable contribution to the sciences. Duperrey wrote the historical part of this work, and the volumes on hydrography and physical science. He was elected to the Institute in 1842. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" " Notice sur les Travaux de M. L. L Duperrey," etc., Paris, 1842. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; \ ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^l, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; DUPERRON 8ii DUPIN Duperron. See Anisson-Duperron. Duperron. See Anquetil-Duperron. Duperron, dii^pa^roN', (Jacques Davy,) a learned and eloquent French cardinal, was born at Saint-Lo, in Normandy, (or, as some assert, near Berne, in Switzer- land,) in 1556. He was educated as a Protestant, but became a Catholic in his youth. He acquired the favour of Henry IV., who appointed him Bishop of Evreux in 1591 ; and he was the chief agent in the conversion of that king to the Roman communion. He was very skilful in disputation, and in 1600 gained an advantage over Du Plessis-Mornay in a famous conference. (See Morn AY.) He obtained a cardinal's hat in 1604, and died in Paris in 1618, leaving several theological works and short poems. See Pelletier, "Vie du Cardinal Duperron," 1618 ; "Perro- niana," by C. Dupuy, 1669; Sully, "Memoires;" Levesque de BiT/iiGNY, " Vie du Cardinal Duperron," 1768 ; Sismondi, " His- toire des Francais." Dupetit-Thouars, dii'peh-te' too'SR', (Abel Au- bert — 5'baiR^,) a French admiral, born about 1792. In 1837 he commanded the Venus, sent on a voyage of cir- cumnavigation, at the end of which in 1839 he was made a rear-admiral. Pie obtained comn\and of the naval forces in the Pacific Ocean. Having received some provocation from the natives of Tahiti, he seized that island in 1842, but he was recalled by Guizot, who disavowed his act. He afterwards j^ublished a "Voyage round the World in the fVigate Venus," (10 vols.) He was appointed a member of the board of admiralty in 1848. See "L'Amiral Dupetit-Thouars," Paris, 1844. Dupetit-Thouars, (Aristide Aubert,) a French naval officer, born near Saumur in 1760. In 1792 he commanded a vessel sent out in search of La Perouse, but was taken prisoner by the Portuguese, and the en- terprise failed. He passed about three years in the United States, (1794-97.) In Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt he was captain of the Tonnant, which carried his friend Dolomieu the geologist. He displayed heroic courage at the battle of the Nile, in which he was killed, August I, 1798. His character is said to have been very noble. See J. de i.aGravi6kk, " Guerres maritimes de la Republique," etc. ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Dupetit-Thouars, (Louis Marie Aubert,) an emi- nent French botanist, brother of the preceding, was born at Saumur, in Anjou, about 1756. In 1792 he made a botanical excursion to the Isle of France, where he expected to join his brother, but was disappointed. He remained there and in Bourbon about nine years, and returned home with his collections in 1802. He was elected a member of the Institute about 1820, and lived mostly in Paris. Among his publications are a " History of Plants collected in the Isles of France, Bourbon, and Madagascar," (1804,) "The French Orchard," a treatise on the culture of fruit-trees, a "Flora of the Southern Isles of Africa," and " Melanges of Botany and Travels," (1811.) He wrote for the "Biographic Universelle" many articles on botanists and physicians. Died in May, 1831. He was author of an "Essay on the Organiza- tion of Plants," (1805,) and other treatises on vegetable physiology. He originated a new and ingenious theory of the formation of annual layers of wood, and of the production of buds. See P. Floukens, " filoge historique de A. Dupetit-Thouars," 1845 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Duphot, dii'fo', (Leonard,) a French general, born at Lyons about 1770. He accompanied Joseph Bona- parte in an embassy to Rome in 1797, and was killed the same year, in a conflict between the papal soldiers and some Roman citizens who favoured a revolution. Dupin, dii'piN', (Andr6 Marie Jean Jacques,) an eminent French lawyer, orator, and legislator, born at Varzy (Nievre) in February, 1783. He was one of the counsel for Marshal Ney in 1815, and signalized his courage and eloquence in the defence of many persons tried for political offences, among whom was Beranger, (1821.) In 1826 he was elected to the Chamber of Depu- ties, in which he continued to sit for many years. He was the reporter (rapporteur) of the famous address of the two hundred and twenty-one deputies in March, 1830, and firmly opposed the ordinances which caused the revolution of 1830. He was appointed procureur-general of the court of cassation, and a member of the first cabi- net of Louis Philippe, to whose elevation he contributed perhaps more than any other man. Between 1832 and 1848 he was chosen president of the Chamber eight times. On the 24th of February, 1848, he presented the infant Count of Paris to the deputies and proposed that he should be recognized as successor to the throne just abdicated. He acquiesced, however, in the republic, and in the Constituent Assembly he took a prominent part in defending social order, and was president of the com- mittee of legislation. He displayed great firmness and coolness as president of the Assembly in the stormy period of 1849-50. M. Dupin retired from public life in 1852. He had been elected to the French Academy, in place of Cuvier, in 1832. He '.vas author of many legal and political works, among which are " Principia Juris Civilis," (5 vols., 1806,) and "Memoires et Plai- doyers," (20 vols., 1806-30.) " He is the greatest reviser of trials," says an anonymous French biographer, "the greatest redresser of wrongs, in the world. , . . If he be not the most eloquent he is certainly the most original of our orators. At times his bonmots have created a majority or upset a cabinet." He was reappointed pro- cureur-general of France in 1857. He died in November, 1865. See L. DE LoMENiE, "Galerie des Contemporains ;" Ortolan, " Notice sur Dupin," 1S40; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Dupin, (Claude,) a French economist, born at Cha- teauroux probably about 1700. He wrote " GEcono- miques," (3 vols., 1745,) and several other works. He died at an advanced age in 1769. His second wife, nie Mademoiselle Fontaine, was distinguished for wit and beauty. Her house in Paris was the resort of Fontenelle, Marivaux, and other au- thors. She employed J. J. Rousseau, when he was yet unknown to fame, as the preceptor of her son; but she was so little aware of his talents that she never invited him to her assemblies. Died about 1800. The authoress Madame Dudevant (George Sand) is a descendant of Claude Dupin. See J. J. Rousseau, "Confessions;" George Sand, " Histoire de ma Vie." Dupin, ( Claude Franqois £tienne, ) Baron, a French writer, born at Metz in 1767, was the author of several able works on the Statistics of the Department of Deux-Sevres. He married the widow of Danton in 1796. Died in 1828. Dupin, (Fran(;ois Pierre Charles,) Baron, a dis- tinguished French geometer and senator, brother of Andre, noticed above, was born at Varzy (Nievre) in 1784. He entered the navy as an engineer in 1803. In 1813 he founded the Maritime Museum at Toulon. He volunteered to defend his friend Carnot by his pen and voice in 1815 ; but his client avoided the trial by going into exile. In 1816 he obtained leave to visit England in order to examine the public works and military re- sources of that country. He published the results of these observations in an important work entitled " Travels in Great Britain between 1816 and 1821," (6 vols., 1820- 24,) which was received with great favour on both sides of the Channel. He vi^as admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1818, and became professor of mechanics in the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers about 1820. His lectures were published (in 1825-26) in three works, entitled "Geometry applied to the Arts," "Mechanics a])plied to the Arts," and "La Dynamic," or "Science of Force," which were very successful. M. Dupin made an application of statistics to moral and political questions in his work "On the Productive and Commercial Power of France," ("Sur les Forces productives et commerciales de la France," 2 vols., 1827,) which was popular with the Liberal party. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1828, and acquired distinction as a speaker. In 1831 he became a councillor of state, and in 1834 was minister of marine for the space of three days. He was created a peer of France in 1837. In the Assembly of 1848 and 1849 he voted with the majority, and in 1852 he was appointed a senator. See "Notice historique sur M. le Baron C. Dupin," Paris, 1837; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." c as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) DUPIN 812 DUPONT Dupin, (Louis Ellies,) a French theologian and his- torian of great merit, was born in Paris in 1657. He became a doctor of the Sorbonne, and professor of phi- losophy in the Royal College. He composed, besides other works, a complete history of theological literature, — at least within the limits of the Church, — entitled "Bi- bliotheque universelle des Auteurs ecclesiastiques," (58 vols., 1686-1704.) "It is unquestionably," says Hallam, " the most standard work of that kind extant. The im- mense erudition requisite for such an undertaking may have rendered it inevitable to fall into some errors. . . . Integrity, love of truth, and moderation distinguish this history perhaps beyond any other." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") The pope, in a letter to Louis XIV., called Dupin, who had written against the papal supremacy, "a man of pernicious doctrine." He was a Jansenist. Died in Paris in June, 1 7 19. See NiCERON," Memoires ;" Moreri," Dictionnaire Historique ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Dupin, Madame. See Dupin, (Claude.) Dupin, (Philippe,) born at Varzy in 1795, was an able lawyer. He practised in Paris many years, and was elected a deputy in 1830 and in 1842. He was a brother of the celebrated lawyer and legislator. Died at Nice in 1846. Dupin de Francueil, dii'piN' deh fRSN^kuF or fRSN'- kuh'ye, (Marie Aurore,) a French lady, born in 1750, was the daughter of the famous Marshal Maurice de Saxe. After the death of her first husband. Count de Horn, she was married to Dupin de Francueil, the son of Claude Dupin, noticed above. The issue of this marriage was Maurice Dupin, the father of the well- known authoress Madame Dudevant, (George Sand.) The latter in her infancy was under the care of the sub- ject of this article, who died in 1821. Dupinet, dii^pe'nk', (Antoine,) a French Protestant, lived in Lyons and Paris. He made a French version of Pliny's "Natural History," (1542,) which was highly praised by Bayle, and wrote "The Conformity of the Reformed Church of France with the Primitive Church," (1565,) besides a few other works. Died in 1584. Duplanil, dli^plt^neK, (J. D.,) a French medical writer, born in 1740 ; died in 1802. Dupleix, dii^pla', (Joseph,) Marquis, an enterprising Frenchman, born about 1695, was the son of a director of the East India Company. Having received a liberal education and made great progress in the exact sciences, he was appointed in 1720 a member of the council at Pondicherry. Ten years later he became director of the factory at Chandernagore, in Bengal, which speedily prospered under his management. He made a large fortune by commercial operations. In 1742 he was ap- pointed Governor of Pondicherry and of all the French possessions in India. His aspiring and capacious mind was the first that formed the project of founding a Eu- ropean empire on the ruins of the Mogul monarchy. By intrigues with native princes and a few battles he became master of the Carnatic, and about 1750 was the greatest potentate in India. The English, alarmed at his success, resolved to counteract him by force, and gave the com- mand of their troops to Captain Clive, who gained several victories over the French and their allies. Dupleix was not supported by his employers in France, who disap- proved his policy. Having been superseded m 1754, he returned to Paris, where he died poor in 1763. He had spent his own fortune in the service of the Company, who refused to repay him. About 1748 he had been re- warded with the title of Marquis for his able defence of Pondicherry against the English fleet under Boscawen. See Mill, "History of British India;" Collin de Bar, "His- toire de I'lnde ancienne et inoderne," 1814; Claude Noel Le FfevRE, "fiioge de Dupleix," 1818. Dupleix, (SciPiON,) a French historian, born at Con- dom in 1569. About 1619 Louis XIII. gave him the title of historiographer, and charged him to write a gen- eral history of France. He produced a voluminous work on that subject, (1621-43,) which was soon supplanted by better histories. Died in 1661. Duplessis. See Richelieu, Cardinal. Duplessis, dii^pli'se', (Joseph Siffrein, seTRiN',) a skilful French portrait-painter, born at Carpentras in 1725. He studied several years in Rome under Subley- ras, and settled in Paris in 1752, where he painted with success. He was admitted into the Royal Academy in 1774. Among his best works are portraits of Dr. Frank- lin, Necker, and Marmontel. Died in 1802. Duplessis, (MichelToussaintChr^tien,) a French monk and historian, born in Paris in 1689, was an inmate of the abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Pres. He wrote a "Historical Notice of Upper Normandy," (1740,) and other works. Died in 1767. Duplessis, (Pierre Alexandre Gratet — gRt't^^) a French scholar and bibliographer, born at Janville in 1792, was professor in several colleges. He published "The Flower of French Proverbs," (1851,) and a good edition of La Rochefoucauld's " Reflections and Maxims." Died in 1853. Duplessis-Mornay. See Mornay. Duplessis-Praslin. See Choiseul. Duponceau, du-pon'so, [Fr. pron. dii'pdN'so^] (Pe- ter S.,) a lawyer and scholar, born in the Isle of Rhe, on the coast of France, in 1760, came to America in 1777 with Baron Steuben, whom he served as secretary and aide-de-camp. He quitted the army in 1780, on account of ill health, and studied law, which he practised in Phila- delphia, and became eminent in his profession. Besides treatises on philology and essays on various subjects, he published a "Dissertation on the Nature and Extent of the Jurisdiction of the Courts of the United States," (1824.) He received a prize of the French Institute for a " Memoir on the Indian Languages of North America," (1835.) He was for some years president of the Ameri- can Philosophical Society. Died in Philadelphia in 1844. See "Discourse in Commemoration of Peter S. Duponceau," bj R. Dunglison, M.D., Philadelphia, 1844. Dupont, dii'p6N', or, more fully, Dupont de L'Eure, dii'p^N'' deh luR, (Jacques Charles,) a French Liberal legislator, born at Neubourg (L'Eure) in 1767. He was a judge under the first republic and the empire, and became president of the imperial court at Rouen in 181 1. From 1817 to 1848 he constantly represented his native depart- ment in the Chamber of Deputies. He was appointed minister of justice in August, 1830, but resigned about the end of that year, after which he sat with the oppo- sition in the Chamber. His long services and his high character for integrity caused him to be chosen president of the provisional government formed in February, 1848. He retired from public life in 1849, and died in 1855. He was respected by all parties. See Louis Blanc. "Histoire de dix Ans." Dupont, (Pierre,) a popular French song-writer, born at Lyons in 1821. He produced about 1842 a poem entitled "The Two Angels," which was crowned by the French Academy. Among his popular productions are the "Song of Bread" and the "Song of the Workers." In many of his songs he manifests republican or socialistic tendencies. See C. Baudelaire, " Notice sur P. Dupont," 1849 ; E. de Mire- couRT, "P. Dupont," 1854. Dupont, or, more fully, Dupont de I'^^tang, dii''p6N' deh Wthn', (Pierre,) a French general, born at Cha- bannais in 1765. He became a general of division in 1797. About 1 801 he defeated the Austrians under Belle- garde near the Mincio. He rendered important services at Jena in 1806, and at Friedland. In 1808 he commanded an army in Spain, and obtained some successes ; but in July of that year he was defeated at Baylen, where he surrendered about 18,000 men as prisoners of war. For this disaster he was disgraced by Napoleon and con- demned to an indefinite imprisonment. He was minister of war under Louis XVIII. from April to December, 1814. " In the whole French army," says Alison, " there was not a general of division who bore a higher character than Dupont," [before his Spanish campaign.] (" History of Europe.") Died in 1838. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" Vedel, "Precis des Ope- rations niilitaires en Espagne." Dupont, or, more fully, Dupont de Nemours, dii'- p(!)N''deh neh-mooR', (Pierre Samuel,) a F'rench author and economist, born in Paris in 1739. As a disciple of Quesnay, he applied himself to the study of commerce and political economy, and gained reputation by his a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, vi, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon^* DUPONT 813 DUPUIS writings on those subjects. The prime ministers Tur- got and Vergennes enlisted his talents in the public ser- vice. During the ministry of Calonne he was made councillor of state, and in 1787 he was secretary of the Assembly of the Notables. He was a member of the National Assembly in 1790, of which he was twice chosen president, and defended the king at the peril of his own life in the insurrection of August 10, 1792. He was chosen one of the Council of Elders, and a member of the Institute about 1796. From 1798 to 1802 he resided in New Jersey, United States, whither he retired to escape from persecution. He refused all the public offices that Napoleon offered him. Having emigrated in 1815 to Delaware, he died there in 1817. He had composed for the Institute many treatises on public economy, natural history, etc., and published "Philoso- phic de rUnivers," (1796.) His sons were proprietors of the powder-mills near Wilmington, Delaware. See Daciek, " £loge de Dupont de Nemours," in "Recueil de I'Academie des Inscriptions;" Aime Boullee, "Notice biogra- phique sur P. Poivre at Dupont de Nemours," 1S35; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Du-p6nt', (Samuel Francis,) an able American rear-admiral, born at Bergen Point, New Jersey, in 1803, was a grandson of the preceding. He entered the navy at an early age, and gained the rank of commander in 1845. In the summer of 1861 he obtained command of the Atlantic blockading squadron. He commanded the large naval expedition which gained possession of Port Royal harbour. South Carolina, by a victory over two forts at the entrance, in November, 1861. In July, 1862, he was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral. He com- manded the fleet of iron-clad vessels which attacked Fort Sumter in April, 1863, and was defeated, with the loss of the monitor Keokuk sunk. Four other monitors were disabled. The flag-ship of Dupont in this battle was the Ironsides. He was relieved of the command in June, 1863, and died in June, 1865. Dupont was a man of imposing presence and great personal dignity. See J. T. Headlev, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 1867. Duport, dii'poR', (Adrien,) an eminent French law- yer, born about 1758. He was deputed by the noblesse of Paris to the States-General in 1789, and was a pro- minent partisan of the new regime in the first years of the Revolution. In the National Assembly Earnave and Duport were leaders of the popular party for a time ; but after the arrest of the king at Varennes, June, 1 791, they became decided royalists. It is stated that he was chiefly instrumental in introducing the trial by jury into French legislation. Duport was president of the Criminal Tribunal of Paris when the insurrection of August 10, 1792, forced him to fly. He died in exile, at Appenzel, in 1798. His speech against capital punishment in 1791 is highly praised by Lamartine for its profound logic. See Lamartine, "Histoire des Constituants ;" Thiers, "His- tory of the French Revokition." Du-p6rt^ (James,) D.D., born at Cambridge, Eng- land, in 1606. He became eminent as a Greek scholar, and was chosen regius professor of Greek at Cambridge in 1632. After the restoration he was chaplain to Charles II., and Dean of Peterborough. He published " Gno- mologia Homeri," Sermons, and other works. Died in 1679. Duport, (Paul,) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1798, wrote popular comedies and vaudevilles. Duport-Dutertre, dii^poR' dii'taRtR', (Marguerite Louis FRANgois,) a minister of state, born at Paris in 1754. In the constitutional ministry formed in Novem- ber, 1790, he was minister of justice. He was attached to the party or principles of Barnave and Adrien Duport. Removed from office in March, 1792, and proscribed by the dominant party, he escaped by flight until the next year. He was condemned by the Revolutionary Tribunal and executed in 1793. See Lamartine, "History of the Girondists." Duportail, dii'poR'tSI' or du'poR'tt'ye, (Lebegue, leh-b^g',) a French officer, who served with distinction in the United States under La Fayette, with whose po- litical opinions he agreed. By the influence of La Fayette he was appointed minister of war in November, 1 790. The hostility and violence of the Assembly induced him to resign in December, 1791. In the reign of terror he escaped death by exile to America about 1794. He embarked for France in 1802, but died during the passage. * Dup'pa, (Brian,) an English divine, born at Lewis- ham in 1588. He was appointed chaplain to Charles 1. in 1634, and tutor to the Prince of Wales in 1638. He became Bishop of Salisbury in 1641, and of Winchester about 1660. He published sermons and other religious works. Died in 1662. Duppa, (Richard,) an English lawyer and writer, born about 1 766. He published several books of travels in Europe, "The Life and Works of Michael Angelo," (1806,) "The Life of Raphael," (1816,) a "Translation of Virgil's Bucolics," and other works. Died in 183 1. Duprat, dii^pRS', (Antoine,) a cardinal and chancellor of France, born at Issoire in 1463. He became first president of the Parliament of Paris in 1507, and chan- cellor in 1515. As the favourite minister of Francis I., he rendered himself the object of the popular odium by subverting civil and religious liberty. He procured the passage of atrocious laws against the Reformers. In 1527 he obtained a cardinal's hat. Died in 1535. See De Thou, " Histoire Universelle." Duprat, (Jean,) a French merchant of Avignon, was a Girondist member of the Convention, in which he voted for the death of the king in 1792. He was con- demned by the Jacobins, and executed with the leaders of his party, in October, 1793, aged about thirty-six. Duprat, (Pardoux, plii'doo',) an eminent French jurist, born at Aubusson about 1520. He resided some years in Lyons, and wrote esteemed works on Roman law. Died in or before 1570. Duprat, (Pascal,) a French republican journalist, born in the department of Landes in 1812. Soon after the revolution of 1848 he co-operated with Lamennais in founding the journal entitled "Le Peuple Constituant," and was elected to the National Assembly. He was one of the chiefs of the party which made Cavaignac dictator in 1848, and was banished about 1852. Dupre d'Aulnay, dii'pRk' do^na', (Louis,) a French writer of fiction, b(,)rn in Paris about 1670; died in 1758. Dupre de Saint -Maur, dii'pRa' deh s^N'moR', (Nicolas Franqois,) a French writer, who promoted a taste for English literature in France, was born in Paris in 1695. The success of his version of " Paradise Lost" opened for him the doors of the Academy in 1733. afterwards produced a useful work, entitled "Essay on Money, or Reflections on the Relations between Money and Articles of Food," (1746,) and "Tables of Mortality," which Buff"on praised and inserted in his works. Died in 1774. Duprez, dii'pRa', (Gilbert Louis,) a French tenor singer of great celebrity, was born in Paris in 1806. After performing in Italy for some years, he made a successful delmt\w Paris in 1837. He became the chief favourite of the Parisians, and was especially admired in the opera of "William Tell." Dupuis, du'pii-e^ almost dii^pwe', (Charles,) born in Paris in 1685, was esteemed one of the best engravers of his time. He worked some years in England, and returned to Paris. The "Marriage of the Virgin," after Vanloo, is called his master-j^iece. Died in 1742. Dupuis, (Charles Franqois,) a distinguished French philosopher and savant, born at Trie-le-Chateau (Gise) in 1742. He was educated in Paris, and in 1766 became professor of rhetoric in the College of Lisieux. For several years he attended the astronomical lectures of Lalande, with whom he was very intimate. He directed his researches to the origin of the figures or symbols which represent the constellations of "the zodiac. The new theory which he formed was explained in a volume entitled "Memoir on the Origin of the Constellations, and on the Explanation of Mythology by Astronomy," (1781.) This work attracted much attention among the learned. A few years later he was appointed professor of Latin eloquence in the College of France, and in 1788 was admitted to the Academy of Inscriptions. As a member of the Convention, 1792-95, he acted and € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^See Explanations, p. 23.) DUPUIS 814 DVRAMANO spoke with moderation. In 1794 he produced his cele- brated "Origin of all Cultcs, or Universal Reh'gion," which excited much controversy by the novelty and bold- ness of its speculations. It is stated that the interest ex- cited by this work caused the apjjointment of the scien- tific commission which accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt. Dupuis was one of the first members of the Institute. In Bonaparte's consulate he was president of the legis- lative body. Among his later works is a "Memoir on the Zodiac of Tentyra," to which he assigns a date anterior by many centuries to the first historical period. The researches of Champollion, however, appear to have fully disproved this opinion. Died near Dijon in 1809. See Dacier, " Notice sur Dupuis," 1812 ; " Notice sur la Vie de Dupuis," by his widow, 1813; " Nouvelle Biographle Generale." Dupuis, (Nicolas Gabriel,) a French engraver, brother of Charles, noticed above, and a pupil of Du- change, was born in Paris in 1695. His style is pure and correct. Among his admired works are " y^neas saving his Father from Burning Troy," after Vanloo, and "The Adoration of the Kings," after Paul Veronese. Died in 1771. See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." Dupuis, du-pvvee', (Thomas Saunders,) a musical composer, born in London in 1733. He was an excel- lent performer on the organ. In 1779 he was appointed organist and composer of the royal chapel. He died in 1796, after which his select works were published by John Spencer, nephew of the Duke of Marlborough. Dupuy, dii'pU-e'', [Dutch, Van de Putte, vtn der piit'ieh,] (Henry,) [Lat. Enri'cus Putea'nus,] a Dutch scholar, was born at Venloo in 1574. He succeeded his teacher, Justus Lipsius, in the chair of belles-lettres at Louvain, which he filled from 1606 to 1646. He wrote many learned works on history, philosophy, etc., among which are "Historia Insubrica," and "Belli et Pacis Statera," (1633.) Died in 1646. Dupuy, dii'pu-e', (Louis,) a French scholar of great learning, born in Le Bugey in 1709. He became princi- pal editor of the " Journal des Savans," which he directed for thirty years with much critical ability. In 1756 he was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions, of which he was made perpetual secretary in 1773, and to which he contributed many treatises. He wrote " Observa- tions on Infinitesimals, and the Metaphysical Principles of Geometry," and other mathematical works. Died in 1795. See Desessarts, "Les Siecles litt^raires." Dupuy, (Pierre,) a French historical writer, born at Agen in 1582, became successively councillor and libra- rian to the king. He wrote a " Treatise on the Rights and Liberties of the Gallican Church," (1639,) a "His- tory of the Most Illustrious Favourites, Ancient and Modern," and other works. Died in 165 1. His brother Jacques was also royal librarian, and aided in some of the productions of Pierre. Died in 1656. See N. RiGAULT, "Vita Petri Puteani," in the "Vitie Selectorum "iliquot Virorum," London, 1681. Dupuy-Demportes, dii'pii-e' dSN^poRt', (Jean Bap- TiSTE,) a French litth'ateiir. Died in 1770. Dupuy des Islets, dii^pii-e' da'ze'li'. Chevalier, a French poet, born in Hayti about 1770; died in 1831. Dupuy-Montbruii. See Mon th run. Dupuytren, dii'pii-e''tR6N^ (Guillaume,) Baron, a celebrated French surgeon and anatomist, born at Pierre- Buffiere, near Limoges, in 1777. He was educated in Paris, where, in 1803, he obtained the place of second surgeon of the Hotel-Dieu. He was appointed inspector- general to the University in 1808, professor of surgery in 1811, and chief surgeon of the Hotel-Dieu about 1816. On the accession of Charles X. he became first surgeon to the king. His practice was very lucrative, and his reputation more extensive than that of any French sur- geon of his time. He made improvements in surgical operations, invented some valuable instruments, and was an eloquent and popular lecturer. He did not pub- lish any extensive work, but his lectures were printed in the medical periodicals, and his opinions were reported in the works of Royer-Collard, Sanson, etc. Dupuytren was a member of the Academy of Sciences. His contribu- tions to the knowledge of morbid anatomy form perhaps his chief title to a durable reputation. Died in Paris in February, 1835. See ViDAL DE Cassis, " Essai historique sur Dupuytren," 1835; Pariset, "iSloge de Dupuytren," 1836; Cruveilhier, "Vie de Dupuytren," 1841; Bakuinet, "Notice sur Dupuytren," 1853; Isidore Bourdon, " lUuslres Medecins et Naturalistes ;" " Nouvelle Biogrnphie Generale." Duquerie. See Callard de la Duquerie. Duquesne, dii'kgn', (Abraham,) a French naval hero, born at Dieppe in 1610. He had acquired a repu- tation for courage and talents when, in 1637, he was chosen to command a ship in the war with Spain. He rendered important services at Tarragona in 1641, and at the Cape de Gates in 1643. ^ years later, as \ ice- admiral of the Swedish fleet, he gained several victories over the Danes. About 1650 he was made a commodore. He fought under D'Estrees against the Dutch under De Ruyter in May, 1673. Having obtained the rank of lieutenant-general, he defeated the Dutch near Catanea in 1676, where the admiral De Ruyter was killed. The king once avowed to Duquesne that his religion (Prot- estantism) was an obstacle to his promotion. For this reason he never received a marshal's baton, though he was the most able and successful admiral that France had then produced. He was, however, created a mar- quis, and was excepted from the operation of the decree which revoked the edict of Nantes. Died in 1688. See E. Sue, " Histoire de la Marine ;" Andre Richer, "Vie du Marquis Duquesne," 1783; Feret, " Esquisse de la Vie de Du- quesne," 1844; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Duquesne, (Abraham,) a son of the preceding, was an able seaman. In 1690 he commanded an expedition to the East Indies, of which Challes published an ac- count, (3 vols., 1721.) Duquesne, (Arnaud Bernard d'Icard — de'klR',) a French priest, writer, and doctor of the Sorbonne, born in Paris about 1732; died in 1791. Duquesne, (Henri,) a son of Abraham, (the first of the name,) was born in 1652, and became a captain in the navy in 1675. He served with distinction at the battle near Catanea in 1676. When the edict of Nantes was revoked, (1685,) he withdrew to Switzerland. He wrote "Reflections on the Eucharist," (1718.) Died in 1722. Duquesnoy, dii'ka'nw^', (Adrien,) a French lawyer, born in 1759, was deputed to the States-General by Bar- le-Duc in 1789, and acquitted himself with credit. He edited a journal called "The Friend of the Patriots," which was issued until August 10, 1792. In the reign of terror he was arrested, but was saved by the fall of Robespierre. Died in 1808. Duquesnoy, dii'ki'nwi', (Francois,) an excellent Flemish sculptor, born at Brussels in 1594, was better known by the name of FRANgois Flamand. About 1619 he went to Rome, where he became an intimate friend of Nicolas Poussin and worked many years. He excelled in the representation of infants, and was consid- ered by some as the best sculptor of his time. Among his master-pieces are statues of Saint Susanna (in Rome) and of Saint Andrew, (in the basilica of Saint Peter's.) He was on his way to Paris, whither he had been in- vited by Richelieu, when he died at Leghorn in 1646. See CicoGNARA, " Storia della Scultura." Duquesnoy, (Jerome,) a skilful sculptor, brother of the preceding, was born at Brussels in 1612. He worked some years at Rome, and was appointed sculptor to Philip IV. of Spain in 1645. He was executed for some alleged crime at Ghent in 1654. Duraeus. See Dury. Diu-am or Durao, doo-rowN', (Antonio Figueira — fe-ga'e-ra,) a Portuguese Latin poet, born in Lisbon about i6i7T^died in 1642. Duramor Durao, doo-rowN', (Joze de Santa Rita,) a Brazilian epic poet, born near Mariana in 1737. He was educated in Portugal, where he resided nearly all his life, and became a monk. He wrote a popular and national epic poem, entitled " Caramurii, or the Discovery of Bahia," (1781.) Died in Lisbon in 1783. See Adolfo de Varnhagen, " Epicos Brazileiros," 1845; Pe- reira d.^. Sylva, "Plutarco Brazlleiro." Duramano, doo-rJ-nuVno, (Francesco,) a Venetian painter of flowers, flourished about 1750. a, e, T, 6, ii, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; Hr, {ill, fitj m§t; n6t; good; moon; DURAMEAU DURANTI Durameau^ dii^rS'mo', (Louis Jean Jacques,) a French historical painter, born in Paris in 1733. His " Continence of Bayard" and " Saint Louis washing the Feet of the Poor" are admired. Died in 1796. Duran, doo-rin', (Don Augustin,) an eminent Span- ish author and critic, born in Madrid about 1794. He obtained an office in the department of public instruction in 1821, but was removed in 1823 for his liberal opinions. In 1828 he published an "Essay on the Influence which Modern Criticism has exercised on the Decline of the Old Drama," ( teatro antiguo,) which produced a revolu- tion in favour of the romantic school. His " Romancero de Romances Moriscos," (5 vols., 1828-32,) (a collection of old ballads,) had great success. About 1835 he was appointed secretary or librarian in the National Library of Madrid. He has recently written an important history and bibliography of the Spanish drama, which perhaps is not yet printed. Durand, dii'roN'', a learned French Benedictine, born at Neubourg about 1012, acquired much influence, and was consulted by William the Conqueror. He pro- moted a taste for religious music. Died in 1089. Du-rand', (Asher Brown,) an eminent American painter and engraver, born at Jefferson, New Jersey, in 1796. He engraved Trumbull's "Declaration of Inde- pendence," a number of portraits for "The National Portrait-Gallery," and other works. About 1835 he began to devote himself exclusively to painting. He became an excellent landscape-painter, and produced many pic- tures of American mountain-scenery. Among his paint- ings are "The Capture of Major Andre," "Primeval Forest," and "Franconia Mountains." See H. T. Tuckerman, "Book of the Artists," 1867; Dunlap, "Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in America." Durand, (Catherine Bedacier — bi'dt'se-i',) a French novelist and poetess, wrote the "Comtesse de Mortane," (1699,) and other works. Died in Paris in 1736. Durand, (Charles Etienne,) a French architect, born at Montpellier in 1762. Pie restored the ancient temple at Nimes called "Maison carree." Died in 1840. Durand, (David,) a learned French Protestant writer, born in Languedoc about 1680. After being chaplain to a French regiment in Spain, he went about 1714 to Lon- don, where he preached about fifty years. He wrote •'The Religion of Mohammed," (1721,) a "History of jhe Sixteenth Century," (6 vols., 1725-29,) and other works. Died in London in 1763. See A. A. Bakbier, "Notice siir la Vie et les £crits de D. Du- rand," iSog; MM. Haag, "La France protestante ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Durand, (FRANgois Jacques,) an eloquent French Protestant preacher, born near Alen9on in 1727. He became professor of history at Lausanne, and published Sermons, a "Treatise on the Statistics of Switzerland," an "Epitome of Sciences and Arts," (1762,) which had great success, and other works. Died in 1816. See A. Delille, "Notice sur la Vie de F. J. Durand," 1805. Durand or Duranti, doo-rSn^'tee, (Guillaume,) a French jurist, born at Puymisson about 1230, was sur- named the " Speculateur." In 1287 he became Bishop of Mende. He wrote a work on canon law, called ''Speculum Judiciale." Died in 1296. See S. Maiolo, "Duranti Vita." Durand, (Jacques,) a French historical painter, born at Nancy in 1699; died in 1767. Durand, (Jean Nicolas Louis,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1760. Having received lessons from Panseron, he became draughtsman to Boulee, the king's architect. In 1780 he gained a prize in the Royal Acad- emy. He also obtained several of the prizes offered by the Convention in 1793 for public structures. About 1794 he was appointed professor of architecture in the Polytechnic School, for the use of which he published an important work, entitled "A Collection and Comparison of Edifices of all Kinds, Ancient and Modern," (1800,) and "Lectures on Architecture," (2 vols., 1802,) also an excellent performance. Died in 1834. See RoNDELET, "Notice historique sur la Vie de J. N. L. Durand," 1835. Durand, (Dom Li^opold,) a French architect and monk, born in Lorraine in 1666 ; died in 1749. Durand, (Pierre Bernard,) a French botanist, born in Calvados in 1814; died in 1853. Durand-Brager, dii''r6N' bRt'zhi', (Jean Baptiste Henri,) a distinguished French marine and landscape painter, born near Dol (Ile-et-Vilaine) in 1814. In 1840 he went to Saint Helena on the staff of Prince de Join- ville, and after his return published a "Description of Saint Helena," richly illustrated, (1844.) He produced a Panorama of Rio Janeiro, and received a commission to paint the principal actions and scenes of the campaign against Morocco, in which he took part about 1845. has published several other successful works. Durand de Maillane, dii^rSN' deh mt'ytn', (Pierre ToussAiNT,) a French lawyer, born at Saint-Remi in 1729. Elected to the States-General in 1789, he was one of the committee who framed the civil constitution of the clergy. In the Convention of 1792 he opposed the execution of the king, and voted for his banishment. During the reign of Jjonaparte he was a judge at Taras- con and Aix until 1809. He was author of several esteemed treatises on canon law. Died in 1814. See "Notice sur Durand de Maillane," prefixed to his "Histoire de la Convention Nationale." Durand de Saint-Pourgain, dii'rSN' deh s^N'pooR'- siN^ (GuiLLAUiME,) a French scholastic doctor and bishop, born in Auvergne ; died in 1334. Durande, clii'rdNd', (Jean Fran(JOIS,) a French bot- anist, born at Dijon, became professor of botany in that city. Died in 1794. Durandi, doo-rinMee, (Jacopo,) an Italian poet and antiquary, born near Vercelli in 1739. He wrote numer- ous operas, some of which were performed with success at Turin; " Arianna," an admired pastoral; and several works on history and geography. Died in 181 7. See De Gregori, "Vita di J. Durandi," 1S17. Durando, doo-rSu'do, (Giacomo,) an Italian general, born at Mondovi in 1807. He was minister of war at Turin during the Crimean war, 1854-55, commanded a division at vSolferino, June, 1859, and became minister of foreign affairs in the cabinet of Ratazzi in March, 1861. Durando, (Giovanni,) a brother of the preceding, and an eminent Italian general of the present age, com- manded the first corps-d'armee against the Austrians, and was wounded at Custozza in June, 1866. Durant, dli'rSN', (Gilles,) a French poet and ad- vocate, was born at Clermont about 1550, and settled near Paris. He is supposed to have written part of the " Satire Menippee," which promoted the cause of Henry IV. by ridiculing the League. His works, which were much admired, consist of odes, sonnets, songs, etc. Died in 161 5. See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." Durante, doo-r^n'ti, (Castore,) an Italian botanist, born at Gualdo, became physician to Pope Sixtus V,, and wrote many works, which were once esteemed. Died at Viterbo in 1590. Durante, (Francesco,) one of the most celebrated Italian composers, was born in Naples in 1693. He was the pupil of Scarlatti, and is regarded as the founder of the modern school which produced Sacchini, Pergolesi, etc. His style was severe, his harmony pure, and his modulations natural. He confined himself mostly to sacred music. Died in Naples in 1755. See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Durante Alighieri. See Dante. Durante da Gualda, doo-rin'ta di goo-iKdi, (Pie- TRO,) an Italian poet, born about 1460. Duranti. See Durand, (Guillaume.) Duranti, doo-ran'tee, (Durante,) Count, a popular Italian poet and orator, was born of a noble family at Brescia in 1718. His memory was such that he could repeat a poem which he had read or heard but once. He imitated Ariosto in satirical epistles with success, and wrote lyric verses which were celebrated through all Italy. In the latter part of his life he resided at the court of the King of Sardinia, as gentleman of the chamber. Among his principal works is a satirical poem entitled "Custom," or "Fashion," (" Uso," 1778.) Several of his orations were printed. His moral character is said to have been pure. Died in 1780. See TiPALDO, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri." € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r. trilled; s as z; th as in this. (g^^See Explanations, p. 23.) DVRANTI 8i6 DURER Duranti, dii'rdN^te', (Jean Etienne,) a French judge, born at Toulouse about 1534, became first president of the parliament of Toulouse in 1581. For his fidelity to the king he was massacred by a mob of furious partisans of the Catholic League in 1589. He was author of a book " On the Rites of the Catholic Church," {" De Riti- bus Ecclesiae," 1581.) See PoNSARD, "filoge de J. fitienne Duranti," 1770; De Thou, " Histoire." Duranton, dii'rdN^t^N', (Alexandre,) a French jurist, born at Cusset (Bourbonnais) in 1782, was the author of a "Course of French Law," (4th edition, 22 vols., 1844.) Durao. See Duram. Duras. See Durfort, (Gui Alphonse and Louis.) Duras, de, deh dii'ras'', (Claire Lechat de Ker- saint — leh-sht' deh kSk'siN',) Duchess, a French au- thoress, born at Brest in 1778, was a daughter of the Count de Kersaint, who was a member of the Con- vention and executed in 1793. She became the wife of the Due de Duras, and the friend of Madame de Stael. After the restoration she was one of the orna- ments of the French court. She produced two novels, *' Ourika," (1823,) and "Edouard," which had prodigious success. Died in 1828. See Sainte-Beuve, " Portraits des Femmes ;" Barante, " Notice sur Madame la Duchesse de Duras," 1828; " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Duras, de, (Jacques Henri de Durfort — deh diiR'- foR',) Duke, a French marshal, born of a noble family of Guienne about 1624, was a nephew of the famous Turenne. He fought at the battle of Nordlingen and the capture of Landau. As lieutenant-general, he served with distinction in Italy and Flanders. He was created a marshal of France in 1675, and a duke in 16S9. Died in 1704. Duras, de, (Jean Baptiste,) Duke, a son of the pre- ceding, was born in 1684. He rendered important ser- vices in the war of the Spanish succession, (1701-12, ) and was made lieutenant-general in 1720. He after- wards became marshal of France, and in 1745 defeated the enemy at Etlingen. Died in 1770. Durazzo, doo-r^t'so, a noble family of Genoa, which furnished many doges to the republic, and several car- dinals to the Church, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Durbach, (Anne Louise.) See Karschin. Dur^'bin, (John Price,) an American Methodist min- ister, born in Bourbon county, Kentucky, in 1800, gradu- ated at the Cincinnati College in 1825. He was elected chaplain of the Senate of the United States in 183 1, and president of Dickinson College, in Pennsylvania, in 1834. After a visit to Europe, he published "Observations in Europe, principally in France and Great Britain," (2 vols., 1844,) and "Observations in Egypt, Palestine, Syria, etc.," (2 vols., 1845.) resigned the presidency of Dickinson College in 1845. Since 1851 he has been secretary of the Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He is now (1869) in the fiftieth year of his pastoral services. Durdent, dUR^SN', (Rene Jean,) a prolific French writer, born at Rouen about 1776. He had great facility in composition, and wrote for the booksellers mediocre works of fiction, history, criticism, etc., which had a tem- porary success. Died in 1819. Dureau de la Malle, (or de Lamalle,) dii'ro' deh It mtl, (Adolphe Jules C^sar Auguste,) a learned French poet and antiquary, born in Paris in 1777. He produced in 1807 a poem entitled "The Pyrenees," and in 1811 a poetical version of the " Argonautica" of Vale- rius Flaccus. In 1818 he was elected to the Academy of Inscriptions, which he enriched with many antiquarian treatises. Among his principal works are "Bayard, or the Conquest of the Milanese," a poem, (2 vols., 1823,) and "The Political Economy of the Romans," (2 vols., 1840.) Died in 1857. See LouANDKE et P.ourquelot, "La Litterature Fran^aise;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Dureau de la Malle, (or de Lamalle,) (Jean Bap- tiste Joseph Ren6, ) a French scholar and eminent translator, father of the preceding, was born in Saint Domingo in 1742. He was educated in Paris, where he afterwards resided. His house was the resort of the most eminent authors, namely, Delille, D'Alembert, Marmontel, and La Harpe. In 1790 he produced an admired version of Tacitus, superior to any ]neviously made in French. He was also successful in translating Sallust, and began a version of Livy, which, interrupted by his death, was finished by M. Noel. He was chosen a member of the legislative body in 1802, and of the French Academy in 1804. Died in 1807. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Durel, (David.) See Durell. Du-reP, (John,) D.D., a learned English theologian, born in the isle of Jersey in 1626, was an adversary of the Puritans. He passed many years in France during the English civil war and the Commonwealth. About 1660 he became preacher at the French Church in Lon- don. He was appointed Canon of Windsor in 1663 or 1664, and Dean of Windsor in 1677. He wrote, besides other theological works, a "Defence of the Church of England," (1669.) Died in 1683. Du-relP or Durel, (David,) D.D., an English biblical critic, born in the isle of Jersey in 1728. He became a Fellow of Hertford College, (Oxford,) and principal of the same in 1757. His "Critical Remarks on Job, Psalms, Proverbs," etc. (1772) are commended. He also published " The Hebrew Text of the Parallel Prophecies of Jacob and Moses relating to the Twelve Tribes," (1764.) Died in 1775, Diirer or Duerer, dii'rer, (Albert or Albrecht,) a celebrated German painter and engraver, born at Nu- remberg on the 20th of May, 1471, was the son of a gold- smith, who designed that he should learn the same occupation. He became in i486 a pupil of Michael Wohlgemuth, a painter of Nuremberg. In 1490 he began a tour, in the course of which he visited various countries of Germany. He returned to Nuremberg in 1494, and, to please his father, entered into an ill-assorted marriage. Soon after his return he produced a drawing of "Orpheus," which was much admired. In 1505 he visited Venice, where he remained eight months, and painted the " Martyrdom of Saint Bartholomew," and other works, for which " he received," says Ruskin, "the rarest of all rewards granted to a good workman, and for once in his life was understood." During his visit to Italy he formed a friendship with Raphael. About 1508 he was appointed court painter to Maximilian I., for whom he painted "The Virgin with many Angels," and other historical pictures. He was also patronized by Charles V. as court painter. DUrer surpassed all the painters and engravers of Germany in exuberance of imagination and in sublimity and correctness of design. He was successful in history, portraits, and landscapes. Vasari expresses the opinion that he would have equalled the great masters of Italy if he had been a native of Tuscany and had studied in Rome. Some critics regret the absence of the ideal in his works. Among his master-pieces in painting are a "Crucifixion," (151 1,) "Adam and Eve," an "Adoration of the Magi," and portraits of Raphael, Erasmus, and Melanchthon, who were his friends. He is the reputed inventor of the art of etching and the art of printing wood-cuts in two colours. His engravings (on copper) of "Adam and Eve," "The Knight and Death," and the "Revelation of Saint John" (on wood) are very cele- brated. All his engravings are after his own designs, and are finished with great neatness and refinement. He wrote several works on geometry and perspective, and contributed to polish and purify the German language, in which those works are written. It appears that he favoured the doctrines of the Reformation. He died at Nuremberg in April, 1528. His death is said to have been hastened by domestic misery. His wife, covetous, insatiable, and imperious, would neither permit him to work in peace and quietness nor to recreate himself in the society of his friends. His gentle disposition and delicate sensibility rendered him especially liable to be thus victimized. "This artist," says Michiels, "has become the symbol of his epoch. An inexhaustible imagination, an intelligence which could observe life in its most delicate shades, a profound sentiment of grace, naivete, and sublimity, and an earnest spirit joined to the a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i,«o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; BURET 817 DUROC courage required for protracted studies, were the quali- ties which distinguished him." See J. Heller, "Das Leben iind die Werke A. Diirers," 1827- 31 ; Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" Ersch und Grubek, "Allgemeine Eiicyklopaedie ;" A. Michiels, " Etudes sur rAllemagiie ;" Leopold Schefer, "An Artist's Married Life;" G. C. Nagi.er, "A. Diirer und seine Kunst," 1837; Rotii, "Leben A. Diirers," 1791; "Foreign Quarterly Review" tor January, 1833; " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1861. Duret, dii'ri', (Claude,) a French naturalist and lin- guist, born at Moulins ; died in 161 L Duret, (Francisque,) an eminent French sculptor, born in Paris about 1805. He studied in Rome, and about 183 1 gained a prize by his statue of "Mercury." He adorned several churches and public edifices of Paris with statues, among which are those of Moliere, (in the Hall of the Institute,) Richelieu, and Chateaubriand. At the Exposition of 1855 he received a grand medal. He is a member of the Institute. Duret, (Jean,) born in Paris in 1563, was a skilful physician, and a bitter partisan of the League against Henry of Navarre. He succeeded his father as pro- fessor of medicine in the Royal College, and became physician to the queen Marie in 1610, after the death of Henry IV. Died in 1629. Duret, (Louis,) an eminent French physician, father of the preceding, was born at Bage in 1527. He came to Paris in youth, and graduated in 1552. From 1568 to 1586 he was a professor in the Royal College, and was successively physician to Charles IX. and Henry III. His most important work is a commentary on Hippocra- tes, (1588,) which Boerhaave called "an inestimable book." Died in 1586. See Chomel, "filoge de L. Duret, Medecin celebre," 1765 ; Ni- CERON, " Memoires ;" " Biographic Medicale." Duret, (Noel,) a French astronomer, born at Mont- brison in 1590, was a professor of mathematics in Paris, and obtained the title of cosmographer to the king. He wrote a "New Theory of the Planets," (1635,) and other works. Died about 1650. Dur'fee, (Job,) an American jurist, born at Tiverton, Rhode Island, in 1790. He was elected a member of Congress in 1820, and became chief justice of Rhode Island in 1835. He wrote a poem, entitled " What Cheer?" (1832,) on the adventures of Roger Williams. Died in 1847. D'Urfey, dur'fe, (Thomas,) an English dramatist and wit, born at Exeter, in Devonshire, He was a favourite at the court of Charles II., and author of several success- ful and licentious dramas. He wrote popular songs and odes, which were published with the title " Laugh and be Fat" According to Addison, his ode entitled " Joy to Great Caesar" " gave the Whigs such a blow as they were not able to recover that whole reign." Died in 1723. See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica ;" Gibber, "Lives of the Poets." Durfort, de, deh diiRToR', (Gui Alphonse,) Duke of Lorges, (loRzh,) a French marshal, born in 1628, was a younger brother of the first Duke of Duras. He served as lieutenant-general in the army of his uncle Turenne, whose talents in a great measure he inherited. In 1692 he gained the battle of Pfortzheim. He had received a marshal's baton in 1676. Died in 1703. See Voltaire, "Si^cle de Louis XIV;" Saint-Simon, "Me- moires." Durfort, de, (Louis,) sometimes called Durfort- Duras, (dii'ris',) Count, the youngest brother of the preceding, emigrated to England, where Charles II. gave him the title of Baron Duras. At the time of the peace of Nymwegen (1678) he was ambassador at the court of France. He was created Earl of Feversham, and be- came general-in-chief of the army of James II., which defeated the Duke of Monmouth in 1685 at Sedgemoor. Durfort-Duras. See Duras. Durfort-Duras, de, deh diiRToR' du'rSs',(EMMANUEL YtiACVvi,) Due, born in 1715, inherited the title of duke from his father, Jean Baptiste. He became first gentle- man of the chamber, a knight of the Golden Fleece, one of the forty members of the French Academy, and mar- shal of France. As lieutenant-general, he made all the campaigns of the Seven Years' war. He was a finished model of a courtier. Died in 1789. Durg^, ddoR'gS, a Sanscrit word signifying "difficult of access," "impregnable," and forming the name of Siva's consort in her character of active virtue. (See Parvati.) Durham, dilr'am, (James,) an eminent Scottish divine, born in 1622. He became minister of Blackfriars' Church, Glasgow, about 1647, and was a very popular preacher. In 1650 he was appointed professor of divinity in the College of Glasgow. He was chaplain to Charles II. about 1650, and in 165 1 preached a sermon before Crom- well, who rebuked him for meddling with political affairs in the pulpit. He wrote "Commentaries on Revela- tion," (1660,) often reprinted, "Expositions of the Ten Commandments," (1675,) and several religious treatises. His works were highly esteemed. Died in 1658. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Durham, dur'am, (John George Lambton,) Earl OF, an able English statesman, born at Lambton Castle, Durham, in 1792, was a son of William Henry Lambton. He married Miss Cholmondeley in 1812, and the daugh- ter of Earl Grey in 1816. In 1813 he was returned to Parliament, where he acted with the Whig party, of which he was one of the most liberal members. He was raised to the peerage, as liaron Durham, in 1828. In 1830 he became lord privy seal in the cabinet of Lord Grey, and was one of the four persons who prepared the Reform bill of the ensuing year. He made an eloquent speech in favour of the second Reform bill. He resigned his place in the ministry in 1833, and was then created Earl of Durham. He was sent on a special mission to Russia in 1833, and was appointed ambassador to Russia in 1836. In 1838 he was sent as Governor-General to Canada, with extraordinary powers, to restore peace and order in that province, then disturbed by rebellion. He returned suddenly in December, 1839, in consequence of his disagreement with the ministry at home. He died in July, 1840, and was succeeded by his son, George Frederick, born about 1828. Lord Durham was a great favourite with the advanced Liberals. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Durham, (Joseph,) an English sculptor, born in Lon- don in 1822. Among his works are a bust of Jenny Lind, and " Paul and Virginia," (1857.) Durham, (Sir Philip Charles Calderwood,) a British admiral, born in Fifeshire in 1763 ; died in 1845. See A. Murray, "Life of Admiral Durham," 1846. Duringer, doo'ring-er, (Melchior,) professor of ec- clesiastical history at Berne, was born about 1647 ; died in 1723. Diiringsfeld, von, (Ida.) See Reinsberg. Du'ris [Aof'ptf] of Samos, a Greek historian, a brother of Lynceus, was born about 350 B.C. His most important work was a history of Greece, entitled "Macedonica and Hellenica," or ";? ribv 'E^iXrjviKiov 'Icropta,^^ of which frag- ments are extant He became chief ruler of Samos. Died after 280 B.C. Durival, dU're^^tK, (Jean,) a French writer, brother of Nicolas L., noticed below, was born at Saint-Aubin in 1725. He was minister to Holland in 1777. About this date he assisted Mirabeau in translating Watson's "Philip II." into French. Died in 1810. Durival, (Nicolas Luton — lii't^N',) a French writer, born at Commercy in 1733, published a "Description of Lorraine," (4 vols., 1778-83,) which is regarded as a model for works of that kind. Died in 1795. Durivier, duYe\-e-k\ (Jean,) a French engraver of medals, born at Liege in 1687. He settled in Paris, re- ceived the title of engraver to the king, and was admitted to the Academy. Died in Paris in 176L Diirnhoffer or Duernhoffer,duRn'hoffer, (Lorenzo,) a German poet and pastor, born at Nuremberg in 1532, was a friend of Melanchthon. Died in 1594. Duroc, dii'rok', (Gerard Christophe Michel,) Duke of Friuli, a favourite officer of the court and camp of Bonaparte, was born at Pont-a-Mousson in 1772. In the early wars of the republic he was aide-de-camp of General Lespinasse ; and in 1796 he became aide-de- camp of Bonaparte, whom he followed to Egypt in 1798. During the consulate and the empire he was employed on important missions, and was sent successively to the courts of Berlin, Vienna, and Saint Petersburg. In these ■€ as ^; 9 as s; g Aard; g as j; G, H, Yi,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 52 DUROCHER 8i8 DUSSJULX difficult affairs he acquitted himself to the satisfaction of Napoleon, who ever treated him with confidence, and who made him marshal of his palace and Duke of Friuli. "Duroc loved Napoleon for himself," says Alison, "and possessed perhaps a larger share of his confidence than any of his other generals." He accompanied the emperor in the campaigns of 1805-06 and 1807, and was killed by his side at Mackersdorf, in Saxony, May, 1813. Bona- parte wept as he pressed the hand of the dying man, and said, " Duroc, there is another world, where we shall meet again." See " Memorial de Saint-Helene ;" Alison, " History of Europe ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Durocher. See GuiRiN du Rocher. Duroi. See Duroy. Duroi, dii'rwa', (Johann Philipp,) a German botanist, born in 1741 ; died in 1786. Durosnel, dii'ro'neK, (Antoine Jean Auguste Henri,) born in Paris in 1771, became in 1809 a gene- ral of division, and aide-de-camp to Napoleon. During the Hundred Days he was second in command of the national guard of Paris. He was aide-de-camp to Louis Philippe in 1832, and was made a peer in 1837. Died in 1849. See " Victoires et Conquetes des Frangais." Duroy, dii^rwi', or Deroy,[Lat. Regius,] (Hendrik,) a Dutch physician, born in 1598 at Utrecht, where he was professor of medicine for forty years, ending at his death. He wrote, in Latin, works on Physiology, (1641,) Natural Philosophy, (1651,) and Medicine. He was involved in a quarrel with Descartes, who charged him with plagiarism. Died in 1679. See £lov, " Dictionnaire de la Medecine." Du Rozoir, dii ro'zw^R', (Charles,) a French editor and historical writer, born in Paris in 1790, became pro- fessor of history in the college Louis-le-Grand in 181 8. He was one of the editors of Michaud's " Biographic Universelle," and of other valuable works. He published a "Programme of Roman History." Died in 1844. Durri. See Doorree. Durrieu, dii're-uh', (Antoine Simon,) Baron, a French general, born at Grenade (Landes) in 1775 > ^'^^^ in 1862. Durrius, door're-us, (Johann Conrad,) a German author, born at Nuremberg in 1625, wrote, besides other works, a "Compendium of Moral Theology," which was often reprinted. Died in 1677. Durufle, dU'rii''fiy,(Louis Robert Parfait — ptR''fa',) a French poet, born at Elbeuf in 1742 ; died in 1793. Durutte, dii'rut', (Joseph Franqois,) a French gen- eral, born at Douai in 1767 ; died in 1827 or 1837. See " Victoires et Conquetes des Frangais." Duruy, dii'rii-e', (Victor,) a French historical writer, born in Paris in 1811, became professor of history at the Lycee Napoleon, and published, for the use of schools, many popular historical works, among which are a " His- tory of the Romans," (1844,) and a "History of France," (1852.) Durv^sas, dooR-vS'sas, an irascible and famous Hin- doo sage, who was, in his own estimation, "a very mine of penitential merit." Sakoontala, the heroine of Kali- dasa's drama " The Lost Ring," having failed, through absence of mind, to show him the respect he deemed his due, he cursed her ; and on this curse the plot of the story turns. See "Sakoontala," translated by Professor M. Williams, of Oxford, 1856. Durville. See Dumont d'Urville, Du'ry, [Lat. Dur^'us,] (John,) a Scottish clergyman, who laboured and travelled many years to effect a union between the Lutherans and the Calvinists. He wrote "An Earnest Plea for Gospel Communion," (1654,) and other works. Died after 1674. Duryee, dur-ya', (Abram,) an American officer, born m New York City in 1815. He commanded a regiment of zouaves at the battle of Great Bethel in 1861, and was made brigadier-general of volunteers the same year. Duryer or Du Ryer, dii^re-i', (Andr6,) a French scholar, born at Marcigny, in Burgundy, lived about 1640. He was consul at Alexandria, and lived many years in the East. He published a translation of the "Gulistan" of Saadi, (1634,) and one of the Koran, (1647,) which was very successful. See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary," edition of Des- maiseaux. Duryer, (Pierre,) a French dramatist and litterateur, born in Paris in 1605. He was admitted into the French Academy in 1646, when the celebrated Corneille was his competitor. Before that year he had produced several successful tragedies, and in 1647 appeared the tragedy of " Scevole," which is esteemed his best work. He published bad versions of the works of Cicero and of other Latin authors. Died about 1658. See NiCERON, "Memoires." Dusart, dii'saRt', (Cornelis,) a Dutch painter, born at Haarlem in 1665. He was a pupil and successful imitator of Van Ostade. His favourite subjects were the life, actions, and manners of villagers and peasants. Died in 1704. See Basan, "Dictionnaire des Graveurs." Dusaulchoy de Bergemont, du^zS'shw^Meh b^Rzh'- m^N^ (Joseph Franqois Nicolas,) a French litterateur, born at Toul in 1761. He edited several journals be- tween 1790 and 1800, and was imprisoned in the reign of terror. He wrote spirited songs and other agreeable verses, among which are "The Victories of the French Armies," (1808,) and "The Poetic Nights," (1825.) Among his prose works is " The Censor," (2 vols., 1818.) Died in 1835. Dusaulx. See Dussaulx. Dusch, doosh, (Johann Jakob,) a German poet, born at Zelle, Hanover, in 1725. He became in 1766 director of a college in Altona, where he taught philosophy and mathematics. He excelled in didactic poetry, and in the art of enlivening dry themes of morality and philosophy by the charms of his diction. His chief poem is entitled "The Sciences," ("Die Wissenschaften.") His "Letters on the Fonnation of Taste" ("Moralische Briefe zur Bildung des Geschmacks," 6 vols., 1764) is called an excellent work. Died at Altona in December, 1787. Duseigneur, du'san'yuR', (Jean Bernard,) a distin- guished French sculptor, born in Paris in 1808. Among his successful works is "Roland Furieux," or "Orlando Furioso," (1831.) Du Sejour. See Dionis. Dush-yan'ta, [modern Hindoo pron. ddosh-yiin'ta,] a celebrated king of India, the hero of Kalidasa's drama of "Sakoontala, or the Lost Ring." See "Sakoontala," translated by Professor M. Williams, of Oxford, 1856. Du Sommerard, dii som'rtR', (Alexandre,) a French antiquary, born at Bar-sur-Aube in 1779. He was appointed a member of the cour des comptes in 1807, and conseiller referendaire of the same in 1823. He devoted much time to the study and search of monuments of mediaeval arts, and made a rich collection of manuscripts, arms, costumes, etc., which he deposited in the Hotel de Cluny, now a public museum. He published, besides other minor works, "The Arts of the Middle Ages," ("Les Arts au Moyen Age," 5 vols., 1839-43,) which is highly commended. Died in 1842. See Louandre et Bourquelot, "La Litterature Fran^aise." Dussault, dii'so', (Jean Joseph,) an able French journalist and critic, born in Paris in 1769. He was a tutor in the college Du Plessis until the Revolution de- prived him of that place. During the first republic he wrote for Freron's "Orator of the People." In 1800 he became one of the editors of the "Journal des De- bats," then just established, which position he held until 181 7. Died in 1824. Dussaulx or Dusaulx, dii^sS', (Jean,) a French litte- rateur, born at Chartres in 1728. Having published a good prose version of Juvenal, he was admitted into the Acad- emy of Inscriptions in 1776. He adopted the principles of the Revolution, and as a member of the Convention acted with moderation and opposed the execution of the king. In 1796 and 1797 he was one of the Council of Elders. He wrote several "Essays on the Passion for Gaming," and other works. Died in 1799. See "Memoires sur la Vie de Dussaulx," by his widow, 1801; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; filr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; DUSSEK 819 DUVAL Dussek, cloos'sgk, (Johann Ludwig,) an eminent German composer and pianist, was born at Czaslau, in Bohemia, about 1760. He performed in Paris, London, and other cities, and composed for the piano numerous concertos, symphonies, sonatas, etc., some of which were very popular. From 1806 until his death in 181 2 he was in the service of Prince Talleyrand as director of music. See Fetis, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." Dussieux, dii^se-uh', (firiENNE Louis,) a French writer, born in Paris in 1815, published " Historical Geography of France," (1844,) " Essay on the Invasion of Europe by the Huns," ( Hongrois,) and other works. Dutems, dii'tdN', (Jean Francois Hugues,) better known as Abbe Dutems, born in Franche-Conite in 1745, became a doctor of the Sorbonne. He wrote a " His- torical Picture of the Archbishops, Bishops, etc. of France," (4 vols., 1775,) ^ "Life of the Duke of Marlborough," (3 vols., 1808.) Died in 181 1. Dutens, dii'tSN', (Joseph Michel,) a French political economist, nephew of Louis, noticed below, was born at Tours in 1765. He was sent to England in 1818 by the government, to examine the inland navigation of that country, and published, in 1819, "Memoirs on the Public Works of England." His most important work is "The Philosophy of Political Economy," (2 vols., 1835,) which was severely criticised by the disciples of Adam Smith. He agrees with Quesnay in the opinion that the riches of a nation proceed from agriculture rather than from manufactures or trade. Died in 1848. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Dutens, (Louis,) a French Protestant writer, born at Tours in 1730. In his youth, for the sake of religious liberty, he emigrated to London. He learned Greek and several Oriental languages. About 1760 he became charge-d'affaires at the court of Turin, where he wrote " Researches on the Origin of Discoveries attributed to the Moderns," (1766,) which was received with favour. About this time he was presented to the rich living of Elsdon. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and of the Academy of Inscriptions at Paris. He published many valuable works, among which are a "Treatise on Greek and Phoenician Medals," (1773,) and "Journal of Travels to the Principal Cities of Europe," (1775.) Died in London in 1812. See his " Memoires d'un Voyageur qui se repose," 2 vols., 1806; " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1S06. Dutertre. See Duport-Dutertre. Dutertre, dii'tiRtR', (Jean Baptiste,) a French Do- minican, born at Calais in 1610. He was sent in 1640 as missionary to the Antilles, where he laboured eighteen years, and composed a "General History of the Antilles inhabited by the French." Died in Paris in 1687. Dutheil'de la Porte, dii't^r (dii't^'ye) deh li poRt, (or Laporte du Theil,) (FuANgois Jean Gabriel,) a French Hellenist, son of Jean Gabriel, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1742. He was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1770, and published trans- lations of Callimachus (1775) and ^ischylus, (2 vols., 1794.) In conjunction with Coray and Gosselin, he was employed by the government to translate the Geography of Strabo, which was half finished when he died in 181 5. See SiLVESTRE DE Sacy, "Notice abrege sur la Vie dc M. de La- porte-Dutheil," 1816. Dutheil de la Porte, (Jean Gabriel,) a French diplomatist, father of the preceding, was Ijorn about 16J83. In 1735 he was minister to Vienna, and in 1748 he was ambassador extraordinary to the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. Died in 1755. Duthilloeul,du''te'yuK, (Hippolyte Romain Joseph,) a French bibliographer, born at Douai in 1788, wrote several biographies, and other works. Dutillet, (Jean.) See Tillet. Dutour, dli'tooR', (Etienne Francois,) a French savant, born at Riom in 171 1, was a correspondent of the Academy of Sciences, and author of treatises on Magnetism, Electricity, the Diffraction of Light, etc. Died at Riom in 1784. Du Tramblay. See Dutremri.ay. Dutremblay or Du Tramblay, dii'tRSN'blk', (An- TOINE Pierre,) Baron, a French writer, born in Paris in 1745, was the author of numerous fables. Died in 1819. Dutrochet, dii'tRo'shi', (Rene Joachim Henri,) a French physiologist and natural philosopher, born al the chateau de Neon, Poitou, in 1776. He graduated as M.D. in 1806, and became military physician to Josejjh Bonaparte in Spain in 1808, but returned to France in 1809. He published a series of essays on physiology, which present new ideas, and among which are "Ob- servations on the Structure of Feathers," (1819,) and "Researches in Endosmosis and Exosmosis," (1828.) His former works appeared revised in a collection called "Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire anatomique et physiologique des Vegetaux et Animaux," (1837.) Died in Paris in 1847. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire ;" Adolphe Brongniart, "Notice sur H. Dutrochet," 1852; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Duvair, dii'vaR', (Guillaume,) a French writer and moralist, distinguished for learning and probity, was born in Paris in 1556. He opposed the League, and became first president of the parliament of Provence in 1599. In 16 16 he was chosen keeper of the seals. He made a French version of Epictetus, and wrote several excellent treatises on philosophy and other subjects, among which is one on "French Eloquence." He was regarded as one of the best writers of his time. Died in 1621. See C. A. Sapev, "Essai sur la Vie, etc. de Du Vair," 1847. Duval. See Espremenil. Duval, dii^'Sl', (Alexandre Vincent Pineu — pe'- nuh',) a popular French dramatist, born at Rennes in 1767. He produced in 1802 "Edward in Scotland," a political drama, which was warmly applauded. He ex- celled in invention, in dialogue, and in variety of effects. His works are numerous, and consist chiefly of comedies and comic operas. He was elected to the French Acad- emy in 1812 in the place of Legouve. Died in 1842. His brother, Henri Charles, born in 1770, wrote a " History of France in the l\eign of Charles VI.," (1842,) and a few other works. Died in 1847. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" Ballanche, " Discours de Reception k 1' Academic Fran^aise." Duval, ( Amaury Pineu,) a French litteratein-, brother of the preceding, was born at Rennes in 1760. He was chosen a member of the Institute in 1811. In 1816 he was selected by the Academy of Inscriptions to replace Ginguene in the commission of the " Histoire Litteraire de France," for which work he wrote many articles. Died in 1839. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Duval, (Charles,) a French architect, born at Beau- vais in 1800. Duval, (Eugene Emmanuel Amaury.) a French painter of history and portraits, son of Amaury Pineu, noticed above, was born near Paris in 1808. Duval, (Jean Pierre,) a French legislator and advo- cate, who, elected to the Convention in 1792, opposed the execution of the king, was proscribed as a Girondist, and escaped by concealment. When the Convention was dissolved, in 1795, passed into the Council of Five Hundred. Died in 1819. Duval, dii'vtl', (Nicolaas,) a Dutch painter, born at the Plague in 1644. He was employed at Loo by Wil- liam HI. of England. Died in 1732. Duval, (Pierre,) a nephew of Nicolas Sanson, was born at Abbeville, France, in 1618. He cultivated and taught geography with success, and received the title of royal geographer. Among his numerous works are "The World, or Universal Geography," and a " Description of France," (1691.) Died in 1683. Duval, (Valentine Jameray — zhtn/ri',) was born of poor parents in Champagne in 1695. In early youth he became a servant of certain hermits near Luneville, and contracted a passion for study. The Duke of Lor- raine (Leopold) sent him to college, and founded for him a chair of history at Luneville, where Duval lectured with success. About 1730 he became librarian to Francis, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and in 1748 he was appointed director of the imperial cabinet at Vienna. He wrote two treatises on medals and coins. Died in 1775. See "Vie de Duval," 1788; L. Brightwell, "Bypaths of Bio- graphy ;" Cari. Dielitz, " V. J. Duvals hochst merkwiirdige Lebens- geschichte," 1839. € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g asy; g, h, v., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.] 820 DUrCKINCK Duval, (Vincent,) a French physician, skilled in the treatment of deformed feet, was born in Eure in 1796. Duval le Camus, dii'vtK leh kt'miiss', (Pierre,) a skilful French painter, born at Lisieux (Calvados) in 1 790. He painted portraits, genre, landscapes, and familiar scenes. Among his works are **L'Ennui," (1827,) and "The Passage of the Ford," (1837.) Died in 1854. Duval Leroy, (or le Roy,) dii'vftl' leh-Kwa^ (Nico- las Claude,) a French mathematician, born at Bayeux about 1730, published "Elements of Navigation," and other works. Died in 1810. Duvau, clU\5', (Auguste,) a French botanist and Utterateiir, born at Tours in 1771, contributed to the "Biographic Universelle" the articles on Tournefort, Schiller, Lessing, Wieland, Wallenstein, and many others. Died in 1831. Duvaucel, dii\'6's§K, (Alfred,) an able French natu- ralist, born in Paris in 1792, was a step-son and pupil of the illustrious Cuvier. He had a great facility in acquir- ing languages, and made extensive attainments in natural history. In 181 7 he went, with the title of naturalist to the king, on a scientific excursion to India, which he ex- plored about six years with M. Diard. They made rich collections of animals, minerals, etc. for the Museum of Paris. Pie died at or near Madras in 1824. See Cuvier, "Notice sur les Voyages de M. Duvaucel," in the " Memoires de I'Academie des Sciences." Duvaucel, (Charles,) a French astronomer, born in Paris in 1734; died in 1820. Duvenede, van, vSn dii^eh-nid', (Marc,) a Flemish painter, born at Bruges about 1674, was a pupil of Carlo Maratta in Rome. He returned to Bruges, and painted pictures for churches. His "Martyrdom of Saint Law- rence" is praised by Descamps. Died in 1729. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Duverdier, dii'v^R^de-i', (Antoine,) a French bib- liographer, was born at Montbrison in 1544. He was counsellor to the king, and gentleman of the chamber. He is chiefly known by his " Bibliotheque de A. Du- verdier," (1585,) a catalogue of French authors. Died in 1600. Duverdier, (Gilbert Saulnier — s6^ie-i',) a French historian, who died in Paris in 1686. Duvergier, diiV^R^zhe-y, (Jean Baptiste Marie,) a French jurist, born at Bordeaux in 1792, published a " Complete Collection of Laws, Decrees, etc.," (24 vols., 1824-28.) In 1855 he became a councillor of state. Duvergier de Hauranne, dii'v^R^zhe-^' deh ho^rtn'. Abbe of Saint-Cyran, (se^r6N',) a noted French Jansenist theologian, was born at Bayonne in 1581. He formed a friendship with Jansenius at Louvain, and afterwards became a resident of Paris. He acquired great distinc- tion and influence by his ascetic life and his zeal for reforms. In 1620 he was chosen Abbe of Saint-Cyran. Among his friends or disciples were Arnauld and other recluses of Port-Royal. He published several tracts against the Jesuit Garasse. In 1638 he was imprisoned by Richelieu at Vincennes. He was released in 1642, and died in 1643. See Lancelot, " Memoires touchant la Vie de Monsieur de Saint- Cyran ;" Racine, " Histoire de Port-Royal ;" Sainte-Beuve, " His- toire de Port-Royal." Duvergier de Hauranne, (Jean Marie,) a French legislator, born at Rouen in 1771. He was a member of the Chamber of Deputies from September, 181 5, until 1823, and supported liberal principles. He wrote several legal works. Died in 1831. Duvergier de Hauranne, (Prosper,) an eminent French statesman, a son of the preceding, was born at Rouen in 1 798. He was identified with the Doctrinaires in politics, and in 183 1 entered the Chamber of Deputies, in which he acquired much influence. He was one of the master-spirits of the coalition formed by several shades of opposition in 1837, and maintained the maxim "The king reigns, but does not govern." He was one of the chief agitators of electoral reform in 1846 and 1847, and in the Assembly of 1848 acted with the conservatives. Having opposed the coup d''etat of December, 1851, he was exiled for a few months. He wrote a " History of Parliamentary Government in France," (2 vols., 1 857.) See Louis Blanc, " Histoire de dix Ans." Duvernet, dii^^R'ni', (Theophile,) Abb6, a French writer, born at Ambert in 1730, wrote a "Life of Vol- taire," which had a large sale, but has not much merit. Died in 1796. See VoLTAiKE, " Correspondance." Duverney, dii'v^R'ni', (Joseph Guichard— ge'- shtR',) an eminent French anatomist, born at Feurs, in Forez, in August, 1648. He went to Paris in his youth, and soon became distinguished as an eloquent lecturer on anatomy. His elocution was so graceful and impress- ive that famous actors attended his course to receive instruction in their art. He was received into the Acad- emy of Sciences in 1676, and was appointed professor of anatomy in the Jardin du Roi in 1679. He wrote an excellent treatise "On the Organ of Hearing," (1683,) and other anatomical works. Died in 1730. See " Biographie M^dicale;" Fontenelle, "iSloges des Acad^- miciens." Duvernoy, diiVgR'nwl', (Georges Louis,) an emi- nent French zoologist and anatomist, born at Montbe- liard in 1777. About 1802 he was employed by Cuvier as editor of his "Lectures on Comparative Anatomy," and he published the last three volumes of that work in 1805. He practised medicine at Montbeliard nearly twenty years, and became professor of natural history al, Strasbourg in 1827. In 1837 he succeeded Cuvier as pro- fessor in the College of France, and in 1850 he exchanged that place for the chair of comparative anatomy. He wrote numerous and important works on anatomy and zoology, among which is " Lectures on the History of Organized Bodies," (1842,) and contributed to the "Dic- tionary of Natural Sciences." Died in Paris in 1855. See QuERARU, "La France Litteraire." Duvernoy, (Jean Georges,) a French anatomist and writer, born at Montbeliard in 1691. He became professor of medicine at Tubingen in 17 15, and in 1725 obtained the chair of anatomy and surgery in the Acad- emy of Saint Petersburg, which he filled until 1746. Died in 1759. Duveyrier, dii^va're-i', (Anne Honor^; Joseph,) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1788. He wrote, under the assumed name of M^:lesville, many suc- cessful comedies and vaudevilles. Duveyrier, (Charles,) a brother of the preceding, born in Paris in 1803, wrote "La Marquise de Senne- terre," (1837,) and other popular comedies. Duviquet, dii^e'ki', (Pierre,) a French critic, born at Clamecy in 1766. In the Revolution he acted with the po])ular party, and in 1798 was one of the Council of Five Plundred. From 1814 to 1830 he was employed as editor of the "Journal des Debats," for which he wrote able critiques on the drama. Died in 1835. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Duvivier, dii^e've-i', (Franciade Fleurus, fR^N'- se''td' fluh^riiss',) a trench general, born at Rouen in 1794, served with distinction in Algeria from 1830 to 1840. On the formation of the republic, in 1848, he be- came a general of division. He was mortally wounded in a fight with the insurgents of Paris in June, 1848. He wrote several military works. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Duvoisin, diiVwi^z^N', (Jean Baptiste,) a French bishop, born at Langres in 1744. He was a professor in the schools of the Sorbonne before the Revolution, and was an exile from 1792 till 1802. About the latter date he became Bishop of Nantes. He was one of the four bishops chosen to reside with the pope during his cap- tivity in France. Besides other works, he published "Evangelical Demonstration," and "Defence of Social Order against the Principles of the French Revolution," (1798.) ^Died in 1813. See Querakd, "La France Litteraire." Duyckinck, dl'kink, (Evert Augustus,) an Ameri- can essayist and critic, born in the city of New York in 1816. He founded the "Literary World" in 1847, ^'""^ edited it for several years. In conjunction with his brother George L., he published a valuable work entitled "Cyclopoedia of American Literature, embracing Per- sonal and Critical Notices of Authors," (2 vols., 1856; new edition, with Supplement, 1866.) 5, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; DUrCKINCK 821 DTER Duyckinck; (George Long,) an essayist and scholar, brother of the preceding, was born in New York in 1822 or 1823. He contributed to the "Literary World" and the "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," and wrote a " Life of George Herbert," (1858.) Died in March, 1863. Duyse, van, vin doi'zeh, (Prudens,) a Dutch anti- quary and poet, born at Dendermonde in 1805. Duzi, doot'see, or Ducci, doot'chee, (Virgilio,) an ItaHan painter, born at Citta di Castello, lived about 1600. Dwap^yana. See Vyasa. Dwight, dwlt, (Edmund,) an American merchant and patron of learning, born at Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1780, graduated at Yale College in 1799. He was a partner of the firm which established large cotton-mills at Chicopee Falls and Holyoke. He is said to have been the first who proposed to establish normal schools in Massachusetts, and he subsequently gave ten thousand dollars towards their support. Died in 1849. Dwight, (Harrison Gray Otis,) an American mis- sionary, born about 1803. He published "Christianity Revived in the East," (1850.) Died in 1862. Dwight, (Sereno Edwards,) D.D., an American divine, son of President Dwight, was born at Greenfield Hill, Connecticut, in 1786. He graduated at Yale in 1803. After practising law for nearly ten years, he studied divinity, and was several years pastor of Park Street Church, but afterwards taught school in New Haven and Boston. From 1833 to 1836 he was presi- dent of Hamilton College, New York. Died in 1850. Dr. Dwight edited the works of his great-grandfather, Jonathan Edwards, (10 vols. 8vo,) to which he added a life of the author. A volume of his discourses, with a memoir of his life, has been published by W. T. Dwight. Dwight, (Theodore,) an able American journalist, born at Northampton, Massachusetts, in 1765, was a brother of Timothy Dwight, noticed below. He gained distinction as a lawyer, and was a prominent leader of the Federal party. He edited "The Hartford Mirror," an organ of the Federalists, was secretary of the Hart- ford Convention in 1814, and founded, about 181 7, the "New York Daily Advertiser," which he edited with great ability until 1836. Died in 1846. Dwight, (Timothy,) an eminent American divine and scholar, born at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 14th of May, 1752, was a son of Timothy Dwight, a merchant. His mother, Mary Edwards, a daughter of the celebrated Jonathan Edwards, was a woman of talents and rare worth. In 1765 he entered Yale Col- lege, where he graduated in 1769. He acted as tutor in that college for six years, from 1771 to 1777. In 1774 he finished "The Conquest of Canaan," an epic poem, (printed in 1785.) He married a lady named Woolsey in 1777, was licensed to preach, and became a chaplain in the army the same year. Having left the army in October, 1778, he worked on a farm in Northampton for five years, during which he aided to support his mother, and preached occasionally at several adjacent villages. In 1783 he was ordained minister of the Congregational church of Greenfield, Connecticut. His salary being insufficient for the support of his family, he opened an academy, (at Greenfield,) which had a high reputation. He was chosen president of Yale College in 1795, '^"^^ was annually appointed professor of theology there for ten years. This appointment was made permanent in 1805. He also performed the functions of preacher at the chapel of the college. He published "Greenfield Hill," a poem, (1794,) and a number of occasional ser- mons at difi"erent times. He continued to preside over Yale College until his death, and rendered important services as a teacher of youth, for which he was emi- nently qualified. His principal works are "Theology Explained and Defended in a Series of One Hundred and Seventy-three Sermons," (5 vols., 1818,) which is highly esteemed, and "Travels in New England and New York," (4 vols., 1821.) "This work," says Southey, "though the humblest in its pretences, is the most im- portant of his writings, and will derive additional value from time. . . . The remarks upon natural history are those of an observant and sagacious man who makes no pretences to science : they are more interesting, therefore, than those of a merely scientific traveller." ("London Quarterly Review," vol. xxx., October, 1823.) He died at New Haven in January, 1817. See his Life in Sparks's "American Biography," vol. iv., second series, by William B. Sprague; "Life of Dr. Dwight," by his son, Serexo E. Dwight; Griswold, " Poets and Poetry of America," and "Prose Writers of America;" "National Portrait-Gallery of Distin- guished Americans," vol. i. ; Duyckinck, " Cyclopsedia of .American Literature," vol. i. ; Sprague, "Annals of the American Pulpit." Dwight, (Wilder,) Lieutenant-Colonel, a brave American officer, born at Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1833, was a brother of General William Dwight. He died of wounds received at the battle of Antietam, September 17, 1862. See "Life and Letters of Wilder Dwight," 1868. Dwight, (William,) an American general, born in Massachusetts. He served in Louisiana in May, 1863, and took part in the battle of Pleasant Hill, under Gen- eral Banks, April, 1864. Dyce, (Rev. Alexander,) a British editor and critic, born in Edinburgh about 1798. He became a resident of London in 1827, after which he gave proof of his critical ability in editions of Webster, Middleton, Beau- mont and Fletcher, Marlowe, and other old dramatists. In 1858 he published an excellent edition of Shakspeare, in 6 vols., "which is," says the Athenaeum, "the most perfect te.xt now to be obtained, with brief annotations' sufficient for all practical purposes." He wrote the lives of Shakspeare, Pope, and Akenside in a collection called the " Aldine Poets." Died in May, 1869. See " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1S59. Dyce, (William,) R.A., a painter of history, was born at Aberdeen, in Scotland, about 1806. He began to exhibit in the Royal Academy in 1827. His picture of "Joash shooting the Arrow of Deliverance" (1844) procured him a high reputation and admission into the Royal Academy as associate. He was one of the artists employed to decorate the new Houses of Parliament, and painted in the Plouse of Lords a fresco of the "Baptism of Ethelbert," which is much admired. Among his oil- paintings are a " Madonna and Child," (1846,) and "The Meeting of Jacob and Rachel," (1850.) Died in 1864. Dyche, (Thomas,) an English teacher and educa- tional writer. Died in 1750. Dyck, van, (Anthony.) See Vandyke. Dyck, van, vSn dik, (Floris,) born in Haarlem in 1577, was a skilful painter of history and of fruits. The Museum of the Louvre contains two of his works, repre- senting scenes in the life of Hagar. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Dyck, van, (Philip,) an excellent painter, born in Amsterdam in 1680, is regarded by the Dutch as the last of their great painters. He was a pupil of Arnold Boonen. In 1710 he settled at Middelburg, where he gained a high reputation, and imitated Gerard Dow with success. He afterwards worked at the Hague, and was employed as painter by the States of Holland. He painted portraits, history, and cabinet pictures, imi- tated nature with fidelity, and finished his work with care. Among his works are "Susanna and the Elders," and a portrait of the Prince of Orange. Died in 1752. See Desca.mps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Dy'er, (Sir Edward,) an English poet, born about 1 540. He was employed in several embassies by Queen Elizabeth, who knighted him. He associated with the famous Dr. Dee, and was reputed a Rosicrucian. His works consist of pastoral odes and madrigals. See Ellis, "Specimens of the Early English Poets." Dyer, (George,) an English scholar, antiquary, and divine, born in London in 1755. Having officiated as a Baptist minister at Oxford, he became a resident of Lon- don in 1792, and applied himself with success to literary pursuits. He wrote a " History of the University of Cambridge," and edited the Greek Testament, and seve- ral plays of Euripides. He contributed the original portions (except the preface) of " Valpy's Classics," (141 vols.,) on which he was employed from 1819 to 1830, and published some poems and other works. Charles Lamb, who was his friend, has commemorated his merit as an author and a man, in his Essays. Died in 1841. Dyer or Deyer, (Sir James,) an English jurist, born at Roundhill in 15 ii. He becaine eminent in his pro- € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Yi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) DTER 822 EARLE fession, and in 1552 was elected Speaker of the House of Commons. From 1560 until his death, in 1582, he was chief justice of the common pleas. His Reports were recommended to students by Lord Coke. See Foss, "The Judges of England." Dyer, (John,) a British poet, born in 1700, was the son of a Welsh solicitor. In his youth he was an itine- rant painter. In 1727 he produced his " Grongar Hill," which is regarded as his best poem. "The scenes which it displays," says Dr. Johnson, " are so pleasing, the images which they raise are so welcome to the mind, that when it is once read it will be read again." He went to Italy to study painting, and wrote there "The Ruins of Rome," a poem, which was much admired. After his return he took orders, married Miss Ensor, and obtained the livings of Calthorpe, Coningsby, Bed- ftnd, and Kirkby. 1\\ 1757 he published his longest pjem, "The Fleece," which was unfavourably criticised by Johnson. Dr. Drake, on the other hand, thinks " it contains a vast variety of landscapes, drawn and coloured in the most spirited and fascinating style." Dyer was a man of pure morality and amiable temper. Died in 1758. See Johnson's " Lives of the English Poets." Dyer, (Mary,) a member of the Society of Friends, or Quakers, who suffered death for her religion. She was hanged on Boston Common in 1660. See Hii.dreth's " History of the United States," vol. i. chap. xii. Dyer, (Samuel,) an English scholar, born about 1725, was noted for his wit and convivial habits. He was a member of the literary club composed of Dr. Johnson and his friends. About 1758 he revised the English edition of Plutarch's "Lives," for which he made new translations of the lives of Pericles and Demetrius. Died in 1772. Dyer, (William,) an English clergyman, who, in 1662, was ejected from Cholesbury, in Buckingham- shire, for nonconformity. His Sermons, printed in 1663- 66, are said to resemble the style of Bunyan. He after- wards joined the Society of Friends. Died in 1696, aged sixty. Dyke, (Daniel,) an eminent English Puritan divine, who wrote a treatise "On Repentance," (1631,) and Ser- mons, which were highly praised by Bishop Wilkins. Died about 1614. Dy'mond, (Jonathan,) an eminent English moralist and writer, born at Exeter in 1796, was a member of the Society of Friends. He became a linen-draper in his native city. He advocated the principles of peace in an able work entitled ati "Inquiry into the Accordancy of War with the Principles of Christianity," (1823.) He also wrote "Essays on the Principles of Morality, and on the Private and Political Rights and Obligations of Mankind," (1829,) which has passed through nimierous editions. Commenting on this work, Professor George Bush remarks, " Whether we regard the soundness and lucidness of his reasonings, the temper, candour, and wisdom of his conclusions, the elegance of his style, the felicity of his illustrations, or the singularly excellent spirit which pervades the whole, the Essays of Dymond are entitled to rank high in the highest class of ethical productions." (See Preface to the American edition of Dymond's "Essays," New York, 1834.) Died in 1828. See a Review of Dymond's Essays, by Robert Southky, in the "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1831, vol. xliv. ; "Chris- tian Examiner," vol. xviii. ; Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." Dzahabi, dzlh'ha-bee, or Dzehebi, (Ahmed, ^h'- med,) a famous Arabian historian and jurist, born at Damascus in 1275 > died in 1347. Dzatee or Dzati, dzS'tee, surnamed RouMi, (roo'- mee,) a Turkish poet, born at Carasi ; died in 1546. Dzondi, dzon'dee, (Carl Heinrich,) a German med- ical writer, born in Saxony in 1770; died in 1835. E. Eachard. See Echard. Eachard, gtch'ard, (John,) D.D., an English clergy- man, born in Suffolk in 1636. He became a Fellow of Catherine Hall, Cambridge, in 1658, and Master of the same in 1675. He displayed a talent for ridicule in his works, among which were "The Ground and Occasions of the Contempt of the Clergy and Religion inquired into," (1670,) and a "Dialogue on Hobbes's State of Nature," (1672.) "I have known men happy enough at ridicule," says Dean Swift, "who upon grave subjects were perfectly stupid ; of which Dr. Eachard was a great instance." Died in 1697. See Thomas Davies, "Life of J. Eachard;" " Biographia Britan- nica." Eadgar. See Edgar. Eadie, ee'de, (John,) a Scottish Presbyterian divine and biblical critic, born at Alva, in the county of Stir- ling, about 1814. He has published several popular works, among which are the " Biblical Cyclopaedia," (6th edition, 1857,) a "Life of Dr. Kitto," and a "Condensed Concordance to the Scriptures," (20th edition, i860.) He succeeded Dr. Mitchell as professor of biblical litera- ture to the United Presbyterian Church in 1843. ^s, or was recently, pastor of a congregation in Glasgow. Eadmer, gd'mer, or Edmer, an English historian and monk, was the friend and companion of Bishop Anselm. He wrote the "Historia Novorum," or "History of his own Times" from 1066 to 11 22, which contains valuable information, and the " Life of Anselm." He was elected Bishop of St. Andrew's in 1120. Died about 1124. Eadmund. See Edmund. Eadred. See Edred. Eadward. See Edward. Eadwig. See Edwig. Eagles, ee'glz, (Rev. John,) an English writer and artist, born at Bristol about 1784. He contributed to "Blackwood's Magazine" and other periodicals. A vol- ume of his contributions to Blackwood was published, under the title of "The Sketcher," in 1856. Died in 1855. See "Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 1855. Eames, eemz, } (John,) an English savant, wrote papers on "Natural Philosophy," etc. for the "Philo- sophical Transactions" from 1726 to 1742, and was as- sociated with J. Martyn in publishing an Abridginent of the said Transactions, (1719-33.) Died in 1744. Eandi, i-duMee, (Giuseppe Antonio Francesco GiROLAMO,) born at Saluces, Piedmont, in 1735, became professor of natural philosophy in the University of Turin in 1788. He wrote "Elements of Geometry and Physics," (1793,) and other works. Died in 1799. idaque, the French of ^F^acus, which see. Eardley, erd'le, (Sir Culling,) an English publicist, born at Hatfield in 1805. He was noted for his zealous assertion of Protestantism. Died in 1863. Earle, erl, (J.\mes,) an American portrait-painter, born in Massachusetts, studied in London. Died in Charles- ton, South Carolina, in 1 796. He held a high rank among American artists of his time. Earle, erl, (John,) an English bishop, born at York in 1601, graduated at Oxford in 1624, and became chap- lain and tutor to Prince Charles, (afterwards Charles II.,) whom he followed into exile. In 1662 he was appointed Bisho]) of Worcester, and in 1663 transferred to the see of Salisbury. He wrote a popular work entitled " Micro- cosmography," a delineation of character and manners, and translated into Latin the "Eikon Basilike." His character was excellent. Burnet says, " Earle was the man of all the clergy for whom the king had the greatest esteem." Died in 1665. See Wood, "Athena Oxonienses." Earle, (Pliny,) an American inventor, born at Leices- ter, Massachusetts, in 1762. He invented a machine for making cards which are used in carding wool and cotton. Died in 1832. Earle, (Thomas,) an American writer and philan- thropist, son of the preceding, was born at Leicester, Massachusetts, in 1791. He practised law in Philadelphia for many years. He was one of the most influential members of the State Constitutional Convention of 1837, a. e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, s/ior/; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mhX\ n6t; good; moon; EARLOM 823 EBELMEN and in 1840 was the candidate of the Liberty party for the Vice-Presidency. Died in 1849. Among his works are treatises on penal law and on States' rights. His brother Pliny, a physician, born in 1809, published in 1841 a work on the asylums for the insane in Europe. Harlom, er'lom, (Richard,) one of the most eminent English engravers of his time, was born in London about 1742, or, as some say, in 1728. He has probably never been surpassed as a mezzotinto engraver. Among his master-pieces is "The Royal Academy." He engraved the works of many Italian and Flemish painters ; he also left fruit- and flower-pieces, after Huysum, and a collection of prints after Claude Lorrain, entitled " Liber Veritatis," (3 vols., 1 777-1804.) Died in 1822, Early, er'le, (John,) an eminent American divine, IJishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, was born in Virginia in 1785. At an early age he became an itinerant preacher, and was chosen bishop in 1854. Early, (Jubal A.,) an American general, born in Vir- ginia about 1 81 8, graduated at West Point in 1837. He commanded a division of General Lee's army at Gettys- burg, July 2-3, 1863. In July, 1864, he invaded Mary- land, and sent a body of cavalry on a raid to Chambers- burg, which they burned. Having moved his army back to the Shenandoah Valley, he was defeated by Sheridan on the Opequan Creek and at Fisher's Hill on the 19th and 20th of September. On the 19th of October, 1864, he surprised the Union army at Cedar Creek, in the absence of General Sheridan ; but the latter, having ar- rived in the afternoon, gained a decisive victory. General Early losing the greater part of his artillery and trains. East, (Sir Edward Hyde,) an English jurist, born about 1764, published "King's Bench Rejiorts, 1800- 1812," which are highly commended, and another excel- lent legal production, entitled " Pleas of the Crown," (i8o3.^> Died in 1847. East'burn, (James Wallis,) a poet and Episcopal clergyman, born in England in 1797. He became in 181 8 rector of a church in Accomac county, Virginia. In con- junction with Robert C. Sands, he wrote " Yamoyden," a romantic poem founded on the history of the Indian king Philip. Died in 1819. See " North American Review" for April, 1821. Eastburn, (Manton,) D.D., a bishop, brother of the preceding, was born in England in 1801. Having been brought by his parents to New York, he graduated at Columbia College in 1817. He received holy orders in 1822, and was for many years pastor of the Church of the Ascension in New York. He was appointed Bishop of Massachusetts in 1843. East'lake, (Sir Charles Lock,) an eminent English historical painter, born at Plymouth in 1793. He be- came a pupil of Fuseli in the Royal Academy, and visited Italy and Greece about 181 8, after which he passed some years in Rome. In 1828 he produced a remarkable pic- ture of " Pilgrims to Rome first coming in Sight of the Holy City." He was elected a Royal Academician in 1830, and president of the Royal Academy in 1850. His picture of " Christ Weeping over Jerusalem" was greatly admired for a union of refinement with earnest religious feeling. He has enriched the literature of art with valu- able works, among which are a version of Goethe's "Theory of Colours," (1840,) and "Materials for a His- tory of Oil-Painting," (1847.) Died about the end of 1865. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" " London Quarterly Review" for March, 1848; "Gentleman's Magazine" for February, 1866. Eastlake, (Elizabeth Rigby,) Lady, wife of the preceding, to whom she was married in 1849. Among her works are "Letters from the Shores of the Baltic," (1841,) and "Livonian Tales." East'man, (Charles G.,) an American poet and journalist, born in Oxford county, Maine, in 1816. He became about 1846 editor of the "Vermont Patriot," published at Montpelier, and produced a volume of poems in 1848. Eastman, (Mary Henderson,) an American writer, born at Warrenton, Virginia, about 181 8. She pub- lished, besides other works, " Romance of Indian Life," (1852,) and "Aunt Phillis's Cabin," designed as a reply to " Uncle Tom's Cabin." East'wick, (Edward B.,) an English Orientalist, born in Berkshire in 1814. He was employed in India as interpreter in the service of the East India Company. About 1845 he became professor of Oriental languages in the College of Haileybury. He has published, besides other works, "Dry Leaves from Young Egypt," (1849,) a version of" Gulistan," from the Persian, (1852,) " Lights of Canopus," (1854,) and a version of "The Four l3er- vishes," a Persian tale. Eaton, ee'ton, ( Amos, ) a distinguished American naturalist, born in 1777, graduated at Williams College, studied law in early life, and was admitted to the bar. On the organization of the Rensselaer Institute, about 1828, at Troy, New York, he was appointed principal and senior professor, which position he held till his death in 1842. He published a text-book on botany, which passed through numerous editions, an " Index to the Geology of the Northern States," and other scientific works. By his writings and zeal in the cause of natural science he did much to promote the study of natural history in the United States in the early part of the present century. Eaton, ee'ton, (John,) an English clergyman, born in 1575, preached at Wickham Market, and wrote Anti- noniian treatises on Faith and Justification. Died in 1641. Eaton, (Horace,) born in \Vindsor county, Vermont, in 1804, was elected Governor of Vermont in 1846, and was for several years State superintendent of common schools. Died in 1855. Eaton, (William,) an American soldier, born in Woodstock, Connecticut, in 1764. He was sent as con- sul to Tunis in 1798, and was involved in a series of negotiations and disputes, which he conducted with great ability and courage. After hostilities had begun between the United States and Tripoli in 1801, he made an at- tempt to revolutionize Tripoli by means of an army which he commanded; but a treaty of peace in 1805 rendered his attempt abortive. Died in 1811. See a "Life of W. Eaton" in Sparks's "American Biography," vol. ix., ist series, by C. C. Felton. Ebben, Sb'ben, or Ebbon, ^b'bon, a German monk of the twelfth century, wrote a "Life of Otho, Bishop of Bamberg." Ebbesen, §b'beh-sen, (Niels, or Nicholas,) a Danish patriot, who took arms against Count Gerard, a petty tyrant, whom he killed. He afterwards defeated the army of Gerard, but lost his life in the action, in 1340. Eb'bon, [Fr. pron. i^b^N',] a French ecclesiastic, born about 775 a.d. He became Bishop of Rheims in 816, and aided Lothaire in rebellion against Louis le Debon- naire. Died in 851. E'bed Je'su, a Syrian writer, who became Nestorian Bishop of Nisibis about 1290. Died in 1318. Among his numerous works is "The Book of the Pearl," a treat- ise on the truth of the Christian religion. Ebel, a'bel, (Johann Gottfried,) a German geolo- gist, born at Ziillichau in 1764. He wrote a popular "Guide to Travellers in Switzerland," (1793,) an able treatise on the geology of the Alps, ("Ueber den Bau der Erde in den Alpen-Gebirgen," 1808,) and other works. Died in 1830. Ebel, (Johann Philipp,) a German writer, born in 1592 ; died in 1627. Ebeling, a'beh-liug^ (Christoph Daniel,) a German historian and scholar, born in Hildesheim, Hanover, in 1 741, was for many years professor of history and of Greek at Hamburg. His principal work is a valuable "History and Geography of North America," (7 vols., 1796-1816.) Died in 1817. Ebelmen, WhlVmb-H', (Jacques Joseph,) an eminent French chemist, born at Beaume-les-Dames in 1814. He became professor of docimacy in the Ecole des Mines in 1845. In 1847 was appointed an engineer of the first class, and director of the porcelain manufactory at Sevres, the products of which he raised to a higher state of perfection. He wrote for the "Annales des Mines" and " Annales de Physique et de Chimie" many treatises, among which was one " On the Decomposition of Rocks," (1848.) He died in 1852, a few days after he had been appointed engineer-in-chief of mines. See M. Chevreul, "Notice sur Ebelmen," 1855; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." € as ^; 5 as s; g hard; g as G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^^Se# Explanations, p. 23.) EBER EBU-THALIB Eber, a'ber, [Lat. Ebe'rus,] (Paul,) a German Prot- estant theologian, born at Ritzingen in 151 1, was a friend of Melanchthon, with whom he attended the Conference of Worms in 1 541. He became professor of Hebrew at Wittenberg in 1556, and wrote, among other works, (in Latin,) an "Exposition of the Gospels," and a "His- tory of the Jews," (1561.) Died in 1569. See M. Adam, " Vitae Eruditorum ;" Balthasar Menz, "Oratio de Vita et Rebus gestis P. Eberi," 1581 ; G. H. Sixt, "P. Eber, der Schiiler, Freund und Amtsgenosse der Reformatoren," 1843. Eb'er-ard, a son-in-law of the emperor Lothaire, ob- tained about 845 A.D. the duchy of Friuli, then one of the most important fiefs of Italy. He was the father of Berenger, King of Italy. Eberhard, a''ber-haRt^ or Sb'er-haRt^ (August Gott- LOB,) a German savant and writer, born at Belzig, Prus- sia, in 1769. Among his prose works are stories entitled "Ferdinand Werner," (1802,) and "Hannchen and the Chickens," which had a great success. His poem "The First Man and the Earth" ("Der erste Mensch und die Erde," 1828) is praised for its noble style. Died in 1845. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Eberhard, (Christoph,) a German natural philoso- pher, born in 1655 ; died in 1730. Eberhard, (Johann August,) a German philosopher and elegant writer, born at Halberstadt in 1739. He pub- lished in 1772 an "Apology for Socrates," which exercised great influence in the propagation of that theological sys- tem popularly known as neology or rationalism. This work was severely criticised by Lessing and others, and hindered Eberhard's advancement in the Church. He was appointed professor of history at Halle in 1778. In philosophy he was a staunch partisan of Leibnitz, and an adversary of Kantism. He wrote, among other works, a " History of Philosophy," (1788,) and a "Dictionary of German Synonyms," (6 vols., 1 793-1802,) which was universally admired. Died in 1809. See F. NicoLAi, " Gedaclitnissschi ift auf J. A. Eberhard," Ber- lin, 1810; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Eberhard, (Johann Heinrich,) a German jurist, born at Hochstadt in 1743 ; died in 1772. Eberhard, (Johann Peter,) a German medical writer, born at Altona in 1727; died in 1779. Eberhard, (Konrad,) a distinguished German sculp- tor, born at Hindelang in 1768. He became professor of sculpture in the Academy of Munich in 1816. Among his works are " Leda and the Swan," and a statue of Saint Michael. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Eb'er-hard or Evrard de Bethune, a Flemish grammarian of the twelfth century, wrote a Latin Gram- mar. Eberle, a'ber-leh, (Adam,) a German painter, born at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1805; died at Rome in 1832. Eb'er-le, (John,) an American medical writer, born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, in 1788, graduated in the University of Pennsylvania in 1809. He published about 1822 a "Treatise on Therapeutics," took a promi- nent part in establishing the Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia, and became a professor in that institu- tion. Died in 1838. See S. D. Gross, "American Medical Biography." Eberlin, a'ber-leen', (Daniel,) a German musician, born at Nuremberg about 1630. He became succes- sively soldier, chapel-master, and banker. Died at Cas- sel in 1685. Ebers, a'bers, (Emil,) a German painter, distinguished for humour and comic talent, was born at Breslau in 1807. Among his subjects are smugglers, outlaws, etc. Ebersberger, a'bers-bgRG'er, or lEbersperger, a'bers-p^RG^er, (Johann Georg,) a German engraver of maps, born at Lichtenau in 1695; died in 1760. Eberstein, von, fon a'ber-stin', (Wilhelm Lud- wiG,) Baron, a German metaphysical philosopher, born in 1762 ; died in 1805. Ebert, a'b^Rt, (Friedrich Adolph,) a distinguished German bibliographer, born at Taucha, near Leipsic, in 1791. He was appointed director of the Royal Library of Dresden in 1828. Among his principal works are a "Life of Napoleon," (1817,) and a "Universal Biblio- graphic Dictionary," (2 vols., 1820-30.) Died in 1834. Ebert, (Johann Arnold,) a German poet, born at Hamburg in 1723. He was for a long time professor in the Carolinum of Brunswick. His German version of young's " Night Thoughts" (1790-95) is praised by Guizot. He translated other English works, and wrote lyric verses of some merit. Died in 1795. See Ersch und Gruder, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Ebert, (Johann Jakob,) a German philosopher, born at Breslau in 1737, became professor of mathematics at Wittenberg. He published "Principles of Practical Philosophy," (1784,) and other works for the instruction of youth. Died in 1805. Ebert, (Theodor, ) a German Hebraist, who was professor of Hebrew at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. He pub- lished several works. Died in 1630. Eberus, (Paul.) See Eber. Eberweiu. See Ebroin. E'bi-011, the supposed founder of the E'bionites, a sect of heretics who existed in the East in the first cen- tury. They rejected the New Testament and observed the Mosaic law, but professed to be Christians. Origen and some others, however, derive the name of Ebionites from a Hebrew word signifying "poor." See Matter, "Histoire du Gnosticisme." Eble, §b''la^ (Jean Baptiste,) an eminent French general, born in Lorraine in 1758. As general of bri- gade, he directed the sieges of Ypres, Nieuvvpoort, Bois- le-Duc, etc. He was made a general of division in 1793. In 1795 he made the campaign of the Palatinate, under Moreau, and in 1800 commanded the artillery at the victory of Hohenlinden. In the Russian campaign of 1812 he was chief commandant of the pontoon-train, and rendered great services at the passage of the Bere- zina, where it is said Bonaparte was saved by his energy and skill. He died from the effects of cold and exposure on this occasion, just as he was appointed inspector- general and commander-in-chief of the artillery of the grand army. See De Courcelles, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Francais." Ebn. See Ibn. Ebn-Koteybah. See Ibn-Koteybah. Ebner, ^b'ner, (Erasmus,) a German poet, born at Nuremberg in 151 1, was a pupil of Melanchthon. He wrote Latin epigrams which were printed with those of Melanchthon, and chscovered that cadmium and copper fused together produce brass. Died in 1577. Eboli, ^b'o-lee or a'bo-lee, (Ana de Mendoza — di mgn-do'tha,) Princess of, a Spanish lady, born about 1535 or 1540, became the wife of Ruy Gomez de Sylva, Prince of Eboli. She was, it is said, the mistress of Philip II., and was suspected of being an accomplice of Antonio Perez in the assassination of Escovedo. She was ar- rested in 1579 and imprisoned, but was soon released. See Mignet, "Antonio Perez et Philippe IL" Ebrard, a''bR3.Rt, (Johann Heinrich August,) a prominent German Protestant theologian, born at Er- langen in 181 8. He became professor of theology at Erlangen in 1847. He edited a review called "The Future of the Church," (1845-47,) and wrote, besides other works, " Christian Dogmatics," (2 vols., 1852,) and "The Divine and Human ( Gottmenschlichkeit ) in Chris- tianity," (1844.) Many of his sermons have been pub- lished. He is, or was recently, preacher and councillor of the Consistory at Spire. Eb're-mar, written also Evermer, third Patriarch of Jerusalem, was born near Therouanne. He was raised to the dignity of patriarch in 1103. Died after 1122. E'broin, [Lat. Ebroi^'nus,] written also Eberwein, a powerful and ambitious Frank, was mayor of the palace under Clotaire HI. (King of Neustria) and under Theo- doric III. He was killed in 681 a.d. See SisMONDi, "Histoire des Francais." Ebu. See Aboo. Ebu-Beker. See Aboo-Bekr. Eb'ur-y, (Robert Grosvenor,) Lord, an English peer, a son of the second Earl Grosvenor, was born in 1 80 1. He was a member of the House of Commons from 1822 to 1857, and was then raised to the peerage. He supported several bills for the promotion of civil and religious liberty. Ebu-Thalib. See Aboo-TAlib. a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fXt; mSt; nSt; good; moon ; ECATARINA 825 ECKHEL Ecatarina. See Catherine, Empress of Russia. Ecbert. See Egbert. Eccard. See Eckhart. Eccelino da Romano. See Romano. Ecclielensis. See Echellensis. Eccius. See EcK. Eccles, ^k'klz, (Ambrose,) an Irish critic, published editions oi " Cymbeline," "King Lear," and the "Mer- chant of Venice," with copious notes and critical essays on these dramas by himself and others. Died in 1809. Eccles, ^k''klz, (John,) an excellent English musical composer, set some of Congreve's songs to music, with a success that gained great applause. Died in 1735. Eccles, (Solomon,) an English musician, father of the preceding, lived about 1680. Ecgberht or Ecgbert, See Egbert. idchard, a^shtR',(jACQUES,) a French Dominican friar, born at Rouen in 1644, wrote a work on the authors who had been members of his order, entitled "Scriptores Ordinis Praedicatorum recensiti," (1721,) which is highly commended. Died in 1724. Echard, etch^'ard, (Rev. Lawrence,) an English his- torian, born in Suffolk about 1670, obtained Alford and other livings in Suffolk. He is the author of a "General Ecclesiastical History," (1702,) and of a "History of England to 1688," (3 vols., 1707-18,) which was once quite popular, but has ceased to be read since the pub- lication of Rapin. Died in 1730. E-eh-el-len'sis, (Abraham,) a learned Maronite, born at Eckel, Syria. After professing Syriac and Arabic at Rome, he came to Paris about 1630 to assist in the edi- tion of Le Jay's Polyglot Bible, and received the title of interpreter to the king. He returned to Rome in 1653. He wrote an " Oriental Chronicle," and translated sev- eral works from the Arabic. Di^d in 1664. Echeverri, de, dk etch-^-v^r-ree', sometimes written Etcheverri, (Juan,) the most famous of the Basque poets, born at Tafalla, in Navarre, about 1550, wrote the "Mysteries of the Faith," and other religious poems. E-ehid'na, [Gr. "Exi^va,] in the Greek mythology, a daughter of Tartarus, represented as a monster, half woman and half serpent, was the mother of the Chimaera, Cerberus, the Sphinx, and other monsters. Echinus, (Sebastian.) See Erizzo. E-ehi^on, ['E^y^'w^^,] a Greek painter and statuary, who lived about 350 B.C., is ranked by Pliny among the great painters, and is praised by Cicero. E'-eho, [Gr. 'H;\:w,] a nymph of classic mythology, and an attendant of Juno, was called a daughter of the Air. The poets feigned that Juno, offended by her unruly tongue, changed her into an echo, and ordained that she should not be able to speak until another had spoken, nor be silent after another had spoken to her. She was disappointed in her love of Narcissus, and pined away until nothing remained of her but her voice. Eck, gk, Eckius, ek'ke-us, or Eccius, Echius, a'ke- tis, (Johann,) a German theologian, famous as an able antagonist of Luther, was born at Eck, in Suabia, in 14S6. He became a professor in the University of Ingolstadt. In 1 5 19 he disputed against Luther at Leipsic, and in 1530 was chosen, with others, to controvert the Lutheran Confession of Faith at the Diet of Augsburg. He wrote a " Manual of Controversy," and other works. Died in 1543- See Arnold, "Kirchen- und Ketzer-Historie." Eck or Eckius, (Leonard,) a German jurist, born in 1480, acquired a great reputation as a lawyer, and was emi)loyed by Charles V. Died at Munich in 1550. Eck, van, vSn Ik, (Cornelis,) a Dutch jurist, born at Arnheim. He became professor of civil and modern law at Utrecht in 1692. He wrote " Principles of Civil Law," (" Principia Juris Civilis," 1689,) and other works. Died in 1732. Eckard. See Eckhard and Eckhart. Eckard, dk'k§,Rt, (Georg Ludwig,) a German por- trait-painter of high reputation, born at Hamburg in 1769 ; died in 1794. Eckart, (Dietrich Gotthard,) a German jurist, born at Eilenburg in 1696 ; died in 1760. Eckartshausen, von, fon gk'kiRts-how'zen, (Karl,) a German writer, born in Bavaria in 1752, became aulic councillor at Munich. He wrote, besides other works, " God is the Purest Love," (" Gott ist die reinste Liebe," 1784,) which had great success. Died in 1803. Eckerbrecht, gk'ker-bRgict^ (Philipp,) a German astronomer, born at Nuremberg in 1594, was a pupil or friend of Kepler. Died in 1667. Eckermann, gk^ker-mSn^ (Johann Peter,) a Ger- man litteratetcr, born at Winsen, Hanover, in 1792. He published in 1821 a volume of poems, which procured for him the friendship of Goethe, and he co-operated with that author in the complete edition of his works at Weimar, In 1832-33 he published the posthumous works of Goethe, in accordance with his last will. His " Conversations with Goethe" ( " Gesprache mit Gothe," 3 vols., 1836-48) has been translated into various lan- guages. Died in 1854. See " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1836; Brockhaus, " Conversatioiis-Lexilcon." Eckersberg, gk'kers-b^RG', (Christoph Wilhelm,) an eminent Danish painter, born in Holstein about 1782, studied in Paris and Italy. He painted history, por- traits, and marine pieces with great success. Among his works is "The Death of Balder." Died in 1853. Eck'ford, (Henry,) a distinguished naval architect, born in Scotland in 1775. He served an apprenticeship to a shipbuilder in Quebec, and in 1796 established him- self in business in New York. He was soon distinguished for the superiority of his vessels in strength and speed, and in the second war with Great Britain was employed by the government to furnish fleets for the lakes. He afterwards built many vessels of war for foreign nations, established a professorship of naval architecture at Co- lumbia College, and in 1831 accepted the appointment of naval constructor for the Ottoman Empire. Died at Constantinople, November 12, 1832. See Henry Howe, "Lives of Eminent American Mechanics," etc., 1847. Eckhard, Sk'hiRt, (Johann Friedrich,) a German philologist, born at Quedlinburg in 1723, wrote many literary treatises. Died in 1794. Eckhard, (Johann Georg.) See Eckhart. Eckhard, (Tobias,) a German Hellenist, born at De- litzsch in 1558; died in 1652. Eckhard, (Tobias,) a distinguished German philolo- gist, born at Jiiterbock, Saxony, in 1662. He was rector of the Academy of Quedlinburg. He published (in Latin) a treatise on logic, "Ars Rationis," (1714,) "Technica Sacra," (1716,) a treatise on philosophy, (1717,) "Testi- monies to Christ by those who were not Christians," (1725,) and other works. Died in 1737. See C. H. Eckhard, "Vita T. Eckhardi," 1739. Eckhart or Eckhard, von, fon gk'hiRt, written also Eccard and Eckard, (Johann Georg,) a German his- torian, born at Duingenin 1674. Through the influence of Leibnitz he obtained a chair of history at Helmstedt in 1706. He succeeded Leibnitz as librarian at Hanover. To escape his creditors he retired to Cologne, where he joined the Roman Catholic Church. He afterwards be- came librarian and counsellor to the Bishop of Wiirtz- burg. He was author of several Latin histories, which are valued for research and criticism, viz., a " History of the Princes of Upper Saxony," (1722,) "History of the Middle Ages," ("Corpus historicum medii ^vi," 1723,) and a work "On the Origin of the Germans," ("De Origine Germanorum," 1750.) Died in 1730. Eckhel, gk'hel, (Joseph Hilary,) a pre-eminent Austrian numismatist, born at Enzersfeld in 1737, en- tered the order of Jesuits. Having made extensive re- searches in Italy and attained great proficiency in the knowledge of medals, he was appointed, in 1774, director of the imperial cabinet of medals at Vienna, and pro- fessor of antiquities. In 1775 ^''^ published an excellent work on medals, entitled " Numi Veteres." His capital work is "Doctrina Numorum Veterum," (8 vols., 1792- 98,) a systematic treatise on the science of numismatics, which the perfection of the plan, the extent of the re- searches, and the soundness of the criticism render per- haps the best work, on the whole, which is to be found on that subject. Died in 1798. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Aubim Louis Millin, "Notice historique sur J. H. Eckhel," Paris, 1798; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." e as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (2[^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 826 EDGEWORTH ECKHOF Eckhof, Sk^hof, (Conrad,) one of the most celebrated German actors, was born at Hamburg in 1720. He ex- celled in tragedy, and was called "the Garrick of Ger- many." He produced "The Desert Isle," and other comedies. Died in 1778. Eckhout. See Eeckhout. Eckmiihl, Prince of. See Davoust. Eckstein, von, fon Sk'stln, (Ferdinand,) Baron, a publicist, born at Copenhagen in 1790, was converted to Roman Catholicism. He removed to France, and edited the " Catholique," (1826-29,) in which he advocated the doctrines of De Maistre. ^cluse. See Lecluse. ficluse des Loges, de 1', deh li'kliiz' di lozh, (Pierre Mathurin,) born at Falaise, France, in 1 715, was a doctor of the Sorbonne. His reputation rests chiefly on his edition of Sully's "Memoirs." Died about 1783. ^colampade. See CEcolampadius. Ec-phan'ti-des,['EA:^avn'(5;7f,]an Athenian comic poet, who lived about 450 B.C. His works are not extant, Ecqueviily, d', dek^verye', (Armand FRANgois,) Count and Marquis, a French general, was born of a noble family of Champagne in 1747. He emigrated in 1791, and served under the Prince of Conde, as quarter- master-general of cavalry, in 1794. Returning to France with the king, he was made lieutenant-general in 1814, and marquis in 1820. Died in 1830. Edebali, ed-eb'd-lee, Sheik, a Mussulman, noted for devotion and learning, born in Caramania about 1210, founded a monastery which was much frequented. Oth- man, the founder of the Turkish Empire, married the daughter of Edebali. Died in 1326. Edelinck, a''deh-link, (Caspar,) a Flemish engraver, was a brother and pupil of Gerard, noticed below. His brother John, born about 1630, was also an en- graver, and worked some time with Gerard. Edelinck, gd^el-ink or aMeh-link^ (Gerard,) a cele- brated Flemish engraver, born in Antwerp in 1649, re- moved to Paris at an early age, and received the title of engraver to the cabinet of Louis XIV. Among his master-pieces are "The Holy Family," after Raphael, the "Crucifixion," after Lebrun, the "Virgin," after Guido, " The Combat of Cavalry," after Leonardo da Vinci, and portraits of many eminent men. His works are highly finished, and are characterized by freedom of touch, fidelity of design, and perfect harmony of execution. Died in 1707. He is reckoned among the engravers of the first class. " No one but Audran," says Ponce, "can be placed on a par with him." His son Nicolas engraved at Venice a " Madonna and Child," after Correggio, and other subjects. Died in 1730. See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." Edelmann, a'del-min' or i'deKmSN', (Jean FR^Dfi- RIC,) a musical composer, born at Strasburg in 1749, was a violent revolutionist. He was guillotined in 1794, after he had procured the death of several persons. Edelmann, a'del-mln^ (Johann Christian,) a Ger- man deist, born in Saxony in 1698. He wrote "The Divinity of Reason," (1742.) Guizot calls him a fameux esprit-fort. Died in 1767. See Wii.HELM Elstek, " Erinnerung an J. C. Edelmann," 1830; Edelmann's Autobiography, (" Selbstbiographie,") published by Carl R. W. Klose, Berlin, 1849. Edema, a'deh-mS, (Gerard,) a Dutch landscape- painter, born in Friesland about 1655, is said to have travelled in America for artistic purposes, and finally settled in England. Died about 1700. See Bryan, "Dictionary of Painters." E'den, (Sir Frederick Morton,) an English diplo- matist and writer on political economy, published in 1797 "The State of England," which, says McCulloch, "is the grand storehouse of information respecting the labouring classes of England." He also wrote " Friendly Societies," " Maritime Rights of Great Britain," and other works. From 1792 to 1796 he was ambassador to Berlin, Vienna, and Madrid. Died in 1809. Eden, (George.) See Auckland, Lord. Eden, (Sir Morton,) an English diplomatist, who was ambassador to several continental courts in the eighteenth century. He was raised to the peerage as Lord Henley, and died in 1802. Eden, (Richard,) an Englishman, who was the first to publish collectively the results of maritime enterprise which followed the discovery of America. He translated, from the Latin, " Decade of Voyages," by Vertomanus, (1576,) and other works on navigation and geography. His " History of Travel in the West and East Indies" is partly original and partly translated. He is by some considered as superior to Hakluyt. Eden, (William.) See Auckland, Lord. E-de'ni-us, (Jordan,) a Swedish savant, born in 1624, was chosen professor of theology at Upsal in 1659. He wrote an " Epitome of Ecclesiastical History," and other works. Died in 1666. Eder, a^der, (Georg,) a German Catholic theologian, born at Freysingen in 1524. He was rector of the University of Vienna, and a councillor of the emperor Ferdinand. He wrote "Economy of the Scriptures," ("CEconomia Bibliorum," 1568,) often reprinted, and other works, mostly polemical. Died in 1586. Ed'gar or Eadgar, a Saxon king of England, sur- named the Peaceable, was the son of Edmund I. and Elgiva, and was born in 943 a.d. He ascended the throne at the death of his brother Edwy, in 959. Dun- stan. Bishop of London, and afterwards primate, early acquired an ascendency over Edgar, and retained during the whole reign the chief control of affairs, which he directed to the aggrandizement of the church and clergy. Consequently, Edgar is pompously eulogized by the monkish chroniclers, though his morals were depraved. He married first Elfleda and then Elfrida, and founded many monasteries. It is usually said that he extirpated the wolves from England. He died in 975, and was suc- ceeded by his son, Edward the Martyr. See Hume's "History of England," chap. ii. Edgar or Eadgar Atlieling, a Saxon prince, wa.s a grandson of King Edmund Ironside. His father Ed- ward was exiled by Canute in 1017, and went to Hun- gary, where Edgar was born. At the death of Edward the Confessor, in 1066, Edgar was the nearest heir to the throne, and was proclaimed at London just after the battle of Hastings ; but he submitted to William the Con- queror, who spared him in consideration of his feeble character. He was induced to engage in several unsuc- cessful revolts against the Norman king, and took refuge in Scotland at the court of Malcolm, who had married his sister. About 1091 he was received in peace at the court of William Rufus. Died about 1120. Ed'gar, King of Scotland, was the nephew of the pre- ceding, and the son of Malcolm III., who died in 1093. Donald Bane then usurped the throne, until Edgar Athe- ling raised an army and deposed him, in 1097, when Edgar became king. His sister Matilda became the wife of Henry I. of England. Edgar, after a peaceful reign, died in 1107, and was succeeded by his brother, Alexander I. Edgeworth, (Abbe.) See Firmont. Edgeworth, gj''worth, (Maria,) a popular English authoress, born near Reading, Berkshire, January i, 1767, was the daughter of Richard Lovell Edgeworth (see be- low) and his first wife. Miss Elers. In 1782 she removed with her father to his paternal estate at Edgeworthstown, in Ireland, where she continued to reside nearly all the remainder of her life. She was associated with her father in several literary labours, the first result of which was a "Treatise on Practical Education," in 1798, followed by an " Essay on Irish Bulls," (1802,) which was very successful. In 1801 she began to issue a series of novels of superior merit and of good moral tendency, which were received with general and lasting favour, viz., "Castle Rackrent," "Belinda," (1801,) "Patronage," (1814,) " Ormond," (1817,) "Helen," etc., (1834.) In 1823 she made a visit to Abbotsford, the home of Sir Walter Scott, who greatly admired her writings, and once said, " If I could but hit Miss Edgeworth's wonder- ful power of vivifying all her persons and making them live as beings in your mind, I should not be afraid." Besides the above-named works, she published several volumes, respectively entitled "Moral Tales," (1801,) "Popular Tales," (1804,) and "Tales of Fashionable Life," (1809-12,) and co-operated with her father in the "Parent's Assistant" and "Early Lessons." "The a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; \ 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; nftt; good; moonj EDGEWORTH 827 EDREES writings of Miss Edgeworth," says Lord Jeffrey, "ex- hibit a singular union of sober sense and inexhaustible in- vention, and a minute knowledge of all that distinguishes manners or touches on happiness in every condition of human fortune." Died in May, 1849. See "Edinburgh Review," July, 1809, (vol. xiv.,) July, 1812, (vol. XX.,) and August, 1817, (vol. xxviii. ;) Sir Walter Scott's critique in the " Edinburgh Review," January, 1814, (vol. xxii.;) also " Edin- burgh Review" for October, 1867; "London Quarterly Review" for October, i8ii. Edgeworth, (Richard Lovell,) an ingenious Eng- lish author and philosopher, born at Bath in 1744, was the fati^er of Maria Edgeworth, the popular novelist. Much his childhood was passed at Edgeworthstown, Ireland, where his father's estate was situated. While a student at Oxford, when he was only about nineteen, he married Miss Elers, with whom he resided for some time in Berkshire, where he formed an intimacy with Thomas Day and Dr. Darwin, He was distinguished by his genial character, versatile talents, and mechanical ingenuity. In 17S0 he was chosen Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1782 he fixed his residence permanently at Edgeworthstown, where he was actively engaged in the education of his numerous children and in the duties of magistrate, legislator, and author. Besides the works in which his daughter co-operated, (see Edgeworth, Maria,) he wrote "Professional Education," "Letter on the Telegraph," and Memoirs of himself, and contrib- uted to the "Philosophical Transactions" treatises on mechanics and natural philosophy. In the course of his life he married four wives, two of whom were sisters, named Sneyd. Died in 181 7. See "Memoirs of R. L. Edgeworth," by himself, and concluded by his daughter; "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1809, August, 1820; "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1820. Edgeworth, (Roger,) an English Catholic divine, was chancellor of Wells in 1554. He published a vol- ume of sermons. Died about 1560. Ed-^i'va or Ogive, Queen of France, was a daughter of Edward, King of the West Saxons, and a granddaughter of Alfred the Great. She was married to Charles the Simi)le of France in 919. Louis d'Outre-Mer was her son, Edinburgh, Duke or See Alfred, (Ernest Al- berl) Edith. See Editha. Ed'i-tha, Salnt, daughter of Edgar, King of Eng- land, and Wilfrida, took the monastic vows at the age of fifteen, and died about 984 A.D., aged twenty-three. Editha or E'dith, an Anglo-Saxon queen, was a daughter of Earl Godwin, and was married in 1044 to King Edward the Confessor. Her virtues and accom- plishments have been highly celebrated by historians and poets. King Edward is said to have treated her with neglect and severity, Edmer. See Eadmer. Edmondes, gd'munz, or Ed'mond.s, (Sir Clement,) an English writer, born in 1566, obtained some places at court. He wrote " Observations on the Commentaries of Caesar," (1600-1609.) Died in 1622. Edmondes or Edmonds, (Sir Thomas,) an English statesman, born at Plymouth in 1563, was employed with success in negotiations with several European courts in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I, In 1616 he was chosen privy councillor. His letters and papers were published by Dr. Birch. Died in 1639. Edmonds. See Edmondes. Ed'monds, (John W.,) an American painter, born in Hudson, New York, in 1806. In 1835 he commenced sending paintings in oil to the exhibitions of the Acad- emy. Among these were "Sparking," "The City and Country Beaux," "Dominie Sampson," etc. In 1840 he embarked for Europe, and spent the subsequent winter and spring in Rome. Since his return he has followed his profession in New York. See Tuckerman's " Book of the Artists." Edmonds, (John Worth,) an American jurist and advocate of spiritualism, born at Hudson, New York, in 1799. He graduated at Union College, and subse- quently practised law in New York. Being appointed, in 1843, one of the inspectors of State prisons, he effected an important reform in prison-discipline. He became one of the circuit judges of the State in 1845, He pub- lished in 1853 ^^is principal work, entitled "Spiritual- ism," (2 vols,) See Livingston's "Portraits of Eminent Americans." Ed'mond-spn, (Henry,) an English scholar, born in 1607, wrote "Lingua Linguarum," (1655,) and a work on Latin Homonyms and Synonyms. Died in 1659. Edmondson, (Joseph,) an English writer and anti- quary, was appointed Mowbray herald-extraordinary in 1764. He wrote a " Companion to the Peerage," (1776,) a "Complete Body of Heraldry," (1780,) and several other esteemed works. Died in 1786. Edmonstone, (Sir Archibald,) a British writer, born in 1795, published a "Journey to Two of the Oases of Upper Egypt," (1822,) "The Progress of Religion," a poem, (1842,) and other works. Ed'mund the Martyr, King of the East Angles, born in 840 A.D., began to reign in 855. In 870 he was defeated in battle by the Danes under Hinguar and Hubba, who took him prisoner and put him to death. Edmund or Eadniund I,, King of the Anglo-Saxons, born about 922, was the son of Edward the Elder and Edgiva his wife, and grandson of Alfred the Great. He succeeded his half-brother, Athelstane, in 941, and mar- ried Elgiva. His brief reign gave evidence of his courage, prudence, and other kingly qualifications. He was as- sassinated by Liof, an outlaw, at a feast in 946. He left two infant sons, Edwy and Edgar, and was succeeded by his brother Edred. See Hume's " History of England," chap. ii. Edmund or Eadmund II., surnamed Ironside, a king of England of the Saxon dynasty, born in 989 A.D., was the son of Ethelred II., who died in 1016. Before this event, Edmund had signalized his valour in battle against the Danish invaders under Canute, and at his accession he found the greater part of the kingdom in the power of that enemy. After the Danes gained a victory at Assandun, Edmund and Canute agreed by a treaty to divide the kingdom, of which the former re- ceived the southern and the latter the northern part, Edmund survived this treaty about a month, and, as Hume thinks, was murdered in 1016, when Canute be- came master of the whole kingdom. Edmund's half- brother, Edward the Confessor, afterwards became king. Freeman calls Edmund "a true king of men, a hero worthy to wield the sword of Alfred [Alfred] and /Ethelstan," See Freeman, "History of the Norman Conqiiest," vol. i. chap, v., p. 419 ; H UMH, " History of England," chap. iii. ; Turner, " His- tory of the Anglo-Saxons." Edmund of Langley, Duke of York, born in 1341, was the fifth son of Edward III. of England, and was the head of the house of York, famous in the war of the Roses. He married Isabella of Castile, and left two sons, Edward and Richard. Died in 1402. Edmund, Saint, an English prelate, sometimes called Edmund Rich and Edmund of Pontigny, born at Abingdon, became Archbishop of Canterbury in 1234. He is said to have been the first who taught logic at Oxford. He died in 1242, and was canonized by Inno- cent IV. in 1249. See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. iii. chap. iii. Ed'mund Plan-tag'e-net, Earl of Kent, the son of Edward I. of England, was born in 1301. In the reign of Edward II. he aided the queen, Isabella, to depose the king and to crown the young prince Edward III. He was executed on a charge of treason in 1330. Edom, a name of Esau, the son of Isaac. See Esau. Ed'red or Eadred, King of the Anglo-Saxons, was the younger son of Edward the Elder, and brother of Edmund I., whom he succeeded in 946 a.d. In this reign the ambitious Dunstan acquired the ascendency which he maintained through several ensuing reigns. He died in 955, and was succeeded by his nephew Edwy. See Hume, " History of England," chap. ii. Edrees or Edris, ed-rees', I,, a descendant of Alee, son-in-law of Mohammed, was the founder of the dynasty of the Edrisites or Edrisides, which reigned in Africa nearly two hundred years. When his party was defeated by the Abbassides in 784 A.D., he fled to Barbary, or Mau- ritania, where he was recognized as imam, or chief, about € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) EDREES 828 EDWARD 7S9. He was poisoned in 793 by an emissary of Haroun- al-Raschid. Edrees or Edris II., a son of the preceding, born in 793, succeeded to the throne, and is represented as a learned, wise, and just ruler. He founded the city of Fez, and reigned in peace. He died in 828, and was succeeded by his son Mohammed. See Ibn-Khaldoun, " Histoire des Berberes," translated by Slane, 1854. Edreesee or Edrisi, ed-ree'see, an eminent Arabian geographer, born at Ceuta, Africa, about iioo, was a descendant of the dynasty above named, which ceased to reign in 919. He lived at the court of Roger H. of Sicily, for whom he made a silver terrestrial globe and wrote his celebrated treatise on Geography, {1154.) In 1619 Gabriel Sionita and J. Hesronita published a Latin version of an abridgment of Edreesee's Geography ; and since thut time the manuscript of the entire work has been found and translated into French by M. Jaubert, (1836-40.) See Haji-Khalfa, " Lexicon Bibliographicum ;" Casiri, " Biblio- theca Arabico-Hispana." Ed'ric, Duke of Mercia, was a treacherous minister of Ethelred 11. When England was invaded by the Danes, he deserted, and fought against the Anglo-Saxon king. He was put to death by Canute. Ed'ridge, (Henry,) an English painter of landscapes and miniatures, born at Paddington in 1768, died in 1821. Edris. See Edrees. Edrisi. See Edreesee. Ed'ward or Eadward I., surnamed the Elder, King of the Anglo-Saxons, was the third son of Alfred the Great and Alsvvitha. At the death of Alfred, in 901 A.D., he was acknowledged as his successor by the Wittena- gemote. He inherited his father's military talents, and found abundant occasion to exercise them. He defeated his cousin Ethelwald, who raised an army to contest his title to the throne, and waged a successful war against the Northumbrians and Danes. He married two or three wives, the last of whom was Elgiva, and left three sons, Athelstane, Edmund, and Edred, who all reigned successively. Died in 925. See Hume's "History of England," chap. ii. Edward or Eadward II., surnamed the Martyr, King of the Anglo-Saxons, was the eldest son of Edgar, and great-grandson of the preceding. He was born about 960 A.D., and succeeded his father in 975. His step-mother, Elfrida, took measures to obtain the crown for her son Ethelred; but she was defeated by Saint Dunstan, the primate of England. A council having been assembled during this reign at Calne to decide be- tween the secular clergy and the monks of Saint Dunstan, the part of the floor on which the former sat suddenly gave way. The monks claimed this as a miracle in their favour, and consequently prevailed. Edward was assas- sinated by order of Elfrida in 978, and was succeeded by his half-brother, Ethelred H. See Hume's "History of England," chap. ii. Edward or Eadward III., surnamed the Con- fessor, King of the Anglo-Saxons, was the son of Ethelred H., (by his second wife, Emma of Normandy,) and was half-brother of Edmund Ironside. He was born at Islip about 1004. When England was invaded by the victorious Danes, Edward and his mother found refuge with the Duke of Normandy, and remained there till 1040. Canute, having conquered England, married Edward's mother, Emma, in 1017. When Hardicanute died, in 1042, Edward, who was the half-brother of the late king, was proclaimed his successor. In 1044 he married Editha, daughter of Earl Godwin, but with the express condition that she should not share his bed : hence he was canonized with the title of "Confessor." He showed partiality to the Normans, and in his reign a powerful Norman party was formed in the island. lie died, without issue, in Jai^uary, 1066, and was succeeded by his wife's brother, Harold, whose title was disputed by the Duke of Normandy. Edward was the last of the Saxon line that reigned in England. See Hume, "History of England," chap. iii. ; Jerome Porter, " Life of Saint Edwayd, King and Confessor," 1710. Edward I., King of England, surnamed Longshanks, born at Westminster in 1239, was the eldest son of Henry III. and Eleanor, daughter of the Count of Provence. He was married in early youth to Eleanor of Castile. In 1263 he took a prominent part in the civil war between his father and the barons under the Earl of Leicester, who took him prisoner in 1264. Having escaped from cus- tody in 1265, he gained a complete victory over Leicester at Evesham. After the end of this civil war, his iiext important enterprise was a crusade to the Holy Land in 127 1, where he maintained his reputation for prowess. On his homeward journey he found that his father had died, in 1272, and he was crowned soon after his arrival, in 1274. He began the conquest of Wales in 1277, and com- pleted it in 1282, when Llewellyn, prince of that country, was slain in battle. In 1291, the numerous competitors for the throne of Scotland, then vacant, having referred their claims to Edward as lord paramount, he decided in favour of John Baliol, and received from him the oath of fealty, thus paving the way to the conquest of that kingdom. The Scotch \\\ 1294 took arms to regain their independence ; but Edward speedily overpowered them, dethroned Baliol, and seized the kingdom. The cele- brated and heroic William Wallace renewed the contest in 1297, gained a victory at Stirling, and expelled the English troops from all the Scotch fortresses. The war was alternately suspended by truce and feebly prosecuted until 1303, when Edward invaded Scotland with a large army and effected its temporary subjection. Wallace was taken, and hanged in London in 1305. Edward died in 1307, while on his march to Scotland, where Robert Bruce had again raised the national standard against him. He was one of the most able, ambitious, and politic princes that ever filled the English throne; but his character was deeply disgraced by his vindictive treatment of Wallace and by other acts of injustice. His reign is rendered memorable by the confirmation of the Great Charter, the institution of the House of Commons, and great improvement in common law. See Hume, " History of England," chaos, xiii. and xiv. ; also, the character of Edward L in Gardiner's "Tiistory of England from 1603 to 1616," pp. 15 and i6; Burton, "History of Scotland," vol. ii. chaps, xviii.-xxii. Edward II., King of England, the eldest surviving son of the preceding, was born at Caernarvon, Wales, in 1284. In his minority he became subject to the pernicious influ- ence of his favourite. Piers Gaveston, who was banished in 1300 by Edward I. In 1301 Edward was created Prince of Wales, and in July, 1307, he became king. One of his first acts was to recall Gaveston from exile and create him Earl of Cornwall. In 1308 he married Isabella, daughter of Philip V. of France, a corrupt and ambitious woman. The insolence of Gaveston, who had acquired a complete ascendency over his imbecile king, provoked the barons to form a league against that favourite, who was executed in 13 12. In 13 14 Edward invaded Scot- land with a large army, which in the same year was routed with great loss by Bruce at Bannockburn, and Scottish independence was thus secured. The king's new favourite, Hugh Spencer or Despencer, involved him in another quarrel with his barons. The queen, who hated the favourite and despised her consort, put herself at the head of a powerful party, who took arms in 1326 with the avowed purpose of removing Spencer fronr power. The king being generally deserted, the queen's party easily prevailed ; Spencer was executed, and Edward was de- throned and confined in prison. The king's son, a minor, was proclaimed in Parliament as Edward HI., under the regency of Isabella and her favourite, Roger de Mor- timer, the latter of whom is charged with causing the murder of the deposed king, which was perpetrated, with circumstances of great atrocity, in Berkeley Castle in 1327. See Hume, "History of England," chap, xiv.; F^^lkland, (Henry Gary,) "History of King Edward IL," 16S0. Edward III., King of England, born at Windsor in 1312, was the eldest son of Edward II. and Isabella of France. He was proclaimed king on January 25, 1327, under the nominal regency of twelve nobles and bishops, while the queen and Mortimer exercised the power in reality. In 1328 Edward married Philippa of Hainault, and concluded a treaty of peace with Robert Bruce, King a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J?, sAort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, ftt; mSt; n6t; good; moon; EDWARD 829 EDWARD of Scotland. In 1330 the young king ordered the arrest of Mortimer, who after trial was put to death. The queen- mother was at the same time confined to her own house, and ceased to exercise political power. After the death of King Robert, Edward, in violation of the treaty, sup- ported Edward Baliol in his pretensions to the Scottish throne, and in 1333 defeated the Scotch at Halidon Hill, when Baliol became for a time master of Scotland. But repeated invasions by the English were required in the ensuing years to prevent his expulsion ; for the Scotch detested him as a vassal and partisan of the English king. The attention of Edward was diverted from Scotland by a new and important project, namely, the conquest of France, the crowii of which he claimed by inheritance, as nephew of the late king, Charles IV., (who left no male issue,) while Philip VL was recognized as the law- ful heir by the French people. Hostilities began in 1340 by a sea-fight in which the English were victorious, after which a long truce was concluded. Renewing the war in 1346, Edward, with his son the Black Prince, invaded France and gained a great victory at Crecy. After a long siege, Calais was surrendered to the English king, (1347,) who was prevented from a disgraceful act of ven- geance against six citizens, who offered their lives as a sacrifice for the city, only by the entreaties of Queen Philippa. A truce of about eight years followed the re- duction of Calais. In September, 1356, the Black Prince gained a com- plete victory at Poitiers, where the French king John was taken prisoner. In 1360 a treaty of peace was made, by which Edward retained several French provinces. Charles V., having become King of France, renewed the war in 1370, and in a few years recovered nearly all that the English had conquered. The Black Prince died in 1376, and King Edward in 1377, leaving the crown to his grandson, Richard II. The reign of Ed- ward, though arbitrary, was very popular with his sub- jects, elated with the glory which attended his military enterprises, and favoured with domestic peace and pros- perity. See Hume, "History of England," chaps, xv. and xvi. ; Robert HowAKD, " History of tlie Reigns of Edward III. and Richard II.," 1690; William Longman, "Life and Times of Edward III.," 2 vols., 1869; ViDAi.iN, "fidouard III et la Regence, 011 Essai sur las Moeurs du XlVe Siecle," Paris, 1843. Edward IV., King of England, born at Rouen in 1441, was the son of Richard, Duke of York, who was a grandson of Edmund of York, a younger son of Edward III. This Richard also inherited from his mother the title of Earl of March, and with that title all the right to the throne transmitted by Lionel of Clarence, another son of Edward III. The subject of this article, then styled the Earl of March, first appears on the scene of the civil wars of York and Lancaster in 1460, when his army defeated the Lancastrians near Northampton, and took the king (Henry VI.) a prisoner. In the same year his father, the Duke of York, was defeated and killed in the battle of Wakefield, at which Edward was not pres- ent. Having gained a battle at Mortimer's Cross, he entered London, was received with favour and acclama- tion, and was proclaimed king, March 4, 1461. His bravery, personal beauty, affability, and other popular qualities contributed much to his success. But Margaret of Anjou, the ambitious and indomitable queen of Henry VI., soon raised another army to renew the contest. At Towton, in 1461, the Lancastrians were defeated with great loss, and Margaret escaped to Scot- land. In 1464 the Lancastrian army was again defeated, at Hexham, Henry VI. was made prisoner, hostilities were suspended for several years, and the war appeared to be terminated. In 1464 Edward married Elizabeth Woodville, a person of rather obscure condition, by which he gave great offence to the nobility, especially to the Earl of Warwick, *' the King-Maker," a great leader of the Yorkist party. This nobleman, conspiring with Queen Margaret, compelled Edward to retire to Holland in 1470, when Henry VI. was released from the Tower to assume again the form of royalty. The next year Edward returned with an army, gained a victory at 13ar- net, where Warwick was slain, and recovered the throne. At the great battle of Tewkesbury, May, 1471, the Lan- castrians were finally defeated, and Margaret, with her son, fell into the hands of the victor. She was confined in the Tower, and her son was murdered in Edward's presence. Such was the tragical end of the War of the Roses, in which the old nobility of England was almost annihilated. The subsequent events of this reign were unimportant. Edward died in 1483, leaving the crown to his son, Edward V. Edward IV. is described by Hume as "a prince more splendid and showy than either prudent or virtuous ; brave, though cruel; addicted to pleasure, though capa- ble of activity in great emergencies." He forms a promi- nent character in Bulwer's "Last of the Barons." See Hume, " History of England," chap. xxii. ; William Ha- BiNGTON, "History of King Edward IV.," 1640. Edward V., King of England, the eldest son of Edward IV. and Elizabeth Woodville, was born in West- minster in 1470, and succeeded his father on the 9th of April, 1483. His uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, by the will of the late king, became regent during the minority. This wicked and crafty usurper, aspiring to wear the crown himself, obtained possession of the young king and his brother, whom he secretly ordered to be put to death. They disappeared in June, 1483 ; and it is generally reported and believed that they were suffocated with pillows in the Tower of London. See Hume, "History of England," chap, xxiii. ; Miss Strick- land, " Lives of the Bachelor Kings of England," 1861; W. Hep- WOKTH Dixon, "Her Majesty's Tower," i86q. Edward VI., King of England, born at Hampton Court, October 12, 1537, was the only surviving son of Henry VIII. and Jane Seymour. He succeeded his father January 28, 1547, the government during his minority being confided, by the will of Henry VIII., to sixteen executors, who elected for their president the young king's uncle, Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford. The latter, who was created Duke of Somerset and as- sumed the title of lord protector, led an army against the Scotch in order to compel the fulfilment of a certain treaty by the marriage of Edward VI. with Mary Stuart. The English gained a victory at Pinkie in 1547, but did not eff'ect their purpose. Somerset favoured the Prot- estant religion, and used effectual measures to establish it. The "Bloody Statute," and other acts, of the former reign were repealed in Parliament, images were removed from the chuiThes, and the Book of Common Prayer was ordered to be used, (1548.) About 1550 the Pro- tector was supplanted by John Dudley, Earl of Warwick and Duke of Northumberland, whose son married Lady Jane Grey, a member of the royal family of Tudor. When the death of the young king was evidently at hand, he was induced by Northumberland to settle the succession in favour of Lady Jane Grey. Died in 1553. See Hume, "History of England," chaps, xxxiv. and xxxv. ; Miss Strickland, "Lives of the Bachelor Kings of England," 1861 ; Sharon Turner, "History of the Reigns of Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth," 1829; Van ue* Holk, " Leven van Edward de Seste," 1690. Ed'ward [Port. Duarte, doo-aR'ti] I., King of Por- tugal, was a son of John I., whom he succeeded in 1433. His mother was an English princess, Philippa of Lan- caster. He is said to have been a moderate, wise, and enlightened prince ; but his reign was not prosperous. He died young, in 1438, leaving the throne to his son, Alfonzo V. See Lopez, " Elogios dos Reys de Portugal." Edward, Prince of Wales, surnamed the Bl.a.ck Prince, (so called from the colour of his armour,) a heroic and idolized representative of the spirit of chivalry, was the eldest son of Edward HI. and Philippa of Hai- nan) t. He was born at Woodstock in 1330, and at the age of fifteen accompanied his father in the invasion of France. He commanded the main body of the English at the victory of Crecy, the glory of which was ascribed to him, and then adopted the motto Ich dle?t, (" I serve,") which is still worn by his successors. In 1356 he alone commanded at the battle of Poitiers, where he won applause both by his military skill and his hu- manity to the vanquished. He married his cousin Joanna, daughter of the Earl of Kent, in 1361, and, being created Prince of Aquitaine, held his court at Bordeaux. On account of his declining health, he returned to England € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Yi^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^=°See Explanations, p. 23.) EDWARD 830 EDWARDS in 1371, and died in 1376. His son became King Rich- ard II. See Hume, " History of England," chap. xvi. ; Arthur Col- lins, "Life of Edward, Prince of Wales," 1740; G. P. R. James, " History of the Life of Edward the Black Prince," 1839. Edward [Port. Duarte] of Braganza, a Por- tuguese prince, born in 1605, was brother of John IV., who became King of Portugal in 1640. At this time Edward was lieutenant-general in the army of the em- peror Ferdinand III. The Spanish court, jealous of his military talents, persuaded the emperor to deliver him into their power. He was imprisoned at Milan in 1641, and died in 1649. See GouvEA, " Perfidia de Alemania y de Castilla en la Prision y Proceso de Don Duarte," 1652. Edward, (Charles,) the Pretender. See Charles Edward, Ed' ward Plan-tag'e-net, born in 1475, was a son of George, Duke of Clarence, and was styled Earl of Warwick. He was confined in the Tower by Henry VII. in 1485, and executed, as an accomplice of Perkin Warbeck, in 1499. Edwardes, ^d'wardz, (Sir Herbert Benjamin,) a distinguished English officer, born in Shropshire in 1819 or 1820. He entered the army of the East India Com- pany in 1840, and fought at Moodkee and Sobraon in 1845. Having obtained the rank of lieutenant, he gained a decisive victory over the Dewan Moolraj, near the Chenab, in 1848. For this service he was made an extra Companion of the Bath. He published in 1851 "A Year on the Punjaub Frontier in 1848-9." He was appointed commissioner of Peshawur in 1853, and knighted in 1866. Died in December, 1868. Ed'wards, (Bela Bates,) an American theologian, born in Southampton, Massachusetts, in 1802, graduated at Am.herst College in 1824. He founded the " American Quarterly Observer" in 1833, edited the "Biblical Re- pository" from 1835 to 1838, and the " Bibliotheca Sacra" from 1844 to 1852. In 1837 he became professor of Hebrew, and in 1848 professor of biblical literature, at Andover Seminary. Died in 1852. See "Writings of Bela B. Edwards, with a Memoir," by E, A. Park, (Boston, 185,,.) Ed'wards, (Bryan,) M.P., an English writer, born at Westbury in 1743, removed in 1759 to Jamaica, where he remained many years and became a Wealthy planter. He published in 1793 a " History of the British Colonies in the West Indies," an interesting and well-WTitten work, which acquired great popularity. He also wrote a " History of Saint Domingo." Returning to England, he was elected to Parliament in 1796, and died in 1800. Edwards, (Edward,) an English artist, born in London in 1738, was an excellent draughtsman. He became an associate of the Royal Academy in 1773, and teacher of perspective in that institution in 1788. He wrote a "Treatise on Perspective," (1803,) and "Anec- dotes of English PainteA," (1808.) Died in 1806. Edwards, (Edward,) an English bibliographer, born in London in 18 12, published about i860 a valuable work entitled " Memoirs of Libraries, together with a Practical Hand-Book of Library Economy." He has written many other works on public libraries. Edwards, (George,) an eminent English naturalist and artist, born at Westham or Stratford, Essex, about 1693. Having travelled on the continent, he applied himself after his return to the study of natural history, supporting himself by drawing and colouring figures of animals. In 1743 he began to issue his excellent " Natural History of Birds," with coloured plates, which was received with favour and procured his admission to the Royal Society in 1757. He wrote, also, "Gleanings of Natural History," (1763.) Died in 1773. See "Memoirs of the Life, etc. of G. Edwards," London, 1776. Edwards, (George,) M.D., an English writer on politics and political economy, born in 175 1, lived in London. Among his numerous productions are " Po- litical Interests of Great Britain," and "Means adequate to the Present Crisis." Died in 1823. Edwards, (Guillaume Fr6d6ric,) M.D., a brother of Milne-Edwards, born in Jamaica in 1777, was a dis- tinguished physiologist and ethnologist. He lived in Bruges and in Paris. His "Physiological Characters of Human Races considered in Relation with History" (1839) placed him in the first rank of French ethnologists. He became a member of the Institute in 1832. He wrote (in French) "On the Influence of Physical Agents on Life," (1824,) and other scientific works. Died near Paris in 1842. Edwards, (Henry Milne.) See Milne-Edwards. Edwards, (John,) D.D., a learned English Calvinistic divine, born at Hertford in 1637, was a son of Thomas Edwards, author of "Gangraena." He became minister of Trinity College Church, Cambridge, in 1664. He wrote, besides many other works, "The Authority, Style, and Perfection of the Books of the Old and New Testa- ments," (3 vols., 1693-96,) and " Theologia Reformata," (2 vols., 1713.) Died in 1716. Edwards, (Jonathan,) D.D., an English divine, born at Wrexham in 1629, became rector of Hinton in 1681. He wrote a " Preservative against Socinianism," (1698- 1703.) Died in 1712. Edwards, (Jonathan,) the greatest metaphysician that America has produced, and one of the greatest that ever lived, was born at East Windsor, Connecticut, the 5th of October, 1703. His father, Timothy Edwards, was the minister at East Windsor, and was a man of rare learning for those times. Jonathan was the only son out of thirteen children. He began the study of Latin when he was but six years old. At a very early age he wrote essays and other compositions, indicating an inquiring mind and reasoning powers of an uncommon order for one so young. When he was ten, he wrote a paper ridiculing the idea, which some one had advanced, of the materiality of the soul. While still a child, he was the subject of deep and earnest religious impressions. In a letter written at the age of twelve, he speaks of "a very remarkable outpouring of the Spirit of God" in his native place, in which event he evidently felt a deep interest. He entered Yale College in 1 7 16, and before leaving that institution as a graduate, in 1720, he is said to have com- pletely reasoned out for himself his great doctrine of the freedom of the will. After his conversion, which, accord- ing to his view of the subject, did not take place until his seventeenth year, the whole universe seemed changed in his sight ; God's excellency, wisdoiri, purity, and love were revealed to him "in the sun, moon, and stars, in the clouds and blue sky, and in the grass, flowers, and trees, in the water and in all nature." After taking his degree, he remained two years in New Haven, studying for the ministry ; and before he had completed his nineteenth year he began to preach to a Presbyterian congregation in the city of New York. In less than a year he returned to New Haven, and in September, 1723, took his degree of master of arts. In 1724 he became a tutor in Yale College, where he remained about two years. In Febru- ary, 1727, he became pastor of a church at Northampton, and not long after was married to Miss Sarah Pierre- pont, of New Haven, who in her unaffected and fervent piety, in the purity, sweetness, and elevation of her char- acter, and in her entire devotion to what she felt to be right, may be said to have been his perfect counterpart. After many years of comparative happiness, — not that happiness which results from the enjoyment of indolent ease, but from duties laboriously, conscientiously, and faithfully performed, — his faith and virtue were destined to undergo a great trial. A lax custom had crept into the Church of admitting to the communion-table all those professing with the congregation, without inquiring whether they were truly regenerate, and without regard to the spiritual consistency of their life or character. Ed- wards believed it to be required of him to insist on a purer and higher standard. At length, after years of opposition, he was driven forth, like Calvin, (whose re- ligious views and entire devotion to duty he so ably represented,) frotn his chosen field of gospel labour, not knowing whither he should go, and without any outward means of support for his numerous family. He was soon after offered the situation of missionary to the Housaton- nuck Indians at Stockbridge. His friends in Scotland sent, it is said, a considerable contribution for the sup- port of his family, and his scanty income was eked out by the industry of his wife and daughters, whose delicate a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; ^i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/iorf; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; EDWARDS 831 EECKHOUT handiwork was sent to Boston to be sold. It was during this period of his life that he elaborated and wrote out his celebrated work on the Freedom of the Will. In this work he exhibits a power of close and subtile reasoning which perhaps has never been equalled by any other writer. Whatever we may think of his doctrine that philosophic necessity is compatible with freedom of the will, rightly defined, and with human responsibility, we may safely assume that, as the ultimate interests of truth are necessarily promoted by all true philosophic investi- gation, they must be best promoted by that investigation which is the most thorough and exhaustive. In the rea- soning of Edwards we see v/hat the perfection of human logic can accomplish, and are thus enabled to discern more clearly its just limitations and necessary deficiencies. About the close of 1757 Edwards left his field of labour among the Indians, and reluctantly accepted the position of president of Princeton College, in New Jersey. He died there, of the smallpox, in March, 1758. In person, Edwards was tall (above six feet) and slender. He is said to have been, in middle life, much emaciated by intense and constant application to study. "He had," says his grandson, "a high, broad, bold forehead, and an eye unusually piercing and luminous ; and on his whole countenance the features of his mind — perspicacity, sincerity, and benevolence — were so strongly impressed, that no one could behold it with- out at once discovering the clearest indications of great intellectual and moral elevation." (See "Life," by Se- reno E. D wight.) He left a great number of miscellaneous writings. The titles of his principal works are the following ; " A Treat- ise concerning the Religious Affections," (published in 1746 ;) "An Inquiry into the Qualifications for Full Com- munion in the Church," (1749;) "An Inquiry into the Modern Prevailing Notions respecting that Freedom of the Will which is supposed to be essential to Moral Agency," etc., (1754;) (this is his most celebrated work, of which we have spoken above ;) "The Great Christian Doctrine of Original Sin Defended," (about 1757 ;) "The History of Redemption," (1774;) "A Dissertation con- cerning the End for which God created the World," ''7tN,] a high-priest of the Hebrew church, was a son of Aaron, whom he succeeded in the high-priesthood about 1452 B.C. See Exodus xxviii. i ; Numbers xx. 28, xxxi. 6 ; Joshua xxiv. 33. Eleazar, a Jewish high-priest, who about 277 B.C. sent to Ptolemy, King of Egypt, (in compliance with his request,) seventy-two wise men to translate the Mosaic law into Greek. Eleazar, a Jewish warrior, was a brother of Juda& Maccabeus. He was killed in battle in 163 B.C. Eleazar, an eminent Jewish scribe, who resisted the tyrannical orders of Antiochus Epiphanes, and was put to death in 167 B.C. Eleazar, a son of Ananias, a fanatical Jew, instigated his countrymen to revolt against the Romans. During the siege of Jerusalem by Titus (70 a.d.) he was the leader of one of the hostile factions of that city. See JosEPHUS, "History." Eleazar, a Jewish warrior, noted for his obstinate defence of Massada against the Romans in 70 a.d. When resistance was no longer practicable, to avoid capture he and his men killed themselves. Eleazar or Eliezer of Garmiza or of Worms, an eminent Hebrew rabbi, lived about 1240. E-lec^tra, [Gr. 'HAe/crpa,] one of the Pleiades, was regarded as" the daughter of Atlas and Pleione, and the mother of Dardanus. Electra, [Gr. 'H?ii/crpa; Fr. £lectre, i'liktR'; It. Elettra, a-lSt'tRi,] a daughter of Agamemnon, and a sister of Orestes, was sometimes called Laodice. Her story has been dramatized by ^Eschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. ^lectre. See Electra. E-lec'try-on, [Gr. 'WAsK-pvov,'] a son of Perseus and Andromeda, was King of Mycenae, (or, as some say, of Argos,) and father of Alcmena. Returning victorious from war, he was accidentally killed by Amphitryon, who was betrothed to his daughter Alcmena. Eleonora Tellez. See Eleanor of Portugal. Elettra. See Electra. E-leu'sis, [Gr. 'E/laia«V,] a mythical person, called a son of Mercury or of Ogyges. The town of Eleusis in Attica is supposed to have derived its name from him. E-leu-the'ri-us or E-leu'the-ros, [Fr. Eleuthere, iOuh'taiR',] a native of Nicopolis or Epirus, in Greece, was elected pope or bishop of Rome in 177 A.D. He died in 192, and was succeeded by Victor I. El-fle'da or Eth'el-fle^da, daughter of Alfred the Great of England, and sister of Edward the Elder, in- as /t; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; o, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jJi^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) ELFRIC 838 ELIOT herited some of her father's royal qualities. She became about 890 the wife of Ethelred, Count of Mercia, after whose death she defended her dominions against the Danes with courage and ability. Died in 922. Elfric. See Alfric. El-fri'da, queen of Edgar, King of the Anglo-Saxons, was the mother of Ethelred II., and was a woman of infamous character. Elger. See Elliger, (Otmar.) EFgin, (James Bruce,) Earl of, son of Thomas, noticed below, a distinguished British statesman, was born in 181 1, and educated at Oxford. In 1841 he suc- ceeded his father in the earldom of Elgin and Kincar- dine. From 1842 to 1846 he was Governor of Jamaica, and in the latter year he was appointed Governor-Gene- ril of Canada. In this position his policy was liberal, and his administration obtained the general approbation of the colonists and of the central government. In 1849 he was created an English peer. He left Canada in 1854, and was sent in 1857 to China on a special mission, which he performed with ability and success, and after the cap- ture of Canton negotiated the treaty of Tien-Tsien or Tientsin, (1858.) In June, 1859, he became postmaster- general in the cabinet of Palmerston. He went as am- bassador to China in i860, and, after the success of the British army, entered Pekin in triumph. He returned home in the spring of i86i, and was appointed Governor- General of India. Died in 1863. See "Gentleman's Magazine" for January, 1864. Elgin, (Thomas Bruce,) Earl of, seventh Earl of Elgin and Kincardine, born in Scotland in 1777, was descended from King Robert Bruce. He succeeded to the peerage in childhood, entered the army at an early age, and rose to the rank of general. In 1795 he was appointed envoy extraordinary to Berlin, and in 1799 was sent in the same capacity to Constantinople. While engaged in the latter mission, he availed himself of the opportunity to procure, with great labour and expense, at Athens, a large collection of statues, bas-reliefs, med- als, monuments, and other remains of ancient art, which were purchased by the government in 181 6, and now form part of the British Museum, under the name of the " Elgin Marbles." The government paid him ;[^35,ooo for these treasures, for removing which he was severely satirized by Lord Byron. Died in 184 1. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedle "Quar- terly Review" for January, 1816 ; " Edinburgh Review" for January, i860. El-gi'va, ? Queen of Edmund I., King of the Anglo- Saxons, and mother of Edgar. ETi, [Heb. '''7^,] a Hebrew high-priest and judge, who flourished about 11 70 B.C. He judged Israel forty years, and was succeeded by Samuel. See I. Samuel i., ii., iii., and iv. Elia. See Lamb, (Charles.) Elian. See i^iLiAN. Elias, (of Scripture.) See Elijah. Elias, i-lee'Ss, (Matthaus,) a German painter, born near Cassel in 1658, worked at Paris. Among his works is a "Transfiguration." Died in 1741. E-li'as Le-vi'ta, a Jewish rabbi, born probably in Italy in 1472, was one of the most celebrated writers and skilful grammarians among the modern Jews. He taught Hebrew in Rome and Venice, and published many works, among which were a " Hebrew Grammar" and a "Chaldaic, Talmudic, and Rabbinical Lexicon." His critical notes on the text of Scripture, entitled " Mas- sorah," (1538,) are highly prized. Died at Venice in 1 549. See Basnage, " Histoire des Juifs." Elichmami, a'liK-man', (Johann,) a German Orien- talist and physician, born in Silesia, practised at Leyden, where he died in 1639. In the opinion of Sahnasius, he understood Persian better than any European of his time. ]dlie, the French of Elijah, which see. ^lie de Beaumont, ;Vle' deh b5'mc)N',( Anne Louise Morin-Dumesnil — mo'raN'' dli'mcVn^K,) an author- ess, born at Caen in 1729, was the wife of Jean Baptiste Jacques, noticed below. She wrote a novel entitled ♦'Letters of the Marquis de Roselle," (2 vols., 1764.) Died in 1783. ^lie de Beaumont, (Jean Baptiste A rmand Louis L6oNc6,) a French geologist, born at Canon (Calvados) in 1798. He studied in the £cole Polytechnique and the £cole des Mines. In 1823 he was sent with M. Dufrenoy on a scientific excursion to Great Britain. He afterwards co-operated in a great geological map of France. (See Dufrenoy, P. A.) He became professor of geology in the College of France in 1832, chief engineer of mines in 1833, ^""^^ ^ member of the Institute hi 1835. Though not a politician, he was appointed a senator in 1852. He succeeded Arago in 1853 as perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences. Among his principal works ate a "Glance at Mines," (" Coup-d'CEil sur les Mines," 1824,) "Researches in some of the Revolutions of the Surface of the Globe," (1829,) and "Lectures on Geol- ogy." (3 vols., 1845 etseq.) See " Galerie historique des Membres du Senat." ^lie de Beaumont, (Jean Baptiste Jacques,) a French lawyer, grandfather of the preceding, was born at Carentan in 1732. He acquired a European reputation by his judicial " Memoires." In reference to his memoir of " les Galas," Voltaire pronounced him a true philoso- pher. He died in 1786. ]^lie de la Poterie, i'le' deh It pof're', (Jean An- TOINE,) a French physician, brother of the preceding, was born about 173 1. He died in 1794, leaving a few able treatises on mesmerism, pharmacy, etc. ]Slien, the French of .-Llian, which see. Eliezer. See Eleazar. E-li-e^zer, a Jewish rabbi and writer, surnamed the Great, lived in Palestine about 100 a.d. Eligius. See Eloi. Eligoum. See Elikoum. E-li'jah [Heb. m^^X or rT'?^] the Tishbite, an eminent Hebrew prophet, whose name is written Elias in the New Testament, [Fr. Elie, i^le'.] He was a native of Thisbe. The first recorded fact in his history is that he predicted to Ahab a great drought. (I. Kings xvii. I.) He made zealous efforts to convert the people from idolatry, and was the honoured instrument in the most signal manifestations of miraculous power. Finally, favoured with an exemption from the common doom of mortality, he was translated to heaven about 895 B.C. See I. Kings xviii., xix., xx., xxi. ; IL Kings i., ii. ; Matthew xi. 14, xvii. 3; Luke i. 17; also, F. Korn, "Der Prophet Elias; ein Sonnen-Mythus," 1837; Krummacher, " Elijah the Tishbite." Elikoom or Elikoum (el-e-koom'') I., written also Eligoum, a Christian prince of the Orpelian race in Georgia. About 1 168 he entered the service of the Sultan of Azerbaijan, who made him governor of Ispahan and other cities and in 11 72 ceded to him part of Armenia. He had one son, Libarid, who succeeded him. Elio, a''le-o, (Francisco Xavier,) a Spanish general, born at Pampeluna in 1769. In 1805 he took Buenos Ayres from the English, and in 181 1 defended the royalist cause against the insurgents of Montevideo. Recalled to Spain about 1812, he was appointed general of an army, fought against the French, aided to restore Ferdinand VII., and was made Captain-General of Valencia and Murcia in 1814. He was imprisoned by the insurgents in 1820, and executed at Valencia in 1822. See SouTHEv's " History of the Peninsular War." Eliot, (George.) See Evans, (Marian C.) EFi-ot, (Jared,) an American preacher and botanist, born in" Connecticut in 1685, was a grandson of John Eliot, the Apostle of the Indians. Died in 1763. Eliot, (John,) called "the Apostle of the Indians," was born in England in 1604, and was educated at Cam- bridge. He emigrated to Boston in 163 1, and soon became minister of the church of Roxbury. He learned the language of the Indians, and began about 1646 to preach to the aborigines of Massachusetts in their own tongue. In the prosecution of his missionary work he travelled extensively, amidst great privations and dangers, and acquired great influence over the Indians, many of whom were converted by him. He translated the Bible into the Indian language, (1661-63.) Died in 1690. See a "Life of John Eliot," by Convers Francis, in Sparks's "American Biography," vol. v., ist series. Eliot, (John,) an American biographer and minister, born in Boston in 1754, was one of the founders of the a, e, i, 5, u, y, long; hy 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/iori; a, e, i, o, obscure; tlr, fill, fit; m^t; nflt; good; moon; ELIOT 839 ELIZABETH Massachusetts Historical Society. He published the "New England Biographical Dictionary," (1809,) and other works. Died in 1813. El'i-ot, (Sir John,) an eminent English statesman and orator, born at Port Eliot, in Cornwall, in April, 1590, was educated at Exeter College, Oxford. He left college in 1610, soon after which he travelled in France and Italy. In 1623 he was elected a member of Parliament, in which he became a leader of the popular party and an eloquent debater. "For quickness and completeness of classical allusion," says Forster, " Eliot had no rival in Parliament." In the second Parliament of Charles I. he made a great speech on grievances. He was the chief author of the impeachment of the Duke of Buck- ir-gham, against whom he uttered a powerful philippic, (1626.) For this speech he was committed to the Tower, from which, however, he was released about ten days later. " He had in great perfection," says Forster, "some of the highest qualities of an orator, — singular power of statement, clearness and facility in handling details, pointed classical allusion, keen and logical argument, forcible and rich declamation." In 1629 Eliot again offended the king by his remonstrance against arbitrary impositions, tonnage and poundage. The Parliament was suddenly dissolved by the king, and Eliot, with many other patriots, was committed to prison. As he refused to make dishonourable concessions, he was confined in a dark and cheerless apartment and treated with a severity that ruined his health. He died in the Tower in No- vember, 1632. During this imprisonment he wrote a philosophical work entitled "The Monarchy of Man," (unpublished,) which is highly commended. See John Forster, "Sir John Eliot: a Biography," 2 vols., 1864; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1864; "London Quarterly Review" for June, 1865. Eliot, (Samuel,) an American historian, born in Bos- ton, December 22, 1821. He graduated at Harvard with the highest honours of his class in 1839, and afterwards spent several years in Europe. While in Rome, in 1845, he formed the plan of writing " The History of Liberty," of which two volumes appeared in New York and Lon- don, in 1849, under the title of "The Liberty of Rome." Part II., entitled "The Early Christians," (2 vols. 8vo,) was published in 1858. In 1856 he published " A Manual of United States History from 1492 to 1850." He was chosen president of Trinity College, Hartford, in i860. Eliott. See Elliot. Elisabetta, the Italian of Elizabeth, which see. Eliseeus, el-e-see'us, [Fr. £lis6, i'le'zi',] an eminent Armenian historian, was secretary of Vartan, general of the Armenian and Georgian armies. In 449 he became a bishop. He wrote a history of the war of Vartan against Persia, a work of superior merit, which has been often reprinted and translated into English, French, and Italian. Died in 480 A.D. ^lisee, the French of Elisha, which see, £lisee, bi'\t'z\\ (Jean Jacques Copel,) known as Father Elis6e, a noted French pulpit orator, born at Besan5on in 1726, preached in the fashionable churches of Paris. His sermons were published and much ad- mired. Died in 1783. ^lisee, (Marie Vincent Talachon — tt^S'sh^N',) a French surgeon, born at Lagny in 1753. He emigrated in 1792, and became chief surgeon of the royalist army. In 1797 Louis XVIH. chose him as his first surgeon. Died in 1817. E-li'sha, [Heb. V^"!^; Fr. £lisee, i'le^zi',] the son of Shaphat, an eminent Hebrew prophet, was a disciple of Elijah, whose mantle he inherited and by whom he was anointed. (See I. Kings xix. 16-21.) He performed many miracles between 890 and 840 B.C. See IL Kings ii., iii., iv., v., vi., vii., viii., and xiii. Elisio, i-lee'se-o, [Lat. Elys'ius,] (Giovanni,) a Nea- politan physician, who lived about 1550. Elissa. See Dido. E-liz'a-beth or E-lis'a-beth, of Scripture, was the wife of Zacharias and the mother of John the Baptist. See Luke i. 5 to 57. Eliz'abeth or Isabeau (e'zt'bo') of Angouleme was a daughter of Aimar, Count of Angouleme. She was married in 1200 to King John of England. Died in 1245. Eliz'abeth [Ger. Elisabeth, i-lee^zd-bSt] of Aus- TRL\, Queen of France, born in 1554, was a daughter of the emperor Maximilian IL, and a granddaughter of Charles V. She was married in 1570 to Charles IX. of France, and had one child, a daughter, who died young. She expressed abhorrence of the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew. It is stated that after the death of Charles IX. she declined an offer of marriage from Philip II. of Spain. Died in Vienna in 1592. See Clary Darlem, " iSlisabeth d'Autriclie, Reine de France," 1S47; Alfred de Martonne, " Isabelle d'Autriche," 1848. Eliz''abeth of Bosnia was the wife of Louis the Great, King of Hungary and Poland, who, dying in 1382, left her regent during the minority of his daughter Maria. She was put to death by Giornard of Croatia in 1386. Eliz'abeth of England, or of York, a daughter of Edward IV. and Elizabeth Woodville, was born in 1466. She was married to Henry VII. in i486, and became the mother of Arthur and Henry VIII. Elizabeth, [Sp. Isabel, e-sS-b^K; It. Elisabetta, i-le-si-bet'ta,] Queen of England, the daughter of Plenry VIII. and of Anne Boleyn, was born at Greenwich on the 7th of September, 1533. In 1535 her father opened a negotiation for a marriage between Elizabeth and the Duke of Angouleme, son of Francis I. of France ; but the alliance was not effected. In 1548 she was addressed by the ambitious Lord Seymour, with whom she indulged in a brief flirtation. She was endowed with superior mental powers, which were diligently improved by study, and, under the tuition of Roger Ascham, she attained a proficiency in classical learning. Before the age of seven- teen she was mistress of the Latin, French, and Italian languages, and had read several Greek works. She was attached by her education to the Protestant Church. Her sister. Queen Mary, who regarded her with jealousy, committed her to the Tower in 1554, on the pretext that she was concerned in Wyatt's rebellion. Much appre- hension was felt by the people that attempts might be made upon her life ; but she was released from the Tower after the lapse of a few months, and removed to Wood- stock. In 1558 she declined an offer of marriage from Eric, King of Sweden. On the 17th of November, 1558, Mary died, and Eliza- beth, with the general approbation, was proclaimed queen. Her popularity was doubtless increased by the contrast between her and the late sovereign. She acted with politic caution in her design of restoring the Protestant religion, retaining a number of Romanists in her privy council. She appointed William Cecil secretary of state, and Nicholas Bacon keeper of the great seal. She oegan the religious reform by ordering that a large part of the service should be read in English, and forbade the host to be elevated in her presence. The Catholic bishops refused to officiate at her coronation, excepting the Bishop of Carlisle, who, it seems, acted his part reluctantly. When Parliament met in 1559, a bill was passed which vested in the crown the supremacy claimed by the pope ; the mass was abolished, and the liturgy of Edward VI. restored. "Thus," says Hume, "in one session, without any violence or tumult, was the whole system of religion altered by the will of a young woman." At her accession Elizabeth found England at war with France and in alli- ance with Philip of Spain, who made her an offer of mar- riage, which she declined. In 1559 Francis II. (King of France) having assumed the arms and title of England in right of his wife, Mary Stuart, Elizabeth retaliated by sending an army to Scotland, which drove the French out of that kingdom. In 1562 she supported with money and troops the French Huguenots, who were then en- gaged in civil war with the Catholics. The next year the Parliament, anxious respecting the succession, voted an address to the queen, in which they entreated her to choose a husband ; but she returned an evasive answer, and was equally averse to decide in favour of any claimant to the succession or of any suitor for her hand. Besides the suitors already named, she gave encouragement to the Archduke Charles of Austria, the Duke of Anjou, and Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, the last of whom was the chief favourite from the early part of her reign until his death in 1588. e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K,giittnral; N, iiasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (^[^^See Explanations, j ). 23.) ELIZABETH 840 ELIZABETH After the treaty with the French in 1564, England was at peace with foreign nations for more than twenty y^ars, — a period of national prosperity and progress, in which commerce flourished and the naval power of the kingdom was greatly increased. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, was Elizabeth's prime minister and adviser during the greater part of her reign. For an account of her rivalry with the Queen of Scots, who was executed in 1587, see Mary Stuart. As the representatives of opposite interests in religion, Elizabeth and Philip of Spain had long felt a mutual hostility, which in 1588 resulted in the famous enterprise of the Invincible Armada, fitted out by Philip for the invasion of England. This armament, which consisted of more than 130 vessels and about 30,000 men, was commanded by the Duke of Medina Sidonia. The Eng- lish harassed the Armada in the Channel by partial attacks, and defeated the Spaniards in a general action on the 8th of August. The Spanish admiral then retreated northward, intending to sail home by that circuitous route ; but, a violent storm having arisen near the Ork- ney Isles, more than fifty of the ships were wrecked and their crews perished. The Spanish loss was probably not less than 20,000 men. (Motley.) About this time Elizabeth began to show a decided partiality for the Earl of Essex. (See Essex.) Hostilities still continued between the English and Spaniards ; and, while Philip subsidized the French Catholics, Elizabeth sent an army to aid Henry IV. in 1590 and in several ensuing years. The reign of Elizabeth was considered eminently beneficial and glorious to the nation. It was illustrated by such names as Spenser, Shakspeare, Sidney, Bacon, and Raleigh. Her personal character was deformed by selfishness, inconstancy, deceit, heartlessness, and other unwomanly faults; but she has generally been regarded as a ruler of eminent ability as well as courage. She died in 1603, after signifying her will that King James of Scotland should succeed her. (For a more particular account of Elizabeth's character, both as a woman and a queen, see Froude's " History of England," vols. vii. to X., and Motley's "United Netherlands," chaps, vi., vii., viii. et seq.) See, also, Dr. Thomas Birch, "Memoirs of the Reign of Queen Elizabeth," 1754; Camden, "History of Queen EHzabeth," ("Annales Rerum Anghcanarum," etc., 1625;) Lucy Aikin, " Memoirs of the Court of Queen EHzabeth," 1818 ; Hu.me, "History of England," chaps, xxxviii. to xliv. ; Gkegokio Leti, " Hisloria ovvero Vita di Elisabetta, Regina d'lnghlUerra," 1693; Fii. von Raumer, "Die Koniginnen Elisabeth von England und Maria von Scotland," 1836: Robert Nauton, " Fragmenta Regalia, or Observations on the Late Queen Elizabeth," 1642; also an article entitled "Elizabeth and Mary," in "Blackwood's Magazine" for April. 1867; "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1854, and October, 1863; "Eraser's Magazine" for October and November, 1853. Eliz'abeth (or Elisabeth) or Isabelle, e'zt'bil', OF France, born in Paris in 1389, was a daughter of Charles VI., and became the consort of Richard II. of England, Died in 1409. Elizabeth of France, daughter of Henry IV., was born in 1602, and was married to Philip IV. of Spain in 161 5. Died in 1644. Eliz'abeth, Saint, of Hungary, born at Presburg in 1207, was a daughter of Andrew (Andras) II., King of Hungary. She was married to Louis, Landgrave of Thuringia, in 1221, and was eminent for her fervent piety and ascetic life. Died in 1231. See "History of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary," London, 1632; Schoppe, " Leben Elisabeth's der heiligen," 1834 ; Charles de Montalembert, "Vie de S. Elisabeth de Hongrie," 1836. Elizabeth, (]dlisabeth,) (Philippine Marie He- LfeNE,) a French princess, usually called Madame Eli- sabeth, a sister of Louis XVI., was born at Versailles in 1764. During the reign of terror she shared the dangers and adversities of the king with fortitude, was imprisoned in August, 1 702, and executed in May, 1794. See Parisot, " Vie de Madame filisabeth de France," 1S14. Elizabeth, daughter of the King of Poland, married Charobert, King of Hungary, in 13 19. She was mother of three sons, one of whom, Louis, inherited his father's throne. By her intrigues and influence over her brother, Casimir of Poland, she procured for Louis also the throne of Poland in 1370. She was Regent of Poland from 1370 to 1378. Died in 1381. Elizabeth of Valois, a daughter of Henry H. of France, was born in 1545, and married to Philip II. of Spain in 1559. She died at Madrid in 1568. Elizabeth, (Charlotte.) See Tonna, Mrs. Elizabeth, Princess Palatine, the datighter of Frederick V. of Bohemia and Elizabeth Stuart of Eng- land, was born in 16 18. She received lessons in philo- sophy from Descartes, who is reported to have said that he "found none, except her, who thoroughly understood his works." She was instructed in religion by William Penn, whose friendship she highly valued. Having declined an offer of marriage from the King of Poland, she retired to Hervorden, where she died in 1680. The famous Prince Rupert was her brother, and George I. of England was her sister's son. See Prltdhomme, " Biographie des Fenimes cel^bres." Eliz'abeth Alexiev'na, (i-lSks-e-gv'na,) Empress of Russia, born in 1779, was a princess of Baden, whose original name was Louisa Maria Auguspa. In 1793 she became the consort of Alexander I., then grand duke. Her character is represented as very amiable. Died in 1826. Elizabeth (Elisabeth) Christiana or Christi^ne, ( kRis-tee'na, ) Queen of Prussia, born at Brunswick in 171 5, was a daughter of Ferdinand Albert, Duke of Bruns- wick-Wolfenbiittel. In 1732 or 1733 she was married to Frederick the Great. She had a literary taste, and was distinguished for modesty, piety, and many virtues. She translated several religious works into French. Died in 1797. See Von Hahnke, "Elisabeth Christine, Konigin von Preussen," Berlin, 184S. Elizabeth Christina or Christine, Empress of Germany, born in 1691, was a daughter of the Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel. She was the wife of Charles VI., Emperor of Germany, and the mother of Maria Theresa. Died in 1750. Eliz'abeth Farnese, (far-neez'; It. pron. faR-na'sa,) a daughter of Odouard II., Prince of Parma, was born in 1692. She was married in 17 14 to Philip V. of Spain, and, being crafty and ambitious, soon acquired a complete ascendency over that indolent, timid, and uxorious king. (See Philip V.) Charles III. was her son. Died in 1766. See "Memoirs of Elizabeth Farnese," London, 4 vols., 1746. Eliz'abetli Petrovna, (or Petrow'na,) pa-trov^ii. Empress of Russia, the daughter of Peter the Great and Catherine I., was born in 1709. In 1740 Ivan, the infant son of the Duke of Brunswick, was proclaimed emperor, in accordance with the will of the late empress Anna. By a successful conspiracy of Elizabeth's partisans, of whom her surgeon, Lestocq, was the leader, she obtained the throne in 1741. In the Seven Years' war, which began in 1756, she co-operated with the enemies of Frederick the Great so successfully that her army entered Berlin in 1760 ; and he was probably saved from ruin only by her death. She was indolent and dissolute, but inclined to clemency. Though never married, she had several children. She founded the University of Moscow and the Academy of Fine Arts at Petersliurg. She died in the winter of 1761-62, and was succeeded by her nephew, Peter III. See Leclekc, " Histoire de la Russie moderne ;" Lomonosof, " Panegyricus Elizabethse Imperatricis," 1749; Wiedemeyer, "Die Regierung der Kaiserin Elisabeth Petrowna," 2 vols., 1834. Eliz'abeth Stu'art, Queen of Bohemia, born in 1596 was the daughter of James I. of England and Anne of Denmark. She was distinguished for beauty and cap- tivating manners. In 1613 she became the wife of the Elector Palatine Frederick V. In 1619 she prevailed on him to accept the offered crown of Bohemia. This step involved him in war ; he was defeated in 1620, and lost even his hereditary state. Among her numerous children was Prince Rupert, the famous Cavalier. Died in England in 1662. See Miss PjEngrr. "Memoirs of Elizabeth Stuart," 1S25 ; Gar- diner, " History of England," vol. ii. chap. x. Eliz'abetli Wood'ville, a daughter of Sir Richard Woodville, was distinguished for her personal beauty. She was married to Sir John Gray, and after his death to Edward IV. in 1464. She was the mother of Edward V. and of Elizabeth, the queen of Henry VII. Died in 1488. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; ll, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short ; a, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; ELLAIN 841 ELLIOT Ellain, ^^iw', (Nicolas,) a French physician avid poet, born in Paris in 1534; died in 1621. Ellenborough, eKlen-bur'ruh, (Edward Law,) Lord, an eminent English lawyer, born at Great Sal- k^d, Cumberland, in 1750, was a son of Edmund Law, Bishop of Carlisle. After practising some years with success, and becoming the leader of the northern cir- cuit, he was employed in 1785 as leading counsel for the defence in the trial of Warren Hastings, after Erskine had refused to act on that side. Although he could not compete with Burke or Fox in eloquent declamation or in logical argument, he managed the case with a cer- tain skill and success. In 1801 Law was appointed at- torney-general. On the death of Lord Kenyon, in 1802, he became lord chief justice of the king's bench, and was created Baron Ellenborough. In the House of Lords he opposed all measures for the relief of Catholics, and voted for the impeachment of Lord Melville in 1806. He is said to have been extremely grieved by the ac- quittal of William Hone, the popular author, in 181 8, at whose trial he presided. He died in 18 18, and left his title to his son, the present Earl of Ellenborough. As a judge. Lord Brougham says, "no one could accuse him of partiality. He despatched business with great celerity, and for the most part with success." See Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Chief Justices ;" Foss, "The Judges of England ;" Brougham, " Statesmen of the Time of George in." Ellenborough, (Edward Law,) first Earl of, a Tory statesman, and a son of the preceding, was born in 1790. He inherited the title of baron in 1818, and was appointed lord privy seal in 1828. During the brief ministry of Sir Robert Peel in 1835 he was presi- dent of the Board of Control. He was appointed Gov- ernor-General of India in 1842, and, having annexed Scinde and Gwalior by conquest, was recalled in 1844 and raised to the rank of earl. He was first lord of the admiralty in 1845 and 1846. On the accession of the Derby-Disraeli ministry, in February, 1858, he became president of the Board of Control. The publication of a despatch in which he condemned Lord Canning's con- duct in India, gave so much offence that Ellenborough resigned a few months after his appointment. The House of Lords, by a majority of nine, rejected a motion to censure him for his conduct in this affair. See " Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1S45. Elleiirieder, eKlen-ree'der, (Maria,) a German painter of history and genre, was born at Constance in 1791. She visited Italy, and lived at Munich and Carls- ruhe. She is considered by the Germans the most skilful female artist of her time. Among her works is a picture of "Faith, Ho])e, and Charity." Eller, eKler, (Johann Theodor,) a German physi- cian and chemist, born at Pleskau in 1689. He was physician to Frederick the Great, who made him a privy councillor in 1755. He wrote " Observationes de Cognoscendis et Curandis Morbis," (" Observations on the Diagnosis and Cure of Diseases," 1762,) and other medical works. Died in 1760. See Adelung, Supplement to Jocher, "AUgemeines Gelehrten- Lexikon." ElTer-y, (William,) an American patriot, born at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1727, was educated at Har- vard College. He was engaged in mercantile pursuits in his native city for some years, and began the practice of the law in 1770. Having established a character for integrity, good sense, and firm attachment to public welfare and liberty, he was chosen a delegate to the memorable Congress of 1776, in which he signed the Declaration of Independence. Placing himself by the side of Secretary Thompson, he observed the expression and manner of each member in the act of signing his name, and was convinced that the men were equal to the crisis. He continued to serve in Congress (with the exception of two years) until the end of 1785, being rather eminent for his talents for business than for his powers as a debater. Retiring from public service in 1785, he found himself reduced in fortune by his patriotisin, as his dwelling had been burnt by the enemy. In 1790 he was appointed to the office of collector of customs in Newport, which he retained to the end of his life. His political sympathies were with the Federal party. Died in 1820. See a "Life of W. Ellery," in Sparks's "American Biography,' by his son-in-law, E. T. Channing, vol. vi., ist series; Goodrich, "Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence." EUesmere, Earl of. See Egerton, (Francis Lev- ESON GOWER.) EUesmere, Lord. See Egerton, (Thomas.) El'let, (Charles,) an American engineer, born at Penn's Manor, Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in 1810. He constructed the wire suspension bridge at Fairmount, Philadelphia, (the first made in America,) and that which crosses the Niagara River below the Falls. He was employed as engineer of several railroads. After the civil war began, he became a colonel of engineers, and converted several steamers into rams for military ope- rations on the Mississippi River. He received in a naval battle near Memphis a wound, of which he died in June, 1862. EUet, (Elizabeth FRiES,)an authoress, whose maiden name was LuMMis, was born at Sodus Point, New York, in 1818. She published, besides other works, a volume of poems, (1835,) " Women of the American Revolution," (1848,) and "Summer Rambles in the West," (1853.) See Griswold's "Female Poets of America." EUet, (William Henry,) M.D., an American chem- ist, born in New York about 1804, became professor of chemistry, etc. in South Carolina College about 1835. He discovered a method of preparing gun-cotton. The poetess Elizabeth F. Ellet was his wife. Died in New York in 1859. Elleviou, ^Kve'oo', (Pierre Jean Baptiste Fran- gois,) a French singer and composer, born at Rennes in 1769 ; died in 1842. ElTice, (Edward,) an English politician of the Whig party, born about 1786, was a merchant of London, and for many years an influential member of Parliament. In 1830 he became secretary of the treasury, and was secretary of war from April, 1833, December, 1834. His wife was a sister of the first Earl Grey. Died in 1863. EUicot. See Ellicott. EPli-cott, (Andrew,) surveyor-general of the United States, born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in 1754, served as an officer in the Revolution, and throughout the greater part of his life filled important positions under the Federal and State governments. In 1790 he laid out the Federal metropolis. He was appointed surveyor-general in 1792; from 1796 to 1801 he acted as commissioner in settling the southern boundary of the United States, and from 1812 till his death, in 1820, was professor of mathematics, engineering, etc. at West Point. He made valuable contributions to the Transac- tions of philosophical societies of Europe. ElTi-cott or ElTi-cot, (Charles John,) an English theologian, born near Stamford about 1820. He became professor of divinity in King's College, London, in 1858, and Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol in 1 863. He published, besides other works, "Commentaries on the Epistles of Saint Paul to the Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians," etc. EUies-Dupin. See Dupin, (Louis.) EUiger,eKle-ger,(OTTOMAR,) a skilful Swedish painter, born at Gottenburg in 1633. He became painter to the Elector Frederick William at Berlin. EUiger, (Ottomar,) son of the above, a skilful his- torical painter, born at Hamburg in 1666, was a pupil of Lairesse, and worked in Amsterdam. He excelled in architectural pictures. Among his best works are "The Feast of the Gods," and the "Nuptials of Thetis and Peleus." Died in 1732. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. EUinger, eKling-er, (Andreas,) a German physician, born in Thuringia in 1526, was professor at Leipsic. He wrote " Hippocratis Aphorismi," in Latin verse, (1579.) Died in 1582. ElTi-ot, (George,) an English admiral, born in 1784, commanded the fleet which operated against the Chinese in 1840, and became vice-admiral in 1847. ElTi-ot or EPI-ott, (George Augustus,) Lord Heathfield, born at Stobbs, in Scotland, in 1718, entered € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ELLIOT 842 ELLIS the army at an early age. From 1740 to 1748 he served in Germany as lieutenant-colonel and aide-de-camp of George II. He was second in command at the capture of Havana. In 1775, having obtained the rank of lieu- tenant-general, he was appointed Governor of Gibraltar, the defence of which was his last and most memorable achievement. During the siege, which commenced in 1779 and continued more than three years, he success- fully resisted the combined armaments of France and Spain, displaying great prudence and humanity, as well as high military talents. After peace was restored, he was raised to the peerage, with the title of Lord Heath- field of Gibraltar. Died in 1790. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Elliot, (Sir Gilbert,) sometimes styled Lord Minto, was a Scottish judge, who lived in the early part of the eighteenth century. He became lord justice clerk, and was distinguished for his patriotic efforts in favour of the Protestant succession. Elliot (Sir Gilbert) of Minto, a British orator, son of the preceding, was the father of the first Earl of Minto, and was eminent as a parliamentary speaker. He wrote an admired pastoral beginning thus : " My sheep I neglected, I broke my sheep-hook, And all the gay haunts of nay youth I forsook." Died in 1777. Elliot, (Sir Gilbert,) the first Earl of Minto, an eminent Scottish statesman, born in Edinburgh in 1751, was the son of the preceding. In 1774 he was returned to Parliament for Morpeth. In 1777 he married the daughter of Sir George Aymand. He acted with the party of Mr. Fox for several years, but about 1790 he changed sides and supported the ministry. In 1793 he was sent, with two other commissioners, to protect the Bourbon interest in Toulon and Corsica. In 1796 he was raised to the peerage, as Baron Minto. He was appointed Governor-General of India in 1806, and, after an able and successful administration, returned home in 1814. He died in June of that year. He had been created Earl of Minto in 1813. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Elliot, (Gilbert Elliot Murray Kyninmound,) second Earl of Minto, a son of the preceding, was born in 1782. He was elected to Parliament in 1806, and entered the House of Lords in 1814. He was sent as ambassador to Berlin in 1832, and was appointed first lord of the admiralty, under the Whig ministry, in 1835. From 1846 to 1852 he was lord privy seal in the cabinet of Lord John Russell, who was his son-in-law. He died in 1859, leaving several sons. Elliot, (Miss Jane,) a sister of Sir Gilbert Elliot of Minto, wrote an admired dirge for the slain at the battle of Flodden, entitled "The Flowers of the Forest." Elliot, (William,) an English designer and engraver, born at Hampton Court in 1717. He excelled in land- scapes. Died in 1766. ElTi-ot-son, (John,) F.R.S., an eminent English phy- sician, born in London about 1795. He became physician to Saint Thomas's Hospital in 1822. By new prescrip- tions of prussic acid and creosote, and other innovations in medical practice, he excited much hostility among a por- tion of the medical profession. He was chosen professor of medical science in University College, London, in 1831, and afterwards became president of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society. He was the author of valuable works entitled "Principles and Practice of Medicine," (1839,) and "Human Physiology," (1840.) Died in August, 1868. Elliott. See Eliot, Eliott, and Elyot. EPlI-ott, (Charles,) a Methodist minister, born in the county of Donegal, Ireland, in 1792, emigrated to Ohio about 1818, and edited the " Western Christian Advocate" for many years. He wrote several religious works. Elliott, (Charles Loring,) an American portrait- painter, born in Scipio, New York, in 1812. He lived many years in New York City, and painted portraits of many eminent persons. His works are remarkable for fidelity of likeness and vigorous colouring. Died in Au- gust, 1868. See H. T. Tuckerman's "Book of the Artists," 1867. Elliott, (Charles Wyllys,) an American author, a descendant of John Eliot, "the Apostle of the Indians," was born in Guilford, Connecticut, in 181 7. He has published a " History of New England from the Dis- covery of the Continent by the Northmen, in 986, to 1776." ElTi-ott, (Ebenezer,) an English poet, called "the Corn-Law Rhymer," was born at Masborough, near Roth- erham, Yorkshire, on the 1 7th of March, 1 781. His father was a clerk in an iron-foundry, with a small salary, and was a strict Calvinist. The son, after having made small progress at school, where he passed for a very dull boy, was set to work in the foundry above mentioned, in which he was employed many years. A love of nature and of books counteracted the tendency to intemperance and other vices usual among his associates. In his seventeenth year he began to write verses, the first of which were the " Vernal Walk," and " Night." In 182X. he removed to Sheffield, where he gained a competence in the iron-trade. Soon after this change of residence he wrote his most popular poem, the "Corn -Law Rhymes," urging the repeal of duties on corn, which excited general admiration. He wrote also " The Vil- lage Patriarch," (1829,) "Byron and Napoleon," (1831,) " Love," and a few other poems. The poet Montgomery says, " I am quite willing to hazard my critical credit by avowing my persuasion that in originality and power he might have measured heads beside Byron in tremendous energy, Crabbe in graphic description, and Coleridge in effusions of domestic tenderness ; while in intense sym- pathy with the poor, in whatever he deemed their wrongs or their sufferings, he excelled them all." Died in 1849. See J. Serle, "Life, Character, and Genius of Ebenezer Elliott," 1850; " Brief Biographies," by Samuel Smiles, i860; John Wat- kins, "Life, Poetry, and Letters of E. Elliott," 1850; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1832, and October, 1834; "Westminster Review" for January and April, 1850. Elliott, (Jesse Duncan,) an Ainerican naval officer, born in Maryland in 1782. He was second in command under Commodore Perry at the battle of Lake Erie, September, 1813, and was raised to the rank of captain in 1 81 8. Died in 1845. Elliott, (Stephen,) an American naturalist, born at Beaufort, South Carolina, in 1771, graduated at Yale College in 1791. He became president of the Literary Society and of the Philosophical Society of South Caro- lina, and professor of natural history at Charleston. He was the author of a valuable work entitled "The Botany of South Carolina and Georgia," (2 vols., 1821-24.) Died in 1830. Elliott, (Stephen,) D.D., son of the preceding, was born at Beaufort, South Carolina, in 1806. He became professor of sacred literature in South Carolina College. He was ordained in 1835, and was constituted Bishop of Georgia in 1841. Elliott, (William,) a politician and writer, born at Beaufort, South Carolina, in 1788. He opposed nullifi- cation in 1832, and afterwards wrote against secession, (185 1.) Among his works are " Fiesco," a tragedy, (1850,) and several short poems. ElTis, (Clement,) an English divine, born in Cum- berland in 1630, was appointed prebendary of South- well in 1693. He was the author of several approved works on theology. Died in 1700. See John Veneer, "Life of Clement Ellis," 1738. Ellis, (George,) F.R.S., a witty and accomplished English writer, born in 1745. During the French Revo- lution he gained distinction as one of the authors of the " Rolliad," (a political satire against Pitt and his minis- try,) for which he wrote the " Birth-Day Ode" and the "Ode on Dundas." In 1790 he published "vSpecimens of the Early English Poets," which is thought to have rendered an essential service to the national literature. Ellis was distinguished for his refined taste as well as for his literary attaimnents. In 1800 he became the friend of Sir Walter Scott, who addressed to him the fifth canto of " Marmion," and who is reported to have said " he was one of the most accomplished scholars and delightful companions he had ever known." In 1797-98 he wrote many articles for " The Anti- Jacobin," a weekly paper under the auspices of Canning. Died in 1815. a. e, T, 6, u, y, iong; 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; m&t; n6t; good; moon; ELLIS 843 ELLWOOD Eriis, (George Edward,) D.D., a distinguished Uni- tarian divine and author, born in Boston in 1815. He graduated at Harvard in 1833, and about 1838 was or- dained pastor at Charlestown. In 1857 he was appointed professor of theology in tlie Divinity School at Cam- bridge, a position which he held for five years. He wrote several memoirs for Sparks's "American Biog- raphy," and a "Half-Century of the Unitarian Contro- versy," (1857.) In 1864 he gave a course of Lowell Lectures on the "Evidences of Christianity." Ellis, (George James Welbure Agar,) Lord Dover, an English author, born in 1797, was educated at Oxford. He was elected to Parliament in 181 8 and at several sub- sequent periods. In 183 1 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Dover, and the next year was chosen president of the Royal Society of Literature. Among his principal works are " Life of Frederick II. of Prussia," (1831,) and " The Ellis Correspondence, illustrative of the Revolu- tion of 1688." He also contributed to the Edinburgh and London Quarterly Reviews. Died in 1833. Ellis, (Henry,) an English navigator, born in 1721. He accompanied an expedition which sailed from Eng- land in 1746 in search of a Northwest passage. Captains Moore and Smith commanded this expedition, Ellis being employed as naturalist and agent of the committee which sent it out. He published a narrative of his voyage, (1748,) and was afterwards Governor of New York and Georgia. Died in 1806. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie. " Ellis, (Sir Henry,) an English antiquary, born in London in 1777. He became assistant librarian of the British Museum in 1805. In 1823 he published the first series of "Original Letters illustrative of English History," (3 vols., second series, 1827; third series, 1846, 4 vols.) He was principal librarian of the British Museum from 1827 to 1856. Among his valuable works are "Elgin Marbles of the Classic Ages," (2 vols., 1847,) and "The Townley Gallery of Sculpture," (1847.) Died in January, 1869. Ellis, (Sir Henry,) K.C.B., an English officer, who in 1816 accompanied Lord Amherst as secretary of embassy to China with dormant credentials as minister plenipotentiary, and published an interesting Journal of the Embassy, with Observations on China and the Chinese. Died in 1855. Ellis, (John,) a literary scrivener, born in London in 1698, was a particular favourite of Dr. Johnson, who said, " The most literary conversation that I ever enjoyed was at the table of Jack Ellis the money-scrivener, with whom, at one period, I used to dine generally once a week." He wrote "The South Sea Dream," (1720,) a poem, and often exercised his talent in poetical squibs. He also translated Ovid's "Epistles," and other Latin poems. Died about 1791. Ellis, (John,) F.R.S., an eminent English naturalist, born in London about 17 10, was a merchant in early life. In 1754 he published an "Essay towards the Natural History of Corallines," in which the opinion was first advanced that they are of animal origin. He also wrote treatises on " Coftee," the " Bread-Fruit Tree," and other subjects. Died in 1776. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Ellis, (Sir Richard.) See Ellys. Ellis, (Robert Leslie,) an English philosopher and mathematician of Cambridge, was born in 181 7. He edited, in conjunction with James Spedding and D. Denon Heath, "The Philosophical Works of Lord Bacon," (5 vols., 1857-58.) Died in 1859. Ellis, (Sarah,) a popular English authoress, whose maiden name was Stickney, was born about 181 2. She was married to William Ellis, author of " Polynesian Researches," in 1837, before which she had published a successful work, "The Poetry of Life." She rendered important services to female education by numerous works, among which are "The Women of England," (1838,) "The Daughters of England," (1842,) "The Wives of England," (1843,) " The Mothers of England," (1843,) "Family Secrets," (1841-43,) and "Pictures of Private Life," (3 vols., 1844.) Ellis, (William,) an English surgeon, who accom- panied Captain Cook in his third voyage, (1776-79,) and published a well-written narrative of that voyage, (2 vols., 1782.) Died at Ostend in 1785. Ellis, (Rev. William,) an eminent English missionary and author. He was sent by the London Missionary Society to the South Sea Islands in 1816, and returned home in 1825. In 1829 he published his very interesting "Polynesian Researches," (2 vols. 8vo,) and in 1838 a " History of Madagascar," (2 vols.) " Here is a work as copious, as comprehensive, as minute, and, as far as we can judge, as accurate, as it would be possible to produce." ("London Eclectic Review.") He married Sarah Ellis, noticed above, in 1837, Ellis, (William,) an English economist and writer on social science, was born near London in 1800. He distinguished himself by successful efforts to introduce the study of political economy into schools. He wrote " Outlines of Social Economy," " Phenomena of Indus- trial Life," " Progressive Lessons in Social Science," and other works. EUisen. See Ellissen. EUissen, el'lis-sen, or EUisen, (Adolf,) a German critic and historian, born at Gar tow, Liineburg, in 1 81 5, was a moderate democratic member of the parliament of Frankfort in 1848. He translated Montesquieu's "Esprit des Lois," (1844.) Among his works are an "Essay of a Polyglot of European Poetry," (" Versuch einer Polyglotte der Europaischen Poesie," 1846,) and one "On the History of Athens since the Loss of its Liberty," (1848.) ElPis-ton, (Robert William,) a celebrated English actor, born in London in 1774, ran away from school, and appeared on the stage for the first time at Bath in 1 79 1. After obtaining success in the provinces, he made his debut at the Haymarket in 1796. In 1803 he was prii"pcipal actor and acting manager of that theatre, where he acquired great popularity. When Drury Lane was rebuilt after the fire, Ellistou became one of its leading performers. He was the lessee of the theatre last named from 1 819 to 1826, when he became insolvent. He was very successful in a great variety of characters ; and he is generally regarded as the most excellent comedian that the English nation has produced. Died in 183 1. See G. Raymond, "Memoirs of Elliston," 1846. EUs'wprth, (Ephraim Elmer,) a brave American patriot, born at Mechanicsville, Saratoga county, New York, in 1837. He removed to Chicago before he was of age, and studied law. He organized about 1859 a zouave corps which became noted for the excellence of its discipline. In March, 1861, he accompanied Presi- dent Lincoln to W^ashington, and in April he went to New York City, where he organized a zouave regiment of firemen, of which he became the colonel. He was ordered to Alexandria, where he saw a rebel flag floating over a hotel. He ascended to the roof and took down the flag, for which act Jackson, the keeper of the hotel, immediately shot him dead, in May, 1861. Jackson was instantly afterwards killed by one of the soldiers of Ellsworth. Ellsworth, (Oliver,) Chief Justice of the United States, was born in Windsor, Connecticut, April 29, 1745. He graduated at Princeton, New Jersey, in 1766, was admitted to the bar in 1771, and chosen a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1777. He was a member of the Convention which in 1787 formed the Federal Constitution, and was elected in 1789 to the Senate of the United States. He acquired distinction as a debater, and acted with the Federal party. According to John Adams, " he was the firmest pillar of Washington's whole administration in that body." He was appointed chief justice of the United States by Washington in 1796. His official conduct in this position was generally approved. He was sent to Paris in 1799 as envoy ex- traordinary, and, with his colleagues Davie and Murray, negotiated a treaty with France. He died in 1807, leaving a high reputation for ability and integrity. See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. ; "Encyclopaedia Americana." ElPwood, (Thomas,) an English author, born at Crowell, in Oxfordshire, in 1639, adopted at an early age the religion of the " Friends," or Quakers, among whom he became a prominent member and a public € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^See Explanations, p. 23.) ELLTS 844 ELPHINSTONE fltinister. In 1662, having a desire to improve himself in learning, he procured, by the mediation of Isaac Pen- ington and Dr. Paget, the place of reader to the poet Milton, who was then blind and resided in London. Ell- wood says, " he kept always a man to read to him, which usually was the son of some gentleman, whom in kind- ness he took to improve in his learning. ... I went every day in the afternoon, (except on the first days of the week,) and, sitting by him in his dining-room, read to him in such books in the Latin tongue as he pleased to hear." Thus they went on pleasantly together for six weeks, when ill health compelled Ellwood to leave Lon- don. The world is indebted to his suggestion for Milton's second epic poem, "Paradise Regained." In 1665 Ell- wood paid a visit to Milton at Giles-Chalfont, where, says he, *' after some common discourse had passed be- tween us, he called for a manuscript of his, which he delivered to me, bidding me take it home with me and read it at my leisure, and, when I had done so, return it to him with my judgment thereon." He found it was " Paradise Lost," and, when he returned it, was asked by the author how he liked it and what he thought of it. Ellwood "modestly and freely" answered this question, and added, " Thou hast said much here of Paradise Lost ; but what hast thou to say of Paradise Found " He made no answer, but sat some time in a muse." Ellwood published a "Sacred History," (1705,) and a poem called " Davideis," (1712.) He died in 1713, leaving interesting "Memoirs of his own Life," (1714.) See, also, "The Penns and Peningtons," by Makia Webb, Lon- don, 1867; "Retrospective Review," vol. xiii., 1826. EPlys, (Anthony,) an English divine, born in 1693, became Bishop of Saint David's in 1752. He wrote " Tracts on the Liberty, Spiritual and Temporal, of Subjects in England," and a few other works. Died in 1 761. Eilys or El'lis, (Sir Richard,) a grandson of the English patriot Hampden, was a member of Parliament from 1 7 15 to 1734. He excelled in Hebrew, Greek, and biblical criticism, on which he published a work called " Fortuita Sacra," (1728.) Died in 1742. Elmacin, gl-ml-seen', (George,) [Lat. Geor'gius Elmaci'nus,] written also Elmakin (el-md-keen') and Almakin, an Oriental historian and Christian, born in Egypt in 1223, became secretary to the court of the Sultans of Egypt. He wrote, in Arabic, a history of the world from the creation to 1118 a.d., which obtained European celebrity, and part of which was translated by Erpenius about 1625. Died in 1273. See HoTTiNGER, "Bibliotheca Orientalis." Elmacinus, (Georgius.) See ELMAcfN. Elmakin. See ELMActN. Elmenliorst, ^Kmen-hoRst', (Geverhard, Ger- hard, or Gerhart,) a distinguished German critic, born at Hamburg, published notes on Arnobius, (1603,) Minu- cius Felix, and other old authors. Died in 1621. See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." Elmenhorst, (Heinrich,) a German poet and pastor, born at Parchim in 1632, wrote "Spiritual Songs," and " Dramatologia antiquo-hodierna," (1688.) Died in 1704. Elmer. See Aylmer. Elmes, glmz, (Harvey Lonsdale,) an eminent Eng- lish architect, born near Chichester about 1814, was the son of James Elmes, noticed below, with whom he en- tered into partnership in London. His reputation as an architect is chiefly founded on the erection of Saint George's Hall, Liverpool, his design for which was pre- ferred to those of about eighty competitors. This edifice, which is esteemed the principal ornament of Liverpool, and one of the finest specimens of the Corinthian order in England, was finished about 1855. It is 490 feet long by 165 feet wide. Before its completion Mr. Elmes's health failed; he died in Jamaica in 1847. Elmes, (James,) the father of the preceding, was born in London in 1782. He M'as architect of several public and private buildings of London, and acquired distinction as a writer. He published "The Life and Works of Sir Christopher Wren," (1823,) "School of the Fine Arts," (3 vols., 1825,) "Ecclesiastical and Civil Dilapidations," (3d edition, 1829,) "Thomas Clarkson, a Monograph," (1854,) and other works. Died in 1862. El'more, (Alfred,) an Irish historical painter, born at Clonakilty, county of Cork, about i8i6. He became a student in London, where he worked with success. Among his chief productions are " Rienzi in the Forum," (1844,) "The Fainting of Hero," (1846,) "The Inventor of the Stocking-Loom," (1847,) and "The Emperor Charles V. at Yuste," (1856.) EFmore, (Franklin Harper,) an American financier and politician, was born in Laurens district. South Carolina, in 1799. He was a member of Congress in i837-39> and was president of the Bank of the State of South Carolina from 1840 to 1850. In this year he was chosen to fill a vacancy in the Senate of the United States caused by the death of John C. Calhoun. * Died in May, 1850. Elms'ley, (Peter,) an eminent English critic, and one of the first Greek scholars of his time, was born in 1773. He wrote articles for the early numbers of the " Edinburgh Review" about 1802. In 1819 he was chosen to assist Sir Humphry Davy in unrolling the Hercula- nean manuscripts. After this date he lived chiefly at Oxford, where, in 1823, he became professor of history. He published excellent editions of several dramas by Euripides and Sophocles, which gained him a European fame. Southey, speaking of the Edinburgh Reviewers, said, " Elmsley has more knowledge and a sounder mind than any or all of them." Died in 1825. ^loi, i'lwi', [Lat. Elig'ius,] a French benefactor, born near Limoges in 588 a.d., became a favourite min- ister of King Dagobert, and founded monasteries and hospitals. He was appointed Bishop of Noyon in 640. Died in 659. See Saint-Ouen, "Vita Eligii;" Barthelemv, "Viede Saint- Eloi." Elorza. See Churruca y Elorza. idloy, i^lwi', (Nicolas Francois Joseph,) a Flemish physician, born at Mons in 1 714, was employed profes- sionally by Prince Charles of Lorraine. He wrote a " His- torical Dictionary of Medicine, Ancient and Modern," (4 vols., 1778.) Died in 1788. Elphege, SKfe-ge, } written also Alphege, an English prelate, born in 954 a.d., became Archbishop of Can- terbury in 1006. He was killed by the Danish pirates in loii. See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. i., 1S60. EFphin-stpn, (Arthur,) Lord Balmerino, a Scottish Jacobite, born in 1688. On the accession of George I. he took arms for the Stuart cause, and fought at SherifF- muir. He was taken prisoner at the battle of CuUoden in 1745, and, after trial, was executed in 1746. Elphinston, (James,) an eccentric Scottish gram- marian, born in Edinburgh in 1721, was for many years principal of a successful school at Kensington, near London. He associated with Dr. Johnson, by whom he was highly esteemed, and he made versions of certain Latin mottoes of the " Rambler," which were adopted by the editor of that work. He published, among other works, "Education," a poem, (1763,) "Propriety ascer- tained in her Picture," and " English Grammar reduced to Analogy," (1765,) in which he advocated a reform of orthography on phonetic principles. Died in 1809. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Elphinston, (John,) an able naval officer, born in the Highlands of Scotland in 1720. In 1768 his government placed him at the disposal of Catherine, Empress of Russia, who employed him as admiral of the fleet sent against the Turks in 1770. After fighting one battle near Scio, and burning a Turkish fleet, he quarrelled with Orloff", the Russian general-in-chief, and left the service. Died in 1774. See RuLHi^RES, "Histoire de I'Anarchie de Pologne." EFphin-stone, (George Keith,) Viscount Keith, a distinguished British admiral, born in Scotland in 1746, was the son of Viscoimt Elphinstone. As post-captain he served in America about 1776. In 1795 he obtained the rank of vice-admiral, and captured Cape Town. In 1800 he was commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean, where he took Malta and Genoa. For his services in Egypt he was raised to the British peerage, as Baron Keith, (1801,) and obtained the rank of admiral. In 1814 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, 3?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, f^ll, fit; m§t; ndt; good; moon; ELPHINSTONE 845 ELTON he was created a viscount of the United Kingdom. He died in 1823. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Elphinstone, (George William Keith,) C.B., a British general, born about 1782, was descended from the noble Scottish family of Elphinstone. After serving in many campaigns, he became lieutenant-colonel in 1813, and gained distinction at Waterloo. In 1837 he was promoted to the rank of major-general. He commanded the army which was defeated in Afghanistan, a short time before his death, which occurred in 1842. Elphinstone, (Hon. Mountstuart,) a British his- torian and statesman, born in 1779, was the fourth son of the eleventh Lord Elphinstone, He entered the civil service of the East India Company in 1795, became sec- retary to Sir Arthur Wellesley in 1803, and ambassador to the court of Cabool in 1808. He published in 1815 an " Account of the Kingdom of Cabool," a standard his- torical work of great merit. From 1810 to 181 7 he was resident at the court of Poona. He was appointed com- missioner of that province in 181 7, and Governor of Bombay in 1819. "His policy, so far as India is con- cerned," says Bishop Heber, " appeared to me peculiarly wise and liberal." The same writer adds, " Mr. Elphin- stone is in every respect an extraordinary man, possess- ing great activity of mind and body, remarkable talent for and application to public business," etc. He resigned his office in November, 1827, and returned to England in 1829. In 1836 he declined the offer of the Governor- Generalship of India, on account of his health. His " History of India : the Hindoo and Mohammedan Pe- riods" (2 vols., 1 841) is highly commended. He was never married. He died in November, 1859. See "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society," vol. xviii. part ii. p. 221; J. W. Kaye, " Lives of Indian Officers;" "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1815, and September, 1841. Elphinstone or Elphinston, (William,) an eminent Scottish statesman and prelate, founder of King's Col- lege, Aberdeen, was born at Glasgow about 1435. He studied law in France, and became professor of that science in Paris. Having returned home about 1470, he obtained several high civil offices, and in 1484 was chosen Bishop of Aberdeen. Soon after this he was em])loyed with honour as negotiator at several foreign courts. In 1492 he accepted the office of lord privy seal, which he appears to have retained until his death. In 1494 he obtained a papal bull for the foundation of a university which was built in 1506. He wrote a book of canons and a "History of Scotland." Died in 15 14. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." El'ring-ton, (Thomas,) D.D., a skilful Irish mathe- matician, born near Dublin about 1760. He became professor of mathematics in Dublin University in 1795, provost of Trinity College in 1811, Bishop of 'Limerick in 1820, and was translated to the see of Leighlin and Ferns in 1822. He published an edition of Euclid which is used as a text-book in Dublin University, and an edi- tion of Juvenal. Died in 1835. Elsasser, ll'sis^ser, (Frikdrich August,) a German landscape-painter, born at Berlin in 1810; died at Rome in 1845. Among his works is the "Grotto of Sirens" at Tivoli. Elsevier. See Elzevir. Elsheimer, glss'hl'mer, or Elzheimer, llts'hT'mer, (Adam,) an excellent German landscape-painter, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1574, was known among the Italians by the name of il Tedesco, [i.e. "the German.") He worked mostly in Rome, where he acquired a high reputation by his good taste and his fidelity in the imita- tion of nature. He excelled in colour and chiaroscuro. His works are of small dimensions and very highly finished. Besides many landscapes, he painted a " Flight into Egypt," which is much admired, " Ceres in Search of her Daughter," and other historical and mythological pieces. Died in Rome in 1620. See Bryan, "Dictionary of Painters and Engravers;" J. D. Passavant, "A. Elsheimer, Maler aiis Frankfurt," 1847. Elshoecht, IV&o'lW, or Elshoect, (Carle,) a skilful French statuary, born at Dunkirk in 1797, was a pupil of Bosio. He gained a gold medal for his statue of " Inno- cence," (1825.) He adorned several buildings of Paris with busts of Mirabeau, Moliere, Poussin, and Claude Lorrain, and the Tuileries with a group representing the Genius of Asia. Died in 1856. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Elshoect. See Elshoecht. Elsholtz. See Elsholz. Elsholz, von, or Elsholtz, fon Sls'holts, (Franz,) a German comic poet, born in Berlin in 1 791, obtained in early life an office of secretary in the public service at Cologne. He produced "The New Achilles," and a successful drama called "Come here," ("Komm her," 1824.) His comedy "The Lady at Court" ("Die Hof- dame") attracted much attention. Elsholz or Elsholtz, (Johann Sigismund,) a Ger- man botanist, born at P>ankfort-on-the-Oder in 1623. He became physician to the Elector of Brandenburg in 1656, and lived in Berlin. He published, besides other works, "Flora Marchica," (1663.) Died in 1688. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Boedi- ker, " Ehrengedachtniss J. S. Elsholzen's," 1688. Eisner, glss'ner, (Christoph Friedrich,) a German medical writer, born at Konigsberg in 1 749; died in 1820. Eisner, (Jakob,) a learned German Protestant theo* logian, born at Saalfeld, in Prussia, in 1692. He became in 1722 rector of the College of Joachimsthal, in Berlin, and afterwards first preacher to the court. He pub- lished, besides other works, a commentary on the New Testament, (" Observationes sacrae in Novi Foederis Libros," 2 vols., 1720-28.) Died in 1750. See Adelung's Supplement to Jocher, "AUgemeines Gelehrten- Lexikon." Eisner, (Johann Gottfried,) a meritorious Ger- man economist, born at Gottesburg, in Silesia, in 1784. He was a practical farmer, and studied rural economy in various countries. He published many works, among which are a "Manual for the Propagation of Merino Sheep," (1832,) and a "Shepherd's Catechism," (1841.) Elss'ler, (Fanny,) a German danseuse, born in Vi- enna in 1811. She performed with great applause in Vienna, Berlin, Paris, and London. In 1841 she visited the United States. El'stob, (Elizabeth,) an English linguist, sister of William, noticed below, was born at Newcastle in 1683. She was noted for her knowledge of the Saxon language. She translated Scudery's "Essay on Glory," and pub- lished a "Saxon Grammar," (1715,) and "Saxon Homi- lies." From 1739 to 1756 she was governess to the children of the Duchess of Portland. Died in 1756. Elstob, (William,) an English antiquary, born at Newcastle in 1673, was a Fellow of one of the Oxford colleges, and an excellent Saxon scholar. He became rector of Saint Swithin, London, in 1702. He published an edition of " Ascham's Latin Letters," " An Essay on the Affinity, etc. between the two Professions of Law and Divinity," and began an edition of Saxon laws, which was finished after his death by Wilkins. Died in 1 714. Elsynge, eKsinj, .'' (Henry,) an English civil officer and writer, born at Battersea, Surrey, in 1598. After leaving college and travelling a few years, he obtained the office of clerk of the House of Commons, which he kept during the Long Parliament, and resigned in 1648. " Mr. El- synge," says Whitelocke, "was the best I ever knew to take the sense of the House and put it into apt terms." He published a much-esteemed work on the " Manner of Holding Parliaments in England." Died in 1654. See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." El'ton, (Sir Arthur Hallam,) an English writer, son of Charles Abraham, noticed below, and a nephew of Henry Hallam the historian, was born in 1818. He wrote a tale entitled " Below the Surface." Elton, (Charles Abraham,) an English poet, born in 1778, published a volume of poems in 1804, and a poetical version of the remains of Hesiod, (1809,) which is highly praised by the "Edinburgh Review." In 1814 he published " Specimens of the Classic Poets from Homer to Tryphiodorus, translated into English Verse," (3 vols.,) in which there are many brilliant and spirited passages. Died in 1853. See "Edinburgh Review" for October, i8og. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, Yi,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (g^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) ELFENICH 846 EMERSON Elvenich, §l'veh-niK', (Peter Joseph,) a German Catholic philosopher, born at Embken in 1796, is called the chief of Hermesianism, on which he wrote several treatises. Elves, [Norse, Alfar, SKfar, in the singular, Alfi, sig- nifying " Spirit,"] the name given in the Norse mythology to a class of subordinate beings or deities who are sup- posed to inhabit that part of the atmosphere which is nearest the earth's surface and the interior of the earth. The former are aerial beings, and are called light-elves, (Ljosalfar :) they preside over the plants on the surface of the earth. The latter dwell in the bowels of the earth, and are distinguished as dark-elves, (Dokkalfar or Svart- alfar :) they have charge of the ores and minerals lying within the earth, and are skilful workers in metal. The Dwarfs (Dwergar) nearly resemble the dark-elves : they work in the interior of the earth, and possess magic or supernatural powers. See Thorpe's " Northern Mythology," vols. i. and ii., more par- ticularly pp. 56 and 57. Elvius, &l've-us, (Pehr,) the Elder, a Swedish writer and savant, lived in the first half of the eighteenth century. Elvius, (Pehr,) a scientific Swedish traveller, son of the preceding, was born at Upsal in 17 10. He was em- ployed in the survey and exploration of Sweden about 1745, of which he wrote an account. Died in 1749. See O1.OF Celsius, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver P. Elvius," 1749; Olof Dalin, "Aminnelse-Tal ofver P. Elvius," 1750. Elwart, gKvtR', (Antoine,) a French composer of operas, symphonies, etc., born in Paris in 1S08, gained the grand prize of the Institute in 1834. Ei'wes, (John Meggot,) an English miser, born in London in 1 7 14, became member of Parliament about 1774. He is said to have left more than ;(^5oo,ooo. Died in 1789. See E. ToPHAM, "Life of J. Elwes," 1790; "Retrospective Re- view," vol. ix., 1824. Elye, ee'lT or i'le', (Elias,) a Swiss philologist, born at Laufen about 1400, was the first who introduced the printing-press into Switzerland. Died about 1475. El'y-ot, (Sir Thomas,) an English diplomatist and author, eminent for his profound learning, was sent by Henry VIII. on a mission to Rome about 1532, and to the court of Charles V. a few years later. He composed admired works entitled "The Governor," (1531,) and " The Castle of Health," (1534.) His " Latin Dictionary" (1538) passed through many editions. Died in 1546. EFys or EPlis, (Rev. Edmund,) an English poet and nonjuror, published " Divine Poems," (1658.) Died after 1693- Elysium, or Elysian Fields. See Pluto. Elzevier. See Elzevir. Elzevir, SKzeh-vir, [Dutch, Elzevter or Elsevier, SKzeh-veer',] the name of a family of Dutch printers and publishers, who were celebrated for the beauty of their typography, and rendered great services to literature by the publication of classic authors. The most distin- guished are the following: Elzevir, (Lewis, or Lodewijk,) the first eminent member of the family, was born about 1540, and settled at Leyden. Some of his publications are dated 1592. He died about 161 7, leaving four sons, Matthew, Lewis, Gilles, and Bonaventure, who were publishers. Matthew died in 1640, and left sons named Isaac, Abraham, and Bona- venture. The last two were partners, and published at Leyden the master-pieces of typography which rendered the name of Elzevir famous. Among these are the works of Virgil, Pliny, Livy, and Cicero. They both died be- tween 1650 and 1660. Lewis III., a son of Lewis IL, established a press at Amsterdam in 1638, and produced fine editions of many authors. He died about 1670. Daniel, a son of Abraham, (or, as others say, of Bona- venture,) was the last of the family that excelled in the art of printing. He lived at Leyden, and died in 1680. See A. DE Reume, " Recherches historiques, etc. sur les Elsevier," Brussels, 1847 ; Dodtvan Flensburg, " Overde Elzeviers, Lodewijk den Vader," etc., 1851. El'zey, (Arnold,) an American general, was born in Maryland about 1815. He served in the Mexican war, and,'on the breaking out of the rebellion of 1861, entered the Confederate army. He was made brigadier-general in 1862, Elzheimer. See Elsheimer. Emadee or Emadi, e-mi'dee, a celebrated Persian poet, surnamed Sheheriari, because he resided in She- heriar, lived in the reign of Malek II., one of the Sel- jukides. He published a divan, or a collection of four thousand verses, and died in 1177. See D'Herbelot, " Bibliotheque Orientale." Emanuel. See Emmanuel and Manuel. Eman'uel ben SoPomon, a famous Hebrew poet, a native of Rome, lived in that city about the end of the thirteenth century. He was the author of a poem called Mechabberoth" or " Mechaberoth," (*' Poetic Compo- sitions,") and of several commentaries on the Scriptures. He is called by some rabbis "the Voltaire of the He- brews," and is reputed the most elegant poet that his nation has produced since their dispersion. Emanuele, k-ma-noo-a'lk, (surnamed Era Como, from the place of his birth.) an Italian painter, born at Como in 1625 ; died in 1701. Embury, gn/ber-e, (Emma Catherine,) an Ameri- can writer, daughter of Dr. James R. Manley, of New York, was married to Daniel Embury, Esq., of Brooklyn, in 1828. She published "Guido, and other Poems," "Constance Latimer, or the Blind Girl," and "Nature's Gems, or American Wild- Flowers." Died in 1863. See Griswold's "Female Poets of America." Emelraet, a'mel-rlt', a Flemish landscape-painter, born at Brussels about 1612. He passed some years in Rome, and afterwards settled in Antwerp. He worked principally for the churches, painted often the landscape for the pictures of other artists, and was regarded as one of the best landscape-painters of Flanders. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Emeri. See Emery. fimeriau, am're'6', (Maurice Julien,) a French admiral, born in Bretagne in 1762. He commanded a ship at Aboukir in 1798, where he was wounded and made prisoner. He became a rear-admiral in 1802, a count in 1810, and a vice-admiral in 1811. About 1812-15 he was commander-in-chief of the fleet in the Mediter- ranean, and resisted the English with success. He was placed on the retired list in 1816. Died in 1845. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Emeric. See Eymeric. ^meric-David, im'r^k' dS'vid', ( Toussaint Ber- nard,) a French archaeologist and writer on art, was born at Aix (Provence) in 1755. He practised law at Aix in his youth, and sat in the legislative body from 1809 to 1814. In 1815 he was elected to the Academy of Inscriptions, for which he wrote memoirs on Greek mythology, etc. He was author of a " Historical Dis- course on Modern Painting," (1807,) of a "History of Painting in the Middle Ages," (1842,) and of many articles in the "Biographie Universelle." Died in 1839. See Fauriel, in the " Histoire litteraire de France," tome xx. ; " Nf>uvelle Biographie Generale." ]6merigon, im're%6N',(BALTHASAR Marie,) a French jurist, born about 1714, published an excellent "Treatise on Assurances (or Sureties) and Contracts," etc., (1784,) and other works. Died in 1785. Em'er-son, (George B.,) a distinguished American teacher and writer on education, was born in York county, Maine, in 1797. He taught in Boston for many years, and was president of the Boston Society of Natural History. He wrote "Lectures on Education," and a " Report of the Trees and Shrubs growing naturally in the Forests of Massachusetts," (1846.) Emerson, (Ralph Waldo,) an American essayist, poet, and speculative philosopher, was born in Boston in 1803. Pie entered Harvard in 1817, and took the de- gree of A.B. in 182 1. While at college he is said to have spent much of his time in the library, and, although not distinguished for his proficiency in the regular studies of the curriculum, he was superior to most of his class- mates in his knowledge of general literature. His health failing about 1827, he spent the ensuing winter in Florida. In 1829 he was ordained at the Second Uni- tarian Church of Boston, as colleague of Henry Ware ; but he resigned this position in 1832, because he could not accept the views of his Church in regard to the a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mgt; n6t; good; moon; EMERSON 847 EMMANUEL Lord's Supper. In December of the same year he sailed for Europe, and returned to his native land in the au- tumn of 1833. Soon after, he commenced his career as lecturer, his discourses embracing almost every variety of topic, from simple "Water" to "Milton," "Human Culture," and universal "Nature." A volume of his "Essays" appeared in 1841, and, by its freshness and originality of thought and sparkling beauty of expression, excited much attention. In 1840, on the establishment of the "Dial," (the organ of the New England Transcen- dentalists,) he became one of the contributors to that periodical, and was afterwards its editor from 1842 to 1844. A second volume (or series) of "Essays" made its appearance in 1844. It was characterized by the same striking peculiarities of thought and expression that had previously attracted so many readers, and soon procured for him a multitude of admirers on both sides of the At- lantic. A collection of his poems was published in 1846. In the following year he visited England, in order to fulfil an engagement which he had made to deliver a series of lectures before various institutes and societies in that country. In 1850 he issued a small volume, entitled " Representative Men," one of the most important of all his publications : it is doubtless that upon which his permanent reputation as a thinker will principally rest. It consists of a series of characters or mental portraits, each of which is designed to represent a class : i. Plato, or the Philosopher ; 2. Swedenborg, or the Mystic ; 3. Montaigne, or the Skeptic; 4. Shakspeare, or the Poet ; 5. Napoleon, or the Man of the World ; 6. Goethe, or the Writer. It is scarcely necessary to say that the judgments formed of Mr. Emerson's writings, and more especially of the last-named work, must vary according to the habits of thought and prepossessions of the critic; the more so as our author does not attempt to establish his positions by any process of reasoning ; he simply announces his views, leaving his reader to accept them or not, as he may have the capacity to do so, in accord- ance with the scriptural saying, "He that is able to re- ceive it, let him receive it." In his philosophical or metaphysical views he may be said to approximate the celebrated German transcendentalist Fichte. Mr. Emei- son's "English Traits" (1856) is one of his most popular and attractive books, although many of the remarks and statements contained in it require to be received with liberal qualifications. Mr. Emerson is distinguished for originality, as well as for subtlety of intellect. One cannot, however, help suspecting that, in his love of originality and his anxiety to shake himself wholly free from the trammels of the past, he sometimes runs into errors in the opposite direc- tion, from which his good sense and rare sagacity might otherwise have preserved him. "As a writer," observes an accomplished critic, "Mr. Emerson is distinguished for a singular union of poetic imagination with practical acuteness. . . . The brilliant transcendentalist is evidently a man not easy to be deceived in matters pertaining to the ordinary course of human affairs. . . . His observa- tions on society, on manners, on character, on institu- tions, are stamped with rare sagacity. . . . His style is in the nicest harmony with the character of his thought. It is condensed almost to abruptness. Occasionally he purchases compression at the expense of clearness."* "There never was," says Mr. Alger, "a bolder champion of mental freedom for himself and for all men. His rich and vigorous freshness has been an invaluable tonic to his contemporaries." But the same writer justly observes that "the emphasis of his statements is often fatal to the needful qualifications ; but that requires his readers to be thinkers too, and not passive recipients of his thinking." ("Christian Examiner" for May, 1868.) As a poet, Mr. Emerson's merits are of a high order, although his poetry is not of a kind to be popular with the generality 01 readers. A number of his more recent poems have appeared as ccntributions to the "Atlantic Monthly." See " Blackwood's Magazine" for December. 1S47 ; " Westminster Review" for March, 1S40, and October, 1856; "Eraser's Magazine" for May, 1^67; "Christian Examiner," vols. xxx. and xxxviii.; Al- LiBONE, "Dictionary of Authors;" Griswold, "Prose Writers of America ;" Duvckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. * See Mr. Whipple's article on Emerson, in the " New Ameri- can Cyclopasdia." Em'^r-spn, (William,) an eminent English mathe- matician, born at Hurworth, near Darlington, in 1701. He was educated at home by his father, who was a school- teacher. At his father's death, he conducted the school a short time, and then retired from all business except writing on mathematics. Among his numerous works (which for some time were probably the best mathe- matical works in the language, except those of Simpson) are "Doctrine of Fluxions," (1748,) "Principles of Me- chanics," (1754,) and "Method of Increments." He was eccentric in his habits. Died in 1782. See " Biographia Brltannica." ^mery, imW, (Edouard F6lix Etienne,) a French medical writer, born in Dauphine in 1788, prac- tised in Paris. Died in 1856. :6mery. (Jacques Andr£,) a French Catholic divine, born at Gex in 1732, entered the community of Saint- Sulpice, Paris, about 1750. In 1782 he was chosen superior-general of his order. He is commended for his wise, firm, and moderate conduct during the reign of terror, in which he was twice imprisoned. He wrote "The Spirit of Leibnitz," (1772,) the "Christianity ( Christianisme) of Lord Bacon," (1799,) and other learned works. Died in 181 1. See PicoT, "Notice sur la Vie de J. A. £mery," 1811. Em'er-y, (John,) an English comic actor, born at Sunderland in 1777; died in 1822. ^mery, d', dim're', (Michel Particelli — ptR'te'si'- le',) SiEUR, a French financier, of Italian descent, born at Lyons; died in 1650. ^mile or Emili, (Paul.) See Emilio. Emilian. See ^milian. ^milien, the French of .Emilian, which see. Emilio, i-mee'le-o, (Paolo,) or Emili, i-mee'lee, (Paul,) [Lat. Pau'lus i^iMiL'ius ; Fr. Paul Emile, pol i'm^K,] an Italian historian, born at Verona, removed to Paris about 1495, '^'^'^^■> the order of the king, wrote a Latin "History of France," ("De Rebus gestis Fran- corum," 1 5 16-19,) vvhich was admired and often reprinted. The style is pure and concise. Erasmus expressed a high opinion of Emilio's learning. Died in Paris in 1529. See TiRABoscHi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Emilius. See ^milius, and Paulus. Emilius Macer. See Macer. Emin, i-meen', (Feodor Alexandrovitch,) a Rus- sian historian and novelist, born about 1735. His chief work is a " History of Russia to 1213," (1767.) Died in 1770. Em'lyn, (Henry,) an English architect, born about 1730 ; died in 1815. Emlyn, (Thomas,) an English Unitarian minister, born at Stamford in 1663. In 1691 he settled in Dub- lin, where he preached a number of years. He was fined and imprisoned about two years for his doctrines. He wrote a " Life of Dr. Samuel Clarke," (1731,) and several controversial works. Died in 1743. See " Life of Thomas Emlyn," by his son. Em'ma, a daughter of Charlemagne, who, according to a doubtful legend, was married to Eginhard. It is reported that before their marriage she once carried Eginhard from the palace, lest his traces in the snow might betray the secret of his visit. Died in 837 a.d. See J. C. Dahl, " Ueber Eginhard und Emma," 1S17; Egin- hard, "Vita Caroli Magni." Em'ma, Queen of England, was a daughter of Richard I. , Duke of Normandy. She was married first to Ethel- red II., and became mother of Edward the Confessor. About 1017 she was married to Canute the Great, by whom she had a son, Hardicanute. Died in 1046. Em-man'u-el, [Port. Manoel, mi-no-^K,] surnamed THE Great, King of Portugal, born at Alconcheta in 1469, was the son of Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu, a younger branch of the reigning family. Upon the death of John II. , in 1495, he succeeded to the throne. He married the widow of the late prince-royal, Alonzo or Alphonso, Isa- bella of Castile, whose consent he obtained only on the condition that he should banish the Moors and Jews from the kingdom, which was repugnant to his own more liberal principles. During his reign the glory and power of Portugal attained their greatest height by the dis- € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^="See Explanations, p. 23.) EMMJNUEL 848 EMPEREUR coveries and victorious expeditions of Vasco da Gama, Almeida, Albuquerque, and Alvares de Cabral. From 1497 to 1520 these famous captains maintained the as- cendency of the Portuguese arms in India and Brazil. In 15 19 Emmanuel married Eleonore, sister of the emperor Charles V. He died in 1521, and was succeeded by his son, John III. See A. DE Varnhagen, " Retratos e Eiogios des Personagens ilustres de Portugal," 1842; Laclede, " Histoire generalede Portu- gal;" H. OsoRio, " De Rebus Emmanuelis Regis Lusitanise gestis," 1571 ; translated into English by James Gibbs, 1752. Em-man'u-el Phil'i-bert, surnamed Tete de Fer, tit deh faiR, {i.e. "Iron-headed,") Duke of Savoy, an Italian general of great ability, born at Chambery in 1528, was a son of Charles III. of Savoy. He entered the service of the emperor Charles V. in 1548, and in 1553 obtained the chief command of the imperial army in the war against the French. He gained a great vic- tory over them at Saint-Quentin in 1557. In 1559 he married Margaret, a sister of Henry II. of France, and recovered part of his paternal dominions, which had been seized by the French. In 1574 he obtained from Henry III. the evacuation of all Piedmont, the condition of which was greatly improved by his wise statesmanship. Died in 1580. He was succeeded by his son, Charles Emmanuel. See G. Tosi, "Vita Emmanuelis Philiberti," 1596; Brusl^ de MoNTPLAiNCHAMP, " Histoire de Emmanuel Philibert," 1692; De Thou, " Historia." Emmerich, ^m'meh-riK, (Georg,) a German physi- cian, born at Konigsberg in 1672, wrote several able treatises. Died in 1727. Emmery, gm're', (Jean Louis Claude,) Count of Grozyeulx, a learned French lawyer and legislator, born at Metz in 1752, was a member of the National As- sembly in 1790. He became a senator in 1802. Died in 1823. Em'met, (Robert,) an eloquent Irish enthusiast, born in Cork in 1780, was a brother of Thomas Addis Emmet. He was an ardent but misguided partisan of Irish independence, and appears to have been a sincere patriot. Like his brother, he was one of the chiefs of the "United Irishmen." In July, 1803, he rashly put him- self at the head of a party of insurgents consisting of the rabble of Dublin, who murdered the chief justice. Lord Kilwarden, and others, but were quickly dispersed by the military. Emmet was arrested, was tried, and, after an eloquent and impassioned speech in vindication of his course, suffered with intrepid courage a felon's death, September, 1803. The poet Moore commemorated his tragic fate and his attachment to Miss Curran in two of his " Irish Melodies." See Madden, " United Irishmen," vol. iii. ; John W. Burke, "Life of Robert Emmet." Emmet, (Thomas Addis,) an eloquent Irish lawyer, a brother of the preceding, was born at Cork in 1764. He was liberally educated, was called to the bar in "1790, and became a leader of the " United Irishmen." He was arrested in 1798, and imprisoned in a dungeon for about three years. In 1804 he emigrated to New York, where he practised law with great success, and became attorney- general of the State of New York in 1812. He died in 1827. "That he had great qualities as an orator," says udge Story, "cannot be doubted by any one who has eard him. His mind possessed a good deal of the fer- vour which characterizes his countrymen. It was quick, vigorous, searching, and buoyant." He wrote pieces of Irish history illustrative of the condition of the Catholics of Ireland, (1807.) See "Memoirs of Thomas Addis Emmet," by Charles Glidden Haynes, 1829 ; a sketch of Emmet's character in the Miscella- neous Works of Joseph Story ; T. McGee, " O'Connell and his Friends." Emmius, grn'me-iis, (Ubbo.) a Dutch scholar and historian, born in 1547, was emment for his knowledge of ancient languages and history, and for modesty and other virtues. After teaching many years in Norden and Leer, he was chosen in 16 14 professor of history and Greek in the University of Groningen, of which he was also rector. He wrote a " History of Friesland," (1596,) a "General Chronology," (1619,) "Ancient Greece Illus- trated," ("Vetus Grsecia illustrata," 1626,) a valuable! work on the history and topography of Greece, and a few other works. Died in 1625. See Foppens, "Bibliotheca Belgica;" N. Mulerius, " Elogiura U. Emmii," 1628; Nicekon, "Memoires." Em'mons, (Ebenezer,) M.D., an American geologist, born in Middlefield, Berkshire county, Massachusetts, in 1798, became professor of natural history in Williams College in 1833. When the geological survey of New York was ordered by the government, he was appointed one of the geologists-in-chief. Several volumes of his Reports were published in the " Natural History of New York." He advanced the novel opinion that beneath the oldest member of the Silurian system there is a series of fossiliferous rocks, to which he applied the term " Ta- conic." He died in North Carolina in October, 1863. Emmons, (Nathaniel,) an American theologian, born in East Haddam, Connecticut, in 1745, preached for many years at Franklin, Massachusetts. He wrote several works on theology. Died in 1840. Emo, a'mo, (Angelo,) an able Venetian statesman and admiral, born in 1731. Having served with success against the Algerine pirates, he was made vice-admiral in 1765, and compelled the Dey of Algiers to sign a treaty favourable to Venice. He then obtained the rank ot captain-general and admiral of all the maritime forces. In 1772 he was appointed a senator, and about 1780 a member of the Council of Ten. He afterwards held other high offices with credit. Died in 1792. See Meneghelli, "Di A. Emo e delle sue Gesta," 1836. Em'o-ry, (John,) an American Methodist bishop, born in Queen Ann county, Maryland, in 1789. He was elected a bishop about 1832. He wrote several contro- versial treatises. Died in 1835. See a " Life of Bishop Emory," by his son Robert. Emory, (Robert,) a Methodist minister, a son of the preceding, was born in Philadelphia in 18 14. He wrote a " History of the Disci])line of the Methodist Episcopal Church," (1843.) Died in 1848. Emory, (William H.,) an American general, born in Maryland about 181 2, graduated at West Point in 1 83 1. He became a lieutenant of topographical engi- neers about 1839, and gained the rank of captain in 1851. He was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers early in 1862, and commanded a division under General Banks in Louisiana in 1863, and a corps in 1864. He repulsed the enemy at Pleasant Hill, April 7 of that year. He fought with distinction at Opequan Creek, September 19, and Cedar Creek, October 19, 1864. Empecinado. See Diaz, (Juan Martin.) Empedocle. See Empedocles. Em-ped'o-cles, [Gr. 'EfnredoKlr)^ ; Fr. Empedocle, SN'pi'dokK; It. Empedocle, ^m-pa'do-klk,] a celebrated Greek philosopher, born at Agrigentum, Sicily, flourished about 450 B.C. It is not known who were his teachers. He excelled in medicine and poetry as well as philosophy. By these merits he acquired great influence in his native state, which he is said to have transformed into a repub- lic, after refusing to accept the off"er of royalty. He origi- nated or adopted the theory that nature consists of four elements, — fire, air, earth, and water. He ap])ears to have taught the Hindoo philosophy that the soul has been banished into the body in order to punish it, and that it migrates through animal and vegetable bodies until it shall be entirely purified. The po])ular tradition that he threw himself into the crater of Mount Etna to immor- talize his name is probably fabulous. His greatest work was a poem on the " Nature and Principles of Things," of which fragments are extant. Lucretius, in his great poem, " De Rerum Natura," expresses his admiration of Empedocles. See Ritter, "History of Philosophy;" G. H. Lewes, "Bio- graphical History of Philosophy ;" Diogenes Laertius ; Scina, " Memorie sulla Vita de Empedocle," 2 vols., 1813; J. G. New- mann, " Programma de Empedocle Philosopho," 1690; Heinrich Stein, "Dissertatio de Empedoclis Scriptis," 1851. Empereur, L', 16N'peh'ruR', (Constantijn,) a Dutch Orientalist, born at Oppyck, was one of the most emi- nent pupils of Erpenius. He obtained the chair of Hebrew in Leyden in 1627, and became councillor to Maurice of Nassau in 1639. He translated portions of the Talmud and other Jewish writings, and published, besides other works, a "Treatise on the Forensic Laws a, e, T, 6, u, y, hn^; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, sAort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; EMPIRICUS 849 ENFANT of the Hebrews," and a "Key to the Talmud," ("Clavis Talmudica," 1634.) Died in 1648. See Trigland, "Oratio in Obitiim C. L'Empereur," 1648. Empiricus Sextus. See Sextus. Empis, SN^pe', (Adolphe,) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1790. He produced successful comedies and operas, which in 1847 opened to him the doors of the French Academy. Among his works are "Joan of Arc," an opera, (1822,) and "A Change in the Ministry," a comedy, (1831.) Empoli, ^m'po-lee, (Jacopo Chimenti,) an Italian painter in oil, usually called L'Empoli, was born at Empoli in 1554. He worked mostly in Florence, the churches of which contain many of his pictures. Among his chief productions are "Saint Yves," "The Virgin with Saint Nicholas," and an "Annunciation." His design and colour are commended. He also painted portraits with success. Died in 1640. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Empoli, d', dgm'po-lee, (Giovanni,) a Florentine, who lived about the year 1500, in the service of the Por- tuguese king, sailed with Albuquerque to India in 1503, and wrote a brief account of the voyage. See Lafiteau, " Histoire des Conquetes des Portugais." Em-po'ri-us, a Latin grammarian, who lived in the fifth or sixth century, left some extant works on rhetoric. Empson, (Richard.) See Dudley, (Edmund.) Emp'son, (William,) an English editor and writer on various subjects, born about 1 790. He was for several years editor of the " Edinburgh Review," to which he contributed many articles between 1823 and 1850. Died in 1852. Emser, gm'ser, (Hieronymus,) a German Catholic theologian, noted as an adversary of Luther, was born at Ulm in 1477. He became secretary of Duke George of Saxony, who gave him a benefice in Dresden. In 1523 he published a criticism on Luther's version of the New Testament. He also made a German translation of the New Testament, (1527,) which was adopted by the Catholics. Died in 1527. SeeWALDAU, "Nachricht von H. Emser's Leben," 1783. ^nambuc, d', di'nSN'biik', (Pierre Vandrosque Diel — vSN'dRosk' de'el',) an able French mariner and colonial governor, who, with the permission of Richelieu, planted a colony in the isle of Saint Christopher in 1625. He also formed the first settlement in the isle of Mar- tinique, in 1635. ^'^^^ 1636, and was succeeded as governor by his nephew, Diel Duparquet. Encelade. See Enceladus. En-9el'a-dus, [Gr. ''E.yKD.ado^ ; Fr. Encelade, 5n'- sk'ltd',] a son of Tartarus, and one of the giants that rebelled against Jupiter. According to one tradition, he was buried under the island of Sicily or Mount Mtx\2i, and his struggles caused earthquakes. Encina. See Enzina, (Juan de la.) Encinas or Enzinas, §n-thee'nis, often called Dry- ander, (Francisco,) a Spanish Reformer, born at Burgos about 1520. Having been converted to Lutheranism, he went to Wittenberg about 1541, and acquired the friend- ship of Luther and Melanchlhon. He produced a Span- ish translation of the New Testament, (1543,) which he presented to Charles V. at Brussels. For this offence he was imprisoned about a year. Having escaped from prison, he went to England. Died in 1552. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary:" N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova ;" Mrs. Charles, " Martyrs of Spain," etc., 1865. Encinas, (Juan,) a brother of the preceding, born at Burgos, was also a Protestant. He went to Rome, or was sent thither by his father. There he openly avowed his principles, and suffered death by fire in 1545. See Mrs. Charles, "Martyrs of Spain," etc. Enciso, de, di §n-thee'so, (Diego Ximenes,) a Span- ish dramatic poet, born at Seville, lived about 1620-40. He wrote " El Principe Don Carlos," and other dramas, which display superior talents. Enciso, de, (Don Martin Fernandez,) a Spanish geographer, accompanied the expeditions to Central America, and published "Suma de Geografia," (1519.) Encke, Snk'keh, (Johann Franz,) an eminent Ger- man astronomer, born at Hamburg in 1791. He gained distinction by his determination of the orbit of the comet of 1680, and of the distance of tHe earth from the sun, and published "The Distance of the Sun," ("Die Ent- fernung der Sonne," 2 vols., 1822-24.) He afterwards made important and successful investigations into the orbit and period of the comet of Pons, since known as Encke's comet. About 1825 Jie became director of the Royal Observatory of Berlin, and secretary of the Acad- emy of Sciences. After 1830 he published the "Astro- nomische Jahrbiicher," and other works. Died in 1865. See G. Hagen, "Memoir of Encke," in the "Smithsonian Re- port" for 1868. Encontre, 6n'k6NtR', (Daniel,) a French Protestant divine, eminent for talents and learning, born at Nimes in 1762, was ordained, but was unable to preach, on ac- count of a defect in the vocal organs. He became in 1808 professor of sciences in the Academy of Montpel- lier, and in 1814 he accepted the chair of theology at Montauban. He wrote an " Essay on the Theory of Probabilities," "Elements of Plane Geometry," a "Dis- sertation on the True System of the World," (1807,) and many other works. Died in 181 8. See Juillerat-Chasseur, "Notice sur la Vie, etc. de Daniel Encontre," 1821. Ende, von, fon gn'deh, (Friedrich Albrecht,) Baron, a German general, born at Celle in 1765 ; died in 1829. Ender, In'der, (Johann,) a German painter, born in Vienna in 1793. He went to Rome as imperial pen- sioner in 1820, and afterwards worked in Vienna with success in portraits and history. Died in 1854. Ender, (Thomas,) a landscape-painter, brother of the preceding, was born in Vienna about 1794. He went about 1817 with a scientific expedition to Brazil, from which he brought home many designs. He accompanied Metternich to Italy, where he worked some years. His landscapes are admired for the vigorous effects of light which they display. En'der-bie, (Percy,) a British author, published a mediocre history of Wales, (1661.) En'di-cott, (John,) one of the first colonial Gov- ernors of Massachusetts, born at Dorchester, England, in 1589. In 1636 he conducted an expedition against the Peqnot Indians. He was several years Deputy-Gov- ernor of Massachusetts, and in 1644 was chosen Governor. He was again Governor in 1649, and, with the exception of 1650 and 1654, was regularly re-elected to the same office till his death in 1665. Governor Endicott was a zealous Puritan, and was especially severe in executing the laws against those who differed from the prevailing religion. Endlicher, gnt'liK-er, (Stephen Ladislaus,) an emi- nent botanist and linguist, born at Presburg, in Hungary, in 1804. Having studied Oriental languages and natural sciences, he was appointed director of the Imperial Library, Vienna, in 1828, and professor of botany in the University in 1840. He liberally expended his fortune in the promotion of science, and was one of the founders of the Academy of Vienna. He published, in Latin, many works on botany, the most important of which is his "Genera of Plants arranged in the Natural Order," (1836-40,) and " Rudiments of Chinese Grammar," (1845,) with various other well-written works. He sympathized with the people in the insurrection of 1848. Died in 1849. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Biogra- phic Generale." En-dym'i-on, [Gr. ''Ev6vnudv,] in the Greek mythology, was represented as a beautiful youth, a darling of Diana, (Selene,) and a perpetual sleeper. One of the various traditions announces him as a king of Elis. His eternal sleep is ascribed to different causes. See Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology." Enea, the Italian of ^neas, which see. Eneas. See ^Eneas. Eneas Sylvius. See Pius II. Enee, the French of ^neas, which see. Enemann, hn^eh.-xnlx\', (Mikael,) a Swedish Orien- talist, born at Enkoping in 1676; died in 1714. Enfant, L'. See L'Enfant. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, K,guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 54 ENFANTIN ENGHELRAMS Enfantin, dN'fSN't^N', (Barth^lemi Prosper,) a French arch-socialist, born in Paris in 1796, is called one of the founders of Saint-Simonism. He began to propagate the doctrines of Saint-Simon about 1825, and in 1830 had united numerous followers into an associa- tion founded on community of property. A disagree- ment between him and Bazard resulted in a schism, after which Enfantin assumed the name of "the Living Law and the Messiah." Charged with corruption of public morals, he was condemned to imprisonment for one year in 1832. After that event his disciples were dispersed, and he was employed as director of the Paris and Lyons Railway. Died in 1864. See "Nouvelle Biographie Geiierale." En'field, (William,) LL.D., an English author and dissenting minister, born at Sudbury in 174 1, officiated successively in the Unitarian churches of Liverpool, Warrington, and Norwich. He published several volumes of popular sermons, a "Preacher's Directory," which was highly esteemed, and said to be the best work of the kind, and largely assisted Dr. Aikin in his " General Biographical Dictionary." Besides several educational works, he published in 1791 a "History of Philosophy from the Earliest Periods to the Present Century," abridged from Brucker's History. Died in 1797. See Aikin, "Memoirs of Enfield," prefixed to his "Sermons." Engau, ^ng'gow, (Johann Rudolf,) a German juris- consult, born at Jena in 1708. He became professor of law in the University of Jena in 1740, and councillor of the court of Saxe- Weimar in 1748. "His numerous writings," says Guizot, " attest his vast knowledge, and are highly esteemed in Germany." Among them are (in Latin) "Elements of German Civil Law," (1736,) and "Elements of Criminal Law," (1738.) Died in 1755. See "Biographie Universelle;" Hirsching, " Historisch-litera- risches Handbuch." Engel, ^ng'el, (Johann,) a German astronomer, born in Bavaria; died in 15 12. Engel, (Johann Jakob,) an excellent German author, born at Parchim (Mecklenburg) in 1 741. He was pro- fessor of belles-lettres in Berlin from 1776 to 1787, and was preceptor of the prince Frederick William, who ascended the throne in 1787. His comedy " The Grateful Son" (1770) was very successful. In 1775 he published "The Philosopher for the World," (" Der Philosoph fur die Welt," 2 vols.,) which is admired for great clearness, facility, and elegance. He afterwards produced " Lorenz Stark," (1795,) a romance, which was very popular, and a " Mirror for Princes," (" Furstenspiegel.") His works are characterized by an excellent judgment, and by a refinement of taste and purity of diction which are rare among the Germans. Died in 1802. See F. NicoLAi," Gedachtnissschrift auf J. J. Engel," 1806 ; " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Engel, (Karl Christian,) a dramatist, brother of the preceding, was born at Parchim in 1752. He wrote " Biondetta," a comedy, and a metaphysical essay, en- titled " Nous nous reverrons," (" We shall see each other again," 1787,) which caused a great sensation. Died in 1801. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Engel, Sng'el, (Samuel,) a Swiss geographer and economist, born at Berne in 1702, wrote an "Essay on the Question, ' When and how was America peopled ?' " (1767,) and several works on rural economy. Died in 1784. En-gel-ber'ga, sometimes written Engelberta and Angilberga, Empress of Germany, was married in 856 A.d. to Lewis H. of Germany. Having been accused of conjugal infidelity by two courtiers, she was about to be subjected to the ordeal of fire and water, when Boson, Count of Aries, came forward as her champion. He defeated her accusers in single combat, and forced them to retract. Died in 890 A.D. Engelbert, ^ng'el-b^Rt', a German historian, born in the thirteenth century. He wrote, in Latin, a " History of the Roman Empire." Died in 1331. Engelbert, Saint, Archbishop of Cologne, became tutor to Henry, a son of the emperor Frederick II., about 1220. He was assassinated by his cousin in 1225. Engelberta or Engelberda. See Engelberga. Engelbrecht, ^ng^gel-bR^Kt', (Engelbrechtson, ^ng'gel-bR^Kt^son,) a Swedish statesman and general, was born in Dalecarlia about 1390. When Eric XIII. was deposed, Engelbrecht was selected to administer the government jointly with Charles Canutson ; but the former was soon after assassinated by Magnus Bengtson, in 1436. See J. J. Palm, " Dissertatio de Meritis Engelbrechti," 1802. Engelbrecht, ^ng'el-bRlKt^ (Johann,) a German visionary and fanatical religionist, born at Brunswick in 1599 ; died in 1642. Engelbrechtsen or Enghelbrechtsen, gng'hel- bR^Kt'sen, (Cornelis,) a Dutch painter, born at Leyden ill 1468, was the first of his nation who used oil-colours. He is considered one of the ablest painters of his time. Among his master-pieces are a " Descent from the Cross," (in Paris,) " The Lamb of the Apocalypse," (at Utrecht,) and " The Sacrifice of Abraham," (in Paris.) Died in 1533. See DesCamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Engelgrave, gng'el-gRiVeh, (Hendrik,) a learned Jesuit and preacher, born at Antwerp in 1610. He be- came rector of colleges at Cassel, Bruges, and Antwerp. His sermons were often reprinted, under the title of " Gospel Light," (" Lux Evangelica," 1648.) Died in 1670. Engelhardt, gng'el-haRt, (Johann Georg Veit,) a German theologian, born at Neustadt (an-der-Aisch) in 1 791. He became professor of theology at Erlangen in 1822. Among his principal works is a "History of Dogmas," (" Dogmengeschichte," 1839.) Died in 1855. Engelhardt, (Karl August,) a German writer, born at Dresden in 1768. He published "The Friend of Children," ("Der Kinderfreund," 12 vols., 1797-1814,) "Poems," ("Gedichte," 3 vols., 1820-23,) and other works. Died in 1834. Engelmann, 6N'zh§Km6N' or gng'el-mln^ (Gode- FROY,) one of the inventors or improvers of lithography, was born at Mulhouse, (Haut-Rhin,) in France, in 1788. In 1816 he founded the first important and successful lithographic establishment in Paris, in which he was aided by Vernet, Girodet, Isabey, and other artists. He pub- lished a "Treatise on Lithography,"(i839.) Died in 1839. See G. Peignot, " Essai historique sur la Lithographic." Engelschall, gng'el-shir, (Joseph Friedrich,) a German poet, born at Marburg in 1739. He wrote short lyric poems, epistles, epigrams, and prose essays, which, in the opinion of Schoell, entitle him to a prominent place among German authors of the second rank. Died in 1797. Engelstoft, gng'els-toft', (Christian Thorning,) a learned Danish theologian, iDorn at Naesberg in 1805. He became professor of theology at Copenhagen in 1845, Bishop of Funen in 1851. He has written on church history, etc. Engelstroem. See Engestrom. Engenio, d', dln-ja'ne-o, (Cesare Caracciolo — kl- rit-she-o'lo,) an Italian historian, flourished about 1600. He wrote a "Description of the Kingdom of Naples," (1618.) Engestrom or Engestroem, gng'geh-stRom'', written also Engelstroem, (Gustaf,) a Swedish savant, born at Lund in 1738. He was president of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, and wrote several treatises on chemistry and mineralogy. Died in 1815. Engestrom or Engestroem, (Lars,) a Swedish statesman, brother of the preceding, was born at Stock- holm in 1 75 1, and entered the civil service in 1770. Appointed secretary of foreign affairs in 1776, he dis- played superior diplomatic talents, and was sent as am- bassador to London, Berlin, and other courts, between 1788 and 1798. In 1809 he became minister of foreign affairs, and received the title of baron. In 18 16 he was raised to the rank of count. Died in 1826. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Enghelbrechtsen. See Engelbrechtsen. Enghelrams, eng'hel-rSms^ (Cornelis,) an able Flemish painter, born at Malines in 1527. Among his works is "The Conversion of Saint Paul," at Hamburg. Died in 1583. a, e, T, 6, u, y,long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n3t; good; moon ; ENGHIEN 851 ENTINCK Enghien, d', dSN'ge^S^N', (Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon — deh booR'b6N',) Due, a French prince, born at Chantilly in 1772, was the son of the Duke of Bourbon, and related to the royal family. He emigrated in 1789, and, after travelling a few years, entered the army under his grandfather, the Prince of Conde, and fought bravely against the republic from 1793 until 1801, when the army was disbanded. He then retired to Et- tenheim, in Baden, where he w^as arrested, though on neutral territory, in 1804, on suspicion of conspiracy, and taken to the castle of Vincennes, near Paris. After a hurried trial before a military tribunal, he was sentenced and shot in March, 1804. This deed excited general and deep indignation against Bonaparte, and is commonly regarded as one of the worst crimes by which his memory is stained. (See Bonaparte, Napoleon.) See Thiers, " Histoire du Consulat et de I'Empire;" Firmas- Peri^s, "Notice historique sur L. A. Due d'Enghien," 1814. Engilbert. See Angilbert. England, ing'gland, (John,) a Catholic theologian, born at Cork, Ireland, in 1786. He was in 1820 appointed the first Bishop of Charleston, South Carolina, where he founded an academy and the *' Charleston Catholic Miscellany." He wrote many treatises on theology, etc. Died in 1842. England, ing'gland, (Sir Richard,) a British general, born in Canada in 1793. He was sent to India in 1842, and distinguished himself in the Afghan war. He com- manded a division at the Alma and at Inkerman, etc., (1854-55.) En'gle-field, (Sir Henry Charles,) M.P., an English antiquary and astronomer, born in 1752, was a person of extensive and accurate attainments in science. In 1788 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He wrote a treatise on the Orbits of Comets, a " Walk through Southampton," (1801,) and "Beauties, Antiquities, etc. of the Isle of Wight," (1816.) Died in 1822. English, ing'glish, (George Bethune,) an American adventurer and linguist, born in Boston in 1789. About 1820 he entered the army of the Pasha of Egypt, and served as an officer in an expedition against Sennaar. He wrote several works on theology, etc. Died in 1828. English, (Thomas Dunn,) an American poet and novelist, born in Philadelphia in 1819. He published a collection of poems in 1855. Engramelle, 6N'gRt'm§K, (Marie Dominique Jo- seph,) a French naturalist and musician, born in Artois in 1727. He published "The Butterflies of Europe," (8 vols., 1779-93.) Died in 1781. See FiiTis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Engstrom or Engstroem, gng'stRom, (Johan,) a Swedish poet and novelist, born in 1794. He published "The ^olian Harp," (1830,) and other poems. Enjedin, §n'yeh-deen', or Enyedin, [Lat. Enje'- DIUS,] (George,) a noted Unitarian writer, born at Enyed, in Transylvania, was superintendent of the churches in the province above named. Died in 1597. Enjedius. See Enjedin. Ennebel, gn'neh-bgK, (Louis,) a Belgian theologian and canonist, born at Louvain in 1652; died in 1720. Ennemoser, gn''neh-mo''zer, (Joseph,) an eminent German physician and writer on magnetism and phy- siology, born in the Tyrol in 1787. He was professor at Bonn from 1820 to 1841, after which he practised at Mu- nich. Among his works are " Magnetism in its Relations to Nature and Religion," (1842,) and " Der Magnetis- tnus," (1844,) which was translated into English by Wil- liam Howitt, (" History of Magic," 1854.) Died in 1854. Ennery, (Adolphe.) See Dennery. Ennery, d',dgn're', (Michelet,) a French antiquary, born at Metz in 1709, made a large collection of medals and coins. His cabinet at Paris, which contained over twenty thousand medals, was sold and dispersed after his death. Died in 1788. En'ni-us, (Quintus,) a Roman epic poet of great celebrity, born of a Greek family at Rudias, in Calabria, about 239 i?.c. In early life he became a citizen of Rome, where he obtained the patronage and friendship of Cato, vScipio, and others. He contributed perhaps more than any other early Latin writer towards forming the na- tional literature of Rome. His principal work, called the " Annals," a historical epic, was for a long time the most popular poem in the language. He also wrote several tragedies and comedies. He is said to have first introduced from the Greek the heroic hexameter into Latin poetry. His works are all lost, except some frag- ments quoted by Cicero and others. *• He stands out prominently in that early time," says Professor Sellar, "as a man of true genius and of a great and original character. . . , Whatever in the later poets is most truly Roman in sentiment and morality, appears to be con- ceived in the spirit of Ennius. . . . The variety and extent of his works bear witness to remarkable learning as well as a strong productive energy." He was a great favourite of Cicero, who often quotes him, and he was highly eulogized by Lucretius, Propertius, Aulus Gellius, and Ovid. Died in 169 B.C. See Sellar, " Roman Poets of the Republic," chap. iv. ; Vossius, "DePoetis Latinis;" Sagittarius, "De Vitaet Scriptis L. Andro- nici, Ennii," etc. ; H. Forelius, '"De Ennio Diatriba," Upsal, 1707. En-no'di-us, (Magnus Felix,) Saint, one of the Fathers of the Latin Church, and a distinguished writer, born at Aries about 473 a.D. He obtained the bishopric of Pavi'a (Papia) about 511. He wrote a "Panegyric on King Theodoric," an " Apology for Pope Symmachus," " The Fourth Council of Rome," and a " Life of Saint Epiphanius of Pavi'a." He was sent to Constantinople by the pope in 515 and again in 517 to negotiate a union between the Eastern and Western Churches, but did not succeed in eiTecting that object. Died in 521. See SiKMOND, " Vita Ennndii," prefixed to his edition of the works of Saint Ennodius. Enobarbus. See Ahenobarbus. E'noch, [Heb. I^ri; Ger. Enoch, a'noK, or Henoch, ha'noK, ] an antediluvian patriarch, born in the year 3378 B.C., was the son of Jared, and father of Methuselah. He was pre-eminently favoured by a holy life and immu- nity from death. At the age of three hundred and sixty- five he "was translated that he should not see death." (Hebrews xi. 5 ; Genesis v. 24.) The book of Enoch, quoted in the Epistle of Jude, was extant in the time of the primitive Christians, but was rejected as apocryphal by the Fathers and by the Church. ^noch, i''nok', (Louis,) a French Hellenist and gram- marian, born at Issoudun, became principal of the Col- lege of Geneva in 1556. Died about 1570. His son Enoch was a poet. Died about 1590. Enrico of Portugal. See Henry. Enriquez Gomez, §n-ree'k^th go'm^th, (Antonio,) or Enriquez de Paz, (di pSth,) a Spanish poet and writer of fiction, lived about 1650. Among his works is "The Pythagorean Age." Ens, ^ns, (Jan,) a Dutch theologian and writer, born in 1682, preached at Utrecht. Died in 1732. Ens, §nss, (Kaspar,) a prolific and mediocre German writer in Latin, born about 1570. Ense. See Varnhagen von Ense. Ensenada, de, di ^n-s^-na'DS, (Zenon Silva,) Mar- quis, a Spanish statesman, born near Valladolid in 1690. He was appointed first minister of state by Ferdinand VI., who began to reign in 1746, and at the same time was created a marquis. The administration of Ensenada was wise and economical, and improved the condition of Spain. Died in 1762. En'sor, (George,) an Irish writer, born in Dublin about 1769. He published, besides other works, "The Independent Man," (1806,) and "Defects of the English Laws and Tribunals," (1812.) Died in 1843. Ent, (Sir George,) an eminent English physician, born in Kent in 1604, acquired a large practice, and was knighted by Charles II. He wrote a defence of Har- vey's theory of the circulation of the blood. Died in 1689. En-telTus, a celebrated athlete and a friend of ^neas, is mentioned in Virgil's "yEneid" (book v.) as having conquered Dares in the funeral games of Anchises. En'tick or En'tinck, (John,) an English writer, born in 1713, was employed by the booksellers to com- pile several histories and other works. His Latin and English Dictionary was successful, and has been re- printed. Died in 1773. Entinck. See Entick. € as k; c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^[^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) E NT IN OP us 852 EPJPHRODITUS En-tin'o-pus, an architect, born in the island of Can- dia, is noted as the founder of Venice. It is reported that he built the first house there, in 405 A.D. See Daru, " Histoire de Venise." Entius. See Enzio. Entraigues or Antraigues, d', d6N''tRig', (Emma- nuel Louis Henri de Launey — deh 15'na',) Count, a French politician, born in Vivarais. He published in 1788 an eloquent "Memoir on the States-General," wliich was extremely revolutionary. Having been de- puted by the noblesse to the States-General in 1789, he changed his course, and acted with the royalists. He emigrated about 1790, and was assassinated near Lon- don by one of his servants in 181 2. Entrecasteaux, d', d6NtR^kts''t6'', (Joseph Antoine Bruni — bRii'ne',) a French navigator, born at Aix about 1740, entered the navy young, and soon distinguished him- self by his talents and steady courage. In 1785 he was appointed commander of the naval forces in India, and in 1791 was sent, with the rank of rear-admiral, in search of the lost navigator La Perouse. Although he failed in this object, he made important discoveries on the coasts of Australia, Van Diemen's Land, etc. He died at sea, near Java, in 1793. The narrative of the voyage was pubhshed in 1808 by Rossel, one of his officers. See De Rossel, "Voyage de D' Entrecasteaux," etc. Entrecolles. See Dentrecolles. E-ny'o, [^Evvw, ] the Greek name of the goddess of war. (See Bellona.) Enzina or Encina, de la, da IS gn-thee'nS, (Juan,) a popular Spanish poet, born in Old Castile about 1468, is regarded as the founder of the Spanish theatre. He was patronized by Ferdinand the Catholic. He published in 1496 the first edition of his works, comprising odes, comedies, and a poem called "A Vision of the Temple of Fame." His "Art of Making Verses" ("Arte de Trovar") was received with favour, and his " Placida y Victoriano" is called a master-piece of dramatic art. His works are characterized by purity of style, brilliant ideas, and natural imagery. He was also distinguished as a musician, and became musical director to Pope Leo X. He went as a pilgrim to Palestine in 15 19. Died about 1534. See TiCKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Enzinas. See Encinas, (Francisco.) Enzio, gn'ze-o, or Enzo, ^n'zo, [Lat. En'tius,] a nominal king of Sardinia, born about 1224, was a natu- ral son of the emperor Frederick II. He distinguished himself in the war which his father waged against the pope and the Guelphs. He gained a great naval victory over the Genoese in 1241. In 1249 he was made prisoner at Fossalto by the Guelphs, who kept him in prison until his death, in 1272. See SiSMONDi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Enzo. See Enzio. Eoban, a'o-bin, (Helius,) [Lat. Eoba'nus Hes'sius,] a German poet, born at Bockendorf, in Hesse, in 1488. He was professor of rhetoric and poetry at Nuremberg seven years, between 1526 and 1533, after which he ob- tained a similar position at Erfurt and Marburg. He translated into Latin verse Homer's "Iliad" and the Idyls of Theocritus, and wrote Latin eclogues, and other poems. His " Iliad" was often reprinted. Died in 1540. See Lossius, "H. Eoban und seine Zeitgenossen ;" M. Adam, " Vitae Gei manorum Philosophorum." , Eobanus. See Eoban. Eoetvoes. See Eotvos. idole, the French of ^Eolus, which see. £on de Beaumont,d', di'(!)N'deh b6^m6N',(CHARLES Genevieve Louise Auguste Andr6 TiMOTH^E,)sty]ed Chevalier d'£on, a famous French diplomatist, born at Tonnerre in 1728. Having gained reputation by writing an Essay on the Finances of France, he was em- ployed about 1755 on a mission to the court of Russia, with which he negotiated an advantageous treaty. In 1759 he served with credit as captain in the French army in Germany. A few years later he was minister pleni- potentiary to London, but was superseded soon after his appointment. On his return to France, about 1777, the government, for some mysterious reason, required him to assume the female dress, which he wore for the rest of his life. Being reduced to poverty, he supported him- self in his later years by giving lessons in the art of fencing. He was author of many historical and political essays. Died in 1810. See "Memoires du Chevalier D'fion," by F. Gaillardet ; Grimm, " Correspondance ;" Bachaumont, "Memoires." E'os, [Gr. 'Hwf,] of the Greek mythology, corresponds to the Latin Aurora, the goddess of morning. She was supposed to be a daughter of Hyperion, a sister of Diana or Selene, and the wife of Tithonus. Eosander, i-o-zin'der, (Johann Friedrich,) an eminent German architect, of Swedish origin, born to- wards the end of the seventeenth century, was employed by the Elector Frederick on a palace in Berlin, and on other edifices. That prince also sent him as ambassador to Charles XII. of Sweden. Among his works is the palace of Schonhausen, Berlin. Died in Dresden in 1729. See Hirsching, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." Eotvos or Eoetvoes, i'ot-vosh, (Joseph,) a popu- lar Hungarian author and statesman, born at Buda (or Oten) in 1813. He produced about 1833 "The Critics," a comedy, and "The Revenge," a tragedy. His reputa- tion was increased by "The Carthusian," a novel, (1838- 41.) He defended Kossuth in a pamphlet (1841) which proved that he possessed polemical abilities of a high order. He was afterwards one of the chief orators of the popular party in the Diet. His political novel "The Village Notary" (1844-46) had great popularity, and was translated into English and German. From February, 1867, until his death, in 1871, he was Hungarian minister of worship and public instruction. E-pam-i-non'das, [Gr.'ETra/ietvwvdaf or 'E7ra//^vcjv(5(if,l an illustrious Theban statesman and general, a son of Polymnis, was born about the year 412 B.C. He re- ceived instruction from Lysis of Tarentum, a Pythago* rean philosopher. He first distinguished himself on the field of Mantinea, where he and his friend Pelopidas performed prodigies of valour, under the standard of Sparta, (385.) In youth he loved retirement and study, and, it is said, preferred poverty from principle. The aristocrats of Thebes, aided by Spartan soldiery, gained the ascendency, and banished Pelopidas and other popu- lar chiefs; but Epaminondas, being regarded as a specu- lative philosopher, was not included in the proscription. When he was about forty years of age, at a congress of deputies from the Grecian states he spoke eloquently against the encroachments of the Spartan power, and acquired the reputation of one of the best orators of Greece. When, soon after this, Sparta declared war against Thebes, Epaminondas was nominated com- mander-in-chief of the Theban army, consisting of 6000 foot and 500 horse, to which Sparta opposed 10,000 foot and 1000 horse. The armies met at Leuctra, where the Spartans were totally routed, with a loss of 4000 men, in 372 B.C. This battle was a fatal blow to the supremacy of Sparta, and became forever memorable for the pro- found and skilful combinations in the military art of which Epaminondas gave the first example. He invaded Peloponnesus in 369, and threatened Sparta, which was defended with firmness and success by Agesilaus. He commanded the Thebans at the battle of Mantinea, (July 4, 363,) and ha'd just achieved a glorious victory, when he received a mortal wound. Some writers date this event in 362 B.C. Cicero maintains that Epaminondas was the greatest man that Greece has produced ; and all parties admit that he was one of the most perfect models of the statesman, warrior, patriot, and sage. See Plutarch, "Pelopidas;" Grote, "History of Greece," chaps. Ixviii., Ixix., Ixxx. ; Seran de la Tour, "Histoire d'Epa- minondas," 1739; A. G. Meissner, "Epaminondas," (in German, 1801 ;) Cornelius Nepos, "Epaminondas;" Diodorus Siculus, book XV. ; E. Bauch, " Epaminondas und Theben's Kampf um die Hegemonic," 1834. Ep'a-phras, a primitive Christian minister of Colosse, was a fellow-prisoner with the Apostle Paul in Rome about 66 A.D. See Colossians i. 7, iv. 12; Philemon, 23d verse. E-paph-ro-di'tus, [Fr. £paphrodite, i'pt'fRo^d^t',] one of the primitive Christians, was a companion and "fellow-soldier" of the Apostle Paul. See Philippians ii. 25 and iv. iS. a, e, i, o, u, y, lono-; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, \\, y, shori; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; EPEE 853 EPICURUS £pee, de 1', deh li'p^', (Charles Michel,) a French abbe, born at Versailles in 1712, was distinguished for his successful devotion to the instruction of the deaf and dumb. He refused, as a Jansenist, to sign a formulary, and thus hindered his success in the church at Paris ; but he afterwards obtained a canonicate in the church of Troyes. He had inherited an income of seven thousand francs, when, casually meeting with two sisters who were deaf-mutes, he thenceforth devoted his life and fortune to the gratuitous instruction of that class. His institution acquired a wide reputation, and at his death passed into the hands of Abbe Sicard. He wrote several treatises on the subject of his pursuits. He has the credit of being the first who used natural signs or gestures in the instruc- tion of the deaf and dumb. Died in 1789. See J. Valette, "Vie de VAhhi de I'fipee," 1857; Bebian, "filoge de C. M. de I'fipee;" E. Morel, "Notice sur I'Abbe de I'^pee," 1833; F. Berthier, " L'Abbd de I'jSpee, sa Vie, son Apostolat, etc.," 1852. ^pernon, d', di''p§R''n6N', written also Espernon, (Jean Louis de Nogaret de la Vallette — no'gt'rk' deh It vt'l^t',) Due, sometimes called Caumont, a noted French courtier, born in Languedoc in 1554. He was a favourite of Henry HI., who created him Duke of Espernon and in 1587 appointed him admiral of France. In the next two reigns he also held high offices. He was in the carriage of Henry IV. when that king was assassinated, and was suspected of complicity in the crime. Died in 1642. See G. GiRARD, "Histoire de la Vie du Due d'Espernon," 1655, translated into English by Charles Cotton, 1670. ^phialte. See Ephialtes. E-phi-al'tes, [Gr. 'E(piuATr/g; Fr. £phialte, i'fe'tlt',] in the Greek mythology, a giant, supposed to be the son of Neptune and Iphimedi'a. He and his brother Otus are said to have grown nine inches every month. When only nine years old, they attempted to scale the heavens by piling Mount Ossa on Olympus and Pelion upon Ossa ; but they were slain by Apollo, (or, as one account says, by Diana.) (See Iphimedia.) ±jphialtes, an Athenian orator, lived about 350 B.C. He was one of the ten orators whom Alexander the Great required to be delivered to him. They were saved by the intervention of Demades. Ephialtes, a Greek traitor, who, while Leonidas was defending the pass of Thermopylae, guided the Persian invaders through a defile, by which they turned the posi- tion of the Greeks. Ephialtes, an Athenian statesman and general, was a political friend of Pericles. He was the principal author of a law which diminished the power of the Areopagus and changed the government into an unmixed democracy. Several ancient historians commend his integrity and other virtues. He was assassinated by the aristocrats in 456 B.C. See Grote, " History of Greece ;" Thirlwall, " History of Greece;" Plutarch, "Pericles;" Cicero, "De Republica." E-phip'pus, ['E^iTTTTOf, ] an Athenian poet of the middle comedy, lived about 340 B.C. The titles of some of his plays have been preserved by Athenaeus. Ephippus of Olynthus, a Greek historian who wrote an account of Alexander the Great, which is lost. ^phore. See Ephorus. Eph'9-rus, [Gr. ''E(l)opog; Fr. Ephore!, iToR',] an emi- nent Greek historian, born probably about 400 B.C. He studied rhetoric with Isocrates, who persuaded him to devote himself to history in preference to oratory. His principal work was a general history of Greece and of the Barbarians from the siege of Troy to 340 B.C., only a few fragments of which have not come clown to us. He has a good reputation for sincerity and veracity as a historian. His style is clear and elegant, but rather feeble and diffuse. He is supposed to have died about 330 B.C. See Plutarch, "Lives of the Ten Orators;" C. Muller, "De Ephoro," in his " Fragmenta Historicorum GrjEcorum." E'phra-em or E'phra-im, [Lat. Ephrae'mus,] writ- ten also Ephrem, the Syrian, an eminent ecclesiastical writer of the fourth century, born at Nisibis. In youth he adopted the monastic life in a cave near Edessa, where he improved his time in study and writing. He zealously opposed Arianism with his voice and pen. The bishopric of Edessa was offered to him, but was declined. According to some accounts, he renounced his solitary way of life many years before his death. He was venerated as a prophet by his contemporaries. He wrote, in Syriac, numerous sermons, hymns, commenta- ries, etc., which were very popular, and are still extant. Died about 378 a.d. Gerard Voss published a Latin version of his works, (1586-97.) An edition of his works in Syriac and Greek was published by the Assemani at Rome, (6 vols., 1732-46.) See Villemain, "Tableau de I'filoquence chretienne au qua- trieme Siecle;" Cave, "Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Historia;" Lengerke, " Commentatio critica de Ephraemo Syro," 1828. E'phra-ira, [Heb. □"'*12X,] one of the Hebrew patri- archs, was the second son of Joseph, and a favourite grandson of Jacob. See Genesis, chap, xlviii. idphraim [Fr. pron. iTRt'iN'] de Nevers, a French monk, who was sent as missionary to India about 1645, and laboured many years at Madras. He was confined in prison by the Inquisitors of Goa, and liberated by the King of Golconda about 1650. Ephrem. See Ephraem. ^picharme. See Epicharmus. Ep-i-ehar'mus, [Gr. 'Eirixapfiog ; Fr. £picharme, i'pe'shSRm',] a Greek poet and philosopher, born in the island of Cos, passed the greater part of his life at Sy- racuse, to which he removed about 485 B.C. He was a disciple of Pythagoras, and is called by Aristotle the inventor of comedy. Plato designates him as the first of comic writers. His productions, of which scarcely anything remains but the titles, were partly political dramas, and partly parodies of mythological subjects. He was an elegant and original writer. He wrote also treatises on philosophy and morality. He died about 450 B.C., aged ninety or more. Some of his philosophical ideas were adopted by Plato. See O. Muller, "The Dorians;" Diogenes Laertius; H. Harless, "De Epicharmo," 1822; Grysar, "De Doriensium Co- moedia," 1828. E-pic'ra-tes, [Gr. 'EmKpaTrjg,] an Athenian orator, who lived about 390 B.C., belonged to the democratic party. Epicrates, an Athenian comic poet of the middle comedy, flourished about 360 B.C. Fragments of his plays are extant. ^pictete. See Epictetus. Ep-ic-te'tus, [Gr.'EmKTTj-og; Fr. Epictete, k'phVtkt'; Ger. Epiktet, i-pik-tat'; It. Epitetto, i-pe-tet'to,] a celebrated Stoic philosopher, was born at Hierapolis, in Phrygia, about 60 A.D. He was a freedman of Epaphro- ditus, a favourite servant of Nero. He retired from Rome to Nicopolis, in Epirus, in consequence of an edict by which Domitian banished the philosophers, in 89 a.d. Few other events of his life are known. He acquired a great reputation as a teacher of philosophy, which he made subservient to practical morality. His life was an exam- ple of temperance, moderation, and other virtues. His temper and principles were less austere, and more allied to the spirit of the gospel, than those of the early Stoics. He left no written works ; but his doctrines were recorded by his disciple Arrian in eight books, four of which have come down to us. No heathen philosopher taught a higher or purer sj^stem of morality. "The maxim suj^er and abstain (from evil)," says Professor Brandis, " which he foUow^ed throughout his life, was based with him on the firm belief in a wise and benevolent government of Provi- dence; and in this respect he approaches the Christian doctrine more than any of the earlier Stoics, though there is not a trace in the Epictetea to show that he was acquainted with Christianity." (Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.") His "Enchiridion," or "Manual," has been translated into English by Mrs. E. Carter. See Ritter, "History of Philosophy;" Fabricius, " Biblio- theca Grasca;" J. F. Beyer, " Ueber Epiktet und sein Handbuch der Stoischen Moral," 1795; G. Boileau, "Vie d'£pictete et sa Phllosophie," 1655, and English version of the same, by J. Davies, 1670. \ Epicure artd Epicure. See Epicurus. Ep-i-cu'rus, [Gr. 'Errkoupof ; Fr. Epicure, i'pe'kiiR'; It. Epicuro, i-pe-koo'ro ; Ger. Epikur, i-pe-kooR',] an € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, y., guttural ; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jt^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) EPICTDES 854 EPISCOPIUS eminent Greek philosopher, the founder of the Epicurean sect, was born in the island of Sainos about 340 h.c. He was the son of Neocles, an Athenian ; he studied under Pamphilus in Samos, and under Xenocrates in Athens, which he visited at the age of eighteen ; but he professed to be self-taught, (aiitodidados.) He then travelled in Ionia, and spent several years in Mitylene and Lampsacus. Here he began to teach new doctrines, and made numer- ous disciples. In the year 309 he removed to Athens, where he bought a garden, and founded a new school of philosophy, which bears his name. His school became very popular, and exerted an important influence on many succeeding ages. Diogenes Laertius says that Epicurus " had so many friends that even whole cities could not contain them." It is said that he objected to a community of property, as tending to excite mutual distrust. Gassendi has ably defended Epicurus against the accusations of the Stoics and the prejudices of the Schoolmen with respect to his doctrines and his private life ; though he recognizes a mixture of error in his system. His principles are the reverse of Stoicism, and form a system of materialism founded on utility. (See Zeno.) He taught that the gods live forever, far remote from human affairs, in a state of passionless repose, indifferent alike to the virtues and the crimes of mankind. Cicero supposes that Epicurus had no belief whatever in any gods, but that he nominally acknowledged their existence that he might not offend the prejudices of the Athenians. (See his "De Natura Deorum," i. 30.) When he pro- posed pleasure or happiness as the supreme good, he qualified this doctrine by the maxim that temperance is necessary in order to enjoy the noble and durable pleas- ures which are proper to human nature. Chrysippus, an opponent, admits the purity of his moral character, but insinuates that it was owing to his insensibility. He took no part in political affairs, seeking in self-reliance and internal resources a compensation for the loss of national liberty. He derived the basis of his philosophy, both his psy- chology and his physics, from Democritus, who taught that the universe consists of space (or vacuum) and of matter, which is composed of eternal indivisible atoms of various kinds; and that everythiiig — the soul as well as the body — is formed by the fortuitous concurrence of these atoms; that all our knowledge is derived from sensations ; that sensation is produced by images or emanations flowing from external objects. Lucretius was a follower of the Epicurean philosophy, which is fully explained in his admirable poem " De Rerum Natura." (See Lucretius.) Of the voluminous writings of Epi- curus nothing now remains but a few letters preserved in the works of Diogenes Laertius, and fragments of his treatise on Nature found at Herculaneum. Died in 270 B.C. See Gassendi, "De Vita et Moribus Epicuri," 1647; and "Syn- tagma Philosophiae Epicuri," 1659; Rondel, " La Vie d'fipicure," 1679; RiTTER, "History of Philosophy;" G. H. Lewes, "Bio- graphical History of Philosophy;" Mackintosh, "Progress of Ethical Philosophy;" Diogenes Laertius; Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" C. Mallet, "Epicure," in his "fitudes philosophiques," 1843. Ep-i-9y'des, [Gr. 'YiixiKv^riq^ a Syracusan general, who served with distinction under Hannibal in Italy. In 214 B.C. he and his brother Hippocrates took Syracuse, of which they had command when it was besieged by Mar- cellus, 213 B.C. ^pigene. _ See Epigenes. E-pig'e-nes, ['ETriyevT?^,] an Athenian poet of the middle comedy, lived probably about 375 B.C. Epigenes, [Fr. Epig^ine, i'pe^zhkn',] a Greek astron- omer, who is supposed to have lived before the Christian era. He is mentioned by Seneca and Pliny. ]dpigones. See Epigoni. E-pig'o-ni, [Gr. 'Emyowi; Fr. Epigones, ^'pe'gon',] a term which signifies "heirs" or "descendants," was applied to the sons of the seven chiefs who conducted an expedition against Thebes to restore Polyni'ces, and who were all killed except Adrastus. Ten years later, the Epigoni — namely, Alcmason, Thersander, Dio- medes, /Egialeus, Promachus, Sthenelus, and Euryalus — renewed the enterprise and took Thebes. The war of the Epigoni was celebrated by several ancient epic and dramatic poets. Epiktet, the German of Epictetus, which see. Epikur. See Epicurus. Ep-i-men'i-des, [Gr. 'Emuev'id?)^ ; Fr. Epim6nide, i'pe'mi-'ntid',] an eminent Greek poet and prophet, born in Crete, is supposed to havQ lived about 600 B.C. By some writers he was reckoned among the seven wise men of Greece. A tradition was current that in early youth he fell asleep in a cave, and remained in that state more than fifty years, after which he was reputed to be an inspired prophet, and was noted for his skill in medi- cine. About 596 B.C. he accepted the invitation of the Athenians to come and purify their city, then visited by the plague. He wrote a poem on the Argonautic expe- dition, which is not extant. Other works were ascribed to him by the ancients. See C. F. Heinrich, " Epimenides aus Creta," 1801 ; Grabener, "Dissertatio de Epimenide," 1742. idpimethee. See Epimetheus. Ep-i-me'theus, [Gr. 'Em/xTjOevg ; Fr. Epim^;th6e, k^pe^mk^ty,]. a mythical personage, said to be a son of lapetus, a brother of Prometheus, and the husband of Pandora. (See Prometheus.) His name signifies " after- thought." idpinac or Espinac, d', d^'pe'ntk',(PiERRE,) a French prelate, born at the chateau d'Epinac in 1540, was made Archbishop of Lyons in 1574. He was a violent partisan and instigator of the Catholic League against Henry III. and Henry IV. Died in 1599. ]^pinat, i^pe^nt^ (Fleury, ) a French landscape- painter, born at Montbrison in 1764, was a pupil of David. Among his works is " The Lady of the Lake." Died in 1830. ]dpinay, d', di''pe'na', (Louise Florence Petronille de la Live — pk'tRo^n^F deh It l^v,) Madame, a French authoress, born about 1725. She was married in youth to M. d'Epinay, who deserted her. She afterwards formed liaisons with Grimm and with J. J. Rousseau, for whom she built the hermitage at Montmorenci about 1755. She wrote a work on education, called "Conversations of Emilie," (1783,) which was crowned by the French Acad- emy. Died in 1783. Her autobiographic Memoirs were published in 1818, (3 vols.) See Rousseau, "Confessions;" Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi ;" "Edinburgh Review" for December, 1818. ^piphane. See Epiphanius. Ep-i-pha'ni-us, [Gr. 'EnKpavcog,'] a Greek philosopner and founder of a sect, was a son of Carpocrates, noticed in this work, and lived between 150 and 200 A.D. Epiphanius of Alexandria, a Greek mathemati- cian, who lived about the second century of our era. Epiphanius, [Fr. Epiphane, a'pe'fln',] Saint, a dog- matical bishop, born near Eleutheropolis, in Palestine, about 310 A.D., passed a part of his youth in Egypt, where he imbibed ascetic notions. Returning to Pales- tine, he became a disciple of Hilarion. About 368 he was chosen Bishop of Constantia, formerly called Sala- mis, in the island of Cyprus. He exhibited a rather violent zeal against Origen and the Arians, which in- volved him in many contentions, and he took a prominent part in the deposition of Chrysostom. He wrote " Pana- rium," a treatise against heresies, and several other works, in Greek. They contain many errors, but are valued for passages quoted from other authors whose works are lost. Died in 402 a.d. See Neander, " History of the Church;" Cave, "Historia Lite- raria." Ep-i-pha'm-us S-eho-las'ti-cus lived about 510 A.D., and was a friend of Cassiodorus. He translated into Latin the Ecclesiastical Histories of Sozomen, Socrates, and Theodoret, and other Greek works. Ep-is-co'pi-us, (Simon,) a Dutch divine, whose pro- per name was Bisschop, (bis'Kop,) born in Amsterdam in 1583. He was eminent for his learning, charity, and liberality, and became the principal pillar of the Arminian party, or Remonstrants. He was professor of theology in the University of Leyden from 1612 until 1618, when the Synod of Dort banished him from Holland for his opinions. Having passed some years in France, he re- turned to his native land in 1626, and in 1634 became a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; nSt; good; moon; EPITETTO 855 ERJSO rector of a college in Amsterdam. He wrote the "Con- fession of the Remonstrants," a treatise on Predestina- tion, and other theological works. Died in 1643. See J. KoNijNENBURG, " Laudatio Simonis Episcopii," 1791 ; Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" P. van Limborch, ''Levenvan S. Episcopius," Amsterdam, 1693; Frederick Cal- DER, "Memoirs of Simon Episcopius." Epitetto, the Italian of Epicte i us, which see. Epo or Epona. See Hippona. Ep-O-ni'na, a woman of Gaul, noted for her conjugal devotion, was' the wife of Julius Sabinus, a chief of the Lingones, who revolted against Vespasian. She was put^to death, with her husband, in 78 a.d. Eppendorf, von, fon §i/pen-doRf, (Heinrich,) a German writer, an adversary of Erasmus, was born in Misnia. Died about 1554. idpremenil. See Espr^mesnil. Equicola, k-kwee'ko-ll, (Mario,) an Italian historian and philosopher, born at Alveto about 1460. His prin- cipal works are a "History of Mantua," (1521,) and a curious philosophic treatise on " Love," (" Delia Natura d'Amore," 1525.) Died in 1539. ^ Eraclito, the Italian of Heraclitus, which see. E-ra'cli-us, a Roman painter of the tenth or eleventh century, wrote an essay on the "Arts of the Romans," in which he treats of painting in oil and on glass. £rard. See Errard. ^rard, i'rtR', (Jean Baptiste Orph^;e Pierre,) a nephew of the following, was born in Paris in 1794. He repaired in 1850 the organ of the Tuileries, which had been damaged by the populace in 1830. Died in 1855. ^rard, (S^ibastien,) a French inventor of musical instruments, born at Strasburg in 1752. In 1780 he began, in Paris, the manufacture of pianos, (then almost unknown,) in which he made improvements. His piano- factory, in which his brother John Baptist was a part- ner, became the most celebrated in Europe. His harp with double action, invented about 1811, had a great sale. In 1823 he produced the grand piano with repeat- ing movement, (d. double echappement.) He finished in 1830 an organ for the chapel of the Tuileries, which is his master-piece. Died in 1831. See Fetis, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." idrasistrate. See Erasistratus. Er-a-sis'tra-tus, [Gr.'Epaaforparof ; Fr. Erasistrate, i''rt^ze'stRtt',] a celebrated Greek physician and anato- mist, supposed to have been born at lulls, in the island of Ceos. He was, according to Pliny, a grandson of Aristotle, and lived between 300 and 250 B.C. He gained much credit at the court of Seleucus Nicator by discern- ing and remedying the secret malady of his son Antio- chus, who pined with a hopeless passion for Stratonice, his own step-mother. He practised chiefly in Alexandria, with a high reputation as a teacher of anatomy and medi- cine, and was regarded as the first anatomist of his time. His most important discoveries were those of the vice lactecE, and the functions of the brain and nervous system. For blood-letting and cathartics he substituted dieting, bathing, and exercise. His writings are not extant. See Haller, "Bibliotheca Anatomica;" Leclerc, "Histoire de la Medecine." :drasme, (Didier.) See Erasmus, (Desiderius.) E-ras'mus, (Desiderius,) [Fr. Didier (or D^sir^;, di'ze''rk') Erasme, de'de-4.' i'rtsm',] surnamed Roter- da'mus or Roterdamen^'is, a celebrated Dutch scholar and philosopher, pre-eminent as a restorer of learning, was born at Rotterdam on the 28th of October, 1465, or, according to some authorities, in 1467. He was a natural son of Gerard Praet, a resident of Gouda, who by a false report of the death of Margaret (the mother of Erasmus) was induced to enter the priesthood. The subject of this article, at first named Gerhardus Gerhardi, or Gerard son of Gerard, was educated at Utrecht and Deventer. He studied at Deventer about six years, and made rapid progress under the tuition of Alexander Hegius. Having become an orphan about the age of thirteen, he was urged by his guardians (who defrauded him of his patrimony) to enter a monastery ; but he felt a decided aversion to that mode of life. At length he was enticed or compelled, in i486, to become a monk and an inmate of the convent of Stein. Here he pursued the study of the classics and acquired a reputa- tion as a Latin scholar. He was employed as secretary by the Bishop of Cambray for five years, 1492-96, and at the latter date obtained permission to go to Paris, where he passed some time in the College de Montaigu. He earned a subsistence in Paris by acting as tutor. It is related that while in the French capital, being almost in rags, he wrote to a friend, " As soon as I get money I will buy, first Greek books, and then clothes." In 1498 he visited England, where he formed friend- ships with Sir Thomas More and John Colet, and studied Greek at Oxford. He returned to the continent in 1499, and in 1506 went to Italy, where he associated with the most eminent scholars, passed several years in travel and in the study of Greek, and obtained from the pope a dispensation from his monastic vows. He accepted in 1 5 10 an invitation to visit England, and was employed for a few years as professor of divinity and of Greek at the University of Cambridge. In i5iohe produced and dedicated to Sir Thomas More his "Praise of Folly," (" Encomium Moriae,") a witty satire against all profes- sions, but especially against the mendicant monks. It met with a rapid sale, and was received with almost universal applause. Erasmus was now at the head of the literary world, and made zealous efforts to dispel the inveterate igno- rance and prejudices which then prevailed. The greatest monarchs solicited the honour of his presence in their capitals. About 1515 the Archduke Charles, (afterwards Charles V.,) whose court was at Brussels, gave Erasmus the title of royal councillor, with a pension of 400 florins, which enabled him to gratify his inclination to travel. It appears that he never remained long in one place. Among his remarkable works is a collection of proverbs, etc., entitled " Adagia," which was published about 1500, and is a monument of his immense and multifarious learning. In 1 5 16 he published an excellent edition of the Greek Testament, with Latin version and notes, — the first edition ever printed, — a work for which he was eminently qualified. By his witty and satirical writings against the abuses and corruptions of the Roman Church he con- tributed greatly to the success of the Reformation; and at one time he was favourable to the Protestants. But he was offended at the radical course of Luther, some of whose tenets he did not approve, and the timidity or moderation of his character prevented his open revolt against the pope and the Church of Rome. His " pas- sionless moderation" and neutral position in the latter part of his life exposed him to annoyance from the zealots of both parties, who considered him lukewarm or hereti- cal. In 1 52 1 he removed to Bale, where, the next year, appeared his celebrated "Colloquies," professedly in- tended for the instruction of youth in Latin and morals, but aiming many hard blows against the Roman Church. In one year twenty-four thousand copies of this work were printed, all of which were sold. His alienation from the Reformers, however, increased, and he engaged in 1524 in a dispute on Free Will with Luther, who de- nounced him in severe language. He died at Bale on the I2th of July, 1536. His epistles are very voluminous, and contain rich stores of materials for literary history. He is considered the greatest wit and most eminent scholar of the age in which he lived, and one of the most conspicuous and successful among those who have laboured to restore classical learning and sound philosophy. His views on the subject of war appear to have been perfectly accordant with those of Penn and Barclay. His complete works were published in nine volumes (1541) by Beatus Rhenanus. See BuRiGNV, "Vie d'firasme," 1757; Lives of Erasmus, by Adolph Muli.er, (in German, 1828,) and Jortin, (in English, 1758 ;) Knight, "Life of Erasmus," 1726, and notice in Bayle's "Dic- tionary;" also, Charles Butler, "Life of Erasmus," 1825; Me- Rui.A, "Vita D. Erasmi," 1607; "London Quarterly Raview" for July, 1859; "Retrospective Review," vol. v., 1822. E-ras'mus Jo-an'nis, [Fr. £rasme de Jean, ^'rSsm' deh zh6N,] a Dutch theologian and Unitarian of the sixteenth century. He had a dispute with Socinus at Cracow. Died after 1593. Eraso, i-rS.'so, (Don Benito,) a Spanish general, born in Navarre in 1789, was a colonel in the army at € as k; c as s; g hard; g as G, H, Y., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ERASTH 856 ERHARD the death of Ferdinand VII., {1833.) He then took arms in favour of Don Carlos, obtained the rank of general, and commanded in several engagements during the civil war. Died in 1835. Erasth. See Erastus. E-ras'tus or Erasth, i-rSst', (Thomas,) a Swiss phy- sician, whose family name was Lieber, (lee'ber,) born at Baden in 1524. He was a skilful practitioner of medi- cine, on which he wrote several treatises. For many years he was professor of medicine at Heidelberg, with the title of physician to the Elector, Frederick III. In 1580 he removed to Bale, where he obtained the chair of moral philosophy. His name is identified with certain opinions on the relation of church and state, since called Erastianism. His " Theses on Excommunication," pub- lished after his death, became the subject of much dis- putation. He proposed that offences against morality should be punished by the civil power, rather than by the church. Died in 1583. See "Biographia Britannica;" MoRi^Ri, " Dictionnaire Histo- rique;" Wordsworth, "Ecclesiastical Biography." Erath, a'rit, (Anton Ulrich,) a German historian, born at Brunswick in 1709, wrote a " History of Bruns- wick," (in Latin, 1745.) Died in 1773. Erath, von, fon a'rtt, (Augustin,) a German theo- logian, born in Suabia in 1648, published the "Noble Order of the Golden Fleece," ("Augustus Velleris Aurei Ordo," 1694,) and other works. Died in 17 19. Er'a-to, ['Eparw,] in Greek mythology, was one of the nine Muses, and presided over erotic poetry and pantomimic performances. She was represented with a lyre in her hand. ^ratosthene. _See Eratosthenes. Er-a-tos'the-nes, [Gr. 'EpaToodevT]^ ; Fr. Sratos- THENE, a'rt'tos^t^n',] a famous Greek geometer and astronomer, born at Cyrene in 276 B.C., was a pupil of Ariston of Chios, and of Callimachus the poet. He was for many years superintendent of the great library of Alexandria in the reigns of Ptolemy Evergetes and his successor. He acquired durable celebrity by his astro- nomical labours, and is recognized by Delambre as the first founder of genuine astronomy. Among his remarka- ble operations was the measurement of the obliquity of the ecliptic, which he computed to be 23° 51' 2o'^ He also made a memorable attempt to ascertain the dimen- sions of the earth by a method which has been used with success in modern times, and which was invented by him. He rendered important services to the science of geogra- phy, and wrote works on philosophy, grammar, etc., which are not extant. Died about 196 B.C. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Gr£Eca;" Delambre, "HIstoire de I'Astronomie ancienne." Erauso, d', da-row'so, (Catalina,) a Spanish heroine, surnamed LA MoNjA Alferez, (li mon'ni ai-fa'rgth,) ("the Ensign Nun,") was born at Saint Sebastian, in Biscay, in 1592. She was placed when an infant in the convent of her native town, from which she effected her escape at the age of fifteen. Disguised as a man, she embarked for South America, and, after various romantic adventures, entered the army and acquired a high repu- tation for courage. On her return to Spain, in 1624, she obtained a pension from Philip III., and was received with great favour by Pope Urban VIII. The time of her death is not known. Her Memoirs, by herself, were published by Don J. M. Ferrer, (Paris, 1829.) See, also, De Quincey's account of the Spanish Nun, in "Nar- rative and Miscellaneous Papers," vol. i. Er'^ehem-bert [Lat. Erchember'tus] or Er'-ehem- pert, a monk and historian, lived about 860-900 a.d. He wrote a "Chronicle of the Lombards," of which a part is extant. Er-ehin'o-ald was elected mayor of the palace of Neustria in 640 A.D., in the reign of Clovis II., and gov- erned the kingdom for many years. Died about 660. Ercilla y Arteaga, de, di CR-th^Kyi e aR-ti-^'gi, (Fortunio Garc{a,) a Spanish jurist, who flourished about 1550, was the father of the following, Ercilla y Zuniga, ^R-th^Kya e thoon-yee^gS, (Alon- SO,) the first epic poet of Spain, born at Bermeo about 1530, was the son of Fortunio Garcia, Lord of Ercilla, In early youth he was a page of Philip II. of Spain, whom he attended in a voyage to England in 1554. In the same year he enlisted as a volunteer in an expedition against the Araucanians, a brave native tribe of South America. Amidst the tumults and dangers of this war, in which he performed a conspicuous part, he composed his "Arau- cana," which is thought to be the best heroic poem that Spain has produced, and is at the same time a historical record of events that the author witnessed. It was first printed in 1577, and has acquired a European reputation. He died in obscurity and poverty in Spain about 1600. See Voltaire, "Essai sur la Poesieepique ;" Longfellow," Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature," Erckmann-Chatrian, ^Rk'mdN' sht^tre'dN^, the name of a literary partnership which has become cele- brated as the source from which has proceeded a series of interesting works on the customs of the Germans, and on the history and romance of the wars of the French Revolution and Empire. Among the most popular of these works are " Stories of the Borders of the Rhine," ("Contes des Bords du Rhin,") "La Maison forestiere," "The Conscript of i8i3,""The Invasion," and " Water- loo." Of this partnership liMiLE Erckmann was born at Phalsbourg, in France, in 1825 ; Alexandre Cha- trlan was born in 1826. Ercolanetti, CR-ko-lS-net'tee, (Ercoi.ano,) an Italian painter, born at Perugia in 161 5 ; died in 1687. Ercolani, ^R-ko-li'nee, (Giuseppe Maria,) an Italian poet and prelate, born at Sinigaglia about 1690. He wrote two admired poems, entitled "Maria," (1725,) and "La Sulamitide ;" also a treatise on architecture, ( 1 744.) Died at Rome about 1760. Erdelyi, ^R-dal-yee, (JAnos,) a Hungarian poet, born in 1814. He gained distinction by a volume of lyric poems, published in 1844, and "Legends and Popular Tales of Hungary," (5 vols., 1845-48.) Erdl,^Rtl, (Michael Pius,) askilful German anatomist and physiologist, born in 1 81 5, was professor of physiol- ogy and comparative anatomy at Munich. He wrote a treatise on the Eye, "On the Circulation of Infusoria," (1841,) "The Development of Man and of the Chick in the Egg," (1846,) and other works. Died in 1848. Erdmann, ^Rt^min, (Johann Eduard,) a German philosopher and disciple of Hegel, born at Volmar, in Livonia, in 1805. He became professor of philosophy at Halle about 1836. Among his principal works are an "Essay of a Scientific Exposition ( Darstelbing) of the History of Modern Philosophy," (4 vols., 1834-51,) "Nature and Creation," (1840,) '^Elements of Psycho- logy," (3d edition, 1847,) and "On Ennui," (" Ueber die Langweile," 1852.) Erdmann, (O rro Linne — lin-na',) a German chemist, born at Dresden in 1804, published a valuable "Manual of Chemistry," (1828,) and a treatise on drugs. Erdt, §Rt, (Paulin,) a German monk, born at Wer- tach in 1737, published a "Literary History of Theology," (" Historia literaria Theologiae," 1785.) Died in 1800. :drebe. See Erebus. Er'e-bus, [Gr. "EpeiSof ; Fr. £rebe, i''r§b',] in classic mythology, was represented as a son of Chaos. The name was also applied to the dark and gloomy region or space under the earth, (See Pluto.) ]6rechthee. See Erechtheus. E-re-eh'theus, [Gr, 'Y.pzx4; "J. A. Emesti's Verdienste in Theologie und Religion," Berlin, 1783; E. F. VoGEL, " Oratio de J. A. Ernesti Mentis in Jur'spru- dentiam," 1829; August W. Ernesti, "Memoria J. A. Ernesti," 1781. Ernesti, (Johann Christian Gottlob,) a German scholar and critic, born at Arnstadt in 1756, was a nephew of the preceding, and cousin of August Wil- helni. He became professor of philosophy at Leipsic in 1782, and published, among other works, a good edi- tion of Silius Italicus, (1791,) a valuable "Lexicon of Greelc Rhetorical Technology," (1795,) and an elegant German version of Cicero's best works, "Spirit and Art of Cicero," ("Ciceros Geist und Kunst," 1799-1802.) Died in 1802. See Meusel, "Gelehrtes Deutschland." Ernesti, (Johann Heinrich,) a German scholar, brother of Jacob Daniel, noticed above, was born in 1652. He wrote a "Compendium of Profane Hermeneutics," (1699,) and other works. Died in 1729. Ernouf, CR'noof , (Jean Augustin,) Baron, a French general, born at Alengon in 1753. He became a general of division in 1793, and distinguished himself at Fleurus and Novi. Died in 1827. Ernst, the German of Ernest, which see. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Y.,giitttiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^="See Explanations, p. 23.) ERNST 860 ERSKINE Ernst, gRnst, [Lat. Ern'stius,] (Heinrich,) a learned Danish jurist, born at Helmstedt in 1603, wrote, in Latin, many able works on law, religion, and other subjects, among which are " Sabbatismos," and " Introduction to the True Life," (1643.) Died in 1665. See Kraft og Nyerup, " Litteraturlexicon.'* Ernst, (Heinrich Wilhelm,) a German violinist, born at Briinn in 1814; died in 1865. Ernst August. See Ernest Augustus. Ernst Kasimir. See Ernest Casimir. Ernsting, ^Rn'sting, (Arthur Conrad,) a German botanist, born at Sachsenhagen in 1709, published a "Description of the Families of Plants," (1762,) and other works. Died in 1768. Ernstius. See Ernst. Ernulph. See Arnulph. Eroles, de, di i-ro-lgs', Barqn, a Spanish general, noted for energy and audacity, born in Catalonia in 1785, took an active part in the guerilla war against the French in 1809-10. He was a partisan of the royalists in 1820, and in 1822 a member of the Supreme Regency, formed during the king's captivity. In the same year he com- manded at two battles, in which the royalists were totally defeated by Mina. Died in 1825. ]firope, the French of TErope, which see. E'ros, ["Epcjf,] the Greek name of the god of love, corresponding to the Cupido of the Romans. He was generally regarded as a son of Aphrodite, (Venus,) and was personified as a beautiful boy with wings and armed with a bow and arrows. (See Cupid.) Erostratus. See Herostratus. Erotianus, e-ro-she-a'nus, ['Epcjuawf,] a Greek wri- ter, who lived in the first century of our era, in the reign of Nero, is sometimes called Herodianus. He wrote, in Greek, a glossary of Hippocrates, which explains some obscure terms found in that writer. It was first printed in Paris in 1564. Er'o-vant II., King of Armenia, occupied the highest rank among the Armenian generals in the reign of Sana- drook, (Sanadrouk.) At the death of that prince, 68 a.d., he usurped the throne. In 78 he founded a new and splendid capital, which he named Erovantaschad. Ar- dasches IL, the son of Sanadrook, having raised an army in Persia, came back to recover his throne. In the battle that followed, Erovant was defeated and killed in the year 88. Er-pe'ni-us, or Van Erpen, vtn gR'pen, (Thomas,) a celebrated Orientalist, born at Gorkum, in Holland, in 1584, graduated at Leyden in 1608, and afterwards pur- sued his favourite studies in England, France, Italy, etc. In 1613 he was chosen professor of Arabic and other Oriental languages, except Hebrew, in the University of Leyden. In 1619 a second chair of Hebrew was founded in his favour. He kept an Arabic press in his own house. His labours have rendered important services to Oriental learning, and have scarcely been surpassed in the same department, although his career was closed by a prema- ture death. His most important works are an " Arabic Grammar," (1613,) the first composed in Europe, a "Collection of Lokman's Arabic Proverbs," translated into Latin, an Arabic version of the New Testament, and " Historia Saracenica," an edition of Elmacin's history, with Latin version, (1625.) Died in 1624. See P. ScRiVARius, "Manes Erpinianse," 1625; G. J. Vossius, "Oratio in Obitum T. Erpenii," 1625; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene- rale." Errante, Sr-r^n'ti, (Giuseppe,) a skilful Italian his- torical painter, born at Trapani in 1760, passed the greater part of his life in Milan. Among his works are "Endymion" and "Psyche." Died in 1821. Errard. See £rard. Errard, k'riR', (Charles,) a French painter, born at Bressuire about 1570. He received the title of painter to the king. Died about 1635. Errard, (Charles,) a French painter and architect, a son and pupil of the preceding, was born at Nantes in 1606. He painted historical subjects, among which is "Saint Paul restored to Sight." In 1646 he began to decorate the Palais Royal for Louis XIV. He afterwards adorned the Louvre, Tuileries, the chateau of Versailles, and other palaces. He was one of the twelve artists who founded the Academy of Painting at Paris in 1648. He had the principal part in the foundation of the French Academy of Art in Rome in 1666, and was director of that institution until 1683. He published (with Cham- bray) a "Comparison of Ancient with Modern Archi- tecture," (1666.) Died at Rome in 1689. See MiLiziA, " Memoiie degli Architetti/' etc. Errard or firard, i^rtii', (Jean,) a French military engineer, born at Bar-le-Duc, was employed by Henry IV., who called him the first of engineers. He wrote an able treatise on Fortification, (1594.) Died about 1620. Er-Rasheed or Er-Rashid. See Ar-Rasheed and Haroun-al-Raschid. Erri, degli, diKyee gr'ree, (Pellegrino,) an Italian Orientalist, born at Modena in 1511, produced an Italian version of the Psalms of David, (1573.) Died in 1575. Errico, §r-ree'ko, or Enrico, In-ree'ko, (Scipione,) a popular Italian poet and priest, born in 1592 at Mes- sina, where he obtained the chair of moral philosophy and the title of poet-laureate. He wrote "The Wars of Parnassus," (a history of literary quarrels, 1643,) " Deida- mia," a drama, (1644,) and other works. Died in 1670. See MoNGiTORE, " Bibliotheca Sicula." Erscli, gRsh, (Johann Samuel,) an eminent encyclo- pasdist, and founder of German bibliography, was born at Gross Glogau, in Silesia, in 1766. He published between 1793 and 1809 a "General Repertory of Literature," (8 vols.,) and a work entitled "Literary France," ("Das gelehrte Frankreich," 5 vols., 1 797-1 806.) About 1800 he was chosen librarian of the University of Jena, and in 1803 professor of geography at Halle. His principal work is the great " Encyclopaedia of Sciences and Arts," ("Allgemeine Encyklopaedie der Wissenschaften und Kiinste,") by Ersch and Gruber, of which he edited 17 vols., (1818-28.) After the death of Ersch (1828) it was continued by Gruber and others. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Erskine, er'skin, (David,) Lord Dun, an eminent Scottish lawyer, born at Dun in 1670, became lord of session in 1711, and was a commissioner in the court of justiciary from 1713 to 1750. He published a valuable work, styled "Lord Dun's Advices." Died in 1755. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Erskine, (David Stewart,) Earl of Buchan, and Lord Cardross, a literary Scottish nobleman and anti- quary, born in 1742, was the eldest son of Henry David, tenth Earl of Buchan, and was a brother of Lord-Chan- cellor Erskine. About 1766 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and appointed secretary to the British embassy in Spain. In 1780 he took the principal part in founding the Society of Scottish Antiquaries, and in 1791 instituted an annual festive commemoration of the poet Thomson. He wrote several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1829. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Erskine, (Ekenezer,) the founder of a sect in Scot- land designated as Seceders, born in 1680, was a son of Henry Erskine, noticed below. From 1703 to 1731 he ministered at Portmoak, in Kinross, where he became eminent and popular as a theologian, preacher, and writer. In 1731 he accepted a call from the church of Stirling. About 1732 a controversy arose in the Church of Scotland respecting lay patronage, on which subject Mr. Erskine opposed the action of the General Assembly, and was suspended from the ministry. In 1736 Erskine and his friends organized the "Secession Church." His sermons and other writings have been often reprinted, and are much admired. Died in 1754. The Secession Church in 1847 formed a union with the Relief Synod, and took the name of the United Presbyte- rian Church. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Erskine, (Henry,) a Scottish clergyman, father of the preceding, was born in 1624. He became pastor at Cornhill, was ejected in 1662, and banished about 16S2. He was imprisoned in 1685. Died in 1690. Erskine, (Henry,) an eminent Scottish patriot, born about 1650. He was third Lord Cardross, eldest son of the second Lord Cardross, and ancestor of Lord-Chan- 5, e, T, o, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sAorf; a, e, j, p, obscure; f^r, fUll, fit; mgt; ndt; good; moon; ERSKINE 86i ERSKINE cellor Erskine, Having been persecuted by fine and im- prisonment on account of his religion, he emigrated about 1680 to South Carohna, whence he was driven by the Spaniards. He next went to Holland, enlisted in the service of the {"rince of Orange, and returned with him to England in 1688. He was restored to his estates and made a privy councillor. Died in 1693. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Erskine, (Hon. Henry,) an able Scottish lawyer, born in Edinburgh in 1746, was the second son of David, tenth Earl of Buchan, and brother of the lord chancellor. He was called to the bar in 1768, and appointed lord advo- cate of Scotland in 1782. On the accession of Pitt as premier he was removed, but obtained the same high office in 1806 under the Whig ministry, and was elected to Parliament. He was an eloquent and witty advo- cate, and for some years was considered the leader and brightest ornament of the Scottish bar. Probably none of his competitors equalled him in professional tact, in suavity of temper, or in fascination of manner. As a statesman he constantly supported the Whig or Liberal party. He died in 181 7, leaving two sons, Henry and George, the former of whom is the present Earl of Buchan. "In his long and splendid career at the bar," says Lord Jeffrey, " he was distinguished not only by the peculiar brilliancy of his wit and the gracefulness and vivacity of his eloquence, but by the still rarer power of keeping those seducing qualities in perfect subordination to his judgment." See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Erskine, (John,) Baron of Dun, an eminent Scottish Reformer, born near Montrose about 1508. At an early age he became one of the leaders of the Protestants in Scotland. He first introduced, it is said, the study of the Greek language into the schools of Scotland, about 1534. Li 1557 he was appointed a commissioner to attend the marriage of Queen Mary in France. About 1560 he was (Srdained as a minister. He assisted in compiling the Second Book of Discipline in 1577. Died in 1591. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Erskine, (John,) Colonel, a Scottish officer, born in 1661, was the third son of Lord Cardross. Having served in Holland under the Prince of Orange, he was appointed in 1688 lieutenant-governor of Stirling Castle, and afterwards governor of Dumbarton Castle. In 1707 he was elected to the British Parliament. His son John was an eminent jurist. Died in 1743. Erskine, (John,) eighteenth Lord Erskine, and elev- enth Earl of Mar, an ambitious and corrupt Scottish politician, born at Alloa in 1675, was the son of Charles, tenth Earl of Mar. At the accession of Queen Anne, in 1702, he joined the Tories, and in 1708 was chosen secretary for Scotland, and became one of the most powerful leaders of the Jacobites. In September, 1715, he raised the standard of the Pretender, and, though destitute of military skill, assumed the command of the insurgents, amounting to 12,000 men. He was defeated by Argyle at Dunblane in November, and soon after escaped with his master to the continent, where he con- tinued to plot for several years, and died in 1732. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Erskine (John) of Carnoch, an eminent Scottish jurist, born in 1695, was the son of Colonel John Er- skine, and a cousin of Lord-Chancellor Erskine. In 1737 he was chosen professor of Scottish law in the University of Edinburgh, and in 1754 published "Prin- ciples of the Law of Scotland," which became a leading authority in the courts. He retired from his chair in the university in 1765, and died at his estate of Cardross in 1768. He left an extension of the above work, which appeared in 1773, entitled "An Institute of the Law of Scotland." It is a standard work of great merit, whose authority is as unquestionable as " Coke upon Littleton." See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Erskine, (John,) D.D., an eminent Scottish divine, son of the preceding, was born in 1721. In 1744 he was ordained minister of Kirkintilloch, near Glasgow. From 1753 to 1758 he preached at Culross, and in the latter year removed to the New Grey-Friars', a church of Edinburgh. He was for many years the leader of the popular or orthodox party in the Church, — the same which in 1843 seceded and formed the "Free Church." In 1767 he became a colleague of Dr. Robertson in the Old Grey-Friars' Church, Edinburgh. Among his writings on theology — which are numerous and highly prized — are "Theological Dissertations," (1765,) and " Sketches and Hints of Church History," (1790.) Died in 1803. See Sir H. Moncrieff Wellwood, "Life of John Erskine,'' 1818 ; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Erskine, (Ralph,) an eminent Scottish divine, born at Monilaws in 1685, was the brother of Ebenezer Er- skine, noticed above. He was ordained in 171 1 as min- ister of Dunfermline, and acquired a high reputation as a preacher and writer on theology. About 1736 he co-operated with his brother, and joined the Seceders. (See Erskine, Ebenezer.) He published sermons and "Gospel Sonnets." Died in 1752. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Erskine, (Thomas,) Lord, an illustrious British orator and advocate, born in Edinburgh in January, 1750, was the youngest son of Henry David, Earl of Buchan. He received his education at the high-schools of Edin- burgh and of Saint Andrew's. As his father could not afford to defray the expense of preparing him for a learned profession, he entered the navy in 1764 as mid- shipman. After the lapse of four years, being disap- pointed in his hope of promotion, he purchased an ensign's commission in the army. In 1770 he married the daughter of Daniel Moore, M.P., with whom he lived in uninterrupted harmony. The same year his regiment was ordered to Minorca, where he spent two years profit- ably in the systematic study of English literature. Re- turning home in 1772, he passed several months in London, where he produced a sensation in the higher circles by his graceful volubility, his genial temper, and his charming social qualities. Rendered restless by the consciousness of grand dormant powers and faculties, he happened one day, in 1774, to enter court, in which Lord Mansfield, the presiding judge, invited him to sit by his side. Thinking that he could make a better speech than any that he heard in that trial, he resolved to study law. In 1775 he was admitted a student of Lincoln's Inn, and in 1776 was matriculated at Cambridge, as the degree of A.M. would shorten the term required to qualify him for the bar, — to which he was called in 1778. The first cause in which he was engaged was that of Captain Baillie, tried for a libel on the Earl of Sandwich, a member of the cabinet. " Then was exhibited," says Lord Campbell, "the most remarkable scene ever witnessed in Westminster Hall. It was the debut oi a barrister, wholly unpractised in public speaking, before a court crowded with the men of the greatest distinction, belonging to all parties in the state. And I must own that, all the circum- stances considered, it is the most wonderful forensic effort of which we have any account in our annals." The im- pression made on the audience was such that before he left the court a large number of retainers were presented to him by the attorneys who flocked around him. He had risen at one bound to the highest rank in his profession. In 1 781 he made a great and successful plea in defence of Lord George Gordon, indicted for treason, in which logic and passion were combined with consummate art. In 1783, by the influence of the Whig leaders, Erskine obtained a seat in the House of Commons, where his success was not equal to the high expectations that had been raised. In the election of 1784 he lost his seat. He could not adapt himself to the tenor of parliament- ary debate with the same success that attended him in the forum. In 1789, in the trial of Stockdale, he vindi- cated the freedom of the press by another triumph of eloquence. In 1790 he was again returned to Parliament for Portsmouth, and continued to support the principles of Fox, even in the crisis of the French Revolution, by which the Whigs were divided. In 1794 Erskine ap- peared as the champion of public liberty in the state trials, when the ministry attempted to put down the friends of reform by the law of " constructive treason." He spoke seven hours in defence of Hardy, who was acquitted, amidst the rapturous applause of the popular party. Next came the case of John Horne Tooke, which € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) ERSKINE 862 ESCHENBACH had a similar result. In 1802 he was made chancellor of the duchy of Cornwall. On the formation of the Grenville ministry, in January, i8o6,he became lord chan- cellor, and was raised to the peerage, as Baron Erskine of Restormel Castle. In consequence of a change in the ministry, he retired from office in 1807. Lord Campbell, late chancellor of England, gives it as his opinion that " as an advocate in the forum he is without an equal in ancient or modern times." He did not aim at wit or ornament in his speeches, though his diction was pure, simple, and full of variety. *' But he spoke as his clients respectively would have spoken, being endowed with his genius ; and those who heard him seemed to be inspired with a new, ethereal existence." Died in November, 1823. His principal publications are "Armata," a political ro- mance, and a " View of the Causes and Consequences of the War with France," which ran through forty-eight editions. He left several daughters, and three sons, of whom the eldest, David Montague, inherited the title of Lord Erskine. See Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors;" Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. ; Lord Brougham, "Speeches of Lord Erskine, with a Prefatory Memoir;" "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1858. Erskine, (Thomas,) of Linlethan, a member of the Scottish bar, distinguished as a biblical scholar, wrote " Remarks on the Internal Evidence for the Truth of Revealed Religion," (3d edition, 1821,) an "Essay on Faith," and "The Doctrine of Election Illustrated," (1837.) Erskine, (Thomas Alexander,) sixth Earl of Kellie, a musical composer, born in 1732, was the son of the fifth Earl of Kellie. He devoted his attention chiefly to music, studied with Stamitz at Manheim, and gained distinction as a composer and performer. Died in 1781. Erslev. See Erslew. Erslew or Erslev, Sr'sI^v, (Thomas Han'sen,) a Danish bibliographer, born at Randers in 1803. He was appointed director of the archives of the ministry of worsh''% in 1849. His most important work is a " Gen- eral Dictionary of the Authors of Denmark," ("Alminde- ligt Forfatter-Lexicon for Danmark," etc., 3 vols., 1841- 53,) to which he has added a supplement. Ertborn, van, vtn gRt'boRn, (Joseph Charles Em- manuel,) Baron, a Belgian linguist and writer on art and literature, born at Antwerp in 1778, wrote "His- torical Researches on the Academy of Antwerp and the Artists which it produced," (1806.) Died in 1823. Ertinger, ^R^t^N^zhi', (Francois,) a French en- graver, born at Colmar in 1640, engraved after Rubens and Poussin. Ertogrul, eR'to-gRool, a Turkish chief, son of Soli- man Shah, and father of Othman, the founder of the Ottoman Empire. He ruled a tribe of Carismians, on the Sangara River, near the Black Sea, for the space of fifty years, and preached the Moslem religion with a sword in his hand. He took the city of Kutaia from the Greeks in 1281, and died soon after that date. See Von Hammer, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." Erwin, ^R'^in, (John,) a German architect, who suc- ceeded his father, Erwin von Steinbach, as architect of the cathedral of Strasburg. Died in 1339. Erwin von Steinbach, §R'\^in fon stTn'biK, a Ger- man architect, born at Steinbach, near Biihl. He was the chief architect of the doorway and tower of the Strasburg cathedral, one of the most imposing and admirable specimens of the modern Gothic style. He commenced this tower in 1275, and died in 13 18, after which it was continued by his son John, who died in 1339. It has a greater altitude than any other struc- ture in Europe, being about 436 French feet, or more than 465 English feet, in height. See MiLiziA, "Memorie degli Architetti ;" Pingeron, "Vies des Architectes anciens et modernes;" Joseph Bader, "Meister Erwin von Steinbach und seine Heimath," 1844. Erxleben, ^Rks'la-ben, (Johann Christian Poly- carp,) an eminent German naturalist, born at Quedlin- burg, Saxony, in 1744. He was chosen professor of philosophy at Gottingen in 1 771. He gained a high repu- tation by his works, some of which are said to be models of accuracy. He published "Elements of Natural His- tory," (1768,) " Elements of Natural Philosophy," ("Na- turlehre," 1772,) and " Systema Regni Animalis per Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, Varietates, cum His- toria Animalium; Classis I., Mammalia," ("System of the Animal Kingdom by Classes, Orders, Genera," etc., 1777.) "There exists not in zoology," says the " Biographie Universelle," "a more exact and com- plete treatise than this history of the mammalia." Died in 1777. His mother, Dorothy Leporin, born in 1715, was eminent for her attainments in medical science. She received a diploma from the University of Halle in 1754, and practised medicine. Died in 1762. See " Biographie Medicale." Eryceira. See Ericeira. Er-y-gi'na, [Fr. £rycine, i're-sJn',] a surname of Venus, derived from Mount Eryx, in Sicily, where she had a temple. ^rycine. See Erycina. E^ryx, [Gr. *Epv^,] a son of Butes and Venus, killed by Hercules in a combat with the cestus. (See Virgil's "^neid," book v., lines 402 -12.) A mountain in Sicily, near Drepanum, was named Eryx, from his having been buried there. Erzilla. See Ercilla. Es, van, vtn Ss, (Jacob,) a Flemish painter, born in Antwerp about 1570, excelled in the imitation of shells, flowers, and fruits. He is praised by Descamps. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Esaias. See Isaiah. E-sa'i-as of Egypt, a monk, who lived in Egypt in the fourth century, and wrote, in Greek, a number of works, some of which were published in 1684. E'sau, [Heb. ItJ'J^,] the eldest son of Isaac and Rebecca, born about 1836 B.C., lived in Mount Seir or Edom. He was sometimes called Edom, which signifies " red," and was the ancestor of the Edomites. , See Genesis xxv. 25; xxvii., xxxii., xxxiii., and xxxvi. Escalante, gs-kd-lin'ti, (Juan Antonio,) a Span- ish historical painter, born at Cordova in 1630, lived in Madrid, and adorned the churches of that city with his works, among which is " The Life of Saint Gerard." He imitated Tintoret and Titian with moderate success. Died in 1670. Escalante, d', d§s-k§,-lln'ti, (Juan,) was one of Cor- tez's principal officers when he undertook, in 15 18, the conquest of Mexico. He received from Cortez the com- mand of the colony or town founded by him at Vera Cruz. He was killed in a battle against a Mexican chief in 1 5 19. See Prescott's "Conquest of Mexico." Escale. See Scala. Escarbot See Lescarbot. Eschasseriaux, I'shts're^o', (Joseph,) Baron, a French Jacobin, born near Saintes in 1753. He was an active member of the Convention, 1792-95, and of the Tribunate, 1800-04. Died in 1823. Eschasseriaux, (Ren6,) a brother of the preceding, born in 1754, was an able and moderate member of the Convention, and of various legislative assemblies in succession. In 1798 he made an important report on the subject of supplying horses for the cavalry. Died in 1 83 1. Eschels-Kroon, gsh'els-kRon',( ADOLPHUS,)a Danish traveller, born in 1736, passed many years in the East Indies, where he was agent of Denmark from 1782 to 1784. He wrote a "Description of Sumatra," (1782,) and other works. Died in 1793. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Eschenbach, gsh'en-b^K', (Andreas Christian,) a learned Gentian writer, born in 1663 at Nuremberg, where he became professor of Greek in 1695. He pub- lished an edition of the works of Orpheus, (1689,) "Epi- genes on Orphic Poetry," (" Epigenes de Poesi Orphica," 1702,) " Dissertationes Academicae," (1705,) and other works. Died in 1705. Eschenbach,(CHRisTiANEhrenfried— a'ren-fReet',) a German physician, born at Rostock in 1 7 12, wrote "Elements of Surgery," (1745,) "Medicina Legalis," (1746,) and other professional works. Died in 1788. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; ESCHENBACH 863 ESKIL Esolie.Mbach, von, fon gsh'en-bSK'', (Wolfram,) a famous L'erman poet or minnesinger, was born in Bava- ria, and Ocurished about 1200. According to the custom of the mecM.Teval bards, he wandered from castle to castle, and found a welcome at the courts of several princes. His principal poems are entitled "Titurel" and " Parci- val." He is generally admitted to have been the greatest German poet anterior to the revival of German literature. See Gervinus, " Geschichte der poetischen National-Literatur," 1837; San Marte, "Wolfram von Eschenbach," Magdeburg, 2 vols., 1841 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Eschenburg, gsh'en-booRc', (Johann Joachim,) a German litterateury born at Hamburg in 1743. He was professor in a college of Brunswick, and aulic councillor. He produced good German prose versions of Shak- speare's Dramatic Works, (14 vols., 1775-87,) and of other foreign works ; he also wrote a " Life of Handel," (1785.) His "Manual of Classical Literature" reached the eighth edition in 1837. Died in 1820. Eschenmayer, Ssh'en-mT'er, (Karl Adolf,) a Ger- man philosopher, metaphysician, and mystic, born at Neuenberg, in Wiirtemberg, in 1768. He became in 181 1 professor of philosophy and medicine at Tubingen. From 1818 to 1836 he filled the chair of practical philo- sophy in the same university. Among his chief works are a " System of Moral Philosophy," (1818,) and " Phi- losophy of Religion," (3 vols., 1818-24.) Died in 1854. See RiTTER, "History of Philosophy;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Escher, gsh'er, (F. A.,) a German scholar, known as the translator of Horace, was born in 1777; died in 1802. Escher, §sh'er, (Henry,) a Swiss statesman, born at Zurich in 1626, acquired by his talents and virtues great influence in the state. Died in 17 10. Escher, (Jean Henri Alfred,) a prominent Swiss statesman, born at Zurich in 1819, acted with the Libe- rals against the Jesuits and the Sonderbund. In 1847 he was president of the grand council, and advocated a reform of the federal system, tending to a greater cen- tralization. He was chosen president of the new council of regency in 1848, and vice-president of the national council in 1856. Escher, (Johann Caspar,) a Swiss magistrate, born at Zurich in 1678. He was employed in various impor- tant negotiations. Died in 1762. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" David Wvss, " Lebensgeschichte J. C. Eschers," 1790. Escher, (Johann Conrad,) surnamed von der LiNTH, (fon d^r lint,) a Swiss geologist, born at Zurich in 1768, gained much credit by the improvement of the channel of the river Linth, whence his surname is derived. He published "Geological Observations on the Alps," (1795,) and "The Formation of the Great Chain of the Jura," (1820.) Died in 1823. See Johann J. Hottinger, " H. C. Escher von der Linth ; Cha- rakterbild eines Republikaners," 1852. Escherny, d', di'sh^R'ne', (Fran{;:oi.s Louis,) Count, a French litferatejir, born at Neufchatel in 1733. He went to Paris in 1762, and became intimate with Diderot, D'Alembert, and Rousseau. His principal works are an "Essay on Equality," and "Lacunae of Philosophy," (1783.) Died in 1815. Eschil. See Eskil, Eschine, the French of ^schines, which see. Eschines. See ^Eschines. Eschius, gs'ke-us, or Van Esche, vtn Ss'Keh, (Ni- colaas,) a Dutch Catholic priest and writer, born near Bois-le-Duc in 1507; died in 1578. Eschricht, gsh'riKt, (Daniel Frederik,) a Danish physician and physiologist, born at Copenhagen in 1798. He became professor of medicine in the University of Copenhagen in 1836, and published several valuable works on physiology, zoology, etc. Eschscholtz, gsh'sholts, (Johann Friedrtch,) a German naturalist and traveller, born at Dorpat in 1793. He accompanied Kotzebue as physician in his voyage of discovery, 181 5-18, and in a second voyage about 1823. He wrote a description of two thousand animals, which was published with Kotzebue's narrative in 1830, and published " Entomographien," (1823,) and a "Zoological Atlas," ( 1 829-33.) Diedini83i. The genus Eschscholt- zia was named in honour of him by Chamisso. Eschyle, the French for ^schylus, which see. Eschylus. See ^schylus. Esclava, de, di gs-kli^vS, (Antonio,) a Spanish writer of romances, born in Aragon about 1570. Escobar, de, da gs-ko-biR', (Antonio,) a Portuguese litterateur, born at Coimbra, wrote many and various works. Died in 1681. Escobar, de, d^ gs-ko-b^R', (Bartolom6,) a Spanish missionary and writer, born at Seville in 1562, preached in the West Indies and at Lima. Died at Lima in 1624. Escobar, de, (Francisco,) a Spanish Hellenist and writer, born at Valencia; died after 1557. Escobar, de, (Maria,) a Spanish lady, born at Tru- xillo, was the wife of Diego de Chaves, who followed Pizarro to the conquest of Peru, about 1540. She was the first who carried wheat to Peru. Escobar y Mendoza, gs-ko-b^R' e mgn-do'thJ, (Antonio,) a famous casuist and Jesuit, born at Valla- dolid, in Spain, in 1589. He was 'a popular preacher, and a learned writer on theology, but was severely cen- sured by Pascal and others for teaching a lax morality. He wrote, in Latin, " Moral Theology," (1646,) a "Treat- ise on Justice and Law," and another on "Cases of Con- science," (" Summula Casuum Conscientiae," 1626.) It was to refute the doctrines and sophisms broached in the last work that Pascal wrote the fifth and sixth of his admirable " Provincial Letters." Died in 1669. In the dictionary of the French Academy Escobar is a synonym for an "adroit hypocrite." See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature ;" N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Escoiquiz, §s-ko-e-k^th', sometimes written Escoi- quitz, (Don Juan,) a Spanish priest and courtier, born in Navarre in 1762, was appointed preceptor of the king's son, afterwards Ferdinand VII. The latter employed him in secret negotiations with Napoleon, and when he became king, in 1808, made him a councillor of state. He had a paramount influence with Ferdinand, whom he accompanied to France ; and he was his principal agent or adviser in the conferences at Bayonne, which resulted in his forced abdication. Escoiquiz returned to Spain with Ferdinand in 1814, and was appointed minister; but he was dismissed the same year, and exiled from court. He wrote an epic poem of little merit, entitled "The Conquest of Mexico," (1802,) and translated Milton's "Paradise Lost" into Spanish. Died in 1820. See SouTHEY, "History of the Peninsular War;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Escosura, de la, dk IS Is-ko-soo'rS, (Don Patricio,) a Spanish author and politician, born at Madrid in 1807. He became secretary of state about 1843, ^^^^"^ which he was a member of the Narvaez ministry. He retired from office in 1846, and was minister of the interior in 1854- 55. Among his works are romances entitled "El Conde de Candespina," (1832,) and " Ni Reyni Roque," (1835,) several dramas, a "Manual of Mythology," (1843,) and the text of "Artistic and Monumental Spain." Escousse, §s'kooss', (Victor,) a French poet, born in Paris in 1813. He produced "Farruck the Moor," (" Farruck le Maure,") a drama, (1831,) which was applauded, and some songs. He committed suicide in February, 1832, in company with his ffiend Lebras. Esciilape, the French of ^F^sculapius, which see. Esculapius. See i^^scuLAPius. Esdras of Scripture. See Ezra. Es'dras, an Armenian, was chosen Patriarch of Ar- menia in 628 a.d. In concert with Heraclius, the Greek emperor, he called a council in 629, approving the reunion of the Armenian and Greek Churches ; but the bishops of Persian Armenia opposed the measure. Died in 639. Esiodo, the Italian of Hesiod, which see. Es'kil, written also Eschil or Eskild, an ambitious Swedish prelate, became in 1 138 Archbishop of Lund and Primate of Denmark. He founded several monasteries, took part in political contests, and was sometimes in open war with the king. He performed a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and wrote a work on Ecclesiastic Law. Died in 1187 or 1181. See Kraft og Nverup, " Litteraturlexicon. " € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (S^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) ESKILD 864 ESPIC Eskild. See Eskil. Esmark, Ss'maRk, or Esmarch, (Jens,) a Danish geologist and mineralogist, born in 1763, published several works on mineralogy. He became professor of metallurgy at Christiania in 1814. Died about 1838. See "Biografi ofver J. Esmark," Stockholm, 1839. Esmenard, §s'meh-ntR', (Jean Baptiste,) born in Provence, in France, in 1772, served many years in the army, and became lieutenant-colonel. During the resto- ration he resigned his commission, and rendered impor- tant services to the republic of Colombia. He afterwards became an editor of the "Gazette de France," "Journal des Debats," and " Mercure," Died in 1842. Esmenard, (Joseph Alphonse,) a French didactic poet, born at Pelissanne (Bouches-du-Rhone) in 1769, was a brother of the preceding. He emigrated as a royalist in 1792, returned to Paris about the end of 1799, and associated himself with La Harpe and Fontanes as an editor of the "Mercure de France." About 1801 he accompanied General Leclerc as secretary in the expedi- tion to Hayti. He published in 1805 "La Navigation," a poem, which was composed at sea and is admired for the fidelity of its descriptions and the harmony of its versification. His opera of " Trajan" was performed with applause in 1808. He was elected to the Institute (class of French literature) in 1810. He was thrown out of his coach and killed near Naples in June, 181 1. See " Nouvelie Biographie Generale." iSson, the French of tEson, which see. Esop. See ^sop. ^sope, the French of i^^sop, which see. Espagnac, d', d^s^ptn'ytk', ( Jean Baptiste Joseph Damazit de Sahuguet — dt'mt'ze' deh siVgi', ) Baron, a French general, born at Brive-la-Gaillarde in 1 713. He served several campaigns in Germany, became aide-major-general under Marshal Saxe, and obtained the grade of lieutenant-general in 1780. He wrote a "Life of Marshal Saxe," and an "Essay on the Science of War," (1751.) Died in 1783. Espagnandel, L', Ms'f^n'yh^'dlV, (Mathieu, ) a French sculptor, born in 1610, adorned several churches of Paris with his works. Died in 1689. Espagne, d', (Don Carlos.) See Espana. Espagne, d', dgs^ptn^ (Charles,) a valiant French warrior, was made Constable of France in 1350, and became a great favourite with the king. He was assas- sinated in 1354 by Charles, King of Navarre. Espagne, d', (Jean,) a French Protestant theologian, born in Dauphiny in 1591. He preached in Holland, and afterwards settled in London, where he was pastor of a French church. He published many works, which were often reprinted, the best-known of which is " Pop- ular Errors in the Knowledge of Religion," (1648.) Died in London in 1659. Espagne, d', (Jean Louis Brigitte,) Comte, a French general of division, born at Auch ( Armagnac) in 1766. He defeated the Austrians at San Michele, in Italy, and distinguished himself at Heilsberg in 1807. He was killed at the battle of Essling, in 1809. Espagne, d', [Sp. De Espana, hs-\A\Vy^,\ or De la Cerda, dk li th^R'di, (Louis,) was a grandson of Fer- dinand de la Cerda, a Spanish prince, and a brother of Charles, noticed above. He became admiral of France in 1341, and fought for Charles de Blois in the war for the succession of Brittany. Espagnet, d', dSs'ptn'yi', (Jean,) a French alchemist of Bordeaux, lived about 1610-40. He wrote two Latin works which were regarded as classic, viz., "Secret of the Hermetic Philosophy," ( " Arcanum Philosophiae Hermeticae," 1623,) and a "Manual of the Restored Phi- losophy," (1633.) Espagnoletto. See Spagnoletto. Espana. See Espagne, d', (Louis.) Espana, de, di Ss-pin'ya, [Fr. D'Espagne, dSs'ptn',] (Don Carlos,) Count, a Spanish general, born in France in 1775. He fought against the French in the war which began in 1808, and rendered important ser- vices at Badajoz, Albuera, Salamanca, etc., for which he was rewarded with the place of Captain-General of Aragon. He was assassinated in 1839. Esparbes. See Aubeterre. Espartero, gs-paR-ta'ro, (Don Baldomero,) Duke de la Vittoria, (di IS v^t-to're-S,) a Spanish statesman and general, born at Granatula, La Mancha, in 1792 or 1793, was the son of a mechanic. He enlisted in the army in 1808, and went in 1815 to South America, where he fought against Bolivar, and became a colonel in 1822. He returned to Spain in 1825, with the rank of brigadier. When the civil war began, in 1833, he took arms for the young queen Isabella, and was appointed commandant- general of Biscay. He became a lieutenant-general in 1835, and commander-in-chief of the army of the North in 1836. In 1837 he defended Madrid from an attack of the Carlist army, which he drove back across the Ebro. He gained victories at Burgos and other places in 1838 and 1839, for which he was made a grandee of the first class, as Duke de la Vittoria y Morella. The war terminated by the submission of the Carlistsin 1840. In May, 1841, Espartero was appointed by the Cortes Regent of Spain during the minority of Isabella. He acted at first with energy in the suppression of revolts at Barcelona, but was unable to resist a coalition of pro- gresistas and moderados. An army of insurgents under Narvaez having entered Madrid in July, 1843, Espartero was exiled, and passed several years in England. He was permitted to return to Spain in 1847 or 1848. By another revolution, Narvaez, the leader of the absolutists, was driven from power, July, 1854, and Espartero again became prime minister of a cabinet in which O'Donnell, his political enemy, was minister of war. This rivalry resulted in a dissolution of the ministry in July, 1856, and in the triumph of O'Donnell. See "Espartero; Historia de su Vida," etc., by Jose Segundo Florez, 3 vols., 1844; L. deLomenie, "Galerie desContemporaiiis," (republished in i2mo, 1844;) " Foreign Quarterly Review" for Oc- tober, 1843. Espejo, §s-pa''Ho, (Antonio,) a Spanish traveller, born at Cordova, was the leader of a small expedition which in 1582 explored the regions north of Mexico and discovered New Mexico. The account of his journey is preserved in Hakluyt's collection. See A. VON Humboldt, " Essai sur la Nouvelie Espagne." Espen, van, vtn gs'pen, (Zeger Bernard,) a Flem- ish casuist and priest, born at Louvain in 1646, was eminent for skill in canon law. He obtained in the University of Louvain a chair of law, which he filled many years. His connection with the party of Port- Royal caused him to lo.se this place about 1728. He published several works, of which the most important is his " Universal Ecclesiastical Law." Died in 1728, See De Bellegarde, "Vie de Van Espen," 1767; Bavay, "Van Espen, Jurisconsulte et Canoniste Beige," 1846. Espencaeus. See Espence, d'. Espence, d', d§s'p8Nss', [Latin, Espenc^'us, ] (Claude,) a French priest, born near Chalons-sur-Marne in 151 1, became a doctor of the Sorbonne, and rector of the University of Paris. Dupin expresses a favourable opinion of him. He wrote many and various works, among which is the "Education of a Christian Prince," (1548.) Died in 1571. Esper, ls''per, (Eugen Johann Christoph,) a Ger- man entomologist, born at Wunsiedel, Bavaria, in 1742, became professor of philosophy at Erlangen in 1782. He published "The Butterflies of Europe, figured after Nature," (1777-1807,) and a work on Zoophytes, ("Die Pflanzenthiere in Abbildungen nach Natur," 1 788-1809.) Died in 1810, See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Esper, (Johann Friedrich,) a German naturalist, brother of the preceding, was born at Drossenfeld in 1732, He wrote "The Marvellous Adventures of many Tra- vellers," (2 vols., 1762,) and other works. Died in 1781. Espercieux, gs'p§R'se-uh^ (Jean Joseph,) a skilful French sculptor, born at Marseilles in 1758, worked in Paris. Among his works are statues of Moliere, Racine, Napoleon, (1810,) and Voltaire, (1814.) Died in 1840. Esperiente. See Callimachus. Espernon. See £pernon. Espiard, es'pe-t,R', (Francois Ignace de la Borde,) born at Besan90iiTn 1707, wrote an " Essay on the Genius and Character of Nations," (1743.) Died in 1777. Espic, ds'p^k', (Jean Barth^lemy,) a French poet and teacher, born in Languedoc in 1767 ; died in 1844. a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; \ 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; ESPINJC I 865 ESQUIROL Espinac. See fipiNAC. Espinasse, es'pe'3itss', (Esprit Charles Marie,) a French general, born at Saissac, in Aude, in 1815, be- came aide-de-camp to Napoleon III. about 1852. In the Crimean war, in 1855, he served with distinction at the Tchernaya and other places, and was made gen- eral of division. In 1858 he acted for a few months as minister of the interior. He was killed at the battle of Magenta, June, 1859. Espinasse, de 1', deh l^s'pe'ntss', (Augustin,) Count, a French general, born at Pouilly-sur-Loire in 1736, commanded the artillery, under Bonaparte, at the siege of Mantua, and at Areola in 1796. Died in 1816. Espinasse, de 1', (Claire FRANgoiSE or Julie Jkanne El^onore,) a French lady, remarkable for her talents, imagination, and sensibility, was born in 1732. In 1752 she became the protegee of the witty Madame du Deffand, with whom she lived in Paris about ten years, until her patroness was induced by jealousy to dissolve the connection. Having gained the special favour of D'Alembert, she formed a brilliant literary circle in her own salon, which was the resort of the elite of Paris. Her death was hastened by her excessive sen- sibility and unhappy attachments. She died in 1776, "leaving on the minds of almost all the eminent men of France," says Lord Jeffrey, " an impression of talent and of ardour of imagination which seems to have been considered as without example." Her letters to M. de Guibert (2 vols., 1809) are admirable in style and spirit. See D'Alembert, "Aux Manes de Mile. Lespinasse;" Sainte- Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi;" Marmoxtel, " Memoires ;" Vol- taire, " Correspondance ;" and critique, by Lord Jeffrey, in the "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1810. E-spinel, gs-pe-nSK, (Vincente, ) a popular Spanish poet, born at Ronda about 1544, was ordained a priest, but, never receiving any valuable preferment, passed his life in great poverty. He was thoroughly versed in the ancient and modern languages. He acquired a high repu- tation, and was considered one of the best poets of his age for purity of style and fertility of imagination. He translated into Spanish verse Horace's "Art of Poetry" and Odes, and wTote "The House of Memory," ("La Casade Memoria,") and numerous songs. Died in 1634. His novel "Marcos de Obregon" (1618) is said to be seasoned with fine pleasantry. Le Sage derived from the last-named work some materials for his " Gil Bias." See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature ;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca His- pana Nova." Espinosa, §s-pe-no'sl, (Jacinto Geronimo,) an ex- cellent Spanish painter, born at Cocentayna, in Valencia, in 1600. He excelled in chiaroscuro, in correctness of design, and in the expression of his figures. He worked mostly in Valencia, the churches of which he adorned with many pictures. Among his works are a " Mary Magdalene," a "Nativity of the Saviour," and a "Holy Family." Died at Valencia in 1680. See Bermudez, "Diccionario Historico." Espinosa, (Jost,) a Spanish painter and engraver, born at Valencia in 1721 ; died in 1784. Espinosa, (Juan,)' a Spanish poet and soldier, born at Bellovado about 1540, became secretary of Gonzales de Mendoza, Captain-General of Sicily. He wrote, be- sides other works, a poem on "The Praise of Women," (1580,) which contains beautiful passages and was re- ceived with favour. Died about 1595. Espinosa, (Nicolas,) a Spanish poet, born at Valencia about 1520, wrote a continuation of Ariosto's "Orlando Furioso," (1555.) Espinosa, (Pedro,) a Spanish poet and critic, born at Antequera about 1582. He became almoner to the Duke of Medina-Sidonia. He displayed his taste in a collection of specimens of Spanish poets, "Tesoro de Poesias," (1605,) on which his reputation chiefly rests. He wrote the "Concealed Treasure," ("Tesoro escon- dido," 1644,) and other poems. Died in 1650. See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova;" Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." Espinosa, de, di gs-pe-no's^, (Don Diego,) an emi- nent Spanish statesman and cardinal, born in Old Cas- tile in 1502. His ability and fame as a lawyer insured his rapid promotion to the highest dignities and to thop6oc ; Fr. Euphorbe, uh^- foRb',] a brave Trojan warrior, killed by Menelaus. Py- thagoras professed that his soul was the same which had animated Euphorbus. Euphorbus, a physician, who lived at Rome in the reign of Augustus, was a brother of Antonius Musa. He was employed professionally by King Juba, who in honour of him named a certain plant Euphorbia, which is still the name of a numerous genus. Eu-pho'ri-on, [Eu^optwv,] a tragic poet of Athens, was the son of yEschylus. He is said to have gained the prize four times with his father's posthumous trage- e, 1, 6, u, y, /ong; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/iorS; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; £ UP HO R ION 875 EUR rD ICE dies. He wrote several of his own, one of which was crowned in competition with Sophocles and Euripides. Euphorion, an eminent Greek poet and grammarian, born at Chalcis, in Eubcea, about 275 B.C. He lived some years at Athens, and became librarian to An- tiochus the Great about 220 B.C. He wrote epic poems entitled " Hesiodos," "Mopsopia," and "Chiliades," (Xt?.Mde^;) also several epigrams. His poems were very popular among the Romans of the Augustan age ; but his style was censured by Cicero and others as aflfect- edly obscure. He was author of a celebrated treatise on grammar, and of other prose works. Only small fragments of his writings are extant. See Vossius, "De Historicis Graecis;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca;" A. Meineke, "Dissertatio de Euphorionis Vita et Scrip- tis," 1823. Euphorion, a Greek statuary, whose works were not extant in the time of Pliny, by whom he is mentioned. Euphraeus, u-free'us, or Eu-phra'tes, [Gr. EvpaLog or Eip/juTT/f,] a native of Oreus, in Euboea, was a disci- ple of Plato, and became a favourite of Perdiccas, King of Macedonia. After the de^lth of the latter he returned to Oreus and opposed the party of Philip of Macedon. Eu-phra'nor, [Eippuvup,] a celebrated Greek painter and sculptor, born in Corinth, flourished between 365 and 325 B.C. He was pupil of Ariston, and a contemporary of Apelles and Praxiteles. It appears that he worked in Athens, as Pliny ranks him among Athenian artists. He was the first artist who represented heroes with proper dignity. He painted in encaustic and worked in marble and bronze, and was equally successful in paint- ing and sculpture. Pliny and Plutarch highly applaud his productions. Among his master-pieces in painting are "The Twelve Gods," "The Battle of Mantinea," and the " Feigned Insanity of Ulysses and in sculpture, a statue of Paris, and colossal statues of ** Valor" and " Greece." See Pliny, "Natural History." Euphrate. See Euphrates. Euphrates. See EupfiR^.us. Eu-phra'tes, [Gr. Ei'opurTjg ; Ft. Euphrate, uh'- fRtt',] an eminent Stoic philosopher, lived in the reign of Hadrian, in the second century. He was a native of Syria or Egypt, and a friend of Pliny the Younger, who eulogizes his virtues and talents, (Epist. i. 10.) Euphrates, a heretic, who, in the second century, founded the sect of Ophites. Eu'phron, an Athenian comic poet of the new com- edy, lived about 300 B.C. Eu-phros'y-ne, [Gr. Eic^poavvj],] one of the Three Graces, (in Greek, "Charites,") supposed to be the off- spring of Venus. The Greeks personified in her the genius of Mirth or Joy. (See Charites.) Euphrosyue, an empress, was the wife of Alexis III., who in 1 195 obtained the throne of Constantinople by a conspiracy of which she was a chief instigator. By her courage and talents she acquired a nearly absolute ascen- dency over Alexis, but exposed herself to public contempt by her immoral excesses. She died in exile about 12 15. Eu'po-lis, [Ev~o7.ig,] an excellent Athenian comic poet of the old comedy, was born about 446 B.C., and was a rival of Aristophanes. Several of his plays ob- tained the honour of a triumph. He is ranked by Horace w'.th Cratinus and Aristophanes, (see Satires, book i. iv. I,) and in the opinion of some critics he sur- passed Aristophanes in the graces of diction. He often chose political subjects, and severely satirized the per- sons and conduct of eminent men then living. Only small fragments of his works are extant. He is supposed to have died about 410 B.C. According to one account, he was killed in a naval action. See Clinton, "Fasti Hellenici ;" Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Graeca;" Suidas, "Eupolis:" C. W. Lucas, "Cratinus et Eupolis," Bonn, 1826; Stevenakt, "£tude sur le Poete Eupolis," 1850. Eupompe. See Eupompus. Eu-pom'pus [Gr. Ei/To^-of ; Fr. Eupompe, uh'p^Mp'] of Sicyon, a celebrated Greek painter, a contemporary of Zeuxis, lived about 350-370 B.C., and was the master of Pamphilus. He is called the founder of a new school, the Sicyonian. In answer to the young sculptor Lysippus, who consulted him on the choice of a model, he said, *' Follow nature." Eu'ric [Lat. Euri'cus] orEv'a-ric, [Lat. Evari'cus,] an able and warlike king of the Visigoths, began to reign in 466 A.D. He enlarged his dominions by conquest until they extended from the Loire to the Pyrenees and from the Rhone to the ocean. His alliance was courted by Franks, Romans, Vandals, and other nations. Died in 484. See Gibbon, "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Euripide. See Euripides. Eu-ripl-des, [Gr. EipL-ldrjg; Fr. Euripide, uh're'- p^d',] one of the three great tragic poets of Greece, was born at Salamis in 480 B.C. According to a popular tra- dition, he was born on the day of the battle of Salamis. His parents, Mnesarchus and Clito, were Athenians who sought refuge at Salamis from the Persian invaders. He studied rhetoric under Prodicus, and philosophy or physics under Anaxagoras. About the age of twenty- five he produced his " Peliades," the first of his dramas which was performed. He maintained an animated rivalry with Sophocles, (who was his senior,) and gained the first prize in several dramatic contests. He was a friend of Socrates, who, it is said, seldom went to the theatre except when the tragedies of Euripides were performed. Euripides composed seventy-five — or, as some say, ninety-two — tragedies, of which eighteen are still extant. Among his most admired works are "Hecuba," "Ion," "Alcestis," "Medea," "Helena," " Iphigenia in Aulis," " Hippolytus," and "Bacchas," His other extant dramas are " Heraclidae," "The Sup- pliants," (" Supplices,") " Hercules Furens," " Orestes," "Troades," " Electra," "Andromache," "Iphigenia in Tauris," " Rhesus," and " Phoenissae." His style is distin- guished by elegance, perspicuity, and harmony. Cicero and Milton were great admirers of Euripides, and Aris- totle calls him "the most tragic of poets." "When we look only at the highest excellences of Euripides," says Hallam, "there is perhaps a depth of pathos and an intensity of dramatic effect which Racine himself has not attained." (" Introduction to the Literature of Eu- rope.") About the year 408 he retired from Athens, where a violent and unscrupulous faction was arrayed against him, and found repose at the court of Archelaus, King of Macedon, who treated him with much favour. According to a prevalent but doubtful tradition, he was killed by a pack of hounds in 406 B.C. See C. Hasse, "De Euripide Poeta," 1833; Jodrell, "Illus- trations of Euripides," 3 vols., 17S1 ; F. Jacobs, "Animadversiones in Euripidis Tragcedias," 1790; Zirndorfer, "De Chronologia Fabu- larum Euripidearum," iNIarburg, 1S39 : Hartung, " Euripides Resti- tutus," 2 vols., 1844; Fabricius," Bibliotheca Graeca ;" Bouterwek, " De Philosophia Euripidis," 1819 ; J. Lapau.me, " De Euripidis Vita et Fabulis Dissertatio," 1848; Reuter, "Dissertatio de ^schylo, Sophocle et Euripide," 1831 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for Septem- ber, 1838 ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1840. Eu-ro'pa, [Gr. EvpuTrrj ; Fr. Europe, uh''rop',] in classic mythology, a daughter of Agenor, King of Phoe- nicia, and a sister of Cadmus. The poets feigned that she was carried off by Jupiter, who previously assumed the form of a bull. She became the mother of Minos and Rhadamanthus. Europe. See Europa. Euryale. See Euryalus. Eu-ry'a-lus, [Gr. Evpva/.og; Fr. Euryale, uh're'tl',] a son of Mecisteus, was one of the ArgonauttE, and one of the Epigoni, (which see.) He was distinguished for his bravery at the siege of Troy, where he was a com- panion of Diomede. Euryalus, a beautiful young Trojan mentioned by Virgil. (See "/Eneid," books v. and ix.) Eu-ry-cli'das, [EipvK?.ei6ag,] an Athenian orator, lived about 220 B.C. Eu-ryd'i-ge, [Gr. EvpvdtKT),] the wife of Orpheus, was bitten by a serpent as she fled from Aristaeus, and died. The poets feigned that Orpheus descended to the lower regions and persuaded Pluto to restore her to life on condition that she should walk behind her husband and he should not look back until they had arrived in the upper world. But Orpheus, unable to resist his longing to see her again, turned back, and thus lost her forever. (See Orpheus.) See Virgil's "Georgics," book iv. 454-527. « as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; *h as in this. (S^=~See Explanations, p. 23.) EURTDICE 876 EUSTACE Eurydice, {Y.vpvdLKri,] the wife of Amyntas, King of Macedonia, was the mother of Alexander, Perdiccas, and Philip, all of whom became kings ; the last was the father of Alexander the Great. She is charged with attempting the life of her husband, and with taking the life of her eldest son, about 365 B.C. Eurydice, a Macedonian princess, a daughter of An- tipater, became the queen of Ptolemy, son of Lagus, about 320 B.C., and mother of Ptolemy Ceraunus. Her niece Berenice having gained her husband's affections, Eurydice retired to the court of Seleucus, King of Syria. Eurydice, sometimes called Ade'a, a daughter of Amyntas III. of Macedonia. Her mother was Cynane, a half-sister of Alexander the Great. About 322 B.C. she was married to Arrhidasus, a son of King Philip. She was a rival competitor for the regency with Olympias, by whose order she was put to death, 316 B.C. Eu-ryl'o-ehus, [EhpyXoxog,] a Spartan general, who was defeated and killed in battle by the Athenians about 426 B.C. Eu-rym'e-don, [Ei'pv//e(5wi^,] an Athenian general, who took part in the Peloponnesian war. He and Sopho- cles commanded an army and fleet sent against Sicily in 425 B.C. ; but their operations were arrested soon after their arrival by a peace or truce negotiated by Hermo- crates. In conjunction with Demosthenes, Eurymedon commanded an armament sent against Syracuse in 414. He was killed in a naval battle in the harbour of that city in 413 B.C. See Plutarch, "Nicias." Eii'ry-phon, [Evpv^wv,] an emineijt Greek physician of Cnidos, said to have lived in the time of Hippocrates, about 350 B.C. He is quoted by Galen. Eurysthee. See Eurystheus. Eurysthene. _ See Eurysthenes. Eu-rys'the-nes, [Gr. EvpvadsvT]g ; Fr. Eurysthene, uh''res''tan',] a son of Aristodemus, King of Sparta, had a twin-brother, Procles. As their mother refused to say which was the eldest, the oracle of Delphi decided that they should reign jointly. After their death the throne continued to be shared between two kings, one of whom was descended from Eurysthenes and the other from Procles. See Clinton, "Fasti Hellenici;" Muller, "The Dorians." Eu-rys'theus, [Gr. Evpvodevg; Fr. Eurysthee, uh'- r^s^ta',] a fabulous king of Argos and Mycenae, was a son of Sthenelus. Juno hastened his birth that he might have the advantage over Hercules, as the younger of the two was ordained by Jupiter to serve the other. He was a severe taskmaster, and imposed on Hercules the well-known twelve labours. (See Hercules.) He was slain by Hyllus, a son of Hercules. EiisMen, (Rev, Lawrence,) an English poet and clergyman, was born in Spotsworth, Yorkshire. Having written an epithalamium on the marriage of the Duke of Newcastle, the latter procured his appointment as poet-laureate in 1718. He wrote a few articles for the " Spectator," and some occasional poems, and was noticed in Pope's "Dunciad." Died in 1730. His version of Claudian's " Court of Venus" was highly praised by one of the editors of the " Guardian," in which it was inserted. (See "Guardian," Nos. 127 and 164.) Eusebe, the French for Eusebius, which see. Eii-se'bi-a, (Aurelia,) a Roman empress, was mar- ried to Constantius about 353 A.D. She patronized learning, and is charged with favouring Arianism. She died childless in 360. Eu-se'bi-us, [Gr. EvoeISloc ; Fr. Eusebe, uh'zib', ] Bishop of Emesa, in Phoenicia, was born near Edessa about 300 A.D. He refused the bishopric of Alexandria, from which Athanasius was deposed in 341, and soon afterwards became Bishop of Emesa. He is said to have favoured the doctrines of the Semi-Arians. His numer- ous works were once admired for learning and eloquence, but are nearly all lost. Died about 360. Eusebius of Doryl^um, [Fr. Eusebe de Doryl^e, uh-zib' deh cWre'W,] a Greek theologian of the fifth century. He became Bishop of Dorylaeum, and a zealous opponent of Eutyches. Eusebius of Nicomedia, [ Fr. Eusebe de Nico- H^DIE, uh'zW deh ne'ko'mk'de',] an eminent and am- bitious Arian prelate, was a friend of Eusebius Pamphili. He became Bishop of Berytus and of Nicomedia. At the Council of Nice, 325 a.d., he refused to sign the condemnation of Arius, and was consequently banished ; but, finding a powerful patron in Constantia, sister of the emperor, he was restored to his see. Having acquired paramount influence at court, he assembled a council at Tyre in 334, by which Athanasius was condemned. He also procured the restoration of Arius, and, after his death, became the chief of the Arian party, who were also called Eusebians. In 339 he obtained the bishopric of Constantinople. His name is identified with a modi- fied form of Arianism, (i.e. the Homoiousian doctrine.) Died in 342 a.d. See TiLLEMONT, "M^moires eccl^siastiques ;" Neander, "His- tory of the Church ;" Cave, "Historia Literaria." Eusebius Pam'phili, [Fr. Eusebe Pamphile, uh'- z^b' poN'f^K,] an eminent writer and theologian, called " the Father of Ecclesiastical History," was born in Pales- tine, probably at Caesarea, about 266 a.d. He assumed the surname Pamphili in memory of his friend Pamphilus the Martyr. He was appointed Bishop of Caesarea about 314, and retained that dignity until his death. At the Council of Nice, summoned in 325 to condemn Arius, he was selected by the emperor Constantine to deliver the opening address; but he objected to some of the terms of the creed therein adopted. He was after- wards charged with favouring Arianism, and actually used his influence to reinstate Arius. At the Council of Tyre, in 334, he was one of the bishops who censured Athanasius, the orthodox leader, and was chosen by his colleagues to defend their decision before the emperor, who was his friend. He was a man of superior talents and of great learning. His most important works (which are written in Greek) are an "Ecclesiastical His- tory" from the Christian era to 324 A.D., a '* Universal History or Chronicle," a " Life of Constantine," " Gospel Preparation," (" PreparatioEvangelica,")andawork " On the Proof or Demonstration of the Gospel," ("De De- monstratione Evangelica." He wrote many other works, which have not been preserved. His History is written in a moderate and impartial spirit, and is highly prized ; but his merit as a man and a Christian is variously esti- mated. Jerome calls him the " Prince of the Arians." The manuscript of his "Universal History" was found at Constantinople about 1818. Died about 340. See TiLLEMONT, " Memoires ecclesiastiques ;" Cave, "Historia Literaria;" Neander, "History of the Church;" Gibbon, "His- tory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" " Biographie Universelle ;" " Noiivelle Biographie Generale." Eusebius of Samosata, an eminent orthodox prelate, so named from the place of his birth, (the modern Sumei- sat,) on the Euphrates. He was bishop of his native place in 361 a.d., and perhaps before that date. Having been intrusted with the documents which proved the election of Meletius as Bishop of Antioch, he firmly refused to give them up to the Arians, who wished to annul the election, although their wish was seconded by the order of the emperor. He was banished by V alens about 371, and restored to his see in 378 a.d. About 379 he was killed by an Arian who threw a stone on his head from the roof of a house. See Ceillier, " Histoire des Auteurs sacres,"etc. Eusebius, Pope, succeeded Marcellus I. in 310 a.d., and died after a pontificate of a few months. He was a Greek by birth. Eusebius, Bishop of Vercelli, born in Sardinia in the fourth century, was noted for his zeal against Arianism. Soon after the Council of Milan, 355 A.D., he was ban- ished to Palestine by Constantius ; but on the accession of Julian, in 361, he was relieved from persecution. He co-operated with Athanasius in the Council of Alexan- dria in 362. Two of his pastoral letters are extant. Died about 370. See Ceillier, " Histoire des Auteurs sacres," etc. Eustace or Eustache. See Eustasius. Eus'tace, (John Chetwode,) an English writer and Roman Catholic priest, born about 1765. He published, besides other works, "An Elegy to I3urke," (1797,) and a "Classical Tour through Italy," (2 vols., 1813,) which was received with favour, but is said to be inaccurate. a, e, T, 6, u, y, lon^^; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, sAor/; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nfit; good; moon ; E VST ACHE ^77 EUTTCHUNUS The sixth edition was published in 4 vols., 1821. A sup- plement to this work was published by R. Colt Hoare in 1819. Eustace died at Naples in 1815. See "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1813. Eustache, uh^sttsh', (David,) a French Protestant minister, born in Dauphine. He published numerous sermons and controversial works. Died about 1660, Eustachi or Eustachio. See Eustachius. Eu-sta'-ehi-us, [It. Eustachio, ^-oo-st3,'ke-o, or Eu- stachi, §-oo-sti'kee,] (Bartolommeo,) a pre-eminent Italian anatomist, was born at San Severino, in the March of Ancona. He studied medicine in Rome, where he also settled as a practitioner, and was professor in the college di Sapienza in 1562. But, though patronized by Cardinal Borromeo and widely celebrated as an anato- mist, he did not obtain pecuniary success, and died, as he lived, in poverty. He was perhaps the greatest anatomist of his time ; and probably no other anatomist, ancient or modern, has made so many discoveries. His most important work, "On the Controversies of Anatomists," ("De Anatomicorum Controversiis,") was announced by him as ready for the press, but was not published, and is not now extant. His anatomical plates, about forty in number, engraved in 1552, after having been lost a cen- tury and a half, were published in 1712, being a valuable acquisition to science, as well as a most interesting relic of their illustrious author. He also published an edition of Erotianus's Lexicon, and several treatises collected with the title "Opuscula Anatomica." A part of the ear derives from him the name of " the Eustachian tube." Died in 1574. See Hali,er, " Bibliotheca Anatomica ;" Cuvier, " Hisfoire des Sciences natiirelles ;" G. C. Gentili, " Elogio di B. Enstachio," 1837; Sprengel, " Gescliichte der Arzeneikunde." Eu-sta'si-us ( u-sta'she-us ) or Eu-sta'chi-us, [Fr. Eustace, us'ttss', or Eustache, us'ttsh',] Abl>e of Luxeu, (now Luxeuil,) was born in Burgundy about 560 a.d. He was employed by Saint Columbanus as teacher or director of his school at Luxeu. Died in 625. Eustathe. See Eustathius. Eu-sta'thi-us [Gr. Erara^wf ; Fr. Eustathe, uh'- sttt'] of Cappadocia, a Neoplatonic philosopher, was a ]Hipil of Jamblichus, and lived about 350 A.D. He was celebrated for his eloquence. Eustathius, Archbishop of Thessalonica, celebrated as a commentator on Homer, lived at Constantinople. He was one of the most learned men of his time. He became Bishop of Myra, in Lycia, about 1175, ^"c^ after- wards Archbishop. His voluminous commentary on Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey" is an immense and valuable store of ancient erudition, consisting chiefly of extracts from the earlier scholiasts, as Apion, Porphyry, and Demosthenes of Thrace. It was first printed in 1542. He also wrote a commentary on Dionysius Peri- egetes, which is extant, and one on Pindar, which has been lost. Died about 1200. See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grsca." Eustathius, sometimes written Eumathius, a Greek novelist, who is supposed to have lived in the twelfth century. His name appears as author of a licentious work in Greek called " The Drama of Hysmine and Hysminias." Eustathius, [Gr. ^vaTudiog ; Fr. Eustathe,] Saint, born at Sida, in Pamphylia, became Bishop of Berea, from which he was translated to the see of Antioch. He opposed with zeal the doctrine of Arius, and spoke elo- quently on the subject at the Council of Nice, 325 A.D. Eusebius, the Arian leader, caused him to be deposed and exiled about 330. His writings are lost. Died about 337, or, according to some, in 360 A.D. See Chillier, " Histoire des Auteurs sacres," etc. Eu-sta'tW-us Ro-ma'nus, a celebrated Byzantine jurist, who flourished at Constantinople between 950 and 1000 A.D. Eus^tis, (William,) an American physician and poli- tician, born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1753. He served as a surgeon in the army during the Revolutionary war, and was elected a member of Congress in 1800. He was appointed secretary of war by President Madi- son in 1809, resigned in 1812, and was sent as minister to Holland in 1814. In 1823 he was elected Governor of Massachusetts. Died in 1825. Eu-sto'-ehi-um, (Julia,) a pious Roman lady, was a disciple of Saint Jerome, who dedicated to her his com- mentary on Isaiah. She became an inmate of a convent in Palestine in 385 A.D. Died in 419, Eustratius, u-stra'she-us, Bishop of Nice, lived in the twelfth century, and wrote a commentary on Aristotle. Eu-ter'pe, [Gr. Evtepttti,] a name given by the ancient Greeks to one of the nine Muses, She presided over / lyric poetry, and was represented with a flute. Euthycrate. See Euthycrates. Eu-thyc'ra-tes, [Gr. EvevKparTjg ; Fr. Euthycrate, uh^te'kRit',] a Greek sculptor, who lived about 300 B.C., was a son and pupil of Lysippus. His works were more remarkable for correctness and severity than for grace. Euthydeme. See Euthydemus. Eii-thy-de'mus, [Gr. Evevdi]fj.og ; Fr. Euthydeme, uh^te'dim',] a Greek sophist, whom Xenophon mentions as an opponent in argument of Socrates, He afterwards became a disciple of that philosopher, by whose wisdom he had been confounded. Euthydemus, an Athenian general, who had a high command in the army which besieged Syracuse in 413 B.C. Euthydemus, a powerful king of Bactria, formed an allianfe with Antiochus the Great about 210 B.C. Silver coins of this king (with Greek inscriptions) have been found at Bokhara and Balk. Euthyme. See Euthymius. ES-thym'i-us, J^Fr. Euthyme, uh't^m',] Saint, an Armenian priest, born in 377 a.d., lived in Palestine, built several monasteries, and converted the empress Eudocia. Died in 473. Eu-thym'i-us Zig-a-be'nus, a Byzantine monk, lived about HOC. He wrote, in Greek, a work in defence of the orthodox faith, which was printed in 1536. Eutocius, li-to'she-us, [Gr. EvroKiog,] a Greek geom- eter of Ascalon, in Palestine, lived about 550 A.D., and was the pupil of Isidorus the architect. The only extant works of this author are Commentaries on Apollonius and Archimedes. His comments on Archimedes's "Treatise on the Sj^here and Cylinder" are interesting and valu- able. He gives various modes for solving the problem of the duplication of the cube. Eutrope. See Eutropius. Eu-tro'pi-us, [ Fr. Eutrope, uh'tRop', ] sometimes called Fla'vius Eutro^'pius, a Latin historian of the fourth century. He was secretary to the emperors Con- stantine and Julian, the latter of whom he attended in his expedition against the Parthians. He wrote an "Epitome of Roman History" (" Breviarium Rerum Ro- manorum") from the foundation of the city to the time of Valens, which has been popular for many centuries and extensively used as a school-book in modern times. The language is pure, and the style clear and simple. Little is known of the author's life. See SuiDAS, "Eutropius;" Gennadius, "De Viris ilh\stribus MoLLER, "Disputatio de Eutropio," 1685. Eii'ty-ehes, [Gr. Evtvxvc] the founder or head of a heretical sect called Eutychians, born about 375 A.D., became noted for his piety and ascetic zeal, and was superior of a monastery near Constantinople. In warmly opposing a doctrine ascribed to Nestorius, he erred in the opposite extreme, teaching that there is only one nature in Christ, — that is, the divine. For this he was condemned by the Council of Constantinople in 448. His opinion, however, was adopted by the empress Eu- docia and others in high station, and Theodosius II. assembled in 449 a council at Ephesus, which reversed the former decision. The CEcumenical Council of Chal- cedon in 451 annulled the acts of the Council of Ephesus. This sect became numerous in the East, and received the name of Monophysites. See Pluquet, " Dictionnaire des Heresies;" Althusius, " His- toria Eutychiana," 1659; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Eutyches or Eii-ty-ehl-us, a Latin grammarian, a disciple of Priscian, lived in the sixth century. Eii-ty-Gh-i-a'nus, [Fr. Eutychien, uh^te'ke-dN',] Pope or Bishop of Rome, was a native of Tuscany. He succeeded Felix I. in 275 a.d., and died in 283. € as k; 9 as s; g /lard; g as G, H, K, gtiUural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^='See Explanations, p. 23.) EUTTCHIDES 878 EVANS Eu-ty-eh'i-des \Ei)Tvxi6riq\ of Sic yon, a Greek sculp- t(;r, who lived about 300 B.C., was a pupil of Lysippus. He made a statue of the Eurotas, which is mentioned by Pliny, "in quo artem ipso amne liquidiorem plurimi dixere," ("in which many said the art showed itself more liquid than the river itself.") Eutychien. See Eutychianus. Eu-ty-eh'i-us, [Gr. YAiTvxioq^ born at Fostat, in Egypt, in 876 A.D., became Patriarch of Alexandria in 933. He was learned in theology, history, and medicine, on which he wrote several works. His " Universal History" ac- quired a high reputation among the Orientals. J. Selden published a part of this, with a Latin version. Died about 940. E-vag'o-ras, [Gr. Y^haybpaq; Fr. Evagore, kVt'goR',] King of Salamis, in Cyprus, was descended from Teucer, son of Telamon. He reigned from 410 to 375 H.C. Aided by the Athenians and the King of Egypt, he carried on a war ten years against the King of Persia, whose army invaded Cyprus, and he obtained peace on not unfavour- able terms in 376. He was assassinated in 374, and left the throne to his son Nicocles. Isocrates the orator describes Evagoras as an able ruler. Evagoras H., supposed to have been a son of the preceding, became King of Salamis after the death of Nicocles, and was dethroned by Protagoras. See Xenophon, "Hellenica." idvagore. See Evagoras. ^vagre. See Evagrius. E-va^gri-us [Fr. Evagre, iVtgR'] of Antioch. During a schism in the Church, E^grius and Flavian were respectively elected to the dignity of Patriarch of Antioch by the two different parties in 388 A.D. Eva- grius translated into Latin a " Life of Saint Anthony" by Athanasius. Died after 392. Evagrius, [Gr. Eiaypwf,] surnamed Pon'ticus, [Fr. fivAGRE DE Pont, i^vtgR' deh p6N,] a monk, born near the Euxine Sea, in the fourth century, was noted for piety and learning. He removed to Egypt, and passed many years in the monastery of Nitria. He wrote, be- sides other works, "Monachus" and "Gnosticus." Died about 400. See TiLLEMONT, "Memoires ecclesiastiques." Evagrius, surnamed the Scholastic, born at Epi- phania, in Syria, in the sixth century, became an emi- nent advocate of Antioch, and obtained the dignity of quaestor. He wrote, in Greek, an ecclesiastical history from 431 A.D. to 593, which is a respectable work in point of authenticity and style. Evald. See Ewald. Evald or Ewald, a'v^ilt, (Johannes,) the most emi- nent Danish poet of the eighteenth century, was born in Copenhagen in 1743. He was educated for the church ; but, finding such studies uncongenial to his romantic and ambitious ideas, he furtively enlisted in the Prussian service about the age of sixteen. Failing to obtain a more eligible rank than that of a private in the infantry, he soon deserted to the Austrian standard, under which he fought several battles in the Seven Years' war. Dis- enchanted from his youthful illusions of military glory, he returned home to study theology ; but a disappoint- ment in love soon diverted him from this pursuit and rendered him weary of life. He appears to have been unconscious of his poetical genius until he was employed to write a poem on the death of Frederick V., (1766,) which excited general admiration. His reputation was increased by his " Temple of Fortune," his tragedy of "Rolf" or "Rollo," (1770,) and the "Death of Balder," a_ drama, (1773.) The last is considered his master- piece, and was superior to any Danish drama which had then appeared. He also wrote " Harlequin Patriot," a satirical comedy, "The Fisherman," an opera, (1778,) a beautiful elegy, entitled "Hope and Memory," and several other works. His writings are pervaded by a high moral tone. He suffered much in his later years from a chronic malady, and received a rather sparing pecuniary aid from government. Died in 1781. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Howitt, " Literature and Romance of Northern Europe," vol. i. chap. ii. ; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" C. Molbech, "J. Ewalds Levnet med Bidrag til hans digtervaerkers Historie," 1831. E-van'der, [Gr. YMv^poq ; Fr. Evandre, ^'v6NdR',] a semi-fabulous Grecian hero, supposed to have been a son of Hermes. He emigrated from Arcadia to Italy, where he founded Pallantium and became an ally of ^neas against Turnus. He was the father of Pallas. (See Virgil's ".^neid.") E-van'der Au-li-a'nus, an Athenian sculptor, who worked at Rome about 40 B.C. fivandre. See Evander. Evangeli, i-v^n'ji-lee, (Antonio,) an Italian poet and linguist, born at Cividale in 1742, filled for thirty years the chair of belles-lettres in Padua. He made a Latin version of Gray's "Elegy," ("Elegia in rusticum Sepulchretum," 1772,) wrote a poem entitled "Musical Love," (" Amor musico,") and turned some poetry of the Bible into Italian verse. Died in 1805. Evangelista, i-vin-j^i-l^s'ti, of Canobio, an Italian canonist and civilian, born in 1511 ; died in 1595. Ev'ans,* (Abel,) an English wit, was a graduate of Oxford in 1699, and had a great reputation as an epi- grammatist. He wrote "Vertumnus," "The Appari- tion," and other small poems. His name occurs in the following couplet : "Alma novem genuit celebres Rhedyclna poetas, Bubb, Stubb, Cobb, Crabb, Young, Carey, Tickell, Evans." Evans, (Caleb,) D.D., an English Baptist minister, born at Bristol in 1737, preached in his native city. He published several sermons, and a letter to John Wesley in which he defends the rights of the American colonies. Died in 1791. Ev'ans, (Sir De Lacy,) K.C.B., a general of the British army, born at Moig, Ireland, in 1787. He fought as a commissioned officer in the Peninsula from 1810 to 1813, and against the Americans at Baltimore, Washing- ton, and New Orleans in 1814. He took part in the battle of Waterloo, 181 5. In 183 1 he was elected to Parliament, in which he acted with the Liberal party. He obtained command in 1835 of a legion of 10,000 men raised to suppress the Carlist rebellion in Spain. He defeated the Carlists in several actions in 1836 and 1837. In 1846 he became a major-general, and in 1854, as lieutenant-general, obtained command of a division of the army in the East. He distinguished himself at the Alma and Inkerman, 1854. Died in 1870. Ev'ans, (Evan,) a Welsh poet and clergyman, born in Cardiganshire in 1730. He published "Love of our Country," a poem, and "Specimens of Welsh Poetry," with an English version and notes. Died in 1790. See Owen, "Cambrian Biography." Evans, (John,) D.D., an English dissenting divine, born at Wrexham in 1680, became successor to Daniel Williams in London. His "Discourses on Christian Temper" (4th edition, 1729) were highly commended by Dr. Watts, Dr. Doddridge, and others, and have often been reprinted. Died in 1730. See "Life of John Evans," by Dr. John Erskine. Evans, (John,) LL.D., born at Usk, in Monmouth- shire, in 1767, was minister of a General Baptist congre- gation in London from 1792 to 1827. He wrote a "Brief Sketch of the Different Denominations of Christians," (1794,) which passed through eighteen editions and was translated into several languages. He sold the copy- right for ten pounds. Died in 1827. Evans, (John Harrington,) an English Baptist min- ister, born at Salisbury in 1785, preached in John Street Chapel, London, about thirty years. He published Let- ters, Sermons, and other religious works. Died in 1849. See "Memoirs of J. H. Evans," by his son, 1852. Ev'ans, (Lewis,) an x\merican geographer, born about 1700. He published a Map of New York, New Jersey, and other colonies in 1749. Died in 1756. Evans, (Marian C.,) an English novelist, born in the north of England about 1820. She published, under the assumed name of George Eliot, popular novels, entitled "Adam Bede," (1858,) "The Mill on the Floss," (1859,) " Scenes of Clerical Life," " Romola," (1863,) and " Felix Holt the Radical," (1866 ;) also a poem, entitled "The Spanish Gypsy," (1868.) Miss Evans was married, a * The name Evans is variously pronounced, both in England and America, — often iv'anz, but perhaps still more frequently ^v'anz. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, iS, y, short; a, e, i, q, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; EVANS 879 EVERARD few years since, to the distinguished writer, G. H. Lewes, Esq. See " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1S60 : " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1859; "Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1859, and Mav, i860; ''British Quarterly Review" for October, 1863, and October', 1868; "Westminster Review" for April, 1859; "Novels of George Eliot," in the "Atlantic Monthly" for October, 1866. Evans, (Nathan G.,) an American general, born in South Carolina about 1828, graduated at West Point in 1848. He commanded the insurgents at Ball's Bluff, October, 1861. Evans, (Oliver,) an American inventor and mechan- ist, born at Newport, Delaware, in 1755. He is said to have invented the first steam-engine constructed on the high-pressure system, the drawings and specifications of which he sent to England about 1795. He projected a railroad to connect New York and Philadelphia, but lacked the means to realize it. Died in 1819. Evans, (Robert Wilson,) an English author, born at Shrewsbury about 1790, was vicar of Heversham. He published several esteemed works, among which is "The Rectory of Valehead," (15th edition, 1852.) Evans, iv'anz, (Thomas,) an eminent controversial writer and minister of the Society of Friends, or Quakers, born in Philadelphia in 1798. In 1827 and 1828 he opposed the Unitarian views of Elias Hicks, in a series of able papers in "The Friend." He also published (1828) an "Exposition of the Faith of the Religious Society of Friends," etc., which is probably the most complete exhibition extant of the doctrines of the early Quakers in relation to the divinity and ofiices of Christ. In 1837 he narrowly escaped shipwreck on a voyage to Charleston, South Carolina, when by over-exertion at the pumps (and other efforts to save the sinking vessel) his health sustained a serious and irreparable injury. From 1837 to 1854 he edited, in conjunction with his brother, William Evans, "The Friends' Library," a col- lection of the standard religious writings of the Society, in fourteen volumes. He died May 25, 1868. He was distinguished for rare acuteness as well as comprehen- siveness of intellect, for a most kindly and benevolent spirit, and for an unquenchable zeal in defence of what he believed to be the principles of truth. See notice in the Philadelphia " North American and United States Gazette" of June 22, 1868, which was afterwards reprinted in pamphlet form. Ev'an-son, (Edward,) an English clergyman, born in 173 1, became vicar of South Mimms in 1768, and rector of Tewkesbury in 1770. He was prosecuted for altering the liturgy and preaching unsound doctrine, but was acquitted. In 1778 he resigned his livings, and :)pened a school at Mitcham. He published several .Tacts against the Trinity and other doctrines of evan- gelical religion. Died in 1805. Evaric. See Euric. ^variste. See Evaristus. Ev-a-ris'tus, [Fr. Evariste, i'vt'r^st',] Saint, a Greek by birth, was chosen Bishop of Rome in 100 A.D. as successor to Saint Clement. He suffered in Trajan's persecution, and is honoured as a martyr by the Church, though history does not inform us of the manner of his death, which occurred in 109 a.d. See Artaud de Montor, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes." Ev'arts, (Jeremiah,) an American editor, born in Sunderland, Vermont, in 1781, studied law. He became editor of "The Panoplist," a religious paper of Boston, about 1810, and of the "Missionary Herald" in 1820. In 1 82 1 he was chosen corresponding secretary of the Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Died in 1 83 1. See E. C. Tracy, "Memoirs of J. Evarts," 1845. Evarts, (William M.,) an eminent American lawyer, a son of the preceding, was born in Boston, Massa- chusetts, in 1818. He graduated at Yale College in 1837, studied law at Harvard University, and began to practise in the city of New York about 1840. He be- came an active member of the Republican party. In the trial of President Johnson, in the spring of 1868, he was the principal counsel for the respondent, who nominated him attorney-general of the United States about July i of that year. Eve, eev, [Heb. mn, Hevah or Chavah; Arab. Haw a, hl'wi; Gr. Eia; Lat. E'vA,] the wife of Adam, and the original mother of the human race. See Genesis ii., iii., and iv. ; II. Corinthians xi. 3; I. Timothy ii. 13. ^veillon, i''vi'y6N', (Jacques,) a French priest, born at Angers in 1572, was learned in canon law, and wrote several theological works. Died in 1651. Ev'e-lyn, (John,) an English author and gentleman, eminent for his accomplishments, public services, and honourable life, was born at Wotton, in Surrey, on the 31st of October, 1620, and educated at Oxford. In 1644 he visited the continent, where he passed seven years in travel and in the diligent study of natural philosophy and the fine arts. Returning to England in 1652, he settled at Say's Court, near Deptford, with his wife, whose maiden name was Browne. After the restora- tion he was employed in important public services, as member of the Board of Trade, commissioner for the rebuilding of Saint Paul's, etc. He was one of the first members of the Royal Society, formed in 1662. In 1664 he published his most important and popular work, "Sylva, or a Discourse on Forest-Trees," which widely diffused a taste for rural occupations, and gave an ef- fectual impulse to the propagation of timber. "Evelyn's ' Sylva,' " says Scott," is still the manual of British planters, and his life, manners, and principles, as illustrated in his Memoirs, ought equally to be the manual of English gentlemen." Sir Walter here refers to his Diary from 1641 to 1705, a work of great historical interest and value. Evelyn also wrote "Sculptura, a History of the Art of Engraving,'* (1662,) a "Treatise on Architecture," (1664,) several treatises on Horticulture, and various other works. His " Sylva" was the first book printed by order of the Royal Society. Died in February, 1706. See " Blographia Britannica ;" Evelyn's "Diary;" "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1818; "Blackwood's Magazine" for July, 1854. Evelyn, (John,) a son of the preceding, born at Say's Court about 1655, was an elegant scholar. He translated Plutarch's Life of Alexander the Great, and wrote some original verses. Died in 1698. ;6veniere. See Evemerus. E-vem'e-rus or Eu-hem'e-rus, [Gr. 'Evfjfiepog; Fr. £v6mere, a.\-a''maiR',] a Greek philosopher, who lived about 300 B.C., and was a friend of Cassander, King of Macedonia. He wrote a Sacred History, {'lepu 'Avaypacprj,) in which he expressed his dissent from the established polytheism, and aimed to prove that the pagan deities were mortals. This work was very popular with the Epicureans, and was translated into Latin by Ennius. The original and version are both lost. E-ve'nor, [Eviyvwp,] a Greek painter, was the father and master of Parrhasius. He lived about 420 B.C. E-ve'nus, [Et-T^vof,] a Greek poet of Paros, who wrote about 450 B.C., and from whom Socrates is said to have taken lessons in poetry. He is supposed to have been the author of numerous epigrams found in the Greek Anthology. Everaerts. See Everard. ^verard. See Everardi, (Angelo.) Everard, a'veh-raRt^ or Everaerts, a'veh-riRts,(EGl- DIUS,) a Dutch physician, born at Berg-op-Zoom, ]irac- tised at Antwerp, where he published in 1583 a treatise " On the Marvellous Virtues of the Peruvian Weed called Tobacco." Everard, (Joannes Secundus,) a popular poet, son of Nicolaas, noticed below, was born at the Hague in 1511. He studied law, and about 1533 went to Spain, where he became Latin secretary to the emperor Charles V. He gained an extensive reputation by his Latin poem entitled "Basia." Died in 1536. Everard or Everardi, i'veh-raR'dee, (Nicolaas,) an eminent Dutch jurist, born at Grypskerk in 1473, was a friend of Erasmus. He was president of the supreme court, or grand council, of Holland, at the Hague, from 1509 to 1527, and was eminent for learning and probity. He published "Topica Juris," (1516.) Died in 1532. See FOPPENS, "BIbliotheca Belgica." Everard, (Nicolaas Grudius,) a Latin poet, son of the preceding, was born at Louvain about 15 15. He was € as 9 as s; g ^ard; g as j; G, H, Y., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; %h as in this. (S^=°See Explanations, p. 23.) EVERARDI EVERETT a councillor to Philip II., and secretary of the order of the Golden Fleece. He wrote admired poems called *' Negotia, sive Poemata Sacra," (1566,) and "Otia, sive Poemata Profana," (1612.) Died at Venice in 1571. His brother, Adrian Marius, also gained distinction as a Latin poet. His verses were printed in 16 12 with those of Nicolaas and Joannes. Died in 1568. Everardi. See Everard. Everardi, i-vi-raR'dee, [Fr. Sverard, i'veh-rtR',] (Angelo,) an Italian painter, born at Brescia in 1647, died prematurely in 1678. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Everdingen, van, vin ev'er-ding'en or a'ver-ding"- iien, (Albert,) an excellent Dutch landscape-painter and engraver, born at Alkmaar in 1621, studied with Savery and Peter Molyn, both of whom he surpassed. He travelled in Norway, the wild, rugged, and picturesque scenery of which afforded many subjects for his art. He excelled also in marine views and storms, and executed admirable engravings in aqua-fortis. Died at his native place in 1675. His brother C^SAR, born at Alkmaar in 1606, was a skilful painter of history and portraits, and an able archi- tect. Died at Alkmaar in 1679. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Ev'er-ett, (Alexander Hill,) an American scholar and diplomatist, born in Boston in 1792, was a brother of Edward Everett, noticed below. He graduated at Harvard University in 1806, and studied law under John Q. Adams, whom he accompanied to Russia as secretary of legation about 1809. He published in 1821 a work entitled "Europe, or a General Survey of the Principal Powers," etc. In 1825 he was appointed minister to the court of Spain, where he remained several years. He published " America, or a General Survey of the Political Situation of the Several Powers of the Western Conti- nent." Having returned home about 1830, he became editor of the " North American Review," to which he contributed many literary and political articles. He conducted this review for about five years with great ability. He became an adherent of the Democratic party and a political friend of General Jackson about 1832, after which he was nominated several times as a candidate for Congress, but was not elected. In 1845 published a volume of poems. He was appointed com- missioner to China in 1845, ^'""^ ^'^^ at Canton in May, 1847. had married Lucretia Peabody about 1816. See Griswold, " Prose Writers of America;" Allibone, "Dic- tionary of Authors." Everett, (Edward,) a distinguished American orator, scholar, and statesman, was born in Dorchester, Nor- folk county, Massachusetts, on the iith of April, 1794. His father, the Rev. Oliver Everett, was for a number of years the minister of the New vSouth Church, in Bos- ton, and in 1799 was appointed judge of the circuit court. While preparing for college, Edward Everett attended a school kept by Ezekiel Webster, brother of the cele- brated Daniel Webster, who on one occasion, during Ezekiel's absence, took charge of the school for a week. It was thus that the acquaintance began between two individuals who were afterwards destined to act together a distinguished part in their country's history. Edward Everett entered Harvard in the summer of 1807, and graduated, with the highest honours of his class, in 1811. He immediately commenced the study of divinity under President Kirkland. In February, 1814, he was ordained as minister of Brattle Street Church, Boston. In 1815 he was called to the chair of the Greek professorship at Harvard ; but, in order more fully to qualify himself for the position, he visited Germany, and went through a course of study at the University of Gottingen. He afterwards made the tour of Europe. Returning, after an absence of four years, to his native country, in 1 8 19, he entered upon the duties of his professorship, and gave to the study of Greek literature an impulse the influence of which is still felt in America. In 1822 he married the daughter of the Hon. Peter Chardon Brooks. In 1824 he was elected to Congress, and took his seat in the House of Representatives, in 1825, as a supporter of John Quincy Adams. He continued in Congress ten years. In 1835 he was elected Governor of Massachusetts. During the four years of his official term the Board of Education was organized, the normal schools founded, and other important public measures adopted or carried on. In the gubernatorial election of 1839, Mr. Everett failed to be re-elected by a single vote only. Thus released from public duty, he visited Europe the second time in the summer of 1840, and passed the winter in Italy. On the election of General Harrison to the Presidential chair, Webster became sec- retary of state, and, chiefly through his influence, Everett was appointed minister at the court of Saint James. Several important questions, including that of the north- eastern boundary, were then agitated between the two countries. Mr. Everett performed his difficult diplomatic duties in a manner that reflected the highest credit upon himself and distinguished honour upon the administra- tion with which he was connected. Having returned home in 1845, he was soon after elected president of Harvard University. He resigned this position in 1849. In 1852 Mr. Everett was called by President Fillmore to the office of secretary of state, left vacant by the death of Daniel Webster ; he held this place, however, only four months, — that is, until the inauguration of Franklin Pierce, March 4, 1853. Previously to his retiring from the cabinet he had been elected, by the legislature of Massachusetts, to the Senate of the United States. Al- though in feeble health, he applied himself assiduously, during that exciting period, to the discharge of his public duties. In May, 1854, in compliance with the earnest recommendation of his physician, he resigned his seat in Congress, and withdrew to private life. As soon as his health was somewhat restored, he commenced his labours in behalf of the Mount Vernon Fund, the object of which was to purchase the home and burial-place of the immortal Washington, (then in the possession of his nephew, Bushrod Washington,) in order that it might for all future time belong to the American people as a place of public resort and pilgrimage. The sum collected for this noble purpose by the efforts of Mr. Everett (as the result of his lectures, writings, etc.) amounted to scarcely less than one hundred thousand dollars. Mr. Everett was by temperament and mental constitu- tion strongly conservative. This tendency was perhaps strengthened by the obvious consideration that, without a measure of the spirit of conciliation and mutual conces- sion, the government of a free people, spread over a vast extent of territory and having agreat diversity of interests, would necessarily be exposed to continual jars, if not fatal collisions. His tastes and his principles alike made him averse to all discord and violence ; and, like many others, he was led to hope that, by a moderate and con- ciliatory policy on the part of the North, the spirit of Southern slavery — that great source of peril to the nation — might be rendered more mild and less aggressive. When at length the assault committed by Brooks upon Mr. Sumner in the Senate, and the subsequent outrages of the pro-slavery party in Missouri and Kansas, had excited deep and general indignation among the people of the non-slaveholding States, Mr. Everett's anxiety seemed to increase, with the increasing danger, to avert, if possible, the dreadful scourge of civil war from his hitherto pros- perous and happy country. With this view, he allowed his viame to go before the people as a representative of the party of conciliation and compromise, by which party he was chosen in the summer of i860 a candidate for the Vice-Presidency, John Bell, of Tennessee, being the nominee for President. In the ensuing election they received only thirty-nine electoral votes, and Mr. Lin- coln was chosen President by a large majority. The events of the next few months showed that the Southern leaders had for many years been making preparations for a separation from the Union, and that the election of Mr. Lincoln merely furnished them with a plausible pretext before the people for carrying their schemes into effect. When Mr. Everett perceived that war was inevi- table, and that the nation could only be preserved by putting down the rebellion by force of arms, he gave all his energies and influence towards the support of the Federal government. He died of an affection of the lungs, terminating in apoplexy, on the 15th of January, 1865. a, e, T, 6, li, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; EVERMER 88i EWING Edward Everett affords a remarkable example of an almost universal culture, — of the successful prosecution of the most diversified pursuits, combined with rare accu- racy and thoroughness in those departments of learning to which he more especially devoted himself. His lite- rary productions consist chiefly of his elaborate public speeches and addresses delivered on various occasions. He also contributed several important articles to the " North American Review." Among these we would call especial attention to one which most a])ly discussed the doctrine of nullification, (then rife in South Carolina,) published in October, 1830. His published speeches and addresses are perhaps not surpassed in value by those of any other American orator, if, in addition to the grace and elegance of the style, we take into consideration the correct and valuable information which they contain. For some excellent remarks on the character of Mr. Everett, both as a gentleman and a scholar, see "Character and Characteristic Men," by E. P. Whipple, pp. 243-252; see. also, "A Memoir of Edward Everett," Boston, 1865; "Christian Examiner" for Novem- ber, 1850; Griswold's "Prose Writers of America;" "National Portrait- Galler)' of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. ; "Golden Age of American Oratory," by Edward G. Parker, Boston, 1857; " North American Review" for April, 1825, January, 1837, and October, 1850; "London Quarterly Review" for December, 1840. Evermer. See Ebremar. Evers, i-vaia', (Charles Joseph,) Baron, a Belgian general in the French service, born at Brussels in 1773 ; died in 1818. Ev'ers-ley, (Charles Shaw Lefevre,) Viscount, an English legislator, born in London in 1794. His family name was Shaw. He was elected to Parliament as a Whig in 1830, and became Speaker of the House of Commons in 1839. He was re-elected to that office in 1841, in 1847, ^"'i i^i 1852, and ceased to be Speaker in 1857, when he was raised to the peerage, as Viscount Eversley. His official conduct was highly approved by both parties. He was remarkable for dignity of manner. Everts, (Nicolaas.) See Everard. Evertsen, §v'ert-sen, a Dutch family which produced several distinguished naval officers, of whom five were brothers. Cornelius, a vice-admiral, was killed in battle with the English, July, 1666. His brother John, hold- ing the same rank in the navy, was killed in the ensuing month. Cornelius, the son of John, attained the rank of vice-admiral, and died in 1679. See J. C. DE JoNGE, " Vie de3 Amiraux de Zelande J. et C. Evert- sen," 1817. iSvesque. See L^vesque. Evliya or Evleea, §v-lee'a, (Effendi,) a noted Turkish traveller, born in Constantinople in 161 r, passed the greater part of his mature life in travel through Asia and Europe. He often accompanied military expeditions or diplomatic missions as secretary. He wrote several volumes of Travels, which, although they display more credulity than judgment, are well adapted to give an insight into the Turkish character and mode of thought. Died about 1680. See Von Hammer, " Notice of Evlya EfFendi," in his " Histoire de I'Empire Ottoman." E-vo'di-us, an intimate friend of Saint Augustine, was born at Tagaste, (Africa.) He became Bishop of Uzalis, near Utica, about 396 a.d. He wrote letters to Saint Augustine, which are extant. Evremond, ivR^m^N', (Charles de Saint-Denis — deh siN'deh-ne',) Seigneur de Saint-Evremond, a French courtier, wit, z.x\A litterateur, born at Saint-Denys- le-Guast, near Coutances, in 1613. He entered the army at an early age, and, by his bravery, wit, and polite accomplishments, attracted the notice of Turenne and Conde, with the latter of whom he became intimate. In the war of the Fronde, about 1650, he supported the royal cause, and was promoted by the king. For some political offence, Louis XIV. ordered him to be confined in the Bastille in 1661 ; but he escaped to England in 1662, was received with great favour at court, and never returned to France. Charles II. granted him a pension of ;i^300. His letters, essays, dramas, etc. (in French) gained him much temporary reputation ; but they are mostly of a trifling character, and have little merit ex- cept the natural and graceful style. Died in 1703. See P. Desmaiseaux, "Vie du Sieur de Saint-lSvremond," 1705; C. CoTOLENDi, " Saint-Evremontiana," Amsterdam, 1701. Ewald, a'Mlt, (Georg Heinrich August,) an emi- nent German Orientalist and biblical critic, was born at Gottingen in 1803. He became professor of philosophy at Gottingen about 1827, and of Oriental languages in the same university in 1835. He published a good Hebrew grammar, (1835.) From 1837 to 1848 he was professor of theology at Tubingen. In 1848 he resumed his former functions at Gottingen. Among his principal works are "The Poetical Books of the Old Testament," (1835-37,) a " History of the People of Israel until the Advent of Christ," (3 vols., 1843-50,) and "The Prophets of the Old Testament," ("Die Propheten des alten Bundes," 2 vols., 1840.) In his religious views he inclined towards rationalism. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" E. Renan, in the "Revue des Deux Mondes," November 15, 1855; Cari, Wex, " Professor Ewald als Punier gewurdigt," Rostock, 1843 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Geneiale." Ewald, (Johann Ludwig,) a German Protestant theologian and writer, born in Hesse-Darmstadt in 1748. After he had preached rationalism some years at Offen- bach, he avowed his conversion to evangelical doctrines. In 1 781 he became court preacher at Detmold. In 1796 he removed to Bremen, and to Heidelberg in 1805. He published many works. Died in 1822. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Ewald, (Johanne.s.) See Evald. Ewald, i'vilt, or Evald, (John, ) a Danish general, born at Cassel in 1744. He fought for the British in the United States in 1776-82, and entered the Danish ser- vice in 1788. Having risen to the rank of general, he distinguished himself in defence of the neutrality of Den- mark about 1806. He was author of an able and very successful treatise, "Instructions in War," ("Belehrun- gen iiber den Krieg," 1798.) Died in 1813. Malte-Brun represents him as a brother of the poet Evald. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Ew'art, (yoo'art, ) (William,) an English Liberal legislator, born in Liverpool in 1798, was educated for the law. He represented the burghs of Dumfries district in Parliament for many years, beginning in 1841. About 1850 he procui ed the passage of an act to establish free public libraries, and laboured for the abolition of capital punishment. Died in 1869. Ew'bank, ( Thomas,) a writer on practical mechanics, born in the county of Durham, England, in 1792, emi- grated to New York about 1820, and was appointed commissioner of patents in 1849. Among his works are a "Descriptive and Historical Account of Hvdraulic and other Machines, Ancient and Modern," (1842,) and "Thoughts on Matter and Force," (1858.) Died in 1870. Ew'ell, (yoo'el,) (Richard Stoddard,) an American general, born in the District of Columbia about 1818, graduated at West Point in 1840. He became a captain about 1849, resigned his commission in 1861, and took arms against the Union. He commanded a division in several battles near Richmond in June, 1862, and lost a leg in August near Bull Run. Having been raised to the rank of lieutenant-general, he commanded a corps of Lee's army at Gettysburg, July, 1863. He took part in the battles of the Wilderness and Spottsylvania Court- House, May, 1864. He was taken prisoner near the Appomattox River, April 6, 1865. See "Southern Generals," anonymous, New York, 1865. Ewers, a'^ers, (Johann Philipp Gustav,) a German historian, born in the diocese of Corbie in 1 781. He became professor of history at Dorpat in 1810, and ])ublished several works on the history and statistics of Russia. Died in 1830. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Ew'ing, (yoo'ing,) (Rev. Greville,) a Scottish theo- logian, born in Edinburgh in 1767, was for many years pastor of an Independent church in Glasgow. He gained distinction as an expositor of Scripture, and published a "Greek and English Lexicon," (1802,) "Letters to the Jews," and several religious treatises. Died in 1841. Ew'ing, (John,) an American Presbyterian minister, born in Maryland in 1732. He became pastor of a church in Philadelphia in 1759, and provost of the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania in 1779. He contributed to the € as k: 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, h, y., guttural ; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (Sl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) '56 EWING 882 ETCK Transactions of tlie American Philosophical Society. Died in 1802. Ewing, (Thomas,) an American statesman, born in Ohio county, Virginia, in December, 1789. He was taken to the State of Ohio about 1792 by his father, who was not able to give him much education at school. After he was twenty-one years of age, he entered the Ohio University at Athens. He studied law, was ad- mitted to the bar in 1816, and practised with success in the courts of Ohio and in the supreme court of the United States. He represented Ohio in the Senate of the United States from March, 183 1, to March, 1837, during which period he acted with the Whig party. He supported General Harrison for the Presidency in 1840, and became secretary of the treasury in March, 1841. In September, 1841, he resigned because Presi- dent Tyler vetoed a bill for a national bank (for the regulation of exchanges) of which Mr. Ewing was in part the author. He v/as secretary of the interior from March, 1849, until the death of President Taylor, July, 1850. In the latter part of 1850 he was appointed a Senator of the United States, to fill a vacancy caused by the removal of Thomas Corwin to a seat in the cabinet. He opposed Clay's Compromise bill and the Fugitive Slave bill. After his retirement from the Senate, March, 1 85 1, he resumed the practice of law at Lancaster, Ohio. Died in 1871. Exauvillez, d', d^k'sS've'yi', (Philippe Iri^nee Boistel — bwis't^K,) a French Catholic, born at Amiens in 1786, wrote "The Good Curate," (1827,) and other popular religious works. He made a French version of Sir Walter Scott's works, from which he omitted all passages contrary to Roman Catholicism. Excelmaiis, ^k'sel'mdN', or Exelmans, (R^;mi Jo- seph Isidore,) Baron, an eminent French general, was born at Bar-le-Duc in 1775. He entered the army young, and became aide-de-camp to Murat in 1801. For his gallant conduct at Austerlitz, in 1805, he was made a colonel. He served with distinction at Eylau, where he won the rank of general of brigade, and at Friedland, in 1807. In 181 1 he was grand equerry of Murat, then King of Naples; but in 1812 he returned to France, was cre- ated a baron, and commanded a division in the campaign of Russia. He displayed great courage and skill at Bo- rodino, and in the campaign of 1 8 14 in France. At Waterloo he commanded a corps of cavalry of the re- serve. After an exile of four years, he returned to France in 1819. He was restored to his rank as a peer in 1831, and became a marshal of France about 1850. Died in 1851 or 1852. See J. Nollet-Fabert, " Notice siir M. le Marechal Exelmans," 1851 ; " Victoires et Conquetes des Fi angais." Exelmans. See Excelmans. Exeter, Bishop of. See Phillpotts, (Henry.) Exinieno, &k-se-ma'no, (Don Antonio,) a learned Spanish Jesuit and ingenious author, born at Balbastro, in Aragon, in 1732. On the suppression of his order he removed to Rome. He wrote the "Military History of Spain," ( 1769,) the style of which is admired, and a treatise on the "Origin and Principles of Music, with a History of its Progress," etc., (1774,) which is his chief production. Died in Rome in 1798. Exmouth, gks'miith, (Edward Pellew,) Viscount, an eminent English admiral, born at Dover in 1757, entered the navy in 1770. He took a conspicuous part in the battle of Lake Champlain in 1776, and became a post-captain in 1782. During the war against France he captured a number of the enemy's ships, for which service he was knighted about 1794. He was elected member of Parliament in 1802, and obtained the rank of rear-admiral in 1804, with a command in the East Indies. As vice-admiral, he was ajipointed commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean in 1 810. In 181 4 he was created Baron Exmouth and promoted to the rank of full admi- ral. In 1816 Lord Exmouth commanded a perilous ex- pedition against the Algerines, who had violated a treaty for the abolition of Christian slavery. The English and Dutch fleets attacked Algiers on the 26th of August, and directed their fire with such skill and effect that the Dey, after an obstinate resistance, was compelled to submit on the same day, and about twelve hundred captives were liberated. In this action the admiral's coat was torn by a cannon-ball. On his return to England, Lord Exmouth was received with unbounded applause, and was raised to the rank of viscount. He retired from public service in 1821, and died in 1833. See Edward OsLER, " Life of Admiral Exmouth," 1835; "Lon- don Quarterly Review" for December, 1835. Exner, eks'ner, (Franz,) a German philosopher, born in Vienna in 1802, was professor of philosophy at Prague from 1 83 1 to 1848. He wrote, among other works, one "On Nominalism and Realism," (1841,) and the "Doc- trine of the Unity of Thought and Existence," (1845.) Expilly, ^ks'pe'le', (Claude,) a French lawyer and councillor of state, born at Voiron in 1561. He was em- ployed by Henry IV. and Louis XIII. as negotiator in Piedmont and Savoy, and became president of the Par- liament of Grenoble. He wrote a "Life of Chevalier Bayard," (1650.) Died in 1636. See J. C. Martin, " Histoire et Vie de Claude Expilly," 1S03. Expilly, (Jean Joseph,) Abb^;, a French geographer, born at Saint-Remi, Provence, in 17 19, performed many journeys in the public service, and others, for the pur- pose of collecting materials for his works. He was a prolific and accurate writer, and published, between 1750 and 1770, treatises on geography, which were among the best of that period. Among these is a " Geographical and Historical Dictionary of Gaul and of France," (6 vols., 1762-70.) Died in 1793. Expilly, (Louis Alexandre,) a French priest and revolutionist, born at Brest in 1742, became a deputy to the States-General in 1789, and was one of the framers of the civil constitution of the clergy. In 1790 he was chosen constitutional Bishop of Finisterre. He was con- demned on a charge of Federalism, and executed in 1 794. Ex-u-pe'ri-us, [Fr. Exupere, ^k'sii^paiR^,] Bishop of Toulouse, lived about 400 a.d., and was eminent for charity. Eyb, von, fon Tp, (Albrecht,) a German ecclesiastic of high reputation, born about 1420, became chamber- lain to Pope Pius II. He published a compilation from ancient authors, entitled "The Poetic Pearl," ("Marga- rita poetica," 1472,) often reprinted. Died about 1478. Eyck, van, vtn Ik, (Hubert,) a famous Flemish painter, born in 1366, was a brother of Jan, with whom he worked in partnership at Bruges and Ghent. They sometimes painted together on the same picture, — for example, the altar-piece of a church in Ghent represent- ing the Adoration of the Lamb, which is called their master-piece. To these brothers is ascribed the inven- tion of oil-painting, or, more properly, an improved method of preparing the pigments. (See Eyck, Jan van.) Died in 1426. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Eyck, van, (Jan,) a celebrated Flemish painter, sometimes called John of Bruges, was born at or near Maaseyck about 1390, and was a pupil of Hubert, his brother. He worked mostly at Ghent and Bruges. About 1425 he obtained the favour of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, who employed him as an artist and ambassador. He had received from nature the qualities requisite for a great painter. He and his brother were the first who attained to great success in oil-painting, having discovered a new vehicle of colour, composed of siccative oils and resins. His pictures preserve to the present time an admirable freshness and brilliancy of colour. "His colour," says Emeric-David, in the "Bio- graphic Universelle," "though inferior in harmony to that of modern master-pieces, has more vivacity." Among his works are "The Adoration of the Magi," a "Virgin and Child," and a "Saint Jerome." Died about 1440. See A. MiCHiELS, " Histoire de la Peinture Flamande;" Carton, "Les trois Fr^res Van Eyck," etc., 1848. Eyck, van, (Kaspar,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp, lived in the second half of the seventeenth century. He painted marine views with skill. Eyck, van, (Margaret,) a sister of Hubert and Jan, was a successful painter. She refused an offer (or offers) of marriage because she preferred to devote herself to art. She probably worked with her brothers in Bruges and Ghent. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; ETCK 883 EZRA Eyck, van, (Nicolaas,) a Flemish painter, born in Antwerp about 1630, acquired a great reputation for battle-pieces. The particulars of his life are not known. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flaniands," etc. Eyckens. See Eykens. Eyer. See Ayrer, (Jakob.) Eyke de Rebkow. See Rebkow. Eykens, I'kens, or Eyckens, Ik'kens, (Jan,) a son of Pieter, noticed below, was a skilful painter of flowers and fruits. Died in 1669. Eykens or Eyckens, (Pieter,) called the Elder, a skilful Flemish historical painter, born in Antwerp about 1600. He worked in his native city, the churches of which contain the most of his paintings. Among them are a "Last Supper," a "Saint Catherine Disputing," and "Elijah Ascending in a Chariot of Fire." His design, colour, and expression are praised by Descamps, He sometimes painted figures for the works of landscape- painters. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc, Eymar, a'mtR',(CLAUDE,) a literary French merchant, born in Marseilles in 1744. He wrote commentaries on Rousseau's works, and essays on various subjects. Died in 1822. Eymar, d', di'mtR', ( Ange Marie,) Comte, a French litth-ateicr^ born at Marseilles about 1740 ; died at Geneva in 1803. Eymer. See Hymir. Eymeric, i-mi-r^k', (Nicolas,) a native of Gerona, in Spain, born about 1320, entered the Dominican order, and was accounted the greatest canonist of his time. He was made Inquisitor-General in 1356, and wrote "The Inquisitor's Directory," the atrocious maxims of which became the guide of Torquemada, Died in 1399. Eynard, i'ntR', (J. G.,) a merchant, born at Lyons in 1775, removed to Geneva in his youth. About 1824 he devoted himself to the cause of Greek nationality, and in 1829 he loaned or advanced 700,000 francs to the Greek treasury, Eynde, van den, vSn den In'deh, [Lat, Eyn'dius,] (Jakob,) a Dutch writer, born at Delft about 1575, pub- lished a volume of Latin poems, (1611,) and a "Chronicle of Zealand," (1634.) Died in 1614. Eynden, van, vtn TnMen, (Jacob,) a Dutch painter of animals, flowers, etc., born at Nymwegen in 1733; died about 1800. Eynden, van, (Roland,) a Dutch writer and painter, 6orn at Dort in 1748, published, in conjunction with Vander Villigen, a "History of the Painters of the Low Countries," from the middle of the eighteenth century, which is esteemed valuable. Died in 1819. Eyndius. See Eynde, van den. Eyre, air, (Edward John,) an Englishman, distin- guished as an explorer of Australia, was born about 1818. He published in 1845 "Discoveries in Central Australia," In 1864 he was appointed Governor of Ja- maica, He was censured for the severity with which he suppressed an insurrection in October, 1865, and was removed soon after that date. Eyre, (Sir James,) an English judge, born in Wilt- shire in 1734. After practising law in London, he be- came recorder of that city in 1762. He was a])pointed a baron of the exchequer in 1772, and first commissioner of the great seal in 1792. He held the office of lord chief justice of the court of common pleas from 1793 until his death in' 1799, See Foss, "The Judges of England." Eyries, i're-gs', (Jean Baptiste BENotT,) a French geographer and translator, born at Marseilles in 1767. He translated from the English and German many works on geography and narratives of voyages, was one of the founders of the Geographical Society of Paris, and editor of the "Annales des Voyages." He wrote many articles for Michaud's "Biographic Universelle," and published with Pinkerton an "Abridgment of Modern Geography," (2 vols., 1827.) Died in 1846. Eysel, T'zel, (Johann Philipp,) a German physician and writer, born at Erfurt in 1652 ; died in 1717. Eytelwein, T'tel-wTn', (Johann Albrecht,) a Prus- sian engineer born at Frankfort in 1764. He published a "Manual of the Mechanics of Solid Bodies and Hy- draulics," (1801,) a "Manual of Perspective," (1810,) and other works. Died about 1840. Eytzing, von, fon Tt'sing, (Michael,) a German his- torian of the sixteenth century, published a history of events in the Low Countries from 1559 to 1583, entitled " On the Belgic Lion," (" De Leone Belgico," etc., 1583.) Ezechias, the French of Hezekiah, which see, ^zechiel. See Ezekiel, Ez-ed-deen or Ez-ed-din, gz-ed-deen', an Arabian poet, born in 1181 ; died in 1261, E-ze'ki-el, [Heb, SxpiH' ; Fr, Ezechiel, i'zi'she'eK or i''za'ke-^l' ; Ger, Ezechiel, et-sa'ke-il,] one of the four greater prophets, was a contemporary of Daniel. During the first Babylonian captivity he was removed, with other captives, about 600 B,C., to the river Chebar, an affluent of the Euphrates. He began to prophesy and to proclaim the judgments of God against idolatry and other sins in 595 B.C. His prophecies are generally considered obscure, but are remarkable for bold and magnificent imagery. Many critics concede to him con- siderable poetical genius and great energy of character. The data of his external life are very deficient. The only imjDortant event of his personal history noticed in his writings is the death of his wife, (chap, xxiv, 18.) The New Testament contains no mention of Ezekiel, nor any quotation from the book which bears his name. See C. F. Boerner, "Dissertatio de Ezechiele Propheta," 1719. Ezekiel, a Jewish poet, who lived at Alexandria, and wrote, in Greek, a drama on the Exodus from Egypt, E-ze'ki-el, an Armenian astronomer, born about 673 a.d. After travelling in Greece, he opened in his native place in 710 a school, which became flourishing. He wrote a "Treatise on the Zodiac," and other works. Died in 727, Ezengatsi, Iz-en-git'see, written also Ezenkantsi, (HoVAN, i.e. John,) an eminent Armenian writer and priest. Died about 1325. Ez'nig, Ez'nag, or Ez'nik, an Armenian writer and theologian, born in 397 A.D.; died in 478. Ezuik, See Eznig, Ezquerra, eth-ker^ or Esquerra, ^s-ker'ri, a Span- ish poet and priest, born in Biscay about 1568. His reputation is founded on his "Epistle to Bartholomew Argensola," the style of which is a model of elegance, purity, and grace. Died in 1641. Ez'ra, [Heb. X"^T> ; Lat. Es^dras ; Fr. Esdras, €s'- dRSs' ; Ger. Es'ra or Es'dras,] an eminent Jewish scribe and refoi-mer, was the author of the canonical book which bears his name, and perhaps of the two books of Chroni- cles. He was probably born in Babylon. After the temple had been rebuilt at Jerusalem, P^zra received authority from the King of Persia, about 458 B.C., to lead a large number of captive Jews back to their fatherland. (See Ezra vii,, viii., ix., and x., and Nehemiah viii.) He was Governor of Judea until 445 B.C. He is called the " Re- storer of the Scriptures," which he appears to have revised. Ezzelino, (da Romano.) See Romano. < as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K^gutiural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^l^^See Explanations, p, 23.1 FABBRA 884 FABIUS F. Fabbra, della, dlVM. fab'bRS, (Luigi,) a distinguished professor of medicine in the University of Ferrara, born in that city in 1655 ; died in 1723. Fabbrizi, de', di fdb-bR^t'see, (Luigi Cinzio,) an Italian writer, born in Venice about 1450, published " Origine de' volga i Proverbi," (1526.) Died about 1526. See TiRABOscHi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Fabbroni. See Fabroni, Faber. See Fab re, Le F^vre, and FfevRE. Faber, (Antoine and Claude.) See Favre. Faber, fl'ber, (Basil,) a German scholar and Prot- estant writer, born at Sora, or Sorau, in 1520. His chief work is "Treasury of Scholastic Learning," ("Thesaurus Eruditionis scholasticae," 1571,) often reprinted. Died about 1575. Faber, (Felix,) an author and itinerant preacher, whose original name was Schmidt, born at Zurich about 1442 ; died at Ulm in 1502. Fa'ber, (Frederick William,) a Roman Catholic priest and writer, nephew of George Stanley Faber, no- ticed below, was born in England in 1815. Died in 1863. See BowDEN, " Life of F. VV. Faber," 1869. Faber, (George Stanley,) an eminent English theo- logian, born near Bradford, in Yorkshire, in 1773. He studied at University College, Oxford. Having graduated in 1803, he rose through several preferments to be a pre- l)endary in the cathedral of Salisbury in 1831. Among his principal works we may name his "View of the Mosaical Records," ("Horae Mosaicae," 1801,) "On the Mysteries of the Cabyri, or the Great Gods of Phoenicia," ( 1803,) " Difficulties of Lifidelity," ( 1824,) (a masterly production,) " Difficulties of Romanism," (1826,) "View of the Prophecies relating to Judah and Israel," and "The Sacred Calendar of Prophecy," (3 vols., 1828.) His productions evince great learning and research and a spirit of fervent piety, and are regarded by competent critics as among the most valuable that have been written on those subjects. Died in 1854. See "Gentleman's Magazine" for May, 1854; Allibone, "Dic- tionary of Authors." Faber, ft'bi', Fabre, flbR, or Le Fevre, leh fIvR, (Jean,) a celebrated French lawyer and jurist, born in Angouleme ; died in 1340. Faber, fl'ber, (Johann, ) surnamed the Hammer OF Heretics, a German theologian and zealous adver- sary of Luther, was born at Leutkirch, in Suabia, about 1475. He became a Dominican monk. He published, besides other polemical works against the Protestants, the "Hammer of Heretics," ("Malleus Haereticorum," 1524.) In 1 53 1 he became Bishop of Vienna. Died in 1541- See Kettner, " Dissertatio de J. Fabri Vita et Scriptis," 1737. Faber, (Johann,) a German Catholic theologian and controversialist, born at Heilbronn about 1 500; died about 1560. Faber, (Johann,) a German botanist and physician, born at Bamberg about 1570, practised in Rome, and was physician to Pope Urban VIII. Faber, (Johann Ernst,) a German Orientalist and writer, born at Simmerthausen in 1745 ; died in 1774. Faber, (Pierre,) a French classical scholar, born in Auvergne about 1530; died about 1615. Pie wrote commentaries on Cicero, (1601.) Faber, (Samuel,) a Swiss writer, born at Altorf in 1657. His ch'.-" work is "The World in a Nutshell," ("Orbis Terrarum in Nuce.") Died in 1716. Faber Stapulensis. See Lefevre d'Estaples. Fabert, fS'bert or ffbaiR', (Abraham,) a noted orna- mental printer, born at Metz about 1560; died in 1638. Fabert, (Abraham,) a famous French general, a son of the preceding, was born at Metz in 1599. After having distinguished himself in several battles, he was created marshal of France by Louis XIV. in 1658, and at the same tiine was appointed governor of Sedan, at which place he died in 1662. His exploits and good fortune were so extraordinary that they were by many ascribed to magic. See CouRTiLZ DE Sandras, "Vie du Marechal Fabert," 1697; J. DE LA Barre, "Vie du Mardchal Fabert," 1752; Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" Begin, "filoge du Marechal Fabert," 1837. Fa'bi-an or Fabyan, (Robert,) a noted merchant and sheriff of London, born about 1450, was the author of "Concordance of Histories," or "Fabian's Chronicle," (1516,) which treats of English history. Died in 1512. See DiBDiN, "Typographical Antiquities." Fa'bi-an, [Lat. Fabia'nus; Fr. Fabien, fS'be-dN',] Saint, was elected pope in 236 a.d., and suffered mar- tyrdom under the emperor Decius in 250. Fa-bi-a'nus, (Papir'ius,) a Roman philosopher of the first century, wrote numerous treatises on philosophy. The two Senecas expressed a high opinion of his works. Fabii, fa'be-T, a powerful patrician house of ancient Rome, which became conspicuous soon after the estab- lishment of the republic. Three brothers named Fabius obtained seven successive consulships between 486 and 479 B.C. Fa-bi-oTa, Saint, a Roman lady of the illustrious house of Fabius, was celebrated for her piety and benevo- lence, and was the founder of hospitals in Italy. Died about 400 a.d. See Baillet, " Vies des Saints." Fa''bi-u.s Am-bus'tu.s, (Marcus,) a general, was consul in 360, in 356, and in 354 B.C., and afterwards dictator of Rome about 351 B.C. He was the father of Fabius Maximus Rullianus, noticed below. He defeated the Hernici and Tarquinians. Fa'bi-us Max'i-mus, (Quintus,) a son of the fol- lowing, and grandson by adoption of Paulus ^Emilius, was chosen consul 122 B.C. Having the department of Transalpine Gaul, he carried on a successful war against the Arverni and the Allobroges. On one occasion he defeated the enemy, who lost 120,000 men, while the loss of the Romans was very small. For this victory he received the surname of Allobrogicus. Fa'bi-us Max'i-mus -ai-mil-i-a'nus, (Quintus,) son of the consul Paulus ^milius, passed by adoption into the house of Fabius. He was elected consul of Rome 147 B.C. He carried on a successful war in Spain against Viriathus, a famous general commanding the Lusita- nians. Like the great Fabius Cunctator, he pursued in his wars the defensive policy. Fa'bi-us Max'i-mus Gur'ges, (Quintus,) a son of Fabius Maximus Rullianus, was consul in 292 B.C., and again in 276. He was the grandfather of the great Fabius Cunctator. Fa'bi-us Max'i-mus Rul-Ii-a'nus, (Quintus,) a famous general, was five times consul (322-295 B.C.) and twice dictator of Rome. He also held many other high offices. He gained victories over the Samnites in 325, in 322, and in 296 B.C. He was reputed the greatest Roman general of his time. See Niebuhr, " History of Rome;" Livy, "History of Rome;" Valerius Maximus, "History of Rome;" Aurelius Victor, " Viri illiistres." Fa'bl-us Max'i-mus Vgr-ru-co'sus, (Quintus,) surnamed Cuncta'tor, the greatest of the Fabian line, was consul for the first time in 233 B.C., when he con- quered the Ligurians and had the honour of a triumph. After the Carthaginians had taken Saguntum, the Romans sent Fabius to Carthage at the head of their ambassadors. After the defeat of the Roman armies at Thrasymene in 217, a dictator being thought necessary, Fabius was chosen to that office. He marched against Hannibal, and firmly adhered to the policy of carrying on only a defensive war, in which he was so successful that the Carthaginian general was unable to obtain any advan- \ tage over him. Minucius, master of the Roman cavalry, j at one time obtaining command of part of the army, engaged with Hannibal, and would have been entirely I defeated if Fabius had not hastened to assist him, after 1, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T,6, u, y, 5ho7-t; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; FJBIUS 885 FAB RICE which Minucius gave up his command to Fabius. The dictatorship of Fabius having expired, Paulus iEmilius and Terentius Varro were appointed consuls, and, pur- suing a different method, were totally defeated at the battle of Cannae, in 216 B.C., after which the Romans returned to the defensive policy of Fabius. He was chosen consul for the fifth time in 209 B.C. His uniform success against the most formidable enemy of Rome justly won for him the name of Maximus. Ennius spoke of hfm as one " qui nobis cunctando restituit rem." Died about 203 B.C. See Plutarch, " Lives ;" Livy, "History of Rome," books xx.- xxiv. and xxvi.-xxx. ; Niebuhr, "History of Rome;" Polybius, book iii. ; " Nouvelle Eiographie Generale." Fa'bi-us Pic'tor, (Caius,) a Roman painter, was the grandfather of the historian Fabius Pictor. He painted the temple of Salus (" Safety") about 304 B.C. Fabius Pictor (Quintus) was the first Roman historian, and is sometimes called "the father of Latin history." His works are known as the "Annals of Fa- bius Pictor." He lived at the time of the second Punic war, and died after 216 B.C. His History, which was highly esteemed by the ancients, is lost, except small fragments. See Whiste, " De Fabio Pictore cjeterisque Fabiis historicis," 1832; MoLLER, "De Q. Fabio Pictore," 1690. Fabius Planciades Fulgentius. See Fulgentius. Fa'bi-us Vib-u-la'nus, (K/Eso,) a Roman command- er, was chosen consul in 484, in 481, and in 479 B.C. He rendered himself very popular with the plebeians, and gained victories over the Veientes and .^qui. During his third consulship the Fabian family volunteered to make a campaign against the Veientes without the aid of other citizens. Kaeso led out three hundred and six Fabii, (among whom was his brother Marcus,) attended by their clients or servants, and occupied a fortified post on the Cremera, which enters the Tiber near Rome. They gained several' victories, but at length were sur- prised and all killed in 477 B.C. See Niebuhr, " History of Rome ;" Livy, "History of Rome ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Fabius Vibulanus, (Marcus,) a Roman general, was a brother of the preceding. He was consul in 483 and 480 B.C. He was killed at Cremera in 477. ( See preceding article.) Fabius Vibulanus, (Quintus,) a son of Marcus, was the only one of the Fabii who escaped from being massacred at Cremera by the Veientes in 477 B.C. The different branches of the great Fabian house were de- scended from him. He was consul in 467, 465, and 459 B.C., and defeated the Volsci. Appius Claudius and Q. Fabius Vibulanus were the chiefs of the decemvirate formed in 450, and were exiled for their tyrannical acts. Fabre, fIbR, (Antoine FRANgois Hippolyte,) a French medical writer, born at Marseilles in 1797. He edited the " Lancette Fran9aise," and won a medal of the Institute in 1833 a work on cholera. Died in 1853. Fabre, (Denis,) a French advocate, born at Mont- pellier, was a member of the Convention in 1792, and voted for the death of the king. He was killed in a battle against the Spaniards in January, 1794. Fabre, (Francois Xavier Pascal,) an able French painter, born at Montpellier in 1766, was a pupil of David. He worked many years at Rome and Florence. Among his best works are "The Judgment of Paris," "The Preaching of John the Baptist," and a portrait of Alfieri. He died at Montpellier in 1837. Fabre, (Jean Claude,) a French ecclesiastic and writer, born in Paris in 1668. He wrote a continuation of Fleury's "Ecclesiastic History," (16 vols., 1734,) and other works. Died in 1753. Fabre, (Jean Raymond Auguste,) a French poet, born at Jaujac in 1792, was a brother of Marie Joseph Victorin. He wrote, besides other works, a poem called "Caledonie," (1823,) which was received with favour, and "Irene," a tragedy, (1825.) Died in 1839. See Sabbatier, "Vies de Victorin et d'Auguste Fabre." Fabre, (Marie Joseph Victorin,) a distinguished French poet and orator, born at Jaujac in 1785. He pr-duced in 1808 a "Eulogy on Corneille," (in prose,) which was crowned by the Institute. Among his finest works are "The Death of Henry IV.," a poem, (1808,) an "Ode on Tasso," a "Eulogy on Montaigne," (1812,) and " Literary History of France in the Eighteenth Cen- tury," ("Tableau litteraire de la France au dix-huitieme Siecle," 1810.) Died in 1831. See Sabbatier, "Viesde Victorin et d'Auguste Fabre," 1832; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Fabre de I'Aude, fSbR, deh lod, (Jean Pierre,) a French statesman, born at Carcassonne in 1755. He was proscribed during the reign of terror, but in 1795 was named deputy to the Council of Five Hundred, and became commissioner of finance. At the coronation of Bonaparte, Fabre, as president of the tribunes, delivered a congratulatory address to the emperor. He was ap- pointed senator in 1807, and received the title of count of the empire. He was afterwards chosen a member of the grand council of administration of the senate. Died in 1832. Fabre d'lSglantine, flbR di'gl6N't^n', ( Philippe Francois Nazaire,) one of the leading French Jacobins, born at Carcassonne in 1755. At the commencement of the Revolution he leagued himself with Danton, La Croix, and Camille Desmoulins, and participated in all the excesses of this party. He was chosen as deputy from Paris to the National Convention. He voted for the death of Louis XVI. without appeal, and was elected a member of the committee of public safety. He was one of the instigators of the decree which ordered that no English or Hanoverian prisoners should be made. He was accused of royalist principles, or vioderantisme, and, with Danton, was executed in 1794. He had writ- ten numerous comedies. See Lamartine, "History of the Girondists;" "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale;" "Biographie Universelle." Fabre d'Olivet, ftbR do'le'vi', (M.,) a French phi- lologist and fanciful litterateur, born at Ganges (Langue- doc) in 1768. He produced numerous plays, poems, treatises on philology, history, etc. He found, it is said, allegories or mystic meanings in every word, syllable, and figure. Died in 1825. Fabretti, fi-bRet'tee, (Rafael,) an excellent Italian antiquary, born at Urbino about 161 5. He was secre- tary to Pope Alexander VIII., and in the pontificate of Innocent XII. was appointed keeper of the archives in the castle of Saint Angelo. His principal works are "De Columna Trajani," ("On the Column of Trajan," 1683,) and " Inscriptionum Antiquarum Explicatio," ("Explanation of Ancient Inscriptions," 1699.) Died at Rome in 1700. See Fabroni, " Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium." Fabri. See Peiresc, (Fabri de.) Fabri, fi'bRee, (Alessandro,) a noted scholar and author, born near Bologna in 1691. He wrote with great elegance, both in Latin and Italian. Died in 1768. Fabri, ft'bRe', (Honors,) a learned French Jesuit, born about 1607, wrote numerous works, among which are a "Treatise on Plants and the Generation of Ani- mals," (1666,) and "Synopsis Optica," (1667.) Died in 1688. Fabri de Hilden. See Fabrice de Hilden. Fabriani, fi-bRe-i'nee, (Severino,) an Italian author and philanthropist, born in the duchy of Modena in 1792. He assisted Baraldi in his "Memoirs on Religion, Lite- rature," etc., and published several biographies. He devoted much time to the instruction of the deaf and dumb. Died in 1849. Fabriano, da, dS fS-bRe-i'no, (Gentile,) a skilful painter of the Roman school, born at Fabriano, in the March of Ancona, about 1370. He worked at Venice and in Rome, where he painted the history of Saint John in the church of San Giovanni Laterano. He is called one of the best painters of his time. Died in 1450. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- ing in Italy;" Baldinucci, "Notizie;" P. Benedetti, " Memorie delle Opere di Maestro Gentile da Fabriano," 1830. Fabrice. See Fabrizio. Fabrice de Hilden, ft'bR^ss' deh hil'den, [Lat Fa- BRig'ius Hilda'nus,] called also Fabri (fa'bRee) de Hilden, (Wilhelm, ) a skilful surgeon and writer, derived his surname from a village near Cologne, where he was born in 1560. Died in 1634. € as k; c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Yi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (gl^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) FABRICIUS 886 FAB RON I Fabricius, fi-bRee'se-us, (Andreas,) a Roman Cath- olic divine, born near Liege in 1520. He wrote "Har- mony of the Augustinian Confession," ("Harmonia Con- fessionis Augustinianae," 1573.) Died in 1581. Fabricius, fS-bRit'se-us, (David,) a German as- tronomer, born at Essen in 1564. He is said to have discovered spots in the sun. Among his works are "Letters to Kepler." Died in 161 7. See Ersch unci Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Fabricius, (Franz,) a theological writer, called also Lefevre, born in Rhenish Prussia in 1524; died in 1573. Fabricius, fa-bRit'se-us, (Frederick Ernest,) a German or Swedish nobleman, who was a companion or attendant of Charles XH. at Bender. He wrote "Anec- dotes of the Residence of the King of Sweden at Bender," ('• Anecdotes du Sejour du Roi a Bender," 1760.) Died after 1727. Fabricius, or Goldschmidt, (Georg,) a German philologist and Latin poet, born at Chemnitz in 15 16. He was president of the College of Meissen from 1553 to 1 571. Among his works are a " Description of Rome," (1550,) and " Res Germanise et Saxoniae memorabiles," (1609.) Died in 1571. See Baumgarten-Crusius, " Program ma de G. Fabricii Vita," 1839. Fabricius, (Jakob,) a German physician and mathe- matician, born at Rostock in 1577. He was physician to the King of Denmark. Died at Copenhagen in 1652. Fabricius, (Jean Louis,) a Swiss theological writer, born at Schaffhausen in 1632 ; died in 1696. Fabricius, (Johann,) a German astronomer, son of David, noticed above, wrote a treatise on the spots of the sun, ("De Maculis in Sole observatis," 1611.) Died in 1625. Fabricius, (Johann,) a German Orientalist, born at Dantzic in 1608, was professor of Hebrew at Rostock, and published "Specimen Arabicum," (1638.) Died in 1653- Fabricius, (Johann,) a German Protestant writer and professor of theology, born at Altorf in 1644. Among his works is "Amoenitates theologicae," (1699.) He taught theology at Altorf for many years. Died in 1729. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Fabricius, (Johann Albrecht,) a German scholar and writer, eminent for his profound and various learn- ing, born at Leipsic on the nth of November, 1668, was a son of Werner the composer. He became professor of eloquence and philosophy at Hamburg about 1700. He published numerous and excellent works, among which are "Bibliotheca Latina, sive Notitia .Scriptorum Vete- rum Latinorum," (3 vols., 1697,) "Bibliotheca Graeca," (14 vols. 4to, 1705-28,) containing notices of all the Greek authors who lived before the subversion of the Eastern Empire; " Bibliographia Antiquaria," (1713,) and "Bib- liotheca Latina Ecclesiastica," (1718.) He passed the greater part of his mature life at Hamburg, where he died in April, 1736. See Reimar, "De Vita et ScriptisJ. A. Fabricii Commentarius," 1737; NiCERON, "Memoires." Fabricius, (Johann Andreas,) a German scholar and teacher, born at Dodendorf in 1696, published an " Abridgment of General Literary History," (3 vols., 1752-54.) Died in 1769. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Fabricius, (Johann Christian,) the most eminent entomologist of his time, born at Tondern, in the duchy of Slesvvick, in January, 1743, studied under Linnaeus at Upsal. In 1775 he was appointed professor of natural history at Kiel, and about the same time published his " Systema Entomologios." In this work, at the sugges- tion of Linnaeus, he made an arrangement of insects according to the organs of the mouth. Besides the treatise mentioned above, he wrote " Philoso])hia Ento- mologia," (1778,) " Supjjlementum Entomologias," (1797,) and others of a similar nature. Died at Kiel in 1807. See " Biographie Medicale ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Fabricius, (Karel,) a Dutch painter, born at Delft in 1624, excelled in perspective and portraits. Died in 1654. Fabricius, (Theodor,) a German Reformer and the- ologian, born at Anholt in 1501, wrote several religious works. He taught Hebrew at Wittenberg, and acquired the friendship of Luther. Died in 1570. See Ersch mid Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Fabricius, (Theodosius,) a Lutheran theologian, and nephew of the preceding, born at Nordhausen in 1560, was professor of theology at Gottingen. His work en- titled " Harmony of the Four Evangelists" was published in the Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and German languages. Died in 1597. Fabricius, (Vincenz,) a German physician, jurist, and Latin poet, born at Hamburg in 1612 ; died in 1667. Fabricius, (Werner,) a composer and musician, born in Holstein in 1633, was the father of Johann Albrecht, noticed above. He lived at Leipsic. Died in 1679. Fabricius Hildanus. See Fabrice de Hilden. Fa-brig'i-us (fa-brish'e-us) Lus-gi'nus, (Caius,) a Roman statesman, celebrated for his great integrity and simplicity of life, became consul 282 B.C. About 280 he was sent on an embassy to Pyrrhus, who was encamped with an army near Tarentum. His conduct on this oc- casion was a celebrated theme of ancient historians and poets. He refused the rich presents or bribes which Pyrrhus offered him. According to tradition, the phy- sician of Pyrrhus proposed to poison his master, expect- ing a reward from the Romans, but Fabricius not only rejected his offer, but exposed his treachery to Pyrrhus. Fabricius gained victories over the Samnites, the Bruttii, and other allies of Pyrrhus, about 277 B.C. See NiEBUHR, "History of Rome;" Pliny, "Natural History," book xxxiv. Fa-brig'i-us Vei-en'to, a Latin author. Having written a satirical work entitled "Codicilli," which was supposed to be directed against the senators and priests, he was banished by Nero in 62 a.d. After Nero's death he returned to Rome, and was received with great favour by Domitian. Fabrini, fa-bRee'nee, (Giovanni,) an Italian gram- marian, born in Tuscany in 1516; died about 1580. Fabris, f^'bR^ss, (Niccol6, ) an ingenious Italian mechanician, born at Chioggia in 1739; died in 1801. Fabrizio, fa-bR^t'se-o, (Geronimo,) [Lat. Hieron'- YMUS FABRig'ius AB Acquapenden'te ; Fr. Fabrice, fl'bR^ss', ] an eminent Italian anatomist and surgeon, was born at Acquapendente, near Orvieto, in 1537. He was a pupil of Fallopius, whom he succeeded in 1562 as professor at Padua. He wrote many short treatises on anatomy and surgery. Among his pupils was the cele- brated Dr. Harvey, whose great discovery was perhaps suggested by some new observations which Fabrizio made on the valves of the veins. He obtained great success and celebrity as a teacher of anatomy. Died in 1619. See Thuii.ius, " Memoria H. Fabricii ab Acquapendente," 1619; CuviER, "Histoire des Sciences naturelles ;" Salvadori, "No- titije de H. Fabricio," 1837. Fabrizzi, fi-bR^t'see, (Antonio Maria,) an Italian painter, born at Perugia in 1594, was a pupil of Annibal Caracci. Died in 1649. Fabroni, fa-bRo'nee, or Fabbroni, flb-bRo'nee, (Angelo,) an eminent Italian biographer and Latin scholar, born at Marradi in September, 1732. He pro- duced in 1766 the first volume of the "Lives of Italians eminent for Learning who flourished in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries," ("Vitas Italorum doctrina excellentium qui Saeculis XVII. et XVIII. floruerunt," 20 vols.,) which is his principal work. In 1767 he was appointed prior or president of the church of San Lo- renzo, Florence. He is sometimes called "the Plutarch of Modern Italy." Died at Pisa in 1803. See TiPAi.DO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri;" Fabroni, "Vita: Italonnn," etc., vol. xx. Fabroni or Fabbroni, (Giovanni Valentino,) an Italian naturalist and writer on physical science, was born at Florence on the 13th of February, 1752. He aj^plied various physical sciences to obiects of general utility. He was director of the Museum of Florence, and wrote many useful treatises on botany, chemistry, rural economy, etc. Cuvier characterized him as a "living encyclopaedia." Died in December, 1822. See Cuvier, " £ loges historiques," tome iii. ; Tipaldo, "Bio- grafia degli Italiani iHustri;" G. Fabroni Pelli, "Biografia del Cavaliere G. Fabroni," 1837. a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, ^, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; FAB ROT 887 FJGIUS Fabrot, ffbRo', [Lat. Fabro'tus,] (Charles Anni- BAL,) a celebrated P>ench jurist, born at Aix in 1580. He was professor in the University of Aix, and the au- thor of several legal treatises, one of which is entitled Basilicon." Died in Paris in 1659. See C. GiRAUD, "Notice sur I3 Vie de C. A. Fabrot," 1833. Fabry, fa'bRe', (Jean Baptiste Germain,) a French writer, born at Cornus in 1780. He was editor of the "Spectateur Frangais," (12 vols., 1805-12,) and wrote a history of the Hundred Days, entitled "Itineraire de Bonaparte de I'lsle d'Elbe a Sainte-Helene," ("Account of the Journey of Bonaparte from Elba to Saint Helena," 1817.) Died in 1821. Fabvier, ft've-a', (Charles Nicolas,) Baron, a French general, iDorn at Pont-a-Mousson in 1782. He served with distinction in Germany and Spain, and was severely wounded at Moscow in 1812. In 1814 he signed with Colonel Davis the capitulation of Paris. In 1823 he went to the assistance of the Greeks, and rendered essential service in organizing an army. After his return he was created in 1839 lieutenant-general, and in 1845 a peer of France. He was the author of several military and historical treatises. Died in 1855. Fabyan. See Fabian. Facchetti, fik-ket'tee, (Pietro,) an Italian portrait- painter, born at Mantua in 1535 ; died in Rome in 1613. Facciardi, fat-chaR'dee, (Cristoforo,) an Italian Capuchin and eloquent preacher, born near Rimini, lived about 1570-90. Faccini, fit-chee'nee, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian painter of architecture, born at or near Ferrara about 1520 ; died in 1577. Faccio. See Fatio. Facciolati, tlt-cho-li'tee, or Facciolato, fit-cho- la'to, [Lat. Facciola'tus,](Giacomo,) an eminent Italian philologist, born at Torreglia, near Paclua, in 1682. He was a professor of logic or classical literature in the University of Padua. He published an improved edition of a dic- tionary called "Calepino," (1731,) wrote several works on grammar and logic, and commenced an excellent Latin Lexicon, which was finished by his pupil Forcel- LINI, (which see.) Died at Padua in 1769. See Fabroni, "Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentiiim ;" G. B. Ferrari, "Vita J. Facciolati," 1799; Giuseppe Gennari, "Vita di J. Facciolati," Padua, 1818. Facini, fa-chee'nee, or Faccini, flt-chee'nee, (Pie- tro,) an able Italian painter, born at Bologna about 1560, was a pupil and afterwards a rival of Annibal Caracci. His chief merits w'ere a vivacity of attitude, and skill in colouring, especially in carnation. Died in 1602. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Fa-cun'dus, a Latin theologian and bishop, who lived in Africa about 550 a.d. He defended the decision of the Council of Chalcedon against the decree of the emperor Justinian. Fadhl-Ibn -Yahy a - Al-Barmakee, (-Barmaki or -Barmeki,) f^d'l Ib'n ySh'he-i SI baR'mek-ee, vizier of Haroun-al-Raschid, was born about 762 A.D. He was a brother of Jaafar, and one of the Barmecides, which see. Died about 807 a.d. See Aboolfeda, "Annales Moslemici." Fadlalla or Fadlallah, fSd-lSKlah, a Persian his- torian, born at Hamadan, lived about 1290. He wrote a "History of the Moguls." Fadl-Ibn-Rabee, (-Rabi,) f^d'l Tb'n rWee, became vizier of Haroun-al-Raschid about 803 a.d., which posi- tion he continued to hold until the death of that sove- reign. In the contest between the caliph's sons Ameen and Mamoon, Fadl sided with the former, and was con- sequently obliged to fly when Mamoon ascended the throne. Died about 824 A.D. See Ibn-Khali.ikan, "Biographical Dictionary." Fadl-Ibn-Sahal, (or -Sahl.) m'] ib'n sah'hal, (or sSh'],) a descendant of the ancient kings of Persia, and vizier of the celebrated caliph Mamoon, was clothed with absolute power by this prince. He was assassi- nated by an opposite faction in 818 A.D. See Elmacin, "Historia Saracenica." Faed, fad, (Thoma.s,) a Scottish painter, born at Burley- Mill in 1826. He settled in London about 1852. Among his works are " Walter Scott and his Friends at Abbots- ford," "Home and the Homeless," "Highland Mary," and "Sunday in the Backwoods." Faenza, da.dS fa-gn'zS, (Giambattista Bertucci^ b§R-toot'chee,) an Italian painter of the Bolognese school, flourished about 1500. Faerna, fl-^R'na, or Faerno, fd-§R'no, [Fr. Faerne, fS'^Ri/,] (Gabriele,) a celebrated modern Latin poet, born at Cremona, in Italy. His most important work was his Collection of a Hundred Fables in Latin verse, (1564,) the subjects of which were taken from i^isop or Phaedrus. He was patronized by Pope Pius IV. Died in 1561. See Jan Hendrik Kroon, " Commentatio de Fabulis G. Faerni," 1824; Tiuaboschi, " Storia della Letteratiira Italiana." Fagan, ft%6N', (Christophe Barth^lemi,) a French writer of comedies, born at Paris in 1702; died in 1755. Fage, ftzh, (Durand,) a French Protestant, called "the Prophet of the Cevennes," born at Aubais in 1681, was one of the Camisards. Fage, La. See La Face, (Raimond.) Fagel, f^'nel, (Frans Nicolaas,) nephew of Kaspar, noticed below, was a distinguished military commander. He was successively general of infantry in the service of the States-General, and lieutenant-field-marshal to the Emperor of Germany. His greatest exploits were at the battle of Fleurus in 1690, the defence of Mons, the siege of Namur, the capture of Bonn in 1703, and several other battles in Flanders. Died in 1718. Fagel, (Hendrik,) a Dutch politician, born in 1706, was an adherent of the Prince of Orange. A transla- tion of Lady Montagu's Letters (published in 1764) was ascribed to him. Died in 1790. Fagel, (Hendrik,) a Dutch diplomatist, born at the Hague, was an adherent of the house of Orange. Having been sent as minister to London, he signed a treaty between Holland and Great Britain in 1814. He became secretary of state in 1824. Died in 1834. Fagel, (Kaspar,) a celebrated Dutch statesman, born at Haarlem in 1629. In 1670 he was elected master of the rolls of the States-General, and in 1672 was created grand pensionary. It was partly by his influence that William III. was placed upon the throne of England. In 1682 Count d'Avaux, ambassador of France in Hol- land, made great efforts to win Fagel to the French interests, and even offered a large bribe, which was nobly refused. Died in 1688. See Ersch iind Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Macau- lay, " History of England," vol. v. ; Lenting, " Specimen historico- politicum de G. Fagelio," 1849. Faggiuola,fld-joo-o'ia,(UGUCCiONE, oo-goot-cho'ni,) a celebrated Italian general, chief of the Ghibelines, and Lord of Pisa. He won several battles over the Neapoli- tans and Florentines; and in August, 1315, he gained the memorable victory of Monte-Catini. He, however, made himself so odious to the Pisans by his severity that he was driven from Pisa and from Lucca. He died at the siege of Padua in 13 19. See Leo and Botta, "Histoire d'ltalie." Faggot, fSg'got, (Jakob,) a distinguished engineer and metallurgist, born in the province of Upland, in Sweden, in 1699, was secretary of the Academy of Sciences, and published a valuable work on rural economy. Died in 1778. See H. Nicander, " Aminnelse-Tal bfver J. Faggot," 1778. Fagiuoli, fS-joo-o'lee, (Giambattista,) a celebrated comic and burlesque poet, born at Florence in 1660. His works were very voluminous. Died in 1742. Fagius, fa'je-us or fa'ge-us, (Paul,) a learned Prot- estant theologian and Hebraist, born in the Palatinate in 1504. His family name was BtlCHER, (Beech,) which, according to the custom of that age, he changed into its Latin equivalent. He studied at Heidelberg under the celebrated Wolfgang Capito, whom he succeeded in 1544 as professor of HelDrew at Strasburg. In 1549, at the solicitation of Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, he visited England, where he was appointed to the chair of theology at Cambridge ; but his sudden death pre- vented him from performing the duties of that office. Eight years after his death his body was burnt, by the c as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as ;; G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) FAG NAN 888 FAIRFAX order of Queen Mary. Fagius was the author of numer- ous classical and critical works. Died about 1550. See "De Vita, Obitu et Combustione Buceri et P. Fagii," 1562; Feuerlein et Seyfkied, "Tentamen historicum de Vita P. Fagii," 1736. Fagnaii, ftn'ySN', (Marie Antoinette,) a French romancer, born in Paris, wrote "The Mirror of Oriental Princesses," (1755,) and other tales. Died about 1770. Fagnani, fdn-yi^nee, (Giovanni Marco,) an Italian poet and scholar, born at Milan in 1524; died in 1609. Fagnani or Fagnano, fin-yd^io, (Giulio Carlo,) Marquis of Toschi, an eminent Italian mathematician, born at Sinigaglia in 1682, or, as some say, in 1690. He published a collection of mathematical treatises, (" Pro- duzioni matematiche," 2 vols., 1750.) Died in 1766. See Manciani, " Elogi storici di F. Cotnmandino, G. C. Fa- gnani," etc., 1828; TiPALDO, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Fagnani, (Prospero,) an eminent Italian canonist, born in 1598, wrote a "Commentary on the Decretals," (1661.) Died in 1678. Fagon, ft'g6N', (Gui Crescent,) a distinguished French physician and botanist, born in Paris in 1638. He became first physician to Louis XIV. in 1693. Died in 1718. See FoNTENELLE, !£loges des Academiciens ISloy, "Dic- tionnaire de la Medecine;" Antoine de Jussieu, "filoge de M. Fagan," 1718. Fahie, fa, ? (Sh- William Charles,) a British admiral, born in 1763 ; died in 1833. Fahlcranz, faKkRints, (Carl Johann,) a celebrated Swedish landscape-painter, born in the province of Falun in 1774. He painted many excellent pictures of the wild and mountainous scenery of Sweden and Norway. Fahlcranz, (Christian Erik,) a Swedish poet and ecclesiastic, brother of the preceding, born in 1790. He is the author of a witty piece entitled " Noah's Ark," and " Ansgarius," an epic poem. He became Bishop of Westerns, and in 1839 associate editor of the " Eccle- siastic Journal," (" Ecclesiastik Tidskrift.") Fah-le'ni-us, (Eric,) a noted Swedish scholar, lived about 1700. He was professor of Oriental languages at Pernau, in Livonia. Fahrenheit, fir'en-hlt'' or fi'ren-hit'', (Gabriel Da- niel,) an eminent German natural philosopher and maker of philosophical instruments, was born at Dantzic about 1690. He became a resident of Amsterdam, and invented the thermometer which bears his name. He is said to have been the first who used mercury in the construction of thermometers. He fixed the zero of his scale at the point to which the mercury sank in the winter of 1709, and reproduced the same degree of cold by a mixture of sal-ammoniac, common salt, and snow. Died in 1740. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Faider, fl'der, [Fr. pron. f^'daiR',] (Charles,) a Bel- gian jurist and writer, born about 1805. He was ap- pointed minister of justice in 1852. Faidit. See Faydit. Faiguet de Villeneuve, fi%i' deh vM''nuv', (Joa- chim,) one of the earliest French writers on political econoiny, born at Moncontour, in Brittany, in 1 703. Died about 1780. _ Faille, de la, deh It ftl or ft'ye, ( Germain,) a French historian, born at Castelnaudary in 1616; died in 1 711. He wrote "Annals of Toulouse," (2 vols., 1687-1701.) Fain, fiN, (Agathon Jean FRANgois,) Baron, a French historian, born in Paris in 1778. He attended Napoleon I. in his campaigns in the capacity of sec- -etary, (secretaire-archiviste.) He wrote "Historical Memoirs of the Last Three Years of the Reign of Napoleon," (1823-27.) Died in 1837. Faini, fl-ee'nee, (Madame Diamante,) an Italian poetess, who wrote in Latin and French with great ele- gance and purity of diction. Died at Salo in 1770. See G. PoNTARA, " Vita della Signora Faini," 1774; A. Bro- GNOLi, " Elogio storico di D. Faini," 1785. Faipoult. See Faypoult. Fair'bairn, (William,) F.R.S., a British civil en- gmeer and mechanician, born at Kelso, on the Tweed, in 1789. He is distinguished for the introduction of iron water-wheels and other iron machinery, and as one of the first constructors of iron ships, which he began to build about 1835. He is author of several woi ks, one of which is entitled " Mills and Mill-Work," and has made important contributions to the Philosophical Transactions and the Transactions of the Philosophical Society of Man- chester. Among his works are numerous iron bridges. See Samuel Smiles, "Industrial Biography," 1864; "North British Review" for August, 1850. Fair'banks, (Erastus,) born at Brimfield, Massachu- setts, in 1792, was an extensive manufacturer of platform scales. He was chosen Governor of Vermont in i860. Died in 1864. Fairclough. See Featley. Fair'fax, (Edward,) a celebrated English poet, son of Sir Thomas Fairfax, was born at Denton, in York- shire, in the latter part of the sixteenth century. His principal work is a translation of Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered," (1600,) which he rendered, verse for verse, with a fidelity and facility rarely equalled. King James placed this translation above all other works of English poetry. Waller recognizes him as his master in the art of verse ; and Dryden, in comparing him to Spenser, gave the preference to Fairfax on the score of harmony. He also wrote a " History of Edward the Black Prince," in verse, and a treatise on " Demonology." His version of Tasso has often been reprinted in England, and once in the United States, (1855.) Died in 1632. See Preface to Fairfax's Tasso, 1749 ; " Biographia Britannica ;" Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets." Fairfax, (Robert,) an English musician and com- poser, flourished about 1510-20. Fairfax, (Thomas,) Lord, one of the most conspic- uous actors in the rebellion against Charles I. of England, and general of the parliamentary forces, was born at Denton, in Yorkshire, in January, 1611. He was the son of Ferdinando, Lord Fairfax, and Mary, daughter of Edmund Sheffield, Lord Mulgrave. Having strong inclinations for a military life, he went to Holland, and served as a volunteer under Horace, Lord Vere, whose daughter he afterwards married. When Charles endeav- oured to form a body-guard at York, the people, fearing that he would raise an army, deputized Fairfax to present a petition to him entreating him not to do it. Although the king tried to shun him, Fairfax succeeded in pre- senting the petition, in the presence of about one hundred thousand persons. When the civil war broke out, (1642,) the father of Lord Fairfax received from Parliament the commission of commander-in-chief of the Northern forces, and he himself that of general of cavahy. He distinguished himself in this war by his activity and bravery, particularly at Marston Moor, where he com- manded the right wing and where the king's army was totally defeated, (July 2, 1644,) and at the capture of York. Fairfax was appointed commander-in-chief of the parliamentary forces early in 1645, with Cromwell as his lieutenant-general. On the 14th of June the battle of Naseby was fought, on which occasion Lord Fairfax gained a decided victory. On the i6th he besieged Leicester, which surrendered on the i8th. He afterwards defeated Lord Goring, took Bridgewater by assault, and made himself master of several other places. On the loth of September he forced Bristol to surrender. In September, 1646, he captured Oxford, the last stronghold of the king, who fled for protection to Scotland. Lord Fairfax then went to London, where he was compli- mented and thanked by both Houses of Parliament, and was immediately sent with two hundred thousand pounds to Scotland to obtain the king, the Scotch having agreed to deliver him up for that sum. Soon after this he yielded to the superior genius of Cromwell, and when on his father's death, which took place about March, 1648, he succeeded to all his titles, he still continued to fight for Cromwell. He was nominated one of the judges of the king ; but he refused to serve in that trial. In the spring of 1649 he was appointed commander of all the forces in England and Ireland. He resigned his com- mission in June, 1650. About the end of 1659 he joined General Monk against Lambert, was appointed councillor of state, and also chairman of the committee delegated by the Chamber of Commons to go to the Hague and persuade Charles II. to return and take the royal func- tions. He was received by that prince, whose restora- a. e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m£t; n6t; gooQ; moon; FAIRFAX 889 FALCONER tion to the throne was partially owing to the sincere efforts of Lord Fairfax. After these events, he retired to his estates, where he died of a fever in February, 167 1, at the age of sixty years. See Hume, "History of England;" Villemain, " Histoire de Cromwell;" Guizot, " Histoire de la Revolution d'Angleterre ;" "Monk's Contemporaries," by Guizot, London, 1865; Hartley Coleridge, " Lives of Distinguished Northerns;" Richard Bell, " Fairfax Correspondence — Memorials of the Civil War," etc., 2 vols., 1S49; Sir Edward Cust, " Lives of the Warriors of the Civil Wars of France and England," London, 1867. Fair'fax, (Thomas,) Lord, of the same family as the preceding, was born about 1691. Owning large estates in Virginia, he left England and settled in that colony, in the county of Frederick. He was a patron and friend of General Washington in his younger days ; and in the Revolutionary war the hospitality and noble qualities of Lord Fairfax caused him to be held in so much vene- ration that his property was equally respected by the Americans and the English. Died in 1782. Fair'field, (Sumner Lincoln,) an American poet, born at Warwick, Massachusetts, in 1803. He published in 1830 "Abaddon, the Spirit of Destruction, and other Poems." l\\ "The Last Night of Pompeii" he claimed to have suggested the leading ideas in Bulwer's famous novel of " The Last Days of Pompeii," which appeared about two years later. Died in 1844. See a Memoir of his Life, by his widow, 1846; Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America;" Duvckinxk, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature." Fair'holt, (Frederick William,) a British artist and writer, published in 1854 a " Dictionary of Terms in Art." Faistenberger, fi'sten-b^R'ger, (Anton,) a Tyrolese landscape-painter, born at Innspruck in 1678, was a pupil of Gaspard Poussin at Rome. Died in Vienna in 1721. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Fai'thorne, (William,) an English engraver, born in London about 1616. He was an adherent of the royal- ists, and was for a time imprisoned in London. Having refu.sed, after his release, to take the oath of obedience to Cromwell, he was banished from England, and went to France, where he studied engraving under Champagne. About 1650 he returned to England, where he died in 1691. His engravings of "Christ at Prayer in the Gar- den of Olives," and of the " Marriage of Cana in Galilee," were among his principal works. He was also the author of a "Treatise on the Art of Engraving." See Strutt, "Dictionary of Engravers." Faithorne, ( William, ) a son of the preceding, en- graved portraits in mezzotint. He died about 1686. Fakhr-Eddaulah. See Fakhr-ed-Dowlah. Fakhr-ed-Deen or Fakhr- ed-Din, (or-Dyn,) f^K'r ed-deen, {i.e. the "Glory of the Religion.") There have been many Moslem doctors of this name, the most cele- brated of whom is the Imam Fakr-ed-Deen-Razee, (or -Razy,) who was born at Rei, a city of Persia, about 1150 A.D. He is esteemed one of the ablest Mohainmedan doctors that ever lived. He composed numerous works on theology, philosophy, and mathematics. Died in 1210. See Aboolfaraj, " Historia Dyuastiarum," translated by Pocock ; Aboolfeda, "Annales." Fakhr-ed-Deen, better known as Facardin Ameer, (or Amir,) Prince of the Druzes, born in 1574, was con- quered by Amurath IV. and taken to Constantinople, where he was put to death in 1635. Fakhr-ed-Deen Binakeetee, or Fakhr-ed-Din Binakiti, faK'r ed-deen bin-a-kee'tee, (Aboo Solyman Daood,) a Persian historian, born at Binakeet (Bina- kit) in 1329. Fakhr-ed-Dowlah or -Eddaulah, fSK'r ed-dow'lah, (Alee,) a prince who ruled over part of Persia towards the close of the tenth century. Died in 997 A.D. Falaize, fS'liz', (Caroline Philiberte,) originally named Jacquemain, (zhtk'miN',) a French authoress, born at Chateauroux in 1792 ; died in 1852. Falbaire, de, deh ftl'biR', (Charles George Fe- nouillot — feh-noo'yo',) a French dramatist, born at Salins in 1727. Among his most successful plays were " The Honest Criminal" and " The Two Misers," Died in 1800. Falcand, fSKkSN', [Lat. Falcan'dus,] (Hugo,) a historian of the twelfth century, supposed to have been born in Normandy, wrote, in Latin, a " History of Sicily" from 1146 to 1169. Falcand witnessed the events which he has recorded. His work is highly commended by Gibbon. See Gibbon, "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap. Ivi. ; Vossius, "De Historicis Latinis." Falcieri, fdl-che-a'ree, (Biagio,) a skilful painter of the Venetian school, born at San Ambrogio in 1628. Among his master-pieces is "The Council of Trent." Died in 1703. Falck, f^lk, (AntoON Reinhard,) a distinguished Dutch statesman, born at Utrecht in 1776. He became secretary of state in 1814, after the fall of Napoleon. In 1818 he was appointed minister of public instruction, and in 1832 received the title of minister of state. He wrote a treatise "On the Influence of Dutch Civilization on the Nations of Northern Europe." Died in 1843. See Quetelet, "Hommage i la Memoire d'A. R. Falck," 1844. Falck, fiik, (Jeremias,) a German engraver of his- tory and portraits, born at Dantzic in 1629, worked in Holland and Sweden. Died about 1710. Falck, (John Peter.) See Falk. Falck or Falk, falk, (Niels,) a Danish jurist, born near Tondern in 1784, was elected president of the Diet in Sleswick-Holstein in 1838. He published a treatise " On the Duchy of Sleswick in its Present Relations to Denmark and Holstein." Died in 1850. Falckenstein, fiKken-stln^, (Johann Heinrich,) the author of numerous historical and antiquarian works, is supposed to have been born in Silesia in 1682 ; died in 1760. Falco, See Conchillos-Falco. Falco, di, de fSKko, (Benedetto,) a learned Italian writer, born at Naples, lived about 1530. Fal'con-berg or FaPcon-bridge, (fau'kon-brij,) (Mary,) Countess of, a daughter of Oliver Cromwell, born about 1636, became the wife of Viscount Falcon- berg. She was a person of superior talents. Died in 1712. Falconbridge, fau'kon-brij, (Alexander,) an Eng- lish traveller who visited Africa, was the author of a treatise " On the Slave-Trade of the African Coast," (1789.) Died in 1792. His wife, Anna Maria, who accompanied him, wrote "Two Voyages to Sierra Leone," (1791.) Falcone, fal-ko'ni, (Aniello or Angelo,) an Italian painter, born at Naples in 1600, excelled in painting ijattles. He was the master of Salvator Rosa. Died in 1680. Falcone, di, de fSl-ko'ni, ( Benedetto, ) an Italian chronicler, born at Benevento, lived in the twelfth cen- tury. Falconer, faw'kon-er or fawk'ner, (Sir David,) a Scottish jurist, born in 1639, was lord president of Scot- land, and author of " Decisions of the Lords of Council," (1701.) Died in 1685. Falconer, (Hugh,) M.D., a British naturalist and palaeontologist, born at Forres, Scotland, about 1808. He was a surgeon in the service of the East India Com- pany, and discovered numerous fossils in the Sivalik Hills, which are described in the " Fauna antiqua Siva- lonis," (1846,) of which Falconer and T. Proby Cautley were joint authors. Died in January, 1865. See a biographical notice prefixed to the " Palaontological Me- moirs of Hugh Falconer," 2 vols., London, 1868. Falconer, faw'kon-er, (Thomas,) an English scholar, brother of Dr. William Falconer, noticed below, was born at Chester in 1736. He edited Strabo, and wrote several works. Died in 1792. Falconer, (Thomas,) an English lawyer and able writer, a grandson of Dr. William Falconer, was called to the bar about 1830, and was appointed a judge of county courts in Wales in 1851. Falconer, (William,) a Scottish poet, born at Edin- burgh about the year 1735. He early became an orphan, and, owing to the narrowness of his resources, passed but little time at school. He afterwards went to sea as a common sailor, — a position which was little calculated to develop his poetical genius. At the age of eighteen he embarked as boatswain on the ship Britannia, which was wrecked on the passage from Alexandria to Venice. « as >t; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; o, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (g^^See Explanations, p. 23.) FJLCONER 890 FALKLAND Falconer ard two of his companions were the only ones who were saved. This disaster furnished him with the subject of a poem, called " The Shipwreck," which he published in London in 1762, and which at once acquired for him a high reputation as a poet. Falconer returned to Scotland after the publication of his peom, and remained some time at Gladsmuir, with his relation the celebrated historian Robertson. In 1769 he em- barked as treasurer in the frigate Aurora for the East Indies, and is supposed to have been shipwrecked ; for nothing was heard from the vessel after it left the Cape of Good Hope. Besides the work previously mentioned, Falconer wrote a " Nautical Dictionary," a poem " Upon the Death of Frederick, Prince of Wales," and an ode entitled "The Demagogue," a political satire. See J. MiTFORD, "Memoir of Falconer," prefixed to an edition of liis poems, 1836; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Emi- nent Scotsmen;" Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets." Falconer, (William,) an eminent English physician, born at Chester about 1743. He was the author of an "Essay upon the Waters of Bath," "Observations" re- lating to the Gout, "Remarks on the Influence of Cli- mate, Situation, etc. on the Disposition and Temper, Manners, Laws, and Customs, Government and Religion, of Mankind," (17S1,) and a "Dissertation on the Influ- ence of the Passions on the Disorders of the Body," (1788.) He resided many years at Bath. Died in 1824. He left an only son, the Rev. Thomas Falconer, born in 1772 ; died in 1839. See notice of \V. Falconer in the "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie" of Ersch und Gruber. Falconet, ftrko'ni', (Andr^,) a distinguished French physician, born at Roanne in 1611 or 1612. He was med- ical counsellor to the King of France, and the author of a work on the treatment of scurvy. Died in 1691. Falconet, (Camille,) a distinguished physician and medical writer, son of Noel, noticed below, was born at Lyons in 1671, He was a member of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, to which he contributed several dissertations. Died in Paris in 1762. SiC Qui^RARD, -'La France Litteraire." Falconet, (£tienne Maurice,) a distinguished French sculptor, born at Paris in 1 7 16, was a pupil of Lemoine. His statue of Milo of Crotona opened to him the Academy of Paris in 1745. Having been invited by the empress Catherine II., he went to Saint Petersburg in 1766, and spent about twelve years on a colossal bronze equestrian statue of Peter the Great, which is his principal work and is generally admired. He returned to France in 1 778. He wrote a Commentary on the books of Pliny which treat on sculpture and painting, and several treat- ises on art. Died in Paris in 1791. See CicoGNARA, "Storia della Sciiltura;" L. Brightwell, "By- paths of Biography." Falconet, (Noel,) a noted physician and medical writer, son of Andre, noticed above, was born at Lyons in 1644. He was appointed consulting physician to the king. Died at Paris in 1734. Falconetto, fSl-ko-net'to, (Giovanni Antonio,) a painter of the Venetian school, born at Verona, flou- rished about 1500. Falconetto, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian architect, brother of the preceding, born at Verona in 1458, built the Rotunda of Padua, and other admired edifices in that city. His master-piece is the palace of Louis Cor- naro, his intimate friend, with whom he resided many years. Died in 1534. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. Fal-co'ni-a, (Proba,) a Latin poetess, who lived in the latter part of the fourth century. She composed a poem upon the "Civil Wars of Rome," which is lost, and a " Cento Virgilianus," which is extant. The sub- ject of the latter is sacred history. Falconieri, fal-ko-ne-a'ree, (Ottavio,) an Italian antiquary, born at Florence in 1646; died in 1676. Falcucci, fal-koot'chee, (Niccol6,) or Nicholas of Florence, a celebrated Italian physician, supposed to have been born about 1350. His medical skill procured for him the title of "the Divine." Died in 141 1. See TiRABOscHi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Falda, flKdJ, (Giovanni Battista,) a skilful Italian engraver, born in the Milanese about 1640. He engraved some monuments at Rome. Died about 1700. Faldoni, fil-do'nee, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian painter of landscapes, and an excellent engraver, was born in the March of Treviso about 1690. Faleiro, fd-la^-ro, or Falero, fi-la'ro, (Ruy,) a Portuguese geographer and mathematician. Having formed ah agreement with Magellan in a project to dis- cover a new route to the Moluccas, he offered his services to Charles V. in 1518. His offer was accepted; but a difficulty arose between Faleiro and Magellan, who departed without him. Died in 1 523. Faletti, fl-let'tee, or Falletti, fil-let'tee, (Geronimo,) Count of Trino, an Italian writer, born at Trino, in Montferrat, about 15 18. He was the author of an "Ac- count of the War in Germany in the Time of Charles v.," (1552,) in verse, and other historical works. Died in 1564. Falgani, fai-gcVnee, (Gaspare,) an Italian landscape- painter, born at Florence about 1620. Falieri, f^-le-a'ree, or Faliero, fS-le-a'ro, (Marino,) became Doge of Venice in 1354. He incited the ple- beians to a conspiracy against the nobles, in which the latter were to have been massacred ; but, the plot being revealed, Falieri was tried for his crime and beheaded in April, 1355. This event forms the subject of Byron's well-known drama "Marino Faliero." In the hall of the Grand Council of Venice the portraits of the doges are placed, but instead of that of Falieri there is represented a ducal throne covered with a pall, with this inscription : " Here is the place of Marino Falieri, beheaded for his crimes." He was about eighty years old. See Marino Sanuto, "Vite de' Duchi de Venezia;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" " Biographie Universelle." Falieri or Faliero, ( Vitale,) became Doge of Venice about 1084. He increased the power and commercial prosperity of the republic. Died about 1096. Faliero, f^-le-a'ro, (Angelo,) an eminent Venetian senator, who persuaded his fellow-citizens to reject the proposition made by the doge Pietro Ziani, in 1225, to remove the seat of government to Constantinople. Faliero, (Ordelafo,) a Venetian general, who was elected doge in (102. In the sani<. year he conducted a fleet to aid Baldwin I. and the Crusaders in the conquest of Palestine. He was killed at the siege of Zara in in 7. Falk, fdlk, (Johann Daniel,) a German litterateur and philanthropist, born at Dantzic in 1770. He founded at Weimar an institution for the education of destitute children, known as Falk's Institute. Among his works we may cite a satire in verse, entitled " Men and Heroes," (1796,) and his dramatic poem "Prometheus," (1804.) Died in 1826. See Gervinu.s, " Geschichte der poetischen National-Literatur," etc.; A. Wagner, "Falk's Liebe, Leben, und Leiden in Gott," 1818; "Falkiana," Hamburg, 1811. Falk, f^lk, (JoHAN Pehr,) a Swedish physician and distinguished botanist, born in 1727. He was employed by Linnasus as tutor to his son, and became, about 1765, professor of botany or pharmacy in Saint Petersburg. He was one of the naturalists appointed in 1768 to make a scientific exploration of Russia, and wrote " Me- moirs on the Topography of the Russian Empire," (3 vols., 1784-86.) In a fit of hypochondria, he killed him- self in 1774. See "Biographie Medicale." Falkland, fauk'land, (Henry Lucius Gary,) third Viscount, a son of the second Lord Falkland, is repre- sented as a young man of great promise. He wrote a play called "The Marriage-Night," (1664.) He died in the prime of life in 1663. Falkland, (Lucius Gary,) second Viscount, eldest son of Henry, Viscount Falkland, is supposed to have been born at Burford, in the county of Oxford, in 1610. He studied at Dublin, and afterwards at Cambridge. Possessing a good memory, great talents, and a pas- sionate love of literature, he progressed so rapidly in the study of the classics that, besides the Greek historians, he had read all the Greek and Latin poets before he had arrived at the age of twenty-three. In 1633, at the death of his father, he became gentleman of the chamr a, e, T, 6, li, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; FJLKNER FJNNIUS ber of the king, and in 1639, although he was disap- pointed in the hope which had been held out to him of a command in the army sent against the Scotch, he went as a volunteer. In 1640 Lord Falkland was chosen member of Parliament, in which capacity he distinguished himself by his efficiency. In the contest between Charles I. and the people, he at first acted with the latter, and favoured the prosecution of the Earl of Strafford; but, becoming convinced that the popular party were going too far, he attached himself to the interests of the king, to whom he afterwards adhered with exemplary fidelity, and by whom he was appointed secretary of state. After the battle of Edgehill, where the royal army was victorious. Lord Falkland exposed himself to imminent danger in saving the lives of his enemies who had laid down their arms. He was killed at the battle of Newbury, on the 20th of September, 1643, where, having insisted on going in the first rank of Lord Byron's cavalry, he was shot at the first charge : his body was not found until the next day. He was the author of a work entitled "A Discourse on the Infallibility of the Church of Rome," and is sup- posed to have assisted Chillingworth in his " History of Protestantism." See Clarendon, "History of the Rebellion;" Macaulav, "History of England," vol. v.; Walpole, "Royal and Noble Au- thors." Falkner, fauk'ner, (Thomas,) an English missionary, born at Manchester, studied surgery in London and Cadiz, where he was persuaded to become a Jesuit and to go to South America. He exercised his ministry in the" vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres and as far south as the Rio de la Plata, where his great ability as a physician and surgeon was very useful to him. After remaining forty years in that country, he returned to England, where he published a work in 1774, entitled "Descriptions of Patagonia and the Adjoining Countries." Died in 1780. See QuEKARD, " La France Litt^raire." Fallaro, fal-lS'ro, (Giacomo,) a painter of the Vene- tian school, flourished about 1530. He is praised by Vasari. Fallati, fSl-li'tee, (Johann,) a German writer, of Ital- ian extraction, born at Hamburg in 1809, published an "Introduction to the Science of Statistics," (1843,) and other treatises. Died in 1854. Falle, faul or fSl, (Philip,) born in the isle of Jersey in 1655, was the author of a learned work entitled "An Account of the Island of Jersey." Died in 1742. Fallet, fa'li', (Nicolas,) a French dramatist and poet, born at Langres in 1753 ; died in 1801. Falletti. See Falettl Fallmerayer, fSKmeh-rfer, (Philipp Jacob,) a dis- tinguished German linguist and historian, born in the Tyrol in 1791. He performed several journeys to Pales- tine, Egypt, Greece, etc. Among his works are a " His- tory of the Morea in the Middle Ages," (1830-36,) and " Fragments from the East," (1845.) Died in A]Dril, 1862. Falloppio, fal-lop'pe-o, sometimes written Fallopio, [Lat. Fallo'pius ; Fr. Fallope, ft'lop',] (Gabriello,) a celebrated Italian surgeon and anatomist, born at Modena about 1523. He at first studied at Ferrara under Antonio Musa Brasavola, and afterwards at Padua. About 1550 he became professor of surgery and anatomy at Padua, where he succeeded Vesalius. He was the author of several valuable anatomical works, of which only his "Anatomical Observations" (1561) was published before his death. He was one of the three anatomists who, according to Cuvier, restored, or rather created, the science of anatomy in the sixteenth century. Died ac Padua in 1562. He was an excellent teacher and a skilful operator. He discovered or first described several parts of the human body which bear his name. " No one,' says Hallam, "had understood that delicate part of the human structure, the organ of hearing, so well as Fal- lopius; though even he left much for others." ("Intro- duction to the Literature of Europe.") See NiCERON, "Memoires;" £lov, " Dictionnaire de la Mede- cine." Falloux, de, deh ft'loo',(FR^u6Ric Alfred Pierre,) ViCOMTE, a French statesman and able writer, born at Angers in May, 1811. He published a " History of Louis XVI." in 1840, and favoured the formation of a republic in 1848. He was minister of public instruction from December 20, 1848, to October, 1849. Since the latter date he has not been in public office. He became a member of the French Academy in 1857. See " Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale." FaFlows, (Fearon,) born about 1790, became astro- nomer-royal at the Cape of Good Hope in 1821. Died in 1 83 1. Falret, fSKri', (Jean Pierre,) a French physician, born in 1794, wrote on mental maladies. Fals, fdls, (Raymond,) a Swedish engraver of medals, born at Stockholm in 1658; died in 1703. Falsen, fSKsen, (Christian Magnus,) a Norwegian historian and jurist, born near Christiania in 1782, wrote a " History of Norway under Harold Haarfager and his Male Descendants." Died in 1830. FaFstaf, Fas'tolff, or Falstolf, (Sir John,) a famous English captain, born in Norfolk about 1377. He dis- tinguished himself at the battle of Agincourt, (1415,) and other actions in France. After the death of Henry V. he was Governor of Anjou and Maine. Died in 1459. Falster, fiKster, (Christian,) a Danish critic and poet, born about 1690, lived at Flensburg. He produced a number of satires, which were favourably received ; also "Amoenitates Philologicae," (3 vols., 1729-32,) and other works. Died in -1752. See Jens Hansen, " Programmata II. de Vita et Rebus gestis C. Falsteri," 1769-71. Famin,fS'm^N', (Stanislas Marie C^sar,) a French historical writer, born at Marseilles in 1799. Among his works, which are highly commended, are "A His- tory of the Invasion of Italy by the Saracens in the Seventh, Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth Centuries," (1843,) and "Histoire monetaire du Portugal," (in manuscript.) Died in 1853. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generalc." Fanachen. See Achen. Fancelli, fIn-cheKlee, (Jacopo Antonio,) an Italian sculptor, born at Rome about 1630. Fancelli, (Pietro,) an eminent Italian historical painter, born at Bologna in 1764; died in 1850. See Massini, " Cenno biografico di P. Fancelli," 1850. Fan'court, (Samuel,) an English dissenting minister of Salisbury, born about 1678, commenced in London the first circulating library that was established in England. Died in 1768. Fane, (Sir Henry,) a British general, born in 1778, commanded a brigade of cavalry at Talavera (1810) and other battles in the Peninsula. He became commander* in-chief in India about 1835. Died in 1840. Fanelli, fd-nlKlee, (Francesco,) an Italian advocate, born at Venice, wrote a " History of Athens," (1707.) Fanelli, (Virgilio,) a Florentine sculptor, who died at Toledo, in Spain, in 1678. Faneuil, popularly pronounced fun'el, (Peter,) founder of Faneuil Hall, Boston, was born in NewRochelle, New York, in 1700. About 1740 he erected for the town, at his own expense, the building which has since been famous as the scene of the most memorable public meetings held in Boston. Died in 1743. Fange, fSN'zhi', (Augu.stin,) a French Benedictine, born near Verdun about 1720; died about 1791. Fan'nin, (James W.,) Colonel, an officer in the Texan war of independence, a native of North Carolina, was one of the three hundred and fifty-seven massacred at Goliad by order of Santa Anna, March 27, 1836. Fan'ning, (David,) an American Tory and outlaw, notorious for his daring exploits and for his barbarity, was born in North Carolina about 1756. He became the leader of a band during the Revolution. Died in 1825. Fan'ni-us, (Caius,) surnamed Strabo, a Roman consul, during whose administration (161 B.C.) a law, called from him "Lex Fannia," was passed, to restrain the luxury of the people. Fannius, (Caius,) son of the preceding, and a friend of Scipio Africanus, was elected consul 122 B.C. He was one of the most celebrated orators of his age. Fannius, (Caius,) a Latin historian and orator, and a friend of Pliny the Younger. He commenced a work entitled " Exitus occisorum aut relegatorum a Nero," € as ^; 9 as s; g Aard; g as j; o, H, Yi, guttural ; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^='See Explanations, p. 23.) FANNIUS 892 FARADAY but died after he had completed only three volumes. A few fragments of his writings remain. Fau'm-us Ce'pi-o, one of a party who conspired against the emperor Augustus ; but his design was de- tected, and he was put to death. He forms the subject of one of Martial's epigrams. Fan''m-us Quad-ra'tus, a Latin poet, whose bust and works were placed in the library founded by Augustus, and who was tlie subject of the fourth satire of Horace. Fano, da, dS fa'no, (Bartolommeo,) a painter of the Roman school, born about 1460 ; died after 1534. His son PoMPEO was a painter. Fanoli, fa'no-lee, (Michele,) an Italian painter and lithographer, born near Venice in 1807. Fansaga, fin-si'gi, (Cosimo,) an Italian architect and sculptor, born in 1591 ; died at Naples in 1678. Fan'shawe, (Anne Harrison,) wife of Sir Richard Fanshawe, noticed below, was born in 1625. She was distinguished for her talents and accomplishments, and left interesting autobiographic " Memoirs," (1829.) Died in 1680. See "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1829. Fanshawe, (Catherine,) a literary English lady of the nineteenth century. She associated with Scott, Southey, Joanna Baillie, and other authors, and wrote verses, among which is an enigma on the letter H. Fanshawe or Fanshaw, (Sir Richard,) an Eng- lish diplomatist and poet, born in Hertfordshire in 1608, studied at Cambridge. He was sent as minister-resident to the court of Spain by Charles I. At the commence- ment of the revolution he joined the king's party, and was taken prisoner in 165 1 at the battle of Worcester, and detained in confinement for several years. After the restoration he was made privy councillor for Ireland, then envoy extraordinary, and afterwards ambassador to Portugal, where he negotiated the marriage of Charles II. with the princess Catherine. In 1664 he was sent as ambassador to Spain, where he died in 1666. Not- withstanding the cares of office and the troubles of that period, Fanshawe found time for literary pursuits. He was the author of several translations into English poetry, among which were the " Pastor Fido" of Guarini, and the " Lusiad" of Camoens. See "Biographia Britannica;" "Westminster Review" for Octo- ber, 1829. Fant,flnt, (Erik Michael,) a Swedish historian, born in Sudermanland in 1754. He became professor of his- tory at Upsal in 1781, and made a collection of materials for Swedish history. He commenced a work entitled "Mediaeval Writers of Swedish History," ("Scriptores Rerum Suecicarum Medii ^vi,") the first volume of which was published in 1818. Died in 1817. Fantetti, fin-tet'tee, (Cesare,) a Florentine engraver, born about 1660, engraved, at Rome, thirty-seven of Raphael's subjects from the Bible. Fantin des Odoards, fdN'tiN' di''zoMo'tR', (An- TOINE £tienne Nicolas, ) a French historian, born at Pont-de-Beauvoisin in 1738. Among his works is a " History of the French Revolution," (6th edition, 181 7.) Died in 1820. See "Noiivelle Biographie Generale." Fantoni, fin-to^nee, (Giovanni,) an Italian physician, son of Giovanni Battista, noticed Ijelow, born at Turin in 1675. He was professor of anatomy in his native city, and wrote many anatomical works, which are remarkable for their pure and elegant Latin style. Died in 1758. Fantoni, (Giovanni,) an eminent Italian lyric poet, born at Fivizzano, Tuscany, in 1755. ^^^^^ ^ m-s^w of unstable character, and was successively a monk, a cap- tain in the French army, and professor of eloquence at Pisa. He produced " Horatian and Anacreontic Odes," ("Odi Oraziane ed Anacreontiche," 1785,) and other works. Died in 1807. See "Autobiographic Memoirs," prefixed to an edition of his Poems, 3 vols., 1823; Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri," vol. i. ; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Fantoni, (Giovanni Battista,) a medical writer, born in Piedmont in 1654, became professor of medicine at Turin. Died in 1692. Fantosme, fan'tom, (Jordan,) a poet and historian, lived in England in the twelfth century. He wrote, in verse, a history of the wars and events which he wit- nessed in 1173 and 1174. It was published about 1840. Fantucci, fdn-toot'chee, or Fantuzzi, fin-toot'see, (Marco,) Count, an Italian litterateur and antiquary, born at Ravenna in 1745. He published "Monuments of Ravenna," etc., (" Monumenti Ravennati de' Secoli di mezzo," 6 vols., 1801-04,) ^I'ltl "On Honest People," (" De Gente honesta.") Died in 1806. Fantuzzi, fSn-toot'see, a family of Bologna, which produced several distinguished writers. Giovanni Bat- tista published a work on the Peripatetic Philosophy in 1536. Giovanni Fantuzzi, born at Bologna, lived about 1780. He contributed much to the literature of Bologna by his work entitled "Notices of the Bolognese Authors," (" Notizie degli Scrittori Bolognesi," 9 vols, fob, 1781-94.) Fantuzzi, fin-toot'see, (Antonio,) sometimes called Antonio da Trento, an Italian painter and skilful en- graver, born at Trent, worked at Fontainebleau with Primaticcio. Died about 1550. See Ticozzi, " Dizionario." Fanuoci.fa-noot'chee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Ital- ian historian, born at Pisa in 1756, wrote a " History of the Three Great Maritime Nations of Italy, the Vene- tians, Genoese, and Pisans," (4 vols., 1817-22.) Died in 1834. Fanzoni, f§.n-zo'nee, or Fenzoni, fSn-zo'nee, (Fer- RAU,) called also Ferrau da Faenza, a skilful painter of the Bolognese school, was born at Faenza in 1562; died in 1645. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Fa Presto. See Giordano, (Luca.) Far^'a-day, (Michael,) F.R.S., an English chemist and natural philosopher of great eminence, was born at Newington, in the county of Surrey, in 1791. He was the son of a blacksmith, by whom he was apprenticed to a bookbinder and stationer at an early age. His education, consequently, was not very liberal. During his apprenticeship he employed his leisure time in the construction of an electric machine and other apparatus. Having attended four lectures on chemistry delivered by Sir H. Davy, and taken notes of them, he wrote a letter to that great chemist, enclosing a copy of the notes, and soliciting his patronage in order to obtain scientific employment. This occurred in December, 1812. In 1813, by the influence of Davy, he obtained the position of assistant in the laboratory of the Royal Institution. In the same year he accompanied Sir H. Davy in a journey on the continent. The celebrity of Faraday is chiefly founded on his discoveries in electricity and electro- magnetism. He discovered the rotation of a magnet on itself produced by an electric current properly directed. As Ampere had made magnets by electricity, so Faraday produced electrical phenomena by magnets. He is con- sidered as the founder of the science of magneto-elec- tricity. In 1831 he commenced a series of memoirs on these subjects, which appeared first in the " Philosophical Transactions," and have since been collected in three volumes, entitled " Experimental Researches in Elec- tricity," (1839- 1 844- 1 85 5.) He received the Rumford medal and royal medal in 1846 for his discovery of dia- magnetism. Among the results of his chemical experi- ments are the condensation into a solid form of carbonic acid gas and other gases, and the production of excellent optical glass. His researches and writings have contrib- uted to establish the theory that electricity, caloric, and light are modifications of the same power or principle and are convertible into each other. These speculations conducted him to the surprising discovery of the action of electricity on light. From 1827 until his death, Faraday delivered annual lectures on chemistry, etc. at the Royal Institution, in which he was appointed professor of chemistry in 1835. His lectures were rendered very attractive and popular by his graceful elocution and his admirable tact as an experimenter, joined with his genius as an interpreter of nature. "Nothing," says Professor de la Rive, "can give a notion of the charm which he imparted to these improvised lectures, in which he knew how to combine animated and often eloquent language with a judgment and art in his experiments which added to the clearness a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fSll, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; FAR A J 893 FAR IN ELL I and elegance of his exposition. He exerted an actual fascination upon his auditors ; and when, after having initiated them into the mysteries of science, he terminated his lecture, as he was in the habit of doing, by rising into regions far above matter, space, and time, the emo- tion which he experienced did not fail to communicate itself to those who listened to him, and their enthusiasm had no longer any bounds. "Faraday was, in fact, thoroughly religious; and it would be a very imperfect sketch of his life which did not insist upon this peculiar feature which characterized him. His Christian convictions occupied a great place in the whole of his being ; and he showed their power and sin- cerity by the conformity of his life to his principles. It was not in arguments derived from science that he sought the evidences of his faith. He found them in the revealed truths at which he saw that the human mind could not arrive by itself alone, even though they are in such great harmony with that which is taught by the study of nature and the marvels of creation. Faraday had long and justly perceived that scientific data, so movable and variable, cannot suffice to give to man a solid and im- pregnable basis for his religious convictions ; but he at the same time showed by his example that the best answer which the man of science can give to those who assert that the progress of science is incompatible with these convictions, is to say to them, ' And yet I am a Christian.' " (See "Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution" for 1867, pp. 227-245.) He was one of the eight foreign members of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, an honour reserved exclusively for savants of the highest rank and merit. English and foreign writers concur in ascribing to him an honourable character, free from jealousy, and animated with a disinterested love of science. Among his later works is "Experimental Researches in Chem- istry and Physics," (1859.) Died in August, 1867. See John Tyndai.l, " M. Faraday as a Discoverer," 186S ; " Quar- terly Review" for December, 1846; "British Quarterly Review" for April, 186S. Faraj or Faradj, fir'aj, written also Farage and Fer- ruj, became Sultan of Egypt about 1399. His army was defeated byTaimoor near Haleb (Aleppo) in 1400. He was assassinated at Damascus in 1412. Farcy, ftR^se', (FkANgois Charles,) a French writer, born in Paris in 1792, was chief editor of the "Journal des Artistes" from 1827 to 1835. Farcy, (Jean Georges,) a French poet and prose- writer, born in 1800, was a friend of M. Cousin, who dedicated to him his translation of the laws of Plato. He left a volume of melanges in prose and verse, which are highly commended. He was killed in Paris, fighting for the popular cause, in July, 1830. See Sainte-Beuve, "Critiques et Portraits litteraires." Fardella, faR-deKll, (Giovannf Battista,) an Italian genera], born in 1762 ; died in 1836. Fardella, (Michelangelo,) an Italian philosopher, professor of theology and geometry at Rome, and of astronomy and medicine at Padua, was born at Trapani, in Sicily, in 1650. He left some valuable mathematical and philosophical works. Died in 1718. See NiCERON, " Memoires ;" Manchso, " Elogio del Cavaliere M. Fardella," 1839; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Far'dulf or Far-dul'fus, a favourite of Desiderius, the last king of the Lombards, was appointed by Charle- magne abbot of Saint-Denis in 790. Fare, de la, deh li ftR, (Charles Auguste,) Mar- quis, a French soldier and writer, born in Ardeche in 1644, was the author of a work entitled "Memoirs of the Principal Events of the Reign of Louis XIV." Died in 1 712. Farel, fi'rgK, (Guillaume,) one of the most distin- guished Protestant Reformers in France, was born near Gap in 1489. He studied in Paris under Lefevre d'fita- ples, and in 1524 publicly maintained at Bale a number 'Df theses on controverted points. He afterwards visited successively the principal towns of Switzerland, where his impetuous and fervent eloquence made numerous converts to the Protestant cause. He was chiefly instru- mental in establishing the Reformed religion at Geneva about 1532; and through his influence Calvin was in- duced to remain in that city. Farel had a share in the confession of faith and plan of ecclesiastical discipline drawn up by Calvin in 1537. The following year, how- ever, they were compelled to leave Geneva, and Farel repaired to Neufchatel, where he organized a church. (See Calvin.) He died in 1565, leaving a number of religious works. He was more eminent as a preacher than as a writer. See D. Ancillon, "Vie de G. Farel," 1691 ; Choupart, " His- toire de Guillaume Farel;" Von Kirchhofer, "Das Leben W. Farels," Zurich, 1831 ; C. Schmidt, "Etudes sur Farel," 1834; Rev. William M. Blackburn, "William Farel and the Story of the Swiss Reform," Philadelphia, 1865; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Haag, "La France protestante ;" G. Goguel, "Vie de G. Farel Reformateur," 1841. Farelli, fi-rel'lee, (Giacomo,) a painter of the Nea- politan school, born in 1624; died in 1706. Faret, fl'r^', (Nicolas,) a French litterateur, born at Bourg-en-Bresse about 1600. He was one of the first members of the French Academy, and author of several works in prose and verse. " He had," says Pelisson, "much purity and neatness in style, and much genius for language and eloquence." Died in 1646. See Pelisson, "Histoire de I'Academie." Fa'rey, (John,) an English geologist and surveyor, born at Woburn in 1766. He wrote a "General View of the Agriculture and Minerals of Derbyshire," (2 vols., 1811.) Died in 1826. Farey, (John,) an English civil engineer and draughts- man, son of the preceding, was born at Lambeth in 1 791. He received a gold medal for the invention of a machine for drawing ellipses. Died in 185 1. Farge. See La Farge, (Madame.) Faria, de, di fS-ree'S, (Manoel Severim,) a Portu- guese antiquary and theologian, born at Lisbon in 1 581 or 1582, was the author of some able historical and political works, among which are "The Lives of Joao de Barros and Luiz de Camoens," (1624,) and "Noticiasde Portugal," (1655,) Died in 1655. Faria, de, (Thom6,) a Portuguese Carmelite, born at Lisbon, made a translation of the " Lusiad" of Camoens into Latin poetry, which has been much admired for its elegance and purity. Died in 1628. Faria y Souza, (or Sousa,) de, di fS-ree'S e s5'zl, (Manoel,) a distinguished Portuguese historian and poet, born at Pombeiro or Souto in 1590. He became secretary of the Spanish embassy at Rome about 1630, and returned to .Spain in 1634, after which he resided at Madrid. His histories are written in the Spanish language. Among his numerous works are a "Commentary on the Lusiad of Camoens," (2 vols., 1639,) "Asia Portuguesa," (3 vols., 1666,) a History of Portugal to 1557, ("La Eu- ropa Portuguesa," 3 vols., 1667,) and "Various Poems," or " Fuente de Aganippe." As a poet, he belongs to the school of Gongora. Died in 1649. See his life, in Portuguese, by F. Moreno Porcel, 1733; Long- fellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Farina. See La Farina. Farina, fi-ree^nS, (Fabrizio,) a Tuscan sculptor, who flourished about 1600, and worked in porphyry. Farinacci, fa-re-nSt'chee, or Farinaccio, fd-re-nit'- cho, (Prospero,) an Italian lawyer, celebrated for his talents and his vices, was born at Rome in 1544 or 1554. Died in 1618. His numerous legal writings were col- lected and published at Antwerp in 1620. See Taisand, " Vies des plus celebres Jurisconsultes." Farinato, fS-re-n^'to, (Orazio,) a skilful painter and engraver, born at Verona about 1500. Farinato, (Paolo,) an eminent Italian painter, son of the preceding, born at Verona about 1525, was a pupil or imitator of Titian and Giorgione. He painted in oil and fresco, and excelled in design. Among his best works is "The Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes." Died in 1606. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Farinelli, fl-re-neKlee, (Carlo,) a celebrated Italian soprano singer, whose proper name was Carlo Broschi, was born at Naples in 1705. He was a pupil of Porpora. He performed with great applause in London in 1734 and 1735. About 1737, invited by the Queen of Spain, he went to Madrid, in order to soothe the nervous agitation or melancholy spirit of King Philip V. He € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jf^^See Explanations, p. 23.) FARINGDON 894 FARNHAM succeeded in this effort, and became the favourite attend- ant and adviser of the king. It is said that he never abused his great influence at court, and that he gave a good example of integrity and benevolence. He enjoyed equal favour with Philip's successor, Ferdinand VI. Died at Bologna in 1782. See GiovENALE Sacchi, "Vita di Carlo Broschi detti Farinelli," 1784; Fetis, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." Far'ing-dpn or Far'in-don, (Anthony,) an elo- quent preacher of the Anglican Church, born at Sunning, Berkshire, in 1596. He became vicar of Bray in 1634, was ejected during the rebellion, and was subsequently pastor of Saint Mary Magdalene, London. He j^ublished a volume of Sermons, (1647,) which are highly esteemed. Died in 1658. Far'ing-tpn, (George,) an English painter, born in Lancashire in 1754, was a pupil of West. Died in India in 1788. His brother Joseph, a landscape-painter, died in 1818. Farini, fl-ree'nee, (Carlo Luigi,) a popular Italian statesman, historian, and orator, born at Russi, in the Roman States, in October, 1822. He studied medicine, and wTote several medical treatises. About 1842 he was proscribed for his political opinions, (which, however, were moderate rather than radical,) and went into exile. He was elected a member of Parliament for Faenza in 1848, and was minister of public instruction in Piedmont about nine months in 1850. In 1859 he was dictator at Modena after the expulsion of the duke. He was minister of commerce in the last cabinet of Cavour, and president of the council (prime minister) from December, 1862, to March 24, 1863, when he resigned on account of ill health. His chief works are "II Stato Romano," (a History of Rome from 1815 to 1850,) and a continua- tion of Botta's " History of Italy." Died in 1866. The Hon. W. E. Gladstone published a translation of his "II Stato Romano," in 2 vols., (185 1.) See " Quarterly Review" for January, 1852 ; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1852. Farini, (Giovanni,) an Italian mathematician, born near Ravenna in 1778; died in 1822. Farjat, fSR^zht', (Benoit,) a French engraver, born at Lyons m 1646, worked in Rome. Among his best works are the " Baptism of Jesus Christ," and the " Com- munion of Saint Jerome." Faiiati, faR-li'tee, (Daniele,) an Italian monk and historian, born at Friuli in 1690 ; died in 1773. Far'mer, (Hugh,) an eminent English dissenting minister and eloquent preacher, was born near Shrews- bury in 1 7 14. He preached in London, and published, besides other works, a "Treatise on Miracles," (1771,) an "Essay on the Demoniacs of the New Testament," (1775,) and " Worship of Human Spirits in the Ancient Heathen Nations," (1783.) Died in 1787. See Michael Dodson, "Life of H. Farmer," 1804. Far'mer, (John,) an American genealogist, born in Chelmsford, Massachusetts, in 1789. He published a "Genealogical Register of the First Settlers of New England," (1829.) Died in 1838. Farmer, (Richard,) a learned and ingenious English author and critic, born at Leicester in 1735. His prin- cipal work was his " Essay upon the Learning of Shak- speare," (1766,) in which he maintains that Shakspeare derived his knowledge of classic authors from transla- tions. He became prebendary of Canterbury in 1782, and canon of Saint Paul's in 1788. Died in 1797. See Nichols, "Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century." Far'na-by or Far'na-bie, (Thomas,) a grammarian, born in London about 1575, obtained a high reputation and great_ success as a teacher, and was the author of several critical and grammatical works. Died in 1647. According to Anthony Wood, "he was the chief gram- marian, poet, Latinist, and Grecian of his time, and his school was so much frequented that more churchmen and statesmen issued thence than from any school taught by one man in England." See Wood, "Athens Oxonienses." Farn'bor-ough, (Charles Long,) Lord, an English politician, born in 1761, became postmaster-general. He was a friend of William Pitt. Died in 18^8. Farnese, faR-na'si, (Alessandro,) an Italian diplo- matist, born in 1520, was a grandson of Pope Paul HI. He became Bishop of Parma, and was employed by Paul III. in missions to France and Germany. iJied in 1589. Farnese, far-neez', [It. pron. faR-na'si; Lat. Farne'- sius,] (Alexander,) Duke of Parma, a celebrated gen- eral, born in 1546, was anephewof Philip II. of Spain, and the eldest son of Ottavio Farnese and Margaret of Austria. In 1565 he married Mary, niece of King John of Portugal. When his mother was made Regent of Flanders, he ac- companied her to that country ; he afterwards fought under Don John of Austria, and distinguished himself by his great courage and presence of mind, particularly at the naval battle of Lepanto, (1571.) Upon the death of Don John, (1578,) Farnese was invested with the gov- ernment of the Low Countries, where he gained many important victories. He was appointed to the command of the Invincible Armada in 1588 ; but, being shut up in Antwerp by the Dutch fleet, he was unable to take any part in the action which resulted so disastrously to Spain. During the civil war in France he marched against Henry IV. and compelled him to raise the siege of Paris, (1590.) After this he successfully opposed, at the same time, two of the greatest generals of that period, Henry IV. of France, and Maurice of Nassau. He received a wound in December, 1592, of which he died in Arras at the age of forty-seven. While in the midst of his mili- tary career, upon receiving information of th.'' death of his father, he asked permission of Philip II. to return to Italy, in order to take possession of his dukedom ; but, as his services were invaluable to that monarch, his request was not granted, so that he never entered his provinces after he became their sovereign. " He possessed," says Motley, comparing him with Don John of Austria, " far greater power for governing men, whether in camp or cabinet. . . . Cool, incisive, fearless, artful, he united the unscrupulous audacity of a condottiere with the wily patience of a Jesuit." See Motley, "Rise of the Dutch Republic," part vi. chaps, i.- vii. ; De Thou, "Historia sui Temporis ;" Strada, "De Bello Belgico;" G. Donuini, "De Rebus in Gallia gestis ab Alexandre Farnesio," 1671. Farnese, (Odoardo,) a son of Ranuccio, noticed be- low, succeeded him in authority in 1622. He took part with France in a war against Spain, and afterwards fought against Pope Urban VIII. He died in 1646, and was succeeded by his son, Ranuccio II., who was born about 1630 and reigned from 1646 until 1694. Francesco suc- ceeded his father, Ranuccio II. ; on the death of this prince, in 1727, his brother Antonio followed him as the eighth Duke of Parma and Piacenza. Diedini73i. An- tonio was the last of the family of Farnese who occupied the ducal throne. Farnese, (Ottavio,) a son of Pietro Luigi, noticed below, was born about 1520. He married Margaret of Austria, natural daughter of Charles V., and became the second Duke of Parma and Piacenza upon the death of his father. He appears to have governed with as much mildness and discretion as his father did with despotism. Died in 1586. Farnese, (Pietro Luigi,) was created first Duke of Parma and Piacenza in 1545 by his father. Pope Paul HI. He was notorious for his vices and tyranny. He was assassinated in 1547. See SiSMONDi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes;" Pompeo LiTTA, "Vita di Pier Luigi Farnese," 1821. Farnese, ( Ranuccio, ) a son of Alexander, the cel- ebrated Duke of Parma, noticed above, was born in 1569, and began to reign in 1592. He was notorious for tyranny and cruelty. Died in 1622. Farnesius. See Farnese, (Alexander.) Fames' worth or Farne' worth, (Ellis,) an Eng- lish divine of the eighteenth century, born in Derbyshire. He translated into English, from the Italian, Davila's " History of the Civil Wars in France," and the works of Machiavel. Died in 1763. Farn'ham, (Eliza W.,) (originally Miss Woodson,) an American authoress and philanthropist, born in Rens- selaerville, New York, in 1815. In 1836 she was mar- ried to Thomas J. Farnham, noticed below. She was for four years matron of the female department of the State prison at Sing Sing, and was highly successful in a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m£t; n6t; good; moon; FJRNHJM 895 FARRAGUT hei efforts to govern by kindness. She published "Life in Prairie-Land," "California Indoors and Out," and "My Early Days." She died in 1864. Farnham, (Thomas J.,) an American traveller and writer, born in Vermont in 1804, published "Travels in Oregon Territory," ( 1842, ) and " Travels in California and Scenes in the Pacific," (1845.) Died in California in 1848. Farochon, ft'ro'sh6N', (Jean Baptisi e Eugene,) a French statuary and engraver of medals, born in Paris in 1807. Farquhar, far'kar, (George,) a distinguished dra- matic writer, born at Londonderry, in Ireland, in 1678, was educated at the University of Dublin, and after- wards settled in London. Among his principal pro- ductions were "Love and a Bottle," (1698,) "Twin Rivals," (1703,) and "The Beaux Stratagem," (1707.) Died in London in 1707. See a notice of his life, by Leigh Hunt, prefixed to Farquhar's Works, 1849; "Lives of the British Dramatists," by Campbell, Leigh Hunt. etc. Farr, (Samuel,) an English physician, born at Taun- ton in 1741. He wrote, besides other works, "Elements ^ of Medical Jurisprudence," (1788.) Died in 1795. Farr, (William,) M.D., F.R.S., an English writer on statistics and public health, born at Kenley, in Shrop- shire, in 1807. He promoted sanitary reform by a number of works, among which are " Vital Statistics," {1837,) and "Statistical Nosology." Far'ra-gut, (David Glas'coe,) a celebrated Ameri- can admiral, born near Knoxville, Tennessee, on the 5th of July, 1 801. His father was a Spaniard, a native of Minorca, who fought for the United States in the Revolution and attained the rank of major. He entered the navy in 181 2, became a lieutenant in 182 1, and was assigned to duty at Norfolk navy-yard in 1824. He remained there until 1833, and married Virginia Loyall, of Norfolk. In 1841 he received a commission as com- mander. Besides being well versed in naval science, he spoke fluently, it is said, several modern languages. He was appointed commander of the navy-yard at Mare Island, California, about 1854, and obtained the rank of captain in 1855. In April, 1861, he went to Washington and offered his services to fight for the Union ; l)ut the government had no ship for him to command, as Toucey, the late secretary of the navy, had scattered the navy over distant parts of the world. He was employed for some time as a member of the naval retiring board. In January, 1862, the government fitted out for the capture of New Orleans an armament, of which Farra- gut was appointed commander. He sailed from Hamp- ton Roads about the 3d of February to Ship Island, which was used as a rendezvous. The expedition was accompanied by a land-army under General B. F. But- ler. New Orleans was defended against attacks from the Gulf by Fort Jackson and Fort Saint Philip, about seventy miles below the city, and by many gunboats and steam-rams. On the i8th of April, Farragut, who had selected the Hartford as his flag-ship, and whose fleet consisted of wooden steamers and bomb-vessels or mortar-boats, began to bombard Fort Jackson. The sides of some of his vessels were protected by an armour of heavy chain cables. He bombarded the fort for six days without success, and then resolved to try the peril- ous experiment of running past the forts in the darkness. Before daylight on the 24th, his fleet advanced in two columns, one of which was composed of the Hartford, Brooklyn, Richmond, Scioto, Iroquois, Itasca, etc. ; the other of the Cayuga, Pensacola, Mississippi, and five others. A grand and terrific spectacle was then ex- hibited when the guns of both the forts opened on the Union fleet, which was also assailed by the iron-clad ram Manassas, and by a number of gun- boats and fire-rafts rushing down the river. Of the seventeen Union vessels engaged in this action, thirteen passed the forts safely, and sunk or burned the fleet of the enemy, including the Manassas. Farragut lost in this battle, which lasted about one hour and a half, 36 killed and 135 wounded. Captain Craven, of the Brooklyn, silenced Fort Saint Philip as he passed it. "The passing of the forts Jack- son and Saint Philip," says Farragut, " was one of the most awful sights and events I ever saw or expect to experience. The smoke was so dense that it was only now and then you could see any thing but the flash of the cannon and the fire-ships or rafts, one of which was pushed down upon us (the Hartford) by the ram Manas- sas, and in my effort to avoid it ran the ship on shore, and then the fire-raft was pushed alongside, and in a moment the ship was one blaze all along the port side. But, thanks to the good organization of the fire-department by Lieutenant Thornton, the flames were extinguished, and at the same time we backed off and got clear of the raft." (Letter to G. V. Fox, dated April 27, 1862.) He moved up to New Orleans, which, being entirely inde- fensible against the guns of the fleet, was evacuated by the rebel army. According to the " Rebellion Record" and other authorities, the city surrendered on the 25th ; but Farragut, in the letter just cited, says, "I demanded the surrender of the city yesterday of the mayor. His reply was that the city was under martial law, and he would consult General Lovell. His lordship said he would surrender nothing, but at the same time he would retire and leave the mayor unembarrassed." The cap- ture of New Orleans was one of the most important victories of the war. Farragut was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral in July, 1862, having previously obtained command of the Western Gulf blockading squadron. About the end of June he attacked the batteries at Vicksburg, which were found to be impregnable to an attack On the river-front. Having been ordered to co-operate with General Grant against Vicksburg, he attempted, in March, 1863, to pass the batteries of Port Hudson. The Hartford and Al- batross, which were lashed together, succeeded, after a desperate contest; but the Richmond and others were disabled, and dropped down the river. His next great enterprise was directed against the defences of Mobile, the port of which the government desired to close against the ingress of blockade-runners. The entrance to Mobile Bay was defended by Fort Morgan and Fort Gaines, and the insurgents had in the bay a powerful iron-clad ram, called the Tennessee, besides three gunboats. Co- operating with a land-army under Generals Canby and Granger, the fleet of Farragut, consisting of fourteen wooden steamers and gunboats and four iron-clad moni- tors, passed Fort Morgan on the 5th of August, 1864, and entered the bay. The admiral lashed himself near the maintop of the Hartford, (according to one account,) in order that he might be able to overlook the whole scene. He states in his report that he "had an elevated position in the main rigging, near the top." In the early part of the action the monitor Tecumseh was sunk by a torpedo. Just after his fleet passed the forts, it en- countered the Tennessee ; and " then began," says Far- ragut, " one of the fiercest naval combats on record. The monitors, and such of the wooden vessels as I thought best adapted for the purpose, w^ere immediately ordered to attack the ram, not only with their guns, but bows on at full speed." The Tennessee was "sore beset," and never fired a gun from the time the Hartford struck her until her surrender. A few days after this victory the Union forces took Fort Gaines and Fort Morgan, with their garrisons, and rendered the access of blockade- runners to Mobile impossible. The Congress which met in December, 1864, recognized the obligations of the country to Farragut by creating for him the grade of vice-admiral. His character is described by the " United States Service Magazine" for January, 1865, in the fol- lowing terms: "The stainless honour, the straightfor- ward frankness, the vivacity of manner and conversation, the gentleness, the flow of good humour, the cheerful, ever-buoyant spirit of the true man, — these will be added to the complete education, the thorough seamanship, the devotion to duty, and, lastly, the restless energy, the dis- dain of obstacles, the impatience of delay or hesitation, the disregard of danger, that stand forth in such promi- nence in the portrait, deeply engraven on the loyal Ameri- can heart, of the Great Admiral." He was promoted to the rank of admiral July 25, 1866, and held a higher rank than any other ofiicer of the United States navy. Died at Portland, Maine, in August, 1870. See J. T. Headley," Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 1867. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (Sl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) FAR RANT 896 FAUCHER Far'rant, (Richard,) an English composer of church music, was a gentleman of the Chapel Royal. His an- thems are regarded as master-pieces. Died about 1585. Far'rar, (John,) an American mathematician, born in Lincoln, Massachusetts, in 1779, graduated at Har- vard in 1803. He became professor of mathematics and natural philosophy in that college in 1807. He translated Lacroix's "Elements of Algebra," and other French works, and contributed some articles to the "North American Review." Died in 1853. Far'ren, (Eliza,) a popular English actress, and Countess of Derby, born in 1759, was the daughter of a surgeon of Cork. She performed with great applause at the theatres of Liverpool and London. In 1797 she was married to Lord Derby. Died in 1829. Farsetti, faR-set'tee, a noble Italian family, one branch of which settled at Florence and another at Venice. Giu- seppe ToMMASO Farsetti, a chevalier of the order of Malta, was the author of numerous miscellaneous works. He collected a large number of poems in Latin and Italian of great taste and elegance, by requesting all the poets of his time to compose and send one or more pieces of the best quality for the collection. Died about 1775. Farsetti, (Filippo,) an Italian antiquary, born at Venice in 1705 ; died in 1774. Farulli, fd-rooKlee, (Giorgio Angelo,) a voluminous Italian historical writer; died at Florence in 1728. Farwharson, far'hwar-son, a Scottish mathematician, whom Peter the Great, when he visited England in 1698, induced to return with him to Moscow. In 1701 he founded in that city the first Russian school of marine, and in 17 16 became professor of mathematics at Saint Petersburg. Farwharson is said to have been the first to introduce the Arabic figures into Russia. Died in 1739. Fasch, fish, (Augustin Heinrich,) a German medi- cal writer, born in Thuringia in 1639; died in 1690. Fasch, (Karl Friedrich Christian,) a German musical composer, born at Zerbst, in Anhalt-Dessau, in 1736. His " Kyrie and Gloria" for sixteen voices is esteemed one of the most exquisite productions of its kind. Fasch was the founder of the Academy of Sing- ing at Berlin, ( Berliner Singakadeinie.) Died in 1800. See Karl F. Zelter, " Biographie von C. F. Fasch," 1801. Fasch or Faesch, f^sh, (Sebastian,) a Swiss anti- quary, born at Bale in 1647; died in 1712. Fascitelli, fi-she-teKlee, (Onorio,) a Latin poet, born at Isernia, Naples, in 1502; died in 1564. Fasel, fi'zel, (Johann Friedrich,) a German phy- sician, and professor of medicine at Jena, born in the duchy of Weimar in 1721 ; died in 1767. Fasolato, fa-so-l§,'to, (Agostino,) a Venetian sculp- tor, lived about 1700, and made a famous group of "The Fall of Rebellious Angels" at Padua. Fasolo, f^'so-lo, (Bernardino,) an Italian painter, a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci, born at Pavi'a, lived about 1 540. Fasolo or Fassolo, fis'so-lo, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian painter, pupil of Paul Veronese, was born at Vicenza in 1528; died in 1572. Fassin, de, deh ft's^N', (Nicolas Henri Joseph,) a skilful Belgian landscape-painter, born at Liege in 1728, worked at Geneva, Brussels, and Liege. Died in 181 1. See F. VAN Hulst, "Biographie de N. H. J. de Fassin," 1837. Fassolo. See Fasolo. Fastolf. See Falstaf. Fatah- (or Fat'h-) Abu-N^sr. See Alfath. Fateh-Alee- (or Ali-) Shah, fit'eh a'lee shah, written also Futteh-Aly-Shah and Feth-Ali-Shah, (called, before his accession to the throne, B^ba-Khin, \A'\A kSu,) King of Persia, born about 1762, began to reign in 1798. About 1802 war broke out between Persia and Russia, who fought for the possession of Georgia. This war was ended in 1813 by a treaty in which Fateh-Alee- Shah ceded Georgia to Russia. A dispute about bound- aries occasioned a renewal of the war in 1826, when the Persians were again defeated. Peace was restored in 1828. Died in 1834. See Malcolm, "History of Persia;" W. G. Ouselev, "Travels in Various Countries of the East," 1823; " Nouvelle Biographie Gdnerale." Fathime. See Fatimah. Fathimites. See Fatimites. Fatimah, fi'te-mah, f Fr. Fathime, ft't^m'; Gei. Fatime, ft-tee'meh,] written also Fathimet, the only daughter of Mohammed, was born at Mecca before her father assumed the character of a religious teacher. While still very young, she was married to her cousin Alee, who was surnamed the "Lion of God." Fatimah died about six months after her father. See Aboolfeda, "Vie de Mahomet." Fatime. See Fatimah. Fatimides or Fatimiden. See Fatimites. Fat'i-mites, sing. Fat'i-mite, [Fr. pron. ft'te'mjt'; Ger. Fatimiden, fa-te-mee'den ; Lat. Fatim'id^ or Fatimi't^,] the name of a celebrated Moslem dynasty, the rulers of which claimed to be descended froili Fati- mah, the daughter of Mohammed. The Fatimite caliphs ruled in Egypt about two hundred years, — that is, from about 970 to II 70. The founder of this dynasty was the Sheeite Al-Mahdee-Aboo-Mohammed Obeydallah, (often called simply Obeydallah,) who about 910 over- threw the dynasty of the Benee-Aghlab (the seat of whose power was at Tunis) and conquered a large part of Eastern Africa. He died in 934. One of his descend- ants, Moez or Mooiz, nearly forty years later, subdued Egypt and Western Africa, and established his throne at Cairo. Al-Adhed, the fourteenth and last calij>h of this dynasty, was dethroned by the celebrated Saladin (Sala-ed-Deen) the Aiyoobite. From Al-Mahdee's name of Obeydallah his successors are often called Obeydites. Fatio (or Faccio) de Duillers, fd'te-o (or fSt'cho) de dwee'ya, (Nicolas,) a celebrated mathematician, as- tronomer, and religious enthusiast, was born at Bale in 1664. He became a Fellow of the Royal Society of Lon- don in 1688. Among his discoveries were a method for forming glasses for telescopes, one for measuring the velocity of vessels, and one for the perfect regulation of watches. He was the author of numerous mathematical works. Died in England in 1753. He pretended to be able to work miracles. See Senebier. " HIstoire litteraire de Geneve." Fatouville, de, deh {^'ioo'vhV, a French dramatic writer of Normandy, lived about 1670. Fattore, II. See Pennl Faucci, fowt'chee, (Carlo,) an Italian engraver, born at Florence in 1729, settled in London. Fauchard, fo'shtR', (Pierre,) a celebrated dentist, born in Brittany about 1680, is regarded as the founder of the art of dentistry. He wrote a valuable work en- titled " The Surgeon-Dentist ; or, Treatise on the Teeth," (1728.) Died in Paris in 1761. Fauche-Borel, fosh bo'r^K, (Louis,) born at Neuf- chatel in 1762, was a zealous adherent of the royal family during the Revolution. After the accession of Napoleon he was engaged in several attempts to restore the Bour- bons. Died in 1829. See Louis Fauche-Borel, "Meinoires," 4 vols., 1828. Faucher, fo'shi', (C6sar and Constantin,) French generals, born at La Reole in 1759, were twin brothers. They served with distinction in the army of the republic in La Vendee in 1793, fighting side by side. During the empire they Were engaged in civil pursuits ; but in March, 1 81 5, they accepted office under Napoleon. Having been falsely accused of treason, they were shot at Bordeaux in September, 1 81 5. Faucher, (Jean,) a French Protestant minister and polemical writer ; died at Nimes in 1628. Faucher, (Leon,) a French minister of state and able writer on political economy and finance, was born at Limoges in September, 1803. He contributed many articles to the "Courrier Fran9ais" and the "Revue des Deux Mondes." In the Chamber of Deputies, to which he was elected in 1846, he acted with the gauche. He was minister of the interior from December, 1848, to May, 1849, and from April to October, 1851. He was liberal in politics, but not a republican. Among his works are " Studies on England," (1845,) and "Miscellanies of Po- litical Economy and Finance," (" Melanges d'ficonomie politique et de Finances," 2 vols., 1856.) Died at Mar- seilles in December, 1854, He resolutely declined to hold any office under Louis Napoleon after the latter had usurped imperial power. a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolongedj a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; FJUCHET 897 FAUST A Alluding to the conduct of Faucher on this occasion, a writer in the "Edinburgh Review" remarks, "We do not remember an example in political history of greater sacrifices made by an ambitious and ardent man to his sense of public duty and personal dignity." See Lavergne, "Biographie de Leon Faucher," in the "Revue des Deux Mondes," January i, 1855; Leox Faccher, "Corres- pondance. Vie parlementaire," 2 vols., 186S; and article on " Leon Faucher" in the "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1868. Fauchet, f5^sha', (Claude,) a French historical writer, born in Paris about 1530, published " Gallic and French Antiquities," (1579,) and " Origin of Dignities and Magis- trates in France." Died in 1601. Fauchet, (Claude,) a French ecclesiastic, born in Nivernais in 1744- He joined the revolutionary party in 17S9, and delivered in favour of their cause his " Dis- course upon the National Religion," and "Civic Eulog}' on Franklin." He became constitutional Bishop of Cal- vados in 1 791. He was opposed to the death of the king, and showed great courage in condemning those who favoured it. Having been accused as an accomplice of Charlotte Corday, he was condemned and executed as a Girondist in October, 1793. See Abbe Valmerox, (Jarrv,) "Vie de I'Abbe Fauchet." Faucheur, Le, leh fo'shuR', (Michel,) an eloquent French Protestant minister; died in Paris in 1657. Faugere, fo'zhaiR', (.\rnaud Prosper,) a French litterateur, born at Bergerac in 1810. He gained, three times, the prize of eloquence offered by the P>ench Acad- emy. One of these prizes was awarded for his " Eulogj' on Pascal," (1842.) He also edited the works of Pascal, "Pensees, Fragments et Lettres de Blaise Pascal," (2 vols., 1844.) This is said to have been the first correct and complete edition of Pascal's "Thoughts." In 1864 he published a revised edition of the "Memoirs of Ma- dame Roland," See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Faujas de Saint-Fond, fo'zhls' deh sts'ib^^, (Bar- TH^LEMV,) an eminent French geologist and traveller, born at Montelimart in 1741. He was a friend of Buf- fon, by whose influence he obtained the place of adjoint- naturaliste in the Museum of Paris, and that of commis- sioner of mines. He explored France, England, Germany, Italy, etc. In 1793 he became professor of geology in the Jardin des Plantes. Among his numerous works are " Mineralogy of Volcanoes, "( 1784,) "Travels in England and Scotland," (1797,) and an "Essay on Geology, or Memoirs subservient to the Natural History of the Globe," (2 vols., 1803-09.) Died in 1819. See Qlerard, "La France Litteraire;" Louis de Freycinet, "Essai sur la Vie, etc. de B. Faujas de Saint-Fond," 1820; "Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Fanlcon, fS'koN', (Marie Felix,) a French politician and jurist, born at Poitiers in 1758; died in 1843. Faulhaber, fowKhi'ber, (Christoph Erhardt,) a German mathematician, born at Ulm in 1708; died in 1781. Faulhaber, (Johann,) a German mathematician and engineer, born at Ulm in 1580, was the author of "In- ventions for the Delineations of Redoubts and Fortifica- tions," and other treatises. Died in 1635. See Montucla, "Histoire des Mathematiques." Faulkner, fauk'ner, (George,) the first Irish printer of any note, born about 1700, was apprenticed to the celebrated Bowyer, and established himself in Dublin in 1727. He enjoyed tke friendship and patronage of Dean Swift, Lord Chesterfield, and other celebrated men of the time. Died in 1775. Fau'na, a goddess of ancient Italy or Latium, said to be a daughter of Picus, and wife of Faunus, She was sometimes identified with the Bona Dea and with Ops. Fau'ni, [Eng. Fauns ; Fr. Faunes, f5n,] mythical beings whom the ancient Romans represented as having human bodies with the legs and feet of the goat. They were sportive and frolicsome, and presented some ana- logy to the Satyrs of the Greek mythology. Faun'tle-roy, (Thomas T.,) an American officer, born in Virginia, served in the Confederate army in 1 86 1, and was made a brigadier-general. Fau'nus, [Fr. Faune, fon,] a rural divinity and king of the ancient Latins, was supposed to be the son of Picus and the father of Latinus. He was worshipped aa the god of fields and shepherds, and was considered as one of the founders of the religion of Latium. He was sometimes identified with the Arcadian Pan of the Greeks. Fauques, fok, (Marianne Agnes,) a French au- thoress, born at Avignon about 1720. Having visited London, she became a teacher of the French language, and numbered among her pupils the celebrated linguist Sir William Jones. She wrote numerous W'orks in French and English, among which are " The Triumph of Friend- ship," (175 1,) and " The Viziers, or the Enchanted Laby- rinth." She was living in 1777. See Prudhomme, "Biographie des Femmes celebres." Faur, du, (Gui.) See Pibrac. Faure, f5R, (FRANgois.) Bishop of Amiens, in France, and one of the preceptors of Louis XIV., was born near Angoulenie in 1612; died in 1687. Faure, (Joseph Desir^ Felix,) a French judge, and afterwards a peer, born at Grenoble in 1780. Faure, (Louis Joseph,) a French statesman under Bonaparte and Louis XVIII., born in 1760 ; died in 1837. Fauriel, ioxt-lV, (Claude Charles,) an eminent French philologist and historian, born at Saint-Etienne in 1772, was a nephew of the Abbe Sieyes. He was inti- mate with Guizot, Manzoni, and Madame de Stael, who characterized him as "inexhaustible in knowledge and kindness." Among his principal works are a "History of Southern Gaul under the Rule of the German Con- querors," (1836,) and " HistoiT of Provencal Literature," (1846.) A chair of foreign literature was founded for him in Paris in 1830. His " Popular Songs of Modern Greece" (with a French version, 1825) had great suc- cess. In the opinion of E. Renan, " Fauriel is without contradiction the man of our age who has put into circulation the most ideas." Died in Paris in July, 1844, See Sainte-Beuve, "£tude sur Fauriel," in the "Revue des Deux Mondes" for May 15 and June i, 1S45 ; Rexax, noiice in the "Revue des Deux Mondes," December, 1S55; "Nouvelle Biogra- phie Generale." Fauris de Saint- Vincens, fo'r^ss' deh siN^•iN'- s6n', (Alexandre Jules Antolne,) a French antiquary, born at Aix in 1750 ; died in 1819. His father, Jules Franc^ois Paul, born in 1718, wrote on numismatics; died in 1798. Faust, fowst, or Fust, foost, (Johann,) a wealthy citi- zen of Mentz, supposed to have shared in the invention of printing. Having, after his law-suit with Gutenberg, gained possession of his printing-apparatus, he carried on the business with his son-in-law, Peter Schofter, who made important improvements in the art. (See Guten- berg.) Died in 1460. Faust, fowst, or Faus'tus, (Dr. John,) a famous magician and astrologer, born in AViirtemberg in the latter part of the fifteenth century. The German tradi- tion is, that, after spending a large fortune in his astro- logical studies, he made a league for twenty-four years with the devil, who gave him a spirit named Mephis- topheles for his servant. Having lived luxuriously through the appointed time, and astonished the world by his wonderful performances, he was destroyed by the fiend at midnight. It is the general opinion that Dr. Faust really existed, and, by his jugglery and magical arts, deluded people into the belief that he was leagued with evil spirits. This legend has formed the subject of numerous dramas, romances, and poems : the most cele- brated of these are Goethe's " Faust," Lessing's poetical fragment entitled " Faust and the Seven Spirits," and Marlowe's tragedy " The Life and Death of Dr. Faustus." See Dl'NTZER, "Die Sage von Dr. Faust untersucht;" H. Heine, "La Legende de Faust," in the "Revue des Deux Mondes," February, 1852; Meyer, " Studien zu Gothe's Faust," 1S47. Faus'ta, ( Flavia Maximla.na, ) a Roman empress, the daughter of Maximian, became the wife of Constan- tine the Great in 307 .\.D. She is said to have procured the death of Crispus, her step-son, by a false accusation. His innocence having become evident, she was put to death in 326. Faus'ta Cor-ne'li-a, a daughter of the Roman dictator Sulla, was born about 88 B.C. She was married about 55 to T. Annius Milo, and was notorious for her conjugal infidelity. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as G, H, Yi, guttural ; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 57 FAUSTINA 898 FAWKES Faus-ti'na, (An'nia,) daughter of the following, and wife of Marcus Aurelius. The infamy of her conduct even surpassed that of her mother. Died in Cappadocia in 176 A.D. Faustina, [Fr. Faustine, fos't^n',] ( Annia Gale- RIA,) a daughter of Antoninus Verus, one of the Roman consuls, was born in 105 A.D. She became the wife of the emperor Antoninus, and was notorious for her licen- tiousness. She died in the third year of her husband's reign, 141 A.D. Faustina Bordoni,f6w-stee'n^ boR-do'nee, (or Bor- done, boR-do'na,) an Italian singer, born in 1702, was married in 1730 to Jean Adolphe Hasse. Died in 1783. Fausto, fows'to, (Sebastiano,) surnamed da Longi- ANO, a learned Italian author, who lived in the sixteenth century. He made numerous translations from the Latin and Greek. Faus'tus OF Byzantium, Bishop of Cappadocia, born at Constantinople about 320 A.D. His principal work, entitled "Byzantine History," is written in Armenian. His style was far from elegant; but his history contains valuable information not to be found elsewhere. Faus'tus, surnamed Reiensis or Regensis, a monk, born in Bretagne, became Bishop of Riez about 470 a.d. He was a chief of the Semi-Pelagians. Died about 490. Fauveau, fo'vo', [Lat. Ful'vius,] (Pierre,) born in Poitou, was the author of Latin poems, which were pubr lished in the "Delicise Poetarum Gallorum." Died in 1562. Fauveau, de, deh fo'vo', (F^licie,) a sculptor, born at Florence, of French parents, about 1802. Among her works is a monument of Dante and a statue of Sainte- Genevieve. Fauvel, fo'v^K, a French antiquary, born in 1753 ; died in 1838. Fava, fa'vl, (Pietro Ercole,) Count, an Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1669 ; died in 174.4. Favard de Langlade, ft'vtR' deh IdN'gltd', (Guil- LAUME Jean,) a French jurist, born in 1762 ; died in 183 1. Favart, ft^vtR', ( Antoine Pierre Charles, ) a French dramatist and painter, born in Paris in 1784. Favart, (Charles Simon,) a popular French dramatist and voluminous writer, born in Paris in 17 10, was the grandfather of the preceding. Among his best works is his comedy of " Solomon II., or the Three Sultans." Died in 1792. His Memoirs and Correspondence were pul)lished in 1809, in 3 volumes. Favart, (Marie Justine Benoite Duronceray — dii'rdNss'ra',) wife of Charles Simon, noticed above, and one of the most celebrated actresses of her time, was born at Avignon, in France, in 1727. In her plays she was distinguished by her grace and versatility of power. She is supposed to have been the authoress of three works which appeared under her husband's name, viz., "Annette and Lubin," " Bastien and Bastienne," and the "Fete of Love." Died in 1772. See "Memoires de C. S. Favart," 1809. Favart d'Herbigny, ftVtR' d^R^b^n^ye', (Nicolas R:6mi,) a French military engineer, and general in the corps of engineers, born at Rheims in 1735. He distin- guished himself in the defence of Belle-Isle against the British in 1761, and wrote a valuable work, entitled "Memoirs on the Defence of Coasts and upon Military Reconnoissances." Died in 1800, Fave, ft\y, (Alphonse,) a French officer and writer on military tactics, born at Dreux in 1812. Favelet, fSv'li', (Jean,) a Flemish physician, and medical professor in the University of Louvain, born near Antwerp in 1674; died in 1743. Favereau, ftv'R5', (Jacques,) a French advocate and poet, born at Cognac in 1590. He was the author of a number of small poems which won for him a consider- able reputation. Died in 1638. " La Milliade," a satire in verse against Richelieu, was ascribed to him. Favier, fS've-i', (Jean Louis,) a celebrated PVench writer on civil law and politics, born at Toulouse about 1720. He published a " Historical and Political Essay upon the Government of Holland," (2 vols., 1748,) and other works. Died in 1784. Fa-voTi-us or Favoli, fS-vo'lee, (Hugo,) a Dutch physician, of Italian extraction, born at Middelburg in 1523. He visited Turkey and Greece, and published an account of his travels, entitled " Hodoeporicon Byzan- tium," (1563,) written in Latin hexameter verse. Died in 1585. Fa-vo'ni-us, (Marcus,) a Roman senator, was a par- tisan of the Optimates, a friend of Cato Lfticensis, and an opponent of Pompey. He was elected praetor in 49 B.C., and fought against Caesar in the civil war. He was nick- named " the ape of Cato," whom he took as his model. Having joined the army of Brutus and Cassias, he was taken prisoner at Philippi and put to death in 42 B.C. Fav-o-ri'nus or Phavori'nus, [^a6uplvog,\ a Greek writer, a native of Aries, in Gaul, removed to Rome, where he became celebrated under the reigns of Trajan and Adrian for his learning and literary productions. Of his numerous works but a few fragments are now extant. Favorinus was a friend of Plutarch, from whom he received the dedication of a work. See Philostratus, "Vitje Sophistarum ;" Diogenes Laer- Tius; Marres, "Dissertatio de Favorini Vita," 1853. Favorinus, known also as Va-ri'nus or Guarino, gwS-ree'no, Bishop of Nocera, born near Camerino, in Italy. He was noted for his learning, and as the pre- ceptor of Giovanni de' Medici, afterwards Pope Leo X. Died in 1537. Favoriti, fA-vo-ree'tee, (Agostino,) an Italian priest and Latin poet, born at Lucca in 1624 ; died in 1682. Favras, de, deh ftv'ras^ (Thomas Mahi — mt^e',) Marquis, born at Blois in 1745. He entered the French army, and became lieutenant in the Swiss body-guards of the Count of Provence. He afterwards had the com- mand of a legion in Holland. In 1789 he was accused by the revolutionary party of conspiracy, and crimes of which he was innocent. Pie was condemned to death and executed in 1790. Favrat, fav^r^t, (Franz Andreas,) a Prussian gene- ral, noted for his physical strength, born in 1 730; died in 1804. Favre, fSvR, [Lat. Fa'ber,] (Antoine,) an eminent French jurist, born at Bourg-en-Bresse in 1557, was for many years a judge and senator at Chambery. He pub- lished several valuable works. Died in 1624. Favre, (Claude de.) See Vaugelas. Favre, (Jules Gabriel Claude,) an eloquent French republican and orator, born at Lyons in 1809, became an advocate in Paris. On the formation of the republic, in February, 1848, he became secretary-general in the ministry of the interior. He was a member of the Con- stituent Assembly of 1848. Since Napoleon III. obtained the chief power, M. Favre has been a leader of the op- position. He is distinguished for his radical opinions and independence or audacity of character. He was elected a member of the corps legislatif in 1858 and in 1869, and admitted into the French Academy in 1868. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Favre, (Pierre,) a learned Jesuit, born in the diocese of Geneva in 1506. He was the companion of Loyola, to whom he rendered important aid in establishing the order of the latter through Europe. Many stories are told of his great piety and miraculous performances. Died in 1546. Favyn, ft'viw', (Andr6,) a French historical writer, born in Paris between 1550 and 1590. Among his works were a "History of Navarre," (1612,) and a "History of the Military Orders of Christian Kings and Princes." Faw'cet, (Sir William,) an English general and writer, born in Yorkshire in 1728. He served with dis- tinction on the continent during the Seven Years' war. He translated from the French the " Reveries" of Count de Saxe, (1757,) and from the German "Rules for the Prussian Cavalry and Infantry," (1759.) Died in 1804. Faw'cett, (John,) an English Baptist minister and re- ligious writer, born near Bradford in 1740 ; died in 1817. Fawkes, fauks, (Francis,) an English poet and lit- terateur, born in Yorkshire about 1725. He was the author of " Bramham Park," and other poems, and made good translations from Anacreon, Sappho, Theocritus, and Musaeus. Died in 1777. See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes," etc. Fawkes, (Guy or Guido,) one of the chief conspira- tors in the Gunpowder Plot in the reign of James I., was a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; FAXARDC M. 899 FEARNE a Catholic, and a native of Yorkshire. In 1604, Robert Catesby, Thomas Percy, Guy Fawkes, and others con- spired to blow up, with gunpowder, the House of Par- liament and kill the king"^ with the Lords and Commons, their motive being a fanatical zeal against the Protest- ants. They hired a vault under the House of Lords, placed in it thirty-six barrels of gunpowder, and arranged that Fawkes should explode it on the 5th of November, 1605. Before that time arrived. Lord Mounteagle, a Catholic peer, received an anonymous letter advising him to absent himself from Parliament and intimating that a great catastrophe was impending over that body. This excited the suspicion of the king and others, who searched the cellars in the vicinity and found Fawkes with matches and a dark lantern about midnight, No- vember 4. He was tried and executed in January, 1606. See Hume, "History of England;" Gardiner, "History of England from 1603 to 1616," chap. v. Faxardo. See Saavedra. Fay. See Dufay. Fay, fi or fi'e, ( Andras, ) a Hungarian novelist, poet, and dramatic writer, born at Kohany in 1786. As a prose writer he may be ranked among the best his country has produced. Fay, (Theodore Sedgwick,) an American writer, born in New York in 1807. He produced, besides other works, "Norman Leslie," a novel, (1835,) a poem en- titled "Ulric, or the Voices," (1851,) and a "History of Switzerland." He was sent as minister-resident to Swit- zerland in 1853. See Grisvvold, "Prose Writers of America;" Duyckinck, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. Fayderbe or Fay-d'Herbe, fa'diRb', ( Lucas,) an able Flemish sculptor and architect, born at Malines in 161 7, was a pupil of Rubens. Died in 1694. See G. A. Vanderpoel, "Notice sur la Vie, etc. de L. Fay- d'Herbe," 1854. Faydit or Faidit, f^'de', (Anselme or Gancei.m,) a French troubadour, born in Limousin. After he had led for some time the strolling life of a buffoon and juggler, he found a patron in Richard Coeur-de-Lion, whom he accompanied in his crusade to the Holy Land. Died in 1220. See " Histoire litt^raire des Troubadours ;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Faydit, (Pierre,) a French priest and theological writer, born in Auvergne. He is particularly noted for the part he took in the dispute between France and Pope Innocent XL, on which occasion he preached against the pontiff with great boldness. Died in 1709. Faye. See Lafaye. Faye, f^'y^h, (Andreas,) a Norwegian preacher and writer, born at Drammen in 1802, i^ublished a " History of Norway," (1831,) and several educational works, Faye, fi, (Herv6 Auguste Etienne Alhans,) a French astronomer and writer, born in the department of Indre in 1814. He became a member of the Institute. He discovered in 1843 ^ ^^^^ comet, which bears his name. Faye, (Jacques,) Lord of Espeisses, a jurist, born in Paris in 1542, When the Duke of Anjou was elected King of Poland, he accompanied that prince to Warsaw, and rendered him efficient service in conciliating some of the principal inhabitants. Upon the death of Charles IX., when the Duke of Anjou mounted the throne of France as Henry HI., Faye still retained his confidence, and held many stations of importance under him. Upon the death of this prince he joined Henry IV. He greatly distinguished himself at the siege of Paris, but died soon after, in 1590, of a fever. He was the author of some political works. See De Thoit, "Histona sui Temporis;" Taisand, "Vies des plus cel^bres Jurisconsultes." Fayette, de la, deh It fi'lt', (Gilbert Motier— mo'te-a',) was appointed marshal of France in 1428 by the regent, afterwards Charles VII. Died in 1464. Fayette, de la, (Marie Madeline Pioche de la Vergne' — pe'osh' deh It v^Rii,) Countess, a distin- guished French writer of romances, born in 1632. The most important of her works were "Zaide" and "The Princess of Cleves." She also wrote a historical romance, entitled " History of Henrietta of England." Died in 1693. See Sainte-Beuve, "Portraits of Celebrated Women." Fayette, La, General. See La Fayette. FayoUe, ft'yoK, (Francois Joseph Marie,) a French litterateur, musician, and critic, born in Paris in 1774, wrote, besides other works in prose and verse, "The Four Seasons of Parnassus," (16 vols., 1805-09,) and a F"rench version of Gerber's " Dictionary of Musicians," (1810-12.) Died in Paris in 1852. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" F^tls, " Biographie Uni- verselle des Musiciens. " Fayot, ft'yo', ( Alfred Charles Fr6d^:ric, ) a French historian, born in Paris in 1797. Among his works is a " History of France from 1793 to the Acces- sion of Charles X.," (16 vols., 1830.) Died in 1861. Faypoult de Maisoncelle, fa'poo' deh mi'ziN^seK, (GuiLLAUME Charles,) an able French statesman, born in Champagne in 1752, became minister of finance in 1795, minister plenipotentiary at Genoa in 1796. His services here were recognized by a medal which the Genoese senate ordered to be struck in honour of Bona- parte and Faypoult. He was minister of finance in Spain under Joseph Bonaparte about 1810-13. Died in 1817. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Fazaree or Fazary, Al, il fi-z^'ree, or Fezari, (Mohammed Ibn Ibraheem,) a Moslem astronomer of the eighth century, translated some important Indian mathematical tables into Arabic. Fazelli, fSd-zeKlee, (Tommaso,) an Italian historian, and professor of philosophy at Palermo, born at Sacca, in Sicily, in 1498. His chief work is his " History of Sicily," (1558,) esteemed for its accuracy and elegance of style. Died in 1570. Fazio, fSt'se-o, ( Bartolommeo, ) a distinguished Latin scholar and historian, born in the republic of Genoa. He was patronized by Alfonso of Aragon, King of Naples, whose history he wrote. His most important work was a "History of the Illustrious Men of his own Time," ( " De Viris Mv\ sui illustribus Liber," 1745.) Died in 1457. See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis." Fazio degli Uberti, fat'se-o dil'yee oo-b^R'tee, a famous Italian poet, born at Florence in the fourteenth century, was an ardent Ghibeline. He wrote a long descriptive poem entitled " Ditta Mundi," or "II Ditta- mondo," in which he proposed to imitate or rival Dante. It was printed in 1474. Died in 1367. Fazy, ft'ze', (Jean Jacques,) a Swiss statesman and journalist, born at Geneva in 1796. He edited several liberal journals at Paris between 1826 and 1835. Hav- ing returned to Geneva, he became the leader of the democratic party, which triumphed in the revolution of 1846. He was afterwards president of the council of state of his canton, and had the chief control of its affairs for many years. He published various works. Fazzini, fat-see'nee, (Lorenzo,) an Italian natural philosopher, born in 1787 ; died in 1837. Fea, fa'a, (Carlo,) an Italian antiquary, born at Pigna, in Piedmont, in 1753. Among his works we may name the " Philological, Critical, and Antiquarian Miscellany," (1790,) and "Descrizione de Roma e dei Contorni con vedute," (3 vols., 1824,) which are said to have great merit. Died about 1834. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Fearii, fern, (John,) an English metaphysician, pub- lished a "Review of Berkeley, Reid, and Stewart," (1813,) "Primary Vision," (1815,) and a work on "The Human Mind." Fearne, fern, (Charles,) an English jurist and writer of high reputation, born in London in 1749. His chief work is an "Essay on Contingent Remainders," (1772 ; 4th edition, enlarged, 1791. ) Died in 1791. " It was reserved for Mr. Fearne," says Judge Story, "to honour the profession by a treatise so profound and accurate that it became the guide of the ablest lawyers, yet so luminous in method and explanations that it is level to the capacity of every attentive student. He has in fact exhausted the subject, and this chef-d''ceuvre will forever remain a monument of his skill, acuteness, and research." € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; n, tiasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) F EARN LET Fearnley, fern'le, (Thomas,) a Norwegian landscape- painter, born at Frederickshall in 1802. Among his master-pieces are "The Glacier of Grindenwald," and * A Scene in Norway," which was purchased by Thor- waldsen. Died in 1842, Featherstonehaugh, feth'er-ston-hau^ (George \V.,) an American traveller, published a "Geological Report of the Elevated Country between the Missouri and Red Rivers," (1835,) and other works. Died Sep- tember 28, 1866. Featly, feet'le, or Fair'clough, (Daniel,) a learned English theologian and controversialist, born at Charlton, in Oxfordshire, in 1582. His "Ancilla Pietatis" (1626) was very popular. He also wrote "Clavis Mystica," (1636,) and a treatise against the Anabaptists, entitled "The Dippers Dipt," (1647.) Died in 1645. Febre or Febvre,Le, leh f^vR, (Valentine,) a skilful Flemish painter and engraver, born at Brussels in 1642 or 1643. He worked mostly in Venice, and imitated Paul Veronese. He engraved numerous works of Titian and Paul Veronese. Died about 1700. Febure, fa'biiR', or Fevre, (Michel,) a French missionary and Orientalist, lived about 1650-80. Among his works are "The Present State of Turkey," (1674,) and a "Treatise on the Manners and Customs of the Ottomans," etc. Fechner, feK'ner, (Gustav Theodor,) a German natural philosopher and poet, born near Muskau in 1801. He obtained the chair of physics at Leipsic in 1834, and distinguished himself by researches in galvanism. He published a number of able works on organic chemistry, anthropology, etc., also humorous essays, which were very popular. Fecht, f^Kt, (Johann,) a learned Lutheran theologian, writer, and professor of Hebrew, theology, and meta- physics, was born at Saltzburg in 1636; died at Rostock in 1 716. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Feck'en-ham, de, (John,) an English Catholic theologian, whose original name was How'man, born in Worcestershire about 1 516. He was appointed chap- lain to Bonner, Bishop of London, and when that prelate was deprived of his bishopric, under Edward VL, he was sent to the Tower. Upon the accession of Mary to the throne, (1553,) Feckenham was appointed her chaplain, and was sent to Lady Jane Grey a short time before her death, to endeavour to reclaim her to the Catholic faith ; but without success. During the bloody persecutions that followed, he used all his influence in favour of mode- ration towards the suffering Protestants. Pie even went so far as to intercede with the queen for her sister, the princess Elizabeth, who, when she became queen, offered him the archbishopric of Canterbury if he would con- form to the rules of the Episcopal Church, — which, however, he refused to do. After having opposed the Reformation in the House of Lords, where he was the last mitred abbot, he was imprisoned in 1560. He died in prison in the island of Ely in 1585. .See Wood, " Athenje Oxonienses." Fedele, fi-da'li, (Cassandra,) an Italian lady, cele- trated for her great learning and accomplishments, was born in Venice in 1465. She possessed the friendship of Pope Leo X., Louis XII. of France, and Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain : the latter tried to draw her to the court of Castile, but without success. Died about 1558. See F. ToMAsiNi, "Vita della Signora C. Fedele," 1636. Fedelissimi, fi-di-l^s'se-mee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian poet and physician, born at Pistoia, lived about 1620. Feder, fa'der, (Johann Georg Heinrich,) a learned German, who was professor of philosophy at Gottingen, born near Bayreuth in 1740; died in 1821, See his "Autobiography," ("J. G. H. Feders Leben," 1825 ;) Oertel, "De Vita et Fatis J. G. H. Federi," 1789. Federici, ft-di-ree'chee, (Camillo,) originally Gio- vanni Battista Viassolo,(ve-as'so-lo,) one of the most popular Italian dramatists of recent times, born in Pied- mont in April, 1749. He is regarded as the founder of a new dramatic school in Italy, and his plays are dis- tinguished by a higher moral tone than those of his FEITH 3i predecessors. Among his best pieces are comedies called "The Sculptor and the Blind Man," "Henry IV. at the Passage of the Marne," and " I falsi Galantuomini." Died at Padua in December, 1802. See TiPALDO, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri;" Ugoni, "Delia Letteratura Italiana." Federici, (Cesare.) See Fedrici. Federici, (Francesco,) an Italian republican general, born at Naples in 1748. He obtained the chief command at Naples in 1799. Having surrendered to the royalists as a prisoner of war, he was treacherously put to death in 1799. Federici, (Luigi,) an Italian poet and jurist, born at Brescia about 1540; died about 1607. Federmann, fa'der-mdn^, (Nikolaus,) a German, born at Ulm, commanded an expedition which explored New Granada about 1537. Fedrici, fi-dRee'chee, or Federici, fa-di-ree'chee, (Cesare,) a Venetian merchant and traveller, spent many years in the East Indies. He published, on his return, an interesting book, entitled " Voyage to the East Indies," etc., (1587.) Fedrigotti, f^-dRe-got'tee, (Geronimo,) an Italian lyric poet of superior merit, born in 1742 ; died in 1776. Fee, fa, (Antoine Laurent Apollinaire,) a French physician and eminent botanist, and first professor at the military hospital of Strasbourg, was born in 1789. He published a "Flora of Virgil," or "Critical Nomen- clature of the Plants, Fruits, etc. mentioned by Virgil," (1822,) "Methode lichenographique," (1824,) being a description of lichens, (regarded as the best work on this subject,) and other scientific works ; also, a "Life of Linnaeus," (1832.) See QuERARD, "La France LItteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Fehling, failing, (Heinrich Christoph,) a German painter, born at Sangerhausen in 1653; died in 1725. Fehr, faR, (Johann Michael,) a learned German physician, born in Franconia in 1610, became imperial physician to Leopold I. Died in 1688. Fehrmann, f3:R'man, (Daniel,) a Swedish engraver of medals, born in Stockholm in 1710; died in 1780. Fei, fa'ee, (Alessandro,) an Italian historical painter, called del Barbiere, was born in Florence in 1543. Feijou. See Feyjou. Fein, fin, (Eduard,) a German jurist and legal writer, born at Brunswick in 1813, became professor of Roman law at Jena in 1845. published, among other works, a continuation of Gliick's "Complete Explanation of the Pandects," (44th vol., 185 1.) He became professor of law at Tubingen in 1852. Died in 1857. Fein, (Georg,) a German democrat and revolutionist, brother of the preceding, was born at Helmstedt in 1803. He was connected with secret political societies, and was often banished and expelled from various states in which he sought refuge. Feitama, fT'tS-ma, (Sibrand,) a Dutch dramatic writer, born in Amsterdam in 1694. Among his works are two tragedies, "Fabricius," and the "Triumph of Poetry and Painting." He made excellent translations of Fenelon's "Telemaque" and Voltaire's " Henriade" into Dutch verse, and of several plays of Lamotte, Cor- neille, and other French writers. Died in 1758. See Jan de Kruyff, " Leven van S. Feitama," Leyden, 1782. Feith, fit, [Lat. Fei'thius,] (Everard,) a distin- guished Dutch scholar, born at Elburg about 1597. Among his principal works are "Athenian Antiquities" and "Antiquities of Homer," (1677,) the latter of which was highly esteemed. The death of Feith is enveloped in mystery. As he was walking one day in Rochelle, a citizen invited him to enter his house. He entered, and was never seen or heard of afterwards, notwithstanding the thorough search of the magistrates. He was young when he disappeared. See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." Feith, (Rhijnvis or Rhynvis,) one of the most emi- nent Dutch poets of modern times, born at Zwolle, in Overyssel, in 1753. He studied law at Leyden, where he graduated in 1770. Among his best productions are his didactic poem "The Grave," (" Het Graf," 1792,) the tragedies of " Inez de Castro," (1793,) "Thirza," and 900 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon FEIZEE 901 FELIX "Johanna Gray," and numerous hymns and odes of great beauty. His " Letters on Various Subjects" (" Brieven over verscheiden Onderwerpen," 6 vols., 1784-94) are among his most admired prose writings. Died in 1824. His son Peter Rutger was also a poet. See " Gedenksuil voor Mr. R. Feith," 1825 ; Cornelis Loots, " Hiilde aan de Nagedachtenis van Mr. R. Feith;" " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Feizee or Feizi, fi'zee, written also Fyzee and Fey- azi, (Abool-Feiz-Hindee,) an eminent poet, born at Agra, in India, in 1547, was a brother of the famous Abool-Fazl. He wrote in Persian. Died in 1595. Fejer, fi-yaR, (Gyorgy,) a distinguished Hun-garian writer, born at Keszthely in 1766. His chief production is entitled Codex diplomaticus Hungarias ecclesiasticus ac civilis." This valuable work is composed of twenty- eight (or twelve) large volumes relating to the history of Hungary, published in 1829-44. He became librarian of the University of Pesth and Buda in 1824. Feldbausch, f^lt'bowsh, (Felix Sebastian,) a Ger- man scholar and educational writer, born at Manheim in 1795. Feldmann, fglt'mSn, (Leopold,) a German dramatist, of Jewish extraction, born at Munich in 1803, was the author of several popular comedies. Felekee or Feleki, flKe-kee, a distinguished Persian poet, whose true name was Abool-Nizam-Moham- med; but, having devoted himself to astronomy and astrology, he received the title of Felekee, ("Celestial.") Died in 11 82. See Von Hammer, "Gescliichte der schonen Redekiinste Per- sians." Feletz, de, deh fi'las', (Charles Marie Dorimond,) Abbe, a P'rench critic, born near Brives-la-Gaillarde in 1767. He contributed a number of learned and elegant essays to the "Journal des Debats" and the " Mercure de France." He was chosen a member of the French Academy in 1827, and was also director of that institu- tion. Among his works is "Melanges de Philosophie et Litterature," (6 vols., 1828.) He wrote for the "Journal des Debats" about twenty-five years, and defended the classical against the romantic school. Died in 1850. See M. Delpit, "Notice sur M. de Feletz," 1852 ; Villemain, "De M. de Feletz et de qiielques Salons de son Temps," 1852; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Felibien, fi'le'be4,N', (Andr:^,) a French architect and able writer on art, born at Chartres in 1619. He was one of the first eight members of the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1673 became keeper of the Royal Cabinet of Antiquities. He wrote, besides other works, "Conversations on the Lives and Works of the Most Ex- cellent Painters, Ancient and Modern," (" Entretiens sur les Vies et sur les Ouvrages des plus excellents Peintres," etc., 5 vols., 1666-88,) which was translated into various languages. Died in 1695. See NiCEKON, "Memoires;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gdnerale." Felibien, (Jacques,) a Roman Catholic theologian and writer, brother of the preceding, was born at Chartres in 1636 ; died in 1716. Felibien, (Jean FRANgois,) an architect, son of Andre, noticed above, was born about 1658. He pos- sessed his father's taste for the fine arts, and left several works on the subject, the principal of which is entitled " Historical Collection of the Life and Works of the Most Celebrated Architects," (1687.) Died in 1733. Felibien, (Michel,) a Dominican, brother of the preceding, was born at Chartres in 1666. Pie wrote a " History of the Royal Abbey of Saint-Denis in France," and a "History of the City of Paris." Died in 1719, Felice, f4-lee'chi, (Costanzo,) [Lat. Constan'tius FELig'ius,] an Italian of the sixteenth century, born near Ancona, wrote, besides other works, a " History of the Conspiracy of Catiline." Felice, (Fortunato Bartolommeo,) a celebrated Italian author, and professor of philosophy at Naples, was born at Rome in 1725. He published in 1770 his greatest work, entitled " Encyclopaedia, or an Accurate Universal Dictionary of Human Knowledge," (42 vols.,) in which he was assisted by several eminent savants, including Haller. Died in 1789. See Feller, "Biographie Universelle," edited by Weiss. Feliciano, fi-le-chi'no, (Felice,) surnamed Anti- quario, an Italian antiquary, born at Verona about 1420. He collected inscriptions, medals, and other antiquities, and wrote a number of epigrams. Feliciano, (Giovanni Bernardino,) an Italian scholar and physician, born at Verona about 1490. He translated a number of medical and philosophical works from the Greek and Latin. He was living in 1550. Feliciano, or Feliciani, fi-le-chi^nee, (Porfirio, ) an Italian bishop and Latin poet, born in Vaud in 1562 ; died in 1632. Fe-li9''i-tas, Saint, a Roman lady and Christian martyr of noble birth, lived under the reign of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. She suffered martyrdom in 164 A.D., having previously witnessed the death of her seven sons. See Mrs. Jameson, "Poetry of Sacred and Legendary Art." Felino, de, deh fi-lee'no, (Guillaume L:6on du Tillot — dii te^yo',) Marquis, born at Bayonne, in France, in 1711. Being appointed in 1759 prime minister of Parma, he commenced a series of reformations which added greatly to the prosperity of the country. He expelled the Jesuits, founded a university, and liberally patronized education. In 1765 he was created Marquis of Felino. Died at Paris in 1774. Felinski, fa-lin'skee, (Aloys,) a Polish poet and political essayist, born at Ossow in 1773, was secretary of Kosciusko about 1794. In 1809 he was appointed professor of poetry and rhetoric at Krzemicniec. Died in 1822 or 1820. Felix, ( Antonius, ) a profligate Roman officer, a freedman of the emperor Claudius, became Governor of Judea about 60 A.D. According to Tacitus, "he exer- cised the sovereign power with the character of a slave." He was removed from office in 62 a.d. See Acts xxiii. 24, and xxiv. 24, 27. FeTix I., Saint, was elected pope in 269. At this time the Christians suffered persecutions under the em- peror Aurelian, and Saint Felix himself was condemned to death. He died, however, in prison, in 274. Felix II., Pope, or, as some say, Antipope, was chosen by the Arians, or the emperor Constantius, in 355, to succeed Liberius, who had been banished. Upon the return of Liberius, in 358, Felix was driven from the city. Died in 365. He was canonized as a saint of the Roman Church, Felix II. or III., a native of Rome, was chosen pope in 483. He is said to have been a great-grandfather of Gregory the Great. In 484 or 485 he condemned Aca- cius. Patriarch of Constantinople, who was accused of heresy but was protected by the emperor. This act ot Felix occasioned the first schism between the Eastern and the Western Church. Died in 492. Felix III. or IV. became pope in 526. He was ap- pointed by Theodoric, King of the Goths, against the wishes of the clergy and people of Rome. Died in 530. See Artaud de Montor, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes." Felix v., Pope or Antipope. See Amadeus VIII. of Savoy. FeTix, Bishop of Urgel, in Catalonia, lived in the eighth century. He advanced the doctrine that our Saviour, according to the human nature, was only the adopted Son of God, This doctrine was condemned in several councils, and Felix was sent to Rome, where he abjured it before Pope Adrian ; but when he returned to his diocese he relapsed into his former opinion. He was deposed and banished about 800. His doctrine was called Adoptionism. Died about 818. See Eginhard, " Annales ;" Baronius, "Annales." Felix. See Rachel, (Mademoiselle.) Felix, (Cassius.) See Cassius Felix. Felix, (MiNucius.) See Minucius. Felix, surnamed Pratensis, a native of Tuscany, and son of a Jewish rabbi, became a Christian, and translated the Hebrew Psalms and other books of the Old Testa- ment into Latin. Died in 1557. F^lix, Saint, a French prelate, born about 512 a.d,, became Bishop of Nantes in 549. He is said to have displayed much political ability, and to have constructed useful public works. Died about 583. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Sl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 902 FENDJ FELIX Felix, Saint, liishop of Ravenna, incited the people of that city to revolt against Justinian II., who punished him with the loss of his eyes. Died in 716 A.D. Felix de Tassy, fi^^ss' deh tt'se', (Charles Fran- cois,) a skilful P>ench surgeon, born in Paris, was ap- pointed first surgeon to Louis XIV. Died in 1703. Fell, (John,) an English prelate, born at I.ongworth, in Berkshire, in 1625, was a son of Samuel Fell, noticed below. He became Dean of Christ Church, Oxford, about 1660, and Bishop of Oxford in 1676. He wrote a number of works, including a "Life of Henry Ham- mond," (1660,) and an edition of the New Testament in Greek, (1675,) which was favourably received. Died in 1686. See " Biographia Britannica ;" Wood, "Athense Oxonienses." Fell, (John,) an English dissenting theologian, born at Cockermouth, in Cumberland, in 1735. Among his works we may mention his " Genuine Protestantism, or the Inalienable Rights of Conscience defended," (1773.) Died in 1797. Fell, (Samuel,) an English clergyman, born in London in 1594, was the father of John Fell, Bishop of Oxford. He became Margaret professor of divinity at Oxford in 1626, and Dean of Christ Church in 1638. Died in 1648. Felle, fel, (Guillaume,) a French traveller and Domi- nican monk, born at Diepjie in 1639 ; died in 17 10. FeFlen-berg, von, [Ger. pron. fon feKlen-bcRG^] (Philip Emanuel,) a celebrated Swiss philanthropist, was born at Berne in June, 1771. His mother was a descendant of the Dutch admiral Van Tromp. He tra- velled in his youth for the purpose of obtaining informa- tion. About 1799 he founded at Hofwyl, near Berne, an institution designed to supply a practical education to poor children by means of a model farm, a manual- labour school, and a normal school. His institution ac- quired a high reputation, and, together with his writings, exercised an extensive influence. He was the author of many works on agriculture and education. Died in November, 1844. See Hamm, " Fellenbergs Leben und Wirken," 1845; E. Roch- Hoi.z, " Gesprache iiber E. von Fellenberg iind seine Zeit," 1834; " Nouvelle Biographic Geneiale ;" " Edinburgh Review" for De- cember, 1818. Feller, feKler, (Joachim,) a German scholar, born at Zwickau in 1628. He wrote a number of Latin poems, and contributed to the " Acta Eruditorum." Died in 1691. See JocHER, "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." Feller, (Joachim Friedrich,) son of the preceding, born at Leipsic in 1673, was the author of several valu- able historical works, and assisted in Leibnitz's "History of tlie House of Brunswick." Died in 1726. Feller, de, deh feKler or f^^laiR^, (FRANgois Xavier,} a learned Jesuit, born at Brussels in 1735, ^^""^ author, among other works, of a " Historical Dictionary," in French, which passed through numerous editions. This was written with a view to serve the Roman Catholic Church, and is censured for lack of impartiality. Died in 1802. See Desdoyarts, "Notice sur la Vie de M. Feller," 1802. Fellon, fin(l)N', (Thomas Bernard.) a French Jesuit and Latin poet, born at Avignon in 1672, published fune- ral orations on Louis XIV., Louis, Dauphin of France, and others. Died in 1759. FeFlowes, (Sir Charles,) an English traveller and antiquary, born in Nottingham in 1799. He explored in 1838 various parts of Asia Minor, and discovered the ruins of Xanthus, the capital of ancient Lycia. In 1839 he published his "Journal written during an Excursion in Asia Minor." As an agent of the British Museum, he visited Lycia again in 1839, and discovered many other ruined cities with beautiful sculptures, which he described in " An Account of Discoveries in Lycia," (1841.) Having obtained from the Sultan of Turkey a firman permitting him to remove works of art, he conducted a party of explorers to the valley of the Xanthus in 1841, and brought home a collection of Xanthian marbles, which are now in the British Museum. Died in i860. See "Gentleman's NLigazine" for January, 1861. Fellowes, (Rev. Robert,) an English writer on theology, born in Norfolk in 1770, was a friend of the famous Dr. Parr. He published, besides other works, " Christian Philosophy,"(i 798,) a "Guide to Immortality," (3 vols., 1804,) and a " Body of Theology," (2 vols., 1807.) He withdrew from the Anglican Church, of which he had been ordained a priest, and became editor of the "London Critical Review." Died in 1847. Felsing, fgl'sing, (Jakob,) an excellent German en- graver, born at Darmstadt in 1802. He studied and worked for about ten years in Italy, and returned in 1832 to Darmstadt, where he obtained the title of en- graver to the court. Among his master-pieces are " The Marriage of Saint Catherine," after Correggio ; a " Holy Family," after Overbeck; and a "Violin-Player," after Raphael. FePtham or FelFtham, (Owen,) a learned English writer under the reign of James L, was born about 1608. He was a zealous royalist in the civil war. He is chiefly celebrated as the author of a work entitled " Resolves, Divine, Moral, and Political," (2d edition, 1628.) Died about 1678. "He is one of our worst writers in point of style," says Hallam, who thinks him " not only a laboured and artificial, but a shallow, writer." ("Intro- duction to the Literature of Europe.") See, also, "Retrospective Review," vol. x., 1824. FePtpn, (Cornelius Conway,) LL.D., a distin- guished American scholar and author, was born at West Newbury, Massachusetts, in 1807. He graduated at Har- vard with high honours in 1827. He was appointed Latin tutor in that institution in 1829, Greek tutor in 1830, and professor of Greek in 1832. In 1834 he was selected to fill the chair of Eliot professor of Greek literature, which position he held until i860, when he succeeded Dr. Walker as president of the imiversity. He contributed many articles to "The North American Review," "The Christian Examiner," "Bibliotheca Sacra," and other leading reviews and journals of the country. Of his numerous classical works, his "Iliad" of Homer, issued in 1833, "Greek Reader," (1840,) " Panegyricus" of Isocrates, (1847,) "Agamemnon" of .•Elschylus, (1847,) "The Clouds" of Aristophanes, and "The Birds" of Aristophanes, have each passed through several editions, and the two last have been reprinted in England. Among his most important works is "Greece, Ancient and Mod- ern : Lectures delivered before the Lowell Institute," (2 vols., 1867.) Died in 1862. FePtpn, (Henry,) an English divine, born in London in 1679. He became rector of Whitewell, Derbyshire, in 171 1, and principal of Edmund Hall, Oxford, in 1722. He published, besides a number of sermons, a "Disser- tation on reading the Classics and forming a Just Style," (171 1.) Died in 1740. See William Felton, "Life of Henry Felton," 1748. Feltoii, (John,) a native of Ireland, notorious for having assassinated, in 1628, George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, the favourite of James I. See Hume, "History of England." Felton, (Nicholas,) an English divine, born at Yar- mouth about 1563, was appointed Bishop of Bristol in 161 7, and translated to the see of Ely in 1619. He was one of the persons employed by James I. in the trans- lation of the Bible. Died in 1626. Feltre, Duke of. See Clarke. Feltrino, fgl-tiiee'no, (Andrea,) a painter of the Flor- entine school, born about 1490 ; died about 1554. Feltro, da, di f^KtRo, (Morto,) a Venetian painter of arabesques, born at Feltre about 1474, had a high reputation as a decorative painter, and was an assistant of Giorgione. He was killed in battle near Zara about 1519- See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." Fenaroli, fi-ni-ro'lee, (Camilla Solar d'Asti — so- laR' das'tee,) an Italian poetess, born at Brescia about 1705 ; died in 1769. Fenaroli or Feneroli, fi-ni-ro'lee, (Fedele,) an Italian composer, born at Lanciano, in the Abruzzi, in 1732, was professor of music at Naples. Died in 1818. Fenaruolo, fi-na-roo-o'lo, (Geronimo,) an Italian poet, a native of Venice, died about 1570. Fendi, fen'dee, (Peter,) an eminent German painter of history and portraits, born at Vienna in 1796, was also an engraver. He painted many subjects of German his- a, e, I. o, u, y, long ; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, v., y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; FENEL FENN toiy, and the portraits of the eminent numismatists of Europe. Died in 1842. Fenel, fa'n^l', (Jean Baptiste Pascal,) a French abl)ot, born in Paris in 1695, was the author of several historical and antiquarian essays. Died in 1753. Fenelon, fgn^eh-lon or fin'I^N', (Francois de Sa- lignac de la Mothe,'(or la Motte)— deh st'J^n'ytk' deh IS mot,) Archbishop of Cambray, an illustrious French prelate and author, born at the chateau de Fenelon, in Perigord, August 6, 1651. He was sent about the age of twelve to the College of Cahors, from which he passed to the college Du Plessis in Paris, and devoted himself to the study of philosophy and theology. At the age of fifteen he preached his first sermon, which elicited so much applause that his uncle, the Marquis de Fenelon, fearing it would have a bad effect on one so young, sent him to the seminary of Saint-Sulpice. He was ordained as a priest about 1675, '^f^^i' which he was employed for ten years in Paris as superior of a community called "Nouvelles Catholiques," founded for the instruction of new converts. Among his earliest publications was an argument against the Protestant religion, entitled "Traite du Ministere des Pasteurs." Soon after the edict of Nantes was revoked, (1685,) Louis XIV. sent Fenelon to convert the Protestants of Poitou. In this mission he employed mildness and persuasion in prefer- ence to military power. In 1689 Fenelon was appointed preceptor to the Duke of Burgundy, a grandson of Louis XIV., and the pre- sumptive heir to the throne, a prince of violent and irascible temper. He performed the duties of this highly responsible position with great ability, and, it appears, effected a decided improvement in the temper and con- duct of his pupil, for whom he composed " Dialogues of the Dead," and other works. He gained the favour and confidence of Madame de Maintenon. In 1693 he was admitted into the French Academy. He was ap- pointed Archbishop of Cambray in February, 1695, and accepted the office on condition that he should reside for nine months of the year in his diocese and devote three months to the instruction of the Duke of Anjou and the Duke of Berry, grandsons of the king. Fenelon excited general admiration at court by his ready and brilliant wit and the graceful amenity of a character in which, it has been remarked, *' the aj^ostle and the great lord seemed to be strangely united." About this time great excitement was produced in the religious world of France by the mystical sentiments and writings of Madame Guyon, of whom Fenelon was an intimate friend. His sympathy with her involved him in a long controversy with Bossuet, who condemned the quietism of Madame Guyon and somewhat arrogantly insisted that Fenelon should define his position on the subject. The latter accordingly wrote his " Explication des Maximes des Saints," (1697,) which was regarded as an indirect apology for Guyonism. Fenelon was de- nounced by Bossuet to the king, and was dismissed from court in disgrace. He appealed to the judgment of the pope, who, after long hesitation, yielding to the impe- rious will of Louis XIV. and the menaces of his agents, decided against the "Maximes des Saints" in March, 1699. Fenelon submitted with dignity, and publicly expressed his acquiescence in this decision. He might perhaps have been restored to favour at court, if a book, which he wrote to amuse the Duke of Burgundy, had not been made public, in 1699, through the infidelity of a servant whom he employed to transcribe the manu- script. This was "Les Aventures de Telemaque," his most celebrated production, and one of the most popular works in the French language. Louis XIV. suspected that this was a covert satire against his despotic regime, and endeavoured to suppress it. While Fenelon was thus proscribed at the French court, he was so highly honoured for his Christian virtues and wisdom among the nations of Europe, that, when adjacent parts of France were ravaged by hostile armies, the diocese of Camcray was protected from spoliation by the orders of the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene. His eloquence and wisdom in conversation are highly ex- tolled by Saint-Simon and other contemporaries. "We feel the power and ascendency of his rare genius," says La Bruyere, "whether he preaches without preparation, or pronounces a studied discourse, or explains his thoughts in conversation." He died on the 7th of January, 1715. Besides the above-named works, he wrote " Dialogues on the Eloquence of the Pulpit," a "Demonstration of the Existence of God," " On the Temporal Power of the Mediaeval Popes," an excellent "Treatise on the Edu- cation of Girls," and a number of political treatises. He ranks among the most excellent masters of graceful and eloquent diction that France has produced. " He had all the qualities," says Sir James Mackintosh, " which fit a man to be the preceptor of a prince, and' which most disable him to get or to keep office. Even birth and urbanity and accomplishments and vivacity were an insufficient atonement for his genius and virtue." The same writer remarks, in another place, " Fenelon in his writings exhibits more of the qualities which predispose to religious feelings than any other equally conspicuous person : a mind so pure as steadily to con- template supreme excellence ; a heart capable of being touched and affected by the contemplation ; a gentle and modest spirit, not elated by the privilege, but seeing its own want of worth as it came nearer to such brightness, and disposed to treat with compassionate forbearance those errors in others of which it felt a humbling con- sciousness." "There was indeed," says Macaulay, " one Frenchman who has discovered those principles which it now seems impossible to miss, — that the many are not made for the use of one ; that the truly good govern- ment is not that which concentrates magnificence in a court, but that which diffiises happiness among a people. These were the doctrines which Fenelon taught." (See review of Dumont's " Recollections of Mirabeau," in Macaulay's "Essays.") See, also, Ramsay, "Vie de Fenelon;" Cardinal de Bausset, " Histoire de Fenelon," 4 vols., 1808 ; Gosselin, " Histoire litteiaiio de Fenelon," 1843; Mackintosh, "View of the Progress of Ethical Philosophy :" Charles Butler, " Life of Fenelon," 1810 ; Alphonse DE Lamartine, " Fenelon," Paris, 1854; Henri Lemaire, " Vie de Fenelon," 1S26; Thomas C. Upham, "Life of Fenelon;" J. F. de Laharpe, " Eloge de F. Salignac de Lamotte-Fenelon," 1771 ; Jean SiFFREiN Maury, " filoge de Fenelon," 1771; Roy, " Histoire de Fenelon," 1842; Albert Werfer, " Leben des F. Fenelon," etc., 1852; A. Celarier, "Histoire de Fenelon," 1844; " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale;" "Biograpliie Universelle," by M. Villemain; "Lives of the Most Eminent F'rench Writers," by Mrs. Shelley, vol. i. Fenelon, de, deh fi''neh-16N' or fin^dN', (Bertrand de Salignac — deh st'l^n^ytk', ) Marquis, a distin- guished French soldier, writer, and ambassador of Charles IX. at the court of England. His master hav- ing charged him to apologize to Queen Elizabeth for the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, he an.swered, " Sire, address yourself to those who have advised you to it." He was the author of several diplomatic works. Died in 1589. Fenelon, de, (Gabriel Jacques de Salignac,) Mar- quis, nephew of the illustrious Archbishop of Cambray, was lieutenant-general of the French armies, and am- bassador from Louis XV. to the States of Holland. He wrote several diplomatic memoirs. He was killed by a cannon-ball at the battle of Rocour in October, 1746. Fenelon, de, (J. B. A. Salignac,) a French ecclesi- astic and philanthropist, born in Perigord, was appointed almoner to the queen of Louis XV. The young Savoy- ards of Paris interested him so much that he received the title of "Bishop of the Savoyards." During the Revolution he was arrested as a suspected person, and, although his innocence was proved, he was beheaded in July, 1794. Fen-es-tePla, (Lucius,) a Roman historian, born 49 B.C., was the author of "Annals" which were esteemed by his contemporaries and are often quoted by Pliny and others. Few fragments only are extant Died in 21 A.D. Fenin, fi''niN', (Pierre,) a French chronicler, born in Artois, wrote a history of the civil war between the houses of Burgundy and Orleans, which was printed in 1837. Died in 1506. Fenn, (Lady Eleanor,) an English writer of educa- tional works, whose assumed name was Mrs. Lovechild, was born about 1744; died in 1813. Fenn, (Sir John,) an English antiquary, born in Nor- wich in 1739, published a work entitled "Original Letters < a-! k; c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) FENNER FEODOR written under the Reigns of Henry VI., Edward IV., and Richard III.," which were the productions of different p£rsons of distinction, and contained many curious and II teresting anecdotes. Died in 1794. Feii'iier, (William,) an English Puritan divine, born in 1560. He became rector of Rochford, Essex, in 1629. Died in 1640. A volume of his sermons and other works was published in 1657. Fenner von Fenneberg, fen'ner fon fen'neh-l^gRc', leader of the insurrection in the Palatinate in 1848, was a native of the Tyrol. After the failure of his projects, he went to America, where, in 1851, he founded in New York a journal called the "Atlantis." Fenoillet, feh-nwi'yi', or Fenouillet, feh-noo'yi', (Pierre,) a French prelate, born at Annecy, was chaplain to Henry IV., and Bishop of Montpellier. He wrote, among other treatises, " Remonstrances to the King against Duels." Died in 1652. Fenollar, fi-nol-y^R', (Bernardo,) a Spanish poet, born at Valencia in the thirteenth century. See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Vetus." Fenouillot. See Fenoillet and Falbatre. Fen'rir or Fen'ris, called also Fenrisulfr or Fen- risulf, (fgn'ris-dolf ,) in the mythology of the Northmen, the name of a monster, regarded as the most terrible enemy of the /Esir. He was the offspring of Loki, the god of evil, and the female Jotun Angurboda, (AngrboSa, the "anguish-boding.") When he was young, the gods with great difficulty succeeded in binding him, (for an account of this, see Tyr;) but at the approach of Ragnarok or Ragnarock (the twilight of the gods) he will at length break loose. He will then rush forth with gaping mouth, his upper jaw touching heaven and his nether jaw the earth, and if there were room he would gape even more widely. He will first devour the sun, causing a severe loss, as may well be supposed, to mankind. Immediately after- wards, in the great battle with the gods, he will swallow Odin, but will the next moment be slain by Vidar. Some writers suppose that by the wolf Fenrir is typified volcanic fire. The name is probably derived from the same root as fen, a "marsh" or low place. Fenrir may signify the inhabitant of the lower world or the abyss. The monsters of the deep destined to destroy the bene- ficent gods (iEsir) may denote the blind and terrible powers which reside in the elements, and which, when they once break loose, are so destructive to the products of human intellect and industry; "because," says Schil- ler, "the elements hate the creations of the human hand."* See the account of Ragnarok in Thorpe's " Northern Mytho- logy," vol. i. pp. 80, 81, 82 ; also p. 181 etseq. ; Mallet's " Northern Antiquities," vol. ii., fable xxxii. ; Keyser's "Religion of the North- men;" Petersen's " Nordisk Mythologi." Fen'tou, (Edward,) an English navigator, born about 1550. In 1577 he accompanied Sir Martin Frobisher on his second voyage to the North Seas, as the commander of a small vessel. After making two voyages in the unsuccessful attempt to discover a passage by the north- west to the South Seas, he was given the command of four vessels to continue his explorations. He sailed first towards Africa, and then towards the Strait of Magellan. He fell in with three Spanish ships, one of which he succeeded in sinking, after a severe engagement. He then returned to England, and obtained the command of a vessel in the armament sent against the famous Armada in 1588, on which occasion he distinguished himself by his skill and bravery. Died in 1603. See Fuller, "Worthies of England ;" J. B.^rrow, "Memoirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen Elizabeth's Reign." Fenton, (Elijah,) a distinguished English poet, born near Newcastle, Stafifordshire,"in 1683. He graduated at Oxford about 1704. He was secretary to the Earl of Orrery, who appointed him preceptor to his only son. He assisted Pope, whose esteem and friendship he possessed, in the translation of the " Odyssey," his por- tion being the first, fourth, nineteenth, and twentieth books. Among his other works were the tragedy of "Mariamne," (1723,) which was successful, and brought * " Denn die Elemente hassen Das Gebild' der Menschenhand." Das Lied von der Glocke. him about £\ooo, a "Life of Milton," (1727,) which is highly praised by Johnson, and several poem.s. Died in Berkshire in July, 1730. See Johnson, "Lives of the English Poets." Fenton, (Sir Geoffrey,) an able statesman and translator, was a brother of Edward, noticed above. He produced " Golden Epistles from Guevara and other Authors," (1575,) and an English version of Guicciar- dini's " History of the Italian Wars," (1579.) He was for many years secretary of state in Ireland in the reigns of Queen Elizabeth and James I. Died in 1608. See Warton, " History of English Poetry." Fen'ton, (Reuben E.,) an American lawyer and legis- lator, born at Carroll, Chautauqua county. New York, in July, 1819. He represented the thirty-third district of New York in Congress for four successive terms, from December, 1857, to March, 1865, and acted with the Republican party. He distinguished himself by his talents for business. In November, 1864, he was elected Governor of New York for two years. He was re- elected in 1866, and was chosen a Senator of the United States in 1869. Fen'wick, (George,) the proprietor of a plantation near Saybrook, Connecticut, came to America in 1636. Having returned to England, he was appointed one of the judges in the trial of Charles I. Died in 1657. Fenwick, (George,) an English theologian of the Hutchinsonian school, was rector of Hallaton, Leicester- shire. He published "Thoughts on the Hebrew Titles of the Psalms," (1749.) Died in 1760. Fenwick, ( Sir John, ) a Roman Catholic agitator and conspirator during the reign of William HI., was born in England near the middle of the seventeenth century. He was highly connected, having married a sister of the Earl of Carlisle. In 1696 he was arrested for high treason; but the government failed to convict him, in consequence of one of the cliief witnesses having been prevailed upon by Fenwick's friends to hide himself on the continent. Thereupon he was tried under a bill' of attainder, which, after an extraordinary excitement and conflict, passed both Houses of Parliament and received the royal assent. He was executed the 28th of January, 1697. He was the last person who suffered death in England by an act of attainder. For an extremely interesting account of his trial, see Macaulay's "History of England," vol. iv. chap. xxii. Fen'wicke, (John,) an Englishman, born in 1618, noted as the founder of a colony in New Jersey, was a member of the Society of Friends. He obtained in 1673 a grant of land in West Jersey, emigrated in 1675, and settled in Salem. His claim to the proprietorship was disputed by Governor E. Andros, who arrested him in 1678 and confined him in prison for two years. He died poor in 1683, after he had conveyed or transferred his claim to William Penn. See L. Q. C. Elmer, " History of the Early Settlement of Cum- berland County, New Jersey," 1869. Fenyes, f^n-y^sh, (Alexius,) a Hungarian geogra- pher, born in the county of Bihar in 1807. He published two valuable works, entitled " Present Condition of Hun- gary and the Adjacent Countries in their Geographical and Statistical Relations," (6 vols., 1839,) and "Statistics of Hungary," (1849.) Feo, fa'o, (Francesco,) an Italian composer, born at Naples about 1699. He produced a number of masses, litanies, etc., and a successful opera, entitled " Iperm- nestra." Feodor, fa'o-dor, sometimes written Fedor, I., (Ivan- ovitch,) Czar of Russia, the last of the dynasty of Rurik, was born in 1557, and ascended the throne in 1584. Under his reign the Church of Russia was declared in- dependent of the Patriarch of Constantinople ; and from that time it had a separate patriarch. Died in 1598. See Karamzin, " Histoire de I'Empire de Russie." Feodor or Fedor II., (Alexievitch,) elder brother of Peter the Great, became Czar of Russia in 1676, and distinguished his reign by passing some important laws of a reformatory character. Died in 1682. Feodor or Fedor, fa'o-dor, (IvANOvrrcH,) a Russian or Kalmuck painter and engraver, born about 1765, near the frontier between Russia and China. He studied at a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fl,ll, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; FEOFAN FERDINAND Rome, became a skilful draughtsman, and accompanied Lord Elgin to Athens about 1800. He made drawings of the bas-reliefs and other antique monuments of Athens, called the Elgin Marbles. Died in 182 1. Feofan or Feophan, fi-o-fin', an eminent Russian prelate and writer, born at Kiev in 168 1. He became Bishop of Pleskov and Narva about 17 16, and Archbishop of Novogorod in 1721. He co-operated with Peter the Great in his projects of improvement and civilization. Died in 1736. Fer, de, deh faiR, (Nicolas,) a French geographer, born in 1646; died in 1720. Fer de la Nouerre, de, deh f^R deh It noo^aiR', a French captain of artillery, and the author of " Science of Navigable Canals." Died about 1790. Ferabosco, fi-ra-bos'ko, (Alfonso,) a composer, born at Greenwich about 1550, was a son of an Italian musician. He composed madrigals, and acquired a high reputation. Feraldo. See F6raud, (Raimond.) Feraud, ik'xb', (Jean Franqois,) a French gramma- rian, born at Marseilles in 1725, published a valuable "Grammatical Dictionary of the French Language." Died in 1807. Feraud or Feraudi, (Wxc/dt', sometimes written Feraldo or Ferrando, (Raimond,) a Proven9al poet, «vho died about 1324. Ferber, fgR'ber, (Johan Jakob,) a distinguished Swedish mineralogist, born at Carlscrona in 1743. He studied under Linnseus, Wallerius, and Cronstadt, ex- plored the mines of Germany, France, etc., and was appointed professor of natural history and philosophy at Mittau in 1774. He removed to Saint Petersburg in 1783, and entered the service of the King of Prussia in 1786. Among his numerous works are his " Descriptions of the Quicksilver-Mines of Idria," (1774,) and "Minera- logical History of Bohemia," (1774.) Died in 1790. See Meusel, " Lexikon der vom Jahre 1750-1800 veistorbenen Deutsche!! Schriftsteller." Ferchault de Reaumur. See Reaumur. Fer'di-nand [Ger. pron. f^RMe-nSnt'] I., (Karl Leo- pold Franz,) Emperor of Austria, born at Vienna in 1 793, was the eldest son of Francis I., and uncle of Franz Joseph, the present emperor. He married, in 183 1, Maria Anna Carolina, a daughter of Victor Emmanuel of Sar- dinia. He ascended the throne on the 2d of March, 1835. As he was subject to a chronic disorder by which his mind was impaired, the government was directed chiefly by Metternich as prime minister. In consequence of the revolutionary agitations which prevailed in 1848, he abdicated in favour of his nephew, Franz Joseph, in December of that year. ^ Ferdinand I., Emperor of Germany, and younger brother of Charles V., was born at Alcala, in Spain, in 1503. His mother was a daughter of Ferdinand and Isa- bella of Spain. Having married Anne, sister and heiress of Louis, King of Hungary and Bohemia, upon the death of that monarch, in 1526, he laid claim to both crowns, and was recognized by the Bohemians ; bat in Hungary he met with opposition. John Zapolya, Vayvode of Transylvania, having been elected king by some of the Hungarian lords, called in the Turks to assist him, and defeated Ferdinand, who had marched against him. After this a compromise was effected, each retaining part of the kingdom. He obtained in 1521 the sove- reignty of the German provinces of Austria by the con- sent of Charles V. Ferdinand was elected King of the Romans in 1531, and succeeded Charles V,, who abdi- cated the imperial throne in August, 1556. His title was confirmed by the Diet in 1558. As a monarch, he was distinguished for his moderation and justice, and was a liberal patron of learning. Died in Vienna in July, 1564. He was succeeded by his son, Maximilian. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Alfonso DeUlloa, "Vita del Imperatore Ferdinando L," 1565; F. B. BucH- HOLTZ, "GeschichtederRegierung Ferdinand's I.," 10 vols., 1830-41. Ferdinand II., Emperor of Germany, son of Charles, Duke of Styria, and grandson of Ferdinand I., was born in July, 1578. Through the influence of his cousin, the emperor Matthias, he was crowned King of Bohemia in 161 7, after having promised religious liberty to the Bohemian Protestants. Frederick, Elector Palatine, re- solved to oppose him ; and, as Ferdinand had refused to protect his Protestant subjects against the Catholics, the Bohemians declared that he had broken his oath and that the throne was vacant. This led to the famous Thirty Years' war. At the time that Ferdinand lost the crown of Bohemia, he was recognized King of Hungary, and, upon the death of Matthias, was elected emperor, in 1619. Frederick, after some hesitation, accepted the crown of Bohemia, which had been offered to him by the States, and leagued himself with all the enemies of the house of Austria. At the battle of Prague, which was fought in 1620, the Palatine was defeated by the army of Ferdinand under Maximilian of Bavaria, and he lost both his new and his old dominions; and in 1623 the emperor gave Maximilian full power in the Palatinate. In 1624 another Protestant league was formed against Ferdinand, with the King of Denmark at its head ; but the latter was defeated by the imperialist general Wal- lenstein, and was forced to accept peace on humiliating terms. Ferdinand, thinking that the time had now ar- rived to extinguish Protestantism in his empire, as he could command an army of 150,000 men, while the league could muster only 30,000, was preparing to execute this design, when a new league was formed, about 1630, by Sweden, France, and Venice, with Gustavus Adolphus at its head, who gained many brilliant and important victories over the emperor. But at the battle of Lutzen, (1632,) where the Protestant arms were crowned with the most splendid success, the Swedish monarch was killed. The league was then directed by Chancellor Oxenstiern ; and Ferdinand, more fortunate with his arms, succeeded in making peace with some of the allies, and procured the election of his son, Ferdinand Ernest, as King of the Romans. As a monarch, Ferdinand pos- sessed great ability, but was tyrannical and bigoted. Died in February, 1637. See ScHii.i.RR, " History of the Thirty Years' War;" Ersch und Gruber, "Ailgen^ine Encyklopaedie;" J. P. Silbert, "Ferdinand IL, Romischer Kaiser," 1836; Friedrich Hurter, "Geschichte Kaiser Ferdinand's IL," 4 vols., 1850-53. Ferdinand III., born in 1608, succeeded his father, Ferdinand IL, in 1637, on the imperial throne of Ger- many. The crowns of Bohemia and Hungary having been secured to him, he was elected emperor with little opposition ; but during the first years of his reign he met with continual reverses. The Swedes, led on by their general, Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, and assisted by the French, were scarcely less successful than they had been under Gustavus Adolphus ; but the Duke of Saxe- Weimar died in the midst of his victories, — as some suppose, by poison. The war was still urged with such vigour by Louis XIII. and Cardinal Richelieu that the Austrians were beaten in nearly every battle until Oc- tober, 1648, when, after the death of the French monarch and his prime minister, the emperor signed the treaty known as the Peace of Westphalia, which secured re- ligious liberty to the Protestants. Ferdinand died in 1657, deeply regretted by his subjects, and was succeeded by his son, Leopold 1. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Ferdinand [Sp. Fernando, feR-ndu'do] I., King of Aragon and Sicily, surnamed the Just, born in 1373, was the second son of Juan I. of Castile. Lfe became King of Aragon in 141 2, and died in 1416, leaving the throne to his son, Alfonso V. Ferdinand II. of Aragon. See Ferdinand V. of Castile. Ferdinand (Fernando) I., King of Castile, a son of Sancho III., was crowned in 1035. In 1038 his brother-in-law, Bermudo, King of Leon, having invaded Castile, Ferdinand defeated him in a battle, in which Bermudo was slain. Ferdinand thus became King of Leon and the most powerful monarch in Spain. He afterwards carried on a successful war against the Moors, and forced the Kings of Saragossa and Toledo to become his tributaries. Historians speak in high terms of the ability and virtues of this prince. Died in 1065. He left Castile to his son Sancho, and Leon to his second son, Alfonso. See Ferreras, "Historia general de Espana." € as ^; 5 as s; g hard; g as j; G, h, Yi,guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) FERDINAND 906 FERDINAND Ferdinand (Fernando) II. of" Leon, a son of Alfonso VII., mounted the throne of Leon in 1157, at the same time that his brother, Sancho III., became King of Cas- tile. It was under the reign of this monarch that the famous order of the Christian knights of Saint James was founded. Ferdinand carried on successful wars against the Moors, in which he displayed great generalship and intrepidity. Died in 1187. He was particularly noted for his generosity. Ferdinand (Fernando) III., called the Saint, a son of Alfonso IX., King of Leon, and Berengaria, Queen of Castile. He became King of Castile in 121 7, and suc- ceeded his father in 1230. In his Moorish wars he con- quered the kingdom of Baeza, took Cordova, Seville, and several other rich and important places, and made the Kings of Granada and Murcia his tributaries. He died in 1252, and was succeeded by his son, Alfonso X. See Miguel de Herhera, "Cronica del Rev Fernando III.," 1554; H. Fi.OKEZ, " Elogio del S. Rey Fernando III.," 1754. Ferdinand (Fernando) IV,, King of Castile and Leon, born at Seville in 1285, was the son of Sancho IV., whom he succeeded in 1295. Like the preceding, he gained many victories over the Moors. He was vindic- tive, passionate, and unjust. He died in 13 12, and left the throne to his son, Alfonso XI. Ferdinand (Fernando) V., King of Castile and Aragon, surnamed THE Catholic, was born at Sos on the loth of March, 1452. He was the son of Juan II., King of Aragon. At this time Juan's son Carlos, Prince of Viana, was the presumptive heir to the throne of Ara- gon and Navarre. In 146 1 the Prince of Viana died, and soon after the Aragonese tendered the oaths of allegiance to Ferdinand, as heir-apparent to that monarchy. In very early life he was trained to the use of arms, and was schooled in all the military science of that age, and, while yet a boy, exhibited great discretion and superior prowess on the field of battle. In 1469 he married the infanta Isabella, on whom had been fixed the succession to the throne of Castile. The glory of their reign and the commencement of the highest prosperity and gran- deur of the Spanish monarchy are chiefly to be attributed to the eminent qualities of this princess. Spain at this period was divided into the kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Granada, the latter of which was still pos- sessed by the Moors ; but Ferdinand and Isabella, before the close of their reign, by energetic and politic measures united the four sovereignties under their sway. In 1474 Henry IV. of Castile died, and Isabella was proclaimed queen at Segovia. Her title, however, was disputed by the princess Joanna, whom Henry had acknowledged to be his legitimate daughter. Joanna received assistance from several of the Castilian grandees and her uncle, Alfonso of Portugal, who invaded Spain to defend her cause. Ferdinand soon placed himself at the head of an army, and gained a decisive victory over the Portu- guese at Toro, which caused Alfonso to withdraw to his own dominions. In a short time the entire kingdom of Castile submitted to Isabella, and finally, in 1479, a treaty of peace was ratified at Lisbon. The same year Ferdi- nand was crowned King of Aragon at the death of Juan XL The two sovereigns immediately commenced a course of salutary reforms, especially in Castile, where during the reign of Henry oppression and rapine had been car- ried to great excesses by the nobility. Various courts of justice were also formed, over which the king and queen frequently presided in person. A successful at- tempt was likewise made for reducing the power of the great feudal lords, who had frequently held the authority of their sovereigns in contempt. In 1480 an indelible stain was fastened on the otherwise unsullied fame of Isabella by the establishment of the Inquisition. Ferdi- nand subsequently gave his consent for its introduction into Aragon. After the king and queen had fully estab- lished their authority at home, they turned their attention towards the conquest of Granada, the most fertile portion of Spain. The invasion of that kingdom was, however, anticipated by the Moorish sovereign, who in 148 1 sur- prised and captured the fortress of Zahara, in Andalusia. Soon after the Castilians took the strongly-fortified city of Alhama, in the heart of the Moorish dominions. This exploit struck the Moslems with terror, while it greatly inspirited the Christians, The war was now vigorously urged forward by Ferdinand, who commanded in person, and by Isabella, who was untiring in her efforts to en- courage the nation and to keep in the field an efficient army. She imparted to the people her own zeal and heroic enterprise, which wavered not until the capitula- tion of the royal city of Granada, in November, 1491. In i486 Columbus visited the court of Spain, to solicit from the sovereigns the assistance which would enable him to prosecute a voyage of discovery. At this time their treasury was drained, and the Moorish war engrossed their entire attention : so that they were unable either to fit out the armament which he wished, or to decide on the policy of the adventure. However, when the war was finished, Isabella made those arrangements with the illustrious Genoese which opened to the Castilians a far greater empire than the one just obtained. In 1492 an edict was issued for the expulsion of all Jews from the kingdom. In 1493 Columbus returned from his success- ful voyage to the New World, The same year they obtained a papal bull by which their titles were confirmed to all territories which they should discover in the West- ern hemisphere, Ferdinand and Isabella next turned their attention to the education of the Spanish youth. They invited learned men to settle in their dominions, and founded universities throughout the kingdom. In 1495 Charles VIII, of France invaded Italy and took possession of Naples, The proximity of so powerful an army to his Sicilian possessions filled the mind of Fer- dinand with apprehension. He fitted out an army to assist the Neapolitan king, the command of which he gave to Gonsalvo de Cordova, known in history as the "Great Captain," who landed in Italy in May, and, after a series of brilliant victories gained over much larger forces, expelled the French and firmly established the King of Naples on his throne. Subsequently treaties of marriage were formed by the Spanish monarchs for their only son. Prince Juan, with Margaret, the daughter of the emperor Maximilian, and for the princess Joanna with the emperor's son Philip ; and, to cement their friend- ship with England, their youngest daughter, known as Catherine of Aragon, was married to Arthur, Prince of Wales, In 1497 the nation sustained a great calamity in the death of Prince Juan, Two years later, his sister, the Princess of Portugal, died. In 1501, the Moors having revolted, Ferdinand compelled them all either to be baptized or to leave the kingdom. The majority chose the former alternative. In 1500 Ferdinand concluded a treaty with Louis XII, of France, by which they divided the kingdom of Naples equally between them. The Great Captain had previously sailed for Italy with a pow- erful army, and in a short time the division was made. Disputes, however, soon arose between the invaders, which, after a war of four years, resulted in the complete overthrow of the French in Italy, and the firm establish- ment of the authority of Ferdinand over all the kingdom of Naples. In November, 1504, Queen Isabella died, and Ferdinand was appointed Regent of Castile, on account of the insanity of his daughter Joanna, the heir- apparent to that throne. In 1505 Ferdinand married Germaine de Foix, niece of Louis XII, In 1508 the treaty of Cambray was signed by the Emperor of Ger- many, the King of Aragon, the King of France, and the pope, for the division of the Venetian republic. After a decisive battle gained by the allies, the Spanish monarch received several cities as his share, which were incorpo- rated into the kingdom of Naples. In 1511 a treaty was formed by the Spanish king and the Emperor of Ger- many for driving the French from Italy, which was ac- complished after the battle of Ravenna. Jean d'Albret, King of Navarre, having leagued himself, offensively and defensively, with Louis of France, the King of Aragon invaded his dominions, drove him from the throne, and in 1 5 13 completed the entire subjugation of that king- dom. Ferdinand died in January, 1516. As a sovereign, he was brave, affable, indefatigable in business, temperate in his habits, and strongly attached to the Catholic re- ligion ; but he was bigoted, cruel, selfish in the extreme, and ungenerous to those to whom he was greatly indebted. For shrewdness and policy he excelled every other mon- a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, \x, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mlt; ndt; good; moon; FERDINAND FERDINAND arch of his age. He was succeeded by Prince Carlos, celebrated as Charles V. of Germany, son of Philip of Austria and Joanna. See Prescott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," 3 vols., 1838; Mariana, " Historia de Rebus HispanijE ;" Hernando del PuLGAR, "Cronica de los Seiiores Reyes Catolicos," 1545; Bal- THASAR Gracian, " El politico D. Fernando el Catolico," 1641. Ferdinand (Fernando) VI. of Spain, surnamedTHE Wise, son of Philip V. and Mary of Savoy, was born at Madrid in 1713, and ascended the throne in 1746. The earlv part of his reign was distinguished by the many wise and just laws which he enacted, by the encourage- ment that he gave to commerce, manufactures, and the arts, and by the successful efforts he made to promote literature and science in Spain. Ferdinand was subject to long fits of melancholy, which materially interfered with his various plans for the welfare of his subjects. He died, without issue, in 1759, and was succeeded by his brother, Charles HI. Ferdinand (Fernando) VII., son of Charles IV., King of Spain, and Maria Louisa of Parma, was born in 1784. When lie was six years of age, he was proclaimed Prince of Asturias and heir-apparent to the Spanish crown. He was kept in servile subjection by the queen and Godoy, the court favourite, but was provided with competent instructors. In 1802 Ferdinand married Maria Antoinette, daughter of Ferdinand IV., King of the Two Sicilies. This princess, possessing much talent and energy, attempted to raise her husband to his proper station at court; but, being unsuccessful, they were both obliged to go into retirement. She died in 1806, under circumstances which created a belief that Godoy had caused her to be poisoned. The favourite afterwards ac- cused Ferdinand of plotting against the life of the king, and caused him to be thrown into prison ; but he was liberated not long after. In 1808 Charles IV., alarmed by the French invasion, abdicated in Ferdinand's favour ; but Napoleon succeeded by intrigue in drawing them to France, where he detained them for several years and caused them both to resign their authority. In 1813, when Joseph Bonaparte had been repeatedly driven from his capital, Napoleon restored Ferdinand to power. His reign was subsequently disturbed by the disputes of the two parties called the Liberals, or those who favoured the Constitution of 1812, and the Absolutists, or Apos- tolical party, the monarch favouring the latter. Fer- dinand had two daughters by his fourth wife, Maria Christina, daughter of Francis, King of the Two Sicilies. The eldest of these, Maria Isabella, became Queen of Spain upon her father's death in 1833. See SouTHEY, " History of the Peninsular War ;" De Pradt, "Memoires sur la Revolution d'Espagne," 1S16; General Fov, " Guerre de la Peninsule," 4 vols. ; Godoy, Memoirs," 4 vols. Ferdinand I., II., and III. of Bohemia. See Ferdi- nand I., II., and HI., Emperors of Germany and Austria. Ferdinand [It. Ferdinando, feR-de-nlnMo] I., King of Naples, natural and only son of Alfonso, King of Ara- gon, was born in 1423, legitimized by Pope Eugene IV., and crowned King of Naples in 1458. The false and cruel character of Ferdinand soon caused a general revolt of his subjects, who invited John of Anjou to take posses- sion of the throne. At first Ferdinand met with some severe losses ; but, assisted by Pope Pius II, and the Duke of Milan, he gained, in August, 1462, at Troia, a decisive victory over the French, by which success his power was completely restored. In 1485 the barons, assisted by Pope Innocent VIII., revolted against Fer- dinand, who obtained peace only on granting their de- mands ; but as soon as they disarmed he caused the barons to be arrested and put to death. For this treach- erous proceeding he was excommunicated by the pope. Ferdinand died in 1494, detested by his subjects, and was succeeded by his son, Alfonso II. See Mariana, "Historia de Rebus Hispaniae ;" Sismondi, " Histoire des R^publiques Italiennes;" Guicciardini, " Istoria d'ltalia;" Pontano, "Historia Neapolitana ab Anno 1458 ad Annum 1494," 1617. Ferdinand (Ferdinando) II., grandson of the pre- ceding, and son of Alfonso II., was born about 1468, and ascended the throne of Naples in January, 1495. The Neapolitans, having a long time conceived a hatred for the house of Aragon, now revolted, and Ferdinand was obliged to leave Naples, which was shortly afterwards invested by the French under Charles VIII. But, on obtaining assistance from the King of Aragon, who sent him troops commanded by the great captain Gonsalvo de Cordova, Ferdinand succeeded in driving the French from Naples. He died, without issue, in 1496. See Guicciardini, "Istoria d'ltalia;" Philippe de Comines, " Chronique." Ferdinand (Ferdinando) III. of Naples. See Ferdinand V. of Spain. Ferdinand (Ferdinando) IV., King of Naples, after- wards called Ferdinand I. of the United Kingdoms of the Two Sicilies, was born in 1 75 1. He was a younger son of Charles III. of Spain. He began to reign when he was but eight years old. The Marcpiis Tanucci, who possessed much ability as a minister, was appointed regent. He, however, totally neglected the education of the young prince. In 1768 Ferdinand married Maria Carolina of Austria, daughter of Maria Theresa, who, being a princess of great ambition, cruelty, and energy, misgoverned Naples under her husbancl's name. In 1777, Tanucci, who had been created prime minister, was dismissed, and John Acton, an Englishman, came mto power. His administration was even far less beneficial than Tanucci'.s. In 1792 the court of Naples joined the allies against France, but four years later purchased a peace from the French Directory. In 1798 it formed a secret alliance with Russia, Austria, and England, and the Neapolitan army marched against the French, by whom they were defeated about the end of 1798. The queen, becoming alarmed, fled to Sicily, whither she was followed by the king in 1799. The successes of the allies in 1799 restored to power Ferdinand and his queen, who, by the aid of Lord Nelson, inflicted a treacherous and bloody revenge on the republicans. Many of the best and noblest citizens of Naples were then executed. Ferdi- nand formed a treaty of peace with France in 1801, but in 1805 entered another secret alliance. Napoleon I. then declared that the Bourbon dynasty had ceased to reign at Naples, and created Murat sovereign of that kingdom. Ferdinand retired to Sicily, where he was protected by the British until the overthrow of the French emperor. In 181 2 he was induced to resign his authority into the hands of his son Francis. On the fall of Napoleon, in 1814, he was restored to the throne of Naples. In 1816 he united the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily under the same form of government. He died, generally detested, in 1825, and was succeeded by his son, Francis 1. See BoTTA, "Storia d'ltalia dal 1789 al 1814;" Thiers, "His- tory of the French Revolution," and his "History of the Consulate and of the Empire." Ferdinand (Ferdinando) II., King of the Two Sicilies, born in 1810, was a son of Francis I. He began to reign in November, 1830, and married Maria Theresa, an Austrian princess, in 1837. His oppressive and despotic reign provoked a series of conspiracies and in- surrections, which were suppressed with great cruelty. He was nicknamed "Bomba." He died in 1859, and was succeeded by his son, Francis II. See Gladstone, "Letters to Lord Aberdeen," 1851; Farini, " II Stato Romano," and English version of the same, by W. E. Gladstone, 1851. Ferdinand (or Fernando) I., King of Portugal, son of Peter the Cruel and Constance of Castile, born at Coimbra in 1345, ascended the throne in 1367. He engaged in a war with Henry II. of Castile, who invaded Portugal, and, after gaining two victories, compelled Ferdinand to sue for peace, the articles of which were signed in 1371. Died in 1383. Ferdinand left behind him the reputation of a just and beneficent prince. Ferdinand (or Fernando) II., King of Portugal, a younger son of Queen Maria II., was born about 1838, He succeeded his brother, Don Pedro V., in November, 1861. His father, Ferdinand Augustus of Saxe-Coburg, had married the Portuguese queen Maria II., after whose death, in 1853, he was for a short time regent of the kingdom. Ferdinand [It. Ferdinando, f^R-de-ninMo] I. de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, born in 1549, was a € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guthcral; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) FERDINAND 908 FERGUSON younger son of Cosimo I. He succeeded his brother, Francesco, in 1587. Died in 1609. Ferdinand (Ferdinando) II., Grand Duke of Tus- cany, born in 1610, was a son of Cosimo II., whom he succeeded in 1620. He was a liberal patron of literature and art. He died in 1670, and was succeeded by his son, Cosimo III. Ferdinand (Ferdinando) III. of Tuscany, born in 1769, was a son of Pietro Leopoldo, and a brother of Francis II., Emperor of Germany. He began to reign in 1791, was expelled by the French about 1800, and re- stored in 1 8 14. He was more liberal and mild than the other Italian princes of that period. Died in 1824, and was succeeded by his son, Leopold II. See GoNNELLi, " Elogio di Ferdinando III.," 1824; Zeller, " Histoire d'ltalie." Ferdinand, (Ferdinando,) Duke of Parma, born in 1757, was a son of Philip of Bourbon. His mother was Elizabeth, a daughter of Louis XV. of France. He began to reign in 1765, and left the direction of affairs to the Marquis de Felino. Died in 1802. Ferdinand, (Fernando,) son of James II., King of Aragon, born at Valencia in 1228. James had divided the kingdom among his sons, which produced a war between Don Ferdinand and his brother, Don Pedro, in which the former was defeated and taken prisoner. Don Pedro ordered him to be thrown into the river Cinga. This occurred in 1275. Ferdinand, or Fernando, Infante of Portugal, born in 1402, was a younger son of John I. He accompanied a Portuguese army which invaded Barbary in 1437 and was defeated. He remained as a hostage in the power of the Moors, and died at Fez in 1443. Ferdinand, (August Franz Anton,) Duke of Saxe- Coburg-Gotha, and prince-consort of Portugal, was born in r8i6. He married Maria, Queen of Portugal, in 1836. His son became king in 1855, with the title of Pedro V. Ferdinand (Fernando) of Aragon, Archbishop of Saragossa, and grandson of Ferdinand the Catholic, was born at Madrid in 15 14. He wrote, besides other works, a valuable history of the kings and prelates of Aragon. Died in 1575. Ferdinand of Bavaria, Archbishop of Cologne, and Prince-Bishop of Liege and Miinster, was born in 1577. He commanded a body of troops which fought against the Protestants in the Thirty Years' war. During his reign, there were a series of bloody revolts at Liege. Died in 1650. Ferdinand, or Fernando, Duke of Braganza, a Por- tuguese general, born in 1403, was a son of Alfonso, the first Duke of Braganza. Died in 1478. Ferdinand (Fernando) of Cordova, celebrated for his universal knowledge, was born about 1420. He signalized his bravery under John II. of Castile in the war against the Moors ; but, preferring the pen to the sword, he retired from the army, and occupied the chair of professor in several Spanish universities. He stood high in the favour of Ferdinand and Isabella, who granted him a pension. He was the author of several works on theology, etc. He is supposed to have died about 1480. See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Ferdinand (Charles Joseph) of Este, Archduke of Austria, born in 1781, was a son of Ferdinand Charles Anton Joseph, and a nephew of the emperor Leopold. He commanded an army against the French, and after- wards against the Poles, in both instances unsuccess- fully. Died in 1850. Ferdinand (Fernando) of Spain, Cardinal, born in 1609, was the third son of Philip HI. of Spain. He became Governor of the Low Countries in 1633, and invaded France in 1636. Died in 1641. See Schiller, " History of the Thirty Years' War ;" Coxe, " His- tory of the House of Austria," 3 vols., 1807. Ferdinand (Fernando) de Jesus — da h^-soos', a Spanish Carmelite and ecclesiastical writer, born at Jaen in 1 570. He wrote, besides other works, " Commentaries on Aristotle." Died at Granada in 1644. Ferdinand de Talavera — da t3.-la-va'ra, a Spanish monk, and confessor to Queen Isabella of Castile, was born at Talavera de la Reyna in 1445. Pie was appointed Archbishop of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella. Died in 1507. Ferdinandi, fgR-de-nSu'dee, (Epifanio,) a distin- guished Italian philosopher and physician, born at Mi- sagna, in the kingdom of Naples, in 1569. He was the author of numerous philosophical and medical works, among which is " Centum Historiae, sen Observationes et Casus Medici," (1621, often reprinted.) Died in 1638. Ferdinandi, f^R-de-ninMee, or Fernandi, (Ik-wW- dee, (Francesco,) called Imperiali, a painter of the Roman school, who worked at Rome in 1730. Ferdoucy or Ferdousi. See Firdousee. Ferdusi. See P'irdousee. Fereedoon, Feridoun, or Feridun, fir'ee-doon', a king of ancient Persia, of the Peshdadian dynasty, was a son of the famous Jemsheed, (or Jamshid.) He is regarded by the Persians as a model of every virtue. See Atkinson's "Abridgment of the Shah-Nanieh of Firdausi," London, 1832; and "A Short History of Persia," in vol. v. of Sir William Jones's Works. Feretrius, a surname of Jupiter, which see. Ferg, fguG, (Paul Franz,) an excellent German land- scape-painter, born at Vienna in 1689; died about 1740. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Fer'gus I., King of Scotland, was engaged in wars with the Romans and Britons. Died about 450 a.d. Fergus II. succeeded Eugene VII. in 764. He was killed in 767. Fer''gus-on, (Adam,) a distinguished Scottish writer and metaphysician, born in Perthshire in 1724, studied at the University of Saint Andrew's and at that of Edin- burgh. He filled for some years the ofiice of chaplain in a Highland regiment. In 1759 he was appointed to the chair of natural philosophy in the University of Edinburgh, where in 1764 he became professor of moral philosophy. In 1767 he published his first work, an " Essay on the History of Civil Society," which was translated into several languages. In 1778 he was ap- pointed secretary to the five commissioners sent to the United States to effect a reconciliation. Of his numerous works the most important is his " History of the Progress and Termination of the Roman Republic," (3 vols., 1783.) Died in 1816. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1867. Ferguson, (James,) an eminent self-taught astrono- mer and mechanician, born near Keith, in the north of Scotland, in 17 10. His father, though a day-labourer, succeeded in teaching all his children to read and write. Ferguson's mechanical genius was first developed when he was but seven or eight years old. The roof of their cottage had partly fallen in, and his father, in order to raise it, used a lever and fulcrum. It appeared almost incredible to young Ferguson that one man could raise such a great weight. He began to experiment with levers of different sizes. To these he added the wheel and axle, and drew up a short treatise on the subject. His father having placed him with a farmer to take charge of sheep, he began to study the stars at night, and to construct models of mills, spinning-wheels, etc. in the daytime. He afterwards went to live with a farmer named Glashan, who treated him with great kindness and allowed him leisure for his studies. He also made the acquaintance of Mr. Grant, a gentleman who soon took Ferguson into his service and placed him under the instruction of his butler, Robert Cautley, an ingenious and well-informed man, from whom he acquired some knowledge of arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. In order to amuse himself during an illness, he constructed a wooden clock, which was a good time-keeper. He also foriiied a wooden watch with a whalebone spring, and began to earn small sums by repairing and cleaning clocks. Pie turned his attention to drawing patterns for needle-work, copying pictures, and taking portraits in India-ink. In the last employment he was so successful that he was induced to go to Edinburgh, where, through the patronage of the Marchioness of Douglas, he gained a sufficient sum to support himself and to assist his pa- rents. He followed this profession, as a means of obtain- ing a livelihood, for about twenty-six years. He invented an orrery on a less intricate plan than those formerly a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sAorf; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; FERGUSON FERNANDES constructed. In 1743 he removed to London. In 1747 he published a " Dissertation on the Phenomena of the Harvest Moon," and in 1748 commenced lecturing on astronomy and mechanics. He was patronized by the Prince of Wales, afterwards George III., who, after he ascended the throne, granted Ferguson a pension of fifty pounds a year from his privy purse. Ferguson said that the best machine he ever invented was the Eclipsareon, which showed the time, quantity, duration, and ])rogress of solar eclipses in all parts of the earth. Among his most important works we may mention "Astronomy ex- plained upon Sir Isaac Newton's Principles, and made easy to those who have not studied Mathematics," {2 vols., 1 82 1,) and "Lectures on Subjects in Mechanics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Optics," etc. Died in 1776. See his "Autobiography;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" C. Henderson, " Life of James Ferguson," Edinburgh, 1867; "Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. i., 1839; C. L. Brightwell, "Annals of Industry and Genius." Ferguson or Fergusson, (Robert,) a Scottish poet, born in Edinburgh in 1750. He published a volume of poems in 1773. His habits were very dissipated. He became insane and died in 1774. See D. Irving, " Life of R. Ferguson," 1810; A. Peterkin, "Life of R. Ferguson." Ferguson, (Robert,) M.D., a British medical writer, born in 1799. He published a work "On Puerperal Fever." Died in 1865. Ferguson, (Roijert,) a British poet and prose writer, born at Carlisle about 1820. He published a collection of poems, entitled "The Shadow of the Pyramid," (1847,) and "The Pipe of Repose ; or, Recollections of Eastern Travel," (1848.) Ferguson, (William,) a Scottish painter of still life. Died in 1690. Fer'gus-son, (James,) a celebrated architect, born at Ayr, in Scotland, in 1808. After spending ten years in India and China, he returned to England and employed his time in literary and scientific studies. In 1849 Drought forward a new theory in regard to fortifications, in which he advocated the superiority of round forts to those formed of angles, and the use of earth-work for masonry, and of terraces. His plan was at first ridiculed ; but after the siege of Sebastopol, where Mr. Fergusson's suggestions had produced important results, it was re- ceived far more favourably. He is the author of numerous works upon architecture and fortifications, among which we may cite "An Essay on the Ancient Topography of Jerusalem," (1847,) "Picturesque Illustrations of An- cient Architecture in Hindostan," (1848,) "The Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis Restored," (1851,) " Illustrated Hand-Book of Architecture," (1855,) and the "Peril of Portsmouth, or French Fleets and English Forts." See "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1857, and July, 1863; "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1859. Ferhad- (fer-hSdO Pasha, a Turk, who became grand vizier of Amurath HI. in 1581. He was defeated near Nicopolis, for which he was put to death in 1596. Ferichtah. See Fekishi a. Ferid-eddin-Attar, (or -Athar.) See Attar-Fe- RKK1)-EI)-DeEN. Feridoun or Feridun. See Fereedoon. Feriol or FerrioL See Pont-de-Veyle. Ferishta, Ferischtah, or Ferichtah, fer'ish-tah, (Mohammed-Ka.sim, mo-hdni'med ki'sitn,) an emi- nent Persian historian, born at Astrabad about 1550, or, according to some accounts, 1570. His great work was a " History of India," commencing about the close of the tenth century ; though in the introduction he gives a short account of Indian history previous to the invasion of the Mohammedans. It was translated into English by Alexander Dow, (2 vols., 1768.) A better English version was published by General Briggs, "History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India," (London, 4 vols. 8vo, 1829.) He is supposed to have died about 1625. See Von Hammer, article in the "Wiener Jahrbiicher," vol. li. ; Briggs, Preface to Translation of the "History of the Mahomedan Power in India." Ferloni, f^R-lo'nee, (Severing Antonio,) a learned Italian ecclesiastic, born in the Papal States in 1740, was a partisan of Napoleon. Died in 1813. Fermanel, f^R^mt^iSK, a French traveller, visited Palestine and other parts of Asia Minor in 1630, and published, after his return, a " Voyage to Italy and the Levant." Fermat, de, deh f§R^mt', (Pierre,) a celebrated French mathematician and lawyer. According to sev- eral biographers, he was born at Toulouse in 1595; but Dr. Hoefer states that he was born near Montauban in 1601. He -was one of the counsellors of the parlia- ment of Toulouse, and cultivated mathematics as a re- creation. He corresponded with Descartes, Roberval, Mersenne, and others. The French savants claim that he is entitled to a great part of the honour of the dis- covery of the differentia] calculus, which is generally awarded to Newton. He made important discoveries in the theory of numbers, and invented a method of finding maxima and minima. According to La Place, Fermat shares with Pascal the honour of the invention of the calculus of probabilities. He died at Toulouse in January, 1665, leaving several works, which were published by his son Samuel, under the title of "Varia Opera," (1679.) He had married Louise du Long about 1631. "The geometer next in genius to Descartes," says Hallam, "and perhaps nearer to him than to any third, was Fermat, a man of various acquirements, of high rank in the parliament of Toulouse, and of a mind incapable of envy, forgiving of detraction, and delighting in truth, with almost too much indifference to praise." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") See MoNTUCLA, " Histoire des Mathematiques ;" Genty, " De rinfluence de Fermat sur son Siecle," 1784 ; "Revue des Deux Mondes" for May, 1845; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Fermat, de, (Samuel,) a French lawyer and poet, a son of the preceding, born at Toulouse in 1632, was a counsellor to the parliament. He wrote several treatises on law and other subjects. Died in 1690. Ferme, ferm, (Charles,) a Scottish divine, born in Edinburgh, became minister at Fraserburgh about 1600. He wrote a Latin Commentary on the Epistle to the Roinans, (1651.) Died about 1618. Fermin, f^R^min or fgR'm^N', (Philippus,) a Dutch physician and traveller, born at Maestricht. He visited Surinam in 1754, resided there nearly ten years, and published several works relating to the geography and natural history of that colony. Fermo, da, dS f^R'mo, (Lorenzino,) an able Italian painter, born at Fermo, flourished about 1660. Fermor, f^R'moR, (Wilhelm,) Coun r of, a Russian general, born at Pleskov in 1704, served with distinction in the Seven Years' war and against the Turks, and was subsequently created a counL He commanded the Russian army which Frederick the Great defeated at Zorndorf in 1 761. Died in 1771. Fern, (Fanny.) See Parton. Fernand, f^R^nfiN', [Lat. Phernan'dus,] Ferrand, fi'rSN', or Frenand,fReh'n6N', (Charles,) a teacher of theology and philosophy in the University of Paris, was born at Bruges about 1450. He became blind in child- hood. He was the author of several ecclesiastical works. Died in 1496. See Valere Andre, "Bibliotheca Belgica." Fernand, fer-nSnd', or Fernan, fer-nin', (Gonzalez,) a famous Castilian hero or cavalier, born about 910 A.D., was the first Count of Castile. He gained several vic- tories over the Moors. His adventures were favourite subjects of Spanish writers of romance. Died after 950. Fernand Nunez, (or Nunes,) de, di f^r-nSnd' noon'- ygth, (or noon'ygs,) Count, a Spanish noble, born in Madrid in 1778. As a partisan of Ferdinand VII., he was declared a traitor to France and Spain by Napoleon I. He escaped, however, the vengeance of the emperor ; and when Ferdinand returned to his kingdom, in 1814, Fernand Nunez was sent as ambassador to England, and subsequently to Paris. Died in 1821. Fernandes, fgR-nSnMSs, (Alvaro, ai'v^-ro,) a dis- tinguished Portuguese navigator, explored the west coast of Africa about 1448. Fernandes, fgR-nSu'des, or Ferdinand, feRMe-n^nt, (Valentin,) a German printer and translator, lived at Lisbon about 1500. He translated part of Marco Polo's Travels into Portuguese, (1502.) ■e as 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Yi, giitkiral ; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) FERNANDES 910 FERRANDO Fernandes or Fernandez, (Vasco,) an eminent Portuguese painter, born at Viseu in 1552. Little is known of his life. Fernandez. See Hernandez. Fernandez, feR-nan'cleth,( Alfonzo,) a Spanish monk and historian, born at Palencia in 1572; died in 1640. Fernandez, (An ion 10 de Arias — di S're-ds,) a celebrated Spanish painter, born at Madrid. His pic- tures had once a high reputation. Died in 1684. Fernandez, (Diego,) a Spanish historian and soldier, born at Palencia. He embarked for Peru in 1545, and entered the service of the viceroy Hurtado de Mendoza, as historiographer, in 1555. He w^rote a *' History of Peru," (157 1,) which is said to be the best contemporary work on that subject. See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Fernandez, feR-nSnM^z, (Diniz,) a Portuguese navi- gator, born in Lisbon, sailed about 1446 on an exploring expedition to Africa, and discovered the mouth of the Senegal, and the promontory at the extreme western part of Africa, to which he gave the name of Cape Verd. Fernandez, ( Francisco, ) a celebrated Spanish painter, born in Madrid in 1605 ; died in 1646. See QuiLLiET, "Vies des Peiutres Espagnols." Fernandez, (Joao,) a Portuguese traveller, who about 1446 visited the west coast of Africa. He is supposed to have been the first European who penetrated into the interior of that continent, which he entered at the mouth of the Rio do Ouro. Fernandez, (Juan,) a Spanish captain and navigator, entered in 1 533 the service of Alvarado in South America. He accompanied Antonio de Sedeno in an expedition to Venezuela. Died in 1538. Fernandez, (Juan,) a Spanish pilot and navigator, discovered in 1563 the two islands which bear his name, and planted a colony on the larger island, which is eigh- teen miles long. The adventures of Alexander Selkirk on this island are supposed to have formed the basis of De Foe's story of " Robinson Crusoe." Other discoveries in the Southern Ocean are ascribed to him. Died in 1576. See Anson, " Voyage round the World," etc. Fernandez, (Luis,) a Spanish painter and disciple of Eugenio Caxes, was born in Madrid about 1594; died in 1654. Fernandez de Cordova. See Gonzalvo. Fernandez de Laredo, f^R-ndn'd^th di la-ra'Do, (Juan,) a Spanish painter in fresco, born at Madrid in 1632 ; died in 1692. Fernandez Navarrete. See Mudo, el. Fernandez Villareal, feR-nin'd^z vil-LVra'Sl, (Ma- ngel,) a Portuguese writer, born in Lisbon, published a curious work on the imprisonment of the Portuguese prince Duarte in Germany, " El Principe vendido," etc., (1643.) ^^''^s accused of observing the Mosaic law, and was strangled in Lisbon in 1652. Fernandi. See Ferdinandi. Fernau, f^R^now, (Karl,) originally Sebastian Francis Daxenberger, a German litterateur, born at Munich in 1809, wrote "Mythical Poems," and several dramas, among which is one called " Bianca Capello." Ferne, fern or farn, (Henry,) a learned English prelate, born at York in 1602, was one of the first who openly defended by his writings the cause of Charles L After the restoration he was made Bishop of Chester, in 1660. Died in 1661. Ferne, (Sir John,) an English antiquary, father of the preceding, born in Lincolnshire ; died about 16 10. He published "The Blazon of the Gentry," (1586.) Ferneham, farn'ham, ? (Nicholas,) an English phy- sician and naturalist, gave much attention to botany. He became physician to Henry HL, and afterwards Bishop of Durham. Died in 1241. Fernel, fCR'neK, [Lat. Ferne'lius,] (Jean,) an emi- nent French physician, surnamed the modern Galen, was born at Clermont in Beauvoisis in 1497. prac- tised iw Paris, and acquired a high reputation as a prac- titioner, a professor, and an elegant writer. About 1547 he received the title of first physician to Henry H. He was the teacher of Vesalius. He wrote numerous works on anatomy, pathology, therapeutics, etc., among which are "De abditis Rerum Causis," (1548,) and "J. Fernelii Medicina," (1554,) often reprinted. Died in April, 1558. See G. Plantius, "Vita Fernelii;" De Thou, " Hisiorijf sui Temporis;" P>ayi.e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." Fernow, fgR'no, (Karl Ludwig,) a German author and critic, born at Blumenhagen, in Prussia, in 1763. He studied the theory and history of art at Rome under the direction of his friend Carstens, whose life he wrote, (1806.) Among his works are " Roman Studies," (" Ro- mische Studien," 1806-08,) "Ariosto's Lebenslauf," (1809,) and " Francesco Petrarca," (1818.) Died in 1808. See J. Schopenhauer, " C. L. Fernow's Lcben," 1810. Feron, (Firmin Eloi,) a painter of history, born in Paris in 1802, gained the grand prize in 1825. Fe-ro'ni-a, [Fr. Feronie, fa'ro'ne',] an ancient Italian divinity, whose worship originated with the Sabines. Her character is not well understood. Feroze or Ferose. See Fyroz. Ferracino, fer-rd-chec'no, (Bartolommeo,) a cele- brated Italian mechanician and engineer, was born near Bassano in 1692. Among his inventions were a saw driven by the wind, a hydraulic engine which raised water to the height of thirty-five feet, and a bridge over the Brenta at Bassano, which won for him a high reputation. The inhabitants of Bassano raised a monument to his memory. Died in 1777. See F. Memmo, "Vita di Bartolommeo Ferracino." Ferracuti, f^r-rS-koo'tee, (Giovanni Domenico,) an Italian landscape-painter, born at Macerata, flourished about 1700. He was a pupil of Claude Lorrain. Ferraiuoli or Ferrajuoli, fer-ra-yoo-o'lee, (Nunzio,) a Neapolitan landscape-painter, born in Nocera, near Salerno,' in 1661 ; died in 1735. Ferramola, f^r-rS-mo'lS, (Fioravante,) an Italian painter, born at Brescia; died in 1528. Ferrand, fa^rSN', a French traveller and physician, born about 1670. He became medical adviser to the Khan of the Tartars of Crimea, and wrote several works relating to that country. Ferrand, (Antoine,) a distinguished French writer of epigrams, born in Paris in 1678; died in that city in 1719. Ferrand, (Antoine Francois Claude,) Count, a French writer on politics, history, etc., was born in Paris in 1 75 1. He emigrated as a royalist in 1789. In 1814 he became director-general of the post-office. He was chosen a member of the French Academy by the king in 1816. Among his works is "The Spirit of History," ("L'Esprit de THistoire," 1802; 6th edition, 4 vols., 1826.) Died in 1825. SeeCASiMiR Delavigne, "Discoursde Reception" at the French Academy. Ferrand, (Jacques,) a French physician and writer, born at Agen, lived about 1620. Ferrand, (Jacques,) a distinguished French general, born in 1746; died in 1804. Ferrand, (Jacques Philippe,) a French painter, born in Joigny about 1653, was a member of the Royal Acad- emy of Painting, and the author of a work entitled "Art of the Fire, or Manner of Enamelling." Died in 1732. Ferrand, (Louis,) a French advocate and writer on theology, born in Toulon in 1645, was versed in Hebrew and other Oriental languages. He was the author of numerous works, among which is " Reflections on the Christian Religion," (1679.) Died in 1699. Ferrand, (Marie Louis,) a French general, boiu in Besan9on in 1753, accompanied Leclerc in his expedition against Hayti in 1802, and, on the death of that general, succeeded to the chief command. Having failed in an attempt to suppress a revolt in Saint Domingo, he shot himself in 1808. Ferrand de la Caussade, f4'r6N' deh It ko'std', (Jean Henri Becays — bi'ka',) a French general, born in Mont-Flanquin, in Agenois, in 1736, served under Dumouriez at the defence of Valenciennes, where he greatly distinguished himself. Died in Paris in 1805. Ferrando, fer-rdn'do, (Gonsalvo,) a Spaniard, born at Oviedo in the fifteenth century, introduced lignum Giiaiaciim into Europe, and wrote a tract on it. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; nSt; good; moon; FERRANDUS 911 FERRAUD Ferrandus, ( Fulgen'tius, ) [ Fr. Fulgence Fer- RAND, fiiKzli6.\ss' fi'rSx',] a Christian writer, born in Africa, was a deacon of the Church of Carthage. Among his works is " Breviatio Canonuni." Died about 550 a.d. Ferrantini, fer-ran-tee''nee, (Gabriele,) an Italian painter, l)orn at Bologna about 1580, was called Ga- briele DEGLi OccHiALi, {dkVytt ok-ke-i'lce.) He ex- celled in frescos. Among his pupils was Guido Reni. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Fei'^rar, (Nicholas,) a learned English gentleman, born in London in 1 592, had a high reputation for piety. He formed at Little Gidding a community called "the English nunnery," the inmates of which were his relatives. The whole book of Psalms was repeated by them every day, and this devotion was practised by them every hour of the night. Died in 1637. See P. Peckard, " Life of N. Ferrar," 1790. Ferrar, (Robert,) an English divine, born in York- shire, was appointed Bishop of Saint David's by Edward VL in 1548. On the accession of Mary he was con- demned as a heretic, and burnt, in 1555. Ferrara, f^r-ri'ra, (Alfeo,) a distinguished phj'sician, born in Sicily in 1777, was the author of a "Memoir upon the Waters of Sicily," and other works. Died at Paris in 1829. Ferrara, (Andrea,) an Italian, celebrated as a sword- smith, lived about 1520-50. He worked in Spain. Ferrara, (Francesco,) an Italian economist and writer on statistics, born at Palermo in 1810. He published, besides other works, "The Importance of Political Econ- omy," (1849.) Ferrara, (Michele,) an Italian chemist and writer on pharmacy, born in Terra di Lavoro in 1763 ; died in 181 7. Ferrara, (Renee, ) Duchess of. See Renee of France, Ferrara, da, d^ f?r-ra'ri,( Antonio,) an Italian painter of the school of Ferrara, flourished about 1450. See Vasari, *' Lives of the Painters." Ferrara, da, (Ercole.) See Grandi. Ferrari, fer-rS'ree, (Antonio,) surnamed Galateo, [Lat. Gal.vte'us Leccen'sis,] an Italian physician and antiquary, born in Galatina, in the kingdom of Naples, in 1444, was the author of several philosophical and historical works. He passed the latter part of his life at Lecce, where he died in 1 5 16. Ferrari, (Antonio Felice,) an Italian painter of the school of Ferrara, born in 1668; died in 1719. Ferrari, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian religionist, born at Milan in 1497. He founded the religious order or * institution of Barnabites. Died in 1544. Ferrari, (Bartolommeo,) a Venetian sculptor, born in 1780. He executed a number of superior works in marble, bronze, and wood, and completed the restora- tion of the bronze winged lion which adorns the Piazzetta at Venice. Died in 1844. Ferrari, [Lat. Ferra'rius, ] (Francesco Bernar- dino,) a learned Italian, born at Milan in 1577, became librarian of the Ambrosian Library about 1609. He wrote several ecclesiastical and antiquarian works, among which is " De Ritu sacrarum Ecclesiae Catholic^e Concionum," (1612.) Died in 1669, He collected the nianuscrii^ts and books which formed the commencement of the Ambrosian Library. Ferrari, (Gaudenzio,) an eminent painter and sculp- tor of the Milanese school of Leonardo da Vinci, was bcrn at Valduggia in 1484. He studied under B. Luini. Iii 1 5 16 he aided Raphael in painting frescos in the Vati- can at Rome. He worked mostly at Varallo. His style is somewhat Raphaelesque ; but he is deficient in taste and harmony of colour. He is regarded as the greatest painter of the Milanese school after Leonardo da Vinci. His subjects are all religious. Died at Milan in 1550. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" G. Bordiga, "Vita di Gaudenzio Ferrari," 1821 ; Lomazzo, "Idea del Tempio della Pit- tura;" Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Ferrari, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian Orientalist and naturalist, born at Sienna in 1584, wnote "Nomen- clator Syriacus," (1622,) and other works. Died in 1655. Ferrari, (Giovanni Matteo,) an Italian physician and medical writer, born near Milan ; died in 1472. Ferrari, (Giuseppe,) an Italian philosopher, born at Milan in 181 1, became a resident in France. He was appointed professor of philosophy at Strasbourg in [841. Among his works are " Vico and Italy," (1839,) and an " Essay on the Principle and Limits of the Philosophy of History," (1847.) Both are in French. Ferrari, (Gregorio,) a skilful painter of the Genoese school, born in 1644; died in 1726. His son Lorenzo, called Abbe Ferrari, was also a painter. He was born in 1680, and died in 1744. Ferrari, (Guido,) an Italian scholar and Jesuit, born at Novara in 171 7. He wrote several antiquarian and historical works. Died in 1791. Ferrari, (Luca,) an Italian painter, born at Reggio in 1605, studied under Guido Reni, and imitated his style successfully. Died in 1654. Ferrari, (Ludovico,) an Italian mathematician, born at Bologna in 1522, was a pupil of the celebrated Car- dan. He discovered the mode of resolving equations of the fourth degree which is called by his name. Died in 1565. See MoNTUCLA, " Histoire des Math^tnatiques." Ferrari, (Luigi,) son of the sculptor Bartolommeo Ferrari, born at Venice in 1810, is ranked among the most distinguished sculptors of the present time. His figures of "Melancholy" and "The Lotos-gathering Nymph" are esteemed master-pieces. Ferrari, (Luigi Maria Bartolommeo,) an Italian ecclesiastic, and professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Bologna, born at Milan in 1747. He was the author of various works upon religious subjects and upon hydraulics. Died in 1820. Ferrari, (Orazio,) a Genoese painter, born at Voltri in 1606; died in 1657. Ferrari, (Ottaviano,) an Italian scholar, born at Milan in 15 18, published a treatise " On the Origin of the Romans," (1607,) and other critical and antiquarian works. Died in 1586. Ferrari, (Ottavio,) an Italian antiquary, nephew of Francesco Bernardino, noticed above, was born at Milan in 1607. He became professor of philosophy and Greek literature at Padua in 1634. Among his chief works is "Sources (or Elements) of the Italian Language," ("Origines Linguae Italicas," 1676.) Died in 1682. See J. Fabricius, "Vita Ferrari!," 1710. Ferrari, de', da fer-r^'ree, (Giovanni Andrea,) a Genoese painter of history, landscapes, and animals, was born about 1600 ; died in 1669. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Ferraris, fer-r3.''ris, (Joseph,) Count of, a celebrated commander, born at Luneville in 1726. He served in the war of the Austrian succession, and afterwards in the Seven Years' war. About 1777 he published the twenty- five-sheet map of the Netherlands which is called by his name. He was appointed vice-president of the imperial council of war in 1798, and in 1801 field-marshal. Died in 1807. Fer^rars, (Edward,) an English writer, born in War- wickshire, was the author of several dramas, which have been lost. Died in 1564. Ferrars or Ferrers, (George,) an English lawyer, poet, and historian, born near Saint Alban's about 15 12. He became a favourite courtier of Plenry VIII., and wrote a " History of the Reign of Queen Mary." He contributed to "The Mirror for Magistrates" six trage- dies or poems, among which are "The Fall of Robert Tressilian" and "The Tragedy of King Richard II." Died in 1579. See " Biographia Britannica;" Warton, "History of English Poetry." Ferrars, (Henry,) a relative of Edward, noticed above, born about 1 560, was the author of several treatises on antiquities and heraldry. He was a friend of the celebrated Camden. Died^n 1633. Ferrata, fgr-r^'ti, (Ercole,) an eminent Italian sculptor, born near Como about 1610; died in 1685. Ferrato Sasso. See Salvi. Ferraud, fa'ro', or Feraud, fi'r5', a French deputy to the National Convention, born in Armagnac in 1764, was an adherent of the Girondists, and voted for the death of the king. While resisting the populace, who were € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, h, y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S:^="See Explanations, p. 23.) FERREIN 912 FERRO endeavouring to force the doors of the Convention, in May, 1795, he was killed by a pistol-shot. See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution;" " Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale." Ferrein, f^'rAw', (Antoine,) a distinguished French anatomist and physician, born near Agen in 1693 '■> ^^^'^ in 1769. He was author of several anatomical works. Ferreira, fer-ra^-rS, (Alexandre,) a Portuguese nistorian, born in^5porto. He wrote a "History of the Knights Templars," which is highly esteemed. Died in 1737- Ferreira, fer-ra^-rS, (Alexandre Rodrigues,) a Brazilian naturalisT^nd traveller, born at Bahia in 1756. He spent nine years in exploring Brazil, from 1784 to 1793. Died in 1815. Ferreira, (Antonio,) a celebrated poet, sometimes called "the Portuguese Horace," was born at Lisbon in 1528. He became a professor at the University of Coimbra, and wrote, besides numerous sonnets, odes, epistles, and epigrams, a tragedy of "Inez de Castro," which ranks among the most beautiful productions in the Portuguese language. He was one of the principal promoters of classical taste in Portuguese poetry. His epistles ( Cartas) are regarded by some critics as his best works. Died in 1569. See F. Denis, "Resume de I'Histoire litteraire du Portugal;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Barbosa Machado, "Bibliotheca Lusitana;" J. M. da Costa e Sylva, " Ensaio sobre OS melhores Poetas Portuguezes," 1852. Ferreira, (Christovao,) a Portuguese Jesuit, born about 1580 at Torres- Vedras, went as a missionary to Japan, where he remained twenty-four years, and suffered martyrdom at Nagasaki about 1652. Ferrer, fer-raiR', (Bartolome,) a Spanish navigator, was chief pilot of an expedition which, under Cabrillo, explored the coast of California in 1542. He succeeded to the command on the death of Cabrillo, January, 1543. Ferrer, (Jayme,) a Spanish cosmographer, was sum- moned to court in 1496, and employed to fix a line of demarcation which should separate the Spanish from the Portuguese possessions in the New World. Ferreri, fgr-ra'ree, (Andrea,) an Italian sculptor and painter, born at Milan in 1673 ; died in 1744. Ferreri, (Zaccaria,) a Latin poet, born in 1479 in Vicenza, Italy, was appointed by Pope Leo X., in 15 19, Bishop of Guardia, in the kingdom of Naples. Died about 1530. Ferreras, de, di f^r-ra'ris, (Juan,) a learned Spanish ecclesiastic and historian, born near Astorga in 1652. He assisted in conipiling the great Spanish Dictionary; but his principal work is his " Historical and Chronological Synopsis of Spain," (16 vols. 4to.) It comes down to 1588, and is highly esteemed for its accuracy. Died in 1735- Ferrero, f§r-ra'ro, (Edward,) a general, born in Spain about 1832, came to the United States in his childhood. As colonel, he served with distinction in the Union army at Newbern, and at Antietam, September, 1862, and was not long after appointed a brigadier-general. He com- manded a division of the army which besieged Peters- burg in June, 1864. Ferrers, (George.) See Ferrars. Ferreti, f^r-ra'tee, or Ferreto, f!r-ra'to, [Lat. Fer- Re'tus,] an Italian historian and poet, born at Vicenza about 1296, wrote a History of Italy from 1230 to 13 18. Ferreti, (Emilio,) a distinguished Italian jurist and legal writer, born in Tuscany in 1489, was secretary to Pope Leo X. He afterwards became counsellor to the Parliament of Paris, and French ambassador to Charles V. of Germany, whom he afterwards accompanied on his African expedition. Died in 1552. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Ferreti, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian antiquary, born at Vicenza in 1639. ite wrote "Musae Lapidarias Antiquorum in Marmoribus Carmina," (1672.) Died in 1682. Ferreti, (Giovanni Domenico,) a skilful Italian painter, born at Florence in 1692. His design is correct, and his colouring vivid. Died after 1750. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ticozzi, "Diziona- rio;" Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Ferreti, (Giulio,) an Italian jurist and writer on law, born in Ravenna in 1480; died in 1547. Fer'rey, (Benjamin,) an English architect, born at Christ Church, in Hampshire, in 1810, was a pupil of A. Pugin. Among his principal structures are churches at Taunton and Eton, and Saint Stephen's Church, West- minster. He is the author of a treatise " On the An- tiquities of the Priory of Christ Church," (1834.) His works are mostly in the Gothic style. Ferri, f^r^ree, or Ferro, fer'ro, [Lat. Fer'rius,] (Al- PHONSO,) an Italian physician, was first surgeon to Pope Paul III., and the author of several medical and surgical works. Died about 1580. Ferri, (Ciro,) a distinguished Italian painter and architect, born in Rome in 1634, was a pupil of Pietro da Cortonn, whose style he imitated successfully. He excelled as a fresco-painter, and assisted Pietro da Cor- tona in many of his great works. He is said to have been an almost universal artist. Died in 1689. See Winckelmann, " Neues Mahler- Lexikon ;" Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" Ticozzr, " Dizionario." Ferri, (Geronimo,) a learned Italian writer, born in Romagna in 17 13. He was appointed professor of rhetO' ric in the University of Ferrara by Pope Clement XIV, He was the author of various works. Died in 1766. Ferri, (Paul.) See Ferry. Fer'ri-ar, (John,) an English physician, born at Chester in 1764, wrote "Medical Histories and Reflec- tions," (3 vols., 1792-98,) and "Illustrations of Sterne," (1798.) Died in 1815. Ferrier, fa're-a', (Auger,) a French physician and medical writer,^l3orn near Toulouse in 1513; died in 1588. Fer'ri-er, (James F.,) a British writer on moral phi- losophy, born in Edinburgh about 1808, was a son- in-law of Professor John Wilson. He was appointed professor of moral philosophy and political economy in the University of Saint Andrew's in 1845. His most important work is " Institutes of Metaphyics, the Theory of Knowing and Being," (1854,) which was favourably received. Died in 1864. See " Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1855, and March, 1867; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1867. Ferrier, (Jean,) a French Jesuit, born at Rodez in 1619, wrote against the Jansenists. He became con- fessor to Louis XIV. in 1670. Died in 1670 or 1674. Ferrier, (J^remie,) a French professor of theology, born about 1560. He was a Protestant minister at Nimes, and argued in 1602 that the pope was Anti- christ. About 1612 he became a Roman Catholic. He was regarded as a traitor by the Protestants before his public avowal of his conversion. Died in 1626. Ferrier, sometimes called erroneously Ferriere, (Louis,) a French poet, born in Aries in 1652 ; died in 1721. Ferrier, (Miss Mary,) a Scottish novelist, born in Edinburgh about 1782. She produced a number of suc- cessful novels, among which are "Marriage," (1818,) "The Inheritance," (1824,) and "Destiny, or the Chiefs Daughter," (183 1.) She was intimate with Sir Walter Scott, who described her as a "gifted personage, having, besides her great talents, conversation the least exigeante of any author — female, at least — whom he had ever seen." Died in 1854. See " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1842. Ferrier, du, dii fi^re-i', (Arnaud,) a French jurist, born at Toulouse about 1506. He represented Henry 11. of France at the Council of Trent, where he gave offence by his liberal sentiments. He afterwards avowed himself a Protestant, and became chancellor of Henry of Navarre. Died in 1585. See De Thou, "Historia sui Temporis;" Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Ferriere. See La Ferriere. Ferrieres or Ferriere, de, deh fi're-aiR', (Claude,) a distinguished French lawyer, born in Paris in 1639, was the author of numerous legal works. Died in 17 14. Ferro, del, d§l fer''ro, (Scipione,) an Italian mathe- matician, born at Bologna about 1465. He discovered a method to resolve equations of the third degree. Died about 1525, or after that date. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fdr, fill, fit; m5t; ndt; good; moon; FERRON 913 FETI rerron, Le, leh {k'r6N\ (Arnoul,) a French jurist and historian, born at Bordeaux in 1515. He wrote, in elegant Latin, a continuation of Paolo Emilio's "History of France," (1554.) Died in 1563. Ferroiii, fer-ro'nee, (Girolamo,) an Italian painter and engraver, born at Milan in 1687. Ferrucci, fer-root'chee, (Andrea,) an Italian sculp- tor, born at Fiesole. He died at an advanced age in 1522. Ferrucci, (Francesco,) surnamed del Tadda, a Flor- entine sculptor, who worked in porphyry. Died in 1585. Ferrucci, (Nicodemo,) a skilful painter of the Flor- entine school, born at Fiesole ; died in 1650. Ferrucci, (Pompeo,) an Italian sculptor, born at Fie- sole, lived at Rome. Died about 1625. Ferry, fa're', (Claude Joseph,) a, French statesman and savant, born near Saint-Die in 1756. He was a republican member of the Convention of 1792, and succeeded Mains as examiner in the Polytechnic School in 1812, but was deprived of that place in 1814. Died in 1845. Fer'ry, (Orris S.,) an American Senator, born at Bethel, Connecticut, in 1823, became a lawyer, and set- tled at Norwalk. He was elected a member of Congress for the fourth district of Connecticut in 1859. Having entered the army as colonel in 1861, he was appointed a brigadier-general about March, 1862. He was elected to the Senate of the United States by the legislature of Connecticut for six years, March, 1867-73. Ferry or Ferri, [Lat. Fer'rius,] (Paul,) an elo- quent French Protestant minister, born at Metz in 1 591. He preached in his native place more than fifty years, and acquired great influence. He wrote many theological works, among which is "Scholastici Orthodoxi Speci- men," (1616.) Died in 1669. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Haag, "La France protestaute." Fersen, von, fon f^R'sen, (Axel,) a Swedish general and senator, born about 1715. He was an active and prominent member of the Diet, and opposed the policy of Gustavus III. Died in 1794. See Gever, " Histoire de la Suede." Fersen, von, (Axel,) Count, marshal of Sweden, a son of the preceding, born at Stockholm in 1750. He entered the French service, and fought for the United States, 1778-82. In the disguise of a coachman, he conducted Louis XVI. and his family out of Paris in his flight to Varennes, 1 79 1. He returned to Sweden, and was appointed marshal of the kingdom about 1 801. He was murdered in 1810 by a mob, who suspected him of complicity in the death of Prince Christian. See Lamartine, " History of the Girondists;" " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Ferte-Imbaut, de la, deh It f^R^ti' SnW, Mar- quise, a celebrated French lady, was a daughter of Madame Geoffrin. She was married in 1733 to the Marquis de la Ferte-Imbaut. Ferte, La. See La Fert^:. Fertiault, f^R'te'o', (Francois,) a French poet and litterateur, born at Verdun in 1814. Ferus, fa'rus, (Johann,) a learned German ecclesi- astic, whose original name was Wild, () and the "Office and Au- thority of Justices of the Peace," (1538.) Died in 1538. Fitzherbert, (Maria,) born in 1756, was the daugh- ter of Waller Smythe, of Hampshire. Having become a widow the second time, she was privately married in 1785 to the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. After the king's separation from the princess Caroline, Mrs. Fitzherbert lived with him for a time, but at length retired to Brighton, where she died in 1837. See Charles Langdale, "Memoirs of Mrs. Fitzherbert." Fitzherbert, (Nicholas,) grandson of Sir Anthony, mentioned above, was born about 1550. He wrote, among other works, a "Treatise on the Antiquity and Duration of the Catholic Religion in England," (1608.) Died in 1621. Fitzherbert, (Thomas,) an English Jesuit, born in Staffordshire in 1552, was appointed rector of the Eng- lish College at Rome. Among other works, he wrote a "Treatise concerning Polity and Religion," (1606-10,) and a " Refutation of some of the Principles of Machi. avel." Died in 1640. Fitzherbert, (Sir William,) an English jurist, a relative of the preceding, born in Derbyshire in 1748, wrote a " Dialogue on the Revenue Laws." Died in 1791. Fitzjames, (Jame.s.) See Berwick, Duke of. Fitzjames, de, deh fets'zhtm' or fe'zhtm', (Charles,) Duke, Marshal of France, and grandson of James II., King of England, born in 1712. He served chiefly in the wars in Germany. Died in 1787. Fitz-James, de, (Edouard,) Comte, a French gen- eral, born in 171 5, was a son of the Duke of Berwick. Died at Cologne in 1758. Fitz-James, de, (Edouakd,) Due, a French peer and politician, born in 1776, was a grandson of Marshal Fitz-James. He was a partisan of the Bourbons. Died in 1838. Fitz-pat'rick, (Benjamin,) a lawyer, born in Green county, Georgia, in 1802, removed to Alabama, of which he was Governor from 1841 to 1845. He became a Sen- ator of the United States in 1848, and was re-elected in 1853- Fitz-roy', (Robert,) an English navigator, meteor- ologist, and rear-admiral, born in 1805, was a son of General Lord Charles Fitzroy. As captain of the Beagle, he was employed in the survey of the west coast of South America in 1828-30. He also commanded the Beagle in a voyage round the world performed between 183 1 and 1836, which expedition Charles Darwin accompanied as naturalist. The results of this expedition appeared in a "Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of H.M.S Adventure and Beagle between 1826 and 1836, etc.," (1839,) written by Captain Fitzroy and Captain King. In 1855 he was appointed chief of the meteorological department of the Board of Trade. Died in 1865. Fitz-si'mons or Fitz-si''mon, (Henry,) an Irish Jesuit, noted as a polemical writer, born in Dublin in 1569. He took an active part in the rebellion of 1641. Died in 1644. Fitz-ste'phen, (William,) a learned English monk and historian of the twelfth century. He was an intimate friend of Thomas a Becket, of whose murder he was an eye-witness. He wrote the " Life and T'assion of Arch- bishop Becket," in Latin, to which was prefixed his " Description of the City of London," one of the earliest and most valuable accounts of that capital. Died about 1191. Fitz-wil'liam, (Charles William W^entworth,) Earl of, a Liberal peer, born in London in 1786, was the eldest son of William Wentworth, noticed below. Before the death of his father, in 1833, he was styled Lord Milton. He was a warm friend of the Reform bill. Died in 1857. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( J:^^See Explanations, p. 23.) FITZWILLIAM FLAM IN IN US Fitzwilliam, (William,) Earl of Southampton, a celebrated naval commander, born about 1490. He served against the French in 1513 and in 1523, and was raised to the rank of admiral. In 1537 he received the title of Earl of Southampton, and was made lord privy seal in 1539. Died in 1542. Fitzwilliam, (William Wentworth,) Earl of, an English statesman, nephew of the Marquis of Rocking- ham, was born in 1748. He began his public life as a friend of Fox, but separated from him on the issue of the French Revolution, and became president of the council under Mr. Pitt in July, 1794. In 1795 he was for a short time Viceroy of Ireland. He was again appointed presi- dent of the council in 1806, and retired from office in 1807. Died in 1833. Fiurelli, fe-oo-reKlee, (Tiberio,) a famous Italian comedian, surnamed Scaramouche, was born at Naples in 1608. In early life he removed to Paris, where he died in 1694. Fix, fiks or f^ks, (Theobald,) a Swiss philologist, brother of Theodor, noticed below, was born at Soleure in 1802. He contributed to the new edition of Ste- phens's "Thesaurus Linguae Grascas," and published several editions of Greek classics. Fix, (Theodor,) a Swiss writer on political economy, born at Soleure in 1800. He made contributions to several journals of Paris, and was a member of the Acad- emy of Moral and Political Science. Died in 1846. See Theobald Fix, " Notice sur M. T. Fix," 1846. Fixlmillner, fiks'l-miKner, or Fixmillner, fiks-mil'- ner, (Placidus,) an eminent German astronomer, born at Achlenthen, near Linz, in 1721. His principal work is " Decennium Astronomicum," (1776,) which is the record of his observations for ten years. He was a monk of the monastery of Kremsmiinster. Died in 1 79 1. Fizeau, fe'zo', (Hippolyte Louis,) a French natural philosopher, born in Paris in 18 19. He distinguished himself by his researches into the properties and motion of light, and received in 1856 the grand prize of the In- stitute, 10,000 francs. He married a daughter of Adi-ien de Jussieu. Fizes, fez, (Antoine,) a French physician, and pro- fessor of medicine and mathematics at Montpellier, was born in that city in 1690. Pie published " Opera Medica," a "Treatise on Fevers," (1749,) a "Treatise on Physio- logy," and other works. Died in 1765. See EsTEVE, " La Vie et les Principes de M. de Fizes," 1765 ; Des- GENETTES, article in the " Biographic Medicale." • '• Flac-gil'la, ( ^LIA, ) wife of the Roman emperor Theodosius 1., and mother of Arcadius and Honorius, was born in Spain, and became empress in 379 A.D. She left a high reputation for piety, virtue, and moderation. Died about 386. Flac'cus, (Caius Valerius,) a Roman poet, born probably at Padua. He wrote a poem on the Argo- nautic expedition, (" Argonautica,") which is a free imi- tation of Apollonius of Rhodes, and contains beautiful passages and descriptions. The style is rather obscure and artificial. It is supposed that several of the last books of this poem are lost, or else it was left unfinished. Eight books are extant. He died about 88 or 90 a.d. Quintilian referred to his death in terms like these : " We have recently lost much in Valerius Flaccus." The critics are far from being agreed as to the merits of his poem. See the Preface of Burmann's edition of the "Argonautica," 1724; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Flaccus, (Calpurnius.) See Calpurnius. Flaccus, (Horatius.) See Horace. Flaccus, ( L. Valerius, ) a Roman general, was a partisan of Marius, and commanded an army in Asia. He was killed by Fimbria about 86 B.C. Flaccus, (M. FuLVius,) a Roman officer, who was consul in 125 B.C., and a political friend of the Gracchi. Carbo, Caius Gracchus, and Flaccus were the triumviri for the division of lands. Having taken arms for Caius Gracchus, he was put to death by Opimius in 121 B.C. Flaccus, (Persius.) See Persius. Flaccus, (Q. FuLVius,) a Roman general, who was elected consul in 237 B.C. Having been re-elected in 212, he obtained command of an army, and defeated Hanno at Beneventum. Died about 200 B.C. See LiVY, "History of Rome." Flaccus, (Q. FuLVius,) a son of the preceding, com- manded with success in Spain in 181 B.C. Flaccus, ( Verrius, ) a Roman grammarian, lived in the reign of Augustus. He wrote many and various works, which are not extant. Flaccus Illyricus. See Francowitz. , Flach, (Matthias.) See Francowitz. Flachat, flrsht', (Jean Claude,) a French merchant, who lived and traded many years in Constantinople, and published "Observations on the Commerce and Arts of Europe, Asia," etc., (2 vols., 1766.) Died in 1775. Flacius. See Francowitz. Flacourt, de, deh flfkooR', (Etienne,) born at Or- leans, in France, in 1607, was nominated commander of Madagascar in 1648. He returned to France in 1655, and published in 1658 a " History of Madagascar," which was written with much care and accuracy and contained the first general description of that island. Died in 1660. Flagg, (Edmund,) an American writer, born at Wis- cassett, Maine, in 181 became a lawyer, and edited several journals. He published a few novels, and " Ven- ice, the City of the Sea, 1749-1849," (2 vols., 1853.) Flahault de la Billarderie, de, deh deh It b6KytRd^re', (AuGUSTE Charles Joseph,) Count, a French general, born in Paris in 1785. He became colonel in 1809, distinguished himself in the campaign of Russia, and was aide-de-camp to Napoleon in 1813. For his conduct at the battle of Leipsic ( 1813) he was made a general of division, and a count. He fought for Napoleon at Waterloo. The revolution of 1830 restored him to his rank as a peer and general. He was am- bassador to Vienna from 1841 to 1848, and became a senator in 1853. Died in 1870. Flahaut, Countess. See Souza, Adele de. Flajani, fl^-yS'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian surgeon, born near Ascoli in 1741, studied at Rome. Pope Pius VI. chose him for his surgeon-in-ordinary. Died in 1808. Flamael. See Flemalle. Flam'bard, (Ralph,) an English prelate, who was chief minister of William Rufus. He became Bishop of Durham in 1099. Died in 1128. Flameel. See Flemalle. Flamel, flt'mgK, (Nicolas,) a scribe, a dealer in manuscripts, and a famous alchemist, who lived in Paris about 1350, was the subject of many marvellous stories which have exercised the public credulity. He is sup- posed to have acquired by some means great wealth, which he spent partly in the erection of churches and in works of charity. There are several treatises on alchemy which are ascribed to him. Died in 1418. Sec " Histoire critique de N. Flamel," anonymous, 1761. Flamen, fl3.''men, (Albert,) a Flemish painter and engraver, born at Bruges, lived in the seventeenth cen- tury. Flamen, flt^mSN', or Flamin, flt^miN', (Anselme,) a French sculptor, born at Saint-Omer in 1647, worked in Paris. Died in 1717. Flam-i-ni'nus, (Lucius Quintius,) a Roman ad- miral, born about 240 B.C., was a brother of Titus. He commanded a fleet sent against Philip of Macedon in 198 B.C. Died in 170. Flamininus, (Titus Quintius,) sometimes called Fla-miii'i-us, a distinguished Roman general, was chosen consul 198 B.C., and obtained the province of Macedonia, then the seat of war with Philip of Macedon. He defeated the army of Philip in Epirus, and recovered possession of Thessaly. After the year of his consulship had expired, he was continued in the command of that province by the senate. All attempts to negotiate a peace having failed, the two armies again met at Cyno- cephal^e, in Thessaly. The phalanx of Philip having been broken by the elephants of the Romans, a panic seized his whole army, of whom 8000 were killed. After this victory, in a general concourse of Greeks assembled at the Isthmian Games, 196 B.C., Flamininus proclaimed liberty and independence to the people of Corinth, Phocis, Locris, Thessaly, etc. In 183 he performed a mis- a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, sAori; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; nftt- good; moon FLAMINIO 925 FLAVIAN sion to Prusias, King of Bithynia, to demand the surren- der of Hannibal, who frustrated that design by suicide. See Plutarch, "Life of Flaminiinis ;" Livy, "History of Rome," books xxxi.-xxxix. ; Niebuhr, "Roman History." Flaminio, M-mee'ne-o, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian writer, born at Imola about 1464. He was pro- fessor of belles-lettres at Seravalla and Bologna, and wrote Latin poetry with moderate success. He also wrote, Ih prose, a Dialogue on Education, and a treatise " On the Origin of Philosophy," which are better than his poems. Died in 1536. Flaminio, (Marcantonio,) an eminent Latin poet, son of the preceding, was born at Seravalla in 1498. He was patronized by Cardinal Pole, with whom he lived for many years, and whom he accompanied to the Coun- cil of Trent in 1545. He translated thirty Psalms into Latin verse, (1558,) and wrote hymns and other Latin poems, " which," says Ginguene, "join to a rare elegance something sweet and amiable, like his own character." Died in Rome in 1550. See August Neander, "Erimierung an M. A. Flaminio," Ber- lin, 1837; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Tira- BOSCHi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Fla-min'i-us, (Caius,) a Roman general, noted for his valour, became tribune of the people in 232 B.C., and procured the passage of an agrarian law which was violently opposed by the Optimates. In 225 or 223 he was elected consul, and led an army against the Gauls. Having been chosen consul a second time, he com- manded at the battle of Lake Thrasymene, where, after a brave and desperate resistance, the Romans were defeated by Hannibal, and Flaminius was slain, in 217 B.C. During this battle an earthquake destroyed the greater part of several cities of Italy ; but it is said the armies were entirely unconscious of its shock. The "Via Flaminia," a great highway, was made during his censorship, and named in his honour. His son Caius was consul in 185 B.C., and defeated the Ligurians. See Niebuhr, "Lectures on Roman History;" Livy, "History of Rome," books xxi. and xxii. Fla-miu'i-us, (Nobilius,) an Italian critic and theo- logian, born at Lucca in 1532; died in 1590. Flam'ma, (Calpurnius,) a Roman officer, noted for one heroic or daring action in the first Punic war, Flamma, (L. Volumnius, ) a Roman general, who commanded in the Samnite war, 296 B.C. Flam'steed, (John,) an eminent English astronomer, and the first astronomer royal, was born at Denby, near Derby, on the 19th of August, 1646, and began the study of the stars at an early age. He was ordained, and obtained the living of Burstow, in 1684. He ap- pears to have been the first modern astronomer who understood the theory of the equation of time, on which subject he published a practical demonstration about 1667. He made observations at Denby from 1668 to 1674, soon after which he went to London and associated with Newton, Halley, and Hook. About 1675 Charles II. appointed him astronomer royal, and gave him the direction of the 'new observatory of Greenwich, which was finished in 1676. Here he passed the remainder of his life in patient observation, and determined the posi- tion of 2884 stars. The results of his labours were published in 1725, with the title of "Celestial History," ("Historia Coelestis.") This work surpassed all pre- vious performances of the kind, contained the first ac- curate catalogue of the stars, and is one of the richest contributions ever made to practical astronomy. An im])erfect edition was published, without his consent, in 1712. He died in December, 1719. See "An Account of the Rev. John Flamsteed," 1835, derived from his own manuscripts, which details a celebrated quarrel between Newton and Flamsteed; Brewster, " Life of Sir Isaac Newton;" J. B. BioT, "Notice sur Flamsteed," Paris, 1827; Whewell, "Newton and Flamsteed," 1836; "London Quarterly Review" for December, 1835; "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1836. Flandin, ASnM^n', (Charles,) a French physician, born at Aubues (Nievre) in 1803. He wrote several treatises on arsenic, and became a member of the Con- seil de Salubrite, in Paris, in 1845. His most important work is a "Complete Treatise on Poisons," (3 vols., 1846-53-) Flandin, (Eugene Napoleon,) a French painter and antiquary, born at Naples in 1809. He visited Italy and Algeria, and witnessed the attack on Constantine, which he painted in 1838. Under the auspices of the Academy, he was attached to the Persian embassy, and explored the antiquities of Persia, 1839-41. The results of this mission were "Studies on Persian Sculpture," (3 vols.,) "Studies on Modern Persia," (100 plates,) and a "Nar- rative of a Tourney to Persia," (2 vols., 1843.) I" 1844 he was sent to the supposed site of Nineveh, where he made many designs, which were published by the govern- ment, (1845-54.) Flandrin, flSN^RiN', (Auguste,) a French painter, born in Lyons in 1804; died in 1842. Flandrin, (Jean Hippolyte,) a French historical painter, brother of the preceding, was born at Lyons in 1809, and was one of the best pupils of Ingres. He studied in Rome from 1833 to 1838, and settled in Paris. Among his works are "Euripides writing Tragedies," " Dante conducted by Virgil," (1836,) " Mater Dolorosa," (1845,) ^^'^^ "Napoleon Legislateur," (1847,) ordered for the Council of State. His composition and design are highly praised. He excelled also in portraits. He was admitted into the Institute in 1853. Died in 1864. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Flandrin, (Jean Paul,) a skilful landscape-painter, brother of the preceding, with whom he studied in Rome, was born at Lyons in 1811. He is called one of the representatives of classic landscape in France. Among his works are "The Campagna of Rome," "The Prome- nade of Poussin on the Tiber," (1843,) a "View of Rivoli," (1844,) and "The Rhone near Avignon," (1846.) Flandrin, (Pierre,) a French veterinary writer, born at Lyons in 1752; died in 1796. Flangini, Mn-jee'nee, (Luigi,) an Italian writer, born in Venice in 1733, was made cardinal in 1789. In 1801 the Austrian emperor conferred on him the titles of Pa- triarch of Venice, count of the empire, and councillor of state. He translated from the Greek the "Apology of Socrates" by Plato, and the " Argonautica" of Apollo- nius Rhodius into verse, (2 vols., 1791-94.) Died in 1804. See Tipai.do, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Flassans. See Rax is. Flat'man, (Thomas,) a lawyer, poet, and a skilful painter, born in London in 1633. He wrote songs, Pin- daric odes, and other small poems, which procured for him a temporary popularity. Died in 1688. Flatters, flat'ters, a German sculptor, born at Cre- velt in 1784; died in 1845. Flaugergues, flS'zhaRg', ( Honors, ) a French as- tronomer, born at Viviers in 1755. In 1815 the Academy of Nimes awarded him a prize for a treatise on the tails of comets. Died in 1835. Flaugergues, (Pierre Franqois,) a French lawyer, born at Rodez about 1760. He was an active member of the legislative body in 1813, and was one of the com- mittee of three who prepared the address on the state of the nation to Napoleon in December of that year. Died in 1836. Flav'el, (John,) an eminent English nonconformist and Calvinist divine, born in Worcestershire about 1627. He became rector of Dartmouth in 1656, and was ejected for nonconformity in 1662 ; after which he preached in private houses. His character is represented as excel- lent. Among his works, which are highly esteemed, are " Husbandry Spiritualized," (1669,) "Divine Conduct," (1678,) and "Method of Grace," (1698.) His "Token for Mourners," says Dr. Doddridge, "is inimitable." Died at Exeter in 1691. An edition of his works, in six volumes, was published in 1820. See a " Life of Flavel," in an edition of his select works, 1833. Fla'vi-an, [Lat. Flavia'nus; Fr. Flavien, flt^ve- In',] Bishop of Antioch, is called a saint by the Roman Catholics. He was an adversary of Arianism, and was elected in 381 a.d. to the see of Antioch. The pope and the Western bishops recognized Paulinus, who had been chosen Bishop of Antioch by another party. Died in 404 A.D. Fla'vi-an or Fla-vi-a''nus, Patriarch of Constanti- nople, was chosen Pontiff of the Greek Church in a.d. 447. By his influence Eutyches was condemned as a € as c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^^See Explanations, p. 23.) FLAVIGNT 926 FLEMALLE heretic in a council held in 448. At another council, assembled at Ephesus in 449, the Eutychian party pre- vailed, and deposed or condemned Flavian. He died in 449, in consequence, it is said, of personal violence re- ceived from the hostile sect. See Socrates, " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Sozomen, " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Fabkicius, " Bibliotheca Graeca." Flavigny, flS\6n'ye', (Val6rien,) a French Hebra- ist, born near Laon, was a doctor of the Sorbonne. He became professor of Hebrew in the College de France in 1630. He was chiefly occupied with philological dis- cussions respecting the Hebrew text of the Bible, and was involved in a long dispute with Abraham Echel- lensis. Died in 1674. Flavio, fli've-o, (Biondo,) or Biondo Flavio, [Lat. FL/V'vkjs Blon'dus,] an Italian historian and antiquary, born at Forli in 1388. He was secretary to Pope Eu- genius IV. and to three succeeding pontiffs. He illus- trated the antiquities of Italy and Rome in three works, viz., "Italia Illustrata," (1474,) "Ten Books of Rome Triumphant," (" Romas Triumphantis Libri X.," 1482,) and "Three Books of Rome Restored," (" Romx Instau- ratai Libri HI.," 1482.) These works were excellent for the time, and are still consulted. Died in 1463. See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis ;" Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteralura Italiana." FlaVi-us, (Caius or Cneius,) a Roman senator, of plebeian birth, who held the office of asdile about 303 B.C. He acquired great popularity by publishing legal for- mulas and technicalities, the knowledge of which the jDatricians and pontiffs wished to be confined to them- selves. His collection of legal rules was called "Jus Flavianum." Flavins, (Clemens.) See Clemens. Flavius, (Josephus.) See Josephus. FlaVus, (Titus Lartius,) the first Roman dictator, appointed to that office in 498 B.C. Flavy, de, deh flt've', (Guillaume,) a famous and powerful French captain, born at Compiegne about 1398. He had command of Compiegne when Joan of Arc was captured there, (1430,) and was suspected of treachery in that affair. He was notorious for his audacity and crimes, and was assassinated in 1449. Flax'man, (John,) an English sculptor of great emi- nence, was born at York in 1755. His father, who was a moulder of figures, brought him to London in infancy. About the year 1770 he became a student in the Royal Academy, where he distinguished himself by his industry and received a silver medal. In 1782 he married Miss Denman, with whom he lived happily until her death in 1820. In 1787 he removed to Rome, where he executed his admirable and sublime compositions (in outline) illustrative of the prominent events of the "Iliad" and "Odyssey" and of the great poems of ^schylus and Dante. His success in these subjects was such as to acquire for him a very high celebrity, especially for in- vention and composition. After remaining in Rome about seven years, he returned home, and in 1797 was unani- mously elected an associate of the Royal Academy. About this time he executed monuments of Lord Mans- field and Lord Nelson, which are much admired, and numerous marble groups of scriptural subjects, for which he was peculiarly qualified by his genius and his piety. In 1810 he became professor of sculpture in the Royal Academy. Among his latest productions are the " Shield of Achilles," his " Psyche," and the group of the "Arch- angel Michael and Satan." Pie died in 1826. Canova and other competent judges have pronounced him the greatest sculptor of modern times. "There was Flax- man," says Ruskin, " another naturally great man, with as true an eye for nature as Raphael ; — he stumbles over the blocks of the antique statues, wanders in the dark valley of their ruins to the end of his days." (" Modern Painters.") See Cunningham, "Lives of the Most Eminent British Painters, Sculptors, and Architects;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Flecliere or Flechiere. See Fletcher, (John Wil- liam.) Flechier, fli'she-i', (Esprit,) an excellent French pulpit orator, born at Pernes, (Vaucluse,) June 10, 1632. Having gained distinction by his Latin verses, eloquent conversation, and funeral orations, he was chosen a meni- ber of the French Academy in 1673. He was appointed Bishop of Lavaur in 1685, and Bishop of Nimes in 1687. As an orator, he was admired for his graceful style, noble thoughts, and harmonious periods. He was considered by his contemporaries as equal or only second to Bos- suet ; but his reputation has since declined. Among his best works are an "Oration on Turenne," (1676,) and a "Life of Theodosius the Great," (1679.) Died at Montpellier in February, 17 10. See Labitte, "La Jeunesse de Flechier," in the "Revue des Deux Mondes," May, 1845; D'Ai.embkrt, Histoire des Membres de I'Academie," tomes i. and ii. ; Fabke ue Narbonne, " Discours sur la Vie de Flechier," prefixed to an edition ot" his works, 10 vols., 1825. Fleck, fl^k, (Johann Friedrich Ferdinand,) a celebrated German actor, born at Breslau in 1757, was especially admired for his personation of the prominent characters in Shakspeare. Died in 1801. Fleck^'noe, (Richard,) an English poet and drama- tist, who lived in the reign of Charles II. He was poet-laureate in the time of Dryden, whose ridicule, and that of Pope, seem to have preserved Flecknoe's name from oblivion more than his own writings. He wrote " Fashionable Young Ladies," (" Damoiselles a la Mode," 1667,) and other plays, which were not successful. Died about 1680. See Malone, "Life of Dryden;" Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." Fleetwood, (Charles,) an English general, born in Lancashire, is commonly described as a fanatic or enthusiast of small capacity. He was returned to Par- lianient in 1645, and became a zealous republican and Puritan. As lieutenant-general, he distinguished himself at Dunbar and at the battle of Worcester, September, 165 1. After the death of Ireton, (1651,) Fleetwood married his widow, Bridget, a daughter of Cromwell, and was appointed commander-in-chief of the army in Ireland. He was also lord deputy of Ireland in 1654 and 1655. The Protector afterwards gave him the first place among the major-generals whom he appointed in 1656. After the restoration he lived in obscurity until his death, about 1692. His promotion is ascribed to his remarkable gift for praying and preaching extempore. See Hu.ME, "History of England ;" Guizot, "Histoire de la Revolution d'Angleterre." Fleetwood, (John,) an English writer on theology, published "The Christian Dictionary," (1773,) and " The Life of Christ, and Lives of the Apostles," etc., (1813.) Fleetwood, (William,) D.D., an eminent English divine, born in London on the 1st of January, 1656. After graduating at Cambridge, he became chaplain of King William III. He was chosen Bishop of Saint Asaph in 1708, and was promoted to the Bishopric of Ely in 17 14. His sermons, of which a large number were published, were greatly admired, and he was prob- ably the most eminent preacher in the Anglican Church of his time. Among his works are an "Essay on Mira- cles," (1701,) and " Chronicon Preciosum : an Account of English Money, the Price of Corn, Wages, etc., for the Last Six Hundred Years," (1707.) He published in 1 7 12 four sermons, with a j^reface which, though con- demned by the House of Commons to be burnt, was inserted in the " Spectator," No. 384, with commendatory remarks by the editor. He advocated Whig principles in this preface. Died in August, 1723. See PowEi.L, "Life of Fleetwood" prefixed to his Works; " Bio- graphia Britannica;" Niceron, "Memoires." Fleetwood, (William,) an English lawyer, became recorder of London about 1569. He wrote some legal and historical works. Died in 1593. Fleischer, fll'sher, (Hkinrich Leberecht,) an emi- nent German Orientalist, born at Schandau, in Saxony, in 1801. In 1835 he succeeded Rosenmiiller as pro- fessor of Oriental languages at Leipsic. He published an edition of Abulfeda's " Anteislamica," with a Latin translation, (183 1,) and a valuable commentary on the "Koran of Beidhawi," (1844.) Flemalle, fla'nitK, written also Flamael, flI-nilK, Flemael, and Flameel, (Bertholet, b^R''to'la',) a Flemish painter, born at Liege in 1614. He worked in Paris some years. Died in 1675. a, e, 1, 6, u, y, lottg; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, shoj't; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fl.ll, f^t; met; n6t; good; moon ; FLEMING 927 FLETCHER Flem'ing, (Abraham,) an English classical scholar and translator, born in London, lived about 1580. He translated Virgil's "Bucolics," (i575») Elian's "His- tory," (1576,) Virgil's "Georgics," (1589,) and other classic works. Fleming, (Caleb,) an English Socinian minister, born in 1698, succeeded the eloquent James Foster at Pinners' Hall, London, in 1752. He published many theological writings. Died in 1779. Fleming, (Charles,) a philologist, born at Perth, Scotland, in 1806. He became professor of English at the College Louis-le-Grand, Paris, in 1829, and at the Polytechnic School in 1844. With M. Tibbins he pub- lished an " English-French and French-English Dic- tionary," (Paris, 2 vols., 1840,) which is considered one of the best dictionaries of the two languages extant. Fleming or Flemming, flem'ming, (Claudius,) Con- stable of Sweden, born in Finland, commanded in that province when Sigismond inherited the throne at the death of his father, John HI., in 1591. In the civil war that followed, Fleming supported Sigismond with fidelity, and defeated the insurgents. Died in 1597. See Ersch und Grubek, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Geyer, " Histoire de la Suede." Flem'ing, (John,) an eminent Scottish naturalist, born near Bathgate, in Linlithgowshire, in 1785, became a minister of the Church of Scotland. He preached at Flisk, in Fifeshire. He produced, about 1822, the " Phi- losophy of Zoology," which was highly esteemed, and obtained the chair of natural philosophy at King's Col- lege, Aberdeen, in 1828 or 1832. His " History of British Animals" is a work of high authority. He was author of a work on "Molluscous Animals, including Shell- Fish," (1837,) and of many minor scientific treatises. Having identified himself with the Free Church, or- ganized about 1843, he resigned his chair at Aberdeen. He became professor of natural history or natural science in the Free Church College of Edinburgh about 1845. Died in November, 1857. Flem'ing, (Patrick,) an Irish monk, born in the county of Lowth in 1599, received at baptism the name of Christopher. He taught philosophy at Rome and Louvain, and theology at Prague, and wrote " Lives of Irish Saints." He was murdered near Prague by some fanatical peasants in 163 1. Fleming, (Robert,) a Scottish theologian, born at Vester in 1630. He wrote the " Fulfilling of Scripture," (1681,) and other works. He preached many years at Rotterdam after 1676. Died in 1694. Fleming, (Robert,) Jr., a learned Scottish author and clergyman, son of the preceding, preached in Holland and London, and published sermons, poems, and discourses on the prophecies of Scripture, which are highly esteemed. In 1 701 he issued a "Discourse on the Rise and Fall of the Papacy," containing predictions which it is thought have been remarkably verified. He expected that 1848 would be an important era in the subversion of the papal power. Died in 1 716. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Flemming, flSm'ming, (Hans Heinrich,) Count, born in Pomerania in 1632, distinguished himself at the siege of Vienna in 1683, and was made count of the empire. He obtained the rank of field-marshal about 16S8. Died in 1706. Flemming, (Jakob Heinrich,) an able general, born in Pomerania in 1667. He entered the service of Au- gustus of Saxony, who became King of Poland, He had a high command in the war against Charles XII. of Sweden, and was appointed field-marshal and chief minister of Augustus about 17 12. He defeated the Swedes under Steinbock in Pomerania, and was after- ward victorious over the revolted Poles in 1715. Died in 1728. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" M. Ranft, " Leben und Thaten des General J. H. Grafen von Flem- ming," 1752. Flemming, (Paul,) one of the most celebrated Ger- man poets of his time, was born at Hartenstein, in Saxony, in 1609. His "Spiritual and Secular Poems" (1642) are greatly admired for their melody of versification, and his sonnets display merit of a high order. He went with an embassy sent by the Duke of Holstein to Persia in 1636. Died at Hamburg in 1640. See Varnhagen von Ense, " Biographische Denkmale," vol. iv. ; Karl Schmitt, "P. Flemming nach seiner literargeschicht- lichen Bedeutung dargestellt," 1851. Flemming or Flemmynge, (Richard,) born at Crofton, was appointed in 1420, by Henry V., Bishop of Lincoln. Having zealously opposed the opinions of Wycliffe, he received from the pope the appointment to the Archbishopric of York; but Henry did not permit him to occupy it. He founded Lincoln College, Oxford. Died in 1430. Flemming, (Robert,) a nephew of the preceding, became Deaii of Lincoln in 1451. He published a Greek and Latin Dictionary, and a Latin poem in praise of Pope Sixtus IV. Died in 1483. Flers, flaiR, (Camille,) a French landscape-painter, born at Paris in 1802. He revolted against academical traditions, and aimed to paint nature in its simplicity. His subjects are mostly taken from French scenery. Flers, de, deh flaiR, (Charles,) a French general, born in 1756. In 1793 he commanded the army of the Eastern Pyrenees, and had several engagements with the Spaniards. Being accused of treason, he was arrested by order of the Convention and condemned to death in 1794. Flesselle, de, deh fli'sll', (Philippe,) a French physician, who graduated in 1528. He was employed professionally by Francis I., Henry II., Francis II., and Charles IX. Died in 1562. Flesselles, de, deh fla's^K, (Jacques,) a French civil officer, one of the first victims of the Revolution, was born about 1724. He held the office of provost of the mer- chants of Paris, the functions of which are similar to those of mayor. On the day the Bastille was stormed, July 14, 1789, he was charged with hostility to the popular cause and shot by one of the mob, Fletch'er, (Abraham,) a self-taught English mathe- matician and physician, born at Little Broughton in 1714, wrote the "Universal Measurer and Mechanic," (1762.) Died in 1793. Fletcher, (Alexander,) a British divine, born about 1787, was minister of Finsbury Chapel, London. He published a "Guide to Family Devotion, containing 730 Hymns, 730 Prayers," etc., which passed through many editions, "Addresses to the Young," (1851,) and other works. Died in i860. Fletch'er, (Andrew,) an able Scottish republican writer and orator, often called Fletcher of Saltoun, was born at Saltoun in 1653. He was elected to the Scottish Parliament, in which he opposed the arbitrary measures of the court. Having been outlawed about 1680, he retired to the continent, and fought against the Turks. At the revolution of 1688 he returned home, and again became a member of Parliament. " He was by far the most nervous and correct speaker in the Par- liament of Scotland," says the Earl of Buchan; "for he drew his style from the pure models of anticjuity." He published several political treatises, among which are "Two Discourses concerning the Affairs of Scotland," (1698.) Lockhart praises the "undaunted courage and pathetic eloquence" with which he exposed the oppres- sion to which Scotland was subjected. Died in London in 1 716. Although a determined foe to des})Otism, Pletcher appears to have had little confidence in the capacity of the common people for self-government. Macaulay goes so far as to accuse him of being "the author of a plan for reducing a large part of the working- classes of Scotland to slavery." (" History," vol. i. p. 501.) See Earl of Buchan, " Life and Writings of Andrew Fletcher," 1792; "Retrospective Review," vol. iv., 1821. Fletcher, (Andrew,) Lord Milton, a Scottish judge, nephew of the preceding, was born in 1692. He became a lord of session in 1 724, and keeper of the signet in 1 748. He was the confidential agent of the Duke of Argyll when the latter had the chief management of Scottish affairs. He is commended for his services in the promotion of commerce, manufactures, and agriculture. Died in 1766. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Fletcher, (Giles,) born in Kent, was the brother ol Bishop Fletcher, and father of the poets Giles and Phineas. In 1588 he was ambassador to Russia, of € as k; 9 as .y; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, gtcttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) FLETCHER 928 FLEURT which nation he wrote a curious account, (1590.) This was suppressed by government, lest it should give of- fence to the Russian court. Died in 16 10. Fletcher, (Giles,) a son of the preceding, born about 1588, was educated at Cambridge, and obtained the living of Alderton, in Suffolk. He wrote an admired and picturesque poem, "Christ's Victory and Triumph in Heaven and Earth over and after Death," (1610.) "Giles seems," says Hallam, "to have more vigour than his elder brother, [Phineas, ] but less sweetness and smoothness. . . . They both bear much resemblance to Spenser. . . . They were endowed with minds eminently poetical, and not inferior in imagination to any of their contemporaries." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1623. See Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets," vol. ii. Fletcher, (James,) an English writer and school- teacher, born in 181 1, lived in London. He published " The Siege of Damascus," " The Gem, and other Poems," and a "History of Poland," (1831.) In a fit of insanity, he committed suicide in 1832. Fletcher, (John,) an eminent English dramatic author, born in Northamptonshire in 1576, was a son of Richard, Bishop of Bristol and London. He was edu- cated at Cambridge, and became the friend of Francis Beaumont, with whom his name is inseparably asso- ciated as a partner in authorship. The unity of feeling and identity of genius between them were such that critics are unable to assign their respective shares in their works. Among the dramas of Beaumont and Fletcher, which had immense success, are "The Maid's Tragedy," (before 161 1,) "Philaster," (161 1,) and "The Loyal Sub- ject," (1618.) Fletcher was sole author of "The Faith- ful Shepherdess," "The Scornful Lady," (i6i6,) "The Spanish Curate," comedy, (1622,) "Rule a Wife and Have a Wife," a comedy, (1624,) and many other comedies, or tragi-comedies, in verse. Dryden informs us that in his time the plays of Beaumont and Fletcher were per- formed oftener than those of vShakspeare. " Fletcher," remarks Hallam, "is as much superior to Shakspeare in his knowledge of the stage, as he falls below him in that of human nature. . . . His sentiments and style, where not concealed by obscurity, are very dramatic. His thoughts are noble, and tinged with the ideality of romance ; his metaphors vivid, though sometimes too forced. . . . Yet we are seldom arrested by striking beauties : good lines occur in every page, fine ones but rarely." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") The same critic censures the "protracted indecency" of these authors. (See Beaumont, Francis.) Died in 1625. See Langbaine, "Account of the English Dramatic Poets," 1691. Fletcher or Flechere, (John William,) a divine, born at Nyon, in Switzerland, in 1729. He removed to England in his youth, became a priest of the Anglican Church, and obtained the living of Madeley, in Salop, in 1760. He was a religious associate of John Wesley, and author of several works, some of which were directed against Calvinism. His works were published in 8 vols., (1803.) He died in Shropshire in 1785. "No Church," says R. Southey, " has ever possessed a more apostolic minister." See J., Benson, "Life of J. W. Fletcher." Fletcher, (Phineas,) an English poet, born in 1584, was the son of Giles Fletcher the ambassador. He was educated for the church, and obtained in 1621 the living of Hilgay. He wrote "The Locustag, or Apollyon- ists," "Sicelides, a Drama," and other poems. His reputation as a poet rests on "The Purple Island, or the Isle of Man," (1633,) an allegorical description of the human body, faculties, and passions. Milton is said to have admired and imitated him. "He is entitled," says Headley, "to a very high rank among our old English classics." Hallam thinks him deserving of praise, but that his poem "from its very nature is insufferably wearisome." (See Fletcher, Giles.) Died about 1650. See Johnson and Cjlalmeks, "Lives of the English Poets;" "Biograpliia Britainiica ;" "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., 1820. Fletcher, (Richard,) an English prelate, born in Kent, was the father of John the dramatist. He became chaplain to Queen Elizabeth, who directed him in 1586 to attend Mary Stuart at her execution ; but she declined to listen to his exhortations. He was appointed Bishop of Bristol in 1589, of Worcester in 1592, and of London in 1594. Died in 1596. Fleuranges, de, deh fluh'rSNzh', (Robert de la Marck — deh It mtRk,) Seigneur, a brave French officer, born of a noble family at Sedan in 1491, offered his services to Louis XII. at an early age, and became the companion of the Count of Angouleme, afterwards Francis I. At the battle of Novara, or Asti, he is said to have received forty-six wounds. In 1525 he was taken prisoner with_ Francis I. at the battle of Pavfa. A few years after this he was promoted to the rank of marshal of France. He wrote a " History of Memorable Events which occurred from 1499 to 1521." Died in 1537. Fleuriau, fluh^re-5', (Jerome Charlemagne,) Mar- quis de Langle, (deh 16Ngl,) a French writer, born in Brittany about 1742 ; died in 1807. Fleurieu, de, deh fluh're-uh^ (Charles Pierre Claret — klfri'',) Count, a skilful French hydrographer and statesman, born in Lyons in 1738. He entered the navy in his youth, acquired skill in naval tactics, and became director-general of the ports and arsenals in 1776. He was minister of marine from October, 1790, until May, 1 791, after which he was chosen a member of the Institute. He planned the naval operations of the war against the British, 1778 to 1783, in which he displayed great strategical skill. He published, besides other writings, a valuable work, entitled a "Voyage around the World, made by Elienne Marchand," (4 vols., 1798,) with notes and many charts. He became councillor of state in 1799, and intendant-general of the emperor's household, and a senator, in 1805. Died in 1810. See Delambre, " Notice sur la Vie, etc. de M. le Comte de Fleu- rieu;" "Nouvelle Biographic Gt^ndrale." Fleuriot-Lescot, fluh're'o' ISs'ko^ (J. A. C.,) born in Brussels about 1760, was a violent Jacobin, and acted for a short time as mayor of Paris, until the fall of Robespierre, his patron, with whom he was executed in 1794. Fleury, f^uh''re', (Abraham Joseph Benard — bi'. uSr',) a French comedian, born at Chartres in 1751. He performed in Paris with success from 1778 to 1818. Died in 1822. See "Memoires de Fleury," by J. B. Lafitte, 1835. Fleury, (Claude,) Abb^:, a pious and learned eccle- siastic, born in Paris in 1640, practised law several years before he entered the priesthood. In 1672 Louis XIV. chose him for tutor to the Princes de Conti. He was associated with Fenelon about sixteen years (1689-1705) as sub-preceptor of the Dukes of Burgundy, Anjou, and Berry. After their education was finished, the king gave him the rich priory of Argenteuil. In 1696 Abbe Fleury was elected a member of the French Academy in the place of La Bruyere. Contemporary writers agree in extolling his moral qualities, his profound learning, and his literary merit. He published a work on the "Morality of Christians," another on "Ecclesiastical Law," and a "Historical Catechism," (1683,) which had great success. His greatest work is his " Ecclesiastical History," ("Histoire ecclesiastique," 20 vols., 1691- 1723,) comprising a period of about four centuries. His style is pure, clear, and concise, and his spirit liberal and candid. He was confessor to Louis XV. from 17 16 to 1722. Voltaire said, "His history of the Church is the best that has been written." Died in July, 1723. See RoNDET, "Notice sur Abbe Fleury" prefixed to an edition of his "Opuscules," 5 vols., 1780; C. E. Simonetti, "DerCharak- ter eines Geschichtsschreibers in dem Leben und aus den Schriften des Abbts C. Fleury," 1746; Jaeger, "Notice sur C. Fleury consi- dere conime Historien de I'figlise," 1847 '• A. Martin, " Essai sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Fleury," 1837. Fleury, (Emile F^:lix,) a French general, born in Paris in 1815. He served in Algeria, became a senator in 1865, and was sent as ambassador to Russia in 1869. Fleury, (Julien,) a French philologist, born about 1650. He edited Apuleius "ad usum Delphini," (1688.) Died in 1725. Fleury, de, deh fluh're', (Aim6e de Coigny — deh kw^n^ye',) Duchesse, a literary French lady, born in a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; FLEURT 929 Paris about 1776. In 1794 she was confined in the same prison with Andre Chenier, and was the subject of his ode "La jeune Captive." She wrote a novel entitled "Alvar," (1818.) Died in 1820. Fleury, de, (Andk6 Hercule,) Cardinal, an emi- nent French statesman, born at Lodeve, in Languedoc, on the 22d of June, 1653, was educated at Paris. To superior mental faculties and wit he added high literary attainments and persuasive eloquence. In 1677 he was chosen almoner to the queen, and after her death, in 1683, he served in the same capacity Louis XIV., who in 1698 nominated him Bishop of Frejus. Just before the death of Louis XIV., by a codicil to his will, he appointed Fleury preceptor to the heir-apparent, aged about six years, who in 1 715 succeeded as Louis XV. He per- formed the duties of this office in such a manner that he gained the affection and respect of the young king, who in 1726 raised him to the dignitv of prime minister, — an event which occasioned ample demonstrations of popu- lar joy. In the same year he received from the pope a cardinal's hat. Adopting a pacific and economical policy, he exercised his power with wisdom and fidelity until his death. He maintained peace with Spain and Eng- land until 1740, when France, in spite of his efforts, was involved in the general war. He was a member of the French Academy. Died in Paris in January, 1743. See Saint-Simon, "Memoires;" Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV ;" F. J. Bataille, "Jlloge historique de M. le Cardinal A. H. de Fleury," 1737; " Leben des Cardinals A. H. Fleury," Freiburg, 1743- Fleury, de, (Guillaume Franqois Joly.) See JOLY. Fleury de Chaboulon, flah're' deh shl'boo'l6N', (Pierre Alexandre Edouard,) a Frenchman, born in 1779. He became private secretary of Na[)oleon on his return from Elba, and wrote "Memoirs of the Private Life and Reign of Napoleon in 1815," (2 vols., 1819,) which had a great success. Died in 1835. Flex'nian, (Roger,) D.D., an English dissenting minister, born in Devonshire in 1708. He wrote several biographies, and made an index to "The Rambler," which provoked Dr. Johnson's indignation and disgust by entering Milton's name thus: — "Milton, Mr. John." He preached in London many years. Died in 1795. Flin'ders, (Matthew,) an English navigator, born in Lincolnshire about 1760. He made a voyage to New Holland in 1795, and, in company with George Jiass, dis- covered, in 1798, the strait since called Bass's Strait. As captain of the Investigator, he explored the southern coast of Australia, and discovered the Gulfs of Spencer and Saint Vincent. On a homeward-bound voyage, being compelled to put in to the Isle of France, he was de- tained a prisoner by the French about six years, 1803-10. He died in England in 1814, just after he had published his " Voyage to Terra Australis," (2 vols., 1814.) See " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1S14. Flink or Flinck, flink, (Govaert, go'vaRt,) a skilful Dutch painter of portraits and history, born at Cleves in 1616, was a pupil of Rembrandt, whose style he imitated with success. He worked at Amsterdam, and was pa- tronized by the Elector of Brandenburg. Among his works are " .Solomon praying for Wisdom," and a " Vir- gin and Child." Died in 1660. SeeDEscAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, HoUandais," etc. Flins des Oliviers, de, deh fliN di'zo'ie've^', (Claude Marie Louis Carboa— ktR'b6>i^) a French poet, born at Rheims in 1757. He wrote "The Awaking of Epimenides," (" Le Reveil d'Epimenide,") a drama, and many other poems. Died in 1806. Flint, (Austin,) a distinguished American physician and medical writer, born in Petersham, Massachusetts, in 1812, graduated as M.D. at Harvard in 1833. He was one of the founders of the Buffalo Medical College in 1847. After having been a professor in several medical colleges in the United States, he was appointed in 1861 professor of the principles and practice of medicine in the Bellevue College Hospital, New York, and of pa- thology and practical medicine in the Long Island Col- lege Hospital. He has published, besides other valuable works, " Practical Treatise on the Patholo^, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Diseases of the Heart," (1859,) and FLOQUET an excellent work on the " Practice of Medicine," (1866 ; 3d edition, 1868.) Flint, (Austin,) a son of the preceding, born in North- ampton, Massachusetts, in 1836, studied at Harvard, and graduated at Jefferson Medical College in 1857. He became professor of physiology in the University of Buf- falo in 1858, and was afterwards professor of the same branch in the Long Island College Hospital. His essay on the Excretory Function of the Liver, translated into French, received from the Institute of France a prize of 1500 francs. He has made several valuable contribu- tions to the " American Journal of Medical Sciences," and other periodicals. Flint, (TLMoriiY,) an American author and traveller, born at North Reading, Massachusetts, in 1780. In 181 5 he went as a missionary to the Valley of the Mississippi. In 1826 he published " Recollections of Ten Years passed in the Valley of the Mississippi." He also wrote "Geography of the Mississippi Valley," (2 vols., 1828,) "Arthur Clenning" (1828) and other novels, and made contributions to several periodicals. He died in Mas- sachusetts in 1840. See Griswold, "Prose Writers of America." Flin'toff, (Owen,) a British legal writer of the present century. He published an excellent work on "The Law of Real Property," (1839,) also "The Rise and Progress of the Laws of England and Wales," and an " Introduc- tion to Conveyancing," (1840.) Flipart, fle'ptR', (Jean Jacques,) a skilful French engraver and designer, born in Paris in 1723, was an associate of the Royal Academy. He engraved a " Holy Family," after Giulio Romano, and some works of Greuze and Vernet. Died in 1782. Flocco, flok'ko, or Floke, a Norwegian or Swedish pirate, who acquired reputation by his enterprise in navi- gation. In 865 a.d. he visited Iceland, and gave it the name which it now bears. Flocon, flo'kiN', (Ferdinand,) a French journalist, born in Paris about 1800'. He became in 1845 chief editor of the " Reforme," the organ of the radical de- mocracy, and in February, 1848, secretary of the pro- visional government formed by the revolutionists. His official career ended in June of that year. Flodoard, flo'do'ta', a French historian and priest, born at fipernay in 894 A.D., wrote a history of the Church of Rheims, and a chronicle of events that oc- curred in France from 919 to 966. He was canon of Rheims when he died, in 966. Floerke. See Florke. Flogel or Floegel, flb'gel, (Karl Friedrich,) a German writer, born in Silesia in 1729, became professor of philosophy at Liegnitz in 1774. He wrote a " History of the Human Intellect," (1776,) a curious work, of great research, "The History of Comic Literature," (4 vols., 1784-86,) which is commended, and a few other works. Died in 1788. Floke. See Flocco. Flood, fliid, (Rt. Hon. Henry,) an eloquent Irish orator, born in 1732. He was elected in 1759 to the Irish Parliament, where he became one of the chiefs of the opposition, and a rival of Grattan, with whom he was formerly intimate. They had a personal dispute in the House in 1783, which was a remarkable display of the power of invective on both sides. Flood challenged his opponent ; but the meeting was prevented by the authorities. About that date Flood became a member of the English Parliament, in which he sat imtil 1790. Mr. Phillips, the biographer of Curran, informs us that the latter once said, " Flood was immeasurably the greatest man of his time in Ireland ;" but this opinion is not generally concurred in. He died in 1791. His speeches and poetical pieces have been published. See W. Flood, " Life and Correspondence of Henry Flood," 1S3S. Flood, (Robert.) See Fludd, Floquet, flo'ki', (£tienne Joseph,) a French com- poser, born at Aix in 1750 ; died in 1785. Floquet, ( Pierre Amable, ) a French historica: writer and advocate, born at Rouen in 1797. His prin- cipal works are a "Eulogy on Bossuet," (1827,) and a " History of the Parliament of Normandy," ( 7 vols., 1840-43,) which gained a prize of the Institute. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (2[^=*See Explanations, p. 2^. 59 FLOR 930 FLORIMOND Flor, de, deh floR, (Roger,) a fampus military adven- turer, born about 1264. In his youth he fought with the crusaders against the Saracens. About 1303 he entered the service of the emperor Andronicus, for whom he gained several victories over the Turks. He was assas- sinatedj by order of the emperor, in 1306 or 1307. See Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas- Empire." Flo'ra, [Fr. Flore, Aor,] an ancient Italian divinity, the goddess of flowers, appears to have been wor- shipped in the time of Numa, or earlier. Her annual festival ( Floralia ) was celebrated from April 28 to May I. The Flora of the Romans corresponded to the Greek Chloris. Flore, (Franc.) See Floris, (Frans.) Flor'ence of Worcester, (woos'ter,) a learned monk, was the first chronicler who wrote in England after the Norman Conquest. His chronicle (in Latin) was printed in 1592. Died in 11 18. Florencourt, von, fon flo'r6N''kooR', (Franz Chas- sot — sht'so',) a German journalist and political writer, of aristocratic principles, was born at Brunswick in 1803. Since 185 1 he has lived in Vienna. Florencourt, von, (Wilhelm Chassot,) a German antiquary and writer on numismatics; born about 1800. Florent, flo'rSnt, or Floris, flo'ris, I., Count of Fries- land, was killed in battle by the men of Brabant in io6r. Florent II., Count of Friesland and Holland, suc- ceeded his father, Thierry V., in 109 1, at the age of ten. Died in 1 122. Florent III., Count of Holland, was a son of Thierry VI., whom he succeeded in 1157. He waged war against the Count of Flanders, and in 1189 followed the emperor Frederick I. in a crusade. He died at Antioch in 1190. Florent IV. of Holland, born in 12 10, began to reign in 1223. In his reign a great storm and inundation of the sea covered a populous district now occupied by the Zuyder Zee, which was then first formed. He was assassinated in 1235. , Florent V., a grandson of the preceding, was about two years old at the death of his father, in 1254. He waged a long war against the revolted West Frisians and against the Flemings. He was assassinated in 1296. Florent-Chretien. See Chretien. Florentine. See Fio renting. Flo-ren-ti'nus, a Roman jurist, who had a high repu- tation, but of whom little is known. He is supposed to have lived in the time of Ulpian, (who died in 228 a.d.,) or later. He wrote many books of " Institutiones." Flores, flo'res, (Andres,) a minor Spanish poet, born at Segovia in 1484, wrote lyric poems. Died about 1560. Flores, flo'r^s or floR, (Louis,) born at Ghent in 1570, became a monk, and went as a missionary to the Philip- pine Isles. The Dutch imprisoned him, and then deliv- ered him to the Japanese, who put him to death in 1622. He wrote an "Account of the State of Christianity." Flores, de, di flo'r^s, (Juan,) a Spanish novelist, who flourished about 1 5 10. He wrote "The History of Cerisel and Mirabella," ("LaHistoria de Cerisel y Mirabella," 1524,) which was very popular. Florez, flo'r^th, (Enrique,) a Spanish monk, and an excellent historian and numismatist, born at Valladolid in 1 701, devoted his life to the investigation of history, especially that of Spain. His first essay, entitled "Key to History," ("Clave historical," 1743,) was very success- ful. He wrote a voluminous work on the Ecclesiastical History of Spain, (" Esjjaiia sagrada," in 29 vols., 1747 -70.) After his death it was continued and completed, in forty-six volumes. This work has a high character for veracity and literary merit. He was also author of a learned antiquarian treatise on medals. Died in 1773. See BouTEKWEK, " Histoire de la Litterature Espagnole;" Fran- cisco Mendez, " Noticias de la Vida y Escritos del P. H. Florez," Madrid, 1780. Florian, (Docampo.) See Docampo. Flo'ri-an, (in Latin, Mar'cus (or An'nius) Floria'- nus,) a Roman emj^eror, who was a half-brother of the emperor Tacitus. At the death of the latter, Florian was proclaimed his successor by a part of the army, while the legions of the East supported the claims of Trobus. A few months after this event, Florian was killed by his own soldiers, in 276 A.D. Florian, de, deh flo're'6N', (Jean Pierre Claris— klS''r^ss',) a French novelist and poet, was born at the chateau de Florian, in the department of Gard, in March, 1755. In youth or childhood he often visited the house of Voltaire, who encouraged his literary aspirations. He became gentleman-in-ordinary to the Due de Penthievre, who treated him with much favour and confidence. In 1783 he published the romance of "Galatea," which was very popular, and was followed by "Numa Pom- pilius," (17S6,) "Estelle," (1788,) and several comedies and fables, which obtained the public favour. He trans- lated " Don Quixote" into French. He was admitted into the French Academy in 1788. During the reign of terror he was imprisoned several months, but was released by the cotip d'etat of 9th Thermidor. Among French fabulists he is considered next to La Fontaine. Died near Paris in 1794. See RosNV, "Vie de Florian," 1798; Lacretellh, " filoge de Florian," 1812; "Jeunesse de Florian, ou Memoires d'un jeuiie Espagnol," 1807; Viancin, " £ loge de Florian," 1833. Floriani, flo-re-^'nee, (Francesco,) a painter of the Venetian school, born at Udine, flourished about 1570. Florida, de la, di la flo-ree'Di, (Marquis,) a Spanish general, born in Madrid about the year 1646. He dis- tinguished himself by his military talents in the reigns of Charles II. and Philip V., defended Milan in 1706 against Prince Eugene, and commanded under the Duke of Vendome at the important battle of Almanza, in 1707, where the French and Spaniards defeated the English and their allies. Died in 1 7 14. Florida Blanca, flo-ree'oi blSn'kS, (Jos6 Monino — mon-yee'no,) Count of, an eminent Spanish statesman, born at Helin, in Murcia, in 1728, belonged by birth to the middle class. After studying law at Salamanca, he practised several years with increasing reputation, and filled the office of fiscal of the Council of Castile. About 1770 he was appointed ambassador to Rome, where he displayed great. diplomatic ability, and remained until the resignation of the prime minister Grimaldi, who, having the privilege of naming his successor, selected Monino, who had recently been created Count of Florida Blanca. He entered the office in February, 1 777, soon after which Charles III. of Spain formed an alliance with France against England. Monino carried on the war with vigour, ability, and credit ; and, though his efforts to recover Gibraltar were frustrated, the Spaniards captured Florida, Minorca, the Bahamas, and a fleet of fifty-five merchant- vessels. Peace having been made with England in Janu- ary, 1783, he promoted the cause of popular education, patronized arts and sciences, and made several wise reforms in the domestic policy of Spain. Just before the death of Charles III., in 1788, he testified his confidence in his minister by commending him to the favour of his successor, Charles IV., who retained him in his service until the intrigues of the queen and the notorious Godoy effected his dismissal in 1792. His disposition is said to have been amiable, and his moral character high. Died in 1808. See CoxE, " Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bour- bon," 5 vols., 1815. Floridor, flo'reMoR', (Josias de Soulas — deh soo'- ISs',) Sieur de Prinefosse, a popular French comedian, was born of a noble family in Brie in 1608. Floridor was a fancy name which he assumed when he became an actor. He performed the principal rdles in tragedy and high comedy, and was a great favourite with the public- Died about 167 1. Floridus, flo-ree'dooce, (France.sco,) an Italian phi- lologist, born about 1500. He removed to Paris at the request of Francis I., who gave him a pension. He made a translation into Latin verse of eight books of the "Odyssey," (1545,) which had a great success. His death prevented the completion of it. He wrote an "Apology for the Latin Language," (1537,) and other works. Died in 1547. Florigerio, flo-re-ja're-o, or Florigorio, flo-re-go'- re-o, (Sehastiano,) an Italian painter of the Venetian school, born at Udine, lived about 1535. Florimond de Remond, flo're'miN' deh reh-m6N', a French R^nan Catholic theologian, born at Agen ; died in 1602. a, e, T, 6, u, y, loftg: k^h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sJwTt ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; ndt; good; moon; FLO RIO 931 FLU EG EL Florio, flo're-o, (Daniele,) Count, an Italian poet, born at Udine in 17 10; died in 1789. Florio, flo're-o, (John,) surnamed the Resolute, a philologist and grammarian, born in London, of Italian parents, about 1545. He was professor of French and Italian in the University of Oxford, and in the reign of James I. was appointed to teach those languages to Prince Henry. He married a sister of Samuel Daniel the poet. He published an Italian and English Dictionary," (1597,) the most copious then extant, a translation of Montaigne's "Essays," (1603,) and several other works. Shakspeare, it is supposed, ridiculed him in the character of Holofernes in " Love's Labour Lost." Died in 1625. See Wood. " Atlienae Oxonienses." Floriot, flo're-o', (Pierre,) a French moralist, born in 1604, became confessor to the recluses of Port-Royal. He wrote a pious work entitled "La Morale du Pater," or "La Morale chretienne," ("Christian Morality," 5 vols., 1672,) which was much esteemed. Died in 169 1. Floris, flo'ris, (Frans,) [Fr. Franc-Flore, fRfiNK floR,] an excellent Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 1520, was surnamed the Raphael of Flanders. His proper name was Frans de Vriend, (vreend.) He studied the works of Michael Angelo in Rome, and returned to Antwerp. He was eminent for boldness of design, richness of invention, and facility of execution. Among his master-pieces are a "Nativity," a "Cruci- fixion," and "The Last Judgment." He is said to have been very intemperate. Died in 1570. His son and pupil, Frans Floris, was a skilful painter, especially of small pictures. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Floris, flo'ris, (Pieter Willemszoon,) a navigator, born at Dantzic. He sailed to the East Indies as factor of the English Company in 1610, before which he had visited those regions in the service of the Dutch. He returned in 1615, and wrote, in Dutch, an interesting journal of his voyage, a version of which was published by Purchas. Died in 1615. 'Florke or Floerke, floR'keh, (Johann Ernst,) a German author, born at Altenkalden in 1767 ; died in 1830. Flo'rus, (Drefa'mus,) a theologian and poet, who probably wrote about 850 A.D., and was a canon or deacon of the church of Lyons. He composed, besides Latin poems, a commentary on the Epistles of Saint Paul, and a refutation of I'^rigena on predestination. Flo'rus, (Gessius,) a Roman officer, who became governor of Judea in 64 A.D. His cruelty and rapacity provoked the last revolt of the Jews, which resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem, 70 A.D. Florus, (Julius,) a celebrated orator of Gaul, born about 20 B.C., practised at the Roman bar, and after- wards in his native country. Quintilian speaks highly of his eloquence. Died about 55 A.D. Florus, (Lucius Ann/Eus,) a Latin historian, who lived in the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian, and, accord- ing to some authors, was a native of Spain. He wrote an "Epitome of Roman History," ("Epitome de Gestis Romanorum,") from the origin of Rome to the time of Augustus, compiled probably from historians whose works are lost. Critics observe that he deals rather largely in panegyric, but give him credit for being an agreeable writer and generally exact. His style is ele- gant, but somewhat declamatory. See Vossius, "De Historicis Latinis;" J. M. Heinze, "Com- mentatio de Floro iion historico sed rhetoi e," 1787. Flotow, von, fon flo'to, (Friedrich,) a German composer, born at Teutendorf in 1811. He composed operas entitled " Martha," "Linda," "Albin," etc. Flotte, flot, (Pierre,) a French lawyer, who performed an important part in the quarrel between King Philip the Fair and Pope Boniface about 1300. He was sent to Rome with an answer to the pope's bull, and is said to have used insulting language to Boniface. He was killed at the battle of Courtray, in 1302. Flotte, de, deh flot, (Etienxe Gaston— gts't^N',) Baron, a French littcniteitr, nephew of Lantier the poet, was born near Marseilles in 1805. He has written, besides other poems, the "Exile of Dante," (1833,) and "La Vendee," (1845.) Flottes, flot, (Jean Baptiste Marcel,) Abb6, a French writer and professor of philosophy, born at Montpellier in 1789. Flottwell, flot'i^'^l, (Eduard Heinrich,) a Prussian statesman, born at Insterburg in 1786, was appointed minister of state in 1844. Flourens, floo'r6N^ (Marie Jean Pierre,) an emi- nent French physiologist and author, born near Beziers in 1794. He took his degree in medicine in 1813, and became a resident of Paris in 1814. In 1822 he pro- duced " Researches on Irritability and Sensibility." He was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1828, after he had published an able work called " Researches on the Properties and Functions of the Nervous System in Vertebrate Animals," (1824.) He became professor of comparative anatomy in the museum in 1832, and perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences in 1833. Among his chief works are " Analysis of the Labours of Cuvier," ("Analyse raisonnee des Travaux de G. Cuvier," 1841,) " Buffon, Histoire de ses Idees et de ses Tra- vaux," (1844,) "Theory of the Formation of the Bones," (1847,) "Course of Comparative Physiology," (3 vols., 1854,) and " Human Longevity and the Quantity of Life on the Globe," (1854,) a very popular book. He was elected to the French Academy in 1840. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Floyd, (John,) an English writer on theology, born in Cambridgeshire, became a Jesuit about 1593. He was banished after that date. Floyd, (John,) an American officer, born in Virginia in 1769. He removed to Georgia in 1 791, and became a major-general in the second war with Great Britain. From 1827 to 1829 he was a member of Congress. Died in 1839. Floyd, (John B.,) an American lawyer and general, born in Pulaski county, Virginia, in 1805. He was ap- pointed secretary of war by President Buchanan in March, 1857. To aid the cause of disunion, he trans- ferred more than one hundred thousand muskets and rifles, besides a great number of cannon, from Northern armories to the South, in i860. He resigned about De- cember 25, i860, after which he was accused of being a defaulter, but was not brought to trial. Having joined the army of the Confederates, he commanded at Fort Donelson when it was attacked by General Grant, Feb- ruary, 1862. When the capture of the fort became in- evitable, he turned the command over to Pillow, and escaped by flight. Died in 1863. Floyd, (William,) an American patriot, born in Suffolk county. New York, in 1734. He was chosen in 1774 a delegate to the first Continental Congress, in which he continued to serve about eight years, and signed the Declaration of Independence. Died in 182 1. See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- pendence." Floy'er, (Sir John,) a skilful English physician, born at Hinters in 1649. published several professional treatises, and translated the "Sibylline Oracles" from the Greek. His learning and piety were commended by Dr. Johnson, who had been under his medical care. He was a strenuous advocate of cold baths. Died in 1734. Fludd, [Lat. De Fluc'tibus,] (Robert,) an English physician and writer, born at Milgate in 1574, was re- puted a man of great learning, especially in occult sciences, and was an adept in the Rosicrucian philoso- phy. He published treatises on various subjects, abound- ing in abstruse philosophy and visionary theories, with some original ideas. Kepler and Gassendi did him the honour to write refutations of his system. Thomas Fuller says, "His works are for the English to slight or admire, for the French and other foreigners to under- stand or use." (" Worthies of England.") Died in 1637. See Brucker, " History of Philosophy." Fliie, de, deh flii'eh, (Nicolas,) a Swiss patriot and hermit, born at the village of Saxeln in 141 7, was revered by his countrymen for his piety and wisdom. When the confederacy was in great peril from civil dissension, he restored harmony on the basis of the Covenant of Stantz I formed in 1481. Died in 1487. I Fluegel. See Flugel. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as 2; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) PLUG EL 932 FOIX Fliigel, flii'ge], (Gustav Lebrechf,) a German Ori- ental scholar, born at Bautzen in 1802. His most im- portant work is the edition of the large encyclopDedic- bibliographical Dictionary of Haji (Hadschi) Khalfa, with a Latin translation and commentary, six volumes of which were completed in 1852. lie was professor at Meissen from 1832 to 1850. Fliigel, (JoHANN GorrFRiED,) a distinguished Ger- man lexicographer, born at liarby, on the Elbe, in 1788. He brought out in 1830 his "Complete English-German and German-English Dictionary," (2 vols.,) and in 1840 his "Triglotte, or Merchant's Dictionary, in German, English, and French," (3 vols.) He lived at Leipsic. Died in 1855. Flus'ser, (Charles W.,) an American naval officer, born in Maryland about 1832. He gained the rank of lieutenant in 1855. He commanded the gunboat Miami, and was killed in a battle against the iron-clad Albemarle, in Roanoke River, April, 1864. Fiygare-Carleii. See Carl^n, Foa, fo'S', (Eugenie,) originally named Gradis, a French authoress, born at Bordeaux about the end of the eighteenth century. She wrote " Le Petit Robinson de Paris," (1840,) and other moral tales for youth. Died in Paris in 1853. Fodere, fo'di'ri', (Francois Emanuel,) an eminent physician, born in Savoy in 1764. About 1814 he was elected professor of legal medicine in Strasbourg, and physician of the Royal College of that place, where he passed the rest of his life. He wrote numerous valuable ]>rofessional works, among which are a "Treatise on Legal Medicine and Public Hygiene," (3 vols., 1798,) and a " Natural History of the County of Nice," (2 vols., 1812.) Died in 1835. See DucROs, " Notice sur la Vie et les Travaux du Dr. Fodere," 1845; A. MoTTARD, "Notice historique sur la Vie du Professeur Fodere," 1843. Fodhail, fo-diK or fo-daK, (Aboo-Alee or Abfi- Ali, i'boo a'lee,) a Mussulman saint, born at Samarcand or in Khorassan. He was a highway-robber in his youth. Many of his sententious sayings have been preserved. Died' in 803 a.d. See Ibn-Khallikan, "Biographical Dictionary;" Aboolfeda, " Annales." Foe, De. See De Foe. Foelix, fa^leks', (Jean Jacques Gaspard,) a French jurist, born at Oberstein in 1791. He published a "Treat- ise on Private International Law," ("Traite du Droit international prive," 1843.) Died in 1853. Foerster. See Forsi er. Foes, fo'es', (Anuce,) [Lat. Anu'tius Foe'sius,] an eminent French physician, born at Metz in 1528, studied in Paris, and became an excellent Greek scholar. About 1556 he began to practise medicine in Metz, of which city he was chosen public physician. He received offers of patronage from several foreign princes, but declined them. He acquired a wide reputation by his excellent edition of Hippocrates, with a Latin translation, (1595,) and by another valuable work, entitled "CEconomia Hippocratis," (1588,) which explains obscure terms used by that writer. Died in 1595. See WiLLAUME, " Notice siir A. Foes," 1823. Fogarasy, fo'goh-rosh-e, (JAnos,) a Hungarian jurist, born at Kasmark in 1801. He wrote, besides other important works, a " Hungarian-German Dictionary," (1836,) "Principles of the Civil Law of Hungary," ( 1839,) and "The Spirit of the Magyar Language," (1845.) Fogelberg, fo'gel-b§Rg^ (Bengt,) a Swedish sculptor, born at Gothenburg in 1787. He went in 1820 to Italy, which became his adopted country. He produced ad- mired statues of Odin, Thor, and Balder. A statue of Psyche is called his master-piece. Died at Trieste in 1854- See " Noiivelle Biographie Gendrale." Foggia, fod'ja, (Francesco,) an eminent Italian mu- sician, born in Rome in 1604. He was cha])el-master of San Giovanni Laterano, Rome, from 1636 to 1661, and composed motels, masses, and other sacred music. He was the first Italian that wrote the tonal fugue. Died at Rome in 1688. See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Miusiciens." Foggini, fod-jee'nee, (Pietro Francesco,) an Italian scholar and priest, born at Florence in 17 13. He held high offices at Rome in the gift of the popes, and became keeper of the Vatican Library in 1775. He wrote several theological treatises, and published a famous manuscript of Virgil, (1741,) which is or was preserved in the Medi- cean Library, Florence. Died in 1783. See " Elogio di P. F. Foggini," Florence, 1784. Fogliani, fol-y^'nee, or Fogliano, fdl-y^'no, [Lat. Folfa'nus,] (Luigi,) an Italian writer on music, born at Modena ; died about 1540. Foglietta, fol-ygt'tS, or Foglieta, fol-ya'tS, (Uberto,) an admired Italian historian, born of a noble family in Genoa in 15 18. In 1559 he issued at Rome a historical essay on the Republic of Genoa, which gave so much offence to the aristocracy that they condemned him to exile and confiscated his property. He found a liberal patron in Cardinal Este, who received him as an inmate of his house in Rome. Here he composed, in pure and elegant Latin, his most important work, a " History of Genoa from the Earliest Times to 1 527," ( 1 585,) on which he was emjjloyed at his death. He also wrote portions of the history of the emperor Charles V., and other works. Among the Italian writers of that age he is esteemed one of the most classical. Died in 1581. See NiCERON, " Memoires ;" Tiraboschi, " Storia della Lettera- tura Italiana." Fogolino, fo-go-lee'no, (Marcello,) an excellent painter of the Venetian school, born at Vicenza, was living in 1530. He painted history and landscapes with equal skill. "The Adoration of the Magi" is called his master-piece. Fo-Hi. See Foo-Hee. Fohr, foR, (Karl Philipp,) a German landscape- painter, born at Heidelberg in 1795, studied at Rome under Koch. Among his works are two pictures of rare excellence, one of which represents a rocky landscape with a waterfall. He was drowned in the Tiber in 1818. See J. P. DiEFFENBACH, " Lcbcn des Malers C. Fohr," 1823. Foinard, fwi^ntR', (Fr^:d^;ric Maurice,) a learned French priest, born at Conches about 1685, published a translation of Genesis with critical notes, and a few other works. Died in 1743. Foisset, fwi'sa', (Jean Louis S^verin,) a French author, born at Bligny-sous-Beaune in 1796. In 1820 he was engaged as assistant editor of the " Biographie Uni- verselle," for which he wrote a great number of articles, including those on Mirabeau and Petrarch. Died in 1822. Foix, de, deh fwA, (Catherine,) Queen of Navarre, born in 1470, was the daughter and heiress of Gaston de Foix, Prince de Viane, and Madeleine of France. She was married in 1484 to Jean d'Albret, to whom she brought Navarre as her dowry. She was a great-grand- mother of the famous Henry of Navarre. Died in 1 51 7. Foix, de, (Gaston II.,) Comte, succeeded his father in 13 1 5. He rendered important services to the French king in the war against the English, (1337.) Died in 1343. Foix, de, (Gaston III.,) Comte, Vicomte de Beam, born in 133 1, was a son of Gaston II., and was sur- named Phcerus. He married Agnes, a daughter of the King of Navarre and a sister of Charles the Bad. During the revolt of La Jacquerie, 1358, he assisted in the rescue of the dauphin. He afterwards waged with success a war against Count d'Armagnac. His ruling passion was the love of the chase, on which he wrote a treatise, called "Miroir de Phebus des desduicts de la Chasse." According to Froissart, he was a brave, violent, and magnificent representative of the age of chivalry. He died, without an heir, in 1391, and left his domain to the King of France. Foix, de, (Gaston IV.,) succeeded his father, Jean de Grailly, in 1436. He married a daughter of Juan II. of Aragon and Navarre, who in 1455 appointed him successor to the throne of Navarre. He was a minister of Charles VII. of France, and an ally of Louis XI. Died in 1472. His son Gaston, Prince de Viane, married Madeleine, a daughter of Charles VII. of France, and died in 1470. Foix, de, (Gaston,) Due de Nemours, a brave French prince, born in 1489, was a son of Jean de Foix, Vis- sL, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short ; a, e, j, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; I FOIX 933 FOLLEN count of Narbonne, and the nephew of Louis XII. of France, who in 1505 created him Due de Nemours. In 15 12 he commanded the army of Italy with brilliant success against the Spaniards, and in the same year, after he had won the great victory of Ravenna, he was killed in the pursuit. Louis XII., on hearing of his loss, said he would gladly give up every inch of Italian ground if he could thus restore his nephew to life. See Brantome, "Vies des grands Capitaiiies." Foix, de, (Germaine,) Queen of Aragon, born about 1488, was a niece of Louis XII. of France. She was married in 1506 to Ferdinand V. of Castile and Aragon, her grand-uncle. She had one son, who died in infancy. Died in 1538. Foix, de, (Louis,) a French architect and engineer, born in Paris, was employed by Philij) II. of Spain; and it is supposed he was one of the architects of the Escu- rial. He erected the remarkable tower of Cordouan, at the mouth of the Garonne, used as a light-house, which was commenced in 1584 and finished in 1610. It is one hundred and eighty feet high, and is regarded as the most magnificent light-house erected in modern times. Foix, de, (Marc AntoiiNE,) a French Jesuit, born at the chateau de Fabas in 1627, was noted as a preacher and wrote a few learned treatises, one of which is entitled the " Art of Preaching the Word of God." Died in 1687. Foix, de, (Odet.) See Lautrec. Foix, de, (Paul,) an eminent French jurist and states- man, born in 1528, was descended from the noble family of Foix. After a profound study of law, he was appointed a judge in the Parliament of Paris. By counselling mode- ration towards the Protestants in 1559, he rendered him- self obnoxious to some persons in power, and in 1561 resigned his office. He became a councillor of state about 1565, was employed by Charles IX. as ambassador to England, Venice, etc., and was considered one of the ablest negotiators of his time. In 1576 he was made Archbishop of Toulouse. Died in 1584. See De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis ;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Frangais ;" Montaigne, "Essais;" Marc Antoine Muket, "Oralio in funere P. Foxii," 1584. Foix, de, (Raimond Roger,) Comte, an able French captain, succeeded his father in 1188. In 1191 he led his vassals in a crusade against the infidels in Palestine. After his return he took arms in defence of the Albi- genses, but without success. He died in 1222, and left his domain to his son, Roger Bernard. Foix, de, (Roger,) Comte, a French nobleman, in- herited his title and estate in 1070. He joined the crusade and went to Palestine in 1095. I^ied in 1125. Foix, de, (Roger Bernard II.,) Comte, surnamed THE Great, was an ally of Raymond, Count of Toulouse. He waged war against the crusaders who, under De Montfort, invaded the county of Foix, and was excom- municated by the pope. Died in 1241. Foix, de, (Roger Bernard III.,) Comte, a grand- son of the preceding, was distinguished as a poet. He became Comte de Foix in 1265. Died in 1302. Folard, de, deh fi/ltR', (Jean Charles,) a French officer and tactician, born at Avignon in 1669, entered the army at an early age, and made himself proficient in tactics and engineering. He served as aide-de-camp to the Due de Vendome in Italy in 1702, and was wounded at the battle of Cassano in 1705. The freedom with which he offered advice sometimes gave offence to his superiors ; but the court twice recognized the value of his services by granting him a pension. In 1709 he was severely wounded at Malplaquet. He accompanied Charles XII. of Sweden in his last campaign, (1718.) Folard acquired reputation by his version of the His- tory of Polybius, with Commentaries, (6 vols., 1727-30,) which illustrate the tactics of the ancients. Died in 1752. See "Memoires pour servir k THistoire de la Vie de Folard," Paris, 1753; " Nouvelle Biograv^hie Generale." Folengo, fo-len'go, (Giamra titsta,) an Italian monk and scholar, born at Mantua about 1500. He wrote a few Commentaries on Scripture, which were approved by the Protestant,s. Died in 1559. 'Folengo, (Teofhx),) (better known by the name Meri.ino Coca jo or Coccai,) a whimsical Italian poet, a brother of the preceding, was born of a noble family near Mantua in 1491. He entered a Benedictine convent at the age of sixteen, but soon exchanged that for a dis- solute life. He was gifted with vivacity and great facility in versification, and published licentious and burlesque poems, in a style which he called Macaronic, the language being a mixture of Latin and Italian. He returned to the convent in 1526. Died in 1544. See NiCERON, "Memoires;" Ginguene, "Histoire litt^raire d'ltalie;" A. Dalmistro, " Elogio di T. Folengo," 1803. FoTey, (John Henry,) an eminent sculptor, born in Dublin in 181 8, studied in the Royal Academy of London. His *' Ino and Bacchus" (1840) placed him in the first rank of modern British sculptors. Among his works are " Lear and Cordelia," *' Venus rescuing ^neas," (1842,) "Egeria," (1856,) a statue of Selden, a statue of John Hampden at the new palace of Westminster, and a bronze statue of Viscount Sir H. Hardinge at Calcutta. Foley, (Sir Thomas,) an English admiral, born in Pembrokeshire in 1757. He distinguished himself as captain at the battle of Cape Saint Vincent in 1797, and had the honour of leading the fleet of Nelson into action at the battle of the Nile, in August, 1798. He took a prominent part in the battle of Copenhagen, (1801,) and became a vice-admiral in 1812. At this battle Sir Hyde Parker signalled to Lord Nelson to discontinue the action ; but Nelson, putting the glass to his blind eye, said to Foley, " You know, Foley, I have only one eye, and have a right to be blind sometimes. I really do not see the signal." Died in 1833. Folianus. See Foglianl Folieta. See Foglietta. Foligno. See Frezzi, (Federigo.) Folkema, foKkeh-mil,(jACOB,) an able Dutch engraver, born at Dokkum in 1692. He engraved plates for books after the designs of Picart, and portraits of eminent men. Died in 1767." Folkes, folks, (Martin,) F.R.S., an eminent English antiquary, born in London in 1690, excelled in mathe- matics and philosophy, was chosen Fellow of the Royal Society in 17 13, and succeeded Sir Hans Sloane as president of the same in 1 741. He wrote several excel- lent treatises on ancient monuments and coins, and ren- dered important services to science. In 1750 he became president of the Society of Antiquaries. In 1742 he was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. Among his works is a " Dissertation on the Weights and Values of Ancient Coins," (1736.) Died in 1754. FoUen, foKlen, (Adolf Ludwig,) a German poet and scholar, brother of Charles Follen, noticed in the next article, was born at Giessen in 1794. He published in 1819 his "Free Voices of Fresh Youth," and in 1827 his " Picture-Gallery of German Poetry," both of which enjoy great popularity. He also made several excellent translations from the Latin, Greek, and Italian. Died in 1855. See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." FolTen, (Charles Theodore Christian,) born at Romrod, in Germany, in 1795, was educated at Giessen. His youthful zeal for liberty having subjected him to per- secution from the government, he left his native land in 1820, and, after a visit to Paris, he found a home in Swit- zerland, where he was chosen, about 1821, professor of law in the University of Bale. In 1824 the Holy Alliance demanded that he should be delivered up, and he escaped only by a sudden departure to Paris and by emigrating to the United States. Here he applied himself with saccess to the study of the English language. By the favour of La Fayette, he obtained influential friends, and was em- ployed as German tutor at Harvard. He studied divinity with Dr. Channing in 1827, was admitted to the ministry in 1828, and officiated as teacher in the divinity school at Cambridge. From 1831 to 1834 he was professor of German literature at Harvard. In 1836 and 1837 he had charge of the First Unitarian Church in New York, where he gave offence by speaking against slavery. In 1839 he accepted a call from the church of East Lexing- ton, Massachusetts. In the passage from New York to his home, in January, 1840, he lost his life by the burning of the steamer Lexington. See a Memoir of his life, by his wife, Eliza Lee Follen, 1841. € as k; 9 as j; g hard; g as j; G, H, K,gitttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^=^See Explanations, p. 23.) FOLLEN 934 PONS EGA Follen, (Eliza Lee,) wife of the preceding, born at Boston in 1787, was originally named Cabot. She was the author of "Twilight Stories," "Little Songs," and other popular works for children, and was for several years editor of the " Child's Friend." Died in 1859. See Griswold's "Female Poets of America." FoFlett, (Sir William Webb,) an able English lawyer, born at Topsham in 1798, began to practise law about 1823, and raj^idly rose to eminence. He was re- turned to Parliament for Exeter by the Conservatives in 1835, acted a short time as solicitor-general under Sir Robert Peel, (1834-35,) and was twice re-elected to Par- liament, in 1837 and in 1841. He was again appointed solicitor-general in 1841, and became attorney-general in 1844. Died in London in 1845. See a notice of Sir W. Follett in "Blackwood's Magazine" for January, 1846. Folleville, de, deh foKv^K, (Guyot, ge'o',) Abb6, a French priest, who in 1793 appeared in the royalist army of La Vendee and gave out that he was the Bishop of Agra, sent by the pope as apostolic vicar. He was received without distrust, and his presence excited great enthusiasm among the army ; but before long a brief from the pope informed the generals that he was an impostor. However, they kept the secret from the soldiers, and he continued to act his part until the republicans captured him and put him to death, in 1794. Folli, foKlee, or Fuoli, foo-o'lee, (Cecilio,) born at Fanano in 1615, was for many years professor of anatomy at Venice. Folli, (Francesco,) an Italian physician and writer, born in 1624; died in 1685. Folo, fo'^lo, (Giovanni,) an eminent Italian engraver, born at Bassano in 1764, worked at Rome, and imitated the style of Raphael Morghen. He engraved works of several Italian masters. Died at Rome in 1836. Folquet, ioVkk', or Foulques, fook, a French trou- badour and prelate, born at Marseilles about 1160. He was appointed Bishop of Toulouse in 1205, and became a cruel persecutor of the Albigenses. Dante has, how- ever, given him a place in his " Paradiso." Died in 1231. See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Foltz, folts, (Philipp,) a German painter, and pro- fessor in the Academy of Arts at Munich, born at Bingen, on the Rhine, in 1805. He painted in fresco, in the royal palace at Munich, a number of illustrations from BUrger's poems and Schiller's ballads. Among his works is a large oil-picture of "Otho of Bavaria departing from his Father's Palace for the Throne of Greece." Folz, or Volz, folts, written also Folcz, (Hans,) a celebrated German poet and Protestant Reformer, born at Worms in 1479. He wrote lyrics. Carnival pieces, ( Fastnachtspiele ) and tales in rhyme. Foublanque, fon -blank', (Albany W.,) an eminent English journalist and political writer, a son of the fol- lowing, was born in London in 1797. He studied law, but never practised it. About 1822 he succeeded Leigh Hunt as editor of the "Examiner," a Liberal weekly journal, the previous high character of which was main- tained by the caustic wit and literary abilities of Mr. Fonblanque. A selection of his editorial articles ap- peared under the title of "England under Seven Ad- ministrations," (3 vols., 1837.) He ceased to edit that journal in 1846, and was chosen director of the sta- tistical department of the Board of Trade in 1852. See R. H. Horne, " New Spirit of the Age," 1844. Fonblanque, (John de Greniek,) an eminent Eng- lish lawyer, b(jrn in 1759, descended from a French Prot- estant family, became senior king's counsel and senior bencher of the Society of the Middle Temple. He wrote an able and learned "Treatise on Equity," (1793,) which had a wide circulation and was considered as authorita- tive by the English courts. Died in 1837. Fonblanque, (John Samuel Mak i in,) a son of the preceding, born about 1787, became commissioner of bankrupts. He i:)ublished, in 1825, "Bankrupt Stat- utes," and, with J. A. Paris, M.I)., "Medical Jurispru- dence," (1823.) Died in 1865 or 1866. Foncema°ne, de, deh fixss'mtfi', ("firiENNE Lau- reault — Ic'r^'o'',) a French savant, born at Orleans in 1694. He was received in the Academy of Inscriptions in 1722, and chosen a member of the French Academy in 1737. He was eminent for learning, virtue, and talents, and distinguished himself in a literary war with Voltaire in relation to the "Testament politique" of Richelieu, which Voltaire thought was a fabrication. He wrote many able dissertations, inserted in the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1779. See Sabatier, " Les trois Siecles de la Litterature Fran9aise ;" De Chabanon, " Eloge de M. de Foncemagne," 1780. Fondolo, fon'do-lo, (Gabrino,) an Italian, who by treachery obtained the sovereignty of Cremona in 1406. He was executed by the Duke of Milan in 1420. Fonfrede, fiN'fuid', (Henri,) a French journalist, a son of the following, was born at Bordeaux in 1788. He founded at Bordeaux, in 1820, a journal called "La Tribune," which was soon suppressed by the govern- ment. He wrote spirited political articles for other jour- nals, and supported liberal conservative principles. His works were published in 10 vols., 1844. Died in 1841. See E. Ferbos, "£loge de Henri Fonfrede;" Charles Campan, "fiioge liistorique de H. Fonfrede," 1845. Fonfrede, (Jean Baptiste Boyer — bwl'yi',) an eloquent French Girondist, born at Bordeaux in 1766, was a brother-in-law of Ducos. He was elected to the Convention in 1792, and was president of that body in May, 1793. His career was short and memorable. In talents he was ranked next to Vergniaud, Guadet, and Gensonne. He was imprisoned in October, and declined to escape when an opportunity was offered, saying he would share the fate of Ducos. He was executed in October, 1793. See Lamartine's "History of the Girondists," books xxxi. and xlvii. Fonk, fonk, (Peter Anton,) a German merchant, born near Cleves in 1781. He was convicted of murder at Treves in 1822, but was pardoned by the king, because his guilt was not clearly proved. Died in 1832. Fons. See La Fons. Fonseca, da, da fon-sa'kl, (Antonio,) a Portuguese theologian, born in Lisbon in 15 17, obtained in 1544 the chair of theology in Coimbra. Having gained distinction as a pulpit orator, he became preacher to the king, John HI. Died in 1588. Fonseca, da, (Gabriel,) a Portuguese physician, born at Lamego, was chief physician of Pope Innocent X. Died in 1668. Fonseca, da, (Pedro,) a Portuguese Jesuit and writer, born at Cortizada in 1528, was eminent as a professor of philosophy in the University of Evora, and was surnamed THE PoRru(iUESE Aristotle. He was employed in important affairs by Pope Gregory XIII. His principal works are "Institutes of Dialectics," (1564,) and a "Commentary on the Metaphysics of Aristotle," (4 vols., 1572-94.) He is reputed the inventor of the " Sciencia Media," a mode of reconciling free will with predestina- tion. Died in 1599. See Bakbosa Machado, " Bibliotheca Lusitana." Fonseca, da, (Pedro Joze,) a Portuguese philologist, was the principal author or editor of the "Dictionary of the Portuguese Language" published by the Academy of Lisbon in 1793. Died in 1816. Fon.3eca, de, da fon-sa'kS, (Eleanora Pimentel — pe-m^n-teK,) Marchioness, a beautiful and gifted Italian lady, born in Naples in 1768, became the wife of the Marquis of Fonseca in 1784. She sympathized with the French republicans, and was an active adherent of the popular party in Naples. While the latter was in the ascendant, she edited a public journal. In 1799 the royalists again prevailed, and condemned her to a felon's death. She was hung in 1799. Fonseca, de, di fon-sa'kl, (Juan Rodriguez,) a bigoted vSpanish ])relate, born at Toro about 1452, be- came Bishop of Palencia and of Burgos, and a councillor of Queen Isabella. He patronized Torquemada, and opposed the enterprise of Columbus, whom he called a visionary and treated with persistent malignity. Died in 1524. See Charlevoix, " Histoire de Saint-Domingue ;" Herrera, " Historia." Fonseca Figuereido y Sousa, de, di fon-.sa'ki fe-gi-ra'e-do e s6''sS, (Joz6 Maria,) a Portuguese writer. i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; il, ky 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mgt; n6t; good; moon; PONS EC A 935 FONTANA born at Evora in 1690, was eminent as a theologian and diplomatist. He was aulic councillor of the emperor Charles VI. Died in 1760. See Barbosa Machado, "Blbliotheca Lusitana." Fonseca Scares, de, da fon-sa'ki so-i'r^s, (An- tonio,) or Antonio das Chagas, (dSs shi'gas,) a Por- tuguese theologian and poet, born at Vidigueira in 1631. He was noted for his ascetic piety, and wrote several devotional works. Died in 1682. See Barbosa Machado, "Bibliotheca Lusitana;" M. Godinho, " Vida de F. A. das Chagas," 1687. Fontaine, or Fontaine des Bertins, f(!)N'tan' da b^R't^N', (Alexis,) an eminent French geometer, born at Claveison, in Dauphiny, about 1705, came to Paris at an early age, where he became intimate with Clairaut and Maupertuis. In 1733 the Academy of Sciences was opened to him, and in 1734 he published his famous memoir on the problem of " Tautochrones," which had been resolved by Huyghens and Newton by different methods, and in which he was afterwards surpassed by Lagrange. He made several important discoveries in mathematics and dynamics. Hearing Nollet read in the Academy a long essay on the value of various com- modities, Fontaine said, "This man knows the value of everything except time." Died in 1771. See CoNDORCET, "filoge de Fontaine;" Querard, "La France Litteraire." Fontaine, fiN^tin', (Charles,) a French poet, born in Paris in 1515, translated Ovid's "Epistles" into verse, and wrote mediocre odes, epigrams, etc. Died about 1 590. Fontaine, (Nicolas,) a pious Jansenist writer, born in Paris in 1625. He joined the recluses of Port- Royal in 1645, and shared the labours and peisecutions of Ar- nauld, Nicole, and Sacy, with whom he was confined in the Bastille. He left interesting "Memoirs of Port-Royal," (2 vols., 1736.) Died in 1709. Fontaine, (Pierre Franqois Leonard,) a distin- guished French architect, born at Pontoise on the 20th of September, 1762. He studied in Rome, and became in his youth the friend and associate of Charles Percier, and formed with him a partnership which was only dis- solved by death. About 1801 he was appointed architect of the Tuileries. He was afterwards employed in the extension or restoration of the palaces of the Louvre, Saint-Cloud, and Fontainebleau. He erected the tri- umphal arch of the Carrousel, (1807,) and united the Tuileries with the Louvre. He was admitted into the Institute in 1812, and received the title of first architect of Napoleon in 1813. With Percier he published " Palaces and other Modern Edifices designed at Rome," (1798,) and a successful work "On Interior Decorations," (1812.) He retained the place of chief architect under Louis XVIII. and his successors until 1848. Died in 1853. See "Journal des Beaux- Arts," 1842; " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." Fontaine, La. See La Fontaine. Fontaine-Malherbe, fdN'tAn' mSl'iRb', (Jean,) a French poet, born near Coutances abt)ut 1740, wrote two poems which were crowned by the French Academy, viz., "The Rapidity of Life," (1766,) and an "Epistle to the Poor," (1768.) Died in 1780. Fontaines. See Deskontaines. Fontana, fon-ti'n^, (Annikal,) an Italian engraver on precious stones, born in Milan in 1540, acquired a high reputation in his art. Died in 1587. Fontana, (Carlo,) a celebrated Italian architect, born at Bruciato, near Como, in 1634, was a pupil of Bernini. He passed nearly all his life in Rome, and was patronized by several popes. Under Clement X. he constructed the grand fountain in front of Saint Peter's. Among his numerous works are the Grimani i>alace, the Bolognetti palace, the theatre Tordinona, and the portal of Santa Maria in Trastevere. He wrote ample and valuable descriptions of the Church of Saint Peter, (1694,) and of the Coliseum, (1725.) Died at Rome in 1714. See Quatrp;mere de Quincv, " Dictionnaire d' Arcliitecture ;" FoNTENAi, "Dictionnaire des Artistes." Fontana, (Domenico,) an Italian architect and en- gineer of celebrity, was born at Mill, near Lake Como, in 1543, and went to Rome at the age of twenty. His patron. Pope Sixtus V., employed him as chief architect in several great works, the most memorable of which was the erection of the Egyptian obelisk in front of Saint Peter's Church. About five hundred engineers having offered their respective plans, that of Fontana was pre- ferred. This great triumph of mechanical skill, which was accomplished in 1586 amidst the applause of the populace, was rewarded by a title of nobility and a large pension. Fontana afterwards raised large obelisks in the Piazza del Popolo and in front of San Giovanni Laterano. He built the palace of the Lateran, the Vatican Library, and the Quirinal Palace, Rome. In 1592 he went to Naples, where he designed the grand royal palace. Died at Naples in 1607. See Ticozzi, "Dizionario;" Quatrem^re de Quincy, "Dic- tionnaire d'Architecture ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Fontana, (Felice,) a learned Italian philosopher and naturalist, born at Pomarolo, in the Tyrol, in April, 1730, was a brother of Gregorio, noticed below, and was edu- cated in the best schools of Italy. He was for some time professor of philosophy in Pisa, and afterwards lived in Florence, where he was patronized by the grand duke Leopold. By the order of this prince, he prepared ana- tomical models in wax, and a fine cabinet or museum of natural history and philosophy, which is one of the orna- ments of Florence. He wrote many ingenious treatises on chemistry, physics, and physiology. He died in 1805, and was buried in Florence by the side of Galileo. See Mangili, " Elogio di F. Fontana," 1813; "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Fontana, (Francesco,) a Neapolitan astronomer, published "New Observations on Celestial and Earthly Things," (1646.) Died in 1656. Fontana, (Francesco,) an Italian architect, a de- scendant of Domenico Fontana, was employed in 1705 in the erection of the column of Antoninus Pius on Monte Citorio, in Rome. Fontana, (Francesco Luigi,) a learned Italian car- dinal and writer, born in 1750, accompanied the captive po])e to Paris in 1804. Died in 1822. Fontana, (Gaetano,) an Italian priest and astron- omer, born at Modena in 1645. He cultivated as- tronomy with success, corresponded with Cassini, and published " Institutio Physico-Astronomica," (" Physical and Astronomical Institutes," 1695.) Cassini said the observations of Fontana were the most exact of all that were sent to him. Died in 1719. Fontana, (Giovanni,) an able Italian architect, born at Mili in 1540, was the brother of Domenico, above named. He was at one time architect of Saint Peter's Church, Rome, and was especially eminent as a hy- draulic engineer. Died in 1614. Fontana, (Giulio Cesare,) a son of Domenico, was an architect, and a native of Rome. Among his best works is the Museo Borbonico at Naples. He flourished about 1600. Fontana, (Gregorio,) an eminent Italian mathema- tician, brother of Felice, noticed above, was born near Roveredo in 1735. In 1763 he became professor of logic and metaphysics in the University of Pavia, in which, a few years later, he obtained the chair of high mathe- matics. Though he attempted no large work, he left numerous treatises on the latter science, and translated several scientific works from the English. Died in 1803. See G. B. Savioli, "Elogio di G. Fontana," 1804. Fontana, (Lavinia,) an excellent painter, born at Bologna in 1552, was a daughter of Prospero Fontana, noticed below. She was married to an artist named Za]>pi, and worked in Rome with great success, espe- cially in portraits. She was appointed painter to Gregory XIII. Some of her portraits were attributed to Guido. Among her works are a "Madonna," "The Miracle of the Loaves," and a "Holy Family." Died in 1614. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Fontana, (Prospero,) an Italian painter of high reputation, born in Bologna in 15 12, was a pupil of Imola and Vasari. He was presented as an excellent portrait-painter by Michael' Angelo to Pope Julius HI. He also painted historical subjects in fresco, with which he adorned several churches in Rome and Bologna. He excelled in design and composition. Among his € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, guttural; N, tiasal; R, trilled; I as 2; th as in this. (Jt^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) FONTANA 93 6 FONTENELLE pupils were his daughter Lavinia and the Caracci. Died at Rome in 1597. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Fontana, (Publio,) an Italian poet, born at Paluccio, HI the diocese of Brescia, in 1548. He wrote the "Apo- theosis of Tasso," a poem which extended his reputation through all Italy. His most popular work is "Del- phinis," a Latin poem, (1582.) "Fontana is one of the modern poets," says J. Victor Rossi, " who have ap- proached nearest to Virgil in beauty of imagery and harmony of diction." Died in 1609. See TiRABOSCHi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Fontanella, fon-tS-nel'ld, (Francesco,) an Italian philologist and classical scholar, born in Venice in 1768. He published, besides other works, " Universal Or- thography of the Italian Language," (" Ortografia enci- clopedica universale della Lingua Italiana," 1826.) He became professor of Greek and Hebrew in Venice. Died in 1827. See his Autobiography, entitled "Vita di F. Fontanella, scritta da liii medesinio," 1825. Fontanelle, (Jean Gaspard Dubois.) See Dubois. Fontanelli, fon-ti-neKlee, ( Alfonso Vincenzo, ) Marquis of, an eminent Italian scholar and linguist, born at Reggio in 1706. He was employed as ambas- sador by the Duke of Modena. Died in 1777. Fontanes, de, deh foN'ttn', (Jean Pierre Makcel- LIN,) born at Geneva in 1721. His ancestors had been exiled from France as Protestants. He was employed as inspector of manufactures in Poitou, and wrote treat- ises on agriculture. Died in 1774. Fontanes, de, (Louis,) Couni', a French statesman and author, son of the preceding, was born at Niort (Poi- tou) in 1757, and came to Paris at an early age. In 1778 he began his career as a ])oet by the " Forest of Navarre," a descriptive poem, which was favourably received, and was followed by " Le Verger," ("The Orchard,") and an "Essay on Astronomy," (1789.) The Directory having proscribed hin\ and expelled him from the Institute, he took refuge in England in 1797. In January or February, 1800, by the order and under the auspices of the First Consul Bonaparte, he pronounced a fune- ral eulogy on Washington, which gained for the orator an exalted reputation, and opened to him a second time the doors of the Institute, (Academic Fran9aise,) in 1803. It is worthy of remark that the author of this noble and eloquent tribute, in analyzing a character so heroic and so admirably balanced as that of Washington, gives to his moderation and good sense the pre-eminence over all his other virtues. He became a member of the cori)s legislatif in 1802, and president of that body in January, 1804. In this position he maintained his repu- tation by his elegant addresses in reply to the annual speeches from the throne. During the empire he was raised to the rank of a peer of France, and chosen grand master of the Imperial University in 1808. He was ap- pointed a senator in 1810. It appears that he had great influence with Bonaparte, who frequently admitted him to private interviews and invited him to his table. One day, as they were conversing on literature, Bonaparte said, " You like Voltaire : you are wrong : he is a busybody, an incendiary, a scoffer. He has saii])ed by ridicule the foun- dations of all authority, divine and human ; he has caused the revolution that has dishonoured and 7'uined ns. You laugh, monsieur ; but will you laugh when I tell you that among twenty of my young officers nineteen had each a volume of this demon in his valise?" He was admitted to the Chamber of Peers at the restoration. " He was," says Chateaubriand, "my guide in the world of letters, and his friendship was one of the honours of my lite. The school founded by l^oileau, Racine, and Fenelon ended in him." Died in Paris in March, 1821. .See ViLi-EMAiN, " filoge de P'ontanes," iSai ; S ainte-P.kuve, "Portraits litteraires :" Chathauhki and, "Memoires d'Outre- Tonibe ;" " Nouvelle Biographie (Jenerale." Fontaney, de, deh fiN'tfu^V, (Jean,) a French Jesuit and a.stronomer, who in 1685 was sent by Colljert to China on a nussion partly scientific and |)artly religious. He and his companions were the jiioneers of the F'l ench missionary enterprise in China. After he had laboured a, e, I, 6, f , y, long; ^ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, at Nankin and other places, he returned to France in 1699. He was living in 1720. Fontanges, de, deh fi.N'tdNzh', (Marie Ang^i.ique Scoraille de Roussille — sko^rS'ye deh roo'sM', ) DuCHESSE, a beautiful French lady, born in 1661, was the mistress of Louis XIV., over whom she possessed great influence for a few years. Died in 1681. Fontanieu, f6N'tt'ne-uh',(GASPARD Moise,) a French writer, born about i70or'was author of a "History of Charles VII.," (still in manuscript.) Died in 1767. Fontanini, fon-tS-nee^nee, (Giusro,) a learned Italian critic and antiquary, born at Saint Daniel, in Friuli, in 1666, was educated for the church, and lived mostly in Rome. Clement XL appointed him professor of elo- quence in the Roman University. In 1706 he published his famous "Treatise on Italian Eloquence," which con- tains in the third part a Catalogue ( Bibliotheca ) of classic Italian works, with notes. He gave an improved and enlarged edition in 1736. Apostolo Zeno wrote an excellent critique on this work. Fontanini wrote also other treatises on various subjects, and left unfinished a "Literary History of Friuli." Clement XI. gave him several rich benefices, and Benedict XIII. made him titular Archbishop of Ancyra. Died in 1736. See D. Fontanini, " Vita di Fontanini," Venice, 1755; Fabroni, "Vitx Italoriim doctrina excellentium ;" Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Fonte, fon'ta, (Moderata,) an Italian lady, distin- guished for talent, born at Venice in 1555. She married Filippo Giorgi, a lawyer, about 1572. Her memory is said to have been extraordinary. She wrote " II Flori- doro," and other poems. Her original name was Mo- DESTA Pozzo, (pot'so.) Died in 1592. Fontanon, fiN'tS'ndN'', (Ani'Oine,) a French advo- cate and jurist, born in Auvergne, lived about 1580. Fontanus or Fonteyn, fon'tn/, (Nicolaas,) a Dutch physician and writer, lived at Amsterdam about 1620-40. Fontenai, (Julien de.) See Coldore. Fontenay. See Coldor^;. Fontenay, fo.vt'ni', (Louis Abel de Bonafons — bo'nt'f^N^) usually called Abb6 de Fontenay, a French Jesuit, born near Castres in 1737. He published a " Dictionary of Artists," (2 vols., 1777,) and several other works. Died in 1806. Fontenay, Madame. See Chimay. Fontenay, (Pierre Claude,) a French Jesuit, born in Paris in 1663. On the death of Longueval he suc- ceeded him as compiler of the " History of the Gal- lican Church," of which he finished the ninth and tenth volumes. Died in 1742. Fontenay, de, deh f6Nt''n^', (J. B. Blain — bliN,) an excellent French painter of flowers and fruits, born at Caen in 1654, was a pupil and son-in-law of Baptiste Monnoyer. He worked in Paris, and was much em- ployed by Louis XIV. at Versailles, Marly, etc. He is said to have had no rival except Van Huysum and Mon- noyer, the latter of whom he equalled. Died in 1715. See D'Argenvili.e, "Vies des Peintres Frangais." Fontenelle, de, deh f6n'teh-n§K, [Fr. pron. fiNt'n^K,] (Bernard le Bovier — leh bo've-i', ) a celebrated French author, born at Rouen, February 11, 1657, was a nephew of the famous poet Corneille. In the interval of one hundred years which elapsed from his birth to hi? death, the greatest French authors began or ended their career. And though many of these illustrious men sur- passed Fontenelle, either by the force, the originality, or the elevation of their genius, no one, perhaps, has been more admired or more influential. He owed this emi- nence chiefly to th^variety of his talents, to the popular and congenial subjects on which he exercised them, to his matchless social qualities, and to an uncommon share of those graceful endowments for which the French are distinguished. His writings and principles were in harmony with his conduct, which was remarkable for moderation and self-control. The dramas and pastorals with which he opened his literary career were not very successful. His " Dialogues of the Dead," published in 1683, formed the beginning of his celebrity, which was greatly increased by his " Dis- course on the Plurality of Worlds," (1686.) In the latter he displays his peculiar talent for rendering science at- y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fSr, fill, filt; mSt; nflt; good; moon; FONTENU 937 FORBES tractive, by blending useful instruction with ingenious amusement and by conducting the reader through easy paths to extensive, luminous, and profound views of the beautiful and sublime. With great spirit and vivacity he maintains the "fascinating paradox" that the planets and fixed stars are populous worlds. He also wrote a popular "History of Oracles," for which Van Dale's work supplied the crude materials. In 1691 he became a member of the French Academy, and in 1699 he was chosen perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences. His "Essay on the Geometry of the Infinite" (1727) is among his most admired productions. On presenting it to the Regent of France, Fonteneile said, ''There is a book which only eight men in Europe are capable of understanding; and the author is not one of that num- ber !" Died in January, 1757. The mind of Fonteneile was characterized by a phi- losophic spirit and a union of judgment with subtility of intellect, to which was often joined a strange fondness for paradox. He professed to adopt these two axioms, — " that everything is possible, and that everybody is right." In the opinion of Voltaire, Fonteneile was the most uni- versal genius of his age. He once said, " If I had my hand full of truths, I should take good care not to open it." During a period of forty years, he composed eulogies on about seventy members of the Academy of Sciences. This collection of "filoges" is esteemed one of the best books in the language. See Charma, " Biogiaphie de Fonteneile," 1846; Trublrt, "Memoiies de Fonteneile;" Flourkns, " Fontenelie, Histoire de sesTravaux et de sa Vie;" Garat, " fiioge de Fonteneile ;"Sainte- Beuvk, "Causeries du Lundi," tome lii. I " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "Biographie Universelle." Fontenu, de, deh fiNt'nii', (Louis FRANgois.) a French abbe, born of a noble family in 1667, visited Rome in 1700. He lived mostly in Paris, and was a member of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, which he enriched with learned memoirs on antiquarian sub- jects. Died in 1759. Foiitette. See Fevret de Fontette. Fonteyn. See Fontanus. Fonteyraud, fiN'tcVro', (Alcide,) a French writer on political econotny, born in the island of Maluritius in 1822; died in Paris in 1849. Fonti, fon'tee, [Lat. Fon'tius,] (Bartolommeo,) an Italian philologist, born in 1445 ; died in 1513. Fontrailles, de, deh f6N'tKtI'or fiN^tkt'ye, (Louis d'Astarac — dSs^tt'rtk',) Marquis de Marestang, a French gentleman, remarkable for his factious intrigues and talents. He was an enemy of Richelieu and a friend of Cinq-Mars, whose fate he would have shared if he had not fled to England. He died in 1677. Fonvielle, fdyi've-hV, (Bernard FRAwgois Anne,) a French royalist and writer on politics, etc., was born at Toulouse in 1759. He was a secret agent of the Bour- bons in 1794. Died in 1837. See his Autobiography, entitled "Mes Mdmoires historlques sur la Revolution," 4 vols., 1824. Foot, (Solomon,) an American Senator and lawyer, born in Addison county, Vermont, in 1802. He was elected to Congress in 1842, and again in 1844, by the Whigs. In 1850 he was chosen a Senator of the United States. Having joined the Republican party in 1854, he was re-elected a Senator in 1856. Died in 1866. Foote, foot, (Andrew Hull,) a distinguished Ame- rican rear-admiral, born at New Haven, Connecticut, in September, 1806. He entered the navy about 1822, be- came a lieutenant in 1830, and a commander in 1852. In 1856 he was sent to China, and captured by storm a fort near Canton, the garrison of which had fired on one of his boats. He was appointed flag-officer of the flotilla in the Mississippi River in September, 1861. He rendered important assistance to General Grant in the capture of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson in February, 1862, with seven gunboats which he commanded : he was disabled in the latter action by a wound in the ankle. In July, 1862, he was raised to the rank of rear-adn\iral. He succeeded Dupont in June, 1863, as commander of the South Atlantic squadron, employed in operations against Charleston, but died in New York in the same month. Admiral Foote was distinguished for his high moral worth as well as for his ardent patriotism. By his ex- ample and precept he promoted total abstinence from spirituous liquors in the navy. See Headley, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 1S67. Foote, foot, (Sir Edward James,) a British admiral, born in Kent in 1767. He commanded the fleet which blockaded Naples in 1799. Died in 1833. Foote, (Henry S.,) an American politician, born in Fauquier county, Virginia, in 1800. He studied law, and removed about 1826 to Mississippi, where he was elected to the Senate of the United States in 1847. I" 185 1 he was chosen Governor of Mississippi by the Union party, when Jefferson Davis was his competitor. He was a member of the Confederate Congress during the civil war. Foote, (Jesse,) an English surgeon, born in 1744 wrote the " Life of John Hunter," professional treatises, and other Mrorks. Died in 1827. Foote, (Samuel,) a witty English comedian, was born at Truro, in Cornwall, about 1720, and educated at Ox- ford. Having spent his estate in gaming and other vices, he was induced by necessity to resort to the stage in 1744. In 1747 he opened the Haymarket Theatre on his own account, being at the same time director, author, and actor. Here he represented with great success a series of satirical pieces and farces, among which were " Diver- sions of the Morning," "The Auction of Pictures," "The Minor," "The Englishman in Paris," (1753,) and "The Mayor of Garratt," (1764.) He possessed great talents for ridicule and mimicry, and excelled in colloquial wit, which he used at the expense of others. "For loud, obstreperous, broad-faced mirth," said Johnson, "I know not his equal." Died in 1777. See William Cooke, " Memoirs of Samuel Foote, with some of his Writings," 3 vols., 1805; John Forster, "Historical and Bio- graphical Essays;" "Quarterly Review" for October, 1854. Foppa, fop'pS, (ViNCENZO,) an Italian painter, born at Brescia about 1420, founded a flourishing school at Milan, which preceded that of Leonardo da Vinci. He excelled in perspective, and was a good master of de- sign. Died in 1492. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." Foppeiis, fop'pens, (Johannes Frans,) a bibliogra- pher, born at Brussels in 1689, was professor of theology at Louvain. He wrote several works on Belgian history, also the "Bibliotheca Belgica," (2 vols., 1739,) treating of Belgian authors and their works. Died in 1761. Forabosco, fo-rS-bos'ko, (Girolamo,) a Venetian portrait-painter, born about 1600; died after 1659. Forbes, for'bes, (Alexander,) Lord Forbes of Pitsli- go, a Scottish Jacobite, born about 1678, was supposed to be the original of the Baron of Bradwardine in Scott's " Waverley." He fought for the Pretender at Culloden in 1746, after which he fled to France. Died in 1749. Forbes, (Alexander,) a British writer of the present era. He published in 1839 an esteemed "History of Upper and Lower California," which he had explored. Forbes, (Duncan,) an eminent Scottish judge and patriot, born at Culloden in 1686, acquired a high repu- tation at the bar, and was for many years a member of the British Parliament, which he entered in 1722. After filling other high stations, he was appointed in 1737 lord president of the court of sessions, and rendered important services to the crown in the rebellion of 1745. He published "Thoughts on Religion, Natural and Re- vealed," (1735,) and other religious works. Warburton thought him one of the greatest men that Scotland had produced, "both as a judge, a patriot, and a Christian." Died in 1747. See John Hill Burton, "Life of Duncan Forbes," 1847 : Cham- bers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "Edin- burgh Review" for February, 1816; "North British Review" for May, 1847. Forbes, forbz, (Edward,) an eminent English natural- ist, born in the Isle of Man in February, 181 5. In 1832 he went to Edinburgh, where he studied zoology and botany. He made scientific excursions through various parts of Europe, and published his valuable discoveries in several treatises on Mollusca and other marine animals. He accepted in 1844 the professorship of botany in King's College, London, and .distinguished himself by contribu- tions to various departments of natural history. In 1854 € as k; 9 as s; g harci; g as J; c, H, K, p^ttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) FORBES 938 FORCE he was chosen president of the Geological Society, and professor of natural history in the University of Edin- burgh. Professor Forbes and S. Hanley published a "History ofJiritish Mollusca," (4 vols. 8vo, 1853.) Among his works are a " History of British Star-Fishes," (1841,) "Travels in Lycia," (1846,) and "Zoology of the Voyage of H. M. Ship Herald," (3 vols. 4to.) He made an ex- tensive use of the dredge as an instrument of research. He was profoundly versed in botany, zoology, and geol- ogy. He died near Edinburgh in November, 1854. See " Memoir of Edward P'orbes, F.R.S.," by the late Dr. George Wilson and Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.E. and F.G.S., London, 1861 ; " Encyclopasdia Britannica;" William Jerdan, "Men I have known," London, 1866 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1855 ; "Eraser's Magazine" for January, 1855. Forbes, (James,) an English author, born in London in 1749. He was employed in the civil service of the East India Company, and returned from India about 1784. He published an interesting work entitled "Ori- ental Memoirs, a Narrative of Seventeen Years' Resi- dence in India, embellished with ninety-five Fine En- gravings and Coloured Plates," (4 vols., 1813-15,) which was received with great favour. Died in 1819. See " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1814. Forbes, (James David,) F.R.S., an eminent British physical philosopher, a grandson of Sir William Forbes, noticed below, was born at Colinton, near Edinburgh, in 1809. He succeeded Sir John Leslie as professor of nat- ural philosophy in the University of Edinburgh in 1833. In 1843 published "Travels in the Alps." He made discoveries in the laws of the motion of glaciers, and in the phenomena of radiant heat and light in relation to polari- zation. He received the Rumford medal, and the royal medal of the Royal Society of London. In i860 he be- came principal of the United College in the University of Saint Andrew's. Among his works are "Norway and its Glaciers visited in 185 1," (1853,) and the "Sixth Dis- sertation" prefixed to the "Encyclopaedia Britannica." See '"Edinburgh Review" for January, 1861 ; "North British Review" for May, 1854. Forbes, (Sir John,) F.R.S., an eminent British phy- sician and medical writer, born in Banffshire, Scotland, about 1787, graduated in Edinburgh in 181 7. He ac- quired distinction by translations of the works of Auen- brugger and Laennec "On Auscultation," (1824,) and practised successively at Penzance, Chichester, and Lon- don. He was one of the editors of the " Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine." In 1835 he published a "Manual of Select Medical Bibliography," and afterwards edited the " British and Foreign Medical Review." About 1840 he became physician-in-ordinary to the queen's house- hold, and physician-extraordinary to Prince Albert. He published, besides other works, a "Physician's Holiday, or a Month in Switzerland in 1848," (1849.) Died in 1861. Forbes, (John,) an English botanist and traveller, born in 1799. He attempted to ascend the river Zam- bezi, in Africa, but died during the journey, in 1824. Forbes, (John,) of Corse, a Scottish divine, born in 1593, was the son of Bishop Patrick Forbes, noticed below. From 1619 to 1640 he was professor of divinity in King's College, Aberdeen, from which he was ejected for refusing to sign the Covenant. He published several admired religious works, among which is " Institutiones Historico-Theologicae," (1645.) Died in 1648. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Forbes, (Patrick,) Lord of Corse and Baron of O'Neil, a Scottish divine, born in Aberdeenshire in 1564. Having embraced E])iscopacy, he was made Bishop of Aberdeen in 1618. He wrote a "Commentary on the Revelation of Saint John," and other religious works. Died in 1635. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Forbes, [Lat. Forbe'sius,] (William,) a Scottish bishop, eminent for learning and eloquence, born at Aber- deen about 1580. He became principal of Marischal Col- lege about 1618, and minister in Edinburgh a few years later. He was the first Bishoj) of Edinburgh, but died about three months after his consecration, in 1634. Forbes, (Sir William,) Baronet of Pitsligo, an emi- nent banker, was born in Edinburgh in 1739. With Sir James H. Blair, he founded the principal banking estab- lishment of Edinburgh. He wrote a "Memoir of the Life and Writings of James Beattie" the poet, (2 vols., 1806,) which, says Lord Jeffrey, "is a great deal longer and a great deal duller than we are bound to tolerate." Scott lamented the loss of Forbes in the introduction to one of the cantos of " Marmion." Sir William Forbes was a member, with Johnson, Burke, and Reynolds, of the famous Literary Club of London. Died in 1806. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Forbin, foR'b4N',(CLAUDE,) a brave and skilful French naval officer, born at Gardanne, near Aix, in 1656. When Chaumont was sent as ambassador to Siam, in 1685, Forbin went with him as major. In 1686-87 he served as admiral and general-in-chief of the King of Siam. (See Constance, Faulcon.) Having accepted these ofiices with reluctance, he resigned them at the end of two years. From 1702 to 1710, m the war of the Spanish succession, as c/ie/-d'escadre, he performed many bold and successful exploits against the English and Dutch, for which he was rewarded by Louis XIV. with the title of count. He retired from service in 1 7 10, and wrote entertaining " Memoirs of his Life and Adventures," (2 vols., 1730.) He is esteemed one of the greatest naval commanders that France has produced. Died in 1733. See Richer, " Vie de Forbin ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Forbin, de, deh foR'biN', (Louis Nicolas Philippe AuGUSTE,) Comte, a French antiquary and painter, born on the Durance (department of Bouches-du-Rhone) in August, 1777. He was very accomplished, and was ad- mired for his personal qualities. In 1804 he became chamberlain to Pauline Bonaparte. He served several campaigns as an ofiicer in the army. At the restoration (1815) he was appointed director of the royal museums. The museum or gallery of the Luxembourg was originated by him. He painted history, genre, and landscape with success, and was a brilliant colorist. He wrote a " Voyage in the Levant," with plates, (1819.) Among his works of art are " Ines de Castro," (1819,) "The Ruins of Pal- myra," (1824,) and "The Via Appia." Died in 1841. See QuEKARD, "La France Litteraire." Forbisserus. See Frobisher. Forbonnais, de, deh foR'bo'n^^ (FRANgoisVeron — vi'roN^,) an eminent French financier and writer, born at Mans in 1722, removed to Paris in 1752, and became a member of the Institute. In 1754 he published an able and important work, entitled " The Elements of Com- merce," which was often reprinted and was translated into many languages. In 1756 he was chosen inspector- general of the mint, and in 1759 chief clerk in the office of the controller-general. The flourishing condition of the finances for several ensuing years is ascribed to his skill. He wrote a work on the Finances of France, (" Recherches et Considerations," etc., 2 vols,, 1758,) which was highly esteemed, and several other treatises on political economy. Died in 1800. See Delisle de Sales, "Vie litteraire de V. Forbonnais," i8oi. Forcade, foR'kid', (Eugene,) a French journalist, born at Marseilles in 1820. He was a regular con- tributor to the "Revue des Deux Mondes," and edited several Liberal journals in Paris. Among his works is " Historical Studies," (1853.) Forcade-Laroquette, de, deh foR^ktd' ItWk^t', (Jean Louis Victor Adolphe,) a French politician and lawyer, a half-brother of Marshal Saint-Arnaud, was born in Paris about 1820. He was appointed director- general of the customs, etc. in 1859, and minister of finance in November, i860. Having been removed in November, 1861, he was then appointed a senator, and in 1869 minister of the interior. Forcadel, foR'kt'deK, (Etienne,) a French jurist and legal writer, born at Beziers in 1534, is chiefly noted as having been a competitor of the famous Cujas for the chair of law at Toulouse in 1554. As Cujas absented himself before the decision of the question, Forcadel gained the place. Died in 1573. See Taisamd, "Vies des plus celebres Jurisconsultes." Force, (Peter,) an American historian and compiler, born in New Jersey in 1790. He became president of the National Institute at Washington, District of Colum- bia. He expended many years in compiling a " Docu- i, e, 1, o, u, y, /on^; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, % short; a, i, o, obscure; f5r, fill, fit; m^t; ndt; good; moon; FORCE 939 FORDrCE mentary History of the American Revolution," of which nine volumes have been published, under the title of "American Archives," (1837-53.) Died in January, 1868. Force, de la,deh 1$ foKss, (Armand de Caumont — deh ko'm^N',) a French general and marquis, born in 1615. He became marechal-de-camp in 165 1, and fought with Conde against the court. He was made a lieutenant- general in 1655, and served under Turenne. Having be- come a Protestant exile in 1685, he entered the army of the Dutch Republic as a general. Died in 1701, Force, de la, (Armand Nompar de Caumont — ne)N'ptR' deh ko'm^N',) Due, a French general, born about 1585, was a son of Jacques, noticed below. He distinguished himself in the wars of Italy and Germany, and obtained the rank of marshal of France in 1652. Died in 1675. Force, de la, (Charlotte Rose de Caumont,) a French authoress, born in Bazadois in 1650, was grand- daughter of Marshal Force, noticed below. She was married to M. de Briou in 1687. She wrote several ad- mired poems and historical romances, among which are "Secret History of Navarre," (2 vols., 1696,) and "Gus- tavus Vasa," (2 vols., 1698.) Died in 1724. Force, de la, (Henri Nompar de Caumont,) Due, a French general and Protestant, born in 1582, was a son of Jacques, noticed below. He presided over the political assembly of the Protestants at Sainte-Foy in 1613, after which he fought against the royal troops, and killed the Duke of Mayenne in battle. He served under his father in many campaigns. Died in 1678. Force, de la, (Jacques Nompar de Caumont,) Due, a French general, born about 1558, was a son of a Hugue- not who was killed in the Massacre of Saint Bartholo- mew. He fought against the League for Henry IV., whose confidence he enjoyed. He was in the carriage with the king when the latter was assassinated in 1610. In the civil war that ensued, he commanded the Protest- ants, and defended Montauban in 1621, soon after which he accepted overtures of peace from l.ouis XIII., who gave him a marshal's baton in 1622. He commanded with success in several campaigns against the Spaniards and Austrians between 1630 and 1638. He died in 1652, leaving Memoirs, which were published in 1843, (4 vols.) Forcellini, foR-ch^l-lee'nee, (Egidio,) [Lat. ALvaW- lus Forcelli'nus,] an eminent Italian lexicographer, born near Padua, August 26, 1688. In 1731 he received an appointment in the Seminary of Padua, with the free disposal of his time. He devoted about forty years to the great task of compiling a Latin Dictionary, in which he was assisted by Facciolati, and which was published in 1 77 1. This enduring monument of his learning and industry, entitled "Lexicon of all Latinity," ("Totius Latinitatis Lexicon," 4 vols.,) is regarded as the most complete Latin lexicon that has ever been compiled, and entitles him to the honour of having performed one of the most important services ever rendered to the study of antiquity. Died at Fener in April, 1768. See Fehrari, " Vita iEgidii Forcellini," Padua, 1792; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" "Biographic Uiilverselie." Forcellini, (Marco,) an Italian poet, brother of the preceding, born at Campo in 171 1 ; died in 1794. Forchhammer, foRk'him^ner, (Johan Georg,) a chemist and writer, born at Husum, in Denmark, in 1794. About 1850 he was elected titular professor at Copenhagen, and succeeded Oersted as secretary of the Academy of Sciences. Forchhammer, foRK^hSm^mer, (Paul Wilhelm,) an antiquary, born at Husum in 1803. Having travelled ill Italy and Greece, he visited Asia Minor in 1838, in order to ascertain the site of Troy, being assisted in this enterprise by the British Admiralty. His chart of Troy, with an English text, appeared subsequently in the pub- lications of the Royal Geographical Society, Among his treatises is the "Topography of Athens," (1841.) Ford, (John,) an eminent English dramatic author, born at Ilsington in 1586, was contemporary with Shak- speare. He became a member of the Middle Temple in 1602, and appears to have practised law with success ; but the details of his life are not well known. He wrote about sixteen plays, (most of which were performed between 1628 and 1639,) among which are the tragedies of "Love's Sacrifice," "The Broken Heart," and "The Lover's Melancholy." He is admired for elegance, har- mony, and pathos, but gives offence by bad taste and licentiousness. Hallam thinks " he does not display one particle of comic ability." "With none of the moral beauty and elevation of Massinger, he has in a much higher degree the power over tears." Suckling thus describes him in the "Sessions of the Poets :" " In the dunnps John Ford alone by himself sat, Wiih folded arms and melancholy hat." See Hazlitt, "Lectures on Dramatic Literature;" Baker, " Biographia Dramatica ;" Hallam, "Introduction to the Literature of Europe;" Lord Jeffrey, critique in the "Edinburgh Review" for August, i8n, vol. xviii. ; " Lives of the British Dramatists," by Campbell, Leigh Hunt, etc.; "London Quarterly Review" for December, 181 1. Ford, (Sir John,) an English engineer, born in Sus- sex in 1605, was knighted by Charles I., and served as colonel in the royalist army. In 1656, under the auspices of Cromwell, he invented a machine to raise water from the Thames. He was a great virtuoso, says Anthony Wood. Died in 1670. Ford, (RieHARD,) an English descriptive writer, born in London in 1796. About 1830 he visited Spain, where he remained some years. After his return to England he became a contributor to the "Quarterly Review," and published an excellent " Hand-Book for Travellers in Spain and Readers at Home," describing the country and cities, the natives and th^ir manners, etc., (2 vols., 1845,) which was praised by Irving, Lockhart, and other critics. His "Gatherings from Spain" (1846) consists chiefly of extracts from the preceding work, and "is the best English book," says the " London Quarterly Re- view," "that has ever appeared for the illustration of the topography, curiosities, and the national character and manners of Spain." Died in September, 1858. See *' Fraser's Magazine" for October, 185S. Ford, (Rev. Simon,) an English poet, born at East Ogwell in 1619, became vicar of Reading in 1651, and of All-Saints, Northampton, in 1659. He published ser- mons and Latin poems. Died in 1699. Fordun, de, deh for-dun', (John,) the earliest Scot- tish historian, lived about 1350. He is supposed to have been a priest in the church of Fordun, or a canon of Aberdeen. He wrote a Latin chronicle of Scot- tish affairs from the creation to 1053, entitled " Scoti Chronicon." See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." For-dyce', (David,) a Scottish moralist, born at Aberdeen in 1711, was a brother of Sir William, noticed below. He was appointed professor of moral philosophy in Marischal College in 1742, and published "Dialogues concerning Education," (2 vols., 1745-48,) a work of considerable merit. Returning from a continental tour, he was drowned at sea in 175 1. He left "Theodorus, a Dialogue on the Art of Preaching," (1752,) and "Ele- ments of Moral Philosophy," (1754.) See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Fordyce, (George,) an eminent Scottish physician, born near Aberdeen in 1736, was a nephew of the pre- ceding. About the year 1760 he settled in London, where he acquired reputation by his lectures on chemistry, etc. He was chosen physician of Saint Thomas's Hospital in 1770, and a P'ellow of the Royal Society in 1776. He is the author of able medical treatises, and of "Elements of Agriculture and Vegetation," (1765.) Died in 1802. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Fordyce, (James.) D.D., a Scottish author and divine, born at Aberdeen in 1720. In 1760 he came to London, where he became minister of a congregation of dissenters, and was distinguished for eloquence as a preacher. He published, besides other works, " Ser- mons to Young Women," (2 vols., 1765; 9th edition, 1778,) and a small volume of poems. Died in 1796. He was a brother of Sir William Fordyce, noticed below. Fordyce, (Sir William,) brother of David Fordyce, noticed above, was born at Aberdeen in 1724, and was educated at Marischal College, of which he became lord rector in the latter part of his life. He practised medi- cine and surgery in London with great success, and ])ub- lished several medical treatises, among which are " On « as 5 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K.guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in Ihis. (2!:^=See Explanations, p. 23.) FORE IRQ 940 FORMER Putrid and Inflammatory Fevers," (1773,) and " Frag- menta Chirurgica et Medica," (1784.) l)\ed in 1792. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Foreiro, fo-ra'e-ro, (Francisco,) an eminent Portu- guese ecclesiasticT^jorn in Lisbon, entered the Dominican order. He was well versed in languages and theology, which he began to teach in 1540. He was reckoned the most eloquent preacher of his time in Portugal, and often preached before the court. He was a prominent member of the Council of Trent, (1561,) where he was selected with two others to compile a catechism, which was printed in 1565. He published a Latin version of the book of Isaiah, with notes, (1563.) Died in 1587. See QuETiF et £chard, " Scriptores ordinis Predicatorum." Fox'est, fo'ri', (Jean,) a French landscape-painter, born in Paris in 1636; died in 1712, For'est or Foreest, van, vtn for-ast', [Lat. Fores'- TUS,] (PiETER,) a skilful Dutch physician, born at Alk- maar in 1522, studied in Italy and Paris, He practised with success about forty years at Delft, and published medical works which display much learning and judg- ment. Died in 1597, See £loy, " Dictionnaire historique de la M^decine." Foresti, fo-res'tee, (Antonio,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Carpi, published a " Universal History," (6 vols., 1690,) a work of some merit, which after his death was continued by Apostolo Zeno. Its title is " Mappamondo historico," etc. Died about 1700. Foresti, (E, Felice,) an Italian patriot, born near Ferrara about 1793. He was confined for a political offence in the prison of Spielberg, Moravia, from 1822 to 1835, and was then exiled to America. He became pro- fessor of Italian in Columbia College, New York, where he taught for many years. Died at Genoa in 1858, See the "Atlantic Monthly" for November, 1859. Foresti, (Jacopo Filippo,) (better known as Jacopo FiLiPPO of Bergamo,) an Italian monk and historian, born at Soldio, near Bergamo, in 1434. He published in 1483 a valuable and successful work, entitled "Sup- plementum Chronicorum Orbis," etc., (a " Supplement of Universal History from the I3eginning of the World to 1482.") Died in 1520. Forestier, fo'ri''te-i', (Henri,) a French general, born at Pommeraye in 1775. In 1793 he joined the royalist army of Vendeans, and, after many successful battles, was made general-in-chief of the cavalry. The Ven- deans were defeated and dispersed, and Forestier fled to England. Died in 1806, See T. MuKET, " Histoire de la Vendee." Forestus. See Forest. Forey, fo'ri', (£lie Fr^idi^ric,) a French general, born in Paris in 1804. He served several campaigns in Africa, was a prominent actor in the coup d'etat of De- cember, 1851, and became general of division in 1852. He took part in the siege of Sevastopol in 1854, and commanded the division which defeated the Austrians at Montebello, May 20, 1859, In the summer of 1862 he was appointed general-in-chief of an expedition against Mexico. He captured the city of Mexico in 1863, and was made marshal of France. Forfait, foRW, (Pierre Alexandre Laurent,) a French engineer, was born at Rouen in 1752. He was appointed by Bonaparte minister of the marine in No- vember, 1799, and afterwards councillor of state, mari- time prefect at Havre, and inspector-general of the flotilla destined for the invasion of England. He wrote a "Me- moir on Navigable Canals, and a Treatise on the Masting of Vessels," (1788.) Died in 1807. Forgeot, foR'zho', (Nicolas J ulten,) a French lawyer and comic writer, born in Paris in 1758 ; died in 1798. Forget, foR'zhi^ (Pierre,) Sieur de Beauvais et de la Picardiere, a French poet and diplomatist ; died in 1638. Forget, (Pierre,) Sieur de Fresnes, a French states- man, was made secretary of state in 1589, and was em- ployed by Henry IV. after that date, lie drew up the famous edict of Nantes, (which granted to the Protest- ants the free exercise of their religion,) and acted as counsellor in the Treasury office. Died in 1610. Forgues, foRg, (£mile Dauran — do'rSN',) a French litterateur, who has written in several journals under the name of "Old Nick." Among his works is " The Minor Miseries of Human Life," (1841.) He translated "Uncle Tom's Cabin" into French. Forkel, foR'kel, atin. He retained the favour and confidence of Henry VH. throughout his reign, and * See Mackintosh's " History of the Revolution in 1688." was supplanted by Wolsey in the councils of Henry VIII. Died in 1528. See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." Fox, (Sir Stephen,) an English politician, born at Farley, Wilts, in 1627, was the father of the first Lord Holland. He was " clerk of the green cloth" in the reign of Charles II., and held other offices. He built several almshouses, and was the first who projected Chelsea College as a military hospital. Died in 1716. Fox, (Wn.LiAM Johnson,) an English politician and writer, was born near Wrentham, Suffolk, in 1786. He was once a Unitarian minister at Finsbury, and was a frequent and able contributor to the " Westminster Re- view," In 1847 he was returned to Parliament for Old- ham, and became a prominent member of the advanced Liberal party. He published "Lectures to the Working Classes," and other works. Died in 1864. Foy, fwa, (Maximilian Sebasiten,) a French gene- ral and eminent orator, born at Ham, in Picardy, in February, 1775. He served his first campaign in 1792 as lieutenant of artillery. In 1794, having expressed his abhorrence of the atrocities of the C(^nvention, he was sent to prison, and would probably have been executed had not the crisis of the 9th Thermidor and the death of Robespierre subverted that bloody regime. He made the campaigns of 1796 and 1 797 as c(jmmander of cavalry under Mt)reau. Foy was one of those republicans who op|>osed the assumptic^n of imperial power by Napoleon, and thus retarded his own promotion. From 1807 to 1813 he served in Portugal and Spain, where he obtained the rank of general of division about 1810, and distin- guished himself by his braver^', capacity, and colloquial talents. He was often wounded in battle. After Bona- l)arte landed from Elba, in 181 5, General Foy did not long hesitate to join his standard in defending the soil of France from invasion, and he led a division at Water- loo, where he was again wounded. In 1819 he was elected by the department of Aisne to the Chamber of Deputies, where he speedily took his place in the first rank of orators. His past life, his noble character, added to his persuasive manner, gave him great influence, which he employed in favour of a liberal and constitu- tional government. Died in Paris in November, 1825. About one million francs were raised by national sub- scription for his family. He left (unfinished) a " History of the Peninsular War," (4 vols., 1827.) See Cuisin, " Vie militaire, politique, etc. du General Foy;" Paul Lacroix, " £ oge historique du General Foy;" Rene Per- rin, '■ Notice sur la Vie miliiaire de Foy," prefixed to" Pensees de General Foy," 1821 ; F. Vidal, "Vie du General Foy," 1826. Foyatier, fw^'yt^te-i', (Denis,) a French sculptor, born at Beson, near Feins, (Loire,) in 1793. He became a student of art in Paris in 1816, and went to Rome in 1822. His reputation was established by a statue of Spartacus, (1830,) which was purchased by the king. Among his works are a statue of " Prudence," and an equestrian statue of Joan of Arc, inaugurated at Orleans in 1855. Fra Angelico. See Fiesot.e. Fra Bartolommeo. See Baccio della Porta. Fracanzani, fRl-kln-zi'nee, or Fracanzano, (rA- kjn-zd'no, (Francesco,) an able Italian i)ainter, worked in Naples, and was the master of .Salvator Rosa, whose sister he married. His colouring is brilliant and vigor- (jus. Died about 1657. Fracastoro, fkS-kds-to'ro, or Fracastor, (C^irola- MO,) an eminent Italian author, born at Verona in 1483, was one of the most learned men of his time, and ex- celled in philosophy, medicine, matheniatics, and poetry. Before the age of twenty he was professor of logic at Padua. His reputation is derived chiefly from a Latin poem on the venereal disease, called "Syphilis, sive Morbus Gallicus," (T530,) which has been translated into several languages. .Scaliger had so high an o|)inion of Fracastor's talents that he composed a poem in honour of him. Hallam i;ives him credit for " having delivered the rules of practical art in all the graces of the most delicious poetry, without inflation, without obscurity, and without affectation." (" Introduction to the Litera- ture of Europe.") He was in his latter years chief physician to Pope Paul III. and to the Council of Trent, a, e, 1, 6, u, y, /on^, i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, % short; e, j, o, obscure; fSr, filll, fit; m6t; ndt; good; moon; FRACCAROLI 953 FRAN CHI held in 1547. Died near Verona in August, 1553. He wrote a few scientific treatises. See F. O. Mkncken, "De Vita, Morlbus, etc. Frncastorii Com- meiitalio," 1731 ; Niceron, "Memoires;" I.ongfellow, "Poets and Poetry 01 Europe." Fraccaroli, fRak-ki-roOee, (Innocenzo,) an able Italian sculptor, born at Castei-Rotto, near Verona, about 1804. He studied in Rome, and became pro- fessor of sculpture at Florence about 1842. His " Eve after the Fall" gained a medal of the first class at Paris, and is called a master-piece of grace. Among his other works is a statue of Achilles. Frachetta, fuS-ket'ti, (CiiRoi.AMO,) an Italian pub- licist and critic, born at Rovigo about 1560. In his youth he was secretary of Cardinal Este. He wrote a paraphrase of Lucretius, {1589,) with notes, a volume entitled "On Reasons of State," ("Delia Ragione di Stato," 1623,) which is commended, and a few other works. Died at Naples in 1620. See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." Fra Diavolo, fki de-i'vo-lo, an Italian chief of bri- gands, whose proper name was Michel Pozza, (pot'sS,) was born at Itri. He fought in the army of Cardinal Ruffo against the French in 1799. In 1806 he became the chief of a band of insurgents in Calabria. He was arrested and hung at Naples in that year. Fraehii. See Frahn. Fragoiiard, fki'go'ntR', (Alexandre ^variste,) a French painter and sculptor, born at Grasse in 1780, was a pupil of David. Among his works are " Maria Theresa presenting her Infant Son to the Hungarians," (1822,) and "The Entrance of Joan of Arc into Orleans." Died in 1850. Fragonard, (Jean Honor^:,) a French historical painter, born at Grasse in 1732. After gaining tlie first prize for painting in Paris, he went to Rome with a pen- sion. He returned to Paris, was received in the Royal Academy, and becaine a fashionable artist. He is blamed for the sensual and licentious tendency of his produc- tions. Died in 1806. Fraguier, fuS'ge-i', (Claude Francois,) a French savant and elegant^iter, born in Paris in 1666, became a good classical scholar, and one of the editors of the "Jt)urna! des Savants." He was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1705, and into the French Academy in 1708. He wrote an admired Latin ])oem, called "Platonic School on the Perfection of Man," ("Mopsus, seu Schola Platonica de Hominis Perfec- tione," 1 721 ;) also dissertations on ancient history, lite- rature, etc. Died in 1728. See D'Olivet, " £ oge de Fraguier;" Nic^ron, "Memoires;" "Nouvelle Biographic; Generale." Frahn, fRan, or Fraehn, (Christian Martin,) a German antiquary and Orientalist, born at Rostock in 1782. He became in 1815 director of the Asiatic Mu- seum and member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Saint Petersburg. He published "Recension of Ma- hometan Coins in the Academy of Sciences at Peters- burg," (1826,) and other sinjilar works. Died in 1851. See DoRN, " Vie de Frahn," prefixed to a supplement of the work just noticed, 1855. Fraikin, fRT'kin or fRi'k^N', (Charles Auguste,) a successful l^elgian sculptor, born near Antwerp in 1816. Among his works are " L'Amour captif," "Venus," (1848,) and " Le Sommeil," ("Sleep," 1856.) Frain, fR^N, (S^ra.stikn,) an eminent French advo- cate, born at Rennes ; died in 1645. Framery, fRSm're', (Nicolas Stienne,) a mediocre French writer, born at Rouen in 1745; <^'^fl i^io. Franc, Le, leh fR6N, (Martin,) a French poet, born at Arras or Aumale. His chief work is " Ladies' Cham- pion," ("Champion des Dames.") Died about 1460. Fran9ais, fuftN'si', (Francois Louis,) a French land- scape-painter, born at Plombieresin 1814, obtained a first medal in 1848, and a medal of the first class in 1855. Fran9ais de Nantes, fRftN'sV deh nftNt, (Antoine,) born at Beaurepaire, in France, in 1756, was a warm partisan of the Revolution. He was elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, and to the Council of Five Hundred in 1797 or 1798. Under the consulate and the empire he enjoyed the favour of Bonaparte, who made him count, councillor of state, grand ofiicer of the legion of honour, and director-general of the Octrois. He represented Isere in the Chamber of Deputies from 1819 to 1822, and voted with the opposition. Died in 1836. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Francavilla. See Franchevflle, (Pierre.) Fran'ces, Saint, an Italian lady, born in Rome in 1384, was noted for piety and benevolence. She died in 1440, and was canonized by Paul V. in 1608. See Baillet, "Vies des Saints." Francesca, della, deKIi fRin-chSs'kS, (Pietro,) an eminent Italian painter, bi;rn at Borgo San Sepolcro, in Tuscany, about 1400, was often called Pietro Bor- ghese. By invitation of Pope Nicholas V., he went to Rome and painted frescos in the Vatican. He excelled in foreshortening, ])erspective, and geometry. "The Dream of Constantine," at Arezzo, is one of the few works of this artist that have been preserved. He wrote treat- ises on perspective and geometry. Died about 1490. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- ing in Italy." Franceschetti, fRin-ch^s-ket'tee, (Domenico Ce- SARE,) a Corsican general, born at Bastia in 1776. He entered the service of Murat, King of Naples, rose to the rank of general, and distinguished himself at To- lentino. He attended Murat in his last des])erate ex- pedition of 1815, and was taken prisoner. Died in 1835. Franceschini, fR^n-ches-kee^nee, (Baldassare,) a painter of the Florentine school, surnamed Volterrano, was born at Volterra in 161 1, and was a pupil of Matteo Rosselli. He worked in Florence, where he painted the translation of Elijah, and other frescos, also many oil-paintings. He excelled in perspective, colour, and composition. Died in 1689. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy ;" Ticozzi, " Dizionario." Franceschini, (Marcan roNio,) an excellent Italian historical painter, born at Bologna in 1648, was a pupil of Carlo Cignani, He was eminent for his rapidity of execution, fine taste, fertility of invention, and skill in colouring. He painted frescos in Bologna, Genoa, and Rome, and declined invitations from several princes of Europe. The Pope gave him the title of Knight of the Golden Spur. Among his chief works are an "Annun- ciation" and "Saint John in the Isle of Patmos." He also left many oil-paintings. Died in 1 729. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" Zanotti, " Storia deirAccademia Clementina ;" Malvasia, " Felsina pittrice." Francesquito, fR^n-th^s-kee'to, written also Fran- ceschitto, a Spanish painter, born at Valladolid in 1681. He was a pupil of Giordano, who predicted that he would equal the best painters of Italy; but he died at the age of twenty-four, in Naples, whither he had accompanied Gioidano. Franc-FIore. See Floris, (Frans.) Francheville, fRdNsh'v^K, or Francavilla, fRln-kS- v^nS, written also Francqueville, (Pierre,) a skilful French sculptor, born at Cambrai in 1548. After he had worked in Italy with success, he was invited to Paris by Henry IV., who patronized him, and he was after- wards sculptor to Louis XIII. about 1614. Among his works is a group of "Time bearing away Truth," ("Le Temps enlevant la Verite,") and a statue of Goliath. Died about 1620. See Cicognara, "Storia della Scultura;" Dutilleul, "Notice sur P. de Francqueville," 1821. Francheville, de, deh fR6Nsh\^K, (Joseph Du Fresne — dii frin,) a French writer and accomplished scholar, born at DouUens in 1704. He published a " His- tory of the Finances," (3 vols., 1738-40.) Having ac- cepted the invitation of Frederick IL of Prussia, about 1742, he passed the rest of his life at Berlin. He wrote a poem called " Bombyx, or the Silk-Worm," (1755.) He was a member of the Academy of Berlin, which he enriched with treatises on history, antiquities, etc., and he edited the " Literary Gazette" of Berlin from 1764 to his death. Died in 1781. See FoRMEV, " Eioge de Francheville." Franchi, fRSn'kee, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, of the Florentine school, born at Villa Basilica, near Lucca, in 1634. Died in 1709. See Bartoi.ozzi, "Vita di A. Franchi Lucchese," 1754. c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; k, trilled; s asz; th as in this, (2!:^~See Explanations, p. 23.) FRJNCHI 954 FRANCIS Franchi, (Ausonio,) the assumed name of an Italian rationalistic philosopher, whose family name was Hona- VINC, (bo-nd vee'no.) He was born at Pegli, near Genoa, in 1820. He was a priest in his youth, but renounced that prt)fession. His principal work, "The Piiilosophy of the Italian Schools," (1852,) is written with much ability. About 1854 he founded at Turin a journal called "La Raoione." Franchi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian sculptor, born at Carrara in 1730; died at Milan in 1806. Franchini, fRin-kee'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian poet, born at Cosenza in 1495 ; died in 1554. Fianchini, (Niccol6,) an Italian painter, born at Sienna in 1704 ; died in 1783. Francia, fk^n'chi, (Domenico,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1702, visited Vienna in 1723, where he painted for the court. From 1736 to 1744 he was employed by the Swedish court. Died in 1758. Francia, (Francesco,) a celebrated Italian painter, whose proper name was Francesco Raibolini, (rl-bo- lee'nee,) was born at Bologna about 1450. He was a goldsmith in his youth. His style was a medium between the styles of Perugino and Bellini. He was a friend of Raphael, who praised his Madonnas, saying he had seen none "more handsome or more devout." Among his works is a Saint Sebastian, which was used for a long time as a model. He was an excellent colorist. The date of his death is variously given from 15 18 to 1533. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters;" Cai.vi, " Memorie di F. Raibolini detto il Francia;" Malvasia, " Felsina pittrice ;" Mrs. Jameson, "Memoirs of Early Italian Painters." Francia, (Giacomo,) a skilful Italian painter of Bo- logna, was a son and pupil of the preceding, whom he imitated with success. He painted a Saint George, (1526,) and other saints and Madonnas, which were engraved by Agostino Caracci. Died in 1557. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Francia, (Giulio.) a painter of the Bolognese school, was a relative of Raibolini. Died in 1540. Francia, fR^n'se-i or fRin'//^e-d, (Dr. Jos^; Gaspar Rodriguez,) Dictator of Paraguay, was born near As- sumption al)out 1758. He studied law, and practised with success in Assumption, until the formation of a republic in Paraguay in 181 1, when he became secretary of state. In 1813 he was chosen joint consul with Ful- gencio. The republic having fallen into anarchy, he was made dictator for three years in 1814, and perpetual dic- tator in 1817. His reign was arbitrary and severe ; but he appears to have repressed disorders with vigour. A system of non-intercourse with foreign countries was adopted by him, and a " rigorous sanitary line was drawn round all Paraguay." " We might define him," says Carlyle, "as the born enemy of quacks. So kw as lay in Francia, no public or private man in Paraguay was allowed to slur his work." (See "Essays," vol. iv.) Among the most notorious of his arbitrary acts was the detention of Bonpland, a French botanist, who was ar- rested in 1821 and released in 1831. Dr. Francia died in September, 1840, when the power passed to a junta or directory of three. See RoBKRTsoN, "Life of Dr. Francia;" Bengger, " Essai his- toriqne sur la Revolution du Paraguay," etc., Paris, 1827; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1843. Franciabigio, fRSn-chS-bee'jo, (Marcantonio,) a skilful Italian fresco-painter, born at F'lorence in 1483, was a pupil and friend of Andrea del vSarto. Fie painted the "Marriage of the Virgin," at Florence, in company with Andrea del Sarto. He excelled in perspective and in colouring. Died in 1524. See Vasaki, " Lives of the Painters ;" Frigerio, "Vita di Marc antonio Frauciabigio." Francini, fRSn-chee'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian poet of patrician rank. He lived in Florence when Milton visited that city in 1638, and was one of seven Florentines specially mentioned by that poet as his friends. He complimented Milton m an Italian ode, the last stanza of which is praised by Dr. Johnson as "natural and beautiful." He is said to have left many poems in manuscript. Francis I. ok Austria. See Francis II. of Ger- many. Francis [Ger. Franz, fRints] I., Emperor of Ger- many, born at Nancy in 1708, was the eldest son of Leo- pold, Duke of Lorraine, and a French princess, Elizabeth Charlotte of Orleans. In accordance with a treaty made "\^735» Francis received Tuscany in exchange for Lor- raine, which was ceded to Stanislas Leczinski, on the condition that at his death it should revert to the crown of France. He married Maria Theresa, the daughter and heiress of the emperor Charles VI., in 1736, (see Maria Theresa,) and thus became the founder of the reigning dynasty of Habsburg-Lorraine. He was elected Emperor of Germany, as successor to Charles VH., in September, 1745, and was commander-in-chief of the army of Austria, which was then at war with France, until peace was restored in 1748. He is represented as a prince of good disposition and moderate capacity. He died in August, 1765, and was succeeded by his son, Joseph H. See J. F. Seyfart, " Lebens- und Reeierungsgesclnchte Kaiser Franz I.," 1766; Coxe, " History of the House of Austria;" Vol- taire, "Siecle de Louis XV." Francis (Franz) II., (Joseph Karl,) Emperor of Germany, and Francis I. of Austria, was the eldest son of Leopold II. and of Maria Louisa of Spain. He was born at Florence in February, 1768, and at an early age went to reside at the court of Vienna. He married Maria Theresa of Naples in 1790 or 1791, and began to reign over the hereditary states of Austria in March, 1792. In the same year he was elected Emperor of Germany, and was involved in a war with the French, which was suspended by the treaty of Campo Formio, 1797. (See Bonaparte.) In 1799 he entered into a coalition with Russia and England against the French, After gaining and losing many battles, the allies signed a treaty of peace at Luneville in 1801. He assumed the title of hereditary Emperor of Austria in December, 1804, and, in alliance with England and Russia, again defied the power of Napoleon. This war was ended by the battle of Austerlitz, December, 1805, and the treaty of Presburg, by which Tyrol and Venetia were annexed to France. The German empire having been disorganized or subverted, Francis renounced the throne of the Caesars in August, 1806, after which he was styled Francis I. of Austria. In March, 1809, he again declared war against Napoleon, who, after the capture of Vienna and the vic- tory of Wagram, dictated terms of peace in October, 1809. He joined in 1813 the coalition which resulted in the final defeat of Napoleon, after which he recovered Venice and Lombardy, and reigned in peace until his death, in March, 1835. He was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand I. Francis was popular with his German subjects. See J. VON HoRMAVER, " Kaiser Franz I. und Metternich," 1848 ; H Meynert, "Franz II. und .sein Zeitalter," 1S34. Francis [Fr. Francois, fRSN'swJ'] I., King of France, born at Cognac September 12, 1494, was the son of Charles, Count of Angouleme, (a cousin-german of King Louis XH.,) and Louise, daughter of Philippe, Duke of Savoy. As Francis had lost his father in infancy, Louis XII. took charge of his education, created him Duke of Valois, and gave him his daughter Claude in marriage in 1514. The king dying without any son to survive him, Francis succeeded to the throne on the ist of January, 1 5 15. In the same year he despatched an army under Constable Bourbon to conquer the Milanese, defended by a Swiss army, which the French engaged and defeated at Marignano. In 15 19 Francis was an unsuccessful can- didate for the empire of Germany, which was obtained by his rival, Charles V. of Spain. About two years later, a league was formed against the French king by Charles v., Henry VHI. of England, and the pope, Leo X., the first result of which was the expulsion of the French from the Milanese. The French were defeated in 1524 at the battle of Sesia, in which the famous Chevalier Bayard fell, and in 1525 at the decisive battle of Pavi'a, where Francis commanded in person and was taken prisoner, after receiving two wounds. It is commonly stated that he wrote a report of the event to his mother in these terms : " Madame, all is lost except our honour," ("tout est perdu fors I'honneur.") He was sent to Madrid, and closely confined until he consented to the conditions exacted by Charles V., — iiamely, the cession c, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, j?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; FRANCIS 955 FRANCIS of Burgundy, the renunciation of his claim to Flanders, and the restoration of Constable Bourbon to his estate and rank. After he obtained his liberation, in 1526, he refused to fulfil these conditions, and, forming an alliance with Henry VIII. and Pope Clement, continued the war until 1529, when the treaty of Cambrai was signed, by which Francis abandoned his claim to Italy, and married Eleonore, the sister of Charles. He afterwards devoted several years to the promotion of commerce, science, literature, and industry. He founded the Royal College of three languages in Paris in 153 1, and obtained the title of " the Father of French literature." In 1539 the emperor surprised the European public by asking permission of his rival to pass through France on his way from Spain to the Low Countries. Francis granted the request, and entertained Charles, who, it seems, gave him the promise of the duchy of Milan. In 1542 war was again declared, and prosecuted in Piedmont and Picardy without im- portant results, until the French gained a decisive vic- tory at Ceresole, in April, 1544, and a treaty of peace was signed at Crespi in September of that year. P'rancis died in March, 1547, and was succeeded by his son, Henry II. He left a great reputation for gallantry, generosity, and royal accomplishments, but is justly censured for the persecution which the Protestants suiTered during his reign. See Brantome, " Memoires ;" Capekigue, " Fran9ois I et la Renaissance," 4 vols., 1S44; Michei.et, " Renaissance;" A. Va- RiLi.As, " Histoire de Francois 1," 1684; Gaillaku, " Histoive de Frangois I," 8 vols , 1768; Mignkt, " Rivalite de Ciiarles Quint et de Francois I," 1854-66; Miss Pardoh, "Court and Reign ofFran- cis I.," 1849; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Francis II., King of France, born at Fontainebleau in January, 1543, was the eldest son of Henry II. and of Catherine de Medicis. In 1558 he married the beautiful Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, and on the loth of July, 1559, he succeeded to the throne of his father. In con- sequence of his youth and feeble character, he relin- quished the power of the state into the hands of the Due de Guise and Cardinal Lorraine, who were uncles of Mary Stuart, and zealous Catholics. Ant(jine de Bour- bon, King of Navarre, the Prince of Conde, and other nobles, jealous of the influence and impatient of the domination of the Guises, formed a coalition with the Protestants, who were then objects of a violent ])ersecu- tion. In 1560 a cons])iracy was discovered by the Guises, which was the prelude of the civil wars that afterwards raged in the kingdom. The States-General were assem- bled at Orleans, and the Prince of Conde was condemned to death ; but he escaped this penalty in consequence of the death of the king, December 5, 1560. Francis was succeeded by his brother, Charles IX. See Hknaiilt, " Frangois II, Roi de France," 1748; Varili.as, "Histoire de Francois II," 1693; Davila, " Histoiy of the Civil Wars of France;" W. Anderson. "History of France during the Reigns of F rancis II. and Charles IX.," 5 vols., 1769-82. Francis I., (Gknnaro Giuskppe,) King of the Two Sicilies, born in Naples in 1777, was the son of Ferdi- nand I. of Naples and of Caroline of Austria. In 1797 he married Maria Clementina, daughter of the emj^eror Le(j- pold II. While he was heir-presumptive he favoured the party of reform ; but he afterwards became subservient to the Austrian policy. In 1814, when, by the fall of Murat, Ferdinand recovered Naples, Francis became Governor of Sicily. He succeeded to the throne in January, 1825. His reign was neither prosperous nor popular. He died in 1830, and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand II. Francis II., (Maria Lkopdi.do,) King of the Two Sicilies, a son of Ferdinand IL, was born in January, 1836. He succeeded his father on the 22d of May, 1859, and married the princess Maria Sophia Amelia of Bavaria in the same year. He persisted in the arbitrary policy which had rendered his father odious. His subjects revolted in i860, and were led to victory by Garibaldi. After a siege of several months, Francis surrendered Gaeta in February, 1861, and his dominions have since been united to the new kingdom of Italy. Francis (or Frangois) I., Duke of P>retagne, born at Vannes in 1414, was the eldest son of Jean VI., and a nephew of Charles VII. of France. He began to reign in T442. and formed an alliance with Charles VII. against the English. His memory is deeply stained by his cruelty to his brother Giles. Died in 1450. Francis II., the last Duke of Bretagne, born in 1435, succeeded his uncle, Arthur HI., in 1459. The principal events of his reign were a series of wars against Louis XI. of France, of whom Francis was a feudatory, and who desired to annex Bretagne to his kingdom. The duke formed an alliance with the King of England and the Duke of Burgundy. He was defeated in a decisive battle by the army of Charles VI H. of France in 1488, and died the same year. His daughter Anne became the wife of the French king. Francis I., Duke of Lorraine, born in 151 7, succeeded his father, Antoine, in 1 544. He died in 1545, and left the dukedom to his son, Charles III. Francis II. of Lorraine, a son of Charles HL, born in 1571, became duke in 1624. He abdicated in favour of his son, Charles IV., the same year. Died in 1632. Francis IV., Duke of Modena and Reggio, born in 1779, was a son of Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, and Maria Beatrice of Este. He began to reign in 1814, and, by his despotic policy, acquired the surname of "the Tiberius of Italy." Died in 1846. Francis V., Archduke of Austria, and last Duke of Modena, born in 1819, was a son of Francis IV., whom he succeeded in January, 1846. His reign was very un- l)opuIar. In the spring of 1859 his subjects revolted, drove him into exile, and decided by their votes that Modena should be annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia. Francis, Duke of Tuscany. See Medicis. Fran'cis, (Cunvers,) an American writer, born at West Cambridge, Massachusetts, about 1796. He was pastor of a Unitarian church at Watertown, Massa- chusetts, from 18 19 to 1842, and then became professor of pulpit eloquence at Harvard College. He wrote several biogra])hies, etc. Died in 1863. Francis, (Jean Charles.) See FRANgois. Francis, (John Wakefield,) an eminent American physician, born in New York in November, 1789. He graduated at Columbia College in 1809, and took the degree of M.D. at the College of Physicians and Sur- geons in 181 1. Having entered into partnership with Dr. Hosack, he aided the latter in editing the " American Medical and Philosophical Register," (1810-14.) He became professor of materia medica in Coluujbia Col- lege about 1814, after which he visited the principal schools of medicine in Europe. On his return he was appointed professor of the institutes of medicine, and in 181 7 obtained the chair of medical jurisprudence. In 1826 Dr. Francis, Dr. Hosack, and other professors resigned their chairs and organized the Rutgers Medical School, in which the former was professor of obstetrics and forensic medicine for four years. He was one of the editors of the "New York Medical and Physical [ournal," (1822-24.) After 1830 he devoted his lime chiefly to the practice of his profession and to literary pursuits. Among his numerous productions are " Cases of Morbid Anatomy,"(i8i4,) " Febrile Contagion, "(1816,) " Denman's Practice of Midwifery," with notes, (1825,) and " Old New York, or Reminiscences of the Past Sixty Years," (1857.) He was one of the founders of the New York Academy of Medicine, of which he was chosen president in 1847. He was prominently identi- fied with the interests of New York, esjiecially with its literary and scientific institutions. Died in i86l See H. T. Tuckerman, "Life of John W. Francis," 1855; "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i v. ; DuvcKiNCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. Francis, (Luke,) a Flemish painter of history and portraits, born at Mechlin in 1574. He was patronized at the courts of France and Spain. Died in 1643. His son Luke, born at Mechlin in 1606, gained a high reputation in the same branches of art. He worked several years in Paris, and then returned to Flanders. Died in 1654. Francis, (Rev. Philip,) an eminent translator, born in Dublin, was the father of Sir Philip Francis. He lived many years in England, to which he removed about 1750. He became chaplain to Lord Holland, and a preceptor of his son, the celebrated Charles James Fox. lie pro- duced a poetical translation of Horace, which was suc- cessful, and has often been reprinted, (8th edition, 1778,) a translation of Demosthenes' Orations, (1753-55,) and « as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, h, Y^yguthiral; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) FRANCIS 956 FRANCISCO several tragedies. Dr. Johnson considered his version of Horace the best that had been made. Died in 1773. See Baker, " BiographLi Drainatica. " Francis, (Sir Philip,) an eminent British statesman, the son of the preceding, was born in Dublin in 1740, and removed to London about the age of ten. He was a clerk in the war office from 1763 to 1772, and was ap- pointed in 1773 a member of tlie Supreme Council of Bengal, of which Warren Hastings was president. He was the leader of the party which opposed the measures of Hastings. While in this position he fought a duel with Hastings, (who asserted that Francis was void of truth and honour,) was severely wounded, and returned to England about December, 1780. In 1784 he was chosen a member of Parliament, in which he took a prominent part in the trial of Hastings, voted with Fox during the French Revolution, and zealously advocated vhe abolition of the slave-trade. The Grenville ministry conferred on Francis the title of Knight of the Bath in 1806, soon after which he retired from Parliament. He died in London in December, 1818. He was a writer and speaker of decided ability, lie is generally believed to have been the author of the famous " Letters of Junius," though he always denied such responsibility. Brougham and Macaulay are among those who were convinced that Francis was the author of Junius. To account for his persistence in concealing his authorship of those letters, Lord Brougham remarks, " He has long, in his proper person, possessed the admiration of all who have a due regard for unblemished public virtue, great talents and accomplishments. He might well afford to forego the applause of the multitude, which could only be purchased by a sacrifice of the tranquillity so invaluable in the de- cline of life." "His style," says the same critic, " was admirable, excelling in clearness, abcmnding in happy idiomatic terms, not overloaded with words or figures, but not rejecting either beautiful phrases or appropriate ornament." See J. Taylor, "Junius identified with a Distinguished Living Character;" Hekman Mkrivai.e, "Memoirs of the Life of Sir Philip Francis," 2 vols., 1807 ; Macaulay, "Essay on Warren Hasiings ;" " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1868. Francis, Saint, [It. San Francesco, sSn fRln- ch^s'ko; Fr. SAiNT-FuANgois, siN'fkdN''swi',] the cele- brated founder of an order of mendicant friars, called Franciscans, was born at Assisi, in Italy, in 1182. In his youth, prompted by enthusiasm and ascetic devo- tion, he renounced his inheritance, and resolved to live on public charity. Large numbers being attracted by his preaching and exam])le to follow the same course, he composed rules for their organization, which Pope Innocent HI. sanctioned about 12 10, and by which they were forbidden to have any private property, and were bound to preach and labour without salaries, depending on alms for their simple subsistence. They were named Minor Friars, and sometimes also Cordeliers, from the cord with which their coarse tunic was girded. About the year 1220 he visited Palestine during one of the crusades, and attempted to convert Suuan Meledin, but without success. In 1223 Pope Honorius published a bull confirming the verbal sanction which the order had received from Innocent III. This fraternity became very numerous and influential. He died near Assisi in 1226, and was canonized by Pope Greg2,i-) See G. H. Meli.ix, " Minnes-Tal ofver F. M. Franzen," 1848; " Nouvelie Biographie Generale." Fra Paolo. See Sarpl Fra'ser, (Alexander,) a Scottish painter, born about 1792. He painted domestic and familiar scenes with suc- cess. Among his works are the " Interior of a Highland Cottage," and " The Last Moments of Mary Queen of Scots." Died in 1865. Fraser, (Alexander Campbell,) a Scottish meta- physician, born in Argyleshire about 1818. He studied under Sir William Hamilton, and became professor of logic in the New College, Edinburgh, in 1846, and editor of the "North British ]i Cyprus, and was deposed in 1378. Pietro was a brother of the preceding. He commanded the arma- ment which conquered Cyprus in 1373, and in 1393 was elected doge. Thomas was elected doge in 1415. I>eing attacked by Alfonso of Aragon and the Duke of Milan, he made a brave resistance, but was forced to retire from Genoa in 1421. In 1436 he was again elected, and held the office until 1443. Janus, a nephew of Thomas, was elected doge in 1447, and died the next year. Pietro, nephew of Thomas, was elected in 14^0, and for eight years maintained his power against Alfonso of Aragon and the Adorni. In 141^8 he ceded the seigtu'ory of Genoa to Charles VH. of France. He was killed in an attempt to expel the French from Genoa in 1459- Paul, brother of Pietro, and Archbishop of Genoa, was an am- bitious and unscrujiulous priest. In 1461 he drove Pros- per Adorno out of the city, and iilaced his own cousin, Sninetta Fregoso, in the office of doge. He caused him- self to be elected in 1462, but was expelled from office in 1464 by Sforza, Duke of Milan. He was again in power from 1483 to 1488. Died in 1498. Battista, a son of Pietro, was born at Genoa about 1440, elected doge in 1479, and deposed by a conspiracy in 1483. He wrote a " Life of Martin V.," and a treatise on love, " Anteros, sive De An\ore." Octavian was elected doge in 15 13, after having expelled the Frenth. He was compelled in 15 15 to cede the sovereignty of Genoa to Francis I. of France, in whose name he governed the same until 1522. In 1528 the success of Andrea Doria terminated the rivalry between the Adorno and Fregoso families. Fredrrico, a brother of Octavian, was born in Genoa about 1480. He was versed in Hebrew and other languages, and wrote, besides other works, a " Paraphrase on the Paternoster," in terza rima, and a "Treatise on Prayer," (1542.) He became a cardinal in 1539. Died in 1541. See E. ViNCENS, " Histoire de Genes;" Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italieniies." Fregoso, (Antonio Fileremo,) an Italian poet, born in Genoa, of the same family as the preceding, lived at the court of Milan about 1500, and enjoyed a high repu- tation as a poet. His jM-incipal poems are " The Laughter of Democritus and the Weeping of Heraclitus," (1506, often reprinted,) "Contest of Plutus and Irus," (" Con- tenzione di Pluto ed Iro,") and "La Cerva bianca," ("The White Deer," 1510.) Died about 1515. See GiNGUENE, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Freher, fra'er, [ Lat. Frehe'rus, ] (Marquard,) a German historian, and a native of Augsburg, published "Ancient Bohemian Historians," " History of the Ancient Franks," and other works, which enjoy a high reputation. Died in 1614. See ISIelchior Adam, "Vitas Juiisconsultoriim ;" Niceron, " IMeinoii es." Freher, (Paul,) a German biographer, born at Nu- renil)erg in 1611. He practised medicine in that city, and compiled a mediocre work, called " Theatre of Men eminent for Learning," ("Theatrum Virorum Eruditione clarorum," 1688,) containing notices of about 2850 emi- nent authors and other persons. Died in 1682. Freherus. See Freher. Freig, fRlo, or Freige, fRT'geh, [Lat. Frei'gius,] (JOHANN Thomas,) a learned German writer, born at Friburg, in Brisgau, in 1543. He became rector of the college of Altorf in 1575. He wrote, besides other works in Latin, a "Life of Peter Ramus," (about 1580,) and " Rhetorica, Poetica, Logica," (1582,) and published Cicero's Orations with notes, (3 vols., 1581,) often re- printed. Died in 1583. Freigius. See Freig. Freiligrath, fRi'lic-rat', (Ferdinand,) a celebrated German lyric and patriotic poet, born at Detmold in 1810. In 1833 he published some poems in the "Alma- nac of the Muses," which were so successful that he renounced his previous emjDloyment in a banking-house at Amsterdam, and devoted himself to literature. After the revolution of 1848 he brought out his spirited poem entitled " The Dead to the Living," for which he was tried by the government, but was acquitted. Owing to renewed political accusations, he left Germany in 1849, and settled in London. Among his best productions are his "Political and Social Poems," and "Confession of Faith," (" Glaube\isbekenntniss,") which enjoy the greatest i)opularity among the Liberal party in Germany. Freiligrath's poetry, apart from the fervent patriotism it displays, possesses merits of a high order ; and he has made several excellent translations from the English and French. See LoNf.FEf.i.ow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1845. Freind, frend, or Friend, (John,) F.R.S., an English l^hysician, born in Northamptonshire in 1675, was an excellent classical scholar, and eminent in his profession. He served as army physician under the Earl of Peter- borough, in Spain, in 1705-07. He was chosen Fellow of the Royal Society in 1712, and member of Parliament in 1722. In 1727 he was a])pointed first physician to the queen of George II. He wrote many able medical works, of which the most important is his " History of a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; k, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; FREIND 967 FREMONT Physic from the Time of Galen to the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century," (2 vols., 1726-27.) Died in 1728. See " Biographia Britannica." Freind, (Robert,) D.D., an English divine, a brother of the preceding, was born in 1667. He resided in West- minster, wrote verses in Latin and English, edited "Cicero de Oratore," {1724,) and was an opponent of Bentley in the controversy respecting the Epistles of Phalaris. He was head-master of Westminster School. Died in 1751. Freinsheim, fRins'hm/, fLat. Freinshf/mius,] (Jo- HANN,) a German scholar, born at Ulm in 1608. In 1642 he was appointed professor of eloquence and political economy at Upsal, and in 1647 was created by Queen ("hristina her librarian and historiographer. He was lijnorary professor at Heidelberg when he died in 1660. He published several editions of the classics, and wrote a valuable supplement to Livy and to Quintus Curtius, with a view of restoring the lost books of those authors. See A. Freinsheim, "Laudatio posthuina J. Fielnshemii," 1661. Freinshemius. See Freinsheim. Freire, fRa'e-r^, (Francisco Joze,) a Portuguese philologist and historian, born at Lisbon in 1713. As a member of the Academy of Arcades, he was called "Candido Lusitano." He wrote "Maxims on the Art of Oratory," and a "Life of Prince Henry of Portugal," (1758.) Died in 1773. "He contributed much," says Ferdinand Denis, " to the restoration of literature by the purity of his style." ("Nouvelle Biographic Generale.") Freire de Andrada, fka^-ra di ^n-dRcVdA, (Ber- NARDrM,) a Portuguese gene^l, born in Lisbon in 1764. He had risen to the rank of lieutenant-general when the war against Bonaparte began. In 1808 he put himself at the head of the national army which co-operated with Wellington. He was accused of treason by some factious persons, and was killed by his own soldiers at Braga in 1809. Freire de Andrada, (Hyacinth.) See Andrada, (Jacinto.) Freire de Andrade, (or Andrada,) fRa^-ri d.\ Sn- dRi'di, (or Sn-dR^'dd,) (Gomez,) a Portugu^e general, and an able administrator, born about 1685. He was governor of Rio Janeiro for many years, beginning in 1733. He was the hero of the poem of l^asileo da Gama entitled " O Uruguay." In 1 756 he defeated the Spaniards in the war of the Seven Missions. Died in 1763. See Southry's "History of Brazil." Freire de Andrade, (Gomez,) a Portuguese general, was born in Vienna in 1752. He obtained a command in the French army under Junot in r8o8, served in Russia in 1812, and was governor of Dresden in 1 813. Having returned to Lisbon, he was executed, on a charge of conspiracy against Marshal Beresford, in 181 7. His inno- cence was recognized several years later. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" "Histoire de Jean VI, Roi de Portugal," etc., Paris, 1827. Freire de Carvalho, fRa^-ri di kaR-v^Kyo, (Fran- cisco,) a Portuguese critic, who became professor of eloquence in Lisbon about 1846. He published a good edition of the "Lusiad," (1843,) "Essay on the Literary History of Portugal," (1845.) Freitag. See Freytag. Frelinghuysen, free'ling-hT'zen, (Frederick,) an American statesman, born in New Jersey in 1753. He graduated at Princeton in 1770, and served with distinc- tion as captain at the battles of Trenton and Monmouth. He was a member of the Continental Congress of 1775, and from 1793 to 1796 was a United States Senator. Died in 1804. Frelinghuysen, (Theodore,) an American states- man, a son of the preceding, was born in Somerset county. New Jersey, in 1787. He graduated at Prince- ton College in 1804, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1808. In 1829 he was elected to the Senate of the United States, in which he acted with the Whig party and took a prominent part in the debates until 1835. He became chancellor of the University of New York in 1838. In 1844 he was nominated as candidate for the Vice-Presidency of the United States by the Whig party, which also nominated Henry Clay for the Presidency ; but they were not elected. He -was chosen president of Rutgers College, New Brunswick, in 1850. Died in 1862. SeeT. W. Chambers, "Memoir of the Life of T. Frelinghuysen," 1863, with portrait. Frellon, fRa16N', (Jean and Franqots,) printers of Lyons, France, who acquired distinction by the perfec- tion of their editions of the New Testament and other books, printed between 1530 and 1570. Fre'mantle, (Sir Thomas Francis,) an English politician, born in 1 798. He represented Buckingham in Parliament from 1827 to 1846, and acted with the Conservatives. He was secretary of war in 1844-45, and was appointed chairman of the board of customs in 1846. Fremin, fRa'miN', (Ren^:,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1673. In 1722 Philip V. of Spain employed him to embellish with statuary his gardens and palace of the Granja. Died in 1745. Freminet, frk'me^ii', (Martin,) an eminent French painter, born in Paris in 1567, studied many years in Italy with such success that Henry IV. of France chose him in 1603 as his first painter, and employed him in decorating the chapel of P'ontainebleau, which contains his master-pieces. He imitated the style of Michael Angelo, and excelled in composition and perspective. Died in 1619. See A. Felibien, " Entretiens siir les Vies des plus celebres Peiiitres." Fre'mont', (John Charles,) the " Pathfinder" of the Rocky Mountains, an American explorer and general, born at Savannah, Georgia, January 21, 1813, was the son of a Frenchman and a Virginian mother. He gradu- ated at Charleston College, South Carolina, and became a professor of mathematics in the navy about 1835 ; but he soon resigned that position. In 1838 and 1839 he assisted Nicollet in the exjiloration of the upper portion of the Valley of the Mississippi. He was appointed a second lieutenant of the topographical engineers in 1838, and was ordered in 1841 to explore and survey the river Des Moines. In October of that year he married Jessie, a daughter of Senator Benton, of Missouri. Having formed a project to explore the Rocky Mountains and to open an overland route to the Pacific Ocean, he began the arduous enterjjrise, under the authority of the government, in May, 1842. He examined the South Pass of the Rocky Mountains, and ascended, in August, the highest peak of the Wind River Mountains, (13,570 feet above the sea,) which is now called Fremont's Peak. In the autimui of 1842 he returned to Washington, and published a report of his discoveries, which was com- mended by Humboldt in his "As])ects of Nature." In the summer of 1843 he conducted another expedi- tion up the valley of the Platte and through the South Pass, explored Great Salt Lake, and made important discoveries in geography. He arrived in November at Fort Vancouver, near the mouth of the Columbia River, and in the ensuing winter attempted to return by a more southern route ; but his progress was arrested by deep snows, and his party suffered severely from hunger and cold. Having changed his course, he reached the Sacra- mento River in March, 1844, and, returning through the Great Basin and the South Pass, arrived at Kansas in July of that year. The daring and fortitude exhibited in this expedition among hostile savages and inhospi- table deserts have hardly been surpassed in the records of human adventure. Soon after his return he was pro- moted to the rank of captain, and prepared a report of his second expedition. In the spring of 1845 he con- ducted a third ex])edition, to explore the Sierra Nevada, California, &c. He was attacked by Mexicans near Monterey in March, 1846, defended himself with success, was raised to the rank of lieutenant-colonel in May, and was appointed Governor of California by Commodore vStockton, whose authority was disputed by General Kearney. Fremont, however, continued to recognize Commodore Stockton as his superior, and was arrested by General Kearney, who ordered him to report to the adjutant-general at Washington. He was tried by a court- martial, and found guilty of mutiny and disobedience, for which he was pardoned by the President ; but he declined the pardon, and resigned his commission. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, K,gtaitiral; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^^See Explanations, p. 23.) FREMONT 968 FRERET In 1848 Fremont attempted, at his own expense, another expedition across the continent, through the northern part of Mexico ; but, the guide having lost his way, the party, after undergoing incredible sufferings, in which about one-third of their number perished, were compelled to return to Santa Fe, whence they had started. In 1849 he settled in California, where he had pur- chased a large auriferous tract called the Mariposa estate. He exerted his influence to make California a free State, and was one of the Senators chosen to repre- sent that State in the Federal Senate in 1850. His term in the Senate expired in March, 185 1. For his services as an explorer he received, in 1850, a gold medal from the King of Prussia, and another from the Royal Geo- graphical Society of London. In 1853 he conducted, at his own expense, an exploring party to the Pacific, and succeeded in finding a new route about latitude 38° north. He was nominated as candidate for the Presidency by the Republican National Convention in June, 1856, as the competitor of the Democratic candidate, James Buchanan. Colonel Fremont received one hundred and fourteen electoral votes, cast by eleven States, against one hun- dred and seventy-four votes given to his opponent. In May, 1861, he was appointed a major-general of the regular army, and commander of the department of Mis- souri, or Western district. In August he issued an order for the emancipation of the slaves of those who should take arms against the United States ; but this act was dis- approved and annulled by the President, who considered it premature. Moving his army from the Missouri River, he pursued the enemy, who retired southwestward. He had just overtaken the army of insurgents at Spring- field, when he was removed from the command, Novem- ber 2, 1861. In March, 1862, he was appointed to the command of the Mountain department, including parts of Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. About the ist of June he began to pursue General Jackson, (Stonewall,) who, after chasing General Banks down the Shenandoah Valley to the Potomac, was retiring towards Harrison- burg. General Fremont attacked the enemy on the 8th of June, 1862, at Cross Keys, where he fought an inde- cisive battle. He was then recalled from the pursuit of General Jackson, and he resigned his command about the end of June, because he was not willing to serve under General Pope, his junior or inferior in rank. See John Bigelow, "Life of John C. Fremont," 1856; C. W, Upham, "Life and Explorations of J. C. Fremont," 1856; "Fre- mont's Explorations," 2 vols., 1859. Fremont d'Ablancourt, fRa^miw' dt'blSN'kooR', (Nicolas,) a French Protestant, born in Paris about 1625, was a nephew of Perrot d'Ablancourt. By the influence of Turenne he was appointed ambassador to Portugal in 1663. When the edict of Nantes was re- voked, in 1685, he was obliged to leave France, and retired to Holland, where the Prince of Orange appointed him historiographer. Pie wrote, besides a few other works, "Memoirs in relation to the History of Portugal," (from 1659 to 1668, published in 1701.) 13ied in 1693. See Haag, " La France protestante." Fremy, fra'me', (ARNOULD,)a Yvench. litterateur,'born in 1809, has written some works of fiction, Freniy, (Edmond,) a French chemist, born in Paris in 18 14. He was a favourite pupil of M. Pelouze, whom he aided as assistant professor in the Polytechnic School. He afterwards succeeded M. Pelouze as professor, and succeeded Gay-Lussac in the Museum of Natural His- tory. In conjunction with Pelouze, he produced successful works, entitled " General Treatise on Chemistry," (6 vols., 1844-57,) and an "Abridgment (Abrege) of Chemistry." See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." French, (John,) an English physician, born in 1616, attended professionally the parliamentary army under Fairfax. He wrote the " Art of Distillation," and the " Yorkshire Spaw." Died in 1657. French, (Nicholas,) an Irish Roman Catholic bishop, born at Wexford in 1604. He was appointed Bishop of Ferns in 1643, soon after which date he went as an exile to the continent. He published, besides other works, "The Unkind Deserter of Loyal Men," (1676,) directed against Ormond. Died in 1678. French, (Samukl G.,) an American officer in the Confederate army, born in New Jersey, was made a brigadier-general in 1861. French, (William Henry,) an American officer, born in Maryland about 1818, served in the Mexican war, and in i86i became a brigadier-general of volun- teers in the Union army. Frend, (William,) an English writer on astronomj-, political economy, etc., born at Canterbury in 1757. He was rector of Madingley, but, having adopted Socinian opinions, he resigned that living in 1787. Among his works is "Evening Amusements on the Beauties of the Heavens," issued annually, (1804-22.) Died in 1841. Freneau, fre'n5^ (Philh',) an American poet and journalist, of French descent, born at New York in 1752. He wrote, during the Revolution, many satirical and burlesque poems against the Tories. Some of these were very popular. Pie performed many voyages as a captain of a merchant-vessel between 1784 and 1789, and again after 1798. About 1790 he became translating clerk to Jefferson, (then secretary of state,) and editor of the " National Gazette," published at Philadelphia and notorious for virulent articles against the administra- tion of Washington. Died near Freehold, New Jersey, in December, 1832. See Gkiswold, "Poets and Poetry of America;" Duyckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. Frenicle, fRa^nek'K, (Nicolas,) a minor French poet, born in Paris in 1600, wrote "Niobe, a Tragedy," and other poems. Died in 1661. Frenicle de Bessy, fRa'nek'K deh bi'se', (Bernard,) a skilful French mathematician, brother of the preceding. He excelled in solving difficult questions without the use of algebra, so that Fermat, Descartes, and others confessed his superiority. His modus operandi was kept secret until his death, when it was ascertained by his papers to be the "method of exclusion." He was ad- mitted to the Academy of Sciences in 1666. Pie wrote a "Treatise on Right-Angled Triangles in Numbers," and other works. Died in 1675. See Baillet, "Vie de Descartes;" Condorcet, "£loge de Frenicle de Bessy." Frenzel or Frentzel, fR§nt'sel, (Johann,) a German poet, born at Annaberg in 1609. He was professor of poetry at Leipsic. Died in 1674. Frere, fRaiR, (Georges,) a French general of division, born in Languedoc in 1764. He distinguished himself in the Austrian campaign of 1809. Died in 1826. Frere, freer, (Right Hon. John Hookham,) of Nor- folk, England, was born in 1769, and entered Parliament in 1796. He was ambassador to Spain in 1808, and per- formed other diplomatic services. He was one of the founders of the " London Quarterly Review," and ac- quired distinction as a poet by a humorous work, entitled "Prospectus and Specimen of an Intended National Work by William and Robert Whistlecraft, etc., relating to King Arthur and his Round Table." His translation of a Saxon poem on the victory of Athelstan at Brunnen- burgh was much admired. Died at Malta in 1846. See LocKHART, "Life of Scott;" "London Quarterly Review" for September, 1843 ; " Gentleman's Magazine" for March and April, 1846. Frere, (Pierre Edouard,) a French painter, a pupil of Paul Delaroche, was born in Paris in 1819. His subjects are familiar domestic scenes. Freres, fra-r^ t (Theodore,) a Dutch painter, born at Enckhuysen in 1643, studied at Rome. He worked for some time at Amsterdam. Died at sea in 1693. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Freret, fRa'r^, (Nicolas,) an eminent French his- torical critic and savant, born in Paris, February 15, 1688, was early distinguished for his devotion to learning and his extraordinary attainments in ancient history, philosophy, and chronology. The Academy of Inscrip- tions was opened to him in 17 14, about which time he wrote a " Discourse on the Origin of the French," which was much admired. The novel or candid opinions uttered in this work procured him a short confinement in the Bastille. He was versed in many ancient and modern languages. He appears to have been free from selfish ambition, and actuated by a disinterested zeal for a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; ^, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; ndt; good; moon; FRERICHS 969 the honour of the Academy, for which he wrote a multi- tude of profound dissertations on ancient history and chronology, in one of which he explodes the fabulous antiquity of the Chinese. Among his principal works are a "Treatise on the Origin of the Greeks," "Obser- vations on the Cyropaedia of Xenophon," and "Historical Researches respecting the Ancient Peoples of Asia." He was perpetual secretary of the Academy of Inscrip- tions and Belles-Lettres. Died in Paris in March, 1749. He is considered the greatest of French historical critics. See Bougainville, " £loge de Freret;" Champollion-Figeac, " Vie de Freret," prefixed to a new edition of his works. The first volume ot this edition was published in 1825. See, also, " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Frerichs, fna'riKs, (Friedrich Theodor,) a German physician, born at Aurich, in Hanover, in 1819. He became professor of pathology and therapeutics at Bres- lau about 1852. He wrote, besides other able works, a "Treatise on Diseases of the Liver," (1859.) Freron, fRa'rdw', (Elie Catherine,) a distinguished French critic and litteraiettr, born at Quimper in 17 19, assisted Desfontaines for several years in his critical re- views. From 1749 to 1754 he issued a spirited literary periodical, styled " Letters on Certain Contemporary Writings." From 1754 until his death he edited the " Literary Year," and acquired much notoriety by his attacks on Voltaire and the Encyclopedists, who retorted with great asperity. His ode on the battle of Fontenoy (1745) was adinired. He wrote many other works. Died in 1776. See Grimm, " Correspondance litt^raire;" C. Nisard, "Les Ennemis de Voltaire," 1853. Freron, (Louis Stanislas,) son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1765. He was a violent Jacobin, edited a paper called the "Orator of the People," voted for the death of the king in the Convention, and took an official and prominent part in the massacres at Marseilles and Toulon. Pie promoted the fall of Robespierre in 1794, and was appointed sub-prefect in Saint Domingo, where he died, soon after his arrival, in 1802. See Lamartine's "History of the Girondists." Frescobaldi, fR^s-ko-bSKdee, (Girolamo, ) a re- nowned Italian organist and composer, born at Ferrara, probably about 1588. He became organist of St. Peter's in Rome. He displayed a rich imagination as a com- poser of canzoni, toccatas, etc. He is regarded as the father of that style of organ-music which the English call "voluntaries." Died about 1654. See Hawkins, "History of Music;" Fetis, "Biographic Uni- verselle dcs Musicicns." Fresenius, fRi-za'ne-us, (Johann Friedrich,) a German theologian, born in 1717; died in 1783. SecF. A. Fresenius, " Lebenslauf, etc. J. F. Fresenii," 1789. Fresia, fRa'se-S, or {Rk'ze'f, (Maurice Ignace,) Ba- ron, a general in the French army, was born at Saluzzo, in Piedmont, in 1746. He was appointed Governor of Venice, and commandant of the lllyrian provinces, about iSio. Died in Paris in 1827. Fresnaye, de la, deh IS fR^^ni', (Jean Vauquelin — vok'laN^,) a mediocre French poet, father of Desyve- teaux, born in Normandy in 1536; died in 1606. Fresne. See Dufresne and Du Cange. Fresne, fRen, (pRANgois ^baudy — i'bS'de',) a French economist, born at Langres in 1743, published a " Treatise on Agriculture," (3 vols., 1788,) and proposed the saving-fund for servants, and other means of econ- omy which have since been adopted. Died in 181 5. Fresnel, fri^n^K, (Augustin Jean,) a celebrated French geometer and optician, born at Broglie (Eure) on the loth of May, 1788, was the son of an architect. He studied in the Ecole Polytechnique, and passed thence into the licole des Ponts et Chaussees, which he quitted with the title of engineer. He began to experiment on the theory of light about 1815, and received a prize from the Academy of Sciences for his treatise "On the Dif- fraction of Light" in 1819. In 1823 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences. He wrote several memoirs on polarization and double refraction, which were inserted in the "Annales de Physique et Chimie," (1816-25.) He performed for physical optics what New- ton did foi astronomy. His experiments tend to prove FREr the truth of the theory that light consists in the vibra- tions of an elastic medium. His theory of double refrac- tion and polarization is called one of the finest efforts of genius. He made the first successful application of lenses to the lamps of light-houses, and invented the illuminating apparatus which is used throughout the civilized world. He was chosen in 1825 a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, which in 1827 awarded to him the Rumford medal. When on his death-bed, this medal was presented to him by his friend Arago, to whom he said, " I thank you for performing this mission, which must have been a painful duty ; for the brightest badge of honour appears dim and insignificant to him who must lay it down on the grave of a friend." Died in 1827. See Arago's " filoge de Fresnel," in the " Qiuvves completes" (of Arago,) tome i.; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" " Biographic Universellc," (Supplement.) Fresnel, (Fulgence,) a French Orientalist, born at Mathieu (Calvados) in 1795 ; died at Bagdad in 1855. Fresnoy. See Dufresnoy, (Charles Alphonse.) Fresnoy, (Lenglet du.) See Lenglet. Fresny. See Dufresn|^ Fresse-Montval, fRgs'm^N^tl', (Henri Franqois Alphonse,) a French liiterateiir, born at Perpignan in 1795, wrote a " Manual of Latin Composition," and made a translation of Pindar's works into French verse, which gained a prize of the French Academy in 185 1. Fressinet, fRiVse'ncV, (Philihert,) a French general, born in Burgundy in 1769. In 1813, for his conduct at the battle of Lutzen, he obtained the rank of general of division. Died in 1821. Freteau de Saint-Just, fRi' to' deh siN'zhiist', (Em- man uel Marie Michel Philippe,) a French lawyer, born in 1745. He was elected in 1789 to the States- General, and was a moderate partisan of the Revolu- tion. He was one of the presidents of the Constituent Assembly, and a judge of one of the courts in Paris. He was executed by the terrorists in 1794. Freudenberger, fRoi'den-b^R^Ger, (Sigismond,) a Swiss painter and engraver, born in 1745; died in 1801. Freudweiler, fKoid'\X'i'ler, (Daniel,) a Swiss painter, born in 1793 ; died in 1827. Freund, fuoint, (Wilhelm,) a German lexicographer, of Jewish extraction, born at Kempen, in the province of Posen, in 1806. His "Dictionary of the Latin Lan- guage" (4 vols., 1834) enjoys a high reputation. He also published a Latin-German, Latin-Greek Dictionary for Schools, (1848.) Freundsberg. See Frondsberg. Freundweiler, fRoinf'^I'ler, or Freudweiler, froit'- wT'ler, (Henri,) a skilful Swiss painter of history, genre, and portraits, was born at Zurich in 1755 ; died in 1795. Freux, de, deh fRuh, [Lat. Fru'sius,] (Andr6,) a French Jesuit and writer, born at Chartres about 1500, became secretary to Loyola at Rome. Died in 1556. Frey, fri, or Freyr, frlr, [sometimes written in Latin Fric'co ; etymology the same as that of Freyia, which see,*] the son of Njord, and the brother of Freyia. He presides over rain and sunshine and the fruits of the earth. His attributes correspond to those both of Frigga and Freyia. As the god of fertility, he resembles the former ;t as the god of pleasure and love, he is the counterpart of the latter. We are told that he was (like Freyia) beloved by all, both gods and men. He had two remarkable gifts presented him by Loki, — the ship Skidbladnir, which would always have a fair wind whenever the sails were set, and was so capacious that it could contain all the gods, with their weapons and armour, and yet could be folded up like a cloth and carried in one's pocket ; and the boar named Gullinbursti, ("golden bristles,") which he could drive on the air and sea and which could travel * Supposing the etymology given under Freyia to be the true one, Frey is simply the masculine form of Freyia, — the masculine of pr'tya being prtyd, or (as the final short a is often dropped) simply prly', — and signifies, like Freyia, "beloved," "dear." The Latin name Fricco goes to establish Frey's relationship with Frigga, and to confirm the view that Freyia and Frigga were originally one name, since nothing is more common than for g and y to interchange, as siiown in such examples as "Day," Anglo-Saxon Dceg, German Tag; "Way," Anglo-Saxon and German IVeg, etc. t As Frigga was the goddess of marriage, so Frey was the god of marriage ; for on such occasions, as Adam of Bremen tells us, the old Danes used to sacrifice to Frey. € as ^; 9 as s\ 5 hard; g as j; G, H, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) FRET 970 FREYTAG far more swiftly than any horse. The wife of Frey was Gerda, (gSr'cIa,) or Gercf, (gerd,) the daughter of a giant named Gymir. It is related that one day Frey ascended Odin's throne Hlidskialf, whence he could view all the regions of the world. Towards the north he saw a magnificent palace, out of which came a woman whose beauty was so resplendent that it illumined the whole world. As a just punishment for his presumption in ascending the seat of the father of the gods, Frey was so deeply smitten with love that he could neither drink, speak, nor sleep. Thereupon Njord sent Skirmir, Frey's attendant, to inquire the cause of his distress. When Skirmir learned it, he promised that if his master would give him his sword he would obtain for him the beautiful maiden, whose name was Gerda. In this undertaking he encountered great difficulties, but was at last successful. But Frey had parted with his good sword, which will prove a very serious loss at Ragnarock, when the great battle will be fought between the y^isir and their ene- mies. See Thorpe's "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Kevskr's "Reli- gion of the Northmen;" Mai.i.etJ^" Northern Antiquities," vol. ii., Fable XIX. ; Petersen's " Nordisk Mytholosi." Frey, fio, (Jean C^:cile,) a Swiss philologist and physician, born at Kaiserstiihl about 1580, taught phi- losophy in a college of Paris. He wrote, besides other works in Latin, "The Philosophy of the Druids," (1625.) Died in 163 1. See NiCERON, "Menioires." Frey, (Jean Louis,) a Swiss philologist and Oriental- ist, born at Bale in 1682. He was appointed professor of history and theology in the Acadeiny of Berne in 1711. He also distinguished himself by great knowledge and critical sagacity in theology, history, and philosophy, and wrote several works. Died in 1759. See J. C. Beck, "De Vita et Meritis Philologi J. L. Frey," 1760. Frey, (Johann Jakoi?,) an excellent Swiss engraver, born at Lucerne in 1681, studied under Carlo Maratta, and worked mostly in Rome. He engraved a large number of the master-pieces of the Italian painters, re- producing with great fidelity the characteristic style of each master, and was peVhaps the most excellent engraver of his time.' Died in 1752. Among his works are "Bacchus and Ariadne" and "The Chariot of Aurora," after Guido ; and "The Holy Family," after Raphael. See Stkutt, " Dictionary of Engravers." Freya. See Freyia. Freyberg, fRT'b^RG, (Maximilian Prokop,) Baron, born at P^reising in 1789, was ap])ointed by Louis I. of Bavaria keeper of the archives at Munich. Besides legal treatises, he published several works relating to Bavarian history. Died in 1851. Freycinet, de, deh fR^'se'ni', (Louis Claude De- saulses — deh-soK,) a French navigator, born at Mon- telimart in 1779. He sailed with Baudin in a scientific expedition to Australia, and assisted in composing an account of the same. He obtained the rank of captain of a frigate in 1811, and commanded the expedition sent in the Uranie in 181 7 to ascertain the figure of the earth and the elements of terrestrial magnetism. The result of this enterprise was a "Voyage around the World," etc., (13 vols., 1824-44,) of which the parts on navigation, hydrography, and magnetism were written by Freycinet. Died in 1842. His brother Henri, born in 1777, also distinguished as a navigator, was associated with him in nearly all his expeditions. Died in 1840. See RoQUETTE, " Notices historiques sur MM. Henri et Louis de Freycinet," 1S40; F. Grii.i.e, " L. de Freycinet, sa Vie de Savant et de Jilarin," etc., 1853; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Freyia or Freyja, fri'yS, written also Freya, [pro- bably allied to the Sanscrit priyd, signifying "dear," " beloved," and, as a substantive, a " wife :" comjiare the Swedish fria or frija^ to " make love," to " seek in marriage,"] the goddess of love, the Venus of the Norse mythology. She is also called Van'adis, or the " Vanir goddess." She is said to be the daughter of Njord, the god of the air. (See Vanir.) She was married to Oder, (or Odur,) who afterwards left her and wandered far away. During his absence she weeps for him, shed- ding golden tears. Matthew Arnold, in his beautiful poem entitled " Balder Dead," speaks thus of Freya: "And Freya next came nigh, with golden tears, The loveliest goddess she in heaven, by all Most honoured after Frea, Odin's wife; Her long ago the wandering Oder took To mate, but left her to roam in distant lands ; Since then she seeks him, and weeps tears of gold: Names hath she many ; Vanadis on earth They call her; Freya is her name in heaven." One-half of the heroes who fell in battle belonged, it is said, to Freyia : hence she was sometimes called Val- freyia, [i.e. the "Freyia of the fallen,") in the same man- ner that Odin was styled Valfo'Sr, (or Valf;i'5ir,) or the "father of the slain." This is thus explained by some writers : Many warriors are impelled chiefly by their own fiery courage ; these, falling in battle, belong to Odin, the god of courage : others, like the knights of the middle ages, seek to obtain by their prowess the adiniration and favour of the other sex; these aa'e the votaries of Freyia, the goddess of love and gallantry, and, when they fall in battle, belong especially to her. Most etymologists agree that Freyia and Frigga were originally the same name. We may conjecture that among a simple and comparatively virtuous people the same power would preside over love and marriage, but that in a later and more corrupt age those offices which originally belonged to one became divided, as among tiie Greeks and Romans, between two •distinct and inde- pendent deities. (See Frey.) There can scarcely be a reasonable question but that Friday signifies " Freyia's day;" though some suppose it to be " Frigga's day:" it was called in the Latin of the middle ages Veneris dies, (" Venus's day,") whence the French Vendi'edi. See Thorpe's "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; "Religion of the Northmen," by Rudolph Kevser, translated by Barclay Pen- Nocic; Mallet's "Northern Antiquities," vol. ii., Fable XVIII. Freylinghausen, fRi'iing-how'zen, (Johann Anas- tas or Anastasius,) a German theologian and writer, born at Gandersheim in 1670. He became the colleague of the philanthropist A. H. Franckeat Halle. Died in 1738. Freyre. See Freire. Freyre, fna^-ri, (Don Manoel,) a Spanish general, born at Osuna, in Andalusia, in 1765. He commanded the cavalry at Ocana, where the Spaniards were de- feated by the French, in 1809, and obtained the chief command of a corps in Murcia and Granada in 1810 or 181 1. In 1813 he succeeded Castanos as general of the Spanish forces under Wellington. He was selected to command the royal army at the beginning of the revo- lution of 1820. After the king had, in March, 1820, sworn to restore the constitution of 1812, Freyre was deprived of the command. Died in 1834. See " Defensa del General Manoel Freyre." Freytag, fRi't&G, (Friedrich Gotthilf,) a Ger- man professor and classical scholar, born in 1687; died in 1761. Freytag, (Friedrich Gotthilf,) a German bibli- ographer, son of the preceding, was born at Pforta in 1723. He was a lawyer and burgomaster of Naum- burg, and published several works, among which is "Analecta literaria de Libris rarioribus," (1751.) Died in 1776. See Ersch und Grltber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Freytag, (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich,) a distin- guished German philologist, born at Liineburg in 1788, devoted himself to the study of the Arabic, Persian, and Turkish languages in Paris. Among his principal works are a "Lexicon Arabico-Latinum," (1830,) and "Ara- bum Proverbia," (" Proverbs of the Arabs.") He became professor of Oriental literature at Bonn in 1819. Died in November, 186 1. Freytag, (GusrAV,) a popular German dramatist and novelist, born at Kreuzburg, in Silesia, in 1816. He produced, besides other dramas, "Count Waklemar," (1847,) and the "Journalists," (1854,) a comedy, which is commended. His novel entitled "Soli und Haben" (3 vols., 1855) was very successful. Freytag, (Johann,) a German physician, born at Wesel in 1581. He was for many years first physician to the Prince-Bishop of Osnabriick, and became pro- fessor at Groningen in 1631. He wrote, besides other medical works, "Noctes Medicae," (1616.) Died in 1641. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; runsvvick in 1761, served against the French on the Rhine, and in 1810 became lieutenant-general. He published in 1820 "Pictures from the Age of the Crusades." He was also a con- tributor with Schiller and Goethe to the " Horen." Died in 1828. Funes, foo'nSs, (Gregorio,) a historian, born at Cor- dova, in South America. He became dean of the church of Cordova, and wrote a " History of Paraguay, Buenos Ayres, and Tucuman," (3 vols., 1816 et seq.,) which is commended. Died about 1820. Funke, foon'keh, (Karl Philipp,) a German natu- ralist, born in 1 752. He wrote "Natural History and Technology," (3 vols., 1791,) and other works. Died in 1807. Furetiere, fiiR^te-aiR', (Antoine,) a French writer, born in Paris in 1620^ became Abbe of Chalivoy. He was chosen a member of the French Academy in 1662. In his "Bourgeois Romance" ("Roman bourgeois," 1666) he satirized the manners of the middle or inferior class ; he also wrote " The Voyage of Mercury," a satire in verse, (1673.) Having undertaken to compile a Dic- tionary of the French language while that of the Academy € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^="See Explanations, p. 23.) 62 FURGAULT 978 FUSELI was in progress, he was accused of plagiarism, and ex- pelled from the Academy, in 1685. He died in 1688. His Dictionary was published in 1690, and was received with favour. See " Fureteriaiia," 1696; Madame de Sevign^, " Lettres," and *' Menagiana." Furgault, fiiR''g5', (Nicolas,) a French professor, born in 1706, published a "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities," (1768.) Died in 17^5. Furgole, ruR''goK,(jEAN BAPTiSTE,)an eminent French jurist, born at Castelferrus in 1690, practised at Toulouse with success. He published " Ordonnance de Louis XV pour fixer la Jurisprudence sur les Donations," (1733,) and a "Treatise on Wills, Codicils, and Donations," (4 vols., 1745,) which was one of the most complete works on that subject. Died in 1761. See Bernadeau, " Vies, Portraits et Parall^les des Jurlsconsultes Domat, Furgole et Potliier," 1798. Furies, [Lat. Furi^.] See Eumenides. Furietti, foo-re-et'tee, (Giuseppe Alessandro,) an Italian antiquary, born at Bergamo in 1685. After making ^reat progress in the study of law and theology, he re- moved to Rome, where he obtained preferment, and at the age of seventy-four was made a cardinal. He wrote an able treatise on the " History of the Mosaic Art," (" De Pictoriae Mosaicas Artis Origine," 1752,) and a few other works. Died about 1762. Furini, foo-ree'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Florence in 1600. His works are highly com- mended. Died in 1649. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Fu'ri-us, [Sp. pron. foo're-ooss,] (Federico,) sur- named Seriolanus, a moralist, born in Valencia, Spain, about 1510. Charles V. appointed him historian to his son Philip II., by whom he was employed in the public affairs of the Low Countries. Furius published a treatise on Rhetoric, ( 1 544 ;) also " The Counsel and Counsellor," ("Del Consejo y Consejero," 1559.) He is favourably noticed by De Thou, who ranks him with Montaigne. Died in 1592. See De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis ;" N. Antonio, " Blblio- iheca Hispana Nova." Fu'ri-us, (Marcus,) surnamed Bibac'ulus, a Latin satirical poet, born at Cremona about 102 B.C. He began a poem on the Gallic War by a line which represents Jupiter as spitting snow upon the Alps, — which Horace parodied in his fifth satire (book ii.) by substituting the uame of Furius for Jupiter : " Furius hybernas cana nive conspuet Alpes."* Small fragments of his works are all that now remain. Furlanetto, fooR-li-net'to, (Bonaventura,) distin- guished as a composer of sacred music, was born at Venice in 1738. He composed" The Vow of Jephthah," "The Spouse of the Canticles," and other oratorios. Died in 1817. Fur'long, (Thomas,) an Irish poet and satirist, born about 1792, was the son of a farmer. In his early youth he was employed in the shop of a merchant of Dublin. He published in 1819 or 1820 "The Misanthrope," a poem. Among his best works is " The Plagues of Ire- land," (1824.) Died in 1827. Furneaux, i\xx'\\o\ (Philip,) an English dissenting minister, born at Totness, in Devonshire, in 1726, He was lecturer at Clapham, in Surrey, for twenty-three years, (1753-76.) He wrote "Letters to Judge Black- stone on his Exposition of the Toleration Act," (1793.) Died in 1783. Fur'ness, (William Henry,) D.D., a Unitarian divine and author, born in Boston in 1802. He gradu- ated at Harvard in 1820, and afterwards studied for the ministry in the theological school of that institution. In 1825 he became pastor of the First Unitarian Congre- gational Church in Philadelphia. As a public preacher, he early distinguished himself by his zealous and un- wavering opposition to the iniquities of slavery. Among his religious publications the most important are his "Remarks on the Four Gospels," (1836,) "Jesus and his Biographers," (1838,) "History of Jesus," (1850,) and "Thoughts on the Life and Character of Jesus of Nazareth," (1859.) For a critique on Dr. Furness's pe- * Furius will bespit the wintry Alps with white snow." culiar views respecting the character of Christ, etc., see "North American Review" for October, 1850, (vol. Ixxi.) Dr. Furness is distinguished for his fine taste and high literary culture. He has made some admirable translations from the German, among which that of Schiller's "Das Lied von der Glocke" ("The Song of the Bell") deserves particular mention, as being the best English version that has ever appeared of that exquisite poem. His son, William H. Furness, born in 1827, acquired a high reputation as a portrait-painter. Died in 1867. See TuCKERMAN, " Book of the Artists." Furrer, foor'rer, (Jonas,) a Swiss statesman, born at Winterthur in 1805. Fiirst, fuRst, (Julius,) a German Orientalist, born of a Jewish family, in the duchy of Posen, in 1805, studied theology at Halle. He published, besides other works, a " History of the Jews in Asia," (1849,) a " Hebrew- Chaldee Dictionary," (1851.) Fiirst, fURst, (Walter,) a Swiss patriot, born at Altorf, lived about 1300. He co-operated with William Tell in the liberation of his country. Fiirstemberg, fiiRst'em-b^RG', or Fuerstenberg, fi.iRst'en-beRG^ (Ferdinand,) a German prelate, born at Bilstein, Westphalia, in 1626, was distinguished for liberality and other virtues. He became Bishop of Paderborn in 166 1, and Bishop of Miinster in 1678. He published Latin poems, which are commended, and " Monuments of Paderborn," (" Monumenta Paderbor- nensia," 1669.) Died in 1683. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Furstenau, fooR'steh-now', (Johann Hermann,) a German physician, born at Herford, in Westphalia, in i688. He obtained the chair of medicine at Rinteln about 1720. He wrote many valuable medical works, among which is "Desiderata Medica," (1727.) Died in 1756. See JocHER, " Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." Fiirstenberg, fiirst'en-beRG^, (Friedrich Wilhelm Franz,) Baron, a German statesman, born in 1729, was minister to Maximilian Frederick, Elector of Cologne. He founded the University of Miinster, and introduced important reforms into the government. Died in 1810. Furtado, fooR-t3.Mo, (Francisco,) a Portuguese poet, born in 1740; died in Italy after 1816. Fuscus. See Fosco. Fus'cus, (Arel'lius,) a Latin rhetorician, flourished in the reign of Augustus. Fuscus, (Aris'tius,) a Latin poet, lived about 30 B.C. He was a friend of Horace, who addressed to him an epistle and an ode. Fuseli, fii'seh-le, or Fuessli, (John Henry,) a cele- brated historical painter, born at Zurich about 1742, was the son of Johann Caspar Fiissli, noticed below. His family name was changed to Fusel i by the subject of this article. Having gained distinction by his classic acquire- ments and by his poetical genius, he visited England in 1763. Sir Joshua Reynolds, on seeing some drawings of Fuseli, persuaded him to prefer the profession of painter to that of author. Between 1770 and 1778 he studied art in Italy, choosing Michael Angelo for his model, and in the latter year returned to London, where he speedily rose to the first rank of British painters. He was partial to the romantic style, and found congenial subjects in the most imaginative dramas of Shakspeare. In 1788 he married Sophia Rawlins, and was chosen an associate of the Royal Academy. He assisted Cowper in trans- lating Homer. He was chosen professor of painting in the Royal Academy in 1799. His Lectures on Art are much admired, and have been published. Among his master-pieces are eight pictures of the "Shaksjjeare Gal- lery," and illustrations of Dante and Milton. His imagi- nation was lofty and rich, but rather extravagant. "Of all the painters whom this country has encouraged," says Allan Cunningham, "no one had either the reach of thought or the poetic feeling of Fuseli." He pub- lished "Aphorisms on Art," and other works, which are highly prized. Died in London in 1825. See "Life and Works of Fuseli," by John Knowles, 3 vols., 1831 ; Cunningham, "Lives of Painters and Sculptors ;" "Edin- burgh Review" for July, 1803, and September, 1831. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; mli; nftt; good; moon; FUSI 979 FTT Fusi, fii^ze', (Antoine,) a Frenchman, born in Lor- raine about 1565. He became a doctor of the Sorbonne, in Paris. Having been charged with sorcery and heresy, and persecuted, he retired to Geneva about 1618, adopted the Protestant religion, and became a minister. He wrote a book against the Jesuits, called " Le franc Archier de la vraie figlise contre les Abus de la fausse," (1619.) Died about 1635. See NiCERON, " Memoires." Fusina, foo-see'ni, (Andrea,) an excellent Italian sculptor, of the Milanese school, flourished about 1490. He adorned the cathedral of Milan with bas-reliefs. See Ticozzi, "Dizionario." Fuss, von, fon fooss, (Nikolaus,) a Swiss mathema- tician, born at Bale in 1755. He removed to Saint Petersburg in his youth, and was appointed adjunct professor in the Academy of Sciences in 1776. He ob- tained the dignity of councillor of state in 1800. He wrote many mathematical treatises. Died in 1826. Fiissli or Fuessli, fus'lee, (Hans Heinrich,) a Swiss writer on art, born at Zurich in 1745, was a son of Johann Rudolph. He was distinguished for learning and elo- quence. In 1802 he was chosen senator. He published, among other works, "The Life and Works of Raphael Sanzio," (1815.) Died in 1832. See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." Fiissli or Fuessli, (Johann Caspar,) a Swiss artist and author, born at Zurich in 1707, excelled in land- scapes and portraits. He wrote two esteemed works, viz., a " History of the Best Painters of Switzerland," (4 vols., 1769-79,) -and a "Descriptive Catalogue (or Cata- logue Raisonne) of the Best Engravers and of their Works," (1771.) He was the father of the celebrated John Henry Fuseli. Died in 1781. Fiissli or Fuessli, (Johann Caspar,) a Swiss natu- ralist, son of the preceding, born at Zurich in 1745. He published a "Catalogue of Swiss Insects," (1775,) "Ar- chives of the History of Insects," (1781-86,) and several other works. Died in 1786. Fiissli or Fuessli, (Johann Conrad,) a Swiss author, born at Zurich or Wetzlar about 1705, spent many years in teaching school. He published several esteemed works, among which are " Historical Memoirs of the Reformation in ^Switzerland," (5 vols., 1741-53,) a "Description of Switzerland," (4 vols., 1770,) and a "History of the Mediaeval Church," (3 vols., 1770-74.) Died in 1775. See Meusel, " Gelehrtes Deutschland." Fiissli or Fuessli, (Johann Rudolf,) a Swiss artist, born at Zurich in 1709, finished his studies in Paris. His reputation is founded chiefly on his " General Dic- tionary of Artists," in German, (1763-77.) This vast and excellent work was continued by his son, Hans Heinrich, and formed the basis of Nagler's " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Died in 1793. Fiissli or Fuessli, (Johann Rudolf,) a painter and engraver, the eldest son of Johann Caspar, noticed above, was born at Zurich in 1737. He wrote an ex- cellent work, entitled a "Catalogue (Raisonne) of En- gravings executed after the Most Famous Artists of each School," (4 vols., 1806; unfinished.) Died in 1806. Fiissli or Fuessli, (Matthias,) a skilful Swiss painter and engraver, born at Zurich in 1598, excelled in the representation of battles, conflagrations, and other terrible scenes. He also executed miniatures and frescos. Died in 1664. Fiissli or Fuessli, (Matthias,) a Swiss portrait- painter, born in 167 1 ; died in 1739. Fust, (Johann.) See Faust. Futteh-Aly-Shah. See Fateh-Alee-Shah. Fux or Fuchs, fooks, (Johann Joseph,) a German composer, born in Styria in 1660. He was successively chapel-master to the emperors Leopold I., Joseph I., and Charles VI. He composed operas and sacred music, and a treatise on music, entitled "Gradus ad Parnassum," (1725,) which is called a classic work. He was living in 1732. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Fuzelier, fiiz'le-i', (Louis,) a French dramatist, born in Paris about 1672^ wrote numerous operas and plays of little merit. His " Momus fabuliste" is called his best piece. Died in 1752. Fyens, fi'^ns, (Thomas,) a Flemish physician, born in Antwerp in 1567. He became professor of medicine in Louvain in 1593. His chief work is a critical essay on eminent surgeons and their discoveries, " De Artis Chirurgicae Controvcrsiis," (1649.) Died in 1631. Fyot de la Marche, fe'o' deh It mtRsh, (Claude,) a French priest, born at Dijon in 1630, was appointed in 165 1 almoner of Louis XIV. In 1661 he became abbot of Saint-Etienne-de-Dijon, of which he wrote a history, (1696.) Died in 1721. Fyrouz. See Fyroz. Fyroz or Feroze, fee'roz', (written also Ferose, Fi- roz, Fyrouz, Feyrouz, and Firuz,) a Persian word, signifying "victorious," and forming the name of several kings ruling in Persia and Hindostan. Fyroz I., King of Persia, son of Valas, is supposed to have been the same as the Pacorus mentioned by certain Greek and Latin authors. He succeeded his father in 83 A.D. As he was preparing to resist a Roman army which invaded his kingdom, he died, about 107, and was succeeded by his brother, Chosroes I. Fyroz (Feroze, Fyrouz, or Firuz) II., King of Persia, of the Sassanide dynasty, was the son of Yez- dejerd II. He began to reign about 457, having put to death his brother Hormooz, who had reigned a short time. He made war on the Huns, by whom he was defeated and killed in battle about 488 A.D. See Firdousee, "Shah-Namah ;" Malcolm, " History of Persia." Fyroz (Feroze or Firouz) Shah I., surnamed Rookn-ed-Deen (or Rokn-eddin or -eddyn,) (the " Support of the Faith,") a Moslem sovereign of India, began to reign in 1236 at Delhi. He abandoned him- self to indolent pleasures, and in the same year was deposed, and succeeded by his sister. Fyroz died or was killed shortly after his disgrace. Fyroz (Feroze or Fyrouz) Shah II., Moham- medan King of Delhi, usurped the throne in 1289, after assassinating the late king, Kai Kobad. His cruelty provoked a conspiracy, which deprived him of his throne and life about 1295. Fyroz Shah III., Mohammedan King of Delhi or Hindostan, succeeded his uncle, Mohammed III., in 135 1. He adopted a pacific policy, built the city of Fyroz-abad, and made several canals, and many other internal improvements, including mosques and schools. He abdicated in tavour of his son in 1387, and died the next year, aged ninety. See Briggs's translation of Ferishta's "History of India." Fyt or Feydt, fit, (Jan,) a Flemish painter of still life, born at Antwerp in 1625. He excelled in the repre- sentation of animals, flowers, fruits, etc. His design is correct, his colouring true, and his touch light. He is supposed to have died in 167 1. See Descamps, "Vie des Peintres Flamands," etc. € as 5 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; n nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^'See Explanations, p. 23,) GAJB 980 GJCE a Gaab, gtp, (Johann Friedrich,) a German Protest- ant theologian, born at Goppingen in 1761. He became professor at Tubingen in 1798, aifd afterwards general superintendent, or bishop. He wrote commentaries on the Scriptures. Died in 1832. See EnscH und Gruber, "Allgemeine Eiicyklopaedie." Gaal, gSl, (Barend,) a Dutch painter of landscapes and battle-pieces, born at Haarlem, was a pupil of Wouwernian, Died about 1670. Gaal, gal, (Joseph,) a Hungarian comic poet and novelist, born at Nagy Karoly in 181 1. He represents with fidelity the manners and language of the peasants. Gabaret, gt'bS'ra', ( ,) a brave French naval officer, who served many years in the reign of Louis XIV., and obtained the rank of commodore. He commanded the rear-guard at La Hogue, (1692,) and rejiulsed the English force which attacked Martinique in 1693. Died in 1693. Gabbema, gib^beh-mS, (Simon Ai5Bas,) a Dutch philologist, born at Leeuvvarden about 1620, wrote a " History of Friesland," (1703,) and edited several Latin classics. Died about 1700. Gabbiani, gib-be-i'nee, (Antonio Domenico,) an eminent historical painter and engraver, born in Florence in 1652. He studied in Rome and Venice, excelled in design, and was employed to decorate the churches and palaces of Florence, in which he opened a school and had many pupils. Among his works, which are much praised, is "The Dance of the Genii." Died in 1726. See HuGFORD, "Vita di Antonio Domenico Gabbiani," 1762; Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Gabelchover, gi'bel-Ko^er, (Oswald,) a German physician and historical writer, born at TUbingen in 1538 ; died in 1616. Gabelentz, von der, fon der g^'beh-lgnts', (Hans CoNoN,) a German philologist, born at Altenburg in 1807. He published " Elements de la Grammaire Mandschoue," (1833,) and "Philological Contributions," ("Beitrage zur Sprachenkunde," 1852.) Gabelsberger, g§,'be1s-bgRger, (Franz Xaver,) a German, who produced an improved method of ste- nography, was born at Munich in 1789. He published, besides other works, an " Litroduction to Stenography," (1834.) Died in 1849. Ga-bin'i-us, (Aulus,) a profligate Roman politician, was elected tribune in 66 B.C., (685 A.U.C.) \\t was the author of the famous Gabinian law, which gave Pompey the conduct of the war against the pirates. Having become consul in 58 B.C., he promoted the banishment of Cicero, and, at the end of his consulship, obtained command in Syria, About the year 56 he invaded Egypt, against the will of the senate, and restored Ptolemy to the throne. He was tried for treason, and acquitted, but was condemned to perpetual banishment for extortion, [de repetimdis,) although Cicero made an oration in his defence. He died in 48 or 47 B.C. See Dion Cassius, books xxxix. and xliii. ; Dkumann, " Ge- schichte Ronis." Gabio, g^'be-o, or Gabia, g^'be-S, (Giovanni Bat- TISTA,) an Italian Hellenist, born at Verona, became professor of Greek in Rome. He translated into Latin the works of Sophocles, (1543,) and other Greek classics. Died in Rome about 1590. Gabiot, gS'be'o', (Jean Louis,) a French dramatist, born at Salins in 1 759, lived chiefly in Paris, and wrote numerous comedies. I)ied iri 181 1. Gabler, gap'ler, (Georg Andreas,) born at Altdorf in 1786, succeeded Hegel as professor of philosophy at Berlin. He published a "System of Theoretical Phi- losoi)hy," (1827,) and a work entitled "The Philosophy of Hegel," (1843.) Gabler, (Johann Philipp,) a learned German theo- logian, f.itlier of the preceding, was born at Frankfort- on-the-Main in 1753. He became i^rofessor of philosophy at Altdorf in 1785, and first professor of theology at Jena in 1 81 2. He wrote, besides other works, an "Essay on the Hermeneutics of the New Testament," (1788,) and an " Essay on the Mosaic History of the Creation," (1795.) Died in 1826. See ScHROETER, " Erinnerungen an Gabler," 1827. Gabotto. See Cabot. Ga'bri-el, a Syrian physician, who practised at Bag* dad. He became chief physician to the Caliph Haroun- al-Raschid, with whom he had much influence, and to his successor, Alameen, (Alamin.) He wrote several medical treatises. Died in 829 a.d. Gabriel, gt'bRe'^K, (Jacques,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1667. He erected the H6tels-de-Ville of Rennes and Dijon, and designed the great sewer of Paris. He became architect to the king, chief engineer of bridges, etc. Died in 1742. Gabriel, (Jacques Ange,) an eminent French archi- tect, son of the preceding, was born in Paris about 1710. He was employed by Louis XV. on the principal public works of his reign, among which was the restoration or completion of the Louvre. He designed the two colon- nades which border the Place de la Concorde, and which were finished about 1772. The Military School of Paris is called his master-piece. Died in 1782. See FoNTENAY, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Ga'bri-el Sioni'ta or "the Sionite," a learned Maronite, born at Edden, on Mount Lebanon, was educated at Rome. In 1614 he removed to Paris, where he was chosen professor of Arabic in the College of France. He published an Arabic Grammar, and edited or translated into Latin the Arabic and Syrian texts of the Polyglot Bible of Le Jay. Died in 1648. See Zenker, " Bibliotheca Orientalis." Gabriel de Chinon, gt'bRe'§K deh she'n^N', a French monk, went as a missionary, about 1640, to Ispahan. He died at Malabar in 1670, leaving a "Treat- ise on the Religion, Customs, etc. of the Persians and Armenians," (1671.) Gabrielli, gS-bRe-el'lee, (Cante,) an Italian condof- tiej'e and chief of the Guelph party. He served under Charles de Valois, and became Podesta of Florence about 1300. He banished Dante and others. Gabrielli, (Catakina,) a famous Italian singer, born in Rome in 1730. In 1747 she made her debut as prima donna in the opera with complete success. She also performed with great applause at Naples, Vienna, and Saint Petersburg, and made a fortune rapidly. Having accepted an invitation from Catherine II. of Russia, she asked a salary of ten thousand roubles ; but the empress objected that she did not pay her field-marshals so much. "Very well," replied Gabrielli: "your majesty may employ the field-marshals to sing." She had a voice of prodigious compass. Died in 1796. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Miisiciens." Gabrielli, (Giacomo,) a son of Cante, noticed above, obtained the dictatorship or chief power at Florence in 1336. He was a tyrannical ruler. In 1338 he was appointed a senator of Rome by the pope. He re- ceived the title of captain ( capitano) in 1352, and became governor of Florence in 1357. His son Cante was Podesta or Captain of Florence about 1380. Gabrielli, (Giulio,) a cardinal, born in Rome in 1748. In 1808 Pope Pius VII. appointed him secretary of state. A few months later, he was arrested by the French and banished. Died in 1822. Gabriello, gi-bRe-eKlo, (Onofrio,) an Italian painter of high reputation, born at Messina in 1616, painted por- traits and easel-pictures at Venice and Messina. Died in 1706. Gabrini or Gabrino, (Niccolo.) See Rienzi. Gabrini, ga-bRee'nee, (Tommaso Maria,) an Italian mathematician, born at Rome in 1726; died in 1807. Gace, de, deh gt'si', (Charles Augusts de Ma- tignon — deh mt't^nViN',) Count, a French general, born in Paris in 1646, distinguished himself at the sieges a, e, T, o, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, s//07'^; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nSt; good; moon; GJCE I GAFFARELLl of Mons and Namur, and was made lieutenant-general in 1693. In 1708 he obtained the rank of marshal of France, and commanded an army which made an abor- tive attempt to aid the Pretender in obtaining the British crown. Died in 1729. Gace Brulez, gSss bRii'la', sometimes called Gaste Ble, a French poet of superior merit, flourished about 1220-50. See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Gachart or Gachard, gt'shtr/, (Louis Prosper,) archivist of Belgium, was born in Paris about 1800. He was naturalized as a Belgian citizen in 1 831, and was appointed keeper of the Belgian archives. He published the "Correspondence of William the Silent," (4 vols., 1847-51,) and other documents for the history of the Netherlands. See Prescott, "History of Philip II.," vol. ii. bookiii. ; "Edin- burgh Review" for January, 1868. Gaches, gtsh, (Jacques,) a French advocate, born at Castres in 1558. He wrote Memoirs of events which occurred between 1555 and 1610. Died in 1612. Gaches, (Raymond,) a French Protestant and elo- quent preacher, grandson of the preceding, was born at Castres about 1615 ; died at Paris in 1668. Gacon, gt'kAN', (FuANgois,) a French satirical poet, born at Lyons in 1667. Pie made a disgraceful use of his talents, and attacked the most eminent authors, — among others, Boileau and Bossuet. He produced a French version of Anacreon, (2 vols., 1712,) besides satires, odes, and other poems. Died in 1725. Gacon-Dufour, gt'k6N' dii'fooR', (Marie Armande Jeanne,) a French authoress, born in Paris in 1753, was first known as Madame d'Humiere. Dufour was the name of her second husband. Died in 1835. Gadd, gSd, (Peter Anton,) a Swedish chemist and botanist, lived about 1760. He wrote, besides other works, one "On the Diseases of Plants," ("De Morbis Plantaruni," 1748.) Gaddesden, gadz'den, (John of,) an English phy- sician of the fourteenth century, attended Edward II., and was the first native physician employed at the Eng- lish court. Gaddi, gid'dee, ( Angelo or Agnolo, ) a famous painter, born at Florence about 1324, was a son and pupil of Taddeo, noticed below. He painted in fresco and oil, and was a good colorist, but not equal to his father in expression. His chief work in fresco is a " His- tory of the True Cross," in the church of Santa Croce, Florence. His Madonna in the church of Saint Am- brose is called his best work. He removed to Venice, and enriched himself by commerce. Died in 1387. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." Gaddi, (Gaddo,) an Italian painter, born in Florence about 1240, was a pupil of Cimabue. He excelled in design and in mosaics. He was employed by Pope Clement V. to adorn the basilica of Saint Peter's and the church of Santa Maria Maggiore. Died in 13 12. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." Gaddi, (Taddeo,) a Florentine painter and architect, son of the preceding, was born at Florence in 1300. He surpassed his father, and was the most eminent pupil of Giotto. His first works were frescos painted in the church of Santa Croce of Florence, the subjects of which were taken from the New Testament. He excelled in expression, and was probably the best painter of his time. Among his chief works is " The Virgin surrounded by Saints." He built a bridge over the Arno, called Ponte Vecchio. Died about 1360. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- ing in Italy." Gade, g§.Meh, (Niels Wilhelm,) a Danish musician, born at Copenhagen in 1817. He composed sympho- nies, overtures, sonatas, etc., succeeded Mendelssohn as director of the concerts at Leipsic, and was appointed master of the royal chapel at Copenhagen about 1850. Gadebusch, gi'deh-bdosh', (Friedrich Konrad,) a Gennan writer, born in the island of Rugen in 1719, published several valuable works on the history anti literature of Livonia and the adjacent provinces. He lived many years at Dorpat, where he died in 1788. See Eksch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Ga-de'li-us, [Sw. pron. gi-dn'le-ils,] (Erik,) a Swe- dish physician, born at Stockholm in 1778, was chosen in 1823 president of the Academy of Sciences. He gamed a prize offered in 1802 for a treatise on medical juris- prudence. Died in 1827. Gads'deii, (Christopher,) an American patriot, born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1724. He was a resolute and early advocate of the popular cause before the Revolution, and was a delegate to the first Conti- nental Congress, which met in 1774. He served as an officer in the army in 1776, resigned his commission in 1779, and was taken prisoner at Charleston in August, 1780. Died in 1805. Gadsden, (Christopher Edwards,) an American bishop, a grandson of the preceding, was born in Charles- ton, South Carolina, in 1785. He became a bishop of the Episcopal Church in 1840. Died in 1852. Gadsden, (James,) an American politician, born in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1788, was a brother of the preceding. He served under General Jackson in the war against the Indians of Florida about 1818. He was sent on a mission to Mexico in 1853, and negotiated a treaty or convention which defined the boundary between the United States and Mexico. In accordance with this treaty, the United States paid Mexico ten million dollars for Arizona. Died in 1858. Gaede, ga'deh, (Hendrik Moritz,) a Danish natu- ralist, born at Kiel in 1796. He wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on the Anatomy of Insects," (181 5.) Died in 1834. Gaelen, van, vtn gS'len, (Alexander,) a Dutch painter, born in 1670, visited many courts of Germany, and finally settled in London. He distinguished him- self by pictures of battles and of animals. Died in 1728. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Gaertner. See Gartner. Gaeta, Duke of. See Gaudin. Gaetan, g^-i-tSn', or Gaetano, gl-i-ti'no, (Giovan- ni,) an Italian pilot, who in 1542 made a voyage in the service of Spain to the Moluccas, and wrote a narrative of the discoveries made in that region. Gaetano. See Cajetan, (Cardinal.) Gaetano, (Benedetto.) See Boniface VIII. Gaetano, gi-k-t^'no, or Gaetani, gi-i-tS'nee, (Ce- sare,) Count della Torre, an Italian poet and antiquary, born at Syracuse in 1718, was professor of moral phi- losophy in that city. He wrote a work on the "An- tiquities of Syracuse," a poem called "The Duties of Man," ("I Doveri dell'Uomo," 1790,) and other works. Died in 1808. Gaetano, [Lat. Caieta'nus ; Fr. Gaetan, %^Wih^',\ Saint, often called Gaetano di Tiene — ga-i-ti^no de te-a'ni, an Italian priest, born at Vicenza in 1480. His father's name was Thieni or Tiene. With a view to reform the priests, he undertook, in 1524, to found a new order of monks, and obtained the sanction of Pope Clement VII. His friend Caraffa was chosen superior ot the order, which took the name of Theatines and became numerous in Italy, Spain, and the Levant. One of the rules of this order forbade them to have private property or receive salaries, or to resort to begging for support. He died in 1547, and was canonized by the pope in 1675. See Castaldi, "Vita di S. Gaetano," 1612 ; B. Destutt de Tracy, "Vie de S. Gaetan de Thienne," 1774; S. Pepe, "Vita del B. Gaetano Tiene," 1656. Gaffarel, gtTt'rIK, (Jacques,) a French Orientalist and priest, born at Mannes in 1601. He became libra- rian to Cardinal Richelieu, and chaplain to the king. He wrote, besides other works, " Curiosities of the Talismanic Sculpture of the Persians," (1630,) and a "History of the Subterranean World, containing a Description of Caves, Grottoes, Caverns," etc., (1666.) Died in 1681. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Gaffarelli, gif-fi-reriee, or Caffarelli, kaf-fS-reKlee. (Gaetano,) a celebrated Italian singer, born at Bari in 1703, was the son of a peasant named Majorano. He began his career in a Roman theatre as soprano. He € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^p"See Explanations, p. 23.) G J FOR 10 982 GJIL performed with success in the other cities of Italy and in London, which he visited in 1730, Having amassed a large fortune, he bought the dukedom of Santo Dorato. He" had the x-eputation of being one of the most admira- ble vocalists of his time. Died in 1 783. Gaforio, g^-fo're-o, Gafforio, gSf-fo're-o, or Gafori, gd-fo^ee, sometimes written Gafuri or Gafurio, [Lat. Gafo'rius,] (Franchino,) an eminent writer on music, born at Lodi, Italy, in 145 1. He taught music at Naples, and was appointed chapel-master of Milan Cathedral in 1484. He wrote, besides other works on music, "Prac- tice of Music," etc., (" Practica Musicae, sive Musicae Acti(jnes," 1496.) His writings had much influence, and were cited by later writers as a high authority. Died about 1522. See BuRNEV, " History of Music;" Fetis, "Biographic Univer- seiie des Musiciens." Gaforius. See Gaforto. Gage, (Thomas,) a missionary, born in Ireland or England. He studied with the Jesuits, became a monk, and spent many years as a missionary in Mexico between 1625 and 1637.* After many adventures, he returned to London, abjured Catholicism, and published a "New Survey of the West Indies," (1648,) which had great success. He became rector of Deal, in Kent. Died in Jamaica in 1655. Gage, (Thomas,) a British general, who succeeded General Amherst in 1763 as commander of the British army in America. In 1774 he was appointed Governor of Massachusetts colony, and general-in-chief for the continent. In April, 1775, ^^^^^ expedition to Concord to seize the colony's stores, and thus provoked the battle of Lexington, the first explosion of the Revo- lution. In the following May the Provincial Congress resolved that "no obedience was in future due to Gage, and that he ought to be guarded against as an inveterate enemy." According to Bancroft, "Gage was neither fit to reconcile nor subdue. By his mild temper and love of society he escaped personal enmities, but in earnest business he inspired neither confidence nor fear." He was recalled in 1775, and died in 1787. Ganger, (William,) an English poet and civilian, who entered Oxford University in 1574, was reputed the best dramatist of his time. He wrote "Ulysses Redux," and other tragedies. Gagern, von, fon g^'g^Rn, (Friedrich Balduin,) a general, born at Weilburg, in Nassau, in 1794, was a son of the following. He fought against the French in 1813 -15, and became a general in the Dutch army. Having taken command of the army of Baden in 1848, he was killed by the insurgents in April of that year. See " Leben des General Gagern," by his brother Heinrich WiLHELM, 3 vols., 1856. Gagern, von, (Hans Chrispoph Ernst,) Baron, a German statesman, born near Worms in 1766, was em- ployed in several missions by the Prince of Orange, who appointed him prime minister in 1814. He repre- sented the King of Holland at the Congress of Vienna in 181 5. He was the author of a number of historical and political works. Died in 1852. Gagern. von, (Heinrich Wilhrlm August,)Baron, son of the preceding, was born at Baireuth in 1799. He siudied at Jena, and afterwards filled several offices under the Grand Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt. He was elected in May, 1848, president of the Parliament or National Assembly which m.et at Frankfort. He was a very popular leader of the Liberal or constitutional party, and favoured the union of the German States on the basis of the exclusion of Austria. He became president of the council of ministers, or prime minister of the empire, in December, 1848. He resigned office in March, 1849, probably because his project to effect tlie unity of Germany was defeated by the refusal of the King of Prussia to accept the imperial crown. He has a high reputation for probity and patriotism. See Max Duncker, " H. von Gagern; biographische Skizze," 1850. Gagern, von, (Maximilian,) a brother of the pre- ceding, born at Weilburg in 1810, was in his youth a councillor of the Duke of Nassau. In 1848 he was a Liberal member of the Parliament of Frankfort. Gages, de, deh gSzh, ? (Jean Bonaventure Du- MONT,) Count, a Spanish general, born at Mons, in Hainault, in 1682. He fought for Philip V. of Spain in the war of the Spanish succession, 1 701-12. Having obtained command of the Spanish army in Italy in 1742, he defeated the Austrians at Campo-Santo in 1743. His skilful manoeuvres in the ensuing campaigns (1744-46) were highly applauded. He was appointed Viceroy of Navarre in 1748. His retreat from Campo-Freddo in 1746 was called by Rousseau the most brilliant man- oeuvre of that century. Died in 1753. See Lavallee, " Histoire d'Espagne." Gagliardi, gal-yaR'dee, (Bernardino,) an Italian painter, born at Citta-di-Castello in 1609, was an imi- tator of Guido and the Caracci. Died in 1660. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Gagliardo, gll-yaR'do, (Achille,) an Italian Jesuit and writer, born at Padua about 1537; died in 1607. Gagliuffi, gll-yooffee, (Marco Faustino,) an im- provisator, born at Ragusa in 1764; died in 1834. Gagnseus or Gagnee. See Gagnl Gagni, gtn'ye', or Gagnee, de, deh gin'yk', [Lat. Gagn/E^us,] (Jean,) a French theologian, born in or near Paris. He became rector of the University of Paris in 1 53 1, and afterwards chief almoner and preacher to Francis I., who employed him to read and expound books to him during his repasts. Having obtained from the king an order which opened to him all the libraries of France, he examined and published many manuscripts, and by this means promoted the revival of learning. He wrote several learned works on theology, and "Com- mentaries on the Four Gospels," (1552.) Died in 1549. Gagnier, ghVyc-k', (Jean,) a French priest and emi- nent Orientalist, was born in Paris about 1670. He emigrated to England about 1700, and, having renounced the Roman Catholic religion, became professor of Hebrew and Arabic at Oxford. He published, besides other works, a Latin version of Abulfeda's " Life of Mahomet," (1723,) and a "Life of Mahomet," in French, (2 vols., 1732.) Died in 1740. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Gaguin, gt'g^N', (Robert,) a French historian, orator, and monk, was born near Bethune about 1425. He was chosen professor of rhetoric in the University of Paris in 1463, and was employed with credit in diplomatic mis- sions by Louis XL, Charles VIII., and Louis XII. He wrote, besides other works, in Latin, " A History of the French (or Franks) from Pharamond to the Year 1499," which was praised by Erasmus for fidelity and other merits. Died in 1501. See NiCERON, "Memoires." Ga-ha'gan, ? (Usher,) an Irish scholar, translated into Latin verse Pope's "Essay on Criticism" and "Temple of Fame." He was executed at Tyburn, for clipping coin, in 1749. Gahn, gjn, (Joseph Gottlieb,) a Swedish mineralo- gist and chemist, born in 1745, was a pupil of Bergmann. He discovered that phosphorus is a component of bones, and made some improvements in the arts of mining and metallurgy. He was the first who obtained manganese in the metallic state, and discovered the primitive form of calcareous spar. Died in 1818. See H. Jaerta, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver J. G. Gahn," 1832. Gaichies, ga'she-i', (Jean,) a French priest, born at Condom in 1647, wrote " Maxims for the Ministry of the Pulpit," (1710.) Died in 1731. Gail, gtl or gt'ye, (Edme Sophie Garre — gtR,) the wife of the following, was born at Melun in 1776. She was an admirable musical genius, and composed several operas, one of which, called "The Jealous Couple," was performed in Paris, in 1813, with brilliant success. She also produced several charming ballads. She separated from M. Gail soon after their marriage, (1794.) Died in 1819. See F^Tis, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." Gail, (Jean Baptiste,) a French Hellenist, born in Paris in 1755. In 1791 he obtained the chair of Greek literature in the College of France, where he taught with success about twenty years. He became a member of the Institute in 1809, and keeper of the Greek and Latin a, e, T, 5, u, y, ^ch^; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, \\, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fdr, f Sll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; GJIL 983 GALAUP manuscripts in the Royal Library in 181 5. He published, besides a Latin version of Thucydides, (5 vols., 1807,) a great number of editions and translations of the Greek authors, and a Greek grammar, (1798.) Died in 1829. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Gail, (Jean FRANgois,) a French Hellenist, a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1795. He was a sub- stitute of his father as professor in the College of France. He published an excellent edition of Hudson's " Geo- graphi Grasci Minores," (3 vols., 1826-31,) and other successful works. Died in 1845. See Qu^RARD, "La France Litteraire." Gail Hamilton. See Dodge, (Mary Abigail.) Gailhabaiid, ga'lt'bo', (Jui.es,) a French archaeolo- gist, born at Lille in 1810. He published a valuable work entitled " Ancient and Modern Monuments," (" Monuments anciens et modernes," 4 vols., 1840-49,) and "Architecture of the Period from the Fifth to the Sixteenth Century," (1857.) Gaillard, gt^ySa', (Gabriel Henri,) a popular French historian, born at Ostel, in Picardy, in 1726. He was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1760, and published in 1766 a " History of Francis L," (7 vols.) His capital work is a "History of the Rivalry between France and England," (" Histoire de la Rivalite de la France et de I'Angleterre," 11 vols., 1771-77,) which opened to him the doors of the French Academy in 1771. Among his numerous other works are a "History of the Rivalry between France and Spain," (8 vols., 1801 ;) a "Historical Dictionary," (6 vols., 1789-1804,) which forms part of the " Encyclopedic Methodique ;" and a " Life of Malesherbes," (1805,) who was his friend. His principal merits as a writer are clearness, elegance, facility, and truthfulness. Died near Chantilly in 1806. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale." Gaillard, gt'ytR', ? (John Ernest,) a musical com- poser, born at Zell about 1686, lived in London, and composed for the stage. Died in 1749. Gaillard, de, deh gt'ytR', (Honore Reynaud,) a French Jesuit, born at Aix in 1641, gained distinction as a pulpit orator. He became rector^of the College of Paris, and confessor to the queen of Jarfts H. of England. Died in 1727. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historiqne." Gaillard de Lonjumeau, gt'y^R' deh l^N'zhii'mo', a French ecclesiastic, became Bishop of Apt in 1673. He conceived the project of a great historical dictionary, for which he collected copious materials. The work was edited by his chaplain, Moreri, and published in 1674. Died in 1695. Gaillardot, gi'ytk'do', (Claude Antoine, ) a French naturalist and physician, born at Luneville in 1774. He found in the vicinity of that town fossils of many huge reptiles. He wrote a " Memoir on the Fossils of the Mottled Sandstone," (1806,) and other works. Died in 1833 Gai'nas, a Goth, who became a Roman general and served under Stilicho in 395 a.d. Soon after that date he obtained the chief command of an army which Arca- dius sent against Tribigild, another Gothic chief; but, instead of fighting him, he formed a coalition with him- and marched against Constantinople. Arcadius was alarmed, and negotiated with Gainas, who was admitted into the capital with his army and received the title of " master-general." His demand of liberty of worship for the Goths (who were Arians) provoked the Catholics, who massacred many of his army. Gainas retreated into Thrace, and was killed near the Danube by the Huns in 400 A.D. See Gibbon, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Gaines, ganz, (Edmund Pendleton,) an American general, born in Culpepper county, Virginia, in 1777. He served as captain at Chrystler's Field, in Novem- ber, 1813, and, having become brigadier-general, de- fended Fort Erie with success in 1814. Died in 1849. See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. Gainsborough, ganz'bur-eh, (Thomas,) an excellent English landscape-painter, born at Sudbury in 1727. He became a student of art in London about the age of fif- teen, and painted portraits chiefly in the early part of his career. Having worked some years at Ipswich, he re- moved to Bath about 1760. Among his works are several good portraits of the royal family. He settled in Lon- don about 1775, after which he devoted himself to land- scapes. He was one of the first members of the Royal Academy. His works are admired for simplicity and fidelity to nature. His early style differed from his later, and exhibited more attention to minute details. He excels in richness of colour and in the distribution of light and shade, and is considered superior to any English landscape-painter who had appeared before his time. Among his works are "The Woodman in the Storm," "The Cottage Door," and "The Shepherd Boy." "Gainsborough's hand," says Ruskin, "is as light as the sweep of a cloud, — as swift as the flash of a sunbeam. His forms are grand, simple, and ideal. . . . The greatest colorist since Rubens, and the last, I think, of legitimate colorists, — that is to say, of those who were fully acquainted with the power of their mate- rial, — pure in his English feeling, profound in his seri- ousness, graceful in his gaiety, there are nevertheless certain deductions to be made from his worthiness," etc. ("Modern Painters.") Died in London, August, 1788. See Thickness, "Sketch of the Life of Gainsborough ;" Cun- ningham, "Lives of British Painters." Gais'ford, (Thomas,) D.D., a distinguished English scholar, born in Wiltshire in 1780. He became regius professor of Greek at Oxford about 1811, and after- wards Dean of Christ Church. He published, besides other works, " Poetae Graeci Minores," (3 vols., 1814-16,) an edition of Herodotus, (1824,) and one of Suidas, (1834.) He had a high reputation as a critic. Died in 1855. Ga'ius (or Gajus) or Ca'ius, a Roman jurist of high authority, is supposed to have flourished in the reign of Antoninus Pius, 138-161 a.d. Little or nothing is posi- tively known of his personal history. His writings were recognized as a standard by the Roman jurists until the compilation of the Code of Justinian, which was based upon the "Institutes" of Gains. In 1816 Niebuhr dis- covered at Verona, on a palimpsest, a treatise on Roman law, which was ascertained to be the Institutes of Gains and was published in 1820-21. This discovery was re- garded as an important contribution to the history of law. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" "Nou- velle Biographie Generale;" Van Ysselmonde, "Dissertatio de Gaji Legis Actionibus," 1840. Gaj, gT, (Lewis,) a Croatian journalist, born at Kra- jiina in 1810. He founded, in 1835, the "Croatian Gazette," which became afterwards the " National Illy- rian Gazette." This journal acquired extensive influence, and is said to have effected a great literary and political improvement among the Slavonians. Galaccini, gi-l^t-chee^nee, or Gallaccini, gll-llt- chee'nee, (Teofilo,) an Italian geometer, born at Sienna in 1564. He wrote an able work "On the Errors of Architects," (1767.) Died in 1641. Galand. See Galland. Galanino, gi-lS-nee'no, an Italian painter, whose proper name was Baldassare Aloisi, was born at Bologna in 1578. He was a pupil of the Caracci, and worked in Rome with success, especially in portraits. He also painted history. Died in 1638. Galanti, gi-ian'tee, (Giuseppe Maria,) an Italian publicist, born at Campobasso in 1743. He published a " Geographical and Political Description of the Two Sicilies," (4 vols., 1786-93,) and other works. Died at Naples in 1806. Galateo. See Ferrari, (Antonio.) Galatin. See Gallatin, Galatin, (Peter,) a Franciscan monk, who flourished about 1520. He wrote "On the Mysteries of the Catho- lic Truth," (" De Arcanis catholicae Veritatis," 1518.) Galaup. See P^rouse, La. Galaup de Chasteuil, gt'lo' deh shi'tui' or shi^- tuh'ye, (FRANgois,) a French Orientalist, born at Aix in 1588. He passed his latter years as an anchorite on Mount Lebanon, where he died in 1644. His nephew, Pierre Galaup de Chasteuil, born in 1643, was a poet, and a friend of Boileau. His ode on € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) GALEA 984 GALEOTTI the capture of Maestricht (1673) is admired. Died in 1727. Gal'ba, (Pub'lius Sulpkj'ius,) a Roman general, who was elected consul for 211 B.C. He commanded in the war against Philip of Macedon from 211 to 204, but performed nothing of much importance. In 200 B.C. he was re-elected consul, and renewed the war in Macedonia. He defeated Philip near Eordea in 199, and returned to Rome the next year. Galba, (Sergius or Servius Sulpicius,) a Roman general and orator, who commanded in Spain in 150 B.C. and perfidiously massacred many thousand Lusitanians. Viriathus was one of those who escaped from this mas- sacre. Galba was elected consul 144 B.C. His eloquence is highly praised by Cicero. Galba, (Servius Sulpicius,) a Roman emperor, born in 3 or 4 B.C., of a noble family. He was consul under Tiberius in 33 A.D., and in the reign of Caligula com- manded the army in Germany, where he acquired repu- tation for military skill. Claudius, having succeeded to the throne, appointed Galba Governor of Africa, in which post he obtained successes. He commanded an army in Spain at the death of Nero, 68 a.D. He was then pro- claimed emperor by his own troops and the Praetorian guards, whose choice was confirmed by the senate. But he speedily lost the popular favour by his severity, parsimony, and impolitic measures. The army declared for Otho, and Galba was slain, after a reign of seven months, in 69 A.D. According to Tacitus, he would have been universally considered worthy to reign if he had never been emperor. See Plutarch, "Life of Galba;" Suetonius, "Galba;" Taci- tus, "Annales;" Niebuhr, "History of Rome;" Franz Horn, "Historische Gemalde: Galba, Otho und Vitellius," 1812. Gale, (John,) an eminent Baptist minister, born in London in 1680. He studied at Leyden, and on his return became one of the ministers of Paul's Alley, near Barbican, London. His principal work is " Reflections on Wall's Defence (or History) of Infant Baptism," (1711,) which is called one of the best works on that subject. Died in 1721. See " Life of John Gale," prefixed to his Works. Gale, (Roger,) son of Thomas Gale, of Scruton, born in 1672, was member of Parliament, Fellow of the Royal Society, and treasurer of the Antiquarian Society, and wrote several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1744. Gale, (Samuel,) an English antiquary, a brother of the preceding, was born in London in 1682. He pub- lished a "History of Winchester Cathedral," (1715.) Died in 1754. Gale, (Theophilus,) a learned English nonconform- ist divine, born at Kings-Teignton, Devonshire, in 1628. He became a Fellowof Magdalene College, and a popular preacher at Winchester, from which he was ejected for nonconformity in 1661. His reputation is founded on a great work, called "The Court of the Gentiles; or, A Discourse touching the Original of Human Literature from the Scriptures," (5 vols., 1669-77,) ""^ which he argues that the heathen theology and philosophy were derived from the Scriptures and the Jewish Church. He became assistant to John Rowe at Holborn, and suc- ceeded him in 1677. Died in 1678. Gale, (Thomas,) an eminent English surgeon, born in 1507. He served in the army of Henry VHI. in France in 1544, and in that of Philip H. in 1557. He afterwards practised in London, and wrote several pro- fessional treatises, (1563-86.) See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgenieine Encyklopaedie." Gale, (Thomas,) D.D., an eminent English classical scholar and critic, born at Scruton, Yorkshire, in 1636. He became professor of Greek in Cambridge University in 1666, and was master of Saint Paul's School, London, from 1672 to 1697. In the latter year he was appointed Dean of York. He was also a Fellow of the Royal Society. He published, besides other works, "Mytho- logical, Ethical, and Physical Works or Treatises," ("Opuscula mythologica, ethica, et physica," 1671,) an edition of Herodotus's History, (1679,) and an edition of Cicero's Works, (1681.) Died in 1702. See " Biographia Britannica." Galeano, gi-li-i'no, (Giuseppe,) an cuiinent Italian physician, born at Palermo about 1605. He practised in that city, where he also taught medicine for twenty- five years with great success. He had a high reputation as a philosopher, and was regarded as a second (ialen by his contemporaries. Among his works are " Hip- pocrates Revived," (1650,) a Treatise on the Use of Brandy, (1667,) and several poems. Died in 1675. Galeazzo. See Viscon tl GaTen, [ Lat. Clau'dius Gale'nus ; Gr. KAavJiOf TaTirjvo^; Fr. Galien, gt'le-^w'; It. Galieno, g^-le-a'no,] a celebrated Greek medical writer and pagan philosopher, born at Pergamus, (or Pergamum,) in Mysia, in 131 A.D. He studied the Platonic and the Peripatetic philosophies, and was instructed in anatomy by Satyrus. In his youth he visited several foreign countries, to perfect his edu- cation at the best schools. At the age of thirty-four he removed to Rome, where he acquired great celebrity as a practitioner of medicine and surgery. He obtained the confidence of Marcus Aurelius, who appointed him physician to Commodus, the heir of the empire. He also lectured on anatomy in Rome. Towards the end of his life he returned to his native city. His death is variously dated from 200 to 210 A.D. He rendered im- portant services to the science of medicine, and left a great number of works in Greek, many of which are lost. Of some others, only Latin versions have come down to us. "Galen had not," says the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale," "the noble simplicity of Hippocrates. . . . He impairs the purity of his principles by fanciful ex- planations and by subtilities. He is, nevertheless, the only one among all the ancients who has given us a complete system (corps) of medicine." Galen rejected the various medical systems which were in vogue in his time, and formed a new eclectic system, which maintained its authority for thirteen cen- turies. He was regarded as an oracle by the Arabs and Europeans until the fifteenth century. Among his extant works (above eighty in number) are a treatise on anatomy, {Ilepi uvaro^cKuv kyx£i.pv<^£(^v,) a capital work on physiology, called "On the Uses of the Parts of the Human Body," 'YyteLva, "On Preserving Health," ("De Sanitate menda,") and "De Locis affectis," a treatise on pathmogy, which Haller regarded as one of Galen's best productions. He wrote many able works on ethics, logic, and philosophy, in one of which he praises the temperance and self-denial of the Christians. See SuiDAS, TaAiji/o?; Aboolfaraj, " Historia Dynastiaruin ;" F'abricius, "Bibliotheca Graeca ;" Daniel Le Clerc, " Histoire de la Medecine;" Sprengel, "History of Medicine;" Haller, " Bibliotheca Medicine ;" Daremberg, " Expos^ des Connaissances de Gaiien," 1841 ; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" A. FuMANELLi, " De Vita et Moribus Galeni," 1577; A. Werner, "Oratiode Vita Galeni," 1570; Smith, "Greek and Roman Biog- raphy and Mythology;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Galen, van, vtn gi'len, (Jan,) a brave naval officer, born at Essen, in Westphalia, about 1600. He entered the Dutch navy, distinguished himself in battles against the Spaniards, and rose to the rank of commodore. In 1653 he defeated the English fleet near Leghorn, and at the same time received a mortal wound. SeeOosTKAMP, " Leven, Daden en Lotgevallen vanden Komman- deur J. van Galen," 1830. Galen, von, fon g^'len, (Chrtstoph Bernhard,) a warlike German prelate, born in Westphalia about 1605. He was elected Prince-Bishop of Miinster in 1650. In 1665 he joined Charles II. of England in a war against the Dutch, from whom he took some fortified places. He waged other aggressive wars, and is called by Sis- mondi a "mitred brigand." Died in 1678. See Le Lorrain, "Vie de C. B. de Galen, etc.," Rouen, 1679; JoHANN VON Alphen, " De Vita et Rebus gestis C. Bernardi Epis- copi, etc.," 1694; E. WiENS, " Sammlung fragmentarischer Nach- richten iiber C. B. von Galfen," 1834. Galenus, (Claudius.) See Galen. Galeotti, gi-li-ot'tee, (Alberto,) an eminent Italian jurist, born at Parma; died about 1285. See TiRABOSCHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Galeotti, (Marzio,) an Italian writer, born at Narni about 1440. He was professor of belles-lettres at Bo- logna, from which he was expelled for his religious opinions. He afterwards was preceptor of the son of Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary. Among his works a. e, T, 6, u, y, /on^; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, sAori; a, e, j, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; GJLEOTTI 985 GALILEI is one entitled "On Man and his Parts," ("De Homine at ejus Partibus," 1490.) Died about 1494. Galeotti, (Sebastiano,) an Italian painter, born at Florence about 1676. His chief works are his frescos in the church of La Madalena in Genoa. Died in 1746. Galere. See Galerius. Ga-le'ri-us, [Fr. Galere, gt'laiR',] (Cai'us Vale'- Rius Maximia'nus,) a Roman emperor, was a native of Dacia, and of humble origin. From the rank of pri- vate soldier he rose to the highest commands in the army. In the year 292 A.u. he was adopted as son or heir, with the title of Caesar, by Diocletian, whose daughter he married ; and a few years later he com- manded the army which defeated the Persian king Narses. The violent persecution of the Christians by Diocletian is ascribed to the instigation of Galerius. When Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, in 305, Gale- rius and Constantius Chlorus succeeded as colleagues in the empire, and the former took for his share Illyria, Thrace, Macedonia, Greece, and the Eastern provinces. His colleague having died in 306, Galerius wished to choose Severus in his place; but Constantine and Max- entius opposed him, and Severus was slain. After he had failed in an attempt to capture Rome, he retired to one of his provinces, and died in 311 a.d. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Tille- MONT, " Histoire des Empereurs." Gales, galz, (Joseph,) a distingnished journalist, born in England about 1760. He established and edited " The Sheffield Register," which, on coming to the United States in 1793, he sold to Montgomery the poet, who had been brought up in his family. After editing for some time "The Independent Gazetteer," in Philadelphia, a Re- publican journal, in which he introduced short-hand reports of debates in Congress, he founded, in 1799, "The Raleigh (N.C.) Register." Died in 1841. Gales, (Joseph,) a son of the preceding, was born neai Sheffield, England, in 1786. lie removed to Wash- ington m 1807, and became in 1810 the proprietor and editor of the "National Intelligencer," which after 1813 was issued daily. It became a very able and influential organ of the Whig ]iarty. Died in i860. Galestruzzi, gd-l^s-troot'see, or Gallestruzzi, gil- ISs-tRoot'see, (Giovanni Batiista,) an Italian engraver and painter, born at Florence about 1618. He settled in Rome, and was received into the Academy of Saint Luke in 1652. Died in Rome about 1670. Galfrid (or Geoffroy) de Beaulieu, gtlTre' deh b5'- le-uh', a French monk, confessor to Saint Louis, who was attended by him in his two crusades. Died in 1274. Galfridus de Vinosalvo. See Geoffroi de Vin- SAUF. Galhegos, de, digil-ya'g(!)s, (Manoel, or Manuel,) a popular Portuguese poet, born in Lisbon in 1597, was a friend of Lope de Vega. He produced a poem on the "Wars of the Giants against Jupiter," (1628,) which was admired for its brilliant imagery and elegant style, and a poem named "The Temple of Memory," (1635,) which increased his celebrity. He also wrote several dramas, which were performed with applause. Died in 1665. Galiaiii, gi-le-^'nee, (Ferdinando,) Aijb6, an Italian political economist, born at Chieti, in the Abruzzi, in 1728. He wrote (1750) an able treatise "On Currency," or Money, ("Delia Moneta,") which acquired a European reputation and influenced the legislation of his own country, then disturbed by a sur|)lus of precious metals and the consequent enormous rise in the price of com- modities. In 1759 he was appointed secretary of le- gation at Paris, where he remained many years and attracted much notice by his wit and convivial powers. While in Paris, he argued against the free exportation of corn, in his " Dialogues on the Corn Trade," in French, (1770,) which obtained great success, and of which Vol- taire said, " This work seems like the joint production of Plato and Moliere." "No one," said Turgot, "could maintain a bad cause with more wit, grace, finesse, and reasonableness in details." Having returned to Naples in 1769, he was appointed one of the ministers of the junta of royal domains in 1777, and first assessor or minister of the council of finance in 1782. He wrote an able treatise " On the Reciprocal Duties of Neutrals and Belligerents," (1782.) Died at Naples in 1787. He left in manuscript a Life of Horace and a Commen- tary on that poet, which, says Ginguene, are learned and original, like all his works. His "Letters to Madame d'Epinay" were published in 1818. See Marmontel, "Memoires;" Grimm, " Correspondance ;" Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi." Galiano, gS-le-i'no, (Antonio Alcala,) a distin- guished Spanish political writer and orator, was born at Cadiz about 1790. He promoted with zeal the revolu- tion of 1820, and was elected in 1821 to the Cortes, in which he highly distinguished himself as an orator and leader of the Liberal party. Having been driven into exile in 1823, he went to England, and became professor of Spanish in the London University about 1828. He wrote a " History of Spanish Literature in the Nineteenth Century," which was published in the "Athenseum" (1834) and is highly commended. He returned to Spain in 1834, and joined the Conservative party about 1836, after which he was again exiled, for political reasons. Galien, the French for Galen, which see. Galien, gt'le-iN'', (Joseph,) a French natural philoso- pher, born near Le Puy in 1699. He is said to have been one of the first who conceived the practicability of ascend- ing by means of an apparatus lighter than air. He pub- lished "The Art of Aerial Navigation," and a treatise "On the Formation of Hail." Died in 1782. Galieno, the Italian for Galen, which see. Galigai. See Ancre, (Marshal d'.) Galilaeus or Galilee. See Galilei. Galilei, gS-le-la'ee, ( Alessandro,) an Italian archi- tect, born at Florence in 169 1. He worked at Florence and Rome, where he was employed by Pope Clement XII., and where he built the fa9ade of the church of Saint John of the Florentines, and the chapel Corsini, which is called his master-piece. Died in 1737. Galilei, gi-le-la'ce, [Fr. Galilee, gS'le'li'; Lat. Galil/e'us or Galile'us,] (Galileo,) commonly called simply Galileo, gdl-e-lee'o, [It. pron. g^-le-la'o,] an illus- trious Italian mathematician and natural philosopher, was born of a noble family at Pisa, the 15th of February, 1564. From early childhood he showed a rare aptitude for mechanical invention. After having studied, at Flor- ence, the classics, music, and painting, he went to Pisa in 1582 to study medicine. But the impulse of his genius and destiny caused him to prefer geometry and physical philosophy, in which he made rapid ])rogress. He dis- covered about 1584 the isochronism of the vibrations of a pendulum. Like his contemporary, Bacon, he asserted his independence against the authority of Aristotle, (whose system was then followed with blind and servile submission,) and appealed to the impartial evidence and umpirage of experiment. In 1589 he was chosen pro- fessor of mathematics in the University of Pisa, where he demonstrated the fallacy of the received theory that bodies of unequal weights will fall with proportionate velocities, by dropping metallic balls of different sizes from the top of the Leaning Tower. He was also the first who discovered the law by which the velocity ot falling bodies is accelerated. In 1592 the senate of Venice appointed him professor of mathematics in Padua for the term of six years, which term was re- newed in 1598. During this period he invented a ther- mometer, and, after examining the rival theories of astronomy, he adopted the Copernican system, which was then regarded as heretical by the schoolmen and clergy of Italy. In 1609 his celebrity was greatly in- creased by the construction of his telesco])e (the honour of inventing which is generally conceded to him) and by the sublime results which he realized in its application to astronomy and the "structure of the universe." He saw with rapt and devout admiration the mountains and valleys of the moon, and the phases of Venus ; he dis- covered the satellites of Jupiter, and resolved into myriads of stars or flaming orbs the luminous nebulae of the Milky Way. He hastened to impart these glo- rious revelations in his " Sidereal Messenger," (" Side- reus Nuncius,") published in 1610. About the year 161 1 he accepted an invitation to Florence, where he was liberally patronized by Cosimo de' Medici. While Galileo was thus employed in consolidating the € as c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Vi^guttural; Tsr, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2i:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) GALILEI 986 Copernican system by sensible evidence, and unfolding to the human mind the grandeur of the universe, the Jesuits and other enemies denounced him to the Inquisi- tion as a heretic. In 1616 he was summoned to Rome, and had an interview with the pope, Paul V., who posi- tively forbade him to teach the doctrine of the motion of the earth, and, on his giving a promise to that effect, permitted him to return to Florence. For a number of years he enjoyed a truce from persecution, and even re- ceived some kindness from the next pope, Urban VIII. In 1632 he published his great work, the "Dialogues on the Ptolemaic and Copernican Systems," in which, with graceful felicity of style, he employs all the resources of wit, fancy, reason, and eloquence to render the truth at- tractive. The dialogue is carried on by Salviati, Sagredo, and Simplicius, the last of whom (a fictitious person) maintains the theory of Ptolemy. The appearance of this work occasioned a great outcry at Rome. The pope was persuaded that the author had exposed him to ridicule, in the character of Simplicius; and Galileo was again cited before the Inquisition, in his seventieth year. After a confinement of several months, he was induced to sign a document abjuring the obnoxious theory, (that the earth had a diurnal motion, as well as a motion round the sun,) and promised to refrain from teaching it; but even this did not procure his liberation. It is said that, as he rose from the kneeling posture in which he signed his name, he whispered to a friend, " E pur se muove," (" It moves nevertheless.") His confinement was continued a few years, th6ugh not in the severest form, and it appears that he pursued his studies and observations until he became blind. He was visited by Milton in 1638. He died at or near Florence in January, 1642, within a year of the birth of Newton. He was never married. His temper was cheerful and sociable, his features comely, and his person of medium stature. Among his principal disciples were Torricelli and Viviani. In regard to the invention of the telescope, to which allusion has been made above, we may here remark that although Jens or Jansen, a Dutch optician, first invented a small spy-glass, intended for a plaything, yet Galileo was the first who constructed an astronomical telescope and applied it to its noblest use. Galileo himself says that he had heard of the invention in Holland of an instrument which en- larged the size of distant objects, but was not informed how it was constructed, and that the one he used was the result of his own study and experiments. The most important discovery of Galileo was that of Jupiter's satel- lites, the eclipses of which afforded the first good method of determining longitudes. His " Scienza mechanica" was written in 1592, but not printed until 1634. About 1582 he obtained the idea of the pendulum from the oscillations of a lamp suspended in a church ; and Biot says he constructed a clock in 1633 in which the pen- dulum was used. Hume ranks Galileo above Lord Bacon as an author and philosopher. ("History of England," vol. iv.) A good edition of Galileo's complete works was published at Florence by Alberi, 20 vols., 1842-58. See Viviani, "Vita del Galilei;" L. Brenna, "Vita Galilei," in Fabroni's "Vitje Italorum;" Drinkwater Bethune, "Life of Galileo," in the "Library of Useful Knowledge;" Sir David Brewster, " Martyrs of Science," 1841 : Neli.i,'" Vita di Galilei," 2 vols., 1793: Philar^ik Chaslep;, " Galileo ; sa Vie, son Proces et ses Coiitemporains," 1862; G. Libri, " Histoire de la Vie et des CEuvres de G. Galilei," 1841 ; Campanella, " Apologia pro Galileo," 1622; Frisi, " Elogio del Galileo," 1775; A. Cattanko, " Ceniii su la Vita di G. Galilei," 1843 ; " North British Review" for November, i860; Biot, article on Galileo in the "Biographic Universelle;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Galilei, (Vincentio,) the father of the great astrono- mer, resided in Florence, and was married in 1562 to Julia Venturi. He excelled in the theory and practice of music, and wrote a learned treatise entitled a "Dialogue on Ancient and Modern Music." He died about 1600. Galileo, (the celebrated philosopher.) See Galilei, (Galileo.) Galileo, (Vincentio,) a son of the great astronomer, was born about 1600. He aided his father in experiments, cultivated literature, and gave special attention to the application of the pendulum to clocks. Died in 1649. Galileus. See Galilei. Galimard, gif\t'm^?s.', (Nicolas Auguste,) a French historical painter, born in Paris in 1813, was a pupil of GALL^US Ingres. Among his works are "Nausicaa and her Com- panions," and "The Evangelists." Galin, gS'l^N', (Pierre,) a French musician, born at Samatan in 1786, invented a new method of teaching music, named the "Method of the Meloplaste." Died in 1822. Galindes de Oaravajal, gk-XhVdlsdk ka-ri-va-Hai', (Lorenzo,) a Spanish lawyer and historian, born at Pla- cencia in 1472. Ferdinand the Catholic chose him as president of his council of state. He wrote a history of John II. of Castile, and other works. Died in 1532. See Prescott, "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. iii. part ii. Galindo, gS-l^n'do, (Beatriz,) a Spanish lady, born at Salamanca in 1475, excelled in the use of the Latin language, and was regarded as a prodigy of learning. She became a lady of honour to Isabella of Castile. Died in 1535. Galiot (or Galliot) de Genouillac, gHe'o' deh zheh'noo'ytk'. Seigneur d'Acier, (dt'se-i',) a French officer, born in Quercy about 1466, w^ made grand master of artillery in 15 12, and afterwards grand equerry to Francis I. He displayed skill at the battles of Ma- rignano and of Pavia, (1525.) Died in 1546. See Brantome, " Vie de Galliot," vol. ii. Galisoiiniere. See Gallissoni^:re. Galitzin or Galitsin. See Gallitsin. Gall, gil, (Ferdinand,) Baron, a German author, born at Battenberg, in Hesse, in 1809. He wrote, be- sides other works, "Travels in Sweden in the Summer of 1836," (2 vols., 1838,) and "Paris and its Salons," (2 vols., 1845,) which had a great success. In 1846 he became intendant of the royal theatre at Stuttgart. C^all, gaul, [Ger. pron. g^l,] (Franz Joseph,) a Ger- man physician, distinguished as the founder of the sys- tem of phrenology, was born at Tiefenbrunn, in Baden, on the 9th of March, 1758. He studied natural sciences at Strasburg, and passed thence to Vienna about 1781. He graduated as M.D. at Vienna in 1785, and practised in that city for many years. In 1791 he published a medical work entitled " Medical and Philosophical Re- searches on Nature and Art," (" Philosophisch-medici- nische Untersuchungen liber Natur und Kunst,") etc. He devoted much time to the study of the brain and to the external signs connected with the different functions and faculties of the human mind, and began in 1796 to lec- ture on these subjects in Vienna. Among his principal doctrines are the following : that the brain is the organ of all the faculties, projjensities, and sentiments ; that dif- ferent parts of the brain are appropriated to particular mental faculties or moral affections ; and that the capacity and character of a person are indicated by the external form of his skull. About 1805 he began, with his pupil and coadjutor. Dr. Spurzheim, to propagate their system by lectures in Paris, Berlin, and other cities of Europe. Dr. Gall became a permanent resident of Paris in 1807. He presented to the Institute in 1808 his "Researches into the Nervous System in General and the Brain in Particular," which was unfavourably criticised by a com- mittee of the Institute, in their report. His principal work is entitled " The Anatomy and Physiologv of the Nervous System in General, and of the Brain in Particu- lar," (4 vols., 1 810-19, in French.) He was assisted in this work by Dr. Spurzheim. (See Spurzheim.) Died in Paris in 1S28. See "Edinburgh Review" for June, 1815; " Quarterly Review" for April, 1815 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Gail, (Richard,) a Scottish poet, born in 1776, was a printer of Edinburgh. He acquired distinction as the author of a poem called "Arthur's Seat," and of several popular songs, among which are "The Farewell to Ayrshire," and "The Braes o' Drumlie." Died in 1801. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Gall, gaul, or GaFlus, Saint, called "the Apostle of the Swiss," was born in Ireland about 550 A.D. He was a disciple of Saint Columban, whom he accompanied to Gaul in 585. He founded the monastery of Saint Gall, in the Swiss canton of that name. Died in 646 A.D. See Karl Greith, "Der heilige Gallus der Apostel Alleman- niens," 1845. Gallaeus. See GmaA. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f3.r, fill, fit; m§t; nSt; good; moon; GALLAGHER 987 GALLE Gal'la-gher, (William D.,) an American poet and journalist, born in Philadelphia in 1808. He edited several literary journals in Ohio, and was associate editor of the "Cincinnati Gazette," 1840-50. He removed to Louisville, Kentucky, about 1853. Among his works are three volumes of poems entitled "Erato," (1835-37.) See Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America." Gallais, gS'la', (Jean Pierre,) a French historical and political writer, born at Done (Anjou) in 1756. In the Revolution he was a zealous royalist. He wrote many mediocre works, among which is a "History of France from the Death of Louis XVL to the Peace of 1815," (2 vols., 1820.) Died in 1820. Gallait, gt la', (Louis,) an eminent Belgian historical painter, born at Tournay in 1810, studied in Paris. Among his works are "Job and his Friends," "The Abdication of Charles V.," (1841,) and "The Last Mo- ments of Egmont," (1853.) Galland, gi!\hW , (Antoinf.,) a distinguished French Orientalist and antiquary, born at RoUot, in Picardy, in 1646. He made several journeys to the Levant to collect medals and copy inscriptions. About 1680 he had a commission from Colbert to make antiquarian researches in the East. He was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1701, and became professor of Arabic in the Royal College in 1709. His reputation is chiefly founded on his French version of the Arabian tales called "The Thousand and One Nights," (12 vols., 1704-17.) The style of this version is natural and simple. He trans- lated other works from the Arabic and Persian, and wrote treatises on medals and antiquities. Died in 171 5. See Zenker, " Bibliotheca Orientalis ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Galland, (Auguste,) a French historical writer, born about 1570. He was a member of Henry the Fourth's council of state, and wrote, besides other works, "Memoirs to illustrate the History of Navarre and Flanders," (1648,) and a "History of the Reformation in France." Died before 1645. Galland, (Pierre,) a French scholar, born at Aire in 1 5 10. He became professor of eloquence in the Royal College in 1545, and was a friend of Pude, (Budaeus.) His argument "On Behalf of the Parisian .School against the New Academy of P. Ramus" (" Pro Schola Parisiensi contra novam Academiam Petri Rami," 1551) was the signal for the persecutions which that author suffered. Died in 1559. Gallas, gil'lis, (Matthias,) an Austrian general, born at or near Trent in 1589. He was a major-general of the army which took Mantua in 1629, and became a general of cavalry, or field-marshal, in 163 1. He com- manded a corps under Wallenstein, in Bohemia, and distinguished himself in battles against the Swedes at Nuremberg and Lutzen in 1632. Gallas appears to have been the chief agent in the intrigues which resulted in the ruin of Wallenstein, whom he succeeded as general- in-chief in 1634, He gained a decisive victory at Nord- lingen in 1634, but was outgeneralled and defeated near Magdeburg by Torstenson in 1644. Died in 1647. See ScHii.i.ER, " History of the Thirty Years' War;" Ersch unci Grubek, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." GalTa-tin, [Fr. pron. gt'lt'tiN',] (Albert,) an emi- nent statesman, and a great oracle and leader of the Republican party in America, was born at Geneva in January, 1761. After graduating at the university of his native place, he emigrated to the United States in 1780. He acted as French tutor in Harvard University in 1782, and spent the two or three ensuing years in Virginia, where he purchased a large tract of land. In 1786 he fixed his home in Fayette county, Pennsylvania, and in 1790 was elected a member of the legislature of that State, in which he served several years, and acquired great influence with both parties, although he acted with the Republicans. In 1793 the legislature, in which the Federal party had a majority, paid him a high compli- ment by electing him to the Senate of the United States, in which, however, he served only two months, as that body decided, by a party vote, that he was not eligible, because he had not been naturalized nine years before the election. From 1795 to 1801 he represented a dis- trict of Pennsylvania in the Federal Congress, in which | he became one of the ablest debaters and was recog- nized as the leader of the Republicans, at least after Madison had retired from that arena in 1797. He spoke often, and was distinguished for his cool and ready dex- terity, as well as his knowledge of political economy and finance. The first formation of the committee of ways and means was due to his suggestion. In 1801 President Jefferson a])pointed Gallatin secretary of the treasury, which he managed with eminent ability until 1813, having been continued in the office by Madison in 1809. He succeeded in effecting a great reduction of the public debt, and opposed the second war with England. In 1813 he retired from the cabinet, to take an active part in negotiating a peace with England ; and, as the col- league of Adams, Clay, and others, he signed the treaty of Ghent in 1814. On this occasion, and in his subse- quent career of diplomacy, he enjoyed a very high repu- tation as a negotiator, for which he was so well fitted by his extensive and exact information, his honourable character, his courteous address, and his logical ability. He was resident minister of the United States at Paris from 1816 to 1823, and in 1826 accepted a mission to England, where he settled a question of the boundary between the United States and British America, and regulated the subject of fisheries. Returning in 1827, he withdrew from political employment, and took up his residence in New York City. He subsequently wrote two able pamphlets on Currency, and in 1840 an essay on the Northeastern Boundary. In 1843 was chosen president of the New York Historical Society. John Randolph, who witnessed his career in Congress, once remarked that Gallatin was unrivalled for readiness and dexterity in debate ; and Judge Story pronounced him a truly great statesman, ranking him side by side with Hamilton. Died in 1849. See DuYCiciNCK, " Cyclopjedia of American Literature," vol. i. Gallatin, gt'lS'tL\', (Jean Louis,) a Swiss physician, born at Geneva in 1751, was physician to the hospital founded in Paris by Madame Necker. He wrote a treat- ise on acute fevers, (1781.) Died in 1783. Gallau-det', (Rev. Thomas H.,) born in Philadel- phia in 1787, rendered himself widely and favonrably known by his successful efforts for the instruction of the deaf and dumb. After studying for the ministry at An- dover, he took charge of a church in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. About 1815 he formed an association for the relief of the deaf and dumb, and was induced to un- dertake a mission to Europe to qualify himself for their tuition. At Paris he was kindly received by the Abbe Sicard, who gave him full facilities for learning the sys- tem followed in the institution under his charge. Having returned to the United States, he was chosen principal of the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb at Hartford, which was opened in April, 1817, and which was the first insti- tution that had been founded for that purpose in America. He continued to labour here with zeal and success until 1830, when he resigned on account of ill health. He published, besides other works, "The Child's Book of the Soul," (3d edition, 1850.) Died in 1851. See Henry 15aknard, "Discourse on the Life and Character ofT. H. Gallnudet," 1852; "Life ofT. H. Gallaudet," by H. Hum- phrey; " Nortl) American Review" for October, 1858. Galle, gSl, (Andr6,) a French medallist and engraver, born at Saint-£tienne in 1761, settled in Paris. He en- graved many ])ortraits and medals in commemoration of the events of Napoleon's reign. Died in 1844. Galle, gSKleh, (Cornelis,) an excellent Flemish en- graver, born at Antwerp in 1570, was a son and pupil of Philip Galle, (1537-1612.) He studied in Rome, and returned to Antwerp, where he engraved history after various masters, and portraits after Van Dyck. Among his works are a " Virgin and Child," after Raphael ; a "Virgin crowned with Flowers," after Rnbens ; and some original designs. Pie was the most famous artist of the family. See Gandellini, " Notizie degli Intagliatori." Galle, (Cornelis,) the Younger, a son of the pre- ceding, born at Antwerp in 1600, was an engraver and designer. He engraved history and portraits, the latter of which are his best productions. See Bryan, "Dictionary of Painters and Engravers." € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K,giitttiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) GALLE 988 GALLITSIN Galle, gaKleh, (Dr. J. G.,) a German astronomer, born in Prussian Saxony about 1812, became director of the Observatory at Berlin, and was the first who observed with a telescope the planet Neptune, whose existence Leverrier had previously demonstrated. (See Lever- RIER.) He announced this fact to Leverrier in a letter dated September 25, 1846. A few years later he obtained the chair of astronomy at Breslau. Galle, (Philip,) a Flemish engraver, born at Haarlem in 1537, was a correct designer. He was a dealer in prints at Antwerp, and produced many engravings after his own designs and after those of other artists. Among his works are " Portraits of the Eminent Men of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries." Died in 1612. His son Theodore, born at Antwerp in 1560, was an engraver. He engraved some works of Rubens and other Flemish masters, besides his own designs. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Galle, gt'li', [Lat. Gall^'us,] (Servais,) a Dutch writer, born at Rotterdam about 1628, published an edi- tion of Lactantius, (1660,) aaid "Dissertations on the Sibyls and their Oracles," (1688.) Died in 1709. Gallego, g3.1-ya'go, (Don Juan Nicasio,) a Spanish poet and priest, born at Zamora in 1777, became chap- lain to the king in 1805, and, after the French invasion, was elected to the Cortes of Cadiz. He wrote, besides other fine poems, an " Elegy to the Second of May," ("Al Dos de Mayo," 1808,) and an "Ode on the Influ- ence of Public Enthusiasm on the Arts," (1832.) Gallegos, gai-ya'g6s, (Fernando,) a renowned Span- ish painter, born at Salamanca in 146 1. He distinguished himself by accuracy of design and beauty of colouring. His subjects are chiefly Scriptural. His works are said to have been often mistaken for those of Albert Durer. Died in 1550. See Bermudez, "Diccionario Historico." Gallegos, (Manuel.) See Galhegos. Gallestruzzi. See Galestruzzi. G^Uetti.gal-let'tee, (Filippo Maria,) a fresco-painter, born at Florence in 1636, adorned several churches of that city and of Parma. Died in 17 14. Galletti, gil-let'tee, (Johann Georg August,) a German historian, born at Altenburg in 1750, became historiographer to the Duke of Gotha in 1816. He wrote a number of educational treatises and historical works, among which is a "History of Germany," (10 vols., 1787-1819.) Died in 1828. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie. " Galletti, (Pietro Luigi,) an Italian antiquary and monk, born in Rome in 1724. He published, besides other works, " Mediaeval Inscriptions of Venice, Rome," etc., (7 vols., 1757-66.) Died in 1790. Galli, g^Klee, (Francesco,) surnamed Birbiena, a painter and architect, born at Bologna in 1656, was a brother of Ferdinando, noticed below. He was gifted with a fine imagination. He practised the art of deco- ration at Naples, Verona, Vienna, and Rome, and became first architect to Philip V. of Spain. Among his greatest works was the theatre of Verona. Died in 1739. His son Giovanni, or Jean, was born at Nancy about 1710. He wrote, in French, several novels, and a comedy entitled "New Italy," ("La nouvelle Italic," 1762.) Died about 1779. See Malvasia, "Pittura, Scoltura ed Architettura di Bologna." Galli, (Giovanni Antonio,) born at Bologna in 1708, was a skilful surgeon, and a professor of midwifery, which he taught by an improved method. Died in 1784. Galli da Bibbiena, g^Klee da b^b-be-a'ni, (or Bibieua, be-be-a'nA,) (Ferdinando,) an able Italian painter and architect, born at Bologna in 1657, was a pupil of C. Cignani. He excelled in perspective and theatrical decorations. He became first painter and architect to Charles III. at Vienna. He published a "Treatise on Architecture and Perspective," (2 vols., 1711.) Died about 1745. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Galliani. See Galiani. Galliccioli, gSl-l^t-cho'lee, (Giovanni Battista,) Abhe, an Italian Orientalist, born in Venice in 1733, published, besides other works, one on "Ancient Vene- tian Memoirs." Died in 1806. Gal-li-e^nus, [Fr. Gallien, gt'le-^N',] (Publius Li- ciNius Valerius,) a Roman emperor, born about 233 A.D., was a son of the emperor Valerian, who admitted him to a share in the empire in 253. Valerian having been defeated and taken prisoner by the Persians in 260 A.D., Gallienus succeeded to the throne. He made no effort to liberate his father from captivity, and disgraced himself by his cruelty and profligacy. His frontiers were invaded by barbarian armies, while Ingenuus, Aureolus, and other Roman generals revolted in different parts of the empire. After he had defeated Aureolus in battle, a conspiracy was formed against Gallienus by his own ofiicers. During the siege of Milan, 268 A.D., "he received a mortal dart from an uncertain hand," says Gibbon, who thus describes him: "He was master of several curious but useless sciences, a ready orator, an elegant poet, a skilful gardener, an excellent cook, and a most contemptible prince." He was succeeded by Claudius II. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Tille- .MONT, "Histoire des Enipereurs;" Eckhel, "Doctrina Nummo- rum." Galligai. See Ancre. Gallinari, gai-le-n^'ree, (Pietro,) an Italian painter, born at Brescia about 1629, was a favourite pupil Of Guido. He was an artist of high promise, but died prematurely in 1664. GaPli-o, (Junius,) a Roman judicial officer, was an adopted son of the rhetorician Junius Gallio, and a brother of Seneca the philosopher. His original name was M. Ann^us Novatus. He is supposed by some persons to be the Gallio who was deputy or proconsul of Achaia, before whom Saint Paul was arraigned by the Jews. (See Acts xviii. 12-17.) E)ied in 65 a.d. Galliot. See Galiot. Gallissoniere, de la, deh It gS'le^so'ne^j.iR', (Ro- land Michel Barrin — bfriw',) Marquls, a naval officer, born at Rochefort, in France, in 1693. He be- caine a captain about 1738, and acted as Governor of Canada from 1745 to 1749. In 1756 his fleet defeated the English under Admiral Byng, near Minorca. Died in 1756. Gallitsin, Gallitzin, or Galitzin, g§.-lit'sin or gk- l^t's^n, (Alexander Mikhailovitch,) a Russian gen- eral and prince, born in 1 7 18, was a son of Mikhail, (1674-1730.) He distinguished himself in the Seven Years' war, (1756-63,) about the end of which he became general-in-chief He afterwards obtained great favour with Catherine II., and defeated the Turks at Choczim in 1769. Died in 1783. See " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Gallitsin, Gallitzin, or Galitzin, (Dmitri I.,) Prince of, uncle of the preceding, was one of the Rus- sian nobles who, after the death of Peter II., placed Anne on the throne, on the condition that she should sign a charter as a guarantee against despotic power. But, when she thought her authority established, she tore the charter in pieces and imprisoned its authors. Died in 1738. Gallitsin or Gallitzin, (Dmitri Alexievitch,) Prince, a Russian author and diplomatist, was born ai)out 1738. In 1763 he was appointed ambassador to F'rance, where he remained several years, and corre- sponded with Voltaire, who praised his good qualities. In 1773 he became resident minister at the Hague. He wrote, besides other works, a " Physical Description of the Crimea," (1788,) and a "Treatise on Mineralogy," (1792.) Died in 1803. Gallitsin or Gallitzin, written also Galyzin, (Dmi- tri Augustine.) a Russian missionary, a son of the preceding, was born at the Hague in 1770. He became a Roman Catholic priest, and went to the United States about 1792. He founded Loretto, in Cambria county, Pennsylvania, where he died in 1840. Gallitsin, (Dmitri Mikhailovitch,) Prince, was born in 1721. He was Russian ambassador at the court of Vieima from 1762 to 1792, and had a high reputation as a negotiator. He founded a hospital in Moscow. Died in 1793. a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; tlr, fill, f^t; m§t; n6t; good; moon; GALLITSIN 989 G ALIUS Gallitsin, (Emanuel,) Prince, a Russian litterateur, born in Paris in 1804. He fought with distinction at the capture of Varna, soon after which he retired from the army. He translated several works from Russian into French, and wrote "Travels in Finland," (1852.) Died in Paris in 1853. Gallitsin, (Mikhail,) Prince, a Russian admiral, born about 16S5. During the reign of Catherine I. or Peter II. he became a senator and privy councillor. After the death of the empress Anne (1740) he obtained th*e rank of admiral. He was appointed grand admiral and president of the admiralty in 1756. Died in 1764. Gallitsin, (Mikhail Mikhailovitch,) Prince, a Russian nobleman, born in 1674. He entered the army as a private, became a general about 1708, and led a division at Pultowa (Poltava) in 1709. In 1711 he com- manded an army against the Tartars and Poles. He had the chief command in Finland from 1713 to 1721, defeated the Swedes in a naval fight in 1720, and was made field-marshal in 1724. In 1730 he was appointed a senator, and president of the College of War. He was reputed to be the best general that Russia had then produced. Died in 1730. See " Noiivelle Biographie Generale." Gallitsin, Galitzin, Gallitzin, Galyzin, or Gallit- zine, (Vasili, or Basil,) an able and liberal Russian statesman, born about 1633. He was the minister or influential adviser of Feodor, (1676-82,) and promoted reform and civilization. He retained power or favour during the minority of Ivan and Peter and the regency of Sophia. In 16S6 he concluded with Poland a treaty that was very advantageous to Russia. He commanded an expedition against the Crimean Tartars in 1687. For his alleged complicity in the conspiracy of Sophia against Peter the Great, he was exiled in 1689. Died in 17 13. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Gallizin or Gallitzin. See Gallitsin. Gallo, gaKlo, (Agostino,) born at Brescia, in Italy, in 1499, wrote a useful treatise called "Twenty Days of Agriculture," ("Vinti Giornate dell' Agricoltura," 1550,) and other similar works. He was regarded as the restorer of agriculture in Italy. Died in 1570, Gallo, (Andrea,) a Sicilian antiquary, born at Mes- sina in 1732. He wrote an account of the earthquake which nearly ruined Messina in 1783. Died in 1814. Gallo, (Thomas.) See Gallus, (Thomas.) Gallo, da, da giKlo, (Marzio Mastrizzi — mSs- tR^rt'see,) Duke, a Neapolitan minister of state and able negotiator, was born at Palermo in 1753. He was sent as ambassador to Vienna in 1795, and ])erformed a ])rominent part in the treaty of Canipo Formio, (1797.) During the consulate of Bonaparte he was ambassador to Paris. He was minister of foreign aff"airs at Naples from the accession of Joseph Bonaparte, in 1806, until 1 815. The revolution of 1820 restored him to the same office for a brief term. He retired when the government again became absolute, in 1821. Died in 1833. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Galloche, gt'losh', (Louis,) a French painter, born in Paris in 1670, painted subjects from Scripture with success. He received a pension from the king, and was rector of the Academy in Paris when he died, in 1761. Lemoyne was one of his pupils. Among his best works is "The Removal of the Reliques of Saint Augustine." Gallois, gS'lwi', (Charles Andre Gustave Leo- nard,) a French political and historical writer, born at Monaco in 1789. He removed to Paris in 181S, be- came an editor of the " Constitutionnel," and advocated democracy in several popular pamphlets. He also wrote a " Pictorial History of the French Revolution," (4 vols., 1830,) and a " His^torv of the National Conven- tion," (8 vols., 1835.) Died in 185 1. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Gallois, (Jean,) a French editor and critic of much merit, born in Paris in 1632, was one of the founders of the "Journal des Savants," which he edited with ability from 1666 to 1674. He was admitted into the French Academy, on the same day as Racine and Flechier, in 1673. He was a favourite protege of Colbert. After the death of Colbert he became "keeper of the Royal Library, and professor of Greek in the College Royal, Died in 1707. See MoRERi, " Dictlonnaire Historique;" Sabatier, '%,es trois Siecles de la Litterature ;" "Biographie Universelle." Gallois, (Jean Antoine Gauvain — g6\iN',) a poli- tician, born in Paris in 1755. In 1802 he was president of the Tribunate, after the dissolution of which he passed into the legislative body. In 1 813 he was a member of the commission to which the negotiations with the allied powers were referred. He translated from the Italian a treatise on the " Science of Legislation," by Filangieri, (i 786-91,) and wrote some fugitive poems. Died in 1828. Gallois, (Julian Jean C6sar.) See Legallois. Gallois, (LEONARD Joseph Urbain Napoleon,) a son of Charles Andre Gustave Leonard, was born at Foix in 1815. He edited several political journals, and wrote a "Life of Ledru Rollin," (1849.) Gallois, (Pierre,) a French bibliographer, born in Paris, published "Academic Conversations," (2 vols., 1674.) Galloni, gSl-lo'nee, or Gallonio, g^l-lo'ne-o, (An- tonio,) a learned Italian priest, born in Rome, published a " Treatise on Instruments of Torture or Martyrdom," ("De Martyrum Cruciatibus," 1594,) and a "Life of Saint Philip de Neri," (1602.) Died in 1605. Galloway, Earl of. See Galway. GalTo-way, (Joseph,) an American lawyer, born in Maryland about 1730, practised with distinction in Philadelphia. He became in 1774 a delegate to the Continental Congress, in which he took a prominent part and opposed the independence of the colonies. He removed to England in 1778. Died in 1803. Gallucci, gdl-loot'chee, (Giovanni Paolo,) an Italian astronomer, born at Salo, near Brescia, about 1550. He was one of the first members of the Academy founded at Venice in 1593. He published, besides other works, a "Theatre of the World and Time," ("Theatrum Mundi et Temporis," 1589,) which treats partly of astrology, and " Sj^eculum Uranicum," (1593.) Gallucci, (Tarquinio.) See Galluzzl Galluccio, gil-loot'cho, (Angelo,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Macerata in 1593, was professor of rhetoric at Rome, and published " De Bello Belgico," a History of the War in the Low Countries from 1593 to 1609, (2 vols., 1671.) Died in 1674. G^Tup, (Joseph Adam,) an American physician and author, born in Stonington, Connecticut, in 1769. In 1827 he established at Woodstock a clinical school of medicine, which in 1835 was incorporated as the Ver- mont Medical College. He published "Outlines of the Institutes of Medicine," (1839.) Died in 1849. Galluppi, (Baldassare.) See Galuppl Galluppi, gal-loop'pee, or Galuppi, gd-loop'pee, (Pasquale,) an Italian metaphysical philosopher, born at Troj^ea, Calabria, in 1770, was professor of philosophy at Naples, and an adversary of skepticism. His "Ele- ments of Philosophy" (4 vols., 1832) passed through many editions. He also wrote "The Philosophy of the Will," (4 vols., 1835-42,) and other works. Died in 1846, See Carlo Maria Curci, " Elogio di P. Galluppi," 1847. Gal'lus, ( /Elius,) an eminent Roman jurist, who was a contemporary of Cicero. He wrote a treatise " On the Signification of Terms which pertain to the Civil Law," an extract from which is found in the "Digest." According to Lachmann, he was the same person that was prefect of Egypt in 25 B.C. Gallus, (^'Eijus,) a Roman general, who was prefect of Egypt in 25 and 24 B.C., aiid was the first who penetrated Arabia with a Roman army, (23 B.C.) The expedition failed, in consequence, partly, of the treachery of Syl- laeus, an Arabian who was the guide of the Roman army. Strabo obtained from him new information in geography, and wrote an account of the expedition. Gallus, (Caius Aquilius,) an eminent Roman lawyer and judge, noted for learning and integrity, became praetor in 66 B.C. He was a friend of Cicero, who esteemed him highly and paid him a handsome compliment in his oration for Cascina. He was the author of a formula " De Dolo Malo," and effected some important legal reforms. His works have not come down to us. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Vi,^ittural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (g^^See Explanations, p. 23.) G ALIUS 990 GALVEZ Gallus, (Caius Asinius,) a Roman politician, was a son of C. Asinius Pollio. He became consul in 8 B.C., and m#-ried Vipsania, the repudiated wife of Tiberius, who hated him for that reason and for his freedom in expressing his mind. He was committed to prison by Tiberius in 30 A.D., and died in confinement about the year 33. He wrote a book called a " Comparison between my Father and Cicero," which is not extant. See J. G. Heineccius, "Oratio de C. A. Gallo," (about 1730.) Gallus, (Caius Cornelius,) an eminent Roman poet and courtier, was born at Forum Julii (Frejus) about 66 B.C. He served in the army under Octavius, who received him into his favour and confidence and gave him a high command in the war against Antony. After the death of Antony, about 30 B.C., Augustus appointed Gallus Governor of Egypt, which he ruled at first with success. But afterwards, being accused of oppression and peculation, he was condemned to perpetual banish- ment, and killed himself in 25 or 26 B.C. His Elegies, which were much admired, are all lost. Like his friend Maecenas, he patronized literary men, especially Virgil, who was his intimate friend, and who has gracefully commemorated his name and merit in his sixth and tenth eclogues. See Dion Cassius, books 1., liii. ; Quintilian, books i., x. ; Suetonius, "De illustribus Grammaticis ;" Volker, " Conimentatio de C. C. Galli Vita et Scriptis," 1840-44; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Gallus, (Caius Sulpicius,) a Roman astronomer and orator, was chosen consul for 166 B.C. He was eminent as an orator and a Greek scholar, and appears to have been one of the most remarkable men of his time. He is regarded as the earliest of Roman astronomers. The occurrence of an eclipse of the moon, at the hour which he predicted, on the eve of the battle of Pydna, 168 B.C., excited the admiration and raised the spirits of the army in which he then served as tribune. He is highly eulogized by Cicero. See LiVY, " History of Rome," books xliii., xliv., andxlv. ; Cicero, "Brutus," " De Republica," "De Senectute," and " De Officiis." Gallus, (Caius Vibius Trebonianus,) a Roman em- peror, born, it is supposed, in the isle of Gerba, on the coast of Africa, about 205 a.d. He succeeded Decius in 251, with Hostilian as his colleague, and purchased a disgraceful peace with the Goths by an annual tribute. The empire was soon invaded by other hordes of bar- barians, who were defeated by ^^Imilian. The victor having been proclaimed emperor by his army, Gallus marched against him ; but, before the armies met, he was killed by his own troops, in 253 A.D. He was gen- erally unpopular and despised. See TiLLEMONT, " Histoire des Empereurs." Gallus, (Cestius,) a Roman general, became Gov- ernor of Syria in 64 a.d. The Jews having rebelled in the year 65, he besieged Jerusalem, but failed to take it. Gallus, (Flavius Claudius Constantius,) a nephew of Constantine the Great, was born about 325 a.d. In 351 the Roman emperor Constantius gave to him his sister Constantina in marriage, and raised him to the rank of Caesar, with the command of the Eastern prov- inces. But he soon disgraced himself by his cruelty and tyranny, for which he was recalled and executed in 354 A.D. He was a half-brother of the emperor Julian. Gallus, (Servatius.) See Gall6. Gallus or Gallo, (Thomas,) a flench monk, was one of the most eminent theologians of his time, and became abbe of Vercelli, where he founded a famous school. He translated from the Greek a work on mystic theology ascribed to Dionysius Areopagita. Died in 1246. Galluzzi, g^l-loot'see, or Gallucci, gal-loot'chee, (Tarquinio,) an Italian Jesuit and poet, born in 1574, professed rhetoric and morality at Rome, and was emi- nent as a pulpit orator. He published a volume of poems, "Carmina," (1611,) another of Latin orations, (1617,) and "Vindications of Virgil," (" Virgilianas Vin- dicationes," 1621.) Died in 1649. GaFly, (Henry,) an English divine, born at Beck- enham, in Kent, in 1696. He translated from the Greek the "Characters" of Theophrastus, (1725,) and wrote, besides other works, an "Essay on Clandestine Mar- riages," (1750.) In 1735 he became chaplain-in-ordinary to the king. Died in 1769. Gait, (John,) a Scottish author, born at Irvine in May, 1779. He became a resident of London about 1803, engaged in trade, and failed. He travelled in the south ot Europe in 1809-11, after which he published "Let- ters from the Levant," (1813,) several biographies, and a volume of tragedies, which were not successful. In 1820 his " Ayrshire Legatees" appeared in " Blackwood's Magazine." This was more popular than his previous efforts, and was followed by "Annals of the Parish," (1821,) and other tales illustrative of Scottish life. Be- tween 1826 and 1829 he spent two or three years in Canada, as agent of a land-company ; but, though not defi- cient in energy and integrity, he did not succeed in pecu- niary affairs, and returned to England insolvent. Among his numerous works are a " Life of Lord Byron," (1830,) "Lawrie Todd," (1830,) "The Provost," (1822,) and other novels. Many of his tales are entertaining, and characterized by rough good sense and a quaintness of expression. He also wrote his Autobiography, (2 vols., 1833.) He died at Greenock in 1839. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" W. Jerdan, "Men I liave known," London, 1866. Galuppi, g-a-loop'pee, (Baldassare,) a famous Ital- ian comjDoser, was born in 1703, in Burano, (whence he was called Buranel'lo,) an island near Venice. He composed many operas, and some sacred music, and has been called the father of the Italian comic opera. Died at Venice in 1785. See Fetis, "Biographie Unlverselle des Musiciens." Galuppi, (Pasquale.) See Galluppi. Galuzzi, gj-loot'see, (RiGUCCio, re-goot'cho,) an Ital- ian historian and priest, born at Volterra in 1730, pub- lished a " History of Tuscany under the Rule of the House of Medici,^' from 1569 to 1737. Died in 1801. Galvam. or Galvao, gSl-vovvN', (Antonio,) an emi- nent Portuguese captain, son of Duarte, noticed below, was born about 1502. He was appointed Governor of the Moluccas in 1538. He subdued several chiefs by arms, and governed that region with ability. It is stated that he converted many natives to the Catholic faith, and refused the offer of sovereignty in the Moluccas. He was recalled about 1545, and died in 1557, leaving a valu- able work "On the Discoveries, Ancient and Modern, in India," (1563.) His exploits are highly extolled by the Portuguese historians. See JoAO Barros, "Asia, Decada IV;" Faria y Souza, "Asia Portugueza;" La Cl^de, " Histoire de Portugal." Galvam or Galvao, (Duarte,) a learned Portuguese historian, born at Evora about 1435, became secretary to John II., and ambassador to Rome, France, etc. He edited, revised, or continued the "Chronicles of Por- tugal" written by Lopez. Died in 15 1 7. See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Galvani, gSl-vi'nee, (Aloisio,) an eminent Italian, physician, and physiologist, born in 1737 at Bologna, where he became professor of anatomy in 1762. He composed valuable treatises "On the Kidneys and Ureters of Birds," ("De Renibus atque Ureteribus Volatilium,") and "On the Organs of Hearing in Birds," ("De Aure Volatilium.") His durable repu- tation is founded on the accidental discovery of the phe- nomena since called from his name Galvanism, which he announced in his "Commentary on the Power (or Eff"ect) of Electricity on Muscular Motion," ("De Viribus Electricitatis in Motu musculari Commentarius," 1791.) These phenomena were first observed in some dead frogs, which had been procured as aliment for his in- valid wife. While they were lying on the table near the conductor of an electrical machine, their muscles were convulsed by accidental contact with a scalpel. Galvani explained this fact by the theory that all animals have electricity inherent in their economy, especially in the nerves and muscles. (See Volta.) Having refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Cisalpine republic, 1797, he lost his chair at Bologna, but was restored a short time before his death, which occurred in December, 1798. See Aubert, " Eloge de Galvani," Paris, 1806; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Galvez,gaKv§th, (Don Bernardo,) Count, a nephew of Jose, noticed below, was born at Malaga in 1756. About 1780 he was appointed Governor of Louisiana, a, e, T, 6, u,y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; GALVEZ 991 GAMBACORTI made a successful campaign agahist the English in Florida, and took Pensacola in 1781. Soon after this he became Viceroy of Mexico, which he governed with credit until his death, in 1794. Galvez, (Don Jose,) a Spanish statesman and lawyer, born at Velez-Malaga in 1729. After gaining some distinction by his eloquence, he was employed as con- fidential secretary by Grimaldi, the prime minister. In 1764 Charles III. appointed him a member of the Coun- cil of the Indies, and in 1771 sent him to Mexico to settle a difficulty between the viceroy and the Audiencia or supreme tribunal. Upon his return, about 1775, he obtained the place of mim'ster of the Indies, the most important office in the kingdom, next to that of prime minister. He directed the affairs of the colonies with ability, and received the title of Marquis of Sonora. Died in 1786. See CoxE, " Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon," 1S13. Galvez de Montalvo, gil'v^th di mon-til'vo, (Luis,) a popular Spanish poet, born at Guadalaxara in 1549, was a friend of Cervantes. In 1582 he published a pastoral romance called the "Pastor de Filida," in prose and verse, which was admired for its richness of imagery and purity of style. He wrote also " The Tears of Saint Peter," (1587.) He is praised by Lope de Vega in his " Laurel of Apollo." He took the monastic vows in the latter part of his life. Died at Palermo in 1610. See TicKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" N. Antonio, " Bibliolheca Hispana Nova." Gil^way or GaPlo-way, (Henry,) Lord, Marquis de Ruvigny, (rii'v^n'ye^) was born in France in 1647. Proscribed as a Protestant, he retired to England about 1685, and was made Earl of Galway for his services in Ireland in 1691. In the war of the Spanish succession, he commanded the English and allies, who captured Madrid in June, 1706. Having been appointed gene- ral-in-chief in place of Lord Peterborough, he joined battle with the French at Almanza, (1707,) where he was wounded and defeated with great loss. He was again defeated at Gudina in 1709, and soon after recalled from the command for his ill success. In 171 5 he acted as lord justiciary of Ireland. Died in 1720. Gama, ga^mJ, (Antonio de Leon y — di la'on' e,) an astronomer and geographer, born at Mexico about 1735. Without the aid of teachers, he made great pro- gress in astronomy. He published "Memoirs on the Satellites of Jupiter," " On the Almanac and Chronology of the Ancient Mexicans," and on the "Climate of New Spain," which are commended by Humboldt and Pres- cott. Died about 1800. See Prescott, "History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. i. book i. Gama, (Joanna,) a Portuguese poetess, born in 15 15, wrote religious poems, sonnets, etc. Died in 1586. Gama, da, di gi'mS, (Christovao,) a Portuguese captain, was the son of Vasco, the admiral. He served under his brother Estevao in the East Indies in 1540, and commanded a small army sent to aid the King of Abyssinia, where he was taken prisoner and killed by the Moors in 1542. Gama, da, (Estevao,) the son of Vasco, was also noted as a naval commander. In 1536 he was appointed Governor of Malacca, and in 1540 Viceroy of India, which he ruled with ability. In the course of a war with the Turks, he explored the Red Sea, of which one of his officers wrote a description, the first that had been made by a European. Gama returned to Portugal in 1542. Another Estevao, brother of Vasco, commanded a division of five ships in the expedition of 1502. Gama, da, (Filippo Joz6,) a Portuguese poet and scholar, born in Lisbon in 1713 ; died in 1742. Gama, da, (Joz6 Bastlio,) a Brazilian poet, born in Minas Geraes in 1740. He became a resident of Lisbon, and was patronized by the minister Pombal. His prin- cipal poem, entitled "O Uruguay," (1769,) has been often reprinted. Died in Lisbon in 1795. Gama, da, (Vasco,) (commonly, but less correctly, called Vasco de Gama — di gi'mS,) a celebrated Por- tuguese navigator, born at Sines. The date of his birth and the details of his private life are unknown. He ac- quired celebrity as commander of the fleet which in 1497 Emanuel of Portugal sent to India, being the first that performed the voyage from Europe to that remote region by doubling the Cape of Good Hope. He sailed from Lisbon on the 8th of July, with three small vessels and one hundred and sixty men. After doubling the cape, he sailed along the eastern coast, landed at Mozambique and Melinda, at the latter of which he procured a skilful pilot, and arrived at Calicut on the 20th of May, 1498. He went on shore with a few men, had an interview with the native prince, but failed to negotiate a treaty, in con- sequence of the jealousy of the Moors, and returned to Lisbon in September, 1499. The discovery of this route was an important era in commercial history, diverting into a new channel the Indian trade, which had before passed through the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. This enterprise of Gama forms the subject of Camoens's " Lusiad." In 1502, Vasco was sent out to India with a larger fleet, and, having cannonaded Calicut in retalia- tion for some injuries, established a factory at Cochin. Returning home in December, 1503, he was received with great honour, and rew^arded w ith the title of count. In 1524, after a repose of twenty years, he was appointed Viceroy of India. He died in Cochin in 1524. See B.ARKOS, "Decadas;" Lafitau, " Histoire des Decouvertes des Portugais," etc.; F.ari.\ y Souza, "Asia Portugueza ;" Fer- NAO Lopez de Castanheua, " Historia do Descobrimento e Con- quista da India," 1551 ; Ferdinand Denis, "Portugal." Gama, de, (Vasco.) See Gama, da. Gamaches, gt'mtsh', (£tienne,) an agreeable French writer, born at Meulan in 1672, was a canon regular. He published, under the name of Clarigny, a metaphys- ical work, called " System of the Pleart," (" Systeme du Coeur," 1704,) which is commended. He wrote other works, among which are " The Elegancies of Language reduced to their Principles," (1718,) and "Physical Astronomy," (1740.) Died in 1756. See Sabatier, " Les trois Siecles de la Litterature." Gamaches, de, deh gt'mtsh', (Joachim Renault — roo'6',) a French officer, born in Poitou, fought against the English about 1450. In 1461 Louis XI. made him a marshal of France. Died in 1478. Gamaches, de, (Philippe,) a doctor of the Sorbonne, and one of the best French Catholic theologians of his time, was born in 1568. He became professor of theology in Paris in 1598, and wrote an excellent commentary on Saint Thomas, called " Theologia scholastica speculativa practica," (1627.) Died in 1625. See Bavi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Ga-maTi-el, [Heb. Sx'S^DJ,] a Pharisee and eminent fewish doctor, lived at Jerusalem in the first century. He was a member of the Sanhedrim, the preceptor of Saint Paul, (see Acts xxii. 3,) and, according to the Talmud, was a grandson of the celebrated Hillel. His moderation and prudence are shown by a brief speech recorded in Acts v. 34-39. Died about 88 a.d. Gamba, gam'bd, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian biogra- pher, born at Bassano in 1766. He became a member of the Academy of Florence. He published, besides other works, "Narrazione de' Bassanesi illustri," (1S07,) a " Gallery of the Literati and Artists of the Venetian Provinces in the Eighteenth Century," (1824,) and a "Life of Dante," (1825,) a wprk of recognized merit. Died in 1841. See Bartolo.mmeo Gamba, " Narrazione della Vita e delle Opere di lui," 1841 ; Antonio Nevmayr, " Memoria di B. Gamba," Venice, 1846; Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Gamba, gSN^bt', (Jacques FRANgois,) a French traveller, born at Dunkirk in 1763, published "Travels in Southern Russia, Georgia," etc., (1824.) Died in 1833. Gamba, (Pietro,) Count, brother of the countess Guiccioli, was born at Ravenna, in Italy, in 1801. He accompanied Lord Byron to Greece, and fought with distinction for the liberty of the Greeks. He published a " Narrative of Lord Byron's Last Journey to Greece," (1825.) Died in Greece in 1826. Gambacorti, gSm-bi-koR'tee, the name of an Italian family who held the chief power in Pisa between 1348 and 1406. Andrea became chief magistrate in 1348, and died about 1354. Francesco, his successor, was beheaded by the emperor Charles IV. in 1355, when the € as k: c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Y., guttural ; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) GAM BAR A 992 GANILH other members of the family were exiled. Pietro, the nephew of Francesco, directed the rey)ublic with wisdom, moderation, and ability from 1369 to 1392, and waged war against the pope, (1376.) He was assassinated in 1392. GiOVANNF, a nephew of Pietro, and the last of the family, surrendered Pisa, after a long siege, to the Florentines in 1406. This was regarded by the citizens of Pisa as an act of treachery. See SisMONDi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Gambara, gdm-b^'ra, (Giovanni Francesco,) Coux r, an Italian writer, born near Piacenza in 1771. He served in the French armies as a colonel about 1805-08. He wrote "The League of Cambray," a poem, (1825,) and several dramas. Died in 1848. Gambara, (Lattanzio,) an eminent Italian painter, born at Brescia in 1541, adorned the churches of Cre- mona, Brescia, and Parma with frescos. He was killed by a fitll in 1574. Gambara, (Lorenzo,) a Latin poet, born at Brescia about 1500. He was attached to Cardinal Farnese, in whose house he lived for a long time in Rome. Among his i^rincipal Latin poems, which were praised by Paul Manutius and Justus Lipsius, is "Columbus, or the Discovery of the New World." The first edition of his works appeared in 1555. Died in 1 596. See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." Gambara, (Veronica,) a noble Italian lady, born at Pralboino, near Brescia, in 1485, was the daughter of Count Gambara, and was eminent for her poetical talents and her attainments in Latin and philosophy. In 1508 she was married to Giberto, Lord of Correggio. She wrote admired sonnets and letters. Died in 1550. See RizzARUi, "Rime, Lettere e Vita di F. Gambara," 176c): TiRABoscHi, " Storia deila Letteratura Italiana;" Zamboni, "Vita di V. Gambara," 1759. Gambart, gSNH^tR', (Jean F^lix Adolphe,) a French astronomer, born in Cette in 1800, He became director of the Observatory of Marseilles in 1822, and discovered many comets. Died in 1836. See F. D. Arago, " Notice sur M. Gambart," 1836. Gamberelli, gim-bi-rel'lee, (Bernardo,) an able Florentine architect and sculptor, born about 1410. He was patronized by Pope Nicholas V., and restored, be- sides other churches of Rome, San Pietro-in-Vincoli and San Giovanni Laterano. Died in 1490. Gambey, gSN'bi^ (Henri Prudence,) a skilful French mechanician, who excelled in the fabrication of astronomical instruments, was born at Troyes in 17S7. He invented a heliostat. In 1837 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences. Died in Paris in 1847. See Arago, "Notice de Gambey," in the "Annuaire dii Bureau des Longitudes," 1850. Gambier, gam'beer, (James,) Baron, an English ad- miral, born in one of the Bahama Isles in 1756, entered the navy when young, and served in the American war at the capture of Charleston, South Carolina, and other places. In 1793 he contributed to Lord Howe's victory over the French. He was made a rear-admiral in 1795, and vice-adtniral in 1799. In 1802 he was appointed Gov- ernor of Newfoundland. Having been raised to the rank of admiral, he commanded the fleet which bombarded Copenhagen in 1807 and captured the Danish fleet. For this exploit he was raised to the peerage as a baron. In 1808 he quitted the admiralty, to take command of the Channel fleet against the French, from whom he took several ships. lie was one of the commissioners who negotiated a treaty of peace between England and the United States, at Ghent, in 1814. He obtained the rank of admiral of the fleet in 1830. Died in 1833. See Van Tenac, " Histoire generale de la Marine." Gam'bold, (John,) a learned English Moravian divine, born in South Wales about 17 10. He was for many years minister of the Moravian church in Lon- don, and was chosen a bishop in 1754. He published an edition of the Greek Testament, (1742,) "Hymns for the Use of the Brethren," (1748,) a " Short Summary of Christian Doctrine," (1767,) and other works. He had a high reputation for piety and talents. Died at Haverford West in 1 771. See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century." Gamelia, a surname of Juno, which see. Gamelin, gSm'l^N', (Jacques,) a French historical painter, born at Carcassonne in 1739; died in 1803. Gamelius, a surname of Jupiter, which see. Gam'mel, (William,) an American writer, born at Medfield, Massachusetts, in 1812. He graduated at Brown University in 1831, and was appointed professor of rhetoric in that institution in 1836, and of history and political economy in 1850. He also made nume- rous contributions to reviews, and wrote the Life of Roger Williams, and that of Governor Samuel Ward, in Sparks's "American liiography," and other works. Gamon, gt'moN', (Christophe,) a French poet, born at Annonay about 1575, wrote "The Week, or Creation of the World," (1609,) a poem, in which he explains and maintains the Copernican system. Died in 162 1. Gamon, (Franqois Joseph,) a French poet, born about 1763. In 1792 he was a Girondist member of the Convention, Died in 1832. Gamperlin. See Graf. Gand, (or Ghent,) Henry of. See Goethals. Gand-har'va, [Hindoo pron. giind-hur'va,] some- times written Gandharba. In the Hindoo rriythology, the Gandharvas are celestial musicians, who live in Swerga, (the heaven of Indra,) or else attend on the superior gods, as Siva, Krishna, (Vishnu,) etc. Gandini, gin-dee'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, born at Brescia about 1550; died in 1630. Gandini, (Giorgio,) or Giorgio del Grano, an Italian painter, born at Parma, was a pupil of Correggio. Died about 1538. Gando, gSNMo', (Nicolas,) a skilful type-founder, was born at Geneva, and lived in Paris. He made im- provements in the printing of music. Died about 1767. Gandolfi, gSn-doKfee, (Bartolommeo,) born at Tor- ria, in Italy, in 1753, was professor of natural philosophy in the College di Sapienza at Rome from 1792 to 1824. He published, besides other useful works, a treatise on Earthquakes, (1787.) Died in 1824. Gandolfi, (Gaetano,) an able Italian historical painter and engraver, born in the province of Bologna in 1 734, was professor in the school of Bologna. The Italians regarded him as one of the first artists of his time. His works are admired for correctness of design, gracefulness of expression, and harmony of dair-obsair. Died in 1802. See Grii.i.i, " Elogio di Gandolfi;" Malvasia, " Felsina pit- trice;" Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Gandolfi, (Mauro,) a skilful engraver and painter, a son of the preceding, died in 1834. Gandolfi, (Uhaldo,) a painter, brother of Gaetano, noticed above, was born in 1728; died in 1781. Gandolfo, gJn-doKfo, (Domenico Antonio,) an Au- gustine monk, born at Vintimiglia about 1645, wrote memoirs of eminent writers who belonged to the order of Augustines, (1704.) Died in 1707. Gan'don, (James,) an English architect, born about 1742. He studied under Sir William Chambers, and won the first gold medal for architecture ever awarded by the Royal Academy. He acquired a high reputation by erecting ])ublic buildings in Dublin, among which is the Custom-House, (finished in 1791,) one of the finest structures of its class in the world. He edited the "Vi- truvius Britannicus," (3 vols., 1767-71.) Died in 1824. Gan'dy, (James,) an English portrait-])ainter, born in 1619, was an imitator of Van Dyck. Died in 1689. Ganesa, ga-na'sa, written also Gandga and Gan§- sha, in the Hindoo mythology, the god of prudence and policy, is said to be the eldest son of Siva and Parvati. He is represented with an elephant's head and trunk, a symbol of sagacity. He is identified by some writers with the Roman Janus, (which see.) He is sometimes called Polle.^r. See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." Ganga. See ParvatT. Ganganelli. See Clement XIV. Ganilh, ^t'whV or gt'ne'ye, (Charles,) a French writer and lawyer, was boiri^at Allanche (Cantal) in 1758. He was a member of the Chamber of Deputies from 1815 to 1823. He wrote "The Theory of Political Economy founded on Facts," (2 vols., 1815-22,) and other works. Died in 1836. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, 11, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; GANNJL 993 GAR CJO Gannal, gt'ntK, (Jean Nicolas,) a French chemist and inventor, born at Sarre-Louis in 1791. He became about 1816 assistant of Thenard in his lectures in Paris. He invented a process for refining borax, an elastic roller for printing-presses, and a process for embalming dead bodies by injection, for which he received the Montyon prize of the Institute, about 1835. Died in 1852. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Gan'nett, (Ezra Stiles,) an American Unitarian divine, born at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1801. He graduated at Harvard College in 1820, was ordained in 1824, and subsequently became the colleague of Dr. Channing, after whose death he succeeded to the pastoral charge of the Federal Street Church in Boston. He was for some years associate editor of the "Christian Examiner." Mr. Gannett holds a prominent place among the conservative Unitarians of New England. Gans, ginss, (Eduard,) an eminent German jurist, of Jewish extraction, born in Berlin in 1798. He studied under Hegel and Thibaut at Heidelberg, and became an earnest advocate of the philosophical, as opposed to the historical, school of jurisprudence. In 1820 he pub- lished his "Scholia on Gains," ("Scholien zum Gajus,") in which his views are ably set forth, and which caused much excitement among his opponents. He brought out in 1824 his "Law of Succession in its Historical De- velopment," esteemed one of the most admirable works of the kind. Soon after this he was appointed professor of law at Berlin, where he obtained the highest reputa- tion and success as a lecturer. His " Lectures on the History of Modern Times" were afterwards published, and are regarded as models of eloquence, wit, and erudi- tion. Among his other works we may name " Retrospect on Persons and Conditions," (1836,) and "The Basis of Possession," (1839.) Died in Berlin in 1839. See Marheineke, "Rede am Grabe des Professor Dr. Gans," 1S39; Saint-Marc Girardin, " Jldouard Gans," in the "Revue des Deux Mondes" for December i, 1839; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Gansevoort, gJnss'voort, (Peter,) an American officer, born at Albany, New York, in 1749. He de- fended Fort Stanwix with success in 1777 during a siege of twenty days, for which important service he received the thanks of Congress. In 1809 he became a brigadier- general in the United States army. Died in 181 2. Gaiiteaume, g6N't5m', (Honors Joseph,) Count, a French naval officer, born at La Ciotat in 1755. After serving in the American war (1779) and in the East Indies, he obtained the rank of caj^tain in 1794. In 1798 he was wounded at the battle of Aboukir, and became a rear-admiral, with the command of the fleet employed on the coast of Egypt. He escorted Bonaparte from Egypt to France with two frigates in 1799, and was ap- pointed a councillor of state. In 1804 he was raised to the grade of vice-admiral. Louis XVIII. made him a peer in 1815. Died in i8i8. See "Nouvelle Biographie G^n^rale." Gan-y-me'des, in English Gan'y-mede, [Gr.Tavv- (iTjdri^ ; Fr. Ganymede, gt'ne'mid',] a personage of clas- sic mythology, represented as the son of Tros and the cup-bearer of Jupiter, who selected him for that office on account of his extraordinary beauty. Gaoutama, the French of Gautama, which see. Garamond, gt'rt'm6N', (Claude,) a celebrated en- graver and type-founder, born in Paris. He surpassed all his predecessors in the fabrication of types. Francis I. employed him to engrave for editions of ancient au- thors the Greek characters since known by the name of Garamond. Died in 1 561. Garampi, gi-rSm^pee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian anti- quary and writer, born at Rimini in 1725, was made a cardinal by Pope Pius VI. Died in 1792. Garasse, gt'rtss', (Francois,) a French Jesuit and popular preacher, born at Angouleme in 1585, noted for his scurrility and buffoonery, wrote many violent contro- versial works, among which was " La Doctrine curieuse des Beaux-Esprits de ce Temps," (1623.) Died in 1631. Garat, gt'rt', (Dominique Joseph,) a French revo- lutionist and popular writer, was born near Bayonne in 1749. He gained literary distinction by his eulogies on Fontenelle and others, and took four prizes of elo- quence awarded by the French Academy between 1779 and 1784. In 1790 he became a member of the Con- stituent Assembly, of which he reported the proceedings in the "Journal de Paris." He succeeded Danton in 1792 as minister of justice, in which capacity it devolved on him to notify Louis XVI. that the Convention had sentenced him to death. He expressed his repugnance to this "frightful commission." He was minister of the interior for a short time in 1793, and was admitted into the Institute in 1795. Under the regime of Napoleon he became a senator, a count, and president of the In- stitute. Garat was excluded from office and from the Academy on the restoration of 181 5. Besides many political treatises, he wrote "Memoirs of the Life of M. Suard," (1820.) Died in 1833. See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution;" Armand Marrast, "Notice sur D. J. Garat," 1838; Villenave, "Notice sur la Vie de D. J. Garat;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Garat, (Pierre Jean,) a celebrated vocalist, nephew of the preceding, was born at Ustarits in 1764. ?Ie was styled "the Modern Orpheus," "the Musical Proteus," etc. Died in 1823. Garavaglia, gi-rl-vai'yS, (Gtovita,) a skilful Italian engraver, born at Pavia in 1790. He engraved "The Holy Family," after Raphael, (1817,) "Beatrice Cenci," after Guido Reni, "The Infant Jesus with John," after C. Maratta, and other works. He became a professor in the Academy of Florence in 1833. Died in 1835. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Garay. See Lagaraye. Garay, [Hun. pron. gor'oi,] (JAnos,) a popular Hun- garian poet, born at Szekszard in 1812. He wrote "Csatar," (1834,) a heroic poem, "Elizabeth Bathory," a drama, (1840,) a volume of lyric verses called "The Pearls of Balaton Lake," (1843,) which were received with favour, and several popular ballads. Died in 1853. Garay, de, di gi-ri', (Juan,) a Spanish general, born at Badajos in 1541. He went to South America in his youth, fought with distinction against the natives, ex- plored a vast region on the Parana, and was appointed a lieutenant-general about 1576. He founded Buenos Ayres in 1580, soon after which he was killed by some savages who surprised him at night. See FuNES, " Ensayo del Historia civil del Paraguay," etc., Buenos Ayres, 1816. Garay, de, (Don Martin,) a Spanish financier, born in Aragon in 1760, was called the Necker of Spain, He became minister of finance about 1814, and proposed a plan of financial reform which gave much offence to the nobles and clergy. Died in 1822. Gar'bett, (James,) an English theologian, born about 1773, was archdeacon of Chichester, and professor of poetry at Oxford. Among his works are " Christ as Prophet, Priest, and King ; Eight Lectures at Bampton Lecture," (1842,) and "The Beatitudes of the Mount, in Seventeen Sermons," (1853.) Died in 1857. Garbieri, gaR-be-a'ree, (Lorenzo,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1580, was a pupil of L. Caracci,of whom he is called one of the best imitators. He preferred for his subjects scenes of carnage or sorrow. Among his works is "The Plague at Milan." Died in 1654. See Lanzi, "History of Paiilting in Italy;" Malvasia, " Felsina pittrice." Garbo, del, d^l gaR'bo, (Dino,) a Florentine physi- cian, was professor in the University of Bologna. He was physician to the pope John XXII., and wrote treatises on medicine. Died in 1327. Garbo, del, (Raffaelino,) an Italian painter, born at Florence in 1466. Among his best works is "The Resurrection of Christ." Died in 1524. Gargao or Garcam, gaR-sowN', (Pedro Antonio Correa — kor-ra'i,) a Portuguese lyric poet, called "the Portuguese Horace," was born in Lisbon in 1724, or, as some say, 1735. He wrote sonnets, satires, and odes, which are admired for good sense and elegant taste, and is reputed the best lyric poet that Portugal produced in the eighteenth century. He also wrote "Theatro Novo," a drama. His complete works were published in 1778. He died in 1772, in prison, where he was con- fined by Pombal for a reason which is not explained. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." € as 5 as s; g hard; g as /; G, h, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (S^^'See Explanations, p. 23,) 63 G ARC AO 994 GARDANE Gargao-Stockler, gaR-sowN' stok'ler, ? (Francisco DE BORJA,) a Portuguese mathematician, a nephew of the preceding, was born at Lisbon in 1759. He published an "Account of the True Principles of the Method of Fluxions," (" Memoria soljre os verdadeiros Priucipios do Methodo dos Fluxoes," 1797,) "Histo- rical Essay on the Origin and Progress of Mathematics in Portugal," (1819,) and other able works. He was chosen Captain-General of the Azores in 1820. Died in 1829. Garces, gaR'th^s, (Julian,) a Spanish bishop and pulpit orator, born in Aragon about 1460, was appointed chaplain to Charles V. and preacher to his court. In 1527 he was ordained Bishop of T[ascala, in Mexico. He wrote an "Epistle to the Pope in Favour of the Indians." Died about 1547. Garcia or Garzia, gar-see'a or gaR-//zee'i, I., Count of Castile, born at Burgos in 938 A.D., succeeded his father, Fernando Gonzales, in 970. He defeated the redoubtable Almansor at Osma in 984. The latter having again invaded Castile in 990, Garcia gave him battle, and received a mortal wound. He was reputed a wise and just prince. Garcia (or Garzia) II., Count of Castile, grandson of the preceding, succeeded his father, Don Sancho, in 1022, at the age of fourteen. His virtues and -talents gave promise of a prosperous reign ; but he was as- sassinated by the Counts of Vela, in the prime of life, about 1030. Garcia or Garzia, gaR-///ee'a, or Garcias, gaR- Mee'as, King of Navarre, born at Tudela in 958 A.D., began to reign in 994. He was called "the Trembler," because his frame was agitated just before battle, and was the author of the saying, " My body trembles at the dangers to which my courage is about to expose it." In 998 Garcia and his allies defeated Almansor the Saracen in the great battle of Calacana9or or Caltanazor. Died in looi. Garcia, (Jos^: Hidalgo.) See Garzia. Garcia, (or Garzia,) (Manuel,) an eminent teacher of music, was born at Madrid in 1805. He became pro- fessor of music in Paris and London, and wrote, besides other musica,! treatises, " School of Garcia : Complete Treatise on the Art of Singing," (" Ecole de Garcia : Traite complet de I'Art du Chant," 1841.) The famous actress and singer Pauline Viardot is his sister. Garcia, (or Garzia,) (Manuel de Populo Vicente — da po'poo-lo ve-th§n'ti,) a Spanish composer and singer, born at Seville in 1775, was the father of the preceding and of Madame Malibran. He lived many years in Paris and London, where he taught music and performed with great success on the stage. He com- posed several successful operas, among which is " The Caliph of Bagdad," (1812.) About 1825 he visited the United States. Died in Paris in 1832. Garcia, (Pauline.) See Viardot. Garcia de Mascarenhas, gaR-see'S d^ mls-kJ- rgn'ySs, (Braz, or Blaise,) a Portuguese poet, born at Avo in 1596. He enlisted in the army in 1614, went to Brazil, and fought against the Dutch. He returned to Lisbon in 1640, and was appointed Governor of Alfa- yates, which he defended against the Spaniards. Having been imprisoned on a false charge of conspiracy or trea- son, he wrote a poetical letter to John IV., escaped from prison, and obtained an interview with the king, who was satisfied of his innocence and restored him to office. His principal work is " Viriato," a national epic poem, (1699,) which, says the "Biographic Universelle," "en- titles him to rank among the best epic poets of Portugal after Camoens." Died in 1656. See Barbosa Macuauo, " Ribliotheca Lusitana ;" J. M. da Costa e Sylva, "Ensaio biografico-critico sobre os melhores Poetas Poituguezes," 1854, vol. vii. Garcia (or Garzia) de Paredes, gaR-//^ee'a d^ pi- ra'D^s, (Don Diego,) a brave Spanish officer, born at Truxillo in 1466, served in the. war against the Moors which resulted in the conquest of Granada, and after- wards, under Gonsalvo de C6rdova, against the French. Like the Chevalier Bayard, to whom "he is compared in loyalty and honour, he never held very high positions, though he had captured eight fortified places, besides taking part in thirty-two battles and sieges. He distin guished himself at Pavia in 1525. Died in 1530. See SiSMONDi, "Histoire des R^publiques Italiennes;" Guic- ciardini, " Historia Bellorum Italije ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Geii^- rale;" De Vargas, " Vida de D. Garzia de Paredes," 1621. Garcias Laso. See Garcilaso. Garcias y Matamoros, gak-Z/zee'Ss e ma-tl-mo'r(5s, (Alphonso,) a learned priest, born at Cordova, in Spain, in 1490, left a single Latin work, " On the Academies and Learned Men of Spain," (1553.) Died about 1550. Garcilaso (or Garcilasso) de la Vega, gaR-^'/?e- Wso di li va'gi, (or Garcias Laso, gaR-//zee'Ss lS.'so,) a Spanish poet of superior merit, born at Toledo in 1503, His name is sometimes written Garsias Lasso. He entered in early youth the army of Charles V., under whom he made several campaigns, and distinguished himself at the battle of Pavia, (1525.) He commanded thirty companies of the Imperial army that invaded France in 1536, and was mortally wounded in the retreat from Marseilles. Died at Nice in November of that year. He acquired a durable and wide reputation by his pastoral and lyrical poems, and his successful efforts, in concert with his friend Boscan, to reform Spanish poetry by the introduction of the Italian measure, which forms an epoch in the literary history of Spain. Garcilaso excels in tenderness and pathos, and has been styled " the Spanish Petrarch." His works, which are com- prised in one small volume, (1553,) consist of above thirty sonnets, three eclogues, and a number of odes and elegies. His first eclogue, which many poets have imitated but none has equalled, would alone suffice to immortalize his name as that of one of the best poets of Spain. See SisMONDi, " Literature of the South of Europe ;" Ticknok, "History of Spanish Literature;" E. F. de Navarrrte, "Vida del celebre Poeta Garcilaso de la Vega," 1850 ; Bouterwek, " His- toire de la Littdrature Espaguole ;" Nici^ron, " M^moires ;" "Lyric Poetry of Spain," in the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1824. Garcilaso. de la Vega, surnamed the Inca, a Spanish historian, born at Cuzco, in Peru, about 1530. He derived his surname from his mother, who was a native princess, a descendant of the Incas. After col- lecting materials for the history of Peru, he went to Spain in 1560, and obtained a pension from Philip 11. His history of Peru, entitled " Comentarios reales que tratan del On'gen de los Incas," (1609,) is esteemed for its fidelity and accuracy. He also wrote an account of the conquest of Florida by De Soto, (1605.) His death is variously dated from 1568 to 1616. See TiCKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature ;" Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. i. book. ii. Garcilasso (or Garcias Lasso) de la Vega y Var- gas, gaR-///e-lds'so di 13. va'gi e vaR'gSs, (Sehastian,) a Spanish officer, was the father of the preceding. He went to Mexico with Alvarado, whom he aided in the conquest of Guatemala. He served with distinction under Pizarro in Peru, which he entered in 1534, and fought against Almagro in 1542. He became Governor of Cuzco in 1548. Died in 1559. Garcin de Tassy, gtR^s^N' deh tt'se', (Joseph H^;- liodore,) a French Orientalist, born at Marseilles in 1794, was chosen a member of the Academy of In- scriptions, in place of Talleyrand, in 1838. He became professor of Hindostanee at the " ficole de Langues orientales vivantes," in Paris. He published, among other works, a " History of Hindostanee Literature," (2 vols,, 1837.) Garczynski, gaR-chin'skee, ( Stephen, ) a Polish statesman, who was appointed vaivode of Kalisch and palatine of Posen. He wrote the "Anatomy of the Kingdom of Poland," (i75i-) Died in 1755. Gardane, gtR^dtn', (Antoine,) a French general, born in Provence about 1760, became general of division about 1798, won distinction by his conduct at Marengo in 1800, and took part in the campaigns against Austria and Prussia in 1805 and 1806. Died in 1807. Gardane, (Joseph Jacques,) a French physician and medical writer, born in Provence, practised in Paris about 1770. He wrote several treatises on syphilis. Gardane, de, deh gtR'dtn', (Mathieu Claude,) Comte, a French officer, born in Marseilles in 1766, acted as aide-de-camp to Napoleon in 1804, and distin- a, e, T, o, ii, y, long; i, ^ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; tlr, fill, fit; m§t; ndt; good; moon; GARDEN 995 GARELLI guished himself at Austerlitz, Jena, and Eylau. In 1807 he was sent as ambassador to Persia. Died in 1818. Gar'den, (Alexander,) F.R.S., a British botanist, born in Edinburgh about 1730. He practised medicine for manv years in Charleston, South Carolina, and cor- responded with Linnaeus, to whom he furnished informa- tion on the natural history of Carolina. He contributed to the "Philosophical Transactions" of London. Died in England in 1791. The genus Gardenia was named in honour of him by Linnjeus. Gar'den, (Alexander.) an American officer, who served in the war of the Revolution as aide-de-camp to General Greene. He wrote " Anecdotes of the Revo- lutionary War in America, with Sketches of Character," etc., (1822.) Died about 1825. Garden, (Francis,) called also Lord Gardenstone, a Scottish judge, born in Edinburgh in 1721. After he had practised at the bar with credit, he was chosen solicitor of the king in 1764, and judge of the court of sessions. He published a work entitled "Travelling Memoranda," (3 vols., 1792-95,) the result of his travels on the continent. Died in 1793. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionarj- of Eminent Scotsmen." Gardenstone, Lord. See Garden, (Francis.) Gardie, de la, deh la gaR'de', (Jakob,) Count, a skilful Swedish general, son of Pontus, noticed below, was born in 1583. He commanded the Swedish army against the Russians in the reign of Charles IX., subjected a large part of Muscovy, and advanced with his victorious army to Moscow, where a truce was negotiated. Gustavus Adolphus, having ascended the throne, renewed the war, and made his first campaign under the tuition of Count de la Gardie. After the peace of 161 7 he became senator and minister of war. Died in 1652. See J. ScHEFFER, " Oratio in obitum J. de la Gardie," 1652. G^die, de la, (Magnus Gabriel,) an able Swedish statesman, son of the preceding, was born in 1622. In the reign of Charles X. (whose sister La Gardie mar- ried) he commanded one of the armies. Under Charles XI. he was grand chancellor, and for about twenty years principal minister of state. Died in 16S6. Gardie, de la, deh It gtR'de', (Pontus, p6N'tiiss',) an able general, born at La Gardie, in France, about 1530. He entered the service of the King of Sweden about 1565, and commanded the army of Duke John in the war which resulted in the dethronement of Eric XIV., (1568.) He became a baron, field-marshal, and senator. About 1583 he was commander-in-chief of the Swedish arm)-, and gained advantages over the Russians in Li- vonia. He was drowned near Nar\'a in 1585. See De Thou, "Histoire universelle ;" Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary' ;" C. Oernhielm, " Vita illustrissimi Herois P. de la Gartie," 1690; "Svensk Plutarch," vol. ii. ; " Nouvelle Biogra- phie Gtn^rale." Gardin-Dumesnil, gtRM3.N' dii'mi'n^l', (Jean Bap- TISTE,) an eminent French professor and scholar, born at Saint-Cyr in 1720. In 1758 he became professor of rhetoric in the College of Harcourt, Paris, where he lec- tured many years. He wrote a work entitled " Latin Synonyms,'" '(1777.) Died in 1802. 'Gardiner, gardener, (Allan,) Lord, an English ad- miral, born at Uttoxeter in 1742, entered the navy in 1755. He served against the Americans and French, and commanded the Duke in the battle of April 12, 1782. Having been for several years a member of the admiralty, he obtained the rank of rear-adiniral in 1793, with coinmand of the fleet stationed near the Leeward Islands. He distinguished himself in the Channel fleet, under Lord Howe, in the battle of June i, 1794. In 1800 he was promoted to the rank of admiral. He sat in several Parliaments, and was raised to the English peerage, as Baron Uttoxeter. Died in 1809. Gardiner, (Captain Allen F.,) an English naval officer, born in 1794. He went as a missionary to Pata- gonia, and published "Voice from South America," (1847.) Died in 1851. Gardiner, gardener, (James,) a Scottish officer, emi- nent for his piety and courage, was born at Carriden in 1688. He was wounded at Ramillies, (1706,) and after- wards rose to the rank of colonel. He commanded a regiment of dragoons against the Pretender at Preston- pans, where he was killed, in 1745. The circumstances of his death are minutely described by Scott in " Wa- verley." See " Some Remarkable Passages in the Life of Colonel James Gardiner," by Rev. Philip Doddridge, 1796; Chambers, "Bio- graphical Dictionarj- of Eminent Scotsmen." Gardiner, gard'ner, (John,) an American lawyer, born in Boston in 1731. As a member of the legislature of Massachusetts, he procured the abolition of the law of primogeniture, and promoted several legal reforms. Died in 1793. Gardiner, (John Sylvester John,) an Episcopal clergyman, a son of the preceding, was born in South Wales in 1775. He became rector of Trinity Church, Boston, in 1805. He was distinguished as a scholar and a writer. Died in 1830. See DuvcKi.NCK, "Cyclopasdla of American Literature," vol. i. Gardiner, (Richard,) an English divine, born at Hereford in 1591. He became a canon of Christ Church in 1629, and chaplain to Charles I. in 1630. He wrote, besides other works, " Model of Oratory," ("Specimen Oratorium," 1653,) '^'^^ ^ volume of sixteen Sermons, (1659.) Died in 1670. Gardiner, (Stephen,) Bishop of Winchester, an Eng- lish prelate and statesman, was born at E!ury Saint Ed- mund's in 14S3. At Cambridge he made hihiself master of Greek and Latin and of civil and canon law. While employed as secretary by Cardinal Wolsey, he attracted the notice and favour of Henry VIII., who in 1527 chose him as a commissioner to negotiate with the pope the divorce of Queen Catherine. Soon after his return he was made secretary of state, and in 1531 Bishop of Win- chester. He strenuously opposed the Protestant Re- formers, and urged the king to punish them with severity. He courted the favour of Henry VIII. by aiding him to procure divorces, but gave offence to him by being too officious in preparing the impeachment of Catherine Parr. Gardiner was an enemy of Cranmer, whom he attempted to convict of heresy, but without success. In the reign of Edward VI. he was committed to the Tower in 1548, and confined about five years. Queen Mary, having ascended the throne, hastened to reward him by the office of chancellor of England and the principal direction of affairs in church and state. The sanguinary persecutions of that reign are attributed to his influence by Hume, who says, "The severe manners of Gardiner inclined him to support by persecution that religion which at the bottom he regarded with great indifference." Died in 1555. "There was," says Froude, "something in Gardiner's character which was not wholly execrable. For thirty years he worked unweariedly in the service of the public; his judgment as member of the council was generally excellent. . . . He was vindictive, ruthless, treacherous ; but his courage was indomitable." See Froude's " History of England," vol. vi. chap, xxxiii. ; also Hume's and Lingard's Histories of England ; Burnet's "History of the Reformation." Gardiner, (Sylvester,) an American physician, father of John Gardiner, noticed above, was born in Kingston, Rhode Island, in 1717, and practised in Boston. Died in 1786. Gardiner, (Willl\m,) a skilful engraver, born in Dublin in 1766. He was a pupil or assistant of Bar- tolozzi. Among his works are "Illustrations of Shak- speare" and of other English authors. He committed suicide in 1 8 14. Gardiner, (William,) an English writer on music, born in 1770. He published "Music of Nature," " Sights in Ital}-," and other works. Died in 1853. Gardner, (George,) M.D., a Scottish botanist, born at Glasgow about 1812. He explored Brazil and other parts of South America, in which he passed several years, 1836-41. Having returned to England, he pub- lished " Travels in the Interior of Brazil," (1846.) He died in Ceylon in 1849. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary' of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Garelli, gS-rel'lee, (Pio Niccolo,) born at Bologna in 1670, became first physician to the Emperor of Germany. He wrote a treatise on " Viviparous Gene- ration." Died in 1739, € as k; c as g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) GJRENGEOT 996 GARNET Garengeot, de, deh gt'rSN'zho', (Ren 6 Jacques Croissant — kuwa'sSN',) a French surgeon, born at Vi- tre in 1688. He began to lecture on anatomy in Paris in 1725, and was chosen P^ellow of the Royal Society of London in 1728. He became surgeon-major of the king's regiment in 1742, and wrote several treatises, among which is "Traite des Operations de Chirurgie," (2 vols., 1720.) Died in 1759. Garet, gt'ra', (Jean,) a French scholar and Benedic- tine, born at Havre in 1627. He published an edition of Cassiodorus, (2 vols., 1676.) Died in 1694. Gar'field, (James A.,) an American general, born in Cuyahoga county, Ohio, in 1831. He was a teacher and a lawyer before the civil war, and became a brigadier- general early in 1862. He was elected a member of Congress from the nineteenth district of Ohio in Octo- ber, 1862, served as chief of staff of General Rosecrans in 1863, and was raised to the rank of major-general for his services at Chickamauga in September of that year. He was elected to Congress by the Republicans in 1866 and 1868. He was appointed in 1867 chairman of the committee on military affairs. Garibaldi, gir-e-biKde, [It. pron. gS-re-blKdee,] (Giuseppe,) a celebrated Italian patriot and general, born at Nice, July 4, 1807. He entered the navy in early youth. Having become an active friend of liberty, he was ban- ished in 1834. About 1836 he took arms for the re- public of Uruguay, and fought against Brazil for several years. Before the end of this war he married a South American lady, named Anita, who afterwards shared with him in Italy the dangers of his military career. In 1844 he volunteered to defend Montevideo against Rosas, and led his Italian legion to victory at San An- tonio in 1846. He quitted South America in the spring of 1848, and joined the Italian patriots in the war against Austria. He offered his services to King Charles Albert, but was treated by him with coldness and distrust. After the flight of the pope, he took an active part in founding the Roman Republic and in the defence of Rome against the French army in April and May, 1849. Duiing the siege of Rome he displayed great heroism, and gained several victories over the Neapolitans, who threatened that city. Whqn the French captured Rome in July, 1849, Garibaldi escaped with several hundred men, and, after passing through many desperate adventures and conflicts with the Austrians, was again driven into exile, and became in 1850 a resident of New York. He worked for some time in a manufactory of candles near that city, and afterwards made several voyages in the Pacific. Early in 1859 he offered his services to the King of Sardinia, and, having formed a detached corps, called *' Hunters of the Alps," he gained several victories over the Austrians, at Varese, Como, etc. Having raised a small army for the liberation of Southern Italy from the domination of the Bourbon King of Naples, he landed at Marsala, in Sicily, in May, i860. He speedily took Palermo and Messina, and, crossing over to the main- land in August, occupied the city of Naples about the 8th of September. His army, reinforced by many Libe- rals of Southern Italy, defeated the troops of King Francis in October, i860, and expelled him from the country, which was soon after annexed to the kingdom of Italy. Garibaldi afterwards retired to his home in the island of Caprera. In April, 1862, he was appointed general-in-chief of the Italian national guard. He en- gaged in the summer of 1862 in an enterprise which was disapproved by the Italian government, and came into collision with the royal troops at Aspromonte, where he was wounded in the foot and taken prisoner. In 1864 he visited England, where he was received with great enthusiasm. He fought against the Austrians in the short war of 1866, at the head of a corps of volun- teers ; but the hostilities were ended by a truce before he came to any decisive action. On several occasions he inflamed the patriotism of his countrymen by eloquent addresses. Acting without the authority of the Italian government, he raised, in the summer of 1867, an army for the liberation of Rome, which he wished to annex to the kingdom of Italy. In an address to the people of Rome, dated September 16, he said, "Break the rings of your chains on the necks of your oppressors, and henceforth you will share your glory with the Italians." He was arrested, by the order of the king, at Sina- lunga, September 23, and confined, but soon escaped, and invaded the Papal States with a body of troops, who were defeated at Mentana by the papal forces and their French allies in November, 1867. See his "Autobiography," edited by Alexandre Dumas, and translated into English by W. Robson, i860 ; "Garibaldi at Caprera," by Colonel Vecchj, with a Preface by Mrs. Gaskell, London, 1862; "Westminster Review" for October, 1859. Garibay y Zamalloa, gS-re-Bi' e tha-mai-yo'i, (Es- TEBAN,) a Spanish historian, born at Mondragon in 1525, He was appointed in 1563 historiographer by Philip II., and published a "Compendium of the Chronicles and History of Spain," (4 vols., 1571.) Died in 1593. Garidel, gS^re'd^K, (Pierre,) a French physician and botanist, born at Manosque in 1659; died in 1737. Gariel, gt're-^K, (Pierre,) a French historian, born at Montpellier about 1582, wrote a "History of Mont- pellier," and other works. Died in 1670. Garissoles, gt're'soK, (Antoine,) a French poet and Protestant divine, born at Montauban in 1587. He be- came pastor of the Calvinist church and professor of theology in his native town in 1627. He wrote Latin with purity and remarkable facility. Besides several approved works on theology, he wrote (1649) a Latin poem on the exploits of Gustavus Adolphus, entitled "Adolphis," and a few other poems. Died in 1651. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Gar''land, (Hugh A.,) an American lawyer and writer, born in Virginia in 1805. He was chosen clerk of the House of Representatives by the Democrats in 1838. He wrote a " Life of John Randolph," (2 vols., 1850.) Died in 1854. Garland, (Robert R.,) an American officer in the Confederate army, became a brigadier-general, and was killed in the battle of South Mountain in 1862. Garlande, de, deh gSn'lSNd', } (Jean,) a poet of the eleventh century. The English and French both claim him as a native of their respective countries. Little is known of his history. Among the numerous works that bear his name are Latin poems on the " Mysteries of the Church," and on "Contempt of the World," " Facetus," a poem on the " Duties of Man," and " Floretus," or "Liber Floreti." Died after 1080. Garnaud, gtR^nd', (Antoine Martin,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1796; died in 1861. Garneray, gtRn'ra', (Ambroise Louis,) a French painter of marine views, born in Paris in 1783. He served several years in the navy. He painted naval battles with success, and designed and engraved many views of French ports. He was employed for about ten years in the porcelain-manufactory of Sevres. Garneray, (Auguste Sim^;on,) a painter, brother of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1785. He was pa- tronized by the empress Josephine and Queen Hortense. Died in 1823 or 1824. Garneray, (Jean FRANgois,) a French painter of history and portraits, father of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1755. Among his works are a portrait of Charlotte Corday, and a picture of "Louis XVI. in the Teinple." Died in 1837. Garnerin, gtRn'riN', (Andr6 Jacques,) a noted French aeronaut, born in Paris in 1769, was the first who descended from a balloon by a parachute, (1797.) At the coronation of Napoleon, in 1804, he was employed to celebrate the event by sending up a large balloon, which, it is said, was wafted by the wind to Rome, and, after soaring over the Vatican, struck against the monu- ment of Nero, the next day after its ascent. Died in 1823. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Garnerin, (Jean Baptiste Olivier,) an aeronaut, a brother of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1 766 ; died in 1849. Gar'net, (Henry,) an English Jesuit, born at Not- tingham about 1555. Having become a Roman Catholic, he visited Rome and joined the Society of Jesus in 1575. He was appointed superior of the English Jesuits in 1586, and resided in or near London at the time of the Gunpowder Plot. For complicity in this affair he a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moun; GJRNETT 997 GAROFALO was tried, convicted, and hung in May, 1606. (See Fawkes, Guy.) He was regarded as a martyr by the Catholics, who admit that the plot had been revealed to him as a confessor, but assert that he discouraged it. See Hume, "History of England," chap. xlvi. ; Gardiner, "History of England from 1603 to 1616," chap. v. Gar'nett, (James Mercer,) an American agriculturist, born in Essex county, Virginia, in 1770. He was one of the principal founders, and the first president, of the United States Agricultural Society, and wrote many able papers on agriculture and other subjects. Died in 1843. Garnett, (Rich.ard B.,) an American general, born in Virginia, graduated at West Point in 1841. He com- manded a brigade of General Lee's army, and was killed at Gettysburg, July 3, 1863, aged about 'forty-four years. Garnett, (Robert Selden,) an American general, born in Virginia about 1821, graduated at West Point in 1841. He was aide-de-camp to General Taylor in the Mexican war, and became a captain in 185 1. Having taken arms against the Union in 1861, he obtained a command in Western Virginia, ^^e was defeated and killed at Carrick's Ford in July, 1861. Garnett, (Thomas,) an English physician, born at Casterton in 1766. He obtained in 1796 the chair founded by Anderson at Glasgow, and lectured on chemistry at the Royal Institution of London in 1 799-1 800. He pub- lished, besides other works, "Observations on a Tour through the Highlands," (2 vols., 1800,) and "Lectures on Chemistry," (1801.) Died in 1802. Garnier, gtR'ne-a', (Adolphe,) a French philoso- phical writer, was fiorn in Paris in 1801. He became in 1838, at the Sorbonne, assistant, or substitute, of M. Jouffroy, to whose chair he afterwards succeeded. Among his works are a "Treatise on Social Morals," ("Traite de Morale sociale," 1850,) and a "Treatise on the Faculties of the Soul," ("Traite des Facultes de I'Ame," 3 vols., 1852,) which was crowned by the Academy in 1853. Garnier, (Charles Georges Thomas,) a French litterateur zx\A advocate, born at Auxerre in 1746, pub- lished "Dramatic Proverbs," (1784,) "The Cabinet of the Fairies," (41 vols., 1785,) and other fanciful produc- tions. Died in 1795. He was a brother of Germain Garnier, noticed below. Garnier, (Clement Joseph,) a French political economist, born in the county of Nice in 1813. He was professor of political economy in the ficole des Ponts et Chaussees, Paris, from 1846 to 1856, and edited the "Journal des Economistes" about ten years, ending in 1855. Among his works is one called " Elements of Political Economy," (1846.) He belongs to the advanced Liberal school, Garnier, (£tienne Barth^lemy,) a French his- torical painter, born in Paris in 1759, studied in Rome, where he painted " Diogenes asking Alms of a Statue." He returned to Paris in 1793. His "Desolation of the Family of Priam" (1800) was admired," says the " Nou- velle Biographic Generale," "as one of the grandest pages of French painting." Among his master-pieces is "The Miracle performed on the Deaf-Mute," (1831.) Died in 1849. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Garnier, (Francois Xavier Paul,) a French jurist, born at Brest in 1793. He published works of high authority, among which is " Regime des Faux," or a Treatise on the Waters of the Sea, Rivers, etc., (5 vols., 1839-51.) Garnier, (Germain,) a French economist, born at Auxerre in 1754, was a brother of Charles Georges Tho- mas, noticed above. He emigrated with the royalists in 1793, and returned in 1795. He was appointed prefect of the department of Seine-et-Oise in 1800, a senator in 1804, and president of the senate in 1809. At the resto- ration of 1814 he became a member of the Chamber of Peers. He was afterwards appointed a minister of state by Louis XVHL He made a translation of Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations," (5 vols., 1805,) which is the best in the French language, and published several treatises on currency, statistics, and political economy. Died in 1821. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Garnier, (Jean,) a French Jacobin, born at Saintes in 1754, was a member of the Convention, 1792-94, and passed into the Council of Five Hundred in 1795. Having been exiled in 181 5, he went to the United States, and was drowned in the Ohio in 1820. Garnier, (Jean,) a learned French Jesuit and casuist, born in Paris in 1612, professed rhetoric, philosophy, and theology in Paris for many years. He wrote, in Latin, "Theses of Moral Philosophy," (1651,) "Journal of the Roman Pontiffs," ("Liber diurnus Romanorum Pontifi- cum cum Notis," 1680,) and other works. Died in 1681. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Garnier, (Jean Guillaume,) a French mathemati- cian, born near Guise, Picardy, in 1766, was professor of astronomy at Ghent from 181 7 to 1830. He published, besides many other works, " Lessons on the Integral Calculus," (3d edition, 1812.) Died in 1840. See QuETELET, "Notice sur J. G. Garnier," 1841. Garnier, (Jean Jacques,) a French historian, born at Gorron, near Mayenne, in 1729. He went to Paris about 1747, and obtained a place as tutor in the College of Harcourt. He afterwards became professor of He- brew in the College of France, to which he rendered eminent services as inspector. In 1761 his essay "On the Origin of the French Government" gained the prize of the Academy of Inscriptions, and opened to him the doors of that institution. He published in 1764 the "Man of Letters," and a "Treatise on Civil Educa- tion." He succeeded Villaret as historiographer, and published a continuation of Velly and Villaret's " His- tory of France," (1765-85.) Died in 1805. "He is cold, prolix, and monotonous," says Walckenaer. See Dacier, "Notice sur la Vie de Garnier," 1806; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Garnier, (Robert,) a French tragic poet, born at La Ferte-Bernard (Maine) in 1534, published in 1568 the tragedy of " Porcie," which was very successful, and was followed by "Cornelia," "Mark Antony," "Antigone," " Les Juives," and several others. They were highly esteemed and often reprinted. Henry IV. made him councillor of state. Died in 1590. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Garnier de I'Aube, gtR'ne-a' deh lob, a French revolutionist, born about 1760, was a partisan of Danton in the Convention. Died about 1812. Garnier-Deschenes, gtR'ne-a' da'shen', (Edme Hi- laire,) a French jurist and writer, born at Montpellier in 1732, lived in Paris. Died in 1812. Garnier-Pages, glR^ne-a' pt'zh^s', (Stienne Joseph Louis,) a French political orator, born at Marseilles in 1801. He studied law, joined the Liberal party in poli- tics, and was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1831. He professed the republican faith, but was prudent and practical, and acquired distinction as a speaker on finan- cial questions. He was re-elected in 1834 and in 1837. Died in 1841. "This orator," says Lamartine, "whose renown increased at each discourse, was with respect to the tribune what Carrel was in journalism, — a movement towards the future." ("History of the Restoration.") See L. de Lomenie, "M. Garnier-Pages," 1840: " Histoire popu- laire de Garnier-Pages," 1841 ; M. de Cormenin, "Livre des Ora- teurs." Garnier-Pages, (Louis Antoine,) a republican financier, half-brother of the preceding, was born at Marseilles in 1805. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1842. He spoke with ability on financial affairs, was re-elected in 1846, and was a member of the provisional government formed by the revolutionists of February, 1848. Having become minister of finance on the 5th of March, he provided for the public exigencies by a land-tax, the forced circulation of bank or treasury notes, (billets de banqiie,) and other measures. His management of the finances is highly praised by Lamar- tine. In May, 1848, Garnier-Pages was chosen by the Assembly a member of the executive committee of five. He has since been elected to the Corps Legislatif. See L. DE Lomenie, "Galerie des Contemporains ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." CS-arofalo, gi-ro'fi-lo, or Garofano, gS-ro'fS-no, the surname of an excellent painter of the Roman school, who was born at Garofalo, near Ferrara, in 1481. His •e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, y., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) GAROFALO 998 GARRISON proper name was Benvenuto Tisio. He went to Rome about 1500, and was a pupil of G. Baldini. He after- wards studied or worked with Raphael, of whom he was an enthusiastic admirer and excellent imitator. After he parted from Raphael he worked mostly in Ferrara, where he painted in fresco and oil. Among his works are a copy of the "Transfiguration," (in oil,) *' The Mas- sacre of the Innocents," and "The Resurrection of Laza- rus." He was an admirable colorist. Died in 1559. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- ing in Italy;" Domenico C. Moka, " Vite di U. Tisio da Garofalo e di G. F. Barbieri," 1842. Garofalo, [Lat. Caryoph'ilus,] (Biagio,) a learned priest and antiquary, born in Naples in 1677, wrote a "Dissertation on Ancient Marbles," (1738.) Died in 1762. Garouda. See Gakuda. Garran de Coulon, gt^6N' deh koo'l^N', (Jean Fhilippe,) a French lawyer, born in 1749. He was a moderate member of the Convention of 1792, voting against the death of the king. He became a senator, a member of the Institute, and a count. Died in 1816. Garrard, gar^rard', written also Geerards or Gee- raerts, (Mark,) a Flemish painter, was born at Bruges about 1526. He worked some years in England, where he died about 1588. His son Mark, born in 1561, was a portrait-painter in England. He had a high reputation. Died in 1635. Gar'rett-son, ( Freeborn, ) a popular Methodist preacher, born in Maryland in 1752; died in 1827. Gar'rick, (David,) a famous English actor, born at Hereford in 1716. His father's family was of French descent. In 1735 ^ pupil of Dr. Johnson, (at Lichfield,) whom in the next year he accompanied to London. Here Garrick studied law in Lincoln's Inn for a short period. Having for several years cherished a growing inclination for the stage, he made his debut at Ipswich in 1741, with coinplete success, and in the autumn of that year acted in the theatre of Goodman's Fields, in London, with a rapidly-growing popularity. He made his appearance in Drury Lane for the first time in May, 1742. His performance of "Richard HI." was thought to excel all the efforts of former actors, and drew from Pope the prediction that Garrick would never have a rival. In 1745 he visited Dublin and performed for one season in the Royal Theatre. In 1747 he pur- chased, in partnership with Lacy, Drury Lane Theatre, of which he continued to be manager until he retired from the stage in 1776. In 1749 he married a danseuse of Vienna, Eva Maria Violette, who is said to have been an exceedingly estimable woman. He possessed in a pre- eminent degree the art of imitating the physiognomy of others and the expression of various emotions, and was equally at home in tragedy and comedy. His voice was sonorous and melodious, and even in a whisper it filled the whole house. His character, accomplishments, and matchless colloquial powers rendered him welcome in what is styled the best society. He also exercised his talents with success in writing numerous comedies, pro- logues, etc., among which are "The Lying Valet," " Higli Life below-stairs," "The Clandestine Marriage," and " Miss in her Teens." He receives credit for reforming the English theatre by rejecting the more licentious dramas and expurgating others, so that Dr. Johnson declared he had augmented the stock of innocent pleas- ures. He was intimate with Lord Chatham, the Duke of Devonshire, Lord Lyttleton, and Dr. Johnson, whose friendship he retained to the end of his life. In 1777 he was invited by the king and queen to read a drama to them in their palace, and selected for this occasion his own farce of "Lethe." Though he was rewarded by the expression of their satisfaction, he described its effect as like a "wet blanket," compared with the thunder of applause he usually received. He amassed, it is said, a fortune of ^^140,000. He died in February, 1779, and was buried with great pomp, beside the tomb of Shak- speare, in Westminster Abbey. See "Garrick's Private Correspondence with the Most Celebrated PersoiiS of his Time, with a Biographical Memoir," 2 vols., 1S31-32; T. Davies, "Memoirs of the Life of D. Garrick," 2 vols., 1780; C. Blasis, "Biografia di D. Garrick," Milan, 1840; P. Fitzgerald, "Life of David Garrick," 2 vols., 1868; Arthur Murphy, "Life of Garrick," 2 vols., 1801 ; " Quarterly Review" for July, 1868. Gar'ri-son, (William Lloyd,) an American philan- thropist, the great leader of the advocates of immediate emancipation in the United States, was born in New- buryport, Massachusetts, December 12, 1804, (not in 1805, as stated in some publications.) When about fourteen, he was apprenticed to a cabinet-maker ; but, being strongly averse to this occupation, he prevailed upon his master to release him. Shortly after, he was placed with Mr. E. W. Allen, editor of the "Newbury- port Herald," to learn the art of printing. He soon became expert in the mechanical part of the business. About this time he began to write (at first anonymously) for the " Herald" and other papers. He once had the satisfaction of receiving from Mr. Allen, through the post-office, a letter in which the editor expressed his thanks to his unknown correspondent for his communi- cations and hoped that he would still continue to write for the " Herald." Before he was twenty years old, he contributed to the "Salem Gazette" a series of ably- written articles, which attracted much attention. About this time the struggle of the Greeks for freedom awa- kened the interest of the friends of liberty in every part of the civilized world : young Garrison's sympathy was so strongly excited for the cause, that he seriously con- tenijDlated, it is said, entering the Academy at West Point, that he might fit himself for a military career. On the expiration of his apprenticeship, in 1S26, he became the conductor of a ])aper of his own, called the " Free Press," which was published at Newburyport. It proved, how- ever, unsuccessful, and was soon discontinued. In 1827 he became the editor of the "National Philanthropist," published in Boston, and the first paper in America devoted to the advocacy of the cause of "total absti- nence." Towards the end of 1829 he accepted an invi- tation from Benjannn Lundy to assist in the editorship of the "Genius of Universal Emancipation," published in Baltimore. This journal had previously advocated the gradual abolition of slavery ; but in the very first number that was issued after Garrison became associated with it, he distinctly avowed the doctrine that immediate emancipation was the right of the slave and the duty of the master. Not long after, he denounced with great severity certain persons engaged in the domestic slave- trade, and declared his purpose to "cover with thick infamy" all who were implicated therein. He was in consequence tried and convicted for a libel. Being unable to pay the costs, he was committed to prison, where he remained nearly two months. At length Mr. Arthur Tappan, a merchant of New York, paid his fine and released him. On the 1st of January, 1831, he began, in Boston, the publication of "The Liberator," a weekly journal, de- voted to the advocacy of the most decided and uncom- promising anti-slavery views. He took for his motto " My country is the world, my countrymen are all mankind." His unsparing denunciation of slavery and of all those connected with it, met with sympathy in some portions of the country ; but it excited in the Southern States, as was naturally to be expected, the most intense exaspera- tion. Almost every mail brought letters from the South filled with threats of violence and eveii of assassination. The legislature of Georgia went so far as to offer a re- ward of five thousand dollars to any one who should arrest, bring to trial, and prosecute him to conviction under the laws of that State. So great was the excite- ment produced by the "Liberator," in even many parts of the North, that his life was more than once in the utmost peril in the capital of Massachusetts itself. Many of his friends, believing him to be in danger of assassi- nation, entreated him to go armed in self-defence ; but his non-resistent principles prevented him from com- plying with their request. In 1840 he was sent as a delegate to the World's Anti-Slavery Convention held in London ; but he refused to take his seat, because the female delegates from the United States were excluded. After many years of long and earnest labour in the cause of emancipation, Mr. Garrison lived to see at first a great though gradual change in the public sentiment of the North in regard to slavery, and at last the fetters of the slave broken, according to a view which he had enter- tained for some years, — that slavery could be abolished only a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fdr, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; mv>on ; GARSAVLT 999 GARZONI by a dissolution of the Unioti ; but not, as he had once hoped, through the influence of moral suasion alone, and without fighting or bloodshed. In May, 1865, he resigned the presidency of the Anti-Slavery Society, — an office which he had held uninterruptedly for twenty-two years, (having been first elected in 1843 ;) and in Decem- ber of the same year the "Liberator" was discontinued, the great object for which it had been established having, in his view, been fully accomplished. Not long afterwards his friends set on foot a subscrip- tion designed as a national testimonial for his long and faithful labours in the anti-slavery cause. About thirty thousand dollars were raised, and presented to him in March, 1868. See Mrs. Stowe, "Men of our Times," Hartford, 1868. Garsault, de, deh gtR'so', (FRANgois Alexandre,) a French author, born about 1692, was a member of the Academy of Sciences, and captain of the royal stud. He wrote useful treatises on the treatment of the horse and on certain mechanic arts, among which are "The Perfect Farrier," (1741,) and "The Horseman's Guide," (1759.) Died in 1778. Garth, (Sir Samuel,) an English physician and poet, born in Yorkshire. He settled in London about 1691, acquired a large practice, and was noted for his wit and colloquial powers. He was interested in the subject of Dispensaries, which originated in his time and were opposed by the apothecaries ; and for the purpose of ridiculing the latter he wrote the " Dispensary," a mock- heroic poem, (1699,) which ran through many editions, each of which was corrected by the author and, as Pope thought, improved by the change. Garth wrote also several prologues, epigrams, and other small poems, and translated a part of Ovid's "Metamorphoses." About 1 7 14 he was knighted by George L, who ap- pointed him royal physician and physician to the army. He enjoyed the friendship of Pope, Addison, and other literary men. Died in 1718. See Johnson, "Lives of the Poets;" Spence, "Anecdotes;" " Biographia Britannica;" Gibber, "Lives of the English Poets." Gartner or Gaertner, ggRf'ner, (Bernhard Au- gust,) a German jurist, born at Cassel in 1719; died in 1793. Gartner or Gaertner, (Johann Andreas,) a Ger- man architect, born at Dresden about 1742, was the father of Friedrich von Gartner, noticed below. He worked in Vienna, Coblentz, Wiirzburg, and Munich. In the last city he was employed by the king as Hofbau- intendant. Died in 1826. Gartner, (Joseph,) an eminent German botanist, born at Calw, in WUrtemberg, in 1732. He became professor of botany at Saint Petersburg in 1768; but, because the climate did not suit him, he returned to Germany in 1770. He devoted many years to the study of fruits and seeds as a basis of classification, and published the results in an important work entitled "Carpology; or, Treatise on the Fruits and Seeds of Plants," (Carpo- logia, seu De Fructibus et Seminibus Plantarum," 2 vols., 1789-91,) which is regarded as a classic work. Died in 1 791. See ERSCHund Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;"Deleuze, "filoge de J. Gartner," and German translation of the same, Stutt- gart, 1805; " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Gartner, (Karl Christian,) a meritorious German critic and writer, born at Freiburg, in Saxony, in 1712, was a friend of Gellert and Ramler. He was professor of eloquence at the Carolinum College of Brunswick from 1747 until his death. He rendered useful services to German literature as editor of a journal called " Bre- mische Beitrage." He wrote a popular comedy called "Fidelity Proved," ("Die gepriifte Treue," 1768,) and other works, in prose and verse. Died in 1791. See Meusel, " Lexikon der vom Jahre 1750-1800 verstorbenen Deutschen Schriftsteller." Gartner or Gaertner, von, fon g^Rt'ner, (Fried- rich,) a German architect, born at Coblentz in 1792. He studied in Paris in 1812, and subsequently spent several years in Rome. He was appointed professor of architecture at Munich in 1820, and was soon after em- ployed by the prince, afterwards king, Louis, to co-ope- rate in the improvements he had projected. Among his principal edifices are the Ludwigskirche, the University, the Befreiungshalle, all at Munich, and an arched hall m the style of the Loggia di Lanzi at Florence. About 1840 he built at Athens a splendid palace for King Otho. Died in April, 1847. Gar'u-da, [common Hindoo pron. gur'do-da or giir'- dod ; called in the poj^ular dialect Giir'oor,] in the Hin- doo mythology, the vahan* or vehicle of Vishnu, a crea- ture half man and half eagle, whose office it is to oear the preserving deity in all his journeys through the air, which is the appropriate element of Vishnu. Garuda is conitnonly said to be the son of Kasyapa and Vinata, (whence he is sometimes called Vinateya, vin-a-ta'ya ;) although some legends make him the offspring of Kasya- pa and Diti. As the eagle of Jupiter is often represented as holding in his talons the thunderbolt, so Garuda is sometimes pictured as bearing a bow and arrows. He is usually painted with green or blue wings. Garuda is supposed to be a personification of the sky, which apparently supports the sun, one of the symbols of Vishnu. (See Vishnu.) See Moor's " Hindu Pantheon ;" Coleman's "Mythology of the Hindus." GarufS, gS-roof fee, (Giuseppe Malatesta,) an Ital- ian poet and antiquary, born at Rimini in 1655. He wrote "II Rodrigo," a musical drama, (1677,) said to be the first example in Italy of a drama performed by a single person. Died about 1710. Garve, gaR^'eh, (Christian,) a German philosopher and moralist, born at Breslau in 1742. He studied at Leipsic, and in 1769 succeeded Gellert as professor of philosophy in that city. He resigned this chair, on ac- count of ill health, about 1772. He translated Burke's "Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful," and Ferguson's " Moral Philosophy," and wrote, besides several essays on moral philosophy, a treatise " On the Connection of Morals with Politics," (1788,) and "On Society and Solitude," (1792.) He was called by Kant a philosopher in the best sense of the word. Died in 1798. See Manso, "Garve nach seinem schriftstellerischen Character," 1799; S. G. DiTTMAR, " Erinneiungen aus meineni Unigange mit Garve," etc., 1801 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Geneiale." Garzi, gaRd'zee, (Luigi,) an eminent Italian painter, born at Pistoia in 1638, was a pupil of Andrea Sacchi, and was successful in various branches of his art, which he practised in Naples and Rome. His style resembles that of Carlo Maratta. His drawing was true, and his touch easy and mellow. Pie excelled in the representa- tion of Madonnas and infants. Died in 1721. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ticozzi, "Diz-io- nario :" Pascoli, "Vite de' Pittori," etc. Garzia. See Garcia. Garzia de Miranda, gaR-Mee'S di me-rSn'da, sur- named el Manco because he had lost his right hand, was born in 1677. He was painter to Philip V., and an excellent artist. Died in Madrid in 1749. Garzia (or Garcia) Hidalgo, gaR-/'//ee''a e-daKgo, (Jos6,) a skilful Spanish painter of history, born at Mur- cia about 1656, became court painter to Philip V. of Spain. Died in 1712, See Quilliet, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." Garzoni, gaR-zo'nee, (Giovanni,) a learned Italian physician and litterateur, born at Bologna in 1419, wrote a Latin "History of Saxony," (1518.) Died in 1506. Garzoni, (Pietro,) a Venetian historian and senator, wrote a continuation of Foscarini's " History of Venice," ("Istoria della Republica di Venezia," 3 vols., 1705- 16.) The last part relates the events of the war of the Spanish succession, (1701-13.) Died probably about 1720. Garzoni, (Tommaso,) an Italian author and monk, born at Bagnacavallo in 1549. He published several works remarkable for their oddity and erudition, among which are " La Piazza universale di tutte le Profes- sioni del Mondo," (1585,) "The Hospital of Lunatics," (1586,) and "The Synagogue of the Ignorant," (1589.) The first of these was once a popular performance. It * Etymologically related to the German Wagen, (a "carriage" or " vehicle,") to which it corresponds so nearly in sound. It is derived from the Sanscrit verb vdh, {or vek,) to "carry," which is cognate with the Latin verb veh-o, having the same signification. k;<^2i%s;%hard;gz.%j; G,'a.,Y., guttural; ]s, nasal; ik, trilled ; s as thasin this. (g^^See Explanations, p. 23.) GJSCA lOOO GAS PARING treats at great length of all the professions, pursuits, trades, and occupations of man. Died in 1589. See Ghilini, " Teatro d'Uomini letterati ;" Niceron, " Me- moires ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Gasca, de la, di la gas'kS, (Pedro,) a Spanish bishop, born at or near Plasencia in 1485, was eminent for his skill in negotiation, and was employed by Charles V. in several delicate and difficult missions. Having been sent to England with secret instructions in 1542, he was successful in forming a coalition with Henry VHI. against Francis I. In 1546 he was made president of the Royal Audiencia of Lima, and sent with vice-regal power ♦o Peru, where he adroitly suppressed, without much fighting, the rebellion of Gonzales Pizarro. He returned 1.' 1549, and became Bishop of Palencia. Died in 1560. See Prescott, "History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. i. ; CiECA DE Leon, "La Cronica del Peru*" 1554; "Nouvelle Biogra- phic Generale." Gascoigne, gas-koin', (George,) an English poet, born in Essex about 1535. He served in Holland under the Prince of Orange, and was afterwards a courtier and an attendant of Queen Elizabeth on one of her stately journeys. He wrote, besides other poems, the " Steel Glass," a satire, (1576,) "Jocasta," a tragedy, and the "Comedy of Supposes." Died in 1577. "His minor poems," says Hallam, "especially one called 'The Ar- raignment of a Lover,' have much spirit and gaiety." " He has much exceeded all the poets of his age," says Warton, "in smoothness and harmony of versifi- cation." See Wood, "Athense Oxonienses." Ga.scoigne, [Lat. Gasco'nius,] (Sir William,) an English judge, noted for his moral courage, was born in Yorkshire about 1350. He was appointed chief justice of the king's bench by Henry IV. in 1401. During the trial of a riotous person who was a companion of Prince Henry, the latter struck or insulted Gascoigne, who vin- dicated the majesty of the law by committing the prince to prison. (See Shakspeare's "Henry IV.") On the accession of the prince as Henry V., (1413,) Gascoigne, says Hume, " met with praises, instead of reproaches, for his past conduct." Died about 1420. See Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Chief Justices ;" Foss, " The Judges of England." Gasconius, the Latin of Gascoigne, which see. Gascoygne or Gascoigne, (William,) an English astronomer, born in Yorkshire about 1621. He invented the micrometer about 1641. He fought for Charles I., and was killed at Marston Moor, July, 1644. Gas'kell, (Mrs. Elizabeth C.,) an English authoress, born about 1822, was the wife of a Unitarian clergy- man of Manchester. Her maiden name was Steven- son. She produced, in 1848, a popular novel, entitled " Mary Barton, a Tale of Manchester Life," and main- tained her literary reputation by other works of fiction, among which are "The Moorland Cottage," (1850,) and "Ruth," (1853.) She was a friend of Charlotte Bronte, of whom she published a very interesting Life, (2 vols., 1857.) She was for several years a regular con- tributor to " Household Words." Her other principal works are the novels of " North and South," " Cran- ford," " Sylvia's Lovers," and " Wives and Daughters :" she left the last unfinished at her death, in 1866. "Mrs. Gaskell," says George Sand, "has done what neither I nor other female writers in France can accomplish : she has written novels which excite the deepest interest in men of the world, and which every girl will be the better for reading." For an interesting and admirable article on Mrs. Gas- kell's writings, see the " British Quarterly" for April, 1867 ; from it we extract the following : " It is hardly pos- sible to read a page of her writing without getting some good from it The style is clear and forcible, the tone pure, the matter wholesome. . . . Other novel-writers of her generation [may] have more poetry, more scholar- ship, more grace, eloquence, and passion ; but in the art of telling a story she has no superior, perhaps no equal." Of her unfinished " Wives and Daughters" the reviewer says, "We do not hesitate to pronounce it the finest of Mrs. Gaskell's productions, — that in which her true womanly nature is most adequately reflected, that which will keep her name longest in remembrance." See, also, "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1849; "Westminster Review" for April, 1849; "North British Review" for May, 1853; "Gentleman's Magazine" for February, iS66. Gasnevides. See Gaznevides. Ga.sparin, de, deh gIs'pt'riN', (Adrien Etienne Pierre,) CoMrE, a distinguished French rural economist and minister of state, born at Orange (Vaucluse) in 1783, was a son of T. A. Gasparin, noticed below. He gave special attention to agriculture, on which he wrote many able treatises. After the revolution of 1830 he was suc- cessively prefect of La Loire, of Isere, and of the Rhone. He was minister of the interior from September, 1836, to April, 1837, during which period he made a reform in the treatment of convicts. He filled the same office in the brief ministry formed in March, 1839, and was ad- mitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1840. Among his works is an excellent "Course of Agriculture," (5 vols., 1843-49.) Died in September, 1862. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Gasparin, de, (Agi^nor Etienne,) Comte, a son of the preceding, a Protestant by birth and conviction, and an eminent publicist and friend of liberty and order, was born at Orange in 1810. In early youth he was secretary to M. Guizot, minister of public instruc- tion. He became auditor to the council of state, and was secretary to his father in 1836 and 1839. In 1842 he was elected by the voters of Bastia to the Charnber of Deputies, in which he advocated religious liberty for Protestants and the liberation of slaves. He wrote, besides other works, " Slavery and the Slave-Trade," (1838,) "Christianity and Paganism," (2 vols., 1850,) "The Schools of Doubt and the School of Faith: an Essay on Authority in Religion," (1853.) In 1846 he retired from political life. The great rebellion in the United States afforded him the subject of two remark- able and successful works, called "The Uprising of a Great Nation," ("Un grand Peuple qui se releve," 1861,) and "America in the Presence of Europe," ("L'Ame- rique devant I'Europe," 1862.) Died in 1871, Gasparin, de, Madame, the wife of the preceding, and known as an authoress and moralist of a high order, was born about 1815. Among her works are " Marriage from the Christian Point of View," (3 vols., 1843,) which received the Montyon prize of the French Academy, "Some Defects of Christians at 'the Present Day," " Monastic Corporations in the Heart of Protestantism," (2 vols., 1855,) and three volumes of tales, entitled "Near Horizons," ("Les Horizons prochains,") "Hea- venly Horizons," ("Les Horizons celestes,") and "Ves- per," (1862.) See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Gasparin, de, (Thomas Augustin,) a French revo- lutionist, born of a Protestant fainily at Orange in 1740 or 1750, was the father of Count Adrien, noticed above. He was elected in 1792 to the Convention, in which he acted with the Jacobins. He was on a mission to the army of the north when the defection of Dumouriez transpired, and confirmed the loyalty of the troops. In 1793 he was one of the commissioners who directed the siege of Toulon. It is stated that his influence induced the general to adopt in this siege the plan of Bonaparte, who in his will expressed his gratitude by a legacy of one hundred thousand francs to the heirs of M. de Gasparin. Died in November, 1793. See Lamartine, "History of the Girondists;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Gasparini, gas-p^-ree'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian composer, born at Lucca about 1655, was a professor of music in Venice. He composed many operas and can tatas, which were admired, and a work called " L'Ar- monico prattieo al Cembalo," (1683.) Died in 1727. Gasparino, gSs-p.\-ree'no, surnamed Barzizza or Barzizzio, (from the place of his birth,) an Italian scholar, born near Bergamo about 1370, was professor of belles-lettres in Padua and Milan from 1407 to 143 1. He is regarded as one of the restorers of sound litera- ture and pure Latinity. Among his works is a treatise on Composition. By the diligent study of Cicero, he acquired an elegant style, and was reputed the best writer a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; i, ^, 6, same, less pr olonged ; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fSU, f^t; mSt; nfit; good; moon; GASP RE looi GASTJLDI of that generation. Several of his orations are extant, and are the earliest models of classical declamation in modern times. A volume of his epistles was the tirst book ever printed at Paris, (in 1471.) Died in 1431. See FuRiETTi, "Vita Gasparini," prefixed to Gasparini's Works, Rome. 1723; Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Latina medise et infimse iEtatis." ' Gaspre, Le. See Dughet. Gasse, gSs'si, (Stefano and Luigi,) two able Italian architects, born at Naples in 1778, were twin brothers, and partners in their profession. They studied in Rome, and were employed in the construction of palaces and public buildings in Naples, among which are the Ob- servatory, the Dogana, (custom-house,) and the Palazzo Montemiletto. Luigi died in 1833, and Stefano in 1840. Gassendi, gt'sSN'de', (Jean Jacques Basilien,) born at Digne, in France, in 1748. He obtained the rank of a general of brigade in 1800. The First Consul gave him command of the artillery just before the battle of Marengo, in which he took part. Gassendi became a general of division in 1805, a councillor of state in 1806, and a senator in 1813. He published a volume of poems. Died in 1828. See QuKRARD, " La France Litteraire." Gassendi, gas-sSn'dee, [Fr. pron. gt'sSNMe'; Lat. Gassen^dus,] written also Gassend, (Pierre,) born at Champtercier, near Digne, in Provence, January 22, 1592, was one of the most eminent philosophers and savants of France, and one who added lustre to almost every branch of learmng, being at the same time historian, naturalist, mathematician, astronomer, logician, Hellenist, metaphy- sician, and critic ; and all this at a period when the sci- ences had scarcely emerged from their infancy. lie is regarded as the most universal genius of that age. The first disciple of Bacon in France, he was also the cor- responflent and friend of Galileo and Kepler. Destined for the church, he studied at Aix and Avignon, and, at the age of twenty-one, obtained the chairs of philosophy and theology in the University of Aix. Though required to conform in his lectures to the doctrines of Aristotle, he early perceived the fallacy of that system, and by his studies prepared himself to become one of the leaders in that great controversy which resulted in depriving the philosopher of Stagira of the ])restige of infallibility which he had so long enjoyed. Having obtained a bene- fice in the cathedral of Digne, and the office of provost, he resigned in 1623 the place of professor, and next year published the first volume of his '* Paradoxical Essays against Aristotle," which made a great impression on the public mind, and was followed a few years later by a second volume with the same title. About this period he devoted most of his leisure to the study of the clas- sics and to researches in anatomy and astronomy. In 1642 he attacke'd the philosophy and bold inno- vations of his friend Descartes, with whom he became involved in controversy, refuting, with modest doubts, the dogmatism of his opponent. He was appointed in 1645 professor of mathematics in the College Royal of Ps'ris, where his lectures on Astronomy were admired and largely attended by the elite of the capital. In 1647 ap- peared one of his best-known works, " The Life, Opinions, and Morals of Epicurus," ("De Vita, Moribus et Placitis Epicuri,") whose memory he defends against the accusa- tions of the Stoics, at the same time exposing and com- bating those parts of his system which are at variance with Christianity. His admiration for Epicurus furnished some narrow-minded or envious persons with a pretext to accuse him of skepticism ; but this charge is refuted by the tenor of his entire life. In 1654 he published the "Lives of Tycho Brahe, Copernicus, and other Astrono- mers," with a preface, in which he reviewed, in a lumi- nous manner, the history of astronomy. Gassendi was the first to observe the transit of Mercury, (in 163 1.) The parhelia, the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, and the magnetic needle afforded him subjects for careful and profound research. The mind of Gassendi was penetrating and refined, his style elegant and clear, his manners simple and full of amenity. In his efforts to subvert the inveterate prejudices of the Schoolmen with respect to Aristotle and Epicurus, he has displayed a union of vast erudition, sound criticism, and mental independence. Marivat, having freely conversed with him while passing from Grenoble to Paris, without knowing his^name, de- sired on their arrival to be presented to the celebrated Gassendi, and was agreeably surprised to recognize his identity with the modest companion of his journey. Be- sides the works already referred to, he wrote, in Latin, treatises on the laws of motion, a " System of Epicurean Philosophy," (1649,) and "The Philosophical System of Gassendi," ("Syntagma Philosophicum," etc., 1658.) The last is rather an eclectic than an original system, a selection and combination of the doctrines taught in the various schools of antiquity. It may be observed that in that age nearly all the philosophers of France were ranged under the two parties of Cartesians and Gassendists. Died in 1655. See Bernier, "Abrege de la Philosophic de Gassendi," 1674; BouGEREL, "Vie de Gassendi," 1737; SoRBiifeRE, "DeVita et Mori- bus P. Gassendi," 1679; Menc, " Eloge de Gassendi," 1767; Cam- BURAT, "Abrege de la Vie et du Systeme de P. Gassendi," 1770; A. Martin, " Histoire de la Vie et des Ecrits de P. Gassendi," Paris, 1853; Brucker, " History of Philosophy;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Gassendus. See Gassendi. Gasser, gas'ser, (Johann Michael,) a learned Ger- man writer, born at Schweinfurt in 1700; died in 1754. Gasser, (Simon Peter,) a German jurist and econo- mist, born at Colberg in 1676. He was professor of law and of political economy at Halle, and is said to have been the first German who conceived the idea of treating political economy as a science. His chief work is an " Introduction to Economical and Political Sciences," (1729.) Died in 1745. See F. WiDEBURG, " Elogium S. P. Gasseri," 1746; Adelung, Supplement to Jocher's "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." Gassicourt, de, (Charles Louis Cadet.) See Cadet. Gassies, gt^se', (Jean Baptiste,) a French painter of history, marine views, and genre, born at Bordeaux in 1786. Amoaig his works is " Virgil reading the /Eneid to Augustus," (1814.) Died in 1832. Gassies, (Jean Baptiste,) a French naturalist, born at Agen in 1816. He published a "Description of the Terrestrial and Fresh-Water Mollusks of the Agenais," (1849,) and other works. Gassion, de, deh gt'se'6N', (Jean,) a French general, born at Pau in 1609, was attached to the Protestant cause, and served with distinction under Gustavus Adolphus as captain in 1631 and 1632. After the death of that prince he returned to the French army, in which he soon ob- tained the rank of marechal-de-camp. In 1643 he com- manded the right wing at the battle of Rocroy, under the famous Conde, who ascribed to him the honour of the day, saying, on the field of battle, as he embraced Gas- sion, " It is to you I am indebted for the victory." For this service he was rewarded with a marshal's bSton. He took part in several campaigns against the Spaniards in Flanders, and was killed at the siege of Lens in 1647. He was one of the most able and successful generals of his time. In reply to an officer who thought a certain enterprise impracticable, he said, " I have in my head, and at my side, all that is requisite for victory." Sec Renaudot, "La Vie du Marechal J. de Gassion," 1647; Michel ue Pure, " Vie de J. Gassion," 4 vols., 1673; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Gassner, gis'ner, (Johann Joseph,) a German exor- cist, or thaumaturgus, and Catholic priest, born at Bratz in 1727. He practised the imposition of hands for the cure of diseases. Died in 1779. Gast, (Rev. John,) the son of a French Protestant exile, was born in Dublin in 17 16, and became Arch- deacon of Glandclogh. He published " Rudiments of Greek History," (1754,) which is commended for style and other merits, and a " History of Greece from Alexander of Macedon until its Subjection by the Romans," (1782.) Died in 1788. Gastaldi, gis-tlKdee, (Girolamo,) an Italian prelate, born at Genoa. He was made Archbishop of Benevento, and cardinal, about 1658. Died in 1685. Gastaldi, gSs'tSl'de', (Jean Baptiste,) a French medical writer, born at Sisteron in 1674. He practised for many years at Avignon. Died in 1747. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) GJSTJUD I002 GJTTERER Gastaud, gts'to', (FRAwgois,) a French Jansenist and controversialist, born at Aix about 1660 ; died in 1732. Gasteli^, g^t'Ie-i', (Ren6 Georges,) a French phy- sician and medical writer, born at Ferrieres in 1741, practised in Paris with success. As a member of the Legislative Assembly, he gave offence to the Jacobins, by whom he was arrested in 1793, but was saved from death by the fall of Robespierre. Died in 1821. Gaston, gts''t6N', Viscount of Bearn, was one of the French lords who distinguished themselves in the first crusade in company with Raimond of Toulouse. He commanded a part of the army at the victory near Antioch in 1098, and was present at the capture of Jeru- salem, after which he returned home, (iioi.) He was killed in fighting against the infidels in Spain, about 1 130. Gas'tpn, (William,) an eminent American jurist, born at Newbern, North Carolina, in 1778, was chosen in 18 13 a member of the national House of Repre- sentatives, in which he sat four years and acquired a high reputation as a speaker. He was an influential leader of the Federal party. In 1834 he was appointed a judge of the supreme court of North Carolina. Died in 1844. See " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii. Gaston de Foix. See Foix, (Gaston de.) Gas'trell, (Francis,) an English theologian, born at Slapton (Northampton) in 1662. He became canon of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1702, and Bishop of Chester in 1 7 14. He published many approved religious treatises, one of which, entitled " The Christian Institutes ; or, Sincere Word of God," (1707,) has been often reprinted. He also wrote "The Certainty of the Christian Revela- tion," (1699.) Died in 1725. Gafa-ker, (Charles,) an English clergyman, born at Rotherhithe about 1614, was rector of Hoggeston for about thirty years. He wrote treatises against popery, and other religious works, among which is " The Way of Truth and Peace," (1669.) Died in 1680. See Wood, " Athenas Oxonienses." Gataker, (Thomas,) an English divine and critic of great learning, the father of the preceding, was born in London in 1574. He became rector of Rotherhithe, Surrey, in 161 1, and published in 1616 "Of the Nature and Use of Lots : a Treatise historical and theological." He subscribed the Covenant, and during the Common- wealth was in fellowship with the Presbyterians. Among his works are excellent commentaries on Isaiah and Jeremiah, published, with other "Annotations on the Bible," by the Assembly of Divines at W^estminster ; "Cinnus, seu Animadversiones Variae," 1651 ; and a commentary on Marcus Aurelius's " Meditations," with a Latin version. Died in 1654. See a "Life of T. Gataker," London, 1655; " Biographia Britan- nica;" "Memoir of T. Gataker," prefixed to his "Adversaria mis- cellanea posthuma," published by his son Charles in 1659; Niceron, " Memoires." Gates, gats, (Horatio,) a general, born in England in 1728, entered the British army at an early age. He served as captain in the army of General Braddock when that general was defeated and mortally wounded, near Pittsburg, in 1755. Retiring then from service, he bought an estate in Virginia, where he resided when the war of the Revolution broke out. Having espoused the popular cause, his military talents and experience pro- cured for him a rapid promotion. In 1776 he was made major-general, and appointed to the command of the Northern army, which had recently returned from the invasion of Canada and was in the vicinity of Ticonde- roga. General Schuyler was then in command of that district. In order to prevent a collision, Congress de- clared that in appointing Gates they had no intention to supersede the former, but wished these two officers to act in concert. The English general Carleton, with a large force on Lake Champlain, advanced as far as Crown Point, which he captured ; but, thinking the sea- son too late to besiege the Americans, he retired into winter quarters. At the return of spring, Schuyler had the sole command. After the capture of Ticonderoga by Burgoyne in July, 1777, all the Northern generals were recalled by Congress, in a fit of disgust and vexa- tion, and the choice of a new commander fell upon Gates, who assumed about the 22d of August the com- mand of an army of 6000 men, besides detached parties of militia. On the 19th of September was fought the battle of Benius Heights, which was terminated by the approach of night without decisive results. About this time a party of militia had made a successful attack on the British posts on Lake George, cut off Burgoyne's communications, and rendered his position very critical. The army of Gates was increased, September 22, by the arrival of militia under General Lincoln, who received command of the right wing. On the 7th of October, 1777, near the village of Stillwater, commenced another battle, in which the Americans had gained decisive advantages when darkness suspended the contest. The British lost a large part of their artillery and ammuni- tion, and during the night retired to higher ground, where in the morning they appeared in order of battle. After slight skirmishes on the 8th, Burgoyne abandoned his position on the 9th, and retreated six miles to Sara- toga, whither he was followed by General Gates and blockaded. Being reduced to great distress, he opened a treaty of capitulation, and surrendered, with the condi- tions that his army (amounting then to 5642 men) should give up their arms, artillery, and baggage, and be con- veyed to England under a pledge not to serve against the United States. The capture of this army produced great exultation among the Americans, and was one of the most important events of the war. Burgoyne and other British otficers bore testimony to the humanity of the victor in that campaign. In 1777 Gates was made president of the board of war. In 1780 he was ap- pointed to command the Southern army, consisting of 6000 men, chiefly militia. On August 6 he was totally defeated at Camden, in South Carolina, by Cornwallis, with a loss of 900 killed and of many prisoners. On ac- count of this disaster, Congress, on October 5, ordered inquiry to be made into the conduct of Gates, who was in consequence superseded in the command, and retired to his estate in Virginia. The inquiry resulted in an honourable acquittal ; but it appears he took no further part in the war. In 1800 he removed to New York. Died in 1806. See Bancroft, "History of the United States;" Hii.dreth, "History of the United States," vol. iii., chaps, xxxiii., xxxvii., and xl. GatTin, (Richard Casv^ell,) born in North Carolina about 1813, served in Mexico in 1845-46, and was made a brigadier-general of volunteers in the Confederate army in 1 86 1. Gatta, della, deKligit'tS, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian painter and architect, born about 1420, worked at Arezzo and Rome. Died about 1 500. Gatta-Melata, gat'ti ma-li'ti, ("Stefano Giovanni,) an able Italian condottiere, born at Narni. As a general in the service of Venice, he defeated the Marquis of Mantua in 1438. Died in 1443. Gatteaux, gt^to', (Jacques Edouard,) a French artist, born in Paris in 1788, engraved medals of Mon- taigne, Corneille, Racine, La Fayette, etc. Among his works are statues of Michael Angelo for the Louvre, and "Minerva," (1836,) which was purchased by the state. Gatteaux, (Nicolas Marie,) a French engraver of medals, father of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1 751. He engraved in 1798 the prize medal for the ficole de Medecine of Paris, which is regarded as his master-piece. He illustrated many historical events by medals, and made improvements in the mechanism of the art of engraving. Died in 1832. Gattel, gt't^K, (Claude Marie,) a lexicographer, born in Lvons, France, in 1743, published a French- Spanish Dictionary, (3 vols., 1790.) and a Portable French Dictionary, (1797.) Died in 1812. Gatterer, gSfter-er, (Johann Chrtstoph,) a German historian, born near Nuremberg in 1727. He became professor of history at Gottingen in 1759, and wrote numerous works relating to history, chronology, and genealogy, among which are "The Com]5lete History of the World," (2 vols., 1785-87,) "Universal Historical Library," (16 vols., 1767,) and "Elements of the Diplo- a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, ^, short; a, e, j, q, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; GATTERER 1003 GAUDICHAUD matic Art." He founded, in 1764, the Historical Insti- tute at Gottingen. Died in 1799. See Heyne, "Elogium J. C. Gattereri," Gottingen, 1800; J. G. EiCHHORN, "J. C. Gatterer; biographische Skizze," 1800. Gatterer, (Magdalene Philippine,) daugliter of the preceding, born at Gottingen or at Nuremberg in 1756, published a volume of poems, " Neue Gedichte," (1821,) which were favourably received. Died in 1831. Gattey, gt'ti', (Francois,) a French mathematician, born at Dijon in 1753, published "Elements of the New Metrical System," (1801,) and other works. Died in 1 819. Gatti, git'tee, (Bernardino,) an eminent Italian painter, surnamed IL Sogaro or Sogliaro, (s6l-yi'ro,) was born about 1495. Cremona, Pavia, and Vercelli dispute the honour of having given him birth. He was a pupil and successful imitator of Correggio, and worked in Cremona and Parma. Vasari speaks in praise of his skill. Among his master-pieces are frescos of " The Miracle of the Loaves," at Cremona, and *' The Ascen- sion," near Cremona. Died about 1575. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Bryan, "Dictionary of Painters." Gatti, (Gervasio,) an Italian painter, born at Cre- mona about 1555, was a nephew and pupil of the pre- ceding. His last works are dated in 1631. Gatti, (Giovanni,) an Italian Dominican friar, born at Messina about 1420, professed theology at Florence and Bologna, and in 1472 was made Bishop of Cefalu. He possessed an extraordinary memory, and was dis- tinguished for his attainments in languages, philosophy, mathematics, etc. Died in 1484. Gatti, (Girolamo,) an Italian painter, born at Bo- logna in 1662, was a pupil of Franceschini, of many of whose works he made good copies. Died in 1726. Gatti, (Oliviero,) an Italian engraver, born at Parma about 1570. He worked at Bologna for many years. Gattinara. See Arborio. Gau, gow or go, (Franz Christian,) an architect, born at Cologne in 1790. Having made a journey to Egypt and Nubia and designed many ruins, he published in 1823 "Antiquities of Nubia," with text by Niebuhr and Letronne. He added two volumes to the work on the "Ruins of Pompeii" which Mazois left unfinished. He was naturalized as a Frenchman in 1825, and de- signed several public buildings in Paris, by which he gained a high reputation. His chief work is the church of Saint Clotilde, commenced in 1846, the style of which is pointed, or ogivale. Died in 1853. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Gaub, gowp, or Gaube, gow'beh, [Lat. Gau'bius,] (Hieronymus David,) a German physician, born at Heidelberg in 1705, was a favourite pupil of Boerhaave, who procured him the succession to his chair of chem- istry at Leyden about 173 1. In 1733 he obtained in addition the chair of medicine, which he filled until his death. He published several valuable works, among which are "On the Government of the Mind which is within the Province of Medicine," ("De Regimine Mentis quod medicorum est," 1747,) and "Institutes of Pathol- ogy," (" Institutiones Pathologias," 1758.) Died in 1780. See Ersch unci Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" J. Bleu- LAND, " Oratio qvia Memoria H. D. Gaubii commendatur," 1792; "Biographie Medicale." Gaubert, gS'baiR', (Paul L^on Marie,) a French physician, born at Ernienonville in 1805, wrote, besides other works, "The Hygiene of Digestion," (1845,) which was very successful. Gaubii, go'hhV, (Antoine,) an eminent French mis- sionary and Jesuit, who did much to promote a know- ledge of the literature of Eastern Asia, was born at Gail- lac in 1689. He went to China in 1723, and attained such proficiency in the Chinese language and learning that the native doctors confessed his superiority. He was also well versed in the exact sciences and astronomy. The Chinese emperor employed him for thirty years as interpreter of the diplomatic correspondence with Russia, and in other important offices. Gaubil's learning was displayed in several profound works, the most remark- able of which is his translation of the "Shoo-King," (1771,) a canonical treasury of Chinese history and tradition. Pie published a " History of Jengis Khan ana the Mongol Dynasty," 1739. Died in Pekin in 1759. See A. UE Remusat, " Nouveaux Melanges Asiatiques ;" G. Pauthier, "La Chine;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Gaubius. See Gaub. Gaucher, go'shi', (Charles Etienne,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1740. He wrote " Iconologie," a treatise on Allegories and Emblems, (4 vols., 1796,) and other essays on art. Died in 1804. Gaucher de Chastilloii. See Chastillon. Gaucourt, go'kooR^, (Raoul,) a French commander, who fought for Charles VII. against the English. He was appointed grand master of France in 1450, and again in 1456. Gau'den, (John,) an English bishop and author, born at Mayland, Essex, in 1605. In 1640, being then favour- able to the popular party, he preached a sermon before the House of Commons, in consequence of which he obtained the deanery of Bocking. During the civil war and under the Commonwealth he kept his preferments, but ultimately joined the royalist party and wrote several tracts in its support. At the restoration he became, in 1660, chaplain to Charles II., and Bishop of Exeter ; but, as this did not satisfy him, he was, in 1662, transferred to the see of Worcester. His death, which occurred in 1662, was thought to have been hastened by the refusal of the king to reward him with the rich bishopric of Winchester. In soliciting preferment and royal favour, he claimed to be the real author of the famous " Eikon Basilike," or "Portrait of his Sacred Majesty in his Solitude and Sufferings," which was published a few days after the death of Charles I. and was generally supposed to have been written by that king. This book ran through many editions, and made so great an impression that the potent voice of Milton was invoked to counteract it. This question of authorship has been discussed at much length ; and the majority of critics seem to be agreed that Gauden was the author of the above-natned work, or at least had a share in its com- position. See Wood, "Athens Oxonienses;" Nichols, "Literary Anec- dotes;" " Biographia Britannica ;" " Edinburgh Review' for June, 1826, (vol. xliv.) Gaudentius. See Gaudenzio. Gaudentius, gaw-den'she-us. Saint, was chosen Bishop of Brescia about 387 a.d. He wrote the life of his friend Saint Philaster, and several discourses and sermons, which are still extant. Died about 420. See Cave, " Historia Literaria." Gaudenzi, gow-den'zee, (Pellegrino,) an Italian poet, born at Forli in 1749, removed to Padua in 1775. Pie wrote in 1781 "The Birth of Christ," ("La Nascita di Cristo,") which produced a vivid sensation and was much admired, and "La Campagna." He was endued with fine sensibility. Died in 1784. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degii Italiani illustri;" Meneghelli, "Elogio storico di P. Gaudenzi," 1811. Gaudenzio, gow-dgn'ze-o, [Lat.GAUDEN'Tius, J (Pa- GANINI,) an eminent savant and writer, born at Poschiavo, in Switzerland, in 1596, exchanged in youth Calvinism for the Catholic faith. From 1628 to 1648 he taught belles-lettres in the University of Pisa, then the most flourishing in Italy. He wrote, in Latin, many ora- tions, and dissertations on philosophy and antiquities, among which his " Rise and Progress of Philosophy among the Romans" (1643) is esteemed the best. Died in 1648. See Fabroni, "Vitse Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" Niceron, " Memoires." Gaudichaud - Beaupre, go' de' sh5' bo' pRi', (Charles,) a French botanist, born at Angouleme in 1780. He served as botanist of Freycinet's scientific expedition of 1816-20, and wrote the botanical part of the work which was the result of that voyage. In 1836 -37 he made a voyage around the world in the Bonite. Among his works are "Researches on Organography, Physiology, and Organogeny," (1841,) and "The Botany of the Voyage around the World in the Bonite." Died in Paris in 1854. See Louandre et Bourquelot, "La Litterature Frangaise;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" E. Pascallet, "Notice bio- graphique sur M. Gaudichaud-Beaupre," 1844. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) GAUDIN 1004 GAUTAMA Gaudin, go'diN', (Jean,) a French grammarian and Jesuit, born in Poitou in 1617, published a " Latin Gram- mar," and a " Dictionary of the Latin, Greek, and French Languages," (1680.) Died about 1690. Gaudin, gow-d^n', (Luis Pascal,) a Spanish painter of history, born at Villa-Franca in 1556 ; died in 1621. Gaudin, (Marc Antoine Augustin,) a French chemist, born at Saintes in 1804. He invented in 1827 an air-pump which compresses air or reverses that pro- cess at will, and discovered a method to convert beef into a substance like milk. Among his works are a "Practical Treatise on Photography," (1845,) and one on the "Grouping of Atoms," etc., (1847.) Gaudin, (Marfin Michel Charles,) Duke of Gaeta, an able French minister of finance, born at Saint-Denis, near Paris, in 1756. He was one of six commissioners of the treasury appointed by the Assembly in 1791, and was minister of finance from November 10, 1799, until April, 1814. This protracted official career was almost without example among French financiers. He was created Duke of Gaeta in 1809. The restoration of the national credit is ascribed to him. He was governor of the Bank of France from 1820 to 1834. He published several treatises on finance. Died in 1844. See his " Memoires, Souvenirs," etc., 2 vols., 1826; A. Portai.is, " Essai sur la Vie et 1' Administration du JDuc de Gaete," 1842 ; " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Gaudy, gowMee, (Franz Bernhard Heinrich Wil- HELM,) Baron of, a German poet and litteratejir, of Scottish extraction, born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1800. He published a number of popular lyrics and tales, and made translations from the Polish writers Mickiewicz and Niemcewicz. Died in 1840. Gauermann, gow'er-min', (Friedrich,) a German landscape-painter, born near Guttenstein, in Austria, in 1807. He exhibited in 1834, at Vienna, " The Labourer," which was very successful. He was also a skilful painter of animals. Died in 1862. Gauermann, (Jakob,) a German landscape-painter and engraver, the father of the preceding, was born near Stuttgart in 1772. His best works represent scenes in the Tyrol, which are greatly admired. Gauffier, goTe-^', (Louis,) a French painter, born at Rochelle in 1761. He gained the first prize at Paris in 1784, and went with a royal pension to Rome, where he painted "Achilles recognized by Ulysses," and "The Roman Ladies offering their Jewels to the Senate." Died at Florence in 1801, Gauli or GauUi. See Baciccio. Gaullyer, goKya', (Denis,) born at Clery, in France, in 1688, was a professor in the University of Paris. He published " Poetical Rules drawn from Aristotle and others," (1728.) Died in 1736. Gaulmin, gaKm^N', (Gilbert,) a French philologist and linguist of great learning, was born at Moulins in 1585. He became a councillor of state, and a partisan of Mazarin, He wrote Latin epigrams, odes, and ele- gies, and published an edition of the romance of " Is- mene and Ismenias," with a Latin version, (1618.) He is highly praised by Baillet and Colomies. Died in 1665. See Baillet, " Jugements des Savants," tomes ii. andiv. Gault, g5, (Jean Baptiste,) a French priest, born at Tours in 1595. He was appointed Bishop of Marseilles about 1640. Died in 1643. See Senault, "Vie de J. B. Gault," 1647. Gaulthier, go'te^', [Lat. Walte'rius,] an able French theologian aiicl statesman, born at Orleans, was bishop of that place in 876. Died in 892 A.D. Gaultier, go'te-i', (Aloysius Edouard Camille,) Abb6, born of French parents in Italy in 1744, was noted for his benevolence and his zealous efforts to improve the method of education. For this purpose he invented games for children and wrote many popular school-books. During the Revolution he took refuge in England, whence he returned to Paris about 1802. Died in 1818. Gaultier, (Charles,) a French advocate, noted for his eloquence and powerful sarcasm, was born in Paris in 1590; died in 1666. Boileau, in his Ninth Satire, says, "Dans vos di.scours chagrins plus aigre et plus mordant Qu'une temme en turie ou Gaultier en plaidant." SeeTALSAND, " Vies des Jurisconsultes." I Gaultier, gowKteeR, (Leonard,) a German engraver, born at Mentz in 1552. His master-piece is "The Last Judgment," after Michael Angelo. Gaultier or Gaultier de Lille, go'te-i' deh \h\ (Philippe,) born at Lille, in Flanders. He wrote a Latin heroic poem, entitled "Alexandreis," on the exploits of Alexander the Great, which was once in great vogue. Died about 1200. One of his verses has become proverbial : "Instabile est regnum quod non dementia firmat."* Gaultier (or Gautier) de Coutances, go'te-i' deh koo'tdNss', [Lat. Gualte'rus de Constan'tTTs,] an English or Norman prelate and statesman, acted an important part in the affairs of his time, and became Archbishop of Rouen in 1184. Under Richard I. he en- joyed great credit as a minister of state. Died in 1207. Gaupp, gowp, (Ernst Theodor,) a German jurist, and professor of law at Breslau, born in Lower Silesia in 1796. Gaurico, gow-ree'ko, (Luca,) [Fr. Luc Gauric, luk go'r^k',] an Italian astrologer, born at Gifoni in 1476. He obtained eminence as a fortune-teller, and professed mathematics at Ferrara in 1531. In 1545 he was chosen Bishop of Civitata. He wrote treatises on astronomy, astrology, and geometry. Died in 1558. Gaurico, [Fr. Gauric, go'rek',] (Pomponio,) an Ital- ian poet, brother of the preceding, was born at Gifoni. He wrote a treatise on sculpture, and one on the Poetic Art, (1541 ;) also epigrams, elegies, songs, and other verses. He was supposed to have been murdered about 1530, as he disappeared and was never found. Gauss, gowss, (Karl Friedrich,) a profound Ger- man mathematician, born at Brunswick on the 30th of April, 1777, was educated at Gottingen. He published in 1801 a remarkable work on transcendental arithmetic, entitled "Arithmetical Disquisitions," (" Disquisitiones Arithmeticas,") which made an epoch in the history of the science. He increased his reputation by his calcu- lations of the elements of the planets Ceres and Pallas, for which the French Institute awarded him a medal in 1 8 10. In 1807 he was appointed professor of astronomy and director of the Observatory at Gottingen. He pub- lished in 1809 his celebrated work, "Theory of the Mo- tion of the Celestial Bodies," ("Theoria Motus Corporum Coelestium,") in which he developed an improved method for calculating the orbits of planets and comets. He invented the heliotrope, which he used in a triangulation between Gottingen and Altona about 1822. About 1832 he associated himself with Weber in researches in ter- restrial magnetism. They contributed greatly to perfect this science, and published " Results of the Observations of the Magnetic Society, ( Verein,) 1837-40." Gauss was author of other works. He had a remarkable facility in learning languages. Laplace is reported to have called him " the greatest mathematician of Europe." Died at Gottingen in February, 1855. See Waltershausen, " Memoir of Gauss," (in German ;) " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Gaussen, g5^s6N', (£tienne,) a French Protestant theologian, born at Nimes, became professor of philoso- phy at Saumur in 1651, and of theology in 1655. He wrote several Latin works, that were highly esteemed, among which is " De Ratione Studii theologici," (1670.) Died at Saumur in 1675. Gaussin, gS'siw', (Jeanne Catherine,) a celebrated French actress, born about 1713, made her debut in Paris in 1 73 1 with unanimous applause. Voltaire confided to her the role of "Zaire" in his tragedy of that name, the success of which was ascribed to her by the public, and even by the author. She was most successful in parts characterized by fine and artless sensibility. She retired from the stage in 1763, and died in 1767. Her father's name was Gaussem. See Voltaire, " Correspondance :" Ars^ne Houssave, "Phi- losophers and Actresses." Gau'ta-ma [Hindoo pron. g6v\''ta-mal or Go'ta-ma, called also Gautama Booddha or Buddha,! (bood'da,) i.e. " Gautama the Sage," Sakya Muni, (sSk'ya mdo'ni,) " Sakya the Sage," and Sakya Sinha, " Sakya the Lion," * "That kingdom which clemency does not establish is unstable." t Booddha (Gautama) is called Fo by the Chniese, and Hood.s.uo by the Japanese. — The name, in French, is Gaoutama Bouddha. a, e, T, 6, ii, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, skprt; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; GAUTAMA I005 GAUTAMA the name of a celebrated Hindoo reformer, commonly sup- posed to have been the founder of Booddhism. Respect- ing the time that he lived, the greatest diversity prevails among the different Booddhistic authorities, several maintaining that he was born more than a thousand, and some not less than two thousand, years before the Chris- tian era. Recent European writers, however, appear to have adopted approximatively the date given by the Cey- lonese Booddhists, from whom we have the fullest and, on the whole, the most satisfactory account, both of Gau- tama and his doctrines, that can anywhere be found. According to the Ceylonese writers, Gautama was born in 624 and died in 543 B.C.* He was of the Kshatria or warrior caste, of the Sakyat family or tribe, and the son of Sudh6dana,t King of Maghada, of which the chief city was Ka])ilavastu, supposed to have been situated near the modern Bahar. In early life he was commonly called Siddharta, {sid-haR'ta.§) The Booddhistic legends surpass in extravagance every- thing that can elsewhere be found in the records of human invention. Yet not only is some knowledge of these legends indispensable to a just appreciation of the spirit and genius of Booddhism, but it is through them alone that we can reach the few scattered germs of his- toric truth existing in the various accounts of Gautama which have come down to us.|| According to the legends respecting Gautama, his birth was attended with great wonders : the earth quaked, the sun, moon, and stars stood still, the blind saw, the lame walked, etc. When he reached the age of sixteen, his father, fearing lest he might become a priest, was anxious to have him married. The young Siddharta made out a long list of qualities, personal and moral, which he con- sidered it necessary that his wife should possess. With this list the court priest went from house to house through Kapilavastu, and at length found a maiden fulfilling all the requisitions; but her father insisted that vSiddharta, before marrying her, should give proof that he was skilled in all knightly accomplishments, as well as in learning and wisdom. At a public trial he came off victorious over all competitors. We are tolH that he was examined in botany and zoology as well as in mathematics and philosophy. According to another legend, of which the boundless extravagance suggests a much later date, Sudhodana sent to certain of the neigh- bouring kings to obtain their daughters as wives for his son ; they refused, on the ground that the young prince was inexperienced, and especially that he was unac- quainted with the arts of war, and could not, therefore, defend himself against the powerful enemies by whom he was surrounded. Piqued at this answer, Siddharta resolved to give public proof of his strength and skill. A day having been fixed for that purpose, in the pres- ence of a vast concourse of kings and warriors, he carelessly took up a bow requiring the strength of a thousand men to bend it. By merely thrumming the string he produced a sound louder than the loudest thunder, filling the inhabitants of distant provinces with terror. He then placed four plantain-leaves at each corner of a square, and with a single flight of his arrow pierced them all. Even in the dark he could send an arrow with an aim so unerring as to divide a hair. By his ready answers to the most difficult and abstruse questions, he showed that his wisdom was not inferior * Koppen, after a careful and thorough examination of the sub- ject, comes to the conclusion that the death of Sakya iNIuni should be placed, in round numbers, about two centuries before Asoka, (A^oka,) and that he (SSkya) was very probably the contemporary of Darius Hystaspes, or Xerxes. t Written Sakja and (^akja in German. t Written also Qudhodana and Qoudhodana. § Siddharta or Siddhartha (written also Sidhartta) is an abbrevia- tion or corruption of Sarvarthasiddha, i.e. the " fulfilment of every wish." II The intelligent reader need scarcely be informed that nothing deserving the name of history, as this word is understood among the nations of the West, is to be found in the literature of any portion of India, excepting only the little kingdom of Cashmere. The Hindoo mind, indeed, though gifted with extraordinary intelligence and rare sagacity in some departments of thought, would seem to be wholly incapable of appreciating the value of historic truth. It is not the probability or truth, but the grandeur, of a statement, which carries conviction to the minds of the people of India; and their religious teachers are too wise or too sympathetic not to meet the popular demand. to his strength or skill. The neighbouring kings were abundantly satisfied ; and not long after, no fewer than forty thousand princesses were sent to be the inmates of Siddharta's palace.* Later accounts give the young prince eighty-four thousand concubines, besides two or three lawful wives. For a time the son of Sudhodana lived in the enjoyment of every pleasure that youth and power could bestow. At length a feeling of the utter vanity of all earthly things took possession of his mind ; a divine influence brought to him some dim remembrance of the innume- rable sacrifices he had made in previous transmigrations in order to attain the Booddhaship and to free all living beings from the pains of existence. (See Booddha.) His father, warned by dreams and prophecies, tried to keep Siddharta confined in his seraglio and in total ignorance of the world around him. But once, as the young prince happened to walk out, he saw an old man, -with bent body, wrinkled face, bald head, and trembling limbs. Astonished at the sight, he asked his attendant what it was. The latter simply answered, "It is an old man." But when, on further inquiries, Siddharta learned that decrepitude and misery were the lot of all in advanced age, he returned to his home full of sorrow. "What," thought he," can pleasure or power avail me if at last I must come to this ?" On another occasion he saw one afflicted with incurable leprosy and covered with sores, without a guide or helper. He exclaimed, "Alas! for youth which is destroyed by age, and for health which is under- mined by every form of disease !" At length he met a beggar, who was a religious devotee, and whose whole appearance betokened inward composure and peace. Siddharta at last decides to renounce the world ; he now remembers that he is a Bodhisattva, or Bodhisat, (an aspirant to the Booddhaship,) and, in spite of the most determined opposition from his father, he resolves to devote his life to teaching mortals how to escape from the miseries of their changeful existence. According to the doctrine of the Booddhists, Siddharta did not owe his wonderful gifts or his spirit of self-sacrifice to the mere accident of his having been born with a happy intellectual and physical constitution ; but the merit which he had acquired in innumerable previous exist- ences caused him, by an unerring, inevitable law, to be thus wonderfully endowed in his last and most perfect birth. (See Booddha.) That power or principle which causes any being to be born in a condition corresponding to the merit or demerit acquired in previous transmi- grations, is termed Karma, (or Kiirma,) a Sanscrit term signifying "work" or "action." It may be regarded as the combined result of all one's previous acts, whether good or evil. " Destiny ( Schicksal ) in its Booddhistic acceptation," says Koppen, "is the product of the merit and the guilt of living (beseelten) creatures. . . . Every deed, whether good or evil, operates through endless periods, on and on, and bears, even after a hundred thousand kalpas,t its inevitable fruit, until its effect is destroyed through perfect sinlessness." (See " Religion des Buddha," p. 285.) Siddharta having, by his perseverance in acts of be- nevolence and self-sacrifice performed through innume- rable previous transmigrations, accomplished everything necessary to make him a supreme Booddha, he acquired, at last, unlimited intelligence and power. But, after resigning the pleasures and splendours of royalty, it was necessary for him to pass through various trials and to overcome the opposition of powerful enemies — among others, that of Mara, a mighty deva (or deity) — before he could attain to complete deification. We are told, in true Oriental style, that, in his great contest with Mara, the latter, accompanied by all the powers of evil, came to the conflict riding on an elephant one hundred and fifty miles high. Mountains of immeas- urable size are hurled at the Bodhisattva; but the mo- ment they touch him they are changed into wreaths and * It would appear that both in ancient and modern times it has been customary in the East to measure the sj^lendour and dignity 01 a sovereign by the number of his wi\ es. Akbar, the greatest of the Mogul emperors, is said to have had more than five thousand, each lady having a separate apartment for herself. t Kalpa (a day and night of Brahma) is a period of 4320 millions of our years. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Viy guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as«; th as in this. (2!:^^See Explanations p. 33.) GAUTAMA 1006 GAUTAMA festoons of flowers ; at the same time the poison, which is spit upon him by his demoniac foes, becomes a halo of glory round his head. Having at last come off victorious over all his enemies, he becomes possessor of boundless wisdom and knowledge, and not only remembers with perfect distinctness all his experiences in his innume- rable previous existences, but he also knows the exact circumstances of all the beings who have ever existed in the infinite worlds, and receives that divine vision which enables him to see the remotest parts of the universe as distinctly as if they were close at hand. "Then the be- ings of all the infinite sakwalas (or worlds) who had not before enjoyed that privilege, saw a supreme Booddha, and rejoiced in the rays of many-coloured light which proceeded from his person." Among the characteris- tics of beauty belonging to Booddha are mentioned curly locks and a golden-coloured complexion : accordingly, we always see his statues represented with curly hair; and generally, if not invariably, they are of a yellow colour.* The person of Booddha, it is said, was ordi- narily only twelve cubits in height ; but, when he willed to do so, he could enlarge himself beyond the limits of the highest heaven. The followers of Gautama believe that throughout myriads of ages he voluntarily endured the severest privations, and often the most dreadful sufferings, in order that he might at last save the inhabitants of the different worlds from the miseries of existence. Millions of centuries ago he had acquired sufficient merit to enter Nirvana or Nirvvana, (the supreme beatitude of the Bood- dhists ;) but he preferred to suffer through countless ages, that he might become the benefactor of all beings. The Booddhists believe that in the universe the worlds (sakwalas) are beyond all computation. Each sakwala includes an earth, with its continents, islands, and oceans, as well as a number of heavens and hells, and is in- habited in its different parts by various beings, such as animals, men, demons, devas, and brahmas. The devas (da'vas) are a sort of inferior deities. The brahmas are an order of godlike beings, who hold the highest rank among all the inhabitants of the universe, a Booddha alone excepted. Their state of passionless repose strongly reminds us of Lucretius's description of the gods of Epicurus, from whom they differ, however, in not possessing absolute immortality : " Omnis enini per se Divom natura necesse est Immortali jevo summa cum pace friiatur, Semota ab iiostris rebus sejunctaque longe; Nam privata doloreomni, privata periclis. Ipsa suis pollens opibus, nihil indiga nostri, Nec bene promeritis capitur, nec tangitur irS. "1 De Rertitn Natura, lib. i. One of the abodes of the devas is termed a devaloka, and an abode of the brahmas is called a brahmaloka. The ages of the different inhabitants of the universe vary according to the loka which they occupy. The most short-lived of the devas live nine millions of our years ; while those who enjoy the greatest longevity live more than nine thousand million years. The life-term of the brahmas also varies greatly ; but it would be almost im- possible to express in figures the age even of those whose lives are the briefest. Some of the Booddhistic writers, however, have endeavoured to convey an idea of those immeasurable periods in the following manner. There is fabricated in India a species of cotton cloth unequalled in the delicacy of its texture ; it is sometimes called " woven wind," (in Latin, " ventus textilis.") Now, were * See Moor's "Hindu Pantheor.." p. 229. It appears that be- fore Gautama's appearance as supreme Booddha, the putting on of a yellow garment was an indication that the wearer had renounced the world and become an ascetic. (See Koppen, pp. 83 and 85.) Whether Booddha's golden complexion may have been given to him in commemoration of his former character as an ascetic, we are un- able to say; but it is still a prevailing, if not universal, custom, among the Booddhist priesthood, in many parts of the world, to wear a yellow dress. t The following, by Dr. Good, though very imperfect, is perhaps the best poetical translation into English that has been made of the above passage : " Far, far from mortals and their vain concerns, In peace perpetual, dwell the immortal gods. Each self-dependent and from human wants Estranged forever. There nor pain pervades. Nor danger threatens; every passion sleeps; Vice no revenge, no rapture virtue prompts." one to touch with this material, ever so lightly, once in a hundred years, a mountain of solid rock sixteen miles high and as many broad, the mountain would at length be completely worn to dust. But the time required for this would not amount to the thousandth part of the life- term of the greater number of the brahmas. There is also an endless variety of beings of a less ex- alted order, and of various forms. Some of these, called Nagas, appear as serpents, but are in fact demi-gods. The Garundas are like immense birds, and are repre- sented as the mortal enemies of the Nagas. The Asuras, (or Asurs,) who hold so prominent a place in the Bruh- manical mythology, are too important to be omitted from a system of exaggeration designed to throw all the fic- tions of the Brahmans into the shade. Accordingly, we have them in all their glory. Rahu, (ri'hdo,) one of the Asur chiefs, is expressly stated to be 76,800 miles high, and 19,200 miles across the shoulders. The Pretas (pra'tas) are unhappy beings, of immense size, but so wasted and thin as to resemble a dry leaf Respecting the doctrines taught by Gautama him- self, we cannot safely affirm anything positively. There seems, however, to be no reason to doubt that the primi- tive Booddhists were atheists. Those of Ceylon, (who have confessedly departed the least from the primitive doctrines of Booddhism,) as well as the most ancient sect of Nepaul, (the Swabhavikas,) are, strictly speaking, atheists, since they do not recognize any infinite self- existent Spirit who is the original source of all forms of being. They teach that an infinite multitude of separate finite souls have always existed. Some sects maintain that nothing exists in the universe except matter, which is endowed with certain inherent, inseparable properties, causing it to arrange itself in forms of beauty and order, and, consequently, that the souls of living beings are material. While thus teaching that existence had no beginning, they maintain not only that under every form it is an evil, but that, except where it is voluntarily en- dured, as in the case of the aspirants to the Booddhaship, it is invariably associated with demerit. If any being, whether man, deva, or brahma, had sufficient merit, he would at once enter Nirvana and cease to have any separate existence. We have already spoken of the Karma (that power or destiny that determines the condition in which any being is to be born) as the combined influence or result of all one's previous actions, whether good or evil. In assign- ing to any one a place or condition according to the aggregate of the actions of his past existence, the Karma is held to be absolutely unerring, and irresistible as the decrees of fate. (To this, however, there is one excep- tion : a candidate for the Booddhaship may voluntarily relinquish a superior condition for one far inferior, in order to gain more merit.) Nothing except severe pen- ance and blameless conduct, continued through immeas- urable periods, can suffice to change an evil Karma for a good one. The very shortest period that any of the inhabitants of Naraka (or hell) remain in torment is nine millions of our years. The great object for which a supreme Booddha is manifested is not only to en- courage the various beings burdened with existence to enter the paths which lead to Nirvana, but also to facili- tate their progress therein. The Booddhists do not hold that a supreme Booddha is able to deliver any being from the evils of existence by his own direct power; but in various ways he can afford them opportunities of acquiring merit. Through his divine knowledge he can point out to them the true "paths," and by his divine eloquence he can often prevail upon the most reluctant to enter the way leading to Nirvana. The preaching {bana, or "word") of Gautama is said to have exerted an astonishing influence upon the minds of his hearers. " It was," to adopt the language of his enthusiastic votaries, "as a divine charm to cure the poison of evil desire; a sovereign medicine to heal the disease of anger; a lamp in the midst of the darkness of ignorance ; an all-con- suming fire to destroy the evils of repeated existence ; a meridian sun to dry up the mud of covetousness ; a great rain to quench the flame of sensuality," etc. etc. There are five great commandments, called "pun'cha seel," (or pancha stl,) i.e. the " five duties or ordinances," a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sAori; a, e, i, 9, obscure; ftr, fSll, f^t; mgt; nftt; good; moon; GAUTAMA 1007 GAUTAMA which are especially binding on all the followers of Bood- dha, laymen as well as priests, viz. : I. Do not kill ; 2. Do not violate the law of chastity ; 3. Do not steal ; 4. Do not lie ; 5. Do not drink intoxicating liquors. The transgressor of any one of the above commands is liable — unless there be important extenuating circumstances — to suffer in Naraka for myriads of ages. It may be ob- served that the Booddhistic idea as to what constitutes a lie differs materially from that entertained by European nations : according to the former, there must not only be an intentional misstatement with a purpose to deceive, but there must also be th^ discovery by the person deceived that what has been told him is untrue. (Hardy's " Manual of Budhism," p. 469.) In regard to all classes of transgression, the degree of sin depends greatly upon the attending circumstances, and especially upon the character or condition of the person sinned against. Thus, to steal from a skeptic is a comparatively small offence ; to steal from a priest is a grievous sin ; but to steal from the associated priest- hood is a crime of the blackest dye. The Booddhist priesthood are required to observe not merely the five great precepts above mentioned, but a multitude of other ordinances, of the most stringent character, among which are the following. The priest must live on alms, and, if in good health, must himself carry the alms-bowl from house to house. He must not only observe the strictest celibacy, but he must (unless in company with other men) avoid as far as possible the presence of women : he must not sit on the same seat with one in any private place, nor may he accompany a woman on a journey even from one end of a village to the other. He must eat his food "meditatively," not for the pleasure it gives him, but merely for the purpose of warding off untimely death. He must in no case eat food after mid-day. A priest who has entered one of the paths leading to Nirvana is called a Rabat (rah'hat) or Ar'hat, (written also Archat.) The common term for the system of doctrines and precepts of Gautama is Dharmma, (or, as it is more usually written, Dharma,) (pronounced dur'ma,) that is, the "law," "virtue," "duty." The followers of Booddha are commonly called, in India, Bauddhas, (bowd'has.) The Booddhists believe that all living creatures are homogeneous in their essence, the only difference being accidental and caused solely by a difference of merit. Hence a worm or insect may be as truly our brother, according to the profoundest and most essential laws of relationship, as a human being. Booddhism cannot, therefore, properly be said to teach the brotherhood of mankind, but rather the brotherhood of all creatures. It teaches that not merely all animals, including the vilest insects, have souls, but that the seeds of plants have souls also. And this may furnish the reason why a priest is required to live on alms, since in no other way could he escape the responsibility of taking life. If he caused grain to be ground, he would disembody the souls of innumerable beings ; but by living on offal he merely uses for his sustenance that which would other- wise be thrown aside and wasted. In regard to the re- lationship subsisting between different creatures, "with the exception," says Hardy, "of those beings who have entered one of the four paths leading to Nirvana, there may be an interchange of condition between the highest and the lowest. He who is now the most degraded of demons may one day rule the highest of the heavens ; he who is at present seated upon the most honourable of the celestial thrones may one day writhe amid the agonies of a place of torment ; and the worm which we crush under our feet may in the course of ages become a Supreme Budha." ("Manual of Budhism," p. 36.) The highest element of Booddhism was a feeling of benevolence and sympathy for other men or other creatures, — unquestionably the highest and noblest of human impulses. It was called into action by what was probably the most oppressive and fearful tyranny under which any great people ever suffered. It was not the tyranny of one or of a few tyrants, from which there might be some hope of escape by flight or concealment, but the tyranny of a multitudinous class, — of a class generally believed to be necessary to the very existence not merely of the state, but of the separate individuals composing the nation, (see "Institutes of Manu," i, loi ; see, also, ix. 313-319,) and penetrating with its terrible and ail-but omnipotent arms every ramification of society. As the vapours in the interior of the earth, exasperated by vol- canic fires, will sometimes force aside or burst asunder the superincumbent mountains, so at length the masses of the Hindoo nation, maddened by their sufferings and rendered irresistible by their very despair, shook off the frightful incubus which pressed upon them. In this, as in all other cases of religious tyranny, the deliverance came through skepticism and denial of the prevailing dogmas. And, as was to be expected, the power and extent of the reaction were in proportion to the power of the tyranny under which the masses of the ]5eople had suffered. The revolution which accompanied the rise of Booddhism appears to have closely resembled, in its more important features, the French Revolution ; but, as it was a reaction against a more terrible oppression, it was followed by more extensive and more permanent re- sults. As the oppression had been chiefly if not wholly religious in its origin, so the reaction, we have every reason to suppose, was accompanied and followed by a deeper spirit of denial and by a more universal unbelief. The reformers began with repudiating the authority of the Brahmans, and ended with not merely rejecting the sacred l)Ooksof the priesthood, (the Vedas,) but in deny- ing the very existence of those Higher Powers from which the Brahmans claimed to derive their authority. The reformation took a humanitarian direction, and at the same time carried the levelling principle to its utmost possible limits. It rejected absolutely all prescriptive claims, whether human or divine. It assumed that all beings in the universe stood exactly on the same ground, the only difference being made by the difference of con- duct. But, as the religious sentiment found in all nations demanded something to satisfy it, men, deified by their merits, were made use of to supply this demand. It will thus be seen (if, as there seems every reason to believe, the foregoing views are correct) that Bood- dhism originated in almost total unbelief, and owed its influence principally, if not wholly, to a great political revolution. The corner-stone of the building is atheism, the copestone (Nirvana, or annihilation) is absolute de- spair. But between these terrible extremes there is a kindly human element, which is the only redeeming fea- ture of the system, and to which is doubtless due what- ever of vitality it possesses. But the influence of this humanity is greatly impaired and, indeed, rendered ail- but nugatory by its impracticable and extravagant char- acter. By teaching that we must not only spare the lives of vermin, (these being really our brethren,) but the lives of the seeds of plants, which form the suste- nance of so large a portion of the human race, there is nothing left for the truly devout votary of Booddhism, as we have already seen, but thriftless indolence and helpless beggary. As it is impossible for any people wholly to change their previous habits of thought, we need not be surprised to discover many points of resemblance between Bood- dhism and the Brahmanical system which it for a time displaced. First, as the basis of both, we find the doc- trine of Metempsychosis, or the continued existence of the same being under various outward forms ; secondly, both teach alike a belief in accumulative merit, by which the meanest creature may, by a course of penance con- tinued through successive ages, rise to the possession of godlike intelligence and ])o\ver ; thirdly, they agree substantially in regarding Nirvana, or the cessation of a distinct and separate existence, as the greatest blessing to which any being can attain,* — not to mention other points of less importance. (See Brahmanism.) * With the primitive or orthodox Booddhists, Nirvana is simply annihilation, while with the Brahmans it is absorption into the essence of Brahma, tlie supreme, self-existent Spirit. The etymoIo,c;y of Nir- vana is very obscure. It is supposed by some to be derived from the Sanscrit nir, "without," "not," and va7i, to "sound," to "blow as a flute." It may possibly have allusion to the exceedingly transitory character of every form of being, comparing it to the breath or sound of a musical instrument, which passes away we know not whither, Nirvana would then imply the absence or cessation of that fitful, changeful existence which, with us, has been compared to a passing vapour. e as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) GAUTAMA 1008 GAUTHET They differ, on the other hand, with respect to caste, which the Brahmans make the corner-stone of their sys- tem, but which Gautama totally rejected.* Among the votaries of Brahmanism the priests could be chosen from the highest caste only, and it is regarded as a serious offence even to teach the Vedas (sacred books) to a Soodra (a person of the lowest of the pure castes) or to a woman. Among the Booddhists, on the contrary, all classes, including women and even the lowest outcasts, are freely admitted to the priesthood ; none are rejected, except the deformed, or diseased, or those who are ser- vants. It is considered that a servant cannot give him- self to the priesthood, because he cannot give what is the property of another. They differ, also, totally with respect to the Vedas, which the Booddhists entirely re- ject, while the Brahmans regard them as the most sacred and excellent of all writings. Again, the principal deities of the Brahmans are incar- nations from Brahm, the supreme, eternal, self-existing Spirit. The principal deity of the Booddhists (strictly so called) is always a mortal, and may have begun his career as the most pitiful insect, though he always ends it as a deified man, in which form, however, he has but a brief existence, and soon dies, leaving the universe without even the semblance of a ruler. The remarkable success of Gautama as a reformer was doubtless owing chiefly, if not entirely, to the demo- cratic character of his doctrines ; and we should probably not err in considering him to have been far more a political than a religious reformer. His doctrine of the impartial equality of all classes, dignified and rendered sacred by his twofold character of saint and sage, and promulgated at a time when the irksome and oppress- ive restrictions of caste, joined to the arrogance of the Brahmans, had become intolerable to a large majority of the people, was, we may confidently conjecture, eagerly, passionately welcomed by all, the dominant class alone excepted. So rapid was the spread of the new doctrines that only about two centuries after the death of Gautama we find Chandragupta, (the Sandra- cottus of the Greek historians,) a man of low caste, raised to the most powerful throne in Northern India. This event is the more remarkable because he does not appear to have been a believer in or a supporter of Booddhism, showing that it was a political rather than a religious revolution which placed him on the throne ; although, as already intimated, the doctrines of the new religion may have powerfully co-operated with the new political principles in bringing about that result. His grandson, however, Asoka, (A96ka or Ashoka,) became a devoted follower of Gautama, and succeeded, it would appear, in establishing the new religion in every part of his widely- extended dominions. He is said — with Oriental hyper- bole, no doubt — to have erected eighty-four thousand monasteries (vihars) in honour of the eighty-four thou- sand discourses of Booddha. (See the " Bhilsa Topes," by Cunningham, p. 99.) His son Mahendra (or Ma- hindo) introduced Booddhism into Ceylon, which is still one of its principal seats. The persecutions to which the new religion was subjected in India in the early cen- turies of our era contributed undoubtedly to its diffusion among the neighbouring nations, but resulted at last in its almost total extirpation from the land wherein it had its origin. Booddhism appears to have been first introduced into China in the latter part of the third century before Christ. From Ceylon it extended to Farther India and Cochin China. It is supposed to have been permanently estab- lished in Japan in the sixth century. Nepaul has long been one of its principal seats, whence it extended to Thibet and the country of the Mongols, receiving greater or less modifications from the peculiar genius of the various nations by whom it was adopted. It would, perhaps, be difficult to explain satisfactorily how Booddhism, after it had once obtained such an ascendency among the people of India, could be so soon and so completely displaced by the old religion. But, if we regard the movement which for a time overthrew * "There is caste," observes Hardy, "among the Budhists of Cey- lon ; but this is contrary to the tenets of the founder of their religion." ("Manual of Rudhisin," p. 78.) the Brahmanical domination to have been due in a great measure to political causes, among which the tyranny of caste was probably the chief, we may suppose that when the pressure of those causes was removed the popular mind came gradually to look with less and less aversion, and perhaps at last with affectionate reverence, on the religion of their ancestors, a change of feeling which was probably much accelerated by the austere ordinances and comfortless, despairing doctrines of the new faith, — a faith which makes annihilation the final and highest reward for ages of self-denial, privation, and suffering. We may well believe that these doctrines never had any place in the popular affections, and that they were only accepted at all because they were accom- panied by great ameliorations in the political and social condition of the people. We may conjecture that the Brahmans, taught by past experience, were very careful, at least for a time, not to repress, by any undue rigour or offensive assertions of superiority, the returning affec- tions of the people. There are some general and obvious points of re- semblance between Booddhism and Christianity which can scarcely fail to strike one at first sight ; such, for example, as the importance which each attaches to the practice of self-denial, and that regard for the welfare of others, however humble their condition, which forms so essential a feature in the ethical system of both. But, if we examine them more closely, and consider their deeper relations, we shall find that the difference between them is not only great, but absolutely immeasurable. It would, we feel assured, be a grave error to suppose (as some recent writers appear to do) that this difference is a mere divergence, though a very wide one, from a common principle or starting-point ; for they are essentially and wholly different in their very origin. We need only allude to the remarkable difference Ijetween the accounts of the two systems that have come down to us, — the one filled with the wildest fables, which, from their very nature, must destroy, in every truth-loving mind, all confidence and everything deserving the name of belief; the other characterized by an unpretending and touch- ing simplicity, which furnishes the strongest internal evidence of the entire sincerity and truthfulness of the writers.* But we refer more particularly to the character of the systems themselves, — the one owing its origin, as there is every reason to suppose, to an utter and almost universal unbelief, and being, like the worship of the goddess of Reason in France, a mere device to appease rather than satisfy the cravings of the religious instinct of the people ; the other having for its foun- dation the highest and fullest belief ever presented to the world, — the belief in a Being, infinite in power and love, whose paternal care extends to the very hum- blest of his creatures. The one system, built upon athe- ism, has for its final scope annihilation : in other words, it is the religion of despair. The other, based upon a belief in God's infinite perfections and his boundless love to man, (see John iii. 16,) becomes the unfailing source of an infinite hope, — a hope not only of endless happiness, but of eternal progress towards perfection. See KOPPEN, "Religion des Buddha," Berlin, 1857; R. Spence Hardy, "Manual of Budhism," London, 1853; B. H. Hodgson, "Literature and Religion of the Buddhists," 1S41 ; J. Barthelemv Saint-Hilaire, " Le Bouddha et sa Religion," Paris, 1862; Gui- GNiAUT, " Religions de I'Antiquite," Paris, 1825; Moor, "Hindu Pantheon;" Stanislas Julien, " Histoire de la Vie de Hiouen- Thsang," etc., 1853; and the continuation of the same, under the name of " M^nioires sur les Contrees occidentales," 1857-5S. Gautherot, got'ro', (Claude,) an eminent French painter, born in Paris in 1769, was a pupil of David. Among his chief works are " Marius at Minturnas," and "The Funeral of Atala," (1800.) Died in 1825, Gauthey, gS'ti', (Emiland Marie,) an eminent French civil engineer,born at Chalons-sur-Saone in 1732, was employed from 1783 to 179 1 in constructing the Canal du Centre. In 1791 he was appointed inspector-general.. He wrote a " Treatise on the Construction of Bridges and Navigable Canals," (3 vols., 1809.) Died in 1806. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale/* * This internal evidence alone is such as not only to command the assent of multitudes of intelligent readers, but even sometimes to overcome the skepticism of the most gifted and critical minds. (See Niebuhr's "Letters," vol. i.. Letter 148.) a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; GAUTHET 1009 Gauthey, gb\y, (Louis FRANgois Fr^d^ric,) a Swiss Protestant teacher, born in the canton de V aud in 1795. He published, besides other works, a treatise on education, "De I'fiducation," etc., (1854.) Gauthier, go'te-i', surnamed Sans-Avoir, {s6n- zt'vwiR^) a Norrnan knight, who took a prominent part in the first crusade. He was killed in battle by the Turks near Nicea, in Asia, in 1097. Gauthier, (FRANgois,) Abb6, a French priest and able negotiator, born near Falaise. He lived many years in London, and was employed in secret negotiations,which resulted in the peace of Utrecht, 1713. Died in 1720. Gauthier, (Jean Baptiste,) a French theologian, born at Louviers in 1685. He published several works against the Jesuits and infidels. Died in 1755. Gauthier, ( Pierre, ) a French architect, born at Troyes in 1790. Among his works is a monument to Fenelon at Cambrai. Died in 1855. Gautier. See Gaultier, Gauthier, and Walter. Gautier, go'te-i', (Ambroise Georges Joseph,) a French jurist, born at Chevreuse in 1776, wrote " Studies on Commercial Jurisprudence," (1829.) Died in 1829. See Andre Marie Jean Jacques Dupin, " Notice sur la Vie de Gauthier," 1829. Gautier, (Arnaud £loy,) a French artist, son of J. Gautier-Dagoty, noticed below. He began to issue in 1752 "Periodical Observations on Natural History and the Arts, with Coloured Plates," which, after his death, was continued by Rozier, (1771-85.) Gautier, (Joseph,) a French abbe and litteratettr, born in Lorraine about 17 14. He wrote, besides other works, a refutation of Rousseau's Essay on the question, " Do Sciences and Arts contribute to the Promotion of Mo- rality.?" (175 1.) Died in 1776. Gautier, (Th^ophile,) a French litterateur and critic, born at Tarbes about 1810. He produced " Albertus," and other poems, and an immoral romance called "Mile. Maupin," (1835.) About 1836 he became assistant editor of the "Presse," for which he wrote criticisms on the drama and fine arts until 1854. After that date he had charge of the same department of the "Moniteur." Among his works is a book of travels in Spain, etc., en- titled " Tras los Montes," (1843.) He has been extolled as an original and brilliant writer. See LouANDRE et Bourquelot, " La France Litt^raire ;" " Nou- velle Biographie G^nerale;" "Atlantic Monthly" for June, 1868. Gautier - Dagoty, go'te-i' dfgo'te', (Edouard,) a grandson of the following, was an engraver of Paris, where he published, about 1780, coloured engravings of twelve paintings in the Royal Gallery. Died in 1784. Gautier- (or Gauthier-) Dagoty, (Jacques,) a French anatomist and engraver, born at Marseilles, was remarkable for mental activity. He claimed to be the inventor of the art of producing coloured engravings, in which he used four colours. He published several works on anatomy, with coloured plates, and " Observations on Physics, Natural History, and Painting," (6 vols., 1752-55,) which was the origin of the "Journal de Phy- sique," the first French journal of physical sciences. Died in 1758. His son, Jean Baptiste, was an engraver in colours. He published the " Galerie Fran9aise," a series of twelve portraits, (1770, unfinished.) Died in 1786. Gautier de Metz, go'te-i' deh m^s, a French poet, who lived about 1230, is supposed to have written a didactic poem called "The Image of the World," ("L'Image du Monde.") Gautieri, gow-te-a'ree, (Giuseppe,) an Italian phy- sician and naturalist, was born at Novara in 1769. He was appointed in 1808 inspector-general of woods and forests under the then kingdom of Italy. He retained this position twenty-two years. He wrote interesting works on forests and natural history, among which is a "General Treatise on the Science and Administration of Forests." Died in 1833. Gautruche or Gaultruche, go'tRlish', (Pierre,) a French priest, born at Orleans in 1602, published a "Poetic History," ("Histoire poetique," 1658,) and a "Sacred History," (1672.) Died in 1681. Gauzlin, go I^n', a French prelate, reputed one of the most learned men of his time, was the natural son of Hugh Capet. He was made Archbishop of Bourges in 1013. Died in 1029. Gavanti, gl-vJn'tee, ( Bartolommeo, ) an Italian friar, born at Monza about 1570, was general of the Barnabites. He wrote, besides other works, " Thesaurus Sacrorum Rituum," a commentary on the rubrics of the missal and the breviary of the Roman Churck. Died in 1638. Gavard, gi'vtR', (Hyacinthe,) an eminent French anatomist, born at Montmelian in 1753, was a successful teacher of surgery in Paris. He published several treat- ises on anatomy. His " Splanchnologie" (1800) is said to be superior to anything before printed on that subject. Died in 1802. See "Biographie Medicale." Gavarni, gd-vir'nee, the pseudonym of Paul Che- valier, a very popular French caricaturist, born in Paris in 1801. In 1835 began to issue a satirical journal called " Les Gens du Monde," in which he pre- sented spirited pictures of Parisian society. Many of these designs were reproduced in the "Charivari," which owed to Gavarni a great part of its success. His works are remarkable for variety and fidelity to nature. Gavarret, gt^vt'ri', (Louis Denis Jules,) a French physician, born in 1809. He graduated in 1843, and in the same year became professor of medical physics. He published, besides other works, an excellent "Treatise on Electricity," (1857.) Gavazzi, gi-vlf'see, (Padre Alessandro,) an Italian priest and political agitator, born at Bologna in 1809. He became professor of rhetoric in Naples, where he distinguished himself by his eloquence and liberal prin- ciples. He was chaplain of the army of volunteers which Pius IX. sent against the Austrians in 1848, and excited the enthusiasm of the people by his harangues. He continued to support the popular cause after the pope had recalled his army and changed his policy. In 1849, chaplain-general of the republican army, he distinguished himself by his zeal in the siege of Rome. After Rome had been captured by the French, (1849,) he became an exile, and lectured against popery in Eng- land and the United States. See a "Life of Father Gavazzi," London, 1851. Gaveaux, gt'vo', (Pierre,) a French composer and singer, born at Beziers in 1761. His "Leonore" (1798) furnished to Beethoven the subject of his opera " Fidelio." Died in 1825. Gav'es-ton, de, [Fr. pron. gt'vls^t6N',] (Piers, or Pierre,') the favourite of Edward 11. of England, was descended from a Gascon family. He appears to have acquired influence over the young prince by his vices, wit, and personal accomplishments. In 1300 he was banished by Edward I. Edward II., having come to the throne, recalled Gaveston, and made him Earl of Cornwall, and chief minister. His pride and insolence excited a conspiracy of the nobles, who attacked him in his castle and put him to death in 13 12. See "Life and Death of Piers Gaveston," 1740; Hume, "His- tory of England." Gavinies, gt've'ne-§s', (Pierre,) a French musician, born at Bordeaux in 1726. He is regarded as the chief of the French school of violinists. He composed " Matinees" for the violin, (1794.) Died in 1800. See Fayolle," Notices sur Corelli, Tartini, Gavinies," etc., 1810. Gavirol, gi-ve-roK, (Soliman Ben,) a noted Rabbi, born in Malaga, Spain, excelled in grammar, philosophy, and other sciences. He wrote, in Arabic, two admired works on morality. Died about 1070. Gay, gi, (Claude,) a French botanist and traveller, born at Draguignan in 1800. He spent about twelve years in the exploration of the botany and zoology of Chili between 1828 and 1841, during which he received aid from the Chilian government. Having returned to Paris, he published, in Spanish, his excellent " Physical and Political History of Chili," (" Historia fisica y poli- tica de Chile," 24 vols., 1843-51.) Eight volumes of this treat on botany. He was admitted into the Institute in 1856. Died in 1864. See "Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Gay, (Delphine.) See Girardin. € as 5 as s; g hard; g as /; G, h, y.^ guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 64. lOIO GAZA Gay, (Ebenezer,) D.D., an American divine, born in Dedhain, Massachusetts, in 1696, graduated at Harvard in 1714, and from 1718 till his death, in 1787, -wzs pastor in Hingham. He published numerous sermons, one of which, delivered on his eighty-fifth birthday, was entitled '•The Old Man's Calendar." Gay, (John,) an English poet, born at Barnstaple in 1688. He became secretary to the Duchess of Mon- mouth in 1712. His first production, called "Rural Sports," (171 1,) was dedicated to Pope, who became his constant friend. By his amiable disposition, his wit and poetic talents, he made many friends among literary men and the higher classes. He wrote comedies, farces, fables, ballads, etc., which were received with favour. "The Beggar's Opera," (1728,) and the farce " What d'ye call It.?" were especially popular; though but little can be said in favour of their moral tendency. His fables are admired for ingenious reflections and for a grace- ful sprightly style. In "The Shepherd's Week," (i 714,) a series of pastoral poems, he successfully describes the manners of English peasants. He wrote, also, "Trivia, or the Art of Walking the Streets of London," (171 5.) In the latter part of his life the Duke of Queensberry received him into his house, and treated him kindly. He died in 1732, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Dr. Johnson remarks that "he had not in any degree the mefts divinior, the dignity of genius." Hazlitt thought his pastorals pleasing and poetical, and that his fables possess "great merit, both as to the quantity of in- vention implied, and the elegance and facility of the execution." See Johnson, "Lives of the Poets;" Spence, "Anecdotes;" "Biographia Britannica;" Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets." Gay, (Joseph Jean Paul,) born at Lyons, in France, in 1775, obtained the title of architect to his native city. Died in 1832. Gay, (Marie FRANgoiSE Sophie Nichault de La- valette — ne'sho' deh llVt'l^t',) a popular French novel- ist, born in Paris in 1776, was the mother of Delphine Gay Girardin. She was married to M. Gay about 1800, after which she was intimate with Pauline Bonaparte. Among her numerous works are " Laure d'Estell," (1802,) "Leonie de Montbreuse," (1813,) "Celebrated Saloons," ("Les Salons celebres," 2 vols., 1837,) and " Ellenore," (4 vols., 1846.) Her style is commended for its elegance. Died in 1852. Gay, (WiCKWORTH Allan,) an American landscape- painter, noted for his skill in mountain and coast scenery, was born in Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1821. See Tuckerman's "Book of the Artists." Gay de Vernon, gi deh v^R^ndN', (L^:onard,) a French revolutionist and priest, born in Limousin in 1748. He was chosen constitutional Bishop of Haute- Vienne about 1790, and a member of the Convention in 1792. He acted with the Jacobins, and was one of the Council of Five Hundred, 1795-98. Died in 1822. Gay de Vernon, (Simon FRANgois,) a French en- gineer, and professor in the Polytechnic School, brother of the preceding, was born in 1760. He wrote an " Ele- mentary Treatise on the Art of War and Fortification," (2 vols., 1805,) which was adopted in many military schools of Europe. Died in 1822. Gay-Lussac, ga'lii'stk', (Joseph Louis,) an eminent French chemist and natural philosopher, born at Saint- Leonard (Haute-Vienne) on the 6th of December, 1778, was educated in the school afterwards called L'ficole Polytechnique. He was a pupil and protege of Berthol- let. In August, 1804, under the auspices of the Institute, MM. Biot and Gay-Lussac made a memorable ascent in a balloon, in order to ascertain the intensity of the magnetic force, and reached a height of thirteen thou- sand feet. This was the first ascent ever made for scientific objects. Gay-Lussac ascended alone in the ensuing month to the height of 7016 metres, — 23,040 feet, — or about four and one-third miles above the level of the sea, and there made observations which tend to prove that the magnetic force diminishes very little with the elevation. He ascertained that the air of that region is identical in composition with that found near the surface of the earth. The temperature at the height of 7016 metres was I4''.9 above zero of Fahrenheit, while that of the surface was 82° of Fahrenheit. He wrote in 1804 a memoir which announced that in the composition of water one hundred volumes of oxygen unite with two hundred volumes of hydrogen. He was elected a mem- ber of the Academy of Sciences about 1806, soon after which he discovered the law by which air and gases are expanded uniformly by increase of temperature. In 1808 Gay-Lussac and Thenard were directed to make experi- ments with a colossal voltaic pile constructed by order of Bonaparte. The important results of their labours were published in the " Recherches physico-chimiques," (2 vols., 1811,) and in several memoirs on boracic acid and fluoric acid read at the Institute, 1808-09. He was appointed professor of practical chemistry at the Poly- technic School in 1809, and professor of physics at the Sorbonne. Among his most remarkable discoveries is that of cyanogen, in 181 5. He made important contribu- tions to nearly every branch of chemical and physical science. He wrote many valuable memoirs, which ap- peared in the " Memoires" of the Society of Arcueil, and in the "Annales de Chimie," of which he was an editor. In 183 1 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, be- came professor of chemistry at the Jardin des Plantes in 1832, and was made a peer of France in 1839. Died in Paris in May, 1850. See Arago, " loge de Gay-Lussac," in his "Notices biogra- phiques," tome iii. ; Gardeur Le Brun, "Notice sur M. Gay- Lussac," 1851; Dr. F. Hoefer, in the " Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale;" L. de Lomenie, "M. Gay-Lussac, par un Homme de Rien," 1841. Gayangos, de, di gf-ing'g6s, (Pascual,) an eminent Spanish Orientalist, born at Seville in 1809, studied in Paris under Silvestre de Sacy. He resided some years in England, where he published (in English) a " History of the Mohammedan Dynasties of Spain," from the Arabic of Al-Makkari, with notes, (2 vols., 1840-43.) He wrote articles for several English Reviews. In 1843 he became professor of Arabic at Madrid, and produced, with Vedia, a Spanish version of Ticknor's " History of Spanish Literature," (1851-56.) He gave important aid to Prescott in the collection of materials for his " History of Philip II." Gayarre, g/i'rk', (Charles Arthur,) an American historian and lawyer, born in Louisiana in 1805. He was appointed secretary of state by Governor Johnson, of Louisiana, and filled that ofiice about seven years. He published, besides other works, a " Histoire de la Louisiane," (2 vols., 1847,) and "Louisiana : its History as a French Colony," (2 vols., 1851-52.) Gayot de Pitaval, gS'yo' deh pe'tt'vtK, (Franqois,) a mediocre French compiler, was born at Lyons in 1673. He worked for the booksellers of Paris, and published " Sallies of Wit for Conversation," (2 vols., 1732,) and "Celebrated Trials," ("Causes celebres," 20 vols., 1 734-43') ^ied in 1743. Gayrard, ga'rtR', (Raymond,) a French sculptor and engraver of medals, born at Rodez in 1777, gained distinction by two medallions engraved on the occasion of the marriage of Napoleon, 1810. Gay'ton, fLat. De Speciosa Villa,] (Edmund,) an English humorous writer, born in 1609. According to Anthony Wood, "he lived in London, and wrote trite things merely to get bread to sustain him and his wife." His best-known work is " Festivious Notes on Don Quixote," (1654.) Died in 1666. Gay'wood, (Robert,) an eminent English engraver, who lived about 1650, was a puj^il and imitator of Hollar. Gaza, gi'z^, written also Gazis, (Theodore,) an eminent Greek scholar, born at Thessalonica about 1400. He emigrated to Italy soon after the capture of that city by the Turks, (1429,) and taught Greek for some time at Ferrara. About 1450 he removed to Rome, where he was patronized by Pope Nicholas V. He wrote an excellent Greek Grammar, (printed in 1495,) and trans- lated into Latin many Greek works, among which are Aristotle's " History of Animals," (1476,) and Theophras- tus's " History of Plants," (14S3.) He was an excellent Latin scholar, and contributed much to the revival of classical learning. Died in Italy about 1478. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Gr£pca ;" Hody, "De Gracis ilkis- tribus;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." a. e i 0, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, 'ess prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon GAZ^.US lOI I GEDDES Gazaeus. See Gazet. Grazan de la Peyriere, gt'z«3N' deh It pi're-aiR', (Honors Th6ophile Maxime,) Count, a French gene- ral, born at Grasse, in Provence, in 1765. He became a general of division in 1799, after which he gained suc- cesses over the Austrians at Marcello, and other places in Italy. He distinguished himself at Jena, (1806,) Sara- gossa, (1809,) and Albuera, (181 1.) Died in 1844. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Gazan Khan. See Ghazan Khan. Gazee- (or Gazi-) Hassan, gi'zee hSs'san, grand ad- miral and prime minister of the Ottoman Empire, raised himself from the lowest rank. He went to Constanti- nople in 1760, and entered the navy. In 1769, in the war between Russia and the Porte, Hassan was a vice-ad- miral. In 1 771 he forced the Russians to raise the siege of Lemnos, and was promoted to the rank of capudan- pasha, (grand admiral.) Sultan Selim in 1789 appointed him grand vizier ; but, as he failed to secure either peace or victory, he was deprived of office and of life in 1790. Gazet, gt'zi', [ Lat. Gaz^'us, ] ( Guillaume, ) a French historian and priest, born at Arras in 1554. He wrote, besides other superficial works, an "Ecclesiastical History of the Low Countries," (1614.) He is considered an injudicious and credulous writer. Died in 161 1. Gazi, gid'zee, [Lat. Ga'zius,] (Antonio,) an Italian physician, born about 1450. His treatise on hygiene, entitled "Florida Corona Medicinae," (1491,) was often reprinted. Died in 1530. Gazis. See Gaza. Gazius. See Gazi. Gaznevides, (or Ghaznevides,) gaz'ne-vidz, (sing. Gaznevide, gaz'ne-vid,) written also Ghasnevides and Gasnevides, [Fr. pron. gtz^nVv^d'; Ger. Ghasne- wiDEN, gdz-neh-^ee'den ; Lat. Gaznev'id^ and Gaz- NEVi'r^,] the name of the first Mohammedan dynasty which ruled in India. It was founded by Sebaktegeen about 980, and named from Gaza, or Ghiznee, the seat of his empire. His son Mahmood, by far the most powerful and most famous of all the Gaznevide sultans, overran a large part of Northern India, whence he re- turned with untold riches, the fruit of his vast con- quests, to Gazna. (vSee Mahmood.) Khosroo-Malek, (or -Melek,) the last sovereign of this dynasty, was taken and put to death by the Ghaurian conqueror in 1186. Gazola, gid'zo-li, (Giuseppe,) an Italian physician, born at Verona in 1661. In 1692 the emperor Leopold employed him as one of his medical attendants. In 1697 he returned to Verona, where he practised with success till his death. He wrote a popular work, called " II Mondo ingannato da falsi Medici," ("The World deceived by False Physicians," 1716.) Died in 1715. Gazon-Dourxigne, gS'z6NMooR'z^n''yy,(S6BASTiEN Marie Mathurin,) a French littSrateur, born at Quim- per-Corentin, wrote a poem entitled "Antenor, or the Republic of Venice," (1748,) a Critique on Voltaire's Dramas, (1767,) "The Gardens," a poem, (1772,) and several otlier works. Died in 1784. Gazzaniga, git-si-nee'gS, (Giuseppe,) an Italian composer of operas, born at Verona about 1745; died about 181 5. Geary, ga're, commonly called gee're, (John W.,) an American general, born in Westmoreland county, Penn- sylvania, about 1820. He commanded a regiment in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and was appointed Governor of Kansas in July, 1856, which position he resigned about March, 1857. He became a brigadier-general early in 1862, fought at the battle of Gettysburg in July, 1863, and commanded a division of the army of General Sherman in the campaign against Atlanta in the summer of 1864. He was elected Governor of Pennsylvania by the Repub- licans in October, 1866, and again in 1869. Gebauer, gi-bow'er, (Georg Christian,) a German jurist, born at Breslau in 1690. He became first pro- fessor of law at Gottingen in 1734, wrote many valuable legal works, and published an edition of the "Corpus Juris." Died at Gottingen in January, 1773. See C. G. Heyne," Programmade Vita et Mentis G. C. Gebauer," 1774; GoEscHEN, "VitaG. C. Gebaueri," 1837. Gebelin. See Court de Gebelin. Geber, geb'er or ga'ber, sometimes written Giaber, a distinguished Arabian chemist and alchemist, lived in Mesopotamia in the eighth century. His real name was Aboo-Moossah-Jaafar-al-Sofee. Some writers have erroneously attributed to him the invention of algebra. He was the author of several works on alchetny and kindred subjects. He was classed by Cardan among the twelve most subtle intellects of the world. According to Dr. F. Hoefer, " he deserves to be placed in the first rank among the chemists or alchemists anterior to Van Helmont. Geber is for the history of chemistry what Hippocrates is for the history of medicine." (See " His- toire de la Chimie.") See, also, Bor^l, " Bibliotheca Chimica;" Abulfeda, ii. Gebhard Truchsess, ggp'hiRt tRook's^ss, Elector and Archbishop of Cologne, was born near Waldburg in 1547. Having become a Protestant and married the Countess Agnes of Mansfeld about 1582, he was in- volved in a contest with the Catholic party, which, resulted in his being compelled to surrender his elector- ate to the Archbishop of Bavaria. Died in 1601. See J. D. KoELER, " Dissertatio de Actis et Fatis Gebhardii Truch- sessii," 1745; JocHER, " Supplementum Historiae Gebhardi Truch- sessii. Gebhardi, ggp-haR'dee, (Johann Ludwig Levin,) a German historian, born at Brunswick in 1699. He was professor of theology, logic, and mathematics at LUne- burg for many years. He published an important " Historical and Genealogical Account of the Royal and Imperial Houses of Europe," (1731,) and other works. Died in 1764. See Meusel, " Lexikon der vom Jahre 1750-1800 verstorbenen Deutschen Schriftsteller." Gebhardt, ggp'hSrt, or Geb-har'dus, (Janus,) a Dutch scholar, of German extraction. He wrote notes on Tibullus, Catullus, and Propertius. Died in 1632. Gebler, gibber, (Tobias Philipp,) a German poet and dramatist, born in 1726, was a councillor of state in the reign of Maria Theresa, and became a member of the privy council in 1782. Died in 1786. Gechter, zhesh'taiR', (Jean Franqois Th]£odore,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1796. Among his works are colossal statues of the Rhine and Rhone, which adorn the Place de la Concorde, Paris. Died in 1844. Ged, g^d, (William,) a Scottish goldsmith and artist, born probably in Edinburgh about 1690. He invented, about 1725, a method of printing by a plate cast in a mould of plaster. He published an edition of Sallust thus printed in 1744. The term "stereotype" was first applied to this process by Firmin Didot. Died in 1749. See Nichols, "Literary Anecdotes;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Ged'des, (Alexander,) a learned Roman Catholic biblical critic and translator, was born in the county of Banff, Scotland, in 1737. He removed to London about 1780, and undertook a translation of the Bible, (for the use of Roman Catholics,) of which he published two volumes, (1792-97.) These contain the books from Genesis to Chronicles inclusive, with notes and critical remarks which gave offence to Christians generally. He was deposed from his priestly functions by the apos- tolic vicar for his attack on the divine authority of the Scriptures, and his version remained unfinished. He doubted or denied the miracles ascribed to Moses, Died in 1802. See " Life of A. Geddes," by John Mason Good, 1803. Geddes, (Andrew,) a Scottish painter, born in Edin- burgh about 1789. He painted portraits of Dr. Chalmers and David Wilkie, and historical pictures, among which was " Christ and the Woman of Samaria." Died in 1844. Geddes, (James,) a Scottish advocate and writer, born in 1710. He published an "Essay on the Compo- sition and Manner of Writing of the Ancients, particu- larly Plato," (1748.) Died in 1749. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Geddes, (Michael,) a theologian, born in Scotland about 1640. He was chancellor of the diocese of Sarum, and published, besides other works, a " History of the Church of Ethiopia," (1696,) "Miscellaneous Tracts," (3 vols., 1702-06,) and "Tracts against Popery," (1715.) € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, Yi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2^=" See Explanations, p. 23.) GEDIKE IOI2 GEIJER His works were admired by Southey. Died about 1715- See Chambers," Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." Gedike, ga'de-keb, or Gedicke, (Friedrich, ) a German teacher and educational writer, born in the province of Brandenburg in 1755. He became in 1779 director of the Friedrichswerder Gymnasium at Berlin, and in 1795 of the Berlin Gymnasium, both of which institutions he raised to the highest prosperity by his excellent system of instruction. Died in 1803. See Franz Horn, " F. Gedicke's Biographie," 1808; Daniel Jenisch, " Einige Worte zum Andenken des F. Gedicke," 1803. Gedoyn, zheh-dw^N', (Nicolas,) a French translator and abbe, born at Orleans in 1677. He became intimate with Ninon de Lenclos, who was his relative. In 1701 he obtained acanonicate in Paris. He produced in 1718 an elegant but rather free translation of Quintilian, which opened to him the French Academy. His other chief work is a version of Pausanias, (1731.) Died in 1744. See D'Alembert, "£loge de Gedoyn;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Gee, (Joshua,) a distinguished London merchant, published in 1729 a work entitled "The Trade and Navigation of Great Britain Considered," which was once popular. Geefs, gafs or Hafs, (Jan Joseph,) a distinguished Belgian sculptor, born at Antwerp in 181 1. Among his best works are "Adonis departing to the Chase," and "IVTetabus, King of the Volsci." Died in i860. Geefs, (Willem,) a celebrated Belgian sculptor, a brother of the preceding, was born at Antwerp in Sep- tember, 1806, and studied under Ramey in Paris. Among his master-pieces are statues of Rubens and of Malibran, the monument to Count Frederick de Merode, the " Lion in Love," a group in marble, and " Francesca da Rimini." He obtained the title of first sculptor to the king. His wife, Fanny, is a skilful painter of genre and portraits. Geel, Hal, or Gell, gel, (Jakob,) an eminent Dutch classical scholar, born at Amsterdam in 1789. He be- came chief librarian at the University of Leyden in 1833, and was one of the founders of the "Bibliotheca Critica Nova," commenced in 1825. Among his chief works is a " Critical History of the Greek Sophists," in Latin, (1823.) He edited Theocritus, (1820,) the "Phoenissae" of Euripides, and other Greek works. Geel, van, vtn Hal, (Louis,) a Belgian sculptor, born at Malines in 1789. He executed the colossal figure of a lion erected on the field of Waterloo. Among his master- pieces is a shepherd playing on a flute. Died in 1852. Geer, de, deh HaR or gaR, (Lodewijck,) a Dutch or Swedish manufacturer, born in 1587. He was employed by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in the fabrication of arms, and in the reign of Queen Christina distinguished himself by the construction of a fleet. He rendered other important services to Sweden. Died in 1652. See BuREN, "Areminne ofver L. de Geer," 1790; Ersch und Gruber, '^Allgemeine Encyklopaedie," 1852 ; Franzen, "Aminnelse- Tal ofver L. de Geer." Geer, von, fon yaR, (Carl,) Baron, a distinguished Swedish naturalist, born in 1720, was the owner of a large fortune. He was a pupil or friend of Linnaeus, and attained the dignity of marshal of the court. His favour- ite study was entomology, on which he published an excellent work, " Memoirs to illustrate the History of Insects," ("Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire des Insectes," 8 vols., 1752-78, with good figures.) He was author of other scientific works. Died in 1778. See T. Bergmann, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver C. de Geer," 1779; Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Gezelius, " Biographiskt- Lexicon." Geeraerts. See Garrard, (Mark.) Geerts, HaRts, (Charles Henri,) a Belgian sculptor, born at Antwerp about 1808; died in 1855. Geffrard, zhiTutR', (Fabre,) a native of Saint Do- mingo, born in 1806, entered the army at an early age, and was made a lieutenant-general in 1845. After the deposition of Soulouque, in 1859, Geffrard became presi- dent of the republic of Hayti. Geiion, ga'fe-on or gef e-on, or Gefione, [etymology unknown,] in the Northern mythology, a virgin goddess. who takes into her service all those who die virgins. For a fuller account of Gefion and the offices she is sup- posed to fulfil, see Petersen's " Nordisk Mythologi." Gehema, von, fon gi-ha'mi, (John Abraham,) a Polish medical writer, born about i66o. He was phy- sician to the Elector of Brandenburg and to the King of Poland. Gehlen, ga'len, (Adolph Ferdinand,) a German chemist, born at Biitow in 1775, became a professor at Munich about 1807. He was editor of a "Journal of Chemistry," (5 vols., 1803-05,) and published several chemical memoirs. He died at Munich, a victim to an experiment with arsenical hydrogen gas, in 1815. Gehler, ga'ler, (Johann Karl,) a German physician and writer, born at Gorlitz in 1732, was professor of botany, anatomy, and chemistry at Leipsic. He wrote able treatises on obstetrics, and other works. Died in 1796. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" "Bio- graphie Medicale." Gehler, (Johann Samuel Traugott,) a German jurist and savant, born at Gorlitz in 1751. He published in 1787 a valuable "Dictionary of Physical Science," in 5 vols. Died in 1795. Gehren, ga'ren, ( Karl Christl\n, ) a German preacher and writer on theology, born at Marburg in 1763 ; died in 1832. See his " Selbstbiographie." Geibel.gl'bel, (Emanuel,) a celebrated German poet, born at Lubeck in 181 5. Having accompanied the Russian ambassador Katakazi, as a family tutor, to Athens in 1838, he visited the most interesting parts of Greece and perfected himself in his classical studies. After his return to Germany he published, in 1840, a volume of poems, which were very well received ; and in 1852 he became professor of aesthetics at Munich. He brought out in 1841 his "Voices of the Time," ("Zeit- stimmen,") which was followed by " King Sigurd's Bridal Excursion," and the "Twelve Sonnets for Sles- wick-Holstein," (1846.) His poetry is characterized by rich fancy, melodious versification, and deep religious feeling, and he ranks among the most popular German poets of the age. Geier, gi'er, (Martin,) a German Lutheran divine, born at Leipsic in 1614, was professor of Hebrew. He wrote Commentaries on Scripture. Died in i68r. Geiger, gl'ger, (Abraham,) a Jewish rabbi and Ori- ental scholar, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1810. Among his principal works are a treatise entitled " What has Mohammed borrowed from Judaism,^" (1833,) and "Studies on Moses ben Maimon," (1850.) Geiger, ginger, (Johann Conrad,) a distinguished painter on glass, born in Zurich in 1597; died in 1674. Geijer or Geyer, yT''er, (Erik Gustaf,) an eminent Swedish historian and poet, born in the province of Warmeland on the 12th of January, 1783. He studied at Upsal, where he became professor of history in 181 7, and acquired great popularity by his lectures. In i8u he had begun the publication of a journal entitled " The Iduna," in which his finest poems — "The Viking," "The Last Skald," etc. — appeared, and soon established his reputation. He represented the University of Upsal in the Diets of 1828 and 1840, and was twice offered a bishopric, which he refused. In 1822 he was appointed royal historiographer, and subsequently president of the Royal Academy. His "History of the Swedish Nation," ("Svenska Folkets Historia," 3 vols.,) esteemed his most important work, came out in 1832, and was soon after translated into English, French, and German. Among his other productions may be named his " Sketch of the Condition of Sweden from the Death of Charles XII. to the Reign of Gustavus HI.," (1839,) "Life of Charles XIV., Jean," (Bernadotte,) (1844,) and "Remi- niscences," (" Minnen," 1834,) left unfinished, containing an account of his early life and of his visit to England and Germany. Geyer was a member of numerous learned institutions, both of his own and other countries, and was in 1840 created Commander of the Polar Star. He was from his youth very intimate with the poet Teg- ner, and numbered among his friends Frederika Bremer and other celebrated Swedish writers. He also possessed i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; f3.r, fill, fit; mSt; nftt; good; moon; GEILER 1013 GELLIUS superior musical talent, and composed several pieces for Jenny Lind. Died April 13, 1847. See HowiTT, "Literature and Romance of Northern Europe," . 1852; X. Marmier, "Histoire de la Litterature Scandinave;" Geijer, "Autobiographic Souvenirs," ("Minnen,") 1834; Sten- BERG, "Minnestal bfver E. G. Geijer," 1848: A. Cronholm, "Min- nestal ofver E. G. Geijer," 1847; Carl Ploug, " E. G. Geijer's Minnesteckning," 1848; " Biographiskt- Lexicon ofver namnkunnige Svenska Man;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1833, and April, 1844. Geiler. See Geyler, (John.) Geinitz, gl^nits, (Johann Bruno,) a German geolo- gist, born at Altenburg in 1 8 14, became professor of mineralogy and geology at Dresden in 1850. He was author of many works, among which is a "Geological Description of Saxony," (1843.) Geinoz, zhi''no', (FRANgois,) a Swiss scholar and critic, born at Bulle in 1696. He became a resident of Paris in 1730, and a member of the Academy of In- scriptions in 1735. was afterwards chief editor of the "Journal des Savants," and was distinguished as a Hellenist. Among his works are '* Observations on the Text and Version of the First Book of Herodotus." Died in Paris in 1752. Geladas. See Ageladas. Gelase. See Gelasius. Gelasius, je-la'she-us, [Gr. VeTMOLog; Fr. Gelase, zhi'lSz',] became Bishop of Caesarea about the year 367. He was a member of the General Council of Constanti- nople. He wrote several works, among which is an "Ecclesiastical History." Died about 395. Gelasius of Cyzicus [Fr. G6lase de Cyzique, zha'- iSz' deh se'z^k'l lived during the time of the emperors Basiliscus and Zeno, about 475 A.D. He wrote a " His- tory of the Council of Nice," and some other works. See DupiN, " Histoire des Auteurs ecclesiastiques." Gelasius I., Saint, a native of Africa, was elected pope in 492. He died in 496, leaving several works, which are extant. The canonical books of Scripture were separated from the apocryphal in his pontificate. Gelasius II., (originally Giovanni di Gaeta,) born at Gaeta about 1050, was elected pope in January, 1118. He was maltreated by some partisans of the emperor Henry V., who was his enemy, and who elected an anti- pope, Gregory VHI. Gelasius fled from Rome, and died at Cluny in 1119. See Platina, "Vitse Pontificum." Geldenhauer, gSKden-how^er or HgKden-how'er, or Geldenhaur, (Gerard,) a Dutch writer and Latin poet, born at Nymwegen about 1480, was sometimes called Gerard of Nymwegen. He was in early life a friend of Erasmus and reader to Charles V. His talent for Latin poetry procured for him the crown of poet-lau- reate in 1 517. He was converted to the Protestant faith about 1526. Among his works are "Satires," (15 15,) and a "History of Lower Germany," ("Germanise Inferioris Historia," 1532.) Died at Wittenberg in 1542. See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." Gelder, van, vtn gel'der or H^l'der, (Arnold,) a Dutch painter, born at Dort in 1645, was a pupil of Rem- brandt. He distinguished himself in several branches of painting, designed correctly, and was a good colorist. Among his best works are " Christ before Pilate," a portrait of Peter the Great, and "The Toilet of the Jewish Bride." Died at Dort in 1727. SeeSiRET, " Dictionnaire des Peintres." Gelee, (Claude.) See Claude Lorrain. Gelee, zheh-li', (FRANgois Antoine,) a French en- graver, born in Paris in 1796, gained the grand prize in 1824, and a first medal at the Salo7t in 1842. Ge-le'ni-us, [Ger. pron. gi-la'ne-us,] or Ghelen, ga^en, (Sigismund,) a philologist and translator, born at Prague in 1477. He was a friend of Erasmus, who pro- cured for him the place of corrector of the press under Froben at Bale. He translated into Latin the works of Josephus, Appian, Philo, and Justin Martyr, and pub- lished a dictionary of the Greek, Latin, German, and Slavonian languages, ("Lexicon Symphonum quatuor Linguarum," 1537.) Died in 1554, Gelimer,g§Ke-mer orjgl'e-mer, written also Gil'imer, [Gr. VeXLiiep,] the last king of the Vandals in Africa, suc- ceeded Hilderic in 530 a.d. He was defeated and taken prisoner by Belisarius in 534, and then ceased to reign. The date of his death is unknown. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Ernpire." Gelinek, g^-lee'n§k, (Joseph,) a Bohemian com- poser, born at Selez in 1757, was a friend or associate of Mozart. He acquired a wide but temporary reputa- tion. Died at Vienna in 1825. Gell, (Jakob.) See Geel. Qrell, (Sir William,) an English scholar and anti- quary, born in 1777, was a son of Philip Gell, of Hopton, Derbyshire. Being appointed one of the chamberlains to the Princess of Wales, he accompanied her to Italy in 1814. He published, among other works, the " Itine- rary of Greece," (1810,) "Topography of Troy and its Vicinity," " Pompeiana," being a description of Pom- peii, (1817,) and the excellent " Topography of Rome," (3 vols., 1834.) He resided some years at Rome and Naples. Died at Naples in 1836. Gellert, geKlert, (Christian Furchtegott,) a Ger- man poet and miscellaneous writer, born at Hainichen, in Saxony, on the 4th of July, 1715. Having been edu- cated in the University of Leipsic, he was appointed pro- fessor of philosophy there in 1751. His "Tales" and " Fables" obtained a popularity in Germany not sur- passed perhaps by any other works of the kind, and, by their pure morality, exercised the most salutary influ- ence on society. His " Sacred Songs" are also highly esteemed, and his romance entitled "The Swedish Countess" is a superior production. As a man, Gellert was eminently virtuous and amiable. He was loved and reverenced by all classes, and received signal marks of favour from Frederick II. and the princes royal. " Such," says Guizot, "are the literary titles of a man who will always possess the merit of having powerfully contrib- uted to form the language and improve the minds of his countrymen." (" Biographic Universelle.") Died in December, 1769. See Lessing's Critique on Gellert; Johann August Eknesti, "Elogium C. F. Gellerti," 1770; Johann Andreas Cramer, "C. F. Gellert's Leben und Briefe," 2 vols., 1774, (translated into English by Mrs. Douglas, 1805;) Heinrich Doring, " Leben C. F. Gellerts," 2 vols., 1833; Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Bouterwek, " Geschichte der poetischen National-Literatur der Deutschen ;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" G. E. Leo, "Das fromnie Leben C. F. Gellerts," 1845. Gelli, jeKlee, (Giovanni Battista,) a celebrated Italian author and moralist, born at Florence in 1498, was a tailor by trade. He was one of the founders of the Florentine Academy, of which he was chosen president in 1548. He published in 1546 a collection of moral dialogues, entitled " I Capricci del Bottajo," ("The Whims of the Cooper,") and in 1549 a fable, or moral fiction, called "La Circe," which Ginguene com- mends as original and piquant. Among his works are "The Basket," ("La Sporta," a comedy, 1543,) and lectures on the "Divina Commedia" of Dante, (1551.) His writings are recognized as authorities in language by the Academy della Crusca. Died in 1563. See Negri, "Scrittori Fiorentini ;" Niceron, " Memoires ;" Michele Capri, "Orazione nella Morte di G. B. Gelli," 1563; Ginguene, "Histoire litteraire d'ltalie." QrelTi-brand, (Henry,) an English mathematician, born in London in 1597. He became professor of astron- omy at Gresham College, London, in 1627, and wrote an " Epitome of Navigation," and several mathematical works. He completed Briggs's " Trigonometria Bri- tannica," (1633,) at the request of the dying author. Died in 1636. See Wood, "Athens Oxonienses." gelTi-us, (Au'lus,) [Fr. Aulu-Gelle, o'lu' zhB,] a Roman writer and grammarian, born at Rome in the early part of the second century. He became a resident of Athens, but returned to Rome and obtained the office of judge. He wrote a work called "Attic Nights," (" Noctes Atticae,") which consists of a curious collection of anecdotes, arguments, and observations on a variety of subjects. It contains fragments of several lost works, and is highly prized. He informs the reader that he wrote the " Noctes Atticae" to amuse his children. It was translated into English by Beloe, (1795.) He died in the reign of Marcus Aurelius. See Bahr, "Geschichte der Romische Literatur." c as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, yl, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^='See Explanations, p. 23.) GELLIUS lo Gellius, (Cneius,) a Roman historian, who lived about 150 B.C. He wrote a " History of Rome from the Ear- liest Times," which is not extant. Qre'lon [Gr. r^/lwv] I. succeeded Hippocrates as King of Syracuse in 485 B.C. He had distinguished himself in fighting under Hippocrates, and was appointed by him general of the cavalry. About 480 B.C. the Car- thaginians, under Hamilcar, made an attempt to recover their possessions held by Gelon, but were defeated at Himera with immense loss, estimated at 150,000 men. After this the Carthaginians sued for peace, which was granted on condition of their abolishing human sacrifices and on the payment of two thousand talents. He died in 478 B.C., deeply regretted by all his subjects. See NiEBUHR, " Roman History ;" Grote, " History of Greece." Gelon II., a son of Hieron II., King of Syracuse, was born about 266 B.C. He was a patron of Archimedes. It is said that he was about to abandon the alliance of the Romans, defeated at Cannae, when he died in 216 B.C., leaving a son Hieronymus. It appears that Gelon was associated as king with his father, who survived him. Gemberlein. See Graf. Gemeau, zha^mo^ (Auguste Pierre Walbourg — vtKbooR',) a French general, born in Paris in 1790, became a general of division in 1845, ^^'^^ commander- in-chief of the army of occupation at Rome in 1850. Gemelli, ji-meKlee, (Lodovico,) an Italian educa- tional writer, born in Calabria in 1757 ; died in 1835. Gemelli-Carreri. See Carreri. Gemignano. See Gimignano. Gemignano, di San, de sin ja-min-yi'no, (Vin- CENZio,) an Italian painter, born in Tuscany in 1490, was a pupil of Raphael, He was employed in the Vati- can, at Rome. Died in 1530. Geminiani, ji-me-ne-a'nee, (Francesco,) an eminent composer and violinist, born at Lucca about 1680, or, as some say, about 1666. He studied under A. Scarlatti, Lunati, and Corelli. In 17 14 he removed to London, where he performed with great success. He composed beautiful concertos and sonatas, which display much skill in harmony, and published a " Guide to Harmony," (" Guida armonica," 1742,) which was received with favour. His expensive habits kept him always on the verge of poverty. He lost a valuable manuscript treatise on music, through the treachery of a servant, about 176 1. Died in Dublin in 1762. See BuRNEV, " History of Music;" F^tis, "Biographic Uni- verselle des Musiciens." Qre-mi'nus, [Fe/zivof,] a Greek astronomer, who lived in the first century B.C. He quotes Hipparchus in his works, some of which are lost. It is supposed he was a native of Rhodes. He wrote an elementary work on astronomy, " ^iaaycjyrj sig ru ^aivofieva," which is extant. "This work," says Delambre, "is rather superficial, but simple and luminous, and the best of those which have come down to us from the Greeks." See Delambre, " Histoire de rAstronomie ancienne." Qre-mis'tus, (George,) [Gr. Tetjpyiog 6 Ve^iarog ; Fr. G^MISTE, zhi'm^st',] surnamed Pletho, a Platonic philosopher, famous for his learning, was born at Con- stantinople. He was a deputy from the Greek Church to the Council of Florence in 1438. He was a zealous partisan of the philosophy of Plato, and an opponent of Aristotle. The prevalence of Platonism in Italy in the fifteenth century is ascribed to his efforts. He wrote many works on philosophy, history, etc., among which are a " History of Greece after the Battle of Mantinea," and " On the Difference between the Philosophy of Plato and that of Aristotle." He is said to have attained the age of one hundred years. See Fabricius, " Bibliotlieca Grasca ;" Appendix to Cave, " His- toria Literaria ;" Wiluelm Gass, " Gennadius und Pletho," Bres- lau, 1844; C. F. Boekner, "De doctis Hominibus Graecis," Leipsic, 1754; " Noiivelle Biographie Gen^rale." Qrem'ma, [Dutch pron. H^m'mi,] (Cornelis,) a son of Reinier, noticed below, was born at Louvain in 1535. He became professor of medicine there about 1570. He wrote a learned work, "De Arte Cyclognomica," (1569,) and a Latin poem entitled " Menti rerum architectrici," etc. Died in 1577. See Castellan, " Vitae illustrium Medicorum." 14 GEN EST Gemma, [ or Gemma Frisius, i.e. " Gemma the Frisian,"] (Reinier,) a Dutch physician and eminent astronomer, born at Dokkum in 1508. He was appointed professor of medicine at Louvain in 1541, and modestly declined the offer of Charles V., who invited him to his court. He published, besides other works, " The Princi- ples of Astronomy and Cosmography," (1547.) Died at Louvain in 1555. See De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis ;" Foppens, " Biblio- theca Belgica;" Vossius, "De Scientiis Mathematicis." Gemmingen-Hornberg, von, fon gSm'ming-en- hoRn'b^RG, (Otto Heinrich,) Baron, born at Heil- bronn in 1753, wrote several popular dramas, one of which was entitled " Der Deutsche Hausvater," on the model of Diderot's " Pere de Faniille." Died in 1836. Gemusaeus, g^-moo-za'us, or Geschmauss, gW- shmowss^ (Hieronymus,) a German philologist, born at Miilhausen, in Alsace, in 1505. He published a good edition of Paulus ^gineta, (1538,) and wrote, in Latin, a Life of Galen. Died in 1543. Gence, zhdNss, (Jean Baptiste MoDESTE,)a French writer, born at Amiens in 1755. He obtained the office of archivist at the Depot des Chartes before the Revolu- tion. He published a Latin edition of the " Imitation of Christ," (1826,) and wrote several treatises to prove that Gerson was the author of that work. This subject was his hobby during nearly all his life. Died in 1840. See "Biographic litteraire de J. B. M. Gence," by himself; Vil- lenave, " Eloge de M. Gence," 1840. Gendebien, zhdN'del/be^N'', (Alexandre Joseph S^bastien,) a Belgian politician and eloquent advocate, born at Mons in 1789. He was a member of the pro- visional government in 1830, and opposed the election of Leopold in 1 83 1. As a member of the Chamber of Deputies, he supported liberal principles until he retired from public service in 1839. Gendebien, (Jean Francois,) a Belgian legislator, father of the preceding, was born in 1753. He promoted the liberation of Belgiuin from Austria in 1789, and was a member of the French legislative body from 1802 to 1813. In 1830 he was president of the Congress of Belgium. Died in 1838. Gendre. See Legendre. Gendrin, zhdN'dR^N'', (Auguste Nicolas,) a French physician, born at Chateaudun in 1796. He received the Montyon prize of the Institute for his "Anatomical History of Inflammations," (1826.) Among his other works is a "Philosophical Treatise on Practical Medi- cine," (3 vols., 1838-41.) Gendron, zhSN'dRON', (Claude Deshais — da'za',) born at Beauce about 1663, was physician to the Duke of Orleans, Regent of France. Died in 1750. Genebrard,zha'na'bRtR^(GiLBERT,)a learned French prelate, born at Riom in 1537. He loecame professor of Hebrew at Paris in 1563. He was a partisan of the League against Henry IV. In 1592 he was appointed Archbishop of Aix by the pope. He published an edi- tion of Origen's works, (1574,) a commentary on the Psalms of David, (1577,) and other works. Died in 1597. See Niceron, " Memoires ;" Possevin, "Apparatus Sacer." Genelli, gi-neKlee, } (Bonaventura,) a German de- signer, born at Berlin in 1803, settled at Munich, wher/s he produced, among other works, " Hercules playing on the Lyre," and "Jason and Medea." General!, ji-ni-ri'lee, (Pietro,) an able Italian com- poser, born near Vercelli in 1783. His proper name was Mercandetti. He composed many operas, among which is "I Baccanali di Roma." Died in 1832. See Fetis, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." Genes, zheh^nSss', (written also Genest, ) Saint, sometimes called Genes of Rome, was originally a comedian. It is said that as he was playing, in the presence of the emperor, a piece in derision of the Chris- tians, he was miraculously converted to the new faith, for which he was beheaded by order of Diocletian. Qre-ne'si-us, (Joseph,) a Byzantine historian, flour- ished about 950 a.d. He wrote, in Greek, a history of Leo the Armenian, Michael II., Theophilus, and Michael III., (or, as some say, Basil I.) Genest. See Campan, (Madame,) and Gen^s. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, hy 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; GEN EST 1015 GENNARI Genest, zheh-ni', or GenSt, (Abbe Charles Claude,) a French poet and dramatist, born in Paris in 1639. He gained in 1673 the prize of poetry offered by the French Academy, into which he was admitted in 1698. He expounded the Cartesian philosophy in a poem called "Principles of Philosophy," ("Principes de Philosophie," 1716,) which, says Voltaire, "demonstrated his patience rather than his genius." He wrote a medi- ocre drama entitled "Penelope." Died in 17 19. See Voltaire, "Catalogue des ficrivains du Siecle de Louis XIV;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Genest or Gen§t, (Edmond Charles,) a French diplomatist, born at Versailles about 1765, was a brother of Madame Campan. He was sent as ambassador to the United States in December, 1792, and on his arrival was received with enthusiasm by the people. He used his influence to involve the United States in war against the British, and denounced Washington for his neutral- ity. At the request of Washington, he was superseded ; but he remained in the United States. Died at Schodac, New York, in 1834. Genet, (Edmond Charles.) See Genest. Genet, zheh-ni', (Franqois,) a French theologian and casuist, born at Avignon in 1640, became Bishop of Vaison in 1685. He wrote "Moral Theology; or, A So- lution of Cases of Conscience," (3d edition, 7 vols., 1682,) which was approved by many bishops. Died in 1707. Geneva, (Robert de.) See Robert of Geneva. Genevieve, jgn''eh-veev', [Fr. pron. zhen-ve'av',] Patron Saint of Paris, was born at Nanterre, in France, in 423 A.D., and took the veil when she was fifteen. It is said that when Attila, King of the Huns, menaced Paris, Genevieve assured the inhabitants of their safety, upon which they scoffed at her as a pretended prophetess ; but, as the prediction was verified, they ever afterwards held her in great esteem. When Paris was besieged, she afforded the city great relief by the abundance of provisions which she procured. It has also been stated that she performed many miracles, and was the means of converting King Clovis. Died in 512. See Baillet, "Vies des Saints," etc. ; M^zeray, "Histoire de France;" Mrs. Jameson, "Sacred and Legendary Art;" Le Nain DE TiLi.EMONT, "Vie de S. Genevieve, Patronne de Paris," 1823; J. Barth^lemy, "Vie de S. Genevieve," 1852. Genevieve of Brabant, wife of the palatine Sieg- fried, is supposed to have lived in the eighth century. Being falsely accused of adultery, she was condemned to death; but the penalty was commuted. to exposure in a forest. After five years, she was recognized by her hus- band when hunting, and her innocence acknowledged. See "Vie admirable de Genevieve de Brabant," Paris, 1842; Gorres, "Deutsche Volks-Biicher." Genga, j&n'gi, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian architect, born at Cesena in 15 18, was a son of Girolamo, noticed below. He was appointed intendant of public buildings by the Duke of Urbino. Among his works was the church of San Pietro de Mondovi. Shortly before his death he went to Malta to put that island in a state of de- fence. He traced the plan of Valetta, and designed several churches there, but died before they were finished, in 1558. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc.; Quatrem^re de QuiNCY, " Dictionnaire d' Architecture." Genga, (Bernardino,) an Italian anatomist, born in the duchy of Urbino about 1650. He wrote "Surgical Anatomy," (1672,) and other works. Died in 1734. Genga, (Girolamo,) an eminent painter and archi- tect, born at Urbino about 1476, was a pupil of Perugino and a friend of Raphael. He worked at Sienna, Rome, and Urbino. He excelled in perspective, and in the distribution of the effects of light. Among his' master- pieces is an oil-painting of the "Resurrection of Christ" at Sienna. He was the architect of a ducal palace near Pesaro, and restored the archiepiscopal palace at Mantua. He wrote several treatises on the fine arts. Died in 1551. Pope Leo XII. is said to have been his descendant. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters, Sculptors," etc.; Quatre- MERE UE QuiNCY, " Dictionnaire d'Architecture ;" Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Genga, della, (Annibal.) See Leo XH. Genghis Khan. See Jengis Khan. Genin, zhi^n^N', (Francois,) a French litterateur ^.wd philologist, born at Amiens in 1803, He became one of the editors of "The National," a daily paper of Paris, about 1837, and wrote for it spirited articles against the Jesuits. In 1845 the French Academy awarded a prize to his " Lexicon of the Language of Moliere." He made successful researches in the origin of the French language and literature. Among his works are "The Variations of the French Language since the Twelfth Century," (1845,) ^" was born in Milan about 190 a.d. His disposition appears to have been as open and gene- rous as that of his brother was treacherous and cruel. Caracalla, envious of the great popularity ot his brother, and also being determined to reign alone, made several attempts to assassinate him. He accomplished this in 212, by concealing some centurions in the apartments of Julia, the mother of the emperors. Geta was holding a conference with his mother when the assassins killed him and wounded her while she endeavoured to shield him. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Tille- MONT, " Histoire dl& Empereurs Romains ;" Wm. Musgrave, "Geta Britannicus, avec des Notes par Isaac Casaubon, Janus Gruter et Claude Saumaise," London, 1716. ■Geth'in, (Lady Grace,) born in Somerset, England, in 1676, wrote a book entitled " Reliquiae Gethinianae," containing essays on love, friendship, death, courage, and several other subjects. Congreve has highly eulo- gized this work in one of his poems. She died in 1697. A beautiful monument was erected to her memory in Westminster Abbey. See Ballard, " Memoirs of Several Ladies of Great Britain." Geulincx, Huh'links or zhuh'liNks', (Arnold,) a learned Flemish Protestant theologian and Cartesian philosopher at Louvain, born at Antwerp about 1625. He wrote several philosophical and metaphysical works, one of which is called "Metaphysica vera," (1691.) Died in 1669. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Geuns, van, vtn Huns, (Stephen Jan,) a Flemish physician and naturalist, born at Groningen in 1767. He wrote several botanical and medical works, and enriched Gorter's "Flora of Holland" with two hundred species of plants. Died in 1795. Geusau, von, fon goi'zow, (Levin,) a Prussian gene- ral, born near Eisenach in 1734, served with distinction in the Seven Years' war. Died in 1808. Gevaerts. See Gevartius. Ge-var'ti-us or Gevaerts, gi-vaRts', (Jan Kaspar,) a celebrated Belgian philologist, born at Antwerp in 1593. In 1611 he was created councillor of state, and historiographer, by the emperor Ferdinand HI. of Ger- many. He wrote Latin poems, and other works. Died in 1666. Geyer. See Geijer, (Eric Gustaf.) Geyer, gl'er, (Henry Sheffie,) an American jurist, born at Fredericktovvn, Maryland, in 1790, settled at Saint Louis, Missouri, about 1812. He was elected to the legislature of Missouri several times, and took an important part in revising the statutes of that State in 1825. In 185 1 he was chosen a Senator of the United States. Died in 1859. Geyger. See Gkiger. Geyler or Geiler, gi'ler, (Johann,) a Swiss preacher, born at Schafifliausen in 1445 ; died at Strasburg in 15 10. Ge3'-ser, gT'zer, (Christl^n Theophilus,)^ a skilful German engraver, born at Gorlitz in 1742. Among his most admired {productions are landscapes after Wouwer- man and Pynaker, and the vignettes of Heyne's edition of Virgil. Died about 1806. ■Ge-ze'li-us, [Sw. pron. yi-zTlOe-us,] (Georg,) a learned Swedish ecclesiastic, born in 1736. He pub* a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/iori; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; GEZELIUS 1027 GHIKA lished a "Biographical Dictionary of the Illustrious Men of Sweden," (3 or 4 vols., 1776-78.) Died in 1789. See " Biographiskt-Lexicon ofver namnkunnige Svenska Man." Gezelius, (Johan,) a prelate of Finland, born in 161 5. He became professor of theology and Greek at Dorpat, in Livonia, and in 1664 was ordained Bishop of Abo. He wrote a valuable "Commentary on the Bible" in the Swedish language, and several works in Latin. Died in 1690. See AcHRELius, "Oratio Jn exequias J. Gezelii," 1690; J. J. Tengstroem, "Biskopen i Abo Stift J. Gezelii den aldres Minne," 1875. Gezelius, (Johan,) a son of the preceding, born in 1647. He became Bishop of Abo in 1690, and finished his father's commentary or translation of the Bible. He also wrote "Nomenclator Adami." Died in 1718, Gfrorer, gfRo'rer, (August Friedrich,) a German historian, born at Calw, in Wiirtemberg, in 1803, became in 1846 professor at the Catholic University of Freiburg. He published, among other works, a "Universal Church History," and "Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and his Times," (1835.) Ghasnevides. See Gaznevides. Ghasnewiden. See Gaznevides. Ghazaii, gi'zan', (written also Kaz^n,) Khan, a Mongol sovereign of Persia, born about 1270, was a son of Argoon (Argoun) Khan. He began to reign while still very young, but met at first with much opposition. In 1294 he renounced Booddhism, after which many of tiie Mohammedan chiefs, who had previously opposed him, joined his cause. He extended his empire by con- quest from the river Jihon to the Persian Gulf on the south and Syria on the west. He died in 1304. He was a man of great talents and rare acquirements. Few, if any, among his numerous subjects, were more thoroughly acquainted than he with the history of the ancient Mon- gols. His government, though severe, appears to have been, on the whole, just and enlightened. For a partic- ular account of his reign, see the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Ghaznevidea. See Gaznevides. Ghazzaiee, (or Ghazzali,) Al. See Aboo-Hamid- Mohammed. Ghedini, gi-dee'nee, (Ferdinando Antonio,) an Italian naturalist and poet, born at Bologna in 1684 ; died in 1767. Ghelen. See Gelenius. Gherardesca, gi-rSR-d^s^kSL, a celebrated noble fam- ily of Tuscany, of the thirteenth century. They were opposed to the other families of nobles, and placed them- selves at the head of the popular party. Gherardesca, (Fazio or Bonifacio,) appointed chief of the republic of Pisa in 1329, threw off the yoke of the emperor Louis of Bavaria, and concluded an honourable peace with the Guelphs. Died in 1340. Gherardesca, (Filippo,) a distinguished Italian com- poser, born at Pistoia in 1730; died in 1808. Gherardesca, (Ugolino,) Count of, an Italian sol- dier, who endeavoured to usurp the government of Pisa, but failed and was banished from that city. He then joined the army of Florence, which enabled him to suc- ceed in his projects in 1284. He afterwards governed so despotically that a conspiracy was formed against him, with Ubaldini, the Archbishop of Pisa, at its head. Ugolino was attacked in his palace, where, after a brave defence, he was captured, with three sons and one grandson. By the archbishop's orders, they were all imprisoned in the tower, where they were starved to death, (1288.) This is the Gherardesca of Dante's " Inferno." See SisMONDi, " Histoire des R^publiques Italiennes;" " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Gherardi, gi-r^RMee, (Antonio,) a painter of the Roman school, born in Umbria in 1644; died in 1702. Gherardi, (Christofano,) called Doceno, (do-cha'- no,) a painter of the Florentine school, born at Borgo San Sepolcro in 1500. He assisted Vasari in his works. Died in 1556. Gherardi, (Filippo,) an Italian painter, born at Lucca in 1643, was a pupil of Pietro da Cortona. Among his works is the "Battle of Lepanto." Died in 1704. Gherardi del Testa, gi-r^RMee dh\ t^s'tS, (Tom- MASO,) Count, an Italian dramatist, born near Pisa in 1818. He produced in 1845 ^ successful comedy, called "Mad Ambition," ("Una folle Ambizione.") He com- posed about forty dramas, and a popular poem, entitled " The Creator and his World," (" 11 Creatore ed il suo Mondo,") with other poetical works. Gherardini, gi-raR-dee'nee,( Alessandro,) a painter, born at Florence in 1655. A picture of the "Crucifixion" is called his master-piece. Died in 1723. Gherardo da Sabbionetta, gi-r^R'do di sSb-be-o- net'tS, a celebrated Italian physician and astrologer, born near Cremona between 1200 and 1250. He translated into Latin the works of Avicenna and Almansor. See BoNCOMPAGNi, "Delia Vita e delle Opere di Gherardo da Sabbionetta;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Ghesquiere, de, deh ggs'ke^aiR', (Joseph,) a Jesuit and antiquarian writer, born at Courtrai, in Belgium, in 1736 ; died in 1802. Gheyn, de, deh gm or Hln, (Jacob,) the Elder, a noted Flemish painter and engraver, born at Antwerp in 1565 ; died in 1615. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Gheyn, de, (Jacob,) the Younger, an engraver, born at Antwerp about 1610; died about 1660. Ghezzi, ggt'see, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, born in 1634. He adorned several churches of Rome. Died in 1721. Ghezzi, (Pietro Leone,) a painter and engraver, son of the preceding, was born at Rome jn 1674, and ex- celled in enamel -work and engraving on stones. He was employed by Pope Clement XI. His prophet Micah, in thft church of San 'Giovanni Laterano, is commended. Died in 1755. See LANZt, "History of Painting in Italy." Ghezzi, (Sebastiano,) an Italian painter and archi- tect, the father of Giuseppe, noticed above, was born near Ascoli about 1600 ; died about 1650. Ghiberti, ge-b^R'tee, (Lorenzo,) the greatest sculptor of his time, born at Florence in 1378, was also a painter. He received lessons in design from Bartoluccio, a gold- smith, and opened a new era in the art of sculpture by a restoration of the antique style. In 1400 he produced a design for a bronze gate of the baptistery of Saint John at Florence, which was preferred to those of his competi- tors, among whom was Brunelleschi. He spent twenty years on this bronze gate, which represents scenes from the New Testament. He afterwards executed for the same building another gate, superior to the first. Michael Angelo extolled one or both of these works as worthy to adorn the entrance to Paradise. Among his master-pieces were a statue of Saint Matthew, and the bas-reliefs of the shrine of San Zenobi. "These works," says the " Biographie Universelle," referring to the second gate of the baptistery and the shrine of San Zenobi, "are remarkable for the propriety of the composition, the truth of the attitudes, the accuracy and firmness of the outlines, and the vivacity and dignity of the expression." He was chosen a colleague of Brunelleschi in the erec- tion of the Duomo of Florence. Died about 1455. See August Hagen, "Chronik seiner Vaterstadt von Lorenz Ghiberti," 1833; Cicognara, "Storia della Scultura ;" Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Vasari, "Lives of the Painters and Sculptors;" Gonelli, "Elogio di L. Ghiberti," etc., 8vo, 1822. Ghica or Ghicca. See Ghika. Ghika, gee'ki, Ghica, or Ghicca, (Gregory,) be- came Hospodar of Moldavia in 1662. He was deposed by the grand vizier Kuprili in 1673, ^^^^ about 1680. Ghika or Ghica, (Gregory,) a dragoman at the Ot- toman Porte. Having been taken prisoner by the Rus- sians, he was sent to Saint Petersburg. Through the influence of the empress Catherine II., he was appointed in 1774 Prince of Moldavia. He was assassinated in 1777, by order of the Sultan. Ghika, (Gregory,) was Hospodar of Moldavia anc' ruler of Wallachia for many years in the first half of the eighteenth century. Ghika, (Gregory,) Hospodar of Moldavia, born in Moldavia in 1807. He became hospodar in 1849, and adopted several liberal measures. He was removed by the Turkish Sultan in 1856. Died in 1857. e as 9 as g hard; g as j; c, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^=°See Explanations, p. 23.) I GHILINI 1028 GIBAVLT Ghilini, ge-lee'nee, (Girolamo,) a learned Italian priest, born at Monza in 1589, published a work entitled "Theatre of Literary Men," ("Teatro d'Uomini lette- rati," (1633.) Died about 1670. Ghingi, g^n'jee, (Francesco,) a celebrated Italian gem-engraver, born at Florence in 1689. He executed a " Veiius de Medici" carved from a piece of amethyst weighing eighteen pounds. This master-piece afterwards came into the possession of Augustus III, of Poland. His works are by some esteemed equal to the finest antiques. Died in 1766. Ghini, gee'nee, (Luca,) an Italian botanist, born near Imola in 1500. He taught botany at Pisa, where he planted a botanic garden. Died in 1556. Ghirlandaio, geer-ldn-dl'o or g^R-lin-d^'yo, a cele- brated painter, whose proper name was Domenico Cor- RAur or CuRRADO, was born at Florence about 1450. He excelled in invention, and was the first Florentine who attained skill in aerial perspective. He painted many scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist. Among his chief works are " The Massacre of the Innocents," "The Death of Saint Francis," and "The Calling of Saint Peter and Andrew," which is still preserved in the Sistine Chapel, Rome. Michael Angelo was one of his pupils. Died in 1495. brothers Benedetto and David were painters of inferior ability. See Vasaki, " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" Mrs. Jameson, "Memoirs of Early Italian Painters." Ghirlandaio, (Ridolfo,) a skilful painter, son of the preceding, born'at Florence in 1482. He was the master of a numerous school. " The Coronation of the Virgin" is one of his most admired works. His genius is said to have resembled that of Raphael, whose friendship he enjoyed. He had a talent for the imitation of nature, with the addition of ideal charms. Died in 1560. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. Ghisi, (Adamo.) See Mantuano. Ghisi, (Diana.) See Mantuana. Ghisi, gee'see, (Teodoro,) an Italian painter of the Mantuan school, was a brother of Giorgio Ghisi, sur- named Mantuano, and lived about 1530-80. He was a pupil of Giulio Romano, some of whose works he finished. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. Ghisleri. See Pius V. Ghisolii, ge-soKfee, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, born at Milan in 1624. He worked with success at Rome, Genoa, Milan, and Naples. Died in 1683. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Giaber. See Gei^er. Giacobbi, kob'bee, or Giacobi, jS-ko'bee, (Giro- lamo,) an Italian composer, born at Bologna in 1575. He excelled in sacred music, and composed several operas, said to have been the first performed in Europe. Died in 1650. Giacomelli, ja-ko-mel'lee, (Michelangelo,) an Italian translator, born at Pistoia in 1695, became Arch- bishop of Chalcedon in 1761. He translated into Italian the "Electra" of Sophocles, (1754,) and other Greek works. His versions were highly esteemed. Died in 1774. See A. M. Matani, " Eiogio storico di M. A. Giacomelli," 1775. Giacuinto or Giacquinto, ji-kw^n'to, (Corrado, kor-ri'do,) an Italian painter, born at Molfetta about 1695. He went to Madrid, and became first painter to the king about 1752. Died in 1765. Giafar. See Jaafar. Giambelli. See Gianibelll Giamberti. See San Gallo. GiambuUari, jSm-bool-ia'ree, (Bernardo,) an Italian poet, born at Florence about 1450. Giambullari, (Pietro Francesco,) a son of the preceding, was born at Florence about 1495. He wrote, besides other works, " Rules for Writing and Speaking the Tuscan Language," (1549.) Died in 1564. Giampaolo, jdm-pow'lo or jim-pi'o-lo, (Paolo Nic- col6,) an Italian writer, born in the kingdom of Naples in 1757. He became a member of Joseph Bonaparte's council of state in 1807. His chief work is "Dialogues on Religion," (4 vols., 1815-28.) Died in 1832. Gianibelll, jS-ne-beKlee, or Giambelli, jam-bel'lee, (Federigo,) an Italian mechanician and pyrotechnist, who lived about 1570-90. He was the projector of the "infernal machines" which did such fearful execution against the troops of Parma, near Antwerp, April, 1585. See Motley, "United Netherlands," vol. i. p. 189. Giannettasio, jin-n^t-tS'se-o, (NiccoL6Partenio— paR-ta'ne-o,) a Latin poet and Jesuit, born at Naples in 1648. He published in 1685 a didactic poem on naviga- tion, entitled " Piscatoria et Nautica." The nobleness, facility, and harmony of his poetry are praised by Gin- guene. He wrote other poems. Died in 1715. Giannetti, jSn-net'tee, (Filippo,) an able landscape- painter, born at Messina. He worked at Naples, where he died in 1702. Gianni, jSn'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian poet and improvisator, born at Rome in 1759. He went to Paris about 1800, and obtained a pension from Bonaparte, whose victories he had celebrated. Died in Paris in 1822. Giannini, jan-iiee'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian physi- cian, born near Milan in 1773, published several valuable medical works. He practised at Milan. Died in 181 8. Giannone, jin-no'na, (Pietro,) an eminent Italian historian, born at Ischitella, in the kingdom of Naples, in 1676. He studied law, and practised as an advocate at Naples. He devoted many years to the composition of a " History of the Kingdom of Naples," (" Storia civile del Regno di Napoli," 4 vols., 1723,) in which he at- tacked the temporal power of the pope and censured the abuses of the Roman Catholic Church. He was excommunicated by the Archbishop of Naples, and, to escape the violence of the clerical party, he retired to Vienna about 1723. He received from the emperor Charles VI. an annual pension of one thousand fiorins. Having in a subsequent work avowed opinions which were considered heterodox, he was deprived of his pen- sion about 1734, and removed to Geneva in 1735. He wrote a work entitled " II Triregno, ossia del Regno del Cielo, della Terra e del Papa," ("The Triple Kingdom, or the Kingdom of Heaven, of the Earth, and of the Pope,") which was never printed. In this work he opposed the Catholic dogmas of purgatory, the eucharist, etc. Having been enticed into Savoy by Joseph Guas- taldi in 1736, he was arrested by the order of the King of Sardinia, and confined in prison until his death. He died at Turin in March, 1748. See F. Panzini, "Vita di P. Giannone," 1765; A. Fabroni, " Vitae Italoriim doctrina excellentium ;" Corniani, " Secoli della Letteratura Italiana;" Tipaluo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Giannotti, j^n-not'tee, (Donato,) an Italian histo- rian, born at Florence in 1494, was elected secretary of the republic. His chief work is a history of Venice, called " Republica di Venezia," (1540,) which is com- mended for accuiacy and elegance. Died in 1563. Giannotti, (Silvestro Domenico,) an Italian sculp- tor in wood, born at Lucca in 1680; died in 1750. See Crespi, "Vita di S. Giannotti," 1770. Giants. See Gigantes and Jotuns. Giardini, jaR-dee'nee, (Felice,) a celebrated Italian violinist and composer, born at Turin in 1716. Having performed with brilliant success in Germany, he visited London, where he was received with equal favour. He subsequently became one of the managers of the King's Theatre, which post he was forced to resign, after suffer- ing a heavy pecuniary loss. He died, in great poverty, at Saint Petersburg, Russia, in 1796. He was esteemed one of the best musicians of his time, and his composi- tions for the violin are also of great merit See Fetis, " Biographic Universelle des Miisiciens." Giattini, jSt-tee'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Ital- ian Jesuit and Latin writer, born at Palermo about 1600; died in 1672. •Gib, (Adam,) a Scottish theologian, born in Perth- shire in 1 7 13, was one of the founders of the Secession Church in vScotland. On the division of this church (1746) he became the leader of the Anti-burghers. He wrote "Sacred Contemplations," (1786.) Died in 1788. See Chamrers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Gibault, zhe''b5', (HieromeBonavknture,) a French jurist, born at Poitiers; died about 1832. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, \\, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; mo5n; I GIBBES 1029 GIBBONS Qibbes, gibz, (James Alban,) a physician and medi- cal writer, born of English parents at Rouen about 1616. He practised in Rome. Died in 1677. Gibbes, gibz, (Robert Wilson,) an American phy- sician, born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1809. He wrote, besides several medical and scientific treatises, a "Documentary History of the American Revolution," etc., (3 vols., 1853 et seq.) •Gib'bon, (Edward,) one of the most distinguished of English historians, was born at Putney in 1737. At the age of twelve he was sent to Westminster School, where his feeble health prevented his making much progress in classical studies. V )-n nearly fifteen, however, he became more robust, and entered Magdalene College ; but the picture he has drawn of the Oxford professors and their discipline gives us anything but a favourable impression, and he speaks of the fourteen months he spent there as "the most idle and unprofitable of his whole life." About this time he was converted to the Catholic faith, in consequence of which his father sent him to Lausanne, in Switzerland, to reside with M. Pavillard, a Calvinistic divine, under whose teachings he was brought back to Protestantism. Here he lived five years in retirement, preparing himself by study and reflection for future eminence. ?Ie regarded his " banish- ment" as a fortunate circumstance, but for which " those important years so liberally imj^roved in the studies and conversation of Lausanne would have been steeped in port and prejudice among the monks of Oxford." In 1758 he returned to England, and in 1761 published his first work, entitled " Essay on the Study of Literature," written in French, with which at that time he was better acquainted, as he himself states in his Autobiography, than with his native tongue. Soon after this he became a captain in the Hampshire militia, and engaged with much ardour in the study of military tactics; but, becoming weary of this pursuit, he gave it up, and in 1763 went to Paris. Leaving Paris, he repaired to Lau- sanne, and in a short time set out for Rome, where, he tells us, "as he sat musing amidst the ruins of the Capitol, while the bare-footed friars were singing vespers in the temple of Jupiter, the idea of writing the decline and fall of the city first started to his mind." Ife did not, however, begin it until several years later. On his return to England ha wrote a history of the Swiss Revo- lution ; but this work was never published. In 1767 he began to publish, conjointly with his Swiss friend Dey- verdun, a work called " Literary Memoirs of Great Britain." In 1770 appeared his first work written in English, " Critical Observations on the Sixth Book of the yEneid." In 1774 he obtained a seat in Parliament, where he supported Lord North's administration, in return for which he was made a commissioner of trade, with a salary of ;^8oo a year. On Lord North's resig- nation. Gibbon gave up his place in Parliament and his "convenient salary." In 1776 the first volume of the " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" appeared, and proved a brilliant success. "The first impression was exhausted in a few days ; a second and third edition were scarcely adequate to the demand." He was especially gratified by the praise of Hume and Robertson, and he says, in his Autobiography, "a letter from Mr. Hume overpaid the labour often years." The hostility of this work to the Christian religion, however, gave great offence to many, and it was severely attacked by several English divines, to only one of whom — Mr. Davis — he replied, "because he assailed not the faith, but the fidelity, of the historian." This charge, however, is gen- erally thought to have been fully fefuted. The second and third volumes were published in 1781 ; and in 1783 he again retired to Lausanne, where he gave himself up to literary pursuits and rejjose. Here he finished the three remaining volumes of his history, which appeared in 1788. He returned to England in 1793, and died in London, January, 1794. His great work has by common consent been placed in the very highest rank of the English classics. As a historian and man of learning, he merits, perhaps, all the praises he has received. As a man, though possessing many amiable traits, he had too little moral elevation and religious sentiment to appreciate the sublime courage of Christian martyrs ; and his political course shows far more regard for his personal interest than devotion to j^rinciple. Mr. Prescott, after some excellent remarks on the qualifications demanded for a perfect historian, speaks of Gibbon as one of the most accomplished writers in this department of literature. He observes, however, that the author of the "Decline and Fall" is wanting in good faith : "his most elaborate efforts exhibit too often the perversion of learning and ingenuity to the vindica- tion of preconceived hypotheses. He cannot, indeed, be convicted of ignorance or literal inaccuracy ; but his disingenuous mode of conducting the argument leads precisely to the same unfair result. Thus, in his cele- brated chapters on the ' Progress of Christianity' . . . he has often slurred over in the text such particulars as might reflect most credit on the character of the religion, or shuflSed them into a note at the bottom of the page, while all that admits of a doubtful complexion in its early propagation is ostentatiously blazoned and set in con- trast to the most amiable features of paganism. At the same time, by a style of innuendo that conveys 'more than meets the ear,' he has contrived, with lago-like duplicity, to breathe a taint of suspicion on the ])urity which he dares not openly assail." (See " Biographical and Critical Miscellanies.") Porson, alluding to the " De- cline and Fall," observes, " An impartial judge must, I think, allow that Mr. Gibbon's history is one of the ablest performances of the kind that has ever appeared. His industry is indefatigable ; his accuracy scrupulous ; his reading, which indeed is sometimes ostentatiously dis- played, immense ; . . . his style emphatic and express- ive ; his periods harmonious." The same able and impartial critic admits that Gibbon's bitter hostility to Christianity is a great blemish on his character as a histo- rian, and adds, " He often makes, when he cannot readily find, an occasion to insult our religion, which he hates so cordially that he might seem to revenge some personal injury." Porson also justly stigmatizes "that rage for indecency which pervades the whole work, but especially the last volumes." (Preface to his "Letters to Travis.") " The * History of the Decline and Fall,' " says Professor Smyth, "must always be considered as one of the most extraordinary monuments that have appeared of the literary powers of a single mind ; and its fame can perish only with the civilization of the world." (" Lectures on Modern History.") Alison, the historian, calls the "Decline and Fall" "the greatest historical work in existence." For a fuller presentation of various critical ouinions respecting Gibbon, the reader is referred to Allibone's "Dictionary of Authors." See Gibbon's autobiographic " Memoirs of hi? Life and Writings," lyqg: Henry Hart Milman, " Life of E. Gibbon," 1839; GuizoT, " Notice sur Gibbon ;" Saintr-Beuve, " Caiiseriesdu Liindi," tome viii. ; T. B. Christophe. " fitiide sur THislorien Gibbon," 1S52; Vii.LEMAiN, "Tableau de la Litt^rature au dix-buitieme Siecle;" "Quarterly Review" for January, 1815, (vol. xii.,) and January, 1834, (vol. 1.) ■Gib'bpn, (Torn,) an American general, born in Pennsylvania about 1826, graduated at West Point in 1847. He obtained the rank of captain in 1859. He commanded a brigade at Antietam, Sei)tember, 1862, and at Gettysburg, July, 1863, Having been appointed a major-generai, he took part in the battles of the Wil- derness, Spottsylvania Court-House, and Cold Harbour. May-June, 1864. •Gib'bons, (Christopher,) a son of Orlando, noticed below, was a skilful musician and composer. He was organist of Westminster Abbey. Died about 1675. Gibbons, (Grtni.ing,) a distinguished sculjitor, of Dutch extraction, born in London (or, as some writers state, in Rotterdam) about 1650. He was appointed by Charles II. one of the directors of public works, and commissioned by hin\ to ornament Windsor Castle with sculpture in wood and marble. Among the most ex- quisite specimens of his skill in wood-carving are the decorations of a room at Petworth. "There is no instance, "says Horace W^alpole, "of a man before Gib- bons who gave to wood the loose and airy lightness of flowers." He is said to have carved feathers which could not be distinguished from real ones. Died in 1721. See Chat-Mrr?;, "Biographical Dictionary;" Walpole, "Anec- dotes of Painting." € as i; cas j; g hard; g as /; g, h, y^, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JI^T'See Explanations, p. 23.) GIBBONS 1030 GIBSON Gibbons, (Orlando,) an eminent English composer and musician, born at Cambridge in 1583. His anthems are regarded as master-pieces of" the kind ; and he also composed madrigals of great beauty. He was created- Doctor in Music in 1622. Died in 1625. See BuRNEY, " History of Music." Gibbons, (Thomas,) an English Calvinistic divine, born near Newmarket in 1720. He published a work entitled "Female Worthies; or, The Lives of Pious Women." Died in 1785. ■Gibbs, (George,) an American mineralogist, born in Rhod* Island about 1780. He collected the valuable cabinet of minerals now owned by Yale College and pur- chased of him by that institution in 1825. Died in 1833. •Gibbs, (James,) a Scottish architect, born at Aber- deen about 1680. He studied in Holland and in Italy, and after his return built Saint Martin's Church and Saint Bartholomew's Hospital in London, and the Rad- cliffe Library at Oxford. Died in 1754. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Gibbs, (JosiAH WiLLARD,) LL.D., an American phi- lologist, born in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1790. He graduated at Yale College, where he became in 1824 professor of sacred literature. He published, besides other works, a " Manual Hebrew and English Lexicon," abridged from Gesenius, (1828,) and "Philological Studies," (1857.) Diedini86i. ■Gibbs, (Sir Vicary,) an English judge, born at Exe- ter in 1752. He distinguished himself in the trials of Hardy, Horne Tooke, and others, for treason, in 1794. He became solicitor-general in 1805, and attorney-gene- ral in 1807. He was appointed chief justice of the court of common pleas in 1813. Died in 1820. See Foss, "The Judges of England." Gibelin, zh^b'l^N', (Esprit (Is'pRe') Antoine,) a French painter of history, born at Aix in 1739. He worked in Paris, chiefly in fresco, and wrote several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1814. Gibelin, (Jacques,) a physician and naturalist, brother of the preceding, was born at Aix in 1744 ; died in 1828. Gibert, zhe'baiR', (Balthasar,) a French critic, of high reputation, born at Aix in 1662. He was professor of rhetoric at the College Mazarin, Paris, for more than fifty years, during which he instructed many who became eminent. His principal work is " The Judgment of Savants on the Authors who have treated on Rhetoric," (3 vols., 1713-19,) which is remarkable for power of analysis and judicious reflections. Died in 1741. See MoRERi, " DIctionnaire Historique." Gibert, (Camille Melchior,) a French physician, born in Paris in 1797. He wrote, besides other works, " Manual of Diseases pertaining to the Skin," (" Manuel des Maladies speciales de la Peau," 1834.) Gibert, (Jean Pierre,) a writer on canon law, born at Aix, Provence, in 1660, was a cousin of Balthasar, noticed above. His "Institutions ecclesiastiques et beneficiales" ( 1 720) is called his best work. Died in 1 730. See GoujET, " ^\oge de J. P. Gibert," 1736. Gibert, (Joseph Balthasar,) a historical writer and antiquary, born at Aix in 1711, was a nephew of Balthasar, In 1746 he was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions. Diedini77i. Gibert de Montreuil, zhe^DaiR' deh m^N'tRuI' or m6N'tRuh'ye, a French trouvere of the twelfth century, was the author of a romance in verse, entitled "La Vio- lette," which ranks among the best productions of the kind in the middle ages. It is supposed to have furnished to Boccaccio the subject of one of his novels, " Novella IX., Giornata seconda," from which Shakspeare has taken the plot of " Cymbeline." " La Violette" was first printed in the original text at Paris in 1834. Giberti, je-b^R'tee, (Giammatteo,) a Sicilian bishop, eminent for learning and piety, born at Palermo in 1495. He was appointed to the see of Verona in 1524. He was a generous patron of literature; and several ex- cellent editions of the Greek Fathers were published at his charge. Died in 1543. See P. F. ZiNi, " Boni Pastoris Exemplum." Gibieuf, zhe'be-uf, (Guillaume,) a French doctor of the Sorbonne, born at Bourges, was appointed vicar- I general of the order of the Carmelites. He wrote a work entitled " De Libertate Dei et Creaturae." Died in 1650. ■Gib'spn, (Edmund,) an English prelate, distinguished for his attainments in the Northern tongues, was born in Westmoreland in 1669. Among his principal publica- tions may be named an edition of the "Chronicon Saxo- nicum," a translation of Camden's "Britannia," and his " Body of English Ecclesiastical Law," ("Codex Juris Ecclesiastic! Anglicani.") As chaplain to Tennison, Archbishop of Canterbury, he maintained the rights of the clergy during the . contest between the two Houses concerning the extent of their respective powers. He was appointed Bishop of Lincoln in 1715, and in 1723 removed to the see of London. He was a zealous de- fender of the claims of the Church, and opposed the efforts of Protestant dissenters to remove the disability under which they suffered. He is said to have incurred the displeasure of the king by his denunciation of mas- querades and other court amusements. Died in 1748. See CoxE, " Life of Walpoie ;" " Biographia Britannica." Gibson, (John,) one of the most eminent sculptors of recent times, born at Conway, Wales, in 1791, re- moved at an early age to Liverpool. His talents soon attracted the notice of Roscoe, through whose influence he was enabled in 181 7 to visit Rome. He studied under Canova, and afterwards under Thorwaldsen. Among his principal works are the groups of " Mars and Cupid" and " Psyche borne liy Zephyrs," a " Narcissus," a " Wounded Amazon," and other productions of a poetical character, which are regarded as models of classic ele- gance. His statues of Queen Victoria, Huskisson, Sir Robert Peel, and others, are less admired, owing in part to their being represented in antique costume. Gibson also favoured the practice of painting statues, which was opposed by his brother artists. Died in 1866. See "Life of John Gibson," edited by Lady Eastlake, 1869; "Gentleman's Magazine" for March, 1866. ■Gib'son, (John Bannister,) an eminent American jurist, born in Pennsylvania in 1780. His father, Lieu- tenant-Colonel Gibson, was killed in Saint Clair's expe- dition against the Indians in 1791. He was admitted to the bar in 1803. He was repeatedly re-elected to the State legislature by the then Republican party, and was appointed presiding judge of one of the judicial districts in 1813. He became in 1816 asllociate justice of the supreme court of Pennsylvania, and succeeded Judge Tilghman as chief justice in 1827. In consequence of a change in the constitution of the State, making the offices of judges elective, he was deprived of his seat in 185 1, but was elected an associate justice the same year. He died in Philadelphia in 1853, having occupied a promi- nent position as a judge for about forty years. For some excellent and discriminating, though eulogistic, remarks on his character, by Chief-Justice Black, see Harris's "Penn- sylvania State Reports," vol. vii. pp. 10-14; see, also, a biographical sketch of Chief-Justice Gibson, by W. A. Porter, Esq., 1855. Gibson, (Richard,) an English painter and dwarf, born in 1615, excelled particularly in water-colours. He was three feet ten inches high ; and his wife was of exactly the same stature. Of five children who grew to maturity, all were of usual size. Gibson was appointed preceptor to the princesses Mary and Anne, daughters of James II. Died in 1690. Gibson, (Thomas,) an English naturalist and Prot- estant divine, was distinguished for his learning. He wrote works on various subjects. Died in 1562. Gibson, (Thomas Milner,) a Liberal English legis- lator, born at Trinida.d in 1807. He entered Parliament in 1837 as member for Ipswich, and became an effective orator of the Anti-Corn-Law League. In 1841 he was returned to Parliament for Manchester. He was ap- pointed a privy councillor and vice-president of the board of trade in 1846, but resigned in 1848. His opposition to the Russian war rendered him so unpopular that he was defeated at the general election of 1857. About the end of that year he was elected a member of Parliament by the voters of Ashton-under-Lyne. He was appointed president of the board of trade (with a seat in the cabi- net) by Palmerston in 1859. He is identified with the "Manchester school" in politics. In June, 1866, he re- tired from office. i, c, 1, 6, u, y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; ftr, fill, fit; m^t; n5t; good; moon ; GIBSON 103 1 GIGGEI Gibson, (William,) a self-taught English mathe- matician, born near Appleby in 1720. He became a school-teacher and land-surveyor. Died in 1 791. Gibson, (William,) an eminent American surgeon, born in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1788, graduated at the University of Edinburgh in 1809, and succeeded Dr. Physick as professor of surgery in the University of Pennsylvania in 1819. He resigned this position in 1855. Died at Savannah, in Georgia, in 1868. He was one of the first American surgeons who performed the Caesarian operation with complete success. (See " American Jour- nal of Medical Sciences" for May, 1838.) See Dr. Carson's " History of the Medical Department of the University of Pennsylvania," 1869. Gichtel, giK'tel, (Johann Georg,) a German mystic, born at Ratisbon in 1638, professed doctrines similar to those of Jacob Boehme. His disciples obtained the name of Gichtelians, or Angelic Brothers. He published a work entitled "Practical Theosophy." Died in 1710. See Reinbeck, " Sur la Vie et les Doctrines de Gichtel," Berlin, 1732. ■Gid'dings, (Joshua Reed,) a distinguished leader in the anti-slavery movement in the United States, was born in Athens, Pennsylvania, in 1795. I" ^^^S his parents were among the first settlers in Ashtabula county, Ohio, (Western Reserve.) He commenced the practice of law In 1820, and in 1838 was elected a representative to Con- gress, which position he held by subsequent re-elections for twenty-one years. He united with Mr. Adams in his memorable struggle for the overthrow of the obnoxious *' gag-law," enacted for the purpose of preventing the agitation of the slavery question. In 1842 Mr. Giddings was censured by a Congressional vote of 125 to 69 for his agitation of slavery. He instantly resigned his seat, but was soon after re-elected by a large majority. He acted for the most part with the Whig party, voting for Harrison in 1840 and for Clay in 1844, ^^'^^ he supported Van Buren in 1848. While in Congress he took a con- spicuous part in all the debates on tlie slavery question, including the fugitive-slave law of 1850, the repeal of the Missouri Compromise in 1854, etc. In March, 1861, he was appointed consul-general for the British North American j^rovinces. Died at Montreal, May 27, 1864. He published two volumes of essays and speeches, a work entitled "The Exiles (^f Florida," (1858,) and "The Rebellion, its Authors and Causes," (New York, 1864.) Giddings, (Salmon,) a pioneer missionary in the Mississippi Valley, was born at Hartford, Coimecticut, in 1782. He organized eleven churches in Missouri and Illinois, and visited many of the Indian tribes in what are now Kansas and Nebraska. Died in 1828. ■Gid'e-pn, [Heb. p>nj ; Fr. G6d6on, zhiW6N',] an Israelite of the tribe of Manasseh, and son of Joash, became judge of Israel. His nation had been suffering seven years under the tyranny of the Midianites, when a heavenly messenger was sent to Gideon, commanding him to take arms in defence of his country. With three hundred men he totally defeated the Midianites. Gideon was judge of Israel forty years. Died about 1236 B.C. See Judges vi., vii., and viii. Gie, de, deh zhe'V, (Pierre de Rohan — deh ro'6N',) a French marshal, born in Brittany about 1450. He en- joyed the favour and confidence of Louis XI. and his successor Charles VI H., whom he accompanied in his Italian expedition. He was appointed by Louis XII. preceptor . to the young prince, afterwards Francis I. He was subsequently deprived of his dignities, on a charge of having abused his authority. Died in 1513. See Brantome, " Histoire des grands Capitaines." Giedroyc, ge-VdRoits, (R. Thaddp:us,) Prince, a Polish ger.eral, born in Lithuania in 1750. He served with distinction against the Russians in the campaigns of 1792 and 1794, and rose to the rank of lieutenant- general. Died in 1824. Gierig, gee'rio, (Gottlier Erdmann,) a German philologist, born at Wehrau, Lusatia, in 1753. He pub- lished go<)d editions of Ovid (1784) and of Pliny the Yoimger, and several original treatises. Died in 1814. Giesecke. See Gisi'Kk. Gieseler, gee'zeh-ler, (Johann Karl Ludwtg,) a German Protestant theologian, distinguished as an eccle- siastical historian, was born at Petershagen, near Minden, about 1792. He published in 1818 an able "Historical and Critical Essay on the Origin of the Gospels," and was appointed professor of theology at Bonn in 1819. He obtained the chair of theology at Gottingen in 183 1. His principal work is his " Manual of Ecclesiastical His- tory," which was not completed until after his death. Died in 1854. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Giffen.van, vtn giffen, [Lat. Gipha'nius,] (Hukert,) a Flemish philologist and eminent jurist, born in 1534. The em])eror Rudolph II. made him councillor and re- ferendary of the empire. His treatises on law and phi- lology are greatly esteemed. Died in 1604. Gif ford, (Andrew,) an English Baptist minister and noted antiquary, born in 1700. He preached in London, and became assistant librarian of the British Museum in 1 757. He published a new edition of Folkes's " Tables of English Coins," (1763.) Died in 1784. Gifford, (John,) the assumed name of John Richard Greene, an English journalist, born in 1758. He was one of the founders of the "British Critic" and "The Anti-Jacobin Review," and wrote, among other works, a "Life of the Right Hon. William Pitt." Died in 1818. Gifford, (Richard,) an English divine, born in 1725, became rector of North Okendon in 1772. He wroie "Contemplation," a poem, and "Answer to Dr. Priest- ley's Disquisition on Matter and Spirit." Died in 1807. Gifford, jif ford, (Rohert,) Baron Saint Leonard's, an able English lawyer, born at Exeter in 1779. He was appointed solicitor-general in 181 7, and attorney-general in 1819. In this capacity he conducted the prosecution of Queen Caroline in 1820, after which he received the title of baron. He became master of the rolls and chief justice of the common pleas in 1824. Died in 1826. See Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. ■Gifford, (Sanford R.,) a distinguished Americati landscape-painter, born in vSaratoga county. New York. He resided in early life at Hudson, in the vicinity of the Catskill Mountains. Among his works, which are highly praised by Tuckerman, are the " Coming Storm," " Waves Breaking on the Beach at Early Dawn," and "Morning in the Mountains." See Tuckrrman's " Book of the Artists." Gifford, (William,) an eminent English critic and author, and principal founder of the " Quarterly Review," was born at Ashburton, Devonshire, in April, 1757. He was a shoemaker's apprentice for about five years, and afterwards studied at Oxford. He began his literary career by "The Baviad," a poetical satire, (1794,) which was highly successful. His satire " The Maeviad" ( 1 795) was also much admired. In 1797 Gifford was editor of "The Anti-Jacobin." In 1802 he produced a poetical version of Juvenal, which is highly commended. He was editor of the "Quarterly Review" from 1809 until 1824, during which period he showed himself a bitter partisan of Toryism and a severe critic of authors, whom "he regarded," says Southey, "as a fishmonger regards eels, or as Izaak Walton did worms, slugs, and frogs." He was a powerful master of sarcasm, and unsparing in the use of it. Died in December, 1826. " William Gifford," says Mr. Whipple, "seems to have united in himself all the bad qualities of the criticism of his time. He was fierce, dogmatic, bigoted, libellous, and unsympathizing. Whatever may have been his talents, they were exquisitely unfitted for his position, — his literary judgments being contemptible, where any sense of beauty was required." ("North American Review" for October, 1845, vol. Ixi.) See "Autobiography" prefixed to his translation of Juvenal, and "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iv. chap. vii. 9-i-gan'tes, [Gr. ViyavTe^ ; Fr. Geants, zha'Sx',] gigantic beings of classic mythology, supposed to be the sons of Terra or Tartarus, and to have waged war against the gods. Some ancient poets confounded them with the Titans. They were conquered by the gods, but not until the latter obtained the aid of Hercules, See Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology." Giggei, jM-ja'ee, or Giggeo, j^d-ja'o, [Lat. Gigc.e'- lus,] (Ant(^nio,) an Italian ecclesiastic and Orientalist, € as 9 as s; | hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ((J:^^See Explanations, p. 23.) GIGLl 1032 GILBERT was patronized by Pope Urban VIII. He published a "Thesaurus Linguae Arabics," which had a high repu- tation at that time. Giggei was an intimate friend of Cardinal Federigo Borromeo. Died in 1632. Gigli, j^l'yee, (Girolamo,) an Italian dramatist and satirist, born at Sienna in 1660. His original name was Nenci, (nSn'chee.) He wrote successful comedies and tragedies, among which were a translation of Moliere's "Tartuffe." entitled "Don Pilone," (171 1,) and "The Sister of Don Pilone," (172 1,) in which he burlesqued himself and his wife. He attacked the Academy della Crusca in his " Vocabulary of the Works of Saint Cathe- rine," (" Vocabolario delle Opere di Santa Caterina," 171 7.) He is called an original genius byGinguene. Died at Rome in 1722. See F. CoRSETTi, "Vita di G. Gigli,"i746; Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." Gignoux, zh^n'yoo', (Francisque Regis — ri'zh^ss',) a French landscape-painter, born in Lyons about 1816. He emigrated to New York about 1840, and produced pictures of American scenery, among which is "Niagara Falls by Moonlight." See TucKERMAN, " Book of the Artists." Gigot, zhe'go', (Philippe FRA.xgois Mathieu,) a Belgian writer, born at Brussels in 1793. He wrote an "Abridged History of Holland," (1820.) Died in 1819. Gigot d'Elbee. See Elh^;e. Gigoux, zhe'goo', (Jean Francois,) a French painter, born at Besan^on in 1806, obtained a medal of the first class at Paris in 1848. Among his works are a " Mag- dalene," "The Death of Cleopatra," "The Baptism of Clovis," and a portrait of Lamartine. Gil, Heel or h^I, a Spanish friar, distinguished as a preacher, born in Andalusia about 1745 ; died in 1815. •Gil'bart, (James William,) an English writer on banking, born in London about 1794, was manager of the London and Westminster Bank. He published a "Practical Treatise on Banking," (1827; 6th edition, 1855,) and other esteemed works. Died in 1863, •Gilbert, called the Universal, an English prelate, who received his surname on account of his great learn- ing. He was created Bishop of London in 1128. Died in 1 134. See B. Haureau, "De la Philosophie scolastique." Gilbert, zhM'baiR', (Antoine Pierre Marte,) a French antiquary, born in Paris in 1785. He published historical descriptions of the cathedrals of Rouen, Char- tres, and Amiens. Died in 1858. Gilbert, (Charles C.,) an American officer, born in Ohio in 1827, became brigadier-general of volunteers in the United States army in 1862. Gilbert, (Davies,) a distinguished English savant, whose original name was Giddy, born in Cornwall in 1767. He was president of the Royal Society, and was noted for his generous patronage of literary and scientific men. He was one of the first to recognize the genius of Sir Humphry Davy, whom he materially assisted in early life and introduced to the notice of the man- agers of the Royal Institution. He published "A Plain Statement of the Bullion Question," and other learned treatises. In 1827 he succeeded Sir Humphry Davy as president of the Royal Society ; he resigned this posi- tion in 1830. Died in 1839. Gilbert, (Gahriel,) a French dramatic poet, born about 1610. His works are numerous, but have little merit. It is evident, however, that some of the best French writers — Racine, for exami^le — have sometimes borrowed from him. He was ])atronized by Christina, Queen of Sweden, who invited him, after her abdication, to her court in France, and made him her secretary. Died about 1680. See MM. Haag, "La France protestante." Gilbert, (Sir Geoffrey or Jeffrey,) an English jurist, born in 1674, became chief baron of the exchequer in Ireland, (17 16,) and in England, (1725.) He wrote the "Forum Romanum," (1756,) " History and Practice of Chancery," (1758,) and other legal works. Died in 1726. Gilbert, (Sir Humphrey,) a celebrated English navi- 'gator, born of an ancient family in Devonshire in 1539. By the marriage of his mother, after becoming a widow, with Mr. Raleigh, he was half-brother to the famous Sit Walter Raleigh. After leaving Oxford, he distinguished himself in several military enterjirises. As commander- in-chief in the province of Munster, he assisted in quelling the insurrection in Ireland. He published in 1576 a " Discourse to Prove a Passage by the Northwest to Cathaia," etc. He obtained letters-patent from the queen in 1578, with permission to make discoveries in North America and take possession of any ])art yet unoccupied. His first expedition to Newfoundland was unsuccessful ; but in 1583 he again set sail. "The com- mander," says Bancroft, "on the eve of his departure received from Elizabeth a golden anchor guided by a lady, a token of the queen's regard." When he arrived in the Bay of Saint John, he took possession in the queen's name of the surrounding country, and granted leases to those of his company who desired them. It having been represented to him that there were silver- mines in Newfoundland, he sailed, with his little fleet of three vessels, along that coast. They had not gone far, however, when, owing to the negligence of the crew, their largest ship was wrecked and nearly all on board perished. Gilbert now set sail for England in the Squirrel, a vessel of only ten tons. He was requested to go on board the larger vessel, called the Hind; but he refused to leave the little company who had shared with him so many dangers. They encountered very rough seas, and the little bark was in the greatest danger. "The general, sitting abaft, with a book in his hand, cried out to those in the Hind, ' We are as near to heaven by sea as by land.' That same night, about twelve o'clock, the lights of the Squirrel suddenly disappeared, and neither the vessel nor any of its crew was ever again seen." See Bancroft, "History of the United States," vol. i. chap. iii. ; Prince, " Worthies of Devon ;" F. Denis, "Genie dela Navigation ;" Hii.DKETH, "History of the United States," vol. i. chap, iii.; J. Barrow, "Memoirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen Elizabeth's Reign," 1845. Gilbert, (John,) an English historical painter, born in Kent in 1817. Among his works are " The Murder of Thomas a Becket," and " Don Quixote giving Advice to Sancho Panza." Gilbert, (John Graham,) a painter of history and portraits, was born at Glasgow in 1794. Gilbert, (L. T.,) a French dramatist and novelist, born in Paris in 1780; died in 1827. Gilbert, giKb^Rt, (Ludwig Wilhelm,) a German physician, born in Berlin in 1769. He founded in 1799 "The Annals of Physics and Chemistry," ("Annalen der Physik undChymie," 150 vols.) Died in 1824, See L. Choulant, " L. W. Gilberts Leben und Wirkeii," 1825. Gilbert, (Nicolas Joseph Laurent,) an excellent French satiric and lyric poet, born near Remiremont, in Lorraine, in 1751. He became a resident of Paris in 1774, with no resources but his talents. In 1775 he pro- duced a satire against the skeptical philosophers, called " The Eighteenth Century." His odes " On the Jubilee," (1776,) "On the Present War," (1778,) and his poem entitled "At the Banquet of Life" (" Au Banquet de la Vie") contain passages of great beauty. According to the "Biographie Universelle," he became insane, swal- lowed a key, and died in November, 1780. His death is attributed to a fall from a horse by the "Nouvelle Biographie Generate," which calls him "the most emi- nent satirist of the eighteenth century." See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Pinard, "Gilbert, ou le Poete malheureux," 1840; "Memoires de la Marquise de Craquy." Gilbert, (Nicolas Pikrre,) a French physician and medical writer, born at Brest in 1751. He became pro- fessor at Val-de-Grace, Paris, in 1796, and physician-in- chief to the grand army in 1806. Died in 1814. See " Biographie Medicale." Gilbert, (Pierre Julien,) a French painter of ma- rine views, born at Brest in 1783. Gilbert, Saint, a French ecclesiastic, accompanied the second crusade to the Holy Land. Died in 11 52. Gilbert, (Thomas,) an English nonconformist minis- ter, born about 1612 ; died in 1694. Gilbert or Gilberd, (William,) an eminent English physiciaii and scientific writer, born at Colchester in 1540, Having taken his degree in a foreign university, a,e, 1, o, u, y,^;/^;i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, \x,y, short; ^,^,\,(},odscure; f^r, fill, f4t; mht; ndt; p iod; moon; GILBERT 1033 GILJ he was, after his return to England, chosen a Fellow of the College of Physicians, in London. He acquired a high reputation in his profession, and became physician- in-ordinary to Queen Elizabeth. His great work entitled "On the Magnet, the Magnetic Bodies," etc. (" De Mag- nete, Magneticisque Corporibus," etc.) came out in 1600. His reputation was at once established by this produc- tion, which presents many original and striking views. "It contains," says Whewell, "all the fundamental facts of the science, so fully examined, indeed, that even at this day we have little to add to them." It was eulogized by Erasmus, Galileo, and other eminent men of the time. Died in 1603. See Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses;" Humboldt, "Cosmos." Gilbert [Lat. Gilber'tus] of Sempringham, Saint, an English ecclesiastic, born m Lincolnshire in 1083, was the founder of the order of Gilbertines. He established thirteen monasteries and a number of hospitals. Died in 1 1 89. Gilbert de la Porr6, zh^rbaiR' deh It po'ri', [Lat. Gisleber'tus Porreta'nus,] a French theologian and scholastic philosopher, born at Poitiers about 1070. He became Bishop of Poitiers, and wrote a celebrated work called " Book of Six Principles," ("Liber sex Principio- rum.") He was a realist in philosophy. Died in 1154. See B. Haur^au, " De la Philosophic scolastique." Gilbert de Voisins, zh^l'baiR' deh vwa^ziN',( Pierre Paul Alexandre,) Comte, a French judge, born near Paris in 1779. He was appointed first president of the imperial court under Napoleon, and in 1830 became a member of the court of cassation. Died in 1843. ■Gil'christ, (Alexander,) a British writer on art, born about 1827. He wrote a "Life of William Etty," (2 vols., 1855.) Died in 1861. Gilchrist, (Ebenezer,) a Scottish physician, born at Dumfries in 1707. He practised at his native place with success, and wrote "On the Use of Sea- Voyages in Medicine," (1756.) Died in 1774. le outlines, more ani- mated figures, and bolder foreshortenings. He was an excellent portrait-painter. His pictures are rare, many of his frescos having been injured by the air of Venice. .A.mong his oil-paintings are " The Concert," at Florence, "Christ Allaying the Storm," at Venice, and "Moses Saved from the Water," at Milan. He died at Venice in 1511, aged thirty-four. As a colorist he was equalled a, c, T, 6, u, y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; ai, i, o, obscure; f^r, f^ll, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; GIOSEFFO 1037 GIRJRD only by Titian and perhaps a few artists of a later period. "There have been only seven supreme colorists," says Ruskin, "among the true painters whose works exist, — namely, Giorgione, Titian, Veronese, Tintoret, Cor- reggio, Reynolds, and Turner; but the names of great designers are multitudinous." See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Mrs. Jameson, "Memoirs of Early Italian Painters;" Carlo Ridolfi, " Vite degli illustri Pittori Veneti," etc., 2 vols., 1648; Ruskin, "Modern Painters." Gioseffo, the Italian of Josephus, which see. Giottino, jot-tee'no, (Tommaso di Stefano — de 5jtgf'a-no,) or Tommaso di Lappo, an Italian painter, born at Florence in 1324. He was surnamed Giottino because he imitated the manner of Giotto. He painted frescos and oil-pictures, some of which are extant. Died in 1356. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. Giotto Angiolotto, jot'to Sn-jo-lot'to, or Ambro- giotto, Sm-bRo-jot'to, [Lat. Jocrus,] (Bondone,) an eminent Florentine painter, born in 1276. He studied under Cimabue, whom he far surpassed in the grace of his figures, harmony of colouring, and the easy flow of his draperies. He is regarded as one of the principal reformers of painting in Italy, and his portraits are char- acterized by a spirit and fidelity hitherto unknown since the revival of arts. He was also an architect and sculp- tor, and excelled in mosaics, one of which, called the Navicella, in the church of Saint Peter, is esteemed his master-piece. He numbered among his friends the illus- trious Dante, and adorned with paintings the church of Saint Francis, where the great Italian poet was buried. He executed a number of historical pictures in fresco, nearly all of which have been lost. His portraits of Dante and Brunetto Latini are among his best works in that department. Died in 1336. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " Historj' of Painting in Italy;" Mrs. Jameson, "Memoirs of Early Italian Painters." Giovanelli, jo-vS-nel'lee, (Ruggiero,) an Italian composer, born at Velletri about 1560. He succeeded Palestrina as chapel-master at Saint Peter's, Rome, in 1594. He composed masses, motets, etc. He was living in 1615. Giovanetti, jo-vi-net'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian jurist, born at Bologna; died in 1586. Giovanetti, (Giacomo,) an eminent Italian jurist and economist, born at Orta (province of Novara) in 1787. He wrote " On the Civil State," (" Sullo Stato civile," 1809,) "On the Statutes of Novara," ("Degli Statuti Novaresi," 1830,) and other works. Died in 1849. Giovanni, jo-v5n'nee, (or John,) an Italian painter, was patronized by the emperor Olho HI., whose palace at Aix-la-Chapelle he ornamented with paintings about 1000 a.d. Giovanni, jo-v5n'nee, (or John,) of Udine, (oo'de- n^,) an Italian painter, born in 1494, was a student of Raphael. He was particularly known for his pictures of animals and flowers. Died in 1564. Giovanni da Fiesole. See Fiesole. Giovanni da San Giovanni. See Manozzi. Giovanni Pisano, jo-vSn'nee pe-sS'no, an Italian sculptor and architect, erected the Campo Santo at Pisa and the Castello del Novo at Naples. He also designed and executed the monuments of three of the popes, and various other works. Died in 1320. Giovannini, jo-v5n-nee'nee, (Giacomo Maria,) an able engraver, born at Bologna in 1667. He engraved several works of Correggio. Died in 1 71 7. Giove, the Italian of Jupiter, which see. Giovenazzi, jo-vi-nSt'see, (Vito Maria,) an Italian poet, born in Apulia in 1727 ; died in Rome in 1805. Giovene, jo'vi-ni, (Giuseppe Maria,) an Italian naturalist, born at Molfetta in 1753 5 ^^^^ ^^37- Giovini, jo-vee'nee, (Angelo Aurelio Bianchi,) an able Italian historian and journalist, born at Como in 1799. He published a "History of the Hebrews," (1844,) a " History of the Longobards," (1848,) and other works. He became editor of " L'Opinione," a Liberal journal of Turin, in 1848, and of the " Unione" in 1853. In 1852 he began the publication of a "History of the Popes," of which ten or more volumes have appeared. He was hostile to the papal supremacy. Died in 1862. See "Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale." Giovio, jo've-o, (Benedetto,) a historian and Latin poet, brother of Paolo, noticed below, was born at Como in 1471 ; died in 1544. Giovio, (Giovanni Battista,) Count, an Italian writer, born at Como in 1748; died in 1814. Giovio, [Lat. Jo'vius; Fr. Jove, zhov,] (Paolo,) a celebrated Italian historian, of an ancient family, born at Como in 1483. He was patronized by Leo X. and his successor, Clement VII., who made Giovio Bishop of Nocera and conferred upon him other distinctions. He was also distinguished by the favour of Francis I. and Charles V., and, having amassed a large fortune, built an elegant villa on Lake Como. His principal works are his "Lives of Illustrious Men," ("Eiogia Virorum illustrium," (1546,) and " History of his Own Times," (1550,) both written in Latin and remarkable for grace and purity of style. As a historian, he cannot be relied on, since he himself admits in his letters that he wrote to please his patrons, and he was accustomed to say he had two pens, — one of gold, the other of iron. Died at Florence in 1552. See Vossius, "De Arte historica;" Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary," under Jove; De Thou, " Histoire univer- selle;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Giovio, (Paolo,) [Fr. Paul Jove, pol zhov,] the Younger, a Latin poet and bishop, born at Como about 1530, was a grandson of Benedetto, noticed above. He became Bishop of Nocera in 1560, and was a member of the Council of Trent. He wrote short Latin poems of superior merit. Died about 1585. Giraldi, je-rSKdee, (Cinzio Giambattista,) an Italian dramatist and litterateur, born at Ferrara in 1504, was for many years professor of medicine and philosophy in his native city. He wrote numerous tragedies, one of which, entitled " Orbecche," is esteemed one of the best dramas of that time. He also published " Gli Hecatomiti," or "The Hundred Novels," which acquired a wide popu- larity. Died in 1573. See TiRABoscHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Giraldi,[Lat. Girai/dus,](LilioGregorio,) alearned Italian poet and antiquary, born at Ferrara in 1479. He lived some years in Rome, and was appointed apostolic prothonotary. His chief works are a " History of the Heathen Gods," (" De Diis Gentium,") a "History of Greek and Latin Poets," ( 1545,) and critical "Dialogues on the Poets of our Times," (1551.) Died in 1552. See Tirakoschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana ;" F'rizzoli> " De Vita et Operibus I,. G. Giraldi," Venice, 1553: De 1'hou, Histoire universelie ;" Niceron, " Honimes illustres." Giraldiis. See Giraldi. Gi-raPdus Cam-bren'sis, sometimes called Giral- dus de Barry, and Sylvester Giraldiis, a learned ecclesiastic and historian, born in Pembrokeshire, Wales, about 1 146. He studied at the University of Paris, where he became a proficient in rhetoric and civil and canon law. After his return he was appointed one of the chap- lains to Henry II., and preceptor to Prince John. Among his principal works are two on the geography of Ire- land and of Wales, viz. : "Topographia Hiberniae" and " Descriptio Cambriae." As a historian, he shows great learning and research, mingled, however, with super- stition. Died about 1220. See " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1806. Girard, je-rard' or He-raRt', ( Albert, ) a Dutch mathematician, wrote a "New Invention in Algebra," (1629,) which Montucla called a remarkable work. Died in 1634. Girard, zhe'rSR', (Alexis Francois,) a French en- graver, born at Vincennes in 1 789. Among his best works is " The Three Marys at the Tomb," after Ary Scheffer. Girard, (Balthasar.) See Gerard. Girard, Baron, a French general, born at Geneva in 1750, served with distinction under Moreau on the Rhine in 1796. For his services at Essling and W^agram, in 1809, he received the title of baron. Died in 1811. Girard, je-rarcK, [Fr. pron. zhe'rtk',] (Charles,) a naturalist, born at Miilhausen, France, about 1822, was a pupil and assistant of Agassiz. He became about 1850 € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; O, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2^=="See Explanations, p. 23.) \ GIRARD 1038 GIRARDIN a resident of Washington, United States, and wrote nu- merous treatises on fishes, reptiles, etc. He described the reptiles collected by the United States Exploring Expedition. Girard, (Gabriel,) opc of the most distinguished of French grammarians, born at Clermont-en-Auvergne about 1677. He was appointed royal interpreter for the Russian and Sclavonic languages. His work entitled "French Synonyms" (1736) was received with great favour, and has taken its place among the French classics. Voltaire said, " It will subsist as long as the language, and will even serve to make it subsist." Girard was elected to the French Academy in 1744. Died in 1748. See D'Alembert, " ^^loges des Acad^miciens." Girard, (Gr^goire,) called P^re Girard, a Swiss teacher, born at Freyburg in 1765. He wrote several treatises on education, one of which, called "Educational Course of the Mother-Tongue," ("Cours educatif de la Langue maternelle," 1840,) obtained the Montyon prize of the French Academy. Died in 1850. See E. Navii.i.e, " Notice biographique sur le P6re Girard," 1850; Sevekus, "G. Girard; ein Character- uiid Lebeusbild," 1853. Girard, (Jean,) a French jurist and Latin poet, born at Dijon in 15 18; died in 1586. Girard, (Jean,) a French veterinary physician, born near Clermont-en-Auvergne in 1770. He wrote the "Anatomy of Dotnestic Animals," (2 vols., 1807,) and other valuable works. Died in 1852. Girard, (Jean Baptiste,) a French Jesuit and popu- lar preacher, born at Dole about 1680. His name ob- tained a scandalous publicity by a charge of sorcery and other crimes, for which he was tried and acquitted in 1 73 1. Died in 1733. See "Details historlques sur le P^re Girard," etc., Paris, 1845. Girard, (Jean Baptiste,) a French general, born at Aulps (Var) in 1775, distinguished himself at Austerlitz in 1805, became general of division in 1809, and was killed at Ligny in 1815. "He was one of the most intrepid soldiers of the army," said Napoleon : " he had evidently the sacred fire." Girard, (Jean de Villethierri— deh v^KteTre',) a French ecclesiastic, born in Paris in 1641, wrote many excellent treatises on morals and religion. Died in 1709. See DupiN, *' Bibliotheque des Auteurs ecclesiastiques." Girard, (Pierre Simon,) an eminent French engineer, born at Caen in 1765. He was attached to the expe- dition to Egypt in 1798, and there obtained data for his valuable treatise "On the Agriculture, Commerce, and Industry of Egypt." He was appointed director of waters at Paris by Napoleon, and admitted into the Institute in 1813. He wrote many treatises on navi- gable canals. Died in 1836. See Charles Dupin, " DIscours aux Funerailles de Girard ;" BoissARD, " Les Hommes illustres de Calvados;" Qu^rard, "La France Litteraire." Qri-rard', (Stephen,) a famous merchant and banker, born near Bordeaux, in France, May 24, 1750, was not liberally educated. He became a cabin-boy, a mate, and afterwards master, of a coasting-vessel. About 1776 he settled in Philadelphia as a trader. He eventually owned a fleet of merchant-vessels. When the yellow fever raged in that city in 1793, he distinguished him- self by his humane attentions to the sick, whom he nursed in the hospitals. Having purchased the building of the United States Bank, he established in 1812 a private bank, with a capital of $1,200,000, which was increased to $4,000,000. His bank prospered, and his notes were at par when all other paper money was depreciated. "It was the war of 18 12," says Parton, "which suspended commerce, that made this merchant so enormously rich. . . . He was the very sheet-anchor of the government credit during the whole of that dis- astrous war." Although he could sometimes act the part of a benefactor to the community, it is said that he never had a friend. He died, without issue, in 183 1, leaving property valued at about $9,000,000, and directed that two millions should be applied to found a college for orphan boys, which was commenced in 1833 and opened in 1848. The main building of this college is considered the most admirable specimen of Grecian architecture in America. It is one hundred and sixty- nine feet long, by one hundred and eleven feet wide, and is surrounded by a portico of thirty-four columns, each fifty-five feet high and six feet in diameter. See Parton, "Famous Americans of Recent Times," 1867, "North American Review" for January, 1865; Freeman Hunt, "Lives of American Merchants." vol. i. Girard, de, deh zhe'riR', (Philippe Henri,) a French engineer and inventor, born in Vaucluse in 1775. He made some improvements in the steam-engine, and, ac- cording to a French biographer, produced rotary motion without a working-beam, (1806.) In 1810 he invented a useful machine for spinning flax, for which the jury of the Exposition of National Industry awarded him a gold medal in 1844. His friends claim for him the invention of the steam-gun, which is also ascribed to Perkins. He invented other machines, and owned or directed extensive manufactories of flax in France, Austria, and Poland. Died in Paris in 1845. See fiiwiLE Deschamps, "Notice biographique sur P. de Girard Inventeur, etc.," 1853; Chapsal, "P. de Girard," 1853; " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Girardet, zhe^rtR^di', (Abraham,) a Swiss engraver, born at Locle in 1764. He engraved the "Transfigura- tion," after Raphael, and the "Rape of the Sabine Women," after Poussin. Died in Paris in 1823. Girardet, (Charles,) a Swiss painter, of high repu- tation, born at Locle about 1808. He called himself Karl to distinguish himself from his father, Charles, who was an engraver. He produced a capital picture of "Protestants surprised at Meeting," (1842,) and some Swiss and Italian landscapes. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Girardet, (;EDOUARD,)a Swiss painter of genre, and engraver, a brother of the preceding, was born at Neuf- chatel in 1819. He travelled in Egypt with his brother Karl, and worked in Paris. He represents Swiss scenery, manners, and costumes with success. His brother Paul, an engraver, was born in 1821. His master-piece is " Washington Crossing the Delaware," after Leutze. Girardet, zhe'rtRMV, (Jean,) a French historical painter, born at Luneville in 1709, received the title of first painter to Stanislas, ex-King of Poland. Died in 1778. See Nagler, " Neues AUgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Girardi, je-raR'dee, (Michele,) an Italian anatomist, born at Limone, on Lake Garda, in 1731. He was pro- fessor of anatomy at Padua and Parma. He edited a magnificent edition of the " Plates of Santorini," (1775.) Died in 1797. Girardiii. See Saint-Marc Girardin. Girardin, zhe'rSRMiN', (Jean Pierre Louis,) an emi- nent French chemist, born in Paris in 1803, was a pupil of Thenard. He became in 1828 professor of chemistry applied to the arts, at Rouen. He published, besides other works, "Lectures on Elementary Chemistry," (1835,) which obtained two medals at Paris, "Memoirs of Applied Chemistry," and a "Treatise on Agricul- ture," (2 vols., 1852.) About 1858 he accepted a chair at Lille. Girardin, de, deh zhe'rtRM4N',(ALEXANDRE,)CoMTE, a son of Rene Louis, noticed below, born in 1776, dis- tinguished himself at Austerlitz, in Spain, Russia, etc., and became a general of division in 1814. Died in 1855. Girardin, de, (Delphine Gay,) a popular authoress, born at Aix-la-Chapelle in January, 1804, was a daughter of Sophie Gay, noticed in this work. Her verses en- titled "The Sisters of Saint Camille" (1822) gained a prize of the French Academy. She produced in 1824 a volume of " Essais poetiques." Her beauty and esprit rendered her a popular favourite. She was married to fimile de Girardin in 183 1, after which she wrote "The Quiz," (" Le Lorgnon," 1832,) and other romances, among which is "The Cane of M. de Balzac," ("La Canne de M. de Balzac," 1836.) Her reputation was increased by the sparkling and charming prattle of her " Lettres Parisiennes," which appeared in " La Presse" from 1836 to 1848. Died in Paris in 1855. See Sainte-Beijve, "Causeries du Lundi," February, 1851 ; La- MARTiNE. " Cours fauiilier de Litterature ;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1844. a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, k, n. His maternal grandfather, Johann Wolfgang Textor, was a person of note and the chief magistrate ( Schultheiss) of the city of Frankfort. His mother was genial, warm- hearted, and of a singularly bright and happy dispo- sition. She says of herself, "I always seek out the good that is in peojile, and leave what is bad to Him who made mankind and knows how to round off the corners." Goethe says in one of his poems that from his father he derives his earnestness of j^u'-pose, and from his mother his happy disposition and his love of story-telling. The circumstances with which the poet was surrounded in early life were eminently fiivourable to the development of his great and varied |)owers, and undoubtedly con- tributed in no small degree to ciltivate that "many- sidedness" for which he was afterw-ards so distinguished. In his autobiography, entitled " Poetry and Truth from a, e, I, o, u, y, long; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; tlr, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; GOETHE GOETHE my own Life," ("Aus meinem Leben Dichtung und "Wahrheit," published in i8i I,) he describes, with graceful naivete, the influence exerted on his mind by the various events and experiences of childhood. The young Goethe exhibited a wonderful precocity of intellect. Early in his seventh year (November i, 1755) the great earthquake which destroyed a large part of Lisbon occurred, and filled his mind with perplexity and doubt. He found it impossible to reconcile that terrible phenomenon with what he had been taught respecting the goodness of Providence. " It was in vain," he says, "that my young mind strove to recover itself from these impressions ; the more so as the wise and learned in Scripture themselves could not agree upon the view which should be taken of the event." His religious perplexities, however, seem gradually to have passed away. Li his eighth year we find him, wholly self-prompted, erecting to the Deity an altar in the form of a pyramid, on the sides of which were arranged a variety of substances representing the natural productions of the earth. At the apex was placed the incense, which he kindled by means of a burning-glass just as the sun was rising above the neighbouring house-tops. Before he was nine years of age he could write several different languages, including French, Latin, and Greek. He had scarcely reached his tenth year when the French troops occupied the city of Frankfort: this oc- curred during the Seven Years' war. The Comte de Thorane, the king's lieutenant, was quartered in the house of the poet's father. Young Goethe was thus brought into contact with new characters : he also be- came acquainted with the French theatre. He had several years before amused himself and his mother with inventing romantic stories ; he now began to write French plays. A French boy, near his own age, with whom he had become acquainted, took him to the theatre and introduced him behind the scenes. This same lad sought to instruct him in the pro])er mode of writing plays, and criticised the dramatic efforts of our poet somewhat unmercifully. This led him to inform himself more particularly respecting the ])rinciples of criticism. The result was that he rejected with contempt the canons of the French school ; and it is not impro- bable that the occurrences just related may have exerted an important influence upon the productions of his ma- turer years. Li 1 761 the French troops quitted Frank- fort, and his regular studies were resumed. About this time he learned to read English, and commenced the study of Heljrew, which led him to a more intimate acquaintance with the Bible. He composed a poem on the subject of Joseph and his brethren. The education of Goethe, until he was sixteen, was carried on at home, under the superintendence of his father. It was his rare happiness to find in his only sister, Cornelia, not merely an object of his tenderest affection, but one who shared his tastes and cordially sympathized with his poetic aspirations. In October, 1765, he commenced his col- legiate studies at Leipsic. It was a practice which he adopted in early life, that he always sought, whenever any subject interested him deeply, to give his thoughts and feelings expression in writing. He himself says that all his works are but fragments of the grand con- fession of his life. While at Leipsic, he composed the first of his poems which have l3een preserved, "The Humours of a Lover," ("Die Laune des Verliebten ;") "The Fellow-Sinners" ("Die Mitschuldigen") followed soon after. He left Leipsic for Frankfort in 1768. After having been some time detained at home by ill health, he repaired to Strasbnrg University, in 1770, for the purpose of completing his law studies. At Strasburg he became acquainted with Herder, who was already dis- tinguished among the great men of Germany. The friend- ship thus formed was not without important influence upon the mind of Goethe. By Herder his attention was directed to the Hebrew poets, to Ossian, and to Shak- speare. During his stay at Strasburg he also became acquainted with Frederica, with whom he fell passion- ately in love. She was the daughter of Herr Brion, pastor of Sesenheim. This little place could be seen from the lofty gallery of Strasburg Cathedral, whence the young lover and poet sometimes pointed out to his friends the home of his beloved. Goethe pleased him- self with likening Herr Brion to the Vicar of Wakefield, Frederica to Sophia, and the elder sister to Olivia. On his return to Strasburg it was understood that he was the accepted lover of Frederica; although it is prob- able that they were not formally betrothed. He after- wards left her, because, as his friends suggest, his- love was not strong enough to justify marriage. Alluding to some of his earlier love-passages, he says, "(iretchen had been taken from me, Annchen had left me ; but now [in the case of Frederica] for the first time I was guilty: I had wounded to its very depths one of the most beau- tiful and tender of hearts. And that period of gloomy repentance, deprived of the love which had so strength- ened me, was agonizing, insupportable." Goethe took the degree of Doctor in 1771. But although, in accordance with his father's wishes, he had studied law, his inclinations led him to other pursuits ; he seems indeed, even in youth, never to have lost sight of that universal self-culture which was one of the great aims of his life. Not only poetry, but art, science, the languages, philosophy, and criticism, — all were studied by him with an impartiality and success of which the history of the human mind probably furnishes no other example. In 1 77 1 he composed one of his most celebrated works, " Gotz von Berlichingen." He had been deeply inter- ested in the life of Gottfried (or Gotz) von Berlichingen, of the sixteenth century, written by Gotz himself. Goethe undertook to dramatize it. "I had," he says, "talked the matter over with my sister, who was interested heart and soul in such subjects ; and I so often renewed this conversation, without taking any step towards beginning the work, that at last she impatiently and urgently en- treated me not to be always talking, but at once to set down on paper what was so distinctly present to my mind. I wrote the first scenes, and in the evening read them aloud to Cornelia. She warmly applauded them, but doubted whether I should go on so ; she even ex- pressed a decided disbelief in my perseverance. This only excited me the more. I wrote on the next day, and also the third. Thus I kept on, without interruption, looking neither backwards nor forwards, neither to the right nor the left ; and in about six weeks I had the pleasure of seeing the manuscript finished." "Gotz von Berlichingen," as first written by Goethe, was a dramatized history; but in this form it was not pub- lished until many years later. Having been revised and adapted to the stage, it appeared in 1773 as a drama, ( Schcntspiel,) the form by which it is popularly known. It produced a great sensation in the literary circles of Germany. "It is a piece," says one of the critics of 'hat day, "in which the three unities are shamefully violated, and which is neither a tragedy nor a comedy, and is, notwithstanding, the most beautiful, the most captivating, monstrosity." In 1774 appeared another work, "Sorrows of Young Werther," ("Leiden des jungen Werther,") which excited a still greater and more universal admiration than " Gotz" had done. It seemed to fascinate alike men of every class and every nation, and through it Goethe first acquired a European renown. During his Egyptian campaigns. Napoleon is said to have read it through several times ; and its fame, it is asserted, extended even to China. "Werther," says Carlyle, " is but the cry of that dim-rooted pain under which all thoughtful men of a certain age were languishing : it paints the misery, it passionately utters the complaint; and heart and voice, all over Europe, loudly and at once respond to it. True, it prescribes no remedy; for that was a far different, far harder en- terprise, to which other years and a higher culture were required; but even this utterance of pain, even this little, for the present, is grasped at, and with eager sympathy appropriated in every bosom." In 1775, attracted by the fame of Goethe, Charles Augustus, (Karl August,) Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar, invited him to spend some time at his court. The acquaintance thus begun ripened afterwards into a life-long friendship. Weimar was at that time the residence of several distinguished persons, among whonk were Wieland, Herder, Musaeus, Knebel, and Secken- € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ((JJ^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) GOETHE 1050 GOETHE dorf. Wieland, who repeatedly calls Goethe a "godlike creature," was captivated by him at first sight. In a letter written soon after their first interview, he says, "How I loved the magnificent youth as I sat beside him at table ! All I can say is this : since that morning my soul is as full of Goethe as a dew-drop of the morn- ing sun." Knebel says, " He rose like a star in the heavens : everybody worshipped him, especially the women." For several months after his arrival at Wei- mar, he appears to have abandoned himself wholly to the excitements of his new life. The duke and the poet were constant companions, and plunged together for a time into the most insane frolics and wildest dissipation. "Goethe will never," says Wieland, "leave this place again ; Karl August can no longer either swim or wade without him." It is almost needless to say that such a life could not long satisfy such a mind. "The want to be once more among simple people and lovely scenes drove him away from Weimar to Waldeck. Amid the crowded tumult of life he ever kept his soul sequestered ; and from the hot air of society he broke impatiently away to the serenity of solitude." (Lewes's " Life of Goethe," vol. i. p. 355.) He was called back to Weimar by the grand duke, and in June, 1776, created Gcheimer- Legationsrath, (" Privy Councillor of Legation,") with a salary of twelve hundred thalers. The duke, writing to Goethe's father, said that the appointment was a mere formality; adding, "Goethe can have but one position, — that of my friend : all others are beneath him." The first great production of our poet, after he had seriously resumed his studies, was " Iphigenia auf Tauris," (" Iphigeni'a at Tauris.") This piece was first writfen in prose ; Goethe afterwards turned it into verse, pro- ducing what many critics have declared to be the finest modern specimen of the Greek tragedy. In 1786 Goethe visited Italy. In order that he might pursue his studies undisturbed, he travelled incognito. He spent some time in Venice, with which city he seems to have been enchanted. He passed through Ferrara, Bologna, and Florence, on his way to Rome, where he arrived about the end of October. He remained there four months. "All the dreams of my youth," he says, " I now see living before me. Everywhere I go I find an old familiar face. Everything is just what I thought it, and yet everything is new." He subsequently visited Naples, Pompeii, and the ruins of Paestum, carrying with him everywhere a soul intensely susceptible to the beauties both of nature and of art. An account of what he saw and felt while in Italy is given in his " Italiiinische Reise," {" Italian Journey.") He returned to Weimar in June, 1788. In the autumn of that year he first became acquainted with Christiane Vulpius, a young woman in humble life, whom he afterwards married. She had presented him a peti- tion entreating him to procure some position for her brother, a young author, then living at Jena. Goethe was greatly smitten with her beauty, naivete, and spright- liness. His liaison with her gave rise to much scandal, on account of the disparity of station ; and the scandal was not lessened when, manyyeai3 later, (1806,) he per- formed an act of tardy justice in marrying her. She had, in 1789, borne him a son, August von Goethe, to whom the Duke of Saxe- Weimar stood godfather. After this event Goethe took Christiane, with her mother and sister, to live with him in his own house ; and he appears always to have regarded the connection as a marriage. His conduct in relation to this affair was, however, a source of mortification and deep regret to many of his admirers. "The nation," says Schafer, "has never for- given its greatest poet for this rupture with law and cus- tom ; nothing has stood so much in the way of a right appreciation of his moral character, nothing has created more false judgments on the tendency of his writings, than this half-marriage." His friends urge two consider- ations in extenuation of his conduct, which certainly ought not to be lost sight of : first, the general laxity of morals then prevailing among the upper classes in Germany ; secondly, the disparity of position between the humble Christiane and the illustrious Goethe, the world-renowned poet, and the councillor and intimate friend of the Grand Duke of Weimar. It is said that she rejected his offers of marriage on this very ground, and that she herself had declared that it was her own fault that the marriage ceremony had been so long delayed. In 1792, with the duke, Charles Augustus, Goethe ac- com])anied the Prussian army in the invasion of I^ ranee. In that camjDaign he showed that he was not wanting in courage of the most reckless kind; but he returned to Weimar thoroughly disgusted with the war and with military life. He })ublished soon after a scientific work, entitled "Theory or Doctrine of Colours," (" Farben- lehre,") in which he called in question the correctness of the Newtonian theory. It is projjer to state that his views have not been adopted by the scientific world. The poet Schiller had in 1789, partly through Goethe's influence, been appointed to the chair of history in the University of Jena. In 1794 these two illustrious men — "twin sons of Jove," ( Dioscu'ri,) as the Germans de- lighted to call them — were brought frequently together; and, although their characters were so different that they seemed to have scarcely anything in common excepting literary taste and transcendent genius, their acquaintance gradually ripened into a noble and enduring friendship, which exerted an important and most beneficial influence on the minds of both. The correspondence of Schiller and Goethe is of rare interest and value to all the lovers of literature. To return to Goethe's works. "Egmont," a tragedy, which had been completed in Italy, was published in 1788, soon after his return to Weimar. His " Tasso" appeared in 1790. In 1795, " Wilhelm Meister's Lehr- jahre" {"A]Dprenticeship") was given to the world; this was long after (1821) followed by his " Wanderjahre," ("Travelling Years.") In 1806 appeared the first part of "Faust," the great work of (Joethe's life. He had revolved the subject in his mind for more than thirty years. This long delay was not without its fruits. The great poet has, indeed, embodied in this work the re- sults of his mature and infinitely varied experience, with his ripest, richest, and profoundest thoughts ; the whole being wrought out with admirable skill, and everywhere illumined, so to speak, with passages of the most exqui- site poetry, touching in turn every chord of the human heart. Without indorsing the enthusiastic praise of some of Goethe's admirers, who have pronounced " Faust" to be unqualifiedly " the greatest poem of modern times," we may safely say that it is one of the most wonderful pro- ductions of genius to be found in the whole compass of literature. The tale, or novel, entitled " Wahlver- wandtschaften," (" Elective Affinities,") appeared in 1809. Considered simply as a piece of creative art, this is one of the most admirable of all of Goethe's productions. In none of his other works are the characters drawn with more vividness and power. The illusion produced by the poet-artist is perfect ; so that each of the persons represented is to the reader an absolute and living reality. The moral tendency, however, of the story is more than questionable. The aim of the author, it would seem, is to teach that the attachments between the sexes are governed, like chemical affinities, by fixed, inevitable laws, which it is as impossible to oppose successfully as to resist the decrees of fate. Besides those already noticed, we may mention among Goethe's works "Clavigo," (published in 1774,) "Her- mann und Dorothea," (1796-97,) "Eugenie," (1804,) and " West -Oestliche Divan," (1819,) in which Oriental images and scenes are described with Western feelings and colouring ; hence the epithet " West-Oestliche" (" West-Eastern") which the author has applied to this work. The second part of " Faust" w.as not finished until 1830. It has enjoyed far less popularity than the first part, and by the great majority of critics is con- sidered to be decidedly inferior to it. Goethe's mind was active to the last. He continued to study and to write till within a few days of his death, which took place at Weimar on the 22d of March, 1832. In person Goethe was eminently handsome, — tall, graceful, and well proportioned. "That accordance of personal appearance with genius," says Heine, " which we ever desire to see in distinguished men, was found in perfection in Goethe. His outward appearance was just as imposing as the word that lives in his writings. Even his form was symmetrical, expressive of joy, nobly •i, e, T, o, u,y, long; \ 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, !, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; nSt; good; moon; GOETHE 10 51 GOGOL proportioned ; and one might study the Grecian art upon it as well as upon an antique." The same writer con- tinues, in a more extravagant strain, " His eyes were calm as those of a god. It is the peculiar characteristic of the gods that their gaze is ever steady, and their eyes roll not to and fro in uncertainty. . . . The eye of Goethe remained in his latest age just as divine as in his youth." (Heine's "Letters," translated by G. W. Haven, Boston, 1836.) Never, perhaps, was there a human character about which more varying and contradictory opinions have been entertained than about that of Goethe. This is to be chiefly attributed, — first, to the wonderful depth and originality of his mind, and, secondly, to its many-, or rather myriad-, sidedness. It has been said that, in spite of the beautiful sentiments and admirable characters with which his works abound, he himself was cold, cal- culating, and thoroughly selfish. But this charge is contradicted by his whole life. He appears, indeed, to have always felt for every form of actual suffering a true and ready sympathy, which he manifested rather by acts than by words.* Another charge, more frequently urged, and perhaps better founded, than the preceding, is that he was utterly destitute of any real sympathy with the rights and interests of the common people. It was one of his marked peculiarities that he entertained a distrust and dislike of all abstractions, and he had little or no sympathy with mere ideas or ideal systems. He felt no interest in democracy, because to him democracy was an abstraction. He did not sympathize with his country- men in their struggle for German independence, because they aimed, as he thought, at what was impracticable. However mistaken this opinion proved to be, it was beyond all doubt perfectly sincere. He disliked politics, for which, indeed, he appears to have felt he had no vocation. His genius lay in a totally different direction. His aversion to abstractions and his love of the con- crete may be said to have given form to all his views, religious, moral, and social. He refused to recognize a Deity that was above and distinct from the world ; for he considered every part of nature — the entire universe, in short — to be divine. He did not hold, with the Pla- tonists or Christians, that mankind have fidlen from an ideal or divine perfection, after which they must con- tinually strive if they would be restored. He was a worshi]:)per of Nature ; and his moral creed, if not distinctly avowed, may be readily gathered from many expressions in his works or his recorded conver- sations : it may be thus briefly summed up, " Everything that is natural is right ;" in other words, " Nothing is really wrong except what is unnatural." We accord- ingly find him quoting with apparent approbation the saying of Thraseas, " He who hates faults or vices hates men," ("Qui vitia odit homines odit,'') which, says Mr. Lewes, "was just the sort of passage to captivate him." It may readily be conceded that, whatever evils might result from the general ado])tion of so loose a system of morals, these evils would be much mitigated in one whose percei^tion of moral as well as aesthetic beauty was so vivid and intense. But it was not without an in- jurious influence even upon him. It was the great defect of Goethe's character that his virtues, like his faults, were toe often the offspring of mere feeling or impulse uncontrolled by any fixed principles of duty or right. It is thus, indeed, we are to explain the fact that so many of his writings are destitute of anything like a moral purpose. This charge has been made particularly against his " Wilhelm Meister." It is not enough to reply that the author did not set himself u|) as a preacher of mo- rality. His admirers will not deny that he aimed to give a picture of human life, or a narrative of human events : in either case there should have been at least so much of moral teaching as we find everywhere interwoven with the tissue of human affairs. If Goethe had possessed a just and true appreciation of the importance of moral principles, such a conviction could not fail to make itself felt in his works. The moral need not, to use the language of Miss Edgeworth, be "sewed on in purple * For a remarkable instance of this, see Lewes's " Life of Goethe," book iv. chapter viii. patches," but be "interwoven with the very texture cf the stuff." In the dramas of Shakspeare we perceive a moral element constantly pervading the st-ory, yet with- out being in the least obtruded upon the reader. So in history we behold a "divinity that shapes our ends, rough hew them how we will."* Many of Goethe's sincerest admirers have felt and acknowledged the faults in his character to which we have adverted. While giving him credit for a rare sincerity and for many generous and noble qualities, they cannot help regretting the absence of a fixed and lofty moral purpose which might serve as a keystone to his other attributes. (Respecting Gc^ethe's character and moral influence, see an excellent article in the "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1857, vol. cvi.) With regard to Goethe's rank as a man of genius, if we cannot concede all that Carlyle and some of his other devoted admirers claim for him, still less can we agree with De Quincey, that, owing to a rare combination of external circumstances, it has been his fortune to take a far higher rank in European literature than his actual merits would justify. But these are questions which the reader must examine and settle for himself. See Lewes, " Life of Goethe," 2 vols., 1855; Goethe, Auto- biography, " Aus nieinem Leben DiclUung und Wahrheit," 5 vols., 1811-12, (translated into English by Parke Godwin, 2 vols., 1847;) ViEHOFF, "Gotlie's Leben," 4 vols., 1847; Eckerm.ann, " Ccnversa- tions with Gothe," (" Gesprache mit Gbthe :") "Characteristics of Gotbe," byS.AKAH Austin, 3 vols., London, 1833; Carlyle, " Es- says;" De Quincey, "Biographical Essays," article " Goethe ;" Emerson, " Representative Men ;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe," 1855; Heinrich Doring, "Goethe"s Leben," 1828; Varnhagen von Ense, " Goethe in den Zeugnissen der Mit- lebenden," 1823; Rosenkranz, "Goethe und seine Werke,"^i856 ; Carl Morgenstern, "J. W. Goethe," 1833; ^LARM1ER, " iStiidea sur Goethe," 1835; F. Pfeiffer, '■Goethe und Klopstock," 1840; J. W. ScHAEFER, "J. W. Goethe's Leben," 1851 ; F. Riemer, " Mittlieilungen iiber (ioethe," 2 vols., 1841 ; A. Nicolovius, " Ueber Goethe," etc., 1828; Duntzer. "Gbthe als Dramatiker," 1837. Goettling. See Gottling. Goetz. See Gorz. Goetze. See Gotze. Goetzinger. See Gotzinger. Goez. See Goz. Goflfe or Gough, gof, (Thomas,) an English divine and dramatist, born in Essex about 1592. He was the author of tragedies entitled "The Raging Turk," and "Orestes;" also of several comedies. Died in 1629. Goffe, gof, (William,) an English Puritan and regi- cide, was one of the judges of Charles I., and a general in Cromwell's army. In company with Whalley, another outlaw, he retired to New England in 1660, and lived in concealment. During an attack of the savages on Hadley, (1675,) Goffe, it is said, suddenly appeared, rallied the whites, and repulsed the enemy. See Neal's "History of New England." Goffredo di Buglione. See Godfrey of Bouillon. Gogol, go'gol, (Nikolai Vassilievitch,) a celebrated Russian writer, born about 1810. Having visited Saint Petersburg about 1830, he published soon after a series of tales entitled "Evenings at a Farm-House," contain- ing admirable delineations of rural life in Russia. They immediately obtained great popularity, and were trans- lated into French by M. Viardot. His next publication was the comedy of the "Revisor," which also met with brilliant success, and is perhaps the most popular work of the kind in the language. "The Dead Souls," (1842,) a comic satire on ignorance and prejudice, was received v^'ith equal enthusiasm. Gogol, who had previously been appointed professor of history in the University ot Saint Petersburg, soon after visited Rome, where he wrote a series of letters (published at Saint Petersburg in 1847) which gave great offence to his liberal friends in Russia. In these he appears as the defender of tyranny, both in church and state, instead of the advocate of serf-emanci- pation and popular progress, as he had shown himself in * One of the ablest and most thorough historians of the present age, and one who will scarcely be accused of a disposition to accept popular theories without examination, tells us that, amid all the half truths and uncertainties of history, one lesson is distinctly taught, — that "the moral law is written on the tablet.-, of eternity. For every false word or unrighteous deed, for cruelty and o])pres- sion, for lust or vanity, the price has to be paid a' last." (Lecture on "Science of History," in P'roude's "Short Studies on Great Subjects.") € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, H, Y^^guttural; N, nasal; R, tr rilled; s as z; th as in this, (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) GOGUET 1052 GOLDSMITH his novel of "The Dead Souls." He returned to Russia in 1848, and died at Moscow in February, 1852. An excellent French translation of the " Kevisor" has been made by M. Merimee, and an imperfect English version of '* The Dead Souls" came out in 1854, entitled '* Home- Life in Russia." See " Noiivelle Biograpliie G^n^rale ;" " British Quarterly Re- view" for April, 1868. Goguet, go'gk', (Antoine Yves,) a French jurist, born in Paris in 17 16. He wrote an important work " On the Origin of Laws, Arts, and Sciences, and their Progress among the Ancients," (3 vols., 1758,) "the success of which," says M. Weiss, "was brilliant and merited." (" Biographic Universelle.") Died in 1758. Gohier, go'e-a', (Louis Jerome,) a director of the French republic, was born at Semblan9ay in 1746. He was elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, and succeeded Garat as minister of justice in March, 1793. Having been removed in April, 1794, he was elected a member of the Directory in June, 1799. He was presi- dent of the Directory when Bonaparte returned from Egypt, and, in concert with Moulins, opposed the coup d''etat of the 18th Brumaire, even after their colleagues had resigned. " He was an honest citizen," says Thiers, "and devoted to the republic." ("History of the French Revolution.") Died in Paris in 1830. See Louis Jerome Gohier, "Menioires," 2 vols., 1824; " Nou- velle Biographic Generale." Gohl. See GoLtus. Gohory or Gohorry, go'o're', (Jacques,) a French htterateiir, born in Paris, translated into French Machia- vel's "Prince," and other works, and wrote a treatise "On the Knowledge of the Virtues of the Herb called Petum, [Tobacco,]" (1572.) Died in 1576. Gois, gwS, (Edme Etienne FiiANgois,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1765, executed statues of Char- lemagne, Joan of Arc, and Bonaparte. Died in 1836. Golbery, de, deh goKba're', (Marie Philippe Aim^;,) a French lawyer and antiquary, born at Colmar in 1786, wrote many antiquarian treatises, and translated into French Niebuhr's " History of Rome." Died in 1854. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Golbery, de, (Sylvain Meinrad Xavier,) a French ofificer, born at Colmar in 1742, explored the western coast of Africa in 1785-87, and wrote a " Fragment of a Journey in Africa," (2 vols., 1802.) Died in 1822. Goldast von Heimingsfeld, goKdast fon hi'mings- {h\i\ (Melchior,) a learned historian and jurist, born near Bischofszell, in Switzerland, in 1576. Among his most important works we may cite "Scriptores Rerum Suevicarum," (1605,) and " CoUectio Constitutionum Imperialium," (1607.) Died in 1635, See Froriep, " Beitrage zu der Lebensgeschichte des Publicisten Goldast," 1789; Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Nice- RON, " Menioires." Goldfuss, golt'fooss, (Georg August,) a German naturalist, and professor of zoology and mineralogy at Bonn, was born near Baireuth in 1782. He published ** Representations and Descriptions of the Petrifactions of Germany," and other works. Died in 1848. Goldhagen, golt'ha'gen, (Hermann,) a German phi- lologist, born at Mentz in 17 18, published, besides other works, a "Greek-Latin Lexicon,"(i753.) Died in 1794. Goldhagen, (Johann Eustace,) a German philolo- gist, born at Nordhausen in 1 701, was rector of the gymnasium of Magdeburg. He translated Herodotus, Xenophon, and Pausanias into German. Died in 1772. Gold'ing, (Arthur,) an English writer and able translator, born in London, lived about 1560-90. He finished the translation of Philippe de Mornay's treatise " Sur la Verite du Christianisme," commenced by Sir Philip Sidney, and published versions of the theological works of Calvin and Grosteste, also of Caesar, Seneca, and other Latin classics. He also translated Ovid's "Metamorphoses" into English verse. See Wakton, "History of English Poetry." Goldniann. See Chrysander. Goldmayer, golt'mi'er, (Andreas,) a German as- tronomer and astrologer, born at GUnzenhausen in 1603 ; died in 1664. Goldoni, go]-d5'nee, (Carlo,) a celebrated Italian comic author, born in Venice in 1707. He manifested a passion for theatrical performances in early childhood, and wrote a comedy at the age of eight. He was libe- rally educated, studied law, and graduated at Padua in 1 73 1, after which he practised as an advocate in Venice for a short time. In 1734 he produced a drama called "Belisario." He married a Genoese lady in 1736. Having renounced the profession of advocate, he composed in rapid succession nutiierous comedies, which were per- formed with applause, and effected an important reform of the Italian theatre. He became a resident of Paris in 1 761, and received a pension from the king, who also appointed him Italian teacher to the princesses. He wrote several comedies in French, one of which, " Le Bourru bienfaisant," (1771,) met with brilliant success. Among his other comedies are " The Flatterer,"(" L'Adu- latore,") " La Donna di Garbo," " II Bugiardo," and " II Vecchio bizarro." Goldoni was one of the best comic writers that Italy has produced. He died in Paris in 1793, leaving Memoirs of his Life, (3 vols., 1787, in French,) which are said to be very interesting, and were pronounced by Gibbon "more comic than the best comedies of their author." See, also, G. Giovanni, " Vita di Carlo Goldoni," 1821 ; Mene- GHEzzi, " Memoriedelia Vita di Carlo Goldoni," 1827 ; Luigi Cakrer, " Saggio su la Vitae su le Opere di C. Goldoni," 3 vols., 1824; Long- fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Goldsborough, golz'biir-reh, (Lew^is M.,) an Ame- rican rear-admiral, born in Washington, District of Co- lumbia, in 1805. He became a lieutenant in 1825, married a daughter of William Wirt, and gained the rank of commander in 1841. In 1855 he was raised to the rank of captain, and in September, 1861, took command of the North Atlantic lilockading Squadron. He commanded the fleet which co-operated with General Burnside in the capture of Roanoke Island in February, 1862. Goldschmidt, golt'shmit, (Hermann,) a German painter and astronomer, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1802. He settled in Paris about 1836. Among the works which have procured him a high reputation are the "Cumaean Sibyl," (1845,) " ^^^^ Offering to Venus," (1846,) and "Cleopatra." He has acquired celebrity by astronomical observations which have resulted in the discovery of the following asteroids: Lutetia, (1852,) Po- mona, (1854,) Atalanta, (1855,) Harmonia and Daphne, (1856,) Nysa, (1857,) etc. See " Nouvelle Biographic G^n^rale." Goldschmidt, Madame. See Lind, (Jenny.) Goldschmidt, golf'shmit, (Meyer Aaron,) a Danish novelist, born in Jutland in 1819. Among his works is "The Homeless Man," (5 vols., 1853-57.) Gold'smith, (Oliver,) an eminent poet and mis- cellaneous writer, was born in Ireland, at Pallas, in the county of Longford, in 1728. Having early manifested a talent for making rhymes, his uncle, the Rev. Thomas Contarine, offered to send him at his own expense to the University of Dublin. He entered Trinity College as a sizar in 1745. Here he was more remarkable for idle- ness and love of dissipation than for his devotion to his studies. He took his degree of B.A. in 1749, two years after the regular tiine. Yielding to the wishes of his uncle, he now prepared to enter the church ; but he was rejected by the bishop when he applied for orders. His uncle next sent him to London to study law ; but on his way he spent in gambling the money furnished for his travelling expenses, and returned home with empty pockets. His generous relative, however, forgave all his offences, and soon after sent him to study medicine at Edinburgh, where he spent two years ; after which he visited Leyden, where he remained about a year, and then set out, " with only one clean shirt, and no money in his pocket," to make the tour of Europe on foot. The following passage in the "Vicar of Wakefield," which probably has reference to himself, may explain to us how he supported himself while travelling. " I had some knowledge of music, and now turned what was once my amusement into a present means of subsistence. When- ever I approached a peasant's house towards nightfall, I played one of my most merry tunes ; and that procured me not only a lodging, but subsistence for the next day." a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; ^, e;, j, g, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; GOLIATH GOLTZIUS He sojourned six months at Padua, in Italy, and is sup- posed to have taken his medical degree either at that place or Louvain. Having heard, while in Italy, of the death of his uncle, he immediately set out for England, where he landed in 1756. On his arrival in London he was first employed as an usher in a school at Peckham, and afterwards became an apothecary's assistant. In 1758 he was appointed physician to one of the factories in India, but he declined the offer, and turned his attention to the study of letters. In 1759 he published his "Present State of Literature in Europe." In the same year he wrote several essays for a periodical called " The Bee," of which only eight numbers appeared. He next published some contribu- tions to Smollett's " British Magazine," and the "Chi- nese Letter." In 1762 he wrote "The Vicar of Wake- field," while under arrest for debt, from which he was released by Dr. Johnson, who obtained from a bookseller £60 for the work. It was not published, however, till 1766. "The Traveller," a part of which had been writ- ten in Switzerland, came out in 1764. It was received with great favour, and at once established the repu- tation of its author. About this time he wrote " Letters from a Nobleman to his Son," "Life of Beau Nash," and several compilations. In the early part of 1768 the comedy of " The Good-natured Man" was brought out at Covent-Garden Theatre, but was not very well received. "The Deserted Village" appeared in 1770. Soon after this he began his Histories of Rome, Greece, and England, and also engaged, with several of his lite- rary friends, in a periodical called "The Gentleman's Journal," which, however, had a very brief existence, dying, as Goldsmith said, "of too many doctors." His next comedy, "She Stoops to Conquer," came out in 1773, and met with complete success. Dr. Johnson said that "he knew of no comedy for many years that had answered so much the great end of comedy, — making an audience merry." His " History of the Earth and Ani- mated Nature" was published in 1774. Shortly after the appearance of this work. Goldsmith was attacked by a fever, which, being aggravated by improper treatment, and also by pecuniary troubles, caused his death, on the 4th of April, 1774. Though Goldsmith's fame rests chiefly on his poems, he merits little less admiration as a prose-writer. The rich yet delicate humour of some of his essays has perhaps never been excelled. He possessed great benevolence and warmth of feeling, but he wanted steadiness of principle, and was at all times the creature of impulse. He also manifested on many occasions a considerable degree of vanity and feelings of petty jealousy. "Of all romances in miniature," says Schlegel, "the * Vicar of Wakefield' is the most exquisite ;" and this may be said to be the judgment of nearly all competent critics. Perhaps no English prose work of fiction is so generally admired in Germany as that above named. See John Forster, "Life and Adventures of O. Goldsmith," 1848; \V. Ikving, "Goldsmith; a Biography," 1850; James Prior, "Life of O. Goldsmith," 2 vols., 1837; Johnson's and Chalmers's "Lives of the English Poets;" Percy, " Life of Goldsmith," 1801 ; John Mitford, "Life of O. Goldsmith;" Sir W. Scott's Mis- cellaneous Prose Works; "London QiiarieTly Keview," vol. Ivii. ; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1837 • Macaulay's notice of Gold- smith in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica." Go-li'ath, [Heb. fl'^J,] a giant leader of the Philis- tines, is supposed to have flourished in the eleventh century B.C. Having challenged the Israelites to single combat, no one was found willing to meet him except David, who slew him with a stone from his sling. (See ist Book of Samuel.) GoTi-us, (Jakob,) an eminent Dutch Orientalist, born at the Hague in 1596. He distinguished himself at the Uriiversity of Leyden by his attainments in the classics, mathematics, and philosophy, and subsequently studied Arabic under Erpenius. In 1622 he accompanied the Dutch embassy to Morocco as interpreter, and pre- sented a memorial in Arabic to the emperor. Erpenius having died in 1624, Golius succeeded him as professor of Arabic at Leyden. He soon after obtained permission to visit the East, and, having spent four years in Asia Minor and Arabia, returned in 1629, bringing with him a very large and choice collection of manuscripts. He had been appointed during his absence professor of ma- thematics. His principal work is his "Lexicon Arabico- Latinum," (1653,) which is still highly esteemed ; he also finished the translation of Elmacin's "History of the Saracens," which was begun by Erpenius, and published other learned works. Died in 1667, See J. F. Gronovius, " Laudatio funebris J. Golii," 1668 ; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^ne- rale." Golius, (PiETER,) brother of the preceding, born at Leyden, was also distinguished as an Oriental scholar. He became professor of Arabic in the Carmelite Semi- nary at Rome, and was afterwards a missionary to Asia, where he founded a monastery of his order on Mount Lebanon. He translated into Arabic the "Imitation of Jesus Christ," and published other works. Died in 1673. GoUut, goHii', (Louis,) a French historian, born in Burgundy, wrote "Historical Memoirs of the Republic and the Princes of Burgundy." Died in 1595. Golovin, go-lo-veen', (Feodor Alexievitch,) a dis- tinguished Russian, who became high-chancellor under Peter the Great. In 1689 he was commissioned to sign a treaty of perpetual peace between Russia and China. Died in 1706. His son Nicholas, born in 1694, was sent as Russian minister to the court of Sweden, and became afterwards president of the College of the Ad- miralty. Died in 1745. See Bantich-Kamenski, "Histoire des Hommes illustres du Regne de Pierre le Grand." Golovin or Golowin, (Ivan,) a Russian senator and admiral, distinguished for integrity, lived in the reign of Peter the Great, who ordered a medal to be struck in his honour. He was made a vice-admiral in 1725. See Berch, "Histoire d'lvan Golovin." Golovin, Golovine, or Golowin, (Ivan,) a Russian litteraieitr^horn about 1816, travelled in England, France, and Germany, and in 1855 visited the United States. He published "Russian Types and Characters," (1847,) "Russia under Nicholas I.," (in French,) and "Stars and Stripes; or, American Impressions." Golovin, Golovine, or Golowin, (Semen Vassi- LIEVITCH,) a Russian general and statesman, born in 1560. Having supported the claims of Michael Feo- dorovitch to the throne, he was rewarded with a title of nobility, and appointed Governor-General of Kazan. Died in 1634. Golovine. See Golovin. Golovkin, go-lov-k6n', (Gabriel,) Count, a Russian statesman, born in 1660, was a favourite of Peter the Great, whom he accompanied in several of his cam- paigns. He was created chancellor of the empire in 1709. He was also patronized by Catherine I. and Peter II. Died in 1734. Golovnin, Golovnine, or Golownin, go-lov-neen', (Vasilii,) a Russian navigator, who sailed in 1809 to make a survey of the coasts of the Russian empire. After an absence of two years, during which he was imprisoned for a time in Japan, he returned to Russia, where he published in 1816 an account of his voyage and captivity, which was translated into several lan- guages. Died in 1832. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "London Quarterly Re- view" for November, 1820. Golowin. See Golovin. Golowkin. See Golovkin Golownin. See Golovnin. Goltz, golts, (August Friedrich Ferdinand,) Count, a Prussian statesman, born at Dresden in 1765. In conjunction with Kalckreuth, he concluded the peace of Tilsit, and in 1812 he negotiated the treaty between France and Prussia. He was subsequently appointed grand marshal of the court. Died in 1832. Goltz, von, fon golts, (Georg Conrad,) Baron, an able Prussian general, born in Pomerania in 1704. Pie was appointed adjutant-general by Frederick the Great in 1740. Died in 1747. Goltzius, golt'se-us, (Heinrich,) a celebrated Dutch engraver and painter, born near Venloo in 1558. He studied under Leonhard at Haarlem, and afterwards at Rome. He executed a number of good pictures ; but his reputation rests chiefly on his engravings, which are € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, Ky guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ({[(^"See Explanations, p. 23.) GOLTZIUS 1054 GONDI of great excellence and very numerous. Among these we may name the " Annunciation," after Raphael, the ** Adoration of the Shepherds," after Bassano, an,d an "Adoration of the Kings." Died at Haarlem in 161 7. See Descamps, " Les Peinties Flainands;" Nagi.er, " Neues Allgemeiiies Kiinstler-Lexikon. " Goltzius, (HuHERT,) a Dutch antiquary, artist, and numismatist, born at Venloo in 1526. He was appointed royal historiographer and painter by Philip II. of Spain, to whom he dedicated one of his works. He published "Roman Fasti from Antique Coins," etc., ("Fasti Magistratum et Triumphorum Romanorum," etc.,) and other similar treatises. Died at liruges in 1583. See NiCERON, " Memoires ;" Foppens, " Bibliotheca Belgica:" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" Felix van Hulst, " H. Goltzius." Goniar, go'mar, (Francis,) a celebrated Protestant theologian and controversialist, born at Bruges in 1563. He completed his studies at Oxford and Cambridge in England, and in 1594 was appointed professor of the- ology at Leyden. He filled the same chair at Saumur in 1614, and subsequently became professor of Hebrew and divinity at Groningen, (1618.) He is chiefly known from his controversy with Arminius ; and the Calvinistic party in Holland received from him the name of Go- marists. Died at Groningen in 1641. See R. Simon, " Histoire critique des principaux Commentateurs du Nouveau Testament," chap. xl. ; Bavi.e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Gomara, de, d^ go-mS.'rd, (Francisco Lopez,) a Spanish historian, born at Seville in 15 10, was the au- thor of a " Cronica de la Nueva Espana," published in 1553. It is written in a concise and elegant style, and was translated into several languages. Died about 1560. See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. ii. book V. Gombauld, de, deh g6N'b6',(jEAN Ogier — o'zhe-4',) a French poet and epigrammatist, one of the founders of the French Academy, was born at Saintonge in 1567. He was celebrated for his wit, and was one of the circle who frequented the Hotel de Rambouillet. His works include romances, dramas, and sonnets, and epigrams which were particularly admired. It is related of him that he once read one of his poems to Cardinal Riche- lieu, who remarked, *' Here are some things I do not understand." "That is not my fault," replied Gom- bauld. Among his principal works may be named " Endymion," a prose romance, and " Amaranthe," a pastoral. Died in 1666. See Pellisson, " Histoire de I'Academie Frangaise ;" Bavi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Moreki, " Dictionnaire Historique;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Gomberville, Le Roi de, leh rwS deh g^N^b^R^^K, (Marin,) a French litterafetir, born in Paris in 1600, wrote many poems and romances, and was one of the first members of the French Academy. Died in 1674. See Pellisson, " Histoire de I'Academie Frangaise." Gomera, de. See Gomara. Go'nier-sall, (Roi3Ert,) an English divine and poet, born in London in 1600. He published a tragedy entitled " Ludovic Sforza," "The Levite's Revenge," a poem, and a number of sermons. Died in 1646. See Wood, " Athenje Oxonienses." Gomes or Gomez, go'mez, (Francisco Dias,) a Portuguese poet and critic, born at Lisbon. He wrote " The Seasons," and other poems, also a critical essay on the styles of Sa de Miranda, Ferreira, and Camoens, (1790.) Died in 1795. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Gome.s or Gomez, (Joao Battista,) a distinguished Portuguese dramatist, wrote a very popular tragedy entitled "Inez de Castro," (published about 1806.) It has been translated into French and German. Died about 181 2. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Gomez, go'mgth, (Fernando,) a Spanish soldier, born at Toledo in 1138, distinguished himself by his skill and bravery in the wars against the Moors. He is said to have been the original founder of the order of Alcantara. Died in 1182. Gomez, (Juan,) a Spanish painter, born about 1550, became court painter to Philip II. Died in 1597. I Gomez, (Serastiano,) a celebrated Spanish painter, called "the Mulatto of Murillo," born at Seville about 1616. He was originally a slave of Murillo, but, on ac- count of the genius he displayed, was liberated by his master and received among his pupils. Among his mas- ter-pieces is a " Virgin and Child." Died about 1690. See QuiLLiET, "Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." Gomez, de, deh go'mgz', (Madelene Angelique Poissoii— pwi's^N',) Madame, a French novelist, born in Paris in 1684. Among her best works are "Les Cent Nouvelles" and her " Persian Anecdotes." Died in 1770. Gomez de Becerra, de, d^i go'm^th di bi-thgr'rS, (Alvaro,) a Spanish jurist and statesman, born in Es- tremadura in 1771, became a senator and president of the chamber of the Cortes. Gomez de Castro, (Alvarez.) See Castro. Gomez de Ciudad Real, go'mgth di the-oo-DiD' ri-aK, (Alvarez,) a Spanish Latin poet, born at Gtiada- laxara in 1488. He wrote several Latin poems, among which is " Thaliachristia," (1522.) Died in 1538. Gomez de Ciudad Real, (Ferdinando,) born at Ciudad Real in 1388, became physician to John II., King of Castile. Died in 1457. Gomez (or Gomes) de Oliviera, go^n^z dk o-le- ve-a'ra, (Ani'ONIO,) a Portuguese poet, who lived about 1620. He wrote "Idyls of the Sea," (" Idylios mari- timos,") and numerous sonnets. Gomez de Silva. See Silva. Gomez de Vasconcelle, de, deh go'mlz' deh vts'- koN'seK, (L(JUISE Genevieve,) a literary lady, of Por- tuguese extraction, published an abridged translation of the " Orlando Furioso" into French ; also several romances. Died in 17 18. Gomez-Ferreira, go'm^z fer-ra^-ra,(Luis,) a learned Portuguese physician, born in 168^ He wrote a valua- ble work, entitled "Mineral Treasury." Died in 1741. Gomm, (Sir William May'nard,) a British general, born in 1784. He served in the Peninsula, 1808-14, and at Waterloo. He became commander-in-chief in India in 1850 or 1851, and was relieved in 1855. Gongalo de Cordova. See Gonsalvo. Gongalves, gon-siKv§z, (Joaquim Affonso,) a learned Portuguese missionary and Chinese scholar, born in 1780. In 1812 he visited Brazil, the Philippine Islands, and Macao. He published a Portuguese-Chinese Grammar, entitled "Arte China," (1829,) and a " Dic- cionario Portuguez-China," which are highly esteemed. Died in 1841. Gondebaud, g^N'deh-bo', or Gun'do-baid, second son of Gondioc, King of Burgundy. Having slain his brother Chilperic, and defeated his army, he ascended the throne in 491 a.d. In 499 he made an unsuccessful attempt to reconcile the Catholics and Arians. He was defeated near Dijon, in 500 a.d., by Clovis, King of the Franks, to whom he became tributary. He drew up a sys- tem of laws for his subjects, since called the " Burgun- dian Code." In religion he was an Arian. Died in 516. See Slsmondi, " Histoire des Frangais." Gondebaud or Gon'do-vaid, King of Aquitaine, surj^amed Ballomer, was a natural son of Clotaire I. On the death of Chilperic, King of Austrasia, he suc- ceeded to the throne, (584.) He was afterwards betrayed into the hands of Gontran, King of Burgundy, and put to death, 585. See SiSMONDi, "Histoire des Fran^ais." Gondebaud-Ballomer. See preceding article. GondegLsile, g5N'deh-zhe'z^K, [Lat.GoNDEGisi'LUS,] a younger son of Gondioc, King of Burgundy, was born about 470 A.D. He ruled over the territory between the Rhone and the Doubs, and was an ally of Clovis. He was killed by his brother Gondebaud in 501. Gon'de-mar or God'o-mar, King of Burgundy, was a son of Gondebaud. He reigned from 523 to 534 a.d., and defeated Clodomir, King of Orleans, in battle. Gon'de-mar, (Flavius,) was elected king of the Visigoths in Spain in 610 A.D. Died in 6x2. Gonderic. See Gondioc. Gondi. See Retz, Cardinal de.- Gondi, de, deh gAwMe', (Philippe Emanuel,) a French naval officer, born at Limoges in 1584. In 1622 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, i1, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure: fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; GONDICJIRE 1055 GONZAGA he assisted the Duke of Guise in the blockade of La Rochelle. He was a patron of the celebrated Vincent de Paul. Died in 1662. Gondicaire, g6N'de'kaR', [Lat. Gundica'rius,] or Gundahaire, first King of Burgundy, born about 385 A.D. Having invaded Germany about 413, he established himself with his subjects on the Rhine, whence the Romans vainly endeavoured to expel them. His army was defeated by the Huns under Attila in 436, and he himself slain. See SiSMONDi, " Histoire des Fran<;ais." Gon'di-oc or Gon'der-ic, [Lat. Gunderi'cus,] son of Gondicaire, noticed above, was the second King of Burgundy, and ascended the throne in 436 A.D. He greatly extended, both by conquest and by treaties, the territory left him by his father. Died about 473. See Aug. Thierry, " Lettres sur I'Histoire de France." Gondola, gon'do-lS, (Giovanni di Francesco,) a distinguished poet, born at Ragusa, in Illyria, in 1588. He wrote an epic poem entitled the " Osmanide," in which he celebrates the deeds and misfortunes of Osman L He also translated into Illyrian Tasso's "Gerusa- lemme Liberata," and wrote other works. Died in 1638. His son SiGiSMUND was an accomplished poet, and became rector of the republic of Ragusa. See F. M. Appendini, "Memoria sulla Vita e su g!i Scritti di G. F. Gondola," 1837. Gondouin, g6NMoo4N', (Jacques,) a French archi- tect, l)orn at Saint-Ouen-sur-Seine in 1737. He designed the Ecole de Chirurgie, since called Ecole de Medecine, in Paris, which, says Quatremere de Quincy, "is the most classic work of the eighteenth century." Died in 1818. See Quatremere de Quincy, " Vies des plus celebres Archi- tectes." Gondrin, de, deh gAN^dR^N', (Louis Antoine de Pardaillan— deh ptR'dS'ySN',) Due d'Antin, (d5N'- tS.\',) a French courtier, born in 1665, was a son of Madame de Montespan. He won the favour of Louis XIV., and of his son, the dauphin. Died in 1736. See " Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale." Gondrin, de, (Louis Henri de Pardaillan,) a French Jansenist, born in the diocese of Audi in 1620. Pie was made Archbisho]) of Sens in 1646. Died in 1674. Gon'dulf or Gun'diilf, a French prelate, born in the diocese of Rouen in 1023, became Abbot of Saint Stephen's at Caen, and in 1076 was made Bishop of Rochester, in England. Died in 1108. Gonelli, go-nel'lee, or Gonnelli, gon-nel'lee, (Gio- vanni,) an Italian scul]3tor, surnamed "the Blind Man of Cambassi," born in Tuscany in 1610. He became blind at the age of twenty, but continued the practice of his art, and, it is said, modelled portraits in clay by the touch alone. Died in 1664. Genet, go'ni', (Jean Baftiste,) a learned French Dominican, born at Beziers in 1616, became professor of theology at Bordeaux. He published a work entitled "Shield of the Theology of the Thomists," ("Clypeus Theologiae Thomisticas," 18 vols. i2mo,) of which Bayle remarks, "The vSpaniards call it a very pretty com- pendium of divinity." Died in 1681. ^ Gongora y Argote, gon-go'rS e aR-go'ti, (Luis,) a Spanish poet, born at Cordova in 1561. He took holy orders at the age of forty-five, before which he had com- posed elegant sonnets, satires, and ballads. He became chaplain to Philip III. about 1616. In the latter part of his life he adopted a fantastic, affected, and obscure style, which he called estilo ailto, and which was imi- tated by many of his contemporaries and is sometimes called Gongorism. Died in 1627. See TiCKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" N. Antgnmo, " Bibliotheca His- pana Nova." Gonnelieu, de, deh gon'le-uh', (Jerome,) a French Jesuit, pulpit orator, and theologian, born at Soissons in 1640 ; died in 1715. Gonner or Goenner, gon'ner, (Nikolaus Thad- DAUS,) a German jurist, born at Bamberg in 1764. He published, among other works, a treatise "On German Public Law," (1804,) and a "Manual of Common Pro- cess," (" Handbuch des gemeinen Processes," 4 vols., 1805.) Died in 1827. See H. J. Jack, " N. T. von Gonner's Biographie," 1813. Gonsalo, gon-s§.'lo, (Fernando,) Count of Castile, a Spanish military commander, who gained a victory over Sancho, King of Navarre, in 924, and afterwards defeated the Moors in several engagements. Gonsalvcgon-sSKvo, GonzaJo, gon-tha'lo, or Gon- galo de Cordova, (Hernandez or Fernandez,) [Fr. Gonsalve de Cordoue, gdN^stlv' deh kou'doo',] a celebrated Spanish commander, surnamed THE Great Captain, was born at Montilla, near Cordova, in 1443, (or, according to some writers, in 1453.) He was a bro- ther of Don Alonzo de Aguilar. He distinguished him- self in the long war of Granada which ended in 1492. In 1495 he was selected by Queen Isabella to command the army sent to aid the King of Naples against Charles VIII. of France. He expelled the French by a rapid succession of victories, succoured the pope by capturing Ostia from a piratical horde, and returned to Spain in 1498. A secret treaty for the partition of the kingdom of Naples having been made by Ferdinand of Spain and Louis XII. of France in 1500, Gonsalvo was appointed lieutenant-gen- eral of Calabria and Apulia. The French and Spaniards were involved in a war with each other in 1502. "The Great Captain" gained decisive victories at Cerignola and Garigliano in 1503, and drove the French out of the kingdom of Naples. In 1506 he was recalled to Spain by Ferdinand, who was jealous of his glory or suspicious of his loyally. He was received with enthusiasm by the people, but was treated with coldness at court. Died at Granada in 1515. " His splendid military successes," says Prescott, "have made the name of Gonsalvo as familiar to his countrymen as that of the Cid, which, floating down the stream of popular melody, has been treasured up as a part of the national history. . . . His characteristics were prudence, coolness, steadiness of purpose, and intimate knowledge of man. He betrayed none of the cruelty and licentiousness which disgrace the age of chivalry." (See Prescott's "Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. ii. Part II., chap. ii. ; and vol. iii. chaps, xii., xiv., and xxiv.) See Paolo Giovio, "De Vita et Rebus gestis G. F. Cordubse;" Br.\nt6me, " Vies des grands Capitaines ;" M. J. Quintana, " Vida de G. F. de Cordova," 1S27 ; Fernandez de Pulgar, " Coronica del gran Capitan G. F. de Cordova," 1580. Gonthier, gon'teeR, one of the best poets of the thir- teenth century, was born in Germany. His chief work is entitled "Ligurinus sive de Rebus a Friderico I. gestis," (" On the Achievements of Frederick I.") Gonthier, [Fr. pron. g6N^te-a.',] (Johann,) a German physician and Hellenist, was born at Andernacli in 1487. He became jihysician to Francis 1. of France in 1535, and lectured on anatomy at Paris, where Vesalius was among his pupils. Having been persecuted as a Protestant, he retired to Strasburg, where he was chosen professor of Greek. Among his works, which were highly es- teemed, are " Anatomical Institutes according to the Views of Galen," (" Anatomicae Institutiones secun- dum Galeni Sententiam," 1536,) and "On Ancient and Modern Medicine." (" De Medicina veteri et nova," 1571.) Died in 1574. See Herissant, " filoee de Gonthier d'Andernach," 1765 ; NiCE- RON, "Homines illustres ;" I^loy, " Dictionnaire de la Medecine;" M. Adam, " Vitae Medicorum." Gontran, g^N'tR^N', a son of Clotaire I., inherited the kingdom of Burgundy in 561 A.D. Died in 593. Gonzaga, gon-zi'gS, (Thomas Antonio,) a popular Portuguese lyric poet, born at Oporto in 1747, was sur- named DiRCEO. He was banished for a political offence to Mozambique in 1793, and died there in the same year. See F. Denis, " Resume de rHistoire litteraire du Bresil ;" " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Gonzaga, de,* deh gon-zS'g§, [Fr. Gonzague, gix'- ztg',] (Anne,) Princess-Palatine, born about 1616, was a daughter of Charles, Duke of Mantua and Nevers. She was married in 1645 to Edward, a son of Frederick V., Prince-Palatine and King of Bohemia. She passed much * Some authorities give these names without the particles, {de, or di'^ in inserting them we have followed the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) GONZAGA 1056 GOOD time at the French court, and was distinguished for her political talents and influence in the war of the Fronde. Died in 1684. Bossuet pronounced her funeral oration. See Cakuinal de Retz, "Menioires;" Senac de Meilhan, "Memoires d'Anne de Goiizague," 1786. Gonzaga, de,* di gon-zS'ga, (Maria Louisa,) Queen of Poland, born about 1612, was a sister of Anne Gon- zaga, noticed above, and was eminent for beauty. Her mother was Catherine of Lorraine. She was married in 1645 to Sigisniond Ladislas, King of Poland, who died in 1648. Soon after that event she became the wife of his brother and successor, John Casimir. Died in 1667. See "Nouvelle Biographic G^n^rale;" Bassompierre, "M^- moires." Gonzaga, di,*(CARLO,) Duke of Mantua, Montferrato, and Nevers, was a grandson of Federico, noticed below, and heir of his cousin Vincenzo, who died in 1627. His claim was disputed by the emperor Ferdinand H., whose army took and pillaged Mantua in 1630. Gonzaga re- covered Mantua about a year later. Died in 1637. Gonzaga, di* or de, (Curtius,) an Italian poet, who lived about 1580. He wrote an epic poem called " Fido Amante," (1582.) Gonzaga, di,* (Ercole,) an Italian cardinal, son of Francis II., Duke of Mantua, born in 1505. He became successively Bishop of Mantua, Cardinal, and Archbishop of Tarragona. He was intimate with Cardinal Bembo and other eminent scholars of the time. Died in 1563. See Ughelli, "Italia Sacra." Gonzaga, di,* (Federico,) Duke of Mantua, suc- ceeded his father, Giovanni Francesco, in 1519. He became an ally of Charles V. in 1521, and fought with distinction against the French. He was created Duke of Mantua by the emperor, and obtained the marquisate of Montferrato in 1536. Died in 1540. Gonzaga, di,*[Fr. Gonzague, gdN'zSg',](FERDiNAND or Ferrante,) Duke of Molfetta and Guastalla, born in 1506, was a younger son of the Duke of Mantua. He acquired a high reputation ks a general in the service of Charles V., who appointed him Viceroy of Sicily in 1536, and Governor of the Milanese in 1546. Died at Brussels in 1557. See Alfonso dk Ulloa, "Vita del gran Capitano F. Gonzaga," 1563; GosELLiNi, "Vita del Principe F. Gonzaga," 1574. Gonzaga, di,* (Ferdinando Carlo,) last Duke of Milan, succeeded his father in 1665. He was extremely dissolute. In the war of the Spanish succession he was the ally of France. The Austrians took Mantua in 1707 and annexed it to the Milanese. He died in 1708. Gonzaga, di,* (Giovanni Francesco,) first Marquis of Mantua, began to reign in 1407. He waged war against Visconti, Duke of Milan, and became general- in-chief of the Venetian army in 1432. He entered the service of the Duke of Milan in 1438, after which he defeated the Venetians and their allies under F. Sforza, one of the ablest generals of that time. He died in 1444, aged about fifty, and was succeeded by his son Luigi, who was distinguished as a general and patron of poets and artists. See MoRERi, " DIctionnaire Historique ;" Possevin, " Historia Gonzagarum," etc. Gonzaga, di,* (Giovanni Francesco,) a grandson of Luigi, became Marquis of Mantua in 1466. He com- manded the army which the Italian allies raised in 1495 to resist Charles VIII. of France. He was general of the League of Cambrai in 1509. Died in 15 19. Gonzaga, di,*(LucREZiA,) a learned Italian lady, was married to Gian Paolo Manfroni, afterwards imprisoned for conspiracy against the life of the Duke of Ferrara. Her letters were greatly admired by her contemporaries. Died in 1576. Gonzaga, di,* [Fr. Gonzague,] (Luigi,) Lord of Mantua, was the founder of a sovereign house which reigned at Mantua from 1328 to 1707. They belonged to the Ghibeline party. He died in 1361. Gonzaga, di,* (Scifione,) an Italian writer and car- dinal, born in 1542, was an intimate friend of Tasso. He See note on preceding page. wrote verses and Latin Memoirs of his own Life, (1791.) Died in 1593. See Possevin, " Historia Gonzagarum," etc. Gonzaga, di,* (Vkspasiano,) Duke of Sabbionetta, an Italian military commander, born in 1531, served with distinction in the wars of Charles V. and Philip H. of Spain. He was also a generous patron of learning and the arts. Died in 1591. Gonzague, the French of Gonzaga, wlnich see. Gonzales, gon-thS'l&s, ( Bartolome, ) a Spanish painter, born at Valladolid in 1564. He was patronized by Philip III., who employed him to restore the Escu- rial and other palaces. Died in 1627. Gonzales, giN'zi'I^s', (Louis Jean Emmanuel,) a ¥ XGwoh litterateur, horn at Saintes in 1815, became as- sistant editor of the "Siecle." He wrote a successful novel, entitled " The Pearl -Diver," or " Les Freres de la Cote," (" Filibusters," or *' Buccaneers.") Gonzales-Velasquez, gon-th^'l^s vi-ias'k§th, (Ale- jandro,) a Spanish painter and architect, born at Madrid in 1 7 19. He adorned with paintings the royal palace of San Ildefonso. Died in 1772. Gonzales-Velasquez, (Antonio,) a Spanish painter, brother of the preceding, born in Madrid in 1729. He excelled in frescos, and became court painter in 1757. Died in 1793. His brother Luis, born in 1715, was also a painter. Died in 1764. Gonzalez, gon-thcVl^th, or Gonzales, (Diego,) a Spanish poet, born at Ciudad Rodrigo in 1733; in 1794. Gonzalez, (Tirso,) a Spanish Jesuit, who was chosen general of his order about 1685. He wrote a work against the doctrine of probability, entitled " Fundamen- tum Theologiae Moralis," etc., (1689.) Died in 1705. See DupiN, " Bibliotheque des Auteurs eccleslastiques du dix- septieme Siecle." Gonzalez-Cabrera-Bueno, gon-thi'lgth ki-bRa'ri bwa'no, (Don Jozi^,) a distinguished admiral, born in the island of Teneriffe about 1670, was sent in 1701, by Pedro II., King of Portugal, as commander of a fleet, to the Philippines. He published a valuable treatise on navigation. Gonzalez de Andrada. See Andrada, (Paolo.) Gonzalez de Berceo, gon-thS^gth da bgR-tha'o, (Juan,) the earliest Spanish poet of whom anything is known, was born in Castile in 1196. He was a Bene- dictine monk, and wrote in verse the lives of San Do- mingo de Silos and San Millan. Died in 1266. See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" Sismondi, " Litteratures du Midi de I'Europe;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Gonzalez-Velasquez. See Gonzales-Velasquez. Gonzalo or Gonzalvo. See Gonsalvo. Gonzalvo. See Gonsalvo. Gooch, (Robert,) an English physician, born at Yarmouth in 1784. He practised in London, whither he removed in 1811. He published an excellent work on " Diseases Peculiar to Women," (1829.) Died in 1830. Good, (John Mason,) an eminent English physician and author, born at Ejjping in May, 1764. He was ap- prenticed to a surgeon at Gosport in 1779, and, having studied at Guy's Hospital for a short time, began to practise at Sudbury in 1784. In 1793 removed to London, where he devoted much attention to literature and contributed to several review.s. He was versed in many ancient and modern languages, which he learned with uncommon facility. In 1805 he produced a trans- lation in verse of Lucretius "De Rerum Natura." Among his chief medical works are a "Physiological System of Nosology," (1817,) and "The Study of Medi- cine," (4 vols., 1822; 2d edition, with notes by Dr. Samuel Cooper, 5 vols., 1828,) one of the most complete and learned works on that subject that ever appeared in the language. He also published "The Book of Nature," (3 vols., 1826,) a "Translation of the Book of Psalms," and several original poems. In 1820 he took the degree of M.D. at Marischal College, Aberdeen. Died in January, 1827. Commenting on his translation of Lucretius, Lord Jeffrey says, "Upon the whole, this book is very dull, and as a translation very flat and unpoetical ; yet it is i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fJll, fit; mhi; ndt; good; moon; GOOD ALL 1057 GOODTEAR evidently the work of a man of no ordinary vigour or intelligence : it contains a very correct edition of Lucre- tius, with more information on the subject of his poem than could be gathered from all hrs other commentators put together." ("Edinburgh Review" for April, 1807.) See Olinthus Grkgorv, " Memoirs of the Life of J. M. Good," 1828; "Gentleman's Magazine" for March, 1827. Goodall, good'al, (Edward,) an English artist, chiefly known as an engraver, born at Leeds in 1795. His vignette landscapes, after Turner, are esteemed master-pieces. Among his works are the illustrations of Kogers's "Italy" and other poems, and the plates in Turner's " South Coast." He reproduces the manner of Tinner with exquisite tact. Goodall, (Frederick,) an eminent painter of history and genre, a son of the preceding, was born in London in 1822. He obtained a silver medal from the Society of Arts at the age of fifteen. His early works represent the life of the peasants of Normandy and Brittany. He produced "The Departure of the Emigrant-Ship," and other scenes of Irish life, and afterwards devoted him- self chiefly to English subjects. Among his later works are "The Village Festival," (1847,) "Raising the May- Pole," (185 1,) and "Cranmer at the Traitors' Gate," (1856.) He was chosen an associate of the Royal Academy in 1852. Good'all or Good'al, (Walter,) a Scottish anti- quary, born in Banff'shire in 1706. He published an " Examination of the Letters said to be written by Mary to James, Earl of Bothwell ;" also an edition of the " Scoti-Chronicon" of Fordun. Died in 1766. Goode, good, (Francis,) an English divine, born about 1797. He wrote " The Better Covenant," (5th edition, 1848,) which is highly commended. Died in 1842. Goode, (William,) an English theologian, born about 1800. Among his works is "The Divine Rule of Faith and Practice," (2 vols., 1842,) and treatises against the doctrines of the Puseyites. He became Dean of Ripon in 1 860. Good'man, (Christopher,) an English Puritan, born at Chester about 1520. He retired to the continent in the reign of Mary, and became pastor of an English church at Geneva. About 1560 he was appointed min- ister at Saint Andrew's, Scotland. He wrote a "Com- mentary on Amos." Died in 1602. See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." Goodman, (Godfrey,) an English writer, born in Denbighshire in 1583. He became Bishop of Gloucester in 1625, and joined the Church of Rome about 1640. He wrote, besides other works, a " History of his Own Times," which was published in 1839. Died in 1655. See Fuller, " Church History." Good'rich, (Charles A.,) of Hartford, Connecticut, a historian and clergyman, born in 1790. He wrote, besides other works, a "History of the United States of America." Died in 1862. Goodrich, (Chauncey,) an American Senator, born at Durham, Connecticut, in 1759, was a son of Elizur, noticed below. He was a member of Congress from 1795 to 1801, and represented Connecticut in the Senate of the United States from 1807 to 1813. Died in 1815. Goodrich, (Chauncey Allen,) an American scholar and divine, born at New Haven in October, 1790, was a son of Elizur, noticed below, (1761-1849.) He graduated at Yale College in 1810, and afterwards studied theology. He was professor of rhetoric and oratory in Yale Col- lege from 1 81 7 to 1839, and in the latter year obtained the chair of theology in that institution. In 1847 he produced an enlarged edition of Webster's Dictionary. He also edited Webster's Unabridged Dictionary, with an Appendix and Vocabulary of Proper Names, (1859,) and published " Select British Eloquence," (1852.) Died in i860. See Allibone's "Dictionary of Authors." Goodrich, (Elizur,) an American divine and scho- lar, born in Wethersfield, Connecticut, in 1734; died in 1797. Goodrich, (Elizur,) an American lawyer, son of the preceding, was born in Durham, Connecticut, in 1761. lie was professor of law in Yale College from 1801 to 1810, and was a judge of probate for many years. Died in 1849. Goodrich, (Frank B.,) an American writer, son of Samuel G. Goodrich, noticed below, was born in Boston in 1826. He published, besides several other works, "The Court of Napoleon, or Society under the First Empire, with Portraits of its Beauties," etc., (1857.) Goodrich, (Samuel Griswold,) an American writer, known under the assumed name of Peter Parley, was born at Ridgefield, Connecticut, in 1793. He was a nephew of Chauncey A. Goodrich. He became pro- prietor of a publisJiing-house in Boston about 1825, soon after which he began to write a series of juvenile books under the name of " Peter Parley." These works, the subjects of which were history, geography, travels, etc., enjoyed an extensive popularity. Some of them were translated into French. He edited a periodical called "Parley's Magazine," (1841-54.) He was consul of the United States in Paris for several years, (1848-52.) Among his numerous works are "Recollections of a Lifetime," (2 vols., 1857,) " Illustrated Natural History of the Animal Kingdom," (2 vols., 1859,) and " Peter Parley's Own Story," etc., (1864.) Died in 1863. For a particular account of his various publications, see Alli- bone's "Dictionary of Authors." Goodrich, (Thomas,) an English prelate, born in Lincolnshire about 1480. He rose through various pre- ferments to be Bishop of Ely in 1534. He was also a metnber of the privy council under Henry VIII. and Edward VI., and in 1551 was made lord chancellor. He assisted in the compilation of the Bishops' Book and the I^ook of Common Prayer of 1548. Died in 1554. Good'win, (Francis,) an English architect, among whose principal works are the Manchester Town Hall and Lissadell Court. Died in 1835. Goodwin, (John,) an English Puritan divine, born in 1593, resided many years in London, where he was distinguished for his pulpit eloquence. He was a zealous republican, and defended the execution of the king. By his writings and in his pulpit he maintained the Arminian doctrines. He was the author of " The Divine Authority of Scripture Asserted," "Right and Might Well Met," "Redemption Redeemed," etc. The first-named is con- sidered a master-piece of polemic theology. Died in 1665. See " Life of John Goodwin," by Thomas Jackson. Goodwin, (Thomas,) an English nonconformist di- vine and writer, born in Norfolk in 1600. He took his degree at Cambridge, and in 1632 became vicar of Trinity Church, in that town. This post he soon after resigned, on account of a change in his religious opinions. After a short residence in Holland, he was, on his return to England, elected to the Westminster Assembly, and was distinguished as one of the ablest and most active leaders of the Independent party. His zeal in this cause pro- cured for him the favour of Cromwell, who in 1649 appointed him president of Magdalene College, Oxford. He wrote numerous theological and controversial works, which enjoy a high reputation. Died in 1679. See Neal, "History of the Puritans;" Wood, "Athenas Oxo- nienses." Good'year, (Charles,) an eminent American in- ventor, born at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1800. His early education was very defective. He removed in 1826 to Philadelphia, where he opened a small store. About 1834 he became deeply interested in the manufacture of India-rubber. The cloth, shoes, and other articles made from this substance had proved failures on account of the effect produced upon it by heat and cold. After five years spent in constant experiments, during which time he and his family lived in extreme destitution, Mr. Good- year succeeded in producing, by means of sulphur, the vulcanized India-rubber now so extensively used in manu- factures. In 1 85 1 he visited London, and exhibited at the Crystal Palace a great variety of useful and orna- mental articles of the new material. He obtained on this occasion the Grand Council medal. He also attended the Paris Exposition of 1855, and received from the French emperor the grand medal of honour and the cross of the legion of honour. He returned to Ame- rica in 1858, and devoted himself with untiring energy € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 67 GOOGE 1058 GORDON to the perfection of his discoveries, although suffering froni chronic disease. Died in July, i860. " He lived," says Parton, " to see his material applied to nearly five hundred uses, and to give employment, in England, France, Germany, and the United States, to sixty thou- sand persons. But we should greatly undervalue the labours of Charles Goodyear if we regarded them only as opening a new source of wealth. . . . Art, science, and humanity are indebted to him for a material which serves the purposes of them all, and serves them as no other known material could." See Rev. Bradford K. Peirce, "Trials of an Inventor," New York, i866; Pakton, " Famous Americans of Recent Times," 1867. Googe, gooj, (Barnaby,) an English translator of the sixteenth century, published versions of the "Zodiake of Life," by Paiingenius Stellatus, the "Spanish Proverbs" of Lope de Mendoza, and Aristotle's "Categories ;" he was also the author of a collection of sonnets and other poems. See Warton, '* History of English Poetry." Gook'in, (Daniel,) a writer, born in Kent, England, about 1612, removed to Massachusetts in 1644. He became a major-general in 1681. He wrote " Historical Collections of the Indians of Massachusetts," (published in 1792.) Died in 1687. Gool, van, vSn gol or h61, (Jan,) a Dutch painter, born at the Hague in 1685, painted admired landscapes, and wrote a mediocre " Biography of Flemish and Dutch Painters," (1751.) Died in 1757. Gopaia, one of the names of Krishna, which see. Goppert or Goeppert, gop^'plrt, (Heinrich Ro- bert,) professor of medicine and botany at Breslau, was born in Silesia in 1800. He published a treatise " On the Anatomical Structure of the Coniferae," "On the Fossil Ferns," and other similar works. Gor'di-an, [Fr. Gordien, goRMe-iN'; Lat. Gordia'- NUS, (Mar'cus Anto'nius Africa'nus,)] a Roman em- peror, born about 160 A.D., of an illustrious family. He was appointed proconsul of Africa in 237, and was declared emperor by the insurgents who rebelled against Maximi- nus. His son Gordian was associated with him in the empire, and their election was confirmed by the Roman senate. Soon after this, Capellianus, Governor of Mau- ritania, assembled an army in favour of Maximinus, and attacked Carthage. In the combat that ensued, the younger Gordian was slain ; and his aged father, on hearing of his fate, strangled himself, in 238 A.D. Gor- dian was distinguished for his love of letters, and was the author of several poems. He spent a great part of his immense wealth in procuring games and amusements for the people. His reign lasted but six weeks. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Gordian, [Lat. Gordianus, (Marcus Antonius Pius,)] grandson of the elder Gordian, was born about 225, and was proclaimed Caesar by the Roman people when news arrived of the death of the two Gordians in Africa. He was made colleague of the new emperors Maximus and Balbinus, and after their death became emperor, in July, 238 a.d. Gordian, accompanied by his father-in-law, Misitheus, repelled an invasion of Sapor, King of Persia, in 242, He afterwards attacked the Persians, and defeated their army on the banks of the Chaboras. Meanwhile, Philippus, an officer in the Roman army, availing himself of his popularity, caused himself to be proclaimed a colleague of the emperor, and soon after had Gordian put to death, in 244 a.d. See Tii.LEMONT, " Histoire des Empereurs;" Montesquieu, "Grandeur et Decadence des Remains ;" Gisbert Ci'per, " His- toria triiim Gordianorum," 1697; Capitolinus, "Gordiani tres." Gordianus, the Latin of Gordian, which see. Gordien, the French of Gordian, which see. Gor'di-us, a Phrygian peasant who was raised to the throne, was the father of Midas. His name is associated with the famous " Gordian Knot," which Alexander the Great, unable to untie, cut with his sword. Gor'don, (Alexander,) of Achintoul, a relative of Patrick, noticed below, visited Russia in 1693. He was patronized by the Czar, to whom he rendered important services in his wars against Sweden and Poland. He wrote a valuable "History of Peter the Great," (1755.) Died in 1752. Gordon, (Alexander,) a distinguished Scottish an- tiquary, wrote " Itinerarium Septentrionale," or travels in Scotland and the North of England, (1726,) and a "Complete History of Ancient Amphitheatres," (1730.) Died in 1750. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Gordon, (Andrew,) a distinguished scholar, born near Aberdeen in 1712, became professor of philosophy at Erfurt, in Germany. He published a work entitled "Phenomena of Electricity Exposed," (1744.) He made important discoveries in that science ; and he is said to have been the first who used a cylinder instead of a globe in electrical apparatus. Died in 1 75 1. See Priestley, " History of Electricity." Gordon, goiiM^N', [Lat. Gordo'nus,] (Bernard,) a French physician, became professor of medicine at Mont- pellier in 1285. He wrote " Lilium Medicinae," and other professional works, which were highly esteemed. Died about 1320. Gordon, (George,) Earl of Huntley, an ainbitious and powerful Scottish nobleman, was a Roman Catholic. He became lord chancellor of Scotland about 1546. Having taken arms against Queen Mary and Regent Murray, he was defeated and killed in 1562. His son George, the fifth Earl, was accessory to the death of Lord Darnley, after which he was an adherent of Queen Mary. Gordon, (George,) sixth Earl of Huntley, a son of the fifth Earl, was a turbulent and powerful nobleman. He engaged in treasonable intrigues with the King of Spain in order to restore the Romish Church in Scot- land. He rebelled openly in 1594, was defeated, and fled to the continent, but soon returned. Died in 1635. Gordon, (George,) the son of Cosmo George, Duke of Gordon, was born in London in 1750. On taking his seat in Parliament, he distinguished himself by his violent opposition to the Act of Toleration, passed in 1778 in favour of the Catholics. In 1780, at the head of a mob estimated at one hundred thousand persons, Gordon presented a petition to Parliament for the repeal of the Bill of Toleration ; and, on the refusal of that body to take it into immediate consideration, his followers spread themselves over the city and plundered and burned several Roman Catholic chapels. These outrages being feebly repressed, the mob broke out a few days after with greater violence. A great number of private houses as well as churches were destroyed, and the prisons forced open. At length the king commanded the military to disperse the mob, and order was restored. Gordon was tried for high treason, but was acquitted, because it could not be proved that he had assembled the populace with bad intentions. He afterwards was condemned to five years' imprisonment for contempt of court. He died in prison in 1793. See Robert Watson, "Life of Lord George Gordon," 1795; Lingard, "History of England;" Chambers, "Biographical Dic- tionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Gor'don, (George H.,) an American general, born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, about 1826. He was a lawyer before the civil war. He commanded a brigade of the army of General Banks in May, 1862, and took part in the battle of Antietam, September 17 of that year. Gordon, (George Hamilton.) See Aberdeen, Earl of. Gordon, (James Huntley,) a learned Jesuit, of a noble Scottish family, born in Paris in 1543. He became successively professor of theology and of the learned languages at Rome, Paris, and Bordeaux, and was also employed on several apostolic missions. Died in 1620. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmer. Gordon, (Sir John Watson,) an eminent Scottish portrait-painter, born in Edinburgh about 1790. He painted portraits of nearly all the eminent Scotsmen of his time, including Sir Walter Scott, the Duke of Ar- gyle. Dr. Chalmers, (1837,) and Professor Wilson, (1851.) He was chosen president of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1850, and received the title of painter-limner to the queen. Died in 1864. Gordon, (Lady Lucy Duff,) daughter of the cele- brated Mrs. Austin, and wife of Sir Alexander Duff Gordon, published a number of excellent translations a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i^., h, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii,y, sAort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; raSt; nftt; good; moon; GORDON GORIONIDES from the German and French. AnKjng these are Von Feuerbach's " Remarkable Crimes and Trials," Mein- hold's "Amber Witch," and the "Celebrated Crimes" of Dumas. She wrote "Letters from Egypt," (1865.) Died in Egypt in 1869. Gordon, (Patrick,) a Scottish officer, born in 1635, entered the service of Peter the Great of Russia, whose favour he won, and who made him commander-in-chief of his army. Died in 1699. See Beckmann, "Peter der Grosse als Mensch und Regent," 1830; "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1852; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1856; "Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1861. Gordon, (Robert,) a Scottish geographer, born in Aberdeenshire about 1580, was appointed by Charles I. to complete the "Theatrum Scotias," which forms a part of the geographical work projected by Blaeu of Amster- dam. Died about 1660. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Gordon, (Sir Robert,) a brother of the Earl of Aberdeen, born in 1791, was sent as ambassador to Constantinople in 1829, and was minister at Vienna from 1841 to 1846. He died at Balmoral in 1847. Gordon, (Thomas,) a Scottish writer, born at Kirk- cudbright about 1685. He was the author, in conjunc- tion with his friend Trenchard, of " Cato's Letters," and "The Independent Whig," (2 vols., 1732.) His transla- tion of Tacitus is esteemed the best in the English language. Died in 1750. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Gordon, (Thomas F.,) an American historian, pub- lished a " History of Pennsylvania," (1823,) a "Digest of the Laws of the United States," (1827,) a "History of New Jersey," (1831,) a "Gazetteer of New Jersey," (1834,) and other works. Gordon, (William,) an English historian, born at Hitchin in 1729, became pastor of an Independent church at Ipswich. He removed to America in 1770, preached for some years at Roxbury, Massachusetts, favoured the popular party in the Revolution, and re- turned to England in 1786. He published a "History of the Rise, Progress, and Establishment of the Inde- pendence of the United States of America," (4 vols., 1788.) He states that General Washington furnished material for this work. Died in 1807. Gordon, (William,) an English physician and philan- thropist, born near Ripon in 1801, practised in Hull. He wrote a " Critical Inquiry concerning a New Membrane of the Eye," (1832,) and other works. Died in 1849. See Newman Hall, "The Christian Philosopher Triumphing over Death," etc. Gordonus. See Gordon, (Bernard.) Gore, (Catherine Grace,) originally named Fran- cis, a distinguished English authoress, born in Notting- hamshire in 1799. Among her most popular novels, which are principally delineations of fashionable life, are "Cecil ; or, The Adventures of a Coxcomb," (1841,) "Peers and Parvenus," "The Hamiltons," and "The Ambassador's Wife." She also published a comedy entitled " The School for Coquettes," and other dramatic works. Mrs. Gore's productions display superior talent, and a number of her novels have been translated into German. Died in 1861. See R. H. Horne, "New Spirit of the Age," 1844; "Edinburgh RC'iew" for July, 1830. Gore, (Chri-Stopher,) an American Governor, born in Boston in 1758. He was elected Governor of Massa- chusetts in 1809, and a Senator of the United States in 1814. Died in 1827. He left nearly $100,000 to Harvard College. Gore, (Sir John,) a British naval officer, who became a vice-admiral in 1825. Died in 1836. Gore, (Thomas,) an English writer, born in Wiltshire in 1 63 1, was the author of several genealogical works. Died in 1684. See Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses." Gorenz or Goerenz, go'rints, (Johann August,) a German philologist and Latin scholar, born in Saxony in 1765. He published a good edition of Cicero's philo- sophical works, viz., " De Legibus," " De Finibus," and "Academica," (3 vols., 1809-12.) Died in 1836. Gorgei. See Gorgey. Gor'ges, (Sir Ferdinando,) an Englishman, born in Somersetshire. He planted a colony in Maine, and spent a large sum of money in attempts to explore and settle that province. About 1637 he obtained a large grant of land, and was appointed lord proprietary of Maine. His colony did not prosper. Died in 1647. Gorgey or Goergey, goR'gi, (Arthur,) a famous Hungarian general, born at Toporcz in 1818. He entered the army in 1837, but retired from it in 1845 ^"^1 became a student in the University of Prague. In the spring of 1848 he joined the army which took the field against Austria, and received a captain's commission. Having given proofs of superior military talents, he was ap- pointed commander-in-chief by Kossuth on the 1st of November, 1848. He issued in January, 1849, a procla- mation against the separation of Hungary from Austria, and in the next month was superseded by Dembinski, whom he refused to obey. He was soon restored to the command, and defeated the Austrians at Nagy Sarlo in April, after which he became minister of war. Having been defeated near Komorn in Julv, he made a skilful retreat to Arad. On the nth of August, 1849, he was appointed dictator, and a few days later he capitulated without conditions to the Russian general. He was pardoned by the emperor, and incurred the suspicion of treason to the cause of Hungary. In 1852 he published "My Life and Acts in Hungary in 1848 and 1849." Gor'gi-as [Gr. Topyiag] of Leontini, a celebrated orator and sophist, was born at Leontini, (or Leontium,) in Sicily, and was a contemporary of Socrates. He was sent by his fellow-citizens to Athens on a political mis- sion about 426 B.C., soon after which he became a resi- dent of Athens. He taught rhetoric with great eclat, and wrote a philosophical work entitled " Of the Non-Being, or of Nature," in which he argued that nothing has ex- .istence or reality. Some extracts from this are extant. His mind was eminently ?;ubtle and brilliant. He appears to have promoted the advancement of philosophy by de- monstrating the distinction between the conception and its object. But he was more remarkable tor the graces of language than for earnestness of feeling. " Like a great man of modern times," says Fournier, "he propa- gated doubt with finesse, and suggested or generated ideas with an art of which Socrates alone furnished a model." Plato gave the name of Gorgias to one of his dialogues which is extant. Gorgias survived Socrates, and reached the age of one hundred years. See Philostratus, " Vitae Sophistarum ;" H. E. Foss, "Com- mentatio de Gorgia Leontino," 1828; Luigi Garofalo, "Discorsi intorno Gorgia Leontino," 1831 ; " Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale ;" Aristotle, "De Xenophane, Gorgia," etc.; Shxtu.s Empiricus, "Adversus Mathematicos ;" Grote, "History of Greece," vol. viii. chap. Ixvii. Gor'gon, [Lat. Gor'gon ; Gr. Topyu, (plural Pop- yoveg ;) Fr. GoRGONE, goR^gon'.] The Gorgons of the classic mythology were three sisters, named Stheno, (or Stheino,) Eury'ale, and Medusa. By the later poets they were represented as having on their heads serpents instead of hair, or serpents entwined among their hair. According to the popular legend, all persons who looked at them were changed into stone. See Keightley, " Mythology ;" " Biographic Universelle," (Partie mythologique.) Gorgonia, a surname of Minerva, which see. Gori, go'ree, (Antonio Francesco,) an Italian anti- quary, born in 1691 at Florence, where he became pro- fessor of history. Among his numerous and valuable works we may name " Inscriptiones antiquae Grsecae et Romanaj," etc., an account of ancient inscri]3tions found in Tuscany, and a superb work entitled " Museum Flo- rentinum," (6 vols, fol., 1731-43.) In 1735 he founded the Academia Columbaria. Died in 1757. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Goethe, " Winckelrnann und sein Jahrhundert." Gorini, da, di. go-ree'nee, (Giuseppe Corio,) Mar- quis, an Italian dramatic poet, born at Milan. He com- posed many tragedies and comedies, some of which were very successful. His tragedy of "Jezebel" is called his master-piece. He died after 1761. Go-ri-on'i-des, or Joseph Ben Gorion, a Jewish compiler, who is supposed to have lived in France in € as 9 as s; g kard; g as J; G, H, K,guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (JJ^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) GORL^US 1 060 GOSCHEL the ninth century. He was the reputed author of a " His- tory of the Jews." Gorleeus, gor-la'us, (Abraham,) a distinguished an- tiquary and numismatist, born at Antwerp in 1549. He collected a valuable cabinet of medals, which was sold after his death to James I. of England. His principal works are his " Dactyliotheca, etc.," and "Thesaurus Numismatum," ("Treasury of Coins," 1608.) Died in 1609. Gorm or Gor'mon, surnamed the Old, a king of Denmark, who united the whole of that country into one kingd )m. He was hostile to Christianity, and resisted all the efforts of the missionaries to convert his people. Died in 935. Gor'man, (Willis A.,) an American general, born in i<^entucky about 1814. He represented a district of Indiana in Congress from 1849 to 1853, and was Gov- ernor of Minnesota Territory from 1853 to 1857. He commanded a brigade of the Union army at the battles of Fair Oaks, June i, and Antietam, September 17, 1862. Gornicius. See Gornickl Gornicki, goR-netsnanguages," etc., and " Thoughts on the Oi '. ^in and Descent of the Gael," (1813.) Died in 1835. Grant, (James,) editor of the "London Morning Advertiser," born in Scotland about 1806. He wrote " l<.andom Recollections of the House of Lords," (1830,) "The Great Metropolis," (1836,) and other popular works. Gi'ant, (James,) a popular writer, born at Edinburgh in 1822. Among his principal works are the "Ad- ventures of an Aide-de-Camp," (1848,) "Memoirs of Kirkaldy of Grange," (1849,) "Memorials of Edinburgh Castle," and " Walter Fenton," (1850.) Grant, (Sir James Hope,) a British general, a brother of Francis Grant the artist, was born in 1808. Te served in India during the mutiny of 1857, and com- manded the British army which, aided by the French, defeated the Chinese in September, i860, 'and captured Pekin. Grant, (Patrick,) Lord Preston-Grange, a Scottish judge, born in 1698 ; died in 1762. Grant, (Robert,) born at Grantoun, in Scotland, in 1814, wrote a " History of Physical Astronomy," (1852,) which has a high reputation. Grant, (Robert Edmund,) a British physician, dis- ti^nguished as a comparative anatomist, was born in Edinburgh in 1793. He graduated in 1814, and began to practise in his native city about 1820. He wrote several able treatises on "The Structure and Functions of the Sponge," and made other contributions to com- parative anatomy. In 1828 he was chosen professor of comparative anatomy and zoology in the London University, where he lectured about thirty years. He published in 1835 the first volume of an important work, entitled "Outlines of Comparative Anatomy." Grant, (Ulysses Simpson,) a distinguished Ameri- can general, and the eighteenth President of the United States, was born at Point Pleasant, Clermont county, Ohio, April 27, 1822. He is the eldest son of Jesse R. and Hannah Simpson Grant, both natives of Pennsyl- vania. Having acquired the rudiments of education at a common school, he entered the Military Academy at West Point in 1839. He was a diligent student, but .graduated without special distinction in 1843, standing twenty-first in a class of thirty-nine. He left West Point as brevet second lieutenant of the Fourth Infantry, with which he went to Mexico, and served with dis- tinction at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma in May, 1846. For meritorious conduct at Molino del Rey and Chapul tepee, September, 1847, he was made first lieuten- ant. In 1848 he married Miss Julia T. Dent, of Saint Louis. He was raised to the rank of captain in 1853, but resigned his commission in July, 1854. In 1859 or i860 he entered into business with his father, as a dealer in leather and saddlery, at Galena, Illinois. Immediately after the breaking out of the rebellion in 1861, he raised a company and marched with it to Spring- field. Having been appointed colonel of the twenty-first regiment of volunteers in June, he was first employed in Missouri, and became a brigadier-general in August, i86r. About this time he was ordered to Cairo, and took com- mand of the important district of Cairo, or "Southeast Missouri," including both sides of the Mississippi River. He occupied Paducah on the 6th of September. His first battle was fought at Belmont, Missouri, nearly opposite Columbus, which latter place was occupied by a large force of the enemy. On the 7th of November he cap- tured the camp of the insurgents at Belmont, and in the act of retiring was attacked by troops which had crossed the river from Columbus. Both parties claimed the victory in this affair. In December, 1861, the district commanded by Grant was enlarged so as to include Southeastern Missouri and all that part of Kentucky which lies west of the Cumberland River. The famous Prince Eugene observed that the greatest generals have commonly been those who have been at once raised to the command of an army, without spend- ing much time in the petty calculations and manoeuvres of an inferior officer. It may at least be said that Grant was no exception to this rule. In January, 1862, he opened the campaign by a flank movement against a large rebel force which was strongly fortified at Colum- bus, on the Mississippi River. Ascending the Tennessee River with the aid of iron-clad gun-boats, he took Fort Henry on the 6th of February, thus breaking the chain of defences which extended from Columbus eastward. The navigation of the Cumberland was obstructed by Fort Donelson, a very important position, which was held by a garrison of 20,000 men. Grant attacked this fort on the 14th of February, and fought a severe battle on the 15th with the garrison, which made a sortie from their works. On the i6th, General Buckner made over- tures, in reply to which Grant wrote, " No terms other than unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works." The fort was accordingly surrendered to him, with about 13,500 prisoners. Among the results of this a, e, T, 6, u, y, /on^; i, h, 6, same, les ^ prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obsaire; fdr, fill, fit; m§t; nftt; good; moon; GRANT 1071 GRANT victory was the speedy evacuation of Columbus and Nashville by the insurgents. Grant was appointed a major-general in February, 1862. The rebel general A. S. Johnston, forced to retire from Tennessee, had occupied a strong position at Corinth, in Mississippi, with a large army. To operate against this force, General Grant advanced to Pittsburg Landing, on the Tennessee River, where he awaited the arrival of General Buell, who was ordered to join him with the army of the Ohio. General Johnston attacked the Union army at Shiloh on the morning of the 6th of April, and took several thousand prisoners. The battle was renewed on the 7th, when Grant, having been reinforced by the army of Buell, attacked and defeated the enemy. The Union army lost here about 1600 killed and 7200 wounded, and the enemy lost as many or more. In July, Grant became commander of a newly-formed department, comprising Northern Mississippi, West Tennessee, and Western Kentucky. His great object was to open the Mississippi River by the capture of Vicksburg, — a very difficult enterprise. A part of his army, under Rose- crans, gained a decisive victory at Corinth on the 4th and 5th of October. Generals Grant and Sherman made several unsuccessful attempts to take Vicksburg in the winter of 1862-63. Having adopted a new plan of ap- proach, he moved his army by land on the west bank of the river to a point below Vicksburg. Co-operating with him, the gun-boats under Captain Porter, and transports loaded with supi^lies, passed the batteries of Vicksburg safely on the night of April 16. Grant's army crossed the river about the 30th of April, defeated the enemy at Raymond, at Jackson, May 14, at Champion's Hill, (or Baker's Creek,) May 16, and at the Big Black. Having prevented General J. E. Johnston from effecting a junc- tion with Pemberton, who commanded at Vicksburg, he commenced the siege of that important place about the 1 8th of May. The capture of Vicksburg, which, with about 30,000 prisoners, was surrendered on the 4th of July, 1863, caused great exultation among the friends of the Union. General Grant was rewarded for this serj^.e by promotion to the rank of major-general in the regular army. In October, 1863, he obtained command of the Military Division of the Mississippi, comprising the departments of the Ohio, of the Cumberland, and of the Tennessee. Among General Grant's important characteristics as a great commander is the rare sagacity which he uniformly displayed in the choice of his subordinate officers. On this occasion he selected Generals Sherman and Thomas as his principal lieutenants, and concentrated his armies for the defence of Chattanooga, which was partly invested by General Bragg. His design was promoted by the impru- dence of Bragg, who sent Longstreet with about 20,000 men to besiege Knoxville. The army of Bragg, holding strong positions on the Missionary Ridge and Lookout Mountain, was attacked on the 24th and retreated on the 25th of November. A part of this great battle, it is said, was f(night above the clouds. It is stated that from the beginning of the war to December 7, 1863, the armies under Grant's command had captured 472 pieces of cannon and 90,000 prisoners. In the mean time, the Federal armies in the East had failed disastrously in successive campaigns against Richmond ; and the eyes of the nation turned to Grant as the general most com- petent to direct all the armies of the Union. The grade of lieutenant-general was revived for him by Congress, and he was appointed commander of all the armies by the President on the 12th of March, 1864, — the most im- portant appointment ever made by an American Presi- dent. He was thus summoned to a new scene of action and a position of immense responsibility. The forces of the enemy were mostly concentrated in two large armies, — one in Virginia, commanded by Robert E. Lee, and the other in Northern Georgia, led by J. E. John- ston. General Grant selected General Sherman to op- pose the latter, and himself directed in person the army of the Potomac, which opened the campaign by crossing the Rapidan on the 4th of May and moving towards Richmond by a route which was naturally strong for purposes of defence and was well fortified at various points. Before he began this movement, he appointed General Sheridan commander of all the cavalry of his army. Hancock, Warren, Sedgwick, and Burnside, sub- ject to the orders of General Meade, commanded the several corps of the army of the Potomac, which probably amounted to 150,000 men. On the 5th of May, Grant's army met the enemy near Mine Run ; and then began the great and indecisive battle of the Wilderness, so named because it was fought in an extensive forest. The battle was renewed about five A.M. on the 6th, and continued with unabated fury until darkness interposed. In the ensuing night Lee's army retired behind their intrenched lines. Grant then moved his army by the enemy's right flank, intending to put his whole force between Lee and Richmond ; but Lee, moving on a shorter line, again checked his pro- gress at vSpottsylvania Court- House, where the 9th, loth, and nth were spent in fighting and manoeuvring with- out decisive results. A dispatch of Grant, dated May II, concludes with this famous sentence: "I propose to fight it out on this line, if it takes all summer." On the 1 2th Hancock's corps attacked the enemy and captured nearly 4000 prisoners. In the mean time, another army, directed by General Butler and operating against Rich- mond from the east, took City Point and Bermuda Hun- dred on the 5th of May. In consequence of another flank movement made by Grant about May 21, Lee marched southward across the North Anna River, and again confronted the Federal army. Finding Lee's po- sition on the North Anna very strong. Grant again turned it by moving round the enemy's right, and crossed the Pamunkey River on the 28th, at a point about fifteen miles from Richmond. On the 3d of June, Grant attacked the enemy's works at Cold Harbour, but was repulsed with heavy loss. The anny of the Potomac crossed the James River, June 14 and 15, formed a junction with the army of Butler, and commenced the siege of Petersburg. Having made a breach in the works by exploding a mine, the Union army assaulted Petersburg on the 30th of July, but failed to take it. In September and October, General vSheridan gained several decisive victories in the Shenandoah Val- ley. (See Sheridan, Philip H.) The army of Grant remained nearly inactive before Petersburg during the winter of 1864-65; but Sherman continued to operate in Georgia and Carolina with signal success, and moved rapidly towards Virginia. Savannah, Charleston, and Wilmington were taken in quick succession by General Sherman. The armies operating against Richmond and Peters- burg commenced a movement on the 31st of March to cut the -Danville and Southside Railroads, by which Lee's army was supplied. On the ist of April, Sheridan and Warren assaulted the works at Five Forks, and took about 5000 prisoners. On the morning of the 2d a combined assault was made on the lines of Petersburg, with great success. Having been driven from their main line of defence, and having lost several thousand pris- oners in this attack. Lee's army evacuated Petersburg and Richmond in the night of April 2, and retreated towards Danville, closely pursued. The Federals at- tacked a part of Lee's force near Sailor's Creek on the 6th, and captured about 6000 prisoners. On the 7th, General Grant opened a correspondence with General Lee, who surrendered his army at Appomattox Court- House on the 9th of April, 1865, after which the insur- gents everywhere gave up the contest. To reward the services of Grant, Congress passed in July, 1866, a bill to "revive the grade of General of the Army of the United States," and he was appointed to that position. He became secretary of war ad ititerim about the ist of August, 1867. When President Johnson ordered the removal of General Sheridan, General Grant, departing from his habitual reticence, defended the latter with spirit, and objected to his removal in a letter which convinced the public that the writer was not an admirer of Johnson's policy. He ceased to be secretary ad intC' rim on the 14th of January, 1868, when he gave up the war department to Mr. Stanton against the will of the President, who vainly tempted General Grant to violate the law of Congress. In a letter of General Grant, dated February 3, 1868, and addressed to President Johnson, € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Vi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) GRANT 1072 GRJSSE-TILLr he writes, " I cannot but regard tliis whole matter as an attempt to involve me in the resistance of law for which you hesitated to assume the responsibility, in order thus to destroy my character before the country." At the National Republican Convention, May 21, 1868, he was unanimously nominated a candidate for the Presidency of the United States on the first ballot, receiving the votes of six hundred and fifty delegates. His Democratic competitor was Horatio Seymour, of New York, General Grant accepted the nomination by a letter ending with this sentence, *' Let us have peace !" which became the watchword of the campaign. After a very exciting canvass. Grant and Colfax were elected by a large majority, receiving two hundred and fourteen electoral votes, cast by twenty-six States, — viz., the six States of New England, Pennsylvania, Ohio, North Caro- lina, South Carolina, West Virginia, Florida, Alabama, Tennessee, Arkansas, Missouri, and all the Western States except Oregon. Mr. Seymour received eighty electoral votes. This result proved that the name of General Grant was a tower of strength to the Republican party, whose ascendency had been seriously menaced by the reaction of 1867. During the first half-year of his administration the public del)t was reduced over fifty million dollars, and order and prosperity were rapidly restored, especially in the Southern States. After his election to the Presidency, he declared himself in favour of the fifteenth Amenchnent to the Constitution, which ordains that no person shall be disfranchised on account of colour, race, etc. Having resigned his supreme rank in the army, he conferred the same on his friend and companion-in-arms. General W. T. Sherman, See A. Badeau, "Military History of U. S. Grant," 2 vols.; C. A. Phelps, " Life of U. S. Grant," 1868 ; J. T. Headley, " Life of U. S. Grant;" A. D. Richardson, "Personal History of U. S. Grant," 1S68 ; Harriet Beecher Stowe, "Men of our Times," Hartford, 1868; H. Coppee, "Grant and his Campaigns," 1866; E. Howland, "Grant as a Soldier and Statesman," London, 1868; "Edinburgh Review" for January, i86g. Grant, (Sir William,) an eminent orator and judge, born in the county of Moray, Scotland, in 1754. He entered Parliament about 1790, and supported Pitt. He became solicitor-general in 1799, and was master of the rolls from 1801 to 181 7, Died in 1832. His forensic eloquence is highly praised. See Lord Brougham, " Statesmen of the Time of George IIL;" Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. viii. Granticci, gRi-noot'chee, (Niccol6,) an Italian writer, born at Lucca about 1534, published lives of Tamerlane and Scanderbeg, and a number of tales and novels. Grauvelle, de, gran'vgl, [Fr. pron, deh grSN'v^K,] (Antoine de Perrenot — deh pi'reh-no' or p^R^no',) Cardinal, an eminent French statesman, was born at Besan9on in 1517. He was early distinguished by the favour of Charles V. of Germany, who employed him in several important embassies, and, at the time of his ab- dication, recommended him to his son, Philip II. He was successively created Bishop of Arras, Archbishop of Mechlin, councillor of state and kee])er of the seals, (1550,) and a cardinal, {1561,) His business talent was extraordinary ; and he is said to have dictated to five Secretaries at once in different languages. When Mar- garet of Austria became the ruler of the Netherlands, Granvelle was made her chief counsellor. In this post the severity of his measures against the Protestants roused the people to such resistance that Philip was compelled to remove him in 1563. He was subsequently created Archbishop of Besan9on, and Viceroy of Naples about 1571. Died at Madrid in 1586. Nine volumes or more of his letters, state papers, etc. have been published since 1841. See Motley, "Rise of the Dutch Republic," vol. i. p. 248, and vol. iii. p. 492; Prescott, "History of Philip II.," vols. i. and ii. ; CouRCHETET, " Histoire du Cardinal de Granvelle," 1761 ; E. C. de Gerlache, "Philippe II et Granvelle," 1842. Granvelle, de, (Nicol.as Perrenot,) a distinguished French diplomatist, father of the preceding, was born at Ornans in i486. Having filled several high offices in France, he entered the service of Charles V. of Germany, who honoured him with his confidence, and made him a chancellor in 1530. He was also employed in various important negotiations. Died in 1550. Gran'ville, Greenville, or Gren'ville, (George,) Viscount Lansdowne, an English statesman and poet, born in 1667, He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1696 published his tragedy of " Heroic Love," It was followed by "The British Enchanters," (1706,) a drama, which was very successful. Soon after the ac- cession of Queen Anne, he was elected to Parliament for Fowey, and acted with the Tory party. On the change of the ministry in 1710, he succeeded Walpole as secre- tary of war. He was made a peer of Great Britain, with the title of Lord Lansdowne, in 1711, and in 1712 was appointed one of the privy council, and treasurer of the household. On the accession of George I. he was deprived of his place, and, being suspected of pro- moting the cause of the Pretender, was imprisoned for a time in the Tower. In 1722 he visited Paris, where he resided ten years, Granville was a generous patron of literary men, and was one of the first to encourage the rising genius of Pope, who dedicated to him his "Windsor Forest," Died in 1735, See " Biographia Dramatica ;" Johnson and Chalmers, " Lives of the English Poets;" Walpole, "Royal and Noble Authors." Granville, (Granville George Leveson Gower,) Earl, an English statesman, son of Earl Granville, no- ticed below, was born in 181 5. He was twice elected member of Parliament for Morpeth, and represented Lichfield from 1841 to 1846, when he succeeded his father in the House of I^ords. During the Universal Exhibition of 1851 at the Crystal Palace in London, Lord Granville was chairman of the executive committee. In December, 1851, he succeeded Lord Palmerston as minister of foreign afifairs in Lord Russell's cabinet, and in 1855 was appointed president of the council. He re- signed in 1858. He was again president of the council in the cabinet of Palmerston, and leader of the House of Lords, from 1859 to June, 1866, In December, 1868, he became secretary of state for the colonies in the new cabinet formed by Mr, Gladstone. He is distinguished as a skilful debater, and is called the leader of the House of Lords. Granville, (Granville Leveson Gov^er,) Earl, an English statesman, a son of the Marquis of Stafford, was born in 1773. He was appointed lord of the treasury under Pitt in 1800, and was afterwards employed on im- portant missions to Russia, the Netherlands, and France. He was created Baron Leveson and Earl Granville in 1833, having previously obtained the grand cross of the order of the Bath. Died in 1846. Granville, Lord. See Carteret, (John.) Granville, (Mary.) See Delany, (Mary.) Grapaldi,gRa-pai'dee, (Francesco Mario,) a learned Italian writer, born at Parma about 1465 ; died in 1515. Grapius, gRi'pe-iis, or Grappius, (Zacharias,) a German philologist, born at Rostock in 1671, wrote, be- sides other works, a "Literary History of the Talmud," (1696.) Died in 1713. Grappin, gRt'piN', (Pierre Philippe,) a French Benedictine and historical writer, born in Franche- Comte in 1738 ; died in 1833. See Charles Weiss, " Notice sur Dom Grappin." Graser, gRi'zer, (Johann Baptist,) a German divine and educational writer, born in Lower Franconia in 1766, He published " Divinity, or the Principle of True Edu- cation," (1810,) and other works. Died in 1841. Graslin, gRSOAw', (Jean Joseph Louis,) a French political economist, born at Tours in 1727 ; died in 1790. Grasse or Graesse, gR§s'seh, (Johann Georg Theo- DOR,) a German bibliographer and antiquary, born at Grimma in 1814. He wrote a "Manual of the General History of Literature," (1837,) a "Manual of Ancient Numismatics," and other works. Grasse, de, Comte. See Grasse-Tilly. Grasser, guSs'ser, (Johann Jakob,) a Swiss theolo- gian and historical writer, born at Bale in 1579, wrote a history of the Waldenses, ("Chronicon der Walden- ser.") Died in 1627, Grasse-Tilly, de, deh gRts'te'ye', (Francois Joseph Paul,) Comte, commonly known as Count de Grasse, a French naval ofiicer, born at Valette in 1723. He served in the American war, and in 1781 assisted Wash- ington, La Fayette, and Rochambeau in the capture of a, e, 1, 6, u, y, /on^; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, s^ort; a, e, j, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mgt; n6t; good; moon; GRJSSI 1073 GRAUNT Connvallis. He vvas afterwards sent to the West Indies, where he was defeated and taken prisoner by the Eng- lish admiral Rodney in April, 1782. Died in 1788. See Gekakd, "Vies des plus illustres Marins Fran^ais." Grassi, guSs'see, (Giuseppe,) one of the best Italian portrait-painters of his time, born in Friuli in 1756. He became professor in the Academy of Arts at Dresden in 1799. Died in 1838. Grassi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian writer, born at Turin in 1779. Among his works is an "Essay on the Syno- nyms of the Italian Language," (1821 ; 3d edition, 1824.) Died in 1831. Grassi, (Orazio,) an Italian astronomer and mathe- matician, born at Savona in 1582. He was chiefly noted for his controversy with Galileo about the nature of comets. Grassi affirmed that comets revolve around the sun in definite orbits. Died in 1654. Grassis, de, di grds's^ss, (Paris,) an Italian his- torical writer, born at Bologna. He became Bishop of Pesaro in 1 5 13. Died in 1 528. Graswinkel,gR^s'rce under Lord Cornwallis, he retreated in good order through North Carolina to the Dan River in February. On this occasion General Washington wrote to him, "Your retreat before Cornwallis is highly applauded by all ranks." Having been reinforced, he marched to Guilford Court-House, where he encountered the enemy on the 15th of March, 1781. Here was fought an inde- cisive battle, and the British remained masters of the field ; but their loss had been so severe that Cornwallis inmiediately retreated towards the sea. In April, 1781, General Greene adopted the bold resolution to march into South Carolina, and was defeated at Hobkirk's Hill, near Camden, The British, however, were unable to follow up this victory, and in May General Greene marched to the siege of Ninety-Six, a fortified post near the Saluda River. The siege was raised about the end of June by the approach of Lord Rawdon ; but the place was soon after evacuated by the British, who, retiring southeastward, were pursued to Orange- burg by General Greene. The next important event of the campaign was the severe battle of Eutaw Springs, (September, 178 1,) where Greene lost 555 killed and woimded, but remained master of the field. So great was his energy and skill that before the end of the year the enemy were driven from all parts of South Caro- lina, except the vicinity of Charleston. A medal was presented to him by Congress for his victory at Eutaw Springs. In 1782 his operations were greatly retarded by the want of ammunition, inoney, and other resources. He proposed to enlist several regiments of negro sol- diers ; but this proposal was rejected by the civil authori- ties of the State. After the end of the war he resolved to settle with his family in Georgia, and in 1785 he removed to an estate which had been presented to him by the State of Georgia, and which was situated near Savannah. He died of a sunstroke, June 19, 1786. He is generally considered to have been superior in military skill and in force of character to all the gene- rals of the Revolution, Washington only excepted. See a "Life of General Greene," by his grandson, George W. Greene, j, \o\s., i^b-j ct seg.; Sparks's "American Biography," vol. XX., (or X. of second series;) Bancroft, " History of the United States;" William Johnson, "Life and Correspondence of Na- tlianie! Greene," 2 vols., 1822; "National Portrait- Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i. Greene, (Nathaniel,) a journalist, a brother of Charles Gordon, noticed above, was born in Boscawen, New Hampshire, in 1797. He founded in 1821 the " Bos- ton Statesman," a Democratic paper. In 1829 he was appointed postmaster of Boston. He translated "Tales from the German," (2 vols., 1837,) and other works. Greene, (Robert,) one of the principal English dramatists who preceded Shakspeare, was born at Ips- wich about 1560. He began to write for the stage about 1584, and from that time gave himself up to a course of dissipation, varied by occasional fits of remorse. Among the works known to be his are the "History of Orlando Furioso," and the "Comical History of Al- phonsus, King of Aragon," also a prose treatise entitled " Greene's Groatsworlh of Wit bought with a Million of Repentance." His novel of " Pandosto" is said to have been the original of Shakspeare's " Winter's Tale." He died in great poverty in 1592. See Collier, "History of English Dramatic Poetry;" Drake, " Shakespeare and his Times ;" Disraeli, " Calamities of Authors." Greene, (Thomas,) an English divine, born at Nor- wich in 1658. On the accession of George I. he was appointed one of his chaplains, and in 172 1 became Bishop of Norwich. He was the author of " Principles of Religion Explained," and other works. Died in 1738. Green'field, (William,) an English Orientalist and profound scholar, published a " Comprehensive Bible," (1827,) " Novum Testamentum," (1829,) and other works. Died in 1832. Greenham, green'am, (Richard,) an English Puritan divine, born about 1630, was rector of Dry- Drayton for € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas z; th as in tkis. (21^^ See Explanations, p. 23.) GREENHILL 78 GREGORIUS many years. He left Sermons and other religious works. *' He excelled in experimental divinity," says Bishop Hall. Died in 1591. Green'hill, (John,) an English painter, born in 1649, was a pupil of Sir Peter Lely. He copied some works of Van Uyck. Died in 1676. Greenliill, (William,) an English divine and com- mentator, became rector of Stepney about 1656. He was ejected in 1662 for nonconformity. He wrote " Ex- positi(jns of Ezekiel," (5 vols., 1645-62.) Died about 1675. Green'how, (Rohert,) M.D., an American writer, born in Richmond, Virginia, in 1800, graduated at the College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York in 1821. Pie published a " History of Oregon and Cali- fornia," (1846.) Died at San Francisco in 1854. Green'leaf, (Simon,) an American jurist, born in Nevvburyport, Massachusetts, in 1783, became Royall professor of law at Harvard in 1833, and Dane professor in 1846. His chief work is a "Treatise on the Law of Evidence," (3 vols., 1842-53.) Died in 1853. Greeiiough, green'o, (George Bellas,) an English geologist, born about 1777; died in 1854. Greenough, green'6, (Horatio,) an eminent Ameri- can sculptor, born in ]]oston in 1805. He was educated at Harvard, where he enjoyed the friendship of Allston, Before graduating, he went to Rome, to prosecute his artistic studies ; and, with the exception of a brief visit to liis native city in 1826, he resided in Italy, chiefly at Flor- ence, until 1851, when he returned to the United States. Died near Boston in December, 1852. Of his numerous works we may mention his " Chaunting Cherubs," the first group in marble ever executed by an American sculptor, (ordered by his devoted friend and patron, J. Fenimore Cooper,) "The Angel and Child," "Venus contending for the Golden Apple," (greatly admired in Florence,) a colossal statue of Washington in front of the national Capitol, for which Congress paid twenty thousand dollars, and a group entitled "The Rescue," (185 1,) representing a scene in the early settlement of the American colonies, executed by order of Congress. A volume of Greenough's Essays, with a Memoir of his Life by H. T. Tuckerman, was published in 1853. See, also, Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." Greenville. See Granville. Greensville, (Sir Bevil,) an English officer, born in 1596, was a grandson of Sir Richard, noticed below. He represented the county of Cornwall in the Long Parlia- ment in 1640, and supported the royalist party. He had a prominent share in the victory gained by the royal army at Stratton in 1643 5 was mortally wounded at the battle of Lansdowne the same year. Lord Clar- endon says of Sir Bevil, "A brighter courage and gentler disposition were never married together." See Clarendon, " History of the Rebellion." Greenville, (Denis,) a son of the preceding, was born about 1630. He was created Dean of Durham in 1684; but he was deprived of his office in 1690 for refusing to take the oath of allegiance to William HI. He died in Paris in 1703. See Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses." Greenville, (Richard.) See Temple, Earl. Greenville, (Sir Richard,) a brave English officer, born in the West of England about 1540, was a relative of Sir Walter Raleigh. He was elected to Parliament f )r Cornwall in 157 1. As vice-admiral of a squadron, he sailed in 1591 to intercept some Spanish merchant- vess''ls. These being strongly escorted, an obstinate struggle took place, which resulted in the defeat of the English. Sir Richard, though severely wounded, refused to surrender until his men accepted the offers of quarter. He was taken on board a Spanish ship, but, though kindly treated, soon after died of his wounds, (1588.) See Haki.uyt, "Voya$;es," vol. iii. : " Biogiaphia Britaiinica :" Campbell, " Lives of British Admira.s." Green'wood, (Francis William Pitt,) an Ameri- can Unitarian minister, born in Boston in 1797, gradu- ated at Harvard in 1814. He became pastor of King's Chapel, in Boston, in 1824. He contributed to the "North American Review," and published sermons, essays, etc. Died in 1843. a, e, \y 6, u» y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ia» Greenwood, (Gr.\ce.) See Lippincott, (Sarah J.) Greg'an, (John Edgar,) a noted Scottish architect, born in 1813. His principal works are in Manchester and its vicinity, and include the bank of Sir Benjamin Heywood, a number of churches, warehouses, and pri- vate dwellings. Gregan was a Fellow of the Institute of British Architects. Died in 1855. Gregg, (David M.,) an American general of cavalry, born in Pennsylvania, graduated at West Point in 1855. He commanded a division of cavalry under General Sheridan in a raid around Lee's army in May, 1864, and at the battles of Meadow Bridge and Trevilian Station, in June of that year. He directed the cavalry of the army of the Potomac from August, 1864, to P'ebruary, 1865. Gregg, (John,) an American general, born about 1828. He became a brigadier-general of the Confederate army, and was killed at Petersburg, Virginia, in October, 1864. Gregg, (Max'cy,) an American general, born in South Carolina about 1814, was a lawyer before the civil war. He was killed at Fredericksburg, fighting against the Union, in December, 1862. Gregoire, the French of Gregory, which see. Gregoire, gRi'gw^R', (Henri,) a French ecclesiastic and eminent writer, born near Luneville in 1750. He was elected by the clergy to the States-General in 1789. In 1792 he was chosen Bishop of l^lois under the civil constitution, and a member of the Convention, in which he took a jjrominent part in the abolition of royalty and negro slavery, (1794.) The Jacobins accused him of a design to "Christianize the Revolution." He was chosen one of the legislative body about the end of 1799, and a senator in 1801. He was one of the founders ancl mem- bers of the Institute, and corresponded with niany savants among foreign nations. His election as deputy in 1819 caused great excitement, and was nullified by the royal- ist majority. Among his principal works is a " History of Religious Sects," (1810.) Died in 1831. See Carnot, "Notice hlstoriqiie," prefixed to the "Memoires ecciesiastiqiies, politiqiies," etc. ot Gregoire, 2 vols., 1837; J. La- vaud, "Notice sur H. Gregoire," 1819; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" G. Krueger, " H. Gregoire, Bischof von Blois," 1838; " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1822. Gregoire, (Pierre,) [Lat. Grego'rius Tolosa'nus,] a French jurist, born at Toulouse about 1540, became professor of civil law at Pont-a-Mousson. He published several legal works in Latin. Died about 1597. See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." Gregoire de Nazianze. See GRt:GORY Nazianzen. Gregoire de Nysse. See Gregory of Nyssa. Gregoire le Grand. See Gregory (Pope) I. Gregor, the German for Gregory, which see. Greg'o-ras Ni-ceph'o-rns, [Gr. NiKijcpopog 6 Vprjyo- paf,] a Byzantine historian and mathematician, born about 1295, was the author of a " History of Constantinople from 1204 to 1359." The principal part of it was pub- lished, with a Latin translation, in 1562. He wrote many other works. He proposed a method for reforming the calendar, which was ado])ted about three hundred years later by Gregory XHI. Died about 1360. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca;" Boivin, "Vita Nicephori Gregorae," in an edition of his History, Paris, 2 vols., 1702. Gregorio, gN^-go're-o, sometimes written Gregori, (Carlo,) an Italian engraver, born at Florence in 1719; died in 1759. His son Ferdinando (i 740-1800) was a skilful en- graver, and worked at Florence. Gregorio, (Maurisio,) a Sicilian theologian and writer, born at Camerata in 1575 ; died in 1651. Gregorio, (Rosario,) an Italian antiquary and his- torian, born in 1753, became canon of a church at Pa- lermo, and professor of law. Among his works are an " Introduction to the Study of the Public Law of Sicily," (1794,) and " Discourses on the History of Sicily." Died in 1809. Gregorio il Grande. See Gregory (Pope) I. Gregorius, the Latin of Gregory, which see. Gre-go'ri-us, (PuBLius,) an Italian scholar, surnamed Tiphkr'nus, born in Umbria, translated into Latin the last seven books of Strabo. Died in 1469. Gregorius Aiiminensis. See Gregory of Rimini. Gregorius Florentius. See Gregory of Tours. %5hort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; GREGORIUS 1079 GREGORT Gregorius Magnus. See Gregory (Pope) I. GregoriusNazianzenus. See Gregory Nazianzen. Gregorius Nyssenus. See Gregory of Nyssa. Gre-go'ri-us Par'dus, called also Gregory of Cor- inth, an Archbishop of Corinth in the twelfth century, was the author of a work on Dialects. See " Biographic Universelle." Gregorius Tolosanus. See Gr^gotre, (Pierre.) Gregorj or Gregorii, gRi-go're-ee, (Giovanni Gas- Paro,) an Italian writer, born in 1769, became president of the imperial court in Rome in 1811. Died in 1846. Greg'o-ry I., Pope, surnamed the Great, [Lat. Gre- go'rius Mag'nus; Fr. Gr^goire le Grand, gRi'gwiR' leh gR6N; It. Gregorio il Grande, gRi-go're-o ^1 giii/di,] was born about 550, of an illustrious Roman family. He became prefect of Rome in 573. On the death of Pelagius, in 590, he was elected pope, and in this station showed great zeal in reforming the Church and propa- gating Christianity. Previous to his becoming pope, he had induced Pelagius II. to send missionaries to Eng- land. His character was distinguished by many eminent virtues, much alloyed, however, by superstitious weak- ness. Among other inconsistencies, he is charged with having flattered infamous rulers to secure their protec- tion to the Church. His principal works are a treatise "On the Sacerdotal Office," ("De Cura sacerdotali,") •'Books of Morals," ("Moralium Libri,") and " Letters and Dialogues." Died in 604. See Maimbourg, " Histoire du Pontificat de Gregoire le Grand," 1686; Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Georg Pfah- LER, "Gregor der Grosse und seine Zeit," 2 vols., 1853; Fleukv, " Histoire ecclesiastique ;" G. Gkadenigo, " S. Gregorius Magnus, etc. vindicatus," 1753; Denis de Sainte-Marthe, "Histoire de S. Gregoire le Grand," 1697. Gregory II., Pope, was born in Rome, and succeeded Constantine in 715 A.D. When in 726 the emperor Leo forbade the worship of images, Gregory attempted to dissuade him from it. He convoked a council against the Iconoclasts, and one to forbid marriage to monks. It was during his rule that Boniface preached Chris- tianity in Germany. Died in 731. See Ughei.li, " Italia Sacra." Gregory III., a native of Syria, was the successor of Gregory II. In 732 he passed a decree establishing the worship of images. In 740 he was involved in a dispute with Luitprand, King of the Loml)ards. Died in 741. See Ali.etz, " Histoire des Papes," 1776. Gregory IV., born at Rome, became pope on the death of Valentinus, in 827. Being called upon to adjust the quarrel between Louis le Debonnaire and his sons, he offended both parties and also the French bishops. He built a new town near Ostia as a defence against the Saracens, which he named Gregoriopolis. Died in 844. See Aktaud de Montor, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes." Gregory V. was a native of Germany and a relative of Otho HI. Through tiie influence of that emperor he became pope in 997. Soon after this, Crescentius, a man of wealth, assumed the title of consul, and drove the new pope from the city. He raised John, Bishop of Piacenza, to the tiara ; but the next year Otho and Gregory returned with an army, imprisoned John, and executed Crescentius. Died in 999. See Pi.ATiNA, "Vitas Summoruni Pontificum." Gregory VI, was a native of Rome, and succeeded Benedict IX. in 1044. In 1046 the emperor Henry III., in a council at Sutri, deposed the three popes Benedict, Sylvester IH., and Gregory, and elected Clement II., uj^on which Gregory retired to a monastery, where he died in 1047. Gregory VII. (or HiPde-brand) was born near Soana, in Tuscany, about 1015. On the death of Alex- ander II., in 1073, he was elected his successor. He now- set about reforming the Church, especially with regard to simony, w hich was very prevalent. He resolved to take away from secular princes the right of disposing of sees within their dominions. With this view, he sent legates to Henry IV. of Germany, one of the most guilty in this respect. His admonitions having no effect, he next assembled a council at Rome in 1074, in which persons guilty of,simony were anathematized, and it was decreed that no one should be admitted to holy orders unless he had taken a vow of celibacy. He summoned another council in 1075, in which kings were forbidden, under pain of excommunication, to give the investiture of sees and abbeys. Henry IV., without regarding Greg- ory's decrees, and indignant at his assumptions, assem- bled a diet at Worms and deposed him ; whereupon Gregory solemnly excommunicated the emperor in a council at the Lateran palace, and declared his subjects released from their allegiance. This act of Gregory was the boldest assumption of power hitherto exercised by any pontiff. After Henry had endured a most hu- miliating penance, a reconciliation was effected between them, which, however, was not lasting. Gregory at length retired to Salerno, where he died in 1085. He appears to have been sincere in his efforts to reform the Church, but to have allowed his ambition to get the mastery of him, and aimed to make all powers subordinate to the papal see. See Spittler, "Geschichte der Hierarchic von Gregor VII. Grieslev, "Life and Pontificate of Gregory VII.," 1829; Ranke, " History of the Popes ;" Pi.atina, " Vitae Summoruni Pontificum ;" J. VoiGT, " Hildebrand als Papst Gregor VII.," 2 vols., 1813 ; French version of the same, Pai'is, 1837; John W. Bowden, "Life and Pontificate of Gregory VII.," 2 vols., 1840; G. Ca.ssander, "Das Zeitalter Hildebrands fiir und gegen ihn," 1842; " Fraser's Maga- zine" for November, 1866. Gregory VIII., (Alberto di Mora,) born at Bene- vento, succeeded Urban HI. in 11 87. He survived but two months, and was followed by Clement HI. He must be distinguished from the anti-pope of the name of Bourdin, who also assumed the name of Gregory VIII. Gregory IX. (Cardinal Ugolino) was Bishop of Ostia, and a native of Anagni. He succeeded Honorius III. in 1227. Soon after his election, he insisted on Frederick II. of Germany engaging in a crusade, and, on his delay, immediately excommunicated him. The whole of this pontiff^s rule was signalized by a struggle for su- premacy between Frederick and the Ghibelines on the one side, and the Guelphs, with the pope, on the other. Died in 1241. See G. Vossius, " Gregorii Papae Noni Gesta," 1686. Gregory X., (Tebaldo Visconti,) born at Piacenza, succeeded Clement IV. in 1271. In 1274 he convoked a general council at Lyons, and effected a transient reconciliation between the Greek and Latin Churches. Among other reforms, the mode of electing popes by conclave was adopted. Died in 1276. See P. M. Campi, "Vita Gregorii X.," Rome, 1665; Bonucci, "Isioria del Pontefice B. Gregorio X.," 171 1. Gregory XL, (Pierre Roger de Moiitroux — deh miw'tRoo',) a native of France, and son of the Count of Beaufort, was born about 1330. He succeeded Urban V. in 1370. In 1377 he transferred the papal see from Avignon, where it had been for nearly seventy years, back to Rome. Gregory was the first pope who con- demned the doctrines of Wicliff. He was a man of great learning, and highly esteemed for his unblemished character. Died in 1378. See Alletz, " Histoire des Papes," 1776. Gregory XII., (Angelo Cornaro,) a native of Ve- nice, born about 1325, was chosen successor to Innocent VII. in 1406. Owing to the schism which had divided the Western Church since 1379, he had a rival in the anti-pope Benedict XIII. In a council at Pisa in 1409, the sovereigns of Europe deposed both Gregory and Benedict, and elected Peter Philargi, a Greek. The other two, however, persisted in their claims, and the Western Church had three popes instead of one. The great Council of Constance again deposed them in 1415, and Gregory was appointed legate to the Marches of Ancona. Died in 1417. See Ai.i.ETZ, " Histoire des Papes," 1776. Gregory XIII., (Ugo Euonccmpagni,) a native of Bologna, born in 1502, succeeded Pius V. in 1572. He was distinguished for his knowledge of civil and canon law, and his zeal in the cause of education. He endowed several colleges at Rome, one of which was called the Gregorian College. He reformed the Jul.ian Calendar; and the " New Style," (as it is called,) which he intro- duced, has been generally adopted. Died in 1585. See Ranke, "History of the Popes;" G. P. Maffei, "Annali di Gresrorio XIII.," 2 vols., 1742; A. de Vidaillan, "Viede Gre- goire XI 1 1," 1840. € as>^; 9 as s; g hard; g asy'; G, H, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2i:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) GREGORT 1080 GREGORT Gregory XIV., (Niccoi.6 Sfondrato,) a native of Cremona, succeeded Urban VIl. in 1590. He did much to promote the French league against Henry IV. of France, whom he excommunicated. Died in 1591. Gregory XV., (Alessandko Ltidovisio,) a native of Bologna, born in 1554, succeeded Paul V. in 1621. He was of a mild and humane character, and exerted himself to put an end to the persecution of the Prot- estants in Valtellina. He founded the college l)e Propa- ganda Fide. He was the author of a "Letter to Shah Abbas, King of the Persians." Died in 1623. See Ranke, " History of the Popes ;" Alletz, " Histoire des Pa pes." Gregory XVI., (Maitro Capellari,) born at Kel- luno in 1765. He was made a cardinal by Deo XH. in 1825, and soon after became prefect of the college De Propaganda Fide. He conducted the negotiation with the kingdom of Prussia under Pius VHL, and was elected pope in 1831. Died in 1846. He was succeeded by Pius IX. See A. Manavit, "Notice historique sur Gregoire XVI," 1846 ; B. Wagnek, " Papst Gregor XVI., seiii Leben und sein Ponlificat," 1S46 ; Fakini, " Lo Stato Romano," translated int(^ English by tlie Hon. W. E. Gladstone; Wiseman, " Recollections of the Last Four Popes." Gregory of Agrigentum, a Greek theologian, born about 524. Pie visited Antioch, Constantinople, and Rome, and was appointed by the pope Bishop of Agri- gentum, in Sicily. Died about 565. Gregory of Antioch, a Greek ecclesiastic, who became Patriarch of Antioch about 570 a.d. Died about 594. Gregory of Corinth. See Grkgorius Pardus. Gregory of Nyssa, [Lat. Gkkgo'rius Nysse'nus; Fr. Gregoire de Nysse, gRa'^wSR' deh ness,] Bishop of Nyssa, an eminent Greek Father, was born at Caesa- rea, in Cappadocia, about 332 A.D., and was a brother of Basil the Great. He became bishop about 372, o])- posed Arianism, and was banished at the instigation of the Arians by Valens in 375 a.d. On the death of Valens (378 A.D.) he was restored to his see. He had a high reputation for learning and eloquence. He died about 398 A.D., and left many sermons, doctrinal treatises, ora- tions, letters, etc., which have often been printed. See DupiN, "Histoire des Antenrs ecclesiastiqnes ;" J. Rupp, " Gregor's des Bischofs von Nyssa Leben," etc., 1834: Vii-LEMain, "Tableau de I'fiioquence chretienne an qnatrieme Siecle ;" Fahj^i- Cius, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" S. P. Heyns, "Disputatio historico- theologica de Gregorio Nysseno," 1835. Gregory of Rimint, [Lat. Grego'rtus Artminen'- SIS,] an Italian ecclesiastic, born at Rimini, became general of the order of Augustines at Montpellier. He wrote several theological works. Died in 1358. Gregory, [Lat. Grego'rius,] Saint, first Patriarch of Armenia, born in 257 A.D., was of the royal Persian family of the Arsacidas, and was siirnamed the Illu- minator, from his having converted Armenia to Chris- tianity. See Gravina, "Vita e MiracoH di San Gregorio." Gregory of Saint Vincent. See Saint Vincent. Gregory the Thaumaturgist, [Lat. Grego'rius Thaumatur'gus ; Gr. Vp7]y6piog b Qavfiarovpyo^ ; Fr. Gregoire Thaumaturge, gRa'gvviR' to'mftiiRzl/,] one of the early Christian theologians, born in Cappadocia in the third century, was a disciple of Origen. 1 le owed his surname to his reputation for working miracles. He became Bishop of Neo-Caesarea in 240 a.d. He was the author of a " Eulogy on Origen," " Symbol of the Faith," and other works. Died about 270. See Pai.i.avicini, "Vita Gregorii Tliauinatiirgi," Rome, 1644; Fi-EUKV, "Histoire ecclesiastiqiie ;" " Noiivelle Biographic Gene- rale." Gregory of Tours, [Lat. Gf.or'gtus Floren'tius Grego'riu.S,] one of the earliest French historians, born at Auvergne in 544 a.d., was appointed Bishr)p of Tours. His principal work, entitled " Historia Francorum," is a history of France from the establishment of Christianity till 595 a.d. Being persecuted for denouncing the crimes of the French sovereigns Chilperic and Fredegonde, he retired to Rome, where he died in 595. See DuPiN, " Bibliotheque des Anteurs ecc'esiastiqnes ;" J. W Loepki.i,, "Gregor von Tonrs up.d seine Zeit," 1839; "Gallia Christiana," tome xiv. ; " Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale. " ' Greg'o-ry, (David,) a Scottish philosopher, bom about 1627, was the brother of James, who invented the reflecting telescope, and was the ancestor of several great mathematicians. I le was himself remarkable for his skill ill medicine, philosophy, etc. His three sons, David, James, and Charles, were at the same time mathematical professors in three universities. Gregory, (David,) son of the preceding, born at Aberdeen in 1661, was a skilful mathematician, and one of the most eminent members of this remarkable family. At the age of twenty-three he succeeded his uncle James as professor of mathematics in the University of Edinburgh. He has the credit of being one of the first who taught the Newtonian philosophy in his jiublic lec- tures. He published, from 1684 to 1703, several woiks on astronomy aiid gecnnetry. In 1691 he obtained the Savilian professorship of astronomy at Oxford. He afterwards wrote " I^^lements of Spherical Dioptrics and Catoptrics," and " Elements of Physical and Geometrical Astronomy," (1702,) the latter of which is his niost im- portant work. Professor Hutton says, " It was esteemed by Newton himself as a most excellent explanation and defence of his philosophy." Died in 1708. His brother James was chosen professor of mathematics in Edin- bingh in 179 1. Another brother, Charles, occupied the chair of mathematics at Saint Andrew's from 1707 to 1739, when he was succeeded by his son David. See HuTTON, " Mai'neniatical Dictionary;" Chambers, "Bio- graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Gregory, (Duncan Farquhar.son,) a British mathe- matician, born in 1814, was the son of James Gregory, M.D., (1753-1821,) and a descendant of the first James, noticed below. He was a Fellow and sub-lecturer of Trinity College, Cambridge, and principal contributor to the Cambridge "Mathematical Journal." In 1841 he published an excellent work on the "Differential and Integral Calculus." Died in 1844. Gregory, (Edmund,) an English writer, published a " Historical Anatomy of Christian Melancholy," (1646.) Died in 1650. Gregory, (George,) D.D., an English author, born in 1754, was curate of Saint Giles, London, from 1782 to 1804. He published a " History of the Christian Church," (2 vols., 1794,) a "Dictionary of Arts and Sciences," and other works on various subjects. Died in 1808. Gregory, (James,) a celebrated Scottish geometer, born at Aberdeen in 1638, was the most eminent indi- vidual in a family which during several successive genera- tions has been distinguished for profound attainments in the exact sciences. After leaving the university he de- voted his talents to optics, and, at the age of twenty-four, invented the reflecting telescope which bears his name, and which he described in a treatise entitled "Optica Promota." About 1665 he visited Italy, where he passed several years and published a work on the "Quadrature of the Circle and Hyperbola," (1667.) These works pro- cured for him the friendship of Newton, Huyghens, and other eminent philosophers. On his return to England, in 1668, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and professor of mathematics at Saint Andrew's. In 1674 he obtained the same chair in the University of Edinburgh, where he died suddenly in October, 1675, at the age of thirty-six. Charles Hutton exi)ressed the opinion that "his mathematical genius as an inventor was of the first order." The list of his inventions com- prises, besides the Gregorian telescoi)e, burning mir- rors, the solution of the Keplerian problem, a method for the transformation of curves, a converging series for making logarithms, etc. He wrote, besides the works above named, a "Part of Universal Geometry," and "Geometrical Essays." He left one son, James, born in 1674, who became professor of medicine at Aberdeen and was the father of John Gregory, M.D., noticed below. It is said that sixteen members of this family have held professorships in British colleges and schools. See MoNTiTi.A, "Histoire des Mathematiqnes :" " i^ioeraiihia Britannica :" Hutton, "Mathematical Dictionary;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Gregory, (James,) M.D., a Scottish ]Dhysician, born at Aberdeen in 1753, was the son of John Gregory, M.D., noticed below, lie attained eminence as a professor of medicine in Edinburgh, and published a "General View i, e, 1, 6, u, y, /ou^'-; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/iort: a, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; GREGORT 1081 ^GRENFILLE of Theoretical Medicine," {" Conspectus Medicine Theo- reticas,") and other professional works. Died in 1821. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Gregory, (John,) an English minister and liistorical writer, born in Buckinghamshire in 1607. His various works were published under the title of " Gregorii Post- huma," with a Life of the author by John Gurgany, (ist part, 1649.) Died in 1646. Gregory, (John,) M.D,, a grandson of James Gregory the eminent getjmeter, was born at Aberdeen in 1724, He became successively professor of philosophy and medicine at Aberdeen, and in 1766 was appointed pro- fessor of the practice of physic in Edinburgh. His prin- cipal works are " Elements of the Practice of Physic," "A Comparative View of the State and Faculties of Man with those of the Animal World," and "A Father's Legacy to his Daughters." Died in 1773. See Chambers, *' Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Gregory, (Olinthus Gilbert,) LL.D., a distin- guished mathematician and ])hilosopher, born in Hun- tingdonshire, P^ngland, in 1774. His "Treatise on the Use of the Sliding Rule" procured for him the notice of Dr. Hutton, to whom in 1800 he dedicated his " Treatise on Astronomy." Soon after this he became editor of the "Gentleman's Diary" and the " Pantalogia." He was appointed a mathematical master in the Royal Mili- tary Academy, Woolwich, in 1802, and, on the resigna- tion of Dr. Hutton, succeeded him as professor of mathe- matics in that institution. Among his other writings are "A Treatise on Mechanics," "Plane and Spherical Trigonometry," " Lessons Astronomical and Philoso- phical," a " Memoir of John Mason Good," a "Disser- tation on Weights and Measures," and " Evidences of Christianity," (1815.) Dr. Gregory was one of the twelve founders of the Royal Astronomical Society. As a man, he was greatly beloved and esteemed for his goodness of heart and eminent Christian virtues. Died in 1841. Gregory, (William,) a Scottish chemist and phy- sician of high reputation, born in Edinburgh about 1803, was the author of "Outlines of Chemistry," (1848,) ancl "Letters to a Candid Enquirer on Animal Magnetism," (1853.) He also translated Von Reichenbach's " Re- searches on Magnetism," and edited several of Liebig's works. He became professor of chemistry in the Uni- versity of Edinburgh about 1844. Died in 1858. Gregory the Great. See Gregory (Pope) L Greg'o-ry Naz-i-an'zen, | Lat. Grego'rius Nazian- Ze'nus; Gr. Tpijyofuog NaQavCr/vog ; Fr. Gr^ooire DE Nazianzk, gka'gvvaR' deh nt'ze'fiNz'; Ger. Gregor (or Grkgorius, gRk-go're-iis) von Nazl^nz, gR^-goR' fon nat-se-ints',] a celebrated Greek Father, surnamed the Theologian, was born near Nazianzus about 328 a.d. He studied successively at Caesarea, Alexandria, and Athens, where he formed an intimacy with Saint Basil. He was afterwards associated with his father in the bishopric of Nazianzus, where he was distinguished for bis pulpit eloquence and by the poetical graces and the mild conciliatory spirit of his composition.s. During the Arian persecution under Valens, he repaired to Constan- tinople, where he took charge of a private chapel ; but, having incurred the enmity of zealots and courtiers by his mildness and his simple style of living, he resigned his office. His farewell sermon on this occasion is an admirable specimen of pul])it eloquence, full of dignity and pathos. Having previously visited Caesarea and deli'-'ered the funeral oration of his friend Basil, he re- tired to his native place, where he devoted himself for the remainder of his life to his religious duties and the comp(jsition of his poems. A collection of these was published at Venice in 1504. He also wrote numerous orations and epistles, which have gone through several editions, "Gregorius," says Dupin, "deserves to be classed with the most perfect orators of Greece," excel- ling his contemi>oraries " in the nobleness of his expres- sions, the beauty of his reasonings, and the sublimity of his thoughts," Died in 389 A.D. See ViLi.EMAiN, "Tableau de I'filoquence chr^tienne au quatri- 6me Siecle ;" Ullmann, " Gregorius von Nazianz," 1825 ; Godefkov H-4RMANT, "Vie de S. Gregoire de Nazianze," 1675; Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca :" Socrates, " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Cave, ".Scriptorum Ecc'iesiasticorum Historia Literaria ;" "Westminster Review" for October, 1851. Greif. See Gryphius. Greiff, gRlf, (Friedrich,) a German chemist, born at Tubingen in 1601 ; died in 1668. Greig, gr^g, (Samuel Carlovitch,) a Scottish ad- miral, who entered the Russian service in 1764 and accompanied Count Orlof in his expedition against the Turks. He was made commandant of Cronstaclt in 1775, and admiral in 1782. Died in 1788. A monument was erected to him at Revel by the empress Catherine. See Count Segur, " Memoires ;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Grel-let', (Stephen,) a minister of the Society of Friends or Quakers, born in France in 1773, origi- nally a Roman Catholic. He entered the body-guard of Louis XVL about 1790, and emigrated to New York 1795- He was converted to the principles of the Friends about 1796, and became a preacher, in which capacity he travelled extensively. He resided in the latter part of his life at Burlington, New Jersey, where he died in 1855. See "Memoirs of the Life of Stephen Grellet," edited by B. See- BOHM, 2 vols., i860. Gren, gR^n, (Friedrich Albrecht Karl,) a Ger- man chemist and writer, born at Bernburg in 1760; died at Halle in 1798. Grenade, de, (Louis.) See Granada. Grenan, gReh-n6N', (B^nigne,) a Latin poet, born at Noyers, in Burgundy, about 1680, was professor of rhetoric at Paris. His style is said to be pure and ani- mated. He translated Boileau's tenth and eleventh Satires into Latin. Died in 1723. See MoR^Ri, " Dictionnaire Historique." Gren'fell, (Pas'coe,) M.P., an English opponent of the slave-trade, born in 1762. He was a coadjutor of WilberfordS, and spoke in the House of Commons against the slave-trade. Died in 1838. Greiiier, gReh-ne-i', (Jacques Raymond,) a French hydrographer and naval officer, born in 1736, sailed in 1767 to explore the seas bordering on the coast of Coro- mandel and the adjacent islands. He published, after his return, a number of valuable charts, and "The Art of Naval Warfare," etc., (1787.) Died in 1803. See "Archives de la Marine," etc. Grenier, (Jean,) Baron, a French jurist, born in Auvergne in 1753, published a "Treatise on Donations and Wills," (1807,) and other works. Died in 1841. Grenier, (Paul,) Count, a French general of divi- sion, born at Sarre-Louis in 1768; died in 1827. Gren'ville, (Hon. George,) a distinguished English statesman, born in 1 712, was a younger brother of Rich- ard, Earl Temple, and brother-in-law of William Pitt the elder. He became ministerial leader of the Commons in 1762, having been treasurer of the navy for some years previous. He had mostly acted with the Whigs. While advocating a tax on cider, he called on his 0])ponents td say where they would have a tax laid : " Let them tell me where ; I repeat it, sir, tell me where." Pitt, who waS then in the Opposition, raised a general laugh against him by murmuring the line of a well-known song, "Gentle shepherd, tell me where." In 1763 the prime minister. Lord Bute, resigned, and Grenville succeeded him as first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. " We are inclined to think," says Macaulay, " that the worst administration which has governed England since the Revolution was that of George Grenville, His public acts may be classed under two heads, — outrages on the liberty of the people, and outrages on the dignity of the crown." Among the for- mer was the famous Stamp Act of 1765. The king hated Grenville, and at last got rid of him in July, 1765, when the Marquis of Rockingham became premier. He died in 1770, leaving three sons, one of whom was Thomas, Lord Grenville. See Smith, "Grenville Papers;" Lord Mahon, "History of England;" Macaulay, article on the "Earl of Chatham," in the "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1844. Grenville, (George Nugent.) See Nugent. Grenville, (Richard.) See Temple, (?:arl.) Grenville, (Thomas,) born in 1755, was a son of George Grenville, noticed above. He was employed in € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Vi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) GRENFILLE* 1082 GREVILLE Important missions to the United States, France, and Prussia, and after the death of Fox became first lord of the admiralty. This post he resigned in 1807, because the new ministry was hostile to Catholic emancipation. He died in 1846, having bequeathed to the British Mu- seum his magnificent library, consisting of more than 20,000 v(;lumes. Grenville, (William Wyndham Grenville,)Lord, an able English statesman and orator, born in 1759, was the third son of George Grenville, noticed above. He was elected to Parliament in 1782, was appointed pay- master-general of the army in 1783, and was chosen Speaker of the Commons about 1789. In 1790 he was created Baron Grenville, and in 1791 became secretary for foreign affairs in the ministry of Pitt. He retired from office with Pitt in 1801. In the Whig ministry formed by himself and Fox about February, 1806, he was first lord of the treasury (premier) for about one year. During several years after 1808, Lords Grenville and Grey were the leaders of the opposition ; but the former did not support the Reform bills of Lord Grey. He wrote Latin poems, entitled " Nugae Metricae," (" Metrical Tri- fles," 1824.) For many years he was chancellor of the University of Oxford. His wife was Anne Pitt, daughter of Lord Camel ford. He died, without issue, in 1834. See J. Smith, "Grenville Papers," 1852: "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1820; Alison, " History of Europe." Grreppi, gRep'pee, (Giovanni,) an Italian dramatist, born at Bologna in 175 1. His works are numerous, and were popular at the time. Died in 1811. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri," vol. viii, Gresh'am, (Sir Thomas,) a wealthy English mer- chant, born in London in 1519. He was employed by Queen Elizabeth as her agent at Antwerp, and was also sent on several diplomatic missions. About 1566 he built at his own expense the Royal Exchange, London, the first edifice of the kind in England. He founded in London, in 1575, the college called by his name. Died in 1579. See "Life of Sir Thomas Gresham," London, 1845; Ward, "Lives of the Gresham Professors." Gresley, gR&'le', (Gabriel,) a French painter, born at L'Isle-sur-le-Doubs about 1710. He excelled espe- cially in domestic scenes. Died in 1756. Gres'ley, (William,) a popular English writer, born about 1800. Among his works (published 1835-51) are "Bernard Leslie," a novel, "Coniston Hall," "Forest of Arden," and "Help to Prayer." Greslon, gRi'16N', (Adrien,) a French Jesuit, born at Perigueux in 1618. He visited China in 1657, and published, after his return, a "History of China under the Rule of the Tartars," (1661.) Died in 1697. Gresset, gRi'si', (Jean liAPTisiE Louis,) a cele- brated French poet and dramatist, born at Amiens in J 709. He entered the order of Jesuits, and, at the age of twenty-four, produced a comic poem called " Vert- Vert," which had great success, and is one of the most witty and ingenious specimens of persiflage in the lan- guage. It has been translated into English by T. G. Cooper. About 1735 he ceased to be a Jesuit, and removed to Paris. His " Epistle to my Sister on my Convalescence" is greatly admired. He wrote a very successful comedy, called " Le Mechant," (1747,) and Several tragedies. In 1748 he was admitted into the French Academy. Died in 1777. "After the lapse of a century," says De Pongerville, "Gresset has lost nothing of his high renown. He is considered one of the ornaments of our poetical firmament." ("Nouvelle Biographic Generale.") See Baili.v, " ]£loge de Grefiset." 1785; Sainte-Beuve, in the "Revue des Deux Mondes," SeiJtember, 1X45 ; I,ongfeli,ow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" De Cavrol, " Essai historique sur la Vie de Gresset," 2 vols., 1845. Gressly, gRgss'lee, (Armand,) a Swiss geologist, born near Laufen about 1813. He gained distinction by his researches in the geology of the Jura Mountains. Died near Berne in 1865. Gres'well, (Edward,) a learned English theologian, born at Manchester in 1797. He became a P^ellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He published, be- sides other works, " Harmonia Evangelica," (1830,) and "An Exposition of the Parables and other Parts of the Gospels," (5 vols., 1834-35.) Gretch or Gretsch, gRetch, (Nikolai Ivanovitch,) a Russian litterateuj- and critic, born at Saint Petersburg in 1787. He was for a time editor of a political and patriotic journal, entitled "The Son of the Fatherland," and was afterwards associated with Boolgarin (Bulgarin) in editing "The Northern Bee." His principal work is a " History of Russian Literature," (1819-22.) He also published a valuable Russian Grammar, and a " Military Lexicon," in which he was assisted by his friend Baron von Seddeler. See KoNiG, " N. Gretch und die Russische Literatur," 1846. Gretry, gRi'tRe', (Andr^; Ernest Modeste,) a cele- brated opera-composer, born at Liege in 1741. He visited Rome in 1759, having previously given proof of his ge- nius by the composition of six symphonies and a mass. He became a pupil of the famous Martini. He after- wards repaired to Paris, where he brought out his comic opera of "Huron," (1769,) which met with brilliant success ; it was followed in rapid succession by " The Speaking Picture," ("Le Tableau parlant,") "Sylvain," "Zemoire et Azor," "The Rose-Tree of Salency," ("La Rosiere de Salency,") " Richard Cceur de Lion," and other comic operas, which raised his reputation to the highest point. Gretry was a member of the French In- stitute, and of the Academy of Music at Stockholm, and obtained various other distinctions. He died in 1813, and a monument, by Geefs, was erected to him at Liege. See Le Breton, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Gretry," 1S14; "Gretry en Famille," etc., by A. J. Gretry, his nephew, 1815 ; E. C. DE Gerlache, " Essai sur Gretry," 1844 ; Fetis, " Bio- graphie Universelle des Musiciens;" F. van Hulst, "Gretiy," 1842. Gretser, gR^t'ser, (Jakob,) a distinguished German Jesuit and philologist, born at Markdorf, in Suabia, in 1 561. He wrote numerous works, among which is a treatise "On the Holy Cross," ("De Sancta Cruce," 1600.) Died at Ingolstadt in 1625. See his Life prefixed to an edition of his Works, 17 vols. fol.. 1734 -41; Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, " Memoires." Greuze, gRUz, (Jean Baptiste, ) a distinguished French painter, born in Burgundy in 1726. He excelled in delineating domestic scenes of a touching and im- pressive character. Among his master-pieces may be named a "Father explaining the Bible to his Children," " Saint Mary in Egypt," (" Sainte-Marie ligyptienne,") "The Good Mother," a "Young Girl holding a Dove," and "The Paternal Blessing." Died in 1805. See Mekimee, "De la Peinture 4 I'Huile;" "Nouvelle Biogra- phie Generale." Greve or Greeve, gRa'veh or HRa'veh, (Egbert Jan,) a Dutch theologian and Orientalist, born at Dev- enter in 1754, wrote a treatise "On the Last Chapters of the Book of Job," (in Latin.) Died in 1811. Greve, van, vtn gRa'veh, (Jan,) a Dutch Arminian theologian, born about 1580. He wrote "Tribunal Re- formatum." Greve, van, (Pieter,) a Dutch jurist, born at Deven- ter in 1641 ; died in 1677. Grev'ille or GreVile, (Sir Fulke,) Lord Brooke, an English poet and miscellaneous writer, born in War- wickshire in 1554, was distinguished by the favour of Queen Elizabeth, who made him a knight. He was ap- pointed by King James I. under-treasurer and chancellor of the exchequer in 161 5, and obtained from that monarch the castle of Warwick, (then in a ruinous condition,) which he repaired at vast expense. He was created a peer, with the title of Baron Brooke, in 1620. He was mortally wounded, in a quarrel with an old servant, in 1628. Lord Brooke was the intimate friend of Sir Philip Sidney, of whom he i)ublished a biography. He also wrote a number of poems and tragedies. See Horace Walpole, "Royal and Noble Authors;" "Biogra- phia Britannica." Greville, (Robert,) born in 1608, was a cousin of the preceding, whose title he inherited. He fought in the Parliamentary army, and was killed at the battle of Lichfield in 1643. Among his principal works are a " Discourse opening the Nature of the Episcopacy exer- cised in England," (1641,) and "The Nature of Truth." See Lodge's "Portraits." e, T, 6, u, y, long; ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fSll, i%X\ mhX\ n6t; good; moon ; GREVILLE 1083 GREY Greville, (Robert Kaye,) a British botanist, born in the county of Durham about 1794. He published, besides other works, " Flora Edinensis : Plants of Edin- burgh," (1824,) and "The Scottish Cryptogamic Flora," (6 vols., 1822-28,) which was called by Loudon " a truly admirable work." Died in 1866. Grevin, gi\t\>- endary of Saint Paul's. He published, besides other works, "The Art of Memory," ("Memoria Technica," 1730.) Died in 1771. Grey, (Zachary,) an English divine, born in York- shire in 1687, became vicar of vSaint Peter's, Cambridge. He edited Butler's " 1 ludibras," ( 1 744,) and published several theological and controversial works. Died in 1766. e as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; c, H, y., guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jl^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) GRET 1084 GRIFFITH Grey, de. See Dk Grey and Ripon. Gribaldi, gRe-bJlMee, (Matteo,) a learned Italian jurist and legal writer, born in Piedmont, was succes- sively professor of law at Pisa, Toulouse, and Padua. About 1550 he became a Protestant. Died in 1564. See Bayi.k, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Tiraboschi, '* Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Gribeauval, gRe'bo'vtl', (Jean Baptiste Vaquette — va'k^t',) a distinguished French general and military engineer, was born at Amiens in 1715. He entered the Austrian army in 1757, and rendered very important services to Maria Theresa during the Seven Years' war. Among these the defence of Schweidnitz, in 1762, against Frederick the Great, deserves especial mention. He was made lieutenant-general in 1765. Died in 1789. See Gaucher de Passac, "Precis sur M. de Gribeauval." 1816. Griboyedof, Griboyedov, or Gribojedow, gre- bo-yaMof, (Alexander Sergievitch,) a celebrated Rus- sian poet and dramatist, born at Moscow about 1795. Having served for a time in the army, he was sent as minister plenipotentiary to Persia in 1828. In February, 1829, the populace of Teheran, incensed against the Rus- sian embassy, attacked their house and assassinated the minister, together with the Russians who were his com- panions. His principal work, entitled " The Misfortunes of Genius," (" Gore ot Uma,") is the most popular comedy in the language, and is so universally admired that many of its sentences have become proverbs. See E. Mestcherski, " Les Poetes Russes." Grid'ley, (Jeremiah,) an eminent American lawyer, born about 1705, became attorney-general of Massachu- setts. He defended in 1761 the writs of assistance, which were obnoxious to the popular party. Died in 1767. Gridley, (Philo,) an American jurist, born in Paris, Oneida county, New York, in 1796, was elected a judge of the supreme court of New York in 1846. Died in 1864. Gridley, (Richard,) General, a brother of Jere- miah, noticed above, was born in Boston in 171 1. He served as engineer in the war against the French, and became chief engineer of the American army in 1775. He was wounded at Bunker Hill in June of that year. Died in 1796. Griebner, gReep'ner, or Gribner, gRip'ner,(MiCHAEL Heinrich,) a German jurist, born at Leipsic in 1682, was professor of law at Wittenberg. Died in 1734. Griepenhielm. See FuiRKLius. Griepenkerl, gRee'pen-keRK, (Robert,) a Swiss lit- ta-ateiir, born at Hofwyl in i8ro, wrote, besides other works, two tragedies, " The Girondists," and " Maxi- milian Robespierre." Grier, greer, (Robert Coop'er,) a distinguished American jurist, born in Cumberland county, Pennsyl- vania, in 1794. He graduated at Dickinson College, in which institution he is said to have acted as principal before he had reached the age of twenty-one. He after- wards studied law, and rose to be a justice of the supreme court of the United States, (1846.) He resigned in February, 1870, and died in September of the same year. See Livingston's " Portraits of Eminent Americans." Grier'son, (Constantia,) an Irish lady, eminent for her talents and learning, born in the county of Kilkenny in 1 706. She was an accomplished classical scholar, and was also well versed in philosophy and the exact sciences. She published valuable editions of Tacitus and Terence, and was the author of a number of poems. Died in 1733. See Gibber's "Lives of the Poets." Gries, gReess, (Johann Dietrich,) a German poet and litterateur, born at Hamburg in 1775. His "Phaeton," a poem, published about 1798, led to his acquaintance with Schiller, who inserted it in the " Musenalmanach." He translated Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered," and the "Orlando Furioso" of Ariosto, from the Italian, and Calderon's dramas from the Spanish. Died in 1842. Griesbach, gReess'b^K, (Johann Jakob,) a German theologian and celebrated biblical critic, born at Butz- bach, Hesse-Dar nstadt, in 1745. Having studied at Tiibingen, Halle, and Leipsic, he devoted himself chiefly to the revision of the Greek text of the New Testament. He became professor of theology at Halle in 1773. In 1775 he published his excellent edition of the Greek New Testament. The text established by him has been generally adopted. He was chosen j^rofessor of divinity in Jena in 1776. He published, in Latin, many critical works, among which is "Symbolas Criticae," etc., (1785- 93 ;) and in German, an " Introduction to the Study of the Popular Christian Dogmas," Fopuldre Dogmatik,^ ) (1779,) which is his most celebrated work. Died in 1812. See J. C. W. AUGUSTi, " Ueber J. J. Griesbach's Verdienste," i8i2 ; ¥. A. KoTHE, " Gedachtnissrede auf J. J. Griesbach nebsteiner Skizze seines Lebens," 1812; " Nouveile Biographic Generaie." Griesheim, von, fon gReess'him, (Karl Gustav Julius,) a Prussian general, born at Berlin in 1798. He published several military works. Grif'fen-feld or Griffenfeldt, (Peter Schuhma- cher,) Count of, a Danish statesman, born at Co- penhagen in 1635, rose, through various offices, to be president of the sui)reme tribunal and chancellor ol the University of Copenhagen. His haughtiness and abuse of power having made him many enemies, he was charged in 1676 with treasonable negotiations with foreign courts, and was imprisoned twenty-seven years. Died in 1699. See C. P. RoTHE, " Griffenfelds Liv og Levnet," 1745; GiES- siNG, "Griffenfeld; en historisk Fremstilling," 1846. GrifFet, gReTi', (Henri,) a learned French Jesuit, born at Moulins in 1698, wrote numerous theological and historical works. Died in 1771. Griffet de la Beaume, gRe'fi' deh It boin, (Antotne Gilbert,) a nephew of the preceding, born at Moulins in 1756, wrote, among other works, a comedy entitled "Galatea." Died in 1805. Griffier, griffeer, (John,) the Elder, an eminent Dutch painter, born at Rotterdam in 1656. He resided for a time in London, where he died in 1718. Among his master-pieces are several views on the Rhine, and a "View of the Seven Castles," in Germany. His land- scapes rival in beauty those of Teniers and Ruysdael. Griffier, (Robert,) the Younger, son of the pre- ceding, was born in England in 1688. He was distin- guished, like his father, for his exquisite landscapes and river-views. Died about 1750. See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Griffin or Griffon. See Gryphon. Griffin, (Charles,) an American general, born in Ohio about 1826, graduated at West Point in 1847. He became a captain in the regular army early in 1861, and a brigadier-general of volunteers about April, 1862. He commanded a division at the battles of Gaines' Mill and Malvern Hill, July i, 1862, and served under General Grant in his operations against Richmond in the summer of 1864. He commanded a corps at Five Forks, April i, 1865. Died at Galveston in September, 1867. Griffin, (Rev. Edmund Dorr,) an American Episco- palian divine, born at Wyoming, Pennsylvania, in i8o4« He died in 1830, leaving " Literary Remains," which were published in 2 vols., with a Memoir by the Rev. John McVickar, (1831.) See "North American Review" for January, 1832. Griffin, (Edward Dorr,) D.D., an American Pres- byterian divine and eminent i>ulpit orator, born in East Haddam, Connecticut, in 1770, graduated at Yale in 1 790. He was for some time professor of sacred rhetoric in the Theological Seminary at Andover, and in 1811 became pastor of the Park Street Church, Boston. It was here that he delivered his well-known " Park Street Lectures" on the doctrines of Calvinism. In 1815 he accepted the presidency of Williams College. Died in 1837. See Sprague, "Life of E. D. Griffin," 1839. Griffin, (Gerald,) an Irish novelist, born at Lim- erick in 1803. He was the author of " Holland Tide, or Munster Popular Tales," (1827,) "The Collegians," and other works. Died in 1840. Griffith, (Eliza heih,) a writer of fiction, born in Wales in 1750, published conjointly with her husband, Richard Griffith, a popular work, entitled " Letters of Henry and Francis," (1756.) Mrs. Griffith also wrote a number of novels and comedies, and "The Morality of Shakespeare's Dramas Illustrated." Died in 1793. Griffith, (Sir Richard John,) a geologist, born in Dublin in 1784. He was a civil engineer in early life, 5, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; ^, e, j, 9, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; GRIFFITH 1085 GRIMBALD and became professor of geology in Dublin. About 1850 he was appointed chairman of the board of public works of Ireland. He published a Geological Map of Ireland. Griffith, (William,) M.D., an English naturalist, borr in 1810. He went to India as a surgeon about 1832, and spent much time in exploring the botany of that region. He wrote several treatises for scientific jou.nals, and made large collections of plants and ani- mals. Died in Malacca in 1845. Griffiths, (Ralph,) an English journalist, born in Shropshire about 1720, founded in 1749 the "Monthly Review" in London. Died in 1803. Griffon. See Gryphon. Grignan, de, deh gk^n'ySN', (FRANgoiSE Margue- rite de Sevigne — deh s^'v^n'yy,) Comtesse, a French lady, distinguished for talents and beauty, born in 1648. She was a daughter of the celebrated Madame de Sevigne, who addressed to her the " Letters" so widely known and so generally admired. Madame de Grignan was the author of a *' Summary of the System of Fenelon on the Love of God." Died in 1705. See Saint-Simon, "Memcires;" "Nouvelle Biographic Gene- rale." Grigoletti, gRe-go-let'tee, (Michelangelo,) an Ital- ian painter, born at Pordenone in 1801, became professor in the Academy of Venice in 1839. Among his works is a celebrated picture of "The Last Interview between the Foscari," (1838.) Grijalva, de, di gRe-HlKvS, (Juan,) a Spanish navi- gator, and the discoverer of Mexico, born at Cuellar. He sailed on a voyage of discovery in 1 5 18, and arrived first at the island of Cozumel, (called by him Santa Cruz,) in the liay of Yucatan. He gave to Mexico the name of New Spain. See Prescott, "History of the Conquest of Mexico;" A. de SoLis, "Historia de la Conquisla de Mexico." Grill, gRil, (Claudius,) a learned Swede, born at Stockholm in 1705, was one of the first members of the Academy of Sciences in his native city. Died in 1767. Grillet, gRe'yi', (Jean,) a French Jesuit, born about 1630, was one of the first missionaries to Guiana. He published, after his return, an account of Guiana, which is still esteemed. Died about 1675. Grillet, gRe'yi', (Jean Louis,) a historical writer, born in Savoy in 1756. He was one of the founders of the College of Carouge, near Geneva, which admitted Catholics, Protestants, and Jews without distinction. Died in 181 2. Grille, gR^Klo, (Don Angelo,) a learned Genoese nobleman, born about 1550, was a friend of the poet Tasso, and was patronized by the popes Urban VIII. and Alexander VII. Died in 1629. Grillparzer, gRil'piRt-ser, (Franz,) a German dram- atist, born in 1 790 at Vienna, where he appears to have since resided. Among his best productions are "The Waves of the Sea and of Love," a tragedy founded on the story of Hero and Leander, and another, called "Sappho," which was translated into Italian. See "Fraser's Magazine" for August, 1S52. Grimaldi, gRe-mSKdee, (Antonio,) a Genoese ad- miral, of a noble family, captured several vessels from the Catalonians in 1332, but was defeated in 1353 by the Spanish and Venetian fleet under Niccolo Pisani. Grimaldi, (Carlo,) surnamed the Great, Prince of Monaco, was commander of the Genoese fleet against the F'lemings in 1338. He was mortally wounded at the battle of Crecy, in 1346. Grimaldi, (Constantino,) a Neapolitan jurist and philosopher, born' in 1667. He is chiefly known from his controversy with Benedictis on the doctrine of Aris- totle, and published an able defence of the Cartesian philosoi>hy. Died in 1750. Grimaldi, (Domenico,) a Genoese prelate, who, being appointed by the pope commissary-general of the galleys of the Church, took an active part in the battle of Le- panto in 1 57 1. He afterwards became Archbishop and Vice-Legate of Avignon. Died in 1592. Grimaldi, (Domenico,) Marquis, an Italian writer on rural and political economy, born at Seminara in 1735 ; died in 1805. Grimaldi, (Francesco,) an Italian architect, born in the kingdom of Naples about 1550. Among his best works are the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, and the chapel of San Januario, at Naples. Grimaldi, (Francesco,) a Neapolitan Jesuit and Latin poet, born about 1 678; died in 1738. Grimaldi, (Francesco Antonio,) an Italian jurist and historian, born in Calabria in 1740, wrote "Annals of the Kingdom of Naples." Died in 1784. Grimaldi, (Francesco Maria,) an Italian Jesuit and natural philosopher, born at Bologna in 1618 or 1619. He wrote a valuable work entitled " Physico-Mathesis de Lumine, Coloribus," etc., (1665,) being an account of his experiments and discoveries relating to the interference of rays of light. He is said to have been the discoverer of the diffraction of light. Died in 1663. See Fabroni, "Vits Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" MoN- TUCLA, "Histoire des Mathematiques." Grimaldi, (Giovanni,) Prince of Monaco, a Genoese admiral, who signally defeated the Venetians in 143 1. Died in 1454. Grimaldi, (Giovanni Francesco,) a celebrated Ital- ian painter of landscapes and architectural pieces, sur- named IL Bolognese, born at Bologna in 1606, was a pupil of the Caracci. He was employed by Louis XIV. and Cardinal Mazarin to paint in the Louvre, and was patronized by Pope Innocent X. Died in 1680. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Grimaldi, gre-miKdee, (Joseph,) a celebrated comic actor, born in England in 1779. He performed the part of a clown with success in London. Died in 1837. See "Memoirs of Joseph Grimaldi," edited by Boz. Grimaldi, (Onorio,) Prince of Monaco, born in 1597, was created l)uke of Valentinois by Louis XIII. of France, and obtained many other distinctions. He wrote "Genealogica et historica Grimaldiee Gentis Arbor," being a history of the Grimaldi family. Died in 1662. Grimaldi, (Ranieri,) Prince of Monaco, a leader of the Guelph faction, entered the service of Philippe le Bel in 1302, and rose to be admiral of France. He gained a victory over the Flemish fleet in 1304, and took prisoner Guy de Namur, son of the Count of Flanders. Grimaldo, de, di gRe-mlKno, (Don Jos6 Gutie- rez de Solorzano — goo-te-a'r^th dk so-loR-th^'no,) Marquis, a Spanish minister of state, born in Biscay in 1664. He was secretary of the marine and of war, and afterwards chief minister, of Philip V. Died in 1733. Grimani, gRe-mS'nee, (Antonio,) a Venetian noble- man, born in 1436. He was appointed in 1499 jjrocu- rator of Saint Mark, and captain-general of the fleet sent against the Sultan Bayazeed, (Bajazet.) He was elected Doge of Venice in 1521. He died in 1523. See Daru, " Histoire de Venise." Grimani, gRe-ml'nee, (Hubert,) a Dutch painter, sometimes called Jacobs, was born at Delft in 1599. He studied in Venice, and was a good colorist. Died in 1629. Grimani, (Marino,) became Doge of Venice in 1595. Under his rule an expedition was fitted out against the pirates of the Adriatic Sea. Died in 1605. Grimani, (Pietro,) succeeded Ludovico Pisani as Doge of Venice in 1741. He died in 1752, and was suc- ceeded by Francesco Loredano. Grimarest, de, deh gRe^mfri', (Jean L^onor le Gallois — l^h gS^lwi',) Sieur, a French litteratettr, born in Paris, was noted for witticisms and anecdotes. He wrote, besides other works, a " Life of Moliere," (1705.) Died in 1720. Grimaud, de, deh gRe'mo', (Jean Charles Margue- rite Guillaume,) a French physician, born at Nantes in 1750, became professor in the Medical University of Montpellier. He wrote an " Essay on Irritability," and other valuable works. Died in 1789. Grimauld. See Urban V. Grim'baid, written also Grimbold and Grimoald, (Nicholas,) an English poet, was one of the first among his countrymen who wrote in blank verse. "As a writer of verses in rhyme," says Warton, "he yields to none of his contemporaries for a masterly choice of chaste expression and the concise elegancies of didactic versi- fication." He was also the author of a Latin tragedy, € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as G, h, Y^yguttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^I^^See Explanations, p. 23.) GRIMKE 1086 GRIN NELL entitled "John the Baptist," and made several transla- tions from the Greek and Latin. Died about 1 563. See Warton, "History of English Poetry." Grimke, grim'ke, (Frederick,) an American judge, of Huguenot descent, born in Charleston, South Caro- lina, in 1 79 1, removed to Ohio. He wrote "The Nature and Tendency of Free Institutions," (1848.) Grimke, (Thomas Smith,) LL.D., an American jurist and philanthropist, a brother of the preceding, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1786. He graduated at Yale in 1807. He was widely known for his efforts in behalf of peace, religion, and education. A volume of his Addresses on these and other subjects was pub- lished at New Haven in 183 1. Died in 1834. Grimm, gRim, (Friedkich Melchior,) Baron, a witty German writer, born at Ratisbon on the 25th of December, 1723. Having accompanied Count Schon- berg to Paris, he became acquainted with Rousseau, Baron Holbach, and other celebrated persons, and at- tracted general admiration by his elegant accomplish- ments and conversational talent. When the war broke out in the musical world between the partisans of the French composer Rameau and the Italian musicians. Grimm espoused the cause of the latter. He was the head of the queen's party, called "Coin de la Reine" from their assembling in the pit under the queen's box, while the "Coin du Roi," the French party, took their station under the box of the king. About this time he published a spirited and witty satire, entitled " Le petit Prophete de Boemischbroda," (1753,) and soon after his " Lettres sur la Musique Frangaise," in which he gained a complete victory over his antagonists. After becoming secretary to the Duke of Orleans, he wrote, in conjunc- tion with Diderot and the Abbe Raynal, his literary bulletins, containing acute criticisms on French litera- ture. Catherine of Russia appointed him her minister at Hamburg in 1795. He died at Gotha in December, 1807, leaving " Correspondance litteraire, philosophique et critique," which was published by J. Taschereau, (15 vols., 1829-31.) See Taschereau, " Notice sur Grimm," prefixed to this edition; Madame d'Epinay, " Memoires ;" Rousseau, "Confessions;" Sainte- Beuve, "Causeriesdu Limdi ;" Sainte-Beuve et L[Mav- RAC, " Gazette litteraire de Grimm : Histoire, Litterature, Philosophie, 1753-90. fitudes sur Grimm," Paris, 8vo, 1854; " Nouvelle Biogra phie Gen^rale ;" " l-ondon Quarterly Review" for March and October, 1813, and July, 1814; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1813. Grimm, (Jakob Ludwig,) an eminent German jurist and philologist, born at Hanau on the 4th of January, 1785. He studied law at Marburg, under Savigny. He was secretary of legation to the Congress of Vienna in 1814, and shortly after was sent to Paris to reclaim the manuscripts which had been taken away from Prussia by the French under Napoleon, In 1830 he obtained a professorship at Gottingen, and was also made libra- rian. He was deprived of that chair in 1837 for his liberal political principles. In 1841 he was invited to Berlin, where he was elected to the Academy of Sci- ences. He wrote " Legal Antiquities of Germany," (1828,) ••History of the German Language," (1848,) and "Ger- man Mythology," all of which are esteemed standard works. He also published a German Grammar, and editions of "Reinhart Fuchs" and other fables of the middle ages. The "Kinder- und Hausmahrchen," writ- ten conjointly with his brother Wilhelm Karl, enjoy great popularity, and have been frequently translated. Died in Berlin in September, 1863. See J. Schmidt, "Geschichte der Deutschen National-literatur im neunzehnten Jalirhimdert ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1832, and July, 1838; "Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1840. Grimm, (Ludwig Emil,) a German painter and en- graver, younger brother of the preceding, was born at Hanau in 1790. He became, in 1832, professor in the Academy of Painting at Cassel. Died in 1863. Grimm, (Wilhelm Karl,) an eminent linguist, a bro- ther of the preceding, was born at Hanau in 1786. He was associated in the literary labours of his brother Jakob Ludwig, whom he accompanied to Gottingen in 1830, and subsequently to Berlin, where he became a member of the Academy of Sciences. He published editions of the " Hildebrandslied," "Grave Ruodolf," "Rolands- lied," and other German poems of the middle ages ; also a translation of "Old Danish Hero-Ballads," a treatise "On German Runic Inscriptions," and one "On German Tradition.s." He was engaged with his brother Jakob Ludwig on a large and very complete German Dic- tionary, of which two volumes appeared in 1859. Died in 1859. Grimmelshausen, von, fon gRim'mels-how'zen, (Chrlsioffel,) a German writer, born in Hesse-Cassel about 1625, produced a romance entitled " Simplicissi- mus," (1669,) a work of superior merit. Died in 1676. Grimmer, gRin/mer, or Grimaar, gRee'm§R, (Ja- cob,) a Flemish landscape-painter, born at Antwerp in 1510 ; died in 1546. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Grim'o-ald, son of Pepin the Elder, mayor of the Austrasian palace, succeeded his father in that office in 642 A.D. King Sigebert died in 656, leaving a son, Dago- bert, whom Grimoald sent to a monastery, and attempteji to make his own son king. He was soon after arrested and put to death by order of Clovis. Grimoald III., Duke of Benevento, succeeded his father on the throne of Lombardy in 787 A.D. He was at first tributary to Charlemagne; but he soon renounced his allegiance, and carried on a vigorous and successful warfare against that monarch and his successor Pepin. See SisMONDi, "Histoire des Frangais." Grimoard, de, deh gRe^iio'tR', (Philippe Henrt,) Com rE, a French general and historical writer, born at Verdun about 1750. He published a "Theoretic Essay on Battles," (1775,) "Life and Reign of Frederick the Great," (1788.) and other works. Died in 181 5. Grimod de la Reyniere, gRe'mo' deh It ri'ne^iR', (Alexandre Balthasar Laurent,) a witty and eccen- tric French writer, born in Paris in 1758. His " Alma- nach des Gourmands" (8 vols., 1803-12) made a great sensation throughout Europe. His zeal to i^romote what Montaigne styled " the science of the palate" induced him to establish a jury, who held monthly sessions, to decide on the merits of particular dishes. Died in 1838. Grimoud, Grimou, or Grimoux, gRe'moo'', (Alex- is,) a Swiss painter, born in the canton of Fribourg about 1688. His works are chiefly portraits and domestic scenes, and are highly esteemed. Died about 1740. See FuESSLi, " Geschichte der besten Kiinstler in der Schweiz." Grim'shawe, (Rev. Thomas Shuttleworth,) an English clergyman, born at Preston in 1777. He pub- lished a " Life of the Rev, Legh Richmond," and " Life and Works of Cowper," (1836.) Died in 1850. Grim'stone or Grim'stpn, (Sir Harbottle,) a noted Eiiglish lawyer, born in Essex about 1596. He favoured the cause of the Parliament, but opposed the execution of the king. He was one of the commis- sioners who waited upon Charles II. at Breda; and he was afterwards appointed master of the rolls. Died in 1683. See Clarendon, "History of the Rebellion;" Burnet, "His- tory of his Own Time." Grin'dal, (Edmund,) an English prelate, born in Cumberland in 15 19, rose to be Archbishop of Canter- bury in 1575. He was distinguished for learning and piety, and was a contributor to Fox's "Acts and Monu- ments," (" l>ook of Martyrs.") Died in 1583. See Strvpe's " Life of Grindal." Grin'field, (Edward W.,) an English clergyman and biblical critic, born about 1784. He published, under the title of " Novum Testamentum Graecum," (4 vols., 1843-48,) a work designed to show the close connection of the Greek Testament with the Septuagint ; also other works on theology. Died in 1864. Gringore, gRaN''goR', or Gringoire, gR3.N'gwiR', (Pierre,) one of the early French dramatists, born in Lorraine about 1475, produced a play entitled "The Prince of Fools and the Foolish Mother," said to have been written, at the instigation of Louis XII., to ridicule Pope Julius II. Died about 1544. See "Retrospective Review," vol. i., 1853, Grin-nell', (Joseph,) an American merchant, born al New Bedford, Massachusetts, in 1788. He acquired a large fortune by trade in New York city, and became a a, e, T, 6, u, y, /on^; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, s/tort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; GR INN ELL lo: 87 GROLMAN resident of New Bedford abou' 1830. He was elected a member of Congress about 1843, and re-elected several times. Grinnell, (Moses,) an American merchant, a brother of the preceding, was born at New Bedford in 1803. He became the head of the firm of Grinnell, Minturn & Co., New York. He represented a district of New York in Congress for one term, (1839-1841.) He was one of the most liberal contributors to Dr. Kane's Arctic ex- pedition, (1853-55.) In 1869 he was appointed collector of the port of New York. Gripenhielm. See Figrelius. Gi'is-aunt', (William,) a learned English astronomer and physician, lived about 1350. Being accused of magic, he took refuge in France, where he acquired a high repu- tation in his profession. He wrote "Speculum Astrolo- giee," and other scientific works. Gris'com, (John,) LL.D., an American educationist, a member of the Society of Friends, was born in Salem county, New Jersey, in 1774. He was for more than a quarter of a century an eminent teacher in New York, whither he removed in 1807. Among other things, he was chiefly instrumental in organizing the Society for the Prevention of Pauperism and Crime, which was the parent of many important reform movements. He was one of the first to introduce lectures on philosophy, chemistry, geology, etc., and, with Dr. Mott, Dr. Francis, and others, organized Rutgers Medical College, (New York,) in which he was made professor of chemistry and natural philosophy. "For thirty years," says Dr. Francis, *' Dr. Griscom was the acknowledged head of all other teachers of chemistry among us." Died in 1852. He was author of " A Year in Europe," (2 vols., 1823.) See a "Memoir of John Griscom," by his son, John H. Griscom. Griscom, (John Hos'kins,) a physician, a son of the preceding, was born in New York in 1809. He became professor of chemistry in the New York College of Phar- macy in 1836. He wrote, besides other works, "The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Classes of New Yoik," and "The U^es and Abuses of Air," etc., (1850.) Grisebach, gRee'zeh-baK, (August Heinrich Ru- dolph,) a German botanist, born at Hanover in 1814, became professor at Gottingen about 1847. Among his works are a "Journey through Roumelia," (1841,) and "Outlines ( Grimdriss) of Systematic Botany," (1854.) Griselda, gRe-z§lMa, 6-riseldis, gRe-zeKdis, or Gris'la, the heroine of a popular romance of the middle ages, was, according to Italian tradition, the wife of Walter, Marquis of Saluzzo, who, in order to test her virtues, treated her for a time with great unkindness. Her patience and constancy triumphed over all ; and her story has formed the subject of several works by cele- brated writers, including Chaucer, who introduced it into his " Canterbury Tales," and Boccaccio, who has remod- elled it in his " Decameron." It was also translated into Latin by Petrarch, and dramatized by Hans Sachs. Grisi, gRee'see, (Giulia,) (Madame Mklcy,) a cele- brated Italian vocalist, born at Milan in 1810, performed with distinguished success in the principal cities of Europe, and visited the United States in 1854. She had been married in 1836 to M. Girard de Melcy. Died at Berlin in 1869. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Grisoni, gRe-so'nee, (Giuseppe,) a Florentine painter of history, landscapes, and portraits. Died in 1769. Gris'wold, (Alexander Viets,) D.D., was born in Simsbury, Connecticut, in 1766. He was ordained as a pastor in the Episcopal Church in 1795. Upon the formation of the new diocese comprising the States of Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island, in 1810, Dr. Griswold was elected the first bishop. He succeeded Bishop White as presiding bishop in 1836. Died in 1843. See J. S. Stone, " Life of Bishop Griswold." Griswold, (Roger,) an American statesman, born in Lyme, Connecticut, in 1762, graduated at Yale College in 1780. Elected to Coi.gress in 1794, he was for many years a leader of the Federalists. In 1807 he became judge of the supreme court of Connecticut, and in 1811 was elected Governor of the State. Died in 1812. Griswold, (Rufus Wilmot,) an American critic and editor, born at Benson, Rutland county, Vermont, in February, 181 5. He became in early life a Baptist min- ister, and successively associate editor of "The New Yorker," "Brother Jonathan," and "The New World." He published a volume of Poems in 1841. He con- tributed to the history of American literature several valuable works, entitled " Poets and Poetry of America," (1842; i6th edition, 1855,) "The Prose Writers of America," (1846,) and "The Female Poets of America," (1848.) These contain short biographies and critical remarks. "His 'Prose Writers of America,'" says W. H. Prescott, "will be an important contribution to our national literature. The range of authors is very wide ; the biographical notices full and interesting. . . . The selections appear to me to be made with discrimination, and the criticism shows a sound taste, and a correct appreciation of the qualities of the writers, as well as I can judge." " In these sketches," says the " North Ameri- can Review" for January, 1856, "we find reason to ad- mire the author's impartiality and kindness. We have been unable to find a single instance in which he has suffered any of the usual grounds of prejudice to warp his judgment or to scant his eulogy." Among his other works is "The Republican Court; or, American Society in the Days of Washington," v^'ith twenty-one portraits of distinguished women, (1854.) He edited "The Inter- national Magazine," (New York, 1850-52.) Died in the city of New York in August, 1857. See Horace Binnev Wallace, " Literary Criticisms and Literary Portraits." Gritti, gR^t'tee, (Andrea,) born at Venice in 1454, acquired a high reputation as a general in the war carriecl on by the Venetians against the League of Cambrai, and reconquered the towns of Brescia and Bergamo from the French in 1512. Being afterwards made i^isoner, he signed a treaty of alliance between Louis XII. and the Venetian republic. He was elected Doge in 1523. Died in 1538. SeeN. Barbarigo, "A. Gritti Principis Venetiarum Vita," 1793; Daru, "Histoire de Venise." Gro'cyn, (William,) an English philologist, born at Bristol in 1442. About 1489 he visited Rome, where he studied the Greek language, at that time little cultivated in England. He was ajipointed after his return professor of Greek at Oxford. He was an intimate friend of Eras- mus, by whom he was highly esteemed. Died in 1519. See Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses ;" Knight, " Life of Erasmus.'* Groddeck, gRod'dgk, (Ernst Gottfried,) a Ger- man philologist, born at Dantzic in 1762, became a pro- fessor at Wilna about 1804. He published "Elements of the Literary History of the Greeks," (in Latin, 1811,) and other similar works. Died in 1824. See Malinowski, "Biographie de Groddeck," 1825. Groddeck, (Gabriel,) a German philologist, born at Dantzic in 1672 ; died in 1709. Groen van Prinsterer, groon vtn pRin'steh-rer, a Belgian writer of the present age, published the " Ar- chives of the House of Orange-Nassau," ("Archives de la Maison d'Orange-Nassau.") See Prescott, "History of Philip IL," vol. ii. book iii. Groening. See Growing. Grohmaiin, gRo^m^n, (Johann Gottfried,) a Ger- man comi^iler, born in Upper Lusatia in 1763. He pub- lished a "Dictionary of the Fine Arts," (2 vols., 1795,) a "Biographical Dictionary," (7 vols., 1796-99,) and other works, which were favourably received. Died in 1805. Grolier or GroUier de Servier, gRo'le-i' deh s§k'- ve-i', (Jean,) Vicomte d'Aguisy, a FrencliTchoiar and patron of literature, born at Lyons in 1479, numbered among his friends Erasmus and Budasus. Died in 1565. See Dibdin's " Bibliomania." Grolman, von, fon gRoKmSn, (Heinrich Dietrich,) an eminent Prussian jurist, born at Bochum in 1740, filled several important posts under Frederick the Great, and became a member of the state council in 181 7. He died in 1840, at the age of nearly a hundred years. Grolman, von, (Karl Ludwig Wilhelm,) a Ger- man statesman and jurist, born at Giessen in 1775. He was created chancellor of the university in 181 5, minister € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) GROLMJN 1088 GROSSMJNN of state about 1819, and in 1821 president of the united ministry, ( Vereinten Ministerien.) He jjublished '* Prin- ciples of Criminal Jurisprudence," (1798,) and other works. Died in 1829. See " NouveUe Biographie Gen^rale." Grolman, von, (Karl Wilhelm Georg,} a brother of the preceding, was born at Berlin in 1777. He served as a general in the principal campaigns against the French from 1806 till 1815. Died in 1843. Gioning or Groening, gRo^iing, (Johann,) an able German ])ublicist and jurist, born at Wismar in 1669. He wrote valuable treatises on the law of nature and of nations. Died after 1700. Gronov. See Gronovius. Gro-iio'vi-us, or Gro'iiov, (Abraham,) son of Jakob Gronovius, noticed below, was born at Leyden in 1694. He was librarian of the university in that city, and pub- lished editions of Pomponius Mela, Justin, and Tacitus. Died in 1775. Gronovius, or Gronov, (Jakob,) an eminent philolo- gist, son of Johann Friedrich, noticed below, was born at Deventer in October, 1645. He was appointed in 1679 professor of belles-lettres at Leyden. He published in 1697 his " Dictionary of Greek Antiquities," ("Thesau- rus Antiquitatum Graecarum," 13 vols.,) which ranks very high among works of the kind. He also edited Polybius, Aulus Gellius, Macrobius, and other classics. Died at Leyden in 17 16. See NiCERON, "Memoires;" Creuzer, "Ziir Geschichte der dassischeii Phiiologie;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Gronovius, or Gronov, (Johann P^riedrich,) a cele- brated German scholar and antiquary, born at Hamburg in 161 1. In 1658 he became professor of history and eloquence in the University of Leyden. He published valuable editions of Statins, Tacitus, Livy, Seneca, and other Latin classics. He albo wrote a work entitled "De Sestertiis," (1643,) respecting ancient Greek and Roman coins, which is much esteemed. Died at Leyden in 1671. He was distinguished for his critical sagacity, and was one of the most profound Latin scholars of modern times. See " Daventria illustrata," Leyden, 1651 ; Wii.kens, "Leben des beriihmten J. F. Gronovii," 1723; Foppens, " Bibliotheca Bel- gica ;" Creuzer, "Zur Geschichte der classischen Phiiologie;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Gronovius, (Johann Friedrich,) an eminent natu- ralist, a son of Jakob, noticed above, was born about 1690. He studied law, and became a magistrate of Leyden. He published *' Flora Virginica," (1743,) Rau- wolfs " Flora Orientalis," (1755,) and other works. He was a friend of Linnaeus. Died in 1760. Gronovius, (Laurentius Theodorus,) a son of the preceding, was a naturalist and a lawyer of Leyden. He published " Library of the Animal and Mineral King- doms," ("Bibliotheca Regni Animalis et Lapidei," 1740,) and Clayton's "Flora Virginica." Died in 1777. Gronovius, (Laurentius Theodorus,) a Dutch antiquary and jurist, brother of Jakob, was born about 1660. He wrote " Emendationes Pandectarum," (" Emen- dations of the Pandects," 1688,) and notes on Vibius Sequester. Gro'now, (Rees Howell,) Captain, a British writer and officer, born in 1794. He served in the Peninsular war, (1808-14,) ^"cl wrote "Recollections and Reminis- cences," (2 vols., 1863.) Died in 1865. Groot, gRot, (Gerard,) or Gerard the Great, a celebrated theologian, reformer, and founder of religious orders, was born at Deventer, Holland, in 1340. He was a popular preacher, and formed associations of friars, whom he employed in transcribing the Scriptures. They were called "Brethren of the Common Life." Died in 1384. See Hodgson's " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867. Groot, (Hugo.) See Grotius. Gropper, gRop'per, (Johann,) a Roman Catholic theologian, born in Westphalia in 1501. He wrote a "Manual of the Christian Religion," (1546,) and several works against the Protestants, Died at Rome in 1558. Gros, gRo, (Antoine Jean,) an eminent French painter, born in Paris in March, 1771, was a pupil of David. He worked several years in Italy, and returned home about 1802, after which he produced "The Plague of Jaffa," "The Battle of Aboukir," (1806,) "The Battle of Eylau," (1808,) "The Capture of Madrid by Napo- leon," (1810,) "The Battle of Wagram," and numerous good portraits. About 1824 he completed a large oil- painting in the cupola of Sainte-Genevieve. '1 his is considered by some critics his master-piece. He was found dead in the Seine, near Meudon, in June, 1835. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" J. B. Delestrk, "Gros et ses Ouvrages, ou Memoires historiques," etc., 1845. Gros, (Stienne,) a French philologist, born at Car- cassonne in 1797. He translated the works of Ovid, (5 vols., 1836,) part of Dion Cassius, (4 vols., 1845-55,) and other classics. Died in 1856. Gros de Boze. See Boze, de, (Claude Gros.) Gros, Le. See Legros, (Nicolas and Pierre.) Grose, (Francis,) an English antiquary, born in Middlesex in 1731. He was the author of "Views of Antiquities in England and Wales," (8 vols., 1787,) "Military Antiquities," (2 vols., 1788,) a "Treatise on Ancient Armour," etc., (1789,) "Antiquities of Scot- land," (2 vols., 1790,) "Antiquities of Ireland," (2 vols., 1794,) and other works finely illustrated with his own designs. Captain Grose was noted for his wit, good humour, and conviviality, and was an intimate friend of the poet Burns, who has mentioned him in his poems. Died in 1791. Grosier, gRo'ze-i', (Jean Baptiste Gabriel Alex- andre,) Abh6, a French critic, born at Saint-Omer in 1743. He was assistant editor of Freron's " Annee litteraire." He published, with Le Roux des Haute- rayes, a "General History of China," (12 vols., 1777- 84.) Died in 1823. Grosley, gRo'li', (Pierre Jean,) a French lawyer and facetious writer, born at Troyes in 1718. Among his works is a "Life of Pithou." Died in 1785. See "Vie de Giosley," partly by himself, 1787; E. T. SiMOif, "Notice sur la Vie de Grosley," 1786. Gross, gRos, (Johann Gottfried,) a German publi- cist, born in Baireuth in 1703, was for twenty-eight years editor of the able "Gazette" of Erlangen, (1741-68.) Died in 1768. Gross, (Samuel D.,) M.D., an American surgeon, born near Easton, Pennsylvania, in 1805. In 1856 he was appointed professor of surgery in the Jefferson Medi- cal College in Philadelphia. Among his publications we may specify his "Elements of Pathological Anatomy," (2 vols., 1839; 3d edition, 1857,) and his "System of Surgery," (2 vols. 8vo, 1859.) He edited "American Medical Biography," (1861.) Gro.sser, gRos'ser, (Samuel,) a German philologist, born in Silesia in 1664. He wrote a work on logic, entitled " Light- House of the Intellect," (" Pharus Intel- lectus," 1697,) and other works. Died in 1736. Gro.sseteste, gros'test, or Grost'head, [Lat. Cap'- ITO,] (Robert,) an eminent English prelate, was the author of " Compendium Spheras Mundi," and several other scientific treatises. He was made Bishop of Lin- coln in 1235. See S. Pkgge, "Life of Robert Grosseteste," 1793; Milner, " Church History." Grossi, gRos'see, (Tommaso,) an Italian poet, born at Bellano (province of Como) in 1791. Among his works are " Ildegonda," (1820,) "G. Maria Visconti," a tragedy, "The Lombards in the First Crusade," (1826,) and "Marco Visconti," a historical romance, which has been translated into English. " He is full of grace and elegance," says the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" "and these qualities do not exclude force, passion, and elevation." Died at Milan in 1853. See Cherubini, "I Poeti vemacoli." Grossniann,gR5ss'man, (Christian Gottlob Leb- RECHr,) a learned German theologian, born at Priessnitz in 1783, became professor of theology at Leipsic. He founded in that city the Evangelical Union, called the Gustavus Adoljihus Institution. He published a treatise "On the Reformation of the Constitution of the Prot- estant Church," etc., and other works. Grossmann, (Gustav Friedrich Wilhelm,) a Ger- man dramatist and actor, born at Berlin in 1744. He wrote, among other popular comedies, " Wilhehnine von Blondheim," and " Only Six Plates." Died in 1796. See Grasse, "Gesch elite der Deutschen Literatim" a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ia, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; ftr, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; GROSTETE 1089 GROUCHT Grostete or Grosteste.gRo^tet', (Claude,) a French Protestant theologian and writer, born at Orleans in 1647 ; died in London in 1713. Grosvenor, gro'ven-or or grov'en-or, or Grovenor, (Benjamin,) born in London in 1675, was a popular preacher among the Independents. He was one of the lecturers at Salters' Hall, London. Died in 1758. Grote, (George,) an eminent English historian, of German extraction, born near Beckenham, in Kent, in 1794. He was educated for the employment of a banker by his father, one of the firm of Prescott, Grote & Co. in London. His earliest literary productions were contri- butions to the Westminster and Edinburgh Reviews, and a treatise "On the Essentials of Parliamentary Reform." In 1832 he represented London in Parlia- ment, where he distinguished himself by the liberality of his views. He was twice re-elected, but in 1841 re- tired from public life. In 1846 he published the first two volumes of his " History of Greece." The remaining volumes, amounting in all to twelve, and ending at the death of Alexander, appeared successively between 1847 and 1856. Mr. Grote, in the words of a critic in the "London Quarterly," "unites the practical knowledge of the British statesman with the erudition of a German professor ;" and the same writer pronounces'his " History of Greece" "the most important contribution to his- torical literature in modern times " He also published "Plato and the other Companions of Socrates," (3 vols., 1865,) and a review of Stuart Mill's "Examinption of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy," (1868.) Died in 1871. His wife (originally Mrs. Harriet Lewin) has written a Life of Ary Scheffer, and other works. See " London Quarterly " for June, 1846, April, 1850, July, 1856, and January, 1866; "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1846, Jan- uary, 1850, July, 1851, July and October, 1853, and April, 1866 ; Mekimee, "Melanges historiques et litteraires." Grotefend, gRo'teh-fgnt', (Friedrich August,) a German philologist, nephew of Georg Friedrich, noticed below, was born at Ilfeld in 1798; died in 1836. Grotefend, (Georg Friedrich,) a German scholar and antiquary, born at Miinden in 1775. He was director of the lyceum or gymnasium of Hanover for twenty-eight years, (1821-49.) He published several valuable treat- ises on the cuneiform writings of Persepolis and Babylon, and made contributions to Ersch and Gruber's " Ency- clopaedia." He also wrote a work " On the Geography and History of Ancient Italy," (1840-42.) He is said to have been the first who deciphered the cuneiform in- scriptions. Died in December, 1853. Grothusen, von, fon gRot'hoo'zen, (Christian Al- P.RECHT,) Baron, a general, born probably in Germany. He entered the service of Charles XII. of Sweden, of whom he became a favoured companion, and treasurer. He accompanied that king in his retreat into Turkey in 1709. He was killed in battle in the island of Riigen in 1714. Grotius, gro'sh^s, orDe Groot, deh gRot, (Hugo,) an eminent Dutch jurist and theologian, and one of the most celebrated scholars of his time, was born at Delft, April ID, 1583. As a child he was remarkable for pre- cocity of intellect, and is said to have written Latin verses when but eight years of age. He studied at Leyden under Joseph Scaliger and the theologian Junius, and devoted himself to divinity, law, and mathematics. In 1598 he accompanied a Dutch embassy to Paris, on which occasion Henry IV. presented him with a golden chain. Soon after his return, in 1599, he published edi- tions of several classics, and wrote a Latin poem entitled " Prosopopoeia," which was greatly admired and trans- lated into French and Greek. In 1613 he obtained the important post of pensionary of Rotterdam, which gave him a seat in the Assembly of the States of Hol- land and in that of the States-General. Being sent to England in 161 5 on some public business, he formed the acquaintance of Isaac Casaubon. In 1618 he was involved in the defeat and misfortune of the Liberal or Arminian party, of which his friend Barneveldt was the leader. He was tried for treason, and unjustly con- demned to perpetual imprisonment, and his property was confiscated. In June, 1619, he was sent to the fort- ress of Loevestein. He here devoted himself to study, and wrote, during his captivity, several works, among which was his celebrated treatise " On the Truth of the Christian Religion," ("De Veritate Religionis Chris- tianae," 1627.) At the end of eighteen months, Grotius escaped from his prison by means of a stratagem devised by his wife, who had been permitted to share his con- finement. He went immediately to France, where he was well received by Louis XIII., who granted him a pension of three thousand livres. On the death of the stadtholder Maurice, Grotius was persuaded by his friends to return to Holland in 163 1, but was again com- pelled to leave it. In 1634 he was appointed councillor to the Queen of Sweden by Chancellor Oxenstiern, and her ambassador to the court of France. In 1645 he repaired to Stockholm, where he was received with the greatest favour by Queen Christina; but, soon becoming weary of court life, he embarked for Lubeck in August. After a stormy passage, he arrived at Rostock, very ill from exposure and fatigue, and died on the 28th of August, 1645. Grotius left numerous works on juris- prudence, divinity, history, and poetry. Referring to his theological works, Leibnitz said that he preferred Grotius to all other commentators. His treatise on International Law, ("De Jure Belli et Pacis,") a work of the greatest merit, has been translated into the prin- cipal European languages. Among his historical pro- ductions we may mention "The History of the Goths, Vandals, and Lombards," "Belgian History and An- nals," and "On the Origin of the American Tribes." These were all written in excellent Latin. His Latin poems comprise three tragedies and numerous lyrical and elegiac compositions. Grotius was distinguished for sincere piety, and his character combined mildness with remarkable energy. See Butler, "Life of H. Grotius;" Luden, "H. Grotius nach seinen Schicksalen und Schriften dargestellt," 1806; Levesque db BuRiGNY, "Vie de H. Grotius," 1750, (and English version of the same, London, 1754;) Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Caspar Brandt, " Historie van het Leven des Heeren H. de Groot," 2 vols., 1727; G. F. Creuzer, "Luther und Grotius, oder Glaube und Wissenschaft," 1846; Nic^RON, "M^moires;" " Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale ;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Edinburgh Review" for October, i860. Grotius, (PiETER,) a son of the preceding, was born in 1610. He was appointed in 1660 pensionary at Am- sterdam, and was afterwards ambassador to Denmark, Sweden, and France. Died in 1680, Grotius, (WiLLEM,) a Dutch jurist, born at Delft in 1597, was a brother of the celebrated Hugo Grotius. He was appointed advocate of the India Company in 1639. Pie published several legal w^orks in Latin. Died in 1662. Gro'to or Grot'to, (Ludovico,) an Italian poet, called "IlCiecod'Adria," ("The Blind Man of Adria,") was born at Adria in 1541. He wrote numerous plays and poems, which had a temporary popularity. Died in 1585- See Ginguen^, " Histoire Litt^raire d'ltalie." Grouchy, gRoo'she', or Grouche, gRoo'shi', [Lat. Gru'chius,] (Nicolas,) a French scholar and Protestant, born about 1520. He published, besides other works, " De Comitiis Romanorum Libri tres," (1555,) and "The Logic of Aristotle," (1558.) Died at La Rochelle in 1572. Grouchy, (Sophia.) See Condorcet. Grouchy, de, deh gRoo'she', (Emmanuel,) Marquis, a celebrated French general, born in Paris in 1766. He entered the republican army about 1 790, and as major- general commanded the cavalry in the campaign against Savoy, (1792.) He was soon after sent against the Ven- deans, whom he defeated in several engagements. He served under Moreau in the campaign of Piedmont, (1798,) and was severely wounded at the battle of Novi and made prisoner by the Austrians. He was released after a year's captivity, and, having joined the army of Moreau, assisted in gaining the victory of Hohenlinden. He was conspicuous for his skill and courage in the battles of Jena and Eylau, and at Friedland, where he commanded the cavalry. His services on this occasion were mentioned by Napoleon with high commendation. He was appointed governor of Madrid in 1808. In the campaign of 1812, Napoleon gave a signal proof of his confidence in Grouchy by placing him at the head of € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 69 GROUFELLE 1090 GR UN E IS EN his " Sacred Battalion." His conduct in the engagements of Brienne, La Rothiere, and Vauchamps won for him the applause of the nation, and he was soon after made a marshal, (1814.) On the i8th of June, 181 5, while the battle of Waterloo was in progress. General Grouchy, who was stationed near Wavre, was urged by his officers to march in that direction ; but he refused to disobey the orders he had received from the emperor. He became an exile in 1815, and was restored to the ranlc of mar- shal in 1830. Died in 1847. See Thiers, " Histoire du Consulat et de I'Empire;" Jomini, "Precis politique et militaire de la Campagne de 1815;" "Opinions et Jugements de Napoleon;" Norvins, " Histoire de Napoleon ;" " Noiivelle Biographie Generale." ffi^" Respecting the question of Grouchy's responsibility tor the defeat of Waterloo, see Lieut.-Col. J. B. A. Charras, "Histoire de la Campagne de 1815 — Waterloo," Brussels, 2 vols. 8vo, 1858, 5th edition, 1863, (which ably and unan- swerably refutes the falsehoods of Napoleon and his admirers against Grouchy and Ney ;) E. Quiret, " Histoire de la Campagne de 1815," 1862; LiEUT.-CoL. Charles C. Chesney, "Waterloo Lectures," 1868; Pierart, "Le Drame de Waterloo," 1868. Grouvelle, gRooVIK, (Philippe Antoine,) a French revolutionist and writer, born in Paris in 1758. As sec- retary of the provisionary executive council in 1 792, he read to Louis XVL the decree of the Convention which condemned him to death. He was sent as minister to Denmark in 1793, and in 1800 was elected to the legis- lative body. He published a " Historical Memoir of the Templars," etc., and other works. Died in 1806. Grove, (Henry,) an English dissenting divine, born in Somersetshire in 1683, wrote a treatise " On the Im- mortality of the Soul," (1718,) and other religious works, which are highly commended by Doddridge. He was director of an academy at Taunton. Died in 1 738. Grove, (Joseph,) an English writer, was an attorney of Richmond. He was the author of the Life and Times of Cardinal Wolsey," (4 vols., 1742-44,) and other works. Died in 1764. Grove, (William Robert,) F.R.S., an eminent Eng- lish electrician and natural philosopher, born at Swansea in July, 1811. He graduated at Oxford in 1835, studied law, and became a successful barrister. He devoted much attention to physical science, in which he has made important discoveries. He invented, about 1839, the nitric-acid battery which bears his name, and effected the recomposition of water by the battery. In a lecture delivered in 1842 he maintained or suggested the doctrine that heat, light, and electricity are mutually convertible, and that heat is a mode of motion. This theory was more fully developed in his " Correlation of Physical Forces," (4th edition, 1862.) He received the medal of the Royal Society in 1847, and was chosen vice-president of that institution. He contributed to the " Philosophical Transactions" numerous treatises on electricity, etc. See Dr. F. Hoefer, article in the " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- rale." Grovenor. See Grosvenor. Gro'ver, (Cuvier,) an American general, born at Bethel, Maine, about 1830, graduated at West Point in 1850. He commanded a division of General Banks's army at the capture of Port Hudson, July, 1863, and a division under General Sheridan at the battle of Cedar Creek, October 19, 1864. Grow, (Galusha A.,) an American politician, born in Windham county, Connecticut, in 1823. He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1847, and settled in Sus- quehanna county, Pennsylvania. He represented the fourteenth district of Pennsylvania in Congress from De- cember, 1859, to March, 1863, and was chosen Speaker of the House of Representatives by the Republicans in December, 1861. Grozelier, gRoz'le-4', (Nicolas,) born at Beaune, in France, in 1692, publlslied, besides other works, a "Col- lection of Fables in Verse." Died in 1778. Grubenmann, gRoo'ben-m^n', or Grubemann, gRoo'b^h-mSn', (Johann Ulrich,) a Swiss architect of the eighteenth century, born at Teufen. He built a noble bridge over the Rhine at Schaffhausen, and an- other at Reichenau. These were burned by the French in 1799. Gruber, gRoo'ber, (Gregor Maximilian,) a German antiquary, born at Horn, in Austria, in 1 739, was professor of history at Vienna. He wrote, besides other works, a "System of Diplomatics for Austria and Germany," (1783.) Died in 1799. Gruber, (Johann Daniel,) a German jurist and his- torian, born in Franconia, wrote a work on the early history of Livonia, (" Origines Livoniae," 1740.) Die^ in 1748. Gruber, (Johann Gottfried,) a distinguished Ger- man scholar and miscellaneous writer, born at Naum- burg in 1774. His essays "On the Literature of Ro- mance," and his "Comparison of the Philosophy of many Nations," won for him the regard of Wieland, who chose him for his biographer. In 1815 he was appointed professor of philosophy at Halle. He soon after became engaged with Ersch in the publication of the " Universal Encyclopaedia of Sciences and Arts," ("Allgemeine Encyklopaedie," etc.,) extending to more than one hundred volumes 4to. In 1818 he published a complete edition of Wieland's works, accompanied by a biography. He was also a contributor to the " Con- versations-Lexikon" and to the "Universal Literary Gazette." Died in 1851. Gruohius. See Grouchy, (Nicolas.) Grudius. See Everard. Grueneisen. See Gruneisen. Gruenewald. See Grunewald. Gruithuisen, groit'hoi'zen or HRoit'hoi'zen, (Franz von Paula,) an astronomer, surgeon, and scientific writer, born in 1774. He was the inventor of a sur- gical instrument for performing lithotrity, for which he received from the French Academy a prize of one thousand francs. Died in 1852. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Grumbaoh, von, fon gRoom'baK', (Wilhelm,) a German adventurer, born in 1503, was the leader of an insurrection against the government, commonly called " Grumbach's Rebellion." Having captured and plun- dered the city of Wiirzburg in 1563, he was put under the ban of the empire, and in 1566 was taken and executed. Griin, (Anastasius.) See Auersperg. Grunseus. See Gryn^us. Grund, gRoont, (Johann Jakob Norbert,) a Ger- man misiature-painter, born at Giinzenhausen in 1755, became professor in the Academy of Florence. He wrote "Painting among the Greeks, or the Rise, Progress, and Decadence of Painting," (2 vols., 1811.) Died in 1815. Grundtvig, gRoont'vig, (Nicolai Frederik Seve- RIN,) a distinguished Danish theologian, poet, and his- torian, was born at Udby, in Seeland, in September, 1783. He published in 1808 " Mythology of the North," ("Nordens Mythologie," revised edition, 1832,) which treats the subject in a poetical and philosophical spirit. He preached for some time at Copenhagen, and acquired great influence as a theologian. In 1820 he was ap- pointed pastor of Prastoe. He produced several poetical and historical works, which, according to P. L. MoUer, are characterized by sublime inspirations and mystical tendencies. He became minister of a church of Copen- hagen in 1839. Since 1848 he has been an active member of the Diet and a leader of the Anti-German party. See Howitt's " Literature and Romance of Northern Europe ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Grundtvig, (Sven Hersleb,) a Danish writer, a son of the preceding, was born at Christianshavn in 1824. His favourite subjects are the songs and popular tradi- tions of his country. Among his publications is "The Ancient Popular Songs of Denmark," (2 vols., 1853-56.) See Erslew, "Almindeligt Forfatter- Lexicon." Griin'dy, (Felix,) an American lawyer and Senator, born in Berkeley county, Virginia, in 1777. He removed to Nashville, Tennessee, about 1808, and in 1811 was elected a member of Congress, in which he supported Mr. Madison's administration. He was chosen a Senator of the United States in 1829, as a political friend of General Jackson, and was re-elected in 1833. Tn 1838 he was appointed attorney-general of the United States. Having resigned in 1840, he was again elected a Senator. Died in December, 1840. See "N-ational Portrait-Gallery of Distlngin'shed Americans," vol. iii. Griineisen or Grueneisen, gRiin'T'zen, (Karl,) a German writer and divine, born at Stuttgart in 1802. a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; ndt; good; moon; GRUNER 1091 GUADET He published a collection of popular songs, (" Lieder," 1823,) and other works. Gruner, gRoo'ner, (Christian Gottfried,) a Ger- man physician, born at Sagan, in Silesia, in 1744, became professor of botany at Jena. He published '* Library of Ancient Physicians," (2 vols., 1782,) and other medical works. Died in 1815. See Meusel, " Gelehrtes Deutschland." Gruner, groo'ner, (Gottlieb Siegmund,) a Swiss naturalist, born at Berne in 171 7. He published a " Description of the Swiss Glaciers," (3 vols., 1762,) and other works. Died in 1778. Gruner, (Johann Friedrich,) a German philologist, born at Coburg in 1723. He became professor of theology at Halle, and wrote some theological works. He pub- lished good editions of Eutropius, ( 1 752,) Aurelius Victor, (1757,) and Velleius Paterculus, (1762.) Died in 1778. See Harlesius, "Vitse Philologorum ;" Hirsching, " Histo- risch-literarisches Handbuch." Gruner, (Johann Gerhard,) a German historical writer, born at Coburg in 1734; died in 1790. Gruner, (Wilhelm Heinrich Ludwig,) an eminent German engraver, born at Dresden in 1801. He pub- lished two splendid works, entitled "Fresco Decorations and Studies," (1844,) and "The Decorations of the Gar- den Pavilion in the Grounds of Buckingham Palace," with text by Mrs. Jameson, (1846.) In 185 1 he was employed in the decorations of the Crystal Palace in London. Among his finest prints are "Christ on the Mount of Olives," and several Madonnas, after Raphael. Gruner, von, fon gRoo'ner, (Karl Justus,) a Ger- man diplomatist, born at Osnabriick in 1777, entered the Prussian civil service. About 1814 he was one of the important agents of the allies. Died in 1820. Grunert, gRoo'nert, (Johann August,) an able Ger- man mathematician, born at Halle in 1797. He published " Si^heroidal Trigonometry," (1833,) and "Contributions to Meteorological Optics and its Auxiliary Sciences," (1850.) Griinewald or Gruenewald, gRu'neh-<^ait', (Mat- THAUS,) a German painter, supposed to have been a native of Aschaffenburg. Among his works is a " Cruci- fixion," which displays great power. He was contempo- rary with Albert Diirer, whom, in the opinion of many critics, he nearly equalled. Gru-peFlo, de, (Gabriel,) a Belgian sculptor, born at Grammont in 1644; died in 1730. Grupen, gRoo'pen, (Christian Ulrich,) a German antiquary and jurist, born at Harburg in 1692, wrote treatises on mediaeval antiquities, etc. Died in 1767. Gruppe, gRoop'peh, (Otto Friedrich,) a German philosophical and critical writer, born at Dantzic in 1804, became professor-extraordinary of philosophy in Berlin in 1844. In his works entitled "Antaeus" and "The Crisis of Philosojjhy in the Nineteenth Century" (1834) he has assailed the system of Hegel. He wrote "Al- boin," an epic, (1830,) and other poems. Gruter, gRii'ter or HRii'ter, or Gruytere, gRii-e'taiR', [Lat. Grute'rus,] (Jan,) an eminent scholar, was born at Antwerp in 1560. He studied at Cambridge and Ley- den, and subsequently filled various professorships in Germany, at Wittenberg and Heidelberg. His greatest work is entitled "Ancient Inscriptions of the Whole World known to the Romans," (" Inscriptiones antiquas totius Orbis Romanorum," about 1602.) He also pub- lished numerous editions of the classics, and " Lampas, sive Fax Artium liberalium," being a collection of the best critical and antiquarian treatises of the sixteenth century. Died at Heidelberg in 1627. See F. H. Flayder, "Vita Gniteri," 1628; Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, "Menioires;" F^lix van HuLST, "Jean Gruytere," 1847; " Noiivelle Biographie Generale.'' Gruter, (Pieter,) a Dutch physician and writer, born about 1555. He published many Latin epistles, "Epis- tolarum Centuria," (1609.) Died at Amsterdam in 1634. GryFlus, [Gr. Vpvllog,] a son of Xenophon, was killed at the battle of Mantinea, 362 B.C. According to tra- dition, he killed Epaminondas at this battle. Grynaeus, gRe-na'us, (Johann Jakob,) a theologian, born at Bale in 1540, was a grand-nephew of Simon, noticed below. He was professor of theology at Bale, and wrote commentaries on Scripture, and other works. Died in 1618. See Niceron, "Memoires;" J. J. Brunn, " Vir sanctus et in- comparabilis, hoc est Vita J. J. Grynsei," 1618. Grynseus, (Samuel,) a Swiss jurist, son of the fol- lowing, was born at Bale in 1539 ; died in 1599. Grynaeus, (Simon,) a distinguished Protestant theo- logian, born at Veringen, in Suabia, in 1493, was a friend of Melanchthon and Erasmus. He became pro- fessor of Greek at Pleidelberg in 1523, removed to Bale in 1536, and attended the conference at Worms in 1540. He discovered the last five books of Livy, published the "Almagest" of Ptolemy in Greek, (1538,) wrote several works, and translated Plato into Latin. He published in 1532 a curious work, entitled "The New World of Regions and Islands unknown to the Ancients," which contains the narratives of Marco Polo and many other travellers. Died at Bale in 1541. See Melchior Adam, " Vitae Theologorum ;" Brucker, "His- tory of Philosophy." Gryph. See Gryphius. Gryphius, gRee'fe-us or grife-iis, or Gryph, gRif, originally Greif, gRlf, (Andreas,) a celebrated German poet and dramatist, born in Silesia in 1616. Among his principal works are the tragedies of "Leo Armenius," "Cardenio and Celinda," and " Carolus Stuartus," and a very popular comedy, entitled " Peter Squenz." He is regarded as the greatest dramatic poet of the seventeenth century in Germany. His epigrams, lyrics, and spiritual odes also possess great merit. He was an accomplished linguist, and was well versed in mathematics and physical science. Died in 1664. See J. Hermann, "Ueber A. Gryphius; literar-historischer Ver- such," 1851; Caspar Knorr, "Gedachtniss A. Gryphii," 1665. Gryphius, (Christian,) a son of the preceding, was born at Fraustadt in 1649. His "History of the Orders of Knighthood" (1697) is his best work. Died in 1706. Gryphius, (Sebastian,) a learned and celebrated printer, born in Suabia in 1493, settled at Lyons. Among his publications was a Latin Bible, (1550.) Died at Lyons in 1556. See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." Gryph'on or Grif'fpn, [Lat. Gry'phus or Gryps, (plural Gry'phes ;) Gr. Vpv-ip; Fr. Griffon, gReT^N',] a monster of the classic mythology, having the body of a lion with the head and wings of an eagle. (See Seemoorgh.) Guadagni, goo-S-din'yee, (Leopoldo Andrea,) an Italian jurist, born at Florence in 1705 ; died in 1785. Guadagnini, goo-S,-dJn-yee'nee, (Giambattista,) an Italian ecclesiastic and controversial writer, born at Pia- cenza about 1720; died in 1806. Guadagnoli, goo-l-dSn-yo'lee, (Filippo,) an Italian Orientalist, born at Magliano about 1596. He became professor of Arabic in the college di Sapienza at Rome. He published " Institutiones Linguae Arabicae," and an "Apology for Christianity," etc., (in Latin,) which is esteemed a standard work. Died in 1656. See Niceron, "Memoires." Gua de Malves, de, deh gt deh mtlv, (Jean Paul,) a French mathematician, born at Carcassonne in 17 13, became professor of philosophy in the College of France. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences, and pub- lished several scientific treatises. Died in 1788. See Desessarts, "Siecles litteraires de la France." Guadet, gt'da', (Marguerite Elie,) a French states- man, and one of the principal leaders of the Giron- dist party, was born near Bordeaux in 1 758. He was a deputy in 1791 to the Legislative Assembly, where, says Lamartine, " he formed with Vergniaud and Gensonne a triumvirate of talent, opinion, and eloquence." One of his first acts was to accuse the French emigrants of conspiracy against the government ; and in 1792 he sup- ported the decree of accusation against the brothers of the king, which was passed. He was soon after a deputy from Bordeaux to the National Convention, where he was conspicuous for his bold and vehement eloquence. In common with his colleagues, he at last yielded to the rage of the populace, and voted for the death of the king, after having appealed in vain to the people to sus- tain them in their efforts to preserve his life. On the e as>^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, 7tasal ; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^='See Explanations, p. 23.) GUJGNINO 1092 GUDENOF downfall of his party, Guadet took refuge with his friends, near Bordeaux, where he was discovered, and was exe- cuted in that city in July, 1794. See Lamartine, "History of the Girondists;" Thiers, "His- tory of the French Revolution;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Guagnino, goo-ln-yee'no, ( Alessandro,) a historian, was born at Verona in 1548. He served in the Polish army against the Russians, and wrote a " History of Po- land," (" Rerum Polonicarum Libri tres," 1574,) which is praised for accuracy and elegance. Died in 1614. See Adelung, "Uebersicht der Reisenden in Russlandbis 1700." Gualandi,goo-a-ian'dee, (Michelangelo,) an Italian antiquary, born at Bologna in 1793. He published a valuable work on the fine arts, entitled "Memorie origi- nali Italiani risguardanti le belle Arti," (3 vols., 1840-45.) Gualdim-Paes, gwSl-deeN' pJ-§s', a Portuguese ecclesiastic, born at Braga, founded, about 1 160, the magnificent monastery of Thomar. Died in 1195. Gualdo-Priorato, goo-SKdo pRe-o-ra'to,(GALEAZZO,) Count of Comazzo, an Italian soldier, diplomatist, and historian, born at Vicenza in 1606. He served succes- sively under Maurice, Prince of Orange, Count Mans- feld, and Wallenstein, and was afterwards sent on various important missions. He wrote a " History of the Wars of Ferdinand II. and Ferdinand III.," a "History of Wallenstein," (1643,) and other works. Died in 1678. See j\L A. Zorzi, "Vita di Giialdo-Priorato," in the "Opuscoli scientifici," Venice, 1728; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Gualterus, gwil-ta'rus, sometimes written Gualther, (Rudolf,) a Swiss divine, born at Zurich in 1518, was a son-in-law of Zwingle. He became first minister of Zurich, and wrote several popular works. Died in 1586. Gualtieri, (Giovannl) See Cimabue. Gualtieri, goo-Sl-te-a'ree, (Niccol6,) an Italian phy- sician and naturalist, born in Tuscany in 1688, was pro- fessor of medicine at Pisa. Died in 1744. Guarco, goo-ak'ko, ( Antoniotto,) a son of Niccolo, noticed below, became Doge of Genoa in 1394. He was assassinated at Pavia about 1404. Guarco, (Niccol6,) was elected Doge of Genoa in 1378. Under his rule a war was carried on between the Genoese and the Venetians. Died in 1383. Guardi, goo-aR'dee, (Francesco,) a painter, born at Venice in 1 712, was a pupil and successful imitator of Canaletto. He painted Venetian scenery and architecture. Died in 1793. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Guarienti, goo-i-re-^n'tee, Guariento, goo-i-re-gn'- to, or Guariero, goo-S-re-a'ro, written also Guarente, an Italian painter, who lived about 1360-90. He painted the hall of the Grand Council at Venice, which in 1508 was renewed by Tintoretto. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." Guarin, gt'riN', (Pierre,) a French ecclesiastic and distinguished Orientalist, born in Normandy in 1678. He published " Grammatica Hebraica et Chaldaica," and other valuable works. Died in Paris in 1729. Guarini, goo-i-ree'nee, (Camillo Guarino — goo-i- ree'no,) an Italian architect, born at Modena in 1624. Among his works are the Chapel Royal at Turin, and the Convent of the Theatines at Modena. Died in 1683. See Quatkemere de Quincy, "Vies des plus celebres Archi- tectes." Guarini, (Giambattista,) son of Guarini da Verona, noticed below, became professor of Greek at Ferrara, and numbered among his pupils Aldus Manutius and Giraldus. He wrote a treatise "On the Sect of Epi- curus," ("De Secta Epicuri,") and other works in Latin, and made translations from Demosthenes, Dion Chrys- ostom, and Saint Gregory Nazianzen. Died in 1513. See TiRABOscHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Guarini, (Giambattista,) a celebrated Italian poet, born at Ferrara December 10, 1537. He became pro- fessor of rhetoric in his native city about 1560. and was afterwards patronized by Alfonso, Duke of Ferrara, who made him a chevalier and employed him in various diplomatic missions. For these services he received little except empty honours. He published in 1590 his " Pastor Fido," a pastoral tragi-comedy, in verse, which met with brilliant success and was translated into the principal languages of Europe. Guarini was the authoi of other dramas, and of a number of sonnets and mad- rigals. He was a friend of the poet Tasso. Died in Venice in 161 2. See TiRA BoscHi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" Ginguen^, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie ;" Apostolo Zeno, " Vita del Guarini,' in the "Galleria di Minerva;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Nici^ron, " Memoires;" " Lives of the Italian Poets," by Rev. Henry Stebbing, London, 1831. Guarini da Verona, goo-i-ree'nee dl v^-ro'nS, [Lat. Vari'nus,] one of the restorers of classical litera- ture in Italy, born at Verona in 1370. He studied Greek at Constantinople under Chrysoloras, and brought with him on his return a valuable collection of manuscripts. He afterwards became professor of Greek at Florence or Verona, being, it is said, the first Italian who publicly taught that language. He made a Latin translation of the first ten books of Strabo, and of portions of Plutarch Died in 1460. See RosMiNi, "Vita e Disciplina di Guarini Veronese," etc., 3 vols., 1805; Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Niceron, "Memoires;" Paolo Giovio, " Elogia Virorum illustrium." Guarino. See Favorinus. Guarnacci, goo-aR-nit'chee, (Mario,) an Italian prel- ate and antiquary, born at Volterra in 1 701, published, among other works, a "Dissertation on the Twelve Tables." Died in 1785. Guarnieri-Ottoni, goo-aR-ne-a'ree ot-to'nee, (Aure- Lio,) an Italian antiquary, born at Osimo in 1748, wrote a work on the Claudian Way, etc. Died in 1788. Guasco, da, d^ goo-is'ko, (Ottaviano,) a writer, born at Pinerolo, in Piedmont, in 1712, published a work entitled "Satires of Prince Cantemir," etc., also an "Essay on the State of Sciences in France under Charles VI.," etc. Guasco was an intimate friend of Montesquieu. Died in 1781. Guaspre, Le. See Dughet. Guatemozin, gw3.-te-mo'zin, or Quah-te-mot'zin, son-in-law and successor of Montezuma, Emperor of Mexico, was the last prince of the Aztec dynasty. After a brave defence of his capital against the Spaniards, he was forced to capitulate, and was taken prisoner. He was then cruelly tortured, by order of Cortez, to compel him to reveal where the treasures of the empire were concealed. Being afterwards unjustly accused of exciting his sub- jects to rebellion, he was put to death without any form of trial, in 1522. "Among all the names of barbarian princes, there are few entitled to a higher place on the roll of fame than Guatemozin. He was called to the throne in the convulsed and expiring hours of the mon- archy, when the banded nations of Anahuac and the fierce European were thundering at the gates of the capital. No one can refuse his admiration to the intrepid spirit which could prolong a defence of his city while one stone was left upon another; and our symparthies for the time are inevitably thrown more into the scale of the rude chieftain thus battling for his country's freedom, than into that of his civilized and successful antagonist." (Prescott's "Conquest of Mexico," vols. ii. and iii.) Guay, g^, (Jacques,) a French gem-engraver, born at Marseilles in 1715; died in 1787. Guay-Trouin. See Duguay-Trouin. Guazzesi, goo-lt-sa'see, (Lorenzo,) an Italian litte- ratetir, born at Arezzo in 1708. He published several historical works. Died in 1764. Guazzo, goo-it'so, (Marco,) an Italian poet and litterateur, born at Padua about 1496; died in 1556. Guazzo, (Stefano,) an Italian poet and essayist, born at Casali in 1530; died in 1593. Gubbio, da, di goob'be-o, (Oderigi,) an Italian painter, born at Gubbio, near Perugia, was a friend of Dante, who mentions him with honour in his great poem. He worked at Bologna, and was distinguished as a painter of missals and miniatures. Died about 1300. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. Gubitz, goo'bits, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German engraver and litterateur, born at Leipsic in 1786. He wrote several dramas, and other works. Gude. See Gudius. Gudelinus. See Goudelin. Gudenof. See Godoonof. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, f4t; mSt; n6t; good; mCtbn; GUDIN 1093 GUERCINO Gudin, gii'd^N', (Jean Antoine Theodore,) a cele- brated marine painter, born in Paris in 1802, was a pupil of Girodet. Among his best works are "The Storm in the Bay of Algiers," a " View of Constantinople," " The Shipwreck," and a *' View of Gibraltar." Gudin de la Brenellerie, gii'd^N' deh It bReh-n&Kre', (Paul Philippe,) a French dramatic poet, born in Paris in 1738. He published a number of tragedies, and a mock-heroic poem entitled "The Conquest of Naples by Charles VIII." Died in 1812. See " Notice sur Gudin de la Brenellerie," Paris, 1812. Gudin de la Sablonniere, gii'diN' deh IS st'blo'- ne-ain', (C^sar Charles Etienne,) Count, a French general, born at Montargis in 1768. He distinguished himself at Eylau, (1807,) Eckmiihl, and Wagram, (1809,) and was killed at Volutina-Gora, in Russia, in 1812. Gudius, gooMe-us, or Gude, goo'deh, (Gottlob Friedrich,) a German minister and writer, born at Lauban in 1701 ; died in 1756. See Meissner, " Gedachtnissrede auf Gude," 1756. Gudius or Gude, (Marquard,) a German philolo- gist and antiquary, born at Rensburg in 1635, became councillor to the King of Denmark. He collected many manuscripts and Greek and Latin inscriptions, which were published in 1 731. Died in 1689. Gudmundsson, good'moond^son, (Thorgeir,) a dis- tinguished scholar and antiquary of Iceland, born in 1794, was one of the founders of the Society of Northern Antiquaries at Copenhagen in 1845. Gudmundus, good-mdon'dus, (Andreas,) a learned Icelander, wrote several antiquarian works, and a "Lexi- con Islandico-Latinum." Died in 1654, Guebriant, de, deh gi'bRe'dN^, (Jean Baptiste Budes — biid,) Comte, a French marshal, born in Brit- tany in 1602. He served with great distinction in Ger- many during several campaigns of the Thirty Years' war, and in 1641 gained a signal victory over the Imperial troops at Wolfenbiittel. He was made a marshal in 1642. He was mortally wounded at Rothvveil in 1643. See Le Laboureur, " Histoire du Mareclial de Guebriant," 1657. Guebriant, de, (Ren6e du Bec-Crispin — dii b^k'- kR^s^piN^,) wife of the preceding, was appointed in 1643 ambassadress-extraordinary to the King of Poland, being, it is said, the first woman who ever acted in that capacity independently of her husband. Died in 1659. See " Leltres de Madame de Guebriant i la Princesse-Palatine Anne de Gonzague." Guedier de Saint- Aubin, gi^de-i' deh siN^to^b^N', (Henri Michel,) a French theologian, born at Gournay- en-Bray in 1695. He wrote "The Sacred History of the Two Covenants," (7 vols., 1741.) Died in 1742. Gueel y Rente, Hal e r^n'ti, (Don Jos^;,) a Spanish writer and statesman, born at Havana about 1820. He studied in Spain, became a deputy to the Cortes about 1854, and was re-elected in 1857. He had married in 1848 the Infanta Josefa, sister of the King of Spain. He has published poems entitled "Tears of the Heart" (" Lagrimas del Corazon") and "Sorrows of the Heart," ("Amarguras del Corazon,") and "Thoughts Moral and Political." Guelf, Guelph, gw^lf, or Welf, <^g]f, the name of a noble family in Germany, the founder of which lived in the time of Charlemagne. Guelfo, gw^Kfo, Welfo, or Guelf II. flourished in the eleventh century. He was engaged in a contest with the emperor Conrad II., which was the beginning of the long strife between the Dukes of Bavaria and the German emperors. Guelfo III. was created Duke of Carinthia by the emperor Henry III. as a reward for his services in the war with the Hungarians. Died about 1055. Guelfo IV., called the Great, was made Duke of Bavaria by Henry IV., but subsequently took up arms against him. After alternate victories and defeats, a peace was concluded in 1097. Died about 1120. Guelfo V. succeeded his father, Guelfo IV., as Duke of Bavaria. He married Matilda, the heiress of Tuscany, and widow of Godfrey, Duke of Lorraine. After she had made a donation of her domains to the Church of Rome, Guelfo returned to Germany, where he took part with Henry V. in his quarrel with his father, Henry IV. Died about 11 20. Guelfo VI., nephew of Guelfo V., and son of Henry the Black, was born in 1 11 5. Having embraced the cause of his nephew, Henry the Lion, in his contest with the emperor Conrad III., he was defeated by that sovereign at Weinsberg in 1 140. It was on this occasion that the war-cry of Guelphs (or Welfs) and Ghibelines was first used, the latter name being derived from Waiblingen, the seat of the Hohenstaufen family at WUrtemberg. Died in 1191. The popes having taken sides with the Guelphs, the names of Guelph and Ghibeline were used to designate the parties of the emperor and the pope. See EiCHHORN," Urgeschichte des Hausesder Welfen ;" Sismondi, "Histoire des Repuljliques Italiennes." Guenard, gi'ntR', (Elisabeth,) Baronne de Mere, a romance-writer, born in Paris in 1751 ; died in 1829. Gueneau de Montbeliard, gi'no'deh m6N'bi'le-^R', (Philibert,) an eminent French naturalist, born at Semur-en-Auxois in 1720. He was an intimate friend of Buffon, and prepared the ornithological department for his great work ; he was also a contributor to the "Encyclopedic," and wrote an "Abridgment of the His- tory and the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences," (4 vols., 1770.) Died in 1785. See QuERARD, " La France Litteraire." Guenee, ga^na', (Antoine,) an eminent French eccle- siastic and controversial writer, born at fitampes in 17 17, was for many years professor of rhetoric in the college Du Plessis in Paris. In 1785 he obtained the abbey of Loroy,' in the diocese of Bourges. He wrote a very able work, entitled " Letters of some Portuguese, German, and Polish Jews to Voltaire," etc., in which he defends the Old Testament against Voltaire, clearly convicting him of contradictions and of ignorance. Died in 1803. See QuERAKD, "La France Litteraire." Guenzi, goo-gn'zee, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Ital- ian ])oet and translator, born in 1713 ; died in 1753. Guepin, ga'piN', (Auguste,) a French writer and physician, born at Pontivy about 1805. His chief work is "The Philosophy of Socialism," (1850.) Guerard, gi'rtR', (Benjamin Edme Charles,) a French antiquary, born at Montbard in 1797. He was an assistant librarian in the Royal Library of Paris, and published treatises on the social state of France in the middle ages. Died in 1854. Guerard, (Robert,) a French Benedictine monk, born at Rouen about 1641. He published an "Abridg- ment of the Bible," (1707.) Died in 1715. Guerazzi, goo-^-rSt'see or goo-§r-it'see, or Guer- razzi, (Francesco Domenico,) an Italian writer and Liberal statesman, born at Leghorn in 1805. In 1848 he was appointed president of the cabinet and minister of the interior by the grand duke Leopold II. He was the author of the "Siege of Florence," ("Assedio di Firenze,") and other historical romances, and an " Apol- ogy for the Political Life of F. D. Guerazzi," (1851.) See " Memorie di F. D. Guerrazzi," 1848, written by himself. Guerchin. See Guercino. Guerchois, le, leh geR^shwi', (Madeline,) a French lady, eminent for her talents and piety, born in Paris in 1679, was a sister of Chancellor D'Aguesseau. She wrote "Christian Reflections on the Historical Books of the Old Testament." Died in 1740. Guerchy, de, deh ggR^she', (Claude Franqois Louis R^gnier,) Comte, a French general, born in 1 7 15, served in Flanders under Marshal Saxe, and par- ticularly distinguished himself at Fontenoy and Hasten- beck, (1757.) He was afterwards ambassador to London. Died in 1767. See " Lettres et Memoires du Mar^chal de Saxe." Guercino, gw^R-chee'no or goo-^R-chee'no, [Fr. Guerchin, ggR^shiN',] (Giovanni Francesco Bar- bieri — baR-be-a'ree,) called Guercino da Cento, a celebrated Italian painter, born at Cento, near Bologna, in 1590. He at first painted in the style of the Caracci, but he afterwards adopted that of Caravaggio. Among his master-pieces are "The Death of Dido," "Santa Petronilla," in the Capitol at Rome, " Aurora," a fresco in the Villa Ludovisi, a "Saint William," and "Angels € as >t; 9 as j; g hard; g as J; G, H, VL, guttural; n, nasal; trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2(^=See Explanations, p. 23.) GUERET 1094 GUESS weeping over the Dead Body of Christ." Guercino was an intimate friend of Guido Reni. He worked many years at Cento, from which he removed to Bologna in 1642. His works are mostly oil-paintings, and include about a hundred altar-pieces. Died at Bologna in 1666. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Calvi, " Notizie della Vita e delle Opere di G. F. Barbieri," 1808; Domenico C. Mora, "Vite di Benveniito Tisio e di G. F. Barbieri," 1842; Chaklks Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres;" Bryan, "Dictionary of Painters." Gueret, geh-rJ^', (Gabriel,) a French lawyer and miscellaneous writer, born in Paris in 1641. Among his principal works are his " Conversations on the Eloquence of the Pulpit and the Bar," " Parnassus Reformed," and " War of the Authors." Died in 1688. See QuERARD, " La France Litteraire." Guericke, g^r'rik-keh, (Heinrich Ernst Ferdi- nand,) a German theologian, born at Wettin, in Prus- sian Saxony, in 1803, published a "Manual of Church History," (1833,) and other works. Guericke, von, fon gdr'ik-keh or ga'rik-keh, (Otto,) a celebrated German savant and experimental philoso- pher, born at Magdeburg in 1602. Having studied ma- thematics and mechanics at Leyden, he visited France and England. After his return, he was made in 1646 burgomaster of Magdeburg. In 1650 he invented the air-pump, of which he made the first public experiment before the Diet at Ratisbon in 165 1. Having fitted together two large hollow hemispheres made of copper and brass, with strong rings attached to them, to which horses were harnessed, he exhausted the air from the globe ; and it was only after the number of horses was increased to upwards of thirty that the parts were sepa- rated. He was also the inventor of the instrument called Guericke's Weather Mannikin, which was used, before the invention of the barometer, to denote the changes of the weather. He published in 1672 a work entitled "New Magdeburgian Exj^eriments, as they are called, relating to a Vacuum," (" Experimenta Nova, ut vocant, Magdeburgica, de vacuo Spatio.") Died in 1686. See FoNTENELLE, " £ loges historiques des Academiciens ;" JocHER, " AUgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." Guerin, g^'riN', (Adolphe Claude,) Colonel, a French officer, born at Mortagne in 1805, served in seve- ral campaigns in Algeria as chief of engineers. He sub- sequently distinguished himself in the Crimean war, and was killed in June, 1855, at the siege of Sebastopol, where he had rendered important services as chief of the staff of engineers. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Guerin, (FRANgois,) a French scholar, born in Tou- raine in 1681, translated Livy and Tacitus into French. Died in 1751. Guerin, (Gilles,) an able French sculptor, born in Paris in 1606. He was employed in the decoration of the Louvre. Among his chief works is a statue of Louis XIV. Died in 1678. Guerin, (Jean Baptiste Paulin,) a French painter, born at Toulon in 1783, worked at Paris. Among his ])roductions are " Adam and Eve driven from Eden," (1827,) and a " Holy Family," (1829.) Died in 1855. Guerin, (Joseph Xavier,) a French physician and naturalist, born at Avignon in 1775. Among his works are a " Panorama of Avignon and Vaucluse," (1829,) and " Meteorologic Observations," (1839.) Died in 1850. Guerin, (Jules,) a French physician, born at Boussu (Belgium) in 1801. He studied and afterwards resided at T^aris. He gave special attention to malformations of the feet, and wrote an able treatise on Orthopedy, (16 vols., 1837,) which gained the prize of the Academy of Paris. Guerin, (Nicolas Francois,) a French scholar and writer, born at Nancy in 1711 ; died in 1782. Guerin, (Pierre Narcksse, ) Baron, an eminent French painter, born in Paris in 1774, was a pupil of Regnault. He produced about 1800 "Marcus Sextus" and "Phedre et Hippolyte," which had great popularity. His subjects are mostly antique, and his style is classic. His chief merits are purity of contour, good taste in details, and harmony of colour. He was director of the French Academy at Rome from 1822 to 1828. Among his works are "Aurora and Cephalus," (1810,) "Dido listening to /Eneas," (1817,) and a " Clyteuinestra." He died at Rome in 1833. See QuATREMfeRE DE QuiNCY, " Noticc sur la Vie de P. Guerin," 1833; "Nouvelle Biographic Gdn^rale." Guerin, de, deh gi'r^N', (Eugenie,) a French writer, born at the chateau Du Cayla, in Languedoc, in 1805. She was endowed with rare intelligence, and was an example of deep and fervent piety. Her life may be said to have been absorbed in her brother Maurice, to whom she was intensely devoted. She died in May, 1848, leaving a Journal and Letters, which were pub- lished in 1863. "Her Journal," says the "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1864, "is the outpouring of one of the purest and most saintly minds that ever existed upon earth. The style is exquisitely beautiful, and it lingers in the memory like the dying tones of an yEolian harp, full of ineffable sweetness. Amidst the impurity which has so long flooded French literature, it is delightful to come upon the streams of thought that flowed in limpid clearness from the fountain of her mind, and to find in a young French girl a combination of piety and genius with so much felicity and force of expression that her countrymen have not scrupled to compare her style to that of Pascal himself." Guerin, de,(MAURiCE du Cayla — dii WW,) a French poet, brother of the preceding, was born near Albi, in Languedoc, in 1810. He died prematurely in 1839, leaving several poetical fragments, among which is "Le Cen- taure." "This revealed," says Sainte-Beuve, "a nature of talent so new, so powerful, so vast, that the word ge- nius seems appropriate to it." His Letters, Poems, etc. were published in i860, under the title of "Maurice de Guerin : Reliquiae," (2 vols.,) preceded by a biographical notice of the author by Sainte-Beuve. See Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi ;" "Nouvelle Biogra- phic Generale;" " Fraser's Magazine" for January, 1863. Guerin du Rocher, g\'ri^' dii ro'shi', (Pierre,) a learned French Jesuit, born at Falaise in 1 731, wrote " The True History of Fabulous Times," (3 vols., 1 776.) He was massacred in vSeptember, 1792. Guerin-Meneville, g^'riw' min'v^K, (FiiLix £dou- ARD,) a French naturalist, born at Toulon in 1799, pub- lished a " Magazine of Zoology, Comparative Anatomy, and Palaeontology," (33 vols., 1831-44,) and other works. Guerle. See Deguerle. Guernier. See Duguernier. Gueronniere. See La GuERONNifeRE. Gueroult, gi'roo', (Adolphe,) a French journalist, born at Radepont (Eure) in i8io. He became chief editor of the "Presse," a daily paper of Paris, in 1857. Gueroult, geh-roo', (Pierre Claude Bernard,) a French classical scholar, born at Rouen in 1744. He was director of the Nonnal School at Paris under the empire. He translated Pliny's " Natural History," (3 vols., 1803,) and some works of Cicero. Died in 1821. Guerra, goo-^r'raor gwgr'rS, (Giovanni,) an Italian architect and painter, born at Modena in 1544. He was employed by Sixtus V. to adorn the Vatican and Quirinal palace. Died in 1618. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Guerre, de la, deh 1^ gaiR, (Elisabeth Claude Jacquet — zht'ky,) a French lady, celebrated for her musical talents, was born in Paris about 1659. Among her compositions are a Te Deum and a number of can- tatas. Died in 1729. Guerre-Dumolard, gain du'mo'ltR',(jEAN,) a French jurist, born at Allevard. (Dauphine) in 1761 ; died in 1845. Guerrero, ger-ra'ro, (ViNCENTE,) a Mexican partisan leader, who became President of Mexico in April, 1829. He was supplanted or overpowered about the end of that year by Bustamente. Having afterwards appealed to arms, he was defeated, taken prisoner, and executed in February, 1831. Guerrini,g\ver-ree'nee, (GiACOMO,)an Italian painter, born at Cremona in 1718; died in 1793. Guesclin. See Du Guesclin. Gue.ss, gess, or Se-quoy'ah, (George,) a half-breed Cherokee Indian, born about 1770, was noted as the inventor of the Cherokee syllabic alphabet, consisting of eighty-five characters, representing the syllables in a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; ^, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u» y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; GVETTARD 1095 GUIBERT use among the Cherokees. It has proved a great suc- cess, having been employed both in writing and printing. He lived in Georgia, from which he removed with his tribe beyond the Mississippi. Died in 1843. Guettard, gi'tSR', (Jean Etienne,) a celebrated French naturalist and physician, born at fitampes in 1 715. He studied natural science under Reaumur in Paris, and in 1743 was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences. He was afterwards appointed by the Duke of Orleans keeper of his cabinet of natural history. He first ascertained the volcanic nature of the mountains of Auvergne, and determined the true character of organic remains which had been only partially recognized before. He was the author of " Memoirs on some Mountains of France formerly Volcanoes," (1752,) a treatise "On the Granites of France compared with those of Egypt," { 1 755,) and other valuable works. Died in Paris in 1786. See CoNDOKCET, " i!loge de Guettard ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Gueulette, guh'lgt', (Thomas Simon,) a popular writer, born in Paris in 1683, published numerous tales in the Oriental style, and several comedies. Died in 1766. See QuERARD, "La France LiUeraire." Guevara, gi-vi'ri, (Don Felipe Ladron y — Id- dRon' e,) a Spanish painter, born about 15 10, was a pupil or friend of Titian. He distinguished himself at the siege of Tunis under Charles V. in 1535. Died in 1563. Guevara, (Luis Velez de las Duenas y — va'lgth di las doo-^n'yis e,) a celebrated Spanish dramatist, born in Andalusia in 1574. His works are principally come- dies, which were highly popular at the time, and were commended by Lope de Vega. He also published a witty satirical romance, entitled "El Diablo cojuelo," ("The Lame Devil,") said to have been the original of Le Sage's " Diable boiteux." Died in 1646. See TiCKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature." Guevara, (Sebastian Velez — va'l^th,) a Spanish poet, born at Valladolid in 1558, published a continua- tion of the "Romancero," or collection of Spanish romances, (1594.) Died in 1610. See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature." Guevara, de, di gi-v^'rS, (Antonio,) a Spanish prel- ate and historian, born in the province of Alava about 1490, was preacher and historiographer to Charles V. of Germany. He was afterwards created Bishop of Mon- donedo. His " History of Marcus Aurelius," published in 1529, is said to contain less truth than fiction. He also began a "History of Charles V.," which was never published. His "Golden Epistles" were translated into French and English. Died in 1544. See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature." Guevara, de, (Antonio,) a relative of the preceding, was appointed almoner to Philip H. of Spain. He wrote several commentaries on the Scriptures. Guevara, de, (Juan N.,) a Spanish painter and bril- liant colorist, born at Malaga in 163 1, was a pupil of Alonzo Cano. Died in 1698. Guez de Balzac. See Balzac. Guffroy, guTRwi', (Armand BenoIt Joseph,) a French journalist and politician of the Jacobin faction, born at Arras in 1740. He was elected to the National Convention in 1792, and in 1793 became a member of the committee of public safety. He voted for the death of the king. Died in 1800. Guglielmi, gool-ySKmee, (Pietro,) one of the most celebrated Italian composers of his time, born at Massa- Carrara in 1727. He studied at Naples under Durante, and subsequently visited Venice, Dresden, and London. He was appointed chapel-master at the Vatican in 1793. Among his operas, which amount to more than two hundred, we may name "Iphigenia in Aulide," " Cle- menza di Tito," "Didone," "Tamerlano," and "Don Ambrogio." Died in 1804. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Guglielmini, gool-ygl-mee'nee, (Domknico,) an emi- nent Italian physician, astronomer, and natural philoso- pher, born at Bologna in 1655, l^ecame professor of mathematics in his native city in 1686, and of theoretic medicine at Padua in 1702. He published a "Disserta- tion on the Nature and Origin of Comets," "The Meas- ure of Running Waters," " Hydrostatic Epistles," "Phy- sico-Mathematical Treatise on the Nature of Rivers," (1697,) and other valuable works. He had been appointed in 1686 intendant of water-works, and gained distinction as a hydraulic engineer. Died in 1710. See MoKGAGNi, "Vita di Guglielmini," prefixed to his Works, 1719; FoNTENELLE, " ]£loge dc Guglielmini," 1710; Nic^RON, "M6- nioires." Guglielmo d' Apulia, gool-y§Kmo di-poo'le-S, [Fr. GuiLLAUME DE PouiLLE, ge'yom' deh pool or poo'ye,] an Italian writer of the eleventh century, was the author of a historical poem, in Latin, " On the Deeds of the Normans in Sicily," etc., first published in 1582. Guhr, gooR, (Karl WiLHELM Ferdinand,) a German composer, born in Silesia in 1787. Among his operas is "Aladdin, or the Wonderful Lamp." Died in 1848. Guhrauer, goo'row'er, (Gottschalk (got'shilk) Eduard,) a German litterateur, born in Posen in 1809, published a "Biography of Leibnitz," (2 vols., 1842,) which is commended, "Goethe's Correspondence with Knebel," (2 vols., 1852,) and other works. Died in 1854. Guhyaka or Guhyaca, gooh'ya-ka. In the Hindoo mythology, the Guhyakas, the servants of Kuvera, (the deformed god of riches,) are a kind of demons into which transmigrate the souls of men particularly addicted to covetousness and selfishness. Gui d'Arezzo. See Guido d'Arezzo. Gui da Ravenna, goo-ee' di ra-vgn'nS, an Italian historian of the ninth century, wrote a "History of the Roman Pontiffs," and a " History of the Gothic War," (in Latin,) neither of which is extant. Gui de Crema. See Paschal III. Gui de Doucie, ge deh doo'se-i', a French poet of the fourteenth century, of whose writings only fragments are extant. He translated into French the "Consola- tion of Philosophy" by Boethius. Gui de Lusi|nan. See Guy de Lusignan. Guibal, ge'baK, (Barth^lemy,) a French sculptor and architect, born at Nimes in 1699; died in 1757. Guibal, (Nicolas,) a French painter, son of the pre- ceding, born at Luneville in 1725 ; died in 1784. Guibaud, ge'bo', (Eustache,) a French Jansenist, born at Hieres in 1711. He wrote "Groans of a Peni- tent Soul," and other devotional works. Died in 1794. Guibert, ge'baiR', Archbishop of Ravenna, was a native of Parma. He was made anti-pope by Henry IV. of Germany, with the name of Clement HI., and in oppo- sition to Hildebrand, (Gregory VII.) Guibert, having crowned Henry emperor, was enabled by his protec- tion to resist successively three legitimate popes. Died in 1 100. Guibert, Madame, a French writer, born at Ver- sailles in 1725, published a number of poems and dramas, which were popular at the time. Died in 1788. Guibert, de, deh ge-baiR', (Charles BENofr, ) Comte, a French general, born at Montauban in 171 5, served with distinction in Italy and Flanders, and sub- sequently against the Prussians in the Seven Years' war. Died in 1786. Guibert, de, (Jacques Antoine HipI-olyte,) Comte, a popular and witty French author, born at Montauban in 1743, was the son of the preceding. He accompa- nied his father in the Seven Years' war, (1756-62,) and studied military tactics with great success. In 1773 he published a "General Essay on Tactics," which obtained a European celebrity and was read with avidity even by the ladies. Voltaire complimented the author in a short poem entitled "La Tactique." His tragedy the " Constable Bourbon" excited in the salons of Paris a temporary admiration scarcely equalled by that accorded to the productions of the greatest tragic poets; but this is not justified by the intrinsic merit of the work. In 1786 he was chosen a member of the French Academy. Pie died in 1790. Madame de Stael in the same year composed a eulogy on him. He was the object of an unhappy passion on the part of Mademoiselle L'Espi- nasse, whose letters to him were much admired. See Madame de Stael, " filoge de Guibert;" Toulongeon "Notice historiqiie sur Guibert," 1802; Foresti^, "Biographie du Comte de Guibert," 1855; E. A. Eardin, "Notice sur J. A. H. Guibert," 1836. Guibert de Nogent, ge'baiR' deh no'zhSN', a learned French ecclesiastic, born near Clermont-en-Beauvoisis € as k; c as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, ^ttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this, (5:^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) GUICCURDINI 1096 GUI DO in 1053, wrote a history of the first crusade, entitled *' Gesta Dei per Francos," published in Paris in 1651. Died in 11 24. Guicciardini, gwe-char-dee'nee or goo-it-ch^R-dee'- nee, [Lat. Guicciardi'nus ; Fr. Guichardin, ge'shSR^- diN'jJ (Francesco,) an eminent Italian historian and diplomatist, born at Florence in 1482. At the early age of twenty-three he became professor of jurisprudence in his native city. He was appointed by Pope Leo X. Gov- ernor of Modena and Reggio in 15 18, and he also enjoyed the favour of Adrian VI. and Clement VII. The latter, having become the ally of France, intrusted Guicciar- dini with the command of the pontifical troops, with the title of lieutenant-general of the Holy See. On the sur- render of Florence to the Imperial army in 1530, he be- came the agent of the Medici in that city, and one of the commission of twelve called '* the reformers of the state." Having greatly contributed to establish the tyranny of the Medici at Florence, he retired from public life about 1536, and devoted himself to the composition of his " His- tory of Italy from 1494 to 1532," (1564.) It is esteemed a standard work, though somewhat prolix: it has been translated into Latin and French. Died in 1540. His *' History of Italy" "is well known," says Hallam, "for the solidity of the reflections, the gravity and im- partiality with whrch it is written, and the prolixity of the narrative. . . . Guicciardini has generally held the first place among Italian historians, though he is by no means equal in literary merit to Machiavel." ("Intro- duction to the Literature of Europe.") See R. FiGKENTiNi, "Vita di F. Guicciardini," 1560; F. Sanso- viNO, " Vita di Guicciardini," 1665; G. Rosini, " Saggio sulle Azioni e sulle Opere di F. Guicciardini," 1822; Niceron, "Memoires;" GiNGUENE, " Histoire litteraire d'ltalie;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" "Edinburgh Review" for Jul}', 1869. Guicciardini, (Luigi,) a nephew of the preceding, was born at Florence in 1523. He resided many years in Antwerp, where he published a "Description of the Low Cpuntries," and several other works. Died in 1589. Guicciardi^ius. See Guicciardini. Guiccioli, gwit'cho-lee, (Teresa Gamba,) Count- ess, a beautiful Italian lady, born in Romagna in 1801. She was married about 181 7 to Count Guiccioli, a wealthy nobleman of Ravenna. She owes her celebrity to her iiaison with Lord Byron,, who a])pears to have loved her with as true and tender an affection as it was possible for a man of his character to do. In 1851 she was mar- ried to the Marquis de Boissy, a French senator and peer, (who was born at Paris in 1798; died in 1866.) Left a second time a widow, she has recently given to the world a book which has attracted much attention, — "My Recollections of Lord Byron and those of Eye- witnesses of his life," (London and Philadelphia, 1869;) — for, although she does not put her own name to the work, there appears to be no doubt as to its authorship. See Moore, "Life of Byron," vol. ii. ; Vapereau, "Diction- naire des Contem^rains," under tlie head of Boissy, (Hilaire- JItiknne-Octave Rouille, Marquis de.) Guichard, ge'shtR', (Claude,) a French antiquary of the sixteenth century, born at Saint-Rambert-en- Bugey, was historiographer to Charles Emanuel, Duke of Savoy. He published a work entitled "The Funerals and Various Methods of Burial among the Romans, Greeks," etc., (1581.) Died in 1607. Guichard, (Jean FRANgois,) a French poet and dramatist, born near Melun in 1731 ; died in 1811. Guichard, (Louis Anastase — t'nt'sttz',) a French ecclesiastic, wrote a " History of Socinianisra," and other works. Died in 1737. Guichardin. See Guicciardini, Guiche, (Philibert de la.) See La Guiche. Guiche, de, deh g^sh, (Armand de Gramont,) CoMTE, a distinguished French general, born in 1638. He served against the English in the campaign of 1666, and subsequently in Holland under Conde. He died in 1674, leaving "Memoirs concerning the United Prov- inces," etc See "Memoires du Marechal de Gramont." Guichen, ge^shdN', (Luc Urraln du Bouexic — dii boo'eks'^k',) a French naval officer, born at Fougeresin 1712. He was made a lieutenant-general in 1779, and commander of the marine of Brest, In 1780 he gained a victory over the English fleet under Admiral Rodney at Dominique, and sunk one of their ships. In 1781 De Guichen was in turn defeated by Admiral Kempenfeld, who took fifteen of his vessels. Died in 1790. See Gerard, " Vies des plus celebres Marins Fran^ais." Guichenon, g6sh'n6N', (Samuel,) a French historian, born at Macon ni 1607, was appointed historiographer of France and Savoy by Louis XIV., and created a count-palatine by Ferdinand III., Emperor of Germany. He published a "Genealogical History of the House of Savoy," and other similar works. Died in 1664. See Niceron, "Memoires." Guidal, ge'dtl', (Maximilien Joseph,) a French oflicer, born at Grasse about 1760. Having joined the conspiracy of Mallet in 1812, he was executed by order of Napoleon. Guidalotti, goo-e-di-lot'tee, (Diomede,) an Italian scholar and poet, born at Bologna about 1482 ; died in 1526. Guide, Le. See Guido Renl Guidi, goo-ee'dee, or Guido, goo-ee'do, (Carlo Alessandro,) an Italian poet, born at Pavia in 1650. Having visited Rome in 1683, he obtained the patron- age of Christina, Queen of Sweden, who made him a member of her Academy. He was the author of " Amala- sunta in Italia," "Endimione," a pastoral, and a number of sonnets and lyric poems of superior merit. He is ranked among the principal reformers of Italian poetry. Died in 1 7 12. See Fabroni, " Vitae Italorum," etc., vol. xi. ; Crescimbeni, " Vita di Guidi," prefixed to his poems; "Lives of the Italian Poets," by Rev. Henry Stebbing; Niceron, "Memoires;" G. Turroni, " Elogio storico di C. A. Guidi," 1827. Guidi, (ToMMASO.) See Masaccio. Guidi da San Giovanni. See Masaccio. Guidiccioni, . goo-e-d^t-cho'nee, (Cristoforo,) an Italian poet, born at Lucca about 1530, became Bishop of Ajaccio. He translated from the Greek the " Electra" of Sophocles and the " Bacchantes," the " Andromache," and the "Trojans" of Euripides." Died in 1582. Guidiccioni, (Giovanni,) an Italian writer, born at Lucca about 1500. In 1534 he was appointed Governor of Rome by Pope Paul III., and the same year made Bishop of Fossombrone. He was soon after sent as nuncio to the emperor Charles V., whom he accom- panied to Tunis. He was the author of a number of poems, letters, and orations. Died in 1 541. See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Guido, gwee'do or goo-ee'do, [Fr. Le Guide, leh g^d,] or, more properly, Guido Reui, (goo-ee'do ra'- nee,) an eminent Italian painter, born at or near Bologna about 1575. He first studied under Denis Calvart, at Bologna, and was afterwards a pupil of the Caracci. Having resided many years at Rome, where he was liberally patronized by Pope Paul V,, he returned to his native city and devoted himself to painting and to the instruction of young artists. His pictures are very numerous, both in oil and fresco. His first works are painted in the style of the Caracci; but he subsequently adopted in some degree that of Caravaggio. His pictures are models of grace, delicacy, and beauty of expression. He succeeded especially in pathetic and devotional subjects. Among his master-pieces are "The Martyrdom of Saint Peter," (in the Vatican,) "Aurora," a fresco in Rome, "The Assumption," a picture of Saint Peter and Saint Paul, " Fortune," and " The Massacre of the Innocents." Died at Bologna in 1642. See Vasari, "Lives of tlie Painters," etc.; Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" Malvasia, " Felsina pittrice ;" Crispi, "Vite de' Pittori Bolognesi," 1769; Bryan, "Dictionary of Painters," under Reni ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Guido, (Alessandro.) See Guidl Guido, goo-ee'do, (Guerra,) an Italian soldier, was one of the principal leaders of the Guelph faction in Florence. He commanded the Florentine forces in the victorious campaign of 1254, and upon the arrival of Charles of Anjou in Naples joined him with four hun- dred men, and had a prominent part in gaining the victory of Grandella, (1266.) Dante has assigned to a, e, 1, o, u, y, lon^-; i, ^ sanie^ less po-olonged; a, e, T, 0, u, y, short; a, e,i, q^obscure; fir, f^ll, ikv, mhX\ ndt; good; moon; GUIDO 1097 GUILLAUME Guido a jjlace in his " Inferno," at the same time highly commending his abilities. See SisMONDi, " Histoire des Repiibliques Italiennes," vol. iii. Guido, (NovELLO,) a Florentine general of the Ghibel- ine faction. He assisted in gaining the victory of Arbia, in 1260. Guido, (Ubaldo,) Marquis, an Italian mathema- tician, born at Urbino about 1540, wrote the "Theory of Universal Planispheres," (in Latin,) and other works, which are commended by Montucla. Died about 1600. See Montucla, "Histoire des Mathematiques." Guido (or Gui, goo-ee') d'Arezzo, goo-ee'do di- r^t'so, an eminent Italian musician and ecclesiastic, born about 990. He was the inventor of the modern system of notation in music, and founded a school at Pomposa, in which he taught the new method with great success. See IkjRNEV, "General History of Music;" Fetis, "Biographic Universelle des Miisiciens." Guido Canlassi, goo-ee'do kSn-lis'see, called also Cagnacci, (kin-yat'chee,) an Italian historical painter, born near Rimini in 1601, was a pupil of Guido Reni. He worked many years for the emperor Leopold I. Died in Vienna in 1681. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Guido da Siena, goo-ee'do di se-a'nS, or Guidone da Ghezzo, goo-e-do'ni dS. get'so, an Italian painter of the early part of the thirteenth century. His " Madonna and Child," in the church of the Dominicans at Sienna, is esteemed one of the finest works of the time. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. Guido delle Colonne, goo-ee'do deKli ko-lon'ni, [Lat. De Colum'nis,] a Sicilian historian and poet of the thirteenth century, wrote a " History of the Trojan War," ("Historia Trojana,") which enjoyed a great reputation in its time and has been translated into nearly all the languages of Europe. It is said to have been the original of Boccaccio's " Filostrato," and, consequently, of Shakspeare's "Troilus and Cressida." See TiRABOScni, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Guidobono, goo-e-do-bo'no, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian painter, called "the Priest of Savona," born at that town in 1654 ; died in 1709. Guidonis, ge'do'n^ss', (Bernard,) a French Domin- ican monk, born near Limoges about 1260. He was created Bishop of Lodeve in 1324. He wrote "Annals of the Pontiffs," and other works. Died in 133 1. Guidotti-Borghese, goo-e-dot'tee boR-ga'si, (Pao- lo,) an Italian painter, sculptor, and architect, born at Lucca about 1565, was patronized by Pope Sixtus V., who employed him to paint the Vatican. He was after- wards appointed by PauJ V. conservator of the Museum of the Capitol. Died in 1629. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Guienne,(ELEONoRE de.) See Eleanor of Guienne. Guiemie, de, deh ge'en', (N.,) a French lawyer of the Parliament of Paris, born at Orleans ; died in 1767. Guignard, ghWytv.', (Jean,) a French Jesuit, sur- named Briquakel, (bRe'ki'rgK,) was executed for high treason in 1595 for having openly justified the attempted assassination of Henry IV. by Chatel. See SisMONDi, "Histoire des Frangais," vol. xxi. Guignes, de, deh g^n, (Chretien Louis Joseph,) a French Orientalist, born in Paris in 1759, was a son of Joseph, noticed below. He was appointed French resi- dent in China in 1784. and returned to France about 1800. He published "Voyages to Peking and Manilla," (3 vols., 1808,) and a " Chinese-French-Latin Dictionary," (1813.) Died in 1845. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire;" "London Quarterly Re- view" for November, 1809. Guignes, de, (Joseph,) an eminent French Oriental- ist, born at Pontoise in 1721. He became professor of Syriac in the College Royale in 1757, having previously been elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in London, and a member of the x^cademy of Inscriptions in Paris. He was afterwards appointed royal censor, and keeper of the antiques of the Louvre. He was the author of a "General History of the Huns, Turks, Mongols, and other Western Tartars," etc., (1756,) "Historical Me- moir on the Origin of the Huns and Turks," " History of China," and other works, which enjoy a high reputa- tion for learning and accuracy. Died in Paris in i8oo. See Qu^RARD, "La France Litteraire;" "London Quarterly Review" for April, 11815. Guigniaut, g^n'ye-o', (Joseph Daniel,) an eminent French scholar and antiquary, born at Paray-le-Monial in May, 1794. He became a director of the Normal School, a member of the Institute in 1837, and professor of history in the College de France in 1854. His chief work is "The Religions of Antiquity, considered princi- pally in their Symbolical and Mythological Forms," (3 tomes, in 10 vols., 1825-51,) which is a translation of Creuzer's " Symbolik," with additions. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Guignon, g6n'y6N', (Jean,) a distinguished violin- ist, born at Turin in 1702, was appointed musician to the royal chapel in Paris. Pie composed a number of sonatas and concertos. Died in 1774. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Guijon, ge'zhoN', (Jean,) a French scholar and natu- ralist, born in 1544, became professor of rhetoric and languages in the College of Navarre. He published several scientific works, and a number of Latin poems. Died in 1605. Guilandinus, gwe-lin-dee'nus, or Guilandini, gwe- ISn-dee'nee, (Melchior,) a German naturalist, whose proper name was Wieland, was born at Konigsberg. He became professor of botany at Padua on the death of Fallopius, and wrote, in Latin, "Papyrus; or, A Commentary on the Three Chapters of Pliny the Elder concerning Papyrus," (1572.) Died in 1589. See De Thou, " Histoire ;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." Guilbert, g^rbaiR', (Pierre,) a French writer., born in Paris in 1697, was the author of "Chronological and Historical Memoirs of Port-Royal." Died in 1759. Guilbert de Pixerecpurt, g^l'baiR' deh p^k'si'rk'- kooR', (Ren6 Charles,) a French dramatist, born at Nancy in 1773. He wrote many vaudevilles and melo- dramas. Died in 1844. Guild, gild, (William,) a Scottish divine, born at Aberdeen in 1586. He became one of the ministers of Aberdeen in 1631, and principal of King's College in 1640. For devotion to the royal cause he was deposed in 165 1. He wrote, besides other works, "The Har- mony of all the Prophets concerning Christ's Coming," (1619,) and "Moses Unveiled," (1620.) Died in 1657. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Guildford, Earl of. See North. Guilhelmus Pictavensis. See Guillaume de Poitiers. Guilhem de Castro. See Castro. Guilhem de Clermont-Lodeve. See Sainte- Croix, (Guillaume Emanuel Joseph.) Guillain, ge'yiN', (Simon,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1581. Among his best works are the statues in the church of the Sorbonne, and those of the Virgin and Saint Francis de Paulo in the convent of Minims. Guillain was one of the founders of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture, and one of its first rectors. Died in 1658. See Lenoir, "Musee des Monuments Frangais," vol. v. Guillard, g^l'ytR' or ge'ytR', (Nicolas Franqois,) a French dramatist and lyric poet, born at Chartres in 1752. He brought out "Iphigenia in Tauris," a lyric tragedy, (1779,) and "Gidipus at Colona," which were greatly admired. Died in 1814. Guillaume, ge^yom', sometimes called Frere Guil- laume, a French artist, skilled in painting on glass, was born at Marseilles in 1475. was patronized by Pope Julius II., who employed him in various works at Rome. "His paintings on the windows of the Vatican and in the church of the Madonna del Popolo are ranked airong the finest productions of the kind. He also excelled as an architect and painter in fresco. Died in 1537. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. Guillaume, sur named Longue-Ep^ie, (16Ng'^'pi',) (Long-Sword,) son of Rollo, Duke of Normandy, suc- ceeded his father about 927. He became one of the most powerful vassals of the crown of France. He was treach- erously killed by Arnould, Count of Flanders, in 943. ■f- € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; o, h, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) GUILLAUME 1098 GUIRAUD Guillaume, Saint, surnamed the Great, a French ecclesiastic and military commander, served under Char- lemagne against the Saracens, and received from him the title ot Duke of Aquitaine. In 808 he founded in the valley of Gellone a monastery, since called that of Saint Guillaume in the Desert. His deeds were celebrated in a metrical romance of the ninth century. Died in 812. See Baillet, "Vies des Saints." Guillaume, Saint, a French theologian, became Archbishop of Bourges. He died in 1209, and was can- onized by Pope Honorius III. in 1218. Guillaume d' Auvergne, ge'yom' do'vinn', or Guil- laume de Paris, a celebrated French theologian and philosopher, born at Aurillac, was created Bishop of Paris in 1228. He was one of the most learned men of his time, and wrote several Latin works distinguished for the purity and elegance of the style. Died in 1249. See " Histoire litteraire de la France." Guillaume de Chartres, ge'y5m' deh shtRtR, a French ecclesiastic and historian, born at Chartres about 1225. He was chaplain to Louis IX., whom he accom- panied on his expeditions to Palestine, and was present at his death in 1270. He wrote a supplement to the " Vita Sancti Ludovici" (" Life of Saint Louis") begun by Geoffroy (or Galfrid) de Beaulieu. Died about 1280. See " Histoire litteraire de la France," vol. ix. ; Bollandus, "Acta Sanctorum." Guillaume de Jumieges, ge'yom' deh zhii^me-^zh', a French historian and ecclesiastic, who lived about 1070, wrote a "History of the Normans," {" Historiae Normannorum Libri VII.,") which he dedicated to Wil- liam the Conqueror. It has been published in Camden's "Angliae Scriptores" and Duchesne's " Normannorum Antiqui Scriptores," (1619.) Guillaume de Poitiers, ge'yom' deh pwi'te-i', [Lat. Guilhel'mus Pictaven'sis,] a French or Norman chronicler, born in Normandy in 1020, was chaplain to the Duke William afterwards King of England. His principal work is a " History of William the Conqueror," (in Latin,) which is not all extant. Guillaume de Pouille. See Guglielmo d'Apulia. Guillaume le Breton, ge'y5m' leh bReh-t6N', or Bri'to-Ar-mo'ri-cus, a French chronicler and poet, born in Brittany about I165, was chaplain to Philip Augustus, He was the author of "Historia de Vita et Gestis Philippi Augusti," ("Life and Deeds of Philip Augustus,") and a poem entitled the " Philippide." See NiCERON, "Memoires." Guillaumet, ge'y5'mi', (Tanneguy (ttn'ge') or Th6- VENIN, tav'nclN',) born at Nimes about 1560, became surgeon to Henry IV., and published several medical works. Died in 1630. Guillaumot, ge'y5'mo', (Charles Axel,) a Swedish architect, of French extraction, born at Stockholm in 1730. Having visited Paris in 1754, he was appointed, on the death of Saufiot, intendant-general of the royal buildings, gardens, etc. Died in 1807. Guillem or Guilhem de Castro. See Castro. Guillemain, ge'ye-mclN' or germS,N', ( Charles Jacob,) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1750. His comedies are very numerous, and enjoyed a temporary popularity. Died in 1799. Guillemeau, ge'ye-mo' or gM'mo', (Jacques,) an emi- nent French surgeon, born at Orleans about 1530, was a pupil of Ambrose Pare. He became successively sur- geon-in-ordinary to Charles IX., Henry III., and Henry IV. He published, among other works, a treatise " On Diseases of the Eye." Died in 1613. Guillemeau, (Jean Louis Marie,) a French natu- ralist and physician, born at Niort in 1766, wrote many works on botany, ornithology, etc. Died about 1850. Guillemin, ge^ye-miN' or g^rmiN', (Jean Antoine,) a French botanist, born at Pouilly-sur-Saone in 1796. He made a scientific voyage to Brazil in 1838. Died at Montpellier in 1842. Guilleminot, de, deh g^'ye-me^'no' or g^rme^no', (Armand Charles,) Comte, "a French general and diplomatist, born at Dunkirk in 1774. He served under General Moreau in Italy and on the Rhine, made the Russian campaign of 1812, and became general of divi- sion in 1813. He was sent as ambassador to Constanti- nople in 1824. Died in 1840. Guilleragues, ge'ye-rSg' or gkYxtg', (Gabriel Jo- seph,) Comte de Lavergne, a French litterateur z.x\d diplo- matist, born at Bordeaux. He was sent as ambassador to the Ottoman court in 1679, and died at Constanti- nople in 1684. His work entitled "Embassies of Count de Guilleragues and M. de Girardin to the Grand Sei- gneur" was published in 1687. He was an intimate friend of Boileau, who dedicated to him his fifth Epistle. See "Lettres de Madame de Sevigne ;" Saint-Simon, "Md- moires." Guillet de Saint-Georges, g^'yk' deh s^N'zhoRzh', (Georges,) a French writer, born in Auvergne about 1625. He was a member, and the first historiographer, of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture. He was the author of " Athens, Ancient and Modern, and the Present State of the Turkish Empire," and several other works. Died in 1705. Guillim, gwiKliin, } (John,) an English writer on heraldry, was born in Herefordshire about 1565. He wrote " The Display of Heraldry," (1610.) Died in 1621. Guillon, ge'y6N', (L. Gabriel,) a French surgeon, born near Tours in 1798. He invented several instru- ments and methods of surgery. Guillon, (Marie Nicolas Silvestre, ) Abb6, a French ecclesiastic, born in Paris in 1760. He was professor of rhetoric and theology in Paris, and was appointed Bishop of Morocco in 1833. Among his numerous works is a " History of Ancient and Modern Philosophy," (1835.) Died in 1847. See QuEKARD, "La France Litteraire." Guillon de Montleon, ge'y6N' deh m6N'la'6N', (AiME,) a French historical and theological writer, born at Lyons in 1758. He became keeper of the Mazarin Library, Paris, in 1816. Among his works is " Historical Memoirs of Lyons," (3 vols., 1824.) Died in 1842. Guillotine, gil-lo-teen', [Fr. pron. ge^yo't^n',] (Jo- seph Ignace,) a French physician, born at Saintes in 1738. He was a deputy in 1789 to the States-General, where he proposed, as a humane measure, to substitute decapitation for other modes of punishment. He was not, however, the inventor of the machine called by his name. He was one of the founders of the Academy of Medicine in Paris. Died in 1814. See "]£loge funebre de Guillotine," 1814; Croker, "The Guil- lotine: an Historical Essay." Guillou, ge'yoo', (Jean Ren^,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Chateaudun in 1730, was the author of a "Fune- ral Oration for the Dauphin," which was greatly admired. Died in 1776. Guimet, ge'mk', (Jean Baptiste,) a French chemist, born at Voiron in 1795, discovered the art of making artificial ultramarine in 1826. Guinand, ge'nSN', a Swiss optician, born about 1745. He discovered the art of fabricating large flint-glass discs for telescopes, and became a partner or assistant of Fraunhofer. Died in 1824 or 1825. Guinet, ge'na', (FRANgois,) a French jurist and legal writer, born at Nancy in 1604; died in 1681. Guinicelli, goo-e-ne-chel'lee, (Guido,) an Italian poet, born at Bologna, is eulogized by Dante in his " Purgatorio," canto xxvi. Died in 1276. Guiniforte, goo-e-ne-foR'ti, an Italian scholar and orator, born at Pavi'a in 1406, was surnamed Barzizza or Barzizzio. Died about 1460, Guinigi, goo-e-nee'jee, (Paolo,) an Italian nobleman of the Guelph faction, who in 1400 made himself master of the city of Lucca. After a rule of thirty years, he was dispossessed of his power by the Duke of Milan, and died, after two years' imprisonment, in 1431. Guiot, ge'o', (Joseph Andre,) a French ecclesiastic and Latin poet, born at Rouen in 1739; died in 1807. Guiran, ge'rfiN', (Gaillard, gt'ySR',) a French jurist and antiquary, born at Nimes in 1600 ; died in 1680. Guiraud, ge'ro', (Pierre Marie Th^rese Alex- andre,) Baron, a French poet and dramatist, born at Limoux in 1788. He wrote two successful tragedies, in verse, entitled " Les Machabees," (1822,) and "Count Julien," (1822,) and other works. He was elected to the French Academy in 1826. Died in 1847. S, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fSll, f^t; m6t; nSt; good; moon; GUIRJUDET 1099 GUISE Guiraudet, ge'r6'di',(CHARLES Philippe Toussaint — too'sdN',) a French statesman and writer, born at Alais in 1754, became secretary -general of the ministry of foreign affairs under the Directory. Died in 1804. Guiscard, g^s'ktR', [Lat. Guiscar'dus,] (Robert,) a celebrated military commander, born in Normandy, was one of the sons of Tancred de Hauteville. He assisted his brother Humphrey in the conquest of Calabria, and on his death (1057) proclaimed himself Count of Apulia. Pope Nicholas II., who had previously excommunicated him, now created him Duke of Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily. In 1081 he marched against the Greek emperor Alexius, whom he defeated at Durazzo in 1084. He soon after liberated Pope Gregory VII., who had been imprisoned at Saint Angelo. Died in 1085. See Mala-Terra, "DeGestis Roberti Guiscardi," 1578 ; " Nou- velle Biographic Gen^rale," Guiscardus. See Guiscard, (Robert.) Guischard, ge'shtR', (Karl Gottlieb,) a Prussian officer, born at Magdeburg in 1724, was a favourite of Frederick the Great, who gave him the name of Quintus Icilius. He served in the Seven Years' war, and rose to the rank of colonel. He wrote, in French, an inter- esting work entitled " Military Memoirs of the Greeks and Romans," in which he has exposed the errors of Folard. Died in 1775. Guise, giz, ? (William,) an English divine and Ori- entalist, born near Gloucester in 1653 ; died in 1683. Guise, de, deh gweez, (or gii-^z',) (Antoinette de Bourbon — deh boor^b^N',) Duchesse, a French lady, eminent for her piety and benevolence, born in 1493, was the daughter of Francis de Bourbon, Count of Ven- dome, and the wife of Claude de Lorraine, Duke of Guise. Died in 1583. See HiLARioN de Coste, "Vies des Dames illustres." Guise, de, (Catherine de Cleves — deh kliv,) Duchesse, born in 1547, was a daughter of the Duke of Nevers, and was married to Henry, first Duke of Guise, in 1570. She was chiefly instrumental in procuring the submission of the Guises to Henry IV. Died in 1633. See Varillas. "Histoire de Henri III." Guise, de, (Charles,) Cardinal de Lorraine, born at Joinville in 1525, was a son of Claude, first Duke of Guise. He became Archbishop of Rheims in 1538, and cardinal in 1547, and was subsequently minister of finance under Francis II. and Charles IX. In 1569 he negotiated the marriage of the latter with Elizabeth of Austria. He was conspicuous, even in that age of persecution, for his intolerance and bitter hostility to the Protestants, and was one of the chief promoters of the civil wars of the time. He made several attempts to introduce the In- quisition into France, and he is believed to have approved of the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, although absent at the time. Cardinal Lorraine is represented by Bran- tome and other contemporary writers as possessed of eminent abilities, but false, cruel, and ambitious. They admit, however, that he was a liberal patron of learning, and that he did a great deal to check the usurpations of the Papal See. Died in 1574. See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" BrantSme, "Vies des grands Capitaines ;" " Memoires de Conde," 1743. Guise, de, (Charles de Lorraine,) Due, eldest son of Henry of Guise and Catherine of Cleves, noticed above, was born in 1 571. On the assassination of his father, in 1588, he was imprisoned at Tours. Having made his escape in I59i,.he entered the service of Henry IV., and in 1596 besieged and recaptured the city of Marseilles. In 163 1 he was obliged by Richelieu to leave the king- dom. Died in 1640. Guise, de, deh gweez, [Fr. pron. gii-^z',] (Claude de Lorraine,) first Duke, born in 1496, was the younger son of Rene II., Duke of Lorraine. He became a citizen of France, and married Antoinette de Bourbon, about 15 14. He served in the army with distinction at Marignano and other places, and was created Duke of Guise by Francis I. He died about 1550, leaving many children, among whom were Francis, Duke of Guise, Charles, (the Car- dinal de Lorraine,) and a daughter, Mary, who became queen of James V. of Scotland. See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Guise, de, (Francois de Lorraine,) Duke, a promi- nent leader of the Catholic party in France, and one of the greatest commanders of his time, was born in 15 19. He was a son of Claude, first Duke of Guise, and An- toinette de Bourbon, and a brother of the cardinal, noticed above. Having previously gained important victories at Landrecies and other places, he raised his reputation to the highest point by his defence of Metz in 1553 against Charles V., who was forced to retire with the loss of 30,000 men. Soon after the battle of Saint-Quentin, in 1557, he was appointed by Henry 11. lieutenant-general of the kingdom and invested with almost absolute power. The capture of Calais from the English in 1558, and the subsequent victories at Guines and Thionville, justified the confidence reposed in him, and made him more than ever the idol of the nation. In conjunction with his brother the cardinal, he defeated the conspiracy of Am- boise, formed by the Prince of Conde and other Prot- estant leaders. He had a prominent share in the victory at Dreux, where he took the Prince of Conde prisoner. At the siege of Orleans, soon after, he was assassinated by a Calvinist, named Poltrot de Merey, in 1563. He was the author of "Memoires," which are valuable and interesting records of his time. See Davila, "History of the Civil Wars of France ;" Brant6me, "Vies des grands Capitaines;" DuTrousset de Valincoi;rt, "Vie de Franfois de Lorraine," 1668; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" L'Estoile, "Journal de Henri III;" "Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale." Guise, de, (FRANgois Joseph de Lorraine,) seventh and last Duke, was born in 1670; died in 1675. The family of Guise became extinct in 1688. Guise, de, (Henry I. of Lorraine,) Duke, eldest son of Francis, Duke of Guise, born in 1550, was a cousin of Mary, Queen of Scots. He inherited in a great degree the talents and accomplishments of his father, and even surpassed him in his bitter opposition to the Protestants. When less than nineteen years of age, he defended Poi- tiers against Coligny, and soon after had a share in the victory of Moncontour, (i 569.) At the battle of Dormans he received a wound on the cheek, from which he was surnamed Balafr^, or the " Scarred." He was one of the instigators of the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew in 1572, and was concerned in the murder of Coligny. In 1576, Henry of Guise, with his brother, the Cardinal de Guise, headed the faction called the League, osten- sibly formed for the defence of the Catholic religion and the king, but really designed to assist the family of Guise in usurping the royal power. On the accession of Henry III. the Duke of Guise prevailed upon him to adopt more severe measures against the Protestants. The king, however, becoming weary of the arrogance of the Guises, forbade the duke to appear at court, where- upon he openly revolted, and in May, 1588, on the "day of the Barricades," entered Paris with his troops, dis- armed the Swiss guard, and obliged the king to abandon his capital. Henry III. soon after summoned the States- General at Blois, where the Duke of Guise demanded to be appointed constable and lieutenant-general of the kingdom. The king now, in conjunction with several of his courtiers, resolved to take the life of the duke; and, as the latter entered the king's apartment, he was dispatched by the daggers of the assassins, in De- cember, 1588. See L'Estoile, "Journal de Henri III;" Brant6me, "Viede I'Admiral de Chastillon ;" Enrico Catering Davila, " La Sera di S. Bartolommeo e la Morte del Duca di Guisa," 1828 ; I)avila, " His- tory of the Civil Wars in France ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Guise, de, (Henry II. of Lorraine,) Duke, and Prince de Joinville, born at Blois in 1614, was the son of Charles IV., Duke of Guise. He joined the conspiracy of the Count of Soissons against the French government in 1 641, and was condemned to death, but escaped. In 1647 he went to the assistance of the Neapolitans, who had revolted against Spain. Being made generalissimo of their army, he took Naples, which, however, was soon recovered by the Spaniards, and the Duke of Guise taken prisoner. After his release he was appointed, in 1655, high chamberlain of France. He died in 1664, leaving "Memoirs," which were published in 1668. See Tallemant de Reaux, " Historiettes ;" "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." € as k; 9 as j; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^="See Explanations, p. 23.) GUISE I loo GULDENSTADT Guise, de, (Jean de Lorraine,) Cardinal, brother of Claude, noticed above, was born in 1498. He was sent on an embassy to the emperor Charles V. in 1536. He obtained the archbishoprics of Lyons, Rheims, and Narbonne, and various other preferments, and was dis- tinguished for his munificence and extensive charities. Died in 1550. See De Thou, "Histoire universelle," vol. 1., 1734; Sismondi, " Histoire des Frangais." Guise, de, (Louis L de Lorraine,) Cardinal, brother of Francis and of the cardinal Charles de Lor- raine, was born in 1527. He was successively appointed Bishop of Troyes and of Alby, and Archbishop of Sens, being made a cardinal in 1553. Died in 1578. Guise, de, (Louis H. de Lorraine,) Cardinal, son of Francis, Duke of Guise, born at Dampierre in 1555. He succeeded his uncle as Archbishop of Rheims, and in 1578 was made a cardinal. Having been associated with his brother Henry L, Duke of Guise, as one of the chiefs of the League, he was, on the death of the latter, imprisoned, and a few days after assassinated, (1588.) See L'EsTOiLE, "Journal de Henri III." Guise, de, (Louis HL de Lorraine,) Cardinal, son of Henry L de Lorraine, was born about 1580. He obtained numerous benefices in the Church, and was created a cardinal by Paul V. in 1615. Died in 1621. Guiton, ge't6N', (Jean,) a French Huguenot, who was admiral and mayor of Rochelle in 1627, when that city was besieged by the royalists. He surrendered in 1628. Died in 1654, aged about seventy years. Guittone d'Arezzo, goo-6t-to'ni dd-rgt'so, an Italian poet, born at Arezzo about 1230, was one of the chief reformers of Italian literature in that age. Died in 1294. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Guizot, gii-e'zo' or ge'zo', (Elisabeth Charlotte Pauline de Meulan — deh muh'lSN',) a P^ench au- thoress, born in Paris in 1773, was left by the death of her father with no resources but her talents. She produced in 1800 an ingenious and sprightly work of fiction, en- titled " The Contradictions," and, by her contributions to Suard's literary journal "Le Publiciste," gained distinc- tion as a critic and a moralist. She was married to M. Guizot in 1812. Among her works are " Domestic Edu- cation," (2 vols., 1826,) and "A Family," (" Une Famille," 1828.) Died in 1827. See Sainte-Beuve, "Portraits of Celebrated Women;" " Nou- velle Biographie Gdnerale." Guizot, gwe'zo' or gil-e'zo',* (Francois Pierre Guil- Laume,) a distinguished French statesman and historian, born at Nimes on the 4th of October, 1787, was a son of an able advocate who fell a victim to the reign of terror in 1794. Having been educated as a Protestant at Geneva, he went to Paris in 1805, and published an edition of Gibbon's History, in French, about 1810. He married Pauline de Meulan, noticed above, and was appointed professor of modern history at the Sorbonne by Fon- tanes, in 1812. He defended constitutional principles in a pamphlet "On Representative Government and the Present State of France," (1816,) became a leader of the party called Doctrinaires, and councillor of state in 181 7. In 1822 he was suspended from his functions as professor, because his principles were offensive to the ministry. In 1828 he founded the " Revue Frangaise," and was reinstated in the chair of history. He acquired much celebrity as a lecturer, and formed with Cousin and Villemain a triumvirate of professors. His lectures were published with the title of a " History of Civiliza- tion," (5th edition, 5 vols., 1845.) He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies from Lisieux in January, 1830, and promoted the accession of Louis Philippe, who appointed him minister of the interior on the ist of August. His ministry (the policy _ * So pronounced by M. Guizot himself, as stated in a letter from him, now before us. He says, "Dans mon pays natal, la ville de Nimes, on prononce mon nom ghi-zo. A Paris on dit en general gwi-zo ; et je crois cette prononciation plus correcte." A near rela- tive, however, of the great French historian and statesman takes a different view of the question. He says the name of his family is always pronounced ghi-zo in the south of France, where the name originated ; and he maintains, with great appearance of reason, that the invariable usage of the people of Nimes ought to be decisive as to the pronunciation of un nom Nivtois. of which was styled juste milieu) was dissolved in November, 1830. In October, 1832, Guizot became minister of public instruction in the cabinet of Marshal Soult. While in this office, he rendered an important service to the public by organizing a system of primary schools. He was compelled to resign in February, 1830, when his rival Thiers obtained power for a brief term* He was elected to the French Academy in 1836. In 1838 Guizot and Thiers (who had been superseded by Count Mole) formed a coalition, which was regarded by many as discreditable to the former. He was sent as ambassador to London in February, 1840. On the 29th of October, 1840, he became minister of foreign affairs, and really prime minister, in a cabinet of which Soult was nominally president. He maintained himself in power until the revolution of February, 1848, which was pro- voked partly by his inflexible resistance to electoral reform. He escaped in disguise to England, wrote a pamphlet on " Democracy in France," and returned to his native country in 1849 ; after which, it is said, he favoured a fusion between the two parties of Legitimists and Or- leanists. Among his principal works are an excellent " History of the Revolution in England, from the Acces- sion of Charles L to that of Charles II.," (•* Histoire de la Revolution d'Angleterre," etc., 6 vols., 1827-56,) and "Memoirs to illustrate the History of my Time," ("Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire de mon Temps,") of which four or more volumes have appeared. These have been translated into English. He is generally considered to be more successful as a historian than he was as a statesman. He has also shown himself to be an effective and imposing parliamentary orator. "Among this band of great and honourable men," says the "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1858, "we think that M. Guizot will retain in history, as he has occupied in life, the first and highest place. Other writers, gifted with livelier powers of imagination and appealing more directly to the sentiment of their contemporaries, may, like Chateaubriand, have exercised for a time a more powerful influence on the literature of France. . . .Other statesmen have enjoyed far more of popular sympathy in their day. But in the depth and variety of his literary labours, which have enlarged the philosophy of history, in the force and precision of his oratory, which at one swoop could bend an assembly or crush a foe, and in the systematic consistency of his whole political life, . . . M. Guizot has had no equal, either in his own country or, as far as we know, in any other." Comparing him with Burke and Pitt, the same critic adds, "In M. Guizot the speculative genius of the one was united to the practical authority of the other; and, though each of these great Englishmen may have possessed his own peculiar qualification in a still higher degree, Guizot stands before them both in the rare union of the con- templative and active faculties." See Louis de Lomi^nie, "M. Guizot, par un Homme de Rien," 1844; Thomas Descherf.s, "Biographie de M. Guizot," 1843; Victor Vernruil, " M. Guizot, par un Homme du Peuple," 1846; Gatnet, " fitudes critiques sur les Travaux historiques de M. Guizot," 1851 : " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale ;" " London Quar- terly Review" for December. 1848, January, 1854, July, 1856, and January, 1868; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1849: " Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 18^57; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1845; "Fraser's Magazine" for December, 1844. Guldberg, go61rt"b§RG, (Frfdertk Hoegh,) son of the following, was born at Copenhagen in 1 771. He wrote a number of lyric and elegiac poems, and made good metrical translations of Plautus, Tibulliis, and Terence. He lived many years at Kiel. Died in 1852. See Er«;i.ew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." Guldberg, (Ove Hoegh, o'veh ho'5g,) an eminent Danish historian, statesman, and theologian, born at Horsen in 1 73 1. He was the author of a " History of the World," (1768,) "Determination of the Dates of the Books of the New Testament," (1785,) and "Translation of the New Testament, with Notes." He was minister of state from 1775 to 1784. Died in 1808. See H. P. GiEssiNG. "Struensee og Guldberg, etc.; historisk Skildring," 1848; Kraft og Nyekup, " Litteraturlexicon." Giildeiistadt or Gueldenstaedt, gUlMen-st^t', (An- ton JoHANN,) a Russian physician and naturalist, of e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; ^, j, o, obscure; ftr, fSll, fit; m^t; n't; good; moon; GULDIN I lOI GU ROW SKI German extraction, was born at Riga in 1745. He ac- companied in 1768 a scientific expedition sent out by Catherine II. to explore the different parts of Russia and the Caucasus. He died in 1781, and his "Travels in Russia and the Mountains of the Caucasus" was published in 1 791, (2 vols,, in German.) See Bernoulli, "Reisen." Guldin, go61-deen',[Lat. Guldi'nus,] (Paul,) a Swiss mathematician, born at Saint Gall in 1577. He wrote a treatise " On the Centre of Gravity," in which he is thought to have borrowed from Pappus. He opposed the method of indivisibles invented by Cavalieri. Died in 1643. See MoNTUCLA, "Histoire des Mathematiques." Guldinus. See Guldin. GiiFlj^, (James Manby,) an English physician, born at Kingston, Jamaica, in 1808. He removed about 1842 to Malvern, in England, where he practised hydropathy. He published several medical works. Gum'mer-e, (John,) a mathematician, born at Wil- low Grove, Pennsylvania, in 1 784, published a valuable treatise on Surveying, (1814,) and became professor of mathematics at Haverford College in 1833. Died in 1845. See "Memorials of J. Gummere," by William J. Allinson, Burlington, 1845. Gundegisilus. See Gond^gisile. Gundericus. See Gondioc. Giinderode or Guenderode, von, fon giin'deh-ro'- deh, (Caroline,) a German poetess, born at Carlsruhe in 1780. Her works are distinguished for great powers of fancy, but are frequently tinctured with melancholy. A disappointment in love caused her to commit suicide in 1806. Her friend Bettina Brentano published, in 1840, " The Giinderode Letters," consisting of the correspond- ence which passed between herself and Mademoiselle Giinderode. Gundicarius. See Gondtcatre. Gundling, goont'ling, (Nikolaus Hteronymus,) a German jurist and litterateur, born near Nuremberg in 1671. He became professor of the law of nature and of nations at Halle, and was afterwards made privy coun- cillor. Among his works are " The Way to Truth," (" Via ad V eritatem," 3 vols., 1713,) a collection of essays, entitled "Gundlingiana," (1715-32,) and a " History of Erudition," (5 vols., 1734-36.) Died in 1729. See WiDEBURG, "Memoria Giindlingii," 1729; C. F. Hempel, " N. H. Gundling's urastandliches Leben und Schriften," 1736; Ni- CERON, "Memoires;" Rambach, " Leichenpredigt auf N. H. Gund- ling," 1729. Gundling, von, fon gdont'ling, (Jacob Paul,) Baron, a German historian and court fool, born near Nuremberg in 1673. He received from the King of Prussia the titles of baron, privy councillor, councillor of war, etc. He amused the court at Berlin by his oddities and vanity. He wrote a '* History of the Emperors Frederick I., Henry VII., and Conrad IV.," (4 vols., 1715-19,) and other works. Died in 1731. See A. B. Koenig. "Leben J. P. von Gundlings," etc., 1795. Gundobald. See Gondebaud. Gun'dulf, a Norman ecclesiastic, who was appointed Bishop of Rochester by William the Conqueror. He was the architect of Rochester Castle, and is said to have built the Tower of London. Died about 1108. Gundulitsch.goon'doo-litch', (Ivan,) a distinguished poet, born at Ragusa, in Servia, in 1588. He wrote an epic poem, entitled "The Osmanide," celebrating the war between Osman II. and the Poles ; also several admired dramas. He was the earliest dramatic poet among the Slavonians. Died in 1638. Gunds. See GANfcsA. Guunerus, goon-na'rus, (John Ernest,) a Norwegian prelate and naturalist, born at Christiania in 1718, was one of the founders of the Scientific Society of Norway. He was the author of a" Flora Norvegica," and other works, and was a friend of Linnaeus, who gave the name of Gun- nera to a South American plant. He was created Bishop of Drontheim in 1758. Died in 1773. Gun'ning, (Peter,) an English pulpit orator, born in Kent in 1613, rose to be Bishop of Ely under Charles II. He published several controversial works. Died in 1684. Gunst, van, vtn giinst or Hunst, (Pieter,) a skilful Dutch engraver of portraits, born at Amsterdam about 1566. Among his works are engravings of portraits after Van Dyck, dated about 17 15 or later. Gun'ter, (Edmund,) an eminent English mathema- tician, born in Hertfordshire in 1581. About 1606 he invented the sector, of which he wrote a description in Latin ; and in 1619 he became professor of astronomy at Gresham College. He also invented the Logarithmic Rule for the use of draughtsmen, called " Gunter's Scale," the cross-staff, and other instruments, and the " Canon Triangulorum," (" Law of Triangles.") Gunter is said to have been the first to discover the variation of the compass. Died in 1626. See MoNTUCLA, "Histoire des Mathematiques." Giinther, gun'ter, (Anton,) a German Catholic theo- logian, born at Lindenau in 1785. He published " Pre- paratory School of Speculative Theology," " The Juste- Milieu in the German Philosophy of the Present," and other treatises in opposition to Hegel's philosophy. Giinther, (Johann Christian,) a German poet, born in Lower Silesia in 1695, wrote poetical epistles, satires, songs, and odes, which display uncommon power and were eulogized by Goethe. He fell into dissipated habits, and died in extreme poverty in 1723. See his Autobiography, "Lebens- und Reisebeschreibung," etc., 1732; M. W. DoRiNG, "J. C. Giinther; Beitrag zur Deutschen Li- teratiir-Geschichte," 1831 ; Hoffmann von Fallersleben, "J. C. Giinther; literar-historischer Versuch," 1832. Giinther von Schwarzburg, gun'ter fon shwSRts'- booRG, a warlike German prince, born in 1304. He was elected King of the Germans in 1343, and Emperor of Germany in January, 1349. His title to the imperial throne was disputed by Charles IV. Gunther died in June, 1349. See F. L. Hoffmann, "Gunther von Schwarzburg," 1819; We- ber, " Kurzgefasstes Memoire vom Leben Giinther! Bellicosi," 1720. Gurlitt, gdoR'lit, (Johann Gottfried,) a German archaeologist, born at Halle in 1754, wrote "On the Sci- ence of Gems," and other works. Died in 1827. Gtlr'nall, (William,) an English divine, born in 1617. He became rector of Lavenham in 1644, and remained there thirty-five years. He published "The Christian in Complete Armour," (3 vols., 1656-62.) Died in 1679. Giir'ney, (Hudson,) M.P,, an English antiquary and poet, born about 1774. He produced a good translation of the "Golden Ass" of Apuleius, entitled "Cupid and Psyche," (1799.) Died in 1864. Gurney, (Rev. John Hampden,) an English divine of the present age. He published several volumes of sermons, (1845-57,) and "Historical Sketches, 1400- 1546," (1852, second series, 1855, and third series, 1858.) He died in 1862, aged about sixty years. Gurney, (Joseph John,) an English philanthropist and minister of the Society of Friends, born near Nor- wich in 1788. He studied at Oxford, where he was dis- tinguished for his attainments in mathematics and the ancient languages. In 1841, in company with his sister, the celebrated Mrs, Fry, he set out on a tour on the con- tinent, with the view of introducing improvements into prison-discipline and of inducing the French govern- ment to abolish slavery in their colonies. He was the author of " Notes and Dissertations on the Bible," " Ob- servations on the Distinguishing Views, etc. of the So- ciety of Friends," " Hints on the Portable Evidence of Christianity," and other valuable works. He possessed great wealth, of which he made a most liberal use, both in public and private charities. In 1837-39 he visited the United States and the West Indies, and wrote "A Winter in the West Indies," giving an interesting account of the results of emancipation in those islands. Died in 1847. See Bernard Barton, " Memorial of J. J. Gurney," 1847 ; " The British Friend" for ist month, 1847; "Memoirs of J.J. Gurney, with Selections from his Journal," etc. Gurowski, goo-rov'skee, (Adam,) Count, a Polish writer and patriot, born in the government of Kalisz about 1810. After the revolution of 1830 he repaired to Paris, where he employed himself for a time as a journalist, and in 1849 visited America. He published, in French, "Thoughts on the Future of Poland," (1841,) "Russia and Civilization," (1841,) (in German,) and various other works. Died in 1866. See " Atlantic Monthly" for November, 1866. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as 2; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) GURTLER I I02 GUST Jr US Gurtler, gooiu'ler, (Nicholas,) a Swiss Protestant divine, born at Bale in 1654; died in 1711. See Nic^KON, "Memoires." Gur'wood, (John,) a brave English officer, born in 1791, served in the Peninsular war, and was leader of the forlorn hope at the storming of Ciudad Rodrigo in 1812. He became private secretary to the Duke of Wel- lington, and in 1841 was made a colonel. He published in 1838 "The Despatches of the Duke of Wellington during his Various Campaigns," etc., (13 vols. 8vo,) a very popular and valuable work. Died in 1845. Gushtasp, gdosh-tisp', or Gust^sp, goos-tSsp', writ- ten also Goshtasp, Histasp, and Kishtasp, a famous Persian hero and king, who has been by some writers identified with Darius I., (surnamed Hystaspis,) by others with Hystaspes, the father of Darius. There is so much that is fabulous in the Persian accounts that have come down to us, that it seems impossible, in most cases, to settle in any satisfactory manner the question of identity between the kings of the Persian writers and those of the Greek historians. Firdousee, (Firdausi,) who is generally believed to have taken the facts of Per- sian history for the basis of his great poem, (the '* Shah Namah,") represents Gushtasp as having ruled over Per- sia many years as an absolute sovereign, and as having under his command '* a thousand thousand warriors armed with shining steel," — which could not very well refer to Hystaspes, who was but a satrap or inferior prince under Cambyses, but would answer exactly to the circumstances of Darius Hystaspis. As " Darius" (in Persian, " Dara" or " Darab) was not originally a proper name, but a title, signifying "lord," " prince," or "king," it seems prob- able that he should have been generally known among the Persians by his patronymic Hystaspes, (in Persian, Gushtasp.) Darius Hystaspis would then signify, accord- ing to the Greek mode of speaking, the " Prince [son] of Hystaspes." According to Firdousee, Gushtasp was the first Persian king who openly professed the religion of Zoroaster, who (if we may trust the poet-historian) was the contemporary of Gushtasp and his most influen- tial counsellor. (See Darius I., and Hystaspes.) See J. Atkinson, " Abridgment of the Shah Nameh of Fir- dausi," London, 1832; Smith, "Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology." Gusman, (Bartholomeu LouRENgo.) See Guzman. Gussetius. See Gousset. Gustaf, the Swedish of Gustavus, which see. Gustafskold or Gustafskoeld, goos'tifs-chold', originally named Abraham Hellichius, a Swedish general, born in 1 723. Having rendered a very important service to the king, Gustavus HI., he was made a general by him, and received a title of nobility, with the sur- name of Gustafskoeld, ("Shield of Gustavus,") Died in 1792. Gustav or G-ustave. See Gustavus. Gustavus, giis-ti'vus or gus-ta'vus, [Lat. Gusta'vus ; Sw. Gustaf, goos'tif ; Ger. Gustav, goos'tSf ; Fr. Gus- tave, gUs'ttv' ; It. Gustavo, goos-t^'vo,] I., commonly called Gustavus Vasa, (or Wasa, vi'sa,) King of Sweden, was born near Stockholm in 1496. Christiern II. of Denmark, having usurped the crown of Sweden in 1519, caused Gustavus to be imprisoned. Within three days after his coronation, Christiern violated his solemn promise of protection to the Swedish nation, and ordered the execution of the heads of the first Swedish families. Among the eighty-four persons who perished was Eric Vasa, the father of Gustavus. The latter, having escaped from prison, fled to the mountains of Dalecarlia. After enduring great hardships, he at length succeeded in attaching to himself a powerful party, with which he marched towards Stockholm. In 1521, atthe head of fifteen thousand men, he took the town and fortress of Westerns, and finally obtained possession of Stock- holm, after an obstinate defence. The crown was now oflered to Gustavus, which he refused, and chose rather to govern under the title of stadtholder. But, as the nation was still molested by the King of Denmark and his allies the Catholic party, they again solicited Gus- tavus to become their sovereign ; and in June, 1527, he was crowned King of Sweden. He died in 1559, after a reign of thirty-three years, during which he had gained the love of his people by his wise and beneficent admin« istration. He was succeeded by his son, Eric XIV. See HoT.BKRG, " Histoiredu Danemarck ;" Geyer, " Histoire de la Suede ;" Vertot, " Histoire des Revolutions de la Suede ;" Olaf Celsius, " Konung Gustafs I. Historia," 2 vols., 1746-53; J, W. Archenhoi.z, "Geschichte Gustav Wasa's Konigs von Schweden," 2 vols., 1801, (and French version of the same, Paris, 1803.) Gustavus II. See Gustavus Adolphus. Gustavus III., King of Sweden, eldest son of Adol- phus Frederick, born in 1746, succeeded to the throne in 1 77 1. Soon after his accession he formed the project of diminishing the power of the nobles, at this time so great as to be dangerous to the crown, while their oppres- sions made them hated by the people. Having by his favours secured the co-operation of the army, he offered his plan for a new constitution to all the military officers of the capital, who received it with applause. After exacting an oath of obedience from the soldiers, he next arrested the chief members of the States-General, and made a public declaration of his project. The following day, the house in which the States-General were as- sembled was surrounded by soldiers and cannon, and the king, with his military staff, entered, and proposed to them the new constitution. It was accepted, and con- firmed by signatures. Those who had been arrested were released, and the revolution was effected without bloodshed. In 1788, however, the nobles showed their hostility to the king by refusing to grant him supplies during his wars with Denmark and Russia. In 1789 Gustavus caused a law to be passed which greatly in- creased the royal prerogatives, and at the same time he arrested the leaders of the opposition in the Diet. About 1792 several Swedish noblemen conspired against the king's life ; and at a masked ball given at Stockholm he was assassinated by one of their number, named Ankarstrom, in March, 1792. In addition to his talents as a statesman, Gustavus was distinguished as a poet and a dramatist. See Geisler, " Leben des Konigs von Schweden, Gustavs III. Geyer, " Histoire de la Suede ;" E. L. Posselt, "Geschichte Gus- tav's III. Konigs der Schweden," 1792; F. Beccatini, " Storia del Regno e della Vita di Gustavo III.," 4 vols., 1792. Gustavus IV., born in 1778, succeeded his father, Gustavus III., in 1792. From his childhood he had manifested a singular obstinacy of disposition, which in after-life resembled monomania. A zealous advocate of the divine right of kings, he made it the principal object of his life to restore the Bourbon family to the throne of France. He travelled through Germany in 1803 in order to unite the princes of the Empire against Napo- leon I. He would have no intercourse with the nations of Europe who were in the least degree friendly to the French emperor. By these follies he alienated the affec- tions of his people and brought them into innumerable difficulties. The Swedes, in order to rescue their coun- try from the ruin which his conduct was likely to bring upon it, formed a plan for deposing him. Gustavus, suspecting their designs, attempted to obtain possession of the money in the Bank of Sweden, but was prevented by force, and soon after imprisoned as a traitor, (1809.) The king and his direct descendants were declared by the Diet to have forfeited their right to the crown, and his uncle, Duke Charles, was proclaimed king, under the title of Charles XII [. The deposed king, after travel- ling over Europe, fixed his residence in the town of Saint Gall, in Switzerland, where he assumed the name of Colonel Gustavson, and supported himself by his writings, together with a small pension. His son Gus- tavus obtained the title of Prince of Wasa. Died in 1837. See Le Bas, "Suede et Norvege;" "London Quarterly Review" for December, 1812. Gus-ta'vus A-dol'phus, [Fr. Gustave Adolphe, giis'ttv' t^dolf ; Ger. Gustaf Adolf, goos'taf S'dolf; It. Gustavo Adolfo, goos-t^'vo ^-doKfo,] or Gusta- vus II., King of Sweden, the most illustrious hero of his time, born at Stockholm on the 9th of December, 1594, was the son of Charles IX., and grandson of Gustavus Vasa. He ascended the throne in his seventeenth year, and soon gave proof of his extraordinary abilities. Sweden having been invaded by Sigismund, King of Poland, and his ally the Czar of Russia, Gustavus defeated them, and in 1629 concluded a peace by which he gained a great part of Livonia and the town of Riga. Soon after this he was a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged: a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short: ?i, e, i, o, obscure; fJr, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; GUSTJrUS 1 103 GUTZKOfF invited by the Protestants of Germany, suffering under the persecutions of Ferdinand II., to be the champion of their cause. Their solicitations, combined with the interest which he as a zealous Protestant felt in the suc- cess of their arms, induced him to comply. Before setting out, he published a declaration to the effect that he did not take this step from the love of conquest, but for the defence of his religion and to avenge the injuries he had received from the Emperor of Austria. In June, 1630, Gustavus landed in Pomerania, at the head of 8000 men. His army was soon after reinforced by six Scottish regi- ments under the Duke of Hamilton, and took the fortress of Wolgast, w^hich supplied them with arms and ammu- nition. Having advanced into Mecklenburg, Gustavus received proposals of peace from the emperor, offering him, among other things, the possession of Pomerania. These proposals were rejected, and Gustavus, with his army increased by large numbers of German Protestants, continued his march through Pomerania and Mecklen- burg, taking one town and fortress after another in rapid succession. He was soon after opposed by Field-Marshal Tilly, whom, after several indecisive engagements, he sig- nally defeated at Leipsic in September, 163 1. In a second encounter with Tilly, on the banks of the Lech, in April, 1632, that general lost his life. Ferdinand, now becoming alarmed at the victories of Gustavus, summoned Wallen- stein, whom he had shortly before dismissed, to oppose him. On the i6th of November, 1632, these commanders, the most eminent of their time, and both hitherto uncon- quered, met on the plain of Liitzen. In the early part of the action Gustavus was mortally wounded ; and the Swedes, exasperated in the highest degree by the loss of their king, whom they idolized, fought with irresistible fury, and compelled the enemy to retreat. The Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, a cousin of Gustavus, who was near him when he fell, and who soon afterwards entered the service of Austria, was strongly suspected of having assassinated him. The military talents of Gustavus were of the high- est order ; but they were surpassed by his admiraljle qualities as a man and his virtues as a ruler. He was succeeded by his daughter and only child, Christina. "Gustavus was," says Schiller, " incontestably the first commander of his century, and the bravest soldier in the army which he had created. His eye watched over the morals of his soldiers as strictly as over their bravery. In everything their law-giver was also their example. In the intoxication of his fortune he was still a man and a Christian, and in his devotion still a hero and a king." See ScHTLLER, "History of the Thirty Years' War;" R. de Prade, " Histoire de Gustave Adolphe dit le Grand," 16S6 ; Geyer, *' Histoire de la Suede ;" Walter Harte, " History of the Life of Gustavus Adolphus," 2 vols., 1759 ; N. Vogt, " Gustav Adolpli Kbnig von Schweden," 2 vols., 1790; Jonas Hai,i.enberg, " Svea Rikes Historia under Konung Gustaf Adolfs Regering," 5 vols., 1790-96; Axel Oxenstierna, " Histoire de ia Jeunesse de Gustave Adolph ;" Anders Frvxell, "Gustaf II. Adolph," 1833; J. F. Hollings, " Life of Gustavus Adolphus," 1838 ; Gfrorer, " Geschichte Gustav Adolph's," 2 vols., 1837 ; "Gustav Adolf," von C. Drovsen, 1869. Gustavus Eriksson. See Gustavus I. Gustavus Vasa, (or Wasa.) See Gustavus I. Gutberleth, goot'ber-lgt', (Heinrich,) a German professor of philosophy at Deventer, born at Hirschfeld in 1592, wrote a treatise (in Latin) " On Human Affections Physically and Morally considered." Died in 1635. Gutberleth, gCit'ber-lgt', (Tobias,) a Dutch antiquary, born in Friesland about 1674, was the author of a treat- ise " On the Mysteries of the Cabiri Gods," (in Latin,) and other works. Died in 1703. Gutch, (John,) an English antiquary, born in 1745, was registrar of the University of Oxford. He published "The History and Antiquities of the University of Ox- ford, from the Manuscripts of Anthony Wood, with a Continuation," (1786.) Died in 1831. Gutch, (John Matthew,) an English antiquary, son of the preceding, born about 1777, wrote "A Lytell Geste of Robin Hode," (2 vols., 1847.) Died in 1858. Gutenberg, goo'ten-bgRo', (Johann or Henne,) the niventor of printing, was born at Mentz, in Germany, about 1400. His original name was Gansfleisch, (g^nss''- flish ;) but he afterwards assumed his mother's family name of Gutenberg. In 1450 he entered into partner- ship with John Faust, a citizen of Mentz, in conjunction with whom he printed a vocabulary, called a " Catholi- con," by means of letters cut on blocks of wood. Types of copper or tin were soon after substituted for wood ; and with these a Latin Bible was printed, with great difficulty and expense. In 1455, owing to some dis- agreement in pecuniary matters, Gutenberg and Faust separated, after having had a law-suit. The former, being unable to pay the sum awarded to Faust by the judge, was obliged to give up to him his printing- materials and his invention. Gutenberg subsequently practised his art at Mentz. He was appointed by the archbishop elector of that city and one of the nobles of his court, and obtained other preferments. A bronze monument, by Thorwaldsen, was erected to his memory at Mentz in 1837. Died in 1468. See DuPONT, "Histoire de I'lmprimerie ;" Falkenstein, "Ge- schichte der Buchdruckerkunst," 1840; Ottley, "Inquiry into the Origin, etc. of Engraving on Copper and Wood," 1816 ; Meermann, " Origines Typographicae," 1765; Sothebv, "The Typography of the Fifteenth Century," 1845 : Alphonse de Lamartine, " Guten- berg, Inventeur de I'lmprimerie," 1853; Charles Schmidt, " Nou- veaux Details sur la Vie de Gutenberg," 1841 ; Domenico Taccio, " Notizie storico-critico-tipografico-bibHografiche di Gutenberg," etc.. 1844; "Memoirs of Celebrated Characters," by Lamartine, 1856. Gutenberg or Guttemberg, goot'tem-b^RC', (Karl Gottlieb,) a German engraver, born near Nuremberg about 1742. He worked in Paris, where he died in 1792. Among his works were engravings after Rembrandt and Mieris. Gutherius. See GouTHiiiRES. Guthier. See GouTHifeRES. Guth'rie, (George James,) an English surgeon, born in London in 1785. He lectured on surgery in London for many years, and wrote several professional works. Died in 1856. Guth'rie, (James,) an American statesman and jurist, born in Nelson county, Kentucky, in 1793. He began to practise law at Louisville about 1820, and was for several years a member of the State legislature for thai city. In 1850 he was president of the convention which framed the new constitution of Kentucky. He was appointed by President Pierce secretary of the United States treasury in 1853, and was elected to the Senate of the United States in 1865. Died in 1869. See Livingston's "Portraits of Eminent Americans." Glith'rie, (Thomas,) D.D., a Scottish divine, born at Brechin about 1800. He became an eloquent preacher, and minister of Free Saint John's, Edinburgh, in 1840. As an associate of Dr. Chalmers, he took a prominent part in the institution of the Free Church in 1843. He published "The Gospel in Ezekiel." He was the chief founder of the original Ragged or Industrial School of Edinburgh. Guthrie, (William,) a Scottish litterateur, born in the county of Angus about 1708. He published a "General History of England from the Invasion of the Romans under Julius Caesar to the Revolution of 1688," a " History of the English Peerage," a " History of Scot- land," and other compilations. Died in 1770. See Disraeli, "Calamities of Authors;" Chambers, "Biogra- phical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Guth'ry or Guthrie, (Henry,) a Scottish divine, was one of the adherents of Charles I. in his contest with the Parliament. He became Bishop of Dunkeld in 1665. He died in 1676, leaving a " History of his Own Time," published in 1748. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Gutierrez, goo-te-gr'r^th, or Gutierres, goo-te-gr'- r^s, (Antonio Garcia — gaR-//zee'S,) a popular Spanish dramatist, born near |^diz about 1814. He produced about 1834 "El Trovacfor," a drama. Among his works are "El Page," and "Magdalena." Gutsmuths, goots'moots, (Johann Christoph Friedrich,) a German teacher and educational writer, born at Quedlinburg in 1759. He published "Plays for the Exercise and Recreation of Body and Mind," (1796,) and other similar treatises. Died in 1839. Gutzkow, goots'ko, (Karl Ferdinand,) a popular German novelist and dramatist, born in Berlin in 1811. He became about 1830 one of the chiefs of the school called "Young Germany." He published, besides many other works, successful tragedies entitled " Patkul" (1841) and "Uriel Acosta," (1847,) a comedy called " Das Urbild des Tartuffe," a collection of critical essays € as k; 9 as s; g hard; gdiS j; G, H, v., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) GUTZLAFF 1 104 GUrSE entitled "Gods, Heroes, and Don Quixote," (1838,) and "Die Rittei" vom Geist," a political and social romance, (1850-52,) which was very popular. He became a resi- dent of Dresden in 1847. See Heinrich Hoff, " G. Gutzkow und die Giitzkowgraphie," 1839; "Noiivelle Biographic Geiierale." Giitzlaff, giits'laf or guts'lSf, (Karl,) a celebrated German missionary and Chinese scholar, born at Pyritz, in Pomerania, in 1803. He repaired to Siam in 1828, and, in conjunction with Tomlin, translated the New Testament into Siamese. With a view of introducing the gospel into China, he settled at Macao, where he formed an intimate friendship with Dr. Morrison, after whose death Giitzlaff became, in 1835, first interpreter for the superintendence of British commerce. He visited England in 1849, died at Hong-Kong, shortly after his return, in 1851. Among his various works (which are mostly written in English) we may name his "China Opened," (1838,) and "History of the Chinese Empire." He also had a share in a new translation of the Bible into Chinese. Guy. See Gui and Guido. Guy, gi, (Thomas,) the founder of Guy's Hospital, London, was born in that city in 1643. Having acquired a large fortune, principally by the sale of South Sea stock, he built additions to Saint Thomas's Hospital in South wark in 1707, and subsequently founded the hos- pital near Saint Thomas's which bears his name. He is said to have made more munificent donations for charitable purposes than any other private man in the kingdom. Died in 1724. Guy, gl or ge, (or Guido, gwee'do) de Lusignan, (deh lli'sen'ySN',) King of Jerusalem, was of French origin. He married Sibylla, daughter of Amaury, King of Jerusalem. In 1186, Baldwin V., the son of Sibylla by a former husband, the Marquis of Montferrat, became heir to the throne, but died in the same year. Guy de Lusignan then obtained the title of king. His capital was taken by Saladin in 1 187, and his title was disputed by Isabella, a sister of Sibylla. Guy applied for aid to Richard I. of England, who gave him the kingdom of Cyprus (1 192) on condition that he would renounce his claim to Jerusalem. He was succeeded by his brother Amaury about 1194. See MiCHAUD, " History of the Crusades." Guyard, ge'tR', (Bernard,) a French friar, born at Craon in 1601, had the title of preacher ( predicateur ) to the king, and wrote several works. Died in 1674. Guyard, (Laurent,) a French sculptor, born at Chau- mont-en-Bassigni in 1723, was a pupil of Bouchardon the Younger. Died in 1788. See J. B. Varnev, " Notice sur L. Guyard," 1806. Guyard de Berville, ge'tR' deh hlv/vhY, a French biographer, born in Paris in 1697. He wrote a " Life of Chevalier Bayard," (1760,) and a "Life of Bertrand Du Guesclin," (1767.) Died in a hospital in 1770. Guyet, ge^a', (FRANgois,) a French scholar, born at Angers in 1575. He wrote annotations on various Greek and Latin classics, and some Latin poems. He was a friend of De Thou, Menage, and Balzac. Died in 1655. Guyetand, ge'i'tSN', (Claude Marie,) a French poet and satirist, born in 1748, wrote "Genius Avenged," and other poems. Died in 181 1. Guyon, ge'oN', (Claude Marie,) a French historian, born in Franche-Comte in 1699. He published a con- tinuation of Echard's "Roman History," (10 vols., 1736,) a " History of the Amazons, Jjlicient and Modern," (1740,) a "History of the Indies," (3 vols., ^44,) and other works. Died in 1771. See Desessarts, " Les Si^cles litteraires de la France." Guyon, gT'on, [Fr. pron. ge'(')N^] (Jeanne Bouvier de la Motte — boo've-a' deh It mot,) Madame, a French lady, celebrated for heTtalents and piety, born at Mon- targis in 1648. In her sixteenth year, in compliance with her parents' wishes, she married M. Guyon, whom she had never seen till a few days previous. On becoming a widow, in 1676, she devoted herself to the service of the Church, and a few years later retired to a religious establishment at Gex. She soon after wrote "The Song of Songs of Solomon, interpreted according to the Mystic Sense," and a " Short and Easy Method of Prayer," two very popular works, which, however, gave offence to some of the clergy. In consequence of their persecutions, she was imprisoned nearly eight months. On her re- lease she became intimately acquainted with Fenelon, who had considerable sympathy with her peculiar reli- gious views and continued to be one of her truest friends. About this time she ])ut her writings into the hands of Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux, who expurgated them from what he regarded as the heresy of Quietism. Notwith- standing the submission of Madame Guyon to the cen- sure of Bossuet, she was involved in the persecutions of Fenelon, and about 1695 ^^'^^ imprisoned in the Bastille. On her release, in 1700, she devoted herself to writing; and her works, it is said, form 39 octavo volumes. Her Autobiography has been translated by Cowper, who had a great esteem for her character and her writings. See Upham, "Life of Madame Guyon," 1851 ; De Bausset, "Histoire de Fenelon;" Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" Phelipeaux, " Lettres sur I'Histoire du Quietisine;" Hodgson, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867. Guyon, gi'on, (Richard Debaufre,) a distinguished general, born near Bath, in England, in 1813. He entered the Austrian service in 1832, and rose in a few years to be aide-de-camp of the Hungarian field-marshal Si)lenyi, whose daughter he married. He fought with great dis- tinction against the Austrians in the principal battles of the revolution of 1848, and was created a general. Aftt.' Gorgey's surrender, (August, 1849,) Guyon escaped with Kossuth to Turkey, where he obtained a high command in the Sultan's army. He organized the army which de- fended Kars, (1854.) Died at Constantinople in 1856. See A. Kinglake, "Gen. Guyon on the Battle-Fields of Hungary." Guyot. See Desfontaines, Abb^:. Guyot, geV, (Arnold Henry,) Ph.D., LL.D., a meritorious writer on physical geography, was born near Neufchatel, in Switzerland, in 1807. He was a fellow- student and friend of Agassiz, graduated at Berlin in 1835, and spent several years in the study of glaciers, in which he made important discoveries. He came to the United States in 1848, and in the ensuing winter delivered in Bos- ton a course of lectures on physical geography, which were published under the title of " The Earth and Man," (1849.) He is author of a series of text-books on geography. He has been for some years professor of geology and physical geography at Princeton College, New Jersey. Guyot, geV, (Claude Etienne,) a French general, born near Lons-le-Saulnier in 1768, served as general of division in Russia in 1812. Died in 1837. Guyot, (GeRxMAin Antoine,) a French jurist, born in Paris in 1694; died in 1750. Guyot, (Joseph Nicolas,) a French jurist, born in Lorraine in 1728, published, besides other works, a useful compilation called a "Universal and Descriptive Cra/- somte) Repertory of Civil, Criminal, and Canonical Juris- prudence," (64 vols., 1775-86.) Died in 1816. Guyot de Fere, ge'o'' deh faiR, (Franqois Fortune,) a French journalist and litt:ratetir, born in Paris in 1791. In 1826 he founded the "Journal of Arts and Trades," ("Journal des Arts et Metiers.") He published, among other works, a " History of Prince Eugene Beauharnais," (1821.) Guyot de Folleville. See Folleville. Guyot des Herbiers, ge'o' di z^R'be-i', (Claude Antoine,) a French poet, born at Joinvilleln 1745 ; died in 1828. Guys, ge, (Pierre Alphonse,) a French litterateur, son of Pierre Augustin, noticed below, was born at Mar- seilles in 1755. He was the author of a comedy entitled "The House of Moliere," a "Eulogy on Antoninus Pius," and several other works. Died in 1812. Guys, (Pierre Augustin,) a French merchant and traveller, born at Marseilles in 1721, visited Asia and Greece, and published in 1776 a " Literary Journey in Greece," which was eulogized by Voltaire in some verses. Died in 1799. Guyse. See Guise. Guyse, glz, ? (John,) an eminent English Calvinist and Independent minister, born at Hertford in 1680. He preached for some years in London. His principal work, " An Exposition of the New Testament in the Form a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mlv, not; good; moon; GUTTON 1 105 GTLLEMBOURG of a Paraphrase," (3 vols., 1739-42,) has been often re- printed. Died in 1761. Guyton de Morveau, ge'toN' deh moR'vo', (Louis Bernard,) an eminent French chemist, born at Dijon in January, 1737, was educated for the law, and in 1755 became advocate-general in Parliament. Without relin- quishing the law, he pursued the study of chemistry with success, and in 1772 published a work on the subject, entitled "Academic Digressions." In 1773 he made the important discovery of the power of certain fumigations against infectious effluvia, and checked a fatal disease at Dijon by chlorine gas. In 1782 he proposed a methodi- cal nomenclature for chemistry, and afterwards united with Lavoisier in forming that system of nomenclature which has since been generally adopted with such exten- sive utility. He displayed great erudition and judgment in his "Chemical Dictionary" for the " Encyclopedie Methodique," (1786.) As a member of the Convention in 1792, he participated in the excesses of the popular party. About 1795 he took a prominent part in the establishment of the Polytechnic School, in which he occupied a chair for eleven years. He contributed manv articles to the Institute, of which he was a member, and to the "Annales de Chimie," of which he was editor. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. During the empire of Napoleon he received the title of baron, and was an officer of the legion of honour. Died in 1816. See Berthollet, "filoge historique de Guyton de Morveau;" HoEFER, " Histoire de la Chimie;" " Encyclopsdia Biitannica;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Guzman, gooth-min', (Alejandro,) a Spanish poli- tician, born in Granada in 1752, entered the republican army soon after the breaking out of the French Revo- lution, and became one of the most violent members of the Jacobin faction. He was guillotined in Paris in 1 794. Guzman, de, da gooth-min', (Alfonso Perez,) sur- named the Good, a celebrated Spanish commander, born at Valladolid in 1258. Having been appointed by King Sancho IV. governor of Tarifa, he defended that fortress against the Infant Don Juan, brother of the king. Don Juan, having failed in his efforts to take the place, threatened to put to death a son of Guzman who had fallen into his hands, if the fortress was not instantly surrendered. To this menace Guzman re])lied " that, sooner than be guilty of such infamous treachery, he would lend him a poniard to kill his son," at the same time throwing his dagger from the ramparts. The atro- cious threat was executed ; and the wife of Guzman died soon after, of grief. This incident has been celebrated in one of Lope de Vega's dramas. Guzman afterwards distinguished himself in several engagements with the Moors, and fell in battle in 1309. He was the ancestor of the Dukes of Medina-Sidonia. See QuiNTANA, " Lives of Celebrated Spaniards." Guzman or Guzmao, de, di goos-mowN', (Bar- tholomeu LouRENgo,) a Portuguese mechanician and ecclesiastic, born at Santos about 1680, is called the original inventor of the balloon. He made the first experiment with his machine near Lisbon in 1709; but he was deterred from prosecuting his labours by the fear of the Inquisition. Died about 1725. See "Encyclopaedia Americana," edited by Francis Lieber ; "Encyclopaedia Britannica." Guzman, de, (Enrique,) Duke of Medina-Sidonia, a Spanish grandee, acted a prominent part in the conquest of Granada. Died in 1492. Guzman, de, (Don Fernando Perez,) a Spanish poet and chronicler, born in 1405, left a "Chronicle of John II. of Castile." Died in 1470. Guzman, de, (Donna Luisa,) a daughter of Juan Perez, Duke of Medina-Sidonia, became the queen of John of Braganza, King of Portugal. On his death, in 1656, she was appointed regent, and distinguished her- self by the wisdom and firmness of her administration. Having concluded a treaty with Charles I. of England, she gave her daughter in marriage to his son, afterwards Charles II. Soon after the accession of her son, Al- fonso VI., she retired to a convent, where she died in i660. Under her rule the independence of Portugal was secured. Guzman, de, (Olivarez.) See Olivarez. Guzman, de, (Pedro,) a Spanish painter, surnamed EL Coxo, ("the Lame,") born about 1557, was patronized by Philip III., who made him his painter in 1601. See QuiLLiET, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." Gwilt, (George,) an English architect and antiquary, was born in London in 1775. Among his principal works are the warehouses of the West India Docks. Being employed in repairing Bow Church in 1820, he identified the Norman remains of the original building, which he described in a treatise entitled "Observations on the Church of Saint Mary-le-Bow," etc. He also restored the church of Saint Mary Overy, and other edifices in London. Died in 1856. Gwilt, (Joseph,) a brother of the preceding, born in 1784, was distinguished as a writer on architecture. He designed Markree Castle, near Sligo. Among his works are " Rudiments of Architecture, Practical and Theoretical," (1826,) and an "Encyclopaedia of Archi- tecture, Historical, Theoretical, and Practical," (1842,) which is commended as a standard work. Gwilym, gwiKim, (David ap,) a Welsh bard, born in Cardiganshire in 1340 ; died about 1400. His poems, in W^elsh, were published in 1792. Gwiu, (William M.,) a Democratic politician, born in Sumner county, Tennessee, in 1805. He was elected to the Senate of the United States for California in 1850, and was re-elected in 1857. He acted with the pro-slavery party. Gwinn, (William,) an American naval officer, born at Columbus, Indiana, in 1831. He became a lieutenant in 1856, and commanded a gunboat at the battles of Fort Donelson and Shiloh, February and April, 1S62. He was killed in the attack on Haines' Bluff, near Vicks- burg, in January, 1863. Gwinne, gw!n, (Matthew,) an English physician, born in London about 1554, was appointed in 1582 regent of Saint John's College, Oxford, and in 1596 first pro- fessor of medicine in Gresham College. He was also a Fellow of the College of Physicians. Died in 1627. See Ward's "Lives of the Gresham Professors." Gwin-nett', (Button,) born in England about 1732, emigrated to Georgia about 1772. In 1776 he was elected to Congress, in which he signed the Declaration of Independence. He became president of the provin- cial council of Georgia in 1777, and was killed in a duel by General Mcintosh in May of that year. See Goodrich's "Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence." Gwynn or Gwynne, gwin, (Eleanor,) an English actress and celebrated beauty, was born in London about 1650. After she had achieved success as an actress, she became a mistress of Charles II. Died about 1690. See P. Cunningham, "The Story of Nell Gwynn," 1852; W. H. D. Adams, "Famous Beauties and Historic Women," vol. i., Lon- don, 1865. Qry'ges, [Gr. VvyrjQ,] first Lydian king of the dynasty of the Mermnadae, was minister of King Candaules, whose throne he usurped after having put him to death. He is said to have possessed a magic ring which made the wearer invisible. He reigned about thirty-eight years. Died about 680 B.C. Gylippe. See Gylippus. Qry-lip'pus, [Gr. TvlLTr-no^ ; Fr. Gylippe, zhe'l^p',] a skilful Spartan general in the Peloponnesian war. In 414 B.C. he was sent to command the army at Syracuse, which was then besieged by the Athenians. He defeated the enemy in several actions, and captured their whole army, commanded by Nicias and Demosthenes, in 413. After the capture of Athens by Lysander, Gylippus was commissioned to convey to Sparta the treasure there obtained. He was convicted of stealing a large part of it, and was condemned to death, but escaped, and died in exile. See Thucvdides, books vi., vii., viii. ; Plutarch, "Nicias" and "Lysander;" Muli.er, "The Dorians." Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard, guKlem-bdoRc' a'ren- sv^Rd', (Thomasine Christine Buntzen,) Madame, a celebrated Danish novelist, born in 1773, was married in 1790 to the dramatist Peter Andreas Heiberg. She was subsequently divorced, and in 1801 became the wife of Count Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard. Her " Novels, Old € as k; 9 as j; g hard; g as j; G, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (fi^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 70 GTLLENBORG 1 1 06 HABERT • and New, by the Author of a Story of Every Day," (" Gamle og Nye Noveller af Forfatteren til en Hver- dags Ilistorie,") appeared in 1834. They acquired a wide popularity, and were translated into French and German. Died in 1856. See Ekslew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." Gyllenborg, yuKlen-boRg', (Charles,) Count, a Swedish nobleman and diplomatist, born at Upsal in 1679. He was employed by Charles XII, as resident minister in London from 1703 to 17 17, and subsequently rose to be a councillor of state and chancellor of the University of Upsal. He was the author of " Disputatio de Regno Ostro-Gothorum in Italia," ("Dissertation on the Ostro-Gothic Kingdom in Italy.") Died in 1746. See JoHAN Ihre, " Oratio in Memoriam C. Gyllenborg," 1747. Gyllenborg, (Gustavus Frederic,) Count, a cousin of the preceding, born in 1731, was one of the first mem- bers of the Academy of Stockholm. He published a number of odes, satires, fables, and poems of various kinds, among which maybe named "The Passage of the Belts." Died in 1809. Gyllenhaal, yul'len-hll, (Leonhard,) a Swedish entomologist, born in West Gothland in 1752, was a pupil of Linnaeus. He wrote an able work on the insects of Sweden, ("Insecta Suecica," 4 vols., 1808-27.) Died in 1840. Gylleiihielm, yuKlen-hyglm', (Carl Carlsson,) Baron, a natural son of Charles IX. of Sweden, was born in 1574. He served with distinction in France in the army of Henry IV., and afterwards was made a senator, high admiral of Sweden, and one of the pre- ceptors of the princess Christina. Died in 1650. Gyongyosy, dyon'dyo-se, (Stephen,) one of the earliest Hungarian poets, born in 1620. His works are still popular among his countrymen, and have passed through numerous editions. Died in 1704. Gyrowetz, gir'o-^^^ts', (Adalbert,) a distinguished musical composer, born at Budweis, in Bohemia, in 1763. After visiting Paris and London, where he was received with great favour, he settled at Vienna, and became chapel-master at the Imperial Theatre. Among his best operas are " The Oculist," and " Felix and Adele." He also composed masses, sonatas, and symphonies : the last-named are particularly admired. Died in 1850. See his Autobiography, " Biographic von ihm selbst geschrieben," 1848; Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Gyulai or Gyulay, dyoo'lT, almost joo'lT, (Franz,) Count, a Hungarian general in the Austrian service, was born at Pesth in 1799. He became colonel about . 1830, and lieutenant-field-marshal in 1846. He was min- ister of war a short time in 1850, after which he was commandant at Milan. In 1857 he succeeded Radetzky as commander-in-chief of the army of Italy. He had the chief command in the war which began in May, 1859, and was defeated by the Franco-Sardinian army at the great battle of Magenta in June. Before the end of this month he was deprived of the command. Died in 1862. Gyulai or Gyulay, (Ignatius,) Count, an Austrian commander, the father of the preceding, born at Her- mannstadt in 1763, served against the Turks and in the principal campaigns against the French. In 1805 he concluded the peace of Presburg, in conjunction with Prince Liechtenstein, and was soon after made Ban of Croatia, Dalmatia, and Slavonia. He was appointed field-marshal-general in 1813, and in 1830 president of the aulic council. Died in 1831. Gyzen, gi'z?n or H^zen, (Peter,) a Flemish landscape- painter, born at Antwerp in 1 636. His works are rare, and are prized for their high finish. Died about 1700. H. Haag,/^tg, (Eugene and £mile,) brothers, and French Protestants, born at Montbeliard in 1808 and 18 10. They published "Protestant France, or the Lives of French Protestants who have made for themselves a Name in History," (" La France protestante," etc., 9 vols. 8vo, 1847-59.) Haak, hak, (Theodor,) a German divine, born near Worms in 1605. He translated the Dutch annotations on the Bible into English, and was one of the founders of the Royal Society of London. He passed many years in England. Died in 1690. Haansbergeii, van, vtn hlns'b§R'gen, (Jan,) a Dutch painter, born at Utrecht in 1642, was one of the best pupils of Poelemburg, whom he imitated. He settled at the Plague in 1669, and painted portraits, nymphs, etc. Died in 1705. Haaren, van, (Willem.) See Haren. Haas, hiss, (Guillaume,) a Swiss engraver and type- founder, born at Bale in 1741 ; died in 1800. See Ersch und Grubee, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Haas, hiss, or Hasius, hl'ze-iis, (Johann Mat- thias,) a German historian and geographer of great merit, born at Augsburg in 1684. He taught mathematics at Wittenberg, and wrote "Phosphorus Historiarum," etc.. (1743.) Died in 1742. Haas, de, deh has, (F. H.,) a skilful marine painter, born at Rotterdam about 1830. He opened, a few years since, a studio in New York, where he now resides. See TucKEKMAN, " Book of the Artists." Haas, de, deh has, (John Philip,) born in Holland about 1735, distinguished himself in the war of the Revo- lution, and was made a brigadier-general by Congress in 1777. Died in Philadelphia about 1795. Haase, ha'zeh, (Heinrich Gottlob Friedrich Christian,) an eminent German philologist, born at Magdeburg in 1808. He became titular professor of philology at Breslau in 1846. He published good editions of Thucydides, (1842,) of Seneca, (1852,) and other clas- sics ; also "The Past and Future of Philology," (1835.) Hab'ak-kuk, (or ha-bak'kuk,) [Heb. plp^H; Fr. Habacuc, ht'bt'kiik',] one of the minor Hebrew pro- phets, and author of a canonical book of the Bible. He is supposed to have prophesied about 600 B.C. His language is highly poetical and imaginative. A passage of his book is quoted by Saint Paul, Acts xiii. 41. Habeneck, /ztl/n^k', (Antoine FRANgois,) a French musician, born at Mezieres in 1781 ; died in 1849. Haberlin or Haeberlin, ha'ber-leen', (Franz Domi- Nicus,) an eminent German historian, born near Ulm, on the Danube, in 1720. He became professor of history at Helmstedt in 1746, and professor of public law there in 1 751. Soon after that date he was privy councillor of the Duke of Brunswick. He published a " Universal History," ("Allgemeine Weltgeschichte," 12 vols., 1767 -73,) a " Modern History of the German Empire since the Beginning of the War of Schmalkalden," (20 vols., 1774-86,) which is praised as a classic work, and other histories. His chief merits are exactitude and thorough research. Died in 1787. See Meusel, "Lexikon der vom Jahre 1750-1800 verstorbenen Deutschen Schriftsteller." Haberlin, (Karl Friedrich,) a German publicist, son of the preceding, born in 1756 at Helmstedt, where he became professor of public law about 1786. He published a " Repertory of German Public Law and Feudal Law," (1781-95,) and other works. Died in 1808. Haberlin, (Karl Ludwig,) a novelist, a son of the preceding, was born at Erlangen in 1784. He published many historical novels, among which are "The Exile," ("Der Heitnathlose,") and "The Prime Minister," (4 vols., 1835.) Habermann, See Avenarius. Hab'er-sham, (Joseph,) born at Savannah, Georgia, in 1750. He took part in the war of the Revolution, and obtained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In 17S5 he was chosen a member of Congress. From 1795 to 1800 he was postmaster-general. Died in 181 5. See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans." Habert, /it'baiR', (Franqois,) a French poet, born at Issoudun about 1520. He produced, besides many a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, fe, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m€t; n6t; good; moon; HABERT 1107 HACQUET original poems, a version of Ovid's '* Metamorphoses," which was often reprinted. Died about 1568. Habert, (Isaac,) a French poet, nephew of the pre- ceding, born in Paris about 1560, wrote a poem " On Meteors," ("Des Meteores," 1585.) Habert, (Isaac,) a French theologian and writer, son of Germain, (de Cerisy,) noticed below, was born in Paris. He became preacher to the king, and in 1645 Bishop of Vabres. Died in 1668. Habert, (Louis,) a French theological writer, born near Blois in 1636; died in 1718. Habert, (Philippe,) a French poet, born in Paris about 1605, was one of the first members of the French Academy, and author of a poem called the "Temple of Death." He was killed at a siege in Flanders in 1637. Habert, (Pierre Joseph,) Baron, a French general, born at Avallon in 1773. He distinguished himself at Heliopolis, (1798,) Jena, (1806,) and Eylau, (1807,) and subsequently in the Spanish campaign of 1814. In 181 5 he obtained command of a division, and was severely wounded at Waterloo. Died in 1825. Habert de Cerisy, //fbaiR'* deh si're'se', (Ger- main,) a brother of Philippe Habert, noticed above, was a member of the French Academy, and wrote poems which were once admired. Died in 1655. Habicht, hi'biKt, (Christian Maximilian,) a Ger- man Orientalist, born at Breslau in 1775. He published an edition of "The Arabian Nights," ("Tausend und eine Nachte," 8 vols., 1825-39,) and, with the aid of Schall and Von der Hagen, made a German version of the same, (15 vols., 1825.) Died in 1839. Habicot,//t'be'ko',* (Nicolas,) a French anatomist, born at Bonny about 1550, studied in Paris, and became surgeon to the Hotel-Dieu and to the army. He was one of the most skilful anatomists of his time, and wrote several professional treatises. Died in 1624. Hab'ing-ton, (William,) an English poet, born at Hendlip in 1605. His father, Thomas, was implicated in the Gunpowder Plot, but was pardoned. William wrote "The Queen of Aragon," a tragi-comedy, and a collection of small poems, entitled "Castara," (1635.) Died in 1645. See Johnson, " Lives of the English Poets ;" Sir S. E. Brydges, " Censura Literaria;" Hallam, "Introduction to thje Literature of Europe;" "Retrospective Review," vol. xi., 1825. Habsburg or Hapsburg, haps'biirg, [Ger. pron. hIps'bdoRG,] House of, an ancient sovereign family of Austria, which derives its name from the castle of Habsburg, or Hapsburg, in Switzerland. The first member of the family who acquired great celebrity was Rudolf of Habsburg, born in 1218 and elected Emperor of Germany in 1273. obtained Austria and other provinces by conquest, and founded the dynasty which now reigns over the Austrian empire, and which since 1736 has been styled the house of Habsburg-Lorraine. (See Rudolf of Habsburg.) See, also, E. M. von Lichkowsky, " Geschichte des Hauses Habsburg," 2 vols.. 1836-37. Hachette, /zt''shgt',* the surname of Jeanne Four- QUET, (fooR^ki',) a French heroine, born at Beauvais in 1454. She acted a prominent part in the defence of lieauvais against Charles the Bold in 1472. She used a small axe (hachette) as a weaj^on : hence her surname. Hachette, (Jean Nicolas Pierre,) an able French matheinatician, born at Mezieres in 1769, was educated at the University of Rheims. By the influence of Monge, he was appointed assistant professor in the Polytechnic School in 1794, and in 1797 he obtained the chair of descriptive geometry, which he retained until 1816. In 1830 he became a member of the Institute. He published a " Supplement to the Descriptive Geometry of Monge," (1811,) "Elements of Geometry of Solids," (i8"i7,) "Applications of Descriptive Geometry," (1821,) a " Treatise on Machines," etc. He rendered a great service by applying geometry to the construction of ma- chinery. Among his pupils was Arago. Died in 1834. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Hachette, (Louis Christophe Franqois,) born at Rethel, in France, in 1800, was the proprietor of a great publishing-house in Paris. Died in 1864. * On the pronunciation of the initial French h, see p. 1215, 7iote. Hackaert. See Hakkert. Hackelmann, hik'kel-man', (Leopold,) a German jurist and legal writer, born near Bremen in 1563 ; died in 1619. Hackert See Hakkert. Hackert, hak'k§Rt, (Georg,) an engraver, a brother of Philipp, noticed below, was born in Prussia in 1755. He engraved the " View of Rome" and other works of his brother Philipp. Died at Florence in 1805. His brother Johann, born in 1744, was a landscape-painter. Died at Bath, in England, in 1773. Another brother, Wilhelm, born in 1748, was a painter of history and portraits. He was professor of design in the Academy of Saint Petersburg when he died, about 1786. See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Hackert, (Philipp,) an excellent German landscape- painter, was born at Prenzlau, in Prussia, in 1737. He visited Rome about 1768, and passed the rest of his life mostly in Italy. He painted for the empress Catherine of Russia six pictures of the naval victory over the Turks at Tchesme in 1770. He painted a "View of Rome," " Views in the Vicinity of the Villa Horace," and many Italian sea-ports. About 1786 he was appointed first painter to the King of Naples. He left Naples in 1799, and settled at Florence, where he died in 1807. His merit consisted in a close imitation of nature. Goethe wrote a memoir of his life, ("P. Hackert; biographische Skizze," 1811.) See, also, Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Hack'et, (John,) born in London in 1592, was edu- cated at Cami)ridge, and made Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1661. He published a volume of sermons, and a " Life of Archbishop Williams." Died in 1670. See Thomas Plume, "Life of Bishop Hacket," 1675. Hack'ett, (Horatio Balch,) an American biblical scholar, born in Salisbury, Massachusetts, in 1808. He graduated at Amherst College in 1830, studied theology at Andover, and afterwards at Halle, in Germany. He obtained the chair of Hebrew and biblical interpreta- tion in the Newton (Baptist) Theological Seminary of Massachusetts about 1840. Among his works are a Chaldee Grammar, translated, with additions, from the German of Winer, and a "Commentary on the Original Text of the Acts of the Apostles," (1853; same edition, greatly enlarged, 1858.) Hackett, (James Henry,) an American actor, born in New York in 1800. He performed comedy in the United States and in England. Died in 1871. Hacklander, hSkH^n^der, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a popular German novelist, born near Aix-la-Chapelle about 181 6. He served in the Prussian army for several of his earl}' years. In 1841 he published "Scenes of Military Life during Peace," which had a great success. He became secretary to the prince-royal of Wiirtemberg in 1843. He wrote numerous popular works, among which are "Military Life in Time of War," (1849,) "Scenes from Life," ("Bilder aus dem Leben," 1850,) "Nameless Histories," ("Namenlose Geschichten," 3 vols., 1851,) and "Eugene Stillfried," (1852.) He has been called "the Charles Dickens of Germany," HackTey, (Charles W.,) a mathematician and Epis- co])al clergyman, born at Herkimer, New York, in 1808, became professor of mathematics in Columbia College, New York, in 1843. He published, besides other works, a "Treatise on Algebra," (1846.) Died in 1861. Hackluyt. See Hakluyt. Hackspann or Hackspan, hik'spin, (Theodor or Theodoric.) a learned German theologian and phi- lologist, born at Weimar in 1607. He was a pupil of Calixtus, whose liberal opinions he adopted, was well versed in Oriental languages, and became professor of Hebrew at Altorf He published, besides other works, in Latin, "Philological Disputations," (1643,) "The Faith and Laws of Mohammed," (1646,) and "Miscel- lanea Sacra," (1660.) Died in 1659. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Hacquet, /^S'ki', (Balthasar,) a naturalist, born at Conquet, in Bretagne, in 1740, was chosen professor of natural history in Lemberg, Austria, in 1788. He pub- lished, in German, several accounts of his travels among the Alps and Carpathian Mountains, which furnish valu- € as 5 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^==See Explanations, p. 23.) HADDIK I io8 HAERING able information on geography and other sciences. One of his works is " Physico-Political Journeys among the Alps," (4 vols., 1785-87.) Died in Vienna in 1815. See Eksch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Haddik, hdd'dik, (Andreas,) Count of, an able Austrian general, born at Futak, in Hungary, in 1710, gained distinction in the war against the Turks. In the Seven Years' war, as lieutenant-field-rnarshal, he fought against the Prussians near Gorlitz, and took Berlin by surprise in 1757. In 1765 he was chosen Governor of Galicia, and in 1774 he became president of the war department, or council of war, with the title of field-mar- shal. Died in 1790. Had'dock, (Sir Richard,) an English admiral, born in Essex about 1630. He was wounded at Solebay in 1667. Died in 1715. Had'don, (Walter,) an English scholar, born in Buckinghamshire in 15 16, contributed to the revival of classical learning. In 1550 he became professor of civil law in Cambridge, and in 1552 president of Magdalene College, Oxford. He enjoyed favour at the court of Elizabeth, who praised his skill in Latin composition by saying, " Haddonum nemini postpono," ("I rank Haddon behind none.") Died in 1572. See " Biographia Britannica." Hadee-Moosa, Hady-Moussa, or Hadi-Mussa, Al, 3.1 hi'dee moo'sa, a caliph of the family of Abbassides, born about 760 A.D., succeeded his father Al-Mahdee (or -Mahdi) on the throne of Bagdad in 7S5. He was a brother of Haroun-al-Raschid. After a reign of fifteen months, he died, in 786. See Aboolfeda, " Annales." Ha'des, [Gr. "Ktdrjg or "Ac5??f,] a name applied by the Greeks to Pluto and to his dominions. (See Pluto.) Hadji-Khalfa. See Haji-Khalfa. Had'ley, (James,) an American scholar, was born in Fairfield, Herkimer county. New York, the 30th of March, 1821. He is the son of Dr. James Hadley, who was for many years professor of chemistry in the Medical College at Fairfield and afterwards held the same chair in the Medical College at Geneva, New York. He entered in September, 1840, the junior class of Yale Col- lege, and graduated in 1842. In 1848 he became assistant professor of Greek at Yale, and in 185 1 professor in full, in place of President Woolsey, who had retained until then his charge of that department. In August, 1851, he married a daughter of Stephen Twining, Esq., of New Haven. In i860 he published an excellent "Greek Grammar for Schools and Colleges," founded on a simiTar work by Professor Georg Curtius in Germany. An abridgment appeared in 1869, under the name "Ele- ments of the Greek Language." He has contributed articles to various scientific and literary periodicals, especially the " New-Englander," and has been an active member of the American Oriental Society. Had'ley, (John,) an English astronomer, became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 171 7, of which he was afterwards vice-president. In 1731 he presented to that society a sextant, of which he claimed to be the inventor, and which has since been generally used in nautical astronomy. It is commonly known as " Hadley's Sex- tant." Many, however, give Sir Isaac Newton credit for this invention. Died in 1744. Hadlub, hSt'loop, or Hadloub, (Johann,) a Ger- man poet or minnesinger, lived at Zurich about 1300. His poems present agreeable pictures of rustic life and interesting details about the manners of the peasantry of that age. See Ettmuller, "J. Hadlouber, Gedichte," 1840; Longfel- low, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Hadorph, hSMoRf, (Johan,) a Swedish antiquary, born near Linkoping in 1630 ; died in 1693. Ha^dri-an or AMii-an, [Lat. Hadria'nus ; Fr. Adrien, t'dRe-dN' ; It. Adriano, i-dRe-i'no,] or, more fully, Hadria'nus PubTius ^Tius, a Roman emperor, born at Rome in January, 76 A. D., was a son of ^lius Ha- drianus Afer, and a cousin of Trajan. His favourite study was the Greek language and literature. He won the favour of Trajan, and accompanied him in his campaign against the Dacians. He was chosen tribune of the people in 105 A.D., and praetor in 107. When Trajan was forced by illness to retire from the army which he had conducted against the Parthians, he gave the chief command to Ha- drian. On the death of Trajan, Hadrian was proclaimed emperor (at Antioch) by the army in August, 117 a.d. ; and their choice was confirmed by the senate. The question whether Trajan had adopted Hadrian as his heir appears to remain undetermined. The new emperor hastened to make peace with the Parthians by abandoning all the provinces which Trajan had conquered beyond the Euphrates, and rendered himself popular by the re- mission of taxes and other acts of liberality. The greater portion of his reign was spent in journeys through the provinces of his vast empire, in which he displayed dura- ble evidences of his liberality, political wisdom, and love of the fine arts. He commenced these journeys in 119 A.D. He built a famous wall across the island of Britain from Solway Frith to the German Ocean, to protect the Roman province from the incursions of the Picts and Scots. He founded cities in other provinces, completed the temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, and erected many great architectural works, among which were a magnificent villa at Tibur, and his mausoleum at Rome, now called the Castle of Saint Angelo. In 131 a.d. he promulgated the " Edictum Perpetuum," a fixed code of laws drawn up by Salvius Julianus. This event forms an important epoch in the history of Roman law. His reign was peaceful, and tended to consolidate the empire as well as to civilize the people. He patronized literary men, artists, and philosophers, and composed a number of works, in prose and verse, which are not extant. He aspired to distinction as an architect and painter, and indulged a petty vanity and jealousy towards artists, which sometimes prompted him to acts of cruelty. A short time before his death, he adopted as his successor Arrius Antoninus, surnamed "the Pious," and composed the following verses addressed to his own soul : " Animula, vagula, blandula, Hospes comesque corporis, Qiise nunc abibis in loca, Pallidula, rigida, nudula, Nec, ut soles, dabis jocos?"* Died in July, 138 A.D. Many statues and medals of Hadrian are extant. See Spartianus, "Vita Hadriani ;" Niebuhr, "Lectures on Roman History ;" Tillemont, " HIstoire des Empereurs ;" Gibbon, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Hadschi-Chalfa, (or -Khalfa.) See Haji-Khalfa. Hady-Moussa. See Hadee-Moosa. Haeberlin. See Haberlin. Haedo, de, da I-a'oo, (Diego,) a Spanish monk and historian, lived about 1600. He wrote an account of Algiers, ("Topographia e Historia de Argel," 1612.) Haeffner. See Haffner. Haehnel. See Hahnel. Haellstroem. See Hallstrom. Haelwig. See Halvig. Haen or Haan, van, vtn hSn, (Antoon,) an eminent Dutch physician, born at the Hague in 1704, was a pupil of Boerhaave. He practised twenty years in his native place, and was chosen first professor of medicine in Vienna in 1754. He succeeded Van Swieten as chief physician to the empress Maria Theresa. He published many medical works, of which the most important is the "Method of Treatment (or Curing) in Hospitals," ("Ratio Medendi in Nosocomio practico," 1757-74,) often reprinted. Died in Vienna in 1776. Desgenettes calls him "one of the most illustrious practitioners of the eighteenth century." See F. G. Boisseau, "Biographia Medicale ;" " Nouvelle Biogra- phie Generale." Haendel. See Handel. Haenel. See Hanel. Haeiike. See Hanke. Haering. See Haring, (Wilhelm.) * "Ah, fleeting spirit ! wandering fire, That long hast warmed my tender breast. Must thou no more tliis frame inspire. No more a pleasing, cheerful guest? Whither, ah, whither art thou flying? To what dark, undiscovered shore? Thou seem'st all trembling, shivering, dying, And wit and humour are no more." — Pope. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sAori; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; HAERLEM 1 109 HAGUENOT Haerlem or Haarlem, van, vtn hSR'lem, (Dirck,) a Dutch painter, born at Haarlem about 1410 ; died in 1470. Haeser. See Haser. Haeusser. See Hausser. Haffner, haf ner, (Anton,) a painter of perspective, of Swiss extraction, was born at Bologna in 1654. He lived many years at Genoa, where he painted admi- rable frescos in the church of Saint Luke and other churches. He was also employed by the grand duke at Florence. Died in 1732. His brother Henry, born in 1640, painted decorations in several palaces at Rome and in churches of Bologna. Died in 1702. Haffner or Haeffner, h^Fner, (Johann Christian Friedrich,) a German composer, born in Thuringia in 1759 ; died at Upsal in 1833. Hafis, the German spelling of Hafiz, which see. Hafiz, hi'fiz, written also Hafitz and Hafis, (Mo- hammed Shems-ed-Deen, mo-hin/med shSms ed- deen',) a celebrated Persian poet, born at Shiraz about 1300. Love and wine are the favourite subjects of his poems, which are condemned as licentious by strict Mus- sulmans. He is regarded as the greatest lyric poet of Persia. His poems, which collectively are entitled the " Divan," are praised for purity of style, harmony of versification, and brilliant imagination. Among the re- corded events of his life is an interview with Tamerlane in 1387. Died about 1390. His poems were published in Persian at Calcutta in 1 791. Some portions of them have been translated into English by J. Richardson, (1774,) J. H. Hindley, (1800,) and other Oriental scholars. See Sir W. Gore Ouseley, " Biographical Notices of Persian Poets," London, 1846; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Fraser's Magazine" for January. 1846, and September, 1854. Ha'gar or A'gar, [Heb. IJIH,] an Egyptian woman, was the second wife of the patriarch Abraham, and the mother of Ishmael. (See Genesis xvi. and xxi.) Hageau, //t'zho', (Amable,) a French engineer, born in 1756, was appointed divisionary inspector of bridges and roads beyond the Alps. Died in 1836. Hagedorn, h^'geh-doRn', (Christian Ludwig,) an eminent critic of art, a brother of Friedrich, the poet, was born at Hamburg in 1 7 13. He served the Elector of Saxony many years as secretary of legation to various courts. In 1764 he was appointed director-general of the Academies of Fine Arts at Dresden and Leipsic. He produced in 1762, in German, " Reflections on Painting,'' (2 vols.,) which is considered a classic work by artists. Died at Dresden in 1780. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Hagedorn, von, fon hS'geh-doRn', (Friedrich,) an elegant German poet, born at Hamburg in April, 1708. In 1733 he became secretary to a company of merchants, called " The English Court," at Hamburg. He published in 1738 a volume of fables and tales in verse, and after- wards a volume of "Moral Poems." Among his master- pieces are "The Savant," a satire, (1740,) "The Sage," (1741,) and "Ode on Happiness," (1743.) The merit of restoring good taste in German poetry is ascribed to Hagedorn and Haller. Wieland called him "the German Horace." Died in 1754. See EscHENBURG, " F. von Hagedorn's Werke," 5 vols., 1800, the 4th vol. of which contains a memoir of Hagedorn ; Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" C. H. Schwid, " Biographie der § Dichter;" Gervinus, "Geschichte der Deutschen Dichtung." Hagemann, hl^geh-mSn^ (Theodor,) a German jurist, born at Stiege, Brunswick, in 1761, became aulic councillor and judge of the court of appeal at Zelle. He published a valuable work, entitled " Practical P2x- planations of All Sorts of Juridical Subjects," (6 vols., 1798-1818.) Died in 1827. Hagen, hi'gen, (Ernst August,) an ingenious Ger- man novelist and writer on art, was born at Konigsberg in 1797. He became professor of aesthetics in Konigs- berg about 1830. Among his works are "Olfrid and Lisena," a poem, (1820,) and "Leonardo da Vinci at Milan," (1840.) Hagen, (Karl Gottfried,) a German chemist and writer, born at Konigsberg in 1749; died in 1829. Hagen, van, vtn hS'gen or h^'nen, (Jan,) a Dutch landscape-painter, who lived about 1650. Hagen, van der, vtn der hcVgen or h^'nen, (Steven,) a Dutch admiral, born about 1560, commanded an ex- pedition which explored the Chinese Sea and the Sunda Isles in 1600. In 1604 he defeated the Portuguese in several actions, and expelled them from the Moluccas. Died about 1610. Hagen, von, fon hS'gen, (Johann Georg Fried- rich,) a German antiquary, born at Baireuth in 1723. He formed a rich cabinet of medals, pictures, etc., and was a liberal patron of artists. He wrote a "Descrip- tion of the Silver Coins of Nuremberg," (1766,) and other valuable works. Died in 1783. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Hagen, von der, fon d^R hi'gen, (Friedrich Hein- RICH,) an eminent German critic and philologist, born at Schmiedeberg, in Prussia, in February, 1780. He became professor of German literature at Berlin in 1810, and devoted his attention to the mediaeval German literature. He published, besides other works, " Heroic Romances of the North," (5 vols., 1814-28,) "Monuments of the Middle Ages," (1824,) and "The Minnesinger," (5 vols., 1838-56,) a poetical collection, which is called his chief work. Died in Berlin in 1856. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon "Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale." Hagenbach, ha'gen-bSK^, (Karl Rudolf,) a Swiss Protestant theologian, was born at Bale in 1801. He became professor of theology at Bale about 1828, and was author of lectures on the "Essence and History of the Reformation," (6 vols., 1834-43,) "Ecclesiastic History of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries," (2 vols. ; 3d edition, 1856,) and other esteemed works, (in German.) Hagenbuch, ha'gen-bdoK^ (Johann Caspar,) a Swiss antiquary, born at Zurich in 1700. Among his N writings is a curious treatise on certain Greek and Latin inscriptions, entitled "Epistolae Epigraphicae," etc., (1747.) Died in 1763. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Hager, h§.'ger, (Johann Georg,) a German geogra- pher, born in the district of Baireuth in 1709. He pub- lished an edition of Homer's "Iliad," (1745-67,) and a " System of Geography," (" Ausfiihrliche Geographic," 3 vols., 1746-51,) which had great success. Died in 1777. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Hager, (Joseph,) an Orientalist, of German extrac- tion, born at Milan in 1757. He published a treatise on Chinese worship, called "Pantheon Chinois," (1802,) and " Elements of the Chinese Language," (London, 1806.) In 1809 he became professor of Oriental lan- guages at Pavia. Died in 1819. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Hag'ga-i, [Heb. 'Jn ; Fr. Agg^;e, tg'zhi',] one of the twelve minor Hebrew prophets, lived about 520 B.C., during the erection of the second temple, the glory of which he predicted should transcend that of the first. (Haggai ii. 9.) His mission was chiefly to urge the Jews to greater diligence in the erection of the temple. His language is quoted in Hebrews xii. 26. Haghe, htg, (Louis,) a skilful painter and lithogra- pher, born in Belgium in 1802. He removed in his youth to London, where he has since resided. He published many fine lithographs of Flemish monuments designed by himself, and painted in water-colours the interiors of Flemish town-halls and churches. Among his most admired works are paintings of the Palais de Courtray and the Audience-Chamber of Bruges. Hagstrora or Hagstroem, hig'stRom, (Johan Otto,) a Swedish naturalist and writer, born at Froson in 1716 ; died in 1792. Hague, hag, (Charles,) an English composer, born in Tadcaster in 1769. He became professor of music at Cambridge about 1796. Died in 1821. Hague, hag, (William,) an American Baptist min- ister, born in New York about 1805, graduated at Hamilton College in 1826. He published, besides other works, "Christianity and Statesmanship," (1855.) Haguenot, /^tg no', (Henri,) a French physician, born at Montpellier in 1687. He wrote a "Treatise on Small-Pox," (1734.) Died in 1775. € as k: 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (g^^See Explanations, p. 23.) HJHN I no HAKLVTT Hahu, htn, (August,) a German theologian, one of the leaders of the orthodox Protestant party, was born near Querfurt, in Prussia, in 1792. He became professor of theology at Leipsic in 1826, and general superintend- ent of Silesia in 1844. He published, besides other works, a "Text-Book of the Christian Faith," (1828,) and " On the Present State of Christianity, and the Relations which exist between Theology and Science," (1832.) Hahii, (Carl August,) a German philologist, born at Heidelberg in 1807 ; died in 1857. Hahn, (Johann David,) a German natural philoso- pher, born at Heidelberg in 1729, published a treatise " On the Mutual Subservience of Mathematics and Chem- istry," and other works. Died in 1784. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Hahn, (Ludwig Philipp,) a German dramatic poet, born at Trippstadt in 1746. He wrote tragedies entitled "The Rebellion of Pisa," (1776,) and "Robert von Hohe- necken," (1778,) which are admired for energy of style and elevation of thought. Died in 1787. Hahn, (Philipp Matthaus,) a German, noted for inventive mechanical genius, was born near Stuttgart in 1739. He settled as pastor at Onsmettingen in 1764, before which he had made astronomical and optical in- struments. He invented a machine which represented the motions of the celestial bodies, and another which performed operations in arithmetic. He published seve- ral treatises on theology, sermons, etc. Died in 1790. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" "Annals of Industry and Genius," by C. L. Brightwell, London, 186^. Hahn, (Simon Friedrich,) a German historian and publicist, born at Klosterbergen, in Prussia, in 1692. He is said to have understood Greek, Latin, and French at the age of ten. At the age of twenty-four he became professor of history and public law at Helmstedt. He published an excellent " History of the Constitution of the Empire and German Emperors," ("Teutsche Staats- Reichs- und Keyser Historic," (4 vols., 1721-24,) and other historical works. Died at Hanover in 1729. See J. F. C. Hahn, " Schediasma de Vita Hahnii," 1729; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Hahnel or Haehnel, ha'nel, (Ernst Julius,) a German contemporary sculptor, studied under Reitschel and Schwanthaler. Among his master-pieces is the statue of Beethoven at Bonn, completed in 1845. Hahnemann, h^'neh-man, ( Samuel Christian Friedrich,) a celebrated German physician, born in Meissen, in Saxony, in 1755, was the founder of the sys- tem of medicine known as homoeopathy. He graduated at Erlangen in 1779, and practised for some years at Dresden. About 1796 he announced his new system, founded on the principle that in order to cure any diseased affection we should employ a medicine having power to produce a similar affection in the body of a healthy person : an artificial affection (caused by the medicine) displaces the original disease, and on the dis- continuance of the medicine this secondary disease ceases of itself. Hence the motto adopted by the homoeopa- thists, "Similia similibus curantur," (" Like cures like.") Hahnemann afterwards settled in Leipsic. He developed his system in a work called " Organon of Rational Medi- cine," (Dresden, 1810.) Died in Paris in 1843. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Hahn-Hahn, von, fon hln-hln, (Ida Marie Luise Sophie,) Countess, a poetess and novelist, called "the German George Sand," was born at Tressow, Mecklen- burg-Schwerin, in 1805. About 1826 she was married to Count von Hahn-Hahn, from whom she was divorced in 1829, after which she visited France, Italy, Spain, and the Levant. She produced in 1835 " Poems," (" Ge- dichte,") and in 1836 "Venetian Nights," which had great success. Among her most popular novels is " Faus- tine," (1841.) She has published several narratives of travel, and "Oriental Letters," (1845.) About 1850 she avowed her conversion to Roman Catholicism. See LisCH, "Geschichte und Urkunden des Geschlechtes Hahn," 1844; "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1S44; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1843; " North British Review" for August, 1847. Haid, hit or hid, (Johann Gottfried,) a German engraver, born at Augsburg in 1 710, worked in England. Died in 1770. His brother, Johann Lorenz, born in 1702, was an engraver in mezzotint. Died in 1750. Haid, (Johann Jakoi?,) a German engraver of por- traits, boni near Ulm in 1704; died in 1767. His son, Johann Elias, (1739- 1809,) was also an engraver. Haider All. See Hvder All Haidinger, hl'ding'er, (Wilhelm,) a German geolo- gist, born in Vienna in 1795. He was appointed coun- cillor of mines at Vienna in 1840, and director-in-chief of the Geological Institute of Austria in 1849. He published a " lYeatise on Mineralogy," (" Handbuch der bestinmiendea Mineralogie," (1845,) a "Geognostic Chart of the Austrian Empire," (1847,) ^'""J other works. His father, Karl, born in Vienna in 1756, was a mine- ralogist of merit. He was author of an "Essay towards a Systematic Division of the Different Kinds of Rocks," (1786.) Died in 1797. Hailes, Lord. See Dalrymple, (Sir David.) Haillan, du, dii //S'y6N', (Bernard de Girard — deh zhe'rtR',) Seigneur, a French historian, born at Bordeaux in 1535. He wrote a history of France, ("De r£tat et Succes des Affaires de France," 1570,) which passed through many editions and was approved by Charles IX., who rewarded him with the title of histo- riographer. Died in 1610. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Haimavata, hi'ma-va-ta, or Haimavat, hi^rjia-vat, \i.e. " snowy" or " snow-clad," from the Sanscrit hhnd ox kaimd, "cold," "frost," "snow,"] called the "king of mountains," was, according to the Hindoo mythology, the father of Ganga, (Ganges,) or ParvatI, which see, Haimo. See Haymo. Haizinger, hlts'ing'er, (Amalie,) a popular German actress, born at Carlsruhe in 1800. Haji- (or Hadji-) Khalfa, hij'ee K^Kfi*, written also Hadschi-Chalfa, (or -Khalfah,) a celebrated Turkish historian and bibliographer, born in Constan- tinople. His proper name was Mustafa-Ben-Abdal- lah. He was minister of finances under Amurath IV. He wrote a " History of Constantinople," and an excel- lent work on bibliography, which contains notices of 18,550 Arabic, Persian, and Turkish books, with memoirs of the authors. It served as the basis of Herbelot's " Bibliotheque Orientale." Died in 1658. See Von Hammer, "Histoire de I'Empire Ottoi>«in." Hakem. See Alhakem. Hakem-Biamrillah, h^^kem be-am-riKlah, (Aboo- Alee-Mansoor, or Abu-Ali-Mansur, i'boo i'lee min-sooR^) third Fatimite caliph of Egypt, succeeded his father, Azeez-Billah, in 996 A. D. A capricious despot, he was noted for his cruelty and extravagance. After subjecting the Christians to numerous vexations, he banished them from Egypt, and thus furnished one of the chief motives of the crusades. He died, or was killed, in 1021. Hakewill, hak'wil, (George,) D.D., born at Exeter, in England, in 1579, becattie Archdeacon of Surrey in 1 61 6. He published several sermons, and "An Apology or Declaration of the Power and Providence of God in the Government of the World," (1627,) which is com- mended for piety and learning. It is designed to refute the doctrine of modern degeneracy, and to prove that the powers of nature are not doomed to a progressive decline. Died in 1649. See Prince, " Worthies of Devon." Hakewill, (James,) an English writer and architect, published a "History of Windsor," (1813,) and a "Pic- turesque Tour of Italy," (181 7.) Died in 1843. Hakkert, hik'keRt, or Hackaert, hak'kdRt, (Jan,) a skilful Dutch landscape-painter, born at Amsterdam about 1540. He painted chiefly wild and mountainous scenery, and was intimate with Adrian van der Velde, who furnished the figures of many of Hakkert's land* scapes. Died about 1635. Hakluyt, hak^oot, (Richard,) prebendary of West- minster, an English historian, born at Yatton in 1553. He became greatly interested in geography and naviga- tion, and was appointed professor of these branches at Oxford. In 1589 he published his celebrated work on the voyages and discoveries of the English, dedicated a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; HAL 1 1 1 1 HJLE to Walsingham, his patron, which was afterwards en- larged and published in 1600, with the following title : " Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffics, and Discover- ies of the English Nation, by Sea or Overland, to the Most Remote and Distant Quarters of the Earth, at any Time within the Compass of 1500 Years." This work contains official documents relative to each voyage, as patents, letters of ministers, charters, etc., and has pre- served from oblivion many precious monuments of Anglo-Saxon enterprise. He died in 1616. See Wood, "Athens Oxonienses;" "Retrospective Review," vcl. xi., 1825. Hal, van, vtn hil, a Flemish painter, born at Ant- M-srp in 1668. His early historical pieces are admired. Halb Suter, hilp soo'ter, a Swiss poet, born at Lu- cerne about 1370, was the author of a popular song entitled " The Battle of Sempach." See Longfellow, " Poe% and Poetry of Europe." Halcyone. See Alcyone. Haldane, h^Kdan, (James Alexander,) a Scottish Independent clergyman, born at Dundee in 1768, was the brother of Robert Haldane, noticed below. In 1785 he entered the naval service of the East India Company, and in 1793 was appointed captain of the Melville Castle. The next year he retired from the sea, in order to devote himself to the ministry of the gospel. He became pas- tor of the Tabernacle, Edinburgh, in 1799, and continued to preach in that city until his death, in 1851. He pub- lished several religious works. See Alexander Haldane, " Memoirs of Robert and James A. Haldane," 1852; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Haldane, (Robert,) was born of Scottish parents in London in 1 764, and was educated at Edinburgh. He served in the navy from 1780 to 1783, and afterwards became an Independent minister, noted for his zeal and liberality in the diffusion of religious instruction. It is stated that he expended ;i^30,ooo in the erection of churches. In 1816 he published his "Evidence and Authority of Divine Revelation." In 1817 and 1818 he was successful at Geneva and Montauban in promoting a revival of religion and in forming the evangelical school, which has done so much to propagate Protestantism in France. His " Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans" (1835) is esteemed an excellent standard work, especially by Calvinists. Di?d in 1842. See Alexander Haldane, " Memoirs of Robert and James A. Haldane ;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- men," (Supplement;) "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1856. Haldat du Lys, /^tKdS' dii le, (Charles Nicolas Alexandre,) M.D., a French physicist, born at Bour- mont, in Lorraine, in 1770. He wrote several treatises on magnetism, biographies, and other works. Died in 1832 or 1852. Halde, Du. See Duhalde. H^Fde-man, (S. S.,) an American naturalist and phi- lologist, born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, in 1812. He was appointed an assistant in the geological survey of Pennsylvania in 1837, He published " Freshwater Univalve Mollusca of the United States," (1840-44,) " Zoological Contributions," (1843,) "Analytic Orthog- raphy," (the Trevelyan Prize Essay,) and other works. In 185 1 he became professor of natural history in the University of Pennsylvania, and about 1855 he obtained a similar office in Delaware College, at Newark. Haldenwang, hSKden-'^ing', (Christian,) an emi- nent German engraver, was born at Durlach in 1770. Pie engraved many landscapes after Poussin, Claude Lorrain, and Elsheimer, and executed some prints for the " Musee Napoleon," Died in 1831. Haldorsen, hiKdoR^sen, (Bjorn,) an Icelandic lexi- cographer, born in 1724. He published a "Lexicon Is- landico-Latino-Danicum," (2 vols., 1814.) Died in 1794. See Kraft og Nyerup, " Litteraturlexicon." Hale, (Rev. Benjamin,) an American educator, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1797, graduated at Bowdoin College in 1818. He became professor of chemistry at Dartmouth College in 1827, and president of Geneva College (now Hobart Free College) in 1836. Died in 1863. Hale, (David,) an American journalist, born in Lis- bon, Connecticut, in 1 791. In 1827 he established, in connection with Gerard Hallock, the New York "Jour- nal of Commerce." He was a distinguished advocate of the sub-treasury, free trade, and other leading measures of the Democratic party. Died in 1849. Hale, (Horatio,) an American lawyer and philolo- gist, a son of Mrs. Sarah J. Hale, was born in New Hampshire about 181 7. He graduated at Harvard in 1837. He produced a work entitled "Ethnology and Philology," which, says Dr. Latham, "contains the greatest mass of philological data ever accumulated by a single inquirer." The "North American Review," in a notice of the volume in July, 1846, says, "Mr. Hale has succeeded in giving a certain classical completeness to his work which makes it a model for future labourers in the same or similar fields of research." Hale, (John P.,) an American statesman, born at Ro- chester, Strafford county, New Hampshire, in March, 1806. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1827, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1830. He was ap- pointed district attorney for New Hampshire by Presi- dent Jackson in 1834, and reappointed by Van Buren. In 1843 he was elected a member of Congress by the Democrats of a district in New Hampshire. He became in Congress a decided opponent of slavery, for which reason his party opposed his election in 1845. About this date he resided at Dover, New Hampshire. He was Speaker of the House of Representatives of his native State in 1846. By a combination of anti-slavery Democrats and Whigs, he was elected Senator of the United States for New Hampshire in 1847. For sev- eral years he stood almost alone in the Senate on the question of slavery, and maintained a position inde- pendent of party. He was an easy and ready speaker, and by his wit or humour was often successful in turning aside the attacks of the pro-slavery Senators or in miti- gating the bitterness of party animosity. He was nomi- nated as candidate for the Presidency by the Liberty party in 1852, and received about 155,800 votes. On the expiration of his senatorial term in 1853, a Democrat was chosen to fill his place. Mr. Hale was again elected a member of the national Senate in 1855, to fill a vacancy. Having joined the Republican party, he was re-elected a Senator by the legislature of New Hampshire for a term of six years, 1859-65. He was appointed minister to Spain in 1865, and recalled in 1869. Hale, (Sir Matthew,) an eminent English judge, born at Alderley on the ist of November, 1609, was educated at Oxford. About the age of twenty he entered Lincoln's Inn, where he pursued the study of law with great assiduity, and reformed his habits of dissipation. He was admitted to the bar a few years before the com- mencement of the civil war, during which he maintained a neutral position, and acted as counsel for royalists in several important trials, among which were the cases of Strafford and Archbishop Laud. After the execution of Charles L, he recognized the Commonwealth, and accepted from Cromwell, in 1653, the post of judge of the common bench, the duties of which he performed with great fidelity, ability, and honour. He was twice elected to Parliament, — in 1658 and in 1660. Charles II. appointed him chief baron of the exchequer in 1660, and lord chief justice of England in 1671. He is regarded as one of the greatest, wisest, and best judges that ever attained this dignity. His "History of the Common Law" and " Pleas of the Crown" are esteemed as very high authority. He wrote also several religious and moral treatises, among which we may notice his "Con- templations" and " Primitive Origination of Mankind." He was twice married, and had a numerous offspring. Died in December, 1676. See Gilbert Burnet, "Life of Sir Matthew Hale," 16S2 ; Dr. Williams, " Life of Sir Matthew Hale," 1835 ; Roscoe, " Life of Sir Matthew Hale;" Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Chief Justices;" Foss, " The Judges of England." Hale, (Nathan,) Captain, an American patriot, born at Coventry, Connecticut, in 1755, graduated at Yale College in 1773, and entered the army in 1775. In 1776 he took part in the battle of Long Island. He was sent by General Washington to penetrate the enemy's lines and procure intelligence in September, 1776. Having been seized as a spy, he was executed the next day. See Stuart, " Life of Nathan Hale," 1856. € as k; g as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, Yi^^ttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) HALE 1 I I 2 HALIFAX Hale, (Nathan,) a journalist and lawyer, a nephew of the preceding, was born in Westhampton, Massachu- setts, in 1784. He became in 1814 owner and editor of the " Boston Daily Advertiser," the first daily paper issued in New England, which he conducted for many years with ability. It was an influential organ succes- sively of the Federalist, Whig, and Republican parties. In 1 816 he married a sister of Edward Everett. He rendered important services in both branches of the legislature of Massachusetts, and was one of the founders of the "North American Review." He published a good map of New England in 1825. Died in 1863. Hale, (Sarah Josepha,) an American authoress, daughter of Mr. Buell, of Sayl^rook, Connecticut, born ir. 1795 at Newport, New Hampshire, was married in 1814 to Mr. David Hale. She published in 1823 "The Genius of Oblivion, and other Poems," followed by "Northwood," a novel, (1827.) In 1828 she became editor of the "Ladies' Magazine," Boston, which in 1837 she merged into the "Lady's Book" of Philadel- phia. Among her poetic productions may be mentioned "Ormond Grosvenor," a tragedy, "Three Hours, or, The Vigil of Love ; and other Poems," issued in 1848, and "Harry Guy, a Story of the Sea." See Gkiswold's " Female Poets of America." Halem, hi'lem, (Bernhard Jakob Friedrich,) a German litterateur, born at Oldenburg in 1768. He translated from the English Haliam's " Middle Ages," and several of the romances of Sir Walter Scott. Died in 1823. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Halem, von, fon hi'lem, (Gerhard Anton,) a Ger- man historian, born at Oldenburg in 1752. Among his works are a " History of the Duchy of Oldenburg," (3 vols., 1796,) and a "Life of Peter the Great," (1805.) Died in 1819. See his " Selbstbiographie," 1840; Ersch und Gruber, "Allge- meine Encyklopaedie." Halen, van, vin IfMw, ? (Don Juan,) Count of Pera- campos, a Spanish general, of Belgian extraction, was born in the isle of Leon in 1790. He fought as officer for the Constitutional party in 1821, and went into exile about 1823. In 1830 he obtained command of the Bel- gian insurgents, and drove the Dutch army from Brus- sels. He returned to Spain in 1836, and, as general of division, defeated the Carlists in Navarre. Pie was presi- dent of the council of war sometime between 1852 and 1856. Died in November, 1864. See Juan van Halen, "Relacion de su Cautividad en los Cala- bozos de la Inquisicion," 2 vols., 1827, and English translation, Lon- don, 1827. Hales or Hayles, halz, (John,) an English scholar and writer, born in Kent ; died in 1572. Hales, (John,) the Ever-Memorable, a noted Eng- lish scholar and Arminian divine, born at Bath in 1584, was educated at Oxford, and was a Fellow of Merton College. In 1618 he took part in the Synod of Dort, and in 1639 he became canon of Windsor. He wrote sermons, letters, and treatises on theology, which were highly commended for learning, subtlety, and wit Clar- endon called him one of the greatest scholars in Europe ; and many writers agree in praising both his character and acquirements. Died in 1656. See " Biographia Britannica ;" " Account of the Life and Writings of John Hales," 1719. Hales, (Stephen,) D.D., an eminent English philoso- pher, born at Beckesbourn in 1677, resided for the greater part of his life at Teddington, of which he was curate. He made important discoveries in vegetable physiology, of which he published an account in a work entitled "Vegetable Statics," (1727.) In 1717 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He wrote treatises on anatomy, temperance, the circulation of the blood, and other subjects, and invented an improved plan for venti- lating prisons. Died in 176L See FoucHY, " filoge de Hales." Hales, (Thomas.) See Hele, d'. Hales, (William,) an Irish clergyman and scientific author, wrote, besides works on mathematics and the- ology, a "New Analysis of Chronology," (3 vols., 1809- 14,) which is highly commended by Home and Orme. Died at Kildare in 1821. Hales, de, (Alexander.) See Alexander de Hales. Halevy, //t'la've', (Jacques Franqois Fromental £lie,) an excellent French composer, born in Paris, of Jewish parents, in 1799, was a favourite pupil of Cheru- bini. He produced in 1829 "Claria," an opera, which was successful. His reputation was greatly increased by " The Jewess," (" La Juive," 1835,) which is called his capital work. The text of this was written by E. Scribe. He was chosen professor in the Conservatory in 1833. Among his later works are the operas of " The Queen of Cyprus," (1841,) "La Fee aux Roses," (1849,) "Valentine d'Aubigne," (1856,) which display beauties of the first order. Died in March, 1862. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens ;" " Nouvelle Riographie G^nerale ;" Ebers, " Spohr und Halevy und die neueste Kirchen- und Opern-Musik," 1837. • Halevy, (Leon,) a French poet, brother of the pre- ceding, was born in Paris in 1802. He produced about 1830 an excellent version of the Odes of Horace, and afterwards imitations of many great foreign poets, en- titled " Poesies Eiu oijeennes." His original drama of " Luther" is commended. Among his other works are a "History of the Jews," (1828,) versions of several tragedies of /Eschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and a version of "Macbeth," (1853.) He was a clerk in the ministry of public instruction many years. HaPford, (Sir Henry,) an eminent English physician, born on the 2d of October, 1766, was the son of Dj". James Vaughan, of Leicester. After graduating at Oxford, he practised in London with success, and, having given proof of his consummate skill, was chosen as medical attendant by George HI., by whom he was knighted in 1809. Having inherited a large fortune from a relative named Halford, he adopted the name of his benefactor in 1815. Sir Henry continued to be royal physician during the reigns of George IV., William IV., and Victoria. He was for many years president of the College of Physicians, before which he delivered several elegant Latin orations ; and he wrote numerous essays on professional subjects, some of which are interesting and attractive even to the general reader. His pro- fessional income at one period amounted to 10,000 a year. Died in 1844. See "Gentleman's Magazine" for May, 1844. Halgan, //tKgSN', (Emmanuel,) a French admiral, born in Bretagne in 1771. He became captain of a ship about 1805, and by his skilful seamanship escaped in the di.-een banished in 1577, Lord John returned in 1585 at the head of an army, and seized the king, who created him Marquis of Hamilton in 1599. He was grandfather of the first Duke of Ham- ilton. Died in 1604. Hamilton, (David,) a Scottish architect, born in Glasgow in 1768. He gained distinction by the erection of the Glasgow Exchange, about 1840, and of several banks and castles in Scotland. He was one of the suc- cessful competitors who obtained premiums of ;[{^5oo for their designs for the New Plouses of Parliament. Died in 1843. Hamilton, (Elizabetii,) a meritorious writer, born at Belfast, Ireland, in 1758. She resided some time in Scotland, as governess of the daughters of a nobleman. She pubhshed "Memoirs of Modern Philosophers," (3 vols., 1800,) "Letters on the Elementary Principles of Education," (2 vols., 1801,) and a tale called "The Cot- tagers of Glenburnie," (1808.) The last work is called by Sir Walter Scott "a picture of the rural habits of Scotland of striking and impressive fidelity." Died in 1816, at Harrowgate. See Miss Bengek, "Memoirs of Elizabeth Hamilton;" Mrs. Elwood, " Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England," etc., vol. ii., 1843 ; " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1808. Hamilton, (Lady Emma,) a fascinating and profligate woman, whose name was originally Lyon born at Pres- ton, or in Cheshire, about 1764. She was married in 1791 to Sir William Hamilton, and accompanied him to Naples. She acquired great influence over the Queen of Naples, and captivated Lord Nelson. She died in poverty at Calais in 181 5. See " Memoirs of Lady Hamilton," 1816; "Blackwood's Maga- zine" for April, i860. Hamilton, (Gavin,) a Scottish historical painter, born at Lanark about 1730, passed the greater part of his life at Rome. He displayed skill and good taste rather than inventive genius. His illustrations of Homer's " Iliad" are among his best productions. He rendered service to art by his discoveries of statues, bas-reliefs, and other buried monuments, many of which adorn the Museo Clementino, and published "The Italian School of Paint- ing," illustrated with splendid plates, (1773.) Died at Rome in 1797. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Hamilton, (George,) Earl of Orkney, a Scottish gene- ral, and a younger son of William Douglas, Earl of Sel- kirk, was born in 1666. He distinguished himself at the battle of the Boyne in 1690, and in 1696 was made Earl of Orkney. In 1704, as lieutenant-general, he took part in the battle of Blenheim. In 1707 he became a member of the British House of Peers. Died in 1737. See Macaulav, "History of England," vol. v. Hamilton, (Hugh,) an Irish bishop and mathema- tician, born in the county of Dublin in 1729, became Bishop of Ossory in 1799. He published theological and mathematical works, among which was a "Treatise on Conic Sections." Died in 1805. Hamilton, (James,) second Earl of Arran, was a son of James Hamilton, Earl of Arran, who died in 1529. At the death of James V., in 1542, he was appointed Regent of Scotland. He obtained in 1549, from Henry II. of France, the duchy of Chatellerault. The queen-mother extorted from Regent Arran (who was a man of feeble character) a resignation of his office about 1554. After Mary Stuart became a cajitive in England, he was the chief of a party which adhered to her cause and took arms against Regent Lennox. Died in 1575. See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. iii. chaps, xxxiv.-xxxvi. ; Robertson, " History ot Scotland." Hamilton, (James,) of Bothwellhaugh, a notorious desperado, who lived about 1570. He was the murderer of the regent Murray, and afterwards offered his ser- vices to the agents of Philip II. for the purpose of assas- sinating the Prince of Orange. See Froude, "History of England," vol. ix. Hamilton, (James,) first Duke of, a Scottish noble- man, born in i6o6, was the son of the Marquis of Ham- ilton. In the civil war he was an adherent of Charles I., who gave him the title of duke. By the influence of his rival Montrose, he was imprisoned in 1645. In 1648 he raised an army of about 20,000 men in Scotland, with which he marched south to Preston, where he was de- feated by Cromwell and taken prisoner. He was tried for treason, condemned, and executed, in 1649. See Neeuham, " Life of the Duke of Hamilton," 1649 ; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Hamilton, (Jamks,) fourth Duke of, (previously Earl of Arran,) son of William Douglas, Earl of Selkirk, born in 1657, succeeded to the title in 1694. He was a Ja« cobite, and in 171 1 he was made a peer, with the title of Duke of Brandon ; but the House of Lords refused to admit him. Queen Anne appointed him ambassador to France ; but before his departure he was killed (1712) in a duel with Lord .Mohiin, who also was mortally wounded. See " M -inoirs of James, Duke of Hamilton," London, 1742; Chamber., " Bi ■graplucii Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Hamilton, (James,) born in London about 1775, is known as the auth'jr of the Hamiltonian system of teach- ing languages by the use of a literal interlinear translation before learning the rules of grammar. Died in 1829. Hamilton, (James,) a politician and lawyer, born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1786. In 1830 he became Governor of South Carolina, ancl was a zealous promoter of nullification. He represented Texas as minister to England in 1841. He was drowned at sea in 1857. Hamilton, (James,) D.D., a popular British author and Presbyterian divine, born at Paisley in 1814. He becaiTie about 1840 minister of the National Scottish Church, Regent Square, London. He was an eloquent preacher, and author of numerous works. Among these are " Life in Earnest," (which has had a very extensive circulation,) "The Mount of Olives," and "The Happy Home," (new edition, 1855.) Died in November, 1867. Hamilton, (James,) a distinguished painter of marine views, born in Ireland about 1820, came to the United States in infancy. He practised his art in Philadelphia, and acquired much distinction by his illustrations of Dr. Kane's "Arctic Explorations," (1856.) His "Capture of the Serapis" and " Old Ironsides" have been greatly admired. Hamilton is particularly successful in the repre- sentation of all water-scene-s, whether he attempts to bring before us the rush and tumult of Niagara or the infinitely diversified appearances of the mighty ocean. See Tuckerman's " Book of the Artists." Hamilton, (John,) Archbishop of Saint Andrew's, an ambitious Scottish prelate, was a brother of the Earl of Arran, the regent. He was a persecutor of the Prot- estants, and took an active part in the political contests of the reign of Mary Stuart. He was tried for treason, convicted, and hung, in 1571. See CiiAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Hamilton, (John,) a Scottish priest, born in the six- teenth century. He wrote a " Treatise on Theology" about 1 581. See Lord Hailes, " Life of John Hamilton." Hamilton, (Sir John,) a British general, born in 1755. He served in several campaigns in India, and € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; I as 2; th as in this. (2[^='See Explanations, p. 23.) 71 HAMILTON I I 22 HAMILTON became a Ijrigadier-general in 1805. He distinguished himself in the Peninsular war. Died in 1835. Hamilton, (John C.,) an American writer, a son of Alexander Hamilton, was born in Philadelphia in 1792, He served in the army in the war against Great Britain, 1812-14. He published "Memoirs of the Life of Alex- ander Hamilton," (2 vols., 1834-40,) and a "History of the Republic of the United States as traced in the Writings of Alexander Hamilton and his Contempo- raries," (6 vols., 1858.) Hamilton, (Patrick,) commonly regarded as the first Scottish Reformer, was born in 1503. He adopted the principles of Luther, whom he had heard preach in Germany, and on his return to Scotland he openly attacked the errors of the Roman Church. He was condemned as a heretic, and suffered martyrdom with constancy at the age of twenty-three. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- men ;" J. G. LoRiMEK, " Patrick Hamihon : a Historical Biography," 1857; Rev. Robert Steel, "Burning and Shining Lights," Lon- don, 1864. Hamilton, (Richard Winter,) an English preacher, born in London in 1794. He became pastor of an Inde- pendent church, Albion Chapel, Leeds, in 1815. He was eminent as a platform orator, and wrote a series of essays entitled " Nugae Literarioe," (" Literary Trifles," 1841.) Several volumes of his sermons have been pub- lished. Died in 1848. See W. H. Stowell, " Memoir of R. W. Hamilton," 1850. Hamilton, (Robert,) a Scottish physician, born at Edinburgh in 1721 ; died at Lynn in 1793. Hamilton, (Robert,) a Scottish political economist, born in Edinburgh about 1742. He was professor of natural philosophy and mathematics in Marischal Col- lege, Aberdeen, from 1782 to 1829. His chief work is an "Inquiry concerning the Rise and Progress, the Re- dernption and the Present State, and the Management, of the^'National Debt of Great Britain," (1813.) "This important work," says McCulloch, "opened the eyes of the public to the delusive nature of the sinking fund." Among his other works is " The Progress of Society," (1830.) Died in 1829. Hamilton, (Schuyler,) an American general, a son of [ohn C. Hamilton, and a grandson of Hamilton the great statesman, was born in New York in 1822. He graduated at West Point in 1841, served as aide-de-camp to General Scott in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and resigned his commission in 1855. In 1861 he became a brigadier-general of volunteers. He rendered important services in Missouri, and suggested the canal which was cut near New Madrid in March and April, 1862. He was made a major-general in September, 1862, and re- signed, on account of ill health, in February, 1863. Hamilton, (Thomas,) a captain of the British army, born in 1789. He served in the Peninsular war, and in the second war between the United States and Great Britain. He contributed many articles to " Blackwood's Magazine," and published several able works, namely, "Annals of the Peninsular Campaign," "The Youth and Manhood of Cyril Thornton," a novel, (1827,) and " Men and Manners in America," (1833.) These books were favourably noticed by British critics. Died in 1842. Hamilton, (Walter,) a British geographer, pub- lished "The East India Gazetteer," (London, 1814,) and a "Geographical, Statistical, and Historical Description of Hindostan," (2 vols., 1820,) which the "London Quar- terly Review" pronounced "an inestimable work, con- taining a more full, detailed, and faithful picture of India than any former work on the subject." Hamilton, (William,) second Duke of, born in 1616, was brother of James, the first Duke of Hamilton, whose title he inherited. He officiated as secretary of state in Scotland, and, after serving in the army of Charles II., died in 165 1, of wounds received at the battle of Worcester. The duchy devolved on his niece, Anne Hamilton, who was married to William Douglas. Hamilton, (William,) of Bangour, a Scottish poet, born in Ayrshire in 1704, joined the party of the Pre- tender in 1745. He wrote a volume of poems, among which is "The Braes of Yarrow." Died in 1754. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Hamilton, (Sir William,) a diplomatist, antiquary, and connoisseur, born in Scotland in 1730. He was appointed ambassador to Naples in 1764, and retained that post until i8oo. In 1766 he was admitted a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1772 was made Knight of the Bath. During his residence at Naples he contributed rnuch to the advancement of art and science by collecting Etruscan and Greek vases and other antiquities (now in the Britiiih Museum) and by observing the volcanic phenomena of Vesuvius. He published, in 1772, "Ob- servations on Mount Vesuvius, Mount Etna," etc., and in 1776 another work on the same subject, entitled "Campi Phlegraei." In 1766 appeared an elegant work, in French and English, named " Etruscan, Greek, and Roman Antiquities, drawn from the Cabinet of Mr. Hamilton," by D'Hancarville. Died in 1803. His second wife, Emma, gained notoriety by her disgraceful connection with Lord Nelson. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Hamilton, (Sir William,) one of the greatest meta- physicians of modern times, was born at Glasgow on the 8th of March, 1788. He was descended from the ancient Scottish family of the Ilamiltons of Preston, and was educated at Baliiol College, Oxford, where he obtained first-class honours. In 1821 he was appointed professor of universal history in the University of Edinburgh, where he had much leisure for the pursuit of his favoiu-ite metaphysical studies. He commenced in 1829 to write for the " Edinburgh Review" on mental philosophy, logic, and other subjects. Among the titles of these es'says or reviews are the " Philosophy of the Absolute : Cousin- Schelling," (1829,) " Philosophy of Perception : Reid and Brown," (1830,) and "Logic: the Recent English Treat- ises on that Science," (1833.) tie combated the system of Schelling and Hegel in the essay first named. From 1836 until his death he was professor of logic and meta- physics in the University of Edinburgh. Before the former date he had acquired a European reputation by his vast erudition and extraordinary acuteness of intel- lect. His influence and success as a professor were aug- mented by a noble person, a sonorous voice, and perfect dignity of manner. He published in 1846 an edition of Reid's Works, with notes and supplementary disser- tations ; and in 1852, " Discussions on Philosophy and Literature, Education and University Reform, chiefly from the 'Edinburgh Review,' enlarged, with Notes and other Additions," (i vol. 8vo.) In 1845 he was partially disabled by paralysis, which, however, did not impair his mental activity. His last publication was an edition of the Works of Dugald Stewart, (9 vols., 1854-56.) He died in Edinburgh on the 6th of May, 1856. He com- bined the power of analysis and generalization in a degree perhaps unequalled since the time of Aristotle. In a thorough acquaintance with the history of philosophy he has never been surpassed by any writer. " Sir William Hamilton," says the " Edinburgh Re- view," " has attained to the very highest distinction as a philosopher, and in some respects he is decidedly superior to any of his illustrious predecessors, — Reid, Stewart, or Brown. With a remarkable power of analysis and discrimination, he combines great decision and ele- gance of style, and a degree of erudition that is almost without a parallel." " Hamilton never deviates," says M. Cousin, "from the gratide roiite oi common sense; and at the same time he has much esprit and sagacity. I assure you (as I know by experience) that his dialectic is very inconvenient to an adversary. . . . His inde- pendence is equal to his knov^'ledge ; and he is especially great in logic. I now address you professionally, (ejt hoifune de metier.) Know then, that M. Hamilton, among all your compatriots, understands Aristotle the best ;• and if there is a chair of logic vacant in the three kingdoms, give it to him, by all means, without delay." (Letter to Mr. Pillans, of Edinburgh, 1836.) See John Veitch, "Memoir of Sir William Hamilton, Bart.," (with portrait,) 1869; E. P. Whipple, "Essays and Reviews," 1851; "North American Review" for January, 1853, vol. Ixxvi. ; " Nouvelle Biograplve Generale ;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for October, 1859; "North British Review" for May, 1859, September, 1S65, and July, 1868. See, also, J. S. Mill's "Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy," 1865, and the Introduction to Dr. James McCosh's " Examination of Mr. J. S. Mill's Philosophy," 1866. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fl,ll, f^t; mSt; n5t; good; moon; HAMILTON 1 123 HAMMOND Hamilton, (William,) R.A., a British painter, born about 1750, was a pupil of Zucchi, in Rome. He was successful as a painter of ornaments, and was elected a Royal Academician in 1789. He worked mostly in England, and was one of the artists employed on the "Shakspeare Gallery." Died in 1801. Hamilton, (William Douglas,) Earl of Selkirk, was created Duke of Hamilton in 1660. He married Anne, Duchess of Hamilton, with the condition that their chil- dren should take her family name. William HI. appointed him lord high commissioner of Scotland in 1689, and again in 1693. Died in 1694. See Macaulay, "History of England," vol. ii. chap. vi. ; also vol. lii. chaps, xiii. and xvi. Hamilton, (William Gerard,) often called " Single- Speech Hamilton," was born in London in 1729. Having been educated at Oxford, he obtained a seat in Parlia- ment in 1754, and made his first speech in November, 1755, which was received with great apj^lause. It is said that no maiden speech in that House ever made such a sensation. In 1756 he was appointed one of the lords of trade. He wrote a treatise on " Parliamentary Logic," and was conjectured, without evidence or probability, to be the author of "Junius." From 1765 to 1784 he was chancellor of the exchequer in Ireland, and made several eloquent speeches in the Irish Parliament. He was one of Dr. Johnson's most valued friends. Died in 1796. See " Edinburgh Review," vol. xv. Hamilton, (William Richard,) an English anti- quary and diplomatist, born in London in 1777. He was private secretary of Lord Elgin in the embassy to Con- stantinople, and aided in the removal of the Elgin Mar- bles from Athens. After a visit to Egypt, he published a work on the antiquities of that country, called " ^igyp- tiaca," (1810.) He procured for the British Museum the famous Rosetta Stone. He was under-secretary of state fur f(Meign affairs between 1810 and 1822. Died in 1859. Hamilton, (Sir William Rowax,) an eminent Irish asti onomer and geometer, born in Dublin in 1805. He learned, or at least studied, thirteen languages before he had completed his thirteenth year, and about the age of fifteen became versed in the higher mathematics. In 1823 he l egan to apply algebraic geometry to optics, and enteiid ihe University of Dublin, where he "uniformly (ib;;iii ed the chief honour in both science and classics." Hl- was appointed .Ai'drews professor of astronomy and astronomer royal for Ireland at the age of twenty-one, aid [)roduced in 1828 his important "Theory of Systems (if Ivays," in which he developed the application of alge- bra to optics, and announced two new laws of light, — the internal and exter7ial conical refraction of biaxal crystals. He received a gold medal from the Royal Society of London for this discovery, in reference to which Professor Piiicker, of Bonn, declared, "No experiment in i^hysics has made such an impression on my mind." He was chosen president of the Royal Irish Academy in 1837. Among his chief works is "Elements of Quaternions," (1866.) Died in 1865. "There can be but one opinion," says the "North British Review" for September, 1866, "of the extraordinary genius and untiring energy of hi'm who, unaided, composed in so short a time two such enormous treatises as the 'Lectures,' (1853,) and the 'Elements of Quaternions,' (1866.) As a repertory of mathematical facts and a triumph of analytical and geo- metrical power, they can be compared only with such imjiei ishable works as the ' Principia' and the ' Me- canique Analytique.' " See "Gentleman's Magazine" for 1866. Ham'ley, (Lieutenant -Colonel Edward Bruce,) R.A., a contemporary British writer of fiction, published "Lady Lee's Widowhood," (2 vols., 1854,) and "The Story of a Campaign: a Narrative of the *War in Southern Russia, written in the Crimea," (1855.) These works first appeared in " Blackwood's Magazine." HamTiu, (Hannibal,) an American Senator, born at Paris, Oxford county, Maine, in August, 1809. He prac- tised law from 1833 1848. He was Speaker of the House of Representatives of Maine in 1837, 1839, and 1840, and represented a district of that State in Congress from 1843 to 1847. In May, 1848, he was elected a Senator of the United States for four years, to fill a vacancy. He was re-elected a Senator for six years by the legislature of Maine in 185 1. He was originally a Democrat, but differed from his party on the question of slavery, and joined the Republicans about 1855. In 1857 he was Governor of Maine for a short time, but, having been again elected to the Federal Senate, he resigned the office of Governor. He was elected Vice- President of the United States by the Republicans in i860. In January, 1869, he was again elected a Senator of the United States. Hammarskold or Hammarskoeld, hin/mars- chold', (Lars,) an able Swedish critic and author, born at Tuna, in Calmar, in 1785. He published a volume of poems, " Poetiska Studier," (1813,) " Hellvin och El- vina," a tale, (1817,) "Swedish Literature," (" Svenska Vitterheten," 1818,) which is highly commended, and an excellent work entitled " Historical Remarks on the Progress and Development of Philosophic Studies in Sweden," (1821.) Died in 1827. See "Minnen af L. Hammarskoeld," 1827. Hammer, him'mer, (Julius,) a German writer, born at Dresden in 1810, published " Life and Dreaming," (" Leben und Traum," 1839,) and other novels. A volume of his poems, entitled "Look around thee and Look within thee," (" Schau' um Dich und schau' in Dich," 185 1,) was often reprinted. Hammerer, him'meh-rer, (Johann,) an Alsatian architect and sculj^tor, superintended the erection of the Strasburg Cathedral from 1510 to 1520. Hammericli, him'meh-riK, ( Frederik Peder Adolf,) a Danish author and divine, born at Co]>en- hagen in 1809. He produced popular national songs in a work entitled " Skandinaviske Reiseminder," (1840,) "Heroic Songs," (" Heltesange," 1841,) "The Awaken- ing of Denmark," (1848,) and other admired poems. In 1845 he became pastor of a church in Copenhagen. He published several well-written works on Danish history, among which is " Denmark under the Union of Calmar," (" Denmark under de Nordiske Rigers Forening 1375- 1523," 1849.) See Erslew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." Hammerlein, hSm^mer-ln/, [Lat. Malle'olus, ] (Felix,) a Swiss theologian, born in Zurich in 1389. He distinguished himself at the Council of Bale by his zeal for the maintenance of discipline. He wrote many religious treatises, which exposed him to persecution, and was condemned to perpetual detention in a convent, where he died about 1460. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Hammer-Purgstall, von, fon hSm'mer pooRo'stir, (Joseph,) Baron, an eminent German Orientalist and historian, was born at Gratz, in Styria, in 1774. He was a friend of Goethe, Herder, and Wieland in his youth. In 1802 he went to Constantinople as secretary of lega- tion, and in 1807 he returned to Vienna, where he chiefly resided. He was appointed interpreter to the imperial court about 181 5, and aulic councillor in 181 7. He spoke and wrote ten foreign languages, among which were the Persian, Arabic, Greek, and Turkish. His literar\ career was long and prosperous. He was elected president of the Academy of Vienna in 1847, and was an associate of the French Institute. Probably no other European has been so successful in the illustration of the manners, history, and literature of the Mussulmans. His histories are the most complete that we have on the subjects of which he treats. One of his chief works is a " History of the Ottoman Empire," (" Geschichte des Osmanischeu Reichs," 10 vols., 1827-35.) ^^'^^ author of numerous other works, among which are a "History of Ottoman Poetry," (4 vols., 1836-38,) and a " History of Arabic Literature," (" Literaturgeschichte der Araber," 7 vols. 4to, 1850-56.) He also translated poems from the Per- sian, Arabic, etc. His original name was Joseph Ham- mer ; but, having in 1837 inherited certain estates of the Counts of Purgstall, he added their name to his own, and was created a baron. Died in 1856. See his Autobiography, " Denkwiirdigkeiten aus meinem Leben ;" K. ScHLOTTMANN, " Joseph voD Hammer-Purgstall ;" "Foreign Quarterly" for November, 1827; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale.' Ham'mpnd, (Anthony,) M.P., born at Somershans Place, England, in 1668, gained distinction in literature ■e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; r, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (S:^^See Explanations, p. 23.) HAMMOND 1124 HAMPDEN aiul parliamentary eloquence. In 1720 he edited a " New Miscellany of Original Poems," some of which were his own productions. Died in 1738. Hammond, (Hknry,) an English divine and author, born at Chertsey in 1605, was appointed Archdeacon of Chichester in 1643, and canon of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1645. Being a zealous royalist, he attended Charles I. as chaplain while he was a prisoner in 1646-47. He was an excellent orator, and an author of superior merit. Among his works are "A Practical Catechism," (1644,) "Paraphrase and Annotations on the New Testament," (1653,) "Paraphrase and Annotations on the Book of Psalms," (1659,) and "A Pacific Discourse on God's Grace and Decrees," (1660.) "I would recommend," says Dr. Johnson, " Lowth and Patrick on the Old Tes- tament, and Hammond on the New." Died in 1660. See Bishop Fell, " Life of H. Hammond," 1661 ; R. Fulman, "Life of H. Hammond," 16S4. Hammond, (Jabez D.,) an American lawyer and writer. He rej^resented a district of New York in Con- gress in 1815-17, and was elected regent of the Uni- versity of New York in 1845. He wrote a "Political History of New York," (2 vols., 1843,) and a "Life of Silas Wright." Died at Cherry Valley in 1855. Ham'mond, (James,) M.P., an English poet, son of Anthony, noticed above, was born about 17 10. He was equerry to the Prince of Wales, and sat in Parliament in 1741. He wrote "Love Elegies," (partly translated or imitated from Tibullus.) Died in 1742. Hammond, (James Hamilton,) a politician, born in Newberry district, South Carolina, in 1807. He was a nullifier about 1832, was elected to Congress in 1835, and was chosen Governor of South Carolina in 1842. In 1857 he became a United States Senator. Died in 1861. Hammond, (Le Roy,) Colonel, an American officer, born in Richmond county, Virginia, about 1740. He removed to Soutli Carolina, where he fought against the British in 1776-82 and distinguished himself as a leader in guerilla warfare. Died about 1800. Hammond, (Marcus C. M.,) a military writer, a brother of James H. Hammond, noticed above, was born in Newberry district, South Carolina, in 1 814, and gradu- ated at West Point in 1836. He wrote for the " South- ern Quarterly" a series of essays on the Mexican war. Hammond, (Samuel,) an able American officer, born in Richmond county, Virginia, in 1757. He served with distinction at King's Mountain, Cowpens, Eutaw, and other battles in South Carolina and Georgia, He was a])pointed civil and military commandant of Upper Louisiana about 1805. In 1831 he became secretary of state of South Carolina. Died in 1842. Hammond, (William A.,) an American surgeon and distinguished medical writer, born in Annapolis, Maryland, August 28, 1828, graduated as M.D. at the University of New York in 1848, and entered the army as assistant surgeon. In October, i860, he was appointed professor of anatomy and physiology in the University of Maryland. In 1861 he re entered the army, was ajipointed surgeon-general in April, 1862, and was dis- missed in August. 1864. He has published, besides other valuable works, " Military Hygiene," (1863,) and "Sleep and its Derangements," (1869.) Hamon, /^S'm6N', (Jean,) a distinguished Jansenist writer, was born at Cherbourg in i6i8. He entered the monastery of Port-Royal about 1650, before which he had acquired distinction by his talents. He was ex- tremely abstemious or ascetic in his way of life. He wrote treatises on prayer and on solitude, and other de- votional works, the morality and unction of which entitle him to rank with the best writers of Port-Royal. He practised medicine before and after his retirement from the world. Died in 1687. "Tout brillant de savoir, d'esprit et d'eloquence, 11 counit an desert chercher I'obscurite." — Boileau. See Thomas Dufosse, " Histoire de Port-Royal;" " Nouvelle Biographie Geii^rale." Hamon, (Jean Louis,) a French painter of genre, born at Plouha (C6tes-du-Nord) in 1821, His works are admired for grace, finesse, and subtlety of idea and execution. Among his master-pieces are " My Sister is not here," (1853,) "Cupid and his Flock," (1855,) and "The Butterfly Chained," ("Le Papillon enchaine," (1857.) Hamp'd^n, (John,) an illustrious English patriot and statesman, born in London in 1594, was the eldest son of William Hampden of Hampden and Elizabeth Cromwell, who was aunt of the Protector, Oliver Crom- well. He inherited at an early age the ample estate of his ancestors, in the county of Bucks. Having been edu- cated at Oxford, he became in 1613 a student in the Inner Temple, and attained proficiency both in literature and law. While a student, he was chosen to write an epitha- lamium on the marriage of the princess Elizabeth, sister of Charles I. In 1619 he married Elizabeth Symeon, and in the next year was returned to Parliament by the borough of Grampound. Of his private life not many particulars have been recorded. It appears that party spirit and detraction failed to find any vice in his morals or any vulnerable point in his character. Clarendon men- tions a change which occurred in his habits, probably, about the age of twenty-five. " On a sudden," he says, "from a life of great pleasure and license, he retired to extraordinary sobriety and strictness." But even after this change "he preserved his natural cheerfulness and vivacity, and, above all, a flowing courtesy to all men." Hampden represented Wendover in the House of Com- mons in 1625, and also in the next Parliament, which met in 1626 and denied the right of the king to levy tonnage and poundage without their consent. When the king resorted to a forced loan, Hampden, with many others, refused to pay his portion, and was imprisoned. Having been restored to liberty, he entered Parliament in 1628, and distinguished himself by his industry and capacity for business. The king having resolved to dispense with Parliaments, Hampden retired to his estate in 1629, and passed many years in rural occupations. In 1636 he obtained great credit and popularity by his firm resistance to the arbitrary measures of the court in reference to ship-money. The sum required of him was only a few shillings; but, as he considered the demand despotic in princii)le and tendency, he thought it his duty to abide by the constitution, and refused to pay a farthing. To- wards the end of 1636 this great cause was tried in the Exchequer Chamber before all the (twelve) judges of England. The arguments of the counsel occupied about twelve days. Four of the judges decided in Hamp- den's favour, and seven or eight against him. Many Puritans now sought a refuge from persecution and oppression by emigration to America under the auspices of Lord Say and Lord Brooke. Hampden, perceiving that neither his person nor his property was safe, determined to follow their example. In 1638, in com- pany with his cousin, Oliver Cromwell, he took passage in a ship on the point of sailing to America, when the voyage was arrested by an order of Council, and the two friends remained, to teach despotic power an ever-memo« rable lesson. In 1640 the king called the famous Long Parliament, in which Hampden sat as a member for Bucks, being regarded as the leader of the opposition and the most popular man in England. " He was," says Macaulay, "a greater master of parliamentary tactics than any man of his time. . . . His speaking was ready, weighty, perspicuous, condensed. He seldom rose till late in a debate." In 1641 the court proposed to form a po])ular administration, under the direction of the Earl of Bedford, and to select Hampden as tutor of the Prince of Wales ; but the death of the earl prevented this de- sirable consummation. During the stormy debate which attended the passage of the Grand Remonstrance, when the excited disputants were near coming to blows, they were pacified, as an eye-witness states, "by the sagacity and great calmness of Mr. Hampden." On the 3d of January, 1642, the king sent the attor- ney-general to impeach Hampden, Pym, Ilollis, and two other members of the House, on a charge of high treason. As the Commons refused to surrender these members, Charles went in person, with his guards, to arrest them in their seats ; but the five members had retired a few minutes before, and escaped from his grasp. This des- perate attempt against the privilege of Parliament excited the greatest indignation. The city of London rose in arms. In a few days the Commons openly defied the a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fdr, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon* HAMPDEN 1125 HANCOCK court, and the citizens escorted the accused members in triumph back to their seats in Westminster. When the news reached Buckinghamshire, four thousand free- holders rode to London to defend their representative. When all attempts to negotiate had failed between the two parties, Hampden received a commission as colonel, and raised a regiment in his own county. They wore the device "Vestigia nulla retrorsum," a fitting motto for one whose character was so straightforward and determined. As a member of the committee of public safety, he was incessantly employed in a variety of labours. Had he lived a few years longer, it is probable he would have been commander-in-chief. He took part in the battle of Edgehill, and in several skirmishes, ex- posing his person with a bravery bordering on rashness. In June, 1643, Prince Rupert, returning from a maraud- ing expedition, encountered Hampden, with a small troop, on Chalgrove field. In the first charge Hamp- den received a fatal shot in the shoulder ; and a few days after the great Commoner expired. He left three sons and six daughters, whose mother died in 1634. Clarendon, though a political opponent, renders the following tribute to his memory: "lie was indeed a very wise man, and possessed with the most absolute spirit of popularity, and the most absolute faculties to govern the people, of any man I ever knew. . . . His reputation of honesty was universal. . . . The eyes of all men were fixed upon him as their patriae pater, and the pilot that must steer the vessel through the tempests that threatened it." See Lord Nugent, " Memorials of Hampden," 1832 ; Mac- AULAv's review of the same, in his "Essays;" Clakendon, "History of the Rebellion;" John Forster, "Lives of Eminent British Statesmen;" Hume, "History of England," chap. Ivi. ; GuiZOT, "Histoiie de la Revolution d'Anglelei re ;" Hali.am, "Constitutional History of England;" Isaac Disraeli, "Eliot, Hampden, and Pym," 1832. Hampden, (Rev. Renn Dickson,) an English divine and scholar, born in Barbadoes about 1794. He became a Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford, where he was also a tutor. He published, among other works, "Philo- sophical Evidence of Christianity," (1827,) and "The Scholastic Philosophy in its Relation to Christian The- ology," (1832.) In 1836 he was appointed by the Whig ministry regius professor of divinity at Oxford. This appointment gave rise to a fierce controversy. It was condemned by the high-church party, who charged Hampden with unsoundness of doctrine ; and it was stigmatized by Southey as "an insult to the University." He became Bishoj) of Hereford in 1847. He contributed able articles on Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle to the "Encyclopaedia Britannica." Died in 1868. Hampden, (Richard,) a son of the great John Hamp- den, was a Whig member of the House of Commons in 1689, also a commissioner of the treasury, and member of the privy council. In 1690 he was made chancellor of the exchequer, — "probably to reward him for the moderation of his conduct," says Macaulay. See Macaui-av's " History of England," vol. ii. chap. x. ; vol. iii. chaps, xi. and xv. Ham'per, (W^illiam,) an English biographer and antiquary, born at Birmingham in 1776. He served as magistrate in Warwickshire. Among his works were several antiquarian treatises in the "Gentleman's Ma- gaziiie," and "The Life, Diary, and Correspondence of Sir William Dugdale," (1837,) which contains valuable historical information. Died in 1831. Hamp'ton, (Rev. James,) an English translator, who published a version of the " General History" of Polybius, (2 vols. 4to, 1756-72,) with a preface by Dr. Johnson. "The English translator," says Gibbon, "has preserved the admirable sense and improved the coarse original." Died in 1778. Hamp'tpn, (Wade,) an American general, born in South Carolina in 1755. He served in the Revolutionary war, and gained the rank of brigadier-general in 1809. He commanded an army which made an unsuccessful invasion of Canada in October, 1813. Died in 1835. Hampton, (Wade.) a grandson of the preceding, was born at Columbia or Charleston, St)uth Carolina, about 1828, or, as others say, in 1818. He took arms against the Union in 1861, served as a brigadier-general at the battle of Antietam, September, 1862, and was wounded at Gettysburg, July, 1863. Having been raised to the rank of major-general, he commanded all the cavalry of Lee's army in Virginia in the summer of 1864. He served in South Carolina in February, 1865, and, according to the report of General Sherman, " ordered that all cotton, public and private, should be moved into the streets [of Columbia] and fired." Generals Hampton and Sherman mutually accused each other of burning Columbia. See "Southern Generals," anonymous, 1865; Greeley, "Ameri- can Conflict," vol. ii. pj). 699-701. Hamsfort, hams'foRt, (Cornelius,) a Danish his- torian, who published in 1585 a succession of Kings of Denmark from Dan to Frederick II. He also wrote a "Chronology of Danish History." Died in 1627. Haniza, hdm'zi, surnamed Al-Hadee, (or Al-Hadi,) i.e. " the Director," called by some authorities the founder of the sect of the Druses, flourished in Cairo about the year 1000. He wrote the " Book of Testimonies to the Mysteries of the Unity," thought by some to rival the Koran. Hamza, or Hamzah, was also the name of one of Mohammed's foster-brothers. He fell at Bedr, 622 A.D. Hanbal. See Ikn-Hankal. Hancarville, d', d6N'ktR^'^l', the title of an ingenious French antiquary, whose proper name was Pierre Fran- gois Hugues, (/ziig,) born at Nancy in 1710. He lived many years in Italy, and attained some skill in design. He published a sjilendid work entitled " Etruscan, Greek, and Roinan Antiquities, drawn from the Cabinet of Sir William Hamilton," (4 vols., Naples, 1766,) and "Re- searches into the Origin, Spirit, and Progress of the Arts in Greece," (1785.) Died in Padua in 1805. Hanckius, hank'e-us, or Hanke, hdnk'eh, (Martin,) a German philologist, born near Breslau in 1633. He became prufessor of history in Breslau in 1661, and after- wards inspector of the Lutheran schools. He wrote a useful work on Roman historians, entitled " De Roma- narum Rerum Scriptoribus," (1669-75,) ^^^^ several inter- esting works on the civil and literary history of Silesia, among which is a work on learned Silesians, " De Sile- siis Indigenis eruditis ab Anno 1 165 ad Annum 1550," (1707.) Died in 1709. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Caspar Naumann, " Martinalia Christiana, seu Concio funebris in Obitum M. Hanckii," 1710. Han'cock, (John,) an American statesman, born in Quincy, Massachusetts, January 12, 1737, graduated at Harvard in 1754. He became a merchant of Boston, and heir to a large fortune. His wife was a daughter of Edmund Quincy. He was chosen a member of the House of Representatives of Massachusetts in 1766, became a bold assertor of liberty, and was president of the Provincial Congress in 1774. In June, 1775, Gov- ernor Gage offered a pardon to all the rebels except Samuel Adams and John Hancock. He was chosen president of the Continental Congress in 1775, and signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Having resigned his seat in Congress, on account of ill health, in October, 1777, he was elected Governor of Massa- chusetts in 1780. He was a very popular Governor, and was annually re-elected, except for the years 1785 and 1786, until his death. His eloquence, his affable dispo- sition, and his polished manners rendered him a general favourite. As a presiding ofiicer, he was dignified and very successful. He made a generous use of his fortune, and was a liberal benefactor to Harvard College. Died in October, 1793. See Goodrich, "Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- pendence;" Bancroft, "History of the United Stales." Hancock, (WinfieldScott,) a distinguished Ameri- can general, born in Montgomery county, Pennsylvania, in 1824. He graduated at West Point in 1844, and served as lieutenant in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) after which he was employed for several years in Missouri. In 1855 he obtained the rank of captain. He was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers in 1861, and served with distinction in the army of the Potomac in the sj^ring of 1862. He took i>art in the battle of Antietam, Septem- ber, 1862, and when General Richardson was killed there, succeeded him as commander of a division, which € as 9 as j; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) HAND 1126 HANNA he directed at Fredericksburg in December of that year. He commanded a corps at the battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863, where he was wounded. In the spring of 1864 he obtained command of the second corps of the army of General Grant. His corps captured nearly 4000 prisoners, and twenty pieces of cannon, in the battle fought near Spottsyl vania Court-House on the 12th of May, 1864. He was promoted to the rank of brigadier- general of the regular army in August of that year. In August, 1867, he was appointed commander of the fifth military district, comprising Louisiana and Texas. He resigned that position in March, 1868. He received at the National Democratic Convention of July, 1868, one hundred and forty four and a half votes as a candidate for the Presidency. Hand, hint, (Ferdinand Gotthelf,) a German philologist, born at Plauen, in Saxony, in 1786. He was professor of Greek literature in the University of Jena from 1817 until 1851. Among his principal works are a "Treatise on Latin Style," (" Lehrbuch des Latei- nischen Stil," 1833,) and " ^Esthetics of the Musical Art," (2 vols., 1837-41.) Died in 1851. See GusTAV Queck, " F. G. Hand iiach seinem Lebeii iind Wirken dargestellt," 1852. Han'del, [Ger. Handel or Haendel, hen'del,] (George Frederick,) one of the most excellent, pro- found, and original of musical composers, was born at Halle, in Prussian Saxony, on the 24th of February, 1684. He manifested in childhood a ruling passion for music, which he studied first under Zachau of Halle, and composed sonatas at the age of ten. In 1703 he became connected with the Opera of Hamburg, where in the next year he produced his " Almeria" with great success. He visited Italy in 1708, and composed his first Italian opera, "Rodrigo," which was perforined at Florence. Having produced other operas, etc. at Venice and Rome, he went to England in 17 10, and composed the music for the opera " Rinaldo," which was greatly admired. In 1712 he settled in England, and in 1714 became chapel-master of George I. About 1720 he was engaged as manager of the new Academy of Music founded by the English nobility, and composed the opera " Radamista," which was received with great enthusiasm. After he had produced many other operas, he retired from the direction of the Acad- emy in 1728. He lost nearly all his fortune, 10,000, in an unsuccessful attempt to support another opera-house between 1728 and 1740. Thenceforth devoting himself to sacred music, which is the chief foundation of his celebrity, he composed the oratorio of "Saul," (1740,) and in 1741 his sublime master-piece, the "Messiah," which was received with immense applause. Among his other oratorios (the words of all of which are English) are "Samson," "Moses in Egypt," "Joshua," (1747,) and "Jephthah," (1751.) He became blind in 1751, but continued for several years to conduct his oratorios in public concerts. He died in April, 1759, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Handel is regarded by some critics as the greatest composer that ever lived. He was chiefly pre- eminent in majesty and sublimity of conception. The centennial anniversary of his birth was celebrated in London, in 1784, with great eclat. See " Life of Handel" in Hurney's " History of Music ;" Eschrn- BUKG, "Life of Handel," (in German,) 1785; Matheson, "Lite of Handel," (in German,) 1761 ; Fetis, " Biograpliie Universelle des Musiciens ;" J. M. VVeissbeck, " Der grosse Miisikus G. F. Han- del ini Universalrnhme," 1S05; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1S57 ; "Eraser's Magazine" for September, 1857; " British Quar- terly Review" for January, 1862. Handjeri. See Hanjeri. Handmann, hint^mSn, (E-HIANUEI,,) a Swiss painter of history and portraits, born at Bale in 1718; died in 1781. Haneefahor Hanifa, hi-nee'fl, Aboo-al-Noman- Ibn-Tabet, (Abu-al-Noman-Ibn- lor Ebii-) Tha- bet — i'boodl no-mSn' Tb'n ti'bet,) the founder of the sect of Haneefites, the first of the four orthodox sects among Mohammedans, was born at Cufa about 700 a.d. This sect prevails chiefly among the Turks and Tartars. They are called by an Arabian writer followers of reason, while the other three sects are called followers of tradition, as being more tenacious of the traditions of the prophet, Haneefa died in prison at Bagdad in 767. He was im- prisoned because he refused to act as kadi, or judge, alleging that he was unfit for the office. It is said that while in prison he read the Koran through seven thou- sand times. See Sale's " Koran," Prel minary Discourse. Hanel or Haenel, ha'nel, (Ernst Julius,) a German sculptor, born at Dresden about 1810, executed a statue of Beethoven, which was erected at Bonn in 1845. Hanel or Haenel, (Gustav Friedrich,) an eminent German jurist, born in 1792 at Leipsic, where he became professor of law about 1838. He edited " Ulpianus de Edendo," (1838,) " Codex Theodosianus," (1839-42,) and other works. Hanel, Haenel, or Handl. hSndl, (Jakob,) surnamed Gallus, a German composer, born in Carniola about 1550, was imperial chapel-master at Vienna. His " Media in Vita" is esteemed a master-])iece. Died in 1590. Hanfstangel or Hanfstaengel, hSnf stgng'el, (Franz,) a German lithographer, born in Upper Bavaria in 1804. His chief work is "The Principal Pictures in the Royal Gallery of Dresden," (1836-52 ) HanV?!", (Colonel George,) a whimsical English writer, born in 1760, was a younger son of Lord Cole- raine. Among his works is his "Life, Adventures, and Opinions," (1801.) Died in 1824. Hangest, de,deh //6N''zhest'',(J^:R6ME,) a French theo- logian, born at Compiegne, wrote against Luther. Died in I S3 8. Hanifa. See Haneefah. Hanjeri or Handjeri, han^jeh-ree, (Alexander,) Prlnce, a noted linguist, born at Constantinople in 1760, was ap])ointed Hospodar of Moldavia by the Sultan in 1807. He removed to Moscow about 1821. He com- piled a "Dictionary of the French, Arabic, Persian, and Turkish Languages," (3 vols., 1844.) Died at Moscow in 1854. Hanka, hSnk'!, (Wenceslaus,) a distinguished Bo- hemian antiquary and critic, born at Horenowes in 1791. He was liberally educated at Prague, and about 1820 became librarian of the Bohemian Museum of that city. He discovered in 181 7, at Kralodvor, a precious manu- script of old Bohemian poems, which are greatly ad- mired, and of which he published an edition, called " Kralodvorsky Rukopis," (1817.) He published a " Col- lection of Bohemian Poeins of the Thirteenth and Four- teenth Coituries," (5 vols., 1817-25,) and other works. Hanke. See Hanckius, (Mari'in.) Hanke, hink^eh, (Henriette Wilhelmine,) a suc- cessful German novelist, originally named Arndt, was born at Jauer, in Silesia, in 17S5. She produced about one hundred volumes of novels, among which we may name " Claudia," (1825,) " The Pearls,"''(i836;) and " My Winter Garden," (1854.) Hanke or Haenke, h^nk'eh, (Thaddeus,) a Bohe- mian naturalist and traveller, born at Kreibitz in 1 761, visited Mexico and the islands of the South Sea. Died in Peru in 181 7. A descri|;tion of the plants which he collected was published in 1825, See Ersch und Gkuber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Han'mer, (J(jnathan,) an I'^nglish nonconformist minister, born at Barnstaple ; died in 1687. Hanmer, (Meredith,) an English scholar and divine, born in 1543. He j^roduced a translation of the "Eccle- siastic Histories of Eusebius, Socrates, and Evagrius," (1577.) Died in 1604. Hanmer, (Sir Th(,;mas,) an English legislator, born about 1676, was for thirty years a member of the llouse of Commons, of which he was chosen. Speaker in 1713. He published an edition of Shakspeare on which much time and labour were expended, (1744.) Died in 1746. See Sir H. Bunbuky, "Life of Sir Thomas Hanmer," 1838. Hann, (James,) an English mathematician, born about 1799; died in London in 1856. Han'na, (Rev. William,) LL.D., a British clergyman, a son-in law of the eminent Dr. Chalmers, was born at Belfast in 1808. He became editor of the " North British Review" about 1846, and afterwards eilited the "Me- moirs of the Life and Writings of Dr. Chalmers," (4 vols., a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, 6, satire, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; f^r, f^ll, fit; mSt; nflt; good; moon; HANNAH 1127 HANNIBAL 1S49-52,) In 1850 he became colleague of Dr. Guthrie in Saint John's Church, Edinburgh. He published about 1868 a "Life of Christ," (6 vols.) Han'nah, [Heb. Hjn,] a Hebrew matron, was the wife of Elkanah, and the mother of the prophet Samuel. See I. Samuel i. and ii. Han'nay, (James,) a successful British writer of fiction, was born at Dumfries in 1827. He served about five years in the royal navy, from which he retired in 1845. contributed to several periodicals and jour- nals, and gained distinction by his novel "Singleton Fontenoy," (3 vols., 1850.) Among his other works are "Satire and Satirists," (1853,) and "Eustace Conyers," (1855-) Hanneken or Hannecken, han'neh-ken, (Mem- NON,) a German Lutheran minister, born at Blaxen, in Oldenburg, in 1595 ; died in 1671. His son, Philipp Ludwig, born at Marburg in 1637, was a writer on theology. Died in 1706. Hanneman, hin^neh-man^ (Adrian,) a Dutch por- trait-painter, born at the Hague about 1610. He worked in his native place with a high reputation, and was patronized by the princes of the house of Nassau. He also painted allegorical subjects. Died after 1666. Hannetaire, /^tn'tSR', (Jean Nicolas Servan- doni — s§R'v6N'do'ne', ) a French comedian, born at Grenoble in 1718, excelled in the personation of Mo- liere's characters. He wrote "Observations on the Art of a Comedian," (1764,) which was often reprinted. "This work," says Marmontel, "is one of the few whose fault is too great brevity." Died in 1780. Han'ni-bal, a grandson of that Hamilcar who was killed in 480 B.C. He invaded Sicily with a large army in 409 B.C., and defeated the Syracusans at Himera. He died at Agrigentum in 406. Hannibal, a son of Gisco, a general of the first Punic war. He ravaged the coast of Italy with a large fleet in 261 B.C., and was defeated in a great naval battle by Duilius in 260. He was killed by his mutinous troops about 258 B.C. Han'ni-bal or An'ni-bal, [Gr. 'AvvtSag ; Fr. Anni- BAL, t'ne'I)!!''; It. Annibale, ku-ne-h^]^., or Annibal, in-ne-bSl',] one of the greatest generals that ever lived, was born about 247 B.C. He was the son of the Cartha- ginian commander Hamilcar Barca, who was killed in battle in 229 B.C. When he was but nine years old, he was taken to Spain by his father, who then caused him solemnly to swear on the altar of the gods an eternal hostility to the Romans, — an oath which he appears never to have forg(nten. This anecdote was related by Han- nibal himself, many years later, to Antiochus the Great, King of Syria. Hannibal was present at the battle in which his father fell, and had already given proof of superior military genius in several campaigns in Spain. On the death of Hasdrubal, Hamilcar's son-in-law, (221 B.C.,) Hannibal became commander-in-chief of the army, then engaged in the subjugation of some Sj^anish tribes, which he completed in two campaigns, 221 and 220 B.C. Early in the year 219 he attacked Saguntum, which was situated on the Iberus (Ebro) and was an ally of the Romans. The Saguntines defended their city with desperate courage, but it was taken after a siege of eight months. This was the beginning of the second Punic war, which Hannibal did not wish to avert or postpone. Having resolved upon the invasion of Italy, he crossed the Ebro in the spring of 218 B.C. with about 100,000 men ; but his army was greatly reduced in number before he reached the Rhone. In his march across the Alps, which was one of the most remarkable military achieve- ments of antiquity, he was oj^posed by the Gaulish mountaineers, and lost about 30,000 men. Great di- versity of opinion has prevailed among the learned in respect to the route by which he crossed the Alps. Ac- cording to some ancient authors, he removed the rocks which obstructed his passage by means of vinegar : " Diducit scopulos et montem rumpit aceto."* Juvenal, Satire X. ; * Literally, " Hesei->arates the rocks and breaks the mountain with vinegar." — Respecting this nii ch-vexed question, the reader is re- ferred to the works named at the close of this article. When he entered the plains of Piedmont, he had about 26,000 men, of whom 6000 were cavalry and all were veterans. He met a Roman army, commanded by Publius Scipio, near the Ticinus, (now Ticino,.) and gained a victory in a battle between the cavalry of the two armies. Scipio retreated to Placentia, and was joined by another army, under the consul T. Senipronius, who, confiding in the superior numbers of the Romans, eagerly offered battle on the banks of the Trebia. Hannibal gained here a complete victory about the end of 218, and in the ensuing winter increased his army by numerous recruits obtained among the friendly tribes of Gauls. In the spring of 217 he entered Etruria, and encountered a Roman army under the consul Flaminius, whom he defeated in a great battle at Lake Thrasymene. Han- nibal took in this action about 15,000 prisoners, many of whom were Italian allies of the Romans. The victo- rious general liberated without ransom these Italians, in the hope that by this course he might detach some states of Italy from the alliance with Rome. He next marched into Apulia, where he passed a great part of the summer, during which the dictator Fabius took command of the Roman army and adopted a defensive policy. Hannibal entered and devastated the fertile plains of Campania, but could not induce Fabius to risk a general battle. The Cartliaginian army remained in winter-quarters at Geronium until late in the spring of 216 B.C. The Romans raised an army of about 90,000 men, commanded by the consuls L. ^milius Paul us and C. Terentius Varro, who gave battle to Hannibal on the banks of the Aufidus, near Cannae, in Apulia, in the summer of 216 B.C. The army of Hannibal was proba- bly much inferior in number to that of the Romans. The battle of Cannae, which was one of the most memorable and decisive in universal history, resulted in the rout and almost total destruction of the Roman army. It is estimated by Livy and others that more than 40,000 Romans, including eighty senators, fell on this day; and many thousands were taken prisoners. Hannibal lost at Cannae about 4500 men. According to some military critics, Hannibal failed to improve and follow up this victory with due vigour and celerity by an advance against the Roman capital. The Apnlians, Lucanians, and l^ruttians declared in favour of Carthage soon after the victory at Cannae ; but the Romans maintained the contest with a resolute and unfaltering spirit, and resorted to the extreme measure of arming their slaves. Hannibal took about the end of 216 the large and opulent city of Capua, the second city of Italy, and there ])assed the ensuing winter, which is considered as the turning-point in the fortune of the war. According to ancient rhetoricians, his soldiers were enervated by their luxurious life in Capua; but Hannibal continued to gain victories wherever he commanded in person. The Romans, however, ciianged their plan of operations, and adhered to a defensive and Fabian policy, instead of op- posing a large army to the enemy. No decisive battles were fought in the campaigns of 215 and 214 B.C. Han- nibal formed an alliance with Philip of Macedon in 215, and made himself master of Tareiitum in 213. In the year 212 Hasdi ubal gained a victory over the two Sci])ios in Spain, and Hannibal defeated Cneius Fulvius at Her- donea ; but he lost Capua, which was taken in 211. His principal adversaries at this period were Fabius Cunc- tator and M. Marcellus, who had recently returned from the conquest of Syracuse. The latter was led into an ambush by Hannibal and was killed in 208 B.C. Planni- bal expected to be reinforced by his brother Hasdrubal, who crossed the Alps with an army and entered Cis- alpine Gaul ; but before he ccjuld effect a junction with Hannibal he was defeated and killed by the Romans, on the Metaurus, in 207 B.C. This was an irreparable dis- aster to tht Carthaginians, who after that defeat ceased to act on the offensive. Having concentrated his forces in the peninsula of Bruttium, Hannibal defended himself against superior numbers for nearly four years, during which he displayed great fertility of'resources and mas- tery of defensive tactics. He erected near Crotona a column, on which he inscribed the principal events of his great expedition. € as ? as s; g kard; g as/; g, h, K, guttural; n, nasal; k, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^See Explanations, p. 23.) HJNNO 1128 HANSTEEN In the mean time, Scipio Africanus had passed with a victorious army from Spain into Africa, and had gained several victories over the Carthaginians, who urged Hannibal to return to the defence of his native country. About the end of 203 he evacuated Italy and moved his army by sea to Leptis, in Africa. The statement that an interview occurred between Hannibal and Scipio is dis- credited by some historians. In 202 u.c. they fought the decisive battle of Zama, in which Hannibal was defeated and about 20,000 Cartiiaginians were slain. The Car- thaginians sued for peace, and in 201 B.C. concluded a treaty of which the Romans dictated the terms. Thus ended the second Punic war, in which Hannibal had l eceived little aid from the government of Carthage, and had won a long series of victories by his own personal influence, resources, and military genius. He next turned his attention to political affairs, effected some reforms in the administration, and was chosen chief magistrate of the republic. He also made constitutional changes which reduced the power of the judges and the aristocracy. By these reforms he incurred the enmity of a powerful faction, which excited the susi)icion of the Roman senate by a charge that Hannibal was instigating Antiochus of Syria to wage war against Rome. The Romans having demanded the expulsion of Hannibal, he retired to the court of Antiochus about 194 H.c, and was received with great honour. The King of Syria soon after commenced hostilities against the Romans, and employed Hannibal as a commander, but would not fellow his advice in the conduct of the war. When peace was restored between Antiochus and the Romans, in 190 B.C., Hannibal took refuge at the court of Prusias, King of Bithynia. The Romans sent an embassy to demand the surrender of the fugitive, which Prusias did not refuse ; but Hannibal killed himself by poison, and thus escaped the power of his enemies, in 183 B.C. IMutarch mentions a report that Hannibal and Scipio once met at Ephesus after the battle of Zama, and fell into conversation about great generals. Hannibal as- serted that Alexander was the greatest general the world had ever seen, that Pyrrhus was the second, and himself the third. Scipio smiled at this, and said, "But what rank would you have placed yourself in if I had not con- quered you.''"' "O Scipio," said he, "then I would not have placed myself the third, but the first." ("Life of T. Q. Flaminius.") His temperance and fortitude are extolled by several ancient writers. Polybius expresses his admiration of the wonderful management by which for a series of years he maintained his authority over an army com])osed of many different nations. See Polybius, "History;" Cornelius Nepos, "Life of Hanni- bal ;" I'.KKNEwrrz, " Leben Haiiiiibals," 1S02 ; Plutakch, " Life of Fabius Maxiiiuis Arnold, " History of Rome," vol. iii. ; Niebuiir, " Lectures on Roman History," vol. i.; V audoncoukt, " Histoircdes Cam] agnes d'Annibal en Italia," 3 vols., 1812; Hkcker, History of the Second Punic War," (in German;) Roi.i.iN, "Ancient His- tory;" A. Gerard, " Resinne des Camjiagnes d'Annibal," 1844; H. L. Long, "March of Hannibal from the Rhone to the Alps," 1831 ; John Whitaker, "Course of Hannibal over the Alps ascer- tained," 2 vols., 1794. Han'no, [Gr. "Awwv,] a famous Carthaginian navi- gator, supposed to have lived about 500 B.C. He com- manded an expedition sent to exjjlore the coast of Africa beyond the pillars of Hercules. A Greek version of the account of hia voyage [linp'fn'Xovt;) has come down to us. Geographers and critics have discussed at great length the questions of the date and extent of his voyage, which remain u n d e t e r m i n eel . Hanno, a Carthaginian general, who commanded in the war against Agathocles, King of .Sicily. He was killed in a battle near Carthage about 309 B.C. Hanno, a Carthaginian general, who commanded in Sicily in the first Punic war. He was defeated by the Romans in a great battle near Agrigentum in 262 B.C. and recalled to Carthage. Hanno and Hamilcar com- manded jointly at the naval l)attle of Eciiomus, where the Romans gained the victory in 256 B.C. Hanno, a Carthaginian admiral, commanded in a great naval battle near Sicily in the year 241 B.C., in which he was defeated by the Roman consul Lutatiiis Catiilus. This action terminated the first Punic war, and secured to Rome the empire of the sea. He was punished with death for this disaster by the .seiiate of Carthage. Hanno, a son of Bomilcar, a Carthaginian gener.al who, in the second Punic war, f(jllovved Hannibal in his invasion of Italy. He commanded the right wing at the battle of Cannae, 216 B.C., after which, at the head of a separate force, he took Crotona. He was defeated near Beneventum by Tiberius Gracchus in 214, but he routed the army of L. Pomponius in the next year. Having returned to Carthage after Scipio had invaded Africa, he commanded the army for a short time until the arrival of Hannibal, in 202 B.C. .See Livv, " History of Rome," books xxi., xxiii., xxv., and xxvii. ; Appian, "Punica." Hanno, surnamed the Great, (a title which his ac- tions apparently did not justify,) was the leader of the aristocratic party of Carthage, and a political rival of Hamilcar Barca. Having acquired distinction in Africa during the first Pimic war, he was appointed in 240 B.C. to command the army against the revolted mercenaries. After the enemy had surjjrised his camp, his incompe- tence became so apparent that the senate gave the com- mand to Hamilcar Barca, or perhaps divided it between him and Hanno. He maintained in the councils of Car thage a persistent hostility to the influence and policy of Hamilcar and his son Hannibal, and opposed the prosecution of the second Punic war, (217-201 B.C.) See Livv, " History of Rome," books xxi., xxiii., and xxx. Hanouman or Hanooman. See Hanuman. Hanriot. See Hen riot. Han'sai'd, (Luke,) an English printer, born at Nor- wich in 1752. He l)ecan»e printer to the House of Commons, and published "Hansard's Parliamentary Debates." Died in 1828. Hansemann, hdn'.seh-mSn', (David Justus Lud- wk;,) an eminent Prussian financier and statesman, born near Hamburg in 1790. In early life he was a successful merchant of Aix-la-Chapelle. About 1830 he began to advocate the adoption of the constitutional system of government in Prussia, and published a treatise " On the Constitutions of Prussia and Germany." He was afterwards one of the chief rei)resentatives of the Liberal ])arly. In March, 1848, he became minister of finance, and in the ensuing June succeeded Camphausen as the head of a new cabinet. He lost his popularity, and re- signed office in September of the same year. His policy accorded neither with that of the conservatives nor that of the advanced democrats. See Bkockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Hansen, htn'sen, (Christian Fredrik,) a Danish architect, born at Copenhagen in 1756, designed the Raad-hus (Council-house) of Copenhagen. Died in 1645. Hansen, hJn'.^en, (Moritz Christofeek,) a popular Norwegian novelist and poet, born at Modum in 1794, published novels entitled " Morgat>a," (1820,) "The Join nal of Theodore," (1820,) and "Tone," (1843 ;) also, a "(iarland of Norwegian Idyls," ("Norsk Idylkrands," 183 1.) Died in 1842. See M. NissEN, "Norsk P>og Fortegnelse." Hansen, hin'sen, (Pkter Andreas,) a German as- tronomer, born at Tondern, in the duchy of Sleswick, in 1795. He was chosen in 1825 director of the Observatory of Seeberg, near Ciotha. He wrote "Researches on the Mutual Perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn," (1831,) a Latin treatise on "The Moon's Orbit," (1838,) and able memoirs on the higher mathematics. Hans-Sachs, hSns sSks, written also Hans-Sachse, a popular German poet, born at Nuremberg in 1494. He was a shoemaker, and became, afterwards meister- sdnger and a schoolmaster in his native city. He versified the Psalms and Proverbs of Scripture, and composed a great number of sacred and other comedies and trage- dies, by which he acquired much celebrity. In theology he was a zealous disciple of Luther. Died in 1576. See " Retrospective Review," vol. x., 1824. Hansteen, hSn'stan, (Christoffer,) a Norwegian astronomer, born at Christiania in 1784. He obtained a chair of mathematics in that town in 18 14, and published in 1819 " Researches on Terrestrial Magnetism," which attracted much attention. In 1828, 1829, and 1830 he performed an excursion to .Siberia to promote the sci- ence of magnetism. About 1837 he was chosen to direct a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, I, plication of mathematics and in the compilation of tables for life-assurance companies. Hardy, (Thomas Duffus,) an English writer, born in Jamaica in 1804, edited several ancient manuscripts in the Rolls collection, and published a "Life of Lord Langdale," (2 vols., 1852.) Hardy, (Sir Thomas Masterman,) an English naval officer, boi n near Dorchester in 1769. P'or his brave con- duct at the battle of Saint Vincent he was made conr- mander in 1797. In 1803 he became flag-captain to Admi- ral Nelson ; and at the battle of Trafalgar, in 1805, Captain Hardy was one of the officers of Nelson's flag-ship, the Victory. When Nelson was dying, he sent for Hardy, to whom he was warmly attached, and said, "Don't throw me overboard: kiss me, Hardy." From 1820 to 1824 he commanded the South American squadron. In 1830 he was appointed a lord of the admiralty, and in 1834 governor of Greenwich Hospital. Died in 1839. Hardy-Canute. See Hardicanute. Hardyng. See Harding, (John.) Hare, (Augustus William,) an English divine, born at Rome in 1792. He became rector of Alton-Barnes in 1829, after he had produced, in conjunction with his brother, Julius Charles, "Guesses at Truth." He com- posed two volumes of Sermons, (1837,) which have been often reprinted, and which, says the "London Quarterly Review," vol. lix., "are ccjmpositions of very rare merit in their kind." Died in Rome in 1834. Hare, (Francis,) an English bishop, born in London. He obtained the deanery of Worcester in 1708, and that € as /t; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^=°See Explanations, p. 23.) HARE 1 132 MARGRAVES of Saint Paul's in 1726. In 1731 he became Bishop of Chichester. He wrote an " Essay on the Ditificulties and Discouragements that attend the Study of Scrip- ture," and otlier learned works. His essay just named was censured by the convocation of divines as tending to slvcpticism. Died in 1740. Hare, (Henry,) Lord Coleraine, an Engh'sh antiquary and linguist, born in Surrey in 1693 5 ^'^^ 1749- Hare, (John Innks Clark,) son of Robert Hare, the distinguished cliemist, was liorn in Philadelphia in 181 7. He studied law, and, in conjunction with the late Horace Binney Wallace, published about 1852 "American Lead- ing Cases in Law," (2 vols.,) Smith's " Leading Cases," (fourth American from third London edition, 2 vols.,) and White and Tudor's "Leading Cases in Equity," (3 vols.) The American notes to these works are thorough and exhaustive, and are highly esteemed by legal critics. In 185 1 Mr. Hare was elected associate judge of the district court of Philadelphia, and became afterwards presiding judge in the same court. Hare, (Julius Charles,) an eminent English divine, born in 1796, was grandson of Bishop Francis Hare. Having graduated at Cambridge in 1 8 19, he took holy orders. In 1827 he acquired distinction by the publi- cation of " Guesses at Truth," in which he was assisted by his brother, Rev. Augustus William Hare. He be- came rector of Hurstmonceaux in 1852, Archdeacon of Lewes in 1840, canon of Cliichester in 1851, and chap- lain to the queen in 1853. His character and literary talents rendered his influence extensive. In the church he was considered one of the leaders of the " broad party" with liberal and moderate principles. He pub- lished numerous sermons and controversial -works. In conjunction with C. Thirlwall, he translated Niebuhr's "History of Rome." Died in 1855. See "Gentleman's Magazine" for April, 1855. Hare, (Robert,) a distinguished American chemist, born in Philadeljjhia January 17, 1781. He discovered, about the age of twenty-one, a mode of producing the most intense heat by the combustion of hydrogen with oxygen, and invented the compound blow-pipe, for which the Rumford medal was awarded him by the American Academy at Boston. In 1818 he was ajjpointed pro- fessor of chemistry in the medical department of the University of Pennsylvania. He occu|)ied this chair nearly thirty years, during which he made several useful discoveries in chemistry. In 1816 he invented a gal- vanic apparatus which he called a Calorimotor, capal)le of producing intense heat. With an improved form of this apparatus, named a Deflagrator, Professor Silliman succeeded in not merely fusing but in volatilizing carbon. Dr. Hare contributed many treatises to the "American Journal of Science," and other periodicals. Among his other works is "Chemical Apparatus and Manipula- tions," (1836.) Died in 1858. See "Lives of Eminent Philadelphians," 1859. Ha-ree'ree or Hariri, (Al Kasem, il kS'sem,) a popular Arabian author, born at Bassorah about 1055 A.D. He received a liberal education, and at an early age was employed in political affairs. His principal work is his "Macamat," (or "Assemblies,") composed of alternate portions of verse and prose. The author has availed himself of this plan to display by turns the most elegant expressions of the Arabic language, and the most fami- liar proverbial phrases. The Arabs use the "Macamat" as a dictionary of synonyms, and regard it as the best subject of study in order to penetrate the genius of their language. The character of the " Macamat" is chiefly imaginative and dramatic. It has exercised an immense influence oyer the nations of Islam, from Bengal to the Atlantic Ocean. The durable popularity of this work may be attributed partly to the knowledge of iumian nature which it exhibits. Hareeree also composed two treatises on philology, which have come down to us, and are entitled " Molhat-al-Irab" and " Dorrat-al-Gauas," or the "Pearl of the Diver." He was accustomed to read his productions aloud in the portico of the grand mosque of Bassorah, and thus expose them to the ordeal of public opinion. He died in 1122. A complete edition of the "Macamat" was published in Calcutta, (3 vols., 1809-14.) Silvestre de Sacy wrote a coinmentary on the "Macamat," (1821.) The same work was translated into Latin by Peiper in 1832, and into German by F. Riickert, 1826. In 1850, Theodore Preston published in London "Macamat, or Rhetorical Anecdotes of Al- Hariri of liasra, translated from the Original Arabic." An excellent translation of the Macaniat, by T. Chenery, M.A., appeared in London in 1867. See Louis Dei.atue, "Hariri, sa Vie et ses ficrits," in the •'Revue Orientale," 1857. Harel, h^xlV, (F. A.,) a French litterateur, born at Rouen in 1790, was a nephew of Luce de Lancival. His "Eulogy on Voltaire" obtained the prize of the French Academy in 1844. Died in 1846. Harembure. See Haramhure. Haren, van, vtn h^'ren, (Onno Zwfer,) a Dutch poet and statesman of merit, born at Leeuwarden in 1 713, was a brother of Willeni, noticed below. He was employed as a diplomatist at Aix-la-Chapelle. He was the author of a jjopular patriotic poem, entitled "The Beggars," (" Les Gueux," 1769.) This derisive appella- tion was given by their enemies to those who liberated Holland from the power of Spain in the sixteenth cen- tury ; and that liberation is the subject of the poem. He also wrote many odes, among which are an " Ode to Liberty," and an "Ode to Commerce." His tragedy of "Agon, Sultan of Bantam," is highly praised by the "Biographic Universelle." Died in 1779. Haren, van, (Willem,) a Dutch diplomatist, born at Leeuwarden in 1626. In 1665 Van Haren and De Witt were associated in the direction of a fleet sent against England. He displayed ability as a negotiator at the treaty of Nymwegen in 1678, and at the peace of Rys- wick in 1697. Died in 1708. Haren, van, (Willem,) a Dutch poet, grandson of the ])receding, born at Leeuwarden in 1 7 13. He was of a noble family, and filled several public offices with dis- tinction. His reputation is founded chiefly on his poem entitled "The Adventures of Friso," (1741,) of which De Vries remarks that "it is perhaps the only true epic poem which we possess in our language." It is com- mended for beautiful descrijjtions, harmony, and jjure morality. Van Haren also succeeded in lyric poetry. Voltaire complimented him in verses which begin thus: "Dimosthene au conseil et Pindare au Parnasse, L'auguste liberie marche devant tes pas." Died in 1768. See De Vries, " Histoire de la Poesie Hollandaise." Harenberg, h^'ren-b^Rc/, (Johann Christoph,) a German historian and Protestant theologian of great learning, was born at Langenholtzen in 1696. He became professor of ecclesiastic history in the Carolinuin of Brunswick. Among his works (in Latin) are "Laws of the Jews in Palestine," (1724,) a " History of the Church of Gandersheim," (1734,) and a "History of the Order of Jesuits," (in German, 1760.) Died in 1774. See; Hikschinc;, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." Har'ford, (John S.,) an English biographer and con- noisseur in art, was born near Bristol about 1785. He wrote a " Life of Thomas Burgess, Bishop of Salisbury," and a "Life of Michael Angelo." Har'grave, (Francis,) an eminent English lawyer, born in 174*1, published an "Argument in Defence of Literary Prcjperty," and a "Collection of State Trials." In 1772 he was counsel in the case of Somerset, a fugitive slave, and procured a decision that every slave became free as soon as he touched the soil of liritain. He was afterwards recorder of Liverpool. His legal at- tainments and ability were highly commended by Lord Lyndhurst. Died in 1821. Har'graves, (Edmund Hammond,) an Englishman, noted as the discoverer of gold in Australia, was born at Gosport about 1816. He settled in Australia in his youth, and in 1849 went to California, where he acquired some practical skill in digging gold. Having observed that the gold-region of California resembled a part of New South Wales, he began to explore the latter in February, 1851, and soon discovered rich deposits of gold near the Maccjuarie River. For this service the colonial government voted him a reward of ;^io,ooo. He returned to England in 1854, and published "Aus- tralia and its Gold-Fields." a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, fdt; met; n6t; good; moon; \ HARG REAVES 1133 HARM AND Hargreaves, haKgreevz, (James,) an English opera- tive, who invented the spinning-jenny about 1768. See Henry Howe, "Lives of Eminent American and European Mechanics." Har'i or Her'i, [modern Hindoo pron. hiir'ee,] a San- scrit word signifying "green," and forming one of the many names of VisHNU, which see. Haring, hS'ring, (David,) a Dutch portrait-painter, born in 1636, worked at the Hague with great success, and was director of the Academy there. Died in 1706. Haring or Haering, having, (Wilhelm,) a popular German novelist, born at Breslau in 1798, is widely known under the assumed name of Wilibald Alexis. He produced in 1823 " Walladmor," a novel, which he announced as a translation from Sir Walter vScott, and which had great success. He published a book of travels, called "Excursions in the South," (1828,) and numerous historical novels. His novel "Cabanis" (6 vols., 1832) is called his best work. Among his later productions are "Roland of Berlin," (1840,) and " Doro- thee," (1855.) See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Harington. See Harrington. Hariot. See Harriot, (Thomas.) Hariri. See Hareeree. Harispe, >^S'r^sp', (Jean Isidore,) Count, a French general, born in Basse-Pyrenees in 1768. He distin- guished himself in many actions in the Peninsula, and was made a general of division in 1810. During the Hundred Days he took the field fo^ Napoleon. He became a peer of France in 1835, and was raised to the rank of marshal in 1851. Died in 1855. Har'ker, (Charles G.,) an American general, born in New Jersey about 1836. He graduated at West Point in 1858. He served as colonel at Stone River, December 31, 1862-January 2, 1863, distinguished himself at the battle of Chickamauga, September 19-20, 1863, and was killed at Kenesaw in June, 1864. Har'lan, (Richard,) an American naturalist, born in Philadelphia in 1796, graduated as M.D. at the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania in 181 7. Among his principal works is "Fauna Americana," (1825.) Died at New Orleans in 1843. See " Encyclopaedia Americana," (Supplement.) Harlay, de, deh h'i^'W, (Achille,) a French judge, noted for his learning, integrity, and loyalty, was born in Paris in 1536, and was son-in-law of De Thou. He be- came first president of the Parliament of Paris in 1582, and firmly opposed the factious designs of the League a few years later. After the death of Henry HI., in 1589, he promoted the cause of Henry IV., and opposed ul- tramontane doctrines. He is called one of the greatest men who have illustrated the French magistracy. Died in 1616. See De la Vall^e, " filoge de M. de Harlay," 1624; De Thou, " Histoire ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Harlay, de, (Achille,) a French judge, noted for his learning and caustic wit, was born in Paris in 1639, and was chosen first president of the Parliament of Paris in 1689. Died in 1712. See Saint-Simon, "Memoires." Harlay de Chanvalon, h'i.K'W deh sh6N'vt'l6N', (FKANgois,) a P'rench courtier and prelate, born in Paris in 1625, became Archbishop of Paris in 1670. He ob- tained the favour of Louis XIV., was hostile to the Jan- senists, and persecuted the Protestants. He was a member of the French Academy. Died in 1695. See Legenure, "Vie de Harlay," 1720; Saint-Simon, "Me- moires." Harleman. See Horleman. Harless or Harles, haii'l^ss, (Christian Fried- rich,) a German physician, son of Gottlieb C. Harless, was born at Erlangen in 1773. He was professor of medicine at Bonn from 1818 until 1853. He wrote, be- sides other works, a "History of Cephalology and Neu- rology in Antiquity," (1801,) Died in 1853. Harless or Harles, (Gottlieb Christoph, ) a learned German philologist, born at Culmbach in 1740. He became professor of eloquence at Erlangen in 1770, and wrote numerous Latin works, the most important of which are "The Lives of Philologists of the Present Age," (4 vols., 1764-72,) an "Introduction to the His- tory of the Greek Language," (1778,) and a new edition of the " Bibliotheca Graeca" of Fabricius," (12 vols., 1790-1810.) Died in 1815. See C. F. Harles, "Vita Viri amplissiini T. C. Harles," Erlan- gen, 1818. Harless, (Gottlieb Christoph Adolf,) an influen- tial German Protestant theologian, born at Nuremberg in 1806. He was professor of theology at Erlangen from 1836 to 1845, acquired eminence as a pulpit orator and an author. Among his works are a "Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians," (1834,) a volume of sermons entitled " Christi Reich und Christi Kraft," (1840,) and "Christian Ethics," (1842,) which has been often reprinted. In 1852 he became president of the Consistory of Munich. Died in 1862. Harleville, (Collin d'.) See Collin-Harleville. Hartley, (Robert,) Earl of Oxford, born in London in 1 66 1, was the son and heir of Sir Edward Harley, a Puritan officer, who fought against Charles I. in the civil war. At the Revolution Sir Edward and his son raised a troop of horse for the Prince of Orange. In 1689 Robert obtained a seat in Parliament, where at first he acted with the Whigs. However, he often voted with the opposition, and by degrees became identified with the Tories. He acquired great influence in the House by his industry, gravity, and ])olitical artifice, and after a few years was recognized as one of the leaders of his party. He was chosen Speaker of the House of Commons in 1 701, and again in 1702. In 1704 this wily politician became secretary of state, probably through the influence of his cousin, Mrs. Ma. sham, who was the favourite of Queen Anne. Harley, with his ally Bolingbroke, resigned in 1708, in conse- quence of the enmitv of Marlborough and Godolphin, whom he attempted to supplant and who insisted on his dismissal. In 1 7 10, a change of the ministry having occurred, Harley was appointed chancellor of the ex- chequer. In 1711 a French emissary named Guiscard, while being examined before the privy council, stabbed Harley with a ]:)en-knife and wounded him slightly. This affair rendered him more popular ; and soon after he was made Earl of Oxford and of Mortimer and lord high treasurer. The most important event of his administra- tion is the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. The rivalry which had existed between the premier and his colleague Bo- lingbroke resulted in the dismissal of the former in July, 1714; and the death of Queen Anne, a few days after, ruined his political prospects. In 171 5 he was impeached by the Commons, and sent to the Tower, in which he was confined nearly two years. While in prison he maintained a treasonable correspondence with the Stuart family. In 1 71 7 he was acquitted and released. Died in 1724. "His influence in Parliament," says Macaulay, " was altogether out of proportion to his abilities. His intellect was both small and slow." He was the patron of Pope and Swift. His valuable collection of manu- scripts was purchased by Parliament, and now forms part of the British Museum, with the name of the Har- leian Collection. His private character is said to have been strictly moral ; but he was justly distrusted by both parties for his duplicity. Po])e said, "Oxford was not a very capable minister, and had a good deal of negligence into the bargain." See Macaulay, "History of England," vol. iv. ; Lord Mahon "History of England;" Duchess of Marlborough, "Account of her own Life." HarTow, (George Henry,) an English historical and portrait painter, born in I.ondon in 1787, studied with Sir Thomas Lawrence. He acquired great executive facility, and was very successful in portraits. In 1818 he visited Rome, where in the short space of eighteen days he produced a copy of Raphael's " Transfiguration." Among his chief works is "The Trial of Queen Cathe- rine," the prominent characters of which are portraits of the Kemble family. He died in 1819. Harmand, >^tR'm6N', (Jean Baptiste,) a PVench revolutionist, of the moderate party, a member of the Convention, 1792-94, born at Souilly (Meuse) in 1751; died in 1816. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2!:^^See Explanations, p. 23.) HARMANSEN 1^34 HAROUN Harniansen, haR'mSn-sen, (Wolphart,) born about 1550, commanded a Dutch commercial expedition sent to the l^ast Indies in 1601. Died about 1610. Har'niar, (John,) a learned English divine, born in 1594, was chosen professor of Greek at Oxford in 1650. He pubhshed "Lexicon Etymologicon Grsecum," (1637,) and other works. Died in 1670. Harmenopule. See Harmenopulus. Har-men-o-pu'lus, [Fr, Harmknopule, htR''meh- no'piil',] (CoNSi'AN TIN,) a noted Greek jurist, born in Constantinople about 1320, He held the high offices of councillor, curopalate, and grand chancellor under the emperor John Palaeologus. He wrote a " Manual of Laws," {Ilpox^ipov tC)v v6/j.uv,) a work of high authority among the Greeks, and a treatise on canon law. Died in 1383. Har'mer, (Thomas,) a learned English dissenting min- ister, born at Norwich in 1 71 5. He had charge of the Independent church in Wattesfield, in Suffolk, from 1735 to 1788. He published, besides other works, "Obser- vations on Various Passages of Scripture, placing them in a New Light, compiled from Relations incidentally mentioned in Books of Travels in the East," (1764,) which is esteemed an able and useful work. An enlarged edition of it was published in 4 vols. (1816) by Dr. Adam Clarke. Died in 1788. Har-mo''di-us, [Gr. 'ApfioiVoc] a young Athenian, who, with his friend Aristogi'ton, acquired celebrity by a conspiracy against the Pisistratidae, Hippias and Hip- parchus, who held the chief power in Athens about 525 B.C. Harmodius having received a personal affront from Hipparchus, the two friends conspired to revenge this by the death of both the brothers, and chose'the occasion of a public festival for the execution of their design. They first attacked and killed Hipparchus, whose guards then slew Harmodius and arrested Aristogiton, who was afterwards put to death by the order of Hippias. The latter, having become tyrannical and unpopular, was ex- pelled from the state about three years after that event, 511 B.C. Statues were erected at the public expense to the memory of the conspirators, who were regarded as heroes and martyrs of liberty. It is said that when the tyrant Dionysius asked Antipho which was the finest kind of brass, he replied, "That of which the statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton are formed." Har-mo^ni-a, [Gr. 'Ap/uov'ia; Fr. Harmonie, Ir'- mo'ne',] in classic mythology, a personification of the order or harmony of the universe, said to be a daughter of Mars and Venus, (or, according to some authorities, of Jupiter and Electra,) and a wife of Cadmus. She received on her wedding-day, from some of the gods, a rich necklace, which proved fatal to every person who successively ])ossessed it. See Smith, "Greek and Roman Riography and Mythology." Harmonie. See Harmonia, Harms, hdrmz, (Claude,) a Danish theologian, born at Fahrstedt (Holstein) in 1778. He was an adversary of rationalism, and became principal pastor of Kiel in 1835. Among his most important works are "Pastoral The- olngv," (3 vols., 1834,) and "The Augsburg'Confession," (1847.) Died in 1855. Har'ness, (William,) an English theologian and dramatist, born in Hampshire in 1790. Har'nett, (Cornelius,) an American statesman, born in England in 1723. He became a citizen of North Carolina before the Revolution, in which he took a prominent part against the British government. He was elected to the Congress at Halifax in 1776, after which he was a member of the Continental Congress. Died in 1781. Har'ney, (Wh.tjam Selby,) an American general, born in Tennessee in 1800. He became a captain in 1825, served in the Florida war, and obtained the rank of colo- nel in 1846. He took part in several battles in Mexico, (1846-47,) and was raised to the rank of brigadier-general in 1858. As military commandant of Oregon, in 1859, he occupied the island of San Juan, (on the west coast of North America,) which was claimed by the British. He was soon after removed from his command. Harnisch, haR'nish, (Wilhelm,) a meritorious Ger- man teacher and educational reformer, born at Wilsnach, near Potsdam, in 1787. He was preceptor to the prin- cess Charlotte, afterwards Empress of Russia. Among his chief works are a " Manual of Popular Instruction," (1820,) and "Cosmology," (" Die Weltkunde," 4th edi- tion, 1827, 3 vols.) Haro, de, dk §.'ro, (Juan,) a Spanish historical painter, born in Castile. He was living at Madrid in 1604. Haro, de, (Don Luis,) a S])anish minister of state, born at Valladolid in 1598. He was the son of the Marquis of Carpio, and a nephew of the famous Duke of Olivares, whom in 1644 he succeeded as prime min- ister and favourite of Philip IV. He carried on a dis- astrous war against France, Portugal, and the Dutch for many years, and in 1659 signed, with the French minister Mazarin, the treaty of the Pyrenees. The king rewarded him for his services by erecting the marquisate of Carpio into a dukedom. He is represented to have directed the arduous affairs of state with prudence and ability. Died in 1661. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Har'old I., surnamed Harefoot, King of England, was the second son of Canute the Great by Algiva, daughter of the Earl of Northampton. At the death of Canute, in 1035, Harold and Hardicanute (son of Queen Emma) were the chief competitors for the throne of England, which their father, on his marriage with Emma, had agreed to leave to her issue. But Harold had the advantage of possession, and was recognized by the Danes and people of Mercia. (See Hardicanute.) In 1037, Alfred, the younger son of Emma, having invaded the country and been defeated and killed, Harold be- came King of all England. He died in 1040, and was succeeded by Hardicanute. Harold IL, King of England, was a son of Godwin, Earl of Kent, a powerful Saxon nobleman. On the death of Godwin, in 1053, he inherited with his father's talents the earldom of Kent. Having been appointed com- mander of the army of the king, Edward the Confessor, he gained victories over the Welsh about 1062. He was thrown by a storm on the coast of France about 1065, and became the prisoner of William, Duke of Nor- mandy, who, as a condition of his liberation, required Harold to swear that on the death of Edward the Con- fessor he would aid William to obtain the throne of England. Edward died in January, 1066, and Harold was proclaimed king by the assembly of thanes and the citizens of London, without opposition from any native competitor except his own brother, Tostig. The Norman duke demanded that Harold should surrender to him the crown ; but he refused to be bound by an oath which was extorted from him by force. In September, 1066, Harold gained a complete victory over Tostig and the King of Norway, who had invaded England. Three days after this battle, the Duke of Normandy landed in Sussex with an army of about 60,000 men, which Harold encountered at Senlac, (now Battle,) near Hastings, on the 14th of October, 1066. After a long and obstinate combat, in which Harold and his two brothers were killed, William gained a decisive victory, which rendered him master of England. See Frrrman, "History of the Norman Conquest of England;" Hume, " Historv of England :" Augustin Thierry, " Histoire de la Conquete de I'AngleteVre ;" William of Malmesbury, " History of the Kings of England." Har'old (or Harald) Harfager, (har'fl'ger, almost har''f^'her,) a king of Norway, whose reign is considered to mark the commencement of authentic Norwegian his- tory. About 895 he subdued the jarls, or petty chief- tains, and united the various sections of Norway into one kingdom. He reigned above thirty years, and left his crown to his son, Haco (or Haquin) the Good, who first introduced Christianity into Norway. Haroiin-al-Raschid,* 'h^-roon' il rdsh'id, or, more correctly, Haroon-ar-Rasheed, (or Harun-ar-Ra- sliid,) hi-rooi/ ar-ra-sheed', the most celebrated of the Eastern caliphs, and the most powerful sovereign of the dynasty of the Abbassides, was born about 766 a.d. He was a son of the caliph Mahdee, (Mahdi,) and succeeded * In this instance we liave departed from our general rule of spell- ing according to the sound of Oriental names. The spelling Haroun seems to have become, indeed, a part of the English language. a. e, I, o, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, \\, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; n5t; good; moon* HJRPAGUS 1135 HARRINGTON his elder brother Hadee (Hadi) in 786. In the early pai L of his reign the Barmecides Yahia and Jaafar were his favourite ministers. About 804 a.d. he waged a suc- cessful war against the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus, whom he compelled to pay tribute. Haroun was a lib- eral patron of poets and scholars ; but he scarcely merited the surname of Ar-Rasheed, (" the Just.") (See Jaafar.) He is chiefly renowned as the principal hero of the ** Ara- bian Nights' Entertainments." Died in 809 A.D. See Aboolfeda, " Annales Moslemici ;" Aboolfaraj, (Abul- PHARAGius,) " Historia Dynastiariim ;" Weil, " Geschichte der (Jlialifen ;" Elmacin, " Historia Saracenica." Har'pa-gus, [Gr. "kpiTayog,] a noble Mede, said to have saved the life of Cyrus the Great. Afterwards, under Cyrus, he reduced several Greek cities of Ionia, Har'pa-lus, [Gr. "kp-aaT^g,] a Macedonian whom Alex- ander the Great made satrap of Babylon and intrusted with the care of his accumulated treasures on his de- parture for India. Harpalus abused his trust, and, when he heard that his master was returning, fled to Athens with a large sum of money. The Athenians being unable or unwilling to protect him against Antipater, Alexan- der's lieutenant, who demanded that he should be given up, he retired to Crete, where he was killed in 324 B.C. Demosthenes, having advocated his cause, was tried on a charge of bribery and fined. See Thiri.wall, "History of Greece." Har-pal'y-ge, [Gr. 'ApTra/li'/c;?,] daughter of HarpaKy- cus, King of Thrace, was distinguished for her courageous defence of her father's kingdom against Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles. Harpe, La. See La Harpe. Har'per, (James,) an American publisher, born at Newton, Long Island, in 1795. He and several of his brothers founded in New York the great publishing house of Har])er & Brothers about 1825. He was elected mayor of New York in 1844. Died in 1869. Harper, (Rohert Goodloe,) an eminent lawyer and Senator of the United States, born near Fredericksburg, Virginia, in 1 765. After graduating at Princeton, New Jersey, in 1785, he studied law in Charleston, South Carolina, and settled in the interior of that State. From 1795 to iSoo he represented one of the districts of South Carolina in the National Congress, of which he was one of the most prominent members and one of the ablest debaters. In the latter part of this period he was the principal leader of the Federal party in the House of Representatives. In 1801 he retired from office, married the daughter of Charles Carroll, and settled in Baltimore, where he resumed the practice of law. He was employed as counsel for the defence in the impeachment of Judge Chase, of the supreme court of the United States, who was acquitted. In 1815 he was elected a Senator of the United States by the legislature of Maryland. A volume of his speeches, arguments, and letters was published in 1814. John Neal, in "Blackwood's Magazine," says, " His writings are energetic, manly, profound. We hold him to be one of the ablest men that North America has produced." Died in 1825. Harper, (Wieliam,) an American lawyer and politi- cian, born in the island of Antigua in 1790. He settled in Missouri in 1818, removed to South Carolina in 1823, and became a Senator of the United States in 1826. He was appointed a judge of the court of appeals in 1831, and elected chancellor in 1834. Died in 1847. Harphius, haR^fe-us, (Henry,) an eminent Flemish mystic theologian, born at Erp or Herp, was superior of a Franciscan abbey at Malines, where he died in 1478. He wrote the "Eden of the Contemplative," "The Mir- ror of Perfection," and other religious works. Har'pies, [Gr. "ApTrvat; Lat. Har'pyi^. ; Fr. Har- PYES, Si<'pe',] winged monsters of classic mythology, regarded as the daughters of Neptune, and supposed by Sf)me to be personified storm-winds. They polluted all that they touched. See Virgil's "^neid,"book iii. 212-262. Har-poc'ra-tes or Har'po-krat, a divinity of the ancient Egyptians, sometimes identified with Horus, and called the god of silence or secrecy. He was repre- sented as holding a finger on his mouth. Har-po-cra'ti-on, [Gr. 'ApTro/rpan'wv,] (Valerius,) a Greek rhetorician of Alexandria, of whose life scarcely anything is known. He appears to have lived in or after the second century. He wrote a very important work, called " Lexicon for the Ten Orators," {Ac^lkov tuv dsKa prjTopov,) which is extant. He explains in this the political and other terms used by the Athenian orators, and affords much valuable information on the public and civil law and history of Athens. Harps^'field or Harps'feld, (Nicholas,) an English Catholic, born in London, was chosen professor of Greek in Oxford in 1546, and Archdeacon of Canterbury in 1554. He wrote an " English Ecclesiastical History." He was imprisoned about twenty years during the reign of Eliza- beth. Died about 1582. Harpyes. See Harpies. Harpyiae. See Harpies. Harring, htr^ ing, (Harro Paul,) a writer, born near Husum, Denmark, in 1798. He travelled in many coun- tries, and was several times arrested as a conspirator and revolutionist. He wrote several dramas and other works of fiction, and " Memoirs of Poland under Russian Domination," (in French, 1831.) Died in 1870. Har^ng-ton, (Charles Stanhope,) Earl of, born in England in 1753, was previously styled Lord Peters- ham. He entered the army in 1769, and was returned to Parliament in 1776. At the death of his father, about 1778, he became a member of the House of Lords. He served in several campaigns in America and in the West Indies, and was aide-de-camp to General Burgoyne at the capitulation of .Saratoga. After his return he became aide-de-camp to the king, George III., in 1792 a colonel of the life-guards, and in 1798 lieutenant-general. About 1802 he was envoy-extraordinary to Berlin. From 1807 to 1812 he commanded the army in Ireland. Died in 1829. Harrington, (Henry,) an English physician and poet, born at Kelston in 1729, resided at Bath. He published "An Ode to Harmony," "An Ode to Discord," and a few other works. Died in 1816. Harrington, (James,) an English author, born at Upton in 1611, was educated at Oxford under Dr. Chil- lingworth. In youth he made the tour of the continent. In 1646 he officiated as groom of the bed-chamber to Charles I., then a prisoner, whom he attended at his execution. In 1656 he published his principal work, entitled "Oceana," which attracted much attention and was greatly admired. It is a political allegory, exhibiting, in imitation of Plato's "Atlantis," the plan or model of an ideal republic, named Oce'ana, which is supposed to represent P2ngland. His project was generally considered visionary, impracticable, and Utopian. Hume said, " It is justly admired as a work of genius and invention ;" while Hallam thinks that the author "is in general prolix, dull, pedantic, yet seldom profound." He was arrested in 1661 on a charge of treason, and (though the case was never brought to trial) closely confined until he became deranged. The cause of his arrest was probably his avowed republican principles. Died in 1677. See ToLAND, " Lite of James Harrington," prefixed to his Works, 1700; "Biographia Biitannica;" Wood, "Athenae Oxonieiises." Harrington, (James,) an English lawyer, born in 1664, contributed some Latin verses to the " Musae An- glicanae," and wrote the preface to the first volume ot Wood's "Athenae." Died in 1693. Harrington or Harington, (John,) of Stepney, an English poet, born in 1534. He wrote elegant "Verses on Isabella Markham," dated about 1564. "If these are genuine," says Hallam, " they are as polished as any written at the close of the queen's reign." Died in 1582. Harrington, (Sir John,) an English poet and cour- tier, a son of the preceding, was born at or near Bath in 1561. He became a favourite of Queen Elizabeth. He was the author of an admired English version of Ariosto's "Orlando Furi-oso," (1591.) He wrote numerous epi- grams, which were published in 1615, a "Brief View of the State of the Church," and other works. About 1600 he served under the Earl of Essex as commander of the horse. Died in 1612. See " Life of Sir J. Harrington," prefixed to his " Nugas Antiquae," 2 vols., 1804. € as 9 as s; g ^ard; g as J; G, H, Yi, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2!^=°See Explanations, p. 23. HARRIOTT 1136 HARRIS Har'ri-ptt or Harriot, (Thomas,) an eminent Eng- lish matlieinatician, born at Oxford in 1560. He visited Virginia in the service of Sir Walter Raleigh (who had been his pupil) in 1584, and published an Account of that province in 1588. He was liberally patronized by the Earl of Northumberland, in whose house he spent the latter part of his life. Harriott was noted for skill in algebra, his treatise on which, entitled " Artis Analyticas Praxis," was published in 163 1. It is said that he ob- served the satellites of Jupiter in 1610, a few days after Galileo first discovered them, and that he was the first who detected the spots on the sun, December 8, 1610. ** Harriott was destined," says Hallam, " to make the last great discovery in the pure science of algebra. He arrived at a complete theory of the genesis of equations, which Cardan and Vieta had but partially conceived." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1621. See MoNTUCLA, " Histoire des Mathematiques ;" " Bioorn at Malpas, in Cheshire, on the 21st of April, 1783. He was the second son of Reginald Heber, rector of Hodnet. \w 1800 he entered Brazennose Col- lege, Oxford, where he produced in 1803 his beautiful prize poem " Palestine." He made a tour on the con- tinent in 1805 and 1806, obtained the living of Hodnet in 1807, and married Amelia Shipley in 1809. \w 1812 he published a volume of poems, containing translations from Pindar, and a poem entitled "Europe: Lines on the Present War." He afterwards composed more than fifty " Hymns adapted to the Weekly Church Service." "These hymns," says D. M. Moir, "have been by far the most poj^ular of his productions, and deservedly so ; for in purity and elevation of sentiment, in simple pathos and eloquent earnestness, it would be difficult to find any- thing superior to them in the range of lyric poetry." He was elected preacher to Lincoln's Inn in 1822, and ap- pointed Bishop of Calcutta in January, 1823. After visiting many remote parts of his very extensive diocese, he died of apoplexy, at Trichinopoli, on the 3d of April, 1826, leaving a high reputation for genius, piety, and liberality. His journal of a " Journey through India from Calcutta to Bombay, with Notes on Ceylon," (2 vols., 1828,) is called by the "London Quarterly Review" "one of the most delightful books in the language." " Independently of its moral attraction," says Lord Jef- frey, "we are induced to think it the most instructive and important publication that has ever been given to the world on tlie actual state and conchtion of our In- dian empire." The same critic pays this high tribute to his character : " Learned, polished, and dignified he was undoubtedly ; yet far more conspicuously kind, humble, tolerant, and laborious ; — zealous for his church, too, and not forgetful of his station ; but remembering it more for the duties than for the honours that were attached to it, and infinitely more zealous for the religious improve- ment and for the happiness of his fellow-creatures of every tongue, faith, and complexion ; indulgent to all errors and infirmities ; liberal in the best and truest sense of the word ; humbly and conscientiously diffident of his own excellent judgment and never-failing charity." See " Life of Reginald Heber," by his widow, 4 vols., 1830 ; Rev. George Bonner, " Memoir of R. Heber ;" Krohn, " Hebers Le- ben," Berlin, 2 vols., 1831 ; Thomas Taylor, " Memoirs of the Life and Writings of the Rev. Reginald Heber;" "Edinburgh Review" for December, 1828. Heber, (Richard,) a bibliomaniac and an excellent classical scholar, a half-brother of the preceding, was born in Westminster in 1773. He was educated at Ox- ford. In 1804 he inherited his father's estate at Hodnet, and represented the University of Oxford in Parliament from 1 82 1 to 1826. He indulged an extravagant passion for collecting books, on which he is said to have spent about ;((^ 1 80,000. He owned large libraries in London, Oxford, Paris, Antwerp, Ghent, Hodnet, and other places. He edited Silius Italicus and Claudian in 1792. Died in 1833. Walter Scott dedicated to him the sixth canto of "Marmion." Heb'er-den, (William,) an eminent physician, born in London in 17 10, was educated at Cambridge. In 1748 he began the practice of medicine in London, in which he acquired a high reputation. In 1750 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society, to whose "Transactions" he contributed. He was reputed one of the best classical scholars of his time. His greatest work, " Medical Com- mentaries," (1802,) was written in elegant Latin. His moral character was excellent. Died in 1801. His son, William Hererden, M.D., wrote a "Treatise on the Increase and Decrease of Different Diseases," (1801.) a, e, i, o, u, y, long; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m&t; ndt; good; moon; HEBERER HEDGE Heberer, ha'beh-rer, (Michael,) a German traveller, born in Baden about 1550. He passed about three years as a captive and slave in Egypt and Turkey, and published a Narrative of his adventures. Died in 1610. Hebert, /ti'baiit', (Antoine Auguste Ernest,) a French historical painter, born at Grenoble in 181 7, was a pupil of David of Angers. He gained the first grand prize in 1839 for his picture of "The Cup found in the Sack of Benjamin." Among his works, which are ad- mired for vigour of expression, are " Tasso in Prison," " The Malarta," (1850,) and " Les Filles d'Alvito," {1855.) See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Hebert, (Jacques Ren^,) a French demagogue, born at Alenfon in 1755, came to Paris when quite young, and was a desperate adventurer when the Revolution began. He gained notoriety by editing a scurrilous Jacobin paper named " Pere Duchene." Hebert and Chauniette were the authors of the atheistic festivals of Reason. Having been proscribed by Robespierre and Danton and charged with a consj^iracy to massacre the Convention, he was executed in March, 1794. Hebert, (Michel Pierre Alexis,) a French advo- cate, born at Granville (Manche) in 1799. Hebert, (Paul O.,) an American general in the Con- federate service, born in Louisiana. He served in Mexico in 1847, became Governor of Louisiana in 1854, and was made a brigadier-general in 1861. Hebrail, /ibi'h\\ [Lat. Heral'dus,] (Didier,) a French Protestant lawyer and critic, born about 1579. In youth he obtained the chair of Greek at Sedan, and afterwards practised law with success at Paris. He gained distinction as a critical scholar, and was highly eulogized by Grotius. He published notes on Martial, Minutius Felix, and Tertullian, and several other works. Died in 1649. See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" MM. Haag, "La France protestante." Herault de Sechelles, hhfxb' deh si'shgl', (Marie Jean,) a French revolutionist, born of an aristocratic family in Paris in 1760. He gained distinction as a law- yer and orator before the Revolution. Elected to ihe Legislative Assembly in 1791, he became a leader of the Jacobins, and was president of the Convention in June, 1 793, when the Girondists were proscribed. He was the author or redacteur oi the document called the "Con- stitution of 1793," and was president and chief speaker at the national festival of August 10, 1793. In the same year he was a member of the sanguinary committee of public safety. Proscribed by Robespierre and accused of complicity in a conspiracy, he was executed with Danton in April, 1794. "He died," says Lamartine, "with the serenity of a just man who glories in being a martyr of liberty." He is described by Lord Brougham (in a sketch of Danton) as a man of unsullied charac- ter. He left a work entitled "Theory of Ambition," (1802.) See Lamartine, "History of the Girondists;" Thiers, "His- tory of the French Revolution ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Herbart, h^R'bSRt, (Johann Friedrich,) an emi- nent German philosopher, born at Oldenburg in May, 1776. He was a pupil of Fichte in the University of Jena. In 1805 he published a treatise on Platonic phi- losophy, "De Platonici Systematis Fundamento," and became adjunct professor of philosophy at Gottingen. He produced in 1808 a "General Practical Philosophv," and "The Chief Points of Metaphysics," (" Haupt- punkte der Metaphysik.") He was professor at Konigs- berg from 180910 1833, during which period he published, besides other works, an "Introduction to Philosophy," (1814,) and " Psychology as a Science newly based on Ex- perience, Metaphysics, and Mathematics," (" Psychologic als Wissenschaft neu gegriindet auf Erfahrung, Meta- physik und Mathematik," 2 vols., 1825.) In 1833 he obtained the chair of philosophy at Gottingen. He originated a peculiar system of philosophy. Died at Gottingen in August, 1 841. See Hartenstein, " Herbart's Leben," 1843 : Schilling, " Lehr- buch der Psychologic," 1851 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale. Herbel, /^§R'blK, (Charles,) a French painter and engraver, born at Nancy; died in 1703. Herbelin, /^iRb'liN', (Jeanne Mathilde,) an emi- nent French painter of miniatures, a daughter of Baron Habert, born at Brunoy about 1818. She won first-class medals at Paris in 1847 1855. Herbelot, d', d^R'blo', (Barth^lemy,) an eminent French Orientalist, born in Paris in 1625. Having learned Arabic, Hebrew, Persian, etc., he was employed as Oriental secretary and interpreter by the king, who granted him a pension : he was also appointed pro- fessor of Syriac in the College Royal. He published a "Bibliotheque Orientale," or " Universal Dictionary, containing generally all that regards the Knowledge of the Eastern Nations," a work of great labour and erudition, which was not quite finished at his death in 1695. It was published in 1697. See Perrault, "Hommes illustres;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Herberay, d', dlRb'r^', (Nicolas,) Seigneur des Essarts, a French officer, who, by order of Francis I., translated the first eight books of " Amadis de Gaule" into French, (1548.) Died about 1550. Herberstein, von, fon hlR'ber-stin', (Sigismund,) Baron, a German historian, born in Carniola or Styria in i486. He was employed in several important mis- sions, and rose to be president of the college of finance. His " Commentaries on Russian History" (Rerum Mos- coviticarum Commentarii," 1549) is esteemed the most valuable historical work on the early Russians. Sec F. Adelung, " Siegmund Freiherr von Herberstein," etc., 1818. Hfr'bfrt, (Hon. Algernon,) an English author and lawyer, born in 1792, was the youngest son of Henry, Earl of Carnarvon. He wrote several learned works, among which are " Nimrod : a Discourse on Certain Passages of History and Fable," and " Britannia after the Romans." Died in 1855. Herbert, (Edward,) Lord Herbert of Cherbury, an English author and courtier, was born at Montgomery, Wales, in 1581, and was a descendant of the Earl of Pembroke. About 1610 he served in the English army in the Netherlands, and received the title of knight from James I. In 1618 he was sent as ambassador to France, where he published in i6?4 his first and principal work, a Latin treatise " On Truth as it is distinguished from Revelation, from Probability, from Possibility, and from Falsehood," which Hallam represents as a "monument of an original, independent thinker," although "justly deemed inimical to every positive religion." In 163 1 he was raised to the peerage. He was also the author of a "History of the Life and Reign of Henry VIII.," (1649,) which Horace Walpole calls a "master-piece of historic biography," and "The Life of Lord Herbert, written by himself," (1764.) He was reputed one of the most eminent English statesmen and philosophers of the age in which he lived. Died in 1648, See Hallam, " Introduction to the Literature of Europe ;" Hor- ace Walpole, Preface to Herbert's Autobiography; Ch. de Remu- SAT, " Notice of Herbert," in the " Revue des Deux Mondes," 1854; " Retrospective Review," vol. vii., 1823. Herbert, (George,) an English poet, a brother of the preceding, was born at Montgomery, Wales, in 1593. In 1619 he was chosen public orator of Cambridge University, of which he was a graduate. Having taken orders, he was made, in 1626, prebendary of Layton Ecclesia, and in 1630 was presented by the king to the •living of Bemerton. His poetical writings were once very popular, and have been admired by such men as Cowper and Coleridge ; but they are censured by modern critics for quaint and ludicrous conceits. His principal prose work is "The Country Parson." Coleridge re- marks that "the quaintness of some of his thoughts — not of his diction, than which nothing can be more pure, manly, and unaffected — has blinded modern readers to the great general merits of his poems, which are for the most part exquisite in their kind." Died in 1632. See IzAAK Walton, "Life of Herbert;" Willmott, "Lives of the English Sacred Poets;" "Retrospective Review," vol. iii., 1821 ; " British Quarterly Review" for July, 1867. Herbert, (Henry W^illiam,) born in London in 1807, was the son of the Rev. William Herbert, noticed below, and a lineal descendant of the Earls of Pembroke. He emigrated to the United States in 1831. He displayed remarkable versatility of talents in his voluminous works, consisting of novels, fugitive poems, historical sketches, etc. Under the name of Frank Forester, he wrote "The Field Sports of the United States," (1849,) "The Deer-Stalkers," (1849.) ^"^1 other sporting works. Professor Felton represents him as " a poet of vivid imagination, a successful novelist, and an able and ac- complished critic." He committed suicide in 1858. See " North American Review," vol. Ixix. Herbert, (John Rogers,) an eminent English painter of history and portraits, was born at Maiden, Essex, in 1810. He studied in the Royal Academy, and for some years painted portraits with success. Having become a Roman Catholic, he changed his style, and devoted him- self to religious subjects. He produced "The First In- troduction of Christianity into Britain," (1842,) and "John the Baptist reproving Herod," (1848.) He was elected a Royal Academician in 1848, and painted frescos illus- trating " King Lear" in the new palace of Westminster, about 1849. Herbert, (Mary,) nSe Sidney. See Sidney. Herbert, (Sidney,) of Lea, Baron, an English states- man of eminent merit, born in 1810, was the second son of the Earl of Pembroke. He graduated at Oxford in 1831, and entered Parliament as a Conservative in 1832. In 1841 he was appointed secretary to the admiralty, and f as>^; 9 as j; g hard; g as g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^=See Explanations, p. 23.) HERBERT 1172 HERCULES in 1845 became secretary at war in the cabinet of Sir Robert Peel. Having gradually adopted liberal princi- ples, he favoured the repeal of the corn-laws in 1846, and retired from office with his political chief in the summer of that year. On the formation of the Aberdeen minis- try, in December, 1852, he was again appointed secretary at war. He resigned, in company with other Peelites, about February, 1855. From June, 1859, until July, 1861, (when he resigned on account of ill health,) he filled the same office in the cabinet of Palmerston, with eminent ability. As a war minister he appears to have been universally popular. In January, 1861, he was raised to the peerage, as Baron Herbert of Lea. He married about 1846 a daughter of General A'Court. He erected on his estate at Wilton a church which is an admirable model of the Italian or Romanesque style. " He com- bines," says the "Spectator," "with the administrative ability which is the claim of the Peelites to power, great personal tact, and enough of oratorical ability to hold his own in the House of Commons." Died August 2, 1861. Herbert, (Sir Thomas,) an English writer, born at York about 1608, was related to the Earl of Pembroke, who procured him an office under the ambassador to Persia in 1626. In 1634 he published a " Relation of Travels in Africa and Asia," which contains a better account of Persia than any which had previously ap- peared. During the civil war he was chosen by Parlia- ment one of the commissioners to treat with the king, rnd in 1647 was selected by Charles I. to wait on his person in his confinement. He wrote an account of the last two years of Charles I., under the. title of" Threnodia Carolina," (1678.) Died in 1682. See " Biographia Britannica;" Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses;" "Memoires de Sir Thomas Herbert, Valet-de-Chambre de Charles I." Paris, 1823. Herbert, (William,) Earl of Pembroke, born at Wilton, England, in 1580, was lord-steward of the king's household aljout 1626. He wrote indiff"erent verses, and is supposed to be the person to whom Shakspeare's Sonnets were addressed. Pembroke College was named in honour of him. Died in 1630. Herbert, (William,) an English antiquary, born in 1 718. After spending some years in London as a mer- chant, he went to the East Indies as purser's clerk. He is chiefly known as the editor of " Ames's Typographical Antiquities," published in 1785. Died in 1795. Herbert, (Rev. William,) an English author, born at Highclere Castle, Bucks, in 1778, was the third son of the Earl of Carnarvon. After distinguishing himself in the House of Commons, he took holy orders, became rector of Spofforth in 1814, and Dean of Manchester in 1840. He contributed to the " Edinburgh Review," and published a great variety of works in prose and verse, .among which is an epic poem, called " Attila, King of the Huns; or. The Triumph of Christianity," (1838,) " a production," says Hallam, " displaying a union of acuteness and erudition with great poetical talents." Died in 1847. See "Edinburgh Review" for June, 1815, and January, 1838; Sir Walter Scott, critique on Herbert's Poems, in the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1806, vol. ix. Herbigny. See Favart d'Herbigny. Herbigny, d', dgR'b^n'ye',( Pierre Franqois Xavier Bourguignon — booR'g^n^y^N', ) a French political writer, born at Laon in 1772, was a partisan of the Bourbons. Died in 1846. Herbin, hlK'hkn', (Auguste Francois Julien,) a French Orientalist, born in Paris in 1783. He excelled in the Oriental languages at a very early age. He pub- lished an Arabic Grammar, an Arabic-French Diction- ary, a " History of Persian Poets," and other works. Died in 1806. Herbinius, hir-bee'ne-us, (Johann,) a learned Lu- theran minister, born in Silesia in 1633. He preached at Stockholm, Wilna, etc., and published, besides other books, a curious work on cataracts and other aqueous phenomena, " De admirandis Mundi Cataractis, supra et subterraneis," etc., (1670.) Died in 1676. See Ersch und Gri;ber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Herbst, h^Rpst, (Johann Andreas,) a German mu- sician and writer on music, born at Nuremberg in 1588; died in 1660. Herbst, (Johann Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German pulpit orator and entomologist, born at Petershagen, in Prussia, in 1743, was pastor of several churches of Berlin. Among his works are an " Introduction to the Study of Insects," (3 vols., 1784-87,) and a "Natural System of Butterflies," (7 vols., 1783-95.) Died in 1807. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Herculano de Carvalho, gR-koo-lS'no di kaR-vSK- yo, (Alexandre,) a Portuguese poet and historian, born at Guimaraens about 1809, was educated in Paris. He published in 1826 "A Voz de Propheta," ("The Voice of a Prophet,") a poem. His " History of Por- tugal" (6 vols., 1848-52) is commended. Hercule. See Hercules. Hfr'cu-les, [Gr. 'Hpa/c^, (Herakles;) Lat. Her'cu- leS ; Fr. Hercule, gii'ldiK; It. Ercole, gR^ko-lk,] called also Al-gi'des, [Gr. 'klKudriq^ the most celebrated hero of antiquity, was, according to Homer, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, the wife of Amphitryon. Thebes was gene- rally supposed to have been his birthplace. His birth is said to have been delayed by Juno because it had been ordained that of the two, Hercules and Eurys- theus, the younger should serve the other. While he was an infant in the cradle, he strangled two serpents which Juno sent to destroy him. According to a popular story, when he had arrived at the age of a young man, Virtue and Pleasure appeared to him, each offering to be his guide. He preferred the former, and soon became renowned for his heroic exploits, the first of which was his victory over the lion of Cithaeron. He afterwards delivered Thebes from the annual tribute of a hundred oxen which that city was required to pay to Erginus. As a reward for this service, Creon, King of Thebes, gave him his daughter Megara in marriage. Having consulted the oracle of Apollo, he was directed to serve Eurystheus for twelve years, after which he should become immortal. Eurystheus, who regarded him with jealousy and enmity, imposed on him a number of arduous enterprises, called the Twelve Labours of Hercules. The result of his first labour was the death of the Nemean lion, which he choked in his den. He afterwards wore the skin of this animal. His next task was to kill the Lernean hydra, which infested the vicinity of Argos, and had seven (or, according to some writers, nine) heads, the middle one of which was immortal. He cut off several of its heads, but two new heads grew in place of each one amputated, until he seared the wounded part by burning. He buried the immortal head under a rock, and dipped his arrows in the gall of the hydra, so that the wounds which they inflicted were incurable. The third labt)ur was to bring to Eurystheus a certain stag which had golden horns and was exceedingly swift of foot. He pursued it for a whole year, and at length caught it, after he had wounded it with his arrow. He was next ordered to bring alive to Mycenae a wild boar that ravaged the vicinity of Erymanthus. He chased this animal into a snow-drift, bound him with fetters, and carried him to Eurystheus. In this expedition he encountered and vanquished the Centaurs. (See Cen- TAURi.) The fifth labour was to cleanse in one day the stables of King Augeas, who kept many cattle, the dung from which had accumulated for years. He performed this task by turning the rivers Alpheus and Peneus into the Augean stables. Eurystheus objected to count this among the twelve labours, because Hercules had worked for hire. (See Augeas.) His sixth labour was the destruc- tion of the Stymphalian birds, which had brazen claws and beaks, discharged their feathers as arrows, and in- fested Lake Stymphalus in vast numbers. His seventh exploit was the capture of a mad bull which ravaged the island of Crete. He carried the bull alive to the con- tinent and let it loose. It afterwards did much mischief at Marathon. Eurystheus next ordered him to bring from Diomedes of Thrace his horses, which fed on human flesh. The hero killed Diomedes and performed the appointed task. The subject of the ninth labour was the girdle of Hippolyte, Queen of the Amazons, which he was required to bring. He was accompanied in this expedition by Theseus and other heroes, and obtained the girdle after he had defeated the Amazons in fight. He was next commanded to bring the oxen of the a. e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, 5?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; ^ood; moon; HERDER "73 HERE WARD monster Geryon from the fabulous island of Erythea, situated in the far-distant west. In the course of this expedition he erected on the Strait of Gibraltar two pillars, called the pillars of Hercules, and performed several exploits besides the killing of Geryon. His eleventh labour was to bring some golden apples which were guarded by a dragon in the garden of the Hesperi- des. He did not know where this garden was ; but he obtained information from Nereus. As he was passing through Egypt in his route, he killed Busiris, the king and tyrant of that country. By the advice of Prometheus, whom he delivered from penal suffering, he sent Atlas for the apples, and supported the heavens in his place until Atlas returned with the fruit.* The last and most dangerous service was his descent to Hades to bring up the dog Cerberus. He obtained the consent of Pluto to take the monster, provided he would not use any weapon. He accordingly seized Cerberus, carried him alive to Eurystheus, and then returned him to Pluto. Having been affected with insanity, he consulted an oracle, which advised him to sell himself as a slave for three years. He became a slave to Omphale, Queen of Lydia, in whose service he wore the dress of a woman and was employed in spinning. He afterwards con- ducted a successful expedition against Troy to punish Laomedon for a breach of his promise. He married Dejanira, (daughter of the King of Caly- don,) to whom the centaur Nessus once offered violence. Hercules, with a poisoned arrow, killed Nessus, who, as he was about to die, persuaded Dejanira to preserve his blood as a love-charm. She became jealous, and applied this blood to a tunic, which he put on. He was poisoned by this garment, which produced violent pain, and stuck to his flesh when he tried to pull it off. He was about to seek relief by voluntary death on Mount CEta, when he was conveyed by a cloud to Olympus and rewarded with immortality. He was afterwards worshipped as a divinity by all the Greeks. In the character of Hercu- les it is difficult or impossible to distinguish the purely mythical or allegorical from what may be considered as mere exaggerations built upon a historic basis. See GuiGNiAUT, "Religions de I'Antiquite," Pans, 1825-29, vol. li. book iv. chaps, v. and vi. Herder, von, fon h^R'der, (Johann GorrFRiED,) one of the most remarkable and gifted writers that Ger- many has produced, was born at Mohrungen, in East Prussia, irt 1744. He commenced the study of surgery * Several of the most remarkable exploits of Hercules are vividly described by Darwin : " So mighty Hercules o'er many a clime Waved his vast mace in Virtue's cause sublime ; Unmeasured strength, vi'ith early art combined. Awed, served, protected, and amazed mankind. First, two dread snakes, at Juno's vengeful nod, Climbed round the cradle of the sleeping god ; Waked by the shrilling hiss, and rustling sound, And shrieks of fair attendants trembling round. Their gasping throats with clenching hands he holds, And Death untwists their convoluted folds. Next in red torrents from her sevenfold heads Fell Hydra's blood on Lerna's lake he sheds ; Grasps Achelous with resistless force, And drags the roaring river to his course ; Binds, with loud bellowing and with hideous yell, The monster Bull, and threefold Dog of hell. Then, where Nemea's howling forests wave, He drives the Lion to his dusky cave. Seized by the throat, the growling fiend disarms, And tears his gaping jaws with sinewy arms ; Lifts proud Antzeus from his mother-plains, And with strong grasp the struggling giant strains; Back falls his fainting head, and clammy hair. Writhe his weak limits, and flits his life in air; — By steps reverted, o'er the blood-dropp'd fen He tracks huge Cacus to his murderous den, Where, breathing flames through brazen lips, he fled. And shakes the rock-roofed cavern o'er his head. Last, with wide arms the solid earth he tears. Piles rock on rock, on mountain mountain rears; Heaves up huge Abyla on Afric's sand. Crowns with high Calpe Europe's salient strand, Crests with opposing towers the splendid scene, And pours from urns immense the sea between. Loud o'er her whirling floods Charybdis roars, Affrighted Scylla bellows roimd his shores, Vesuvio groans through all his echoing caves, And Etna thunders o'er the insurgent waves" Botanic Garden, Canto I. in Konigsberg, (1762;) but, having fainted at the first operation which he witnessed, he turned his attention theology. His thirst for knowledge was boundless, and his acquisitions embraced an immense variety of subjects. While in Konigsberg, he became acquainted with Kant, who permitted him to attend his lectures without any charge. Towards the close of 1764 he was appointed teacher, and afterwards preacher, at the cathedral school in Riga. While here, he awakened in his pupils an enthusiastic attachment and devotion. In 1770 he was invited to Biickeburg, where he became court preacher, and soon acquired great distinction as a divine, in con- sequence of which he received a call to the professorship of theology at Gottingen. While he was still hesitating whether or not to accept the invitation, he was oft'ered the position of court preacher, general superintendent, and counsellor -of the Upi^er Consistory at Weimar, whither he removed in October, 1776. As an eloquent preacher, a zealous frrend of education, and an encour- ager of rising talent, he won the esteem and love of both prince and people. The remainder of his life was spent in Weimar. In 1793 he was made vice-president, and in 1801 president, of the Upper Consistory. Died in 1803. Among his multifarious writings there is, perhaps, not one complete work : yet he is admitted to have exercised a most important influence upon German literature, criticism, and philosophy. His greatest work (unfinished) is entitled "Ideas on the Philosophy of the History of Mankind," (" Ideen zur Philosophic der Geschichte der Menschheit.") Among his other publications we may name his "Spirit of Hebrew Poetry," (" Geist der He- braischen Poesie,") and his " Volkslieder," a collection of the popular songs of different nations. Alluding to the difficulty of understanding or describing Herder's many-sided intellect, Richter observes, "The starry heaven no star-map paints, although painting may rep- resent a landscape." In another place he says, "It was Herder's fault that he was not a star of the first mag- nitude or any other magnitude, but a clump of stars out of which each one spells a constellation to please himself." A complete edition of Herder's works was issued at Stuttgart, in 45 vols., (1806-20,) and a pocket edition afterwards appeared, in 60 vols. See Karl L. Ring, " Herder's Leben," 1822 ; H. Doring, " Her- der's Leben," 1824; Emil G. von Herder, "J. G. von Herder's Lebensbild," etc., 3 vols., 1847; Heinsius, "Herder nach seinem Leben und Wirken," 1847 ; L. G. Kopp, " Etudes sur Herder," etc., 1852; F. H. Hedge, " Prose Writers of Germany;" E. P. Whip- ple, "Characteristics ot Men of Genius," vol. i. ; "Foreign Quar- terly Review" for July, 1846. Herder, von, (Sigmund August Wolfgang,) a min- eralogist, born in 1766, was a son of the great Herder. Died in 1838. His brother, Wilhelm Gottfried, born in 1774, was a physician. Died in 1806. See Ersch undGRUBER, " AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." H^reau, hWxb' , (Edme Joachim,) a French littera- teur, born in Paris in 1 791. He killed himself in. 1836. Heredia, 4-ra-dee'a, (Jos6 Maria,) a popular poet, born at Santiago de Cuba in 1803. He was appointed ?ninistro de la aiidiencia by the President of Mexico in 1826. Among his most admired poems are "The Teo- callis of Choluca," " Ode to the Ocean," " To the Greeks in 1821," ("A los Griegos en 1821,") and verses on Ni- agara, ("Al Niagara.") The most complete edition of his poems is that published recently in New York. Died at Toluca in 1839. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" Fornaris v Leon, "Cuba poetica ;" J. Kennedy, "Modern Poets and Poetry of Spain," 1852. Heredia, de, di i-ri-Dee'i, (Pedro Miguel,) born at Valladolid in 1 590, was first physician to Philip IV. Died in 1659. Hereford, Bishop of. See Hampden, (Renn Dick- son.) Heresbach, ha'res-biK'', (Conrad,) a German writer, born at Heresbach, in Cleves, about 1502. He wrote an esteemed work on agriculture, "Rei Rusticae Libri quatuor," (1570.) Died in 1576. See Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie;" A. G. Schweitzer, " Dissertatiode C. Heresbachii Vita et Scriptis," 1849; NiCERON, " Memoires," Her'e-ward, an English captain, distinguished in the war of the Norman conquest. Died in 1072. £ as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, v., guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (iJ^^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) HER I 74 HERMANT Heri. See Hari and H6ry. Hericart de Thury, //i're'ktR' deh tii're', (Louis EriKNNE FRANgois,) VicoMFE, a French engineer and agriculturist, born in Paris in 1776. As engineer-in-chief, he directed the immense works of the catacombs of Paris for about twenty years, (1810-30.) He wrote a work on "Artesian Wells," (1823,) and many treatises on mines, ores, etc. Died in 1854. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Hericourt, de, deh //i're^kooR', (Louis,) a learned French lawyer and canonist, born at Soissons in 1687. From 1 714 to 1736 he contributed to the "Journal des Savants," the earliest of modern reviews. His principal work is "The Ecclesiastical Laws of France, placed in their Natural Order," (1719.) Tabaraud designates him "the most celebrated French canonist." Died in 1752. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Her'i-ot, (George,) a Scottish goldsmith, born about 1563, founded a hospital in Edinburgh, which bears his name, and in which many boys are educated gratuitously. It was finished in 1659. Died in 1624. See "Memoirs of George Heriot ;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Sir Walter Scott, " Fortunes of Nigel." Heriot, (John,) a Scottish writer, born at Haddington in 1760. During the French Revolution he edited papers in London, called "The World" and "The True Briton," in support of the English ministry. Died in 1833. Heriri, See Hareeree. Herissant, /;k're's6N', (Franqois David,) a French medical writer, born at Rouen in 1714 ; died in 1773. Herissant, (Louis Antoine Prosper,) a French writer and physician, born in Paris in 1745, wrote "Ty- pography," a poem, and articles on natural history for the "Bibliotheque historique de France." Died in 1769. See Jean Goulin, " £loge de L. A. P. Herissant," 1769. Herissant, (Louis Theodore,) a French litterateur, brother of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1743. He published "My Little Portfolio," (2 vols. i2mo, 1774,) and various other works, and compiled the last volume of the " Bibliotheque de Societe," (begun by Chamfort, 4 vols., 1771.) Died in 1811. Heritier. See L'H^:ritier, Heritier de Villandon. See L'H6ritier de Vil- LANDON. Her'ki-mer, a general of the New York militia. In 1777 he commanded the militia of Tryon county, who inarched to relieve the garrison of Fort Stanwix, on the Mohawk, then besieged by the British. In an engage- ment a few miles from the fort, he was mortally wounded. Herlicius, hgR-lit'se-iis, (David,) a German astrolo- ger, born at Zeitz in 1558 ; died in 1636. Herloszsohn, h^R'los-son^ (Georg Karl,) a Ger- man romancer, born at Prague in 1802, published "The Hungarian," (" Der Ungar," 1832,) "The Venetian," (2d edition, 1837,) and "Forest Flowers," (" Waldblu- men," 1847.) Died in 1849. Her-mag'o-ras ['Ep/^ayopaf] of Temnos, a Greek rhetorician, lived about 50 B.C. Herrmann or Her'man, (or h§R'min,) [Lat. Armin'- lus ; Dutch, Armijn, aR-'min'; Ger. Armin, aR-meen',] a celebrated German hero, born 16 B.C., was the son of Sigimer, chief of the Cherusci. He is called Armenios by the Greek writers, and Arminius by the Romans. He entered the Roman army at an early age, and ob- tained the privileges of knighthood and of citizenship at Rome. Indignant at the oppression which his country was suffering under Quintilius Varus, then governor, he formed on his return a plan for its deliverance. By false pretences he induced the Roman commander to ad- vance with his army beyond the Rhine, where, entangled in the forest and marshes near the Lippe, they suffered a signal defeat in 9 a.d. In 16 A.D., Germanicus, with a large army, invaded Germany, and completely defeated Hermann near Hameln, on the Weser. Nevertheless, Hermann not long after overthrew Maroboduus, (Mar- bod,) chief of the Suevi ; but, being suspected of aiming at supreme dominion, he was assassinated by his own relatives, in the thirty-seventh year of his age. "Unlike Vther kings and commanders," says Tacitus, " he had the boldness to attack the Roman people, not in the beginning, but in the fulness, of their power; in battle not always victorious, but unconquered in war." See Tacitus, "Annales;" Florus, "History;" Roth, "Her- mann und Maibod," 1817; Von Ledebur, "Das Land und Volk der Bructerer," 1X27; Massmann, "Arminius Cheruscorum Dux et Decus," 1839: KoNiG, "Armin der Cherusker; zum Denkmal im Teutoburger Wald," 1840. Hermann, hSR'mSn, (Jakob,) a Swiss mathematician, born at Bale in 1678. By the favour of Leibnitz, he ob- tained the chair of mathematics in the University of Padua. In 1724 he accepted an invitation from Peter the Great to teach the grand duke. His principal work is a Latin " Treatise on the Forces and Movements of Solid and Fluid Bodies," (1715.) Died in 1733. See Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." Hermann, /z^R'niSw', (Jean,) an able French natu- ralist, born at Barr, near Strasburg, in 1738. He ob- tained at Strasburg the chair of philosophy in 1778, and that of pathology in 1782. In 1784 he became professor of botany and chemistry. He wrote many short treatises on natural history, furnished materials for the large work of Buffon, and published a treatise on the atifinities of animals, entitled "Tabula Affinitatum Animalium," (1783.) Died in 1800. His son, Jean Frederic, (1768-93,) wrote a thesis on Osteology, and a "Memoir on Wingless Insects," which Cuvier says " were excellent for the time." See T. Lauth, "Vie de Jean Hermann," 1801 ; "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Hermann, (Johann Gottfried Jakob,) an eminent German philologist and critic, born at Leipsic on the 28th of November, 1772. He became in 1809 professor of eloquence and poetry at Leipsic, where his lectures on archaeology and the Greek classics attracted great numbers of students. Among his principal works are " Elements of Metrical Doctrine," (" Elementa Doctrinae Metricae," 1816,) "On the Metres of Pindar," (" De Me- tris Pindari," 181.7,) and " Opuscula," (7 vols., 1827-30,) consisting of essays and odes written in elegant Latin. He also prepared editions of several Greek writers, of which those of Bion and Moschus were published in 1849. Died in December, 1848. See Jahn, "J. G. Hermann: eine Gedachtnissrede," Leipsic, 1849; Carl F. Ameis, "G. Hermann's padagogischer Einfluss," 1850; Ersch imd Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie," under "Philologie ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Hermann, (Karl Friedrich,) a German antiquary, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1804, became in 1842 professor of eloquence at Gottingen. He published a " Manual of Greek Antiquities," (1841,) and other works. Died in 1855. Hermann, (Karl Heinrich,) a German historical painter, born at Dresden in 1802, was a pupil of Cor- nelius at Dusseld(Mf. Among his master-pieces are the frescos in the Konigsbau and the Arcade of the Hof- garten at Munich. Hermann, (Martial Joseph Armand,) a French revolutionist and lawyer, born at Saint-Pol in 1750. In 1793, as a ])artisan of Robespierre, he became president of the Revolutionary Tribunal. He was executed in 1795. See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution." Hermann, (Paul,) an eminent German botanist, born at Halle in 1646. He practised medicine about eight years in the East Indies, and became professor of botany at Leyden in 1679. Among his works, which are illus- trated with fine engravings, are a " Catalogue of the Botanic Garden of Leyden," (1687,) and " Batavian Garden," (" Paradisus Batavus," 1698.) Died in 1695. See Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie;" "Bio- graphie Medicale." Hermann, (Philipp,) an excellent painter on glass, adorned the cathedral of Metz, where he died in 1392. Her'mann Con-trac'tus, one of the early German historians, born in 1013, was a monk in the cloister of Reichenau. He wrote a "Chronicon," which comes down to 1054 and bears some resemblance to that of the Venerable Bede. Died in 1054. See Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." Hermant, /^^R'mftN', (Godefroi,) a French b'og- rapher and Jansenist theologian, born at Beauvais in 161 7, wrote, besides other works, a "Life of Saint John i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; \y 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6,u, y, short; a,?, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; HER M ANT 1175 HERMOCRATES Chrysostom," (1664,) a "Life of Athanasius," (1671,) and a "Life of Saint Ambrose," (1678.) Died in 1690. See A. Baili.et, "Vie de M. G. Hermant," 1717 ; Moreki, "Dictioniiaire Historique." Hermant, (Jean,) a French priest, born at Caen in 1650 ; died in 1725. He wrote a liistory of heresies. Hermaphrodite. See Hermaphkoditus. Her-maph-ro-di'tus, [Gr, 'Ei)/j.a(j)p66tTog : Fr. Her- maphrodite, ^R'mt'fRo'd^t^] in classic mythology, the offspring of Mercury (Hermes) and Venus, (Aphrodite,) was said to combine both sexes. See Ovid, "Metamorphoses." Her-mar'-ehus, ['^Epfiapxog,] a Greek philosopher, born in Mitylene, was a disciple of Epicurus, who be- queathed to him his garden. He succeeded Epicurus as the head of the school about 270 B.C. His works are lost. Her'mas, a Christian writer of the first century, is supposed by some to be the person mentioned by Saint Paul in the Epistle to the Romans, chapter xvi. He lived in Italy, and wrote, in Greek, a book entitled " The Pastor, or Shepherd," composed of visions, precepts, and similitudes. It was frequently quoted and highly es- teemed by the ancient Fathers of the Church. Origen, Irenaeus, and Clement of Alexandria regarded it as divinely inspired. It is prized as a relic of the primi- tive Church, and as a medium of interesting traditions. The original is nearly all lost; but a Latin version is extant. See Neanuer, " History of the Church;" Cave, " Historia Lite- raria ;" Fabricius. "Bibliotheca Grasca." Hermbstadt, h^Rmp'stgt, (Sigismund Friedrich,) a German chemist, born at Erfurt in 1760 ; died in 1833. Hermelin, h^r^me-leen', (Samuel Gustavus,) a learned Swedish baron and mineralogist, born at Stock- holm in 1744. He was a member of the council of mines, and spent many years in travel in order to ex- plore and develop the mineral resources of Sweden. In 1782 he visited the United States, with credentials as an agent of the king, to obtain information on mineralogy and metallurgy. On these subjects he published several useful works, also on statistics and geography. A new and correct atlas of Sweden was the result of his labours. Died in 1820. See C. p. Haellstroem, " Biographi ofver Bergs-Radet S. G. Hermelin," 1821 ; " Biographiskt- Lexicon ofvernamnkunnige Sven- ska Man." Hermengarde. See Ermengarde. Hermenric. See Ermeric. Her'mes, [Gr. 'Ep//^f; Fr. Hermes, iR'm^s',] the name which the Greeks gave to the herald of the gods, corresponding nearly with the Mercurius of the Roman mythology. (See Mercury.) Hermes was identified with the Egyptian Thoth or Thot, the inventor of arts and sciences. Hermes, h^R'mes, (Georg,) a celebrated Catholic theologian, born in Westphalia, in Germany, in 1775, was the founder of a philosophical school of Christian doctrine. In 1807, when appointed professor of the- ology in Miinster, he distinguished himself by his opposi- tion to the system of Kant and Fichte. He became in 1820 professor at the University of Bonn, where he was highly esteemed for his abilities as a lecturer and his amiable character. He had published in 1819 his "Introduction to Christian Catholic Theology," which,* though not assailing any dogmas of the Church, was made the occasion of a charge of heresy. In 1835 a brief was issued by the pope, condemning the work, and a warm controversy was long carried on between the papal and the Hermesian party. Died in 1831. See W. EssER, " Denkschiift auf G. Hermes," 1832; Elvenich, " Der Hermesianismus und Johannes Perrone," 1844. Hermes, (Johann August,) a German Protestant writer on theology, born at Magdeburg in 1736. His " Manual of Religion" was translated into French, Swe- dish, and Dutch. Died in 1822. See J. H. Fritsch, "J. A. Hermes," 1827 ; Ersch undGRUBER, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Hermes, (Johann Timotheus,) a German novelist, born in Pomerania in 1738, was the originator of the romances called psychological. His principal work is "The Journey of Sophia from Memel to Saxony," (6 vols., 1770-78.) Died in 1821. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Hermes, (Karl Heinrich,) a German historical writer, born at Kalisz, in Poland, in 1800, published a " History of the Last Twenty-Five Years," (1842 ; 6th edition, 3 vols., 1853.) Her'mes Tris-me-gis'tus, [Gr. 'Ep/j-^g Tpia/iiytaTog , Fr. Hermes Trismegiste, ^R^m^s' tR^s''ma'zh^st',] called by Milton the "thrice great Hermes," the reputed author of many Greek works which were probably written in Egypt in the first three centuries of the Christian era. Some of them are still extant. According to one opinion, Hermes was an Egyptian priest. The principal work which has come down to us under his name is "Poe- mander," which treats of " the nature of all things and of the creation of the world." See J. H. Ursinus, " Exercitatio de Mercurio Trismegisto," i66i; Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grasca ;" Baumgarten-Crusius, "DeLibrorum Hermeticoruni Origine et Indole," 1827. Her-mi'as, (or her-mi'as,) [Gr. 'Epftetac or 'Epfiiag,] a friend and patron of Aristotle, was a slave in his youth. He became tyrant or ruler of Assos and Atarneus, in Mysia, and entertained Aristotle with honour at his court about three years, 348-345 B.C. Hermias was put to death by the King of Persia about 345 B.C. Aristotle afterwards married Pythias, the adopted daughter of Hermias, and celebrated his memory in a beautiful poem entitled a " Hymn to Virtue," which is extant. See Diogenes Laertius: Diodorus. Hermias, a Christian philosopher, who lived in the second century a.D. He ridiculed the pagan philosophy in a small Greek book entitled ^iacvpfibg tCov e^to (piXo- G6(b(j)v, a work of merit, which is still extant. Hermida, §R-mee'Dl, (Benito y Porras-Ber- mudez-Maldonado — e por'rSs b§R-moo'Dlth mil-do- nS'Do,) a Spanish minister of state, born at Santiago in 1736. He took a prominent part at the siege of Sara- gossa and in resistance to the French invasion. He was chosen by the central junta minister of grace and justice in 1808. He translated "Paradise Lost" into Spanish verse, (1814.) Died in 1814. See "Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale." Hermilly, d', d^R'me'ye', (N, Vaquette,) a French litterateur, born in Paris about 17 10. He translated from the Spanish Ferreras's " History of Spain," (1742,) and Camoens's "Lusiad," (1776.) Died in 1778. Her-min'i-us, a Roman warrior, was one of the three who defended the Sublician bridge against Porsena. Her-mro-ne, ['Ep/ziov??,] in classic mythology, was a daughter of Menelaus and Helen. She was promised to Orestes, her cousin, but was married to Pyrrhus, ac- cording to some authors. After the death of Pyrrhus she became the wife of Orestes. Her-mip'pus, ["Ep//OT7rof,] an Athenian poet of the old comedy, was a brother of the poet Myrtilus, and lived about 450 B.C. He inserted satires against Pericles in his plays. Plutarch says he prosecuted Aspasia for impiety. Hermippus of Smyrna, an eminent Greek philoso- pher, of whom little is known, was surnamed the Cal- limacheian. Hence it is inferred that he was a dis- ciple of Callimachus, and flourished about 250 or 225 B.C. He wrote the lives of Pythagoras and other philosophers, and was often quoted by ancient writers. None of his works have come down to us. See Vossius, "De Historicis Graecis." Hermite. See Ermite. Hermite, hw'mhx.', (Charles,) a French mathema- tician, born at Dieuze (Meurthe) in 1822, was admitted into the Institute in 1856. Hermocrate. See Hermocrates. Her-moc'ra-tes, [Gr. 'EpfioKpimK; Fr. Hermocrate, §R'mo^kRtt',] an eminent Syracusan general and states- man. He was one of the three generals to whom the people confided the defence of Syracuse against the Athenians in 414 B.C. Having been defeated in the first actions of the war, he and his colleagues were deprived of command. He held a high command at the naval battle of Cynossema, and was banished in 409 B.C. In €asi;yasj;g>^ar^^;gas^; Gyli^Ky guttural; H,msal; R, trillid ; s&s z: th as in /Aw. (2i^='See Explanations, p. 23.) HERMOD HEROD an attempt to reinstate himself, or make himself master of Syracuse, he was killed there about 406 B.C. He left a high character for patriotism, energy, and incorrupti- bility, though his later acts in inaugurating a civil war cannot be justified. See Grote, " History of Greece," vol. x. chap. Ixxxi. Her'mod or Herraodr, written also Hermode, [etymology uncertain,] the son and messenger of Odin, corresponding in several respects to the Hermes or Mercury of classic mythology. See Thorpe, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Mallet, " North- ern Antiquities," vol. ii. Fable XXIX. Hermodore. See Hermodorus. Her-mo-do'rus [Gr. 'Ep//6(5(jpof; Fr. Hermodore, ^R'mo'doR'] OF Efhesus, a Greek philosopher, who lived about 450 B.C. According to Pomponius, he aided the Roman decemviri in compiling the Twelve Tables. See Gratama, "De Hermodoro Ephesio vero XII. Tabularum Auctore," 1818. Hermodorus of Salamis, a Greek architect, lived about 150 B.C., and built a temple of Mars in Rome. Hermogene. See Hermogenes. Her-mog'e-nes, [Gr. 'Ep/uoyivi^g ; Fr. HERMOcfeNE, SR''mo^zhin',] an Athenian philosopher, a son of Hip- ponicus, lived about 450 B.C. He is an interlocutor in the " Cratylus" of Plato. Hermogenes surnamed Xyster, ['Bvottjp,] a cele- brated Greek rhetorician, born at Tarsus, in Cilicia, lived in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, (161-180 A.D.) He was a remarkable instance of precocious genius. At the age of fifteen he was a professor of rhetoric at Rome, and had acquired fame by his eloquent discourses. About two years later he wrote a work on Khetoric, (Texvi] brjTopLKTi,) which was for a long time used as a text-book in the schools. He was author of other works on rhetoric. At the age of twenty-five he lost his memory and all capacity for usefulness, which he never recovered, though he survived many years. His works are extant. See Philostratus, " Vitje Sophistarum ;" Fabricius, "Biblio- theca Graeca." Hermogenes, a Greek architect, was a native of Alabanda, in Caria. It is not known when he lived. Vitruvius mentions him among the most eminent archi- tects of antiquity, and as having contributed to the pro- gress of the art by his improvements and discoveries. He invented the pseudo-dipterus, and built a temple to Diana in the city of Magnesia. Hermogenes, a painter, lived about 170-200 a.d., and was accused of heresy by Tertullian, who wrote a book against him, — "Adversus Hermogenem." He was originally a pagan. Her-mo-ge-ni-a'nus or Her-mog'e-nes, a Roman jurist, lived under Honorius, in the fourth century. Her-mo-la'us, [Gr. 'Epfiolao^,] a page of Alexander the Great, who formed a conspiracy against his sovereign, and was put to death about 327 B.C. Hermolaus Barbarus. See Barbaro. Hermotime. See Hermotimus. Her-mo-ti'mus [Gr. 'Ep//6r///of ; Fr. Hermotime, ^R^mo^t^m'] OF Clazomen^, a Greek philosopher, lived about 500 B.C. According to Aristotle, he first advanced the doctrine that the vov^ (mind, or spirit) is the cause of all things. See Aristotle, "Metaphysics;" Diogenes Laertius; Den- ZINGRR, " De Hermotime Clazomen. Commentatio," 1825. Hernandes, iR-nln'deth, (Francisco,) a Spanish physician and naturalist, who was born at Toledo, and received from Philip H. a commission to visit North America and to describe the plants, animals, and min- erals found therein. The result of his labours was a valuable work (in Spanish) entitled a "Natural History of Trees, Plants, and Animals of New Spain," etc., (1615.) He was the first European naturalist who ex- plored this region for the benefit of science, and appears to have performed the task with creditable fidelity. See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova ;" " Biographie Medicale." Hernandez-Velasco, eR-ndu'dgth vi-lls'ko, (Gre- GORio,) a Spanish priest and poet, born at Toledo about 1550, translated the 'VEneid" of Virgil into Spanish verse, (1585.) Though the style is rather inflated, the version is correct, and presents some elegant passages. See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Hernando de Soto. See De Soto. Hern'don, (William Lewis,) an American naval officer and writer, born in Fredericksburg, Virginia, in 1813. He entered the navy in 1828, and served in the war with Mexico. In 185 1 he commenced, under the direction of the United States government, his explora- tions of the Amazon River. Ascending the Andes from Lima, he struck the head-waters of the Huallaga, a tribu- tary of the Amazon, and, after nearly seven hundred miles of canoe-navigation, he entered the main channel of the great river. Forty thousand copies of his " Ex- ploration of the Valley of the Amazon," with maps and plates, were published by Congress in 1853. In 1857, Lieutenant Herndon sailed from Havana for New York, in command of the steamer Central America, with 475 passengers and about $2,000,000 in gold. While off the coast of Georgia, the steamer, in a violent gale, sprung a leak, and he was drowned, along with the greater num- ber of the passengers. Herne, hern, (Thomas,) a native of Suffolk, England, a Fellow of Merton College, Oxford. He wrote several controversial works on theology. Died young in 1722. Hernquist, h^Rn'kwist, (Pehr,) a Swedish naturalist, born in the parish of Skara in 1726, studied under Lin- n£eus at Upsal. He founded a veterinary school at Skara, and wrote "Anatomia Hippiatrica," and other works. Died in 1808. See J. Wallin, " Minna af P. Hernquist," 1818; L. Tiden, "Are- minne ofver P. Hernquist," 1818. Hero. See Heron. He'ro, [Gr. 'Hpw,] a priestess of Venus at Sestos in Thrace, was loved by Leander, a youth of Abydos, who, it is said, swam across the Hellespont every night to visit her. He was at length drowned in a storm, and Hero, in despair, threw herself into the sea. This story has formed the subject of poems by Musaeus, Schiller, and others. Heroard, hWro'tK', (Jean,) a French physician, born at Montpellier, graduated in 1575. He was patronized by Charles IX., and was afterwards first physician to Louis XIII. Died in 1627. Her'od, [Gr. 'Hp(j(5?/f ; Lat. Hero'des ; Fr. Herode, a'rod' ; It. Erode, i-ro'da,] surnamed the Great, King of Judea, born at Ascalon in 72 B.C., was the son of Antipater the Idumaean, who made him Governor of Galilee about the year 47. After the death of Julius Caesar, he at first sided with Brutus and Cassius, but on their defeat made peace with Antony, by whose influence he was appointed King of Judea, 40 B.C. He married Mariamne, a granddaughter of the high-priest Hyrcanus. In the civil war between Octavius and An- tony, Herod joined the latter, and fought for him against the Arabians, but was pardoned by the victorious Oc- tavius. Among other acts of cruelty by which his reign was disgraced, was the execution of Hyrcanus and the brother of Mariamne, who herself at length became the victim of his jealousy. It is said he Suffered great re- morse for this act ; but it did not restrain him from taking the life of her two sons, on which occasion Augustus re- marked that he would rather be Herod's swine than his son. He erected several grand edifices in his capital, and rebuilt the Jewish temple on a magnificent scale. The birth of the Messiah, which occurred in his reign, became the signal for the indiscriminate massacre of in- fants recorded in Matthew, chap. ii. Herod died within a year after that event, and left the throne to his son Archelaus. His name has become proverbial for mur- derous violence and remorseless cruelty. See Josephus, "History of the Jews:" Dion Cassius, "His- tory ;" ScHLiPAL, " Dissertatio de Herode Magno," 171 1 ; Schlosser, "Geschichte der Familie des Herodes," 1818 ; Milman, "History of the Jews." Her'od A-grip'pa [Gr. 'Iip6)8ric 'kypi-mrag] I., born about I A.D., was the son of Aristobu'lus by Berenice, the daughter of Herod the Great, and received a part of his education at Rome. At the accession of Caligula, in 37 A.D., he was released from prison, in which he had been confined by Tiberius, and was made ruler of several a, e, T, 6, u, y, lmtg;k, 'L> 6^ same., less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obsmre; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; HEROD 1177 HEROET tetrarchies, viz., Abilene, Auranitis, and Trachonitis, to which in 39 Galilee was added. Under the emperor Claudius his power was increased, and he became King of Judea and Samaria. To promote his popularity with the Jews, he persecuted the Christians, as is related in the twelfth chapter of the Acts. He died suddenly in 44 A.D., when, in the language of Scripture, "he was smitten by an angel, because he gave not God the glory." Herod Agrippa II., a son of the preceding, was born about 27 a.d. Judea having been reduced to a Ro- man province, the emperor Claudius gave him in 48 the kingdom of Chalcis, which was afterwards exchanged for Gaulonitis, Trachonitis, Batanaea, and other districts. His dominions were subsequently extended by Nero. The subject of this article is the Agrippa of Scripture, before whom the Apostle Paul, in the year 60, made that sublime and noble argument which almost persuaded a king to be a Christian. (Acts xxvi.) When the Jews revolted against Vespasian, Herod Agrippa adhered to the Romans ; and after the capture of Jerusalem he retired to Rome, where he died about 100 a.d. See JosEPHUs, " History of the Jews." Her^od An-ti'pas, [Gr. 'HpwcJ;?^ 'AvnTraf,] son of Herod the Great and Malthace, after his father's death obtained the office of Tetrarch of Galilee, with the con- sent of the emperor Augustus. Having married the daughter of an Arabian prince, (Aretas,) he divorced her in 33 A.D., and took in her place Herodias, the wife of his brother Philip, who was then living. For this sinful act John the Baptist reproved him, and was put to death. (Mark vi. 17-28.) His interview with the Saviour, who was sent to him by Pilate and treated with indignity, is related in the twenty-third chapter of Luke. Herod was banished in 39 a.d. by Caligula, and died in obscurity. Herode, the French for Herod, which see. Herodes, the Latin for Herod, which see. He-ro'des, (Tiberius Claudius Atticus,) [Fr. He- rode Atticus, hfroiV t'te'kiis^] an Athenian orator and statesman, born at Marathon about no a.d., was the son of Julius Atticus, from whom he inherited a large fortune. Having gained distinction as a rhetorician, he gave jDub- lic lectures on eloquence at Athens, which were attended and admired by the elite of that city, and was em])loyed by the emperor Antoninus Pius as tutor of his adopted sons, M. Aurelius and Lucius Verus. He became a Roman consul in 143, married a Roman lady named Annia Regilla, and a few years after returned to Greece. He built a theatre or Odeon at Athens, and other costly edi- fices in different places of Greece and Asia. He is said to have been the greatest orator of his time. His speeches and writings are all lost, except one harangue printed in Gruter's collection in 1609. He died about 185 A.D. See Phu.ostratus, " Vitae Sophistarum ;" Burigny, " Surla Vie d'Herode Atticus," in the "Memoires de rAcademie des Inscrip- tions." He-ro'des Phil-ip'pus, a son of Herod the Great and Mariamne, was the first husband of Herodias, the persecutor of John the Baptist. He is called simply Philip by the Evangelists. (See Matthew xiv. 3, Mark vi. 17, and Luke iii. 19.) He-ro'di-an, [Gr. 'YipcjdLavoq ; Lat. Herodia'nus ; Fr. Herodien, Wio'dt'^s' ,] a historian of the third century, is thought to have lived at Rome, and to have performed a respectable part in political affairs ; but the time and place of his birth are not known. He wrote, in Greek, a history of the Roman emperors whose reigns he had witnessed, comprising the period from 180 a.d. to 238, in which no less than seventeen emperors assumed the purple. His work, which is extant, is commended for veracity, moderation, and elegance of diction, and is the more prized as it is almost the only contemporary ac- count of that eventful period. See Vosstus, "De Historicis Graecis :" Woi.F, " Narratio de Herodiano," prefixed to his edition of Herodian's "History," Halle, 1792: Leisner, " Prolusio de Herodiano Historico," 1761. Herodian, (the Grammarian.) See Herodianus yELIU.S. Herodianus. See Herodian. He-ro-di-a'nus (or Herodia'nos) .^TI-us, (ee'le- us,) [Gr. AlALoq'Ufju&Lavog; Fr. H^;rodien, ^'ro'de'^N',] a celebrated grammarian of the second century after Christ, was a son of Apollonius Dyscolus, and was born at Alexandria. He became a resident of Rome, and enjoyed the favour of Marcus Aurelius. He wrote many works on grammar, which are not extant. Fragments of some of them have been preserved. His work on prosody {M.eyulrj Upooudia) was highly prized. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grjeca;" August Wettin, "Com- mentatio de Herodiano Grammatico," 1842; Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography." He-rod'i-cus, ['Hpodt/cof,] a Greek physician, born at Selymbria, in Thrace, lived in the fifth century B.C., and was one of the masters of Hippocrates. Herodien. See Herodian. Herodot or Herodote. See Herodotus. He-rod'o-tus, [Gr. 'UpoSoTog ; Fr. Herodote, i^ro'- dot'' ; Ger. Herodot, h^ro-dot ; It. Erodoto, k-rod'- o-to,] a celebrated Greek historian, born at Halicar- nassus, a Dorian colony in Caria, about 484 B.C. He was the son of Lyxus and Dryo, and the nephew of the poet Panyasis. He is the earliest of the Greek histo- rians whose works have been preserved entire, and is frequently styled "the Father of History." Cicero men- tions him as " the first who adorned this species of com- position." Little is known of his life, except what may be collected from his writings. Before he attained the age of thirty he took a prominent part in the expulsion of Lygdamus, the tyraht of Halicarnassus. But, having failed to gain the popular favour, he soon left his native country, spent a few years in Athens, and settled in the Athenian colony of Thurium, in Italy, in 443, where he is said to have died. Before he wrote his great national work (one of the most precious memorials of antiquity) he prepared himself by travelling over the principal countries of the civilized world, viz., Egypt, Tyre, Baby- lon, Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, and by studying their manners, customs, and institutions. Throughout his narrative, however, he maintains a modest reserve respecting the extent of his travels ; and it is a doubtful question in what period of his life they were performed. The principal subject of his history is the war between the Greeks and Persians, comprised in a period of sixty- eight years, from the time of Cyrus the Great to the tri- umph of the Greeks in 478 B.C. By way of episode, he inserts sketches of the different nations which he had visited in person. His account of Egypt is the most abundant and reliable source from which we derive our knowledge of the ancient history of that country. He is more highly appreciated by the moderns than he was by his contemporaries. Some of his marvellous stories which once excited ridicule and incredulity have been confirmed by modern discoveries. His work is pervaded by a deep religious sentiment, and by a liberal spirit towards foreigners. He unites in a high degree accu- racy of observation, rectitude of intention, and the faculty of graphic description. His style is easy, natural, and sometimes poetical. Plutarch and Eusebius state that Herodotus recited his history at a public festival of the Athenians, who rewarded him with a present of ten talents. " Of the romantic historians," says Macaulay, " He- rodotus is the earliest and the best. His animation, his simple-hearted tenderness, his wonderful talent for description and dialogue, and the pure, sweet flow of his language, place him at the head of narrators. He reminds us of a delightful child. . . . But he has not written a good history. . . . The faults of Herodotus are the faults of a simple and imaginative mind. . . . He wrote as it was natural that he should write. He wrote for a nation susceptible, curious, lively, insatiably desirous of novelty and excitement ; for a nation in which the fine arts had attained their highest excellence, but in which philosophy was still in its infancy." (See "Essay on History," in the "Edinburgh Review," 1828.) See Creuzer, "Herodot und Thucydides," 1798; Dahlmann, " Herodot aus seinem Buche sein Leben," 1823 ; Heysk, " De Hero- doti Vita et Itineribus," 1826; Blum, "Herodot und Ktesias d'e friihesten Geschichtsforscher des Orients," 1836; Smith, "Diction- ary of Greek and Roman Biography;" Ersch und Gruber, "Allge- meine Encyklopaedie ;" De Qui'ncey, "Historical and Critical Essays," vol. i. Herodotus, a Greqk physician, who practised at Rome probably about 100 a.d., left works which are often cited by Galen. Heroet, h\'xo'¥, (Antoine,) a French poet, born in Paris, became Bishop of Digne in 1552. Died in 1568. € a?, k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2!^=See Explanations, p. 23.) HER OLD 1178 HERRGOTT Herold, ha'rolt, (Johann Basil,) a German writer and Protestant minister, born at Hochstadt, on the Danube, in 151 1, edited a good edition of the Latin works of Petrarch, (1581,) and several original treatises. Died about 1570. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Herold, /i\'roW, (Louis Joseph Ferdinand,) an emi- nent French composer, born in Paris in 1791. He pro- duced, in 1826, " Marie," an opera, which was completely successful. His capital works are "Zampa," (1831,) and "Le Pre aux Clercs," (1832.) He is called one of the first among modern French composers. Died in 1833. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." He'ron or He'ro, [Gr. "Hpwv,] an eminent mathemati- cian and writer, lived in Alexandria about 100 B.C. He obtained a high reputation by his skill in geometry, me- chanics, pneumatics, etc., on which he wrote several treatises. One of these mentions a machine of whicli steam is the motive power. His name is rendered fa- miliar by connection with the experiment in pneumatics called " Hero's fountain." Another philosopher of this name, who is supposed to have lived in the seventh cen- tury, was noted as a writer on warlike machines, on geometry, and on military tactics. See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grseca;" R. C. Wagner, " Disser- tatio de Heronis Alexandrini Vita, Scriptis et Inventis," 1714; MoN- TUCLA, " Histoire des Mathematiques." Hereon, (Robert,) a Scottish writer, born at New Galloway in 1764, wrote a " History of Scotland," a " Universal Geography," etc. He also translated several works, and contributed to periodicals. Died in 1807. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Heron de Villefosse, hiixbH' deh v^Kfoss', (An- toine Marie,) a French engineer, born in Paris in 1774, became inspector-general of mines in 1807, and published a useful work, entitled "On Mineral Riches," ("De la Richesse minerale," 3 vols., 1810-19.) Died in 1852. Herophile. See Herophilus. He-roph-T-lus, [Gr. 'Rp6(pikog : Fr. Herophile, a'ro'- ihV,} a celebrated physician of Chalcedon, in Bithynia, was born about 344 B.C., and lived in Alexandria in the reign of Ptolemy Lagus. He was contemporary with Erasistratus, and is accounted the greatest anatomist of antiquity, as well as the first who dissected human sub- jects. He enriched the science with many discoveries in the nervous system, the arterial pulsations, the lacteal vessels, and the structure of the eye. The term retina originated with him. His writings are all lost, except extracts made from them by Galen and Ccelius Aurelia- nus. See Haller, " Bibliotheca Anatomica ;" Sprengel, " Geschichte der Medicin ;" Karl F. H. Marx, " Commentatiode Herophili Vita, Scriptis," etc., 1840. Herostrate. See Herostratus. He-ros'tra-tus or E-ros'tra-tus, [Gr. '^pbarparoq; Fr. Herostrate, k^ros'tRtt',] an incendiary, who, to immortalize his name, set fire to the temple of Diana at Ephesus, in 356 B.C. The authorities of Ephesus vainly attempted to frustrate his design by ordering that his name should never be mentioned. Herpin, /^gR''piN'', (Jean Charles,) a French writer on rural economy, born at Metz in 1798. Herregouts, h^R'goo', (Henri,) a Flemish historical painter, born at Malines in 1666, worked mostly at Antwerp. Lacaze praises his design, colour, and the expression of his figures. Among his works are " The Last Judgment," and a penitent Magdalene. He had a son, called Herregouts le Jeune, ("the Younger,") who was a skilful painter. SeeDESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Herrenschwand, hgr'ren-sh^^inf, (Jean Fr6d6- RIC,) born at Morat, in Switzerland, in 1 71 5, became physician to Stanislas, King of Poland. Died in 1796. Herrera, gr-ra'ri, (Alonzo,) a Spanish painter of re- ligious subjects, born at Segovia in 1559. Herrera, de, di gr-ra'rd, (Fernando,) an eminent Spanish poet, surnamed the DiyiNE, born at Seville about 1534. Very little is known of his history. He was one of the most popular lyric poets of his time, — which is accounted the golden age of Spanish poetry. He made bold innovations in poetical language. " Her- , rera was a poet," says Bouterwek, "of powerful talent. But amid traits of real beauty his poetry everywhere presents marks of affectation." According to Hallam, " his odes appear to possess a lyric elevation and rich- ness of phrase derived in some measure from the study of Pindar. Those on the battle of Lepanto are the most celebrated ; they pour forth a torrent of resounding song in those rich tones which the Castilian language so abun- dantly supplies." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") His poems were published collectively in 1582. He died about 1595, or, as others say, in 1589. vSee Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature;" N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca His- pana Nova." Herrera, de, (Francisco,) surnamed el Viejo, ("the Elder,") a skilful Spanish painter, born at Seville in 1576. He studied under Luis Fernandez, and re- formed the style of the Seville school. He excelled in design, colouring, and rapidity of execution. He founded a new school, in which the famous Diego Velasquez was his pupil. Among his works is the " Last Judgment," in the church of San Bernardo, Seville. Died in 1656. See Cean Bermudez, "Diccionario historico;" Quilliet, "DIc- tionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." Herrera, de, ( Francisco, ) surnamed el Mozo, ("the Younger,") a son of the preceding, born at Seville in 1622, was a painter and architect. After studying at Rome, he worked at Seville, where he painted for the churches. Li 1660 he was chosen vice-president of the Academy, of which Murillo was president. Impatient of the presence of a superior, he removed to Madrid, where he gained a high reputation in oil-painting and fresco. He was appointed principal painter to Philip IV. "The Ascension of the Virgin," a fresco at Madrid, is one of his most admired works. Died in 1685. See Raphael Mengs, "Las Obras ;" Quilliet, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols," 1826. Herrera, de, da gr-ra'ri, (Jos^: Joaquin,) a Mexican, born in the eighteenth century, became President of Mexico about the end of 1844, was deposed in December, 1845, and re-elected in June, 1848. Died in 1851. Herrera, de, (Juan,) an eminent Spanish architect, who was employed on the Escurial after 1567. He built the royal pleasure-house at Aranjuez. According to Prescott, he was the pupil of Toledo, and completed the Escurial, begun by that architect. Died in 1597. See Prescott, "History of Philip IL," vol. iii. Herrera-Barnuevo, Sr-ra'ra baR-nwa'vo, (Sebas- TIANO,) a Spanish painter and sculptor, born at Madrid in 1619, worked for the king in the Escurial. He ex- celled in design and colour. Died in 1671. Herrera y Tordesillas, gr-ra'ri e toR-di-s^KySs, (Antonio,) an eminent Spanish historian, born at Cuellar in 1549, was the son of a man named Tordesillas ; Herrera was the name of his mother. Philip II. gave him the title of first historiographer of the Indies and of Castile. He published in 1601 his "General History of the Acts of the Castilians on the Islands and Terra Firma of the Ocean from 1492 to 1554," (4 vols.) His work is praised by Dr. Robertson for its accuracy and candour, and has served as the guide of later historians who have treated of that period. He wrote several other historical works. Died in 1625. See Prescott, "Conquest of Mexico," vol. ii. book iii., and "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. ii. part ii. ; Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature;" N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca His- pana Nova." Herreros, gr-ra'r6s, (Manuel Breton de los — bRi-t6n' di 16s,) a popular Spanish poet, born at Quel, in Logroiio, about 1798. He produced in 1824 a suc- cessful comedy, "A la Vejez Viruelas," and in 1834 was chosen keeper of the National Library in Madrid. He composed and translated many dramas, remarkable for grace and energy of diction, for comic power, and for true portraiture of character. He also wrote successful satires, among which is "The Carnival," (1833.) See James Kennedy, "Modern Poets and Poetry of Spain," 1852. Herrgott, hgR'got, (Marquard,) a monk and anti- quary, born at Friburg, in Brisgau, in 1694. He ac quired a great reputation by his writings, among which ai'e a history of the House of Hapsburg, (" Genealogia a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; m§t; ndt; good; moon; HERRICH 1179 HERSCHEL diplomatica Gentis Habsburgicae," 2 vols., 1738,) and "Monuments of the Imperial House of Austria," (3 vols., 1750-60,) with plates. Died in 1762. See Ersch und Gkuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Herrich Schaffer or Schaeffer, h^r'riK sh^ffer, (Gottlieb August,) a German entomologist, born at Ratisbon in 1799, has published, among other works, a continuation of Panzer's " Fauna Insectorum Germanise," and " Nomenclator Entomologicus," (unfinished.)' HSr'rick, (Robert,) an English poet and clergyman, born in London in 1591. For about twenty years he was vicar of Dean Prior, in Devonshire, from which he was ejected by Cromwell. In 1648 he published a volume of poems, entitled " Hesperides ; or, Poems Human and Divine." Of these, the "human" excel the divine in literary merit. The tenor of them is amorous, and in some parts licentious. " Herrick has," says Hallam, *' as much variety as the poetry of kisses can well have. He has much of the lively grace that distinguishes Anacreon and Catullus." ("Introduction to the Lite- rature of Europe.") He was restored to his living in 1660. Died about 1674. See Drake, " Literary Hours," and the " Retrospective Review," vol. v., 1822; Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets." Herries, hhx'xhz, (John Charles,) a British financier, born about 1780. He became secretary of the treasury in 1823, and in 1827 chancellor of the exchequer in the ministry of Goderich, which was dissolved in 1828. He was secretary of war in a Tory cabinet for a few months in 1834 and 1835, and was afterwards a prominent mem- ber of the protectionist party. In 1852 he was appointed president of the India Board. Died in 1855. Her'ring, (John Frederick,) an English painter of animals, was born in Surrey in 1795. He was a coach- driver in his youth. He excelled in the representation of horses, hounds, and other animals. For many years he painted the winners at the Doncaster races. Among his works are "The Country Bait," "The Roadside," " The Members of the Temperance Society," and " The Baron's Charger." Died in 1865. Herring, (Thomas,) an English prelate, born in Nor- folk in 1691. He became Bishop of Bangor in 1737, Bishop of York in 1743, and Archbishop of Canterbury in 1747. His sermons and letters were published, 1763- 77. Died in 1757. Herrliberger, h^R'le-bgRG'er, (David,) an able Swiss engraver, born at Zurich in 1697. He published a " New Topographical Description of Switzerland," with plates. Died in 1777. Her'ron, (Francis J.,) an American general. He served at the battle of Pea Ridge, March, 1862, and was appointed a brigadier-general in the same year. He commanded at the battle of Prairie Grove, Arkansas, in December, 1862. Hersan, /^^r^sSn', (Marc Antoine,) a French pro- fessor and Latin poet, born at Compiegne in 1652. His Latin verses were published under the title of " Selecta Carmina." Died in 1724. Herschel, her'shel, (Caroline Lucretia,) born in Hanover in 1750, was sister of Sir William Herschel, whom she assisted in his astronomical observations and computations. She lived with him near Windsor, Eng- land, from 1772 until his death, sharing his daily labours and nightly vigils, and inscribed her name with indelible and luminous characters in the records of astronomy. She has the credit of discovering five new comets be- tween 1786 and 1797. In 1798 she published a valu- able " Catalogue of Five Hundred and Sixty-One Stars observed by Flamsteed." In 1828 the Astronomical Society awarded her a gold medal for her Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars. Died in 1848. Herschel, (Sir John Frederick William,) an emi- nent astronomer and philosopher, the only son of Sir William Herschel, was born at Slough, near Windsor, in 1790. He was ediicated in Saint John's College, Cambridge, where he displayed superior talents for mathematics. Between 1825 and 1833 he spent eight years in reviewing the nebulae discovered by his father, of which he published a "Catalogue arranged in the Order of Right Ascension," (1833.) He produced in 1830 an excellent "Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy," which acquired a great popu- larity and is a standard work. "This discourse," says the "London Monthly Review," "as a collection of im- portant facts interesting to every human being, is without a rival." In 1834 he established, at his own expense, an obser- vatory at Cape Town, Africa, where he passed four years in the survey of the heavens with a reflecting telescope of twenty feet focus and eighteen and one-quarter inches clear aperture. The Royal Society awarded him a gold medal in 1836. He published in 1847 "Results of As- tronomical Observations made during 1834-38 at the Cape of Good Hope, being the Completion of a Tele- scopic Survey of the Whole Surface of the Visible Heavens," one of the most important astronomical works of the nineteenth century. His "Outlines of Astronomy" (1849) was received with favour, and has passed through five or more editions. He edited an important collection of treatises, entitled "Manual of Scientific Inquiry," (1849,) published by the govern- ment. Sir John was appointed master of the mint in 1850, but resigned his office in 1855. The same year he was chosen a foreign associate of the Institute of France. Among his recent works are "Essays from the Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews," (1857,) the articles "Meteorology" and "Physical Geography" in the "En- cyclopaedia Britannica," (1857-59,) and "Familiar Lec- tures on Scientific Subjects," (1866.) Died in 1871. "Sir John Herschel," says the "London Journal of Science" for April, 1868, "combines in his own person the assiduous astronomical observer, the acute mathe- matician, the deep-thinking philosopher, and the graceful poet. It is not to many men that intellectual powers of so high order have been given ; it is not in many men that we find such perfect balancing of those varied powers ; it is in few men that we discover such profound humility and such a deep sense of reverence for the Creator of those works the study of which has been a life-labour of love. . . . Sir John Herschel has ever maintained the serene dignity of a true philosopher, and his utterances of truths which have inspired him with their divinity have ever been received with delight by those who have listened to his subdued but impressive eloquence." See "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1833; "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1849; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1831 ; "North British Review" for February, 1848. Herschel, (Sir William,) one of the greatest astrono- mers that any age or nation has produced, was born at Hanover on the 15th of Noveinber, 1738. His father was Jacob Herschel, a skilful musician, who, having six sons, was not able to give them a very complete education. They all, however, became excellent musical performers, and William adopted the profession of mu- sician. Before he left the paternal roof he took lessons in French and cultivated a taste for metaphysics. In 1759, in company with his brother Jacob, he went to England in search of employment ; but for two or three years he received no encouragement, and suffered great privation. About 1761 he was employed to instruct a military band at Durham, or in that vicinity, and in 1765 obtained the situation of organist at Halifax. Here, by intense study, he learned Latin and Italian and acquired a thorough knowledge of mathematics. The last science he studied as preliminary to the theory of music. In 1766 he became organist of the Octagon Chapel, Bath, where his skill was in great request at oratorios, public concerts, and reunions of fashion. It appears that he was about thirty years of age before he directed his attention to astronomy and optics, in which his talents found their most congenial arena and the basis of his permanent renown. A casual view of the starry heavens through a small telescope sufficed to rouse his enthu- smsm and to kindle the latent ardour of genius. He must be an astronomer ; he must have a telescope of greater power ; and, as the price demanded by opticians exceeded his resources, he resolved to construct one with his own hands. After a multitude of trials and several years of persistent application, he completed in 1774 a re- flecting telescope of five feet focal length, and, stimulated by this success, did not relax his efforts until he obtained e as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as /; o, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^==See Explanations, p. 23.) 4 HERSENT 1180 HERVEY one of dimensions four times greater, with which in 1779 he began a systematic survey of the sidereal universe. His arduous vigils and well-directed labours were rewarded in March, 1781, by the discovery of a new pri- mary planet, which was named by him Georgium Sidus, in honour of King George, and is since called Uranus. Besides the eclat thrown around his name by this signal success, he received from George III. a pension of ;i^400, with the title of private astronomer to the king. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, who awarded to him their annual gold medal. Herschel now fixed his residence at a village near Windsor, named Slough, — " a name," says Arago, " which the sciences will trans- mit to the remotest posterity; for there exists no spot on the earth which has been rendered memorable by more numerous and surprising discoveries." Continuing his observations with unremitting assiduity, he discovered two new satellites of Saturn and six satellites of Uranus. He measured the rotation of Saturn, and observed the volcanic structure of the lunar mountains and the sur- prising phenomena of Saturn's ring. After he had made several telescopes of twenty feet focal length, he com- pleted, in 1789, with pecuniary aid from the king, his gigantic instrument of forty feet in length, which was far superior to any that had previously been made. He was now enabled to penetrate farther into space than his predecessors, and by his sublime speculations on the constitution of the nebulae he made some approach to a conception of the illimitable extent and variety of the celestial phenomena. In 1803 he ascertained the motion of the double stars around each other, — the grand- est fact in sidereal astronomy, — attesting the universal influence of that attractive force which binds the mem- bers of the solar system. He soon after announced that the whole solar system is progressing in the direction of the constellation Hercules. Between 1780 and 1820 he contributed seventy-one memoirs to the " Philosophical Transactions." His discoveries were so far in advance of his time, they had so little relation or resemblance to those of his predecessors, that he may be said to have initiated a new era in astronomy, and almost to have founded a new science, by revealing the immensity of the scale on which the universe is constructed. He was married in 1788, and left one son. Sir John, noticed above. Died in August, 1822. See Arago, " Memoir of Herschel," (translated into English,) Boston, 1859; "Edinburgh Review," vol. i. ; " Edinburgji Philo- sophical Journal" for April, 1823; Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Dr. Hoefer, Notice in the " Nouvelle Biographie 3enerale ;" Zach, " Monatliche Correspondenz," vol. v. Hersent, /^^r^sSn', (Charles,) a French priest and pulpit orator, born in Paris about 1595, was made chan- cellor of the church of Metz in 1625. He published in 1640, as a warning against Cardinal Richelieu's alleged design to make a schism in the church, a book called ** Optatus Gallus," which was burned by order of Par- liament. He wrote other theological treatises. Died after 1660. Hersent, (Lours,) an eminent French painter of his- tory, born in Paris in 1777, was admitted into the Insti- tute in 1822. His design is correct and elegant. Among his works is "Daphnis and Chloe." Her-sil'i-a, a Sabine woman, the wife of Romulus, One account makes her the wife of Hostus and mother of Hostus Hostilius. Hersleb, h^Rs'l^b, (Peter,) a Norwegian divine and writer, born at Stod in 1689, became Bishop of Copen- hagen in 1737. Died in 1757. Hert, h^Rt, or Hertius, h^Rt'se-iis, (Johann Niko- LAUS,) a German jurist, born near Giessen, in Hesse- Darmstadt, in 165 1, became professor of public law in Giessen about 1690. He wrote, in Latin, several valu- able works, among which is " Elementa Prudentize civi- lis," (1689.) Died in 17 10. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Her'tha, Her'thus, or Ner'thus, [allied etymologi- cally to the English Earth, Anglo-Saxon EorSe, Ger- man Erde, Scandinavian Jord, Alemannic Ertha, Moeso-Gothic Airtha.] Hertha was the goddess Earth among the ancient Germans, regarded by some as the wife of Thor, by others as the wife of Odin, and hence synonymous with Frigga. She may be considered as the personification of fertility. Herthus, or Nerthus, was a male deity, with the same or similar attributes. See Grimm, "Deutsche Mythologie ;" Rabus, "Dissertatio de Dea Hertlia," Augsburg, 1842. Hertz. See Herz. Hertz, h^Rts, (Heiman Adolph,) a Danish poet, son of Johan Michael, noticed below, was born in 1796. He wrote% historical poem called " Gustavus Vasa," (1856.) Hertz, (Hendrik,) an eminent Danish poet and dram- atist, born at Copenhagen in 1798. He produced many comedies, among which are "The Moving- Day," (" Flyt- tedagen," 1828,) "Cupid's Master-Strokes," ("Amors Geniestreger," 1830,) and "The Plumage of the Swan," (" Svanehammen," 1841.) A lyrical drama, entitled " King Rene's Daughter," (1845,) is considered his mas- ter-piece. He traces characters with much ability. He is author of a didactic poem " On Nature and Art," (1832,) a poem called "Tyrfing," (1840,) and a fiction of great merit, entitled " Svend Dyring's House," (1837.) See P. L. MoLLER, " Notice of Hertz" in the " Dansk Pantheon," 1844; Erslew, "Ahnindeligt Forfatter- Lexicon ;" "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Hertz, (Johan Michael,) a Danish poet, and Bishop of Ribe, born near Vordingborg in 1766. His principal work is "The Deliverance of Israel," ("Det befriede Israel," 1804,) a poem. Died in 1825. Hertzberg. See Herzijerg. Hertzen or Herzen, h^Rt'sen, (Alexander,) a Rus- sian socialist, and an able republican writer, born in Moscow in 1812. He published "Dilettantism in Sci- ence," (1842,) "Letters on the Study of Nature," (1845,) and a romance called " Whose Fault is it ?" (" Kto Vino- vat," 1847.) I" 1847 quitted Russia, to the govern- ment of which he vowed implacable hostility. He after- wards resided in England, where he founded a "Russian Free Press" and issued several works in Russian. Among his publications are " Letters from France and Italy," (1850,) and memoirs of his life, entitled "My Exile," (2 vols., 1855.) Died in Paiis in 1870. See " Nouvelle Biographie G(fn^rale." Hervas, Sr'vSs, (Jos6 Martinez,) Marquis of Alma- nara, a Spanish diplomatist, born at Uxyar in 1760. In 1806 he was sent as minister to Constantinople. Return- ing to Spain in 1809, he became minister of the interior under Joseph Bonaparte. Died in 1830. Hervas y Paiiduro, ^r'vIsc pin-doo'ro, (Lorenzo,) a Spanish Jesuit and philologist, born at Horcajo in 1735. He made extensive researches into the origin and affinity of languages, and published a " Catalogue of the Known Languages, with Remarks on their Affinity and Diver- sity," (1784,) "Polyglot Vocabulary of more than One Hundred and Fifty Tongues, with Introductory Observa- tions," and a "Collection of the Versions of the Lord's Prayer in more than Three Hundred Tongues," (1787.) Dieci in 1809. See Adelung, " Mithridates ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Herve, §R'vi', born in Champagne, became Arch- bishop of Rheims in 900 A.D., and grand chancellor of France in 911. Died in 922. Herve-Fierabras, l.^'\bS fe'eh-rfbR^', a French physician, born at Rouen, lived about 1550. He pub- lished an able treatise on Surgery, (1550.) Hervet, //§R'va', (Gentian,) a learned French theo- logian, born near Orleans in 1499, distinguished himself at the Council of Trent, (1545,) and wrote against Cal- vinism. He translated some works of the Greek Fathers into Latin. Died in 1584. See NiCERON, "Memoires;" DeThou, " filoges," with addition* of Teissier. Her'vey, (Augustus John,) third Earl of Bristol, son of Lord John, noticed below, was born in 1724. He became a post-captain in 1747, and displayed courage in several battles in the Mediterranean and in the West Indies. In 1771 he was appointed one of the lords of the admiralty, and in 1775, by the death of an elder brother, became Earl of Bristol, Soon after this he was created an admiral. He died in 1779, and his title was inherited by his brother Frederick, Bishop of Derry. Hervey, (Eleonora Louisa,) an authoress, whose maiden name was Montague, born at Liverpool in 181 1. a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, j, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, felt; mlX\ n6t; good; moon; HERVET 1181 HESIOD She began to write graceful verses for the periodicals at an early age, and published in 1839 "The Landgrave," a dramatic poem. In 1843 she was married to Thomas K. Hervey, noticed below. Among her works are tales in prose, entitled "Margaret Russell," (1849,) and "The Pathway of the Fawn," (1851.) Hervey, (Frederick,) fourth Earl of Bristol, born in 1730, was a brother of Augustus John, noticed above. He became Bishop of Derry in 1768, and succeeded to the earldom on the death of his brother, in 1779. He was eccentric in habits, and was a liberal patron of the fine arts. Died at Albano, Italy, in 1803. Hervey, (James,) an English divine and author, born at Hardingstone, near Northampton, in 1 714, was edu- cated at Oxford University, and was a good classical scholar. Having taken orders, he became curate of Dummer in 1736, and of Bideford in 1738. From 1743 until 1750 he was curate of Weston Favell, of which his father was rector, and at the death of the latter, in 1752, the son obtained that living. He was noted for piety and benevolence. His "Meditations and Contemplations," published in 1746, were extensively popular, notwith- standing his faulty style, which is too flowery and subli- mated to please the most correct taste. These very faults probably rendered him a greater favourite with the common people, as Southey represents the book as equally " laudable in purport and vicious in style, and therefore one of the most popular that ever was written." It is or was generally found on the shelves of English cottages by the side of the Bible and " Pilgrim's Pro- gress." Hervey also wrote "Theron and Aspasia, a Series of Dialogues and Letters," and a few minor works. Died in 1758. See Cole, " Herveiana ; or, Graphic and Literary Sketches of James Hervey," 1822-26; John Brown, "Life and Character of J. Hervey," 1822. Hervey, (Lord John,) an English writer, born in 1696, was the eldest son of the first Earl of Bristol. He obtained a seat in Parliament soon after the accession of George I., and in 1730 became a privy councillor. In 1733 he was raised to the peerage, as Baron Hervey of Ickworth, and in 1740 was appointed lord privy seal in the cabinet of Walpole. He wrote able political pam- phlets, verses, and an "Epistle from a Nobleman to a Doctor of Divinity," the last of which was an answer to Pope, who satirized him, in the character of Sporus, as "the mere white curd of asses' milk." He also wrote interesting " Memoirs of the Court of George II." Died in 1743. See Horace Walpole, "Royal and Noble Authors;" "Edin- burgh Review" for October, 1848. Hervey, (Thomas Kibble,) an English poet and editor, born in Manchester in 1804. He studiecl at Cam- bridge and Oxford. In 1824 he published "Australia, and other Poems," which was received with favour. His " Poetical Sketch-Book" appeared in 1829. He after- wards produced "Illustrations of Modern Sculpture," (1832,) a work of merit, and "The Book of Christmas," (1836.) From 1846 to 1854 he was chief editor of the "Athenaeum." Died in February, 1859. Herwarth von Bittenfeld, h^R^^^aRt fon bit'ten- felt', a Prussian general, commanded a corps of the army which entered Bohemia under the crown-prince and contributed to the victory of Sadowa, July 3, 1866. Herwart von Hohenburg, hgR^vaRt fon ho'en- booRG^ (Johann Georg,) a German scholar, born at Augsburg in 1554 ; died in 1622. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Herwegh,hgR'wgG, (Georg,) a popular German lyric poet, born at Stuttgart in 181 7. He published at Zurich, in 1841, a volume of republican or liberal poems, enti- tled " Gedichte eines Lebendigen," ("Poems of a Living Man,") which had great success. He became a citizen of Bale, and about 1845 joined the radicals of Paris. In the spring of 1848 he raised a legion and invaded Baden with a design to revolutionize it ; but he failed, and took refuge in Switzerland. See Longfellow, " Po.ets and Poetry of Europe ;" F. Lipp, "G. Herwegh's viertagige Irr- und Wanderfahrt mit der Pariser Deutsch- demokratischen Legion," etc., 1850; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1843. Hery, de, deh hWr^', (Thierry,) a skilful French surgeon, born in Paris about 1505. Having piactised with success in Paris, he was employed by Francis I. in the army of Italy, and acquired a great reputation by the cure of syphilis, on which he wrote an original and able treatise, — the first ever written in French on that subject. Died in 1599. See £loi, " Dictionnaire de la M^decine." Herz, h^Rts, (Heinrich,) a celebrated pianist and composer, born at Vienna in 1806. He met with bril- liant success in London, Edinburgh, and Paris, and afterwards resided several years in America. As a performer he is scarcely surpassed, and his pieces for the piano are general favourites. Herz, (Henrietta,) a German lady, distinguished for her wit and beauty, born in Berlin in 1764. She married M. Herz about 1780. Her house in Berlin was frequented by many eminent men. Died in 1847. Herz, (Marcus,) a German physician, born at Berlin in 1747 ; died in 1803. Herzberg or Hertzberg, von, fon h^Rts'b^RG, (EWALD Friedrich,) a celebrated Prussian statesman, iDorn near Neustettin in 1725. He filled several impor- tant posts under Frederick the Great, and, after nego- tiating a treaty of peace with Russia and Sweden in 1762, was appointed second minister of state. He was made a count by Frederick's successor, and also curator of the Academy at Berlin. Died in 1795. He was a zealous patron of learning, particularly of German literature. See PossELT, " Ewald Friedrich Graf von Hertzberg," 1798 ; Weddigen, " Fragmente aus dam Leben des Grafen von Hertzberg," 1796; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Heselrige. See Hazlerig. Hesham, (Hescham,) h^sh-Sm', or Hisham, hish- Sm', (or, more fully, Hesham-Ibn-Abd-el-Malek, hesh-lm' ib'n ibd-el mtKek, i.e. " Hesham the son of Abd-el-Malek,") the tenth caliph of the house of Omey- yah, succeeded his cousin, Oinar II., in 724 A.D. During the reign of Hesham, Abd-er-Rahman, one of his gen- erals, invaded France, where he was defeated and slain by Charles Martel, October 25, 732. Hesham died in 743, leaving the reputation of an eminently just and virtuous sovereign. See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap. xiv. Hesham (or Hisham) I., (or, more fully, Hesham- Abool (-Aboul or -Abul) -Waleed, (-Walid,) a'bool wa-leed',) second Emir or King of Cordova of the Omeyyah dynasty, succeeded his father, Abd-er-Rahman, in 788 A.D. He waged a successful war against the Christians of Galicia, Astorga, etc., founded schools, and promoted the arts. Died in 796. Hesham (or Hisham) II., (El- (or A1-, ai) Muyyed- Billah, el moo'e-yed biKlah,) sometimes corrupted into Issam or Issem by the Spanish historians, was born in 965, and succeeded his father, Hakem II., on the throne of Cordova, in 976 A.D. In his minority the kingdom enjoyed prosperity under the ministry of the famous Al- Mansoor, who gained victories over the Kings of Leon and Navarre. After the death of Al-Mansoor the reign was disturbed by rebellions and anarchy, and the feeble king became a prisoner of Soleiman, and died, or was killed, about 1012. See Al-Makkari, " History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain." Hesham (or Hisham) III., (El-Mo'tad-BiPlah, or Al-Mutadd- (SI moo'tSd) Billah,) became King of Cordova in 1026, and was the last of the Omeyyah dynasty. Several nobles having refused allegiance to him, he attempted, without success, to subdue them by arms. In 1031 a sedition in the capital forced him to abdicate. Died in 1036, Heshusius, hgs-hoo'ze-us, (Tillemannus,) a Ger- man Lutheran divine, born at Wesel in 1526, was an opponent of Calvinism. Died in 1588. Hesiod, hee'she-od, [Gr. 'Had, and other Poems," (1845,) the "Heroines of History," (in prose, 1856.) See Griswold, "Female Poets of America." Hew'spn, (William,) an English surgeon, born at Hexham in 1739. In 1759 he attended the lectures of John and William Hunter in London, with whom he was afterwards associated as a lecturer on anatomy. In 1771 he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society, which awarded him the Copley medal for his researches in the lymphatic system of birds and fishes. In 1772 he pub- lished " Experimental Inquiries into the Properties of the Blood." He was an eminent anatomist, and made valuable discoveries in the nature of blood. Died in 1774. Hexham, (Richard of.) See Richard of Hexham. Hey, ha, (John,) a learned divine of the Anglican Church, born in England in 1734. From 1780 to 1795 he was first Norrisian professor of divinity at Cambridge. He wrote an " Essay on Redemption," (a prize poein,) " Lectures on Divinity," and other esteemed works. Died in 1815. Hey, (William,) F.R.S., an English surgeon of Leeds, born in 1736; died in 1819. See his I,ife, by John Pkarson. Heyden, van der, vtn der hl'den, or Heyde, hiMeh, an eminent Dutch painter, born at Gorcum about 1637. He exercised his talents with great success on architec- tural subjects and landscaj^es. He excelled in chiaro- scuro. His pictures of cities, temples, palaces, and ruins are admired for their general effect, mellow tints, and exquisite finish. The figures in some of his works are painted by A. van der Velde. Died at Amsterdam in 17 12. See J. C. Weverman, "De Schilderkonst der Nederlanders ;" Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Heyden, von, fon hlMen, Count, born in 1772, en- tered the Russian service, and became a rear-admiral in 181 7. He commanded the Russian fleet at the battle of Navarino, in 1827. Died in 1850. Heyden, von, fon hi'den, (Friedrich August,) a German poet, born near Heilsberg, in East Prussia, in 1789. He was one of the governors of the prince-royal of Prussia, and in 1826 became royal councillor at Breslau. Among his chief works are " Conradin," and other suc- cessful dramas; "Reginald," a poem, (1831,) which is admired; and "The Shepherd of Ispahan," ("Der Schafer von Ispahan," 1850,) an excellent romantic poem. Died in 1851. See T. MuNDT, "Das Leben Heydens," 1852. Heydenreich, hl'den-rlK^, (Karl Heinrich,) an in- genious philosophic writer, born at Stolpen, in Saxony, in 1764, was a disciple of Kant. He became professor of philosophy at Leipsic in 1789. He wrote verses on " Solitude," and other short poems, of some merit, which were published in 2 vols., 1792. Among his prose works are "Letters on Atheisna," (1796,) "Psychological De- velopment of Superstition," (1797,) and "Philosophy considered with Respect to the Sufferings of Humanity," (2 vols., 1798.) Died in 1801. See ScHELLE, " Characteristik C. H. Heydenreich's," 1802; WoHLFAHRT, "Die letzten Lebensjahre C. H. Heidenreich's," 1802 ; EiCHHORN, " Geschichte der Literatur," vol. iv. Heydt, von der, fon d^R hit, (August,) a Prussian statesman, born in Elberfeld in 1801. He was appointed minister of commerce, industry, and public works in December, 1848. Heyking.von, fon hT'king,(HEiNRiCH Karl,) Baron, born in Koorland (Courland) in 1751, was appointed a senator by Paul I. of Russia. Died in 1809. Heylin, ha'lln, (Peter,) an English writer, born at Burford in 1600. In 1621 he wrote his " Microcosmos." In 1629 he became chaplain to Charles I., and obtained several benefices, from which in the civil war he was ejected as a partisan of Laud and the High Church. He wrote a " Life of Bishop Laud," a " Defence of the Church of England," (1658,) and other theological works. Died in 1662. See George Vernon, "Life of P. Heylin," 1681 ; Dr. Barnard, "Life of P. Heylin," 1682. Heym. See Heim. Heyn, (Pieter.) See Hein. Heyne, hl'neh, [Lat. Hey^'nius,] (Christian Gott- LOB,) an illustrious German scholar and critic, was born at Chemnitz, in Saxony, in 1729. Owing to the poverty of his family, he enjoyed few advantages of education ; but, having by nature an irrepressible desire for know- ledge, he improved to the utmost the opportunities which he possessed, so that in 1763 he succeeded Gesner as professor of eloquence at Gottingen. He was soon after made chief librarian of the university. His lectures, illustrating the history and mythology of the ancients in the most attractive manner, gained him a high reputa- tion, which was increased by his numerous and excellent writings. Among the most important of these are editions of Tibullus, (1755,) Virgil, Epictetus, (1756,) Pindar, etc., with commentaries, and "Opuscula Academica," (6 vols., 1 785-1812.) Died at Gottingen in July, 1812. " Nothing,** says Sir William Hamilton, " has contrib- uted so decisively to maintain and promote the study of classical literature, as the combination which Heyne has effected of philosophy with erudition, both in his commentaries on the ancient authors and in those w^orks in which he has illustrated various points of antiquity," (" Encyclopaedia Britannica.") See Heeken, "C. G. Heyne, biographisch dargestellt," 1812; Dacier, " iSloge de Heyne;" Van Assen, " Hulde aan C. G. Hevne," Amsterdam, 1816; Becher, " Programma ad Memoriam C. G. Heynii," 1812; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" "Edin- burgh Review" for July, 1803. Heyne, (Christian Lebrecht,) a German littera- teur, whose pseudonym was Anton Wall, was born near Meissen in 1751 ; died in 1821. Heynius. See Heyne, (Christian Gottlob.) a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; n&t; good; moon; HE TRICK HICKS Heyrick, ha'rlk, (Elizabeth,) an English philan- thropist, born about 1770, was originally named CoLT- MAN. She became a member of the Society of Friends, and was eminent for her active benevolence. She published in 1824 a treatise entitled "Immediate, not Gradual, Emancipation," which principle she was the first to advocate. Died in 183 1. Heyse, hi'zeh, (Johann Christian August.) a Ger- man grammarian and writer, born at Xordhausen in 1764 ; died in 1S29. Heyse, (Karl Wilhelm Ludwig.) an able German pliilologist, born at Oldenburg in 1797, was a son of the preceding. He was chosen professor at Berlin in 1829. He published, besides other works, an excellent "Dic- tionary of the German Language," (3 vols., 1S33-49.) Died in 1855. Hey^ard, ha'ward, (Thomas,) born at Saint Luke's, South Carolina, in 1746, studied in London, returned home and became a lawyer. In 1775 he was elected a member of Congress, and next year signed the Declara- tion of Independence. In 1778 he was appointed a judge. He was taken prisoner at Charleston by the British in 1780. He retired from the bench in 1798. Died in 1809. See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- pendence." Heywood, ha'wood, (Eliza,) an English novelist, born in London about 1695. Her maiden name was Fowler. She resorted to authorship to gain a sub- sistence for herself and her children, and wrote several novels, which procured her a place in Pope's "Dun- ciad." She offended less against decorum in her subse- quent works, viz., "The Female Spectator," " Husband and Wife," etc. Died in 1756. Heywood, (Jasper,) an English poet and Jesuit, born in London in 1535, wrote "The Paradise of Dainty Devices," (1573.) Died in 1598. Heywood, (John,) one of the earliest English drama- tists, lived in the reign of Henry VIIL, at whose court he was received with favour as a jester. He was intimate with Sir Thomas More. He wrote numerous epigrams and indifferent plays or interludes. Died about 1565. See Campbell, " Specimens of the British Poets." Heywood, (Oliver,) an English nonconformist di- vine, born in Lancashire in 1629. His works, in 5 vols., were published in 1827. Died in 1702. See his Life, by Fawcett, 1798, and by Joseph Hunter, 1842. Heywood, (Thomas,) an English actor and dramatic author, who lived in the reigns of Elizabeth, James I., and Charles I. He produced numerous dramas, in verse and prose, which were once popular and are still ad- mired. "Hej-wood," says Charles Lamb, "is a sort of prose Shakspeare. His scenes are to the full as natural and affecting." Among his best dramas are "The Eng- lish Traveller," "A Woman Killed with Kindness," and " A Challenge for Beauty." The second of these is com- mended by Hallam. He also wrote a " General History of Women," etc. The dates of his birth and death are not known. See his Life, by J. P. Collier, 1850 ; "Retrospective Ra^new," vol. xi., 1825. Hez-e-ki'ah, [Heb. in^pTH or n*p;n ; Fr. Ezechias, k'zi'ke'is^] King of Judah, a son of Ahaz, was born about 750 B.C., and began to reign in 726. He took prompt measures to restore the true religion, which had been forsaken by his father. He broke the images or statues, and the brazen serpent of Moses, to which the people had burnt incense. He rebelled against the King of Assyria, to whom his father had paid tribute. In the fourteenth year of his reign, Sennacherib, King of As- syria, invaded Judah and besieged the capital. In this crisis the divine favour was invoked by the king and Isaiah, the latter of whom prophesied the safety of Zion and the defeat of her proud invader. (Isaiah, chap. xxxNni.) The angel of the Lord smote the Assyrians, so that 185,000 died in one night. Hezekiah died after a reign of twenty-nine years. See II. Kings, chaps, xwvi., xix., xx. Hezel. See Hetzel. Hi-a-coo'mes, an American Indian, who is said to have been the first Indian convert to Christianity in New England, became pastor of an Indian church at Martha's Vineyard in 1670. Died about 1690. Hiaerne. See Hjarne. Hib'bard, (Freehorn Garretson,) an American divine of the Methodist Episcopal Church, born at New Rochelle, New York, in 1811. He published several works on theology. Hi9'e-tas [Gr. 'iKhag or 'UerT^f] of Syracuse, an ancient Pythagorean philosopher, is noticed by Diogenes Laertius and Cicero. The latter informs us that he taught that the earth revolves on its axis, and that the heavenly bodies were stationary. Hickes, hiks, (George,) D.D., an eminent English divine and philologist, born at Newsham in 1642. He took orders in 1666, and became Dean of Worcester in 1683. For refusing to take the oath to William III. he was deprived of his deanery in 1689, and in 1694 was consecrated Bishop of Thettord by the nonjuring San- croft. He was a profound scholar, and author of many polemical and other works, among which the following are now most prized, viz., " Treasure of Ancient North- ern Languages," and "Institutes of Anglo-Saxon and Mceso-Gothic Grammar," (16S9.) "Of all the English- men of his time," says Macaulay, " he was the most versed in the old Teutonic languages." ("History of England," vol. iii. chap, xiv.) Died in 1715. See, also, " Biographia Britannica." Hick'ey, (Rev. William,) an Irish clergyman and rural economist, born in the county of Cork in 1790. He published, under the assumed name of Martin Doyle, a valuable work called " Hints to Small Farmers," and other works on farming. Hick'man, (Henry,) an English nonconformist di- vine, born in Worcestershire ; died at Leyden in 1692. Hick'ok, (Laurens Perseus,) D.D., an American divine and metaphysician, born in Danbury, Connecticut, in 1798. He graduated in 1S20 at Union College, in which he accepted (1852) the professorship of mental and moral science. His principal works are "Rational Psycholog}'," (1848,) "Empirical Psychology'," (1854,) and "Rational Cosmolog}-," (1858,) Hicks, (Elias,) a noted preacher of the Society of Friends, or Quakers, was born in Hempstead, Queen's county, Long Island, in 1748. He began to speak in public as a minister of the gospel in 1775. He was early convinced of the iniquity of slavery, and felt it to be his duty to abstain, as far as practicable, from all partici- pation in the products of slave labour, — a duty which he appears to have scrupulously observed throughout the remainder of his life. For many years he was a zealous and approved minister in the Society of which he was a member ; but early in the present century he began to promulgate religious views widely different from those held by a large majority of the Quakers. He advocated the most radical Unitarian doctrines, and asserted that Christ came as a Saviour to the Israelites only, his spe- cial mission being limited to that nation. He even went so far as to express the opinion that the Scriptures had been "the cause of fourfold more harm than good to Christendom since the apostles' days." In consequence of the expression of these and similar views, he was se- verely censured and denounced by many of those who were anxious to maintain unchanged the doctrines of the early Quakers. The result was a schism in the Society. The elders of the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting had taken a leading part in the opposition to Elias Hicks ; and it was in that Yearly Meeting (in April, 1827) that the first separation took place, whicti was followed, in 1828, by divisions in the Yearly Meetings of New York, Baltimore, Ohio, and Indiana. The two parties were respectively known as the "Orthodox" and the "Hicksites." In the Philadelphia and Ohio Yearly Meetings the two sections were nearly equal ; but those called " Hicksites" were greatly in the majority in the Yearly Meetings of New York and Baltimore, while in Indiana the "Orthodox" were numerically much superior to the other party. It is proper to observe that among those who most admired the bold and stirring eloquence of Hicks there were probably but few, comparatively speaking, wno fully endorsed his extreme views ; yet, regarding him as the representative of liberal and progressive ideas, they ■€ as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 75 HICKS 1186 HIGDEN warmly espoused his cause. On the other hand, many who strongly disapproved — and under other circum- stances would perhaps have severely condemned — his innovating doctrines, yet believing that he had been un- fairly and harshly dealt with by the " Orthodox" elders, made common cause with what they considered the persecuted party, and contributed greatly to swell the number of his adherents. It may be proper to add that the anti-orthodox division of the Society do not acknow- ledge the name of " Hicksites," alleging, not without reason, that as a large majority of their members had espoused the cause of Hicks in the interest of religious liberty, and not because they approved of his peculiar views, it is unjust to apply to them as a religious society a name which would naturally give the impression that they were, strictly speaking, his followers, and that they accepted, if not all, at least the greater part, of his re- ligions teachings. They claim, on the "contrary, to be the followers of no man ; and although they accept the doctrine of the inward light, and many other of the views of the early Friends, it is not because of the atithority of Fox, Penn, or Barclay, but simply because those views commend themselves to that divinely given or intuitive perception of right which, as they maintain, has been bestowed in a measure upon every human being. Elias Hicks died on the 27th of February, 1830, having maintained through life a blameless and exem- plary moral character. See " Elias Hicks's Journal of his Life and Labours," Philadel- phia, 1828; Janney, "History of the Society of Friends," vol. iv, chap, v., also the second part of the same volume, entitled "The Separation ;" " Life of Stephen Grellet." Hicks, (Francis,) a Greek scholar, born in Worces- tershire, England, in 1566. He produced a translation of Lucian, (1634.) Died in 1630. Hicks, (Thomas,) an American painter, born at Newtown, Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in 1823. He went to Europe in 1845, and passed several years at Rome, where he copied the works of old masters, and painted portraits. He has resided for many years in the city of New York. See TucKERMAN, " Book of the Artists," p. 465. Hicks or Hickes, (William,) was an English cap- tain in the time of Charles I., and author of the first Jest- Book in the English language, published at Oxford, (1669.) Hidalgo, (Jos6 Garcia.) See Garzia. Hidalgo y Costilla, e-Dll'go e kos-t^KyJ, (Don Miguel,) a Spanish priest, who was curate of Dolores, in Mexico. He acquired great influence among the natives, of whom he became the leader in the revolution of 1 8 10. After losing several battles, he was taken by the Spaniards and executed in 1811. Hi-emp'sal, a Numidian prince, a son of Micipsa, was murdered by Jugurtha, according to Sallust. Hien-Fung, he-§n' fung. Emperor of China, born about 1830, was a younger son of Taoo-Kooang. He ascended the throne in 1850, and appointed ministers who wished to maintain an exclusive policy towards foreigners. In the same year began a great insurrection, raised and directed by Tien-Te or Tai-Ping-Wang. The insurgents were generally victorious, and captured Nan- kin in 1853. (See Tai-Ping-Wang.) A war broke out between the Chinese and the British, who entered Pekin in triumph in i860. Died in 1861. Hiero. See Hieron. Hi-er'o-cles, [Gr. 'lepo/c/l^f,] an eminent Platonic phi- losopher, who was the head of a flourishing school in Alexandria in the fifth century. He is the author of a "Commentary on the Golden Verses of Pythagoras," which has been preserved entire, and of a "Treatise on Providence (or Foreknowledge) and Fate," of which some fragments remain. The former is written in Greek, and is admired for the beauty of the thoughts and of the style. See Andr^ Dacier, "Vie de Hierocl^s," 1706. Hierocles, the author of a work on veterinary medi- cine, addressed to Cassianus Bassus, lived in the third or' fourth century of our era. Hierocles, a grammarian, who is supposed to have lived in the sixth century, wrote, in Greek, a "Hand- Book forTravellers,"(2i;vf«:(57y/jof,) which contains descrip- tions of the towns and provinces of the Eastern empire. There was also a Stoic philosopher named Hierocles, of whom we have little information. He is supposed to have lived in the second century. Another Hierocles compiled or wrote a collection of anecdotes and ridicu- lous sayings of pedants, students, etc., with the Latin title of "Facetiae Hieroclis." Hierocles of Alabanda, a Greek rhetorician, lived about 100 B.C. He composed orations in the style which Cicero calls the "Asiatic." Hierocles of Bithynia was the principal author of the persecution of the Christians in the reign of Diocle- tian, (about 300 A.D.) He wrote two books against Christianity, entitled " Sincere Discourses to the Chris- tians," {kbyoi <^CKa\r}dtLq,) in which he maintains that the Scripture is full of contradictions. He was prefect of Bithynia and of Alexandria. Hi'e-ron or Hi'^-ro [Gr. 'lepwv] I., King of Syra- cuse, succeeded his brother Gelon in 478 B.C. The first part of his reign was tyrannical. He expelled the citi- zens of Naxos and Catana, and colonized those towns with his own subjects. He is applauded for his pa- tronage of literature and his appreciation of genius. His court was the resort of the most eminent poets and sages of his time, among whom were Pindar, ^Eschylus, Si- monides, and Epicharmus. Pindar wrote several odes on the occasion of Hieron's victories at the Olympic games, and Simonides enjoyed his friendship and bounty. Died in 467 B.C. See Xenophon, "Hieron." Hieron (or Hiero) II., King of Syracuse, was the son of Hierocles, a private citizen. Having served in the army of Pyrrhus, who left Sicily in a state of anarchy, Hieron was chosen general by the soldiers in 275 B.C., and recognised as king about 270. At the beginning of the first Punic war he took side with the Carthaginians, and was defeated by the Romans about 264 B.C. He then made peace with the victors by the payment of tribute, and was ever after a faithful ally of Rome. Under his wise rule the kingdom for many years enjoyed peace and prosperity. I)ied in 216 B.C. Archimedes lived in Syracuse in this reign, and exercised his mechanical genius in constructing machines and ships of great size. See Livv, " History of Rome," books xxi.-xxiv. ; Diodorus SicuLUS, books xxii.-xxvi. ; Droysen, " Hellenismus," vol. ii. Hi'e-ron, (Samuel,) an English Puritan, born at Epping in 1572, was rector of Modbury, and published sermons and other works on theology. Died in 161 7. Hieronyme. See Hieronymus. Hi-e-ron'y-mus, [Gr. 'Ispuvvnog; Fr. Hi^:ronyme, e'a^ro'nem',] King of Syracuse, was the grandson of Hieron II., whom he succeeded in 216 B.C., at the age of fifteen. He broke the alliance with the Romans, who had recently been defeated at Cannae, and formed a league with the Carthaginians. He was on the point of taking an active part in the war, whqn he was killed by his own subjects about a year after his accession. He left no issue ; and the Syracusans thenceforth dispensed with royalty. Hieronymus was the Latin name of Saint Jerome, one of the Fathers of the Church. Hieronymus of Cardia, [Fr. Hieronyme, e'i^ro'- n^m', (or Jerome, zha'rotn',) de Cardie, deh ktii'de',] a Greek historian, who flourished about 300 B.C. He entered the service of Eumenes, who employed him on a mission to Antipater in 320. He was afterwards an adherent of Demetrius, who appointed him Governor of Boeotia in 292 B.C. He wrote historical memoirs of the successors of Alexander the Great, — a work which is often cited by the ancients, but has not come down to us. SeeVossius, " De Historicis Grjecis ;" Sevin, "Recherches sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Jerome de Cardie." Hieronymus of Rhodes, a Greek philosopher, and disciple of Aristotle, lived about 300 B.C. Hif'fer-nan, (Paul,) born in the county of Dublin, Ireland, in 1 7 19, lived many years in London as a lite- rary hack, and wrote several mediocre dramas, etc. His habits were eccentric. Died in 1777. Hig'den, (Ranulph or Ralph,) an English monk, connected with a Benedictine monastery at Chester, a, e, T, o, u, y, lon^; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, f^t; mSt; ndt; good; moon; HIGGINS HILDESLET wrote " Polychronicon," a Latin chronicle. He died, at a great age, about 1370. Hig^'gins, (Godfrey,) an English antiquary, born in Yorkshire in 1771, wrote '* The Celtic Druids," and other works. Died in 1833. Higgins or Higins, (John,) an English writer, born about 1544, was a clergyman and school-teacher. He published the " Flosculi" of Terence, a popular school- book, and contributed to the " Mirror for Magistrates," of which he published a new edition. Higgins, (Matthew James,) an English journalist, born about 1815, wrote under the assumed name of Jacob Omnium. He contributed many articles to the London " Times," the " Pall Mall Gazette," and other journals. His writings were mostly devoted to the ex- posure of abuses in the social and military systems of England. Died in 1868. Hig''gin-spn, (Francis,) a distinguished divine, born in England in 1588. He was educated at Cambridge University, and appointed rector of a church in Leices- ter, in which position he laboured with great zeal and success until removed for nonconformity. He came to Massachusetts in 1629, and the next month was ordained with Mr. Sketon, the first minister of Salem. Died in 1630. He was the author of " New England's Planta- tion," (1630.) Higginson, (John,) born in England in 1616, ac- companied his father Francis to Massachusetts in 1629. He was minister of the church at Salem from 1660 until his death in 1708, and published sermons and other theological works. He was regarded as the most able and eloquent American author of his time. Among his works is his " Attestation to Cotton Mather's Mag- nalia." Hig'gons, (Sir Thomas,) was born in Shropshire, England, in 1624. He married the notorious Countess of Essex, (see Carr, Robert,) at whose funeral in 1656 he pronounced an oration, which was printed. He was sent as ambassador to Vienna in 1673. Died in 1691. His son, Bevil, born in 1670, wrote, besides several poems, a "Short View of English History," (1723.) He was a zealous Jacobite, and went . into exile with James IL Died in France in 1735. High'more, (Joseph,) an English portrait-painter, born in London in 1692, was a pupil of Kneller. He executed portraits of the Knights of the Bath, and was employed by George L to paint some members of the royal family. In 1742 he painted the portraits of the Prince and Princess of Wales. He wrote a treatise on Perspective. Died in 1780. Highmore, (Nathaniel,) an eminent English phy- sician, born at Fordingbridge in 1613, practised with success at Sherborne. He wrote able treatises on anat- omy. Died in 1684. Hilaire. See Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire. Hilaire. See Hilary. Hi-la'ri-on, Saint, a noted ascetic or hermit of Pales- tine, and pioneer of monastic life, was born at Tabatha, near Gaza, about 292 a.d. At an early age he went to Alexandria as a student, and was converted to Chris- tianity. Returning to Palestine, he retired from the world, passed many years in the desert, and gained a wide reputation by his austerities. Many monasteries were founded by him or by the influence of his example. Died about 372. See Saint Jerome, "Vita Hilarioni;" Baillet, "Vies des Saints." Hilarius. See Hilary. Hi-la'ri-us, surnamed Diac'onus, a native of Sar- dinia, lived about 350 a.d., and became a deacon of the church in Rome. He was an adversary of Arianism. Hil'a-ry, [Lat. Hila'rius; Fr. Hilaire, c'ISr',] a native of Sardinia, was chosen Bishop or Pope of Rome in 461 A.D., as successor to Leo I. In 449 he had officiated as legate at the Council of Ephesus, where he zealously opposed the Eutychians. The events of his pontificate were unimportant. It appears that he claimed the pre- eminence of the see of Rome. He died in 467, and was succeeded by Simplicius. Hilary or Hilarius, [Fr. Hilaire, e'lSR',] Saint, an orthodox theologian, was born at Poitiers, (Pictavi,) in Gaul, of which place he became bishop about 350 a.d. He took a prominent part in defence of Athanasius against the Arians, for which he was banished to Phrygia in 356. In 359, at the Council of Seleucia, he defended the doctrine of the Trinity, and afterwards published a violent invective against the Arian emperor Constantius, whom he denounced as Antichrist. Having returned to Italy and Gaul, he laboured zealously to purge the churches of heresy. He wrote a "Treatise on Synods," a " Commentary on Saint Matthew," and a few other works. Died in 367 a.d. See Cave, '* Scriptores Ecclesiastici ;" Tillemont, " M^moires." Hilary or Hilarius, Saint, was born about 400 A.D., probably in Gaul or Belgium. He became Bishop of Aries in 429, and was highly esteemed for piety and learning. His contest with Leo, Bishop of Rome, forms an important epoch in the history of the Gallic Church. Celidonius, a bishop, having been deposed by a council at which Hilarius presided, appealed to Leo, who rein- stated him, and, supported by an edict of the emperor Valentinian III., deprived Hilarius of his bishopric because the latter refused to own the supremacy of Rome. This was one of the first efforts made to build up the papal power. Died in 449. His "Eulogy on Honoratus" is much admired. See Bellarmin, " De Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis ;" Tillemont, "Memoires;" "Gallia Christiana." Hil'da, Saint, a grand-niece of Edwin, King of North- umbria, was converted to Christianity in her childhood, became abbess of the convent of Heorthen (afterwards Whitby) about 660, and died in 680 A.D. Hil'de-baid, [Lat. Hildebal'dus,] King of the Ostrogoths in Lombardy. After Belisarius had con- quered the Ostrogoths, they proclaimed Hildebald their king at Pavia in 540 A.D. The next year he gained a victory over the Romans, soon after which he was assas- sinated by one of his guards. See JoRNANDES, "De Regnorum Siiccessione ;" Gibbon, "His- tory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Hil'de-bert, [Lat. Hildeber'tus,] a French prelate and poet, born at Lavardin in 1057, became Archbishop of Tours in 1125. He was eminent for his piety and learning, and was one of the best writers of his time. His works are written in Latin, and consist of epistles, sermons, and poems. Died in 1134. See " Gallia Christiana ;" " Vita Hildeberti," prefixed to his Works, published by Beaugendre in 1708. Hildebertus. See Hildebert. Hildebrand. See Gregory VII. Hildebrandt, hll'deh-bRint', (Ferdinand Theo- DOR,) a German historical painter, and one of the most eminent masters of the Dusseldorf school, was born at Stettin in 1804. He studied under W. Schadow at Ber- lin, and settled at Dusseldorf. Among his works are "King Lear and Cordelia," (1826,) "Tancred and CIo- rinda," (1828,) and "Othello relating his Adventures to Desdemona," (1848.) Hildebrandt, (Georg Friedrich,) a German phy- sician and naturalist, born at Hanover in 1764, wrote, besides other works, a " Manual of Human Anatomy," (4 vols., 1789-92.) Died in 1816. Hil'de-gard' or Hildegarde, Saint, a German nun, born in 1098, became abbess of Saint Rupert's Mount, near Bingen, on the Rhine. Died in 1180. See J. C. Dahl, "Die heilige Hildegardis; historische Abhand- lung," 1832. Hildenbrand, von, fon h!lMen-bRlnt', (Valentin Johann,) a German medical writer, born in Vienna in 1763 : died in 1818. Hil'ders-ham, (Arthur,) an English Puritan divine, born in Cambridgeshire in 1563. He held the living of Ashby-de-la-Zouch from 1593 until his death. He was a grand-nephew of Cardinal Pole, and was related to the royal family. He wrote various theological works, and was esteemed a shining light among the Puritans. Died in 1631. Hil'des-ley, (Mark,) an English theologian, born in Kent in 1698. He became Bishop of Sodor and Man in 1755, and caused the Bible to be translated into the Manx language. Died in 1772. See Weedon Butler, "Memoirs of M. Hildesley," 1799. t; as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. Oi^^See Explanations, p. 23.) HILDRETH 1188 HILL Hil'di'fth, (Richard,) an American journalist and historian, was born in Deerfield, Massachusetts, June 28, 1807. He graduated at Harvard in 1826, and, while studying law, contributed numerous articles to magazines. Admitted to the bar in Boston in 1830, he abandoned the legal profession at the expiration of two years, to accept the position of associate editor of the "Boston Atlas," which soon became one of the ablest Whig jour- nals in New England. His health having failed, he spent the year 1835 in Florida, and while there wrote " Archy Moore," an anti-slavery novel. It was republished and favourably reviewed in England, and an enlarged edition, under the title of "The White Slave," was issued in the United States in 1852. In 1837 he furnished to the columns of the "Atlas" a series of articles which con- tributed powerfully towards defeating schemes then on foot for the annexation of Texas. He took a conspicuous part in the Presidential canvass which resulted in the nomination and election of General Harrison, He also gave to the public during this period his " Despotism in America," an able review of the social, political, and economical aspects of slavery in the United States, to which he added in 1854 a chapter on the " Legal Basis of Slavery." His health having again failed, he embarked in 1840 for British Guiana, and, during a residence of three years at Georgetown, the capital, wrote his " Theory of Morals," published in 1844, and "Theory of Politics, or an Inquiry into the Foundation of Governments and the Causes and Progress of Political Revolutions," issued in 1853. Mr, Hildreth is best known, however, by his " History of the United States of America," from the discovery of the continent to the close of the Sixteenth Congress in 1820, (6 vols, 8vo, 1849-52.) It was pro- jected while the author was a student at Harvard. The work has been variously criticised ; but all agree in classing it among the standard histories of our country. Died at Florence in July, 1865. See DuYCKiNCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; Cleveland, "Compendium of American Literature." Hildreth, (Samuel Prescott,) M.D., an American physician, born in Massachusetts in 1783, He settled in Ohio in 1806. His principal works are a " Pioneer History of the Ohio Valley," (1848,) and "Biographical and Historical Memoirs of the Early Settlers of Ohio," (1852.) Died at Marietta, Ohio, in 1863. Hill, (Aaron,) an English writer, born in London in 1685. About the age of sixteen he went to Constanti- nople, and by the aid of his kinsman, Lord Paget, visited several countries of the East. In 1709 he published a " History of the Ottoman Empire." Soon after he became manager of Drury Lane Theatre, and wrote "Elfrida," a tragedy, which was followed by several other dramas. The most successful of these are "Alzira" and "Zara," adapted from Voltaire. He wrote a satire on Pope, who had noticed him in the "Dunciad" in terms which some think rather complimentary. Died in 1 750. See "Biographia Britannica." Hill, (Abraham,) an English gentleman and scholar, born in 1632. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. A volume of his "Letters" was published in 1767. Died in 1721, Hill, (Ambrose Powell,) an American general, born in Culpepper county, Virginia, about 1825, graduated at West Point in 1847, lie fought against the Union at Bull Run, July, 1861, and became a major-general about June, 1862. He commanded a division at the battles of Mechanicsville and Gaines's Mill in June, and at the second battle of Bull Run, August 29, 1862. In the next month he served at Harper's Ferry and Antietam. He commanded a division at the battle of Fredericks- burg, December, 1862, and at Chancellorsville, May, 1863, For his services in the latter action he was pro- moted to the rank of lieutenant-general. He directed a corps at the battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863, and in the several battles fought by Generals Grant and Lee in 1864, at the Wilderness, Spottsylvania Court-House, Cold Harbour, etc. He was killed in a battle near Petersburg on the 2d of April, 1865. See "Southern Generals," New York, 1865; Tenney, "Military and Naval History of the Rebellion." Hill, (Daniel H.,) an American general, born in South Carolina about 1824, graduated at West Point in 1842. He commanded a division at the battles of Mechanics- ville and Malvern Hill, July i, 1862, and South Moun- tain, September, 1862. He attempted to take Newbern, North Carolina, in March, 1863, but failed, and served under General Bragg at Chickamauga the same year. He commanded at Augusta, Georgia, in February, 1865. Hill, (David Octavius,) a Scottish landscape-painter, born at Perth in 1802. He has been for many years secretary to the Royal Scottish Academy. His subjects are chiefly Scottish scenes. He produced an illustrated work entitled "The Land of Burns." Hill, (Frederick,) a brother of Sir Rowland Hill, noted for his efforts to reform prison-discipline and to prevent crime, was appointed about 1835 inspector of prisons in Scotland. He published an able work, entitled " National Education : its Present State and Prospects," and " Crime : its Amount, Causes, and Remedies," (1853,) Hill, (George,) D.D., a Scottish divine, born at Saint Andrew's in 1750. He was principal of Saint Mary's College, in his native town, and succeeded Dr. Robert- son as leader of the General Assembly. He published, besides other works, "Lectures on Divinity," which are commended by Dr. Chalmers, who said, " I am not sure if I can recommend a more complete manual of divinity." Died in 1819, See George Cook, "Life of George Hill." Hill, (George,) an American contemporary poet, born at Guilford, near New Haven. Among his prin- cipal poems are "The Ruins of Athens," and "Titania." See Griswold's "Poets and Poetry of America." Hill, (Isaac,) a journalist, born in Ashburnham, Mas- sachusetts, in 1788. He was for many years editor of the " New Hampshire Patriot," a Democratic journal, was elected a United States Senator for New Hampshire in 1830, and Governor of that State in 1836. Died in 1851. Hill, (Sir John,) an English writer and literary quack, born at Spalding in 1716. He obtained skill as a botanist, made and sold quack medicines, and edited "The In- spector," a journal which owed its success to the scandal it contained. He was refused admission to the Royal Society on account of his doubtful character, and sought revenge by writing a review of their works. His " Vege- table System," in 26 vols,, with splendid plates, sold at one hundred and sixty guineas per copy. He was knighted by the King of Sweden, to whom he had pre- sented a copy of the last-named work. Died in 1775. Garrick has defined his merits in the following epigram: " For physic and farces, his rival there scarce is; His farces are physic, his physic a farce is." See Disraeli, " Quarrels of Authors." Hill, (Joseph,) an English scholar, born near Leeds in 1625, became minister of an English church at Mid- delburg, Holland, He published an improved edition of Schrevelius's "Greek Lexicon," (1676.) Died in 1707. Hill, (Matthew Davenport,) a brother of Frederick, noticed above, born in Birmingham about 1792, became a barrister. He was one of the active members of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and laboured with zeal and success to procure amendments of the laws. He was one of the chief promoters of "juvenile reformatories." Hill, (Sir Richard,) born in 1733, a brother of Row- land, was member of Parliament for Salop, and some- times preached in the Calvinistic Methodist chapels. He wrote a few religious works. Died in 1808. Hill, (Robert,) a self-taught English linguist, born at Miswell in 1699, was a tailor by trade. He was master of several ancient languages, and wrote " Criticisms on Job," and a few other works. Died in 1777. See " Pursuit of Knowledge under DifiSculties," vol. i., 1839. Hill, (Rev. Rowland,) a popular preacher and dis- ciple of Whitefield, was born at Hawkstone, England, in 1744. He was the son of vSir Rowland Hill, and uncle of General Lord Hill. After leaving college he was ordained a deacon of the Anglican Church, but soon became a zealous and eloquent preacher among the Cal- vinistic Methodists. Addressing the people in the streets, the open air, or wherever he could gain audience, he made many converts in various parts of the kingdom. In 1783 he built Surrey Chapel, London, in which he preached about fifty winters. He was the author of " Vil- a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; hy 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/iori; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m&t; ndt; good; moon; HILL HILTON lage Dialogues," and other works. Southey, in refer- ence to a particular occasion, says, "His manner was animated and striking, sometimes dignified and impress- ive. The purport of his sermon was good, — nothing fanatical, nothing enthusiastic." Died in 1833. See J. Sherman, " Memorial of the late Rev. R. Hill, chiefly consisting of Anecdotes," etc., London, 1851 ; E. Sidney, " Life of the Rev.' Rowland Hill." 1834; William Jones, "Memoirs of the Life of Rev. Rowland Hill." Hill, (Rowland,) Viscount, an English general, born at Frees, Shropshire, in 1772, was the second son of Sir John Hill, and nephew of the Rev, Rowland Hill. He entered the army as ensign in 1790, and obtained the rank of colonel in 1800. In 1806 he was made a major- general and appointed on the staff. In 1808 he served in Portugal, under Sir Arthur Wellesley and Sir John Moore, until the battle of Corunna. Promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general in 1809, he was employed several years in the Peninsular war, and gained a high reputation in his profession. In 1814 he was raised to the peerage, as Baron of Almarez and Hawkstone. He took part in the battle of Waterloo in 181 5, and after- wards was second in command of the army of occupation in France. Lord Hill was commander-in-chief of the army from 1828 until 1842, when he resigned and was created a viscount. He died in 1842, and left the title to his nephew. Sir Rowland Hill. See E. Sidney, "Life of Viscount Hill," 1850; Napier, "His- tory of the Peninsular War." Hill, (Sir Rowland,) an Englishman, known as the author of the cheap postage system, was born at Kid- derminster in 1795. In 1837 he wrote a pamphlet on •'Post-Office Reform, its Importance and Practicability." Through his persistent efforts, a bill was passed in the session of 1839-40 to reduce the rate of postage and render it uniform. The postage has since been further reduced, and letters are now carried for one penny each to any part of the United Kingdom. The people ex- pressed their gratitude for this benefit by a present of ;^i3,ooo raised by subscription. He was appointed secretary to the postmaster-general in 1846, and sole secretary to the post-office in 1854. Hill, (S. W.,) a recent American painter, of the Pre- Raphaelite school, has particularly distinguished himself by his landscapes and fruit-pieces. Hill, (Thomas,) a mathematician and Unitarian min- ister, born at New Brunswick, New Jersey, in 181 8, graduated at Harvard in 1843. He published, besides other works, "Geometry and Faith," and contributed many articles to the "North American Review" and the "Atlantic Monthly." In 1859 he succeeded Horace Mann as president of Antioch College, Ohio. He in- vestigated the properties of curves with success. Hill, (Thomas Ford,) an English antiquary and philol- ogist, published "Ancient Erse Poems." Died in 1795. Hill, (William,) D.D., an American divine, born in Cumberland county, Virginia, in 1769. He graduated at Hampden-Sidney College in 1788. From 1800 to 1834 he was pastor of the Presbyterian church in Win- chester, where he died in 1852. Hil'lard, (Gkorge Stillman,) an eminent American writer, lawyer, and orator, born in Machias, Maine,' m 1808. While pursuing his collegiate course at Harvard, (where he graduated in 1828,) he is said to have been especially distinguished in declamation and English composition. He was afterwards for some time asso- ciated with George Bancroft in his Round Hill Seminary at Northampton, Massachusetts, and in 1833 was ad- mitted to the bar in Boston. Besides attending to an extensive professional business, he has since twice visited Europe, and has been a member of both branches of the Massachusetts legislature. He is author of a great number of orations, lectures before the Lowell Institute, and contributions to the " Christian Examiner," "North American Review," etc. In 1852 he was selected by the authorities of Boston to deliver the eulogy on the char- acter of Daniel Webster. The next year appeared his "Six Months in Italy," (in 2 vols. i2mo,) which had reached the fifth edition in 1855. " Mr. Hillard's work," says the "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1858, "is that of a scholar and a gentleman, a man of sense as well as of taste and feeling. His style is pointed and full of happy expressions and striking images." Among other literary labours, Mr. Hiliard has edited the Poetical Works of Spenser, (in 5 vols. 8vo.) He was for some time associate editor of the "Jurist," and was for several years one of the principal editors of the "Boston Courier." He contributed several important articles to the " New American Cyclopaedia," including those on Alexander and Edward Everett and Rufus Choate. Hillebrand, hiKleh-bRint^ (Joseph,) a German phi- losophical writer, born near Hildesheim in 1788. He published, among other works, " The Philosophy of the Spirit," (2 vols., 1835,) and "The German National Literature since the Beginning of the Eighteenth Cen- tury," (2 vols., 1845.) HilTel, a famous Jewish rabbi, born at Babylon about no B.C., was descended from King David. He went to Jerusalem at the age of forty, acquired a thorough knowledge of the law, and was chosen president of the Sanhedrim about 30 B.C. The origin of the Talmud or Mishna is ascribed to Hillel, who was the leader of a numerous school or party. He died at the age of one hundred and twenty years. Hillel, a noted rabbi, supposed to have lived about 300 A.D., was a descendant of the preceding. He re- formed the Jewish calendar by means of a cycle of nine- teen years. Hiller, hiKler, (Ferdinand,) a celebrated German composer, born of Jewish parents at Frankfort, October 24, 181 1. His oratorio of the "Destruction of Jerusa- lem" (1840) was received with great applause. In 1851 he was made director of the Italian Opera at Paris. See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." Hiller, (Matthaus,) a German Orientalist, born at Stuttgart in 1646, was professor of Oriental languages and theology at Tubingen. He wrote a "Latin-Hebrew Lexicon," (1685.) Died in 1725. Hiller, von, fon hiKler, (Johann,) Baron, an Aus- trian general, born at Neustadt, near Vienna, in 1754. In 1809 he obtained command of the sixth corps of the army of the archduke Charles. Although he was de- feated by Napoleon at Landshut in April, he contributed greatly to the success of the Austrians at Aspern in the next month. Died in 1819. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Hillerup, hiKleh-rup', (Frederik Christian,) a Danish poet, born at Vedelsborg in 1793, published a work called " Italica," (1829,) and " New Poems," '(" Nye Digte,") in 1854. HilPhouse, (James,) an American lawyer, born in Connecticut in 1754. He was a Senator of the United States from 1794 to 1810. Died in 1832. Hillhouse, (James A.,) an Ainerican poet, son of the preceding, born at New Haven in 1789. He removed to New York City, and married Cornelia Lawrence in 1824. His first poem, "The Judgment, a Vision," ap- peared in 1812. He also wrote the following admired dramas : " Percy's Masque," " Hadad," and " Demetria." Died in 1841. See Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America;" Duyckinck, " Cyclopzedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; Cleveland, "Com- pendium of American Literature ;" " North American Revievr" for January, 1840. Hilliard, hlKyard, (Henry W.,) a lawyer and poli- tician, born in Cumberland county. North Carolina, in 1808. He was a Whig, and represented a district of Alabama in Congress from 1845 to 1851. In 1857 he joined the Democratic party. Hilliard, hlKyard, (Nicholas,) an English painter, born at Exeter in 1547, learned the trade of a jeweller, and afterwards became eminent as a miniature-painter. He executed an admired portrait of Mary Queen of Scots, and was patronized by Queen Elizabeth and James I. Died in 1619. HiPton, (John,) an English composer and musician, was admitted to the degree of bachelor of music at Cambridge in 1626. He composed anthems, songs, catches, etc. Died about 1656. Hilton, (Walter,) an English monk of the fifteenth century, lived at Sheen, and wrote "The Ladder of Per- fection." € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) HILTON HIPPJRCHUS Hilton, (William,) a successful English historical painter, born at Lincoln in 1786. About 1800 he became a student in the Royal Academy, and in 1804 exhibited his "Hector reinspired by Apollo." In 1819 or 1820 he was elected a member of the Academy, and in 1825 succeeded Fuseli as keeper of that institution. He at- tained a high rank among the English artists of his time. Among his best works are " Nature blowing Bubbles," and "The Graces teaching Cupid to play on the Lyre." Died in 1839. See Pilkington's "Dictionary of Painters." Hi-me'ri-us, ['I//eptof,] an eminent Greek sophist of Prusa, Bithynia. He became master of a celebrated school in Athens, and afterwards secretary of the emperor Julian at Antioch about 362 a.d. He composed many orations, of which about twenty are extant. His style is rather bombastic. Among his pupils were Gregory Nazianzen and Saint Basil. He was always a pagan, but moderate or friendly to the Christians. Hi-miFco or Hi-mil'cpn, a Carthaginian navigator, the date of whose adventures is unknown. Pliny states that he sailed northward from Gades on a voyage of dis- covery about the time that Hanno explored the western coast of Africa. R. Festus Avienus quotes him as his authority for an account of the islands of the Hiberni and Albioni. Himilco or Himilcon, an able Carthaginian general, who was joined with Hannibal in the command of a large army in the war against Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse. He took Agrigentum after a long siege, during which the death of Hannibal left him sole commander, (406 B.C.) He defeated Dionysius about 405, soon after which peace was concluded. The war having been renewed in 397 B.C., Himilco raised an army of 100,000 men, with which he marched victoriously to the gates of Syra- cuse. While he was besieging this city, his army was wasted by pestilence and defeated by the Syracusans. He escaped to Carthage and killed himself. See DiODORUS Siculus, books xiii., xiv., and xx. Himilco or Himilcon was commander of the fleet of Carthage, on the coast of Sicily, in 214 B.C., while Marcellus commanded the Romans in that island. He landed an army in 213, gained some advantages, and, having failed in an attempt to relieve Syracuse, died of pestilence in 212 B.C. Himly, him'lee, (Karl Gustav,) a German physician, born at Brunswick in 1772, was professor of medicine at Gottingen. He was distinguished for his skilful treat- ment of diseases of the eyes, on which he published a valuable work. Died in 1837. Himmel, him'mel, (Friedrich Heinrich,) a Ger- man composer, born in the duchy of Brandenburg in 1765, was appointed chapel-master at Berlin about 1796. Among his best works are the operas of *' Fanchon" and "The Sylphs." Died in 1814. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Hinch'cliffe, (John,) an English divine and orator, born at Westminster in 1731. He became head-master of Westminster School in 1764, and Bishop of Peter- borough in 1769. Died in 1794. Hinckeldey, hink'kel-dl, (Karl Ludwig Fried- rich,) a Prussian administrator, born near Meiningen in 1803. He became minister or prefect of police in Berlin in 1848. He was killed in a duel in 1856. Hinckelmann, hink'kel-min', (Abraham,) a Ger- man Orientalist, born at Dobeln in 1652, published an edition of the Koran, (1694,) said to be the first ever printed in Arabic. Died in 1695. Hinck'ley, (John,) an English clergyman, born in 161 7, was rector of Drayton. Died in 1695. Hincmar, hink'mir, a learned French ])relate, born in 806 A.D., entered the Abbey of Saint-Denis in child- hood. He acquired much influence, and became a fa- vourite at the court of Charles the Bald. In 845 he was elected Archbishop of Rheims. He distinguished him- self by his firmness in defending the Church against the encroachments of the papal and royal power. He wrote, besides other works, two treatises on Predestination, in one of which he attempts to refute the famous Erigena. He is censured for his severity to Godeschalcus, who was confined in a dungeon for his heretical opinions oa the question of predestination. Died in 882 A.D. See "Gallia Christiana;" W. F. Gess, " Merkwiirdigkeiten au3 dem Leben und den Schriften Hincmar's," 1806; " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Hincks, (Rev. Edward,) distinguished for his know- ledge of Assyrian and Egyptian inscriptions, was born in Cork, Ireland, about 1791. Died about 1866. Hind, (John Russell,) an eminent English astron- omer, born at Nottingham in 1823. He obtained in 1840 a situation in the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. In 1845 he removed to another observatory in Regent's Park, London, where he has had remarkable success as an observer. He discovered, besides several comets, ten telescopic planets, namely. Iris, (1847,) Flora, (1847,) Victoria, (1850,) Irene, (1851,) Melpomene, Fortuna, Calliope, and Thalia, (all in 1852,) Euterpe, (1853,) and Urania, (1854.) He wrote several works, among which is " The Solar System : a Descriptive Treatise on the Sun, Moon, and Planets," (1852.) Hind'man, (Thomas C.,) an American general, born in Tennessee about 1 818. He lived in Arkansas before the civil war, and was a member of Congress. He com- manded the rebel forces at Prairie Grove, Arkansas, in December, 1862, and served as major-general at the battle of Chickamauga, September 19 and 20, 1863. Hinojosa y Carbajal, e-no-Ho's^ e kaR-Bi-H^K, (Alvaro de,) a Spanish poet, who lived about 1620. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Hinrichs, hin'riKs, ( Hermann Friedrich Wil- HELM,) a German philosopher, born in Oldenburg in 1794, published "The Genesis of Science," ("Genesis des Wissens," 1835,) and other works. Hin'tpn, (John Howard,) an English writer on his- tory and theology, was born probably about 1800. He became minister of a Baptist congregation in Devon- shire Square, London. He published, besides other works, " The History and Topography of the United States of North America," (2 vols., 1832.) Hiob, the German of Job, which see. Hiooen- or Hiouen-Tlisang or Youen-Thsang, yoo'Sn-tsang, a celebrated Chinese traveller and priest of Booddha, was born about 602 a.d. He travelled in Hindostan and other countries, of which he wrote de- scriptions. He translated into the Chinese many Hindoo works on the religion of Booddha. Died in 664 A.D. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Hip-par'-ehus, [ Gr. "iTVTzapxog ; Fr. Hipparque, e^ptRk',] son of Pisistratus, an Athenian, who, in part- nership with his brother Hippias, obtained the chief power in the state in 527 B.C. He was assassinated by Harmodius and Aristogiton in 514. Hippias survived; but, having rendered himself unpopular by cruelty and suspicious habits, (although it is said he was previously mild and affable,) he was expelled from Athens in 511. He afterwards passed many years at the court of the Persian king Darius, served as guide to the Persian army which invaded Greece, and was at the battle of Marathon, where, according to some writers, he was killed, 490 B.C. ■f'See Hekodotus, books ii., v., vi., and vii. ; Thirlwall, "His- tory of Greece." Hipparchus, [Gr. 'l7X7Tapxo(; ; Fr. Hipparque; It. Ipparco, ^p-paR'ko,] the founder of the science of as- tronomy, and the greatest astronomer of antiquity, was a native of Nicaea, in liithynia. He was of Greek extrac- tion, and flourished about 150 B.C. Many of his obser- vations were made at Rhodes. His writings are all lost, except a " Commentary on Aratus," which is the least important ; but the knowledge of his discoveries has been preserved by Ptolemy in his " Syntaxis." The first who made systematic observations, he was also the first who discovered that fundamental fact in astronomy, — the precession of the equinoxes. A discovery so important would have sufficed to immortalize him ; but he also greatly enriched the science of mathematics, and was the first who understood trigonometry, both plane and spherical. He invented the planisphere and the stereo- graphic projection, and gave rules for the calculation of eclipses, by means of which he determined the longitude. According to Pliny, who calls him the confidant and a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, hy 6, sapie, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; ^, e, i, o, obscure; fdr, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; HIPPARCHUS II iiuerpreter of nature, Hipparchiis, having perceived a new star that suddenly appeared in his time, was stimu- lated by it to form his Catalogue of one thousand and eiy,hty stars, which is preserved in the "Almagest" of Ptolemy. In this operation he used the astrolabe, which was probably invented by him. He originated a more complete system of geography, and the mode of de- termining the position of towns by circles drawn on the earth corresponding to those of the celestial sphere. Among his lost works were "On the Magnitudes and Distances of the Sun and Moon," "The Movement of the Moon in Latitude," and "On the Retrogradation of the Equinoctial and Solstitial Points." See Pliny, "Natural History;" Montucla, "Histoire des Mathematiques ;" Delambre, " Histoire de I'Astronomie ancieniie ;" Dr. Hoefer's article in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" J. A. Schmidt, "Dissertatio de Hipparcho," etc., 1689. Hipparchus, an Athenian comic poet, who lived probably about 300 B.C. Hipparque. See Hipparchus. Hip'pa-sus, [Gr. 'iTTTraaof,] a Pythagorean philoso- pher, born at Metapontum, held, it is said, the doctrine that fire was the origin of all things. Hippeau, e^po', (C^lestin,) a French litterateur, born at Niort in 1803, published, besides other works, a "History of Ancient and Modern Philosophy," (1833.) Hippel, von, fon hip'pel, (Theodor Gottlieb,) a German humorist and original thinker, born at Gerdauen, in Prussia, in 1741. He studied law, and became in 1780 burgomaster of Konigsberg. He claimed for women admission to civil offices and a greater social equality. Among his works are a " Treatise on Marriage," (" Ueber die Ehe," 1774,) "Designs after Nature," (1790,) an Au- tobiography, (1800,) and "The Education of Women," (1801.) His character was eccentric. Died in 1796. See Gervinus, " Geschichte der Deutschen Dichtiing," fourth edi- tion, vol. V. ; W. G. Keber, " Nachrichten uiid Benierkungen den geheimen Kriegsrath von Hippel betreffend," 1802; "Biographie T. G. von Hippel's zum Theil von ihm selbst verfasst," 1800. Hippias. See Hipparchus and Harmodius. Hip'pi-as, ['iTTTTiCf,] a Greek sophist, born at Elis, was a contemporary of Socrates. His character is ex- hibited by Plato in his dialogue called " Hippias Major." Hip'pis-ley or Hippesley, (Sir John Coxe,) an Englishman, born in Somersetshire in 1765, was returned to Parliament about 1790. He wrote a "Treatise on Prison Discipline," (1823.) Died in 1825. Hip'po or Hip'pon, ["Ittttcjv,] a Greek philosopher, who is supposed to have lived in the fifth century B.C., and to have been a native of Samos, or of Rhegium. He held that moisture, or water, is the principle of all things, and derived much of his system from Thales. See Brucker, " History of Philosophy." Hippocrate. See Hippocrates. Hip-poc'ra-tes, [Gr. 'IrrnoKpuTr/g ; Fr. Hippocrate, e'po'kKtt' ; It. Ippocrate, ^p-pok'Ra-t^,] the most emi- nent physician of antiquity, justly styled the " Father of Medicine," was born in the island of Cos in 460 B.C., and was contemporary with Socrates and Plato. He was the son of Heraclides, a descendant of Esculapius, from whom he derived his first lessons in medicine. His family, the Asclepiadae, for many generations had prac- tised the same art. The materials for writing his per- sonal history are deficient. He is said to have studied medicine at Athens under Herodicus, and to have learned philosophy of Gorgias of Leontini, after which he prac- tised and taught in Cos, also in Thessaly, and at the court of Perdiccas, King of Macedonia, etc. Soranus relates that he acquired fame by checking the ravages of the plague in Athens, and was rewarded with the freedom of that city, and with other honours. The story that he refused the invitation and magnificent offers of Ar- taxerxes, is by some discredited. His superior talents, his rare sagacity, his signal suc- cess, and his devoted humanity, inspired universal con- fidence and respect. He had a great number of pupils, from whom he exacted an oath that they would never abuse their trust by criminal practice, nor divulge pro- fessional secrets. He held that the body is composed of four primary elements, fire, air, earth, and water, whicli i^roduce the four cardinal humours, blood, phlegm, bile, and black bile. He knew but little of anatomy. 91 HIP PON AX He carried forward the reform begun by his ancestors, in substituting experiment and observation for specula- tive theories. He paid more attention than his prede- cessors to diet and changes of weather. Among the most remarkable of his discoveries is that of critical days in fevers. Of the numerous (Greek) works ascribed to him, it is probable that some were composed by other writers, as there were several noted physicians of the same name. He died at Larissa, at an age which is variously stated between eighty-five and one hundred and nine years. As an inventor he is unrivalled by any physician of ancient or modern times. Among his chief works are " Prognostics," " Epidemics," " Apho- risms," and " On Air, Water, and Locality." See Soranus, "Vita Hippocratis," in Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" Boerhaave, " De Studio Hippocratis," 1721 ; A. de Hal- LER, "Bibliotheca Medico-practica," 1776; G- Cramer, "Disser- tation sur Hippocrate," 1748; Houcluros, " Essai historique et critique sur la Vie et ies ficrils d'Hippocrate," 1840; G. Sprengel, "Apologiedes Hippocrates und seiner Grundsatze," 2 vols., 17S9- 92; C. P. Gesner, " De Divino Hippocrate," 1739; Karl F. IVIar- cus, "Dissertatio de Vita Hippocratis," 1838; A. Oettinger, " Hippocratis Vita," 1836. Hippocrates, a Syracusan, shared with his brother Epicydes the command of the army which defended Syracuse against Marcellus, 213 B.C. Died in. 212 B.C. Hippocrates of Chios, a noted Greek geometer, who lived in the fifth century before Christ. He studied at Athens, where he opened a celebrated school. He first discovered the quadrature of the lune. Hip-po-da-mi'a [Gr. 'l7r7ro(5a//em] or Hip-pod'a-me, a daughter of QEnomaus, which see. Hip-pod'a-mus ['l7r7r6(5a//of] of Miletus, an emi- nent Greek architect, lived about 440 B.C. He built the Piraeus of Athens, under the order of Pericles, and planned the city of Rhodes, about 408 B.C. Hippolyte. See Hippolytus. Hip-poPy-te, [l-mroTivrr],'] the Queen of the Amazons, was called a daughter of Mars. The poets feigned that she had a girdle coveted by Eurystheus, who ordered Hercules to bring it to him. She was killed by Hercules. Hip-poPy-tus, [Fr. Hippolyte, e'po'l^t'; It. Ippo- LiTO, ^p-poKe-to, ] Saint, a Christian martyr and ecclesiastical writer, who has recently attracted great attention on the part of scholars and theologians. He was Bishop of Portus Romanus, the harbour of Rome, and the author of numerous learned works, highly ex- tolled by Eusebius, Jerome, and other Christian Fathers. After occupying tTie see of Portus Romanus eighteen years or more, he suffered martyrdom about 238 A.D. In 1842 M. Minas found at Mount Athos a Greek manuscript on " Heresies," which, at first ascribed to Origen, was proved by Bunsen to be the lost work of Hippolytus, entitled a " Refutation of all the Heresies." This is a work of great interest and importance as a monument of the social state, intellectual improvement, and doctrinal belief of the Christians of the third cen- tury. Bunsen published in 1852, in English, "Hippoly- tus and his Age ; or, The Doctrine and Practice of the Church of Rome under Commodus and A. Severus, and Ancient and Modern Christianity Compared," (in 4 vols.) See Eusebius, " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Saint Jerome, "De Viribusillustribus;" Baronius, "Annales;" Cave, "Historia Lite- raria;" C. Wordsworth, "Saint Hippolytus and the Church of Rome," etc., 1S53; Dollinger, " Hippolytus und Kallistus," 1853; "Edinburgh Review" lor January, 1853. Hippolytus, ['iTTTTo/luTOf,] a son of Theseus and Hip- polyte, or Antiope. The poets relate that his step- mother Phsedra made to him amorous overtures which he rejected, that she then by calumny induced Theseus to curse him, and that, at the request of Theses, Nep- tune caused the horses of Hippolytus to become unruly, and to drag him until he was dead. Hip-pom'e-don, ['iTrTro/zedwv,] a Spartan warrior, was a son of Agesilaus, and a cousin of King Agis IV. He supported Agis in his efforts to reform the Spartan institutions. He was living in 220 B.C. Hip-po'na, the name of a goddess who presided over horses. Her statues were placed in stables. Hip'po-nax, ['iTnruva^,] a Greek poet, who lived about 540 B.C., was a native of Ephesus. Having been expelled from that city by its tyrants, he removed to Clazomene. He wrote satires, of which only a few frag- € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, yl, guttttral ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) HIRAM 92 HJ^RNE ments now remain. He was the first who employed the modification of the Iambic metre termed Choliambic. Hrram, King of Tyre, began to reign about 1025 B.C. He was" contemporary with David and Solomon, with whom he formed an alliance and always maintained friendly relations. He was a wise and successful ruler. See I. Kings v., and I. Chronicles xiv. Hiranyakasipu. See Narasingha. Hire, de la. See La Hire. Hirnheim, h^Rn'hlm, or Hernhayni, hlRn'him, (Hieronymus,) a German monk and writer, born at Troppau in 1635; died in 1679. Hirsch, h^Rsh, (Johann Christoph,) a German economist and numismatist, born in 1698; died in 1780. Hirscher, hdeRsh'er, (Johann Baptist,) a Swiss Catholic theologian, born near Altorf in 1788. His prin- cipal work is "Christian Morality," (" Christliche Mo- ral," 3 vols., 5th edition, 1851.) Hirsching, heeRsh'ing, (Friedrich Karl Gottlob,) a German antiquary, born at Uffenheim in 1762, became professor of philosophy at Erlangen in 1792. He pub- lished several useful works, among which are a "De- scription of the Best Libraries of Germany," (4 vols., 1790,) and a "Historical and Literary Manual of Emi- nent Persons who died in the Eighteenth Century," (" Historisch-literarisches Handbuch beriihmter Perso- nen," etc., 1 794-1815, 17 vols.) The last 12 volumes of this were edited by J. H. M. Ernesti. Died in 1800. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Hirschvogel, hecRsh'fo'gel, (Augustin,) a German painter and engraver, born at Nuremberg in 1506; died in 1560. Hirst, (Henry B.,) an American poet, born in Phila- delphia in 1813. He studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1843. ^^'^ ^''^^ poems appeared in "Graham's Magazine," and were favourably received. He after- wards published "The Coming of the Mammoth, the Funeral of Time, and other Poems," (1845,) and " Endy- mion, a Tale of Greece, in four cantos," (1848.) Hirt, heeRt, (Aloys,) a German antiquary and critic, born in Baden in 1759. He published "Architecture according to the Principles of the Ancients," (1809,) and other works. Died in 1836. Hirt orHirth, (Johann Friedrich,) a German Orien- talist and writer, born at Apolda in 17 19, was professor of theology at Jena. Died in 1784. Hirtius.hir's he-US, (AuLUS,) a Roman consul and gen- eral, was a patrician by birth. Cicero, who was his inti- mate friend, speaks highly of his talents. He served under Caesar in the Gallic war, and supported his party in the civil war. After the death of Caesar, Hirtius joined Brutus against Antony, and was elected consul with C. Vibius Pansa. In 43 B.C. these consuls gained a victory over Antony at Mutina, (Modena ;) but Hirtius was killed in the action. He is supposed to be the author of the continuation of " Caesar's Commentaries" which forms the eighth book of the " Gallic War," and also of two other treatises on the campaigns of Caesar, viz., the Alexandrian and the African. See Cicero, " Philippics;" Dion Cassius, books xliv., xlv., xlvi. ; Vossius, "De Historicis Latinis ;" Niebuhr, "Lectures on Roman History." Hirzel, hdgRt'sel, (Bernhard,) a Swiss Orientalist, born at Zurich in 1807, translated the "Sakuntala" of Kalidasa from the Sanscrit into German. Died in 1847. Hirzel, (Hans Caspar,) a Swiss physician and sen- ator, born at Zurich in 1725, wrote a "Treatise on Rural Economy," and " The Rustic Socrates," (1761-74.) Died in 1803. Hisely, h^z'le', (Jean Joseph,) a Swiss historian, born in 1800, wrote, in French, " Researches on William Tell," (1843,) ^i"**^ other works on Swiss history. Hisham. See Hesham. Hisinger, hee'sing-er, or Hising, hee'sing, (Wil- Helm,) a Swedish mineralogist, born in 1766, published, besides other works, " Lethea Suecica, seu petrificata Suecia?," (1837-40.) Died in 1852. Hi.sticeus, his-te-ee'us, [Gr. 'laTLoLog ; Fr. Histi^e, ^s'te'i',] an able and crafty ruler of Miletus, to whom Darius intrusted the duty of guarding a bridge over the Danube during his invasion of Scythia, about 512 B.C. He refosed to desert Darius at the instigation cf Mil- tiades ; but he afterwards revolted, and was put to death by the Persians about 494 B.C. Histiee. See Histi^us. Hita, de, di ee'ta, (Gines Perez,) a Spanish chroni- cler, born in Murcia, lived between 1550 and 1600. He wrote an interesting work, entitled "The Civil Wars of Granada." See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature." Hitch'cock, (Edward,) an eminent American geol- ogist, born at Deer field, Massachusetts, May 24, 1793. He became pastor of the Congregational church in Con- way, Massachusetts, in 1821, and professor of chemistry and natural history in Amherst College in 1825. In 1840 he published his "Elementary Geology," a valuable work, which passed through twenty-five or more edi- tions. From 1845 to 1854 he was president of Amherst College, the prosperity of which increased greatly under his direction. He became about 1845 pi'ofessor of natu- ral theology and geology in that institution. Having been appointed State geologist for Massachusetts, he made a geological survey of that State, and wrote "Reports on the Geology of Massachusetts," (1833-41.) Among his numerous works are "The Geology of the Connecticut Valley," (1823,) "The Religion of Geology and its Connected Sciences," (1851,) and "Illustrations of Surface-Geology," (1857.) By his exposition of the fossil footprints of the Connecticut valley he originated a new branch of science, called Ichnology. He published in 1848 "Fossil Footprints in the United States." He was the chief founder and first president of the American Geological Association. Died in 1864. See " Silliinan's Journal," vol. xli. ; " North British Review" for February, i860. Hitchcock, (Ethan Allen,) an American writer and military officer, a grandson of Ethan Allen, was born in Vergennes, Vermont, in 1798. He graduated at West Point in 1817, and served in the Seminole war in Florida. In the war with Mexico he was attached to the staff of General Scott, and in 1847 promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. He was subsequently sent to Cali- fornia, as commandant of the Pacific division, but he returned in 1854, and the next year resigned his com- mission. He wrote "Swedenborg a Hermetic Philo- sopher," (1858.) Died in 1870. Hitchcock, (Peter,) an American jurist, born in Cheshire, Connecticut, in 1780, graduated at Yale in 1801. He represented a district of Ohio in Congress from 18 1 7 to 1 819, and was subsequently judge of the supreme court of the State for twenty-eight years, for six years of which period he was chief justice. Died in 1853. Hittorf, hit'toRf or^e'toRf', (Jacques Ignace,) an emi- nent architect and antiquary, born at Cologne in 1793, was a pupil of Belanger. He was appointed architect to the King of France in 1818, after which he visited Italy. He commenced about 1834 the church of Saint Vincent de Paul, (in the Italian style,) and designed the remark- able works of the Place de Concorde. Among his capital works are the Grand Circus, (1840,) the Panorama, the roof of which is supported by twelve iron cables, and the Cirque-Napoleon, (1851.) M. Hittorf acquired a European reputation by these structures, and by his writings on classical art, namely, " Polychromic Archi- tecture of the Greeks," (1830,) "Modern Architecture of Sicily," (1837,) and "Ancient Architecture of Sicily." He was a member of the Institute. Died in 1867. See " Nouveile Biographie Generale." Hitzig, hit'sio, (Ferdinand,) a German biblical critic, born in Baden in 1807. He became professor of theology at Zurich in 1833. ^^is principal works are a "Transla- tion and Exposition of Isaiah," (1833,) and commentaries on the other greater prophets, (1841-50.) Hjserne or Hicerne, he-CR'neh, (Urban,) a Swedish ])hysician and naturalist, born in 1641, became first phy- sician to the king Carl XL, and vice-president of the Council of Mines. He wrote, besides other works, "Acta etTentaniinachimica," (" Chemical Experiments," 1712,) and " Oryctographia Suecana," (1716.) Died in 1724. See " Biographiskt- Lexicon bfver namnkunnige Svenska Man." a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, sho7-t; a, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; mSt; ndt; good: moon; HJELM 1 193 HOBBES Hjelm, he-§lm', (Peter Jacob,) a Swedish mineralo- gist, born at Wexio in 1746, was president of the Acad- emy of Sciences. Died in 18 13. Hjort, he-oRt' or hyoRt, (Peder,) a Danish gram- marian, born near Copenhagen in 1793. After an ex- tensive tour in France and Italy, he became professor of German at Soroe. He wrote several successful works on grammar, among which are "Tydsk Grammatik for Dansktalende," ("German Grammar for the Use of Danes," 5th edition, 185 1,) "Tydsk Lasebog for Dansk- talende," ("German Reader for the Use of Danes," 3d edition, 1843,) and "Den Danske Borneven," ("The Danish Child's Friend," 6th edition, 1852.) Hlin, hleen, Hlina, hlee'na, or Lyna, lee'na, [sup- posed to be derived from hlyna, to " warm" or " become warm,"] in the Northern mythology, a goddess, whose office it is to watch over those whom Frigga wishes to guard from peril. As Frigga represents the earth's fertilit}', so Hlin typifies the mild warmth which protects the tender plants from the breath of the Frost-giants. Hlodyn, hloMin, [in all probability the same as Hlu- DANA, the Latin name of a deity of the ancient Germans,] in the Norse mythology, the mother of Thor, and prob- ably another name for Fiorgyn or Fiorgvin, (also called the mother of Thor,) the goddess of the earth. Thorpe derives it from hla^a, (allied to the English "lade" and " load,") to " heap up," to " load." Fiorgynn (as a mas- culine noun) was said to be the father of Frigga. See Thorpe's "Northern Mythology," vol. i. pp. 21 and 170. Hlubek, hloo'bfik, (Franz Xaver Wilhelm,) a Ger- man writer on rural economy, born in Silesia in 1802. His principal works are " The Nutrition of Plants and Statics of Agriculture," (1841,) and a "Complete Treatise on Rural Economy," (2 vols., 1846.) HoadTey or Hoadly, (Benjamin,) an English divine, born at Westerham in 1676, took orders about 1700. His zeal for religious liberty and opposition to the High- Church principles caused his promotion in 171 5 to the see of Bangor. In 1717 he preached a sermon before the king, from which arose the great Bangorian controversy. This was maintained by Snape, Law, and other partisans of the High Church on one hand, and Hoadley on the other. He was made Bishop of Hereford in 1721, and of Win- chester in 1734. He wrote a "Life of Dr. Samuel Clarke," and a few other works. Died in 1761. See " Biographia Britannica." Hoadley, (Be.njamin,) M.D., eldest son of the pre- ceding, was born in London in 1705, and graduated in 1729. In 1742 he was appointed physician to the king's household, and in 1746 to that of the Prince of Wales. He wrote "The Susi)icious Husband," a comedy, which was successful, and assisted Hogarth in the "Analysis of Beauty." Died in 1757. Hoadley, (Rev. John,) LL.D., brother of the pre- ceding, was born in 171 1. He took orders in 1735, and obtained the livings of Wrington, Alresford, etc. He wrote several short poems and dramas. Died in I776._ Hoar, (Ebenkzer Rockwood,) an able lawyer, the son of Samuel Hoar, noticed below, was born at Con- cord, Massachusetts, in 1816. His mother was a daugh- ter of the celebrated Roger Sherman. He graduated at Harvard in 1835, studied law, was admitted to the bar about 1840, and practised in Boston. In 1859 he was appointed a justice of the supreme court of Massa- chusetts, and attorney-general of the United States in March, 1869. Hoar, (Samuel,) a lawyer, born at Lincoln, Massa- chusetts, in 1778, was the father of the preceding. He was sent by the Governor of Massachusetts to South Carolina in 1844, to protect the rights of certain free negro sailors who had been imprisoned in Charleston ; but he was driven from that city by a mob before he could perform his mission. Died in 1856. Hoare, (Prince,) an English artist and dramatist, born at Bath in 1754, was the son of William Hoare, noticed below. He studied painting at Rome, and in 1799 was chosen foreign secretary of the Royal Acad- emy. He is chiefly known as the author of dramas, as "No Song, No Supper," "Lock and Key," etc. Died in 1834. Hoare, (Sir Richard Colt,) a noted English anti- quary, born in 1758, married in 1783 the daughter of Lord Lyttleton, and inherited the title of baronet in 1787. He gained distinction as a topographer and antiquarian by his " Ancient and Modern History of Wiltshire," and wrote several other works. Died in 1838, Hoare, (William,) R.A., an English historical and portrait painter, born at Bath about 1706. He was one of the original members of the Royal Academy, After studying many years at Rome, he returned to Bath, and worked with great success, especially in portraits. Died in 1792, Ho'bart, (Sir Henry,) was lord chief justice of the court of common pleas in the reign of James I. " Ho- bart's Reports" (1641) have been often reprinted. Ho'bart, (John Henry,) D.D., born in Philadelphia in i775,"was ordained in 1798. He was successively pastor at New Brunswick, Hempstead, and Trinity Church, New York, and was chosen Bishop of New York in 1816, He published numerous theological works. Died in 1830, See DuYCKiNCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. Hobbema or Hobbima, hob'be-mi, (Minderhout ; Ger. Meindert; Fr. Minard,) an excellent Flemish landscape-painter, was born probably at Coevorden about 1610. Little is known of his personal history. His favourite subjects were simple rural and sylvan scenes diversified by a winding stream, a ruined tower, or a dis- tant village. He excelled in perspective and colouring. His works are rare, and command very high prices. About fifteen thousand dollars has been offered for one. See Pilkington's "Dictionary of Painters." Hobbes, h6bz, (Thomas,) a famous English philos- opher, born at Malmesbury in 1588. As tutor in the family of the Earl of Devonshire, he travelled several times on the continent with his pupils, and became ac- quainted with Gassendi, Descartes, etc. In 1628 he pub- lished a Latin translation of Thucydides, and in 1642 a treatise on government, — "Elementa Philosophica de Cive." He was a royalist in the civil war, and an ad- vocate of unconditional obedience to the king. In 1647 he was mathematical tutor to the Prince of Wales, (Charles II.,) then in Paris, His treatise on "Human Nature" (1650) was followed by the " Leviathan," (a complete system of his philosophy, including his politi- cal, moral, and theological views,) which made a great sensation, and gave offence to theologians, and — though it was hostile to liberal principles — even to the royalists. In 1666 this work and his "De Cive" were censured by Parliament, Soon after the restoration, he received a pension of one hundred pounds. His paradoxical opin- ions were warmly controverted by Cudworth, Clarendon, and others. In 1675 he published a translation in verse of the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey," which drew from Pope the assertion that "his poetry is too mean for criticism." In his old age, which was passed at the seat of his patron, the Earl of Devonshire, he published a "History of the Civil War from 1640 to 1660," and other works, " A permanent foundation of his fame," says Mackintosh, "consists in his admirable style, which seems to be the very perfection of didactic language. Short, clear, precise, pithy, his language never has more than one meaning, which never requires a second thought to find, . . . His little tract on 'Human Na- ture' has scarcely an ambiguous or a needless word. . . . Perhaps no writer of any age or nation, on subjects so abstruse, has manifested an equal power of engraving his thoughts on the mind of his readers, . . . His style so stimulates attention that it never tires, and, to those who are acquainted with the subject, appears to have as much spirit as can be safely blended with reason," In another place he says, " Hobbes having thus struck affections out of his map of human nature, and having totally misunder- stood (as will appear in a succeeding part of this disserta- tion) the nature even of the appetites, it is no wonder that we should find in it not a trace of the moral sentiments," "Hobbes," says Macaulay, "had, in language more pre- cise and luminous than has ever been employed by any other metaphysical writer, maintained that the will of the prince was the standard of right and wrong, . . . Thousands eagerly welcomed a theory which, while it € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; sas z; th as in this. (S^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) HOB HOUSE 1 194 HODT exalted the kingly office, relaxed the obligations of mo- rality, and degraded religion into a mere affair of state." ("History of England," vol. i. chap, ii.) " Hobbes's politics," says Hume, in his " History of England," *' are fitted only to promote tyranny, and his ethics to encourage licentiousness. Though an enemy to religion, he partakes nothing of the spirit of skepticism, but is as positive and dogmatical as if human reason could attain a thorough conviction in these subjects." He lived, however, in formal communion with the An- glican Church. Died in 1679. See "Vita Thomae Hobbes," in Latin verse, by himself, 1679; " Life of Hobbes," by Richard Blackburne, 1681 ; " Biographia Britannica ;" Life prefixed to Wood's" Annals;" Brucker, "His- tory of Philosophy;" Mackintosh, "View of the Progress of Ethi- cal Philosophy;" Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." Hob'house, (Sir Benjamin,) M.P., an English states- man, born in 1757, was a prominent member of the House of Commons from 1797 to 1818, held several civil offices, and was attached to the party of Fox. Ke wrote a Treatise on Heresy," and " Remarks on France and Italy." Died in 1831. Hobhouse, (John Cam,) L-B,) are said to have lived for several generations. Seven different cities are said to have disputed for the lionour of having given birth to Homer, as expressed in the following couplet by Antipater of Sidon : 'En-Ta TToAei? \La.pvavTO (To^y\v 6ia pi^ov 'OiuLijpov, Sjuvp^a, Xi'o?, KoAo^ajv, Ida/o/, UvAo?, 'Apyo?, 'A^^vat. Literally, " Seven cities (or states) contended for the wise race of Homer, \,i.e. the race or origin of the wise Homer,] Smyrna, Chios, Colophon, Ithaca, Pylos, Argos, and Athens." Some writers substi- tute Salamis for Itiiaca. + " Homer has surpassed all [other writers] in diction (or expres- sion) and in thought." § " In every kind of eloquence he undoubtedly has left all [others far behind him." a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; \ 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; nflt; good; moon; HOMER 1 203 HONDEKOETER together as they happened to fit, so as to form a continu- ous whole. The inconclusiveness, not to say absurdity, of such a train of reasoning must, we think, be obvious to every unbiassed mind. We meet, even now, with persons who by two or three perusals can commit to memory the whole of such a poem as the " Lady of the Lake." " Who can determine," says Miiller, *' how many thousand verses one thoroughly filled with his sub- ject . . . might produce in a year and confide to the faithful memory of disciples devoted to their master and his art .?" When we take into consideration the fact that the mental activity of the ancients, instead of being divided and diluted among an endless variety of studies or pursuits, was concentrated and constantly exercised on a comparatively few, the retaining of even two such works as the " Iliad" and " Odyssey" will not, perhaps, seem more incredible than many feats of memory which are known to have been performed in modern times. Nor must it be forgotten that the poetry of Homer, unlike that of many of our great modern poets, is, generally speaking, remarkable for the simplicity and directness of its language ; and these qualities, added to the marvellous facility and animation of the narrative, render the verse extremely easy to be learned and retained in memory. The consummate art with which the various parts of the " Iliad" (though sometimes seemingly disconnected) are arranged and adapted so as to delay the denouement and yet to heighten the interest till near the very end, proves the poem to have been, beyond all reasonable doubt, the work of one master-mind. But this master- mind may very probably have used materials prepared for him by preceding poets, just as the consummate architect, when erecting an edifice designed to be the admiration of all coming time, may avail himself of the materials, and, for subordinate parts of the building, even of the designs, furnished by inferior workmen. There seem, indeed, to be strong reasons for believing that before the time of Homer there existed many poems treating of the events of the Trojan war, and that he, in selecting and combining the facts necessary to the plot of his great work, occasionally adopted some of the finest lines of his predecessors, at the same time changing or adapting others to suit his purpose, so as to give the whole poem the impress of his matchless skill and tran- scendent genius. This supposition will perhaps best explain the introduction into the poem of such a great variety of words or phrases differing in different parts of the work, as well as the marked diversity of dialects. It is well known that Shakspeare used freely, in some of his historic dramas, not only the ideas, but, in repeated instances, the very lines, of some of the poets that had gone before him. At other times he appears to have adopted some of the leading ideas, and perhaps many of the expressions, of previous dramatists, and yet to have so cast them into the mould of his own mind, and so coloured them with the hues of his wonderful imagina- tion, that he may be said to have surpassed the fabled achievements of the alchemists, and transmuted his crude materials into something far more precious than gold. But, while we claim it as a point established, that the " Iliad" is virtually and essentially the production of a single poet, we must admit that the question is still un- decided whether the same Homer was also the author of the "Odyssey." "If," says the learned and accom- plished critic already quoted, "the completion of the ' Iliad' and ' Odyssey' seems too vast a work for one man, we may perhaps have recourse to the supposition that Homer, after having sung the ' Iliad' in the vigour of his youthful years, in his old age communicated to some devoted disciple the plan of the ' Odyssey,' which had long been working in his mind, and left it to him for comple- tion," (K. O. Miiller's " History of Greek Literature,") The prevailing belief that Homer was blind appears to have taken its origin from one of the so-called Homeric hymns addressed to the Delian Apollo, the author of which calls himself the blind poet who lived in rocky Chios, The hymn in question was considered by some of the most judicious of the ancient writers to be the production of Homer himself; but this view is not ac- cepted by the best modern critics. The wonderful accu- racy of many of the descriptions in the " Iliad" utterly precludes the idea of their having been written by a poet who had not himself been an eye-witness of the scenes which he paints so admirably. But he might, per- haps, have described in his blind old age scenes which had been indelibly stamped upon his memory in youth or early manhood. (See, on the various questions con- nected with the Homeric poems, Colonel W. Mure's "Critical History of the Literature, etc. of Ancient Greece," (1850,) and the able article on " Homerus," in Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography.") See, in addition to the works referred to in the article, Olof Celsius, "Dissertatio de Homeri Vita et Scriptis," 1714 ; Ludolph KuESTER, " Historia critica Homeri," 1696; Thomas Blackwell, "Enquiry into the Life and Writings of Homer," 1735 ; Koppen, " Ueber Homer's Leben und Gesange," 1788 ; Carl Ernst Schu- BARTH, " Ideen iiber Homer und sein Zeitalter," 1821 ; Matthias Asp, " Disputationes de Homero," 1714; J. E. Turk, "Homerus en zijn Schriften," 1810; Alphonse de Lamartine, "Homere," 1852; Fortia d'Urban, " Homere et ses ficrits," 1832; Bernard Thiersch, " Das Zeitalter des Homer," 1824; J. Paschius, "Dis- sertatio de Poetarum Principe Homero," 1687; ^douard Juste, " Dissertation sur I'Origine des Poemes attribues a Homere," 1849; "Homer and his Successors in Epic Poetry," in the "London Quar- terly Review" for January, 1857; Matthew Arnold's admirable observations "On 'translating Homer," in his "Essays," 1865. Ho'mer, (Rev. Henry,) an English scholar, born at Birdingbury in 1752, was educated at Cambridge. He edited several Latin authors, and, in partnership with Dr, Combe, published a complete edition of Horace. Died in 1791. Homere. See Homer. Homeridae, ho-mgr'e-dee, (singular, Ho-mer'i-dei,) or Ho'mer-ids, the name applied to the family of the poet Homer. (See Homer, note f.) Homerus. See Homer. Homes or Holmes, homz, (Nathaniel,) D.D., an English theologian, ejected for nonconformity in 1662, was a believer in the fifth monarchy. He wrote the " Resur- rection Revealed," and other works. Died in 1678. Ho-mil'i-us, [Ger. pron. ho-mee'le-us,] (Gottfried August,) an eminent German organist and composer of church music, born at Rosenthal, in Bohemia, in 1 714. Among his best works are a cantata for Christmas, and a number of motets. He was organist and director of music at Dresden. Died in 1785. Hommaire de Hell, /zo'miR' deh hl\, (Ignace Xavier Morand,) a French geologist, born at Altkirch in 1812, explored the regions which border on the Black and Caspian Seas, and left an account of his travels, in 3 vols. Died at Ispahan in 1848. Hommel, hom'mel, [Lat. Homme'lius,] (Karl Fer- dinand,) a learned jurist and ingenious writer, born at Leipsic in 1722. He became professor of feudal law at Leipsic in 1752, and of civil institutes in 1756. Among his works are " Literatura Juris," (1761,) a very piquant treatise on legal literature, " Rhapsodia Quaestionum in Foro quotidie obvenientum," (" Questions occurring daily in the Forum," 5 vols., 1765-79; 4th edition, 7 vols., 1787,) and "Sceleton Juris civilis," ("Skeleton of Civil Law," 4th edition, 1767.) Died in 1781. See Ernesti, "Hommelii Memoria," 1783, and RossiG, "Vita Hommelii," 1782, both of which may be found in the 7th vol. of Hommel's "Rhapsodia," 1787; "Nouvelle Biographic G^n^rale." Hommelius. See Hommel. Hompesch, von, fon hom'plsh, (Ferdinand,) the last grand master of the Knights of Malta, was born at Dusseldorf in 1744; died in 1803. Honain, (or Honein,) ho-nin', (Aboo-Yezeed or Abu- (Abou-) Yezid, ^'boo yeh-zeed',) otherwise called Honain-Ben-Ishak, (bgn i's'htk',) an Arabian physician, born at Heerah, (Hirah,) in Mesopotamia, lived mostly at Bagdad. Died about 875 a.d. He translated into Arabic the works of Hippocrates, Galen, Euclid, etc. See Ibn-Khallikan, " Biographical Dictionary ;" Haji-Khalfa, "Lexicon Bibliographicum." Hondekoeter, hon'deh-koo'ter, (Giles,) a noted Dutch landscape-painter, born at Utrecht in 1583, was the son of the Marquis of Westerloo. He often added to his landscapes highly-finished figures of birds. Hondekoeter, (Gysbrecht,) a son of the preceding, and a painter of poultry, was born in 1613 ; died in 1653. Hondekoeter, (Melchior,) an excellent painter, son of the preceding, was born at Utrecht in 1636. He studied with his father and his uncle, John B. Weenix. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, Y.,gtttticral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jJ^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) HONDIUS 1204 HOOD He painted poultry, pea-fowls, and other birds, with a skill that has never been surpassed. The backgrounds of his pictures are adorned with beautiful landscapes. Among his works is "The Entrance of the Animals into the Ark," Died in 1695. See Jakob Campo Weyekman, "De Schilderkonst der Neder- landers." Hondius, hon'de-us, or Hondt, hint, (Abraham,) a Dutch painter and engraver, born at Rotterdam in 1638. He painted hunting-scenes, animals, and landscapes with success. " He often equals the best masters," says Descamps. Among his works are "The Burning of Troy," and " The Animals entering the Ark." He worked some years in England, where he died about 1692. Hondius, (Hendrik,) an engraver of maps and por- traits, born at Ghent in 1573. His principal work is a series of portraits of one hundred and forty-four artists, mostly Flemings. He also engraved some pictures by Albert Diirer and Holbein. Died at the Hague in 1610. See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs ;" Strutt, "Dictionary of Engravers." Hondius or De Hondt, deh h6nt, (Henry,) called THE Younger, born in London in 1580, was accounted the best engraver of the family. He engraved portraits, landscapes, and history after several P'lemish painters. Among his works are portraits of Queen Elizabeth and James I. Died at Amsterdam about 1650. See Basan, "Dictionnaire des Graveurs." Hondius orDe Hondt, (JossEor Jodo'cus,) a skilful Flemish engraver and geographer, born at Wacken about 1550, was the father of the preceding. He had a high reputation as an engraver on copper. He worked in London, and afterwards settled in Amsterdam, where he engraved maps of superior quality, and published new editions of the " Grand Atlas" of Mercator. Died in 161 1. Hondt, hont, (Willem,) a Flemish engraver, a bro- ther of Henry the Younger, born at the Hague in 1601. Hone, ho'neh, (Georg Paul,) a German lawyer, born at Nuremberg in 1662, wrote " Iter Juridicum," and other works. Died in 1747. Hone, (Nathaniel,) a portrait-painter, born in Dub- lin about 1730; died in 1784. Hone, (William,) an English writer, born at Bath in 1779, resided in London, and failed several times as a bookseller. He wrote "The Political House that Jack Built," a satire, which was illustrated by Cruikshank and ran through fifty editions. He was prosecuted for his Parody on the Liturgy in i8i8, and, having ably defended himself, was acquitted. In 1826 he began to issue in weekly numbers his " Every-Day Book," which had a large sale, and was commended by Professor Wilson, Scott, Lamb, and Southey. It was followed by the " Table-Book" and the " Year-Book," which were well received, but did not save the author from insol- vency. He was in prison for debt about three years. Died in 1842. See "The Early Life and Conversion of William Hone," written by liimself. Honestis, (Petrus de.) See Damianl Honeywood, hiin'ne-wood, (Saint John,) an Amer- ican poet, born in Massachusetts in 1765 ; died in 1798. See Griswold, " Poets and Poetry of America." Honore de Sainte-Marie, o'noW deh siNt^mfre', [Lat. HoNORius DE Sancta Maria,] called, after he entered the cloister, Blaise Vauxelle, (vo-s§K,) a learned monk, born at Limoges in 1651 ; died in 1729. Ho-no'ri-us I., a native of Campania, was elected Pope or Bishop of Rome in 626 A.D. He is charged with assenting to the heresy of Monothelism. The Council of Constantinople, held in 680, condemned his doctrine on this point. Died in 638. Honorius 11., Pope, previously known as Cardinal Lamberto and Bishop of Ostia, succeeded Calixtus II. in 1 124. Tebaldus was chosen pope at the same time by a number of bishops, but forbore to contest his claim. Honorius died in 1 130. Honorius HI., elected Pope in 12 16, was a Roman by birth. His proper name was Cencio Savelll He crowned Frederick II. Emperor of Germany in 1220, in the hope that he would lead a crusade against the Turks. He was more successful in instigating the Kiijg of France to a crusade against the Albigenses. He died in 1227, and was succeeded by Gregory IX. Honorius IV., Pope, (Cardinal Giacomo Savelli,) a native of Rome, was elected in 1285 as successor to Martin IV. Died in 1287. Ho-no'ri-us, (Flavius,) a Roman emperor, the sec- ond son of Theodosius the Great, was born at Constan- tinople in 384 A.D. At the death of his father, in 395, he inherited the Western Empire, (his elder brother Arca- dius having obtained the Eastern,) under the guardian- ship of Stilicho, a famous general, whose daughter he married. His court was held at Milan, and afterwards at Ravenna, About 402 Alaric the Goth invaded Italy, and was defeated by Stilicho at Pollentia. In 408 Stili- cho was put to death by order of Honorius, who was a man of weak and vicious character. From this event may be dated the fall of the Roman power. Rome was taken and pillaged by Alaric in 410, and the empire went rapidly to ruin. He died, without issue, in 423, and was succeeded by Valentinian III. See Gibbon, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Sozomen, " Historia Ecclesiastica;" Jornandes, "De Rebus Geticis;" Tillemont, "Histoire des Empereurs." Honorius de Sancta Maria. See Honor6 de Sainte-Marie. Hontheim, von, fon hont'hlm, (Johann Nikolaus,) a German jurist and Catholic priest, bom at Treves in 1701. He became Bishop ( in partihis) of Myriophis in 1748, and suffragan of the see of Treves. He published under the pseudonym of JusTiNius Febronius a famous book against the usurpations of the popes, entitled " De Statu Ecclesiae et legitima Potestate Romani Pontificis," (5 vols., 1763,) which was often reprinted. Died in 1790. Honthorst, h6nt'horst, or Hundhorst, hunt'hoRst, (Gerard,) a Flemish painter, called also by the Italians Gerardo della Notte, ("Gerard of the Night,") be- cause he excelled in nocturnal scenes. Pie was born at Utrecht in 1592, and was a pupil of A. Bloemaert. He worked in Rame and in England, where he painted portraits of the royal family and gained a high repu- tation. Among his works is "The Prodigal Son." He w^as a good colorist, and excelled in design. Died at the Hague in 1660. His brother Willem was a suc- cessful portrait-painter. Died at Berlin in 1683, aged about eighty. See PiLKiNGTON, "Dictionary of Painters;" Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Hood, hood, (Alexander,) Viscount Bridport, an English naval officer, was a younger brother of Lord Samuel Hood, noticed below. After having gained dis- tinction in subordinate stations, he was made rear- admiral in 1780. In 1784 he was second in command under Lord Howe, in the Channel fleet. The next year he took three French ships, and in 1796 succeeded Lord Howe as commander of the fleet. In 1801 he was raised to the peerage, as Viscount Bridport. Died in 1814. Hood, (Edwin Paxton,) an English dissenting min- ister, born at Weston about 1820. He wrote numerous works, among which are " Self-Formation," and " Wil- liam Wordsworth," a biography, (1856.) Hood, hood, (John B.,) an American general, born in Bath county, Kentucky, in 1831, graduated at West Point in 1853. commanded a division of Lee's army at Antietam, September, 1862, and at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. He lost a leg at the battle of Chickamauga, September 20, 1863, soon after which he was promoted to be a lieutenant-general. In the spring of 1864 he commanded a corps of the army opposed to General Sherman in Northern Georgia. He succeeded General Johnston in July as commander-in-chief of that army, which was then near Atlanta. General Johnston was removed because he had adhered to a cautious and de- fensive policy. Hood assumed the offensive, and attacked General Sherman on the 22d of July, and again on the 28th, but was repulsed with heavy loss. He was com- pelled to abandon Atlanta on the 1st of September, 1864. (See Sherman, W. T.) After he had damaged the rail- road by which Sherman's army was supplied. General Hood invaded Middle Tennessee, attacked General Schofield at Franklin, November 30, and besieged Nash- a. e. T, 0, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, fit; mSt; n5t; good; moon; HOOD 1 205 HOOK ville. He was defeated on the i6th of December, 1864, by General Thomas, at the decisive battle of Nashville, where he lost fifty pieces of cannon, and was relieved of the command in January, 1865. See " Southern Generals," New York, 1865. Hood, (Robin,) a famous English outlaw, who is sup- posed to have lived in the reign of Richard I. Sherwood Forest was his head-quarters. His exploits are the sub- ject of many popular ballads, which applaud his gal- lantry to the ladies and his generosity in sharing among the poor the spoils of the rich. He was the chief of a numerous band, who seem to have lived chiefly on the products of the chase. See W. W. Campbell, "Historical Sketch of Robin Hood and Captain Kidd," New York, 1853; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1847 ; " North American Review" for January, 1857. Hood, (Samuel,) Viscount, an English admiral, born at Butley in 1724, entered the navy in 1740, and became captain in 1754. In 1780 he was made a rear- admiral, and was second in command in the West Indies. The next year he succeeded Rodney in command of the fleet, with which he fought De Grasse near the mouth of the Chesapeake, but failed to relieve the British army at Yorktown. He took part in the victory over De Grasse in April, 1782, and was rewarded with the title of Baron Hood of Catherington. In 1784, after a close contest with Fox, he was elected to Parliament, and in 1788 ap- pointed a lord of the admiralty. In 1793 he commanded against the French in the Mediterranean and at the siege of Toulon. He was made, in 1796, Viscount Hood of Whitley, and afterwards an admiral. Died in 1816. See Campbell, " Lives of British Admirals." Hood, (Sir Samuel,) cousin of the preceding, was a vice-admiral in the British navy, and a brave and skilful officer. He took part in the victory of Rodney over De Grasse in 1782, aiid in the battle of the Nile, (1798.) In 1806 he was returned to Parliament for Westminster, and captured three French ships near Rochefort. He was afterwards appointed to command in the East Indies, where he died in 1814. Hood, (Thomas,) a famous English humourist and popular author, born in London in 1798, was the son of a bookseller. He served an apprenticeship to an en- graver, but soon exchanged that employment for literary pursuits. In 1821 he became sub-editor of tlie " London Magazine," by which he gained access to the society of many authors who have since risen to eminence. His "Whims and Oddities" (1826) displayed an abundant vein of inimitable wit and comic power. He issued the " Comic Annual" from 1830 to 1842, which was followed by his " Comic Album," " Whimsicalities," and " Hood's Own." His tales and novels were less successful than his humorous works. Among his most popular poems are the " Song of the Shirt," (which first appeared in " Punch,") the " Bridge of Sighs," and the " Dream of Eugene Aram." He was editor of " The Gem" for one year, and, in the latter years of his life, editor of the " New Monthly Magazine." Like poor Yorick, he was "a fellow of infinite jest, of most excellent fancy." As a punster he is unrivalled. Some of his serious poems are exquisitely tender and pathetic. In 1844 he began to issue " Hood's Magazine," for which he wrote until his last illness. A pension of ;^ioo which had been granted to him was transferred to his widow. Died in 1845. See "Life of Hood," by his children, i860; E. P. Whipple, "Essays and Reviews;" R. H. Horne, "New Spirit of the Age," 1844; "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1846; "Quarterly Review" for October, 1863; "Blackwood's Magazine" for January, 1827; " London Magazine" for December, 1826 ; " British Quarterly Re- view" for October, 1867. Hooft, hoft, (NiKLAAS,) a Dutch historical painter, born at the Hague in 1664; died in 1748. Hooft or Hoofft, (Pieter Cornelis,) an excellent Dutch poet and historian, born in Amsterdam in March, 1 581. After leaving college he travelled in France and Italy, and filled several civil offices. He published about 1602 "Granida," a tragi-comedv, which is a master-piece. He wrote other dramas, and erotic poems of great merit, and translated Tacitus into Dutch. His chief prose works are a " Life of Henry IV. of France," (1626,) and a " History of the Netherlands, "(" De Nederlandsche Historien," 2 vols., 1642-54,) which is esteemed a model of grace, purity, and vigour, both in thought and style. He has the honour of rendering his vernacular language more polished and classical than it was before his time. He was a friend of Grotius. " Though deeply religious," says the "Biographic Universelle," "he never ranged himself under the banner of any outward communion." Died in 1647. See Eksch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" and Van Kampen's article on " Hollandische Sprache und Literatur," in the same work ;also," Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" Jan van Kkuvff, " Lofreden of P. C. Hooft," 1810; Jacob Koning, " Geschiedenis van het Slot te Muiden, en Hoofts Leven op het zelve," 1827 ; Van Heusde, " Commentatio literaria de Hooftio cum Tacito comparato," 1838; Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Eraser's Magazine" for March, 1854. Hooge, de, deh ho'ceh or ho'Heh, written alsoHoogh, (Pieter,) a Dutch painter of genre, born about 1644. Little is known of his history. His colour is good, his design correct, and his manner natural. He represents the effects of light with great skill. Among his works (which command high prices) are a " Supper," an " In- terior," and a "Guard-Room." Died in 1708. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Hooge or Hooghe, de, (Romeyn,) an eminent Dutch designer and engraver, was born at the Hague about 1640, or, as others say, about 1650. He worked for a long time in Paris, and passed his latter years at the Hague. He had a rich imagination and great facility, but was deficient in correctness. Among his works are " The Entrance of Louis XIV. into Dunkirk," and "The Assassination of De Witt." Died in 1725. See J. C. Weverman, "De Schilderkonst der Nederlanders." Hoogeveen, ho'geh-van' or ho'Heh-van^ sometimes written Hoogeven, (Hendrik,) a Dutch Hellenist, born at Leyden in 1 712, was successively rector of the gym- nasiums of Breda, Dort, and Delft, and was an excellent grammarian. He is the author of a valuable treatise on " Greek Particles," (" Doctrina Particularum Linguas Grascas," 2 vols., 1769,) and " Dictionarium Analogicura Linguas Graecae," (Cambridge, 1800.) Died in 1791. See Erscu und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Harless, " Vitae Philologorum." Hoogstaad, van, vtn hoo'stlt', (Gerart,) a Flemish painter of history and portraits, born at Brussels, was living in 1661. Hoogstraateii, van, vtn hoc/stRl'ten, (David,) a Dutch scholar, a nephew of the following, was born at Rotterdam in 1658, and became a classical professor at Amsterdam. He compiled a Latin-Dutch Dictionary, (1704,) and wrote several elegant Latin poems, " Poe- mata," (1710.) Died in 1724. Hoogstraaten, van, (Samuel,) a Dutch painter, born at Dort in 1627, was a pupil of Rembrandt, and the master of Houbraken. He painted portraits, land- scapes, etc. with success, and wrote a good work on the theory of painting. Died in 1678. His father, Dirck, born at Antwerp in 1596, was also a skilful landscape-painter. Died in 1640. See Pilkington's "Dictionary of Painters." Hoogvliet, hSo'vleet or hoH'vleet, (Arnold,) a popu- lar Dutch poet, born at Vlaardingen in 1687, was edu- cated for a merchant, and held the position of cashier in his native place. His reputation is founded on an epic poem, called "Abraham the Patriarch," (1727,) which was received with extraordinary and durable favour. "No book in Dutch literature," says Marron, "has been honoured with a more decided national adoption." (" Biographic Universelle.") He afterwards published a collection of poems on various subjects, which are not unworthy of his name. Died in 1763. See Jan van Kruvff, "Leven van A. Hoogvliet," 1782; WiL- lem Terpstra, "Oratio de A. Hoogvlietio Poeta," 1816. Hoogzaat, hoc'zat, (Jan,) an able Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam in 1664. He decorated the chateau of Loo for William III. of England. Died in 1712. Hook, hook, (James,) an English composer and mu- sician, born at Norwich in 1746. He was employed as organist at Vauxhall Garden, London, for many years, and composed numerous popular ballads, songs, con- certos, etc. Died in 1827. Hook, (James,) LL.D., an English writer, brother of Theodore E. Hook, was born in London about 1 771. He was educated for the church, and in 1825 was appointed € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z;' th as in this. (gl^^^See Explanations, p. 23 . ) HOOK 1 206 HOOKER Dean of Worcester. His principal works are two novels, called " Pen Owen" and " Percy Mallory." Died in 1828. Hook, (James Clarke,) an English historical painter, born about 1820. In the early part of his career he painted subjects from Italian history, among which are " Bianca Capello," and a " Dream of Venice." He after- wards produced "The Defeat of Shylock," (1851,) and other scenes from Shakspeare. He became a Royal Academician in 1859. Hook, (Theodore Edward,) born in London in 1788, was the son of James, the musical composer, noticed above. He was an excellent vocalist, an expert mimic, and a prodigy of colloquial power. In 1805 he wrote "The Soldier's Return," an operatic farce, which was very successful. He was addicted to punning, to extrava- gant dissipation, and to audacious practical jokes. His brilliant wit and marvellous faculty of improvisation rendered him an idol of the gay world, and commended him to the favour of the prince-regent, who procured his appointment in i8i2as treasurer to the colony of Mauri- tius, with a salary of about ^2000. In 1818, a large de- ficit being found in his treasure-chest, he was sent home charged with peculation. The legal inquiry, however, proved nothing against him except a culpable negligence of his official duties. In 1820 he became editor of the "John Bull" newspaper, which was very successful in a pecuniary respect and obtained great notoriety. Among his most popular works are " Sayings and Doings," (of which he issued three series,) " Maxwell," a novel, and " Gilbert Gurney," a novel, which contains an autobiog- raphy of himself. In 1836 he was editor of the "New Monthly Magazine." Died in 1841. See R. H. Bakham, " Life and Writings of Theodore Hook," 1848; "Life of T. Hook," from the " Quarterly Review," London, 1852; R. H. HoRNE, "New Spirit of the Age," 1844; "Quarterly Review" for May, 1843, (vol. Ixxii. ;) " Ncjctes Anibrosianze ;" Moir, " Poetical Literature of the Past Half-Century ;" Samuel Smiles, "Brief Biographies;" "Memories of Authors," in the "Atlantic Monthly" for April, 1865. Hook, (Walter Farquhar,) an English theologian, a nephew of the preceding, was born in London in 1798. He became vicar of Leeds in 1837, and Dean of Chichester in 1859. Among his works are " Plear the Church," (28th edition, 1838,) "Ecclesiastical Biog- raphy," (8 vols., 1845-52,) "Church Dictionary," (7th edition, 1854,) and "Lives of the Archbishops of Can- terbury," (of which the first volume was published in i860, and the seventh appeared in 1868, — not yet finished, 1869.) He is noted for his zeal and success in the cause of church extension. See " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1862. Hooke, hook, (Nathaniel,) a Roman Catholic his- torian, born about 1690, was an intimate friend of Pope the poet. His principal work is " The Roman History from the Building of Rome to the End of the Commonwealth," (4 vols. 4to, 1733-71,) which was often reprinted, and is commended as a faithful compilation. He was employed by Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough, as editor of her Memoirs, (1742.) Died in 1764. Hooke, (Robert,) M.D., an English philosopher, born at Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight, in 1635, and noted for his inventive faculty, mechanical genius, and scientific acquirements. In 1662 he was chosen curator of experiments to the Royal Society, of which he was a Fellow, and afterwards secretary. About 1666 he became professor of geometry in Gresham College, and city surveyor of London. Among his multifarious accomplishments was skill in architecture, which he exercised in drawing the plan of Bedlam and other public buildings in London. He wrote many metnoirs on various branches of natural science. He had a dispute with Hevelius on the subject of the telescope, and attacked Newton's theory of light and colours. He claimed the invention of the barometer, quadrant, balance-spring for watches, etc. Died in 1702. See " Biographia Britannica ;" Waller, "Life of R. Hooke;" Wood, "Gresham Professors." Hook'er, (Herman,) an American Episcopalian di- vine, born at Poultney, Rutland county, Vermont. He published, among other works, "The Portion of the Soul," etc., (1835,) "The Philosophy of Unbelief in Morals and Religion," and "Uses of Adversity," (1846.) Died in 1857. See Griswold, " Prose Writers of America." Hook'er, (hook'er,) otherwise called Vow'ell, (John,) M.P., an English historian, born at Exeter about 1524, was uncle of Richard Hooker, noticed below. He represented Exeter in Parliament in 1571. He compiled a large part of Holinshed's "Chronicles," (1586,) and wrote a treatise on the order and usage of Parliaments, and a few other works. Died in 1601. Hook''er, (Joseph,) an American general, born in Pladley, Massachusetts, in 1819, graduated at West Point in 1837. He served as captain in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and gained the brevet of lieutenant- colonel at Chapultepec. Having resigned his commis- sion about 1853, he lived several years in California. He was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers about May, 1861, served at the battle of Williamsburg, and in the "seven days' battles" near Richmond, June 26-July I, 1862. He became a major-general in July, and com- manded a corps at the battle of Antietam, September 17, 1862, a few days after which he was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general in the regular army. He commanded a grand division under General Burnside at Fredericksburg in December, 1862, and succeeded Burnside as commander of the army of the Potomac in January, 1863. This army, which probably amounted to 100,000 men or more, engaged the enemy at Chan- cellorsville. May 2 and 3, and was defeated, but was not pursued. During this battle he was stunned by a cannon-ball. He was relieved of the command on the 28th of June, 1863, and was sent to Tennessee with two corps in September of that year. He contributed to the victory gained by General Grant at Lookout Mountain, November 24 and 25, 1863, and commanded a corps of the army which General Sherman moved from Dalton to Atlanta, May-August, 1864. He had command of the Northern department from September, 1864, to July, 1865. Hooker, (Joseph Dalton,) F.R.S., an eminent botanist and traveller, a son of Sir William Jackson Hooker, was born in 181 7. He studied medicine, and in 1839 sailed as surgeon with the expedition of Sir James Ross to the Antarctic Ocean. On his return he published "Flora Antarctica," (2 vols., 1844-47,) the descriptions and illustrations of which are highly com- mended. Between 1848 and 1852 he explored the bo- tanical productions of the Himalayas. The results of this arduous enterprise appeared in a very interesting work called " Himalayan Journals," (2 vols., 1854,) and in his " Flora Indica." Among his other works are "The Rhododendrons of Sikkim Himalaya," (1851,) a " Flora of New Zealand," (1852-54,) and " On the Vege- tation of the Carboniferous Period." Hooker, (Richard,) an eminent English divine and author, born at Heavytree, near Exeter, in 1553. After graduating at Oxford, he took orders in 1581, and in an unguarded hour married a scolding wife. By the favour of Sandys, Bishop of London, he became Master of the Temple in 1585. Here he was involved in a controversy with Mr. Travers, a Calvinist, who was also a lecturer in the Temple. One of the consequences of this dispute was the production of his great argument for the consti- tution and discipline of the Anglican Church, entitled "The Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity." After he began this work, desiring a more retired station than the Temple, he obtained in 1591 the rectory of Boscombe, to which the prebend of Salisbury was added. From 1595 until his death he was rector of Bishopsbourne. His work above-named was published from 1594 to 1597. It is regarded as a great bulwark of the Church, a monument of sound learning, and a noble model of literary excellence. According to Hallam, "the finest as well as the most philosophical writer of the Eliza- bethan period is Plooker. The first book of his 'Eccle- siastical Polity' is at this day one of the master-pieces of English eloquence. ... So stately and graceful is the march of his periods, so various the fall of his musical cadences upon the ear, so rich in images, so condensed in sentences, so grave and noble his diction, that I know not whether any later writer has more admirably 2, e, 1, o, u, y, long; \ fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mgt; nSt; good; moon; HOOKER 1 207 HOPE displayed the capacities of our language, or produced passages more worthy of comparison with the splendid monuments of antiquity." ("Introduction to the Litera- ture of Europe.") Died in 1600. See IzAAK Walton, "Life of Richard Hooker," 1666; " Bio- graphia Britannica;" "Life of Hooker," in Gaudeii's edition of his works, 1662, and in Keble's edition, Oxford, 4 vols., 1836; "North British Review" for February, 1857. Hooker, (Rev. Thomas,) one of the founders of Con- necticut, was born at Marfield, England, in 1586. After preaching in Holland, he emigrated in 1633 to Boston, Massachusetts, and was the first pastor of Cambridge. In 1636, in company with Samuel Stone, he founded the city of Hartford, where he was minister until his death. He was a very influential man in the churches, and wrote many treatises, among which is the "Application of Redemption." Died in 1647. See E. W. Hooker, "Life of Thomas Hooker," 1849. Hooker, (William Jackson,) F.R.S., a distinguished English botanist, born at Norwich in 1785. He pub- lished in 1811 "A Journal of a Tour in Iceland in 1809," and described, with Dr. Taylor, British mosses in "Muscologia Britannica," (1818.) His "Flora Scotica" appeared in 1821. He produced an excellent "Flora Exotica," (3 vols., 1823-27.) For many years he was pro- fessor of botany in the University of Glasgow. Among his greatest works are "Icones Filicum," or "Figures and Descriptions of Ferns," (with Dr. Greville, 2 vols., 1829-31,) "Flora Boreali-Americana," (2 vols., 1829-40,) and a "British Flora," (1830; 6th edition, 1850,) which gives a complete description of British plants, arranged after the natural method. He was appointed about 1840 director of the royal gardens at Kew, which have been greatly improved under his superintendence, and are said to surpass all other gardens in the world in the number and variety of the plants. He was the father of Dr. J. D. Hooker, noticed above. Died in 1865. Hooiakoo, Houlakou, Hul^ku, hoo'la-koo', or Hoolagoo, hoo-lS-goo', sometimes very improperly written Hulakoo, a grandson of Jengis Khan, born in 12 1 7, was the first of the Eel-Khans, (Ilkhans or Ilchans,) or Mongol kings of Persia. He was commanded by his elder brother Mangoo (the father of Kooblai Khan) to complete the conquest of Persia, which he accom- plished about the year 1255. He exterminated the Is- maeelians, or Assassins, and afterwards directed his forces against Bagdad, which he took in February, 1258, and delivered up to pillage and massacre. If we may believe the statements of the Moslem historians, nearly 800,000 persons, including Motassem (the last of the Abbasside caliphs) and his eldest son, perished on that occasion. As a warrior, Hoolakoo was distinguished for his san- guinary cruelty : he was nevertheless a patron of science, and the celebrated Eel-Khanee (or -Khannee) astro- nomical tables were prepared under his auspices, and derive their name from his title of Eel-Khan, signifying the prince or chief of the tribe. He died in 1265, and was succeeded by his son, Abaka Khan. See Malcolm, "History of Persia," vol. i. chap. x. ; Von Hammer, " Geschichte der Ilchane;" ID'Ohsson, " Histoire des Mongols." Hoole, hdol, (Rev. Charles,) born at Wakefield, England, in 1610, taught school with credit in London, etc., and was afterwards rector of Stock. He wrote a " Latin Grammar," and other school-books. Died in 1666. Hoole, (Elijah,) an English Orientalist and Wesleyan minister, born at Manchester about 1798. He served as a missionary in India, and published " Madras, Mysore, and the South of India." Hoole, (John,) an English dramatist and translator, born in London in 1727, was educated in Grub Street. He was a friend of Dr. Johnson, and was a clerk in the East India House about forty years. He wrote several tragedies, and translated into bad or insipid verse the great poems of Tasso and Ariosto. In reference to his version of Tasso, (published in 1763,) Sir Walter Scott called Hoole a "noble transmuter of gold into lead." His "Orlando Furioso" appeared in 5 vols., 1773-83. Died in 1803. See " Biographia Dramatica." Hoole, Mrs. See Hofland, (Barbara.) Hoom&yoon or Hum&yun, hdo'mS'yoon', Emperor of Hindostan, of the dynasty of the Great Moguls, was the eldest son of Baber. He was born atCabool in 1508, and ascended the throne in 1530. Agra was his capital. He was defeated by the Afghans in 1540. His brothers having rebelled against him, he was driven out of his kingdom, and took refuge at the court of Persia. In 1545 he returned with an army and recovered his throne. He gained decisive victories over the Afghans, under Sekunder Shah, on the Sutlej, in 1554, and at Sirhind in 1555. He died in 1556, and was succeeded by his son, the celebrated Akbar. He was versed in astronomy, and wrote several poems. See "Private Memoirs of Houmaioon," translated from the Per- sian by Major C. Stewart; Ferishta, "History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India," translated by General Briggs: W. Erskine, " History of India under Baber andHumayun," 2 vols., 1854; Abool-Fadhl, " Akbar-Nameh." Hoop'er, (George,) D.D., an English prelate, born at Grimley in 1640, was educated at Oxford, and was an excellent classical and Oriental scholar. In 1677 he was almoner to Mary, Princess of Orange, and in 1691 became chaplain to William and Mary, and Dean of Can- terbury. He obtained the bishopric of Saint Asaph in 1703, from which he was afterwards transferred to that of Bath and Wells. He published numerous religious works. Died in 1727. See Todd, "Lives of the Deans of Canterbury." Hooper or Hoper, (John,) an English reformer and martyr, born in Somersetshire about 1495. While a stu- dent at Oxford, he was converted to the Protestant faith. In 1539, to escape the Bloody Statutes of Henry VIII., he retired from England and passed several years at Zurich. At the death of Henry he settled in London, where he became an eminent and eloquent preacher. In 1550 he was made Bishop of Gloucester, and in 1552 received the bishopric of Worcester in comme7ida7n. Soon after the accession of Mary he was condemned as a heretic, and, refusing to recant, was burned at the stake in 1553. He wrote numerous theological works. See Fox, " Book of Martyrs ;" Burnet, " History of the Reforma- tion." Hoop'er, (Lucy,) an American writer, born at New- buryport, Massachusetts, in 1816, wrote sketches entitled "Scenes from Real Life," (1840,) " The Poetry of Flow- ers," and other works. She died in 1841, and her " Literary Remains" were published in 1842, with a Memoir. See Griswold, "Female Poets of America ;" " Democratic Re- view" for July, 1842. Hooper, (Robert,) a British medical writer, borii in the eighteenth century. Among his works are a " Medi- cal Dictionary," (1798; 8th edition, by Dr. Grant, in 1839,) and "Surgeon's Vade-Mecum," (3d edition, en- larged by Dr. Dunglison, 1824.) Hooper, (William,) an American patriot, was born in Boston in 1742. He graduated at Harvard in 1760, studied law with James Otis, and rose to eminence in his profession in Wilmington, North Carolina. In 1774 he was chosen one of the delegates to the first Conti- nental Congress. Soon after signing the Declaration of Independence, in 1776, he resigned his seat. Died in 1790. HoornvanVlooswyck, hoRnvtn vl6s'wIk,(PiETER NiKLAAS,) Baron, a Dutch nobleman, born at Amster- dam in 1742, possessed an immense fortune. Having a taste for art, he formed a splendid collection of gems, cameos, mosaics, etc. Died in 1809. Hoornbeek- or Hoornbeck, hSRn'bak, (Jan,) a Dutch writer on theology, born at Haarlem about 1616, was professor at Utrecht. Died in 1666. Hoorne, Count. See Horn. Hooriie, van, vtn hoR'neh, or Horne, (Jan,) a Dutch anatomist, was born at Amsterdam in 1621. He became professor of surgery at Leyden about 1650, and gained a high reputation. He published, besides other works on anatomy, a " Brief Introduction to the History of the Human Body," (" Brevis Manuductio ad Historiam Corporis humani," 1660,) a work of much merit. Died in 1670. See ERSCHundGRUBER, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Charles Drelincourt, "Oratio de J. van Horne," 1670. Hope, (Alexander James Beresford,) M.P., an author and connoisseur, son of Thomas Hope, noticed € as 5 as s; g hard;gdt.s j; G, H, Y., giitUiral ; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) HOPE 208 HOPKINS below, was born in London in 1820. Among his works are an essay on " Newspapers and their Writers," {1858,) and "The English Cathedral of the Nineteenth Cen- tury," (1861.) Hope, (Rev. Frederick William,) F.R.S., an Eng- lish entomologist, born about 1800, wrote "The Coleop- terist's Manual." Died in 1862. Hope, (Sir Henry,) a British admiral, born in 1787; died in 1863. Hope, (James,) a British physician of the present cen- tury, was physician to Saint George's Hospital, London, and published "Principles and Illustrations of Morbid Anatomy," (1834,) and a "Treatise on Diseases of the Heart and Great Vessels," (1839.) Died about 1840. Hope, (John,) M.D., F.R.S., a Scottish botanist, born in 1725, was educated at Edinburgh and Paris, and l^ractised in the former city. In 1761 he was appointed king's botanist in Scotland, and superintendent of the royal garden, and in 1786 regius professor of botany in the University of Edinburgh. He commenced a work on botany, which he did not live to finish. Died in 1786. See Andrew Duncan, "Life of John Hope," 1786. Hope, (John,) Earl of Hopetoun, a British general, born near Linlithgow in 1766, was a younger son of the second Earl of Hopetoun. After passing through the inferior grades, he was made a colonel in 1796, and re- turned to Parliament. In 1800 he served as adjutant- general under General Abercrombie in Egypt, and in 1802 obtained the rank of major-general. Having been made lieutenant-general in 1808, he took part in the battle of Corunna, in 1809, and at the death of Sir John Moore succeeded him in the command. He was com- mander-in-chief in Ireland about 1812. In 1814 he was raised to the peerage, as Baron of Niddry, and at the death of his elder brother, in 1816, inherited his title. Died in 1823. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Hope, (Sir Thomas,) a Scottish lawyer, born in Edin- burgh. He was knighted and appointed king's advocate in 1627, after gaining distinction at the bar. He wrote valuable legal treatises. His father, Henry Hope, was related to the wealthy family of Hope in Amsterdam. Died in 1646. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Hope, (Thomas,) an English novelist and miscellane- ous writer of rare merit, born about 1770, was a member of the wealthy family of Hope of Amsterdam. After traversing Europe, Asia, and Africa, to gratify his pas- sion for architecture, and retiring from business with an immense fortune, he settled in London, and distinguished himself as a patron of the fine arts. He formed galleries of paintings and statues, and magnificent collections of rare works of art. In 1807 he published a work on " Household Furniture," which produced quite a revolu- tion in upholstery and an improvement in the public taste. Soon after appeared " The Costume of the An- cients," and "Modern Costumes," which evince great antiquarian lore. In 1819 he published, anonymously, "Anastasius; or. Memoirs of a Modern Greek," which was attributed to Byron, and made a vivid sensation by its surprising combination of Oriental romance and classic learning. "Mr. Hope will excuse us," says Syd- ney Smith, "but we could not help exclaiming, in read- ing it, ' Is this Mr. Thomas Hope ? — is this the man of chairs and tables — the CEdipus of coal-boxes i* — he who meditated on muffineers and planned pokers.^ Where has he hidden all this eloquence and poetry up to this hour V The work before us places him in the highest list of eloquent writers and of superior men." Byron said he would have given his two most approved poems to have been the author of " Anastasius." Hope also wrote an "Essay on the Origin and Prospects of Man," and a " Historical Essay on Architecture," (1835,) which was received with favour. He married in 1807 Louisa Beresford, a daughter of W. Beresford, Archbishop of Tuam. Died in 1831. See Sydney Smith's article in the "Edinburgh Review" for March, 1821, (vol. xxxv.,) also for July, 1807; "Quarterly Review," vol. xxiv. Hope, (Thomas Charles,) an eminent teacher of chemistry, born in Edinburgh in 1766, was a son of John Hope, the botanist, noticed above. He became professor of chemistry at Glasgow in 1787, and discovered a new earth, which he named " Strontites," about 1792. In 1798 he succeeded Dr. Black in the chair of chemistry in Edinburgh, where he lectured until 1843. He was reputed the most popular teacher of chemistry in Great Britain. He wrote several short treatises, one of which is "On the Point of Greatest Density of Water," (1805.) Died in 1844. Hope, (Sir William Johnstone,) M.P., a British naval officer, born at Finchley in 1766. As post-captain, he served with distinction under Lord Howe against the French in 1794. In 1819 he was raised to the rank of vice-admiral, and the next year became a lord of the admi- ralty. He was knighted in 1825. He was a member of the House of Commons for thirty years. Died in 1 83 1. Hoper. See Hooper, (John.) Hopfner or Hoepfner, hopfner, (Johann Georg Christian,) a German archaeologist, born at Leipsic in 1765. He published, besides other works, a "Manual of Greek Mythology," (1795.) Died in 1827. Hopital. See L'Hopital. Hopken or Hoepken, hop'ken, (Anders Johan,) a Swedish statesman and writer of great merit, born in 1 7 12, became a member of the senate in 1746. He was one of the first who formed the Swedish language on the models of Greece and Rome. His Eulogies on Count Tessin and Ekeblad are greatly admired. Died in 1789. See E. M. Fant.J' Aminnelse-Talofver A. J. von Hopken," 1789; Gyldenstolpe, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver A. J. von Hopken," 1789. Hop'kins, (Charles,) born at Exeter in 1664, was the son of Bishop Ezekiel Hopkins. He was intimate with Dryden and Congreve, wrote several tragedies, and translated Ovid's "Art of Love." Died in 1699. His brother John, born in 1675, was the author of a collection of poems entitled "Amasia," (3 vols., 1700,) and other poems, among which is " The Triumphs of Peace, or the Glories of Nassau," (1698.) Died after 1 700. Hop'kins, (Edw^ard,) Governor of Connecticut, born in London in 1600, emigrated to Boston, Massachu- setts, in 1637. He was chosen Governor of Connecticut in 1640, and was re-elected every other year until 1654. Soon after this he returned to P^ngland, where he was appointed warden of the fleet and commissioner of the admiralty, and was elected to Parliament. Died in 1657. Hopkins, (Esek,) an American naval officer, born in Scituate, Rhode Island, in 1718. He was appointed commander-in-chief of the navy in 1775. He captured a British fort at New Providence, and several vessels of war, in 1775 or 1776. Died in 1802. Hopkins, (Ezekiel,) an English Calvinistic divine, born at Sandford, Devonshire, in 1633, was a popular preacher, and one of the standard theologians of Eng- land. He became Bishop of Raphoe in 1 67 1, and Bishop of Londonderry in 1681. He was driven from this place by the Catholic insurgents in 1688. Among his works (which are admired even by many who are not Calvinists) are a "Treatise on the Vanity of the World," (1663,) " Sermons," (4 vols., 1691-96,) the "Doctrine of the Two Covenants," and " Exposition on the Lord's Prayer," (1692.) His style is remarkable for sententious brevity. Died in 1690. Hopkins, (John,) an English teacher, who graduated at Oxford in 1544, is chiefly noted for his share in the poetical version of David's Psalms by Sternhold and Hopkins. He is supposed to have been a clergyman. Hopkins, (John Henry,) an Episcopal theologian, born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1792, came to the United States in 1800. He became rector of a church at Pitts- burg in 1824, and was chosen Bishop of Vermont in 1832. Among his numerous works are "The Primitive Creed Examined and Explained," (1834,) a "Scriptural, Ecclesiastical, and Historical View of Slavery," (1864,) in which work he advocates the Southern view of slavery, and "The Law of Ritualism," (1866.) Died in 1868. Hopkins, (Lemuel,) M.D., born at Waterbury, Con- necticut, in 1750. He practised medicine at Litchfield from 1776 to 1784, and at Hartford until 1801. He wrote "The Hypocrite's Hope," and other poems. He was a. e, T, 6, ii, y, hng; A, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/iort; ^, e, i, o, obscure; dr, f^ll, f^t; mht; n5t; good; moon; HOPKINS nog HORACE associated with Barlow and Trumbull in writing "The Anarchiad," a poem. Died in 1801. See DuvcKiNCK, "Cyclopjedia of American Literature," vol. i. Hopkins, (Mark,) a Presbyterian minister and writer, born in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, in 1802, graduated at Williams College in 1824. He became professor of moral philosophy in that college in 1830, and president of the same in 1836. He published, be- sides other works, " Miscellaneous Essays and Dis- courses," (1847.) Hopkins, (Samuel,) an American divine, born at Waterbury, Connecticut, in 1721, is called the founder of the Hopkinsian school. He studied theology under Jonathan Edwards, was ordained a minister in 1743, and began in that year to preach at Housatonnoc, now Great Barrington. In 1769 he removed from that place to Newport, Rhode Island. " Dr. Hopkins," says Allen, " was a very humble, pious, and benevolent man. . . . His life was spent chiefly in meditation ; his preaching had but little effect." He published a "System of Doctrines contained in Divine Revelation Explained and Defended," (2 vols., 1793.) He also wrote a "Dialogue against Slavery," (1776,) and other works. He forms a promi- nent character in Mrs. Stowe's " Minister's Wooing." Died in 1803. See a " Life of Dr. Hopkins," prefixed to his Works, 3 vols., 1853. Hopkins, (Stephen,) an American statesman, born at Scituate, Rhode Island, in 1707, was a farmer in his youth, and afterwards a merchant. He was chief justice of the superior court from 1751 to 1754, and subsequently Governor of Rhode Island. In 1774 he was elected to Congress, and signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776. The unsteadiness of his hand indicated by his signature was occasioned not by fear, but by a nervous affection. He continued in Congress until 1779. Died in 1785. See Goodrich, "Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- pendence." Hopkins, (Rev. William,) a learned antiquary, born at Evesiiam, England, in 1647, was made prebendary of Worcester in 1675, and vicar of Lindridge in 1686. Died in 1700. See Dr. Hicks, "Life of W. Hopkins." Hopkins, (William,) an English Arian writer, born at Monmouth in 1706, became vicar of Bolney in 1 731. He wrote a treatise in favour of Arianism, and translated the book of Exodus, (1784.) Died in 1786. Hop'kin-son, (Francis,) an eininent author, wit, and patriot, born in Philadelphia in 1737. He graduated at the college of his native city, and chose the profession of the law. Having visited England in 1765, and passed two years there, he returned home, settled at Borden- town, and married Miss Ann Borden. From 1774 to 1777 he published " The Pretty Story," "The Prophecy," and the " Political Catechism," three humorous and popular essays, which contributed to foment the spirit of freedom and to prepare the people for national inde- pendence. He represented New Jersey in the Conti- nental Congress of 1776, and signed the Declaration of Independence. He was appointed judge of the admi- ralty of Pennsylvania in 1779, and in 1790 judge of the district court of the United States. Besides the above essays, he wrote the " Battle of the Kegs," a ballad, and other works, in prose and verse. Died in 1791. See Sanderson, "Biography of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence;" "National Portrait -Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. Hopkinson, (Joseph,) LL.D., an American jurist, author of "Hail Columbia," and son of the preceding, was born in Philadelphia in 1770. He was educated at the University of Pennsylvania, studied law, and rose to eminence in his profession in his native city. He was the leading counsel for Dr. Rush in his famous libel suit against Will iam Cobbett in i799> was also em- ployed in the trials under the alien and sedition laws before Judge Chase in 1800, and in the impeachment of the latter for alleged misdemeanour in office during these trials, before the United States Senate, in 1805. From 181 5 to 1819 he was a representative in Congress, in which he distinguished himself as a speaker, particu- larly in opposition to the United States Bank, and on the Seminole war. In 1828 he was appointed by Presi- dent Adams judge of the United States court for the eastern district of Pennsylvania, which position he held till his death, in 1842. See "Lives of Eminent Philadelphians," 1859. Hop'per, (Isaac Tatem,) a distinguished philanthro- pist, a member of the Society of Friends, born near Wood- bury, New Jersey, in 1771. He resided many years in Philadelphia, but passed the latter part of his life in New York. He was a man of great energy, courage, and intel- lectual acuteness, and distinguished for his life-long efforts to promote benevolent and humane objects, — especially negro emancipation. In the controversy which resulted in the separation of the Society of Friends in 1827, he was one of the most zealous adherents of the anti- orthodox party. Died in 1852. See LvDiA M. Child, "Life of I. T. Hopper," 1853; " Lives of Eminent Philadelphians," 1859. Hop'pfr, (Thomas,) an English architect, born at Rochester about 1775. After being employed by the prince-regent on Carleton House, he erected many castles and mansions for the nobility, among which Penrhyii Castle is regarded as one of the best. He possessed superior conversational powers, and associated freely with people of distinction. Died in 1856. Hoppers, hop'pers, or Hopper, hop'per, (Joachim,) [Lat. Hoppe'rus,] a Dutch jurist, born in Friesland in 1523. In 1566 he became privy councillor at Madrid, and chancellor for the affairs of the Netherlands. He was more moderate than the other ministers of Philip II. Among his works is one " On the Legal Art," (" De Juris Arte Libri tres," 1553.) Died in 1576. See Motley, "Rise of the Dutch Republic," part ii. chap, v., and part iv. chap. iv. Hop'pin, (Augustus,) an American artist, born in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1828. He pursued a col- legiate course at Brown University, and entered upon the profession of law, but subsequently devoted himself to drawing on wood. He has illustrated " The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table," the poem of " Nothing to Wear," and numerous other subjects. Hoppin, (Thomas F.,) an American painter and de- signer, brother of the preceding, was born in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1816. Among the most important of his designs are the figures on the great window of Trinity Church, New York. See TucKERMAN, " Book of the Artists." Hopp'ner, (John,) R.A., an excellent English, por- trait-painter, born in London in 1759. He studied in the Royal Academy, and was patronized by the Prince of Wales. For many years he was the most fashionable portrait-painter of London, except Sir Thomas Lawrence. Hoppner was very successful in portraits of women. His colouring is natural and powerful, and his tones are mellow and deep. His works have a charming air of facility and negligence. Died in 1810. See Cunningham, "Lives of Painters," etc. Hop'ton, (Arthur,) a learned English mathema- tician, born in Somersetshire in 1588, was intimate with Selden. He wrote "Speculum Topographicum," (1611,) and a few other works. Died in 1614. Hopton, (Sir Ralph,) an English royalist officer, who fought for Charles I. in the civil war. He obtained some success in Cornwall in 1643. I" i(>At(> he commanded about 8000 men at the battle of Torrington, where he was defeated by Fairfax. Died about 1652. Hopton, (Susanna,) an English authoress, born in 1627, wrote "Hexameron, or Meditations on the Six Days of Creation." Died in 1709. Horace, hSr'ass, [Lat. Hora'tius; Fr. Horace, o'rtss'; Ger. HoRAZ, ho-rlts'; It. Orazio, o-rit'se-o,] or, more fully, Quin'tus Hora'tius Flac'cus, an excellent and popular Latin poet, born at Venusia, (now Venosa,) in Italy, in December, 65 B.C. His father was a freed- man, who gained a competence as a coacior, (collector of indirect taxes or of the proceeds of auctions,) and pur- chased a farm near Venusia, on the bank of the Aufidus, (Ofanto.) At an early age he was sent to Rome, and became a pupil of the noted teacher Orbilius Pupillus, with whom he learned grammar and the Greek language. c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, k, ^-uttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^:^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) HOR^ I 2IO HORN About his eighteenth year, he went to prosecute his studies in the groves of the Academy at Athens, — then the principal seat of learning and philosophy, — where he remained until the death of Julius Caesar (in 44 B.C.) involved the empire in a civil war. As Brutus passed through Athens, Horace, with patriotic ardour, joined his army, was made a military tribune, took command of a legion, and witnessed the fatal defeat of the cause at Philipi)i, where he threw away his shield. (Carmina, ii. 7. ) His estate having been confiscated, he went to Rome, where he supported himself a short time by acting as clerk in the treasury. His early poems having excited the interest of Virgil and Varius, they recommended him to Maecenas, in whom he found a liberal patron and intimate friend. Thenceforth his life was eminently prosperous, and serenely passed in congenial studies and patrician society. Preferring independence to the tempting prizes of ambition, he refused the office of private secretary to Augustus, who treated him with particular favour. He had a true relish for rural pleasures and the charms of nature, which he often enjoyed at his Sabine farm or his villa in Tibur. Died in November, 8 B.C. He was never married. He was of short stature, and had dark eyes and hair. His character, as deduced from his writings, is well balanced, and unites in a high degree good sense, good nature, urbanity, and elegant taste. His poems, consisting of odes, satires, and epistles, may all be con- tained in one small volume. His chief merits are a calm philosophy, a graceful diction, an admirable sense of propriety, and a keen insight into human nature, which have attracted an admiration growing from age to age, and have rendered him, next to Virgil, the most illus- trious poet of ancient Rome. " It is mainly," says " Black- wood's Magazine" for April, 1868, "to this large and many-sided nature of the man himself that Horace owes his unrivalled popularity, — a popularity which has indeed both widened and deepened in its degree in proportion to the increase of modern civilization." His " Epistles" are among the. few poems which represent the most per- fect and original form of Latin verse. There is no very good English translation of Horace's entire works : that of Francis (4 vols., 1747) is perhaps the best. Lord Lyt- ton's translation of the Odes (1869) is highly praised. See Suetonius, "Vita Horatii ;" Masson, "Vita Horatii," 1708 ; Henry H. Milman, "Life of Q. Hnratius Flaccus," 1854; Van Ommekn, " Horaz als Mensch und Burger von Rom," 1802; C. Francke, " Fasti Horatiani," 1839; Waixkenaer, " Histoire de la Vie et des Poesies d'Horace," 2 vols., 1840; J. Murray, "Ori- ginal Views of the Passages in the Life and Writings of Horace," 1851 ; J. (or F.) Jacob, " Horaz und seine Freunde," 1852; Ersch undGRUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" see, also, the excellent article on Horatius in Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography," by the late Dean H. H. Milman, (author of the " Life of Q. Horatius Flaccus;") "Horace and his Translators," in the "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1858: "Horace and Tasso," in the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1850. Horae, ho'ree, [Gr. ''Qpat ; Fr, Heures, ur, or Hores, OR,j the Hours or Seasons, which the ancients imagined to have charge of the gates of heaven or doors of Olympus. They appear to have been originally personifications of the order of nature and of the seasons. They were also regarded as goddesses of justice, peace, and order. Milton associates them with the Graces : "while universal Pan, Knit with the Graces and the Hours in dance. Led on the eternal Spring." Paradise Lost, book iv. Ho-ra-pol'lo or Ho'rus A-pol'lo, [Gr. ''^IpairoTiluv ; Fr. HoRAPOLLON, o'rt'po'l6N',] the celebrated author of a Greek treatise on the Egyptian hieroglyphics. His name and the epoch in which he lived have been the subject of much discussion. Recent critics favour the opinion that he lived at Alexandria about the fifth century. See Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography ;" A. S. Corey, "The Hieroglyphics of HorapoUo," 1840; Goulaniof, "Essai sur les Hieroglyphes d'HorapoUon," 1827. Horapollon. See Horapollo. Horatius. See Horace. Horatius, ho-ra'she-us, (in the plural, Horatii, ho- ra'she-T,) a hero of the early Roman legends, who with his two brothers fought against the three Curiatii for the supremacy of Rome over Alba. His brothers fell in the first onset. By a feigned flight he separated his antagonists, and slew them one after the other. Horatius Codes. See Cocles. Horberg or Hoerberg, hoR'bgRG, (Pehr,) an emi- nent Swedish painter, born in Smaland in 1746. He practised his art with success at Olstorp, chiefly on reli- gious subjects, and received the title of historical painter to the king. Died in 1816. See his "Autobiography," (in Swedish,) published in 1817, and translated into German by Schildener, 1819; C. Molbech, " Leben und Kunst des Malers P. Hoerberg," 1819; " Biographiskt- Lexicon bfver naninkunnige Svenska Man." Hor'be-ry, (Matthew,) D.D., an English divine, born in Lincolnshire in 1707, was educated at Oxford. He became canon of Lichfield, vicar of Hanbury, and rector of Standlake. His sermons were published in several volumes, (1745-74,) and were pronounced excel- lent by Dr. Johnson. Died in 1773. Horebout, ho'reh-bowt'', (Gerard or Gu^rard,) a Flemish painter of high reputation, was born at Ghent. He removed to England, and became first painter to Henry VHL Hores. See Hor^. Horfelin, de, di oR-fi-leen', (Antonio,) a Spanish painter of history and portraits, born at Saragossa in 1597 ; died in 1660. Horleman or Harleman, hoR'leh-min', (Carl,) Baron, a Swedish architect, born at Stockholm in 1700, designed the cathedral of Calmar, and completed the royal palace at Stockholm. He was ranked among the greatest architects of Sweden. Died in 1753. Hor'man, (William,) of Eton College, an English botanist, born at Salisbury. He published " Herbarum Synonyma." Died in 1535. Hormayr, von, fon hoR'mlR, (Joseph,) a German historian, born at Innspruck in 1781. He fomented a revolt in the Tyrol against the French in 1809, and was appointed historiographer of Austria in 1815. He be- came councillor for the foreign department of Bavaria in 1828, and minister from Bavaria to Hanover in 1832. Among his works are a " History of Tyrol," ( 1 808,) " The Austrian Plutarch, or Lives of all the Austrian Princes," (20 vols., 1807-20,) "General History of Modern Times, 1787 to 1815," (1817-19, 3 vols.,) and "Vienna, its History and Curiosities," (9 vols., 1823-25.) Died in 1848. See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1845. Hor-mis'das [Persian, Hormooz] I., King of Persia, son of Shahpoor (or Sapor) I., began to reign in 271 A.D. After an uneventful reign of fourteen months, he died in 272, and was succeeded by his son, Bahram I. See Firdousee, "Shah Namah ;" Mirkhond, "Histoire des Sassanides." Hormisdas II., King of Persia, of the Sassanide dynasty, was the son of Narses, whom he succeeded in 303 A.D. He died in 311, leaving the throne to his infant son, Shahpoor IL Hormisdas III., a son of Yezdejerd III., became King of Persia in 457 A.D. He was defeated and deposed by his brother Fyrooz about 460. Hormisdas IV., King of Persia, a son of Chosroes (Khosroo) I., began to reign in 579 A.D. He waged war against Tiberius, Emperor of the East, by whose army he was defeated in several battles. Provoked by his tyranny, his subjects revolted against him, and he was deposed and put to death in 591 A.D. See Aboolfaraj, " Historia Dynastiarum ;" Mirkhond, "His- toire des Sassanides," 1793 ; Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Hor-mis'das, a native of Frusino, Italy, was elected pope in 514 A.D., as successor to Symmachus. He used his influence against the Eutychians and against Acacius. Patriarch of Constantinople. He died in 523. Hormuzd. See Ormuzd. Horn, hoRn, (Arvid Bernard,) Count, a Swedish statesman, born in 1664. His influence secured the elevation of Frederick of Hesse-Cassel to the throne in 1720. He became the head of the party of "Bonnets," which was in power until 1738. Died in 1742. See GusTAV Horn, "A. B. Horn," 1852; Thomaeus. "Svensk Plutarch." Horn or Horne, (Charles Edward,) born in Lon- don in 1786, was noted as a composer of music. He was the author of "The Deep, Deep Sea," and other popular songs. He died in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1850. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ia, j?, short; a, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mgt; n6t; good; moon; HORN 121 I HORNER Horn, hoRn, (Franz Christoph,) a German critic, born at Brunswick in 1781. He published several novels, a " Critical History of German Poetry and Eloquence," (4 vols., 1822-29,) and "The Dramatic Works of Shak- speare," (" Shakespeare's Schauspiele," 5 vols., 1823- 31.) Died in 1837. See "Franz Horn : biographisches Denkmal," Leipsic, 1839. Horn, hoRn, (Fredrick,) Count of Aminne, a Swedish general in the French service, born at Husby in 1725. As aide-de-camp of Marshal D'Estrees, he had an im- portant part in the victory of Hastenbeck, (1757.) He obtained the rank of lieutenant-general in the Swedish army in 1778. Died in 1796. His son, Count Horn, was an accomplice in the as- sassination of Gustavus HI. in 1792, for which he was banished for life. Died in 1823. Horn, [Lat. Hor'nius,] (Georg,) a German historian, born at Greussen in 1620. He became professor of his- tory at Leyden about 1648, and wrote, in Latin, works on history and geography, among which are an " Eccle- siastical and Political History," (1665,) and "Noah's Ark, or a History of the World," (1666.) Died in 1670. See JoHANN Adam Flessa, "Dissertatio de Vita G. Homii," 1738. Horn, (GusTAF,) Count of, an able Swedish general, born in Upland in 1592. Having served with credit in Poland and Livonia, he was appointed a senator about 1624. At the battle of Leipsic, in 163 1, he commanded the left wing, and contributed to the victory. After Gustavus Adolphus was killed at Liitzen, Horn gained some advantages over the enemy, but was taken prisoner at Nordlingen in 1634. Restored to liberty in 1642, he was made commander-in-chief of the Swedish army in the war against Denmark, in which he was successful. The queen rewarded him (about 1652) with the ofifice of Constable of Sweden and the title of count. Died in 1657. See Emporagius, "Likpredikan btver G. C. Horn,"i56o; Flo- RANDER, "Encomium Militiae Hornian^," 1648 ; J. F. af Lund- BLAD, " Svensk Plutarch, "1823 ; " Biographiskt- Lexicon bfvernamn- kunnige Svenska Man." Horn, (Uffo Daniel,) a German litterateur, born at Tratenau, in Bohemia, in 181 7. Horn or Hoorn, de, deh hoRn, also written Hoorne and Homes, (Philippe de Montmorency-Nivelle,) Count, a Flemish noble, born in 1522, was the son of Joseph de Nivelle and Anne of Egmont. After the death of his father, his mother married Count de Horn, whose name and vast fortune he inherited. He distinguished himself at the battles of Saint-Quentin'and Gravelines, and served Philip H. of Spain many years as admiral of the Low Countries, president of the council of state, governor of Gueldres, etc. Arrested by the Duke of Alva, with Count Egmont, on a charge of treason, he was unjustly condemned and executed in 1568. See Motley, "Rise of the Dutch Republic;" Prescott, "His- tory of Philip II.," vol. ii. Horn^blow-er, (Joseph C.,) an American jurist, born at Belleville, New Jersey, in 1777. He was chief justice of the supreme court of New Jersey from 1832 to 1846. He decided in 1856 that Congress had no right to pass a law for the rendition of fugitive slaves. Died at Newark in June, 1864. Horne, horn, (George,) D.D., an English bishop and author, born at Otham, in Kent, in 1730, was a good He- brew scholar. He was chosen vice-chancellor of Oxford in 1776, Dean of Canterbury in 1781, and Bishop of Norwich in 1790. He wrote against the philosophy of Newton, and published treatises in favour of John Hut- chinson, and other works on theology. His " Commentary on the Book of Psalms" (2 vols., 1771) is esteemed an excellent performance, and has often been reprinted. He was a friend of Dr. Samuel Johnson. Died in 1792. See William Jones, "Memoirs of the Life and Writings of the Rev. G. Horne," 1795. Home, (Richard Henry,) an English poet and dramatist, born in London about 1802. He produced, besides other dramas, a tragedy entitled " Gregory the Seventh," (1840.) His reputation is founded on "Orion, an Epic Poem," {1843,) which was announced at the price of one farthing, as a sarcasm upon the low esti- mation into which epic poetry had fallen. After three editions had been sold, the price was raised to one shilling, and finally to five shillings. This poem found many admirers. Among his other works are "The New Spirit of the Age," (2 vols., 1844,) and " Ballads and Romances," (1846.) In 1852 he removed to Australia. Horne, (Thomas Hartwell,) D.D., an eminent English author, born in 1780, was educated in London. He passed eight years in the labour of a barrister's clerk, and acquired some knowledge of law, while his leisure was diligently improved in literary studies. In 1818 he published his principal work, the "Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scrip- tures," (3 vols., 1818 ; loth edition, enlarged, 1856,) which is considered the most complete and valuable work on that subject, and was soon adopted as a clas»-book in all the universities and colleges of England and in some of those in the United States. Having no sectarian tend- ency, it is appreciated by Christians generally, and has conduced greatly to the diffusion of sound biblical litera- ture. In 1819 Horne was ordained by the Bishop of London, and obtained a prebend in Saint Paul's Cathe- dral, besides other livings. Among his other numerous publications are " Deism Refuted," (1819,) and a "Manual of Biblical Bibliography," (1839.) Died in January, 1862. See " Reminiscences of Thomas H. Horne," London, 1862 Horne Tooke. See Tooke. Horne, van, (Jan.) See Hoorne. Horneck, hoR'nik, (Anthony,) D.D., was born at Bacharach, in Germany, in 1641, removed to England about 1660, and became prebendary of Exeter, West- minster, and Wells. He wrote many devout religious works, among which are "The Great Law of Consider- ation," (1677; nth edition, 1729,) and "The Happy Ascetic," (1681.) His writings were commended by Doddridge as "exceedingly pathetic and elegant." Died in 1696. See his Life, by Bishop Kidder. Horneck, von, fon hoR'n§k, (Ottokar,) called also Ottokar von Steiermark, (sti'er-maRk^) one of the earliest who wrote in the German language, was the author of a " History of the Great Empires of the World to the Death of Frederick II.," (1280,) and a chronicle in rhyme. It has been published in Petz's "Austrian Historians," and is valued for its interesting account of the manners and customs of that age. See T. Jacobi, "Dissertatio de Ottocari Chronico Austriaco," 1839. Horneman, hoR'neh-min', (Jens Wilken,) a Dan- ish botanist, born at Marstal in 1770, became professor of botany at Copenhagen in 1808. He continued the " Flora Danica," a magnificent work, which other natu- ralists commenced, and which appeared in 14 vols, folio, (1806-40.) He wrote "Economical Botany for Denmark," (1798,) and other works. Died in 1841. See his Autobiography ; Erslew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." Hornemann, hoR'neh-min', (Friedrich Conrad,) a German traveller, born at Hildesheim in 1772, at- tempted in 1797 to explore Northern and Central Africa. He left Moorzook with a caravan bound for Bornoo in A])ril, 1800, after which date he was never heard from. Hor'ner, (Francis,) an eminent British statesman and lawyer, born in Edinburgh in 1778, was educated in the university of that city, and studied law with his friend Henry Brougham. Having removed to London in 1803, he was welcomed by the leading Whigs, such as Fox, Mackintosh, and Romilly, who hastened to enlist his eminent abilities in the public service. In 1806 he was returned to Parliament for Saint Ives. The death of Fox having produced a change of ministry and a disso- lution of the House, Horner was returned for Wendover in 1807. He acquired great influence in Parliament by his integrity, wisdom, liberality, and knowledge of politi- cal economy. In 1810 he was a member of the Bullion committee and author of a part of the "Bullion Report," and made an able speech on that question. In 1813-14 he was recognized as one of the leaders of his party, and in 1816 he made a speech on Catholic claims, which was his last speech in the House. Compelled by ill health to retire from business, he set out on a journey to the south of Europe, and died, greatly lamented, at Pisa, in 181 7. He was one of the originators of the " Edinburgh € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as G, H, i^^ guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^=='See Explanations, p. 23.) HORNER 121 2 HORSTIUS Review," for which he wrote numerous articles. " He died at the age of thirty-eight," says Lord Cockburn, *' possessed of greater pubhc influence than any other 'private man." "No eminent speaker of Parliament," says Sir J. Mackintosh, " owed so much of his success to his moral character. His high place was therefore honourable to his audience and to his country." See "Memoirs and Correspondence of F. Horner," published by his brother, Lkonakd Horner, in 1843; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" " Edinburgh Review" for Octo- ber, 1843; "London Quarterly Review" for May, 1843. Horner, (Leonard,) F.R.S., a British geologist, and younger brother of the preceding, took a prominent part in the organization of the London University, of which he was appointed warden in 1827. About 1833 he be- came inspector of factories, in which capacity he con- tributed largely to the moral and physical improvement of the operatives. He wrote articles on the " Mineral Kingdom" for the " Penny Magazine," "On the Employ- ment of Children in Factories," (1840,) and other short works. Died in 1864. Hor'iier, (William E.,) an American anatomist, born in Virginia about 1790, became in 181 6 demon- strator of anatomy to Dr. Wistar, of the University of Pennsylvania, and in 183 1 succeeded Dr. Physick as professor of anatomy in that institution. Died in 1853. (See Wistar, Caspar.) See Gross, "American Medical Biography," 1861 ; Carson, " History of the Medical Department of the University of Pennsyl- vania," 1869. Hornius. See Horn, (Georg.) Horrebow or Horreboe, hoR'reh-bo, (Christof- FER,) a Danish astronomer, born at Copenhagen in 171 8. He succeeded his father as professor of astronomy about 1750, and published, besides other works, a Latin treatise " On the Annual Parallax of the Fixed Stars," (1747.) Died in 1776. See Kraft og Nverup, " Litteraturlexicon." Horrebow, (Nikolaus,) a Danish author, born at Copenhagen in 1 7 12, became a judge of the supreme court. In 1750 he was sent by government to explore Iceland, of which he wrote a description, said to be very correct. Died in 1750. See Kraft og Nverup, " Litteraturlexicon." Horrebow or Horreboe, (Peder,) an eminent Dan- ish astronomer, the father of Christoffer, noticed above, was born in Jutland in 1679. He became professor of astronomy at Copenhagen in 17 10. He determined the parallax of the sun more exactly in his "Clavis As- tronomiae," a treatise on physical astronomy, in which he favours the theory of Descartes. He wrote other works, among which is " Copernicus Triumphans, sive de Parallaxi Orbis Annul," (1727.) Died in 1764. See Kraft og Nverup, "Litteraturlexicon;" Nyerup, " Uni- versitaets Annalen." Horrebow, (Peder,) a son of the preceding, born in 1728, observed the transit of Venus in 1761, and wrote an account of it. Died in 1812. Hor'rpcks or Hor'rpx, (Jeremiah,) a distinguished English astronomer, born at Toxteth, near Liverpool, in 1619, was educated at Cambridge, took orders, and be- came curate of Hoole. He was the author of the true theory of lunar motion, and was the first who observed the transit of Venus, (in 1639,) which he had successfully foretold, and of which he wrote an account, entitled "Venus sub Sole visa." His other works on astronomy were published by Dr. Wallis in 1672. "His investiga- tions," says the "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1843, •* are all stamped with the clear indications of a genius of the first order; and he doubtless would have achieved far greater discoveries had not his privations and suc- cesses, his toils and triumphs, been together cut short by his premature death, in 1641." See A. B. Whatton, " Memoir of the Life and Labours of J. Horrox," 1859. Horsburgh, hors'biir-eh, or Horsbury, hors'ber-e, (James,) F.R.S., a Scottish hydrographer, born at Elie in 1762, was for some years captain of a merchant-ship navigating the East Indian seas. In 1809 he was ap- pointed hydrographer of the East India Company. He was author of a valuable work entitled " Directions for Sailing to and from the East Indies, China," etc., (1809.) Died in 1836. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement;) " Nouveile Biographic G6nerale." Horse'field, (Rev. Thomas W.,) an English anti- quary, published the " History and Antiquities of Sus- sex." Died in 1837. Hors'field or Horsefield, (Thomas,) M.D., F.R.S., an eminent naturalist and traveller, born in Pennsylvania in 1773. He explored the natural history of Java for many years, and returned to England about 1820. He published "Zoological Researches in Java," etc., (1821- 24.) The plants which he collected were described in an excellent work entitled "Plantae Javanicae Rariores," (1838-52, with fifty coloured engravings,) in which he was aided by Robert Brown and J. J. Bennett. He also wrote several smaller works. Died in London in 1859. Hors'ley, (Charles,) an English composer, born at Kensington in 1821. He composed oratorios entitled "David" and "Joseph," (1852.) Horsley, (John,) F.R.S., an eminent British anti- quary, born in Mid- Lothian in 1685, became pastor of a dissenting church at Morpeth. He wrote an excellent work entitled "The Roman Antiquities of Britain," (" Britannia Romana," 1732.) Died in 1731. See Rev. J. Hodgson, " Memoirs of the Life, etc. of John Hors- ley," London, 1831 ; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Emi- nent Scotsmen;" Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes." Horsley, (John Callcott,) an English historical painter, born in London in 1817. His cartoon of " Saint Augustine Preaching" (1843) received one of the prizes of ^200 from the Commission of Fine Arts. He was one of the artists commissioned to adorn the House of Lords, in which he painted a fresco of the " Spirit of Religion," (1845.) Among his master-pieces are " L'Alle- gro and II Penseroso," (1851,) "Lady Jane Grey and Roger Ascham," (1853,) and a "Scene from Don Quix- ote," (1855.) Horsley,( Samuel,) LL.D., an eminent English bishop and writer, born in London in 1733, was educated at Cam- bridge. In 1759 he obtained the rectory of Newington Butts, and, after receiving other preferments, became Bishop of Saint David's in 1788, of Rochester in 1793, and of Saint Asaph in 1802. To superior talents he joined profound learning, both classical and scientific. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1767, and secretary of the same in 1773. In 1783 he gained distinction by a controversy with l3r. Priestley on Unita- rianism, in whi^h it is usually conceded that Horsley had the advantage. He published in 1796 an excellent treatise " On the Prosodies of the Greek and Latin Lan- guages," and "Critical Disquisitions on the Eighteenth Chapter of Isaiah." Among his numerous publications are sermons, treatises on mathematics, and several ad- mired performances in biblical criticism. Died in 1806. See " Edinburgh Review" for February, 181 1 ; "London Quar- terly Review" for May, 1810, (vol. xvii.) Hors'man, (Edward,) a British lawyer and poli- tician, born in 1807. He represented Stroud in Parlia- ment from 1853 to 1868. He is one of those who were called " AduUamites," who voted against the Reform bill in 1866, although elected as Liberals. Horst, hoRst, [Lat. Hor'stius,] (Gregor,) a German physician, was born at Torgau, in Saxony, in 1578. He became professor at Ulm in 1622, and was surnatned the German ^sculapius. Ainong his chief w^orks are " On Diseases and their Causes," (" De Morbis eorumque Causis," 1612,) and " Anatomy of the Human Body," (1617.) Died in 1636. See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Freher, "Theatrum Eru- ditorum." Horst, van der, vtn der hoRst, (Nikolaas,) a Flem- ish painter of history and portraits, born at Antwerp, was a pupil of Rubens. His works are highly prized. Died in 1646. Horstius. See Horst. Horstius, hoR'ste-us, (Jacobus,) a Dutch religious writer, originally named ]\Ierler, was born at Horst about 1597. He wrote, in elegant Latin, "Paradise of the Christian Soul," (" Paradisus Animae Christianae," 1630.) Died in 1644. i, e, I, o, u, y, long; h, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; f Sr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; HORSTIUS HOSIUS Horstius, hoR'ste-iSs, (Jakob,) a German physician, born at Torgau in 1537 ; died in 1600. Hort or Horte, (Josiah,) an English theologian, educated at a dissenting academy with Dr. Watts, who expressed a high opinion of him. He became Bishop of Kihnore and Ardagh in 1727, and Archbishop of TuaiTi in 1742. A collection of his sermons was pub- lished. He died at an advanced age in 1 751. Hortemels, //oR'teh-mels' or hoK\fn\hV, (Fr^d^ric,) a French engraver, born at Paris about 1688. Hortemels, (Marie Madeleine,) an able engraver, born in Paris about 1688, was the wife of the celebrated engraver Nicolas Cochin. Died in 1777. Hortense Eugenie de Beauharnais, oR'tfiNss' ijWzhk'nt' deh bo'tR^na', Queen of Holland, and mother of the emperor Napoleon HI., was born in Paris in 1783. She was the daughter of Alexandre, Vicomte de Beauharnais, and Josephine Tascher, afterwards Empress of France. Her personal charms and amiable character rendered her a favourite with Napoleon and the ornament of his court. Against her own inclination, and through the influence of her mother, she became in 1802 the wife of Louis Bonaparte, with whom she did not live happily. It is said that she wept abundantly at the performance of the ceremony. In 1806 her consort Louis was made King of Holland. On this occasion Hortense said she would have preferred the throne of Naples. " I would have rekindled," said she, "the flame of the fine arts in Italy." She disliked the Dutch fogs, and deemed sunshine and Parisian society indispensable blessings. Hortense was the mother of three sons, whom by the edicts of 1804 and 1805 the emperor had preferred as successors to his crown : I. Napoleon Louis Charles, who died in 1807 ; 2. Napoleon Louis, who died at Pesaro in 183 1 ; 3. Charles Louis Napoleon, the present Emperor of France. In 1810 Louis abdicated his throne, and was separated from his wife, who, with her sons, returned to Paris. At the restoration of 1814 she was created Duchess of Saint-Leu, through the favour of some of the allied powers. Louis XVIII., after an interview with her, declared he had never seen a woman who united so much grace and dignity. After sharing the brief and brilliant triumphs of the Hundred Days, she was compelled to fly from France. The authorities of Geneva refused her an asylum ; but she received a hospitable ofi'er from the canton of Thurgau, where she purchased the castle of Arenenberg in 1817. For many years she passed the summer at this place and the winter at Rome. When Louis Napoleon was exiled to the United States, in 1836, she wished to go with him, but had not sufficient strength to. bear the voyage; and she died in 1837, in the arms of her son, who, learning her illness, had returned home. We should not omit to mention that she excelled in music, and composed the popular air of " Partant pour la Syrie," one of the favourite national songs of France. See Lasceli.es Wraxall, " Memoirs of Queen Hortense ;" CoMTE DE Lagarde, " Esquisse biographiqiie sur la Reine Hor- tense," 1853 ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1838. Hortensius. See Desjardins. Hor-ten'si-us, (Lambert,) a Dutch philologist, born at Montfort about 1500. He wrote " On the German War," (" De Bello Germanico," 1560,) and annotations on Virgil's "/Eneid," (1567.) Died about 1575. Hortensius, hor-ten'she-us, (Quintus,) an eminent Roman orator, born of an equestrian family in 114 B.C. At an early age he acquired celebrity in the Forum, where, a few years afterwards, he maintained a spirited and generous rivalry with Cicero, who applauds his elo- quence and calls him his friend. After serving in the army of Sulla in Asia, he became successively quaestor, aedile, praetor, and, in 69 B.C., consul. In the previous year he was counsel for Verres, when Cicero made his memorable speech for the prosecution. His orations and other works are all lost. His eloquence is said to have been ornate, flowery. Oriental in exuberance, and enlivened with sententious an.d brilliant passages. He had a retentive memory, a sonorous voice, and a grace- ful gesture. Died in 50 B.C. See Onomasticon Tullianum ; Pliny, "Natural History," books ix., X,, xxxiv. ; Quintilian, books iv., x., xi., xii. ; Lins^n, *' Dissertatio de Hortensio Oratore," Abo, 1822. Horto, ab, Sb oR'to, or de la Huerta, di IS w^R'ti, (Garcia,) called also Garcia da Orta, a Portuguese botanist, went to India as physician to the viceroy, and wrote "On the Plants and Drugs of India," (1563.) See Barbosa Machado, "Bibliotheca Lusitana." Hor'tpn, (Thomas,) D.D., born in London about 1600, was professor of divinity in Gresham College, and published a number of sermons. Died in 1673. Ho'rus, [Gr. 'flpof, probably related etymologically to the Sanscrit Siirya, Lat. Sol, and Sp. Siir,\ the Egyp- tian god of the Sun, was regarded as the son of Isis and Osiris. (See Osiris and Harpocrates.) For the ety- mology of Horns, see Surya. Horus Apollo. See Horapollo. Horush. See Barbarossa. Horvath, hoR'vSt, (Michael,) a Hungarian histo- rian, born at Szentes in 1809. He became Bishop of Csanad in 1848, and minister of public instruction in 1849. After the defeat of the patriotic cause he went into exile in 1849. He wrote a valuable " History of the Magyars," (4 vols., 1842-46.) Hos'ack, (David,) LL.D., F.R.S., an eminent Ameri- can physician, born in New York City in 1769. After graduating in Philadelphia in 1791, and prosecuting his studies in Edinburgh and London, he returned to New York, and became professor of botany and materia medica in Columbia College in 1795. He taught clinical medicine and obstetrics in the College of Physicians and Surgeons nearly twenty years, between 1807 and 1826. For many years he was one of the most successful prac- titioners and most influential citizens of New York. From 1820 to 1828 he was president of the New York Historical Society. His first wife was the sister of Thomas Eddy, and his second the widow of Henry A. Costar. He wrote a treatise on Vision, published by the Royal Society of London, (1794,) "Memoirs of De Witt Clinton," (1829,) a "System of Practical Nosology," (1829,) " Lectures on the Theory and Practice of Physic," (1838,) several volumes of medical essays, and other works. Died in 1835. See J. W. Francls, " Memoir of Dr. Hosack;" Gross, "Ameri- can Medical Biography," 1861; "National Portrait- Gallery of Dis- tinguished Americans," vol. ii. Hoschel or Hoeschel, ho'shel, [Lat. Hoesche'- Lius,] (David,) a distinguished German Hellenist, born at Augsburg in 1556. He was professor of Greek and keeper of the public library at Augsburg. He edited numerous Greek works, among which are the Homilies of Saint Basil and Saint Chrysostom, and the book of "Origen against Celsus," (1605.) His "Catalogue of the Greek Manuscripts in the Augsburg Library" (1595) is highly esteemed. Died in 161 7. See Brucker, " De Meritis in Rem literariam D. Hoeschelii," 1738; Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, "M^moires;" J. A. Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Gra£ca." Ho-se'a or O-se'a, [Heb.;'iyin; Fr. Os6e, o'zi',] one of the twelve minor Hebrew prophets, of whom little is known, except that he lived in the "days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, Kings of Judah." It is inferred that his prophetic career extended from about 785 to 725 B.C. His language is remarkably obscure. " He is the most difficult and perplexed of all the pro- phets," says Lowth. He is quoted in Matthew ii. 15, ix. 13, Romans ix. 25, (where his name is written Osee^) and Revelation vi. 16. Ho-she'a or Ho-se'a, JHeb. ^'i^in,] the last King of Israel, began to reign about 730 B.C., after he had assassinated King Pekah. (See II. Kings xv. 30 and xvii. I to 7.) After a reign of nine years, his capital, Samaria, was taken by Shalmaneser, King of Assyria, who carried Hoshea with his subjects as captives to Halah, Habor, and the cities of the Medes. Since this event the fate of the ten tribes has been involved in mystery. Ho'si-us, (Stanislas,) an eminent cardinal, born at Cracow, in Poland, in 1504. After holding responsible civil offices, he entered the Church, and was made suc- cessively Bishop of Culm and of Warmia. He was a violent opponent of heretics and Protestants. In 1561 he received a cardinal's hat from Pius IV., who sent him as legate to the Council of Trent. He wrote the "Con- e as ^; § as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; § as 2; th as in this. (g^^See Explanations, p. 23.) HOSKING 1 214 HOTTING ER fcssion of the Catholic Faith," (1551,) and other works. Died in 1579. See Rescius, "Vita Hosii," Rome, 1587; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Eiicy- klopaedie." Hos'king, (William,) an English architect and writer on architecture, born in Devonshire in 1800. He became a resident of London in his youth, and acquired distinction by a " Treatise on Architecture and Building," republished from the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," (1839.) About 1840 he was chosen professor of civil engineering and architecture at King's College, London, fie wrote " Guide to the Regulation of Buildings as a Means of Securing the Health of Towns," {1848.) Hos^kins or Hos'kyns, (John,) Sr., an English writer and lawyer, born in Herefordshire in 1566. He was noted for skill in Latin and English poetry, and wrote epigrams, law treatises, etc. According to Wood, it was Hoskins who " polished Ben Jonson the poet," and revised Sir Walter Raleigh's History before it went to press. Died in 1638. Hoskins, (John,) an English portrait-painter, patron- ized by Charles I. Died in 1664. Hos'mer, (Harriet,) an American sculptor, born in Watertown, Massachusetts, in 183 1, studied in Rome, where she fixed her residence. Among her works are "Medusa," "Beatrice Cenci," and an admired statue of "Zenobiain Chains," (" Zenobia Captiva.") See TucKERMAN, "Book of the Artists." Hosmer, (William,) an American divine of the Methodist Episcopal Church, born in Brimfield, Mas- sachusetts, in 1810. He was editor of the " Northern Christian Advocate," published at Auburn, New York, and of the " Northern Independent," a religious anti- slavery journal. He wrote, besides other works, " Chris- tian Beneficence," etc., (1855.) Hosmer, (William Henry Cuyler,) an American poet, born at Avon, in the Genesee valley. New York, in 1814, studied in Geneva College, and practised law in his native town. He spent much time among the Indians. In 1854 he took up his residence in New York. He wrote, besides other works, "Indian Traditions and Legends of the Senecas," etc., (1850.) A complete edition of his Poetical Works, in 2 vols., was pub- lished in 1854. See Griswold, " Poets and Poetry of America." Hos-pin'i-an, [Ger. pron. hos-pe-ne-^n'; Fr. Hospi- NiEN, hos^pe^ne-^N'; Lat. Hospinia'nus,] (Rudolf,) an eminent Swiss Protestant theologian, born at Altorf in 1547. He became the minister of a church near Zurich, and wrote a number of learned works, in Latin, among which are " On the Origin and Progress of Ceremonies, Rites, and Holydays ( Festis) among Christians," (1585,) " History of Sacraments," (" Historia Sacramentaria," 1598,) and a " Historyofthe Jesuits," (1619.) Diedin 1626. See John H. Heidegger, " Historia Vita Rodolphi Hospiniani," 1681 ; Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." Hospinianus. See Hospinian. Hospinien. See Hospinien. Hospital. See L'Hopital. Hossch. See Hosschius. Hosschius, hos'ke-us, or Hossch, hosK, (Sidonius,) a Flemish Jesuit, born at Merckhem in 1596, published in 1635 a collection of Latin elegies, which were much admired. Died in 1653. Host or Hoest, host, (Georg,) a Danish traveller, born in Jutland in 1734, laecame secretary for foreign affairs, etc. He wrote an " Account of the Kingdoms of Morocco and Fez," (1779.) Host or Hoest, (Jens Kragh,) a Danish historian, son of the preceding, was born at Saint Thomas, in the Antilles, in 1772. He was the author of "Politics and History," (5 vols., 1816,) "Johann Friedrich Struensee and his Ministry," (3 vols., 1824,) and other works. Died near Copenhagen in 1844. See J. K. Hoest, " Erindringer ;" Erslew, "Almindeligt For- fatter-Lexikon." Host, host, (NiKOLAUS Thomas,) an Austrian, born in 1763, was first physician to the Emperor of Austria, and published " Flora Austriaca," (2 vols., 1827.) Died in 1834. Hoste, //6t, (Jean,) a French geometer, born at Nancy, became professor of mathematics at Pont-a- Mousson. He published several treatises on geometry. Died in 163 1. Hoste, L', lot, (Paul,) a French Jesuit, born at Pont- de-Vesle in 1652, was professor of mathematics in Tou- lon. He wrote a treatise on the " Construction of Ships and Naval Tactics," (1697.) Died in 1700. Hos-tiPi-an, [Fr, Hostilien, os'te'le-^N',] or, more fully, Cai'us Va^ens Mes'sius Quin'tius Hostilia'- nus, second son of the Roman emperor Decius. At the death of his father, 251 A.D., he was acknowledged by some as a partner in the empire with Gallus ; but he died a few months after, in 252. Hostilien. See Hostilian. Hos-tiPi-us,(TuLLUS,) the third King of Rome, and the successor of Numa, reigned about 650 B.C. Among the principal events of his reign, which is semi-fabulous, was the war against Alba, terminated in favour of Rome by the victory of Horatius over the Curiatii. Hostrup, hos'tRiip, (Christoffer,) a Danish drama- tist, born in 1819, produced many successful comedies, among which are " The Neighbours," (" Gjenboerne,") and "The Intrigues." Hostus, hos'tiis, (Matthaus,) a German antiquary, born in 1509; died in 1587. Ho'tham, (Henry,) an English vice-admiral, born in 1776. In 181 5 he commanded the Channel fleet, was charged after the battle of Waterloo to blockade the west coast of France, and received Napoleon as a pris- oner on board his flag-ship, the Bellerophon. He was appointed one of the commissioners of the admiralty in 1818. Died in 1833. Hotho, ho'to, (Heinrich Gustav,) a German writer on art, born in Berlin in 1802, He became professor of philosophy at the University of Berlin in 1829, and was considered one of the chief representatives of the school of Hegel. He wrote a " History of Painting in Germany and the Low Countries," (2 vols., 1840-43.) Hotman, //ot'mfiN', ( Antoine, ) a French jurist, a brother of Fran9ois, noticed below, was born about 1525 ; died in 1596. Hotman or Hottomann, [ Lat. Hotoman'nus and Hottoman'nus.J (FRANgois,) an eminent French jurist and Protestant, born in Paris in 1524, was a friend of Calvin. He was deeply versed in jurisprudence, literature, and antiquities. He became professor of law at Strasburg about 1550, and at Valence in 1561. By concealment he escaped the Massacre of Saint Bar- tholomew, (1572,) after which he retired to Geneva and Bale. He was appointed councillor of state by Henry IV. about 1580. He performed an important part in the scientific revolution which was produced in jurisprudence in the sixteenth century. His famous work on public French law, entitled "Treatise on the Government of the Kings of Gaul," (" Franco-Gallia, sive Tractatus de Regimine Regum Galliae," 1573,) had an immense influ- ence. He wrote, in elegant Latin, many other works, amgjig which are a " Commentary on Legal Words," (" Commentarius de Verbis Juris," 1558,) and "Cele- brated Questions," (" Quaestiones illustres," 1573.) Died at Bale in 1590. His son Jean (1552-1636) was a diplo- matist and writer. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Haag, "La France protestante ;" Nevelet, "Vita Hottomanni," prefixed to Hotnian's Works, about 1600; Dareste, "Essai sur F. Hotman," 1850; " Nouveile Biopraphie Generale." Hotmann or Hottomann. See Hotman. Hotmanniis or Hottomannus. See Hotman. Hottinger, hot'ting-er, (Johann Heinrich,) an eminent Swiss Orientalist and Protestant divine, born at Zurich in 1620. After studying in his native city, at Ge- neva, and Leyden, and becoming one of the best Oriental scholars of his time, he was chosen in 1648 professor of theology and Oriental languages at Zurich, In 1655 he accepted the chair of Oriental languages at Heidelberg, where he remained until 1661, when he was elected rector of the University of Zurich. The University of Leyden persuaded him to accept their chair of theology ; but be- fore he arrived at that scene of labour he was accidentally drowned, in 1667. Among the numerous monuments of his vast erudition, the following are, perhaps, the prin- a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, g, obscure; fSr, fUll, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; HOTTINGER 121 5 HOUSSATE cipal : " Oriental History," (" Historia Orientalis," 165 1,) "Ecclesiastical History of the New Testament," (9 vols., 1651-67,) and " Etymologicum Orientale," a lexicon of seven languages, (1661.) See J. H. Heidegger, "Historia Vitae J. H. Hottingerl," 1667; Bavi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" G. H. Hahn, "Un- tersuchung ob des gelehrten Hottinger's wirkliche Lebensgefahr," etc., 1742: NiCERON, " Memoires." Hottinger, (Johann Jakob,) a Swiss theologian, a son of the preceding, was born at Zurich in 1652. From 1698 until his death he was professor of theology in his native city. He wrote, besides other works, an " Eccle- siastical History of Switzerland," in German, (4 vols., 1708-29.) Died in 1735. Hottiuger, (Johann Jakob,) a Swiss professor and philologist, born at Zurich in 1750. He taught Greek and Latin in his native city, and published several good editions and translations of classic authors. Died in 1819. Hottinger, ( Johann Jakob, ) a Swiss writer, born in 1783 at Zurich, where lie became professor of his- tory, and published, besides other works, a " History of the Schism in the Swiss Church," in German, (2 vols., 1827.) Hotze, von, fon hot'seh, (David,) an Austrian gene- ral, born near Zurich about 1740. He commanded the army which was opposed to Massena in Switzerland in 1799. He was killed in a battle near Zurich, in Sep- tember, 1799. Houard, oo'iR',* (David,) a French jurist, born at Dieppe in 1725 ; died in 1802. Houbigant, hoo'ht'gh^'* (Charles Francois,) a French priest, born in Paris in 1686, was a member of the Oratory, and an excellent biblical scholar. After teaching rhetoric at Marseilles and philosophy at Sois- sons, he became deaf about 1722, and thenceforth de- voted himself to study and writing. He gave especial attention to Hebrew, \vith a view to correct the text of the Bible, The principal fruit of his labours is an edition of the Hebrew Bible, with Critical Notes and a Latin Version, (4 vols., 1753,) which is highly com- mended. Died in Paris in 1783. See J. F. Adrv, "Notice sur la Vie de C. F. Houbigant," 1806; "Noiivelle Biographic Generaie." Houbraken, how^bR^'ken, (Arnold,) a Dutch painter, engraver, and critic, born at Dort in 1660, He painted history and portraits with success at Amsterdam, and wrote (in Dutch) " The Lives of Dutch and Flemish Painters," with portraits, (3 vols., 1718,) a work of much merit. Died in 17 19. See Jakob Campo Weverman, " De Schilderkonst der Neder- landers." Houbraken, (Jacob,) son of the preceding, was born at Dort in 1698. He w-orked many years at Amsterdam, was almost unrivalled as an engraver, and executed several hundred portraits, among which are a collection of " Illustrious Persons of Great Britain," (London, 1748.) He also engraved the "Sacrifice of Manoah," after Rembrandt, and the portraits in his father's " Lives of the Dutch and Flemish Painters." Died in 1780. See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." Houchard, oo'shtR',* (Jean Nicolas,) a French general, born at Forbach in 1740. He served in the army before the Revolution, in which he espoused the popular party. In 1792 he succeeded Custine in the command of the armies of the Moselle and of the North. In August, 1793, he gained a victory at Hondschoote, and forced the British to raise the siege of Dunkirk ; but he was arrested by the dominant faction, and exe- cuted, in 1793, on the charge that he had permitted the enemy to escape after the battle just mentioned. See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution." Houdard. See Motte, La. Houdart de la Motte. See Motte, La. Houdetot, oo'deh-to',* (Elisabeth FRANgoiSE Sophie de la Live de Bellf.garde,) Countess, a French lady, born about 1730, was the wife of General * There is perhaps no question in French pronunciation attended with more difficulty than that respecting the aspiration of the letter h. The best French authorities differ in regard to the initial h of many names. Some respectable authorities assert that the h should never Houdetot, the sister-in-law of Madame fipinay, and a favourite of Rousseau, to whose passion and indiscretion she chiefly owes the publicity of her name. Her liaison with M. Saint-Lambert was well known. Died in 1813. Houdon, oo'doN',* (Jean Antoine,) an eminent French sculptor, born at Versailles in 1 741. About 1760 he won the grand prize for sculpture at the Academy, and went to Rome with a pension. After remaining there ten years, during which he executed an admired statue of Saint Bruno, he returned to Paris, and was admitted into the Royal Academy in 1775, About 1785 he received from Dr. Franklin a commission to execute the marble statue of W ashington which adorns the State- House at Richmond, Virginia. He came to Philadelphia to obtain the model of this work. His reputation was increased by his statues of Voltaire and Cicero, and his busts of Rousseau, Buffon, Franklin, D'Alembert, Napo- leon, Ney, etc. His heads of young girls are highly successful in the expression of modesty and innocence. Houdon was a member of the Institute. His personal character was amiable and estimable. Died in 1828. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generaie." Houdry, ooMrc',* (Vincent,) a French Jesuit, born at Tours in 1 631, was employed as preacher in the chief cities of France. He published sermons, and a compila- tion entitled " Bibliotheque des Predicateurs," (2jjrols., IT 12 et seq.) Died in 1729. ^ Houel, //oo'eK,* (Jean Pierre Louis Laurent,) a French landscape-painter and engraver, born at Rouen in 1735. In a journey through Italy, Sicily, etc., he col- lected materials for an interesting work, entitled " A Picturesque Tour through Sicily, Malta, and the Lipari Islands," (4 vols., 1782-87, with 264 engravings.) Died in 1813. Hough, hiif, (John,) D.D., an English scholar, born in Middlesex in 165 1, was elected president of Magda- lene College, Oxford, in 1687, in opposition to the illegal dictation of James II. The king then sent a mandate to the Fellows to elect Parker, a Catholic. In this contest Hough firmly maintained his rights and those of the college, and the king's agents broke open the door in order'to place Parker in the president's chair. In 1688 Hough was reinstated, and in 1690 was made Bishop of Oxford, Translated to the see of Lichfield and Coventry in 1699, he refused the Archbishopric of Canterbury in 171 5, and became Bishop of Worcester in 1717. He was eminent for piety and learning. Died in 1743. See John Wilmot, "Life of Rev. John Hough," 1812; Mac- aulav, " History of England," vol. ii. chap. viii. Houghton, ho'ton, (Douglas,) M.D., a naturalist, born at Troy, in New York, about 1810. He was apy- pointed State geologist for Michigan in 1837, and was drowned in Eagle River in 1845, Houghton, Lord. See Milnes, (Richard Monk- ton.) Houghton, ho'ton. Major, an English traveller, who was sent by the African Company to explore the source of the Niger, He started in 1790, ascended the Gambia many hundred miles, and afterwards proceeded by land. It is supposed that he died near Jarra, in 1791 ; but his papers were never recovered. Houlakou or Houlagou, See Hoolakoo. Houlieres, des. See DESHouLiiRES, Houllier, //ool'e-i', [Lat, Holle'rius,] (Jacques,) an eminent French physician, born at Etampes, obtamecj a large practice in Paris, and was chosen Dean of the Faculty in 1546, He wrote able commentaries on Hip- pocrates, (1579,) and other works. Died in 1562. Houmayoun or Houmaioon. See Hoomayoon. Houseman, (C.) See Huysman. Houssaye. See Amelot de la Houssaye. Houssaye, //oo^si', (Ars^ne,) a successful French litteratetir and poet, born near Laon in 181 5. He pro- duced "La Couronne des Bluets," (1836,) and many other novels. His " History of Flemish and Dutch Painting" (1846) was received with favour. In 1844 he be sounded in any case ; others maintain that in certain words and names it should be slightly sounded, while in others it is entirely mute. Respecting this subject, see the remarks on French pronunciation in the Introduction, € as k; c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, v.^ guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jf^^See Explanations, p, 23.) HOUSTON 1 216 HOWARD published a " Gallery of Portraits of the Eighteenth Century," (ist series, 2 vols.,) which was completed in 5 vols, about 1850. From 1849 to 1856 he was director of the Theatre Fran9ais. He also wrote able critiques on art, and published a volume of poems, '* Poesies completes," (1849,) and " Le Roi Voltaire," (1858.) Pie was chosen inspector-general of the works of art and Miisees in 1856. See BouRQUELOT, "La Litterature Fran^aise contemporaine ;" Charles Robin, " Biographic d' A. Houssaye," 1848 ; Clement DE Ris, " Portraits ^ la Plume :" Alfred ue Musset, "A. Hous- saye," etc., 1853; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" "Blackwood's Magazine" for June, 1851. Houston, hu'ston, ? (George Smith,) an American Democratic politician, born in Tennessee in 181 1. He studied law, which he practised at Huntsville, Alabama, and was elected a member of Congress in 1841. He was chairman of the committee of ways and means in the House of Representatives during two terms, 1851-55. Houston, hu'ston, (Sam,*) an American general, born near Lexington, Virginia, in 1793, was taken to Tennessee in his childhood. He studied law, which he practised at Nashville, was elected a member of Congress in 1823, and Governor of Tennessee in 1827. In 1829 he resigned his office, and, renouncing civilized society, passed several years with the Cherokee Indians, who lived west of Arkansas. About the end of 1832 he emigrated to Texas, where he took an active part in the ensuing revolt against the Mexican government. Having been chosen commander-in-chief of the Texan army, he defeated and captured Santa Anna at San Jacinto, April 21, 1836. He was elected President of Texas in July, 1836, and re-elected for a term of three years in 1841. After the annexation of Texas to the Union, (1845,) he was chosen a United States Senator, and at the end of his term in 1853 was elected for a second term. He made an able speech against the Kansas-Nebraska bill in March, 1854, about which time he joined the Ameri- can (Know-Nothing) party. He was chosen Governor of Texas in 1859. On the breaking out of the civil war he favoured the Union, but was overborne by a large majority of the people. Died in 1862. See " Sam Houston and his Republic," by Charles E. Lester, 1855. Hous'ton, (William,) F.R.S., an English surgeon and naturalist, born about 1695, studied under Boerhaave, at Leyden, in 1728-29, and made there, with Van Swieten, experiments respecting the respiration of animals. About 1732 he made a voyage for scientific purposes to the West Indies, where he died in 1733, ^f'^^'' collecting and describing many rare plants. The results of his botanical labours were published by Sir Joseph Banks. See " Biographie Medicale." Houteville or Houtteville, hoot'vkV, (Claude FRAN50IS,) a French priest of the Oratory, born in Paris in 1686. He published, in 1722, "The Truth of the Christian Religion proved by Facts," which attracted much attention and hostile criticism. In 1723 he was chosen a member of the French Academy. He was elected perpetual secretary of the Academy in 1742, and died in the same year. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Houtnian, howt'min, (Cornelts,) a Dutch navigator, born at Gouda, was the pioneer or founder of the com- merce between Holland and the East Indies. As agent of a company, he made the first voyage in 1595, and re- turned home in 1 597. In 1598 he renewed the enterprise with two ships, and landed at Acheen, in Sumatra, where he was arrested with some of his men, and kept a prisoner several years, until his death. Died about 1605. See Raynal, " Histoire philosophique des deux Indes;" "Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Houtman, (Frederik,) a navigator, born about 1570, was a brother of the preceding, whom he accompanied in his voyage to the East Indies in 1598. He was after- wards Governor of Amboyna, and published a "Malay Dictionary," (1603.) Died about 1613. Houtteville. See Houteville. Hove, van, vtn ho'veh, (Antoon,) a Dutch historian and Latin poet, born about 1505 ; died in 1568. * So called by himself. Hoveden, huv'den or hov'den, de, (Roger,) an English historian, born at York, lived about 1170-1200. He was professor of theology at Oxford, and filled re- sponsible offices at the court of Henry II. He wrote, in Latin, a "History of England from 731 to 1202," which is commended by Leland, Selden, and others for its fidelity. See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis." Hovel. See Hf:velius. Hovey, huv'e, (Alvah,) an American divine and author, born in Chenango county. New York, about 1820. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1843, and about 1850 be- came a professor in the Bajitist Theological Seminary at Newton. His principal work is the "Life and Times of Backus," (1857.) Hovey, (Alvan P.,) an American officer, who en- tered the service as major of an Indiana regiment in 1861, and became a brigadier-general about April, 1862. He commanded a division and contributed to the victory at Champion's Hill, May 16, 1863. Hovey, (Charles Edward,) an American officer, born at Hartford, Vermont, in 1827, removed to Illinois, and was made a brigadier-general of volunteers in 1862. How, (William,) M.D., born in London in 1619, became a captain in the royal army in the civil war, and afterwards practised medicine in his native city. He is said to have been the author of the first English Flora, ("Phytologia Britannica," 1650,) which contains twelve hundred and twenty plants. Died in 1656. HSvsr'ard, the name of an ancient and noble family of England, the head of which is the Duke of Norfolk and the premier peer of Great Britain. The Earls of Carlisle and Suffolk also belong to the Howard family. Howard, (Anne,) daughter of Charles, Earl of Car- lisle, was married to Richard, Viscount Irwin. She wrote a "Poetical Essay on Pope's Characters of Women," and other poems. Died in 1760. Howard, (Charles,) Lord Effingham, or Lord Howard of Effingham, an English admiral, born in 1536, was the son of William, Lord Effingham, and grandson of Thomas Howard, second Duke of Norfolk. After important civil and military services, he was appointed in 1585 lord high admiral by Queen Elizabeth, and suc- cessfully opposed the Invincible Armada in 1588. In 1596 he was associated with the Earl of Essex in the victorious expedition against Cadiz, and was rewarded with the title of Earl of Nottingham. About three years later, when another Spanish invasion was expected, the sole command of the army and navy for a short time was committed to him, with the title of lieutenant-general of England. He retained his honours and offices under James I. Died in 1624. See Campbell, "Lives of British Admirals ;" J. Barrow, "Me- moirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen Elizabeth's Reign," 1845. Howard, (Charles,) Earl of Carlisle, born about 1630, was employed in the reign of Charles II. in diplo- matic missions to Muscovy, Sweden, and Denmark, of which an account was published in 1669. Died in 1686. Howard, (Charles,) tenth Duke of Norfolk, (pre- viously Hon. Charles Howard, of Greystock Castle, Cumberland,) succeeded to the dukedom in 1777. He published "Thoughts, Essays, and Maxims, chiefly Re- ligious and Political," (1768,) and "Historical Anecdotes of some of the Howard Family." Died in 1786. Howard, (Charles,) eleventh Duke of Norfolk, an English nobleman, born in 1746, was the son of the tenth Duke. In 1780, being then styled the Earl of Surrey, he exchanged the Catholic faith for that of the Anglican Church. Representing Carlisle in Parliament, he acted with the opposition during the ministries of Lord North and Lord Shelburne. At the death of his father, in 1786, he became Duke of Norfolk. As a member of the House of Lords, he opposed the measures of Pitt. Died in 1815. Howard, (Hon. Edward,) an English writer, a son of Thomas, Earl of Berkshire, lived about 1650. He wrote several unsuccessful dramas, and "The British Princes ; a Heroic Poem," in which occur these lines, often quoted in ridicule : " A painted vest Prince Vortigern had on, Which from a naked Pict his grandsire won." a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; ndt; good; moon; HOWARD 1217 HOWARD Pope, in the "Dunciad," alludes to him in these terms : "And high-born Howard, more majestic sire, With fool of quality completes the choir." Howard, (Edward,) a popular English novelist, was a lieutenant in the royal navy. He published " The Old Commodore," {1837,) "Ratlin the Reefer," (1838,) " Outward-Bound," etc. Died in 1842. Howard, (Frank,) an able English designer and writer on art, a son of Henry Howard the painter. He published "The Spirit of the Plays of Shakspeare, ex- hibited in Outline Plates," (5 vols., 1827-33,) and the "Science of Drawing," (1840.) Died in 1866. Howard, (Frederick,) fifth Earl of Carlisle, an English poet and statesman, born in 1748, was the son of Henry, and grandson of the third Earl, noticed above. He succeeded to the family title in 1758. In 1778 he was one of the commissioners sent to persuade the people of the United States to submit to • the British rule. He acted with the Whig party until the French Revolution, after which he supported the ministry. He published a volume of Poems, and several tragedies, one of which, called " The Father's Revenge," was com- mended by Dr. Johnson. His mother, Isabella Byron, daughter to the fifth Lord Byron, was first-cousin to the father of the poet Byron. Died in 1825. Howard, (George Edmund,) a British poet and architect, was educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He published in 1782 several volumes of miscellaneous works, the most important of which treat on the ex- chequer, revenue, and trade of Ireland. Died in 1786. Howard, (George William Frederick,) Earl of Carlisle and Viscount Morpeth, a statesman and author, born in 1802, was a grandson of Frederick, fifth Earl of Carlisle. He was styled Lord Morpeth before the death of his father, which occurred about 1848. Under the Whig ministry which was dissolved in 1841 he was secretary for Ireland. He visited the United States between 1842 and 1846, and, after his return, imparted to the public some observations on that country in a lecture. In 1854 he published a " Diary in Turkish and Greek Waters," which is a work of merit. He was lord- lieutenant of Ireland about three years, (1855-58,) and was reappointed to that office by Palmerston in June, 1859. He had the reputation of a liberal statesman and benevolent man. Died in 1864. Howard, (Henry,) Earl of Surrey, a celebrated English poet, born about 15 16, was the son of Thomas, third Duke of Norfolk, and of Elizabeth Stafford. He excelled in the accomplishments of a scholar, courtier, and soldier, and cultivated as well as patronized the fine arts. About 1535 he married Lady Frances Vere. In 1544 he accompanied Henry VIII. in his invasion of France, was made a field-marshal, and was appointed governor of Boulogne after it was captured by the English. Soon after this he became the object of the king's suspicion. He was recalled in 1546, arrested with his father, condemned, and executed in 1547. He left two sons and three daughters. (With respect to Surrey's guilt or innocence, see Froude's " History of England," vol. iv. chap, xxiii.) Surrey is the first who used blank verse in our lan- guage, and is considered the first English classical poet. He did much to improve the style of versification. One of his principal productions is a translation into blank verse of the second book of the "yEneid," which is admired for its fidelity and poetic diction. He also wrote numerous sonnets and songs. There is some doubt of the reality of his romantic passion for Geral- dine, who is the subject of his most admired effusions. She was a child of thirteen, named Lady Elizabeth Fitz- gerald, who afterwards became the wife of the Earl of Lincoln. See Hallam, "Introduction to the Literature of Europe;" Warton, " History of English Poetry ;" Johnson and Chalmers, "Lives of the English Poets;" " Edinburgh Review," vol. xlii. Howard, (Henry,) Earl of Northampton, second son of the preceding, was born at Norfolk about 1539. He was a person of much learning, but of bad principles. He became a privy councillor at the accession of James I., who made him Earl of Northampton. In 1608 he was appointed lord privy seal. He was suspected of complicity in the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury, and in the disgraceful conduct of his relative, the Countess of Essex. Died in 1614. See Gardiner's " History of England from 1603 to 1616," vol. i. chap. ii. pp. 63 and 64 ; also, chaps, x. and xii. Howard, (Henry,) born in 1757, was the son of Philip Howard of Corby Castle, England, and a de- scendant of the noble Earl of Surrey. He published "Indication of Memorials, etc. of the Howard Family," (1834,) and other works. Died in 1842. Howard, (Henry,) an English painter, born in 1769, entered the Royal Academy as a student in 1788. In 1790 he won two of the highest premiums, — a gold medal for the best historical painting, and a silver medal for the best drawing from life. After a visit to Rome he was chosen a member of the Royal Academy in 1808, and secretary of that body in 181 1. His favourite sub- jects are classical and poetical, and are treated with elegant taste. Among his best works are "The Birth of Venus," "The Solar System," "The Circling Hours," and "The Story of Pandora." Died in 1847. Howard, (Sir John,) was a son of Sir Robert Howard and Margaret, a daughter of Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk. He was a partisan of the house of York during the wars of the Roses. He was created Duke of Norfolk in 1483, and was killed with Richard III. at Bosworth in 1485. Howard, (John,) F.R.S., a celebrated English philan- thropist, born at Hackney, near London, in 1726. He was the son of a London tradesman, who died in his minority and left him an independent fortune. Having made a tour on the continent, he returned home and took lodgings with a widow named Loidore, by whom he was kindly nursed when his health required such atten- tion, and whom he married out of mere gratitude in 1752, although she was more than twenty years his senior. After their marriage she lived only three or four years. In 1756 he embarked for Lisbon, in the desire to relieve the miseries caused by the great earthquake of 1755, but during the passage was taken by a French privateer, and detained in prison long enough to excite his lasting sym- pathy with prisoners and to impress him with the neces- sity of a reform in their treatment. After he was re- leased he returned home, and married in 1758 Henrietta Leeds, with whom he lived happily at Cardington until her death in 1765, He had by this marriage one son, whose vicious habits produced first disease and then incurable insanity. Plaving been appointed sheriff of the county of Bedford in 1773, he witnessed with pain the abuses and cruelties to which prisoners were usually subjected. After visiting most of the county jails of Eng- land, and collecting much information respecting them, he induced the House of Commons in 1774 to begin a reform in prison discipline, to which his life thenceforth was constantly, heroically, and successfully devoted. In 1777 he published a valuable volume on "The State of the Prisons in England," etc. From 1778 until his death he was almost continually employed in traversing all parts of Europe, visiting prisons and hospitals, relieving the sick, and, as Burke expresses it, " taking the gauge and dimensions of misery, depression, and contempt." He died of fever in 1790, at Cherson, on the Black Sea. His habits were simple, temperate, and self-denying. Having been educated among Protestant dissenters, he continued in their fellowship through life. See "Life of Howard," by W. Hepworth Dixon, 1849; another Life, by John Field, 1850; Aikin, "Life of John Howard," 1792; J. B. Brown, "Memoirs of the Life of John Howard," 1818 ; " En- cyclopaedia Britannica;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for January, 1850. HSw'ard, (John Eager,) an officer, born in Balti- more county, Maryland, in 1752. He commanded a regi- ment which distinguished itself by its brilliant bayonet- charge at Cowpens, January, 1781, and its gallantry at Guilford Court-House, March, 1781, and Eutaw Springs, in September of that year. Lie was chosen Governor of Maryland in 1788, and was a United States Senator from 1796 to 1803. Died in 1827. See "National Portrait- Gallery of Distinguished Americans. Howard^ (Luke,) an English meteorologist, born about 1770, published an " Essay on Clouds," (1802,) and other works on meteorology. Died in 1864. € as g as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[J^See Explanations, p. 23.) 77 I HOWARD 1218 HOWE Howard, (Oliver Otis,) an American general, born at Leects, Kennebec county, Maine, in November, 1830. He was educated at Bowdoin College and at the Military Academy of West Point, where he graduated in 1854. He became first lieutenant of ordnance in 1857, and colonel of the Third Maine Volunteers in May, 1861. He com- manded a brigade at Bull Run, July 21, and obtained the rank of brigadier-general in September, 1861. At the battle of Fair Oaks, May 31, 1862, he lost his right arm. He commanded a division at the battle of Antietam, September 17, and at Fredericksburg, December, 1862. In November, 1862, he was appointed a major-general of volunteers, and in April, 1863, obtained command of the eleventh army corps, which he led at Chancellors- ville, and at Gettysburg, July 2 and 3, 1863. He served with distinction at the battle of Missionary Ridge and Chattanooga, November 25, 1863. In his report of this campaign General Sherman commends him as "exhibit- ing the highest and most chivalrous traits of the soldier." General Howard commanded the fourth corps of the army which, under General Sherman, fought its way from Chattanooga to Atlanta, May-September, 1864. He was appointed, July 27, commander of the army of the Tennessee in place of McPherson, who was killed near Atlanta. In the memorable march of Sherman's army from Atlanta to the sea, Howard led the right wing, and was the second or third in command. (See Sherman, William T.) In May, 1865, he was ap- pointed chief of the Freedmen's Bureau. He has the reputation of being a model Christian soldier. He is a brigadier-general of the regular army by a commission dated December, 1864. Howard, (Philip,) of Corby Castle, England, was a descendant of the eminent poet the Earl of Surrey, and father of Henry, noticed above, (i 757-1 842.) He wrote the *' Scriptural History of the Earth and of Mankind," (1797.) Died in 1810. Howard, (Sir Robert,) M.P., an English poet, born in 1626, was a brother of the Hon. Edward Howard, noticed above. He was a royalist in the civil war, and, after the restoration, was appointed auditor of the ex- chequer. His most successful dramas were "The Com- mittee" and "The Indian Queen." He was the original hero of "The Rehearsal," in which he is called Bilboa. "The poetry of the Berkshire Howards," says Macaulay, "was the jest of three generations of satirists." The poet Dryden married Howard's sister. Died in 1698. See Macaulay, "History of England," vol. iii. chap. xiv. ; Cib- 3ER, " Lives of the Poets." Howard, (Samuel,) an English musical composer, ivho flourished about 1750, produced several popular ballads. Died in 1783. Howard, (Thomas,) second Duke of Norfolk, and Earl of Surrey, was a son of John, first Duke. He fought for Richard HI. at Bosworth, where his father was killed, in 1485. He commanded the English army which gained a great victory over the Scotch at Flodden in 15 13, and received the title of Duke of Norfolk for this service, before which he was styled Earl of Surrey. He died in 1524, aged about seventy, and was succeeded by his son Thomas. Howard, (Thomas,) third Duke of Norfolk, a son of the preceding, and an eminent English statesman and gen- eral, was born about 1473. In 15 13 he was chosen high admiral of England, and, in co-operation with his father, •defeated the Scotch at the battle of Flodden. For this -service he was made Earl of Surrey, while his father was made Duke of Norfolk. In 1523 he became lord high treasurer, and in 1524, at the death of his father, inherited his title. His devotion to the Church of Rome made him hostile to Anne Boleyn, though she was his own niece. After Henry VIII. had married Catherine Howard, the duke, who was her uncle, had much influ- ence in the royal councils, and used it for the persecu- tion of the Protestants. In 1547 he was arrested on a charge of treason, and ordered for execution ; but before the fatal day came the king died. Norfolk was released from prison in 1553, and died the next year. His son, the Earl of Surrey, was executed in 1547. See Froude, "History of the Reign of Henry VIII.," particu- larly vols, iii. and iv. ; Hume's and Lingakd's Histories of England. Howard, (Thomas,) fourth Duke of Norfolk, was a grandson of the preceding. He was the only peer who at that time possessed the highest title of nobility ; and, as there were no princes of the blood, his rank, together with his great wealth and abilities, rendered him the first subject in England. He is represented as generous, prudent, and moderate, and sincerely attached to the Protestant religion. In 1559 Elizabeth appointed him her lieutenant in the northern counties. By aspiring to become the husband of Mary Queen of Scots, he gave offence to Elizabeth, and was committed to the Tower in 1569. Having been released, he renewed his suit, received a promise of marriage from the captive queen, and joined a conspiracy for her liberation. For this he was condemned and executed in 1572. See Hume, " History of England ;" Froude, " History of Eng- land," vols. ix. and x. Howard, (Thomas,) Earl of Arundel, a branch of the ancient and noble family of Howard, was employed in foreign embassies by Charles I. In 1639 he was appointed commander of an army raised to subdue the Scotch ; but peace was made before any important action occurred. He formed an extensive collection of Grecian antiquities and productions of ancient artists, parts of which were presented by one of his heirs to the University of Oxford, under the name of the Arundelian marbles. His grandson Henry became sixth Duke of Norfolk. The earl wrote several relations of his em- bassies and voyages. Died in 1646. How'den, (John Francis Caradoc,) Baron, a British general, born in 1762, was the son of John Cra- dock. Archbishop of Dublin. He entered the army in 1777. In 1801 he was one of Abercrombie's staff, and was engaged in several battles in Egypt. He afterwards commanded the British army in India, and in Portugal in 1808. In 1 83 1 he was raised to the peerage, as Baron Howden. Died in 1839. Howden, (John Horart Caradoc,) Baron, an Eng- lish diplomatist, a son of the preceding, was born in 1799. He served in the army, and gained the rank of major- general. He was sent as ambassador to Madrid in 1850. HQwe, (Albion P.,) an American general, born in Maine about 181 8, graduated at West Point in 1841. He became a brigadier-general in April, 1862, served at Antietam, September 17, and commanded a division at the battles of Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862, and Gettysburg, July 2 and 3, 1863. H6we, (Charles,) born in Gloucestershire, England, in 1661, was employed as a diplomatist by James II. He wrote " Devout Meditations," of which the poet Young says, " A greater demonstration of a sound head and a sincere heart I never saw." Died in 1745. Howe, (Elias,) an eminent American inventor, born at Spencer, Massachusetts, about 1819. While employed as a machinist he made many experiments for the inven- tion of a sewing-machine, and about 1844 entered into a partnership with Mr. George Fisher, of Cambridge, who agreed to give him pecuniary assistance on condition of becoming proprietor of half the patent. In April, 1845, he finished a machine, which in essential points is es- teemed by competent judges equal to any that have suc- ceeded it. He obtained a patent in 1846. His invention not ineeting in the United States with the success which he had anticipated, he resolved to visit England. He resided several years in London in great destitution, and returned in 1849, without having succeeded in making known the merits of his invention. Meanwhile the sew- ing-machine had been brought into general notice and favour, various improvements having been added by Mr. Singer, with whotn, as an infringer of his patent, Mr. Howe had a law-suit, which was decided in his favour in 1854. Soon after the breaking out of the rebellion in 1861, Mr. Howe raised and equipped at his own expense a regiment, in which he served as a private until ill health obliged him to resign. See the "History of the Sewing-Machine," in the "Atlantic Monthly" for May, 1867, by James Parton. Howe, (John,) an eminent English dissenting min- ister and author, born at Loughborough, May 17, 1630, was educated at Cambridge. Soon after he was ordained he was appointed domestic chaplain to Cromwell, then ; a, e, T, 6, %^ylong; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, f^t; mSt; nftt; good; moon; HOWE 1219 HOW ITT Protector, at whose death he was retained in the same office by Richard Cromwell. After the latter was de- posed, Howe preached at Great Torrington, until he was ejected for nonconformity, in 1662. In 1675 he be- came minister of a Puritan congregation in London, where he continued to labour (except during a few years of absence) until his death. He was eminent for piety, for wisdom, for profound learning, and for classical scholarship. As an author he is highly applauded for his originality, sublimity, and evangelical spirit. Among his principal works are "The Living Temple," (1674- 1702,) "The Blessedness of the Righteous," "The Re- deemer's Tears," (1684,) and " The Vanity of this Mortal Life." Robert Hall said, "I have learned more from John Howe than from any other author I ever read." "Nothing in the language," says William Jay, "can equal, as a whole, Howe's 'Living Temple.'" He is accounted the most philosophical thinker among the Puritan divines. Died in 1705. His complete works were published in 8 vols., 1810-22. See Edmund Calamv, "Life of John Howe," 1724; H. Rogers, "Life of John Howe," 1836; Thomas Taylor, "Memoir of John Howe," 1835; Samuel Dunn, "Life of John Howe," 1836; " Bio- graphia Britannica;" Macaulav, "History of England," vol. ii. chaps, vii. and viii. ; R. Southey, article on Howe, in "Quarterly Review" for October, 1813, (vol. x. ;) "Encyclopaedia Britannica." Howe, (John,) M.P., a noted English politician and versifier, was returned to the Convention Parliament for Cirencester in 1689, and was several times re-elected. He was conspicuous in the House for his volubility, asperity, and audacity of speech. Having turned Tory, he became in the reign of Anne a member of the privy council, and paymaster of the army. He wrote a " Pane- gyric on William HL," and several short poems. Died in 1721. See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. iii. chaps, xi. and xiv. Howe, (JosiAH,) an English poet and clergyman, became a Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1637, and preached before Charles L at Oxford in 1644. He wrote some epigrammatic verses prefixed to the works of Beaumont and Fletcher. Died in 1701. Howe, (Julia Ward,) an American poetess, daughter of Samuel Ward, a banker in New York, was born in 1819. She was educated with great care, and in 1843 was married to Dr. Samuel G. Howe, of Boston, with whom she has twice visited Europe, making on each occa- sion an extensive tour. Some of her poems possess merit of a very high order. Among the principal are " Passion-Flowers," published in 1854, and "Words for the Hour." She is the author of the deservedly popular song entitled " Battle Hymn of the Republic." See Griswold, "Female Poets of America." Howe, (Richard,) Earl, a distinguished English admiral, born in 1725, was the second son of Lord Emanuel Scrope Howe. He entered the navy about the age of fourteen, and obtained the rank of captain about 1747. He distinguished himself in the Seven Years' war against the French. At the death of his elder brother, in 1758, he inherited the title of viscount. In 1763 and 1764 he occupied a seat at the board of admiralty, and in 1770 he became a rear-admiral of the blue, and com- manded the Mediterranean fleet. From. 1776 to 1778 he commanded on the coast of the United States, where he maintained his credit by skilful operations against the French fleet under D'Estaing. He was promoted to the rank of admiral of the blue in 1782, and in the next year acted as first lord of the admiralty. In 1788 he was created Earl Howe. On June i, 1794, he gained a de- cisive victory over the French fleet, of which he captured seven ships of the line. Died in 1799. He was regarded as the first sea-officer of his time. See Campbell, "Lives of British Admirals;" George Mason, 'Life of Richard, Earl Howe;" John Barrow, "Life of Lord Richard Howe," 1838. Howe, (Dr. Samuel GRiDLEY,)an eminent American philanthropist, born in Boston in 1801. He graduated at Brown University in 1821, and entered upon the study of medicine in his native city. In 1824 he went to Greece, and fought valiantly in the war of independence. When famine threatened that country in 1827, he came to the United States and procured large contributions of provisions, clothing, and money, which he distributed among the Greek patriots. On his return to his native city, in 183 1, he entered with ardour into a plan for establishing in that city a school for the blind; and he visited Europe, to procure information, teachers, etc. The next year (1832) he opened the institution, (Perkins Institution for the Blind,) of which he became the prin- cipal. His success in the case of Laura Bridgeman, a deaf blind mute, whom he taught to read from raised letters and instructed in religion, morality, etc., attracted great attention. (See Bridgeman, Laura.) Dr. Howe has also devoted much attention to the education of idiots, for whom a school has been established in South Boston. Besides his other labours, he distinguished him- self by the active part he took in the anti-slavery cause. He is the author of a " Historical Sketch of the Greek Revolution," (1828,) a "Reader for the Blind," and of various essays and reports on the education of the blind and the idiotic, and other subjects. Howe, (Sir William,) an English general, was a younger brother of Admiral Richard Howe, noticed above. In 1774 he was returned to Parliament for Not- tingham, professing to disapprove the policy of the min- isters in relation to the Americans. In 1775 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army sent to sub- due the colonies, though deficient in nearly all the quali- ties which constitute a great general. His constituents censured him for accepting the command. His first exploit after this promotion was the battle of Bunker Hill, (1775,) in which he lost one-third of his men present in the action. In August, 1776, he gained the battle of Long Island and took New York City. He obtained an advantage over the Americans at Brandy- wine in September, 1777, in consequence of which Philadelphia was occupied by his army. At his own request, he was recalled in 1778, and was succeeded by Sir Henry Clinton. Died in 1814. See Bancroft, " History of the United States," vol. ix. chaps, v., vi., x., xiv., xxiii., xxv. How'el THE Good, or Hy'wel Dda, a Cambrian prince of the tenth century, noted as a legislator, suc- ceeded his father Cadell as King of Wales. After visit- ing Rome about 926, he framed a code of laws, which continued in force a long time. HSw'el or HSw'ell, (Laurence,) a learned English nonjuring divine, graduated at Cambridge in 1688. He wrote a " Synopsis of the Canons of the Latin Church," and other works on theology. For his pamphlet on the " Schism in the Church of England" he was convicted of sedition in 1716, and confined in Newgate until his death, in 1720. HSw'ell, (James,) a British author, born in Carmar- thenshire about 1595. Soon after leaving college he went to London, and, as agent of a glass-manufactory, made a tour on the continent,where he learned several languages. He was returned to Parliament in 1627, and exercised his versatile talents in several civil offices until 1643, when he was imprisoned, for reasons not positively known. He was released about 1649, and at the restoration be- came historiographer-royal, being the first who had that honour. He wrote " Dodona's Grove, or the Vocal Forest," a poem, (1640,) and various prose works. His "Familiar Letters" (1645) are very entertaining, and passed through ten editions before i 750. Died in 1666. See " Biographia Britannica." Howell, (William,) an English writer, of whose life little is known. He was at one time chancellor of the diocese of Lincoln. He wrote a " History of the World from the Earliest Times to the Ruin of the Roman Em- pire," a work of some merit. Died in 1683. H5w'ells, (William,) a popular English preacher, born in 1778. He was minister of Long Acre Episcopal Chapel, and belonged to the Evangelical school. Seve- ral volumes of his sermons were published. Died in 1832. See Charles Bowdler, " Memoir of William Howells," prefixed to his Sermons, 2 vols., 1835. Howick, Lord. See Grey, Earl of. How'itt, (Anna Mary,) an artist and writer, a daughter of William and Mary Howitt, was born about 1830. She has produced a work of merit called "The Art-Student in Munich," (2 vols., 1853,) and "The School of Life," (Boston, 1855,) which is highly corn- eas^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; *h as in this. (2[^=See Explanations, p. 23.) HOW ITT 120.0 HUBE mended. She was recently married to a son of the poet Alaric Watts. Howitt, (Mary,) a popular English authoress and moralist, born at Uttoxeter about 1804. Her maiden name was Boiham. She was educated as a member of the Society of P'riends, and was married to William Howitt in 1823. They published jointly " The Forest Minstrel, and other Poems," {1823,) "The Desolation of P^yam, and other Poems," (1827,) "The Book of the Seasons," (1831,) and "The Literature and Romance of Northern Europe," (1852,) the most complete work on that subject in English. Mary Howitt is sole author of numerous instructive books, among which are " Hope on, Hope ever," (3d edition, 1844,) " Hymns and Fire- side Verses," (1839,) "Sowing and Reaping," (1840,) and "Sketches of Natural History," (8th edition, 1853.) She has translated many works of Frederika Bremer, and several stories of Hans Christian Andersen. "Her language," says Professor Wilson, "is chaste and sim- ple, her feelings tender and pure, and her observation of nature accurate and intense." ("Blackwood's Maga- zine," vol. xxiv.) Howitt, (Richard,) a poet and physician, a brother of William Piowitt. He published in 1830 "Antediluvian Sketches, and other Poems," which was noticed favour- ably by the reviewers. " Richard too," says Professor Wilson, "has a true poetical feeling and no small poeti- cal power." He settled in Melbourne, Australia, and wrote "Impressions of Australia Felix," (1845.) Howitt, (William,) an eminent English author, born at Heanor, in Derbyshire, in 1795, was educated as a member of the Society of Friends. His first published work was " The Forest Minstrel, and other Poems," (1823,) partly written by his wife. Their other joint productions have been noticed in the article on Mary Howitt, He wrote a "History of Priestcraft," (1834,) which was very successful, and often reprinted, " Rural Life of England," (1837,) and "Colonization and Chris- tianity," (1839.) In 1840 William and Mary Howitt removed to Heidelberg, where they passed several years. His "Rural and Domestic Life in Germany" (1842) was received with favour both by the English and Ger- mans. He published " Homes and Haunts of the Most Eminent British Poets Illustrated," (2 vols., 1847,) be- sides various other original works, and translations from the German, and edited " Howitt's Journal" (weekly) for about three years, (1847-49.) He described his adventures and labours in Australia (where he passed about two years) in his "Land, Labour, and Gold," (2 vols., 1855.) Among his important works are " Visits to Remarkable Places, Old Halls, Battle-Fields," etc., (2 vols., 1839-41,) and a "History of England," (6 vols., 1861.) See Professor Wilson, " Noctes Ambrosianje," in " Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1,831; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" "Eraser's Magazine" for February, 1847; "North American Re- view" for April, 1843, (by W. B. O. Peabody.) How'ley, (William,) an English prelate, born at Ropley, in Hampshire, in 1765. He became Bishop of London in 1813, and Archbishop of Canterbury in 1828. He published several sermons. Died in 1848. How'son, (John,) an English theologian, born in London in 1556. After having occupied the see of Ox- ford, he became Bishop of Durham in 1628. He wrote and preached numerous discourses against the Roman Catholics, which were printed. Died in 1631. Howson, (John Saul,) an English divine, born about 1 81 5. He published, with W. J. Conybeare, "The Life and Epistles of Saint Paul," (2 vols., 1850-52.) Hoyer, ho'yer, (Andreas,) a Danish historian and jurist, born at Karlum, published a "Life of Frederick IV.," (1732,) and other works. Died in 1739. Hoyer, ho''yer, (Johann Gottfried,) a German military officer and writer, born at Dresden in 1767, published a "Dictionary of Artillery." Died in 1848. Hoy'er, [Fr. pron. hw^'yi',] (Michel,) a Flemish priest and Latin poet, born in 1593 ; died in 1650. Hoyle, hoil, (Edmund,) an Englishman, born in 1672, wrote popular treatises on Whist and other games. Died in 1769. Hoyt, (Epaphras,) a historical and military writer, born in Deerfield, Massachusetts, in 1765. He published "Cavalry Discipline," (1797,) and "Antiquarian Re^ searches," (1824.) He was a major-general of militia. Died in 1850. Hoyt, (Ralph,) an American Episcopal clergyman and poet, born in New York in 1810. He published "The Chaunt of Life, and other Poems," (1844.) Hoz, de la, dk li 6th, (Juan,) a Spanish dramatic poet, born at Madrid about 1620, wrote an admired comedy, " El Castigo de la Miseria." Died after 1689. Hozier, d'. See D'Hozier. Hrimfaxi. See Norvi. Hrotsvitha, h Rots' vee'tS, also written Hrosuitha, Hroswitha, and Roswitha, a celebrated German poetess of the tenth century, born in Lower Saxony, was educated in the convent of Gandersheim. She wrote Latin poems, which are valuable monuments of the literature of that time, and six dramas, (in Latin,) that rank among the best productions of the kind in the middle ages. Among her poems was one in hexameters, containing the history of Otto I., only half of which is extant. See GusTAV Freytag, " Dissertatio de Hrosuitha," 1839; Dau- ber, "Die Npnne von Gandersheim," 1858; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Hrungnir, hrung'nir, in the Norse mythology, a giant, who, on his horse Gullfaxi, (" Goldmane,") visited As- gard, and, having become intoxicated, defied the gods, and threatened to carry Valhalla to Jotunheim, (the " habitation of the giants.") He was slain by Thor, who gave Gullfaxi to his own son Jarnsaxa. Some explain the foregoing myth by supposing Hrungnir (whose name they derive from hritga, to "heap up") to be a lofty mountain piled up to the sky, thus appearing to menace heaven itself. Its summit being smitten and rent by the lightning, is compared by the Norse poets to the head of a giant whose skull Thor ("thunder") broke with his terrible hammer. See Thorpe's " Northern Mythology," vol. i. pp. 69-71, 174. Hrym, hreem, sometimes written Rymer, in the Northern mythology, the leader of the Frost-giants (Hrim- thursar) in the great battle against the gods at Ragna- rock. The name is clearly another form of Hrim, "frost," and cognate with the Latin rinia (" hoarfrost") and the Sanscrit hinia, (Gr. ;\:ei|Ua,) "frost," or "winter." Hua, /m'S', (Eustache Antoine,) a French lawyer, born at Mantes in 1759, was a moderate member of the Legislative Assembly in 1791. He became in 1818 attor ney-general in the court of cassation. Died in 1836. Huabalde. See Hubald. Huarte, 00-aR'ti, (Juan de Dios,) a Spanish phy sician and philosopher, born in Navarre about 1535. He published about 1580 a remarkable book, entitled " Examen de Ingenios para las Scienzias," which was often reprinted and translated. The English version was called " Trial of Wits." It contains some new truths, with many bold paradoxes. Died about 1600. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." Huascar, hwis'kar, an Inca of Peru, a son of Huayna Capac, whom he succeeded in 1525, was defeated in battle and dethroned by his brother Atahualpa in 1532. (See Atahualpa.) Huayna Capac, hwl^ni ki-pSk', Inca of Peru, as- cended the throne in 1493. He extended his dominions by conquest, and enriched them by the arts of peace. Died in 1525. Hu''baid, written also Huabalde, Hucbald, and Hugbald, [Lat. Hubal'dus.J a Flemish monk of Saint- Amand, born about 840 A. D., wrote a treatise on music, and Latin verses in praise of baldness, in which every word begins with C ; for example, "Carmina Clarisonae Calvis Cantata Camoenas." Died in 930. Hub^'bard, (William,) a historian, born in England in 1621, was ordained minister at Ipswich, Massachusetts, about 1656. He died in 1704, leaving in manuscript a " History of New England," which was published by the Massachusetts Historical Society in 181 5. Hube, hoo'bih, (R.,) a Polish jurist, born at Warsaw in 1803, published "Principles of Penal Law," (1830,) and other works. He was appointed councillor of state at Saint Petersburg in 1843, after which he was employed in the compilation of a new penal and civil code. a, e, ,1, 6, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/zori; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, f^t; mgt; nSt; good; moon; HUBER \zi\ HUDDE Huber, hoo'ber, (Francis,) a Swiss naturalist, born at Geneva in 1 750. The taste for nature and the habit of observation which he derived from his father were con- firmed by the lectures of Saussure. At the age of fifteen his sight began to fail, and was before long quite lost. Soon after the occurrence of this privation he married Mdlle. Lullin, and was blessed with domestic happiness. Pursuing his researches into the economy and habits of bees, by the aid of his servant, he made many interesting discoveries, and in 1792 published " New Observations on Bees," which excited a great sensation. He was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and of other similar institutions. He also wrote a " Memoir on the Origin of Wax," and a few other treatises. Died in 1830 or 183 1, See AuGUSTiN Pyrame Decandolle, " Notice sur la Vie et les ficrits de F. Huber," 1832; "Monthly Review," in the Appendix of vol. Ixxxii., 1 81 7. Huber, (Johann,) an artist, born in Geneva in 1722, was intimate with Voltaire, of whose domestic life he drew several pictures. He was noted for skill in cutting profiles in paper or parchment, and wrote " Observations on the Flight of Birds of Prey," (1784.) Died in 1790. Huber, (Johann Jakob,) an eminent Swiss anato- mist, born at Bale in 1707, was a pupil of Haller, whom he assisted in his "Swiss Flora." He was chosen pro- fessor of anatomy at Gottingen about 1737, and became professor and court physician at Cassel in 1742. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. His principal work is a "Treatise on the Spinal Marrow," (1739.) Died in 1778. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Huber, (Johann Rudolf,) an eminent Swiss painter, born at Bale in 1668, studied several years in Italy. He worked mostly in his native place. He painted portraits and history with rapidity and success. On account of his brilliant colouring, he was surnamed the Swiss TiNTORET. Died in 1748. See Nagler, " Allgemeines Kifnstler-Lexikon." Huber, //ii'baiR' or hoo'ber, (Louis Ferdinand,) a distinguished litterateur, son of Michael, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1764. Li 1794 he married Theresa, the widow of John George Forster and daughter of the eminent philologist Heyne. He became in 1798 editor of the "Allgemeine Zeitung" at Stuttgart. He wrote several dramas, and a collection of popular tales. Died in 1804. Huber, (Marie,) a Swiss authoress and Protestant theologian, remarkable for her peculiar religious views, which appear to have been a mixture of rationalism and mysticism, was born at Geneva in 1695. She wrote, be- sides other religious and moral works, " Letters on the Religion essential to Man, as distinguished from that which is Conventional," (accessoire,) (1738,) in which she uses a very subtle dialectic, and " The Insane (or Foolish) World preferred to the Wise," (" Le Monde fol pre- fere au Monde sage," 2 vols., 1731-44.) Died at Lyons in 1753- See " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Huber, (Michael,) a German translator, born at Frontenhausen, in Bavaria, in 1727. He lived many years in Paris, and became professor of French at Leip- sic in 1766. He made good French translations of many German works, among which were Gessner's poems and Winckelmann's " History of Ancient Art," (3 vols., 1 781.) Died in 1804. See QuERARD, "La France Litt^raire." Huber, (Peter, or Pierre,) son of Francis, noticed above, published a " History of the Habits of Indigenous Ants," " Observations on Drones," and other zoological treatises. Died in 1841. See "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1812, and October, 1815. Huber, (Therese,) a German novelist, born at Got- tingen in 1764, was a daughter of C. G. Heyne, the philologist. She was married to John George Forster, an eminent author, in 1784, and to Ludwig F. Huber (noticed above) in 1794. Died at Augsburg in 1829. Huber, (Victor Aim^:,) a historian and critic, son of Louis Ferdinand, noticed above, was born at Stuttgart in 1800. He popularized Spanish literature in Germany by his "History of the Cid" (1829) and his "Slcetches of Spain," (4 vols., 1828-35.) Foi* many years he was professor of languages and history at Marburg and Berlin. Huber, hii'ber, [Lat. Hube'rus,] (Ulrich,) a Dutch jurist, born at Dokkum in 1636. In 1665 he was chosen professor of law at Franeker. He published many able treatises on civil law, among which are " De Jure Civi- tatis," (1672,) and " Praelectiones ad Pandectas," (1686.) From the former Rousseau derived many of the ideas or principles of his "Contrat Social." Died in 1694. See ViTRiNGA, "Oratio in Excessum U. Huberi," 1694; "Nou- velle Biographie G^nerale;" Jocher, "Allgemeines Gelehrten- Lexikon." Hubert, hyX'hdav/, (FRANgois,) a French engraver, born at Abbeville in 1744; died in 1809. Hubert, (Mathieu,) an eloquent French preacher, born near Mayenne in 1640. He taught belles-lettres in various colleges, preached in Paris and the provinces, and died in 1 71 7. His Sermons were published in 5 vols., (1725.) Huberus. See Huber, (Ulrich.) Hiibner or Huebner, hup'ner, (Johann,) a German geographer and teacher, born at or near Zittau in 1668. His "Questions on Ancient and Modern Geography" (1693) was often reprinted. Died in 173 1. Hiibner or Huebner, (Rudolf Julius Benno,) a skilful German historical painter, born at Oels, in Silesia, in 1806, was a pupil of Schadow. He settled at Dresden in 1839, and became a professor in the Academy of Arts in that city in 1841. His works are admired for grace of expression and beauty of colour. Among his master- pieces are "Boaz and Ruth," "Christ and the Evan- gelists," "The Golden Age," and "Felicity and Sleep." Hiibner, von, fon hup'ner, (Joseph Alexander,) an Austrian diplomatist, born in Vienna in 1811, was ambassador to the French court, and signed the treaty of peace at the Congress of Paris in 1856. Hiibsch or Huebsch, hupsh, (Heinrich,) a German architect, born at Weinheim, Baden, in 1795. Hue, //ilk, (Abbe £variste Regis,) a French Catho- lic missionary and traveller, born at Toulouse in 1813. He went to China in 1839, learned the Chinese lan- guage, and laboured as a missionary. About the end of 1845 he visited Lassa, the capital of Thibet, where he was permitted to remain only a few weeks. Having returned to France in 1852, he published his very curious and amusing "Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China," (" Souvenirs d'un Voyage dans la Tartaric," etc., 2 vols., 1852,) which obtained a wide popularity, and was trans- lated into English by W. Hazlitt, Jr. He afterwards published "The Chinese Empire," (2 vols., 1854,) and " Christianity in China, Tartary, and Thibet," (3 vols., 1857.) Died in i860. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" "London Quarterly Re- view" for July, 1857 ; " Eraser's Magazine" for April, 1855. Hucbald. See Hubald. Huch. See .^pinus. Huchtenburgh, van, vtn huK'ten-biiRc', written also Hugtenburg, (Jakob,) a skilful Dutch landscape- painter, born at Haarlem in 1639, was a pupil of Berg- hem. He went in his youth to Rome, where he worked with success until his death, in 1669. Hu-chtenburgh, Hugtenburg, or Huchtenburg, van, (Jan,) an excellent Dutch painter, brother of the preceding, was born at Haarlem in 1646. He studied in Italy and Paris with Van der Meitlen, acquired a high reputation for battle-pieces, and was employed by Prince Eugene to paint those actions in which he and Marl- borough commanded. He was also a skilful engraver. Died in 1733. See Descamps, "Vie des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Hud'dart, (Joseph,) F.R.S., an English navigator and hydrographer, born at Allonby in 1741, was for many years a captain in the service of the East India Com- pany. He was a skilful nautical surveyor, and published some valuable charts. Died in 1816. Hudde, hud'deh, (Jan,) born at Amsterdam about 1636, was councillor, treasurer, and burgomaster of his native city. He was well versed in mathematics, on which he wrote some able treatises. Died in 1704. See MoNTUCLA, "Histoire des Mathematiques." € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. Explanations, p. 23.) HUDDESFORD I 222 HUGFORD Hud'd?s-ford, (George,) a humorous English poet, who lived about 1800. He wrote several burlesque poems, which had some success, viz., " Topsy-Turvy," (1790,) "Salmagundi," (1793,) and "Imperial Mush- rooms," (1805.) Huddesford or Hud'ders-ford, (William,) D.D., an English antiquary, was principal of Trinity College, Oxford, and wrote the Lives of Leland, Hearne, and Anthony Wood. Died in 1772. Huddleston, hucKdels-ton, (Robert,) a Scottish an- tiquary, born in 1776, published a new edition of Toland's "History of the Druids," (1814.) Died in 1826. Hud'son, (Henry or Hendrik,) an eminent English navigator, of whose early life nothing is known. In 1607 he commanded a vessel sent by some London merchants to discover a direct route to India by way of the North pole or Northern Ocean. Having advanced beyond 80° north latitude, he was prevented by the ice from making farther progress, and returned. He made several other unsuccessful attempts in that direction. In the service of the Dutch East India Company, he discovered in 1609 the river of New York which bears his name. He re- newed the enterprise in April, 1610, and discovered and explored Hudson Bay, in which he passed the winter and suffered much for want of provisions. As he was returning in 1611, his crew mutinied, and, forcing the captain with eight men into a small boat, abandoned them to their fate. They were never heard of afterwards. A few of the mutineers returned to Ireland. See Prevost, "Histoire g^nerale des Voyages;" Purchas's "Collection;" "Life of Henry Hudson," in Sparks's "American Biography," vol. x., (by H. R. Cleveland;) " Noiivelle Biographic Generale;" J. M. Read, "Historical Inquiries concerning Henry Hudson," 1866. Hud'spn, (Henry Norman,) an Episcopal clergy- man, born in Cornwall, Vermont, in 1814, published "Lectures on Shakspeare," (2 vols., 1848,) and edited the Works of Shakspeare, (11 vols., 1850-57.) Hudson, (John,) D.D., a learned English critic, born in Cumberland in 1662, was for many years a tutor in Oxford University, and from 1 701 until his death libra- rian of the Bodleian Library. He published excellent editions of Thucydides, Longinus, Josephus, "^sop's Fables," etc. Died in 17 19. Hudson, (Thqmas,) an English portrait-painter, born in Devonshire in 1701. He was a pupil of Richardson, after whose death he was the most fashionable or suc- cessful artist in that line in London until he was sur- passed by his own pupil, Joshua Reynolds, about 1754. Among his works is a portrait of Handel. Died in 1779. Hudson, (William,) F.R.S., an eminent English bot- anist, born in Westmoreland in 1730, resided in London as an apothecary. He was one of the first in England that adopted the Linnaean system, and in 1762 published an "English Flora," ("Flora Anglica,") which procured him admission into the Royal Society. Died in 1793. Hue, hu, (FRANgoTS,) born at Fontainebleau, France, in 1757, became a valet to the dauphin. In the reign of terror he served the royal family at the risk of his life, and was imprisoned. He wrote " The Last Years of the Reign and Life of Louis XVI.," (1806.) Died in 1819. Huebner. See Hubner. Huebsch. See Hubsch. Huegel. See Hugel. Huel, hn'hV, (Joseph. Nicolas,) a French philosopher, born at Mattaincourt in 1690 ; died in 1769. Huellmann. See Hullmann. Huerta. See Horto. Huerta, de la, di la w^R'ti, (Vincente Garcia,) a popular Spanish poet, born at Zafra in 1729, was the leader of the national school of poetry, in opposition to the par- tisans of the French models. He produced in 1778 the tragedy of " Rachel," (" Raquel,") which was performed with great applause in Madrid and in Italy. He wrote other poems, (" Obras poeticas," 2 vols., 1778,) and was the editor of the " Spanish Theatre," (" Teatro Espafiol,") k selection from the best Spanish dramatists, with notes, (17 vols., 1788.) Died in 1797. See BouTERWEK, " Histoire de la Litterature Espagnole." Huet,//u''et', (Paul,) a French landscape-painter, born in Paris in 1804, gained medals of the first class in 1848 and 1855. Huet, (Pierre Daniel,) an eminent French critic and scholar, born at Caen in February, 1630, was educated at Paris. In 1652, in company with Bochart, he visited the court of Christina of Sweden, which then offered rare attractions to the learned ; but he soon returned to Caen, and passed many years in various studies. He was appointed in 1670 sub-preceptor of the dauphin, and was the principal editor of the well-known series of the Latin classics "ad usum Delphini," ("for the use of the dau- phin.") In 1674 he became a member of the French Academy, and in 1685 Bishop of Avranches. He wrote numerous able critical and religious works, (in Latin and French,) among which the best-known is his " Demon- stratio Evangelica," (1679.) This was for a long time a standard work on the Evidences of Christianity. Died in 1 721. See D'Alembert, " filoge de Huet;" Saint-Maurice, " ^^loge de D. Huet," 1850; Huet's Autobiographic Memoirs, entitled " Comnientarius de Rebus ad eum pertinentibus," 1718, (translated into English by John Aikin, 2 vols., 1810;) " Huetiana," Paris, 1722 ; Brucker, " History of Philosophy ;" Abbe Flottes, " ^tude sur Daniel Huet," 1857 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" " London Quarterly Review" lor August, 1810. Huet de Froberville, Z/ii'i' deh iKo'hlR'whV, (Claude Jean Baptiste,) a French writer, born at Romorantin in 1752; died in 1838. Huette, /m'et', (Louis,) a French optician, born at Rennes in 1756; died in 1805. Hufeland, hoo'feh-iant', (Christoph Wilhelm,) an excellent German physician and medical writer, was born at Langensalza (Prussian Saxony) in 1762, He became professor at Jena in 1793, and afterwards phy- sician to the King of Prussia. In 1809 he obtained the chair of special pathology and therapeutics at Berlin. He produced in 1796 a celebrated work on the "Art of Prolonging Life," (" Makrobiotik, oder die Kunst das menschliche Leben zu verlangern,") often reprinted and translated. Among his other works are a "System of Practical Medicine," (2 vols., 1800-05,) and "Enchiri- dion Medicum," (1836; 9th edition, 1851.) Died in 1836. See F. L. Augustin, " Hufelands Leben und Wirken fiir Wis- senschaft, Staat und Menschheit," 1837; Stourdja, "Huteland, Esquisse de sa Vie et de sa Mort," 1837. Hufeland, (Gottlieb,) a German jurist, born at Dant- zic in 1760, was professor of law at Halle, where he died in 181 7. He wrote a "Manual of the Law of Nature." Hiifnagel. See Hofnaegel. Hug, hdoG, (Johann Leonhard,) a German Catholic theologian, born at Constance in 1763. His "Intro- duction t-o the Books of the New Testament" is highly esteemed, and has been translated into French and Eng- lish. Died in 1846. Hugbald. See Hubald. Hiigel or Huegel, von, fon hii'gel, (Karl Alex- ander Anselm,) Baron, a German traveller and natu- ralist, was born at Ratisbon in 1796. He performed a scientific exploration of Greece, Egypt, India, and other parts of Asia, about 1831-36, and brought home large collections of objects of natural history, coins, etc. He published "Cashmere and the Dominion of the Sikhs," (4 vols., 1842,) "The Basin of Cabool," ("Das Becken von Kabul," 2 vols., 1852,) and other works. Died, 1870. Hugenius. See Huygens. Huger, li'jee', (Benjamin,) an American general, born at Charleston, South Carolina, about 1806, graduated at West Point in 1825. He led a division of the army that fought against the Union at Fair Oaks, May 31, and at Malvern Hill, July i, 1862. Huger, (Francis Kinlock,) an officer, born in South Carolina in 1764. He joined Dr. Eric Bollman in an attempt to release La Fayette from the dungeon of Olmutz ; but they failed, and were imprisoned. He served as a colonel in the war of 1812. Died in 1855. Huger, (Isaac,) an uncle of the preceding, was born about 1725. He served as a brigadier-general in the Revolution, and rendered distinguished service at the sieges of Savannah and Charleston. In the battle of Guilford Court-House he commanded the right wing of the American army. Died in 1782. Hug'ford, ( Ignazio, ) an artist, born of English parents at Florence in 1703, was a noted connoisseur and a skilful painter. Died in 1778. a» e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, hy 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; ilXy fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; MUGGINS 1223 HUGO Hiig'gins, (William,) F.R.S., an English astronomer of the present age, especially distinguished for his obser- vations and discoveries made with the spectroscope on the sun and stars. He is secretary of the Royal Astro- nomical Society. Hugh, hu, [Fr. Hugues, Aug,] a French prelate, emi- nent for talents and piety, was chosen Archbishop of Besan9on in 103 1. Died in 1066. Hugh (Hugues) I., Duke of Burgundy, was the son of Henry, and grandson of Duke Robert, whom he suc- ceeded in 1075. In 1078 he retired into a convent, resign- ing his dukedom to his brother Eudes. Died in 1093. Hugh (Hugues) II., Duke of ]^urgundy, nephew of the preceding, succeeded in 1102 his father Eudes, who went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Died in 1142. Hugh (Hugues) III., Duke of Burgundy, succeeded his father, Eudes H., in 1162. About 1190 he followed Philip Augustus of France in a crusade, and when that king turned back, Hugues took command of the French. He died at Tyre in 1192, and left his dukedom to his son, Eudes HI. Hugh (Hugues) IV., son of Eudes HI., born in 1212, inherited the dukedom in 1218. He died in 1272, and was succeeded by his son Robert. Hugh (Hugues) V., Duke of Burgundy, son of Robert XL, inherited the title in 1308, and died prematurely in 13 1 5, leaving the dukedom to his brother, Eudes IV. Hugh (Hugues) de Cluny, (deh klii'ne',) a French monk, born at Semur about 1024, became Abbot of Cluny in 1048. He was consulted on important questions by several kings and popes. Died in 1109. Hugh (Hugues) d'Amiens, (dt'm^N',) a French prelate and writer, reputed one of the most learned theologians of his time, was chosen Archbishop of Rouen in 1130. Died in 1164. See "Gallia Christiana," tome ii. Hugh (Hugues) de Flavigny, (deh M\h\Vye',) a French monk, born in 1065, was chosen Abbot of Fla- vigny in 1097. He wrote the " Chronicle of Verdun," which contains valuable historical data. Hugh (Hugues) de Fleury (deh fluh^re') or de Sainte-Marie, (deh siNt^mt're',) a French monk, who was eminent for his knowledge. He asserted the divine right of kings in an able treatise *' On Royal Power and Sacerdotal l3ignity," and wrote a general History. Died about 1125. Hugh OF Provence, King of Italy, was a son of Theobald, (or Thibault,) Count of Provence. Favoured by the pope, John X., and by many Lombard chiefs, he obtained the crown of Italy in 926 A.D., but was expelled by Berenger in 947, and died the same year. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgenieine Encyklopaedie." Hugh (Hugues) de Saint-Cher, (deh siN^shaiR',) a learned French monk and cardinal, was born near Vienne. His most important work was a concordance of the Bible, said to be the first ever compiled. He used the Latin in this work. Died in 1263. Hugh (Hugues) de Saint-Victor, (deh siN'v^k'- toR',) a monk, born near Ypres, entered the monastery of Saint-Victor, in Paris, in 1118. He wrote theological works which had a high reputation. Died in 1140. Hugh Capet. See Capet. Hugh the Great, [Fr. Hugues le Grand, hiig leh gR6N,] Duke of France and Count of Paris, a powerful noble, was the son of Robert, Count of Paris, and the father of Hugh Capet. He married a sister of Otho, King of Germany, and waged war against Louis d'Outre- Mer. Died in 956. Hugh the Great, Count of Vermandois, third son of Henry L, King of France, born in 1057, was noted for chivalrous courage. He departed in 1096 on a crusade, and distinguished himself at the siege of Antioch. He was killed in battle in 1102. See MicHAUD, "History of the Crusades." Hughes, huz, (Rev. Griffith,) an English minister of Saint Lacy's parish, Barbadoes, published in 1750 a " Natural History of Barbadoes." Hughes, (Jabez,) an English writer, born in 1685, was a brother of John Hughes, the poet, noticed below. He published translations from Claudian, Lucan, Sueto- nius, and Cervantes. Died in 1731. Hughes, (John,) an English poet and essayist, born at Marlborough in 1677, was educated in London, where he mostly resided. He filled, besides other civil posts, that of secretary to the commissioners of the peace. His character and talents secured him the friendship of Addison, Pope, and Congreve. He contributed nume- rous well-written essays to the " Spectator," " Tatler," and " Guardian," and once had a fair reputation as a poet. His best poem is "The Siege of Damascus," a tragedy, which was first performed on the last night of the author's life, and was very successful. He made good translations from Fontenelle and Vertot. Swift having classed him in the ranks of mediocrity, Pope answered, "What he wanted in genius he made up as an honest man." Addison had so good an opinion of his ability that he requested him to write the fifth act of " Cato," which, however, he declined. Died in 1720. See Johnson, "Lives of the English Poets;" " Biographia Bii- tannica." Hughes, huz, (John,) an eminent Roman Catholic prelate, born in Ireland in 1798. He came to America in 1 81 7, and preached several years in Philadelphia. He became Bishop of New York about 1840, and was raised to the rank of archbishop in 1850. He published seve- ral sermons and lectures. He was a man of great ability, and was particularly distinguished for his skill in dialectics. Died in 1864. See John R. G. Hassard, "Life of John Hughes," 1866. Hughe.s, (John,) an English writer and artist, was the father of Thomas Hughes, M.P. He published in 1822 an "Itinerary of Provence and the Rhone," (with good etchings by himself,) which was praised by Sir Walter Scott. He also wrote some poetical pieces. Hughes, (Thomas,) an English author, social econo- mist, and barrister, born in Berkshire in October, 1823. His father was John Hughes, noticed above, whom Christopher North calls " Bullar of Brazennose." He acquired celebrity by a work of fiction entitled " Tom Brown's School-Days," (1857,) which quickly passed through several editions. This story is continued in his " Tom Brown at Oxford." He is a warm friend of the working-classes, and represented Lambeth in Par- liament, to which he was elected in 1865 by the Liberals. In 1868 he was returned as a member for Frome. Hughes, (Thomas Smart,) an English historian, graduated at Cambridge as M.A. in 1811. He became prebendary of Peterborough in 1827, and rector of Hard- wick in 1832. He wrote, besides other works, a " His- tory of England from the Accession of George III. to the Accession of Victoria, 1760-1837," (7 vols., 1836,) a continuation of Hume and Smollett. Died in 1847. See a "Memoir of T. S. Hughes," prefixed to his "Essay on the Political System of Europe," 1855. Hugi, hoo'gee, (Franz Joseph,) a Swiss naturalist, born at Grenchen in 1795. Among his works is a "Treatise on Glaciers," (1842.) Hugo, >^U'go', (Charles Louis,) a French monk, born at Saint-Mihiel in 1667, became Abbe of Estival. He wrote, besides other works, a " Life of Saint Nor- bert," (1707,) and a "History of Moses," (1709.) Died in 1739. Hugo, (Francois Victor,) a son of Victor Marie, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1828. He produced a version of Shakspeare's Sonnets, (1857.) Hugo, hoo'go, (GuSTAV,) a German jurist, distin- guished for his profound knowledge of Roman law, was born at Lorrach, in Baden, in 1764. He studied at Gottingen» and became professor of law in that city in 1792. His principal work, a "Manual of a Course of Civil Law," consisting of seven volumes, with different titles, ranks among the standard productions of modern jurisprudence. Died at Gottingen in 1844. See H. Eyssenhardt, "Zur Erinnerung an G. Hugo," 1845. Hu'go, (Herman,) a learned Jesuit, born at Brussels in 1588, became chaplain to General Spinola. He was the author of a treatise on the invention of letters, " De prima Scribendi Origine," (1617,) and a few otherworks. Died in 1629. Hugo, (J. Abel,) a French litterateur, brother of Victor Hugo, was born about 1798. Among his works are "Picturesque France," (3 vols., 1833,) and "Military € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as j; c, h, y., guttural; n, 7iasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (S^=See Explanations, p. 23.) HUGO 1224. HULLS France," a history of the French armies from 1792 to 1833, (5 vols., 1834.) Died in 1855. Hugo, (Joseph Leopold Sigisbert,) a French gen- eral and count, born at Nancy in 1774. After serving Joseph Bonaparte as marshal of the palace at Naples, he fought for him in Spain as general of brigade from 1809 to 1813, gained several victories, and was raised to the rank of general of division. In 1823 he published ''Memoirs of General Hugo." Died in 1828. See Jui.es Nollet-Fabert, " Le General J. L. S. Hugo," 8vo, 1853 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Hugo, hii'go', (Victor Marie,) Vicomte, a celebrated French lyric poet and novelist, a son of the preceding, was born at Besan9on in 1802. His mother, Sophie Trebuchet, was a Vendean royalist, with whose polit- ical sentiments he sympathized in his youth. His first poem, "On the Advantages of Study," (1817,) obtained an honourable mention from the Academic Fran9aise. He received prizes for several royalist odes in 181 8, and married Mdlle. Foucher in 1822. In the same year he published the first volume of his "Odes and Ballads," which quickly raised him to the first rank among the French poets of his time. He produced " Cromwell," a drama, (1827,) and a volume of odes, entitled " Les Orientales," (1828,) remarkable for richness of imagina- tion. The literati of France having ranged themselves in two hostile schools, styled the Classic and the Ro- mantic, Victor Hugo became the recognized chief of the latter, formed mostly of young men. Of his dramas, " Hernani" (first acted in 1830) and "Marion Delorme" (1831) proved brilliant successes. Among his most suc- cessful and popular works are " Notre Dame de Paris," a romance, (1831,) " Le Roi s'amuse," a drama, (1832,) "Les Miserables," a novel, (1862,) "The Toilers of the Sea," (1865,) and poems entitled "The Leaves of Au- tumn," (" Les Feuilles d'Automne,") which, says a French critic in the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale," "contain beauties of the first order." He was admitted into the French Academy in i84i,and raised to the rank of a peer in 1845. gdiVt his cordial adhesion to the republic of 1848, and was elected to the Constituent As- sembly by the voters of Paris. He opposed Cavaignac, and in 1849 joined the party of advanced democrats, of whom he became a leader and distinguished orator. For his opposition to the coup d'etat of December 2, 185 1, he was banished. He retired to the island of Guernsey, where he has since resided. During his exile he published sev- eral works, including a historical work entitled "Napo- leon le Petit," (" Napoleon the Little," 1852,) and poetical "Contemplations," (2 vols., 1856,) which are much ad- mired. Of his more recent pul)lications, "L'Homme qui rit" (1869) is perhaps the most important. See De Lomenie. " Galerie des Contemporains illustres ;" Sainte- Beuve, "Portraits contempovains," 1846; Chari.es Robin, " Bio- grayihie d* V. Hugo," 1848; Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Quarterly Review" for March, 1843. and October, 1862 ; "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1863; also "Eraser's Magazine" for March, 1863, and June, 1866; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1831 ; " British Quarterly Review" for July, i860, and January, 1863; "Westminster Review" for April, 1855, and October and January, 1863 ; " North American Review" for July, 1836, (by Mrs. F. A. Kemble.) Hu-go-li'nus, (or hoo-gu-le'nus,) an Italian jurist and legal writer, born at Bologna; died about 1233. Hugtenburg. See Huchienburg. Hugues Capet. See Capet. Huijgens. See Huygens. Huillard-BrehoUes, u-e'ltR' bR^'oK, (J. L. Al- PHONsp:,) a French antiquary, born in Paris in 181 7, published, with M. E. Ruelle, a " History of the Middle Ages," (2 vols., 1843.) Hulaku or Hulakoo. See Hoolakoo. Huldericus. See Huldrich. Huldrich, hoolt'riK, [Lat. Hulderi'cus,] (Johann Jacob,) a Swiss divine, born at Zurich in 1683, was a professor of law in the university of that town. He published a few religious works, and " Miscellanea Tigu- rina," (3 vols., 1722.) Died in- 1731. See ZiMMERMANN, " Vita Hulderici," 1732. Hulin or Hullin, //ii'l^N', (Pierre Augustin,) a French general, born in Paris in 1758. He became general of brigade in 1804, commandant at Vienna in 1805, and in 1807 general of division. He had the chief command at Paris when the conspirator Malet made his daring attempt in 181 2, and was shot in the face by Malet. He was banished in 181 5. Died in 1841. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Hull,( Edward,) an English geologist, born about 1810, published several works on the geology of Great Britain. Hull, (Isaac,) an American commodore, born in Derby, Connecticut, in 1775. He distinguished himself in the war with Tripoli, (1804-5,) was promoted to the rank of captain in 1806, and at the commencement of the war of 1812 was in command of the frigate Constitution. In July of the same year, while cruising off New York, he fell in with a British squadron, which pursued him in hot chase for three days and nights, but which, by his skill in seamanship, he managed to escape. On August 19 following, he captured, after a close action of thirty minutes, the British frigate Guerriere, Captain Dacres, with the loss of only fourteen in killed and wounded, while that of the Guerriere was seventy-nine. This was the first naval action after the declaration of war; and in acknowledgment of Captain Hull's distinguished ser- vices Congress presented him with a gold medal. He subsequently commanded the United States squadron in the Pacific and in the Mediterranean. Died in Phila- delphia in 1843. Hull, (Thomas,) an English actor and poet, born in London in 1728, composed and altered numerous plays. Plis most popular poem is " Richard Plantagenet," a legendary tale, (1774.) Died in 1808. Hull, (William,) an officer in the American Revolu- tion, born in Derby, Connecticut, in 1753. joined the Revolutionary army at Cambridge at the head of a company of volunteers in 1775. He took part in many of the battles of the war, and for his gallant services in conducting the expedition against Morrisiana he was honoured with a vote of thanks by Congress. After the war he became a major-general in the Massachusetts militia, and in 1805 was appointed by Jefferson Governor of the Territory of Michigan. On the breaking out of the second war with Great Britain, in 1812, he was ap- pointed to the command of the Northwestern army ; and in August of the same year he surrendered with 2000 troops to the British under General Brock, at Detroit. For this act he was tried by court-martial, in 1814, and sentenced to be shot. President Madison approved the sentence, but remitted its execution in consideration of General Hull's age and services in the Revolution. He published a defence of himself before the court-martial, (1814.) Died in 1825. See, also, " Life and Services of General W. Hull," by his daugh- ter, Maria Campbell, 1848. HuFlah, (John Pyke,) an English composer and popular teacher of music, was born in 1812. He com- posed the music of Dickens's comic opera " The Vil- lage Coquettes," (1836.) About 1840 he introduced a new system of instruction in vocal music, which was very successful. He became professor of vocal music in King's College, London, in 1844. Hullin. See Hulin. HuU'man'del, (Charles Joseph,) an excellent lith- ographer, born in London in 1789. He made several improvements in the art of lithography, and invented the process of lithotint. He published, in 1824, "The Art of Drawing on Stone." Died in 1850. Hiillmann or Huellmanu, hul'mdn, (Karl Die- trich,) a German historian and antiquary, born at Erde- born in 1765, became a professor at Bonn. He published, besides other works, a " History of the Origin of Ranks or Orders (Stdnde) in Germany," (3 vols., 1808,) and a " History of the Commerce of the Greeks," (1839.) Died in 1846. HuFIock, (Sir John,) an English lawyer, born in the county of Durham about 1764, practised in London with success, and was made one of the barons in the ex- chequer court in 1823. Died in 1829. Hulls, (Jonathan,) an English mechanician and in- ventor, obtained in 1736 a patent for a "machine for carrying ships out of, or into, any harbour against wind and tide." This machine was to be moved by steam- power, but failed because he did not use the proper means to transfer the motion from the piston to the axle. a, e, 1, o, u, y, lojig; \ 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^U, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; HULOT 1225 HUMBOLDT Hulot, //ii'lo', (Henrt,) a French lawyer, born in Paris in 1732, translated into French fifty books of Jus- tinian's Pandects, (7 vols., 1803.) Died in 1775. Hulse, hulss, (Rev. John,) born at Middlewich, Eng- land, in 1708, founded the Hulsean Lecture of the Uni- versity of Cambridge, in which he had graduated. Died in 1790. Hulsemann, hool'seh-mJn',(JoHANN,) a learned Ger- man Lutheran divine, born at Essen in 1602, was professor of divinity at Leipsic. Died in 1661. Hulsius, hiiKse-us, (Antoon,) a Protestant scholar and theologian, born in 16 15, became professor of divinity and Oriental languages at Leyden. Died in 1685. Hulsius, (Hendrik,) a theological writer, son of the preceding, was born at Breda in 1654; died in 1723. Hulst, van der, vtn der hiilst, (Pieter,) a Dutch painter, born at Dort in 1652, was successful in painting flowers, fruits, etc. He studied or worked in Rome. Died in 1708. Hulthem, van, vtn huKtem, (Charles Joseph Emanuel,) a Belgian bibliomaniac, born at Ghent in 1764. He made a vast collection of books, manuscripts, etc., which were purchased by the Belgian government for 279,400 francs. Died in 1832. A catalogue of his library was published in 6 vols., 1836. Hultz, hdolts, (JoHANN,) a German architect, of whom little is known. The completion of the great tower of the cathedral of Cologne is ascribed to him. It was .finished in the first half of the fifteenth century. Humann, h\x'mhV, (Jean Georges,) a French finan- cier, born at Strasburg in 1780, became minister of finance in 1832 ; died in 1842. Humayun. See Hoomayoon. Humbert, /AiN''baiR', a French Dominican monk and writer, born at Romans about 1200 ; died in 1277. Hum'bert, Cardinal, an eminent French Benedic- tine monk, born in Burgundy ; died about 1063. Humbert, /niN'baiR', (Jean,) a Swiss Orientalist, born at Geneva in 1792, published, besides other works, an "Arabian Anthology," with French versions, (1819.) Died in 1851. Humbert, (Joseph Amablf.,) a French general, born of humble parents at Rouvray, in Lorraine, about 1760. Having a fine figure, a pleasing address, and great au- dacity, he was rapidly promoted, and in 1795, as general of brigade, served under Hoche against the Vendean royalists. In 1798, as general of division, he commanded the army of about 1500 men which invaded Ireland, where, after gaining a victory over General Lake, he was forced to surrender to Lord Cornwallis. In 1802 he was employed in the expedition to Hayti under Leclerc, at whose death he returned to France in company with Pauline, the widow of Leclerc, and sister of Bonaparte. By aspiring to her hand he offended the First Consul. He consulted his safety by emigrating to the United States, where he lived in obscurity. Died at New Or- leans in 1823, See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution;" " Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale." Humboldt, hiim'bolt, von, [Ger. pron. fon hoom'- bolt,] (Friedrich Heinrich Alexander,) Baron, an illustrious German savant and traveller, born in Berlin on the 14th of September, 1769. He was a son of Major von Humboldt, who served as adjutant or aide-de-camp to the Duke of Brunswick in the Seven Years' war. In 1786 he entered the University of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he studied natural science and political economy. He became a pupil of Heyne, Blumenbach, and Eich- horn, at Gottingen, in 1788. In 1790 he travelled in France, Holland, and England, and published a treatise "On the Basalts of the Rhine." He studied mineralogy under Werner at Freiberg in 1 791, and was appointed director-general of the mines of Anspach and Baireuth in 1792. He published in 1792 a work on subterranean plants, " Specimen Floras subterraneas Fribergensis." At an early age he cherished a passion to visit far-distant and unexplored regions of the globe. With this view he re- signed his office about 1796, and passed some time at Jena, where he formed friendships with Goethe and Schiller. His reputation was extended by a treatise " On the Irri- tability of Muscles and Nervous Fibres," (1797.) Several of his projects for undertaking a voyage of discovery were frustrated by the wars that followed the French Revolution. At length, in June, 1799, he joined Aime Bonpland in a voyage to South America. They spent about four years in the exploration of the northern part of South America, especially those portions which are drained by the Oronoco and the Rio Negro. They ascended the Magdalena as far as they could by water, and penetrated by land to Quito. In June, 1802, they ascended Chimborazo to a point nineteen thousand feet or more above the level of the sea, the highest point of the Andes ever reached by man. They passed nearly a year in the exploration of Mexico, visited the United States, and returned to Europe in July, 1804, with rich collections of plants, animals, and minerals. Humboldt became a resident of Paris, where he remained about twenty years, the greater part of which he spent in digest- ing and publishing the results of his observations. In this task he was assisted by Bonpland, Cuvier, Oltmanns, Arago, Kunth, and others. Between 1807 and 1817 they published, in French, a "Journey to the Equinoctial Regions of the New Continent," (3 vols.,) "Astronomical Observations and Measurements by the Barometer," (2 vols., 1808-10,) a "View of the Cordilleras, and Monu- ments of the Indigenous Peoples of America," (1810,) a " Collection of Observations on Zoology and Compara- tive Anatomy," (2 vols.,) a " Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain," (2 vols., 181 1,) and "General Physics and Geology." He made an important con- tribution to botanical geography by his Latin work " On the Geographical Distribution of Plants according to the Temperature and Altitude," (181 7.) His botanical collections were classed and described by S. Kunth in a work entitled "Nova Genera et Species Plantarum quas in Peregrinatione ad Plagam aequinoctialem Orbis novi collegerunt A. Bonpland et A. de Humboldt,"' (7 vols., 1815-25.) An English translation of his " Personal Nar- rative of Travels" was made by Helen Maria Williams, (5 vols., 1814-21.) In 1810 he was chosen a member of the French Institute in place of Cavendish. He removed to Berlin in 1826, and received, with the title of coun- cillor, many marks of royal favour. At the request of Nicholas, Emperor of Russia, and at his expense, Hum- boldt, Ehrenberg, and Rose made in 1829 a scientific exploration of Asiatic Russia. Among the results of this extensive expedition was an excellent work by Hum- boldt, entitled " Central Asia : Researches on the Chains of Mountains and the Comparative Climatology," (3 vols., 1843.) He was sent to Paris on several political missions by the King of Prussia between 1830 and 1848. He published a " Critical Examination of the Geography of the New Continent," (5 vols., 1835-38.) When he was more than seventy-four years old, he composed his celebrated work entitled " Kosmos ; Entwurf einer phy- sischen Weltbeschreibung," (" Cosmos ; Essay of a Phys- ical Description of the Universe,") the first volume of which appeared in 1845, ^""^ t^"*^ fourth in 1858. "The first volume," says the author, "contains a general view of nature, from the remotest nebulae and revolving double stars to the terrestrial phenomena of the geo- graphical distribution of plants, of animals, and of races of men, — preceded by some preliminary considerations on the different degrees of enjoyment offered by the study of nature and the knowledge of her laws, and on the limits and method of a scientific exposition of the physical description of the universe." "The author of the remarkable book before us," says the "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1848, "is assuredly the person in all Europe best fitted to undertake and accomplish such a work. Science has produced no man of more rich and varied attainments, more versatile in genius, more inde- fatigable in application to all kinds of learning, more energetic in action, or more ardent in inquiry, and, we may add, more entirely devoted to her cause in every period of a long life. At every epoch of that life, from a comparatively early age, he has been constantly before the public, realizing the ideal conception of a perfect traveller ; a character which calls for almost as great a variety of excellences as those which go to realize Cicero's idea of a perfect orator. . . . Above all things is neces- sary a genial and kindly temperament, which excites no € as 5 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, Yi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) HUMBOLDT 1 226 HUME enmities, but, on the contrary, finds or makes friends everywhere. No man in the ranks of science is more distinguished for this last characteristic than Baron von Humboldt. We believe that he has not an enemy." The " Kosmos" has been translated into French by H. Faye and Ch, Galusky, (1848-57,) and into English by Mrs. Sabine. He received from the French government the title of grand officer of the legion of honour, and was a member of all the principal Academies of the world. Among his other works is "Aspects of Nature," ('* Ansichten der Natur," 1808; 3d edition, 2 vols., 1849.) He died in Berlin, May 6, 1859, in his ninetieth year. See Juliette Bauer, " Lives of the Brothers Humboldt," Lon- don, 1852; H. Klencke or Kletke, "A. von Humboldt; ein bio- graphisches Denkmal," 1852 ; Review of the " Kosmos" in the " Lon- don Quarterly Review," vol. Ixxvii. ; R. H. Stoddard, " Life of Alexander von Humboldt," New York, 1S59 ; Agassiz, " Eulogy on Humboldt" in the "Living Age" for October 2, 1869; Pruvs van DER HoEVEN, "A. vou Humboldt, Interpres Naturae," 1845; "Lon- don Quarterly Review" for January and July, 1816, October, 1817, April, 1S19, July, 1821, December, 1845, and January, 1854: "Edin- burgh Review" for June, 1815; "Eraser's Magazine" for February, 1848. Humboldt, von, (Karl Wilhelm,) Baron, a cele- brated German philologist and statesman, born at Pots- dam on the 22d of June, 1767, was a brother of the preceding. His early education was directed by Joachim Campe, a distinguished philanthropist. About 1788 he entered the University of Gottingen, where he studied philology under G. Heyne. Among the intimate friends of his youth was George Forster, the traveller. In July, 1789, he visited Paris, and hailed with enthusiasm the advent of the new regime. He afterwards studied at Jena, and there formed an intimate and lasting friendship with the poet Schiller, who encouraged and directed him in his literary pursuits. Humboldt became also the friend and literary counsellor of Goethe. About 1791 he mar- ried Caroline von Dachenroden. Among his early works was an excellent " Essay on the Greeks," (1792.) In 1799 he produced an admirable critical essay on Goethe's "Hermann and Dorothea," which established his repu- tation as a critic. He was appointed minister to Rome by the King of Prussia about 1802, and soon after that date produced a poem entitled " Rome," (" Rom.") He returned to Prussia in 1808, and was appointed minister of public instruction about the end of that year. He took a prominent part in the foundation of the University of Berlin. About 1810 he resigned his office, and was sent as ambassador to Vienna. While thus employed in the public service, he devoted his leisure time to the study of languages, in many of which he was profoundly versed. He acquired distinction as a diplomatist, and induced Austria to join the coalition against Napoleon in August, 1813. He represented Prussia at the Conference of Chatillon and the Congress of Vienna, 1814. Talley- rand's opinion of him is said to have been expressed in these words : *' Europe does not possess three statesmen of such power," (" L'Europe n'a pas trois hommes d'etat de cette force.") He was sent as ambassador to London about 1816, and was appointed minister and privy coun- cillor at Berlin in 1819. He advocated a liberal constitu- tion, and, when he found that the king was determined to adopt a reactionary policy, he resigned his office about the end of 1819, after which he took no part in political affairs. He composed numerous poems, the most of which remained in manuscript until his death, and many treatises on language, philology, etc. Among his prin- cipal works are an "Essay on the New French Consti- tution," (1792,) a metrical translation of the "Agamem- non" of ^schylus, (1816,) which is highly commended, "Researches on the Aborigines of Spain by Means of the Basque Language," (1821,) and a " Memoir on Com- parative Linguistic." He was one of the greatest philoso- phers and critics of his time, and has been called the creator of comparative philology. The interesting corre- spondence between Schiller and Wilhelm von Humboldt was published in 1830. In the latter part of his life he devoted his attention to the study of the languages of barbarous tribes of America and Asia. He died at Tegel, near Berlin, April 8, 1835, leaving unfinished an extensive and excellent work, entitled "On the Kawi Language in the Island of Java," (" Ueber die Kawi Sprache auf der Insel Java,") which was published in 1836. His works were collected and edited by his brother Alexander, under the title of " Wilhelm von Humboldts Gesammelte Werke," (4 vols., 1841-52.) See Gustav Schlrsier, "Wilhelm von Humboldts Leben ;" Klencke, "W. von Humboldts Leben," (translated into English by Juliette Bauer in 1852;) Schlesier, " Erinnerungen an Wil- helm von Humboldt," 2 vols., 1843-45; Robert Havm, "Wilhelm von Humboldt Lebensbild und Charakteristik," 1856; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1842; "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1868. Hume, (Rev. Abraham,) an English antiquary, born about 1 81 5. He became incumbent of a parish in Liver- pool about 1846, and distinguished himself as a promoter of education. He wrote, besides other works, "The Learned Societies and Printing-Clubs of the United Kingdom," (1847.) Hume, (Alexander,) a Scottish poet and minister, born about 1560, preached at Logic. He published a volume of " Hymns or Sacred Songs," which were ad- mired, especially the " Day Estival." Died in 1609. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Hume or Home, (David,) of Godscroft, a Scottish minister and writer, supposed to have been born about 1560. He preached some years in France. He wrote some Latin poems, "Apologia Basilica," ("Apology or Defence of the King," 1626,) and "The History of the House and Race of Douglas and Angus," (1644.) See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen.' Hume, (David,) an eminent English historian and philosopher, born in Edinburgh on the 26th of April, 1 7 II. He was a younger son of Joseph Hume or Home, who, though related to the Earl of Home, was not wealthy. In his Autobiography he says, " My studious disposition, my sobriety, and my industry gave my family a notion that the law was a proper profession for me ; but I found an insurmountable aversion to everything but the pursuits of philosophy and general learning ; and, while they fancied I was poring upon Voet and Vinnius, Cicero and Virgil were the authors which I was secretly devouring." For the sake of economy, he went to France in 1734 or 1 735, and spent about two years at Rheims and La Fleche, where he wrote his "Treatise on Human Nature." This was published in London in 1738, but was treated with discouraging neglect. He says himself, " It fell from the press without reaching such distinction as even to excite a murmur among the zealots," Mackintosh calls this work " the first systematic attack on all the principles of knowledge and belief, and the most formidable, if universal skepticism could ever be more than a mere exercise of ingenuity." He passed several ensuing years in Scotland in his favourite studies, and issued in 1742 the first part of his "Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary," which was moderately successful. These contain new, ingenious, and suggestive ideas on commerce, political economy, and other subjects. In 1746 he was appointed secretary to General Saint Clair, with whom he passed two years on the continent. Returning to his brother's residence in Scotland, he composed an " Enquiry concerning the Principles of Morals," and the second part of his Essays, which ap- peared in 1752, with the title of " Political Discourses," The latter of these was received with favour abroad and at home, while the other was scarcely noticed. About this time he commenced his most celebrated work, the " History of England," the first volume of which (com- prising the reigns of James I, and Charles I.) was pub- lished in 1754. He describes its reception in these terms : " I was assailed by one cry of reproach, disap- probation, and even detestation : English, Scotch, and Irish, Whig and Tory, churchman and sectary, free- thinker and religionist, patriot and courtier, united their rage against the man who had presumed to shed a gene- rous tear for the fate of Charles 1. and the Earl of Straf- ford ; and after the first ebullitions of their fury were over, what was still more mortifying, the book seemed to sink into oblivion, Mr. Millar told me that in a twelvemonth he sold only forty-five copies of it." The subsequent volumes, however, were better appreciated, and the whole work became very popular and raised the author to affluence. The last volume was published in 1 761. His style is generally admired, as graceful, natural, and perspicuous. But the value of his history a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, !, 6, u, ^, short; a, i, 9, obscure; dx, flll, f^t; m§t; ndt; good; moon, HUME 1227 HUMPHREY IS materially lessened by his partiality and inaccuracy. He was, as a skeptic, prejudiced against religion, and in civil government was inclined to favour prerogative. He is not profoundly versed in the philosophy of history, or in the progressive development of the British con- stitution. " He was far too indolent," says Alison, " to acquire the vast stores of facts indispensable for correct generalization on the varied theatre of human affairs." Macaulay compares him to " an accomplished advocate, whose insidious candour only increases the effect of his vast mass of sophistry." Respecting his merits as a political economist. Lord Brougham says, " Of the ' Political Discourses' it would be difficult to speak in terms of too great commendation. They combine almost every excellence which can belong to such a performance. The great merit, however, of these discourses is their originality." In 1763 Hume accepted the office of secretary to the Earl of Hertford, ambassador to Paris, and having returned in 1766, much delighted by the caresses of the Parisians, he was em- ployed two years as under-secretary of state. In 1769 he retired from office, and, with an income of ;^ioooa year, took up his residence in Edinburgh, where he died in Au- gust, 1776. Besides the works above named, he wrote the "Natural History of Religion," (1755,) and "Dialogues concerning Natural Religion," (1783.) He was never married. His personal character appears to have been amiable and respectable on the score of morality. " The Life of Mr. Hume," says Mackintosh, " written by himself, is remarkable above most, if not all, writings of that sort for hitting the degree of interest between coldness and egotism which becomes a modest man in speaking of his private history. Few writers, whose opinions were so obnoxious, have more perfectly escaped every per- sonal imputation." See Hume's "Autobiography," 1777; David Dalrvmple, "Life of D. Hume," 1787; John Hill Burton, "Life and Correspond- ence of D. Hume," 2 vols., 1846; T. E. Ritchie, "Account of the Life and Writings of D. Hume," 1807; Mackintosh, " Progress of Ethical Philosophy," i vol. 8vo ; Brenner, "Das Genie des Herrn Hume," etc., 1774; Brougham, " Lives of Men of Letters of the Time of George IIL;" R. Pratt, "Apology for the Life of D. Hume," 1777; Macaulay, "History of England," vol. iv. chap, xix. ; " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1847; "Quarterly Review" for March, 1844, and June, 1S46; " Historical Sketches of the Times of George IL," in " Blackwood's Magazine" for June, 1869 ; "West- minster Review" for September, 1846; also, an elaborate article on Hume in Allibone's "Dictionary of Authors;" Chambers, "Bio- graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Hume, (David,) an able Scottish lawyer, born in 1756, was a nephew of the preceding. He was professor of Scottish law in the University of Edinburgh, and a baron of the court of exchequer. He wrote a valuable legal text-book, entitled "Commentaries on the Law of Scotland respecting the Description and Punishment of Crimes," (1797.) Died in 1838. Hume, (Grizel,) a Scottish heroine, born in 1665, was a daughter of Sir Patrick, noticed below. She endured much hardship in efforts to conceal her father from his pursuers, and attended him in exile. In 1690 she was married to Mr. Bail lie. She wrote poetry which is admired. Died in 1746. See a Memoir of her life, by her daughter. Lady Murray. Hume, (Hugh Campbell,) third Earl of Marchmont, born in 1708, was a grandson of Patrick, the first Earl. He acted a prominent part in Parliament as an opponent of Walpole, and was keeper of the great seal of Scot- land from 1764 to 1794. Died in 1794, without male issue. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Hume, (Tames Deacon,) an English financier, born at Newington in 1774, obtained in 1790 a clerkship in the London custom-house. Having given proof of ability and energy in responsible positions, he was employed in 1823 in the arduous task of simplifying and reducing to order the multitude of discordant statutes by which the transactions of the custom-house were complicated and perplexed. For this important service he received from government a present of five thousand pounds, and in 1829 he was appointed assistant secretary of the board of trade. He resigned in 1840, and died in 1842. See Badham, "Life of J. D. Hume." Hume, (Joseph,) M.P., a British statesman of the Radical party, was born at Montrose, Scotland, in 1777. Having studied surgery, he entered as suigeon the ser- vice of the East India Company in 1797. He learned the native languages of India, and, by combining the functions of interpreter and paymaster with those of army-surgeon, he acquired a handsome competence, and returned home in 1808. By a careful study of the na- tional resources and the condition of the people, he pre- pared himself for the task of a legislator and reformer, and entered Parliament in 1812. From i8i8 to 1830 he represented Montrose in Parliament, where he gained great distinction by his industry and independence and by his important services to the working-classes. He was for many years pre-eminent in the House as a finan- cial reformer and a sturdy opponent of monopolies and high taxes. He declined political preferment on several occasions, and continued to serve in the House of Com- mons until his death, in 1855. See Harriet Martineau, "History of Thirty Years' Peace;" "Biographical Sketches," by the same, London, 1869. Hume, (Sir Patrick,) Earl of Marchmont, a Scottish patriot, was born in 1641. He was persecuted in the reign of Charles II., and escaped to Holland in 1684. Having returned in 1688, he was made lord chancellor in 1696, and Earl of Marchmont. Died in 1724. See Macaulay, " History of England ;" Chambers, "Biographi- cal Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Hume, (Patrick,) a Scottish critic, who taught school in London. He published in 1695 " Annotations on Mil- ton's Paradise Lost," which was the first attempt to illustrate that author, and was commended by Bishop Newton. His critical labours have been appropriated by later commentators. According to "Blackwood's Magazine," Hume is "the father of that style of com- parative criticism which has been so much employed during these later days in illustrating the works of our great poet." See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Humieres, d', dii^iie-aiR', (Louis de Crevant — deh kReh-v6N',) Due, a French general and courtier of Louis XIV., was created marshal in 1668, and com- manded the right wing at the victory of Cassel, in 1677. He commanded the army in Flanders which was de- feated by Waldeck in 1689. Died in 1694. See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" Sismondi, "Histoire des Frangais." Hummel, hdom'mel, (Johann Erdmann,) a German painter, born at Cassel about 1770. He worked in Ber- lin, and became in 1809 professor of perspective, etc. in the Royal Academy of that city. Died in 1827. Hummel, hdom'mel, (Johann Nepomuk,) an excel- lent composer and pianist, born at Presburg, Hungary, in 1778. About the age of eight he becaine a pupil of Mozart in Vienna, and at the age of sixteen he was ac- counted one of the most skilful performers in Germany. He entered the service of Prince Esterhazy in 1803, and became chapel-master to the King of WUrtemberg in 1816. He was chapel-master to the Duke of Weimar from 1 81 8 until his death, during which period he performed with applause in London, Paris, and Saint Petersburg. Among his best works are concertos and sonatas for the piano. Died in 1837. See Fetis, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Hummelius, h^m-ma'le-iis, or Hummel, (Johann,) a Gennan mathematician, born at Memmingen in 15 18, was professor at Leipsic. Died in 1562. Humphrey, hum''fre,* (Heman,) D.D., an American divine, born in Simsbury, Connecticut, in 1779. He graduated at Yale in 1805. He was six years minister in Pittsfield, Massachusetts. He became president of Amherst College in 1823, and was succeeded in that office by Dr. Edward Hitchcock in 1845, when he re- moved to Pittsfield. He wrote several valuable works, among which are a "Tour in France, Great Britain, and Belgium," (2 vols., 1838,) " Domestic Education," (1840,) and " Letters to a Son in the Ministry," (1845.) Died in 1859. * This name is pronounced differently in different parts of the United States: some families writing their names Humphrey or Humphreys always omit the initial h in pronunciation. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Y.^ guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (Ji^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) HUMPHRET 1228 HUNT Humphrey, hum'fre, (Lawrence,) an English Cal- vinistic divine, born at Newport- Pagnel about 1527. In 1555 he retired to Zurich to escape persecution, and returned after the death of Queen Mary. He became professor of divinity in Oxford in 1560, and Dean of Winchester in 1580. He published several able theo- logical works. Died about 1590. Humphrey or Humphry, (Ozias,) R.A., an English portrait-painter, born at Honiton in 1743, settled in Lon- don in 1763. He painted a miniature for the queen, was received into the Royal Academy, and rose to eminence in his branch of art. Died in i8ro. Humphreys, hiim'fr^z,* (Andrew A.,) an American general, born in Pennsylvania about 181 2. He became a brigadier-general about April, 1862, and commanded a division at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. He commanded a corps in the battles near Petersburg, February-April, 1865. Humphreys, (David,) an American poet, born in Derby, Connecticut, in 1753. He entered the army about 1776, and became in 1780 a colonel and aide-de- camp to General Washington. In 1784 he went to Europe with Jefferson, as secretary of legation. He aided Barlow and other poets in "The Anarchiad," and wrote other works, among which are a " Poem on the Happiness of America," and an " Address to the Armies of the United States," (1772.) He was sent as minister to Portugal in 1790, and to Spain in 1797. Died in 1818. See Griswold, " Poets and Poetry of America ;" Duyckinck, " Cyclopjedia of American Literature," vol. i. ; "National Portrait- Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii. Humphreys, hum'fr^z, (Henry Noel,) a British antiquary and numismatist, born at Birmingham in 1810. He published "The Coins of England," (1847,) "Ten Centuries of Art," (1851,) and other works. Humphreys, (James,) an English lawyer, born in Montgomeryshire, published a valuable work on "Eng- lish Laws of Real Property," (1820.) Died in 1830. Humphreys or Humphrey, (Pelham,) an English composer and musician, born in 1647. He composed anthems and songs. Died in 1674. Humphry, Old. See Mogridge, Hu'nald, [Lat. Hunal'dus,] Duke of Aquitaine, succeeded his father Eudes in 735 a.d., and defended his domain against Charles Martel and his sons. He was defeated by Charlemagne about 769, and was killed in 774, at the siege of Pavia, being the last prince of the Merovingian race. Hunauld, k\i\\o^, (FRANgois Joseph,) a learned French physician, born at Chateaubriant in 1 701, resided in Paris. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences, and a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1730 he became professor of anatomy in the Jardin des Plantes. He wrote dissertations on osteology, etc. Died in 1742. See Qu^RARD, "La France Litteraire." Hund, hoont, (Wigul^us,) a German genealogist, born in 1 5 14, became aulic councillor at Munich in 1540. Died in 1588. See J. T. KoHLER, " Leben und Schriften Hunds," 1750. Hundeshagen, hoon'des-hi'gen, (Johann Chris- tian,) a German writer on forests, was born at Hanau in 1783. Among his works is an " Encyclopaedia of the Science of Forests," (2 vols., 1821.) Died in 1834. Hundeshagen, (Karl Bernhard,) a theologian, son of the preceding, was born in Hesse-Cassel in 1810. He became professor at Heidelberg in 1847, and published "German Protestantism: its Past and Present," (1846.) Hundhorst. See Honthorst. Hundt, hoont, (Magnus,) a German naturalist and writer, born at Magdeburg in 1449. He taught physics in the University of Leipsic. Died in 1 5 19. Hun'e-ric or Hun'ne-ric, [Gr. 'Ovupixo^,] second King of the Vandals of Africa, was the eldest son of Genseric, whom he succeeded in 447 a.d. ; but he did not inherit his father's abilities. He married the daugh- ter of the emperor Valentinian HI. His reign was extremely cruel and tyrannical. As an Arian, he perse- cuted the Catholics in particular. He died in 484, and left three sons, of whom Hilderic was the eldest ; but * See note on page 1227. Gondamond, a nephew of Huneric, was proclaimed his successor. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.' Hu-ni'a-des or Hun'ya-des, [Hun. Hunyady, hoon'yody; Fr. Huniade, hli'ne-td',] (Joan'nes Cor- Vi'nus,) a brave Hungarian general, who about 1440 was chosen Vaivode of Transylvania. Soon after Ladis- laus. King of Poland, was killed at the battle of Varna by the Turks, (1444,) Huniades was made captain-gen- eral of his army and Governor of Hungary. His chief exploit was the successful defence of Belgrade against Mahomet II., in 1456. He died of wounds received in this action. His son, Matthias Corvinus, was elected King of Hungary. See MajlAth, "History of the Magyars;" Pray, "Annales Regum Hungarije;" G. Bessenvei, " Hunyadi Janos," etc., 1788; G. Fejer, "Genus, Incunabula et Virtus J. Corvini de Hunyad," etc., Buda, 1844. Hun'nis, (William,) chapel-master to Queen Eliza- beth, wrote several volumes of psalms and hymns, (pub- lished from 1550 to 1588.) Hunnius, hoon'ne-us, (^gidius,) a Lutheran theo- logian, noted for intolerance, was born at Winnenden, in Wtirtemberg, in 1550. He was professor at Wittenberg, and wrote, besides other works, " Calvinus Judaizans," (1593-) l^ied in 1603. See HuTTER, " Threnologia de Vita Hunnii," 1603; Johann Georg Neumann, " Programma de Vita Hunnii," 1704 ; S. Gesner, " Leichenpredigt auf A. Hunnius nebst dessen Lebenslauf," 1603. Hunnius, (Nikolaus,) an able Lutheran theologian, son of the preceding, was born at Marburg in 1585. He was superintendent of all the churches of Lubeck from 1623 to 1643. He wrote against Popery, Calvinism, and Socinianism. Died in 1643. See L. Heller, " N. Hunnius, sein Leben und Wirken," 1843. Hunold, hoo'nolt, (Christian Friedrich,) a Ger- man litterateur, who wrote under the pseudonym of Menantes, born near Arnstadt in 1680. His works include romances, tales, and poems. Died in 1721. Hiint, (Edward B.,) an American military engineer, born in Livingston county. New York, in 1822. He graduated at West Point in 1845, was employed as engineer on several forts and light-houses, invented a submarine battery, and gained the rank of captain in 1859. Died in 1863. Hunt, (Frederick Knight,) an English editor, born in Buckinghamshire in 1814. After writing for the " Il- lustrated London News," etc., he was chief editor of the London " Daily News" from 1851 until his death. He wrote " The Book of Art," and " The Fourth Estate ; or, Contributions to the History of Newspapers," etc., (1850.) Died in 1854. Hunt, (Freeman,) an editor, born in Quincy, Massa- chusetts, in 1804. He became in 1839 the editor and owner of the " Merchants' Magaaine," issued monthly in New York. He published, besides other works, " Lives of American Merchants," (2 vols., 1856.) Died in 1858. Hunt, (George Ward,) an English politician, born in 1825. He was elected a member of Parliament for the county of Northampton in 1857, as a Conservative. He was re-elected, and gained distinction by a bill to counteract the cattle-plague of 1866. He became chan- cellor of the exchequer about March i, 1868, and re- signed in December of that year. Hunt, (Henry,) M.P., an English Radical, born in Wiltshire in 1773, acquired popularity with his party by his intrepid audacity and by his inflammatory harangues. He often presided at the meetings against the corn-laws. In 1820 he was arrested at Manchester, while addressing a political meeting, and punished with a fine and several years' imprisonment. He was returned to Parliament for Preston in 1831, defeating the Earl of Derby, his op- ponent, and witnessed the triumph of the Reform bill, for which he had toiled and suffered. Died in 1835. Hunt, (Isaac,) a native of the West Indies, was edu- cated in Philadelphia. He took the royalist side in the Revolution, removed to England, and became a preacher at Paddington about 1780. He published "The Rights of Englishmen." He was the father of Leigh Hunt. Hunt, (James Henry Leigh,) a popular English poet and litterateur, born at Southgate, near London, in 1784, was the son of Isaac Hunt, noticed above, and a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fUr, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; / HUNT 1 229 HUNTER Mary Shewell, of Philadelphia. He left school at the age of fifteen, and acted as clerk in the War Office until 1808, when he formed a partnership with his brother John to issue "The Examiner," a journal of liberal politics, which attained under his editorship a high reputation for literary merit. In 1812 the brothers were condemned to pay each a fine of five hundred pounds, and to be imprisoned two years, for a satirical article in which the prince-regent was styled an " Adonis of fifty." While in prison, he wTote "Rimini," (1816,) one of his most admired poems, " The Descent of Liberty," and " The Feast of the Poets." At this period he was intimate with Byron, Moore, Shelley, and Keats. From 181 8 to 1822 he edited " The Indicator," a series of periodical essays, ad- mired for genial humour, easy style, and brilliant fancy. In 1822 he was associated with Byron and Shelley as an editor of "The Liberal," a political and literary journal ; and for this object he resided with Byron in Pisa and Genoa. But Shelley was drowned, Ijyron and Hunt became estranged, and after the issue of four numbers "The Liberal" was discontinued. Hunt returned to England about 1824, and published "Recollections of Byron," (1828,) which gave great offence to Byron's friends. He was editor of "The Companion" and the "London Journal," and wrote for several periodicals. Among the multifarious productions of his versatile genius are a popular poem entitled "Captain Sword and Captain Pen," {1835,) "Stories from the Italian Poets," "Men, Women, and Books," (1847,) " Imagina- tion and Fancy," and his "Autobiography," (3 vols., 1850.) A pension of two hundred pounds was granted him in 1847. Died August 28, 1859. Professor Wilson, of Edinburgh, speaks of Hunt as " the most vivid of poets and most cordial of critics." (" Recreations of Christo- pher North.") See his "Autobiography," 1850; Hazlitt, "Spirit of the Age," and his " Table-Taik ;" Lord Jeffrey, •critique in the " Edinburgh Review" for June, 1816, (vol. xxvi. ;) E. P. Whipple, " Essays and Reviews;" W. Gifford, critique in the "Quarterly Review" for January, 1816, (vol. xiv. ;) " Brief Biographies," by Samuel Smiles. For a full account of the writings of Leigh Hunt, see a " List of the Writings of William Ha/.litt and Leigh Hunt," by Alexander Ireland, London, 1868; " North British Review" tor November, 1S50, and November, i860; "London Quarterly Review" for Janu- ary, 18 16. Hunt, (Jeremlah,) an English dissenting minister, born in London in 1678, preached for many years at Pinners' Hall. Died in 1744. Hunt, (Leigh.) See Hunt, (James Henry Leigh.) Hunt, (Richard Morris,) a distinguished American architect, born in Brattleborough, Vermont, October 31, 1829. He was several years in the Boston High School. In 1842 he went to Europe, and studied architecture in Paris and Geneva. He subsequently visited various parts of Europe, and also Asia Minor and Egypt, for the purpose of becoming better acquainted with the archi- tecture of different countries. After his return to Paris, he was appointed inspector at the Louvre ; in 1867 he was a member of the jury on architecture at the Expo- sition Universelle. He has since resided in New York. Hunt, (Robert,) an English author and philosopher, born at Devonport in 1807. His youth was passed in poverty, from which he was relieved by William Allen, the chemist, who procured him a situation in London. In 1832 he opened a druggist's shop in Penzance, having previously been a diligent student of chemistry and other sciences. He published his discoveries of the chemical action of the solar rays in an interesting work entitled "Researches on Light," (1844,) and in 1849 he gave to the world "The Poetry of Science." His "Panthea; or. The Spirit of Nature," (1849,) is designated by a writer in the "North British Review" as "a work of a very peculiar character, in which philosophy and poetry are finely blended, and where great truths and noble senti- ments are expressed in language full of beauty and elo- quence." Among his later productions are "Elementary Physics," (185 1,) and "Memoirs of the Geological Sur- vey of Great Britain," (1855.) He has a high reputation as a lecturer on science. See "North British Review" for May, 1850; "Eraser's Maga- zine" for April, 1849. Hunt, (Thomas,) D.D., an English scholar, born in 1696, became in 1747 professor of Hebrew in Oxford University. He wrote "Observations on the Book of Proverbs." Died in 1774. Hunt, (Thomas Sterry,) a distinguished American cheinist and geologist, born in Norwich, Connecticut, in 1826. He studied medicine for some time in his native town, and afterwards became assistant chemist to Pro- fessor Silliman at Yale College. About 1847 he became connected with the geological survey of Canada, and professor of chemistry at Quebec. Besides his contribu- tions to the London " Philosophical Magazine" and the Transactions of the Royal Society, French Academy of Sciences, etc., he has published above seventy papers in the "American Journal of Science." While acting as a juror to the International Exhibition at Paris in 1855, Mr. Hunt had conferred on him the cross of the legion of honour by Napoleon III. ; and in 1859 he was elected an honorary member of the Royal Society of London. Hunt, (Thornton,) an English journalist, the eldest son of Leigh Hunt, was born in 1810. He wrote, besides other works, "The Foster-Brother," a romance, (1845.) Hunt, (William Henry,) an English painter in water- colours, born in London in 1 790. His subjects are simple and homely, such as a " Peasant Boy" in various moods and phases, a " Farm-House Beauty," flowers, fruits, and other objects of still life. His works are admirable for colouring and perfection of finish. " I have seen," says Ruskin, " frequent instances of very grand ideality in treatment of the most commonplace still life by our own HunL" ("Modern Painters.") Died in 1864. See " Eraser's Magazine" for October, 1865. Hunt, (William Holman,) an eminent historical painter, one of the chief founders of the pre-Raphaelite school of England, was born in London about 1827. He began to exhibit at the Royal Academy in 1846. About 1850 he and several other artists assumed the name of " Pre-Raphaelite Brethren," proposing to restore the art of painting from the degenerate style of Raphael and his coevals. His works are very minutely finished, and are close imitations of nature. Among his master-pieces are "Our English Coasts," (1853,) "The Awakening Con- science," (1854,) and "The Light of the World," (1854,) a symbolic figure of the Saviour. " Hunt's ' Light of the World,'" says Ruskin, "is, I believe, the most perfect instance of expressional purpose with technical power which the world has yet produced." (" Modern Painters.") Hunt, (William Morris,) an American artist, born at Brattleborough, Vermont, about 1825, studied at Dus- seldorf and in Paris. His works are chiefly portraits and genre pictures. See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." Hunt'er, (Alexander,) F.R.S., a Scottish physician, born in Edinburgh in 1729, practised at Beverley and York. He was the principal founder of a lunatic-asylum at York. He wrote, besides professional treatises, "Georgical Essays," (a work on rural economy,) and edited Evelyn's "Sylva." Died in 1809. Hunter, (Anne,) wife of the great surgeon John Hunter, and sister of Sir Everard Home, was born in Scotland in 1742. She wrote "My Mother bids me braid my Hair," and other songs, set to music by Haydn. Her poems, published in 1802, were praised by " Black- wood's Magazine." Died in 1821. Hunter, (Christopher,) an English physician and antiquary, born in Durham in 1675 ; died in 1757. Hunt'er, (David,) an American general, iDorn in Washington, IDistrict of Columbia, in 1802, graduated at West Point in 1822. He became a colonel in May, 1861, served in the battle of Bull Run, July 21, was appointed a major-general of volunteers about August, and took command of the army and department of Missouri in November, 1861. About the ist of April, 1862, he was appointed commander of the army at Port Royal, or Plilton Head. In May ensuing he issued an order that the "persons heretofore held as slaves in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida are declared forever free." This order was annulled by the President as premature. He defeated General W. E. Jones at Piedmont, Virginia, June 5, 1864, after which he attacked Lynchburg (June 18) without success. He retreated westward by way of the Kanawha River, and was superseded by General Sheridan in August, 1864. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; § as z; th as in this. ( J^=°See Explanations, p. 23.) HUNTER 1230 HUNTINGTON Hunter, (Henry,) D.D., a Scottish divine and author, born at Culross in 1 741, was a man of superior talents. From 1 771 until his death he was pastor of a Scottish church in London. He was the author of a popular work styled "Sacred Biography," (1783-1802,) and translated Lavater's "Essays on Physiognomy," Saint-Pierre's "Studies of Nature," and other French works. His translation of Lavater, finely illustrated, sold for forty guineas a copy. Died in 1802. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Hunter, (Humphrey,) a patriot of the American Revolution, born in Ireland in 1755. About 1760 his widowed mother emigrated with her family to Mecklen- burg, North Carolina. He entered the Revolutionary army in 1776, and rendered distinguished service at the battle of Eutaw Springs. He was ordained in 1789, and from 1805 till his death, in 1827, was pastor of the Presbyterian church at Steele Creek, North Carolina. Hunter, (John,) an eminent British anatomist and surgeon, born at Long Calderwood, near Glasgow, in 1728, was the youngest of ten children. After receiving a very defective education, he worked a few years with a cabinet-maker in Glasgow. In 1748 he went to London, where he was employed by his brother William as an assistant in the dissection-room. Having pursued the study of anatomy with ardour and remarkable success, he was received in 1754 as a partner in his brother's school, and lectured regularly for about five years. In 1760, for the sake of his health, he exchanged this em- ployment for that of army-surgeon, and at the peace of 1763 returned to London. In 1767 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and soon after surgeon of Saint George's Hospital. He was eminent for surgical skill, and acquired greater celebrity by his researches in comparative anatomy, physiology, and natural history, on which he wrote several treatises. His museum is said to have cost ^70,000. Died in 1793. He is admitted to be the greatest British anatomist of the eighteenth century, and was noted for originality, independence, and estimable moral qualities. Among his best works are a "Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation, and Gun- Shot Wounds," and another on "Certain Parts of the Animal Economy." See EvERARD Home, "Life of John Hunter;" Jesse Foote, "Life of J. Hunter," 1794: Joseph Adams, "Memoirs of the Life and Doctrines of J. Hunter," 1816; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "Nouvelle Biographic Gene- rale." Hunter, (John,) a British naval officer, born at Leith in 1738, obtained the rank of vice-admiral. Died in 1821. Hunter, (John,) a Scottish critic, born at Closeburn in 1747, was for many years professor of humanity in Saint Andrew's, and published good editions of Horace, (1797,) Virgil, (1800,) and Juvenal, (1806.) Died in 1837. Hunter, (Rev. Joseph,) an English antiquary, born at Sheffield in 1783. Pie was for many years minister of a congregation of dissenters at Bath. He published several valuable works, among which are a " History and Topography of the Deanery of Doncaster," (2 vols., 1828,) and "Illustrations of the Life and Studies of Shakspeare," (2 vols., 1845.) He was assistant keeper of the public records. Died in 1861. Hunter, (Robert,) an English officer and writer, was appointed Governor of New York in 17 10, and acted as Governor of Jamaica from 1728 until his death. He wrote a " Letter on Enthusiasm," ascribed to Swift and Shaftesbury. Died in 1734. Hunter, (Robert Mercer Taliaferro,) an Ameri- can statesman, born in Essex county, Virginia, April 21, 1809. He graduated at the University of Virginia, studied law, and commenced its practice in his native town in 1830. He voted for Jackson in 1832, and was elected to the legislature of Virginia in 1833. He was chosen a representative to Congress in 1837. His first speech in this body was in favour of the independent treasury and against a national bank. He also took strong grounds in opposition to the protective policy of Mr. Clay, and in all his subsequent career was an able advocate of free trade. In 1839 he was chosen Speaker of the House, and for his dignified and impartial discharge of its duties received, at the close of the term, in 1841, a unanimous vote of thanks. He favoured the election of James K. Polk, and supported his policy with regard to Texas and the tariff. The warehousing system, which was first incorporated in the tariff bill, was originated and drawn up by Mr. Hunter. He was elected in 1847 to the United States Senate, in which he served through two full terms, and was elected for a third term ending in 1865. He supported the Douglas Kansas-Nebraska bill in 1854, and the admission of Kansas under the Lecompton Constitution in 1858. He was secretary of state of the Southern Confederacy from July, 1861, to February, 1862, and was one of the two Senators who represented Virginia in the Senate at Richmond from February, 1862, to 1865. Hunter, (William,) a distinguished anatomist and physician, born at Long Calderwood, near Glasgow, in 1 7 18, was a brother of John Hunter, noticed above. He received a liberal education in the University of Glasgow, and formed a professional connection with Dr. Cullen, who afterwards became so eminent as a medical writer. In 1 741 he removed to London, where he acquired a high reputation as a lecturer on anatomy and a medical practitioner. He formed a partnership with his brother John in 1748. Having obtained a large and lucrative practice, he was appointed in 1764 physician-extraordi- nary to the queen. In 1767 he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society, to whose " Transactions" he contrib- uted. About 1770 he founded in London an anatomical museum, to which were attached a classical library, and a cabinet of rare medals, which cost ^20,000. The most important of his publications is the "Anatomy of the Gravid Uterus," (1774.) He died in 1783. See S. F. Simmons, " Life and Writings of William Hunter,'* 1783; "Lives of British Physicians," London, 1857; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Hunter, (William,) a British surgeon, born at Mont- rose, was employed in the service of the East India Company in Bengal. He published an " Account of Pegu," (1785,) " Caverns near Bombay," a " Hindostanee Dictionary," and several medical treatises. He was eminent as an Orientalist, and from 1794 to 1808 was secretary of the Asiatic Society. Died in 1815. Hunt'ing-don, (Selina,) Countess of, an English lady, eminent for her piety and munificence, was the daughter of the Earl of Ferrers. Her maiden name was Shirley. She was born in 1707, and in 1728 was married to Theophilus Hastings, Earl of Huntingdon. After her husband's death, about 1746, she lived in fellowship with the Calvinistic Methodists, chose Whitefield for her chaplain, and was noted for her zeal and devotion. She founded at Trevecca a seminary for preachers, built chapels, and spent large sums for religious purposes. Her sect was known as the "Countess of Huntingdon's Connection." Died in 1791. See "Life and Times of Selina, Countess of Huntingdon," 1839; "The Women of Methodism," by Abel Stevens. Hunt'ing-ford, (George Isaac,) D.D., an English theologian, born at Winchester in 1748. He was made Bishop of Gloucester in 1802, and of Hereford in 1815. He published several Greek and Latin school-books, " Thoughts on the Trinity," and sermons. Died in 1832. Hunt'ing-ton, (Daniel,) a distinguished American painter, born in New York in 1816. He became about 1835 a pupil of Professor Morse at New York, and in 1839 visited Florence and Rome, where he painted his " Sibyl" and " Shepherd Boy of the Campagna." Having returned to New York, he painted numerous portraits and historical subjects. He was elected president of the National Academy of Design in 1862. Among his works are " Lady Jane Grey and Feckenham in the Tower," and "Henry VIII. and Catherine Parr." See TucKERMAN, "Book of the Artists." Huntington, (Frederick D.,) D.D., an American divine and author, born in Hadley, Massachusetts, in 1819. He graduated at Amherst in 1839, studied divinity at Cambridge, and from 1842 to 1855 was minister of the South Congregational Church in Boston. He became preacher and professor of Christian morals in Harvard University. Although formerly a Unitarian, he has re- cently embraced the faith of the Episcopal Church. He became Bishop of Central New York in April, 1869. He published " Sermons for the People," (6th edition, i860.) S, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; nftt; good; moon HUNTINGTON 1231 HUSKISSON Huntington, (Jedediah Vinxent,) an author, a brother of Daniel, noticed above, was bom in New York in 181 5. He became an Episcopalian priest about 1840, and afterwards joined the Roman Catholic Church. He wrote, besides other works, a volume of Poems, (1843,) and "Lady Alice, or the New Una," a novel, (1849.) Huntington, (Robert,) D.D., an English Orientalist, born at Deerhurst in 1636. From 1670 to 1680 he was chaplain to a factory at Aleppo, and collected many valu- able manuscripts in the Levant. He was chosen Bishop of Raphoe in 1 701, and died in the same year. He wrote a "Letter on the Porphyry Pillars in Egypt," (published in tlie "Philosophical Transactions," No. 161.) Huntington, (Samuel,) president of the American Congress, was born in Windham, Connecticut, in 1732. He distinguished himself in the Colonial Council of 1775 by his opposition to the aggressive policy of Great Britain, and in 1776 took his seat in Congress and signed the Declaration of Independence. \n 1779 he succeeded John Jay as president of the Congress of the Confedera- tion, and was again chosen to the same office in 1780. He again served in Congress in 1783, and was shortly after appointed chief justice of Connecticut. In 1786 he was elected Governor of the State, as the successor of Roger Griswold, and was annually re-elected to the same office till his death, in 1796. See Goodrich, "Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- pendence." Huntington, ( William, ) an English Methodist preacher, born in Kent in 1744, was originally a poor labourer. He became a popular preacher among the Calvinistic Methodists in London, and published many tracts and controversial works. Died in 1813. See notice in the "Quarterly Review" for January, 1821, (by SOUTHEV.) Hun'ton, (Philip,) an English nonconformist divine, born in Hampshire, was appointed provost of Durham College in 1657. He wrote a "Treatise on Monarchy," (1644,) which gave great offence to the High-Church party. Died about 1682. Hunts'man, (Ben'Jamin,) an English artisan, born in Lincolnshire in 1704, is said to have been the inventor of cast steel. He lived in Sheffield. Died in 1776. See Smiles, "Industrial Biography." Hunyades. See Humades. Hunyady. See Huniades. Huot, /^iiV, (Jean Jacques Nicolas,) a French naturalist, born in Paris in 1790, published a "Complete Manual of Mineralogy," (2 vols., 1841,) and revised and continued the "System of Universal Geography," which Malte-Brun left unfinished. The last two volumes of this were written by M. Huot. Died in 1845. See "Vie de J. J. N. Hnot," by his son, Paul Huot, 1846. Hupfeld, hoop'f^lt, (Hermann,) a German theolo- gian and Orientalist, born at Marburg in 1796, became professor of theology at Halle in 1843. published, besides other works, " De Vera Festorum apud Hebraeos Ratione," (2 vols., 1852,) and a version of the Psalms, (1855.) He was an excellent Hebrew scholar. Died at Halle in April, 1866. Huppazoli, oop-p^d-zo'lee, (Francesco,) an Italian, noted for longevity, born at Casal in 1587, was at one time a merchant, and in 1669 was appointed Venetian consul at Smyrna. He was abstemious in his habits, and retained the use of his faculties to the last. Died in 1702. Hurault. See Chiverny. Kurd, (Richard,) D.D., an eminent English writer and critic, born at Congreve in 1720, was educated at Cambridge, and became a friend of Warburton. He was appointed Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1775, and translated to the see of Worcester in 1781. The arch- bishopric of Canterbury was offered to him, but was declined. Among his works, which are very numerous and able, are "Dialogues, Moral and Political," '* Letters on Chivalry," (1762,) "Commentary on Horace's Ars Poetica," " Lectures on the Prophecies," and a "Life of Warburton," (1794.) " Hurd has perhaps," says Hal- lam, "the merit of being the first who, in this country, aimed at philosophical criticism : he had great ingenuity, a good deal of reading, and a facility in applying it; but he did not feel very deeply, was somewhat of a coxcomb, and assumes a dogmatic arrogance which offends the reader." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe,") Died in 1808. See Francis Kilvert, " Memoirs of Bishop Hurd," i860 ; " Life of R. Hurd," by himself, in an edition of his Works, 8 vols., 1811 ; "North British Review" for May, 1861. Hur'dis, (Rev. James,) an English poet, born in Sussex in 1763, was a friend of the poet Cowper. In 1784 he became tutor to the Earl of Chichester's son, and in 1793 professor of poetry at Oxford. He wrote "The Village Curate," (1788,) "Sir Thomas More," a tragedy, and other poems. Died in 1801. See " Retrospective Review," vol. i., 1820. Hure, hvi'-Rb/, (Charles,) a French Jansenist writer, born at Champigny-sur-Yonne in 1639, was for many years an eminent professor of languages in the Univer- sity of Paris. He published an approved " Dictionary of the Bible." Died in 171 7. Huret, hxxxy, (Gr^goire,) a French engraver, born at Lyons in 1610. His work is easy and mellow, and his heads expressive. Died in 1670. Hurl'but, (Stephen A.,) an American general, born at Charleston, South Carolina, about 181 5, commanded a division of General Grant's army at Shiloh, April 6-7, 1862. With the rank of major-general, he directed a corps of General Sherman's army in the raid to Meridian in February, 1864. Hurl'st9ne,(FREDERiCK Yeates,) an English painter of history and portraits, was born in Lonclon in 1801. Soon after 1830 he joined the Society of British Artists, of which he became president. Among his works are " The Spanish Beauty" and " The Last Sigh of the Moor." His portraits are much admired. Died in 1869. Hurtado de Mendoza. See Mendoza. Hurtault, h'uR'tb', (Maximilien Joseph,) a French architect, born at Huningue in 1765. He was appointed architect of the Fontainebleau Palace, in which he re- stored the gallery of Diana. Died in 1824. Hurter, hooR'ter, (Friedrich Emanuel,) a German historian, born at Schafifhausen in 1786, published a "History of Pope Innocent III.," (4 vols., 1834-42,) and a "History of the Emperor Ferdinand II. and his Family," (Eltern,) {9 vols., 1850-57.) Hus'bands, (Herman,) a native of Pennsylvania, became a leader of the '* Regulators" in North Carolina in 1768, and fought against Governor Tryon in 1 771. Died about 1794. Huschke, hdosh'keh, (Emanuel Gottlieb,) a Ger- man philologist, born in 1761, published a good edition of Tibullus, (1819,) and other works. Died in 1828. Huschke, (Georg Philipp Eduard,) a German jurist, born at Miinden in 1801, published "Studies on Roman Law," (1830,) and other works. Hus'kis-son, (William,) an English statesman and financier, born in Worcestershire in 1770, went to Paris in 1783, where he lived with one of his uncles and learned the French language. Sympathizing with the Revolution, he was present at the storming of the Bastille, and he became a prominent member of the " Societe de 1789." In 1790 he was employed as secretary to Lord Gower, then ambassador at Paris, with whom he returned to England in 1792. Having attracted the favourable notice of Pitt, he was appointed in 1795 under-secre- tary in the department ol^ war and the colonies, and the next year was returned to Parliament for Morpeth. He was secretary of the treasury from 1804 until the death of Pitt, and again from 1807 until 1809, when, as a friend of Canning, he resigned with him. In Parliament he represented successively Harwich, Chichester, (1812- 23,) and Liverpool, (1823-30.) He gained distinction by his knowledge of finance and commerce, and by his methodical and luminous reports. In 1823, under the auspices of Canning, he became president of the board of trade, treasurer of the navy, and a member of the cabinet. From the death of Canning (1827) to 1829 he acted as colonial secretary. In the latter part of his life he inclined to the policy of the Liberal party in respect to electoral reform, the corn-laws, and other restrictions on commerce. He resigned in May, 1829, because he differed from the Tory ministry. At the opening of the € as 9 as s; g hard; g as G, H, Y^^ guttural ; n, nasal; R, trilled; sas z; th as in this. (2!;^^See Explanations, p. 23.) HUSS 1232 HUTCHINSON Liverpool and Manchester Railway he was killed by. an engine, September 15, 1830. See " Speeches and Biography," by Wright, 3 vols., 1831 ; Wm, Jerdan, "Men I have known," London, 1866; " Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale." Huss, (John,) [Ger. Johann Huss, yo'hdn hooss ; Lat. Johan'nes Huss,] a celebrated reformer of the Church, was born at Husinec, (or Hussinetz,) in Southern Bohe- mia, in 1373. Being appointed in 1402 preacher at the Bethlehem Chapel in Prague, he became a zealous advo- cate of the doctrines of Wickliffe, whereby he incurred the censure of the Catholic clergy. As rector of the Uni- versity of Prague, he had the works of Wickliffe trans- lated into Bohemian ; but they were soon after burned by order of Archbishop Sbinko, In 141 2 he denounced the papal bull issued by John XXIII. against Ladislaus, King of Naples, and with his coadjutor, Jerome of Prague, condemned the sale of indulgences. He was excommu- nicated the next year, upon which he wrote his work " On the Church," exposing the abuses of popery. Cited before the Council of Constance in 1414, and provided with a pass by the emperor Sigismund, he was arrested on his arrival, and, as he adhered firmly to his opinions, he was burned by order of the treacherous emperor. See £mile de Bonnechose, "Les Reformateurs avant la Re- forme," 2 vols., 1847; "J. Huss et Hieronymi Pragensis Historia et Monumenta," Nuremberg, 1558; J. Cochlee, "Historia Hussi- tarum," 1549; Hodgson, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867 ; August Neander, "Ziige aus dem Leben des unvergesslichen J. Huss," Berlin, 1819; Wm. Gilpin, " Lives of John Wickliffe and of the Most Eminent of his Disciples, Lord Cobham, J. Huss," etc., 1765; Georg Lommel, " J. Huss," 1847; Hei,fert, "Huss und Hieronynuis von Prag," 1853; "North American Review" for Octo- ber, 1847, (by H. W. ToRREV.) Hussein Pasha, hoos'sTn' pi'shi', a famous Turkish admiral, born about 1750, was a favourite of Selim III., who in 1789 appointed him capudan-pasha. He pos- sessed superior talents, and served his master with fi- delity in reforming the discipline and management of the navy. He commanded the fleet which in 1801 co- operated with the English against the French on the coast of Egypt. Died in 1803. Hussein Pasha, (or Pacha,) last Dey of Algiers, born at Smyrna about 1773. At the death of Ali Pasha, in 1818, he was proclaimed his successor. To avenge an insult received by the French consul, the French government sent in June, 1830, an army which, after several days' fighting, forced Hussein to capitulate. He was deposed, and died in 1838. See A. Nettement, "Histoire de la Conquete d'Alger," 1857. Hiis'sey, (Giles,) an English painter, born in 17 10, studied in Italy, and settled in London in 1742. He excelled in portraits, and attempted to apply to his art the hypothesis of harmonic proportions. Died in 1788. Husson, /^ii's6N^ (Jean Honor^ Aristide,) a skil- ful French sculptor, born in Paris in 1803. Pie gained the grand prize of Rome in 1830. Among his works are " Dante and Virgil," a bas-relief, (1836,) a statue of Voltaire, (1839,) and a marble statue of " Haidee," (1850.) Died in 1864. Hu'ston, (Lorenzo Dow,) a Methodist minister, born in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1820, preached in Kentucky, and edited several papers. Hutch'e-son, [Lat. Hutcheso'nus,] (Francis,) a metaphysician, born in the north of Ireland in 1694, was educated at Glasgow, and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister. While employed as principal of an academy in Dublin, he published about 1725 an excellent work, entitled an " Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue," which was followed by an " Essay on the Passions and Affections," (1728.) In 1729 he was appointed professor of moral philosophy in the Uni- versity of Glasgow. Died in 1747. His greatest work, " A System of Moral Philosophy," was published in 1755. Sir J. Mackintosh thinks Hutcheson "was the father of the modern school of philosophy in Scotland." He adopted the opinions of Lord Shaftesbury in moral philos- ophy, 3nd maintained that disinterested affections and a distinct moral faculty are essential parts of human nature. See William Leechman, " Life of F. Hutcheson," prefixed to his " System of Moral Philosophy," 1755; " Riographia Britannica," (Supplement;) Sir J. Mackintosh, "Preliminary Dissertation" in the " Encyclopaadia Britannica;" Jacor I^aart de la Faille, " Dissertatio de Vita et Scriptis F. Hntchesoni," 1812. Hutchesonus. See Hutcheson. Hutch'ins, (Rev. John,) born at Bradford-Peverel, in England, in 1698, wrote the "History and Antiquities of the County of Dorset." Died in 1773. Hutch'ins, (Thomas,) an American geographer, born in Monmouth county. New Jersey, about 1735. He was appointed geographer to the United States by Congress, and published, besides other works, a " Topographical Description of Virginia, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and North Carolina," (1778.) Died in 1789. Hutch^in-son, (Ann,) a religious enthusiast, born in Lincolnshire, England, about 1600. She was the wife of William Hutchinson, whom she accompanied to Boston in 1636. She taught many doctrines which were con- demned as heretical by the Synod of 1637. Mrs. Hutchin- son herself was banished, and in 1642 removed to what is now Westchester county. New York. The next year her house was set on fire by the Indians, and she and all her family, consisting of sixteen persons, (except a child taken captive,) either perished in the flames or were killed by the savages. See "Life of Anne Hutchinson," by George E. Ellis, in Sparks's "American Biography," vol. vi., 2d series; Hildreth's " History of the United States," vol. i. chap. ix. Hutchinson, (John,) Colonel, an English Puritan and regicide, born at Nottingham in 1616. In 1638 he married Lucy Apsley. (See Hutchinson, Lucy.) In 1642 he obtained the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the army of Parliament, and next year was appointed governor of the town and castle of Nottingham, which he bravely defended in a long siege against the royalists. He was one of the judges who condemned Charles I., and afterwards was a member of the council of state. He was hostile to the government of Cromwell. After the restoration he was included in the act of amnesty, but, on a ground- less suspicion of a treasonable conspiracy, was confined in the Tower and Sandown Castle from 1662 to his death in 1664. His character was excellent, and free from the austere errors to which the Puritans were most inclined. See " Memoirs of Colonel Hutchinson," by his wife, 1806. Hutchinson, (John,) an English writer, born at Spennithorne in 1674, was the founder of the Hutchin- sonian or mystical school of biblical interpretation. He was employed as steward by the Duke of Somerset, and afterwards as his riding-purveyor. His first work, called " Moses' Principia," was designed to refute the argu- ments of Newton's "Principia." He published, also, a " Treatise on Power, Essential and Mechanical," "Glory or Gravity, Essential and Mechanical," " The Hebrew Writings Complete," " Moses sine Principio," and other works. His leading idea is that the Hebrew Scriptures contain the elements of natural philosophy as well as of religion. His views excited much controversy, and were adopted by Bishop Home, Parkhurst, and other eminent divines. Died in 1737. See Julius Bates, "Defence of John Hutchinson's Tenets," 1751 ; Floyd, " Bibliotheca Biographica." Hutchinson, (John Hely,) an Irish statesman and lawyer, born in 171 5, resided in Dublin, and became secretary of state. Died in 1794. Hutchinson, (John Hely,) a British general, born in 1757, was the second son of the preceding. He entered the army in 1774. Having gained distinction in the Irish rebellion, he was made major-general in 1796. In 1800 he went to Egypt as second in command under Sir Ralph Abercrombie. When the latter was killed, in March, 1801, Hutchinson succeeded to the command, and obliged the French army under Menou to capitulate at Alexandria in the same year. He was rewarde-d for these services by the title of Baron Hutchinson. In 1825, on the death of his brother, he inherited the title of Earl of Donoughmore. Died in 1832. Hutchinson, (Lucy,) an English authoress of great merit, was the daughter of Sir Allan Apsley, lieutenant of the Tower of London, in which Tower she was born in 1620. She was married in 1638 to Colonel John Hutchinson, noticed above, after having received a liberal education. She shared the counsels and dangers of her husband in the civil war, attended him in prison, and wrote Memoirs of his life, (1806,) which are greatly admired. " We have not often met with anything," says a, e, T, 6, u, y, long-; k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit ; mSt; ndt; good; moon; HUTCHINSON 1233 HUXLET Lord Jeffrey, *' more interesting and curious than this volume. ... It challenges our attention as containing an accurate and luminous account of military and political affairs from the hand of a woman, and as exhibiting the most liberal and enlightened sentiments in the person of a Puritan. The views which it opens into the char- acter of the writer and the manners of the age will be to many a still more powerful attraction." See "Memoirs of Eminent Englisliwomen," by Louisa S. Cos- TELLO, London, 1844: "Edinburgh Review" for October, i8o8, (vol. xiii. ;) "Monk's Contemporaries," by GuiZOT, London, 1865. Hutchinson, (Richard Hely,) Earl of Donough- more, born in Dublin in 1756, was the eldest son of John H. Hutchinson, noticed above. He served in the army during the Irish rebellion of 1798, and in 1800 was raised to the peerage, as Earl of Donoughmore. In 1805 he obtained the rank of major-general. In Parliament he advocated with zeal and constancy the claims of the Catholics. He was created a peer of the United King- dom in 1821. Died in 1825. Hutchinson, (Roger,) an early English Reformer, became Fellow of Saint John's College, Cambridge, in 1543. He left theological works, which were published in 1842. Died in 1555. Hutchinson, (Thomas,) a royal governor of Massa- chusetts, was born in Boston in 1711. He became a judge of probate in 1752, and chief justice of Massachu- setts in 1760. His course in relation to the Stam]) Act rendered him very unpopular. He succeeded Bernard as governor in 1769, and pursued a policy v/hich tended to provoke a revolt in the colonies. When the tea was brought to Boston in 1773, the inhabitants, in town- meeting, resolved that it should not be landed, but be returned to its owners. Hutchinson, however, refused to grant the ships a pass. The result was the destruction of the tea by citizens in the disguise of Indians, In 1 772, Dr. Franklin, colonial agent in London, had sent over to Massachusetts confidential letters written by Hut- chinson to England, which showed that his whole policy had been characterized by duplicity and evasion, — that, professing to be the friend of the colony, he had secretly advised the sending of troops to Boston, and other obnoxious measures. He retired to England in 1774. Died near London in 1780. His principal works are a " History of the Province of Massachusetts Bay from 1628 to 1749," (2 vols. 8vo, issued in 1764-67,) and a " Collection of Original Papers relative to the History of Massachusetts Bay," (1769.) The "North American Review" calls his work "a mine of wealth to all future historians and antiquaries." "It is written," says Ban- croft, " with lively inquisitiveness and lawyer-like criti- cism, though without a glimpse of the great truths which were the mighty causes of the revolution he describes." See Allen's "American Biographical Dictionary." Huth, hoot, (Georg Leonhard,) a German natu- ralist, born at Nuremberg in 1705 ; died in 1761. Hutin, //ii'tiN', (Charles,) a French painter and sculptor, born in Paris in 1715, worked mostly at Dres- den, where he died in 1776. Hutten, von, fon hoot'ten, [Lat. Hutte'nus,] (Ul- rich,) a German poet, and one of the earliest Protestant Reformers, born near Fulda in 1488. He studied at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and afterwards at Pavia, in Italy. About 1520 he repaired to Mentz, where he published a succession of severe attacks on the Roman clergy, and soon after became acquainted with Luther, whose cause he openly espoused. Owing to the persecution he now encountered, he was obliged to take refuge in Switzerland, where he died in 1523. He possessed rare talents, but lacked discretion. Among his works are " Epistolce Ob- scurorum Virorum," satires on certain pedants, {1516.) See ScHUBART, " Leben Ulrich von Hutten's," 1791; Burckhard, " Conimentariiis de Fatis et Mentis Ulrici Hutteni," 1717-23: Strauss, " Uh-ich von Hutten," 185S; Bavle, " Historical and Criti- cal Dictionary;" Wagrnseii., " U. von Hutten nach seinem Leben," etc., 1823 ; Zeller, " U. de Hutten, sa Vie, ses CEuvres, son Temps," Paris, 1849; Gervinus, " Geschichte der Deutschen National-Lite- ratur;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" "Eraser's Magazine" for August, 1849. Huttenus. See Hutten. Hutter, hoot'ter, (?2lias,) a German linguist, born at Ulm about 1555. He published an edition of the Bible in Hebrew, and a Polyglot Bible. Died about 1602. Hutter, [Lat. Hutte'rus,] (Leonhard,) a German theologian, a brother of the preceding, was bora at Ulm in 1563. He was noted for his rigour and excessive zeai for Lutheranism. He was professor of theologv at Wit- tenberg from I596until 1616. Among his numerous works is a " Compendium of Theological Subjects," (" Compen- dium Locorum theologicorum," 1610.) Died in 1616. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" J G. Neu- mann, " Programma de Vita L. Hutteri," 1706. Hutterus. See Hutter. Hut'ton, (Charles,) LL.D., an eminent English mathematician, born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1737, was employed for some years as a teacher in his native place. Here he published treatises on arithntetic and mensuration. From 1773 to 1806 he was professor of mathematics in the Military Academy at Woolwich. In 1774 he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society, which he also served as foreign secretary and enriched with able scientific memoirs. He acquired celebrity by nu- merous works, among which are " Mathematical Tables," (1785,) "Elements of Conic Sections," a "Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary," (1795,) a "Course of Mathematics," (1798,) etc. From 1804 to i8o9he assisted Shaw and Pearson in abridging the " Philosophical Trans- actions." He was eminent for benevolence, modesty, and simplicity of character. In 1807 his services were rewarded by a pension of ;^5oo. Died in 1823. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" "Gen- tleman's Magazine" for 1823. Hut'ton, (James,) M.D., a philosopher and geologist, distinguished as the author of the Plutonian theory of geology, was born in Edinburgh in 1726. He gradu- ated as M.D. at Leyden in 1749. About 1768 he became again a resident of Edinburgh, where he published, be- sides other works, a " Dissertation on the Piiilosophy of Light, Heat, and Fire," (1794,) and "Theory of the Earth," (1795.) His geological theory excited much discussion and op]50sition, being attacked by Kirwan and defended by Professor Playfair, who wrote " Illustra- tions of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth," (1802.) Died in 1797. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" "Edinburgh Review," vol. ii. Hutton, (Matthew,) an English prelate, born in 1529, was made Bishop of Durham in 1589, and Arch- bishop of York in 1594. He wrote a work on Predes- tination. Died in 1605. Hutton, (Matthew,) became Archbishop of York in 1747, and was translated to Canterbury in 1757. He published several sermons. Died in 1758. Hutton, (William,) an English antiquary and author, born of poor parents at Derby in 1723. He received a defective education. At the age of fifty-six he commenced his career as an author. His chief works are a " History of Birmingham," (1781,) a "History of Derby," (1790,) "Edgar and Elfrida," a poem, "The Roman Wall," (1801,) and an instructive volume of "Autobiography," (1816.) His daughter Catherine wrote " the Miser Married," a novel. He died in 181 5. See his " Autobiography ;" " Pursuit of Knowledge under Diffi- culties," vol. i. Huve, h'n'vbi', (Jean Jacques Marie,) a French architect, born at Versailles in 1783. He succeeded Vignon as architect of the grand church La Madeleine, which he finished. He was admitted into the Institute in 1838. Died in 1852. See Charles Lenormanu, " Notice sur J. J. M. Huve," 1853. Hux'ham, (John,) an English physician, born at Halberton in 1694, studied under Boerhaave at Leyden, and practised with success at Plymouth. He wrote several popular books on medicine, one of which is an "Essay on Fevers," (1750.) Died in 1768. Hux'ley, (Thomas Henry,) F.R.S., an eminent English physiologist and naturalist, born at Ealing, Middlesex, in 1825. He was in his youth a surgeon in the royal navy. About 1848 he produced a treatise "On the Anatomy and Affinities of the Family of the Medusae." He succeeded E. Forbes as professor of palaeontology in the School of Mines about 1854, and became professor of physiology at the Royal Institution. Among his principal works is a "History of the Oceanic € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 78 HUTDECOPER 1234 HTACINTHE Hydrozoa," (1857,) "Man's Place in Nature," (1863,) "Lectures on the Elements of Comparative Anatomy," (1864,) and an essay entitled "Protoplasm; or, The Physical Basis of Life," (1869.) In 1869 he was chosen president of the British Association for 1870. He con- tributed numerous memoirs to the Transactions of the Royal Geological and Zoological Societies. He is a very popular lecturer on natural science, and stands in the fore- most rank among British physiologists and naturalists. In natural science he favours the Darwinian theory. See " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1863 ; " London Quarterly Review" for October, iS6q. Huydecoper, hoi'deh-ko'per, (Balthasar,) a Dutch poet and excellent critic, born at Amsterdam in 1695. He produced " Arsaces," (1722,) and three other trage- dies, a good metrical version of the Satires, Epistles, and "Ars Poetica" of Horace, (1737,) and other poems. His "Essays, Philological and Poetical, or Observations on Vondel's Dutch Version of Ovid's Metamorphoses," (1730,) are highly commended. "All that he has done in this department," says the "Biographic Universelle," "is classical." Died in 1778. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Van Effen, " HoUandische Spectator," vol. iv. ; Schotel, "Commen- tatio de B. Huydecoperi in Linguam Literasque Belgicas Meritis," Leyden, 1830. Huygens or Huyghens, hl'gens, [Dutch pron. almost hoi''Hens ; Lat. HuGE^NIUS,] (Christi^j^,) a celebrated Dutch astronomer and geometer, born at the Hague, April 14, 1629. He inherited the title of Lord of Zuy- lichem. About the age of sixteen he went to Leyden, where he studied law and mathematics under Vinnius and Schooten. Soon after leaving the university, he began to distinguish himself by his admirable scientific discoveries and mechanical inventions. In 1651 he pub- lished his "Theorems on the Quadrature of the Hyper- bola," etc., and in 1656 discovered a satellite of Saturn with a telescope of his own construction. In 1657 he rendered important service to science and society by improving the clock, being the first to apply the pendu- lum to the measurement of time. Two years later he published, in his " System of Saturn," a description of Saturn's ring, which he had discovered with a telescope of twenty-two feet focal length. These and other successes had rendered him pre-eminent among the contemporary savants and philosophers of all nations. Newton was then a young student preparing to rival or surpass him. The years 1660 and 1661 were passed by Huygens in France and England. In 1663 he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. From 1665 to 1681 he resided in Paris, whither Colbert had invited him in order to add eclat to the newly-founded Academy of Sciences. In this period he demonstrated the law of the impact of bodies, {1669,) wrote an elegant treatise on Dioptrics, and published his great work entitled " Horologium Oscillatorium," (1673,) dedicated to Louis XIV. Besides the theory of the pendulum, this work contains several very important mechanical discoveries, among which are the fact that the cycloid is the curve all the arcs of which, measured from the lowest point, are synchronous, and the theory (without demonstration) of the centrifugal force in circular mo- tion, by which he made a near approach to those laws of gravitation afterwards proved by Newton, He has the credit of inventing the spiral spring which is used to regulate the balance of watches, which invention was also claimed by Hautefeuille. In 1681 Huygens returned to Holland, where he spent some years in constructing a planetarium, and telescopes of enormous dimensions, one of which had a focal length of two hundred and ten feet. In 1690 appeared (in French) his " Treatise on the Cause of Gravity," and a " Treatise on Light," which is esteemed one of his greatest works. It contains argu- ments in favour of the undulatory theory, which was first proposed by him and is now generally adopted. Died in 1695. He left a work styled " Cosmotheoros," (printed in 1698,) in which he advances bold speculations or con- jectures on the constitution of the planets, which he believed to be inhabited. Huygens was never married. He loved retirement, and maintained a good character as a man. He kept up a friendly correspondence with Leibnitz and Newton, the latter of whom called him " Summus Hugenius." See " Vita Hiigenii," prefixed to his "Opera Varia," 1724; Con- DORCET, "Eloge de Huygens;" Ersch und Cruder, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Montucla, " Histoire des Mathematiques ;" De- LAMBRE, " Histoire de TAstronoinie nioderne;" P. H. Pkeri.kamp, "Annotatio in Vitam C. Hugenii," 1821 ; M. Lemans, " Lebens- beschrijving van C. Huijgens;" Dr. F. Hoefer, article in the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Huygens or Huijgens, (Constanttjn,) Seigneur of Zuylichem, (or Zulichem,) born at the Hague in 1596, was the father of the preceding. He acted with credit as secretary to three successive princes of Orange, the last of whom was William HI. of England. He wrote Latin epigrams, and other poetical performances, which were received with favour. Died in 1687. See his Autobiography, in verse, entitled "De Vita propria Ser- mones ;" Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary," (in Z ;) Long- fellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Schinkel, " Bijdrage tot de Kennis van het Karakter van C. Huijgens," 1842; "Eraser's Magazine" for May, 1854. Huyghens, Hoi'Hcns, (Gomarus,) a Dutch Roman Catholic theologian, born in Brabant in 1631; died in 1702. Huypt, /?u'yo', (Jean Nicolas,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1780. He passed several years in the Levant, exploring the ruins of Ephesus, Thebes, Athens, and other cities. Died in 1840. Huysman, hois'min, sometimes written Houseman, (CoRNELis,) an eminent Flemish landscape-painter, born at Antwerp in 1648. He worked mostly at Malines, (Mechlin.) His colouring is praised by Descamps, who also observes that he had a great talent for painting mountains. Among his works is "The Disciples Going to Emmaus." Died in 1727. See J. C. Weverman, " De Schllderkonst der Nederlanders." Huysman or Houseman, (Jacob,) a Flemish painter of history and portraits, born at Antwerp in 1656; died in London in 1696. Huysum, van, vtn hoi'siim, (Jacob,) brother of Jan, noticed below, was born at Amsterdam about 1680. He excelled in flower-painting, and copied several of his brother's works with accuracy. Died in London in 1740. Another brother, Justus, born in 1684, excelled in battle-pieces, but died prematurely in 1706. Huysum, van, (Jan,) a celebrated Dutch painter, born in Amsterdam in 1682, was a pupil of his father, Justus. His favourite subjects were flowers and fruits, in which he is thought to be unrivalled. His works unite tasteful composition, richness and harmony of colour, freedom of touch, and exquisite finish. His pictures were often adorned with insects, dew-drops, birds' nests, etc. He had a peculiar art of preparing his colours, which he always kept secret. Died in 1749. See PiLKiNGTON, "Dictionary of Painters." Huysum, van, (Justus,) the Old, a Dutch land- scape-painter, born at Amsterdam in 1659, was the father of the preceding. Died in 1716. Huzard, //u'ztR', (Jean Baptiste,) a noted French veterinary physician, born in Paris in 1755, was a member of the Institute. He wrote numerous aljle and popular works on the vet^i'lnary art and rural economy, and he had collected a library of forty thousand volumes per- taining to his speciality. Died in 1839. See Pariset, " :^loge de Hazard;" Baron Silvestre, "Notice sur Huzard." Hvergelmir. See Nidhogg. Hvitfeld, hvif'feld, (Arild,) a Danish historian, born in 1549. In 1586 he attained the dignity of senator, and afterwards was chancellor of the kingdom. He wrote a " Chronicle of the Kingdom of Denmark," which is considered authentic. Died in 1609. See Kraft og Nyerup, " Litteraturlexicon for Danemark." Hwiid, hweed, (Andreas Christian,) a Danish critic, born at Copenhagen in 1749, was educated for the church, and was skilled in Oriental languages. He published a " Life of Cyrus the Great and the Younger," and several commentaries on Scripture. Died in 1788. Hyaointhe. See Hyacinthus. Hyacinthe, e't'siNt^ (Charles Loyson,) Pere, an eniinent French pulpit orator, born at Orleans about 1828. He became a Carmelite monk, preached for some time in Lyons, and removed about 1865 to Paris, where his conferences in the church of Notre-Dame attracted a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; HTACINTHUS 1235 HTLLUS much attention. In September, 1869, he pubh'shed, in a letter to the general of his order, a protest against the ultramontane doctrines and practices of the Roman Church, called forth by the Encyclical letter by which the pope had convened a general council. This protest caused a great commotion in the religious world. " Since Luther," says Mr. Bigelow, " there has been no such signal revolt against the authority of the Romish hier- archy." About October, 1869, he visited the United States. It appears that he has not formally separated from the communion of the Catholic Church. See notice of " Father Hyacinthe and his Church," in " Putnam's Monthly Magazine" for January, 1870, (by John Bigelow.) Hy-a-cin'thus, [Gr. 'TamvQog ; Fr. Hyacinthe, e't'- s^Nt',] a beautiful Spartan youth, beloved by Apollo, by whom he was accidentally killed in a game of discus. The poets feigned that Apollo changed him into the flower called Hyacinth. Hy^a-des, [Gr. Tac5ef,] Anglicised as Hy'ads, nymphs of classic mythology, and daughters of Atlas. According to the poetic legend, they were changed into stars, and now form part of the constellation of Taurus. When they rose and set with the sun, it was regarded as a sign of rainy weather. Hy'att, (John,) a Calvinistic Methodist preacher, born in 1767, officiated in the Tabernacle, London. He published several volumes of sermons. Died in 1826. Hyb're-as, yUBpea^,] an eminent Greek orator, a native of Caria, flourished about 40 B.C. Hyde, (Anne,) a daughter of Lord Clarendon, was born in 1637. She was married about 1660 to the Duke of York, afterwards James II. She was the mother of Queen Mary and Queen Anne. Died in 167 1. See "Memoirs of Eminent EngHshwomen," by Louisa Stuart COSTEI.LO. Hyde, (Edward.) See Clarendon, Earl of. Hyde, (Henry.) See Clarendon, Earl of. Hyde, (Lawrence,) M.P., son of Sir Nicholas Hyde, distinguished himself by his successful efforts in pro- moting the escape of Charles II. after the battle of Wor- cester. The king passed one night in the house of Lawrence Hyde's tenant, and thence was conducted by Hyde to the sea-shore. Died in 1682. Hyde, (Lawrence,) first Earl of Rochester, was the second son of Edward, Earl of Clarendon. He was an ultra Tory, and was the leader of the High-Church iparty in the reign of Charles II. He became first com- missioner of the treasury in 1679. At the accession of James II., in 1685, he was appointed lord treasurer, (prime minister.) Though extremely subservient to the policy of the king, he was removed from ofiice in Decem- ber, 1686, because he would not turn Roman Catholic. After the flight of James II., Hyde gave his adhesion to William IH. Died in 171 1. See Macaulav, "History of England," vol. i. chaps, ii. and iv., vol. ii. chaps, vi., ix., and x. Hyde, (Sir Nicholas,) an English iudge, born in 1572, was the father of Lawrence Hyde, and uncle of the first Earl of Clarendon. He was appointed chief justice of the king's bench in 1626, and presided when Sir John Eliot was unjustly condemned to prison. Died in 163 1. Hyde, (Thomas,) D. D., a learned English divine, born in Shropshire in 1636, became Archdeacon of Gloucester in 1678, professor of Arabic at Oxford in 1691, and regius professor of Hebrew in 1697. He excelled in Oriental languages, and was interpreter of the same to Charles II., James II., and William III. From 1665 to 1701 he was principal librarian of the Bodleian Library. He pub- lished a treatise on Chinese weights and measures, (1688,) and one on "Oriental Games," (1694.) His principal work, a " History of the Religion of the Ancient Per- sians and Magi," in Latin, (1700,) displays a vast erudi- tion, and for a long time had a great reputation. "The variety and novelty of its contents," says Hallam, "gave this book a credit which in some degree it preserves; but Hyde was ignorant of the ancient language of Persia, and is said to have been often misled by Mohammedan authorities." ("Introduction to the Literature of Eu- rope.") He wrote other works, and compiled dictiona- ries of the Persian and Turkish languages. Died in 1703. See "Biographia Britannica ;" Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses." Hyde de Neuville, h^d deh nuh''v^K, (Jean Guil- LAUME,) a French politician, born in the department of Nievre in 1776. He was an active royalist during the republic and the empire. After the restoration he acted with the ultra royalists as a deputy in 1815, and was minister to the United States of North America from 1816 to 1821. He was minister of the marine in the Mar- tignac cabinet for a short time in 1828. Died in 1857. Hyder, the German of Hydra, which see. Hyder-Alee or Hyder- Ali, hiMer c^'lee, [sometimes written, in French, Haider-Ali,] a celebrated Hindoo prince, born about 1 718, entered the army of the Rajah of Mysore. His military talents procured his promotion to the command of an army, with which he captured Ban- galore and fought against the Mahrattas. About 1759, by a bold and successful cotip d'etat, he obtained the chief power in Mysore, leaving his former master the title of rajah and a pension. The English, alarmed by his en- croachments, formed a league with the Mahrattas against him, (1766.) In the war that ensued, Hyder gained such advantages that the English sued for peace and entered into alliance with him, (1769.) In 1771 he was defeated by the piratical Mahrattas, the English having failed to aid him according to the treaty. Having made an alliance with the French and the Mahrattas against the English, he suddenly invaded the Carnatic in 1780, took several fortresses, defeated some detachments, and rav- aged the country almost to the walls of Madras. In 1782 he was defeated by Sir Eyre Coote at Porto Novo, and died in the same year, leaving his throne to his son, Tippoo Sahib. Hyder was a Mussulman. He is reputed the most able enemy the British have had to contend with in India. See Meer Hussein Ali Khan Kirmain, " History of Hyder Ali," (translated into English by Colonel W. Miles, 1842;) F. Robson, "Life of Hyder-Ali," 1786; M. Carpani, " Memorie sopra la Vita d'Hyder Ali," 1784: Joseph Michaud, " Histoire du Progres et de la Chute de I'Enipirede Mysore," etc., 2 vols., 1801. Hy'dra, [Gr. "Tf5pa; Fr. Hydre, ^dR; Ger. Hyder, hee'der ; It. Idra, ee'dRi,] a monster which infested the Lernean marsh and was destroyed by Hercules. It was said to have had nine heads. (See Hercules.) Hydre. See Hyj)ra. Hy-ge'ia or Hy-gi-ei'a, [Gr. "Tyieia ; Fr. Hygie, e'zhe', or Hyg^:e, e'zhi',] written also Hygea or Hygia, the goddess of health, in Greek mythology, said to be the daughter of Asclepias. She was represented as holding a cup in one hand, and in the other a serpent, drinking from the cup. Hygie or Hygee. See Hygeia. Hy-g^nus [Fr. Hygin, e'zhiN^] became Bishop of Rome in 138 A.D., and died in 142. He is supposed to have been a Greek. Hy-gi'nus or Higinus, (Caius Julius,) a Roman grammarian, born in Spain or Alexandria. Originally a slave, he was set free by Augustus Caesar, who gave him charge of the Palatine Library. He wrote a " Com- mentary on Virgil," and other esteemed works, which are lost. Other works bearing his name are extant, viz., "Mythological Fables," and " Poeticon Astronomicon," but are supposed to have been written by a Hyginus who lived at a later date. See Bunte, "Dissertatio de C. J. Hygini Vita et Scriptis," 1846. Hyksos. See Shepherd Kings. Hylander, hii-lin'der, (Anders,) a Swedish Orien- talist, born at Tunhem in 1750 ; died in 1830. Hylaret, h&'Wxy, (Maurice,) a French monk and preacher, born at Angouleme in 1539, was a partisan of the League. Died in 1591. HyTas, [Gr. "T/laf,] a favourite of Plercules, whom he accompanied in the Argonautic expedition. The Naiads, enamoured with his beauty, drew him into the water, so that he was lost to Hercules forever. Hyll, hil, (.?) (Alban,) an English physician, who prac- tised in London with a high reputation. He wrote a "Commentary on Galen." Died in 1559. HylTus, [Gr. "YXAof,] a son of Hercules andDejanira, was persecuted by Eurystheus, and after the death of his father was the leader of the Heracli'dae. Aided by the Athenians, he invaded Peloponnesus, and defeated Eurystheus, whom he killed with his own hand. c k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Vi,guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; %h as in this. (^^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) HYMEN 1236 * HTWELL Hy'm^n or Hymenaeus, him-e-nee'us, [Gr, 'Taiiv or 'Tixevaiog; Fr. Hymen, e'm^i/, or Hymene:e, e^mana',] the god of marriage of the Greeks and Romans, was represented as a handsome youth, crowned with flowers, and holding a nuptial torch in his hand. According to one tradition, he was a son of Apollo and one of the Muses. Another account makes him the son of Bac- chus and Venus. Hymir, hl'mir, written also Eymer, [supposed to be derived t'vom /lu/nr, the "sea,"] the name of a great giant mentioned in the Norse mythology as the owner of a huge kettle, a mile deep, which Thor carried off, having first placed it over his head, so that he was entirely hidden by it. It was the same giant with whom Thor w^nt a fishing and caught the World-serpent. bee Thorpe, " Northern Mytliology," vol. i. ; Mallet, "North- ern Anticiiuties," vol. ii. Fable XXVII Hym^ni-a, [Gr. 'T/ivia; Fr. Hymnie, ^m'ne',] a sur- name of Diana, under which she was worshipped in Arcadia. Hymnie. See Hymnia. Hynd''f9rd, (John Carmichael,) Earl of, a Scot- tish diplomatist, born in 1701. In 1741 he was employed with credit as ambassador to the Prussian court, and in 1744 was sent in the same capacity to Russia. After successful efforts to terminate the war of the Austrian succession by a treaty of peace, he acted as envoy to Vienna in 1752. In 1764 he was appointed lord vice- admiral of Scotland. He died in 1767. Hypatia, hl-pa'she-a, [Gr. 'Tnarla; Fr. Hypatie, e'pt^te',] a celebrated female philosopher and mathema- tician, born at Alexandria in the latter part of the fourth century. She was the daughter of Theon, and displayed even greater talents than this famous mathematician in the study of philosophy and the sciences. She pursued her studies with great assiduity, often studying late in the night. After having improved herself by travelling and attending lectures at Athens of the most distinguished teachers of philosophy, she returned to Alexandria, where she was invited by the magistrates of the city to teach philosophy. She favoured the Neo-PIatonic philosophy. She had many celebrated disciples, some of whom embraced Christianity and cherished through life feelings of friendship for her, although she con- tinued to worship the heathen deities of Greece. She was noted for her virtue, her beauty, her simplicity of dress, her accomplishments, and her strength of mind. Orestes, the prefect of Alexandria, admired her wisdom, and often availed himself of her counsels. Cyril, the Christian patriarch, and his fanatical monks, appear to have regarded Hypatia as the principal supporter of the old religion ; and at last their frenzy reached such a point that they tore her from her chariot as she was going to her school, and murdered her. This occurred in March, 415 A.D. The works of Hypatia were destroyed when the Mohammedans burned the library of Alexandria. Among these were a "Commentary on Diophantus," an "Astronomical Canon," and a "Commentary on the Conies of Apollonius of Perga." The titles of all her other works are lost. See TiLLEMONT, "Memoires;" Wernsdorf, " Quatre Disserta- tions sur Hypatie ;" Charles Kingsley's historical romance entitled " Hypatia." Hypatie. See Hypatia. Hy-per'bo-lus, ['TnepSoTiog,] an Athenian dema- gogue, born about 450 B.C., was a leader of the demo- cratic party after the death of Cleon. He was ostracised by a coalition of Nicias and Alcibiades in 415. Died about 410 B.C. Hyperide. _ See Hypertdes. Hy-per-i^es, [Gr. 'Tnepe'idTjc or 'T7repi% ; Fr. Hype- ride, e^phfrhV,] a famous Athenian orator, was the son of Glancippus, and a pupil of Plato. He was iden- tified with the party that opposed Philip of Macedon. After the battle of Chasrone'a, (338 B.C.,) he proposed to recall the exiles, to liberate the slaves, and to take other vigorous measures, which were adopted, and pro- cured peace on favourable terms. Having refused to touch the gold with which Harpalus corrupted other orators of Athens, he was chosen to conduct the prof»e« cution against Demosthenes for his share in that trans- action. Hyperides was put to death by Antipater in 322. Cicero ranks him next to Demosthenes ; and other ancient critics agree that his eloquence was of the highest order. He is the only one of the Ten Orators of Athens whose orations have all been lost. See Plutarch, " Vit^ Decern Oratorum ;" Grote, " History of Greece ;" Cicero, " Brutus," " De Oratore," and " Orator ;" Kiess- LiNG, " De Hyperide Oratore Attico," 1737 ; Quintilian, book xii. ; Thirlwall, "History of Greece." Hy-per-i'on, (or hi-pee're-on,) [Gr. 'TirEpiuv,] in Greek mythology, the name of a Titan, a son of Uranus and Ge, (or Terra,) and the father of Aurora and Helios. In Homer, Hyperion is a name of the sun. Hy-pe'ri-us, [Dutch pron. he-pa're-us,] (AndrE Ge- rard,) an eminent Protestant theologian, born at Ypres in 151 1. He was professor of theology at Marburg from 1542 to 1564. Among his works are " De Formandis Concionibus sacris," (" On the Composition of Ser- mons," 1555,) and " De Theologo seu de Ratione Studii theologici," ("On the Theologian, or on the Method of Theological Study," 1556.) Died in 1564. See WiLHELM Wille, " Program ma de A. Hyperio Hassorum Theologo," 1788; Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Hy-perm-nes'tra, [Gr. 'TTzep/xvTjaTpa; Fr. Hyperm- nestre, e^p§Rm'n§stV,] one of the Danaides, which see. H;fp'si-cles, ['TtpiKXfjg,] a Greek mathematician of an uncertain epoch, is supposed to have lived at Alex- andria in the second century. He wrote a treatise " On the Right Ascension of the Constellations of the Zodiac," which is extant. He is regarded by some as the author of the fourteenth and fifteenth books of the " Elements" of Euclid. According to Delambre, he lived about 146 B.C. Hyp-sip'y-le, [Gr. 'TipLTzvltj,] a queen of Lemnos, who, according to tradition, saved the life of her father when the other women of the island killed their husbands and male relations. She was afterwards sold into slavery by the Lemnian women. See Lempriere's "Classical Dictionary." Hyrcan. See Hyrcanus. Hyr-ca^nus [Gr. 'TpKavuc ; Fr. Hyrcan, ^R'kSN'] (John,) high-priest of the Jews, was the son of Simon Maccabeus, whom he succeeded in 135 B.C. After the death of Antiochus Sidetes, 130 B.C., he conquered the Idumeans and destroyed the city of Samaria. Though educated as a Pharisee, in the latter part of his life he favoured their rivals the Sadducees. He died in the year 103, leaving his office to his son Aristobu'lus. See JosEPHUs, "History of the Jews;" Apocryphal Book of Maccabees. Hyrcanus 11., high-priest of the Jews, succeeded his father, Alexander Jannseus, in 76 B.C. His brother Aristo- bu'lus having usurped the regal power, Hyrcanus, who was a weak prince, appealed to the Roman Pompey, who restored him to the throne and priesthood. An- tigonus, son of Aristobulus, with the aid of the Parthians, deposed Hyrcanus about 38 B.C., and was soon after supplanted by Herod, who married Mariamne,the grand- daughter of Hyrcanus, and put the latter to death, 30 B.C. .See JosEPHUS, " History of the Jews." Hyrtl, h^R't'l, (Joseph,) an able anatomist, born at Eisenstadt, Hungary, in 1811. He became professor of anatomy in Vienna in 1845. He published, besides other works, a " Text-Book of Human Anatomy," (" Lehrbuch der Anatomic des Menschen," 2 vols., 1847,) which has been adopted by the German universities as a standard. Hystaspe. See Hystaspes. Hys-tas'pes, [Gr. 'T GTua-rvTjg ; Fr. Hystaspe, ^s'tSsp'; Persian, GushtAsp,] a satrap of Persia, and the father of Darius I., lived about 550 B.C. He is said to hav«- been the first who introduced into Persia the learning of the Indian Brahmans. According to one account, he was the chief of the Magians, which accords with the Persian tradition that Gushtasp patronized the religion of Zoroaster. (See GushtAsp.) Hywell. See Howell the Good. a, e, T, 6, u, y, lon^; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, 11, y, sAort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, f^t; mli; n6t; good; moon; UCCHUS 1237 IBN-KHALLIKAN L I-ac'-ehus, [Gr. 'Ia/c,YOf,] a suiname or synonym of Bacchus, which see. I-am'be, [Gr. 'Iuw/St?,] a servant-maid of Metanira, Queen of Eleusis, was said to be a daughter of Pan. By her jokes or tricks she amused Ceres when the latter was in distress. Iambic poetry is supposed to have derived its name from her. lamblichus. See Jambltchus. I-ap'e-tus, [Gr. 'IcTre-of ; Fr. Japet, zht^pi',] in classic mythology, a Titan, and a son of Uranus. He was the father of Atlas, Prometheus, Epimetheus, and Menoetius. He is by some considered to be the same as the Japheth C)f Scripture. lapetus was regarded by the ancient (jreeks and Romans as the ancestor of the human race,* and, according to Scripture, the descendants of Japheth inhabited the "isles of the Gentiles," (Genesis x. 5,) which would seem to signify the numerous islands along the coasts of Europe and Asia Minor, and probably also the adjacent portions of the two continents ; in other words, all that part of the world with which the early Greeks were acquainted. I-a'si-on [Gr. 'laaiuv] or I-a'si-us, a fabulous son of Jupiter and Electra, (or of Minos and Corythus.) He is said to have been beloved by Ceres, who bore him a son, Plutus, the god of riches. Ibarra, e-uir'ri, (Joaquin,) a Spanish printer, born at Saragossa in 1725, carried on business in Madrid. He was distinguished for the perfection of his publica- tions, especially for his editions of" Don Quixote," (1780,) and a Spanish version of Sallust, (1772.) Died in 1785. I'bas, a Syrian priest of the fifth century, acted a prominent part in the disputes about Nestorianism. He was chosen Bishop of Edessa in 436 A. D. At the Coun- cil of Ephesus, in 449, he was deposed on the charge of favouring the Nestorians ; but he was reinstated by the Council of Chalcedony in 451. Died in 457. Ib'bet-spn, (Mrs. Agnes,) an English botanist, born in London in 1757. She investigated the structure of plants, and wrote botanical papers which were inserted in Nicholson's "Journal" and the "Philosophical Maga- zine," (1809-17.) Died in 1823. Ibbetson, (Julius C/Esak,) an English landscajje- painter, born at Scarborough, copied and imitated with success the works of Berghem. He wrote an " Accidence or Gamut of Oil-Painting for Beginners." Died in 181 7. Ib'bot, (Ben'Jamin,) an English divine, born near Swaffliam, in Norfolk, in 1680. He became chaplain to George 1. in 1 7 16, and prebendary of Westminster in 1724. He delivered the Boyle lectures ii\ 17 13-14. Died in 1725. Two volumes of his sermons were pub- lished in 1726. See Dr. S. Clarke, " Life of Benjamin Ibbot." Iberville, d', de'b^R'v^l', (Lemoine or Lemoyne,) a Canadian navigator, born at Montreal in 1642, distin- guished himself in many actions against the English, He commanded a vessel sent by the French government to explore the mouth of the Mississippi, which he dis- covered in March, 1699, He ascended the river, and built a fort on its border. Died at Havana in 1706. Ibi, ee'bee, (Sinibaldo,) an Italian painter, a pupil of Perugino, was born at Perugia, and flourished betweeJi 1505 and 1528. IBN, ib'n, an Arabic word signifying "son," and forming a part of many names ; as, Ibn-Hanbal, the "son ofHanbal," etc. It is often written Ben; as, Ali- BEN-ABf-TALiB, for Alee-Ibn-Abee (-Abi) -Talib. Ibn-Abeet(-Abi)-Yakoob,(or-Y'akub,) ib'n iT^ee yS^kool/ ( Abool-Faraj, ^'bool fdr'Sj,) otherwise called An-Nadeem (-Nadim)-Mohammed-Ibn-Ishak, Sn- nS-deem' mo-hSm'med Tb'n is-hak', an Arabian writer, chiefly known as the author of a valuable catalogue of books in the Arabic language, with brief and excellent * See Horace, lib. i.. Carmen 3, in which the phrases "Gens hu- maiia" and " lapeti genus" are used almost synonymously, t See note on page 35. notices of their authors. Nothing is known of his life, except that he wrote in the latter part of the tenth century, Ibn-Al-Atseer, (-Atsyr,) ib'n il St-seeR', (Abool- Hassan-Alee, or Aboul (-Abul) -Hassan- All, a'bool hSs'san 3.'lee,) surnanied Az-ed-Deen, (Azzedijyn,) {i.e. the " Splendour of Religion,") an Arabian historian, born in Mesopotamia about 1160, became a citizen of Mosul. He excelled in the science of prophetic traditions, and had great knowledge of history, as appears by his Complete Chronicle from the origin of the world to his own time. Died in 1233. See H.^ji-Khalf.a.h, " Lexicon Bibliographicum ;" Von Hammer- PuRGSTALL, " Llteraturgescliichte der Araber." Ibn-Al-Atseer (or -Al-Atsyr)-Nasr- Allah, Tb'n \\- dt-seeR' nis'r SKlSh, written also Alatyr and Alatir, an Arabian writer, a brother of the preceding, was born at Jezeereh-Benee-Omar, on the Tigris, in 1162. He visited the court of Saladin, who engaged him as vizier to his son and heir, Melik-Afdhal, He was eminent for his learn^ ing, and wrote a treatise on Prosody, and other works. See Irn-Khallikan, "Biographical Dictionary." Ibii-Bajah. See Avenpace, Ibn-Batuta. See Batootah. Ibn-Doreid, Ib'n do'rad', (or doMd',) a celebratea Arabian j^oet, born at Bassorah in 838 a.d. He culti- vated various kinds of poetry with distinguished success. Died at Bagdad in 933. Ibn-Hanbal, ib'n han'bSI, (Ahmed, Sn'med,) the founder of the fourth sect of orthodox Mohammedans, was born at Bagdad (or, as some say, at Meru) in th(j year of the Hejrah 164. He attained a great reputation for virtue and knowledge of the traditions of Mohammed. He received many traditions from Shafei, with whom he was intimate. For his refusal to acknowledge the Koran to have been created, he was scourged and imprisoned by the caliph Motassem, He died at Bagdad in A.D. 855. The sect became very numerous after his death. See Sale's " Koran." Ibn-Haukal. See Haukal. Ibn-Ishak, (or -Ish^q,) Tb'n is-htk', an Arabian his- torian, who, at the request of the caliph Al-Mansoor, wrote a life of Mohammed the prophet. He is an elo- quent but not a trustworthy writer. Died in 768 A.D, See Sprenger, "Life of Mohammad," p. 69 et seq. Ibn-Khakan, (or -KhacSn.) See Al-Fath. Ibn-Khaldoon, (-Khaldoun or -Khaldun,) Tb'n K^l'doon' ( Walee-ed-Deen- (or Waly-Eddyn- ) Aboo-Zeid-Abd-er-Rahman, wl'lee ed-deen' ^'boo zTd Sbd-er-rSh^min,) a celebrated Arabian historian, born at Tunis in 1332. He removed to Cairo, where he distin- guished himself by his uprightness as a judge, and was chosen chief of the Cadees (Cadis) of the sect of Malek- ites in 1384. Afterwards, while on a journey to Syria, he was made prisoner by Taimoor, (the famous Tamer- lane,) by whom he was treated with great kindness and respect. His principal work is a valuable "History of the Arabs, Persians, and Berbers, with Preliminary Observations," which was recently published in France. "We cannot but conceive, in reading this," says Sil- vestre de Sacy, "a very high idea of his judgment, sagacity, and erudition, and of the great variety of his knowledge." Died in 1406. See his Autobiography, published in the "Journal Asiatique" of 1844; SiLVESTRE DE Sacv, " Chrestomatliie Arabe ;" Casiri, "Bibli- otheca Arabico Hispana." Ibn-Khallikan, Tb'n K^Kle-kln', written also Ebn- Khalican or -Khilcan, (Shems-ed-Deen (or-Eddin) Abool- (Aboul- or AbCil-) Abb^s- Ahmed, shems ed-deen' S'bool ib'bSs' in'med,) a celebrated Arabian historian, born at Arbela in 1211. He became grand Cadee (Cadi) of Damascus about 1261, His chief work is a " Biographical Dictionary of Famous Moslems," which contains over eight hundred articles. An English translation of it was begun by Mr. Slane, the first volume of which was published in 1841. Died in 1282, € as ^; 9 as j; g ^ar^/; g asyV G,Yi,Y., guttural; T^i, nasal; Vi, trilled; sasz; thas in this. (2[^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) IBN-KOTEYBAH 1238 IDA Ibn-Koteybah or Abdallali-Ibn-Koteybah, ab- daKlah ib'n ko-ta'bah or ko-tl'bah, written also Cotey- bah and Qotaybali, an Arabian historian and critic, born at Bagdad in 828 a.d. ; died in 889. See Ibn-Kh ALLiKAN, "Biographical Dictionary." Ibn-Maimoon, (-Maimuii or -Maimoun.) See Mai MON IDES. Ibn-Rosched, (or -Roshd.) See Averroes. Ibu-Sina. See Avicenna. Ibn-Tofail, (-Tofayl.) See Aboo-Bekr-Ibn-Tofail Ibnul-Abb&r. See Kodhaee. Ibii-Yoonas, (-Younas or -Yunas,) ib'n yoo'nas, sometimes spelled Ibn-Younis, (Alee- (or Ali-) Ibn- Abderrahman, A'lee Ib'n Sbd-er-rih^min,) one of the most eminent Arabian astronomers, was born in 979 a.d. He made at Cairo a series of observations, the results of which he published in a work called the ''Table of Ibn- Yoonas." Died in 1008. Ibn-Zohr. See Avenzoar. Ibiaheem, (Ibrahim,) written also Ibrahym, the Arabic name of the patriarch Abraham, which see. Ibr^heem, (Ibrahim,*) ib-rt-heen/, thirteenth caliph of the Omeyyad dynasty, was the son of Waleed (Walid) I. He began to reign in Damascus in 744 A.D., and a few months after was deposed by Merwan. The Arab historians disagree respecting his subsequent fate. Ibraheem (Ibrahim) I., (Aboo-Abdallah, a'boo ib-daKlah,) founder of the dynasty of Aglabides in Africa, was the son of Aglab, and a native of Arabia. About Soo A.D. he was appointed Governor of Africa by Haroun- al-Raschid. After the death of the latter, (808,) Ibraheem assumed the royal power. Died about 813. Ibraheem (Ibrahim) I., a Turkish Sultan, brother of Amurath IV., was proclaimed in 1640, at the age of twenty-three. His cruelty and other vices excited against him a powerful and successful conspiracy, by which he was deposed and strangled in 1648 or 1649. He was succeeded by his son, Mahomet IV. Ibraheem (Ibrahim) II., Emperor of Hindostan, the son of Iskander, began to reign in 15 17, being the third of the Afghan dynasty. He was a very unpopular ruler. In 1526 the Mogul Baber invaded India, a battle was fought at Pani])ut, where Ibraheem was defeated and killed, and the Mogul dynasty was established in India. Ibraheem, (Ibrahim,) a favourite of Sultan Solyman II. , was a Genoese by birth, and was taken to Constan- tinople by pirates in his infancy. He became grand vizier about 1523, and signalized his courage in the war against Hungary in 1527. He was put to death, at the instigation of the Sultana, in 1535. Ibraheem, (Ibrahim,) born at Aleppo, was the most eminent among the Ottoman jurists. His fame rests upon a great work styled the " Confluence of the Seas," (" Mul- teka al-Abhar,") which is a complete code of laws. Died in 1549. Ibraheem, (Ibrahim,) Pasha of Egypt, the son of Mehemet Alee, (Ali,) was born in Rumelia in 1789. He conquered the Wahabees, in Arabia, about 1818. In 1824 he commanded an army and fleet which Mehemet Alee sent against the Greeks. Having landed in the Morea with 10,000 men in 1825, he took several towns and committed many atrocities. The success of the allies at Navarino and the French invasion of the Morea forced him to retire to Egypt in 1828. In a war waged between the Viceroy of Egypt and the Sultan, Ibraheem took Aleppo and defeated the Turks in a great battle at Konieh, in Syria, in 1832. His victorious progress was arrested by the intervention of the European powers in 1833. Died in 1848. See Labat, "L'Egypte, ancienne et moderne." Ibraheem (Ibrahim) Bey, a famous Mameluke chief, born in Circassia about 1735. went to Egypt * The Arabic texts are by no means uniform in regard to the penultima of this name; it is often made short, but, if we mistake not, more frequently long, as given above. It is proper, however, to remark that a single instance of the insertion of the Alif (the sign of the long vowel) ought to outweigh several omissions, as the latter might more easily be tlie result of neglect or haste. The frequent omission of the long vowel in the manuscript of writers who are generally correct, merely proves that the insertion is not deemed absolutely indispensable. Its omission may be compared to the neglecting to dot one's /s in writing English, — a fault, undoubtedly, but a fault often committed by writers otherwise remarkable for accuracy. in his youth, and entered the service of Mohammed Bey. After the death of the latter.Ibraheem shared with Moorad Bey the sovereignty of Egypt. When Bonaj^arte invaded Egypt in 1798 and defeated Moorad, Ibraheem retired to Syria. In 1800 he took part against the French at Cairo, etc., and, after they evacuated Egypt, was again Governor of Cairo, until supplanted by Mehemet Alee. Died in 1816, Ibraheem (Ibrahim) Effendi, (If-fei/dee,) a learned Turk, who was born about 1640, and filled considerable offices at Constantinople. He was converted to Chris- tianity, was baptized in 1671, retired to Venice, and as- sumed the name of Paul Antonio Effendi. He translated several books of the Bible into Arabic. Died in 1697. Ibraheem (Ibrahim) Khan-Ogli,(o'glee,) was grand vizier of Turkey when Mahomet I. died, in 1421. He took measures to secure the succession of Mahomet's son, Amurath II., who was then absent from the capital. To reward this service, Amurath gave him the title of Khan, with hereditary privileges which made his family the first in the empire. Ibrahim. See Ibraheem. Ibrahym. See Ibraheem. Ib'j^-CUS, [TiSmof,] a Greek lyric poet, born at Rhe- gium, in Italy, flourished about 560 B.C., and passed part of his life at Samos. His poems, which were chiefly love-songs, are lost, except a few fragments. He was the fifth lyric poet of the Alexandrian canon, and had a high reputation. He is said to have been killed by robbers. His death has furnished the subject of one of the finest of Schiller's minor poems, " Die Kraniche des Ibycus." 19a. See IsA. Icard, e'kik', (Charles,) a French Protestant min- ister and writer, born in Languedoc in 1636. He was driven into exile by persecution in 1682, and settled at Bremen in 1688. Icare. See Icarus. I-ca'ri-us, [Gr. 'I«apwf,] also called Icarus, an Athe- nian, to whom Bacchus is said to have taught the cultiva- tion of the vine. He was killed by some shepherds, to whom he had given wine and who suspected that he had poisoned them. The legend adds that he was changed into the constellation Bootes. Icarius, a Lacedaemonian, the father of Penelope. He urged her to remain at Sjiarta after she was married to Ulysses ; but she preferred to follow her husband. Ic'a-rus, [Gr. "iKapog; Fr. Icare, e^kSk',] son of Dae- dalus, with whom, according to the Greek mythology, he was imprisoned in the Labyrinth of Crete. Having attempted to fly by means of artificial wings made with wax, they were melted by his approaching too near the sun, and he fell into the sea, near the island of Samos, which received from him the name of the Icarian Sea. Iccius, ik''she-us, a Roman philosopher, lived about 30 B.C., and was a friend of Horace, who addressed to him an epistle and an ode. Idler, e'shaiR', (Pierre,) a French physician and Hellenist, born at Montpellier in 1658; died in 1713. I-ciPi-us, (Lucius,) a Roman tribune, who was affi- anced to the celebrated Virginia. He was elected tribune of the people in 456 B.C., and favoured the cause of the plebeians. He was one of the leaders of the successful revolt against the Decemviri about 450 B.C. See NiEBUHR, " History of Rome." Ic-ti'nus, ['l/cnvof,] a celebrated Grecian architect, who flourished about 450 B.C. He built several grand temples, among which was that of Apollo Epicurius in Arcadia. The most memorable monument of his genius is the Parthenon of Athens, built by order of Pericles. Callicrates was associated with Ictinus as architect of this edifice, which is probably the most perfect speci- men of Grecian architecture in any age. Its length was 227 feet and its breadth about 100. (See Callicrates.) See Pausanias, book viii. Igwara. See Iswara. Fda, [Fr. Ide, ^d,] Countess of Boulogne, born about 1040, was the mother of Godfrey of Bouillon, crusader and King of Jerusalem. She was eminent for wisdom and piety. Died in 11 13. See Baillet, " Vies des Saints." i,e»T> 0, u» y, long; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, vi, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; IDACE 1239 IHRE Idace. See Idacius. Idacius, e-da'she-us, [Fr. Idace, e'dtss',] a Spanish chronicler, born at Lamego about the end of the fourth century. He became Bishop of Chaves, (Aquae Flaviae,) in Portugal, He was author of a "Chronicon" of the period from 379 to 468 A.D., which was printed in Paris by Sirmond in 1619. See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Fdas, [Gr. 'I(5af,] a son of Aphareus, took part in the Argonautic expedition, and was renowned for valour. Idas and his brother Lynceus having quarrelled with the Dioscu'ri, Idas killed Castor, and was in turn killed by Pollux. Ide. See Ida. Ideler, eeMeh-ler, (Christian Ludwig,) a Prussian astronomer and linguist, born near Perleberg in 1766. He was appointed in 1816 tutor to the princes William Frederick and Charles, and in 1821 became professor at the Berlin University. He was the author of " Plistorical Researches on the Astronomical Observations of the Ancients," (1806,) "On the Calendar of Ptolemy," and other similar treatises. He was a member of the French Institute, and the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. Died in Berlin in 1846. Ideler, (Julius Ludwig,) a physician, a son of the preceding, was born at Berlin in 1809. He published "Meteorology of the Ancient Greeks and Romans," (1832,) "Hermapion, or Rudiments of the Hieroglyphic Literature of Ancient Egypt," (1841,) and other anti- quarian treatises. Died in 1842. Ideler, (Karl Wilhelm,) a Prussian physician, born in 1795, lived in Berlin. He is known as a writer on mental maladies. Ides, ee'des, (Everard Isrrantz,) a German travel- ler, born in Holstein about 1660. He was sent to Pekin by Peter the Great in 1692 to negotiate a treaty of com- merce, and returned in 1694. A narrative of his journey, published in 1704, is a work of some merit. Idman, id'mSn, (Nils,) a Swedish philologist, pub- lished in 1778 "Researches on the Finnish People, and the Relations between the Finnish Language and the Greek." Idomenee. See Idomeneus. I-dom'e-neus, [Gr. 'Ido/ztvei-f ; Fr. Tdomen^ie, e'do'- mi'ni',] King of Crete, a semi-fabulous Greek hero, said to be a grandson of Minos. According to Homer, he fought bravely at the siege of Troy. Having been ex- pelled from Crete by his subjects, he went to Italy and founded a city. Idomeneus, [Gr. 'I(5o//evnV,] a Greek historian, born at Lampsacus, lived about 300 B.C. He was a friend and disciple of Epicurus. His works are not extant. vSee Vossius, "De Historicis Graecis." Iduna, e-doo'nS, or Idun, sometimes written Idun- na, [etymology doubtful,] in the Norse mythology, the goddess of immortality, who keeps a casket of apples, of which if the gods partake they never grow old. (See Thiassi.) Iduna is said to be the wife of Bragi, the god of poetry, who in one sense may be said to possess the gift of immortality. See Thorpe's " Northern Mythology," vol. i. lefremcfF or lefremov. See Yefremof. lenichen. See Jenichen. lermak. See Yermak. lezdedjerd. See Yezdejerd. Iffland, ifflSnt, (August Wilhelm,) a celebrated German actor and dramatist, born at Hanover in 1759. He became director of the National Theatre at Berlin in 1796, and in 181 1 was appointed director-general of the royal plays. Among his most popular dramas are " The Hunters," ("Die Jager,") "The Advocates," and "The Old Bachelors," ("Die Hagestolzen.") He also pub- lished several treatises on the dramatic art. " It is impossible," says Madame de Stael, "to have more originality than Iffland; and he is as superior in the theory as in the practice of his art." Died in 1814. See his " Autobiography" in the first volume of his Dramas, 18 vols., 1708-1809; J. L. FoRMEV, "A. W. IfHand's Krankheits- geschichte," 1814 ; KuNZ, " Aus deni Leben zweier Schauspieler : Iffland's und Devrient's," 1838. Igdrasil, (Yggdrasil.) See Odin. Iglesias de la Casa, e-gla'se-Js di U kl'si, (Jos6,) a Spanish poet, born at Salamanca in 1753 ; died in 1791. See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Igiiace. See Ignatius. Ignarra, ^n-y&r'rS, (Niccol6,) an Italian antiquary and priest, born near Naples in 1728, was a good clas- sical scholar. He became professor of divinity in the Royal University of Naples in 1771, director of the royal printing-office in 1782, and preceptor of the prince Fran- cis de Bourbon in 1784. He wrote, besides other works, an esteemed commentary "De Palaestra Neapolitana," (1770.) Died in 1808. SeeCASTALDi, "Ignarrae Vita," prefixed to his "Opuscoli," 1807. Ignatius, ig-na'she-us, [Gr. 'lyvarLoq ; Fr. Ignace, ^n^ytss'; Ger. Ignaz, ig-n^ts'; It. IgnazIO, in-ySt'se-o,] surnamed Theoph'orus, one of the earliest Christian Fathers, and one of the most eminent among the imme- diate successors of the apostles, is supposed to have been a native of Syria. About 67 A.D. he became bishop or minister of the church of Antioch by the appointment of Saint Peter, or, according to some writers, of Saint John. He had filled this station acceptably about forty years, when the emperor Trajan began a persecution of the Christians. Ignatius was brought before Trajan at Antioch, and, refusing to renounce his religion, was condemned, and suffered martyrdom at Rome in 107, being exposed to wild beasts in the amphitheatre. His epistles to the Romans, Philadelphians, Smyrneans, and to Polycarp are extant, and are regarded as precious memorials of the primitive Church. In one of his last epistles he wrote, " Now I begin to be a disciple : I weigh neither visible nor invisible things, that I may win Christ !" See Cave, " Historia Literaria ;" Pearson, " Vindicije Ignatianse," Cambridge, 1672; VV. Cureton, "Vindicise Ignatianae, or the Genu- ine Writings of Saint Ignatius vindicated from the ( harge of Heresy," 8vo, 1846; Coetlosquet, " Viede Saint-Ignace, fiveque d'Antioch," 1857 ; Mrs. Jameson, "History of Sacred and Legendary Art." Ignatius, Patriarch of Constantinople, born in 799 A.D., was the son of the em])eror Michael Curopalates. When the latter was deposed, Ignatius entered a monas- tery, and became eminent fi^r piety and wisdom. In 846 he was raised to the dignity of ])atriarch. Eleven years after, he was banished and cruelly treated for his opposi- tion to Bardas, an uncle of Michael III., who' appointed in his place the ambitious Photius. The schism between the Greek and Roman Churches began while Photius was in office, and has continued ever since that time. In 867 the emperor Basilius reinstated Ignatius, who as- sembled in 869 an oecumenical council at Constantinople, which condenuied Photius and his party. Died in 877. See David Nicetas, "Vita S. Ignatii," 1604. Ignatius Loyola. See Loyola. Igor (ee'gor) I., third Grand Duke of Russia, a son of Rurik, was born about 875, and succeeded Oleg ir 912 A.D. He led an expedition against Constantinople in 941, and compelled the Greek emperor to sue for peace, which was granted by a treaty in 945. Igor was killed in an ambuscade in 945. After his death his widow Olga was converted to Christianity. See SoLOviEF, " Histoire de Russie." Igor II., or Igor Olgovitch, Grand Prince of Russia, began to reign at Kief about 1145. His claim was con- tested by Iziaslaf, who defeated him in 1 146. Igor was confined in a convent, and assassinated in 1147. See Kakamzin, "Histoire de Russie." Ihre, ee'reh, (JoHx\n,) a Swedish scholar, eminent in- philology, born at Lund in 1707, graduated with the highest honour at Upsal in 1730. After visiting France, England, etc., he returned 60 Upsal and became professor of poetry and of theology in the university of that ]Dlace. In 1738 he obtained the chair of belles-lettres and political science, which he occupied about forty years,, acquiring great celebrity as a lecturer and author. In 1769 he published his "Swedish G.lossary," (" Glossarium Suio- gothicum,") a monument of his immense learning and critical sagacity, containing a ])hil()sophic treatise on the filiation of languages,, besides remarks on the origin and affinity of Swedish words. He also wrote several hundred excellent academical dissertations, and is justly ranked among the best critics of the eighteenth century. € asy^; 9 as s; g hard; g as g, h, k, guttural; N,.nasa/; RytritJed / s.as z;. tJi asin t/n's. (SJ:^='Se.e Explanations^ p. 23.) IHRE 1240 IMPERIAL. In 1759 he was decorated with the order of the Polar Star. Died in 1780. See Flodekus, "Parentation bfver J. Ihre," 1781 ; Gezelius, " Biographiskt-Lexicoii ofver nainnkunnige Svenska Miin." Ihre, (Thomas,) a Swedish \yriter, father of the pre- ceding, born at Wisby in 1659 ; died in 1720. See T. RuD^N, "Trognas Strid och Seger, Likpiedikan ofver T. Ihre," 1720. Iken, ee'ken, (Conrad,) a German theologian, born at Bremen in 1689. He became professor of theology at Bremen, and wrote, besides other works, *' Antiquitates Hebraicas," (1730.) Died in 1753. Iken, (Heinrich Friedrich,) a German religious writer, born at Neuenkirchen in 1791; died in 1820. Ildefonse. See Ildefonso. Il-de-fon'so, [Lat. Ildefon'sus ; Fr. Ildefonse, ^l-deh-f6Ns',] Saint, a Spanish prelate, born at Toledo in 607 A.D., was a pupil of Saint Isidore. He became Archbishop of Toledo in 658. He wrote, besides several theological treatises, a continuation of Saint Isidore's work " De Viris illustribus." Died in 669. See CixiLA, "Vita Ildefonsi ;" Gregorio Mayans, "Vidade S. Ildefonso," 1727. Ilepooshin or Ilepouschin, il-e-poo'sh6n, a Rus- sian poet of the present age, lived near Saint Petersburg. He wrote pastoral poems. Ilgen, iKgen, (Karl David,) a distinguished philolo- gist, born in Prussian Saxony in 1763. He became in 1794 professor of the Oriental languages at Jena. His principal works are entitled " Hymni Homerici," and "Convivial Songs of the Greeks," (" Scholia sive Car- mina convivialia Graecorum.") Died in 1834. See F. C. Krafft, "Vita C. D. Ilgerti," 1837 ; R. Stern, " Nar- ratio de C. D. Ilgenio," 1839 ; "Ilgeniana: Enniierungen an Dr. C. D. Ilgen," Leipsic, 1853. Ilia. See Rhea Silvia. I-lith-y-i'a or Eileithyia, [Gr. YlMdvLa,] written also Eleithyia and Eleutho, a Greek goddess, who presided over birth. Though originally distinct from Diana, (Artemis,) she seems later to have become identi- fied with her. (See Lucina.) Hive, I'liv, ? (Jacob,) an English printer, who became noted by his fictitious " Book of Jasher," (1751,) which he pretended to have translated from Alcuin. Died in 1763. Illescas, ^l-y^s'kSs, (Gonsalvo,) a Spanish monk, wrote a "History of the Popes," (1570.) Died in 1580. Illgen, iKgen, (Christian Friedrich,) a German Protestant divine, born at Chemnitz in 1786, wrote sev- eral works, and edited a journal at Leipsic. Died in 1844. lUyricus. See Francowitz. Ilmoni, il-mo'nee, (Immanuel,) a Finnish physician, born in 1797, wrote " Contributions to the History of the Nosology of the North," (3 vols., 1846-53.) Died in 1856. Flus, [Gr. 'Uof,] the founder of Ilium, (Ilion,) or Troy, was a son of Tros, (which see.) Iniad-ed-Deen, (-Eddyn or -Eddin,) e-niSd' ed- deei/, {i.e. the "Pillar of Religion,") (Mohammed, mo-ham'm^d, ) surnamed Al-Katek, was born at Is- ])ahan in 1125 a.d. He went in 1167 to Damascus, where he became the secretary of Noor-ed-Deen. After the death of Noor-ed-Deen, he enjoyed the favour of the famous Saladin, whose victories he celebrated in an ode, and whom he served as private secretary until the death of that prince. Imad-ed-Deen wrote a " History of the Conquest of Jerusalem by Saladin," and "Memoirs of the Moslem Poets of the Sixth Century of the Hejrah." Died in 1201. See Ibn-Khallikan, " Blograpliical Dictionary." Imad-ed-Dowlah, (or -Eddaulah,) e-mld'ed-dow'- lah, {i.e. " Pillar of the State,") (Alee-Abool-Hassan- Alee-Ibn-Booyah, a'lee I'bool his'san a'lee tb'n boo'- yah,) King of Persia, was the founder of the dynasty of Bouides, and began to reign in 933 a.d. He conquered the Caliph of Bagdad, and died in 949, leaving the throne to his nephew, Adhad-ed-Dowlah. See 1p.n-Kha[.i.ikan, "Biographical Dictionary;" Weil, "Ge- schichte des Chalifen." Imberdis, ^N'bgR'd^ss', (Andr^,) a French writer, born at Ambert about 1810, published a " Histary of the Religious Wars in Auvergne during the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," (2 vols., 1841.) Imbert, iN'baiR', (Barth^lemy,) a French poet, born at Nimes in 1747. He produced at the age of twenty "The Judgment of Paris," a graceful poem, which was much admired. The plan was ingenious, and the style natural and elegant. Died in 1790. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Imbert, (Guillaume,) a French litterateur, born at Limoges about 1743 ; died at Paris in 1803. Imbert, (Jean,) a French jurist, born at La Rochelle about 1522, published " Institutiones Forenses," (1542,) often reprinted. Died about 1600. Imbert, (Joseph Gabriel,) an eminent French painter, born in Marseilles in 1654, was a pupil of Le- brun and of Van der Meulen. At the age of thirty-four he took the monastic vows, after which he painted only sacred subjects. His chief work is a " Calvary." Died in 1740. Imboiiati, ^m-bo-ni'tee, (Carlo Giuseppe,) an Ital- ian bibliographer, born at Milan, wrote " Bibliotheca Latino-Hebraica," (2 vols., 1696.) Died after 1696. Imhof or Imhoff, im'hof, (Gustav Willem,) born in Amsterdam in 1705, was appointed Governor of Cey- lon in 1736. Having gained general confidence by his conduct and capacity, he became about 1742 Governor- General of the Dutch East Indies. Died in 1750, Imhof, von, fon im'hof, (Jakob Wilhelm,) a Ger- man genealogist, born at Nuremberg in 1651. He was well versed in the history of the royal and noble families of Europe, and wrote many works on genealogy, among which is one in 2 vols., (1684.) Died in 1728. See KoELER, " Lebensgeschichte Imhofs." Imilcon. See Himilcon, Im'i-soii, (John,) an English mechanician, wrote z, valuable work entitled "The School of Arts," which passed through several editions. In 1807 Professor J. Webster published an improved edition, with the title of "Elements of Art and Science." Died in 1788. Immermanii, im'mer-min^, (Karl Lebrecht,) a German dramatist and poet, born at Magdeburg in 1796, was the author of a comedy entitled "The Princes of Syracuse," (182 1,) "The Valley of Ronceval," "King Periander," (1823,) and other tragedies. He also pub- lished a number of tales and lyric poems. Died in 1840, See Karl Immermann, " Memorabilien," 3 vols., 1840-43; F. Freiligrath, "C. Immermann, Blatter der Erinnermig an ihn," 1842; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1843. Imola. See Francuccl Imparato, ^m-pi-ri'to, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Naples about 1530, was a pupil of Titian, whose style he imitated with some success. Died after 1565- Imperiale, ^ni-pk-re-I'li, ( Francesco, ) born at Genoa about 1370, went to Spain, and became attached to the court of Henry HI. of Castile. He was regarded as one of the best Spanish poets of that time. Imperiali, im-pa-re-^'lee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian physician and author, born at Vicenza in 1568, graduated at Padua, and practised with success in his native city. He wrote Latin poems, which were admired, also a collection of observations entitled "Exotericse Exercitationes," (1603.) Died in 1623. His son Giovanni, born at Vicenza in 1602, was also a physician, and wrote "Musasum Historicum et Physi- cum," consisting of eulogies and memoirs of eminent literary men. Died in 1670. Imperiali, (Giovanni Vincente,) an Italian poet, born at Genoa about 1570, served the state as a diplo- matist, and held a high command in the navy. He wrote, besides other poems, "Lo Stato rustico," (1611,) which was received with favour. Died about 1645. See Soprani, " Scrittori Liguri." Imperiali, (Giuseppe Renato,) an Italian cardinal, distinguished for his patronage of learning, was born of a noble family at Genoa in 1651. It is said he would have been elected poj^e in 1730, if the court of Spain had not interposed against him. Many learned men were recipients of his bounty. Died in 1737. He left a noble library, which, by his will, was kept open to the public. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani iUiistri. " Imperiali-Lercari,.^m-pi-re-inee l§R-kS'ree, (Fran- cesco Mario,) was Doge of Genoa when that city was a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; ^, h, 6, same^ less prolonged; a, e, T, 6., f, short; a, ?, j, o^ obscure; iSr, fill, fit; m^^Jt; n.6t; good; moon; IMPET INES bombarded by the fleet of Louis XIV. in 1684. Hos- tilities having been suspended by the mediation of the pope, the Doge went as ambassador to Paris, and a treaty of peace was signed in 1685. Im'pey, (Sir Elijah,) an infamous judge, who offi- ciated in India during the administration of Warren Hastings. See "Memoirs of Sir Elijah Impey," by E. B. Impey, 1846; Macaulav, "Essay on Warren Hastings." Impiccati, degli, a surname of Andrea del Cas- TAGNo. (See Castagno.) Fna or Fnas, King of the West Saxons, and one of the chiefs of the Heptarchy, succeeded Ceadwalla in 689 a.d. He a])pears to have possessed superior talents, and is regarded as one of the principal legislators among the ancient Anglo-Saxons. He waged war successfully against the people of Kent and the Britons about 710. In 728 he resigned his crown, and died at Rome the same year. See William of Malmesburv, " Gesta Regum Anglorum." In'a-ehus, [Gr. 'Ivaxog,] a mythical personage, the son of Oceanus, and father of lo, is said to have been the first King of Argos. Having been chosen as umpire by Neptune and Juno when they disputed about the possession of Argos, he decided in favour of Juno. Iiica, ing'ka, (plural Incas,) a Peruvian or Quichua word, signifying " chief," and applied to the dynasty reign- ing in Peru on the arrival of the Spaniards in that coun- try in the early part of the sixteenth century. As the Peruvians did not possess the art of writing, we have no means of ascertaining, or even forming a satisfactory conjecture respecting, the earliest date of their power. The Incas claimed to be the descendants of Manco Capac and his wife Mama Ocllo, who were the children of the sun. (See Manco Capac.) The empire of the Incas, at the period of their greatest power, extended through nearly forty degrees of longitude, and contained an area of between one and two million square miles. Their sub- jects, though unacquainted with letters, had in many respects advanced to a high degree of civilization. They understood the working of the precious metals, archi- tecture, and many other arts, and were especially dis- tinguished for the genera] liberality and wisdom of their state policy; though some of their laws and regulations tv'ere, according to the standard of Christian civilization, both unjust and inhuman. See Pkescott's "Conquest of Peru," book i. chap. i. Inch'bcild, (Elizaheth,) a popular English actress, novelist, and dramatist, born at Stanningfield in 1753, ivas the daughter of a farmer named Simpson. At the age of sixteen she came to London with the intention of becoming an actress, and was married to Mr. Inchbald, '.vho had obtained some success on the stage. After performing with her husband several seasons at Edin- Durgh and other towns, she made her delud at Covent Garden in 1780, and was very successful. Her success is ascribed in a great measure to her personal beauty and virtuous cliaracter. In 1789 she retired from the stage. She wrote ".Such Things Are," "Every One has his Fault," "To Marry or Not to Marry," and many other plays. Her greatest productions are two novels, "A Simple Story," (1791,) and " Nature and Art," (1796,) which o1)tained extensive and durable popularity. Her "'Nature and Art,' " says Hazlitt, "is one of the most interesting and pathetic stories in the world." The other work is highly commended by Miss Edgeworth. Died in 1821. See her Life, by Boaden, 1833; Mrs. Elwood, "Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England from the Commencement of the Last Century," vol. i., 1843. Inch'i-quin, ( Morrogh O'Brien,) Baron of, a famous Irish soldier, born about 1618. He acted a prominent part in the civil war, fighting alternately for Charles I. and against hiin. He was a royalist from 1640 to 1645, and gained several victories. About 1649 he entered the French service, with the rank of general. Died in 1674. See "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1814. Inchofer, ing'KoTer, (Melchior,) a Jesuit, born in Vienna in 1584, lived in various cities of Italy, and wrote several learned works, among which is the " Ecclesias- tical History of Hungary," (1644, unfinished.) He had more learning than critical judgment. Died in 1648. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Iricledon,ink'el-don, (Benjamin Charles,) an Eng- lish vocalist, born in Cornwall in 1764, served several years in the royal navy. He first appeared in a London theatre in 1 790, and performed many years with success. Died in 1826. Indaco, 1', l^n'di-ko, (Francesco,) a painter of the Florentine school, flourished about 1530. Indaco, 1', (Jacopo da Firenze,) a Florentine painter, a brother of the preceding, was a pupil of Ghirlandaio, and worked at Rome. See Vasaki, " Li'ves of the Painters." India, ^nMe-S, ( Tullio, ) called the Elder, a painter of the Venetian school, was born at Verona, and flourished in 1545. He was a skilful painter in fresco, and an excellent copyist. His son Bernardino, a painter, was born at Verona. One of his later works is dated 1584. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." In-dib'i-lis, a Spanish chief, who flourished during the first Punic war, in which he fought for and betrayed both sides. He fought for the Carthaginians in the battle at which Publius Scipio was killed, in 213 B.C. His army was defeated by the younger Scipio in 207. Pie was killed in battle by the Romans in 205 B.C. See LivY, " History of Rome," books xxii. and xxv.-xxix. Indra, Tn'dRa, [etymology doubtful ; possibly related to the Latin imber, (Gr. d/xi3pog,) a "shower" or "rain- storm,"] the regent of the firmament, in the Hindoo mythology, is the son of Kasyapa and Aditi. As the god of storms and thunder, he may be said to correspond very nearly to the Roman Jupiter and Greek Zeus. In the early period of the Hindoo mythology he was (like Jupiter) regarded as the most powerful of the gods ; but, after the introduction of the deities of the Hindoo triad, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, Indra, Varuna, and Agni were deposed from their high rank and made to occupy a far inferior position. Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu, is represented, while still an infant, as bafiling with the utmost ease the mightiest efforts of the god of thunder. (See Krishna.) Indra is supposed to preside over all atmospheric changes ; the clouds are his war-elephants, one of which, represented with three trunks and called Iravat,* (T-r^'vat,) is his vahan, (or "vehicle,"!) and his most terrible weapon is his vajra, (pronounced by the modern Hindoos viij''ra or biij'ra,) or "adamantine thun- derbolt. "J The heaven or paradise of Indra is called Swarga or Swerga, (pronounced swur'ga.) Here dwell the Apsaras, the beautiful dancing-girls of his court, who may be said to correspond to the Hoorees (Houris) of Mohammed's paradise, and the Gandharvas, or celestial minstrels. The consort of Indra is named Indrani, (in- dR^'nee.) His capital city is called Amravati, (lim-ri'- va-tee,) or the "city of immortality." See Moor'.s " Hindu Pantheon ;" Coleman's " Mythology of the Hindus;" Sir William Jones's Works, vol. xiii., (or vol. vi. of another edition ;) H. H. Wilson's "Translation of the Rig- Veda,' and " Essays on the Religion of the Hindus." Induno, 6n-doo'no, (Domenico,) an Italian painter of history a.nc\ ^C7i7'e, born at Milan in 1815. He gained the grand prize in 1837. Indutiomare. See Indutiomarus. Indutiomaius or Induciomarus, in-du-she-om'a- rus, [Fr. Indutiomare, iw^dU^seVmSR',] a chief of the Treviri, fought against Julius Caesar, and was killed in 54 R-C. liles {hn'yls) or Inez de Castro, ^n'ygth di kSs'tRo, sometimes Anglicised as Agnes de Castro, a beautiful Spanish lady, whose tragical fate is commemorated by Camoens in the " Lusiad," was born of a noble family in Castile in the fourteenth century. Having been a maid of honour at the court of Alphonso IV. of Por- tugal, she won the love of his son Don Pedro, who privately married her. The king, on learning the fact, * Iravat signifies "watery," "fiillof rain," (in 'Lz^tm, pluviosiiS.) t See note under Garuda. + This word {vajra) signifies both " thunderbolt" and " adamant,' or "diamond." € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) INF ANT ADO 1242 INGLES was violently enraged, and, after vain efforts to dissolve their union, authorized her assassination in 1355. She was eminent for virtue, grace, and intelligence. Her story is the subject of numerous dramas, legends, etc. See Mhs. Behn, "The History of Agnes de Castro ;" Lope de Vega, " Donna Inez de Castro J. B. Gomez, Jr., " Nova Castro," Lisbon, 1S17. Infantado, de, di ^n-fin-t^'Do, Duque, a Spanish statesman, born in 1 773, was an intimate friend of the Prince of Asturias, (Ferdinand VII.) In 1808 he ac- companied that prince to Bayonne, and signed the con- stitution which Napoleon imposed on Spain. In 1809 he conniianded an army which was defeated by the French at Saint Sebastian. Ferdinand VII. appointed him president of the council of Castile in 1814. He resigned in 1820, and was prime minister for a short time in 1825. Died in 1841. lugalls, ing'galz, (RuFUS,) an American general, born in Oxford county, Maine, about 1820, graduated at West Point in 1843, and was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers in September, 1862. He served as chief quartermaster of the army of the Potomac in 1863-65. Ingeburga, ing'eh-booR'ga, soinetimes written Ing- elburge or Ingerburga, a Danish princess, was the sister of Canute VI. In 1192 she became the wife of Philip Augustus of France, who soon after divorced her without good reason. She appealed to the pope. Innocent III., who decided in her favour ; and after the kingdom of Philip had been laid under an interdict, he was induced to reinstate her. Died in 1236. See De Thou, " Histoire universelle." Ingegneri, 4n-j§n-ya'ree, (Angiolo,) an Italian litte- rateur', born in Venice about 1550, was secretary of Car- dinal C. Aldobrandini at Rome, whose service he quitted in 1598. He wrote a jjastoral called "The Dance of Venus," (" La Danza di Venere,") ** Buon Segretario," and a few other works, in prose and verse. He was a friend of Tasso. Died in 1613. See GiNGUENE, *' Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Ingegno, L'. See Luigi, (Andrea.) Ingelman, ing'el-man', (C. G.,) a Swedish poet, born in 1788 ; died in 1845. In'ge-lo, (Nathaniel,) D.D., an English clergyman, wrote " Bentivolio and Urania," a romance, (1660,) also a few sermons. Died in 1683. In'ge-low, (Jean,) a popular English writer and poetess, born about 1825, published "Poems," (1863,) "Studies for Stories," (1865,) "A Story of Doom," (1867,) and "Mopsa the Fairy," (1869.) Ingemann, ing-'eh-mSn', ( Bernhard Severin, ) a popular Danish poet and novelist, was born in the island of Ealster, May 28, 1789. He produced a volume of lyric poems ("Digte") in 181 1, and an epic poem, called "The Black Knights," (" De sorte Riddere,") in 1814. His tragedies "Blanca" and "Masaniello" (1815) were performed with great success. About 1820 he published an admired dramatic poem, called "The Deliverance of Tasso." He was chosen professor of Danish at the Acad- emy of Soroe in 1822. He is author of several popular historical novels, among which are " Waldemar the Vic- tor," (1826,) and "Prince Otho of Denmark," (1835.) See William and Mary Howitt, "The Literature and Romance of Northern Europe," vol. ii., 1852 ; Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe Erslew, "Almindeligt Forfatter- Lexicon ;" Moi.ler. "Dansk Pantlieon ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1838. Ingen or Inghen, van, vtn ing'gen or ing'Hen, (Wil- LEM,) a Dutch painter, born in 165 1, studied under C. Maratta at Rome. He worked in Venice and Naples, and settled in Amsterdam. His works have considera- ble merit. Died about 17 10. Ingenhoiisz,ing'gen -hows', (Jan,) an eminent Dutch physician and chemist, born at Breda in 1730. About 1767 he visited London, where he became intimate with Dr. Pringle, president of the Royal Society, by whose recommendation he became physician to the empress Maria Theresa in 1772. He was made a member of the aulic council in Vienna, and received a pension for life. After remaining in Vienna a number of years, he travelled in France, Italy, etc., pursuing his scientific studies and experiments, and at last settled in London, and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. He in- vented an electrophorus, and discovered that growing plants exposed to the light exhale oxygen gas, (1779.) His principal works (which are all written in English) are " Experiments on Vegetables, discovering their Power of Purifying the Air," (1779,) an " Essay on the Food of Plants," and " Experiments and Observations on Various Physical Subjects." The invention of the plate electrical machine is attributed to him. Died in 1799. See " Biographic Medicale." IngersoU, ing'ger-sol, (Charles Jared,) a lawyer and writer, a son of Jared, noticed below, was born in Philadelphia in 1782. He was elected to Congress in i8i2, and was appointed district attorney for Pennsyl- vania by President Madison in 181 5. He was chosen a Democratic member of Congress in 1840, 1842, and 1844. Among his works are " Chiomara," a poem, (1800,) and a "Historical Sketch of the Second War between the United States of America and Great Britain," (4 vols., 1845-52.) Died in 1862. See DuvcKiNCK, "Cyclopedia of American Literature." vol. ii. IngersoU, (Jared,) LL.D., an American jurist, born in Connecticut in 1749. He graduated at Yale in 1766, studied law at the Temple in London, and on returning to America took up his residence in Philadelphia. Though the son of a royalist, he zealously advocated the rights of the colonies in the Revolution. He rose to great dis- tinction in his profession, was twice attorney-general of Pennsylvania, once United States district attorney, and in the latter part of his life president-judge of the district court of Philadelphia. He served in the convention that framed the Federal Constitution in 1787, and in 1812 was the candidate of the Federal party for the Vice-Presidency of the United States. Died in 1822. IngersoU, (Joseph Reed,) D.C.L., son of the pre- ceding, was born in Philadelphia, June 14, 1786. He graduated at Yale College in 1808, and attained to a high rank in the legal profession in his native city. He was a representative in Congress from 1835 to 1837, and was re-elected by the Whig party in 1841, and again in 1843, 1845, and 1847. He took a prominent part in the debates on the tariff, and was for some time chairman of the committee on the judiciary. He was appointed minister to England by President Fillmore in 1852. Died in 1868. IngTiani, (Charles C.,) an eminent American por- trait-painter, born about 1797. He worked in the city of New York, where he died in December, 1863. His pictures are remarkable for their high finish. See DuNLAP, "Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in America." Inghen. See Ingen. Inghirami, ^n-ge-ri^nee, (Cavaliere Francesco,) an eminent Italian antiquary, born at Volterra in 1772, devoted many years to researches into ancient art, and acquired a European reputation by his writings. The most important of these is his "Monumenti Etruschi," (10 vols., 1821-27,) which is the most complete de- scription of the antiquities of Etruria. He wrote, also, " Galleria Omerica," (3 vols., 1827-38,) illustrative of Homer's poems, and " Letters on Etruscan Erudition, etc.," (1828.) Died in 1846. See Ersch und Gkuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Inghirami, (Tommaso Fedra,) an eminent Italian scholar and orator, born at Volterra in 1470, settled at Rome in early youth, and obtained high preferments. He acquired the fame of being one of the most eloquent men of modern Rome ; and Erasmus informs us that he was styled the Cicero of his age. He was patronized by Julius II., who appointed him keeper of the Vatican Library. He left in manuscript a " Commentary on Horace's Art of Poetry," "An Abstract of Roman His- tory," and other works. Died in 15 16. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encj^klopaedie ;" Tira- BOSCHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." In'gi-ald, (almost in'j^ld,) King of Sweden, surnamed Illrada, ("the Bad,") reigned in the seventh century, and was the last of his dynasty. In consequence of his crimes, some of his subjects revolted with success, and he destroyed himself. Iwar, Prince of Scania, succeeded him. Ingles, ing-gl§s', (Master Jorge,) a Spanish painter, was eminent in history and portraits. He worked at Granada in 1455. 8, e, T, 5, u, y, long; ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, i, q, obscure; fl.r, fill, f^t; n\lt; n6t; good; moon; INGLES 1243 INMAN Ingles,. (Don Jose:,) a Spanish fresco-painter, born at Valencia in 1718; died in 1786. Inglis, ing'glis, (Henry David,) a Scottish writer of travels, born in Edinburgh in 1795. He travelled exten- sively in Europe, and published excellent books of travel, viz., "Solitary Walks through Many Land's," (3d edition, 1843,) a "Journey through Norway, Sweden, and Den- mark," (1829,) "Tour through Switzerland, the South of France," etc., (1830,) " Spain in 1830," (from which Lord Aberdeen said he had derived more information than from all the state documents he ever perused,) "The Tyrol, with a Glance at Bavaria," (1834,) and " Rambles in the Footsteps of Don Quixote." Died in 1835. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Inglis or English, (Sir James,) a poet, born in Scot- land in the reign of James IV., is supposed to be the author of a book entitled "The Complaint of Scotland," published at Saint Andrew's in 1548, said to be the most ancient Scottish prose work that is extant. Died in 1530. Inglis, (John,) D.D., born in Edinburgh in 1763, was one of the ministers of the Greyfriars' Church in that city. He published a "Vindication of the Christian Faith," (1830,) and a few other works. Died in 1834. Inglis, (John,) an eminent Scottish advocate, a son of the preceding, was born in Edinburgh in 1810. He became lord advocate in May, 1852, and was elected dean of the faculty in the same year. Having retired from office with the Derby ministry in December, 1852, he was restored to the same in 1858, and became lord justice clerk in the same year. In'glis, (Sir John Eardley Wilmot,) a British gen- eral, born at Halifax, Nova Scotia, about 181 5, was a son of the Bishop of Nova Scotia. He distinguished himself in the campaign of the Punjab in 1848-49, and obtained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. His regiment was at Lucknow when that place was besieged by the Sepoys in the summer of 1857. On the death of Sir Henry Lawrence he succeeded to the command of the garrison. He received the brevet of major-general for his heroic defence of Lucknow. Died at Homburg, Germany, in September, 1862. Inglis, (Sir Robert Harry,) M.P.,born in 1786, was the only son of Sir Hugh Inglis, chairman of the East India Company. He was first elected to Parliament in 1824. From 1829 to 1853 he represented the University of Oxford, and constantly voted with the Tories against the Reform bill, the relief of the Catholics, etc. Died in 1855. Inglis, (Sir William,) a British general, born in 1762, served with distinction in the Peninsular war. Died in 1835. Ingoldsby, ing'golz-be, (Thomas,) the assumed name of Richard H. Barham. (See Barham.) Ing'pn I., surnamed the Good, King of Sweden, was the son and successor of Stenkil, and began to reign about 1080. He favoured the propagation of Christianity among his subjects. Died in in 2. Ingon II., a nephew of the preceding, was one of his successors, and shared the royal power with his brother Philip. Slavery was gradually abolished in his reign. Died in 1 130. Ingoni, ^n-go'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter, born at Modena in 1528 ; died in 1608. Ingoni, (Matteo,) a painter of the Venetian school, born at Ravenna in 1587 ; died in 163 1. Ingouf, ^N'gooF,(FRANgois Robert,) a skilful French engraver, born in Paris in 1747. He engraved "The Nativity," after Raphael, and some of the plates for the "Musee Fran9ais." Died in 1812. His brother, Pierre Charles, born in Paris in 1746, was also a successful engraver. Died in 1800. Ingraham, ing'gra-am, (Duncan Nathaniel,) a naval commander, born in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1802. He gained distinction by his spirited conduct in procuring the release froin an Austrian war-vessel, at Smyrna, in June, 1853, of Martin Koszta, a Hungarian, who had legally declared his intention to become a citizen of the United States. As a mark of its approval, the general government presented Ingraham with a medal. He was raised to the rank of captain in 1855. Ingraham, (Joseph H.,) an American writer, born at Portland, Maine, in 1809. Among his productions are the romances of " Lafitte," " Captain Kyd," and " The Dancing Feather." He has also written " The Prince of the House of David," and other similar works. Ingram, ing'gram, (Herbert,) an English printer, born at Boston in 181 1, founded the "Illustrated Lon- don News" in 1842. He was elected to Parliament in 1856, and visited the United States in i860. In Sep- tember of that year he was drowned in Lake Michigan, in consequence of a collision. Ingram, (James,) D.D., an English clergyman, born in Wiltshire in 1774, became president of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1824, and rector of Garsington. He published an edition of the " Saxon Chronicle," (1823,) " Memorials of Oxford," (1834-37,) which was favourably received, and several other works. Died in 1850. Ingram, (Robert,) an English clergyman, born at Beverley, Yorkshire, in 1727. He became vicar of Orston and Boxted, and published, besides other works," Isaiah's Vision," (1784,) and " The Seventh Plague," (i 787.) Died in 1804. Ingrassia, ^n-gRls'se-i, written also Ingrassias, (Giovanni Filippo,) an eminent Sicilian physician and anatomist, born at Palermo about 1510, taught anatomy at Naples. In 1563 he was chosen by Philip 11. first physician of Sicily, and in 1575 he checked the ravages of the plague at Palermo. He wrote a " Commentary on the Bones," and other able treatises on anatomy. Died in 1580. See £lov, " Dictionnaire historique de la Medecine." Ingres, iNgR, (Jean Augusi e Dominique,) a cele- brated French historical painter, born at Montauban in 1780 or 1 781, was a pupil of David. He gained the first prize in 1801 for a picture of "Achilles receiving in his Tent the Envoys of Agamemnon." He worked about twenty years (1804-24) in Rome and Florence, choosing Rai)hael as his model. During this period he painted " OEdipus and the Sphinx," " Raphael and La Fornarina," and "Odalisque," (1819.) He returned to Paris in 1824, became the founder of a school, and exhibited " The Vow of Louis XIII.," one of his best works, which o]:)ened to him the doors of the Institute in 1825. In 1827 he painted on the ceiling of the Louvre "The Apotheosis of Homer," which is called his master-piece. At the Exposition of 1855 a salo?i was reserved exclu- sively for his works, which are said to have had a wide influence on the style of French and foreign artists. He is called the representative of correct design and ideal composition. Died in January, 1867. See L. DE LoMENiE, " M. Ingres, par un Homme de Rien," 1842 , Frederic Mekcey, " Peintres et Sculpteurs modernes : J. Ingres," 1846; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Inguimbert, d', dcLN^glN^baiR', (Joseph Dominique,) a French bishop, born at Carpentras in 1683, assumed the name of DoM Malachie. He became an intimate counsellor of Pope Clement XII., who appointed him domestic prelate, and in 1733 Bishop of Carpentras. He built a hospital in that town, and founded a large public library there. He wrote and translated several religious works. Died in 1757. See ViTALis, " Notice sur la Vie de Malachie d' Inguimbert," 1812 Ingulf. See Ingulphus. In-guPphus or In'gulf, a monk, born in London about 1030, became secretary and favourite of William, Duke of Normandy, in 1051. After that prince had become King of England, Ingulphus was made abbot of the monastery of Croyland. He died in 1109. He was the reputed author of a History of the above monastery, in Latin, containing much curious and important infor- mation ; but Sir Francis Palgrave has proved that it is a forgery. See Ordencus Vilalis, " Historia Ecclesiastica." In'i-go, an English engraver, whose proper name was John Collet, was born about 1725. He excelled in the same line as Hogarth, and displayed an original genius for humorous design. He left but few works, among which is a " Monkey pointing to a Very Dark Picture of Moses striking the Rock." Died in 1780. In'raan, (Henry,) an American portrait-painter, born at Utica, New York, in 1801, was a pupil of Jarvis. He € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, Y^^ guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) INMAN 1244 INNOCENT worked mostly in the city of New York. During a visit to England, ni 1844, he painted portraits of the poet Wordsworth, Dr. Chahners, and T. B. Macaulay. Among his other works are portraits of Chief-Justice Marshall and Bishop White. He was commissioned by Congress to adorn the national capitol with historical paintings ; but before he had finished them he died, in 1846. See DuNi.AP, " Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in America;" Tuckekman, " Book of the Artists." Inman, (John,) a brother of the p'receding, born at Utica, New York, in 1805, was an associate editor of the "New York Mirror" and "The Commercial Adver- tiser." Died in 1850. In'nes, (Louis,) a Roman Catholic priest, born of a Scottish family about 1650, He became secretary to James II. after he was deposed from the English throne. He is the reputed author of " Memoirs of James II.," part of which was published by J. Stanier Clarke in 1816. Innes, (Thomas,) a brother of the preceding, born in 1662, studied in Paris, was ordained a priest, and suc- ceeded Louis as principal of the Scottish College. He wrote a "Critical Essay on the Ancient Inhabitants of the Northern Parts of Britain," (1729,) which is highly commended for sound learning, judicious criticism, and valuable information. Died in 1744. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." In'no-cent [Lat. Innocen'tius ; It. Innocenzo, hn- no-ch§n'zo ; Ger. Innocenz, in'no-tsents ; Span. Ino- CENCio, e-no-///gn'//^e-o] I., a native of Albano, chosen ■ Bishop of Rome in 402 A.D., was contemporary with Augustine and Jerome. During his pontificate, Rome was pillaged by Alaric the Goth. Innocent strenuously asserted the supremacy of the see of Rome, and con- demned the doctrines of Pelagius. Died in 41 7, and was succeeded by Zosimus. See Bruys, "Histoire des Papes," 5 vols., 1735. Innocent II., Pope, was elected in 1130 as successor to Honorius II. Another party elected a rival pope, under the name of Anacletus II., whose partisans drove Innocent out of Rome. The latter was recognized as pope by the Kings of France, England, and Germany, and his rival was supported by Roger of Sicily. In 1138, Inno- cent, assisted by Lotharius of Germany, recovered the papal power, and, his rival having died in the same year, the unity of the Church was restored. In 1139 Arnaldo da Brescia was banished from Rome for preaching doc- trines that were deemed unsound. Innocent died in 1 143, and was succeeded by Celestine II. See Platina, " Vite de' summi Pontefici," 161 3 ; Alletz, " His- toire des Papes," 1776; J. Hartmann, "Vita Innocentii II. Pon- tificis," 1744; Artaud de Montor, " Histoire des souverains Pon- tifes," 1847-49. Innocent III., whose proper name was Lotharius, was the son of Trasimund, a Roman count, and was born in Rome in 1161. He was unanimously elected pope in January, 1198, as successor to Celestine HI. With su- perior abilities, improved by diligent study, he combined great resolution, industry, and austerity of character, and availed himself of every opportunity to magnify his ofiice and to assert the supremacy of the papal power. In 1 199 he placed the kingdom of France under an interdict be- cause the king, Philip Augustus, had repudiated his wife ; and thus he compelled him to reinstate her. About 1200 he instigated the fourth crusade, the principal result of which was the capture of Constantinople from the Greeks by the crusaders. In 1212 he excommunicated and de- posed Otho, Emperor of Germany, and crowned Frede- rick of Sicily in his place. A memorable quarrel occurred between this pontiff and King John of England, respect- ing the appointment of the "Archbishop of Canterbury, (1207,) the right to appoint being obstinately asserted by each. England was laid under an interdict, which lasted two years, at the expiration of which, as John was still refractory, the pope declared him to be deposed, and authorized Philip Augustus of France to execute the decree. While the latter was preparing to invade Eng- land, John submitted to the pope, in 1213, and signed'a disgraceful treaty, in which he consented to hold Eng- land and Ireland as fiefs of the Church of Rome, and to pay an annual tribute of one thousand marks. In 1214 Innocent raised a cruel persecution or crusade against the Albigenses for heresy. During his pontificate the papal power attained its greatest height. He was perhaps the most learned man and the most able statesman of his age. He wrote " Letters," and other works, which are highly commended. Died in 1216, and was succeeded by Honorius III. See F. HuRTER, "Geschichte Innocenz III.," 2 vols., 1835, (and French version of the same, 4 vols., 1838-43 ;) D. Lessmann, " Pabst Innocenz III. und Fiirst Michael Gliiiski," 1830; Jorrv, "Histoire du Pape Innocent III," 1852; Artaud de Montor, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes," 1847-49; J- H. Gurnev, "Four Ecclesiastical Biographies," London, 1864. Innocent IV., (Sinibaldo de' Fieschi— di fe-gs'- kee,) a native of Genoa, was elected pope as successor to Celestine IV. in 1243. He soon found himself involved in a quarrel with the emperor Frederick II., (who had been excommunicated by Gregoiy IX.,) and retired for security to Lyons. Here he summoned a council, in 1245, and renewed the excommunication of Frederick, who was also formally deposed. The emperor, however, refused to submit to this assumption, and waged war against the pope for several years, until his death in 1250. Innocent then returned to his capital, and proclaimed a crusade against Conrad, the son of Frederick; but again his malignity was bat¥led. He died in 1254, and was succeeded by Alexander IV. See J. Hartmann, "Vita Innocentii IV.," 1738; Paolo Panza, "Vita del gran Pontefice Innocenzio Quarto," 1601. Innocent V., ( Peter of Tarantasia, ) born at Moutier, in Savoy, was elected in 1276 as successor to Gregory X. After holding office a few months, he died in the same year. Innocent VI., ( Stienne Aubert — o'baiR', ) a Frenchman, born near Pompadour, was elected pope in 1352. He succeeded Clement VI., who had made him a cardinal and Bishop of Ostia. His court was kept at Avignon throughout his pontificate. He reformed some abuses in the Church, and appears to have acted with more moderation and propriety than most of his predecessors. Died in 1 362. See Bruys, "Histoire des Papes," 1735; Sismondi, "Histoire des Frangais." Innocent VII., (Cardinal Cosmo Migliorati — m^l- yo-rS'tee,) born at Sulmona about 1338, was elected pope in 1404, as successor to Boniface IX. At that time there was an extensive schism in the Church, and Benedict XIII. held a rival court at Avignon. Died in 1406. See Pi.ATiNA, "Vite de' summi Pontefici," 1613. Innocent VIII., (Giovanni Battista Cibo — chee'- bo,) born at Genoa in 1434, was elected pope in 1484, as successor to Sixtus IV. He laboured without success to unite the sovereigns of Europe against the Turks, and was himself engaged in war with Ferdinand, King of Naples. He died in 149 1, and was succeeded by Alexander VI. See F. Serdonati, "Vita d'Inpocenzo VIII.," 1829; F. M. ViALARDO, " Istoria della Vita d'Inii?>cenzo VIII.," 1613. Innocent IX., (Antonio Facchinetti — fSk-ke- net'tee,) born at Bologna, succeeded Gregory XIV. in October, 1591, but only survived two months after his election. He left a good reputation for virtue and wisdom. Clement VIII. was his successor. See Ranke, " History of the Popes." Innocent X., (Giovanni Battista Panfili — pln- fee'lee,) elected in place of Urban VIII. in 1644, was born in Rome about 1570. He owed his promotion to the Barberini, who soon became his enemies. The Jan- senist controversy having made a great commotion in the Church, Innocent appointed a commission of car- dinals to settle it, and in 1653 issued a bull aim occasione, in which he condemned the five propositions of Jansen. Historians differ widely as to the character of this pontiff. He died in 1655, and was succeeded by Alexander VII. See Ranke, "History of the Popes:" Ci.'^conius, "Vitae et Res gestae Pontificum Romanoi-um," 4 vols., 1677. Innocent XI., (Cardinal Benedict Odescalchi — o-d§s-k^Kkee,) born at Como in 161 1, succeeded Clement X. in 1676. He had been made a cardinal in 1647, and had sustained a respectable character. He soon mani- fested his zeal to reform abuses and restore strict disci- pline, and his inflexible resolution to maintain the papal a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mfet; n6t; good; moon; INNOCENT 1245 IPHITUS prerogatives. His pontificate was signalized by a re- markable contest with Louis XIV. of France in relation to the regale and the privileges or exemptions of foreign ambassadors at Rome. The pope wished to abolish the usage which rendered the ambassador's palace, with the adjacent premises, an asylum for malefactors, etc., inac- cessible to the officers of justice. Louis XIV. in 1687 sent his ambassador Lavardin with orders to maintain his rights, and with an armed retinue of eight hundred men. The pope persisted, and excommunicated Lavar- din, who returned without effecting his object ; and the quarrel was not ended until after the death of Innocent, which occurred in 1689. It seems that his enmity to Louis induced this pontiff to favour the English in resistance to James II. ; and some one remarked that the peace of Europe would be promoted if James would become a Protestant, and the pope a Catholic. See Ughei-LI, "Italia sacra," 10 vols., 1717-22; Ranke, "His- tory of the Popes;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais ;" F. BuoNAMici, "De Vita et Rebus gestis Innocentii XI.," 1776. Innocent XII., (Antonio Pignatelli — pen-yi-teK- lee,) born in Naples in 161 5, became Cardinal and Arch- bishop of Naples during the pontificate of Innocent XI., and succeeded Alexander VIII. as pope in July, 1692. He proposed to take Innocent XI. as his model, and appears to deserve credit for his economy, regular habits, liberality, and works of utility. In his pontificate a re- conciliation was effected with the French court by mutual concession. Quietism also received its quietus, in 1699, by a papal brief condemning Fenelon's " Maximes cles Saints." He died in 1700, and was succeeded by Clem- ent XL See Ranke, "History of the Popes;" Bruvs, "Histoire des Papes," 1735. Innocent XIII., (Michelangelo Conti— kon'tee,) born in Rome in 1655, was the son of the Duke of Poli, and attained the dignity of cardinal in 1706. He succeeded Clement XI. as pope in 1721, and exercised his power so prudently that his subjects regretted the brevity of its duration. He died in 1724, and his place was supplied by Benedict XIII. See Bruys, "Histoire des Papes," 1735; "Leben Pabst Innocenz XIII.," Cologne, 1724. Innocentius. See Innocent. Innocenz. See Innocent. Innocenzo. See Innocent. I'no, [Gr. 'Ivw,] a daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia, was the wife of Athamas, King of Thebes. According to tradition, she incurred the enmity of Juno, who de- prived Athamas of his reason. In a fit of insanity he killed a son of Ino, who threw herself into the sea and was changed into a sea-goddess, named Leucothea. Her story was dramatized by several Greek poets. Inocencio. See Innocent. Interiano de Ayala, ^n-ti-re-i'no di T-S'li, (Juan,) a Spanish author and monk, born in 1656, became preacher to the king. He published, besides other works, (mostly in Spanish,) " Pictor Christianus Eruditus," (1730,) in which he exposes the prevalent errors of painters who treat of religious subjects. His style is pure and elegant. Died in 1730. See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" Moreri, "Dic- tionnaire Historique." Inthiema, in-te-a'ml, (Hero,) a Dutch poet and jurist, born in 1576; died in 1623. Intieri, ^n-te-a'ree, ( Bartolommeo, ) an Italian economist and mechanician, born at Pistoia about 1674. He founded a chair of political economy at Naples, and wrote "On the Conservation of Grain." Died in 1757. Intorcetta, en-toR-chet'ti, (Prospero,) a Jesuit mis- sionary, born in Sicily in 1625, laboured in China, and published Latin translations of some works of Confu- cius. Died in 1696. Inveges, ^n-va''j?s, (Augustin,) a Sicilian historian and ecclesiastic, born at Sciacca in 1595, published a "History of Palermo," (3 vols., 1649-51,) which was much esteemed. Died in 1677. In'wood, (Charles Frederick,) son of William Inwood, noticed below, was born in 1798. He co-operated with his father as architect of Westminster Hospital and other edifices. Died in 1840. Inwood, (Henry William,) an English architect, a brother of the preceding, was born in 1794. He was associated in his profession with his father, and pub- lished " Studies of the Architect from Nature," and an illustrated work on Athenian architecture, called "The Erechtheion at Athens," (1827.) He perished by ship- wreck in 1843, while making a voyage to Spain. Inwood, (William,) an English architect, born about 1770, was employed on many buildings in London, and also followed the profession of surveyor. He was assisted in his architectural labours by his two sons, noticed above. Saint Pancras Church, London, finished in 1822, was erected by him and his son Henry. He published "Tables for Purchasing Estates," etc. Died in 1843. I'o, [Gr. 'Id),] a fabulous personage, whom the Greek poets represent as a daughter of Inachus and a priestess of Juno. It was said that, having been transformed by Jupiter into a white cow, she was tormented by a gadfly, (sent by Juno,) to escape from which she swam across the Ionian Sea and wandered through various parts of the world. Her story is related by i5ischylus in his " Suppliants." I-9-la'us [Gr. 'loAaof] or I'9-las, [Gr. 'loAcf,] a per- sonage of classic mythology, was a relative and faithful companion of Hercules, whom he aided in his contest against the Lernean Hydra. I'o-le, [Gr. 'IbTiri,] the daughter of Eurytus, King of Qichalia, who promised her in marriage to Hercule.s. But, Eurytus having afterwards refused to perform his engagement, lole was forcibly carried off by her lover. On the death of the latter, caused by Dejanira's jealousy, (see DEJA.NIRA,) lole was married to Hyllus, the son of Hercules. I'on, [Gr. 'Iwv,] the mythical ancestor of the lonians, was supposed to be the son of Apollo and Creusa. His story was dramatized by Euripides. Ion, ['Iwi',] a Greek tragic poet, who was born at Chios, (Scio,) and flourished about 450 B.C. He lived at Athens, where he became a friend of yEschylus and gained a prize for one of his tragedies. He composed, besides tragedies, elegies, lyric poems, and some prose works, all of which are lost. He was included in the canon of the five Athenian tragic poets by the Alexan- drian critics. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grasca ;" Kavser, " Historia cri- tica Tragicorum Graecoriim," 1845; Karl Nieberding, " De lonis Chii Vita, Moribus et Studiis," 1836. I'o-phon, [Gr. 'lo^wv,] an Athenian tragic poet, a son of Sophocles the poet, lived about 420 B.C. He gained the second prize in 429, when Euripides received the first prize. Among the titles of his plays are " Achilles," " Actaeon," and " Pentheus." His works are not extant. Died after 405 B.C. See Kayser, " Historia critica Tragicorum Graecorum," 1845. louzef or louzaf. See Yoosef. Iphicrate. See Iphicrates. I-phic'ra-tes, [Gr. '^LKpuTTjg ; Fr. Iphicrate, e'fe'- kRtt',] a skilful Athenian general, who rose from a humble rank in society and obtained the chief command of the Athenian army. About 392 B.C. he defeated the Spartans near Corinth, and afterwards gained applause by his defence of Corcyra against the Spartans and Syra- cusans. He made important changes in the armour and tactics of his troops, by exchanging the heavy buckler for a light target and increasing the length of the spear and the sword. He was associated with Timotheus and Chares in the command of an expedition against Byzan- tium about 357 B.C. See Grote, " History of Greece ;" Cornelius Nepos, " Iphi- crates ;" DiODORUS SicuLUS, books xiv., xv., and xvi. ; Xenophon, " Hellenica," books iv. and vi. ; Rehdantz, " Vitae Iphicratis, Cha- hnx et Timothei," Berlin, 1845. Iph-i-ge-ni'a or Iph-i-ge-nei'a, [Gr. 'l(plyeveta; Fr. Iphig^nie, ^Te^zh^ne',] a daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra. The ancient poets relate that Diana detained the Greek fleet at Aulis by a calm, because Agamemnon had offended her, and that the soothsayer Calchas declared Diana could be appeased only by the sacrifice of Iphigenia. When she was on the point of being immolated, she was rescued, it is said, by Diana, who carried her to Tauris, where she became a priestess € as 9 as s; g kard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) IPHIGENIE 1246 IRETON in the temple of the goddess. Her story is the subject of two of the dramas of Euripides. Iphigenie. See Ii'inoENiA. Iph'i-tus, [Gr. '{(pLTog,^ a king of Eh's, who revived the Olympic games about 884 B.C., four hundred and seventy years after their first institution. They were celebrated every fifth year, at Olympia, on the banks of the Alpheus. Lycurgus, the vSpartan lawgiver, was associated with Iphitus in this affair. Ipparco, the Italian of Hipparchus, which see. Ippocrate. See Hippocrates. Ippolito. See Hippolytus. Irailh, e'rtK, (Augustin Simon,) a French historical writer, born at Puy-en-Velay in 17 19, became canon of Monistrol. He wrote an interesting work entitled "Literary Quarrels, or Memoirs of the Revolutions in the Republic of Letters from the Time of Homer to the Present," (4 vols., 1 761,) also a "History of the Reunion of Bretagne with France," (2 vols., 1764.) Died in 1794. See Qu^RARD, "La France Litteraire." Irala Yuso, e-ri'li yoo'so, (Matias Antonio,) a Spanish painter and engraver, born at Madrid in 1680 ; died in 1753. Ir'by, (Charles Leonard,) an English traveller, and a commander in the royal navy, Li conjunction with James Mangles, he wrote a book entitled "Travels in Egypt, Nubia, Syria, and the Holy Land," privately printed in 1823. It has since been published, and is reputed a valuable work. (See Mangles, Captain.) Irby, (Frederick Paul,) a British naval officer, born in 1779, commanded the Amelia in an indecisive action against the French in 1813. Died in 1844. Ire'dell, (Tr'del,) (James,) a distinguished jurist, born in England in 1 751, settled in North Carolina in 1768. He was admitted to the bar in 1770, and in 1777 became judge of the supreme court of North Carolina. This position he resigned in 1779. Pie was one of the ablest and most influential members of the convention called in 1788 to consider the Federal Constitution, and from 1790 till his death, in 1799, was judge of the supreme court of the United States. He published, under the authority of the legislature, the "Laws of North Caro- lina, 1715-1790," (1791-) See G. J. McRee, "Life of James Iredell," 1857. Iredell, (James,) a lawyer, a son of the preceding, was born at Edenton, North Carolina, in 1788. He was Governor of North Carolina in 1827, and was a Senator of the United States from 1828 to 1831. He was sub- sequently reporter to the supreme court of his native State, and published thirteen volumes of law and eight of equity reports. Died in 1853. IreTand, (John,) D.D., an English writer, born at Ashburton in 1761, became prebendary of Westminster in 1802, and Dean of Westminster and rector of Islip in 1816. He founded a professorship at Oxford, and several scholarships. He was a contributor to the "London Quarterly Review," and the author of several approved works of divinity, among which is " Paganism and Chris- tianity Compared." Died in 1842. Ireland, (John,) an English writer, born in Shrop- shire, removed to London, where he became a con- noisseur of art and a dealer in pictures. He compiled "Memoirs of Henderson" the actor, and published " Hogarth Illustrated," which was favourably received. Died in 1808. Ireland, (Samuel,) born in London, was a weaver of Spitalfields in his youth. He became subsequently a dealer in rare prints, curiosities, etc. Having acquired some skill in drawing and engraving, he employed it in illustrating various countries, of which he published " Picturesque Tours." He was the author of " Graphic Illustrations of Hogarth," and the publisher of the Shak- speare Papers forged by his son. (See below.) Died in 1800. Ireland, (William Henry,) a son of the preceding, was born in London in 1777. He acquired notoriety in 1795 by forging legal documents under the seal of Shakspeare, and by practising on the public credulity in relation to dramas which he pretended to have found at Stratford. One of these, called " Vortigern," was pur- chased by Sheridan, and performed at Drury Lane before the imposture was detected. The audience were ex- tremely disgusted at the quality of the play, and Ireland, being required to explain how he had obtained it, con- fessed the forgery to his father, and afterwards published a written confession, which displays more vanity than penitence. Died in 1835. Irenaeus, e-ri-na'us, (Falkovski,) a learned Russian prelate and writer on theology, born in 1762; died in 1823. Irenaeus, (Klementievski,) a Russian theologian, born in 1753, became Archbishop of Pskof He wrote commentaries on Scripture, and translated from the Greek some works of the Fathers. Died in 1818. Irenceus,ir-e-nee'us, fGr. Eip7]vaLog; Fr. Ir^:n6e, e'rk'- na'; It. Ireneo, e-ri-na^o,] Saint, a Christian martyr, born about 130 or 140 A.D., was a Greek by birth, and was probably a native of Asia Minor, as he was a pupil of the eminent Bishop Polycarp of Smyrna. About 177 he became Bishop of Lyons, (Lugdunum,) in France, in place of Pothinus, who was the first that occupied that see. He ministered to his churches with wisdom and general acceptance. To counteract the errors of the Gnostics and others, he wrote a treatise against Heresies, which is still extant, (in a Latin translation.) He also wrote several Letters, and other works, which are lost, except some fragments. It is generally supposed that he suffered martyrdom under Septimus Severus ; but the learned are not agreed whether it occurred in 202 or 208. He was well versed in ancient philosophy, as well as in evangelical doctrine. His book on Heresies is highly appreciated as a historical monument and a vindication of the primitive faith. He was a believer in the Millennium, and entertained opinions on that subject which some consider extravagant. See Saint Jerome, " De Viris illustribus ;" Eusebius, " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Henry Dodweli,, " Dissertationes in lrena;iim," 1689; Gervaise, " Vie de S. Irenee, second fiveque deLvon," 1723; J. M. Prat, " Histoire de Saint-Irenee," 1843; James Beaven, "Account of the Life and Writings of Saint Irenasus." I-re'ne, [Gr. EipijvT} ; Fr. Irene, e'rin',] Empress of Constantinople, was born at Athens about 752, of very obscure parentage, and in 769 A.D. became the wife of Leo IV., Emperor of the East. At his death, in 780, he left a son of ten years, named Constantine, during whose minority Irene acted as regent. She was remarkable for her beauty, energy, and talents. In order to decide the quarrel between the Iconoclasts and their opponents, to whom she was partial, she assembled a council in 787, which formally sanctioned the worship of images. When her son attained his majority, her ambition so far pre- vailed over natural affection that she dethroned him and deprived him of sight. In 802 she was deposed by a conspiracy of her subjects, and Nicephorus was chosen emperor. She died in exile in 803. See Le Beau, "Histoire du Bas- Empire;" Vincent Mignot, "Histoire de I'lmperatrice Irene," 1762; Gibbon, "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Irenee. See Iren^us. Ireneo. See Iren/eus. Ireton, Tr'ton, (Henry,) an eminent English repub- lican, born in 1610. He was a student of law when the civil war began, in which he became an ardent leader of the popular cause. Entering the army as captain of cavalry, he was rapidly promoted, and became highly distinguished for his courage and capacity both in the battle-field and the council-chamber. At the battle of Naseby, (1645,) with the rank of commissary-general, he commanded the left wing, and was wounded and taken prisoner ; but, his friends having gained the victory, he recovered his liberty the same day. In 1646 he married Bridget, daughter of Oliver Cromwell. The latter, as Hume remarks, "had great deference for the counsels of Ireton ;" and the republicans generally reposed the highest confidence in him, as a statesman of incorruptible honour. About 1646 he was elected to Parliament, where he projected various wise legal and constitutional re- forms and was eminent for his skill in drafting ordi- nances. While Charles I. was a prisoner at Harrlpton Court, he had conferences with Cromwell and Ireton, who, it is said, were inclined to reinstate him in a limited royalty, until they intercepted one of his letters which a, e, 1, 6, u, y, /ofi^^; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s^ort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; IRURTE 1247 IRFING convinced them of his insincerity. Iretonwas a member of the court which tried the king ; and he signed the warrant for his execution, January, 1649. In reference to tliis affair, Burnet says, " Ireton was the person that drove it on ; for Cromwell was all the while in some suspense about it." In July, 1649, he went to Ireland as second in command under Cromwell, who, returning after the lapse of a few months, left to Ireton the chief command, with the title of lord deputy. After gaining several victories and taking Limerick, he died there of the plague in 165 1. Hume, who was not partial to his cause, denominates him "a memorable personage, much celebrated for his vigilance, industry, capacity even for the strict execution of justice in that unlimited command which he possessed in Ireland. It was believed by many that he was animated by a sincere and passionate love of liberty," (" History of England.") See, also, " Biograpliia Britannica ;" GuizoT, " Histoire de la Revolution d'Angleterre." Iriarte or Yriarte, e-re-aR^ti, (Bernardo,) nephew of Don Juan de Iriarte, noticed below, was born in Tene- riffe about 1734. He became a member of the council of state, and held other important offices under the Spanish government. Died in 1814. Iriarte, (Domingo,) brother of the preceding, born in Teneriffe in 1746, was sent as minister plenipotentiary of Spain to Poland, and employed in other embassies. Died in 1795. Iriarte, (Francisco Diego de Ainsay — Tn-sT',) a Spanish writer, born at Huesca, published an account of his native city, entitled "Fundacion, Eccelencias, Grandezas, etc. de la antiquisima Ciudad de Huesca," (1619.) Iriarte, (Ignacio,) a celebrated Spanish landscape- painter, born in Guipuscoa in 1620, was a pupil of the elder Herrera. He worked in Seville, and became a friend of Murillo, who painted the figures for some of his landscapes. He was one of the founders of the Academy of Seville. Iriarte was regarded as the best landscape- painter of his country and his time. Connoisseurs admire in his works the lightness of the foliage, the transparency of the sky, the limpidity of the water, and the mastery of chiaroscuro. Died in 1685. See Raphael Mengs, " Las Obras," etc., 1780 ; Quilliet, " Dic- tionnaire des Peititres Espagiiols." Iriarte, de, di e-re-aR'ti, (Don Juan,) an eminent linguist and scholar, born in the island of Teneriffe in 1702. He studied in Paris at the College of Louis le Grand, and subsequently visited London and Madrid, where he was appointed in 1732 one of the librarians in the Royal Library. He became official translator to the principal secretary of state in 1740, and in 1743 was elected a member of the Royal Academy. Among his w^orks may be named a " History of the Canary Islands," (in manuscript,) a collection of Spanish proverbs in Latin verse, and translations from Martial. Iriarte is said to have added two thousand manuscripts and more than ten thousand printed volumes to the Royal Library during the thirty-nine years in which he officiated as librarian. Died in 1771. Iriarte, de, (Tomas,) youngest brother of Bernardo, noticed above, was born in Teneriffe about 1750. He be- came a proficient in the ancient and modern language under the tuition of his uncle, and subsequently became archivist to the principal secretary of state, and editor of the "Madrid Mercury." He was author of a poem entitled "La Musica," (1779,) which was received with great favour ai]d translated into the principal European languages, and " Literary Fables," (" Fabulas literarias.") The latter are written in various metres, and are re- markable for their graceful versification. They enjoyed great popularity at the time, and are still ranked among the classics of the language. An English version of these fables, by George H. Devereux, appeared in 1855. Iriarte also published a comedy entitled "The Spoiled Child," ("El Senorito mimado,") a number of sonnets and critical essays, and a metrical translation of Horace's "Art of Poetry." Died about 1790. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe Jolv, no- tice of the Life of Tomas de Iriarte, in the " Repertoire de Littera- ture." Irico, e-ree'ko, (Giovanni Andrea,) an Italian priest and savant, born at Trino in 1704. He wrote several religious and antiquarian works. Died in 1782. Fris, [Gr. ^Iptq,] in Greek mythology, the goddess of the rainbow, said to be a daughter of Thaumas, and sometimes called Thaumantias. Homer represents her as the messenger of the gods, employed to carry mes- sages from Ida to Olympus and from gods to men. Irland, ^r'Ion', (ISonaventure,) a French jurist, of Scottish descent, born at Poitiers in 1551 ; died in r6i2. Irnerius, eR-na're-us, sometimes written Warnerius, a celebrated Italian jurisconsult, born at Bologna in the eleventh century. He became the renovator or restorer of the Roman law, which had been neglected, and on which he wrote commentaries, called "Glossee." He obtained the office of judge, and was sent by the emperor to Rome in 1118 to expedite the election of a pope. See B. NiHUSius, "Irnerius," Cologne, 1642; Fantczzi, " Scrit- tori Bo'ognesi." Iron Mask. See Masque de Fer. Ir'vme, (William,) a general, born near Enniskillen, Ireland, about 1742, emigrated to Pennsylvania in 1763. He became a colonel in 1776, and a brigadier-general in 1779. From 1781 to 1783 he commanded the troops stationed at Fort Pitt for the defence of the western frontier. He was chosen a member of Congress in 1787, and again in 1793. Died in 1804. Ir'ving, (David,) LL.D., a Scottish biographer and writer on law. He published " Lives of Scottish Poets," (1804,) " Lives of the Scottish Writers," (1839,) and "The Table-Talk of John Selden," (1854.) He also wrote the article "Civil Law" in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica." Irving, (Edward,) a celebrated and eloquent Scottish pulpit orator, born at Annan in 1792, was a graduate of the University of Edinburgh. Having been employed as rector of an academy at Kirkaldy about seven years, he was ordained a Presbyterian minister. From 1819 to 1822 he was engaged as assistant in the pulpit of Dr. Chalmers, Glasgow, where he acquired a good reputation. He accepted a call from the Scottish Church, Cross Street, London, in 1822, and soon became an admired and fashionable preacher. His original genius and his extraordinary eloquence attracted crowded audiences, among whom were found the most eminent authors and statesmen, and nobles of the highest rank. In 1823 he published a series of discourses entitled " For the Ora- cles of God, Four Orations," etc. In 1829 he removed into a larger church built for him in Regent Square. A charge of heresy having been preferred against him in the presbytery of London in 1830, he was condemned by that body, and ejected from the church, in 1832. After this event he obtained another place, and attracted crowds by his exhibition of the gift of unknown tongues, which he ascribed to divine inspiration. He published " Babylon and Infidelity Foredoomed of God," and other theological treatises.- Died at Glasgow in December, 1834. " He was unquestionably," says De Quincey, "by many degrees the greatest orator of our times." It is probable that his devotion was sincere, but not guided by discretion, and that in the latter part of his career his mind was affected with insanity. Carlyle, who was his friend, thinks that "bodily and spiritually, perhaps, there was not (in that November, 1822) a man more full of genial, energetic life in these islands." He left three children. The collected wTitings of Edward Irving have been published under the editorship of his nephew, the Rev. G. Carlyle, London, 1864-65. See "Life of Irvnng," by Mrs. Oliphant, 1862; De Quincey, "Literary Reminiscences," vol. ii. ; "Edinburgh Review" tor Octo- ber, 1862 ; " Edward Irving, an Ecclesiastical and Literary Biogra- phy," by W. Wilks: Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Emi- nent Scotsmen," (Supplement;) Michael Hohl, " Bruchstiicke aus dem Leben und den Schriften E. Irving's," 1839 ; Lehmann, " Ueber die Irvingianer," 1853; "Westminster Review" for January, 1824; "Blackwood's Magazine" for November, 1858, and June, 1862; "Eraser's Magazine" for January, 1835; " North British Review" for August, 1862. Ir'ving, (John Treat,) an American judge and writer, brother of Washington Irving, was born in 1778. He was a popular contributor, (political,) both in prose and verse, to the " Morning Chronicle," and from 1821 till his death, in 1838, was presiding judge of the court of common pleas in New York. € as k; 9 as s; g hard: g as /; G, H, K,grittural: N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) IRFING 1248 ISABEL Irving, (John Treat,) an American lawyer and writer, son of the preceding, and a resident of New York, is au- thor of a volume of " Indian Sketches," (1835,) and two novels, entitled "The Attorney," and "Harry Harson ; or, The Benevolent Bachelor," which originally appeared in the "Knickerbocker Magazine." Irving, (Pkter,) an American journalist, born in 1771. He became in 1802 the editor and proprietor of the " Morning Chronicle," a Democratic journal of New York. In conjunction with his brother Washington, he projected " Knickerbocker's History of New York." He wrote "Giovanni Sbogarro, a Venetian Tale," (1820.) Died in 1838. Irving, (Theodore,) LL.D., an American author, and minister in the Protestant Episcopal Church, was born in New York in 1809. He spent some time in Europe with his uncle, Washington Irving, was professor of history and belles-lettres in Geneva College, New York, from 1836 to 1849, and afterwards filled for several years the chair of belles-lettres in the New York Free Academy. He entered the ministry in 1854. He has written " The Conquest of Florida by Hernando de Soto," in 2 vols., (Philadelj^hia and London, 1835,) and "The Fountain of Living Waters," (1854.) Irving, (Washington,) a distinguished American author and humourist, born in the city of New York, April 3, 1783, was a son of William Irving, a native of Scotland. About 1800 he left school and commenced t^ie study of the law. For the benefit of his health, he performed in 1804 a voyage to Europe, visited France, Italy, Switzerland, and England, and returned in 1806. Soon after his return he was admitted to the bar ; but he preferred to devote himself to literary pursuits, and never practised law. In conjunction with his brother William and with James K. Paulding, he issued in 1807 a humorous and satirical magazine, entitled "Salma- gundi, or the Whim-Whams and Opinions of Launcelot Langstaff, Esq., and others." Of this amusing and popular work only twenty numbers were issued. He published in 1809 another humorous work, "The History of New York, by Diedrich Knickerbocker," in which he was assisted by his brother Peter. It was very favourably received. " I have neveii," says Sir Walter Scott, " read anything so closely resembling the style of Dean Swift as the Annals of Diedrich Knickerbocker." (Letter to Henry Brevoort, April 23, 1813.) In 1810 he became a silent partner with his brothers in an extensive commercial house in New York. He sailed in 181 5 to Europe, where he remained many years, and in 181 7 visited Sir Walter Scott at Abbots- ford, who became his constant friend. He was reduced to poverty by the failure of the firm of which he was a member, in 1817. His next important work was "The Sketch-Book," (1818,) by Geoffrey Crayon, which was written in England. It enjoyed great popularity, and raised Irving to the highest rank .of American authors. Lord Jeffrey, in the " Edinburgh Review" for August, 1820, commended "The Sketch-Book" as "written throughout with the greatest care and accuracy, and worked up to great purity and beauty of diction on the model of the most elegant and polished of our native writers." He published in London, in 1822, "Brace- bridge Hall, or the Humourists," which was received with great favour both in England and America. Com menting on this work. Lord Jeffrey says, "We happen to be very intense and sensitive admirers of those soft harmonies of studied speech in which this author is apt to indulge himself, and have caught ourselves oftener than we shall confess, neglecting his excellent matter to lap ourselves in the liquid music of his periods." ("Edin- burgh Review" for November, 1822.) For his "Tales of a Traveller," (1824,) Murray, the London publisher, gave him ;i^i500 before he saw the manuscript. Mr. Irving afterwards spent some years in France and Spain, where he composed his "History of the Life and Voyages of Christojiher Columbus," (4 vols., 1828,) which was very successful. " This is one of those works," says Alexander H. Everett, "which are at the same time the delight of readers and the despair of critics. It is as nearly perfect as any work well can be." ("North American Review" for January, 1829.) In 1829 he pro- duced an imaginative and romantic work entitled "The Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada, from the Manu- scripts of Fray Antonio Agapida." He was appointed secretary of legation to the American embassy at London in 1829, and returned to the United States in 1832. Among his later works are " The Alhambra," (1832 ;) a "T(jur on the Prairies," (1835;) "Astoria," (3 vols., 1836;) "The Adventures of Captain Bonneville," (2 vols., 1837;) "Oliver Goldsmith, a Biography," (1849;) "Mahomet and his Successors," (1850 ;) and "The Life of George Washington," (5 vols., 1855-59.) He was minister to Spain from 1842 to 1846. He passed the latter part of his life at Sunnyside, on the Hudson River, where he died, November 28, 1859. He was never married. For an easy elegance of style, Irving has no superior, perhaps no equal, among the prose writers of America. If Hawthorne excels him in variety, in earnestness, and in force, he is perhaps inferior to Irving in facility and grace ; while he can make no claim to that genial, lambent humour which beams in almost every page of " Geoffrey Crayon." See the " Life and Letters of Washington Irving," by Pierre M. Irving, 1863 ; " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Ameri- cans," vol. i. ; Griswold, "Prose Writers of America;" Prescott, "Miscellanies;" "Edinburgh Review" for August, 1820, November, 1822, and September, 182S ; "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1821, March, 1825, and Jul}', 1863; "North American Review" for July, 183s, and January, 1837, (both by Edward Everett,) and April, 1858; "Blackwood's Magazine" for July, 1820; " Eraser' i Magazine" for October, 1835 ; " Westminster Review" for January 1837; Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors;" Cleveland, "Com' pendium of American Literature;" " Atlantic Monthly" for Novera ber, i860, and June, 1864. Irving, (William,) a brother of the preceding, wan born in New York in 1766. He married a sister oi' James K. Paulding in 1793, became a merchant in Nevf York, and was a member of Congress during three terms, (1813-19.) He aided his brother and Mr. Pauld- ing in the " Salmagundi," of which he wrote the poetical parts. Died in 1821. Ir'win, (Eyles,) a poet, born in Calcutta, of Irish parents, in 1748, was employed in the civil service of the East India Company. He wrote several odes and eclogues, and "Adventures during a Voyage up the Red Sea," (1780.) Died in 1817. Irwin, Viscountess. See Howard, (Anne.) Isa, ee'sa, written also I§a and Isha, one of the names of Siva, which see. Isaac, I'zak, [Heb.pnV' or pn^^" ; It. ISACCO, e-sik'- ko; Arabian, Ishak, is^hak',] a Hebrew patriarch, the son of Abraham and Sarah, was born about 1890 B.C. He married Rebecca, and became the father of Esau and Jacob. " Of all the patriarchs," says Bishop Hall, " none made so little noise in the world as Isaac." He removed to Gerar, in the land of the Philistines, and acquired riches as a planter. He died at the age of one hundred and eighty. See Genesis xxi., xxii., xxiv., xxvi., xxvii., xxviii., and xxxv. 29; Matthew xxii. 32; Luke xx. 37; Galatians iv. 28; Hebrews xi. 17. Isaac I., or Isaac Com-ne'nus, [Gr. 'laauKiog 6 Ko/j,VT}v6c,] Emperor of Constantinople, was chosen by the army as successor of Michael VI. in 1057. Two years later, in consequence of a malady which he sup- posed mortal, he resigned the throne to Constantine Ducas, and entered a convent. Died in 1061. Isaac II., or Isaac An'ge-lus, [Gr. 'loauKcoc 6 'Ayye- ?iog,] Emperor of Constantinople, was proclaimed in 1185 as successor to Androni'cus, who was dethroned by a popular revolt. He rendered himself very un- popular by his vices and misgovernment. In 1195 his brother Alexis usurped the throne and in^prisoned Isaac, who was liberated and restored in 1203 by an army of crusaders. In 1204 he. was again supplanted by Alexius Ducas, and died or was killed the same year. Constan- tinople was speedily taken by the crusaders, who elected Baldwin emperor. Isaac, ee'zSk, (Heinrtch,) a German musician, whom the Italians called Arrigo Tedesco, (i.e. the " German Henry,") was born about 1440. He removed to Italy about 1475, and was patronized by Lorenzo de' Medici. He composed sacred music. Isaacson, T'zak-son, (Henry,) born in London in 1581, wrote a work on Chronology. Died in 1654. a, e, T, 6, u, y, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fJr, fill, ftt; m§t; n6t; good; moon; ISABEL 1249 ISAIE Isabel, the Spanish of Elizabeth, which see. Isabel I. See Isabella of Castile. Is'a-bel [Sp. pron. e-sS-beK] II., (or, more fully, Maria Isabel Luisa,) Queen of Spain, born at Madrid in October, 1830, is a daughter of Ferdinand VII. and Maria Christina, She succeeded her father on the 29th of September, 1833, when her mother became regent. Her claim was disputed by her uncle, Don Carlos, in a civil war, which ended in the defeat of the Carlists in 1840. The queen-regent having been driven from power by a popular revolt in October, 1840, Espartero became regent. Isabel was declared of age in November, 1843, and in October, 1846, was married to her cousin, Fran- cisco de Assis, a son of Francisco de Paula, who was a brother of Ferdinand VII. She has a son, Francisco, born in 1857. Her reign was agitated by many revolu- tions, coups d'etat, and changes of constitution. In Sep- tember, 1868, she was deposed by her revolted subjects almost without a struggle. Isabella. See El'izabeth. Is-a-beFla of Austria, ( Clara Eugenia, ) the daughter of Philip II. of Spain and Elizabeth of France, was born in 1566. As the niece of Henry III. of France, she claimed the French crown at his death, but was excluded by the Salic law, though she was favoured by the chiefs of the League. In 1597 she became the wife of Archduke Albert, son of the Emperor of Germany. Died in 1633. Isabella of Bavaria, daughter of Stephen, second Duke of Bavaria, born in 1371, became Queen of France in 1385 by marriage with Charles VI. She was remark- able for beauty and for her voluptuous and dissolute character. When her imbecile consort became incapable of ruling, she aspired to royal power, and made a coali- tion with the English against the dauphin, her son. Died in 1435- Isabella [Span. Isabel, e-sS-b^K; Fr. Isabelle, t'zi'- hlV] OF Castile, daughter of John II., King of Cas- tile, was born at Madrigal in 145 1. The malcontent subjects of her brother, Henry IV., forced him to ac- knowledge her as his heir, after which her hand was solicited by several princes of Europe, and she became the wife of Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469. In 1474 she was proclaimed Queen of Castile and Leon, the sove- reignty of which she did not resign to her husband, but kept in her own hands. Historians agree in applauding her beauty, virtue, magnanimity, piety, learning, and political wisdom. It was under her auspices that Co- lumbus discovered America, after his project had been treated with neglect by Ferdinand. Died in 1504. (See Ferdinand V.) Isabella had blue eyes and auburn hair, and possessed great beauty of features, sweetness of expression, and dignity of presence. See Prescott, "History of Ferdinand and Isabella;" Juan de Molina, " Sumario de la Vida y Hechos de los catolicos Reyes D. Fernando y Doiia Isabel," 1587; Fernandez de Pulgar, " Rerum a Ferdinando et Elisabe Hispaniarum Regibus Gestaruin Decades II.," 1545; D- Ci-EMENCiN, " Elogio de la Reina catolica Dona Isabel," 1821 ; George Anita, "Memoirs of Queen Isabella of Castile," London, 1850. Isabelle. See Isabella. Isabelle of France. See Elizabeth of France. Isabelle {h'z%.'hlV) of France, Queen of England, daughter of Philip the Fair, King of France, was born in 1292, and was married to Edward II. in 1308. The issue of this union was a son, who became Edward III. About 1324 she went to Paris to negotiate between her consort and the French king, where she formed a con- spiracy with malcontent nobles, and returned to England with the avowed intention to remove from power the king's unworthy favourite. Spencer. Entering London without resistance, in 1326, the partisans of the queen de- posed Edward II, and proclaimed his son king. Isabelle and her favourite, Mortimer, exercised the royal power a few years during the minority of her son ; and there seems no reason to doubt that they contrived the murder of Edward II. She was imprisoned for nearly twenty years, and died in prison in 1358. She was surnamed, on account of her cruelty, "the she-wolf of France." Isabelle of France, Queen of England, born in 1389, was a daughter of Charles VI. She was married to Richard II. of England in 1396. Died in 1409. Isabelle, h'zt'hlV, (Charles £douard,) a French architect, born at Havre in 1800, wrote "The Circular Edifices and Domes Classed," etc., (1843-56.). Isabelle d'Angouleme, e'zt'blK d6N^goo'Iem', a French princess, was a daughter of Aymar, Count of Angouleme. She was married to John, King of Eng- land, in 1201. Died in 1245. Isabey, e'zi^ja', (Eugene Louis Gabriel,) an emi- nent painter of marine views, born in Paris in 1804. He obtained a first-class medal in 1824, and produced in 1827 "The Coast of Honfleur," and a "Tempest near Dieppe." Among his best works are the " Battle of the Texel," (1839,) "The Departure of Queen Victoria," (1845,) and the "Embarkation of De Ruyter," (1851.) He received a first-class medal at the Exposition of 1855. Isabey, (Jean Baptiste,) a celebrated French minia- ture-painter, born at Nancy in 1767, was a pupil of David, and father of the preceding. About 1802 he became the most fashionable artist of Paris in his depart- ment of the art. He was liberally patronized by the emperor Napoleon, who had been his friend when both were obscure citizens. He executed many admired portraits of the Bonaparte family and of the generals of the empire. It is said that most of the sovereigns of Europe have been the subjects of his pencil. Among his works are the "Table des Marechaux," a picture on porcelain of Napoleon and his marshals, and " The Congress of Vienna," (1817.) Died in 1855. Isacs, ee'zSks, (Pieter,) a skilful Dutch portrait- painter, born at Helzevor in 1569; died about 1620. Isaeus, T-see'us, [Gr. 'laalog ; Fr. Is6e, e'za',] a famous Greek orator, who flourished about 400 B.C., was a native of Chalcis, or, according to some authorities, of Athens. Having been a pupil of Isocrates, he opened a celebrated school in Athens, and had the honour of being the preceptor of Demosthenes. Isaeus is one of the ten Athenian orators of the Alexandrian canon. His style is at once elegant and vehement, but is less natural than that of Lysias. He had great skill in dialectics and in the distribution of his arguments. Only eleven of his orations are now extant ; and these are all forensic. He is said to have survived the accession of King Philip of Macedon, 348 B.C. See J. A. LiEBMANN, " De Isaei Vita et Scriptis, " 1831 ; E. Jenike, " Observationes in Isaeum," 1838. Isaeus, a Greek sophist and orator, born in Assyria, lived in the first century after Christ. His eloquence is extolled by Pliny. Isaiah, T-za'yah or e-zi'a, [Heb. '\X^^^\0'' • Gr. "Hoatac; Lat. Esai'as ; Fr. Isaie, e'zS'e', or Esaie, kfz^i'e' ; It, Isaia, e-si-ee'S; Sp. Isaias, e-si-ee'is,] the first of the great Hebrew prophets, was a contemporary of Hosea, Joel, Amos, and Micah. He prophesied during a period of about fifty years, beginning about 760 B.C. He lived at Jerusalem, and exerted great influence in public affairs. Little is known of his personal history, except that he had a wife, who is called a prophetess, and two sons. There is a doubtful tradition that Isaiah sufiered death by being sawn asunder, at the command of King Ma- nasseh. As a writer he is remarkable for versatility of genius, and merits the first rank among the prophets by the majestic simplicity and sublimity of his compositions. He declared more amply and clearly than any other prophet the eternal divinity, vicarious suff"erings, and glorious kingdom of the Messiah, and hence is often called the evangelical prophet. No other prophet is so often quoted by Christ and his apostles. (See Matt. i. 22, iii. 3, viii. 17, xii. 18-20, xiii. 14; Luke iv. 17; Acts xxviii. 25 ; Rom. ix. 27, and x. 16; Phil. ii. 10.) In our translation of the New Testament he is always called ESAIAS. He has been pronounced by some critics not inferior to Homer in poetical genius ; and all agree that his book is a master-piece of beauty and sublimity both in thought and style. Among the commentators on Isaiah are Saint Jerome, Vitringa, Lowth, Calmet, Eichhorn, Doderlein, Gesenius, Gataker, Hitzig, Rosenmiiller, and Henderson ; and, in the United States, Dr. Alexander and Mr. Albert Barnes. See, also, Kimchi, "Lexicon Rabbinicum ;" Ewald, "Die Pro- pheten des alten Bundes," and "Geschichte des Volkes Israel bis Christus;" Knobel, " Prophetisme des Hebreux." Isai'e. See Isaiah. •e as 9 as s; g ^ard; g as j; G, H, yi, guttural; n, fiasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Sil^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 79 ISAMBERT 1 250 ISLA Isambert, e'zSN'baiR', (liMii.E,) a French physician and biographer, a son of Fran9ois Andre, noticed below, was born at Auteuil in 1828. Isambert, (pRANgQis Andr^:,) a French jurist and Protestant, born at Aunay (Eiue-et-Loire) in 1792. He distinguished himself about 1825 as the defender of the rights of the free people of colour in Martinique, and " performed in France," says Taillandier, "a service like that which Clarkson and Wilberforce rendered in Eng- land." In 1830 he was appointed a judge (conseiller ) of the court of cassation. He was a Liberal member of the Chamber of Deputies from 1830 to 1848, and supported Cavaignac and the cause of order in the Assembly of 1848. He was secretary of the French Society for the Abolition of Slavery, of which he is said to have been the founder. Among his works are a "Manual for the Publicist and Statesman," (4 vols., 1826,) and a "History of Justinian," (1856.) He wrote many able articles for the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Died in 1857. See Taillandier, article in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Isarn, e'ziRn', (Samuel,) a French poet, born at Cas- tres in 1637, wrote " The Speaking Pistole," (" La Pistole parlante," 1660,) which had great success. Died in 1673. Isauricus. See Lko HL Is-ca'ni-us or Is-ca'iiu.s, (Joseph,) surnamed also Devo'nius, an English poet, born at Exeter, derived his name from Isca, the place of his education. Pie accom- panied Richard I. on a crusade to Palestine, and wrote a Latin poem " On the Trojan War," and another en- titled " Antiocheis." Died about 1224. Isee. See Is^us. Iselin, ^z'I^n', (Isaac,) a Swiss writer, born at Bale in 1728. He was assistant secretary of state from 1756 to his death. He became the enlightened advocate of reform in morals, education, and legislation, on which he wrote articles for the journals. His chief work is entitled " On the History of Mankind," (" Ueber die Geschichte der Menschheit." 1764.) Died in 1782. See J. G. ScHLOssER, "Rede auf Iselin," 1783; S. Hirzel, "Denkmal I. Iselin gewidmet," 1782. Iselin, [Lat. Iseli'nus,] (Jacques Christophe,) an eminent Swiss philologist and divine, born at Bale in 1681. He spoke Greek with facility, and excelled in Oriental languages. He became professor of history at Bale in 1707, and was promoted to the chair of divinity in 171 1. He wrote an admirable Latin poem on "The Gauls Crossing the Rhine," (1696,) a treatise on the "Latin Historians of the Classic Period," (" De Histo- ricis Latinis Melioris yEvi," 1697,) a treatise " On the Domination of the Magi in Persia," (1707,) and other minor works. Died in 1737. See Beck, "Vita Iselini," in the 3d vol. of "Tempe Helvetica;" J. R. Iselin, " Laudatio funebris conseciandae Memoriae Viri incom- parabilis J. C. Iselini," 1739. Iselin, (Jean Rodolphe,) a Swiss jurist, born at Bale in 1705, wrote "On Eminent Domain," ("De Do- minio Eminente," 1726,) and other works. Died in 1779. Isembert (e'zSN'baik') of Xaintes, a French archi- tect, lived about 1200, and is supposed to have built the old London Bridge. Isendoorn, van, vtn ee'zen-doRn', or Ysendoorn, (GijSBERT,) a Dutch philosopher, born in Gelderland in 160 1, published " Effata Philosophica," (1633,) " Ethica Peripatetica," (1659,) and other works. Died in 1657. IsfendiySr, is-fei/dee-yaR^, or Asfandiy^r, as-fSn'- dee-yta', one of the most celebrated heroes in Persian history, lived between the fifth and sixth centuries B.C., and is said to have been the first convert to the religion of Zoroaster, in which he was followed by his father Gushtasp (Darius Hystaspis) and the whole Persian empire. This change of religion led to the invasion of Persia by Arjasp, King of Turan, in which Isfendiyar, by his bravery and heroism, not only saved his father's kingdom, but conquered India, Arabia, and the West. He was killed in battle by the celebrated Roostum. See Malcolm, "History of Persia;" J. Atkinson, "Abridg- ment of the Shah Nameh of Firdoust." Ish'mael, [Heb. SN>'Dli'' ; Arabic, IsMAEELor Ismail, is-mt-eeK; Fr. Ismael, ^s'mt'gK,] the son of Abraham and Hagar, born about 1900 B.C., was the ancestor of the Ishmaelites or Arabians. (See Genesis xvi., xxi.) Ishwara. See Iswara. Isi, ee'see, written also I^i and Ishi, (the consort of Isa or Siva,) one of the many names of PARVA i f, which see. She is identified by some writers, including Sir W. Jones, with the Isis of the Egyptians. (See Isis.) Isiaslaf. See Iziaslaf. Is'I-dore [Gr. 'loifiwpof; Lat. Isido'rus ; Fr. Isidore, e^ze'doR'; It. Isidoro, e-se-do'ro] of Charax, a Per- sian, who is supposed to have lived in the first century of our era, wrote a work called " Parthian Itinerary," which contains a list of the eighteen provinces of Parthia and of the chief towns, with the distances of the towns from each other. Isidore of Moscow, a Russian prelate, was chosen Primate of Russia in 1437. He favoured the reunion of the Greek and Latin Churches at the Council of Florence, (1437.) Died at Rome in 1463. Isidore, Saint, an eminent Spanish scholar and bishop, born at Carthagena about 570 A.D., was a brother of Leander, Archbishop of Seville. He understood Greek, Hebrew, and Latin, and was very influential in the Spanish Church. About 600 he was appointed Bishop of Seville. The Council of Toledo, held in 650, denominated him "the glory of the Catholic Church, and the most learned man of his age." Among his most important works are, in Latin, "A Chronicle from the Origin of the World to 626 A.D.," and "Twenty Books of Etymologies," which, says Dr. Hoefer, " is one of the most precious monuments for the history of human knowledge." Died in 636 a.d. See Saint Ildefonso, "De Viris illustribus ;" Tritheim, "De Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis ;" Roesler, " Dissertatio ; Isidori His- toria Gothoriun, Vandalorum," etc., 1803. Isidore, Saint, of Alexandria, born in Egypt about 318 A.D., was a friend of Athanasius, by whom he was ordained a priest. Died in 404. Isidore, Saint, of Pelusium, is supposed to have been born between 360 and 390 A.D. 'He lived as a hermit in Egypt, and had a high reputation for piety and wisdom. He wrote, in Greek, a great number of short letters, of which more than two thousand are now ex- tant. They are said to contain sound doctrine and good instruction in morals. Died about 450 A.D. See Hermann, "Dissertatio de Isidoro Pelusiota," 1737 ; NiE- MEVER, " Dissertatio de Isidoro Peiusiota," 1825. Is'i-dore Mer-ca'tor or Pec-ca'tor, the supposed name of a person who in the eighth or ninth century fabricated a famous code of canon law or collection of decretals, often called the "Collection of the Pseudo-Isi- dore." Some popes availed themselves of this means to extend their temporal power. Isidorus. See Isidore. Is-i-d6''rus of Miletus, a Greek architect of the sixth century, who was employed by the emperor Jus- tinian to build the magnificent church of Saint Sophia in Constantinople, which is now used as a mosque. I'sis, [Gr. Toi^",] one of the chief deities of the ancient Egyptians, was called the wife of Osiris and mother of Horus. She was worshipped as the goddess of fecun- dity, and appears to have represented nature or the earth. The cow was sacred to Isis. She had many worshippers in Greece and Rome. There were famous temples of Isis at Memphis and Denderah. She has been identified with the Hindoo Isi, (which see.) Isla, ^s'la, (Jos6 Francisco,) a witty and popular Spanish author, born at Segovia in 1703. He became a Jesuit and an eminent preacher. He effected a reform in the vicious style and bad taste that prevailed among the Spanish priests, which he ridiculed in his famous satirical romance "The Life of the Popular Preacher Fray Gerundio de Campazas," (3 vols., 1758,) which is called the best picture of Spanish manners of the eighteenth century. This work was condemned by the Inquisition. He made a Spanish version of "Gil Bias," under this title : " Adventures of Gil Bias, stolen from Spain, adopted in France by Le Sage, and restored to his Native Country and Language," (6 vols., 1787.) The Jesuits having been expelled from Spain in 1767, he retired to Bologna, where he died in 1781. See J. I. DE Salas, " Vida de Jnan de Isla," 1803; Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature ;" Everett, "Critical and Miscella- neous Essays." 5, e, T, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; ndt; good; moon; ISLEIF 1251 ITTIG Isleif, is'lTf, an Icelandic historian, was ordained a priest in Rome about 1056, and returned home. He wrote "Annals of Iceland and of Norway." Died about 1080. Isocrate. See Isocrates. I-soc'ra-tes, [Gr. 'laoKpuTTjc; Fr. Isocrate, e'zo'- kntt'; It. Isocrate, e-sok'ri-ti,] one of the ten great Athenian orators, born at Athens in 436 B.C., received lessons from Gorgias, Prodicus, and Theramenes, and was an intimate friend of Plato. He soon surpassed these masters in the rhetorical art ; but his insuperable constitutional timidity defeated his political aspirations, and disqualified him for a public debater or an oracle of the "fierce democracy." He opened a school of elo- quence, which numbered among its pupils many eminent ilien, such as Isaeus, Timotheus, Xenophon, and Hyperi- des. Cicero compared his school to the wooden horse of Troy, from which issued the principal Grecian chiefs. He composed orations and forensic arguments for clients or others, and discourses on moral and political questions. His style is extremely polished and harmonious, but perhaps too artificial and diffuse. His character was honourable, his political principles were moderate and sincerely patriotic. He was one of the few who had the courage to appear in mourning for the death of Socra- tes. It is said that the disastrous battle of Chaeronea affected him so deeply that he refused to eat afterwards, and died at the age of ninety-eight. Twenty-one of his orations are extant. See Plutarch, "Vitae Decern Oratorum ;" Bilmark, "De Isocrate Oratore Grseco," 1798; Pfund, " De Isocratis Vita et Scriptis," 1833; LiCHTENAUER, "De Isocrate," 1843; O. Muller, "History of the Literature of Ancient Greece;" P. Ekerman, "Iso- crates Patre loquentije," 1743. Ismaeel or Ismail, is-mt-eel', a Moslem priest, was Imam of the Sheeites in the second century of the Hejrah. At his death a division occurred among the Sheeites in respect to the succession. Those who adhered to the son of Ismaeel were called Ismaeelites or Ismaeelians, and became a powerful sect in Egypt and Persia. Ismaeel, Ismail, or Ismail Shah, is-ma-eeK shih, founder of the dynasty of Sofees of Persia, was born in 1487, and assumed royal power about the age of four- teen. He acquired several provinces of Persia by con- quest, and died in 1524, leaving the throne to his son, Aboo-Modhaffer. Ismaeel is venerated by the Persians, who call him King of the Sheeites, (a religious sect.) See Malcolm, "History of Persia;" Von Hammer-Purgstall, " Geschiclite des Osmanischen Reichs." Ismaeel (Ismail) II., King of Persia, the son of Aboo- Modhaffer, began to reign in 1576, and made himself de- tested by his sanguinary temper. After executing many innocent persons, he died in 1577, and was succeeded by his brother, Mohammed Meerza, (Mirza.) See Malcolm, " History of Persia." Ismael, the French for Ishmael, which see. Isnard, es'ntR', (Achille Nicolas,) a French politi- cal economist and writer, born in Paris ; died about 1803. Isnard, (Maximin,) a French Girondist, republican, and orator, born at Grasse, in Provence, in 1 75 1, was chosen a member of the Legislative Assembly in 1791. He was one of the most able and enthusiastic partisans of the Revolution, to which he often gave a new impulse by his brilliant, impetuous, and inflammatory eloquence. He was one of the first members of the committee of public safety, the formation of which he first proposed, and was president of the Convention a few days in May, 1793, during the struggle between his party and the Ja- cobins. He was involved in the fatal proscription of the Girondists, but escaped death by concealment. In 1795 he was chosen a member of the Council of Five Hun- dred. He retired from political life when Napoleon be- came consul, and published an essay on the " Immortality of the Soul," (1801,) in which he professes himself a con- vert to revealed religion. He maintained a fair reputation for honour and probity, and died about 1830. Lamartine, who calls him the Danton of the Gironde, says, " His speeches were magnificent odes, which exalted discussion into lyric enthusiasm." {" History of the Girondists.") " Isnard was the man of the Girondist party," says Charles Nodier, " who possessed in the highest degree the gift of those vehement inspirations which burst like thunder in sudden and terrible explosions." See " Nouvelle Biographic G^n^rale ;" Thiers, " History of the French Revohition." Isnardi, es-naRMee, (Giambattista,) an Italian sa- vant, born near Nice in 1749, wrote a "Memoir on the Monuments of India and Egypt." Died in 1830. Isolani, e-so-li'nee, (Isidoro,) an Italian theologian, born at Milan, lived between 1480 and 1550, and wrote many works against the doctrines of Luther. Isolani, e-zo-lS'nee, (Johann Ludwig Hector,) Count, an Austrian general, born in 1586, served in the Thirty Years' war. For the part he took in the betrayal of Wallenstein he received the title of count. Died in 1640. Isore, e'zo'ri', (Jacques,) a French politician, born at Cauvigny in 1758, was a member of the Convention in 1792, and voted for the death of Louis XVI. Died in 1839. Isourd, d', de'zooR', (Joachim Jean Xavier,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Aix in 1766. He became a cardinal in 1827, and in 1829 was made a peer of France, with the title of duke. After refusing several archbishop- rics, he accepted that of Lyons in 1839 ; but he died before the end of that year. Is'rael, [Heb. Gr. 'Icpar/Ti,] a name often given by the inspired writers to the patriarch Jacob, whose descendants are called Israelites. (See Jacob.) Israeli. See Disraeli. ^ Is'selt, van, (Michael,) a Dutch historian^nd Cath- olic priest, born at Dokkum, adhered to the Spanish party in the civil war. He wrote " Historia Belli Colo- niensis," (1584,) and other works. Died in 1597. Is'ter, [Gr. 'larpo^,] a Greek historian and poet, lived about 250 B.C., and was a friend or pupil of Callimachus. He wrote a history entitled Attiku, and other works, none of which are extant. Isthvdnfi, isht'v§n-fee, [Lat. Isthvan'fius,] (Nicho- las,) a Hungarian noble, born about 1535, was rewarded for his services by the office of Vice-Palatine of Hungary. He wrote, in Latin, a " History of Hungary from 1490 to 1606," (1622.) Died in 1615. Isthvanfius. See IsthvAnfi. Istria, Duke of. See Bessieres. Isturiz, de, di^s-too-rfeth', (Don Francisco Xavier,) a Spanish politician, born at Cadiz in 1790. He pro- moted the revolution of January, 1820, was elected to the Cortes in 1822, and became a leader of the Liberal or democratic party. He was minister of foreign affairs for a few months in 1836, and was driven into exile by an emeiite. Having returned in 1837, he was chosen president of the Cortes in 1839. He negotiated the marriage of the queen Isabel, (1846,) was sent as minister to England in 1850, and to Russia in 1857. He became president of the council in February, 1862. Iswara, ees'wa-ra, or Ishwara, eesh'wa-ra, written also l9Wara, one of the thousand names of Siva, though sometimes applied to other Hindoo deities. He is by some writers identified with the Osiris of the Egyptians. See Moor's " Hindu Pantheon." Itale. See Italus. It'a-lus, [Gr. 'IraXof; Fr. Itale, e'ttl',] an ancient king of Italy, from whom that country is supposed to have derived its name. He married Electra, a daughter of Latinus. He is considered as fabulous by some authors. Itard, e'ttR', (Jean Marie Gaspard,) a French phy- sician, born at Oraison in 1775, removed to Paris alDOUt 1796, and practised with success. In 1799 he was ap- pointed physician to the Institution for Deaf-Mutes, which position he filled for many years. He wrote a "Treatise on Diseases of the Ear," (2 vols., 1821.) Died in 1838. Ith'a-cus, [Gr. "WaKoc; Fr. Ithaque, e^ttk',] a name of Ulysses, which see. Ithaque. See Ithacus. Ittig, it'tic, [Lat. Ittig'ius,] (Thomas,) a German theologian, born in 1643 at Leipsic, where he became professor of divinity. He wrote numerous works, among which are one " On the Heresiarchs of the Apostolic Age," (1690,) and " Bibliotheca Patrum Apostolicorum Graeco-Latina," (2 vols., 1699.) Died in 1710. See F. Kern, " De Vita et Scriptis T. Ittigii," 1710; Ersch und . Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Sl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ITURBIDE 1252 IZARD Iturbide, e-tooR'be-Di, (Don Augustin,) Emperor of Mexico, born at Valladolid (Mexico) in 1784, (one ac- count says 1790.) He fought against the insurgents in the war of independence which began in 18 10, and rose to the rank of general. About the end of 1821 he became the master-spirit of a successful plot for the liberation of Mexico from the Spanish rule. He was proclaimed emperor in May, 1822 ; but his power was resisted ])y a large party in the Congress and by many generals, who preferred a republic. Finding his position untenable, he abdicated, and was banished in May, 1823. In July, 1824, he returned almost alone, and, just after he landed, was arrested and shot as a traitor. See M. J. QuiN, "Memoirs of Iturbide," and French version of the same, by J. T. Parisot, 1824. lule. See Iulus. I-u'lus, [Gr. 'lovlo^; Fr. Iule, e'iil',] a son of ^neas. (See AscANius.) Ivan or Iwaii (e-v3.n') I., a Russian prince, who began to reign in Moscow at the death of his brother George, in 1328, and was tributary to the Tartars. His dominions consisted of Vladimir, Moscow, and Novogorod. His reign was peaceful, and lasted twenty-two years. His grandson, Ivan II., son of Simeon, born in 1325, was recognized by the Tartars as heir to the throne in 1353. The events of his short reign were unimportant. In his last illness he took, according to usage, the mon- astic vows, and died in 1358. See Ka#vmzin. " Histoire de Russia." Ivan m., (Vasilievitch,) son of Basil IV., ascended the Russian throne in 1462, and is sometitnes styled Ivan I., Czar of Muscovy. He liberated his realm from the tribute which the Tartars had exacted by right of conquest from his predecessors, and is regarded as the founder of the empire. About 1475 defeated, in several actions, the Tartar chief Ahmed, (or Akhmet,) and extended his dominions by the conquest of various princes. He embellished Moscow, the capital, with fine edifices, and patronized the industrial arts. In i486 he assumed the title of "Sovereign of all the Russias." He died in 1505, aged sixty-six, and was succeeded by his son Basil. See Heberstein, "Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii," 1549. Ivan IV., or Ivan Vasilievitch II., surnamed the Terrible, grandson of the preceding, inherited the throne at the death of Basil, his father, in 1533, when he was four years of age. He assumed the titles of Czar and Autocrat about the age of fifteen. He conquered Kazan and Astrachan from the Tartars, and waged war against Sweden and Poland without decisive results. Siberia was discovered and partially subdued in his reign. About 1582 the first printing-press was estab- lished by him in Russia. He displayed energy and ability in promoting civilization, but is charged with excessive cruelty in the exercise of his unrestrained power. Died in 1584. See Oderborn, " Joannis Basilidis "Vita," 1600; Heidenstein, " De Bello Moscovitico," 1600; S. Ciampi, " Esame critico con Documenti inediti della Storia di Ivan Wasihewitsch," 1827. Ivan v., (Alexievitch,) born in 1666, was the heir of the Russian crown at the death of his brother Feodor III. in 1682 ; but on account of his imbecility his younger brother Peter (the Great) was proclaimed in his stead. Ivan was permitted to retain the title of Czar, but had no ambition to rule. Died in 1696. Ivan VI., sometimes styled Ivan III., born in 1740, was the son of Anthony Ulric of Brunswick and Anne of Russia, (niece of the empress Anne.) The latter, at her death in 1740, appointed the infant Ivan her successor; but Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, obtained the imperial power. Ivan was confined in prison, where, it is said, he was killed in 1764, when Mirovitch made a rash attempt to raise him to the throne. See E. Mauvillon, " Histoire de la Vie et du Regne d'lwan VI," 1766; " Geschichte von dem Leben und Regierung Ivans III., Kaiser von Russland," 1766; " Nouvelle Riographie Generale." Ivanof, e-vS'nof, [written in German, Iwanow,] (Feodor,) a Russian dramatist, born in 1777, served in the army, and wrote, besides several successful comedies, a tragedy called "Martha." Died in 1816. Ivara. See Juvara. Ivernois, d', de'v^R^nw^', (Francois,) a Swiss politi. cal writer, born at Geneva in 1757, represented his native city at the Congress of Vienna in 1814. He wrote a " History of the Revolutions of Geneva in the Eighteenth Century," (3 vols., 1791,) and other works. Died in 1842. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Iversen, ee'ver-sen, (Christian,) a Danish writer, born at Copenhagen in 1748, published, among other works, the " Literary Progress of Denmark," (4 vols., 1781-89.) Died in 1827. See Erslew, " Forfatter- Lexicon." I'ver-spn, (Alfred,) a Democratic politician, born in Burke county, Georgia, in 1798, was elected to Con- gress in 1847, succeeded W. C. Dawson as United States Senator from Georgia in 1855, ^"d was a prominent advocate of disunion. Having entered the Confederate army, he was made a brigadier-general in 1862. Ives, ivz, (Edward,) an English surgeon, who went with Admiral Watson to the East Indies in 1754, and published a valuable account of his voyage and of the operations of the English army in 1755, ^756, and 1757. Died about 1780. Ives, Ivz, (Eli,) an American physician, born at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1779. He was professor of medi- cine at Yale College about twenty years. Died in 1861. Ives, (John,) F.R.S., an English antiquary, born af Yarmouth in 1751, was educated at Cambridge. He published " Remarks on the Garianonum of the Romans," and other antiquarian treatises. Died in 1776. Ives, (Levi Silliman,) a theologian, born in Meriden, Connecticut, in 1797. He became an Episcopal clergy- man about 1824, and Bishop of North Carolina in 1831. In 1852 he joined the Roman Catholic Church. He wrote, besides other works, "The Trials of a Mind in its Progress to Catholicism," (1854.) Ives or Yves, [modern Fr. pron. ^v,] written also I'vo, Saint, a French theologian, born in 1035, became Bishop of Chartres. Died in 1 1 15. Iveteaux. See Des Yveteaux. Ivo. See Ives, Saint. Fvp-ry, (James,) F.R.S., an eminent British mathe- matician, born at Dundee in 1765. After he left college, he engaged in teaching and other pursuits. In 1804 he obtained the chair of mathematics in the Royal Military College, Marlow, which he retained about fifteen years. He contributed numerous able papers on physical as- tronomy and mathematics to the "Transactions" of the Royal Society. He was a corresponding member of the Institute of France and of other foreign Academies. In 183 1 he received the Guelphic order of knighthood and a pension of ;i^300. Died in 1842. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- men," (Supplement.) Iwan. See Ivan. Ix-i'on, [Gr. '\^lo)v,] a fabulous king of the Lapithae. The poets feigned that after he had committed a murder, Jupiter purified him and invited him to his table. Ixion attempted to seduce Juno, but embraced a cloud instead of that goddess. To punish him for this crime, he was chained to a fiery wheel which revolved perpetually. See Virgil, "Georgica," book iv. 484. Ixtlilxochitl, ikst-l^l-Ho-cheetl', ? (Fernando de Alva,) a Mexican historian, born at Tezcuco about 1568, was a descendant of the royal family of Tezcuco. He wrote " Historia Chichimeca," and other chronicles on Mexican history. The first-named work has been trans- lated into French by Ternaux-Compans. Died about 1648. See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. i. book i. Izaacke, T'zak, ? (Richard,) an English antiquary, born at Exeter in 1624; died in 1700. Iz'ard, (George,) a general, born in South Carolina in 1777. He became a colonel in 1812, served in the war that ensued, and was raised to the rank of major- general. Died in 1828. Izard, (Ralph,) a Senator, born in South Carolina in 1742, settled in London in 1 77 1. Having returned to the United States in 1780, he was chosen a member of Con- a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; filr, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; IZIASLAF 1253 JJCKSON gtess in 1781, and was a United States Senator (for South Carolina) from 1789 to 1795. He was an able debater, and a constant supporter of Washington's administra- tion. Died in 1804. See his " Life and Correspondence," by his daughter, 1844. Iziaslaf or Isiaslav (e-ze-Ss-lSf ) I., written also Isiaslaw, (Dmitri or Demetrius,) Grand Duke of Russia, succeeded his father, Yaroslaf, in 1054. His reign was disturbed by wars with his brothers and other princes, among whom Russia was divided. He was killed in battle in 1078, and left the throne to his son. Iziaslaf or Isiaslav II., Grand Prince of Russia, was the son of Mstislaf. He began to reign in 1 146, as suc- cessor to Igor 11. , whom he defeated in battle. He was thrice driven from his throne, but as often recovered it. He died in 11 54. Iziaslaf or Isiaslav III., surnamed Davidovitch, son of David, became Grand Prince of Russia in 11 5 7. He was killed in battle about 1161. Iziocalt, e-se-o-kilt', King of the Mexicans, ascended the throne in 1433, and is called the founder of the Mexican empire. He formed a code of laws, which was adopted by several adjacent nations. Died in 1445. Izmailof, is-mi'e-lof, (Alexander,) a Russian fabu- list, born at Moscow in 1779. He became a resident of Saint Petersburg, and edited several reviews or journals. He published a volume of fables, (1804,) which are highly commended. Died in 183 1. See Gretch, " History of Russian Literature," 1819-22. Izmailof, (Vladimir Vasilievitch,) a Russian writer, born at Moscow in 1773. He wrote "Travels in Southern Russia," (1802,) and translated some works of Rousseau and Chateaubriand. Izquierdo de Ribera, ^th-ke-§R'do di re-Ba'ri, (Don EuGENio,) a Spanish diplomatist, born at Saragossa. He was sent to Paris as plenipotentiary in 1806, and negotiated a treaty for the partition of Portugal. Died in 1813. J. Jaafar, Jafar, Djafar, or Giafar, ji'a-far or jS'far, surnamed Sadik, an eminent Mussulman doctor of Medina; died in 764 a.d. Jaafar, Jafar, Jafer, Djafar, or Giafar, a Barmecide, who became the favourite of Haroun-al-Raschid, and to whom, it is said, the Caliph g:ive his own sister Ab- basa in marriage, on condition that tlie intercourse of the married pair should be strictly Platonic. Abbasa having borne a son to Jaafar, Haroun, in his rage, mercilessly destroyed both father and son. (See Barmecides.) Jaafar-Ibn-TofaiL See Aboo-Bekr-Ibn-Tofail. Jablonowski, yi-blo-nov'skee, (Stanislaus,) a Polish general, born in 163 1, commanded the right wing of the army of Sobieski when he defeated the Turks at Vienna in 1683. He afterwards had the chief command during the illness of the king. Died in 1702. See De Jonsac, " Histoire de Stanislas Jablonowski," 4 vols., Leipsic, 1774. Jablonowski, von, fon yJ-blo-nov'skee, (Joseph Alex.\nder,) a Polish or German prince, born in 1711, was a patron of science. He founded at Leipsic a sci- entific association which bears his name, and wrote, besides other works, "Museum Polonicum," (1752.) Died in 1777. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Jablonski, yS-blon'skee, (Daniel Ernst,) an emi- nent German Protestant theologian, born at Dantzic in 1660. He became pastor at Konigsberg in 1690, and preacher or chaplain to the king at Berlin in 1693. He published a Hebrew Bible, with notes and a preface, (1699,) and wrote several works on theology. He la- boured to effect a union of various Protestant sects. Died in Berlin in 1 741. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Jablonski or Jablonsky, (Johann Theodor,) a brother of Daniel Ernst, noticed above, was born at Dantzic about 1654. He published a "French-German and German-French Dictionary," (1711.) Died in 1731. Jablonski, ( Paul Ernst, ) an eminent Prussian scholar and divine, a son of Daniel Ernst, noticed above, was born in Berlin in 1693. He devoted himself par- ticularly to the study of the Coptic and other Oriental languages. Among his numerous works are " Pantheon Egyptiorum," (3 vols., 1750-52,) a work relating to the religion of the Egyptians, and " Of the Memnon of the Greeks and Egyptians." Died in 1757. See Ersch und Gkuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Jablonsky, y^-blon'skee, (Karl Gustav,) a Prus- sian entomologist, born in 1756, published a "System of all the Known Insects, arranged according to the Method of Linnaeus." Died in 1787. Jacetius. See Cattani da Diaceto. Jachaeus. See Jack. Jack, [Lat. Jach^'us,] (Gilbert,) a Scottish meta- physician, born at Aberdeen about 1578. He became professor of philosophy at Leyden in early life. He published several works, among which is " Institutiones Physicae," (1612.) Died in 1628. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Jack, (Thomas,) a Scottish minister of Eastwood, wrote "Onomasticon Poeticum," (1592.) Died in 1596. Jack'son, (Andrew,) a celebrated American general and statesman, born in the Waxhaw settlement, North or South Carolina, on the 15th of March, 1767. Parton states that he was born in Union county, North Caro- lina, but adds that "General Jackson always supposed himself to be a native of South Carolina," for in his proclamation to the nullifiers of South Carolina he thus addresses them : " Fellow-citizens of my native State." He was a son of Andrew Jackson, an Irishman, who emigrated to America in 1765 and died poor in 1767. The name of his mother was Elizabeth Hutchinson. We have little definite information about the schools that he attended. According to Parton, " he learned to read, to write, and cast accounts ; — little more. . . . He was never a well-informed man." Having taken arms against the British in 1781, he was captured, and afterwards wounded by an officer because he refused to clean his boots. About 1785 he began to study law at Salisbury, North Carolina. He was addicted in his youth to gambling, horse-racing, and other sports. He was an excellent horseman, " a capital shot," was very dignified in man- ner, and was distinguished for his courage and activity. His stature was six feet and one inch high. In 1788 he removed to Nashville, Tennessee, where he began to practise law. He speedily obtained a large practice, of which disputed land-claims formed the prin- cipal subject. About 1792 he married Rachel Robards, originally Rachel Donelson, whose first husband was living and had taken preliminary measures to obtain a divorce, which was legally completed in 1793. "^^^ marriage ceremony was again performed in 1794. Jack- son, following a custom then extremely common in the South and West, fought a number of duels in the early part of his life. He was a member of the Convention which framed the Constitution of Tennessee in 1796, and in the autumn of that year was elected representative to Congress by the people of Tennessee, which was then entitled to only one member. He supported Thomas Jefferson in the Presidential election of 1796. In 1797 he became a Senator of the United States for Tennessee. He resigned his seat in the Senate in 1798, "partly be- cause he felt himself out of place in so slow and digni- fied a body, but chiefly for pecuniary reasons." He was a judge of the supreme court of Tennessee from 1798 to 1804. In 1806 he challenged and killed Charles Dick- inson in a duel with pistols, receiving himself a severe wound. This affair impaired for many years his popu- larity in Tennessee and other parts of the United States. In 1807, while the trial of Aaron Burr was still unde- termined, Jackson " harangued the crowd, [at Richmond,] defending Burr, and angrily denouncing Jefferson as a persecutor." (Parton's " Life.") After war had been c as i; 5 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. {J^^Set Explanations, p. 23.) JACKSON 1254 yjCKSON declared against Great Britain, General Jackson (who several years before had been appointed major-general of militia) offered his services, and those of 2500 volun- teers, in June, 181 2. He was ordered to New Orleans, and led a body of 2070 men in that direction ; hut at Natchez he received an order dated February 6, 1813, by which his troops were dismissed from public service. In September, 1813, he had an affray with Colonel Thomas H. Benton at Nashville, and was severely wounded by his brother, Jesse Benton. In October next he took the field against the Creek Indians, whom he defeated at Talla- dega in November. By his services in this Creek war, which ended in 1814, he acquired great popularity, and in May, 1814, he was appointed a major-general in the regular army. He was soon after ordered to the Gulf of Mexico, to oppose" an expected invasion of the British. In November he seized Pensacola, which belonged to Spain but was used by the British as a base of operations. About the ist of December he moved his army to New Orleans, which was then ill prepared for defence. The British fleet, conveying an army of veterans who had fought under Wellington, entered Lake Borgne Decem- ber 13, and captured several gunboats. General Jackson proclaimed martial law in the city on the i6th. On the 23d the enemy advanced to a point about nine miles be- low the city, and were attacked in the night by General Jackson, who had about 2100 men. The result of this action was favourable to the defenders of the city, who gained time to fortify their position. On the 25th of December Sir Edward Pakenham arrived and took com- mand of the invaders, whose number was about 12,000. Jackson, who had a much smaller army, composed partly of the unerring marksmen of Tennessee and Kentucky, repulsed an attack on the 1st of January, 1815. On the 8th of January the British made a general assault on the American lines, but were defeated with great loss by the deadly fire of the riflemen and artillery. Generals Pakenham and Gibbs were killed. " Seven hundred killed," says Parton, "fourteen hundred wounded, and five hundred prisoners, were the dread result of that twenty-five minutes' work. Jackson's loss was eight killed and thirteen wounded." The victory of New Orleans, which was one of the most brilliant and de- cisive ever gained by an American army, raised Jackson's reputation as a general to the highest point, and made him the idol of a large portion of the American people. This was the last battle of the war, a treaty of peace having been signed in Europe in December, 1814. In March, 181 5, while that city was still under mar- tial law. Judge Hall, of New Orleans, granted a writ of habeas corpus for the release of Mr. Louaillier, who had been arrested by order of Jackson, for exciting discontent among the troops. The latter, instead of obeying the writ, had the judge arrested and kept in custody. Peace having been formally proclaimed. Hall was set at liberty. General Jackson was then summoned to answer for con- tempt of court. He was found guilty, and sentenced to pay a fine of one thousand dollars. He immediately paid the fine; but it was afterwards refunded with the interest by an act of Congress passed in February, 1844. In 1 81 7-18 he waged a successful war against the Seminoles in Florida, seized Pensacola, and executed Arbuthnot and Ambrister, two British subjects, accused of inciting the savages to hostile acts against the Ameri- cans. He was appointed Governor of Florida in 1821. Before this date he had built, near Nashville, a mansion called the "Hermitage," in which he resided many years. In 1823 he was elected a Senator of the United States, and nominated as candidate for the Presidency by the legislature of Tennessee. His competitors were John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and William H. Crawford. Jackson received ninety-nine electoral votes, Adams eighty-fouf, Cra v^ord forty-one, and Clay thirty-seven. As no candidate had a majority, the election devolved on the House of Representatives, voting by States, each State having one vote. Through the influence of Mr. Clay, John Quincy Adams was elected, by the vote of thirteen States. General Jackson, who received the vote of seven States, became the implacable enemy of Mr. Clay, whom he stigmatized as "this Judas of the West." He habitually attributed the conduct of his political opponents to mean or improper motives, and, accordingly, hated Crawford, Clay, Adams, and Calhoun. In 1828 he was elected President, receiving one hun- dred and seventy-eight electoral votes, while Mr. Adams received eighty-three. Calhoun became Vice-President. Martin Van Buren was appointed 'secretary of state. Jackson was the first President who proscribed public servants for political opinions. He made more removals in one year than all the other Presidents in forty years before. At a banquet in April, 1830, the President gave this famous toast: "Our Federal Union: it must be preserved." In April, 183 1, he reorganized his cabinet, appointing Edward Livingston secretary of state, Louis McLane secretary of the treasury, Lewis Cass secretary of war, Levi Woodbury secretary of the navy, and Roger B. Taney attorney-general. Among the principal events of his first term was his veto of the bill which granted anew charter to the Bank of the United States, (July, 1832.) This subject became the chief issue between the partisans of Jackson and his opponents, who supported Henry Clay in the Presiden- tial election of 1832. General Jackson was re-elected, receiving two hundred and nineteen electoral votes out of two hundred and eighty-eight, which was the whole number, and Martin Van Buren succeeded Calhoun in the Vice-Presidency. In November, 1832, a Convention in South Carolina adopted an ordinance of nullification, by which they ordained that the tariff-law of 1828 "is null and void." The President electrified the country by his memorable proclamation against the nullifiers, December 11, 1832, in which he announced his resolu- tion to crush any disunion movement with the strong hand. He was censured by the Senate for removing the public deposits from the Bank of the United States, September, 1833. lie used his influence to procure the election of Mar- tin Van Buren to the Presidency in 1836, and retired finally from public life March 4, 1837. He afterwards joined the Presbyterian Church. In his last illness Dr. Edgar asked "what he would have done with Calhoun and the other nullifiers if they had kept on." " Hung them, sir, as high as Haman," was his reply. He died, without issue, at the Hermitage, on the 8th of June, 1845. See Eaton, "Life of Jackson," 1824; William Cobbett, "Life of Andrew Jackson," 1834; J. S. Jenkins, "Life of General An- drew Jackson," 1850; J. T. Headley, "Life of Andrew Jackson," 1852; Amos Kendall," Life of Andrew Jackson," 1844 ; Alexander Walker, "Jackson and New Orleans," 1S56; James Parton, "Life of Andrew Jackson," 3 vols., i860, (by far the most complete life of the Hero of New Orleans that has been published;) "National Por- trait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i. ; "New American Cyclopaedia;" "Blackwood's Magazine" for May, 1862. Jack'son, (Arthur,) an English Puritan minister, born in Suffolk in 1593, preached at Saint Faith's, Lon- don, until 1662, when he was ejected. He wrote "An- notations on the Old Testament," (1643-58.) Died in 1666. Jackson, (Charles,) LL.D., an American jurist, was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1775. He graduated at Harvard with the highest honours of his class in 1793, studied law with Theophilus Parsons, and obtained an extensive practice in his native town. In 1803 he removed to Boston, where he practised law for many years. In 1813 he was made judge of the supreme court of Massachusetts, the duties of which he discharged for ten years. He was placed at the head of the com- missioners appointed by the State in 1832 to revise her legislative enactments. Died in Boston in 1855. He published a "Treatise on the Pleadings and Practice in Real Actions, with Precedents," etc., (1828.) Jackson, (Charles Thomas,) M.D., an American chemist and geologist, born at Plymouth, Massachusetts, in June, 1805. He took the degree of M.D. at Harvard in 1829, after which he continued his studies in Paris, and passed several years in visits to various countries of Europe. In conjunction with Francis Alger, he pub- lished a work called " Mineralogy and Geology of Nova Scotia," (1832.) He became a resident of Boston about 1833, was appointed State geologist of Maine in 1836, and produced a " Report on the Geology of the State of Maine," (1837.) His second and third Reports on the same subject appeared in 1838 and 1839. He was a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; nSt; good; moonj JJCKSON 1255 JJCKSON appointed geologist of the State of New Hampshire in 1840, He claims to be the original discoverer of anaes- thetics, and was involved in a long controversy on this subject with Dr. W. T. G. Morton. Jackson, (Conrad Feger,) an American general, born in Pennsylvania. He served as colonel in the Union army at Gaines's Mill, June 27, 1862, commanded a brigade at the battle of Antietam, September 17, and was killed at Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862. Jackson, (Cyril,) Dr., a noted English divine, born at Stamford in 1742. He was offered the primacy of Ireland and an English bishopric, both of which he de- clined. He was tutor to the Prince of Wales, (George / IV.) Died in 1819. Jackson, (Henry R.,) was born in Georgia in 1810. He served as a colonel in the Mexican war, and was appointed minister to Austria in 1853. This position he held till 1858. He published in 1851 "Tallulah, and other Poems." Jackson, (James,) a lawyer, born in Devonshire, England, in 1757, emigrated to America in 1772. He fought with distinction against the British in Georgia in 1776-82, was elected to Congress in 1789, and was a United States Senator for Georgia from 1792 to 1795. In 1798 he became Governor of Georgia, and in 1801 was again elected a Senator of the United States. Died in 1804. See "National Portrait- Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. Jackson, (James S.,) an American lawyer and gene- ral, born in Kentucky about 1822. He was elected a member of Congress in i860 by the voters of the second district of Kentucky, but he resigned his seat and joined the Union army in 1861. He was killed at the battle of Perryville, October 8, 1862. Jackson, ( John, ) a clergyman of the Anglican Church, born in Yorkshire, England, in 1686. He was a zealous advocate of the Arian doctrines, which prevented his advancement in the church. Died in 1763. He wrote a valuable work entitled "Chronological Antiquities," (3 vols., 1752,) and numerous controversial treatises. See Dr. Sutton, " Memoirs of the Life and Writings of John Jackson," 1764. Jackson, (John,) an able English engraver on wood, flourished about 1725-45. Jackson, (John,) an eminent English portrait-painter, born at Lastingham, Yorkshire, in 1778, became a resi- dent of London about 1797, and was elected a member of the Royal Academy in 181 7. Among his best works are portraits of Canova and Flaxman. Died in 1831. See Cunningham, "Lives of British Painters." Jackson, (Joseph,) an English letter-founder, born probably in London in 1733 '■> died- in 1792. Jackson, (Nathaniel J.,) born in New England, became brigadier-general in the Federal army in 1862. Jackson, (Patrick Tracy,) a merchant and manu- facturer, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1780. He organized in 1821 the Merrimac Manufacturing Company, and founded Lowell. Died in 1847. See J. A. Lowell, " Life of P. T. Jackson," in Hunt's "Lives of American Merchants," vol. i., 1858. Jackson, (Robert,) an English physician, born in 1 75 1. He served as surgeon in the army, and wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on the Fevers of Jamaica," (1791.) Died in 1827. Jackson, (Samuel,) a distinguished physician and physiologist, born in Philadelphia March 22, 1787. He was elected in 1835 to the chair of the institutes of medi- cine in the University of Pennsylvania, which he filled with great credit to himself and the institution for twenty-eight ye«rs. He resigned in 1863. He wrote, besides other works, "Principles of Medicine," (1832,) and an " Introduction to Lehman's Chemical Physi- ology," (1856.) Jackson, (Thomas,) a learned English divine, born in Durham in 1579. He was the author of a "Com- mentary on the Apostles' Creed," and of several devo- tional treatises. He became Dean of Peterborough in 1638. His works are highly praised by Southey. Died in 1640. See E. Vaughan, "Life of Thomas Jackson," 1673. Jackson, (Thomas Jonathan,) commonly known by the name of Stonewall Jackson, a distinguished Amer- ican general, born in Lewis county, Virginia, January 21, 1824, graduated at West Point in 1846, standing seven- teenth in a class of fifty-nine. He was considered at West Point to be rather a dull and slow student. In the Mexican war (1846-47) he served as first lieutenant with distinction. Having resigned his commission in 1852, he became a professor in the Military Institute at Lex- ington, Virginia. About 1853 he married Miss Junkin, a daughter of Dr. Junkin, of Lexington. He was ap- pointed a colonel of the Virginian tr(;ops in April, 1861, and commanded the force that was attacked by the Union army at Martinsburg, July 2. He served as brigadier- general at the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861, and was promoted to the rank of major-general in the following September. It has been currently stated that he received his surname from the fact that he and his men " stood like a stone wall" at the battle of Bull Run ; but, according to one of his biographers, the name " Stonewall" was first applied to his brigade because it was recruited in a stone- wall country, — the counties of Jefferson, Page, Frederick, etc. He was defeated by General Shields near Win- chester, March 23, 1862, and retreated up the valley to Harrisonburg, pursued by General Banks. Having been reinforced, he resumed the offensive with about twenty thousand men, attacked General Banks near Strasburg, May 23, and drove him back to the Potomac. On the approach of General Fremont from the west. General Jackson moved hastily up the valley to Harrisonburg. His army was overtaken by General Fremont at Cross Keys, where an indecisive battle was fought on the 8th of June. Before the end of June he moved his army to Richmond and joined that of General Lee. He commanded a corps at the battle of Gaines's Mill, June 27, and at that of Malvern Hill, July i, 1862. On the 9th of August he defeated a small army under General Banks at Cedar Mountain, Virginia. He captured Harper's Ferry, with eleven thousand Union prisoners, on the 15th of September, and joined General Lee in time to take part in the battle of Antietam, September 17. He contributed to the victory at Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862, for which service he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general. He remained inactive for several months, (January-April, 1863,) employed partly in preparing official reports. On the ist of May he was ordered by General Lee to execute a flank move- ment on the right wing of General Hooker's army. He surprised and routed the eleventh corps, near Chancel- lorsville, on the evening of the 2d of May. As he was riding with his staff from the front towards the rear during that battle, he received a volley from his own men, who in the darkness mistook the staff for a party of Federal cavalry. General Jackson received three wounds, of which he died at Guinea's Station on the loth of May, 1863, " His loss," says Mr. Greeley, "was the greatest yet sustained by either party in the fall of a single man ; though Sidney Johnston had probably mili- tary talents of a higher order. But JacksjDn's power over his men was unequalled ; and it was justified by the soundness of his judgment, as well as the intrepidity of his character. Contrary to the vulgar notion, his attacks were all well considered, and based on a careful cal- culation of forces ; and he showed as high qualities in refusing to squancler his men at Antietam, and again at Fredericksburg, as he did in his most brilliant charges. . . . It is doubtful if all the advantages, including pres- tige, which the rebels gained around Chancellorsville, were not dearly purchased by the loss of Thomas J. Jackson." ("American Conflict," vol. ii. pp. 359-60.) Stonewall Jackson was a man of deep and earnest re- ligious convictions; and in his general character, as well as in his serene, indomitable courage and the extraor- dinary influence which he exerted over the minds of his soldiers, he reminds us of the great Puritan leaders who fought under Cromwell. See Dabnev, "Life of General T. J. Jackson," and a "Life of General T. J. Jackson," in "Southern Generals," 1865. Jackson, (Thomas K.,) born in South Carolina about 1829, was made a brigadier-general in the Confederate army in 1861. « as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, H, K^guttural; n, nasal; ^trilled; s a&z; th asin this^ (2(^^See Explanations, p. 23.) JACKSON JACOBI Jackson, (William,) a clergyman of the Anglican Church, born in Ireland about 1737. In 1794 he was detected in a treasonable correspondence with France, in which he recommended the invasion of Ireland. He was tried and found guilty of high treason, but died from the effects of poison, before sentence was passed upon him, in 1795. Jackson, (William,) an eminent English musician and landscape-painter, was born at Exeter in 1730. Among his musical compositions are "Twelve Popular Songs," " Six Sonatas for the Harpsichord," and " Twelve Canzonets for Two Voices." He published "Thirty Letters upon Various Subjects," (1782,) and "The Four Ages," (1798.) Died in 1803. See F6tis, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." Jackson, (Dr. William,) Bishop of Oxford, and brother to Dr. Cyril Jackson, noticed above, was born at Stamford in 1750. He published several sermons. Died in 181 5. Ja'cob, [Heb. 3p^'; Gr. 'Ia/cw/3,] a celebrated Hebrew patriarch, a son of Isaac, and the great progenitor of the Israelitish nation. He was also called Israel. See Genesis XXV., xxvii., xxviii., xxix., xxx. Ja'cob, a Hungarian adventurer, and chief of the Pastoiireaux. About 1250 he incited the common people to enlist in a crusade for the liberation of Saint Louis, who was then a captive. He mustered a vast multitude of French peasants, who massacred priests and com- mitted Other outrages in France. Jacob was killed, and his dupes were dispersed. See SiSMONDi, " Histoire des Frangais." Ja'cob, (Edward,) a topographical and antiquariaii writer of Kent, England. Died in 1788. Jacob, (Giles,) an English author, born in Hamp- shire in 1686. Among his works are "The Poetical Register," (1723,) composed of memoirs of the English dramatic poets, and a "Law Dictionary," (1729,) which has passed through many editions. Died in 1744. Jacob, (Henry,) an English Puritan and Independ- ent minister, born in Kent about 1562. He founded in London the first Independent Congregational church that existed in England, and published several works. In 1624 he removed to Virginia, where he died about 1626. Jacob, (Henry,) a philologist and Orientalist, born in 1606 or 1607, was a son of the preceding. He became a Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and published "Grjeca et Latina Poemata." Died in 1652. Ja'cob, (Jehudah Leon,) a Jew of the seventeenth century, born in Spain, resided in Holland. He wrote a " Description of the Temple of Solomon," also a description of the Tabernacle, and an "Exposition of the Psalms." Jacob, (JOHN^) a British general, born in 181 2 or 1813. He distinguished himself in India in 1843 commander of the Sinde Horse. Died in India in 1858. Jacob, (John,) an Armenian carpenter, lived about 1650. He is distinguished for having introduced the art of printing into Persia. Jacob OF Edessa. See Barad^us. Jacob or James [Gr. 'Iuko)6oc; Lat. Jaco'bus] of NisiKis, surnamed the Great, a Christian bishop, who was regarded as a prophet and was distinguished for his ascetic life. He became Bishop of Nisibis, and attended, in 325 A.D., the Council of Nice, where he advocated the orthodox creed. He is said to have delivered Nisibis from the besieging Persians by his prayers. His death is variously dated from about 340 to 350 a.d. See Saint Jerome, "De Viris illustribus ;" Fabricius, "Bibli- otheca Giieca;" Cave, " Historia Liteiaria." Ja'cob Ben Ashler, a learned Jew, born in Ger- many, wrote a work called " Arba Thourim." Died at Toledo about 1340. Ja'cpb Ben Haj'im or Chajim, a Jewish rabbi of the sixteenth century, distinguished for his learning, was born at Tunis. He edited the Masora and Hebrew Bible, with commentaries, and a Chaldean paraphrase, "Biblia Rabbinica ]-5ombergiana,'" (4 vols., 1525.) Ja'cpb Ben Naph'ta-li, a learned Jewish rabbi of the filih century, educated at Tiberias. To him is chiefly attributed the invention of the Masoretic points used in distinguishing the Hebrew vowels. Jacob de Saint-Charles, zht'kob' deh sJn shtnl, (Louis,) a French author and bibliographer, born at Chalons-sur-Saone in 1608. He became a monk of the order of Carmelites. Among his works are a "Treatise upon the Finest Libraries of the World," (1644,) " The Parisian Library," and "The French Universal Library," (1646.) Died in 1670. Jacob-Kolb, zht'kob' kolb, (G^:rard,) a French antiquary, born at Rheims in 1775. He made valuable collections of Greek and Roman medals, autographs, and books. He wrote " Historical Researches on the Crusades and the Templars." Died in 1830. Jacob le Bibliophile. See Lacroix, (Paul.) Jacobaa or Jacobaea. See Jacqueline. Jacobaeus, yi-ko-ba'us, or Jacobi, y§.-ko'bee, (Oli- GER,) a distinguished physician and philosopher, born at Aarhuus, in Jutland, in 1650, became professor of medicine and natural philosophy in the University of Copenhagen. He wrote several works on natural history, and elegant Latin poems. Died in 1701. See NicERON, "Memoires;" Kraft og Nyerup, " Litteratur- lexicon." Jacobazzi, yl-ko-blt'see, (Domenico,) an Italian cardinal, born at Rome about 1443, wrote a "Treatise on Councils," (1538.) Died in 1527. Jacobi. See Jacobaeus. Jacobi, yS.-ko'bee, (Heinrich Friedrich,) an emi- nent German writer and thinker, born at Dusseldorf in 1743. His father was a merchant, and young Jacobi was destined to the same calling, although his tastes led him to other pursuits. At the age of sixteen he was sent to school at Frankfort. He afterwards went to Geneva, where he remained three years, applying him- self to literary studies. During this period he acquired such a mastery of the French language as has rarely been equalled by any of his countrymen. On returning to Dusseldorf, he conducted his father's business for several years, without, however, abandoning his favourite pursuits. Afterwards, through the influence of his friend and patron the Count of Goltstein, he received an ap- pointment under the government, and was thus enabled to devote his principal attention to philosophy and lite- rature. About this time he married Betty von Clermont, of Aix-la-Chapelle, a lady of considerable wealth as well as of great accomplishments and personal attractions. In 1779 Jacobi was invited to Munich, where he became privy councillor. But, having exposed the abuses of the l^avarian system of customs, he fell into disfavour with the government, and withdrew to his estate near Dus- seldorf. In 1804 he was again called to Munich, to aid in the establishment of the new Academy of Sciences in that city, of which institution he became president in 1807. He resigned this position in 1813, and died in 1819. Among the works of Jacobi may be named " Edward Allwill's Correspondence," ("Eduard Allwill's Brief- sammlung," 1781,) "On the Doctrine of Spinoza," (" Ueber die Lehre des Spinoza," 1785,) in a series of letters to Mendelssohn, " David Hume on Faith, or Idealism and Realism," (" David Hume iiber den Glau- ben, oder Idealismus und Realismus," 1787,) " Wolde- mar," (2 vols., 1799,) and "Of Divine Things and .their Revelation," (" Von gottlichen Dingen und ihrer Offen- barung," 1811.) "As a writer of fiction," observes Mrs. Austin, "Ja- cobi is distinguished for vigorous painting, admirable delineation of nature and the human heart, M'armth and depth of feeling, and a lively, bold, yet correct turn of expression. As a philosopher, he is admired for his rare depth of thought, for the fervour of his religious feelings, and for the originality and beauty of his style." Again she says, " His character is rich in all that can attract the wise and good." "Jacobi is ranked, and justly," says Dr. Hedge, " among the philosophers of modern Germany, although his philosophy, far from shaping itself into a system, denies, — and that denial may be regarded as one of its leading characteristics, — on philosophical grounds, the possibility of a system, and maintains that any system of philosophy, carried to a, e, T, o u, y, long-; 6, same, leas prolonged; a, e, i, a, y, sAorC; g^j?, j, oi, odscure;{ir, fill, f^t; mht; n6t; good; moon; JACOBI JACQUELINE its legitimate results, must lead to fanaticism. He vin- dicated the 'affective' part of man's nature, which the Kantian exaltation of pure reason had seemed to dis- parage, at least to neglect, and gave to feeling its due place and authority as a medium and interpreter of truth. . . . He differed from contemporary philosophers in being a devout believer in revelation, — in the Christian revela- tion. The gospel was to him the test and criterion of all truth. For the rest, he was an eclectic, and welcomed light from whatever quarter it came. In philosophical insight he is surpassed by none ; and, though his fixed idea of the impossibility of a systematic jjhilosophy may have somewhat vitiated his view of existing philosophies, his criticisms on some of them are among the best that have been essayed." See J. KuHN, "Jacobi und die Philosophie seiner Zeit," 1834; " F. H. Jacobi, nach seiiiem Leben, Lehren und Wirken," 1819; F. Hekbst, "J. G. Hainann ; F. H. Jacobi," 1830; Eksch und Gkubek, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- rale." Jacobi, (JOHANN Georg,) brother of the preceding, was born at Dusseldorf in 1740. He became professor of philosophy and eloquence at Halle, and in 1784 professor of belles-lettres at Ffeiburg. He published a collection of poems. Died in 1814. See RoTTECK, " Gedaclitnissrede auf Jacobi," 1814; Ersch und Gkubek, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Jacobi, (Karl Gustav Jakob,) an eminent German mathematician, born at Potsdam in 1804, became in 1829 professor of mathematics at Konigsberg. He wrote " Foundations of the New Theory of Elliptical Func- tions," (1829,) and "Canon Arithmeticus," and contrib- uted a number of able treatises to the Academy of Sciences, of which he was a member. Died in Berlin in 1S51. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Jacobi, (MoRiTZ Hermann,) brother of the preceding, born about 1790, was the inventor of Galvanoplastic, (1840,) on which he published a treatise, and the appli- cation of electro-magnetism to the moving of machinery. Ja'cobs, [Ger. pron. ya'kops,](FRiEi)RiCH Christian WiLHELM,) an eminent German scholar and writer, born at Gotha in 1764. He studied at Gottingen under Jleyne in 1784, and in 1807 became a teacher of ancient literature in the Lyceum at Munich, and member of the Academy of Sciences of that city. In 1810 he was appointed chief librarian and director of the cabinet of coins at Gotha. Among his numerous critical writings, which are distinguished for profound learning and elegance of style, are "Animadversions on Euripides," ("Animad- versiones in Euripidem," 1790,) "Critical Emendations on Ancient Writers," (" Emendationes criticae in Scrip- tores veteres," 1796,) and "Emendations on Greek Anthology," ("Emendationes in Anthologiam Grascam.") He also prepared editions of Achilles Tatius, Bion and Moschus, and other classics. He made translations from the Orations of Demosthenes, the Greek Anthology, and Velleius, and contributed a number of excellent treatises to Wieland's "Attic Museum" and to the "Library of Ancient Literature and Art." He also wrote "Glean- ings from the Journal of the Pastor of Mainau," (1823.) Died in 1847. See his Autobiography, (" Personalien,") in the eighth volume of his " Verniischte Schriften," 8 vols., 1829-44; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Jacobs, yl'kops, (Jurien,) a distinguished Swiss painter of animals and hunting-scenes, born in 1610 ; died in 1664. Jacobs, (Lucas.) See Lucas van Leyden. Jacobs, (Paul Emil,) a German painter, son of Friedrich Christian Wilhelm, noticed above, was born at Leipsic about 1800. Jacobs, yl'kops, (Simon,) a Dutch painter, born at Gouda, was killed at the siege of Haarlem in 1572. Jacobsen, yi'kop-sen, (Levin,) a Danish surgeon, born at Copenhagen in 1783. He invented an instru- ment called the "lithoclaste," and wrote several works. Died in 1843. See H. C. Oersted, "Tale ved Jacobsens Liigfard." Jacobsen or Jacopsen, yi'kop-sen, (Michael,) a naval commander, born at Dunkirk. He served in the famous Spanish Armada sent against England in 1588, and, by his skilful management, saved several vessels. Died in 1633. Jacobson, yi'kop-son, (Johann Karl Gottfried,) a Prussian technologist, born at Elbingen in 1726, pub- lished a "Technological Dictionary of Useful Trades, Arts," etc. Died in 1789. Jacometti, yi-ko-met'tee, (Pietro Paulo,) a sculp- tor, founder, and painter of the Roman school, born at Ricanati in 1580; died in 1655. Jacomb, jak'om, (Thomas,) an English dissenting minister, born in Leicestershire in 1622. He wrote a "Commentary on the Eighth Chapter of Romans," a " Treatise of Holy Dedication," and other works. Died in 1687. Jacopo di Pietro, y3.'ko-po de pe-a'tRO, an Italiaa sculptor, born in Tuscany, was a pupil of Andrea Or- cagna. He died after 1368. Jacopo Tedesco, (architect.) See Lapo. Jacopone da Todi, yi-ko-po'ni dS to'dee, or Ja- copo, yi'ko-po, sometimes called Benedetto, an Italian monk and poet, born at Todi. He wrote poems which were approved by the Academy della Crusca. The " Stabat Mater Dolorosa" is ascribed to him by some writers. Died in 1306. See G. MoDio, " Vita di Jacopone," 1558 ; Ginguene, " Histoire litteraire d'ltalie." Jacopsen. See Jacobsen. Jacotin, zht'ko'tiN', (Pierre,) a French ofificer of engineers, born near Langres in 1765, was distinguished for his knowledge of topography. He drew a map of Egypt and Syria which was taken from actual survey. Died in 1827. Jacotot, zht'ko'to', (Joseph,) a French teacher, born at Dijon in 1770. Under Napoleon I. he was a member of the Chamber during the Hundred Days. He gained distinction by his earnest efforts in the cause of national education, for which he advocated a new and improved system and on which subject he wrote several works. Died in 1840. See A. GuYARD, "Jacotot et sa Methode," 1840; C. F. Wurm, " Hamilton -und Jacotot," 1831 ; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Jacquand, zht'kdN', (Claudius,) a French historical painter, born at Lyons in 1805, settled in Paris in 1833, and obtained a medal of the first class in 1836. Jacquard, zht'kSR', (Joseph Marie,) a Frenchman, celebrated for his inventions in the art of weaving, was born in Lyons, July 7, 1752. At an early age, being employed as a type-founder, and afterwards as a cutler, he exhibited an uncommon mechanical genius. In 1793 he assisted in the defence of his native city against the army of the Convention. He subsequently served for a short period in the army of the Rhine. In 1801 he com- pleted his great invention for weaving the finest and richest kinds of figured cloth. This apparatus, which bears his name, — the Jacquard loom, — though at first strongly opposed by the weavers of France, has been brought into general use both in Europe and in America, and, instead of destroying the occupation of labourers, it has greatly increased the number of operatives employed in the manufacture of figured stuffs. Jacquard also in- vented a machine for weaving nets. For this invention he received a gold medal in 1804 from the inspectors of Paris. While in that city, he was introduced to Napo- leon I. Died in 1834. In 1840 a public statue was raised to his memory by the citizens of Lyons. See De Fortis, " ^loge historique de Jacquard," 1838; " Nou- velle Biographie Generale ;" Lamartine, "Memoirs of Celebrated Characters," 1856. Jacquelin, zhtk'liN', (Jacques Andr^;,) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1776 ; died in 1827. Jacqueline, zhtk'l^n', Jac-o-bae'a or Jac-o-ba'a, [Ger. pron. yi-ko-ba'i,] of Bavaria, Countess of Holland, and heiress of William VI. of Bavaria, was born in 1400. She was married successively to John the Dauphin of France and son of Charles VI., to her cousin John of Brabant, and to Humphrey Duke of Gloucester and brother of Henry V. After a long contest with her cousin Philip the Good of Burgundy, she was compelled to give up to him her possessions. Died in 1436. See Petit, " Chronique ancienne et moderne de la Hollande A. VAN Overstraten, " Jacoba van Beijeren, in V. Boeken," 1790; MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, y., guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^='See Explanations, p. 23.) JACQUELOT 58 JAL Jacquelot or Jaquelot, zh^k^lo', (Isaac,) a learned Protestant theologian, born in Champagne, France, in 1647. He wrote "On the Existence of God," (1697,) a "Dissertation on the Messiah," (1699,) and on "The Inspiration of the Old and New Testaments," (171 5.) Died in Berlin in 1708. See David Durand, "La Vie de Jaquelot," 1785; Niceron, " Memoires." Jacquemard, zhtk'nitR', (Etienne,) a grammarian, born in Paris in 1772, wrote a valuable "Elements of French Grammar." Died in 1830. Jacquemont, zhtk'm6N', (Victor,) a distinguished naturalist, born in Paris in 1801. After making scientific excursions through France and Switzerland, he sailed in 1826 for America, and visited Canada, the United States, and Hayti. He returned to France in 1827, with a choice collection of plants and minerals. In 1828 he went to the East Indies, and explored the greater part of Hindostan and Thibet. He was author of a " Geological Treatise on the Alps," "Correspondenceof Victor Jacque- mont with his Family and many of his Friends during his Journey in India," and "Travels in India from the Year 1828 to the Year 1832." Died at Bombay in 1832. See fioouAKD de Warren, " La Vie et les CEuvres de Jacque- mont," 1852; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" "Foreign Quar- terly Review" for February, 1S34. Jacques, zhtk, (Am^d^e,) born in Paris in 1813, wrote several works on philosophy, and edited the works of Leibnitz. Jacques, Frere. See Baulot. Jacques, (Mathieu Joseph,) a French ecclesiastic, and professor of theology at Lyons, was born in 1736. He wrote " Convincing Proofs of the Christian Religion," and other theological works. Died in 1821. Jacques, (Nicolas,) a French miniature-painter, born near Nancy in 1780; died in 1844. Jacques de Chison, zhtk deh she'zoN', a French poet, who lived about 1250, was highly esteemed by his contemporaries. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Jacquet, zht'ka', (Eugene Vincent Stanislas,) a distinguished Orientalist, born at Brussels in 1811, was particularly skilled in the Sanscrit. In 1829 he was admitted a member of the Asiatic Society of Paris, and soon became known by his writings. Died in 1838. See Felix Neve, "Memoire sur la Vie d'Eug^ne Jacquet," 1856 ; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Jacquet, (Louis,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Lyons in 1732, wrote a " Parallel between the Greek and French Tragic Writers," and a prize essay upon the Discovery of America. Died in 1794. Jacquier, zht'ke-a', (Francois,) a distinguished French mathematician, born at Vitry-le-Frangais in 1711, was appointed professor of philosophy at the Roman College by Pope Benedict XIV. He edited the " Prin- cipia" of Newton, and wrote, with Le Sueur, a " Treatise on Algebra," and other scientific works. Died in 1788. See Querard, " La France Litteraire." Jacquin, zht'kiN', (Armand Pierre,) a French writer, born at Amiens in 1721 ; died about 1780. Jacquin, zht'k^N',? (Joseph Franz,) a German bota- nist and chemist, son of Nikolaas Joseph, noticed below, was born about 1766. He was professor in the University of Vienna, and wrote on natural history. Died in 1839. Jacquin, (Nikolaas Joseph,) a celebrated botanist, born at Leyden in 1727. Having removed to Vienna, he was sent by Francis I. to the West Indies, whence he returned at the end of six years, with a choice collection of plants. He was subsequently appointed professor of chemistry and botany in the University of Vienna, and created baron and councillor of mines and coinage. He wrote numerous works on botany, among which may be mentioned his magnificent" Florae AustriactC," which contained five hundred coloured engravings, (1773-77.) Died in Vienna in 1817. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeiiie Encyklopaedie ;" Meiisel, "Gelehrtes Deutschland ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" Rai- MANN, "Rede zur Gedachtnissfeier des N. J. Jacquin," 1818. Jacquinot, zht'ke^io', (Charles Claude,) a French general, born at Melun in 1772, commanded two divisions of cavalry at Waterloo. Died in 1848. Jacquinot- Pampelune, zht'ke'no' pfiMp'lun', (Claude FRANgois Joseph,) a French advocate and politician, born at Dijon in 1771 ; died in 1835. Jacquet, zht^ko', (Georges,) a French statuary, born at Nancy in 1794, gained the grand prize in 1820, and went to Rome with a pension. Jadelot, zhtd'lo', (Nicolas,) a learned French phy- sician, born at Pont-a-Mousson in 1738, became professor of anatomy and physiology at Nancy. He wrote nume- rous professional works, among which are a " Treatise upon the Causes of the Pulsation of the Arteries," and a "Complete Course of Anatomy." Died in 1793. Jadin, zhS^diw', (Louis Emmanuel,) a French com- poser of dramatic music, born at Versailles in 1768; died in 1853. Jadin, (Louis Godefroy,) a French landscape-painter, a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1805. Jadwige. See Hedwig. Jaeger. See Jager. Jaerta, (Johan or Hans.) See Jarta. Jagellon, yS-geKlon, Duke of Lithuania, born about 1354. He embraced Christianity, and married Hedwig, Queen of Poland, thus uniting the two territories under one government. He also caused Christianity to be; established in Lithuania. Died in 1434. See Roepell, " Geschichtc Polens." Jagemann, yi'geh-man', (Christian Joseph,) a Ger- man litterateur, born at Dingelstadt in 1735, spent many years in Italy. He translated several Italian works into German. Died in 1804. Jager or Jaeger, ya'ger, (Gustav,) a German histor- ical painter, born at Leipsic in 1808, painted some frescos in the royal palace of Munich. His works (among which are oil-paintings) are highly commended. Jager or Jaeger, (Johann Wolfgang,) a German Lutheran divine and theological writer, born at Stuttgart in 1647 ; died in 1720. Ja'go, (Richard,) an English clergyman and poet, born in Warwickshire in 1 71 5. Among his poems may be mentioned an "Elegy on the Death of a Blackbird," "Edgehill," and "Labour and Genius." Died in 1781. Jahan-Geer or Jahanguire. See Jehan-Geer. Jahn, yi.n, (Ferdinand Hendrik,) a Danish histo- rian, born at Neumiinster in 1789. He wrote on Danish history. Died in 1828. Jahn, ySn, (Friedrich,) a German medical writer, born at Meiningen in 1766; died in 1813. Jahn, (Friedrich Ludwig,) a German writer, born at Lanz in 1778, published several treatises on gym- nastics, an essay "On German Nationality," (1810,) and other works. Died in 1852. Jahn, (Johann,) a German Orientalist and Roman Catholic priest, born in Moravia in 1750. He was professor of Oriental languages at Vienna from 1789 to 1806. He wrote, besides other works, an "Introduction to the Old Testament," (1793,) and " Biblical Antiquities," (1805,) both of which were censured as unsound and put in the "Index" by the court of Rome. Died in 1816. See "Vindiciae J. Jahn," Leipsic, 1822; Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" Meusel, "Gelehrtes Deutschland," vols, iii., x., xi., xiv., and xviii. Jahn, (Otto,) a German archaeologist, born at Kiel in 1813. He became professor of ])hilology at Leipsic in 1847, and published a "Life of Mozart," (1856,) and other works. Jaillot, zht'yo', (Charles Hubert,) a French geog- rapher and engraver, published some accurate maps of France. Died in 1712. Jaillot, (Jean Baptiste Renou,) a French geogra- pher, published " Researches in the City of Paris," (5 vols., 1772.) Died in 1780. Jaime. See James I. of Aragon. Jaina and Jains. See Jina. Jakob, von, fon yd'kop, (Ludwig Heinrich,) a learned German writer, born at Wettin in 1759, became professor of political economy at Halle in 1816. He published a "Manual of National Economy," (1805.) and other esteemed works. Died in 1827. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Jal, zhSl, (Auguste,) a French litterateur and archae- ologist, was born at Lyons about 1791. He published, a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, J, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m^t; ndt; good; moon; JALABERT 12 59 JAMES besides criticisms on art, " De Paris a Naples ; Etudes de Mceurs, de Marine et d'Art," (2 vols., 1835,) and Archeologie navale," (2 vols., 1839.) The latter is an important work on ancient ship-building, published by order of the king. See " Noiivelle Biographic Gen^rale." Jalabert, zht'lfbain', (Charles FRANgois,) a French historical painter, born at Nimes about 1815, obtained a medal of the first class in 1855. Jalal-ed-Deen, (or -eddin.) See Jelal-ed-Deen. Jaley, zht'Ia', (Jean Louis Nicolas,) a skilful French statuary, born in Paris in 1802. Among his works are statues of "La Pudeur" and^"La Priere," (1855.) Jallabert, zht^lt^baiR', (Etienne,) a French natural philosopher and writer, born in 1658 ; died in 1724. Jallabert, (Jean,) a son of the preceding, born in Geneva in 1712, filled the office of syndic of the repub- lic. He wrote "Experiments upon Electricity," (1748,) and several other scientific works. Died in 1768. See Desgenettes, notice in the " Biographic Medicale;" "Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Jam'bli-ehus, a native of Syria, who was enslaved by the Romans under Trajan, flourished in the second century. He subsequently obtained his liberty, and wrote a romance, in Greek, entitled "Babylonics, or the Loves of Sinonis and Rhodanes." Jamblichus or Jamblicus, a Platonic philosopher, and native of Syria. He flourished under the reign of the emperor Julian, who dedicated numerous epistles to him. Jam'bli-ehus or I-ani'bli-ehus •Chal-ci-de'nus, [Gr. 'lu/ujSXtxo^ ; Fr. Jamblique, zhdN^bl^k',] an eminent heathen philosopher, born at Chalcis, in Syria, flourished in the reign of Constantine the Great, (306-37 a.d.) He was a pupil of Porphyry, and was attached to the Neo- Platonic school. Many of the Neo-Platonists encouraged a life of ascetic meditation and a belief in magic and divination. Their system was built on the doctrine of emanation, — that the souls of all beings, after the requisite purification, return to the Source from which they emanated. Jamblichus wrote a "Life of Pythago- ras," a treatise on the " Mysteries of the Egyptians," and several other works. To his influence is ascribed the prevalence of magic, sacrifices, and superstition in the Neo-Platonic philosophy. See EuNAPius, " Vitae Sophistariim ;" Ritter, "History of Phi- losophy ;" Fabkicius, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" Hebenstreit, "Dis- sertatio de Jamblichi Doctrina," 1764. Jamblicus. See Jamhlichus. Jamblique. See Jamblichus. J^mee, J^mi, or Djami, j^'mee, (Moolla-Noor- ed-Deen- (Nour-ed-Din-) Abd-er-Rahman, nioc)Kli nooR-ed-deen' ibd eR-r^H'min,) written also Djamy and Dschami, a celebrated Persian poet, born at Jam, (or Djam,) in Khorassan, in 1414, lived at Herat, where he enjoyed the bounty of the Sultan Aboo-Saeed, (Abou- Said.) Among his principal works are "The Chain of Gold," (SiKsilet-zah'ab or -zeh'eb,) a collection of satires, and " The Loves of Joseph and Zuleika, and Mej- noon and Leila." He also wrote " Beharistan," (" Abode of Spring,") a treatise on morality, in prose and verse, which is admired for its graceful style as well as for its sentiments. Jamee has sometimes been called " the Per- sian Petrarch." He was devoted to the doctrine of the Soofees ; and many of his poems are characterized by the spiritual or mystical ideas of that sect. Died in 1492. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale," article " Djami ;" Ouselev, " Biographical Notices of Persian Poets ;" " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1856. Jameray-Duval. See Duval. James [Sp. Jaime, Hl'mi] I., King of Aragon, sur- named the Conqueror, succeeded to the throne in 1213. He quelled an insurrection formed against him by his nobles, and checked the encroachments of papal power. Died in 1276. He was succeeded by his son, Pedro HI. See T. de Soto, " Vida del Rey Don Jaime I. de Aragon," 1622. James II., King of Aragon, surnamed the Just, son of Peter HL, was born in 1261. He ascended the throne in 1291. He annexed Catalonia and Valencia to his territory, and carried on long wars against Navarre and the Moors. He was a brave, magnanimous, and benevolent prince. Died in 1327. James I. of England and VI. of Scotland was born in the Castle of Edinburgh in June, 1566. He was the only child of Mary Queen of Scots and her husband Henry Lord Darnley, (called, after his marriage. King Henry.) Both Queen Mary and Lord Darnley were grandchildren of Margaret Tudor, sister of Henry VIII. of England. It was through this princess that James claimed the throne of England. In 1567 Lord Darnley was mur- dered, James was placed under the care of the Earl of Mar, and Queen Mary married Bothwell, and was soon after made prisoner by the insurgent lords. Mary was forced to abdicate in favour of her son, who was crowned, as James VI., on the 29th of July, 1567. During his minority Scotland was fearfully rent by contending factions and the violent disputes of the Protestants and Catholics. The regent Morton having rendered himself odious by his tyrannical acts, a successful conspiracy was formed against him by a majority of the Scottish nobles. Morton, however, on account of his Protestant proclivities, soon regained his former influence. James from the commencement of his reign exhibited a weak and frivolous passion for favourites. His cousin Esme Stuart, Lord D'Aubigny, a native of France, obtained the principal ascendency over his youthful mind. Cap- tain James Stuart held the second place in the king's esteem. Lord D'Aubigny was created Duke of Lennox, and Captain Stuart Earl of Arran. Both eagerly plotted the destruction of Morton, who was put to death in 1 581. In 1582 a company of nobles seized King James, confined him in the castle of Ruthven, in Perthshire, im- prisoned Arran, and forced Lennox to retire to France. This revolt is known in history as the Raid of Ruthven. At the expiration of ten months, James recovered his liberty and reinstated Arran in his former power. In 1585 a treaty was concluded between the English and Scottish sovereigns. Elizabeth conferred upon James an annual pension of five thousand pounds, and through her influence deprived the Earl of Arran of all emolu- ments. In 1586 James formed another treaty with Eng- land, offensive and defensive, for the protection of the Protestant religion. In 1587 Mary Queen of Scots was executed. James at first appeared insulted and enraged ; he threatened to invade the dominions of Elizabeth; but, feeling more interested for the inheritance of the crown of England than for his honour or for filial duty, he was soon pacified. In 1589 he married Anne, daugh- ter of the King of Denmark. In 1594 he quelled a rebellion of the Catholic lords. Bothwell also, having taken part in this revolt, was obliged to fly from the country, to which he never returned. James was an earnest advocate of Episcopacy, and made strenuous efforts to establish it in his dominions, in opposition to the wishes of the people. On this account a tumult was raised in Edinburgh in 1596, from which his life appeared to be in imminent danger. But James, ex- hibiting for him an unusual share of spirit and energy, dexterously turned this to his own advantage. In 1600 he was decoyed to the castle of the Earl of Gowrie, where Ruthven, brother of the earl, made an attempt on the king's life, on which occasion both the noblemen were slain. The Gowrie Conspiracy has always been veiled in mystery, — no historian having yet unravelled it. On the death of Elizabeth, in 1603, James became King of England. He displeased his new subjects by the prodigality of his gifts to his Scottish favourites. He continued the foreign policy of Elizabeth by concluding a treaty with Henry IV. of France for assisting Holland against Spain. In 1605, chiefly through King James's penetration, the Gunpowder Plot was discovered. (See Fawkes, Guy.) The year 1612 was marked by the death of Henry, Prince of Wales, who by his manly and noble qualities had been far more successful than his father in winning the affections of the English people. In 1613, James's daughter, the princess Elizalieth, was married to Frederick, the Elector-Palatine. Among the king's favourites were successively Sir George Hume, Philip Herbert, Earl of Montgomery, and Robert Carr or Ker, a young Scotchman who by his handsome person monopolized the royal favour. He was created Earl of Somerset. In 1615 Carr was tried and convicted on a charge of poisoning his friend Sir Thomas Overbury. € as ^; 9 as s; g Aard; g as /; g, H, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2(^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) JAMES z6q JAMES This made room for a new favourite, named Villiers, who was created Duke of Buckingham, and who retained his influence over the king during the remainder of the reign. In 1617 James visited Scotland, where he was very zealous in introducing episcopal forms into the Established Church. In 16 18 Sir Walter Raleigh was executed on the pretended charge of conspiracy, but in fact to conciliate the court of Spain. The public con- tempt which this excited against James was increased by his behaviour towards the Elector-Palatine, whom the Bohemians had chosen as their king, and who was attacked by the united forces of Austria and Spain. James pusillanimously refused to give his son-in-law any assistance or encouragement. Erederick had been the Protestant champion of Europe, and the people of Britain hesitated not to express their grief and rage. During a long period James had wished to form a Span- ish alliance for Prince Charles; and he now hastened the negotiations. This alliance was, however, broken off through the rashness and insolence of Buckingham. Finally, in 1624, war was declared against Spain, and an army was fitted out to assist the Elector. Owing to pestilence and mismanagement, this army never entered the Palatinate, which remained in the possession of the Duke of Bavaria. James died in March, 1625, after a reign of nearly fifty-eight years, during twenty-two of which he sat on the throne of England. He had seven children by his queen, Anne of Denmark, of whom only Prince Charles and the Princess Elizabeth survived him. " No prince," says Hume, "so little enterprising and so inoffensive, was ever so much exposed to the opposite extremes of calumny and flattery, of satire and panegyric, . . . Many virtues, it must be owned, he was possessed of; but scarce any of them pure or free from the conta- gion of the neighbouring vices. His generosity bordered on profusion, his learning on pedantry, his pacific dis- position on pusillanimity, his wisdom on cunning, his friendship on light fancy and boyish fondness." (Hume's " History of England," chapter xlix. Respecting the character of James, see, also, Gardner's " History," referred to below, vol. i. chap. ii. pp. 55-57.) James was the author of numerous works, which displayed con- siderable learning and no little pedantry ; but the most important of his labours was the supervision of the present translation of the Bible, which will remain as a lasting monument of his industry and munificence. The translation was not only made under his innnediate superintendence, but the excellent rules by which the translators were governed were drawn up by James him- self Among his works we may cite "Basilicon Doron, or his Majesties Instructions to his Dearest Son, Henry the Prince," "The Essays of a Prentice in the Divine Art of Poesy," " The True Law of Free Monarchies," " Dsemonology," and "A Counterblast to Tobacco." See Arthur Wilson, " Life and Reign of King James I.," 1653 ; W. Harris, " Life of James L," 1753 ; Robertson, " History of Scot- land ;" "Secret Histories of the Court of James L," by Osboknii, Weldon, and Sir E. Peyton, with notes by Sir Walter Scott, 2 vols., 1811 ; Gardiner, " History of England from tlie Accession of James L to the Disgrace of Chief-Justice Coke," London, 1863. James II. of England and VII. of Scotland, son of Charles I., and younger brother of Charles II., was born at Saint James's, London, in 1633, and soon after was created Duke of York. He was taken prisoner by the Parliamentarians in 1646. In 1648 he escaped to Hol- land, and went to Paris, where he remained nearly four years. Having received a commission in the French army, he served under Marshal Turenne until the peace concluded between Cromwell and the French obliged him to leave the kingdom. At the restoration, in 1660, James accompanied his brother to England, where he received the appointments of lord high admiral and lord warden of the Cinque Ports. The same year he married Anne, daughter of'Chancellor Hyde. In 1664 the Duke of York was an earnest advocate of the war with Hol- land. He took command of the fleet, and in June, 1665, gained an important victory over the Dutch. In 1671 the Duchess of York died, and James avowed himself a Roman Catholic. In 1672 war was renewed against Hol- land, and James, as lord admiral, assumed the command of the navy. In 1673 the Test Act was passed against Catholics and dissenters. By it the Duke of York was compelled to resign the command of the navy, and all other offices which he held under government. The same year he married Maria Beatrice Eleonora, daughter of the Duke of Modena. In 1677, greatly to the satisfaction of the English nation, Mary, daughter of the Duke of York, was married to her cousin William, Prince of Orange, who was a Protestant. In 1679, during the commotions of the Oates Popish Plot, James retired to the continent. In his absence a bill for excluding him from the throne was brought before the Parliament. It was passed by the Commons, but was rejected by the Lords. Upon the death of King Charles, in 1685, James ascended the throne unopposed, and promised to maintain and defend the Established Church. He summoned a Parliament, which voted him all the revenues his brother had enjoyed. Having de- clareirit of submission, they at length, perceiving the rapid decline of their authority, formed a conspiracy against him, and assassinated him in 1437. James had the reputation of being one of the most accomplished princes of his day. He produced several poetical pieces and songs, which were greatly admired, and in which much literary taste was displayed. There yet remains his "Kings Quhair." Robertson justly remarks that "it was the misfortune of James that his maxims and manners were too refined for the age in which he lived. Happy had he reigned in a kingdom more civilized. His love of peace, of justice, and of elegance would have rendered his schemes suc- cessful ; and, instead of perishing because he attempted too much, a grateful people would have applauded and seconded his efforts to reform and improve them." See Buchanan, "Rerum Scoticarum Historia ;" Burton, "His- tory of Scotland," vol. iii. chap, xxvii. ; Robertson, "History of Scotland." James II., son and successor of the preceding, was born in 1430. He had for his adviser an able man, named Crichton, who during his minority obtained chief control of the government. Crichton impressed on the mind of the young monarch the necessity of further hum- bling the nobility. But what James I. had attempted to do slowly and by legal means, his son and Crichton pursued with an impetuosity as unscrujnilous as it was jnwise. William, sixth Earl of Douglas, having defied the royal authority, was decoyed by Crichton to an in- terview in the Castle of Edinburgh, where both he and his brother were murdered. James stabbed with his own hand William, eighth Earl of Douglas. This led to a revolt, and the house of Stuart apj^eared to be in imminent peril. The Earl of Douglas commanded the greater number and more warlike followers ; but, owing to his want of energy, nearly all his retainers deserted him before a battle was fought, and he was obliged to fly to England. James would in all probability have succeeded in his plans, had he not been killed in 1460 by the bursting of a cannon. See Burton, "History of Scotland," vol. iii. chap, xxviii. ; Robertson, "History of Scotland." James III., the son and successor of James II., was born in 1453. During his minority the kingdom was governed successively by Bishop Kennedy and Lord Boyd. James married Margaret of Denmark about 1470. He had respectable abilities, and was a lover of the fine arts and literature. The nobles weie offended because he neglected them and chose for his associates artists, musicians, and other persons of inferior rank. The king's brothers, the Duke of Albany, and the Earl of Mar, conspired with the malcontent nobles agains; James, who was defeated by them in battle near Ban- nockburn in 1488, and was murdered as he fled from the field. See Burton, "History of Scotland;" Robertson, "History of Scotland." James IV., King of Scotland, succeeded his father, James III., in 1488, at the age of fifteen. He was gen- erous and brave, loved magnificence, delighted in war, and was eager to obtain fame. During his reign the ancient and hereditary enmity between the king and the nobles appears almost entirely to have ceased. During the revolt which had cost James HI. his life, his son had been compelled or persuaded to set himself at the head of it, and was openly declared king. He was sub- sequently troubled by remorse for this deed, and, not being free from superstition, he received from the pope, as penance, an iron belt to be worn without cessation for the remainder of his life. He also performed several pil- grimages on foot. James founded (1497) the University of Aberdeen, and he also created the order of Knights of the Thistle, (or of Saint Andrew.) In 15 13, in oppo- sition to the advice of his sagest counsellors, he rashly invaded England with one of the most loyal and gallant armies that ever a Scottish king had conmianded, and was defeated at the famous battle of Flodden, where the flower of the Scottish chivalry perished. The king, with twelve earls, thirteen lords, and a great number of barons, died upon the field, in September, 1 5 13. See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. iii. chap. xxx. ; Rob- ertson, "History of Scotland." James V., a son of James IV., was born in 15 12, and succeeded his father in 15 13. The regency was conferred upon his cousin, the Duke of Albany, a man of enter- prise and ability, who was desirous to extend the royal authority ; but, in spite of all his exertions, the aris- tocracy retained their power, and the duke resigned his authority about 1525. The king was then in his thir- teenth year, and the nobles agreed that he should assume the government. The Earl of Angus, however, by his intrigues, obtained the chief control of affairs, and kept the young king as a prisoner in his own palace. James, after suffering this for some time, escaped, and Angus was obliged to fly from the country. Firmly seated upon the throne, James continued the policy of his predecessors in humbling the nobility. Commencing very cautiously, he found loyal supporters among the clergy, the prin- cipal of whom was Cardinal Beaton. The nobles had received too severe a blow at Flodden to resist, and James pushed forward his plans in an unscrupulous and arbitrary manner. He married Mary of Guise in 1538. Henry VIII. of England declared war against him in 1542, and he was obliged to seek the assistance of those nobles whom he had oppressed. They took up arms at his command, were led by him against the English, and were at first successful ; but, owing to the lateness of the season, and to other causes of discontent, they refused to follow up their good fortune. A second expedition across the border was still less successful : nearly ten thousand Scots were taken prisoners, or, as some say, went deliberately over to the English. This proved too great a blow to the proud and ambitious monarch, who died of a broken heart in December, 1542, in the thirty-first year of his age, leaving the crown to his only legitimate child, the unfortunate Mary Queen of Scots. He had several natural children, one of whom was the famous Regent Murray. See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. iii. chaps, xxxi.-xxxiii. ; Froude, " History of England," vol. iv. chaps, xviii. and xix. ; Robertson, " History of Scotland;" Hume, " History of England." James VI. of Scotland. See James I. of Eng- land. James, [Gr. ; Lat. Jaco'bus ; Ger. Jakob, yS'kob ; Fr. Jacques, zhtk ; Sp. Santiago, sin-te-i'go ; It. Giacomo, ji''ko-mo,] one of the twelve apostles, commonly called Saint James, son of Zebedee, and brother of Saint John. He was one of the three apostles who appeared to be the most intimately associated with our Saviour. He suffered martyrdom about 44 A.D., by the order of Herod Agrippa. , See Matthew iv. 21, x. 2, xvii. ; Luke viii. 51. € as ^; S as s; g hard; g as J; o, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) JAMES 1262 JAMESON James, called the Less, was one of the twelve apos- tles, and is generally supposed to have been the brother of our Sav^iour, and the author of the Epistle bearing that name. Josephus states that he was put to death by the high-priest Ananias about 62 or 63 A.D. See Matthew x. 3, xiii. 55, xxvii. 56; Mark iii. 18, vi. 3, xv. 40; Luke vi. 15 ; Acts i. 13. James, (Charles T.,) an American Senator and in- ventor, born in West Greenwich, Rhode Island, about 1805. In 1851 he was elected a Senator of the United States for six years by the legislature of Rhode Island. He invented a rifled cannon, and was killed at Sag Har- bour, Long Island, in October, 1862, by the explosion of a shell on which he was experimenting. James, zhtm, ( Constantin, ) a French medical writer, born at Bayeux in 1813. He edited Magendie's "Lectures on Physiology," etc., (1837-39.) James, (George Payne Rainsford,) a very volu- minous novelist and historian, born in London in 1801. Before attaining the age of seventeen he had written a series of Eastern tales, entitled "The String of Pearls." In 1825 he published "Richelieu," which had previously received the commendation of Sir Walter Scott and Washington Irving. This is thought to be his best pro- duction. In 1852 Mr. James was chosen British consul at Norfolk, in Virginia, and in 1858 received the same appointment for Venice. His works amount to one hundred and eighty-nine volumes. Of these we may mention "Philip Augustus," (1831,) "Adra, or the Peru- vians, a Poem," "Memoirs of Great Commanders," (3 vols., 1832,) " History of Charlemagne," (1832,) "Lives of Foreign Statesmen," (5 vols., 1832-38,) and "Came- ralzaman," a dramatic poem, (1848.) Died in i860. See " New Spirit of the Age," by R. H. Horne, London, 1844 ; Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors;" "North American Review" for April, 1844, (by E. P. Whipple.) James, (Henry,) an able and original writer on the- ology, born at Albany in 181 1. About 1843 became acquainted with the writings of Swedenborg, whose leading doctrines he appears to have fully embraced, without, however, joining himself to the ecclesiastical organization of Swedenborgians. He has published, besides other works, " Moralism and Christianity," (1852,) "Christianity the Logic of Creation," (1857,) and "The Secret of Swedenborg, being an Elucidation of his Doc- trine of the Divine Natural Humanity," (1869.) See "Old and New" for January, 1870. James, (John Angell,) an eloquent English dissent- ing minister and popular writer, born at Blandford, Dor- set, in 1785. He was for many years an Independent minister of Birmingham, and acquired great influence by his oral ministry and his numerous writings, which have had an immense circulation. Among his works are "The Anxious Inquirer," "Christian Fellowship," (i ith edition, 1855,) " Family Monitor," (9th edition, 1848,) "The Church in Earnest," (4th edition, 1851,) and " Fe- male Piety," (4th edition, 1855.) Died in 1859. See " Life and Letters of John Angell James," by R- W. Dale ; Rev. Robert Steel, " Burning and Shining Lights," 1S64. James, (John Thomas,) Bishop of Calcutta, born at Rugby in 1786. Upon the death of Bishop Heber he was appointed to the diocese of Calcutta, and sailed for India in 1827. He was the author of a "Tour through Germany, Sweden, Russia, and Poland," (1816,) "Treat- ise on the Italian, French, Dutch, and German Schools of Painting," (1822,) and "The Semi-Sceptic, or the Common Sense of Religion considered." Died in 1828. See " Memoirs of Bishop James," by his brother, 1830. James, (Rich.\rd,) an English divine, linguist, and traveller, and nephew of Thomas James, (1571-1629,) was born at Newport, in the Isle of Wight, in 1592. Among his works are manuscripts upon Russia, and a " Poem upon the Death of Sir Robert Cotton." Died in 1638. James, (Rorert,) an English physician, born in Staf- fordshire in 1703. He was the inventor of a celebrated fever-powder which bore his name, and the author of a "Medicinal Dictionary," (1743-45,) (in which he was assisted by Dr. Samuel Johnson,) treatises on the "Prac- tice of Physic" and " On Canine Madness," and a "Dis- sertation on Fevers," (1778.) Died in 1776. James, (Thomas,) a learned divine, born at Newport, in the Isle of Wight, in 1571. He was distinguished as an able and industrious writer against the Catholics. Among the most important of his works are " A Treat- ise of the Corruptions of the Scriptures, Councils, and Fathers by the Church of Rome," (1612,) and "The Jesuits' Downfall." Died in 1629. See Wood, " Athense Oxonienses." James, (Thomas,) an English navigator, who sailed in 163 1 in search of a northwest passage. He made some discoveries on the shores of Hudson's Bay, and to the country lying west of it he gave the name of New Wales. On his return to England he published "The Strange and Dangerous Voyage of Captain Thomas James for the Discovery of a Northwest Passage to the South Sea." James, (Thomas,) an English teacher, became head- master of Rugby School in 1776. He published a " Com- pendium of Geography." He was the father of Bishop John T. James, noticed above. Died in 1804. James, (Thomas C.,) M.D., an American physician and scholar, born in Philadelphia in 1766. He graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1788, and followed his profession with eminent success in his native city. In 181 1 he was appointed professor of midwifery in the above institution. Died in Philadelphia in 1835. He is said to have been versed in the Greek, Latin, French, and German languages, and to have possessed some acquaintance with the Hebrew. He contributed several short but beautiful poems to Dennie's "Portfolio." See "Memoir of Thomas Chalkley James," by J.R.Tyson, Philadelphia, 1836; Gross, "American Medical Biography;" Car- son, " History of the Medical Department of the University of Pennsylvania.'^ James, (William,) an English land-agent and sur- veyor, born in Warwickshire in 1771. He was the first to project the Manchester and Liverpool Railway, and is generally regarded as "the father" of the railway-system in England. Died in 1837. James, (William,) an Englishman, known as the author of " The Naval History of Great Britain from the Declaration of War by France in 1793 to the Ac- cession of George IV. in 1820," (5 vols., 1822,) a work evincing great research. Died in 1827. James, (Sir William,) an English naval officer of high rank, born at Milford Haven about 1721. He dis- tinguished himself in the East India service and in the American war. Died in 1785. James (or Jacques, zhtk) de Vitri, (deh ve'tRe',) a distinguished cardinal and historical writer, born at Vitri, near Paris, in the twelfth century. He preached against the Albigenses, and about 1218 joined the crusade against the Saracens. He wrote, besides other works, a " His- tory of the East and West." Died in 1240. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." James (or Giacomo, ji'ko-mo) de Voragine, (di vo-r3.'je-ni,) a Romish prelate, born at Voraggio, near Genoa, about 1230. In 1292 he was ordained Archbishop of Genoa. Died in 1298. He wrote various ecclesias- tical works, and a famous collection of the lives of the saints, entitled the "Golden Legend." James Francis Edward, called the first Pretender, and Chevalier de Saint George, born in 1688, was the son and heir of James II. of England. He was educated in France, and was a Roman Catholic. At the death of his father he was recognized as King of England by Louis XIV. He entered the French army, and charged at the head of the cavalry at Malplaquet in 1709. Lord Bolingbroke formed a design to secure for him the suc- cession to the throne, but was defeated by the death of Queen Anne. In 171 5 the Scottish Jacobites took arms to assert the title of the Pretender, and, under the com- mand of the Earl of Mar, were defeated at Sheriffmuir. Another army of his partisans surrendered at Preston. James Francis PMward landed in Scotland in December, 1715; but, finding his cause in a desperate state, he returned to France the next month. Died in 1 758 or 1 765. See Jes.se, "Memoirs of the Pretenders and their Adherents." 1845. , Ja'me-son, (Anna,) a celebrated waiter, born in Dublin in 1797, was the daughter of Mr. Murphy, a i. e, i, o, u, y, long; i, hy 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; nSt; good; moon; JAMESON 1263 JANIN painter. She married in 1824 a barrister named Jame- son, with whom she went to live in Canada ; but, various circumstances causing a separation, Mrs. Jameson re- turned to England, to employ herself in literature and the fine arts. She was an earnest labourer for the fuller development of the usefulness and mental culture of the women of England. Her productions evince great dis- crimination, learning, and refinement. Among the most important of these we may mention "The Diary of an Ennuyee," (1826,) afterwards enlarged and pulDlished with the title of "Visits and Sketches at Home and Abroad," (2 vols., 1834,) "Loves of the Poets," (1829,) " Memoirs of Celebrated Female Sovereigns," (2 vols., 1831,) "The Beauties of the Court of Charles H.," "Lives of the Early Italian Painters," (2 vols., 1845,) and " The Poetry of Sacred and Legendary Art," (2 vols., 1848.) Died in i860. See Harriet Martineau, "Biographical Sketches," London, 1869; "New Spirit of the Age," by R. H. Horne; "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1834, ^'id April, 1849; "Blackwood's Maga- zine" for July, 1853; " Fraser's Magazine" for March, 1849; "Twelve Biographical Sketches," by B. R. Parkes, London, 1866. Ja'me-spn, (Charles Davls,) an American general, born at Gorham, Maine, in 1827. He distinguished himself at the battle of Bull Run, with the rank of colonel, July, 1861, and commanded a brigade at Fair Oaks, May, 1862. Died at Oldtown, Maine, in Novem- ber, 1862. Ja'me-son, (Robert,) an eminent Scottish naturalist, born at Leith in 1774 or 1773. He published " Mineral- ogy of the Scottish Isles," (2 vols., i8oo,) " A System of Mineralogy," (3 vols., 1804-08,) and other works. He was professor of natural history in the University of Edinburgh from 1804 until 1854. In 1819 Professor ameson and Sir David Brewster founded the "Edin- urgh Philosophical Journal," which the former edited many years. He also contributed to the " Encyclojjaedia Britannica." He had a high reputation as a professor. Died in 1854. See "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1804, and April, 1805; "Annual Register" for 1854. Ja'nie-sone, (George,) an eminent painter, called "the Van Dyck of Scotland," was born at Aberdeen in 1586. About 1616 he went to Antwerp, where, with Van Dyck, he studied under Rubens. " His excellence," says Walpole, "consisted in delicacy and softness, with a clear and beautiful colouring." It is said that, in 1633, when Charles I. visited Edinburgh, the magistrates of that city employed Jamesone to paint the portraits of some of the Scottish monarchs, Charles was so much pleased with the result that he sat for his own portrait, and presented the artist with a diamond ring from his finger. Jameson was also a painter of historical and landscape scenes. Died in 1644. See Allan Cunningham, "Lives of the Most Eminent British Painters," etc. ; Wai.pole, "Anecdotes of Painting ;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Jamet, zht'mi', (Pierre Charles,) a French writer, born near Sens in 1701. Among his works are "Meta- physical Essays," (1732,) "Letters on Taste and the Doc- trine of Bayle," (1740,) and "The Mongol Philosopher Dane-Che-Men-Kan," (1740.) Died about 1770. Jami. See Jamee. Ja'mie-son, (John,) D.D., a learned divine, born in Glasgow in 1759, became in 1797 pastor of a church in Edinburgh, where he remained until his death. The degree of doctor of divinity was conferred upon him by the College of New Jersey. He published, besides other works, "Socinianism Unmasked," (1788,) " The Sorrows of Slavery," a poem, " The Use of Sacred History," (2 vols., 1802,) an "Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language," (2 vols., 1809,) which is highly esteemed, and "An Historical Account of the Ancient Culdees of Zona," (181 L) Died in 1838. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" "Edinburgh Review" for April, i8og, and May, 1828; "Monthly Review" for September, 1810. Jamin, zht'm^N', ( Jean Baptiste, ) Vicomte, a French general, born in' 1772 ; died in 1848. Jamin, (Jules C^:i,esttn,) a French natural philoso- pher, born in 18 18. He became professor of physics in the Polytechnic School at Paris. He commenced in 1858 the publication of an important work, entitled ** Cours de Physique." Jamin de Bermuy, zht'miN' deh b^R^mli-e', (Jean Baptiste Auguste Marie,) one of the best French cavalry officers of his time, was born in Bretagne in 1773. He became colonel of the royal guards of light cavalry about 1807, and went to Spain, where he dis- tinguished himself at the battle of Ocana in 1809. As general of brigade, he won additional honours at the battle of Vitoria, in 1813. For his various services he was created baron of the empire and Marquis de Ber- muy. He fell at the battle of Waterloo, 181 5. See J. Nollet-Fabert, "Le General Jamin," 1853. Jamsheed. See Jemsheed. Jamshid. See Jemsheed. Jamyn, zht'mAN', (Amadis,) a French poet, born in Champagne about 1540, His productions attracted the attention of Ronsard, who became a warm friend and liberal patron of Jamyn and procured for him the situa- tion of secretary and reader to Charles IX. He wrote poems on various subjects, and made translations of the last three books of the " Iliad" and the first three of the "Odyssey." Died in 1585. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Janachen, ylxi-lfken, {i.e. Jan (or John) Achen.) See Achen. Jane of Navarre. See Joan. Janes, janz, (Edmund S.,) a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born in Salisbury, Connecticut, about 1805. In early life he was principal of an academy in New Jersey. About 1836 he became minister of a church in Philadelphia, and in 1839 was transferred to Mulberry Street Church, in New York. He was chosen in 1 841 financial secretary of the American Bible So- ciety, and travelled through most of the States in plead- ing the cause of the Bible. He was elected a bishop in 1844. Janet, a French painter. See Clouet. Jane'way, (James,) an English nonconformist divine, born in Hertfordshire in 1636. He was a preacher of great power, and was very actively employed at the time of the plague both in the pulpit and in visiting the sick. He wrote a " Life of John Janeway," his brother, and "The Saint's Encouragement to Diligence," (1675.) Died in 1674. Jani, yi'nee, (Christian David,) a German phi- lologist, born near Halle in 1743. He published a good edition of Horace, (2 vols., 1778-82,) and other works. Died in 1790. Janigon, zht'ne's^N', (Francois Michel,) a noted journalist, born in Paris in 1674. Being an avowed Protestant, he went to receive his education in Holland, which became his adopted country. In early life he entered the army, but finally devoted himself to litera- ture. Among his works are " Present State of the Republic of the United Provinces and their Dependen- cies," (1729,) a production of great merit, and "Serious and Satirical Letters upon the Works of the Savants," (12 vols., 1740 et seq.) Died in 1730. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" Nic^ron, " Memoires." Janin, zhS'n^N', (Jules Gabriel,) a celebrated French critic and litterateit}', born at' Saint-£tienne in 1804. He contributed successively to the "Figaro" and the "Quo- tidienne," and about 1830 became one of the editors of the "Journal des Debats," for which he furnished a number of brilliant and original articles on politics and literature. He was for a long time the dramatic critic of that journal. He also wrote for the " Revue des Deux Mondes," etc. Among his other productions are the romances of" Barnave," (183T,) "New Literary Tales," " Journey in Italy," (1839,) and " The Nun of Toulouse," (1850.) He also wrote an abridgment of " Clarissa Har- lowe," and a "History of Dramatic Literature," (4 vols., 1851-56.) His critiques consist mostly of literary gossip, written in a si)arkling and po'!shed style. He was admitted to the French Academy in 1870. See Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi ;" Qijerard, " La France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Janin de Combe -Blanche, zht'niN' deh k^N'- blfiNsh', (Jean,) a celebrated surgeon and oculist, born 4- as k; 9 as j; g hard; g as j; g, h, y., guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2!^='See Explanations, p. 23.) JANITIUS 1264 JJNSSENS in Carcassonne, France, in 1731. He was the author of a "Treatise upon the Lachrymal Fistula," and seve- ral other works on diseases of the eye. Died about 1790. See QuEKARL), "La France Litteiaire." Jaiiitius, yi-n!t'se-us, or Janicki, yS-nit'skee, (Cle- ment,) a learned Polish writer, born in 1516. At fifteen he wrote elegant Latin poetry. Among his works is •'Lives of the Kings of Poland." Died in 1543. Jannabee or Jannabi, Al, ai-jdn-na^bee, | Lat. Al- Janna'bius, or simply Janna''|!IU.s,] (Aboo-Moham- med-Mustafa — moos'ta fa,) written also Djannaby and Dschannabi, an Arabian historian, of whose life scarcely anything is known. lie wrote an abridgment of universal history, entitled " Bahar-al-Zokkar," from the creation of the world down to his own time. Died in 1581. Jannabi. See Jannabee, Jannabius. See Jannabee, Jannequin, zhtn'kciN', (Claude,) Sieur de Rochefort, a French traveller, sailed for Africa in 1637, and, after his return, published a " Voyage to Libya, to the King- dom of Senegal, and the Banks of the Niger," etc., (1643.) Jannequin, (Clement,) a French or Flemish mu- sician of superior merit, flourished about 1550. He composed masses, canzoni, chansons, etc. In 1544 he published "Inventions musicales a quatre et cinq Parties," which displayed much inventive genius. See BuRNEV, "History of Music;" Fetis, " Biographie Univer- selle des Musiciens. " Jan'ney, (Samuel M.,) an American writer, born in Loudon county, Virginia, January 11, 1801. l^oth his parents were members of the Society of Friends, or Quakers ; and his mind appears to have been at an early age deeply impressed with the truth and high importance of the religious principles in which he was educated. Besides some smaller works, he has written "Conver- sations on Religious Subjects," (1835;) "A Teacher's Gift, consisting of Essays in Prose and Verse," (1840 ;) "An Historical Sketch of the Christian Church during the Middle Ages," (1847,) two valuable biographies, viz., a "Life of William Penn," (1852,) and a "Life of George Fox," (1855.) His last and most important publication is a " History of the Religious Society of Friends from its Rise to the Year 1828," (4 vols., 1867.) This work treats, among other subjects, of the causes and events of the separation which occurred in the Society in 1827-28. The writer belongs to the anti- orthodox division of the Quakers; and, though not pro- fessing strict impartiality, he has evinced, in his treatment of this delicate and difficult subject, great moderation, a scrupulous regard for the facts of the case, and, on the whole, a liberal and kindly spirit. He is a highly- esteemed minister of the Society of which he is a member. Early in 1869 he was appointed by President Grant superintendent of Indian affairs in the Northern Super- intendency. Janozki, yi-nozh'kee, or Janotzki, yS-nots'kee, sometimes written Janisck, (John Daniel,) a Polish or Russian author, born at Viborg in 1720. He was appointed superintendent of the Zaluski Library at Warsaw. Among his works, which principally relate to the literature of Poland, are " Letters on Criticism," "A Dictionary of the Living Authors of Poland," and "Polish Literature of our Time," Died in 1786. Jansemin, See Jasmin, Jansen, jan'sen or ySn'sen, or Jan-se'ni-us, [Dutch pron. ydn-sa'ne-us,] (Cornelis,) Bishop of Ypres, cele- brated as the founder of the sect of Jansenists, born near Leerdam, in Holland, in October, 1585. He pursued his studies at Paris, and in 161 7 was chosen professor of di- vinity in the University of Louvain. About 1634 he bitterly attacked the French government, in his " Mars Gallicus," for having formed a treaty of alliance with the Dutch Prot- estants. This provoked the enmity of Cardinal Richelieu, but obtained the favour of the King of Spain, who raised Jansenius to the see of Ypres in 1635. His principal production was entitled " Augustinus," (Louvain, 1640,) in which he advocated the doctrines of Saint Augustine in regard to the atonement, divine grace, free will, and predestination. This work was finished a short time previous to his death, in 1638, and by his will he referred it to the judgment of the Holy See ; but his executors published the book, and suppressed that part of the will which related to it. The opinions which he advocated were directly opposed to those advanced by the Jesuits, who made great efforts to obtain a decision against them by the pope. Penally the bishops of France reduced the doctrines of Jansenius to five propositions for condemna- tion, — viz. : I. That there are divine precepts which good men are unable to obey for want of God's grace, although desirous to do so. 2. That no person can resist the in- fluence of divine grace when bestowed. 3. That for human actions to be meritorious, it is not requisite that they should be exempt from necessity, but only from constraint. 4. That the Semi-Pelagians err grievously in maintaining that the human will is endowed with power of either receiving or resisting the aids and influences of preventive grace. 5. That whoever maintains that Jesus Christ made expiation by his sufferings and death for the sins of all mankind is a Semi-Pelagian. Innocent X. condemned the first four of these propositions as simply heretical, but the last as rash, impious, and in- jurious to the Supreme Being. Many bulls were also issued by the succeeding popes, by which the Jansenists, several of whom were among the most learned and emi- nent ecclesiastics of France, were deprived of office and declared to be heretics. Louis XIV., at the instigation of his Jesuit confessor, ordered them to be persecuted and their monastery at Port-Royal to be suppressed. Notwithstanding these attempts to crush them, the Jan- senists continued to increase, comprising among their champions Pascal, Arnauld, Nicole, and many other celebrated men. See Levdecker, " Historia Jansenism!," 1695; Bayle, " His- torical and Critical Dictionary;" Sainte-Beuve, "Port-Royal," tomes i., ii. ; Heeser, " Historisch Verhaal van de Geboorte, Leven, etc. van C. Jansenius," 1727; " Noiivelle Biographie Generale." Jansen, y^n'sen, (Hendrik,) a noted writer and trans- lator, born at the Hague in 1 741. He fixed his residence in Paris about 1770, where he became librarian to Tal- leyrand. His works were chiefly of a historical and philosophical character. Died in 1812. Jansenius. See Jansen. Jansenius, yan-sa''ne-us, (Cornelis,) a learned Flem- ish ecclesiastic, born at Plulst in 15 10. In 1568 he was ordained first Bishop of Ghent. Of his works we may mention " Concord of the Evangelists," and a " Para- phrase on the Psalms," Died in 1576. Jansenius, (Jakob,) a Dutch scholar, born at Ank- sterdam in 1547, became in 1595 regius professor of the Sacred Scriptures at Louvain. Among his works arc Expositions of the Prophet Job, of the Psalms of David, and of the Gospel of John. Died in 1625. Janson or Jenson, zhdN^soN', (Nicolas,) a French engraver, printer, and type-founder, settled in Venice about 1470. He produced there a number of celebrated editions between 1470 and 1480. He is called the in- ventor of the Roman type now generally used. Died about 1 48 1. See G. Sardini, " Esame su i Principj della Francesa ed Italiana Tipografia, ovvero Storia critica di N. Jenson," 3 vols., 1796-98. Janssen, yins'sen, or John'son, (Cornelis,) a noted artist, born in Amsterdam in 1590. In 1618 he visited England, where he was employed by James I. to paint the portraits of the royal family. He was also patronized by the nobility. He possessed neither the freedom nor the grace of Van Dyck, but in other respects was regarded as his equal, and in finishing was considered even superior to him. His carnations have been particularly admired ; and his pictures yet retain their original lustre, in conse- quence perhaps of the ultramarine which he used. Died in 1665. Janssens, yins'sens,( Abraham,) a celebrated painter, born at Antwerp in 1569. His designs were elegant and spirited. He was a good colorist, and a rival of Rubens. He excelled in painting subjects illuminated by torches, where the brilliant light and deepest shade were placed in a striking contrast. His most important works are the " Resurrection of Lazarus," and a " Descent from the Cross." Died at Antwerp in 163 1. Janssens, (Erasmus,) a Dutch Unitarian theologian, born about 1540, preached at Clausemburg. Died after 1595- a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; yjNSSENS 1265 Janssens, (Jan Willem,) a distinguished Dutch general, born at Nymwegen in 1762. In 1802 he was appointed governor and general-in-chief of the colony of the Cape of Good Hope, where he was defeated by the English, who took possession of that country in 1806. After the abdication of Louis Bonaparte, under whom he had held the office of minister of war, Napoleon made him Governor-General of Holland and the East Indies. In this capacity he bravely defended Batavia against the English in 1811, but was finally obliged to surrender. Died in 1835. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Jansseus, (Victor Honorius,) a noted Flemish painter, born at Brussels in 1664. He studied in Rome the works of Raphael, selected Albano for his model, and excelled all his contemporaries in that style. At the expiration of eleven years he returned to Brussels, where he painted numerous large pictures for palaces and churches. Died in 1739. Janszoon. See Koster. Januario. See Januarius. Jan-u-a'ri-us, [Fr. Janvier, zhSN'v^;^'; It. Janua- rio, yS-noo-i're-o,] Saint, Bishop of Benevento, was beheaded during the persecution of Diocletian, about 305. A cathedral was erected over his grave at Naples, where it is believed that his blood exerts great power in checking the eruptions of Vesuvius. Ja'nus, an ancient Latin deity, represented with two faces. He was regarded as the opener of the day and as having charge of the gates of heaven.* He seems to have presided over the commencement of enterprises. The word Janua ("gate") is supposed to have been de- rived from him ; also the name of the month January. The temple of Janus Quirinus at Rome was kept open in time of war and closed during peace. It has been conjectured by some scholars that the name and attri- butes of Janus may be traced to Ganesa, (or Ganesha,) the Hindoo deity of prudence and circumspection, who, among his other offices, had those of presiding over the commencement of undertakings, guarding gates and doors, etc. See GuiGNiAUT, "Religions de TAntiquite," Paris, 1825-29, vol. ii. book v. sect. 2, chap. iii. ; Keightlev, "Mythology." Janvier. See Januarius. Janvier, zh6N\e-i', ( Antide,) an ingenious and cele- brated horologist, was born at Saint-Claude, in France, in 1 75 1. He invented numerous improvements for watches and for different kinds of astronomical appa- ratus. In 1784 he became watchmaker to the king. Died in 1835. Janvier, (Dom Ren6 Ambroise,) a learned French monk, born in 1614. He made a Latin translation of the " Rabbi David Kimchi's Hebrew Commentary on the Psalms." Died in 1682. Japet. See Iapetus. Japetus. See Iapetus, Ja'pheth, [Heb. r\D\] a patriarch, one of the three sons of Noah, and the supposed ancestor of the Cauca- sian race. (See Iapetus.) See Genesis vi., vii,, ix. Japix, Japicx, or Japiks, yS'piks, (Gysbert,) a celebrated Frisian poet, born at Bolsward in 1603. But few incidents in his early life are known. Japix was the first, and in fact the only, writer in Frisian of any note of that period. In 1763, at Dr. Johnson's request. Bos- well, then at Utrecht, sent a copy of Japix as a specimen of Frisian, and at the same time remarked that "it was the only book which they had ; that there were no treat- ises of devotion, ballads, or story-books in the language." Japix died of the plague in 1666. See Hai.bertsma, " Hulde aan G. Japiks," 1827; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1829. Jaquelot. See Jacquelot. Jaquotot, zht'ko'to', (Marie Victoire,) a skilful French painter on porcelain, born in Paris in 1778. She copied several works of Raphael on porcelain, and painted the dessert-service presented by Napoleon I. to the Czar of Russia after the peace of Tilsit. Died in 1855. * Some vvriters suppose Janus to be a corruption of Dianus, (from Dies, " Day,") because he was the opener of the day. Jarchi, zhtR'she', (Solomon Ben Isaac,) sometimes called Haschi, a distinguished Jewish writer, born at Troyes, in France, about 1040. After finishing his edu- cation at the Jewish Academy in that city, he travelled through Egypt, Western Asia, Greece, Russia, and Ger- many. On his return to France he wrote Annotations on the Five Books of Moses, the Mishna, and the Gemara. These works obtained a high reputation, and procured for the author the title of " Prince of Commentators." Died in 1 105. Jar din or Jardyn. See Du Jardin. Jar'dine, (George,) born in Lanarkshire, Scotland, in 1742, was professor of logic in the University of Glas- gow from 1774 to 1824, and made improvements in the mode of teaching. He published "Outlines of Philo- sophical Education," (1818.) Died in 1827. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" "Monthly Review" for July, 1819. Jardine, (Sir William,) a Scottish naturalist, born in Edinburgh about 1800. He studied botany, orni- thology, etc. He published, besides other works, " Illus- trations of Ornithology," (3 vols., 1829-45.) He was one of the authors of the " Naturalist's Library," (40 vols., 1833-43,) and joint editor of the "Edinburgh Phi- losophical Journal." Jardinier, zhtR^de'ne-i', (Claude Donat,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1726. Among his works is the " Virgin and the Infant Jesus," from C. Maratta. Died in 1774. Jardins, des, di zhtR'd^N', (Marie Catherine,) Madame de Villedieu, a talented and profligate French authoress, was born in 1640. She removed to Paris, where she supported herself by writing romances and dramas. Her works were quite successful, and, not- withstanding her very exceptionable conduct, she was much courted by persons of distinction. Her active and vivid imagination produced a new era in French romances, changing their old and tedious style into that of the modern novel. Died in 1683. Jard-Panvillier, zhSR^pdN've'ye-a', (Louis Alex- andre,) a French politician, born near Niort in 1757. In 1792 he was elected to the National Convention, where he distinguished himself by his bold defence of the king. Napoleon created him baron of the empire and president of the court of exchequer. Died in 1822. Jardyn or Jardin, (Karel de.) See Dujardin. Jarnac, de, dehzhtR'ntk', (Gui Chabot,) Seigneur, a French soldier, who in 1547 killed La Chateigneraye in a duel which was fought in the presence of King Henry II. Died about 1560. See Tavannes, " Memoires ;" BrantQme, " M^moires," tome iii. Jarnowich, yaR'no-vik', or Giornovichi, joR-no- vee'kee, (Giovanni Maria,) a celebrated and eccentric violinist, born at Palermo, Sicily, in 1745. He spent several years in France, Prussia, and England. He sub- sequently visited Saint Petersburg, where he died in 1804. Jaroslaf. See Yaroslaf. Jarrige, zht'r^zh', (Pierre,) a French Jesuit, born at Tulle in 1605. He embraced Protestantism, and wrote a work against the society of which he had been a mem- ber, entitled "The Jesuits upon the Scaffold ;" but sub- sequently he was reconciled to them, and published a refutation of his previous work. Died in 1660, Jarry, zht're', (Nicolas,) a French calligraphist, born in Paris about 1620, was famous for the beauty of his penmanship. Jarry, du, dii zhi^re', (Laurent Juilhard — zhii-e'- yiR',) a celebrated ecclesiastic, poet, and orator, born near Saintes, in France, about 1658. He went to Paris, where he was patronized by Bossuet and the Due de Montausier. In 17 14 he gained a poetical prize at the French Academy over Voltaire and other competitors. He wrote "The Evangelical Ministry, or Reflections upon the Eloquence of the Pulpit," (1726,) "Poems, Christian, Heroic, and Moral," and several other works. Died in 1730. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Jars, zhtR, (Gabriel,) a distinguished mineralogist, and member of the French Academy of Sciences, born at Lyons, in France, in 1732. In 1757 he was sent to ex- € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, H, y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 80 JARS 1266 JAVELLO amine the mines of Germany and Hungary, and in 1765 visited England, Scotland, Norway, and Sweden for the same purpose. He died in 1 769, leaving manuscripts from which his brother comi)iled ""Observations upon a Great Number of Gold and Silver Mines," (3 vols., 1774-81.) See QuERAKD, "La France Litteraire." Jars, de, deh zh^R, (Franqois de Rochechouart — rosh'shoo-tk',) Chkvalier, a French officer and cour- tier. He was arrested by Cardinal Richelieu in 1632, because he refused to give evidence in the prosecution of his friend Chateauneuf, keeper of the seals. After an imprisonment of eleven months in the Bastille, and twenty-four examinations, during which nothing could be extorted from him that would criminate Chateauneuf, he was convicted on false evidence and sentenced to death. A reprieve, however, arrived from the king after Jars had placed his head upon the block. He obtained his liberty after a long imprisonment. Died in 1670. See Richelieu, "Memoires." Jarta or Jaerta, yla'tS, (Johan or Hans,) a Swedish statesman, born in Dalecarlia in 1774, was minister of finances from 1809 to 181 1, and assisted in framing the present Constitution of Sweden. Died in 1847. Jar'ves, good; moon; JEE-JEE-B'HOr 1269 • JEFFERSON of Justin Martyr with Trypho the Jew, in Greek and Latin," the " Opus Majus" of Roger Bacon, and several other works. Died in 1772. See Nichols, "Literary Anecdotes of Bowyer." Jee'jee-b'hoy', (Sir Jamset'jee,) a Hindoo mer- chant and munificent benefactor of Bombay, was born in 1783. He amassed a large fortune, and gave vast sums to benevolent institutions. The honour of knight- hood was conferred on him by Queen Victoria. Died in 1859. See " North American Review" for July, i85i,(byC. E. Norton.) Jefferson, (Thomas,) an eminent American statesman, and the third President of the United States, was born, April 2, 1743, at Shadwell, Virginia, near the spot which afterwards became his residence with the name of Mon- ticello. He was the oldest son in a family of eight children. His father, Peter Jefferson, was a man of great force of character and of extraordinary physical strength. His mother, Jane Randolph, of Goochland, was descended from an English family of great respecta- bility. Young Jefferson began his classical studies at the age of nine, and at seventeen he entered an advanced class at William and Mary College. On his way thither he formed the acquaintance of Patrick Henry, who was then a bankrupt merchant, but who afterwards became the great orator of the Revolution. At college Jefferson was distinguished by his close application, and devoted, it is said, from twelve to fifteen hours a day to study. He became well versed, we are told, in Latin, Greek, Italian, French, and Spanish, making at the same time a respectable proficiency in his mathematical studies. After a five years' course of law under Judge Wythe, he was admitted to the bar in 1767. His success in the legal profession was remarkable ; his fees for the first year amounted to nearly three thousand dollars. In 1769 Jefferson commenced his public career as a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses, in which he had, while a student of law, listened to Patrick Henry's great speech on the Stamp Act. In 1773 he united with Patrick Henry and other pa- triots in devising the celebrated committee of corre- spondence for disseminating intelligence between the colonies, of which Jefferson was one of the most active and influential members. Elected the next year to a convention to choose delegates to the first Continental Congress at Philadelphia, he drew up for their instruc- tion his famous " Summary View of the Rights of British America," which, though rejected by the convention as being too radical, was subsequently issued by the House of Burgesses, and, after some revision by Edmund Burke, passed through several editions in Great Britain. June I, 1775, Jefferson reported to the Assembly the reply of Virginia to Lord North's conciliatory proposition, and on the 2 1 St of the same month took his seat in the Continental Congress. His reputation as a statesman and accomplished writer at once placed him among the leaders of that renowned body. He served on the most important committees, and, among other labours, drew up the reply of Congress to the above proposal of Lord North, and assisted John Dickinson in preparing, in be- half of the Colonies, a declaration of the cause of taking up arms. The rejection of a final ])etition to the king having at length destroyed all hope of an honourable reconciliation with the mother-country, Congress, early in the session of 1776, appointed a committee to draw up a declaration of independence, of which Jefferson was made chairman. In this capacity he drafted, at the re- quest of the other members of the committee, (Franklin, Adams, Sherman, and R. R. Livingston,) and reported to Congress, June 28, that great charter of freedom known as the "Declaration of American Independence," which, on July 4, was adopted unanimously, and signed by every member present except John Dickinson of Pennsylvania. It may be doubted if in all history there be recorded so important an event, or if a state paper has ever been framed that has exerted, or is destined to exert, so great an influence on the destinies of a large portion of the human race. The Declaration of Independence, says Edward Everett, "is equal to anything ever born on parchment or expressed in the visible signs of thought." ** The heart of Jefferson in writing it," adds Bancroft, '* and of Congress in adopting it, beat for all humanity." In October following, Jefferson resigned his seat in Congress, and also the appointment of commissioner to France, to take part in the deliberations of the Virginia Assembly. A State Constitution had previously been adopted, to which he had furnished the preamble; and he now applied himself to a radical revision of the laws of the commonwealth, in which he was engaged for two years and a half Among other reforms, he procured the repeal of the laws of entail, the abolition of pri- mogeniture, and the restoration of the rights of con- science, — reforms which, he believed, would eradicate "every fibre of ancient or future aristocracy." He also originated a complete system of elementary and collegiate education for Virginia. In June, 1779, Jefferson succeeded Patrick Henry as Governor of Virginia, and held the office during the most gloomy period of the Revolution. He declined a re-election in 1 781, assigning as a reason that at that critical juncture "the public would have more confidence in a military chief" Two days after retiring from office, his estate at Elk Hill was laid waste, and he and his family narrowly escaped capture by the enemy. Jefferson was twice appointed, in conjunction with others, minister- plenipotentiary to negotiate a treaty of peace with Great Britain, — viz., in June, 1 781, and in November, 1782, — but was prevented, by circumstances beyond his control, from action in either instance. Returned to Congress in 1783, he reported to that body, from a committee of which he was chairman, the definitive treaty of peace, (concluded at Paris, September 3, 1783,) acknowledging the independence which had been announced in the De- claration of July 4, 1776. He also proposed, and carried through Congress at its next session, a bill establishing the present Federal system of coinage, which took the place of the English pounds, shillings, pence, etc., and reported a plan of government for the territory of the United States. In May following, (1784,) Congress ap- pointed him minister-plenipotentiary to act with Frank- lin and Adams in negotiating treaties of commerce and amity with foreign powers; and in 1785 he succeeded Dr. Franklin as resident minister at Paris. It was during this sojourn in France, which was one of the happiest periods of Jefferson's life, that he formed that strong predilection for the French nation over the English which- marked so conspicuously his subsequent career. He published, while abroad, his famous "Notes on Vir- ginia," relating to politics, commerce, manufactures, etc., (Paris, 1784,) which at once attracted general attention throughout Europe. Having obtained permission to return to America, he left Paris in September, 1789, and reached Virginia soon after the election of Washington as first President of the United States. The Federal Constitution, then recently adopted, did not meet with his approval. He declared that he did not know whether the good or the bad predominated. Subsequently, how- ever, he thought more favourably of it. In organizing the government, Washington offered him a seat in his cabinet as secretary of state, which Jefferson accepted. With Washington's administration began the fierce struggles between the two great political parties of the country, the Republicans and Federalists, — the former under the lead of Jefferson, and the latter under that of Alexander Hamilton, then secretary of the treasury. Jefferson opposed Hamilton's funding system, his United States bank, and other financial measures ; and when the war broke out between England and France he was in favour of aiding the latter with our arms, while Hamilton advocated the observance of a strict neutrality. These differences between the two rival chiefs, which were the occasion of many stormy discussions in the cabinet and of an almost unexampled political excitement throughout the country, culminated shortly after the dismissal of the French minister Genest, (Genet,) and Jefferson resigned his office, December 31, 1793, and retired to Monticello. At the close of Washington's second term he was again called into public life, as the Presidential candidate of the Republican party, John Adams being the nominee of the Federalists. In the ensuing election Adams received the highest number of votes, and was declared President ; and, according to a rule then in force, Jefferson, being € as 9 as s; | hard;'gzs j; g, h, y^, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^=°See Explanations, p. 23.) JEFFERSON 1270 JEFFREY the next highest candidate, became Vice-President. By virtue of this office he took his seat, March 4, 1797, as president of the Senate. The disputes with France, and other difficult questions, rendered the administration one of extraordinary turbulence. At its close, Jefferson and Adams were again the respective candidates of the Republican and Federal parties. In this election the Re- publicans triumphed, but cast an equal number of votes for Jefferson and Aaron Burr, — seventy-three : Adams received but sixty-five. As it was necessary that the person chosen to the first office should have a plurality of votes, the election, in these circumstances, devolved upon the House of Representatives, which, on its thirty- sixth ballot, declared Jefferson President and Burr Vice- President, their terms of office to commence March 4, 1801. Jefferson was re-elected in 1804 by an electoral vote of one hundred and forty-eight to twenty-eight, and in 1809 retired voluntarily from office, after a prosperous ad-, ministration of eight years. Among the important events that occurred during his term of office were the purchase of Louisiana, (1803,) the brilliant victories of our fleets in the Mediterranean, and peace with Morocco and Tripoli, in 1803, Lewis and Clark's overland exploring expedi- tion to the Pacific, sent out by the President in 1804, the arrest and trial of Aaron Burr for treason, 1807, and the attack, the same year, of the British war-frigate Leopard on the American frigate Chesapeake, which led to Jeffer- son's embargo act and ultimately to the second war with Great Britain. Washington and Adams had opened Con- gress with a speech ; but Jefferson preferred a written message, as being more democratic. He also initiated the policy of removing incumbents from office on the grounds of a difference in political opinion. After par- ticipating in the inauguration of his friend and successor, James Madison, Jefferson retired to Monticello, where he passed the remainder of his life in attending to his private affairs, receiving the numerous calls of friends and strangers, and in the exercise of a most liberal hos- pitality. In 1819 he took the chief part in founding the University of Virginia, at Charlottesville, near Monti- cello, and acted as its rector till his death, which occurred on the same day with that of John Adams, July 4, 1826, — the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independ- ence. The following epitaph, written by himself, is inscribed on his tombstone, a small granite obelisk, at Monticello : " Here was buried Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration of Independence, of the Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom, and Father of the Uni- versity of Virginia." As the author of the Declaration of Independence and the founder of the Republican (Demo- cratic) party, Jefferson has probably exerted a greater influence on the institutions of this country than any other American except Washington. He was regarded as the very embodiment of democracy. All titles of honour — even that of Mr. — were distasteful to him. Dressed in the plainest apparel, he was as accessible to the yeoman in his every-day garments as to a foreign dig- nitary of state. In his intercourse with others he was distinguished for his affability. His conversation was fluent, imaginative, various, and eloquent. " In Europe," wrote the Due de Liancourt, "he would hold a distin- guished rank among men of letters." His adroitness in politics and in the management of men has rarely been surpassed. In religion he was what is denominated a free-thinker. "His instincts," says Bancroft, " all in- clined him to trace every fact to a general law, and to put faith in ideal truth." Slavery he considered a moral and political evil, and declared in reference to it that he "trembled for his country when he remembered that God is just." His extreme views of State rights in later life were very much modified, and he owned that it was necessary for the general government sometimes "to show its teeth." In his prime, Jefferson was six feet two and a half inches in height, with a sinewy, well-developed frame, angular face, but amiable countenance, and ruddy com- plexion delicately fair. He had deep-set, light-hazel eyes, and hair of a reddish chestnut colour, very fine. He was married in 1772 to Mrs. Martha Skelton, daughter of John Wales, a distinguished Virginia lawyer. She brought him a large dowry in lands and slaves, about equal in value to his own property; but his liberality and generous living left him insolvent at his death. One daughter and ten grandchildren survived him. "The Memoirs, Correspondence, and Private Papers of Thomas Jefferson," in 4 vols. 8vo, edited by his grandson, Thomas Jefferson Randolph, was published at Charlottesville in 1829, and republished in London and Boston the same year, and in New York in 1830. In 1848 his manuscripts were purchased by Congress, and published under the title of " The Writings of Thomas Jefferson," in 9 vols. 8vo, 1853-55. J^is "Manual of Parliamentary Practice" is still in use among legislative bodies in this country. See, in addition to the works already mentioned, Henry S. Ran- DALi,, " Life of T. Jefferson," 3 vols., 1858 ; Geokgh: Tuckek, "Lite of Thomas Jefferson." 1836; B. L. Rayner, " Life of Thomas Jef- ferson," 1834; Theodore Dwight, "Character of T. Jefferson," 1839; W. Linn, " Life of T. Jefferson," 1835; Nicholas Biudle, "Eulogy on T. Jefferson," 1827; Griswold, "Prose Writers of America;" Duyckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. ; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1830, and October, 1837; "North American Review" for April, 1830, and January, 1835; "Westminster Review" for October, 1830; and an excellent article on Jefferson in the "New American Cyclopzedia," (by John E. Cooke.) Jef'fery or Jeffrey, (John,) an English divine, born at Ipswich in 1647. He was chosen rector of Kirton and Falkenham, in Suffolk, in 1687, appointed Archdeacon of Norwich in 1694. He published the religious works of Sir Thomas Browne. Dr. Jeffrey was strongly opposed to religious controversy. Died in 1720. See " Life of Jeffery," prefixed to his "Sermons." Jeffery or Jeffrey, (Thomas,) an English dissent- ing minister, born at Exeter about the year 1700. He was the author of several religious works, in which he displayed great ability. Of these we may mention "The True Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion," and "The Divinity of Christ proved from Holy Scrip- ture." Died about 1728. Jeffrey, (Francis,) Lord, a distinguished Scottish critic and essayist, born in Edinburgh on the 23d of Oc- tober, 1773. He was sent to the University of Glasgow in 1787, and removed in 1791 to Queen's College, Ox- ford, where he remained but a few months. In 1794 he was admitted an advocate to the Scottish bar, but for several years obtained scarcely any practice. About this time he became a member of the Speculative Soci- ety of Edinburgh, where he formed the acquaintance of several young men afterwards eminent in the literary and political world. Among these were Sydney Smith and Henry (afterwards Lord) Brougham, with whom he projected the "Edinburgh Review," the first number of which was issued in October, 1802. Three numbers were edited by Smith ; but upon his removal to London the entire charge devolved upon Jeffrey, who held the position of editor for the ensuing twenty-six years. It was successful from the first, and in a short time the circulation had increased to about nine thousand, and in 1813 it considerably exceeded twelve thousand. As Jeffrey himself expressed it, "it stood on two legs, the one being the criticism of current literature, the othei being Whig politics." The commencement of the "Ed- inburgh Review" formed a new era in English literature, and completely changed the style of the popular maga- zines. Jeffrey was the principal contributor ; and his articles in both politics and criticism attracted great atten- tion. Scott, Byron, Coleridge, Wordsworth, Moore, and other distinguished poets of that period were severely — sometimes unjustly — criticised ; but most of them after- wards became warm friends of the great reviewer. About 1802 he married his second-cousin, Catherine W'ilson, who died in 1805. In 18 13 he married an American lady in New York, named Charlotte Wilkes. Though Jeffrey devoted so much of his time to editorial labours, his practice as a lawyer greatly increased. In rapidity, flu- ency, and eloquence he had no equal at the Scottish bar. Once, while conducting the prosecution of a libel-suit at Glasgow, he poured forth such a torrent of words that the opposing counsel declared " that, by calculation with his watch, that man had actually spoken the English language twice over in three hours." In 1820 he was elected lord rector of the University of Glasgow. Nine years later he became dean of the faculty of advocates, and thereupon resigned the editorial chair of the a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; ftr, fill, fit; mlt; nSt; good; moon; JEFFRETS 1271 JELAL-ED^DEEN-ROOMEE "Edinburgh Review." In 1830 he was elected to the first Parliament of William IV. He continued in Par- liament four years, and held the office of lord advocate of Scotland under the administration of Grey. He re- ceived the appointment to a Scottish judgeship in 1834, with the honorary title of Lord. As a judge he was highly esteemed for his conscientiousness and his busi- ness qualifications. Lord Jeffrey's contributions to the " Edinburgh Review" extend over a period of nearly fifty years, and amount to over three hundred articles. The greater part of these were published, in 4 vols., in 1843. Died in January, 1850. See Lord Cockburn, "Life of Lord Jeffrey," 2 vols., 1852; Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors;" "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1852; " Blackwood's Magazine" for September and October, 1852 ; " Eraser's Magazine" for May, 1852 ; " North British Review" for May, 1850, and August, 1852. For an able, though somewhat severe, review of Jeffrey's character as a critic, see article entitled "British Critics," published in the second volume of Whipple's "Essays and Reviews," New York, 1849: (it first appeared in the " North American Review" for October, 1845.) Jerfreys, (Lord George,) Baron Wem, the infamous minion of James II., was born at Acton, in Denbighshire, and studied law at the Middle Temple. At first he pro- fessed to be a Roundhead, and was chosen recorder of London, and city judge. During his practice at the Old Bailey bar he had acquired a boundless command of the language in which the depraved express hatred and con- tempt ; and on the bench he hesitated not to pour forth torrents of oaths, curses, and vituperative epithets on attorneys, jurymen, witnesses, and prisoners. Age and merit were treated in the same manner ; for when Baxter was brought before him, on a charge of nonconformity, he railed in such a manner at that eminent divine and his counsel that it was impossible to obtain a fair trial. His voice and manners were always disagreeable ; but these, which he considered natural advantages, he had improved to such a degree that in his paroxysms of rage few could hear him unmoved. His eye had a terrible fascination for the prisoner on whom it was fixed. He appeared to delight in misery merely for its own sake. Such was the man who became the court favourite of James and chief justice of England. Jeffreys, perceiving that he had obtained all that could be expected from his old friends, sought the favour of the court. He received great attention from the Duke of York ; but the king regarded him with contempt and disgust. Not- withstanding these views, however, Jeffreys was soon made chief justice of the king's bench. Upon James's accession to the throne he was raised to the peerage, with the title of Baron Wem, and was subsequently made lord high chancellor of England. He gained great notoriety during the trials of those who had participated in the rebellion of the Duke of Monmouth. Pen can scarcely portray the atrocities committed under his juris- diction. He delighted in torturing, burning, hanging, and beheading men, women, and children, after the merest shams of trials. All these actions appeared to give great satisfaction to his sovereign. Yet his decisions are said to have been generally just and impartial where political purposes were not to be subserved. When the Prince of Orange came to England, the lord chancellor attempted to escape to the continent ; but as he was in a beer-house at Wapping, dressed as a sailor, he was discovered by an attorney whom he had formerly abused. This person gave the information to the popu- lace, who immediately seized Jeffreys and carried him before the mayor, from whence he was sent to the Lords. By them he was committed to the Tower, where he died in 1689, from the effects of his intemperance and misfortunes. See WooLRVCH, " Memoirs of the Life of G. Jeffreys," 1827 ; Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors," 1856; Mac- AULAV, " History of England," vols. i. and ii. Jeffreys, (George,) an English poet, born in North- amptonshire in 1678. He studied at Cambridge, and was admitted to the bar, but never practised. Among his productions were several tragedies, and an oratorio, entitled "The Triumph of Truth." Died in 1755. See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica." Jeflfries, jef fr^z, (John,) M.D., an American physi- cian, born in Boston in 1744. He graduated at Harvard in 1763, and took his medical degree at Edinburgh. In the Revolution he sided with the British, and became surgeon-major to the royal army in America. In 1780 he resumed his profession in London. While making some investigations in atmospheric temperature, in 1785, he crossed from England to France in a balloon. This was the first successful experiment in aeronautics on an extensive scale. He returned to Boston in 1789, and died in 1819. Jehan-Geer or Jahingir, je-han'geer', written also Djahanguir, Djehangmre, Djahan Gbyr, and Dschehangir, [i.e. the "Conqueror of the World,") one of the Mogul emperors of Hindostan, succeeded his father, the great Akbar, in 1605. Jehangeer left Memoirs of his own life. He died in 1627. He inherited nothing of the ability of his father. It was during the reign of this emperor that the celebrated embassy of Sir Thomas Roe arrived from England at the court of Delhi. See Collin de Bar, "Histoire de I'Inde;" "London Quarterly Review" for March, 1834. Je-ho'a-haz, [Heb.inXIH'; Fr. Joachaz, zho't'ktz',] son of Jeliu, ascended the throne of Israel 856 B.C., and reigned seventeen years. See IL Kings xiii. i-io. Jehoahaz, also called Shallum, succeeded his father Josiah on the throne of Judah, and reigned three months. Died about 610 B.C. See IL Chronicles xxxvi. 1-4. Jehoash. See Joash. Je-hoi'a-kim, [Heb. D'p'in' ; Fr. Joachim, zho't^- kix', ] whose name was changed by Pharaoh-Necho from Eliakim, succeeded to the throne of Judah 608 B.C., and reigned eleven years. See IL Chronicles xxxvi. 4-g. Je-hoi'a-kin or Jec-o-ni'ah was the son of the pre- ceding, whom he succeeded as King of Judah in 597 B.C., and reigned three months. See II. Kings xxiv. ; IL Chronicles xxxvi. 8-10. Je-ho'ram or Jo'ram, [Heb. □"^IH',] King of Israel, son of Ahab, succeeded to the throne 896 B.C. He was killed in battle by Jehu in 884 B.C. See II. Kings i.-x. Jehoram or Joram, son of Jehoshaphat, ascended the throne of Judah 893 or 892 B.C. Died in 885 or 884. See II. Kings viii. 15-25; II. Chronicles xxi. Je-hosh'a-phat, [Heb. DDiyiH'; Gr. 'luaadar; Fr. JOSAPHAT, zho'zt'fit',] King of Judah, a son of Asa, was born about 950 B.C. He began to reign in 914, formed an alliance with Ahab, King of Israel, and reigned twenty-five years. He had a high reputation for piety and justice. See II. Chronicles xvii.-xxii. Je'hu, [Heb. NIH',] King of Israel, was an officer in the army of King Jehoram, when he was anointed king by a young prophet sent by Elisha in 884 B.C. He killed Jehoram, and reigned about twenty-eight years. See IL Kings ix. and x. Jek'yll,'(Sir Joseph,) a distinguished lawyer and statesman, born in Nottinghamshire in 1664. He was a prominent member of the Whig party during the reign of Queen Anne, and was knighted upon the accession of George I. He was afterwards master of the rolls, and privy councillor. Died in 1738. Jekyll, (Joseph,) M.P., a witty English barrister, born about 1752, was distinguished by his talent for epigram and repartee. He became solicitor-general to the Prince of Wales in 1805. Died in 1837. Jeiai-ed-Deen or Djelal-Eddin, jeh-lil' ed-deen', (i.e. the " Splendour (or Glory) of Religion,") written also Jalal-ed-Deen and Djalal-Eddin, King of Khorasmia, who succeeded his father, Ala-ed-Deen, in 1218, was re- nowned for his military ability and enterprise. He fought numerous battles against Jengis Khan with various suc- cess. It is said that he afterwards abandoned himself to indolence and pleasure, and when a Mongol army in- vaded his capital he fled, and was killed, in 1231. See "Nouvelle Biographie Geiierale." Jeiai-ed-Deen-Roomee, (Jeiai-ed-Diii-Rumi or Djelal-ed-dyn-Roumy,) jeh-llK ed-deen-roo'mee, one of the most eminent Persian poets, born at Bulkh or Balkh, in Khorassan, about 1200. His father was a € as ^; 9 as s; g Aard; g as G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilledy s as 2; as in this, (^;:^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) JELLACHICH 1272 JENNENS noted doctor and preacher of the Soofee sect, who set- tled at Iconium, (Konieh,) in Asia Minor, (called in Arabic and Persian Room, because it was part of the empire of Rome.) At his death, in 1233, Jelal-ed-Deen became the chief of the Soofees. His Mes'newee" (" Mesnewi") or '* Mesnevee," [i.e. poem with rhyming couplets,) less correctly written "Metsnewee" or " Metsnevi," is re- garded as an excellent model of the mystical style. " This precious pearl of the ocean of mysticism departed from this fragile world" in 1272. Jellachich von Buzim, von, fon yel'lS-KiK' fon boot'sim, (Franz,) Baron, an Austrian general, born in 1746, fought with distinction in the principal campaigns of the French Revolution, and rose to be lieutenant- field-marshal in 1800. Died in 1810. Jellachich von Buzim, von, (Joseph,) Ban of Cro- atia, son of the preceding, was born at Peterwardein in 1801. In the revolution of 1848 he was appointed Ban, or commander-in-chief, of the Croats, and had the prin- cipal share in the victory of Schwechat, near Vienna, over the Hungarians. He gained several advantages over General Bem, but was at length defeated, (1849,) ^'""d forced to retreat with considerable loss. Died in 1859. See Balleydier, " Histoire de la Guerre de Hongrie." Jellinek, yeKle-nek^, (Adolph,) a German philologist, of Jewish extraction, born in Moravia in 1820, has written on the Cabala and on Oriental philology. See JosT, " Adolphe Jellinek et la Kabbale," 1852. Jem or Djem, jim, sometimes called Zizim, a Turkish prince, born in 1459, was a son of Mahomet H., and younger brother of Bayazeed, (Bajazet.) At the death of his father he aspired to sovereign power, but was de- feated in battle by Bayazeed, (1481.) Jem became an exile, passed some years in France, and died in Italy in 1495. Jemlah or Djemlah, jSm'la, [Hindoo pron. jiim''la,] (Mohammed, mo-ham'med,) called Ameer (or Emir) AL Omra, {i.e. " Prince of the Nobles,") a famous states- man and general, born near Ispahan. In 1652 he entered the service of Aurung-Zeb, and was raised to the rank of first vizier of the Mogul empire. Having been appointed Viceroy of Bengal, he commanded in 1659 an expedition against Assam, in which he displayed great talents and prudence. Died in 1665. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Jemsheed or Jemshid, jgm-sheed', written also Djemchyd, Dschemschid, and Jamshid, an ancient Persian king, supposed to have ascended the throne about 800 B.C. He greatly improved and embellished the city of Istakhar, or Persepolis, the ruins of which are now known by the name of Chilminar, ("Forty Pillars.") Tradition ascribes to him the introduction of the solar year among the Persians, and the invention of tents. He was dethroned by Zohak, an Arabian. See Atkinson, "Abridgment of the Shah Nameh of Firdausi;" D'Herbelot, " Bibliotheque Orientale." Jemshid or Jemschid. See Jemsheed. Jengis Khan, jgn'gis Kan, (written also Djenguiz Khan, Dschengis Chan, Tchenguyz Khan, Chingis Khan, and in various other modes,*) a celebrated Tartar conqueror, born in 1 164, was the son of a Mongolian chief. Having subdued a number of Mongol and Tartar tribes, he caused himself to be proclaimed khan of the nation, and about 1210 invaded China, took Peking, (1215,) and in a few years gained possession of the northern prov- inces. In 1218 he marched against Mohammed Koteb- ed-Deen, King of Khorasmia, whom he defeated, and afterwards destroyed Bokhara, Samarcand, and other cities. Having subjected the whole of Persia, he gained a victory over the King of Tangoot, and was proceeding towards the south of China, when he died in 1227, leaving the principal part of his empire to his son Oktai. Jengis Khan is said to have caused the destruction of five mil- lions of human beings. He gave a code of laws, which is still called by his name. See De Guignes, "Histoire generale des Huns," etc. ; Petis DE LA Croix, "Histoire du grand Geiighi/.can ;" A. Remusat, "Nouvelles Melanges Asiatiques ;" Von Hammer-Purgstai.l, "Gesciiichte der Goldenen Horde in Kiptschak," 1840; Antoine Gaiibil, "Histoire de Gentchiscan," 1739; Abooi.feda, "Annales Mosleniici ;" Karamzin, " Histoire de Riissie." * This name is written in more than twenty different modes, not counting such forms (like Gentchiscan) as are manifest errors. Jenichen or lenichen, ya'ne-Ken, (Gottlob Au- gust,) a German jurist and bibliographer, born at Leipsic in 1709 ; died in 1750. Jenisch, von, fon ya'nish, (Bernhard,) Baron, a German Orientalist, born at Vienna in 1743, became in 1772 keeper of the Imperial Library. He pub- lished " Persian Anthology," (•' Anthologia Persica," 1778,) and a "History of the Early Kings of Persia after the Establishment of the Mohammedan Religion," ("Historia priorum Regum Persarum post firmatum in Regno Islamismum ex Mohamede Mirkhond," 1792.) Died in 1807. • Jenischius, yi-nis'Ke-us, (Paul,) a Dutch or Flemish writer, born at Antwerp in 1558. He published "Thea- trum Animarum." Died in 1647. Jenk'in, (Robert,) an English divine, born in the isle of Thanet in 1656. He was educated at Can.bridge, and received several preferments ; but, refusing to take the oaths of allegiance to William and Mary, he was deprived of them all. He wrote " The Reasonableness of the Christian Religion," (1696,) and several other works. Died in 1727. Jenkin or Jenk'yn, (William,) an English Puritan minister, born at Sudbury in 1612. He preached many years in London, and published an " Exposition of the Epistle of Jude," (1652,) which is called an excellent work. His ministry was highly commended by Baxter. He died in Newgate prison in 1685. See J. Sherman, " Memoir of William Jenkin," 1839. Jenk'ins, (Albert G.,) an American general, born in Cabell county, Virginia, about 1830. He represented a district of Virginia in Congress, .1857-61. He served under General Lee at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863, and was killed at the battle of the Wilderness, May 5, 1864. Jenk'ins, (David,) a Welsh judge, was born in Gla- morganshire in 1586. After the commencement of the civil war he condemned to death several persons who had fought against the king. He was taken prisoner by the Parliamentary forces, and confined in the Tower, in 1645. Having been brought before the House of Com- mons on. a charge of high treason, he refused to kneel, and called the House "a den of thieves." He was fined ;^iooo, and imprisoned in Newgate. He was released about 1660. He wrote several legal works. Died in 1667. See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." Jenk'ins, (Henry,) an Englishman, celebrated for his longevity, born in Yorkshire in 1 501 ; died in 1670. Jenkins, (John,) an English musician and composer, born at Maidstone in 1592; died in 1678. Jenkins, (John S.,) an American biographer of the present century. He published, besides other works, *' Lives of the Governors of the State of New York," a " Life of Silas Wright," and a " Life of Andrew Jack- son," (1847.) Jenkins, (Sir Leoline,) a British civilian and states- man, born in Glamorganshire in 1623. He fought on the king's side in the civil war, and on the death of Charles became tutor to several families in Wales. He was sub- sequently obliged by Parliament to leave the country. After the restoration he was chosen principal of Jesus College, Cambridge. In 1665 he was appointed judge in the court of admiralty, and in 1672 ambassador to Holland. On his return he became secretary of state. He was twice chosen member of Parliament for the University of Oxford. His letters and manuscrii)ts, con- taining valuable diplomatic information, were published, in 2 vols,, in 1724. Died in 1685. See Wynne, " Life of Sir L. Jenkins," 1724 ; " Biographia Bri- tannica." Jenk'in-son, (Anthony,) an Englishman, travelled in Russia and Persia about 1560. His Adventures were published by Halcluyt and Purchas. Jenkinson, (Charles.) See Liverpool, Earl of. Jenkinson, (Robert.) See Liverpool, Earl of. Jenks, (Benjamin,) an English religious writer, born in 1646, was curate of Kenley and Harley. He wrote " Prayers and Ofiices of Devotion," (1697,) and " Medi- tations on Important Subjects," (1701.) Died in 1724. Jen'nens, (Charles,) a rich and vain Englishman, called " Solyman the Magnificent." He composed or a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, 5^, short; a, ^, j, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fdt> mgt; n6t; good; moon; JENNER 273 JEROME selected the words of some of Handel's oratorios, and edited several plays of Shakspeare. Died in 1773. Jen'ner, (Edward,) M.D., celebrated for having in- troduced the practice of vaccination, was born at Berke- ley, in Gloucestershire, England, in 1749. He studied surgery at Sodbury, and afterwards went to London, where he attended the lectures of the celebrated John Hunter, with whom he formed an intimate friendship. He commenced practice at Berkeley, and obtained a high reputation for skill. His attention was first called to the subject of vaccination by hearing a countrywoman remark that she could not take the smallpox, because she had had the cow-pox. Upon investigating the subject, he ascertained that milkers frequently caught a disease from an eruption on the cow's udder, and that to such per- sons it was impossible to communicate the smallpox by inoculation. Jenner related the circumstance to several eminent men in the profession ; but they treated it with ridicule. By further experiments he clearly demonstrated the fact that from one of the several eruptions to which cows were subject, the true cow-pox, as he termed it, could be propagated to the human body, and then from one person to another, and that this was a preventive of the smallpox. After nearly twenty years of experiments, he published "An Enquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae," (1798;) and soon after more than seventy physicians and surgeons signed a declara- tion of their entire confidence in the truth of Jenner's theory. He was rewarded by Parliament for his dis- covery by a present of 10,000 in 1802, and a grant of ;^20,ooo in 1807. He also received marks of distinction from the Emperor of Russia and the King of Prussia. Died in 1823. See Dr. John Baron, "Life of Dr. Jenner," 1827; Dr. Valen- tin, " Notice historiaue surleDocieur Jenner," Nancy, 1824; Wan- lop, "Hulde aan L. Jenner," Rotterdam, 1812; J. A. Dupau, •'Notice liistorique siir le Dr. E. Jenner," 1824; " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale ;" "Encyclopedia Britannica." Jenner, (William,) F.R.S., an English physician, born at Chatham in 1815, graduated in London in 1844. He became professor of anatomy in University College in 1848, and professor of clinical medicine there in 1857. He was appointed physician-in -ordinary to the queen in 1862, and physician-in-ordinary to the Prince of Wales in 1863. Jen'nings, (David,) a learned dissenting minister, born in Leicestershire, England, in 1691. He was ap- pointed to an Independent church in Wapping, where he preached about forty years. He wrote "An Appeal to Reason and Common Sense for the Truth of the Holy Scriptures," " An Introduction to the Knowledge of Medals," (1763,) and a "Treatise on Jewish Antiqui- ties," (1766, often reprinted.) Died in 1762. Jennings, (Henry Constantine,) an English an- tiquary and virtuoso, born at Shiplake, Oxfordshire, in 1 73 1. He had a passion for the collection of medals, antiquities, and works of art, by the purchase of which he ruined his fortune. Died in 1819. Jennings, (Sarah.) See Marlborough, Duchess OF. ^ Jen'our, (Alfred,) an English divine and scholar, was rector of Kittisford, in Somersetshire. He pub- lished in 1830 a "Translation of Isaiah, with Notes," (2 vols.) Jenson, (Nicholas.) See Janson. Jen';^ns, (Soame,) a distinguished writer and politi- cian, born in London in 1704, was educated at Cam- bridge. At the age of twenty he married a young lady of a large fortune, from whom he soon after separated. He was several times elected to Parliament, and in 1755 was made a lord of trade. In politics he was a Tory. His writings are conspicuous for elegance of style, wit, and discrimination. Among them we may mention "A Free Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Evil," (1757,) "View of the Internal Evidence of the Christian Reli- gion," (1776,) a work which attracted great attention, and several poetical productions. Died in 1787. See C. Nelson Cole, "Life of Soaine Jenyns," 1790; Johnson and Chalmers, " Lives of the English Poets;" "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., 1820. Jeph'spn, (Robert,) a dramatic writer, and captain in the English army, was born in Ireland in 1 736. He wrote, besides other works, the tragedies of " Braganza," ( 1775,) and "The Count of Narbonne," which were successful, and a poem entitled "Roman Portraits," (1797.) He was master of the horse under twelve successive viceroys of Ireland. Died in 1803. Jeph'thah, [Heb. nn3%] a judge of Israel, about 1200 B.C. See Judges xi. and xii. Jer'dan, (William,) a writer and critic, born at Kelso, in Scotland, in 1782. He formed a connection about 1805 with a newspaper in London called the "Aurora," and in 1817 established the "Literary Ga- zette," which he edited in an able manner until 1850. At this time he was granted a pension by government of one hundred guineas per annum. He published an interesting work, entitled "Men I have known," (1866.) Died in 1869. See his "Autobiography," 4 vols., 1852-53. Jereer, Jerir, or Djerir, jgh-reeR', fin German, DscHERiR,] or, more fully, Jereer-Ibn-Ateeyah-At- tenieemee, (Attemimi,) ib'n i'tee'yah St-te-mee^nee, surnamed Akoo- (Abu-) Hazrah, (i'boo hSz^ra,) a celebrated Arabian poet, who lived at Bassora, (Basra,) whence he was called El-Basree, (or -Basry.) He excelled in almost every kind of poetry, in panegyric, and in amatory pieces, but was most distinguished for his wit and satiric powers. He died about 730 (or, according to some authorities, about 700) a.d. See article "Djerir" in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Jer-e-mi'ah, [Heb. TTD")' or irTD"^'' ; Lat. Jeremi'as ; Fr. JER^MIE," zha-'ra^me'; Ger. Jeremias, ya-ra-mee-'is ; It. Geremia, ja-rk-niee'i,] a prophet of Judah, who lived about 600 B.C., was one of the four great pro])hets of the Bible, He was the author of the greater part of the book in the Old Testament which bears his name, and of all the book of Lamentations. He is called Jeremy in the New Testament. (Matthew xxvii. 9.) Died about 580 B.C. Jeremiah was Patriarch of Constantinople in 1572. The Lutherans sent him a copy of the Confession of Augsburg, hoping to obtain his approval of it ; but, on the contrary, he condemned it in many of his writings. Jeiemie. See Jeremiah. Jeremie, jer'e-me, (Sir John,) an eloquent lawyer, born in Guernsey in 1795, at the age of twenty was admitted to the bar. In 1824 he was appointed chief justice of Saint Lucia, in the West Indies. When he first went to that island he was opposed to the abolitionists ; but, improving the opportunities which he possessed of investigating the subject of slavery, he formed very different views. During the time that he held office in Saint Lucia he ably enforced the laws for the ameliora- tion of the condition of the slaves. On his return to England, in 183 1, he published " Four Essays on Colonial Slavery." In 1836 he became justice of the supreme court of Ceylon, and four years later Governor and Cap- tain-General of Sierra Leone, where he died in 1841. He was the author of a "Letter on Negro Emancipation and African Civilization." Jerir. See Jereer. Jermolov, (Alexis Petrovitch.) See Yermolok. Jerningham, jer'ning-am, (Edward,) an English poet, born in 1727. Of his productions we may cite "The Rise and P'all of Scandinavian Poetry," "Essay on the Mild Tenour of Christianity," and "The Shakspeare Gallery," which was praised by Edmund Burke. Died in 1812. Jer-o-bo'am [Heb. D>'3"\''] I., first King of Israel, was elected king by the ten tribes who had revolted from Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, 975 B.C. Died about 954 B.C. See I. Kings xi. to xv. ; IL Chronicles ix. to xiv. Jeroboam II., a son of Joash, became King of Israel in 834 or 825 B.C., and reigned forty-one years. See IL Kings xii. Jerome, je-rom' or j^r'om, [Lat. Hieron'ymus; Fr. Jerome, zh^'rom'; Ger. Hierom, hee'rom ; It Giro- LAMO, je-roKa-mo ; Sp. Geronimo, Ha-ron'e-mo,] Saint, or, more fully, Eu-se'bi-us Hi-er-on'y-mus So-phro'- ni-us, one of the most learned of the Latin Fathers of € as 5 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, Yi> guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^="See Explanations, p. 23.) / JEROME 1274 JESSENIUS the Church, was bom at Stridon, in Dalniatia or in Pan- nonia, about 340 a.d. After receiving his education at Rome, he visited Gaul, where he collected a valuable library. He next travelled through Thrace, Pontus, and Cappadocia, and finally fixed his residence in Syria. He subsequently went to Jerusalem to study Hebrew. About 382 he returned to Rome, and became secretary to Pope Damasus. Upon the death of that pontiff he removed to a monastery at Bethlehem, where he died in 420 A.D. A large portion of his writings were of a controversial character, exhibiting great learning, eloquence, and in- genuity, though too often betraying bigotry, passion, and bitterness. But the works by which he will ever be remembered and honoured are a treatise on the " Lives and Writings of the Elder Christian Fathers," " Com- mentaries on the Prophetical Books of the Old Testa- ment, the Gospel of Saint Matthew, and several of the Epistles of Saint Paul," and a translation of the Old and New Testaments into Latin, known in the Romish Church as the " Vulgate." See Erasmus, " Vita Doctoris Hieronymi," Bale, 1519 ; Schrokh, " Kirchenjieschichte," vol xi. ; Maktianav, " Vie de Saint-Jerome," 1706; F. Z. CoLLOMBET, " Histoirc de Saint-Jerome," 1844; Jose DE SiGUENZA, " Vida de San Geronimo," Madrid, 1595 ; Sebastiano DoLCi," Maximus Hieronymus Vitze suae Scriptor," etc., 1758 ; Ville- MAiN, "Tableau de I'Eloquence chretienne au quatrieme Siecle," 1857; ViNCENZO RoMANi, " Compcndio storico della Vita e degii Scritti di S. Girolamo," 2 vols., 1844; Ersch uiid Gruber, "Allge- meine Encyklopaedie." Jerome of Santa F6, (sin'tl f^,) a learned Spanish Jew, who lived about 1420. His Hebrew name was Joshua Larchi.- After making a careful examination of the prophecies in regard to the Messiah, he was con- vinced of the truth of Christianity. He wrote a treatise on the errors of the Jewish faith, and another against the Talmud. Jerome de Cardie. See Hieronymus. Jeromeof Prague, [Lat. Hieron'ymus Pragen'sis,] one of the most distinguished followers of John Huss, was born in the city from which he took his surname. He studied at the Universities of Paris, Heidelberg, and Co- logne, each of which conferred upon him the diploma of D.D. About 1400 he became acquainted with John Huss, whose doctrines he soon after began to preach with great effect in Bohemia, Hungary, and Poland. In 141 5, when Huss was arrested, Jerome prepared to go to Constance to defend him. Being informed, however, of the great hostility felt there towards reputed heretics, he retired to Eberlingen, and afterwards attempted to return to Bohemia, but was arrested, and placed in the custody of the Prince of Salzburg, who sent him in chains to Constance, where he was thrown into prison and treated with great cruelty. On a third examination before the council, he signed a recantation of the doctrines of Huss in regard to transubstantiation ; but a few months after he bitterly repented of this, and declared that fear of a cruel death alone induced him to do it. He was thereupon condeinned as a heretic, and sentenced to be burnt on the 30th of May, 1416. He suffered with the greatest firmness, serenity, and Christian heroism, and his death excited the highest admiration even in his enemies. See " J. Hussi et Hieronymi Pragensis Historia at Monumenta;" CocHL^us, "Historia Hussitarum." Jer'ram, (Charles,) an English theologian, born in 1770, was vicar of Chobham, Surrey. He published, besides other works, " Conversations on Infant Baptism," {2d edition, 1826.) Died about 1853. See " Memoirs of C. Jerrani," by his son, 1855. Jer'rpld, (Douglas William,) celebrated as a hu- mourist, a journalist, and a dramatical and satirical writer, was born in London in 1803. He was the son of the manager of Sheerness Theatre, where he imbibed his taste for dramatic literature. Pie was apprentice^ to a printer in London, in which situation he diligently improved his leisure hours in the study of literature and the languages. Shakspeare was his favourite book. His first production was an essay on the opera of " Der Frei- schiitz," which he enclosed anonymously to the editor by whom he was then employed. The article was highly commended, and Jerrold had the satisfaction of placing it in type. Thus encouraged, he wrote "Black-Eyed Susan," (about 1824,) one of the most popular dramas ever acted on the English stage. This was followed by several other plays of great merit. He afterwards be- came a contributor to " Punch," the popularity of which was rapidly increased by his satirical and witty produc- tions. He also edited successively "The Heads of the People," "The Illuminated Magazine," "The Shilling Magazine," and " Lloyd's Weekly." All of these were very successful, and the last had an immense circulation. Many of his writings have been issued in volume form, among which we may mention " Mrs. Caudle's Curtain Lectures," (new edition, 1846,) "Chronicles of Clover- nook," (1846,) "Saint Giles and Saint James," (1851,) "Prisoner of War," "Time Works Wonders," (1854,) and the "Bubbles of the Day." Died in 1857. See "The Wit and Opinions of Douglas Jerrold," edited bv his son, W. B. Jerrold, 1858; "Life and Letters of D. Jerrold," by W. B. Jkrrold, 1859; "New Spirit of the Age," bv R. H. Horne, London, 1844; "North British Review" for May, 1859. Jerrold, (William Blanchard,) a son of the pre- ceding, was born in London in 1826. He published, besides other works, "A Brage-Beaker with the Swedes, or Notes from the North," (1853,) and "Life of Douglas Jerrold," (1859.) He succeeded his father as editor of " Lloyd's Weekly News." Jerusalem, yi-roo'zi-lim', (Johann Friedrich Wilhelm,) a celebrated Protestant divine and pulpit orator, born at Osnabriick, in Germany, in 1709. He was appointed in 1740 court preacher to Duke Charles of Brunswick, and soon after became tutor to his son. Prince Charles William. Through his influence the Caroline College was established at Brunswick. In 1771 he was created vice-president of the consistory at Wol- fenbiittel. He published, besides sermons, " Contem- plations on the Principal Truths of Religion," (5 vols., 1768-79.) Died in 1789. The suicide of his son, Karl Wilhelm, suggested to Goethe the story of " Werther." See Jerusalem, " Entwurf einer Selbstbiographie ;" " Lebens- geschichte des seeligen Jerusalem," 1790. Jer'vas, (Charles,) a portrait-painter, and native of Ireland, born about 1675. His chief excellence lay in copying. He gav€ lessons to Pope the poet, who highly praises him in the "Epistle to Jervas." Died in 1739. See Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting." Jer'vis, (John,) Earl of Saint Vincent, and admiral of the British fleet, born at Meaford, in Staffordshire, in 1734. He entered the navy when ten years old, and in 1760 became a post-captain. In 1778 he commanded an eighty-gun ship in Keppel's action against the French, and in 1782 captured the Pegase, of seventy-four guns. He sat in Parliament several years for various boroughs, until the commencement of the French Revolution, when he sailed at the head of a squadron to the West Indies, with the rank of rear-admiral. He captured Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Saint Lucia. In 1795 he was made admiral of the blue, and commander of the naval force in the Mediterranean. He encountered the Spanish fleet off Cape Saint Vincent in February, 1797, and, though their force was double his own, he gained a complete victory. For this exploit he received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament, and a pension of ;i^3000, and was raised to the peerage, with the titles of Earl of Saint Vin- cent and Baron Jervis of Meaford. He was ap])ointed first lord of the admiralty in i8oi,and retired from that office in 1804. He became admiral of the fleet in 1821. Died in 1823. See E. P. Brenton, "Life of Earl Saint Vincent," 2 vols., 1838. Jesabel, the French of Jezebel, which see. Jesi, ya'see, (Samuele,) an Italian engraver, born at Milan about 1789, executed a number of excellent plates, after Raphael. Died in 1853. Jesid. See Yezeed. Jes'se, (Edward,) an English naturalist and writer, published, besides other works, "Gleanings in Natural History," (3 vols., 1832-35,) and "Scenes and Tales of Country Life," (1844.) l^ied in 1868. Jesse, (John JIeneage,) an English poet and his- torical writer of the present age. Among his works are "Memoirs of the Court of England during the Reign of the Stuarts," (4 vols., 1839-40,) and "Memoirs of the Pretenders and their Adherents," (2 vols., 1845.) Jessenius, y§s-sa'ne-us, (Johann,) a physician, born in Hungary in 1566, was employed by the Emperor of 5, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, f^t; m^t; n6t; g'Xid; moon; JESSET 1275 JOAN Germany. In 162 1 he was condemned and executed for having attempted to incite his countrymen to revolt against the house of Austria. Jes'sey, (Henry,) a learned English divine, born in Yorkshire about 1600. He was ordained after the Epis- copal forms, and obtained a living. He subsequently became minister of a Baptist congregation. He com- menced a new translation of the Bible, but, from the persecutions which he suffered for his religious belief, was unable to finish it. He died in jjrison in 1663. Jes'sup, (Thomas S.,) an American general, born in 1790 ; died in i860. Je'sus or Jesh'u-a, son of Sirach, a learned Jew, asd the author of the apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus. He was a native of Jerusalem, and is supposed to have lived about 200 B.C. Je'ter, (Jeremiah B.,) D.D., an American Baptist divine and author, born in Bedford county, Virginia, in 1802, became pastor in Richmond. He published several works. Jeuffroy, zhuh'fRwS', (R. V.,) a distinguished French ^ engraver of gems and medals, born at Rouen in 1749. He was a member of the Institute. Died in 1826. Jeune, le, leh zhun, (Jean,) a celebrated French preacher, born in Franche-Con^te in 1592; died in 1672. His sermons were published in 10 vols. Jevhery or Djevhery, jgv'hi-ree, (Ismaeel-Ibn- Ham'mad,) an Arabian lexicographer, born at Farab. After travelling through various countries, he settled at Nishapoor, in Persia, where, in 999, he published one of the most perfect of Arabian dictionaries, of which Golius made extensive use in his "Lexicon Arabicum." Died about 1005. Jev'on, (Thomas,) an English dramatic writer and actor, who died in 1688, aged about thirty-five. Jew'ell or Jew'el, (John,) Bishop of Salisbury, one of the earliest champions of the Episcopal Church, born at Buden, in Devonshire, in 1522. He studied at Oxford, aod graduated in 1540. Under the reign of Edward VI. he openly avowed the Protestant faith, and assisted Peter Martyr in his dispute with the Catholic theologians at Oxford. After the accession of Mary he fled to Ger- many, (1555,) and at Strasburg again met Martyr, whom he assisted on some of his works. When Elizabeth ascended the throne, Jewell returned to England, and was ordained Bishop of Salisbury in 1559 or 1560. In this position he continued to labour diligently for the advancement of the Protestant religion. He died in 1571, greatly esteemed for his eminent piety and vast theological knowledge. His writings are principally of a controversial nature, and are still highly valued. The most important of these is " Apologia Ecclesiaa Anglicanae," ("Apology for the Church of England," 1562,) written in elegant Latin, and translated into English by the mother of Lord Bacon. Versions were also rendered of it into Dutch, French, German, Greek, Italian, and Spanish ; and it is said to have done more for the promotion of the Reformation than any other work. Jewell also wrote a " Defence of the Apology," (1567,) in answer to Harding, a Roman Catholic, who had attacked him. See L. HuMFREV, "Life of Jewell," 1573; C. W. Le Bas, "Life of Bishop Jewell," 1835 ; Burnet, " History of the Reformation ;" " Biographia Britannica." Jews'bur-y, (Geraldine Endsor,) younger sister of Mrs. Fletcher, noticed below, was born at Manchester in 1821. She published a number of novels, among which mav be named " Zoe, or the History of Two Lives," (1845,) "Marian Withers," (1851,) and "The Sorrows of Gentility," (1856.) Jewsbury, (Maria Jane,) an English authoress, born in Warwickshire about 1800. Among her principal works are " Phantasmagoria, or Sketches of Life and Literature," (1825,) "Lays of Leisure Hours," (1829,) and "Three Histories." Having been married in 1832 or 1833 to the Rev, William Fletcher, she accompanied him to India, where she died in 1833. She was an intimate friend of Wordsworth, who has eulogized her character and talents. He said he considered her "unrivalled in one quality, — quickness in the motions of her mind." Jez'e-bel, [Heb. S^PK; Fr. J^sabel, zhk'zl'hlV,] a daughter of Ethbaal, King of the Zidonians, and wife of Ahab, King of Israel. She was notorious for her cruelty and ill faith. She was killed by being thrown out of a window by the order of Jehu. See L Kings xvi. ; IL Kiwgs ix. Jezid or Jezed. See Yezeed. Jezzar or Djezzar Ahmed, jez'zar Sn'mSd, a Pasha of Acre and Sidon, notorious for his cruelty, was born in Bosnia. After being a slave of Ali Bey in Egypt, he became governor of Cairo. In 1775 '^'^^^ appointed Pasha of Acre and Sidon, and about 1784 he received the Three Tails. In 1799 he was defeated by the French, and shut himself in Saint-Jean-d'Acre, which, with the aid of Sir Sidney Smith, he successfully defended against Bonaparte. Died in 1804. Jiiia, jin'a, [a Sanscrit word signifying "victorious,"] one of the many names applied to Vishnu : also the name of a celebrated sage, (called also Jaina, ji'na,) the founder of the sect of Jains or Jainas. As the Hindoos have no trustworthy history, it seems impos- sible to determine positively the character of the Jains. They are commonly regarded as a division or offshoot of the Booddhists ; although in one passage of the " Bhagavat" Jina is spoken of as the father of Booddha. Thus much only is certain, that in some of their tenets and customs the Jains closely resemble the Booddhists. See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon," and an excellent article on the Jains, by Mr. Colebrooke, in "Asiatic Researches," vol. ix. p. 288. Jo'ab, [Heb. chief captain of the armies of Israel under King David. See IL Samuel iii., iv., x., xviii., xix., xx. ; I. Kings ii. Jo'a-ehim, [It. Gioacchino, jo-Sk-kee'no,] an Italian monk, founded the monastery of Flora, in Calabria. He wrote several heretical works, in which he advanced the doctrines of tritheism. Died in 1202 or 1207. Joachim, (George.) See Rh/ETicus. Joachim, yo'i-Kim, (Johann Friedrich,) a German historian and medallist, born at Halle in 17 13. He was professor of history and law at Halle, and wrote several works on history and numismatics. Died in 1667. Joachim Murat. See Murat. Joan or Jo-an'na [Fr. Jeanne, zhtn ; It. Gio- VANNA, jo-vdn'na] I., Queen of Naples, a daughter of Charles, Duke of Calabria, was born in 1327. She was married to Andrew, Prince of Hungary, and in 1343 suc- ceeded her grandfather, Robert, King of Naples. In 1345 Andrew was murdered by conspirators, probably with the connivance of Joan, who soon after married Prince Louis of Tarentum. To avenge the death of Andrew, Louis, King of Hungary, invaded Naples and expelled Joan from the kingdom. Having gained the favour of the pope by ceding Avignon to him, she was restored to the throne in 1352. She was married in 1376 to her fourth husband, Otho of Brunswick, but continued to be child- less. In 1381 Naples was invaded by Charles Durazzo, who captured Joan and put her to death in 1382. See "Historical Life of Joanna of Sicily," London, 2 vols., 1824; GiANNONE, " Storia civile del Regno di Napoli ;" V. Mignot, " His- toirede Jeanne I, Reine de Naples," 1764; D. Crivelli, " Delia prima e della seconda Giovanna, Regine di Napoli," 1832; " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale," (under " Jeanne ;")" London Quarterly Review" for December, 1824, "Monthly Review" for December, 1S24. Joan (or Giovanna) II., daughter of the Duke of Durazzo, succeeded her brother Ladislaus on the throne of Naples in 1414. She was notorious for her licentious conduct and the number of her favourites. She died in 1435, leaving the kingdom in a very unsettled state. See D. Crivelli, " Della prima e della seconda Giovanna, Regine di Napoli," 1832; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Joan, Pope, supposed by many to have been a fabu- lous character, is placed by several writers in the ninth century. Having assumed male attire, she went to Rome, and became so celebrated for her ecclesiastical know- ledge that upon the death of Leo IV. she was unani- mously elected pope. She was, however, one day seized with the pains of childbirth as she was proceeding to the Lateran Basilica, and died in the street, after a pontificate of two years, five months, and four days. She was buried without honours. Other accounts state that upon the discovery of the imposture she was stoned to death by the populace. The Protestants have been accused of fabri- € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^(^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) JOAN 276 JOAO eating the account ; but it has been satisfactorily proved that it was in circulation as early as the twelfth century. See J. Lenfant, " Histoire de la Papesse Jeanne," 1730; S. Baring-Goulu, "Curious Myths of the Middle Ages," 1867. Joan, Queen of Castile, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella the Catholic, was marfied in 1496 to Philip, Archduke of Austria. In 1500 she gave birth to Prince Carlos, afterwards Charles V. of Germany. She soon after lost her reason ; and when, upon the death of Isa- bella, she became Queen of Castile, it was necessary that a regent should be appointed. Died in 1555. See Prescott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella;" Mariana, "Historia de Espaiia." Joan, (Jeanne,) daughter and heiress of Henry I. of Navarre, and queen of Philippe le Bel of France, was born in 1272. Upon her marriage with the French monarch she retained authority over her hereditary do- minions of Navarre and Champagne. She carried on a successful war against the Castilians and Aragonese, assisted her husband in the councils and administration of affairs in France, established a college in Navarre, and was a liberal patroness of learning. In 1297, Count de Bar having invaded Champagne, the queen marched against him at the head of her troops, cut his army in pieces, and carried him prisoner to Paris. Died in 1305. Joan d'Albret. See Jeanne d'Albret. Joan of Arc, or Jeanne Dare, zhtn diRk, surnamed THE Maid of Orleans, [Fr. La Pucelle d'Orl^ans, It pii's^K doR''la'6N',] the most illustrious of the hero- ines of history, was born in the hamlet of Dom-Remy, in Lorraine, about 141 1. She was the daughter of poor and religious peasants, who implanted in her heart at an early age the seeds of that exalted enthusiasm which subsequently obtained so absolute an ascendency over her character. At this time the rival factions of the Orleanists or Armagnacs and the Burgundians deso- lated France by their wars. The former supported the claims of Charles VII. ; while the latter had sworn al- legiance to Henry V. of England. Joan from infancy had imbibed the principles of the Orleanists, by whom she was surrounded. Her devotion to their cause was increased by the cruelties which she frequently saw the enemy commit. She was untiring in her efforts to re- lieve the sufferings of the poor around her, and even sold her bed and the greater part of her clothing in order to procure them supplies. She afterwards stated that as early as the age of thirteen she received commands from Heaven to go and liberate France. These commands continued to be repeated ; but her parents endeavoured to suppress her enthusiasm. She, however, obtained the assistance of an uncle, who introduced her to De Baudricourt, the commander of a neighbouring fortress, before whom her voices, as she termed them, had or- dered her to lay her divine commission. That officer at first treated her assertions with scorn; but finally, on account of the disasters that his prince had suffered, he gave her the assistance which she had requested, and in February, 1429, with a guard of five or six men, she set out on her journey for Chinon, where Charles then held his court. At this time his cause appeared to be almost desperate. Orleans, which was the only place of importance that remained to him, was closely besieged by the English. Joan appeared before him, and declared that her mission was to raise the siege and to conduct him to Rheims to be crowned. At this period she had reached her eighteenth year, and possessed a very beau- tiful countenance and noble form. Charles was convinced of the truthfulness of her statements, and, notwithstand- ing the opposition of his ecclesiastics and courtiers, raised her to the rank of a military commander, and placed a considerable body of troops at her disposal. She entered Orleans about the last of April, 1429, with a convoy of provisions, and in one week raised the siege. In battle Joan displayed great personal bravery. She subsequently gained the battles of Jargeau and Patay, in the latter of which the noted Talbot was made prisoner. Several important cities surrendered to her without resist- ance ; and in less than three months from the time that she received her military command, Charles was crowned at Rheims, in the cathedral consecrated to the coronation of the French sovereigns. She then petitioned the king that she might be permitted to return home ; but he prevailed on her to continue in the army. The following spring, as she was making a sortie against the Burgundians near Compiegne, she was captured by them and subsequently handed over to the English, who, with the Bishop of Beauvais and the University of Paris, urgently demanded her execution as a sorceress. The King of England granted their request, and Joan, after a mock-trial at Rouen, was condemned to be burnt. On the 31st of May, 1431, she was dressed in the garb of the victims of the Inquisition, and, amidst the clamours of assembled thousands, conducted to the stake, where, in a short time, her body was consumed. She died declaring that her voices had not deceived her, and with the name of Jesus on her lips. Many of those who had most eagerly sought her death were melted to tears ; and even the executioner declared that he had committed an unpar- donable sin. A secretary of the King of England also said, " We are lost ! we have burned a saint." Thus perished the Maid of Orleans, against whom not the slightest crime could be proved. If the inspiration which she received came not from the source to which she attributed it, it was at least the offspring of bravery, of generosity, of patriotism, of those virtues which have raised to immortality so many of the great and good. In the high-coloured and eulogistic account given of her by Michelet, he remarks, "She had the goodness of the ancient martyrs, but with this difference : the early Christians remained pure and virtuous only in retiring from the encounter and in separating themselves from the struggles and temptations of the world, while she was benign in the fiercest conflicts, good among the bad, gentle even in war; 'into war, that triumph of the devil, she carried the spirit of Heaven.' This tenderness of heart she had for all men. She wept after the victories, and relieved the sufferings of the wounded English." Her death stamped indelible infamy on all the parties connected with the war, — on the Burgundians for de- livering her to her inveterate enemies, on the English and their French allies for their inhuman cruelty and thirst for revenge, and on her own prince and party for not making a powerful attempt to save her. See Barthf.i.emy de Beauregard, " Histoire de Jeanne d'Arc," 2 vols., 1847 ; Desjardins, "Vie de Jeanne d'Arc," 1854 ; Vai.let de Virivili.e, " Noiivelles Recherches siir la Famille, etc. de Jeanne Dare," 1854; Lenglet-Dufresnoy, "Histoire de Jeanne d'Arc," 1753; Le Brun de Charmettes, "Histoire de Jeanne d'Arc," 4 vols., 1817; Alphonse de I.-amartine, "Jeanne d'Arc," 1852; Jules Michelet, "Jeanne d'Arc," 1853; R. M. Evans, "Story of Joan of Arc," 1847; A. M. Meneghelli, " Giovanna d'Arc," Padua, 1841 ; Michelet, "History of France;" Carl Liebelt, " Dziewica Orleanska ustep dziejow Francyi," Posen, 1847; Guido Goerres, "Die Jungfrau von Orleans," 1834; Harriet Parr, "Life and Death of Jeanne d'Arc," 1866; Thomas De Quincey, " Miscellaneous Essays;" "London Quarterly Review" for March, 1842. Joan [Sp. JuANA, Hoo-Jn'ya] Henriquez, (§n-ree'- k§th,) Queen of Aragon and Navarre, daughter of Fred- erick Henriquez, of the blood-royal of Castile, and admiral of that kingdom. In 1444 she was married to John II. of Aragon, and in 1452 gave birth to Ferdinand the Catholic. She was a princess of great energy of character and of uncommon mental endowments ; and to her advice and assistance many of the successes of John IL are to be attributed. Died in 1468. Joanes, Ho-a'n§s, or Jvianes, Hoo-^'nes, (Vincente,) an eminent Sj^anish painter, hcixw in Valencia in 1523, studied at Rome, and was regarded as the greatest artist of the Valencian school. Died in 1579. Among his most important works may be mentioned Christ after death borne by the angels, the Saviour with the two prophets, and a Saint Francis. Joannes. See John. Joannes Comnenus. See Calo-Joannes. Joannes Massiliensis, See Cassian, (John.) Joannet, zho't'ni', (Claude,) a French litterateur^ born at Dole in 1716; died in 1789. Joanny, zho't'ne', the assumed name of Jean Bap- tiste Bernard Brissebarre, a famous French tragic actor, born at Dijon in 1775, and who is said to have been nearly equal to Talma. Died in 1849. Joao (or Joam) of Por tugal. See John. Joao or Juan, surnamed De Dios or De Dieu. See DiEU. a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, 3^, short; e, j, q, obscure; fir, fUll, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; JOJSH 1277 J OH AN NOT Jo'ash [Heb. l^Xr] or Je-ho'ash, King of Judah, and son of Ahaziah. He ascended the throne when seven years of age, and reigned virtuously forty years. He was assassinated by his servants in 838 B.C. See II. Chronicles xxiii. and xxiv. ; II. Kings xi. and xii. Joash or Jehoash, King of Israel, succeeded his father, Jehoahaz, 839 or 840 B.C., and reigned sixteen years. See II. Kings xiii. ; II. Chronicles xxv. 17. Job, [Heb. Gr. 'Iw/3; Arabic, Aiyoob, (Aiyoub or Aiyub,) Tyoob'; Ger. HiOB, hee'op ; It. Giobbe, job'bi,] a patriarch of Uz, (a country which is believed by many to be the same as Idumaea,) who is supposed to have lived in a very remote antiquity. One of the most sublime books of the Old Testament bears his name and gives an account of his life and virtues. By many it has been thought that Job was an allegorical character; but there appears to be little reason for this supposition. He is mentioned by the prophet Ezekiel, (xv. 16,) and by Saint James, (v. 11,) as a real person. Much con- troversy has arisen about the age in which he lived, and the author of the book ; but both these points remain unsettled. This work was written in Hebrew, with a mixture of Arabic. Job or Aiyoob, Tyoob', (Solomon,) an African prince, son of a king of Bondoo, in Senegambia. In 1730 he was sold to the English, who carried him to Maryland, where he became a slave. His story interested General Oglethorpe and others, who ransomed him and sent him to England in 1733. presented at court, and attracted much attention. He produced an interesting geographical account of his native country, and wrote from memory, it is said, three copies of the Koran. He returned to Bondoo about 1735. Jobard, zho'btR', (J. B. A. M.,) a writer on social economy, born in Haute-Marne, France, in 1792. He lived in Belgium. Died in 1861. Jobert, zho'baiR', (Louis,) a French Jesuit and anti- quary, born at Paris in 1637. For some time he was a professor of rhetoric in his native city, and afterwards became celebrated as a preacher. He was the author of several treatises on medals. Died in 1719. Jobert de Lamballe, zho'baiR' deh 16N'btr, (An- ToiNE Joseph,) an eminent French surgeon, born at Lamballe in 1799. He lectured in Paris, and puljlished, besides other works, a "Treatise on Plastic Surgery," ("Traite de Chirurgie plastique," 2 vols., 1849.) He became surgeon to the emperor in 1854. Died in 1867. Jo-cas'ta or Jo-cas'te, [Gr. 'Iokuottj ; Fr. Jocaste, zho'ktst',] sometimes called Epicaste, the wife of Laius, and the mother of CEdipus. According to tradition, she was married to CEdipus without knowing who he was, and hung herself after she discovered the relationship between them. See the " CEdipus" of Sophocles. Jocaste. See Jocasta. Jog'e-lyn, (Robert,) Lord, M.P., an English poli- tician, born in 1816, visited China about 1840, and pub- lished *' Six Months in China." Died in 1854. Jo-eha'nan or Jo-ha'nan Ben E-li-e'zer, a Jewish rabbi, born in Palestine about 184 a.d. He compiled the "Jerusalem Gemara," a part of the Talmud. He is said to have died in 279 a.d. Jocher or Joecher, yo'Ker, (Christian Gottlieb,) an eminent German scholar and writer, born at Leipsic in 1694. He became professor of philosophy and his- tory at Leipsic about 1730. His most important work is a " Universal Dictionary of Learned Men," ("Allge- meines Gelehrten-Lexikon," 4 vols., 1750-51,) which is highK esteemed. Supplements have been pulDlished by Adelung and others. Died in 1758. See Ernesti, "Memoria C. G. Jocheri," 1758; Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Adelung's Supplement to Jocher. Jochmus, yoK'mAs, (Albrecht,) a German general, born at Hamburg in 1808. About 1838 he was sent by Lord Palmerston to Constantinople to plan a campaign in Syria. He became general-in-chief of the allied armies of England and Turkey in December, 1840. He was appointed minister of foreign affairs by the Archduke John, Vicar of the German empire, in May, 1849, and resigned in December of that year. Jocondus. See Giocondo, (Giovanni.) Jode, de, deh yo'deh, (Arnold,) son of Pieter, Jr., noticed below, was born about 1636. He is said to have been inferior to his grandfather and father as an engraver. While in London, in 1667, he engraved for Charles I. "Mercury Instructing Cupid," by Correggio. Among his other works is " The Infant Jesus embracing Saint John." See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." Jode, de, (Pieter,) a Flemish engraver, born in 1570 ; died in 1634. Among the most important of his prt)- ductions may be mentioned "The Last Judgment," by Cousin, and "Jesus Christ giving the Keys to Saint Peter," by Rubens. Jode, de, (Pieter or Petrus,) Jr., son of the pre- ceding, was born at Antwerp about 1606. He engraved numerous pictures from Rubens, Van Dyck, Titian, and other artists. Among his best works is "The Visita- tion of the Virgin," after Rubens. Died after 1660. Jodelle, zho'd^K, (Etienne,) Lord of Lymodin, born at Paris in 1532. He was one of the seven French poets termed the " Pleiades." He is said to have been the first to write plays in the French language and to introduce choruses after the Greek manner. It is said that his fluency of composition was so great that on a wager he composed in one night five hundred Latin verses on a given subject. He died poor in 1573. His principal production was the tragedy of "Cleopatra," (1552.) See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Bayle, " His- torical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, "Memoires;" Sainte- Beuve, " Poesie Fran^aise au seizieme Siecle." Jo'drell, (Richard Paul,) an English dramatic writer, born in 1745. He produced "A Widow and no Widow," a farce, "The Persian Heroine," a tragedy, (1786,) and " Philology of the English Language," (1820.) Died in 1831. Joecher. See Jocher. Jo'el, [Heb. S^?V; Gr. 'Iw^yA,] one of the twelve minor Hebrew prophets, is supposed to have lived in the reign of Uzziah, about 800-750 B.C. A passage of his prophecy is quoted in Acts ii. 17. Joerdens. See Jordens. Joffredus. See Jouffrol Joffrid, an English abbot of Lincolnshire, lived in the twelfth century. Peter de Blois, a writer of the time of Henry II., states that Joffrid was the founder of the University of Cambridge. Jogues, zhog, (Isaac,) a French Jesuit, born at Or- leans in 1607, spent many years in Canada as a missionary. He was killed by the Mohawks in 1646. Johann, (princes of Germany.) See John. Johanneau, zho't'no', (£loi,) a French antiquary, born near Blois in 1770. He was one of the founders of the Academic Celtique. In i8ti he became imperial censor of books. He wrote on botany, Celtic monuments, and other subjects. Died in 185 1. Johannaeus, (Finnus.) See Jonsson, (Finn.) Johannes, the Latin for John, which see. Johannes Antiochenus. See John of Antioch. Johannes Climacus. See Climacus. Johannes Secundus. See Everard, (Johannes.) Johannot, zho't'no', (Charles,) eldest son of Fran- 9ois, noticed below, was born at Frankfort about 1790. He was a skilful engraver, and produced illustrations of the life of Saint Genevieve of Brabant. Died in 1825. Johannot, (Charles Henri Alfred,) an engraver and painter, second son of Fran9ois, noticed IdcIow, was born at Offenbach in 1801. He acquired a high reputation for his vignette-designs illustrating the French translations of Byron, Scott, and Cooper. Among his best paintings are "The Entrance of Mademoiselle Montpensier into Orleans during the Fronde,'" and " Mary Stuart leaving Scotland." Died in 1837. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Johannot, (Franqois,) a German designer and en- graver, of French extraction, was born in Hesse-Darm- stadt, and lived about 1790. He settled at Paris with his partner, Charles Andre. Johannot, (Tony,) a painter and wood-engraver, a son of the preceding, was born at Offenbach in 1803. He gained a wide reputation as a designer and engraver € as>&; 9 as s; g ^ard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal ; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (gl^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) JOHN 1278 JOHN of vignettes for books. Among the works which he illustrated are " Werther," the plays of Moliere, " Manon Lescaut," " Jerome Paturot," and " The Vicar of Wake- field." Died in Paris in 1852. John [Gr. 'ludwrjg ; Lat. Johan'nes ; Fr. Jean, zhdN ; It. Giovanni, jo-vJn'nee] the Divine, commonly called Saint John the Evangelist, with his brother James, was among the first to become a disciple of our Saviour when He commenced his ministry. John was made one of the twelve apostles ; and his gentle, loving spirit appears to have especially endeared him to his divine Master. He spoke of himself as " the disciple whom Jesus loved." He was with his Master in the garden of Gethsemane. When our Saviour was nailed to the cross, He commended his mother to the care of the beloved disciple. After the resurrection and ascension of Jesus, Saint John became one of the most prominent of the propagators of the Christian religion. Syria and Asia Minor were the principal scenes of his labours. We are told by Tertullian and Saint Jerome that under the reign of Domitian, by the order of a Roman proconsul, he was immersed in a caldron of boiling oil, and that in this terrible ordeal he was miraculously preserved, so that he sustained not the slightest injury. After this he was banished to the isle of Patmos, where he wrote the Apocalypse, or Revelation, He also wrote three Epistles, and the Gospel according to Saint John. He is supposed to have died at Ephesus in 99 a.d., at the age of ninety-four. Among all the disciples of Christ, John appears to have most fully comprehended the character and spirit of his divine Master. He first announced in clear and concise terms the great central truth of Christianity, that *' God is love," — a truth which, in his view, finds its fullest proof in the great fact that God gave His Son for the salvation of the world. (See John iii. 16, 17; and I. Epistle iv. 8, 9, 10.) The soul of "the be- loved disciple" seems ever filled with the one theme. Love, not fear, is to be the motive of obedience : — " If ye love me, keep my commandments." The love to which he refers is not a mere sentiment, but a living power: — "This is the love of God, that we keep his command- ments." (See John xiv. 15, 21, 23; I. Epistle iv. 7, 8, 16, 18, 20 ; v. 2 and 3.) See F. A. Tholuck, "Commentary on the Gospel of John," the 7th edition of which was translated into English by Dr. C. P. Krauth, Philadelphia, 1859; Wegscheider, "Introduction to the Gospel of Saint John," Gottingen, 1806; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." John I., surnamed ZiMis'cES, [Gr. T$//icr/c^^-,] became Emperor of the East in 969 a.d. He carried on a suc- cessful war against the Rossi, or Russians, and quelled serious disturbances in his eastern provinces. He died of poison, as he was returning to Constantinople, in 975. He is said to have been a man of superior talents. John III., of the family of Ducas, surnamed Vatat'- ZES, born in Thrace in 1193, succeeded his father-in-law, Theodore Lascaris, in 1222, as Emperor of the East. Constantinople being then in possession of the Latins, John fixed his capital at Nicaea, in Bithynia. In 1235 he besieged Constantinople, but was repulsed. He, how- ever, reconquered all the other possessions belonging to the Greek Empire which had been taken by the Latins. John was a liberal patron of the useful arts, and did much to promote the welfare of his subjects. Died in 1255. John IV. (Las'caris) succeeded his father Theodore as Emperor of the East in 1259, when he was aged but six years. He was deprived of the crown in 1261 by Michael Palseologus, who put out his eyes and im- prisoned him during the remainder of his life. John V. See Cantacuzenus. John VI., (Palaeol'ogus,) born in 1332, was a son of Andronicus, whom he succeeded on the imperial throne of Constantinople in 1341. He was afterwards impris- oned by one of his sons. During these intestine troubles the Turks attacked the capital, and forced John to con- clude a disgraceful treaty. He left the throne to his son Manuel. Died in 1391. John VIL (Palaeologus) succeeded his father Man- uel on the throne of Constantinople in 1425. Being unable to oppose the Turkish invaders, he sought the assistance of the Latins ; and, in order to cement the union, he formed a reconciliation between the Eastern and Western Churches, which, however, lasted but a short period. Died in 1448. He was succeeded by his brother, Constantine XHl. See Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas- Empire." John [Sp. Juan, Hoo-an'] I., son of Peter (Pedro) IV., was born in 1350, and ascended the throne of Aragon in 1387. Died in 1395. John (Juan) 11., King of Aragon and Navarre, born in 1397, was one of the bravest and most enterprising of the Spanish sovereigns. In 1425 he ascended the throne of Navarre, as the husband of Queen Blanche, and three years later was appointed by his brother Al- fonso V. to the government of Aragon. Blanche died soon after, and in 1447 he married Joan Henriquez, of the blood-royal of Castile, who became the mother of Ferdinand the Catholic. He became King of Aragon in 1458. He carried on long and successful wars against Henry IV. of Castile and Louis XI. of France. He also suppressed a formidable rebellion of the Catalans. Died in 1479. See Prescott, " Ferdinand and Isabella," chap. ii. ; Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Enc3'klopaedie." John (Juan) I., King of Castile and Leon, was born in 1358. He succeeded his father Henry (Henrique) II. in 1379. He subsequently invaded Portugal, but met with a total defeat at Aljubarota in August, 1385. Died in 1390. John II., King of Castile and Leon, son of Henry (Henrique) III., born in 1404, was proclaimed sovereign two years later. He carried on successful wars against the Kings of Aragon and Navarre and the Moors of Granada. By his first wife, Maria of Aragon, he left three children, one of whom succeeded him as Henry (Henrique) IV. By his second queen, Isabella, he had a daughter, afterwards illustrious as Isabella the Catholic. Though a feeble sovereign, he was a liberal patron of learning, and his reign was distinguished for the revival of literature in Castile. Died in 1454. See Prescott, "Ferdinand and Isabella," chap. i. ; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." John (Hans, hins) I. of Denmark and II. of Sweden, son of Christian I., of the house of Oldenburg, born in 1455, ascended the throne in 1481. About the year 1500 the Swedes rebelled against him because he had garrisoned the fortresses with Danish and German troops. He was finally obliged to resign all claims to the Swedish crown. Died in 1 5 13. John, King of England, surnamed Sansterre,(" Lack- land,") the youngest son of Henry II. by his queen, Elea- nor of Guienne, was born at Oxford in 1166. The king at first created him Earl of Montague, in Normandy, and in 1 178 made him Lord of Ireland. In 1189 he married the daughter and sole heiress of William, Earl of Glou- cester. The same year he was a confederate in the rebellion of his brother Richard. On the accession of the latter to the throne he gave John several earldoms, including about one-third of the kingdom. Soon after Richard's departure on the crusade for the Holy Land, John formed plans to obtain the crown on the event of the king's death, in opposition to the rights of his nephew Arthur, Duke of Bretagne, whom Richard had recognized as his heir. When John was informed of his brother's imprisonment in Germany, he immediately attempted to usurp the throne, but was kept in check by the loyalty of the nobles. On the king's return to England, in 1 194, he deprived John of all his estates and compelled him to make a humble submission. Richard died in France in 1199, leaving his kingdom to John, who was then with him. That prince hastened to establish his authority in Normandy and his other dominions, and was crowned at Westminster in May, 1199. In I20t he obtained a divorce from his wife, and married Isabella of Angouleme. Philip Augustus of France espoused the cause of Arthur, who commenced hostilities against John and gained several victories, but was subsequently taken prisoner by his uncle and conveyed to Rouen. Nothing further was heard from him ; but the probability is that he was murdered. The war afterwards went entirely against the King of England, who in the course of two years lost the greater part of his continental a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; mgt; ndt; good; moon; JOHN JOHN possessions. During this period he drew upon himself the hostility of the Roman pontiff by insisting on his right to appoint the Archbishop of Canterbury, that see being then vacant. The pope excommunicated him and laid the kingdom under an interdict, (1208.) John, how- ever, paid no attention to the thunders of the Vatican, but imprisoned or banished the bishops and clergy who obeyed the pope's orders. Meanwhile he reduced Lle- wellyn, a Welsh prince, to subjection, and suppressed a rebellion in Ireland. Finally the pope, having formally deposed him and absolved his subjects from their oaths of allegiance, instigated the French king to invade Eng- land. John, perceiving his danger, made an abject sub- mission to the papal legate, and resigned to him the kingdoms of England and Ireland, (1213.) Philip was then forbidden to prosecute his enterprise. For a long time John's tyranny had excited the hatred of his barons. This was increased by Langton, Archbishop of Canter- bury, who, presenting them with the charter of Henry I., exhorted them to obtain the liberties therein granted. A numerous body of barons solemnly swore to regain their rights or to levy an unceasing war on the king. King John, being supported by the pope, scornfully refused to make any concessions to the barons, who raised a power- ful force and marched to London, where the citizens gladly received them. On the 15th of June, 1215, John consented to grant all that they required, and signed at Runnymede the famous Magna Charta. Scarcely had he done this before he induced the pope to absolve him from these obligations and to excommunicate several of his opponents. He also brought into England large bodies of foreign troops, and gained several victories over the barons. The latter then chose Louis, Dauphin of France, as their king. This prince landed at Sand- wich in May, 1216. John would probably have been successful, (for dissensions were already breaking out in the camp of Louis,) had he not been carried off by a fever in October of that year. John has left one of the darkest names in the history of the English kings. He was extremely cruel, fickle, and licentious, without a redeeming virtue. He had, by his queen Isabella, five children, the eldest of whom succeeded him as Henry 11^ The second, Richard, was elected King of the Romans in 1257. See Hume, "History of England;" Hallam, "Constitutional History of England;" Joseph Berington, "History of Henry II. and of Richard I. and John, his Sons," 1790; Lingard, "History of England." John [Fr. Jean, zhSw] I., a posthumous son of Louis X., King of France, was born in 13 16, Though he lived but eight days, he is recorded among the French mon- archs. See N. DE MoNMERQU^, "Dissertation historique sur Jean I, Roi de France," 1844. John (Jean) II., surnamed le Bon, ascended the throne of France upon the death of his father, Philip of Valois, in 1350. Charles, King of Navarre, having ac- cepted an invitation to meet John at Rouen, was there imprisoned, and several of his lords put to death. The people of Navarre applied to England for assistance, and Edward the Black Prince invaded France at the head of an army. John marched against him with 60,000 men, was defeated and made prisoner at the battle of Poitiers, fought in 1356, and conducted to London, where he was received with great honour by Edward III. While he remained in England a civil war broke out in France with the peas- antry, known in history by the name of " La Jacquerie." In this revolt the castles of the nobility were plundered and burnt and , the inmates massacred. These ravages continued for two years, until the dauphin, assisted by several powerful lords, defeated the peasants, putting thousands of them to the sword. In 1360, peace having been concluded between France and England, John re- turned to his capital ; but, finding much opposition made by the nobles to the conditions of the treaty, he again visited England, to confer with King Edward. He was soon after taken ill, and died in London in 1364. See SiSMONDi, " Histoire des Frangais;" Froissart, "Chroni- cles;" MiCHELET, "Histoire de France;" Henri Martin, "His- toire de France." John I. OF Navarre. See John IT. of France. John II. of Navarre. See' John II. of Aragon. John III. OF Navarre, or Jean d'Albret, zhftN dtKbui', began to reign in 1494. In 15 12 Ferdinand the Catholic invaded Navarre and drove John from the throne. Died in 15 16. John I., King of Poland, a son of Casimir IV., was born in 1459, and succeeded his father in 1492. He waged war against the Tartars and Turks. Died in 1 501. John II. OF Poland. See Casimir V. John III. of Poland. See Sobieskl John [Port. JoAoor Joam, zho-owN'] I., surnamed the Great, King of Portugal, the natural son of Peter I., was born in 1357. On the death of his brother Ferdi- nand, in 1385, he assumed the regal power in opposition to the rights of Ferdinand's daughter Beatrix, who had married John I., King of Castile. This led to a war with Spain, in which the Portuguese monarch gained several important victories and firmly established his power. He subsequently carried on a successful war against the Moors of Africa. During his reign the Portuguese com- menced those maritime expeditions which soon after rendered them so celebrated. Under the comman I of his son. Prince Henry, they discovered Madeira, the Canaries, the Azores, and several places on the western coast of Africa. Died in 1433. See La Clhde, "Histoire generale de Portugal;" Fernando Lopez, "Chronica del Rey Joao I.," 3 vols., 1644; Manoel Mon- teiro, "Joannes Portugalis Reges," 1742. John (Joao) IL, King of Portugal, surnamed the Perfect, son of Alfonso V., was born in 1455, and ascended the throne in 1481. At the age of sixteen years he fought against the African Moors and took Ar- zile and Tangiers, and five years later gained the battle of Toro over the Castilians. Soon after his coronation he quelled a powerful conspiracy formed against him by his nobles. He encouraged the spirit of enterprise among the Portuguese, and fitted out a squadron destined for the East Indies and the Eastern Seas. Died in 1495. See Vasconcellos, " Vida y Acciones del Rey Don Juan II.," 1639, (translated into French, 1641 ;) DamiAo de' Goes, "Chronica do Principe Dom Joao Rey," etc., 1567; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." John (Joao) III., King of Portugal, born in 1502, succeeded his father, Emanuel the Great, in 1521. In 1524 he married Catherine of Austria, to whose brother, Charles V., he gave his sister Isabella in marriage. He colonized Brazil, and sent to the Eastern Seas a fleet, by which Japan was discovered. He established the Inquisition in Portugal and its colonies. Died in 1557. John (Joao) IV., surnamed the Fortunate, chief of the dynasty of Braganza, was born in 1604. He threw off the authority of Spain, to which Portugal had been subjected since the days of Philip II., and became king in 1640. He enacted many wise and beneficial laws, and died, greatly regretted by the nation, in 1656. See Vertot, " Histoire des Revolutions de Portugal," 1689. John (Joao) V., King of Portugal, born in 1689, suc- ceeded his father, Peter II., in 1707. He joined the allies against France and Spain about 1702. After the peace of Utrecht (1713) he devoted his time to the encourage- ment of education and commerce. Died in 1750. See "Vida, Successes e Fallecimento do Rey Joao V.," Lisbon, 1750; Ferdinand Denis, "Portugal." John (Joao) VI. of Portugal, was born in 1769, and was appointed Regent of Portugal in 1793 on account of the derangement of his mother, Maria I., who was then queen-regnant. In 1807, when the French invaded Portugal, he sailed to Brazil, where he received the title of emperor. He returned in 1821, soon after which the Brazilians revolted and declared themselves independent. Died in 1826. See "Histoire de Jean VI, Roi de Portugal," 1827; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." John, King of Scotland. See Baliol. John of Russia. See Ivan. John (Johan, yo'hin) I., King of Sweden, the last of the dynasty of Sverker, succeeded Eric in 12 16. He was very active in establishing Christianity. Died in 1222. John II. OF Sweden. See John I. of Denmark. John III., King of Sweden, the second son of Gus- tavus Vasa, was born in 1537. He married Catherine Jagelion, daughter of Sigismund, King of Poland. In 1560 he visited England, to negotiate a marriage between € as ^; 5 as s; g hard; g as j; G, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ([2^=°See Explanations, p. 23.) JOHN 1280 JOHN his elder brother Eric and Queen Elizabeth, in which he was unsuccessful. In 15(58 he deposed Eric and ascended the throne in his stead. Influenced by his queen, he attempted to re-establish the Catholic religion, but was efiectually resisted by his brother Charles, Duke of Sudermania, at the head of the Protestants. Died in 1592. John (Jean) I., Duke of Bretagne, was born in 12 17. Having attempted to check the papal encroachments, the pope excommunicated him, and he was obliged to go to Rome to obtain absolution. Died in 1284. John II., son of the preceding, was born in 1239. He married Beatrix, daughter of Henry III. of England, from whom he received the title of Count of Richemont. He was also made a peer of France by Philippe le Bel. He was killed at the ordination of Clement V. at Lyons by the falling of a wall. John III., Duke of Bretagne, surnamed the Good, succeeded his father, Arthur II., in 13 12, He is said to have been a just and benevolent prince. Died in 1341- John IV., Duke of Bretagne, known as Jean de MoNTFORT, half-brother of the preceding, was born in 1293. John (Jean) HI., having no children, willed the dukedom to Charles de Blois ; but Jean de Montfort, re- garded by many as the legitimate heir, soon reduced all the towns and provinces to his subjection, and went to England . to render homage to King Edward for his estates. On his return he was summoned before the court of peers to prove his claims to Bretagne. The peers decided against him, and he raised an army to defend his rights, but was shortly after taken prisoner by the Duke of Nor- mandy and confined in the tower of Louvre at Paris. In the mean time the war was carried on with energy by his duchess, Jeanne of Flanders. At the expiration of nearly four years, John escaped, disguised as a mer- chant. He died soon after, in 1345. See Daru, " Histoire de Bretagne." John (Jean) V., (or John IV., according to some authorities,) Duke of Bretagne, born in 1338, was a son of the preceding. He married Mary, a daughter of Edward III. of England. By a decisive victory over his competitor, Charles de Blois, at Auray, in 1364, he obtained possession of Bretagne. He afterwards fought for the English against the French, who drove him out of Bretagne about 1374 ; but he was soon restored. Died in 1399. See SiSMONDi, "Histoire des Fran^ais." John (Jean) VI., son of the preceding, became Duke of Bretagne in 1399, when he was ten years of age. He carried on a war against the Count of Penthievre and the Duke of Burgundy, and afterwards joined the Eng- lish under the Duke of Bedford against France. Died in 1443. See D'Argentre, "Histoire de Bretagne," etc. John, surnamed the Fearless, [Fr. Jean Sans Peur, zhSN s6n pUR,] Duke of Burgundy, born at Dijon in 1371, was the eldest son of Philip the Bold. At the age of twenty-five he assisted Sigismund, King of Hungary, against the Turks, by whom he was made prisoner at the battle of Nicopolis. When taken before the Sultan Baya- zeed, (Bajazet,) he evinced so much courage that that sovereign gave him his liberty and the surname of Sans Peur, (tlie "Fearless.") After his return to France he was engaged in fighting the English and in political in- trigues at the French court. He was appointed guardian of the dauphin of France in 1406. He caused the assas- sination of his rival, the Duke of Orleans, in 1407, and obtained almost unlimited power in the kingdom. He was murdered in 1419, at the instigation of the dauphin, son of Charles VI. See De Barante, "Histoire des Dues de Bourgogne ;" Miche- LET, " Histoire de France." John, [Ger. Johann, yo'hin,] surnamed the Con- stant, a son of the Elector Ernest, was born in 1467, and became Elector of Saxony in 1525. He was a zealous defender of the Protestant faith, and in 1530 caused the Confession of Augsburg to be proclaimed in the Diet assembled at that city. Died in 1532. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." John [Lat. Johan'nes; Fr. Jean, zh6N ; It. Gio- vanni, jo-vSn'nee| I., a native of Tuscany, was raised to the Roman see upon the death of Hormisdas, in 523. He was sent on an embassy to Constantinople by King Theodoric to obtain toleration for the Arians ; and on his return, having displeased that monarch, he was thrown into prison, where he died in 526. John II., surnamed Mercurius, was a native of Rome, and succeeded Boniface II. in 532 or 533. Died 535- John III., a native of Rome, succeeded Pelagius I. in 560. Died about 573, and was succeeded by Bene- dict L John IV., a Dalmatian, succeeded Severinus in" 640. He condemned the doctrines of the Monothelites and the edict of the emperor Heraclius, called "The Exposition of Faith," which was issued in their defence. Died in 642, and was succeeded by Theodorus. John v., a native of Antioch, in Syria, was chosen pope on the death of Benedict II., in 685, and died in 687. Conon succeeded him. John VI., a Greek, succeeded Sergius I. in 701. During his pontificate Wilfred, Archbishop of York, was tried and acquitted of the charges preferred by the English clergy. Died in 705. John VII., a native of Greece, was elected successor to the preceding. Died in 707. Sisinnius succeeded him. John VIII., (called John IX. by those who admit the truth of Pope Joan's history,) was a native of Rome, and succeeded Adrian II. in 872. He crowned the emperor Charles the Bald, and afterwards Charles le Gros. He confirmed Phocius Patriarch of Constantinople. In 878 the Saracen^ invaded Italy and compelled him to pay tribute. Died in 882. He was succeeded by Martin II. See Artaud de Montor, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes." John IX., an Italian, became pope in 898, after the death of Theodore II. Died about 900. John X. was elected in 915, through the influence of his mistress Theodora, as successor to Lando. He crowned Berengarius as emperor. Subsequently, with the assist- ance of this sovereign, he marched against the Saracens, who had invaded Italy, defeated them, and drove them from the country. At this time Guido, Duke of Tus- cany, with his wife, the infamous Marozia, possessed great power in Rome. John, having offended them, was seized in his palace by their soldiers and put in prison, where he is said to have been killed in 928. John XI., elected pope in 931, was the son of Maro- zia, as some suppose, by Pope Sergius HI. Alberico, another son of Marozia, raised a revolt against his mother, whom he imprisoned with John in the castle of Sant' Angelo. The latter died about 936, and was succeeded by Leo VII. John XII., son of Alberico, was elected successor to Agapetus II. in 956, when he was but eighteen years old. He changed his name from Octavianus. Four years later he crowned Otho I. Emperor of Germany and King of Italy. Subsequently he became so notorious for his oppression and licentiousness that Otho returned to Rome in 963 and caused John to be deposed and Leo VIII. to be chosen in his place. But, as soon as Otho left Italy, John entered Rome at the head of a powerful party, drove out Leo, and committed great atrocities. He died in 964. One of his mistresses, named Joan, exercised much influence at Rome during his pontificate ; and it has been suggested that this may have given rise to the story of " Pope Joan." See Baronius, " Annales." * John XIII., Bishop of Narni, was raised to the papal see in 965 by the influence of the emperor Otho I. The Romans, however, being opposed to this election, im- prisoned John. Otho marched to Rome, liberated him, and hanged several of his opponents. John crowned Otho II., son of Otho I., as emperor. Died in 972, and was succeeded by Benedict VI. John XIV., Bishop of Pavi'a, was raised to the papal see, as successor to Benedict VIL, about 984. After a pontificate of nine months, he was deposed by Boniface VII. and put in prison, where he is supposed to have been poisoned in 985. a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; ndt; good; moon JOHN 1281 JOHN John XV., elected successor to John XIV., died a few days after. By some he is left out of the order of popes. John XVI., a native of Rome, became pope about 986. During his pontificate, a patrician, named Cres- centius, caused great disturbances and drove the pope from Rome. He was, however, reinstated in his au- thority by the emperor Otho. Died in 996, and was succeeded by Gregory V. John XVII., whose previous name was Philaga- THIUS, a native of Calabria, and Bishop of Piacenza, was chosen pope in 997 by the faction of Crescentius, in op- position to Gregory V. Otho III., espousing the cause of the latter, executed Crescentius with his adherents, and imprisoned John after having horribly mutilated him. John XVIII. was elected successor to Sylvester II. in 1003, and died four months afterwards. John XIX., elected pope in 1004. He sent Saint Bruno to preach Christianity to the Russians, and healed the schism between the Churches of Rome and Constan- tinople. Died in 1009, and was succeeded by Sergius IV. John XX., previously named Romanus, was the son of Count Gregory of Tuscany, and brother of Benedict VIII., whom he succeeded in 1024. In 1027 he crowned Conrad as emperor. He died in 1033 or 1034, and was succeeded by Benedict IX. John XXI., born in Lisbon, was elected successor to Adrian V. about 1276. He died after a pontificate of a few months. Nicholas III. succeeded him. John XXII., a native of Cahors, in France, and pre- viously known as Jacques d'Euse, or James of Ossa, was chosen to succeed Clement V. in 13 16. He was consecrated at Lyons, and made his residence at Avignon. At this period there was a competition for the throne of Germany between Louis of Bavaria and Frederick of Austria. John, who declared that he had the right to appoint the emperor, excommunicated Louis in 1324 or 1327, and advanced the claims of Robert, King of Naples. This led to a long war in Italy between the Guelphs, who were allies of Robert, and the Ghibelines, who were assisted by the troops of Louis. At first the Guelphs had the advantage ; but their opponents soon gained ground, and in 1327 Louis visited Italy and received the iron crown of Milan. At Rome the Bishops of Venice and Aleria crowned him emperor, after which he deposed John and appointed Peter de Corvara in his place, with the name of Nicholas V. After the return of Louis to Germany the Guelphs began to obtain the ascendency. John died at Avignon in 1334. He possessed extraor- dinary abilities, was devoted to study, and wrote some medical treatises. His avarice, however, was the most prominent trait in his character ; and to him is attributed the introduction of the Annates, or First-Fruits. He left, besides his jewels, eighteen millions of golden florins in his coffers. See Artaud de Montor, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes;" Platina, " Historia de Vitis Pontificum Romanorum ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." John XXIII., (or XXII., according to some authori- ties,) (Cardinal CossA,) a Neapolitan, was elected as suc- cessor to Alexander V. in 1410, during a schism of the Church. His title was disputed by two rivals, Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII. He was a man of depraved morals and of insatialile cupidity. A quarrel between John and Ladislaus of Naples resulted in the expulsion of the former from Rome. John applied for support to the emperor Sigismund, who convoked at Constance in 1414 a general council. This council (at which John was present) required him to abdicate the popedom. He pretended to comply, but left Constance disguised, and fled towards Rome with the intention to resist the decree of the council. He was quickly arrested and brought back to Constance, where he was convicted of many heinous offences, and formally deposed, in 141 5. He was confined in prison about three years. He died at Florence in 1419. See Ranke, "History of the Popes;" Alletz, "Histoire des Papes," 1776; Th. de NiEM, " Historia de Vita Joannis XXIII.," 1620. John, (Juan,) Don, of Austria, one of the most cele- brated military and naval commanders of the sixteenth century, was the natural son of the emperor Charles V. and Barbara Blomberg, a native of Germany. He was born at Ratisbnn in 1546, and passed as the son of a Spanish nobleman named Quixada, by whom he was educated. Charles V. on his death-bed recommended him to the protection of Philip II., who soon after ac- knowledged John as his brother and made appropria- tions which enabled him to live in princely state. At the age of twenty-two he was appointed commander-in- chief of the forces sent against the Moriscoes of Granada, whom he vanquished in several battles and finally re- duced to complete subjection. In 1571, war having been declared between Philip II. and the Sultan, Don John was appointed generalissimo of the combined fleets of Spain and Italy. He sailed from Messina in the middle of September with two hundred and fifty ships of war and about fifty thousand men, and on the 7th of October encountered the Turkish fleet in the Gulf of Lepanto, where he gained one of the greatest naval victories of which history makes mention. Soon after <;he battle of Lepanto he received an embassy from the Greeks of Albania and Macedonia, requesting him to a'^sist them against the Turks and to receive the sovereignty of their countries. Don John was prevented from accepting the offer by Philip, who, jealous of his brother's reputation, refused the assistance necessary for the enterprise. Don John, in a subsequent expedition against Africa, took Tunis, Biserta, and several other important places. He was appointed in 1576 Governor of the Netherlands, which were then in a state of rebellion. He at first used conciliatory measures ; but the States, suspecting him of du]3licity, declined his overtures and prepared for war. Don John soon after took Namur by stratagem, and on the 1st of January, 1578, gained the decisive victory of Gemblours. He afterwards reduced Louvain, Nivelle, and other towns belonging to the insurgents. While thus actively engaged, in October, 1578, he was seized with an illness which carried him to the grave. Strong suspicions were entertained by many that he was poisoned. See L. VAN der Hammen, "Vida de Don Juan," 1627; Brusle DE MoNTPLEiNCHAMP, " Vie dc Don Juan d'Autriche," i6go ; Alexis DuMESNii., "Vie de Don Juan d'Autriche," 1827; Motley. "Rise of the Dutch Republic," vol. iii. part v. chaps, i.-v. ; Pkeslott, " History of Philip II.," vol. ii. ; J. P. Lvser, " Erzherzog Johann, der Freund des Volkes," 1848; Schneidewind, " Leben des Erz- herzogs Johann von Oesterreich," etc., 1849 '> " Nouvelle Biographie Generale," 1848. John or J ohann, (Nepomuk Maria Joseph,) born in 1 801, succeeded his brother Frederick Augustus as King of Saxony in 1854. He was distinguished for great virtues as a ruler, and for his literary attainments, and published a translation of Dante's "Divine Comedy." He was an allv of Austria in the war against Prussia in 1866. John OF Bayeux, [Fr. Jean de Bayeux, zh6N deb bi'yuh',] a haughty and violent French prelate. Fie became Archbishop of Rouen in 1070. Died in 1079. John OF Brienne, [Fr. Jean de Brienne, zh6N deh bRe'^n',] King of Jerusalem, and Regent of Constanti- nople, was born in France. He assisted in the taking of Jerusalem in 1204, and in 1218, at the head of a Latin army, he took Damietta. In 1226 he was compelled to resign Jerusalem to the emperor Frederick II. Three years later he was elected, by the French barons in the East, Regent of Constantinople, which he bravely de- fended against the Greek emperor John Ducas. Died in 1237. John OF Bruges. See Eyck, (John van.) John OF Cappadocia, a theologian, became Patriarch of Constantinople about 518. He co-operated with the pope Hormisdas in the restoration of union between the Eastern and Western Churches. Died in 520. John II. OF Cappadocia became Patriarch of Con- stantinople about 582 A.D. Died in 596. John, surnamed Climacus or Climachus. See Climacus. John OF Gis'cALA or Gischala, a Jewish captain, was an enemy of Josephus the historian. He was the chief of one of the factions of zealots and outlaws that fought against each other and against the Romans in Je- rusalem while that city was besieged by Titus, in 70 a.d. On the capture of the city he was imprisoned for life. John OF LuxEMHURG, surnamed the Blind, son of the emperor Henry VII., was born in 1295. In 1309 he was elected King of Bohemia, and in 1322 he con- •e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) JOHN 1282 JOHNSON quered Silesia. In 133 1 he formed a league with Louis of Bavaria, Emperor of Germany, against Pope John XXII., and entered Italy. 'I'he pope then offered to recognize him as King of Italy. The emperor, in order to prevent this, invaded Bcjhemia. John left the com- mand of his army in Italy to his son, returned to Bo- hemia, and drove out Louis. He was soon after attacked with a disease in his eyes, which produced blindness, but did not in the least affect his sj^irit of enterprise. He invaded Poland, reduced it to subjection, and formed an alliance with Philip of France against the English. He was mortally wounded at the battle of Crecy, in 1346, after having performed great feats of valour. See Froissart, "Chronicles;" Sismondi, " Hlstoire des Fran- 9ais." John OF Ragusa, a learned Romish prelate, was in 1426 sent by Martin V. to the Council of Bale, over which he presided in 1431. He distinguished himself by his controversies with the followers of Huss. John OF Salisbury, a learned scholastic philosopher and writer, born at Salisbury about 1120. He entered the service of Thomas a Becket, and became his secre- tary. In 1 176 he was appointed Bishop of Chartres. He wrote, besides other valuable works, " Polycraticus de Nugis Curialium et Vestigiis Philosophorum," which is a satire on the follies of courtiers, etc., and a " Life of Thomas a Becket." Died in 1180. His works were published by J. A. Giles, Oxford, (5 vols., 1848.) See "Gallia Christiana," tome viii. ; B. Haukeau, " De la Philo- sophie scholastiqiie ;" " Nouvelle Biogi aphie Generale." John OF Seville or Ue Luna, a learned Jewish convert of the twelfth century. He translated into Span- ish many valuable Arabic works. John OF SuABiA, snrnamed the Parricide, born in 1289, was a nephew of the emperor Albert I. The latter, having withheld from him his hereditary domains, was murdered by John and a band of conspirators. See Brantome, "Vies des grands Capltaines." John OF Udine. See Giovanni. John (Johann) Baptist, (Joseph Fabian Sebas- tian,) Archduke of Austria, born in 1782, was a son of Leopold 11. He succeeded Kray in 1800 as commander of the Austrian army, and was defeated by General Moreau at Hohenlinden, in December of that year. In the campaign of 1809 he directed the operations in the Tyrol, and gained a victory over the viceroy Eugene. In une, 1848, he was elected Vicar of the German empire y the Parliament at Frankfort. He resigned that office in December, 1849. Died in 1859. John Cas'i-mir, [Ger. Johann Casimir, yo'hin ki'ze-miR,] Count Palatine, born in 1543, was the second son of the Elector-Palatine Frederick III. He was a zealous Calvinist, and in 1568 raised an army with which he invaded Lorraine to aid the French Huguenots. In 1575 he again entered France, as the ally of the Prince of Conde. His court at Neustadt became the centre of the Calvinist policy. After the death of his father, John Casimir was the political chief of the Reformers. Died in 1592. See De Thou, " Histoire Universelle ;" Daniel Parens, " His- toria Palatina ;" F. Junius, " Ecloga in Obitum Joannis Casimiri," 1592; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." John Comnenus. See Calo-Joannes. John Damascenus. See Damascenus. John Frederick [Ger. Johann Friedrich, yo'hSn freed^iK] I. of Saxony, snrnamed the Magnanimous, was a son of the Elector John the Constant, whom he succeeded in 1532. Having joined the Protestant League of Schmalkalden, he was taken prisoner at the battle of Muhlberg, but was released through the intervention of his cousin, Maurice of Saxony, Died in 1554. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Caspar Sagittarius, "Historia Joannis Friderici Electoris," etc., 1678; C. BuDER, " Nachricht von der Kurtiirst Johann Friedrich's zu Sach- sen," 1755. John Frederick II., Duke of Saxony, and a son of the preceding, was born in 1529. He began to reign in 1554. Died in 1595. John George [Ger. Johann Georg, yo'hSn ga'oRo] I., Elector of Saxony, born in 1585, began to reign in 1611. During the Thirty Years' war his course was vacillating, alternately favouring the cause of the emperor and of the Protestant allies. In 1635 he made a disad- vantageous peace with Ferdinand II. Died in 1656. See Karl August Muller, " Kurfiirst Johann Georg I., seine Faniilie," etc., 1838; Skeligmann, "Dissertatio de Vita Joannis Georgii L," 1676. John George II., Elector of vSaxony, born in 1613, began to reign in 1656, and distinguished himself as a legislator. iJied in 1680. See Stockmann, "Progrannna: Elector Joannes Georgius II. Saxonia; et Lusatiae Legislator," 1789. John of Antioch, or John the Scholastic, [Lat. Johan'nes Antioche'nus, or Johan'nes Scholas'ti- cus ; Fr. Jean d'Antioche, zh6N d6N'te-osh',] a Greek canonist, born at Antioch, became Patriarch of Constan- tinople in 565 A.D. He published a collection of canons. Died in 578. (See Malala.) John of Bologna, See Bologna, John of Damascus. See Damascenus. John of Gaunt or Ghent, Duke of Lancaster, a younger son of Edward III, of England, was born in 1340. He served under his brother Edward the Black Prince in the French wars, where he gained great dis- tinction for his skill and bravery. He married Constance, a natural daughter of Peter the Cruel, King of Castile and Leon, and, on the death of that monarch, laid claim to the sovereignty of those kingdoms, but was defeated by Henry ofTrastamara. He subsequently gave his daughter in marriage to the heir-apparent of the crowns of Castile and Leon, upon which he resigned his own claims. His third wife was a sister-in-law of the poet Chaucer, to whom he proved a liberal patron. Died in 1399. His son, snrnamed Bolingbroke, afterwards ascended the throne of England, with the title of Henry IV. John of Leyden, sometimes called Johann Bock- elson or Beccold, a notorious fanatic, born at Leyden in 1 5 10. Having joined the Anabaptists, he associated himself with Matthys, and with his followers took pos- session of the city of Miinster. After committing the greatest excesses and cruelties, he was taken prisoner by the Bishop of Miinster, and executed in 1536. See JocHMi's, " Geschichte der Miinsterschen Wiedertanfer ;" Robertson, " History of Charles V.," book v. ; C. A. Vulpius, "Johann von Leyden," 1793 ; J. C. Wallmann, "Johann von Ley- den," 1844; Ersch nnd Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." John the Baptist, [Fr. Jean Baptiste, zh6N btp'- test'; It. Giovanni Battista, jo-vin'nee bit-tis't^,] son of Zacharias, a Jewish priest, and his wife Elisabeth. It was foretold of him that he should come in the spirit and power of Elias, to prepare the way of the Lord, (Luke i, 17.) Our Saviour also said that no ])rophet was greater than John the Baptist. (Luke vii. 28.) He began to preach and to baptize in the desert country through which the Jordan flowed. It was here that Jesus received baptism and was proclaimed by him as the promised Messiah. He was subsequently cast into prison, and beheaded by the order of Herod. See Mark vi. 16-30. Johnes, j5nz, ? (Thomas,) an English scholar and bibliomaniac, born at Ludlow, in Shropshire, in 1748. He was twice elected a member of Parliament. He translated Froissart's "Chronicle," and other literary works, from the French. Died in 1816, John'son, (Alexander B.,) an author and banker, born in Gosport, England, in 1786. He settled in Utica, New York, in 1801, and engaged in banking operations in that town. He devoted his leisure to the study of the nature of human knowledge, or ideas irrespective of the words by which they are expressed. The results of his investigation are his " Philosophy of Human Know- ledge, or a Treatise on Language," (1828,) a " Treatise on Language, or the Relation which Words bear to Things," (1836,) and other publications on the same subject. His "Physiology of the Senses" (1856) was highly com- mended by the "Westminster Review." He has also published a "Treatise on Banking." John'spn, (Andrew,) the seventeenth President of the United' States, was born at Raleigh, North Carolina, in 1808. He learned the trade of a tailor, which he fol- lowed for many years at Greenville, Tennessee. He was self-educated, and, it is said, never attended any school. a, e, I, 5, u,y, long; i,^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o,u, y, short; a, e, i, o,ohsatre; fir, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; JOHNSON 1283 JOHNSON In 1828 he was elected alderman, and in 1830 mayor, of Greenville. After he had served several terms in the legislature of Tennessee, he was elected a member of Congress by the Democrats in 1843, and continued in that body for ten years. He was chosen Governor of Tennessee in 1853, and again in 1855. In 1857 he was elected a United States Senator for six years. Having taken a decided stand against the disunion movement in i860 and i86r, he was appointed Military Governor of Tennessee by President Lincoln in 1862. He was elected Vice-President of the United States by the Republicans in November, 1864, and, on the death of Mr. Lincoln, became President in April, 1865. On his accession to office he displayed at first a spirit of great severity against the rebels, but soon afterwards adopted a line of policy in relation to the reconstruction of the seceded States which was very favourable to them. His policy, which tended to restore the domination of the secession- ists and to reduce the freedmen again to many of the evils of slavery, was rejected by a majority of Congress ; and a violent contest ensued between that body and the President, who vetoed numerous acts passed by Con- gress for the reconstruction of the Southern States, etc. His vetoes, however, were overruled by a majority of two-thirds in each House, and the policy of Congress prevailed. In the course of a tour from Washington to Chicago, in 1866, he made many undignified political speeches, which rendered him very unpopular, and in the next elections his opponents, the Radicals, obtained large and increased majorities. He opposed impartial suffrage, recommended repudiation, and co-operated with the Democratic party. He pardoned a large numl)er of counterfeiters. In August, 1867, he suspended Mr. Stanton, secretary of war, and appointed General Grant secretary ad interim. The Senate of the United States reinstated Mr. Stanton in January, 1868, and President Johnson quarrelled with General Grant because he gave up the war office to Mr. Stanton. Great excitement was produced by the attempt of the President to remove Mr. Stanton in February, and he was impeached of high crimes and misdemeanours by a large majority of the House of Representatives. Among the crimes charged against him was the violation of the "Act regulating the Tenure of certain Civil Offices," by the removal of Mr. Stanton without the consent of the Senate, The trial before the Senate began about March 13, and ended, May 26, in his acquittal. Thirty-five Senators voted that be was guilty, and nineteen voted not guilty. Among the latter were seven Republicans. See " Life of Andrew Johnson," New York, 1866 ; "The Trial of Andrew Johnson," (official,) 3 vols., 1868. Johnson, (Bf.n.) See Jonson, (Ben.) Johnson, (Chapman,) an eminent American lawyer, born in Virginia in 1779. He began the practice of law at Staunton, and rose to the first rank in his profession. He served as aide-de-camp to General James Brecken- ridge in the second war with Great Britain. Died in 1849. John'son, (Charles,) an English dramatic writer, born in 1679, is mentioned in Pope's "Dunciad," particu- larly on account of his obesity. The comedy of the " Country Lasses'' was the most popular of his plays. Died in 1748. See Baker, "Biographia Dramatica." Johnson, (Cuthbert W.,) an English writer on agri- culture, born at Bromley, Kent, about 1800. He pub- lished "The Farmer's Encyclopaedia and Dictionary of Rural Affairs," (1842.) Johnson, (Eastman,) an American painter of por- traits and genre, born near Freyburg, Maine. Among his works are " The Old Kentucky Home," " Savoyard Boy," "The Woodsman," "The Chimney-Corner," and other admirable delineations of common life. See TucKERMAN, " Book of the Artists." Johnson, (Edward,) one of the earliest historians of New F^ngland, born in Kent, England, about 1600. He emigrated to Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1630. Died in 1672. His valuable "History of New England from the English Planting in 1628 till 1652" was published in London in 1650, and afterwards in the Massachusetts Historical Collections. Johnson, (Edward,) an American general, l)orn in Kentucky, graduated at West Point in 1838. lie com- manded a divisioii of Lee's army at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863, and was taken prisoner at Spottsylvania Couri- House, May 12, 1864. Johnson, (Gabriel.) See Johnston. Johnson, (Hester.) See Swift, (Jonathan.) Johnson,(ISAAC,) one of the founders of Massachusetts colony, came from England with G(jvernor Winthrop in 1630. He and three others organized, July 30, the church of Boston at Charlestown ; but, for the want of good water, they removed to Shawmut, now Boston, which was settled under Johnson's supervision. Died in 1630. Johnson, (James,) an Irish physician, born about 1777, practised in London. He published, besides other medical works, a "Treatise on the Influence of Tropical Climates on European Constitutions," and "The Econ- omy of Health." Died in 1845. See " Life of Dr. James Johnson," by his son, 1846. Johnson, (John,) a learned nonjuring divine, born in Kent, England, in 1662. He was the author of " Holy David and his Old English Translation Cleared," written in answer to one of the works of Baxter, " The Clergy- man's Vade-Mecum," (1708,) and several other works. Died in 1725. See Thomas Brett, "Life of John Johnson," 1748. Johnson, (Sir John,) a general, son of Sir William, noticed below, was born in 1742. He was a royalist in the Revolution, instigated the Indians to fight for the king, and conducted several raids from Canada against the State of New York, Near the close of last century he was appointed Governor of Upper Canada. Died in 1830. Johnson, (Joseph,) M.D., brother of Judge William Johnson, was born in Charleston in 1776. He practised as a ])hysician in his native city, and in 1807 was chosen president of the Medical Society of South Carolina. Lie took an active part in the literary and political move- ments of Charleston, was long mayor of the city, and a prominent leader of the party which opposed nullifica- tion in 1832-33. He wrote a valuable work entitled " Tra- ditions and Reminiscences of the Revolution," (1851.) Johnson, (Manuel John,) an English astronomer, born about 1805. He was astronomer of the Radcliffe Observatory of Oxford, and published "Astronomical Observations," (13 vols,, 1845-55.) I^i^<^ 1859. Johnson, (Martin,) an English landscape-painter and seal-engraver of the time of Charles II. Died about 1685. Johnson, (Maurice,) an English lawyer and antiqua- rian, born in Lincolnshire. He founded an antiquarian society at Spalding, and wrote several commentaries. Died in 1755. Johnson, (Reverdy,) an American lawyer, son of Judge Johnson, was born in Annapolis, Maryland, May 21, 1796. He studied at Saint John's College, was admitted to the bar in 181 5, and followed his profession with great success in Baltimore. He has also been extensively engaged in cases before the supreme court of the United States. In 1845 '^^'^^ elected by the Whigs to the United States Senate. This position he resigned in 1849 to accept the attorney-generalship of the United States, tendered him by President Taylor. On the death of General Taylor, in July, 1850, Mr. Johnson resumed his profession in Baltimore. In connection with Thomas Harris, he has published seven volumes of reports of the Maryland court of appeals, (from 1800 to 1826.) He was elected a Senator of the United States for six years, (1863-69,) and a])pointed minister to England in June, 1868. He negotiated in relation to the Alabama claims a convention which the Senate of the United States rejected almost unanimously. He was recalled early in 1869. Johnson, (Richard,) a commentator and gramma- rian, born in England. Among his works are " Noctes Nottinghamicas," and "Grammatical Commentaries." Died in 1721. Johnson, (Richard Mentor,) ninth Vice-President of the United States, was born near Louisville, Kentucky, in 1780. He studied at Transylvania University, and practised law with success. Elected a representative € as 9 as s; g Aard; g as/; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^='See Explanations, p. 23.) JOHNSON 2 84 JOHNSON to Congress in 1807, he zealously supported the admin- istration of President Madison, and was regularly re- elected for a period of twelve years. On the breaking out of the war of 181 2, he raised and commanded a regiment of mounted riflemen on the Indian frontier. In 1813 he again took the field, and contributed greatly to Harrison's victory of the Thames, (October 5, 1813.) I he Indian chief Tecumseh, who fell in this battle, is generally believed to have been killed by Colonel John- son, who was dangerously wounded. In 1819 he was transferred to the United States Senate, of which he was a member for ten years. He was again returned to the House of Representatives in 1829, and was regularly re-elected till chosen Vice-President in 1837, Van Buren being the President. None of the candidates for Vice- President having on that occasion received a majority of votes in the electoral college, Colonel Johnson was elected by the United States Senate. He was again the candidate for the Vice-Presidency on the ticket with Van Buren in 1840, but was defeated. Died in 1850. Johnson, (Richard W.,) an American general, born in Kentucky about 1827, graduated at West Point in 1849. He commanded a division at the battle of Stone River, December 31, 1862-January 2, 1863, and at Chick- amauga, September 19 and 20, 1863. He served under General Sherman in Georgia in May, 1864. John'spn, (Samuel,) an English divine, memorable for his undaunted support of the Protestant cause, was born in Staffordshire in 1649. Soon after he had taken orders he removed to London. He became an earnest advocate of the bill of exclusion against James, Duke of York, and published a tract entitled "Julian the Apostate," (1682,) in which he refuted the arguments in favour of passive obedience. For writing this article he was tried and imprisoned ; but during his confinement he issued several treatises against popery. In 1686 he wrote "An Humble and Hearty Address to all the English Protestants in the Present Army." For the production of this essay he was sentenced to stand three times in the pillory, to pay a fine of five hundred marks, and to be publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyburn. He bore all these sufferings with great firnniess. He subsequently wrote in favour of the Revolution, and also of William of Orange, on whose accession he was rewarded with a present of ^^looo and an annuity of j^300. Died in 1703- Johnson, (Samuel,) an eccentric English dramatic writer, born in Cheshire about 1705. He wrote, besides other comedies, " Hurlothrumbo, or the Supernatural." Died in 1773. See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica." Johnson, (Samuel,) one of the most eminent Eng- lish writers of the eighteenth century, a son of Michael Johnson, a bookseller, was born at Lichfield, September 18, 1709. He commenced his studies in his native town, and subsequently continued them at a school in Stour- bridge. In 1728 he entered Pembroke College, Oxford. From boyhood he had been afflicted with the scrofula, which greatly impaired his eyesight and weakened his constitution. To this may be attributed the natural in- dolence which he never fully succeeded in overcoming. Notwithstanding these obstacles, he acquired such stores of knowledge that, when he was examined at Oxford, one of the officers pronounced him to be the best pre- pared among all those who had entered since his re- membrance. Three years afterwards he was under the necessity of leaving college, on account of the narrowness of his resources. The same year, his father dying under pecuniary embarrassments, he obtained employment as usher to a school in Market-Bosworth. The duties of this office, however, soon became so irksome that he threw it up and removed to Birmingham, where he had made an engagement to contribute to a newspaper. It was there, also, that he produced his first book, an abridged translation from the French of " Father Lobos' Voyage into Abyssinia," for which he received the small compensation of five guineas. In 1736 he married Mrs. Porter, the widow of a mercer. This lady is described as being nearly twice his age, and as having vulgar manners, a loud voice, and florid complexion. Johnson said, however, that it was a love-match on both sides. Not long after, he attempted to establish an academy at Edial Hall, where he obtained only three pupils, one of whom was David Garrick. In 1737 he went to I>ondon, accompanied by Garrick. In a short time he produced, in imitation of the third Satire of Juvenal, a poem on London, which attracted great attention. Pope remarked "that the author, whoever he was, would not be long concealed." It was in the metropolis that Johnson formed a friendship for the poet Savage, with whom he frequently walked the streets at night because they were too poor to procure lodgings. In 1740 he wrote the parliamentary speeches for the " Gentleman's Magazine,'' and in 1744 published the "Life of Richard Savage." Three years later he commenced his English Dictionary. In March, 1749, the first number of the " Rambler" was issued. Johnson continued this periodical until his wife's death, in 1752, which affected his mind so deeply that he suspended many of his literary labours. In 1762 George III. granted him a pension of ;^300 per annum ; and from that time he was enabled to live in ease and inde- pendence. He became a member of the famous literary club to which Burke, Goldsmith, Reynolds, and many other celebrated men belonged. He received the degree of LL.D. in 1765 from the University of Dublin, but did not assume the title until several years later, when the same honour was conferred on him by the University of Oxford. He was also treated with marked attention by the king, to whom he was introduced at the library in Buckingham House. In 1773 he made an excursion to the Western Islands of Scotland, of which he wrote an account, and two years later visited Paris. In 1781 he finished the "Lives of the British Poets," the last of his literary works. He died in 1784, from the effects of dropsy and asthma. Johnson's intellect was incisive, comprehensive, and profound ; and, when free from the influence of prejudice or passion, his judgments are, generally speaking, re- markably just. He seemed to seize, instantaneously and without effort, the essential features of the subject under discussion, and his decisions are often expressed with a clearness and force that make a vivid and indelible im- pression upon the minds of his readers. He was pre- eminently distinguished for his conversational powers ; in society he was original, pointed, logical, and fond of argument, in which no one but Burke could successfully encounter him. Much of the intolerance and ill temper which he too often betrayed on such occasions must be ascribed to distressing and deep-rooted bodily infirmi- ties, which powerfully reacted upon his mind. If his disposition was irritable, his heart was essentially kind and generous. Few persons, with means so limited as his, ever spent more for charitable or benevolent pur- poses. "He loved the poor," says Mrs. Thrale, "as I never yet saw any one else love them. . . . He nursed whole nests of people in his house, where the lame, the blind, the sick, and the sorrowful found a sure retreat." Francis Barber, the servant and friend of Dr. Johnson, was originally a Jamaica slave. It is related that John- son, on making his will, asked his physician what would be a sufficient annuity for a faithful servant. Being told that fifty pounds a year would be regarded as adequate in the case of a nobleman, "Then," he said, "I shall be nobilisshmis; for I mean to leave Frank seventy pounds a year." " That, with all his coarseness and irrita- biHty," says Macaulay, (who will scarcely be accused of any undue partiality to Johnson,) " he was a man of sterling benevolence, has long been acknowledged. But how gentle and endearing his deportment could be was not known till the ' Recollections of Madame D'Arblay ' were published." Although certainly not wanting in a proper respect for dignities, he possessed a true Saxon independence of character, of which his well-known letter to Lord Chesterfield furnishes a fine illustration. He was a sincere and humble believer in the great truths of Christianity, which he ably upheld and defended. Johnson was great in all the branches of literature to which he devoted his attention. Few men have exerted so great an influence while living, — an influence which will probably be felt far into the future. His poems, which are chiefly descriptive and satirical, have been greatly admired by some of the most ennnent critics. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, \i, y short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; JOHNSON 1285 JOHNSTON "I have had," said Sir Walter Scott, "more pleasure in reading 'London' and the 'Vanity of Human Wishes' than any other poetical composition that I can mention." Of the latter Kyrou remarks, " 'Tis a grand poem, all the examples and mode of giving them sublime." His romances and plays attracted less attention. He was particularly unsuccessful with his female characters. Burke aptly remarked that among his dramatis personas "all the ladies introduced were Johnsons in petticoats." His excellence in literary criticism lies in his strength, perspicuity, and originality of thought. His critical observations are generally extremely just (as already intimated) when not biased by prejudice. He had not, however, that nice discrimination or sensibility requisite in order to appreciate poetical beauties of a delicate or subtle kind. His most important critical works are the " Preface and Notes to Shakspeare," and " The Lives of the British Poets." His English Dictionary, upon which he bestowed vast labour for several years, is probably the most remarkable work of the kind ever produced by a single person. His style, precise and stately, was much admired and imitated during his lifetime ; but at present the prevailing taste in literature has pronounced it too artificial and elaborate to be ever used as a model. See BosvvELL, "Life of Johnson," review of Croker's edition of BoswELi.'s "Life of Johnson," in IMacaulay's "Essays;" "Anecdotes of Dr. Johnson," by Madame Piozzi, (Mrs. Thrale,) 1786; Anderson, "Life of Johnson," 1795; Thomas Carlyle, "Heroes and Hero - Worship ;" Scott's Miscellaneous Prose Works ; Gary, " Lives of English Poets from Johnson to Kirke Wliite;" "London Quarterly Review" for November, 1831, June, 1850, April, 1858, and January, 1K59 ; "Westminster Review" for October, 1831 ; see, also, the excellent and elaborate article in Alli- bone's " Dictionary of Authors." Johnson, (Samuel,) D.D., born in Guilford, Con- necticut, in 1696, graduated at Yale in 1714. Having become an Episcopalian, he took holy orders in England in 1722, and on his return settled at Stratford. He was chosen president of King's College in 1754. This posi- tion he resigned in 1763. Died in 1772. He wrote, besides other works, a " System of Morality." Johnson, (Thom.as,) a lieutenant-colonel in the royal army, distinguished as a^jotanist, was born at Selby, in Yorkshire. He received from the University of Ox- ford the title of M.D. He was mortally wounded at the siege of Basinghouse, in 1644. He wrote several botanical works. Johnson, (Thomas,) an English scholar, born in Oxfordshire, was educated at Cambridge, where in 1692 he received the degree of M.A. He edited Sophocles, (1705,) and other classical works. Died about 1750. Johnson, (Walter Rogers,) an American chemist and geologist, born in Leominster, Massachusetts, about 1794. He graduated at Harvard in 1819 ; and, while professor of mechanics, natural philosophy, etc. in the Philadelphia High School, he contributed largely by lectures and essays towards introducing an improved system of common-school education in Pennsylvania. He afterwards made important investigations in the geology of that State, particularly the coal formations, filled for four years (1839-43) the chair of chemistry in the Medical University of Pennsylvania, and in 1844 published, by order of Congress, his " Report on the Different Varieties of Coal." Died in 1852. Johnson, (William,) judge of the supreme court of the United States, was born in Charleston, South Caro- lina, in 1 77 1. He was a brother of Joseph, noticed above. He graduated at Princeton, with the highest honours of his class, in 1790, rose to distinction at the bar of his native State, and was appointed judge by Jefferson in 180 1. He died, while undergoing a surgical operation, in New York, in 1834. He published "The Life and Correspondence of Major-General Greene," (2 vols., 1822.) Johnson, (Sir William,) a British military officer, born about 1715, was employed in North America, and had great influence over the Indians. He commanded an expedition sent against Crown Point in 1755, ^"^^ defeated the French and their Indian allies. He wrote a short work "On the Customs and Languages of the American Indians." Died in New York in 1774. See "Life and Times of Sir W. Johnson," by W. L. Stone, 1865. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, H, y^, guttural; n, nasal; R, Johnson, (William B,,) a Baptist minister, born near Charleston, South Carolina, in 1782. He presided over the Baptist Convention of South Caiolina for twenty-five years or more. He was the author of several religious works. Johnson, (William Samuel,) F.R.S., an eloquent American lawyer and scholar, born at Stratford, Con- necticut, in 1727, graduated at Yale in 1744. Having been sent as a colonial agent to England in 1766, he became an acquaintance of the celebrated Dr. Johnson, with whom he corresponded for many years. He was elected to Congress in 1785, was a member of the con- vention which formed the Federal Constitution in 1787, and was elected a United States Senator for Connecticut in 1789. Lie was president of Columbia College, New York, from 1791 until 1800. Died in 1819. Johns^ton, (Albert Sydney,) an eminent American general, born in Mason county, Kentucky, in 1803, graduated at West Point in 1826. Having resigned his commission in 1834, he enlisted as a private soldier in the army of Texas in 1836. He soon became commander- in-chief, in place of F. Houston, with whom he fought a duel about 1837. He was secretary of war of the republic of Texas, 1838-40, and served as colonel of the army of the United States in the Mexican war, (1846-47.) In 1849 was appointed paymaster of the army of the United States. Having been raised to the rank of colonel, he commanded the expedition sent to Utah against the Mormons in 1857. In i860 he took command of the department of the Pacific. He offered his services to the secessionists in 1861, and was ap- pointed commander of the department of Kentucky and Tennessee. He occupied a fortified position at Bowling Green in the autumn of 1861. The capture of Fort Donelson, February 16, 1862, having rendered this position untenable, he moved hastily southward into Tennessee, and fonned a junction with the army of General Beauregard at Corinth. About six weeks were spent in this disastrous retreat. He collected a force of about 50,000 men at Corinth, and attacked the army of General Grant at Shiloh on the 6th of April, 1862. He was killed about two P.M. on the first day of this battle, by a ball, which cut an artery of his leg. "A. S. Johnston," says Mr. Greeley, "was probably the ablest commander at any time engaged in the rebel service." ("American Conflict.") See Life of A. S. Johnston in "Southern Generals," (anony- mous,) 1865; Tenney, "Military and Naval History of the Rebel- lion," 1865. Johns'ton, (Alexander,) a Scottish painter, born in Edinburgh in 1816. His works mostly represent familiar scenes of Scottish life, or events in Scottish history. Johnston, (Alexander Keith,) an eminent geog- rapher, was born at Kirkhill, in Scotland, in 1804. In order to be thoroughly informed upon geography, he made himself acquainted with the French, Spanish, Italian, and German languages. His first important work, the "National Atlas," was issued in 1843. In 1848 he published a valuable "Physical Atlas," which greatly extended the celebrity of its author. He was elected a member of the Geographical Societies of Ber- lin and Paris, of the Geological Society of London, and the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Of the other works of Mr. Johnston may be mentioned "A Dictionary of Geography," (1850,) and an "Atlas of the Historical Geography of Europe." See " Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1849. Johnston, (Dr. Arthur,) a Scottish physician and poet, eminent for hjs classical learning, was born in Aber- deenshire in 1587. He pursued his studies mostly on the continent, and in 1610 received the degree of M.D. at Padua. He afterwards resided at Paris several years, and on his return to England, in 1632, was appointed physician-in-ordinary to Charles I. Died in 1641. He contributed to Sir John Scott's collection of Latin poems, and composed, in Latin, "Poetical Paraphrases of the Psalms of David," (1637.) "I am inclined to think," says Hallam, "that Johnston's Psalms do not fall far short of those of Buchanan, either in elegance of style or in correctness of Latinity." See Irving, "Lives of Scottish Writers;" Chambers, "Bio- graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^="See Explanations, p. 23.) JOHNSTON 1286 JOHNSTONE Johnston, (Gabriel,) a native of Scotland, was ap- pointed colonial governor of North Carolina in 1734; died in 1752. Johnston, (George,) a distinguished naturalist, was born at Siniprin in 1789, and graduated as a physician at the University of Edinburgh in 1819. Among his inter- esting and valuable contributions to science may be men- tioned " History of British Zoophytes," (1838,) " History of British Sponges and Lithophytes," (1842,) papers on "British and Irish Annelides," a work on Conchology, (1850,) and "Botany of the Eastern Borders," (1854.) He practised medicine at Berwick-on-Tweed for many years. Died in 1855. See a notice of G. Johnston In the " Gentleman's Magazine" for September, 1855. Johnston, (James T. W.,) a noted agricultural chem- ist, was born at Paisley, in Scotland, about 1796. He studied in Sweden, under Berzelius. In 1833 appointed professor of chemistry in the University of Durham. He also visited America, where he became distinguished as an agricultural chemist. Among his works are the " Elements of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology," (1842,) " Catechism of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology," (1844,) a work which has been translated into nearly every European language, "Contributions to Scientific Agriculture," (1849,) "Notes on North America," (1851,) and " Chemistry of Common Life," (2 vols., 1854-55.) Died in 1855. Johnston, (John,) a Scottish poet and scholar, was professor of divinity in the College of Saint Andrew's. He wrote, besides other poems, " Heroes ex Omni His- toria Scotica Lectissimi," (1603.) Died in 1612. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Johnston, (John,) an eminent physician and natural philosopher, born in Poland in 1603. He graduated at the Universities of Leyden and Cambridge. He wrote, besides other works, in Latin, the " Wonders of Nature, divided into Ten Classes," which was a natural history of beasts, birds, fishes, and insects. Died in 1675. Johnston, (Joseph Eggleston,) an able American general, born in Prince Edward county, Virginia, about 1809. Plis mother, whose maiden name was Wood, was a niece of Patrick Henry. He graduated at West Point in 1829, gained the rank of captain in 1846, and served with distinction in the Mexican war, 1846-47. In June, i860, he was appointed quartermaster-general, with the rank of brigadier-general. He resigned his commission in April, 1861, and was immediately appointed a major- general, or general, by Jefferson Davis. He took com- mand of a force at Harper's Ferry in May, 1861, and was opposed in that vicinity by General Patterson. Having eluded Patterson, he moved his army rapidly to Ma- nassas, and effected a junction with the army of Beau- regard on the 20th or 21st of July. General Johnston was superior in rank to Beauregard, but he waived his claim to precedence in the battle of Bull Run, July 21. He remained inactive at Manassas Junction during the autumn of 1861 and the ensuing winter. About the 8th of March, 1862, he changed his base and retired behind the Rapidan. He soon moved his army to the peninsula to oppose McClellan, and, having been repulsed at Wil- liamsburg, May 5, retreated towards Richmond. On the 31st of May he attacked a part of the Union army at Fair r)aks, or Seven Pines. In this battle he received a severe wound, which disabled him for several months. In November, 1862, he was assigned to the command of a department comprising Tennessee, Alabama, and Mis- sissippi. He reported in April, 1863, that he was still unfit for active service in the field. After General Grant approached Vicksburg from the south. General Johnston moved a small army to relieve that place, and reached Jackson on the 13th of May. He was defeated on the 14th, abandoned Jackson, and retreated to Canton. On the 29th of May he wrote to General Pemberton, " I am too weak to save Vicksburg. Can do no more than attempt to save you and your garrison." In December, 1863, he took command in person of the army which had recently been defeated by General Grant near Chatta- nooga, and which was required to oppose the advance of General Sherman towards Atlanta. He began this campaign with about 55,000 men, occupying a strong and fortified position at Dalton, Georgia. This position having been turned by the Union army, Johnston fell back to Resaca, where he was attacked on the 15th of May. After a severe battle, he retreated in the ensuing night, closely pursued, and reached Cassville, near the Etowah River, on the 19th. Having crossed the Etowah under cover of the night. General Johnston made another stand in the strong position of Allatoona Pass, to dis- lodge him from which General Sherman ordered a flank movement to Dallas. General Johnston attacked the Federals at Dallas on the 28th of May, was repulsed, and on the 4th of June retreated to Kenesaw Mountain. On the 27th of June, General Sherman made an unsuc- cessful assault on the works at Kenesaw, but he resorted again to a flank movement, which compelled General Johnston to abandon Kenesaw on the 2d or 3d of July, and to retreat across the Chattahoochee. He was re- moved from the command on the i8th of July, 1864. Before this date he had attained the rank of general, the highest in the service. He obtained command of an army in South Carolina about February, 1865, and on the 1 8th of March attacked the advance of General Sherman's army at Bentonville, North Carolina. He retreated to Smithfield on the 21st of March, and surrendered his army to General Sherman on the 26th of April, 1865, on the same terms as were granted to General Lee. (See Sherman, W. T.) See a " Life of General J. E. Johnston" in "Southern Generals," 1865. Johnston, (Robert,) a Scottish historical writer, was the author of a " History of his Own Times," (1642, in Latin.) Died about 1636. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Johnstone (jons'ton) or Johnston of Warriston, (Archibald,) a Scottish statesman, and leader of the Presbyterians. He held several high offices, and was an adherent of the Parliament in the civil war which began in 1642. He became lord advocate in 1646, and was created a peer by Cromwell. He was executed as a rebel in 1663. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Johnstone, (Bryce,) an eminent Scottish divine, born in Dumfriesshire in 1747. Pie studied at the University of Edinburgh, which in 1786 unanimously conferred upon him the degree of D.D. Among his works may be men- tioned " Commentary on the Revelation of Saint John the Divine," (1794,) "Essay on the Influence of Religion on Civil Society and Civil Government," and a treatise on agriculture. Died in 1805. See a " Life of Bryce Johnstone," by his nephew, John John- stone, 1808. Johnstone, Johnson, or Johnston, (Charles,) an author, born in Ireland about 1720, was educated for the bar. The most important of his productions was a po- litical romance, entitled " Chrysal, or the Adventures of a Guinea," (1760,) which met with a great sale. Besides this, he wrote "The Reverie, or a Flight to the Paradise of Fools," (1762,) " Arsaces, Prince of Betlis," and other works. Died in Calcutta in 1800. See Sir Walter Scott's Miscellaneous Prose Works. Johnstone, (George,) a diplomatist and post-captain in the royal navy, the son of a Scottish baronet. In 1763 he was made Governor of West Florida. During the American Revolution he was appointed (in 1778) one of the commissioners sent with Lord Carlisle to the United States to treat with Congress. Died in 1787. Johnstone, (James,) a distinguished Scottish physi- cian, born at Annan in 1730, was educated at Edinburgh and Paris. He was very successful in malignant fevers, on which he wrote a treatise. He is also said to have been the first to recommend the use of mineral acids in those diseases. Among his other works may be mentioned " Medical Essays and Observations, with Disquisitions relating to the Nervous System," (1795.) He practised at Worcester, where he died in 1802. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Johnstone, (John,) son of the preceding, was born in 1768, and educated at Oxford. He was equally celebrated as a skilful physician and an accomplished scholar. He wrote the "Life of Dr. Parr," (1828,) with a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, Ci, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; JOHNSTONE 1287 JOMBERT whom he was very intimate ; also several medical works. He practised in Birmingham about forty years. Died in 1836. See a notice, of J. Johnstone in the "Gentleman's Magazine" for May, 1837. Johnstone, (John Henry,) a celebrated comic actor and vocalist, born in Ireland in 1750 ; died in 1828. Johnstone, jons'ton, de, Chevalier, a native of Edinburgh, entered in 1745 the army of the Pretender, to whom he soon became aide-de-camp. He served at the battle of Prestonpans and in subsequent engagements. After the battle of Culloden he escaped to Paris, and re- ceived an appointment in the French army. He wrote, in French, " Memoirs of the Rebellion in 1745 and 1746," which was translated and published in London in 1820. Died in France at an advanced age. See the " Monthly Review" for May, 1822. Joinville.zhvviN^v^K, (Edmond,) a French landscape- painter, born in Paris in 1801 ; died in 1849. Joinville, de, deh join'vil or zhwiN^^K, (FRANgois Ferdinand Philippe Louis Marie d'Orli&ans, ) Prince, the third son of King Louis Philippe, was born in 1818. He served in the navy, and obtained the rank of captain for his conduct at the attack on Vera Cruz in 1838. In 1840 he was sent to Saint Helena to bring the remains of Napoleon to France. He commanded the naval division which bombarded Tangier in 1 844, and gave an impulse to the construction of steam ships of war by his "Note sur les Forces navales de la France," (1844.) See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Joinville, de, (Jean or Jehan,) Sire, a French noble- man and chronicler of high reputation, born in Cham- pagne in 1224. He grew up at the court of Thibaut, King of Navarre and Count of Champagne, and in 1248 raised several hundred armed men from among his tenants and accompanied Louis IX. in his first crusade to the Holy Land. He soon became a great favourite with this monarch. Joinville distinguished himself for bravery at the capture of Damietta in Egypt, and was subsequently, with Louis, made prisoner at Mansoorah. He returned to France with the king in 1254. He wrote a very in- teresting work entitled "History of Saint Louis IX., King of France, by Jehan Sire de Joinville." "In this history," says Ambrose P'irmin Didot, "which is one of the most precious monuments of ancient or modern tiines, the Christian, the man of the world, the friend of the king, and the historian, display themselves with such naturalness, simplicity, and candour that the reader can penetrate the inner heart of the author by the simple recital which he has given us. . . . His natural and easy style has all the charm of conversation." ("Nou- velle Biographie Generale.") He is supposed to have died about 1317. See F. Feriel, " Notice sur Jean de Joinville," 1853 ; Chezjean, "Notice historique sur Sire de Joinville," 1853; Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi." Joliet, zho'le-k', (Louis,) a French traveller, was one of the first white men that explored the Mississijipi River. He had resided some time at Quebec before 1673, when he and Marquette were sent to explore that river. (See Marquette.) After the end of that voyage it appears that he returned to Quebec. Died about 1730. Joliveau de Segrais, zho'le'vo' deh seh^gRa', (Ma- rie Madeleine Nicole Alexandrine,) a French poetess, born at Bar-sur-Aube in 1756; died in 1830. She wrote " New Fables in Verse," etc. Jolivet, de, deh zho'le'vi', (Jean Baptiste Moyse,) Count, a French advocate, born in 1754, was elected in 1791 to the Legislative Assembly, in which he boldly denounced the Jacobins. On the accession of Napoleon he was created councillor of state. Died in 1818. He wrote various works on political economy. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." JoUivet, zhoOe^'y, (Adolphe,) a French politician, born in 1799, wrote many works against the abolition (jf slavery; He was killed in Paris during the revolution of February, 1848. Jollivet, (Pierre Jules,) a French painter of history, born in Paris in 1803, gained a medal of the first class in 1835. JoUois, zho'lwi', (Jean Baptiste Prosper,) a French antiquary and engineer, born in Burgundy in 1776. He was chief engineer of the department of Seine, (Paris.) He published many works on French antiquities. Died in 1842. .See Alfred Maukv, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de J. B. P. Jollois," 1846; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Joly, zho'le', (B^nigne,) a French religious writer, born at Dijon in 1644, wrote a number of devotional works. Died in 1694. Joly, (Claude,) a French writer and ecclesiastic, born in Paris in 1607, wrote "A Collection of True Maxims for the Education of a King, against the Pernicious Policy of Cardinal Mazarin," (1652,) a copy of which was burnt by the common executioner. -~He became a canon of the Church of Paris in 163 1. Died in 1700. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Joly, (Claude,) a French preacher, born in Lorraine in 1610, became Bishop of Agen, and left several volumes of sermons, (1692-94.) Died in 1678. Joly or Jolly ,yiho1e', (FRANgois Antoine,) a French comic poet, born in Paris in 1662. He wrote several comedies, and published accurate editions of Moliere (6 vols., 1734) and Corneille, (5 vols.) Died in 1753. Joly, (Gui,) a French writer, a nephew of Claude Joly, noticed above, became confidential secretary to Cardinal de Retz. He is known as the author of the historical " Memoirs" from 1648 to 1665, (1718.) An English trans- lation of this work was published in 1755. His " Memoirs" are designed to explain and complete those of De Retz. Joly, (Joseph Romain,) a French monk and writer, born in 1715 ; died in 1805. Joly, (Marc Antoine,) a French dramatist, born in 1672, wrote "The School of Lovers," and "The Jealous Wife." Died in 1753. Joly or Jolly, (Marie Elisabeth,) a noted French actress, born at Versailles in 1761. In 1793 she was imprisoned by the revolutionists, but regained her free- dom on condition that she should perform at the theatre of the Republic. Died in 1798. Joly, (Philippe Louis,) a learned French ecclesiastic and philologist, born at Dijon about 17 12. Among his works are " Critical Remarks on the Dictionary of Bayle," (1748,) and a "Treatise on French Versification," (1751.) Died in 1782. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Joly de Bevy, zho'le' deh ba've', (Louis Philippe Joseph,) a French judge and religious writer, born at Dijon in 1736; died in 1822. Joly-Clerc, zho'le' klaiR, (Nicolas,) a French natu- ralist, wrote a number of works on botany. Died in 181 7. Joly de Fleury, zho'le' deh fluh're', (Guillaume Francois,) a learned and eloquent French advocate and magistrate, was born in Paris in 1675. For more than twenty years he was attorney-general in the Parliament of Paris. He wrote several treatises on law. Died in 1756. Joly de Fleury, (Jean FRANgois,) a French financier, a son of the preceding, was born in 1718. He succeeded Necker as minister of finances in 1781, and resigned in 1783. Died in 1802. Joly de Fleury, (Jean Omer — o'maiR',) a French ])riest, nephew of Guillaume Frangois, noticed above. Died in 1755. Joly de Maizeroy. See Maizeroy. Jomard, zho'mtK'', ( Edme Franqois, ) a French archaeologist and geographer, born at Versailles in 1777. He accompanied the army to Egypt in 1798, returned in 1802, and was appointed secretary of the Egyptian commission. He contributed to the redaction of the great " Description of Egypt," and, as imperial com- missary, directed the engraving and impression of the same for twenty years, (1807-26.) The portions of this work written by Jomard were published separately, with the title of "Observations on Ancient and Modern Egypt, or a Historical and Picturesque Description of its Monuments," (4 vols., 1830.) He was a member of the Institute. Died in 1862. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Jombert, zhoN'baiR', (Charles Antoine,) a French writer on art, born in Paris in 1712; died in 1784. € as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; n, tiasal; r, trilled; § as 2; th as in this. (JC^^Sce Explanations, p. 23.) JOMELLI 12 88 JONES Jomelli, yo-mcKlee, (Niccol6,) a celebrated Italian composer, born at Aversa, near Naj^les, in 1 7 14. He studied under Feo, Leo, and Martini. His first opera, "L'Errore amoroso," produced when he was twenty- three years of age, rendered him so famous that he was soon after invited to Rome, where he composed two more operas and was patronized by the Cardinal of York. In 1742 he went to Vienna, where he formed an intimate friendship with Metastasio and gave instruc- tions in music to the empress Maria Theresa. He was employed as musician or chapel-master in Saint Peter's at Rome from 1749 to 1754. The Duke of Wiirtemberg having invited him to enter his service as chapel-master to the court, Jomelli removed to Stuttgart, where he ]-)asscd about seventeen years, (1754-70.) Died at Naples in August, 1774. Among his best productions are operas entitled " Didone," (1745,) " Eumene," (1746,) "Merope," (1747,) and "Ezio," (1748,) several oratorios and masses, and a miserere for two voices. See Fetis, " Biographle Universelle des Musiciens;" Pietro Alfieri, " Notizie biografiche di N. Jomelli," 1845; " Nouvelle H;ogia|)hie Generale;" Chokon et F^yoll^ " Dictionnaire des .Musiciens." Jomini, zho'me^ne', (Henri,) Baron, an able general and eminent writer on strategy, was born at Payerne, in the Swiss Canton de Vaud, in 1779. He entered the French army, became aide-de-camp to Ney about 1804, and presented to Bonaparte on the field of Austerlitz his " Treatise on the Grand Operations of War." A few days after this event he was appointed chief of the staff of Ney. He received the title of baron for his conduct at Jena in 1806, and was employed in Spain in 1808. In 181 1 he became a general of brigade, and in 1812 French governor of Wilna. He contributed greatly to the victory of Bautzen in 1813. His promotion having been obstructed by the enmity of Berthier, he quitted the French service in 1813, and entered that of Russia, with the rank of lieutenant-general, and became aide-de- camp to the emperor Alexander. Died about April i, 1869. Among his chief works are "Traite des grandes Operations militaires, ou Histoire critique et militaire des Guerresde Frederic II comparees a celles de la Revolu- tion," (5 vols., 1805,) a *' Critical and Military History of the Campaigns of the Revolution from 1792 to 1 801," (15 vols., 1819-24,) and "Precis de I'Art de la Guerre," (5th ed., 2 vols., 1838.) The works of Jomini are among the best that have ever been written on the art of war. See Pascal, "Observations sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Baron Jomini;" Querard, " La France Litteraire ;" "Nouvelle Biogra- phie Generale ;" "Monthly Review," vol. xci., 1820, (Appendix.) Jon Areson. See Areson, (Jon.) Jon, du, (Francis.) See Junius. Jonse, yo'ni, (Peter,) Bishop of Strengnas, in Swe- den, was professor of theology at Upsal when John III. attempted to re-establish the Catholic religion. Jonae boldly opposed this proceeding. Died in 1607. Jo'nah or Jo'nas, [Heb. Hjr ; Gr. 'Iwvaf ; Lat. Jonas,] one of the minor Hebrew prophets, and the subject of the book bearing his name, is supposed to have lived under the reign of Jeroboam II., about 800 B. C. ; but some place him under that of Jehu. See II. Kings xiv. 25 ; Matthew xii. 39, .41 ; Luke xi. 29, 32. Jonas. See Jonah. Jonas, yo'n^s, Jonae, yo'ni, or Jonsson, yon'son, (Arngrim,) a learned historian, antiquary, and divine, born in Iceland about 1568, is said to have studied astronomy under Tycho Brahe. Most of his works relate to the history of Iceland. Died in 1648. Jonas, yo'n^s, (Justus,) an eminent German Re- , former and writer, born at Nordhausen in 1493. became in 1521 professor of theology at Wittenberg. He assisted Luther in the translation of the Old Tes- tament, accompanied him to the Diet at Worms and at Augsburg, and had a share in the composition of the so-called Torgau Articles. He also translated a number of Luther's works, and Melanchthon's " Defence (Apol- ogy) of the Augsburg Confession," from the Latin into German. Died in 1555. See P. Ekerman, "Vita et Acta Dr. J. Jon.T.," Upsal, 1761 ; G. C. Knapp, " Narratio de Justo Jona T.heologo," etc., ,1817; Er.sch und Gruher, " Allgemeine Kncyklopaedie ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" L. Reinhard, "Life of Justus Jonas," (in Latin,) 1731. Jonas or Jonae, (Runolph,) a scholar and author, born in Iceland, graduated at Copenhagen, where he fixed his residence after 1649. He wrote "Elements of the Northern Languages," and " Rudiments of the Icelandic Grammar." Died in 1654. Jon'a-than, [ Heb. |njin\] son of King Saul, and the most intimate friend of the psalmist David. The death of this prince, who fell with his father, near Mount Gil boa, while fighting the Philistines, furnished the subject of one of the most beautiful of David's songs. See I. Samuel xviii., xix., xx. ; II. Samuel i. 17-27. Jon'athan Ap'phus, ( aPfus, ) a celebrated Jewish leader and high-priest, succeeded his elder brother, Judas Maccabaeus, in 161 B.C., as chief ruler of his nation. For seventeen years he governed with wisdom and justice, and carried on successful wars with many of the surrounding nations. During the civil dissensions in the kingdom of Syria he was decoyed into the city of Ptolemais and massacred with his entire escort. Jonathan Ben Uz-zi'el (or uz'ze-el) or U-zi'el, a Jewish rabbi, supposed to have been contemporary with the prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. He was the author of the "Targum," a Chaldaic paraphrase of most of the Hebrew prophetical books. Joncourt, de, deh zhow'kooR', (Elie,) a Dutch writer, of French e.\ti action, born at the Hague in 1707. He was one of the editors of the " Bibliotheque des Sciences et des Arts," (50 vols., 1754-80,) and wrote various works. Died about 1775. Jonctys, yonk^tis, (Daniel,) a Ti\.\tc\\. litth-ateur ^iwd physician, born at Dort, lived many years at Rotterdam. Among his works was an able treatise against torture. Died in 1654. Jones, jonz, (Anson,) an American physician. Presi- dent of the republic of Texas at the time of its annexation, was born in Berkshire county, Massachusetts, in 1798. He settled in Brazoria, Texas, in 1833, took a promi- nent part in the political and military movements which resulted in the independence of that republic, was min- ister to the United States in 1838, and afterwards for three years secretary of state under President Houston. In 1844 he succeeded Houston as President. Died by his own hand in 1858. Jones, jonz, (David,) a Welsh poet, born in Caer- narvonshire, was also a collector of Welsh manuscripts. Died about 1780. Jones, (David R.,) an American general, born in South Carolina about 1827, graduated at West Point in 1846. He served as brigadier-general in the army of General Lee at Antietam, September 17, 1862. Died in 1863. Jones, (Edward,) a Welsh musician and bard, born in Merionethshire about 1750. He published, besides other works, "Musical and Poetical Relics of the French Bards," (1784.) Died in 1821. Jones, j5nz, (Ernest,) M.P., an English poet and Chartist. He became the leader of the Chartist move- ment about 1846. He was imprisoned about two years for his radical political speeches, (1848-49.) Among his works are "The Wood Spirit," (1841,) and "Chartist Lyrics." He was elected a member of Parliament in 1869, and died the same year. Jones, (Griffith,) a clergyman, born in Wales in 1684, was very active in supporting schools and in cir- culating the Bible among his indigent countrymen. He wrote several educational treatises in Welsh and English. Died in 1761. Jones, (Griffith,) an English author, born in 1721. He edited at different times several ]-)eriodicals, and was connected with Dr. Johnson in the " Literary Magazine" and with Goldsmith in the " British Magazine." Among his works are "Great Events from Little Causes," and several "Liliputian Histories." Died in 1786. Jones, jonz, (Henry,) an Irish poet and dramatic writer, born at Drogheda about 1720, was by trade a bricklayer. His productions attracted the attention of the Earl of Chesterfield, then lord lieutenant of Ireland, who took him to England and procured a large sub- scription for his poems. Among his works we may cite the "Tragedy of the Earl of Es'sex," (1753,) and "The Cave of Idra." Died in 1770. a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, xx^ y, short; ^, j, q, obscure; f^r, fl,ll, fdt; m^t; n6t; good; moon; yONES 1289 JONES Jones, (Inigo,) a distinguished architect, styled "the Enghsh Paliadio," was born in London about 1572. Being apprenticed to a joiner, his talent for designing attracted the attention of the Earl of Pembroke, who furnished him with means to travel through Europe. While in Italy, he accepted an invitation from Christian IV. to visit Denmark. The sister of that monarch was the queen of James I. of England ; and thus the way was paved to the royal patronage when he reached his native land in 1605. In a short lime he was appointed architect to the queen and to Prince Henry, in which position he formed a friendship with Ben Jonson. They subsequently quarrelled, and the poet ridiculed him in several plays. In 1612 he visited Italy a second time; and it was at this period that he fully adopted the classic style of architecture, which was then but little known in England. On his return he became surveyor-general of the royal buildings. He died in 1653. Of the edifices designed and constructed by him may be mentioned the palace at Whitehall, and the west front of Old Saint Paul's. He was an accomplished classical scholar, and wrote a work entitled " Stonhenge Restored." See Peter Cunningham, " Life of Inigo Jones," 1848; Camp- bell, "Vitiuvius Britannicus," 5 vols., 1767; bRiTxoN, "Dictionary of Architecture," 1830-38. Jones, (Jacob,) Commodore, an American naval officer, born in Kent county, Delaware, in 1770. He became a lieutenant about 1801, and in October, 1812, commanded the sloop-of-war Wasp, with which he cap- tured the British sloop Frolic, which carried more guns than the Wasp. He was promoted to the rank of post- captain in 1813, and obtained command of- the frigate Macedonian. Died in Philadelphia in 1850. Jones, (James Chamberlain,) a United States Sen- ator, born in Davidson county, Tennessee, in 1809. In 1841 he was chosen by the Whigs Governor of the State, James K. Polk being his competitor. He was re-elected in 1843, when Mr. Polk was again the opposing can- didate. In the National Whig Convention of 1848 Governor Jones strenuously advocated the nomination of Henry Clay ; but after the selection of General Taylor as the choice of the Convention he entered the canvass warmly in his support, and spoke to large audiences in different States of the Union. He was elected to the United States Senate in 1851, and served the full term of six years. He supported the Kansas-Nebraska bill in 1854, and thenceforward acted principally with the Democratic party. Died in 1859. Jones, (Jeremfah,) a learned and eloquent English dissenting minister, born in 1693, published an important work entitled a "New and Full Method of Settling the Canonical Authority of the New Testament," (2 vols., 1726,) which is said to be the best English work on the subject. Died in 1724. Jones, (John,) a phvsician and medical writer, sup- posed to have been born in AVales about 1500. He was educated at Cambridge, and practised at Bath, in Eng- land. Among his works was "The Art and Science of Preserving the Body and Soul in Health," (1579.) Jones, (John,) a Benedictine, born in London in 1575. He studied at Oxford, where he roomed with Laud, afterwards the celebrated archbishop. Having become a Roman Catholic, he went to Spain, became a monk, and continued his studies at Compostella. He was subsequently appointed professor of Hebrew and divinity at Douay. Pie was the author of several theo- /ogical works. Died in London in 1636. Jones, (John,) a Welsh antiquary, who collected and transcribed numerous old manuscripts in his native lan- guage. Fifty large volumes of these are yet preserved. He is supposed to have died about 1600. Jone.s, (John,) the author of "Adrasta, or the Woman's Spleen," (1635,) other dramatic works, lived in England during the reign of Charles I, Jones, (John,) a clergyman of the Church of Eng- land, born in Wales in 1700, and educated at Oxford. In 1 75 1 he became rector of Boulne-Hurst, and in 1755 vicar of Hitchin. Four years later he was chosen by Dr. Young, the poet, to be his curate. He wrote. " Catholic Faith and Practice," (1765,) and other religious works. Died about 1770. Jones, (John,) LL.D., a Unitarian minister, born in Carmarthenshire about 1765. About 1795 he was ap- pointed pastor of a congregation at Plymouth Dock, and afterwards at Flalifax, in Yorkshire. He subsequently removed to London. He was the first to introduce the use of Greek-and-English dictionaries. Previous to his time the Greek had been studied entirely with the aid of books written in Latin. Of his numerous works we may mention " Illustrations of the Four Gospels, founded on Circumstances peculiar to our l^ord and the Evangelists," (1808,) and "A Greek-and-English Lexi- con, ""(1823.) Died in 1827. Jones, (John,) a lawyer and writer, born in Carmar- thenshire in 1772, was admitted, to the bar in 1803. Among his works are "A History of Wales," and "Cyfamod Newydd," a translation of the New Testament from the Greek into Welsh. Died in 1838. Jones, (John Gale,) an English political orator, born in 1771, advocated republican or radical opinions. He w^as prosecuted for some political offence, defended l.y Romilly, and acquitted. Died in 1838. Jones, (John M., ) an American general, born in Virginia about 1820, graduated at West Point in 1841. He became a captain in 1853, and resigned his commis- sion in i86l He served as a brigadier-general in the army of General Lee, and was killed near Spottsylvania, May ID, 1864. Jones, (Colonel Leslie Grove,) an English political writer, born in 1779. He served in the Peninsula as aide-de-camp of the Duke of Wellington. He con- tributed letters to the "London Times." Died in 1839. Jones, (Noble Wimberly,) a physician and patriot, born in Georgia in 1725. He was an early and active promoter of the Revolution, was a delegate to Con- gress in 1775, and was taken prisoner at Charleston in 1780. In 1 781 he was again elected to Congress. Died in 1805. Jones, (Owen,) an antiquary, born in Denbighshire, Wales, in 1740. He published a large collection of ancient Welsh poetry, and the "Archseology of Wales," containing several historical documents. l3ied in 1814. Jones, (Owen,) an architect, born in Wales about 1809. In 1837 he visited Granada, and in 1842 published "Plans, Elevations, Sections, and Details of the Al- hambra," with a translation of the Arabic inscriptions, and a historical account of the sovereigns of Granada from the Spanish. He chiefly devoted his attention to ornamental architecture, in which he soon acquired distinction. In 1852 he was appointed "Director of Decorations" at the Crystal Palace in London. He displayed his taste and artistic knowledge with a very happy effect in arranging and ornamenting the various courts of that building. Among his writings are "De- signs for Mosaic and Tessellated Pavements," (1842,) and the "Grammar of Ornament," (1856.) Jones, (Paul ; originally John Paul,) a famous naval officer, born at Arbigland, in Scotland, in 1747. He emi- grated to Virginia, entered the colonial naval service in 1775, w^as appointed a captain in "August, 1776, and took command of the Ranger, a vessel of eighteen guns, about June, 1777. He sailed to Europe in that year, cruised on the coast of Scotland, and made a bold attack on White- haven, where he burnt some shipping. He also captured the Drake, a sloop of war. Early in 1779 he was trans- ferred to the Bonhomme Richard, which carried about forty-five guns. Having several smaller vessels under his command, he captured or destroyed many British vessels. In September he attacked the Serapis. a frigate of forty-four guns, which surrendered after a long battle. His own ship was so much damaged in this action that she sank a few hours after. Congress voted Captain Jones a gold medal for this victory. He entered the Russian service, with the rank of rear-admiral, in 1788; but, having quarrelled with one of the Russian admirals, he was soon removed from the command. He died in Paris in 1792. See J. H. Sherbourne, "Life of J. P. Jones," 2 vols., 1835; James Hamilton, "Life of Rear-Admiral J. P. Jones," 1848; A. S. Mackenzie, "Life of J. P. Jones," 2 vols., 1841; " Het Leven van J. P. Jones," Groningen, 1829; \V. G. Simms, " Lite of J. P. Jones." 1845; "National Portrait-Gallery of Di.stingiiished Ameri- cans," vol. iii. ; " Monthly Review" for September, 1825. € as c as s; g /lard; g as /; g, h, y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2!^=See Explanations, p. 23.) JONES 290 JONSON Jones, (l\ici:,) a Welsh poet, born in 1715. He pub- lished " Welsh Anthology," (1770.) Died in 1801. Jones, (Richard,) a Welshman, published about 1654 "Gemma Cambricum," a work of great ingenuity, in which all the books and chapters of the Bible were abbreviated and written in his native dialect. Jones, (Roger,) an American general, born in Vir- ginia. He fought against the British on the northern frontier in 1813 and 1814, and became adjutant-general in 1825. Died in 1852. Jones, (Samuel,) an American major-general, born in Virginia, graduated at West Point in 1841. He took arms against the Union in i86r, and commanded in Western Virginia in 1862-63. He was killed at the battle of the Wilderness, May 5, 1864. Jones, (Stephen,) born in London in 1763. He was the editor of the Whitehall "Evening Post," the "Bio- graphia Dramatica," and a " Biographical Dictionary," (2d edition, 1796.) Died in 1827. Jones, (Sir Thomas,) chief justice of the common pleas during the reign of James II. He openly opposed the encroachments of the king on the laws of England, and was dismissed from office in 1686. See Macaulay, "History of England," vol. ii. chap. vi. Jones, (Thomas M.,) born in Virginia about 1835, became a brigadier-general in the Confederate army about 1862. Jones, (Thomas Rymer,) an English physician and surgeon, distinguished as a comparative anatomist and physiologist, was born about 1810. He was educated at London and Paris. He was appointed professor of comparative anatomy in King's College, London, and in 1840 became Fullerian professor of physiology in the Royal Institution of Great Britain. In 1844 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. Among his works may be mentioned " A General Outline of the Animal Kingdom," (1841,) and "The Natural History of Animals," (ist vol., 1844.) Jones, (Thomas Wharton,) a British oculist and phy- siologist, born at Saint Andrew's, Scotland, about 1808. He published, besides other works, a "Treatise on Oph- thalmic Medicine and Surgery," and became professor of ophthalmic medicine in University College, London. Jones, (Sir William,) an English judge under James I. and Charles I., was born in 1566. He wrote several legal works, and became a judge of the king's bench in 1625. Died in 1640. Jones, (William,) an able mathematician, born in the island of Anglesey in 1680. He taught mathennatics for several years, and corresponded with the most dis- tinguished scientific men of that age. He was the friend of Newton and of Halley, and the father of the emi- nent Orientalist Sir William Jones. He held the office of vice-president of the Royal Society. Died in 1749. Among his productions are "A Compendium of the Art of Navigation," (1702,) and several works in defence of the theories of Newton. Jones (William) of Nayland, a learned Episcopal divine and multifarious writer, born in Northampton- shire, England, in 1726, graduated at Oxford in 1749. Of his productions we may mention "Catholic Doctrine of the Trinity proved from Scripture," (1756,) an "Essay on the First Principles of Natural Philosophy," (1762,) "A Course of Lectures on the Figurative Language of the Holy Scriptures," (1786,) and two political treatises against the French Revolution, entitled "A Letter from Thomas Bull to his Brother John," and " The Scholar armed against the Errors of the Times." He was per- petual curate of Nayland. Died in 1800. See William Stevens, "Life of W. Jones of Nayland," 1801. Jones, [Lat. Jone'sius,] (Sir William,) an eminent Orientalist, son of William Jones, noticed above, (1680- 1749,) was born in London September 28, 1746. He lost his father when he was three years of age ; but his mother, a lady remarkable both for her learning and accomplishments, ably superintended his education. In 1753 he was placed at the Harrow School, of which Dr. Thackeray was preceptor. Jones early distinguished himself for his classical acquirements, and at the age of seventeen entered University College, Oxford, with "more learning than many good scholars have carried thence. The following year he left Oxford, to become tutor to the son of Earl Spencer, in whose family he continued to reside for five years. During this period he devoted much of his time to the acquirement of the Oriental languages. He was also versed in nearly all the Euro- pean tongues. In 1768, at the request of the King of Denmark, he translated the " Life of Nadir Shah" from the Persian into French. The year following he issued a valuable Persian Grammar. In 1770 he began the study of law, and in 1774 he was admitted to the bar. In March, 1783, he was appointed judge of the supreme court of judicature at Fort William, in Bengal, and re- ceived the order of knighthood. Soon after he married Anna Maria Shipley, a daughter of the Bishop of Saint Asaph. In the following September Sir William Jones reached India, where he continued to pursue his Oriental studies with unabated zeal. He also organized (about 1785) the " Asiatic Society," for the purpose of obtaining further information relative to the sciences, antiquities, languages, and history of Asia. He died at Calcutta on the 27th of April, 1794, after a short illness. In the branch of literature to which he devoted his attention he undoubtedly surpassed all other Europeans. He is, however, to be equally esteemed for his noble qualities and Christian virtues as for his vast erudition. Among his numerous works are " Commentaries on Asiatic Poetry," commenced in his twenty-first year, and contain- ing translations from the most distinguished Hebrew, Persian, Arabic, and Turkish poets, treatises " On the Gods of Greece, Italy, and India," " On the Second Classical Book of the Chinese," " On the Musical Modes of the Hindus," and a translation of the " Institutes of Manu," and a prose translation of Kalidasa's cele- brated poem " Sacontala," (" Sakoontala,") both from the original Sanscrit. He was also author of several works on the laws of England and of India. See Lord Teignmouth, "Life of Sir William Jones," 1804; "Autobiography of William Jones," published by his son, London, 1846; H. A. Hamakek, " dratio de Vita et Mentis G. Jonesii," Leyden, 1822; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" "Edinburgh Re- view" for January, 1S05; Gary, "Lives of English Poets from Johnson to Kirke White." Jones, (William Alfred,) an American writer and critic, was born in 181 7. He graduated at Columbia College in 1836. He has contributed largely to various periodicals, and published several volumes of essays. His "Characters and Criticisms" (2 vols., 1857) was highly commended by Washington Irving. "Jonesius. See Jones, (Sir William.) Jong, de, deh yong, (Ludolf,) a Flemish painter of battle- and hunting-scenes, born near Rotterdam in 1616 ; died in 1697. Jongelingx, yong'eh-links^ (Jacob,) a Flemish sculp- tor, born at Antwerp in 1531. Among his works is a monument to Charles the Bold at Bruges. Died in 1606, Jonin, zho'niN', (Gilbert,) a French Jesuit and poet, born in Auvergne in 1596. He translated into Latin, with many modifications, the Odes of Anacreon, which he published under the title of " The Christian Anacreon." He wrote several Greek and Latin odes. Died in 1638. Jonsius, yon'se-us, (Johann,) a German scholar, born at Flensburg in 1624. He wrote, besides other works, " De Scriptoribus Historias Philosophicae," (1659,) which was once highly prized. Died at Leipsic in 1659. Jon^spn or Johnson, (Ben,) one of the most cele- brated English poets and dramatists, was born at West- minster in 1574. His father, a Protestant clergyman, died a month previous to his birth. Jonson's mother subsequently married a master-bricklayer, who sent him to Westminster, then under the charge of Camden, to whom he afterwards dedicated the drama entitled " Evei y Man in his Humour." Jonson regarded his preceptor through life with esteem and affection. In his sixteenth year he entered the University of Cambridge ; but, on account of his straitened circumstances, he was obliged to leave college and to assist his step-father as a mason. Becoming disgusted with this employment, he enlisted in the army in Flanders, and greatly distinguished himself by his bravery. When he returned, as Gifford observes, " he brought little but the reputation of a brave man, a smattering of Dutch, and an empty purse." He soon afterwards joined a company of actors ; but, having killed a, e, 1, o, u, y, /ou^rj 5, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/wrt; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mgt; ndt; good; moorij yONSSON 1291 JORDENS one of them in a duel, he was thrown into prison, and narrowly escaped with his life. During his confinement he was converted by a priest to the Roman Catholic religion. Subsequently, after a careful examination, he renounced his adopted faith, and was again received into the communion of the Church of England. In 1598 he produced *' Every Man in his Humour," a drama, which at once brought him into notice. One of the characters of this play is said to have been performed by Shakspeare. It was followed by numerous produc- tions, which added to the fame he had already acquired. About 1605 he assisted Chapman and Marston in writing "Eastward Hoe." This was regarded as a libel on the Scots, and his associates were thrown into prison, whither he voluntarily accompanied them. The three poets were condemned to lose their ears and noses ; but, through Jonson's influence at court, they escaped. He was shortly afterwards created poet-laureate by James I., with an annual pension of;i^ioo and a tierce of Spanish wine. Jonson died in 1637. On his death-bed he expressed the deepest penitence for the profanity that he had intro- duced into his plays, which, with this exception, are far purer in morals than the other dramas of that age. Jon- son's convivial habits (perhaps his greatest weakness) caused him to suffer from poverty in his declining years. Pie was accustomed to meet Shakspeare and other dis- tinguished persons at the drinking-houses of London. He also gave costly entertainments at his own residence. He was l3rave, generous, and benevolent, and governed by the highest principles of honour. Towards his friends he was unwavering in his attachment, and was easily reconciled to those who had injured him. As a poet he exhibits uncommon classical learning, great intellectual power, and acuteness of perception. He unquestionably deserves much praise for refining English poetry and the morals of the English stage. "I think him," says Dryden, "the most learned and judicious writer which any theatre ever had. ... If I would compare him with Shakspeare, I must acknowledge him the most correct poet, but Shakspeare the greater wit. Shakspeare was the Homer or father of dramatic poets. Jonson was the Virgil, the pattern of elaborate writing. I admire him, but I love Shakspeare." Jonson was most successful in satirical comedies, the style of which he obtained from the ancients. To the refinement and thought displayed in his writings may be attributed the ill success which many of them first met with among the English people, whose taste had been vitiated by the low wit and ob- scenity which they had been accustomed to hear from the stage. Among the most important of his dramas are "Cynthia's Revels," (1600,) " Sejanus," (1603,) "Vol- pone," (1605,) "The Alchemist," (1610,) and "Catiline's Conspiracy," (161 1.) See Chetvvood, "Life of Ben Jonson," 17^6; "Memoir of Ben Jonson," prefixed to an edition of his works, (g vols., 1816,) by W. GiFFORu; Baker, " Biographia Draniatica ;" Von Baudissin, " B. Jonson iind seine Scluile," 2 vols., 1S36; " Lives of British Drama- tists," by Campbell, Leigh Hunt, etc. ; "Retrospective Review," vol. i., 1S20; "North British Review" for February, 1856. Jonsson, (Arngrim.) See Jonas. Jonsson, yons'son, (Finn,) [Lat. Fin'nus Johan- N^/us,] a clergyman and historical writer on the church and literature of Iceland, was born in that island in 1704. After receiving his education at the University of Copenhagen, he returned to Iceland. Died in 17^9. His most important work is the "Ecclesiastical History of Iceland," ("Historia Ecclesiastica Islandiae.") Jonston, (Arthur.) See Johnston. Joi'daens, yoR'dans, (Jakob,) a distinguished painter, born at Antwerp in 1594. He studied under Van Oort, but was indebted for the most of his artistic knowledge to Rubens, by whom he was subsequently employed. He painted with rapidity and ease, and his colouring was rich and harmonious ; but he was deficient in elegance and loftiness of conception. Among his num.erous works are "Jesus Christ in the Midst of the Doctors," (a paint- ing which has been frequently attributed to Rubens,) "The Adoration of the Shepherds," "Saint Peter Cut- ting off the Ear of Malchus," and "The Satyr and the Man who Blew Hot and Cold." Died in 1678. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. ; Louis Alvin, "J Jordaens," 1S44; J. Campu Weverman, "DeSchilder- konst der Netlerlanders." Jordan, zhoR'dfiN', (Camille,) a French politician and orator, born at Lyons in 1771. He was distinguished for his moderate principles during the Revolution, and his attachment to the Catholic religion, which he bravely defended. Having been proscribed by the Directory, he sought an asylum in Switzerland in 1797, and afterwards in Germany, where he became acquainted with Goethe, Schiller, and other men of note. Jordan returned to France about 1800. During Bonaparte's administration he led a private life ; but upon the accession of Louis XVIII. he was ennobled, and elected to the Chamber of Deputies. He wrote several works of a political nature. Died in 182 1. See L.amartine, " Histoi^y of the Girondists;" Pierre Simon Ballanche, " fiioge de C. Jordan," 1823; Th lERs, " History of the French Revolution ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" " Revue des Deux Mondes," vol. Ix., 1868. Jordan, (Charles Etienne,) a French Protestant minister and writer, born at Berlin in 1700. He was appointed privy councillor by Frederick the Great in 1740. He rendered important services to Berlin by the suppression of mendicity and the promotion of educa- tion. Among his works is "Travels in France and England," (1735.) Died in 1745. See Mi\L Haag, "La France protestante." Jor'dan, (Dorothea,) or Dorothy Bland, a cele- brated actress, born at Waterford, Ireland, about 1762. In 1785 she made her appearance in London at Drurj Lane Theatre, where she enjoyed the highest popularity. She subsequently became the mistress of the Duke of Clarence, (afterwards William IV.,) to whom she bore ten children. This connection being suddenly broken off by the duke in 181 1, Mrs. Jordan retired to France, where she died in 1 816 in great poverty. As an actress she possessed uncommon versatility, and excelled both in comedy and tragedy. See J. BoADEN, "Life of D. Jordan," 2 vols., 1831 ; Oxberry, "Dramatic Biography." Jordan, HOR-dSn', (Esteban,) a Spaniard, born at Valladolid in 1543, excelled in painting, architecture, and sculpture, iDut devoted his attention chiefly to the last-named art. Philip II. appointed him his first sculptor. Among his most admired productions are "Saint Peter," "Saint Paul," and "The Adoration of the Kings." Died in 1605. Jordan, yoR^din, (Johann Christoph,) a noted anti- quary, and privy councillor to the King of Bohemia, was the author of annotations on Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Polybius, and Diodorus Siculus. Died about 1740. Jordan, (Sir Joseph,) an English admiral, who com- manded at the victory of Solebay, which was gained over the Dutch in 1672. Jordan, (Rudolf,) a German painter, born at Berlin about 1810. His delineations of fisher-life in Helgoland are greatly admired : among these we may name "The Shipwreck" and "The Death of the Pilot." Jordan, (Sylvester,) a German jurist and politician, born near Innspruck in 1792. He was imprisoned about twelve years for his liberal opinions, and was released in 1845. Died in 1861. Jordan, (Thomas,) an English poet and dramatist, lived in London ; died about 1685. Jor'dan, (Thomas,) an American officer in the Con- federate service, born in Virginia about 1821, was made a brigadier-general in 1862. Jordanes. See Jornandes. Jordano, (Luca.) See Giordano. Jordano Bruno. See Bruno. Jor''den, (Edward,) an English physician and scien- tific writer, born in Kent in 1569. He was a graduate of the University of Padua. Died in 1632. Jordens, yoR^dens, (Georg,) a Dutch jurist, born at Deventer in 17 18, was known as the author of two legal treatises, — one in defence of the University of Utrecht, and the other on the Mosaic, Greek, and Roman laws. Died in 1771. Jordens or Joerdens, yoR'dens, (Karl Heinrich,) a German philologist and biographer, born in the county of Mansfeld in 1757. He was rector of an academy at Lauban. His chief work is an excellent "Dictionary of € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, yl, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; %h as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) JORDT 292 JOSEPH German Poets and Prose Writers," (6 vols., 1805-11.) Died in 1835. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Eiicyklopaedie." Jordy, zhoR'de', (Nicolas Louis,) a French general, born at Abreschwiller in 1758; died in 1825. Jore, zhoR, (Claude Francois,) a French printer, lived about 1750, was a friend of Voltaire, for whom he published several works. He wrote "Six Letters to Voltaire," and some other productions. See Voltaire, " Correspondance generale." Jorgenson, yoR'gen-son, written also Jiirgensen, (JoRGEN,) a Danish adventurer, born at Copenhagen in 1779. Having gone to England in early youth, he was some years later promotecl to the command of an English vessel, and during the war between England and Denmark sailed for Iceland. On the 25th of June, 1809, he landed with twelve English sailors and took the governor. Count Trampe, prisoner, and proclaimed that Iceland was free and independent of Denmark. With a force of eight Icelanders, he continued to exer- cise undisputed sway over the island until August, when the British restored it to its former government. During this revolution not a gun was fired nor a drop of blood shed. The inhabitants feared to resist, as their capital lay exposed to the guns of Jorgenson's vessel. Soon after his return to England he became very dissipated, and was finally convicted and transported to New South Wales, where he is supposed to have died. While in Newgate, before his transportation, he wrote a work en- titled "The Religion of Christ the Religion of Nature." See Sir Wm. Hooker, "Tour in Iceland;" Skulason, "J. Jur- gensens Usurpation i Island," 1832 ; Erslew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." Jorisz, yoR'is, (Augustin,) a Dutch painter and en- graver, born at Delft in 1525 ; died in 1552. Jorisz, (David.) See David George. Jorjauee, Jorjani, or Djordjaiii, jor-ja^iee, (Saeed Shereef Zein-ed-Deen Abool Hassan, or Said Scherif Zeiu-ed-Din Abou'l Hassan, si-eed' sher- eef zan (or zin) ed-deen' i'bool his'san,) a renowned Arabian writer, born in Tagoo, (Tagou,) in the district of Asterabad and the region called Jorjan, in 1339. He was the author of numerous works, among which per- haps the most important is an extremely valuable dic- tionary, entitled " Tarafat," [i.e. " Definitions.") Jorjanee enjoyed the favour of the great conqueror Tamerlane, Died in 1413. Jor-nan'des or Jor-da'nes, a distinguished Gothic historian of the sixth century, was secretary to the Gothic kings of Italy. Having embraced Christianity, he was ordained Bishop of Ravenna in 552. The most important of his works is a " History of the Goths" until the reign of Vitiges, who was conquered by Belisarius, (" De Ge- tarum sive Gothorum, Origine et Rebus gestis.") It was first printed at Augsburg in 151 5, and is highly prized. He also wrote an abridgment of universal history, en- titled "De Regnorum et Temporum Successione." See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis;" Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encylarras and Tallien, she regained part of her husband's property, which hacl been confiscated. She now became one of the leaders of fashion. Her talents and personal attractions enabled her also to exert no little influence in the politics of that period. In 1796 she was married to Bonaparte, who had recently been appointed commander-in-chief of the army in Italy. At the time Josephine was thought by her friends to have formed a mesalliance. After Bonaparte became First Consul, she exerted all her influence to alle- viate the sufferings of the royalists, and even endeavoured to persuade hiin to restore the Bourbons. While Napo- leon was in Egvpt, she had bought for her favourite resort the estate of Malmaison, which slie fitted up with royal magnificence. At length her expenditures for this and other luxuries became so enormous as to occasion the First Consul serious embarrassment. When Napoleon was raised to the imperial throne and she became Empress of France, to her was due in a great measure the honour of having imparted to the court of the Tuileries the splendour and taste for which it was then distinguished. From the time of her coronation her influence over the emperor rapidly diminished ; and, as there was no longer hope of her bringing him an heir, he finally resolved to divorce her. The announcement of this decision plunged the empress into the deepest despair. Napoleon himself is said to have been greatly affected ; but his resolu- tion was fixed, and the bill of divorce was passed in 1809. Josephine, still retaining her former dignities and titles, retired to Malmaison. Napoleon occasionally visitecl her, and appeared to cherish a sincere affection for her. When the allied armies invaded France, she was treated with the greatest respect by the emperor Alexander. She died in 1814, soon after the abdication of Napoleon. The character of Josephine has been greatly admired. The cause of this is to be attributed more to her pleasing manners than to any exalted virtue which she possessed. It is said that there was a fascination in her countenance which no painter could transfer to canvas. She had a very remarkable memory, was accomplished, educated, and witty ; but vanity seems to have had an unlimited ascendency over her, and it does not ap])ear that she was endowed with so many uncommon qualities as several modern writers have attributed to her. (See Bona- parte, Napoleon.) See "Josephine, " in the " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale," vol. xxxvii. For the private life of Josephine, the reader may consult AuBENAs' " Histoire de I'lmperatrice Josephine," 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1857-59; also the letters of Napoleon to Josephine, and of Josephine to Napoleon and to her daughter. For a very curious account of the empress Josephine's descendants, see "Loudon Review" for June, 1866; Marie Anne Le Normand, " Memoires historiques at secrets de Josephine," 2 vols., 1820, (English version of the same, 1848;) P. C. Headley, "Life of the Empress Josephine," 1852. Jo-se'phus, [Fr. Josephe, zho'zeF; It. GioseffOj jo-sefTo,] or, more fully, Fla'vi-us Jo-se'phus, [Gr. 4>Aa;itof 'Iwa7?7rof,] the most celebrated of Jewish historians, was born at Jerusalem a.d. 37. His mother was of the royal house of the Asmonaeans, and his father belonged to the sacerdotal order from which the chief pontiffs were chosen. He pursued his studies in his native city with such assiduity that at the age of fourteen he was often consulted on abstruse points of Jewish law. Fie after- wards joined the sect of the Essenes, and passed three years with a hermit in the desert. At the age of nine- teen he became a Pharisee. In the year 63 he visited Rome, in order to procure the liberation of some Jew- ish priests whom the governor Felix had sent there as prisoners. He was favourably received at the imperial court, and succeeded in his enterprise through the in- fluence of Poppaea, the wife of Nero. On his return to Judea he opposed the revolutionary spirit that was then gaining ground among his countrymen. Perceiving his efforts to be of no avail, he accepted the government of the two Galilees, and in 67 a.d. bravely defended for forty- seven days the city of Jotapata against a powerful Roman army under Vespasian. The Romans finally triumphed, however, and of the Jewish warriors Josephus alone was saved, on account of his predicting that Vespasian would soon receive the imperial purple. He was treated with the greatest respect by Vespasian and Titus, and at the destruction of Jerusalem his influence procured ■ the liberation of his brother and fifty of his friends. He afterwards accompanied Titus to Rome, where Vespasian granted him a pension and raised him to the rank of a Roman citizen. As a mark of gratitude for these and other favours, Josephus assumed the emperor's family name of Flavins. The date of his death is unknown ; but some writers have placed it a.d. 95. The most im- portant works of Josephus are his " History of the Jew- ish War," in seven books, " The Antiquities of the Jews," {'lovdaLKT] 'Apxat-oAoy'ia,) in twenty books, two treatises " Against Apion of Alexandria," a " Discourse on the Martyrdom of the Maccabees," and an account of his own life. All of these were written in Greek, with the exception of the first, which was originally composed in Syro-Chaldaic and afterwards translated into Greek by himself. On account of the beauty of his style, he has been called " the Grecian Livy." His works have been translated into Latin and most of the modern languages of Europe. See G. R. van Hoevell, " F. Josephi Vita," 1835; J. F. Eck- HARD, '■ Biographie des beriihmten F. Josephus," 17S5 ; Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" Cave, " Scriptonmi ecclesiasticorum Historia literaria :" C. F. Bof.hmert, " Ueber des Flavins Josephus Zeugniss von Christo," 1823; Philarete Chasles, "De I'Autorite historique de F. Josephe," 1841. Josepin. See Cesart, (Giuseppe.) Josh^u-a, [Heb. >*iJ'irF ; Gr. 'Iriaovg ; Fr. Josu^:, zho'- zii'a',] or O'she-a, the son of Nun, (Numbers xiii. 16,) became commander of the Israelites on the death of Moses. He was distinguished for his bravery and mili- tary skill, and gained numerous imjiortant victories over the different Canaanite princes. Much controversy has arisen in regard to the authorship of the book of Joshua. Many suppose it to have been compiled from manuscripts written by himself; others attribute it to Samuel. Died about 1425 B.C. Jo-si''ah [Heb. ITTtyj^' ; Fr. Josias, zho'se'is'] suc- ceeded his father Amon on the throne of Judah 641 B.C., at the age of eight years. He was an able and pious prince, and during his reign of thirty-one years many wise and beneficial laws were enacted: idoJatry was suppressed, the Temple was repaired, and the true forms € as k; 9 as j; g hard; g as/; g, h, Vi, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; § as 2; th as in this. (2i^=See Explanations, p. 23 ) JOSIAS 1294 JOUFFROr of worship were restored. He was killed in a battle against Pharaoh-Necho, King of Egypt, about 610 B.C. See II. Kings xiii., xxii. ; II. Chronicles xxxiv., xxxv. Josias. See Josiah. Josika, yo'she-koh, (Miklos,) a Hungarian nobleman and celebrated novelist, born in 1796 at Torda, in Tran- sylvania. His first and most successful work, " Abafi," a historical tale, appeared in 1836. He produced about sixty volumes of romances, which were very popular with the Hungarians. In 1848, as a member of the upper house of nobles, he took a bold stand against the en- croachments of Austria, and advocated the measures of Kossuth. After the defeat of the Hungarians in 1849 '^^ lived in exile. Died in 1865. See " Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale." Josquin Desprez or Depres. See DESPRfes, Josselin de Courtenay, zhos'liw'' deh kooRt'na', a French nobleman, who went on a crusade to Palestine in lioi. He was created Count of Edessa by the King of Jerusalem, and won great distinction by the numerous victories which he gained over the Saracens. Died in 1 147. Jost, yost, (ISAAK Marcus,) a learned Jew, born at Bernburg, in Germany, in 1793, studied philology at Gottingen and Berlin. His principal work is a " History of the Israelites," (10 vols., 1846.) He also published a translation of the " Mishna," with a text and commen- tary. Died in 1862. Josue. See Joshua. Jo'tham, [Heb. D^V,] King of Judah, was the son of Uzziah, whom he succeeded B.C. 757. See II. Kings xv. 32, 38; II. Chronicles xxvii. Jotun, yo'tlin, in the plural Jotuns, [an old Norse word signifying "giant," supposed to be derived from an ancient form .of the verb to "eat," (Anglo-Saxon eoten,) the most prominent characteristic of the Jotuns being their prodigious voracity. (See Thorpe's " North- ern Mythology," vol. i. p. 148,)] in the Norse mythology, the name applied to certain mythical beings supposed to be hostile to men and to the beneficent ^sir. The Jotuns, or Giants, are types of the disturbing, untamable, or destructive forces of nature. Hence the wolf Fenrir, (supposed to typify volcanic fire,) Midgard's Serpent, (the vast untamable ocean,) and Hela (the goddess of death) are all represented as of Jotun birth. Loki him- self is considered to be of Jotun origin, and is the father of the mightiest and most terrible beings belonging to that race. Cold or frost, being one of the principal causes of desolation and death, is represented as the parent of a powerful family of Jotuns, termed Frost-giants. The abode of the Jotuns is called Jotunheim or Utgard, (oot'gird, i.e. " outer ward,") and comprises the desert regions on the outermost boundary of the world. The Jotuns (i.e. the elements of disorder and desolation) are represented as being always at war with the ^sir, the powers presiding over life and order. (See /EsiR.) The opposition is eternal ; they are never reconciled, as in the case of the Vanir and ^Flsir, (see Vanir,) because there can be no reconciliation between order and confusion, or between life and death. See, besides the work above referred to, Keyser, "Religion of the Northmen;" Mallet, "Northern Antiquities;" Petersen, " Nordisk Mythologi." Jouannet, zhoo't'na', (FRANgois Vatar,) a French antiquary and statistician, born in 1765 ; died in 1845. See Lamothe, "Jouannet, sa Vie et ses Ecrits," 1847. Jouannin, zhoo'S'niN', (Joseph Marie,) a French Orientalist, born in Bretagne in 1783 ; died in 1844. Joubert, zhoo'baiR', (Barthelemy Catherine,) a French general, born at Pont-de-Vaux, in Bresse, in 1769. In 1 791 he enlisted in the army of the Rhine, and served with distinction against the Austrians. Two years later he was taken prisoner by the Sardinians. He soon after regained his liberty and returned to France, where he boldly opposed the Jacobins. In 1794 he re- ceived the appointment of adjutant-general, and in 1795, having displayed great bravery at Loano, he was raised to the rank of a brigadier-general on the field of battle. He subsequently gained distinguished honours at several battles in Italy and in the Tyrol. In 1799 he was ap- pointed general-in-chief of the army in Italy, and fell at the battle of Novi, in August of that year. "He united with great military talents," says the "Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale," " all the virtues of a citizen. He was adinired by all parties, and devoted exclusively to the glory and happiness of his country." See D. J. Garat, " filoge de B, C Joubert," 1799; J. Laval- lee, " filoge de Joubert," 1800; Guilbert, "Notice sur la Vie de Joubert," etc., 1799; H. Lesueur, in the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" J. J. Le pRANgois de Lalande, " Sur le General Jou- bert," 1799; Thiers, " History of the French Revolution." Joubert, (Franc^ois,) a French priest and Jansenist, distinguished for his learning, born at Montpellier in 1689. On account of his principles, he was persecuted by the Jesuits and was imprisoned in the Bastille. He wrote commentaries on the Apocalypse and on a number of the Hebrew prophecies. Died in 1763. Joubert, (Joseph,) a French Jesuit, born at Lyons, known as the author of a valuable work, entitled " French and Latin Dictionary, taken from the Original and Clas- sical Authors in both Languages." Died in 17 19. Joubert, (Joseph,) a French moralist, born at Mon- tignac (Perigord) in 1734, became a resident of Paris about 1778. He was an intimate friend of Fontanes, by whose influence he was ajjpointed inspector-general of the University of Paris in 1809. He died in 1824, leaving many manuscripts, a part of which Chateaubriand edited, with the title of"Pensees." A more complete edition of the " Pensees, Essais," etc. appeared in 2 vols., 1842. See "Notice sur J. Joubert," by his brother Arnaud, 1824; Sainte-Beuve, "Portraits Litteraires," and " Causeries du Lundi," tome i. ; Paul Raynal, "Notice sur J. Joubert," prefixed to his "Pensees," etc., 1842; "Essays in Criticism," by Matthew Ar- nold, 1865. Joubert, (Joseph Antoine Ren^,) a French general, born at Angers in 1772. He served with distinction at Heliopolis, Wagram, (1809,) Smolensk, (1812,) and Liit- zen, (1813.) Died in 1843. Joubert, (Laurent,) an eminent French physician, born at Valence in 1529. He graduated at the Univer- sity of Montpellier, of which he was afterwards chosen chancellor. He was also appointed first physician-in- ordinary to Henry HI. He wrote " Popular Errors in regard to Medicine," (1578-79,) which was often re- printed, and a "Treatise on Laughter." Died in 1583. See Amoreux, " Notice sur la Vie de L. Joubert," 1814; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, " Memoires." Joubert, (L60N,) a French biographer of the present century, wrote many able articles for the " Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale." Jouenneaux. See Juvenal. Jouffroi, de, deh zhooTRwi', [ Lat. Joffre'dus, ] (Jean,) a French prelate, born at Luxeuil about 1412. He obtained the favour of Louis XL, who procured for him a cardinal's hat in 1461, and made him his almoner. Died in 1473. Jouffroy, zhooTRwS.^ (Franqois,) a French sculptor, born at Dijon in 1806. He gained the grand prize in 1832, and went to Rome with a pension. He became a member of the Academic des Beaux-Arts in 1857. Jouffroy, (Theodore Simon,) a French philosophical writer, born near Mouthe (Doubs) in 1796, was a pupil of Victor Cousin, who influenced the developnnent and direction of his mind. He was appointed a tutor of philosophy repetitet(r) in the Normal School in 181 7. This school having been suppressed in 1822, he began to write for several journals in Paris. In 1830 he became a professor in the Normal School, then re-estab- lished. He produced a version of the complete works of Thomas Reid, (6 vols., 1828-35.) In 1833 he was appointed professor of Greek and Latin philosophy in the College de France. He exchanged this position in 1838 for the office of librarian to the University, and succeeded Laromiguiere as ])rofessor of philosophy in 1837. Among his works are " Melanges philosophiques," (1833,) and "Cours d'Esthetique," (1843.) He also produced a version of Dugald Stewart's "Essays on Moral Philosophy," (1826,) to which he wrote a valuable preface. Died in 1842. See MiGNET, "Notice sur Jouffroy," 1853; Adoi.phe Gar- nirr, article "Jouffroy" in the " Dictionnaire des Sciences philoso- phiques," tome iii. ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Joiiffroy, de, deh zhooTRwa', (Claude FRANgois Doroth^e,) Marquis, an ingenious Frenchman, born a, e, T, o, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, li, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; JOUKOFSKl JO UFENET in Franche-Comte, about 1750. He studied the con- struction of different vessels, and went to Paris, where he conceived the idea of propelling boats by steam. His first vessel of this kind was launched in 1776. Although this attempt was far from being successful, Jouffroy was convinced that his object was attainable. In 1783 he completed another steam-vessel, one hundred and forty feet long, with which he ascended the Saone several miles, but, on account of his limited means, was unable to carry his invention to a higher state of perfection. The inventions of Jouffroy were highly spoken of by Robert P^ulton. Died in 1832. See F. A. A. Mignet, " Notice historique sur la Vie et les Tra- vaux de M. Jouffroy," Paris, 1853 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Joukofski, (Vasili Andreivitch.) See Zhookof- SKI. Joule, jool, (James P.,) F.R.S., an English experi- mental philosopher, born at Salford, near Manchester, in 1818. He was a pupil of the celebrated Dalton. He made some discoveries in electro-magnetism, and in the theory of heat. He is considered by some persons as the founder of the modern theory of the correlation of forces. Jourdain, zhooR^d^N', (Amable Louis Marie Mi- chel Brechillet — bRa'she'ya',) a distinguished French writer and Orientalist, born in Paris in 1788. Among his principal works is "Persia; or, A Description of the History, Government, Religion, and Literature of that Empire," (5 vols., 1814.) He was a contributor to the "Biographie Universelle." Died in 1818. Jourdain, (Anselme Louis Bernard Brechillet,) an eminent surgeon-dentist, the father of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1734. He invented several instru- ments used by dentists, and wrote numerous treatises on dentistry. Died in 1816. See J. R. Duval, " Notice historique sur la Vie de M. Jourdain," 1816. Jourdain, (Charles Marie Gabriel Brechillet,) a philosopher, a son of Amable, noticed above, was born in Paris in 1817. He published, besides other works, "La Philosophie de Saint Thomas d'Aquin," (2 vols., 1858.) Jourdain, (Claude,) a French Benedictine and antiquarian writer, born at Poligny in 1696; died in 1782. Jourdan, zhoou'dSN', (Andr6 Joseph,) a French statesman, born in Provence. In 1795 he was elected to the Council of Five Hundred, where he opposed the laws against the emigrants. For this reason, in 1797 he was obliged to seek an asylum in Spain. On the acces- sion of Louis XVIII. Jourdan was chosen councillor of state. Died in 183 1. Jourdan, (Antoine Jacques Louis,) born in Paris in 1788, published a "Dictionary of Terms used in the Natural Sciences," (2 vols., 1834.) Died in 1848. Jourdan, (Jean Baptiste,) a French dramatist, born at Marseilles in 1711 ; died in 1793. Jourdan, (Jean Baptiste,) a marshal of France, born at Limoges in 1762, was the son of a poor surgeon, who paid but little attention to his education. At the age of sixteen he entered the French army, and fought for the Americans in the Revolutionary war until 1782, when he returned home on account of ill health. In 1 79 1 he again entered the army, and soon after received the command of a battalion, and served under La Fa- yette and Dumouriez. In 1793 he was appointed general of division. Having distinguished himself at the battle of Hondschoote, in 1793, he was chosen commander-in- chief of the French army. He then gained a decisive victory over the Austrians at Wattignies, near Mau- beuge, and raised the siege of that town. He was sub- sequently called to Paris by the committee of public safety to consult upon the future movements of the army. He was at first received with great enthusiasm ; but, having given offence by the candour with which he expressed his sentiments, he was deprived of his authority, and Pichegru was chosen in his place. In 1794, however, he was appointed comniander of the army of the Moselle against the Austrians, over whom, in a few weeks, he won the important battles of Arlon and F'leurus. He also captured Charleroi and many other towns. In the autumn of 1794 he gained the victories of Ayvaile and Aldenhoven. He afterwards took Luxemburg, Dusseldorf, Frankfort, and Wiirzburg, but in September, 1796, was signally defeated by the Archduke Charles near the last-named place. Jourdan soon after resigned, and, having returned to Paris, was chosen a member of the Council of Five Hundred, of which a few months later he was elected president. It 1798 he was appointed to the command of the army 011 the Danube. In 1799, having met with two decisive defeats from the Archduke Charles, he was succeeded by Massena. The same year he was dismissed from the Council of Five Hundred for having opposed the ambi- tious projects of Napoleon. Pie was sent as ambassador to the Cisalpine Republic in 1800. Though created a marshal of the empire in 1804, no military command of importance was given to him until he accompanied Jo- seph Bonaparte to Spain as major-general. He remained with that monarch through all his vicissitudes, and was the nominal commander of the French forces when they were defeated at Vitoria by Wellington in 1813. In 1818 Louis XVIII. created Jourdan a peer of France. Died in 1833. He was the author of two works, — "Opera- tions of the Army of the Danube under the Orders of General Jourdan," and " History of the Campaign of 1796, containing the Operations of the Army of the Sambre-et-Meuse." Napoleon, at Saint Helena, con- fessed that he had ill-treated Jourdan, whom he charac- terized as a "true patriot." See Thiers, " Histoire du Consulat et de I'Empire;" De Cour- celi.es, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Frangais;" Michaud, " Notices historiques sur le Marechal Jourdan, les Generaux Kalckreuth, Kil- maine," etc. ; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Jourdan, (Mathieu Jouve,) surnamed Coupe-Tete, koop'tSt', (" cut-throat,") a French revolutionist, noto- rious for his inhumanity, was born in Vivarais in 1 749. He was executed in 1794. Jourde, zhooRd, (Gilbert Amable,) a French law- yer, born in Auvergne in 1757, in 1795 was elected a member of the Council of Five Hundred. Died in 1837- Jourdeuil, zhooR'duI' or zhooR'duh'ye, (Didier,) a French Jacobin, was one of the chief instigators of the massacre in September, 1792. Died about 1800. Jourgniac Saint-Meard, zhooRn^ye-tk' s4n mk^tR', (Chevalier Francois,) a French satirical writer and royalist, born at Bordeaux in 1745. In 1792 he was arrested on a charge of treason, but was acquitted. Died in 1827. Jousse, zhooss, (Daniel,) an eminent jurist, born at Orleans, in France, in 1704. He entered a college in Paris, where he gained distinction in mathematics. He subsequently began the study of law. Among his numerous works are a " Historical Detail of the City of Orleans," and " New Commentary upon the Criminal Ordinance." Died in 1 781. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." , Joussouf, Joussef, or Joussof. See Yoosuf. Jouvancy or Jouvency, zhoo'v5N'se', (Joseph,) a celebrated French Jesuit, born at Paris in 1643. was chosen professor of rhetoric in the college of Louis le Grand, and was afterwards called by his superiors to Rome to assist in writing the history of the Jesuits. His style is remarkable for its purity and elegance. Among his works are " Notes upon Juvenal, Persius, Terence, Horace, Martial, and the Metamorphoses of Ovid," and the fifth volume of the " History of the Jesuits" from 1591 to 1616. Died in 1719. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" Querard, " La France Litteraire." Jouvency. See Jouvancy. Jouvenet, zhoov'iii', (Jean,) a celebrated historical painter, born at Rouen, France, about 1646. He was a pupil of his uncle, Laurent Jouvenet, and afterwards studied in Paris and was admitted into the Academy of Painting. He was subsequently patronized by Louis XIV., who granted him a pension of 1700 livres. Having lost the use of his right hand by a paralytic stroke, he ascertained that he could use his left with equal facility, and soon after painted one of his best pictures, a repre- sentation of Innocence followed by Falsehood and seek- € zsk; <^2iss;gkard; g as/; g, h, guttural ; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) JOVVENNEAVX 1296 JOTEUSE ing protection in the arms of Justice. Among his other works are "Esther before Ahasuerus," "Jesus Christ driving the Money-Changers from the Temple," "The Resurrection of Lazarus," and the " Descent from the Cross." See D'Argenville, " Vies des Peintres:" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Jouvenneaux. See Juvenal. Jouy, de, deh zhoo'e^ (Louis Francois,) a French lawyer, and advocate of the Parliament of Paris, where he was lx)i n in 1714; died in 1771. Jouy, de, (Victor Joseph Etienne,) an eminent French writer, born at Jouy, near Versailles, in 1764 or 1769. Pie entered the army at an early age, and in 1790 favoured the Revolution; but during the reign of terror he fled for safety to Switzerland. In 1794 he returned to P'rance, and, after serving for some time in the army, which he quitted in 1797, fixed his residence in Paris and turned his attention to literary pursuits. Among his works are the operas of "The Vestal" (1807) and of "The Ama- zon," the tragedy of " Sylla," (1822,) "Cecil," a novel, (1827,) and a series of essays entitled "The Hermit of the Chaussee d'Antin," (5 vols., 1812-14.) The last work, which somewhat resembles Addison's " vSpec- tator," obtained a European reputation. He was elected to the French Academy in 1815, and appointed chief librarian 'of the Louvre in 1831. Besides the works above named, he wrote "The Hermit in the Province," ("L'Hermite en Province," 14 vols., 1818 et seq.,) and "The Hermits in Prison," (" Les Hermites en Prison," 2 vols., 1823,) which was very popular. Died in 1846. See QuERAKD, " La France Litteraire ;" Charles Nisard, in the " Dictionnaire de la Conversation;" "Nouvelle Biographic Gene- rale ;" " Loudon Quarterly Review" for October, 1822. Jove. See Jupiter. Jovellanos, de, da Ho-v§l-ya'n6s, (Caspar Mel- CHIOK,) a Spanish statesman, author, and scholar, born of noble parentage at Gijon, in Asturias, in 1744. He studied at the Universities of Oviedo, Avila, and Alcala. In 1770 he was chosen a member of the Royal Academy of Madrid, and was soon after appointed councillor of state by Charles III. In 1778 he became a judge of the criminal court at Madrid. Afterwards, through the instrumentality of Don Manuel Godoy, Prince of Peace, he was banished to Majorca, where for more than seven years he remained a prisoner. He returned to Spain in 1808, and in a short time became a member of the supreme junta. Among his works are several valuable treatises on political economy, the tragedy of " Pelayo," (1790,) the comedy of "The Honourable Delinquent," a " Dissertation on English Architecture," and an ex- cellent "Memoir on Law applied to Agriculture," (" In- forme sobre la Ley agraria.") Died in 1811. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Cean Ber- ^4UDEZ, " Memorias para la Vida del Don G. Jovellanos," 1814; Antillon, " Noticlas historicas de G. M. de Jovellanos," 1812; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for Februaiy, 1830. Jo'vi-an, [Lat. Jovia'nus ; Fr. Jovien, zho've-iN'; It. Gtoviano, jo-ve-a'no,] or, more fully, Jo-vi-a'nus Fla'vi'-us Clau'dl-us, Emperor of Rome, was born in Pannonia, 331 a.d. He early distinguished himself as a commander in the Roman army, and, though an avowed Christian, received many marks of distinction from Julian the Apostate, whom he accompanied on his unsuccessful expedition into Persia. At the death of that sovereign, in 363, Jovian was elected emperor by the army. The Roman troops were at that time in imminent danger, both on account of the superior Persian forces by which they were hemmed in, and the great scarcity of provi- sions. Jovian, after bravely repelling several attacks of the enemy, formed a treaty, by which he agreed to give up the Roman conquests west of the Tigris. Returning, he spent some time at Antioch, where he annulled Julian's laws against the Christians and re-established the orthodox religion. He died in 364, at Dadastana, in Galatia, as he was proceeding to Constantinople. See Le Beau, " Histoirc du Bas-Empire;" Tili.kmont, " His- toire des Empereurs;" Schenkel, " Historia Jo\iani," 1617; La Blettekie, "Histoirc de I'Empereur Jovien," 2 vols., 1748. Jovianus. See Jovian. Jovien, the French for Jovian, which see. Jovin. See Jovinus. I Jo-vin'i-an, [Lat. Jovinia'nus; Fr. Jovinien, zho'- I ve'ne^N',] an Italian monk, distinguished for his bold j opposition to the growing superstition and encroachments of the Roman Church. He particularly censured celi- bacy, fasting, and the austerities of the convent. For the propagation of these principles he was condemned for heresy by the Bishops of Rome and of Milan, and in 398, by the orders of the emperor Honorius, was scourged and banished. Died about 410 a.d. Scc Saint Jerome," Contra Jovinianum;" Baronius, " Annales Ecclesiastici." Jovinianus. See Jovinian. Jovinien. See Jovinian. Jo-vi'nus, [Fr. Jovin, zho'v^N',] a native of Rheims, was created a Roman consul by the emperor Valentinian in 367 A.D. He received the command of the cavalry in Gaul, and soon after cut in pieces a German army which had invaded that country. He built in his native city a church, in which he was buried in 370 a.d. Jovinus, a Roman general, who in 41 1 a.d., under the reign of Honorius, assumed the imperial title and pos- sessed himself of part of Gaul. In 412 he was defeated by Ataidphus, King of the Visigoths, an ally of Hono- rius. He was soon after taken and executed. Jovius, (Paul.) See Giovio, (Paolo.) Jow'ett, (Rev. William,) an English missionary, born about 1787. He published "Christian Researches in Syria and the Holy Land," (1825,) and other works. Died in 1855. Joy, Joye, or Gee, (George,) an early English Re- former, born in Bedfordshire. He graduated at Cam- bridge in 1513. Being accused of heresy, he retired to Germany, where he remained several years. He is sup- posed to have died in 1553. He assisted in the transla- tion of Tyndale's Bible which was printed at Antwerp in 1534, and wrote several religious works, among which is one "On the Unity and Schism of the Ancient Church." See Lewis, "History of the Translations of the Bible." Joyant, zhwd^ySN', (Jules Romain,) a skilful French landscape-painter, born in Paris in 1803. Pie produced views of Venice, which were much admired. Died in 1854. Joyce, jois, (Jeremiah,) an English writer and Uni- tarian minister, born in 1764. He was principal editor of the "Cyclopaedia" which appeared under the name of William Nicholson, and was the author of a justly popular work, "Scientific Dialogues," "Letters on Nat- ural Philosophy," and other productions of a similar nature. He was arrested in 1794 with Horne Tooke and others on a charge of treason, but was released without trial after the acquittal of Tooke. Died in 1816. Joyeuse, de, deh zhwS'yuz', (Anne,) Due, a French nobleman, born about 1561. He married Margaret of Lorraine, sister of the queen of Henry HI. About 1586 he received the command of the army sent against the Huguenots. He at first gained some advantages, and committed great cruelties upon the Protestants, but in October, 1587, was defeated and slain at the battle of Coutras by Henry of Navarre. See SisMONDi, "Histoire des Fran^ais;" D'Aubigne, " Me • moires." Joyeuse, de, (Fran(;ois,) Cardinal, brother of the preceding, was born in 1562. He was the confidential minister of Henry HI., Henry IV., and Louis XIII. In 1614 he became dean of the cardinals of Avignon. Died in 1615. See Auberv, " Histoire du Cardinal de Joyeuse," etc., Paris, 1654. Joyeuse, de, (Guillaume,) Viscount, a French military commander, born about 1520. He was made lieutenant-general of Languedoc, and in 1562 distin- guished himself in the wars against the French Protest- ants. In 1582 he was created a inarshal. Died in 1592. Joyeuse, de, (Henri,) Due, born in France in 1567. The death of his wife, about 1587, affected him so deeply that he entered the order of the Capuchins. In 1592 he obtained a dispensation releasing him from his vows, and received the command of the army in Languedoc. Henry IV. created him marshal of France. He afterwards be- came again a Capuchin. Died in 1608. See Broussk, "Viede Henri, Due de Joyeuse," Paris, 1621. Joyeuse, de, (Jean Armand,) Marquis, a French nobleman, born in 163 1. He served with distinction in a, e, T, 6, u, y, io/r.g; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, sho)'t; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fJt; m§t; n6t; good; moon; JOTNER 1297 JUDM Flanders under Turenne, and was afterwards created marshal of France. Died in 1710. Joy'iier, (William,) sometimes called Lyde, an English Catholic and author, born near Oxford in 1622 ; died in 1706. Among his works are "The Roman Em- press," a comedy, and several English and Latin poems. See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica." Joze, zho-za', (Antonio,) a Portuguese Jew and cele- brated dramatist. He excelled in wit and sai casm, which, in one of his comedies, he directed against some of the Catholic ceremonies. He was soon after seized by the officers of the Inquisition, tortured, and finally burned at an auto-de-fe in 1745. Among the best of his comedies are "Esop" and "The Enchantments of Medea." Joze Manoel. See Joseph Emanuel. Juan, Don. See John, Don, of Austria. Juau, Hoo-Sn', Don, natural son of Philip IV. of Spain and Maria Calderona, an actress, was born in Madrid in 1629. In 1647 he received the command of the Spanish army in. Italy, where he took the city of Naples and gained many other advantages. Afterwards he was defeated by Turenne in the Netherlands, at the battle of Dunes, and compelled to evacuate the country. His brother, Charles II., subsequently made him prime minister. Died in 1679. See SisMONDi, " Histoire des Frangais." Juan de Santa Cruz. See Juan de Yepez. Juan de Yepez, Hoo-in' dk ya'p^th, or Juan de Santa Cruz, a saint of the Roman calendar, was born in Old Castile in 1542. He, with Saint Theresa, estab- lished the order of Barefooted Carmelites. Died in 1591. Juan y Santacilia, Hoo-Sn'e san-tS-thee'le-S,( Jorge,) Don, a celebrated Spanish mathematician and naval officer, was born at Orihuela, in Valencia, in 17 12. He was sent about 1735, with several Spanish and French servants, to measure the degree of the meridian at the equator. He devoted much attention to naval archi- tecture- He wrote " Observations on Astronomy and Physics made in the Kingdom of Peru," (5 vols., 1748,) and a treatise on the construction of vessels, (2 vols., 1761.) Died in 1774. See La Condamine, "Journal du Voyage fait k I'Equateur," etc. Juana of Spain. See Joan. Juarez, joo-i'r§z, [Sp. pron. Hoo-i'r§th,] (Benito,) a Mexican statesman, born in Oajaca about 1S07, is said to be of pure aboriginal stock. He studied law, was elected to Congress in 1846, and was Governor of Oa- jaca from 1848 to 1852. In 1853 he was banished by Santa Ana. He joined the party of Alvarez, who became president in 1855, and served under him as minister of justice. In 1857 he was appointed secretary of state by Comonfort, who was driven from power in January, 1858. Juarez was recognized as the successor of Comonfort by the Liberals, but was opposed by the clerical party in a long civil war. He was elected i^resident about 1861, soon after which Mexico was invaded by a French army. Having gained several victories, the French took the city of Mexico in June, 1863, and Maximilian of Austria assumed the imperial power, under the ])atronage of Napoleon III. Juarez was reduced to a critical position, and his cause seemed desperate ; but at length the French army was withdrawn in 1866, and the Liberals quickly recovered the ascendency. (See Maximilian.) He was elected president again in October, 1867. Ju'ba [Gr. 'I66aq] I. succeeded his father, Hiempsal, on the throne of Numidia about 50 B.C. In the war between Caesar and Pompey he supported the cause of the latter, and gained a decisive victory over Curio, a lieutenant of Caesar. After Pompey's defeat at Phar- salia, Juba continued to support his cause in Africa, and for some time held even Caesar in check. He was, how- ever, defeated by the dictator at the battle of Thapsus, and soon after killed himself, 42 B.C., in preference to gracing the triumph of the conqueror. His kingdom was reduced to a Roman province, of which the historian Sallust was appointed the first governor. See CiBSAR, "Bellum Civile;" Dion Cassius, "History of Rome;" Appian, "Bellum Civile." Juba II., son of the preceding, was carried to Rome by Caesar, who gave him a liberal education. He served in the army of Augustus, from whom he received the kingdom of Mauritania about 30 B.C. He married Cle- opatra Selena, the daughter of the celebrated Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, by Antony. Juba was distinguished for his learning, ability, and justice. He was the author of several works, written in Greek, upon various subjects. Pliny, Plutarch, Tacitus, and other historians mention his writings with just commendation. He died about 20 B.C. See Vossius, " De Historicis Graecis ;" Eckhel, " Doctrina Nu- morum ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Jube, zhii'ba', (Auguste,) a French historian and general, born in 1765. He wrote a "Military History of the Wars of France from 1643 to 1815," (2 vols.,) and other works. Died in 1824. Jubd, (Jacques,) a French Jansenist, born near Paris in 1674 ; died in 1745. Jubinal, zhii'be'ntK, (Michel Louis Achille,) a French writer and politician, born in Paris in 1810. Juda, zhii'dS', (L^ON,) a French Protestant, born in Alsace in 1482, was the natural son of Jean Juda, a priest. In 1502, having formed a friendship with Zuin- glius, he was led to embrace the principles of the Re- formers, and became pastor of Saint Peter's Church in Zurich. He was distinguished for his zeal in promoting the Reformation, both from his pulpit and by his pen. Died in 1542. He commenced a translation of the Old Testament into Latin, which was finished after his death, and was regarded by the Protestants, and even by many Catholic divines, as the best version extant. He was the author of several religious works. See M. Adam, "Vitae Theologorum Germanorum ;" Haag, " La France protestante." Ju'dah, [Heb. miri',] fourth son of Jacob, and one of the twelve Hebrew patriarchs, was born in Mesopo- tamia, B.C. 1755. When Joseph was thrown into the cave by his brethren, it was through Judah's influence that they sold him to the Ishmaelites, instead of taking his life as they had previously intended. (Genesis xxxvii. 26.) Jacob, on his death-bed, foretold that Judah's pos- terity would become the principal tribe of Israel, and also referred to the coming of the Messiah, who was to be his lineal descendant. (Genesis xlix. 8-12.) Ju'dah, (Henry M.,) an American general, born at Snow Hill, Maryland, about 1821, graduated at West Point in 1843, '^'""^ ^'^^ ^ captain before the civil war began. He became a brigadier-general of Union volun- teers early in 1862, and commanded a division at Resaca, Georgia, May 15, 1864. Judah or Je-hu'dah Hak'ka-dosh', (or Hakka- dosch,) a learned Jewish rabbi, born in Galilee about 120 A.D. He is believed to have compiled, at the re- quest of the Roman emperor Marcus Antoninus, the Mishna, (Mischna,) which contains the various Jewish laws and institutions not found in the Old Testament. In a short time the Talmud was ranked among the sacred books of the nation, and it has since received ad- ditions from several learned rabbis. Died in 190 A.D. See Wolf, " Bibliotheca Hebraica." Ju'dah Hioog, (or Hioug,) he-oog', a Jewish rabbi and physician, who gained great distinction for his learn- ing and skill, was born at Fez, in Africa, and lived about 1040. He wrote several works (in Arabic) on the Hebrew language, and is now regarded by his nation as their first and perhaps their greatest grammarian. His name is sometimes written Judah Chiug. Judah Rav or Rab, a celebrated Jewish doctor, who lived near Babylon in the third century of our era, is said to have been the principal author of that portion of the Talmud known as the "Babylonish Gemara." Ju'das Is-car'i-ot, one of the twelve apostles chosen by Jesus. He betrayed his Master to the officers of the chief priests for thirty pieces of silver. Afterwards, being stung with remorse, he returned the money to the priests and "went and hanged himself." See Matthew x. 4, xxvi. 47-50, xxvii. 3-5; Mark xiv. 18-21, 43. Ju'das Le-vi'ta or HaPle-vi, a learned Spanish Jew and poet, born in 1090 or 1080, wrote a work in Arabic in defence of the Jewish religion, entitled " Sepher Hoc- cori," which was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and Spanish. Died in 1140. € as 9 as s; g hard: g as J; G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^="See Explanations, p. 23.) 82 JUDAS 1298 JUGURTHA Ju'das Maccabae'iis, (mak-ka-bee'us,) [Gr. '\ov6ag 6 MaKKa;3aio^; Fr, Judas Machabee, zhii'dSs' mS'kS'bi',] of the royal line of the Asmonceans, became leader of the Jews upon the death of his father, Mattathias, B.C. 166. He conquered and cut in pieces several Syrian armies which had been sent against him by Antiochus, subdued the Idumeans, Ammonites, and other neighbouring na- tions, and restored the worship of the true God in the Temple of Jerusalem. He was afterwards besieged in that city by Antiochus Eupator, who was, however, soon obliged to return to Syria, on account of a civil war which had broken out in his kingdom. Judas, wishing to form an independent government in Judea, and being unable to contend against the whole power of Syria, concluded a treaty of alliance with the Romans. But, before any assistance could arrive, a large army of Syrians again invaded Judea. Judas marched against them with a body of three thousand men, which was soon reduced by de- sertion to eight hundred. He nevertheless attacked the enemy, and, after a severe battle, was defeated and slain, 160 B.C. Judd, (Sylvester,) a Unitarian minister and writer, born in Westhampton, Massachusetts, in 1813. He graduated at Yale in 1836, studied divinity at Harvard, and from 1840 until his death, in 1853, was pastor of the Unitarian church in Augusta, Maine. His principal work, " Margaret, a Tale of the Real and Ideal," (1845,) is pronounced by the "North American Review" "the most emphatically American book ever written." It has since been beautifully illustrated by Darley, Among his other works are " Philio," a didactic poem. See "Life and Character of Sylvester Judd," Boston, 1854; DuYCKiNCK, " Cyclopedia ot American Literature," vol. ii. ; " Era- ser \s Magazine" for July, 1867. Jude, [Gr. 'loi'dcf,] Saint, one of the twelve apos- tles. He is supposed to be the author of the book bearing his name. He was surnamed Lebbeus and Thaddeus. See Matthew x. 3 ; Mark iii. 18. Judicael, ju'de-kal, became ruler of Bretagne about 632, and assumed the title of royalty. After a reign of six years, he entered a monastery, and was succeeded by his son Alain. Ju'dith, [Heb. nmn^ ; It. Giuditta, joo-det'ti,] a Jewish heroine, of uncertain epoch. According to tradi- tion, she lived at Bethulia when that town was besieged by Holofernes, a general of the King of Assyria. Having by insidious arts gained admission to his tent and per- suaded him that she designed to betray the town to him, she cut off his head and carried it in a sack to Bethulia, which was, consequently, saved from capture. See the Apocryphal Book of Judith; Alfonso Niccolai, "La Giuditta; Dissertazione," 1765. Jud'son, (Adoniram,) an eminent Baptist mission- ary, born in Maiden, Massachusetts, in 1788, graduated at Brown University in 1807. He was sent as a mis- sionary to Burmah in 1812, founded a mission at Ran- goon, and learned the Burmese language. In 1823 he printed a Burmese translation of the New Testament. He was thrown into prison in 1824, and kept in close confinement eighteen months or more, during which he and his companions suffered extremely. He com])leted a Burmese translation of the Bible in 1834. He married successively Ann Hasseltine, Sarah Hall Boardman, and Emily Chubbuck, each of whom is noticed below. Having visited the United States in 1845, returned to Burmah in 1846, and resumed his labours at Maulmain. He died at sea in April, 1850. See Francis Wayland, "Memoir of the Life of A. Judson," 2 vols., 1853 ; James Clement, " Life of the Rev. A. Judson," 1850; H. C. CoNANT, "The Earnest Man • a Sketch of the Character and Labours of A. Judson," 1856; William Hague, "Life of A. Jud- son," 1851. Judson, (Ann,) (originally Miss Hasseltine,) a missionary to India, wife of the Rev. Dr. Adoniram Judson, was born in Bradford, Massachusetts, in 1789. (See preceding article.) A "Memoir of her Life," by the Rev. J. D. Knowles, appeared soon after her death in 1826. Judson, (Emily,) (originally Mi^s Chubbuck,) an American authoress, known by the nom de plume of " Fanny Forester," was born at Eaton, in New York, in 1817. She wrote for the "New York Mirror," and published two volumes of her essays, sketches, and poems, under the title of " Alderbrook," (1846.) She was married in 1846 to Dr. Judson, and immediately sailed with him for India. While in Burmah, she com- posed some of her best poems. After the death of her husband, in 1850, she returned to America, and died at Hamilton, New York, in 1854. (See Judson, Adoniram.) Judson, (Sarah,) (originally Miss Hall,) a missiou- ary to India, born in Alstead, New Hampshire, in 1803. In 1825 she was married to the Rev. George Dana Boardman, and the same year sailed with him for Bur- mah. They established the Baptist Mission at Maul- main, and subsequently at Tavoy. After the death of her husband, in 1831, she continued her missionary labours with great success. In 1834 she was married to Rev. A. Judson, noticed above. Died at Saint Helena in 1845. Juel, yoo'el, (J.,) a Danish adnairal, was a brother of Niels, noticed below, with whom he co-operated in several battles. He was one of the negotiators of the treaty of Lund in 1679. Died about 1700. See N. JoNGE, " Vice-Admiral J. Juels Liv og Lcvnctsbeskri- velse," 1755. Juel, (Niels or Nicholas,) a celebrated Danish ad- miral, born in 1629. After serving in the Dutch navy under Van Tromp and De Ruyter, he entered the Danish service, and greatly distinguished himself by several im- portant victories which he gained over the Swedes. The King of Denmark created him an admiral, knighted him, and conferred upon him other honours. Died in 1697. See T. DE Hop-MAN, " Portraits historiques des Hoinmes il- lustres de Danemarck;" Hagerup, "Ligtaleover N. Juel," 1795; H. G. Garde, " N. Juel," 1842; Marcus Gjoe, "Ligtale over N. Juel," 1753. Juenin, zhU-i'niN', (Gaspard,) a French priest, writer, And professor of philosophy in Paris, born at Varambon, in Bresse, in 1650; died in 1713. Juglaris, yoo-gld'r^s, (Aloisio,) an Italian Jesuit and professor of rhetoric, born at Nice in 1607. He was also employed as preceptor to Prince Charles Emanuel of Savoy. He wrote numerous panegyrics on Louis XIII. and other persons of distinction. Died in 1653. Jugleb, yooG'lIp, or Jugler, yooo'ler, (Johann Friedrich,) a German writer, born near Naumburg in 1 718. He published "Biographical and Critical Notices of Eminent Jurists and Statesmen of Europe," (6 vols., 1773-80,) and other works. Died in 1791. Ju-gur'tha, [Gr. 'lovyovpdag or 'loyopda^,] an African prince, remarkable for his crimes and tragical death, was a natural son of Manastabal. He was brought up at the court of his uncle, Micipsa, King of Numidia, and at an early age served under Scipio yEmilianus in the Roman army. During the war with Numantia he gained great distinction, and at its conclusion was highly commended to his uncle by Scipio. Micipsa soon after created him joint heir with his own sons Adherbal and Hiempsal. Upon the death of that monarch, Jugurtha caused Hiempsal to be murdered, and forced Adherbal to seek protection at Rome. Commissioners were sent out by the Roman senate to divide the kingdom between Ad- herbal and Jugurtha; but the latter, having bribed them, received the largest portion of the territory, and was declared to be innocent of the murder of Hiempsal. Resolving, however, to obtain the entire kingdom, he captured Adherbal in the city of Cirta, while he was yet under the protection of the Roman senate, and put him to death with the greatest cruelty. War was imme- diately declared against him by the Romans ; but he succeeded in forming an advantageous treaty with the consul Calpurnius, who had been sent to reduce him to subjection. The senate refused to ratify this treaty, and summoned Jugurtha to Rome to answer the charges brought against him. He obeyed the mandate; but while in that city he procured the assassination of his cousin Massiva, another claimant of the Numidian crown. Upon the commission of this outrage he was commanded to leave Rome. As he was taking his last view of the capital, he is said to have exclaimed, "Mercenary city, thou waitest only for a purchaser to sell thyself; and thou wilt perish if one is found," After his return to Numidia he defeated a Roman army under Aulus Post- a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nftt; good; moon; JUIGNE 1299 JULIAN humius, compelling it to pass under the yoke and to evacuate the country. The war was afterwards con- tinued by Metellus ; and, though Jugurtha was one of the ablest commanders of that age, he was unable to resist the Roman general, whose skill and prudence made him ever victorious on the field of battle, and whose stern integrity rendered him invincible to the golden offers of the Numidian usurper. Jugurtha, having been twice defeated by Marius, the successor of Metellus, was delivered to his enemies by the treachery of his ally, Bocchus, King of Mauritania. He was carried in chains to Rome, where he graced the triumph of Marius. He was then thrown into the Mamertine prison. His death, which occurred six days later, is generally supposed to have been caused by starvation. The Jugurthine war, which was terminated B.C. 106, is the subject of one of the histories of Sallust. See Sai.lust, " Jugurtha ;" Plutarch, " Marius ;" Livy, " Epi- tome," books Ixii., Ixiv., Ixvii. ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Juigue, de,dehzhu-^n'yi',(ANToiNEEL6oNOREL^:oN Leclerc,) a French prelate, born in Paris in 1728, dis- tinguished himself by his persecution of the Jansenists. In 1 781 he became Archbishop of Paris. Died in 181 1. See Lambert, "Vie de Messire A. ]S. Leclerc de Juigne," 1821. Juigne-Broissiniere, de, deh zhii-^n'yi' bRw^'se'- ne-aiR', a French lawyer and compiler, was born in Anjou, and lived about' 1650. His principal work is a "Theological, Historical, Poetical, and Cosmographical Dictionary," (1644.) Juillard or Juilhard. See Jarry. Jukes, jiiks, (Joseph Beete,) F.R.S., an English geologist, born near Birmingham about 1812. He pub- lished, besides other works, '* Popular Physical Geology," (1853-) Jules, the French for Jultus, which see. Ju'li-a, [Fr. Julie, zhii'le',] a Roman lady, remarka- ble for her beauty and virtues, was the daughter of Julius Caesar. She first married Cornelius Caepio, but, by her father's command, procured a divorce and became the wife of Pompey the Great. She died 53 B.C., before the dissensions arose between her father and her husband. Julia, only daughter of Augustus Caesar, born about 39 B.C., was distinguished for her beauty, accomplish- ments, and disgraceful intrigues. She was married to Marcellus, upon whose death she became the wife of Agrippa, by whom she was the mother of five children. After the death of her second husband she was given in marriage to Tiberius, who divorced her, and afterwards caused her to be poisoned, 14 a.d. Julia, a daughter of the preceding, born about 18 B.C., was married to L. i^imilius Paulus. Her character is said to have resembled that of her mother. Some writers identify her with the Corinna of Ovid. Died 28 a.d. Julia, a daughter of Drusus and Livia, born about 5 A.D., was a niece of Germanicus. She was married to Nero, who was her cousin -german. Julia, daughter of Caesar Germanicus, was born 1 7 a.d. At the age of sixteen she was married to a Roman sena- tor named Vinucias. She was soon after suspected of conspiracy and banished by her brother Caligula, but was subsequently recalled by Claudius. She was put to death in her twenty-fourth year, at the instigation of Messalina. Julia de Pontenelle, zhii'le-t' deh f6N'teh-ngK, (Jean S^bastien Eugene,) a French chemist, born at Narbonne in 1790, published a "Manual for Glass- makers," and other works. Died in 1842. See Henri Julia de Fontenelle, " Notice sur M. Julia de Fon- tenelle," 1843. Ju'li-a Dom'na, wife of the Roman emperor Septi- mius Severus, and the mother of Caracalla and Geta, was born in Syria about 170 a.d. She was the daughter of ]>assianus, a priest of the sun. After the death of Seve- rus she endeavoured to heal the dissensions between her sons, but in vain ; Geta was murdered in her presence in 212, by his brother's orders. During the remainder of Caracalla's reign she exerted great influence in the affairs of government. Died in 217. Julia Mammaea. See Mamm/ea. Ju'li-an, [Lat. Julia'nus; Fr. Julten, zhii'le^^N',] or, more fully, Ju-ii-a'nus Fla'vi-us Clau'di-us, sur- named the Apostate, a Roman emperor, was born in Constantinople in 331 a.d. He was the son of Julius Constantius, and a nephew of Constantine the Great. On the death of the latter, the soldiers, in order to secure the succession of his sons, massacred all the other members of the Flavian family except Julian and his elder brother Gallus. The jealousy of the emperor Constantius afterwards banished the brothers to Cap- padocia, where they were educated in the principles of the Christian religion and officiated as lecturers in the church of Nicomeclia. In 351 Gallus was created Caesar by the emperor, and Julian was permitted to return to his native city, but in a short time was again exiled to Nicomedia. He subsequently embraced the philosophy of the Platonists, and, having obtained permission to visit Athens, he pursued his studies in that city and was privately initiated in the mysteries of the religion of Greece. After the execution of his brother, in 355, he was recalled to Constantinople through the influence of the empress Eusebia. Constantius created him Csesar, and gave him command of the armies in Gaul. Julian also received in marriage Helena, sister of the emperor. He made four successful campaigns against the Germans, who had overrun Gaul, expelled them from that country, took captive Chnodomarius, their most powerful king, invaded Germany, and gained a high distinction for military skill and personal bravery. Constantius, envious of the fame of Julian, and wishing to destroy his power, commanded him to send his best troops to the East, in order that they might assist in the Persian war. The soldiers, who had become greatly attached to Julian, refused to obey, and, notwithstanding his remon- strances, proclaimed him Augustus. It is even stated that they threatened him with death if he refused the purple. He then sent an embassy to Constantius, re- questing that he might be recognized as Augustus in Gaul. This not having been granted, he marched towards Constantinople ; but the sudden death of the emperor, in 361, enabled Julian to ascend the imperial throne unopposed. Immediately after his accession he threw off the hypocrisy which had shielded him for so long a time, and, renouncing Christianity, in which probably he was never a true believer, declared his faith in the divinities of Greece and Rome. He proclaimed liberty of conscience to all, commanded the pagan tem- ples to be reopened, and even attempted to restore Ju- daism by rebuilding the Temple at Jerusalem. He was prevented from completing this project by remarkable eruptions of fire, which rendered it impossible for the workmen tcw continue their labours. In the spring of 363 he set out from Antioch, at the head of 65,000 well- disciplined troops, on his contemplated invasion of Per- sia. He crossed the Euphrates and Tigris, and gained several important victories over the Persians ; but the oppressive heat and the scarcity of provisions compelled him to retreat, and in June of the same year, as he was bravely repelling an attack of the enemy, a javelin wounded him fatally in the side. He died the following evening, while he was calmly conversing with his friends on ])hilosophy. Julian was the author of an account of his Gallic and German wars, which has been lost, "The Caesars," "Misopogon," a satire against the citizens of Antioch, whom he had offended by his philosophical austerity and his slovenly habits, and of about eighty letters upon various subjects. See August Neander, " Ueber Kaiser Julian und sein Zeital- ter," 1812, (translated into English by G. V. Cox, 1850;) La Blet- terie, "Vie de TEmpereur Julien," 1735; Jondot, " Histoire de I'Empereur Julien," 2 vols., 1817 ; William Warburton, "Julian, or a Discourse concerning the Earthquake and Fiery Eruption which defeated that Emperor's Attempt to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem," 1750; Abel Desjardins, " fitude sur I'Empereur Julien," 1845 ; J. KoRNER, " Kaiser Julian der Abtriinnige," etc., 1830 ; Gibbon, '' His- tory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Socrates, " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Milman, " History of Christianity." Julian, Hoo-le-in', Count, Governor of Andalusia under the Gothic kings of Spain. After King Roderick had ravished the daughter of Julian, the latter formed a treaty with the Moslems for the invasion of Spain, and rendered them efficient service at the battle of Xeres, where Roderick was defeated in 711 A.D. See Murphy, "History of the Mahometan Empire in Spain;" SouTHEY, "Roderick, the Last of the Goths." •e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^'See Explanations, p. 23. ) JULIAN 1300 JUNCKER Ju'li-an, [Lat. Julta'nus ; Fr. Julien, zhu'le-^N'; It. GiULiANo, joo-le-a'no,j an Italian bis^hop, distin- guished for his opposition to the doctrines of Saint Au- gustine, was born about 380, and studied theology under Pelagius, In 416 Innocent I. raised him to the see of Eclanum ; but about 420 he was banished from Italy on account of his Pelagian doctrinQS. Having been con- demned by several councils, he settled in Sicily. Died about 455. Julian, Archbishop of Toledo, and a saint of the Roman calendar, was born in Spain, of Jewish descent. He was raised to the see of Toledo in 680, and presided over four different councils held in that city. He was the author of a work on death, the resurrection, and the final judgment. Died in 690. Julian, (Marcus Aurelius,) a Roman Governor of Venetia, who in 285, while aspiring to the imperial purple, was defeated and slain near Verona by Carinus. Julian Cesarini. See Cksarini, (Giuliano.) Ju-li-a'na, a woman of Portuguese descent, born in Bengal in 1658. Having gained the favour of Aurung- Zeb, she was appointed governess to his son. Shah Alum, who succeeded to the crown in 1707. In a battle between that prince and his brothers, who disputed the succession, she rode by his side on an elephant and greatly contrib- uted to his success. Shah Alum raised her to the rank of a princess, and conferred upon her many other honours. See "Biographie Universelle." Julianus. See Julian. Ju-li-a'nus or Julian, (Salvtus,) a celebrated Roman jurist, and great-grandfather to the emperor Didius, was born about 100 A.D. He was twice chosen consul. His principal work is entitled "Digesta," in ninety books, and is often referred to by writers on Roman law. , See J. G. Heineccius, " Programma de S. Juliano," 1733. Julie. See Julia. Julien, the French for Julian, which see. Julien, zhii'le-iN', (Pierre,) a celebrated French sculptor, born at Saint-Paulien in 1 731. He commenced his studies at Lyons, under Perache, whom he left in 1765 to become the pupil of Coustou, the king's sculp- tor, at Paris. In 1768 he went to Rome, where he re- mained four years, to perfect himself in his art. In 1779 his statue of " The Dying Warrior" gained his admission to the Academy of Painting and Sculpture in Paris. Died in 1804. Among his most admirable productions are "La Baigneuse," the statues of La Fontaine and Poussin, and copies of Apollo Belvedere and "The Dying Gladiator," from the Italian. ^ See J. Lebreton, "Notice historique sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de P. Julien," 1805. Julien, (Simon,) or Julien of Parma, a French artist, born at Toulon in 1736, studied in Paris under Vanloo, resided ten years at Rome, and after his return was elected a member of the Academy of Painting. He was called Julien the Apostate, because he abandoned the French style. Died in 1800. Julien, (Stanislas,) an eminent French Orientalist, born at Orleans in 1799. He studied under Abel Re- musat, and devoted himself particularly to the Chinese language. He succeeded Abel Remusat as professor of Chinese in 1832, and afterwards became administrator, in the College of France. He made translations from Meng- tseu (Mencius) and other Chinese authors, and pub- lished " Practical Exercises of Chinese Syntax and Lexi- cography," (1842.) Julien enjoys the reputation of one of the first Chinese scholars of his time. He was a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and of the prin- cipal learned societies of Europe. Among his works is one of great interest, "Voyages des Pelerins Bouddhistes," (3 vols., 1853-58,) translated from the Chinese. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Julio Romano. See Giulio Romano. Julius [Fr. Jules, zhiil ; It. Giulio, joo'le-o] I.,'a Roman by birth, succeeded Marcus in the papal see in 336. In 340 he convoked a council at Rome to settle the dispute between Athanasius, the orthodox Bishop of Alexandria, and the Arians, who had expelled him from his office. Athanasius appeared ; but his enemies called at Antioch a council which condemned him. Julius, finding his interpositions to be in vain, sum- moned the General Council of Sardica, which restored the bishop to his see and introduced the custom of appealing to the pope in all ecclesiastical disputes. Died in 352 A.D. Julius II., (Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere — deKia ro-va'ri,) born in 1441, was elected to the see of Rome upon the death of Pius III., in 1503. Haughty and warlike in his disposition, he immediately turned his ambition to the aggrandizement of the papal authority. He drove Caesar Borgia from the Romagna, and attempted to expel the Venetians from Ravenna, Rimini, and other parts of his dominions. Failing in this, he formed the League of Cambrai with the King of France, the Emperor of Germany, and the Duke of P'errara, for the destruction of the Venetian republic. Julius, soon discovering, how- ever, that he had more to fear from the French than from the Venetians, made a treaty with the latter in 1 5 10, and took the field in person against the French, over whom he gained some slight advantages. In 15 12 he allied himself with the English, Spaniards, vSwiss, and Venetians, and finally succeeded in expelling the French from Italy. But liftle was gained by this success ; for the vSwiss and Spaniards gave him as much trouble as the French had previously done. He died before these new difficulties were adjusted, in 1513. Julius displayed a great taste for the fine arts. He was the first to commence Saint Peter's Cathedral at Rome, and was the patron of Michael Angelo, Raphael, and other men of distinction. I^eo X. was his successor. See Ranke, "History of the Popes;" Bruys, " Histoire des Papes," 1732; "LaViedu Pape Jules 11," (anonymous,) Paris, 1515. Julius III., (Cardinal Giocci — ^jot'chee,) born in 1487 at Arezzo, succeeded Paul III. in February, 1550. His pontificate was marked by quarrels with the King of France, the Venetians, and other powers. Died in 1555. See Artaud de Montor, " Histoire des soiiverains Pontifes." Jullian, zhii'le-dN', (Pierre Louis Pascal,) a French historical writer and politician, born at Montpellier about 1769. He wrote "Fragments historiques," (1804,) and "Souvenirs de ma Vie," (1808.) Died about 1836. JuUien, zhu^le4.N', (Andre,) a writer upon the culture of the vine, born at Chalons-sur-Saone, in France, in 1766 ; died in 1832. Jullien, (Louis,) a popular French composer of music and director of concerts, was born in 1812. He com- posed music for balls, operas, etc., and performed in Paris and London. Died in i860, Jullien, (Marcel Bernard,) a French grammarian and writer, born in Paris in 1798. Jullien de la Drdme, zhU'le-^N' deh It dRom, (Marc Antoine,) a French Jacobin, distinguished for his vio- lence, was born in Dauphine in 1744; died in 1821. Jullien de Paris, zhii'le-^N' deh pt're', (Marc An- toine,) a politician and journalist, born in Paris in 1775, was a son of the preceding. During the Revolution he was a Jacobin. He published several works on politics, education, etc., and founded in 1818 the "Revue Ency- clopedique." Died in 1848. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire';" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" Boileau d'Auxy, " Biographie de M. J. de Paris," 1842. Julus. See luLUS. Jumel, zhii'm^K, (Jean Charles,) a French eccle- siastic and writer, born in Paris ; died in 1824. Jumelin, zhiim'liN', (Jean Baptiste, ) a French savant, physician, and writer, born in 1745, visited Greece, where he directed his attention to the botany as well as to the antiquities of that country. Died in 1807. Jumilhac, de, deh zhii'me'^ltk', (Antoine Pierre Joseph Chapelle,) Marquis, a French royalist, dis- tinguished as a cavalry officer, was born in 1764. In 1 791 Louis XVI. appointed him lieutenant-colonel of his guard. He served under Napoleon. Died in 1826. Jumlah. See Jemlah. Jumonville, de, deh zhli'mAN'v^l', (Coulon,) a French officer, born about 1725, signalized his bravery in the Canadian wars. He is said to have been treache- rously killed in 1753 the English, to whom he was bearing a message. Juncker, ydonk'ker, (Christian,) a German phi- lologist and historian, was born at Dresden in 1668. He a, e, T, 0, \x, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; ftr, fllll, f^lt; mSt; n6t; good; moon; JUNCKER JUNIUS published several works on German history, and a " Life of Luther," {1699.) Died at Altenburg in 1714. See ScHADEN, " Ehrengedachtniss Junckers," 1714; Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Gellius, " Epistola ad J. A. Fabricium de C. Jimckero," 1714- Juncker or Junker, (Gottlob Johann,) a German physician, born near Giessen in 1680. He became [)ro- fessor of medicine at Halle in 1729, and maintained the doctrines of Stahl. He wrote numerous medical works. Died at Halle in 1759. Juucosa, Hoon-ko'si, (Fra Joaquin,) a skilful Span- ish painter, born in the diocese of Tarragona in 163 1 ; died near Rome in 1708. Junc-ti'nus, the Latin name of Francesco Giuntini, an Italian astrologer and monk, born at Florence in 1522. He wrote several works on astrology, etc. Died in 1590. Jung, yoong, or Junge, ydong'eh, [Lat. Jung'ius,] (Joachim,) a German physician and botanist, born at Lubeck in 1587, became successively professor of mathe- matics at Giessen and Rostock. He was one of the most able opponents of the scholastic philosophy, and for his acuteness was compared by Leibnitz to Copernicus and Galileo. He also, it is said, first suggested, in his " Isa- goge Phytoscopica," (1678,) the classification of plants afterwards developed by Linnaeus. He was rector of a school at Hamburg from 1629 until his death. Died at Hamburg in 1657. See Martin Vogel, " Historia Vitae et Mortis J. Jungii," 1657; GuHRAUKR, "J. Jungius und sein Zeitalter," 1850; " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Gen^rale." Jung, (Johann Heinrich,) commonly known by the pseudonym of Stilling, an original German writer, born at Im-Grund, in the duchy of Nassau, in 1740. While studying medicine at Strasburg, he formed an intimacy with Goethe, who has given an interesting ac- count of him in his Autobiography. Li 1804 he became professor of political economy at Heidelberg. He pub- lished in 1777 "Henry Stilling's Youth, Early Years, and Wanderings," which was followed soon after by "Henry Stilling's Domestic Life." Among his fictitious writings we may cite "Theobald, or the Enthusiast," "The Chris- tian Philanthropist," and " Scenes from the Spirit-Land." Stilling appears to have been a man of great earnestness as well as simplicity of character, with a strong tendency to religious enthusiasm and mysticism. Died in 181 7. See J. H. Jung, " H. Stilling's Jugend, Jiinglingsjahre, Wan- deiscliaft und bausliches Leben," 3 vols., 1777-79: enlarged under the title of " Lebensbeschreibung J. H. Jungs," 5 vols., 1806; ScHWARZ, " Jung-Slillings Alier," 1817 ; John Wright, " Life of H. Stilling," abridged by Samuel Jackson, 1847; " Foreign Quar- terly Review" for July, 1838. Jung-Bahadoor, (or -Bahadur, Idling (or jiing) ba- hS'ddor, (i.e. "brave in war,") [from the Hindostanee pmg, " battle," " war," ?i\\d hahddtir or bahadoor, " brave,"] the naine, or rather surname, of several Indian princes, among whom the recent minister of Nepaul and virtual sovereign of that country deserves particular mention. He was the son of a Nepaulese general, was born about 181 5, and by his unscrupulous audacity, combined with rare talents for intrigue, he soon raised himself to the highest position in the state. About 1850 he visited England as ambassador, and while in that country was the object of much attention. In 1857 he offered the English government his co-operation in suppressing the mutiny of the Sepoys, and, with about 9000 Goorkhas, (a race of Tartar origin,) took part in the capture of Lucknow, for which, and other services, he received from Queen Victoria the grand cross of the order of the Bath. Junger, ydong'er, (Johann Friedrich,) a German litterateur, born at Leipsic in 1759. He was the author of numerous popular romances and dramatic works. Among his novels are " Yetter Jakobs Launen," (6 vols., 1786-92,) and " Der Schein triigt," (1787.) Died in 1797. Jungermann, yd6ng'er-m§.n',(GoTTFRiED,) a German philologist, born at Leipsic. He published " Longi Pas- toralia Graece cutn Latina Versione," (1605,) and other classical works. Died in 1610. Jungermann, (Ludwig,) a botanist, born at Leipsic in 1572, was a brother of the ]:)receding. He was pro- fessor of botany at Altdorf. Died in 1653. Junghuhn, yoong'hoon, (Fkanz Wii.helm,) a Prus- sian naturalist, born at Mansfeld in 1812. He was em- ployed as army physician or officer of health in India, and explored the island of Java. He published, besides other works, an account of the topography, botany, and geology of Java, ("Java, seine Gestalt, Pflanzendecke und innere Bauart," 3 vols., 1852,) which is esteemed the best work on that subject. Jungius. See Jung. Jungmann, ydong'min, (Joseph Jakob,) a learned Slavonian philologist, born at Hudlitz, in Bohemia, in 1773. He was appointed in 1815 professor of languages and rhetoric at the Gymnasium of Prague, where he was afterwards prefect. Ilis greatest work is a " Bohemian- German Dictionary," (5 vols., 1835,) which gives evi- dence of immense learning and industry. He also wrote a " History of the Bohemian Language and Literature," (1825,) and a "Bohemian Chrestomathy." He wrote other works, in prose and verse, and inade a number of translations from eminent English and French writers. Jungmann is regarded as one of the most zealous and efficient promoters of Slavonian literature. Died in 1 847. See L. Crlakovsky, "Dodavky ke Slovniku J. Jungmanna," 1850; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1828. Ju-nil'i-us, a bishop who flourished in Africa about 550 A.D. He wrote a Latin work "On Parts of the Divine Law," which was printed at Bale in 1545. Ju'ni-us, the assumed name of a political writer who in January, 1 769, began to issue, in London, a series of famous letters, which first appeared in Woodfall's " Public Advertiser." Junius opposed the ministry then in power, and denounced several eminent persons with great severity of invective and pungency of sarcasm. His style is eminently pure, terse, and vigorous. These letters had a great popularity, and powerfully promoted the cause of civil liberty. " The myrmidons of the court," said Burke, in the House of Commons, "have been long, and are still, pursuing him in vain. They will not spend their time upon me, or you, or you. No : they disdain such vermin when the mighty boar of the forest, that has broken through all their toils, is before them. . . . Kings, Lords, and Commons are but the sport of his fury. Were he a member of this House, what might not be expected from his knowledge, his firmness and integrity !" Among the numerous persons to whom these letters have been attributed were Sir Philip Fran- cis, Lord Chatham, Edmund Burke, Henry Grattan, Colonel Barre, Gibbon the historian, John Home Tooke, Horace Walpole, John Wilkes, and Wedderburn, (after- wards Lord Loughborough.) The publication of the Letters of Junius continued until January, 1772. In his dedication to the people of England, he said, "I am the sole depositary of my own secret, and it shall perish with me." A multitude of books and essays have been written in the attempt to solve this mystery. But all the eff'orts in that direction seemed for a long time to be wholly unsuccessful ; so much so that a very able lawyer and antiquary, Sir N. H. Nicolas, writing in 1843, declared his conviction that all the Junius-seekers had completely failed in their undertaking. Macaulay, however, in his essay on Warren Hastings, (1841,) says that "the evi- dence [against Sir P. Francis] would support a verdict in a civil — nay, in a criminal — proceeding." At the ])resent time (1870) the question appears to be no longer doubtful. A great number of circumstances (some of which have only very lately come to light) seem to point with unerring certainty to Sir Philip Francis as the true Junius. Among the various incidental proofs bearing on this question, one of the most curious and decisive is given in " Lippincott's Magazine" for January, 1870, p. 1 18. See John Taylor, "The Identity of Junius with a Distinguished Living Character Established," 1816; John Mason Good, "Essay on Junius and his Writings ;" Macaulay, review of Gleig's "Lite of Warren Hastings;" Lord Brougham, article in the " Edinburgh Review" for November, 1817, (vol. xxix. ;) "London Quarterly Re- view" for December, 1851 ; Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." Ju'ni-us, (Francis,) [Fr. Francois du Jon, fr6N'- sw^' dii zh^N.I a learned Protestant theologian, was born at Bourges, in France, May i, 1545. He studied at Lyons and Geneva, and was appointed pastor of a Walloon church in Antwerp in 1565, but at length was com- pelled to fly to Germany to escape the tortures of the Inquisition. In 1568 he became chaplain to the army € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, K, ^ttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (JJ^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) JUNIUS 1302 JUPITER of the Prince of Orange. Five years later, at the re- quest of the Elector-Palatine, he went to Heidelberg, where, with the assistance of Tremellius, he translated the Old Testament into Latin, (1575-79.) This work, which established his reputation, is known as the version of Junius and Tremellius. He afterwards filled succes- sively the chairs of theology at Neustadt, Heidelberg, and Leyden. He wrote iiumerous works on divinity and the classics. Died at Teyden in October, 1602. See "Vita F. Juiiii Hiturigensis ab ipsomet consciipta," 1595: Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, " Me- moires;" F. Gomar, "Oratio funebris in Obitum F. Junii," 1602. Junius, (Francis or Franciscus,) an eminent phi- lologist, son of the preceding, was born at Heidelberg in 1589, and was educated at Leyden. He passed over to England about 1620, and became librarian to Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, with whom he remained thirty years. He devoted his attention chiefly to the study of the Teutonic languages. He published a rare and valu- able work, — a translation of the Gospels into the ancient Gothic, (made by Bishop Ulphilas about 360 a.d.,) with a Commentary, (1665.) Junius was the author of a work "On the Painting of the Ancients," ("De Pictura Veterum," 1637,) and of an Etymological Dictionary, (" Etymologicum Anglicanum," 1743,) in which he ex- plains the derivation and origin of numerous English words. He left his choice collection of manuscripts to the University of Oxford. Died at Windsor in 1677. See Gr^vius, " Life of Francis Junius," in the 2d edition of his "De Pictura Veterum," 1694; Bayi.e, "Historical and Critical Dic- tionary;" NiCEKON, "Menioires;" Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses." Junius, de, deh yoo'ne-us, or Jonghe, yong'eh, (Adriaan,) a learned Dutch physician, was born at Hoorn, in Friesland, in 15 12. He went to England near the close of the reign of Henry VHP, and became physician to the Duke of Norfolk. After the accession of Edward VL he published a Greek-and-Latin Lexi- con, which he dedicated to that sovereign. For this he was severely censured by the Roman pontiff. He wrote in honour of the marriage of Queen Mary with Philip of Spain a Latin poem entitled " Philippeis." About 1564 he was appointed physician to the King of Den- mark. Died at Middelburg in 1575. As a philologist and linguist his contemporaries regarded him as second only to Erasmus. In addition to the works previously mentioned are his "Nomenclature of All Things," a vocabulary in seven different languages, several Latin poems and epistles, and various commentaries on the writings of the ancient authors. See p. ScHELTEMA, "Diatribe in H. Junii Vitam Ingenium et Merita literaria," 1836. Junker, yoonk'er, or Juniker, yoo'ne-ker, (Gf.org Adam,) a teacher and translator, born at Hanau about 1720. He translated numerous German dramas, etc. into French. Died in 1805. Ju'no, [Fr. Junon, zhii^nAN' ; It. Giunone, joo-no'- ni,] a goddess of the Roman mythology, called the queen of heaven and the wife of Jupiter, corresponding to the Greek Hera, ("Hpa or "Hp??.) She was regarded as the protecting deity of the female sex, and as the patroness of marriage and maternity. She wassurnamed Matrona and Regina, and was worshi])ped by the Roman women at an annual festival called Matronalia. As the patroness of marriage, she was called Pronuba, Gamelia, Jugalis or Juga, and various other names. Her aid was implored by women in childbirth under the name of LuciNA, (which see.) She is usually represented as a majestic woman, crowned, with her favourite bird, the peacock, near her. The name Juno is in all probability related etymologically to the Sanscrit word Yont* signifying "matrix," and hence denoting maternity and femineity. See Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biogvs.pliy and Mythology;" Keightley, "Mythology," article "Hera;" Gui- GNiAUT, "Religions de I'Antiquite," vol. ii. chap. ii. Junon. See Juno. ^ * It is scarcely necessary to remind the etymologist how nearly u is related to o: m Arabic and Peisian they have but a single letter to represent both; in Norwegian and Swedish there is but little differ- ence in the pronunciation of the two vowels, o being pronounced pre- cisely like the Italian or German y {i.e., z consonant) in the Latin (as it does in many of the modern languages') corresponded to our v. The terminal o in Juno is merely the feminine termination so common in Greek and Latin proper names. Junot, zhii^no', (Andoche,) Due d'Abrantes, a distin- guished French general, was born near Semur in 1771. At the age of twenty he enlisted as a common soldier, but, on account of his uncommon bravery, was soon made lieutenant. While serving at the siege of Toulon, he gained the approbation of Bonaparte, who made him his first aide-de-camp, with the rank of captain. He ac- companied that general on his Italian campaigns, and fought with his accustomed bravery at the battles of Lodi, Areola, Castiglione, and Lonato. During the invasion of Egypt and Syria he became the favourite of Bonaparte, and gained great distinction at the battle of Nazareth, where, with three hundred horseinen, he attacked and held in check a body of three thousand Moslems. After his return to France he rendered efficient service to Bonaparte in the subversion of the Directory. In 1800 he was appointed commandant of Paris, and afterwards governor of that city and colonel-general of hussars. He also received the decoration of the grand eagle of the legion of honour, and was sent as ambassador to Portugal. He took part in the battle of Austerlitz, in 1805. In 1807 he commanded an army which invaded Portugal and took Lisbon. He was soon afterwards created Due d'Abrantes. In August, 1808, he was defeated by Sir Arthur Wellesley at Vimiera, and com- pelled to evacuate Portugal. The emj^eror then deprived him of the governorship of Paris, but appointed him Captain-General and Governor of the Illyrian provinces. His misfortunes and disgrace shortly after affected his mind so deeply that he was obliged to retire from public life. He died at Montpellier in July, 1813. See Madame d'Abrantes, " Memoires;" Thiers, " Histoire du Consulatet de I'Empire ;" Napoleon, " Correspondance ;" Alison, "History of Europe;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Junot,(LAURE Permon,)Madame, Duchesse d'Abran- tes, was born in Montpellier in 1784, and was married to General Junot about 1800. Her family was related to that of Bonaparte, to whom her mother had shown great kindness before he became a general. At her marriage Mademoiselle Permon received from the First Consul one hundred thousand francs as a marriage-portion. In 1806 she accompanied her husband to Lisbon, and in 1807 became Duchesse d'Abrantes. On the restora- tion of the Bourbons she was kindly received by Louis XVIII. She wrote, besides other works, "Memoirs or Historical Souvenirs of Napoleon, the Revolution, the Directory, etc.," (18 vols., 1831-34.) Died in 1838. See A. D. Roosmai.en, " Les deniiers Moments de la Duchesse d'Abrantes," Paris, 1S3S; Ignazio Cantu, " Relazione della Du- chessa d'Abrantes," 1837; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." " Junquieres, de'fdeh zhuN^ke-aiR', (Jean Baptiste,) a French poet and officer, born at Paris in 1713; died in 1786. Junta or Junte, (Filippo.) See Giunta. Junta, (Tommaso,) a Venetiaii physician, flourished about 1550. He wrote a treatise "On the Battles of the Ancients," which displays considerable erudition. Junte. See Giunta. Junterbuck, yoon'ter-bdok', (James,) a Polish writer, and professor of theology at Erfiu't, was born about 1385 ; died in 1465. He wrote various works, among which is a "Tract on Mental Apparitions." Ju'pi-ter or Jup''pi-ter, [Fr. pron. zhli'pe'taiR' ; It. Giove, jo''vi, whence the English JovE,*j the supreme deity of the Roman mythology, corresponding to the Greek Zeus, and represented as the eldest son of Saturn and Rhea. He was the greatest of all the gods of the classic mythology, and was supposed to control all earthly and human affairs and to foresee futurity. The Romans ascribed to him power over all changes in the sky, and the phenomena of rain and lightning, and hence applied to him the epithets of " Pluvius," (" rainy," or " raining,") "Tonans," ("thundering,")" Fulminator," ("thunderer,") etc. As presiding over marriage, he is sometimes called Gamelius; and as the protector of the rights of hospi- tality, he was invoked as Jupiter Hospitalis. He was sometimes called Jupiter Capitolinus, because his tem- * Or, to speak more accurately, both the Italian and English are derived from Jovis, the Latin genitive case of Jupiter. The German, Spanisli, and Portuguese names for Jupiter, in spelling and accen- tuation, are the same as the Latin. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, it, y, short; a, e, i, o, obsaire; fir, fUll, f^t; mSt; n6t: good; moon ; JUPPIN 1303 JUSSIEU pie at Rome stood on the Capitol. He was the father of Apollo, Mars, Mercury, Minerva, Venus, etc. Ac- cording to the Greek mythology, he kept his court on Olympus. His most famous Greek temple was at Olympia, in Elis. He is usually represented as seated on a throne, with a thunderbolt in his right hand, in his left a sceptre, and near him his favourite bird the eagle. The name Jupiter (who was also called Diespiter) is probably a corruption of Diu-pater, (or Diovis pater,) ("father of the heavens," or "heavenly father.") Dmm, Dtvti??i, and Dies originally signified the same, — viz., the "sky," or "heaven." Others derive it from the Greek Zeus Pater or Zeu Faier, (i.e. " father Zeus.") Respect- ing the probable identity between Jupiter (or Zeus) and the Hindoo god Siva, see Siva. See Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology;" Guigniaut, "Religions de I'Antiquite," vol. ii. chap, i. ; Keightley, "Mythology." Juppin, zhii'piN', (Jean Baptiste,) a Flemish land- scape-painter, born at Naniur in 1678. He studied in Brussels, and afterwards visited Italy. Among his works is the " Crater of Vesuvius." Died in 1729. Juret, zhii'ri', (FRANgois,) a French critic and poet, born at Dijon in 1553, became canon of Langres. He published " Senecse ad Lucilium Epistolarum Liber," (1602,) and " Panegyrici Veteres cum Notis," (2 vols., 1652.) Died in 1626. Jurieu, zhii're-uh', (Pierre,) a learned French theo- logian and controversialist, was born at Mer, in Orleanais, in 1637. He became pastor of a Protestant congregation in Mer after he had studied at Saumur and vSedan. He was subsequently appointed professor of theology and Hebrew at Sedan. On the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685, he retired to Rotterdam, where he was appointed professor of theology. He wrote numerous religious works, among which are a " History of Cal- vinism and Popery compared," (1682,) and a "Critical History of Doctrine and Worship, Good and Bad," (1704,) both in French. Died in 1713. See Haag, "La France protestante ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Ju'rin, (James,) an English physician and philosopher, was born in 1684, and was educated at Cambridge. He was elected a member of the Royal Society, of which he became secretary, and was chosen president of the College of Physicians. He wrote several treatises on philosophy and physiology. Died in 1750. Jurine, zhii'r^n', (Louis,) a Swiss physician and natu- ralist, born at Geneva in 1 751, resided in Paris. He wrote, besides other works, a treatise on ascertaining the salubrity of the atmosphere. Died in 1819. Jussieu, jus-su',de, [French pron. deh zhii'se-uh',] (Adrien,) a celebrated French botanist, son of Antoine Laurent, noticed below, was born in Paris, December 23, 1797. He gained the first prize at the competition of 1814, and applied him^lf to the study of natural history and medicine. He succeeded his father as professor of rural botany in the Museum of Natural History in 1826, and was admitted to the Listitute in 1831. ?Ie published a series of memoirs and monographs which have placed him in the first rank of botanists. Among his best works are a " Monograph of the Malpighiaceae," (1843,) and an "Elementary Course of Botany," which has been translated into all the languages of Europe. In 1845 he became professor of vegetable organography to the Faculte des Sciences. Died in June, 1853. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Jus.sieu, de, (Alexis,) a French journalist and ad- ministrator, born in 1797, was a nephew of the great botanist Antoine Laurent. He was prefect of Ain and of Vienne in the reign of Louis Philippe. Jussieu, de, (Antoine,) professor of botany in the Royal Garden of Paris, was born at Lyons in 1686. He travelled in France, Spain, and Italy for the purpose of making botanical explorations, succeeded Tournefort as professor of botany in 1708, and was the author of several treatises on that science. He published a new edition of Tournefort's " Institutions." Died in 1758. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Jussieu, de,( Antoine Laurent,) a celebrated French botanist, born at Lyons in April, 1748, was the most eminent member of a fainily which has been called "the Botanical Dynasty." In 1765 he went to Paris to study medicine, and became the protege and pupil of his uncle, Bernard de Jussieu, who lectured on botany in the Jar- din du Roi, and was meditating a natural method of classification, near the close of a life memorable in the records of botanical science. This uncle, whose advanced age and dimness of sight indisposed him to the labours of authorship, freely communicated his mature reflections to young Jussieu, who zealously enlisted in the important enterprise. In 1770, having just graduated as M.D., he was appointed demonstrator of botany in the Jardin du Roi, as the substitute of Lemonnier, chief physician to the king. His first production was an excellent mono- graph on the " Ranunculacese," (1774,) which opened to him the Academy of Sciences and determined him to apply himself almost exclusively to botany. In 1774 the arrangement of the plants in the Royal Garden, which was conformed to the system of Tourne- fort, was exchanged for one proposed by Jussieu, founded on natural affinities. While performing his duties as professor, he continued to digest and perfect his new system, until 1788, when he developed the same in his great Latin work, " Genera Plantarum secundum Ordines naturales disposita," "which," says Cuvier, "forms in the sciences of observation an epoch perhaps as im- portant as the ' Chemistry' of Lavoisier in the sciences of experiment." Although the success of his book was retarded by the political convulsions of France, his philo- sophical system has gradually prevailed and superseded the artificial method of Linnaeus. The idea of such a system had occurred to other botanists ; but Jussieu is entitled to the honour of laying its broad and impreg- nable foundations. In 1793 the school of the Royal Garden was reor- ganized, under the title of " Museum of Natural His- tory," and the chair of botany was given to Jussieu, who was also chosen director of the institution. A few years later he became a member of the Institute, and in 1808 was appointed a councillor of the Imperial University. At the restoration of the Bourbons he lost the office last named, but retained the professorship until 1826, when he resigned it in favour of his son. Between 1800 and 1820 he wrote many botanical treatises on natural orders and families, which were inserted in the records of the Institute or the "Annales du Museum." These are characterized by the same merits as his principal work, — profound knowledge, patient observation, a correct estimate of the value of characters, and an admirable sagacity in perceiving affinities. Died in 1836. See Flourens, " fiioge de A. L. de Jussieu," 1838 ; A. T. Brong- NiART, " Notice historique sur A. L. de Jussieu," 1837; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Jussieu, de, (Bernard,) a celebrated botanist, brother of Antoine, noticed above, was born at Lyons in 1699. After studying in his native city, he accompanied his brother on several scientific tours. On returning to France he entered the medical course at Montpellier, where he graduated in 1720. Six years later he was chosen Doctor of the Faculty of Medicine at Paris. He was the first to conceive the idea of the classification of plants according to their affinities. This method was per- fected by his nephew, the celebrated Antoine Laurent de Jussieu. He was held in high esteem by Louis XV., to whom he gave valuable advice upon the formation of the garden at Trianon. Jussieu visited England, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. Died in 1777. See CoNDOKCET, "£loge de Jussieu;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Jussieu, de, (Joseph,) brother of Antoine and Bernard de Jussieu, was born in Lyons in 1704. In 1735 cornpanied, as a botanist, the French and Spanish savants who had been sent by their respective governments to Peru. He remained in that country and other parts of South America until 1771, and collected valuable infor- mation on natural history. Died at Paris in 1779. Jussieu, de, (Laurent Pierre,) a French moralist and writer, born at Lyons in 1792, was a brother of Alexis, noticed above. He wrote a number of popular educational works, among which are " Simon de Nantua," (1818,) and "Antoine et Maurice," (1821.) His " Post- € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as g, H, k, guttural; N.,, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jE^^See Explanations, p. 23.) JUSSOfF 304 JUSTINIAN humous Works of Simon de Nantua" (1829) obtained the Montyon prize. See QuERARU, " La France Litteraire." Jussow, yoos'so, (Heinrich Christoph,) a German architect, born at Cassel in 1754. He designed a church at Neustadt, a wing of the royal palace of Wilhelmshohe, and the Chinese Gallery at Cassel. Died in 1825. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedle." Jussy, zhii'se', (Jacques Philippe,) a French phy- sician, born at Besan9on about 1716. He introduced a new and successful method of lithotomy. Died in 1798. Just, Saint. See Saint-Just. Juste, zhiist, (Theodore,) a Belgian historian, born at Brussels in 1818. He published, besides other works in flench, a "Popular History of Belgium," (1838,) a " History of the Belgian Revolution of 1790," (3 vols., 1846,) and a " History of the Middle Ages," (5 vols., 1848.) Justel, zhiis't^K, (Christophe,) a French Protestant statesman, and secretary to Henry IV., was born in Paris in 1580. He was distinguished for his knowledge of ecclesiastical history and of canon law, upon which he wrote several books. He also wrote some historical works, among which is a " History of the Family of Turenne," (1645.) Died in 1649. See Sax, " Onomasticon ;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique;" Haag, "La France protestaiite." Justel, (Henri,) a canonist, born in Paris in 1620, was a son of the preceding, whom he succeeded as secretary to the king. He collected an extensive library, especially rich in manuscripts, and was a liberal patron of literary men. For the sake of religious liberty he emigrated to England in i68r, and became librarian to Charles H. He published " Bibliotheca Juris Canonici veteris," (2 vols., 1661.) Died in 1693. See Sax, " Onomasiicon ;" Haag, '"La France protestante ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Geiierale." Justen. See Juttsten. Justi, ydos'tee, (Johann Heinrich Gottlieb,) a German writer on political economy and philosophy, born in Thuringia about the beginning of the eighteenth century. Among his numerous works are a "Treatise on Manufactures and Fabrics," (3 vols., 1758-61,) and "Moral and Philosophical Writings," (2 vols., 1760-61,) both in German. Died at Kiistrin in 1771. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedle." Jus'tin, [Lat. Justi'nus, or Justi'nus Fronti'nus,] a Latin historian of uncertain period, and of whose life nothing is known. He wrote a work entitled " Histo- riarum Philippicarum Libri XLIV.," which, as he informs the reader in his preface, is extracted or abridged from the History of the World written by Trogus Pompeius. As the original work is lost, Justin's history, although it has no great intrinsic merit except an elegant style, supplies much valuable information not found in other histories. The most ancient writer that mentions Justin is Saint Jerome ; and it is supposed that the former lived between 150 and 350 a.d. See D. W. Moi.ler, " Disputatio de Justino," 1684 ; Zembsch, " Jiistinus Trogi Pompeii Epitomator," 1804. Jus'tin or Justi'nus, surnamed the Martyr, one of the earliest and most learned of the Christian fathers, was born of Greek parentage at Neapolis, in Palestine, about 103 A.D. He was educated in the pagan religion and in the philosophy of Plato. About 132 he embraced Christianity. He afterwards rennjved to Rome, where he wrote, in Greek, his first apology for the Christian religion. It was addressed to the em|)eror Antoninus, from whom Justin procured some concessions for the Christians. His other apology was addressed to Marcus Aurelius. He also wrote an account of his discussions with Trypho, a learned Jew, upon the Messiah. He suffered martyrdom at Rome under Marcus Aurehus, for refusing to sacrifice to the heathen gods, about 165. His writings are considered very valuable. See John Kaye, "Life of Justin Martyr," London, 1836; Carl Semisch, "Justin der Martyver," 2 vols., 1840-42: Voi.kmar, ! "Ueber Justin den Martyrer," etc., 1853; Junut.s, " Dissertatlo de Justino Martyre," 1836; Rittkr. "History of Cliristian Philoso- phy;" EusKBius, " Ecclesiastical History;" Nkandkr, " History of the Church ;" Fleury, " Histoire ecclesiastique. " Justin or Justinus I., Emperor of the East, was born a peasant in Dacia in 450 a.d. At an early age he went to Constantinople, where he enlisted in the im- perial guards of Leo I. He distinguished himself by his military abilities, and rose in rank until he was suc- cessively appointed general and commander of the guards. In 518, on the death of the emperor Anasta- sius, Justin was proclaimed his successor by the soldiers and the people. Through his instrumentality the Greek and Roman Churches were reconciled. He is gener;illy regarded as a just prince. Died in 527, soon after re- signing the throne to his nephew Justinian. See Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire;" Zonaras, "Histoiy." Justin or Justinus II. was a nephew of Justinian I., whom he succeeded as Emperor of Constantinople in 565. During his reign the Longobards under Alboin invaded Italy, the northern part of which they wrested from the Eastern Empire, and the Persians made several important conquests in the Asiatic provinces. In 574, perceiving his inability to govern, he resigned in favour of Tiberius, the captain of his guards. Died in 578. See Le Beau, "Histoire du Bas-Empire;" Menander, " His- toriarum Libri VHL," Paris, 1609; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Jus-ti'nsL, [Fr. Justine, zhiis't^n',] Saint, a Chris- tian martyr, who is supposed to have suffered death under Diocletian, (a.d. 304.) She was the patroness of Venice and of Padua. In the latter town a church was built in her honour in the fifth century. See Mrs. Jameson, " History of Sacred and Legendary Art." Jus-tin'i-an or Jus-tin-i-a'nus [Fr. Justinien, zhiis'te'ne-iN'] I., one of the most celebrated of the Em- perors of the East, and nephew of Justin I., was born in Dardania, May 11, 483 a.d. Justin at his coronation in 518 appointed Justinian his colleague, and in 527 invested him with supreme authority. Soon after ascending the throne, Justinian commenced an active persecution against the Arians, Jews, and Pagans. About 532 se- rious revolts occurred, in one of which the church of Saint Sophia and other buildings were destroyed by fire. This sedition, in which thirty thousand insurgents are said to have fallen, was incited by the factions of the circus, and was only quelled by the prompt resolution of Belisarius at the head of the imperial guards. Justinian showed great clemency to those of his rebellious subjects who were made prisoners. He immediately began to repair the damages of the conflagration. The magnificent church of Saint Sophia, which is one of the most remarkable edifices of any age or country, was rebuilt upon the plan furnished by the architect Anthemius. Justinian also exhibited his liberality and architectural skill in the con- struction of temples, convents, roads, bridges, aqueducts, and fortifications in many parts of his vast empire. But by far the greatest work of his reign was the revision of the Roman law and the publication of the Codes, Pan- dects, and Institutions which bear his name, and which were compiled under his supervision by the eminent jurist Tribonian. The "Codes," consisting of twelve books, were completed in 534. The " Digesta" or " Pan- dectae," embracing all that was taken from the decisions, arguments, and expositions of the civilians of Rome, were subsequently issued in fifty books. The " Institutiones" were an abridgment of the first principles of the law for the use of students. Justinian also composed many new laws, mostly in Greek, entitled " Constitutiones No- velise." While he was thus rendering such eminent service to the world by the publication of his Codes and Pandects, his celebrated generals Belisarius and Narses carried the terror of his arms into Persia, Italy, and Africa, and made their master the sovereign of nearly all the territory over which the first Caesars had held dominion. (See Belisarius, and Narses.) Justinian gave liberal encouragement to the industrial arts, and was the first to introduce silk-worms and the manu- facture of silken goods into Europe. He died in 565, after a reign of more than thirty-eight years, and was succeeded by his nephew, Justin II. Justinian, although justly censurable for his occasional intolerance, was dis- tinguished for his general justice and humanity, as well as for his knowledge of theology, philosophy, law, poetry, and architecture, for his administrative powers, and for his exceedingly virtuous and temperate life, — qualities a, e, T, 6, y, long; k, h, 6, same, less prolog oed; e, i, 6, u, y, skort; a, e, i, a, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon ; JUSTINIAN 1305 JUXON which would have j^laccd him in the highest rank as a monarch, even if he had not produced those Codes which have immortalized his name. See Procopius, " Historia sui Temporis," (translated into English by H01.CR0FT, 1653;) LuDEWiG. " Vita Justiniani," 1731 ; Isambert, " Histoirede Justinien," 1856; Cokvinus de Heldern, " Imperator Justinianiis Catliolicus," 1618 : G. Pekrin, "Vita Justiniani," 1576; Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Montesquieu, " Grandeur et Decadence des Romains,'" chap. xx. ; H. Vogel, " Dis- sertaiio de Justiniano," 1672 ; P. Gauuenzio, " Gloria Justiniani Imperatoris vindicata," 1639; " Nouvelle Biographic Geneiale." Justinian [Lat. Justinia'nus] II., son of Constan- tine III., ascended the throne of Constantinople in 685. He gained important advantages over the Saracens, and compelled them to relinquish some of their conquests. Finally, his great cruelties to his subjects, and also, it is said, his intention of burning Constantinople, caused his general Leontius to depose him, to cut off his nose, and to banish him to the Crimea. He subsequently escaped from the Crimea, and married the daughter of a Turkish chief, with whose assistance, and that of the Bulgarians, he regained his crown. He put Leontius, and many others, to horrible deaths. He was preparing to execute further cruelties, when he was killed in 711 by Philip- picus Bardanes, who succeeded him. See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire;" Zonaras, "History;" "Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." Justiniani, See Giustiniani. Justinianus. See Justinian. Justinien. See Justinian. Justinus. See Justin. Jus''tu-lus, (yoos'too-lus,) (PiETRO Francesco,) a Latin poet, and secretary to Caesar Borgia, a native of Italy, lived about 1500. His poems are distinguished for their purity and elegance. Jusuf. See YoosuK. Ju-tur'na, [Fr. Juturne, zhii'tiiRn',] a nymph or goddess of the Roman mythology, was said to be beloved by Jupiter. According to Virgil, she was a sister of Turnus. The water which the Romans used in sacrifices was mostly drawn from the fountain of Juturna. Juturne. See Juturna. Juusten or Justen,yoos'ten, (Paul,) Bishop of Abo, in Finland, was born at Viborg. He was sent in 1569 by John HI. of Sweden as an ambassador to Ivan, Czar of Russia. That monarch, on some false pretence against John, threw Juusten in prison, where he was confined for three years. Died at AIdo in 1575. Juvara, yoo-va'rS, or Ivara, e-vi'rS, (Fii.ippo,) first architect to the Duke of Savoy, was born at Messina, in Italy, in 1685, and educated at Rome under Fontana. He constructed a palace at Messina, and several edifices in Turin. In 1724 he went to Lisbon, where he suj^er- intended the building of the royal palace and other edi- fices, for which he received the order of knighthood and a pension of about thrge thousand dollars. He died in 1735. Madrid. Among his best works are the hunting- palace of Stupinigi, and the Birago di Borgaro palace, both in Turin. See MiLiziA, "Memorie degli Architetti ;" QuATREMfeRE de QuiNCY, "Vies des Architectes celebres;" "Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale." Ju've-nal, [Lat. Juvena'lis ; Fr. Juvenal, zhii'vk'- ntK,] or, more fully, De9'i-mus Ju'ni-us Ju-ve-na'- lis, one of the most celebrated of the Latin satirical poets, is believed to have been born in Aquinum, a Volscian town, about A.D. 40. But few authentic facts have been preserved respecting his history : it is said, however, that he was the son of a wealthy freedman, and that he devoted the early part of his life to the study of rhetoric and declamation. He afterwards became a pleader in the courts of law, where he appears to have been suc- cessful. He was an intimate friend of the poet Martial, who mentions him in two of his epigrams. None of the productions of Juvenal were given to the public until he had passed the age of sixty years. His poems, which he then recited, gained him universal admiration. One of his earliest satires had been written against an actor named Paris, who was a great favourite with the emperor Domitian. It was not published until the reign of Hadrian, who, imagining that it reflected on one of his own favourites, sent Juvenal into an honourable exile by making him the prefect of a legion in Egypt, where he is saicl to have died about A.D. 125. Sixteen of his satires have been preserved. Several translations of them have been made into English, of which the most prominent are those of Dryden and Gifford. In these satires Juvenal severely lashes the prevailing vices cf his time; but it may well be doubted whether his vivid pictures of the licentiousness of that age do not tend to fan those very passions which they seem intended to restrain. He was distinguished for his force of intellect, his flow of language, and his never-failing wit. "Juvenal gives me," says Dryden, "as much pleasure as I can bear. He fully satisfies expectation ; he treats his sub- ject home. . . . When he gives over, 'tis a sign that the subject is exhausted, and that the wit of man can carry it no further," His works, differing equally from the austere moral dialogues of Persius and the genial raillery of Horace, are rhetorical rather than poetical. They are brilliant and sonorous declamations, and master-pieces of denunciation. "Magnificent versification," says Macaulay, "and in- genious combinations rarely harmonize with the expres- sion of deep feeling. In Juvenal and Dryden alone we have the sparkle and the heat together. Those great satirists succeeded in communicating the fervour of their feelings to materials the most incombustible, and kindled the whole mass into a blaze at once dazzling and destruc- tive." (" Essay on Dryden.") Among the best editions of Juvenal is that of Ruperti, (Leipsic, 2 vols., 1801,) to which are prefixed all the ancient documents for the biography of the satirist. See J. V. Francke, " Examen criticum D. J. Juvenalis Vitse," 1820, and " Programma de Vita D. J. Juvenalis Questio altera," 1827 ; Volker, "Juvenal, Lebens- und Charakterbild," 1851 ; Bauer, " Kritlsche Bemerkungen iiber einige Nachrichten aus dem Leben Juvenals," 1833 : Bahr, "Geschichte der Romischen Litteratur." Juvenal, zhiiv^ntK, (Gui Jouvenneaux.zhoo^a^no', or Jouennaux, zhoo'i'no',) a French philologist and ecclesiastic, born about 1460, was educated at Paris. Among his works are "Commentaries on the Comedies of Terence," and "Monastic Reformations Vindicated." Died in 1505. Juvenal des Ursins. See Ursins. Ju-ven'cu.s, (Ca'ius Vec'tius (vgk'she-us) Aquili'- NUS,) one of the earliest Christian poets, was born in Spain about 330 A.D. His principal production is the " Life of Christ," written in Latin poetry and taken lite- rally from the four Evangelists. See A. R. Gerser, "Dissertatio de C. V. A. Juvenci Vita et Scriptis," 1827; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Juvenel, zhuv'nSK, (F^lix,) a French historical writer, born at Pezenas in 1669, published "Principles of His- tory." Died in 1760. Juvigny. See Rigoley de Juvigny. Jux'pn, (William,) Archbishop of Canterbury, born in Chichester in 1582, graduated at Oxford. In 1621 he was appointed president of Saint John's College, and afterwards received various oflices in the Church through the patronage of Archbishop Laud. In 1633 he was successively raised to the sees of Hereford and London. Two years later he was appointed by Charles T. lord high treasurer of England. For about six ye^s he ful- filled the duties of this station with so much justice and ability that, although great hostility was excited that an ecclesiastic should be chosen to that office, no charges were made against his administration. He remained with Charles through his trial, and accom]5*inied him to the scaffold, where he received the dying injunctions of that monarch. On the restoration he was raised to the see of Canterbury. Died in 1663. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Sl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) KJAB 1306 KALCKREUTH K. Kaab, ki'ab, a distinguished Arabian poet, who flour- ished about 650 A.D. He was at first a bitter enemy of Mohammed ; but afterwards, becoming reconciled to him, he wrote a poem, which is regarded as the most beautiful of the eulogiunis addressed to the founder of the Moslem faith. The prophet was so much pleased that he gave Kaab his green mantle. The poem was hung up in the Temple of Mecca. Kaab died in 662 a.d. See D'Herbelot, " Bibliotheque Orientale." Kaas, kas, [Lat. Kaa'sius,] (Nikolaus,) a Danish statesman, born in 1535, and educated in Germany, where he studied theology under Melanchthon. In 1573 he was appointed chancellor of Denmark, and in 1588 be- came first regent of the kingdom during the minority of Christian I. He performed the duties of that office with commendable ability and patriotism. Died in 1594. Kaas actively promoted the cause of education. See HoFMANN, "Portraits historiques des Homines celebres du Danemarck ;" Folder, " Exegesis Virtutum et Reriim gestaruin N. Kaasii," 15S0; P. J. Winstrup, " Ligpraediken over N. Kaas," 1594; J. Calundanus, "Descriptio Vita; N. Kaasii," 1637. Kaasius. See Kaas, Kaau-Boerhaave, kow booR'hi'veh, (Abram,) a Dutch physician, and nephew of Herman Boerhaave, was born at the Hague in 1 7 13, and educated at Leyden. In 1740 he was invited to Saint Petersburg, where he became councillor of state, and in 1748 first physician to the imperial court. Died at Moscow in 1753. Kabbete, kal/beh-teh, (Jan,) a Dutch landscape- painter. Some of his pictures were engraved by Perelle. Died in 1660. Kabel, van der, vSn der ki'bel, (Adriaan,) a Dutch landscape-painter and engraver, born at Riswyckin 1631. His designs were natural and vigorous. Died in 1695. See PiLKiNGTON, " Dictionary of Painters." Kabus or Kabous. See Caboos. Kadlubek, kad-loo'b§k, (Vincent,) sometimes writ- ten Kodlubko or Kalubko, a Polish historian and prelate, was born in Galicia. In 1208 he was raised to the see of Cracow. Died in 1223. He wrote a valuable and accurate history of Poland to the year 1202. See OssoLiNSKi, " V. Kadlubek, ein historisch-kritischer Beitrag," etc., 1822. Kaempfer. See Kampfer. Kaestner. See Kastner. Kager, ka'ger, (Johann Matthias,) a German painter of history, born at Munich in 1566; died at Augsburg in 1634. Kahle, ka^eh, (Ludwig Martin,) a German philos- opher and jurist, born at Magdeburg in 1712. Among his works is " The Balance of Europe," (" De Trutina Europae," 1744.) Died in 1775. Kahler, ka'ler, (Johann,) a German Lutheran divine, born at VVolmar, Hesse-Cassel, in 1649, was a Cartesian in philosophy, and wrote several works. Died in 1727. Kahnis, ka'nis, (Karl Friedrich August,) a Ger- man theologian, born at Greitz in 1814. He studied under Tholuck, and became professor of theology at Leipsic in 1850. He published a valuable work, entitled " Lutheri.sche Dogmatik," (2 vols., 1861-68.) Kaiaiiian or Caianian, ki-a'ne-an, the name of the most celebrated of all the ancient Persian dynasties, so called ixSiW its founder, Kai-Kobad, who, according to the Persian legends, was placed on the throne by the famous hero and conqueror Roostum, (or Rustem.) Of this dynasty, Cyrus the Great (called by the Persians Kai-Khosroo or Kai-Khosrau, Kos-row') was the chief ornament and glory. (See Cyrus.) Darius the Younger, conquered by Alexander the Great, was the last of the Kaianian kings. See Atkinson, " Abridgment of the Shah Nameh of Firdausi," London, 1S32; "A Short History of Persia," in vol. v. of Sir W. Jones's Works. Kai-Kaoos, (-K^us or -Kaous,) kl ka'oos', an an- cient king of Persia, (or Iran,) was the son of Kai-Kobad. His general, the famous Roostum, carried on successful wars against the Kings of TAran. Sir William Jones places the date of this prince's accession at B.C. 610. Kai-Kaoos is said to have founded an observatory in Babylon. He was succeeded by his grandson, Kai-Khos- roo, (Cyrus the Great.) See MiRKHOND, "Raouset;" Atkinson, " Abridgment of the Shah Nameh." Kai-Kaoos, (-Kaus or -Kaous,) kl k^oos', I., seventh Sultan of the dynasty of the Seljookides of Anatolia, succeeded his father, Kai-Khosroo, about A.D. 1210. He was engaged in wars with the Grecian em- peror and several of the neighbouring princes. Died in 12 19, and was succeeded by his brother, Kai-Kobad Ala-ed-Deen, (Ala-eddin.) See Ferishta, "History." Kai-Kaoos (or -Kaus) II., Azzed-ed-Deen, (Az- zed-Eddin,) Sz'zed ed-deen', succeeded his father, Kai-Khosroo II., in the sovereignty of Anatolia, about A.D. 1244. His reign was occupied by long wars with his brother. Kilij-Arslan, and with the Grand Khan of Tartary. Died in 1278. Kai-Khosrau. See Cyrus. Kai-Khosroo (-Khosrou) the Elder. See Cyrus. Kai-Khos'roo^ I., sixth Sultan of the dynasty of the Seljookides, became sovereign of Anatolia A.D. 1192. He was killed in battle in 1210 by Theodore Lascaris, Emperor of Constantinople. Kai-Khosroo II. succeeded his father, Kai-Kobad Ala-ed-Deen, (Ala-eddin,) on the throne of Anatolia in 1237. In 1244 he was defeated by the Tartars, and was compelled to become a tributary to their grand khan. He died the same year. Kai-Khosroo III., twelfth of the dyiiasty of the Seljookides, became Sultan about 1266. Died in 1283. Kaiiasa or Cailasa, kl-ia^sa, called in the common dialect Kailas, Id-las', the name of a very high mountain- peak near the northern extremity of India, supposed to be the favourite abode of Siva and Parvati. (See SiVA.) Kain. See Le Kain. Kaiook, Kaiuk, or Kaiouk, ki-ook', a grandson of Jengis Khan, was proclaimed Grand Khan of Tartary in 1246. This prince granted numerous privileges to the Christians of his dominions. He died in 1248, as he was raising an immense army for the invasion of Europe. Kairis, karris, (Theofhilos,) a Greek ecclesiastic, born in the island of Andros in 1780. In 1839 he was banished by the Synod of Athens to a cloister for having taught deism. He wrote a burlesque on the prayers of the Christian Church. In 1852 he was sent to prison, where he died in 1853. Kaiser, kl'zer, (Friedrich,) a German engraver, born at Ulm in 1775, worked in Vienna. Died in 1819. Ka'kig I., King of Armenia, of the dynasty of Pagrat- ides, succeeded his brother, Sempad II., in 989. Kakig assumed the surname Shahan-Shah, (" King of kings.") In 998 he assisted David, a Georgian prince, to defeat the Mohammedans under Mamloon the Ameer. Died in 1020. Kaia, k^'la, orKai, a .Sanscrit word, signifying "time," [from Zyz/,* to "count" or "reckon,"] and forming one of the many names of the destroying god Siva, (which see.) Kalanaga. See Kaliya. Kalaun or Kalaoun. See Kelaoon. Kalb, de. See De Kalb. Kalckreuth,von, fon k^lk'roit', (Friedrich Adolf,) Count, born at Sangerhausen, in Prussia, in 1737, served in the war of the Bavarian succession, and afterwards in the campaigns of Holland and France. For his gallant defence of Dantzic against the French, in 1807, he was made field-marshal. In July, 1807, he concluded with Talleyrand a treaty of peace between Prussia and France. Died in 1818. See L. G. Michaud, "Notices historiques sur le Marechal Jour- dan et les Generaux Kalckreuth et Kilmaine." * This word is related etymologically to the middle syllable of the Latin " intercrt/aris." denoting the reckoning of a day or space of time between otiier days. The word "kalends" is not improbably from the same root. a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; ^, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, sAor^; a, ?, i, o, obscure; ftr, fill, ftt; met; ndt; good; m Jon; KALDI 1307 KALRAAT Kaldi, kaKdee, (George,) a learned and eloquent Hungarian Jesuit, born in Tirnau about 1572, was pro- fessor of theology at Olmiitz. Died at Presburg in 1634. He translated the Bible into the Hungarian language. Kale. See Kalf. Kalee. See KalI Kalergis, kS-lgR^gis, (Demetrius,) a Greek general and politician, born in Taganrog about 1802. Pie fought for independence against the Turks. About 1843 be- came a general, and governor of Athens. He was min- ister of war for about two years, (1854-56.) Died in 1867. Kalf, kilf, written also Kale, (Wilhelm,) a distin- guished Dutch painter of still life, born in Amsterdam in 1630. He especially excelled in painting fruit, gold and silver vessels, gems, crystals, etc. Died in 1693. Kali or Kalee, kSHee, the feminine of K^la, (a name of Siva,) forming the common appellation of Siva's con- sort in her destroying character. She is often called Maha Kali, (ma-hcV k^'lee,) or the "Great Kali," and Bhadra (b'hiid'ra) Kali, (from Bhadra, one of the many appellations of Siva,) and various other names. She is represented sometimes with four and sometimes with eight hands, and her person is decorated with a necklace of human skulls. Her images are usually painted black or of a dark colour. In her character of Maha Kali she sometimes represents eternity. (See Coleman's "My- thology of the Hindoos," p. 91.) As active or militant virtue, she is called Durga; in her ordinary and more peaceful character she is known as Parvati, {i.e. the "mountain goddess," in allusion to her dwelling on the inaccessible heights of the Plimalayas,) or as Devi, (da'- vee,) which signifies the goddtss'^ par excellence. (See DuRGA, and ParvatI) Kaiidasa, Caiidasa, ka^i-di'sa, or Kalidasas, called "the Shakspeare of India," the most illustrious of Hindoo poets, is supposed to have lived about 50 B.C., under the magnificent reign of Vikramaditya I. He was the author of several dramas, of which the most celebrated, " Sakoontala," (or " Sakontala,") was first made known to the nations of the West through the prose translation of Sir William Jones. The appearance of this remarkable production excited a deep interest and general admiration among the critics of Europe. Of its author, Alexander Humboldt observes, "Tenderness in the expression of feeling, and richness of creative fancy, have assigned to him his lofty place among the poets of all nations." Goethe expresses his admiration in a still higher strain : " Willst du die Bliitbe des friilien, die Friichte des spateren Jahres, Willst du was reizt und entziickt, willst du was sattigt und iialirt, Willst du den Himmel. die Erde, mit eineni Nameii begreifen? Nenn' icli Sakontala dfch, und so ist alles gesagt."* A new translation of Sakoontala, by Monier Williams, the present professor of Sanscrit at Oxford, was pub- lished at Hertford in 1856. In this version the metrical portions of the original play were for the first time rendered into English verse. Besides the drama already referred to, there have come down to us two others by Kalidasa, viz., " Vikrama and Urvasi," which abounds in lyrical beauties, and a comedy entitled "Agnimitra and Malavika." His two epic poems, " Raghuvansa" and "Kumara-Sambhava," possess, with many individual beauties, comparatively little merit, taken as a whole. Among his lyrical poems, " Megha-duta," or the " Cloud- Messenger," is remarkable for its deep feeling and grace- ful delineations of nature. The " Nalodaya," a sort of poetical romance, which, in spite of much that would strike a European reader as ridiculous or absurd, has many charming passages, is also commonly ascribed to Kalidasa. See the notice of Kalidasa prefixed to Professor Williams's translation of " Sakoontala," already referred to ; Wilson's " Indian Theatre," in which there are Englit.h translations of the " Megha- duta" and an analysis of "Agnimitra and Malavika;" also Brock- HAUS, " Conversations-Lexikon." The " Nalodaya" has been trans- lated into English verse by the Rev. W. Yates, Calcutta, 1844. * " Wouldst thou the blossoms of the early, the fruits of the later year, Wouldst thou what charms and enraptures, what satisfies and nour- ishes, [the soul,] Wouldst thou comprehend heaven and earth [in short] under one name ? When I name thee, O Sakoontala, then everything is said." K^liya, k^'li-ya, [from the Sanscrit kdld, " black," and hence "terrible" or "deadly,"] called also K^lan^ga, (k§.'la-n3.''ga,) in the Hindoo mythology, the name of a terrible serpent destroyed by Krishna. As the latter is by some identified with the Apollo of the Greeks, so Kaliya is supposed to be the Python of classic mythology. See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." Kalkar. See Calcar. Kalkar, klKkar, (Christian Andreas Herman,) a Danish theologian, born at Stockholm in 1802. He be- came first minister of the diocese of Seeland in 1843. Among his works is a " Manual of Exegesis," (2 vols., 1836-38.) Kalkbrenner, kSlk'bRln'ner, (Christian,) a Ger- man musician and composer, born at Minden in 1755. He composed dramatic and instrumental music, and became chajDel-master to the queen at Berlin in 1788. Died in Paris in 1806. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Kalkbrenner, (Friedrich,) a German musical com- poser and jiianist, born in Berlin in 1788, was a son of the preceding. He visited Vienna in 1803, where he studied under Albrechtsberger. He settled in Paris in 1824, and, in conjunction with Pleyel, founded one of the most celebrated piano-manufactories of that city. As a musician he holds the first rank, and his numerous com- positions for the piano are highly esteemed. Died in 1849. See L. BoiviN, " Kalkbrenner," Paris, 1842; Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." KaPki, [modern Hindoo pron, kuKki ; from the San- scrit kdl, to "count" or "reckon,"] the only one of the avatars of Vishnu yet to come. Vishnu, mounted on a white horse, with a fljfrning sword in his hand, will bring the present (or Kali) age to an end, to be followed by an era of purity. See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." Kail, kil, (Abraham,) an eminent Danish scholar, born in Jutland in 1743, graduated at the University of Copenhagen, where in 1778 he became professor of the history and mythology of the North. In 1785 he founded a society for the promotion of the study of foreign lite- rature, and in 1808 was appointed historiographer of the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway. Died in 1821. See Erslew, " Forfatter- Lexicon." Kallgreen. See Kellgren. Kailias. See Callias. Kallicrates. See Callicrates. Kallicratidas. See Callicratidas. Kallimachus. See Callimachus. Kallinicus. See Callinicus. Kallinus. See Callinus. Kalliope. See Calliope. Kailippus. See Callippus. Kallisthenes. See Callisthenes. Kallistratus. See Callistratus. Kalliwoda, kSKle-wo'di, (Johann Wenzel,) a noted violinist and composer, born at Prague about 1800. Kalm, kSlm, (Pehr,) a Swedish naturalist, born in 1715. In 1748, under the direction of the Academy of Sciences in Stockholm, he sailed for North America, where he remained about three years, jDrosecuting the study of natural history. On his return to Sweden he published an account of his travels, under the title of "A Voyage to North America," (1753.) The first part of this valuable work relates to Sweden, Norway, and England. He was afterwards elected a member of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, and created knight of the order of Vasa. He wrote several other scientific works. Died in 1779. The genus Kalmia was named in honour of him. See J. L. Odhelius, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver P. Kalm," 1780; Adelung, Supplement to Jocher's " Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexi- kon." Kalo-Joannes. See Calo-Joannes. Kalraat,van, vtn kiKrlt'', (Abram,) a Dutch painter and sculptor, born at Dort in 1643. His paintings are chiefly of flowers and fruits. Died in 1699. Kalraat, van, (Bernard or Barent,) brother of the preceding, born in 1650, studied under Albert Cuyp. He was distinguished for the elegant finish which he € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, H, K, guthiral; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^=See Explanations, p. 23 J KALUBKO 1308 KANE gave to his landscapes. He painted scenes on the Rhine. Died in 172 1. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands/' etc. Kalubko. See Kadlubek. Kalypso. See Calypso. K^iiiadeva, ka'ma-da'va, or K3.niadeo, ka'ma-da'o, [from the Sanscrit kdmd, "desire" or "love," and devd, a "god,"] written also Camadeva, Camadeo, and Camdeo, sometimes called simply Kama or Cama, the god of love of the Hindoos, is said to be the son of Maya, (" Illusion.) He is represented as a beautiful youth, sometimes as riding on a parrot, and sometimes as con- versing with his mother Maya, or his wife Reti, (or Rati,) (i.e. "Affection.") He has a bow made of sugar-cane, (or, according to some authorities, of flowers.) The points of his arrows are tipped with flowers. Vasanta (the " Spring") is said to be his most intimate friend. The most remarkable event in Kamadeva's history is his encounter with Siva. It is related that he once pre- sumed to aim one of his arrows at the destroying deity, who with one glance of his eye reduced the love-god to ashes. Since that catastrophe Kamadeva has ceased to possess any corporeal form ; but his actual power seems thereby to have been increased rather than diminished, as he can now more easily, and with less suspicion, exert his sway over the minds of men. See Moor's " Hindu Pantheon ;" Sir William Jones's Works, vol. vi., (or vol. xiii. of another edition.) Kamadhenu, ki'ma-d'ha'noo, [i.e. "wish-cow," from the Sanscrit kdftid, "desire" or "wish," and dhenii, a "cow,"] in the Hindoo mythology, the name of a won- derful cow, produced by the churning of the ocean, having power to grant to those whom she favoured whatever they might desire. She is also called Surabhi, (soo'- ra-b'hi,) and is in fact a goddess of no mean pretensions, and would appear to occupy nearly the same rank as Vishnu's consort Lakshmi, who also was produced from the churning of the ocean. It is not unusual for the Hindoos, when praying for prosperity or happiness, to say, *' May Lakshmi, who resides among the gods, (or "who reposes on the bosom of Vishnu,") become a boon- granting cow to me." (See LakshmJ, ffnd KOrma.) See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." KamalS. or EZemal^, [modern Hindoo pron. kiim'- a-li'; from kamald, the "lotus," which is in its turn derived from kd7nd, "beauty," "radiance,"] one of the names of Lakshmi, (which see.) Kambyses. See Cambyses. Kamehanieha ( ka-ma-hi'ma-h^') III., King of Hawaii, or the Sandwich Islands, was born about 1817 ; died in 1854. Kanieliameha IV., a son of the preceding, born in 1833, was educated by Protestant missionaries. He visited Europe in 1852, and succeeded his father in 1854. Kamel. See Camelli. Kamenski, ki-men'skee, (Count Michael Fedoro- VITCH,) a Russian, born about 1735, was created field- marshal by the emperor Alexander in 1802. Four years later he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army sent against the French, but was soon after succeeded by Benningsen. He died, or was killed, in 1809. Karnes, Lord. See Home, (Henry.) Kam-Hi. See Khang-Hee. Kampen, van, (Jacob.) See Campen. Kampen, van, vSn kim'pen, (Nicolaas Godfried,) a Dutch historian, born at Haarlem in 1776. In 1829 he was professor of Dutch history and literature in Am- sterdam. Among his works may be mentioned " His- tory of the French Ascendency in Europe," (8 vols., 1815 -23,) and "Geographical and Statistical Account of the Kingdom of the Netherlands," (1827.) Died in 1839. See MuLLER, " Leven van N. Kampen," 1840; Van den Brink, " N. G. van Kampen," etc., 1839. Kampenhausen, kSm^pen-how^zen, (Balthasar,) Baron, born near Riga, in Russia, in 1772, wrote several political and topographical works. Died in 1823. Kampfer or Kaempfer, kSmp'fer, (Engelbrecht,) an eminent German botanist and traveller, was born at Lemgo in 165 1. He studied medicine and the languages. In 1683 he accompanied the Swedish ambassador to Persia. Having passed into the service of the Dutch j East India Company as surgeon, he visited Bengal, Java, Sumatra, and Japan. He returned to Europe in 1693, and published an important work entitled "Amoe- nitates Exoticse," (1712,) which contains the results of his researches in Persia, etc. He also wrote a valuable " History of Japan and Siam," which was published by Sir Hans Sloane in English, (1727.) It was also pub- lished in German in 1777. Died at Lemgo in 17 16. See HiRsCHiNG, " Hislorisch-litcrarisclies Haiidbuch ;" "Nou- velle Biographic Generale." Kamphuizen. See Camphuysen. Kamptz, von, fon kimpts, (Karl Almrecht Chris- TOPH Heinrich,) an able Prussian statesman, born at Mecklenburg in 1769, was successively appointed min- ister of the interior and of the police, and in 1830 min- ister of justice. Died in 1849. He published "Civil Law of the Duchy of Mecklenburg," and "Contributions to Public and International Law." Kanada, (the name of a sage.) See Kasyapa. Kanaris, ki'nS-ris, (Constantine,) a famous naval hero of modern Greece, born in the island of Ipsara about 1790. In 1822 he blew up the Turkish admiral's ship in the channel of Chios, and in 1824 saved the island of Samos by burning a large Turkish frigate and several transport-ships which were destined to attack it. In 1827 he represented Ipsara in the Greek National Con- vention, and in 1848 was appointed minister of the marine and president of the cabinet. He resigned in 1855. See A. SouTZo, " Histoire de la Revolution Grecque." Kandace. See Candace. Kandaules. See Candaules. Kandeh Rao, kSnMeh ri'o, [perhaps from the San- scrit kdndd, a "horse," and rdo, a modern Hindoo word, signifying "prince,"] written also Kandarahu, the name of an avatar of Siva, in which that god is always represented on horseback. (See Siva.) Kandeh Rao is worshipped chiefly among the Mahrattas. See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." Kandjatou. See Kanj^too. Kandler, kSnt^er, (Johann Joachim,) a German artist and modeller in porcelain, born in Saxony in 1706. He worked at Meissen. Died in 1776. Kane, (Ellsha Kent,) M.D., a disdnguished Ameri- can explorer, born in Philadelphia on the 20th of Feb- ruary, 1820. He was the son of Judge John K. Kane. He studied medicine, and graduated in the University of Pennsylvania in 1842, on which occasion he wrote an inaugural thesis on "Kyestein." In 1843 he sailed to China with Commodore Parker, as surgeon or physician to the embassy. He visited India, Ceylon, and the Phil- ippine Isles, and was itnpelled by his adventurous spirit into several perilous enterprises. \w 1845 he made an excursion to the Himalaya Mountains, ascended the Nile to Nubia, and traversed Greece on foot. He re- turned home in 1846. He served in the Mexican war in 1847. I'^ May, 1850, he sailed as surgeon to the expedi- tion which Lieutenant De Haven conducted in search of Sir John Franklin. He published, in 1854, " The United States Grinnell Expedition in Search of Sir John Frank- lin." He commanded a second expedition sent out for the same purpose, and sailed from New York in the Advance in May, 1853. He failed to find any traces of Franklin, returned home in October, 1855, and related the adventures and sufferings of his party in his "Arctic Explorations," (2 vols., 1856.) In this voyage he had discovered the existence of an open Polar sea. He re- ceived a gold medal from the Royal Geographical Society of London. To recruit his failing health, he made a voy- age to England in October, 1856, and jiassed thence to the West Indies. He died at Havana in February, 1857. See William Elder, " Biography of Ellsha Kent Kai;v>," 1858; ScHMUCKEH, " Life otElisha Kent Kane ;" " North British Review" for February, 1857. Kane, (Sir Hobert,) M.D., a distinguished chemist, born in Dublin in 1810. After filling professorships in several scientific societies, he was appointed in 1849 president of Queen's College, Cork, He had previously been knighted by the lord lieutenant. He wrote various works on chemistry, pharmacy, and other sciences. Kane, (Thomas L.,) a general, brother of Dr. E. K. Kane, was born in Philadelphia about 1822. He was sent a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, n, y, shori; a, 9, j, g, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; KANJJTOO 1309 KJO-TSOONG on an important mission to the Mormon insurgents of Utah in 1858. He was wounded in a battle near Har- risonburg, Virginia, in June, 1862. Kanjatoo, Kandjatou, or Kanjatu, kSn-jS-too', fifth Mongol sovereign of the dynasty of jengis Khan, began to reign over Persia A.D. 1291. A conspiracy having been formed against him by his nobles, he was killed in 1295. Kanne, kin'neh, (Johann Arnold,) a learned and eccentric German writer, born at Detmold in 1773, studied philology and theology at Gottingen. In 1818 he became professor of Oriental literature at Erlangen, where he died in 1824. Among his various works we may name "Anthology of Greek Epigrams," ("Florile- gium Epigrammatum Graecorum,") "System of Indian Myths," and "Biblical Researches." Kannegiesser, kSn'neh-gees'ser, (Gottlieb Hein- RiCH,) a German medical writer, born at Gotha in 1712 ; died at Kiel in 1792. Kannegiesser, (Karl Friedrich Ludwig,) a Ger- man scholar, born at Wendemark in 1781, is known for his numerous and excellent translations into German. Among these are the dramas of Beaumont and Fletcher, Dante's "Divine Comedy," extracts from the writings of Byron, Madame de Stael, Mickiewicz, and other cele- brated authors. He also made translations from Horace, Sappho, and Anacreon, and published original dramas entitled "Mirza" and "Dorothea." Kansa. See Krishna. Kant, (Immanuel,) one of the profoundest'metaphy- sicians that have ever lived, the founder of the Critical (popularly called the Transcendental) school of philoso- phy in Germany, was born at Konigsberg, April 26, 1724. His father was a saddler, and is said to have been of Scottish extraction. Both his parents are represented as having been endued with a severe and inflexible vir- tue ; and to the influence of their precept and example must be ascribed, in no small measure, the pure moral character and that profound respect for moral obliga- tion which Kant exhibited through the whole of his life. Having gone through a course at the gymnasium, (the Collegium Fredericianum,) he entered in 1740 the university of his native city. Here he commenced the study of theology, but soon abandoned it for other pur- suits, and devoted his attention to the natural sciences, mathematics, and philosophy. On leaving the university he maintained himself for several years as a private tutor. During this period he published his first work," Thoughts on the True Estimation of the Living Powers," ("Ge- danken von der wahren Schatzung der lebendigen Krafte.") About 1755 he began to give lectures on logic, physics, metaphysics, and mathematics. In 1762 he was offered the professorship of poetry in the Uni- versity of Konigsberg ; but he declined the position, on the ground that he had not the proper qualifications. He had already established his reputation as an original and profound thinker, when at length, in 1770, he was appointed to the chair of logic and metaphysics in the University of Konigsberg. When he entered upon his professorship, he delivered a discourse on the World of the Senses and that of the Understanding, ("De Mundi sensibilis et intelligibilis Forma et Principiis,") containing the germs of the philosophical system which he after- wards developed in his great work entitled " Critique of Pure Reason," (" Kritik der reinen Vernunft,") first published in 1781. He had previously, in his work on " Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens," ("Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Him- mels," 1755,) in which he may be said to have anticipated the discovery of the planet Uranus, given proof of his sagacity in questions relating to physical science. Among bis various other works may be named " Observations upon the Sentiment of the Beautiful and vSublime," (" Beobachtungen iiber das Gefiihl des Schonen und Er- habenen," 1764,) "Critique of Practical Reason," (" Kritik der praktischen Vernunft," 1790,) — that is, reason con- sidered in its application to our moral conduct, — "Cri- tique of the Faculty of Judging," ("Kritik der Urtheils- kraft," 1793,) and his essay "On a Plan for an Everlasting Peace," (^^zimi ewigen Fricden,^'' ) (1795.) Kant died February 12, 1804, having never, it is said, in the whole course of his life travelled above seven miles from hii native city. Although his writings embrace a great va- riety of subjects, his fame rests chiefly upon his achieve- ments as a metaphysician. As a deep and close thinker he has jDerhaps never been equalled.* Our limits will not permit us to give even an outline of the Kantian system of philosophy, which could only be rendered intelligible in an extensive treatise. It will be sufficient here to observe that Kant's great aim was to determine the laws and limits of the intellect of man, and thus to guard, on the one hand, against the arrogant dogmatism of those who overestimate, and, on the other, against the absurd skepticism of those who underestimate, the powers of the human mind. He does not pretend to have made any important discoveries respecting ques- tions which belong properly to religion, (such, for ex- ample, as the immortality of the soul, the moral attributes of the Deity, etc.,) but he claims that the great points of faith are not only undisturbed by his system, but are rendered more secure against the attacks of those who use their reputation for philosophic insight to give weight to arguments against religion, in questions where, from the necessary laws of the human intellect, the profoundest philosopher can know no more than the great mass of mankind. "Only by this means," [i.e. by a critique determining the laws and limits of the human reason,) says he, " can the roots of materialism, fatalism, atheism, . . . be cut off;" and he proposes in this manner "to make an end for all future time of all objections against morality and religion, by presenting the clearest proofs of the ignorance of their assailants." It is claimed by some of the admirers of Kant (indeed, he himself sug- gested the parallel) that he performed for mental phi- losophy a service similar to that which his countryman Copernicus performed for astronomy. As the latter may be said to have determined the relative importance as well as the true position of the earth in the solar system, so the former has determined the proper limits and true position of the human intellect in relation to the objects of knowledge ; and as Copernicus has demonstrated that many of the apparent motions of the heavenly bodies are not real, but caused by the motion of the earth, (the standpoint of the observer,) so Kant has shown that many mental phenomena are to be explained, not by referring them, as most philosophers have done, to in- dependent external causes, but to those essential laws which regulate the movements of the mind itself For an excellent popular notice of the influence exerted by Kant's philosophy, the reader is referred to De Quin- cey's chapter on German Literature in the volume of his works entitled "Life and Manners." He will also find many interesting observations on Kant and his writings in Madame de Stael's "Germany," Part III. chap. vi. See, also, F. Bouterwek, "L Kant, ein Denkmal," 1804; F. W. ScHUiiKRT, "I. Kant's Biographic," etc., 1842; Jachmann, "I. Kant, geschildert in Briefen," etc., 1804; Borow.ski, " Darstelliing des Lebens und Characters L Kant's," 1804; F. T. Rinck, "An- sichten aiis L Kant's Leben," 1805; Amand Sainte.s, " Histoire de la Vie et de la Philosophic dc Kant," 1844 ; J. Wii.i.m, " Histoire de la Philosophie Allemande depuis Kant jusqu'a Hegel," Paris, 4 vols., 1846 ; M. V. C0U.SIN, " Kant dans les dernieres Annees de sa Vie," 1857; Hasse, " Letzte Aeiisscrungen Kant's," 1804; Wasi- ANSKi, " Immanuel Kant," etc., 1804; F. Hoefer, article in the "Nouvelle liiographie Generale;" Hedge, "Prose Writers of Ger- many ;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1827, (by De Quin- CEY,) and August, 1830; "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1803. Kantaciizenus. See Cantacuzenus. Kantemir. See Cantemir. Kao-Tsoo or Kao-Tsou, kS'o tsoo, the name of several emperors of China, of whom one reigned in the seventh and two others in the tenth century. Kao-Tsoong or Kao-Tsoung (kJ'o tsoong) I., of the dynasty of Tang, succeeded his father, Thai-Tsoung, on the imperial throne of China about 648 a.d. He was a wise and just ruler, and enacted many good laws. He reduced the Khan of the Turks to complete subjec- tion. Died in 684. See Mailla, "Histoire generale de la Chine;" Pauthier, " Chine ancienne." * M. Stapfer, author of the article on Kant in the " Biographie Universelle," calls him "the most profound thinker with whom the history of the human mind has made us acquainted," ("le penseur le plus profond que nous fasse connaitre I'histoire de I'esprit hu- niain.") € as c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, gtittural ; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^I^^See Explanations, p. 23.) KAO~TSOO-OOTEE KARSTEN Kao-Tsoo-Ootee or Kao-Tsou-Outi, kd'o-tsoo'oo'- tee, called also Soong-Ootee or Soung-Outi, soong- oo'te, Emperor of China, and founder of the dynasty of Soong, was born about a.d. 355. By his intrigues and military skill he reduced many of the rival chiefs to subjection, and, after putting the emperor and his son to death, ascended the imperial throne. Died in 422. Kap''i-la or Capila, [Hindoo pron. kiip'i-la,] an In- dian philosopher, regarded as an avatar f)f Siva, was the founder of a celebrated sect named Sankhya, and of a philosophic system called the Sankhya philosophy, supposed to have been the germ or commencement of Booddhism. The Saiikhya philosophy was a system of rationalism pushed to the borders of atheism. (See Vasudeva.) See " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale," under " Capila." Kapnist, k^p'nist, (Vasili Vasilievitch,) a cele- brated lyric poet and dramatist, born in Russia in 1756. His translation of the Odes of Horace first fixed his reputation as a man of letters. He was an intimate friend of the poet Derzhavin, and a member of the Im- perial Academy of Saint Petersburg. Among his works are the comedy of " labeda," and an "Essay upon the Odyssey." Died in 1813. Kapodistria. See Capo d'Istrias. Kara-George. See Czerni-George. Kara-Moustapha. See Cara-Mustafa. Kara-Yusuf. See Cara-Yoosef. Karajitch, Karadjitch, or Karadschitscli, kl-r§.'- jitsh, a learned Servian, was born near Losnitza in 1787. Having fled to Vienna in 1813 to escape the cruelties of the Turks, his attention was turned to the national ballad-poetry of his country, said to exceed in richness and extent that of almost every other nation. His collection was issued in Vienna in 1814, under the title of "Servian National Songs." He published a Servian Grammar, a Servian-and-German Dictionary, and various other works. See BowRiNG, " Servian Poetry;" Jungmann, "History of Bo- hemian Literature." Karamzin or Karamsin, kS-rSm-zeen' or k^-rSm- zin', (Nikolai Mikhaelovitch,) one of the most emi- nent of Russian historians, was born in the province of Orenburg in December, 1765, and was educated in Mos- cow. In 1789 he commenced a tour through England, France, Switzerland, and other countries of Europe. On his return he published " Letters of a Travelling Rus- sian." He afterwards issued various literary productions, which were written in a finished and elegant style. He was one of the editors of the " European Messenger," a literary journal. In 1803 he was appointed historiogra- pher of Russia, and the same vear commenced his great work, the " History of the Russian Empire," (11 vols., 1815-24.) He did not live to finish the work, which ends about the year 1610. No work in the Russian language has obtained greater popularity. The first edition, of eight volumes, brought the author 100,000 rubles. The emperor Alexander created him councillor of state and knight of the order of Saint Anne ; and after the death of the historian his widow received from the same monarch an annual pension of 50,000 rubles. " The History of the Russian Empire" has been translated into French, German, and Polish. Died in May, 1826. See Depping, notice of Karamzin in the " Revue Encyclopedique ;" Prince A. (talitzin. article in the " Nouvelle Biograpliie Gene- rale j" " British and Foreisju Review" for September, 1828 ; " Monthly Review," vol. xci., 1820, (Appendix;) " Foreign Quarterly Review" for September, 1828. Karburis. See Carburls. Karim or Kareem. See Kereem, Karl, (Friedrich August,) Duke of Mecklenburg- Strelitz, born at Hanover in 1785. Having distinguished himself in several actions against the French, he was ap- pointed lieutenant-general by the King of Prussia in 1813. He entered Paris at the head of the royal guard in 181 5. In 1825 he became a general of infantry and president of the council of state. Died in 1837. Karl Albrecht, Elector of Bavaria. See Charles VII., Emperor. Karl Alexander, Dukeof Wurtemberg, born in 1684, was the successor of Ludwig Eberhard. He was an ally of the emperor Leopold in the war of the Spanish succession. He distinguished himself at the battle of Turin in 1706, defended Landau against Marshal Villars in 1713, and obtained the rank of field-marshal. Died in 1737. Karl der Fiinfte. See Charles V. Karl der Grosse. See Charlemagne. Karl Eugen, (oi-gan',) or Charles Eugene, a snn of Karl Alexander, noticed above, was born in 1728, and became Duke of Wiirtemberg in 1737. He i)ro- moted commerce, arts, and agriculture, and founded the university called Carolina, at Stuttgart. Died in 1793. Karloman. See CARLOfL-xN. Karlstadt. See CARLsrADr. Karmarsch, kaR'maRsh, (Karl,) a German savant, and director of the Polytechnic School at Hanover, born at Vienna in 1803. He wrote " First Sketches of Me- chanical Technology," and other scientific works. Karmat, Karmath, Carmath, kak'niSt, or Kar- mathi, kaR'mS-tee, called also Hamdan, ham-dan', the founder of a fanatical and numerous sect which made great ravages in the Arabian empire in the ninth cen- tury. He attempted to establish a community of property, and taught a contempt for religion and morality. His followers were called Karmatians (Carmatians) or Kar- mattians. Died about 900 A.D. See D'Herbelot, " Biblioth^que Orientale." Karneades. See Carneaues. Karnkowski, kaRn-kov'skee, written also Karn- cov, kaRn'kov, or Karnowski, (Stanislas,) a distin- guished prelate, born in Poland about 1525. In 1581 he was created Archbishop of Gnesen and Primate of Poland. He was a liberal patron of learning, and a successful promoter of reforms among the priests. He wrote a " History of the Interregnum in Poland," and several other works. Died in 1603. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Karoly, ki'rol, written also Karoli, (Jasper,) a Protestant minister, who lived in Hungary about 1580, He was distinguished for his knowledge of philosophy, theology, and philology. He produced a valuable trans- lation of the Bible from the original Hebrew into the Hungarian, (1589.) Karpinski, kaR-pin'skee or kaR-pin'skee, (Francis,) a Polish poet, born in Galicia about 1760. He wrote a tragedy entitled "Judyta," and a number of popular songs and idyls. Died in 1823. Karpinski, kar-p^n'skee, (Hyacinth,) a Russian theological writer, born in Ukraine in 1721; died in Moscow in 1798. Karpocrates. See Carpocrates. Karr, ktR, (Jean Baptiste Alphonse,) a popular French novelist, born at Munich in 1808, was a son of Henri Karr, a pianist. He produced in 1832 a novel entitled " Sous les Tilleuls," in which the public admired the mixture of irony and sentiment, of fancy and good sense. About 1837 he became editor of the "Figaro," and of a satirical monthly periodical called "The Wasps," (" Les Guepes.") Among his numerous novels are " Fa dieze," (1834,) " Vendredi Soir," (1835,) and "La Famille Alain," (1848.) He also wrote an ingenious work on flowers and gardens, "Voyage autour de mon Jardin," (2 vols., 1845.) See "Revue des Deux Mondes," February, 1842; Clement dk Ris, " Portraits k la Plume," 1853 ; " Eraser's Masiazine" for May, 1851, and February, 1854; "Blackwood's Magazine" for Jul^', 1852; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Karsch, kaRsh, or Karschin, kaRsh'in, (Anna IvUiSE,) a German poetess, whose original name was DuRBACH, was born near Schwiebus in 1722. After living a long time in poverty and obscurity, she visited Berlin, where she was patronized by Gleim and Men- delssohn. Her "Select Poems," published in 1764, were very favourably received, and procured for her the title of "the German Sappho." Died in 1791. See L. VON Ki.euke, " Lebenslauf der Karschin," 1792; Hir- SCHING, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." Karsten, kaR'sten, (Dietrich Ludwig Gustav,) a German mineralogist, born at Biitzow in 1768. He wrote many able treatises on mineralogy. Died in 1810. See Leopold VON Buch, " Lobrede auf Karsten," in the "Ab- handlungen der Berliner Akademie," 1814; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sAorf; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fSlI, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; KARSTEN KAV LEACH Karsten, (Franz Christian Lorenz,) a German agriculturist and writer, an uncle of the preceding, was born at Biitzow in 1751 ; died in 1829. Karsten, (Karl Johann Bernhard,) an eminent Prussian mineralogist, son of the preceding, was born at Biitzow in 1782. He was appointed privy councillor of mines in the ministry of the interior in 1819. He pub- lished a treatise " On the Carbonaceous Substances of the Mineral Kingdom," (1826,) a " System of Metallurgy," (5 vols., 1832,) a "Philosophy of Chemistry," (1843,) other important works. In his peculiar department of science Karsten occupied the highest rank. Died in 1853. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." K^rtikiya, kaR-tT-ka'ya. written less correctly Car- ticeya or Cartikiya, otherwise named Skan'da, a son of Siva and Parvati, and brother of Ganesa, is the Hindoo god of war and commander of the celestial armies. He is sometimes called Agnibhus or Agnibhu'va, ("born of Agni" or Fire,) Srimana, and many other names. One of his greatest exploits was the destruction of the mighty giant Tripurasura, who had acquired such power that Indra and the other gods trembled for their dominion. See Moor's " Hindu Pantheon." Kartikiya. See Kartikeya. Kashyapa. See Kasyapa. Kassiopeia. See Cassiopeia. Kastner or Kaestner, k§st'ner, (Abraham Gott- HELF,) an eminent German mathematician, astronomer, and poet, born at Leipsic in September, 1719. He be- came assistant professor of mathematics at Leipsic in 1746, and obtained the chair of mathematics and physics at Gottingen in 1756. In 1762 he succeeded Tobias Mayer as director of the Observatory at Gottingen. He wrote, besides numerous works on mathematics and astronomy, and witty epigrams, a " History of Mathe- matics from the Revival of Science to the End of the Eighteenth Century," (in German, 4 vols., 1 796-1800.) Died in June, 1800. See "Vita Kaestneri," by himself, Leipsic, 1787; Kirsten, "De A. G. Kscstnero," 1787; C. G. Heyne, " Elogium Kjestneri," 1801 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Geiierale." Kastner, kist'ner, (Karl Wilhelm Gottloe,) a German physician and naturalist, born at Greifenberg, in Pomerania, in 1783. In 1821 he was professor of chemistry and medicine at Erlangen. He wrote, among other treatises, " Outlines of Physics and Chemistry," (1821,) and a "Manual of Meteorology," (3 vols., 1823- 30.) Died in 1857. Kas'ya-pa or Casyapa, (modern Hindoo pron. kiis'ya-pa,) [etymology obscure ; perhaps from the San- scrit kas or ka^, to "shine,"] written also Kashyapa and Ka9yapa, in the Hindoo mythology, the name of a celebrated sage (Rishi) or demi-god, the father (by Aditi) of the Suras, including Indra, and (by Diti) of the Asuras, or giants. See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon;" Monier Williams, "Transla- tion of Sakoontala," (by Kalidasa.) Kasyapa, kis'ya-pa, called also Kan'a-da, a cele- brated Hindoo sage or philosopher, was a son of the preceding. Kate, Ten, tgn ki'teh, (Lambert,) a Dutch clergyman, who lived about 1720. He is known for his valuable grammar of the Dutch language, (Amsterdam, 1723.) He also wrote "On the Connection between the Gothic and Dutch Languages," and a "Life of Jesus Christ." See Sax, "Onomasticon." Ka'ter, (Henry,) F.R.S., a skilful mathematician, born in Bristol, England, in 1777, was educated in the Royal Military College in Sandhurst. He was distin- guished for his investigations of the princi])les of reflect- ing telescopes ; for his experiments to determine the exact length of the seconds-pendulum ; for his important advice and improvements on measures and weights ; and especially for his invention of the floating collimator, an instrument for adjusting the telescope. In 1814, when the emperor Alexander of Russia visited England, Kater was decorated by him with the order of Saint Anne. He wrote several mathematical treatises. Died in 1835. Katona,k6t'o-n6h, (Stephen,) an eminent Hungarian scholar and historian, was born at Papa in 1732, and became a Jesuit at the age of eighteen. He afterwards filled the chairs of poetry, rhetoric, and history in the University of Buda. Died in 181 1. His chief produc- tion is a History of Hungary, written in Latin, (" Historia critica Regum Stirpis Austriacae," 41 vols., 1795 et seq.) This is regarded as the most valuable and accurate work upon the subject. It closes with the year 1801. Katona was also the author of several other historical works, in the Latin and Hungarian languages. See G. Fejer, " Memoria S. Katonag," 1812. Katt, von, fon kit, a Prussian officer, born in 1681, was an intimate friend of Prince Frederick, afterwards Frederick the Great. For having aided him in his attempt to escape to England, Katt was executed before the prison-windows of the prince. Kauer, kow'er, (Ferdinand,) a German musical com- poser, born in Moravia in 1751. His works, amounting in all to nearly two hundred, consist of church music, operas, symphonies, concertos, etc. Died in 1831. Kauffmann, kowf min, ( Maria Angelica, ) the daughter of a portrait-painter, was born at Coire, in Switzerland, about 1 741. After studying painting in Italy, she went under the patronage of Lady Wentworth to England, where in a short time she gained consider- able celebrity in her art. Her popularity was probably as much due to her accomplished manners and her supe- rior education as to any excellence which she possessed as an artist. In 1781 she was married to Antonio Zucchi, a Venetian painter, whom she accompanied to Italy in the following year. She still retained her maiden name of Kauffmann. Died at Rome in 1807. See G. DE Rossi, "Vita di Angelica Kauffmann," 1810 ; A. Fr. Leon de Waillv, "Angelica Kauffmann," Paris, 2 vols., 1838; KoNijNENBURG, " Kunstvevdiensten van A. Kauffmann en Raphael," 1810; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Kaufmann, kowf min, (Johann Gottfried,) a Ger- man mechanician, born at Chemnitz, in Saxony, in 1752, was the inventor of several very ingenious instruments, among which was a flute- and harp-clock, (/■7f/^'«- z/W Harfeniihr,) which was purchased by the Elector Fred- erick Augustus. His son Frederick, born in 1782, invented the automaton trumpeter and other similar works. Died in 1818. Kaulbach, kowKb^K, (Wilhelm,) one of the most eminent painters of recent times, was born in the princi- pality of Waldeck, Germany, in 1805. Though destined by his father to be an artist, he showed little inclination for painting, until a collection of engravings illustrating Schiller's tragedies fell into his hands and gave the first impulse to his genius. He began his studies under Cornelius at the Academy of Dusseldorf about 1822, and in 1829 finished his picture of the " Mad-House," (" Irren- haus,") a work displaying such originality and power as entitled him at once to a place among great painters. About this time he executed the frescos of " Apollo and the Muses," in the Odeon, and " Cupid and Psyche," in the palace of Duke Max, at Munich. In 1837 he com- pleted his " Battle of the Huns," founded on the tradition of the combat before the gates of Rome, between the Romans and the spirits of the Huns who were slain, which, rising in the air, continued the fight. This won- derful production, so strange and unique in its character, was received with general applause, and is justly re- garded as a miracle of art. His second great historical piece, "The Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus," was finished in 1838; and a copy of it, executed in oil at the request of King Louis of Bavaria, occupies a conspicuous place in the Pinakothek. Kaulbach also illustrated, somewhat in the style of Hogarth, Schiller's " Criminal from Lost Honour," Goethe's " Faust," and " Renard the Fox," (" Reineke Fuchs :") the last displays exquisite humour. Besides the above-mentioned works, he hts painted a number of portraits, and furnished illustrations for Shakspeare and other poets. Kaulbach excels in the highest qualities of his art, and has been eminently suc- cessful in blending in his style the ideal and symbolic with the real. He is director of the Academy of Arts at Munich, and is a member of nearly all the similar institu- tions of Europe. See A. Raczinski, " Histoire de I'Art moderne en Allemagne ;" H. FoRTouL, "De I'Art en Allemagne;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, Yi, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) KAUNITZ 1312 KEANE Kaunitz, von, fon kow'nits, (Wenzel Anton,) Prince, a celebrated Austrian statesman and diploma- tist, born at Vienna in February, 1711. After travelling in England, France, and Italy, he was appointed by the emperor Charles VI. aulic councillor, (1735.) On the accession of Maria Theresa he was made in 1745 minis- ter-plenipotentiary to Charles of Lorraine, Governor of the Netherlands. In 1748 he was a member of the Peace Congress at Aix-la-Chapelle, and was soon after created minister of state and knight of the Golden Fleece. Having been sent as ambassador to France in 1750, he negotiated the secret alliance between that country and Austria. He was soon after appointed chancellor of state and chancellor of Italy and the Netherlands. He enjoyed the unbounded confidence of the empress, to whose service he was devoted, and the principal measures of her government are to be ascribed to his influence. He acted a prominent part in the ecclesiastical reforms of Joseph II. The court of Rome, offended by these innovations, called Kaunitz "the heretical minister," ("il ministro eretico.") For a long time he was consid- ered as the oracle of diplomacy, and exercised such an influence over the direction of affairs that he was jest- ingly called "The Coachman of Europe." Kaunitz was a generous patron of learning and the arts, and was himself an accomplished scholar. Died in 1794. See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XV;" Grimm, " Correspon- dance;" Obermayer, "Trailer am Grabe des W. A. Fiirsten von Kaunitz," 1794; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Kausler, von, fon kows'ler, (Franz,) a German officer and military writer, born at Stuttgart in 1794, served in the campaigns against the French from 181 2 to 1815. He published a "History of the Wars of all Nations and Tin>es," (5 vols,, 1826-32,) and a "Life of Prince Eugene of Savoy," (2 vols., 1839.) Died in 1848. Kavanagh, ktv'a-nSH, (Julia,) a distinguished writer of tales and romances, born in the county of Tippe- rary, Ireland, in 1824. In 1848 she published "Made- leine," a tale from real life, which was very successful, and her romance of " Nathalie" (1851) was still more admired. She also wrote a biographical work entitled " W^oman in France during the Eighteenth Century," (2 vols., 1850.) Her writings are remarkable for their beautiful delineation of character and graceful simplicity of style. See "London Quarterly Review" for March, 1851. Kay, (John,) an English poet, was the first that re- ceived in England the title of poet-laureate. He flourished about 1480. Kay, (John,) a miniature-painter and engraver, born near Dalkeith, in Scotland, in 1742. For several years he gained a livelihood as a barber in Edinburgh ; but, having exhibited a talent for sketching, he was assisted by a wealthy gentleman, that he might devote himself entirely to art. His paintings were distinguished for their correct and exact likeness to the original. He etched about nine hundred plates, which contained por- traits of the distinguished or eccentric personages of Edinburgh at that date. These were published, under the title of " Kay's Edinburgh Portraits." Died in 1826. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Kay or Key, kl, (Willem,) a Flemish historical painter, born in Breda in 1520. Of his most admired productions we may mention a portrait of Cardinal Granvelle, and a large painting in which the chief magis- trates of Antwerp were introduced of the size of life. Died in 1568. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Kay-Shuttleworth,sluit'tel-worth,(Sir James Phil- UPS,) an English lawyer, born in 1804. He is noted for his activity in advancmg the interests of public schools. For several years he held the office of secretary to the committee of the privy council on education. Kaye. See Caius. Kaye, ka, (John,) an English ecclesiastic, born in 1783, became Bishop of Lincoln about 1827. Died in 1853. Kaye, (John William,) an English historical writer, born in London about 1814. He pulilished, besides other works, a " History of the War in Affghanistan," (1851,) a " Life of Sir John Malcolm," (1856,) and a " History of the Sepoy War," (1866.) Kazinczy, koz'int-se, (Francis,) a Hungarian noble- man, distinguished for his contributions to the litera- ture of his country, was born at Er-Semlyn in 1759. He devoted his attention to the restoration of the Hungarian language, which the emperor Joseph H. was attempting to extirpate. This dialect had then partially fallen into disuse, and many terms to express modern -significations were required to be added in order to give it a reasonable degree of completeness. To effect this, Kazinczy translated numerous works from the French, (ierman, and English, adding words where the original Hungarian was deficient. In this undertaking he appears to have been eminently successful. In 1788 he established the first Hungarian magazine, entitled " Magyar Mu- zeum," and two years later commenced the "Orpheus." In 1794 he was arrested on a charge of conspiracy and condemned to death. This sentence, however, was com- muted to imprisonment, and after the expiration of about six years he regained his liberty. He wrote various poems, and several works in prose. Died of cholera in 1831. Kazwyny, (Zacharia Ben Mohammed.) See Caz- weenee. Keach, keech, (Benjamin,) an English Baptist min- ister, born in Buckinghamshire in 1640. After the resto- ration he was bitterly persecuted on account of the principles which he had advanced in his writings. He preached some years in London after 1668. The most important of his works are the " Key to open Scripture Metaphors," (1682,) and "Exposition of the Parables," (1704.) He also wrote two works in imitation of Bunyan, viz., "Travels of True Godliness," and "Travels of Un- godliness." Died in 1704. See Crosby, "History of the Baptists." Kean, (Charles J.,) a distinguished actor, the son of Edmund Kean, was born in Waterford, Ireland, in 181 1, and studied at Eton. He made several visits to America, the last of which was in 1866. About 1846 he became the manager of the Princess's Theatre, London, to the popularity of which he contributed greatly by the introduction of the most admirable machinery, such as had never before been exhibited to the British public. He was also employed to suj^erintend the royal theatri- cals at Windsor Castle. Died in 1868. Kean, (Edmund,) a celebrated tragedian, born in London about 1787. He was the son of an actress named Ann Carey, and, while very young, was brought upon the stage to play those parts in which children were represented. In this capacity he performed before George HI. at Windsor Castle, greatly to the satisfaction of that monarch. In 181 4 he first aj^peared at Drury Lane Theatre, in the character of " Shylock," with such distinguished success that he not only fully established his own fame, but also retrieved the declining popularity of the theatre. He afterwards visited America, where he remained two years. Died in 1833. As a tragedian Kean is considered not inferior to any one that has ap- peared on the English stage. His remarkable success was owing to his great application in the study of his characters and the intensity of passion which he threw into them. He especially excelled in his representations of "Shylock," "Othello," and "Richard IIL" See Procter, "Life of E. Kean," 1835; F. W. Hawkins, "Life of Edmund Kean;" Oxberrv, "Dramatic Biography;" " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1835. Keane, keen, (John,) Lord, a celebrated British general, was born at Belmont, in the county of Water- ford, in 1 781. He entered the army at the age of thirteen. In 1799 he was promoted to the grade of captain, and was appointed aide-de-camp to Earl Cavan in Egypt. In 1812 he served as colonel in Sj^ain under Sir Arthur Wellesley, afterwards Duke of Wellington, and was present at the engagements of Vitoria, Toulouse, and other important battles. He was subsequently sent to America, where, with the rank of major-general, he took part in the battle of New Orleans, January, 181 5. In 1833 he was appointed commander of the forces of Bombay, and in 1838 became general-in-chief of the British army sent against the Afghans. In 1839 he be- sieged the fortress of Ghuznee, which had been regarded as impregnable, and which was garrisoned with 3500 a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon ; KEARNEY KEFERSTEIN men, well supplied with all the munitions of war. The place was, however, taken by assault in forty-eight hours, with a loss of only two hundred on the side of the British. For this victory General Keane was raised to the peerage, with the title of Baron Keane of Ghuznee. Died in 1S44. Kearney or Kearny, kar'ne, (Philip,) an able American general, born in the city of New York in June, 1815. He was sent to Europe by the government to study the French cavalry tactics about 1838. He ob- tained the rank of captain in 1846, served in the Mexican war., and lost his left arm near Mexico in 1847. Having resigned his commission in 1851, he passed several years in Europe, and served in the French army at Solferino, (1859.) He became a brigadier-general of the Union army in 1861. He commanded a division at the battles of Williamsburg, May 5, Fair Oaks, May 31, White Oak Swamp, June 30, and Malvern Hill, July i, 1862. In the month last named he was raised to the rank of major-general. He was killed at the battle of Chantilly, September i, 1862. Kearny, (Stephen Watts,) a major-general in the United States army, an uncle of the preceding, was born in Newark, New Jersey, in 1794. He entered the army as lieutenant in 1812, and distinguished himself at the battle of Queenstown. Promoted to the rank of briga- dier-general on the breaking out of the Mexican war in 1846, he marched westward from the Arkansas, con- quered New Mexico, and established a provisional gov- ernment at Santa Fe. He was brevetted major-general for his gallantry at the battle of San Pasqual, December 3, 1846. In the following spring he was for some time Governor of California. Died in 1848. Keate, keet, (George,) F.R.S., an English author, born in Wiltshire in 1729. During his travels on the continent he made the acquaintance of Voltaire, with whom he was a correspondent for a long time. Of his works we may mention the poems of'Ancient and Modern Rome," (1760,) and " The Alps," (1763.) He compiled an account of the " Pelew Islands" (1788) from manuscripts placed in his hands by Captain Wilson. Died in 1797. Keat'ing, (Geoffrey,) D.D., a Catholic priest and historical writer, was born in Tipperary, Ireland, about 1600. His chief production is a "History of Ireland from the Time that it was Planted after the Flood until the Seventeenth Year of the Reign of Henry II." This work, which is replete with fables and traditions, was translated from the Irish by Dermot O'Connor, and published in London, in 1738. Keats, (John,) a celebrated English poet, born in London in 1795 or 1796, and educated in the classics at i Enfield. He published his first poems in 181 7, at the j recommendation of Leigh Hunt. His " Endymion," } which appeared soon after, was severely criticised by ! GifTord in the " Quarterly Review." As Keats was of a I very sensitive disposition, it is supposed that this criti- | cism aggravated the disease under which he was suffer- : ing. He died in 1821 at Rome, whither he had gone to 1 reside on account of his health. The poetry of Keats, | though exhibiting a vivid perception of the beautiful, and I great powers of fancy, is deficient in intensity and force ; I and his celebrity is perhaps to be attributed' as much to ' the circumstances attending his early death as to his poetical abilities. Besides the "Endymion," we may mention, as among the most important of his works, "Hyperion," "Lamia," and "Isabella." "We had never happened," says Lord Jeffrey, "to 5ee either of these volumes ["Endymion" and "The Eve of Saint Agnes"] till very lately, and have been exceedingly struck with the genius they display, and the spirit of poetry which breathes through all theiV extrava- gance. . . . Mr. Keats, we understand, is still a very young man ; and his whole works, indeed, bear evidence enough of the fact. They are full of extravagance and irregularity, rash attempts at originality, interminable wanderings, and excessive obscurity. They manifestly require, therefore, all the indulgence that can be claimed for a first attempt ; — but we think it no less plain that they deserve it; for they are flushed all over with the rich lights of fancy, and so coloured and bestrewn with the flowers of poetry, that, even while perplexed and be- wildered in their labyrinths, it is impossible to resist the intoxication of their sweetness, or to shut our hearts to the enchantments they so lavishly present." ("Edin- burgh Review" for August, 1820.) See Richard Monckton Milnes, "Life, Letters, and Literary Remains of John Keats," 2 vols., 1848; "'London Quarterly Re- view" for April, 1818; "Westminster Review" for January, 1S49; "Atlantic Monthly" for Januaiy, 1861 ; " Monthly Review" tor July, 1820. Keats, (Sir Richard Goodwin,) an English admiral, born in Hampshire in 1757. In 1778 he was promoted to a lieutenancy in the ninety-eight-gun ship Prince Gecjrge, where the Duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.) was placed under his command. He served with dis- tinction against the Americans and the French. In 1782 he received a commander's commission, and in 1807 became rear-admiral. Died in 1834. Keble, kee'bel or kee'b'l, (John,) an English divine and poet of high reputation, was born at Fairford, iii Glou- cestershire, on the 25th of April, 1792. He was educated at Oxford, elected a Fellow of Oriel College about 1810, and ordained a priest in 1816, soon after which date he left the university. For twenty ensuing years he was employed as his father's curate at Fairford. He was an intimate friend of John Henry Newman, and one of the leaders of the Tractarian movement in favour of High- Church doctrines, or Puseyism. According to Dr. New- man, Keble was the primary author of this movement. In 1827 he published "The Christian Year: Thoughts in Verse for the Sundays and Holidays throughout the Year," which obtained almost unbounded popularity, and passed through fifty editions or more. He was appointed professor of poetry at Oxford in 1833, and became vicar of Hursley in 1835. About this time he married Charlotte Clarke. He contributed to the " Tracts for the Times," (1834-36,) and published a number of sermons. Among his popular works is "Lyra Innocen- tium : Thoughts in Verse on Christian Children, their Ways and Privileges," (1846.) "To English church people without number," says the "North British Re- view," "'The Christian Year' has long been not only a cherished classic, but a sacred book, which they place beside their Bible and their Prayer-Book. . . . Popularity is no word to express the fact that this book has been for years the cherished companion, in their best moods, of numbers of the best men, of the most diverse charac« ters and schools, who have lived in our time." Died in March, 1866. See Sir John T. Coleridge, " Memoir of the Rev. John Keble," i86g; "North British Review" for September, 1866; "Quarterly Review" for April and July, 1869 ; " British Quarterly Review" for July, 1867; "Blackwood's Magazine" for April, i86g. Keble, (Joseph,) an English writer upon law, born in London about 1632; died in 17 10. Of his numerous works we may cite "An Explanation of the Laws against Recusants," (1681.) Keckermann, k§k'ker-mSn', (Bartholomaus,) a learned German writer on science, born at Dantzic in 1571. He wrote, besides other works, " Systema Ethi- cum," (1610,) and "Systema Mathematices," (1617.) Died in 1609. Keder, kn'der, (Nils or Nicholas,) a Swedish an- tiquary, born at Stockholm in 1659. He wrote his auto- biography, and several treatises upon the ancient medals of the North. He was ennobled in 1719. Died in 1735. Keene, keen, (Edmund,) an English prelate, born at Lynn in 1713. In 1752 he was raised to the see of Chester, and in 1770 to that of Ely. He was distinguished for his learning and benevolence. Died in 1781. Keen^er, (John Christian,) D.D., a Methodist divine, born in Baltimore in 1819. He graduated at Wesleyan University, Connecticut, in 1834. He wrote a popular work entitled "The Post-Oak Circuit." Kee-Tse or Ki-Tse, kee-tsiih, [written in French, Ki-TsEU,] a Chinese philosopher, who lived in the twelfth century B.C. He became the adviser of the emperor Woo-Wang, the founder of the third Chinese dynasty. See Pauthier, "Chine ancienne;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- rale." Keferstein, ka'fer-stin^ (Christian,) a German geologist, born at Halle in 1784. He published, besides other works, " Geognostic Observations on the Basaltic Structure of Western Germany," (1820,) in which he € as 9 as s; g hard; g as g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as ; 83 th isin this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) KEIGHTLET KELLER successfully maintains the volcanic nature of basalt, and "Tlie Natural History of the Earth," (2 vols., 1834.) Keightley, klt'le, (Thomas,) a historical and bio- graphical writer, born in Dublin about 1790. He pub- lished, besides other works, "Mythology of Ancient Greece and Rome," (3d edition, 1854 ;) a History of England," (1837 ;) a " Life of John Milton," (1855 ;) and a " History of Rome." Keil, Idl, (JoHANN Georg,) a German scholar and litterateur, born at Gotha in 1781. He published in 1814 an " Elementary Book of the Spanish Language." In 1 8 13 he was chosen a member of the Royal Spanish Academy. He also wrote a number of lyrical poems. Died in 1857. Keil, (Karl August Gottlieb,) a German theolo- gian, born at Grossenhain in 1754. He published, be- sides other works, a "Manual of Hermeneutics of the New Testament," in German, (1810.) Died in 1818. Keill, keel, (James,) a physician, brother of John, noticed below, was born at Edinburgh in 1673. studied medicine in his native city and at Leyden, and lectured on anatomy in the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. He wrote a work entitled " Anatomy of the Human Body," and several physiological treatises. Died in 1719. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Keill, (John,) a distinguished mathematician, born at Edinburgh in 1671, and educated at Oxford, In 1700 he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society. He wrote several works in defence of the theories of Newton against Leibnitz. In 171 1 he was chosen to decipher papers for the queen, for which position he was well qualified. He became professor of astronomy at Oxford, where he had received the degree of doctor of physic. Among his works are " An Introduction to Natural Philosophy," and "An Introduction to the True Astronomy," both of which were published in Latin and English. Died in 1 72 1. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Keim, kim, (Franz Xaver,) a German architect, born in 1769 ; died in 1864. Keim, kim, (William H.,) an American general, born at Reading, Pennsylvania, in 1813. He was elected a member of Congress by the voters of Berks county in 1858, and was appointed a brigadier-general in the autumn of 1861. Died at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, in May, 1862. Keisar, kl'sar or ki'zar, (Willem,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp about 1647; died about 1693. Keiser. See Kieser, (Dietrich Georg.) Keiser, kl'zer, (Reinhard,) one of the earliest opera composers in Germany, born in Leipsic in 1673, was the author of more than a hundred operas, besides several concertos and pieces of church music. His productions were highly esteemed by Handel. Died in 1739. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" Burney, " History of Music." Keith, keeth, (George,) fifth Earl Marischal of Scotland, distinguished as a munificent patron of learn- ing, and as the founder of Marischal (mar'shal) College, Aberdeen. He studied in Paris, and afterwards at Geneva, where he had the celebrated Theodore Beza for a preceptor. He succeeded his grandfather as earl marischal in 1581. During the reign of James VI. he was appointed to several high offices of state. Died in 1622. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Keith, (George,) hereditary Earl Marischal of Scot- land, was born in that country about 1693. He entered the army, and was appointed by Queen Anne the captain of her guards. At the death of that sovereign he made strenuous but unsuccessful eflforts to have the Pretender proclaimed in London. After the accession of George I., in 1 7 14, his property was confiscated, and sentence of death passed against him by the British Parliament. Keith escaped to the continent, and served for some time in the Spanish army. He subsequently removed to Berlin, where he spent the remainder of his days in high favour with Frederick the Great. Died in 1778. See D'Alembert, " filoge de Milord Marechal," 1779. Keith, (George,) a Scottish religionist, who at an early age embraced the principles of George Fox, in the defence of which he displayed much zeal and elo- quence. He subsequently advocated many views at va- riance with those held by the Quakers, for which he was " disowned" or excommunicated by the Society. Before his death his views again changed, and he died in the communion of the Church of England. He wrote " The Standard of the Quakers Examined," (1702,) intended as a refutation of Barclay's " Apology." See Janney, "History of Friends," vol. iii. chap. iii. ; Gough, ' History of the Quakers;" Smith, "History of Pennsylvania." Keith, (James,) field-marshal of Prussia, and brother of George Keith, (i 693-1 778,) was born in Scotland in 1696. Having entered the army of the Pretender, he took part in the disastrous battle of Sheriffmuir, where he was wounded. He afterwards served in Spain and in Russia, where he obtained distinction as a warrior and statesman and was raised to the rank of lieutenant-gen- eral. Soon after the accession of the empress Elizabeth he removed to the court of Frederick the Great, by whom he was created field-marshal of Prussia, and in 1749 governor of Berlin. He fell at the battle of Hochkirchen, in October, 1758. See A. Henderson, "Memoirs of Field-Marshal Keith," 1759; Varnhagen von Ense, " Leben des Feld-Marschalls J. Keith," Berlin, 1844 ; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Keith, (Robert,) a Scottish Episcopal clergyman and antiquary, born in Kincardineshire in 1681, was conse- crated a bishop in 1727. He was the author of a " His- tory of the Affairs of Church and State in Scotland from the Beginning of the Reformation in the Reign of James V. to the Retreat of Queen Mary into England," (1734.) Died in 1757. See Chambers, *' Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Keith, (Sir Robert Murray,) a British diplomatist, born about 1730. He was for many years ambassador at the court of Vienna. Died in 1795. See his " Memoirs and Correspondence, Official and Familiar," etc., published by Mrs. Gillespie Smyth, 2 vols., 1849. Keith, (Thomas,) an English mathematician, born in Yorkshire in 1759. He wrote the "Complete Practical Arithmetician," a work on Trigonometry, and other works. Died in 1824. Keith, Viscount. See Elphinstone, (G. Keith.) Keitt, commonly pronounced kit, (Lav^^rence M.,) a politician, born in South Carolina in 1824. In 1853 ^""^ was elected a representative to Congress, and re-elected in 1855, 1857, and 1859. In 1856 he was associated with Preston S. Brooks in his assault upon Charles Sumner on the floor of the United States Senate. He took an active part in the Southern disunion movement of i860. He was killed in battle near Richmond in June, 1864. Keltoon, Kelaoun, or Kel^un, klVhobn', (Alma- lek - Almansoor - Seif - ed - Deen, (or -Almansour- Saiffeddyn,) al-miKek il-min-sooR' sTf-ed-deen',) Sul- tan of Egypt, was brought to that country as a slave in 1249 A.D. He rapidly rose in rank, and in 1279, having revolted against Almalek-al-Saeed, he was proclaimed Sultan of Egypt and Syria. He subsequently conquered Tripoli, and other places of importance in Northern Africa. Died in 1290. Kelij-Arsian. See Kilij-Arslan. Keller. See Cellarius. Keller, keKler, (Georg,) a German Catholic theolo- gian, born near Bomdorf, in the Black Forest, in 1760. He became in 1806 pastor at Aarau, where his opinions, which leaned towards Protestantism, gave great offence to the Catholic clergy. He published, among other works, "The Catholicon." Died in 1827. Keller, keKler, (Godfrey,) a Swiss poet, born at Zu- rich in 1819. He published in 1846 a volume of poems, which were received with favour. Died in i860. Keller, (Jakob,) a German Roman Catholic writer, born at Seckingen in 1568. He wrote several polemical works against the Protestants. Died in 163 1. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Keller, (Jean Balthasar,) a brass-founder, born in Zurich, Switzerland, in 1638. He removed to Paris, where he gained distinction by the bronze statues which he executed, several of which were purchased to orna- ment the garden of Versailles. Died in 1702. a. e. T. a, y, ; i,^, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, a viy^sAort; a, e, i, Q,i?^j-ir«r^,' fSr, fill, f^t; m^t: r6t; goc d moon: KELLER 1315 KEMBLE Keller, (Joseph,) an able German engraver, bom at Linz, on the Rhine, in 181 5, became professor of en- graving at Dusseldorf. Among his works are a large engraving of Raphael's "Dispute of the Sacrament," and several prints after Overbeck. Keller von Steinbock, keKler fon stm'bok, (Fried- rich LuDVViG,) a Swiss jurist and legal writer, born at Zurich in 1799, became professor of law at Halle in 1843. Kellerhoven, kel'ler-ho'ven, (Moritz,) a German painter and engraver, born at Altenrath, duchy of Berg, in 1758, became court painter at Munich about 1806. He excelled in portraits, and engraved many of his own works. Died in 1830. Kellermann, de, deh ki'l^R^mSN', (FRANgois Chris- TOPHE,) Duke of Valmy, a distinguished French mar- shal, of German extraction, born at Strasburg in 1735. After serving in the Seven Years' war, he was made a lieutenant-general in 1792, and was soon after appointed to command the central army on the Moselle. He gained a decisive victory over the Duke of Brunswick at Valmy in September, 1792. Having been accused of treachery by Custine and others, he was imprisoned for ten.months, and only released after the fall of Robespierre. In 1795 he became commander of the army of the Alps, and after his return to Paris was appointed inspector-general of cavalry, in 1798. He was created in 1804 senator and marshal of France, and in 1806 he obtained from Napo- leon the command of the reserve army on the Rhine, and other distinctions. On the accession of Louis XVHI. he was made a peer, and received the grand cross of the order of Saint Louis. Died in 1820. See De Salve. "Fragments historiques sur le Mardchal de Kel- lermann," 1807; Thiers, "Histoire du Consulat et de I'Empire ;" BoTiDOUx, "Esquisse de la Carriere militaire de F. C. de Keller- »iann,"i8i7; " Nouvelle Biographic Generaie." Kellermann, de, (Fran(Jois Christophe Edmond,) Duke of Valmy, a son of Fran9ois fitienne, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1802. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1839, 1842, and 1844. Kellermann, de, (FRAwgois Etiennp:,) Duke of Valmy, born at Metz in 1770, was a son of General Kel- lermann, noticed above. He served as adjutant-general under Bonaparte in Italy in 1796, became a general of brigade in 1797, and contributed greatly to the victory at Marengo in 1800. About 1802 he obtained the rank of general of division. He was wounded at Austerlitz, where he directed several charges of cavalry. In 181 5 he fought for Napoleon at Waterloo. Died in 1835. Kel'ley, (Benjamin Franklin,) an American gen- eral in the Union army, born in New Hampshire about 1807. He gained a victory at Philippi, Virginia, in June, 1861. In March, 1862, he was appointed commander of the "railroad district" in Northwestern Virginia. Kel'ley, (Edward,) a noted astrologer, born at Wor- cester, England, in 1555. He was an accomplice of the notorious Dr. Dee, whom he accompanied to Germany. While there, he was imprisoned as an impostor by the emperor Rudolph; but, having afterwards obtained his release, he won the favour of the emperor, by whom he was knighted. He, however, resumed his old practices, and was again imprisoned. In an attempt to regain his liberty, he fell from his window, and was mortally wounded, in 1595. He wrote various works upon al- chemy and astrology. See Wood, "Athenje Oxonienses." Kelley, (William D.,) born in Philadelphia about 1814, studied law, and was elected as a Democrat a judge of the court of common pleas. About 1856 he became an active Republican, and was in i860 an ardent sup- porter of Lincoln for the Presidency. He was elected a member of Congress from Philadelphia in i860, in 1862, in 1864, in 1866, and in 1868. In the House of Representatives Judge Kelley has uniformly acted with the radical Republicans, Kellgren, ch^l'gRgn, (Johan Henrik,) an eminent Swedish poet, born in West Gothland in 1751, was edu- cated at the University of Abo, in Finland. In 1786 Gustavus III. appointed him a member of the Swedish Academy, and likewise chose him for his private secre- tary and librarian. His works, consisting of lyric poetry and four operas, were published in 1796, in 3 vols., under the title of "Samlade Skriftes." Died in 1795. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" N. von Ro- SENSTEiN, "J. H. Kellgrens Lefnad," 1796. Kellie, Earl of. See Erskine, (T. Alexander.) Kel'li-son, (Matthew,) an English Roman Catholic priest, born in Northamptonshire about 1560. He filled the offices of chancellor of the University of Rheims and president of the College of Douay. He wrote numerous religious and controversial works. Died in 1641. KeFly, (Alfred,) an American lawyer, born at Mid- dletown, Connecticut, in 1787. Having removed to Cleveland, Ohio, he contributed greatly to the internal improvement of the State by canals, and was several times elected to the legislature. Died in 1859. KeFly, (Sir Fitzroy,) a British lawyer, born in Lon- don in 1796. He was for many years a Conservative member of Parliament, and was attorney-general in 1858-59. Kelly, (Hugh,) a dramatic and political writer, born at Killarney, in Ireland, in 1739. He removed to Lon- don, where he became the editor of several periodicals. He published a pamphlet entitled a "Vindication of the Administration of Mr. Pitt," and the plays of " False Delicacy," (1768,) "A Word to the Wise," (1770,) and the "School for Wives," (1774.) Died in 1777. See " Life of Kelly," prefixed to the edition of his Works, 1778. Kelly, (John,) a clergyman of the Church of Eng- land, born at Douglas, in the Isle of Man, in 1750. He translated the Bible into the Manks language, a dialect of the ancient Celtic, in which he was exceedingly well versed, and wrote "A Practical Grammar of the Ancient Gallic, or Language of the Isle of Man." Died in 1809. Kelly, (Michael,) a celebrated singer and musical composer, born at Dublin in 1762. At the age of sixteen he went to Naples, and received lessons there from Fineroli and Aprili. He performed with eminent success in Italy, and also in Germany, where he was a favourite with the emperor Joseph and an intimate friend of the great Mozart. He afterwards became first singer at Drury Lane Theatre, London. He wrote an interesting work entitled " Reminiscences" of his contemporaries and friends. Died in 1826. See "Musical Biography," London, 1814; "Monthly Review" for November, 1825. Kem'ble, (Charles,) a brother of Mrs. Siddons and J. P. Kemble, was born in South Wales in 1775. He was educated at Douay, in France, and became an actor at the age of eighteen. In 1792 he performed at Drury Lane as "Malcolm" in " Macbeth," and continued upon the stage as a successful actor until 1840. Died in 1854. See OxBERRv's "Dramatic Biography;" " Fraser's Magazine" for December, 1854. Kemble, (Elizabeth,) a daughter of Roger Kemble, was born in Lancashire, England, in 1761. She made her first appearance in London in 1783. In form and expression, as well as in the applause which she re- ceived, she has been compared to her sister, Mrs. Sid- dons. In 1785 she married an actor named Whitlock, whom she accompanied to America in 1792. In this country she became a great favourite, and performed several times before General Washington. Died in 1836. Kemble, (Frances Anne,) often called Fanny Kemble, a popular English actress and writer, born in London in 181 1, was a daughter of Charles Kemble. She performed both tragedy and comedy with eminent suc- cess. About 1832 she accompanied her father to the United States, where she married Pierce Butler, from whom she was divorced in 1849. She published a "Jour- nal of a Residence in America," (1835,) "The Star of Seville," a drama, "Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838-39," (1863,) etc. See "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1835, and September, 1847; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1835; "Fraser's Magazine" for May, 1832, and September, 1835. Kemble, (George Stephen,) another brother of the Kemble family, and a distinguished actor, was born in Herefordshire in 1758. He first appeared at Covent Garden in 1783, and afterwards was successively the manager of the theatres of Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Drury Lane. Died in 1822. € as ^; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) KEMBLE 13 16 KEN Kemble, (John Mitchell,) an Anglo-Saxon scholar and historian, son of Charles Kemble the actor, was burn in 1807, and was educated at Trinity College, Cam- bridge. For several years he was the editor of the "British and Foreign Quarterly Review." lie became a member of various foreign scientific and historical societies. His chief work is entitled "The Saxons in England ; a History of the P^nglish Commonwealth till the Period of the Norman Conquest," (2 vols., 1849.) Died in 1857. See " Eraser's Magazine" for March and May, 1857. Kemble, (John Philip,) an eminent English trage- dian, brother of the celebrated Mrs. Siddons, and son of Roger Kemble, was born at Prescot, in Lancashire, in 1757. He first appeared on the stage at the age of ten years. He was afterwards educated at the Roman Catholic seminary at Douay, France. In 1776 he again went on the stage, and rose rapidly to the first rank in his profession. In 1783 he first performed as " Hamlet" in London at the Drury Lane Theatre. He subsequently became a shareholder and manager in the Covent Garden Theatre. He retired from his profession in 181 7. On this occasion a public dinner was given him, at which Lord Holland presided. On account of ill health, he then went to reside in the south of France, and after- wards at Lausanne, in Switzerland, where he died in 1823. A competent and impartial critic thus states his im- pressions of Kemble as an actor : " His performances throughout evince deep study and application, joined to amazingly judicious conception. They are correct and highly-finished paintings, but much laboured. . . . Though my head is satisfied, and even astonished, yet my heart is seldom affected. . . . Once, I must own, however, I was completely overpowered by his acting. It was in the part of Zanga. ... I could not have believed that tragic representation could so far deceive the senses and the judgment." (" Life and Letters of Irving," vol. i. p. 156.) As an actor, Kemble excelled in the highest order of tragedy. He possessed an elegant and discriminating taste, and was learned and refined. His manners were uncommonly attractive. He enjoyed a high character as a gentleman and a man of honour. See BoADEN, "Memoirs of John P. Kemble," 2 vols., 1825; "London Quarterly Review" for June, 1826; "Westminster Review" for April, 1825. Kemble, (Priscilla,) an English actress, wife of the preceding, was born about 1755 ; died in 1845. Kemble, (Roger,) a distinguished actor, born in Here- ford, England, in 1721. In 1753 he married Sarah Ward, an actress, by whom he had twelve children. Among these were Mrs. Siddons, John Philip Kemble, Eliza- beth Kemble, and Charles Kemble, all of whom are mentioned in this work. Kemeny, k^n/an, (Sigmund,) Baron of, a Hunga- rian writer and journalist, born in 1816. In 1849 he was elected to the National Assembly at Pesth, where he advocated the revolutionary cause. The next year he became one of the editors of the " Respublica." He wrote several popular romances. Died in 1852. Kemp, (George Mickle,) the designer of the Scott monument at Edinburgh, was born at New Hall, in Scotland, about 1794. He was employed for a time as a draughtsman, and, when plans were requested for the Scott monument, he furnished one which was preferred, though he did not live to see the execution of it. Died in 1844. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Kemp, (James,) D.D., Bishop of the Protestant Epis- copal diocese of Maryland, born in Scotland in 1764, came to the United States in 1787, and for more than twenty years was rector at Great Choptank, Maryland. He was bishop of that diocese, and provost of the Uni- versity of Maryland, from 1816 until his death, in 1827. Kemp, (John,) an English prelate, born in Kent about 1400, was elected Archbishop of Canterbury in 1452, and subsequently became lord chancellor. He had distin- guished abilities both as a primate and statesman. Died in 1454. See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. V. chap. XX. Kemp, (Joseph,) a distinguished musical composer, and organist of the cathedral of Bristol, was born at Exeter in 1778; died in 1824. Among his productions are the anthems " I am Alpha and Omega," " A Sound of Battle is in the Land," and "The Siege of Ischia," an opera. Kempelen, von, fon k^n/peh-l^n, (Wolfgang,) a famous mechanical genius, and the inventor of the chess machine, was born at Presburg in 1734. His remarkable talent for chess-playing made him a favourite at the court of Maria Theresa, who created him an imperial councillor. In 1769 he exhibited to the empress hia chess-player, representing a man of usual size sitting before a table which held a chess-board. Though op- posed by the best players, the machine was nearly always victorious, and would correct a false move of the other party. He visited France and England, where his in- vention caused a great sensation. In 1728 he invented the speaking-machine, having the form of a wooden box provided with a bellows. This was made to speak words distinctly in a voice like that of a child. Kem- pelen wrote a treatise " On the Mechanism of Human Speech." Died in 1804. Kemper, k^m'per, (Jan Melchior,) an able Dutch jurist, born at Amsterdam in 1776. He became pro- fessor of law at Leyden in 1809, and published a numbei of works on law. Died in 1824. See M. SiEGENBEEK, "Memoria J. M. Kemperi," 1824. Kem'per, (Reuben,) an American officer, born in Fauquier county, Virginia. He distinguished himself in various engagements against the Spaniards in Florida and Mexico, and took part in the defence of New Orleans under General Jackson. Died in 1826. Kemph, kSmf, (Nikolaus,) a German theologian and writer, born at Strasburg in 1397 ; died in 1497. Kempis, d, ik^m'pis, (Thomas,) or Thomas Ham'- er-ken, a celebrated German ascetic writer, born at Kempen, in the diocese of Cologne, about 1380. He became an inmate of the monastery of Mount Saint Agnes, and spent much time in copying religious books. He is said to have employed fifteen years in writing a copy of the Bible. He also wrote several original treat- ises. His reputation is founded on the well-known work entitled "De Imitatione Christi ;" but it remains an unsettled question whether he composed or only tran- scribed it. Many volumes have been written on each side of this question. Died in 1471. See Brewer, " Thomae a Kempis Biographia," 1676; Baehring, "Thomas von Kempen," etc., 1854; Mooren, " Nachrichten iiber Thomas a Kempis," Crefeld, 1855, (said to be the best of all the biographies of T. k Kempis ;) Malou, " Recherches sur le veritable Auteur de I'lmitation," 1858: Hodgson, "Reformers and Mar- tyrs," Philadelphia, 1867 ; Charles Hoffmann, " T. a Kempis et ses Ecrits," 1848; J. P. SiLBERT, "Gersen, Gerson und Kempis, oder ist Einer von diesen Dreien der Verfasser," etc., 182S; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Ken, (Thomas,) a celebrated English prelate, born at Berkhamstead in 1637, and educated at Oxford. About 1679 he went to Holland as chaplain to the Princess of Orange. He was afterwards appointed chaplain to Charles II., who raised him to the see of Bath and Wells in 1684. "Pie was," says Macaulay, "a man of parts and learning, of quick sensibility and stainless virtue. . . . Before he became a bishop, he had maintained the honour of his gown by refusing, when the court was at Winchester, to let Eleanor Gwinn [a mistress of Charles] lodge in the house which he occupied there as a preben- dary. The king had sense enough to respect so manly a spirit. Of all the prelates he liked Ken the best." Deprived of his bishopric as a nonjuror upon the coro- nation of William III., he was regarded with the highest esteem even by his opponents. Queen Anne, upon her accession, granted him a pension. He was the author of several volumes of elaborate sermons, and of many poetical productions of a religious character. " His Morning and Evening Hymns," says the writer above quoted, " are still repeated daily in thousands of dwell- ings." He died in 1711. See W. Hawkins, "Life of Bishop Ken," 1713; W. L. Bowles, "Life of Thomas Ken," 1830: Macaulay, "History of England," vol. i. chap, v.; "London Quarterly Review" for September, 1851; Miss Stkickland, "Lives of the Seven Bishops," etc., London, 1866 ; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1832. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; ^, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ia, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, f^U, fit; mSt; nSt; good; moon; KENDAL 1317 KENNICOTT Ken'dal, (George,) an English nonconformist minis- ter, born in Devonshire, was a Calvinist. He became rector of Blissland, in Cornwall, from which he was ejected about 1662. Died in 1663. Ken'dall, (Amos,) an able American statesman, born at Dunstable, Massachusetts, in 1789. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 181 1, and subsequently, removing to Kentucky, became a tutor in the family of Henry Clay. He supported General Jackson in the Presiden- tial'campaign of 1829, and was afterwards appointed by him an auditor of the treasury department. He was made postmaster-general in 1835, and continued to fill that post till 1840. He began about 1844 a Life of General Jackson, of which the first volume was pub- lished several years ago. Died in 1869. See notice in the "Democratic Review" for Marcli, 183S, {w\lh. a portrait;) " Life of Tackson." Ken'dall, (G.,) an English missionary-, who laboured in New Zealand, and opened a school there in 1816. He acquired a thorough knowledge of the language of that country, and wrote a " Grammar and Vocabulary of the Language of New Zealand," (1820.) He was drowned at sea in 1835. Kendall, (George Wilkins,) an American writer and journalist, born at Amherst, New Hampshire, in 1810. He removed in 1835 to New Orleans, where he became associated with Mr. Lumsden as editor of the "Picayune." In 1841 he accompanied the Santa Fe ex- pedition from Texas, of which he published an account after his return. He brought out in 185 1 a work entitled "The War between the United States and Mexico," with coloured plates of the principal conflicts. Kendall, (John,) an English writer, and member of the Society of Friends, born about 1725; died in 1814. Among his works are a "Life of Thomas Story," and "Precepts of the Christian Religion," Kendi, Al. See Alchindus. Ken'drick, (Asahel C.,) D.D., an American scholar and Baptist clergyman, born at Poultney, Vermont, in 180Q. He graduated at Hamilton College, New York, in 183 1. He was afterwards appointed professor of Latin and Greek at Madison University, and in 1850 Greek professor in the University of Rochester, New York. He has published a number of religious and miscellaneous works. Kendrick, (Nathaniel,) D.D., a Baptist divine, born in Hanover, New Hampshire, in 1777, was appointed professor of theolog}^ and moral philosophy in Hamilton College (now Madison University) in 1822. His labours contributed greatly to the prosperity of the institution. Died in 1848. Kenicius, ki-nee'she-us, (Peter,) Archbishop of Upsal, Sweden, during the reign of Gustavus Adolphus, was born in 1555. He rendered important service to the cause of education, and owing to his efforts parish hospitals were established throughout Sweden. He wrote several theological works. Died in 1636. KenTy, (John R.,) an American lawyer and general, born in Baltimore about 1820. He commanded a small force which was attacked at Front Royal by the army of Stonewall Jackson, May 23, 1862. He was wounded and captured in this action. Ken'na-way, (Sir John,) a British diplomatist, born at Exeter in 1758. He became a captain of the army in India in 1780, and negotiated an important treaty with Tippoo Saib in 1792. Died in 1836. Ken'ne-dy, (Grace,) a popular Scottish authoress, born in Ayrshire in 1782. She published several moral and religious tales of great merit. Among these we may name "Anna Ross," "The Decision," and "Jessy Allan," which have been translated into German; also "Father Clement," (1825.) Died in 1825. Kennedy, (Ildefonso,) a Scottish Benedictine and scientific writer, born at Muthel in 1721, was secretary to the Academy of Sciences at Munich. Died in 1804. Kennedy, (James,) a Scottish prelate, and grandson of Robert III., was born about 1405. He was raised in 1440 to the see of Saint Andrew's, and was subsequently chosen a lord of the regency until James III. obtained his majority. He was distinguished for the salutary re- forms which he effected among the Scottish clergy. He was the founder of the University of Saint Salvator, at Saint Andrew's. Died in 1466. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Kennedy, (John,) a physician and antiquary, born in Scotland. He wrote a treatise on the coins of the emi:)eror Carausius. Died in 1760. Ken'ne-dy, (John,) an English author, and rector of Bradley, in Derbyshire. Among his works is "A Scrip- ture Chronologv-," (1752.) Died about 1770. Ken'ne-dy,^(j0HN Pendleton,) an American states- man and popular writer, born at Baltimore, Maryland, in 1795. He served in the war of 1812, ^nd was elected in 1820 to the Maryland House of Delegates. He was sub- sequently three times elected to the United States House of Representatives, where he actively supported the lead- ing measures of the Whig party. He was appointed secretary of the navy in 1852. He has published several popular works of fiction, among which we may name " Swallow Barn, or a Sojourn in the Old Dominion," (1832,) and " Horse-Shoe Robinson, a Tale of the Tory Ascendency," (1835;) also a "Life of William Wirt," besides other works. Died in August, 1870. See Griswold, "Prose Writers of America." Ken'net, (Basil.) a clergyman of the Church of England, and brother of Bishop Kennet, born in Kent in 1674, was educated at Oxford. He became chaplain to the English factory at Leghorn. He returned to England on account of ill health. He wrote various antiquarian and historical works, among which are "The Antiquities of Rome," (1696,) relating to the historv' of the republic, and " Lives and Characters of Ancient Greek Poets," (1697.) Died in 1715. See " Biographia Britannica." Kennet, (White,) an English prelate and author, born at Dover in 1660, was educated at Westminster School and at Oxford. In 1699 he received the degree of D.D., and in 1718 was ordained Bishop of Peterbo- rough. He was distinguished as a preacher of great eloquence and as a scholar of indefatigable industry and perseverance, as well as for his opposition to the High- Church party. Died in 1728. Of his numerous works we may mention " Parochial Antiquities attempted in the History of Ambrosden, Burcester, and other Ad- jacent Places in the Counties of Oxford and Bucks," (1695,) and "A Register and Chronicle, Ecclesiastical and Civil," (1728,) relating to the reign of Charles II. See \V. Newton, "Life of White Kennet," 1730; "Biographia Britannica." Ken'neth I., King of Scotland, died, after a short reign, in 606, and was succeeded by Eugene III. Kenneth H. succeeded his father, Alpin, as King of the Scots, in 834. He carried on a successful war against the Britons, and reduced the Picts to subjection. He is said to have been the first sovereign who swayed a sceptre over all Scotland. Died about 858 a.d. Kenneth III. ascended the throne of Scotland in 970. He repelled the invasions of the Danes, established a just and efficient government in his dominions, and is said to have been the first monarch who gave Scotland a written code of laws. He was assassinated in 994. See Buchanan, " History of Scotland." Ken'ni-cott, (Benjamin,) a learned divine and He- brew scholar, born at Totness, in Devonshire, England, in 1 7 18. While a student at Oxford, he wrote two dis- sertations, one " On the Tree of Life in Paradise," and the other "On the Oblations of Cain and Abel," which procured for him, free of expense and before the usual period, the degree of B.A. He was soon after elected a Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, became canon of Christ Church, and obtained the degree of ^LA. in 1750. In 1753 he published a treatise on "The State of the Printed Hebrew Text of the Old Testament," in which he unfolded his plan of collating the Hebrew manuscripts' of the Old Testament. Although his efforts met with opposition from some of the clergy, a large sum was, raised to aid him in his enterprise, and several men of learning were emploved to assist him in his labours. His " Hebrew Bible," the result of these labours, was issued in 1776, with the various readings attached. Dr. Kennicott and his assistants in this valuable work con- a as k; 9 as j; g hard; g as J; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanation's, p. 23.) KENNON KENTON suited sixteen Samaritan and over six hundred Hebrew manuscripts. Died at Oxford in 1783, See "Noiivelle Hiograi)liie (ienerale." Ken'npn, (Roukkt Lkwis,) a Methodist divine and physician, born in North Carohna in 1789. He excelled in various brandies of science, particularly geology, and is said to have been the first to call attention to the coal- fields of Alabama. Died in 1838. Keu'rick, (Francis Pairick,) D.D., a Catholic prelate, born at Dublin in 1797, emigrated in 1821 to America. In 1842 he succeeded Dr. Conwell as Bishop of PhiladeJphia. He was created Archbishop of Baltimore in 1851, and was afterwards appointed by the pope " primate of honour," having precedency over all other Catholic prelates of the country. He enjoyed a high reputation for learning, and published, . among other works, " Dogmatic Theology," and *' Moral The- ology," (both in Latin.) Died in 1863. Kenrick, (Peier Richard,) D.D., brother of the preceding, was born at Dublin in 1806. Having re- moved to Philadelphia, he became editor of the "Cath- olic Herald." On the death of Dr. Rosati, in 1843, he succeeded him as Bishop of Saint Louis, and in 1847 was made first archbishop of that city. He has founded several charitable institutions, and has been active in promoting the cause of education. Ken'rick, (William,) an English writer, noted for his quarrelsome disposition, born in Hertfordshire about 1720, published "Epistles, Philosophical and Moral," in poetry, (1759,) " A Review of Dr. Johnson's New Edi- tion of Shakspeare," (1765,) which caused a controversy with Johnson's friends, a " Dictionary of the English Language," and a poem called "Love in the Suds," for which he was sued for damages by Garrick, whom he had libelled in it. Died in 1779. See Baker, "Biographia Dramatica." Ken'sett, (John Frederick,) an American land- scape-painter, born in Cheshire, Connecticut, in 1818. He studied in London, and in 1845 exhibited at the Royal Academy his "View of Windsor Castle." He afterwards visited Rome, where he executed several excellent pictures of Italian scenery. Among his best American landscapes may be named " Sunset in the Adirondacks," " Franconia Mountains," and " Hudson River from Fort Putnam." He became a member of the National Academy of Design in 1849. See TucKRRMAN, "Book of the Artists." Kent, (Edward,) Duke of, father of Victoria, Queen of Great Britain, and the fourth son of George HI., was born in 1767. He studied at Gottingen and Geneva. In 1790 he entered the army, and three years later assisted in the capture of Saint Lucia. In 1796 he was appointed lieutenant-general, and in 1799 was created Duke of Kent and Strathern and Earl of Dublin. In 1802 he became Governor of Gibraltar ; but, his rigid disci jjline producing a mutiny, he was soon after recalled. In 181 8 he married a daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg. The Duke of Kent was a liberal patron of benevolent enterprises. Died in 1820. See "Life of Edward, Duke of Kent," by Ekskine Neale, 1S50. Kent, (Edward,) LL.D., an American judge, born in Concord, New Hampshire, in 1802. He graduated at Harvard, and in 1825 settled as a lawyer in Bangor, Maine. He was afterwards twice Governor of the State, and became an associate justice of the supreme court of INIaine in 1859. Kent, (James,) a distinguished organist and musical composer, born at Winchester in 1700. He became one of the children of the Chapel Royal in London. Upon finishing his education, he was successively chosen or- ganist of Trinity College, Cambridge, and of Winchester Cathedral. He published a popular work containing "Twelve Anthems" of his composition. Died in 1776. See BuRNEY, "History of Music." Kent, (James,) an eminent American jurist, born in Putnam county, New York, in July, 1763. He graduated at Yale College in 1781, studied law, and commenced the practice of his profession at Poughkeei)sie. In politics he was a Federalist. He was profoundly versed in legal knowledge. He became a resident of the city of New . York about 1793, and a friend of Alexander Hamilton. j In 1798 he was apjjointed a judge of the supreme court j of New York, and in 1804 became chief justice. He lectured on law at Columbia Ccjllege. His important decisions in law and equity have been preserved in the j Re])orts of Johnson and Caines. He became chancellor in 1814, and retired from that office in 1823, after which he was again professor of law in Columbia College. He published "Commentaries on American Law," (4 vols., 1826-30,) which is a standard work of high authority and a production of great literary merit. Referring to this work. Judge Story remarks, "These Commentaries have already acquired the reputation of a juridical classic, and have placed their author in the first rank in the benefactors of the profession. They embody the prin- ciples of law in pages as attractive by the persuasive eloquence of their style as they are instructive by the fulness and accuracy of their learning." ("On the Con- flict of Laws.") "It will be a proud distinction to Kent and Story," says the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1852, (p. 340,) "that they have done more than any other men to put an end to the indifference of English lawyers to the learning of their American brethren," Judge Kent had a high reputation for virtue. He died in New York in December, 1847, leaving one son, William. See John Duer, "Discourse on the Life of James Kent ;" " Na tional Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii. ; Alli Bf)NE, "Dictionary of Authors," vol. ii. ; Duvckinck, " Cyclopjedia of American Literature," vol. i. Kent, (Maria Louisa Victoria,) Duchess of, born in 1786, was a daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg. She was married about 1803 to Prince Emich Karl of Leiningen, and again to the Duke of Kent in 1818. Vic- toria, Queen of England, was the issue of her second marriage. Died in 1861. Kent, (William,) the founder of the English style of landscape-gardening, was born in Yorkshire about 1685. He studied painting, which he soon abandoned for ornahiental architecture. Among his best designs is that of the temple. of Venus at Stowe. His fame, how- ever, rests chiefly on the great improvement he effected in landscape-gardening, by substituting the close imita- tion of nature for the stiff and formal style of the French and Dutch. Walpole has styled him "the creator of modern gardening." Died in 1748. See Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting." Kent, (William,) an American lawyer, son of James Kent, the eminent jurist, noticed above, was born in 1802. He was appcjinted by Governor Seward a judge of the circuit court of New York. Having resigned that office, he practised law in New York City. Died in January,~i86l. Kent'l-gern, Saint, a Scottish ecclesiastic, became Bishop of Glasgow. He is said to have converted many of the natives to Christianity. Died about 600. Ken'ton, (Simon,) an American soldier, born in Fau- quier county, Virginia, was one of the associates of Daniel Boone, the Kentucky pioneer. He fought against the Indians on the Western frontier, and subsequently in the war of 1812. Died in 1836. See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. Ken'yon, (John,) an English poet, born in Jamaica about 1783, inherited an ample fortune. He published " A Day at Tivoli, with other Poems." Died in 1856. See "Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 1S38; "North American Review" for April, 1S39, (by Pkescott.) Kenyon, (Lloyd,) Lord, an eminent English law- yer, and chief justice of the king's bench, was born at Greddington, in Flintshire, October 5, 1732. He be- came in 1754 a member of Lincoln's Inn, and was admitted to the bar in 1761. With too high a sense of honour to em])loy artifice, and having no influential friends to assist him, several years elapsed before he obtained practice. In 1779 he distinguished himself by his able defence of Lord George Gordon, on trial for treason. Three years later he was made attorney-general. In 1788 he was appointed chief justice of the king's bench and was raised to the peerage, with the title of Lord Ken- yon, Baron Greddington, He died in 1802, after having amassed a large fortune. Lord Kenyon was generally a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; tlr, f^ll, fit; m§t; ndt; good; moon; KEOGH popular, though his extremely parsimonious habits, added to his overbearing and haughty manner towards the bar- risters as well as towards his associate judges, made him no favourite with the members of his profession. As a justice, he was distinguished for his strict adherence to the letter of the law, and for his impartial severity upon offenders of every rank. See Lord Campbell, " Lives of tlie Chief Justices ;" " Sketch of the Life, etc. of Lord Kenyon," London, 1802 ; Foss, "The Judges of England." Keogh, ka'oH, ? (William,) an Irish lawyer, born at Galway in 1817. He published " The Practice of the Court of Chancery in Ireland." In 1856 he became a judge of the common pleas. Kepler, kip'ler, or Keppler, [Lat. Keple'rus,] (JOH.ANN,) a celebrated German astronomer, born at or near Weil, in Wiirtemberg, on the 27th of December, 1571. His father, Henry Kepler, lost nearly all his prop- erty by becoming surety for a friend, and was reduced to the position of tavern-keeper at Elmendingen. About 1586 he entered the monastic school of Maulbronn, where he was educated at the expense of the Duke of Wiirtemberg. He continued his studies at Tubingen, which he quitted in 1591 with the degree of master. In 1594 he was appointed professor of mathematics at Gratz, in Styria. He pul)lished, under the title of *' Mysterium Cosmographicum," (1596,) an account of his incj[uiries and speculations in relation to the number, distances, and periodic times of the planets. In 1597 he married a widow named Barbara von Muller. Kepler and the other Protestant professors were driven from Gratz by persecution about 1600. He visited Tycho Brahe, who then resided near Prague, and who intro- duced him to the emperor Rudolph. At the request of Rudolph, he began to assist Tycho in the formation of astronomical tables. On the death of Tycho, in October, 1601, Kepler suc- ceeded him as principal mathematician to the emperor, with a salary of 1500 florins, and inherited his unpub- lished observations. He published in 1604 an important contribution to the science of optics, entitled a " Supple- ment to Vitellio." After he obtained the patronage of the emperor he resided for some years at Linz. In 1609 he produced his greatest work, "Astronomia nova, sen Physica celestis tradita Commentariis de Motibus Stellae Martis," in which he announced two of the laws which regulate the periods and motions of the planets, and which are known as Kepler's Laws. These are : i, that the orbits of the planets are elliptical ; 2, the radius- vector, or line extending from a planet to the sun, de- scribes or passes over equal areas in equal times ; 3, the squares of the periodic times of planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun. "These laws constitute undoubtedly," says Sir John Herschel, "the most important and beautiful system of geometrical relations which have ever been discovered by a mere inductive process, independent of any con- sideration of a theoretical kind. They comprise within them a compendium of the motions of all the planets, and enable us to assign their places in their orbits at any instant of time, past or to come." "This beautiful and simple law," says Professor Playfair, in reference to the third law, "had a value beyond what Kej)ler could pos- sibly conceive ; yet a sort of scientific instinct instructed him in its great importance. He has marked the year and the day when it became known to him : it was on the 8th of May, 1618." His third law was discovered with infinite satisfaction in 1618, and announced in his "Harmonice Mundi," (1619,) the title and contents of which recall the ideas of Pythagoras on celestial har- mony. Kepler imagines that in this music of the spheres Saturn and Jupiter perform the bass. Mars the tenor, and the Earth and Venus the hatite-contre. He con- sidered the sun to be the source of motion as well as of light and heat. The treasury of the emperor was so exhausted by war that Kepler could not obtain the pay- ment of his salary, and often felt the pressure of poverty. Af er the death of Rudolph, (1612,) he was appointed pro essor of mathematics at Linz. His first wife having died, he married Susanna Rettinger, about 1614. In 1620 he was visited by Sir Henry Wotton, an English ambassador, who invited him to remove to England : but he declined. He expended the labour of several years on his " Rudolphine Tables," which were published in 1627 and were highly prized. Among his iinportant works is his " Dioptrica," (1611,) in which he describes the astronomical telescope with two convex lenses. The invention of this form of telescope is ascribed to him. Kepler was so devoted to science, and had so little re- gard for riches, except those of the mind, that he used to say he would rather be the author of the works he had written than possess the duchy of Saxony. He died at Ratisbon in November, 1630, leaving four sons and three daughters. See Drinkwater Bethune, "Life of Kepler," in the "Library of Useful Knowledge;" Brkitsch\yerd, " Keplers Leben utid Wir- ken," 1S31 : Sir David Brewster, "Martyrs of Science," 1*^41; Arago, " Notices biographiques," tome ii. ; Dr. F. Hoefek, article in the " Nouvelle Biographie Gdnerale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Re- view" for June, 1835; "Atlantic Monthly" for April, i860. Kepler, (Ludwig,) a German physician, son of the preceding, was born at Prague in 1607. He practised at Bale, Strasburg, and Konigsberg, and wrote several works. Died in 1663. Keplerus. See Kepler, (Johann.) Kep'pel, (Augustus,) an English admiral, son of William, Earl of Albemarle, was born in 1725. In 1761, as commander of a small squadron, he captured Belle- Isle, and the following year was created rear-admiral of the blue. In 1778 he became admiral. He was subse- quently raised to the peerage, as Viscount Keppel, Baron Elden, and was twice appointed first lord of the admi- ralty. He was accused by Sir Hugh Palliser of neglect of duty in an action against the French in July, 1778, and was tried by a court-martial, by which he was honourably acquitted. Died in 1786. See "Life of Viscount Keppel," by Thomas Keppel; Kippis, "Life of Lord Anson;" "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1842. Keppel, Earl of Albemarle. See Albemarle. Keppel, (George Thomas,) an English officer, born in 1799, was a son of the Earl of Albemarle. He was elected to Parliament in 1832 and in 1847. He published a "Journey across the Balkan." Keppel, (Sir Henry,) an English naval officer, a younger son of the Earl of Albemarle, was born in 1809. He became a captain about 1837, and commanded the naval forces operating against China in 1857-58. He wrote a work entitled "An Expedition to Borneo." Keppler. See Kepler. Ker, ker or kar, (John,) of Kersland, a Scottish philologist, was professor of Hebrew at Edinburgh. He was employed as a political agent by William HI., and published " Memoirs and Secret Negotiations," (3 vols., 1726.) Ker, (John,) an eminent bibliographer, born in London in 1740, was the son of Robert, Duke of Roxburgh, whom he succeeded in 1755 in the Scottish dukedom, and also in the British peerage as Earl and Baron Ker of Wakefield. He died in 1804. In the accumulation of his library, which is said to have been the most valuable ]Drivate collection in Great Britain, he exhibited remarkable industry and rare judgment. The sale of these books after his death produced a great sensation in the lite- rary world. One — " II Decamerone di Boccaccio" — was sold for ;^225o. Ker, (Robert.) See Carr. Ker Porter. See Porter, (Robert Ker.) Keralio, de, deh k^h-rt^e'o', (Louis F^lix Guine- ment^ — g^i/mftN',) a French officer and litterateiw, born in Brittany in 173 1. He wrote, besides other wc^ks, one upon the "General Principles of Tactics." Died in 1793- Keratry, de, deh kk^rt'tRe', (Auguste Hilarion,) a French litterateur and statesman, born at Rennes in 1769. He was twice chosen a member of the Chain ber of Deputies, in 181 8 and in 1827, and was made a peer in 1837. Among his principal works are " Moral and Physi- ological Inductions," (1817,) and several romances and poems. Died in 1859. See Qt'ERARD, "La France Litteraire ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Kerckherdere, kgRk'hlR'deh-reh, (Jan Geraart,) a Dutch philologist and theologian, born near Maestricht a as k; c as s; g hard; g as /; G, guttural; N, naial; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (^^="866 Explanations, p. 23.) KERCKHOVE 1320 KETBOGA about 1678. He was professor at Louvain, and wrote several works. Died in 1738. Kerckhove, van den, vtn d§n k^Rk'ho'veh, (Jan PoLYANDER,) a Protestant theologian, of Dutch extrac- tion, born at Metz in 1568. In 1609 he was appointed to the chair of theology in the University of Leyden, of which he was subsequently chosen rector eight times. Died in 1646. Kerckhove, van den, written also Kerckchove, (Joseph,) an able Flemish painter, born at Bruges in 1669, He painted sacred history. Died in 1724. Kerckring, k^Rk'ring, (Theodorus,) a physician and anatomical writer, born at Amsterdam ; died in 1693. Kereem- (Kerim- or Kerym-) Kh^n, ker-eem' kSu, became sovereign of Persia in 1750. He was an able warrior, lawgiver, and statesman. Died about 1780. Kerguelen-Tremarec, de, deh kSR'ga'lSN' tRa'mt'- r^k', (Ives Joseph,) a celebrated French navigator, born at Quimper, in Brittany, in 1745. Having previously visited the North Sea, he set out in 177 1 on a voyage to the South Sea, and the following year discovered, in 498 south latitude, the island to which Captain Cook gave, in 1776, the name of Kerguelen's Land. He published a " Narrative of a Voyage to the North Sea and the Shores of Iceland, Greenland," etc., (1771,) and "An Account of Two Voyages in the South Sea and the Indies," (1782.) Died in 1797. Kerhallet, de, deh k^Vrt'la^ (Charles Philippe,) a French hydrographer, born in Brittany in 1809. He became a captain in the navy, and was en>ployed many years in surveying the coast of Africa. He published a " Manual for the Navigation of the West Coast of Africa," (3 vols., 1853.) P>ied in Paris in 1863. Keri, ka'ree, (Francis Boroia,) a historian and Jesuit, born at Zemplin, in Hungary, wrote a " History of the Empire of the East." Died in 1769. Keri, (John or Janos,) a learned Hungarian bishop, who wrote " Ferocia Martis Turcici," a history of the different Turkish invasions of Hungary. Died in 1685. Kerim-Khan. See Kereem-Khan. Keri, k§Rl, (Johann Caspar,) a German composer and organist, born in Saxony in 1625. He was chapel- master to the Elector of Bavaria. Died about 1685. Kern, kiRn, (J. Conrad,) a Swiss statesman of the Liberal party, was born at Berlingen in 1808. He be- came president of the Federal Tribunal in 1850. Kern, k^Rn, (Vincenz,) a skilful German surgeon, born at Gratz in 1760. He became professor of surgery in the University of Vienna, and is said to have intro- duced important reforms in the practice of surgery. He published several professional works. Died in 1829. Kernell, \kvJ\\h\, (Pehr Ulrik,) a Swedish litterateur, born in 1797 ; died in 1824. Kerner, k^R'ner, (Andreas Justinus,) a German lyric ])oet, born at Ludwigsburg in 1786. He published in 1811 "Travelling Shadows, by the Magic-Lantern Player," a work of great humour and originality. His "Visionary of Prevorst" (1829) had great success. See a long notice of Kerner in Henri Blaze's " ficrivains et Poetes de I'Allemagne," 1851 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Keroual, k§r'roo-Sl', or Querouaille, ki''roo^tI' or ki'rof)'t'ye, (Louise Pknhoet,) Duchess of Portsmouth, a mistress of Charles II. of England, was born in France about 1652. She went to England as maid of honour to Henriette, the queen of Charles I., and received the title of Duchess of Portsmouth in 1673. She is said to have used her influence to promote the designs of Louis XIV. Died in 1734. See Evelyn, "Diary;" Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV." Kerr, ker or kar, (Robert,) a Scottish surgeon and scientific writer, born about 1755, was a member of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies of Edinburgh. Among his works are " The Animal Kingdom or Zoological System of Linnaeus," " The Natural History of Quad- rupeds and Serpents," and a " History of Scotland during the Reign of Robert Bruce." The first and second are translations. Died in 1813. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Kersaint. See Duras, dk, (Claire Lechat.) Kersaint, de, deh keR's^N', (Armand Gui Simon,) Count, a French naval commander, born in Paris about 1741. After the commencement of the Revolution he made his residence in Paris, where he became a member of the Jacobin Club. He afterwards joined the Girondists, and, as a member of the Convention, boldly opposed the execution of the king and the extreme measures of the Jacobins. He was proscribed and executed in Decem- ber, 1793. Kersenbrock, k^r'sen-bRok", (Hermann,) a German historian, born in the county of Lippe in 1526. His chief work is a " History of the Anabaptists of Miinster," (in Latin.) Died in 1585. Ker'sey, (John,) an English mathematician, lived in the reign of Charles II., and wrote a work on Algebra, (1673-) Kersseboom, kgRs'seh-bom', (Willem,) a Dutch statistician, born in 1691, wrote a number of valuable works on population, mortality, etc. Died in 1771. See Heuschling, "Notice sur la Vie de Kersseboom," 1857; " Nouvelle Biographie Gendrale." Kervillars, de, deh kgR've'ySR', (Jean Marie,) a French Jesuit, born at Vannes in 1668. He produced a version of Ovid's Elegies, (1724.) Died in 1745. Kesava, ka'sa-va, written also Cesava and Kegava, [from the Sanscrit word kesa, " hair," probably cognate with the Latin ccesaries, having the same signification,] {i.e. "having beautiful hair,") an epithet of Krishna, (which see ;) also, a surname of Booddha. Kessel, van, vtn kgs'sel, (Ferdinand,) a distin- guished painter, born at Antwerp in 1660, was patronized by John Sobieski, King of Poland, and William HI. of England. His death is variously dated in 1696 and about 1 7 10. See PiLKiNGTON, "Dictionary of Painters." Kessel, kes'sel, or Kessels, van, vtn kes'sels, (Jan,) the Elder, a Dutch artist, born at Antwerp in 1626, excelled in painting animals, fruits, and flowers. His portraits and landscapes were also of superior merit. He was the father of the preceding. Died about 1692, Kessel, van, (Jan,) the Younger, the son, or, ac- cording to some writers, the nephew, of the preceding, was born at Antwerp about 1648. He was one of the best portrait-painters of his time ; and some of his works have been mistaken for those of Van Dyck. Having visited Spain, he was appointed in 1686 court painter to Charles II. His portraits of the two queens of Charles and that of Philip V. of Spain are ranked among his master-pieces. Died in 1708. See PiLKiNGTON, "Dictionary of Painters." Kessel, van, (Nicolaas,) a painter, born at Antwerp in 1684, was a nephew of Ferdinand, noticed above. He adopted the style of David Teniers. Died in 1 741. Kessel, van, (Theodorus,) a Flemish engraver, born at Antwerp about 1620, engraved some works of Rubens, and historical subjects after several Italian masters. Kessels, kes'sels, (Matthias,) one of the most dis- tinguished Dutch sculptors of recent times, was born at Maestricht in 1784. Among his best works are a colossal scene from the Deluge, a " Madonna," a "Cupid sharp- ening his Arrow," and a " Discobolus." Died at Rome in 1836. See FiLippo Gerardi, " Vita di M. Kessels," 1837 ; Nagler, " Ailgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Kestner, kest'ner, (Christian Wilhelm,) a German physician, born in Thuringia in 1694, published " Biblio- theca Medica," (1746.) Died in 1747. Ket or Kett, (Robert,) a tanner, of Norfolk county, England, was the chief leader in a rebellion which occurred in 1549, during the protectorate of Somerset. After several considerable successes, he was at length defeated by Dudley, Earl of Warwick. Soon after he was taken prisoner and hung at Norwich Castle. Ket's rebellion — or, as it is commonly called, the Norfolk re- bellion — was "remarkable," says Froude, "among other things, for the order which was observed among the people during seven weeks of lawlessness." (" History of England," vol, v. chap, xxvi.) Ket, (William,) of Norfolk, an English rebel, brother of the preceding, was one of the leaders of the insurgents who took Norwich. He was hanged in 1549. Ketboga or Ketbogha, ket-bo'ga, a Mongolian by birth, and Sultan of Egypt, was brought to that country a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, i, q, obscure; fir, f^ll, fit; m§t; ndt; good; moon; KETCHUM 1 3 21 KHALEEL as a slave in a.d. 1288. He rapidly rose in rank, and finally made himself the sovereign of Egypt in 1294. In 1296 he was driven from the country by his favourite Lajeen, (Lajin or Ladjyn,) who succeeded him. Ketch'um, (William Scott,) an American officer in the Union army, born at Norwalk, Connecticut, in 1813. He served in the Mexican war, and in 1862 was made brigadier-general of volunteers. Ketel, ka'tel, (Cornelis,) a Dutch painter, born at Gouda in 1548. He commenced his studies in Paris; but, being a Protestant, he was soon driven from France by Charles IX. About 1574 he went to England, where he painted the portraits of Queen Elizabeth and of several English noblemen. Died after 1602. Among his pictures is " Force Conquered by Wisdom," which he painted in England. See PiLKiNGTON, "Dictionary of Painters." Ketelaer, ka'teh-lSa', (Nicolaas,) one of the earliest of Dutch printers, flourished at Utrecht about 1480. Kett, (Henry,) a learned English divine and author, born at Norwich in 1761, graduated at Oxford in 1783. He was drowned, while bathing, in 1825. Among his works are " History the Interpreter of Prophecy," (3 vols., 1798-99,) "Elements of General Knowledge," (3 vols., 1802,) and "Flowers of Wit," (1814.) Kett, (Robert.) See Ket. Kettlewell, ket'tel-wel, (John,) an English nonjuring divine, born in Yorkshire in 1653. He published in 1678 " Measures of Christian Obedience," which was highly esteemed. He became rector of Coleshill about 1682, refused to take the oath of allegiance to William III. in 1689, and was ejected. His "rare integrity" is commended by Macaulay. Died in 1695. See Nelson, " Life of Kettlewell," "fyiS. Kettner, k^t'ner, (Friedrich Ernst,) a German writer on history and theology, born at Stollberg in 1671 ; died in 1722. Ketu, ka'too, or Ketus, ka'tdos, [perhaps etymologi- cally related to the Greek /cf/rof, a "sea-monster,"] a monster of the Hindoo mythology; in astronomy, the dragon's tail, or descending node. (See Rahu.) Keuchen, ko'Ken, (Robert,) a poet and historical writer, born at Geldern, flourished about 1660. Keulen, van, vtn ko'len or kuh'len, (Janszons,) a Dutch painter, born in 1580. He was employed in Eng- land by Charles I., and afterwards fixed his residence at the Hague. Died in 1665. Keulen, van, (Ludolph,) a Dutch mathematician, born at Hildesheim. He wrote a treatise on the circle, ("Van den Cirkel," 1596,) and "Geometrical Problems." Died at Leyden in 1610. Keux, Le. See Le Keux. Kew, written also K'ew and Kieou, one of the names given to Confucius. See Legge's " Life and Teachings of Confucius," ch. v. p. 58. Kexler, kgks'ler, (Simon,) a Swedish scholar, born in l6o2, wrote various mathematical works. Died in 1669. Key. See Caius. Key, (Francis Scott,) an American jurist and poet, born in Frederick county, Maryland, in 1779. Having removed to Washington, he became district-attorney of the District of Columbia. He was the author of the popular national song of "The Star-Spangled Banner," and a number of other poems. Died in 1843. Key, (Thomas Hewitt,) an English philologist, born near London in 1799. Having graduated at Cambridge, he was invited in 1824 to fill the chair of mathematics in the University of Virginia, then recently founded. After his return he became, in 1828, professor of Latin in the University of London. Among his principal works are a "Latin Granunar," (1846,) and numerous valuable con- tributions to the "Penny Cyclopaedia" and the " Journal of Education." He has been many years engaged on a Latin-English dictionary. Key, ki, (Wili.em,) a portrait-painter, born at Breda, in the Netherlands, in 1520 ; died in 1568. Keye.s, keez, (Erasmus D.,) an American general, born in Massachusetts about 1811, graduated at West Point in 1832. Pie became a colonel in the regular army in 1 86 1, and commanded a brigade at Bull Run, July 21. He commanded a corps at the battle of Fair Oaks, May 31, 1862, and at other battles in June of that year. Keying, kiting', or Ky-In, kl'in', a Chinese diplo- matist, negotiated with the English the treaty of Nankm in 1842, after which he was governor of Canton. He favoured a friendly policy towards Europeans, and was disgraced by Hien-Fung in 1850, but restored in 1852. Keylhau, kiKhow, (Eberhart,) a painter, known in Italy under the name of MoNSU Bernardo, was born at Helsingor, in Denmark, in 1624. After studying under Rembrandt, he went to Rome, where he died in 1687. Keyser, de, deh kl'zer, (Nicaise,) an eminent Belgian painter, was born near Antwerp in 1813. In 1836 he exhibited at Brussels his picture of "The Battle of the Golden Spurs." Among his other works are " The Battle of Wceringen," one of the most admired works of the Belgian school, "The Antiquary," and a "Crucifixion." Keyser, van, vtn ki'zer, sometimes written De Keyser, (Hendrik,) a Dutch architect and sciilptor, born at Utrecht in 1565. In 1619 he C(/nipicted the monument of William I., Prince of Orange. Died in 1621. Keyser, van, (Theodorus,) a skilful F utch portrait- painter, flourished about 1630-50. Keyserling, von, fon ki'zer-ling', (Thierry,) a Prus- sian general and litteratetcr, born in C(,urland in 1698, was a friend of Frederick the Great. Died in 1745. See Maui'ERTUIS, " filoge de Keyserling." Keysler, kis'ler, (Johann Georg,) a German anti- quary, born at Thurnau in 1683. He published "Travels m Germany, Italy," etc., (2 vols., 1741,) and other works. Died in 1743. See Haberlin, " Keysler's Leben," 1743. Khadijah, Khadeejah, or Khadidja, K^-dee^jS, [in German, Chadidscha,] written also Chadijah, a rich widow of Mecca, who married Mohammed the prophet. At the time of their marriage she was about forty years of age, while he was only twenty-five. She bore him eight children, all of whom died young except Fatimah, who became the wife of his cousin and favourite. Alee, (Ali,) the son of Aboo-Talib. (See Mohammed.) Khadyjah. See Khadijah. Khaisang, k'hi^sang', surnamed Woo-tsoong, (the " Honourable Warrior,") called by the Tartars Kaishan- KuUuk-Khan, ki'shin' kdoKlook kSu, a sovereign of the Mongolian dynasty, succeeded to the imperial throne of China a.d. 1308, at the age of twenty-nine. He was distinguished for his abilities as a commander, and for his patronage of men of letters. Died A.D. 1311. Khalaf, Ki-lSf, ascended the throne of Seistan, in Eastern Persia, about a.d. 963. He was a bold and skil- ful warrior and an able diplomatist, but was treacherous, cruel, and tyrannical. After a reign of forty years, he was conquered by the emperor Mahmood of Ghazna, who imprisoned him till his death, a.d. 1008. See Malcolm, "History of Persia." Khaied or Chaled, K§.'led, written also Caled, a celebrated Arabian general, born in 582 A.D. In the third year of the Hejrah he completely routed the army of Mohammed at the battle of Ohod. He subsequently embraced the Moslem faith, gained numerous important victories over its enemies, and received from the prophet the title of "The Sword of God." Eastern writers asciibe to this warrior almost superhuman valour, which, how- ever, was often stained with cruelty. Died about 642 .a.d. See OcKLEY, "History of the Saracens;" Elmacin, "Historia Saracenorum ;" Aboolfeda, "Annales Mosleniici." Khaled-Ben (or-Ibn) -Barmek. See Barmecides. Khaleel (Khalil) or Chalil, xa ieeK, (Aboo-Abd- er-Rahman, ^'boo abd-er-raH''man,) a celebrated Arabic grammarian of Bassora, born about 719 A.D. ; died in 786. Khaleel, (Khalil,) surnamed Melik-al-Ashraf, m^Kik ll-Ssh'raf, {i.e. the "Illustrious King,") eighth Sultan of Egypt and Syria, succeeded his father Kelaoon (Kelaun) a.d. 1290. He took Acre from the European Christians, whom he finally drove from Syria, He was assassinated by his ameers, A.D. 1293. Khaleel- (Khalil- or Chalil-) Beg, Ki-leeK beg, of the Turkoman dynasty, succeeded his father, Oozoon (Uzun) Hassan, on the throne of Persia, A.D. 1478. His excessive cruelty and oppression caused several revolts * as k; g as j; g hard; g as /; g, h, Yi,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) KHALEEL 1322 KHOSROO among his subjects, during one of which he was slain on the field of battle. Khaleel (Khalil or Clialil) Pasha, grand vizier to the Ottoman Sultan Amurath II. In 1444 he gained at Vaina a decisive victory over the Christian allies. In this battle Ladislaus, King of Hungary, fell. Upon the accession of Mahomet II. Khaleel still retained his power, and commanded the Turkish army at the capture of Constantinople, in 1453. He was a few days after condemned on a charge of bribery, and executed. Khalil. See Khaleel. Khallikan. See Ii5N-Khallikan. Khang-Hee, (or -Hi,) k'hing hee. Emperor of China, of the dynasty of the Mantchoo Tartars, was born about 1653 A.D. He succeeded his father, Shun-Chee, (Chun- tchi,) at the age of seven years. In 1675 he quelled a formidable rebellion raised against him by the Chinese under Oo-san-Kwei. He afterwards carried on success- ful wars against the neighbouring nations, and reduced nearly all the princes of Tartary to vassalage. Historians speak in the highest terms of the justice, candour, libe- rality, and tolerant spirit of this monarch. Died in 1722, See BouvET, "Life of Cang-Hy, Present Emperor of China," London, 1699; Mah.la, " Histoire generale de la Chine ;" " Nou- velle Biographic Generale." Khatchadoor, Khatchadour, or Khatchadur, Kd-ch^-dooR', an Armenian poet and bishop, born at Caesarea, in Cappadocia, about 1600. His poems are chiefly of a religious and moral character. Khatchig (xa'chig) I. was elected Patriarch of Ar- menia in 972. He founded numerous monasteries, and encouraged literature and the fine arts. Died in 992. ^ Khatchig II., sometimes written Khatchadoor, be- came Patriarch of Armenia in 1058. He was imprisoned at Constantinople by Constantine Ducas, who afterwards banished him to Cappadocia. Died in 1064. Khell, kSI, (Joseph von Khellburg,) a German numismatist, born at Linz in 1 714, published several works in Vienna. Died in 1772. Kheranitzer, (Ivan Ivanovitch.) See Chem- NITZER. Kheraskof or Kheraskov, K^r'Ss-kof , [written, in German, Cheraskow,] (Michael Matvievitch,) a distinguished Russian poet, born in 1733. Among his principal works maybe mentioned " Rossiada," (1785,) an epic on the event of the Russians liberating them- selves from their Tartar oppressors. Died in 1807. Khevenhiiller, Ka'ven-hiil'ler, (Franz Christoph,) a German historian, born in 1589, rose to be imperial minister of state. He wrote "Annales Ferdinandei," a history of the reign of Ferdinand II. Died in 1650. Khilkof or Khilkov, KiKkof, (Andrei Yakof Le- Vitch,) a Russian prince, sent as ambassador to Sweden by Peter the Great in 1700. War having been soon after declared between the two countries, Charles XII. ordered Khilkof to be thrown into prison. During his confinement of eighteen years he wrote his celebrated " History of Russia." He died at the isle of Aland, on his return to Russia, in 1718. Khlesl, klgsl, (Melchior,) a German cardinal, born at Vienna in 1553, became first minister of the emperor Matthias, whom he had assisted in usurping the throne of Rudolph II. Died in 1630. See Von Hammer-Purgstall," Leben des Cardinals M. Khlesl," Vienna, 4 vols., 1847-51. Khoda-Bendeh, Ko'dah b^n'deh, ( Mohammed, ) sovereign of Persia, of the dynasty of the Sofees, (or Sofys,) began to reign in 1578. He was a weak and effeminate prince. During his reign the Turks and Tar- tars ravaged his dominions. Died about 1587. See Malcolm, " History of Persia." Khomarooyah or Khomarouyah, Ko-mi-roo'yah, succeeded his father, Ahmed, as Sultan of Egypt and Syria, 884 a.d., at the age of fifteen. He carried on a war with the caliph Mootamed, whom he obliged to sue for peace, and invaded the Greek empire, from which he carried a rich booty. He was assassinated in 896. Khomiakof, Ko-me-J'kof, Khomiakov, or Khomi- akow, Ko-me-i'kov,( Alexis Stefanovitch,) a popular Russian poet, born about 1802. He published historical dramas, called " Yermak" (or " lermak") and " The False Demetrius," also lyrical poems, and some able prose works. Khondemeer, Khondemir, or Khondemyr, Kon- dg-meeR', a surname of Giyas-ed-Deen* (Giyas- eddin) Mohammed, ge-Iss' ed-deen' mo-htm'med, a Persian historian, and a son of the eminent historian Mirkhond, was born at Herat in the second half of the fifteenth century. He wrote a valuable universal his- tory, extending from the creation to 1471, also a work called " The Friend of Biographies and Eminent Men," which is highly commended. Died after 1522. See Abel Remusat, "Melanges Asiatiques ;" D'Herbelot, " Biblioth^que Orientale." Khoong-Foo-tsze. See Confucius. Khosroo or Khosru, Kos'roo', written also Khos- rou, Khosrau, Kos'row, and Khosrew, [Gr. Xoapdr]^; Lat. Chos'roes,] surnamed in Persian Noushirvan, now'shiR-van', or Nooshirvan, (Nuschirwan,) said to signify " Generous Soul," the greatest of the Sassanide sovereigns, was the son of Kobad, (Cabades,) whom he succeeded on the throne of Persia, a.d. 531. At an early age he displayed extraordinary talents for govern- ment, and upon his accession to the throne immediately commenced a reform, which the corrupt reign of his father had rendered necessary. By the retrenchment of expenditures, and other means, he greatly improved the state of the finances. He appointed none but the most efficient men to offices ; he established a strict and impartial justice throughout his dominions ; he re- modelled his army, and suppressed the Zendiks, who were promulgating doctrines immoral and dangerous to the state. He also concluded a peace with the emperor Justinian, who paid the Persian monarch ten thousand pounds of gold. He afterwards carried on wars with various Asiatic nations, extending his empire as far as the Indus. Alarmed at the successes of Belisarius in Italy and Africa, he resolved to strike a sudden blow. In 540 he invaded Syria, pillaged and burned several cities, including Antioch, and took a multitude of pris- oners and an immense amount of booty. The next year he was opposed by Belisarius, one of the greatest gene- rals of that or of any age. The Roman commander, with a small number of ill-disciplined soldiers, succeeded in holding in check the innumerable hosts of Persia. But in 542 this great general was recalled, and Khosroo, having now nothing to fear, went from victory to victory. The war continued until 562, when Justinian purchased a treaty for thirty thousand pieces of gold. Hostilities were again renewed under the emperor Justin, and the King of Persia met at length with a total defeat, in 578, from Justinian, the general of the emperor Tiberius. Khosroo died in 579. The long and beneficent reign of this prince is mentioned by Oriental poets as the golden age of Persia. His virtues, his wise and efficient meas- ures for the welfare of his subjects, his conquests, his liberal encouragement of literature and science, attested by the numerous colleges and libraries which he founded, all rendered it worthy of this eminent distinction. A Pehlvi translation of the celebrated Bidpay or Pilpay Fables of India was made under the auspices of this prince. He was succeeded by Hormisdas IV. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Mirk- hond, "Histoire des Sassanides," translated by De Sacy ; D'Her- belot, " Bibliotheque Orientale," article " Nouschirvan ;" Le Beau, "Histoire du Bas-Empire;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Khosroo, Khosru, or Khosrau (or Chosroes) II., surnamed Parveez or PARWfz, par''veez', i.e. the " Gene- rous," son of Hormisdas IV., and grandson of Khosroo I., was raised to the throne of Persia upon the deposition of his father, a.d. 590. He was soon after driven from his capital by the rebel Bahram, and obliged to seek the protection of Maurice, the Emperor of the East. This sovereign, with a powerful army, overthrew the rebels and reinstated Khosroo. In 602 Maurice was assassin- ated by the usurper Phocas. Khosroo immediately took up arms to avenge his death, and by a series of victories in a few years subjugated the greater part of the Greek empire, and at length appeared before the gates of Con- stantinople. Heraclius, the successor of Phocas, having vainly attempted to obtain a favourable peace, resolved * Written also Gaiatheddin. See Introduction, p. 15. a, e, 1, o, u, y, lon^; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sAor^; a, 9, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; modu; KHOSROO 1323 KIKKERT bravely to meet his foe in the field. He gained repeated victories, and in five years drove the Persians out of every province which they had wrested from the empire. Khosroo was assassinated in 628. He had married a Christian lady named Shereen, (Shirin,) distinguished for her exquisite beauty. She poisoned herself at his grave. The romantic and unchanging affection of these royal lovers, together with their tragic end, has furnished the subject of many an Oriental poem. See Malcolm, "History of Persia;" Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas- Empire." Khosroo, Khosrou, or Khosru I., King of Armenia, surnamed the Great, a brave prince and able general, ascended the throne 198 A. D. He conquered the nations of the Khazars and Basiliens, and overran the greater part of the Persian dominions. He was assassinated in 232. Khosroo, Khosrou, or Khosru II., the second Christian King of Armenia, and a contemporary and ally of Constantine the Great, ascended the throne in 314. Died in 325, IChosroo, Khosrou, or Khosru III. was placed upon the throne of Persian Armenia by the King of Persia in 387, whilst the legitimate king Arsaces ruled that part of Armenia which belonged to the Romans. Khosroo gained several important victories over the neighbouring nations, and upon the death of Arsaces annexed Roman Armenia to his own dominions. In 392 the King of Persia, suspecting Khosroo of the design to render himself independent, took him prisoner, and placed another prince on his throne. After remaining in captivity twenty-one years, he was restored to his kingdom. His death occurred soon after. See Le Beau, "Histoire du Bas-Empire." Khoung-Fou-Tseu or Khoung-Tseu. See Con- fucius. Khowarezmi. See Al-Khowarezmi. Khulleel. See Khaleel. Kick, kik, (Cornelis,) an artist, celebrated as a painter of flowers and portraits, was born in Amsterdam in 1635 ; died in 1675. See PiLKiNGTON, "Dictionary of Painters." Kidd, (John,) an English chemist, born in 1775, was professor of chemistry, or medicine, at Oxford. He wrote, besides other works, the Bridgewater Treatise "On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man." Died in 185 1. Kidd, (Samuel,) an English Orientalist, born at Hull in 180L He went as missionary to Malacca, and after his return was professor of Chinese in the University of London. He published "Illustrations of the Symbols of China," (184L) Died in 1843. Kidd, (WnxiAM,) a notorious American pirate, born about 1650. In 1696 he was intrusted by the British government with the command of a privateer, and sailed from New York for the purpose of suppressing the numerous pirates then infesting the seas. He went to the East Indies, where he began a career of piracy, and returned to New York in 1698 with a large amount of plunder. He was soon after arrested, sent to England for trial, and executed in 1701. See a " Historical Sketch of Robin Hood and Captain Kidd," by W. W. Campbell, 1853. Kid'der, (Daniel Parish,) D.D., an American Methodist clergyman, born in Genesee county. New York, in 181 5. He graduated at the Wesleyan Uni- versity, Connecticut, and in 1836 settled as a pastor at Rochester, New York. In 1837 he went as a missionary to Brazil, where he introduced the Scriptures in the Portuguese language. He published, besides other works, " Sketches of a Residence and Travels in Bra- zil," (1845,) which was republished, with large additions, by Rev. James C. Fletcher, in 1858. Kid'der, (Richard,) a learned English theologian, entered Cambridge University in 1649, and, after various preferments, was appointed Dean of Peterborough in 1689. He was raised by William HI. to the see of Bath and Wells in 1691, as"^ successor to Bishop Ken. He wrote "A Commentary on the Pentateuch," a " Demonstration of the Messias," and several other works. Died in 1703. See Macadlav, " History of England," vol. v. ; Wood, " Athense Oxonienses." Kid'der-min'ster or Kyd'^r-myn'ster, (Rich- ard,) an English monk, distinguished as a preacher and scholar, was born in Worcestershire. He published a Latin treatise against the doctrines of Luther. Died in 1531- Kiel, (Cornelis van.) See Kilian. Kielmeyer, von, fon keeKml'er, (Karl Friedrich,) a German naturalist and professor, born near Tubingen in 1765. He published a "Treatise on the Relations of Organic Forces," (1793.) Cuvier, who was his pupil, speaks of him as the founder of the modern philosophical school. Died in 1844. See Von Martius, " Denkrede auf C. F. von Kielmeyer," 1845. Kielsen, keeKsen or ke-SKsen, (Frederic Chris- tian,) a Danish naturalist, born at Copenhagen in 1774, wrote on zoology and botany, a "Natural History of Birds," (1810,) and other works. Kien-Loong, (or -Lung,) ke-en'loong, written also Kien-Long, born in 17 10, succeeded his father, Yung- Tching, on the imperial throne of China in 1735. He reduced Calmuck Tartary and Thibet to subjection, and established numerous fortresses throughout his vast em- pire. It was in 1770, during the reign of this emperor, that the Torgoots, a Mongolian tribe numbering about 300,000 and inhabiting the country near the Volga, left their homes, and, travelling eastward, after incredible sufferings, finally reached the confines of China. Kien- Loong welcomed them warmly, and allotted them ample territory for their future home. As a prince, he was wise, just, and beneficent. He was noted for his love of lite- rature, and for the liberal encouragement which he gave to learned men of every nation. Died in 1799. See FoRTL^ d'Urban, " Discours sur I'Empereur Kien-Long," 1841; Abel Remusat, " Nouveaux Melanges Asiatiques," tome ii. ; " Nouvelle Biographi^ Generale." For an interesting account of the migration of the Torgoots, see De Quincey, "Narrative and Miscellaneous Papers," etc., vol. i. Kien-Lung. See Kien-Loong. Kieou, (pronounced almost kew,) a name given to Confucius in his childhood. (See Confucius.) Kliepert, kee'pCRt, (Heinrich,) a German geogra- pher, born in Berlin in 1818, published a number of excellent maps, among which are the "Atlas of Hellas [Greece] and the Hellenic Colonies," "Maps of Asia Minor," and an "Historical-Geographical Atlas of the Ancient World," (1848.) Kierings, kee'rings, (Alexander,) a skilful land- scai)e-painter, born in Holland in 1590; died in 1646. Kierman, keeR'min, (Gustaf,) a Swedish patriot, born in 1702. He was elected seven times a member of the Diet. Died in 1766. Kiernander or Kjernander, ky^R'nanMer, (Johan Zecharias,) a missionary, born in Sweden in 1711, was sent to India by the English Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Died at Calcutta in 1799. Kieser, kee'zer, (Dietrich Georg,) a German natu- ralist and medical writer, born at HarlDurg, in Hanover, in 1779 ; died in 1862. Kiesewetter, kee'zeh-v^et'ter, ( Johann Christoph,) a learned German writer, born at Oberweissbach in 1666. He wrote, in Latin, many works. Died in 1744. Kiesewetter, (Rafael Georg,) a German writer on music, born in Moravia in 1773. Among his productions are treatises " On the Music of the Modern Greeks" and "On the Music of the Arabians." Died in 1850. Kiesling, kees'ling, (Johann Rudolph,) a German Protestant theologian, born at Erfurt in 1706; died in 1778. Kiesling, (Leopold,) an eminent German sculptor, born at Schoneben, in Austria, in 1770. He worked in Vienna, and became sculptor to the court. Among his works are a bust of the Archduke Charles, and the monument of Von Hammer-Purgstall. Died in 1827. See Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Kif'fin or Kif'fen, (William,) an English merchant and preacher, born in 1616. He amassed a large fortune by trade, and afterwards became a dissenting minister. Died in 1701. See Macaulay, "History of England," vol. ii. chap. vii. Kik'kert, (Antoon,) a Dutch admiral, born at Vlie- land in 1762 ; died about 1835. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, y^, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^='See Explanations, p. 23.) KILBOURNE 1324 KIMBERLET Kilbourne, kiKburn, (James,) an American pioneer, born in New Britain, Connecticut, in 1770. He organized about 1802 the Scioto Company which settled in Ohio, and was a member of Congress from 1813 to 1817. Died in 1850. Kilbye, kiKbe, ? (Richard,) an English divine, born at Ratcliffe, in Leicestershire, about 1550. He was pro- fessor of Hebrew at Oxford, and one of the translators of the Bible. Died in 1620, Kilbye, (Richard,) an English minister, author of "I'he Burden of a Loaded Conscience." Died in 1617. Kil-dare', (Thomas Fitzgerald,) Earl of, an Irish nobleman, born about 15 14, was a son of Gerald, Earl of Kildare. He rebelled against the King of England in 1534, and was taken prisoner, sent to England, and executed at Tyburn in 1537. Kiliaii, kee^e-Sn' or kiKe-an, (Bartolomaus,) a skil- ful engraver, born in Augsburg in 1630, was the son and pupil of Wolfgang, noticed below. Died in 1696. Kilian, kee'le-in, or van Kiel, (vtn keel,) (Corne- Lis,) a learned author, born in Brabant. Among his works are an " Etymology of the Teutonic Languages, or a Teutonic-and-Latin Dictionary," and several pieces of Latin poetry. Died in 1607. Kilian, (Georg Christoph,) an engraver, born at Augsburg in 1709, was a brother of Philipp Andreas, noticed below. Died in 1781. Kilian, (Lucas,) one of the most distinguished of German engravers, born at Augsburg in 1579. He en- graved with uncommon ease and rapidity. Among his best works are " The Resurrection," by Paul Veronese, and "Christ after Death," by Michael Angelo. Died in 1637. Kilian, (Philipp Andreas,) an eminent engraver, was born in Augsburg in 1714. Augustus IIL, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, appointed him his court engraver, and Kilian executed several designs at Dres- den, though he continued to spend most of his time at Augsburg. Among his works are the " Adoration of the Kings," by Paul Veronese, and portraits of Francis I. and Maria Theresa. Died in 1759. See Nagler, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Kilian, (Wolfgang,) brother of Lucas, noticed above, was born in 1581. He studied engraving at Augsburg and Venice. The most important of his numerous works is the "Celebration of the Westphalian Peace in Augs- burg in 1649," which contains about fifty portraits. Died in 1662. See Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Kilij- (or Kilidj-) Arsian, kil'lij aR'slSn', written also Kelij-Arsian, I., Sultan of Iconium, began to reign in 1092. He was defeated by the crusaders under God- frey of Bouillon at Nicasa in 1097. In iioi he gained a complete victory over a large army of crusaders. Having revolted against the Sultan of Persia, he was killed in battle in 1107. SeeABOOLFEDA, "Annales." Kilij- (or Kilidj-) Arsl^n II., surnamed Azz-ed- Deen or AzzEDDYN, dz''ed-deen', (" Splendour of the Faith,") Sultan of Anatolia,commenced his reign at Ico- nium in II 55 A.D. He carried on long and doubtful wars against the Greek empire, but finally succeeded in annexing several provinces to his dominions. He was distinguished for his skill, energy, and generosity. Died in 1 192. See MiCHAUD, " Histoire des Croisades." Kil'li-grew, (Anne,) an English lady, to whom Dry- den has addressed his most beautiful elegy, was cele- brated for her virtues and accomplishments. She was the daughter of Dr. Henry Killigrew, and was born in 1660. She excelled both as a poetess and as an artist. A volume of her poems was published shortly after her death, which occurred in 1685. She executed por- traits of James II. and his queen, and several historical paintings. See Ballard, "Memoirs of Several Ladies of Great Britain," etc. ; "Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by L. S. Costello, 1844. Killigrew, (Catherine,) the wife of Sir Henry Kil- ligrew, was born about 1530. She was distinguished for her poetical effusions and for her knowledge of the classical and Oriental languages. She was a daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, and a sister of Lord Bacon's mother. Died in 1600. Killigrew, (Dr. Henry,) a dramatist, and a brother of Sir William Killigrew, was born in 1612. He served as chaplain to the Cavaliers, and subsequently gradu- ated as D.D. at Oxford in 1642. He wrote a tragedy, "The Conspiracy," and other works. Died about 1688. See Wood. "Athenje Oxonienses." Killigrew, (Margaret,) wife of William Cavendish, Duke of Newcastle. She wrote a life of her husband, and several philosophical works. Died in 1673. Killigrew, (Thomas,) an English dramatist, born in Middlesex in 161 1, was a page to Charles I. After the commencement of the rebellion he accompanied Charles II. on the continent, and married one of the queen's maids of honour. Upon the restoration he was made groom of the bed-chamber, and, on account of bis wit and oddities, became a highly-privileged person at court He wrote several plays. Died in 1682. See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica." Killigrew, (Sir William,) a brother of the preceding, was born in 1605. For his faithful adherence to Charles I. he was knighted at the restoration, and was soon after appointed vice-chamberlain. He wrote several plays, and two works entitled "Midnight and Daily Thoughts" and "Artless Midnight Thoughts of a Gentleman at Court." Died in 1693. See Baker, "Biographia Dramatica." Kilmaine, kil-man', (Charles Joseph,) a general, born in Dublin in 1754, entered the French army, and served with distinction under Bonaparte in Italy. Died in 1799. Kilmarnock, Earl of. See Boyd, (William.) Kil-pat'rick, (Judson,) an American general, born in New Jersey in 1838, graduated at West Point in iVpril, 1861. He served as captain at the battle of Big Bethel, and in the autumn of 1 861 became a lieutenant-colonel of cavalry. In 1862 he took part in various operations of the army of the Potomac. He was appointed a brigadier- general of volunteers in May, 1863, after which he was employed in a raid to Richmond for the release of Federal prisoners. He commanded the cavalry of Sherman's army in its march from Atlanta to Savannah, November- December, 1864. KiPvert, (Rev. Francis,) an English scholar and author, born in 1793 ; died in 1863. Kilwardeby, kil-wird^be, ( Robert, ) an English prelate, became Archbishop of Canterbury in 1272, and cardinal in 1277. Died in 1279. Kil-war'den, (Arthur Wolfe,) Lord, an Irish judge, born about 1740. He was called to the bar in 1766, became attorney-general in 1789, and chief justice of the king's bench in 1798. He was massacred by a mob of insurgents in Dublin in 1803, during a revolt, of which Robert Emmet was the leader. Kim'ball, (Nathan,) an American general, born in Indiana. He commanded a division of the Union army at the siege of Vicksburg, June-July, 1863, and at the battle of Franklin, November, 1864. Kimball, (Richard Burleigh,) an American writer and lawyer, born at New Lebanon, New Hampshire, in 181 8. He graduated at Dartmouth College, and sub« sequently travelled in England and on the continent. Among his principal works are "Reminiscences of an Old Man," "Cuba and the Cubans," (1850,) and "Ro- mance of Student-Life Abroad," (1853.) Kim'ber, (Edward,) son of Isaac Kimber, born in 1 719, produced some historical works, and a novel en- titled "Adventures of Joe Thompson." Died in 1769. Kimber, (Isaac,) an English dissenting minister, born in Berkshire in 1692. He wrote the Lives of Bishop Beveridge and of Oliver Cromwell, (1714,) and compiled a " History of England," (1745.) Died in 1758. Kim'ber-ley, (John Wodehouse,) Earl of, an English statesman, born in 1826, graduated at Oxford in 1847. He was under-secretary of state for foreign affairs from 1852 to 1856, was sent as ambassador to Saint Pe- tersburg in the latter year, and returned in 1858. He a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, sAort; gi, e, i, q, obscure; fJr, fill, f^t; m^t; nftt- good; moon; KIMBOLTON 1325 KING was again appointed under-secretary for foreign affairs in June, 1859, resigned in August, 1861, and was lord lieutenant of Ireland from October, 1864, to July, 1866. In June, 1866, he was raised to the peerage, as Earl of Kimberley, and in December, 1868, he was appointed lord privy seal in the new Liberal cabinet. Kimbolton, Lord. See Manchester, Earl of. Kimclii, kini'kee or kiN^she', (David,) an eminent Jewish rabbi, born in the south of France. He is regarded by his nation as the greatest Hebrew grammarian. In 1232, on account of his influence and vast erudition, he was appointed by the French and Spanish Jews to decide in a controversy which then existed between them in regard to the doctrines of Maimonides. His principal works are a Hebrew Grammar, a "Dictionary of He- brew Roots," and commentaries on nearly all the books of the Old Testament. Died about 1240. See Wolf, " Bibliotheca Hebraica;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Kimchi, (Joseph,) a learned rabbi, the father of the preceding, flourished at Narbonne about 1 160. He wrote treatises on grammar. Kinaston. See Kynaston. Kind, kint, (Johann Friedrich,) a German /////r^z/^/^r and poet, born at Leipsic in 1768. He wrote novels, dramas, and poems. His most famous production is the opera " Der Freischiitz," set to music by Weber. Died at Dresden in 1843. Kind, (Karl Theodor,) a German writer, distin- guished for his knowledge of the modern Greek language and literature, was born at Leipsic in 1 799. He published, among other works, " Modern Greek Popular Songs in the Original and with a German Translation." King, (Charles,) an American journalist, son of Rufus King, noticed below, was born in New York in 1789. He became in 1823 associate editor of the "New York American," a literary and political journal of a conservative character. He was subsequently one of the editors of the "Courier and Enquirer," in New York, and in 1849 was chosen president of Columbia College. Died near Rome in 1867. King, (Edward,) an English poet, who is said to have been the subject of Milton's monody of "Lycidas." He was drowned in 1637, aged about twenty-seven years. King, (Edward,) a learned English antiquary and lawyer, born in Norfolk in 1735. Li 1767 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He wrote, besides other works, " Observations on Ancient Castles," and a treatise on English architecture previous to the Norman con- quest. Died in 1807. King, (Gregory,) an English engraver and writer on heraldry, born at Lichfield about 1648; died in 1712. King, (Dr. Henry,) an English divine and poet, born in 1591, became Bishop of Chichester. He wrote "A Poetical Version of the Psalms," "Poems, Elegies, Para- doxes, and Sonnets," (1659,) and various sermons and religious treatises. Died in 1669. See Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses." King, (John,) a clergyman and writer, brother of Bishop Henry King, was born about 1596 ; died in 1639. King, (John,) an English theologian, born in the county of Bucks about 1559, was the father of Henry, noticed above. He became chaplain to Queen Elizabeth, and was an eloquent preacher. In 161 1 he was appointed Bishop of London. Died in 1621. King, (Jojjn,) an English divine, born in Cornwall in 1652. He preached for some time at Chelsea, and be- came prebendary of York in 1731. Died in 1732. His son John, born in 1696, was a physician, and published an edition of the " Orestes," " Hecuba," and "Phoenissae" of Euripides, (1726.) Died in 1728. King, (John Crookshanks,) born in Ayrshire, Scot- land, in 1806, emigrated in 1829 to America, where he soon became distinguished as a sculptor. Among his principal works are busts of John Q. Adams, Daniel Webster, and other eminent Americans. King, (John Glen,) a clergyman and writer, was born in Norfolk, England, about 1735. He was chosen in 1763 chaplain to the English factory at Saint Petersburg. Died in 1787. Of his works may be mentioned "The Rites and Ceremonies of the Greek Church in Russia; containing an Account of its Doctrine, Worship, and Dis- cipline." King, (John P.,) an American lawyer, born in Ken- tucky about 1800, was elected by the Democratic party to the United States Senate in 1833. He was again elected, but resigned before the term was completed. King, (Mitchell,) LL.D., a distinguished jurist and scholar, born in Scotland in 1783. He removed to Charleston, South Carolina, where he devoted himself to the study of law. He was one of the founders of the Philosophical Society at Charleston, and was appointed in 1819 judge of the city court. King, (Peter,) Lord, an eminent lawyer and high chancellor of England, born at Exeter in 1669, was the son of a grocer. His talents and application attracted the attention of his maternal uncle, the celebrated John Locke, through whose influence he was sent to the University of Leyden. After his return to England he studied law, gained admission to the bar, and rapidly rose in his profession. He was elected about 1700 a member of Parliament for Beer-Alston, which seat he retained for several years. In 1708 he was appointed recorder of London, and was knighted. Notwithstand- ing the arduous duties of his profession. King found time to write two able theological works, which alone would have made him celebrated. They are an " Inquiry into the Constitution, Discipline, Unity, and Worship of the Primitive Church," (1691,) (in which he favoured the rights of the Protestant dissenters,) and the "Plistory of the Apostles' Creed, with Critical Observations on its Several Articles," (1702.) In 1714 Sir Peter King was created chief justice of the common pleas, and in 1725 was made lord chancellor, and raised to the peerage, as Baron King of Ockham. He was attached to the \Vhig party. He resigned the seals in 1733, on account of ill health. Died in 1734. See Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors ;" " Selec- tion from the Speeches and Writings of Lord King;" Foss, "The Judges of England." King, (Peter,) Lord, an English statesman, born in 1775, was a great-grandson of the preceding. He entered the House of Lords about 1796, and became a political and personal friend of Charles James Fox. He published a "Life of John Locke," (1829.) He died in 1833, leaving a son William, Earl of Lovelace, who married Lord Byron's daughter Ada. See Lord Brougham, " Sketches of Statesmen of the Time of George IIL," (second series.) King, (Peter John Locke,) an English legislator, a son of the preceding, was born at Ockham, Surrey, in 1811. He was elected to Parliament in 1847, and ob- tained the repeal of one hundred and twenty sleeping statutes in 1856. King, (Philip Parker,) an English navigator, born in the island of Norfolk in 1793. He commanded an expedition sent in 1826 to explore and survey the coasts of South America. The results were published in a "Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of H.M.S. Ad- venture and Beagle, between the Years 1826 and 1836," (1839.) Died in 1855. King, (Preston,) an American statesman, born in Ogdensburg, New York, in 1806. He embraced the profession of law, and was a representative in Congress from 1843 to 1847, and again from 1849 to 1853. He was transferred to the United States Senate in 1853, took an active part in the senatorial debates, and, during the dis- union movement of 1860-61, advocated a firm adherence to the principles of the Republican party. He was ap- pointed collector of the port of New York about 1864. Died at New York in November, 1865. King, (Richard,) an English divine and polemical writer, born in Bristol about 1750. Among his princi- pal works are " Letters from Abraham Plymley to his Brother Peter on the Catholic Question," and a "Treat- ise on the Inspiration of the Scriptures." Died in 1810. King, (Sir Richard,) an English admiral, born in Dorsetshire in 1771. He rendered important services at the battle of Trafalgar, where he fought as captain, (1805.) He became a vice-admiral in 1821. Died in 1834. King, (Rufus,) an American statesman, born in Scar- borough, Maine, in 1755, graduated at Harvard in 1777. € as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Yi,guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) KING 1326 KINGS LET He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1780, and became an eloquent pleader. In 1784 he was elected a delegate to the Continental Congress, in which he offered in 1785 a resolution "That there be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in any of the States described in the resolution of Congress of Ajiril, 1784," i.e. the Northwest Territory. He married Mary Alsop, of New York City, in 1786. He took a prominent part in the Convention which in 1787 formed the Constitu- tion of the United States, and became a leader of the Federal party. Having fixed his residence in the city of New York in 1788, he was elected a Senator of the United States in 1789. He advocated Jay's treaty in several eloquent speeches, was re-elected to the national Senate in 1795, and was appointed minister-plenipoten- tiary to Great Britain in 1796. He performed the duties of this position with much ability for eight years, and retired to private life in 1804. In 1813 he was elected a United States Senator by a legislature of adverse poli- tics. Having been again elected in 1819 or 1820, he continued in that body until 1825, and made an able speech against the extension of slavery on the occasion of the admission of Missouri. He was appointed min- ister to England in 1825, returned about a year later, and died in April, 1827. See " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. King, (RuFUS,) an American general, a son of Charles King, noticed above, was born in the city of New York in 1 814. He graduated at West Point in 1833, and was emjDloyed as an engineer for several years. About 1838 he became adjutant-general of New York. He after- wards edited a paper at Milwaukee. He was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers in 1861, and commanded a division under Generals McDowell and Pope in the summer of 1862. He was minister at Rome from Oc- tober, 1863, to July, 1867. King, (Susan Prtigru,) an American writer, daugh- ter of James L. Petigru, was born at Charleston, South Carolina. She has published " Busy Moments of an Idle Woman," " Sylvia's World," and other tales of fashion- able life. King, (Thomas,) an actor and dramatist, born in London in 1730. Among his productions are " Love at First Sight," " A Peep behind the Curtain, or the New Rehearsal," and "Wit's Last Stake." Died in 1805. See " Biographia Dramatica." King, (T. Butler,) an American politician, born in Hampshire county, Massachusetts, in 1804. He studied law, and removed to Georgia about 1824. He was elected a member of Congress in 1839, 1841, and 1845, and be- came a secessionist in 1861. Died in 1864. King, (Thomas Starr,) an American Unitarian di- vine, born in New York in 1824. He became in 1848 pastor of the church in HoUis Street, Boston, and in i860 sailed for San Francisco, where he assumed charge of the Unitarian church in that city. He had a high reputation as a lecturer, and published, among other works, "The White Hills: their Legends, Landscapes, and Poetry," (1859.) Died in 1864. See "A Tribute to Thomas Starr King," by R. Frothingham. King, (William,) a Protestant prelate, was born in Antrim, Ireland, in 1650. He opposed the Catholics under James II., and favoured the Revolution. In 1703 he was created Archbishop of Dublin. He wrote "The Inventions of Men in the Worship of God," (1694,) intended to reconcile the Irish Presbyterians to the Episcopal ceremonies, and a treatise, in Latin, on " The Origin of Evil," ("De Origine Mali," 1702,) which was attacked by Bayle and Leibnitz. Died in 1729. King, (William,) a learned and satirical writer, born in London in 1663. About 1702 he was appointed in Ire- land to the offices of judge of the admiralty, keeper of the records, and commissioner of prizes. Among his works are " Animadversions upon the Pretended Account of Denmark," (1694,) in answer to a work by Lord Moles- worth, "The Transactioneer," a satire on the Royal So- ciety, (1700,) and "Original Works in Prose and Verse," (3 vols., 1776.) A Memoir of his life is prefixed to the last. Died in 1712. King, (William,) an English writer, born near Lon- don in 1685. Among his works are several Latin tracts on various subjects, and his autobiography, entitled "Political and Literary Anecdotes," (1819,) containing an interesting account of a number of his contemporaries. He was principal of Saint Mary's Hall, Oxford. Died in 1763. See "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1819; "Monthly Review" for February, i8ig. King, (William,) born at Scarborough, Maine, in 1768, was president of the convention which framed the Constitution of his native State. He was afterwards elected first Governor of Maine. Died in 1852. King, (William Rufus,) an American statesman of the Democratic party, born in Sampson county. North Carolina, in 1786. In 18 10 he was elected to Congress. He was United States Senator from Alabama from 1819 to 1840, being re-elected four times. He supported General Jackson in the Presidential campaigns of 1824, 1828, and 1832, and was appointed minister to France by President Tyler in 1844. He was elected president of the Senate in 1850, and in 1852 Vice-President of the United States. Died in 1853. King'lake, (Alexander William,) an English au- thor and barrister, born at Taunton in 1809, was edu- cated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He was called to the bar in 1837, after which he made a tour in the Levant, and published a book of travel called " Eothen," (1844,) which was highly successful. He accompanied the British army to the Crimea in 1854, and wrote a "History of the Crimean War." In 1857 he was elected a member of Parliament. See " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1844, ''nd April, 1863; " Blackwood's Magazine" for March, 1863, and January, i86g; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1863; "North British Review" for May, 1S63. Kingo, king'o, (Thomas,) a Danish poet and prelate, born at Slangerup in 1634, became Bishop of Fiinen. His sacred poems were highly esteemed by his contem- poraries, and he has been compared by English readers to Dr. Watts. Died in 1723. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Kingsborough, kingz'biir'eh, (Edward King,) Vis- COUN'i", an English antiquary, born in 1795, was a son of the Earl of Kingston. He published "Antiquities of Mexico, comprising Fac-Similes of Ancient Mexican Paintings," etc., (9 vols., 1830 et seq.) Died in 1837. Kings'ley, (Calvin,) D.D., an American Methodist clergyman, born in Oneida county, New York, in 1812, became editor of the "Western Christian Advocate" in 1856. He was elected a bishop in 1864. Having made a tour round the world, he died on his return, at Jeru- salem, in 1870. KingsTey, (Rev. Charles,) a popular English writer, born at Holne Vicarage, in Devonshire, in June, 1819. He was educated at Magdalene College, Cambridge, was ordained a priest of the Anglican Church in 1843, '^^'^^ became rector of Eversley, Hampshire, in 1844. About this date he married Miss Grenfell, whose sister is the wife of- Froude the historian. He published in 1848 a dramatic poem called "The Saint's Tragedy." He united with his friend the Rev. J. F. D. Maurice in efforts to improve the condition of the working-men by the formation of co-operative associations. His interest in the sufferings and trials of the working-classes in large towns was manifested in his novel of "Alton Locke, Tailor and Poet," (1850,) which attracted much attention. In 1853 he produced a philosophical romance eiititled " Hypatia," which appeared first in " Eraser's Magazine" and' is regarded as one of his most powerful works. He afterwards published " Alexandria and her Schools," "Glaucus; or, The Wonders of the Shore," (1855,) "Two Years Ago," a novel, (1857,) "Westward Ho," and other works. See "Blackwood's Magazine" for November, 1850, June, 1S55, and August, 1858 ; " Eraser's Magazine" for March, 1848, and June, 1858; " North British Review" for August, 1851. Kingsley, (James Luce,) LL.D., born in Windham, Connecticut, in 1778, graduated at Yale College in 1799, and in 1805 became professor of Hebrew, Latin, and Greek in that institution. He wrote the " Life of Ezra a, e. T, 6, vi, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, n, y, sAort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, f^t; mSt; nSt; goodi moon ; KINGSMILL 1327 KIRCHMAIER Stiles" in Sparks's "American Biography," and pub- lished several educational works. Died in 1852. Kings'mill, (Andrew,) an English Puritan minister, born at Sidmonton in 1538. He preached at Oxford and at Geneva, and published several religious works. Died at Lausanne in 1569. Kings'ton, (Elizabeth Chudleigh,) Duchess of, an English beauty, born in 1720. She was privately married to Harvey, who became Earl of Bristol, and from whom she was soon separated. In 1769 she was again married to the Duke of Kingston. She was tried on a charge of bigamy, and convicted. Died in 1788. See " An Authentic Detail of Particulars relative to the Duchess of Kingston," London, 1788. Kinkel, kink'el, (Johann Gottfried,) a German patriot, poet, and writer upon art, born at Oberkassel in 1815. He published in 1846 a "History of the Plastic Art among Christian Nations," and a poem entitled "Otto the Archer." In 1848 he established a journal called " Spartacus," in which he was a zealous advocate of democratic principles. Having taken part in the storming of the arsenal at Siegburg, and the insurrec- tion of the Palatinate, he was in June, 1849, taken by the Prussians and imprisoned at Spandau. In November, 1850, assisted by his friend Carl Schurz, he made his escape to England. See Strodtmann, " Kinkels Leben," 2 vols., 1850; Longfel- low, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Kinkel. (Johanna,) the wife of the preceding, born about 1807, was distinguished as an authoress and musician. Died in 1858. Kinker, kink'er, (Jan,) a Dutch author and poet, born near Amsterdam about 1 760; died about 1825. KinnSra, k?n'a-ra, [etymology uncertain,] sometimes impr()])erly written Cinnara, the name given to the male dancers of Swerga, or the paradise of Indra. The Kin- naras are represented with the body and limbs of a man and the head of a horse. See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon ;" Wilson, " Sanscrit Dictionary." Kinsbergen, van, vin kins'b^R''Hen, (Jan Hen- DRIK,) a Dutch admiral, born at Doesburg in 1735. I" 1767 he entered the Russian service under Catherine II., and soon after gained a brilliant victory over the Turks. In 1781 he assisted in the famous battle of Doggersbank, fought between the Dutch and English. He was created Count of Doggersbank by Louis, King of Holland. Died in 1820. See M. C. van Halt., "Leven en Karakter van den Admiraal Jonkheer J. H. van Kinsbergen," 1841 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Kinschot, van, vtn Idns'Kot, (Hendrik,) a Belgian jurist, born near Antwerp in 1541 ; died in 1608. Kinschot, van, (Kaspar,) a Dutch writer of Latin poetry, born at the Hague in 1622 ; died in 1649. Kinsky, kin'skee, (Franz Joseph,) Count, an Aus- trian general, born at Prague in 1739, served with dis- tinction against the French in 1793-96. Died in 1805. Kinson, kin'son, or Kinsoen, kin'soon, (Frans,) a skilful Flemisli i^ortrait-painter, born at Bruges in 1774 or 1770, worked in Paris and Brussels. Died in 1839. Kip, (William Ingraham,) D.D., an American prel- ate, born in New York in 1811. He graduated in 183 1 at Yale College, and was consecrated in 1853 missionary- bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in California. He published " Early Conflicts of Christianity," and " Dom.estic and Religious Life in Italy." KipTing, (Thomas,) D.D., professor of theology at Cambridge, aiid Dean of Peterborough, born in England about 1755. He wrote "The Articles of the Church of England proved not to be Calvinistic," and various other works. Died in 1821. Kipping, kip'ping, [Lat. Kippin'gius,! (Heinrich,) a German philologist, born near Rostock about 1623, was the author of numerous works on philology, history, and anti(|uities. Died in 1678. See H. E. Heeren. "Oratio de H. Kippingio," etc., 1755, Kippingius. See Kipping. Kip'pis, (Andrew,) an English dissenting minister and eminent biographer, born at Nottingham in 1725. He preached for some years in London, whither he removed in 1753, and was appointed teacher in Coward's Academy for the education of dissenting ministers, in 1763. About 1780 he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. His most important work is a new and enlarged edition of the " Biographia Britannica," of which he pub- lished 5 vols, in 1778-79. This work is highly esteemed, but was left unfinished, terminating at the letter F. He wrote a "Life of Captain Cook," (1788.) Died in 1795. See Rees, " Cyclopa;dia." Kir'by, (John Joshua,) F.R.S., an English artist and antiquary, born in Suffolk in 1716. He published " The Perspective of Architecture," (1761,) and "A Map of Suffolk." Died in 1774. See Nichols, "Biographical Anecdotes of Hogarth." Kirby, (Rev. William,) an eminent English ento- mologist, born in Suffolk in 1759, was a nephew of the preceding. He was educated at Caius College, Cam- bridge, and became curate of Barham. He studied various branches of natural history, and was one of the first members of the Linnaean Society, to which he contributed several papers. He acquired a European reputation by his work on English Bees, " Monographia Apium Angliae," (2 vols., 1802.) In conjunction with Mr. Spence, he published an excellent " Introduction to En- tomology," (4 vols., 1815-26.) He also wrote the Bridge- water Treatise entitled " The Habits and Instincts of Animals." Died in 1850. See J. Freeman, "Life of William Kirby," 1852; " Fraser's Magazine" for October, 1835 ; " Monthly Review" for January, 1803, and November, 181 7. Kirch, k^RK, (Christfried,) a distinguished as- tronomer and writer, born at Guben in 1694. He was a member of the Academies of Science at Paris and Saint Petersburg, and director of the Observatory in Berlin. Died in 1740. Kirch, (Gottfried,) father of the preceding, was born in Lower Lusatia in 1639. He was appointed di- rector of the Observatory and royal astronomer at Berlin. He wrote " Observations upon the Comet that appeared in Italy in 1676," (1677,) " Astronomical Tables," and " Christian, Jewish, and Turkish Calendar to the Year 1685." Died in 1710. Kirch, (Marie Margarethe Winckelmann,) an astronomer, wife of the preceding, was born in Upper Lusatia in 1670. She assisted her husband in his astro- nomical labours, and published almanacs. Died in 1720. Kir'-eher, [Ger. pron. ke^R^Ker; Lat. Kirche'rus,] (Athanasius,) alearned German Jesuit, distinguished for his talents and versatility, was born near Fulda in i6or. Having studied at Avignon, he was invited to Rome by the pope to fill the chair of mathematics in the Roman College. He wrote nuinerous treatises on philology, hieroglyphics, and antiquities, which display profound learning, but are deficient in sound criticism, and many of them are rather interesting than reliable. Among these may be named " Prodromus Coptus," (1636,) "CEdipus Egyptiacus," (3 vols., 1652-55,) being an ex- planation of hieroglyphics, " Mundus Subterraneus," (1665,) and "Description of Latium considered in its Ancient and Modern Aspect," ("Latium, id est nova et parallela Latii, turn veteris, tum novi, Descriptio," 1669.) He also published several valuable scientific treatises; and to him is generally ascribed the invention of the magic-lantern. Died in 1680. See his autobiography, "Vita Kircheri," in the "Fasciculus Epistolarum Kircheri," 1684 ; Bavi.e, " Historical and Critical Dic- tionary;" NiCERON, '• Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Kircher, (Conrad,) a German philologist and writer, born in Augsburg. His chief work is a Greek and He- brew Concordance of the Old Testament, (1607.) Died after 1620. Kirchhoff, k^RK'hof, (G.,) a German astronomer of the present age, distinguished for his observations and discoveries with the spectroscope. He published " Re- searches on the Solar Spectrum," (1862.) Kirchmaier or Kirchmayer, keeRK'ml'er, (Georg Kaspar,) a German chemist and scholar, born in Fran- conia in 1635. vvrote commentaries on several classic authors. The discovery of the art of etching on glass with fluoric acid is attributed to him. Died in 1700. _ See JocHER, " Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." € as k: 9 as j; g hard; g as/; G, H, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (2[^"°See Explanations, p. 23.) KIRCHMAIER 1328 KISFAL UDT Kirchmaier, (Thomas,) a Lutheran minister, born in Bavaria about 151 1. He took the Greek name of Nao Georgos. He is the author of numerous Latin poems and theological and polemical works, mostly written in the Latin language. He preached at Stuttgart, Esslingen, and Wisloch. Died in 1563. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Sax, " Ono- masticon." Kirchman, k^Ric'm^in, a Russian electrician, of Ger- man extraction, was professor of philosophy at Saint Petersburg. He was killed by the electric fluid, in the act of attracting it from the clouds, in 1753. Kirchmami, keeRK'mdn, (Johann,) a German au- thor and scholar, born at Luljeck in 1575, became in 1603 professor of poetry at Rostock. He wrote a "Dis- sertation on the Funeral Ceremonies used among the Romans," (1605,) and " De Annulis,'" a treatise on an- cient rings. Died in 1643. See Rayi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Nic^ron, " Memoires." Kirgener, k^Rzh'naiR', (Joseph,) a French general, born in Paris in 1766, was killed at Markersdorf in 1813. Kirk, (Edward N.,) an American general, born in Ohio. He was a citizen of Illinois when the civil war began. He commanded a brigade of the Union army at the battle of Shiloh, April 6 and 7, 1862, and was killed at the battle of Stone River, January, 1863. Kirk, (Edward Norris,) D.D., an American Con- gregationalist divine, was born in New York in 1802. He graduated at Princeton College, New Jersey, and became in 1828 pastor of a church at Albany. He was afterwards appointed secretary of the Foreign Evangelical Society, and in 1842 settled as pastor of the Mount Ver- non Church, Boston. Kirk'al, (Edward,) an English engraver, born in Sheffield about 1700. Kirkaldy, ker-kau'de, (Sir William,) of Grange, one of the earliest Protestants of Scotland, was the son of Sir James Kirkaldy, high treasurer under the reign of James V. Sir William was implicated in the assassina- tion of Cardinal Beaton, for which he was imprisoned. He finally escaped to France, where he was distinguished as one of the most valiant and chivalrous knights in the court and army of Henry H. After his return to Scot- land, he became a leader of the Protestants. He fought bravely against the French, who had been sent over to assist the Catholics, and made Queen Mary prisoner. He vainly attempted to capture Bothwell, whom he pursued as far as the coast of Norway. About 1570 Kirkaldy espoused the cause of the queen, of whose party he became the leader. He refused to obey the mandates of the regent, and after several months of fighting, in which great ferocity was displayed on both sides, sus- tained a siege in Edinburgh Castle. He was, however, finally obliged by his soldiers to make an unconditional surrender. He, with several of his friends, was hung in August, 1573. John Knox, who had formerly been his intimate friend and fellow-sufferer in the Protestant cause, deeply deplored his change of principles and his untimely end. See " Memoirs and Adventures of Sir Wm. Kirkaldy," Edinburgh, 1849 ; Robertson, " Histoiy of Scotland ;" Chambers, " Biographi- cal Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Froude, " History of Eng- land ;" "Blackwood's Magazine" for January, 1849. _ Kirk'bride, (Thomas S.,) M.D., an American phy- sician, born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in 1809. Having graduated at the University of Pennsylvania, he became resident physician of the Pennsylvania Hospital, and in 1840 superintendent of the Hospital for the In- sane. He has published an excellent work entitled " Rules and Regulations of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Lisane," (1850.) Kirke, kerk, (Percy,) Colonel, a British officer, notorious for cruelty, lived in the reigns of James II, and William III. He served in the army which suppressed the rebellion of the Duke of Monmouth, (1685.) His men were called "Kirke's lambs." See Pepvs, "Diary;" Macaui.av, "History of England." Kirke White. See White. Kirk'land, (Mrs. Caroline Matilda Stansbury,) an American writer, born in the city of New York, was married about 1830 to Professor William Kirkland, of Hamilton College. After a residence of nearly three years in Michigan, she published, under the assumed name of" Mary Clavers," "A New Home — Who'll Fol- low ?" (1839,) " Forest Life," (1842,) and " Western Clear- ings," (1846,) which soon obtained a wide popularity. She became editor of the " Union Magazine," in New York, in 1847. Among her other works may be named "An Essay on the Life and Writings of Spenser," (1846,) and "Personal Memoirs of George Washington," (1858.) Mrs. Kirkland's delineations of Western pioneer-life are among the most admirable of their kind, abounding in humorous incidents, shrewd sense, and picturesque de- scriptions. Died in 1864. See Griswoi.d, " Prose Writers of America ;" Duyckinck, " Cy- clopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; Cleveland, "Compen- dium of American Literature ;" " North American Review" for Januai-y, 1840. KirkIand,(JoHN Thornton,) D.D., LL.D., an Amer- ican scholar and divine, born at Little Falls, New York, in 1770. Having graduated at Harvard in 1789, he became pastor of the Congregational church in Summer Street, Boston. He was elected, in 1810, president of Harvard College. He wrote a " Life of Fisher Ames," and several other works. Died in 1840. Kirk'land, (Thomas,) an English physician and medical writer, born in 1721. He graduated as M.D. at the University of Edinburgh. Died in 1798. Kirk-pat'rick, ( William James, ) an Oriental scholar, born about 1760, was a member of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, and major-general in the English army at Bengal. He wrote a " Biography of the Persian Poets," " Description of the Kingdom of Nepaul," (1811,) and several other works. Died in 1812. Kirnberger, ke^Rn'beRG^er, (Johann Philipp,) a German musician and writer on art, born in Thuringia in 1721 ; died in 1783. Kirsten, ke^R'sten, or Kirchstein, kecRK'stin, (Georg,) a physician and writer on surgery and anatomy, born at Stettin, in Pomerania, in 1613 ; died in 1660. Kirsten, (Michael,) a learned physician and scientific writer, born in Moravia in 1620; died in 1678. Kirsten, [Lat. Kirste'nius,] (Peter,) a distinguished physician and Oriental scholar, born at Breslau in 1577. He studied at the most celebrated universities of Ger- many, and travelled extensively in Europe. He was sub- sequently invited to Sweden by Chancellor Oxenstiern, where he was appointed physician to Queen Christina and medical professor in the University of Upsal. He is said to have been master of twenty-six languages. He wrote, among other works, an " Arabic Grammar," (1608-10,) and "Notes on the Gospel of Saint Matthew, from the Collation of Arabic, Syriac, Egyptian, Greek, and Latin Texts," (1611.) Died at Upsal in 1640. See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Nic^ron, " Memoires." Kirstenius. See Kirsten, (Peter.) Kirwan, ker'wan, (Richard,) a distinguished chemist and geologist, born at Gal way, in Ireland, about 1733, or, as others say, in 1750. He was elected president of the Royal Irish Academy, Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and member of various scientific associations on the continent. He published "An Essay on the Constitution of Acids," (1787,) which was translated by Lavoisier and refuted by him, "Elements of Mine- ralogy," (1794,) an "Essay on the Analysis of Mineral Waters," " An Estimate of the Temperature of Different Latitudes," and other scientific works. Died in 1812. See CuviER, "Histoire des Sciences naturelles." Kirwan, (Walter Blake,) an Irish clergyman, dis- tinguished for his eloquence, born at Gal way in 1754. He was educated as a Catholic priest, but joined the Church of England in 1787, after which he preached in Dublin. Died in 1805. Kis, kfsh, (Stephen, ) a Hungarian theologian, born at Szegedin in 1505, was a disciple of Luther. He preached at Temesvar, and published several works. Died in 1572. Kischtasp. See GushtAsp. Kisfaludy, k!sh'foh-loody, almost kish'foh-looj, (KAroly,) a celebrated dramatist, the founder of Hun- garian comedy, was born at Tete in March, 1790. On a, e, T, o, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure: fSr, fill, fit; mSt; nSt; good; moon: KISFJLUDT 1329 KLAPROTH account of his fiery and turbulent disposition, he was placed in the Austrian army at an early age. He served as an officer in Italy in 1805 against Napoleon, and was afterwards taken prisoner by the French. Having been exchanged, he fought in Germany in 1809. He left the army in 1810, and fixed his residence at Vienna, where he gained a li\ing as an artist. In 1819 he acquired a sudden celebrity by his play "The Tartar in Hungary." Soon after he produced " Ilka," a tragedy, " Stiber the Chieftain," and several other plays, all of which were received with the greatest applause. Among the most popular of his comedies are the "Student Matthias," of which the emperor Matthias Corvinus is the hero, "The Suitors," and "The Insurgents." Kisfaludy es- tablished an able and successful literary annual, entitled the "Aurora." Died in November, 1830. See T. MuNDT, "Geschichte der Literatur der Gegenwart ;" Franz Schedel, " Kisfaludy K. filete," Buda-Pesth, 1832; "North American Review" for April, 1850, (by Mrs. Putnam.) Kisfaludy, (Sandor,) an elder brother of the pre- ceding, and one of the most eminent of the poets of Hungary, was born in the county of Szalad in 1772. He entered the army in 1793, and formed an attachment for the beautiful Rosalia Szegedy, who rejected him. He subsequently served against Napoleon in Italy, and was taken prisoner by the French. While a captive in the place where Petrarch had poured forth his immortal strains to Laura, the young Hungarian resolved to ad- dress the object of his love in a similar poem. In 1800 he regained the affections of the lady Rosalia, to whom he was married. He left the army and retired to his paternal estate. The same year the anonymous publica- tion of his poem, under the title of " Himfy," produced a sensation among men of letters never equalled in Hungary. In 1807 he made himself known in publish- ing a poem entitled "Happy Love." He afterwards wrote several other poems and dramas, of which "John Huniades" and " Ladislaus the Rumanian" were greatly admired. Died in 1844. Three years later his complete works were published at Pesth, in 6 vols. Several extracts from " Himfy" have been translated into English. See T. MuNDT, "Geschichte der Literatur der Gegenwart," Leipsic, 1853; also the article on the "Language and Literature of the Magyars" in the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for September, 1828. Kiss.kis, (Augustus,) a distinguished Prussian sculp- tor, born at Pless, in Upper Silesia, in 1802. He studied under the celebrated Ranch. He was professor in the Academy of Fine Arts of Berlin. Among his most admirable works are an equestrian statue of Frede- rick the Great, and two colossal groups in bronze, — an " Amazon attacked by a Tiger," and " Saint George and the Dragon." Died in 1862. Kisselef, KisselefF, or Kisselew, kis'seh-lgf, (Ni- cholas,) Count, a Russian diplomatist, born in 1800. He was appointed minister-plenipotentiary to Paris in 1851, and was sent as Russian minister to Rome in 1856. Kisselef, (Paul,) Count, a Russian general and diplomatist, a brother of the preceding, was born at Moscow in 1788. He was appointed minister of the domains of the emperor in 1837, and sent as ambassador to France in 1856. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Kisselew. See Kisselef. Kitch'en-er, (William,) an English physician and writer on gastronomy, born in London about 1775. He was the author of "The Cook's Oracle," "The Art of Invigorating and Prolonging Life," "The Traveller's Oracle," "Observations on Vocal Music," and other works on various subjects. Died in 1827. See William Jerdan, "Men I have known," London, 1866; "Blackwood's Magazine" for October, 1827. Kite, (Charles,) an English physician and writer, born at Gravesend about 1768 ; died in 1811. Ki-Tseu or Ki-Tse. See Kee-Tse. Kit'to, (John,) an English writer, distinguished as a biblical scholar, born at Plymouth in 1804. He suffered much privation and neglect in his childhood in conse- quence of the intemperance of his father. About the age of twelve he was rendered incurably deaf by a fall from the roof of a house. He became an inmate of the poor-house, where he manifested such an earnest desire to improve his mind that some persons procured for him admission to a college in Islington. As tutor to the children of Mr. Grove, he travelled in Russia, Arme- nia, and Persia in 1829-32. About 1833 he was engaged by Charles Knight to write for the " Penny Magazine." He edited " The Pictorial Bible" published by Charles Knight, (1838,) and produced numerous valuable and successful works, among which are " The Cyclopsedia of Biblical Literature," (4 vols., 1845-50,) "The Lost Senses — Deafness and Blindness," which contains an autobiography, and " Daily Bible Illustrations," (7 vols., 1849-53.) W'^s married about 1833. He died at Cannstadt, Wiirtemberg, in 1854. See J. E. RvLAND, "Memoirs of John Kitto," 1856; "Brief Biographies," by Samuel Smiles; "North British Review" for February, 1847. Kiuperli. See Koprili. Kj oping or Kjoeping, chopping, (Nikolaus Mat- son,) a Swedish traveller, born in 1630. In 1648 he sailed to the East Indies, and afterwards visited Persia, Farther India, Arabia, and Egypt. An account of his travels was published after his death. Died in 1667. Klapka, klop'koh, (General George,) born at Te- mesvar, in Hungary, in 1820. He became a cadet in an artillery regiment about 1838, and lieutenant-colonel in 1847. In 1848 he joined the Hungarian revolutionists, and greatly distinguished himself by his daring courage and his ability as a commander. He soon after received a general's commission and was appointed secretary of war. In 1849, while defending the fortress of Comorn, he made a sally at midnight, totally routed the Austrian army, and took several pieces of artillery. He forced his enemies to evacuate Raab, and cut off their commu- nication with Austria. A few days after he received the information that the Hungarian army in the South had surrendered to the Austrians, and also a command from Gorgey to yield up the fortress of Comorn. This man- date General Klapka refused to obey ; but two months later, having obtained honourable terms from Haynau for himself and troops, he capitulated, in October, 1849. He then went to London, and afterwards to Geneva. He wrote "Memoirs of the War of Independence in Hungary," (2 vols., 1850,) and a work upon the war in the East and the siege of Sebastopol, (1855.) Klaproth, kllp'rot, sometimes Anglicised in pronun- ciation as klap'rSth, (Heinrich Julius,) an eminent German Orientalist and traveller, born at Berlin, October II, 1783, was a son of Martin II. Klaproth, noticed below. At an early age he acquired, without a teacher, consid- erable knowledge of the Chinese language, and in 1802 founded the " Asiatisches Magazin" at Weimar. On the recommendation of Count Potocki, he was invited in 1805 to Saint Petersburg, where he was made adjunct for the Oriental languages and literature at the Academy of Sciences. In the capacity of interpreter to the Russian embassy to China, he travelled through Siberia as far as Irkootsk in 1805, and collected valuable books and docu- ments, which he used in the composition of his " Asia Polyglotta." In 1807 he was sent by the Russian govern- ment on a scientific expedition to the Caucasus, and on his return, in 1809, was appointed aulic councillor, and received a title of nobility and other distinctions. He resigned his offices in Russia in 1812. In 1816, through the influence of William von Humboldt, Klaproth re- ceived from the King of Prussia the honorary title of professor of Oriental languages and literature at Berlin, together with a large pension, and permission to reside in Paris. Among his numerous works we may mention "Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia," (2 vols., 1812— 14,) "Geographical and Plistorical Description of the Eastern Caucasus," (1814,) "Historical Pictures of Asia from the Monarchy of Cyrus to the Present Time," (1824,) "Asia Polyglotta," or a classification of Orien- tal nations according to their languages, (1829,) and "On the Origin of Paper Money in China." Besides these productions, which enjoy the highest reputation throughout Europe, he published a number of excellent maps and geographical treatises, and wrote valuable articles for the " Biographic Universelle." Died in Paris in 1835. Klaproth was one of the greatest linguists of his time. His sagacity, judgment, and memory were € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 84 KLAPROTH 1330 KLEIST extraordinary. " Since Klaproth's death," says the " En- cyclopaedia Britannica," " his fame has continued to rise. His merits as a philologer are very great ; but his merits as a linguist are greater still. . . . His memory, both for comprehensiveness and accuracy, was unrivalled." See Landkhsse, " Notice historique et litteraire sur Klaproth ;" Fischer, " Denksclirift auf Klaproth," Berlin ; " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generate ;" "Monthly Review" for October, 1814. Klaproth, (Martin Heinrich,) an eminent German analytical chemist and mineralogist, born at Wernigerode, in Prussian Saxony, in December, 1743. He served an apprenticeship as an apothecary, and about 1768 went to Berlin, where he studied chemistry. Having gained dis- tinction by the analysis of mineral substances and by discoveries in chemistry, he was elected a member of the Academy of Berlin in 1788, and a foreign associate of the French Institute. He discovered the metals Uranium and Titanium, and the earth Zirconia. He published the results of his researches and experiments in his " Con- tributions to the Chemical Knowledge of Mineral Bodies," (5 vols., 1796-1810.) About 1809 he became professor of chemistry in Berlin. Died in Berlin in 181 7. See " Biographie Medicale ;" Kopp, "Geschichte der Chemie." Klass, klSs, (Friedrich Christian,) a German land- scape-painter, born at Dresden in 1752 ; died in 1827. Klass, (Karl Christian,) a historical painter, a brother of the preceding, was born at Dresden in 1747. Died in 1793. Klauber, klow'ber, (Ignaz Sebastian,) a German engraver, was born in Augsburg in 1754. He was invited to Saint Petersburg by the empress Catherine, who appointed him professor in the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts. Died about 1820. Among his engravings is a portrait of the empress Catherine. Klauber, (Joseph,) an engraver, born at Augsburg in 1 7 10, was an uncle of the preceding. Died in 1768. Klaus, a surname of Nicolas von der Flue. See Flue, de. Kleander or Kleandros. See Cleander. Kleaiithes. See Cleanthes. Klearchus. See Clearchus. Kle'ber, [Fr. Kl^ber, klilmiR',] (Jean Baptiste,) a celebrated French general, born at Strasburg in 1754. Having studied at the military school of Munich, he returned to France in 1788, and soon attained the rank of adjutant-major. For his gallant conduct at the siege of Mayence, in 1793, he was made general of brigade. He subsequently gained several advantages over the Vendeans ; but his generous treatment of the prisoners called down upon him the censures of the committee of safety. He was removed to the army of the North, in which, as general of division, he served under Jourdan. He gained distinguished laurels in 1794 at the battle of Fleurus, where he commanded the left wing of the French army. He soon after captured Mons and the fortress of Maestricht. In 1797, displeased with the Directory, he retired to a country-seat near Paris ; but he left this retreat at the request of Bonaparte, whom he accompanied in 1798 to Egypt, He was severely wounded at the siege of Alexandria, of which city he w;as appointed governor. The following winter he marched into Syria at the head of the French vanguard, reduced El Arish, Gaza, and Jaffa, and gained in April, 1799, the decisive victory of Mount Tabor. On his return to Egypt he added to his already brilliant reputation at the battle of Aboukir. In August, 1799, he was made commander- in-chief by Bonaparte, who returned to France. Though Kleber was very popular, this event caused general dis- satisfaction in the army. The soldiers were greatly re- duced in numbers, and provisions were scarce. The grand vizier, with over 40,000 men and several English officers, having captured the important fortress of El Arish, was marching against the French. For these reasons Kleber formed a treaty with the Turks and the English admiral Sir Sidney Smith, by which, upon the surrender of all the fortresses in his possession except three, he was to receive from the Turks a large amount of gold and per- mission to return peaceably to France. He accordingly delivered up several strongholds, and was preparing to sail from Egypt, when he was informed by Admiral Keith that the English government, on the ground that Smith was not vested with full authority, would not consent that the French should leave the country except as pris- oners of war. This infraction of the treaty thoroughly aroused the French general. He attacked the Turks, gained over them the brilliant and decisive victory of Heliopolis, drove their army from Cairo, and within a month regained every position which he had previously abandoned. He then turned his attention to the im- provement of his conquests. He distributed land among his troops, formed several companies of native soldiers, and was using practicable and efficient means to render Egypt a valuable colony of France, when he was assassin- ated in June, 1800, by a Mohammedan fanatic. Kleber stands as one of the very first of the many distinguished generals of that period. To his great intellectual powers were joined the generosity of a lofty mind and the hatred of avarice and cruelty. "Kleber," said Napoleon at Saint Helena, " w^is an irreparable loss to France and to me. He was a man of the brightest talents and of the greatest bravery. Of all the generals I have had under me, Desaix and Kleber possessed the greatest talents." See Cousin d'Avallon, " Histoire des Gen^raux Desaix et Kleber," 1S02; Lubert de H^ricourt, "Vie du General KMber," 1800; Thiers, "History of the French Revolution ;" E. Barrois, "Notice sur le General Kleber," 1839; "Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Kleeman, kla'min, (Christian Friedrich Karl,) a German naturalist and painter of insects, etc., was born near Nuremberg in 1735. He wrote several works on entomology. Died in 1789. Klefeker, kla'feh-ker, (Johann,) a German writer, born in Hamburg in 1698 ; died in 1775. Klein, klin, (Bernhard,) a German composer, born at Cologne in 1794. Among his principal works are the oratorios of " Job" and "David," and an opera entitled "Dido." Died ini 832. See F^Tis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Klein, kl^N, (Dominique Louis Antoine,) a French general, born at Blamont in 1761 ; died in 1845. Klein, (Ernst Ferdinand,) a learned jurist, born at Breslau in 1743, became privy councillor at Berlin. He wrote " Principles of German and Prussian Penal Law," (1795,) "System of Prussian Civil Law," (1830,) and other legal works. Died in 1810. See his Autobiography, " E. F. Klein's Selbstbiographie," 1810. Klein, (Jakob Theodor, ) a celebrated writer on natural history, born at Konigsberg in 1685. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences of Saint Peters- burg and of the Royal Society of London. Linnaeus gave the name of Kleinia to a .new plant in honour of this naturalist. The works of Klein are regarded as valuable contributions to science. Died in 1759. See Christian Sendel, " Lobrede auf Herrn J. T. Klein," 1759 ; HiRSCHiNG, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch;" "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Gen^rale." Klein, (Johann Adam,) a distinguished German painter of landscapes and animals, and a skilful engraver, was born at Nuremberg in 1792. He visited Rome about 1820. See Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Kleinarts. See Cl^inard. Kleinau, klT'now, (Johann,) Baron von Janowitz, an Austrian general, born in Bohemia about 1760. He commanded a corps at Wagram, and rendered important services at Leipsic, 1813. Died in 1819. Kleist, von, fon klist, (Ewald Christian,) a popu- lar German poet, was born near Koslin, in Pomerania, in 1 71 5. He studied at Konigsberg, and afterwards entered the Danish army. In 1740 he left Copenhagen, and received a commission in the service of Frederick the Great. He greatly distinguished himself at the battle of Kunnersdorf in 1759, where he was mortally wounded. His most celebrated work is a poem entitled " Spring," ("Der Friihling," 1749.) Besides this, he wrote several hymns and idyls, a series of essays, and a treatise on military tactics. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" F. Nicolai, " Ehrengedachtniss E. C. von Kleist's," 1759; Gervinus, "Ge- schichte der Deutschen Dichtung," 1853. Kleist, von, (Heinrich,) a German poet and novel- ist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1776. He fought in the Prussian army against France. In 1808 he was a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f3.r, f^ll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; KLEIST KLOPSTOCK associated with Adam Miiller in the publication of the *' Phoebus." A victim of hypochondria, he committed suicide in i8ii. Gervinus places him above all the dra- matic poets of his time. His works include dramas, lyric poems, novels, and tales, among which are the tragedies entitled "The Prince of Homburg" and "The Battle of Hermann," (1809,) and "Michael Kohlhaas," a tale. See BuLOW, " Heinrich von Kleist's Leben und Briefe," 1848; Gervinus, " Geschichte der Deutschen Dichtung," 4th edition, 1853 ; "Foreign Quarterly Review" Ibr June, 1828; "British Quarterly Review" for October, i860. Kleist von NoUendorf, klist fon noKlen-doRf, (Emil Friedrich,) Count, a Prussian commander, iDorn at Berlin in 1762. He served with distinction in the Russian campaign of 1812, and at the battle of Baut- zen, after which, as Prussian plenipotentiary, he concluded the truce. After the battle of Dresden and the retreat of the allies, he gained a signal victory over Vandamme at NoUendorf, (August, 1813.) He was created a field- marshal in 1821, having previously received the order of the Black Eagle and been made commander-general of Saxony. Died in 1823. Kleisthenes. See Clisthenes. Kleitarchos. See Clitarchus. Kleitomachos. See Clitomachus. Kleitos. See Clitus. Klemm, klim, (Friedrich Gustav,) a German lit- terateur, born at Chemnitz in 1802. He published a "History of Bavaria," (3 vols., 1828,) a "Manual of German Archaeology," (1835,) ^ "General History of Human Civilization," (lO vols., 1843-50,) and other works. Klengel, kl^ng'el, (Johann Christian,) a German painter and engraver, born near Dresden in 1 751. Among his best pictures are an " Italian Landscape at Twilight," and "The Wheat Harvest." Died in 1824. Klenze, kl^nt'seh, (Clemens August Karl,) a Ger- man jurist, a brother of the following, was born near Hildesheim in 1795. He wrote a "Manual of Common Penal Law," (1833,) and other works. Died in 1838. Klenze, von, fon klgnt'seh, (Leo,) an eminent Ger- man architect, born at Hildesheim in 1784. He studied at Brunswick and at Berlin, and afterwards in France, England, and Italy. In 1813 he went to Munich, where he was patronized by the crown-prince Ludwig, and two years later was appointed court architect to the King of Bavaria. In 1833 he was ennobled. Among the most important of his designs are the Glyptothek, a building to receive statuary and gems, completed in 1830 ; the Odeon and the Pinakothek (picture-gallery) at Munich, completed in 1837 ; and the Walhalla, or hall of heroes, a magnificent marble edifice near Ratisbon, finished in 1839. This building, the exterior of which resembles the Parthenon, is one of the most remarkable monuments erected in modern times. Klenze, in his designs for buildings, displays an uncommon knowledge of the various styles of architecture ; though he regards the Grecian models as superior to all others. He also erected at Saint Petersburg, under the auspices of the emperor Nicholas, the Imperial Palace (completed in 185 1 ) and the Imperial Museum. Klenze published, among other works, an " Essay on the Restoration of the Tuscan Temples," " The Walhalla in its Artistic and Technical Relations," and several collections of Grecian designs. He was likewise skilled in painting, and pro- duced several landscapes and architectural pieces. Died in 1864. See R. WiEGMANN, "Ritter L. von Klenze und unsere Kunst," 1839; Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinstier-Lexikon " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale;" Fortoul, "De I'Art en Allemagne," tome i. Kleobulos. See Cleobulus. Kleombrotos. See Cleombrotus. Kleomedes. See Cleomedes. Kleomenes. See Cleomenes. Kleon. See Cleon. Kleopatra. See Cleopatra. Kleophon. See Cleophon. Kleostratos. See Cleostratus. Klerck, kl^Rk, (Hendrik,) an artist and poet, born in Brussels about 1570. Among his paintings are "The Resurrection of Jesus Christ," and "The Martyrdom of Saint Andrew." Kletten, klet'ten, (Georg Ernst,) a German medical writer, born near Wiirzburg in 1759; died in 1827. Klettenberg, klet'ten-b§RG', (Susanne Catherine,) born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1723, was an intimate friend of Goethe's mother, and has been celebrated by the poet in his " Wilhelm Meister," under the name ^{ "the Beautiful Soul." She wrote a number of religious essays and hymns. Died in 1774. Kleuker, kloi'ker, (Johann Friedrich,) a German scholar, born at Osterode in 1749. He became in 1798 professor of theology at Kiel, where he died in 1827. He translated the " Zend Avesta" of Zoroaster from the Persian, (1776,) and wrote a treatise "On the Religious System of the Brahmins," (1797.) See Ratjen, "J. F. Kleuker und Briefe seiner Freunde," etc., 1842. Klicpera, klits'pgh-ra, ? (Wenceslaus,) a Bohemian dramatist, born at Chlumec in 1792 ; died in 1859. Klimrath, kliN'rtt', (Henri,) a French jurist, born at Strasbourg in 1807 ; died in 1837. Klingemann, kling'eh -mS.n', (Ernst August Fried- rich,) a German dramatic poet, and director of the court theatre at Brunswick, where he was born in 1777. Among his best works are "Luther," "Henry the Lion," and "German Fidelity," ("Deutsche Treue.") Died in 1831. See " Foreign Quarterly Review" for November, 1827. Klingenstierna, kling'en-shgR'n^, (Samuel,) an eminent Swedish philosopher and mathematician, born near Linkoping about 1690, was educated at Upsal. Having visited Germany, he became the friend and dis- ciple of the celebrated Wolf. Upon his return to Swe- den, in 1730, he was appointed professor of mathematics, and was subsequently chosen tutor to the crown-prince, (Gustavus HI.) He performed the duties of this office with great al^ility, receiving as a reward the order of the Polar Star and the title of councillor of state. He was a Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and of Upsal. Klingenstierna wrote a work on refracting telescopes, which obtained the prize offered by the Academy of Sciences of Saint Petersburg, a treatise on the height of the atmosphere, (1732,) and various other productions. Died at Stockholm in 1785. See Martin Stroemek, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver S. Klingen- stierna," 1785; Adelung and Jocher, " Allgemeines Gelehrten- Lexikon." Klinger, kling'er, (Friedrich Maximilian,) a Ger- man litterateur, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in Febru- ary, 1753. Having visited Russia in 1780, he became reader to the grand duke Paul, whom he accompanied on his travels. In 181 1 he was created lieutenant-general. He published poems, dramas, and romances. Died at Saint Petersburg in 183 1. His drama entitled " Storm and Stress, or Impulse," ("Sturm und Drang," 1775,) had a great success, and gave a name to a period of German literature, ("Die Sturm-und-Drang Periode,") which, says Gervinus, "was an epoch of the revolt of nature against civilization, of simplicity against conventionality, of youth against age, of the heart against reason," etc. See Gervinus, " Geschichte der Deutschen Dichtung ;" "Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Klingsor von Ungerland, kling'soR fon oong'er- llnt^ a German minnesinger and astrologer of the thir- teenth century, supposed by some writers to have been the author of the famous " Nibelungen-Lied," while others regard him as a fabulous personage. Klingstadt, Klingstaedt, or Klingstet, kling'stit, (Claudius Gustav,) a miniature-painter in the suite of the regent Duke of Orleans, born at Riga in 1657; died at Paris in 1734. Klio. See Clio. Klocker, klok'ker, or Kloker, klo'ker, (David,) a portrait and historical painter, born at Hamburg in 1629. In early life he went as secretary of legation to Sweden, where he was appointed to give lessons in drawing to Queen Christina. He was afterwards liberally patron- ized by Charles X. Died at Stockholm in 1698. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Kloosterman. See Closterman, (Johann.) Klopstock, klop'stok, (Friedrich Gottlieb,) a celebrated German poet, born at Quedlinburg, July 2, 1724. He early cherished the ambition of writing an epic poem. About 1746 he went to Jena to study theology, € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas 2, th as in this. (2^^'See Explanations, p. ?\) KLOSE 1332 KNAPP and in 1747 removed to Leipsic. He produced in 1748 the first three cantos of his "Messiah," which had immense success and opened a new era in German poetry. In 1749 he was employed as tutor in a family at Langensalza. He removed in 1751 to Copenhagen, at the invitation of the king, Frederick V., who gave him a pension of four hundred thalers that he might have leisure to complete his great poem. In 1754 he married Margaret (Meta) Moller, an accomplished and literary woman, whom he has commemorated in odes and elegies under the name of "Cidli." He remained twenty years at Copenhagen, where he was patronized by Count Bernstorff and Count Moltke. In 1755 he pub- lished five more cantos of the "Messiah." He cherished the idea that he had a great poetical mission. "This idea of an epic priesthood," says Taillandier, "gradually became a reality. He transferred to his poem the events of his life ; he regulated his life by the inspirations of his poem." " By his character and conduct," says Goethe in his Autobiography, " Klopstock had succeeded in creating attention and respect for himself and other men of talent. ... At this time Klopstock came forward and offered his 'Learned Republic' for subscriptions. Although the later cantos of the 'Messiah' could not have the effect of the earlier, partly on account of their contents, partly on account of their mode of treating the subject, which came pure and innocent into a pure and innocent time, the esteem for the poet remained un- changed." The same writer remarks, " On the whole, one might have taken him for a diplomatist. He carried himself with the self-conscious dignity of a person who has a great moral mission to fulfil." In 1758 he was greatly afflicted by the death of his wife. He settled at Hamburg in 1771, and published in 1773 the last cantos of his "Messiah." The general sentiment of his contemporaries in relation to this poem is thus expressed by Madame de Stael, in her " Tableau de I'AUemagne :" " When the reader commences this poem, he receives an impression like that of a person entering a grand cathedral filled with the music of an organ." His admirers compared him to Homer and Milton ; but more sober critics censure his sentimen- tality, monotony, and lack of action, Akhough his " Messiah" is seldom read at the present time, all the German schools unite in the expression of honour and gratitude to the author for the impulse which he gave to the national literature. The finest qualities of his genius are displayed in his odes, some of which are con- sidered as classic models of the noble and the graceful. He also wrote a number of sacred dramas, among which is "The Death of Adam." About 1792 he married a widow named Von Winthem. He died at Hamburg in March, 1803. See Heinrich Doring, " F. G. Klopstock's Biographie," 1853; Cramer, "Klopstock er und iiber ihn," 5 vols., 1780-93; Miss Benger, "Klopstock and his Friends," 1814; H. Doring, "Klop- stock's Leben,"i825; Johann G. Gruber, " Klopstocks Leben," 1832; Bon Joseph Dacier, "filoge de Klopstock," Paris, 1805; F. L. Moltke, " Ara D. M. F. G. Klopstock," Altona, 1818; Long- fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" "Foreign Quarterly Re- view" for January, 1843; Gervinus, " Geschichte der Deutschen Dichtung ;" Alexander Tolhausen, " Klopstock, Lessing, and Wieland: Treatise on German Literature," London, 184S ; " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Klose, kl5s, (F. J.,) an English musical composer and skilful pianist, was born in London; died in 1830. Klotz, klots, [Lat. Klot'zius,] (Christian Adol- PHUs,) a learned German critic and poet, born at Bischofs- werda, near Dresden, in 1738. He studied at Leipsic and Jena, and in 1762 became professor of philosophy at Gottingen. He was appointed by the King of Prussia professor of rhetoric at Halle in 1765, with the title of aulic councillor. He wrote numerous commentaries and short treatises, among which are "Ridicula Literaria," (1762,) "Acta Literaria," (7 vols., 1764-73,) and " Lec- tiones Venusinae," (1771.) Died in 1771. See C. Hausen, " Leben und Charakter C. A. Klotzens," 1772 ; C. G. von Murr, "Denkmal zur Ehre des Herrn Klotz," 1772; Mangelsdouk, " Vita et Menioria Klolzii," 1772. Klotz, (Matthias,) a German painter of portraits and landscapes, born at Strasburg in 1748; died in 1821. His three sons, Caspar, Simon, and Joseph, acquired distinction in the same departments of painting. Klotz, (Reinhold,) a German critic and scholar, born at StoUberg in 1807, succeeded Hermann as professor of philology at Leipsic in 1849. He published editions of Terence, of the " Phoeniss^" and " Medea" of Euripides, and other works. Klotz, (Simon,) a German painter of history and landscapes, born at Mannheim in 1777, was a son of Matthias, noticed above. Died in 1825. Klotzius. See Klotz, (Christian Adolphus.) Klotzius, klot'se-iis, (SrEPHEN,) a German theolo- gian, born at Lippstadt in 1606; died in 1668. Kliiber or Klueber, klii'ber, (Johann Ludwig,) a German jurist and writer of high reputation, was born near Fulda in 1762. He became professor of law at Heidelberg in 1807, soon after which date he was coun- cillor of state at Carlsruhe. In 1817 his friend Prince Hardenberg procured for him a high office in the min- istry of foreign affairs at Berlin, He acquired distinc- tion by a history of the Congress of Vienna, " Acten des Wiener Congresses in den Jahren 1814 und 1815," (9 vols., 1815-35,) and other works. Died in 1837. See MoRSTADT, " Kliibers Leben," prefixed to Kluber's " Of- fentliches Recht des Deutschen Bundes," 1840; " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Klueber. See Kluber. Kluegel, See Klugel. Kliigel, klii'gel, (Georg Simon,) a German mathema- tician, born at Hamburg in 1739. He became in 1766 professor of mathematics at Helmstedt, Among his principal works is "Elements of Astronomy," (1819,) Died in 1812. Kluit, kloit, (Adriaan,) a Dutch historical writer, born at Dort in 1735. In 177^ he was appointed professor of the archaeology of Holland and of diplomatic history at Leyden. Among his works are a "History of the Political Administration of Holland" until 1795, (5 vols., 1802-05,) the " Political Economy of Holland." Died in 1807. Kluk, klook, (Christopher,) a Polish naturalist, born in Podlachia in 1739, published a "Dictionary of Plants," (3 vols, 1786-88.) Died in 1796, Klupfel, kloop'fel, (Emmanuel Christoph,) a Ger- man, born in Saxe-Gotha, became, in 1764, editor of the well-known "Almanach de Gotha," Died in 1776. Kiyn or Klijn, klin, (Hendrik Herman,) a Dutch poet, born at Amsterdam in 1773, wrote a poem on Astronomy, (1809,) and other works. Klytemnestra, See Clytemnestra. Kmety, kma'tee, (George,) General, the son of a Protestant minister, was born in the county of Gomor, in Hungary, in 18 10, He entered the Austrian army, in which he obtained a commission. In 1848 he joined the Hungarian army which fought against the Austrians, and signalized his bravery on several occasions. After the surrender of Gorgey, he embraced the Moslem faith, and enlisted in the Turkish service, with the title of Ismael Pasha. He distinguished himself as a general in the Crimean war, particularly in a battle with the Rus- sians before Kars. Died in 1865. Knapp, knip or k'nip, (Albrecht,) a German divine, born in the duchy of Wiirtemberg in 1 798, has published several collections of hymns and sacred poems, which are highly esteemed. Knapp, (Georg Christian,) a German theologian, born at Halle in 1753. ^^'^s professor of theology at Halle about fifty years, and was distinguished in sacred criticism. He was moderately orthodox, endeavouring to reconcile revelation with the demands of reason. He published "Lectures on Christian Theology," (2 vols., 1827,) and other works. Died at Halle in 1825. See A. H. Niemeyer, " Epicedien dem Andenken G. C. Knapp's," etc., 1825. Knapp, (Johann,) a German painter of flowers and animals, was born in Vienna in 1778 ; died in 1833. Knapp, nap, (Samuel Lorenzo,) a miscellaneous writer, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1784. Among his principal works are " Biographical Sketches of Eminent Lawyers, Statesmen, and Men of Letters," "Travels in North America, by Ali Bey," "Lectures on American Literature," and "American Biography." Died in 1838. a, e, 1, 5, u, y, loftg; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; ftr, f^ll, fitj mSt; n6t; good; moon- KNJPTON 1333 KNIGHT Knapton, nap'ton, (George,) an English portrait- painter, born in London in 1698, painted in crayons. Died in 1788. Knaust, knowst or k'nowst, (Heinrich,) a German poet, born in 1541 ; died in 1577. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Knaut, knowt or k'nowt, (Christian,) a German botanist, born at Halle in 1654; died in 1716. Knaut, (Christoph,) a botanical writer, father of the preceding, was born at Halle in 1638; died in 1694. Knauth, knowt, (Christian,) a German historian, born at Gorlitz in 1706; died in 1784. Knebel, kna'bel, (Emmanuel Theophilus,) a Ger- man medical writer, born at Gorlitz in 1772 ; died in 1809. Knebel, von, fon kna'bel, (Karl Ludwig,) a Ger- man litterateur, born at Wallerstein, in Franconia, in 1744. He published an excellent translation of the Elegies of Propertius (1798) and the " De Rerum Natura" of Lucretius, (1821 and 1831.) His interesting "Correspondence with Goethe" came out after Knebel's death, which took place in 1834. He was intimate with Mendelssohn, Gleim, Jacobi, and other eminent writers. See T. MuNDT, " Knebels Leben," prefixed to his " Literarischer Nachlass," 1835-40: Schwarz, "Zur Erinnerung an K. L. von Knebel: Rede an selnem Grabe gesprochen," 1834; Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1838. Kneller, neKler, [Ger, pron. knel'ler,] (Godfrey,) a celebrated portrait-painter, was born at Lubeck in 1648. He commenced his studies under Rembrandt, and pursued them in Italy. He afterwards went to Eng- land, where he was successively court painter to Charles IL, James H., William HL, Queen Anne, and George L The last-named created him a baronet. Kneller was also made a knight of the Roman empire by the emperor Leopold. In addition to the distinguished personages of the English court, he painted portraits of Louis XIV. and Peter the Great. Died about 1723. See W. A. Ackermann, " Der Portraitmaler Sir Godefrey Kneller im Verhaltniss zur Kunstbildung seiner Zeit dargestellt," Lubeck, 1845- Kniazhnin, kne-^zh^nin, written also Kniaschnin and Kniajnin, (Yakof Borissovitch,) a Russian poet and drainatist, was born at Pskov in 1742. Among his principal works are the tragedies of " Dido" and " Sopho- nisba," and a number of odes, songs, and fables. At the request of the empress Catherine, he translated from the Italian " La Clemenza di Tito" of Metastasio. Died in 1791. See " Memoirs of the Princess Daschkoff," 1840. Kniaziewicz, kne-lzh'yk-vitch, ? (Karl,) a Polish general, born in 1762. He fought bravely, though un- successfully, in the defence of his country in 1794, and afterwards entered the French army and distinguished himself in the Italian campaign of 1798. He was made a commander of the legion of honour in 1804. Died in 1842. See L. Chodzko, "La Pologne illustree," 1840. Kniaznin, kne-azh'nin, (Francis Dionysius,) a Polish poet, born in the government of Vitepsk in 1750, became teacher in the Jesuits' College at Warsaw, and was afterwards secretary to Prince Adam Czartoryski. He was the author of lyric poems, and published various translations of ancient poets into Polish. Died in 1807. Knibb, nib, (Rev. William,) an English Baptist mis- sionary, noted for his courageous opposition to slavery in Jamaica, was born at Kettering, in Northamptonshire, about 1800. He laboured zealously to ameliorate the condition of the slaves ; and by his representations to the people of England he aided not a little in the negro emancipation of Jamaica, as well as in the subsequent abolition of the apprentice system. He made a powerful anti-slavery speech at Exeter Hall in 1840. Died in 1845. See Jas. Hoby, " Memoir of Wm. Knibb," 1839; J. H. Hinton, "Memoirs ofWm. Knibb," 1847. Knicanin, kne-ki-neen', ? (Stephan Petrovitch,) a Servian general, born in 1808, distinguished himself in the revolution of 1848, and in 1852 was made a general and senator. Died in 1855. Knickerbocker, (Diedrtch.) See Irving. Kniep, kneep, (Christoph Heinrich,) a German painter, born at Hildesheim in 1748. He travelled in Italy with Goethe, and worked in Naples. His drawings in sepia and crayons, of Italian landscapes and antiqui- ties, are much admired. Died in Naples in 1825. Knigge, von, fon knik'keh, (Adolf Franz Fried- rich,) Baron, a German philosopher and writer, born near Hanover in 1752. He wrote, besides other works, "The Rotnance of my Life," ("Roman meines Lebens," 4 vols., 1781,) and "On the Art of Living with Men," ("Ueber den Umgang mit Menschen," 1788.) Died in 1796. See Godeke, "Adolf von Knigge, sein Leben und Blicke in seine Zeit," 1844; "Kurze Biographie des A. von Knigge," 1825. Knight, nit, (Charles,) an eminent English editor and author, born at Windsor in 179L He settled in London about 1823, and commenced business as a pub- lisher. He was one of the first members of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, under whose auspices he published "The Penny Magazine" (1832-45) at his own risk, and "The Library of Entertaining Knowledge." Among the works which he has published or edited are "The Penny Cyclopaedia," (30 vols., 1833- 46,) "The Pictorial History of England," (about 1844,) and a valuable "English Cyclopaedia," (24 vols., 1854- 61,) which is in fact a recast of the " Penny Cyclopaedia," with important changes and additions. This is separated into divisions for biography, geography, etc. He has also published a number of popular works, among which are a " Life of Shakspere," prefixed to his " Pictorial Shak- spere," (1839,) "Knowledge is Power," (1855,) and his "Popular History of England," (1856-62.) See "Passages of a Working- Life," by Charles Knight;. "British Quarterly Review" for July and October, 1864. Knight, (Cornelia,) an English authoress, born about 1758, was for a time companion to the princess Charlotte. She resided many years in Italy. Among her works is "Dinarbas," (1790,) which is a sequel to Johnson's "Rasselas." Died about 1837. See " Autobiography of Miss Cornelia Knight," London, 1861 ; Bessie R. Parkes, "Twelve Biographical Sketches," London, 1866; "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1862; "British Quarterly Review" for January, 1862. Knight, (Edward,) an English comic actor, born at Birmingham in 1774; died in 1826. Knight, (Godwin,) F.R.S., an English philosopher, graduated at Oxford in 1742. He published an " Attempt to demonstrate that all the Phenomena of Nature may be explained by Attraction and Repulsion," (1748.) Died in 1772. Knight, ( Henry Gally, ) an English antiquary, traveller, and writer, born in 1786. He wrote poems and treatises on architecture. Died in 1846. Knight, (James,) an English navigator, who in 17 19 was sent by a mercantile company with two vessels to search for a northwest passage and for mines of copper. None of this party ever returned. Knight, (John Prescott,) an English painter, born at Stafford in 1803, is the son of a noted comedian. He painted portraits with success. Knight, nit, (Jonathan,) an American surgeon, born atNorwalk, Connecticut, in 1789. He became professor of anatomy at Yale College in 1813, and was professor of surgery at the same college from 1838 to 1864. Died in 1864. Knight, (Richard Payne,) an English antiquary and Greek scholar, born in Herefordshire in 1750. He was several times elected to Parliament for the boroughs of Leominster and Ludlow. He made a large collection of Greek coins, bronzes, and various works of art, valued at fifty thousand pounds, which he bequeathed to the British Museum. Among other works, he wrote "An Analytical Enquiry into the Principles of Taste," (1805.) He contributed to the "Edinburgh Review," and wrote a mediocre poem on "The Progress of Civil Society," (1796,) which furnished Canning and others a subject for a parody in "The Anti-Jacobin." Died in 1824. See "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1806. Knight, (Samuel,) an English clergyman and biogra- pher, born in London in 1674. He wrote the Lives of Erasmus (1724) and of Dr. John Colet, (1726.) He became chaplain to George II. in 1730, and Archdeacon of Berks in 1735. Died in 1746. ■e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/- G, H, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^= See Explanations, p. 23.) KNIGHT »334 KNOX Knight, (Thomas Andrew,) a distinguished vege- table physiologist and horticulturist, born in 1758, was a bri)ther of R. P. Knight, noticed above. He succeeded Sir Joseph Banks as president of the British Horticul- tural Society. He wrote "A Treatise on the Culture of the Apple and Pear, and on the Manufacture of Cider and Perry," (1797,) and other works. He produced new and valuable varieties of fruits from seeds, and made experiments in vegetable fecundation, in the germination of seeds, and in other processes of vegetable physiology. Died in 1838. Knighton or Knyghton, ni'ton, (Henry,) a his- torical writer and ecclesiastic, flourished in England about 1380-1400. His principal works are a chronicle of events from the invasion of William the Conqueror, and a history of Richard H. Knill, nil, (Rev. Richard,) an English Methodist mis- sionary, born in Devonshire in 1787. He was sent in 1816 by the London Missionary Society to India, where he spent three years, and subsequently resided sixteen years in Russia, where he laboured with great zeal and success. Died in 1857. See Charles M. Birrell, " Life of Richard Knill, with a Review of his Life and Character," by J. Angell James, London, i860. Knipperdolling, knip'per-doriing, (Bernhard,) a German fanatic, born in Miinster, was associated with the principal leaders of the Anabaptist insurrection of 1533. He was executed in 1536, with his accomplice, John of Leyden. Knipstrovius. See Knipsi row. Knipstrow, knip'stRo, or Kniepstrow, kneep'stRo, [Lat. Knipstro'vius,] (Johann,) a German reformer, born at Sandow, in Silesia, in 1497. He distinguished himself in a public dispute against Tetzel in 1518. In 1539 he became professor of theology at Greifswalde, and in 1547 rector of the university at that place. Died in 1556. See Mayer, "Vita Knipstrovii." Knjaschnin or Knjaznin. See Kniazhnin. Knobelsdorf, kno'bels-doRf, (Hans Georg Wen- CESLAUS,) a distinguished Prussian architect, born in 1697, was appointetl by Frederick the Great superin- tendent of the royal buildings. Among his best works are the castle of Sans-Souci and the Opera-House at Berlin. Died in 1753. Knoblecher, knop'l^K-er, (N.,) a German mission- ary and traveller, born about 1800. In company with a trading-party, he ascended the White Nile in 1849-50 to about 4° north latitude, but was unable to reach the source of the river. Knoller, von, fon knol'ler, (Martin,) an eminent historical painter, born at Steinach, in the Tyrol, in 1725, studied several years in Rome. Among his best works are the frescos painted from incidents in the life of Cardinal Borromeo, and a large fresco at Munich of the "Ascension of the Virgin." Knoller received a patent of nobility from the empress Maria Theresa. Pie worked many years in Milan. Died in 1804. See Enrico Clausen, " Memoria della Vita e delle Opere di M. Knoller," Milan, 1838; Nagler, " AUgenieines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Knolles, nolz, (Richard,) an English writer, born in Northamptonshire about 1545. Among his works are " General History of the Turks from the Origin of this Nation until the Elevation of the Ottoman Family," (1610,) and a "Compendium of the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew Grammar." His " History of the Turks" was praised by Dr. Johnson. Died in 1610. Knolles or Knowles, n51z, (Robert,) a celebrated English general under the reign of Edward III., was born about 131 7 ; died about 1406. See Froissart, "Chronicles." KnoUis or Knowles, nolz, (Sir Francis,) an English statesman, born in Oxfordshire about 1530. He pro- moted the Reformation in the reign of Edward VI. On the accession of Elizabeth, (1558,) he was appointed chamberlain of the household and privy councillor. Died in 1596. See Turner, " History of the Reign of Edward VL," etc. Knorr, knoR, (Georg Wolfgang,) a German en- graver, born at Nuremberg in 1705 ; died in 1761. Knorr von Rosenroth, knoR fon ro'zen-rot^ (Chris- tian,) Baron, a German scholar and statesman, born near Liegnitz in 1636. He wrote an "Evangelical His- tory," and "Kabbala Denudata," an exposition of the transcendental, metaphysical, and theological doctrines of the Hebrews. Died in 1689. Knott, not, (Edward,) an English Jesuit and con- troversial writer, whose proper name was Matthew- Wilson, was born in Northumberland in 1580. Among his principal works is " Infidelity Unmasked," (1652,) in answer to Chillingworth's "Religion of Protestants." Died in 1656. Knowler, no'ler, ? (William,) an English clergyman, born about 1700, translated part of Saint Chrysostom's works. Died in 1767. Knowles, n51z, (James Davis,) an American writer and Baptist clergyman, born at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1798. He graduated at Columbian College, Wash- ington, D.C., and in 1825 became pastor of a church in Boston. He wrote Memoirs of Roger Williams and of Mrs. Ann H. Judson, and was the founder of the "Christian Review;" Died in 1838. Knowles, nolz, (James Sheridan,) a popular drama- tist and actor, born at Cork, in Ireland, in 1784. At twelve years of age he wrote his first play, and at four- teen produced an opera, "The Chevalier de Grillon." He visited America in 1835, where he performed on the stage and met with a flattering reception. Four years later, an annual pension of two hundred pounds was con- ferred upon him by the British government. Among the most celebrated of his numerous plays may be mentioned "Leo the Gipsey," "Caius Gracchus," (1815,) " Vir- ginius," (1820,) and "The Hunchback," (1832.) Several years before his death he left the stage and became a Baptist preacher. Died in 1862. See R. H. Horne, " New Spirit of the Age," 1844; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1833; "Eraser's Mat;nzine" for April. 1836; " Blackwood's Magazine" for October, 1863; Allibone, "Diction- ary of Authors." Knowles, (Thomas,) an English clergyman and writer, born at Ely in 1723. He wrote "Advice to Young Clergymen," "Primitive Christianity,- in Defence of the Trinity," and "Lectures for Passion Week." Died in 1802. Knowlton, noKton, (Thomas,) an English botanist, born in 1692 ; died in 1782. Knox, noks, (Henry,) an able American general and statesman, born at Boston, July 25, 1750, was a book- seller in his youth. He married an accomplished lady named Lucy Fluker. He took part in the battle of Bunker Hill, and in the beginning of the Revolution distinguished himself by his skill as an engineer and artillerist. In 1775 he was appointed commander of the artillery. He was raised to the rank of brigadier- general in 1776, and served under Washington in the battles of Trenton and Princeton, January, 1777. He directed the artillery at the battle of Brandyvvine, Sep- tember, 1777, and at Monmouth, June, 1778. He also contributed to the defeat and capture of the British army at Yorktown, in October, 1781, soon after which he was promoted to be a major-general. He enjoyed in a high degree the esteem and confidence of General Wash- ington. He succeeded General Lincoln as secretary of war in March, 1785, before the adoption of the Consti- tution, and was appointed to the same office by President Washington in 1789. In politics he was a Federalist. He resigned his office in December, 1794, after which he lived in Maine. He had seven or more children. He died at Thomaston, Maine, in October, 1806. See Bancroft, "History of the United States;" "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii. Knox, noks, (John,) the greatest of the Scottish Re- formers, was born at Gififord, in East Lothian, in 1505. He was educated at the University of Saint Andrew's, and in theology was a pupil of John Major or Mair. He was ordained a priest about 1530, soon after which a great change took place in his religious opinions. In 1542 he openly renounced the Roman Catholic religion, and became a zealous preacher of the Protestant doctrines, which at that time had few adherents in Scotland. The storm of persecution soon began to beat against him, a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, sJwrt; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; KNOX 1335 KOCH and it is stated that Cardinal Beaton employed assassins to take his life. In 1547 he retired for safety to the castle of Saint Andrew's, which was occupied by a party of Protestants who had conspired against and killed Cardi- nal Beaton. During the siege of this place he preached with great power and converted many of its inhabitants. The castle at length was captured by Regent Arran and his French allies who carried Knox as a prisoner to Rouen. He was confined nineteen months in the French galleys, and released in 1549, after which he preached at Berwick and Newcastle for several years. He was appointed chaplain to Edward VI. about 1551, and was intimate with Cranmer. In 1553 he married Marjory Bowes. On the accession of Queen Mary, (1553,) he was induced by the urgent entreaties of his friends to retire to the continent. He visited Scotland in 1555, after which he passed about three years at Geneva, where he formed a friendship with Calvin, studied Hebrew, and was employed as pastor of a church. In 1558 he pub- lished "The First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women." The Scotch Prot- estants in the mean time had increased in number, and the conflict between the opposing ideas had reached a crisis which required the inflexible resolution and un- flinching courage of Knox. He returned to Scotland in May, 1559, and became the master-spirit of the Refor- mation in that country, which was then ruled by Marie, the queen-regent, a French princess of the family of Guise. The Protestants raised and maintained an army for self-defence, and were animated by the vehement harangues of Knox, who thundered continually against the idolatry of the Romish Church. The Parliament in 1560 renounced the authority of the pope, and adopted a confession of faith proposed by Knox. In 1561 the young queen Mary arrived in Scotland, and had with Knox several interviews, with no satisfactory results. " At my interview with the queen," he wrote to Cecil, "she showed more artifice than I ever found in a person so young." At her instigation, Knox was accused of treason, and tried, but was acquitted, (1563.) His first wife having died, he married in 1564 Margaret Stewart, a daughter of Lord Ochiltree. The projects and influ- ence of Knox were promoted by the abdication of the queen and the appointment of Murray as regent. But in his latter years he was greatly afflicted by the assas- sination of Murray (1570) and the confusion and disorders which followed that event. He died in November, 1572. Among the Reformers of that age, Knox was distin- guished for his courage and sagacity, as well as for his earnestness and the inflexible austerity of his principles. The regent Morton, in a short funeral oration, said of him, "Here lies he who never feared the face of man." Of Knox, Froude remarks that he was "perhaps in that extraordinary age its most extraordinary man, and whose character became the mould in which the later fortunes of his country were cast." {" History of Eng- land," vol. iv. chap, xviii.) In another place he says, " No grander figure can be found in the entire history of the Reformation in this island than that of Knox. . . . The one man without whom Scotland, as the modern world has known it, would have had no existence. . . . His w'as the voice which taught the peasant of the Lothians that he was a free man, the equal in the sight of God with the proudest peer or prelate that had trampled on his forefathers. He was the one antagonist whom Mary Stuart could not soften nor Maitland deceive ; he it was that raised the poor commons of his country into a stern and rugged people, who might be hard, narrow,, superstitious, and fanatical, but who nevertheless were men whom neither king, noble, nor priest could force again to submit to tyranny." (See " History of England," vol. x. chap, xxiii. pp. 452-456 et seq.) See McCrie, "Life of John Knox," 2 vols., 1812; Burton, " History of Scotland," more particularly chap, xxxviii. ; Robert- son, ■' History of Scotland;" Froude, " History of England," vols, v., vii., ix., X. ; Niemever, " Leben des _[. Knox and der beiden Marien," 1824; "Encyclopaedia Britannica ;" "Westminster Re- view" for July, 1853; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Emi- nen Scotsmen;" "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1812, April, 1S52, and July, 1853. Kilox, noks, (John,) an English benefactor, born about 1720, was a bookseller of London. He acquired a fortune by business, and spent much time and money in plans to improve the condition of the poor in the High- lands of Scotland, which he visited sixteen times. He wrote a " Systematic View of Scotland." Died in 1790. Knox, (John,) a native of Edinburgh, and captain in the English navy, wrote a historical account of the campaigns, naval battles, etc. in America during the years 1757, 1759, and 1760. Died in 1790. Knox, (Robert,) of the British East India naval service, was born about 1640. In 1660 he was wrecked on the island of Ceylon, where he remained a captive twenty years. After his escape he published a " His- torical Relation of the Island of Ceylon," (1681.) Died about 1700. Knox, (ViCESiMUS,) D.D., a celebrated English cler- gyman and author, born at Newington Green, in the county of Middlesex, in 1752. The title of D.D. was conferred upon him by the University of Pennsylvania. Of his numerous works may be mentioned " Essays, Moral and Literary," (1777,) "Personal Nobility, or Letters to a Young Nobleman," "Christian Philoso- phy," (1795,) "On the National Importance of Classical Education," and "Considerations on the Nature and Efficacy of the Lord's Supper." As a preacher he was very popular. He obtained the united rectories of Rum- w^ell and Ramsden Crays in Essex, and was master of Tunbridge School, which he conducted for many years. Died in 1821. Knox, (William,) a Scottish poet, born about 1788. Among his poems are " The Lonely Hearth," and " Ma- riamne." Died in 1825. Knud. See Canute. Knupfer, knoop'fer, (Nikolaus,) a German painter of battles and mythological subjects, born at Leipsic in 1603 ; died in 1660. Knut. See Canute. Knutzen, knoot'sen, (Maritn,) a German writer, and professor of philosophy in the University of Konigsberg, was born in that city in 1713 ; died in 1751. Knutzen, Knuzen, or Cnutzen, knoot'sen, (Mat- THi.\s,) an atheist or skeptic, was born in Holstein, and educated at Konigsberg. He made numerous proselytes, who, from his doctrine that reason and conscience were sufficient to guide all men, have been called Conscien- tiarians. Died after 1674. Knuzen. See Knutzen. Knyphausen, knip'how'zen, (Baron,) a German general, born in Alsace about 1730. He obtained in 1776 command of an army of Hessians who were hired by the British ministry to fight against the Americans. He took part in the battle of Brandy wine, September, 1777, and in other actions of the Revolutionary war. Died in Berlin in 1789. Kobad. See Cabades. Kobell, ko''bel, (Ferdinand,) an able German land- scape-painter and engraver, born at Mannheim in 1740. He worked for some years at Munich, where he died in 1799. His etchings are highly prized. Kobell, (Franz,) a German landscape-painter, brother of the preceding, was born at Mannheim in 1749. He also executed with his pen a large number of pictures, which have been greatly admired. Died in 1822. Kobell, (Franz,) a German poet and mineralogist, a grandson of Ferdinand, noticed above, was born at Munich in 1803. He published several good works on mineralogy, and a nuinber of popular poems. Kobell, ko'b^l, (Hendrik,) a Dutch painter, born at Rotterdam in 1 751. He painted landscapes, marine pieces, and naval battles with success. Died in 17S2. Kobell, (Jan,) a skilful painter of landscapes and animals, born at Utrecht in 1782, was a son of the pre- ceding. Died in 1814. Kobell, (WiLHELM,) an eminent German painter of landscapes and battles, born at Mannheim in 1766, was a son of Ferdinand, noticed above. He worked at Munich. Died in 1853. Kobenzl. See Cohenzl. Koch, von, fon koK, (Christoph Wilhelm,) a French Protestant and historical writer, of German parentage, was born at Bouxviller, in Alsace, in 1737. He studied at Strasburg under Schopflin, and gained dis- ^2&k; 9 as s; ghard; gas J; g, H, Kyguttural; n, nasal; ^Jrilled; sasz; tn avS in this. (^I^^See Explanations, p. 23.) KOCH 1336 KOHL tinction as a lecturer on history, public law, etc. in that city. In 1 791 he represented Bas-Rhin in the Legisla- tive Assembly. He was imprisoned during the reign of terror, and became a member of the Tribunate in 1802. Among his important works are "Tableau des Revolu- tions de I'Europe depuis le Bouleversement de I'Empire Remain," (1771,) and an "Abridged History of the Treaties between the European Powers since the Peace of Westphalia," (4 vols., 1796.) Died in 1813. See ScHWEiGHAUSER, "Notice biographique de Koch." Koch, (Jean Baptiste Fr£d6ric,) a general, nephew of the preceding, was born at Nancy in 1 782. He wrote " Memoirs towards the History of the Campaign of 1814," (3 vols., 1819,) and aided Jomini in his "History of the Wars of the Revolution," (5 vols., 1819-24.) Died in 1861. Koch, (Joseph Anton,) an eminent landscape and historical painter, born in the valley of Lech, near Augs- burg, in 1768. He studied in Rome, where he fixed his residence. Among his best pieces are the " Sacrifice of Noah," " Francesca da Rimini," and the frescos from Dante in the villa Massimi. He also etched twenty plates of Italian landscapes, which are esteemed master- pieces. Died at Rome in 1839. See Nagler, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Koch, (Karl Heinrich Emanuel,) a German natu- ralist, born at Weimar in 1809. He travelled in Southern Russia, Turkey, and the Caucasus, and published, after his return, his " Journey through Russia to the Caucasian Isthmus," (2 vols., 1842,) "Wanderings in the East," (3 vols., 1846,) and a "Flora of the Levant," ("Beitrage zu einer Flora des Orientes," 1848-54.) Koch, (Wilhelm Daniel Joseph,) a German phy- sician and botanist, born near Deux-Ponts in 1771, be- came, in 1824, professor of botany and medicine at Erlan- gen. He published a treatise " On European Willows," (" De Salicibus Europaeis," 1818,) " Synopsis of the Flora of Germany and Switzerland," (1835-37,) and other works on botany. Died in 1849. Koch-Sternfeld, koK stgRn'fglt, (Joseph Ernst,) a German historical writer and antiquary, born at Mit- tersill in 1778. Among his works are "The Kingdom of the Longobards in Italy," (1839,) and "Historical Studies on Civilization in the Alps," (2 vols., 1852.) Kochanowski, ko''Ki-nov'skee, (John,) a Polish nobleman and celebrated poet, born in 1 532. For his translations of the Psalms into Polish verse he received the title of "the Pindar of Poland." His other poems were published at Warsaw, (1803-05.) Died in 1584. See Bhntkowski, "History of Polish Literature." Kock, (Matthevv^.) See Cock, Kock, de, deh kok, (Charles Paul,) a French ro- mance-writer and dramatist, of Dutch extraction, born at Passy, near Paris, in 1794. His works, though pos- sessing little merit as literary productions, and ranking among the most immoral of French novels, enjoy great popularity both in France and other countries of Europe. Some French critics consider him an excellent painter of French manners, of Parisian roguery, rustic bonhomie, and the absurdity of the bourgeois. Died in 1871. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1837; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for February, 1830, and October, 1839 ; " North American Review" for April, 1843. Kochly or Koechly, koK'lee, (Hermann August Theodor,) a German philologist, born at Leipsic in 181 5. He published, among other works, a valuable "History of the Art of War among the Greeks," (1852.) Kodde, van der, vtn der kod'deh, (Jan, Adriaan, and Gysuert,) three brothers, who lived at Warmond, near Ixyden, and founded a religious society, called Col- legiants, about 1620. Kodhaee or Kodhai, Al, ai ko-dha'ee, (Abdallah- Ibn-Abi-Bekr-Ibnul-Abbar, Ib-daKlah ib'n i'bee bek'r ili-nooK ib-bSR',) often called simply Ibliul- (or Ibnool-) Abbar, a celebrated Spanish Arabian author, born at Valencia, in Sjiain, in the thirteenth century. His style is elegant, \)u\ t, and terse. Among his writings are two biographical works on the Arabian poets and authors. Kodros. See Codrus. Koeberger, koo^b^RG-er, (Venceslaus,) a Flemish painter and architect, born in Antwerp about 1550. He studied in his native city, and afterwards at Rome, where he greatly distinguished himself. Among his paintings are the " Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian," and " Christ taken from the Cross and supported by Angels." Died in 1634, or, according to some authorities, in 1610. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Koecher. See Kocher. Koechlin, k^k'l^N', (Daniel,) a French chemist and manufacturer of cotton, born at Mulhouse about 1780, was one of the firm of Nicolas Koechlin freres. He greatly promoted the prosperity of Mulhouse by the invention of a process of adorning printed muslins with rich designs and brilliant colours. Koechlin, (Nicolas,) a brother of the preceding, was born at Mulhouse in 1781. He was a manufacturer of fine muslins ( indiennes) at Mulhouse, and a liberal mem- ber of the Chamber of Deputies. Died in 1852. Koechly. See Kochly. Koeck, kook, (Pieter,) a Flemish painter, engraver, and architect, was born at Alost about 1500. He studied in Italy, and afterwards visited Turkey. Among his works are seven large and well-executed paintings to illustrate the manners of the Turks. He also made engravings of these pictures. Koeck was first painter to Charles V. Died in 1553. See PiLKiNGTON, " Dictionary of Painters." Koegler. See Kogler. Koehler. See Kohler. Koekkoek, kook'kook, (Bernard Cornelis,) a Dutch landscape-painter, born at Middelburg in 1803, published in 1841 "Recollections and Communications of a Landscape-Painter." His works are commended for fidelity to nature and other merits. Died in 1858. See Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Koelcsey, (Francis.) See Kolcsey. Koeler. See Kohler. Koelliker. See Kolliker. Koelreuter. See Kolreuter. Koenig. See Konig. Koenigshoven. See Konigshoven. Koenigsmarck. See Konigsmarck. Koeppen. See Koppen. Koepstein. See Capito, (Wolfgang.) Koerner. See Korner. Koerte. See Korte. Koerten-Block. See Block. Koes, (F.) See Kos. Koestlin. See Kostlin. Koets, koots, (Roelof,) a Dutch portrait-painter, born at Zvvolle in 1655. Among his works are the por- traits of William III. of England, and of several distin- guished Flemings, Germans, and Englishmen. Died in 1725. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Kofod, ko'fod, (Johan Ancher,) a Danish writer, born near Bornholm in 1777, published several histories and a "Conversations-Lexicon," (28 vols., 1816-28.) Died in 1829. See Erslew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." Kogler or Koegler, koo'ler, ( Ignaz, ) a learned Jesuit, born in Bavaria in 1680. In 1715 he was sent as a missionary to China, where he received many marks of distinction from the emperor Kang-Hee, (Kang-Hi.) He died in Pekin in 1746. Kohen Att^r, ko'hen §.t-tSR', written also Cohen Atthar and Kuhan Atthar, a learned Egyptian phy- sician, lived about 1150, and wrote on materia medica. Kohl, kol, (Johann Georg,) a German traveller and popular writer, was born at Bremen in 1808. Among his principal works are "Travels in the Interior of Russia and Poland," (1841,) "Travels in Styriaandthe Bavarian Highlands," (1842,) "Travels in England, Scotland, and Ireland," (1844,) and "Travels in the Netherlands," (1850.) He also wrote "Sketches from Nature and Common Life," (2 vols., 185 1.) His fine descriptive powers and attractive style entitle him to rank among the best writers of travels in recent times. Died in 1871, See " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1841, and January, 1842 ; " Blackwood's Magazine'* for December, 1846. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, i, o, obscure; 0r, fill, f^t; mSt; nflt^ good; moon; KOHLER 1337 KONIG Kohler or Koehler, ko'ler, (Johann Bernhard,) a German scholar, born at Lubeck in 1742. In 1781 he was appointed to the chair of the Greek and Oriental languages in the University of Konigsberg. He wrote "Remarks on Dion Chrysostom," "Tracts on Roman Law," and several other works. Died in 1802. Kohler, Koehler, or Koeler, (Johann David,) a German author and antiquary, born near Leipsic in. 1684. In 1 710 he was appointed professor of logic at Altorf, and about 1725 was chosen professor of history at Gottingen. His numerous works relate to history, bibliography, and literature. Died in 1755. See J. M. Gesner, " Memoria Koehleri," 1755; Gatterer und J. B. KoHi.ER, "J. D. Kohlers Leben," in the last volume of his " Miinzbelustigiingen," 22 vols., 1729-55. Kohler or Koehler, (Johann Tobias,) a German numismatist, born at Altorf in 1720, was a son of the preceding. He published a "Cabinet of Ducats," ("Ducaten-Cabinet," 2 vols., 1758-60.) Died in 1768. Kohlrausch, koKrowsh, ( Heinrich Friedrich Theodor,) born near Gottingen in 1780, published a " History of Germany." Kohne, ko'neh, (Frederick,) born in Prussia in 1757, eniigrated to America in 1780, and made a large fortune at Charleston, South Carolina. He died in 1829, leaving a great part of his property to the charitable institutions of Pennsylvania and South Carolina, for the benefit of the coloured as well as the white population. Kolb. See Kolbe, (Pp:ter.) Kolbe, koKbeh, (Karl Wilhelm,) a skilful German engraver and writer, born at Berlin in 1757. He etched numerous landscapes after his own designs, and wrote, among other works, a treatise " On the Riches of the German and French Languages, and the Capacity of both for Poetry," (1806.) Died in 1835. See his Autobiography, "Mein Lebenslauf und mein Wirken," 1825; Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Kolbe, (Karl Wilhelm,) a German painter, nephew of the ])receding, born at Berlin in 1781 ; died in 1853. Kolbe, written also Kolb, kolp, or Kolben, koKben, (Peter,) a naturalist, born at Wunsiedel, in Bavaria, in 1675. He passed some years in Southern Africa, and wrote, among other works, "A Description of the Cape of Good Hope," (1719.) His book, containing much valuable information, was translated into the French, Dutch, and English languages. Died in 1726. See G. C. Oertel, "Dissertatio de Vita et Mentis P. Kolbii," 1758. Kolben. See Kolbe, (Peter.) Kolcsey, koKcha, (Francis,) one of the greatest of Hungarian orators, celebrated also as a poet, critic, and lawyer, was born in Middle Szolnok in 1790. At an early age he formed a friendship with Kazinczy and Paul Szemere, and in 1826 was associated with the latter as editor of a journal entitled " Life and Literature." He published in this periodical a number of critical essays, regarded as the best in the Hungarian language, the object of which was the improvement of the national literature of Hungary. He was a deputy to the Diet of 1832-36, where he was distinguished for his rare elo- quence and his unswerving course in the support of liberal principles. Died in 1838. His complete works, consisting of poems, tales, essays, and philosophical and miscellaneous writings, were published the same year. See an article on the "Language and Literature of the Magyars," in the "Foreign Quarterly Review" for September, 1828. Koler. See Kohler. Ko-let'tis or Co-let'tis, (Joannis,) a modern Greek statesman and democrat, born near Janina in 1788, was one of the most active promoters of the insurrection of 182 1. On the accession of King Otho he was appointed minister of the interior and president of the cabinet. He became in 1844 minister of foreign affairs, which post he held until his death, in 1847. See L. DE LoMENiE, "M. Colettis, par un Homme de Rien," 1842. Kollar, kol'laR, (Jan,) a distinguished ecclesiastic, poet, and antiquary, born in Northern Hungary in 1793. He endeavoured by his writings to establish a common language and feeling of nationality between the various Slavonic races in Europe. This spirit pervades all his poetry, for which he used the Bohemian language, re- garding his native Slovakian as deficient in dignity and comprehensiveness. After the revolt of the Hungarians, to whom he was bitterly opposed, he removed to Vienna, where he became professor of archaeology. Died in 1852. His principal poem is entitled " Slawy Dcera," (" Daugh- ter of Glory," 1824.) Among his prose works are " Treat- ises on the Names and Anticjuities of the Slavonic Nation," and "On the Literary Reciprocity between the Races and Dialects of the Slavonic Tribes," (1831.) See Dr. J. Bowring, " Servian Poetry ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1828. Kolli, koKlee, de, (Baron,) a political adventurer, born in Piedmont about 1775. He made an attempt in 1810 to release from prison the Spanish prince, (after- wards Ferdinand VII.,) but, his plan having been be- trayed, he was imprisoned four years in the castle of Saumur. Died about 1825. See "Memoirs of Baron de Kolli," by himself; "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1823. Kolliker or Koelliker, koKle-ker, (Albert,) a Ger- man physiologist of high reputation, born about 1818. He gained distinction by his minute investigations with the microscope. Among other works, he published " Manual of Human Histology," (" Handbuch der Gewe- belehre des Menschen," 1852,) which has been translated into English by Busk and Huxley. He became professor of anatomy and physiology at WUrzburg. KoUmann, koKmin, (August Friedrich Karl,) a German composer, born near Hanover in 1756. He was an organist in London, and wrote a "Theory of Musical Harmony," (1806.) Died in 1824. KoUontaj or Kolontaj, korion-ti', (Hugo,) written also Kollontay, a Polish patriot, born in the government of Sandomir in 1750. He had the principal share in drawing up the constitution of the 3d of May, 1791, but, after the meeting of the confederation of Targowitza, was forced to leave the country. He was afterwards impris- oned for a time at Olmiitz by the Austrians. He was the author of several able political treatises. Died in 1812. Kolmar. See Colmar. K61n. See Coln. Kol-o-ko-tro'nis or Colocotronis, (Theodore,) a modern Greek patriot, born in Messenia in 1770. He distinguished himself in many engagements with the Turks, and rose to be commander-in-chief of the Pelo- ponnesus in 1823. In 1835 he was made a councillor of state by King Otho, and obtained other distinctions. Died in 1843. See QuiNET, " La Grece moderne dans ses Rapports avec I'An- tiquite." Kolowrat or Kolowrat-Liebsteinski, ko'Io-rSt' leep-stln'skee, (Franz Anton,) a Bohemian minister of state, born at Prague in 1778. He became a member of the council of ministers at Vienna in 1825, and had charge of the department of finances for many years. Kolowrat, ko'lo-rit', or Kollowrath, koKlo-rit', (Leopold Krakowski,) a statesman of Austria under the reigns of Francis I., Maria Theresa, Joseph II., Leopold II., and Francis II. He held the offices of minister of the interior and grand chancellor of Bohemia. Died in 1809. Kolreuter or Koelreuter, koKroi'ter, (Joseph Gottlieb,) a German botanist, born at julz, on the Neckar, in 1733 ; died in 1806. Koltzof or Kolzov, kolt'sof, (Alexei Vasilie- vitch,) a Russian poet, born in the government of Voronezh in 1809. His " Russian Songs and Ballads" are ranked among the best productions of the kind in the language. Died in 1842. Komnenos. See Comnenus. Konarski, ko-naR'skee, (Stanislas Jerome,) a Polish poet 2,x\di litterateur, born at Konary, near Cracow, in 1700. He founded a college of Piarists at Warsaw. He published numerous works which contributed to reform the national literature. Died in 1773. See Krajewski, " filoge historique de Konarski," Warsaw, 1783. Kong-Fou-Tse. See Confucius. Kong-Fu-Tse. See Confucius. Konig or Koenig, ko'nic, (Christian Gottlieb,) a German poet, born at Altorf in 1711 ; died in 1782. € as 9 as s; g hard;%zs, j; G, H, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; \\i as in this, (2^='See Explanations, p. 23.) KONIG KOOTOOZ Konig or Koenig, ko'nic, (Emanuel,) a Swiss natu- ralist and medical writer, born at Bale in 1658. Among his works is " Regnum Vegetabile," (1680.) Died in Konig or Koenig, (Friedrich,) the inventor of the steiun-press, was born at Eisleben, in Germany, in 1775. About 1807 he visited London, where he was aided in carrying out his plans by Bensley, Taylor, and Woodfall. In 181 1 a sheet of the "Annual Register" was printed, being the first that was done by a printing-machine by which the paper was applied to the type by a revolving cylinder. In November, 1814, a number of the "Times" was printed by a steam press on the principle of Konig's invention : it is said to have been the first newspaper ever printed by steam-power. After his return to Ger- many, Konig, in conjunction with his friend Bauer, es- tablished at Oberzell, near Wiirzburg, a manufactory for the construction of printing-machines, four hundred of which had in 1853 been sent forth from it. After the death of Konig, in 1833, the business was carried on by Bauer. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Konig or Koenig, (Georg Matthias,) a German writer and scholar, born at Altdorf, in Franconia, in 1616, was appointed in 1667 professor of poetry in his native city. Among his works are a " Latin-and-German Lexi- con," (1668,) and a Biographical Dictionary of Authors, (" Bibliotheca Vetus et Nova," 1678.) Died in 1699. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Nic^ron, " Menioires." Konig or Koenig, (Heinrich Joseph,) a German novelist, born at Fulda in 1790. Among his best works are " The Waldenses," (1836,) " William Shakspeare," (1839,) and "The Clubbists of Mentz," ("Die Clubisten von Mainz," 1847 :) the last named, a historical romance, is especially admired. He was secretary of finance at Hanau from 181 9 to 1835. Died in 1869. See N. Gretch, " H. Konig und seine Liigen ; Seitenstiick zu Nic. Gretsch und die Russische Literatur in Deutschland," 1840. Konig or Koenig, (Johann Gerard,) a botanist, and pupil of Linnaeus, born in Livonia in 1728. He visited Iceland and the East Indies, and wrote several treatises on botany, which he left in manuscript. Died at Tran- quebar in 1785. Konig or Koenig, (Samuel,) an eminent mathema- tician, son of Samuel Heinrich, noticed below, was born at Biidingen in 171 2. He was professor of mathematics at Franeker, and professor of philosophy and law at the Hague. Died in 1757. Konig or Koenig, (Samuel Heinrich,) a Swiss Orientalist and theologian, born about 1670 at Berne, where he became professor of mathematics and Oriental languages in 1731. Died in 1750. Konig or Koninck, (Solomon.) See Coninck. Konigshoven or Koenigshoven, kS'nics-hoVen, also known as James Twinger, an ecclesiastic, born at Strasburg in 1346. He wrote, in Latin and German, Chronicles of Strasburg." Died in 1420. See Obeklin, " De Jacobo Twingero," etc., 1789. Konigsmarck or Koenigsmarck, von, fon ko'- nics-maRk^ written also Konigsmark, [Lat. Konigs- mar'kius,] (Johann Christoph,) Count, a celebrated general, born in Germany in 1600, entered the service of Gustavus Adolphus in 1630. After the death of the King of Sweden, he defeated the Austrians in the battle of Wolfenbiittel. He also invaded Bohemia, and captured Prague, in 1648. He was afterwards appointed Governor of the duchies of Bremen and Verden. Queen Christina created him count and field-marshal. Died in 1663. See " Eterna Gloria J. C. Konigsmarkii," Holm, 1664. Konigsmarck, Koenigsmarck, or Konigsmark, von, (Maria Aurora,) Countess, a granddaughter of the preceding, celebrated for her beauty and accomplish- ments, was born in Bremen about 1670. She was the mistress of Frederick Augustus, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, by whom she had a son, Maurice Count de Saxe, afterwards famous as a French general. In 1702 she was sent by the Elector to treat with Charles XII. That monarch refused to see her; "but she returned," says Voltaire, "with the satisfaction of be- lieving that she was the only person feared by the King of Sweden." The Countess of Konigsmarck spoke several languages with great fluency and correctness. She com- posed a poem on Charles XII., written in the purest French. Died in 1728. See Cramer, " Denkwiirdigkeiten der M. A. Konigsmark," 2 vols., 1836; CoRviN-WiEKSBiTZKY, "Maria Aurora Grafin von Konigsmark," 1841 ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1837. Konigsmarck, von, (Otto Wilhelm,) Count, son of Johann Christoph, noticed above, was born in West- phalia in 1639. He subsequently served with great dis- tinction in the French army under Turenne and with the Swedish army in Germany. In 1686 he was created generalissimo of the Venetian republic, for which he gained several victories over the Turks. Died in 1688. Konigsmark or Koenigsmark, ko'nios-maRk^ (Fi- LiP Christofer,) Count, a Swedish officer, born about 1640, was a favourite lover of Sophia Dorothea, the wife of George, Elector of Hanover. This prince, it is said, caused him to be assassinated in 1694. See Saint-Simon, "Memoires;" Blaze de Bury, "Episode de I'Histoire du Hanovre." Konigsmarkius. See Konigsmarck. Koninck. See Coninck. Koning, ko'ning, (Cornelis,) a Dutch engraver, born at Haarlem about 1524, engraved portraits of celebrated men, including Luther and Calvin. Koning, (Jacob,) a Dutch painter of landscapes and history, born at Amsterdam about 1645. He went to Copenhagen, and worked for the King of Denmark. Koning, de, (David.) See Coninck. Koning or Koninck, de, deh ko'ning, (Philipp,) an able Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam in 1619, was a pupil of Rembrandt. He was a good colorist, and excelled in landscapes and portraits. Died in 1689. Konon. See Conon. Konstantijn or Konstantyn. See Constantinb the Great. Kontski, kont'skee, (Martin,) a Polish general, born in 1635, served with distinction under John Sobieski. He directed the artillery in the great battle against the Turks at Vienna in 1683. Died in 17 10. Konz, (Karl Philipp.) See Conz. Kooang or Kouang, koo-ang', (almost kwang,) a Chinese statesman and celebrated historian, born in the province of Shen-see or Chen-si about 1018 A.D. He wrote an important work on the history of China. Died in 1086. See Mailla, " Histoire generale de la Chine." Kooblai (Koublai or Kublai) Khan, koo'blT' Kin, (Shee-Tsoo or Chi-Tsou, shee-tsoo,) the founder of the Mongol dynasty of China, was a grandson of Jengis Khan. He began to reign over the north part of China about 1260, soon after which date he conquered the southern provinces and became master of a vast empire extending from the Polar Sea to the Straits of Malacca, and including Thibet, Tartary, Siam, etc. He is said to have been an able ruler. In his reign Marco Polo visited China. Died in 1294. Koogen, van der, vtn der ko'gen, (Leonard,) a Flemish painter, born at Haariem in 1610, was also an etcher. Died in 1681. Koolee Khan. See Nadir Shah. Koolnef, Koulneff, or Kulnew, kool-n^P, ( Yakof,) a Russian general, born in 1763. He was killed at the battle of the Drissa, in July, 1812. Koorakin or Kourakin, koo'ri-keen' or koo'rS-kin', (Alexander Borisovitch,) Prince, a Russian diplo- matist, born in 1752, was a favourite courtier of Paul I. He was ambassador at Paris from 1808 to 181 2. Died in 1818. Koorakin or Kourakin, (Boris Ivanovitch, ) Prince, a Russian diplomatist, born in 1677, was a brother-in-law of Peter I. He was sent to Rome on a political mission by that emperor. Died in 1727. Koornhert. See Corn he rt. Kooten, van, vtn kS'ten, (Theodorus,) a Latin poet, born in Holland in 1749; died in 1814. Kootooz or Kutiiz, (Kothouz,) koo-tooz' or koo^- tooz',* written also Kotouz, (Mahmood Seif-ed- * There is some discrepancy in the mode of writing this name. Abulpharagius more frequently gives both syllables long. See Pocock's edition, Oxford, 1663. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; flr, f^ll, Hi; mlV, n6t; good; mo5n; KOOTOOZOF 1339 KORTHOLT Deen Malek Modhaffer, miH''mood' sTf ed-deen' mo'- dhiFfer,) became Sultan of Egypt in 1259 by usurpation. He defeated the Tartars in Syria. He was assassinated by Bibars in 1260. Kootoozof, Koutouzof, Koutousof, or Kutu- sow, koo-too'zof, (Michael Laurionovitch Goleni- TCHEF,) a celebrated Russian commander, born in 1745, served against the Poles and the Turks, and rose to be lieutenant-general in 1789. In 1793 he was ambassador to Constantinople, and on the accession of the emperor Paul was charged with a mission to Berlin. After the assassination of that sovereign he was appointed gov- ernor-general of Saint Petersburg, and in 1805 was created commander-in-chief of the first corps of the Russian army against the French. He gained a victory over Marshal Mortier at Diirrenstein, and soon after commanded the allied army under the emperor Alex- ander at Austerlitz, (1805.) In 1812, at the age of sixty- seven, he succeeded Barclay de Tolly as commander- in-chief of the Russian army, a few days before the battle of Borodino. For his victories over Ney and Davoust the emperor bestowed upon him the surname of Smolenskoi. He died in 1813, at Buntzlau, where a monument was erected to him. See Segur, " Histoire de Napoleon et de la grande Armde;" Mikhailovsky-Danilevsky, "Vie du Feld-Marechal Koutouzoff," translated from the Russian by Fizelier, 1850; "Nouvelle Biogra- phic Gen^rale." Kopernicus. See Copernicus. Kopernik. See Copernicus. Kopievitch, ko-pe-a'vitch, written also Kopieu- vicz, (Elias,) a Russian philologist, who was sent by Peter the Great to Holland in order to complete his studies. Among his works are a Latin Grammar for Rus- sian schools, and a Slavonic-and-German Dictionary. Kopisch, ko'pish, (August,) a German poet and artist, born at Breslau in 1799; died in 1853. Kopitar, ko'pe-taR', (Bartholomaus,) a philologist, born in Carniola in 1780, was appointed first keeper of the Imperial Library at Vienna, (1843.) He published in 1808 a '* Grammar of the Slavonian Language in Car- niola, Carinthia, and Styria." Died in 1844. Kopp, kop, (JoHANN Adam,) a German publicist, born at Offenbach in 1698. He wrote, besides other works, a " History of the Law which now prevails in Germany," (" Historia Juris quo hodie in Germania utimur," 1 741.) Died in 1748. Kopp, kop, (Joseph Eutych,) a Swiss historian, born at Miinster, in Lucerne, in 1793. Among his works is a *' History of the Swiss Leagues," ( Bunde,) (4 vols., 1845- 57,) which is commended as very interesting. Kopp discredits the popular tradition of William Tell. Kopp, (Ulrich Friedrich,) a German antiquary, born at Cassel in 1762, became director of the court archives in 1802. His " Palaeographia critica" (1817) is much esteemed. Died in 1834. Koppe, kop'peh, (Johann Benjamin,) a German theologian, born at Dantzic in 1750. He published several exegetical works, and left unfinished an edition of the New Testament in Greek, (3 vols.) Died in 1791. See HoppENSTEDT, "Ueber den verstorbenen J. B. Koppe," 1791. Koppen or Koeppen, kop^pen, (Adolphus Louis,) a Danish scholar and writer, born at Copenhagen in 1804. In 1834 he visited Greece, where he was appointed professor of history, archaeology, and modern languages at the military college in JEgm2L. He removed in 1846 to America, where he became in 1854 professor of history, aesthetics, and modern languages in Franklin and Mar- shall College, Pennsylvania. He has published "The World in the Middle Ages," (1854,) and other works. Koppen or Koeppen, kop'pen, (Carl Friedrich,) a German writer, born about 1800, became assistant pro- fessor in one of the principal gymnasiums of Berlin. He published in 1848 a treatise "On the Divine Right of Kings," ("De Jure Divino,") which was condemned by the government and forbidden to be reprinted. His work entitled " The Religion of Booddha and its Origin" (" Die Religion des Buddha und ihre Entstehung," 1857) is regarded as one of the best treatises on that subject. He also published "The Lamaic System of Religion," etc., ("Lamaische Hierarchie," 1859.) Koppen or Koeppen, kop'pen, (Friedrich,) a Ger- man writer on philosophy, born at Lubeck in 1775. He became pastor of a church at Bremen in 1804, and pro- fessor of philosophy at Erlangen in 1827. Among his works is "The Philosophy of Christianism," (2 vols., 1813-15.) Died in 1858. Koppen or Koeppen, (Johann Heinrich Justus,) a German philologist, born at Hanover in 1755. He published a Greek Anthology, (3 vols., 1787,) "Com- mentary on Homer's Iliad," (5 vols., 1787-92,) and other works. Died in 1791. K6ppen, kop'pen, (Peter,) a Russian writer, born at Kharkov in 1793, has published several works on the antiquities and statistics of Russia, and a valuable "Eth- nographical Chart of European Russia," (1851.) Koprili, ko'pre-lee, written also Coprogli and Kiu- perli, (Mehemet,) an eminent Turkish commander, born at Kopri, in Asia Minor, in 1585, rose from the station of a cook to be grand vizier at Constantinople in 1656. He took Tenedos and Lemnos from the Vene- tians, and obtained other advantages over the enemies of the Sultan. As a ruler he showed great energy and prudence, and effected important reformations in the condition of the country. Died in 1661. Koprili, (Mustafa,) surnamed the Virtuous, son of the preceding, was appointed grand vizier by Solyman III. in 1689. Died in 1691. Koprili-Fazil-Ahmed, (or -Achmed,) ko'pre-lee fl'zil In'med, a brother of the preceding, born in 1626, succeeded Mehemet Koprili as grand vizier. He gained several important victories over the Hungarians and the Poles, and took the island of Candia. Died in 1676. See Von Hammer, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." Kops, kops, (Jean Baptiste,) a Belgian landscape- painter, born about 1800. Koray. See Coray. Kordes, koR'd^s, (Bernhard,) a German writer, born at Lubeck in 1762. He lived at Kiel. Died in 1823. Koren, (Moses of.) See Moses Chorenensis. Korenatz. See Moses Chorenensis. Korf, koRf, (Andrei,) Baron, a Russian publicist and senator, born near Mittau in 1715 ; died in 1823. Korf, (Nicholas,) Baron, a Russian minister of state under Peter III., was born in 1 7 10; died in 1766. Korinna. See Corinna. Kornelisz. See Cornelisz. Korner or Koerner, koR'ner, (Christian Gott- fried,) born at Leipsic in 1756, was the father of Theo- dor Korner, and an intimate friend of Schiller. He was also a correspondent of Goethe. It was in his beautiful vineyard near Dresden that Schiller wrote " Don Car- los." Died in 1831. Korner or Koerner, (Karl Theodor,) one of the most celebrated German poets, was born in Dresden in 1 791. He studied at Leipsic and Berlin, and displayed at an early age a rare poetical genius. Among his first productions were the popular comedies of "The Green Domino," (1812,) and "The Watchman," (1812.) He was one of the first to enlist in the war against Napoleon ; and, inspired with patriotic enthusiasm and a keen sense of his country's wrongs, he produced some of the most spirited and beautiful martial lyrics in the German lan- guage. These were published under the title of "The Lyre and the Sword," (1814.) Korner was also the author of two popular tragedies, " Rosamunda," (1812,) and "Zriny," (1813.) He fell in battle near Rosenberg, in 1813, at the age of twenty-two. See F. W. Lehmann, " Lebensbeschreibung K. T. Koerner's," i8ig ; H. A. Erhard, " T. Koerner's Leben," etc., 1821 ; H. Blaze, " ficrivains et Poetes de rAllemagne," 1851 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Black- wood's Magazine" for October, 1820, and February, 1821. Kornmann, koRn'm^n, (Heinrich,) a German writer and lawyer, born in Wiirtemberg ; died about 1620. Korosi. See Csoma. Korte or Koerte, koR'teh, (Wilhelm,) a German writer, born at Aschersleben in 1766. He published, among other works, a "Life of Gleim," (1811,) who was his great-uncle, and a "Life of Carnot," (1820.) Died in 1846. Kortholt, koRt'holt, [Lat. Korthol'tus,] (Chris- tian,) a Lutheran theologian and ecclesiastical historian, ■c as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, y.^ guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; as in this. (^[^^'See Explanations, p. 23.J KORTHOLT 1340 KOSSUTH born at Burg, in Holstein, in 1633. About 1665 he was appointed professor of divinity in the University of Kiel. He published numerous religious treatises, of which we may name " On the Pagan, Mohammedan, and Jewish Religions," (1666,) "Of the Three Impostors Herbert, Hobbes, and Spinosa," (1680,) "On the Origin and Na- ture of Christianity," and "On the State and Progress of Schools and Academies, especially in Germany." Died in 1694. See LiNDEMANN, "Memoria C. Kortholti," 1694. Kortholt, (Christian,) a Danish or German theo- logian, son of Sebastian, noticed below, was born at Kiel in 1709. 'He became professor of divinity at Got- tingen. He published "The Letters of Leibnitz," (4 vols., 1734-42,) and wrote, besides other works, (in Latin,) an "Essay on the Enthusiasm of Mohammed," (1745.) Died in 1751. See Ayrer, " Memoria C. Kortholti," 1751. Kortholt, (Sebastian,) a son of Christian, noticed above, (1633-94,) and the father of the preceding, was born at Kiel about 1670. He was a man of great learn- ing, and wrote many literary essays. Died about 1740. Kortholtus. See Kortholt. Kortiim or Kortuem, koR'tUm, (Johann Friedrich Christoph,) a German historian, iDorn in Mecklenburg- Strelitz in 1788, became professor of history at Heidel- berg in 1840. He wrote, among other works, a " History of the Political Constitution of Greece," and a "History of the Middle Ages," (2 vols., 1837.) Died in 1858. Kortiim or Kortuem, (Karl Arnold,) a German physician and satiric poet, born at Miilheim-an-der-Ruhr in 1745, published a mock-heroic poem entitled "The Jobsiad ; or. The Life, Opinions, and Deeds of Jerome Jobs the Candidate," (1784.) Died in 1824. An English translation of " The Jobsiad," by Rev. Charles T. Brooks, was published in Philadelphia in 1863. Kosciusko, kos-se-\is'ko, [Polish, Kosciuszko, k6sh- yoo'sko,] (Thaddeus,) an illustrious Polish patriot and general, of a noble family, was born in Lithuania about 1750. Having studied at the military academy of Ver- sailles, he embarked about 1777 for America, where he fought with distinction at New York and Yorktown and acquired the friendship of Washington. He returned to Poland in 1786, but, his country being soon after sub- jected to Russia, he retired to Leipsic. On the break- ing out of the revolution of 1794, he was appointed commander of the Polish army, and defeated the Russians with greatly superior numbers at Raclawice. For two months he defended Warsaw against the united forces of Russia and Prussia, but, overpowered at last by fresh troops advancing under Fersen, suffered a total defeat at Maciejowice, where he was wounded and taken prisoner in October, 1794. After two years' imprisonment, he was released by the emperor Paul, who offered him his sword, which Kosciusko refused, saying "he had no need of a sword, since he had no longer a country." When solicited by Napoleon to aid him in his ambitious schemes with regard to Poland, he steadily refused ; and the proclama- tion to the Poles, which appeared in the "Moniteur" under his name in 1806, was declared by him a forgery. He died in 181 7, at Soleure, in Switzerland, having previously written to the emperor Alexander entreat- ing him to give to Poland a free constitution. He also abolished serfdom on his Polish domain. See M. A. Jullien, "Notice sur Kosciuszko," 1818; Falken- STEiN, "Kosciuszko," Leipsic, 1825; L. Chodzko, " Histoire mili- taire, politique et privee i^i Kosciuszko." 1837; Jules Michelet, "Kosciuszko, Legenda dei§l- lo'tee, (Secondo,) an Italian author and priest, born at Perugia in 1575. He published in 1630 a successful work entitled "To-Day," (" L'Hoggidi,") intended to prove that the world was not morally or physically worse than it had been in ancient times. Pie wrote other learned works. Died in Paris in 1643. Lancilotti, l^n-che-lot'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian painter and poet, born at Florence, lived about 1500. He excelled in nocturnal scenes. Lancisi, lin-chee-'see, (Giovanni Maria,) an eminent Italian physician and scholar, born at Rome in 1654. For thirteen years he lectured on anatomy with eclat at the College of Sapienza, Rome. He became the chief phy- sician of Pope Innocent XI. in 1688, and served Clement XI. in the same capacity. Besides other professional works, he published, in Latin, a "Treatise on Sudden Deaths," (1707,) and one "On the Noxious Effluvia of Marshes," (1717.) Died in 1720. See AssALTi, "Vie de Lancisi," prefixed to his treatise "De Motu Cordis;" Fabroni, " Vitae Italorum," etc. ; G. M. Crescim- BENi, "Vita di G. M. Lancisi," 1721 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene- rale." Lancival. See Luce de Lancival. Lancjean, 16N'zh6N', ( R^mi, ) a skilful Flemish painter of history, born at Brussels, was a pupil of Van Dyck. Died in 1671. Lancre, 16NkR, (Pierre,) a French lawyer, and writer on demonology and sorcery, was born at Bordeaux ; died in 1630. Lancret, 15N'kR&', (Nicolas,) a French painter, born in Paris in 169c. He imitated the manner of Watteau with success. His reputation was higher in his own time than at the present. Died in 1743. Lancrinck or Lankrink, lin'kRink, (Prosper Henry,) a skilful landscape-painter, of German ex- traction, born about 1628. He worked in England, and was employed by Sir Peter Lely to paint the landscapes, flowers, etc. of his pictures. Died in 1692. Landa, de, da l&n'dS, (Juan,) a Spanish painter, lived at Pam|:)e]una from 1570 to 1630. Landais or Landois, 16N'd^', (Pierre,) a French parvenu of low birth, born at Vitre, became the favourite of Francis II., Duke of Brittany, who gave him absolute power. Landais was hated by the nobles, who conspired against him and put him to death in 1485. Lande. See Lalande. Landelle, ISnM^K, (Charles,) a French historical painter, born at Laval, Mayenne, about 1816. He ob- tained a medal at the Great Exposition of 1855 for his picture of the " Repose of the Virgin." Lan'den, (John,) an English mathematician, born at Peakirk in 1719. He began to write for the "Ladies' Diary" in 1744, and published in 1755 "Mathematical Lucubrations," in which various parts of high analysis are treated. In 1766 he was admitted into the Royal Society. He wrote several treatises on dynamics and the integral calculus. Among his principal works is his "Residual Analysis," (1764.) Died in 1790. ■e as>^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (Jil^^See Explanations, p. 23.) UNDER 1366 LAND OR Lan'd^r, (Frederick William,) an American en- gineer and general, born at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1822. He commanded an expedition to open a wagon- road across the plains to California in 1858. It is stated that he made five explorations across the continent, having been employed by the government to survey a route for a Pacific railroad. In July, 1861, he was ap- pointed a brigadier-general. He was wounded at Ed- wards's Ferry, October, 186 1, and signalized his courage at Blooming Gap, Virginia, in February, 1862. He died at Pawpaw, Virginia, in March, 1862, leaving a high reputation for enterprise and bravery. Lan'der, (John,) an English traveller, born in 1807. He accompanied his brother Richard in an expedition to explore the river Niger in 1830. (See Lander, Richard.) Died in 1839. Lander, (Louisa,) an American sculptor, born at Salem, Massachusetts, about 1835, studied at Rome under Crawford, Among her best works may be named statues of " Evangeline" and of " Virginia Dare," and a bust of Hawthorne. Lander, (Richard,) an English traveller, who has rendered his name memorable by solving the problem of the course of the Niger, was born at Truro in 1804. He had been employed as a servant by several gentle- men before 1825, when, hearing of Captain Clapperton's proposed expedition to Africa, he offered his services and was engaged by that officer as his confidential ser- vant. (See Clapperton, Hugh.) After performing the last offices to his master near Saccatoo in April, 1827, he returned with the papers of Clapperton to England, where he arrived in 1828. The offer which he made to renew the enterprise was accepted by gov- ernment. Accompanied by his brother John, he sailed from England in January, 1830, traced the Niger from Yaoori (or Yauri) to its mouth in the Bight of Benin, ar.d returned home in 1831. A "Journal of an Expe- dition to Explore the Course and Termination of the Niger," (2 vols.,) by Richard and John Lander, was published in 1832. The voyage from Yaoori to the mouth of the river occupied about four months, from August 2 to December i, 1830. Having undertaken another expedition to Western Africa in the service of a mercantile company, he was killed by the natives in 1835. The most prominent trait of his character was indomitable perseverance. See " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1832; " North American Re- view" for October, 1832. Landi, ISn'dee, (Costanzo,) Count, an Italian phi- lologist and numismatist, born at Piacenza in 1521 ; died in 1564. Landi, (Gasparo,) Chevalier, an Italian painter of history and portraits, born at Piacenza in 1756. He worked mostly in Rome, and became professor of paint- ing in the Academy of Saint Luke. He excelled in car- nation tints and in truth of expression. Some Italian critics considered him as one of their best painters. Among his principal works is "The Assumption of the Virgin." Died at Rome in 1830. Landi, (Giulio,) Count, an Italian writer, born at Piacenza about 1500, wrote a romance entitled "The Life of Cleopatra," (1551.) Died about 1580. Landi, (Ortensio,) a witty and extravagant Italian writer, born at Milan. He was for some time in the service of the Bishop of Trent, and passed many of his later years in Venice. He published several scandalous and paradoxical works, among which are a " Dialogue on the Death of Erasmus," (1540,) " Paradoxes," (" Para- dossi,") and the " Scourge of Ancient and Modern Au- thors," (1550.) Died about 1560. See TiKABoscHi, " Storia della Letteratiira Italiana." Landi, (Stefano,) an Italian composer, born in Rome, lived about 1630. He composed sacred music, and was distinguished for his inventive genius. Landini, lln-dee'nee, or Landino, ISn-dee'no, (Chkistoforo,) an Italian critic and scholar, born at Florence in 1424, was reputed one of the principal orna- ments of the Platonic Academy of that city. He became professor of belles-lettres at Florence in 1457, and was chosen by Pietro de' Medici to finish the education of his two sons. He wrote several Latin poems, and es- teemed commentaries or Horace, Virgil, and Dante. Died in 1504. See GiNGUENE, " Histoire de la Litt^rature Italienne;" Negri, " Istoria de' Scrittori Fiorentini." Landini, (Taddeo,) a Florentine sculptor, who worked in Rome and was employed by Gregory XIII., Sixtus V., and Clement VIII. Died about 1594. Landino, (Francesco,) an Italian organist and com- poser, surnamed CiECO, (the "Blind,") was born at Flor- ence about 1325 ; died in 1390. Lan'do or Lan'don, a native of Sabina, was elected pope, as successor to Anastasius HI., in 913. He died in 914 A.D., and was succeeded by John X. Lando, ISn'do, (Pietro,) was elected Doge of Venice in 1539. During his reign the Venetians made peace with the Turks, and resisted the efforts of Charles V. and Francis I. to engage them in new hostilities. Died in 1545, aged eighty-four. Landon, ISnMon', (Charles Paul,) a French painter and writer on art, born in Normandy in 1760. He studied in Rome as a pensioner of the king, and worked in Paris, but acquired more reputation by his writings than by his paintings. He published many magnificent illustrated works, among which are "The Lives and Works of the Most Eminent Painters of all Schools," (25 vols., 1803 et seq.,) and "Annals of the Museum," etc., ("Annalesdu Musee et de I'Ecole des Beaux-Arts," (33 vols., 1808,) Died in 1826. See QuERARD, "La France Litt^raire ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Lan'dpn, (Letitia Elizabeth,) a popular English poetess, born in a suburb of London in 1 802, She began to write verse about the age of thirteen, and in 1820 became a contributor to the " Literary Gazette," under the signature of L. E. L. These poetical efforts pro- cured for her an extensive reputation, and enabled her to support herself. She produced, anonymously, two novels, entitled "Romance and Reality" and "Ethel Churchill," and poems called "The Troubadour," "Ze- nana," etc. Her poems are chiefly of a sentimental or romantic character. In 1838 she was married to George Maclean, Governor of Cape Coast Castle, Africa, whither they went to reside. Her death, which occurred in 1839, is ascribed to prussic acid, which she was in the habit of taking as medicine. See Laman Rlanchard, "Life and Literary Remains of L. E. L.," 3 vols., 1840; "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iii. ; Mrs. Elwood, "Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England from the Commencement of tlie Last Century," vol. ii., 1843; Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors;" "Monthly Review" for July, 1825; "Atlantic Monthly" for March, 1865. Lan'dor, (Walter Savage,) an eminent English author, born at Ipsley Court, Warwickshire, January 30, 1775, was a son of Walter Landor, who married a rich heiress named Elizabeth Savage. He was edu- cated at Rugby and at Trinity College, Oxford, became master of an independent fortune, and followed no pro- fession except that of author. He published a volume of poems in 1795, and a poem entitled "Gebir" in 1798. In 1806 he sold his large estates, quitted England in disgust, and removed to the continent. He served as a colonel in the Spanish army against Napoleon from 1808 to 1814. In 1811 he married Julia Thuillier, of Bath. He became a resident of Florence about 1816, and occu- l^ied the palace of the Medici for several years. He pub- lished in 1820 Latin poems, entitled "Idyllia Pleroica." His reputation was extended by his " Imaginary Con- versations of Literary Men and Statesmen," (5 vols., 1824-29,) which presented many novel and paradoxical ideas. Among his other works are "Count Julian," a poem, (1831,) "Pericles and Aspasia," (1836,) "Andrea of Hungary," a drama, (1839,) "The Hellenics," (1847,) and "The Last Fruit of an Old Tree," (1853.) He was a friend of Robert Southey. Died at Florence in Sep- tember, 1864. See John Foster, "Walter S. Landor; a Biography," 1869; "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1824, February, 1837, and October, 1839; "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1846, and April, 1850; "North British Review" for November, 1846, and July, 1869; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" R. W. Emerson, "English Traits ;" " Biographical Sketches," by Harriet Martineau ; Mi.ss Field, "Last Days of W. S. Landor," in the "Atlantic Monthly" for April, May, and June, 1866. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 11, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; LAND RUN I 1367 LANGBAINE Landriani, ]an-dRe-a'nee,(PAOLO Camillo,) a painter of the Milanese school, born about 1570 ; died about 1618. Land'seer, (Charles,) an English painter, a son of John Landseer, noticed below, was born in 1799. He received lessons from Haydon, and acquired a fair repu- tation as an artist. His subjects are chiefly taken from English history and poetry. His " Monks of Melrose" (1843) gained a prize of about £100. He was chosen an Academician in 1845, and keeper of the Academy in 1851. Landseer, (Sir Edwin,) the most celebrated modern painter of animals, was born in London in 1803. He learned to draw after nature in his childhood, under the direction of his father, began to exhibit in 181 7, and at the age of eighteen painted his admirable '* Dogs of Saint Golhard." Between 1821 and 1830 he produced "The Prowling Lion," ''The Return from Ueer-Stalking," (1827,) and " Hunting of Chevy Chase." He was elected Royal Academician in 1830, after which he exhibited " Sir Walter Scott and his Dogs," (1833,) " Bolton Abbey in the Olden Time," "The Old Shepherd's Chief Mourner," (1837,) highly praised by Ruskin " as one of the most per- fect poems or pictures (I use the words as synonymous) which modern times have seen." His humorous picture of "Laying Down the Law" appeared in 1840. His marvellous technical skill is subordinated to the expres- sion of sentiment or pathos in a " Pastoral Scene," (1845,) "Peace" and "War," (1846,) and other works. Among his master-pieces are a portrait of a Newfoundland dog, styled "A Member of the Humane Society," (1838,) "A Scene from the 'Midsummer Night's Dream,'" (1851,) and "The Children of the Mist," (1853.) Many of his works have been engraved. See " Fraser's Magazine" for July, 1856. Landseer, (John,) an English engraver, the father of the preceding, was born at Lincoln in 1769. Having acquired reputation by excellent engravings of animals, after Rubens and other artists, he was chosen associate engraver of the Royal Academy about 1807. He lec- tured on art in London, and published several treatises on art, one of which is entitled " Sabaean Researches," (1823.) Died in 1852. Landseer, (Thomas,) an English artist and eminent engraver, son of the preceding, was born before 1800. Among his most admired productions are engravings of his brother Edwin's pictures of animals, and of Rosa Bonheur's " Horse-Fair." Lan'dulph, [Fr. Landulphk, l6N'dulf,] a mediaeval historian and priest, born at Milan about 1080, was a pupil of Anselm of Laon. He wrote, in Latin, a " His- tory of Milan from 1095 to 1137." Lane, (Edward William,) an English Orientalist, born at Hereford in 1801. He resided several years in Egypt, and published an interesting and valuable work " On the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyp- tians," (1836,) and a very complete "Arabic-and-Eng- lish Lexicon," (in two Parts, 1863-65.) Lane, (Henry S.,) an American Senator and lawyer, born in Montgomery county, Kentucky, in 1811, removed to Indiana. He represented a district of Indiana in Con- gress, 1841-43, and was elected Governor of that State as a Republican in 1861. Having been chosen a Sen- ator of the United States in 1861, he resigned the office of Governor. Lane, (James H.,) an American general, born at Law- renceburg, Indiana, in 1814. He was elected to Congress in 1852, and removed in 1855 to Kansas, where he be- came a leader of the Free State party. He was elected major-general by the legislature of Kansas in 1857, and a Senator of the United vStates in 1861. He commanded a brigade in the first year of the civil war, but retained his seat in the Senate. Died by suicide in July, 1866. Lane, (Joseph,) an American general and politician, born in North Carolina in 1801. He distinguished him- self in the principal engagements of the Mexican war of 1846-47, and rose to the rank of major-general. He became Governor of Oregon Territory in 1848, and was elected United States Senator from the State of Oregon in 1859. In i860 he was the I>erfiocratic candidate for Vice-President, John C. Breckinridge being the nominee for President. Lane, (Sir Richard,) an English lawyer, born 1*0 Northamptonshire. He was counsel for the Earl of Strafford in 1640, and was an adherent of the king in the civil war. In 1645 he became keeper of the great seal. Died in 1651. Lane, (Richard James,) an English lithographer, born in Hereford about 1800. Lan'franc, [Lat. Lanfran'cus ; It. Lanfranco, lin- fR§,n'ko,] a distinguished prelate. Archbishop of Canter- bury, was born at Pavia about 1005. Having embraced the monastic life, he became celebrated for piety and learning. He was a counsellor of William of Normandy before his conquest of England, and in 1070 was chosen Archbishop of Canterbury. " His zeal in promoting the interests of the papacy," says Hume, "was indefati- gable." He enjoyed in a high degree the confidence of the king, who consulted him in affairs of state. He crowned William Rufus in 1087, and died in 1089, leaving several works on theology. See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. ii. chap. ii. ; A. Charma, " Lanfranc, Notice biographique, lit- teraire," etc., 1849 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Lanfranco. See Lanfranc. Lanfranco, lin-fRin^ko, or Lanfranc, ISn-fRlnk', [Lat. Lanfran'cus,] an Italian surgeon, born at Milan about 1250. He removed in 1295 to Paris, where he practised and lectured with a high reputation. He wrote a treatise on surgery, entitled " Chirurgia magna et parva," (1490.) Lanfranco or Lanfranc, (Giovanni,) an eminent Italian painter, born at Parma in 1581. He received lessons from the three Caracci, whom, in design and expression, he imitated. He worked in Rome for the Dukes Farnese and the Borghese family, and afterwards in Naples. His painting on the cu])ola of San Andrea della Valle, Rome, was much admired. His works in oil and fresco are very numerous. Died at Rome in 1647. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- ing in Italy." Lanfrancus. See Lanfranc and Lanfranco. Lang, (Johann Michael.) See Lange. Lang, fang, (Karl Nikolaus,) a Swiss physician, born at Lucerne in 1670. He practised medicine with success in his native place, cultivated natural history, and acquired fame by his work on the figured stones of Switzerland, " Idea Historias naturalis Lapidum figurato- rum Helvetiae," (1705.) Died in 1741. Lang, (Louis,) born in Wiirtemberg, Germany, in 1814, studied painting in Paris, and subsequently at Rome. In 1845 he settled in New York City, where he has executed numerous works. Lang, von, fon ling, (Karl Heinrich,) a German historical writer, born in Suabia in 1764, was appointe 1 in 181 1 director of the archives of the kingdom at Munich, He published a "History of the Jesuits in Bavaria,"' and other works relative to that country. Died in 1835. See Karl Heinrich Lang, "Memoiren," 1S42. Langallerie, de, deh ISN'gtKre', (Philippe de Gen- tils,) Marquis, a French military adventurer, born at Lamotte-Charente in 1656. He gained the rank of gene- ral in the French army, and afterwards fought under Prince Eugene against the French. He died in 171 7, leaving two vohnnes of Memoirs, (1709,) wlflch have been translated into English. Langara, de, di ISn-gd'rS, (Don Juan,) a Spanish admiral, born about 1730. He was defeated near Cape Saint Vincent in 1780 by an English fleet under Rodney, but was in the same year made lieutenant-general of the navy. He commanded the Spanish fleet which took Toulon in 1793. Died in 1800. Langbaine, ISngM^an, (Gerard,) D.D., an English scholar, born in Westmoreland about 1608. He became a Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford, and in 1644 keeper of the archives of the university. He edited Longinus, and left several useful catalogues, which remain in manu- script. Died in 1658. Langbaine, (Gerard.) the son of the preceding, was born at Oxford in 1656. Having collected many old plays, (nine hundred and erghty,) he published a cata- logue of the same, called " Momus Triinnphans," which was improved and reprinted in 1691, with the title of € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N> nasal; r, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (ilS^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) LANGBEIN 1368 LANGHORNE "Account of the English Dramatic Poets." This work is prized for the information it affords, but has little critical merit. Died in 1692. Langbein, ISng^bin, (August Friedrich Ernst,) a German poet and writer of fiction, born at Radeburg, near Dresden, in 1757. He became a resident of Berlin in 1800. He published a number of romances, songs, and humorous poems, which had a transient popularity. Among his prose works are "Talismans against Ennui," "The Wings of Time," and "Ganymeda," (1823.) He had an agreeable style, but little imagination. Died in 1835- See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Langdale, Lord. See Bickersteth, (Henry.) Lang'dale, (Sir Marmaduke,) an English general, born in Yorkshire. He fought for the king in the civil war, and commanded with success at the siege of Ponte- fract Castle. He commanded the left wing at Naseby in 1645, and was defeated by Cromwell at Preston in 1648. On the restoration he returned to England in 1660, after many years of exile, and was chosen lord lieutenant of Yorkshire. Died in 1661. Lang'don, (John,) LL.D., an American statesman, born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1739. He became successively a delegate to the General Congress, member of the United States Senate in 1789, and Gov- ernor of New Hampshire several times between 1805 and 181 1. He acted with the Republican party. Died in 1819. Langdon, (Samuel,) D.D., an American divine and theological writer, born at Boston about 1723, became president of Harvard College in 1774, and resigned in 1780. Died in 1797. Lange, ling'eh, (Joachim,) a German linguist and writer, born at Gardelegen in 1670. He became pro- fessor of theology at Halle in 1709, and published, be- sides some theological works, a Latin Grammar and a Greek Grammar, which were successful. Died in 1744. Lange, [Lat. Lan'gius,] (Johann,) a learned German physician, born at Lemberg, in Silesia, in 1485. He was first physician to several Electors-Palatine. He wrote professional works which are commended. Died in 1565. Lange or Lang, ling, (Johann Michael,) a German Pi'otestant divine, eminent as an Orientalist, born at Ezelwangen in 1664. He lived as inspector at Prentzlau from 1 710 until his death, in 1731. He published a treatise "On Mohammedan Fables," (1697,) and several critical essays. Lange, (Joseph,) a German philologist, born at Kai- sersberg. He published editions of Martial, Juvenal, and Persius, also " Florilegium," (1598.) Died about 1630. Lange, (Joseph,) a celebrated actor, born at Wiirz- burg, Bavaria, in 1 75 1. He became a favourite on the theatre of Vienna, where he performed many years. Died about 1820. Lange, llng'eh, (Lars,) a Danish or Swedish traveller, born at Stockholm. Having entered the Russian service as an officer of engineers, he was sent as minister to Pekin in 1719, and again in 1726. Several narratives of these journeys were published. The Journal of Lange contains some interesting notices of the nomadic tribes of Siberia: Lange, [Lat. Lan'gius,] (Rudolph,) of Munster, a German writer, born about 1438. He published some Latin poems. Died in 15 19. Lange, de, deh lang'eh, written also Langhe, [Lat. Lan'gius,] (Charles,) an eminent Flemish philologist and critic, born at Ghent or Brussels. He edited Cicero's treatises " De Officiis," " De Amicitia," and " De Senec- tute." Lipsius pronounced him the most learned Fleming of his time. Died at Liege in 1573. See Fei.ix van Hulst, " C. de Langhe (Carolus Langius) et Lievin Vandeibeke," 1846. Langeac, de, deh ISN^zhSk', (N. de l'Espinasse,) Chevalier, a French poet, born about 1748. He pro- duced, besides a number of original poems, a version of Virgil's "Bucolics," (1806.) Died in 1839. Langebeck, llng'eh-bgk'', (Jacou,) a learned Danish writer, born in Jutland in 17 10. He was employed by the king to collect manuscripts, inscriptions, etc. He became keeper of the national archives, and councillor of state. His principal work is a great collection of Danish writers, under the title of " Danish Historians of the Middle Ages," (" Scriptores Rerum Danicarum medii ^vi," 1772.) Died in 1774. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Langeland. See Longland, Langenbeck, ISng'en-bgk', (Konrad Johann Mar- tin,) a German surgeon and anatomist, born in the king- dom of Hanover in 1776, wrote a " Manual of Anatomy," (1806,) " Icones Anatomicae," (8 vols., 1826-39,) and other valuable works. Died in 1851. See Saint-Maurice Cabany," C.J. M. Langenbeck," etc., 1852. Langendyk, lano'en-dik", (Pieter,) a Dutch poet, born at Haarlem in 1662. He excelled in humorous composition, and was the author of several epigrams and comedies, among which is " Don Quixote at the Wedding of Camacho." Died in 1735. Langenn, von, fon \h\g-l\V, (Friedrich Albrecht,) a German jurist, born at Merseburgin 1798, was appointed in 1835 tutor to Prince Albert. Langenstein, lang'en-stTn', (Heinrich,) a German astronomer and theologian, born in Hesse, was called Henricus de Hassia. Died at Vienna in 1397. Langer, ISng'er, (Johann Peter,) a German painter, born in 1756, became successively director of the Acad- emy of Arts at Dusseldorf and at Munich, where he obtained great reputation and success as a teacher. His best picture represents " Christ Blessing Children." Died in 1824. His son Robert, born at Dusseldorf in 1783, was distinguished as a fresco-painter and designer. Died in 1846. Langeron, de, deh \bnzWxb^\ (Andrault,) Count, a general, born in Paris in 1763. He emigrated in 1789, entered the Russian service, and became a lieutenant- general in 1799. He commanded a Russian division at Austerlitz, in 1805, and gained some advantages over the French in the campaign of 1813. Died in 1831. Langetti, ISn-jet'tee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Ital- ian painter, born at Genoa in 1635 '■> died in 1676. Langham, lang'am, de, (Simon,) an English car- dinal, born in Rutlandshire. He was appointed by the king chancellor in 1364, became Archbishop of Can- terbury in 1366, and a cardinal in 1368. He was hostile to Wycliffe, whom he removed from the mastership of a college at Oxford. The temporalities of his see were seized by Edward HL about 1368. Died in 1376. See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. iv. chap. xiii. Langhans, ling^hSns, (Karl Gotthard,) an eminent German architect, born at Landshut in 1733. He was appointed director of the public buildings of Berlin, and adorned that city with several fine structures, among which are the Brandenburg Gate and a theatre. He was the author of some treatises on architecture. Died in 1808. Langhe, de, (Charles.) See Lange. Lang'horne, (Rev. Daniel,) an English antiquary, born in London. He published "Chronicle of the Kings of England," ("Chronicon Regum Anglosrum," 1679.) Died in 1681. Langhorne, (John,) an English poet and translator, born in Westmoreland in 1735. Having taken holy orders, he obtained a curacy in London in 1764. He wrote a number of successful sentimental works in prose and verse, among which are "Letters of Theodosius and Constantia," and " The Fatal Prophecy," a drama. About 1768 he obtained the living of Blagden, Somersetshire. His reputation rests chiefly on his translation of Plu- tarch's "Lives," (1770,) which is correct and literal. He was assisted in this by his brother William. He vindicated the Scotch against the satire of Churchill in a poem called "Genius and Valour." His versification is easy and harmonious. Died in 1779. See Johnson and Chalmers, "Lives of the English Poets;' Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets." Langhorne, (William,) a brother of the preceding, was born in 1721, and became rector of Folkstone. He assisted his brother in the translation of Plutarch, and published "Job, a Poem," and a paraphrase in verse of a part of Isaiah. Died in 1772, a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; hy 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, ^, short; a, 9, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, f3lt; mgt; nSt; good; moon; LANGINI 1369 LJNJUINJIS Langini, IJn-jee'nee, (Antonio,) called also Antonio da Carrara, because he was born at Carrara, an Italian sculptor, lived about 1530. Langius. See Lange. Langlade, de, deh IdNgltd', (Jacques,) Baron de Saumieres, a French writer, born in Perigord about 1620. He was secretary to Cardinal Mazarin. Died in 1680. Langle, IfiN'gli', (Honor6 Francois Marie,) an able writer on music, born at Monaco in 1741. He published a "Treatise on Harmony and Modulation," (1797,) and composed several operas. Died in 1807. Langle, de, deh l6Ngl, (Jean Maximilien,) a French Protestant minister and writer, born at Evreux in 1590 ; died at Rouen in 1674. Langle, de, (Paul Antoine Marie Fleuriot,) an able French naval officer, born in 1744. He sailed as second in command of La Perouse's exploring expe- dition. He was killed b}' the savages on one of the Navigator Islands in 1787. Langles, iSx^gl^ss', (Louis Mathieu,) a French Ori- entalist, born near Saint-Didier in 1763. He gave special attention to Arabic and Persian, became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, professor of Persian in Paris, and keeper of the Oriental manuscripts of the National Library, (1795.) Among his numerous works are a French version of the " Political and Military Institutes of Tamerlane," translations from the Eng- lish of several books of travels in the East, a Mantchoo Dictionary, and "Ancient and Modern Monuments of Hindostan," (2 vols., 1812-21, unfinished.) Died in 1824. See Abkl Remusat, " Nouveaux Melanges Asiatiques ;" J. P. A. Remusat, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de L. M. Langlis," 1825; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Langlet. See Lenglet. Lang'ley, (Batty,) an English architect, who pro- posed to improve the Gothic style of architecture by an absurd imitation of the Grecian orders. He published several works on architecture. Died in 175 1. Langlois, ISN'glwi', (Eustache Hyacinthe,) a skil- ful French designer and engraver, born in Normandy in 1777, worked chiefly at Rouen. His reputation is said to have increased since his death. He published a " Collection of Views, Sites, and Monuments of France," and several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1837. See Gilbert, " Notice biographique sur M. Langlois," 1839. Langlois, (Jean,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1649, became a resident of Rome. Langlois, (Jean Charles,) a French painter of bat- tles and panoramas, born in Calvados in 1789. Among his works are panoramas of the "Battle of Moskwa," (1835,) and the " Burning of Moscow," (1839.) L'Anglois, ISN'glwi', (Michel,) [Lat. Michael Aj^GLi'cus,] a Flemish priest and Latin poet, born at Beaumont about 1470. Langlois, (Simon Alexandre,) a French Orientalist, born in 1788. He was elected a member of the Acad- emy of Inscriptions in 1835. Among his works is " Rig Veda, ou Livre des Hymnes," translated from the San- scrit, (4 vols., 1849-52.) Died in 1854. Langrish, lang'grish, (Browne,) an English physi- cian, born about 1700, wrote several works on medicme. Died in 1759. Langsdorff, ISngsMoRf, (Georg Heinrich,) Baron, a German naturalist and physician, born in Suabia in 1774, accompanied Krusenstern's expedition to the North, (1803,) and afterwards visited Brazil. He pub- lished a Treatise on "Plants collected during the Rus- sian Voyage around the World," (1810,) and other works. Died in 1852. Lang'toft, (Peter,) an English chronicler, who lived about 1300, was a canon-regular of the order of Saint Austin at Bridlington. He compiled a " Chronicle of England," (in French verse,) which extends to the year 1307. He is supposed to have died in the reign of Ed- ward II. Lang'ton, (Stephen,) an English cardinal. Arch- bishop of Canterbury. In 1206 he went to Rome, and was made a cardinal. The election of Archbishop of Canterbury being contested in 1207, Innocent HI. com- pelled the monks to choose Langton, whom King John refused to recognize until the pope, by laying his king- dom under an interdict, reduced him to submission in 1213. He co-operated with the insurgent barons in asserting the national liberties against King John in 1215, and was suspended by the pope for refusing to publish the sentence of excommunication against the barons. Died in 1228. See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. ii. chap. xii. Languet, 16N'gi', (Hubert,) a French Protc-stant and political writer, born in Burgundy in 15 18, was a friend of Sir Philip Sidney. He entered the service of Augustus, Elector of Saxony, in 1568, and was the envoy of that prince to Paris at the time of the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, from which he escaped. He was afterwards employed as negotiator by William, Prince of Orange. In 1579 he published, under the name of Junius Brutus, a famous work, entitled " Vindiciae contra Tyrannos," a bold assertion of the right of resistance to tyrants. Died in 1 581. See Philibert de la Mare, "Vie d'Habert Languet," 1700: Chevreul, "Hubert Languet," 1852; Bayi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Niceron, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Languet de Gergy, 16N%i' deh zhgR''zhe', (Jean Baptiste Joseph,) a French philanthropist and bene- factor, was born at Dijon in 1675. He became vicar of Saint-Sulpice, Paris, and built the magnificent church of Saint-Sulpice, finished in 1745. He also founded in Paris an institution in which poor women and girls were supported and educated. It is said that he several times refused a bishopric. Died in 1750. Languet de Gergy, (Jean Joseph,) a French theo- logian, born at Dijon in 1677, was a brother of the pre- ceding. He was a zealous adversary of the Jansenists, and gained distinction by his polemical writings. He became a member of the French Academy in 1721, and Archbishop of Sens in 1730. He published Catechisms, and other religious books. Died in 1753. Lanier or Laniere, li-ne-aiR', (Niccol6,) an Italian painter and musician, was born in 1568. He lived in Eng- land in the reign of Charles I,, who patronized him and employed him to purchase pictures. He was more eminent as a musician than as a painter, and became the king's chapel -master in 1626. Lanier was also a dealer in pictures, and purchased several at the sale and dispersion of the collection of Charles I. Died about 1660. Lan'i-gan, (John,) an Irish writer and Roman Cath- olic priest, born at Cashel in 1758. Among his works is an "Ecclesiastical History of Ireland," (4 vols., 1822.) Died in 1828. Lanino, IS-nee'no, or Lanini, 1^-nee'nee, (Bernar- dino,) an eminent Italian painter, born at Vercelli, was a pupil of Gaudenzio Ferrari, whom he imitated. He worked at Milan and Novara. His design and composi- tion are admired. Among his master-pieces are " Scenes in the Life of the Virgin," " The Sibyls," (at Novara,) and "The Martyrdom of Saint Catherine," (in fresco,) at Milan. Died about 1570. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " Storia pittorica." Lanjuinais, IfiN^zhii-e'ni', (Jean Denis,) Count, a French lawyer and liberal legislator, born at Rennes in 1753. He was deputed to the States-General in 1789, and to the Convention in 1792. In the latter body he boldly defended the king during his trial, and resisted the terrorists with great energy. His defence of the Girondists in May, 1793, is praised by Lamartine. He was proscribed with the Girondists, but escaped, and kept himself concealed during the reign of terror. He was chosen a senator in 1800, and a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1808. He published many political, religious, and historical treatises. Died in 1827. See DuPiN, " Notice sur Lanjuinais," 1827 ; Dacier, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Lanjuinais;" Michel Berr, "Notice biographique sur le Comte Lanjuinais," 1827; V. de Lanjuinais, "Notice historique sur J. D. de Lanjuinais," 1832; Lamartine, " History of the Girondists;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lanjuinais, (Joseph,) a French writer, uncle of the preceding, was born in Bretagne. Having removed to Moudon, in Switzerland, he turned Protestant, and became a school-teacher. He published, besides other works, € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) LANJUINAIS 1370 LJNTJRA "The Accomplished Monarch ; or, Prodigies of Goodness and Wisdom which make the Eulogy of the Emperor Joseph II.," (3 vols,, 1774.) Died in 1808. Lanjuinais, (Victor,) a French lawyer, a son of Jean Denis, noticed above, was born in Paris in 1802. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1838, and to the Constituent Assembly in 1848. Lank'es-ter, (Edwin,) F.R.S., an English naturalist and popular lecturer, born at Melton, in Sufifolk, in 1814, graduated as M.D. at Heidelberg in 1839. He was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1845, ^"l-s., 1819.) Lecamus. See Camus, Le, (Antoine and Etienne.) Lecanu, leh-kS'nii^ (Louis Ren6,) a French chemist, born in 1800, published numerous worlds. Lecat, lel/kS', (Claude Nicolas,) an eminent French surgeon, born in Picardy in 1700. He settled about 1733 at Rouen, where he lectured on anatomy and practised with success. In 1744 he founded a Royal Academy at Rouen. He was a skilful lithotomist, and published several treatises on that branch of surgery. He wrote a "Treatise on the Senses," (1740,) and other professional works. Died in 1768. See L. A. Valentin, " filoge de Lecat," 1769; Monfalcon, in the "Biographie M^dicale :" Haller, " Bibhotheca Chirurgica ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lecchi, lek'kee, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian mathematician, born at Milan in 1702. He obtained in 1739 the chair of mathematics in Pavfa, where he taught with great success for twenty years. He was afterwards appointed by Maria Theresa mathematician of the court at Vienna. Pie published, besides other works, "Ele- ments of Geometry," (1753,) ^ " Theory of Light, including Optics," (1759,) and a "Treatise on Hydrostatics," (1765.) Died in 1776. See TiPALDO, "Biografia degli Italian! illustri." J. B. Rousseau and Malherbe being the other two. S, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged;. a, e, I, ©, u, y, short; a, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; niSt; n6t; go6d; moonj LECENE 1389 LECLUSE Lecene, leh-s^n', (Charles,) a learned French Prot- estant theologian, born at Caen about 1647. He retired to Holland in 1685, and afterwards to London, where he attempted to found an Arminian church, but failed, because he was suspected of holding Socinian views. He made a French translation of the Bible, (1741,) which deviates too much from the literal sense, and wrote several works on theology. Died in London in 1703. Lechevalier or Le Chevalier, leh sheh-vt'le-^', (Je\n Baptiste,) a French traveller and savant, born neai Coutances in 1752. In 1784 he went to the Levant as St retary of Choiseul-Gouffier, ambassador to the Ottoman Porte, and made diligent researches in the plain ol Troy, which attest the accuracy of Homer's descriptions. He published his "Voyage de la Troade," (1798 or 1800,) and a "Voyage to the Propontis and the Euxine," (1800.) Died in '1836. Leck'y, (W. E. H.,) an English philosopher, pub- lished in 1865 a "History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe," (London, 2 vols.) *'We closed them," says the "Edinburgh Review," (April, 1865,) "with the conviction that Mr. Lecky is one of the most accomplished writers and one of the most ingenious thinkers of the time." He also wrote a " History of European Morals, from Augustus to Charlemagne," (1869.) See "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1869; "British Quarterly Review" for July and October, 1865; " Fraser's Maga- zine" for November, 1865, and September, 1S69. Leclerc or Le Clerc, leh-klaiR', (Daniel,) a Swiss physician, born at Geneva in 1652, was a brother of Jean the eminent critic. He practised with distinction in Geneva, became a counsellor of the republic, and published, besides some other works, a "Complete Surgery," (1695,) and a "History of Medicine," (1696,) which was translated into English. Died in 1728. Leclerc, (David,) a Swiss Protestant theologian, born at Geneva in 1591 ; died in 1654. Leclerc, (David,) a skilful Swiss portrait-painter, born at Berne in 1680, worked many years in Frankfort, and painted portraits in oil and miniature of numerous German jirinces. Died in 1738. Leclerc, leh-klaik', (Gakriel,) a French physician, practised in Paris. He became physician-in-ordinary to Louis XIV., and published between 1694 and 1706 several professional works, one of which is entitled "Convenient Medicine," ("La Medecine aisee.") Leclerc, [Lat. Cler'icus,] (Jean,) an eminent Swiss critic and divine, born at Geneva in 1657. He became a champion of Arminianism, and removed to Holland in 1683. After preaching for a short time in the church of the Remonstrants in Amsterdam, he obtained in that city the chair of philosophy and Hebrew, which he retained until his death. In 1686 he commenced the"Biblio- theque Universelle," the first of those three celebrated series of reviews to which he owes much of his fame, and which was issued monthly until 1693, It was fol- lowed by the " Bibliotheque Choisie," (1703-13,) and the " Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne," (1714-27.) "These journals," says Hallam, "enjoyed an extraordinary in- fluence over Europe, and deserved to enjoy it. . . . He is generally temperate and judicious, and displays a very extensive erudition." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") He published many other valuable works, among which are " Ars Critica," (2 vols., 1696,) " Par- rhasiana," (2 vols., 1699-1701,) and a "Commentary on the Bible." Died in 1736. See J. Ci.ERici, "Vita et Opera ad Annum 171 1 Amici ejus Opus- cuhmi :" Van der Hoeven, " Dissertationes IL de J. Clerico et Philippo a Limborch," 1843; " Nouvelle Blographie Generale;" MM Haag, " La France protestante." Leclerc, (Jean Baptlste,) a French legislator and writer, born at Angers in 1756. He was a member of the Convention, (1792-95,) and of the Council of Five Hundred, (1795-99.) He wrote "Pastoral Poems," (1786,) and other literary works. Died in 1826. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Leclerc, (Jean Louis.) See Buffon. Leclerc, (Joseph Victor,) a French classical scholar, was born in Paris in 1 789. He obtained the chair of Latin eloquence at the Faculty of Letters in 1824, and was ad- mitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1834. He published, besides some original works, "The Thoughts of Plato," in Greek and French, (1818,) and "The Com- plete Works of Cicero," with a French version, (30 vols., 1821-25.) Leclerc, (Laurent,) a French priest, born in Paris in 1677, was a son of Sebastien Leclerc the engraver. He published, besides other works, "A Critical Letter on Bayle's Dictionary." Died in 1736. Leclerc, (Michel,) a French poet and advocate, born at Albi in 1622. His principal work is "Virginia the Roman Girl," ("Virginie Romaine," a tragedy, 1645.) He was a member of the French Academy. Died in 1691. Leclerc, (Nicolas Gabriel.) See Clerc. Leclerc, (Oscar,) known as Leclerc Thoiiin, an agriculturist, born in Paris in 1798, was a son of Jean Baptiste, noticed above, and a nephew of Andre Thoiiin. He published treatises on agriculture. Died in 1845. Leclerc, (Sebastien,) a skilful French designer and engraver, born at Metz in 1637, removed to Paris in 1665. In 1672 he was chosen professor of perspective in the Academy of Painting. His works were nearly all designed by himself. Louis XIV. appointed him engraver of his cabinet and professor in the Ecole des Gobelins. Leclerc published a " System of Vision," (" Systeme sur la Vision," 1679,) and an esteemed treat- ise on Architecture, (1^14.) Died in 1714. See Vallemont, " Eloge de M. Leclerc Dessinateur," etc., 1715 ; QuERARD, " La France Litteraire." Leclerc or Le Clerc, (S^;bastien,) a good his- torical painter, born in Paris about 1684, was a son of the preceding. He was chosen a member of the Royal Academy about 1 704. Died about 1765. Leclerc or Le Clerc, (Victor Emmanuel,) a French general, born at Pontoise in 1772. He served at the siege of Toulon, (1793,) where he formed a friendship with Bonaparte, and distinguished himself in the Italian cam- paign of 1796. He followed Bonaparte to Egypt in 1798, and promoted the success of the coup d^etat of i8th Bru- maire, 1799. Soon after this event he married Pauline Bonapartef with the consent of her brother, the First Consul, who in 1801 gave him command of a large armament (35,000 men) sent to subjugate the revolted negroes of Hayti. He obtained some successes, and sent Toussaint L'Ouverture as a captive to France ; but his army was wasted by the yellow fever, of which he died in November, 1802. See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution," and "His- tory of the Consulate and the Empire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Leclerc des Essarts, leh-klaiR' di za'stR', (Louis Nicolas Marin,) a French general, brother of the pre- ceding, was born at Pontoise in 1770. For his services at Eckmiihl, Wagram, etc., in 1809, he received the title of count. He commanded a division in Russia in 1812, where he distinguished himself by his courage and skill. Died in 1820. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Leclercq or Le Clercq, leh-kl&Rk', (Chretien,) a French missionary, born in Artois about 1630. In 1655 he was sent to Canada, where he laboured many years. After his return to France he published "The History of the French Colonies in New France, and of Lasalle's Expedition to Explore the Mississippi," (1691.) Leclerq, (Michel Th^iodore,) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1777. He published "Dramatic Pro- verbs," (4 vols., 1823-26,) which were very popular. Died in 1851. Lecluse or L'ticluse, de, deh Ik'kliiz', written also L'Escluse, (Charles,) [Lat. Car'olus Clu^sius,] a savant, who made important contributions to the science of botany, was born at Arras in 1526. He studied at Louvain, Wittenberg, and Montpellier. At the last-named place he graduated as physician in 1555. After travelling many years in France, Spain, etc., for botanical informa- tion, he was director of the emperor's garden at Vienna from 1573 to 1587. He published, in Latin, a "Descrip- tion of the Rare Plants of Spain," (1576,) and a "De- scription of the Rare Plants of Austria," (1583,) both of which were afterwards united in his "Rariorum Plan- € as /J; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, yl, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (Sl^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) LECLUSE 1390 LEDESMJ tarum Historia," ("History of the Rarer Plants," 1601,) with figures. In 1593 he became professor of botany at l^eyden, where he died in 1609. He was endowed with a great memory and a rare sagacity, and excelled in description. He left a work on foreign animals and plants, entitled "Exoticorum Libri Decem, quibus Ani- malium, Plantarum, Aromatumque Historias describun- tur," (1605.) See Hai.ler, "Ribliotheca Botanica ;" Nic^ron, " M^moires ;" ^LOY, " Dictionnaire de la Medecine ;" Mokren, "Ala Memoire de C. de L'Escluse, un des P^res de la Botaiiiqiie," etc., Liege, 1853. Lecluse, de, (Fleury,) a French Hellenist, born in Paris in 1774. Among his works is a "History of Greek and Latin Literature," (2 vols., 1837.) Died in 1845. Lecointe. See Cointe, Le. Lecointe-Puiraveau, leh-kw^Nt' pii-e'rtVo', (Mi- chel Mathieu,) a French legislator, born at Saint- Maixent about 1750, was an active member of the Con- vention, (1792-95.) Died in 1825. Lecointre, leh-kwiNtR', (Laurent,) a French regi- cide. He voted for the death of the king in the Con- vention, and instigated the execution of the queen. Died in 1805. Lecomte or Le Comte, leh-k6Nt', (F6 lix,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1737, was a pupil of Falconet. He was received as Academician in 1771. By order of the king, he executed statues of Fenelon and Rollin. He is classed in the second rank of French sculptors. Died in 1817. Lecomte, (Jules,) an able French litterateur, born at Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1812. He edited several journals, and ])ublished "Letters on French Authors," (1837,) a "History of the Revolution of 1848," (1850,) and "The English Pontoons," ("Les Pontons Anglais," a maritime novel, 5 vols., 1850-52.) Died in 1864. Lecomte, (Louis,) a French Jesuit, born at Bor- deaux, was one of six mathematicians sent as mission- aries to China in 1685. He laboured some years in the mission of Shensee, (Chensi,) and, having returned to France, published in 1696 " Memoirs on the Present State of China," which was censured by the Faculty of Theology. Died in 1729. * Leconte, leh-koNt', [Lat. Con'tius,] (Antoine,) a French jurist, born at Noyon, was a cousin-german of Calvin, but an opponent of his doctrines. He lectured on law at Orleans and Bourges, and left several legal works. Died in 1586. Le Conte, le-k6nt, (John,) an American naturalist, and officer in the corps of United States engineers, was born near Shrewsbury, New Jersey, in 1784. He pub- lished " Descriptions of the Species of North American Tortoises," " Monographs of the North American Spe- cies of Utricularia," etc., and other works. Died in 1861. Leconte, (John L.,) M.D., a son of the preceding, born in New York in 1825, is distinguished as an ento- mologist. He has published numerous treatises, etc. on entomology, among which is one " On the Classifi- cation of the Carabid^e of the United States." Leconte, (John,) M.D., an American naturalist and physician, born in Liberty county, Georgia, in 1818. He became in 1856 professor of natural and mechanical philosophy in South Carolina College, Columbia. Leconte, (Joseph,) M.D., brother of the preceding, was born in Lil)erty county, Georgia, in 1823. \w 1851 he accompanied Professor Agassiz on a scientific tour in Florida, and in 1856 became professor of chemistry and geometry in South Carolina College. He has published several chemical and geological works. Leconte de Lisle, ]eh-k5Nt' deh 161, (Charles Marie,) a French poet, born in the Isle of Bourbon in 1820, removed to Paris in 1847. He produced in 1852 a volume of " Poemes antiques," which obtained a prize of the French Academy, and in 1854 " Poesies nou- velles." " His character," says Sainte-Beuve, " is one of the most decided (prononce) and most worthy among the poets of our time." "His art," says Villemain, "is at the same time skilful and bold, more worthy of glory than sure of popularity." The form of his poetry is compared to an exquisitely-finished antique statue. See " Rapports de M. Villemain i TAcad^mie Frangaise sur les Prix decernds en 1853," etc.; Sainte-Beuve, "Causeriesdu Lundi," tome V. Lecoq or Le Coq, leh-kok', (Henri,) a French nat- uralist, born at Avesnes (Nord) in 1802. He wrote treatises on geology, chemistry, and botany. His most important work is " Studies on the Botanical Geography of Europe," (7 vols., 1854-57.) Lecoq, von, fon leh-kok', (Karl Christian Erd- MANN Edler,) an able German general, born at Torgr.i in 1767. He fought for the French at Wagram in 1809, and commanded a division of Saxon troops in the Rus- sian campaign of 18 12. After 18 15 he received the chief command of the Saxon army. Died in 1830. Le Courayeror Le Courrayer. See Courayer, Ie. Lecourbe or Le Corn-be, leh-kooRb', (Claude Joseph,) a French general, born at Lons-le-Saulnier in 1760. In 1799 he defeated the Austrians in Switzerland. Having been selected by Moreau to command the right wing of his army in 1800, he distinguished himself at Hochstadt and other places. On account of his attach- ment to Moreau, he was deprived of command in 1804- Died in 1815. Lecouvreur or Le Couvreur, leh-koov'ruR', ( Adri- enne,) a popular French actress, born near Epernay about 1690. She excelled in tragedy, and was a great favourite in Paris from 171 7 until her death. Voltaire and other poets offered poetical homage to her talents. Died in 1730. See Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi." Lect, ]§kt, [Lat. Lec'tius,] (Jacques,) a learned Swiss jurisconsult, born in 1560, at Geneva. He obtained a chair of law in that city in 1583, and the next year was chosen a member of the council of state. In the critical times which followed he showed firmness and ability. He wrote several legal works, an edition of" Poetae Graeci veteres Carminis heroici Scriptores," (1606,) and short Latin poems, " Po) "Observations on Surgery," (1731,) and "Practical Re- flections on Gunshot Wounds," (1737.) Died in 1770. Ledru, leh-dRii', (Andr^ Pierre,) a French priest and naturalist, born in Maine in 1761, was employed as botanist in Baudin's expedition to the Canaries and the Antilles in 1796. He wrote several works. Died about 1825. Ledru, (Nicolas Philippe,) a French experimenter in natural philosophy, born in Paris in 173 1, was a grandfather of Ledru-Rollin. He made discoveries in magnetism. Died in 1807. Ledru-Rollin, le-dru' roKlin or leh-dRii' to'ISn', (Alexandre Auguste,) a distinguished French socialist and radical republican, born in Paris in 1808. His family name was Ledru, to which he added that of Rollin. He became an advocate about 1830, and was employed as counsel for the defence in many political trials between 1832 and 1848. In 1841 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies by the voters of Mans, and became the chief orator of the extreme gauche, or ultra-democrats. As a tribune and popular agitator he was distinguished for his audacity and vehemence, but had not much influence in the Chamber. He founded "La Reforme," a political j(Mirnal, and took a prominent part at the reform ban- quets of 1847. During the Revolution of February, 1848, he entered the Chamber when the regency of the Duchess of Or- leans was under discussion. By the exertion of great physical force he occui)ied the tribune, and, amidst the violent tumult, spoke against the regency. He was chosen by acclamation as a member of the provisional govern- ment, and became minister of the interior. (See Lamar- TINE.) His measures in this capacity were not approved by the majority of his colleagues. He was censured for an attempt to j^roscribe the defeated party ; but he is said to have saved the government from the violence of the insurgents on the i6th of April. At the election of five members of the executive commission by the Assembly in May, he was the lowest of the successful candidates, receiving four hundred and fifty-eight votes out of about eight hundred. He owed this election to the influence of Lamartine. He lost his popularity with the masses, and retired from power in June, 1848, when Cavaignac became dictator. In December, 1848, Ledru-Rollin re- ceived only 370,119 votes for president, having failed to obtain the support of the socialists. He was the chief of the "Mountain" in the Assemblies of 1848 and 1849, to the latter of which he was elected by five departments, and made eloquent speeches against the government. In June, 1849, he demanded the impeachment of the president, and, when this was refused, called on his partisans to rise in arms. The few who obeyed this call were quickly dispersed by the troops, and Ledru-Rollin escaped to England, where he remained many years. In his absence he was condemned to deportation. He pub- lished a book "On the Decline of England," (2 vols., 1850,) and united with Kossuth and Mazzini to form a revolutionary committee for the promotion of the demo- cratic cause in Europe. Among his publications is "French Jurisprudence," etc., ("Jurisprudence Fran- 9aise, ou Repertoire du Journal du Palais," 8 vols., 1843-48.) Availing himself of the general amnesty, he returned to France in 1870. See N. Gai.i.ois, "Vie politique de Lerlru-'Rollin," 1850 ; "Black- wood's Magazine" for August, 1850; " Nouvelle Biographic G^n^- rale." Leduc or Le Due, leh-diik', (Jan,) a Dutch painter and engraver, born at the Hague about 1638, was a pupil and skilful imitator of Paul Potter. He painted interiors, guard-rooms, robbers, etc. About 1671 he entered the army, in which he obtained the rank of captain, and abandoned his art. Led'wich, (Edw^ard,) an Irish antiquary, born in 1739, became vicar of Aghaboe. He published a valu- able work entitled "The Antiquities of Ireland," (1794,) and a few other treatises. He offended many of his countrymen by denying the truth of the legend of Saint Patrick, Died in 1823. Led'yard, (John,) a celebrated American traveller, born at Groton, in Connecticut, in 1751. At an early age he took passage as a common sailor on a vessel bound for Gibraltar, and thence repaired to London, where in 1776 he set sail with Captain Cook on his third voyage around the world. After his return, in 1780, he published a journal of the voyage, including an account of the circumstances attending the death of Captain Cook. Having projected an expedition to the Arctic regions, he set out in 1786, and, after a journey of great hardships, he arrived at Irkootsk in January, 1787. Here he was arrested as a spy by order of the empress, and forbidden again to enter Russia. He next went to Lon- don, where he was most kindly received by Sir Joseph Banks, and in June, 1788, under the patronage of the African Association, set out on a voyage of discovery to Central Africa. He reached Cairo in August, but, while making preparations for his journey, was attacked by a fever, of which he died. The news of his death was heard with deep regret by his friends in England, who had formed the highest opinion of his qualifica- tions for the arduous task of African exploration. He was described by Mr. Beaufoy, secretary of the African Association, as "adventurous beyond the conception of ordinary men, yet wary and considerate, and appeared to be formed by nature for achievements of hardihood and peril." See Sparks, "Life of Ledyard," in bis "American Biography;" "Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. ii. ; "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1828, (by Southey;) "North American Review" for October, 1828; Cleveland, "Compendium of Ameri- can Literature." Ledyard, (William,) Colonel, an American officer, born in Connecticut about 1750, commanded at Fort Griswold during the attack made by the British in 1781. He was brutally stabbed by the English commander, Major Bromfield, after he had delivered up to him his sword. He was an uncle of the distinguished traveller John Ledyard. Lee, (Alfred,) an American theologian, born at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1807, was consecrated Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Delaware in 1841. He has published a "Life of the Apostle Peter," and a "Life of Saint John." Lee, (Anne,) founder of the sect called Shakers, was born at Manchester, in England, in 1735. Having re- moved to America, she settled near Albany, New York, where she gathered a number of proselytes around her. She taught many strange doctrines, — among others, that all marriage is sinful, and is to be shunned under all circumstances. She was usually styled by her fol- lowers "Mother Anne." She died in 1784. Among the principal settlements made by her followers are those at New Lebanon, near Albany, and at Harvard, Massa- chusetts. See Allen's "American Biographical Dictionary." Lee, (Arthur,) an American statesman and revolu- tionist, born in Westmoreland county, Virginia, in 1740, was a brother of Richard Henry Lee. He studied medi- cine in Edinburgh, and subsequently became a student of law in London. He there pul)lished a number of eloquent political essays, under the name of "Junius Americanus," in which he advocated the cause of the American people. He was sent as minister to France in 1776; and, in conjunction with Franklin and Deane, he negotiated a treaty with the French. He was recalled in 1779. After his return he was elected to Congress in 1782, and was subsequently made a counsellor of the supreme court of the United States, and a member of the board of treasury, (1784.) He was never married. c as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (Ji^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) LEE 1392 LEE He was a good classical scholar, and an intimate friend of Sir William Jones. Died in 1792. See R. H. Lke, "Life of Arthur Lee," 2 vols., 1829: "North American Review" for April, 1830; " Encyclopjedia Americana." Lee, (Ch.xrles,) a distinguished officer in the American Revolutionary war, was a native of Wales. Having served for a time in the British army, he removed to America. He was appointed major-general by Congress in June, 1775. In 1776 he was appointed to the chief command of the Southern colonies. He was surprised and taken prisoner by the English while marching through New Jersey to join Washington in Pennsylvania, (December, 1776;) but after the surrender of Burgoyne, in October, 1777, he was exchanged. Having disobeyed General Washington's orders at the battle of Monmouth, in 1778, he was tried by a court-martial, and suspended from service for a year. Died in 1782. General Lee was the author of several political works. See " Encyclopsedia Americana." Lee, (Edward,) an English prelate, born in Kent in 1482. He became chaplain of Henry VHL, who em- ployed him in several diplomatic missions. In 1529 he was sent to Rome to negotiate for the divorce of the king, and in 153 1 was appointed Archbishop of York. He opi^osed the doctrines of Luther, but favoured the innovations which Henry VIII. made in the Church. He wrote " Epicedia C'larorum Virorum," and other works in Latin. Died in 1544. Lee, ( Eliza Buckminster, ) an American writer, daughter of the Rev. Joseph Buckminster, was born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Among her principal works are " Sketches of a New England Village," and "Naomi, or Boston Two Hundred Years Ago." She has also translated the "Life of Jean Paul Richter," and portions of Richter's works, from the German. Lee, (Ezra,) an American officer, who served in the Revolutionary war, was born in 1749 ; died in 1821. Lee, (FiTZ-HuGH,) an American general, a nephew of General Robert E. Lee, was born in Virginia in 1835. He graduated at West Point in 1856, and commanded a division of cavalry in the Confederate army in the summer of 1863. Lee, (Francis Lightfoot,) an American statesman and patriot, born in Westmoreland county, Virginia, in October, 1734, was a younger brother of Richard Henry Lee. He inherited a large estate, and married a daugh- ter of Colonel John Tayloe in 1772. He was elected to the General Congress in 1775, and signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Having been re-elected, he continued to serve in Congress until 1779. He was too diffident to gain distinction as a debater, but took an active part in legislative business. Died without issue, at Richmond, in 1797. He was eminent for conversa- tional powers, and was a general favourite in society. Lee, (Frederick Richard,) a popular English land- scape-painter, born at Barnstaple about 1800. He began to exhibit at the Royal Academy about 1824, and was chosen an Academician in 1838. He is most successful in river-scenery and in landscapes where trees are promi- nent objects. His pencil has been employed exclusively on British scenery. Among his works are "The Mill," " The Storm on the Lake," and " The Avenue of Sho- brooke Park." Lee, (Hannah F.,) an American novelist and mis- cellaneous writer, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts. Her "Three Experiments of Living," published in 1838, passed through numerous editions both in America and Europe. Among her works are " Grace Seymour," "Eleanor Fulton," "Luther and his Times," and a "History of Sculpture and Sculptors." Lee, (Harriet,) an English writer of fiction, was born in London in 1756. In partnership with her sister Sophia, she taught school for many years (1780-1803) at Bath. After publishing "Clara Lennox" and other novels, which are now neglected, she produced between 1797 and 1805 five volumes of the "Canterbury Tales," which were very successful. Died in 1851. Lord Byron, referring to " Kruitzner" in Lee's "Canterbury Tales," (from which he took the subject of his " Werner,") says, *' I am not sure it ever was very popular ; . . . but I have generally found that those who had read it agreed with me in their estimate of the singular power of mind and conception which it develops. . . . Amongst those whose opinions agreed with mine upon this story I could mention some very high names." (See Preface to the tragedy of " Werner.") Lee, (Henry,) an eminent American general, born in Westmoreland county, Virginia, in January, 1756. His father, Henry Lee, was a first-cousin of Richard Henry Lee. He became a captain of cavalry in 1776, joined the main army in September, 1777, and performed several daring exploits. He captured a British fort at Paulus Hook in July, 1779. He was raised to the rank of lieu- tenant-colonel about 1780, after which year he served in the army of General Greene as an officer of cavalry. He rendered important services at Guilford Court- House, March, 1781, and at the attack on Fort Ninety-Six. His legion of cavalry also contributed to the victory at Eutaw Springs, September 8, 1781. He was appointed a dele- gate to the General Congress in 1786, and was elected Governor of Virginia in 1791 or 1792. He was again a member of Congress in 1799, and was selected by Con- gress to pronounce a eulogy on Washington, whom he characterized as "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." He wrote about the yeai 1809 valuable "Memoirs of the War in the Scnithern States." In 1814 he was severely injured by a Baltimore mob, against which he fought to defend a printing-office and editor. He never recovered from this injury, and died in Georgia in March, 1818, leaving four sons, — Henry, Charles C, Robert E., (the famous general,) and Sidney Smith. He was often called Light -Hc^rse Harry. In a letter to Henry Lee, General Greene wrote, "Everybody knows I have the highest opinion oi you as an officer. . . . No man in the progress of the campaign had equal merit with yourself." See DuvcKiNCK, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. ; " Encyclopsedia Americana." Lee, (Jesse,) an American Methodist divine, born in Virginia in 1758, was for many years a chaplain to Congress. Died in 1816. Lee, (John,) D.D., a Scottish professor of divinity, born about 1780. He became principal of the University of Edinburgh about 1840, and afterwards professor of divinity there. Died in 1859. Lee, (Leroy Madison,) D.D., aii American clergy- man of the Methodist Episcopal Church, born at Peters- burg, Virginia, in 1808. He published several religious works, and in 1836 became editor of the Richmond "Christian Advocate." Lee, (Luther,) D.D., an eminent American divine of the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born in Scho- harie county, New York, in 1800. He was editor of the "New England Christian Advocate" and "The True Wesleyan." He became president and professor of the- ology in Michigan Union College in 1856. He has pub- lished, among other works, " Slavery Examined in the Light of the Bible," and "The Immortality of the Soul." iiee, (Mary E.,) born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1813, was the author of "Tales from History," and made a number of translations from the French, Italian, and German. Died in 1849. See Griswold, " Female Poets of America." Lee, (Nathaniel,) an English dramatist, born about 1658. After he had appeared as an actor on the London stage without success, he composed thirteen tragedies, two of which — viz., "Alexander the Great" and "Theo- dosius" — obtained public favour. He was confined in Bedlam for insanity in 1684, and released about 1688. Died in 1691. His imagination is extravagant, and in- clined to bombast. " Among our modern English poets," says Addison, "there is none who was better turned for tragedy than Lee, if, instead of favouring the impetuosity of his genius, he had restrained it within proper bounds." See "Retrospective Review," vol. iii., 1821. Lee, (Rachel Fanny Antonina,) an eccentric Eng- lish authoress, originally named Dashwood, was born about 1770. She wrote' an "Essay on Government," which was commended by Wordsworth. Died in 1829. See De Quincev, "Autobiographic Sketches," chap. iv. Lee, (Richard Henry,) an American statesman and orator, and one of the signers of the Declaration of In- a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; ky 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, sAort; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; m§t; ndt; good; moon; LEE 1393 LEE dependence, was born in the county of Westmoreland, Virginia, in 1732, He was educated in England, and, after his return, was elected about 1757 to the House of Burgesses in Virginia. He married Miss Aylett in early life. In 1765 he eloquently defended the resolutions against the Stamp Act, introduced by Patrick Henry. He was a delegate from Virginia in 1774 to the Conti- nental Congress, and took a prominent part in the pro- ceedings of that body. The memorial to the people of British America, authorized by the Continental Congress, is attributed to his pen. In June, 1776, he introduced into Congress the measure declaring the colonies free and independent States, which motion he supported by a most eloquent and powerful speech. Mr. Lee was again elected to Congress in 1778 ; he became president of that body in 1784, and was elected a United States Senator from Virginia in 1789. Like most other Vir- ginians, he disapproved the Federal Constitution. Died in 1794. See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of In- dependence ;" "Memoirs of the Life of R. H. Lee," by his grand- son, R. H. Lee, 2 vols., 1825 ; " North American Review" for April, 1826, (by Edward Everett.) Lee, (Robert,) D.D., a theologian, born at North Dur- ham in 1804, was a minister of the Established Church of Scotland. He became professor of biblical criticism in the University of Edinburgh in 1846. Died in 1868. Lee, (Robert Edmund,) a celebrated American general, a son of General Henry Lee, noticed above, was born at Stratford, Westmoreland county, Virginia, in 1806. His mother's name was Anne Carter. He graduated at the head of his class at West Point in 1829, and married in 1832 a daughter of George Washington Parke Custis, who was the adopted son of General Washington. He obtained the rank of captain in 1838, and served in the Mexican war (1846-47) as chief engi- neer of the army of General Scott, by whom his conduct was highly commended. For his services in Mexico he was raised to the rank of brevet colonel. He was superintendent of the Academy at West Point from September, 1852, to April, 1855. By his marriage he became proprietor of the Arlington House, on the Poto- mac, where his family resided when the civil war began. He was appointed a colonel of cavalry in March, 1861. On the 20th of April, 1861, he resigned his commission by a letter to General Scott, to whom he wrote, " My resignation would have been presented at once, but for the struggle it has cost me to separate myself from a service to which I have devoted all the best years of my life." About the 21st of April he was appointed major- general in command of all the forces of Virginia. In July ensuing, his rank was fixed as brigadier-general in the Confederate army, and he took command of a force in Northwestern Virginia. He was opposed to General Rosecrans in this campaign, the results of which were rather favourable to the Unionists; though no impor- tant battle was fought. About December, 1861, he was ordered to take charge of the coast-defences of South Carolina and Georgia. He returned to Richmond in March, 1862, and on the 3d of June took the chief com- mand of the army destined to defend the capital. On the 26th of June he attacked the army of General McClellan at Mechanicsville. The conflict was renewed on the 27th at Gaines's Mill, where both armies suffered heavy losses. Having been attacked at Savage's Sta- tion on the 29th, the Union army retired to Malvern Hill, close to the James River. Lee's army was defeated at Malvern Hill, July I, losing about 6500 killed and wounded. General McClellan was, nevertheless, soon after compelled to retreat, and to abandon t'le siege of Richmond. The seat of war having been transferred to the northern part of Virginia, General Lee gained a victory over General Pope at Bull Run, or Manassas, on the 29th and 30th of August, and invaded Maryland about the 4th of September. He commanded in person at the great battle of Antietam, September 17, where he had, according to Pollard, about 70,000 men. His loss at South Mountain and Antietam is reported to have been 1842 killed and 9399 wounded, besides several thousand prisoners. General Lee retired to Virginia on the i8th, but was not pursued, and occupied a strongly- fortified position at Fredericksburg, where General Burnside attacked him on the 13th of December and was repulsed with heavy loss. On the 2d and 3d of May, Generals Lee and Hooker fought a great battle at Chancellorsville, where the former had the advantage; but the losses were nearly equal, and the retiring Union army was not pursued. Having been largely reinforced, he assumed the offensive with an army of about 95,000 men, and crossed the Potomac on the 24th of Jinie, 1S63, for the invasion of Pennsylvania. Marching against Harrisburg, he was confronted at Gettysburg by the Union army, commanded by General Meade and jjosted on a range of hills. The Union army acted on the defensive in the battle of Gettysburg, which began on the ist of July and was renewed on the 2d without a decisive result. On the 3d, General Lee made several desperate assaults, which were repulsed, and the Union army was finally victorious. According to the report of General Meade, the Federals took here 13,621 prisoners, including the wounded. General Lee retired in the night of the 4th of July, through the rain, and returned to Virginia. His army was not engaged in any great battles during the ensuing winter. The campaign of 1864 was opened about the 4th of May by General Grant, who crossed the Rapidan and advanced towards Richmond. A severe and indecisive battle ensued at the Wilderness on the 5th and 6th of May. General Grant continued to approach his objective point by a series of flank movements, alternating with great battles at Spottsylvania Court-PIouse, May 9-12, at the North Anna River, May 23, and Cold Harbour, June 3. In these battles General Lee acted mostly on the defensive in fortified positions, and his losses were probably less than those of Grant. General Grant, how- ever, referring to those battles, says, " Bloody and terrible as they were on our side, they were even more damaging to the enemy." Having crossed the James River about June 15, the Union army commenced the long siege of Petersburg, near which several actions were fought in July and August. (See Grant, Ulysses S.) In February or March, 1865, General Lee was appointed commander-in-chief of all the Confederate armies. During the winter of 1864-65 the army of Virginia had been mostly inactive, and greatly trammelled by the necessity of defending Richmond and Petersburg. About the 30th of March the armies operating against these cities began to move, and to cut the Danville and Southside Railroads, by which Lee's army received supplies. The. right wing of his army was defeated by General Sheridan at F'ive Forks on the ist of April, and General Grant made a general and successful assault on the works at Peters- burg on the 2d. General Lee evacuated Richmond and Petersburg in the night of April 2, and retreated towards Danville with about 35,000 men. He was pursued by the cavalry under General Sheridan, who attacked him on the 6th near the Appomattox River and took about 6000 prisoners. He received pacific overtures from General Grant on the 7th, and surrendered his army at Appomattox Court-House on the 9th of April, 1865. It was then agreed by the contracting parties that "each officer and man will be allowed to return to his home, not to be disturbed by United States authority so long as they observe their paroles and the laws in force where they reside." Soon after the end of the war. General Lee became president of Washington College, at Lexington, Virginia. Speaking of the character of Lee as a general, Mr. Greeley remarks that he knew how to make the most of a good defensive position, "the single point in which (but it is a vital one) his admirers can justify their claim for him of a rare military genius. No other American has ever so thoroughly appreciated and so readily seized the enormous advantage which the in- creased range, precision, and efficiency given to musketry by rifling have insured to the defensive, when wielded by a commander who knows how speedily a trench may be dug and a slight breastwork thrown up, which will stop nine-tenths of the bullets." (" American Conflict," vol. ii. p. 581.) He died, at Lexington, October 12, 1870. See " Sonthern Generals," (anonymons,) New York, 1865 ; E. A. Pollard, "Lee and his Lieutenants,"i867. € as z^;; c as s; g hard; g as ;'; g, h, K, guttural; N, nasal ; r, trilled ; § as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 88 LEE J 394 LEFEBVRE Lee, (Samuel,) an English nonconformist minister, born in London in 1625. He preached in London for some years, and emigrated to New England about 1686. He published several religious works, among which is "The Temple of Solomon.^' Died in 1691. Lee, (Samuel,) D.D., an eminent English Orientalist, born at Longnor, in Shropshire, in 1783. He learned the trade of a carpenter, which he followed for some years, during which he studied Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, etc. About 1817 he took the degree of B.A. at Cambridge, and entered holy orders. He was chosen professor of Arabic at Cambridge in 1819, and professor of Hebrew about 1832, after which date he obtained the rectory of Barley. He published a Hebrew Grammar, (1830,) a "Hebrew, Chaldaic, and English Lexicon," (1840,) an " Inquiry into the Nature, Progress, and End of Prophecy," (1849,) and other works. Died in 1852. Lee, (Samuel P.,) an American naval officer, born in Virginia, became a midshipman in 1825. He commanded the Oneida in the battle against the forts and gun- boats below New Orleans in April, 1862, and in 1863 was promoted to the command of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron. Lee, (Sarah,) (Mrs. Bowdich,) an English writer, born about 1800, was the wife of T. E. Bowdich, whom she accompanied to South Africa. She wrote " Stories of Strange Lands," (1825,) a " Memoir of Baron Cuvier," (1833,) and other works. She was married again to a Mr. Lee. Died in 1856. Lee, ( Sophia, ) an English dramatist and novelist, born in London in 1750, was a sister of Harriet, noticed above. She began her literary career in 1780 by the " Chapter of Accidents," a comedy, which was success- ful, and was followed by novels entitled "The Recess," (1785,) and "The Life of a Lover." In 1796 she com- posed " Almeyda, Queen of Granada," a tragedy, of which Mrs. Siddons performed the principal n?/^ with applause. She wrote two of the "Canterbury Tales" published by her sister, and other works. Died in 1824. See BoADEN, " Life of Mrs. Siddons," chap. vi. p. 103. Lee, (Thomas,) a Virginian planter, distinguished for his talents, was president of the Council of Virginia. He was the father of Richard Henry, Francis Lightfoot, and Arthur Lee. Died in 1750. Lee, (Thomas,) an American jurist, born at Charles- ton, South Carolina, in 1769. He was appointed by President Monroe judge of the United States district court for South Carolina in 1823. Died in 1839. Lee, (Thomas Bland,) an American politician, born in Virginia about 1762. He was a member of Congress from 1789 to 1795. Died in 1827. Leeb, lap, (Johann,) a German sculptor, born at Memmingen in 1790; died about 1856. Leech, (John,) an English artist and caricaturist, born in London about 1816. He is chiefly known as the designer of the humorous figures which illustrate the London " Punch." His sketches are excellent as works of art, though drawn with rapidity and haste. He pub- lished "Pictures of Life and Character," and "The Rising Generation," (1848,) which display a rare percep- tion of the varieties of character and the keenest sense of the ludicrous. Died in 1864. See the "North British Review" for March, 1865. Leech'man, (William,) a learned Scottish theolo- gian, born in Lanarkshire in 1706. He was professor of theology at Glasgow for seventeen years. His lectures in defence of revealed religion against Voltaire and Hume are commended. He published a collection of sermons, and a work " On the Nature, Reasonableness, and Ad- vantages of Prayer," (1743.) Died in 1785. Leeds, Duke of. See Danby, Earl of. Leemans, la'mdns, (Conrad,) a Dutch archaeologist, born at Zalt Boemel in 1809, published an extensive work " On the Egyptian Monuments of the Museum of Leyden," (1835-52.) Leepe, van der, vtn der la'peh, (Jan Antoon,) a Flemish landscape-painter, born at Brussels in 1664, excelled in marine views. His execution is easy, his touch light, and his colour good. Among his works is a " Flight into Egypt." Died in 1720. Lee'ser, (Isaac,) a Jewish theologian and religious writer, born in Westphalia in 1806, emigrated to Amer- ica, and became in 1829 rabbi of the principal synagogue of Philadelphia. Died ini 868. Leeu, Leuw, or Leeuw, van der, vtn der 15 or luh, (Gabriel,) a Dutch painter of animals, born at Dort in 1643. He worked at Amsterdam, Paris, Naples, and Rome with success, and adopted the Italian manner. His touch was grand and decided. His works rej^resent flocks of sheep, herds of cattle, etc. Died in 1688. Leeu or Leeuw, van der, (Pieter,) a painter of land- scapes and cattle, a brother of the preceding, was born about 1645. His style resembles that of Van der Vekle. He was a good colorist, and painted with facility. Died about 1705. Leeuw or Leuw, van der, vtn der 15 or luh, (Wil- lem,) a Flemish engraver, born at Antwerp in 1600. He engraved many works of Rubens, among which is " Daniel in the Lions' Den," and several works of Rem- brandt, including "David Playing on the Harp." Died about 1665. Leeuwen, van, vtn luh'wen or 15' wen, (Simon,) a Dutch jurist, born at Leyden in 1625 ; died in 1682. Leeuwenhoeck. See Leuwenhoek. Leeves, leevz, (Rev. William,) an English composer, born in 1749, was the author of the air of " Auld Robin Gray." Died in 1828. Lefebure, leh-fa'biiR', (Louis Henri,) a French litteratetir, born in Paris in 1754. He wrote a prize essay against lotteries, besides several treatises on music and botany. Died in 1839. Lefebure de Fourcy, leh-fa'biiR' deh fooR'se', (Louis,) a French mathematician, born at Saint Do- mingo in 1785. He succeeded Lacroix as professor in the Faculty of Sciences in Paris, and published "De- scriptive Geometry," (4th edition, 1843,) and "Analytic Geometry," (1827.) Lefebvre. See Lefevre. Lefebvre, leh-fivR' or leh-f!vR', (Charlemagne Th^;ophile,) a French traveller, born at Nantes in 1811, became an officer in the navy. He wrote " Travels in Abyssinia," (6 vols., 1845-50,) a scientific work of much merit. Lefebvre, (FRANgois Joseph,) Duke of Dantzic, a French marshal, born at Ruffach, in Alsace, in 1755. He was rapidly promoted in the war which began in 1792, and became a general of division in January, 1794. He con- tributed greatly to the victories of Fleurus (1794) and Altenkirchen, (1796.) In August, 1799, he was appointed by the Directory commander of the military division of which Paris was the head-quarters. On the i8th Bru- maire he acted as lieutenant of Bonaparte, to whom he rendered important services in that coup d''etat which made him dictator. He was made a marshal of the empire in 1804, commanded the foot-guards at the battle of Jena, and was rewarded for his success at the siege of Dantzic in 1807 by the title of Duke of Dantzic. In the Austrian campaign of 1809 his skill and courage were conspicuous at Eckmiihl and Wagram. He com- manded the imperial guard in the Russian campaign of 1812, and defended France at Montmirail, etc. in 1814. On the return of Bonaparte from Elba, Lefebvre ac- cepted a place in his Chamber of Peers, and conse- quently was excluded from that of Louis XVIII. in 1816. He was reinstated in his military rank in 1819. Died in 1820. He had the reputation of being one of the best generals of the army, uniting great intrepidity with superior judgment, and had the faculty of animating his men as if by an electric influence. " His military genius," says Marshal Suchet, "found on the scene of action, an 1 without any previous combination, extraor- dinary resources to decide the victory." See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution," and " History of the Consulate and the Empire;" De Coukcei.les, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Frangais;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lefebvre, (Tanneguy.) See Lefevre. Lefebvre or Lefevre, (Valentin.) See Febre, Le. Lefebvre de Cheverus, (Jean Louis Anne Made- leine.) See Cheverus. Lefebvre - Desnouettes, leh - f^vR' da'noo' §t', (Charles,) Count, a French general, born in Paris in i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fdr, fdll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; LEFEFRE 1395 LEG ARE 1773. He entered the army in 1792, and was chosen one of Bonaparte's aides-de-camp in 1800. As colonel he distinguished himself at Austerlitz in 1805. He be- came a general of division in 1808, commanded the chas- seurs of the emperor's guard in 1809, and was employed near Napoleon's person in Russia, (1812.) At the first restoration he was retained in his command by Louis XVHI. ; but he joined the standard of Bonaparte in March, 181 5, and fought at Waterloo. Having been condemned to death by a council of war, he escaped to the United States in 1816. He perished in the wreck of the Albion packet-ship, as he was returning to Europe, in April, 1822. Lefevre. See Caumartin, Dacier, F±vre, Le- FEKVRE, and Faber, (Jean.) Lefevre, (Charles Shaw.) See Eversley. Lefevre or Lefebvre, (Claude.) See FfevRE, Le. Lefevre, leh-favR', (Jean,) a French astronomer, born at Lisieux, became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1682. He edited the " Connaissances des Temps" from 1684 to 1701. Died in 1706. Lefevre, (Jean Jacques,) a liberal French publisher, born at Neufchateau in 1779, settled in Paris in his youth. He published excellent editions of many Greek, Latin, and French classics, for some of which he wrote notes. Died in 1858. Lefevre, (Nicolas,) an able French chemist, emi- grated to England in 1664 at the invitation of Charles IL, who gave him the direction of a laboratory in his palace. He wrote "Theoretical and Practical Chem- istry," (1660.) Died in 1674. Lefevre, (Pierre Francois Alexandre,) a French dramatist and poet, born in Paris in 1741, produced tragedies entitled "Zuma," (1776,) and "Elisabeth de France," (1783,) also "Gustavus Vasa," an epic poem. Died in 1813. Lefevre, (Robert,) a French portrait-painter, born at Bayeux, in Calvados, in 1756, removed to Paris in 1784. Having acquired a high reputation, he painted portraits of Napoleon and Josephine, which were so much admired that more than twenty copies were or- dered by various cities, courts, and other parties. About 1815 he received the title of first painter to the king. Died in 1830. Lefevre or Lefebvre, leh-fivR', (Tannegui or Tan- neguy, tSn'ge',) [Lat. Tanaquil'lus Fa'ber,] an emi- nent French scholar and critic, born at Caen in 1615, was the father of the renowned Madame Dacier. He was appointed by Cardinal Richelieu inspector of the royal printing-establishment in Paris. After the death of Richelieu he joined the Protestants, and was chosen a professor in the Academy of Saumur about 1655. He pul^lished annotated editions of Lucretius, (1662,) Lon- ginus, (1663,) Horace, (1671,) Virgil, and other classics, and translated into French several Greek works. Died in 1672. See F. Graverol, " Memoires pour servir k la Vie de T. Le- ftvie,"i686: Niceron, "Memoires;" MM. Haag, "La France protestanie ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Lefevre de la Boderie, leh-f^vR' deh It bod're', (Guy,) a French Orientalist, born near Falaise in 1541. He co-operated with Arias Montanus in the Polyglot Bible of Antwerp, for which he edited and translated into Latin the Syriac version of the New Testament, (1572.) He also wrote some poems. Died in 1598. Lefevre d'idtaples, leh-fivR' da'ttpK, [Lat. Fa'ber S'I'apulen'sis,] (Jacques,) an eminent French scholar and theologian, born at Staples about 1455. "^'^^ condemned as a heretic by the Sorb(Mine, but was justi- fied by Francis L, who employed him as preceptor to his son. Lefevre produced the first complete French version of the Bible, (1530.) His version is used in the French Protestant churches. He wrote commentaries on the works of Aristotle. Erasmus expressed veneration for his character, ( singularevt vitce sanctimoniam veneror.) Died in 1537. See C. H. Graf, " Essai sur la Vie et les Merits de J. Lefevre d'J^taples," 1842; Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Haag, " La France protestante ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Lefevre de Saint-Remy, leh-f^vR' deh s3,n ri'me', (Jean,) a French chronicler, born near Abbeville about 1394 ; died in 1468. Lefevre-Deumier, leh-fivR' duh'me-i', (Jules,) a French poet, born about 1804. He Ijecame private librarian of President Louis Napoleon in 1849, librarian at the Tuileries in 1852. Died in 1857. Leflo, leh-flo'', (Adolphe Charles Emmanuel,) a French general, born at Lesneven in 1804. He was sent as ambassador to Russia in 1848, and was banished in 1852. Lefort or Le Fort, leh-foR', (FRANgois,) a Swiss general, was born at Geneva in 1656. He entered the Russian service, and fought several campaigns against the Turks before the peace of 1681. He rendered valu- able service to the Czar Peter in his contest with Sophia, his sister and rival ; and when that prince triumphed, in 1689, Lefort became his favourite and chief minister, a dignity which he merited by his virtues and talents. He gave wise counsels to the young autocrat, and was the author of many of the reforms which marked that reign. Lefort was appointed general-in-chief and admiral about 1693. Died in 1699. See Basseville, "Vie de F. Lefort," 1784; Golikof, "Vie de Lefort," Moscow, 1800; Voltaire, " Histoire de Pierre le Grand." Lefranc. See Pompignan. Lefranc, (Martin.) See Franc, Le. Lefranc, leh-tR6N', (Victor,) a French advocate and writer, born at Garsin in 1809. Lefrangais. See Lalande. Lefren, la'fRen or lii'fRgn, (Lars Ulof,) a Swedish Orientalist, born in 1722; died in 1803. Lefuel, leh-fU-eK, (Martin Hector,) a French archi- tect, born at Versailles in 1810. In 1853 he succeeded Visconti as architect of the structures by which the Louvre is joined to the Tuileries. He designed the facades and distributed the interiors of this work, which was finished in 1857. He designed the palace of the Universal Exposition of 1855. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Legallois or Le Gallois, leh-gt'lwS.', (Julien Jean C^sar,) a French physiologist, born near Dol, in Bre- tagne, in 1770. In 1801 he took the degree of M.D., and wrote an able treatise entitled " Is the Blood iden- tical in all the Vessels through which it passes?" He merited a high rank among physiologists and experi- menters by his "Experiments on the Principle of Life, especially on that of the Movements of the Heart and on the Seat of this Principle," (1812.) Died in 1814. See Boisseau, in the " Biographie Medicale;" "Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale." Le Gallois, (Pierre,) a French bibliographer, born in Paris. He published a "Treatise on the Finest Libra- ries of Europe," (1680.) Legare, pronounced leh-gree', (Hugh Swinton,) an American statesman and scholar, of Huguenot descent, was born at Charleston, South Carolina, January 2, 1797. He graduated at the South Carolina College about 181 5, after which he pursued his studies in Paris and Edin- burgh. He was well versed in Greek and other lan- guages. He also studied law, and gave much attention to juridical philosophy. In 1830 he was elected attorney- general of South Carolina. He contributed many able articles to the " Southern Review," and was an adherent of the Union when nullification was agitated in his State. Having served as charge -d'affaires at Brussels for about three years, he returned home in 1836, and was elected by the voters of Charleston a member of Congress, in which he served one term, (1837-39.) As a lawyer he stood high in his profession. In 1840 he advocated the election of General Harrison to the Presidency by several eloquent speeches in New York, Virginia, etc. He was appointed in September, 1841, attorney-general of the United States under President Tyler. He died at Boston in June, 1843. Among his writings are an "Essay on Classical Learning," an "Essay on Roman Literature," and "The Constitutional History of Greece." "The impression left by his collected writings," says R. W. Griswold, " is that his mind was of the first order, but that it did not hold in that order a very prominent place." See Griswold, " Prose Writers of America," and a Memoir pre- fixed to Legare's collected works, 2 vols., 1846. Legare, (Bullen,) (Mary Swinton,) sister of Hugh S. Legare, noticed above, was born at Charleston, South « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; o, H, y.^ guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^P'See Explanations, p. 23.) LEGAZPI 1396 LEGOUFE Carolina, about 1800. She has acquired distinction as an artist, Legazpi, de, di li-gSth-pee', (Miguel Lopez,) a Spanish commander, born at Zubarraja, He went to Mexico in 1545, and commanded an expedition sent in 1564 against the Philippine Isles, which he conquered about 1565-70. Died in 1572. Legendre or Le Geiidre, leh-zhSwdR', (Adrien Marie,) an eminent French geometer, and one of the most profound analysts of his time, was born at Tou- louse in 1752. He was educated at Mazarin College, Paris, and in early life obtained a chair of mathematics in the £cole militaire of that city. Having written a prize essay on the balistic problem, and a memoir on the attraction of spheroids, {1782,) he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1783. He was associated in 1787 with Cassini and Mechain in the operation to connect the Observatories of Paris and Greenwich by a series of triangles. In 1794 he published his admirable " Elements of Geometry," which has been extensively used as a text-book in various languages, and has done more to popularize his name than any other work. He was a member of the bureau of longitudes, and from 1807 to 181 5 an honorary councillor of the Imperial University. In 1807 he produced an important work called Exercises on Integral Calculus," etc., ("Exer- cices de Calcul integral sur divers Ordres de Transcen- dantes," 3 vols.,) which contains his discoveries on the subject of elliptic functions. This subject was more fully developed in his "Traite des Fonctions elliptiques et des Integrales Euleriennes," (3 vols., 1827.) He also made valuable additions to the theory of numbers, on vv^hich he published an essay. Died in 1833. Eaplace, Lagrange, and Legendre formed a mathematical trium- virate, which the French consider entitled to pre- eminence among European geometers of that age. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" " Memoir of Legendre" in the "Report of the Smithsonian Institution" for 1867, translated from the French of £lie de Beaumont; "North American Re- view" for July, 1828. Legendre, (Louis,) a French historian, born at Rouen in 1655. He became a canon of the church of Notre-Dame, Paris, and published, besides other works, a " History of France, ending at the Death of Louis XIII.," (3 vols., 1718.) Died in 1733. Legendre, (Louis,) a subaltern demagogue of the French Revolution, born in 1756. He was deputed in 1792 to the Convention, in which he voted with the "Mountain." "He was," says Lamartine, "the most courageous friend of Danton, and was by turns the agitator and moderator of the people." The next day after the arrest of Danton, Legendre openly defended him in the Convention by a speech. Died in 1797. Legendre, (Nicolas,) a French sculptor, born at Etampes in 1619, worked in Paris. His subjects are chiefly religious. Died in 1671. Le Gentil. See La Barbinais. Legentil de la Galaisiere, leh-zhSw'te' deh It gf- l|'ze-aiR', (GuiLLAUME Joseph Hyacinthe Jean Bap- TISTkT) a French astronomer and traveller, born at Coutances in 1725. In 1769 he went to Pondicherry to observe the transit of Venus, but failed, because the sun was hidden by clouds. He published a "Voyage in the Indian Seas," (1779,) which contains valuable observa- tions on monsoons, currents, and tides, and information respecting the manners, religion, and science of the Hindoos. Died in 1792. See Jean Dominique Cassini, "filoge de M. Legentil," 1810. Leger, Ik^zhi' or la'zhaiR', (Antoine,) a Protestant divine, born in Savoy in 1594. He was professor of theology and Oriental languages at Geneva from 1645 until his death, in 1661. He published a Greek edition of the New Testament, (1638.) Leger, (Antoine,) a son of the preceding, was born in Geneva in 1652, and was ordained a minister. He filled the chair of philosophy for twenty-four years at Geneva with eminent success. He published several scientific treatises and many sermons. Died in 1 7 19. Leger, (Jean,) a cousin of the preceding, was born in Savoy in 161 5. He was a pastor of a church of the Waldenses, and, having escaped from the massacre of 1655, he went to France, and solicited the intervention of the court for his countrymen. In 1663 he became pastor of a Walloon church in Leyden. He wrote a " History of the Churches of the Valleys of Piedmont,'' (the Waldenses, 1669.) Died about 1670. See " Abiege de la Vie de Jean Leger, ecrite par lui-meme," at the end of his " History of the Waldenses." Leger, Saint. See Saint-Leger. Legge, Igg, (George,) Lord Dartmouth, an English admiral, born about 1648. He distinguished himself in the war against the Dutch in 1671, was made Baron of Dartmouth in 1682, and admiral in 1683. At the acces- sion of James II., in 1685, he was appointed master of the horse and general of the ordnance. He commanded the fleet in 1688, and made an ineffectual effort to pre- vent the landing of the Prince of Orange. After taking the oath to William III., he joined a Jacobite conspiracy in 1690. " He laid a plan," says Macaulay, "for betray- ing Portsmouth to the French." He was arrested for treason, and sent to the Tower, where, after a short confinement, he died of apoplexy in 1691. Leg''gett, (William,) an American journalist and miscellaneous writer, born in New York in 1802. In 1828 he founded in his native city a literary gazette en- titled "The Critic," which was subsequently united with "The Mirror." To these journals he contrilDuted a num- ber of spirited tales and sketches, afterwards published under the titles of "Sketches of the Sea" and "Tales by a Country Schoolmaster." He married Elmira Waring in 1828, and became associated with Mr. Bryant as editor of the "Evening Post" in 1829, and in 1836 estab- lished "The Plaindealer," (issued weekly,) which soon acquired a high reputation for its independent spirit and the distinguished ability with which it was conducted. He was appointed a diplomatic agent from the United States to the republic of Guatemala in April, 1838, but, while preparing for his departure, died suddenly, on the 29th of May, 1838. Two volumes of his political writings, with a Memoir, were published by his friend Mr. Theodore Sedgwick, who says, in his preface, " It is not the suggestion of a too fond affection, but the voice of a calm judgment, which declares that, whatever public career he had pursued, he must have raised to his memory an imperishable monument." See R. W. Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America ;" Duvc- KiNCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; "London Quarterly Review," 1828; "Democratic Review" for January, 1840, (with portrait.) Legillon, leh-zhe'y6N', (Jean Franqols,) a Flemish painter, born at Bruges in 1739; died in Paris in 1797. Legipont, leh-zhe^poN', (Oliver,) a learned monk and writer, born at Soiron, in Limburg, in 1698; died in 1758. Le Glay, leh gla, (Andr^: Joseph Ghislain,) a French historian, born at Arleux in 1785. Legnani, l^n-yi'nee or lan-yi'nee, (Stefano,) an Italian painter, also called Legnanino, born at Milan in 1640, was a pupil of Cignani and Carlo Maratta. He painted frescos at Milan. Died in 1715. See E. Corazzi, " Elogio storico di S. Legnani," 1720. Legobien, leh-go''be4,N', (Charles,) a French Jesuit, born at Saint-Malo in 1653, became secretary of the missions to China. He published, about 1702, a collec- tion of letters from missionaries in China, etc., entitled "Lettres edifiantes et curieuses ecrites des Missions etrangeres." This interesting publication was continued by Duhalde. Died in 1708. Le Gonidec, leh go'ne'd^k', (Jean FRANgois Marie,) a French philologist, born at Conquet, in Bretagne, in 1775. published a good " Dictionnaire Breton- Frangais," (1821.) Died in 1838. Legote, li-go'ti, (Pablo,) a Spanish painter, born about 1600 ; died at Cadiz about 1670. Legouve, leh-gooS'i', (Ernest Wilfrid,) a French poet and novelist, born in Paris in 1807. He obtained a prize of the French Academy for his poem " On the In- vention of Printing," (1829,) and produced several dramas. He was admitted into the French Academy in 1855. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraiie." Legouve, (Gabriel Marie Jean Baptiste,) a French dramatic poet, father of the preceding, was born in Paris a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moou; LE GOUZ 1397 LEHNBERG in 1764. He produced "The Death of Abel," (1792,) which was very successful, and other tragedies. He t)e- came a member of the Institute in 1798. His tragedy "Henry IV. of France" (1806) displays dramatic skill and elegant diction. He composed several popular poems, one of which is entitled "Female Merit," ("Me- rite des Femmes," 1800.) Died in 1812, or, according to some authorities, in 1814. See " Notice of Legouve," prefixed to his works, by Bouilly and Malo, 1826; QuERAKD, "La France Litteraire;" " Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale." Le Gouz. See Gouz. Legoyt, leh-gw^', (Alfred,) a French economist and statistician, born at Clermont-Ferrand in 1815, became chief of the bureau of general statistics, and published, besides other works, "La France statistique," (1843.) Legrain or Legrin, leh-gR^N', (Jean Baptiste,) a French historian, was born in Paris in 1565. He held some office at the court of Henry IV., and was master of requests of the queen Marie de Medicis. He wrote a History of the Reign of Henry IV., ("Decade contenant la Vie et les Gestes," etc., 1614,) and " The History of Louis XIII. from 1610 to 1617," (1618.) Died in 1642. Legrand or Le Grand, leh-gRSw', (Antoine,) a French writer and monk, born at Douay, lived about 1650-80. He was professor of philosophy and theology in Douay, and was a disciple of the Cartesian philosophy, on which he wrote several treatises. He published a "Sacred History from the Creation to Constantine the Great," (1685,) and other works. Le Grand, (Baptiste Alexis Victor,) a meritorious French engineer and administrator, born in Paris in 1791. He became engineer-in-chief of the first class, and in 1834 was appointed director-general of bridges, roads, and mines. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies five times. It is stated that no person con- tributed more to the success of the vast plan conceived in his time to increase the riches of France by facility of transport. His moral dignity, public spirit, and various merits are highly commended by M. Villemain, who calls him a true model of the able and zealous adminis- trator. Died in 1848. See Villemain's article in the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Legrand, (Claude Just Alexandre,) a French general, born in the department of Oise in 1762. As general of division, he commanded under Moreau at Hohenlinden, (1800,) and served at Austerlitz, (1805.) He maintained his reputation at Jena (1806) and at Wagram, (1809.) He commanded the second corps- d'armee at the Berezina, (1812.) Died in 1815. Legrand, (Jacques Guillaume,) an eminent French architect, born in Paris in 1743, was a pupil of Clerisseau, whose daughter he married. After he had travelled in Italy and acquired a pure taste, he was employed as architect of several public edifices in Paris, among which are the Halle aux Bles, (Corn-Market, 1783,) Halle aux Draps, (Cloth-Market, 1786,) and Theatre Feydeau, (1790.) Molinos was associated with him in these works. Legrand published a " Comparison between Ancient and Modern Architecture," (1799,) and wrote an "Essay on the History of Architecture," (1809.) Died in 1807. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Legrand, (Joachim,) a French historian and abbe, born at Saint-Lo in 1653, was a person of great erudi- tion. He was secretary of legation in Spain about 1702, and was afterwards employed in the foreign office. He published a " History of the Divorce of Henry VIII. of England," (1688,) and a few other historical works. Died in 1733. Legrand, (Louis,) a French theologian, born in Bur- gundy in 1711. He became professor or maitre des etudes m the seminary of Saint-Sulpice, Paris, and published, besides other works, a " Treatise on the Incarnation of the Word," (1751.) He composed the censures which the Faculty of Theology published against Rousseau's "fimile" (1762) and Buffon's " Epoques de la Nature." Died in 1780. Legrand, (Marc Antoine,) a French dramatist and actor, born in Paris in 1673. He composed a number of popular comedies, among which are " The Blind Clairvoyant," (1716,) and " Roi de Cocagne," 1719. Died in 1728. Legrand d'Aussy, leh-gR6N' do'se', (Pierre Jean Baptiste,) a French litterateur, born at Amiens in 1737. He wrote, besides other works, " Fabliaux, or Tales of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries," (1779.) In 1795 he was chosen keeper of the French manuscripts of the National Library. Died in 1800. Legranzi, li-gR^n^zee, or Legrenzi, Ik-gR^n'zee, (Giovanni,) an Italian composer, born near Bergamo about 1625 ; died about 1690. Legras, leh-gR^', (Antoine,) a French scholar and writer, born in Paris about 1680. He published, besides other works, "The Works of the Fathers who lived in the Time of the Apostles, with Notes," (1717.) Died in 1751. Legraverend, leh-gRtv^RoN', (Jean Marie Ema- nuel,) a French jurist, born at Rennes in 1776, published a "Treatise on Criminal Legislation in France," (1816,) and other approved works. Died in 1827. Legrenzi. See Legranzl Legrin. See Legrain. Legris-Duval, leh-gRe' dii'vtl', (Ren^; Michel,) a French priest, born in Bretagne in 1765, was a zealous and efficient promoter of benevolent institutions. Died in 1819. Legroing de la Maisonneuve, leh-gRwiN' deh It ma'zo'nuv', (FRANgoiSE Th^:rese Antoinette,) Countess, a French authoress, born in Lorraine in 1764. She wrote " Zenobia," a novel, (1800,) an " Essay on the Education of Women," (1801,) and a " History of the Gauls and of France from the Earliest Times to the End of the Reign of Hugh Capet," (1830.) Died in 1837. Legros or Le Gros, leh-gRo', (Nicolas,) a French Jansenist theologian, born atRheimsin 1675. He passed "the last twenty-five years of his life in Holland, to which he retired for refuge from persecution. Among his works are a French translation of the Bible, (1739,) which is esteemed for fidelity, and a "Manual for the Christian," (1740.) Died in 1751. Legros, (Pierre,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1666. He studied in Rome, where he executed many admired works. His statue of Saint Dominic is reckoned among the master-pieces of the Basilica of Saint Peter. He also adorned the chateau of Versailles. He sacri- ficed less to the depraved taste of the time than most other French artists. Died in Rome in 17 19. Le Guaspre. See Dughet. Lehmann, la'mS^n, (Christian Gottfried Wil- HELM,) a German scholar, born at Halberstadt in 1765. He published a " Summary of the Natural History of Man," (1799.) Died in 1823. Lehmann, (Heinrich,) a skilfiil German painter of history and portraits, born at Kiel in 1814. He became in youth a resident of Paris, where he obtained medals of the first class in 1840, 1848, and 1855, was em ployed by the emperor to adorn the palace of Luxem bourg. Lehmann, (Johann Georg,) a German topographer born in 1765, invented about 1793 a new method of sur- veying, since called by his name. Died in 1811. Lehmann, (Johann Georg Christoph,) a German botanist, born about 1794, was professor of botany at Hamburg. He wrote monographs of several genera, and other works. Died in 1861. Lehmann, (Johann Gottlob,) a German philoso- pher, who acquired a European reputation as a mine- ralogist. In 1 76 1 he removed from Berlin to Saint Petersburg, in compliance with an invitation from the empress, who gave him a place in the Academy of that city. He published a work on mineralogy for the use of schools, (1759,) and other treatises on that science. Died in 1767. Lehmann, (Rudolf,) a painter, and a brother of Heinrich, was born at Hamburg in 1819. He worked mostly in Rome, and received medals at the Salon of Paris. Many of his works represent the manners, cos- tumes, and scenery of Italy. Lehnberg, lan'b^RG, (Magnus,) an eloquent Swedish writer and pulpit orator, born in 1758, became Bishop of Linkoping. Died in 1809. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Si^^See Explanations, p. 23.) LEHOC LEIDY Lehoc, leh-ok', (Louis Gr^goire,) a French littera- teur, born in Paris in 1743. Among his works is "Pyr- rhus," a tragedy, (1807.) Died in i8io. Lehrberg, I'aK'beRG, (Aron Christian,) a Russian scholar, born at Dorpat, in Livonia, in 1770. He re- moved to Saint Petersburg, and wrote " Inquiries into the Early History of Russia," (1814.) Died in 1813. Le Huerou, leh hii-a^Roo', (Julien Marie,) a French historian, born at Prat in 1807. He wrote on the history of the Franks, Gauls, etc. Died in 1843. Leibnitz or Leibniz, von, fon Iliynits or Hp'nlts, [Lat. Leibnit/Zius,] (Gottfried Wilhelm,) Baron, a German philosopher and mathematician of the first order, pre-eminent among the moderns as a universal genius, was born at Leipsic on the 6th of July, 1646. He was a son of F"riedrich Leibnitz, professor of moral philosophy at Leipsic. After learning Latin and Greek at the school of Saint Nicholas, he entered the University of Leipsic at the age of fifteen, and studied law, philoso- phy, mathematics, etc. He acquired a profound know- ledge of the works of Plato and Aristotle, whose systems he endeavoured to harmonize. In 1666 he produced a remarkable treatise on the combination of numbers and ideas, " De Arte Combinatoria," and took the degree of doctor of laws at Altorf. He accepted in 1667 the office of councillor of state at Frankfort, and published his "New Method of I^earning and Teaching Jurispru- dence," ("Nova Methodus discendae docendaeque Juris- prudentiae," 1668,) an ingenious and profound essay on Roman law, which raised him to the first rank of philo- sophic writers. Attracted by a tendency to universality in science, he meditated the plan of an encyclopaedia, which became one of his favourite projects, and produced in rapid succession works on politics, religion, and philosophy, in Latin and French, — for he scarcely ever wrote in his mother-tongue. He advanced new and bold theories of motion in his "Theory of Concrete Motion" ("Theoria Motus concreti") and " Theory of Abstract Motion," ("Theoria Motus abstracti," 1671.) In 1672 he visited Paris, where he met Cassini and Huyghens, and declined to enter the Academy of Sciences with the condition that he should abjure the Protestant religion. Proceeding to London, he formed an acquaintance with Newton, Boyle, and others, and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1676 he removed to Hanover, having been appointed by the Duke of Brunswick-Llineburg his coun- sellor [Ho/rath] and librarian. About this time he made the great discovery of the infinitesimal calculus, nearly identical with Newton's method of fluxions. Many years later an acrimonious controversy was carried on between the friends of these two rivals, respecting the priority of claim to this discovery. A committee of the Royal Society of London (about 1705) decided in favour of Newton ; but M. Biot maintains that Leibnitz anticipated Newton in respect to publicity by a letter to Oldenburg in 1676, and accords to both the honour of the original invention, Leibnitz developed the power of this calculus with a marvellous felicity in its applica- tion to the theory of curves, to mechanical problems, etc. In 1682 he became editor of the "Acta Eruditorum" of Leipsic, a journal which he rendered celebrated. He wrote in 1693 ^ treatise on geology, entitled "Protogaea," "which," says Hallam, "no one can read without per- ceiving that of all the early geologists Leibnitz came nearest to the theories which are most received in the English school at this day." He was appointed presi- dent of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin in 1702, with- out being required to change his residence or to retire from the service of the Elector of Brunswick. Charles VI. of Germany gave him the titles of baron and of aulic councillor, but could not prevail on him to enter his service. Between 1690 and 1700 he was engaged in a long epistolary negotiation with Bossuet in order to re- store the unity of the Catholic and Protestant churches. He crowned his career as author by his great work entitled "Essay of Theodicea on the Goodness of God, the Liberty of Man, and the Origin of Evil," ("Essai de Theodicee sur la Bonte de Dieu, la Liberie de I'Homme, et rOrigine du Mai," 1710.) According to his system, God is the supreme Reason of the universe, the first and last term in the series of efficient causes, as in that of final causes. In forming the world He has realized the ideal models of truth, beauty, and perfection which existed eternally in His mind. To the parallelism estab- lished in the divine mind between the reign of efficient causes and that of final causes, corresponds another har- mony, of a superior order, between the kingdoms of nature and of grace. From the infinite perfection of the divine attributes he deduces the celebrated theory of Optimism, — that among all possible plans of creation the Almighty has chosen the best, the one which combines the greatest variety with the greatest order, — in which matter, space, and time are most wisely economized. He died at Hano- ver, November 14, 17 16. Among his important works is one entitled "New Essays on the Human Understand- ing," ("Nouveaux Essais sur I'Entendement humain," about 1 765,) in which he controverts the opinions of Locke. Another of his works is called " Pre-Established Har- mony," (" Harmonic pre-etablie.") His " Monadologie," (1714,) in which his metaphysical system is developed, is one of the most remarkable monuments of his intel- lectual power. "There was only one man in the world," says Hallam, "who could have left so noble a science as philosophical jurisprudence for pursuits of a still more exalted nature and for which he was still more fitted; and that man was Leibnitz himself." ("Introduction to the Literature of -Europe.") He was never married. His disposition was cheerful, his manners were affable, and his habits temperate. A complete edition of his works has recently been published by Foucher de Careil, Paris. See FoNTENELLE, " filogc de Leibnitz;" J. A. Eberhard, " Characteristik des Freilierrn von Leibnitz," 1817; Lampkecht, " Leben des Freiherrn G. W. von Leibnitz," 1740; Hissmann, "Versucli iiber das Leben des Freiherrn von Leibnitz," 1783; De Jaucourt, "Vie de Leibnitz," 1734; Guhrauer, "G. VV. von Leib- nitz, Biographie," 2 vols., 1845; G. Schilling, "Leibnitz als Denker," 1846; Jean Svlvain Baili.y, " ^filoge de Leibnitz," 1769; John M. Mackie, " Life of G. W. Leibnitz," Boston, 1845; Emil F. VoGKL, "G. W. von Leibnitz," Leipsic, 1846; Dr. F. Hoefer, article in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Biot, article in the " Biograjihie Universeile ;" " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1846 , " Atlantic Monthly" for June, 1858. Leibnitzius. See Leibnitz. Leicester, Earl of. See Dudley, (Robert.) Leicester, les'ter, of Holkham, (Thomas William Coke,) P2arl of, an eminent English agriculturist, was the son of Wenman Roberts, of Norfolk, and was born in 1752. His father assumed the name of Coke when he inherited the estates of his uncle Thomas Coke, who was Earl of Leicester and a descendant of Sir Edward Coke. From 1776 to 1832 he represented the county of Norfolk in Parliament, and was a constant supporter of the Whig party. He owned a very large and highly- cultivated estate at Plolkham, and became distinguished for his liberality and zeal in the improvement of agricul- ture. After the death of the Duke of Bedford (1802) he was reputed to hold the highest place among English cultivators. In 1837 he was raised to the peerage, as Earl of Leicester of Holkham. The last name of this title was annexed to distinguish him from another Earl of Leicester. Died in 1842. Leich, llK, (JoHANN Heinrich,) a German philolo- gist, born at Leipsic in 1720, became professor of phi- losophy at that city in 1748. He wrote the "Life and Reign of Constantinus Porphyrogenitus," and several other works. Died in 1750. Leichner, llK^ner, (Eccard,) a German naturalist and physician, born in Thuringia in 1612. He practised at Erfurt, where he died in 1690. Leichner, (Johann Georg Heinrich,) a German painter, born at Erfurt in 1684; died in 1769. Leidy, liMe, (Joseph,) M.D., LL.D., a distinguished American naturalist, of German extraction, born in Philadelphia, September 9, 1823. He graduated as M.D. at the University of Pennsylvania in 1844, and the same year commenced the practice of his profession, but soon abandoned it for more congenial pursuits. From 1846 to 1852 he gave private courses of lectures on anatomy and physiology. In 1853 he was elected professor of anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania, which position he still holds. Besides anatomy, human and compara- tive, he has devoted much attention to natural history, more especially zoology and palaeontology. Since 1846 a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; nftt; good; moon; l^EIGH 1399 LEKAIN he has occupied the position of chairman of the curators in the Academy of Natural Sciences, The third volume of the "Catalogue of Scientific Papers," compiled and published by the Royal Society of London, gives a list of one hundred and eleven of his published papers up to i860. Among the most important of these are the " Flora and Fauna within Living Animals," and the "Ancient Fauna of Nebraska," both published by the Smithsonian Listitution. Since 1S60, besides publishing an "Elementary Treatise on Human Anatomy," he has largely added to his list of scientific papers. Among the most important of these are the "Cretaceous Rep- tiles of the United States," published in the fourteenth volume of the " Smithsonian Contributions to Know- ledge," in 1865, and "The Extinct Mammalian Fauna of Dakota and Nebraska, together with a Synopsis of the Mammalian Remains of North America," (4to, with 30 plates,) published as the seventh volume of the "Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences" of Philadelphia. Leigh, lee, (Benjamin Watkins,) an American jurist and statesman, born in Chesterfield county, Virginia, in 1781. He practised law at Richmond, and became one of the most prominent politicians in the State. He was elected a Senator of the United States by the legislature of Virginia in 1834 or 1835, and resigned his seat in 1837. Died in 1849. Leigh, lee, (Charles,) F.R.S., an English naturalist, born in Lancashire about 1650. He practised medicine in London and other cities, and published several works, the most important of which is a " Natural History of Lan- cashire, Cheshire, and the Peak of Derbyshire," (1700.) Leigh, (Sir Edward,) an English writer and biblical scholar, born in Leicestershire in 1602, was educated for the law. In the civil war he favoured the popular cause, and was a member of Parliament, from which he was expelled in 1648 by the extreme opponents of the king. He displayed much learning in his " Critica Sacra, or the Hebrew Words of the Old and the Greek of the New Testament," (1639,) and published a "Treatise of Divinity," (1646,) and other esteemed religious works. Died in 1671. Leighton, la'ton, (Alexander,) a Scottish clergy- man, born at Edinburgh in 1568. He was professor of moral philosophy in that city for several years prior to 1613, when he removed to London and obtained a lec- tureship. For libellous or offensive expressions against the king, queen, and the bishops in his book called " Zion's Plea," (1629,) he was punished by the Star Chamber with mutilation, the pillory, and long imprison- ment. He was released in 1640, and died about 1646. Laud appears to be responsible for the cruel treatment of Leighton. Leighton, la'tgn, (Robert,) a British divine of emi- nent merit and piety, born in London about 1612, was the son of the preceding. About 1641 he became min- ister of the Presbyterian church at Newbottle, near Edinburgh. Finding that his moderation was unaccept- able to the contentious spirit and fierce zeal which then prevailed, he retired from the pulpit, and was chosen principal of the University of Edinburgh. When Charles IL resolved to restore Episcopacy in Scotland, (about 1661,) Leighton was made Bishop of Dumblane. About 1670 he became Archbishop of Glasgow. His conduct was more conciliatory than that of the other bishops. He had a high reputation as a preacher, and published sermons and other works, which are greatly esteemed. His commentary on the first epistle of Peter was often reprinted. In 1674 he resigned his archbishopric, prob- ably from an abhorrence of the violent contest which disturbed the Church and State. Died in 1684. See John N. Pearson, " Life of R. Leighton," 1832; George Jekment, "Remains of the Life of R. Leighton," 180S; Burnet, " Histoiy of his Own Time;" "R. Leighton ein apostolischer Mann," etc., Berhn, 1834; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Leiningen, von, fon H'ning-en, (Charles,) Prince, a German prince, born in 1804, was a half-brother of Victoria, Queen of England. Died in 1856. Leinster, lin'ster or leen'ster, (William Robert Fitzgerald,) Duke of, an Irish peer, born in 1749, entered the British House of Lords in 1776, and acted with the Tories. Died in 1805. Leisewitz, li'zeh-wits^ (Johann Anton,) a German dramatist, born at Hanover in 1752, wrote a popular tragedy, entitled "Julius von Tarent." Died in 1806. Leisler, lls'ler, (Jacob,) an adventurer and revolu- tionist, born at ^'"rankfort-on-the-Main, in Germany, emi- grated to America in 1660, and became a resident of Albany. Fie was appointed one of the commissioners of the court of admiralty in 1683. In 1689 he was the leader of a mob which seized the fort and public funds of New York, " for the preservation," as he said, " of the Protestant religion." Having declared himself for the Prince of Orange, he strengthened the fort, and was proclaimed by his adherents commander-in-chief of the province. Sloughter having been soon after appointed Governor of the colony, Leisler was arrested, and exe- cuted in 1691. See a "Life of Jacob Leisler," by C. F. Hoffman, in Sparks's "American Biography," vol. iii. 2d series. Leismann, lls'min, (Johann Anton,) a German painter, born at Salzburg in 1604. He settled in Venice, painted landscapes and battles, and had a high re])uta- tion. His manner is said to resemble that of Salvator Rosa. Died in 1698. Leith, leeth, (Sir James,) a British general, born in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, in 1763. He served as major- general under Sir John Moore in the Peninsula, and took part in the battle of Corunna, in 1809. He was appointed commander of the forces in the West Indies in 1814. Died in 1816. Lejay, leh-zhi', (Gabriel Francois,) a French Jes- uit, born in Paris about 1660. He was eminent as a professor of rhetoric in Paris, where Voltaire was his pupil. He published, besides other works in Latin, " Bibliotheca Rhetorum," ("Library of Orators," 1725,) which is said to be a valuable systematic treatise on eloquence. Died in 1734. Lejay orLe Jay, (Gui Michel,) a Frenchman, known by the Polyglot Bible which bears his name, was born in Paris in 1588. He expended the labour of seventeen years and a large patrimony in the publication of his "Bible in Hebrew, Samaritan, Chaldee," etc., ("Biblia Hebraica, Samaritana, Chaldaica, Graeca, Syriaca, Latina, Arabica," 1645,) which is a master-piece of typography. Lejay was assisted in editing this work by Morin, Gabriel Sionita, and other learned men. He was made a privy councillor. Died in 1674. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lejeune, leh-zhun', (Claude,) a famous French musician and composer, born at Valenciennes about 1540. He received the title of composer to Henry IV. Died about 1600. Le Jeune, (Jean.) See Jeune, Le. Lejeune or Le Jeune, (Louis FRANgois,) Baron, a French general and painter, born at Strasburg in 1775. For his conduct at Austerlitz he was made chef-de-batail- lon in 1805. He obtained the rank of general of brigade at Borodino in 181 2, and is said to have saved the army of Oudinot at Hoyerswerda. He painted, besides other subjects, "The Battle of Marengo," (1801,) "The Battle of Lodi," (1804,) and "The Battle of the Moskwa," (1824.) Died in 1850. Lejeune, (Paul,) a French missionary, born in 1592, laboured in Canada for many years. He published a descriptive work on Canada and its native tribes, (7 vols., 1640.) Died in 1664. Lejeune-Dirichlet, (Gustav.) See Dirichlet. Lekain, leh-k^N', (Henri Louis,) a famous French actor, born in Paris in 1728. He was patronized by Voltaire, who discerned in him the germ of great talent while he was acting in a private troupe. He made his debut in 1750, and attained a celebrity scarcely equalled by that of any actor of modern times except Garrick. Lekain was most successful in tragedy and in the ex- pression of deep emotion. Voltaire designated him as the only truly tragic actor. In the latter part of his career he performed at Berlin, by request of Frederick the Great. Died in 1778. See " Memoires de Lekain," published by his son, 1801 ; F. J. Tai.ma, "Memoire siir Lekain et sur I'Art dramatique," 1827; Voltaire, " Correspondance ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "Monthly Review," vol. xxxvi., 1801, (Appendix.) « as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, K^guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^^Stt Explanations, p. 23.) LE KEUX 1400 Le Keux, leh-kooks, ? (Henry,) a skilful English engraver, born in 1788. He engraved some works of Turner and Prout, illustrations of Sir Walter Scott's Poems, etc. Died in 1868. Le Keux, (John,) an English architectural engraver, a brother of the preceding, was born in London in 1783 or 1784. He excelled in the engraving of Gothic ar- chitecture, the principles and details of which he had diligently studied. His works have contributed much to the diffusion of a taste for the Gothic style in England. He engraved part of Britton's "Cathedral Antiquities," and of Pugin's "Antiquities of Normandy" and "Gothic Specimens," and other works. He died in 1846. Le Keux, (John Henry,) an excellent engraver and draftsman, a son of the preceding, was born about 18 12. He acquired a high reputation as engraver of architec- ture. Among his works are numerous plates in Ruskin's " Modern Painters." Le Laboureur, (Jean.) See Laboureur, Le. Le'land, (Charles Godfrey,) an American littera- teur, born at Philadelphia in 1824. He was a contributor to the " Knickerbocker Magazine" and other periodicals. He published in 1855 the "Sketch-Book of Meister Karl" and "The Poetry and Mystery of Dreams," and in 1856 a translation of Heine's "Pictures of Travel," (" Reisebilder.") Lel'and or Laylonde, la'lond, (John,) an eminent English antiquary and linguist, born in London soon after 1500. He learned the ancient and modern lan- guages at Oxford and Paris. Having entered into holy orders, he became chaplain to Henry VHL, who em- ployed him as librarian and in 1533 gave him the title of his antiquary, with orders to explore the antiquities of England. He spent about seven years in collecting materials for history, and in 1545 compiled his "Account of British Authors," (" Commentarii de Scriptoribus Bri- tannicis.") He became insane in 1550, and died in 1552, leaving many manuscripts, which were deposited in the Bodleian Library. His "Itinerary" (9 vols.) was edited by Hearne in 17 10. See HuDDESFORD, "Lives of Leland, Hearne, and Wood," 1772; Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Wood, "Athenas Oxonienses." Leland, (John,) an English dissenting minister, born in Lancashire in 1691. He became pastor of a Presby- terian congregation in Dublin in 17 16. In 1733 he pub- lished an "Answer to Tindal's ' Christianity as Old as the Creation.'" He wrote other approved treatises in defence of Christianity, and in 1754 published his chief work, a "View of the Principal Deistical Writers that have appeared in England in the Last and Present Cen- tury." Died in 1766. See the " Monthly Review" for March, 1754, March, 1755, and June, 1764. Leland, (John,) an American Baptist divine, born at Grafton, Massachusetts, in 1754. He published nume- rous sermons, and essays on various subjects. Died in 1841. Leland, (Thomas,) a classical scholar and historical writer, was born in Dublin in 1722. He took orders, and became eminent as a preacher. In 1756 he produced the first volume of an excellent translation of Demos- thenes' Orations, which was finished in 1770. He was appointed professor of oratory in Trinity College in 1763. His principal works, besides the above-named, are a *' History of the Life and Reign of Philip of Macedon," (1758,) a "Dissertation on the Principle of Human Elo- quence," (1764,) and a "History of Ireland," (1773.) Died in 1785. See the " Monthly Review" for August, 1758, and September and November, 1773. Leleux, leh-luh', (Adolphe, ) a popular French painter of genre, born in Paris in 181 2. Among his works are " The Spanish Smugglers," and " The Return from Market," (1847.) Leleux, (Arm and,) a painter of genre, etc., a brother of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1818. Lelewel, li-la'vel,? (Joachim,) one of the most emi- nent Polish historians of modern times, was born at Warsaw in 1786. He conspired with the insurgents at Warsaw against Constantine of Russia in November, LEMAIRE 1830, and was proposed for dictator; but Chlopicki was preferred. Lelewel held several high offices in the new government f(jr a short time, until the victories of the Russians drove him into exile in 1831. After 1833 he resided at Brussels. Among his most popular works are a " History of Poland," (1829,) a " History of Poland under Stanislas Augustus," (1831,) and "Poland of the Middle Ages," (1846-51.) He published (in French) an important work on "Mediaeval Geography," (1852,) and various other books. Died in 1861. See L. Chodzko, "Notice biographique sur J. Lelewel," 4th edition, 1834. Lelli, leKlee, (Ercole,) an Italian painter and modeller of the Bolognese school, born in 1702. He excelled in the art of anatomical preparations. Died in 1766. Lelong, leh-l6N^ (Jacques,) a French priest and bibliographer of high reputation, born in Paris in 1665, was learned in languages and literary history. He be- came librarian in the Maison Saint- Honore, at Paris. Among his principal works are "Bibliotheca Sacra; or, Syllabus of nearly all Editions and Versions of the Scriptures," (2 vols., 1 709,) and " Bibliotheque historique de la France," (1719,) containing a catalogue of vv-orks which treat on French history, with notes. An enlarged edition of the latter was published by Fevret de Fon- tette, (5 vols., 1768-78.) Died in 1721. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Le Lorrain, leh lo'r^N', (Louis Joseph,) a French engraver and mediocre painter, born in Paris in 1715; died in Saint Petersburg in 1760. Lelorrain or Le Lorrain, (Robert,) a French sculp- tor, born in Paris in 1666, was a pupil of Girardon. He was chosen a member of the Royal Academy in 1701. His works display good talents, but are censured for mannerism. Died in 1743. Lelut, la^ii', (Louis FRANgois,) a French physician, born in Haute-Saone in 1804. He wrote able treatises on psychology, insanity, etc. LeTy, (Sir Peter,) or Van der Faes, vtn der fas, a successful portrait-painter, of Dutch descent, was born at Soest, in Westphalia, in 1617. He removed to Lon- don in the reign of Charles I. He excelled in the repre- sentation of female beauty, and became one of the most fashionable artists of that time. After the restoration in 1660, he received the title of first painter to Charles II., the beauties of whose court were the subjects of his master-pieces. His works are generally censured for immodesty. Died in 1680. See Bkyan, "Dictionary of Painters ;" Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting." Lemaire, leh-mSR', (Henri,) a French novelist, born at Nancy in 1756. He wrote, besides other works, " The French Gil Bias, or Adventures of Henri Langon," (3 vols., 1792.) Died in 1808. Lemaire, leh-mSR^, (Jacques,) a Dutch navigator and merchant, who was director-general of a company which in 1615 sent an expedition to find a new route to the Pacific Ocean. He discovered the strait which bears his name and separates Staten Land from Terra del Fuego, in 1616, doubled Cape Horn for the first time, and sailed to the East Indies. He died at sea in 1616. C. Schouten was captain of the ship which made this voyage. See A. G. Chotin, "Notice sur J. Lemaire, Navigateur." Lemaire, (Jean,) a Belgian poet and historian, born in Hainault about 1473. He entered the service of Margaret of Austria as librarian. His principal work is entitled " Illustrations of the Gauls," (" Illustrations des Gaules," 1512.) Died about 1548. Lemaire, (Nicolas ELOi,)a French classical scholar and Latin poet, born at Triancourt (Meuse) in 1767. He was chosen i^rofessor of Latin poetiy in the Faculty of Letters, Paris, in 1811. He composed Latin verses with remarkable facility. Among his productions is a Latin "Ode on the Birth of the King of Rome," (1812.) He acquired reputation among classical literati by the pub- lication of all the best Latin authors, in 154 vols. 8vo, under the title of "Bibliotheca Classica Latina." This is said to be the best collection of the classics that exists. Died in 1832. See " Notice sur N. E. Lemaire," Paris, 1842. i, e, 1, o, u, y, lottg; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, f^t; mSt; n5t; good; moon; LEMAIRE LEMOINE Lemaire, (Philippe Henri,) a French sculptor, a member of the Institute, was born at Valenciennes in 1798. He gained the first prize in 182 1, and studied in Rome. His design for the fronton or pediment of the church of Madeleine, Paris, was preferred in 1836. This vast composition is called his capital work. Lemaire, ( Pierre Auguste, ) a French classical scholar, a nephew of Nicolas £loi, noticed above, was born at Triancourt in 1802. He edited Lucan, Lucre- tius, and other classic authors. Lemaistre, leh-mitR', (Antoine,) a French advocate, born in Paris in 1608, was a brother of Lemaistre de Sacy. He acquired a great reputation by his eloquence, and afterwards retired to the cloister of Port-Royal. He was a friend of Pascal, and a nephew of Arnauld d'Andilly. Referring to his published forensic speeches, Hallam says, " Lemaistre is fervid and brilliant ; he hurries us with him. Both Lemaistre and Patru do great honour to the French bar." He was one of the translators of the Port-Royal New Testament. Died in 1658. See Philu-pe Simon Dupin, "Notice sur A. Lemaistre," 1822; Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" Fournel, " Histoire des Avo- cats;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lemaistre, (Jean,) a French magistrate, who in 1591 was nominated first president of the Parliament of Paris by the chiefs of the League. At a critical period in the contest between the League and Henry IV. he procured a decree of Parliament in favour of the latter, (1593.) Died in 1596. Lemaistre de Saci or Sacy, leh-mitR' deh st'se', (Isaac Louis,) a French Jansenist theologian, born in Paris in 1613, was a nephew of Antoine Arnauld le Grand. He was ordained a priest in 1650, and became confessor or principal director of the recluses of Port- Royal. He was confined in the Bastille two years, (1666- 68,) during which he made a French translation of the Old Testament. He was one of the translators of the New Testament of Mons, (1667,) which was often re- printed. In consequence of renewed persecution, he left Port-Royal in 1679. He published French versions of several works, among which were the fourth and sixth books of the "vEneid." Died in 1684. See Fontaine, "M^moires sur Port-Royal;" Sainte-Beuve, 'Port-Royal," tome ii. ; Lelong, " Bibliotheque sacree;" "Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Lemaitre, leh-mitR',(FR^:D6Ric,) a celebrated French actor, born at Havre in 1798, was called "the Talma of the Boulevards." He was successful in tragedy and comedy, and excelled in the romantic drama. Le'man, (Rev. Thomas,) an English antiquary, born in 1751 ;'died in 1827. Le Marchant, leh mtR^shfiN', (Jacques,) a Flemish historian, born at Furnes in 1537, wrote several works on the history of Flanders. Died in 1609. Lemare, leh-mtR', (Pierre Alexandre,) a French grammarian, born in Franche-Comte in 1766, published several successful works on grammar. Died in 1835. Lemazurier, leh-mt'zii're-a', (Pierre David,) a French writer, born at Gisors in 1775; died in 1836. Lembke, Igmp'keh, (Johann Philipp,) a German painter and engraver, born at Nuremberg in 163 1, painted battles, sieges, and hunting-scenes with success. He was invited to the court of Sweden by Charles XL, who gave him the title of painter to the king. Died in 1721. Lemchen. See Lemnius, (Simon.) Lemene, li-ma'nk, (Francesco,) Count, an Italian poet, born at Lodi in 1634. He composed many elegant Latin verses, but his principal poems were written in the Italian language. He had a rich and poetic imagination, and contributed much to reform the poetry of his country. Died in 1704. See ToMMASO Ceva, "Memorie di alcune Virtu del Signor Conte F. di Lemene," 1706; Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Lemens, van, vtn la'mens, (Balthasar,) a Flemish painter of history, born at Antwerp in 1637, worked in London. Died in 1704. Lemercier,leh-m§R^se-i', (Jacques,) a French archi- tect, born at Pontoise about 1600. By order of Cardinal Richelieu, he built about 1635 the church of the Sor- bonne at Paris, and the Chateau Richelieu. He obtained the title of chief architect to the king. Among his most admired works are the church of the Annonciade at Tours, and that of Saint-Roch in Paris. Died in 1660. See Fontenav, " Dictionnaire des Artistes;" "Nouvelle Biogra- phie Generale ;" Quatremere de Quincy, "Vies des plus celebres Architectes." Lemercier, (Louis Jean N^pomuc^ne,) a popular French poet and dramatist, born in Paris, April 21, 1 771. He was a republican in the Revolution and through all the changes which followed. His tragedy of "Agamemnon," in verse, (1797,) procured for him a triumph of which the annals of the theatre offer few examples. He afterwards produced "Ophis," "Louis XL," (1821,) and other successful tragedies. He was chosen a member of the French Academy in 1810. Pie wrote a poem entitled "The French Ages," (1803,) and many other works. Talleyrand is reported to have said that Lemercier conversed better than any other man in France. Died in 1840. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lemery, l^im're', (Louis,) a skilful physician and chemist, a son of Nicolas, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1677. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences, for which he wrote many memoirs. For thirty- three years he was physician to the Hotel-Dieu, Paris. Died in 1743. Lemery, (Nicolas,) M.D., a French chemist, born at Rouen in 1645, was educated a Protestant. In 1672 he settled in Paris, where he lectured on chemistry with eclat, and published a "Course of Chemistry," ("Cours de Chimie," 1675,) which was very successful. It was often reprinted, and was translated into many languages. After suffering much persecution for religion, he abjured Calvinism in 1686. He was received into the Academy of Sciences in 1699. Died in 1715. See Paul Antoine Cap, "filoge de N. Lemery," 1838; J. Ton- net, " Notice sur N. Lemery," 1844 ; Fontenelle, " Eloge de N. Lemery," 1715; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lemierre, leh-me-aiR', (Antoine Marin,) a French dramatic poet, was born in Paris in 1723. He produced in 1758 " Hypermnestre," a tragedy, which was com- pletely successful. His tragedies "William Tell" (1766) and "The Widow of Malabar" (1770) were often per- formed with applause. He composed a poem on Painting, (1769,) which contains several fine passages. He was chosen a member of the French Academy in 1781. Died in 1793. See Pekrin, " Notice de Lemierre," prefixed to an edition of his works, Paris, 3 vols., 1810; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lemire, leh-m^R' or leh-meeR', [ Lat. Mir^'us, ] (AuHERT,) a Flemish compiler, born at Brussels in 1573. He studied for the clerical profession, and became vicar- general at Antwerp in 1624. He published, besides other Latin works, " Eulogies of Eminent Belgian Authors," (1602,) and "Annals of Belgium," ("Rerum Belgicarum Annales," 1624.) Died in 1640. See Nic^ron, " Memoires ;" Foppens, " Bibliotheca Belgica." Lemire, leh-m^R', (Noel,) a French engraver, born at Rouen in 1724, was a pupil of Lebas. He engraved landscapes, portraits, etc., and excelled in vignettes. "The Partition of Poland" (designed and engraved by him) is called his master-piece. Died in 1801. Lemmens. See Lemnius, Lemnius, l§m'ne-us, or Lemmens, iSm'm^ns, (LiE- VIN,) a Dutch physician and philosopher, born at Zierikzee in 1505. He practised in his native place, and acquired a European reputation by his skill.. He wrote, in elegant Latin, " De occultis Naturae Miraculis," ("The Secret Wonders of Nature," 1559,) and other scientific or moral works, which were very successful. Died in 1568. See Hardrrwijck, "Jets over L. Lemnius," 1843; M. Adam, "Vitae Medicorum Germanorum." Lemnius, Igm'ne-us, (Simon,) a Swiss poet, whose proper name was Lemchen, (iSm'Ken,) was born in the Grisons. He studied at Wittenberg, whence he was banished by the influence of Luther or Melanchthon about 1538, probably on account of his writings. He published Latin epigrams and other verses. Died in 1550. Lemoine, leh-mwin', (Antoine,) a French officer, a brother of DTberville, was born at Montreal in 1683. He became Governor of Cayenne, where he died about 1730. (See Iberville, d'.) « as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, Vi^ guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JC^^See Explanations, p. 23.) LEMOINE 1402 LENAU Lemoine or Lemoyne, leh-mwtn', (Charles,) a brother of the preceding, was born in 1656, at Montreal, of which he afterwards became governor. Died in 1729. Lemoine or Lemoyne, (Etienne,) a French Prot- estant divine and Orientalist, born at Caen in 1624, wrote " Varia Sacra." Died in 1689. Lemoine, (Franqois,) an eminent French historical painter, born in Paris in 1688, was a pupil of Galloche. He was admitted into the Royal Academy in 1718, in consideration of his " Hercules and Cacus." He made a short visit to Italy in 1723, and at his return was chosen professor of painting in the Academy. His master- piece is "The Apotheosis of Hercules," (1736,) an oil- painting, which adorns a ceiling in the palace of Ver- sailles, and is said to be the largest in Europe, (64 feet by 54.) He excelled in composition, and had probably a higher reputation than any French painter of his time ; but his design was incorrect. In 1736 he became first painter to the king, and in the next year committed suicide. See Bryan, "Dictionary of Painters." Lemoine, (Jean,) a French cardinal and canonist, born at Crecy. He founded in Paris the college which bears his name. Died in 13 13. Lemoine, (Joseph,) brother of Charles, noticed above, was born in Montreal in 1668. In 1719 he took Pen- sacola from the Spaniards. Died in France in 1734. Lemoine or Lemoyne, (Pierre,) a French poet and Jesuit, born at Chaumont, in Bassigny, in 1602. He took part in the dispute between the Jesuits and Jan- senists. His principal work is a bombastic epic poem en- titled " Saint Louis, or the Holy Crown recovered from the Infidels," (1653,) which obtained little favour with the public. His " Devotion Made Easy" (" La Devotion aisee," 1652) was criticised by Pascal in the eleventh of his "Provincial Letters." Died in 1671. Lemoine, (Sauvolle,) brother of Joseph, noticed above, was born in Montreal about 1671. He accom- panied his brother D'Iberville on his western expedition, and was appointed by Louis XIV. governor of the colony of Louisiana in 1699. Died in 1 701. Lemoine d'Iberville. See Iberville, d'. Lem'on, (George William,) an English gramma- rian, born in 1726. He published an "Etymological English Dictionary." Died in 1797. Lemon, (Mark,) an English dramatist, humorist, and editor, born in London in 1809. He produced a large number of farces, melo-dramas, etc., among which are "The Serious Family" and "The Ladies' Club." Several of his plays are quite popular. He became editor of the London " Punch" soon after its first pub- lication, and literary editor of the "Illustrated London News." Died in May, 1870. Lemonnier, leh-mo'ne-i', (Anicet Charles Ga- briel,) a French painter, was born at Rouen in 1743. Among his works are " Cleombrotus" and the " Death of Antony." Died in 1824. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lemonnier, (Guillaume Antoine,) a French abbe and litterateur^ born in 1 72 1, produced French trans- lations of Terence and Perseus, and wrote a volume of "Fables and Tales." Died in 1797. Lemonnier or Le Monnier, (Louis Guillaume,) a French physician and botanist, born in 1 71 7, was a brother of Pierre Charles, noticed below. He succeeded Bernard Jussieu as professor of botany in the Jardin du Roi in 1777, and received the title of first physician to the king about 1780. He was for some time chief phy- sician of the army. He rendered considerable service to the science of botany, and wrote several treatises which were inserted in the collection of the Academy of Sciences. Died in 1799. See Challan, " Essai historique surlaVie de L. G. Lemonnier," 1800. Le Monnier, (Pierre,) a French astronomer, born in Normandy in 1675. He was professor of philosophy at the College of Harcourt, and published a work called " Course of Philosophy," (" Cursus Philosophias," 6 vols., 1750.) Died in 1757. Lemonnier or Le Monnier, (Pierre Charles,) a distinguished French astronomer, born in Paris in 171 5, was a son of the preceding. He was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1736, and assisted Mau- pertuis and Clairaut in measuring a degree of the me- ridian at Torned, within the polar circle, in 1736-37. In 1746 he ascertained the inequalities of Saturn caused by the attraction of Jupiter, and in 1748, during an eclipse, measured the diameter of the moon on the disc of the sun. He was for many years a professor of physics in the College of France. He published "Histoire ce- leste," (1741,) "Astronomic Institutes," ("Institutions astronomiques," 1746,) a good elementary work on astronomy, "Nautical Astronomy," (1771,) and other treatises on astronomy, navigation, etc. Died in 1799. See Lalande, " Bibliographie ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lemontey, leh-m6N'ti', (Pierre Edouard,) an able French historical writer and lawyer, born at Lyons in 1762. He was elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1 791. During the empire he gained the confidence of Napoleon, who ordered him to write the " History of France in the Eighteenth Century." He published in 1818 an "Essay on the Monarchical System ( Etablisse- meitt) of Louis XIV.," and was admitted into the French Academy in 1819. Died in 1826. In 1832 appeared his " History of the Regency and the Minority of Louis XV./' a part of his unfinished " History of France." See ViLLEMAiN, "Discours prononc^ aux Fundrailles de Lemon- tey;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" Passeron, "Notice sur Lemontey." Lemos, la'm6s, (Tomas,) a Spanish theologian, born in Galicia, was professor at Valladolid in 1594 when the Thomists and Molinists began a controversy about grace. He took a prominent part in favour of the former, and wrote many works, one of which was entitled " Panoply of Grace," (" Panoplia Gratiae," 1676.) Died in 1629. Lemos, de, da la'm6s, (Don Pedro Fernandez de Castro,) Count, a Spanish statesman, born at Madrid about 1564. He became president of the Council of the Indies in 1603, and Viceroy of Naples about 1610. He was a patron of Cervantes. Died in 1634. Lemot, leh-mo', (Francois Frederic,) a French sculptor, born at Lyons in 1773. Having gained the grand prize about 1790, he went to Rome with a pension. He afterwards worked in Paris, and was chosen a mem- ber of the Institute. Among his admired works are statues of Henry IV., Lycurgus, Leonidas, Brutus, and Cicero. Died in 1827. See J. S. Passeron, " Notice sur Lemot." Lemoyne. See Lemoine. Lemoyne, leh-mwtn', (Jean Baptiste,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1704; died in 1778. Lemoyne, (Jean Bap nsTE Moyne,) a French com- poser, born in Perigord in 1751. He composed " Phedre," (1786,) and other successful operas. The poem of "Phedre" was written by Hoffman. Died in 1796. L'Empereur. See Empereur, L'. Lempriere, llm'pre-er or l^m-preer', (John,) D.D., a teacher and classical scholar, born in the island of Jersey about 1 760. He published in 1788 an excellent classical dictionary, which has enjoyed a wide popularity and is still in extensive use. After acting as master of the grammar-school at Exeter, he obtained the rectory of Meeth, in Devonshire, about 1811. He also pub- lished a "Universal Biography," (1808.) Died in 1824. Lem'u-res, [Fr. L6MURES,^la'muR^j a name applied by the ancient Romans to spectres or departed spirits, which, as they believed, returned to the world. If benefi- cent, they were called Lares; and if malign. Larva. Some authors, however, considered the Lemures and Larvae as identical. To propitiate them or counteract their influence, solemn rites were annually performed. Lenaeus, le-nee'us, (Pompeius,) a grammarian, born at Athens, lived aboitt 50 B.C. lie was once a slave of Pompey the Great, who liberated him. He defended Pompey against the charges of Sallust. Lenain. See Tillemont. Lenau, la'now, (Nikolaus,) an eminent poet, born in Hungary, August 15, 1802. His family name in full was Niembsch von Strehlen.a.u, (neempsh fon stRa'- leh-now^) After he left the University of Vienna he studied law, medicine, and natural sciences, and visited the United States in 1832. He produced about 1832 a i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolongedj a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/ior^; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; LENCLOS LENOIR collection of lyric poems in German, which had great success. He also wrote several epic poems, among which is "The Albigenses," ("Die Albigenser," 1841.) He is ranked by the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale" among the first lyric poets of Germany. Died in 1850. See Uffo Horn, " N. Lenau, seine Ansichten und Tendenzen, " 1838 ; Theodor Opitz, " N. Lenau ; ausfiihrliche Characteristik des Dichters," 1850; L. A. Frankl, "Zu Lenau's Biographie," 1854. Lenclos or L'Enclos, de, deh 15N^klo', (Anne ; commonly called Ninon,) a French courtesan, celebrated for her wit and beauty, was born in Paris in 1616. She was courted by many men of high rank and of eminent talents, with whom she formed liaisons. Among her female friends were Madame de Maintenon and Madame de La Fayette. She was never married. It appears that venality was not one of her vices. Her letters are marked by an elegant simplicity of style. Moliere is said to have had such a high opinion of her literary taste that he often consulted her. Died in 1706. See Bret, " Memoire sur Ninon de L'Enclos," 1750; Guvon de Sardieke, "Viede Ninon de L'Enclos;" L. Damours, " Lettres de Ninon de Lenclos au Marquis de Sevigne, augmentees desa Vie," 2 vols., 1752, (translated into English, London, 1761.) Lenet, leh-ni', (Pierre,) a French historian, born at Dijon, was devoted to the Prince of Conde during the war of the Fronde. He wrote " Memoirs of the Civil War which began in 1649," (2 vols., 1729.) Died in 1671. Le Neve, leh-neev', (John,) an English antiquary, born about 1679. He published " Fasti Ecclesise Angli- canse." Died about 1740. Le Neve, (Peter,) an English antiquary, born in 1662, became Norroy king-at-arms. Died in 1729. Lenfant, IdN^fdN', (Alexandre Charles Anne,) a French Jesuit, eminent as a preacher, was born at Lyons in 1726. He preached in Paris and other cities, and was reputed one of the most eloquent pulpit orators of his time. He was one of the victims of the massacre in Paris in September, 1792. Lenfant, (Jacques,) a French Protestant divine of great merit, born at Bazoche in 1661. He was educated at Saumur and Geneva, and in 1689 removed to Berlin, where he preached forty years. About 1705 he became chaplain to Frederick William of Prussia, and in 1724 was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences. He was the author of many valuable works, among which are a " History of the Council of Constance," (2 vols., 1714,) a " Preventive against Reunion with the See of Rome," (1723,) and a "History of the Wars of the Hussites and of the Council of Basle," (2 vols., 1 731.) In partnership with Beausobre, he produced a French translation of the New Testament, with notes and a learned introduction by Lenfant, (171 8.) Died in 1728. His histories are admitted to be impartial and moderate. See NiCERON, "Memoires;" Haag, "La France protestante." Leng, (John,) an English scholar, born at Norwich in 1665. He became chaplain to George L, who ap- pointed him Bishop of Norwich in 1723. He pub- lished "The Clouds" of Aristophanes, (1695,) ^^''d a good edition of Terence, (1701.) Died in 1727. Lengard. See Lennard. Lengerke, von, fon l^ng'er-keh, (Alexander,) a celebrated agricultural writer, born at Hamburg in 1802. Among his principal works is the "Agricultural Con- versations-Lexicon," (4 vols., 1835-38.) Died in 1853. Lengerke, von, ( Casar, ) a learned theologian, brother of the preceding, was born at Hamburg in 1803. His principal works are "Commentaries on the Prophet Daniel and the Psalms." Lenglet-Dufresnoy,16N''gla' dii'fRi'nwi', (Nicolas,) a French abbe, noted as a voluminous and sarcastic writer, was born at Beauvais (Oise) in 1674. He was several times confined in the Bastille for his freedom or impru- dence as a writer. He displayed great erudition in his numerous works, which are chiefly historical. Among his most important works are "Method for the Study of History" (2 vols., 1713) and "Method for the Study of Geography." (4 vols., 1716.) He also wrote a "His- tory of the Hermetic Philosophy," (3 vols., 1742,) and edited the works of various authors. Died in 1755. See Michault, " Memoire de Lenglet-Dufresnoy," 1761 ; Que- KARD, "La France Litteraire ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lengnich, Igng'niK, (Gottfried,) a Prussian hi» torian and publicist, born at Dantzic about 1690. He published a "History of Polish Prussia from 1526 to 1748," (9 vols., 1723-48,) "The Public Law of Poland," (1742,) and other works. Died in 1774. Lengnich, (Karl Benjamin,) a German numismatist and antiquary, born at Dantzic in 1742 ; died in 1795. Lenhossek, de, deh l^n-hosh'ek, ? (Michael,) a Hungarian physician, born at Presburg in 1773. He obtained the title of first physician of Hungary, and published many able professional works. Died in 1840. Len^nard or Lengard, ling'gard, (Sampson,) an English antiquary, who fought under Sir Philip Sidney at Zutphen. He translated from the French Charron's "La Sagesse," and other works. Died in 1633. Lenne, \Wny, (Peter Joseph,) born at Bonn in 1789, acquired a high reputation throughout Germany for his skill and taste in landscape-gardening. Lennep, van, vtn len'nep, (David Jacob,) a Dutch poet and philologist, born at Amsterdam in 1774. He became professor of eloquence at Leyden, and was eminent as a classical scholar. He wrote philological essays and elegant verses, and published editions of Hesiod and of Ovid. Died in 1853. See Koenen, "Lijkrede op D. J. van Lennep," 1853. Lennep, van, (Jacob,) a celebrated novelist, a son of the preceding, was born at Amsterdam in 1802. He chose the profession of the law, in which he attained eminence. Among his early productions are poems entitled " National Legends," (" Vaderlandsche Legen- den.") In 1830 he produced "The Village on the Frontier," a political farce, which had immense success. He published many popular novels, among which are "Our Forefathers," ("Onze Voorouders,") and "The Rose of Dekama." He translated into Dutch some plays of Shakspeare, and poems of Byron and Tennyson. He is often called " the Walter Scott of Holland." Lennep, van, (Jan Daniel,) a Dutch linguist and critic, born at Leeu warden in 1724. He was professor of Latin and Greek at Groningen from 1752 to 1768. He gained a high reputation by a work " On the Analogy of the Greek Language," and by his "Etymology of the CTreek Language," (" Etymologicum Linguae Graecae,") (published i)y Scheide, 2 vols., 1790.) Died in 1 77 1. See Sax, " Onomasticon." Lenngren, len'gR§n,(ANNA Maria,) a Swedish writer, originally named Malmstedt, (m^lm'st^t,) born at Upsal in 1754, was the author of poems of a humorous character. Died in 1817. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Len'nox, (Charlotte,) an ingenious authoress, born at New York in 1720, was the daughter of Colonel Ram- say, lieutenant-governor of that place. She went to Eng- land in her youth, and appears to have been dependent on her literary talents for support before and after her marriage with Mr. Lennox. She wrote "The Female Quixote," (1752,) " Henrietta," a successful novel, (1758,) and other works of fiction. In 1753 she published " Shakspeare Illustrated," a collection of tales on which the plays of that dramatist are founded, translated from various languages. She enjoyed the friendship of Dr. Johnson, who expressed a high opinion of her works. Died in 1804. Lenoble, leh-nobK, (Eustache,) a French litterateur, born at Troyes in 1643. He wrote many works in prison, where he was confined for forgery, and acquired some popularity as a gay, sprightly writer. Among his works are " Political Dialogues," (1690,) and "The School of the World." Died in 17 11. Lenoir, leh-nw^R', (Alexandre,) a French antiquary and artist, born in Paris in 1761. In the Revolution he saved from destruction many monuments and works of art found in convents and churches. He was chosen keeper ( adniinistrateur ) of the Museutn of French Monu- inents in 1801. He published, besides other works, a "History of Painting on Glass," (1804,) and a "History of the Arts in France proved by Monuments," (1810,) Died in 1839. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lenoir, (Alexandre Albert,) an architect, a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1801. He was « as i; 5 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (gl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) LENOIR 1404 LEO architect of the museum formed by the union of the Palais des Thermes with the Hotel de Cluny. Lenoir, (Etienne,) a Frenchman distinguished for his skill in the fabrication of astrononiical and mathe- matical instruments, was born at Mer in 1744. He fur- nished the instruments for the expeditions of La Perouse and Baudin, and those used by the savants whom Bona- parte took to Egypt in 1798. Died in 1832. Lenoir, (Nicolas,) called Le Romain, a French architect, born in Paris in 1726. He was employed as an architect by Voltaire at Ferney. Died in 1810. Lenormand, leh-noR''m6N', (Marie Anne Ade- laide,) a French fortune-teller, born at Alen9on in 1772. She wrote, besides other works, " Memoirs of the Em- press Josephine," (1829,) which has been translated into English. Died in 1843. See F. GiRAULT, " Mademoiselle Le Normand, sa Biographie, ses Predictions," etc., 1843. Lenormant, leh-noR'm5N', (Charles,) a French antiquary, born in Paris in 1802. He accompanied Champollion to Egypt in 1828, and was chosen a substi- tute of Guizot as professor of history in Paris in 1835. He wrote an " Introduction to Oriental History," (1838,) and other works. Lendtre, leh-n5tR', (AndrE,) a French architect and designer of the royal gardens, was born in Paris in 1613. He displayed his inventive genius in adorning the park and garden of Versailles for Louis XIV., and designed or embellished other royal gardens at Chantilly, Saint- Cloud, and the Tuileries. In 1675 the king granted him letters of nobility. Died in 1700. "The gardens of the Tuileries and of Versailles," says the " Biographie Universelle," " will always be the master-pieces of the style invented by Lenotre." See, also, Mor^ri, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Lenourry, leh-noo're', (Denis Nicolas,) a learned French monk, born at Dieppe in 1647. He devoted many years to a work entitled "Apparatus ad Bibliothe- cam maximam Patrum Veterum," etc., (2 vols., 1694-97,) which contains critical dissertations on the works of the Fathers. Died in 1724. Len'px, (Matthew Stuart,) Earl of, a Scottish nobleman, was the father of Lord Darnley, In 1544 he was driven out of Scotland by the hostility of the regent Arran, and went to the court of Henry VIII., who gave him his niece Margaret Douglas in marriage. He was invited to return to Scotland with his son in 1564. In 1570 he was chosen Regent of Scotland by the party which was hostile to Queen Mary. Her partisans sur- prised him at Stirling in 1572, and, perceiving that his friends were likely to rescue him, instantly put him to death. See Robertson, " History of Scotland." Lens, iSns or 16n, (Andreas Cornelis,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 1739. He worked in Brus- sels, and painted history and portraits. He excelled in design, colouring, and chiaroscuro. Died in 1822. See De Stassart, "A. C. Lens," 1846. Lens, (Bernard,) a Belgian painter and engraver, excelled in miniature. He became court painter to George II. of England. Died in 1741. Lenstrom or Lenstroem, l^n'strom, (Karl Julius,) a Swedish writer, born at Gefle in 1811. He became professor of philosophy at his native place, and pub- lished, besides other works, a " History of the Theories of Art," (2 vols., 1839,) and a "History of Swedish Poetry," (1840.) Lenthal or Lenthall, ISnt'al, ? (William,) an English statesman and lawyer, born in Oxfordshire in 1591. He was returned to Parliament in 1639, and in 1640 was chosen Speaker of the Commons by the popular or re- publican party. When the king attempted to arrest Hampden, and four other members, in the House, and asked Lenthal if they were present, he prudently re- plied, " I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place, but as the House, whose servant I am, is pleased to direct me." In 1653 he ceased to be Speaker, the Parliament having been violently dissolved by Crom- well, but was elected by the new House to the same office in 1654. He also acted as Speaker for a short time in 1660, before Charles II. was restored. Died in 1682, or, according to some authorities, in 1662. See Hume, "History of England;" Clarendon, "History of the Rebellion." Len'tu-lus, the name of a noble Roman family, a branch of the gens Cornelia, which produced several distinguished men. Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, a man of corrupt character but popular manners, was chosen consul in 73 B.C., and was afterwards ex- pelled from the senate for some misconduct. He was an accomplice in Catiline's conspiracy, and was per- suaded by the soothsayers that he was the third member of the Cornelia gens destined by the fates to have the chief power in Rome. By the orders of Cicero and the senate, he was put to death in 62 B.C. P. Cornelius Lentulus Spinther was consul in 57 B.C., when he promoted the recall of Cicero. In the civil war he took arms for Pompey, was made prisoner and liberated by Caesar, but fought for Pompey at Phar- salia, and fled to Rhodes. Nothing further is known respecting him. Lentulus, ISn'too-liis, (Cyriacus,) a German publi- cist, born at Elbingen about 1620. He published, in Latin, " Arcana of Kingdoms and Republics," (1653,) and " The Absolute Prince," (1663,) which, with his other works, form an ample commentary on Tacitus. Died in 1678. Lenz, Ignts, (Heinrich Friedrich Emil,) a German physician, born at Dorpat in 1804. He was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences at Saint Peters- burg in 1834, and was afterwards professor of medicine at the university in that city, and numbered among his pupils the imperial princes. Lenz, (Jakob Michael Reinhold,) a German poet and intimate friend of Goethe, born in Livonia in 1750. He became insane in consequence of an unrequited passion for Frederica Brion, who has been celebrated l3y Goethe. He wrote several comedies. Died in 1792. See A. Stober, " Der Dichter Lenz und Friederike von Sesen- heim," 1842. Lenz, (Karl Gotthold,) a German philologist and writer, born at Gera in 1763 ; died at Gotha in 1809. Lenz, (Samuel,) a German historian, born at Stendal in 1686; died about 1760. See HucH, " S. Lenz's Leben," 1758. Le'o [Fr. L60N, la'6N'] L, Fla'vi-us, Emperor of Constantinople, was a native of Thrace. At the death of Marcianus, in 457 A.D., he held a high rank in the army, bv which he was proclaimed emperor through the influ- ence of Aspar, who designed to make him only a nominal monarch. Having gained a victory over the Huns, he sent an expedition against Genseric in Africa, which was unsuccessful. He is represented as an able ruler. He died in 474 A.D., having named as his successor his grandson, Leo, an infant, who died after a nominal reign of a few months. Zeno, the father of Leo II., then began to reign. See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Le Beau, "Histoire du Bas-Empire," edited by Saint-Martin. Leo 11, born about 470 A.D., succeeded Leo 1. in 474, and died the same year. Leo III., called Isau'ricus, one of the most able emperors of the East, was born in Isauria, of obscure parentage. In the army of Justinian II. he rose to the highest rank. When Anastasius II. was dethroned, in 716 A.D., Leo and Theodosius aspired to succeed ; and the former prevailed in 717. The first important event of his reign was his great victory over the Saracens, who had besieged Constantinople for two years, (718-19.) The prosperity of his reign was soon blasted by a dis- pute about the use of images, which Leo prohibited in 727, and which the Greek patriarch and the pope defended. Thus began the schism of the Iconoclasts, which convulsed the empire with persecutions, revolts, and great calamities to the end of his reign, and caused the final separation of the Latin from the Greek Church. He died in 741 A.D., and was succeeded by his son, Constantine Copronymus. See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Le Beau, "Histoire dn Bas-Empire ;" Theophanes, " History ;" " Nouvelle j3iographie Generale." a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; flr, fJll, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; LEO 1405 LEO Leo IV., Emperor of Constantinople, born in 751 A.D., was the son of Constantine Copronymus, whom he succeeded in 775. His wife was the ambitious Irene. He was a zealous Iconoclast, and is charged with perse- cuting the orthodox or image-worshippers. He died in 780, leaving the throne to his minor son, Constantine VL See CEDRENUS, "History." Leo v., Emperor of the East, is called the Armenian, because his father was a native of Armenia. Supported b} the army, which he had corrupted, he rebelled against Michael Rangabe, and usurped the throne, in 813 a.d. He defeated the Bulgarians, who invaded his dominions, in 814. He was a zealous Iconoclast, and violently per- secuted the image-worshippers, who appear to have been the majority. He was assassinated in 820 A.D., and Michael the Stammerer became emperor. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Leo VL, surnamed THE Philosopher, Emperor of the East, born in 865 A.D., was the son of Basilius the Macedonian, whom he succeeded in 886. He exiled the patriarch Photius. His empire was invaded by the Sara- cens, who gained several victories. After a weak and inglorious reign, he died in 911, and was succeeded by his son, Constantine Porphyrogenitus. Leo was more successful as an author than as a ruler. He wrote an esteemed treatise on Tactics, a poem on the desolation of Greece, moral discourses, and other works. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas- Empire ;" Fabricius," Bibliotheca Graeca." Le'o[Fr. L]^on, li'6N'; It. Leone, li-o'ni; Sp. Leon, \k-6\V; Port. Leao, li-6wN'] L, Pope, called the Great, an ambitious and able pontiff, was a native of Rome, and was chosen bishop of that see in 440 A.D., as successor to Sixtus III. His talents and learning had been approved in several important missions. In 445 he reversed the decision of Hilaire, (Hilarius,) a French bishop, on a question of discipline. It was the con- stant aim of his policy to promote the supremacy of the Bishops of Rome. He pronounced against the heresy of Eutyches, which was condemned in the oecumenic Council of Chalcedon in 451. Tradition informs us that Attila, marching against Rome in 452, was persuaded by the prayers of Leo to spare that city. He failed to prevent the pillage of Rome by the Vandal king Genseric in 455. He died in 461 a.d., leaving many sermons and epistles, which are valuable for the light they throw on the history of the age. Hilarius I. was his successor. See p. DE MoRNAY, "Histoire pontificale," 1612 ; P. Dumoulin, "Vie et Religion de deux bons Papas, Leon I et Gregoire I," 1650; E. Perthel, "Pap'^t Leo's L Leben und Lehren," 1843; W. A. Arendt, " Leo der Grosse und seine Zeit," 1835; Saint-Ch^ron, "Histoire du Pontificat de S. Leon le Grand," 2 vols., 1845. Leo IL, Pope, a native of Sicily, succeeded Agathon in 682 A.D. He is praised for virtues and learning by Catholic writers. He died in May, 684, and was suc- ceeded by Benedict II. Leo IIL, a Roman by birth, was chosen pope in 795 A.D., in place of Adrian I. His first act was the recog- nition of his subjection or allegiance to Charlemagne, to whom he sent the keys of Saint Peter's, In 799 he was attacked by a band of conspirators, and escaped with several wounds. Charlemagne visited Rome in 800, and was crowned by the pope as Emperor of the Romans, with the title of Augustus. Thus the Western Empire was restored, after it had been subverted three hundred and twenty-five years. Leo died in 816 a.d., and was succeeded by ^Stephen IV. See J. G. Faber, "Dissertatio de Leone IIL Papa Romano," i7i8. Leo IV., a native of Rome, was chosen pope in 847 A.D., in place of Sergius II. He bravely defended Rome against the Saracens, who, however, pillaged the basilica of Saint Peter. He built a suburb of his capital, which was named Leonina. His character is said to have been good. He died in 855, and was succeeded by Benedict III. The fabulous female pope Joan was supposed by some writers to have been the successor of Leo IV. See Baronius, "Annales." Leo v., a native of Ardea, was elected pope in 903 A.D., after the death of Benedict IV. About two months after his election he was deposed by his rival Christopher, and died in prison, according to one account, in 903. Leo VI. succeeded John X. in 928 a.d., when the Church was in a deplorable state and Italy was filled with disorder. After a reign of seven months, he died, in 929, and was succeeded by Stephen VII. Leo VII. was chosen pope after the death of John XI., in 937 A.D. He has the reputation of a wise and pious pontiff. His reign was not marked by im]jortant events. He died in 939, and Stephen VIH. then became pope. Leo VIII. was elected pope in 963 a.d., in place of John XII., who had been deposed by a council. John returned, expelled Leo from Rome, and held the place until his death, in 964. The Romans then elected Bene- dict V. ; but Leo was restored by the emperor Otho. Lie died in 965, and was succeded by John XIII. See Platina, "Vitae Pontificum Romanorum." Leo IX., originally Bruno, bRoo'no, was born in Alsace in 1002, and was a cousin-german of the emperor Conrad the Salic. He was noted for learning, and be- came Bishop of Toul. In 1049 he succeeded Daniasus II. He held frequent councils, and laboured zealously to reform the morals of the clergy Having raised an army to oppose the Normans, he was defeated by them and made prisoner, but was at last released. He died in 1054, and was succeeded by Victor II. See F. X. Hunkler, "Leo IX. und seine Zeit," 1851 ; Mura- TORi, "Rerum Italicarum Scriptores," vol. iii., 1733. Leo X., (Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici — di m^d'- ee-chee,) celebrated as a munificent patron of literature and the arts, the second son of Lorenzo de' Medici, (the Magnificent,) was born at Florence in 1475. He was created a cardinal at the age of thirteen. In 1512 he was made prisoner by the French at Ravenna, but soon regained his liberty. Julius II. having died, Cardinal de' Medici was elected pope, March 11, 1 513, and assumed the name of Leo X. He announced his patronage of literature by choosing two eminent authors, Bembo and Sadolet, as his apostolical secretaries. The pontificate of Leo is a memorable epoch in religion, politics, and the fine arts. In 1515 he negotiated and signed, with Francis I. of France, an important concordat, which remained in force nearly three centuries and gave to the king the right of nominating bishops in his own dominions'. One of the most momentous acts of his administration was the im- mense issue and sale of indulgences, which were authorized in 1517, (ostensibly for the completion of the cathedral of Saint Peter's,) and which impelled Luther to denounce the corruptions and defy the power of the Church of Rome. (See Luther.) He is censured by many Catho- lics for his lenity towards Luther. By violence and craft he annexed Urbino and Perugia to the Papal State. In 1521 he made a treaty with Charles V., and became the ^illy of that prince in a war against Francis I. The capture of Milan had just been achieved by the allies, when Leo died in December, 1 52 1, not without suspicion of poison. He was succeeded by Adrian VI. It is generally admitted that Leo was rather worldly and luxurious as the head of the Church. His fondness for buffoonery gave much offence to the stricter Catholics. As a temporal ruler he is considered more meritorious. Under his auspices Michael Angelo obtained celebrity at Florence and the splendid works of Raphael were completed in the Vatican. He restored its alienated revenues to the Roman University, in which one hundred professors received salaries, founded a Greek college at Rome, and liberally patronized poets, scholars, and artists. The part of the sixteenth century in which learn- ing and art flourished most remarkably is generally designated as the "age of Leo the Tenth." See W. RoscoE, " Life of Leo X.," 3d edition, 1840; A. Farroni, "Vita Leonis X.," 1797 ; Audin, " Histoire de Leon X," 1844 ; Paui.o Giovio, "Vita Leonis X.," 1651; Artaud de Montor, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes," vol. iv. ; Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Guicciardini, " Istoria d'ltalia;" Ranke, "History of the Popes;" " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1806; " Monthly Review" for October and November, 1806. Leo XL, (Cardinal Alessandro de' Medici — di mid'e-chee,) was advanced in years when he succeeded Clement VIII. on the ist of April, 1605. He died on the 27th of the same month, probably from the fatigue « as ^; 5 as s; | hard;%?&j; g, H, Yi^guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (g^^See Explanations, p. 23.) LEO 1406 LEONHARD of the coronation. He had been legate to France under Clement VIII., and had the reputation of a virtuous and moderate prelate. Paul V. was his successor. Leo XII., (Cardinal Annibat.e della Genga — deKli jSn'gS,) was born in the district of Spoleto in 1760. Having acted for some years as nuncio in Germany and France, he became a cardinal in 1816. In September, 1823, he succeeded Pope Pius VII. He proclaimed a jubilee in 1825, and made reforms in the civil administration. His biographers give him credit for political prudence. In a circular letter of 1825 he denounced the Bible Socie- ties. He died in February, 1829, and was succeeded by Pius VIII. See P. RuDONi, "Leone XII. e Pio VIII.," 1829; C. Schmid, "Trauerrede aiif Leo XII," 1829; Artaud de Montor, " Histoire du Pape Leon XII.," 2 vols., 1843 ; Cardinal Wiseman, " Recol- lections of the Last Four Popes." Leo, an astronomer, who lived at Constantinople. He was invited to Bagdad by the caliph Al-Mamoon, but the emperor refused to part with him. He was ap- pointed Archbishop of Thessalonica, but was deprived of that office, for his opposition to image-worship, in 849 A.D. Leo [Gr. Keuv] of Byzantium, [Fr. L^on de By- ZANCE, li'^N' deh be'zdNss',] a philosopher, who lived about 350 B.C., was a disciple of Plato. He was sent as ambassador to Philip of Macedon. His writings have not come down to us. Leo OF MoDENA, a celebrated Jewish rabbi, whose proper name was Juda Arie or Arje, (aR'yi,) was born at Venice about 1572, and lived mostly in that city. He wrote verses in Hebrew and Italian, and published, be- sides other works, a Hebrew dictionary, and an " Ac- count of the Rites and Customs of the Jews," (1637.) Died about 1650. See Wolf, " Bibliotheca Hebraica," Leo OF Orvieto, [Lat. Leo Urbeveta'nus,] an Italian chronicler, who flourished about 1320. He wrote, in barbarous Latin, a chronicle of the emperors, ending in 1308, and a chronicle of the popes, ending in 1314. Leo, la'o, (Heinrich,) an eminent German historian, born at Rudolstadt in 1799. He obtained about 1828 the chair of history at Halle, which he filled for twenty- five years or more. In 1830 he published a " Manual of .Mediaeval History" and a "History of the Italian States," (5 vols.,) which were received with favour. He is an adversary of the Liberal or radical party in politics. Among his other works is a " Guide to Universal His- tory," (" Leitfaden der Universal-Geschichte," 1838-40.) See EnuARD Meyen, " H. Leo der verhallerte Pietist," etc., 1839. Leo, la'o, (Juan,) surnamed Africa'nus, a Moorish geographer, born at Granada, was a child when his pa- rents, flying from the victorious Spaniards, took him to Africa in 1491. He travelled extensively in Africa and Asia, was taken captive by Christian corsairs, and pre- sented to Pope Leo X. about 1517. He abjured Islam- ism, and wrote, in Arabic, a " Description of Africa," (1^26,) which was published by Ramusio in 1550 and was for a long time the best work on that subject. See Casiri, " Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana." Leo, la'o, (Leonardo,) an eminent Italian composer, born in Naples in 1694, was a pupil of Scarlatti. He composed admired Italian operas, but acquired a more durable reputation by his " Miserere," " Dixit Dominus," and other pieces of sacred music, in which a grand effect is produced by means comparatively simple. He was the master of Piccini and of other excellent composers. His death is variously dated 1742, 1745, or 1755. See Fetis, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale." Leo Allatius. See Allatius. Le'o Di-ac'o-nus, a Byzantine historian, was born at Caloe, in Ionia, about 950 a.d., and became a resident of Constantinople. He wrote a narrative of events from 959 to 975, which is called a valuable supplement to the Byzantine history. Leo the Grammarian, one of the Byzantine his- torians. He wrote about 1013 (as a continuation of Theophanes) a history of Leo V. and seven succeeding emperors, entitled " Chronographia Res a recentioribus Imperatoribus gestas complectens," from 813 to 929. Leo the Great. See Leo I., Pope. Leo Juda. See Juda, (Leo.) Leo Pi-la'tu.s or Leon'tius (le-on'she-us) Pila'tus [Fr. L^ONCE Pilate, li'6Nss' pe'lSt',] a Greek scholar, who taught Greek at Florence, and is said to have been the first who translated Homer into Italian or Latin. He was killed by lightning at sea about 1364. See HoDius, "De Graecis illustribus;" Petrarch, "Epistol2e," V. and vi. Leo Urbevetanus. See Leo of Orvieto. Le-o-eh' a-res, [Aew;\^ap77f,] ^n excellent Greek sculp- tor, flourished at Athens in the fourth century before Christ. His master-pieces were the " Rape of Gany- mede," a statue of Apollo wearing a diadem, and one of Jupiter Tonans, which was placed in the Capitol of Rome. He executed, in gold and ivory, portrait-statues of King Philip and Alexander the Great. Died after 338 B.C. Le-od'a-mas, [AewcJa/mf,] an Athenian orator of high reputation, was a disciple of Isocrates, and flourished about 400-350 B.C. Leon, the French for Leo, which see. Leon, li-6n', (Diego,) a Spanish general, born in 1804. In the civil war which began in 1833 he fought for the queen against Don Carlos. He was reputed the best general of cavalry in Spain. In 1840 he became a partisan of Christina in her contest with Espartero, and was appointed by her captain-general of Madrid. He conspired against Espartero, was made prisoner, and executed in 1841. Leon, (Ponce de.) See Ponce de Leon. Leon de Saint-Jean, li'6N' deh s^n zh6N, or Leo of Saint John, a French theologian, born at Rennes in 1600. He wrote " Studium Sapientiae universalis." Died in 1671. Leonard, laVntR', (Nicolas Germain,) a French poet, born at Guadeloupe in 1744, came to France in early youth. He wrote a poem on the seasons, and several idyls, (L766.) Died at Nantes in 1793. Leonard de Limou.sin, Ik'o^ntR' deh le'moo'z^N', or Limosin, le^mo^ziw', a French painter and enamel- ler, born at Limoges about 1500. He was director of a manufactory of enamels which Francis I. founded at Limoges. His works are admirable in design and colour. He copied the master-pieces of Raphael, Giulio Romano, and other Italian painters. Died about 1580. Leonardi, Ik-o-naR'dee, or Leonardoni, li-o-naR- do'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Venice in 1654, excelled in portraits. Died at Madrid in 1711. Leonardo, li-o-naR'do, ( Augustin, ) a Spanish painter and friar, born at Valencia about 1580. He painted history and portraits with success in Seville and Madrid. Died about 1640. Leonardo (or Lionardo, le-o-naR'do) da Pisa, li- o-naR'do di pee'si, called also Lionardo Pisano (pe-s^'no) and Leonardo Bonaooi (bo-nlf'chee) or Fibonacci, (fe-bo-nit'chee,) an Italian mathematician, who flourished about 1200. He was probably the first who introduced into Europe the Arabic numeration and the knowledge of algebra, which he derived from the Saracens. He wrote a work which remained in manu- script and is described in Cossali's " History of Algebra." See GuGLiELMiNi, " Elogio di Lionardo Pisano," 1813. Leonardo da Vinci. See Vinci. Leonarducci, 14-o-naR-doot'chee, (Gaspare,) an Ital- ian poet, born at Venice in 1685. His principal poem is " Providence," ("La Providenza," 1739.) Died in 1752. Leonatus. See Leonnatus. Leonbruno, li-on-bRoo'no, (Lorenzo,) a painter of the Mantuan school, born in 1489; died about 1537. See Pranui, " Notizie spettanti la Vita di L. Leonbruno," 1825. L^once. See Leontius. Leonce Pilate. See Leo Pilatus. Leone. See Leo. Leonelli, li-o-neKlee, (Zecchini,) an Italian mathe- matician and architect, born at Cremona in 1776; died in 1847. Leonhard, von, fon la'on-haRt', (Karl Caesar,) an eminent German geologist, born near Hanau in 1779. He studied at Gottingen, and in 1818 was appointed professor of geology at Heidelberg. Among his numerous a, e, T, 0, u, y, loftg; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; LEONHARDI 1407 LEOPARDI works we may name his "Topographical Mineralogy," (3 vols., 1805-09,) and "Geology, or Natural History of the Earth," (8 vols., 1836-45,) which have been trans- lated into English, French, and Dutch. Leonhardi, li-on-haRMee, (Johann Gottfried,) a German physician, born at Leipsic in 1746. He became physician to the Elector of Saxony. Died in 1823. Leoni, li-o'nee, (Giacomo,) a Venetian architect, who removed to England. Died about 1746. Leoni, (Leone,) a skilful sculptor and engraver of medals, born at Arezzo, in Tuscany. He was patronized by Charles V., for whom he worked at Brussels and Madrid. He made marble statues of Charles and his empress, and a colossal bronze statue of the former at Madrid. Died about 1592. His son Pompeio was also skilful in the same arts, and was enriched by the favours of Philip H. of Spain. Pompeio died at Milan in 1660. See CicoGNARA, " Storia della Scultura." Leoni, (Luior,) an Italian painter, sculptor, and en- graver, surnamed Padovano, was born at Padua in 1 53 1. He practised his three arts at Rome with nearly equal success. His paintings are landscapes and his- torical pieces. Died in 1606. Leoni, (Ottavio,) surnamed IL Padovano or Pado- VANINO, the son and pupil of the preceding, was born in Rome about 1576, and became one of the most famous portrait-painters of his time. He was chosen principal of the Academy of Fine Arts in Rome. Died about 1630. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Leoniceno, li-o-ne-cha'no, [Lat. Leonice'nus,](Nic- COl6,) an eminent Italian physician, born at Lonigo, in the Vicentine, in 1428. He was professor of medicine or philosophy at Ferrara, and gained a high reputation by his writings. He was the first who translated Galen's work into Latin. Among his works is a treatise "On Syphilis," (" De Morbo Gallico," 1497.) Died in 1524. See Paolo Giovio, " Elogia Virorum illustrium ;" Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Leonicenus. See Leoniceno. Le-on-i-ce'nus Om-ni-bo'nus, [It. Ognibu6no di Lonigo, on-ye-boo-o'no de lo-nee'go,J an eminent Ital- ian grammarian, born at Lonigo about 1420. He lived in Venice, where it is supposed he taught rhetoric. He published a Latin "Treatise on Grammar," (1473,) ^^'^^ Commentaries on Lucan, Cicero, and other classics. See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Latina mediae et infimas /Etatis." Leonico, la-on'e-ko, (Tommaso Niccol6,) an Italian classical scholar, born at Venice in 1456. He translated some works of Aristotle and other ancient Greeks. Died in 1531- Le-on'i-das, [ Aecdvidag, ] a heroic king of Sparta, renowned for his invincible courage, patriotic devotion, and noble and tragical end, was the son of Anaxandrides. He succeeded his brother, Cleomenes I., in 492 B.C. When Xerxes invaded Greece with his countless myriads, in 480, the Greek Congress resolved to defend the pass of Thermopylae, and Leonidas commanded the small band to which that task was confided. With about 4000 men, he resisted the Persian army for several days, until a treacherous Greek guided 10,000 of the enemy through a secret path over the mountain. Leonidas, perceiving that his position was turned, dismissed all his men ex- cept 300 Spartans and about 1000 other Greeks. The Spartans maintained their post until they were all slain. The Persians are said to have lost there 20,000 men. The monument raised on the grave of the Spartans bore this inscri])tion : "Go, traveller, and tell at I.acedaemon that we fell here in obedience to her laws." He left a son, Pleistarchus, who became king. See Herodotus, books v. and vii. ; Grote, " History of Greece ;" Justin, book ii. ; P. Eckerman, " Dissertatio de Virtute Leonidae," 1762. Leonidas IL, King of Sparta, the son of Cleonymus, ascended the throne in 256 B.C. He factiously opposed the reforms of Agis IV., his colleague, who wished to restore the regulations of Lycurgus. After having been deposed for a short time, he regained his power in 240, and procured the death of Agis. In 236 B.C. he died, and was succeeded by his son, Cleomenes HI. Leonidas of Tarentum, a Greek poet, born at Tarentum, flourished about 275 B.C. He wrote about one hundred epigrams, which are preserved in the Greek Anthology and are much admired. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grjeca." Leonio, li-o'ne-o, (Vincenzo,) an Italian poet, born at Spoleto in 1650, He was one of the founders of the Academy of Arcades, and contributed by his precepts and example to reform Italian poetry. Died in 1720. Leonnat. See Leonnatus. Le-on-na'tus or Le-o-na'tus, [Gr. Aeovvuto^ ; Fr. LEONNAT, li'o'nt',] a Macedonian general of Pella, ac- companied Alexander the Great in his invasion of Persia in 334 B.C. He was one of the officers employed a1)out that king's person and on occasions requiring entire confidence. In the attack on Malli the life of Alexander was saved by the personal bravery of Leonnatus and Peucestas. At the death of his chief he obtained the satrapy of Phrygia Minor, and was soon urged by An- tipater to aid him against the revolted Greeks. For this purpose he marched with an army into Thessaly, where he was killed in battle in 322 B.C. See Arrian, " Anabasis," books ii., iii., iv., vi., and vli. ; Dio- DORUS SicuLUS, "History." Le-on-ti'a-des, [Gr. Acovrmc^T^f,] a leader of the oli- garchical party which, aided by the Spartan army, ob- tained the mastery at Thebes about 382 B.C. He was killed in his own house by Pelopidas in 379 B.C. Leontief or Leontiew, li-on'te-lf, (Alexis Leon- TIEVITCH,) a Russian savant, who obtained in 1779 the title of aulic councillor, and held other high offices. He was deeply versed in the Chinese literature, and trans- lated into Russian several Chinese works on history, geography, etc. Died in 1786. Leontium, le-on'she-um, [Gr. Aeovtlov,'] an Athenian courtesan, the disciple and mistress of Epicurus. She acquired some distinction as a philosopher, and com- posed in answer to Theophrastus a work on philosophy, the style of which is praised by Cicero as written " scito quidem sermone et Attico."* Among her various lovers was Metrodorus, the disciple and intimate friend of Epi- curus. Leontius, le-on'she-us, [Gr. Aeovnog ; Fr. L^once, 1^^6nss',] Emperor of Tire East, was born about 650 a.d. He became a general, and gained several victories. In 695 A.D. he rebelled against Justinian II., and usurped the throne. He was deposed by Apsimerus in 698, and in 705 A.D. was put to death by Justinian, who had recovered his power. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Leontius of Byzantium, called Scholas'ticus, an ecclesiastical writer, lived about the end of the sixth century. He wrote " De Sectis," and other works. Leontius Pilatus. See Leo Pilatus. Leopardi, li-o-paR'dee, (Alessandro,) an excellent Italian sculptor and architect, born at Venice. Among his works are the mausoleum of Doge Andrea Vendra- mini, (Venice,) and the three bronze columns in the Piazza di San Marco, on which the standards of the re- public were suspended. The elegance and proportions of these are equally admirable. Died in 1515. See Cicognara, "Storia della Scultura;" Ticozzi, " Dizionario." Leopardi, (Giacomo,) Count, an eminent Italian poet and philologist, born at Recanati, in the Papal States, in June, 1798. Between 1818 and 1820 he won a place among the first lyric poets of Italy by canzoni "To Italy," and "On the Monument which Florence was about to erect to Dante." In 1822 he removed to Rome, where he produced an excellent criticism on the publication of the "Chronicon" of Eusebius by Mai and Zohrab, (1823.) His poems, published collectively under the title of "Canti," (1831,) contain passages of great eloquence and pathos. His prose essays, " Operette morali," (1827,) are esteemed among the finest models of Italian prose which the present century has produced. Died in Naples in 1837. " We believe," says the " Quar- terly Review" for April, 1850, "it may be said without exaggeration that he was one of the most extraordinary men whom this century has produced, both in his powers and likewise in his performances, achieved as they were under singular disadvantages. For not only did he die * I.e. " In a skilful and elegant style." € as 5 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) LEOPOLD 1408 LEOPOLD at thirty-eight, almost nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita, but likewise 'Heaven's unimpeached decrees,' in his case, nearly ' Made that shortened span one long disease.' With a life thus limited, . . . Count Giacomo Leopardi amassed great stores of deep and varied learning, proved himself to be possessed of profound literary judgment, exquisite taste, and a powerful imagination, and earned in his own country the character summed up in the words of one of his editors, as sonuno Jilologo, sommo poeta e sommo filosofo.'^ Leopardi sympathized with the efforts to liberate Italy from foreign domination. See MoNTANARi, " Biografia del Conle Leopardi," 1838; Sainte- Beuve, " Portraits conteinporaiiis," tom'e iii. ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;"' " Encyclopsedia Britannica;" "Eraser's Magazine" for December, 1S48. Le'o-pold [It. Leopoldo, li-o-poKdo] L, often called Leopold the Great, [Ger. Leopold der Grosse, la'- o-polt dgR gkSs'seh ; Lat. Leopol'dus Mag'nus,] Em- peror of Germany, of the house of Austria, the second son of Ferdinand III. and of Maria Anna of Spain, was born in June, 1640. He became King of Hungary in 1655, and King of Bohemia in 1657. After the death of his father, and a competition with Louis XIV. of France, Leopold was elected emperor on the i8th of July, 1658. The Turks, having invaded Hungary with a large army, were defeated at Saint Gothard in 1664, and Leopold then made with them a truce of twenty years. In 1674 he commenced war against Louis XIV., which, after indecisive campaigns on the Rhine, was ended by the treaty of Nymwegen in 1678. The Hungarians, driven by his despotic measures to revolt, chose Tekeli as their leader in 1682, and were aided by a Turkish army of 200,000 men, which besieged Vienna in July, 1683. So- bieski. King of Poland, saved the capital by a decisive victory over the Turks in September of that year. The Austrians, commanded by Prince Eugene, finished the war by a victory at Zenta in 1697, in which year also a second war against France was ended by the peace of Ryswick. The claim of his family to the throne of Spain, vacated by the death of Charles II. in 1700, involved Leopold in another war with Louis XIV. He renewed his alli- ance with England and Holland in 1701. His army, commanded by Prince Eugene, gained several victories in Italy in 1 701-02, and shared the triumph of the allies at Blenheim in 1704. Before the termination of this long war of the Spanish succession, he died, in May, 1705, and was succeeded by his son, Joseph I. He had had three wives, the first of whom was a Spanish prin- cess, Margarita Theresa. His prosperity is ascribed to the merit of his ministers and generals, rather than to his own abilities. Among the important events of his reign was the recognition of Ernest Augustus of Hanover, in 1692, as an Elector of the empire. See "Life of Leopold L," London, 1706; Mencke, "Leben Leopolds L," 1707; Wagner, "Historia Leopold! Magni," 1719-31 ; RiNCK, " Leben und Thaten Leopolds des Grossen," 1708 ; Reina, "Vita ed Imperio di Leopoldo L," 1710; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Leopold IL OF Germany, the second son of the empress Maria Theresa, was born May 5, 1747. At the death of his father, Francis I., in 1765, he inherited the grand duchy of Tuscany, which he ruled twenty-five years in a wise and liberal spirit. During this period he made many reforms in the administration. He sup- pressed the Inquisition, abolished the penalty of death, and co-operated with Ricci, Bishop of Pistoia, in the reformation of monastic discipline, which caused an angry contest between him and the court of Rome. On the death of his brother, Joseph II., February 20, 1790, Leopold became heir of the Austrian monarchy, which was then not in a prosperous condition. The Low Coun- tries were in revolt, Hungary was discontented, Turkey and Prussia were hostile, and France was estranged from Austria by the Revolution. He quickly reduced the Low Countries to obedience by an army, and pacified his other subjects by a conciliatory policy. In 1791 he concluded peace with Turkey at Sistova, and was elected Emperor of Germany. The alarming progress of the French Revolution induced him to form an alliance with Prussia at Pilnitz, in 1 791, for the restoration of Louis XVI. Hostilities were about to begin, when he died suddenly on the ist of March, 1792, leaving the repu- tation of an able and jusc ruler. His wife was Maria Louisa, daughter of Charles III. of Spain. He was succeeded by his son, Francis II., (of Germany,) who in reference to Austria is styled Francis I. See "Leben Leopolds IL," Prague, 1791 ; Foucault, " Histoire de Leopold H," 1791; Alxingek, " Ueber Leopold IL," 1792; Sartori, " Leopoldinische Annalen," 2 vols., 1792; J. B. Schels, " Leopold II. ," 1837. Leopold L, King of Belgium, Duke of Saxony, and Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, was born at Coburg in 1790. He was a son of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saal- feld, was a brother of the Duchess of Kent, and uncle of the British queen Victoria. In May, 181 6, he married the princess Charlotte, daughter of George IV. and heir- apparent to the throne of Great Britain, who died in childbirth before the end of that year. He refused the crown of Greece, offered to him in 1830. On the 4th of June, 1 83 1, he was elected King of the Belgians, who were separated from Holland by the revolution of 1830. Hostilities were renewed by the Dutch, and a French army came to the aid of the Belgians. In 1832 Leopold married Louise Marie Therese, a daughter of King Louis Philippe. He was quite popular among his subjects, towards whom his policy was marked by liberality and a scrupulous regard for their constitutional rights." He died in December, 1865, and was succeeded by his son, Leopold II. See L. Hymans, " Histoire du R^gne de Leopold I," 1864 : Ras- TOtJL DE MoNGEOT, " Lcopold I, Roi des Beiges, sa Vie militaire et politique," 1850; Theodore Juste, "Leopold, Roi des Beiges," 1S68; "Nouvelle Biographie Generate;" "London Quarterly Re- view" for April, 1869; "Gentleman's Magazine" for May, 1866. Leopold I., Duke of Austria, was born in 1 157. He served under Richard I. of England at the siege of Acre. In 1 193, to gratify his avarice and to revenge an insult he fancied he had received from Richard, he arrested him at Vienna on his homeward journey and threw him into prison. He received a large sum of money for the transfer of the royal captive to the emperor Henry VI. Died in 1 194. Leopold IL, Duke of Austria, born in 1292, was the third son of Albert I., Emperor of Germany, who was killed in 1308, leaving his dominions in joint-tenancy to his sons. Leopold ruled Suabia, Alsace, and Switzer- land. His brothers, Frederick and Louis of Bavaria, were competitors for the imperial throne. In 13 15 Leo- pold attacked the Swiss, (who favoured the cause of Louis of Bavaria,) and was defeated at Morgarten. In 1325 a treaty was made between the two parties, and it was agreed that Louis and Frederick should reign jointly. Leopold died about 1326. See LicHNOWsKY, " Geschichte Hauses Habsburg." Leopold IIL, Duke of Austria, the son of Albert II., was born about 1350. He became ruler over Suabia, Tyrol, etc. War having broken out between him and the Swiss cantons, he was defeated and killed in 1386 at the famous battle of Sempach, where Arnold of Win- kelried decided the victory by throwing himself on the Austrian spears and breaking the phalanx. See KuRZ, " Oestreich unter Albrecht III." Leopold 1. OF Tuscany. See Leopold IL, (Em- peror.) Leopold IL, Grand Duke of Tuscany, was born at Florence in 1797, and was a son of Ferdinand III., whom he succeeded in 1824. He conceded a constitution to Tuscany in 1847. In consequence of the triumph of the democratic party, he retired from Florence, but was restored by the Austrian army in July, 1849. He was forced to abdicate by the revolutionary movements of the spring of 1859, and Tuscany was annexed to Sardinia. He published a fine edition of the works of Lorenzo de' Medici, (4 vols., 1825.) Died in 1870. Leopold OF Anhalt-Dessau. See Anhalt-Dessau. Leopold OF Lorraine. See Lorraine. Leopold, la'o-pold^ (Carl Gustaf,) an eminent Swedish poet, born at Stockholm in 1756. In 1778 he composed an "Ode on the Birth of the Prince-Royal Gustavus Adolphus," and in 1788 he became private secretary of Gustavus III., who treated him with much favour and confidence. He produced two successful tragedies, "Odin" (1790) and "Virginia," and sang the a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, hy 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; f3.r, fill, fl.t; mSt; ndt; good; moon; LEOPOLD 1409 LEPIDUS martial exploits of the Swedes in several admired odes. He was appointed secretary of state in 181 8. Died in 1829. See Magnus af Pontin, " Minne af C. G. Leopold," 1830; Ehrenstroem, "Notice biograpliique sur M. da Leopold," 1838; Skjoei.debrand, "Tai vid C. G. af Leopolds Graf," 1829; Long- fellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Leopold Friedrich, la'o-polt' fReed'riK, Duke of Anhalt-Dessau, was born in 1794. On the death of his grandfather, in 181 7, he succeeded to the government, and in 1853 to that of Anhalt-Kothen. Leopold Friedrich Franz, la'o-polt' fReed'riK fRSnts, Duke of Dessau, born in 1740. In 1758 he assumed the government, and distinguished himself by his able administration and his patronage of learning and the arts. He died in 181 7, and was succeeded by his grandson, the subject of the preceding article. Leopoldo. See Leopold I., Emperor of Germany. Leosthene. See Leosthenes. Le-os'the-nes, [Gr. Aeioodei^?]^ ; Fr. L^iosTitENE, li'- os'tin',] an Athenian general, who makes his first ap- pearance in history about the time of the death of Alex- ander the Great, 324 B.C. He was attached to the party of Demosthenes, and seems to have had a high repu- tation, as he was chosen commander of the combined Greek army in the Lamian war, the object of which was to liberate Greece from the Macedonian yoke. He de- feated Antipater in Thessaly, and besieged him in Lamia. At this siege Leosthenes was killed, in 323 B.C., after which success deserted the Athenian arms. See Grote, "History of Greece;" Thirlwall, "History of Greece." Leotaud, li'o'to', (Vincent,) an able French geome- ter, born in the diocese of Embrun in 1595. He was a professor at the College of Dole. Among his works are " Elements of Practical Geometry," {" Geometricoe practicae Elementa," 1631,) and " Cyclomathia," etc., (1663.) Died in i_672. Le-o-ty-eh'i-des, [Gr. AeurvxiS?]^; Fr. L^otychide, li'o'te'ked',] a Spartan king, the son of Menares, suc- ceeded Demaratus, who was deposed about 491 B.C. Leonidas L was his colleague in the government. He obtained command of the Greek fleet, and shared with Xanthippus the honour of the signal victory over the Persians at Mycale in 479 B.C. Having been accused of receiving a bribe from some Thessalians, he was banished in 469, and died in exile at Tegea. See Herodotus, " History," books vi., viii., and ix. Leowitz, la'o-<^its', [Lat. Leovi'tius,] (Cyprian,) a Bohemian astronomer, born near Hradisch in 1524; died in 1574. Le Paige, leh-pizh', (Thomas,) a French religious writer, born in Lorraine in 1597 ; died in 1658. Lepaute, leh-pot', (Jean Andr^:,) a French clock- maker, born at Montmedy in 1709. He lived in Paris, and was celebrated for the perfection of his works. He made time-pieces for many public edifices of Paris, and for the most of the observatories of Europe. He pub- lished a "Treatise on Clockwork," ( Horlogerie.) Died in 1789. His wife, nee NrcoLE Reine idtable de Labriere — i'ttb'K deh lt'bRe''aiR', born in Paris in 1723, acquired distinction as an astronomer. She was a friend of Clai- raut and Lalande, whom she assisted in the calcula- tions on the return of Halley's comet, (1757.) She was the author of " Observations" inserted in the "Connais- sances des Temps," of " Tables of the Sun, Moon, and Planets," and of several memoirs on astronomy. Died ini788. Lepautre orLep6tre,leh-p5tR', (Antotne,) a French arcliitect, born in Paris in 1614. He was first architect of Louis XIV. In 1652 he published an esteemed work entitled "The Architecture of A. Lepautre." He had an excellent talent for decoration, and abounded in new inventions. The church of Port-Royal, in a suburb of Paris, was designed by him. Died in 1691. See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." Lepautre, (Jean,) a brother of the preceding, born in Paris in 161 7, was a skilful designer and engraver. He designed and etched many subjects which are ad- mirable models for architects and other artists. Died in 1682. Lepautre, (Pierre,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1660, was a son of Antoine, noticed above. He studied and worked in Rome for fifteen years, and then returned to Paris, where he obtained success, though his works are defective in taste. His chief production is the group of x^neas and Anchises, at the Tuileries. Died in 1744. Lepaux. See Lar^veii.i.ere. Le Pays, de, deh leli p.Ve', ( Ren]^, ) Sieur Plessis- Villeneuve, a gay and witty Ficnch versifier, born at Nantes or Fougeres in 1636. He was for many years director-general of the salt-tax (gabelle) in Dauphine and Provence. He was noted for his bons mots. His " Friend- ships, Loves, and Little Loves" ("Amities, Amours et Amourettes," 1664) had a great success. He published many letters, sonnets, etc. Died in 1690. See Bayf-e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." Lepee, (Abb^:.) See fip^iE, de l'. Lepekhin or Lepeohin, l§p-eh-Keen' or Igp-eh-Kin', (Ivan Ivanowitch,) a Russian naturalist, born about 1740. He was charged by Catherine II. to explore Russia, and published the results in a " Journal of Travels through the Various Provinces of the Russian Empire," (3 vols., 1771-80.) Died in 1802. Lepelletier, leh-p^Kte-i', (Claude,) a French theolo- gian, born in Franche-Comte about 1670, became canon of Rheims. He wrote polemical treatises against the Jansenists, and many religious works. Died in 1743. Lepelletier or Le Pelletier, (Jean,) a French an- tiquary and merchant, born at Rouen in 1633. He wrote, besides other works, a " Treatise on Noah's Ark," (1704.) Died in 171 1. Lepelletier (or Le Peletier, leh peh-leh-te-a') de Saint-Fargeau, leh-p^rte-i' deh siNTlR'zho', (Louis Michel,) a French revolutionist, born in Paris in 1760, was president a mortier of the Parliament of Paris, and was the owner of an immense fortune. He became a partisan of the new regime, and in 1792 was an influen- tial member of the Convention. It appears that he had given the royalists reason to expect he would favour lenity in the king's trial, but was impelled by the ter- rorism of the Jacobins to vote for death. For this act he was assassinated by Paris, a royalist, in January, 1793. See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution;" F^Lix Le- pelletier, "Vie de M. Lepelletier," 1793. Le Pere, leh paiR, (Jean Baptiste,) a French archi- tect, born in Paris in 1761. He accoinpanied the expe- dition to Egypt in 1798, and was directed by Bonajiarte to draw up a j^lan for the restoration of the canal across the Isthmus of Suez. Died in 1844. L^picie, li'pe'se-i, (Bernard,) a skilful Frencli en- graver and painter,"\vas born in Paris in 1698. He went to England, and engraved Raphael's Cartoons at Hamp- ton Court. He afterwards worked in Paris, and became secretary of the Academy in 1740. His manner is broad and mellow, and his design correct. Died in 1755. Lepicie, (Nicolas Bernard,) a French historical painter, son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1735. He was a pupil of C. Vanloo, became professor in the Royal Academy, and received the title of painter to the king. His works are marred by the faults which prevailed in the French school at that time. Died in 1784. Lep'i-da Do-mi'ti-a, (do-mish'e-a,) a Roman lady of great personal beauty but infamous character. She was the daughter of Drusus, and aunt of the emperor Nero. Lep'i-dus, the name of a celebrated Roman family of the patrician gens ^^milia. Marcus ^^^^Imilius Lepi- Dus was elected consul in 187 B.C., pontifex maximus in 180, and censor in 179. He was six times chosen by the censors princeps SenaUis. Died about 152 B.C. The triumvir of the same name was his lineal descendant. Lepidus, (Marcus ^milius,) a Roman orator, a grandson of the preceding, was consul in 137 B.C. In the next year he commanded in several battles in Spain, and was defeated. Cicero represents him as the greatest orator of his age. Lepidus, (Marcus ^milius,) the father of the tri- umvir, was praetor in Sicily in 81 B.C. In 79 he was chosen consul by the partisans of Marius, and attempted € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as G, H, K^gutiural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 89 LEPIDUS 1410 LERMA to nullify or repeal the measures of Sulla, who had just died. A violent contest ensued between the factions. In 77 Lepidus was declared by the senate a public enemy, and was defeated in battle by Pompey near Rome. He died about 76 B.C. Lepidus, (Marcus ^milius,) the Triumvir, was praetor when the civil war broke out between Pompey and Caesar, in 49 B.C. He joined the party of Caesar, who, at his departure for Spain, left Lepidus in charge of the capital. In 48 he obtained the province of Nearer Spain, with the title of proconsul, and in 46 became the colleague of Caesar in the consulship. He was master of the horse when Caesar was killed, in 44 B.C. When the senate and Antony came to an open rupture, Lepidus joined the latter with an army, and in October, 43, he united with Antony and Octavian to form the famous triumvirate. He put his own brother on the list of the proscribed who were sacrificed by this coalition. In the division of provinces, Spain and Narbonese Gaul were allotted to Lepidus, who remained in Italy, while the other two led their army against Brutus. After their victory at Philippi, Octavius and Antony ceased to treat him as their equal, and deprived him of his provinces in 42, but gave him a command in Africa. When the triumvirate was renewed, however, (37 B.C.,) he was nominally included in it. In 36 he failed in an attempt to recover power, and, being deserted by his troops, sur- rendered to Octavius, who spared his life but banished him from Rome. He died in 13 B.C. See Dion Cassius, "History of Rome;" Appian, " Bellum Civile;" Merivale, "The Romans under the Emperors." Lepidus, (Marcus ^Emilius,) a son of the preceding, formed a conspiracy, in 30 B.C., to kill Augustus on his return to Rome after the battle of Actium. Maecenas detected the plot, and sent Lepidus to Augustus, who put him to death. Lepidus, (Paulus ^Emilius,) a brother of the tri- umvir, became aedile about 55 B.C., praetor in 53, and consul in 50. After the death of Caesar, 44 B.C., he acted with the aristocratic party in opposition to the triumvirs. Died about 40 B.C. Leplat, leh-plt', (Josse,) a Belgian jurist and canonist, born at Malines in 1732 ; died in 1810. Lepois. See Pois, Le. Le Poittevin, leh pw^t^iN', a successful French painter of landscapes, genre, and marine pieces, was born in Paris in 1806. His proper name is Edmonde MoDESTE Eugene Poidevin. He gained a medal of the first class in 1836. Le Prevost d'Iray, leh pRk'vo' de'ri', (Chretien Simeon,) a French poet and antiquary, born in Nor- mandy in 1768. Among his works is a "History of Egypt under the Romans," (1816.) Died in 1849. Leprince or Le Prince, leh pR^Nss, (Jean,) a French painter, born at Metz in 1733. worked several years in Saint Petersburg, where he adorned the imperial palace. He returned to France many years before his death, which occurred in 1781. Le Prince de Beaumont, leh priNss deh bo^miw', (Marie,) a sister of the preceding, was born at Rouen in 1 7 II. She was divorced from M. Beaumont in 1745, and removed to London, where she was employed as governess or teacher for many years. She published many useful and successful juvenile books, moral tales, etc. Her "Magazine for Children" (" Magasin des En- ^^ants," 1757) was often reprinted and translated. She was author of a popular "Magazine for Young Ladies," 'The Modern Mentor," (1772,) "Complete Education," etc. About 1764 she went to reside at Annecy, in Savoy. Died in 1780. Lepsius, ISp'se-tls, (Karl Peter,) a German anti- quary, born at Naumburg, on the Saale, in 1775, was the father of Karl Richard, noticed below. He studied law, and obtained several civil offices under the Saxon and Prussian governments. He published a "Treatise on the Mediaeval Architectural Monuments of Saxony and Thuringia," and a few other works. Died in 1853. Lepsius, (Karl Richard,) a German philologist and antiquary, highly distinguished for his Egyptian re- searches, was a son of the preceding. He was born at Naumburg, in Prussian Saxony, December 20, 1813, and received his first instruction from his father. He pursued his studies in the Universities of Leipsic and Gottingen, giving special attention to languages and phi- lology. In 1834 he published "Palaeography as an Aid to Philology," which obtained a prize from 'the French Institute, and was followed by an "Essay on the Affinity of the Semitic, Indian, Ancient Persian, Egyj^tian, and Ethiopian Languages," (1835.) In 1836 he visited Rome, where he formed an intimate friendship with Bunsen, and wrote a " Letter to Rosellini on the Hieroglyphic Alphabet," (1837,) which attracted great attention. He visited England in 1838, and afterwards became a resi- dent of Berlin. He produced a treatise on the " Etrurian andOscan Dialects," (1841,) and " Obituary of the Egyp- tians," ("Das Todtenbuch der Aegypter," 1842.) Lep- sius having projected a great historical and antiquarian work on Egypt, the King of Prussia was induced by Bunsen and Humboldt to send to Egypt an expedition under his direction. Assisted by artists of various sorts, he investigated the antiquities of that country from 1842 until 1846. On his return he was chosen a pro- fessor in the University of Berlin, and in 1849 produced the first volume of his "Chronology of the Egyptians." He published the interesting and important results of his late expedition in a splendid work entitled "The Monuments of Egypt and Ethiopia," (" Denkmaler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien," 1849-59.) Among his prin- cipal works are " Letters on Egypt, Ethiopia, and the Peninsula of Sinai," (1852,) and " Universal Linguistical Alphabet," ("Das allgemeine linguistische Alphabet," 1855.) Leptine. See Leptines. Lep'ti-nes, [Gr. AenTlvrjg; Fr. Leptine, Igp't^n',] a Syracusan commander, was a brother of Dionysius the Elder. He contributed greatly to the defeat of the Carthaginians at Syracuse about 396 B.C. He was killed at the battle of Cronium, in 383 B.C. Lequien, leh-ke-dN', (Michel,) a learned French monk, born at Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1661. Among his works are a "Defence of the Hebrew Text, and of the Vulgate," (1690,) and "Oriens Christianus," (3 vols., 1740,) an account of the churches, patriarchs, etc. of the East, which is commended. Died in 1733. Lequien de la Neuville, leh-ke-^N'' deh It nuhV^K, (Jacques,) a French historian, born in Paris in 1647. He accompanied the French ambassador to Lisbon in 1713, and there composed his principal work, a " History of Portugal," (2 vols., 1700-20.) Died in 1728. Leray, leh-ri', (Theodore Constant,) a French admiral, born at Brest in 1795 ; died in 1849. Lerche, l^R'Keh, (Johann Jakob,) a German natu- ralist, born at Potsdam in 1703 ; died at Saint Peters- burg in 1780. Lerchenfeld, IgR'Ken-f^lt', (Maximilian,) Baron OF, a German statesman of liberal opinions, born at Munich in 1779; died in 1843. Lerebours, leh-reh'booR', (Noel Jean,) a French optician, born in Normandy in 1762. He made tele- scopes of superior quality, and other optical instruments. Died in 1840. Leri, de, deh leh-re', (Jean,) a French Protestant minister, born in 1534. He laboured in Brazil about two years, (1556-58,) and published "An Account of his Voyage to Brazil," (1577.) Died in 1611. Lerma, de, di l^R'mS, (Francisco de Roxas (or RojAs) de Sandoval,) Duke, a Spanish statesman of moderate ability. He was equerry to Don Philip, who in 1598 became king as Philip HI. and appointed the subject of this article prime minister. He was then created Duke of Lerma, having previously been called Marquis of Denia. He equipped a large fleet which was ordered to cruise on the English coast, but was destroyed by a storm, after which he made a peace on terms favourable to England. For twenty years he retained the favour of the king, and had entire control of the government. His policy was mild, pacific, and prudent in some respects, but was not successful in relation to finances. He was supplanted in 1618 by his son, the Duke of Uzeda. Died in 1625. See Watson, " History of Philip II.;" Motley, "United Nether- lands," vol. iv. chap, xlviii. a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sAori; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fUll, f^t; mStj ndt; good; moon; LERMINIER LE SAGE Lerminier, l?R'me'nej^', (Jean Louis Eugene,) a French publicist and la\vyer, born in Paris in 1803. He obtained in 1831 a chair of legislation in the College of France, where his eloquent lectures were much admired by the ardent youth. Among his works are "The Phi- losophy of Law," (2 vols., 1831,) and a "History of the Legislators and Constitutions of Ancient Greece," (2 vols., 1852.) He wrote the article "Guizot" in the '* Nou- velle Biographie Generale." He was remarkable for animation of style, vigour of images, and nobleness of expression. Died in 1857. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lerminier, (Theodoric Nelamond,) a French phy- sician, born at Saint- Valery-sur-Somme in 1770. In 1808 he was appointed physician par qtiartier for the service of the imperial household. He attended Na- poleon in the campaigns of Spain, Russia, (1812,) and Saxony, and gave proof of great professional talent and courage. Died in Paris in 1836. L'Ermite. See Ermite, L'. LermontofjLermontov, or Lermontow, l§R'mon- tof, (Mikhail Ivanovitch,) a popular Russian poet, born in 1811, became an officer in the guards. In 1837, by a poem " On the Death of Pushkin," he offended the emperor, who ordered him to join the army of the Cau- casus. While serving there in the army, he wrote "The Circassian Boy," and other popular poems, and a suc- cessful novel, called "A Hero of our Own Time," (1840.) He was killed in a duel in 1841. Like Byron, he ex- presses his own character and feelings in his writings, and is the principal person in the tales or pictures which his imagination produces. See Saint-Rene Taillandier, "Le Poete dii Caiicase," in the "Revue des Deux Mondes" for February i, 1855; "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Lernaean Hydra. See Hydra. Lernout, l^R'noo', (Jean,) [Lat. J.\'nus Lernu'tius,] a Latin poet, born at Bruges in 1545. He was made prisoner by the English in 1587, and detained five years. His "Carmina," odes, epigrams, etc., published in 1579, are said to have considerable merit. Died in 1619. Lernutius. See Lernout. Leroi. See Leroy. Leroux, leh-roo', (Jean Jacques,) a French physician, born at Sevres in 1749. Having been elected to a high municipal office in Paris in 1790, he exposed his life in his efforts to defend the royal family, for which he was proscribed. Died in 1832. Leroux, (Pierre,) a French socialist, born in Paris in 1798. He founded, in partnership with Madame George Sand, the " Revue Independante." His principal work is "On Humanity: its Principle and its Prospects," (" De I'Humanite : de son Principe et de son Avenir," 2 vols., 1840.) Leroy, leh-Rwd', (Charles,) a French physician, born in Paris in 1726, was a son of Julien, noticed below. He published two valuable works, viz. : "Memoirs and Ob- servations on Medicine," and " Melanges of Philosophy, Chemistry," etc., (1771.) Died in 1779. Leroy, (Jean Baptiste,) a natural philosopher, born in Paris, was a son of Julien, noticed below. He became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 175 1, and wrote several memoirs on electricity. Died in 1800. Leroy, (Jean Baptiste On^sime,) a French dramatic writer, born at Valenciennes in 1788. He produced suc- cessful comedies. Leroy or Le Roy, (Julien,) a French watchmaker, born at Tours in 1686. He settled in Paris, and ac- quired a European reputation by the excellence of his workmanship. He obviated the changes of temperature by a mechanism of compensation, invented horizontal clocks, and made many improvements in the art. In 1739 he received the title of horloger to the king. Died in 1759. His sons Charles, Jean Baptiste, Julien David, and Pierre are noticed in this work. Leroy or Leroi, (Julien David,) a French architect, son of the preceding, was born in Paris about 1726, Having visited and studied the ancient models in Greece, he published in 1758 an excellent work entitled "Ruins of the Finest Monuments of Greece," which contributed greatly to reform the vitiated taste that prevailed in France before its appearance. The lectures which he gave for forty years as professor of architecture finished the revolution which that book commenced. He wrote, also, " Observations on the Edifices of Ancient Nations," (1767,) and other works. Died in 1803. See Gabet, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Leroy or Le Roy, [Lat. Re'gius,](Louis,) an excellent French classical scholar, born at Coutances. He trav- elled much in his youth, and on his return home gained distinction by translations of Demosthenes' " Philippics" and of some works of Plato. He was an old man when he obtained the chair of Greek in the College Royal in 1572. Among his works are a "Life of Budaeus," in elegant Latin, (1540,) "The Origin and Excellence of the Art of Government," (VArt politique,) (1567,) and "The Vicissitude and Variety of Things," (1576.) He is reputed one of the first French writers who attained harmony in prose. Died in 1577. See NiCERON, "M^molres;" Teissier, " filoges." Leroy, (Pierre,) a French satirical writer, who lived about 1590, vvas a canon of the cathedral of Rouen. He was one of the principal authors of a very popular satire and master-piece of pleasantry, entitled "Menippean Satire on the Virtue of the Spanish Catholicon," (" Satyre Menippee de la Vertu du Catholicon d'Espagne," 1593.) "which," said Voltaire, "was as profitable to the cause of Henry IV. as the battle of Ivry." Leroy, (Pierre,) a skilful watchmaker, born in Paris in 1 71 7, was the son of Julien, noticed above. He vvas chiefly noted for the perfection he attained in marine time-pieces, and received a prize from the Academy for the best method of measuring time at sea. He has the credit of discovering the isochi onism of spiral springs. He published several remarkable treatises on his art, — one called "Etrennes chronometriques pour I'Annee 1760." Died in 1785. Leroy d'idtiolles, Ieh-Rw5' di'te'oK, (Jean Jacques Joseph,) a French surgeon, born in Paris in 1798, is distinguished as the inventor of instruments used in lithotrity. This invention was also claimed by M. Ci- viale ; but a committee of the Academy of Sciences awarded a prize to Leroy d'litiolles " for having first made known (in 1822] the instruments which he had invented." He invented other surgical instruments. Leroy de la Corbinaye, leh-Rwd' deh It koR'be'n^', (Charles,) a French lexicographer, born at Saint-Brieuc in 1690. He published a valuable "Treatise on French Orthography, in the Form of a Dictionary," (1739,) which is praised for accuracy, method, etc. Died in 1739. Leroy de Saint- Aniaud, leh-RwS' deh sixt 'i.\<'wo', (Arnaud Jacques,) a French general, born in Paris about 1800. He distinguished himself in Algeria, and obtained the rank of marechal-de-camp in 1847, and that of general of division in 185 1, as a reward for his suc- cessful operations against the Kabyle tribes. Having become minister of war in October, 1851, he promoted the coup d''etat of December 2, and was made a marshal of P^-ance in December, 1852. He obtained the chief command in the Crimean war, which began in 1854, and, although suffering severely from disease, displayed his usual energy and skill at the battle of the Alma, September 20, 1854. He was obliged by the state of his health to resign the command, and he died on the 29th of September, 1854. See DuPERKEi. Sainte-Marie, "M. le General Leroy de S.iint- Arnaud," 1852; Charras, " Les trois' Marechaux MM. de Saint- Arnaud, Magnan et Castellane," 1851. Lery, li're', or Leri, (Jean,) a French Protestant and traveller, born at Margelle in 1534. He went as a mis- sionary to Brazil in 1556, and returned in 1 558. He published, in French and in Latin, "A Narrative of a Voyage to Brazil," with a good description of that re- gion, (1578.) Died in i6ir. Le Sage or Lesage, leh stzh, (Alain Ren6,) a cele- brated French romancer and dramatist, Ijorn at Sarzeau, near Vannes, (Morbihan,) May 8, 1668. He was the son of a lawyer, was educated at the College of Vannes, and is supposed to have been employed several years in the collection of taxes. In 1692 he went to Paris to study law and philosophy. There his handsome figure and his intelligence and fine literary taste procured for him free € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, H, y.^ guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) LE SAGE 141 2 LESDIGUIERES access to the most polished and aristocratic society. In 1694 he married Mademoiselle Huyard, of Paris, and was admitted as advocate of the Parliament, but soon relin- quished all other pursuits that he might devote himself to literature. He studied Spanish, and improved his style by translating or imitating several Spanish come- dies. Ilis comedy " Don Caesar Ursin," imitated from Calderon, was a failure; Init his "Crispin Rival de son Maitre" ("Crispin the Rival of his Master") was per- formed with brilliant success in 1707. In the same year he produced " Le Diable boiteux," [i.e. "The Lame I)evil," popularly called in English "The Devil on Two Sticks," and sometimes "Asmodeus,") a romance, the idea and name of which he derived from a work of Luis Velez de Guevara. By its satire on all conditions, its nervous style, and its truthful portraits, this book attained great popularity. He increased his reputation by an original prose play called "Turcaret," which exposed the iniqui- ties of the traitants and other agents of the revenue. These parties offered him one hundred thousand francs to suppress the piece ; but he refused the bribe, and it was performed with immense applause in 1709. It is superior to any play which he imitated from the Spanish. Li 1 71 5 Le Sage published two volumes of his most celebrated work, "Gil Bias de Santillane," which is perhaps a more universal favourite than any other novel, and owes its success to its admirable and natural pictures of human life in all its conditions and all its phases. It has been translated into all the languages of Europe. Voltaire and others attempted, without success, to convict him of borrowing or purloining the story from some Spanish writer. Their charges have been refuted by Fran9ois de Neufchateau. He employed the period between 17 13 and 1738 chiefly in writing comic operas and other pieces, which were exhibited at the fair of Saint-Germain and were extremely popular. He pub- lished "Roland I'Amoureux," (1717-21,) an imitation of "Orlando Innamorato," and "The Adventures of Guz- man d'Alfarache," (1732,) an amusing novel, superior to the Spanish work of which it is a version or imitation. In 1735 he produced a dialogue full of witty, wise, and original thoughts, entitled " A Day of the Parcae," (" Une Journee des Parques,") and finished the last volume of "Gil Bias." After composing several other works and enjoying a large share of domestic haj^piness, he died at Boulogne in November, 1747. He had the re])utation of a high-minded and honourable man. His eldest son, who assumed the name of Montm^nil, became a famous play-actor. See AuDiFFRET, " Notice sur A. R. Lesage," 1822 ; Sir Walter Scott, "Biographical Notice of Le Sage," (in his Miscellaneous Works:) M alitourne, " filoge de Le Sage," 1822 ; Sainte-P.euve, " Causeries du Lundi," tome ii. ; Henri Patin, " filoge de Lesage," 1822; TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" Vii.i.rmain, " Litt^rature Frangaise du dix-huitieme Siecle," tome i. ; Saint- Marc GiRARDiN, " filoge de Lesage," 1822; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1807. Le Sage or Lesage, (Bernard Marie,) a French revolutionist, was a member of the Convention in 1792, and voted for the death of the king. As a Girondist he was proscribed and outlawed in 1793, but escaped by flight. Died in 1796. Le Sage or Lesage, (George Louis,) a Swiss phi- losopher, born at Geneva in 1724. He studied medicine, but did not practise it. His favourite studies were natural philosophy, mathematics, and mechanics. In 1750 he be- came a teacher of mathe«natics at Geneva. He published an "Essay on Mechanical Chemistry," (1758,) an inge- nious treatise called "Newtonian Lucretius," ("Lucrece Newtonien," 1782,) and "Fragments on Final Causes," and left many works in manuscript. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and corresponded with D'Alembert and other eminent savants. Died in 1803. See P. Prevost, "Notice sur la Vie de G. L. Lesage," 1805; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Le Sage (or Lesage) de Montmenil, leh stzh deh mAN'mi'n^K, (Rkn6 An'DR^:,) a son of the author of " Gil Bias," was born in Paris in 1695. He made his debut ow the stage in 1 726, and performed various 7'oles in comedy with success. He soon became one of the most cele- brated French actors of that time. His private character is said to have been noble. Died in 1743. LSs-bo'nax, [AeaSwm^,] a Greek sophist and rheto- rician of Mitylene, who lived in the first century B.C., in the time of Augustus. He was the father of Polemon, the jjreceptor of Tiberius. His philosophic works have not come down to us ; but we have two orations of some merit, which are ascribed to him. Another Lesbonax, a Greek grammarian, is supposed to have lived in a later period. He was author of a small work on grammatical figures, Etyu I,xvf^^'!'<^v, which is extant. See SuiDAS, "Lesbonax." Lescaille, la'kal' or li'kt'ye, (Catherine,) a Dutch poetess, born at Amsterdam in 1649, was called "the Sappho of Holland." She wrote tragedies, — " Genseric," "Cassandra,"" Herod and Mariamne," etc. Died in 1 7 11. See MoK^Ri, " Dictionnaire Historique. " Lescaille, (Jacques,) a Flemish or Dutch poet and publisher, born in 1610, was the father of the preceding. Died in 1677. Lescale. See Scaliger. Lescallier, LVkrie^' or l^'ktKya', (Daniel,) a French officer of the marine, born at Lyons in 1743. He wrote a " French-English Vocabulary of Marine Terms," (1777,) and "Travels in England, Russia," etc., (1800.) Died in 1822. Lescarbot, la'ktR'bo', (Marc,) a French writer and lawyer, born at Vervins. He contributed to form the first French colony in Canada, and, having returned to France, published in 1609 a "History of New France." Lescene-Desmaisons, t^'s^n'da'mi'z^N', (Jacques,) a French historical writer, born at Granville in 1750. He published in 1781 a " History of the Last Revolution in Sweden," and in 1789 a " Political History of the French Revolution." Died in 1808. Leschassier, LVsht^se-y, (Jacques,) a French jurist, born in Paris in 1550; died in 1625. Leschenault de La Tour, lash^no' deh It tooR, (Jean Baptiste Louis Claude Theodore,) a French naturalist and traveller, born at Chalons-sur-Saone in 1773. travelled in Hindostan about five years, (1816- 21.) Among his works is a " Treatise on the Vegetation of New Holland." Died in 1826. Les'-ehes [Aea^tz/f] or Les'cheus, [A£a;^;ej;f,] a Greek poet, born in the island of Lesbos, lived about 700 or 600 B.C. He is the reputed author of a poem called "The Little Iliad," ('IXicig /uicpu.) L'Escluse. See L'liCi.usH:. Lescoiivel, de, deh la'ko.N'vSK, (Pierre,) a French writer of fiction, born about 1650; died in Paris in 1722. Lescot, iSs'ko', (Pierre,) an eminent French archi- tect, born in Paris about 15 10. Little is known of his life, except that he was abbe of Clagny. He designed the Louvre, which was begun about 1 541. The part of this palace called the Fa9ade de I'Horloge is considered a master-piece. Another specimen of his good taste is the Salle des Caryatides, in the same edifice, "He will ever be regarded," says the "Biographie Universelle," "as one of the greatest architects of France." Died in 1571. See QuATREMERE iJE QuiNCY, " Vies des plus illustres Archi- tectes ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lescuii, de, deh les'kuN', (Thomas de Foix,) Sei- gneur, a French general, was a younger brother of Lautrec. He was made a marshal of France in 1521. After fighting the armies of Charles V. at several places in Italy, he was mortally wounded at Pavia in 1525. Lescure, de, deh l^'kiiR^, (Louis M arif;,) Marquis, a French royalist and Vendean chief, was born in 1766, and was a cousin of Larochejaquelein, He was the most scientific officer in the Vendean army, and was noted for his cool bravery. He distinguished himself at Fontenay and Torfou, and was mortally wounded at Tremblaye in October, 1793. "His humanity," says Alison, "was angelic. Alone of all the chiefs in that memorable struggle, it could be said with truth that his glory was unstained by human blood." (" History of Europe.") See Madame de la Rochejaquelkin, "Memoires." Lesdiguieres, de, deh UV de'ge-ai r', (Francois de Bonne,) Duke, a distiiiguished French marshal, born in Dauphine in 1543. He fought for the Protestants in the civil war which began about 1562, and obtained the chief command of the Protestant army in 1575. He was one of those who most effectually aided Henry IV. in R, e, T, 0, u, y, /on^^; k, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, s/iort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, i%X\ mSt; n6t; good; moon; LESEUR LESLIE obtaining the throne. In 1608 he was rewarded with the rank of marshal and a dukedom, and about 1610 com- manded the army in Italy, where he defeated the Span- iards. He was accused by some writers of conspirhig with other Protestant leaders to form a republic after the death of Henry IV. ; but he refused to fight against the court in the civil war that began about 1620. In 1622 he abjured Calvinism, and was appointed Con- stable of France. Died in 1626. Henry IV. once said he would acknowledge his own inferiority to no captain in Europe except Lesdiguieres. See Louis Videl, "Vie du Marechal de Lesdiguieres," 1638; Brantome, " Vies des grands Capitaines ;" De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis;" J. C. Martin, " Histoire abregee de la Vie de F. de Bonne," 1802; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Leseur, leh-zUR', (Thomas,) an able French geometer, born at Rethel in 1703. He became a professor of ma- thematics in the College of Sapienza, in Rome. There he formed an intimacy with F. Jacquier, whom he as- sisted in two works, viz., a " Commentary on Newton's Principia" and "Elements of the Integral Calculus," (1748.) Died in 1770. Leske, l^s'keh, (Nathaniel Gottfried,) a German naturalist, born at Muskau in 1757; died in 1786. Lesley. See Leslie, (Alexander.) LesTey, (John,) Bishop of Ross, a Scottish Catholic prelate, chiefly noted for his zeal and fidelity in the service of Mary Queen of Scots, was born in 1527. He escorted Mary from France to Scotland in 1561, and was soon after appointed Bishop of Ross. When Queen Mary was detained as a prisoner in England, and com- missioners were ordered to examine her cause in 1568, Lesley was one of the commissioners whom she chose to defend her. Having taken part in the matrimonial intrigue between Mary and the Duke of Norfolk, he was imprisoned in the Tower in 1571, and released in 1573. He passed the remainder of his life in exile. He wrote a Latin work "On the Origin, Customs, and Achievements of the Scotch," (1578,) eloquent arguments in defence of Queen Mary, and other works. Died in 1596. See Robertson, "History of Scotland;" Laing, "History of Scotland;" Burton, "History of Scotland," vol. iv. chap. xli. ; Froude, "History of England;" Chambers, "Biographical Dic- tionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Les'lie (l^s'le) or Lesley, (Alexander,) Earl of Leven, an eminent Scottish general. He served some years under Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who pro- moted him to the rank of field-marshal. In 1628 he defended Stralsund with success. Having returned home in 1639, when the Covenanters were preparing to resist Charles I., he was chosen general-in-chief of their army ; but before any battle was fought a treaty of peace was made. War was renewed in 1640. Leslie defeated the king's army at Newburn, and another treaty followed. He commanded the large Scottish army which, in Jan- uary, 1644, marched to assist the English Parliament. Having effected a junction with the army of Fairfax, he led a division at Marston Moor, (1644,) where he was driven off the field, though his allies gained the victory. Ii\ May, 1646, Charles I. delivered himself up to the army of Leslie, then encamped at Newark. On account of his great age, he resigned his command in 1650. Died in 1661. See Hume, "History of England;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Leslie, (Charles,) a British polemical writer on politics and religion, was born in Ireland about 1650. He took orders about 1680 in the Anglican Church, and gained distinction as a disputant against the Catholics. In the Revolution, however, (1688,) he was a staunch Jacobite and nonjuror, at the sacrifice of his preferment in the church. He wrote several controversial works against the Jews, Deists, Socinians, and other sects. In his " Snake in the Grass" he attacked the Society of Friends. After the death of James II., Leslie joined the court of the Pretender in France. He died in Ireland in 1722. His most esteemed work is a "'Short and Easy Method with the Deists," (1694.) Dr. Johnson pronounced him the only one of the nonjurors that could reason. See Burnet, "History of his Own Time;" Mor^ri, "Diction- naire Historique." Leslie, (Charles Robert,) an eminent English his- torical painter, born of American parents in London in 1794, was a brother of Eliza Leslie the authoress. After passing twelve years in Philadelphia with his parents, he removed in 1813 to London, where he was instructed in the study of art by West and Allston. Among his first successful works was "Sir Roger de Coverley going to Church," (1820.) He was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1821, and Royal Academician in 1826. His subjects are mostly of a homely and familiar char- acter, illustrative of the works of Shakspeare, Moliere, Cervantes, and other humorous writers. Among his most admired productions are his illustrations of "Don Quixote." He was also successful in portraits. In 1847 he was chosen professor of painting in the Royal Acad- emy. He published a " Life of John Constable," (1843,) and a " Hand-Book for Young Painters," (1855.) Died in 1859. "The more I learn of art," says Ruskin, "the more respect I feel for Mr. Leslie's painting as such. Given a certain quantity of oil-colour to be laid with one touch of the pencil so as to produce at once the subtlest and largest expressional result possible, and there is no man now living who seems to me to come at all near Mr. Leslie, his work being in places equal to Hogarth for decision." See Ruskin, "Modern Painters;" C. R. Leslie, "Autobio- graphic Recollections," edited by Tom Taylor, Boston, 1865; "London Quarterly Review" for April, i860; "North American Review" for January, 1861. Leslie or Lesley, (David,) an able Scottish general. After serving with distinction under Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, he returned to Scotland about 1642. He had obtained the rank of major-general when he fought against Charles I. at Marston Moor in 1644. The suc- cess of this action was ascribed chiefly to Cromwell and Leslie, In 1646 he defeated Montrose at Philiphaugh. On the resignation of the Earl of Leven, (1650,) Leslie was chosen commander-in-chief of the Scottish army raised to restore Charles II. He intrenched his army between Edinburgh and Leith, and prudently declined Cromwell's offer of battle. Leslie followed the English army to Dunbar, where they were reduced to extremi- ties for want of provisions. Against his own judgment, he was induced by the clergy to descend from his ad- vantageous position and offer battle. The result was a signal defeat of the Scotch, September 3, 1650. Leslie was second or third in command at Worcester in 165 1. In the retreat from this battle he was made prisoner, and was confined in the Tower until 1660. He received the title of Lord Newark in 1661. Died in 1682. See Hume, "History of England ;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Clarendon, " History of the Rebellion." Leslie, (Eliza,) an American writer, sister of Charles Robert, noticed above, was born in Philadelphia in 1787. She was the author of numerous tales and sketches, which display uncommon powers of humour and satire and acquired extensive popularity. Among the principal of these are " Pencil Sketches, or Outlines of Character and Manners," (1833,) " Atlantic Tales," " The American Girl's Book," and " Althea Vernon," (1841.) She also published "The Domestic Cookery Book," the "Beha- viour Book," and other similar works. Died in 1857. See " North American Review" for October, 1833. Leslie, (John,) born in Scotland about 1570, was the father of Charles Leslie, (1650-1 722.) He spoke Latin and several modern languages. He was appointed Bishop of Raphoe in 1633, and built a strong castle, which he defended against Cromwell in the civil war. He is said to have been the last in Ireland to submit to the victor. In 166 1 he became Bishop of Clogher. Died in 1671. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Leslie, (Sir John,) an eminent Scottish geometer and natural philosopher, born at Largo, in Fifeshire, in 1766. He was educated at Saint Andrew's and Edinburgh, and became a resident of London in 1790. In 1793 he pro- duced a translation of Buffon's " Natural History of Birds," which was very favourably received. About 1795 he invented the Differential Thermometer. He published in 1804 his ingenious "Experimental Inquiry < as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2!:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) LESPINJSSE 1414 LESSING into the Nature and Propagation of Heat," for which the Royal' Society awarded him the Runiford medal. In 1805 he was elected professor of mathematics in the University of Edin!)urgh, although the clergy formally protested against his election, because he had com- mended Hume's " Theory of Causation." He succeeded ! Playfair as professor of natural philosophy in Edinburgh in 1819, and contributed much to the perfection of the apparatus and experiments of that department. He wrote many scientific articles for the " Encyclopaedia liritannica" and "Edinburgh Review." Among his separate publications were "Elements of Geometry," stc, (1809,) and "Elements of Natural Philosophy," (1823.) He wrote an interesting and excellent "Dis- course on the Progress of Mathematical and Physical Sciences during the Eighteenth Century," which is one of the preliminary dissertations in the first volume of the new edition of the "Encyclopaedia Eritannica." His treatise on " Heat," above noticed, indicates a remarka- ble original genius, and constitutes an era in the history of that branch of science. Died in 1832. See Macvey Napier, "Memoir of Sir John Leslie," 1838; " Encyclopasdia Britannica ;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1805, and July, 1812. Lespinasse. See Esptnasse, de l'. Lespinasse, l^s^pe'nts', (Augustin, ) Count, a French general, born at Preuilly in 1737. In 1796 he fougiit under Bonaparte in Italy, and directed the artil- lery at Mantua, Castiglione, and Areola with great skill, and obtained the rank of general of division. Died in 1816. Lessart, de, deh l^'stn', (Antoine de Valdec,) a French minister of state, born in Guienne in 1742. He was appointed minister of the interior about January i, 1791, and minister of foreign affairs in December of that year. His policy offended the dominant party, which impeached him in March, 1792. He was imprisoned, and perished in the massacre of September, 1 792. See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution." Lesseps, de, deh l^'sSp', (Ferdinand,) a French diplomatist, born at Versailles in 1805. He became consul at Cairo about 1833, and in 1842 was appointed consul at Barcelona. During the boml^ardment of this city by Espartero, Lesseps performed perilous acts of humanity, for which he received testimonials of honour from several governments. He was minister at Madrid from April, 1848, to February, 1849. In May, 1849, he was sent to Rome to negotiate a peace between the popular party and the French army. He was recalled in disgrace in June of that year, because he was too favourable to the Roman republic. He expended many years in a great project to construct a ship-canal across the Isthmus of Suez, for which purpose a joint-stock company was formed under his direction. This canal, about one hundred miles long, was completed and opened in November, 1869, at a cost of nearly sixty millions of dollars. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lesseps, de, (Jean Baptiste Barth^lemi,) a French traveller and civil officer, born at Cette in 1766. As interpreter he accompanied La Perouse's expedition in 1785, and on their arrival at Kamtchatka (1787) was scut home by land with despatches, etc. He published a Journal of his Travels from Kamtchatka to France, (1790.) Died in 1834. Lesser, l^s'ser, (Friedrich Christian,) a German naturalist and theologian, born at Nordhausen in 1692. He became pastor of a church in Nordhausen in 1739. His most popular work is the "Theology of Insects," (1738.) "The plan of this work is excellent," says Walckenaer ; " but the art of describing with precision and narrating with elegance is not found in it." He also wrote the "Theology of Stones," (1735.) Died in 1754. See J. P. F. Lesser, " Nnchiicht von dem Leben \nid den Schriften F. C. Lessers," 1755; Meusel, " Gelehrtes Deutschland." Lesser, de, (Augustin Creuz^:.) See Creuz6. Lessing, l^s'sing, (Go ithold Ephraim,) an eminent author, regarded as the father of the new era of German literature, was born at Kamentz, in Upper Lusatia, in 1729. When twelve years old, he was sent to the high school at Meissen, where he distinguished himself by his application and his rapid acquisition of knowledge. Being destined by his parents to the ministry, he entered, at the age of seventeen, the university at Leipsic. While here, his taste for general literature and his fondness for the theatre caused him to neglect, and ultimately to ! abandon, the study of theology, that he might devote himself wholly to his favourite pursuits. Not to mention several dramas of minor importance, Lessing brought out in 1755 "Miss Sarah Sampson," a tragedy, which was received by the German public with extraordinary favour, and was translated into other languages. In 1757 he commenced, in concert with Mendelssohn and Nicolai, the publication of the " liibliothek der schonen Wissenschaften," (literally, the" Library of the Beautiful Sciences,") — a literary journal of great merit. He pub- lished in 1766 his " Laocoon, or the Limits of Poetry and Painting." This work has exerted a great and ])er- manent influence on the science of criticism in Germany, both in literature and art. In 1768 appeared the " Dra- maturgic," — another critical work, in which Lessing opposes the French and defends the English drama. He completed in 1772 his "Emilia Galotti," which has been styled "the master-piece of German tragedy, as the ' Laocoon' is the master-])iece of German criticism and in 1775 he brought out his "Minna von Barnhelm," regarded as the most perfect of his comedies. His last important work was "Nathan the Wise," ("Nathan der Weise,") — a sort of controversial drama in iambic verse, directed against religious intolerance. Our limits will scarcely permit us to do more than allude to his various minor productions, nearly all of which, in a greater or less degree, bear the decided impress of an earnest, independent, and original mind. We may, however, mention his " Letters on Literature," (" Lite- raturbriefe,") his "Education of the Human Race," ("Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts,") and especially his " Fables," so rich in wit and original thought : many of these have a literary aiiplication. One of the great objects for which Lessing earnestly laboured was to build up a national literature. The Germans had previously, to a great extent, neglected or despised the rich native resources of their own tongue. Lessing sought by precept and example to re- call his countrymen from the almost exclusive study of the French, recommending in preference the English dramatic models, as superior in themselves and better adapted to the genius of the German people. In 1760 Lessing was made a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and soon after accom- panied General Tauenzien, Governor of Silesia, as his secretary, to Breslau, where he resided five years. During this period he became addicted to gambling ; but this vice does not appear to have materially interfered with his application to literature. In 1770 he obtained the office of head librarian of the Wolfenbiittel Library. Soon after, he discovered and published the famous " Wolfenbiittel Fragments," (on the discrepancies of the gospel narratives,) by Reimarus, who, however, at that time was not known as the author. This pul^lication brought upon Lessing much censure and reproach : he was accused of a deliberate design to undermine Chris- tianity. If, however, we may believe his friend Herder, he gave those "Fragments" to the public " purely for the interests of truth, for the sake of freer inquiry and of examination and confirmation on all sides." A candid examination of Lessing's own writings will, we are per- suaded, go far to justify, if not fully to confirm. Herder's opinion. The extraordinary activity and incessant appli- cation of Lessing's mind at length wore out his physical constitution. He died at Brunswick 1781, aged fifty-two. See E. P. Evans. "Life and Works of G. E. Lessing," from the Ger- man of ADOL^ W. T. S I'AHR, 2 vols., 1867 ; Danzel, " G. E. Lessing, sein Leben und seine Werke," 1850; C. G. Lessing, " G. E. Lessing's Leben," etc., 3 vols., 1793; Doking, "G. E. Lessing's Biographie," 1853; Dii.i.EK, " Erinnerunjren an G. E. Lessing," 1841; Schink, " Characterislik G. E. Lessing's," 1X2=;; Grossmann, "Lessing's Denkmal," 1791 ; A. Tolhausen, " Klopstock, Lessing, and Wie- land," London, 184S ; H. G. Graeve. " G. E. Lessing's Lebensge- schichte," etc., i82g; F. Schlegel, " Characteristics and Criticisms " (" Characteristiken und Kritiken") on Lessing," 1801 ; "Charac- teristics of Men of Genius," by E. P. Whipple, 1840; "Black- wood's Magazine" for November, 1826. (by De Quincev :) Hedge, " Prose Writers of Germany," 1847 ; " Biographie Universelle." i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, 11, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, ftlt; mSt; ndt; good; moon; LESSING 1415 LETELLIER Lessing, (Karl Friedrich,) an eminent German painter, and grand-nephew of the celebrated critic, was born at Wartenberg in 1808. He studied architecture for a time, but soon yielded to his stronger attraction for painting. In 1825 he finished his picture of "The Church-Yard," which excited great admiration. He soon after studied historical painting under Schadow at Dusseldorf. In this department he produced in 1829 •'The Battle of Iconiuni," and completed other illustra- tions of the life of Frederick Barbarossa, left unfinished by Cornelius. His next productions, representing scenes from Biirger's " Lenore" and Uhland's "Royal Mourn- ers," display great originality and poetic fancy. Among his master-pieces we may also name " Huss before the Council of Constance," "The Robber and his Child," and a "Scene in the Eifel," with several other exqui- site landscapes. Lessing, while retaining many of the peculiar excellencies of the ideal or romantic school, has avoided the formality of style into which it has sometimes degenerated. See Nagi.er, "AUgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Lessing, (Karl Gotthelf,) a German dramatist, born in 1740, was a brother of the great author. He published several comedies, and a " Life of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing." Lessius, les'se-us, (Leonard,) a Flemish Jesuit, born at Brechtan, in Brabant, in 1554. He lectured on the- ology with eclat at Louvain from 1585 until 1623. He wrote several popular w^orks, among which are one "On Justice and other Cardinal Virtues," (1621,) and another "On the Power of the Pope." He was charged with favouring semi-Pelagianism. Died in 1623. Lessmann, l^s'mSn, (Daniel,) a German litterateur, born at Soldin in 1794. He wrote lyric poems, and a number of novels and tales. He died in 183 1, it is supposed by suicide. Lesson, iys6N', (Ren6 Primevere,) a French natu- ralist, born at Rochefort in 1794. Among his numerous works are a "Manual of Ornithology," (2 vols., 1828,) and a "Supplement to the Works of Buffon," ("Com- plement des CEuvres de Buffon," 10 vols., 1828 et seq.) Died in 1849. See Amedee Lef^vre, " filoge historique de R. P. Lesson," 1850. Les'ter, (Charles Edwards,) an American littera- teur, born in New London county, Connecticut, in 1815. He published the "Life and Voyages of Americus Vespucius," "Artists of America," and various other works, and made several translations from the Italian. See the " North American Review" for April, 1846. Lestiboudois, l^s'te^booMwi', (Jean Baptiste,) a French botanist, born at Douay in 1715; died in 1804. His grandson, Th^mistocles, born at Lille in 1797, is a physician and writer on botany, etc. Lestocq or Lestoq, l^s'tok', (Johann Herman,) a surgeon, born of French parents in Hanover about 1695. removed in 1 713 to Saint Petersburg, and became surgeon to Peter the Great. In 1725 he was appointed surgeon to the princess Elizabeth. He was the master-spirit of the plot or revolution which made her empress in 1741. For some years afterwards he was treated with much favour, and took an influential part in affairs of state; but in 1750 he was disgraced and exiled. He was recalled by Peter III. in 1762. Died in 1767. Lestoile or Letoiie. See £toile, de l'. L'Estrange, l^s-tranj', (Sir Roger,) an English par- tisan writer, born in Norfolk in 1616, was a zealous royalist in the civil war. Having been detected in a plot to surprise Lynn, he was sentenced to death as a spy in 1644, but obtained a respite, and escaped in 1648. After passing a few years in exile, he returned in 1653 and obtained from Cromwell a release from the sentence. In the reign of Charles II. he was censor of the press. He translated the works of Josephus, Seneca's "Morals," and ^sop's Fables, and wrote many popular political tracts. His style is censured for vulgarity, and his works abound in slang. After the restoration he edited several political journals. " His ^Esop's Fables," says Hallam, "will present everything that is hostile to good taste." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1704. See " Biographla Britannica." Lesueur or Le Sueur, leh-sli'uR', (Charles Alex- andre,) a French naturalist and designer, born at Havre in 1778. He explored with Peron the coasts of Aus- tralia, and wrote many memoirs on mollusca, etc. Died in 1846. Lesueur, (Cic^ron Jean Baptlste,) a French archi- tect, born near Rambouillet in 1794, became a member of the Institute. He published a "Chronology of the Kings of Egypt," (1848-50.) Lesueur, (Eustache,) an excellent painter of history, surnamed "the French Raphael," was born in Paris in 161 7. He was a pupil of Vouet. He excelled in com- position, expression, and chiaroscuro. Among his works are "Saint Paul Preaching at Ephesus," "The Annun- ciation," "The Life of Saint Bruno," (in 22 pictures,) and "The Death of Tabitha." The first is called a master-piece of invention and style. He died prema- turely in 1655. See Chari.es Blanc, " Vies des Peintres Frangais," and " fitude sur E. Lesueur," 1845; Louis Vitet, " E. Lesueur, sa Vie et ses OEuvres," 1853; L. Dussieux, " Nouvelles Recherches sur la Vie d'E. Lesueur," 1S52. Lesueur, (Jean,) a French historian and Protestant minister. He wrote a " History of the Church and Em- pire from the Birth of Christ," (1672.) Died in i68l Lesueur or Le Sueur, (Jean FRANgoLS,) a cele- brated French composer, born near Abbeville about 1760. Having gained reputation by his motets and masses, he was chosen chapel -master of Notre-Dame, Paris, in 1786. His opera "La Caverne" (1792) was very successful. In 1804 he became chapel-master of Napoleon, and produced "The Bards," (" Les Bardes,") an opera, which was greatly applauded. He was chosen a member of the Institute in 181 5. He composed other operas, an "Essay on Sacred Music," and a "Treatise on Ancient Music," which are highly commended. Died in 1837. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens;" "Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale." Le Sueur, (Nicolas,) a French philologist, born in Paris about 1540, became president of the Chamber of Inquqsts in the Parliament of Paris. He made a good translation of Pindar's Odes into Latin verse, (1575.) Died in 1594. Lesueur, (Nicolas,) a French engraver of cameos, born in Paris in 1690; died in 1764. His uncle Pierre, born at Rouen in 1636, was one of the best engravers on wood of his time. Died in 1716. Leszczinski. See Stanislas. Letanduere, de, deh la'tdN'dii'aiR', (Henri Fran- gois Dp:sheriuers,) Marquis, an able French naval officer, born at Angers in 1682. He was made chef d'es- cadre'm 1745. In that year he captured four English frigates near Brest. Died in 1750. Letellier. See Louvois, Courtanvaux, de, and Es TR^ES, d', (Louis Cesar.) Letellier, leh-t^'le-k', a French painter, born at Rouen in 1614, was a ne])hew and pupil of the celebrated Poussin. His favourite subjects were devotional. He excelled in expression and linear perspective. Among his best works are a " Holy Family," an *' Ascension," and an "Annunciation." Died in 1676. Letellier or Le Tellier, (Michel,) a French states- man, born in 1603. By the patronage of Mazarin, he was appointed secretary of state for the war department soon after 1642, During the troubles of the Fronde he was an adherent of Mazarin. The latter having with- drawn from France about 1651, Letellier was employed as minister by the queen-regent during the short period of his absence. In 1677 he was appointed chancellor of France. He sealed with alacrity the fatal edict against the Protestants which in 1685 revoked the edict of Nantes. Died in 1685. Louvois, the minister of Louis XIV., was his son. See Voltaire, "Si^cle de Louis XIV;" Choisy, " M^moires." Letellier, (Michel,) a French Jesuit, born at Vire, in Normandy, in 1643. He edited Quintus Curtius for € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) LETHE 1416 LEURET the use of the dauphin (in usum Delphini) in 1678, and wrote against Jansenism. In 1709 he became confessor to Louis XIV., with the privilege of presenting subjects for benefices. U'Alembert and others accuse him of giving the king perfidious counsels. At the death of Louis XIV. (1715) he was exiled. Died in 1719. See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" Saint-Simon, "M^- moires;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Le'the, [A^9?/,] a Greek word signifying " forgetful- ness" or "oblivion," and forming the name of one of the streams of Hades. See Pluto. Lethiere, leh-te-aiR', (Guillaume Guii.lon,) an eminent P'rench landscape- and historical painter, was born in Guadeloupe in 1760. He studied in Rome, and worked in Paris with success. Among his works are "The Death of Caesar," "The Judgment of Paris," and "Homer reciting his Poems." Died in 1832. Lethiiigton. See Maitland, (William.) Leti, la'tee, (Gregorio,) an Italian historical writer, born at Milan in 1630. He went to Geneva, turned Protestant, and opened a school in 1660. In 1669 he published a "Life of Sixtus V.," which is his most popular work. His satirical humour involved him in difficulties, which compelled him to leave Geneva in 1679. He passed some time at the court of Charles II. of England, and was ordered to quit that kingdom in 1682. He died in Amsterdam in 1 701, leaving many histories and biographies, which are unreliable. See Nic^RON, "Memoires." Leto. See Latona. Leto, (Pompon 10.) See Pomponius L^tus. Letourneur, leh-tooR^nUR', (Charles Louis Fran- gois HoNOR]^,) a Director of the French republic, was born in Basse-Normandie in 1751. He was deputed to the Convention in 1792, and voted with the Girondists for the death of the king. He was one of the members of the Executive Directory elected in October, 1795 or 1796. He was exiled as a regicide in 1816, and died in 1817. See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution." Le Tourneur, (Pierre.) See Tourneur, Le. Letronne, leh-tRon^ (Jean Antoine,) an eminent French antiquary and critic, born in Paris in 1787, was remarkable for sagacity, mental activity, and variety of acquirements. After returning from his travels in Italy and other countries, he was chosen a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1816. In 1823 he published a "Historical Essay on Egypt during the Domination of the Greeks and Romans." He wrote able articles for the "Biographie Universelle" and " Revue des Deux Mondes." He was appointed professor of history in the College of France about 183 1, and keeper of the archives of France in 1840. Among his principal works is "A Collection of the Greek and Latin Inscriptions of Egypt," (2 vols. 4to, 1842-48.) He proved that the zodiac of Denderah belonged to the tinfie of the Roman emperors, thus exploding the theory of Dupuis. Died in 1848. See BuRNOUF et Quatrem^re, " Discours prononc^s aux Fun^- railles de Letronne," 1848; Walckenaer, " Eloge de Letronne," 1850; Edmond Garnier, " Notice sur Letronne ;" Alfred Maury, " Notice sur Letronne," 1849; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Letrosne, leh-tRon', (Guillaume FRANgois,) a French advocate and economist, born at Orleans in 1728. He published a treatise in favour of free trade in grain, and other works on political economy. Died in 1780. Lette, let'teh, (Wilhelm Adolph,) a Prussian econ- omist and liberal politician, born at Kienitz in 1799. He was elected to the legislative assembly of Prussia several times between 1850 and 1856. Lettice, let'tiss, (John,) an English poet and clergy- man, born in Northamptonshire in 1737. His poem on the conversion of Saint Paul gained a prize at Cam- bridge in 1764. He attained eminence as a pulpit orator. In 1785 he was presented to the living of Peasemarsh, Sussex. He was author of " Fables for the Fireside," (1812,) "Strictures on Elocution," (1821,) sermons, and other works. Died in 1832. Lett'som, (John Coakley,) an English physician, born in the West Indies, near Tortola, about 1744. His parents were members of the Society of Friends. He studied in Edinburgh, Paris, and Leyden, and in 1769 settled in London, where, through the influence of Dr. Fothergil), he obtained a large practice. He acquired an extensive scientific reputation, and was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1 771. Besides several profes- sional treatises, he published "The Natural History of the Tea-Tree," (1772,) the "Naturalist's and Traveller's Companion," (1774,) and a "Life of Dr. Fothergill," (1783.) Died in 1815. See " Memoirs of J. C. Lettsom," by T. J. Pettigkew, 1817; Desgenettes, in the "Biographie Medicale." Leu, loi, [Fr. pron. luh,] (Johann Jakob,) a Swiss writer, born at Zurich in 1689. His most important work is a "Universal Dictionary of Switzerland," (20 vols., 1746-63,) which treats of the civil, religious, literary, and natural history of that country. Died in 1768. Leuchtenberg, Duke of. See Beauharnais, de, (Eugene.) Leuchtenberg, de, deh loiK'ten-b^Rc/, (Karl Au- gust Napoleon,) Princp:, the eldest son of Eugene de Beauharnais, Viceroy of Italy, was born at Milan in 1810. His mother was Augusta Amelia, daughter of the King of Bavaria. He passed his youth in Bavaria. About 1834 he was made the first peer of Bavaria by his uncle, Louis I. He married Maria, Queen of Por- tugal, in January, 1835, and was created Duke of Santa Cruz, but died before the end of the year. Leucippe. See Leucippu.s. Leu-cip^pus, [Gr. Aev/ciTTTrof; Fr. Leucippe, luh^s^p',] a famous Greek philosopher, who is generally reputed the author of the atomic philosophy. He was a disciple of Zeno of Elea. The time and place of his birth are unknown ; but, as he was the teacher of Democritus, he probably lived earlier than 450 B.C. Different accounts state that he was born at Elea, Abdera, or Miletus. His works have not come down to us. His doctrines are supposed to have been similar to those of Democritus. See Ritter, "History of Philosophy ;" Diogenes Laertius. Leuckfeld, loik'f^lt, (Johann Georg,) a German historian, born in Thuringia in 1668; died in 1726. Leu'con, [Ae^/cwv,] an Athenian poet of the old comedy, was a contemporary and rival of Aristophanes. Leu-coth'e-a, (or lu-k5'the-a,) [Gr. KevKodea; Fr. Leucothee, lulVko'ti',] i.e. "White Goddess," a name given to Ino, which see. Leucothee. See Leucothea. Leunclavius, loin-kli've-iis, (Johann,) an excellent German scholar, whose proper name was Lowenklau or Loewenklau, (lo'-^en-klow^,) was born at Amel- bauern, in Westphalia, in 1533. He was well versed in Greek, Latin, and public law. A large part of his life was passed at the courts of the Duke of Savoy and of other princes. He published editions with Latin versions of Xenophon, (1569,) Dion Cassius, Zosimus, (1579,) Pro- copius, and other Greek authors. Scaliger, Bayle, and others praise him highly as a translator. He wrote a few original works, among which was a " History of the Moslems," (" Musulmanicae Historiae Libri XVIII.," 1595.) Died at Vienna in 1593. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, "Memoires;" M. Adam, "Vitas Philosophorum Germanorum." Leupold, loi'polt, (Jakob,) an ingenious Saxon mechanician, born at Planitz in 1674. He excelled in the fabrication of mathematical and philosophical instru- ments. The Elector of Saxony appointed him a member of the Council of Mines. He published in 1723-27 an important work called "Theatre of Machines," ("Thea- trum Machinarum,") which treats of machines, statics, hydrostatics, mechanical sciences, etc. Died in 1727. See Tettelbach, " Lebensbeschreibung J. Leupolds," 1735. Leupoldt, loi'polt, (Johann Michael,) a German physician, born at Weissenstadt, Bavaria, in 1794. He published a number of treatises on pathology, physi- ology, and hygiene, and a " General History of Medi- cine," (1825.) Leuret, luh'ri', ( Francois,) a French physician, born at Nancy in 1797. Having given special attention to mental maladies, he acquired distinction by his " Psy- chological Fragments on Insanity," (1834,) and other works, among which is one " On the Moral Treatment a, e, T, 6, u, y, lon^; i, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, il, y, short; a, e, i, q, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nftt; good; moon; LEUSDEN 1417 LEVERRIER of Insanity," (1840,) He became chief physician of the Bicetre in Paris. Died in 1851. See U. Trelat, "Notice siir Y. Leuret," 1851 ; Charles He- QUET, " Notice biographique sur la Vie du Docteur Leuret," 1852. Leusden, lusMen, [Lat. Leusdf/nius,] (Jan,) a Dutch philologist, eminent as a Hebrew scholar, was born in 1624, at Utrecht. He studied the Oriental lan- guages in that city and Amsterdam. In 1649 he obtained the chair of Hebrew at Utrecht, which he held until his death. He explained many curious Biblical questions in three works, entitled "Hebrew Philologist," ("Philo- logus Hebraeus," 1656,) "Philologus HebrEeo-Mixtus," (1663,) and " Hebrew-Greek Philologist," (" Philologus Hebraeo-Grfficus," 1670.) Among his other works are "Scholia Syriaca," "Compendium Biblicum," (1674,) and a Greek edition of the New Testament, (1675.) Died in 1699. See NicERO.v, "Memoires :" Burmann, "Trajectum Eruditum ;" G. DE Vries, "Oiatio in Obitum J. Leusdenii," 1699. Leusdenius. See Leusden. Leutholf. See Ludolph, (Job.) Leutinger, loi'ting-er, (Nikolaus,) a German his- torian, born in Brandenburg in 1547. He published about 1587 a "History of Brandenburg." Died in 1612. Leutze, loit'seh, (Emanuei.,) a distinguished his- torical painter, born at Gmiind, in Wiirtemberg, in 1816. At an early age he accompanied his father to Philadelphia, where his talents attracted the notice of Mr. Carey, by whose assistance he was enabled to visit Europe. He studied at Dusseldorf under Lessing, and about 1842 produced his "Columbus before the Council at Salamanca," which gave him a high reputation. Among his pictures, many of which illustrate American history, we may mention "The Landing of the North- men," "Washington Crossing the Delaware," " John Knox and Mary Stuart," " Washington at Princeton," and "Columbus before the Queen." Died at Washing- ton in July, 1868. See H. T. Tuckerman, "American Artist Life," 1867, and "Book of the Artists." Leuwenhoek, van, vSn luh'wen-hook', (Antoon,) sometimes written Leeuwenhoek or Leeuwenhoeck, a celebrated Dutch naturalist, born at Delft in 1632. He first acquired reputation by his skill in the fabrica- tion of microsco])es. By his successful use of the micro- scope in researches into the intimate structure of the human system and the composition of animal fluids, he afterwards obtained celebrity as an anatomist and physi- ologist. He communicated many of his discoveries to the Royal Society of London, of which he was chosen a Fellow in 1680. He discovered the so-called animalcules in the spermatic fluid in 1677. About 1690 he proved the continuity of the arteries with the veins, and success- fully combated the prevalent hyjiothesis of the fermen- tation of the blood. He described with accuracy the structure of tlie lamina which compose the crystalline lens of the eye. In 1698, Peter the Great, passing through Delft, requested the favour of seeing Leuwen- hoek and his microscopes, which was accorded. Died in 1723. Leuwenhoek's works were printed in the "Philosophical Transactions," (London.) Four vol- umes of his collected works were published at Leyden in 1724, under the title of "Opera Omnia." See L VAN Haastert, "A. van Leemvenhoeck, vereerend Her- dacht in eene korte Levensschets," etc., 1823 ; Hai.bertsma, "Dis- sertatio historico-medica de A. Leeuwenhoeckii Meritis," etc., 1843. Leva. See Leyva. Le Vacher de Chamois. See Charnois, de. Le Vaillant. See Vaii.lant, Le. Leval, leh-vtK, (Jean FRANgois,) a French general, born in Paris in 1761. As general of division, he ob- tained success at Philipsburg in 1799. He took part in the battle of Jena, in 1806. Died in 1834. Levasseur, leh-vfsUR', a French anatomist, who wrote about 1540. "He appears," says Hallam, "to have known the circulation of the blood through the lungs, as well as the valves of the arteries and veins, and their direction and its purpose, — treading closely on an anticipation of Harvey." Levasseur, (Jean Charles,) a French engraver, born at Abbeville in 1734. He engraved some works of Boucher, Lemoine, Vanloo, etc. Died about 1810. Levasseur de la Sarthe, leh-vt'suR' deh It stRt, (Ren6,) a French Jacobin, born in Maine in 1747, voted in the Convention of 1792 for the death of the king, and was a violent enemy of the Girondists. Died in 1834. See Achille Roche, "Memoires de R. Levasseur," 2 vols., 1829, Levassor, leh-vt'soR', (Michel,) a French historian and priest, born at Orleans. About 1675 he became a Protestant, and emigrated to Holland. He afterwards removed to England, and published a " History of Eu- rope in the Reign of Louis XIII.," (10 vols., 1700-IL) Voltaire calls him " un declamateur odieux," (" an odious declaimer,") and says he was thought to be erroneous in nearly all his judgments. Died in 1718. Levati, lit-v^'tee, (Carlo Ambrogio,) an Italian writer, born at Biassono in 1790. Among his works is a "Biographical Dictionary of Illustrious Women of all Ages and Nations," (3 vols., 1822.) Died in 184L Levau or Leveau, leh-vo', (Louis,) a French archi- tect, born in 16 12. He built the Hotel Lambert and Hotel Colbert, at Paris. He obtained the title of first architect to Louis XIV., by whose order he added to the chateau of the Tuileries the Pavilions de Flore and de Marsan. Died in 1670. See Qu.\TREMfeRE DE QuiNCY, " Vics des plus illustres Archi- tectes." Le Vayer. See Mothe, La. Leven, Earl of. See Leslie, (Alexander.) Levdque, li'vfk', (Pierre,) an able French mathe- matician, born at Nantes in 1746. To a sound judgment he added extensive acquirements in various sciences and languages. He published " The Navigator's Guide," (1779,) which was praised by Lalande, and other nautical works. He was elected to the Institute in 1801. Died in 1814. See Delambre, " ^loge de Leveque," 1816; " Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale." Le'ver, (Sir Ashton,) an English naturalist, born near Manchester. He formed a museum of natural his- tory. Died in 1788. Leaver, (Charles James,) a popular Irish novelist, was born in Dublin in 1806. He practised medicine a few years, but abandoned that profession when he be- came editor of the " Dublin University Magazine," about 1842. He has written a multitude of novels, among which are " Harry Lorrequer," " Charles O'Malley," "The Knight of Gwynne," (1854,) "The Daltons," and " Davenport Dunn," (1859.) After 1845 he resided for many years at Florence. In 1858 he was appointed vice-consul at Spezzia, and transferred to Trieste in 1867. See " Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1862 ; " Eraser's Maga- zine" for September, 1840, and October, 1842. Lever, (Thomas,) an eloquent English divine, born in Lancashire. He was ordained a Protestant minister in 1550. On the accession of Mary (1553) he retired to the continent. He afterwards dissented from the Angli- can Church, from a partiality to Calvinism. He ])ub- lished sermons, and other religious works. Died in 1577. Lev'e-rett, (Frederick Percival,) an American scholar, born at Boston in 1803. He published a " Lexi- con of the Latin Language," an edition of Caesar's " Com- mentaries," and other educational works. Died in 1836. Leverett, (Sir John,) born in England in t6i6, emigrated to America, where he was elected in 1673 Governor of Massachusetts. He was made a baronet by Charles II. Died in 1679. Leverett, (John,) grandson of the preceding, born in Boston in 1662, became president of Harvard University in 1708. He was a distinguished jurist and scholar, and a Fellow of the Royal Society. Died in 1724. Lev'e-ridge, (Richard,) an English singer, song- writer, and musical composer, was born about 1670. He published two volumes of his own songs, and composed the music for many of Purcell's songs. Died in 1758. Leverrier or Le Verrier, leh vi're-a', (Urbain Jean Joseph,) an eminent French astronomer, born at Saint-L6 (La Manche) in March, 1811. He entered the Polytechnic School about 1830, and after leaving it de- voted himself with success to chemistry and mathematics. He became a tutor ( repetiteiir) in the Polytechnic School, and in 1839 wrote two treatises on astronomy, which pro- cured for him the friendship of Arago. In January, 1846, « as 5 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) \ LE VERT 1418 LEWIS he was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences. Before that date he had undertaken to rectify the tables of Uranus, the orbit of which was subject to perturba- tions from an unknown cause. Conjecturing this cause to be a planet, he calculated its orbit, mass, and position, and announced the results in a memoir to the Academy of Sciences in June, 1846. The planet was observed by telescope near the place indicated, by Galle, of Berlin, in September of that year, and received the name of Nep- tune. Leverrier acquired a just celebrity by this great discovery, and was appointed professor of astronomy in the Faculty of Sciences, Paris. In 1849 he was elected to the Legislative Assembly. Having supported Louis Napoleon's policy, he was chosen a senator in 1852. He succeeded Arago in 1853 as astronomer to the bureau of longitudes and director of the Imperial Observatory. He has published, besides other works, "Annales de rObservatoire de Paris," (1856.) About i860 he pre- sented to the Institute an interesting memoir on Mer- cury. He observed a movement of the perihelion of that planet which suggested the existence of a small planet between Mercury and the sun. In 1870 he was removed from the position of director of the Observatory. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" " Biographic des Membres du Senat," 1852. Le Vert, leh vert, (Octavia Walton,) an American writer, born in Georgia about 1820. She has published "Souvenirs of Travel," (1857,) and made various con- tributions to English and American periodicals. Levesque, li^vSk', (Pierre Charles,) a French his- torian and translator, born in Paris in 1736. He became professor of belles-lettres in Saint Petersburg in 1773. In 1780 he returned to Paris, and published his "His- tory of Russia," (" Histoire de Russie," 6 vols., 1782,) which is esteemed a classic work. He afterwards was chosen a professor in the Royal College and a mem])er of the Institute. In 1795 he produced a successful trans- lation of Thucydides. He wrote other historical works, and translated some of the writings of Plutarch and Xenophon. Died in 1812. See Dacier, " filoare de Levesque;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" " Monthly Review," vol. liv., 1807 et seq., (Appendix.) Leve.sque de Burigny. See Burigny, de. Levesque de la Ravaliere, li'vik' deh IS rS'vt'- le-aiR', (Pierre Alexandre,) a French writer, born at Troyes in 1697. He was chiefly known by his edition of the poems of Thibault de Champagne, King of Na- varre, (1742,) which was accompanied by an "Essay on the Revolutions of the French Language from Charle- magne to Saint Louis," Died in 1762. Levesque de Pouilly, li'vSk' deh poo^ye', (Louis Jean,) a French litterateicr, born at Rheims in 1691. He was admitted into the Academy of Inscri])tions in 1722. He corresponded with Fontenelle, Voltaire, and Lord Bolingbroke. His principal work is the "Theory re- specting the Agreeable Sentiments," (" Theorie des Sentiments agreables," 1747,) revised and enlarged in 1749. Died in 1750. His son, Jean Simon, (i 734-1820,) wrote a "Life of Chancellor L'Hopital," (1764,) and a work called "Theory of the Imagination," ( 1803.) Le'vi, [Heb. ""h ; Gr. Am,] a Hebrew patriarch, a son of Jacob and Leah, was born in Mesopotamia about 1750 ILC. He died in Egypt, aged one hundred and thirty-seven, leaving three sons, one of whom was the grandfather of Moses. See Genesis xxix., xxxiv., xlix., and Exodus vi. 16. Levi, (David,) a learned Jew, born in London in 1740. He published, besides other works, " Lingua Sacra, or a Grammar and Dictionary of the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Talmudic Dialects," (3 vols., 1789.) Died in 1799. Levi, la'vee, (Leone,) a writer on commerce and commercial law, born at Ancona in 1821. He became professor of commercial law in King's College, London. Among his works is an important treatise on " The Com- mercial Law of Great Britain," (4 vols., 1850-52.) Levieil, leh-ve-M', (Pierre,) a French painter on glass, was born in Paris in 1708. He restored the painted windows of Notre-Dame, and wrote a com- plete technical " Treatise on Painting on Glass." Died in 1772. Levieux, leh-ve-uh', (Renaud,) a French painter of history, born at Nisnies about 1630. By correctness of design and brilliancy of colour he merited a place among artists of the second order. Lev'ing-ston, (Tames,) Earl of Callendar, a Scottish officer, fought for Charles I. in the civil war. Died in 1672. Levis, de, deh li've' or hVv^ss', (Francois,) Due, marshal of France, was born in Languedoc in 1720. He succeeded Montcalm, who was killed at Quebec in 1759, and took up his winter-quarters at Montreal. He de- fended Canada several months ; but he was forced by want of stores to cajDitulate to the English about 1760. He was made a marshal in 1783. Died in 1787. Levis, de, (Pierre Marc Gaston,) Due, a son of the preceding, was born about 1760. In 1789 he was de- puted to the Constituent Assembly, in which he favoured moderate reform.s. He emigrated in 1792 to England, and returned in 1800. He acquired literary distinction by his "Maxims and Reflections" (1808) and "Souve- nirs and Portraits," (1813,) and wrote several other works. In 1816 he became a member of the French Academy and of the privy council. Died in 1830. See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encydopedique de la France." Levita. See Eltas Levita. Levitschnigg, la'vit-shnik^ (HEiNRieH,) a popular Austrian poet, born at Vienna in 1810, is the author of a number of lyric and romantic poems. Levizac, de, deh leh-ve'ztk', (Jean Pons Viotor Lecout/.,) Abb6, a French grammarian, born in Langue- doc. Having been driven into exile by the Revolution, he emigrated to London, where he taught French. He published in 1797 a "Grammar of the French Lan- guage," which was extensively used by persons to whom the F'rench is a foreign tongue. He wrote other educa- tional works. Died in 1813. Levret, leh-vRa', (Andr^:,) a French surgeon, born in Paris in 1703, had a high reputation for skill in accouche- ments. He was called to court to attend the dau])hiness, mother of Louis XVI. He wrote excellent works on obstetrics, among which is "The Accoucheur's Art demonstrated by Physical and Mechanical Principles," ("L'Art des Accouchements demontre par des Principes de Physique et Mecanique," 1753.) Died in 1780. Lewald, la'\^§,lt, (Fanny,) a popular authoress, and a relative of the writer noticed below, was born at Konigsberg in i8ir. Her principal works are novels, tales, and sketches of travel. She was married to Adolf Stahr, the author, about 1854. Lewald, (Johann Karl August,) a German littera- teur, born at Konigsberg in 1792. He produced a number of dramatic works, novels, and tales, and in 1835 founded a journal entitled " Europe, or Chronicle of the Educated World." See "Aquarelle aus dem Leben," 4 vols., 1837. Lewenhaupt. See Lowenhaupt. Lewes, lu'iss, (George Henry,) a popular English author, distinguished for his learning and versatility, was born in London in 1817. He studied medicine, but soon exchanged that profession for literature, in which his labours have been very abundant and diversified. He contributed many literary, historical, scientific, and phi- losophical essays to the " Edinburgh," " Westminster," and other quarterly reviews. He also wrote articles for Blackwood's and Eraser's Magazines and the " Penny Cyclopaedia." Among his principal separate works we may mention "Biographical History of Philosophy," (1845,) " Rose, Blanche, and Violet," a novel, (1848,) "Comte's Philosophy of the Sciences," (1853,) "The Life and Works of Goethe," (1855,) which is one of his most popular productions, and " Sea-Side Studies," (1858.) He is the author of a successful tragedy, "The Noble Heart," (1850,) and of other dramas. In 1865 he became for a short time the chief editor of the " Fortnightly Review." See " British Quarterly Review" for July and October, 1864. Lewis or Ludwig, lood'<^iG, (Karl August,) I., King of Bavaria, born in August, 1786, was the son of King Maximilian Joseph. He married in 1810 the princess Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen. Before his accession he a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; fe, d, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; LEWIS 1419 LEWIS built the Glyptothek, a splendid museum for the master- pieces of sculpture. He became king in 1825, and made economical reforms in the government. His reign is remarkable for the great impulse given by his liberality and taste to the fine arts, especially architecture. He assembled in his capital many scholars and artists, and adorned Munich with numerous fine edifices, among which are the Odeon, the Pinakothek, the royal palace, university, and several churches. He built the famous Walhalla at Ratisbon, (Regensburg,) and made a canal which bears his name. In 1829 he published a collection of poems. The latter part of his reign did not correspond with the beginning. He excited disaffection by restf)ring convents and restricting the political and religious liber- ties of his subjects. The influence of Lola Montez over the king was another cause of offence. Stimulated by the revolution in France, (1848,) the Bavarians revolted, demanding reforms, in consequence of which he abdi- cated in March, 1848, in favour of his son, Maximilian n. Otho, ex-King of Greece, is his second son. Died at Nice in February, 1868. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Lewis, (Kings of France.) See Louis. Lew'is or Louis, loo'is, [Ger. Ludvvig, lood'<^iG; Lat. LuDOVi'cus,] L, King of Germany, styled le Ger- MANIQUE, (or German'icus,) the third son of Louis le Debonnaire, was born in 806, and became King of Ba- varia in 817 A.D., when his father divided his dominions among his three sons. Having revolted against his father, he seized Saxony, and assumed the title of King of Germany. In alliance with Charles the Bald, he defeated his brother, Lothaire I., at Fontenoy in 841. He died in 876 A.D., leaving three sons, Carloman, Lewis, and Charles. See H. LuDEN, "Geschichte des Deutschen Volkes," 12 vols., 1825-37 ; " Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale." Lewis (Ludwig) IL or III. of Germany was the second son of the preceding, whom he succeeded in 876. The same year he defeated his uncle, Charles the Bald, who had invaded his kingdom. He died at Frankfort in 882, while waging war with the Normans. Lewis (Ludwig) IIL or IV,, called the Lnfant, (das Kind,) born in 893 a.d., was the son of the emperor Arnulph, and became King of Germany in 900. He died in 912, and was the last prince of the race of Charlemagne in Germany. Lewis IV. or v., Ein|)eror of Germany, born in 1286, was the son of Lewis, Duke of l^avaria, and Matilda, who was a daughter of the emperor Rudolph of Haps- burg. After the death of Henry VII. (1314) Lewis and his cousin, Frederick of Austria, were rival candi- dates for the throne, and both claimed to have been elected. A long civil war was the result, in which the Ghibelines fought for Lewis and the Guelphs for Frede- rick, who was taken prisoner in 1322. Lewis released him after he had signed an act of renunciation of the empire, and was crowned at Rome in 1328. About this time he was excommunicated by Pope John XXII., against whom he retorted the charge of heresy. In 1346 Clement VI. issued a bull agairi.-,t Lewis, and attempted to transfer the crown to Charles IV. ; but Lewis defended himself until his death, in 1347. See Conrad Mannert, "Kaiser Ludwig IV.," 1812; N. KuR- GUNDUS, " Historia Bavarica, sive Ludovicus IV.," etc., 1636; J. ScHLETT, " Hiographie von Kaiser Ludwig dem Bayer," 1822 ; KoT- ZEBUE, "Geschichte Kaiser Ludwigs IV.," 1812. Lewis I., surnamed the Great, King of Hungary and Poland, born in 1326, was the son of Charobert, whom he succeeded on the throne of Hungary in 1342. He waged successful wars against the Venetians and against Joan, Queen of Naples. After the death of his uncle Casimir, in 1370, he was elected King of Poland. He died in 1382, leaving three daughters, one of whom was married to Sigismund, Emperor of Germany. He is said to have been a just and wise ruler. See BoNFiNius, " De Rebus Hungaricis;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Lewis II. of Hungary and Bohemia was born in 1506, and succeeded his father, Ladislaus VI., in 1516. Owing to his youth and the factious conduct of the nobles, his power was only nominal. In 1521 he mar- ried Mary, a sister of the emperor Charles V. His kingdom was invaded by the Turks, and his army com- pletely defeated at Mohacs, where Lewis was killed in 1526. He left no issue, and Ferdinand I. of Austria became master of Hungary. Lewis, (Kings of Italy and Spain.) See Louts. Lewis [ Sp. Luis, loo-^ss'J I. of Spain, the eldest son of Philip v., was born in 1707. Philip V., having fallen into a melancholy mood, retired to the solitude of Saint Ildefonso, and resigned the crown to Lewis, who was proclaimed in January, 1724. A few months after his accession he died of smallpox, and Philip V. resumed the cares of royalty. Lewis [Ger. Ludwig, lood'\^iG] I., Grand Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, born in 1753, succeeded his father in 1790. He joined the alliance against Napoleon in 18 13. Died in 1830. See Steiner, "Ludwig I. von Hessen-Dannstadt," 1S42. Lewis (Ludwig) II., a son of the preceding, was born in 1777, and became grand duke in 1830. Died in 1848. Lewis, (Ludwig,) Prince of Prussia, often called Ludwig Ferdinand, was a nephew of Frederick the Great, and was born in 1772. He was a son of Prince August Ferdinand. He served in the campaign against the French in 1792. In 1806 he was the head of the war-party which urged the king into a disastrous contest with Bonaparte. Having obtained the rank of lieuten- ant-general, he engaged a superior force under Lannes at Saalfeld, October 10, 1806, when he was defeated and killed, preferring to die rather than to surrender. Lew'is, (Andrew,) born in Ireland about 1730, emi- grated to Virginia, and served with distinction in the war of the Revolution, being made brigadier-general about 1775. His statue occupies a place near Washing- ton's Monument at Richmond. Died in 1780. His three brothers, Thomas, William, and Charles, were also noted as patriots and soldiers. Lewis, (Dixon Hall,) a Senator and lawyer, born in Hancock county, Georgia, in 1802, removed to Ala- bama. He was a Democratic member of the House of Representatives from 1830 to 1844, and became a United States Senator in the latter year. Died in 1848. Lewis, (Edmonia,) an American sculptor, of negro and Indian extraction, born near Albany, New York, about 1845. Among her works are "The Freedwoman on first hearing of her Liberty," and a bust of Colonel Shaw. Sec Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." Lewis, (Ellis,) LL.D., an able American jurist, born in York county, Pennsylvania, in 1798. He rose through various offices to be chief justice of the supreme court of Pennsylvania in 1854. Died in 1871. Lewis, (Enoch,) a distinguished American mathema- tician, born in Chester county, Pennsylvania, in 1776. He became teacher of mathematics in the Friends' Acad- emy, Piiiladeliihia, in 1799, and subsequently at the West- town Boarding-School, established by the Society of Friends. He was the author of treatises on algebra, trigonometry, etc., a " Life of William Penn," and other valuable works. In 1847 became editor of the "Friends' Review," Philadelphia. Died in 1856. Lewis, (Estelle Anna Rokinson,) an American poetess, born in Maryland about 1825, has published "Records of the Heart," (1844,) ^^^^ "Myths of the Minstrel," etc., (1852,) and has been a contributor to the " Democratic Review" and other periodicals. See Griswold, " Female Poets of America." Lewis, (Francis,) one of the signers of the Declara- tion of American Independence, born in Wales in 1713, emigrated to New York in 1735. He was elected to the Continental Congress in 1775. Died in 1803. Lew'is, (Sir George Cornewall,) Bart., an eminent English statesman and author, born in London in Octo- htr, 1806, was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Frankland Lewis. He graduated with high honours in the classics at Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1831, but never practised law. In 1844 he married a sister of the Earl of Clarendon. In 1847 he was elected by the Liberal party member of Parliament for Herefordshire, and was appointed secretary to the board of control. He became under-secretary for the home department in 1848, and € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, v., guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (2!:^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) LEWIS 1420 LETDEN secretary of the treasury in 1850. He resigned this office when Lord John Russell ceased to be premier, in March, 1852. In this year he published a "Treatise on the Method of Observing and Reasoning in Politics." He because editor of the "Edinburgh Review" in 1854, but retired from that post in the early part of the next year. From February, 1855, until February, 1858, he was chancellor of the exchequer in Palmerston's cabinet. On the formation of a new Liberal ministry under Pal- merston, in June, 1859, Sir George was appointed home secretar3^ He succeeded Lord Herbert as secretary of war in July, 1861. He wrote several able political and philosophical works, among which is an " Inquiry into the Credibility of Early Roman History," and, with the Riglit Hon. H. Tufnel, made a translation of K. O. Miiller's "Die Dorier," ("The Dorians," 2 vols., 1830.) Died in 1863. See article entitled "Lewis on Early Roman History," in the " Quarterly Review" for April, 1856 ; " Eraser's Magazine" for Feb- ruary, 1848. Lewis, (John,) an English theologian and antiquary, born at Bristol in 1675. He became curate of Margate and rector of Saltwood and Eastbridge. Besides many works on theology, he published a " Plistory of John Wickliff," (1720,) and a "Life of Caxton," (1737.) Died in 1746. Lewis, (John Frederick,) an excellent English painter, born in London in 1805, received instruction from his father, F. C. Lewis, a landscape-painter. After a visit to Spain, he produced about 1835 several admired pictures in water-colours of Spanish scenes, among which was a "Bull-Fight in Seville." Between 1840 and 1850 he worked and travelled in Egypt, Asia Minor, and other parts of the Levant. After his return he increased his reputation by excellent and finely-finished pictures of "The Harem," (1850,) "An Arab Scribe," and "Mount Sinai." Pie was elected president of the Society of Painters in Water-Colours in 1855, and became an asso- ciate of the Royal Academy in 1859. Lewia, (Lady Maria Theresa,) an English novelist, born in 1803, was a sister of the Earl of Clarendon. She was married to Thomas Henry Lister in 1830, and to Sir George Cornevvall Lewis in 1844. She wrote novels entitled "The Semi-Detached House" and "The Semi- Attached Couple." Died in 1865. Lewis, (Matthew Gregory,) a successful English novelist and dramatist, often called Monk Lewis, was born in London in 1775. He inherited from his father an ample fortune, which consisted partly in an estate and slaves in Jamaica. About the age of twenty he produced " The Monk," a novel which, by an artful com- bination of mysterious horrors and voluptuous images, obtained a large circulation, but was stigmatized as per- nicious by the stricter moralists. He composed several successful dramas, among which were " The Castle Spectre," " Adelgitha," a tragedy, and " Timour the Tartar," (1812.) He also wrote other romances and a few poetical pieces. He died at sea, on a voyage from Jamaica to England, in 1818. See "Life and Correspondence of M. G. Lewis," London, 1839; " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1803, (by Sydney Smith.) Lewis, ( Meriwether, ) an enterprising American traveller, born in Virginia in 1774. He became private secretary to President Jefferson about 1801, and was soon after employed by the United States government, conjointly with Captain Clarke, to explore the northwest part of the American continent. They gave the names of Jefferson, Gallatin, and Madison to the three streams which form the Missouri. They also explored the Co- lumbia River to its mouth. After his return, in 1806, Captain Lewis was made Governor of Missouri Territory. He committed suicide in 1809, in a fit of temporary in- sanity. One of the ]3rincipal affluents of the Columbia River was named in his honour. A " Memoir" of Cap- tain Lewis was written by Jefferson. See " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1815 ; " Edinburgh Review" for February, 1815; "Monthly Review" for July, August, and September, 1815. Lewis, (Morgan,) an American general and Gov- ernor, born in the city of New York in 1754, was a son of Francis, noticed above. He served with distinction in the Revolutionary war, at the end of which he had the rank of colonel. In 1801 he became chief justice of the supreme court of New York. He was Governor of that State from 1805 to 1807, and commanded the forces in New York in 1814, with the rank of major- general. Died in 1844. See " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. Lewis, (Samuel,) an American philanthropist, born at Falmouth, Massachusetts, in 1799, settled in Ohio, where he distinguished himself by his zeal in promoting education and other reforms. Died in 1854. Lewis, (Tayler.) LL.D., a distinguished American scholar and author, born in Saratoga county. New York, in 1802, became professor of Greek in Union College in 1849. He has written several critical and theological works, evincing much learning and ability. See Allibone, " DIciionai-y of Authors." Lewis, (William,) an English chemist and physician, who practised at Kingston, Surrey. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and was employed to read lectures on chemistry to the Prince of Wales at Kew. He pub- lished " An Experimental History of the Materia Medica," (1760,) and other works. Died in 1781. Ley or Leigh, lee, (Sir James,) an English lawyer, born in Wiltshire in 1552. He was appointed chief justice of the court of king's bench in 1621, and lord high treasurer in 1625. He was afterwards created Earl of Marlborough. Died in 1628. His "Reports of Cases in the Courts of Westminster" were published. See Foss, "The Judges of England." Ley, (John,) an English controversial writer, born at Warwick in 1583. He was a partisan of the Parliament in the civil war. Died in 1662. Leyba, de, di la^-KS, ( Francisco, ) a Spanish dramatic poet of the seventeenth century. His works are highly commended. Leybourn, la'burn, ? (William,) an English mathe- matician, who was in his youth a printer in London. He edited the works of Gunter„_and published, besides other works, "The Complete Siu'veyor," "Mathematical Course," ("Cursus Mathematicus," 1690,) and "The Trader's Guide," (1693.) He died about 1690. Leydecker, ll'd^k^er, (Melchior,) a learned Dutch Calvinist theologian, born at Middelburg in 1642. He became professo-r of theology at Utrecht in 1678, and published (in Latin) several esteemed works, among which are a "History of the African Church," (1690,) "On the Hebrew Republic," (1704,) and a treatise against the philosophy of Descartes, called "The Torch of Truth," ("Fax Veritatis.") Died in 1721. Leyden, li'den, (John,) M.D., a Scottish poet and antiquary, eminent as an Oriental scholar, was born at Denholm, on the Teviot, in 1775. At a college of Edin- burgh he studied the principal ancient and modern languages. He afterwards studied medicine, and in 1802 went to Madras as an assistant surgeon in the service of the East India Company. There he learned Sanscrit, Persian, Hindostanee, and other Asiatic lan- guages. About 1806 he was appointed professor of Hindostanee at Calcutta. He became assay-master of the Calcutta Mint in 1810. He contributed to Scott's " Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border," wrote other poetical pieces, and published a treatise " On the Languages and Literature of the Indo-Chinese Nations." Died in Java in 1811. See Sir Walter Scott, "Essay on the Life of Leyden," in Scott's Miscellaneous Works; and a Memoir by Morton pre- fixed to the " Poems of Leyden," 1819; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "Monthly Review" for July, 1822. Leyden, (John of.) See John of Leyden. Leyden, van, vtn li'den, (Lucas,) [Fr. Lucas de Leyde, lii'kJs' deh l^d,] or Lucas Danimesz, a cele- brated Dutch painter and engraver, born at Leyden in 1494. He received his first lessons in design from his father, Hugh Jacobs or Jacobze, and at the age of twelve painted in distemper a picture of Saint Hubert, which was greatly admired. He painted, with equal success, landscapes and portraits. As an engraver he excelled in aerial perspective and chiaroscuro, and, according to I, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; LETNEZ VHOPITAL Vasari, surpassed Albert Diirer in composition. " As a painter," says the "Biographie Universelle," "he passes for the greatest artist of the Flemish school in his time." Among^ his master-pieces are a painting of the "Last Judgment," an " Ecce Homo," dated 1510, an engraving of " Mary Magdalene Dancing," and another called " Eu- lenspiegel," of which, it is said, only five or six proofs are extant. He was an intimate friend of Albert Diirer. Died in 1533. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Descamps, "Viesdes Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Leynez. See Lainez. Leys, lis or li, (Jean Auguste Henri,) an eminent Belgian historical painter, born at Antwerp in 1815. He obtained one of the grand medals at the Exposition of Taris in 1855, when he exhibited "The New Year in Flanders," and other pictures. Leyser, von, fon li'zer, (Augustin,) an eminent German jurist, born at Wittenberg in 1683. He pub- lished many legal works, the most important of which is "Thoughts on the Pandects," (" Meditationes ad Pan- dectas," 11 vols., 1717-47.) Died in 1752. Leyser, von, written also Lyser, [Lat. Lyse'rus,] (PoLYCARP,) a German Lutheran divine, was born in Wiirtemberg in 1552. He was appointed professor of theology at Wittenberg in 1576. From 1594 until his death he w^as the first preacher at the court of Dresden. He published, besides other works, a continuation of Chemnitz's "Harmonia Evangelica." Died in 1610. Leyssens, ITs'sens, (Nicolaas,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp about 1660, worked with success in his native city. Died in 1720. Leyva, de, di la^-vS, or Leva, la'vS, (Antonio,) one of the ablest generals of the emperor Charles V., was born in Navarre about 1480. He fought at Ravenna in 15 12, and distinguished himself at Rebec in 1524. He commanded in Pavi'a when it was besieged by Francis I. His obstinate defence occasioned the battle of Pavi'a, (1525,) during which he made a sortie, and, falling upon the rear of the French, decided the fate of the day. In 1532 he was chosen generalissimo of the Italian league against Francis I. He accompanied Charles V. in his expedition against Tunis in 1535, and had the chief direction of the army which invaded Provence in 1536. He died of an epidemic in the same year. See Robertson, " History of Charles V." Leyva, de, (Jago,) a Spanish painter, born about 1580. He studied at Rome, and worked at Burgos. Died in 1637. Lezardiere, de, deh li^ztR^de-aiR', (Marie Char- lotte Pauline Robert,) a French female publicist, born in La Vendee in 1754. She produced in 1791 a work of some merit, entitled "Theory of the Political Laws of the French Monarchy," re-printed in 4 vols., 1844. Died in 1835. Lezay-Marnesia, de, deh leh-za' mtRn'ze^', (Ad- RIEN,) Count, a French ])ublicist, born near Orgelet in 1770. He published a tract against the Constitution I795» ^ work "On the Causes of the Revolution," (1797,) and other political treatises. He was prefect of Strasbourg when he died, in 1814. Lezay-Marnesia, de, (Claude Franqois Adrien,) Marquis, the father of the preceding, was born at Metz in 1735. He was a liberal member of the States- General in 1789. He published, besides several prose works, a poem of some merit, called "Essays on Rural Nature," ("Essais sur la Nature champetre," 1787.) Died in 1800. L'Heritier de Brutelle, 1^'re'te-i' deh bRii'tSl', (Charles Louis,) a French botanist, was born in Paris in 1746. He was admitted into the court of aids in 1775. After the Revolution he was twice appointed a judge of the civil tribunal of Paris. His principal works are "New or Rare Plants," ("Stirpes novae aut minus cog- nitae," 1784,) and " Sertum Anglicum," (1788,) a descrip- tion of plants in the royal garden of Kew, in England. "His works," says Cuvier, "are prized throughout Europe for the exactitude of the descriptions and the finish of the plates." He left in manuscript a " Flora of Peru," which he compiled from the notes and herbal of Dombey. He was assassinated near his house in 1800. Neither the author nor the motive of this crime was ever discovered. See Cuvier, "l!!oge de L'Heritier," in the "Menioires de I'lns- titut;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." L'Heritier de Villandon, \\'x^\q-\' deh ve'16N'- doN', (Marie Jeanne,) a French authoress, born in Paris in 1664, wrote in prose and verse. Died in 1734. L'Heritier de Villandon, (Nicolas,) a French dramatic poet, father of the preceding, was born in Paris about 1613; died in 1680. L'Hermite, \h\K'mh\!, (Francois,) a popular French poet and dramatist, known under the name of Tristan, was born in La Marche in 1601. He was admitted into the French Academy in 1649. Died in 1655. L'Homond or Lhomond, lo'm^N', (Charles Fran- cois,) a French teacher, born at Chaulnes in 1727, was a professor in the University of Paris. He was a friend of the eminent Haiiy, whose first scientific efforts he directed. He published two elementary works which are used in many schools of P'rance, England, and America, viz., "Viri Romae," and "Epitome of Sacred History," (" Epitome Historic Sacras.") Died in 1794. See QuERAKD, "La France Litteraire." L'H6pital, de, deh 15'pe'ttl', (Francois,) Comte de Rosnay, a marshal of France, born in 1583, was a brother of Marshal de Vitry. As lieutenant-general, he com- nianded in Lorraine, where he gained several victories between 1638 and 1642. He received a marshal's baton in 1643, and was selected to advise the young Prince of Conde, who had just taken command of the army in Flanders. Against the orders of the ministry and the advice of L'Hopital, Conde risked a battle at Rocroy, in 1643, and gained a victory over the Spaniards. Died in 1660. See De Courceixes, " Dictionnaire des Geiieraux Fran^ais." L'Hopital or L'Hospital, de, (Gui llaume Francois Antoine,) Marquis de Saint-Mesme and Count d'En- tremont, a distinguished French geometer, was born in Paris in i66r. At the age of fifteen he is said to have been a profound mathematician. In early life he was forced to renounce the military profession by the weak- ness of his sight. In 1692 he learned from John Ber- noulli the new geometry which Leibnitz had discovered. He was admitted into the Academy of Sciences about 1694. In 1696 l^ernoulli challenged the geometers of Europe to a trial of skill in the problem of the brachys* tochron, — i.e. line or curve of quickest descent. At the expiration of the stated time (ten months) solutions were furnished 'by only four persons, — Newton, Leibnitz, L'Hopital, and James Bernoulli. The result was the paradoxical cycloid. In 1696 he published "Analyse des infiniment petits," ("Analysis of Infinitesimals,") which, being the first work adapted to initiate students in the mysteries of the infinitesimal calculus of Leibnitz, was received with great eagerness and marked the epoch of arevolution in the science. He died in 1704. His post- humous work, "Analytic Treatise on Conic Sections," (1707,) had a high reputation. See FoNTENELLE, " Eloge du Marquis de L'Hopital;" Mon- TUCi.A, " Histoire des Matheinatiques ;" "Acta Eruditoruin," 1721. L'Hopital or L'Hospital, de, (Michel,) Chancellor of France, an illustrious legislator and statesman, was born at Aigueperse, in Auvergne, in 1505. His father, Jean, was physician to Constable Bourbon, to whom he adhered in his defection from the service of Francis I. to that of Charles V. lie studied law at Padua for six years, and about 1534 settled in Paris. Three years later, Morin, lieutenant-criminel, gave him his daughter, and the office of counsellor to the Parliament as her dowry. His promotion was hindered by the connection of his father with the defection of Bourbon, and by his own modesty ; but he at last found a patron in Chancellor Olivier, and was appointed ambassador to the Council of Trent in 1547. About 1554 he was chosen by Henry II. superin- tendent of the finances, in the management of which he made important reforms. In 1560 the regent Catherine de Medicis appointed him chancellor of France. On his arrival at court he found that the chiefs of the house of Guise had resolved to establish the Inquisition and to ruin the Protestants. He defeated the first project, and opposed the other with partial success. He caused the € as i^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; o, h, Y^, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) VHOPITAL 1422 LIBERIUS States-General to be convoked at Orleans in December, 1560, and obtained edicts favourable to liberty or tolera- tion. But, in spite of his mediatorial efforts, the war between Catholics and Protestants began in 1562. His advice was no longer listened to at court, and he was removed from office in 1568. He was at his country- seat at Vignay during the Massacre of Saint Bartholo- mew, and his life was spared through the mediation of a lady at court. He died in 1573, leaving a name greatly venerated for wisdom and integrity. As a statesman and legislator he holds a high rank. His political prin- ciples are announced in a Latin poem, (composed on occasion of the coronation of Francis II.,) which was much admired. He wrote other elegant Latin poems and discourses, which have been published. See M. Vn,i,EMAiN, "Vie de L'Hopital," in his "Etudes d'His- toire moderne ;" Levesque de Pouilly, " Vie de Michel de L'Hospi- tal," 1764 ; Charles Butler, " Essay on the Life of M. de L'Hopi- tal," 1814; Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis;" M. Cresson, " filoge historique de M, de L'Hopital," 1850; Taillandier's article in the "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." L'Hdpital, de, (Michel Hurault,) Seigneur de Belesbat, was a grandson of the preceding. He was chancellor of Henry of Navarre before the latter became King of France, (1589.) He was also employed by Henry as ambassador to Holland and Germany, and wrote two able political treatises "On the State of France," (1588- 93.) Died in 1592. Ii'Hote or Lhdte, lot, (Nestor,) an artist and anti- quary, born of French parents at Cologne in 1804. He was a member of the commission sent in 1828 to ex- plore Egypt under the direction of ChampoUion, who employed him as draughtsman. In 1838 he made fur- ther explorations and illustrations of Egypt, for the purpose of rendering more complete Champollion's posthumous work on the monuments of that country. Died in Paris in 1842. Lhoyd, loid, written also Lhuyd and Llwyd, (Humphry,) a learned British antiquary, was born at Denbigh, in Wales. He wrote a "History of Cambria from Caradoc," "On Mona, the Island of the Druids," (" De Mona Druidum Insula,") and other works. Died about 1570. See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." Lhuyd, commonly pronounced loid, (Edward,) an eminent Welsh antiquary, born in Carmarthenshire about 1665. He became keeper of the Ashmolean Mu- seum in 1690. He published a catalogue of the figured fossils of the Ashmolean Museum, called " Lythophylacii Britannici Iconographia," (1699,) and a treatise on British antiquities, " Archaeologia Britannica," (1707.) Died in 1709. Iiiadieres, leTde^iR', (Pierre Charles,) a French litterateur, born at Pan in 1792. He composed several dramas, and other mediocre works in prose and verse. Died in 1858. Liais, (Emmanuel,) a French astronomer, born at Cherbourg in 1826. He was appointed an assistant in the Observatory of Paris in 1852. Liancourt, de, deh le^6N''kooR', (Jeanne de Schom- berg,) Duchess, a French lady, distinguished for her talents and piety, born in 1600, was the daughter of Henri de Schomberg, marshal of France. She became the wife of the Due de Liancourt. Her house was frequented by Pascal, Arnauld, and other recluses of Port-Royal. Died in 1674. See J. J. Boileau, " Vie de Madame de Liancourt," 1698. Liano, da, di le-^'no, (Teodoro Felipe,) a Spanish painter, born at Madrid in 1575, excelled in miniatures, and was surnamed the Little Titian. He was a friend of Lope de Vega. Died in 1625. Liard, le'Sa', an eminent French engineer, born in Lorraine in 1747. His principal work is the important canal which connects the Rhine with the Rhone. It was commenced about 1805 and completed in 1832. Died in 1832. Liban, lee'bin, [Lat. Liba'nius,] (George,) a Polish classical scholar, born at Liegnitz in 1490. He taught Greek at Cracow. Died in 1550. 3Libanius. See Liban. Li-ba'ni-us, [Gr. Aigmwf, ] a celebrated heathen sophist and rhetorician, born at Antioch in 314 a.d. He studied with Diophantes of Athens and others. After he had taught rhetoric for several years at Constanti- nople and Athens with success, he settled in 354 at An- tioch, where he opened a school, which became very celebrated. Among his pupils were Saint Basil and Saint Chrysostom. He accepted the office of quaestor from the emperor Julian, who was his friend and ad- mirer. He died probably about 390 A.D., leaving many works, which are still extant, and display a brilliant imagination. They consist chiefly of declamations on events of Greek history, and have been designated by Gibbon as " the vain and idle compositions of an orator who cultivated the science of words." But this is re- garded by other eminent critics as too harsh a judgment. See his Autobiography, entitled Bi'os i] A6709 rrepc rrj? eavrou Tu'x'??; EuNAPius, "Vits Sophistarum ;" Fabkicius, " Bibiioiheca Grsca;" J. G. Berger, " De Libanio Disputationes sex," i6g6 ; C. Petersen, Coinmentatio de Libanio Sophista," 1827; "Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Libavius, le-b^'ve-us, (Andreas,) a German physi- cian and chemist, born at Halle. He was chosen rector of the gymnasium of Coburg in 1605. He gained repu- tation by works on chemistry, in which he endeavoured to refute the reveries of Paracelsus. His " Alchymia recognita emendata et aucta" (1597) was the best manual of chemistry which had appeared at that time. Died in 1616. See Freher, " Theatrum Eruditorum ;" Linden, "De Scriptori- bus Medicis." Libelt, lee'b^lt, (Karol,) an able Polish writer on philosophy and politics, was born at Posen in 1806. He fought with distinction against the Russians in the Polish insurrection which began in 1830. For his share in a democratic conspiracy he was imprisoned at Berlin in 1846, but was released by the revolution of 1848. Soon after his release he was chosen a member of the Slavonic congress of Prague. While a prisoner in Berlin in 1847 he wrote "The Maid of Orleans." Among his works are excellent philosophical and critical essays, "Filo- zofia i Krytyka," (1845-50.) See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Libber, a name applied by the Romans to the Bac- chus or Dionysus of the Greek mythology. Liber was an ancient Italian divinity. See Bacchus. Lib'e-ra, in the Roman mythology, was the wife of Liber, and was supposed to preside over the culti- vation of the vine. She was sometimes identified with Proserpine. Liberale da Verona, \t-\A-xV\\ d3, \\-\o'w\ a painter of the Venetian school, born at Verona in 145 1. He was one of the most excellent artists of his country at that time. His painting of the "Epiphany" is said to be still visible at Verona. Died in 1536. Lib-er-a'tus, a deacon of the Church of Carthage. He was sent to Rome about 535 by a council of African bishops. Libere. See Lirerius. Liberi, lee'bi-ree, (Pietro,) Cavaliere, an eminent Italian painter, surnamed Libertino, (le-b?R-tee'no,) born at Padua in 1605, was a pupil of Padovanino. He pursued his studies in Rome, Parma, Venice, etc., and formed a style in which the characteristics of several schools were united. " He was regarded," says the " Bio- graphie Universelle," "as the most skilful draftsman of the Venetian school." Among his master-pieces are the " Massacre of the Innocents," at Venice, "The Gene- ral Deluge," " Noah coming out of the Ark," " The Judg- ment of Paris," and several pictures of Venus nude. His style was sometimes grand and sometimes graceful. It is said that when he worked for connoisseurs his manner was bold and free, but for other patrons he finished his work with much care and precision. Died in 1687. See GuALDO Priorato, "Vita ckl Cavaliere P. Liberi," iSiS; RtDOLFi. "V:te dei Pittori Veneti ;" Winckelmann, " Neues Mahler-Lexikon." Li-be'ri-us, [Fr. Lib^re, le'baiR' ; It Liberio, le- ba're-o,] a native of Rome, was elected pope in 352 or 353 a.d., and succeeded Julius I. He favoured the orthodox in the controversy with the Arians ; and,, the Council of Milan having condemned Athanasius in 355, l,e, T, 6, u, y, long; k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; nSt; good; moon; LIBERT AS 1423 LIGHT WER he refused to sanction that act. For this cause he was banished by the emperor Constantius to Beroea. After an exile of two years, he recovered his see in 358, by signing the formula of Sirmium, a modification of Arianism. He refused to subscribe the confession of the Council of Rimini, (359,) where the Arians again prevailed. He died in 366 A.D., and was succeeded by Damasus I. See Baronius, "Annales;" Larroque, " Dissertatio de Liberie Romano," 1670. Lib'er-tas, [Fr. Libert^, le^b^R^tV,] the goddess of liberty worshipped by the ancient Romans. She was represented as a matron, holding in one hand a broken sceptre and in the other a pike surmounted by a cap, ( pileus.) Liberte. See Libertas. Libertino. See Liberi. Libes, leb, (Antoine,) a Ffench savant, born at Beziers in 1752. For many years he taught the physi- cal sciences in the College Charlemagne, Paris. He discovered that pressure is one of the elements of the intensity of electric tension developed by contact, and published, besides other works, " The Physical and the Moral World," (1815.) Died in 1832. Li-beth'ri-des, [Gr. ka^i]Q{)L&^,\ a name of the Muses, which they derived from Mount Libethrius, or from a well called Libethra, in Thrace. (See Mus^.) Lib-i-trna, [Fr. Libitine, le'be't^n',] a Roman god- dess, supposed to preside over funerals. All things needful for funerals were kept for sale in her temple. The business of an undertaker was also called libitina. Libitine. See Libitina. Li'bon or Li'bo, [Gr. A/^wv,] a Greek architect, a native of Elis, flourished about 450 B.C. He built near Pisa or Olympia, in the Doric style, the magnificent temple of Olympian Jove, 245 feet long by 100 wide. In the vicinity of this the Olympic games were celebrated, and the master-pieces of art were accumulated for many ages. It contained a celebrated statue of Jupiter by Phidias. See QuATREMfeRE DE QuiNCY, " Jupitcf Olympian." Libri, dai, di-e lee'bRee, (Girolamo,) a Venetian painter and illuminator, born at Verona in 1472, was one of the most skilful artists of his time. Among his works are a " Deposition from the Cross," and " The Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Eden." He painted many books for the Church, and excelled in miniature. Died in 1555. His son Francesco was a promising painter, who died young. Libri-Cai'rucci,lee'bRee kSr-root'chee, (Guillaume Brutus Icilius Timoi.6on,) Count, an Italian mathe- matician, born at Florence in 1803. He became a pro- fessor of mathematics at Pisa in 1823, and emigrated to France in 1830. Having been naturalized as a French citizen, he was admitted into the Institute in 1833, and was appointed inspector-general of the libraries of France. On a false charge of purloining books of great value from the public libraries, he was condemned in 1850 to imprisonment for ten years ; but he had pre- viously escaped to London. His principal work is a " History of Mathematical Sciences in Italy," (4 vols., 1838-41,) which is highly commended. Died in 1869. See " Nouvelle P>iographie Generale." Liburnio, le-booR'ne-o, (Niccol6,) an Italian gram- marian, born at Venice in 1474, became a canon of San Marco, in that city. Died in 1557. Liceti, le-cha'tee, or Liceto, le-cha'to, (Fortunio,) an Italian physician and professor, famous in his time as a Peripatetic philosopher, was born at Rapallo, near Genoa, in 1577. He became professor of philosophy at Padua in 1609, and professor of medicine in 1645. He published a treatise on the nature of monsters, (1616,) and other works, the majority of which are now justly neglected. He had more erudition than judgment. Died in 1657. See Bavi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Nic^ron, *' Memoires." Lichnowsky, von, fon liK-nov'skee, (Eduard Ma- ria,) Prince, a German historian, born in 1789. He wrote a "History of the House of Hapsburg," (4 vols., 1836-44,) which is commended. Died in 1845. Lichnowsky, von, (Felix,) Prince, a Prussian general, son of the preceding, was born in 1814. He fought for Don Carlos in Spain about 1839. In German politics he was a conservative or absolutist. He was killed by a mob at Frankfort in 1848. See KosTLiN, "Auerswald und Lichnowsky," 1853. Lichtenau, von, fon liK'teh-now^ (Wilhelmine Enke,) Countess, born at Potsdam in 1754, was the daughter of a poor musician. She became the mistress of the crown -prince of Prussia, Frederick William. After his accession to the throne, in 1786, she was a powerful and influential person until the death of the king. Died in 1820. See her "Autobiographic Memoirs," 1S08. Lichtenberg, liK'ten-bgRG', (Georg Christoph,) a German savant and witty author, born near Darmstadt in July, 1742. He studied at Gottingen, and made great progress in nearly all departments of knowledge. In 1770 he was aj^pointed professor of philosophy and exact sciences at Gottingen. He visited England, where he associated with the most eminent literati. He wrote excellent scientific articles for two periodicals of Gottin- gen, — "The Magazine of Science and Literature," (1780- 85,) and "The Almanac," (1778-99,) which owed their great success chiefly to him. The charms of his style contributed greatly to the diffusion of a taste for the sciences. He particularly excelled in what in English is called "humour." Among his most popular works is his "Ample Commentarv on the Engravings of Hogarth," which he began to publish in 1794, and left unfinished at his death. It abounds in wit and satire, and displays much insight into human nature. His autobiography is said to be the most candid and piquant ever written. Died at Gottingen in 1799. " He is," says Stapfer, "gay without the least trace of levity, versatile and profound without ceasing to be solid and clear." (" Biographic Universelle.") See his Autobiography, in an edition of his works, Gottingen, 9 vols., 1800-1806; " Elogiiim Lichtenbergii," by Kastner, 1799; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Heinrich Doring, " Lebens- umrisse von Karl August von Sachsen-Weimar, J. D. Falk, Lich- tenberg," etc., 1840; "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1804; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1836. Lichtenstein, liK'ten-stln', (Martin Heinrich Karl,) a German physician and naturalist, born at Hamburg in 1780. About 1802 he became physician to the Governor of Cape Colony, Africa, and in 1810 published "Travels in Southern Africa," (2 vols.,) a valuable contribution to natural history. In 1813 he was appointed director of the Zoological Museum of Berlin, which, under his care, became one of the largest in Europe. His favourite pursuit was ornithology. Died in 1857. See Callisen, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon," (Supple- ment.) Lichtenstein, von, fon liK'ten-stTn^ (Johann Jo- seph,) Prince, a general, the head of one of the most noble families of Austria, was born in Vienna in 1760. After serving in several campaigns against the French, he negotiated the conditions of peace at Presburg in 1805. He distinguished himself at Essling and Wagram in 1809. Died in 1836. Lichtenstein, von, (Joseph Wenzel,) Prince, an Austrian general, born in Vienna in 1696. His services in the campaigns of 1733 and 1734 were rewarded with the rank of lieutenant-general. Having been made field- marshal, he commanded the army in Italy in 1746, and gained a victory at Piacenza. Pie was afterwards em- ployed with success in diplomatic affairs. Died in 1772. Lichtenstein, von, (Ulric,) one of the early Ger- man poets, was born about 1199. His principal poem, entitled " Frauendienst," though possessing no great literary merit, is a valuable monument of the manners of that time. Died about 1275. Lichtwer, liKt'erlin in 1711, practised in that city. He was very skilful in the art of injections. He was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society of Lon- don, Died in 1756, Liebhard. See Camerarius, (Joachim.) Liebig, von, fon lee^DiG, (Justus,) Baron, one of the greatest chemists of the present century, was born at Darmstadt, in Germany, in May, 1803, He entered the University of Bonn in 1819, and in 1822 went to Paris, where he became acquainted with Humboldt and Gay- Lussac, Favoured by the influence of Humboldt, Liebig obtained in 1824 the appointment of professor of chem- istry in the University of Giessen. He founded there the first model laboratory of Germany, which became very celebrated and made that university the central point of attraction to the chemical students of Europe. Although his services have been great in every depart- ment of chemical science, he owes his celebrity chiefly to his discoveries in organic chemistry. He produced in 1840 an important work entitled "Organic Chem- istry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology," ("Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mgt; n6t; good; moon; LJEBKNECHT 1425 LIGONIER Agricultur und Physiologic") His principal works, besides the above, are "Animal Chemistry, or Chemistry in its Application to Physiology and Pathology," (1842,) "Researches on the Chemistry of Food," (1849,) and a "Dictionary of Chemistry," (5 vols., 1837-51,) in which he was assisted by Wohler. He received the title of baron in 1845, and accepted the chair of chemistry at Munich in 1852. In 1848 Liebig and Professor Kopp began to issue an annual report on the progress of chemistry. His " Familiar Letters on Chemistry" (1844) are much admired, and are well adapted to render the science popular. His principal works above named have been translated into English and French. See Cai.lisen, " Mediciiiisches Scliriftsteller-Lexikon ;" " Nou- velle Ijiojxraphie Generale ;" " London Quarterly Review" for June, 1842; "North American Review" for July, 1841, April, 1842, and October, 1S42. Liebknecht, leep'kneKt^ (Johann Georg,) a Ger- man antiquary, born at Wassungen about 1680, wrote, besides other works, "Discourse on the Great Deluge," Discursus de Diluvio Maximo," 1704.) Died in 1749. Liemaecker or Liemaker, lee^m.Vker, (Nikolaas,) a skilfid Flemish painter, surnamed RoosE, was born at Ghent in 1575, and was a friend of Rubens. Among his works, which are mostly of large dimensions, are "The Last Judgment," and " The Transfiguration." Died in 1646. Lieoo- (or Lieou-) Pang, le-oo' pSng, a Chinese emperor, the founder of the dynasty of Han, was born about 250 B.C. He was proclaimed emperor in 202. One of his generals, named King-Poo, having revolted, a battle was fought, in which Lieoo-Pang gained the vic- tory, but received a wound of which he died in 195 B.C. Lieutaud, le-uh^t5', (Joseph,) a skilful French physi- cian, born in 1703, at Aix, in Provence. He was elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1752. Li 1774 he was appointed first physician to Louis XVL He published, besides other professional works, " Synopsis of Univer- sal Medical Practice," ("Synopsis Universae Praxeos Medicae," 1765,) a work of much merit. Died in 1780. See CoNiiORCET, "filoge de Lieutaud," 1780; Lasservolle, " filoge historique de M. Lieutaud," 1781 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Lieven, de, deh lee'ven, (Dorothea,) Princess, a Russian lady, of German extraction, celebrated for her diplomatic talents and political intrigues, was born in 1784. Her maiden name was Benkendorf. She went to London about 181 2 with her luisband, who was Russian ambassador at that court, and acquired much influence by her conversational powers. After 1838 she resided in Paris, where her salon was frequented by many diplomatists, statesmen, etc. She was often called the " Egeria of Guizot." Died in 1857. Lieven, von, fon lee'ven, (Johan Henrik,) Count, a Swedish general, born in Livonia in 1670. After the defeat of Charles at Pultowa, in 1709, Lieven was sent by the council of regency on a mission to that king, then in Turkey. Died in 1733. Lievens, lee'vens, (Jan,) [Lat. Johan'nes Livine'- lus,] a Flemish Hellenist, born about 1546. He was canon of Antwerp. He edited and translated some works of Chrysostom and Gregory of Nyssa. Died in 1599. See Paquot, "M^moires." Lievens or Livens, (Jan,) an eminent Dutch painter and engraver, born at Leyden in 1607. About 1630 he went to England, and painted portraits of the royal family. He afterwards worked at Antwerp, chiefly on historical subjects, and acquired a high reputation. As an engraver he is said to rival Rembrandt. Died in 1663. SeeDESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Ligario, le-gi're-o, (Pietro,) an Italian painter, born in the Valtellina in 1686; died in 1752. Li-ga'ri-us, (Quintus,) a Roman ofiicer, who fought for Pempey in the civil war, and after the battle of Phar- salia renewed the war against Caesar in Africa. He was pardoned by the victor, but was forbidden to enter Italy. When his friends made efforts to restore him to citizen- ship, they were opposed by Tubero, who became his public accuser in a trial before the dictator, in 45 or 46 B.C. On this occasion Cicero pronounced his admirable oration "Pro Ligario." Plutarch informs us that Cassar had resolved to condemn Ligarius, but that in the course of the speech his colour often changed, his frame trembled, and a verdict of acquittal was obtained from him through the transcendent powers of the orator. See Plutarch, "Life of Cicero." Liger, le'zhi', (Louis,) a French writer on agricul- ture, born at Auxerre in 1658. He published several mediocre but useful works. Died in 171 7. Light'foot, (John,) an English divine, eminent as a biblical conmientator, was born in vStaffordshire in 1602. He was an excellent Hebrew scholar. In 1630 he be- came rector of Ashley, and in 1642 obtained the living of Saint Bartholomew, in London. He was identified with the Presbyterians during the civil war. About 1644 he was chosen master of Catherine Hall, Cambridge, and was presented to the living of Great Munden. In Rabbinical literature he had few, if any, superiors. He published " Horse Hebraicas et Talmudicae," (1658,) and many Latin commentaries on the Scriptures, one of which is called " Harmony of the Four Evangelists," (1644-50.) Died in 1675. See " Brevis Descriptio Vitae J. Lightfooti," 1699; Niceron, " Memoires." Lightfoot, (John,) F.R.S., an English botanist, born in Gloucestershire in 1735. He was educated for the church, became chaplain to the Duchess of Portland, and obtained the livings of Sheldon and Gotham. In company with Pennant, he explored the Hebrides about 1772, and published in 1777 a valuable "Flora of Scot- land," (" Flora Scotica," 2 vols.,) with excellent figures. His herbal was purchased l)y the king, and was after- wards consulted with profit by Sir J. E. Smith. Died in 1788. See Pennant, "Life of J. Lightfoot." Lignac, de, deh Un'ytk', (Joseph Adrien le Large,) a French abbe and author, born of a noble family of Poitiers. He wrote " Letters to an American on Puffon's Natural History," (1751-56, 4 vols.,) and a few other works. Died in 1762. Ligne, de, deh l^n, (Karl Joseph,) Prince, an able Austrian general and witty author, born at Brussels, May 12, 1735, ^'^^ t^""^ SO'"* of ^ field-marshal in the Aus- trian service. H^ served with distinction in the Seven Years' war, (1755-62,) and was made a general-major in 1765. In 1782 he was ambassador to Russia, and was highly favoured by Catherine II. He commanded a corps at the capture of Belgrade in 1789. He obtained the rank of field-marshal in 1808. His generous and chivalrous character rendered him the idol of his army. He died at Vienna in 1814, leaving interesting memoirs, letters, and other works, (in French,) which contain curious anecdotes and picjuant passages. Madame de Stael published in 1809 a volume of "Letters and Thoughts of Prince de Ligne." He had published "Military, Literary, and Sentimental Miscellanies," ("Melanges militaires, litteraires et sentimentaires," 34 vols., 1795-1811.) According to Madame de Stael, " he was the only foreigner that became a model in the French style, instead of an imitator." See " Letters and Reflections of the Austrian Field-Marshal Prince de Ligne ;" Soubiran, " Biographie du Prince C. de Ligne," 1807; SainteBeuve, "Causeries du Lundi ;" "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Ligniville, de, deh l^n'ye'v^K, (Ren6 Charles Eli- sabeth,) Comte, a French general, born in 1757; died in 1813. Lignon, l^n'y6N', (£tienne Fr^d^ric,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1779 ; died in 1833. Lig'on, ? (Richard,) an English traveller, who emi- grated to Barbadoes in 1647 and returned to England in 1650. He published "A True and Exact History of Barbadoes," a work of some value. He was the overseer of the female slave Yarico, whose story is narrated in his book and furnished Steele a subject for the eleventh number of the "Spectator." Ligonier, lig'o-neer', (John,) Earl, an eminent gene- ral of the British army, was born of Protestant parents in France in 1678, and emigrated to England in early youth. He fought at Blenheim, (1704,) Ramillies, and Malplaquet, (1709,) and commanded the infantry at Fontenoy, (1745.) In 1746 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the € as>*; 9 as s; g hard; g as ;; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in t/iis. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 90 L IGOR 10 1426 LIMATRAC British forces in Flanders. He displayed great skill and courage at Laffeldt in 1747, but was there made prisoner. He became an English peer, with the title of Earl Ligo- nier, in 1766, and was a field-marshal and privy coun- cillor at his death, in 1770. See MM. Haag, "La France protestante." Ligorio, le-go're-o, (Pirro,) an Italian architect, painter, and antiquary, born in Naples about 1530, or, as others say, 1498. He was appointed by Paul IV. architect of the Vatican and of Saint Peter's Church, which Michael Angelo had previously superintended. The latter left Rome about that time. Ligorio, having deviated from the plan of Michael Angelo, which he was ordered to follow, was discharged in 1568. He then was employed as architect by Alphonso, Duke of Ferrat-a. He died about 1580, leaving in manuscript voluminous writings on antiquities and architecture, which are praised by Muratori. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Iiigozzi, le-got'see, (Jacopo,) an eminent Ital'ian painter of history, born at Verona in 1543, was a pupil of Paul Veronese. He painted both in fresco and in oil. Having acquired a high reputation at Verona, he re- moved to Florence, where he received the title of painter to the grand duke Ferdinand. Among his master-pieces are "The Four Crowned Saints," at Imola, and the " Martyrdom of Saint Dorothea," at Pescia. His smaller pictures are highly finished. Died in 1627. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ticozzi, "Dlziona- rio ;" Lomazzo, " Idea del Tempio della Pittura." Liguori, da, d^ le-goo-o'ree, (Alfonso Maria,) an Italian priest and casuist, born at or near Naples in 1696. He founded in 1732 an order of missionaries to convert or instruct the lower classes, and named it the Order of the Most Holy Redeemer. In 1762 he was appointed Bishop of Saint Agatha dei Goti. He wrote, besides other approved works, a " Moral Theology," (1755,) which was often reprinted. Died in 1787. See Gfattini, "Vita del beate A. M. Liguori," 1815 ; G. Kloth, " Leben des heiiigen A. M. Liguori," 1835 ; "Life of Saint A. M. de Liguori," London, 2 vols., 1848. LiPburne, (John,) an English Puritan enthusiast and radical agitator, was born in Durham in 161 8. He was accused before the Star Chamber in 1637 of distributing seditious pamphlets, and was condemned to be whipped and imprisoned. He was released in 1640, and obtained £1000 damages. In 1644 he fought bravely against the king at Marston Moor, where he led a regiment. He afterwards attacked Prynne, Lenthal, and others in pam- phlets, for which he was committecl to Newgate. He was one of the master-spirits of the "Levellers," and a stubborn opponent of Cromwell's authority. In 165 1 he was tried for treason and acquitted by the jury. He became a Quaker a few years before his death, which occurred in 1657. Hume designates him as "the most turbulent, but the most upright and courageous, of human kind." (" History of England.") See, also, Clarendon, "History of the Rebellion;" "Monk's Contemporaries," by GuizoT, London, 1865. Lilieblad, lee'le-eh-bldd^ or Liljenblad, leel'yen- blSd^ (GusTAVUS,) a Swedish scholar and linguist, born at Strengnes in 165 1. He was for many years professor of Oriental languages at Upsa1, and wrote, in Latin, a "History of Egypt," (1698.) Died in 1710. See Gezelius, " Biographiskt- Lexicon." Lilienberg or Liljenberg, lee'le-gn-b§Rg^ (Erik GusTAF,) Baron of, a Swedish general, who served in the French army at Laufeld and in other battles. Died in 1770. Lilienkrantz or Liljenkrantz, lee'le-en-kRints", or Liliecrantz, lee'le-eh-kRints', (Johann,) Count de, a Swedish financier, born about 1730. On the accession of Gustavus III. (1771) he was appointed minister of finances, which he managed with success for many years. Died in 1815. See Gever, " Histoire de la Su^de." Lilienthal, lee'le-gn-ttK, (Michael,) a learned Prus- sian philologist, born at Liebstadt in 1686. He was for many years professor of theology in the University of Konigsberg. He was the principal editor of the "Erlautertes Preussen," (1724-28,) a highly-esteemed literary journal, and published, besides other works, "Historical and Literary Selections," ("Selecta His- torica et Literaria," 1711-19.) Died in 1750. See HiRSCHiNG, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch ;" Meusel, " Lexikon." Lilienthal, (Theodor Christian,) a German theo- logian and writer, a son of the preceding, was born at Konigsberg in 1 71 7; died in 1782. Lilio, lee'le-o, or Lilli, l^Klee, (Andrea,) an Italian painter, born at Ancona in 1555. He worked at Rome for Sixtus v., and at Ancona. Died in 1610. Lilio, (LuiGi,) [Lat. Ai.oy'sius Lil'ius,] an Italian physician and astronomer, born in Calabria. He is remembered only for the part he had in the reform of the calendar under the auspices of Gregory XIII. He applied the epacts to the cycle of nineteen years, and, by adding one day to the end of each cycle, he arrived at an approximative equation of the solar and lunar years. He died in 1576, just after he had finished the work. His method was approved by the pope in 1582. Lilio Giraldi. See Giraldl Lilius. See Lilio. Liljenblad. See Lilieblad. Liljenkrantz. See Lilienkrantz. LilTo, (George,) a successful English dramatist, born in 1693, became a jeweller of London. He holds a high rank among English dramatists of the second order. "The Fatal Curiosity," a tragedy, (1737,) is called his master-piece, and is constructed with remarkable skill. His "George Barnwell" and "Arden of Feversham" were also popular. Died in 1739. See " Biographia Dramatica;" Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets." LiPly, written also Lily and Lyly, (John,) an English dramatic writer, born in Kent about 1553. He wrote several dramas, which were performed with success, and flourished as a wit at the court of Elizabeth. About 1580 he published " Euphues : the Anatomy of Wit," which became very popular with that pedantic generation for its affected and dainty style, called "Euphuism." "It deserves notice," says Hallam, "on account of the influ- ence it is recorded to have had upon the court of Eliza- beth and over the public taste." Pie was the author of a famous satirical pamphlet against Martin Mar-Prelate, called "Pap with a Hatchet." Died about 1600. See "The Dramatic Works of John Lyly, with some Account of his Life," etc., by T. W. Fairholt, 1858; "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1861. Lilly, (William,) a famous English astrologer, born in Leicestershire in 1602. In early life he was employed as a servant in London. He began to study astrology in 1632, and acquired fame as a fortune-teller. He pro- fited by the credulity of Charles I., who consulted him on political affairs in the civil war. Some, agents of the popular party also patronized him. He published an- nually an almanac, called " Merlinus Anglicus Junior," (1644-81.) His character is represented by Butler under the name of "Sidrophel." Died in 1681. See "Life and Times of W. Lilly," by himself, 1715; "Retro* spective Review," vol. ii., 1820. LiPy or LiPly, (William,) a distinguished English schoolmaster, born at Odiham, in Hampshire, about 1468. After studying languages in Greece and Rome, he settled in London in 1509, and opened a grammar- school. He appears to have been the first who taught Greek in London. In 15 12 he became master of Saint Paul's School, just founded by Colet. He published, besides Latin poems, " I^revissima Institutio sen Ratio Granmiatices cognoscendre," (1513,) commonly called " Lily's Grammar," which was for a long time more used in English schools than any other Latin grammar. He was intimate with Erasmus. Died in 1523. See Warton, "History of Poetry." Lima, de, di lee'ma, (Luiz Caetano,) a Portuguese historian and grammarian, born in Lisbon in 167 1 ; died in 1757. Limayrac, le^mi'rtk', (Paultn,) a French litterateur^ born at Caussade in 181 7. He became chief editor of "La Patrie," a daily paper of Paris, in 1858. a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; 4, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, QX\ mSt; nSt; good; moon; LIMBORCH 1427 LINCOLN Limborch, van, vtn lim'boRK', written also Lim- borg, (Hendrik,) a Dutch painter, born at the Hague in 1680, was one of the best pupils of Adrian van der Werf, of whose works he made fine copies. Died in 1758. Limborch, van, (Philippus,) a learned Dutch theolo- gian, was born in Amsterdam the 19th of June, 1633. f ie was one of the principal supporters of the Remonstrant or Arminian doctrines, which were condemned by the Synod of Dort in 1619. After preaching f,)r ten years at Gouda, he became in 1668 pastor and professor of theology at Amsterdam. He corresponded for a long time with John Locke. His most important work is "Theologia Christiana," (1686,) "a system of divinity and morals which," says Hallam, "is the fullest delinea- tion of the Arminian scheme." He wrote a "History of the Inquisition," (1692.) Died in 1712. See Leclekc, " Oratio fimebris in Obitiim P. Limborch," 1712; Van der Hoeven, " Dissertationes II. de J. Clerico et P. a Lim- borch," etc., 1843; NiCERON, "Memoires." Limbourg, van, vtn lim'bdoRG', (Jan Philippus,) a Flemish medical writer, born near Spa in 1726. He practised at Spa with great success. Died in 181 1. Limburg-Brouwer, van, vSn lim'buRii bRow'er, (PiETER,) a Dutch poet, born in 1795; died in 1847. Limnaeus or Limnaus, lim-na'us, (Johann,) a Ger- man publicist, born at Jena in 1592. He was preceptor of the Margrave of Anspach and of Albert of Branden- burg, who afterwards employed him as chancellor and privy councillor. He wrote an esteemed work on " The Public Law of the Romano-Germanic Empire," (3 vols,, 1645-57,) and an "Account of the French Monarchy and Constitution," (" Notitia Regni Galliae," 2 vols., 1655.) Died in 1663. See Strebel, "Leben und Schriften des Staatslehrers J. Lim- n«eus," 1741. Limousin or Limosin. See Leonard de Limousin. Lin. See Linus. Lin, van, vtn lin, (Hans,) a Dutch painter of genre, who flourished about 1650, was surnamed StiLHEID. He excelled in battle-pieces, and painted horses better than any other Dutch artist except Wouvverman. Linacre, lin'a-ker, written also Linacer (or Lina- ker) and Lynacer, (Thomas,) an eminent English physician and scholar, born at Canterbury about 1460. He learned Greek of Demetrius Chalcondylas at Flor- ence, and studied medicine at Rome. After his return to England he lectured on medicine, and taught Greek at Oxford for several years, until Henry VI H. employed him as physician and preceptor of Prince Arthur. He was the principal founder and first president of the Col- lege of Physicians, London. At an advanced age he took orders, and obtained the rectory of Mersham, a prebend in York Cathedral, and other benefices. He was an ex- cellent classical scholar, and a correspondent of Erasmus. He translated several of Galen's works into Latin, and wrote "On the Correct Structure of Latin Prose," (" De Emendata Structura Latini Sermonis,") which Hallam calls "the first-fruits of English erudition," and which must, he says, have been highly valuable. Died in 1524. See "Lives of British Physicians," London, 1857; Bayle, " His- torical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, "Memoires." Linant, le'nSN', (Michel,) a French litterateur, born at Louviers in 1708. Voltaire, who was his friend, spoke highly of his taste and imagination. Linant lived in Paris, and was employed as tutor to the sons of M. Hebert. He wrote odes, epistles, and other short poems, which gained several prizes of the French Academy. He also published an edition of Voltaire's works, (1738.) Died in 1749. Linck, link, (Johann Heinrich,) a German natu- ralist, born at Leipsic in 1674; died in 1734. Lincoln, link'on, (Abraham,) the sixteenth President of the United States, was born in Hardin county, Ken- tucky, (in a part now included in Larue county,) the I2th of February, 1809. His ancestors were of English descent; they are supposed to have originally emigrated to America with the followers of William Penn. A little before the middle of last century they resided in Berks county, Pennsylvania, whence a part of the family removed in 1750 to Virginia. About the year 1780 Abraham Lincoln, the grandfather of the subject of this notice, settled in Kentucky, where not long after he was stealthily shot by an Indian. He left three sons, of whom the eldest, Thomas Lincoln, married and settled in Har- din county in 1806. Abraham Lincoln was his second child and oldest son. His childhood was passed in the midst of hardship and toil. When he was scarcely eight years old, his parents removed to Spencer county, Indiana. It was a difiicult and wearisome journey, and he ever afterwards retained a vivid recollection of the trials and hardships which he passed through on that occasion. Before he was eleven years of age, he ex- perienced a bitter and irreparable loss in the death of his mother. Under her guidance he had learned to read and prize the Bible, and to her influence, there is reason to believe, he was largely indebted for the develop- ment of those rare and noble moral traits which have conferred upon him, if not a brilliant, at least a si:)()tless and ever-enduring fame. Among the books which, as a boy, he particularly valued, was a Life of Washington ; and it is not improbable that the contemplation of such a character, which united to plain and practical common sense moral qualities of the highest order, may have contributed not a little to that combination of straight- forward siuiplicity and moral grandeur for which Lin- coln was afterwards distinguished. The " Pilgrim's Progress" was also one of his favourite books ; and its influence u|)on his style may j^erhaps be traced not merely in his preference for forcible and racy Saxon words, but also in that homely directness of expression by which all his speeches and writings are characterized. On the breaking out of the Black Hawk war, in the early part of 1832, Lincoln promptly volunteered for the defence of the frontier settlements, and was chosen captain of his company. The war, however, having been speedily brought to a close before he had an opportunity of meet- ing the enemy, he returned to the pursuits of peace. In the political contest which took place between General Jackson and Henry Clay in the autumn of 1832, he zeal- ously espoused the cause of the latter, for whom he had felt an enthusiastic admiration from his boyhood. He himself was a candidate for the State legislature; and, although unsuccessful, he received in his own pre- cinct two himdred and seventy-seven votes out of the two hundred and eighty-four which had been cast ; that is, thirty-nine fortieths of the whole number. In 1834 he was again a candidate for the legislature, and was elected. He was re-elected in 1836. In March, 1837, he gave proof of the uprightness as well as independ- ence of his character by recording his i^rotest on the journal of the House against some extreme i^ro-slavery resolutions which had been passed by the Democratic majority in the legislature. At that time the expression of any anti-slavery sentiments was extremely unpopular in every part of the United States, but perhaps nowhere north of Mason and Dixon's line was it more so than in Illinois. Lincoln and another member who shared his views declared in their protest that " they believe that the institution of slavery is founded in injustice and bad policy." Having been again elected to the legislature in 1838, he became the acknowledged leader of the Whigs in the House, and received the entire vote of his party for the speakership, which he lost by only one vote. He had been admitted to the bar in 1836, and in April, 1837, he established himself ]:)ermanently in Springfield and commenced the practice of law in earnest, with John T. Stuart as his partner. In November, 1842, he mar- ried Miss Mary Todd, daughter of Robert S. Todd, Esq., of Lexington, Kentucky. Having accepted the nomi- nation for Congress in 1846, he was triumphantly elected, being the only Whig out of the seven representatives sent by Illinois to the national legislature. During the time that he was in Congress he uniformlv gave his voice in favour of freedom, voting against laying on the table without consideration the petitions for the abolition of slavery, and always supporting the doctrines of the Wilmot Proviso whenever any measure of this kind was before the House. The passage of the Nebraska bill in May, 1854, involving the repeal of the Missouri Compromise, gave everywhere fresh interest and ar- dour to the contest between freedom and slavery. A United States Senator was to be chosen by the Illinois e as ^; 5 as s; g hard; g as g, h, y., guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) LINCOLN 1428 LINCOLN legislature. Lincoln had been nominated by the Repub- lican party as their candidate for the Senate of the United States. Judge Douglas, confessedly the ablest politician and best debater among all the Democratic leaders of the West, was the opposing candidate. Lincoln chal- lenged his opponent to a series of public discussions respecting the views and policy of the two contending parties. That political contest first fully revealed the versatility, depth, and comprehensiveness of Mr. Lin- coln's mind. Even some of those belonging to the party of fudge Douglas admitted that the latter was inferior to his opponent both in learning and in argument, — in short, in every essential qualification for the discussion of those great principles which were then agitating the country from one extremity to the other. As the elec- tion of United States Senator depended on the legisla- ture, and not 011 a direct vote b^ the people, Douglas was the successful competitor; but the extraordinary al.)ility displayed by Lincoln in the discussion above re- ferred to, led to his nomination by the Republican party in i860 as their candidate for the Presidency. No Presi- dential contest involving issues so momentous had ever before occurred. The general election then about to take place was to decide the all-important question whether the blighting influence of slavery should be allowed to extend to every part of the republic, or should thenceforward be restricted to the territory which it already possessed. Never before had any Presidential election so strongly excited all the hopes and fears of the patriot, all the affections and passions of the people. It took place on the 6th of November, i860. Lincoln received the electoral votes of all the free States except New Jersey, which was divided, giving him four votes and Douglas three. Breckinridge received the votes of all the slave States except Virginia, Kentucky, Ten- nessee, and Missouri ; the three former voted for Bell, the last for Douglas. Lincoln received in all one hun- dred and eighty electoral votes, Breckinridge seventy-two, Bell thirty-nine, and Douglas twelve. No sooner was the result of the election known than several of the Southern States made preparations for formally separating themselves from the Federal Union. South Carolina took the lead in the secession movement. The legislature convened in November and passed an act calling a State convention to meet on the 17th of December. It met accordingly, and on the 20th an ordinance was passed unanimously dissolving the union till then "subsisting between South Carolina and other States under the name of the United States of America." It was evident, from the language of the leading men in that convention, that the ordinance of secession was not the result of any sudden excitement or hastily-adopted resolution, but was the deliberate fulfilment of a settled and long-cherished purpose. "The secession of South Carolina," said Mr. Rhett, "was not the event of a day." It was "a matter which had been gathering head for thirty years." Mr. Inglis said that most of them had had it "under consideration for the last twenty years." "So far," says Raymond, "as South Carolina was con- cerned, there can be no doubt that her action was de- cided by men who had been plotting disunion for thirty years, not on account of any wrongs her people had sus- tained at the hands of the Federal government, but from motives of personal and sectional ambition, and for the purpose of establishing a government which should be permanently and completely in the interest of slavery." ("Lincoln's Administration," chap, i.) Following the example of South Carolina, Mississippi passed an ordi- nance of secession on the 9th of January, 1861,* Florida January 10, Alabama January ii, Georgia January 18, Louisiana January 26, Texas February i. Thus, more than a month previous to the expiration of Mr. Buch- anan's term of office, seven States had done all that lay in their power to dissolve their connection with the Union. Delegates appointed by the conventions of the seceding States met at Montgomery early in February, and formed a new Confederacy, of which Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, was elected President, and Alexander H. _ * Tliese dates, and most of the others in this article connected with the events of the rebellion, are taken from Greeley's "American Conflict." Stephens, of Georgia, Vice-President. Not long after, Mr. Stephens, in an elaborate speech addressed to the people of Savannah, attempted to vindicate the course of the seceders in setting up a new government in oppo- sition to that of the United States. On that occasion he said that the prevailing ideas of Jefferson and "most of the leading statesmen at the time of the formation of the old Constitution were that the enslavement of the African was a violation of the laws of nature, that it was wrong in principle, socially, morally, politically. . , . These ideas, however, were fundamentally wrong. They rested upon the assumption of the equality of races. This was an error. . . . Our new government was founded upon exactly the opposite ideas ; its foundations are laid, its corner-stone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man ; that slavery, subordination to the superior race, is his natural and normal condition. This, our new government, is the first in the history of the world based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral truth." While President Buchanan took the ground that the Federal government had no right to coerce the seceding States, several members of the cabinet had not neglected the opportunities which their official posidon afforded, of promoting the interests of the Southern Confederacy. The secretary of war, John B. Floyd, took care to make such a disposition of the Federal arms and ammunition that in case the new administration should be disposed to adopt a more decisive policy it would find its energies paralyzed by a total want of the material of war, while the revolted States, in case of necessity, might readily possess themselves of that very material which had been thus adroitly placed beyond the reach of the Federal government. An official report from the ordnance department, dated January 16, 1861, shows that during the year i860 115,000 muskets had been removed from Northern armories and sent to Southern arsenals by a single order of the secretary of war ; and it was claimed for him, by one of his eulogists in Virginia, that, while a member of President Buchanan's cabinet, Mr. Floyd "thwarted, resisted, and forbade" certain measures which, if carried into effect, would have rendered the formation of the Southern Confederacy impossible. It was under such circumstances as these — with seven of the most influential of the United States in open re- volt, and several others on the eve of secession, — with timorous indecision at the head of the government, and secret treason lurking not only among the members of the cabinet, but also among the officers of the army and navy — that Abraham Lincoln, on the iith of Feb- ruary, 1861, left his Western home and proceeded to Washington to take into his hands the reins of govern- ment. His brief parting words to his friends at Spring- field reveal at one view the simple, manly earnestness of his character, and that humble but unfaltering trust in God by which he was sustained through all the perils and darkness which surrounded his administration. " My Friends : No one not in my position can appreciate the sadness I feel at this parting. To this people I owe all that I am. Here I have lived more than a quarter of a century ; here my children were born, and here one of them lies buried. I know not how soon I shall see you again. A duty devolves upon me which is, perhaps, greater than that which has devolved upon any other man since the days of Washington. He never would have succeeded except for the aid of divine Providence, upon which he at all times relied. I feel that I cannot succeed without the same divine aid which sustained him ; and on the same almighty Being I place my reli- ance for support ; and I hope you, my friends, will all pray that I may receive that divine assistance, without which I cannot succeed, but with which success is certain. Again I bid you all an affectionate farewell." A rumotir was current some time before the President- elect left his home in Illinois, that he would never reach the national capital alive. An attempt was made (Feb- ruary II) on the Toledo and Western Railroad to throw from the track the train on which he was ; and after- wards, just as he was leaving Cincinnati, a hand-grenade was found to have been secreted on the car. A plot had likewise been formed to take his life during his passage a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, \\, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n5t; go6d; moon* LINCOLN 1429 LINCOLN through Baltimore on his way to Washington. Mr. Seward and General Scott, having been informed of that fact, arranged it that Lincoln should pass through Baltimore several hours earlier than had at first been proposed. The plans of the conspirators were thus frustrated, and the President-elect reached Washington in safety on the morning of the 23d of February. Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated as President of the United States on the 4th of March, i86r. In his ad- dress on that occasion he mildly but distinctly and firmly announced his purpose to " take care that the laws of the Union be faithfully executed in all the States." "I trust," he adds, "this will not be regarded as a menace. . . . There need be no bloodshed or violence ; and there shall be none, unless it be forced upon the national authority. The power confided to me will be used to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places belonging to the government, and to collect the duties and imposts ; but, beyond what may be necessary for these objects, there will be no invasion, no using of force against or among the people, anywhere. . . . The mails, unless repelled, will continue to be furnished in all parts of the Union. So far as possible, the people everywhere shall have that sense of perfect security which is most favourable to calm thought and reflection. . . . Physically speaking, we cannot separate. We cannot remove our respective sections from each other, nor build an impass- able wall between them. A husband and wife may be divorced and go out of the presence and beyond the reach of each other ; but the different parts of our coun- try cannot do this. They cannot but remain face to face ; and intercourse, either amicable or hostile, must continue between them. Is it possible, then, to make the inter- course more advantageous or more satisfactory after separation than before ? . . . The Chief Magistrate DERIVES ALL HIS AUTHORITY FROM THE PEOPLE ; AND THEY HAVE CONFERRED NONE UPON HIM TO FIX TERMS FOR THE SEPARATION OF THE States. . . . His DUTY IS TO ADMINISTER THE PRESENT GOVERNMENT AS IT CAME INTO HIS HANDS, AND TO TRANSMIT IT UNIMPAIRED BY HIM TO HIS SUCCESSOR. "My countrymen, one and all, think calmly and well upon this whole subject. Nothing valuable can be lost by taking time. If there be an object to hurry any of you in hot haste to a step which you would never take deliberately, that object will be frustrated by taking time ; but no good object can be frustrated by it. . . . " In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, and not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. . . . You can have no conflict without being yourselves the aggressors. You have no oath registered in heaven to destroy the government, while I shall have the most solemn one to 'preserve, protect, and defend' it." Mr. Lincoln did not deny that the laws of the Federal gov- ernment, and even the Constitution itself, might perhaps bear unequally and hardly upon some sections of the country; but he thought that all grievances of this kind would be far more likely to be properly redressed through a calm and friendly appeal to the sense of justice in the people than by violence or war. It was enough, however, for the slave-holding party that he denied not merely the expediency but the right of any State or sectional combination of States to se- cede. This was considered equivalent to a declaration of war; and aCtive preparations for the coming struggle were at once commenced throughout the seceded States. The moderate, reasonable, and conciliatory tone of the Inaugural had, it cannot be doubted, a most happy effect, not only in uniting and consolidating, so to speak, the public sentiment of the North, but also in encouraging all those in the border States who, whatever may have been their views in relation to slavery, had not yet cast off all attachment to the national flag and the Federal Union. Fort Sumter, in the harbour of Charleston, was occupied by a United States garrison, under the com- mand of Major Anderson. General Beauregard, on the part of the Southern Confederacy, demanded its sur- render. To this demand, which was made on the nth of April, Major Anderson at once replied that his "sense of honour and his obligations to his government prevented his compliance." Early on the 12th an attack on the fort was commenced, and kept up with the utmost fury with shells and red-hot cannon-balls, in consequence of which Major Anderson, after a gallant resistance of thirty-three hours, was at length obliged to evacuate the place, which he did on the morning of the 14th. The bombardment of Fort Sumter was the first aggressive act committed on either side. It produced a deep and intense excite- ment throughout the Northern States, breaking down for a time all party distinctions, and uniting the whole people in an earnest, unfaltering purpose to support the government.* The President, justly regarding this un- provoked attack upon a United States fort as the com- mencement of actual war, issued on the next day (April 15) a proclamation directing both Houses of Congress to meet in extra session on the 4th of July following, and calling out "the militia of the several States of the Union, to the aggregate number of 75,000," for the pur- pose of supporting tlie authority and enforcing the laws of the Federal Union. It was not, however, merely for maintaining the authority of the government that troops were needed, but for the defence of the national capital itself. The President of the Southern Confederacy had declared, more than a month before, that whenever war should commence the North and not the South should be the battle-field ; and the recent attack on Fort Sumter was a sufficient proof that no veneration for the national flag nor any lurking scruples of any kind would be likely to prevent the carrying out of that threat if it were pos- sible to accomplish it. All the Northern States responded to the demand of President Lincoln with the utmost alacrity and zeal. Massachusetts — be it said to her immortal honour — was the first in the field. The next day after the issue of the proclamation, her Sixth regiment left Boston for the national capital. Two more regiments set out within forty-eight hours. The Sixth regiment was attacked (April 19) in Baltimore by a moi) carrying a secession flag, and several of the soldiers were killed or severely wounded. Gov- ernor Hicks having united with Mayor Brown, of Balti- more, in urging, for prudential reasons, that no more troops should be brought through that city, it was ar- ranged that those needed for the defence of Washington should in future be sent thither by way of Annapolis. On the 19th of April President Lincoln issued a procla- mation blockading the ports of the seceded States. The excitement caused by the bombardment of Fort Sumter, which tended so powerfully to unite public sentiment at the North, appeared to have produced a still greater effect in the Southern States, where the enthusiasm of the people was inflamed almost to frenzy by what seemed the brilliant success of the Confederates, in re- ducing so quickly a fortress which was regarded as one of the strongest in the United States, though it was at that time feebly garrisoned and supplied with provisions for a few days only. Yielding to this whirlwind of ex- citement, the legislature of Virginia, on the 17th of April, (three days after the taking of Fort Sumter,) passed an ordinance of secession by a vote of 88 to 55. Not long after, the State Convention of North Carolina, elected during the excitement which followed the cap- ture of Sumter, passed unanimously an ordinance of secession. The most active preparations were made on both sides for the contest which was now inevitable. In the seceding States more than a hundred thousand troops had been raised, of which the larger portion had been marched towards the Northern border. The greatness of the force arrayed against the government made an additional sup- ply of troops necessary for the security of the national capital. A second proclamation was issued on the 3d of May, calling into the United States service a large number of volunteers, and greatly increasing the force both of the army and navy. The difficulties surrounding the new administration were rendered still more for- midable by the precipitate action of the French and English governments, which, as soon as information was * The very next day after Major Anderson had evacuated the ruins of Fort Sumter, a leading journal of New York (the " Tribune") aptly and forcibly observed, " P^ort Sumter is lost, but freedom is saved. ... It is hard to lose Sumter ; it is a consolation to know that in losing it we have gained a united people." € as 5 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 2y) LINCOLN 1430 LINCOLN received that hostilities had actually begun in America, determined, in concert, to acknowledge the Southern Confederacy as a belligerent power. In accordance with the proclamation of the 15th of April, Congress met in extra session, July 4, 1861, In the message which on that occasion the President ad- dressed to the Senators and representatives, after re- viewing the condition of the country and ex])laining the course of the government, he proceeds to say, — " It is thus seen that the assault upon and reduction of Fort Sumter was iii no sense a matter of self-defence upon the part of the assailants. They well knew that the garrison in the fort could by no possibility commit aggression upon them. They knew, they were expressly notified, that the giving of bread to the few brave and hungry men of the garrison was all which would on that occasion be attempted, unless themselves, by resisting so much, should provoke more. ^^Fhey knew that this government desired to keep the garrison in the fort, not to assail them, but to maintain visible possession, and thus to preserve the Union from actual and immediate dissolution, trusting, as before stated, to time, discussion, and the ballot-box for final adjustment ; and they assailed and reduced the fort for precisely the reverse object, to drive out the visible authority of the Federal Union and thus force it to immediate dissolution. ... In this act, discarding all else, they have forced upon the country the distinct issue, 'immediate dissolution or blood.' "And this issue embraces more than the fate of these United States. It presents to the whole family of man the question whether a constitutional republic or democracy — a government of the people by the same people — can or cannot maintain its territorial integrity against its own domestic foes. . . . " It was with the deepest regret that the Executive found the duty of employing the war-power in defence of the government forced upon him. He could but per- form this duty or surrender the existence of the govern- ment. . . . As a private citizen, the Executive could not have consented that these institutions should perish ; much less could he, in betrayal of so vast and so sacred a trust as these free people have confided to him. He felt that he had no right to shrink, or even to count the chances of his own life, in what might follow." There were a few members in both Houses who in- sisted that any employment of the. war-power against the rebels was unconstitutional ; but the genera] senti- ment of Congress fully sustained the President in the course he had taken. On July 15, Mr. McClernand, a Democratic member from Illinois, offered a resolution pledging the Plouse to vote any amount of money and any number of men necessary to suppress the rebellion and restore the authority of the government. This reso- lution was adopted with but five dissenting votes. The spirited action of Congress seemed to inspire the people everywhere throughout the North with renewed hope and confidence. Towards the latter part of June, a large rebel force had occupied a strong position on Bull Run Creek, near Manassas. It was resolved on the part of the Federal government to attack and drive back this force ; and the belief was generally entertained that a single decided success on the part of the Union armies would put an end to the war. The Federal forces, com- manded by General McDowell, made an attack upon the position of the rebels on the 21st of July ; but they met with a disastrous defeat, and were driven back in great disorder towards Washington. Then, for the first time, the Northern States realized the greatness of the conflict which was before them. They then understood how great were the advantages possessed by the Con- federates in consequence of their having been for years preparing for war. No inconsiderable portion of their troops had been thoroughly disciplined under excellent officers, while many of the Northern troops had scarcely any discipline at all. Add to this that a large proportion of the best and most experienced officers in the regular army of the United States had resigned their commis- sions and joined the Confederate cause. All the prin- cipal Confederate officers, with scarcely an exception, had been educated at the national military academy at West Point, and had afterwards held important positions in the regular army. It may suffice to cite the names of Generals Joseph PI and Albert Sydney Johnston, Jeffer- son Davis, the President of the Southern Confederacy, and General Robert E. Lee, regarded, at the time of the breaking out of the rebellion, as by far the ablest officer in the United States army, General Scott having become through age and infirmities unequal to the duties of the field. But the disaster of Bull Run damped the hopes of the Unionists for a moment only. After the first surprise was over, its effect was to rouse the courage and determination of the people to the highest point. Vol- unteers flocked by thousands to join the national army. From the time of Lincoln's inauguration, through all the anxious months of the spring and summer of 1861, Gene- ral Scott had retained his position as commander of the armies of the United States, and had given the govern- ment the benefit of his wisdom and experience and the support of his great influence and unwavering loyalty. At length, on the 31st of October, in consequence of ill health and advancing age, he applied to the secretary of war to be released from active service. He was accord- ingly placed upon the list of retired officers of the army of the United States, but retaining his full pay, according to a special provision passed by Congress in the summer session. At the recommendation of General Scott, Gene- ral McClellan, who had obtained marked distinction by his success during the summer of 1 861 in clearing Western Virginia of rebel troops, was called to Wash- ington and appointed to the command of the Federal forces. He at once commenced a thorough reorganiza- tion of the army, and before many months brought it into a state of high and efficient discipline. Unfortunately, his sympathies were rather with the moderate slav^e- holders than with the staunch supporters of the govern- ment, and, when it became necessary to sacrifice slavery in order to save the republic, he could not nerve himself to the task. In a war of a different kind, requiring simply vigilance, skill, and the spirit of conciliation, he might have earned enduring laurels. But the Confederates had gone too far to be won back by conciliation. As nothing could satisfy them short of breaking up the Union, so nothing was left for the Federal government, if it would escape general disru])tion and utter ruin, but to suppress the rebellion by force of arms. The forces under the immediate command of General McClellan having remained inactive during most of the winter of 1861-62, President Lincoln issued on the 27th of January, 1862, an order that on the 22d of February a general movement against the insurgents should be made by the land and naval forces of the United States. Gene- ral McClellan at first objected, in a letter to the secre- tary of war, to the plan of operations which he had been directed to pursue. At length, on the 13th of March, a council of war was held, in which it was decided to ad- vance against Richmond from Fortress Monroe. The army was conveyed by water down the Potomac and Chesapeake Bay to the mouth of James River. Soon after the commencement of the campaign. General McClellan began to complain that he was not properly supported by the Executive at Washington. Advancing into the heart of a hostile country, where his enemies, by means of the railroads, which they could completely control, might concentrate, at a very short notice, all their available force at or near the point of threatened attack, it behooved him, undoubtedly, to use great circumspec- tion. Unhappily, the extreme precautions which he took against a doubtful or contingent peril had no other effect than to surround him with real dangers of the most for- midable character. His movements were so slow and hesitating that the Confederates not only had time to assemble their forces from distant points and erect ex- tensive fortifications, but even to raise and discipline large reinforcements of fresh troops. Had he early in April advanced with his army against Yorktown, he would have met with a feeble resistance, and might, in all probability, have pushed on at once to the conquest of Richmond. But he decided to approach it by a regular siege ; extensive earthworks were thrown up, and the campaign was protracted into the hottest part of the summer. His troops, compelled to encamp among the swamps adjacent to the Chickahominy, perished in great a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, f^t; mSt; ndt; good; moon; LINCOLN LINCOLN numbers from disease. At last, after a series of sangui- nary but indecisive conflicts, the army was forced to retreat. It was moved in August from James River by water to Aqui'a Creek, on the Potomac, some forty miles below Washington. About the same time the army of General Pope, after several days of hard fighting near Manassas and Centre ville, was driven back with heavy loss upon Washington. There was perhaps no darker period during the whole war than that in which the summer of 1862 came to a close ; and we may safely say that no one throughout the land felt more deeply the reverses and sufferings of his countrymen than President Lincoln. On the 2d of September, General McClellan took command of all the available troops for the defence of the capital. General Lee, having crossed the Potomac (September 5) into Maryland, was attacked and de- feated by McClellan at Antietam on the i6th and 17th of September. He retreated into Virginia, and was not pursued. Early in October McClellan was ordered to cross the Potomac and give battle to the enemy or drive him southward ; but, having delayed his advance for about three weeks, he was removed from his command, by an order dated November 5. General Burnside, who succeeded McClellan as commander of the army of the Potomac, attacked (December 13) General Lee, then occupying a strongly-fortified position at Fredericks- burg, and was repulsed with severe loss. Again, on the 2d and 3d of May, 1863, General Hooker was worsted by General Lee in a very hard-fought battle at Chancel- lorsville. The great and repeated disasters experienced by the Union armies from the beginning of the war, but more particularly those of the summer of 1862, appear to have prepared the people of the Northern States for the adoption of a more radical policy on the part of the government. At first it had been the aim of the Execu- tive to preserve the Union with all the provisions of the Constitution as it was originally adopted. But, the slave- holders having by their rebellion forfeited all claim to the protection of that instrument, it might become ex- pedient or necessary to assail them on the side where they were confessedly weakest, — viz., through the institu- tion of slavery. President Lincoln had been censured by some for not taking a more decided position on the subject of slavery at the commencement of the war ; but he had very strong reasons for the line of policy which he had hitherto thought proper to pursue. So powerful was the influence, so plausible the arguments, brought by the Confederates to bear upon the border States, that it was only with the greatest difficulty that Maryland, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri could be preventecl from following Virginia and North Carolina and joining the rebellion. If, then, the Federal government, with those States stancling neutral or divided, was able to re- establish its authority only after years of conflict and the loss of hundreds of thousands of lives, what might have been the issue had those four populous and warlike States from the very commencement of the war been closely and firmly united with the Confederacy.'* Had President Lincoln at once, on the breaking out of the rebellion, attempted the overthrow of slavery, there is reason to believe that all the above-named States would have arrayed themselves against the government, and the theatre of war, instead of being almost exclusively confined to the territory of the slave States, would, in all probability, have been extended to the adjacent free States, — to Pennsylvania and Ohio, if not still farther. Nor would this have been the only misfortune ; such an attempt would, it can scarcely be doubted, have divided the people in many of the free States, and prevented them from giving the government that cordial and united support so indispensable to the Union cause in such a crisis. The conscientious and anxious desire evinced by the President to respect the constitutional rights of every section of the country, if it produced no favourable influ- ence upon the minds of the Confederates, had at least the effect of gaining over to his cause multitudes of his political opponents in the Northern as well as in the bor- der States ; so that tens of thousands who had opposed his election in i860 became, before the close of his first Presidential term, of the number of his most cordial supporters. He considered it, indeed, to be not merely expedient, but to be his imperative duty, to weigh care- fully all the circumstances by which he was surrounded. A religious or moral reformer may very properly content himself with merely proclaiming and expounding great truths, and then leave the minds of men to embrace them, as they may be prepared to do so. But he who, being placed at the head of a government, neglects to consider the question whether his measures are prac- ticable, or whether they are or are not adapted to the actual condition and wants of the people, can have no claim to the name of statesman, although he may pos- sibly merit that of a far-seeing reformer or philanthropist. To some, who were urging him to issue at once a proclamation of emancipation, intimating that they felt assured it was the will of God that he should do so, Lincoln replied, "I hope it will not be irreverent for me to say that, if it is probable that God would reveal his will to others on a point so connected with my duty, it might be supposed he would reveal it directly to me ; for, unless I am more deceived in myself than I often am, it is my earnest desire to know the will of Providence in this matter ; and if I can learn what it is, I will do it." At another time he said, "There are 50,000 bayonets in the Union army from the border slave States. It would be a serious matter if, in consequence of a proclamation such as you desire, they should go over to the rebels. . . . Every day increases their Union feeling." He dili- gently sought every opportunity of informing himself re- specting the condition of public sentiment, especially in regard to the question of emancipation. A great change in the minds of the people had undoubtedly taken place in this respect, not only in the North, but also in several of the slave States. After mature deliberation, being at length satisfied that the welfare of the country would be promoted by such a measure, and that public senti- ment would sustain it, he issued (September 22, 1862) a proclamation of emancipation, in which it was declared that on the first day of January, 1863, "all persons held as slaves within any State, or designated part of a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free ; and the executive government of the United States, including the military and naval authority thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom." After the battle of Chancellorsville the tide of success seemed to turn in favour of the Union cause. This is not the place to go into any detailed account of the movements of the different armies. It may suflice briefly to notice a few of the principal battles which constituted, so to speak, turning-points in the history of the war, and which had an immediate and important influence in bringing it to a close. On the 3d of July, 1863, the army of the Potomac, under General Meade, defeated the rebel forces, com- manded by General Lee, in a great battle (which had lasted three days) near Gettysburg, in Pennsylvania. On the 4th of the same month. General Grant cap- tured Vicksburg, after a long and most obstinate defence on the part of the garrison, and in spite of the strenuous efforts of the Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston to raise the siege. The number of Confederate troops paroled at Vicksburg was about 27,000, of whom only 15,000 were fit for duty. "This," says Mr. Greeley, " was the heaviest single blow ever given to the muscu- lar resources of the rebellion ; and no other campaign in the war equals in brilliancy of conception and general success in execution that which resulted in the capitula- tion of Vicksburg." As Commander Farragut, supported by a land-army under General Butler, had already (April, 1862) taken possession of New Orleans, the conquest of Vicksburg gave to the Unionists the command of the Mississippi throughout its entire length. The courage, skill, and, above all, the unconquerable energy displayed by General Grant in the siege and capture of Vicksburg, seemed to point him out to the government as pre-eminently qualified to conduct a war € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Yi, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (g^^See Explanations, p. 23.) LINCOLN 1432 LINCOLN in which a wise foresight, an untiring vigilance, and an indefatigable activity were equally necessary to success. There was another point also wherein, to adopt the language of Mr. Greeley, "his fitness for the chief command was decided, if not pre-eminent; and that was an utter disbelief in the efficacy of any rose-water treatment of the rebellion." On the ist of March, 1864, in compliance with a recommendation of Congress, the President appointed General Grant lieutenant-general of the armies of the United States. When he presented General Grant with his commission, Mr. Lincoln ad- dressed him with these words : The nation's apprecia- tion of what you have already done, and its reliance upon vou for what still remains to be done, in the existing great struggle, are now presented with this commission, constituting you lieutenant-general of the armies of the United States. With this high honour devolves upon you also a corresponding responsibility. As the country herein trusts you, so, under God, it will sustain you. I scarcely need to add that with what I here speak for the nation, goes my own hearty personal concurrence." In the autumn of 1864, Mr. Lincoln was a second time elected President of the United States, General McClel- lan being the opposing candidate. Lincoln received the votes of all the Northern States except New Jersey and Delaware. General Grant, having taken immediate command of the army of the Potomac, commenced early in May the ever-memorable campaign of 1864 against Richmond. After many severe and bloody conflicts, and the display of consummate military skill on the part of the rival com- manders, and an obstinate bravery on the part of their troops, rarely paralleled in the history of warfare. Gen- eral Lee was at length (April 2, 1865) forced to abandon the defence of Richmond, which was evacuated the fol- lowing night, and on the 9th of April he surrendered to General Grant with all his army. On the 17th of the same month. General J. E. Johnston, commander of the southern division of the Confederate army, then in North Carolina, entered into terms of capitulation with Gen- eral Sherman, according to which all the Confederate troops still remaining in the field were to lay down their arms and return to their respective States. Thus the war of the rebellion was brought to a close. But, before the final arrangement between Sherman and Johnston was completed, the universal joy of the Northern States was changed into bitter mourning by the death of Presi- dent Lincoln, who was cut off in the very hour of triumph by the hand of an assassin. A desperate band of con- spirators, of whom John Wilkes Booth, a native of Maryland, was the ringleader, had for some time enter- tained the design of seizing the President and making him a prisoner. Finding no opportunity to carry their purpose into effect, they resolved at length to take his life. The great object of Lincoln's administration — the restoration of the authority of the government — having been at last accomplished, on the evening of the 14th of April he sought at Ford's Theatre a brief relaxation from the duties and cares of his high office. Booth, being an actor by profession, had free admittance to the theatre. While the President's attention was absorbed by the scene before him, the assassin approached him from behind, unperceived. To make sure of his victim, Booth discharged his pistol when the muzzle was not more than a few inches from the head of the President, who, as the ball entered his brain, sank slightly forward with- out uttering a sound; and, although he continued to breathe for several hours, he was evidently wholly un- conscious from the time that he received the fatal wound until his death, which occurred at half-past seven on the morning of the 15th. Mr. Lincoln had often received anonymous letters threatening him with death ; but his thoughts were too much occupied with the affairs of the nation to permit him to feel anxiety for his personal safety ; and, indeed, it was impossible for him, as he intimated to some of his friends who urged him to be more on his guard, to render his life secure without adopting precautions alike repugnant to his own feel- ings and to the universal usage of his country. We believe it is no exaggeration to say that, since the dawn of history, no more upright or conscientious ruler than Abraham Lincoln ever presided over the dcstiriies of a great nation ; nor has there been any more tree from every taint of selfish ambition or personal resentment. Among the many eminent men who, in their writings or public speeches, have attempted to portray the char- acter and commemorate the virtues of President Lincoln, we know of none who has been more successful than Mr. Emerson. The admirable fitness of his remarks must be our apology, if any be needed, for giving the following extracts from his discourse delivered at the funeral services held in Concord, Massachusetts, April 19, 1865 : "A plain man of the people, an extraordinary for- tune attended him. Lord Bacon says, 'Manifest virtues procure reputation; occult ones, fortune.' He offered no shining qualities at the first encounter; he did not offend by superiority. He had a face and manner which disarmed suspicion, which inspired confidence, which confirmed good will. He was a man without vices. He had a strong sense of duty, which it was very easy for him to obey. Then he had what farmers call a 'long head ;' was excellent in working out the sum for himself, — in arguing his case and convincing you fairly and firmly. . . . He had avast good nature, which made him tolerant and accessible to all. . . . Then his broad good humour, running easily into jocular talk, in which he delighted and in which he excelled, was a rich gift to this wise man. It enabled him to keep his secret, to meet every kind of man, and every rank in society, ... to mask his own purpose and sound his companion, and to catch with true instinct the temper of every company he ad- dressed. His ocmpying the chair of state 7ms a triumph of the good sense of mankind and of the public conscience. This middle-class country had got a middle-class Presi- dent at last. Yes, in manners and sympathies, but not in powers ; for his powers were superior. This man grew according to the need ; his mind mastered the prob- lem of the day; and as the problem grew, so did his comprehension of it. Rarely was a man so fitted to the event. ... It cannot be said that there is any exagger- ation of his worth. If ever a man was fairly tested, he was. There was no lack of resistance, nor of slander, nor of ridicule. . . . Then what an occasion was the whirlwind of the war ! Here was place for no holiday magistrate, no fair-weather sailor : the new pilot was hurried to the helm in a tornado. In four years — four years of battle-days — his endurance, his fertility of re- sources, his magnanimity, were sorely tried and never found wanting. There, by his courage, his justice, his even temper, his fertile counsel, his humanity, he stood a heroic figure in the centre of a heroic epoch. He is the true history of the American people in his time — the true representative of this continent — father of his country, the pulse of twenty millions throbbing in his heart, the thought of their minds articulated by his tongue." "The name of Lincoln," says the eminent historian Merle d'Aubigne, " will remain one of the greatest that history has to inscribe on its annals." "This man," observes Henry Martin, " will stand out in the traditions of his country and the world as an incarnation of the people, and of modern democracy itself." See Raymond, "Life and Administration of President Lincoln," 1864 ; Greeley, "American Conflict," 2 vols. 8vo, Hartford, 1S64-66 ; Dr. J. G. Holland, "Life of A. Lincoln," 1S65; and the noble and eloquent tribute to the memory of Lincoln in Mrs. Stowe's "Men of our Time," Hartford, 1868. Lincoln, (Benjamin,) an American general, born in Hingham, Massachusetts, in January, 1733. He was originally a farmer. In 1776 he was appointed a major- general of militia, and joined the army of Washington with reinforcements in February, 1777. In this year he was appointed major-general by Congress, and was or- dered to join the Northern army, commanded by General Gates. In October, 1777, he received a wound which disabled him for nearly a year. He was appointed to the chief command of the Southern department about September, 1778, and defended Charleston against Gen- eral Prevost in the spring of 1779. In October of that year General Lincoln and Count D'Estaing made an unsuccessful assault on Savannah. He was besieged by Sir Henry Clinton in Charleston, which he was com- pelled to surrender in May, 1780. He afterwards com- i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, J?, short; a, i, o, obscure; f5r, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; LINCOLN H33 LINDET manded a division at the siege of Yorktown, in October, 1 781. He had the reputation of an able and prudent general. In October, 1781, he became secretary of war. He retired from this office about the end of 1784, and was elected Lieutenant-Governor of Massachusetts in 1787 by the Federalists. Died at Hingham in 1810. See a "Life of Benjamin Lincoln," by Francis Bowen, in Sparks's "American Biography," second series, vol. xiii. ; "Na- tional Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii. Lincoln, link'on, (Edward Clinton,) Earl of, an English admiral, born in 1512, was the only son of Thomas Lord Clinton. He was appointed lord admiral for life in 1550. In 1557 he commanded a division of the English army at Saiut-Quentin. On the accession of Elizabeth (1558) he was retained in the office of lord admiral. In the peaceful reign that followed he had little opportunity to acquire renown. He was created Earl of Lincoln in 1572. Died in 1584, leaving the title to his son Henry. A Henry Clinton, Earl of Lincoln, married the daughter of Henry Pelham, who was prime minister about 1750. In 1768 he inherited the title of Duke of Newcastle. Lincoln, (Enoch,) a lawyer, brother of Levi, noticed below, ( 1 782-1 868,) was born at Worcester, Massachu- setts, in 1788. He represented a district of Maine in Congress from 1819 to 1826, and was Governor of that State in 1827-29. Died in 1829. He wrote several poems, including one entitled "The Village," (1816.) Lincoln, (John Larkin,) LL.D., an American scholar and critical writer, born at Boston in 181 7. He was appointed in 1844 professor of the Latin language and literature in Brown University. He published an edition of Horace for the use of schools. Lincoln, (Levi,) an American jurist and statesman, born in Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1749, graduated at Harvard College. He practised law at Worcester, and became one of the most eminent lawyers in the State. In 1799 he was elected a member of Congress. He was a Democrat or Republican in party politics, and was attorney-general under Jefferson from 1 801 to December, 1805. In 1807-08 he was Lieutenant-Governor of Mas- sachusetts. Died at Worcester in 1820. Lincoln, (Levi,) a lawyer, a son of the preceding, was born at Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1782. He was chosen Governor of his native State in 1825, being supported by both parties, and was a member of Con- gress during three terms, (1835-41.) Died in 1868. Lmd, (James,) an English physician, born about 17 16, published a valuable "Treatise on the Scurvy," (1753,) and " Essay on the Diseases to which Europeans are exposed in Hot Climates," (1768,) which were often reprinted. Died at Gosport in 1794. Lind, (Jenny,) a celebrated Swedish vocalist, born at Stockholm in 1821, was the daughter of a teacher of languages. She began to sing on the stage about the age of ten years, and performed in vaudevilles with success. At the age of sixteen she became the prime favourite of the Stockholm Opera, where she made her debut as Agatha in "Der Freischiitz." In 1841 she became a pupil of Garcia, the celebrated singing-master in Paris, where she met Meyerbeer, who engaged her for the Opera of Berlin. She sang in Berlin in 1844 and 1845, exciting great and unabated enthusiasm. After performing in several capitals of Germany, she visited London, where she was greeted with the warmest ap- plause, in 1847 the two ensuing years. Having made an engagement with P. T. Barnum to sing in the United States, she arrived at New York in September, 1850. Her concerts in this country excited enthusi- astic admiration, and were repeated in the chief cities of the Union until 1852, when she returned to Europe with Otto Goldschmidt, a skilful pianist, to whom she had been married in 1851. She gave many thousand dollars for charitable purposes in the United States. Her private character is excellent. Her voice is a soprano, remarkable for sweetness. Since her marriage she has ceased to perform on the stage. See N. P. Willis, " Memoranda of the Life of Jenny Lind ;" J. A. Becher, "J. Lind: Skizze ihres Lebens," etc., 1847; "Memoir of J. Lind," London, 1847; Hans Christian Andersen, "True Story of my Life;" the same notice in the "Living Age" for No- vember, 1850. Linda. See Lindanus. Lindanus, lin-di'nus, or Linda, lin'di, (William Damasus,) a Roman Catholic prelate, noted as a con- troversialist, was born at Dort, Holland, in 1525. He was remarkable for the severity with which he per- formed the office of Inquisitor of the faith. In 1562 he was appointed by Philip II. Bishop of Ruremond. His most popular work was "Evangelical Panoj^ly," ("Panoplia Evangelica," 1563.) Died in 1568 or 1588. See A. Havensius, "Vita G. Lindani," 1609. Lindberg, l!nd'b§RG, (Jacob Christian,) a Danish theologian and numismatist, born at Ripen, Jutland, in 1797. He published a "Treatise on Cufic Coins," (1830,) a "Hebrew-Danish Hand-Lexicon," (1835,) and able works on theology, etc. Lindblom, lind''blom, (Jacob Axel,) a Swedish prel- ate, born in Ostrogothia in 1747. He was professor of belles-lettres in the University of Upsal, and published a " Latin-Swedish Dictionary" before he became Bishop of Linkoping, (1789.) He was afterwards chosen Arch- bishop of Upsal. Died in 1819. See Hedborn, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver J. A. Lindblom," iSig. Linde, von, fon lin'deh, (Justin Timotheus B.\l- THASAR,) a German jurist, born in Westphalia in 1797, published numerous legal treatises. Linde, von, fon lin'deh, (Samuel Gottlob,) an emi- nent Polisli lexicographer, born at Thorn in 1771. About 1803 he became rector of the Lyceum and chief librarian of the University in Warsaw. In 1807 he produced the first volume of his great " Dictionary of the Polish Lan- guage," (6 vols.,) regarded as the best work of the kind. From 1833 to 1838 he was director of the gymnasium of Warsaw. He wrote a " Historical Outline of the Literature of the Slavonic Races," (1825.) Died at War- saw in 1847. See Saint-Maurice Cabanv, "S. T. de Linde," etc., 1853. Lindeblad, lin'deh-bldd', (Assar,) a Swedish poet, born near Lund in 1800. Among his best productions is "The Missionary," (1839.) Linden, van der, vtn der lin'den, (David,) a Flemish poet and antiquary, born at Ghent about 1570; died about 1635. Linden, van der, vtn der lin'den, (Jan Antonides,) a learned Dutch physician, born at Enkhuysen in 1609. He became professor of medicine at Leyden about 1650. He published a " Medical Bibliography," (" De Scriptis Medicis," 1637,) "Physiological Medicine," (" Medicina Physiologica,") and a good edition of Hippocrates, in Greek. Died in 1664. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Nic^ron, " Memoires." Lindenau, von, fon lin'deh-now^ (Bernhard Au- gust,) a German astronomer, born at Altenburg in 1780. Between 1826 and 1843 he served the King of Saxony as privy councillor, minister of the interior, etc. In 1843 he retired from political life to devote himself to as- tronomy. Among his publications are " Tables of Venus," (1810,) "Tables of Mars," (1811,) and a " History of Astronomy during the First Decade of the Nineteenth Century," (1811.) Died in 1854. See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." Lindenbrog, lin'den-bRoo', or Lindenbruch, lin'- den-bRooK^, [Lat. Tiliobro'ga,] (Erpold,) a German historical writer, born at Bremen in 1540. He wrote a " History of the Kings of Denmark," and " Chronicle of the Life and Actions of Charlemagne," He also edited the " Historians of Northern Germany." Died in 1616. See WiLKENS, " Leben der beriihmten Lindenbrogiorum," 1723. Lindenbrog or Lindenbruch, (Friedrich,) a jurist and classical scholar, a son of the preceding, was born at Hamburg in 1573; died in 1648. Lindenschmit, lin'den-shmit', (Wilhelm,) a Ger- man historical painter, born at Mentz in 1806. Among his works are frescos painted for Prince Ludwig in the Hofgarten, Munich, and in the Pinakothek. Died in 1848. Lindet, l^N^di', (Jean Baptiste Robert,) a French Jacobin and financier, born at Bernay, Normandy, in « as ^; 9 as j; g hard; g as j; o, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) LINDLET H34 LINGELBACH 1743. He was elected to the Convention in 1792, and was a member of the committee of public safety after its number was reduced and after it was invested with supreme executive power, (1793.) He was reputed one of the least violent but most subtle chiefs of the domi- nant faction. He was minister of finances from June, 1799, until Bonaparte became First Consul, in November of that year. Died in 1825, Lmd^ley, (John,) LL.D., F.R.S., one of the most eminent botanists of the present century, was born at Cattt;n, near Norwich, England, in 1 799. He was the son of the proprietor of a nursery-garden. About 1821 he became a resident of London, and was employed to write the descriptions of Loudon's "Encyclopaedia of Plants," (1829.) In 1830 he published an " Introduction to the Natural System of Botany." Of this system he is a zealous advocate, and has contributed more than any other English botanist to render it popular. His "Introduction to Systematic and Physiological Botany" (1832) is highly commended. In 1836 he produced " A Natural System of Botany," which was expanded into "The Vegetable Kingdom," (1846,) with engravings, — probably the most excellent and comprehensive work that has ever appeared on that subject. Pie adopted in this work an improved, or at least new, system of classi- fication, and explained the uses of plants. In 1829 Dr. Lindlcy became professor of botany in the University College, London, where he was very successful as a lec- turer. His "Flora Medica" (1838) describes the plants used in medical practice. He wrote many botanical articles for the " Penny Cyclopaedia," and a good ele- mentary work on Botany inserted in the "Library of Useful Knowledge." In his excellent work entitled " Theory of Horticulture," (1844,) he successfully ap- plied science to practical utility. He was also the author of popular treatises, entitled " Ladies' Botany," " School Botany," " British Pomology," and " Orchard and Kitchen Garden." About 1841 he became editor of the " Gardener's Chronicle," a valuable periodical. Died at Acton Green, November i, 1865. Lindner, lint'ner, (Friedrich Ludwig,) a German political writer, born at Mitau, Courland, in 1772. In 1824 he published "Secret Papers," and in 1825 became editor of the " Political Annals," at Munich. He also wrote " Europe and the Orient," (1839,) and other works. Died in 1845. Lindner, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German teacher and theologian, born at Weida in 1779. He became professor of the science of teaching at Leipsic in 1825. He published a Latin treatise on the art of teaching, " De Finibus et Praesidiis Artis paedagogicae," (1825,) and a work on free- masonry. Lindner, (Wilhelm Bruno,) a writer on theology, a son of the preceding, was born at Leipsic in 1814. He was appointed professor of theology at Leipsic in 1846. His principal work is a " Manual of the History of the Christian Church," (2 vols., 1848-54.) Lindpaintner, lint'pint'ner, (Peter Joseph,) a Ger- man composer, born at Coblentz in 1791. He produced symphonies, overtures, instrument pieces, and operas entitled "The Sicilian Vespers" and " The Vampyre." Died in 1856. Lindsay, lin'ze, (Alexander William Craw- ford,) Lord, a British author, the son of the Earl of Crawford, was born in Cumberland in 1812. After making a tour in the East, he published in 1838 " Letters on Egypt, Edom, and the Holy Land," which passed through several editions. He increased his reputation by an important and novel work, entitled " Sketches of the History of Christian Art," (1847,) which displays much research and contains eloquent passages. In 1849 he published the " Lives of the I^indsays," a family his- tory of much merit. See " London Quarterly Review" for June, 1847. Lindsay, (Sir David,) a Scottish poet, born about 1495. became in 1512 a page or servitor to the prince, (afterwards James V.,) and continued in his ser- vice until 1524. Among his principal works are "The Dream," "The Complaint of the King's Papingo," (a satire on the clergy,) a " Satire on the Three Estates," and "The Monarchic." He excelled in sarcasm, which he directed with much effect against the Romish Church, He is supposed to have died after 1567. See Lord Lindsay, "Lives of the Lindsays," 1849; Chalmers, " Life," prefixed to Lindsay's works, 1806 ; Chambers, " Riograijhicai Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "Monthly Review" for lane. 1808. Lindsay, lin'ze, (John,) an English nonjuring minis- ter, born about 1686. He wrote a " History of the Regal Succession," (1720.) Died in 1768. Lindsay, (John,) Earl of Crawford, an able British general, born in 1702. For his conduct at Fontenoy he obtained the rank of major-general. He was renowned for generosity, talents, and other popular qualities. Died in 1749. See Richard Roi-T, " Memoirs of the Life of J. Lindsay," etc., 1753; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Lindsay, (William Shaw,) a British merchant, born in Ayrshire in 1816, is reputed one of the largest ship- owners in the kingdom. He was once a cabin-boy, and has raised himself to affluence by industry and prudence. He was elected to Parliament for Tynemouth in 1854. Lindsey, Earl of. See Bertie, (Robert.) Lindsay, lin'ze, (Montague Bertie,) Earl of, born in 1608, was a son of Robert Bertie. (See Bertie.) He fought for Charles I. at Edgehill and Naseby, and, when the king was imprisoned in the Isle of Wight, negotiated the treaty of Newport. Died in 1666. Lindsey, (TheoPHILUS,) an English Unitarian min- ister, born in Cheshire in 1723. Having taken orders in the Anglican Church, he obtained in 1763 the living of Catterick, Yorkshire. He became so dissatisfied with the Trinitarian creed that in 1773 he resigned his living and published an " Apology" for his course, which is a work of much research. He then removed to London, where he was successful in forming a Unitarian congre- gation, and preached about twenty yesvs. He published, besides other works, a " Historical View of the State of the Unitarian Doctrine and Worship," (1783.) Died in 1808. See Thomas Belsham, "Memoirs of Theaohilus Lindsey," 1812. Lindsley, linz'le, (Philip,) D.D., an American di- vine and scholar, born at Morristown, New Jersey, in 1786. He became in 1850 professor of ecclesiastical archaeology in the New Albany Theological Seminary, Indiana. Died in 1855. Ling, (Pehr Henrik,) born in Smdland,Jn Sweden, in 1776, is regarded as the founder of modern gym- nastic institutions, the first of which he established at Stockholm. They were subsequently adopted at Berlin, Vienna, and other German cities. Died in 1839. Lmga, ling'ga, or Lingam, Ifng'gam, in the Hindoo mythology, a phallic symbol, or type of the veproductive power, which is regarded as the especial attribute of Siva. (See Siva.) See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon ;" Guigniaut, "Religions de I'An- tiquite," book i. chap. ii. Lingard, ling'gard, (John,) an eminent English histo- rian, born at Winchester in 1771. He became a Roman Catholic priest, and settled at Hornby, Lancashire, about 1811. He published in 1819 the first volume of his " History of England from the First Invasion by the Romans to the Accession of William and Mary in 1688," of which the sixth edition, in 10 vols., appeared in 1855. This work is highly esteeined for its style, accu- racy, and other merits. He also wrote " The Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church," (1806,) and other works. He visited Rome in 1825, and, it is said, refused the offer of a cardinal's hat. Died in 185 1. See " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1825, (vol. xlii.,) and March, 1831, (vol. liii. ;) "Monthly Review" for July and .September, iSig, and September, 1825; "North British Review" for November, 1846. L'Ingegno. See Luigi, (Andrea dl) Lingelbach, ling'el-baK', (Johann,) sometimes writ- ten Linglebach, an eminent painter of genre and land- scapes, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1625. He studied in Rome, and settled in Holland about 1650. He excelled in the treatment of markets, fairs, and sea- ports. His colour is good, his touch free and spirited, and his works remarkable for variety. His blue dis- tances and lightly-clouded skies produce an exhilarating effect. Among his works are a " Sea-Port in the Levant," a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; LINGENDES 1435 LINN^US and " The Vegetable Market." Died at Amsterdam in 1687. See C. Blanc, " Les Peintres de toutes las Ecoles;" Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Lingendes, de, deh liN^zhSNd', (Claude,) a French pulpit orator and Jesuit, born at Moulins in 1591 ; died in 1660. Lingendes, de, (Jean,) a French poet, born at Mou- lins about 1 580, composed stanzas, odes, and other verses. Died in 1616. Lingendes, de, (Jean,) a relative of the preceding, was born at Moulins in 1595. He became an eminent preacher, and chaplain to Louis XIII. He was made Bishop of Macon in 1650. Died in 1665. Linguet, lAN'ga', (Simon Nicolas Henri,) an elo- quent French advocate and polemical writer, born at Rheims in 1736. He pleaded with success at the bar of Paris, but made many enemies by his sarcasms and his impetuous temper. He was confined in the Bastille two years, ending in 1782. He published numerous works, which display learning and talent but are censured as paradoxical. Among them are a "History of the Age of Alexander the Great," (1762,) and "The Fanaticism of Philosophers," (1764.) He fell a victim to the reign of terror in 1794. See Gardaz, " Essai siir la Vie et les Ouvrages de Linguet," 1808; "NoLivelle Biographic Generale." Liniere, de, deh le'ne-aiR', (Franqois Payot,) a French satiric poet, born in Paris in 1628, was a gay votary of pleasure. He composed songs and epigrams with facility. Boileau, in his ninth Satire, mentions Liniere as a judicious critic. Died in 1704. Link or Linck, link, (Heinrich Friedrtch,) a German naturalist and physician, born at Hildesheim in 1767. He was appointed professor of botany and chemistry at Breslau in 1811, and in 1815 filled the same chair at Berlin. He published numerous works on botany, of which we may name "The Anatomy of Plants," (1807,) and "Elements of Botanical Philos- ophy," (1824.) Died in 185 1. See Von Martius, " Denkrede auf H. F. Linck," 1851 ; " Bio- grapliie Medicale." Lin'ley, (Thomas,) an excellent English musical composer, born at Wells about 1725, was a pupil of Pa- radies. In his early life he conducted the concerts and oratorios at Bath. He composed the nuisic for Sheri- dan's "Duenna," which had great success, in 1775. In 1776 he removed to London, and became one of the proprietors of Drury Lane Theatre, in partnership with his son-in-law, R. B. Sheridan, the great orator. Mr. Linley directed the musical department, and composed for it the "Carnival of Venice," "The Camp," etc. Among his admired productions are "Six Elegies," "Twelve Ballads," and a madrigal to these verses of Cowley, " Let me, careless and unthoiightfiil lying, Hear the soft winds above me flying." Died in 1795. See BuRNEY, "History of Music." Linley, (Thomas,) a son of the preceding, was born at Bath about 1756, and inherited his father's musical talent. He studied under the best masters of Italy, and became very intimate with Mozart. He composed seve- ral admired airs for the theatre. He was drowned in 1778, while sailing in a pleasure-boat in Lincolnshire. Linley, (William,) a brother of the preceding, was born about 1766. In his youth he went to India as a clerk, and rose to the office of sub-treasurer at Fort Saint George. He returned to England in the prime of life, and devoted himself to music and literature. He com- posed several glees, songs, and other verses, and pub- lished the dramatic songs of Shakspeare. Died in 1835. Linn, (John Blair,) D.D., an American poet and divine, born at Shippensburg, Pennsylvania, in 1777, was brother-in-law of the celebrated novelist Charles Brockden Brown, and son of William Linn, who was also a divine. He became assistant pastor of the First Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia in 1798. He was the author of "The Powers of Genius," and other poems, and a reply to Dr. Priestley's " Comparison between Socrates and Christ." Died in 1804. See DuYCKiNCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature." Linn, (Lewis Fields,) M.D., a Senator of the United States, was born near Louisville, Kentucky, in 1795.. ^"<^ removed to Missouri about 1816. He was elected to the Senate by the Democrats in 1833, and again about 1838. Died in 1843. See "Life of L. F. Linn," by E. A. Linn and N. Sargent, 1857. Linnaeus, lin-nee'us, [Sw. Von Linn6, fon lin-nu',] (Charles or Carl,) a celebrated Swedish botanist, and the most influential naturalist of the eighteenth century, was born at Rdshult, in Smaland, on the 24th of May, 1707. He was the son of Nicholas Linnaeus, a village curate, who, it is said, so far underrated his son's capacity that he made him an apprentice to a shoemaker after he had reached the age of seventeen without mak- ing much progress in his studies. In 1727, however, he was sent to the University of Lund to study medicine, and his inclination for natural history was favoured by Professor Stobaeus, Although nearly destitute of pecu- niary resources, he pursued his studies at Upsal, (1728,) where he was patronized by Olaus Celsius, who relieved him from his extreme poverty. About 1730 he conceived the idea of a reform in botanical method and nomencla- ture, and began the composition of several great works, noticed below. At the expense of the Royal Academy of Upsal, he made a botanical excursion on foot through Lapland in 1732, the results of which appeared in his "Flora Lapponica," (1737.) Between 1735 and 1738 he passed three years in the house of George Cliffort, a rich Dutch gentleman living between Leyden and Haarlem, who employed him to arrange his fine garden and museum. Linnaeus has expressed his gratitude to this benefactor for the facilities he there enjoyed for his favourite pursuits, and has honoured his memory by a work entitled " The Garden of Cliffort," ("Hortus Cliffortianus.") He perceived that it was necessary to invent methods of distribu- tion capable of embracing all creatures, and founded on characters well defined ; to invent terms sufficiently numerous to designate the prodigious variety of their conformation, and define these terms with precision ; finally, to make a general review of all beings described in former works, or to be found by the exploration of nature. The first sketch of this great enterprise ap- peared in two small volumes, entitled " System of Nature, or the Three Kingdoms of Nature exhibited methodically in Classes, Orders, Genera, and Species," (" Systema Na- turae, seu Regna tria Naturae systematice proposita, per Classes, Ordines, Genera et Species," 1735,) and " Funda- menta Botanica," (1736.) The characters of genera were largely developed in his "Genera of Plants according to the Number, Figure, Position, etc. of the Parts of Fruc- tification," (" Genera Plantarum secundum Numerum, Figuram, etc. omnium Fructificationis Partium," 1737.) He removed in 1738 to Stockholm, where he practised medicine, lectured on botany, and received the title of physician to the king. He married a daughter of Dr. More in 1739. In 1741 he obtained at Upsal the chair of botany, which he occupied thirty-seven years, witness- ing the continuous growth of his fame and influence, and exerting his unabated activity to improve his scientific productions. Thunberg, Kalm, Hasselquist, Forskal, and other eminent naturalists, who had been his puj^ils, visited various foreign countries and brought back willing tribute to enrich his collections and publications. The botanical philosophy of Linnaeus was reproduced in its enseynble^ arranged in its parts, and enforced by examples in his " Philosophia Botanica," (1751.) "This work," says Cuvier, "which exhibits on every page proofs of the rarest ingenuity (finesse d''esfrit) and the most sur- prising profoundness of observation, has enjoyed a suc- cess which was previously unexampled. It has become as it were a fundamental law, to which all botanists con- form in their descriptions and in their use of terms." His artificial sexual system was for a long time uni- versally adopted, but has been superseded in a great measure by the natural method of Jussieu. In 1753 he produced his " Species Plantarum," an important work, in which he adopted the happy idea of designating each species by a single epithet added to the name of the genus. He also applied his methods with success to the € as 5 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2[^='See Explanation s, p. 23.) LINNjEUS LIPPT animal kingdom in several enlarged editions of his " Systema Naturoe," in his "Fauna Suecica," ("Swedish Fauna," 1744,) or history of Swedish animals, and va- rious other works. Died in January, 1778. See PuLTENEY, "Life of Linnseus," 1781 : Agarda, "Antiqui- tates Liiinaeaiiie," 1S26 ; A. L. A. Fee, "Vie de Lintie," 1832; Miss Hrightweli., " Life of Linnjeus ;" Van Hai.l, " Epistolc-E Lin- njei ;" J.Tkafp, " Life of Linn£eus," 1794; Stoever, " Leben des Ritters C. von Linne," 2 vols., 1792; Auam Afzelius, " Egenhan- diga Anteckniiigar af C. Liniisus om sig sjelf," 1823 ; Antonio Cattaneo, " Cenni sulla Vita di C. Linne," 1838; " Noiivelle Bio- graphie G^nerale ;" " Monthly Review" for July, 1785. Linnaeus, (Linne,) von, (Charles or Carl,) only son of the preceding, was born at Fahlun in 1741. He was chosen demonstrator of botany at the Royal Garden of Upsal at the age of eighteen, and succeeded his father as professor in the university of that place in 1778. He published "Two Decades of Rare Plants of the Gar- den of Upsal," "Methodus Muscorum," ("Method of Mosses,") and a few other small works. His talents were moderate. He died in 1783, and the family then became extinct. See SvEN Anders Hedin, " Minne af C. von Linne, Fader och Son," 1808. Linne. See Linn^us. Lin^nell, (John,) a successful English portrait- and landscape-painter, born in London in 1792. He has represented English scenery with success in the "Heath Scene," "The Windmill," (1847,) and "The Forest Road," (1853.) Among his other great works are the "Eve of the Deluge," (1848,) "The Return of Ulysses," (1849,) and " Christ and the Woman of Samaria," (1850.) His portraits of Thomas Carlyle (1844) and Sir Robert Peel are admired. He is called an excellent colorist. Linschooten, van, vtn lin'sK5'ten, (Adriaan,) a skilful Dutch painter of history and genre, born at Delft in 1590. Among his works is " The Repentance of Saint Peter." Died about 1678. Linschooten or Linschoten, van, (Jan Hugo,) a Dutch voyager, born at Haarlem in 1563. He went to Goa in 1583, and remained there several years in the service of Archbishop Fonseca. After his return, he published in 1596 an "Account of his Voyage, with a Description of the Portuguese East Indies," which is said to be reliable, and has often been reprinted. Died in 1633. Linsenbahrt, lin^sen-bSRt', [Lat. Rosi'nus Len- til'ius,] a German medical writer, born at Waldenburg in 1657; died at Stuttgart in 1733. Lint, van, vtn lint, (Hendrik,) a skilful Flemish landscape-painter, lived probably about 1630-50. He worked in Rome, where he obtained the surname of Srunio. Among his works is "Views near Rome." Lint, van, (Pieter,) a Flemish painter of history, born at Antwerp in 1609. He worked in Rome, and afterwards at Antwerp, to which he returned in 1639, and was patronized by Christian IV. of Denmark. He was a good colorist, a correct designer, and painted history with equal success in large or small pictures. Died about 1668. See Descamps, "Vie des Peintres Flamands," etc. Lin'ton, (William,) an eminent English landscape- painter, born at Liverpool about 1790. He became a resident of London in his youth, and afterwards travelled extensively in the South of Europe. The subjects of his best works are Italian and Grecian scenes, among which are "The Ray of Naples," "Lake Lugano," "Ruins of Paestum," "Athens," and "An Arcadian Landscape." His style is simple and rather austere. Li'nus, [Gr. Aivof,] a fabulous personage, whom the ancients regarded as a son of Apollo or Mercury, and as one of the inventors of poetry. He is called by some authors a personification of the dirge. Among the an- cient Greeks circulated a plaintive song or dirge called "Linus," which is mentioned by Homer, ("Iliad," xviii. 569.) According to tradition, he was killed by Hercules, who was his pupil. Li'nus, [Fr. Lin, IAn,] Bishop of Rome, was a native of Volterra, in Tuscany. According to some accounts, he became bishop in 66 a.d., and was the immediate successor of Saint Peter. Little is known of his history ; but it is supposed that he suffered martyrdom about 78 A.p. He is mentioned in Saint Paul's second Epistle to Timothy, chap. iv. 21. Lin'wood, Miss, an English artist, born at Birming- ham in 1 755, made, in needle-work, copies of many pic- tures of tlie old masters. She was offered, it is said, three thousand guineas for one of her works. Died in 1845. Lionardo da Vinci. See Vinci, da. Li'o-nel, Duke of Clarence, the third son of Edward III. of England, was born at Antwerp in 1338. He died in 1368, leaving no issue except a daughter, Philippa, who was married to Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March. Lionne, de.deh le''on', (HuGUES,) Marquis de Berny, a French statesman and diplomatist, born at Grenoble in 161 1. He was sent as ambassador to Rome in 1655. He succeeded Mazarin in 1661 as minister of foreign affairs, which he directed with great ability for ten years. Died in 1671. See Saint-Simon, "Memoires;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Fran- cais." Lionnet. See Lyonnet. Liotard, leVttR', (Jean Etienne,) a Swiss portrait- painter, surnamed THE Turk, because he adopted the Turkish costume, was born at Geneva in 1702. In 1725 he went to Paris, where he acquired reputation by his skill in crayon and enamel miniatures. He worked four years in Constantinople, (1738-42), painting Turkish cos- tumes, etc. He afterwards painted portraits of the royal families of Austria and France. Died in 1790. See Nagler, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Liotard, (Jean Michel,) a twin-brother of the pre- ceding, born at Geneva in 1702, was an engraver, and one of the best pupils of Benoit Audran. He engraved the great cartoons of C. Cignani in Italy, and afterwards worked in Paris. He returned to Geneva, where he died about 1760. Liotard, (Pierre,) a French botanist, born near Grenoble in 1729, was originally a poor peasant. He acquired a good knowledge of the plants of the Alps, and was employed as guide by J. J. Rousseau and Desfontaines. He corresponded for some years with Rousseau. Died in 1796. Liouville, Woo'vhV, (Joseph,) an able French mathe- matician, born at Saint-Omer in 1809. He became in 1839 a member of the Institute. He wrote several im- portant treatises, and edited for a long time a journal of pure mathematics called by his name. Lipano, de, di le-pi'no. Countess, was the title assumed by Caroline, Queen of Naples, after the death of Murat, her husband. See Bonaparte, (Caroline Marie.) Liparini, le-pi-ree'nee, (Ludovico,) an Italian painter of history, born at Bologna in 1800 ; died in 1856. Lipenius, le-pa'ne-us, (Martin,) a learned German bibliographer, born in Brandenburg in 1630, was rector of gymnasiums at Halle and Stettin. He compiled " Bibliotheca Juridica," (1679,) "Bibliotheca Realis, etc. Philosophica," (2 vols., 1682,) "Bibliotheca Realis The- ologica," (2 vols., 1685,) and other works. Died at Lubeck in 1692. See J. H. VON Seelen, "Vita M. Lipenii," edited by Jenichen, 1737; Niceron, " Memoires." Lipinski, le-pen'skee, (Charles,) a celebrated Polish violinist, born at Radzin in 1790. He received the title of first violinist to the Emperor of Russia. Lippert, lip'^peRt, (Philipp Daniel,) a German artist and glyptographer, was born at Meissen in 1703. He published " Dactyliotheca ; or, A Collection of Two Thousand Prints of Antique Gems." Died in 1785. Lippe-Schaumburg, von, fon lip'peh showm^'bdoRG, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) Count, a German general, born in London in 1724. He served several campaigns in the Austrian army, and afterwards travelled in Italy. He obtained the chief command of the British troops sent in 1 761 to aid Portugal, which he defended with success against the Spaniards. Died in 1777. See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." Lippi, l^p'pee, (Annibale,) a Roman architect, who lived in the sixteenth century. Lippi, (FiLiPPO,) one of the most celebrated of the old Italian painters in oil and fresco, born at Florence in 1412, a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, filll, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; LIPPl 1437 LISFRJNC was a pupil of Masaccio. Before he was of age he was captured by pirates and enslaved in Africa. His master was so pleased with a portrait of himself, drawn with a coal on the wall, that he gave the artist his liberty. Lippi then returned to Florence, and adorned the churches and convents of that city, and of Spoleto, Prato, etc. Among his master-pieces are a Madonna, in oil, "The Life of Saint Stephen," "The Death of San Bernardo," in oil, at Prato, two " Annunciations," and "The Coronation of the Virgin," in fresco. He excelled in invention, design, and colouring, and is ranked among the greatest painters before Raphael. Died in 1469. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- ing in Italy;" Baldinucci, " Notizie ;" Ticozzi, " Dizionario ;" " Noiivelle Biographie Generale." Lippi, (FiLiPPO or Filippino,) son of the preceding, was born at Florence in 1460, and became an excellent ])ainter. He studied with Sandro Botticelli, and worked chiefly in Florence and Rome. He" was distinguished for his good taste and correctness of design, and was perhaps the first painter among the moderns who treated costumes and other accessories with propriety. Among his master-pieces are " Saint Peter and Saint Paul before the Proconsul," the " Death of Lucretia," at the Pitti palace in Florence, several Madonnas, and frescos in Santa Maria Novella, in the same city. Died in 1505. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- ing in Italy;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lippi, (GlACOMO,) an Italian painter, born near Bo- logna in the sixteenth century, was a pupil of L. Caracci. Lippi, (LiPPO,) called Lippo of Florence, a Floren- tine painter, born in 1354, was the father of Filippo Lippi, (1412-69.) His works, which are praised by Vasari, are not now extant. Died in 1415. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." Lippi, (Lorenzo,) a successful Italian painter and poet, born at Florence in 1606, received lessons in art from Roselli. He worked in Florence, and was rejjuted one of the best draughtsmen of his time. "The Martyr- dom of Saint Sebastian" and "The Triumph of David" are called his master-pieces. He wrote a facetious poem called "II Malmantile racquistato," (1676,) which was admired and recognized by the Academy della Crusca among the testi di lingiia. Died in 1664. See Mrs. Jameson, " Memoirs of Early Italian Painters ;" Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy ;" Baldinucci, " Notizie." Lip'pin-cott, (Joshua B.,) an American publisher, distinguished for his ability, energy, and enterprise, was born in l^urlington county. New Jersey. About 1828 he came to Philadelphia and engaged him- self in a small bookstore. At an early age he com- menced the publishing and bookselling business, which he conducted successfully. In 1850 he jnirchased the business of Messrs. Grigg & Elliot, and the firm of which he became the head soon took its place among the most distinguished publishing houses in the United States. Lippincott, (Sarah G.,) a popular American writer, whose original name was Clarke, was born at Pompey, in Onondaga county. New York, about 1825. Her first productions appeared in the New York " Mirror," under the pseudonym of Grace Greenwood. She also contributed to the "National Era," Washington. Her principal works are "Greenwood Leaves," (1850-52,) "History of my Pets," (1850,) "Poems," (1851,) "Recol- lections of my Childhood," (1851,) "Haps and Mishaps of a Tour in Europe," (1852,) "Forest Tragedy, and other Tales," (1856,) and "Stories and Legends of His- tory and Travel," (1857.) She was married in 1853 to Leander K. Lippincott, of Philadelphia, where she be- came editor of a popular juvenile periodical called "The Little Pilgrim." See Cleveland, "Compendium of American Literature;" Alli- BuNE, "Dictionary of Authors." Lippo OF Florence. See Lippl Lippomani, l^p-po-mS'nee, (Aloisio,) a learned Ital- ian prelate, born at Venice about 1500. He obtained successively the bishoprics of Modon, Verona, and Ber- gamo, and was one of three prelates selected to preside over the Council of Trent. In 1556 he became secretary to Pope Julius III. He wrote, besides a few other works, commentaries on Genesis, Exodus, and the Psalms. Died in 1559- Liprandi, le-pRSn'dee, (Paul Petrovitch,) a Rus- sian general, born in 1796, distinguished himself at the taking of Warsaw, in 1 83 1, and in the Crimean war took (October 25, 1854) the Turkish fortress at Kadikoi. Lips, lips, (Johann Heinrich,) a Swiss painter, de- signer, and engraver, born near Zurich in 1758. Among his best works are the engravings for Lavater's "Phys- iognomical Fragments," and a "Saint Sebastian," after Van Dyck. Died in 181 7. Lipse, (Juste.) See Lipsius. Lipsius, lip''se-us, (Justus,) [Fr. Juste Lipse, zhiist l^ps,] a Flemish scholar, critic, and philologist of high reputation, was born at Isque, between Brussels and Louvain, in 1547. He was educated at Brussels and Louvain. At the age of nineteen he ])roduced " Various Readings," (" Varias Lectiones,") which were received with favour. He was professor of history in Jena two years, ending in 1574, and occupied the same chair at Leyden from 1579 to 1592. About this time he became a Roman Catholic, and was afterwards professor of history at Louvain. He wrote many works on history, criticism, antiquities, etc., which were very popular in his time. His best work, according to Scaliger, is a commentary on Tacitus, (1574,) whose history, it is said, he knew by heart. His admiration of Tacitus and Seneca spoiled his Latinity, which was affectedly concise. His moral character is said to have been good. Died in 1606. See MiR^iJS, "Vita Justi Lipsii," 1606; Scribani, "Justi Lipsii Defensio ;" Charles Nisard, " Le Triumvirat litteraire an XVIe Siecle, J. Lipse, Joseph Scaliger et I. Casaubon," 1852; Edward VAN Even, " J. Liv)sius als Vaderlander," 1849: Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Liron, le'rc)N', (Jean,) a learned French Benedictine monk, born at Chartres in 1665, lived in Paris and at Mans. Among his works are "The Amenities of Criti- cism," (2 vols., 1717,) and a curious book called "His- toric and Literary Oddities," (" vSingularites historiques et litteraires," 4 vols., 1734-40.) Died in 1749. Liruti, le-roo'tee, (Giovanni Giuseppe,) an Italian antiquary, born in Friuli about 1710; died in 1780. Lis, lis or l^ss, (Charles Augusts,) a Belgian com- poser, born at Antwerp in 1784; died in 1845. Lis or Lys, liss, or Van der Lys, vtn der liss, (Jan,) a Dutch painter, born at Oldenburg in 1570. He worked in Rome and Venice, taking for his models Titian and Paul Veronese. Some critics find in his works the good colouring of the former with the grace of the latter. Among his productions are "Adam and Eve Mourning for Abel," and "The Prodigal Son." Died at Venice in 1629. Lis or Lys, van der, (Jan,) a Dutch painter, born at Breda about 1600. A picture of "Diana Bathing" is called his best work. Lisboa, de, da l^s-bo'S, (Marcos,) a Portuguese his- torian and Franciscan friar, born at Lisbon in 15 11. He wrote a "Chronicle of the Order of Friars of Saint Francis," (3 vols., 1556, 1570, 1660,) and is ranked among the classic authors of Portugal. Died in 1 591. Liscov, lis'kof, (Christian Ludwig,) the most ex- cellent satirist and prose writer of Germany before Les- sing, was born at Wittenberg in 1701. He lived at Lubeck, Dresden, etc., and about 1741 became secretary to Bruhl, the Saxon minister. In 1745 he obtained the title of Kricgsrath, (councillor of war,) but a few years later he was removed from ofiice. He published in 1739 a " Collection of Satirical and Serious Writings." Ilis style was remarkable for purity. His works are per- vaded by a sound philosophical spirit, and have been more highly appreciated since his death than before. He was a complete master of the weapons of irony. One of his treatises is entitled "The Excellence and Utility of Bad Writers." Died in 1760. See LiscH, "Liscovs Leben," 1845; Karl Gustav Helbig, " C. L. Liscow: Beitrag zur Literatur- und Cultur-Geschichte," etc., 1844. Lisfranc, le'fRfiN', (Jacques,) a distinguished French surgeon, born in the department of Loire in 1790. Among his works is "Diseases of the Uterus," ("Maladies de I'Uterus," 1836.) Died in 1847. See L. A. Coutourier, " Biographie de J. Lisfranc," 1852 ; " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; g, h, Y.,guUural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) LISLE 1438 LITTJ Lisle, 111, (Lady Alice,) was the widow of an English lawyer who took an active part against Charles I. She was condemned to death by Judge Jeffreys, and executed in 1685. See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. i. chap. v. Lisle, (Sir George,) an English royalist officer, dis- tinguished himself at the battle of Newbury. Having been taken prisoner at Colchester in 1648, he was shot. L'Isle-Adam. See Villiers. Lisle, de. See Delisle. Lisle, de, deh 1^1, (Jean IUptiste Isoard,) a prolific French writer, called also Delisle de Sales, was born at Lyons in 1743. He was condemned to exile for the alleged immorality of his " Philosophy of Nature," which consequently attracted attention; but his sentence was annulled or remitted. He wrote many other works. Died in 1816. JLiismauin, lis-mi-neen', (Francis,) a Socinian theo- logian, born at Corfu, became confessor to the Queen of Poland about 1546. Died about 1563. Lisola, de, deh le'zoHS', (Francois Paul,) Baron, an able diplomatist, born at Salins, France, in 1613. He was successively employed by the Empero,r of Germany as minister to England, (1743,) to Poland, and to Spain. He wrote several successful political treatises, one of which, called "Shield of the State and of Justice," (1667,) was directed against the ambition of Louis XIV. Died about 1675. List, list, (Friedrich,) a German political economist, was born at Reutlingen in 1789. In 1825 he emigrated to Pennsylvania, where he was extensively engaged in coal-mining, and ])ublished, in English, "Outlines of a New System of Political Economy," (Philadelphia, 1827.) Having been appointed United States consul at Leipsic, he returned to Europe in 1832, and in several publica- tions efficiently advocated the construction of railroads in Germany. He published "A National System of Po- litical Economy," (Stuttgart, 1841,) in which he favours the ])rotection of native industry. He committed suicide in 1846. Since his death his merit has been more fully recognized throughout Germany. See " Life of List," prefixed to an edition of his works published at Stuttgart, 1851. Lista y Aragon, l^s'tS e ^-rl.-gb\V, (Don Alberto,) an eminent Spanish poet, critic, and mathematician, born at Triana, a suburb of Seville, in 1775. the age of twenty he became professor of mathematics in the nau- tical college of Seville. He obtained the chair of rhetoric and poetry in the university of that city in 1807, but lost it in consequence of the French invasion of 1808. He passed about four years as an exile in France, from 1813 to 181 7. In 1820 he began to edit "The Censor," at Madrid. After various removals and adverse fortunes, he became about 1833 editor of the " Gaceta de Madrid," which in his hands w^as an able and successful political journal. In 1822 he published a volume of poems, which are greatly admired. His superior critical ability is dis- played in his " Lectures on the Dramatic Literature of Spain," (1839.) He also published a "Treatise on Pure and Mixed Mathematics," which is a standard work. As a lyric poet he united the fervour and splendid colour of the old Spanish school with the purer taste and depth of reflection of the moderns. His imitations of Horace, in his "Philosophic Poems," are admirable. Died in 1848. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Lis'ter, (Joseph Jackson,) F.R.S., an English mer- chant of London, Vt'ho attained distinction by his know- ledge of optics and by his improvement of the achromatic microscope. He had been led to the use of that in- strument by a love of natural history. About 1828 he produced a combination of lenses which was perfectly achromatic, with a large focal pencil, thus surmounting what had before been the chief obstacle to the perfection of the microscope. He sent to the Royal Society an account of it, which was inserted in their "Philosophical Transactions." Lister, (Martin,) M.D., F.R.S., an English naturalist, born at Radcliffe (Bucks) about 1638. In 1670 he settled at York, where he practised medicine. Pie removed to London in 1684, and published "Synopsis Conchylio- , rum," (1685-93,) a valuable work on conchology, which was highly commended by Linnaeus. In 1709 he became physician to Queen Anne. He wrote three exce'.ient treatises on English Spiders, Fluviatile Shells, and Marine Shells, (1678,) and other works. "Lister may be reckoned," says Hallam, "one of those who have done most to found the .science of conchology." (" In- troduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 17 11. See Thompson, "History of the Royal Society." Lister, (Sir Matthew,) an English physician, born in Yorkshire about 1565. He became president of the College of Physicians, London, and physician to Charles I. Died in 1657. Lister, (Thomas Henry,) an English author and gentleman, born about 1800, was the son of Thomas Lister, Esq., of Armitage Park. He obtained the office of registrar-general of births. He published two novels, entitled "Granby," (1826,) and "Herbert Lacy," and a " Life of Lord Clarendon the Historian." He married the sister of the Earl of Clarendon, known as the au- thoress of " Sketches of the Contemporaries of Lord Chancellor Clarendon." Died in 1842. In 1844 his widow became the wife of Sir George Cornewall Lewis. He was a brother-in-law of Lord John Russell. Lis'ton, (John,) a popular English comedian, born in London in T776, appeared on the London stage about 1805. He excelled in low comedy, and acted many years at the Playmarket, Covent Garden, and Drury Lane Theatres. Died in 1846. _ Lis'ton, (Rohert,) F'.R.S., an emineiit Scottish phy- sician, born in 1794. About 181 7 he began to practise in Edinburgh, where he attained great eminence as a surgeon. In 1833 he published his "Principles of Sur- gery." He removed to London in 1834, practised with success, and became professor of clinical surgery in University College. Died in 1848. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Liszinski, le-sh^n'skee, (Casimir,) a Polish philoso- pher, who was beheaded in 1689 on a false charge of heresy or atheism. Liszt, list, (Franz,) a Hungarian musician, and the most celebrated pianist of recent times, was born at Rai- ding in 1811. Lie was instructed by Czerny and Salieri at Vienna, and afterwards repaired to Paris, where his performance made a great sensation. About 1823 he visited England, and was received with equal enthusiasm. Having, after his return to Paris, heard Paganini, he re- solved to obtain the same mastery over the ])iano which that great musician had gained over the violin ; and it is generally allowed that he has succeeded. He visited the principal cities of Europe, and everywhere excited the warmest admiration. Though he has produced several compositions, he chiefly excels as a performer. Liszt is distinguished for generosity, and has given largely to charitable and useful institutions. In 1848 he was ap- pointed leader of the orchestra in the imperial chapel at Weimar. He is the author of a "Life of Frederick Chopin." See L. Rei.i.stab, " F. Liszt: Beurtheilungen, Berichte, Lebens- skizze," 1842; GusTAV Schilling, " F. Liszt; sein Leben und Wirken," 1844; F. Kempe, " F. Liszt;" Richard W.agner, "Apho- ristische Memoiren," etc., 1852. Lith'gow, (William,) a traveller, who traversed on foot a large part of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and pub- lished in 1614 an entertaining narrative of his travels. At Malaga he was arrested as a spy and heretic, and tortured by the Inquisition. See "Retrospective Review," vol. xi., 1825. Lithov, lit'hov, } (Gustavus,) a Latin poet, born in Sweden in 1692. In 1734 he published "Heroic-Mis- cellaneous Poems," ( Poeniata heroico-miscellanea." ) His "Panegyric on Charles XII." (1720) produced a great sensation. Died in 1753- Litta, l^l'ta, (PoMPEO,) Count, an Italian historical writer, born in Milan in 1781. He entered the French army in 1804, fought at Austerlitz, (1805,) and, having obtained the grade of chef-de-bataillon, left the service ia 1814. In 1819 he began to publish at Milan his famous and costly work, " Celebrated Italian Families," which was continued until his death, and contains accounts of 5, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f3.r, fill, fit; mSt; nftt; good; moon; LITTLE H39 LIf'IJ seventy-five families. It is considered remarkable for historical accuracy. Died in 1852. See Bkockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Little. See Moore, (Thomas.) Lit'tle, (Henry,) an American general, born at Bal- timore, served in Mexico in 1846, and entered the Con- federate army in 1861. He was killed at the battle of luka, in 1862. Lit'tle, (William,) an English historian, called Nau- BRiGENSis, was born at Bridlington, Yorkshire, in 1136. He became a monk of Newborough Abbey, and wrote a " History of England from the Conquest to 1197," which is a work of merit. Lit'tle-ton, (Adam,) an English divine, eminent as a philologist and Orientalist, was born in Shropshire in 1627. He became chaplain to Charles H., rector of Chelsea, and prebendary of Westminster. His Latin Dictionary (1679) was esteemed and often reprinted. He published many sermons, and other works. Died in 1694. Littleton, (Edward,) Lord, lord keeper of the great seal of England, born at Munslow, Shropshire, in 1589, was a lineal descendant of the jurist Thomas Littleton. After finishing his studies in the Inner Temple, he soon rose to the summit of his profession. In 1626 he entered Parliament, where he was at first a zealous adherent of the popular party, bijt afterwards went over to the court with Wentworth and others. He was made chief justice of the common pleas in 1640, and reluctantly accepted the great seal in January, 1641. He was then raised to the peerage, as Lord Littleton. The vacillation which he displayed in the contest between Charles I. and the Parliament is ascribed to lack of moral courage ; but he was suspected of perfidy by the royalists and by the king. In 1642 the king, then at York, ordered Falkland to de- mand the great seal from the "traitor." Littleton soon joined the court at York, and, through the intercession of Lord Clarendon, was retained in office until his death, in 1645. "He was," says Lord Campbell, "a man of excellent private character." See Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors of Eng- land," 1846; Foss, "The Judges of England." Littleton, (Edward,) an English poet. He was presented to the living of Maple Durham about 1727, and was afterwards chaplain to the king. He was author of Verses on a Spider, and other poems. Died in 1734. Littleton, Lord. See Lyttleton. Littleton or Lyttleton, (Thomas,) a celebrated English judge and jurist, born probably about 1420,. was the son of Thomas Westcote, of Devonshire, and Eliza- beth Littleton. He studied in the Inner Temple. In 1455 he was appointed king's serjeant, and rode the northern circuit as judge of assize. After the triumph of the house of York, he received a pardon from Edward IV., about 1462, and was retained in the oftice of king's sergeant. He was appointed a judge of the court of common pleas in 1466, and created a knight of the Bath in 1475. died in 1481, leaving three sons, from whom the lord keeper Lyttleton and other eminent men de- scended. His treatise on " Tenures," written in Norman French, is regarded as the principal basis of the laws of property in Great Britain, and is indispensable to students of English law. The style is remarkably clear and pure. Sir Edward Coke wrote a celebrated com- mentary on Littleton. See Foss, " The Judges of England." Littre, l^tR, (Alexis,) a French physician, born at Cordes in 1658, practised in Paris, and wrote many memoirs on pathological anatomy. IDied in 1725. Littre, le'tRi', (Maxtmilien Paul Emile,) a French philologist, born in Paris in 1801. He was one of the editors of the "Nationel," a democratic journal, from 183 1 to 185 1. His most important work is an edition of Hippocrates with a French version, (8 vols., 1839-52,) which is, say the French critics, the best edition extant. Littrow, lit'tRof or lit'tRo, (Joseph Johann,) an eminent astronomer, born in Bohemia in 1781. He was appointed professor of astronomy at Cracow in 1807, and at Kazan in 1810. In 1819 he became director of the Observatory of Vienna, which he greatly improved, and lectured on astronomy with success in that city. He published many valuable scientific works, among which are "Theoretic and Practical Astronomy," (1822-26,) " Dioptrics," (1830,) and "The Wonders of the Heavens," (1853.) The last is called one of the best popular books on that subject. Died in 1840. Littrow, (Karl Ludwig,) a son of the preceding, was born at Kazan in 1811. He succeeded his father as director of the Observatory of Vienna in 1842. The Annals of this observatory which have appeared since his appointment are esteemed among the most valuable astronomical registers. In 1847 Littrow and W. Struve were employed to connect Austria and Russia by trian- gulation. Lit-y-er'ses, fGr. ALTvepariQ,'] a son of Midas, King of Phrygia, was killed by Hercules. Liutprand. See Luitprand. Liiitprandus. See Luitprandus. Livens. See Lievens. Liverani, le-va-ri'nee, an Italian theologian, born at Castel-Bolognese in 1823, published in 1861 a work against the temporal power of the pope. Liv'er-more, (Abiel Abbott,) an American Unita- rian divine, born at Wilton, New Hampshire, in 181 1, became in 1850 pastor of a church at Cincinnati. He has published a number of works in prose and verse. Liv'er-pool, (Charles Jenkinson,) first Earl of, a British statesman, born in Oxfordshire in 1727, was the son of Charles Jenkinson. In 1761 he entered Par- liament, and was appointed by Lord Bute under-secretary of state. After the retirement of Lord Bute, in 1763, he acquired the favour of the king, and incurred much popular odium as the chief of the secret cabinet. He became one of the lords of the treasury in 1767, was secretary of war under Lord North from 1778 to 1782, and was afterwards president of the board of trade in the ministry of the younger Pitt. He was created Lord Hawkesbury in 1786, and Earl of Liverpool in 1796. In 1758 he had published a "Discourse on the Conduct of Great Britain with respect to Neutral Nations." He died in 1808, leaving his title to his son, who became premier. Liverpool, (Robert Banks Jenkinson,) Earl of, a conservative British statesman, eminent for his prit- dence and prosperity, born in 1770, was the son of the preceding. He was educated at Oxford. In 1790 he entered Parliament as a political friend of Pitt. He dis- tinguished himself by his candour in debate, by abilities more solid than brilliant, and by his persistent hostility to innovation or reform. About 1796 he received the title of Lord Hawkesbury, and married a daughter of the Earl of Bristol. He became foreign secretary in the ministry of Addington in March, 1801, and made peace with Napoleon by the treaty of Amiens in 1802. In i8o4he accepted the office of home secretary under Pitt, who had returned to power. The ministry having been dissolved by the death of Pitt, in 1806, Lord Hawkesbury was requested by the king to form a new ministry; but he declined the task. He took office as home secretary in the cabinet of the Duke of Portland in 1807, and suc- ceeded to his father's earldom in 1808, In June, 1812, he obtained the place of first lord of the treasury, or premier, vacated by the death of Percival, which he re- tained until he was prostrated by a stroke of apoplexy in February, 1827. "He presided over the councils of England," says Brougham, "for a longer time than any other, excepting Walpole and Pitt. It happened to him that the years during which the helm of the state, as it is called, were intrusted to his hands, were those of the greatest events, alike in negotiation, in war, in commerce, and in finance, which ever happened to illustrate or to checker the annals of Europe. ... So long and so little interrupted a course of official prosperity was never, perhaps, enjoyed by any other statesman." Brougham also represents him as remarkable for discretion and as a model of safe mediocrity. He is censured for op- posing the abolition of the slave-trade, and for the part he took in the persecution of Queen Caroline. Died in December, 1828. See Brougham, "Statesmen of the Time of George IIL ;" " Memoirs of the Public Life of Lord Liverpool," London, 1827. Liv'i-a, [Fr. Livie, le^e',] or, more fully, Livl-a Dru-siPia, a Roman empress, born in 58 B.C., was first married to Tiberius Nero. After becoming the € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, h, VL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) LIFIA 1440 LIVINGSTONE mother of Tiberius and Drusus Germanicus, she was married in 38 B.C. to the emperor Augustus, over whom she acquired an ascendency which she retained until his death. She persuaded him to adopt her son Tiberius as his successor. By his last will he appointed Livia and Tiberius his heirs, and directed her to assume the name of Julia Augusta. She was a woman of superior talents. Died in 29 a.d. See J. D. KdRHLER, "Dissertatio de Livia Augusta," 1715; Tacitus, "Annales," i. and v. : " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Liv'i-a Liv-ilTa, a granddaughter of the preceding, was the sister of Germanicus. She became the wife of her cousin Drusus, the son of Tiberius, and was sus- pected of poisoning her husband in concert with Sejanus. She was put to death for that crime, by order of Tiberius, about 30 A.D. Livie. See Livia. Livineius. See Ltevens, (John.) LivTng-stoii, (Brockholsi ,) an American jurist and soldier, born in New York in 1764, served with distinc- tion in the Revolutionary war, and subsequently rose to be a judge of the supreme court of the United States, lie was a son of William Livingston, Governor of New Jersey. Died in 1823. Livingston, (Edward,) an eminent American jurist and statesman, born in Clermont, Columbia county, New York, on the 26th of May, 1764, was a son of Robert Livingston, a judge of the supreme court of New York. His mother was Margaret Beekman. He graduated at Princeton College, New Jersey, in 1 781, studied law, and began to practise in the city of New York about 1785. He married Mary McEvers, of New York. After he had acquired great eminence as an advocate, he was elected a member of Congress in 1794 by the Democrats. He was re-elected in 1796 and in 1798. In 1801 he was appointed district-attorney of the United States for the wState of New York, and elected mayor of the city of New York for two years. In the autumn of 1803 he became a public defaulter in consequence of the mis- conduct of one of his clerks. He made an assignment of his property, resigned his offices, and removed in 1804 to New Orleans. Having lost his first wife, he married a creole, named Louise Moreau de Lassy, in 1805. He enjoyed great professional success in New Orleans, and paid in full the debt which he owed to the government. He was involved in a long controversy and litigation about the title to some land, called the Batture, which he purchased in New Orleans. President efferson was one of his adversaries in this dispute ; out Livingston gained his cause. At the battle of New Orleans, January 8, 181 5, he acted as aide-de-camp to General Jackson, who was his intimate friend. In 1821 he was authorized by the legislature of Louisiana to revise the system of criminal law. He acquired celebrity by his " System of Penal Law or Criminal Codes," pub- lished in i8j3, in which he opposed capital punishment. " This volume," says the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1864, "is a perfect treasure-house of juridical and legis- lative schemes and suggestions, doctrines and contri- vances ; and its indirect influence has been immense." M. Villemain declared the "System" to be "a work without example from the hand of any one man. . . . The lapse of time has deepened and strengthened the foundations of his fame." He represented a district of Louisiana in Congress from 1823 to 1829, and was elected a Senator of the United States by the legislature of that State in the latter year. In April or May, 183 1, he was appointed secretary of state by President Jackson. Having re- signed this office in May, 1833, was immediately appointed minister-plenipotentiary to France, where he is said to have " hit the happy medium between firm- ness and conciliation in diplomacy." He returned home about the end of 1835, and died at Rhinebeck, New York, in May, 1836. He had several children. _ See a " Life of Edward Livingston," bv Charles Havens Hunt, with an Litroduction by George Bancroft, 1864; "National Por- trait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i. ; " North American Review" for October, 1836. Liy'ing-ston, (John,) a Scottish Presbyterian divine, born in 1603. Having declined to take the oath of alle- giance in 1663, he was banished, and retired to Rotter- dam, where he died in 1672. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" A. Gunn, "Memoirs of J. Livingston," New York, 1829. Livingston, (Rev. John H.,) an American divine of the Dutch Reformed Church, born at Poughkeepsie, New York, in 1746. Having studied at Yale College and in Holland, where he received the degree of D.D., he became, on his return, pastor of the Dutch Church in New York. He was appointed professor of theology at Queen's College, New Jersey, in 1807, and president of that institution in 1810. Died in 1825. Livingston, (Philip,) an American revolutionist, and signer of the Declaration of Independence, born at Al- bany in 1716. He graduated at Yale College in 1737, and in 1759 was elected a member of the General Assem- bly of the colony from the city of New York. In 1770 he was one of the committee appointed to correspond with the celebrated Edmund Burke, then agent for the colony of New York. He was elected a member of the Congress of 1774 and 1776. Died in 1778. Livingston, (Roberj-,) the first possessor of the Livingston Manor, New York, was born in Scotland in 1654. He emigrated to New York about 1672, and ob- tained a grant of a large tract of land near the Hudson River. He was the ancestor of several eminent men named Livingston. He had three sons, Philip, Robert, and Gilbert, from the second of whom the statesmen Robert R. and Edward Livingston were descended. Livingston, (Robert R.,) an American statesman, born in New York in 1746, was a brother of Edward Livingston, the great jurist. He graduated at King's College, New York, in 1765. He was a descendant of Robert, noticed above. As a member of the Congress of 1776, he was appointed one of the cominittee to draw up the Declaration of Independence. He became chan- cellor of the State of New York in 1777, was secretary for foreign affairs about two years, (1781-83,) and in 1801 was sent as minister to France, where he was very favourably received by Napoleon and assisted in the negotiation for the purchase of Louisiana. He returned home in 1805, after which he aided Robert Fulton in the introduction of steam-navigation, and promoted improvements in agriculture. Died in February, 1813. See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. Livingston, (William,) an American jurist, brother of Philip, noticed above, was born in New York in 1741. Having removed to New Jersey, he was elected to the first Congress from that State in 1774. He became Governor of New Jersey in 1776, which office he filled for fourteen years. He was a member of the Convention which framed the Constitution, (1787.) He was the author of a " Review of the Military Operations in North America from 1753 to 1758;" also of several political works, and of a poem entitled "Philosophical Solitude." Died in 1790. See "Memoir of William Livingston," by Theodore Sedg- wick, Jr. Liv'ing-stone or Liv'ing-ston, (David,) a Scottish missionary, distinguished as an explorer of Africa, was born at Blantyre, near Glasgow, about 1 81 5. He worked in a cotton-factory in his youth. Having studied medi- cine and theology, with an intention to labour as a mis- sionary, he was sent by the London Missionary Society to South Africa in 1840. He laboured and travelled in the interior of Africa for sixteen years, and made im- portant discoveries, for which the Geographical Society awarded him a gold medal. He returned to England in 1856, and published an interesting work entitled "Mis- sionary Travels and Researches in South Africa," etc., (1857.) In 1858 he again went to Africa, as consul at Quilimane or Killimane, with a view to explore the river Zambesi, to promote the production of cotton, and to open commercial intercourse with the natives of that region. He returned to England in 1864, and about the end of 1865 published a "Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi, 1858-64." He set out again for Africa in 1865. A report reached Europe in the spring of 1867 that Dr. Livingstone had been killed near Lake Nyassa ; and, although later information showed that rumour to S, e, T, 0, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6 . good; moon; LIFIN 1441 LLOYD have been false, great uncertainty still prevails respecting his fate. See "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1866; "West- minster Review" for January, 1866; " Fraser's Magazine" for January. 1858. Livin Menus, lee'vin ma'nus, ? a skilful Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam in 1630, worked for many years at Florence, where he died in 1691. Iiivius, (Titus.) See Livy, Liv'i-us An-dro-ni'cus, a popular Roman dramatist and actor, who began his career as an author about 240 B.C. The place of his birth is unknown. He is regarded as the earliest dramatic writer of Rome. He composed both tragedies and comedies, of which only small frag- ments now remain, and was the sole performer of his own plays, which were used in schools in the time of Horace, tfe was a writer of industry and learning rather than original genius. See Professor Sellars, " Roman Poets of the Republic," chap. iii. Livonniere, de, deh le'vo'ne-aiR', (Claude Pec- quet — po'k^',) a French jurist, born at Angers in 1652 j died in Paris in 1726. Livoy, de, deh le'vwi', (Pere Timoth^e,) a French friar and litterateur, born at Pithiviers in 171 5. He pub- lished, in 1767, a "Dictionary of French Synonyms.'" Died in 1777. Liv'y, [Lat. Liv'rus,] (Titus,) [It. Tito Livio, tee'to lee've-o ; Fr. Tite Live, t^t l^v,] a celebrated Roman historian, was born at Patavium (now Padua) in 59 B.C. Ancient writers furnish us few particulars of his life, except that he was patronized by Augustus and became a person of consideration at court. He appears to have passed the greater part of his time jn Rome. Niebuhr favours the opinion that he was in early life a teacher of rhetoric. His great history of Rome, from the origin of the city to the year 9 B.C., was called by him " Annales," and was comprised in one hundred and forty-two books, of which thirty-five have come down to us entire, — viz., the first, third, and fourth decades, and five books of the fifth decade. We have also epitomes, by an unknown hand, of one hundred and forty books. The first book was probably published or written between 29 and 25 B.C. His dialogues on philosophy and politics, which, according to some writers, procured him the favour of Augustus, are not now extant. The great popularity of his history must be ascribed to the excellence and beauty of his style and his wonder- ful powers of description. The numerous orations by which the history is diversified are models of eloquence. "The painting of the narrative," says Macaulay, in his essay entitled " History," in the "Edinburgh Review," "is beyond description vivid and graceful. The abun- dance of interesting sentiments and S])lendid imagery in the speeches is almost miraculous." But he was desti- tute of many qualifications essential to a historian of the first order. Incapable of broad philosophic views, and indisposed to profound research, he was more studious to exalt the national glory and produce a picturesque effect than to compose a true history. He made little use of public documents, and was not familiar with the antiquities of his country. His work is also deficient in the explanation of the original constitution of the state, the contests between the orders, the progress of civilization, ind other domestic affairs. Livy was married, and had two or more children. Died at Padua in 17 A.D. See N. Machiaveli.i, " Discorso sopra la prima Decada di Tito Livio," 1532, (translated into English by E. Dacres, 1636:) D. W. MoLLER, "Disputatio circularis de Tito Livio," 1688; A. M. Mene- GHELLi, "Vita di Tito Livio," 1835; G. F. Tommasini, " Vita Titi Livii," 1630; J. C. Hand, " De Tito Livio Oratore," 1773. Llanos de Valdez, Ii'n6s di vSKdSth, (Don Seba.s- TIAn,) a Spanish painter, born at Granada about 1602; died after 1670. Llewellyn or Llywelyn, loo-^Kin, L, Prince of Wales, began to reign about 11 90, and married a daughter of John, King of England. The latter afterwards invaded Wales and forced him to do homage. Llewellyn waged war against Henry HI. about 1228. Being harassed by the rebellion of his youngest son Griffith, he made, in X237, a treaty with Henry, and purchased peace by acknowledging himself the vassal of that king. He died in 1240, and was succeeded by his son David. Llewellyn IL was the son of Griffith, and successor of his uncle David. He renewed the homage to Henry III., but conspired with the Earl of Leicester against him in 1263. Llewellyn and his allies were defeated at Evesham in 1265. In 1276 he was summoned by Edward I. to come and do homage; but he declined. Wales was then invaded and conquered by Edward in 1277. Llewellyn, having again revolted, was killed in battle, about 1280. Llorente, Io-r§n'ta, (Bernardo Germano,) a Span- ish ])ainter, born at Seville in 1685 ; died in 1757. Llorente, (Don Felix,) a Spanish painter, born at Valencia in 1712, was successful in history, landscapes, and portraits. Died in 1787. Llorente, (Don Juan Antonio,) a learned Spanish historian, born near Calahorra, in Aragon, in 1756. Having been ordained as a priest, he was chosen vicar- general of the see of Calahorra in 1782. Favoured by Florida-Blanca or the king, he was appointed in 1789 secretary-general of the Inquisition, of which he became a determined adversary. In 1794 the Grand Inquisitor directed Llorente, whose opinions were known to be liberal, to write an exposition of the abuses of the In- quisition. In 1808 he embraced the party of the French invaders, was admitted into the council of state by King Joseph, and promoted the suppression of the Inquisition in 1809. On the expulsion of the French from Spain, in 1814, he went as an exile to Paris, where he published in 1817 his "Critical History of the Spanish Inquisi- tion," which was his great work. It is said by Prescott to be the only authentic account of that institution. He also wrote " Historical Notices of the Basque Provinces," (1806-8.) Died in 1823. See Prescott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. parti. ; his autobiographic Memoirs, " Noticia biografica o Memorias para la Historia de su Vida," 1818 ; J. A. Mahul, " Notice biographique sur Don J. A. Llorente," 1823; " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale ;" "Monthly Review," vol. xci., 1820, (Appendix.) Lloyd, loid, (Charles,) an English banker, eminent as a scholar and philanthropist, born in Birmingham in September, 1748, was a member of the Society of Friends. He was conspicuous as an advocate of the abolition of the slave-trade, and was a man of great in- fluence in the community. He was an uncle of Thomas F. Buxton, and father of Anna Braithwaite. Died in 1828. Lloyd, (Charles,) an English bishop, born in Buck- inghamshire in 1784. He was appointed regius professor of divinity in Oxford in 1822, and Bishop of Oxford in 1827. Died in 1829. Lloyd, (Charles,) an English poet, born in Birming- ham, was a son of Charles Lloyd, banker, noticed above, and was a friend of Coleridge, Lamb, and Southey. In 1796 he went to Bristol, and lived in the same house with Coleridge. Lloyd produced, besides other poems, " Nugae Cano.:as," ("Sounding Trifles," 1819,) "Desul- tory Thoughts in London," (1821,) and "The Duke of Ormond," a tragedy, (1822.) He translated the tragedies of Alfieri into English. Died in 1839. See De Quincev, " Literary Reminiscences," vol. ii. ; " Monthly Review" for May, 1816, July, 1820, and July, 1823. Lloyd, (David,) a British biographer, born in Merio- nethshire in 1625. He took orders, and successively held several bejiefices. Among his principal works is " The Statesme^i and Favourites of England since the Reformation," (1665.) Died in 1691. Lloyd, (Henry,) a British officer, distinguished as a writer on tactics, was born in Wales about 1725. He served in the Seven Years' war, first in the Austrian army and afterwards in that of Prussia. About 1770 he obtained the rank of major-general in the Russian army, and was employed in a war against the Turks, but was suspected of being a secret agent of the English government. Suddenly quitting the Russian service, he went to Gibraltar, and gave valuable counsel to General Elliott respecting the siege of that fortress. He died at Huy in 1783, leaving an "Introduction to the History of the War between the King of Prussia and the Empress Maria Theresa," (1781,) a " Memoir on the Invasion and Defence of England," (1798,) and other works. See " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." « as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, h, yl, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^='See Explanations, p. 23.) 91 LLOYD 1442 LOBSTEIN Lloyd, (Nicholas,) a British writer, born in Flint- shire in 1634. He obtained the living of Newington, Surrey, in 1672. In 1670 he published a " Historical, Geographical, and Poetical Dictionary," which was once esteemed. Died in 1680. Lloyd, (RoBKRi,) an English poet, born at West- minster in 1733. He became an usher in the West- minster School, and a companion of Churchill, Colman, etc. His health and fortune were injured by dissipated habits. He composed an admired poem, "The Actor," (1760,) "The Capricious Lovers," a comic opera, and other works. Died in 1764. See Newton, " Life of R. Lloyd;" Kenrick, "Life of Lloyd," 1774- Lloyd, (William,) a pious and learned English bishop, born in Berkshire in 1627. He was appointed Bishop of Saint Asaph in 1680, and was one of the bishops imprisoned by James II. in 1688 for refusing to publish in their churches the declaration of indulgence to Catholics and dissenters. He became almoner to William III., Bishop of Lichfield in 1692, Bishop of Worcester in 1699 or 1700, and almoner to Queen Anne a few years later. He furnished Burnet valuable mate- rials for his history, and wrote several religious treatises. Died in 1717. See Burnet, " History of his Own Times;" Macaulav, " His- tory of England ;" Miss Stricicland, " Lives of the Seven Bishops," London, 1866. Llywelyn. See Llewellyn. Loaysa, lo-i'si, (Garcias,) a Spanish cardinal and eloquent preacher, born at Talavera about 1480. About 1524 he became confessor to Charles V. He was after- wards Bishop of Seville, and president of the Royal Council of the Indies. Died in 1546. Lobau, de, deh lo'bo', (Georges Mouton — moo'- t6N',) Count, a French general, born in Phalsbourg in 1770. He entered the army in 1792, became aide-de- camp of Joubert in 1798, and aide-de-camp of Bonaparte in 1805. His services were rewarded by the rank of general of division in 1807. He displayed great courage at Eckmiihl, Aspern, and Lobau in 1809, and received the title of Count de Lobau. In the invasion of Russia (1812) he was aide-major-general of the imperial guard. He fought at Lutzen and Bautzen in 1813, and was taken prisoner at Waterloo in 181 5, after which he passed many years in retirement. During the revolution of 1830 he favoured the cause of Louis Philippe, who appointed him commander of the national guard in December, 1830, and gave him a marshal's baton in 1831. Died in 1838. See J. Noli,et-Fabkrt, " Le Marechal Mouton," 1852 ; Pierre Philippe de Segur, " filoge historique de M. le Comte de Lobau," 1839- Lobb, (Theophilus,) an English physician, born in London in 1678. He practised with success in that city, and wrote medical works, among which are a "Treatise on the Small-Pox," (1731,) and "Medical Practice in Curing Fevers," (1735.) Died in 1763. Lolbe, lo'beh, (Johann Christian,) a German mu- sical composer, born at Weimar in 1797. He produced in 1833 "The Princess of Granada," an opera. His theoretic works are highly esteemed. Lobeck, lo'b^k, (Christian August,) one of the most thorough and acute philologists and antiquaries of recent times, was born at Naumburg, in Prussia, in 1781. He became professor of ancient literature and eloquence at Konigsberg in 1814. He published valuable editions of the "Ajax" of Sophocles, (1810,) and of Phrynicus, (1820.) Among his other most important works is " Pa- thologise Linguae Graecas Elementa," (1853.) Died in See " Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale." Lobeira or Lobeyra, de, di lo-ba'e-rS, written also Loveira, (Vasco,) a celebrated Portiiguese author, was l)orn at Oporto about 1360. He was knighted by King John I. of Portugal on the battle-field of Aljubarrota in 1386, and died in 1403. He was the author of the famous romance " Amadis de Gaul," which is now seldom read. The earliest edition now known was printed in 1519. It passed for the best of the romances of chivalry until the satire of Cervantes rendered them all unpopular. See Ticknor's "Spanish Literature," vol. i. chap. xi. p. 221 ei seq. Lobel or L'Obel, \o'hlV, (Mathieu,) an eminent botanist, born at Lille, France, in 1538. He practised medicine at Antwerp, and became physician to the Prince of Orange, after whose death he went to England, where he passed the most of his life. In 1570 Lobel and Pena published in London " Stirpium Adversaria," which ])re- sents the first sketch, though rude, of a natural method of botany, with neat engravings of about two hundred and seventy plants. He published in 1 581 a valuable work entitled " Icones Stirpium," which contains figures of about two thousand plants, and is still, says Duvau, often consulted. Lobel was also j^hysician to James 1. Died near London in 1616. The genus Lobelia was named in honour of him. See C. F. A. Morren, " Notice biographique surM. de L'Obel," 1853: Ei.ov, " Dictionnaire de la Medecine." Lobell or Loebell, lo'bel, (Johann Wilhelm,) a German historian, born in Berlin in 1786. He became professor of history at Bonn about 1830. LobenorLoeben.lo'ben, (Otto Heinrich,) Count, a German writer of the romantic school, born at Dresden in 1786, is known by the name of Isidorus Orientalis. He wrote, besides numerous tales and poems, romances entitled " Guido" (1808) and "Arcadion," (1811.) Died in 1825. Lobera, lo-Ba'rS, (Luis,) a Spanish physician, born at Avila, in Old Castile. He was physician to Charles v., and published treatises on anatomy and medicine, (1542-51-) Lobineau, lo'be'no', (Gui Alexis,) a learned French monk, born at Rennes in 1666. He wrote a continuation of the " History of Bretagne" (1707) by Legallois, and another of Felibieij's " History of Paris," (5 vols., 1725.) Died in 1727. !^ Lobkowitz. See Caramuel. Lobkowitz. See Hassenstein. Lobkowitz, von, fon lob'ko-^its', (Georg Chris- tian,) Prince, an Austrian general, born in 1702. He took command.of the army of the empress Maria Theresa in 1 741, and gained advantages over the French at Brau- nau and Prague. Died in 1753. His son Joseph, born in 1725, distinguished himself in the Seven Years' war as major-general. In the reign of Joseph 11. he was made a field-marshal. Died in 1802. Lobo, lo'bo, (Francisco Rodriguez,) a celebrated Portuguese poet, born at Leiria about 1550. He was the author of songs, pastoral romances, sonnets, and of a prose work entitled " Court in the Country and Winter Nights." He has been styled "the Portuguese Theocri- tus." " He was," says Longfellow, "a scholar of great erudition ; and the services he rendered to the Portu- guese language and style make an era in that literature." See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Lobo, Io'ro, (Gerardo,) a Spanish poet, born in Old Castile. He became a favourite at the court of Philip IV., who sometimes required his companions to talk in verse to him. Lobo had a remarkable facility for improvisation, and, it is said, could converse all day without descending to prose. His productions consist of odes, sonnets, etc. Died in 1668. Lobo, (Jeronimo,) an enterprising Portuguese mis- sionary and Jesuit, born at Lisbon in 1593. He was sent to labour in the mission of Goa in 1622. In 1625, with other missionaries, he undertook to evangelize Abyssinia, whose sultan, Seged, (Segued,) had become a Roman Catholic, or at least was friendly to that Church. The sultan having died, the missionaries were expelled by his successor in 1634. In 1640 he went again to Goa, where he was chosen provincial of his order. He re- turned to Lisbon in 1656, and published a valuable rela- tion of his travels in Abyssinia, entitled a " History of Ethiopia," (1659.) which was translated into English by Dr. Johnson. Died in 1678. See Barbosa Machado, " Ribliotheca Lusitana." Lobstein, ISp'stin or lol/st^N', (Jean Fr6d^;ric,) a French anatomist and surgeon, born near Strasburg in 1736 ; died in 1784. Lobstein, (Jean Fr]£d6ric,) an anatomist, a nephew of the preceding, born at Giessen in 1777, lived at Stras< burg. Died in 1835. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; 4, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; flr, fSlI, filt; m^t; nftt; good ; moon; LOCATELLI H43 LOCKE Locatelli, lo-kS-tel'lee, or Lucatelli, loo-ki-tel'lee, (Andrea,) an Italian painter of landscapes and genre, born at Rome. He adorned his landscapes with figures which are admired, and displayed good taste in familiar scenes. His works are praised by Lanzi. Diedini74i. Locatelli, (Luigi,) an Italian physician, born at Ber- gamo, invented the "balm of Lucatel." Died in 1637. Locatelli or Lucatelli, (Pietro,) a historical painter, born in the Roman States. He was admitted into the Academy of Saint Luke in 1690. Locatelli, (Pietro,) an Italian violinist, born at Ber- gamo in 1693 ; died in 1764. Loccenius, lok-sa'ne-us, (Johan,) a Swedish histo- rian, born in Holstein about 1598. Queen Christina gave him the title of historiographer of Sweden. He wrote, in Latin, " History of Sweden," (1654,) and several works on law. Died in 1677. See M. Steuch, " Memoria J. Loccenii," 1678; Olof A. Knoes, ** Lefvernes Beskrifning om J. Loccenius," 1S07. Loch, lok or loK, (James,) a Scottish lawyer, born in 1780. He was employed as auditor by the Earl of Elles- mere and other noblemen, and was for many years a Liberal member of Parliament. He published a " Sta- tistical and Historical Account of the County of Suther- land." Died in 1855. Locher, loK'er, (Jakob,) a German poet, born in Suabia in 1470, was surnamed Philomusus. He was crowned poet-laureate by the Emperor of Germany. Among his works (in Latin) are a poem on Lazarus and Dives, and "The Judgment of Paris," (1501.) Died in 1528. Lochner, loK'ner, (Michael Friedrich,) a skilful German physician and botanist, born near Nuremberg in 1662 ; died in 1720. Lock, (Matthew,) an excellent English composer, born at Exeter about 1635. Soon after the restoration (1660) he received the title of composer-in-ordinary to Charles II. He is called the first English composer for the stage. Some of his sacred compositions appeared in the " Harmonia Sacra." His chief title to durable fame is the admirable " Music in Macbeth." Died in 1677. See RuRNEY, " History of Music." Lock'art, (Alexander,) a Scottish lawyer, born near Edinburgh in 1675. He wrote "Memoirs of Scot- land." Died in 1732. Locke, lok, [Lat. Loc'kius,] (John,) a celebrated English philosopher and philanthropist, born at Wring- ton, in Somersetshire, in 1632, was the son of Captain Locke, who served in the parliamentary army during the civil war. He studied at Westminster School, and in 165 1 entered Christ Church, Oxford, where he soon 6k- tinguished himself by his talents and acquirements. He left Oxford with no very favourable views of the system of instruction there pursued. He had, indeed, been far more indebted for his mental culture to his own efforts than to the skill or labour of his tutors, and was himself an example of that self-teaching which in his writings he so strongly recommends. In 1665 Locke accom- panied, as secretary. Sir Walter Vane, royal envoy to the Elector of Brandenburg. He returned to England in February, and soon after formed the acquaintance of Lord Ashley, (afterwards Shaftesbury,) who received him into the number of his most intimate and confidential friends. In 1672, Shaftesbury being then lord chancellor, Locke was appointed secretary for the presentation of benefices, but quitted this ofiice in 1673, when his patron, having quarrelled with the court, resigned the great seal. In 1675 Locke visited the south of France on account of his health. He resided more than a year at Montpellier, and afterwards spent much time in Paris. He returned to his own country in 1679; but, Shaftes- bury having been compelled by his enemies to leave England towards the close of 1682, Locke followed him to the continent in 1683, and passed several years in Holland. In 1688 he returned to his native land in the same fleet that conveyed the Princess of Orange to England. Soon after his arrival, he was offered by Lord Mord-aunt the position of envoy to one of the European courts ; but he declined the office on account of his feeble health : he accepted, however, the post of com- missioner of appeals, which yielded him, it is said. two hundred pounds a year, — no inconsiderable sum for that period. The asthmatic affection under which he had been suffering for many years having become more aggravated, he resigned, in 1700, his position under the government, and retired to Oates, in Essex. Here he spent the remainder of his days at the house of Sir Francis Masham, whose accomplished lady was the daughter of the celebrated Dr. Cudworth. He died October 28, 1704. Locke was no less distinguished for his virtues and piety than for his extraordinary intellectual endowments. All his writings may be said to have had for their object the improvement of mankind in knowledge, liberty, and virtue. Although he was in favour of the utmost free- dom of investigation in regard to religious as well as other truths, he entertained for the Holy Scriptures the profoundest veneration. To a friend inquiring the best way to attain a true knowledge of the Christian religion, he answered, "Study the Holy Scriptures, especially the New Testament : therein are contained the words of eternal life. It has God for its author, salvation for its end, and truth without any mixture of error for its matter." A little before his death, while acknowledging that his life, on the whole, had been a happy one, he pronounced all sublunary enjoyments to be "vanity," and earnestly exhorted his friends to prepare for the endless life to come. He extolled the goodness of God in providing for the salvation of mankind through faith in Jesus Christ, and expressed particular gratitude that he had been led through divine goodness to the know- ledge of the Saviour. (See a letter by Coste, the French translator of the " Essay on the Human Understanding," published February, 1705.) As a controversialist, Locke was remarkable not only for the clearness and cogency of his arguments, but also for the perfect fairness and respect with which he treated his opponents. His con- versation, we are told, was a "happy union of wit and good sense ;" so that his company was sought by many of the most distinguished men of that period, — such as Halifax, Buckingham, etc. As an evidence of the variety and extent of his attainments, we may mention that the great Sydenham, alluding to Locke's skill in medicine, gave it as his opinion that "in genius, penetration, and accurate judgment he had in that age few equals and scarcely any superior." From the character of Locke as given by Le Clerc, which he assures us "is an accu- rate and by no means flattered description," we take the following : " He was a profound philosopher, and a man fit for the most important affairs. He had much know- ledge of belles-lettres, and his manners were very polite and particularly engaging. He knew something of almost everything which can be useful to mankind, and was thoroughly master of all that he had studied; but he showed his superiority by not appearing to value himself in any way on account of his g^reat attainments. . . . He was very charitable to the poor, provided they were not the idle nor the profligate. . . . He was an exact ob- server of his word, and what he promised was sacred. He was scrupulous about recommending people whom he did not know ; and he could not bring himself to praise those whom he did not think worthy." (See "Life of Locke," by Lord King, pp. 267-271.) Locke's great work, entitled an " Essay on the Human Understanding," was first published in 1690, (three years after the appearance of Newton's " Principia,") although the original copy, still preserved and in his own hand- writing, is dated 1671, — an evidence of his great caution (evinced also in his other works) with respect to offering his views to the public. The leading position of his essay is that the human mind has no innate ideas, and that all ideas, with their various combinations, are to be referred to sensation and reflection. His other publica- tions were, — three " Letters on Toleration," (1690-92,) a "Treatise on Education," (1690,) one on the value of money, (1691,) "The Reasonableness of Christianity," (1695,) a first and second Vindication of the last-named work, (1696,) and three elaborate letters in defence of the " Essay on the Human Understanding" against Stillingfleet, Bishop of Winchester, (1697-99.) Locke's work on the "Conduct of the Human Understanding," and his "Discourse on Miracles," and "Commentaries € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) LOCKE 1444 LODUR on the Epistles of Saint Paul," were published after his death." See "Life of Locke," by Lord King; ** Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale;" "Biographic Universelle ;" article "Locke" in the " Eiicyclopasdia Britamiica ;" Jkan Leci.ekc, "filogc liistoriqiie de feu M. Locke," 171 1 ; "Memoirs of the Life of J. Locke," 1742; J. G. Meli.king, "Merita J. Lockii in Fhilosophiam," 1792; Lil- JENROTH, " Dissertatio Vitain J. Lockii expoiiens," 1793; Kdouard Laboui.aye, " l^ocke Legisiateiir de la Caroline," 1850; "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1854 ; " British Quarterly Review" for May, 1847. Locke, (John,) M.D., an American geologist, born at Fryeburg, Maine, in 1792. He became professor of chemistry at Cincinnati in 1836. He was well versed in geology and natural history. Died in Cincinnati in 1856. Locke, (Joseph,) M.P., F.R.S., an eminent English railway-engineer, born near Sheffield in 1805. He learned the business of engineering with the celebrated George Stephenson. He gained a high reputation as engineer of the Grand Junction Railway, (of which Birmingham is one of the termini,) completed in 1837. The London and Southampton Railway, under his direction, was opened in 1840. He was afterwards employed as en- gineer of the railways connecting Paris and Rouen, and Havre and Rouen, in France. For several years before his death he was a member of Parliament, in which he acted v\;ith the Liberal party. Died in i860. See " Life of Josepli Locke," by J. Devey, 1862. Lock'^r, (Edward Hawke,) an English writer, born in Kent in 1777. He was private secretary to Lord Exmouth about fifteen years, commencing in 1800. He was one of the projectors and editors of "The Plain Englishman," a useful periodical adapted to the instruc- tion of the people. He also published "Lectures on the Bible and Liturgy." Died in 1849. Lockhart, lok'art, (Sir George,) an eminent Scot- tish lawyer, was a brother of Sir William, noticed be- low. He was admitted to the bar about 1656, and was appointed lord president of the court of sessions in 1685. He was murdered in Edinburgh in 1689. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary ot Eminent Scotsmen." Lockhart, (George,) a son of the preceding, was born near Edinburgh in 1673, He was a zealous and prominent partisan of the Pretender about the time of the rebellion of 1715. He wrote "Memoirs concern- ing the Affairs of Scotland," which are of some historical value. Died in 1731. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Lockhart, (John Gibson,) a distinguished British author, poet, and critic, was born at the manse of Cam- busnethan, in Lanarkshire, Scotland, in 1794. He was the son of a Presbyterian minister, who removed to Glasgow while the subject of this article was in his infancy. As a student in the Glasgow University he obtained a valua- ble bursary, in virtue of which he entered Baliol College, Oxford. He studied law, and was called to the Scottish bar in 1816, but preferred the profession of literature. He was one of the chief contributors to "Blackwood's Magazine" for about seven years after it was first estab- lished, in 181 7. He advocated Tory principles in politi- cal articles which displayed a great mastery of sarcasm and invective. In 1820 he married Sophia, daughter of Sir Walter Scott. He produced in 1821 "Valerius, a Roman Story," which is much admired, and was fol- lowed by "Reginald Dalton, a Story of English Univer- sity Life," (1823.) About this time he published elegant translations of "Ancient Spanish Ballads." In 1825 or 1826 he removed to London, and became editor of the " Quarterly Review," which he conducted with success until 1853, and for which he wrote many excellent criti- cal and biographical articles. In 1843 he was appointed to the lucrative office of auditor of the duchy of Corn- wall. His most important work is his "Life of Sir Walter Scott," (7 vols., 1838,) which ranks very high in respect to literary merit, and is surpassed in interest by few, if any, biographies in the English language. He also published a "Life of Robert Burns," (1825,) which was received with favour, and Lives of Theodore Hook and Napoleon I. His manners were reserved and even chilling. His last years were rendered un- happy by the loss of his wife and two sons. He died in 1854, leaving a daughter, who was the only surviving descendant of Sir Walter Scott when she was married to Mr. Hope. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement;) "Biographical Sketches," by Hakkiet Martineau, London, 1869; "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1864; " Eraser's Magazine" for August, 1830, (with a portrait.) Lockhart, (Sir William,) of Lee, an able British statesman, born in 1621. He fought for Charles 11., and was made prisoner at Preston, (1650.) In 1652 he entered the civil service of Cromwell, and in 1655 was sent as ambassador to Louis XIV. of France. He com- manded the British at the siege of Dunkirk in 1658, and then became governor of that place. At the restoration of 1660 he was recalled. Died in 1675. " was," says Clarendon, " a man of great address in treaty." See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" " North British Review" for February, 1862. Lockius. See Locke, (John.) Lockman. See Lokman. Locksman, (John,) an English writer on various subjects, born in 1698; died in 1771. Lock'wood, (Henry H.,) an American general, born in Kent county, Delaware, about 1814, graduated at West Point. He became a brigadier-general of United States volunteers in August, 1861, and took part in the battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. Locman. See Lokman. Locr6 de Roissy, lo'kRa' deh Rwi'se', (Jean Guii.- laume,) a jurist, born of a French fatnily at Leipsic in 1758, came to France in his youth. He published "The Spirit of the Code Napoleon," (" Esprit du Code Napo- leon," etc., (5 vols., 1806,) and "The Civil, Commercial, and Criminal Legislation of France," (31 vols., 1826-32.) Died in 1840. Loder, lo'der, (Justus Christian,) an anatomist, born at Riga in 1753. In 1809 the Czar Alexander called him to Moscow and chose him for his first physician. He published "Anatomical Plates," ("Tabulae Ana- tomicae," 1794,) with explicative text, a work of great merit. Died in Moscow in 1832. See Meusei,, "Gelehrtes Deutschland." Lodge, (Edmund,) an English herald and biographer, born in London in 1756. He became Norroy king-at- arms in 1822, and Clarenceux king-at-arms in 1838. He published valuable " Illustrations of British History," (3 vols., 1791,) and "Portraits of Illustrious Personages of Great Britain," (4 vols., 1821-34,) which is his prin- cipal work. It was republished in 8 vols., 1849. In reference to it Sir Walter Scott remarked, "It is impos- sible for me to conceive a work which ought to be more interesting to the present age than that which exhibits before our eyes our 'fathers as they lived,' accompanied with such memorials of their lives and characters as enable us to compare their persons with their sentiments and actions." Died in 1839. See the " Monthly Review" for May, 1792. Lodge, (Thomas,) an English dramatist and versatile writer, born probably about 1556. He is supposed to have been in early life a soldier and play-actor. Ac- cording to some authorities, he practised medicine with success in London, and died of the plague in 1625. He translated Josephus and Seneca into English, and wrote successful dramas, novels, and other works. Among his principal productions are "The Wounds of Civil War," a traged}', (1594,) a " Looking-Glass for London and England," (a drama, of which R. Greene was joint author,) and "Rosalynde: Euphues' Golden Legacie," (1590,) a novel which furnished the incidents of Shakspeare's "As You Like It." Hallam calls him one of the best poets of the age. (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses ;" " Biographia Dramatica." Lodge, (William,) an eminent English engraver, born at Leeds in 1649. He travelled in Italy and in his native country, and published engravings of places, etc. which he had designed. He translated into English Barri's "Picturesque Journey in Italy," (1679,) and en- graved with remarkable skill a series of portraits of eminent persons. Died in 1689. Lodi, (Calisto da.) See Piazza, (Calisto.) Lo'dur, [related to the German lodern, to "blaze,"] one of the gods of the Norse mythology, who assisted a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m6t; nSt; good; moon, LOEBELL H45 LOHAIA Odin in the creation of mankind. He is supposed to typify vital warmth. As Loki is named from the perni- cious qualities of fire, so Lodur would seem to represent its beneficent properties. (See LoKi, also Hoenir.) Loebell. See Lobell. Loeben. See Lohen. Loefling. See Lofling. Loehr. See Lohr. Loennrot. See Lonnrot. I Loescher. See Loscher. j Loesel. See Losel. Loeve-Veimars, lo'^v' vi'mtR', (Francois Adol- [phe,) Baron, a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1801. He published translations from the German, tales, cri- tiques, a " History of Ancient Literature," (1825,) and other works. Died in 1854. Loewen. See Lowen. Loewenklau. See Leunclavius. Lofft, (Capel,) an English writer on various subjects, born in London in 1751, was a gentleman and lawyer. He patronized the poet Bloomfield, advocated the abo- lition of the slave-trade, and wrote political pamphlets, dramas, verses, etc. He died in France in 1824. Lofling or Loefling, lofling, (Peter,) a Swedish botaaiist, born at Tollforsbruch in 1729. He was a favourite pupil of Linnaeus, by whose mediation he was appointed botanist to the King of Spain in 1751. He accompanied as naturalist an expedition sent by the Spanish government to South America in 1754. After brief explorations of the districts of Cumana and Guiana, he died in 1756. His "Excursion in Spain" ("Iter His- panicum") was published in 1758 by Linnaeus. Lofn, lof'n, or Lov'na, [from "praise," also " leave," " favour :" compare the German Lob and Ver- laub,\ in the Norse mythology, a goddess, who is espe- cially favourable to lovers, by whom she is principally worshipped. Power is given to her to unite those who love each other, whatever obstacles may stand in the way. From a root cognate with her name the Swedes derive their fdrlofva and the Germans their verloben, signifying to "betroth." See Thorpe, "Northern Mythology;" Mallet, "Northern Antiquities," vol. ii., Fable XVIII. Lof'tus, (Dudley,) an Irish lawyer, versed in Orien- tal lore, was born near Dublin in 1618. He became a master in chancery and a judge of the prerogative court. He translated several works from the Syriac, and made the Latin version of the/Ethiopic New Testament which was published in Walton's Polyglot. Died in 1695. Lof'tus, (William Kennett,) an English archaeolo- gist, born at Rye about 1820. Pie explored the sites of ancient cities on the Euphrates and Tigris,- and pub- lished a valuable work entitled "Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana," etc., (1857.) Died in 1858. Lo'gan, a celebrated Indian chief, of the tribe of the Cayugas, whose original name was Tah-gah-jute, was born about 1725. His family having been murdered by a party of white men, he avenged himself by waging a destructive war on the Western settlers, in which the Indians were at length defeated. He was killed in 1780 in a skirmish with a party of Indians. Logan's regard for the whites caused him to be called by his country- men "the Friend of the White Man." A granite monu- ment was erected to his memory at Fair Hill Cemetery, near Auburn, in Cayuga county, New York. Logan, (George,) an American physician and philan- thropist, born near Philadelphia in 1753, ^'^^ ^ grandson of James Logan, noticed below, tie was an earnest advocate of peace, and went to France in 1798 in order to prevent a war between France and America. He represented Pennsylvania in the Senate of the United States from 1801 to 1807. He acted with the Repub- licans, and was denounced by the Federalists for his voluntary services in France. Died in 182 1. Lo'gan, (James,) a colonial statesman and author, born at Lurgan, Ireland, in 1674, was a member of the Society of Friends. He was master of the Greek, Latin, French, and German languages. In 1699 he accompanied William Penn to America as his secretary. Under the patronage of William Penn he was much employed in public affairs. He was appointed secretary of the pro- vince in 1 701, after which he became chief justice and president of the council. He acted as Governor about two years after the death of Governor Gordon, in 1736. Among his works is a Latin treatise on the generation of plants, " Experimenta et Meletemata de Plantarum Generatione," (1739.) He produced a good version of Cicero "De Senectute," (1744.) He collected a library of about 3000 volumes, which is known under the name of the Loganian Library and is included in the Philadelphia Library. Died near Philadelphia in October, 1751. See a "Memoir of James Logan," by W. Armistead. Lo'gan, (John,) a Scottish divine and poet, born at Soutra in 1748. He was appointed minister of Leith in 1773, and became an eloquent and popular preacher. He delivered in Edinburgh lectures "On the Philosophy of History," which were published in 1781. In this year he published a volume of admired poems, chiefly lyrical, among which is an "Ode to the Cuckoo." Having given offence to his church by writing " Runnimede," a tragedy, (1783,) he removed to London in 1785. There he wrote a pamphlet entitled " Review of the Charges against Warren Hastings," advocating the cause of Hastings. It led to the celebrated trial of Stockdale, his publisher. Died in 1788. His sermons were published in 1790, and are highly esteemed. See " Life of Logan," prefixed to an edition of his poems, 1805; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Logan, (John A.,) an American general, born in Jackson county, Illinois, in February, 1826. He studied law, which he practised with success until he was elected a member of Congress by the Democrats of the ninth district of Illinois, in 1858. In i860 he. was again elected to Congress. Having raised a regiment of volunteers, he was appointed colonel of the same in September, 1 86 1, and was wounded at Fort Donelson, February, 1862. He became a brigadier-general in March, 1862, and a major-general about the end of that year. He served with clistinction in the campaign against Vicks- burg which ended July 4, 1863. In October, 1863, he obtained command of the fifteenth army corps, with which he contributed to the victories gained by Sherman between Chattanooga and Atlanta, after McPherson was killed. He commanded the army of the Tennessee in a battle near Atlanta, July 22, 1864. He also led a corps of Sherman's army in the march from Savannah through South Carolina and North Carolina in February and March, 1865. He was one of the most successful of the civilian or political generals in the civil war. In 1866 he was elected to Congress as a Radical. He was one of seven members elected March 2, 1868, as managers to conduct the impeachment of President Johnson. He was again elected to Congress in 1868. Logan, (Sir William Edmond,) a distinguished geol- ogist, born at Montreal, Canada, in 1798. About 1842 he was appointed to superintend a geological survey of Canada. He received the gold medal of honour at the Paris Industrial Exhibition of 1855, and in 1856 the Wollaston palladium medal. Logau, von, fon lo'gow, (Friedrich,) Baron, a Ger- man poet, born in Silesia in 1604. He passed the latter part of his life in the service of the Duke of Liegnitz, and died in 1655, leaving a great number of epigrams, which were highly praised by Lessing and are remark- able for irony and pathos. Loges, des, d^ lozh, Madame, a Protestant French lady, whose maiden name was Marie Bruneau, (bRii'- n5',) was born at Sedan about 1584. Her house in Paris was frequented by Malherbe and other eminent wits, attracted by the charm of her conversation. Died in 1641. Log'gan, (David,) an eminent engraver and designer, born at Dantzic about 1635. He became a resident of London, where he published Engravings of the Colleges of Oxford, ("Oxonia Illustrata,") and similar illustra- tions of those of Cambridge. After the restoration of 1660, he engraved portraits of Charles II., and of many dukes, earls, prelates, etc. of his time. Died in 1693. See Strutt, "Dictionary of Engravers." Lohaia, Ibn, ib'n lo-hi'a, or Ibn-Lahia, ib'n li-hee'si, a Moslem doctor, born about 710 A.D. He was appointed Cadee of Egypt in 771, and died about 790. The tra- ditions transmitted through him are of great authority « as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; o, H, K, guttural; n, nasal ; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^=^See Explanations, p. 23.) LOHENSTEIN 1446 LOKI among Egyptians. Silvestre de Sacy attaches importance to the historical traditions derived from him. Lohenstein, von, fon Ic/en-stu/, (Daniel Caspar,) a German writer, born at Nimptsch, in Silesia, in 1635. He founded a literary school which corrupted the na- tional taste, and wrote tragedies and other poems. " He was always tumid," says Hallam, "and striving at some- thing elevated, so that the 'Lohenstein swell' became a byword with later critics." (" Introduction to the Litera- ture of Europe.") Died in 1683. See Passovv, " D. C. von Lohenstein, seine Trauerspiele," etc., 1852. Lohr or Loehr, loR, (Johann Andreas Christian,) a German writer, born at Halberstadt in 1764, published several popular works for children. Died in 1823. Lohurasp, lo^hdo-rSsp', written also Lohrasp, a Persian king, who was (according to the " Shah Nameh") the father of Gushtasp. He is supposed to have reigned about 550 B.C. According to the Arabian chronicles, his army took Jerusalem. See J. Atkinson's " Abridgment of the Shah Nameh of Fir- dausi," London, 1832. Loir, IwiR, (Nicolas Pierre,) a skilful French painter, born in Paris in 1624. After a visit to Rome, he returned in 1649, was received as Academician in 1663, and was patronized by Louis XIV., who gave him a pension of four thousand francs. He worked with facility, and was successful in history and landscapes. The picture of "Cleobis and Biton drawing the Chariot of their Mother" is called his master-piece. He etched about one hundred and fifty pieces of his own and of other artists. Died in 1679. His brother Alexis, born about 1640, had a high reputation as an engraver. He engraved several works of Poussin, Lebrun, etc. Died at Paris in 17 13. See Nagler, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Loiseau de Mauleon, Iwi'zo' deh mo'li'6N', (Alex- andre J^uome,) an eloquent French advocate, born in Paris in 1728. He was a friend of Rousseau, who ad- vised him to defend good causes exclusively. "He fol- lowed my counsel," says Rousseau, "and has found the advantage of it. His defence of M. de Portes is worthy of Demosthenes." Died in 1771. See Rousseau, "Confessions." Loisel, (Antoinf.,) a French jurist, born at Beauvais in 1536. He wrote, besides other legal works, "Institutes coutumieres," (1607,) a treatise on common law. Died in 1617. Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, Iwiz^luR'di'ldN'shftN', (AnGUSTE Louis Armand,) a French Orientalist, born in Paris in 1805, gave special attention to the Sanscrit. His most important work is "The Book of the Laws of Manu," (" Manava-Dharma-Sastra," 1832.) Died in 1840. Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, (Jean Louis Au- GUSTE,) a French botanist, born at Dreux in 1775, was the father of the preceding. He obtained a diploma as physician in 1805. Among his works are a " Flora Gal- lica," (2 vols., 1806-7,) and " Le Nouveau Duhamel," or "Treatise on Trees and Shrubs cultivated in the Open Air in France," (7 vols., 181 2-19.) Died in 1849. See Leclerc, " filoge de M. Loiselenr-Deslongchamps," 1851. Loison, IwS'zAn', (Louis Henri,) a French general of division, born in Lorraine about 1770, received the grand cross of honour for his conduct at Austerlitz, (1805.) Died in 1816. Lojsalfar. See Elves. Lok or Loke. See Lokl Loki, lo'ke, or Loke, lo'keh, written also Lok, [from the old Norse hgi, (Ger. Loke,) "flame," allied to the Latin hic-eOy to "shine," and to the Scottish hig, "fire;" probably so named because he united the subtlety and iintrustvvorthiness (or treachery) of fire with its destroy- ing properties,] in the Norse mythology, the god of evil and deceit, corresponding in the main with the Ahriman of the Zoroastrians. He is of Jotun (giant) descent, but was received among the gods, and in the beginning was a foster-brother of Odin. From his association w^th the -^sir, he is often styled Asa-Loki or Asaloke. He is called by various appellations ; among others, the Slan- derer or Accuser, — epithets exactly corresjionding to the Greek dLaSaXog, (Latin Diab'ohis.) He is the enemy and mocker, as well as tempter, of gods and men. As proof of his subtlety, he often changed his sex, assuming on different occasions the form of a mare, a cow, an old woman, etc., as well as that of the gods. The ^sir often made use of his cunning and strength ; but still more frequently they had cause to rue those very powers em- ployed against themselves. Professor Petersen furnishes perhaps the most philosophical and most satisfactory account of Loki and his various attributes that can any- where be found. Among other things, he observes that "Asaloke forms an antagonism (modscetfting) to ail the other gods. He is the [principle of] evil exerting itself in every direction. He runs in the veins of mankind as sensuality. He is the destructive [power] of nature in air, in fire, and in water. In the bosom of the earth [he shows himself] as volcanic fire; in the sea as a devour- ing serpent; in the lower world (tinderverden) as pale Death. He is not confined to any one part of nature, but, like Odin, pervades it all. . . . And all that he is in [external] nature, the same is he in the mind of man : shrewdness, but also cunning and falsehood at the same time ; spirit, but likewise craft, deceit, and malice. . . . And in each of these forms he continually becomes worse and worse; according to the old proverb, that 'every- thing grows worse as it grows older.'" ("Nordisk My- thologi," pp. 355-6.) Through the deceitful malice of Loki, Balder, the beautiful and good, was slain by the hand of his l)lind brother Hoder. (See Balder.) By the female Jotun Angurboda, Loki was the father of the wolf Fenrir, of the World-Serpent, (or Midgard's Ormr,) and of Hela, the goddess of death. He is also fabled to have been (by a change of sex) the dam of the horse Sleipnir. The yEsir, exasperated on account of the death of Balder, determined at length to take vengeance on Loki. He had fled to the mountains, and there built himself a house which was open on four sides, whence he could see everything that happened throughout the world. By day he often transformed himself into a salmon, and hid himself in a waterfall. The gods, learning his hiding- place, attempted to catch him with a net ; he sprang over the net, but Thor caught him by the tail. This is the reason, we are told, why the salmon has so thin and pointed a tail. Having thus captured Loki, the gods bound him with magic cords to three sharp stones. A venomous snake was then hung above his head, so that the poison might continually drip on his face. V>wi his faithful wife Sigyn (sig'in) stands by him and catches the falling venom in a cup. When the cup is full, while she is emptying it the poison falls upon his face, which makes him howl with anguish and writhe his body so that the whole earth trembles. Loki will break loose from his bonds at Ragnarock,* (the "twilight or evening of the gods,") when he will become the leading spirit among the enemies of the ^Esir. He is not only the leader of Fenrir and the other progeny of evil, but he is said to steer the fatal ship Naglfar which conveys the sons of Muspel over the ocean. In the final conflict he will encounter Heimdall, and they will slay each other. Frey falls under the sword of Surt. Tyr slays and is slain by the dog Garm. Odin is devoured by the wolf Fenrir, which in turn is killed by Vidar. Thor slays the world- serpent, but dies immediately afterwards from the effects of its venom. Then Surt scatters fire over the earth, and the whole world is consumed. (See Fenrir.) We are told, however, that this destruction is not to last forever. A new earth, forever green and beautiful, will rise out of the sea. Vali and Vidar (the slayer of Fen- rir) will survive the conflagration, and will be joined by Modi and Magni, the sons of Thor and Balder, and Hoder will return from the realms of Hela. The sun before her destruction bore a daughter more beautiful than herself. As successor to her mother, she will pursue her appointed path through the renovated world. A new race shall fill the earth, and all evil come to an end. See Keyser, " Religion of the Northmen," translated by Pen- nock, pp. 101-104 ; Thorpe, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Mal- let, " Northern Antiquities," vol. li., Fable XVL, also XXX. to XXXIII. inclusive; Petersen, "Nordisk Mythologi." * Derived, according to Keyser, from Regin, the " ruling powers," and hence "gods." and Rdkkr, "darkness," also " twilight." I, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; filr, All, f2lt; mSt; n6t; good; moon; LOKMAN 1447 LOMBJRDUS Lokm^n or Locm^n, lok'mSn', written also Loq- man, an ancient Arabian sage, celebrated for his wis- dom, and supposed to be the author of a collection of popular Oriental fables. He is mentioned in the Koran, and is regarded as a contemporary of David and Solo- mon. One Arabian writer tells us that Lokman (who is called "the oldest sage") was an Abyssinian slave be- longing to an Israelite in the time of King David, and that he was a tailor by trade. Another writer says he had read more than 10,000 wise sayings and maxims, but none finer than those of Lokman. It is related that Lokman, being asked whence he had learned his wisdom, replied, " From the blind, who do not set down their feet until they know the place ;" and when asked from whom he had learned good manners, he said, " From the ill-mannered, because I avoid everything offensive in them." Coincident traditions suggest the possible, if not probable, identity of Lokman and ^sop. "Many passages of his history," says Silvestre de Sacy, "seem evidently borrowed from the life of i^isop." " Nothing in his fables is characteristic of Arabian genius ; and they have received the name of Lokman only because he was renowned for wisdom." They were edited and translated into Latin by Erpenius in 1615. See Hammer-Purgstall, " Literaturgeschichte der Araber," vol. i. p. 31 et seg. Lola Montez, lo'lS mon't§z, (Maria Dolores Por- Ris Gilbert,) a famous female adventurer, was born about 1820, at Limerick. At an early age she made her debut at Paris as a danseuse, and by her beauty and genius attracted many admirers. About 1846 she went to Munich, where she captivated the king, Louis, who gave her the title of Countess of Lansfeld. After several ministers had been discarded by her influence, her enemies prevailed in 1848, and she retired from Bavaria. She was afterwards married twice, and lived in England and the United States, where she lectured with success in various cities. She published a volume of lectures, and was the reputed author of a work called "The Arts of Beauty, or Secrets of a Lady's Toilet." She died in New York in 1861. See "Fraser's Magazine" for January, 1848. Loli, lo'lee, (Lorenzo,) an Italian painter and en- graver, born at Bologna in 1612, was a pupil of Guido Reni. His most admired works are etchings, after Guido, Sirani, etc. Died in 1691. LolTard or LoFhard, (Walter,) a person of whom we have little information, except that he was burned to death as a heretic at Cologne in 1322. His followers or fellow-believers, called " Lollards," were a numerous sect in England many years after his death. Their doc- trines appear to have been similar to those of the Prot- estants. The term Lollard was applied to the disciples of Wickliffe by their opponents. In the reign of Henry V. (1414) the Lollards were persecuted, and revolted without success. (See Cobham, Lord.) Lolli, loKlee, (Anjonio,) an Italian violinist, born at Bergamo in 1728; died in 1802. LolTi-a Pau-li'iia, a l^onian empress, whose l^eauty captivated Caligula. She was married to him in 38 A.D., but was soon discarded by the capricious emperor. She was put to death in 49 A.D. by the order of Agrippina, who was prompted to this act by jealousy. Lol-li-a'nus, [AoAAtavof,] a Greek sophist and writer on rhetoric, born at Ephesus, lectured at Athens in the reign of Hadrian, (11 7-138 A.D.) See Kavser, "P. Hordeoniiis Lollianus geschildert," etc., 1841. Lollio, loKle-o, (Alberto,) an Italian orator and poet, born at Florence in 1508. He published elegant orations and letters, and several poems, among which is "Arethusa," a pastoral drama, (1563.) Died in 1568. LoPli-us, (M.,) a Roman general in the service of Aneustus. He was defeated in Gaul by the Germans in 16 B.C. Died in 3 a.d. Lolme. See De Lolme, Lom'ax, (John Taylor,) an American lawyer, born in Caroline county, Virginia, in 1781, was appointed in 1826 professor of law in the University of Virginia. Lomazzo, lo-mSt'so, (Giovanni Paolo,) an Italian painter and able writer on art, was born at Milan in 1538. He was appointed by Cosimo de' Medici keeper of his vast gallery of pictures in Florence. He was versed in belles-lettres and various sciences, and ac- quired a profound theoretical and practical knowledge of the fine arts. Having become blind in the prime of life, he composed his "Trattato della Pittura," (1584,) " the most complete treatise on painting," says the " Bio- graphic Universelle," " that has hitherto appeared." His praises were sung by the first Italian poets of his time. He also published " Idea (or Image) of the Temple of Painting," (" Idea del Tempio della Pittura," 1591.) Died about 1600. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy ;" Winckelmann, " Neues Mahler-Lexikon ;" Ticozzi, "Dizionario." Lombard, l^N^btR', (Claude Antoine,) a French surgeon, born at Dole in 1741; died in 1811. Lombard, (Jean Louis,) a French artillerist, born at Strasburg in 1723, was learned in languages, etc. He published a translation of Robins's " Principles of Ar- tillery," (1783,) and other esteemed works on gunnery. Died in 1794. Lombard, lom'baRt, (Johann Wilhelm,) a Prus- sian politician, born at Berlin about 1767. He was ap- pointed minister of foreign affairs about 1800. He favoured the French interest by promoting the neutrality in which Prussia persisted until 1806. Died in 181 2. Lombard, lAN'btR', [Lat. Lombar'dus,] (Lambert,) an excellent Flemish painter and architect, born at Liege about 1500. He studied in Italy under Andrea del Sarto, and returned to his native city. In his school of design were formed several eminent artists, among whom was Frans Floris. His style is Italian. Among his master- pieces is an oil-painting of the " Last Supper." Died in 1565. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Dominicus Lampsonius, (or Lampson.) *' Lamberti Lombardi apud Eburones Pictoris celeber- rinii Vita," 1565. Lombard, (Theodore,) a French poet, born at An- nonay in 1699 ; died about 1770. Lombard de Langres, liN^bia' deh 15NgR, (Vin- cent,) a French litterateur, born at Langres about 1765. He wrote "Neslie," (1798,) and other poems, and "Me- moirs of the French Revolution," (2 vols., 1823.) Died in 1830. Lombardi, lom-baR'dee, (Alfonso,) an Italian sculp- tor, was born at Ferrara in 1487. He had an excellent talent for portraits. Among his works were portraits of Bembo, Ariosto, and Charles V., and a group in terra cotta representing the "Death of the Virgin." Died in 1536. See G. Baruffaldi, "Vita di A. Lombardi," 1839; Vasari, "Lives of the Painters and Sculptors;" Cicognara, "Storia della Scultura." Lombardi, (Carlo,) an Italian litterateur, born at Rimini, became a Protestant, and a professor of philoso- phy and medicine at Marburg, where he died in 1669. Lombardi, (Giovanni Domenico,) called L'Omino, an Italian painter, born at Lucca in 1682 ; died in 1752. Lombardi, (Girolamo,) an Italian sculptor, born at Ferrara, lived about 1550. He was employed, under the direction of Sansovino, on the church of San Marco, Venice. Lombardi, (Girolamo,) an Italian philologist, born at Verona in 1707 ; died in 1792. Lombardo, lom-baR'do, (Pietro,) a Venetian archi- tect and sculptor. He made the monument raised to Dante at Ravenna in 1482, and designed the church of Santa Maria de' Miracoli at Venice. Among his works is the tower for the clock on the Piazza San Marco. Died about 1520. His sons Antonio and Tullio were able sculptors and architects. The latter designed the church of San Salvator, Venice. His finest works as a sculptor were two marble bas-reliefs in the Chapel del Santo at Padua. Died in 1559. See Cicognara, " Storia della Scultura." Lombardo, (San ie,) an architect and sculptor, born at Venice in 1504, was a nephew of Tullio. Among his works was the Scuola di San Rocco at Venice. Died in 1560. Lombardo, (Tommaso,) an Italian sculptor, born at Lugano, lived about 1530. Lombardus. See Lombard, (Lambert.) < as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this, (2i:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) LOME ART 1448 LONDONDERRT Lombart, liN^btk', (Pierre,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1612. Among his works are twelve portraits, after Van Dyck, a " Nativity," after Poussin, and a " Penitent Magdalene," after Titian. Died in 1682. Lombert, lAw^baiR', (Pikrrk,) a French translator, born in Paris, was an associate of the Port-Royalists. He produced French versions of the works of Saint Cyprian, (2 vols., 1672,) and of Saint Augustine's "City of God," (2 vols., 1675.) Died in 1710. Lomeier, lo'ml'er, written also Lomeir, (Jan,) a learned Dutch philologist, born at Zutphen in 1636. He became minister of the church in that town in 1674, and professor of belles-lettres there in 1686. He published a curious treatise *' On Libraries," (" De Bibliothecis," 1669,) and a work on ancient history and philology, en- titled '* Dierum Genialium." Died in 1699. See Sax, " Onomasticon." Lomeni, lo-ma'nee, (Tgnazio,) an Italian writer on rural economy, born at Milan in 1779; died in 1838. Lomenie, de, deh Wmk'ne', (Henri Auguste,) Count de Brienne, a French statesman, born in Paris in 1594. At the age of twenty he obtained the reversion of the office of secretary of state, which his father had held. In 1624 he was sent to England to draw up the articles of the marriage between Henrietta of France and the Prince of Wales. He retired from office in 1661, and died in 1666. Lomenie, de, (Louis Hp:nri,) Count de Brienne, the son of the preceding, was born in 1635. About the age of twenty-six he resigned the office of secretary of foreign affairs, and became a priest of the Oratory. He wrote poems, memoirs, and other works, which have some literary merit. He was expelled from the order of the Oratory for eccentric or improper conduct, and was deranged many years. Died in 1698. See " Memoires de L. H. de Lomenie," 2 vols., 1720. Lomenie, de, (Louis L^ionard,) a French author, born in Haute-Vienne in 1818. He began his literary career by a series of biographies, entitled "Gallery of Illustrious Contemporaries, by a Man of no Account," (" Galerie des Contemporains illustres, par un Homme de Rien," 10 vols., 1840-47,) which procured for him an honourable reputation for good taste, discretion, and other merits. Many of these biographies have been published separately. Among his works is " Beaumar- chais and his Times : Studies on French Society," (2 vols., iSsS-) Lomenie de Brienne, de, deh lo'ma'ne' deh bRe'?n', (firiENNE Charles,) a French cardinal and minister of state, born in Paris in 1727. He was appointed Arch- bishop of Toulouse in 1763. In 1770 he was elected to the French Academy. in May, 1787, he succeeded Calonne as contrdleur-general of finances, without abili- ties adequate to the crisis. An exciting contest arose between the court and the Parliament of Paris, which was exiled from the capital and deprived of political power. In 1788 he was invested with the title of prime minister and made Archbishop of Sens. In this year, yielding to the importunate appeals of the people, then in a state of great excitement, he convoked the States- General for Mav, 1789. Having been so unsuccessful as a financier that he was compelled to suspend payments, he was dismissed on the 24th of August, 1788, and Necker became premier. He was one of those in the new regime who took the oath as a constitutional bishop. Died in 1794. See Droz, " Histoire du Rfegne de Louis XVI ;" *' Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Lomi, lo'mee, (Artemisia,) an Italian painter, born at Pisa in 1 590, was a daughter of Orazio Lomi, and a pupil of Guido. She had a high reputation as a portrait- painter, and painted some historical works, among which is " Judith and Holofernes." She died in London or Naples about 1644. Lomi, (Aurelio,) an Italian painter, born at Pisa in 1556, is called one of the chiefs of the school of Pisa. He painted frescos and oil-paintings in Rome, Genoa, Florence, Pisa, etc. Among his admired works are a Saint Jerome and "Adoration of the Magi." Died in 1622. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Baldinucci, "No- lizie." Lomi, (Baccto,) an Italian painter, an uncle of the preceding, born at Pisa, lived about 1 570-1600. He worked at Pisa with success, and founded a school. Lomi, (Orazio,) an Italian painter, called Gknti- LESCHi, a brother of Aurelio, noticed above, was born at Pisa about 1563. He worked in Rome, where he was employed by Agostino Tassi to paint figures. About 1623 he removed to London, where he was patronized by Charles I. Among his works are a "Repose in Egypt," and an "Assumption." Died in London in 1646. Lomm, lom, [Lat. Lom'mius,] (Josse,) one of the most skilful physicians of his time, was born at Buren, in Holland, in 1500. He practised at Tournai and at Brussels, whither he removed about 1557. In his " Medi- cinal Observations" (" Observationes Medicinales," 1 560) many diseases are accurately described. He wrote other works, in Latin of uncommon purity. Died after 1 562. See Paquot, "Memoires." Lommius. See Lomm. Lomonosof, Lomonossov, Lomonosov, or Lom- onosow, lom-o-no'sof, (Michael Vasilievitch,) a cele- brated Russian poet, born at or near Kolmogory, in the government of Archangel, in 171 1, is called the father of modern Russian literature. He was the son of a serf, whom he assisted in the business of a fisherman until his thirst for knowledge led him to Moscow, and thence to Saint Petersburg, in 1734. He became learned in an- cient and modern languages and in abstract and natural sciences. In 1746 he was appointed professor of chem- istry, and in 1760 rector of the gymnasium and Uni- versity of Saint Petersburg. He rendered the Russian language more polished and more rich by his multifarious productions, in prose and verse, on grammar, history, chemistry, rhetoric, etc. His poem entitled " Petriade" (an unfinished epic, of which Peter the Great is the hero) is one of his most popular works. He also pro- duced two volumes of odes, religious and secular, and an abridged " History of Russia." He was made council- lor of state in 1764. Died in 1765. Polevoi has published a work entitled " M. V. Lomonossov," (1836,) which is said to be a biography blended with fiction. See, also, G. Geitlin, " Dissertatio de Meriiis literariis Lomo- nossovii," 1829; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" "Foreign Quar- terly Review" for July, 1839. Londe, l6Nd, (Charles,) a French medical writer, born at Caen in 1798. His "Elements of Hygiene" (1827) have been translated into many languages. Londe, de la, deh IS 16Nd, (FRANgois Richard,) a French poet, born at Caen in 1685 ; died in 1765. Londerseel, lonMer-saK, ( Assur,) a Dutch landscape- painter and engraver, born at Amsterdam in 1550. Londerseel, van, vtn lonMer-saK, (Jan,) a Flemish engraver, born at Bruges about 1580. Lon^don-der'ry, (Charles William Stewart,) third Marquis of, born in Dublin in 1778, was a son of Robert the first Marquis, and a half-brother of Lord Castlereagh. His mother was a daughter of Lord Chan- cellor Camden. He entered the army in 1793, became colonel and aide-de-camp to the king in 1803, and dis- tinguished himself in Portugal under Sir John Moore. He served as adjutant-general under Sir Arthur Wel- lesley for several years in the Peninsula. In 18 13 Sir Charles was envoy-extraordinary to the court of Berlin, and was officially attached to the head-quarters of Ber- nadotte. Much importance is ascribed to the eflforts and menaces by which he induced Bernadotte to co- operate with the allies at Leipsic. He was raised to the peerage, as Lord Stewart, in 1814. and was one of the plenipotentiaries sent by England to the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Having married a daughter and heiress of Sir Harry Vane Tempest in 1819, he assumed the name of Vane. He succeeded his half-brother as Mar- quis of Londonderry in 1822, and obtained the rank of general in 1837. In politics he was an ultra-conserva- tive. He was author of a " History of the Peninsular War," (1813.) He died in 1854, leaving two sons, Wil- liam Robert, who inherits the title of marquis, and George, who is Viscount Seaham. See T. P. Fitzgerald, "Life of Lord Londonderry;" "Bio- graphical Sketches," by Harriet Martineau. Londonderry, Marquis of. See Castlereagh. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ti, Jr, short; e, j, o, obscure; ilx, fill, fit; mSt; nftt; good; moon; LONDON 10 1449 LONG HI Londonio, lon-do'ne-o, ( Francesco, ) an Italian painter of animals, born at Milan in 1723 ; died in 1783. Long, (Edward,) an English writer, born in Corn- wall in 1734. He emigrated in 1757 to Jamaica, where he was appointed a judge. Having returned to England in 1769, he published a "History of Jamaica," (1774,) and several minor works. Died in 1813. Long, (George,) an eminent English scholar and editor, born at Poulton, Lancashire, in 1800, Having been educated at Cambridge, he became professor of ancient languages in the University of Virginia in 1824, and professor of Greek in the London University in 1826. About this time he became a member of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge," under whose auspices he edited the " Penny Cyclopaedia," with great ability, from 1832 to 1843. He afterwards edited for the same society a " Biographical Dictionary," which was dis'continued at the end of the letter A. He has contributed many articles to Smith's "Classical Diction- ary," edited Cicero's Orations, and published, besides other works, "France and its Revolutions," (1850,) and "The Decline of the Roman Republic," (3 vols., 1864- 69 ; yet unfinished.) He has translated into English the " Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus." In 1849 he was appointed one of the professors in the college at Brighton. Long, (Roger,) F.R.S., an English astronomer, born in the county of Norfolk in 1680. He became Lowndes professor of astronomy at Cambridge in 1749, and after- wards obtained the rectory of Bradwell. He wrote a "Treatise on Astronomy," of which the first volume was published in 1742 and the second in 1764. Died in 1770. Long, (Stephen H.,) an Anierican engineer, born at Hopkinton, New Hampshire, in 1784. About 1816 he set out on a tour for expli:)ring the western frontier from Texas to the sources of the Mississippi, and published in 1824 his "Expedition to the Source of Saint Peter's River, Lake of the Woods," etc. Long, (Thomas,) an English clergyman, born at Exe- ter in 162 1. About 1660 he obtained a prebend in Exeter Cathedral, from which he was ejected as a nonjuror in 1688, He wrote a "Vindication of the Primitive Chris- tians in Point of Obedience to their Prince," (1683,) and other polemical works. Died in 1700, Long, Le. See Lelong. Longchamps, de, deh 16N'sh6N', (Pierre,) a French writer, born probably at Rochelle. He translated the Elegies of Propertius into French prose, and wrote "Memoirs of a Nun," and other works. Died in 1812. Longepierre, de, deh liNzh'pe-aiR', (Hilaire I^er- nard de Rkqueleynic,) Baron, a French poet, born at Dijon in 1658. He was an excellent Greek scholar, and produced poetical versions of Anacreon, Sappho, Bion, and Moschus. His tragedy of "Medea," says Voltaire, although too full of declamation, is superior to Corneille's "Medea." Died in 1721. Longet, l^N'zhi', (Francois Achille,) a French physician and physiologist, born at Saint-Germain-en- Laye in 181 1. He jniblished " Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System," (2 vols., 1843-46,) and a " Com- plete Treatise on Physiology," (1850-55.) He became one of the consulting physicians of the emperor. Long'fel-low, (Henry Wadsworth,) an eminent American poet and scholar, born at Portland (Maine) the 27th of February, 1807. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825, soon after which he was appointed pro- fessor of modern languages and literature in that institu- tion, with the understanding that he should have the privilege of spending some time in Europe in order more fully to qualify himself for his new position. He left home in 1826, and spent four years abroad, chiefly in France, Spain, Italy, and Germany. In 1835 he suc- ceeded Mr. George Ticknor in the chair of modern languages and belles-lettres at Harvard. The same year he visited Europe the second time ; and, after making an extensive tour through Denmark, Sweden, Germany, etc., he entered upon the duties of his professorship in 1838. In 1839 appeared his romance of " Hyperion," and a collection of his poems, entitled "Voices of the Night," which attracted great attention and raised him at once to the first rank among American poets. In 1841 he published "Ballads, and other Poems:" his charming drama of "The Spanish Student" apj^eared in 1843. This was followed by his " Poets and Poetry of Europe," (1845,) "The Belfry of Bruges, and other Poems," (1846,) and "Evangeline," (1847,) one of the most admired of all his productions. It has been pro- nounced (and we think justly) "the most perfect speci- men extant of the rhythm and melody of the English hexameter." It was followed by "The Golden Legend," (1851,) "The Song of Hiawatha," (1855,) perhaps the most popular of all his works, "The Courtship of Miles Standish," (1858,) and "Tragedies of New England," (1868.) Of his prose writings, besides "Hyperion," already referred to, we may mention "Outre-Mer: a Pilgrimage beyond the Sea," (1835,) "Kavanagh," a novel, (1849,) and his contributions to the "North American Review." His last important work is a trans- lation of Dante's "Divina Commedia," (1867,) remark- able for its literalness and fidelity to the original. Mr. Longfellow resigned his chair at Harvard in 1854, and was succeeded by Professor Lowell. As a poet, Longfellow is characterized by tenderness and depth of feeling, |o the expression of which the pic- turesque and graceful simplicity of his language often imparts an indescribable charm. He seldom or never attempts to excite admiration by far-sought conceits, by wild or lofty flights of imagination, or by the exhibition of dark and terrible passions. He relies chiefly for his success on a simple and direct appeal to those sentiments which are common to all mankind, — to persons of every rank and of every clime. It is, in fact, to his command over those feelings which are universal in the human heart, that we must ascribe the extraordinary popularity of his Indian story of " Hia- watha." It is, perhaps, not too much to say that he is not merely the first but the only writer who has suc- ceeded in giving a deep and living interest to a story of Indian life. Restricted as he necessarily was by the nature of the subject, — by the extreme simplicity, not to say meagreness, of the character of our aborigines, — he has yet produced a poem which not only comes home to the hearts of the masses of the people, but which must ex- cite the admiration of the cultivated reader who will take into consideration the inherent difiiculties of the task, and the limits and restrictions which the poet, in selecting such a subject, had necessarily to impose upon himself. The form of the verse is in admirable keeping with the simplicity of the story. But, "unhappily for the poet," as "Blackwood" for February, 1856, justly observes, "this is the very measure to attract the parodist, ' Punch' has opened the assault ; and we will not venture to pre- dict how many gleeful voices may echo his good-humoured mockery before the year is out." We may, indeed, safely assert that whatever declension there has been from the first popularity of " Hiawatha" must in a great measure be attributed to the "good-humoured mockery" of the countless parodies that have been made upon it. Happily, there are those (and we would fain hope their number is not small) who can judge of a poem by its intrinsic merits, and who will not permit a whole "college of wit- crackers" to destroy their enjoyment of what is truly beautiful or prevent their admiration of what is truly excellent. A writer in the "London Examiner" thinks " Hiawatha" "the most original of all his [Longfellow's] productions." Several different translations of it have been made, — one by the distinguished German poet Frei- ligrath, — and it has been read and admired in every part of Europe. See Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors ;" Griswold, " Poets and Poetry of America ;" Duvckinck, " Cyclopsedia of American Litera- ture," vol. ii. ; "North American Review" for January, 1840, July, 1842, Julv, 1S45, and January, i(" Astronomia Danica," 1622,) "Pentas Problematum Philosophise," (1623,) and "Invention of the Quadrature of the Circle." See Niceron, "Memoires;" L. Scavenius, "Programma Lon- gomontani." Longperier, de, deh 16N'pi're-i', (Henri Adrien Prevost,) a French antiquary, born in Paris in 1816, wrote treatises on numisntatics, etc. Long'street, (Augustus Baldwin,) son of William, noticed below, was born in Augusta, Georgia, in 1790. He became a minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and was appointed president of the South Caro- lina College in 1857. Longstreet, (James,) an able American general, born in South Carolina in 1821, graduated at West Point in 1842. He served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and was breveted major for his conduct at Molino del Rey. In 1852 he obtained the rank of captain. Pie resigned his commission about June, 1861, commanded a brigade in the Confederate arniy at Bull Run, July 21, and be- came a major-general soon after that date. He took part in the battles near Richmond in May and June, 1862, and commanded the right wing of General Lee's army at .Antietam, September 17. Having been raised to the rank of lieutenant-general, he commanded a corps at the battle of Gettysbui-g, July 2-3, 1863. In the Sep- tember ensuing he joined the army of (General Bragg, under whom he served at Chickamauga, September 19- 20. He commanded a force which General Bragg sent against Burnside in October, 1863; and he attempted to take Knoxville in November, without success. In the battle of the Wilderness, May 6, 1864, he was wounded in the throat by a ball fired by a Confederate soldier in mistake. He was disabled for five months by this wound. See a Memoir of General J. Longstreet in "Southern Generals," (anonymous,) 1865. Longstreet, (William,) an American inventor, born in New Jersey, removed to Georgia. He obtained a a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, ?, i, q, obscure; fSr, fail, ftt; mSt; n6t; good; moon; LONG VEIL LOON patent for an improvement in the cotton-gin. Died in 1814. Longueil, de, deh IdN^guI' or liN^guh'ye, [Lat. Lon- Go'nus,] (Christophe,) an eminent French scholar, born at Malines in 1490. He practised law in Paris, and was chosen conseiller au parlement. Afterwards he removed to Padua, and devoted himself to literature. He was one of the Latin scholars whose fastidious purity Erasmus ridiculed in his " Ciceronianus," and who affected to use no terms which were not found in Cicero's works. He was author of discourses against Luther, of "Letters to Bembo and Sadolet," etc. Died in 1522. See PoLUS, "Vita Longtilii :" Paolo Giovio, " Elogia Viroruni illustrium;" Nicekon, " Me moires Foppens, " Bibliotheca Bel- gica." Longueil, de, deh \bWg\^Y, [Lat. Longo'lius,] (Gil- bert,) a Dutch philologist, born at Utrecht in 1507. He taught school at Deventer and Cologne, and practised medicine. He published a "Latin-Greek Lexicon," (1533,) and notes on Ovid, Plautus, and Cicero. Died at Cologne in 1543. Longueil, de, (Joseph,) a French engraver, born at Givet in 1736; died in 1792. Longuemar, de, deh lixg^mtR', ( Alphonse le ToUR^:,) a French geologist and antiquary, born at Saint- Dizier about 1800. Longuerue, de, deh l^Ng'rii', (Louis Dufour,) Abb^:, a French ecclesiastic, eminent for learning, was born at Charleville in 1652. He was deeply versed in languages, history, philosophy, etc., and wrote many works, but published none. His friends, however, pub- lished for him an "Essay on the Antiquities of Chaldea and Egypt," "Description of France, Ancient and Mod- ern," (1719,) "Annals of the Arsacidae," (1732,) and other works. Died in 1733. See MoR^Ri, " Dictionnaire Historique," edition of 1759; " Nou- velle Biographic Geiierale." Longueval, l6Ng'vtK, (Jacques,) a French Jesuit, born near Peronne in 1680. He taught rhetoric and theology in various colleges, and was author of the first eight volumes of a "History of the Gallican Church," (1730-49,) which was continued by Fontenay and others. Died in 1735. Longueville, liNg^v^l', (?:dme Paul Marcellin,) a French Hellenist, born in Paris in 1785 ; died in 1855. Longueville, de, deh 16Ng\^K, (Anne Genevieve de Bourbon - Conde — deh booR'b^N' k6N'dy, ) Duchess, a French lady, distinguished for beauty, tact, and talent, was born at Vincennes in 1619. She was a sister of the great Conde, and was married to the Due de Longueville, noticed below, in 1642. The enmity between the parliaments and Mazarin gave rise to the faction or conspiracy of the Fronde, of which she became the heroine. Her nonchalance and languor were agree- ably diversified by surprising and splendid awakenings of genius. She exercised great influence over the chiefs of the Fronde, and had a liaison with La Rochefou- cauld, who was one of the leaders of that party. When her husband and brothers were imprisoned by Mazarin in 1650, she escaped to Stenay, the head-quarters of Turenne, whom she induced to join the party of the Fronde. With his aid she effected the release of her three friends in 1651, and returned to Paris in triumph. Peace was made between the Frondeurs and the court in 1659, after which she ceased to meddle with politics. She became devout, and spent much time in her latter years at the cloister of Port-Royal. Cardinal Mazarin once said, " We have three women in France who would be competent to govern or overturn three great king- doms, namely, the Duchess de Longueville, the Princess Palatine, and the Duchess de Chevreuse." Died in 1679. See BouRGoiNG de Vii.i.efoke. "Vie de Madame de Longue- ville," 1738: V. CoiisiN, "La Jeimesse de Mine, de Longueville," 1853: La Rochefoucauld, "Menioires;" "Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale." Longueville, de, (Charles Paris d'Orl^ans,) Due, a son of the preceding, born in Paris in 1640, inherited the brilliant qualities of his mother. He served in the army of his uncle the Prince of Conde, and was killed at tne passage of the Rhine in 1672, when the Polish deputies were on their way to offer him the crown of Poland. Longueville, de, (Henri,) Due, a French general, born in 1595, was the son of Henri d'Orleans, a prince of the blood, and was a grand-nephew of Henry IV. In the reign of Louis XIII. he distinguished himself by military exploits in Italy, etc. He married the sister of the Prince of Conde in 1642, and supported the party of the latter in the time of the Fronde. Died in 1663. Lon'gus, [Aoy^of,] a Greek sophist or author, of whom little or nothing is known. He is supposed to have lived in the fourth or fifth century of our era, and to have been the author of an ingenious prose romance entitled Tlot/j.evtKd ra Kara Au.(j)viv kol XXoTjv, ("Pastorals relating to Daphnis and Chloe,") sometimes called "Loves of Daphnis and Chloe." It is admired for a charming, elegant style, and other literary merits. In 1810 Paul Louis Courier found at Florence a manuscript of Longus which su])plied a hiatus of all the other manuscripts. He published a complete edition of the original and a corrected edition of Amyot's French version. See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Graeca ;" Dunlop, " Histoiy of Fiction ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generalc." Long'worth, (Nicholas,) an American cultivator, born at Newark, New Jersey, in 1782. Having removed to Cincinnati, he devoted himself to the culture of native grapes and the manufacture of wine, by which he acquired an immense fortune. Died in 1863. Loni, lo'nee, (Alessandro,) an Italian painter, born at Florence in 1655, was a pupil of Carlo Dolce. Died in 1702. Lonicer, lo'n!t-ser, [Lat. Lonice'rus,] (Adam,) a German physician and naturalist, born at Maiburg in 1528, was a son of Johann, noticed below. He obtained in 1554 the place of pensioned physician of Frankfort, which he occupied thirty-two years. He published several treatises on medicine, and a Latin work on Plants, Animals, and Minerals, called " Naturalis Historiae Opus Novum," (1551-55,) which was often reprinted. Died in 1586. His son, Johann Adam, born in 1557, was a physician of Frankfort. He published Latin poems, and a treatise on the chase, called " Venatus et Aucupium." Lonicer, [Lat. Lonice''rus,] (Johann,) a German scholar, born in Mansfeld in 1499. From 1527 until his death he was professor of Greek and Hebrew at Mar- burg. He made good Latin translations of several Greek authors, among whom were Pindar, Isocrates, and De- mosthenes. He was a friend and correspondent of Melanchthon. Died in 1569. See M. Adam, "Vitas Philosophorum Germanorum." Lonicerus. See Lonicer. Lonjumeau. See Gaillard de Lonjumeau. Lonnrot or Loennrot, lon'rot, (Elias,) a Finnish ])hii(^logist, born in the district of Helsingfors in 1802. He became a zealous student of the national literature of Finland. About 1835 he discovered and published the famous Finnish poem of "Kalevala," which is said to resemble the " Hiawatha" of Longfellow. He suc- ceeded Castren as professor of Finnish at Helsingfors in 1852, and published several collections of old legends, proverbs, etc., with a view to revive the use of the Finn- ish language. Lons'dale, (Henry,) an English physician and writer, born at Carlisle in 1816. He gained distinction by his researches in the toxicology of prussic acid and other subjects. Lonsdale, (William Lowther,) Earl of, an Eng- lish peer, born in 1787. He was postmaster-general from 1 841 to 1845. and was lord president of the council in the cabinet of Lord Derby in 1852. Loo. See Vanloo. Loo'mis, (Elias,) an American astronomer and phy- sicist, born in Tolland county, Connecticut, in 181 1, graduated at Yale College in 1830. He became pro- fessor of natural philosophy at the Western Reserve College, Ohio, in 1837, and obtained a similar chair in the New York University in 1844. He made valuable contributions to magnetism, astronomy, and meteor- ology. Among his works are " Elements of Natural Philosophy," and an " Introduction to Practical As- tronomy." Loon. See Van Loon. •€ as ^; 9 as s; g Aard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) LOON LOR ED AND Loon, van, vtn Ion, (Thkodork,) a Flemish painter, born at l^russels about 1630. His design was correct, and his colouring excellent. After working with Carlo Maratta at Rome, he returned to Brussels, where he con- firmed his rei)Utation by many historical paintings in the manner of Maratta. Some of the churches of Rome and Florence are adorned with his works. Died in 1678. Loopolof, Loupolov, or Lupolow, loo'po-lof, (Prascovia,) a Russian heroine, born in 1784, was a daughter of an otifiicer exiled to vSiberia. She performed on foot the journey from Tobolsk to Saint Petersburg, and obtained a pardon for her father. Her adventures form the subject of Madame Cottin's "Elizabeth, or the Exiles of Siberia." Died in 1809. Loos, 16s, [Lat. Callid'ius,] (Cornp:lis,) a Dutch Catholic theologian, born at Gouda about 1545. He was persecuted for opposing the prevalent superstitious notions respecting magic in his book " De vera et falsa Magia," (" On True and False Magic,") and for con- demning the practice of burning those called witches. He wrote other works. Died in 1595. See '• Callidius," in Bavle's "Historical and Critical Diction- ary;" NiCEKON, "Memolres." Loosjcs, los'yes, (Adriaan,) a Dutch poet and novel- ist, born at Haarlem in 1 761, was a dealer in books. He passed his life in his native city. Among his works are novels entitled " John De Witt" (1805) and "Susanna Bronkhorst," (6 vols., 1806,) and a poem called "The Last Campaign of De Ruyter." Died in 1818. See " Hulde aan de Nagedaclitenis van A. Loosjes," by P. H. Peerlkamp, C. de Koning, a. van der Willigen, and H. Meijer, 1818. Loots, lots. (CoRNELis,) a Dutch poet, born at Am- sterdam in 1774; died about 1850. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Lope de Rueda, lo'pi di roo-a'ci, a Spanish actor and dramatic author, born at Seville about 1500. He was the leader of the first troupe of strolling players in Spain, and was praised by Cervantes as an actor and writer. His plays were dialogues between a few shep- herds. Died in 1564. Lope de Vega Carpio, lo'pi dk va'gi kaR'pe-o, (Felix,) a celebrated Spanish poet and dramatist, born at Madrid on the 25th of November, 1562, was a con- temporary of Cervantes and Shakspeare. His father was a hidalgo, (gentleman,) but rather poor. Felix began to write verses in early childhood, and composed dramas about the age of twelve. While a student at the Uni- .versity of Alcala, he found a powerful patron in the Duke of Alva, whose service he entered, and at whose request he wrote his " Arcadia," a pastoral heroic poem, which first revealed his superior genius. It was first printed in 1598, though finished many years earlier. He quitted the service of Alva, and married Dona Isabel de Urbino. Having in a duel wounded his antagonist, he fled from Madrid, and passed a few years in Valencia. His grief for the death of his wife is assigned as his motive for becoming a soldier. In 1588 he enlisted as a private volunteer, and, with ardent zeal for what he deemed a holy cause, took part in the expedition of the Invincible Armada, during which he wrote his admired poem the " Beauty of Angelica," (" Hermosura de An- gelica,") a continuation of Ariosto's "Orlando." Re- nouncing martial pursuits in 1590, he returned to Madrid, where he began to write for the stage, and by his mar- vellous fertility of invention rapidly acquired fame and affluence. He required only a single day to compose a versified drama. This astonishing facility enabled him to produce two thousand original dramas, consisting of spiritual jjlays, historical comedies, and dramas of in- trigue, called De Capa y Espada, ("Of the Cloak and Sword,") which were performed with immense applause. There is scarcely an example on record of an equal popularity. His name became a synonym for the super- lative degree, and it was the fashion to say a Lope dia- mond, a Lope dress, etc., to express the splendour or perfection of those articles. He was styled the "Centre of Fame," the " Darling of Fortune," the " Phoenix of Ages," etc. Among his dramas we may mention "The Beautiful Deformed," ("La Hermosa fea," ) "The Prude," ("La Dama melindrosa,") "The Certain fori the Doubtful," (" Lo Cierto por lo Dudoso,") and "Es- trella de Sevilla," or " Don Sancho Ortiz." In richness of invention, vivacity of dialogue, and variety of ideas he is perhaps unsurpassed by any dramatist. For the sake of trying the public taste, he published, without his naine, a poem entitled " Soliloquies on God," which was received with much favour. After the death of his second wife he became a priest, (1609,) but continued to write for the stage. He also wrote epic poems, entitled "Circe," "Andromeda," and "Jerusalem Delivered," which are considered much inferior to his dramas. Died in 1635. (^o'' some very interesting remarks on Lope de Vega, particularly in reference to the marvellous fertility of his genius, see Prescott's " Miscellanies," pp. 137-139.) See MoNTALVAN, " Kama iiosthiiina a la Vida y Muerte del Lope de Vega Carpio," Madrid, 1636; Lord Holland, "Some Account of the Life of Lope de Vega Carpio," 1817 ; Larramendi, " Planto funebre en la Muerte de L. F. de Vega Carpio," 1635: Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature;" N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca His- pana Nova;" Sedano, " Parnaso Espanol ;" Fauriel, " Lope de Vega," in the "Revue des Deux Mondes," September i, 1830, and September 15, 1843; Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Enk von der Burg, " Studien iiber Lope de Vega," Vienna, 1839; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lopes, lo'p^s, (Fernando,) a Portuguese historian, born about 1380 ; died in 1449. Lopez. See Ayala, de, Gomara, and Castanheda. Lopez, lo'i^^th, (Alonzo,) a Spanish critic, born at Valladolid. He practised medicine with such success that he received the title of physician to Maria of Castile, daughter of Charles V. He published in 1596 "Ancient Poetical Philosophy," (" Philosophia antiqua poetica.") Lopez, (Francisco,) a Spanish artist, who became painter to Philip III. about 1602, and adorned the Prado with frescos. He was living in 1638. Lopez, lo'pes or lo'pSth, (Don Francisco Solano,) an able South American general and political leader, born about 1826. He was elected in September, 1862, President of Paraguay, as the successor of his father, Don Carlos Lopez. He declared war against Brazil in 1865, and ct)mmanded his army in person with various success. He was killed in battle or retreat in March, 1870. Lopez, (I AGO or Diego,) a Spanissh painter, born at Toledo about 1465 ; died about 1530. Lopez, (Don Joaquin Maria,) an able and eloquent Spanish statesman, born at Villena in 1802, was a zeal- ous adherent of the constitutional party. In 1836 he became minister of the interior under Calatrava. He resigned in March, 1837. He was prime minister for a short time in 1843. Lopez, (Jos6,) a Spanish painter, born at Seville about 1650, was a pupil of Murillo. Lopez, lo'p^s or lo'p^th, (Narcisso,) an American revolutionist or filibuster, born in Venezuela in 1799. He served some time as an ofiicer in the Spanish army, and in 1849 organized in the United States an expedition for the conquest of Cuba, which failed. He renewed the enterprise in August, 1 851, was captured, and garroted at Havana the same year, Lopez, (Pedro,) a Spanish painter, was a pupil of Greco. His chief work is the "Adoration of the Magi," (dated 1608,) at Toledo, which is much admired. Lopez de Lerena, lo'pith dk li-ra'nl, (Don Pedro,) a Spanish financier, born at Val de Moro in 1734. He was appointed in 1785 secretary of state for the finances, which he managed with success until his death, in 1792. Loqm^n. See Lokman. Lorch, loRK, written also Lorich, (Melchior,) a Danish painter and eminent engraver, born in Sleswick in 1527. He visited many foreign countries, and died in Rome in 1586. Among his works are engravings of Luther, of Albert Diirer, and of the Deluge. Lord, (Nathan,) D.D., an American Congregational divine, born at Berwick, Maine, in 1792. He graduated at Bowdoin, and in 1828 became president of Dartmouth College. Died in 1870. Lordon, loR'd^N', (Pierre Jerome,) a French histori- cal painter, born in 1780, worked in Paris. Died in 1838. Loredano, lo-ri-d^'no, (Giovanni Francesco,) a mediocre Italian poet and litterateur, born at Venice in 1606. He became a senator, and obtained other high offices. About 1630 he founded the academy of the In- cogniti. He wrote numerous works inverse and prose, ii e, 1, 5, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; nigt; n6t; good; moon; LOREDANO 1453 LORRAINE among which are "The Agreeable Jests," ("Gli Scherzi geniali," 1632,) " L'lliade giocosa," a burlesque of the "Iliad," (1654,) and "Amorous Tales." Died in 1661. See A. Liipis, "Vita di G. F. Loredano," 1663; G. Brunacci, "Vita di G. F. Loredano, Senatore Veneto," 1662. Loredano, (Leonardo,) was Doge of Venice from 1501 until 1521, when he died, at the age of ninety. His administration was disturbed by the wars which were consequent on the League of Cambray, and was a period of disaster to the republic. He waged war against a powerful coalition consisting of France, Germany, and the pope. He was one of the greatest doges of Venice. Lorentz, lo'r^nts, (Johann Frieorich,) a German mathematician, born at Halle in 1738; died in 1807. Lorentz or Lorenz, \o\h's\ (Joseph Adam,) a French surgeon, born in Alsace in 1734; died in 1801. Lorenz. See Lorenzo and Lawrence. Lorenz, lo'r^nts or lo'rSN', (Jean Michel,) a French historical writer, born at Strasburg in 1723, became pro- fessor of history in his native city, and of eloquence in 1784. He published, (in Latin,) besides other works of merit, a " Life of Saint Paul," (" Annales Paulini," 1769,) a " History of Ancient Gaul," and " Rudiments of Ger- man History," (1776.) Died in 1801. See MM. Haag, " La France protestante." Lorenzetti, lo-r^n-zet'tee, or Lorenzetto, \o-xln- zet'to, (Ambrogio,) sometimes called Ambrogio di Lorenzo, an old Italian painter, born at Sienna about 1260, was a pupil of his father Lorenzo, and was a brother of Pietro. His birth is variously dated about 1257, 1277, and 1300. Ambrogio and Pietro worked together in Sienna, and were among the greatest artists of their time. The works of Ambrogio are nearly all destroyed ; but some of his frescos are still visible in Sienna. He was, says Vasari, universally admired. Died in 1340, 1348, or 1360. See Vasari, " Lifes of the Painters," etc. ; Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" Baldinucci, " Notizie." Lorenzetti, (Pietro,) a brother of the preceding, worked in Sienna, Florence, Rome, and Pisa, and, ac- cording to Vasari, surpassed Cimabue and Giotto. In the Catnpo Santo of Pisa is preserved his picture repre- senting the " Life of the Fathers in the Desert," in fresco. He painted several Madonnas, which have been de- stroyed. He is sometimes called Laurati. His last works are dated 1355. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Lorenzetto. See Campanato. Lorenzi, lo-r^n'zee, (Hartoi.ommeo,) an Italian poet and Jesuit, born near Verona in 1732, had an excellent talent for improvisation. Died in 1822. Lorenzi, (Battista,) an Italian sculptor and engraver, born in Tuscany in 1528; died in 1593. Lorenzi, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Verona in 1719 ; died in 1783. Lorenzi, (Stot.do di Gino, stolMo de jee'no,) an Italian sculptor, born at Settignano about 1540. Lorenzini, lo-r^n-zee'nee, (Franc?:sco Maria,) an Italian poet, born in Rome in 1680. He acquired a high reputation as a poet, and was remarkable for the energy of his style. In 1728 he succeeded Crescimbeni as president of the Academy of Arcades. He was the author of satires, epigrams, dramas, and other poems in Italian and Latin, \y\td in 1743. See Fabroni, "Vitae Italoriim." Lorenzini, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian engraver, born at Bologna in 1665. He engraved the works of Andrea del Sarto and other Italian masters. Died in 1 740. Lorenzini, (Lorenzo,) an Italian geometer, born at Florence in 1652. For some political offence he was imprisoned at Volterra twenty years, ending about 1700, and in this period wrote an able work on conic sections. Died in 1721. Lorenzo. See Lawrence, Saint. Lorenzo de' Medici. See Medici. Lorenzo the Magnificent. See Medici, (Lo- renzo de'.) Loret, k/ri', (Jean,) a French rhymer, born in Nor- mandy. He began to issue in 1650 a weekly newspaper, called "Gazette en Verses burlesques," which was very successful. From 1656 to 1665 it was published under the title of "Muse historique." Died about 1665. Lorge, loRzh, (Jean Thomas Guillaume,) a French general, born at Caen in 1767 ; died in 1826. Lorges. See Durfort, de, (Gui Alphonse.) Lorgna, loRn'yS, (Antonio Maria,) an Italian mathe- matician, born at Verona about 1734. After obtaining the rank of colonel of engineers, he became professor in the military school of Verona. He had the reputation of being one of the best geometers of Italy. Died in 1796. Among his works are treatises on Statics and Mechanics, and "Essays on Mathematics and Physics," ("Opuscula Mathemat'ica et Physica," 1770.) See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Loria, di, de lo're-S, or Lauria, low're-i, (Roger,) an able Italian admiral, born at Loria, (or Lauria.) In 1282, as admiral of Peter II., King of Aragon and Sicily, he defeated the fleet of Charles I. of Naples near Mes- sina. He gained a naval victory over the French near Barcelona in 1285, and another over the Neapolitans before Castellamare in 1287. Having entered into the service of Jayme of Aragon, he defeated the Sicilian fleet at Cape Orlando in 1299, and again in 1300. Died in 1305. Sismondi considers him the greatest admiral that Italy has produced. See QiiiNTANA, "Lives of Celebrated Spaniards;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes;" Giovanni Villani, " Isto- rie Florentine." Lorichon, lo're'sh^N', (Antoine Constant Louis,) a PVench engraver, born in Paris in 1800. Lorieux, lo're-uh', (Auguste Julien Marie,) a French writer and lawyer, born at Croisic in 1797. He wrote a " History of the Reign of Charles X.," and a " Treatise on the Royal Prerogative in France and Eng- land," (1840.) Died in 1842. Lorin, lo'r^N', (Jean,) a French theologian, born at Avignon in 1559; died in 1634. Lo'ring, (William W.,) an American major-general, born in North Carolina about 181 5. He took arms against the Union in 1 861, and was employed in the defence of Vicksburg in the spring of 1863. Lorinser, lo'rin-ser, (Karl Ignaz,) a German medi- cal writer, born at Nimes, in Bohemia, in 1796; died in 1853- Loriot, lo'reV, (Antoine Joseph,) a French me- chanician, born near Pontarlier in 1716. He gained a wide reputation by his ingenious and useful inven- tions, among which were a loom for ribbons, machines for working mines, and a new mortar or water-proof cement which bears his name. Died in 1782. Loriot, (Pierre,) a French jurist, born at Salins, be- came professor of law at Leipsic in 1550; died about 1568. Loriquet, lo're'ki', (Jean Nicolas,) a French Jesuit and historical writer, born at ^fipernay in 1760. He published many school-books in which history was ex- purgated or falsified to promote sectarian and partisan opinions. He stated in one of his works that "In 1809 the Marquis of Bonaparte, as lieutenant-general of the King of France, entered Vienna at the head of an army." Died in 1845. Loritz. See Glareanus. Lorme, de. See Delorme. Lorn, Lord. See Campbell, (Archibald,) Marquis of Argyle. Lorrain, (Claude.) See Claude Lorrain. Lorrain, Le, (Robert.) See Lelorrain. Lorraine. See Charles II., Charles IIL, Fran- cis I., Guise, Harcourt, (Henry,) and Mayenne. Lorraine, lor-ran' or lo'rin', (Antoine,) Duke of, the son of l\ene II., was born at Bar-le-Duc in 1489. He succeeded his father in 1508, and married Renee de Bourbon, a French lady. He maintained a neutrality in the war between Charles V. and Francis I., and reigned mostly in peace, except some bloody contests with the German Protestants. He died in 1544, leaving the duchy to his son, Francis II. Lorraine, Cardinal. See Guise, (Charles de.) Lorraine, k/ran', (Charles IV.,) Duke of, the son of Fran9ois, Comte de Vaudemont, was born in 1604, and succeeded his uncle Henry (whose daughter he had mar- € as k; 9 as j; g hard; g as g, h, yl, guttural ; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2[^='See Explanations, p. 23.) LORRAINE H54 LOTARIO ried) in 1624. Louis XIII. of France invaded Lorraine in 1632, and took without much resistance Nancy (the capital) and several fortresses. In the Thirty Years' war, which began about 1620, Charles fought for the German empire, contributed to the victory over the Swedes at Nordlingen in 1634, and as an ally of Spain fought against the French in several ensuing campaigns. By the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) Lorraine was re- stored to him, but France retained the duchy of Bar. In 1662 he appointed Louis XIV. his heir, but soon took arms against him, and became a general in the imperial army. Died in 1675. See DoM Calmkt, " Histoire de Lorraine;" C. A. Ri^gin, " His- toire Hes Duches de Lorraine et Bar," 1834 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lorraine, (Charles V.,) Duke of, an able general and statesman, born at Vienna in 1643, ^'^^ the nephew of the preceding. He was the son of Francis, (a brother of Charles IV.) At the death of Charles IV. the duke- dom was claimed by the subject of this article, and by the French king, who had possession ; but Charles was recognized as duke by the other powers of Europe. Having entered the Austrian service, he was made a general in 1672, and distinguished himself at Senef in 1675. His reign over Lorraine was only nominal. He was chosen generalissimo of the imperial army in 1676. In 1678 he married a sister of the Austrian emperor, and was restored by the treaty of Nymwegen to his duchy, with the condition of ceding Nancy to France ; but he refused to accept these terms. He rendered signal services to Austria in the war against the Turks which began in 1683, and commanded a corps against the French in 1689. He died in 1690, leaving his title to his son, Leopold I. See Jean de la Brune, "-Vie de Charles V," 1691 ; C. Frks- CHOT, "Vita di Caroli V.," 1692 ; Dufont, " Abreg^ historique de la Vie de Charles V," 1701. Lorraine, (Henri,) Duke of, surnamed the Good, born at Nancy in 1563, was the son of Charles III. and Claude, daughter of Henry II. of France. He married Catherine de Bourbon, a sister of King Henry IV., and in 1608 succeeded his father. He died in 1624, leaving the duchy to his nephew, Charles IV. Lorraine, (Leopold I.,) Duke of, born at Innspruck in 1679, was the son of Charles V. By the treaty of Ryswick, in 1697, he recovered Lorraine, with the con- dition that he should not repair the dismantled forts nor keep an army. He married Elizabeth Charlotte, niece of Louis XIV. He showed himself a wise ruler, and improved the condition of his dominions, which had been desolated by long wars. In reference to him, Voltaire says, "One of the petty sovereigns of Europe has done the most good to his people." He died in 1729, and was succeeded by his son Francis, who married Maria Theresa of Austria, and exchanged Lorraine for Tuscany. He was the last Duke of Lorraine. Lorraine, (Ren6 II.,) Duke of, born in 1451, be- came duke in 1473. His mother was a daughter of Rene of Anjou, and heiress of the duchy of Lorraine. His dominions having been invaded by Charles the Bold of Burgundy, Rene, with his Swiss allies, defeated Charles at Morat in 1476. The next year he gained another famous victory near Nancy, where Charles was killed in battle. He formed an alliance with Venice, and in 1480 was appointed captain-general of that republic; but on the death of Louis XI. of France he left the service of Venice to urge his claims to Anjou and Provence, which he failed to obtain. He died in 1508, leaving two sons, Antoine, who was his heir, and Claude, the first Duke of Guise. See DoM Cai.met, "Histoire de Lorraine." Lorrain, de, (Charles I.) See Charles de France. Lorraine, de, (Charles II.) See Charles II., Duke of Lorraine. Lorraine, de, (Charles III.) See Charles III., called THE Great. Lorraine, de, deh lor-ran', (Charles,) an Austrian general, called Prince Charles of Lorraine, born at Luneville in 1712, was the second son of Duke Leopold I., and a brother of Francis I. of Austria. He commanded the Austrians in the war between Maria Theresa and Frederick the Great, by whom he was defeated at Czas- lau in 1742. In 1744 he forced Frederick to evacuate Bohemia, married a sister of Maria Theresa, and was appointed Governor of the Low Countries. At the be- ginning of the Seven Years' war he was commander of the Austrians, and gained a victory over the Prussians at Breslau in 1757 ; but, having been completely defeated in the great battle of Leuthen, in the same year, he re- signed his command. Died in 1780. Lorraine, de, (Francois,) grand-prieur of France, was born in 1534, and was a son of the Duke of Guise. After serving with distinction in naval war against the Turks, he was made general of the galleys, and com- manded several expeditions. Died in 1563. Lorris, de, deh lo'r^ss', (Guillaume,) a mediaeval French bard, born at Lorris, on the Loire. He was the author of the "Romance of the Rose," ("Roman de la Rose,") a remarkable poem, which had a great influence on French literature. The subject is the art of love, and is treated in an agreeable style. He is supposed to have died about 1240. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lorry, lo're', (Anne Charles,) a French physician, born at Crosne in 1726. He practised in Paris, and attained the highest rank in his profession. He became docteur-regent oi the faculty, and attended Louis XV. in his last illness. He published a valuable treatise " On Cuta- neous Diseases," (1777;) also an edition of the "Apho- risms" of Hippocrates, and other wciks. Died in 1783. See Vicq-d'Azvr, " fiioge de Lorry;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lort, (Michael,) an English writer on theology, born in 1725. He became professor of Greek at Cambridge about 1759. Died in 1790. Lortic, loR't^k', (Andr6,) a French Protestant min- ister and writer, born at Saintonge, lived between 1650 and 1700. Died in London. Lortzing, loRt'sing, (Albert August,) a German composer, born in Berlin in 1803; died in 1851. Losada, 1o-s3.'dS, (Diego,) a Spanish officer, who conquered the native tribes of Venezuela, and founded Santiago de Leon. Died in 1569. Losana, lo-si'ni, (Matteo,) an Italian priest, born in Piedmont in 1738. He published useful treatises on rural economy, insects, etc. Died in 1833. Lo.scher or Loescher, lo'sher, (Valentin Ernst,) a German theologian, born at Sondershausen in 1672. He taught theology at Wittenberg for many years, and published there a monthly journal of theology and lite- rature, (1701-20,) which had great success. Died ih 1749. Loschge, losh'geh, (Friedrich Heinrich,) a Ger- man physician and writer, born at Anspach in 1 755; died in 1840. Losel or Loesel, lo'zel, (Johann,) a German bota- nist, born at Brandenburg in 1607. He became pro- fessor of anatomy and botany at Konigsberg, and died in 1656, leaving in manuscript a " Flora Prussica," — a mere catalogue of plants, — which Gottsched published in 1703. Losenko, lo-sgn'ko, written also Lossenko, (Ivan,) an eminent Russian painter, born about 1720. He was director of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts in Saint Petersburg. Among his works is "The Parting of Hec- tor and Andromache." Died in 1773. Los'sing, (Benson John,) an American historian and engraver, born in Dutchess county. New York, in 1813. He published numerous illustrated works, most of which have enjoyed a great and deserved popularity. Among the most important are "The Pictorial Field-Book of the Revolution," (2 vols., 1850-52,) " The Life and Times of Philip Schuyler," (2 vols., i860,) a "Life of Washing- ton," (3 vols., i860,) and a " Pictorial History of the Civil War in the United States," (3 vols., 1866-69.) Lossiiis, los'se-us, (Lucas,) a German musician and writer, born at Vach in 1508; died in 1582. Lot, [Heb. £3lS ; Fr. Loth, lot,] a Hebrew patriarch, who lived about 1900 B.C., was the son of Haran, and nephew of Abraham. He resided in Sodom until he was warned by angels of its impending destruction. See Genesis xi., xii., xiii., xix. ; IL Peter ii. 7. Lotario. See Lothaire I. i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; mSt; n5t; good; moon; LOTEN H55 LOUDON Loten, lo'ten, (John or Jacob,) a Dutch landscape- painter, who excelled in wild, rocky scenery, and storms. He worked mostly in England, where he died in i68l. Loth. See Lot. Loth, lot, or Loti, lo'tee, [in Italian, Lotti,] (Johann Karl,) a German painter, born at Munich in 1632. He acquired a high rank among the realists, whom the Ital- ians call "Naturalist!." Among his chief works are "The Death of Abel," and a "Nativity." He received the title of first painter to the emperor Leopold I. Died at Venice in 1698. Lothaire, lo-thair', [Fr. pron. lo'tSR' ; Lat. Lotha'- Rius ; Ger. LoTHAR, lo-tiR' ; It. Lotarto, lo-ti're-o,] L, Emperor of the West or of Rome, born about 795 A.D., was the eldest son of Louis le Debonnaire. His father as- sociated him with himself in the empire in 817, and made him King of Italy in 822. Pepin and Louis, brothers of Lothaire, received respectively Aquitaine and Germany. At the death of his father, in 840, he claimed supremacy as emperor ; but his brothers, Louis the Germanic and Charles the Bald, united to dispute his title, and defeated him at the great battle of Fontanet, (now Fontenailles,) in 841. By the treaty of Verdun (843) Lothaire retained Italy, with some provinces of France. His capital was Aix-la-Chapelle. He died in 855 a.d., leaving three sons, Louis, Charles, and Lothaire, among whom the empire was divided. See AsTRONOMUs, "Vita Ludovici Pii ;" Fauriel, " Histoire de la Gaule meridionale," tome iv. ; " Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale." Lothaire [Lat. Lotha'rius ; Ger. Lothar] IL or IIL, Emperor of Germany, sometimes called Lothaire OF Saxony, was born in 1075. He was the son of Geb- hard, Count of Arnsberg. After the death of Henry V. he was elected emperor, in 1125. Conrad, Duke of Franconia, protested against the election, and was crowned at Milan by his partisans. About 1132 Lothaire marched to Rome and restored Pope Innocent II., who had been expelled by his rival Anaclete. He was crowned at Rome by Innocent, and performed acts of homage to the pope which were afterwards cited as an evidence that the empire was a fief of the Roman See. He died in 1137, and Conrad III., above named, became emperor. In the reign of Lothaire the Diet of the empire asserted its exclusive right to impose taxes and make war or peace. See Gervais, "Geschichte Deutschlands unter Kaiser Heinrich V. iind Lothar III.," 2 vols., 1S42; Mascov, " Commentarii de Rebus Imperii Romaiio-Germanici sub Lothario II.," lys.l ; Jaffe, "Geschichte des Deutschen Reiches unter Lothar von Sachsen," 1841. Lothaire, lo-thair'or Io'iSr', King of France, the son of Louis d'Outremer, was born in 941 a.d., and suc- ceeded his father in 954. His reign was disturbed by contests with powerful vassals, among whom was Hugh Capet, and he waged war with Otho II. of Germany. He died in 986, and was succeeded by his son, Louis V. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Lothaire, King of Italy, was the son of Hugh of Provence, who admitted him to a share of the royal power in 931. He reigned alone a few years, and died in 950, leaving an only child, Emma, who was married to Lothaire of France. His successor was Berenger II. Lothaire, King of Lorraine, was the second son of the eni|)eror Lothaire I. In 855 he inherited the country situated between the Rhine and the Meuse, which was called Lotharingia, — Gallice Lorraine. He weakened the royal power by yielding to the encroachments of the clergy, and by other impolitic measures. Died in 869 A.D. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Lothar. See Lothaire. Lotharius. See Lothaire. Lotharius, Cardinal. See Innocent III. Lotich, lo'tiK, (Johann Peter,) a German physician and Latin poet, born at Nauheim in 1598, was a nephew of Peter, noticed below. He lived at Frankfort, where he died in 1669. He was the author of Latin epigrams and of several historical and medical works. See Nic^RON, "Memoires." Lotich, [Lat. Lotich'ius,] (Peter,) a celebrated German poet, born at Schluchtern, Hesse-Cassel, in 1528, was called Secundus, to distinguish him from his uncle of the same name. He fought for the Protestant League of Schmalkalden, and afterwards entered the civil service of the Elector-Palatine. He became pro- fessor of medicine at Heidelberg in 1557, and died in 1560. He owes his fame to Latin elegies and other poems, (1551,) which were highly praised by eminent critics. "Lotich," says Hallam, "is a very elegant and classical versifier, and perhaps equal in elegy to any Cisalpine writer of the sixteenth century." (" Intro- duction to the Literature of Europe.") See Johann Hagrn, "Vita Petri Lotichii Secundi," 1586; Nic^- RON, " Memoires;" M. Adam, "Vitse Germanorum Philosophorum, " Lotichius. See Lotich, (Peter.) Lotteri, lot-ta'ree, (Angelo Luigi,) an Italian mathe- matician, born in the Milanese in 1760. Among his works is "The Principles of the Differential and Integral Calculus," (1788.) Died at Milan in 1839. Lotti. See Loth. Lotti, lot'tee, (Antonio,) an Italian composer, born at Venice about 1665 ; died in 1740. Lotti, (Cosimo,) a Florentine painter and architect, was noted for mechanical ingenuity, and made several automata at Florence. About 1628 he was invited by Philip IV. to Madrid, where he built the theatre Buen Retiro. Lottin, lo't^N', (Augustin Martin,) a French book- seller, born in Paris in 1726. He published a "Return from Saint-Cloud by Land and Sea," a facetious work. Died in 1793. Lotto, lot'to, (Lorenzo,) an excellent Italian painter, was born at Venice about 1490. He worked chiefly at Bergamo, and had the reputation of being one of the best painters of the Venetian school. Among his master- pieces are several Madonnas at Bergamo. His first works are dated about 1515, and his last about 1560. "His master-pieces," says Lanzi, "place him almost on a level with the first luminaries of the art." See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" Ridolfi, " Vite degli illustri Pittori Vencti." Louandre, loo'flNdR', (Charles Leopold,) a French litterateur, born at Abbeville in 1 813. Loiibere,deIa, dehlt loo^bain', (Antotne,) a French geometer, born in Languedoc in 1600. He taught va- rious sciences in the colleges of the Jesuits, and pub- lished several learned mathematical works. Died in 1664. Loubere, de la, (Simon,) a nephew of the preceding, was born at Toulouse in 1642. He was sent as envoy to Siam in 1687. After his return he published a work "On the Kingdom of Siam," (1691,) which is praised for fidelity and judicious observations. He^^'vas elected to the French Academy in 1693. Died in 1729.- Loubon, loo'b6N', ( Charles Joseph Emile, ) a French painter of history and landscapes, born at Aix in 1809. Louchet, loo'sh^', (Louis,) a French Jacobin, who became a member of the Convention in 1792. He was the first who ventured, on the 9th Thermidor, 1794, to move the arrest or trial of Robespierre. Lamartine calls him an obscure representative. Died in 1 81 5. Loudon, (Gideon Ernst.) See Laudon. Loudon, low'don, (Jane,) the wife of J. C. Loudon, noticed below, and daughter of Thomas Webb, was born near Birmingham in 1808. She was married in 1381, before which she had published a novel called "The Mummy." She gave efficient aid to her husband in his literary enterprises, and after his death published new editions of some of his works. She also wrote "The Ladies' Flower-Garden," ( 1841,) "Botany for Ladies," (1852,) "Gardening for Ladies," and other esteemed works. Died in 1858. See "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iv. chap, xvii.; " London Quarterly Review" for June, 1842. Loudon, (John Claudius,) an eminent Scottish writer on horticulture and agriculture, was born at Cambuslang in 1783. Having learned the business of a landscape-gardener, he removed to London in 1803. A few years later he rented a farm, on which he tried new modes of cultivation with success, and soon acquired an easy fortune. After visiting various countries of Europe, he returned to London, and published "The Encyclopaedia of Gardening," (1822,) which had a very € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Vi, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2l^='See Explanations, p. 23.) LOUET 1456 LOUIS large sale. He afterwards produced " Encyclopjedia of Agriculture," (1825,) and "Encyclopaedia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture," {1832.) The last was especially popular. He was editor of the "Gardener's Magazine," commenced in 1826, and of the "Magazine of Natural History," ( 1828-36.) His industry and ex- tensive learning were displayed in an expensive work on the trees and shrubs of Britain, entitled " Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum," (1838.) Died in 1843. See "Memoir of J. C. Loudon," by his wife, 1845; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," "Edinburgh Re- view" for July, 1839. Louet, loo'i', (Georges,) a French jurist, born at Angers about 1540; died in 1608. Lough, luf, (John Graham,) an English sculptor, born at Green head, in Northumberland. He produced about 1827 an admirable statue of Milo for the Duke of Wellington, and went to Italy in 1834. After his return home, in 1838, he exhibited " Ophelia," " Hebe banished," "The Roman Fruit-Girl," a statue of Victoria, (1845,) and a statue of Prince Albert, (1847.) Among his greatest works is a colossal marble group of " Satan subdued by the Archangel Michael," (1851.) Loughborough, Lord. See Wedderburn. Louis, loo'iss, [It. LuiGi, loo-ee'jee,] L, King of Etru- ria, born at Parma in 1773, vvas the son of Ferdinand, Duke of Parma. In 1795 he married Maria Louisa, a daughter of Charles IV. of Spain. By a treaty between the Spanish court and Napoleon in 1801, Louis acquired Tuscany in exchange for Parma, and the name of the former was changed to Etruria. He died in 1803, leaving a son, Louis II. Louis, loo'iss, [Fr. pron. loo'e' ; Ger. Ludwig, lood'- ^iG ; Lat. LuDOVi'cus,] the name of many kings of France. Louis L, surnamed le Debonnaire and the Pious, [Lat. Ludov/cus Pi'us ; Ger. Ludwig der Fromme,] Emperor of the West, and King of France, the son and successor of Charlemagne, was born at Casseneuil in 778 A.D. Two elder brothers having died before their father, Louis became heir of all the vast dominions of Charlemagne in 814 ; but his character was too feeble to maintain the integrity of the empire. He had three sons, Lothaire, Pepin, and Louis, whom about 820 he made his colleagues in the government, giving Italy to the first, Aquitaine to the second, and Bavaria to the third. After this division another son, Charles the Bald, was born to him. His sons Lothaire and Pepin revolted in 830, and deposed him. He was compelled to do public penance, and confined in a con- vent. By the efforts of his sons Louis and Pepin, he was restored to thi' throne a short time before his death, which occurred in 840. See Frantin, "Louis le Pieux et son Siecle," 2 vols., 1840; Franck, "Ludwig der Fromme," 1832; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Louis IL, surnamed le Begue, leh b|g, {i.e. "the Stammerer,") King of France, the son of Charles the Bald, was born in 846 A.D. He succeeded his father in 877. He propitiated his turbulent nobles by granting to them many duchies, earldotns, and seignories. He died in 879, leaving three sons, Louis, Carloman, and Charles the Simple. See MiCHELET, " Histoire de France." Louis IIL, King of France, born about 863, was the eldest son of Louis II. In 879 the kingdom was divided between Louis and Carloman, the former of whom re- ceived for his share Neustria. He gained a victory over the Normans who invaded France, when he died, with- out issue, in 882 A.D., aged about twenty, and Carloman became sole king of France. See Mjchei.kt, " Histoire de France." Louis IV., surnamed d'Outremer (dootR'maiR') because he had visited England in infancy, was the son of Charles the Simple. He was born in 920 A.D., and crowned king in 936. Among the events of his reign was a war between him and Hugh, the father of Hugh Capet. He died in 954, and was succeeded by his son, Lothaire II. See SisMONDi, " Histoire des Frangais." Louis v., King of France, surnamed le Faineant, (i.e. "the Idle" or " Do-Nothing,") the son of Lothaire H., was born about 966. He inherited the title of king in 986, and died in 987, without issue, being the last king of the Carlovingian dynasty. Hugh Capet was elected as his successor. See MiCHELET, "Histoire de France." Louis VL of France, surnamed LE Gros, (leh gRo,) was the son of Philip I. and of Bertha. He was born in 1078, and became king in 1108. liefore his accession the royal power had been much reduced by the preva- lence of the feudal system, and in his reign many sei- gneurs asserted by arms the sovereign power over their fiefs. He waged war against Henry I. of England for the possession of Normandy, but was not successful. He is represented as a brave and generous prince, and is honoured for the establishment of communes and municipal governments, by which he promoted the politi- cal influence of the third estate. He died in 1137, and was succeeded by his son, Louis VII. See SiSMONDi, "Histoire des Fran9ais;" Michelet, "Histoire de France." Louis VIL, King of France, surnamed le Jeune, ("the Young,") born in 1120, was the son of Louis VI., whom he succeeded in 1 137. He married Eleanor, heiress of the Duke of Aquitaine. Having been anathe- matized by the pope, he became penitent, and, in order to expiate his sins, he joined the second crusade to Pal- estine in 1 147, and was followed by a large army of Frenchmen and others. After many defeats and disas- ters, by which he lost nearly all his men, he returned in 1 149. His wife Eleanor, having been divorced in 11 52, married Henry II. of England, who by this marriage acquired Guienne and Poitou. War ensued between Louis and Henry, but no decisive advantage was gained by either. He died in 1180, and was succeeded by his son, Philip Augustus, See MiCHELET, "Histoire de France;" Michaud, " History of the Crusades;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Louis VIIL, surnamed Cceur-de-Lton, (kuR'deh- le'oN',) the son of Philip Augustus, was born in 1187, and ascended the throne in 1223. His wife vvas Blanche of Castile. He recovered by arms Poitou and several places which the English held in France/ Instigated by the pope, he led a crusade against the Albigenses, and waged an unjust war against the Count of Toulouse, who was denounced as a heretic. At the end of the first campaign he died, in 1226, leaving the throne to his son, Louis IX. See RvMER, " Foedera," 1704 ; Vaissette, " Histoire generale du Languedoc," 5 vols., 1730-45. Louis IX., or Saint Louis, King of France, was born in 1215, and succeeded his father, Louis VIIL, in 1226. His mother, Blanche of Castile, was regent during his minority, and defended his throne with wisdom against Thibaut de Champagne and other barons who were leagued with him. Louis married Margaret of Pro-- vence in 1234. In 1244 he recovered from a dangerous illness, and made a vow to conduct a crusade against the infidels. Having raised a large army, he departed in 1248, and in the next year entered Egypt. There his army was ravaged by disease, and defeated at Mansourah by the Saracens, who took Saint Louis prisoner. By paying a ransom he obtained his liberty, and pursued his course to Palestine, where he remained about three years. He returned to France in 1254, and employed himself in improving the condition of the people by wise laws. His foreign policy was pacific towards European nations, but his zeal against infidels urged him to another crusade in 1270. He first directed his operations against Tunis, but before he had reached that place he died, near Carthage or Tunis, in August, 1270. He was canonized in 1297. He was succeeded by his son, Philippe le Hardi. " Louis vvas," says Voltaire, " in all respects a model for men. His piety, which was that of an anchorite, did not deprive him of royal virtues. He made a profound policy agree and concur with exact justice ; and perhaps he is the only sovereign who merits this praise." See G. DE Nangls, "Vie de Saint-Louis;" Joinville, "Vie de Saint- Louis ;" Filleau de la Chalse, "Histoire de Saint-Louis," 2 vols , 1688; Bury, "Histoire de Saint-Louis," 1775; Michelet, " Histoire de France ;" MiCHAim, "History of the Crusades;" Vil- leneuve-Bargemont, " Histoire de Saint-Louis, Roi de France," 3 vols., 1836; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." i, e, T, 6, xi, y, long; 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; ^, e, i, 9, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; nftt; good; moon; LOUIS H57 LOUIS Louis X., surnanied le Hutin, (leh hii'tiN',) King of France, the sou of Philippe le Bel, was born in 1289, and became king in 13 14. He married Clemence, a daughter of the King of Hungary. Among the chief events of his short reign was his unfortunate expedition against Flanders. He died, without male issue, in 1316, and his brother, Philippe le Long, was his successor. See SisMONDi, " Histoire des Frangais." Louis XL, King of France, born at Bourges in 1423, was the son of Charles VH. He married Charlotte, a daughter of the Duke of Savoy. His ambitious and un- scrupulous character was early manifested by revolts against his father. He became king in 1461, soon after which the Duke of Burgundy and other nobles formed against him the " League of the Public Good." Besieged in his capital by the army of this league in 1465, he in- duced them to retire and disband by the large conces- sions of a treaty which he intended to violate at his own convenience. By crafty policy, superior abilities, and vigorous measures, he greatly increased the royal power at the expense of the nobles, many of whom fell victims to his cruelty. His inveterate enemy, Charles the Bold of Burgundy, having been killed in battle at Nancy in 1477, Louis availed himself of the occasion to seize his large domains, but was resisted with partial success by Maximilian of Austria in a war of several years. Louis had made peace with Edward IV. of England in 1475. He died in 1483, leaving the throne to his son, Charles VIH. The reign of Louis XL is remarkable for the multitude of important events, and for the complete revolution which the monarchy then passed through. Post-offices were first established by him in France. See CoMiNES, " Memoires contenant les Choses advenues durant le Regne de Louis XI," 1523 : the same in English ; Duci.os, " His- toire de Louis XL" 1745; Jean de Troves, "Chronique scanda- leuse ;" Mathieu, "Histoire de Louis XL" i6io ; Basin, " De Rebus gestis Caroli VIL et Ludovici XL;" Michelet, "Histoire de France;" "Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." Louis XIL of France, born at Blois in 1462, was the son of Charles, Duke of Orleans, and Marie of Cleves. At the accession of Charles VHL (1483) he was the first prince of the blood. Before that date he had been compelled to marry Jeanne, the daughter of Louis XL In 1495 he attended his cousin, Charles VHL, in his expedition against Naples, and in 1498 became the suc- cessor of that king, who left no issue. He married Anne de Bretagne, the widow of the late king, thus securing the province of Bretagne for the crown. His army con- quered the duchy of Milan, and brought Duke Francis Sforza a captive to France in 1500. He resolved, also, to prosecute the claims of his family to Naples, then ruled by Frederick of Aragon. Li 1501 Louis and Fer- dinand of Spain agreed to partition between themselves the kingdom of Frederick, who, finding resistance im- possible, retired to France and received a pension from , Louis. The quarrel that ensued between Louis and Ferdinand ended in 1503 by the expulsion of the French from Naples by Gonsalvo de Cordova. The pope, Julius IL, having formed a league against Louis, the French were defeated at Novara in 15 13 and driven out of Italy. At the age of fifty-three he married Mary, a sister of Henry VIII. of England. He died on the 1st of Janu- ary, 1 51 5, leaving two daughters, Claude and Renee. He was succeeded by Francis I. Louis XII. gained the affection of his subjects by reducing the taxes and pro- moting justice, and received the surname of " Father of the People." See Jean d'Auton, "Histoire de Louis XII," 1615; Claude DE Seyssel, "Les Louanges du bon Roi Louis XII," 1508; Jay, " Histoire de Louis XII ;" Brantome, " CEuvres ;" A. Varillas, "Histoire de Louis XII," 1688; Sismonoi, "Histoire des Fran- jais ;" P. L. Ginguene, " filoge de Louis XII," 1788. Louis Xin. of France, the son of Henry IV. and of Marie de Medicis, was born at Fontainebleau on the 27th of September, 1601. He succeeded his father May 14, 1610, under the regency of his mother, was de- clared of age in 16 14, and married Anne of Austria, a daughter of Philip III. of Spain, in 1615. Soqu after that date Marie de Medicis was exiled from court, and the Duke de Luynes became the royal favourite. In 1620 Louis marched against his Protestant subjects, who had been provoked into a revolt. During the progress of this war Richelieu obtained the favour and confi- dence of the king, who made him prime minister in 1624. As Louis was very deficient in political ability, Richelieu was the master-spirit of the government from that time until his death. Among the memorable events of this reign was the capture of Rochelle from the Prot- estants, (1628,) after a siege of about a year. The great talents and policy of Richelieu were directed with suc- cess to the subjection of the Huguenots, the establish- ment of absolutism in France, and the abatement of the overgrown power of Austria. During the Thirty Years' war the French armies obtained frequent successes against the Spaniards and Imperialists, and extended the boundaries of France by the conquest of Roussillon, Alsace, and the duchy of Bar. Louis died in May, 1643, leaving the crown to his son, Louis XIV. His character was timid, and not adapted to win the favour or admira- tion of the French. He is said, however, to have given proof of personal courage in several battles. See Malingre, " Histoire de Louis XIII," 1646; Ch. Bernard, "Histoire de Louis XIII," 1646; J. Howell, "Life of Lewis XIII.," 1646; Le Vassor, "Histoire du Regne de Louis XIII," 1700-11; Bazin, "Histoire de France sous Louis XIII," 1837; " Nouvelle Bioo:raphie Generale." Louis XIV., surnamed le Grand, (leh gR6N,) or " the Great," often called even by English speakers Louis QuATORZE, (loo'e' kt'toRz',) the eldest son of Louis XIII. and Anne of Austria, was born on the i6th of September, 1638. At the age of five he ascended the throne, in 1643, under the regency of his mother, who was a daughter of Philip HI. of Spain. During his minority the government was directed by Cardinal Mazarin, (which see,) a for- eigner, whose ministry was very unpopular, and who was involved in a civil war, against a faction called La Fronde, from 1648 until 1653. In 1649 Louis and his mother were driven out of the capital by the Frondeurs, of whom Conde was the chief. The Thirty Years' war was ended in 1648 by the peace of Westphalia, on terms favourable to France ; but Spain, refusing to unite in this treaty, con- tinued the war against the French until the treaty of the Pyrenees, (1659,) when Louis married Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV. of Spain. At the death of Mazarin, in 1661, Louis resolved to be his own prime minister, and was fortunate in obtaining the services of so able a financier as Colbert. France was then without doubt the greatest and most compact power in Europe. To the arduous duties of his new position the king brought imposing and popular personal qualities, and political talents of a high order. His am- bition was to make France prosperous and the monarchy absolute. His policy was briefly summed up in his fa- mous saying, "Z'^/a/, c^est moi T ("The State — that is myself!") The death of Philip IV. of Spain, in 1665, furnished him a pretext for the extension of his domin- ions towards the Rhine. In exchange for the dowry promised to his queen, which the Spanish court neglected to pay, he claimed Flanders and Franche-Comte, which he invaded with success in 1667. The emperor Leopold and the Dutch aided the Spaniards against him until the treaty of Nymwegen, (1678,) by which Louis retained Franche-Comte and a large part of Flanders. In the mean time the administration had been reformed and centralized by Louis, and the taxes had been reduced and the revenue increased by Colbert. In 1670 Louis made a secret treaty with Charles II. of England, whose alliance he purchased by a pension. Commerce, manu- factures, arts, literature, etc. were liberally encouraged in his reign ; but the intolerant zeal of the king betrayed him into one very unjust and impolitic measure when, in 1685, he revoked the edict of Nantes, which had se- cured the religious liberty of Protestants. His Catholic zeal, however, did not deter him from a serious quarrel with the pope, on the question of franchises, in 1687. About this time he secretly married Madame de Main- tenon, a lady of obscure origin but eminent merit. (See Maintenon.) A second general war broke out in 1688, between Louis on one side, and Spain, Austria, England, and the Prince of Orange on the other. Louis failed in his attempt to restore James II. of England, and found a formidable adversary in James's successor, William III. After many sieges and indecisive actions in Flanders, the war was « as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 92 LOUIS 1458 LOUIS suspended by the treaty of Ryswick, (1697.) By the will of Charles II. of Spain, (1700,) Philip, Duke of Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV., was appointed heir to the Spanish throne. This occasioned a great European coali- tion against the French king, and the long war of the Spanish succession, in which he had to contend against the English and Austrians, under Marlborough and Eu- gene, who won great victories at Blenheim, Malplaquet, etc. ; but the French pfince Philip remained master of Spain, and hostilities were ended by the treaty of Utrecht, in April, 17 13. After a reign of seventy-two years, he died, on the ist of September, 171 5, and was succeeded by his great-grandson, Louis XV. The age of Louis XIV. was the most brilliant in the literary history of France, and he was a very judicious as well as a very munificent patron of literary merit. He preserved his equanimity in his successes and his reverses. "No sovereign," says Macaulay, in his review of Du- mont's "Recollections of Mirabeau," "has ever repre- sented the majesty of a great state with more dignity and grace. . . . He was not a great general ; he was not a great statesman ; but he was, in one sense of the words, a great king. Never was there so consummate a master of what our James I. would have called king-craft. Though his internal administration was bad, though the military triumphs of his reign were not achieved by himself, though his later years were crowded with de- feats, ... he succeeded in passing himself off on his people as a being above humanity." See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV," 1752 ; Peli.isson, " His- toire de Louis XIV," 1749; Dangicau, " Journal de la Cour de Louis XIV ;" '* Letters of Madame de Maintenon ;" J. de Larrey, " His- toirede France sous le Regne de Louis XIV," 1718-22 ; Capefigue, " Louis XIV, son Gouvernement," e c, 6 vols., 1837 ; Saint-Simon, " Me moires ;" G. P. R. James, "The Life and Times of Louis XIV.," 4 vols., 1838; Lord Bolingbroke, " Siecle politique de Louis XIV," 2 vols., 1754; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" *' London Quarterly Review" for July, 1818. Louis XV. of France, the great-grandson of Louis XIV., was born at Fontainebleau the 15th of February, 1 7 10. His father was the virtuous Duke of Burgundy, and his mother was Maria Adelaide of Savoy. Louis became king on the ist of September, 1 715, the Duke of Orleans, a nephew of Louis XIV., being then appointed regent. The minority of Louis was a period of scan- dalous corruption in morals and politics. Among the ruinous errors of the regent's administration was his adoption of the financial system of the famous projector Law. (See Law, John.) In 1723 the king was declared of age, the Duke of Orleans died, and the Duke of Bourbon became prime minister. In 1725 Louis married Marie Leczinska, daughter of Stanislas, the dethroned king of Poland, and in the next year Bourbon was super- seded by the eminent statesman Cardinal Fleury, who had been preceptor of the young king and had merited his confidence. By his prudent and pacific administra- tion Fleury restored some degree of order and prosperity in the state, and arrested the downward progress of the monarchy. A war which began between the French and Austrians in 1733 waged on the Rhine and in Italy until 1735, when Lorraine was ceded to France by the treaty of Vienna. Against the advice of Fleury, Louis joined in 1741 the iniquitous coalition against Maria Theresa of Austria, and sent an army into Bohemia. The English then declared war against France. In 1743 Cardinal Fleury died, and Louis resolved to dispense with a prime minister. Among the principal events of this war was the battle of Fontenoy, (1745,) where in presence of Louis his army defeated the English under the Duke of Cumberland. Hostilities were suspended by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. About this period Louis ceased to take an active part in the govern- ment, and abandoned himself to scandalous vices in the harem called the " Pare aux Cerfs." Rival claims of the French and English in Canada were the cause or pretext of a war which began in 1755, and the French court was at the same time involved in the Seven Years' war as the ally of Maria Theresa. The disasters and disgraces of this war increased the un- popularity of the king, who was stabbed by a fanatic named Damiens in 1757, but only slightly hurt. The French were defeated by Frederick the Great at Ross- bach (1757) and at Minden, (1759,) and in various naval battles by the English. After losing Canada and other colonies, the French court signed the treaty of Paris in 1763, and ended a war the odium of which was thrown on Madame de Pompadour. Under the auspices of the Due de Choiseul, then chief minister, the order of the Jesuits was suppressed about 1762. Louis died in May, 1774, leaving the kingdom impoverished, oppressed, and deuKjralized. He was succeeded by his grandson, Louis XVI., whose father, the dauphin, had died in 1765. See Lacretelle, " Histoire de France pendant le dix-huitieme Siecle," 5 vols., 1809; Bauer, " Ludwig XV., Konig von Frank- reich," 1804; Voltaire, "Histoire du Siecle de Louis XV;" De TocQUEVit.LE, "Histoire philosophique du Regne de Louis XV," 1847; Maukepas, "Memoires," 1791; M. Capefigue, " Louis XV et la Society du XVIIIe Siecle;" Carlyle, " French Revolution." Loui.s XVI., the grandson of Louis XV., was born at Versailles, August 23, 1754. He was the second son of Louis, Dauphin of France, and Marie Josephe of Saxony, and received at his birth the title of Due de Berry. In 1770 he married Marie Antoinette, a daughter of Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria. He ascended the throne in 1774, appointed Turgot minister of the finances, which were then in great disorder. Turgot, a man of probity and ability, undertook wise and exten- sive reforms ; but these were resisted by the nobility and clergy, and he was dismissed from office in 1776. Necker then became contrdleur-general, or prime minister. (See Necker, J.) In 1778 the French court recognized the independence of the United States, declared war against England, and sent a fleet and army to fight for the new republic. Peace was restored between France and England in 1783, and the French soldiers returned home enthusiasts for liberty. Necker having resigned in 1 781, Calonne was ap- pointed contrdleur-general. He not only failed to supply the deficit in the revenue, but increased the public dis- tress by his prodigality, and called an Asseinbly of Nota- bles in 1787. In this year Calonne was superseded by Lomenie de Brienne, who also was found incompetent to guide the state through that great financial and politi- cal crisis, and advised the king to convoke the States- General, which had not been assembled since 1614 Louis recalled Necker to the place of prime minister about September i, 1788, and convoked the States-Gene- ral at Versailles in May, 1789. This event was the signal for the explosion of passions, ambitions, and resentments which had accumulated and fermented during a long period of misrule. The popular cause derived great advantage from Necker's ordinance that the number of the deputies of the Third Estate should be equal to the sum of all the noblesse and clergy. After a contest between the Third Estate and the other orders on the question whether they should vote together or separately by orders, the Third Estate prevailed, and took the name of the National Constituent Assembly. Necker having been dismissed in July, 1789, the populace of Paris de- stroyed the Bastille a few days later. Thenceforth the progress of revolution was rapid and irresistible. The Assembly made a great and sudden change in the po- litical and social condition of France by the abolition of tithes, titles of nobility, feudal privileges, and inveterate abuses. The landed estates of the Church, comprising nearly one-third of France, were confiscated. The king, who was disposed to make large concessions and lacked firmness to resist popular aggressions, remained as a hostage of the old regime in the hands of the natioiu The position of Louis became so irksome and perilous that he attempted, in June, 1791, to escape with his family from Paris, but was arrested at Varennes and compelled to return. He then accepted the new consti- tution, which proclaimed liberty, equality, and universal suffrage. In March, 1792, a Girondist ministry was formed, in which Dumouriez and Roland were the chief ministers, and war was declared against Austria and Prussia. By the insurrection of August 10, the Jacobins, led by Danton and Robespierre, effected the total sub- version of the monarchy and initiated the reign of terror. Louis was confined in a prison called the Temple, after being subjected to indignities and outrages from the mob. He was tried for treason by the National Convention, which met in September, 1792, defended by Deseze and Tronchet, and condemned to death, the vote being 387 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, Y, 6, vi, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, ftt; m§t; ndt; good; moon; LOUIS 1459 LOUIS for death and 334 for banishment or detention. He was executed January 21, 1793, and died with tranquil forti- tude. He left a son, Louis, styled the Seventeenth, and a daughter, Elizabeth. His virtues were better adapted to a private station than to a throne. See Gassier, "Vie de Louis XVI," 1S14; Dlrdext, " Histoire de Louis XVL" 1S17; J. Druz, "•Histoire du Regne de Louis XVL" 3 vols., 1839-42 ; Fallolx, " Louis XVI," 1*40 ; Capefigue, "Louis XVI, son Administration," etc., 4 vois., 1S44; Soul-avie, "Memoires du Regne de Louis XVI," 6 vols., iSoi ; Thiers, "Hi5tor>- of the French Revolution; ' Lamartine, "History- of the Girondists," 1S47 ; Carlvle, ''French Revolution;" ''Last Years of the Reign and Life of Louis XVI.," by Francis Hue Louis XVEL of France, the second son of Louis XVL, was born in 17S5. He became dauphin at the death of an elder brother in 17S9, and was recognized as king in January, 1793, by the French royalists and several foreign courts, but was closely confined by the Jacobins. The cruel treatment which he received from his jailers hastened his death, which occurred in prison in June, 1795- See A. DE Beaucheske, "Life, Sufferings, and Death of Louis XVII.," translated by \V. Hazlitt; "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1S53. Louis XVHL of France, born at Versailles in No- vember, 1755, was the third son of the dauphin, and younger brother of Louis XVL He received at his birth the names of Louis Stanislas Xavier, and the title of Count de Provence. He was also styled Monsieur during the reign of Louis XVL In 1771 he married Marie Josephine de Savoy. He favoured the Revolu- tion in its first stages, and by his influence determined that the Third Estate should send to the States-General j as many deputies as both of the other orders. He re- mained in Paris until the flight of the king to Varennes, i in June, 1791, when he escaped by another route. During j the republic and empire he resided at Verona, Mitau, j Warsaw, and Hartwell, England. In April, 1814, he returned to France and ascended the throne vacated ! by Bonaparte. He hastened to accept a constitutional | charter which his ministers presented. By the escape . of Napoleon, his daring march to Paris, and the defec- tion of the army, Louis was forced to fly on the 20th of March, 1 81 5, and retired to Ghent. (See Bon.\p.\rte.) He was again restored by the allied armies in July, 181 5, at one of the most disastrous epochs in French history. " The king must have had," says Lamartine, "great courage or a great thirst of power, to accept a throne and a nation buried under so many ruins." Louis dismissed Talleyrand, and selected for prime minister the Due de Richelieu ; but M. Decazes, minister of police, was his chief favourite. The majority of the Chamber of Deputies were extreme royalists, and main- tained an opposition to the ministry. Several Bona- partists were executed, and others banished. On Sep- tember 5, 1 816, the king dissolved the Chamber, and by this coup d' eta t gdJxntd much popularitv. The next elec- tions resulted in favour of the moderate royalists. In December, 1818, a new liberal ministrv- was formed, and Decazes became prime minister. (See Dec.\zes.) The 1 ultra-royalists, with Villele as premier, came into power in Februar}-, 1820, and passed an electoral law less favourable to the liberal party. In 1823 the French court sent an army into Spain, and supported the cause of absolutism, as an ally of Ferdinand VII. Louis died in September, 1824, without issue, and was succeeded bv his brother, Charles X. " His qualities," says Michaud, "were rather brilliant than solid." He had' respectable literary attainments and an easy elocution. He is re- puted the author of the saying, " Punctuality (exactitude) is the politeness of kings." See Alphonse de Beaichamp. "Vie de Louis XVIII," 1821 ; Lacretelle, "Histoire de France depuis !a Re-tauration," 4 vols., 1829-36; Lamarti.ve, " History of the Restoration ;" "Memoires de Louis XVIII," (anonymous,) Paris, 1832; Chateacbriand, "Memoires d'Outr^-Tombe :" " Nouveile Kiographie Generale;" Eyre Eva.ns Crowe, " History of Louis XVIII. and Charles X.," 2 vols., 1S54; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for Januar^^ 1833. Louis, (Kings or princes of Germanv.) See Lewis. Louis [It. LuiGi, loo-ee'jee] LL, King and Emperor of Italy, the son of Lothaire I., was born about 822 a.d. He became the colleague of his father in 850, and at the death of the latter, in 855, inherited the throne of Italy. Among the events of his reign were battles which he fought with various success against the Saracens whc invaded Italy. He died in 875, leaving a daughter Ermengarde, who was married to Boson, King of Aries. They had a son, who was styled Louis III. See McRATORi, " Annali d'ltalia ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Louis (Luigi) IIX, King or Emperor of Italy, sur- named the Blind, born about 879, was a grandson of the preceding. He was a son of Boson, King of Aries, and Ermengarde. In 900 he was invited to Italy by several barons, and was crowned in place of Berenger, who took Louis prisoner in 905 and put out his eyes. Died in 929. Louis (Luigi) of T.xrentlm, King of Naples, born in 1320, was a grandson of Charles the Lame. He was a cousin of Queen Joan of N^aples, who married Louis in 1346, after she had strangled her husband Andrew. Died in 1362. Louis (Luigi) H., King of Naples, Sicily, and Jerusa- lem, born in 1377, was a son of Louis I. He was crowned by the pope in 13S9, and obtained possession of Naples, from which he was expelled by Ladislaus in 1399. Died in 1417. Louis (Luigi) HL, of Naples, Duke of Anjou, bom in 1403, was a son of the preceding. He inherited his father's title to the throne of Naples, which, however, was occupied by Alfonso of Aragon. He invaded Italy, and conquered a large part of the kingdom, but died in 1434, before his enterprise was finished. Louis [Port. Luis, loo-^ss'] L, King of Portugal, born in 1838, began to reign at the death of his brother, Pedro v., in November, 1861, before which he was the Duke of Oporto. He married Maria Pia, a daughter of Victor Emmanuel of Italy, in 1862. Loui^ (Luigi) L, King' of Sicily or of Naples, Count of Provence, Duke of Anjou, etc., born in 1339, was a younger son of Jean II. of France. At the instigation of Pope Clement VII., Queen Joan of Naples adopted Louis as her successor in 1380, but his title was disputed by Charles of Durazzo, who afterwards became King of Naples. Died near Bari in 1384. Louis [Sp. Luis, loo-^ss'] of Ar.\gox, King of Sicily, born in 1338, was the eldest son of Peter II., whom he succeeded in 1342. Died in 1355. Louis, Dauphin of France, the son of Louis XIV. and Maria Theresa, was born in i66r, and was called Monseigneur. His education was directed by Bossuet, who wrote for him his "Discourse on Universal His- tory." The dauphin, however, had a great aversion to study, and appears to have had only moderate abilities. He married Marie Christine of Bavaria, and became father of the Duke of Burgundy and of the Duke of Anjou, who was afterwards Philip V. of Spain. In 1688 Louis XIV. placed him at the head of the army of the Rhine, under the direction of Vauban. As commander of the army in Flanders in 1694, the dauphin received credit for a march which protected Dunkirk. His last years were passed in compulsory idleness. Died in 17 11. Louis, Dauphin of France, the son of Louis XV., was born in 1729. His virtues, talents, and attainments are highly commended by M. Michaud, Jr. In 1747 he married Marie Josephe of Saxony, by whom he had I three sons, who became kings, viz., Louis XVL, Louis i XVIII., and Charles X. He was excluded by his father from all participation in the government. Died in 1765. Louis, looV, (Antoine,) a celebrated French sur- geon, born at Metz in 1723. He settled in Paris at an early age, and acquired a high reputation by his writings on surgery. He wrote many able surgical articles iox the " Encyclopedic." He was for many years the oracle and counsel of the tribunals in questions of medical jurisprudence. Died in 1792. See " Xouvelle Biographie Generale." Louis, (Louis Dominique,) Baron, a successful French financier, better known as Abb^: Louis, was born at Toul in 1755. emigrated to England in 1792, and returned about the end of 1799. During the enipire he became administrator of the treasurv. councillor of state, and a baron. From April, 1814. until August, 1815, he served Louis XVIII. as minister of finance. He was re- called to the same oftice in 1818 by Decazes, and resigned < as 5 as s; g hard; g as j; o, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) LOUIS 1460 LOURDOUEIX in November, 1819. He was also appointed minister of finance by Louis Pliilippe in 1830. Died in 1837. See "Souvenirs sur le Baron Louis," Paris, 1842; Comte de Saint-Cricq, " filoge de Baron Louis," 1838 ; " Nouveile Bio- graphie Geiierale." Louis, (Pierre Charles Alexandre,) a French physician, born at Ai (Marne) in 1787. Among his works is " Researches on Typhoid Fever," (2 vols., 1828.) Louis Napoleon, See Napoleon III. Louis Philippe, loo'e' fel^p', Duke of Orleans, King of the French, often called "the Citizen King," was born in Paris on the 6th of October, 1773, and was the eldest son of Louis Philippe Joseph, Duke of Orleans, who was styled Philippe Egalite. His mother was Louise Marie de Bourbon, a daughter of the Due de Pen- thievre. His early education was directed by Madame de Genlis, who taught him liberal principles and formed him to habits of prudence and self-control. During the life of his father, who was executed in 1793, he was styled the Duke of Chartres. About 1790 he entered the army as colonel, and merited two civic crowns by saving the lives of two priests in an emetde. He favoured the popular cause in the Revolution, and served in the first campaign against the Austrians in 1792. In November of that year he commanded the centre at Jemmapes, and was, says Lamartine, the favourite lieutenant of Dumoiiriez, the general-in-chief. Having been sum- moned to appear at the tribunal of the committee of public safety in April, 1793, he escaped across the Bel- gian frontier with Dumouriez, in whose conspiracy with the Austrians he was implicated. He afterwards wan- dered as an exile and in disguise through various coun- tries and strange vicissitudes, and was for some months (1794) professor in the College of Reichenau, uaider the name of M. Chambaud. In 1796 he came for greater safety to the United States, where he travelled more than a year. From 1800 until 1808 the Duke of Orleans re- sided in England. He married Maria Amelia, daughter of Ferdinand, King of Naples, in 1809. At the restora- tion of the Bourbons (1814) he returned to France, and was reinstated in his hereditary honours and possessions. When the escape of Bonaparte from Elba became known at Paris, Louis XVIII. appointed the Duke of Orleans commander of the army of the North ; but he soon re- signed this place. He took little part in public affairs until the revolution of July, 1830, had dethroned Charles X., and a provisional government was formed, under the direction of La Fayette, Lafitte, Guizot, Thiers, and others. A powerful party then urged the claim of Louis Philippe to the throne, while others wished a republic. The scale appears to have been turned by La Fayette, (who did not consider France yet prepared for a republic,) and the crown was offered to the Duke of Orleans by the Deputies and Peers, on the 9th of August, and accepted, with a remodelled constitution. The king called into his cabi- net the Due de Broglie, Count Mole, M. Guizot, and Lafitte. He was soon after recognized by the great powers of Europe. In October, 1830, M. Lafitte became premier, and in March, 1831, was superseded by Casimir Perier. The first part of this reign was disturbed by riots and conspiracies of the Carlists and republicans, and several attempts were made to assassinate the king. In October, 1832, a new ministry was formed, of which Marshal Soult was premier and Guizot and Thiers were members, the majority being Doctrinaires. Frequent changes of the ministry afterwards occurred, by which Count Mole, the Due de Broglie, Thiers, and Guizot were successively raised to the office of prime minister. In October, 1836, Louis Napoleon made at Strasbourg an abortive attempt to dethrone Louis Philippe, for which he was banished to tlie United States. Louis Philippe followed a pacific policy, and waged no wars against the great European powers ; but his army made iniportant conquests in Algeria. His reign, however, though successful, was not generally popular. It was stigmatized as reactionary, temporizing, "egotistical." The peace which had been the chief merit of this reign was at last imperilled by the impolitic mar- riage of the king's son, the Duke of Montpensier, to the eventual heiress of the Spanish crown. Electoral reform became the rallying-cry of a plan of agitation concerted by a coalition of republicans, Bonapartists, and royalists in 1847. The forcible opposition of the ministry to this open agitation at reform banquets caused a collision be- tween the troops and the Parisian populace on February 24, 1848. Unwilling to authorize a great slaughter of the people, the king then abdicated in favour of his grandson. Count of Paris; but the republic proclaimed by Lamartine, Arago, and others prevailed. Louis Phi- lippe escaped in disguise to England, where he was kindly received. He died at Claremont, England, in August, 1850, leaving four sons, styled the Due de Nemours, the Due de Montpensier, the Prince de Joinville, and the Due d'Aumale. vSeeBouDiN, " Histoirede Louis Philippe," 1847; L. G. Michaud, "The Public and Private Lite of Louis Philippe," in French, 1849; NouvioN, "Viede Louis Pliilippe," 1849; G. N. Wright, "The Lite and Times of Louis Philippe," 1842; Louis Blanc, " Histoire de dix Ans," (1830-40) Paris, 1842; Alfred E. Douglas, "Life and Times of Louis Philippe, ex- King of tlie French," 1848; Guizot, " Memoires pour servir k I'Histoire de mon Temps;" "Nouveile Biographic Generale ;" "London Quarterly Review" for April and Oct()ber, 1850. Louis Quatorze. See Louis XIV. Louisa (Or Luise) Auguste Wilhelmine Amalie, Queen of Prussia, the daughter of the Duke of Mecklen- burg-Strelitz, was born at Hanover in 1776. She was married in 1793 to the prince-royal, who in 1797 became King Frederick William HI. After becoming the mother of several children, she died in 1810. Her beauty and accomplishments are highly praised. See Charlotte Richardson, " Memoirs of the Private Life of Louisa, Queen of Prussia," 1847; J. F. Schink, "Louise Preus- sens Schutzgeist," 1817; "Nouveile Biographic Generale." Louise de Lorraine, loo'^z' deh lo'rin', Queen of France, born in 1554, was the daughter of Nicolas, Count de Vaudemont. In 1575 she was married to Henry HI., who treated her with neglect. Died in 1601. Louise de Savoie, loo'ez' deh st'vwi', Regent of France, born at Pont d'Ain in 1476, was the daughter of Philip, Duke of Savoy. She married Charles of Or- leans, and had a son who became king as Francis I. On his departure to Italy, in 1515, he appointed her regent of the kingdom. She caused the loss of the Milanese by appropriating to herself the money destined to pay the troops, and by her unjust treatment provoked Constable Bourbon to join the enemy. She obtained the regency again in 1524, and retained it during the captivity of the king. In 1529 she negotiated with Mar- garet of Austria the treaty of Cambray between Francis I. and Charles V. Died in 1532. See Marillac, "Vie du Connetable de Bourbon ;"" Nouveile Biographic Generale." Louise d'Orleans, loo'^z' doR'la'Sw', (Marie Th6- rese Caroline Isabelle,) Queen of Belgium, born at Palermo in 1812, was a daughter of Louis Philippe of France. She was married to Leopold, King of Belgium, in 1832. Died in 1850. SeeT. ScHELLiNCK, " Een Engel in den Hemel of Leven van H. M. Louise Marie," etc., 1850; Morren, "Heliotrope; Immortalitd de Louise Marie, Renie des Beiges," 1S50. Louise (or Luise) Ulrike, loo-ee'zeh doKre-keh, Queen of Sweden, born at Berlin in 1720, was a sister of Frederick the Great of Prussia. She became ac- quainted with Voltaire, who wrote verses in praise of her agreeable qualities. In 1744 she was married to Prince Adolphus Frederick, who became king in 1751. She founded an Academy of Belles-Letties at Stockholm in 1753. Died in 1782. Gustavus HI. was her son. Loup, loo, [Lat. Serva'tus Lu'pus,] Abbe of Fer- rieres, is regarded as the most polished writer that France produced in the ninth century. He was born in the diocese of Sens in 805. He was employed by Charles the Bald in important missions, and corresponded with the most eminent men of his time, including several kings. liis letters are prized for the light they throw on the events of that period. See "Gallia Christiana;" "Nouveile Biographie Gdn^rale." Loupolof. See Loopolof. Louptiere, de la, deh It loo'te-aiR', (Jean Charles DE Relongue — reh-loNg^) a French poet, born in the diocese of Sens in 1727; died in 1784. Lourdoueix, looR'doo'4',(SoPHiE Tessier,) a French writer of fiction, born in Paris in 1793. She married M. i, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sAori; a, e, i, o, obscure; f2lr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; LOUREIRO LOVE JOT Lourdoueix, an editor of the " Gazette de France." Among her works is "The Son of his Works," (" Le Fils de ses CEuvres," 2 vols., 1845.) Loureiro, de, di lo-ra^-ro, (Joao,) a Portuguese bot- anist, born about 17 15." ^He practised medicine many years in Cochin China and China, and returned to Por- tugal after an absence of thirty-six years. His " Flora of Cochin China" (1790) described many new genera, and was esteemed a valuable contribution to botanical science. Died in 1796. Loutherbourg, loo't^R^booR', or Lutherburg, loo'- t^R-booRG', (Philippe Jacques,) a skilful French land- scape-painter, born at Strasburg about 1735, was a pupil of Casanova. After working some years in Paris, he removed in 1771 to London, where he painted decora- tions for the Opera. He excelled in landscapes, battle- pieces, and views on the sea-coast. His execution is remarkable for facility and vigour. He etched some of his own designs. He died in London about 1812. See Naglek, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Louvard, Ioo'vIr', (Francois,) a French Jansenist and polemical writer, born in Maine in 1661 ; died in 1739. Louvel, loo'v^K, (Pierre Louis,) a French assassin, born at Versailles in 1783, was a saddler by trade. Prompted by party spirit and enmity to the Bourbons, he assassinated the Due de Berry, February 13, 1820. This act caused great political excitement, and led to the resignation of the prime minister Decazes. Louvel was executed in June, 1820. Louverture. See Toussaint. Louvet, loo'vi', (Pierre,) a mediocre French histo- rian, born at Beauvais in 161 7. He wrote histories of Languedoc, Aquitaine, and Provence. Died about 1680. Louvet, (Pierre,) a French antiquary, born near Beauvais about 1570; died in 1646. Louvet de Couvray, \oo'\W deh koo'vRi', (Jean Baptiste,) a French Girondist orator, born in Paris in 1760. He was elected to the Convention in 1792, and became a prominent member of the Girondist party. In October, 1792, he attacked Marat and Robespierre in a bold and effective speech. He was proscribed with the Girondist chiefs about June i, 1793, but escaped by flight to Normandy. In April, 1794, he entered Paris, where he concealed himself until the fall of Robespierre. In 1795 he resumed his seat iti the Convention, from which he passed into the Council of Five Hundred. He pro- duced several successful romances, comedies, and polit- ical tracts. Died in 1797. In reference to the aljove- named speech, which is inserted in his " History of the Girondists," Lamartine says, " Louvet was one of those men whose political destiny is composed of a single day; but this day conquers futurity for them, because it asso- ciates with their name the memory of a sublime talent and a sublime courage." See Lamartine, "History of the Girondists ;" Thiers, " His- tory of the French Revolution ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Louviers, de, deh loo^'e-y, (Charles Jacques,) a French writer, was appointed a member of the council of state by Charles V. in 1376. He is supposed to be the author of the famous "Dream of the Orchardist," ("Songe du Vergier,") the aim of which is to prove that the pope has no temporal power over princes. The book is in the form of a dialogue. Louville, de, deh loo'v^l', (Charles Auguste d'Al- lonville — dt'16N'v^K,) Marquis, a French diplomatist, born in 1668. In 1701 he was chosen gentleman of the chamber to Philip V. of Spain, who afterwards employed him in missions to Paris and Rome. Died in 1731. Louville, de, (Jacques Eugene d'Allonville,) Chevalier, a French astronomer, born in the Chartrain in 1671, was a brother of the preceding. He devoted himself to astronomy, and erected an observatory near Orleans. Having been admitted into the Academy of Sciences, he contributed to it "New Tables of the Sian," "Observations on the Obliquity of the Ecliptic," etc. Died in 1732. See FoNTENELLE, " filoge de M. Louville." Louvois, de, deh loo'vwi', (Camille Letelijer,) Abh6, born in Paris in 1675, was a son of the celebrated minister of war. He was included by Baillet among the "enfants celebres," and was elected to the French Academy in 1706. He added 30,000 books to the Roval Library. Died in 1718. Louvois, de. Chevalier. See Estrees, d', (Louis C6sar Letellier.) Louvois, de, (Francois Michel Letellier,) Mar- quis, a powerful French minister of state, born in Paris in 1641, was a son of Michel Letellier, chancellor of France. In 1654 his father, who was then secretarv of war, obtained the reversion of that office for Louvois, who, having qualified himself by diligent studies and gained the favour of the king, became sole minister of war in 1666. While Colbert managed the finances and increased the resources of France, Louvois contributed greatly to the military successes of Louis XIV. He supplanted Colbert in the favour of the king, and in- stigated Louis to persecute the Protestants. By the counsels of this unscrupulous and haughty minister, who was then extremely powerful, the edict of Nantes was revoked in 1685, and the Palatinate was wasted by fire and sword in 1689. The atrocity of the latter measure excited general horror. His insolence at last exhausted the patience of the king. In 1691 Louvois excited the anger of Louis by proposing to burn Treves, and would have been dismissed if he had not died suddenly in the same year. He is censured for having caused the derangement of the finances, and for fomenting the ag- gressive martial ambition of his master. " He was the greatest adjutant-general, the greatest quartermaster- general, the greatest commissary-general," says Macau- lay, "that Europe had seen. He may, indeed, be said to have made a revolution in the art of disciplining, dis- tributing, equipping, and provisioning armies." His son, the Marquis of Barbesieux, was his successor as minister of war. See Chamlav, " Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire du Marquis de Louvois;" Saint-Simon, " Klemoires ;" Dangeau, "Journal;" Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV ;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Fran- (jais ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Louvrex, de, deh IooVr^', (Mathias Guillaume,) a Belgian jurist and historian, born at Liege in 1665 ; died in 1734. Lovat, liiv'at, (Simon Fraser,) Lord, a Scottish Jacobite conspirator, born near Inverness about 1666. At the death of Lord Lovat, who was chief of the Fraser clan, Simon Fraser made unsuccessful attempts to obtain the title and estates. To evade the penalty of some crime, he passed over to France about 1700, and turned a Roman Catholic. Having entered the service of the Pretender, he was sent to Scotland in 1702 to incite the Highlanders to rebellion ; but he betrayed his trust, and acted the part of informer against the Jacobites. For this offence he was confined in the Bastille several years. In 1 71 5 Fraser fought against the cause of the Stuarts at Inverness, and was rewarded wnth the estates of the Erasers and the title of Lord Lovat. In the rebellion of 1745 he was detected in treasonable acts against King George, for which he was executed in London in 1747. See Akbuthnot, "Life of Simon Fraser," 1746: Foster, "Me- moirs of Lord Lovat," 1746; "Memoirs of Lord Lovat," by him- self, 1797 ; John Hill Burton, " Lives of Lord Lovat and Duncan Forbes," 1846; "North British Review" for May, 1847. Love, luv, (Christopher,) a Presbyterian theologian, was born at Cardiff, Wales, in 16 18. He began to preach in London in 1644, after which he was a member of the Assembly of Divines. After the death of Charles I., he entered into a conspiracy called Love's Plot, the design of which was to restore Charles II. For this cause he was executed in August, 165 1. His Sermons, and other works, were published in three volumes. Love, (James,) the assumed name of a dramatist and actor, who was a son of Mr. Dance, a London architect. A satire against Walpole having appeared under the title "Are these Things so.''" he wrote an answer, en- titled Yes, they are : What then .?" for which Walpole gave him a present. He acted at Drury Lane from 1762 until his death, and wrote " Pamela," and other come- dies. Died in 1774. Loveira. See Lobeira. Love'joy, (liiv'joi,) (Elijah P.,) an American clergy- man and opponent of slavery, born at Albion, in Maine, in 1802, graduated at Waterville in 1826, He began to edit at Alton, Illinois, about 1836, an anti-slavery paper, € as 5 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, K,guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^See Explanations, p. 23.) LOVE J or 1462 LOWELL called "The Alton Observer." His press was twice de- stroyed by a pro-slavery mob. While defending his premises at Alton against a third attack, he was shot and mortally wounded, in November, 1837. See Gkeeley, "American Conflict," vol. i. pp. 130-142. Lovejoy, (Owen,) a brother of the preceding, was born at Albion, Kennebec county, Maine, in i8ii. He was employed as minister of a Congregational church at Princeton, Illinois, from 1838 to 1854, and was elected a member of Congress by the Republicans of the third district of Illinois in 1856. He was re elected in 1858, i860, and 1862. He was a radical opponent of slavery. Died at Brooklyn, New York, in March, 1864. Love'lace, (Ada Augusta Byron,) Countess of, the only child of the poet Lord Byron, was born in 181 5. She was married to the Earl of Lovelace, who was a son of Lord Peter King. Died in 1852. Lovelace, (Richard,) an English poet, born in Kent in 1618. He fought for the king in the civil war, and rose to the rank of captain. Having spent his fortune in the royal cause, he entered the French service in 1646. On his return to England in 1648, he was impris- oned for political reasons. In 1649 he was released, and published a volume of poems, consisting of odes, sonnets, etc. addressed to "Lucasta." Some of these are admired for grace and vigour. He died poor in 1658. See Wood, "Atlienae Oxonienses ;" Eli.is, "Specimens of Poetry;" "Retrospective Review," vol. iv., 1821. Lovell, liiv'el, (Mansfield,) an American general, born in the District of Columbia about 1822, graduated at West Point in 1842. He lived in New York City when the civil war began. In October, 1861, he took command of the disunion army at New Orleans. After the Union fleet had passed the forts below the city, he evacuated New Orleans, which he transferred to the cus- tody of the mayor on the 25th or 26th of April, 1862. Lover, luv'er, (Samuel,) an Irish novelist, poet, and painter, born in Dublin in 1797. He acquired in his youth a good reputation as a portrait-painter, and afterwards became a successful author. Besides numerous ballads and dramas, he produced " Legends and Stories of Ire- land," and a novel entitled " Handy Andy," (1842,) and " Rory O'Moore," a song. Among his later publications is "Metrical Tales, and other Poems," (1859.) Died in July, 1868. Lov'i-bond, (Edward,) an English poet, was born in Middlesex, and inherited an easy fortune. He con- tributed several essays to "The World," a popular pe- riodical, and was the author of various poems, among which "The Tears of Old May-Day" (1754) is highly praised. Died in 1775. Lovini. See Luinl Low, (George,) a Scottish naturalist, born in Forfar- shire in 1746. He became a clergyman in Pomona, one of the Orkney Isles, in 1774. He wrote "Fauna Or- cadensis," (1813,) which treats of the animals of the Orkney and Shetland Isles. Died in 1795. Lowe or Loewe, lo'l^eh, the name of a German family, distinguished in various departments of art. August Leopold Lowe, born at Schwedt in 1767, was the composer of a popular opera entitled "The Island of Temptation." Died in 1816. His son Ferdinand, born in 1787, acquired a high reputation as a tragedian. Died in 1832. His daughter Sophie, born in 1815, became one of the most celebrated vocalists in Germany. She was married about 1840 to Prince Frederick of Liechtenstein. Her brother, Francis Louis Feodor, born in 1816, distinguished himself as an actor and a poet. Julia Lowe, aunt of the preceding, born in 1790, was very successful as an actress at Vienna. Died about 1850. Lowe, 15, (Sir Hudson,) a British general, born in Ireland about 1770. He served many campaigns in Egypt, Italy, Germany, etc., and obtained the rank of major-general in 1 814. In 1815 he was selected to be the jailer of Bonaparte in Saint Helena. He was cen- sured by many French and English writers for arbitrary, rude, and illiberal treatment of the captive, who in 18 16 refused to see him or have any further intercourse with him. Died in 1844. See a "Histoiy of the Captivity of Napoleon, from the Letters of Sir Hudson Lowe," etc., by W. Forsyth, 4 vols., 1853. Lowe, (JoHANN Karl Gottfried,) a German com- poser, born near Halle in 1796. His works include operas, sonatas, ballads, and oratorios : of the last we may name " The Seven Sleepers." Lowe, (Peter,) a Scottish medical writer, practised medicine in Paris. He wrote a "Discourse on Chi- rurgery," and other works. Died in 1612. Lowe, (Robert,) an English financier and eminent orator, born at Bingham in 1811. He graduated at Ox- ford in 1833, and practised as a barrister in Australia from 1843 to 1850. In 1852 he was returned to Parlia- ment for Kidderminster. He was appointed vice-presi- dent of the education board in 1859, but was removed a few years later. Mr. Lowe is an editor or contributor to the London "Times." He was a leader of the Adullam- ites, (nominal Liberals, who opposed the Reform bill of Russell and Gladstone in 1866,) and is one of the ablest and most brilliant debaters in Parliament. Having supported Gladstone's motion for the disestablishment of the Anglican Church in Ireland, he was appointed chancellor of the exchequer when the Liberal party came into power, in December, 1868. He was elected a member of Parliament for the University of London in November, 1868. Low'ell, (Charles,) D.D., an American divine, a son of Judge Lowell, noticed below, was born at Boston in 1782. He became minister of the West Congregational Church in that city about 1806. He travelled exten- sively in Europe and the East, returning home in 1840. Among his publications are two volumes of sermons, (1855.) Died January 20, 1861. Lowell, (Colonel Charles Russell,) an American officer, born in Boston in 1835, was a nephew of the poet, J. R. Lowell. He graduated at Harvard in 1854 with the first honours. He served as captain of cavalry in the peninsular campaign in 1862, and commanded a body of cavalry which protected Washington in the summer of 1863, after which he served under General Sheridan and commanded a brigade. He had thirteen horses shot under him. He was killed at the battle of Cedar Creek, Virginia, October 19, 1864. He was a young man of great promise. Lowell, (Francis Cabot,) brother of John Lowell, (the second of the name,) born at Newburyport in 1775, was one of the principal founders of the city of Lowell, to which he gave his name. He was a merchant and manufacturer of cotton. Died in 181 7. Lowell, (James Russell,) a distinguished American poet, critic, and scholar, the son of the Rev. Charles Lowell, noticed above, was born February 22, 1819. Having graduated at Harvard in 1838, he entered the law school of that institution, where he remained two years, and was admitted to the bar in 1841 ; but he soon abandoned the profession, that he might devote himself wholly to literature. He published in 1844 a volume of poems containing a "Legend of Brittany," "Pro- metheus," and a number of smaller pieces. In 1848 appeared a second collection of poems, and in a small volume (separately) "The Vision of Sir Launfal." In the same year he also published the "Biglow Papers," a witty and humorous satire, written in the "Yankee" dialect, on the events of the Mexican war, and a " Fable for Critics," a charmingyW/ cTesprit, which, in the words of Professor Bowen, is "a very witty review article done into rhyme."* It is not too much to say that the best parts of this poem (which, by the way, is very unequal) are scarcely surpassed either in wit or .in felicity of ex- pression by anything of a similar kind in the English lan- guage. In the summer of 1851 Mr. Lowell visited Europe, and returned home after an absence of somewhat more than a year. In the winter of 1854-55 he delivered in Boston a very popular course of lectures on the British poets. Professor Longfellow having, in 1854, resigned the chair of the modern languages and belles-lettres at Harvard, Mr. Lowell was appointed his successor in January, 1855. On the establishment of the "Atlantic Monthly" in 1857, Profe.ssor Lowell became the editor, — a position which he held about five years, — ^and under his auspices this magazine acquired a wide and deserved * See " North American Review" for January, 1849^ ^, e, 1, o, ii, y, long; k, h, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; mSt; nftt; good; mocMi; LOWELL 1463 LOWNDES popularity. Among his more recent poetical produc- tions we may mention Under the Willows, and other Poems," {1869,) and "The Cathedral," (1870.) Besides the various collections of his poems referred to above, he has published a volume of his prose writings, entitled " Among my Books," (1870,) consisting of literary essays, contributions to Reviews, etc. Among the poets of America, Lowell is distinguished by the great range, (if we may use the expression,) as well as by the versatility, of his powers. He seems equally at home in the playful, the pathetic, or the medi- tative realms of poetry. And we always rise from the perusal of his productions with the impression that he has not put forth all his strength, but that, had he aS; pired to something still higher, it would not have been beyond the reach of his genius. Several editions of his collected poems have been published in England as well as in the United States. See Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors;" "North American Re- view" for April, 1841, April, 1844, and January, i84g; and the article on "American Humour," in the "North British Review" for No- vember, i860. Lowell, (John,) an American statesman, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1 743. He began to practise law in Boston about 1777. As a member of the convention which formed the Constitution of Massachu- setts in 1780, he efficiently promoted the liberation of slaves held in that State. He was elected a member of Congress in 1781, and appointed a judge of the dis- trict court of Massachusetts in 1789. He had three sons, John, Francis C, and Charles. Died at Roxbury in 1802. Lowell, (John,) an able lawyer and political writer, born at Newburyport in October, 1769, was a son of the preceding. He graduated at Harvard College in 1786, practised law at Boston, and acquired a high reputation. About 1803 he visited Europe. He was a Federalist, wrote much for the public journals, and exerted great influence in New England, but declined to enter the public service. He published twenty-five or more pam- phlets, mostly political, and was one of the founders of the Boston Athenaeum and the Massachusetts General Hospital. He was distinguished for his colloquial powers. Died at Boston in 1840. Lowell, (John,) the founder of Lowell Institute, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1799, and was a son of Francis Cabot Lowell, noticed above. Having lost his wife and children about i83i,he travelled extensively in Europe, Syria, and Egypt. He died at Bombay in March, 1836, leaving by his will about $250,000 to main- tain in Boston annual courses of gratuitous lectures on various subjects. Lowell, (Maria White,) an American poetess, the wife of James Russell Lowell, noticed above, was born at Watertown, Massachusetts, in 1821. She was married to Mr. Lowell in 1844. She died in 1853. She is described as having been singularly beautiful both in person and character. A volume of her poems appeared in 1855. See (jRiswold's "Female Poets of America." Lowell, (Mary.) See Putnam, (Mrs. Mary.) Lowell, (Robert Traill Spence,) son of the Rev. Charles Lowell, noticed above, was born in Boston in 1816. He was ordained a clergyman of the Episcopal Church in 1842, and subsequently became rector of Christ Church, Duanesburg, New York. He has pub- lished a novel entitled "The New Priest in Conception Bay," and a collection of poems. Lowen or Loewen, lo'wen, (Johann Frifdrtch,) a German poet and writer of fiction, born at Klausthal in 1729 ; died in 1771. Lowendahl or Loewendahl, lo'^^^'en-dSK, written also Loevendahl, (Ulkich Frikdrich Woldemar,) a celebrated general, born at Hamburg in 1700, was a great-grandson of Frederick III. of Denmark. He entered the service of Russia in the reign of Anne, about 1736, and as general of artillery gained victories over the Turks and Tartars. In 1743 he passed into the French service as lieutenant-general, and in 1745 commanded the reserve corps at Fontenoy. As second in command under Marshal Saxe, he took many towns in Flanders in the same year. For the capture of Bergen-op-Zoom, in 1747, he was rewarded with a marshal's baton. He died in 1755. See Carl C. Rothe, " Grev von Loevendals Liv og Levnet," 1750; M. Ranft, " Leben und Thaten des Grafen von Lbwenthal," 1754; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Lowenhaupt or Loewenhaupt, lo'<^en-h6wpt', (Adam Louis,) Count, a skilful Swedish general, born in 1659. He was appointed Governor of Riga in 1706. On his march to join the army of Charles XII., who had invaded Russia, he was attacked by the Czar Peter at Liesna in 1708, and lost about 4000 men, but pursued his course. He displayed great courage at Pultowa, July, 1 709, and when Charles fled to Turkey the command of the Swedish army devolved on Lowenhaupt, who was forced to capitulate in 1709. He was kept as a prisoner in Russia until his death, in 1 7 19. Lowenhaupt or Loewenhaupt, von, fon lo'^en- howpt', (Carl Emil,) Count, a Swedish general, born in 1692. War having been declared against Russia, he was chosen general-in-chief of an army sent to invade Finland in 1742. His success was hindered by dissen- sions among the Swedish officers, and he surrendered at Helsingfors, in September, 1742. The anti-war party having become dominant, he was tried for that reverse, and executed in 1743. Lftwenhielm or Loewenhielm, lo'wen-he-glm', (Carl Gustaf,) Count of, a Swedish statesman, was the chief of the party of "Caps." His party having gained the ascendency in 1765, he was then made min- ister of foreign affairs. He wrote several memoirs for the Academy of Sciences. Died in 1768. Lowenhielm or Loewenhielm, (Gustaf Carl Frederik,) Count of, a Swedish diplomatist, born at Stockholm in 1 771. He served in the army, and obtained the rank of general. He represented Sweden at the Congress of Vienna, (1814,) and was Swedish minister at the court of Paris from 1818 until 1856. He wrote several military treatises, and a remarkable work on the organization of government. Died in 1856. Lowenklau. See Leunclavius. LSw'er, (Richard,) F.R.S., an eminent English anatomist, born in Cornwall about 1630. He became a friend and coadjutor of Dr. Willis, whom he assisted in his work on the "Anatomy of the Brain." In 1661 he confirmed the Harveian theory by experiments on the transfusion of blood. He practised medicine in London many years, and wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on the Heart, on the Motion of the Blood," etc. Died in 1691. See " Biographic Medicale." Lower, (Sir William,) an English dramatist, born in Cornwall ; died in 1662. Lowitz, lo'^^'its, (Georg Moritz,) a German astrono- mer, born near Nuremberg in 1722. He became pro- fessor of mathematics at Gottingen about 1755, and was afterwards director of the observatory at that place. In 1766 he removed to Saint Petersburg, and was admitted into the Academy of Sciences, by which he was employed in astronomical observations. He was killed by some rebels at Dmetriefsk in 1774. He had written several memoirs on astronomy. His son Toi?iAS, born at Gottingen in 1757, became one of the most eminent members of the Imperial Acad- emy of Saint Petersburg, and professor of chemistry. Died in 1804. Low'man, (Moses,) a learned English divine, born in London in 1680. About 17 10 he settled at Clapham, where he preached many years to a congregation of Dis- senters. He wrote a " Rationale of the Ritual of the Hebrew Worship," and other works. Died in 1752. Lowndes, lowndz, (Rawlins,) born in the British West Indies in 1722, settled at Charleston, South Caro- lina, where he rose to eminence as a statesman and law- yer. He was elected president or Governor of South Carolina in 1778. Died in 1800. Lowndes, (William Jones,) an eminent American statesman, a son of the ])receding, was born at Charles- ton, South Carolina, on the 7th of p^ebruary, 1782. He studied law, and married a daughter of General Thomas Pinckney. In 1810 or 181 1 he was elected a member of € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as g, H, y.^ guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this, (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) LOWNDES 1464 LUBBOCK Congress for a district of South Carolina. He was an eloquent debater, and was eminent for his wisdom and logical acumen. He is said to have been modest and unambitious. He continued to serve in Congress about eleven years, and was chairman of the committee of ways and means from 1818 to 1822. It appears that he was a general favourite, and was reputed to stand in the first rank of American statesmen. His health having failed, he sailed for Europe, but died on the voyage in October, 1822. See "Encyclopaedia Americana," (Supplement.) Lowndes, (William Thomas,) an English bibliog- rapher, lived in London. He published, about 1834, " The Bibliographer's Manual," which is highly esteemed. Died in 1843. LQw'ry, (Wilson,) a skilful English engraver, born at Whitehaven in 1762, became a resident of London. He contributed to the perfection of his art by several important inventions, and acquired a high reputation, especially as an engraver of architecture and mechanism, in which he was unsurpassed. He engraved many figures ^r Rees's "Cyclopaedia." Died in 1824. Lowth, lowth, (Robert,) an English bishop and emi- nent writer, born at Winchester in 17 10, was the son of "William Lowth, noticed below. He was educated at Ox- ford, and became eminent as a biblical scholar. Having been chosen professor of poetry at Oxford, (1741,) he delivered " Lectures on the Poetry of the Hebrews," (in Latin,) which were published in 1753, and often reprinted. This work was highly esteemed by the most eminent critics. He was appointed Bishop of Saint David's in 1766, translated to the see of Oxford in the same year, and to that of London in 1777. Among his most impor- tant works is an excellent " Translation of the Prophet Isaiah," (1778.) Died in 1787. See P. Hall, "Life of Bishop Lowth," 1834 ; " Memoirs of the I,ife of Robert Lowth," London, 1797; "Monthly Review" for February and March, 1779, and April, 1780. Lowth, ( Simon,) an English theologian, born in Northamptonshire about 1630. He was vicar of Saint Cosmus and Damian-on-the-Blean. He published "Let- ters between Dr. G. Burnet and Simon Lowth," (1684,) and other writings. Died in 1720. Lowth, (William,) a scholar and commentator, the father of Robert, noticed above, was born in London in 1661. He was chaplain to the Bishop of Winchester, and became rector of Buriton about 1700. He wrote several highly esteemed works, among which are " Di- rections for the Profitable Reading of the Holy vScrip- tures," (1708,) and a "Commentary on the Four Greater Prophets," (4 vols., 1714-26.) Died in 1732. Lowther, (William.) See Lonsdale, Earl of. Loyd, loid, (Lewis,) an English banker, born in 1768. He was a partner of the banking-house of Jones, Loyd & Co., London, and was distinguished as a financier. He died in 1858. His son, Samuel J. Loyd, received the title of Lord Overstone. Loyer, Le, leh Iwi'yi', (Pierre,) a French lawyer, born in Anjou in 1550, was learned in antiquities and Oriental languages. He wrote a curious work on de- monology, entitled "On Spectres, Angels, and Demons distinctly manifesting themselves to Men," ("Quatres Livres des Spectres, Anges et Demons se montrant sen- siblement aux Hommes,") and other works. Died in 1634. Loyola, loi-o'la, [Sp. pron. lo-yo'li,} (Ignatius,) originally Don iNKiO Lopez de Recalde, (di ri-kil'di,) often called Saint Ignatius, (ig-na'she-us ;) [Fr. Saint- Ignace, s^N^t^n^yts'; It. Sant' IgnazTo, sint in-ySt'- se-o,] a celebrated Spanish reformer, and the founder of the order of Jesuits, was born of a noble family at Loyola Castle, in Biscay, in 1491. He received from nature an ardent, imaginative temperament, and in youth was the very prototype of the hero of Cervantes, an enthusiastic votary of chivalrous romance. After signal- izing his gallantry in several campaigns, he received about 1520, at the siege of Pampeluna, a wound which made him a cripple for life. During the tedious con- finement which followed, his attention was directed to the mysteries of religion. Ascribing his recovery to a miracle of grace, he dedicated himself to arduous re- ligious enterprises and to the service of the Blessed Vir- gin. He became a popular preacher, and was renowned tor his penances and vigils. In 1523 he performed a pilgriniage to Jerusalem, from which he returned to Spain in 1524. He passed several ensuing years at Al- cala and Salamanca in the study of grammar, philosophy, etc., which he had neglected to learn in his youth. In 1528 he became a student in the University of Paris, where he found several congenial spirits, among whom were Francis Xavier and James Lainez. With these he farmed in 1534 a religious society devoted to the educa- tion of youth, the renovation of the Catholic Church, and the conversion of the infidels. After they had digested the polity and peculiar maxims of the new order, Paul III. gave it his formal sanction m 1540, and Loyola was chosen superior or general (with absolute power) of the order, which was styled the Society of Jesus. Loyola thenceforth remained in Rome, and witnessed the extraordinary success of his efforts. "Under his rule," says Macaulay, "the order grew rapidly to the full measure of its gigantic powers. With what vehemence, with what policy, with what exact discipline, with what dauntless courage, with what self- denial, with what unscrupulous laxity and versatility in the choice of means, the Jesuits fought the battles of their Church, is written in every page of the annals of Europe during several generations. In the Order of Jesus was concentrated the quintessence of the Catholic spirit; and the history of the Order of Jesus is the history of the great Catholic reaction. This order pos- sessed itself at once of all the strongholds which cotii- mand the public mind, — of the pulpit, of the press, of the confessional, of the academies. . . . Nor was it less their office to plot against the thrones and lives of apos- tate kings, to spread evil rumours, to raise tumults, to inflame civil wars, to arm the hand of the assassin." (See Review of Ranke's "History of the Popes.") It does not appear, however, that Loyola was responsible for the corruptions referred to in the above quotation. His chief work is "Spiritual Exercises," (" Exercicios espirituales," 1548,) in which he gives rules and counsels for the guidance of believers. He died in 1566, and was canonized as a saint by the pope in 1622. See RiBADENEiRA, " Vida de S. Ignazio," 1570; G. P. Maffei, " De Vita et Moribus Ignatii Loyolae," 1584; Stein, "Vita Ignatii Loyolae," 1598; P. Bouhours, " Vie de Saint-Ignace," 1679; Bom- bina, "Vita S. Ignatii," 1615 ; M. VValpole, " Life of Saint Igna- tius," 1617; Isaac Taylor, " Lite of Ignatius Loyola;" Bartoli, " Histoire de la Societe de Jesus;" Gretser, " Apologia pro Vita S. Ignatii," 1599-1604; Genelli, " Leben des Ignatius von Loyola," 1848; "Retrospective Review," vol. ix., 1824. Loyseau. See Loiseau. Loyseau, Iwl'zo', (Charles,) a French jurist, born at Nogent-le-Roi in 1566; died in 1627. Loysel. See Loisel. Loyson, (Charles.) See Hyacinthe. Loyson, Iwi'zdN', (Charles,) a French poet, born in Mayenne in 1791, was maitre des conferences in the Normal School. He published, in 1819, a volume of elegies and epistles, which abound with beautiful verses. "He approaches Lamartine," says Sainte-Beuve, "in elevation and spiritiialisme of sentiments." Died in 1820. Lu'a, [frotTi luo, to "purge" or "purify,"] a Roman goddess, who presided over things purified by lustra- tions. By some she is identified with Ops or Rhea. Lubbert, lul/bert, or Luthbert, liit'bgRt, (Sibrand,) a learned Dutch Calvinist, born in Friesland about 1555. He was for many years professor of divinity at Franeker, and was deputed to the Synod of Dort about 161 8. He wrote controversial works against Socinus, Arminris, and Grotius. Died in 1625. Lub'bpck, (Sir John,) an English banker and savant, a son of Sir John William, noticed below, was born in London in 1834. In 1870 he was elected to Parliament as a Liberal from Maidstone. Besides several scientific memoirs, he is the author of two important works, " Pre- historic Times," (1865,) and "The Origin of Civilization ; or, The Primitive Condition of Man," (1870.) Lubbock, (Sir John William,) Bart, an English mathematician and astronomer, born in London in 1803, was educated at Cambridge. About 1830 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, which he served as treas- urer for many years. He contributed to the " Philosophic Transactions" treatises on the "Tides," "On Meteor- a. e, 1, o, u, y, long; \ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; ^, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; nflt; good; moon; LUBERSJC 1465 LUCAS ology," " Researches in Physical Astronomy," etc. In 1833 he produced a work "On the Theory of the Moon and on the Perturbations of the Planets." Died in 1865. Lubersac, de, deh lU'b^R'stk', (N.,) a French writer and amateur of art, born in Limousin in 1730; died in 1804. Lubert, de, deh lii'baiR', Mademoiselle, a French romance- writer, born in Paris about 17 10. She com- posed successful romances and fairy-tales, one of which is entitled "Princess Rose-Colour and Prince Celadon." Voltaire complimented her with the title of "Muse et Grace." Died about 1780. • Lubieniecius. See Lubienieckl Lubieniecki, loo-be-en-e-^ts'kee, written also Lu- bienetski or Lubienietski, (Christopher,) a painter, of Polish extraction, born at Stettin in 1659. He settled in Amsterdam, where he painted portraits and history. Died in 1729. Lubieniecki or Lubienietski, [Lat. Lubienie'- cius,] (Stanislas,) a Polish Socinian and astronomer, was born at Cracow in 1623. He became minister of a church in Lublin, and wrote a " History of the Polish Reformation," (1685.) He was exiled from Lublin for his opinions in theology, and died at Hamburg in 1675. His reputation rests chiefly on his "Theatrum Cometi- cum," (1667,) which gives an ample account of four hundred and fifteen comets which appeared from the Deluge to his own time. See Bayi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Lubieniecki or Lubienetski,(THEODORE,) a painter and engraver, born at Cracow in 1653, was a brother of Christopher, noticed above. He became a resident of Berlin, where he painted landscapes and historical pic- tures. A Socinian treatise which he wrote having been burnt by the hangman, he resigned his place, and re- turned to Poland, in 1706. Died in 1720. Lubin, lii^bdN', (Aucujstin,) a French monk, born in Paris in 1624. He received the title of geographer to the king, and published, besides other learned works on ancient and sacred geography, " Plates of Sacred Geography," ("Tabulae Sacrae Geographicae," 1670.) Died in 1695. Lubin, loo'hin, (Eflhard,) a German philologist, born in Oldenburg in 1565. He became in 1595 pro- fessor of belles-lettres at Rostock, where he died in 1621, leaving, besides other works, a " Key to the Greek Lan- guage," (" Clavis Linguae Graecae," 1622,) and notes on Horace, Persius, and Juvenal. Lubin, (Jacques,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1637; died about 1695. Lubis, lii'b^ss', (E. p.,) a French political writer, born in 1806, published a " History of the Restoration," (in French, 6 vols., 1836.) Died in Paris in 1859. Lublink, liib'link, (Jan,) a Dutch writer, born at Amsterdam in 1735. He translated into Dutch Thom- son's " Seasons" and Young's " Night Thoughts," and wrote other works. Died about 181 5. Lubomirski, loo-bo-m^R'skee, (Stanislas Hera- CLIUS,) a noble Polish writer, born about 1640. He became grand marshal of Poland, and defended the national independence with his pen and sword. One of his works is a political treatise called "Consultations ; or, On the Vanity of Counsels," (" Consultationes, sive de Vanitate Consiliorum," 1700.) Died in 1702. Luc, the French for Luke, which see. Luc, Saint. See Luke, Saint. Luc, de. See Deluc. Luc de Bruges. See Lucas Brugensis. Luca. See Luke. Luca, loo'ki, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian jurist and prelate, born at Venosa in 1614. He published "Theatre of Truth and Justice," (" Theatrum Veritatis et fustitias," 7 vols., 1697,) which treats on canon and civil hiw and was highly esteemed. Died in 1683. Luca or Lucae, loo'tsA, (Samuel Christian,) a German anatomist, born at Frankfort in 1787; died in 1821. Luca, von, fon loo'k^l, (Ignaz,) a German historian and political writer, born in Vienna in 1746; died in 1799. Luca Santo, loo'ka sin'to, or Saint Luke, a Flor- entine painter of the eleventh or twelfth century. He is supposed to have painted the Madonnas which were ascribed to Saint Luke the Evangelist. Lucain. See Lucan. Lu'can, (George Charles Bingham,) Earl of, a British general, a son of the Earl of Lucan, was born in London in 1800. He succeeded to the earldom about 1840, and voted with the Conservative party in the House of Lords. In 1854 he obtained conmiand of the cavalry in the Crimea, with the rank of lieutenant-general. He was censured for the disastrous result of the cavalry charge at Balaklava. Lu'can, [Lat, Luca'nus; Fr. Lucain, lii'kiN' ; It. Lucano', loo-ki'no,] (Marcus Ann.*:us,) a Roman epic poet, born at Corduba, (Cordova,) Spain, in 38 a.d., was a nephew of the philosopher Seneca. He was educated at Rome. His early poems procured him the favour of Nero, who appointed him quaestor and augur and con- descended to appear as his rival in a literary contest. Lucan gained the prize, but at the same time lost the favour of the tyrant, whom he had formerly addressed with gross adulation. Nero forbade him to read any more poems in public. Lucan, with Piso and others, conspired against the life of Nero; the plot was detected, and the poet was put to death in 65 a.d. His fame rests on a poem entitled " Pharsalia," which treats of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey, and displays great beauties with great defects. Among the latter is an inflated, declamatory style. Corneille and Voltaire were warm admirers of Lucan. " His genius," says Villemain, re- ferring to his early death, " had only time to produce grandeur, without naturalness or truth." Among his merits are exalted imagination, intense energy, and impressive diction. See Karl H. Weise, "Vita Lucani," 1835; Jacob Palmer, "Apologia pro Lucano," 1704; Voltaire, " Essai sur la Poesie epiqiie;" J. G. Meusel, " Dissertationes II. de Lucano," 1767; Smith, " Dictionaiy of Greek and Roman Biography;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Lucano. See Lucan. Lucauus. See Lucan. Lucar, (Cyril.) See Cyril-Lucar. Lu'cas, (Charles,) an Irish physician, patriot, and politician, born in 17 13. He was a popular member of the Irish Parliament, and an opponent of the court. Died in 1771. Lu'cas, (Frederick,) an English lawyer and editor, was born in Westminster in 1812. About 1840 he was converted to the Roman Catholic faith, and soon after became editor of "The Tablet," a newspaper published in London. Having removed to Dublin, he was elected to Parliament in 1852, and distinguished himself by his zeal to promote the political power or privileges of the Irish Catholics. Died in 1855. Lucas, V\x'\A', (Hippolyte Julien Joseph,) a French poet and writer of fiction, born at Rennes in 1807. He produced in 1834 two volumes of verse and prose, entitled "The Heart and the World." Among his numerous works is a " Philosophic and Literary His- tory of the French Theatre," (1843.) Lucas, (Jean,) a French poet and Jesuit, born in Paris about 1650. He wrote a Latin poem entitled "Actio Oratoris," (1675,) which treats on gesture and elocution. Lucas, (Jean Andr^ Henri,) a French mineralo- gist, born in Paris in 1780 ; died in 1825. Lucas, (Jean Jacques Etienne,) a French naval officer, born at Marennes in 1764. In 1803 he obtained command of the Redoutable. At the battle of Trafalgar (1805) his ship grappled with Nelson's flag-ship, the Vic- tory, and one of his crew gave Nelson a mortal wound. Lucas was taken prisoner in this action. Died in 1819. Lucas, (Jean Marie Charles,) a French economist, born at Saint-Brieuc in 1803. He wrote "On the Re- form of Prisons," (3 vols., 1836-38,) and other works. He was admitted into the Institute in 1836. Lucas, (Margaret.) See Cavendish, (Margaret.) Lucas, (Paul,) a French traveller, born at Rouen in 1664, was in early life a dealer in jewels. He visited Upi^er Egypt, Syria, Persia, etc., and published "Voyage to the Levant," (1704.) Having received a commission from Louis XIV. to collect medals and other monu- ments of antiquity, he again explored the Levant, (1705- € as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) LUCAS 1466 LUCILIUS 08,) and published a narrative of his journey. In 17 19 he produced his best work, entitled a *' Journey in Turkey, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt," (performed in 1 715-16.) Many of his stories are exaggerated and absurd. Died in 1737. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historiqiie ;" *' Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Lu'cas, (Richard,) a learned British divine, born in Radnorshire in 1648. He settled in London about 1684, and became prebendary of Westminster in 1696. He published an "Enquiry after Happiness," and "Prac- tical Christianity," which are highly commended, and other works. Died in 1 71 5. Lucas, Saint. See Luke, Saint. Lucas, (Samuel,) an English journalist and miscel- laneous writer, born at Bristol in 1818. He was editor of the " Press" and of " Once a Week." He contributed to the Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews. Died in 1865. Lu'cas Bru-gen'sis, [or Luc de Bruges, liik deh briizh,] (pRANgois,) a Flemish theologian and excellent linguist, born at Bruges in 1549. He published, besides other works, " Concordances of the Vulgate Edition of the Sacred Books," ("Sacrorum Bibliorum Vulgatas Editionis Concordantiae," 1617; and 5 vols., 1712.) Died in 1619. Lucas de Cranach. See Cranach. Lucas van Ley den. See Ley den. Lucatelli. See Locatelli. Lucceius, luk-see'us, (Lucius,) a Roman orator and friend of Cicero, flourished about 60 B.C. Lucchesini, look-ki-see'nee, (Cesare,) an Italian philologist, born at Lucca in 1756, was a brother of the marquis, noticed below. He acquired a European reputation by his numerous works on philology, among which is " The Sources of Ancient and Modern Lan- guages." Died in 1832. See TiPALUo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Lucchesini, (Giovanni Lorenzo,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Lucca in 1638. He wrote, besides other works, a refutation of Machiavel's workon Politics, (1697.) Died about 1 7 10. Lucchesini,(GiovANNi ViNCENZO,)an Italian scholar, born at Lucca in 1660. He lived in Rome, and obtained from Clement XII. the high office of secretary of briefs. He published an edition of Demosthenes' Orations, with notes and a good Latin translation, and a "History of Europe from 1678 to about 1 735." Died in 1744. See Fabroni, "Vitas Italorum doctiina excellentium." Lucchesini, da, di look-ki-see'nee, (Girolamo,) Marquis, an able diplomatist, born at Lucca in 1752. He removed to Berlin in the latter part of the reign of Frederick the Great, who appointed him his librarian and reader. He was sent as minister of Prussia to Vi- enna in 1793, and to Paris in 1802. After the battle of Jena (1806) he negotiated a truce with the victor ; but it was not ratified by the Prussian court. Soon after this event he returned to Lucca. He wrote a work called " On the Causes and Effects of the Confederation of the Rhine," (1819.) Died in 1825. See TiPALDO, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Luce, the French of Lucius, (Pope,) which see. Luce de Lancival, liis deh IdN^se'vtl', ( Jean Charles Julien,) a French litterateur^ born in Picardy in 1764. He was chosen professor of belles-lettres in the Prytanee, a college of Paris, about 1797. Among his best productions are a poem called "Achilles at Scyros," (1805,) and "Hector," a tragedy, (1809,) which Villemain pronounces "truly Homeric." Died in 1810. See ViLi,EMAiN, notice in the " Magasin Encydopedique ;" H. Greli.et, " Luce de Lancival: Notice biographique," 1857. Lucena, de, di loo-sa'nS, (Joao,) a Portuguese writer, born at Trancoso about 1548. He was professor of phi- losophy at Ev'ora, and author of an excellent "Life of Francis Xavier," (1600,) often reprinted. Died in 1600. Lucena, de, (Vasco Fernandez,) Count, a Portu- guese historian and statesman, born about 1410. He translated Quintus Curtius into French for Charles the Bold of Burgundy, He received the title of chancellor of Portugal. Died about 1500. Lu-ce'ri-us, [" light-bringing,"] a surname of Jupi- ter, which see. Luchet, lii'sh^', (Auguste,) a French litterateur and democrat, born in Paris in 1806. He was sentenced in 1842 to an imprisonment of two years for one of his works. Luchet, de, deh lli'shi', (Jean Pierre Louis,) Mar- quis, a prolific French author, born at Saintes about 1740, was styled Marquis de la Roche du Maine. He published many superficial works. His "Literary His- tory of Voltaire" (1782) furnishes some curious details. Died in 1792. Luchetto da Geneva. See Cambiaso, (Luca.) Lucian*loo'sh.e3n, [Gr. KovKiavoq ; Lat. Lucia'nus; Fr. Lucien, lii'se-^N'; It. Luciano, loo-chS'no,] one of the most witty and original Greek writers, was born at Samosata, (Someisat,) on the Euphrates, about 120 A.d. He practised law a short time at Antioch, and exchanged that profession for the more lucrative pursuit of sophist and teacher of rhetoric, which he followed with success in Gaul until he was about forty years old. Again changing his profession, he returned to the East, and lived many years at Athens, where he was intimate with Demonax and employed his time in literary com- position. His principal works are dialogues, written in pure and elegant Greek, on history, mythology, phi- losophy, and various other subjects. His object appears to have been to cure men of their prejudices and super- stitions and their foolish admiration of philosophic char- latans. His genius is eminently satirical, and his works are remarkably humorous ; but some of them are cen- sured as offensive to morality and religion. Among the titles of his dialogues are "Timon the Misanthrope," "Charon," "Menippus," and "The Assembly of Gods." English versions of his dialogues have been published by T. Franklin (1780) and William Tooke, (1820.) Wieland produced a good German translation. Good editions of the Greek text have been published by Dindorf (Paris, 1840) and Bekker, (1853.) See Karl Georg Jacob, " Characteristik Lucian's von Samo- sata," 1832; Tiemann, "Versuch iiber Lucian's von Samosata Phi- losophic," 1804; Eduard Em;l Struve, " Specimina IL de ^tate et Vita Luciani," 1829-30; Passow, " Lucian und die Geschichte," 1854; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "Eraser's Magazine" for January, February, April, May, and June, 1839; "London Quarterly Review" for Januai^y, 1828. Lucian, [Fr. Lucien, lii^se'^N',] Saint, a Christian martyr, born at Samosata in the third century, was emi- nent for piety and learning. He was ordained a priest or presbyter at Antioch. He prepared a revised edition of the Scriptures, which, Jerome says, was more correct than those of Hesychius and Pamphilus. Diocletian having issued an edict against the Christians, Lucian suffered martyrdom in 312 A.D. See Saint Jerome, "De Viris illustribus;" Eusebius, " Historia Ecclesiastica." Luciano. See Piombo, (Sebastiano del.) Lucianus. See Lucian. Lucien, the French of Lucian, which see. Lu'ci-fer, Bishop of Calaris, (now Cagliari,) in Sar- dinia, was noted for his intolerance and zeal against Arianism. About 355 a.d. he was banished by Constan- tius, who favoured the Arians. He wrote a "Defence of Athanasius," and other works. He refused to recog- nize as orthodox those bishops who signed the formula of Rimini, (359,) or to have fellowship with any who recognized them, and finally became the author of a schism. He had many followers, who formed a distinct sect, called Luciferians. Died about 370 a.d. Lu-ciPi'-us, (Caius,) a Roman satiric poet, born at Suessa Aurunca, (now Sessa,) in Italy, about 148 B.C., was a great-uncle of Pompey the Great. In early youth he served under Scipio Africanus at the siege of Numan- tia, and became an intimate friend of that general. He composed thirty satires and various other poems; but only fragments of his works have come down to us. Horace asserts that he was the first writer of satire among the Romans, (Sat., lib. 2, i. 62.) His satires were much admired by many ancient critics, including Cicero, QuiRtilian, and Pliny. " He was," says Professor Sellar, " vehement in invective, because he was thor- oughly earnest in his purpose to expose vice and base- ness among the high and low with impartial severity. Although probably few writers of verse have had less a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y; short; ^, §, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, f^t; mSt; n5t; good; moon; LUCILIUS 1467 LUCULLUS poetical faculty, yet, by his originality and force of char- acter, he became the favourite of his own time and coun- try; and he alone among Roman writers has introduced a new and permanent form of poetry into the world." Died about 100 B.C. See Seli.ar, "Roman Poets of the Republic," chap. vi. ; Petkr- MANN, " Dissertatio de C. Lucilii Vita," 1842; Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography." Lucil'ius Ju'nior, a Roman poet and naturalist, lived in the first century, and was a friend of Seneca. He is supposed to be the author of a poem of six hun- dred and forty hexameter verses, entitled *' ^tna," which presents some fine passages. Lu-ci'na, [Fr. Lucine, lii's^n',] the name of the god- dess that brings to light and presides over the birth of children, was used as a surname of Juno and of Diana, both of whom were supposed to assist women in partu- rition, and were sometimes called LuciN/E. The Greek goddess Ilithyi'a or Eileithyia ['ECAeLdvio] appears to be essentially the same as Diana (Artemis) in her char- acter of Lucina. See B<3ttiger, " Ilithyia," Weimar, 1799. Lucine. See Lucina. Lucius. See Luz. Lucius, loo'she-us, [Fr. Luce, liiss,] I., Bishop of Rome, succeeded Cornelius in October, 252 A.D., and died in March, 253. Stephen L was his successor. Lucius II., a native of Bologna, was elected pope in March, 1 144, as successor to Celestine IL He died in 1 145, after a pontificate of eleven months, and Eugenius IH. was chosen in his place. Lucius III. (Cardinal Ubaldo of Lucca) was elected pope in 1 181, after the death of Alexander \\\. His election was the first that was decided by the cardinals, the clergy and people being excluded from the right to vote. A revolt of the people of Rome obliged him to leave the city, and he retired to Verona. He died in 1 185, and was succeeded by Urban HL Lucius, (C/ESAR,) a Roman prince, born 17 B.C., was a son of M. Agrippa and Julia, w-ho was a daughter of the emperor Augustus. He and his brother Caius were heirs-presumptive of the empire, but they died before Augustus. Lucius died in 2 A.D. The Maison Carree at Nimes was a temple dedicated to Caius and Lucius. Lucius, lu'she-iis, (It. Lucio, loo'cho,] (Giovanni,) a historian, born at Trau, in Dalmatia. He published in 1666 a "History of Dalmatia and Croatia." Died in 1684. Lucius Verus. See Verus. Liicke or Luecke, liik'keh, (Gottfried Christian Friedrich,) an eminent German theologian, was born at Egeln, near Magdeburg, in 1 791. He studied at Halle in 1810, and subsequently at Gottingen, where he formed a friendship with Bunsen and Lachmann. He became professor of theology at Bonn in 1818, and soon after published, conjointly with Schleiermacher and De Wette, the "Theological Journal." His "Commen- tary on the Writings of Saint John the Evangelist" (4 vols., 1820-32) is esteemed one of the best works of its kind. Li 1827 he succeeded Staudlin in the chair of theology at Gottingen, Died at Gottingen in 1855. Luckner, look'ner, (Nikolaus,) a marshal of France, born at Kampen, in Bavaria, in 1722. At an early age he entered the service of Prussia, for which he fought with distinction in the Seven Years' war, (1756-63.) About 1763 he accepted the rank of lieutenant-general in the French army, which for many subsequent years was not called into active service. Having submitted to the new regime, he was promoted to the rank of mar- shal in December, 1 791. In the spring of 1792 he ob- tained command of one of the armies which defended the frontier against the Austrians, and a few weeks later succeeded Rochambeau as general-in-chief. The domi- nant party, distrusting both his fidelity and capacity, de- prived him of the command in 1792. He was guillotined in Januarj', 1794. See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution." Lucotte, lii'kot', (Edme Aim6,) Count, a French general, born in Burgundy in 1 770. The Bourbons con- fided to him the defence of Paris in March, 181 5. Died in 1815. Lucrece. See Lucretia and Lucretius. Lucretia, loo-kree'she-a, [It. Lucrezia, loo-kR^t'- se-S ; Fr. Lucrece, lii'kRis',] a Roman lady, distin- guished for her beauty, virtue, and tragical destiny, was the wife of Collatinus, who was related to Tarquin the Proud, King of Rome. The outrage offered to her honour by Sextus Tarquin, and the voluntary sacrifice of her life, (507 B.C.,) have furnished a favourite theme for poets and painters, and, according to a doubtful legend, caused the dethronement of Tarquin, and the conversion of the Roman state into a republic, under the direction of Junius Brutus. Lucretius, lu-kree'she-us, [Fr. LucRi:cE, lii'kRiss' ; It. LucREZio, loo-kR§t'se-o ; Sp. LucRfXio, loo-kRa'- the-o,\ or, to give his full name, Ti'tus Lucre''tius Ca'rus, one of the greatest Latin poets, was born in Italy in 95 B.C., and was contemporary with Cicero. The records of antiquity throw scarcely any light on his life, which was probably passed in studious retirement. It is not known whether he ever visited Greece ; but it is evident from his writings that he had profoundly- studied the language, philosophy, and manners of that people. A doubtful tradition asserts that he was subject to insanity caused by a love-potion ; and the statement that he committed suicide in his forty-fourth year is gen- erally credited. He left only one work, — a philosophic and didactic poem, in six books, entitled "De Rerum Natura," (" On the Nature of Things,") in which he ex- pounds and illustrates the physical and ethical doctrines of Ejiicurus, of whom he was a disciple. From such abstruse speculations and intractable subjects he has produced one of the most admirable poems in the lan- guage. Although his system is erroneous and incoherent, his reasoning is remarkably clear and close. Probably no other work so amply demonstrates the power of the Latin language to utter the sublimest conceptions with a sustained majesty and harmony. "A great atheistic poet," says Villemain, "is surely a surprising phenom- enon. His genius finds sublime accents to attack all the inspirations of genius. He renders even nothing- ness poetic; he insults glory; he enjoys death. Out of the abyss of skepticism he sometimes soars to a height of enthusiasm which is rivalled only by the sublimity of Homer." Referring to this work, Macaulay remarks, "Tlie finest poem in the Latin language — indeed, the finest didactic poem in any language — was written in defence of the silliest and meanest of all systems of natural and moral philosophy." Ovid appears to be the only contemporary writer who fully appreciated the genius of Lucretius. See the article on Lucretius, by Villemain. in the "Biographic Universeile ;" Sellar, "Roman Poets of the Republic;" Carl F. ScHMiD, "Dissertatio de T. Lucretio Caro," 1768; J. Siebelis, " Quaestiones Lucretians," 1844 ; J. Legris, "Rome, ses Novateurs, ses Conservateurs, etc. fitudes liistoriques sur Lucrece, Catiille," etc., 1846; Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Latina ;" Smith, " Dictionaiy of Greek and Roman Biography ;" " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1807, Lucrezia. See Lucretia. Lucrezio. See Lucretius. Lu-cuPlus, (Lucius Licinius,) a celebrated Roman general, born of a patrician family about no B.C. In the year 87 he went to Asia as quaestor under Sulla, who gave him many proofs of his confidence. After an absence of several years, during which the civil war be- tween Marius and Sulla raged at Rome, he returned, and was elected consul in 74 B.C. In this year he obtained tiie chief command in the war against Mithridates, whom he defeated at Cyzicus in 73, and, after other victories, drove him out of the kingdom of Pontus. He afterwards defeated Tigranes of Armenia, whose capital he took about 68 B.C. The mutiny of his troops prevented his final triumph over Mithridates, and he was superseded by Pompey in the year 66. Cicero expressed the opinion that so great a war was never conducted with more prudence and courage. (" Pro Muraena.") LucuUus then retired from public affairs, and expended part of the im- mense fortune he had acquired in the East in building magnificent villas, giving sumptuous entertainments, and collecting expensive paintings and statues. He was a liberal patron of learning and the arts. Sulla had dedi- cated to him his Commentaries. Plutarch, after com- paring him with Cimon, says it is hard to say to which € as 9 as s; g hard; g asy; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2i^==See Explanations, p. 23.) LUCUMO 1468 LUINI side the balance inclines. He was living in 59, but was not living in 56 B.C. See " Liicullus," in Plutarch's " Lives ;" Cicero, "Pro Lege Manilla;" Jon an Upmarck, "Dissertatio historica de LucuUo," 170^; Dion Cassius, " History of Rome," books xxxv. and xxxvii. ; Drumann, " Geschichte Roins," vol. iv. ; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene rale. " Lucumo. See Tarquinfus Priscus. Ludeke, looMeh-keh, or Ludecke, loo'd^k-keh, (Christofh Wilhelm, ) a German writer, born at Schonberg in 1737, was minister of a German church in Stockholm. He published a " Historical Account of Turkey." Died in 1805. Luden, loo'den, (Hkinrich,) a distinguished Ger- man historical and political writer, born in the duchy of Bremen in 1780. He became in 1810 professor of philosophy at Jena, where he also lectured on history. His most important work is a " History of the German Nation," ("Die Geschichte des Deutschen Volkes," 12 vols., 1825-37,) brought down to 1237. He also wrote general histories of the nations of antiquity and of the middle ages, a "Life of Hugo Grotius," (1806,) several biographies, etc. Died at Jena in 1847. See his Autobiography, " Riickblicke in mein Leben," 1847. Luden, (Heinrich,) a son of the preceding, was born at Jena in 1 810. He became a professor of law, and a member of the court of cassation at Jena. He published several legal works. Liiders, lU'ders, (Alexander Nikolaievitch,) a Russian general, of German origin, born in 1790. He defeated the Hungarians under Bem in July, 1849, '^"'^ succeeded Gortchakof in the command of the army of the Danube in 1855. He was commander-in-chief in the Crimea for a few weeks between the fall of Sebas- to])ol and the end of the war. Ludewig. See LuDovicr, (Karl Gunther.) Ludewig, von, fon loo'deh-^io', (Johann Peter,) a learned German jurist and historian, born in Suabia about 1670. He became professor of philosophy at Halle in 1695, and of history in 1703. The King of Prussia made him a privy councillor in 1709. Among his works are "Germania Princeps," (1702,) treating on the rights, privileges, etc. of the house of Austria and of the Electors, " Writers of German History," ("Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum," 1718,) and a "Life of Justinian," (1730.) Died in 1743. See Frieurich Wiedeburg, "De Vita et Scriptis J. P. de Lnde- wig," Halle, 1757; Hirsching, " Historisch-literarisches Hand- buch." Lu'di-us, a Roman painter, who lived in the reign of Augustus, and of whom we know little. He gained renown by decorating walls with landscapes of large dimensions. Lud'low, (Edmund,) an able English republican general, born in Wiltshire about 1620. He fought against the king at Edgehill in 1642, and led a regiment at the battle of Newbury. Elected to Parliament in 1645,- he voted for the conversion of the kingdom into a republic, and was one of the judges who condemned Charles L in 1649. In this year he was chosen a member of the council of state, in which he opposed the ambitious designs of Cromwell. In 1650 he went to Ireland as lieutenant-general. On the death of Ireton, November, 165 1, the command of the army devolved on Ludlow. As he refused to support the government of the Pro- tector, (1653,) he was deprived of command. After the death of Oliver (1658) he resumed his seat in Parliament, and obtained command of the army in Ireland in 1659. At the restoration (1660) he escaped through France to Vevay, where he resided mostly until his death, in 1693. He left Memoirs of his life, (2 vols., 1698.) Macaulay refers to him as "almost the only survivor, [in 1689,! certainly the most illustrious survivor, of a mighty race of men, the judges of a king, the founders of a repub- lic. . . . There was but a single blemish on his fame," — i.e. the execution of Charles I. See Clarendon, " History of the Rebellion ;" Hume, " History of England :" Guizot,_ '* Histoire de la Revolution de I'Angleterre ;" Wm. Sewhi., " Memoirs of E. Ludlow," 3 vols., 1698-99; "Monk's Contemporaries," by Guizot, London, 1864. Ludolf, loo'dolf, (HiERONYMUS,) a German medical writer, born at Erfurt in 1679 ; died in 1728. Ludolph, loo'dolf, (Heinrich Wilhelm,) a nephew of the following, was born at Erfurt in 1655. He became secretary to Prince George of Denmark, who married Queen Anne of England. Me published a Russian Grammar, (Oxford, 1696,) and several small religious treatises. Died in 1711. Ludolph OF Saxony, a monk, who died at Mentz about 1370. He composed, in Latin, a " Life of Christ," which was po]jular and often reprinted. Ludolphus, loo-doKfus, written also Ludolph and Ludolf, originally Leutholf, loit'holf, (Job,) an emi- nent German Orientalist, born at Erfurt in 1624. He is said to have acquired twenty-five languages, among which was the Abyssinian. The Duke of Saxe-Gotha employed him to educate his sons, and appointed him an aulic councillor. Ludolf published, in Latin, an esteemed "History of Abyssinia," (1681,) an Ethiopian Grammar, and other works. Died in 1704. See C. JuNCKRR, " Commentarius de Vita J. Ludolfi," 1710; Vockerodt, " Memoria J. Ludolfi renovata," 1723; Nicekon, "Memoires;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Ludovici, loo-do-veet'see, or Ludwig, lood'i^ic, (Gottfried,) a German philologist, born at Baruth, in Prussia, in 1670. He published, besides other works, a "Universal History," (2 vols., 1716.) Died in 1724. Ludovici, (Karl Gunther,) a learned German pro- fessor, born at Leipsic in 1707. He wrote a " Dictionary of Commerce," (5 vols., 1752-56,) and a "Plan of a History of the Philosophy of Leibnitz," (1737.) Died in 1778. He spelled his name Ludewig in his latter years. Ludovisio. See Gregory XV. Ludwig. See Lewis, Louis, and Ludovicl Ludwig, (Kings of Germany.) See Lewis. Ludwig, lood'v^iG, (Christian Gottlieb,) a German botanist, born at Brieg, Silesia, in 1709. About 1732 he made a botanical excursion to Africa. He was chosen professor of medicine at Leipsic in 1747. He contributed to reform botanical science by his writings, among which are works "On the Sexes of Plants," "Definitions of Plants," (1737,) and " Botanical Aphorisms," (1738.) J. J. Rousseau expressed the opinion that Ludwig was the only botanist besides Linnaeus that viewed botany like a philosopher. Died in 1773. See Hirsching, "Historisch-literarisches Handbuch;" "Nou- velle Biographic Generale." Ludwig, (Daniel,) a German writer on materia medica, born at Weimar in 1625 ; died in 1680. Ludwig, (Johann,) a self-taught German peasant, born near Dresden in 1 715, became a proficient in as- tronomy. See C. L. Brightwell, "Annals of Industry and Genius." Lueoke. See Lucke. Luetzelburger. See Lutzelburger. Luetzow. See Lurzow. Lufft, looft, (Hans,) a German printer and bookseller, born in 1495, resided at Wittenberg, where he published the first editions of Luther's translation of the Bible. This work appeared complete in 1534. Within fifty years one hundred thousand copies were issued from Lufft's office ; and he his been surnamed the Bible Printer. Died in 1584. Luganski. See Dahl, (Vladimir Tvanovitch.) Lugo, de, di loo'go, (Juan,) a Spanish Jesuit, born at Madrid in 1583. He taught theology at Rome twenty years, was made a cardinal in 1643, and wrote several theological works, which were often reprinted. Died in 1660. His brother Francisco (i 580-1652) was also a Jesuit, and author of several works on theology. Luigi, di, de loo-ee'jee, (Andrea,) an Italian painter, surnamed lTngegno, (l^n-jei/yo,) and sometimes called Andrea di Assisi, was born at Assisi about 1470. He assisted Perugino in adorning the Cambio at Perugia, and worked mostly at his native place. He painted a coat of arms for the town-hall of Assisi. It appears that nothing is known certainly of his other works. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. Luini, loo-ee'nee, (Aurelio,) an Italian painter, a son of Bernardino, noticed below, was born about 1530. He worked at Milan, and painted scriptural subjects, among which is "The Adoration of the Magi." He a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, sAor^; a, 9, i, 9, odscure; (ir, (kU, fit; mSt; n6t; gdod; moon; LUINI 1469 LUMSDEN died, according to Lanzi, in 1593; but some date his death many years earlier. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Luini, Luvini, loo-vee'nee, or Lovini, lo-vee'nee, (Bernardino,) an eminent Italian painter, was born at Luino, on Lake Maggiore. He is called the most ex- cellent imitator and pupil of Leonardo da Vinci. Lo- mazzo says he was already a distinguished painter in 1500. Luini worked both in fresco and oil, and painted at Milan several works which are still in good preserva- tion. " Few painters," says Lanzi, "deserve to be com- pared to him." Among his master-pieces in oil are a " Magdalene," a " Madonna," and a "Saint John with a Lamb," all at Milan. He excelled in colouring, chiaro- sacro, and the expression of feminine grace. He died after 1530. His sons, AuRELio and Evangelista, were skilful painters. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc.; Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Luini, (Evangelista,) a decorative painter of Milan, was a son of the preceding. Died after 1584. Luini, (ToMMASO,) an Italian painter, born at Rome about 1597. He was called Caravaggino, because he imitated Caravaggio, Died about 1632. Luino, loo-ee'no, or Luini, loo-ee'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian geometer, born at Milan in 1740, He was professor of mathematics successively in a college of Milan and in the University of Pavia. He published a treatise on "Progressions and Series," ("SuUe Progres- sioni e suUe Serie," 1767,) "Philosophic Meditation," and a few other works. Died in 1792. Luis, the Spanish for Louis, which see. Luis de Granada. See Granada, (Luis de.) Luisini, Luisino, or Luisinus. See Luvigini, (Francp:sco.) Luithold von Savene, loit'holt fon s^'veh-neh, or Liitolt von Saven, lii'tolt fon si'ven, a German minne- singer of the latter part of the twelfth century. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Luitprand, loo'it-prand or lut'prand, written also Liutprand, King of the Lombards, the son of Ans- prand, reigned from 712 A. I), until 744. His valour and wisdom are praised by Sismondi. In 739 he marched into France to aid Charles Martel against the Saracens. He died in 744, and was succeeded by his nephew Hil- debrand. See MuRATORi, "Annali d'ltalia." Luitprand or Liutprand, [Lat. Luitpran'dus,] a historical writer, was one of the most learned men of the age. He was sent as ambassador to Constantinople in 946 by lierenger. Marquis of Ivrea. Having been chosen Bishop of Cremona, he attended in 963 a council (at Rome) which deposed Pope John. In 968 the em- peror Otho I. sent him on a mission to Constantinople, where he was maltreated by the emperor. He was au- thor of an esteemed " History of Europe from 862 to 964." See KoEPKE, "De Vita et Scriptis Luitprandi," 1842; "Nouvelie Biographic Generale." Lukaszewitsch,loo-kl'shg-'^itch, (Joseph,) a Polish writer, born near Posen about 1800, published several valuable works on the ecclesiastical history of Poland. Among these we may name the " History of the Churches of the Helvetic Confession of Faith in Lithuania," (1842.) Luke, [Gr. Aovmg ; Lat. Lu'CAS; ¥r. Luc, liik; It. LuCA, loo'kS,] Saint, one of the Four Evangelists, was a companion of the Apostle Paul in his mission to the Gen- tiles, between 50 and 66 A.D. The time and place of his birth are unknown. That he was liberally educated is made evident by the classical style of his writings and by the learned details which he gives on historical and geographical subjects. His Gospel contains valuable accounts which are not found in the others. He also wrote "The Acts of the Apostles," which, as well as his Gospel, is in the Greek language. Tradition indicates that Saint Luke is the same as the physician Luke mentioned by Saint Paul in Colossians iv. 14, and the same as Lucas named in Philemon 24. (See II. Tim- othy iv. II.) Lu'kin, (Lionel,) an English mechanic, noted as the inventor of the life-boat, was born about 1742; died in 1834. Lull. See Lulli, (Raymond.) LuUi or Lulle, looKlee, [Fr. Lulle, liil,] (Antonio,) a grammarian, born in Majorca. He corresponded with Erasmus, and wrote a treatise on rhetoric, called " De Oratione." Died in 1582. Lulli or LuUy, lii'le', (Jean Baptiste,) a celebrated Italian composer, called "the father of French dramatic music," was born at Florence in 1633. About the age of fourteen he went to Paris, where he became a skilful performer on the violin, and was patronized by Louis XIV. In the f^ies which were often repeated at court, he found occasion to try his talents for operatic music. In 1672 the king gave him the privilege or direction of the Royal Academy of Music, from which time dates the foundation of the Grand Opera in France. Co-ope- rating with Quinault the poet, Lulli composed in fifteen years nineteen operas, which were very successful. He finally became one of the secretaries of the king. Died in 1687. See F^Tis, " Biographie Universelle des Musicians ;"_ De la BoRDE, " Essai sur la Musique," 1780 ; " Nouvelie Biographie Gene- rale:" Le Provost d'Exmes, "Lulli Musicien." Lulli or LuUy, (Jean Baptiste,) a son of the pre- ceding, born in 1665. With his brother Louis he com- posed an opera called "Orphee," (1690.) Died in 1701. Lulli, (Jean Louis,) born in 1667, succeeded his father, Jean Baptiste, as composer to the king. Died in 1688. Lulli, (Louts,) a musician, brother of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1664. Pie became composer to the king in 1688. Died about 1736. Lulli, written also LuUy, Lulle, and Lull, [Lat. Lul'lus or Lul'lius,] (Raymond,) a philosopher, surnamed THE Enlightened Doctor, was born at Palma, in Majorca, about 1235. He professed to believe that he was called to convert the Moslems, and he pre- pared himself for the task by learning Arabic. In order to prove that the mysteries of faith were not opposed to reason, he composed a treatise, or method, called " Ars Lulli," or "Ars Magna Lulli," ("The Great Art of Lulli,") designed also to systematize knowledge and facilitate the process of reasoning on all questions. His method obtained great celebrity; but, according to Hallam, it was an "idle and fraudulent attempt to substitute trick for science." " He was one of those innovators in philosophy who, by much boasting of their original discoveries in the secrets of truth, gain credit for systems of science which those who believe in them seldom trouble themselves to examine." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") He made several attempts to convert the Moors in Northern Africa, and was violently persecuted. Died in 1315. See Wadding, "Viede R. Lulle;" Segui, "Viede R. Lulle," 1605 ; CoLLETET," Vie de R. Lulle," 1646 ; LoEV, " De Vita R. Lulli Specimen," 1830; Perroquet, "Vie et Martyre de R. Lulle," 1667; Helffereich, "Raymond Lull," Berlin, 1858; "Nouvelie Biogra- phie Generale." LuUin de Chateauvieux, 1u'I4n' deh shI'toVe-uh', (Jacob Fr^d^ric,) a Swiss agriculturist and writer, iDorn at Geneva in 1772; died in 1840. LuUin de Chateauvieux, (Michel,) a Swiss writer and experimenter on agriculture, born at Geneva in 1695 ; died in 1781. LuUy. See Lulll Lulof, lii'lof, (Jan,) a Dutch astronomer, born at Zutphen in 171 1. He wrote several works on astronomy. Died in 1768. Lumene van Marck, Ui'meh-neh (?) vtn mank, [Lat. LuMiNy^:''us,] (Jacques Corneille,) a Flemish scholar and Benedictine monk, born at Ghent about 1570. He produced many Latin poems. Died in 1629. Luminaeus. See Lumene van Marck. Lump'kin, (Joseph Henry,) brother of Governor Lumpkin, noticed below, born in Oglethorpe county, Georgia, in 1799, became professor in the Lumpkin Law School at Athens, in his native State. Lumpkin, (Wilson,) an American statesman, born in Pittsylvania county, Virginia, in 1783. He was twice elected Governor of Georgia, and became a United States Senator in 1838. Lilms'den, (Matthew,) a distinguished Scottish Orientalist, born in Aberdeenshire in 1777. He was € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, k, gjittural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23. ) LUNA 1470 LUSSI chosen professor of Persian and Arabic in the College of Calcutta in 1805. In 1810 he published an excellent '* Grammar of the Persian Language," and in 1813 an "Arabic Grammar." About 1820 he returned to Great Britain. Died in London in 1835. His brother Thomas, an officer, published a Journey from Merut, India, to London, (1822.) See Zenker, " Bibliotheca Orientalis." Lu'na, [Fr. Lune, liin,] the Moon, a goddess wor- shipped by the Greeks and Romans. Luna, loo'nS, (Fabrizio,) an Italian lexicographer, born at Naples, is said to have been the compiler of the first Italian dictionary, called " Vocabulary of Five Thousand Tuscan Words," (*' Vocabulario di cinque mila Vocabuli Toschi," 1536.) Died in 1559, Luna, de, dii loo'ni, (Don Alvaro,) a Spanish cour- tier and poet, who became the chief favourite and min- ister of John II. of Castile. In 1423 he was made Con- stable of Castile. Through the enmity of the grandees, he was exiled in 1427, and again in 1439. In 1445 he was recalled, and obtained command of the army, with which he defeated the malcontents. Having lost the favour of the king, he was executed in 1453. See a well-written biography, entitled " Cronica del Condestable Don Alvaro de Luna," by an anonymous contemporary writer, pub- lished in 1546, and " Histoire de Alvaro de Luna," Paris, 1720. Lund, loond, (Carl,) a Swedish writer on law, born at Jonkoping in 1638, published, besides other works, a " History of the Law of Sweden." Died in 1715. Lund, (Daniel,) a Swedish professor of Hebrew, born in 1666; died in 1747. Limden. See Lundin. Lttn'din or Lun'den, (Sir Alan,) an ambitious Scot- tish politician, was born in Forfarshire. He married a natural daughter of Alexander II., and in 1243 was chosen lord justiciar of Scotland, Having opposed the coronation of the minor son of the late king, he was dismissed froiH office about 1250. He was afterwards pardoned, and held the same office for several years. Died in 1275. Lundorp, See Londorp. Lun'dy, (Benjamin,) an American philanthropist, born in Sussex county. New Jersey, in 1789. He founded in 1815 an anti-slavery association, called the "Union Humane Society," and subsequently became editor of the "Genius of Universal Emancipation," originally published at Mount Pleasant, Ohio, but removed to Baltimore in 1824, He was also active in promoting lectures on slavery and in advocating abstinence from the products of slave-labour. Died in 1839. See the " Life, Travels, etc. of Benjamin Lundy," by Thomas Eari.e; Greeley, "American Conflict," vol. i. pp. 111-115. Luneau de Boisjermain, lii'nd' deh bwS'zhSR'- miN', (Pierre Joseph FRANgois,) a mediocre French writer, born at Issondun in 1732. He became a school- teacher in Paris, and published several educational works on history and languages. He also edited the works of Racine, (1768.) Died in iFoi. Lunghi, (LucA.) See Longhl Lunghi, loon'gee, (Martino,) an Italian architect, born in the Milanese, He was employed in Rome by Pope Gregory XTII., erected the Campanile of the Capi- tol, and built the elegant palace of Prince Borghese. His last works were built about 1600. His grandson, Martino, was an architect, and worked in Rome, Naples, and Milan. Died in 1657. See QuATREM^RE DE QuiNCY, " DictioHnaire d' Architecture," and "Vies des Architectes celebres." Lunghi, written also Longhi and Longo, (Stlla Giacomo,) an Italian sculptor, born at Vigiu, in the Milanese ; died about 1625. Lunig, loo'niG, (Johann Christian,) a German com- piler and publicist, born in 1662. He published valua- ble works entitled " Archives of the German Empire," (24 vols., 1713-22,) " Diplomatic Code of Italy," (" Codex Italiae Diplomaticns," 4 vols., 1725-35,) and " Diplomatic Code of Germany," ("Codex Germaniae Diplomaticus," 2 vols., 1733.) Died in 1740, Lttnt, (George,) an American lawyer and miscella- neous writer, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts. He was appointed in 1849 district attorney for Massachu- setts, and in 1857 became one of the editors of the " Boston Courier." See Griswoi.d, " Poets and Poetry of America." Lupercalia, See Pan. Luperci, See Pan, Lu-per'cus, an ancient deity, who was worshipped by the Italian shepherds as the guardian of their flocks against wolves, and sometimes identified with Pan. Lupi, loo'pee, (Antonio Maria,) a learned Italian Jesuit and antiquary, born at Florence in 1695 ; died in 17.37. Lupi, (Mario,) an Italian historian, born at Bergamo in 1720 ; died in 1 789. Lupin, von, fon loo-peen', (Friedrtch,) Baron, a German writer and mineralogist, born at Memmingen in 1771 ; died in 1844, See his Autobiography, (" Selbstbiographie,") 2 vols., 1844-47. Lupoli, loo'po-lee, (Vincenzio,) an Italian canonist and jurist, born near Aversa in 1737, published several works on law. Died in 1800, Lup'set, (Thomas,) an English scholar, born in Lon- don about 1496, He obtained the chair of rhetoric at Oxford, and corresponded with Erasmus and SirThoma.s More, He published a "Treatise on Charity," and other religious works, and translated parts of the writings of Cyprian and Chrysostom. Died in 1532. Lup'ton, (Donald,) an English biographer, of whom little is known. He published in 1637 a " History of the Moderti Protestant Divines." (translated from the Latin,) and "The (jlory of their Times; or, The Lives of the Primitive Fathers," (1640.) Lu'pus, or Wolf, w6lf, (Christian,) a Catholic theologian, born at Ypres in 1612, He became a pro- fessor of theology at Louvain, and published several works on dogmatic theology. Died in 1681. Lupus Servatus. See Loup. Luque, de.diloo'ki, (Hernando,) a Spanish bi.shop of Peru. He was a priest of Panama when, in 1525, he associated himself with Pizarro and Almagro in an ex- pedition for the conquest of Peru. De Luque furnished the money for this enterprise. Died in 1532. See Hrrrera, " Historia general de los Viajes en las Indias Occi- dentales ;" Pkrscott, " History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. ii. Lurine, lil'r^n', (Louis,) a French writer of fiction, satire, etc., born in 1816. He contributed many articles to the public journals, Luscinius, loos-see'ne-vis, (Othmar,) a litterateur, whose proper name was Nachtigall, (nSK'te-g^l,) was born at Strasburg about 1480, He removed from Augs- burg to Bale in 1526, and afterwards lodged with Eras- mus at Freyburg, He edited some works of Lucian and Martial, and published various other works. Died about 1535- Lilsh'ing-ton, (Right Hon. Stephen,) D.C.L., an eminent English civilian and statesman, born in London in 1782, was the son of Sir Stephen Lushington, He was educated at Oxford, and called to the bar in 1806. Between 1807 and 1841 he represented Yarmouth, II- chester, the Tower Hamlets, and other places, in Par- liament, voting for the abolition of the slave-trade (1807) and for other liberal measures. He also contributed greatly to the abolition of slavery. He was one of the counsel for the defence in the trial of Queen Caroline, (1821,) In 1838 he was appointed a judge of the admi- ralty, and privy councillor, L'usignan, (Guy de,) See Guy de Lustgnan. Lusignan, de, deh lU'z^n'yfiN' or loo-s^n-yin', (Ste- FANO,) a descendant of the royal family of Cyprus, was born in that island in 1537. He became a priest, and emigrated to Italy in 1571. He wrote a "History of Cyprus from the Time of Noah until 1572," and other works. Died about 1590. Lussan, de, deh Iu'sSn', (Marguerite,) a French novelist, born in Paris in 1682. In 1730 she published the " Story of the Countess de Gondes," which was suc- cessful. She also wrote " The Lite of the Brave Crillon," (1757,) and several historical romances. Died in 1758. See Qit^rard, "La France Litteraire." Lussi, loos'see, (Melchior,) a Swiss general and diplomatist, born at Stanz in 1529 ; died in 1606, a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, ky 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; ftr, ftll, ftt; mSt; nSt; good; moon; LUTATIUS 1 47 1 Lutatiiis Catulus. See Catulus. Luthbert. See Lubbert, (Sibrand.) Lu'ther, (Martin,) [Ger. pron. maR'tin loo'ter; Lat. Makti'nus Luthe'rus; It. Martino Lutero, maR- tee'no loo-ta'ro ; Sp. Martin Lutero, maR-t^ii' loo- ta'ro,] the great leader of the Reformation in Germany, was born at Eisleben, the roth of November, 1483. He was the son of Hans Luther, a miner. His mother's maiden name was Margarethe Lindemann. At the age of fifteen he was sent to the Latin school at Eisenach, then under the direction of Trebonius. In 1501 he en- tered the university at Erfurt. While here, he found in the university library a rare and precious book, — a Latin Bible, — which became an object of extraordinary interest to him. About this time a severe attack of ill- ness, and, soon after, the sudden death of one of his intimate friends, (caused, as some historians state, by a stroke of lightiring,) produced such an impression on the mind of young Luther, that he made a solemn vow to become a monk, and in July, 1505, he entered the Augustine convent at Erfurt. In 1507 he was ordained a priest, and in the following year, through the influence of Staupitz, (the provincial of his order, and subsequently vicar-general,) he was appointed professor of philosophy in the University of Wittenberg. Luther's visit to Rome, made in 15 10, in fulfilment of a previous vow, opened to him new views of the character and condition of the Romish Church. In 1 5 12 he was made licentiate and doctor of divinity, and began about this time to declare openly his views of scriptural theology, which he ex- plained according to the system of Saint Augustine, resting the doctrine of justification solely on faith in the sacrifice of the Saviour. In 1517, Tetzel, a Dominican monk, received from the pope, (Leo X.,) through the Archbishop of Magdeburg, a commission for the sale of indulgences. With a view to increase the demand for his merchandise, Tetzel asserted, what few or none of the other Catholics appear to have ever claimed, that the indulgences not only released the purchasers from the necessity of penance, but absolved them from all the consequences of sin both here and hereafter. Indignant at what he regarded as an insult to reason and religion, Luther drew up his celebrated ninety-five propositions, in which he set forth in the strongest language the theo- logical unsoundness as well as the pernicious effects of Tetzel's doctrine of indulgences. This publication in- volved Luther in violent controversies. Among the most conspicuous of his opponents was Dr. Eck, (in Latin, Eckhis or Eccitcs,) professor of divinity at Ingol- stadt. But the cause of the Reformer steadily gained ground, and among the number of his favourers was Frederick the Wise, the Elector of Saxony, — one of the most powerful princes of Germany. Leo having sum- moned Luther to plead his cause at Rome, the Elector interposed, and it was arranged that the examination or trial should take place at Augsburg, before Cardinal Cajetan, (Caietano,) the legate of the pope. The car- dinal having refused to enter into any discussion with Luther, at the same time insisting that the latter should submit himself unreservedly to the authority of the papal see, Luther, fearing — perhaps with too much reason — the fate of John Huss, secretly withdrew from Augsburg, leaving an "appeal to the pope when he should be better informed." Soon after Leo issued a bull in support of the doctrine of indulgences ; where- upon Luther appealed from the pope to a general council of the Church. With a view to restore tranquillity to the Church, Leo sent his chamberlain Miltitz — a Saxon by birth, and a man of great tact and intelligence — as nuncio into Ger- many. By kindness and flattery, Miltitz obtained from Luther (March, 1 5 19) a promise that he would submit to the authority of the pope and discontinue the con- troversy respecting indulgences, on condition that his adversaries should also preserve silence on the subject. Dr. Eck, however, would not permit the controversy to slumber. He soon after challenged Carlstadt, one of Luther's disciples, to a public dispute at Leipsic ; so that Luther himself was again almost unavoidably involved in the contest. The result was a confirmation of his former views of the fallibility of the pope and the errors LUTHER of the Church, which found expression in several publi- cations, and especially in a work entitled " De Captivi- tate Babylonica Ecclesiae," (" On the Babylonian Cap- tivity of the Church.") Leo had, a short time previously to this publication, issued a bull condemning forty-one propositions which had been selected from the works of Luther, aiid directing the bishops to search diligently for the writings in which those errors were contained, and to have them publicly burned. Luther resolved to anticipate the blow, and at the same time to render the breach between himself and Rome forever impassable. Attended by a crowd of doctors, professors, and students, he proceeded to a spot fixed on for the purpose, without the walls of Wittenberg, near the east gate, and there burned before the assembled multitude the bull, with the accompanying decretals and canons relating to the pope's supreme authority. Up to this period, it would appear that the reverence for the Church in which Luther had been educated had always exercised a controlling influence upon his mind ; for, although he denounced in the boldest manner the abuses of the ecclesiastical power, he had ever mani- fested a profound respect for the sovereign pontiff him- self. But now he broke through all restraint, and not only denied the authority of the pope, but he assailed him with all the fierce invective and vituperation which were so common in that age. After this additional provocation, it was not to be ex- pected that the thunders of the Church should slumber. Not content with merely excommunicating Luther and laying every place which should harbour him under an interdict, Leo urged the newly-elected emperor, Charles v., to come forward as the champion of Catholicism and inflict upon the arch-heretic and his adherents the punishment due to their apostasy. But the Elector of Saxony, to whom Charles had been indebted for his new dignity, interposed a second time, and so far prevailed that it was determined the cause of Luther should be tried before the Diet of the empire. The Diet assem- bled at Worms early in the year 1521. It was the wish and intention of the legate Aleander and the other advocates of the papal cause that Luther should not be present at his own trial. But the majority of the Diet, whether influenced by friendship for the Reformer or by the desire to preserve the appearance of justice in their proceedings, insisted that Luther should not be con- demned unheard. The emperor was prevailed upon to grant him a safe-conduct, (dated March 6, 1521.) The greater number of Luther's friends earnestly dissuaded him from going to Worms. Even Spalatin, the secretary and confidential adviser of the Elector Frederick, sent him a pressing message exhorting him on no account to enter that city. Luther replied, " Were there as many devils in Worms as tiles upon the roofs of the houses, still would I enter," (" Wenn so viel Teufel zu Worms waren als Ziegel auf den Dachern, doch wollt' ich hinein.'') He arrived in the city on the i6th of April, and appeared before the Diet the following day. When asked if he was the author of the works produced against him, containing the passages which had been condemned, he replied in the affirmative. On being again asked whether he was prepared to retract the olijectionable doctrines contained in them, he answered that, as this question concerned the word of God, the Christian faith, and the salvation of souls, it was of great importance that he should not speak rashly, lest he should offend against the word of God : he therefore desired that time might be allowed him for consideration. The next day he was again brought before the Diet. While he ad- mitted that in some instances he might have written with less humility and more violence than became his ecclesiastical character, he refused to retract anything that he had said, unless it could be shown to be con- trary to the Scriptures ; at the same time, he boldly repeated and defended several of his positions which had been objected to. Hereupon Charles and the other favourers of the Catholic cause refused to hear him any further. He was commanded to leave Worms. He accordingly returned to Saxony. As he was journeying on the borders of the Thuringian Forest, he was sud- denly seized by a number of warriors in masks, and € as 9 as s; | hard; g as J; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Sl^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) LUTHER 1472 LUTI hurried off to the solitary castle of Wartburg, where his ecclesiastical habit was exchanged for the dress and sword of a knight. This whole proceeding was a stratagem of Frederick to protect the Reformer against the designs of his enemies, Luther had previously been apprised of the contemjilated scheme. He remarks, in one of his letters, that he scarcely knew himself in his strange disguise. Immediately after the departure of Luther, Aleander, the Papal legate, prevailed on Charles to give the edict against him the sanction of the imperial signature and seal. It was declared, in the name of the emperor, that, as soon as the term of his safe-conduct had expired, Luther should be seized and held in durance until they should be informed how to deal with him. Luther remained in the castle of Wartburg about ten months. He left it in Marcli, 1522, and returned to Wit- tenberg in order to rebuke the excesses into which some of his former disciples had fallen. In 1524 he laid aside the monastic dress; and in 1525 he married Catharina von Bora, who had once been a nun. Luther completed his German version of the Old Testament in 1534; his translation of the New Testament had appeared in 1522. These translations, l>y their extensive circulation," as well as by the force and beauty of the language, have exerted a most important influence upon German literature, which may almost be said to date its origin from their composition. Frederick the Wise, Luther's faithful friend and pro- tector, died in 1525, and was succeeded by his nephew John, who was an open and devoted adherent of the great Reformer. During the latter portion of his life, Luther was held in the highest consideration by most of the princes of Germany, where his doctrines continued to spread, and finally, even during his lifetime, extended to Moravia, Bohemia, Denmark, and Sweden. He died at Eisleben, the i8th of February, 1546, in the sixty-third year of his age. Among Luther's voluminous works, his translation of the Bible, already mentioned, is the most important. Besides his controversial writings, he has left numerous letters, sermons, etc. His "Table- Talk," (" Tischreden,") which is, says Carlyle, "the most interesting now of all the books proceeding from him," consists of sayings and anecdotes collected by Luther's friends after his death. Although the character of Luther was especially dis- tinguished by ardent zeal and unconquerable courage, yet on important occasions he could exercise the greatest moderation as well as discretion. The intrepidity with which he faced the dangers that threatened him at Worms is not more deserving of our praise than the admirable prudence and tact which he displayed in his defence on that memorable occasion. The fierce invective and coarse vituperation for which his controversial writings have been censured, are palliated by the consideration that such was the almost universal custom of that age. If his opposition was violent, it was not malignant or un- forgiving. When his bitterest enemy, Tetzel, — the man who had excited Luther's fiercest indignation, — was in misfortune and disgrace, forsaken by all his friends, he received from his generous adversary a letter of con- dolence and consolation. As a reformer, Luther sought to introduce such changes only as he deemed to be im- peratively demanded ; and to the last he clung to some of the doctrines of his early faith which were rejected by all or nearly all the other Protestants. He was always an advocate of peace where peace could be had without the sacrifice of any great principle ; and, so long as he "lived, he steadfastly opposed, both by his counsels and by his influence, those religious contests which after his death desolated Germany. "Justification by Faith" formed the great central doc- trine in Luther's system of theology, as unconditional election and reprobation was the central idea of that of Calvin. The great aim of the latter would seem to have been to prove the utter and absolute helplessness of man ; and, in the march of his inexorable logic, he some- times appears equally regardless of the hopes of man- kind and of the justice of God. Luther, while ascribing everything in the act of conversion to the grace of God, seems not so completely to close the door to human aspirations, — taking for his motto, " If thou canst believe —all things are possible to him that believeth." Luther is described as a man of low stature but hand- some person, with a lively complexion and falcon eyes. His voice was clear and of great power. On behold- ing his picture, Melanchthon is said to have exclaimed, " Each one of thy words was a thunderbolt !" (" Fulmina erant singula verba tua.") Carlyle says of him, " No more valiant man ever lived in that Teutonic kindred whose character is valour : the thing he will quail before exists not on this earth or under it." " He was," observes Heine, " not only the greatest, but the most German, man of our history. In his character all the faults and all the virtues of the Germans are combined on the largest scale. He had qualities which are very seldom found united, which we are accustomed to regard as irrecon- cilable antagonisms. . . , He was not only the tongue, but the sword, of his time. Sometimes he was wild as the storm that uproots the oak, and again he was as gentle as the zephyr which dallies with the violet," In a not dissimilar strain, Carlyle contrasts the wild, unconquerable energy with the affectionate tenderness of Luther's character : " A most gentle heart withal, full of pity and love, as, indeed, the truly valiant heart ever is," Alluding to Luther's fondness for music, he adds, "Death-defiance on the one hand, and such love of music on the other, — between these two, all great things had room," Those who may desire to see a less favourable view of the great Reformer's character and influence, are referred to the article " Luther" in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale," from the pen of the editor, Dr, Hoefer. See D'AuBiGN^,, "History of the Reformation;" Michei.et, "Memoires de Luther," 2 vols., 1835; Melanchthon, "Life of Lutlier," ("Vita Liitheri ;") Johann Mathesius, " Historia von Dr. M. Luther's Anfang, Lehr, Leben," etc., 1565 ; Immanuel Vega, " De M. Lutheri Vita et Miracu'is," 1586: M Dresser, " Historia M. Lutheri," 1598 ; T. Hayne, " Life and Death of Martin Luther," 1641 : C. Juncker, "Vita Lutheri," etc., 1699; C. M. Seidel, " Er- bauliches Leben Dr. M. Luther's," 1718; J. Coi.erus, " Lutherua Redivivus," 1718; J. Cochlaeus, " Commentaria de Actis et .Scriptis M. Lutheri," 1549; N. Taili,epied, " Histoire de la Vie de M. Lu- ther," 1577 ; Glocerus, " Historia von der Lehre, Leben, etc. Dr. M. Lutheri," 1586: J. D. Herrenschmidt, " Vita Dr. M. Lutheri," etc., 1742; C. J. Wagenseii., " Lebensgeschichte Dr. M. Luther's," 1782 ; TiscHER, "Leben, Thaten und Meinungen Dr. M. Luther's," 1783; F. G. Zimmermann, " Memoria Dr. M. Lutheri," j8oS; A. Bower, " Life of Dr. M. Luther," 1813; Ukert, "Dr. M. Luther's Leben," 1817 ; H. Muei.i.er, " Dr. M. Luthers Leben und Wirken," 1817 ; Stang, " M. Luther, sein Leben," etc., 1835 : G. Pfizer, " M, Luther's Leben," 1836; J. E. Riddle, "Luther and his Times," 1837 ; John Scott, " Luther and the Lutheran Reformation," 1838 ; AuDiN, "Histoire de la Vie de M. Luther," 2 vols., 1839; Hannah Lee, "Life and Times of M. Luther," Boston, 1839; M. Meurer, " M. Luther's Leben," 3 vols., 1846; Carl Jurgen.s, "M. Luther's Leben," 3 vols., 1847; R. Ferguson, " Luther: his Times, Charac- ter, and Works," 1848; F. W. Genthe, "Leben und Wirken Dr. M. Luther's," 1842: Ignaz Dollinger, "Luther: eine Ski/.ze," 1851; E. Haag, "Vie de M. Luther," 1840; Jander, "Luther's Leben," etc., 1853: N. M. Petersen, "M. Luther's Levnet," 1840; J. A. Cramer, "Luther und Melanclithon," 1817; Paul Seidel, " Historia und Geschichte des Vaters Dr. M. Lutheri," 1581 ; Carl R. RiCHTER, "Geschichte Dr. M. Luther's," 1817; K. F. A, Kahnis, " Lutherische Dogmatik," 2 vols., t86i-68; Dr. C. P. Krauth, "Tlie Conservative Reformation and its Theology," etc., 1870; Carlyle, "On Heroes and Hero-Worsliip ;" Hedge, "Prose Writers of Germany;" " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1839, Luther, (Paul,) a chemist, son of the preceding, was born at Wittenberg in 1533. He became physician to Augustus, Elector of .Saxony, and to his successor. Chris- tian, Died at Leipsic in 1593. Luther, (Rokert,) a German astronomer, born about 1810, lived near Dusseldorf. He discovered eight small planets or asteroids between 1852 and 1858. Lutherburg. See Louthkrkourg. Luti, loo'tee, or Lutti, loot'tee, (Benedetto,) an excellent Italian painter of history, born at Florence in 1666, was a pupil of Gabbiani. He worked chiefly in Rome, and was patronized by Clement XI. According to Lanzi, many connoisseurs designated him the last master of the Florentine school. Among his merits ai e forms delicate and graceful, and a skilful distribution of colours and shadows. He painted in oil, in fresco, and in pastel. Among his master-pieces are an "Annun- ciation," "San Ranieri taking the Habit," and "The Prophet Isaiah," in the Lateran. Died in 1 724. See Lanzi, "History of Paintins: in Italy;" Ticozzi, " Diziona rio ;" Winckelmann, " Neues Mahler- Lexikon." a, e,T, o, \\,yJoHg: ^, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, j/4<7r/; a,e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nSt; good; moon; LUTON H73 LUTNES Luton, lu't6.N', (Louis,) a French chemist and painter on glass, born in Paris in 1757 ; died in 1852. Luttrell, Colonel. See Wilkes, (John.) Lut'trell, (Narcissus,) an English political writer, who kept a diary of public events during the Revolution of 1688 and subsequent years, which Macaulay often quotes and calls a valuable manuscript. Died about 1732. His diary was published in 1857. See "North British Review" for November, 1S57. Liitzelburger or Luetzelburger, lut'sel-booRc'er, sometimes erroneously written Leutzelburger, (Hans,) also called Hans Frank, a Swiss wood-engraver, of whom very little is known, lived about 1520-40. Among the most important works attributed to him is the " Dance of Death," (usually ascribed to Holbein,) " Illus- trations of the Old Testament," a portrait of Erasmus, and "The Sale of Indulgences." See Nagi.er, "Allgenieines Kiiiistler-Lexikon." Liitzow or Luetzow, liit'so, (Ludwig Adolf Wil- HELM,) a Prussian general, born in 1782; died at Ber- lin in 1834. Liitzow, von, fon liit'so, (Theresa von Struve,) Madame, a German authoress, born at Stuttgart in 1804. She wrote several novels and books of travel. Died in Java in 1852. Liivigini, loo-ve-jee'nee, Luisini, loo-e-see'nee, or Luisino, loo-e-see'no, [Lat. Luisi'nus,] (Francesco,) an Italian scholar, born at Udine in 1 523. He was pre- ceptor of the son of Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma. Among his works is a "Latin Commentary on Horace's Art of Poetry," (1554.) His poetical talent is praised by Muret and Giraldi. Died in 1568. Luvigini or Luisino, (Luigi,) a brother of the pre- ceding, born at Udine, was a physician at Venice. Among his works is a version of the "Aphorisms" of Hippocrates, in Latin hexameters, (1552.) Lux, looks, (Adam,) a German republican, born at Mentz about 1770. He was sent to Paris in March, 1793, to solicit the annexation of his country to France. He witnessed with sympathy and admiration the conduct of Charlotte Corday at her execution. A few days later he published an apology for that heroine. For this and other offences he was executed in November, 1793. Luxdorf, looks'doRf, (Bolle Willum,) a Danish writer and lawyer, born in the island of Seeland in 1716. He cultivated Latin poetry with success. Died in 1788. Luxembourg, liik's6N'booR', (Christian Louis de Montmorenci,) Prince de Tingri, a French general, born in Paris in 1675, was the fourth son of the great Mar- shal Luxembourg. For his services at Oudenarde and Lille (1708) he obtained the rank of lieutenant-general. He commanded at Ettlingen in 1734, and was made a marshal of France in the same year. From that time he was called Marshal de Montmorenci. Died in 1746. See PiNARD, "Chronologie militaire." Luxembourg, de, deh liik'sSN'booR', (Charles FRANgois Fr6d^ric de Montmorenci,) Marshal, born in 1702, was a grandson of the first Marshal Lux- embourg. He was aide-de-camp of Louis XV. in the war of 1 741, and, having served with distinction in Ger- many, became a marshal of France. He gave a home to J. J. Rousseau at Montmorenci. (See the notice of his wife, below.) Died in 1764. See Rousseau, "Confessions." Luxembourg, de, written also Luxemburg, (Fran- gois Henri de Montmorenci,) Due, a celebrated mar- shal of France, born in Paris in 1628, was a son of the Count de Montmorenci-Bouteville, and a cousin-german of the great Prince de Conde. For his conduct at Lens in 1648 he was made marechal-de-camp. From devotion to the Prince of Conde, he served several campaigns against France between 1653 and 1659, during wh'ich period Conde commanded the Spanish army. Having received a pardon from the king in 1660, he married the heiress of the house of Luxembourg, and assumed that name. In 1672 he obtained command of an army which invaded Holland and took several towns. His skilful retreat from Utrecht to Charleroi in November, 1673, raised him to the rank of the first captains of that age. In 1674 he commanded the right wing of Conde's army at Senef, and in 1675 received a marshal's baton. He gained victories over the allies in Flanders in the cam- paign of 1677, which was followed by a long peace. Having incurred the enmity of Louvois, he was confined in the Bastille fourteen months on a charge of sorcery. In 1690, Louis XIV.^ against whom Austria, Spain, and England had formed a coalition, gave the chief com- mand of his army to Marshal Luxembourg, who, since the death of Turenne and Conde, was the ablest of his generals. He defeated the allies at Pleurus in 1690. In the campaign of 1691 he defeated William III. of England at the great battle of Steenkerke. He was victo- rious over the same enemy and leader at Neerwinden, or Landen, in 1693. He died in January, 1695, after which the army of Louis gained few victories, " Even the admirers of William III.," says Macaulay, "were forced to own that in the field he was not a match for Luxembourg," whose "judgment was clearest and surest when responsibility pressed heaviest on him and when difficulties gathered thickest around him." " He gained immense renown at William's expense ; but he had not the art of improving a victory, while William, of all gen- erals, was best qualified to repair a defeat." (" History of England," vol. iv, chap, xix.) See Beaurain, " Histoire militaire du Due de Luxembourg," 1756; "Memoirs of Marshal Luxemburg," written by himself, 1758; Voltaire, '■ Siecle de Louis XIV;" Saint-Simon, "Memoires;" Desor.meaux, " Histoire de la Maison de Montmorenci," vols. iv. and V. ; L. Artoing, " Le Marechal de Luxembourg," 1S53 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Luxembourg or Luxemburg, de, (Louis,) Comte de Saint-Pol, an ambitious French general, born in 141 8. He fought against Louis XI. at Montlheri about 1464, but was soon after won over by the high oflice of Con- stable of France, and married the queen's sister, Marie de Savoie. He was called the pivot of the principal intrigues of that time. His perfidy provoked Louis XL and Charles the Bold to declare him their common enemy. He was beheaded in 1475. See CoMiNES. "Memoires ;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Luxembourg, de, (Madelene Ang^lique de Neuf- ville-Villeroi — deh nufv^K v^KRwd^) Marechale- DucHESSE, born in 1707, was a granddaughter of Marshal Villeroi. She was married to ^larshal C, F. de Luxem- bourg in 1750. About 1758 this couple gave Rousseau an asylum at Montmorenci, Rousseau has commemo- rated in his "Confessions" her charming conversation and liberality. Her rank and talents gave her great social influence in Paris. Died in 1787. Luxembourg-Ligni, de, deh luk'sSN^booR' len'ye', (Waleran,) Comte de Saint-Pol, was born in 1355, of one of the most illustrious families of Europe, VVhile fighting for the French king, he was taken prisoner by the English in 1374. He married Matilda, a sister of Richard II. of England. Having been chosen Con- stable of France in 1412, he defeated the Armagnacs in battle. Died in 1417, Luxemburg. See Luxembourg, Luykeu or Luycken, loi'ken, (Jan,) a Dutch en- graver, born in 1649, lived in Amsterdam. He etched, after his own designs, many admired works, which dis- play a fertile invention. The "Death of Coligny" is called his best production. Died in 1712. Luynes or Luines, de, deh lii-en', (Charles d'Al- BERT,) Due, the favourite of Louis XHI. of France, was born in Languedoc in 1578. As the companion of Louis in youth, he acquired an ascendency over him, and about 1616 he became his most powerful minister. His cupidity and ambition excited many enemies, among whom was the king's mother; but through his influence she was sent into exile. In 162 1 he was appointed Con- stable of France, and declared war against the Hugue- nots, It appears that Louis had resolved to discard him ; but before that purpose was effected Luynes died, in December, 1621, He was a brother of Marshal Chaulnes, noticed in this work. See Bazin, "Histoire de Louis XIII;" Bassompierre, "Me- moires;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Frangais;" "Nouvelle Biogra- phie Generale." Luynes, de, (Honor^ Th^odoric Paul Joseph d'Albert,) Due, a French antiquary, born in Paris in 1802, was a liberal patron of arts and sciences. He was € as if; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; *h as in this. (:::^See Explanations, p. 23.) 93 LUTTS «474 LTCURGUS admitted in 1830 into the Academy of Inscriptions, to which he contributed many valuable treatises on antiqui- ties and medals. Luyts, loits, (Jan,) a Dutch philosopher and astrono- mer, born at Horn about 1660, became professor of physics at Utrecht. He was an opponent of the Cartesian philosophy. Died in 1721. Luz, iiiz, ? [T.at. Lu'cius,] (Louis,) a Swiss Protest- ant theologian, born at Bale in 1577. He wrote a " His- tory of the Jesuits," (1626,) and other worlds. Died in 1642. Luzac, lii'zSk', (Elias,) a Dutch philosopher and jurist, born near Leyden in 1 723. He published in 1756 " Researches into the Principles of Human Knowledge." His "Riches of Holland," (1778,) a history of Dutch commerce, is highly esteemed. Died in 1796. Luzac, (Jan,) a philologist and publicist of great merit, born at Leyden in 1746. He practised law in his native place. In 1775 became chief editor of the "Gazette de Leyde." From 1785 until 1796 he was professor of Greek in Leyden University. He corre- sponded with Washington and Jefferson, the former of whom wrote, "America is under great obligations to the writings and actions of such men as you." Among his works are " Socrates as a Citizen," ("De Socrate Cive,") dedicated to John Adams, of Massachusetts, and "Attic Readings," ("Lectiones Atticae," 1809.) He was killed by an explosion of gunpowder at Leyden in 1807. See SiEGENBEEK, " Noticc sur la Vie et lesTravaux de J. Luzac." Luzac, (Steven,) the uncle of the preceding, was born at Leyden in 1706. He became in 1738 proprietor and editor of the " Gazette de Leyde," which is described as a model of accuracy and wisdom, and possessed much historical value. Died in 1787. Luzan, loo-thln', (Don Ignacio,) a Spanish critic, poet, and literary reformer, born at Saragossa in 1702. About 1750 he was appointed director of the mint, a councillor of state, and minister of commerce. To coun- teract the vicious poetical style of Gongora, he wrote his celebrated " Art of Poetry," (" La Poetica, o Reglas de la Poesia en general," 1737,) which is said to have been effectual in rectifying the national taste. He pro- duced several admired poems, one of which is " The Judgment of Paris." Died in 1754. See TicKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." Luzarches, de, deh lii'ztRsh', (Robert,) a French architect, designed the magnificent cathedral of Amiens, which was commenced in 1220 and finished in 1269. Luzerne, de la, deh It lii^z^Rn', (Anne C^sar,) Chevalier, a French diplomatist, born in Paris in 1741. In 1779 he was sent as minister to the United States, where he had much influence, and performed with credit the duties of a position which the absence of instructions made more responsible. He left the United States in 1783. He was ambassador from France to London from 1788 until his death, in September, 1 791. Luzerne, de la, (C6sar Guillaume,) a learned prel- ate, born in Paris in 1738, was a brother of the pre- ceding. He became Bishop of Langres in 1770, and was elected to the wStates-General in 1789. He emigrated in 1 791, returned in 1814, and was made a cardinal in 181 7. Among his numerous works is " Considerations on Divers Points 6f Christian Morality," (5 vols., 1795.) Died in 1821. See QuitRARD, "La France Litt^raire;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Luzerne, de la, (C6sar Henri,) Count, a French minister of state, born in Paris in 1737, was a brother of the preceding, and a nephew of Malesherbes. He was appointed minister of the marine in 1787. The hostility of the dominant party caused him to resign in 1790. He emigrated in 1791, and died in Austria in 1799. Lyaeus, ll-ee'us, [Gr. KvaloQ, from Ivu, to " free" or " loosen,"] a surname given to Bacchus, because he (wine) frees the mind from care ; though some say it is because he loosens the limbs of his votaries, rendering them un- able to walk. (See Bacchus.) Lycambes. See Archilochus. Ly-ca'on, [Gr, Avk(uov,'\ a fabulous king of Arcadia, and a son of Pelasgus. He and his numerous sons were notorious for impiety and cruelty The poets feigned that Jupiter in disguise once visited Lycaon, who offered him human flesh to eat, for which offence he was changed into a wolf. Lycius, lish'e-us, [Kvklo^,] a Greek sculptor, born in Boeotia, lived abmTt 425 B.C. According to Pliny, he was a pupil of Myron. Lycomede. See Lycomedes. Lycomede, le'ko'mkK, the assumed name of Giu- seppe Maria Arright, (ir-ree'gee,) a Corsican writer, born in 1768. He published, in Italian, a "Historical Essay on the Civil and Political Revolutions of the Kingdom of Naples," (3 vols., 1812.) Died in 1834. Lyc-o-me'des, [Gr. KvKoiir]^7]q ; Fr. Lycomede, le'- ko'mad',] a king of Scyros and of the Dolopians, was the father of Deidamia, who became the mother of Pyrrhus by Achilles, The poets relate that young Achilles was committed to his care by Thetis to prevent him from going to the Trojan war. Lycomedes is said to have murdered Theseus, who sought refuge at his court. Lycomedes, [Gr. Av/co//^(5?7f,] an Arcadian general, was one of the founders of Megalopolis, (370 B.C.) He defeated the Spartans in 369, and took Pellene. He was murdered about 366 B.C. Ly'con, [A{)«:6jv,] an Athenian orator, who acquired notoriety as one of the accusers of Socrates. He was banished with Anytus for this offence. Lycon, a Greek philosopher, born at Laodicea, lived about 300 B.C. He was the successor of Strato, and for about forty years was the head of the Peripatetic school of Athens. He had a high reputation for eloquence. See RiTTER, "History of Philosophy." Lj^c'o-phron, [Awf60pw^',] a Greek poet and gram- marian, born at Chalcis, in Euboea. He lived at the court of Ptolemy Philadelphus, in Alexandria, from 280 to 250 B.C. He was one of the seven poets who were styled the " Pleiades." The numerous tragedies which he wrote have all been lost, but his lyric poem called "Cassandra," or "Alexandra," has come down to us. It is very obscure and enigmatical, but is admired as a prodigy of learning and valued as a treasury of facts and traditions. SeeOsiANDER, " Bemerkungen zu Lycophron," 1826; Fabricius, "Bibliotheca GrJEca ;" Volker, "De Lycophronis Cassandra," 1820; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Ly-cor'tas [Av/coprafl of Megalopolis, an Achaean general, was the father of Polybius the historian, and a friend of Philopoemen. He was sent as ambassador to Rome in 189 B.C. Died after 168 B.C. Lycosthenes, le-kos'ta-nes, (Conrad,) the Greek name of Conrad Wolffhart, a scholar, born in Alsace in 1 5 18. He became minister of a church in Bale in 1545, and published a curious work on " Prodigies," (" Prodigiorum Chronicon,") a new edition of Gesner's "Bibliotheca," and other works. Died in 1561. Ly-cur'gus, [Gr. K.vKovpyoq; Fr. Lycurgue, le'kiiRg',] in classic mythology, a king of Thrace, who is said to have been a persecutor of Bacchus, and to have been punished with madness. According to another tradition, Jupiter deprived him of sight. Lycurgus, [Gr. KvKov()yoq ; Fr. Lycurgue, le^kiiRg'; Ger. Lykurgus, le-kooR'go6s,] a famous Spartan law- giver, who belongs to the period anterior to authentic history. Plutarch begins his biography with the remark that nothing certain can be said concerning him. Accord- ing to Aristotle, he lived more than 850 years B.C. He is supposed to have been the son of King Eunomus, w^ho was succeeded by another son, Polydectes. At the death of the latter, Lycurgus refused the crown, and defended the right of Charilaus, a posthumous son of Polydectes. He visited many foreign countries, whose institutions he studied, and^ after a long absence, returned to Sparta, where he made social and political changes of the most radical kind. His constitution was considered by the Greeks as the model of a perfect aristocracy, but con- tained a strong democratic element. The executive power was divided between two persons called kings. A remarkable feature in his system was the equal division or community of property, which existed to an extent unequalled in any other country in ancient or modern a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; LrCURGUS H75 LTNAR times. The interference of the state with domestic affairs and relations was carried to a great excess. His laws were based on the idea that men are made for the government, rather than the government for men. He is said to have prohibited the use of gold and silver money, and abol- ished all professions among the Spartans except that of arms, assigning all mechanical and menial employment to the slaves, (Helots,) who appear to have been treated with great severity. Having imposed on the people an oath that they would not alter his laws during his ab- sence, he went into voluntary exile, from which he never returned. Tradition informs us that he vanished myste- riously from the earth. The Spartans erected a temple to him, and paid him divine honours. According to one legend, he ordered his ashes to be cast into the sea after his death, fearing that if his body were conveyed to Sparta the Spartans might think themselves absolved from their oath. See Plutarch, "Life of Lycurgus ;" Grote, "History of Greece," vol. ii. chap. vi. ; Pi.ato, " De Legibus ;" K. O. Muller, "DieDorier;" Aristotle, " Politica ;" Thirlwall, " History of Greece;" Weichert, " Questionum Lycurgearum Specimen," 1844 ; J. Wegelin, " Politische und moraiische Betrachtungen iiber die Spartanische Gesetzgebung des Lycurgus," 1763; "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Geiierale." Lycurgus, an eminent Athenian orator, born about 400 H.c, was the son of Lycophron. He is said to have studied philosophy under Plato, and eloquence under Isocrates. For about fifteen years he presided over the public revenue with a high reputation for integrity and financial ability. In the contest with Philip of Macedon he supported the democratic party. He was one of the orators whom Alexander required Athens to deliver up to him in 335 B.C. This demand was firmly refused. P'ifteen of his orations were extant in the time of Plu- tarch, and only one (that against Leocrates) has come down to us. His style is noble rather than elegant. Died in 323 B.C. See NissEN, " Dissertatio de Lycurgi Oratoris Vita," 1833 ; G. A. Blume, "Narratio de Lycurgo Oratore," 1834; Plutarch, "Vitae Decern Oratorum." Lyde. See Joyner, (William.) Lyd'gate, (John,) an old English poet, born about 1375, became a monk of the abbey of Bury vSaint Ed- mund's. He was ordained a priest in 1397, after which he travelled on the continent. On his return, he opned at the abbey above named a school, in which he taught languages, rhetoric, and versification. He acquired a high reputation as a poet. Among his numerous works are "The Story of Thebes," " The Fall of Princes," and the " History, Siege, and Destruction of Troy." Died about 1460. See Warton, "History of English Poetry." Lyd'i-at, (Thomas,) an English chronologer and mathematician, was born at Okerton in 1572. He be- came rector of Okerton about 161 2. During the civil war he suffered persecution for his loyalty to Charles I., and he died very poor in 1646. His adversities are commemorated in these verses of Dr. Johnson : " If dreams yet flatter, once again attend: Hear Lydiat's Hfe and Galileo's end." Among his works (in Latin) are a Censure of Scaliger's Chronology, ( " Emendatio Temporum contra Scalige- rum," 1609,) "The Period of the Sun and Moon," and "The Measurement of the Solar Year." See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Wood, "Athe- ns Oxonienses;" Niceron, "Memoires." Lydius, lid'e-us, (Jakob,) a Dutch scholar of the seventeenth century, was a minister of Dort He pub- lished " Belgium Gloriosum," and other works. Ly'dus, a son of Atys and Callithea, was the sup- posed ancestor of the ancient Lydians. Lydus, [Gr. Av6hg,] the surname of Joannes Lau- RENTius, ['IwawT^f AavpevTLOQ,^ a Greek historical writer, born at Philadelphia, in Lydia, about 490 A.D. He was employed many years in various official functions in the imperial palace at Constantinople. He resigned his offices about 550, and afterwards wrote many works, some of which are lost. An important treatise, " On the Magistrates of the Roman Republic," is still extant. See Photius, " Bibliotheca ;" Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Graeca;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Lye, li, (Edward,) an English philologist and clergy- man, born at Totness in 1704. Soon after he left college he obtained the living of Houghton Parva, and in 1750 became vicar of Yardley Hastings. He acquired dis- tinction by his researches into the Saxon language and literature. In 1743 he published the " Etymologicon Anglicanum," which Francis Junius had left in manu- script. His chief work is his "Anglo-Saxon and Gothic Dictionary," (1772.) Died in 1767. Ly'ell, (Charles,) a Scottish botanist, born about 1767, resided at Kinnordy, Forfarshire. He was the father of the geologist of the same name. Died in 1849. Lyell, (Sir Charles,) an eminent British geologist, a son of the preceding, was born at Kinnordy, in Forfar- shire, in November, 1797. He graduated at Oxford in 1821, and studied law, but soon relinquished the prac- tice of that profession in order to devote his time to geology. About 1826 he began to contribute to the " Transactions of the Geological Society" a series of papers which display superior powers of observation and comparison, and in 1830 published the first volume of his important work, "Principles of Geology," (3 vols., 1830-33,) which was very favourably received. It reached the fifth edition in 1837. He afterwards divided the work into two parts, one of which was published under the title of " Elements of Geology," (1838.) In a subsequent edition the name was changed to " Manual of Elementary Geology." It is generally admitted that his work contributed much to place geology on a philo- sophical basis as an inductive science. Having visited the United States in 1841, he lectured on geology at Bos- ton, and after his return published " Travels in North America, with Geological Observations on the United States, Canada, and Nova Scotia," (2 vols., 1845.) He also wrote many treatises on the geology of America, which were printed in the " Transactions" of the Geo- logical Society, and in other journals. In 1845 he made another excursion to the United States, the result of which was a " Second Visit to the United States," (2 vols., 1849.) Both of these books of travel contain much to interest the general reader. Mr. Lyell was knighted in 1848. He was elected president of the Geological Society in 1836, and again in 1850. He published in 1863 "The Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, with Remarks on Theories of the Origin of Species by Variation." He was formerly prominent among the opponents of the "development" or Darwinian theory; but within the last few years he has changed his views in that respect. See " Nouvelle Biographie G^n^rale ;" " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1839, and July, 1863; "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1849, and October, 1851; "North British Review" for February, 1851 ; "North American Review" for October, 1845. Ly'ford, (William,) an English clergyman, born in Berkshire about 1 598. He became a Calvinistic minister at Sherborne, Dorsetshire, and wrote several works, one of which is called " Principles of Faith and of a Good Conscience." Died in 1653. Lykurgos, le-koor'gos, (Logothetis,) a modern Greek patriot, born in the island of Samos in 1772. Soon after the breaking out of the war of independence in Greece, (1821,) he was chosen commander-in-chief of the army in Samos. He was also appointed civil and military governor of the island, which ofifice he held till 1826. He afterwards became a senator under the new monarchy of Greece. Died in 1850. See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." Lykurgus or Lykurgos. See Lycurgus. Lyly, (John.) See Lilly, (John.) Ly'man, (Phineas,) an American officer, born at Durham, in Connecticut, in 1716. He served with dis- tinction against the French in Canada under General Johnson, Abercrombie, and others, and attained the rank of major-general. Died in 1775. Lyna. See Hlina. Lynacer. See Linacre. Lynar, von, fon lee'naR, (Friedrich,) Count, a German statesman and scholar, born in Lower Lusatia in 1708. He held several high offices in Denmark between 1740 and 1749. He wrote political treatises, "Travels in Germany," etc. Died in 1781. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, Yi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) LTNCEE 1476 LTONS Lyncee. See Lynceus. Lyn'geus, [ Gr. AvyKtvg ; Fr. Lync^:e, liN^sV, ] a king of Argos, was a son of i^igyptus, and married Hypermnestra, one of the Danaides. She saved his life when her forty-nine sisters killed their husbands, (See Danaides.) Lynceus, one of the Argonauts, was a son of Apha- reus, and celebrated for his keenness of sight. He was killed by Pollux. Lynch, (John,) a learned Irish priest and writer, bv)rn at Galway about 1600. He took refuge in France in 1652, and returned to Ireland after the restoration, (1660.) He wrote a historical work in Latin, entitled " Cambrensis Eversus," (1662,) and other works. Died in 1674. Lynch, (Thomas,) one of the signers of the Declara- tion of American Independence, was born in Prince George's Parish, South Carolina, in 1 749. He gradu- ated at Cambridge, England, and soon after his return was appointed to the command of a company in the first South Carolina regiment of provincial regulars. He was elected to the Congress of 1776. While on a voyage for his health, he was lost at sea in 1779. Lynch, (William F.,) an American naval officer, born in Virginia about 1805. He set out in 1847 or^ an expedition to explore the shores of the Dead Sea, of which he published an interesting account, entitled " Narrative of the United States Expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea," (1849.) Died in 1865. Lyncker, von, fon link'er, (Nikolaus Christoph,) a German jurist, born at Marburg in 1643. He was a member of the aulic council at Vienna, and wrote many legal works. Died in 1726. Lynde, lind, (Sir Humphry,) an English author, born in Dorsetshire in 1579. He was a member of Parliament for several years. He published "Ancient Characters of the Visible Church," and "Via Tuta, or the Safe Way," which was often reprinted. Died in 1636, Lynd'hurst, (John Singleton Copley,) Lord, an eminent English statesman, born at Boston, Massachu- setts, in 1772, was the son of the distinguished painter John S. Copley, who took him to England about 1775. He was educated at Cambridge, and chose the profes- sion of law. Having gradually risen to be the leader of the Midland circuit, he was elected to Parliament as a Tory in 1818, and .appointed solicitor-general in 1819, when he was also knighted. Sir John became attorney- general in 1824, and was returned to Parliament by the University of Cambridge in 1826. After opposing the bill for Catholic emancipation, he accepted the office of lord chancellor in the Liberal ministry of Canning in April, 1827, and was raised to the peerage, as Baron Lyndhurst. Having been retained in his office by the Duke of Wel- lington, he voted in concurrence with his colleagues for Catholic emancipation in 1829. In November, 1830, the Liberal party, under Earl Grey, came into power, and Lord Lyndhurst was deprived of the great seal ; but in 1 83 1 he was appointed chief baron of the exchequer. He made an able speech against the Reform bill in 1832. In the court of exchequer he displayed eminent judicial qualifications. He was again lord chancellor during the brief ministry of Sir Robert Peel in 1834. In August, 1841, Sir Robert became premier, and Lord Lyndhurst lord chancellor, of a new Conservative ministry, which was deprived of power by the triumph of the Whigs in 1846. After that date, until near his death, he was one of the most prominent orators of his party in the House of Lords. He advocated the prosecution of the Russian war (1854-56) in several eloquent speeches. Died in 1863. See Lord Campbell, "Life of Lord Lyndhurst," 1869; Foss, " The Judges of England," vol. ix. ; " Biographical Sketches from the Note- Book of a Law Reporter," by W. H. Bennett, London, 1867. Lyndsay. See Lindsay. Lynedoch, In/doK, (Thomas Graham,) Baron, a British general, born in Perthshire in 1750. Having obtained the rank of general, he served under Sir John Moore in Portugal in 1808-9. He gained a victory at Barossa in 181 1, and commanded the left wing at the battle of Vitoria, in 1813. He was raised to the peerage in 1814. Died in 1843. Lyn'wood, Lynd'wood, or Lin' wood, (Wil- liam,) an English canonist, and Bishop of Saint David's. Died in 1446, Ly'on, (George Francis,) an English navigator, born in Sussex in 1795, entered the navy in his youth. In 1818-19 he was the companion of J. Ritchie in an expedition into the interior of Africa, of which he pub- lished an account in 1821. Captain Lyon commanded one of the ships in Parry's voyage to the Northern Ocean, (1821-23,) ^^^^ ^^P^ a journal, which was pub- lished. Both of the works above named are commended. Died in 1832. See "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1821. Ly'on, (Mary,) a meritorious teacher, born at Buck- land, Massachusetts, in 1797, was the founder of the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in that State. It was opened in 1837, and soon acquired a very high reputa- tion and extensive patronage. " She presided for years over an admirable school," says Allen. Died at South Hadley in 1849. See Dr. Humphrey's " Lifeof Mary Lyon," and "Recollections of Mary Lyon," by Miss F. FiSK, Boston, 1866; Allen's "Amer- ican Biographical Dictionary." Lyon, (Matthew^,) born in Wicklow county, Ireland, in 1746, emigrated to America, where he served in the Revolutionary war and distinguished himself as a poli- tician of the Democratic party. Died in 1822. Lyon, (Nathaniel,) an able American general, born at Ashford, Windham county, Connecticut, in July, 1819, graduated at West Point in 1841. He served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and became a captain in 1851. Early in 1861 he was placed in command of the United States Arsenal at Saint Louis, where he rendered im- portant services to the cause of the Union. He captured a large band of secessionists at Camp Jackson, Missouri, in May, and was appointed commander of the depart- ment of Missouri in June, 1861. He defeated the insur- gents at Booneville, June 17, after which he marched to Springfield. He commanded an army of about 6000 men which engaged a superior force at Wilson's Creek, where he was killed, August 10, 1861. His loss was deeply lamented as a national disaster. He left by will about thirty thousand dollars to the public treasury. See Tenney, "Military History of the Rebellion;" "Last Po- litical Writings, etc. of Nathaniel Lyon," New York, 1861. Lyonnet, leVni^ (Pierre,) a skilful anatomist, natu- ralist, and engraver, of French origin, was born at Maes- tricht in 1707. He studied law, and was employed at the Hague as secretary and translator for Latin and French by the government. About 1760 he published an " Anatomical Treatise on the Caterpillar which eats the Willow," which, says Cuvier, "is among the master- pieces of human industry." The engravings are ex- quisitely neat and delicate. Died in 1789. See P. H. Marron, "Notice biographique sur P. Lyonnet," 1795; JouRDAN, in the "Biographie Medicale," vol. vi. ; " Nou- velle Biographie G^nerale." Lyonnet, (Robert,) a French physician, born at Puy-en-Velay. He became physician to Louis XIIL, and published a treatise on the Plague, (1639.) Ly''ons, (Edmund,) Lord, a British admiral, born near Christchurch, Hants, in 1790. He entered the navy about 1801. In 1811 he performed a daring exploit when he captured by storm the Dutch fort Marrack in the island of Java. He became a post-captain in 1814, after which a long peace followed. In 1828 he com- manded a vessel at the blockade of Navarino, He was knighted in 1835, and appointed minister-plenipotentiary to the court of Athens, where he remained until 1849. At the beginning of the war against Russia, (1853,) Sir Edmund was appointed second in command in the Black Sea. His ship, the Agamemnon, was engaged with the enemy on the shore at the battle of Alma, in September, 1854. He planned a successful expedition against the forts 0n the Sea of Azov, and became commander-in- chief, bf the fleet in June, 1855. He was raised to the peerage, as Baron Lyons of Christchurch, in 1856. Died in 1858. Lyons, (Israel,) a Polish Jew, taught Hebrew in the University of Cambridge, and published a Hebrew Grammar. Died in 1770. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; LTONS H77 LrSONS Lyons, (Israel,) an English botanist and mathema- tician, born at Cambridge in 1739, was the son of the preceding. He published a "Treatise on Fluxions," and a work on the plants growing near Cambridge. At the invitation of Sir Joseph Banks, he went to Oxford about 1762, and lectured there on botany. The bureau of longitude selected him to accompany Captain Phipps in a voyage towards the North Pole in 1773. Died in 1775- Lyons, (Richard Bickerton Pemell,) Lord, a son of Edmund, noticed above, was born in 181 7, and inherited the title of baron in 1858. He was ambassador to the United States from 1859 to 1865. About the end of 1865 he was sent in the same capacity to Constanti- nople. Lyra, de, deh le'rS', (Nicolas,) a French monk and exegetical writer of high reputation, born at Lyre in the thirteenth century. He was a good Hebrew and Greek scholar. He wrote a commentary on the Bible, " Postillae Perpetuje," which was esteemed and often reprinted. The first edition appeared at Rome in 1472, (5 vols.) Died in Paris in 1340. Lys. See Lis. Ly-san'der, [Gr. Avoavdpo^ ; Fr. Lysandre, le'- zSNdu' ; Ger. Lysandros, le-zin'dRos,] one of the ablest generals and statesmen of ancient Sparta, makes his first appearance in history near the close of the Pelopon- nesian war. In 407 B.C. he was chosen commander of the fleet, with which he gained a victory over the Athe- nians at Notium in that year. He made himself very popular with the Persian allies of Sparta, and he de- feated the Athenian fleet in a decisive battle at /Egos- potami in 405. In 404 he captured Athens, and changed its democracy into an oligarchy ruled by thirty archons, (usually called the Thirty Tyrants.) He was then the most pow^^erful man in Greece, but soon found an able rival in Agesilaus, who became King of Sparta in 398 B.C. and thwarted his ambitious designs. Lysander meditated a revolution in Sparta by the abolition of hereditary royalty. Before his design was matured, he was appointed commander of an army sent against the Thebans, and was killed in battle at Haliartus in 395 B.C. In Plutarch's "Lives" Lysander is brought into comparison with the Roman Sulla. See Xenophon, " Hellenica ;" Cornelius Nepos, "Vita Lysan- dri ;" W. Vischer, " Alcibiades und Lysandros," 1S45; Plutarch, "Life of Agesilaus;" Thirlwall, " History of Greece." Lysandre. See Lysander. Lysandros, the German of Lysander, which see. Lyschanderor Lyscander, lis-ktn'der, (Claudius Chrisiofhorsen,) a Danish chronicler, born in 1557. He wrote a "Chronicle of Greenland," in Danish verse, (1608,) and flattered the national vanity in a fabulous work on the genealogy of the Danish kings, entitled " Synopsis of Danish History," (" Synopsis Historiae Danicae," 1622.) Died in 1623. Lyser, lee'zer, originally Leonhardt, la'on-haRt', (Caroline,) a German authoress, born at Dresden in 1817. Among her works are fugitive poems, "Sketches of Character for German Matrons and Maids," (1838,) and "Albert Diirer," a drama, (1840.) Lyser, (Michael,) a German anatomist, born at Leipsic about 1650. He published a good manual of anatomy, entitled "Culter Anatomicus," (1653.) He shares with Bartholin the honour of the discovery of the lymphatic vessels. Lyser or Lyserus, (Polycarp.) See Leyser. Lysias, lish'e-as, [Avamf,] one of the ten Athenian orators, was born at Athens in 458 B.C., and was the son of Cephalus, in whose house Plato placed the scene of his famous dialogue "On the Republic." From 443 until 411 he lived at Thurium, in Italy, from which he was expelled by the victorious Spartans at the latter date. Pie then returned to Athens, where his property was confiscated by the Thirty Tyrants, who would have put him to death if he had not escaped, 404 B.C. Soon after that date he united with Thrasybulus in the expulsion of the Thirty, and opened a school of rhetoric in Athens. His orations, amounting to more than two hundred, were mostly composed after his return to Athens, (411.) Thirty-five of these have come down to us. Lysias died at Athens about 378 B.C., leaving a high reputation as a writer of orations, only one of which, it is said, was spoken by him. His diction is eminently graceful, pure, and perspicuous. " He resembles," says Quintilian, " rather a pure fountain than a great river," (" puro fonti quam magno flumini propior.") See Plutarch, "Vitas Decern Oratorum Franz, "Dissertatio de Lysia Oratore Attico," (in Greek,) 183S; Suidas, "Lysias;" L. HoELscHER, "Dissertatio de Lysise Vita et Dictione," 1837; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Ly-sic'ra-tes, [KvauipaTrig,'] an Athenian, who lived about 335 B.C., and whose name has been preserved by means of a beautiful choragic monument built for him at Athens. It has been commonly called "the Lantern of Demosthenes," from a tradition that he used it as a place of study. Ly-sim'a-ehus, [Gr. Avo'i/iaxog; Fr. Lysimaque, le''ze''mik',j King of Thrace, was born in Macedonia about 355 B.C. In his youth he was so distinguished for courage and strength that Alexander the Great chose him as one of his body-guards. In the division of provinces at the death of Alexander, (323,) Lysimachus obtained Thrace and some adjacent districts. In 315 he joined Seleucus, Cassander, and Ptolemy in a coali- tion against Antigonus. Lysimachus marched into Asia Minor, formed a junction with Seleucus, and fought a battle at Ipsus in 301 B.C., where Antigonus was defeated and killed. By this victory he acquired the northwest- ern part of Asia Minor. Demetrius of Macedon having been defeated and dethroned by the allied armies of Lysimachus, Pyrrhus, and Seleucus, the first annexed Macedon to his dominions in 286. He was soon after involved in a war with Seleucus, and was killed in battle at Corupedion in 281 B.C. See Arrian, "Anabasis;" Justin, " History," books xiii., xv., and xviii. ; Diodorus Siculus, books xviii., xix., and xx. Lysimaque. See Lysimachus. Lysippe. See Lysippus. Ly-sip'pus, a Greek poet of the old comedy, born in Arcadia, flourished about 434 B.C. Lysippus, [Gr. Avonrno^ ; Fr. Lysippe, le'z6p',] a Greek statuary of great celebrity, was born at Sicyon, and flourished in the reign of Alexander the Great, about 330 B.C. He formed his style by the imitation of nature, without much respect to the conventionalities of the schools. His statues, according to Pliny, amounted to six hundred and ten, all or nearly all of which were of bronze. None of his works are now extant. Among his master-pieces, described by Pliny, Pausanias, and others, were colossal statues of Zeus and Hercules, a statue of Time or Opportunity, (Kaipog,) and several images of Alexander the Great, who is said to have issued an edict that no one should make his statue but Lysippus. See Pliny, "Natural History," book xxxiv. ; Pausanias, i., ii., vi., and ix. ; Sillig, " Catalogus ;" Nagler, " Aligemeines Kiinst- ler-Lexikon ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Ly'sis, [Ai}(7«f,] an eminent Greek philosopher, born at Tarentum, lived about 400 B.C. He is said to have received lessons from Pythagoras. Having been driven from Italy by persecution, he settled at Thebes, and be- c?me the teacher of Epaminondas. See RiTTER, " History of Philosophy;" Diogenes Laertius. Lysistrate. See Lysistratus. Ly-sis'tra-tus,[Fr. Lysistrate, le'ze'stRtt',] a Greek statuary of Sicyon, was a brother of Lysippus, and flour- ished about 425 B.C. He is said to have been the first who used gypsum moulds in the formation of wax figures. Ly'sons, (Daniel,) an English physician, practised at Bath, where he died in 1800. He had published several medical treatises. Lysons, (Rev. Daniel,) an English topographical writer, born at Rodmarton in 1760, was a nephew of the preceding. He published a valuable work entitled " The Environs of London," (1792-96,) and became rector of Rodmarton. In partnership with his brother Samuel, he published another excellent topographical work, "Great Britain," ("Magna Britannia," 1806-22.) Died in 1834. See the "Monthly Review" for August, 1807, and January, 1812. € as ^; 9 as s; g Aarcf; g as g, h, k, ^ttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^='See Explanations, p. 23.) LrSONS MACJDJM Lysons, (Samuel,) an English antiquary, brother of the preceding, was born at Rodmarton in 1763. He was one of the directors of the Society of Antiquaries. About 1804 he was chosen keeper of the records of the Tower of London. His principal work is " Great Britain," ("Magna Britannia," 1806-22,) in which he was aided by his brother Daniel. Died in 1819. Lyte, (Henry,) an English botanist, born in Somer- setshire in 1529. He published, in 1578, an English version of Dodoen's "History of Plants," with many engravings. Died in 1607. Lytle, li'tel, (William Haines,) an American gene- ral, born in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1826. He served as colonel in Western Virginia in 1861, and was wounded at Perryville, Kentucky, in October, 1862. He was killed at the battle of Chickamauga, September 20, 1863. Lyt'tle-ton or Lyt'tel-ton, (Charles,) an P^nglish antiquary, born at Hagley in 17 14, was a brother of Lord George, noticed below. He became Bishop of Carlisle in 1762. Died in 1768. Lyttleton or Lyttelton, (George,) Lord, an Eng- lish author and statesman, born in 1709, was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Lyttleton, of Hagley, in Worcester- shire, and a descendant of the great jurist Littleton. About 1730 he entered Parliament, where he became a successful speaker and acted with the opponents of Walpole. He was afterwards secretary to Frederick, Prince of Wales, and in 1744 was appointed a lord of the treasury. In 1747 he published "Observations on the Conversion and Apostleship of Saint Paul," a work of superior merit. He was chancellor of the exchequer for several months in 1756, and resigned that office (for which he was not well qualified) when Pitt became prime minister. In 1759 he was created Baron Lyttleton. He was author of a popular work entitled " Dialogues of the Dead," (1760,) of a valuable "History of Henry II.," and of several poems, "which," says Dr. Johnson, "have nothing to be despised, and little to be admired." Died in 1773. See Johnson, "Lives of the Poets;" Phillimore, " Life of Lord Lyttleton," 1845; "London Quarterly Review" for June, 1846; " Monthly Review" for April and May, 1772, and December, 1774. Lyttleton, (Thomas.) See Littleton. Lyttleton, (Thomas,) Lord, a son of Lord George, noticed above, was born about 1744. The day of his death is said to have been announced to him three days before it occurred, by means of a dream or vision. Died in 1779. Lytton, Lord. See Bulwer, (Edward.) Lyveden, liv'den, (Robert Vernon Smith,) Lord, born in London in 1800, was a nephew of the famous Rev. Sydney Smith. He represented Northampton as a Liberal member of Parliament from 183 1 to 1859, and was secretary at war for a few months in 1852. M. Maan, m6N, (Jean,) a French historian and eccle- siastic, born at Mans, became canon of Tours in 1648. Maanen, van, vtn mS'nen, (Cornelis Felix,) a Dutch statesman, born at the Hague in 1769. After the accession of King William he was made president of the Assembly of Notables, and minister of justice, (1815.) His unpopular measures contributed to bring about the Belgian revolution, and in 1830 he resigned his office. Died in 1843. Maas, mis, (Arnoult van Aart,) a Dutch painter and engraver, born at Gouda about 1620, was a pupil of D. Teniers. Died after 1650. See PiLKiNGTON, "Dictionary of Painters." Maas or Maes, mts, (Dirk or Diedrik,) a Dutch painter, born at Haarlem in 1656, was a pupil of Berg- hem and Huchtenburgh. He excelled in battle-pieces and hunting-scenes. Died in 1715. See PiLKiNGTON, " Dictionary of Painters;" Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Maas or Maes, mis, (Godfried,) a skilful Flemish painter of history, born at Antwerp in 1660, was a pupil of his father. He was chosen a director of the Academy in 1682, and acquired a fair reputation as an artist. He died in 1722, or, according to some authorities, about 1710. Maas or Maes, (Nicolaas,) an eminent Dutch painter of genre and portraits, born at Dort in 1632, was a pupil of Rembrandt. In his youth he imitated the manner of that master with success. He afterwards adopted a different style. About 1678 he removed to Amsterdam, where he applied himself chiefly to portraits and became a fashionable artist. Died in 1693. See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Maass, miss, (Johann Gebhard Ehrenreich,) a German philosopher and savant, born near Halberstadt in 1766. He became professor of philosophy at Halle in 1798, and published, besides other works, "Essays on the Imagination," (1792,) the " Passions," (1805-07,) and the "Sentiments," (1811.) Died in 1823. Mabellini, mi-bll-lee^iee, (Giovanni Battista Carlo Maria,) an Italian Hellenist, known in France by the name of Ahb^; Mablin or Mablini, was born in Piedmont in 1774. He was professor of Greek in Paris, where he died in 1834. Mabil or Mabille, ma-beel' or m^'hhV, (Pierre Louis,) a learned writer, of Italian extraction, was born in Paris in 1752. He made a good translation of Livy into Italian, and published " Mabiliania," " The Influence of Poetry on the Customs of Nations," (1804,) and other works. Died in 1836. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri;" Catullo, "Cenni biografici del Cavaliere P. L. Mabil," 1836. Mabillon, mt'be'y5N', (Jean,) a very learned French author, born in the diocese of Rheims in 1632, became a Benedictine monk. In 1685 he visited Italy, by order of the king, to collect manuscripts and historical documents, and on his return published his " Museum Italicum," (1687-89.) His " Treatise on Monastic Studies" (1691) was received with favour. Among his most important works is a treatise on Diplomatics, (1681.) Died in 1707. See Chavin de Malan, " Histoire de Mabillon," 1843; J. La- BOUDERiE, " Notice sur Dom Mabillon ;" Thierry Ruinart, "Abregs de la Vie de Dom J. Mabillon," 1709; " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Mably, de,deh mt'ble', (Gabriel Bonnot,) Abbe, a French historical writer, born at Grenoble in 1709, was a brother of fitienne Bonnot de Condillac. He became a resident of Paris in his youth, and produced in 1740 his "Parallel between the Romans and French in Respect to Government," which was very successful. In 1743 he negotiated a secret treaty with Prussia against Austria. Among his numerous works are " Observations on the Romans," (1751,) and "Observations on the His- tory of France," (1765.) Died in 1785. See L. Barthei.emy, "Vie privee de Mably," 1791 ; Brizard, " filoge de Mably," 1787; P. C. Levesque, " Eloge historique de I'Abb? de Mably," 1787; Querard, "La France Litteraire." Maboul, mt'booK, (Jacques,) a French pulpit orator. Bishop of Alet, horn in Paris about 1650; died in 1723. Mabuse, mfbiiz'', or Maubeuge, m5'buzh', (Jan,) a famous Flemish painter, whose family name was Ges- SART or Gassaert, was born at Maubeuge in 1499. He is said to have studied in Italy. He worked in Middel- burg and in London, where he painted portraits of the royal family in the reign of Henry VIII., and historical pictures, which are still admired. Among his master- pieces was a "Descent from the Cross," which was de- stroyed by lightning at Middelburg, and "The Wise Men's Offering," now owned by the Earl of Carlisle. His habits were very intemperate and prodigal. Died about 1562. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. ; Pierart, " Recherches historiques sur Maubeuge," 1853. Macaber, m^'ki-ber, a German poet, was the author of a work called "The Dance of Death." Mac-ad''am, (John Loudon,) a Scottish surveyor, noted for his improvement in roads, was born in Ayr- shire in 1756. He made the first macadamized loacs, a , e, T, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; mSt; n6t; good ; moon j MAC J IRE H79 MACAVLAT nea,r Bristol, about 1815, and explained his system in his "Essay on the Scientific Repair and Preservation of Public Roads," (1819.) In 1827 he was made general 1 surveyor of the metropolitan roads, and afterwards re- ceived a grant of _;i^io,ooo for his services. Died in 1836. See "Annual Register," 1836 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Sup- plement.) Macaire. See Macarius. Mac-a-nal'ly, (David Rice,) an American Methodist divine, born in Granger county, Tennessee, in 1810. He hai published " Sketches of the Life and Character of Mrs. Ramsay," and other biographical works, Mac-Ar'dell, (James,) an excellent English engraver in niezzotinto, born about 1710. He engraved portraits of many eminent contemporaries, and subjects after Rem- brandt, Van Dyck, Murillo, and other masters. Among his works are " Moses on the Nile," after Van Dyck, and an "Assumption," after Murillo. Died in 1765. Of MacArdell Basan observes that he " was one of the best engravers in mezzotinto that England ever produced." See Strutt, article " Ardell" in his "Dictionary of Engravers." Macarel, mt'kt'rIK, (Louis Antoine,) a French jurist, born at Orleans in 1790. He published, besides other works, " Elements of Administrative Jurispru- dence," [1818.) Died in 1851. Ma-ca-'ri-us, [Gr. Mampto^ ; Fr. Macaire, mt'k|iR',] an eminent ascetic or hermit of Egypt, born about 300 A.D., has been canoni/^ed as a saint by the Catholic Church. Fifty extant Greek homilies are ascribed to him. Died about 390 A.D. Another Saint Macarius, called Junior, lived at Alexandria in the fourth century, and was noted for his ascetic piety. He is supposed to be the author of a work called the "Rule of Saint Macarius." See Tii-LEMONT, " M^moires ;" Chillier, " Histoire des Auteurs sacres;" Schatteman, " Leven van den H. Macarius," 1623 ; Gen- NADius, "De Viris illustribus." Mac-ar'thur, (Duncan,) an American soldier and statesman, born in Dutchess county, New York, in 1772. He served in the war of 1812, and rose to the rank of brigadier-general. He was elected Governor of Ohio in 1830. Died in 1840. Mac-Ar'thur, (John,) a general, born in Scotland about 1826, emigrated to Illinois about 1850. He com- manded a brigade of the Union army at Shiloh, April, 1862, and at Corinth, in October of the same year. MacArthur, (John,) a distinguished architect, born at Bladenoch, in Wigtonshire, Scotland, May 13, 1823, came to Philadelphia when only ten years of age. He learned the business of a carpenter, and studied drawing and architecture in his evenings. In 1848 he was awarded the first premium for his plan of a new House of Refuge, and was given the entire charge of the erection of the building. Among the prominent buildings erected by him in Philadelphia, we may name the Continental Plotel and Jayne's splendid mansion at the corner of Nineteenth and Chestnut streets. He was architect for the war department during the war, and after its close for the navy department, for which he built the Naval Hospital at Philadelphia, and other similar works. Mac-art'ney, (George,) Lord, a statesman, of Scot- tish descent, born near Belfast, Ireland, in 1737. He was elected to Parliament in 1768, and appointed chief secretary for Ireland in 1769. In 1775 he was chosen Governor of the island of Granada, which the French captured from him in 1779. From December, 1780, to 1786, he was Governor of Madras. He was appointed Governor-General of India, as successor to Warren Hastings, but declined on account of ill health. His most remarkable public service was his embassy to China, where he arrived in August, 1793, being the first English ambassador to that court. He refused to pros- trate himself before the emperor, according to Chinese etiquette. Though he failed to obtain a commercial treaty, he maintained his reputation as an able negotiator. He was raised to the peerage, as Baron Macartney, in 1796. He died in 1806, after which appeared a "Jour- nal of the Embassy to China in 1792-94." See an "Account of the Public Life, etc. of Lord Macartney," by John Rakkow, 1807; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" " Monthly Review" for August and September, i8o8. Macaulay, ma-kaw'le, (Catharine,) an English authoress, whose maiden name was Sawbridge, was born in Kent in 1733. She was married to Dr. George Macaulay, of London, about 1760, and published a " History of England from the Accession of James T. to the Elevation of the House of Hanover," (1763,) which is favourable to republicanism. In 1785 she visited Washington at Mount Vernon. She wrote several ])o- litical treatises. " Her history," says T. B. Macaulay, "is more distinguished by zeal than either by candour or skill." Died in 1791. See WiLKE.s, " Life and Letters ;" " Monthly Review" for March 1765, May, 1769, and August, 1771. Macaulay, (Thomas Babington,) Baron, an emi- nent English scholar, critic, and historian, was born at Rothley Temple, in Leicestershire, October 25, 1800. His father, Zachary Macaulay, was a native of Scotland, of Highland descent ; his mother, Selina Mills, the daughter of a bookseller of Bristol, was of a Quaker family. His home education was religious and somewhat austere. Mrs. Hannah More, who was intimate with his parents, has given in her letters many interesting particulars of the future historian. From his earliest childhood he was passionately fond of poetry, — so much so that he could hardly be prevailed on to read prose. Later, however, we find him dee])ly interested in history, and warmly discussing with a friend of his own age the respective merits of Marlborough and other eminent commanders. (See " Letters of Hannah More to Zach- ary Macaulay, containing Notices of Lord Macaulay's Youth," i860.) When about twelve years of age, he was placed under the instruction of Mr. Preston, with whom he laid the foundations of his acquaintance with the classics. At eighteen he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he greatly distinguished himself, having twice w(^n the chancellor's medal for English verse, — the first time for a poem on " Pompeii," in 1819, the second for one on "Evening," in 1820. He graduated as B.A. in 1822, and soon after was chosen a Fellow of his college. He studied law at Lincoln's Inn, and was admitted to the bar in 1826. "The Battle of Ivry," one of the most universally admired of his shorter poems, was published in "Knight's Quarterly Magazine" in 1824. In 1825 he contributed to the "Edinburgh Review" an article on Milton, which at once placed him in the foremost rank of the most distinguished essayists of the age. This was the commencement of that splendid and fascinating series of review-articles, the publication of which maybe said to form an era in the history of literature, when for the first time the critical or historic essay threatened to bear away the palm of popularity from the most brilliant works of fiction. Macaulay entered Parliament in 1830, as a representa- tive of the borough of Calne. While at Cambridge he had distinguished himself as an orator, and he now more than justified the high expectations which his friends had formed of his parliamentary career. His speeches on the Reform bill (in 1830-32) established his fame as an able and eloquent speaker. It is said, however, that, owing to his rapid and somewhat monotonous delivery, his speeches were more effective and convincing when they appeared in print than when spoken in the House of Commons. One of his most remarkable efforts was his great speech (1833) ^^^^ renewal of the charter of the East India Company. He was soon after made a member of the supreme council of India, and placed at the head of the law commission to prepare a new code for the government of that country. Although it was found impossible to carry into immediate effect many of the reforms which he sought to introduce, his efforts in this cause have not been without important results. Since the government of India was transferred to the imperial crown, his code has been made the basis of the legal system of the country. His sojourn in India (from 1835 to 1838) had made him acquainted with its history and with the character of its various peoples ; and to the knowledge thus acquired in a field hitherto untrodden by him, we are indebted for two of his most effective and most brilliant essays, — those on Clive and Warren Hastings. €zsk;q as s; g Aard; g as/; g, h, YiyZuttural; N» nasal; r» trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2:^See Explanations, p. 23.) MACAVLAT 1480 MACAVLAT Having returned to England in 1838, he again entered Parliament, as a representative of the city of Edinburgh, and soon after received the appointment of secretary at war in the Melbourne ministry. On the fall of the Whigs in 1841, he went into the opposition. When they returned to power in 1846, he was made paymaster-gene- ral. He had been regularly re-elected from Edinburgh until 1847, when, owing to an unusual combination of different party elements, he was defeated. The mor- tification of this repulse stung him very deeply. He resolved to devote the remainder of his life to studious retirement. He seems to have felt, indeed, that his proj)er vocation was the pursuit of literature, apart from the excitements of the political arena. One of the im- portant results of his withdrawal from public life was his being able to apply himself without interruption to the composition of his great work, the History of Eng- land," the first two volumes of which made their appear- ance near the close of 1848. Never before in the annals of literature was any work of history welcomed by the public with such enthusiastic admiration. His work was read by tens of thousands with as much eagerness and delight as a fresh novel by Scott or Bulwer would have been. In 1849 Macaulay was chosen lord rector of the University of Glasgow. Not long after, in a speech which he made in that city, he took a formal leave of political life, explaining at the same time the principles by which he had sought to guide his course while he was con- nected with the government. Among other things, he said on that occasion, " I cannot accuse myself of having ever been untrue either to the cause of civil or religious liberty, or to the cause of property and law. I reflect with pleasure that I bore a part in some of those reforms which corrected great abuses and removed just discon- tents. I reflect with equal pleasure that I never stooped to the part of a demagogue, and never feared to confront what seemed to me to be an unreasonable clamour." In 1852 the people of Edinburgh, as some atonement for the injustice which they felt had been done him five years before, again returned Macaulay to Parliament, without his having so much as offered himself as a candidate or having made the smallest effort to procure his re-elec- tion. Although he took his seat in the House of Com- mons, his declining health did not permit him to take any active part in the debates. During the whole time that he was in the House he spoke but twice : on both occasions he was listened to with the most respectful and eager attention. An imperfect and extremely in- accurate collection of his speeches having been printed without his sanction, a correct edition was by his au- thority issued in 1854. In 1856, on account of ill health, he resigned his seat in Parliament. In 1855 the third and fourth volumes of his History made their appearance. They were welcomed as warmly and read as eagerly as the two former had been. It was his original purpose to bring his History from the accession of James II. down to a time within the memory of persons still living. But in the last volume he had only reached the peace of Ryswick, in 1697. After his decease another frag- mentary volume was published, including an account of the death of William III. In 1857 Macaulay was raised to the peerage, with the title of Baron Macaulay of Rothley. Although his health continued to decline, he still applied himself to his literary labours until very near the time of his death. His disease was an affection of the heart, of which he died suddenly on the 28th of December, 1859. Besides the various productions of his pen already referred to, he contributed a series of valuable biogra- phies to the " Encyclopsedia Britannica." Not content with his acknowledged mastery in the different depart- ments of prose, he became again in 1842 a candidate for poetic laurels, and gave to the world his " Lays of Ancient Rome," of which it is scarcely too much to say that, for a combination of jMCturesqueness, simplicity, and power, there is nothing of the kind superior to them in the English language. It is, however, as a writer on history that the name of Macaulay is destined to take its most distinguished place and descend to the remotest posterity. Already, in his essays, he had proved his mastery in this depart- ment of composition. A perfect history, according to his ideal,* would not be content with merely recording wars and revolutions, the lives of kings and heroes, but would include literature and the arts, manners and usages, the progress of civilization, — in short, the whole life of the nation ; not of the aristocracy only, but of the people in every rank and condition. Referring to Mac- aulay's historic essays, Dean Milman well observes, "The variety of topics is almost as nothing to the variety of information on every topic." Of the style he remarks, '* It was eminently his own. ... Its characteristics w^ere vigour, animation, copiousness, clearness, — above all, sound English, now a rare excellence. . . . His English was pure both in idi(mi and in words ; pure to fastidious- ness ; not that he discarded or did not make free use of the plainest and most homely terms, . . . but every word must be plain English, — nothing that approached real vulgarity, nothing that had not the stamp of popu- lar use or the authority of sound English writers." That Macaulay possessed in a pre-eminent degree many of the highest attributes of a great historian, none will deny. In that power of imagination by which he was enabled to clothe the dead past with all the activity and fulness of life, he was scarcely, if at all, inferior to the most gifted writers of fiction. In the extent and variety of his knowledge, in the quickness and strength of his intellect, by which he was able to grasp with facility the most difficult political and moral problems, in his thor- ough acquaintance with all the springs of human action, in the vividness of his descriptions, in the animation and sustained interest of his nairative, in the clearness, force, and brilliancy of his style, in his command, in short, over every species of eloquence, whether declama- tory, argumentative, or poetical, he has, even among the greatest masters of historical composition, few, if any, superiors. He is, however, it must be confessed with regret, deficient in one important or rather essential qualification, — impartiality. His feelings were so intense, his attachments and aversions so strong, that, where these chanced to enter into the subject to be weighed, the balance was too seldom held with an equal hand. Macaulay's great work has been compared to a vast painting, in which the different figures correspond to prominent historic characters. It may be said that as in his style he too often sacrifices simplicity to his love of antithesis, so in his history he is too apt to exagger- ate, for the sake of effect, the lights and shadows of his portraits. In relation to his conversational powers. Dean Milman observes, "In the quiet intercourse with the single friend, no great talker was more free, easy, and genial than Macaulay. There was the most equable interchange of thought ; he listened with as much courtesy as he spoke with gentle and pleasant persuasiveness. In a larger circle, such as he delighted to meet and assemble around him to the close of his life, a few chosen in- timates, some accomplished ladies, foreigners of the highest distinction who were eager to make his acquaint- ance, his manners were frank and open. In conversation in such a circle, a commanding voice, high animal spirits, unrivalled quickness of apprehension, a flow of language as rapid as inexhaustible, gave him, perhaps, a larger share, but a share which few were not delighted to yield up to him. His thoughts were like lightning, and clothed themselves at once in words. . . . And the stores which his memory had at instantaneous command ! . . . With these came anecdotes, touches of character, drollery, fun, excellent stories excellently told." "Lord Macaulay," observes the same writer, "was never married ; his strong domestic affections were chiefly centred in his sister — happily married to his friend Sir Charles Trevelyan — and her family. Her children were to him as his own, and cherished with almost parental tenderness. As a friend he was singu- larly steadfast. He was impatient of anything dispar- aging of one for whom he entertained a sincere esteem. In the war of political life he made, we believe, no lasting enemy ; he secured the unswerving attachment of his po- litical friends, to whom he had been unswervingly true." * See his essay on " History," in the " Edinburgh Review," 1828. a, e, T, o, ia, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, ?, i, o, obsaire; fSr, fjll, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; MACAULAT 1481 MACCHIETTI All Macaulay's works have been reprinted in Germany. His " History'' has been translated into French, the first two volumes by M. Jules de Peyronnet, the second and third by M. Amedee Pichot. See a " Memoir of Lord Macaulay," written for the Royal Society by Dean Milman ; the excellent article in Ali.ibone's " Dictionary of Authors;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" "Biographical Sketches," by Harriet Martineau, i86q; Whipple's "Essays and Reviews," 2 vols., 1852; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1849, October, 1854, January, 1857, and October, 1861 : " London Quarterly Review" for March, 1843, April, 1849, and April, i868 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1849, August and September, 1856, July and August, 1859; "North British Review" for May, 1856, and Novem- ber^ 1S60; " Eraser's Magazine" for February, 1856; J. Paget, "New Exameii ;" " Jahrbuch zum Conversations- Lexikon" for i860. Macaulay, (Zachary,) F.R.S., an English philan- thropist, of Scottish descent, born about 1768, was the father of Lord Macaulay, the historian. He was a zealous coadjutor of Wilberforce in the abolition of the slave-trade, in which cause he laboured many years. Died in 1838. His father, John Macaulay, minister at Inverary, is mentioned in Dr. Johnson's "Tour to the Hebrides." Mac-Au'ley, (Catherine E.,) an Irish lady, eminent for benevolence and piety, born in the county of Dublin in 1787. She was educated a Catholic. Having lost her parents in early life, she was adopted by Mr. Cal- lahan, a wealthy gentleman, who at his death, in 1822, left her his entire fortune. She founded in 1827, in Baggot Street, Dublin, an institution designed as a temporary home for poor women out of employment, and a school for children. It was afterwards called the Institute of Our Blessed Lady of Mercy, having for its object the care of the sick. She became in 183 1 superior of the Order of the Sisters of Mercy. This order has been introduced into Great Britain, the United States, Australia, and South America. Died in 1841. See " Life of Catherine MacAuley," by a member of the Order of Mercy, New York, 1866. Mac-beth' or Macbeda, mak-ba'tha, a king of Scotland, who, according to the common tradition, was a cousin of King Duncan, and originally Thane of Gla- mis. About 1040 Macbeth assassinated Duncan and usurped the throne. Malcolm, the lawful heir, fled to England, and, having returned with an army, defeated Macbeth, who was killed in 1056 or 1057. The story of Macbeth's usurpation would seem to possess scarcely any positive historic basis. '* However he may have gained his power," says Burton, " he exer- cised it with good repute, according to the reports nearest to his time. It is among the most curious of the an- tagonisms that sometimes separate the popular opinion of people of mark from anything positively known about them, that this man, in a manner sacred to splendid in- famy, is the first whose name appears in the ecclesiastical records both as a king of Scotland and a benefactor of the Church He had a wider dominion than any previous ruler, having command over all the country now known as Scotland, except the isles and a portion of the western highlands." (" History of Scotland," vol. i. chap. X.) The legend of Macbeth forms the subject of one of Shakspeare's most celebrated tragedies. See HoLiNSHED, "Chronicles of Englande, Scotlande," etc.; Buchanan, " Historia Scotlca." Mac-Bride', (David,) an eminent surgeon, born in the county of Antrim, Ireland, in 1726, settled in Dublin in 1749. Besides other works, he published an "Intro- duction to the Theory and Practice of Medicine," (1772,) which is much esteemed. Died in 1778. Maccabaeus, (Judas.) See Judas. Mac'ca-bees, [Gr. MaKKaSaloi; Fr. Maccabees, mt'- kS'lia'',] a celebrated Jewish family, which attained the royal dignity in Judea. The surname Maccabeus, from the Hebrew Makkab, a " hammer," was first given to Judas for his victories over the King of Syria, about 165 B.C. His family and descendants were also called Mac- cabees or Asmonseans. Judas, who was the son of Mattathias, had three brothers, John, Simon, and Jona- than, noticed in this work. See Apocryphal Book of Maccabees; Josephus, *' Antiquitates Judaicae." Mac-CiLll', (George A.,) an American general, born in Philadelphia in 1802, graduated at West Point in 1822. He took command of a division or corps called the Penn- sylvania Reserves, about May, 1861, and commanded the same at Mechanicsville and Gaines's Mill, June 26-27, 1862. He was taken prisoner June 30 of that year. Died in February, 1868. Mao-CauF, (Rev. Alexander,) an English Hebraist and writer on theology, was born about 1800. He be- came prebendary of Saint Paul's, London, in 1845. Died in 1863. Macchi, mSk'kee, (Mauro,) an Italian political writer, born at Milan in 1815. He was a moderate Lib- eral in politics. Macchiavelli or Machiavelli, de, dk mS-ke-l-veK- lee, often Anglicized as Machiavel, mak'e-a-vgl, fLat. Machiavel'lus ; Fr. Machiavel, mt'she'S^^K,] (Nic- col6 di Bernardo, ) a famous Italian statesman, di]5]omatist, and writer, whose character abounds in enigmas and paradoxes, and from whose name has been derived a synonym of perfidious policy, ( Machiavellism.) He was boVn at Florence on the 3d of May, 1469. In 1499 he was appointed secretary of the Ten who managed the diplomatic affairs of the republic. He retained this office about fourteen years, during which he was em- ployed in many foreign missions to France, etc., and acquitted himself with great dexterity. In 1 5 10, for the third time, he was sent to France, and negotiated an alliance with Louis XII. He zealously exerted his talents and influence to maintain the independence of Florence, but without success. In 1512 the Medicis obtained sove- reign power in Florence by the aid of the pope and the emperor, and Macchiavelli was banished from the city, but forbidden to leave the country. He passed several ensuing years in retirement, and during this period com- posed a treatise on the "Art of War," and his important work entitled "The Prince," ("Del Principe," or " De Principatibus,") which has entailed a large portion of conventional infamy on his name. It was written for the private use of Lorenzo de' Medici, and not designed for publication. "Few books," says Hallam, "have been more misrepresented. His crime, in the eyes of the world, was to have cast away the veil of hypocrisy." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") About 1520 he was recalled into public service by Leo X., and was employed on several missions, the last of which was to the army of the league against Charles V., (1526.) He died at Florence in June, 1527. His last work was an excellent, luminous, and picturesque history of Florence, (" Storie Fiorentine," 1525,) the style of which is greatly admired. He was also author of several comedies of some merit, and of valuable " Discourses on Livy." "The character of Macchiavelli," says Macaulay, "was hateful to the new masters of Italy. His works were misrepresented by the learned, misconstrued by the ignorant, censured by the Church, abused with all the rancour of simulated virtue by the minions of a base despotism and the priests of a baser superstition. . . . The name of a man whose genius had illuminated all the dark places of policy, and to whose patriotic wisdom an oppressed people had owed their last chance of emancipation, passed into a proverb of infamy. . . . The terms in which he is commonly described would seem to import that he was the tempter, the evil principle, the discoverer of ambition and revenge, the original inventor of perjury," etc. " His History of Florence," says Hal- lam, "is enough to immortalize the name of Machiavel. Seldom has a more giant stride been made in any de- partment of literature than by this judicious, clear, and elegant history." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") See Galanti, " Elog"o di Niccolo Machiavelli," 1779; Bal- DEi.i.i, " Elogio di Niccol6 Machiavelli," 1794; PERifes, "Histoire de N. Machiavel," 1823; Artaiid de Montor, "Machiavel, son Genie et ses Erreurs," 1833; Macaulay's "Essays," article "Ma- chiavelli;" T. MuNDT, "Macchiavelli und der Gang- der Euro- paischen Politik," 1852; Gingueni^, "Histoire de la Litterature Italienne;" Gervinus, " Historische Schriften ;" F. W. Ebeling, " N. di Bernardo de Macchiavelli's politisches System." etc., 1850; " Nouvelle Biograpihie Generale ;" " Edinburgh Review" for Septem- ber, 1816, p. 209, (by Sir James Mackintosh;) "Edinburgh Re- view" for March, 1827 ; " North American Review" for July, 1835. Macchietti, mSk-ke-et'tee, (Girolamo,) an Italian painter, surnamed del CROCiFissAjo,(kRo-che-f^s-sS'yo,) (because, as we are told, his master painted crucifixes,) € as k; c as s; s hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2l^='See Explanations, p. 23. ) MACCLELLAN 1482 MACCLINTOCK was born at Florence about 1540. He worked at Florence and Rome, and painted history and portraits with great success. Among his master-pieces was a picture of the " Adoration of the Magi." See Vasari, "Lives of tlie Painters." Mac-CleFlan, (George,) M,D., an eminent American surgeon, born at Woodstock, Windham county, Con- necticut, in 1796. He graduated at Yale College in 181 5, and studied medicine in the University of Penn- sylvania, where he took the degree of M.D. in 1819. He founded about 1826 the Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia, in which he became professor of surgery and a very popular lecturer. He was one of the first in the United States to introduce the system of clinical instruction into the medical schools. He was particu- larly distinguished as a bold and successful surgical operator. Died in 1847. See S. D. Gross, "American Medical Biography," 1861 ; Samuel G. Morton, "Biographical Notice of Dr. George McClellan," 1849 ; W. Darkach, " Memoir of Dr. George McClellan," 1847. MacClellan, { George Brinton, ) a distinguished American general, the son of the preceding, was born in Philadelphia, December 3, 1826. He entered the Military Academy at West Point in 1842, and graduated there in the summer of 1846, standing second in general rank in a large class. He served in the Mexican war as lieutenant of engineers in 1847, and was breveted captain for his services at the capture of Mexico. In the spring of 1855 the government sent to the seat of war in the Crimea a military commission to examine the military systems of the European powers, etc. Captain McClellan was one of the three officers selected for this mission. He re- turned home in April, 1856, and gave the results of his observations in a valuable report to the war department. He resigned his commission in the army in 1857, and was appointed chief engineer of the Illinois Central Railroad. In May, 1 86 1, he took command of the Union forces in Western Virginia, which defeated the enemy at Rich Mountain and Cheat River in July. A few days after the battle of Bull Run (July 21, 1861) he was, at the re- commendation of General Scott, appointed commander of the army at Washington. He reorganized that army and brought it into a high state of discipline. When General Scott retired from active service, November i, 1861, McClellan was appointed to the command of the armies of the United States. About the end of January, 1862, the President ordered that a general movement should be made by all the armies on the 22d of February. Having been relieved from the command of all the de- partments except that of the Potomac, McClellan began to move towards Richmond about the loth of March. He conveyed his army by water down the Potomac and Chesapeake Bay to the mouth of James River. Soon after the opening of this campaign he began to complain that he was not properly supported by the President. He commenced active operations about the 5th of April, by the siege of Yorktown, which the insurgents evacuated on the 3d or 4th of May. On the next day he fought an indecisive battle at Williamsburg, from which he slowly followed the retiring enemy to the Chickahominy. According to his biographer and admirer, Mr. Hillard, "the mind of McClellan was constantly burdened with a conviction that his troops were not numerous enough." He had about 95,000 men at Yorktown. The Union army was attacked at Fair Oaks on the 31st of May by General J. E. Johnston, who was repulsed with heavy loss. According to Hillard, McClellan was confined to bed by illness during this battle. His army remained nearly inactive in the swamps of the Chickahominy for about three weeks, during which he lost great numbers by sickness. Active hostilities were renewed by the enemy on the 26th of June, and then began the Seven Days' battles, at Mechanicsville, Savage's Station, White Oak Swamp, Gaines's Mill, and Malvern Hill, (July I, 1862,) the result of which was that the Union army was compelled to retreat and abandon the con- quest, of Richmond, He wrote to Secretary Stanton, June 28, " If I save this army now, I tell you plainly that I owe no thanks to you or to any other persons in Washington. You have done your best to sacrifice this army." In July, 1862, he wrote the President a letter on the policy which ought, iu his view, to be adopted in the conduct of the war. " Military power," he wrote, "should not be allowed to interfere with the rela- tions of servitude. ... A declaration of radical views, especially upon slavery, will rapidly disintegrate our present armies." In August his army left the peninsula, and was moved by water from the James River to Aqui'a Creek About the 2d of September he was appointed general-in- chief of the army which had been commanded by Pope and had been driven back to Washington. General Lee, having crossed the Potomac into Maryland, was pursued by McClellan, who gained a victory at Antietam Creek on the i6th and 17th of September, 1862. The Union army lost in this battle 11,426 in killed and wounded, and was unprepared or unable to pursue Lee, who retired to Virginia on the i8th of September. On the 6th of October McClellan was ordered to cross the Potomac and give battle to the enemy or drive him south ; but he delayed his advance for about three weeks, and was removed from command by an order dated the 5th of November and received on the 7th. In August, 1864, he was nominated as Democratic candidate for the Presidency by the Convention at Chicago. He received at the election only twenty-one electoral votes, cast by the States of Kentucky, Delaware, and New Jersey. He resigned his commission as major-general of the regular army, November 8, 1864, and made a long visit to Europe, from which he returned in 1868. (See the article on Lincoln, (Abraham,) in this work.) See Hillard, "Life of General McClellan," 1865 ; Raymond, "Administration of President Lincoln," chap. vi. ; Greeley, "American Conflict." Mac-Cler'nand, (John A.,) an American general, born in Breckinridge county, Kentucky, in 1812. He removed to Illinois, and served as a member of Congress from that State from 1843 1861. He commanded a brigade at Fort Donelson, February, 1862, and a division at Shiloh, April 6 and 7 of that year. He succeeded General Sherman as commander of an army in Missis- sippi in January, 1863, and directed a corps at the siege of Vicksburg in May. He was removed from this com- mand before the end of that siege. Mac-Clint'pck, (Sir Francis Leopold,) a successful Arctic explorer, born at Dundalk, Ireland, in 1819. He entered the navy about 1831, and obtained the rank of lieutenant in 1845. In 1848 and 1849 he served under Sir James Ross in his expedition in search of Sir John Franklin. He distinguished himself by his enterprise, skill, and energy in several subsequent expeditions for the same purpose, and performed remarkable feats in sledge-travelling. In 1857 Captain McClintock received command of the " Fox" screw-steamer, fitted out by Lady Franklin for a final effort to obtain tidings of the lost navigator. In the winter of 1858-59 he and his officers performed extensive sledge-journeys, and in May found at Point Victory, on King William's Island, the record of Franklin's death and the remains of the last sur- vivors of his party. (See Franklin, Sir John.) Soon after his return, September, 1859, he was knighted, and received various honours and rewards. He published a " Narrative of the Discovery of the Fate of Sir John Franklin," (i860.) Mac-Clint'ock, (John,) D.D., an eminent American scholar and Methodist divine, born in Philadelphia in 1814, graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1835. He was professor of Greek and Latin in Dickinson College at Carlisle, became editor of the "Methodist Quarterly Review" in 1848, and conducted the same with great ability for eight years. In 1857 he was appointed pastor of Saint Paul's Church, in the city of New York, where he acquired distinction as a pulpit orator. He accepted in i860 the charge of the American Chapel in Paris, During the civil war he rendered important services to the cause of the Union by his pen and voice, and his home in Paris became a rallying centre for pa- triotic Americans. Having returned home about 1865, he resumed his literary labours, and was selected in 1867 to organize the Drew Theological Seminary. His most important work, in which he was assisted by Dr. W. Strong, is a " Theological and Biblical Cyclopaedia," still a, e, I, 0, ii, y, long; ct, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; ^, j, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; MAC^CLURE 1483 MACDIARMID unfinished,) of which three volumes have been published, (1867-69.) Died in March, 1870. Mac-Clure' or Maclure, (Sir Robert Le Mesu- RIER,) a navigator, was born at Wexford, Ireland, in 1807. After serving many years in the navy, he accom- panied Sir James Ross in search of Sir John Franklin in 1848. On his return, in 1849, he was raised to the rank of captain. In 1850, as captain of the Investigator, he was directed to renew the enterprise by advancing eastward from Behring's Strait. He entered a strait which he named the Prince of Wales Strait, and, after his ship was frozen fast, he pursued the exploration by sledges until he reached Melville or Barrow's Strait, in the winter of 1850-51. This is called the first discovery of the Northwest Passage. In the next season he dis- covered a second passage, on the north side of Baring Island. In 1853 he was extricated from a perilous situ- ation by Captain Kellet, who arrived at Melville Island from the east ; but he was forced to abandon the Inves- tigator. On his return home he received a reward of ;^5ooo for his discoveries. See OsBORN, " Narration of the Discovery of the North-West Passage," 1856. Mac-clurg', (James,) an American physician, born at Plampton, Virginia, in 1747, was the author of a treatise " On the Human Bile," which was translated into several languages. Died in 1825. Mac-con'nel, (John L.,) an American lawyer and writer, born in Illinois in 1826. He has published "Tal- bot and Vernon," and other sketches of Western life. Mac-Cook', (Alexander McDowell,) an American general, born in Columbiana county, Ohio, in 1851, grad- uated at West Point in 1852. He served as colonel at Bull Run, July 21, 1861, became a brigadier-general of volunteers in September of that year, and fought at Shiloh in April, 1862. Having obtained the rank of major-general in the ensuing July, he commanded a corps at the battle of Perryville, October 8, 1862. He led the right wing at the battle of Stone River, which ended January 2, 1863, and commanded a corps at Chicka- mauga, September 19 and 20 of that year. MacCook, ( Robert L., ) an American general, a brother of the preceding, was born in Jefferson county, Ohio, in 1 837. He was a lawyer before the war. He served as colonel at Mill Springs, Kentucky, January, 1862. He was murdered by guerillas near Salem, Ala- bama, in August of the same year. Mac-cord', (David J.,) an American jurist, born in Saint Matthew's parish. South Carolina, in 1797, con- tributed a number of essays to the " Southern Review" and "De Bow's Review." Died in 1855. His wife, Louisa S. (Cheves,) published "Caius Gracchus," a tragedy, and several other works. Mac-Cor^mic, (Charles,) a historical writer, born in Ireland in 1 744, wrote "The Reign of George III. to 1783," and other works. Died in 1807. Mac-Cosh', (James,) D.D., an eminent Scottish writer on theology and, metaphysics, was born in Ayrshire about 1810. He became a minister of the Free Church of Scotland, and about 1852 professor of logic at Belfast, Ireland. Among his works are "The Method of the Divine Government, Physical and Moral," (1850,) "The Intuitions of the Mind Inductively Investigated," (i860,) and " Examination of Mr. J. S. Mill's Philosophy," (1866,) and ill conjunction with Dr. George Dickie, of Belfast, "Typical Forms and Special Ends in Creation," (1869.) Dr. MacCosh is a very clear as well as a profound thinker, and has thrown valuable light on some of the abstrusest questions of the philosophy of the human mind. At the earnest invitation of the trustees and other friends of Princeton College, New Jersey, he came to America in 1868 and assumed the office of president in that institution, to the prosperity of which his name and influence appear to have given a new impulse. Maccovius. See Makowskl Mac-C6wn', (John Porter,) an officer, born in Ten- nessee, served in the Mexican war in 1847, and became a brigadier-general in the Confederate army in 1861. MacCrea, mak-kra', (Jane,) a daughter of a Scottish clergyman in New Jersey, was murdered in 1777 by the In- dian allies of Burgoyne, near Fort Edward, on the Hudson. MacCrie, mak-kree', (Thomas,) an eloquent Scottish Presbyterian writer, born at Dunse, in Berwickshire, in 1772. He belonged to " the most straitest sect" of his religion, styled " Anti-Burghers," a part of the Secession Church. About 1795 he was ordained minister of a con- gregation in Edinburgh. In 181 1 or 1812 he published a " Life of John Knox," which obtained great popularity. His " Life of Andrew Melville" (1819) displays, with warm sectarian partiality, much learning and ability. He after- wards produced, besides other works, an interesting " History of the Progress and Suppression of the Re- formation in Italy," (1827.) Died in 1835. In reference to his " Life of Knox," Lord Jeffrey says, " We do not hesitate to pronounce it by far the best piece of history which has appeared since the commencement of our critical career. It is extremely accurate, learned, and concise, and at the same time very full of spirit and animation." See "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1812; Chambers, "Biogra- phical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) MacCullagh, mak-kuKlaH, (James,) a distinguished mathematician and natural philosopher, born in the county of Tyrone, Ireland, in 1809, was educated in Trinity College, Dublin. He was chosen a Fellow of that college in 1832, and professor of natural philosophy in 1843. gained distinction by his researches in the wave theory of light, and other subjects, on which he wrote several treatises. In 1846 he received the Copley medal of the Royal Society for his contributions to the science of light. He died, by suicide, in 1847. MacCuUoch, mak-kuKloh, (Benjamin,) an American general, born in Rutherford county, Tennessee, in 1814 He served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and took arms against the Union in 1861. He commanded at the battle of Wilson's Creek, Missouri, August 10, 1861, and was killed at the battle of Pea Ridge, March, 1862. See Tenney, "Military History of the Rebellion," 1865. MacCuUoch, mak-kul'loh or mak-kul'loK, (Hora- tio,) a skilful Scottish landscape-painter, born in Glas- gow in 1806, worked in Edinburgh. Died in 1867. MacCuUoch, mak-kuKloh, (John,) F.R.S., a Brit- ish geologist and naturalist, born in Guernsey in 1773. He studied medicine, which he practised for a short time. About 1812 he began to make a scientific survey and exploration of Scotland in the service of the govern- ment, and while thus employed he examined the geology and mineralogy of that region. He became well versed in many natural sciences and in several arts. In 182 1 he published a " Geological Classification of Rocks," etc., and in 1824 "The Highlands and Western Isles of Scotland, in a Series of Letters to Sir W. Scott." For many years, ending in 1832, he was employed in the geological and mineralogical survey of Scotland. He afterwards published the results of this survey in an excellent mineralogical map. Died in 1835. See the " Edinburgh Review" for May, 1820, and January, 1831. MacCuUoch, (John Ramsay,) an eminent Scottish writer on political economy and commerce, was born in Wigtonshire about 1789. He edited the "Scotsman" in Edinburgh for a few years, and contributed many articles to the "Edinburgh Review." About 1828 he removed to London and became professor of political economy in the new university. He wrote many works, which are highly esteemed. Among these are "The Principles of Political Economy," (1825,) a valuable "Dictionary of Commerce and Commercial Naviga- tion," (1832,) often reprinted, and a "Dictionary, Geo- graphical, Statistical, and Historical," etc. About 1838 he became comptroller of the stationery office, London. Died in 1864. Macdiarmid, mak-der'mid, .? (John,) a Scottish author, born in Edinburgh about 1790. In 181 7 he became editor of the " Dumfries Courier," which, under his direction, was an excellent and successful journal for many years. He published a "Life of Cowper,'' " Sketches from Nature," " The Scrap-Book," and a few other works. Died in 1852. Macdiarmid, (John,) a Scottish author, born in Perthshire in 1779. He settled in London, where he edited "The Saint James's Chronicle." He was author € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, ^ittural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (S^See Explanations, p. 23.) MACDONALD 1484 MAC EDO of an " Inquiry into the System of Military Defence," and "Lives of British Statesmen." Died in 1808. See DisRAELF, "Calamities of Authors;" Chambers, "Bio- grapliical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Mac-don'ald, (Andrew,) a Scottish poet, born at Leith' about 1755. He was an Episcopal clergyman in Glasgow for a few years. He wrote *' Velina," a poem, and a tragedy called " Vimonda," which was performed with success in Edinburgh. Having retired from the clerical profession, he removed about 1786 to London, where he was reduced to extreme poverty. Died in 1788. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Disraeli, " Calamities of Authors." Macdonald, [Fr. pron. mtkMo'ntK,] (Etienne Jacques Joseph,) Duke of Tarentum, an able French marshal, was born of a Scottish family at Sancerre in 1765. For his conduct at Jemmapes (1792) he was made a colonel. In 1793, as general of brigade, he served under Pichegru in Flanders. He was made a general of division in 1795 or 1796, and joined the army of Italy in 1797. In February, 1799, he succeeded Championnet in the chief comtiiand at Rome, where his operations were success- ful. He commanded at the great battle of Trebbia, (June, 1799)) where the superior numbers of the allied forces under Suwarow were victorious. In November, 1800, he led an army to Italy by the celebrated passage of the Splugen, which, says Alison, "was perhaps the most wonderful achievement of modern war." (" History of Europe.") He was sent as ambassador to Denmark in 1802, and returned in 1804. After this he passed about five years without employment, having, it is supposed, offended Bonaparte by his public expressions in favour of Moreau. Having received command of a division in 1809, he displayed great skill and courage at Wagram, (July, 1809,) where Bonaparte gave him a marshal's iDaton on the field of battle. Soon after this event he was created Duke of Tarentum. In the Russian cam- paign of 1812, Marshal Macdonald commanded the tenth corps. He contributed to the victories of Lutzen and Bautzen, (1813,) and served the emperor with fidelity to the last in the campaign of 1 8 14. When Napoleon was about to abdicate, he expressed his grateful sense of Macdonald's services, and presented to him a Turkish sabre. Having declared his adhesion to Louis XVIII., he refused to serve his former master during the Hun- dred Days, and in 1816 was appointed grand chancellor of the legion of honour, and commander of a military division. He died in 1840, leaving his title of duke to an only son. See Thiers, " Histoire du Consulat at de I'Empire;" Jomini, "Precis des Operations militaires ;" Thibaudeau, " Histoire de Napoleon ;" " Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale." Macdonald, ( Flora, ) a Scottish heroine, born in one of the Hebrides in 1720. After the battle of Cul- loden, (1746,) the Pretender Charles Edward Stuart be- came a fugitive, and was hunted from place to place by the king's troops until he was rescued by the courageous exertions of Flora, who conducted him (disguised as her female servant) to the Isle of Skye. She was imprisoned a few months for this offence. About 1750 she was mar- ried to Macdonald of Kingsburgh. They emigrated to the United States of North America about 1774, and afterwards returned to Skye, where she died in 1790. See the "Autobiography of Flora Macdonald," Edinburgh, 1869. Macdonald, (James,) M.D., an American physician, born at White Plains, New York, in 1803. He pub- lished an " Essay on the Construction and Management of Insane Hospitals," and other similar works. Died in 1849. Macdonald, (John,) F.R.S., a Scottish officer and writer, was the son of Flora, above noticed, and was born at Kingsburgh in 1759. He passed many years in the military service of the East India Company, and became a captain in the corps of engineers. About 1800 he re- turned to England. He published a valuable "Treatise on Telegraphic Communications," (1808,) and wrote many articles on magnetism and other sciences, some of which were inserted in the " Gentleman's Magazine." He translated from the French several works on military tactics. Died in 1831. See "Gentleman's Magazine," 1S31 ; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Macdonald, (Laurence,) a Scottish sculptor, born about 181 5, passed the greater part of his mature life at Rome. His subjects are mostly taken from the Greek and Roman mythology, and are treated in the pure classical style. Macdonough, mak-don'gh, (Thomas,) an American commodore, born in New Castle county, Delaware, in 1784. As commander of the American fleet on Lake Champlain, he gained a splendid and decisive victory over the British in September, 1814, in an action of little more than two hours. For this service he was promoted to the rank of captain. Died in 1825. See " Encyclopaedia Americana," (Supplement.) Macdougal, mak-doo'gal, (Alexander,) an Amer- ican officer, born about 1750, distinguished himself in the war of the Revolution, rose to be major-general, and commanded at the battle of White Plains, (1776.) He was elected to the Continental Congress in 1781. Died in 1786. Mac-D6w'ell, (Irwin,) an American general, born in Franklin county, Ohio, about 1818, graduated at West Point in 1838. He served in the Mexican war, (1846- 47,) and became a captain in 1847. I" May, 1861, he was appointed a brigadier-general of the regular army. He commanded the Union forces at the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861. In April, 1862, he took command of the department of the Rappahannock. He commanded a corps of the army of General Pope, and took part in several battles near Manassas in August, 1862. He was appointed commander of the department of the Pacific in 1862 or 1863, and commander of the fourth military district (Mississippi and Arkansas) in Decem- ber, 1867. He was removed by President Johnson in June, 1868. MacDowell, (James,) an American Statesman, born in Rockbridge county, Virginia, in 1796. He was Gov- ernor of Virginia from 1842 to 1845, and a member of Congress from 1845 to 1851. Died in 185 1. Mac-Dow'ell, (Patrick,) a skilful sculptor, born at Belfast, in Ireland, in 1799. After he had served sev- eral years as an apprentice to a coachmaker of London, he became a self-taught sculptor. His marble statue of a "Girl Reading" (1838) was greatly admired, and procured for him liberal patronage. In 1844 he pro- duced a marble group called " Love Triumphant." He was elected a Royal Academician in 1846. Among his master-pieces are "Psyche," "Eve," "Early Sorrow," and " The Day-Dream." Mac-Duf'fie, (George,) an American lawyer and politician, born in Columbia county, Georgia, about 1788. He was a member of Congress from 1821 to 1835, supported Jackson for the Presidency in 1828, and was elected Governor of South Carolina in 1834. He gained distinction as a public speaker, and took an active part in the debates of Congress, in which he advocated State rights and the policy of J. C. Calhoun. In 1843 he was elected a Senator of the United States by the legislature of South Carolina. He resigned his seat in 1846, on account of ill health. Died in 185 1. Mace, mt'sa', (Franqois,) a French ecclesiastic and biblical writer, born in Paris about 1640. He wrote "La Science de I'ficriture sainte," (1708,) and other works. Died in 1721. Mace, mas, (Thomas,) an English musician, born in 1613, published a book called "Music's Monument," (1676.) Died in 1709. See BuRNEV, "History of Music." Macedo, de, di mi-sa'do, (Antonio,) a Portuguese Jesuit, born at Coimbra in 1612. He wrote a " History of the Portuguese Popes and Cardinals," (1663.) Died in 1693. Macedo, de, (Francisco,) a Portuguese monk and prolific writer, born at Coimbra in 1596, was a brother of the preceding. Died at Padua in 1681. See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, " Memoires ;" N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova;" "Nou- velle Biographic Generale." Macedo, de, (Joz6 Agostinho,) a distinguished Portuguese poet and critic, born at Ev'ora about 1770. He adopted the profession of a priest, and became a popular preacher in Lisbon. He edited the official a, e, i, 0, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, sAori; a, j, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; nSt; good; moon; MJCEDON 1485 MACILVAINE Gazette of Lisbon, and wrote several political tracts. About 181 1 he produced an epic poem called "Gama." A revised edition appeared with the title "The Orient," ("O Oriente.") He was also author of poems entitled "Meditation" (" Meditacao") and "Newton.", Died in 1831. Ma9'e-don, [Ma/ce(5a>v,] said to have been a son of Jupiter and Thyia, and a brother of Magnes. From his name that of Macedonia is supposed to be derived. Macedon'icus, a surname of Q. C/*;ciLius Metel- Lus. See Metellus. Mag-e-do'ni-us, [Gr. Ma/cecJoviof,] the founder of a heretical sect called Macedonians. He was a leader of the Semi-Arians, and was chosen Patriarch of Constan- tinople by the Arians about 341 A.D, ; but the Catholics refused to recognize him. In 360 he was deposed. He afterwards denied the divinity or personality of the Holy Spirit, and found followers, who composed a separate sect. See TiLLEMONT, " Memoires ;" Saint Augustine, " De Haeresi- bus;" Saint Athanasius, " Historia Arianorum." Macer. See Calvus,. (C. Licinius Macer.) Ma'cer, (^^iMiLius,) a Roman poet of Verona, was contemporary with Virgil. He wrote a poem or poems on Birds, Snakes, and Medicinal Plants. His works are not extant. Died in 16 B.C. Macer, (^milius,) a Roman jurist, who lived in the time of Alexander Severus. He wrote several legal works, of which extracts are given in the " Digest." Among the titles of these are " De Appellationibus" and " De Re Militari." Macer, (C. Licinius,) a Roman historian, born about no B.C., was the father of C. Licinius Calvus, and a leader of the democratic party. He became praetor about the year 70. His history of Rome, entitled "An- nales," or " Rerum Romanorum Libri," is referred to by Livy with respect. Having been impeached by Cicero, and convicted under the law "De Repetundis," in 66 B.C., he committed suicide. See Livv, " History of Rome," books iv., vii., ix., and x. Macfarlane, mak-far'len, (Charles,) a British au- thor, who published, besides other works, " Our Lidian Empire," (2 vols., 1844,) "The French Revolution," (4 vols., 1845,) conjunction with George L. Craik, "The Pictorial History of England," (8 vols., 1849,) which is highly esteemed. Died in 1858. Macfarlane, (Robert,) a Scottish writer, born in 1734. He published a " History of the Reign of George III,," edited the " Morning Chronicle," London, and is said to have assisted Macpherson in the preparation of Ossian. Died in 1804. See Chambp:rs, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Mac-far'ren, (George Alexander,) an eminent English musical composer, born in London in 1813. He became a professor in the Royal Academy of Music, and produced many successful operas, songs, duets, etc. Among his principal works are "The Devil's Opera," (1838,) "Don Quixote," (1846,) "King Charles IL," (1849,) "Robin Hood," (i860,) and "Jessie Lea," (1863.) Mac-fer'rin, (John Berry,) an American Method- ist divine, born in Rutherford county, Tennessee, in 1807, became editor of the "Southwestern Christian Advocate," Nashville, in 1840. Mac-giPli-vray,( Alexander,) born in Coosa county, Alabama, about 1740, became chief of the Creek Indians on the breaking out of the Revolutionary war, in which he sided with the British. Died in 1793. Mac-giPli-vray, (William,) a Scottish naturalist, born in the Isle of Harris in 1796. He became con- servator of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in Edinburgh, and subsequently professor of civil and natural history in Marischal College, Aberdeen. He was distinguished as a zoologist, and also cultivated botany and geology. His principal work is a " History of British Birds," (3 vols.,) two volumes of which were published after his death. Among his other works is a " Plistory of British Quadrupeds." Died in 1852. See " P.rief Biographies," by Samuel Smiles; "North British Review" for May, 1853. Mac-greg'pr, (John,) a British statistician and economist, born at vStornoway, county of Ross, in 1797. He published a work entitled " British America," (1832,) and became assistant secretary of the board of trade in 1840, and a member of Parliament about 1847. Among his works is " The Progress of America from the Dis- covery of Columbus to the Year 1846," (2 vols., 1847.) Died in 1857. Machado. See Barbosa-Machado. Ma-chan'i-das, a tyrant of Sparta, was killed by Philopoemen in 207 B.C. Ma-eha'on, [Ma;t;a(jv,] a celebrated Greek physician, a son of yEsculapius, He is said to have served as surgeon at the siege of Troy, and, according to some authors, was one of the Greek heroes inclosed in the wooden horse. See Vikgil's ".^neid," book ii., 1. 263. Machault, de, deh mt'sho', (Jacques,) a French Jesuit, born in Paris in 1600. He wrote "The History of Japan," (" De Rebus Japonicis," 1646,) and a work on the Indian and Persian Missions. Died in 1680. Machault, de, (Jean,) a Jesuit and writer, born in Paris in 156 1, was an uncle of the preceding. Died in 1629. Machault d'Arnouville, mt'sho' dtR^noo'vM', (Jean Baptiste,) an able French financier and statesman, born in 1701. He was appointed co7itrdleiir-general of the finances in 1745, and received in addition the office of keeper of the seals in 1750. In order to divide the imposts more equally, he encroached on the pecuniary privileges of the clergy, and thus made powerful enemies. In 1754 he was removed from the control of the finances, but was placed at the head of the marine. He was dis* missed finally from office in 1757. Died in 1794, See Martin, " Histoire de France ;" Bresson, " Histoire finan- ci^re de la France ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Machet, mt^shi', (G^irard,) a French cardinal, born at Blois about 1380. He was confessor to Charles VII., and presided over the examination of Joan of Arc in March, 1429, (while the king was yet doubtful whether to trust her predictions,) when he declared that the advent of a liberatress was announced by prophecy, and that he had read it in books. Died in 1448. See H. Gr^goire, " Histoire des Confesseurs," 1824. MacCheyiie, mak-shan', (Robert Murray,) a Scot- tish divine, born at Edinburgh in 1813. He studied theology under Dr. Chalmers in the university of his native city, and in 1836 was ordained minister of Saint Peter's, Dundee. His earnest and faithful labours were instrumental in converting great numbers during the memorable revival of 1839. He died in 1843, leaving a number of hymns of great beauty. See " Memoir and Remains of Robert M. McCheyne," by Rev. A. A. Bonar, 1844; Rev. Robert Steel, "Burning and Shining Lights," 1864; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Machiavel. See Macchiavelli. Machin, mak'in, ? (John,) F.R.S., a British mathema- tician, was made professor of astronomy in Gresham Col- lege in 1713. He wrote "On the Laws of the Moon's Motions," a " Solution of Kepler's Problem," and a treat- ise "On the Curve of Quickest Descent." Died in 1751. See Ward, "Lives of the Professors of Gresham College," 1740. Ma'-ehon, [Ma;^;(jv,] a Greek comic poet, born at Corinth or Sicyon, lived at Alexandria between 300 and 260 B.C. According to Athengeus, he was one of the best poets of the "Pleiad." His works are lost, except small fragments, Machy, de, deh mt'she', (Pierre Antoine,) a French painter and engraver, born in Paris in 1722 ; died in 1807. Macias, mi-///ee'is, one of the most admired Span- ish poets of his age, lived in the fifteenth century, and was surnamed el Enamorado, (" the Enamored,") in reference to an unhappy passion which inspired his best poetical effusions. He had many imitators among Spanish poets. He was assassinated by a man whose motive was jealousy. See TiCKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature." Maciejowski, mit-se-a-yov'skee, (Wenceslaus Alexander,) a Polish historian and jurist, born in 1792. He published an excellent work entitled " Historya Pra- wodawstw Slowianskich," (4 vols,, 1835,) which treats of the political and civil institutions of the Slavonic nation. Macllvaine, mak-il-van', (Charles Pettit,) D.D., LL.D., an eminent American divine and writer, born at € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^i^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MACINTOSH i486 MACKENZIE Burlington, New Jersey, in 1798. He was appointed professor of ethics and chaplain in the Military Aca^demy at West Point in 1825. In 1832 he was consecrated Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Ohio. His lectures on "The Evidences of Christianity," deliv- ered in New York in 1831, and published in 1832, have had an extraordinary success, and have been republished in Eondon and Edinburgh. Mac'Iii-tosh, (John,) an American soldier of the Revolution, was a native of Georgia; died in 1826. His son, James S. Macintosh, served with distinction in the war of 1812 and in the Mexican war, and was mor- tally wounded at the battle of Molino del Rey, in 1847. Macintosh or Mackintosh, (Lachlan,) born near Inverness, Scotland, in 1727, emigrated to Georgia, where he rose to the rank of brigadier-general in the American army. He was elected to Congress in 1784. Died in 1806. See the " National Portrait- Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. Macintosh, (Maria J.,) an American writer, born at Sunbury, Georgia. She has published "Jessie Graham," "Praise and Principle," (1845,) "Charms and Counter-Charms," (1848,) and several other tales. See DuvcKiNCK, " Cyclopjedia of American Literature," vol. ii. Mack von Leiberich, mik fon IT'beh-rlK", (Karl,) Baron, an Austrian general, noted for his ill success, was born at Neuslingen in 1752. He served as quarter- master-general against the French in 1793. In 1794 he was sent to London to concert with the English minis- ters the operations of the war. The court of Naples having in 1798 requested that of Austria to send a gene- ral to command the army against the French, Mack was selected. He was quickly defeated by Championnet, and sought refuge from the rage of the Neapolitans in the French camp, (1799.) In 1805 he obtained com- mand of the Austrian army, which was invested by Na- poleon in person at Uhn. On the 20th of October he ignominiously surrendered his army of 30,000 men as prisoners. Mack was tried by court-martial, and pun- ished by imprisonment for several years. Died in 1828. See Thiers, " Histoire du Consulat et de 1' Empire ;" Alison, "History of Europe;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mac-kail', (William W.,) an American general, born in the District of Columbia about 1818, served with distinction in the Mexican war of 1846-47, and became in 1 86 1 a brigadier-general in the Confederate army. Mackau, mt'ko', (Ange Ren^: Armand,) a French admiral, born in Paris in 1788. He was minister of the marine from July, 1843, to May, 1847. Died in 1855. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mac-kay', (Andrew,) an English mathematician, autlior of a "Treatise on the Longitude." Died in 1809. Mac-kay', (Charles,) a Scottish poet and writer of songs, was born at Perth in 18 14. Between 1835 1844 he published "The Salamandrine," a poem, and several other works. His " Voices from the Crowd" (1846) included a popular song called "The Good Time Coming." He afterwards published several volumes of verses, entitled "Voices from the Mountains," (1847,) "Town Lyrics," (1848,) and " Egeria, or the Spirit of Nature," (1850.) Mac-Kean', (Thomas,) an American patriot and signer of the Declaration of Independence, born in Chester county, Pennsylvania, in 1734. In 1765 he rep- resented the counties of Newcastle, Kent, and Sussex, in Delaware, in the so-called Stamp-Act Congress. He was elected to the Congress of 1774 from Delaware, in which post he continued till 1783. He had been appointed in 1777 president of the State of Delaware, and chief justice of Pennsylvania. He was Governor of the latter State from 1799 to 1808. Died in 1817. He was a political friend of Jefferson. See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- pendence ;" " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. MacKean, (Thomas J.,) an American general, born in Bradford county, Pennsylvania, about 1810, graduated at West Point in 1831. He became a brigadier-general a1)out November, 1861, and commanded a division at Corinth, October 4, 1862. MacKean, (William W.,) an American commodore, born in Pennsylvania in 1801, was a nephew of Governor Thomas McKean, noticed above. He was appointed commander of the West Gulf Blockading Squadron in 1861. Died in 1865. Mac-Kee'ver, (Isaac,) an American commodore, born in Pennsylvania in 1793. He distinguished himself in the war of 181 2, and in 185 1 commanded the squadron on the coast of Brazil. Died in 1856. Mackeldey, mik^kel-dl', (Ferdinand,) a German jurist, born at Brunswick in 1784. He became first pro- fessor of law at Bonn in 1818, and published a "Manual of the Institutes of Roman Law of the Present Time," (1814.) Died in 1834. Mac-Kel'lar, (Thomas,) an American poet, born in the city of New York in 1812. He became a printer, and removed to Philadelphia in 1833. On the death of Mr. Johnson, in i860, Mr. Mackellar succeeded him as the head of the type-foundry of L. Johnson & Co., (now of MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan,) perhaps the most ex- tensive establishment of the kind in the United States. He has published several small volumes of poems, some of which have been warmly commended by N. P. Willis, W. C. Bryant, and other competent critics. See Allibone's "Dictionary of Authors." Mac-ken'dree, (William,) born in King William county, Virginia, in 1 757, entered the ministry about 1 788. He was chosen a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1808. Died in 1835. Mac-ken'zie, (Sir Alexander,) an enterprising Scotchman, born at Inverness about 1755. ^'"^ youth he emigrated to Canada, and became a clerk in the service of the Northwest Fur Company. From 1781 to 1789 he spent eight years in trading with the Indians at Lake Athabasca, and in the latter year discovered the river which bears his name, and traced it from its source to its entrance into the Arctic Ocean, where he arrived in July, 1789. In 1792 he led another exploring party westward to the Pacific. On his return to England, in 1801, he published his "Voyages from Montreal to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans," which, says Chateaubriand, "is a work of great merit." Died in 1820. See Chateaubriand, "Voyages en Amerique;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" " Monthly Review" for July and August, 1802. Mac-ken'zie, (Alexander Slidell,) an American naval' officer and miscellaneous writer, born in New York in 1803. Having visited Europe in 1825, he published, soon after his return, his " Year in Spain," which was received with great favour. In 1835 he made another voyage to Europe, the result of which was his two works entitled "The American in England" and "Spain Re- visited." While commander of the Somers, in 1842, he ordered the mutineer Spencer and two of his associates to be hanged from the yard-arm of the vessel, which act was publicly approved by a high court of inquiry after his return. He died in 1848. Besides the above-named works, he wrote a " Life of Paul Jones," in Sparks's "American Biography." See DuvcKiNCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. Mackenzie, (Charles Frazer,) a Scottish mission- ary, born in Peebleshire in 1825. He went to Southern Africa in i860, and began to labour near the Zambesi River. He died in Africa in January, 1862. Mackenzie, (Donald,) a merchant, born in Scot- land in 1783. He became in 1809 a partner of John Jacob Astor in the fur-trade, and made an overland journey to the Pacific. Died in 1851. Mackenzie, (George,) Earl of Cromarty, a Scottish politician and writer, born in 1630. He was appointed justice-general in 1678, and a lord of session in 16S1. In 1685 he was created Viscount Tarbat, and in 1703 Earl of Cromarty. He was secretary of state for Scot- land from 1701 to 1704. He wrote, besides other works, "Synopsis Apocalyptica," (1708,) and an "Account of the Conspiracy of the Earl of Gowrie against James VI.," (1713.) Died in 1714. See Walpole, "Royal and Noble Authors;" Chambers, "Bio- graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Mackenzie, (Sir George,) a Scottish lawyer and writer, born at Dundee in 1636. He attained eminence a, e. T, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, skort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fSt; mSt; nSt; good; moon; MACKENZIE 1487 MACKINTOSH in his profession, and about 1661 was appointed justice- depute, or judge. He published " Religio Laid," a treat- ise on religion and morality, (1663,) "Moral Gallantry," (1667,) " fnstitutions of the Laws of Scotland," (1684,) and other works. From 1674 to 1685 he was employed as king's advocate, and in this period had some agency in the persecution of the Covenanters, who designated him " the bloodthirsty advocate." Died in 1691. See " Life of Sir G. Mackenzie," prefixed to his works ; Burnet, '* History of his Own Times ;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Mackenzie, ( George, ) a Scottish physician and writer, who practised in Edinburgh with success, and published " Lives and Characters of the Most Eminent Writers of the Scottish Nation," (3 vols., 1708-22.) Died in 1726. Mackenzie, (Henry,) an eminent Scottish novelist and essayist, born in Edinburgh in 1745. In his youth he obtained the office of attorney in the Scottish court of exchequer. In 1771 he published, anonymously, "The Man of Feeling," a novel, which is his principal work, and was generally admired. He edited "The Mirror," a periodical resembling the " Spectator," which was first issued in 1779, and was discontinued the next year. More than one-third of the articles in this popular work were written by him. He afterwards produced "The Man of the World," a novel, several political treatises favourable to the Tory party, " The Prince of Tunis," and other dramas. He contributed many essays to " The Lounger," a successful periodical, of which he was editor in 1785-86. In 1804 he obtained the lucrative office of comptroller of taxes for Scotland. Died in 183 1. See Sir Walter Scott's Miscellaneous Prose Works; "Nou- velle Biographie Generale ;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Allibone, " Dictionaiy of Authors." Mackenzie, (Robert Shelton,) D.C.L., a writer and journalist of much ability, born in Limerick county, Ireland, in 1809. He was editor successively of the " Liverpool Journal" and various other British periodi- cals, and in 1852 settled in America, where he became literary and foreign editor of the Philadelphia " Press." He has published "Lays of Palestine," (1828,) "Life of Curran," (1855,) "Tressilian, or the Story-Tellers," (1857,) a valuable "Life of Charles Dickens," (1870,) and many other works. Mackenzie, (William Lyon,) a Canadian journalist and ]X)litician, born at Dundee, Scotland, in 1794. He emigrated to Canada in early lite, and became the editor of a paper. He was the leader of a party which took arms against the government in December, 1837, and was quickly dispersed. He took refuge in New York. Died in i86r. Mackey, mak'ee, (Albert Gallatin,) an American physician and journalist, born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1807. He published a "Text-Book of Masonic Jurisprudence," and other works of the kind. Mackey, mak'ee, (John,) an Englishman, who, as an agent of William HI., watched the movements of the Jacol)ite exiles after the revolution of 1688. He wrote a " Picture of the Court of Saint Germain," (1695.) Died in 1726. See "Memoirs of the Secret Services of John Mackey," London, 1833- Mackie, mak-kee', (John,) a Scottish physician, born in Fiteshire in 1748, published, besides medical treatises, " A Sketch of a New Theory of Man." Died in 1831. Mackie, (John Milton,) an American writer, born at Wareham, Massachusetts, in 1813. He has written a "Life of Godfrey William von Leibnitz," (1845,) "Life of Schamyl, the Circassian Chief," (1856,) and contrib- uted various articles to the " North American Review." Mac-kin'non, (Daniel,) Colonel, a British officer, born in 1791. He commanded a regiment of Coldstream Guards at Waterloo, and wrote a " History of the Cold- stream Guards." Died in 1836. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Mackinnon, (Henry,) a British general, born near Winchester in 1773. He served many campaigns against the French. He distinguished himself in several actions in Spain, obtained command of a brigade in 1809, and was killed at Ciudad Rodrigo in 1812. Mack'in-tosh, (Sir James,) an illustrious British author, orator, and statesman, was born at Aldourie, near Inverness, on the 24th of October, 1765. He was the son of Captain John Mackintosh, of the army, and Marjory Macgillivray. At King's College, Aberdeen, which he entered in 1780, he profited by the congenial society of Robert Hall, who was his fellow-student and intimate friend. He studied medicine in Edinburgh, and, having obtained his diploma, in 1788 removed to London, where he married Catherine Stuart in 1789. His fluent elocution, admirable temper, and refined manners procured his admission into the best society. He had a "boundless literary ambition," and a most capacious and accurate memory. In defence, or rather ardent eulogy, of the first reforms of the French Revolution, he produced, in answer to Burke's famous "Reflections," his " Vindi- cias Gallicas/' (1791,) which raised him into sudden celebrity and caused him to be warmly caressed by Fox, Sheridan, and other chiefs of the Whig party. About this time he renounced medicine and became a student of law. He was called to the bar in 1795, gave special attention to public law, and practised with success in the home circuit. In 1799 he delivered a series of lectures "On the Law of Nature and of Nations," which were highly applauded by the most eminent judges of all parties as a noble monument of intellectual power and wisdom. He expressed in these lectures more conserva- tive views than those of his "Vindiciae Gallicae." In 1803 he gained a high reputation for forensic eloquence by his defence of M. Peltier, a French emigrant, who was tried for a libel on Bonaparte, and was acquitted. This speech was translated into French by Madame de Stael. He accepted the office of recorder of Bombay, where he arrived in 1804, and was appointed judge of the admiralty court in 1806. Sir James returned to England in 1812, and was elected to Parliament by the Whigs in 1813. He won and maintained a high place among parliamentary speakers. From 1818 to 1824 he was professor of law and politics in the college at Hai- leybury. He contributed to the " Edinburgh Review," and wrote an important " Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy," which appeared among the pre- liminary essays of the " Encyclopsedia Britannica." In 1830 he accepted office as commissioner for the affairs of India under the ministry of Earl Gray. He made a powerful and luminous speech in the House on the Re- form bill in 183 1. He wrote a " History of England," a work of great merit, which was published in " Lardner's Cyclopaedia," (1831.) He died in May, 1832, leaving unfinished a " History of the Revolution in England in 1688," which was published in 1832. "We have no hesitation," says Macaulay, "in pronouncing this frag- ment decidedly the best history now extant of the reign of James II. . . . The intellectual and moral qualities which are most important in a historian, he possessed in a very high degree. He was singularly mild, calm, and impartial in his judgments of men and of parties." The same critic adds, "He distinguished himself highly in Parliament. But nevertheless Parliament was not ex- actly the sphere for him. The effect of his most success- ful speeches was small, when compared with the quantity of ability and learning which was expended on them." " It would be difficult," says Mr. Whipple, " to men- tion any writer whose name has been connected with the literary journals of the nineteenth century, who has carried into the task of criticism so much fairness and moderation as Mackintosh. His nature was singularly free from asperity and dogmatism. To a large under- standing and boundless stores of knowledge he united candour and even humility in their employment. . . . The beauty of his character will long continue to exert an influence in insensibly moulding the minds of scholars and statesmen." (See article on " British Critics" in the "North American Review" for October, 1845.) See "Memoirs of the Life of Sir James Mackintosh," edited by his son, Robert J. Mackintosh, 2 vols., 1835 ; " Historical Char- acters," by Sir H. L. Bulwer, London, 1868; "Encyclopaedia Britannica ;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "Edinburgh Re- view" for October, 1835, (by Jeffrey ;) " British Quarterly Review" for November, 1846; " North American Review" for October, 1832, (by A. H. Everett;) and the veiy elaborate article on "Mackin- tosh" in Allibone's "Dictionary of Authors." € as 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^=See Explanations, p. 23.) MACKLIN 1488 MJCLURE Mac-klin', (Charles,) a popular Irish actor and dramatist, (whose family name was McLaughlin,) was born at Westmeath in 1690. He appeared on the Lon- don stage in 1725, and did not retire until 1789. He excelled in the rdle of "Shylock," and wrote, besides several other plays, a successful comedy called "The Man of the World." Died in 1797, at the age of 107. See J. T. KiRKMAN, " Memoirs of Charles Macklin," 1790; Wil- liam Cooke, " Meinoirs of C. Macklin," 1804 ; " Monthly Review" for November and December, 1799. MacKnight, mak-nit', (James,) an eminent Scottish Presbyterian divine, born at Irvine in 1721. He became minister at Maybole in 1753, and published his " Har- mony of the Gospels," (1756,) which is esteemed an ex- cellent standard work and has been often reprinted. In 1763 he produced "The Truth of the Gospel History," which was received with favour. From 1772 until 1778 he preached in Lady Yester's parish in Edinburgh, and during the remainder of his life he was minister of the Old Church of that city. In 1795 he published a " Lite- ral Translation of all the Apostolic Epistles," a work of high reputation. Died in 1800. See "Life of J. Macknight," by his son; Chambers, "Bio- graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Maclane, mak-lan', (Archibald,) an Irish clergyman, born at Monaghan about 1722. He preached for the Anglican Church of the Hague about fifty years, ending in 1796. He published a volume of sermons, and trans- lated Mosheim's "History of the Church," (1765,) Died in 1804. MacLane, mak-lan', (Louis,) an American states- man, born at Smyrna, Delaware, in May, 1786. He gained distinction as a lawyer, and represented Delaware in Congress from 1817 to 1827. In the latter year he was elected a Senator of the United States by the legis- lature of Delaware. He served as minister to England about two years, (1829-31,) and was appointed secretary of the treasury by President Jackson in April or May, 183 1 ; but, not approving, it is said, of the removal of the deposits from the United States Bank, he was in 1833 removed from the treasury and made secretary of state, which position he resigned in June, 1834. In 1845 went to England as ambassador. After th§ question of the boundary of Oregon was settled, he returned home. Died in October, 1857. See " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i. Mac-lar'en, (Charles,) a Scottish journalist and geologist, born about 1783. He was chief editor of the " Scotsman" (a leading political journal of Edinburgh) from 1820 to 1847. He published, besides other works, "The Geology of Fife and the Lothians," (1839.) Died in September, 1866. Mac-lau'rin, (Colin,) an eminent Scottish mathe- matician, born at Kilmodan in 1698. He obtained the chair of mathematics in Marischal College, Aberdeen, in 1717. In 1720 he published " Geometria Organica sive Descriptio Linearum Curvarum universalis," a treatise on curve lines, which is said to have excited the admira- tion of Newton. In 1725 he was appointed assistant of Professor Gregory in the University of Edinburgh, where he remained about twenty years. While he was em- ployed in fortifying Edinburgh against the Pretender's army, in 1745, he contracted a disease which hastened his death. He shared with D. Bernoulli and Euler the prize awarded in 1740 by the Academy of Paris for a memoir on Tides. He was the author of several original and profound works, among which are a " Treatise on Fluxions," (1742,) and a "Treatise on Algebra," (1748.) Died in 1746. See MoNTuct.A, " Histoire des Math^matiques ;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Maclaurin, (John,) a Scottish lawyer, born in Edin- burgh in 1734, was a son of the preceding. He became a judge about 1787, when he received the title of Lord Dreghorn. He wrote an " Essay on Literary Property," a drama entitled " Hampden," and several other works in prose and verse. Died in 1796. See "Life of Lord Dreghorn," prefixed to his works. Mac-Laws', (Lafaye'ITE,) an American general, born in Georgia. He commanded a division of General Lee's army at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. Mac-lay', (Archibald,) D.D., a Baptist divine, born in Scotland in 1778, emigrated to America in 1805, and became pastor of a church in New York. He was thirteen years general agent of the American and Foreign Bible Society. Died in i860. MacLean or Maclean, mak-lan', (John,) an Ameri- can statesman and jurist, born in Morris county. New Jersey, in March, 1785. He removed with his father to Ohio about 1798, was admitted to the bar in 1807, and began to practise at Lebanon. In 1812 he was elected a member of Congress, in which he acted with the Democrats, and supported the war against England. He was again elected by a unanimous vote in 1814, was a judge of the supreme court of Ohio from 1816 to 1822, and became postmaster-general in 1823. He filled this office with great credit and ability until March, 1829, during which period he introduced many improvements and brought the department into a state of the highest efficiency. He declined a place in the cabinet of Presi- dent Jackson, and was appointed a judge of the supreme court of the United States in 1829. He dissented from the decision of the court in the Dred Scott case, as given by Chief-Justice Taney in 1857, and opposed the exten- sion of slavery. At the Republican National Convention of 1856 he received one hundred and ninety-six votes as a candidate for the Presidency of the United States. Died in Cincinnati in April, 1861. See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. Maclean, (Mrs. L. E.) See Landon, (L. E.) Mac-LePlan, (Isaac,) an American poet, born at Port- land, Maine, about 1810. Among his works we may mention "The Fall of the Indian, (1830,) and "The Year, and other Poems," (1832.) See Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America;" Cleveland, "Compendium of American Literature." Macleod, mak-lowd', (Alexander,) D.D., born in the island of Mull in 1774, emigrated to the United States, and became in 1801 pastor of a Reformed Pres- byterian church in New York. He was the author of an " Ecclesiastical Catechism," " Negro Slavery Unjustifi- able," "The Life and Power of True Godliness," and other religious works. Died in 1833. MacLeod, (John,) a Scottish surgeon, born at Bun- hill in 1782. He became in 181 7 surgeon of the Alceste, which conveyed Lord Amherst to China, and in 1818 published "The Voyage of the Alceste along the Coast of Corea," etc. Died in 1820. See Walckenaer, " Collection des Relations des Voyages." MacLeod or Macleod, (Rev. Norman,) a Scottish divine, born at Campbelton in 1812. He became min- ister of Loudon in 1838, of Dalkeith in 1843, and of the Barony Parish, Glasgow, in 185 1. He published, among other works, "Home Education," and "The Earnest Student," and is editor of a monthly periodical called "Good Words." Macleod, (Xavier Donald,) a son of Alexander, noticed above, born in New York in 1821, published numerous works in prose and verse, among which we may name a "Life of Mary Queen of Scots," (1857,) and a poem entitled "The Saga of Viking Torquil." Died in 1865. Maclise, mak-leess', (Daniel,) a popular historical painter, born at Cork, Ireland, in 1811. He went to London in 1828, and became a student in the Royal Academy, where he quickly won several prize medals. He gained a high reputation by his " Vow of the Ladies and the Peacock," (1835,) and "Merry Christmas in the Baron's Hall," (1838.) In 1840 he was elected an Academician. Among his admired productions are "The Sleeping Beauty," (1841,) "The Play Scene in Hamlet," (1842,) "Noah's Sacrifice," (1847,) and " Shak- speare's Seven Ages," (1848.) He is regarded as one of the most original of English painters of the present time. Died in April, 1S70. Maclure. See Macclure. Mac-lure', (William,) an eminent naturalist, and pioneer of American geology, born at Ayr, in Scotland, in 1763. Having made an extensive scientific tour in Europe, he removed to the United States, and about 1806 entered upon a geological survey of that country. a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sAor(; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, \ ill, fdt; mSt; nSt; good; moon; MACMAHON MACPHERSON In the accomplishment of this task, he visited nearly every State and Territory in the Union, and crossed and recrossed the Alleghanies fifty times. An account of his tour was published in the "Transactions of the Ameri- can Philosophical Society," (1809.) In 1812 Mr. Maclure became one of the first members of the Academy of Natural Sciences just founded at Philadelphia, and was elected president of that institution in 1817. He con- tinued to fill this post for twenty-two years, and the " Jour- nal" of the Academy was begun under his auspices. His donations of books to the Academy amounted to nearly fifteen hundred volumes, comprising valuable works on natural history, antiquities, etc., and he gave the sum of 320,000 towards the erection of the building on Broad Street, finished in 1840. Died in 1840, at San Angel, in Mexico, whither he had gone on account of his health. See " Memoirs of Wm. Maclure," by Samuel G. Morton. MacMahon, mtk'mt'^N', (Marie Edme Patrice Maurice,) Due de Magenta, a French marshal, of Irish extraction, born in 1808, was a son of a peer of France. He served in Algeria from 1830 to 1850. In 1852 he became a general of division. In the siege of Sebastopol he commanded the division which took the Malakoff by assault on the 8th of September, 1855. commanded the second corps-d'armee in the Italian campaign of 1859, and took a prominent part in the battle of Magenta. This service was rewarded (June 5, 1859) by the rank of marshal of France and the title of Due de Magenta. He also contributed to the victory of Solferino, June 24, 1859. In the recent war with Prussia he was defeated at Worth (August 6, 1870) and at the great battle of Sedan, (about September i,) where he was severely wounded. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." MacMichael, mak-mi'kel, (Morton,) an able Ameri- can editor and orator, born in Burlington county. New Jersey, in 1807, was sheriff of the county of Philadelphia from 1843 1846- I" 1845 he became proprietor and chief editor of the "North American and United States Gazette," which position he still holds. He was mayor of Philadelphia from 1865 to 1868. MacMichael, mak-mrkel, (William,) an English physician, born in 1784. He published a "Journey from Moscow to Constantinople," (1819.) Died in 1839. Mac-Nab', (Sir Allan,) an officer in the British ser- vice, born in Canada in 1798. He studied law, and was elected to the legislature of Canada West. During the insurrection of 1837 he commanded near Niagara, and sent over the falls the steamboat Caroline, which had been captured from the insurgents. He was the prin- cipal minister during part of the period in which Lord Elgin governed Canada, (1846-54.) He was knighted for his services in the rebellion above mentioned. Died in Canada in August, 1862. MacNaghten, mak-naw'ten, (Sir William,) a British officer in the civil service of the East India Company, was sent as envoy to vShah Soojah about 1840, and was assassinated at Cabool by Akbar Khan in 1841. Mac-Nal'ly, (Leonard,) an Irish barrister and dram- atist, born in Dublin in 1752. He wrote "Fashionable Levities," a successful comedy, and several operas and farces, also "The Rules of Evidence." Died in 1820. Mac-neil', (Hector,) a Scottish poet, born near Roslin in 1746. He passed many of his early years in the West Indies, probably as overseer, and returned to Scotland about 1788. He published "The Harp," (1789,) "Scotland's Skaith," (1795,) which was much admired, and other poems. Died in 181 8. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Mac-neil', (John,) an American general, born in New Hampshire in 1784, served with distinction at the battle of Chippewa in 1814. Died in 1850. Macneile, mak-neeK, (Rev. Hugh,) D.D., an Irish Protestant clergyman, born in the county of Antrim about 1794. He preached several years in London, and be- came the incumbent of Saint Paul's, near Liverpool, in 1848. He published "The Church and the Churches of Christ," (1847,) and other works. MacNeill, mak-neeK, (Sir John,) G.C.B., a British officer and diplomatist, born at Colonsay in 1795. He passed several years in the army of the East India Com- pany. From 1835 until 1844 he was British ambassador to the court of Persia, where he gained important in formation respecting the policy and resources of severalv Asiatic nations. In the winter of 1854-55 he was one of two commissioners sent to the Crimea to inspect the commissariat department. He was chosen a member of the privy council in 1857. Mac-nev'in, (William James,) born in Galway county, in Ireland, in 1763, joined the United Irishmen in the rebellion of 1791, and subsequently entered the French army. In 1805 he removed to America, and was appointed professor of chemistry in the Medical College, New York. He was the author of "Rambles in Switzerland," and several scientific works. Died in 1841. Mac-nish', (Robert,) M.D., a Scottish author, born at Glasgow in 1802. He became one of the editors of " Eraser's Magazine" in 183 1. Among his works is " The Philosophy of Sleep," (1830.) Died at Glasgow in 1837. See D. MoiR, "Life of R. Macnish," prefixed to a collection of his "Tales, Essays, and Sketches," 1839 and 1844; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement;) " Eraser's Magazine" for December, 1835, (with a portrait.) Macomb, ma-koom' or ma-k5m', (Alexander,) a distinguished American general, born at Detroit in 1782. He served in the war of 181 2, and, as brigadier-general, in 1814, gained the victory of Plattsburg over the British at the same time that Commodore Macdonough signally defeated them on the lake. General Macomb was ap- pointed in 1835 commander-in-chief of the United States army. Died in 1841. See the "National Portrait- Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i. Ma'cpn, (Nathaniel,) an American statesman, born in Warren county, North Carolina, in 1757. He served as a private in the army from 1778 to 1782, and opposed the adoption of the Constitution of the United States, (1788.) In 1791 he was elected a member of Congress for a district of North Carolina, which he represented until 1 81 5. He was always a Democrat, and a strict- constructionist. He was Speaker of the National House of Representatives for three terms, (1801-06,) and be- came a Senator of the United States in 1816. His speeches were short, but effective. He served in the Senate until 1826, having then been a member of Con- gress for thirty-seven consecutive years. He died in Warren county. North Carolina, in June, 1837. John Randolph called him " the best and wisest man that I ever knew." Mac-pher'son, (James,) a Scottish poet, celebrated as the translator or author of " Ossian," was born in In- verness-shire in 1738. After leaving college he became a school-teacher at Ruthven, and in 1758 published "The Highlander," a poem, which was not successful. In 1760 he surprised the literary world by the publication of "Fragments of Ancient Poetry collected in the High- lands of Scotland, and translated from the Gaelic or Erse Language." These were admired by the poet Gray and others, and a subscription was raised to aid Macpherson in exploring the Highlands for other similar treasures. The ostensible result of this search appeared in " Fingal, an Epic Poem," (1762,) and "Temora, an Epic Poem," (1763,) which purported to be the work of Ossian, a poet of the third century. These poems found many enthusiastic admirers throughout Europe. An animated controversy ensued about their authenticity, which was defended by Dr. Blair and other eminent critics. Dr. Johnson, on the other hand, confidently maintained that they were forgeries. Many others adopt the theory that he caught the spirit of the Ossianic poetry from the tales of the old Celtic bards, but supplied from his own invention much of the peculiar imagery and cloudy verbiage which abound in his pretended translations. About 1772 he settled in London, and produced a prose version of the "Iliad," which was a failure, a "History of Great Britain," and other works. He was a member of Parliament from 1780 to 1790. Died in 1796. See Blair, " Critical Dissertation on the Poems of Ossian," 1763 ; H. Mackenzie, "Report of the Committee of the Highland Society of Scotland," etc. ; J. Sinclair, "On the Authenticity of Ossian's Poems," 1806; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale Chamber.s, "Bio- graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" Review of " Ojsian," in the " Monthly Review" for January and February, 1762, e as 9 as s; g hard; g as g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^(^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 94 I MACPHERSON MACRO BIUS Mac-Pher'son, (James Birdseye,) an eminent Amer- ican general, born in Sandusky county, Ohio, in Novem- ber, 1828. He entered the Military Academy of West Point in 1849, and graduated at the head of his class in 1853. Having been assigned to the corps of engineers, ne was employed as engineer at New^ York, Fort Del- aware, and Alcatraz Island, California. He obtained the rank of first lieutenant in 1858, and that of captain in August, 1861. In November ensuing he became aide-de-camp to General Halleck, with the rank of lieu- tenant-colonel. He served as chief engineer on General Grant's staff at the capture of Fort Donelson, and at the battle of Shiloh, April 6 and 7, 1862. In May of that year he was appointed a colonel in the regular army, and brigadier-general of volunteers. He commanded a division which broke through the lines of General Price, then investing Corinth, and marched in to the relief of the garrison in October. For this service he was pro- moted to the rank of major-general on the 8th of Octo- ber, 1862. Having obtained command of the seventeenth army corps in December, he served under General Grant in the campaign against Vicksburg. His corps gained a victory at Raymond on the 12th of May, 1863, and, with the aid of General Sherman's corps, defeated General Joseph E. Johnston at Jackson on the 14th. General McPherson contributed to the victory of Champion's Hills, and took part in two unsuccessful assaults on the works of Vicksburg in May. For his services in this campaign he was promoted to be a brigadier-general in the regular army, to date from the capture of Vicksburg, and was appointed commander of the district of Vicks- burg, July, 1863, He served under Sherman in the expedition to Meridian in February, 1864. In the next month, General Grant, who had just been nominated general-in-chief of all the Union armies, wrote a letter to Sherman, in which he expressed his thanks to Sher- man and McPherson as the men to whom he was most indebted for his success. On the 12th of March, McPher- son was appointed commander of the department and army of the Tennessee. As commander of the army of the Tennessee, he maintained his high reputation in the campaign which Sherman conducted in Georgia. His army fought with success against the rebels at Dallas on the 28th of May. On the 27th of June, Generals Thomas and McPherson assaulted the fortified lines of Kenesaw Mountain, but were repulsed with severe loss. By a flank movement of the army of McPherson, General Johnston was induced to abandon his strong position at Kenesaw about July 3, and to retreat to Atlanta. After the Union armies had advanced to the vicinity of Atlanta, the enemy adopted a bolder policy, and made several attacks, in one of which McPherson was killed, July 22, 1864. "About i p.m. of this day," says General Grant, " the brave, accom- plished, and noble-hearted McPherson was killed." (Re- port, dated July 22, 1865.) See Tenney, " Military History of the Rebellion." Macpherson, (Sir John,) born in Skye, Scotland, about 1767, became a member of the supreme council of Bengal in 1781. He acted as Governor-General of India alter the retirement of Warren Hastings, (Feb- ruary, 1785,) until July, 1786. Died in 182 1. Macquarie, ma-kw6r're, (Lachlan,) a British gene- ral, born in the island of Mull in 1762. He served many years in India, and fought against the French in Egypt in 1801. From 1809 to 1821 he was Governor of New South Wales. About 1814 he obtained the rank of general. Died in 1824. Macquait, mt'ktR', (Louis Charles Henri,) a French mineralogist, born at Rheims in 1745. He pub- lished a "Manual of the Properties of Water," (1783,) and a " Dictionary of Health and Education," (2 vols., 1800.) Died in 1808. Macquer, mt'kaiR', (Philippe,) a ¥ rewch litterateur and advocate, born in Paris in 1720. He was author of a " Chronological Abridgment of Ecclesiastical His- tory," (2 vols., 1 75 1,) "Roman Annals," (1756,) and an "Abridged History of Spain and Portugal," (2 vols., 1759,) (all in French,) which were received with favour. Died in 1770. See QuERARD, "La France Litt^raire." Macquer, (Pierre Joseph,) a meritorious French chemist and physician, born in Paris in 1 718, was a brother of the preceding. He discovered new properties in many chemical substances, and is said to have been the first who proved that the diamond is combustible, (177 1.) He published " Elements of Theoretical Chem- istry," (1741,) and a valuable "Dictionary of Chemistry," (1766.) In 1745 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences. He succeeded Bourdelin as professor of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi, and edited the scientific department of the " Journal des Savants'" from 1768 to 1776. Died in 1784. See F. HoEFER. " Histoire de la Chimie." Macready, ma-kreeMe, ( William Charles, ) a popular English tragic actor, born in London in 1793. He made a successful debut at Birmingham in 1810, and appeared on the London stage in 1816, when he per- formed " Orestes" at Covent Garden with great applause. His reputation was increased by his performance of the " Virginius" of Sheridan Knowles, and of" Richard III." and other leading characters of Shakspeare. From 1837 to 1839 he was lessee and manager of Covent Garden Theatre. About 1842 he assumed the management of Drury Lane ; but, as he failed to make it profitable, he kept it only two or three seasons. He performed with great success in the principal cities of the United States in 1848 and 1849. While he was in this country, a quarrel between him and Edwin Forrest resulted in a serious riot in New York. He retired from the stage in 1851. See Littleton, "Biography of W. C. Macready," 1851; R* H. HoRNE, "New Spirit of the Age," 1844; "New American Cy- clopsedia." Macret, mfkRi', (Charles FRANgois Adrien,) a French engraver, born at Abbeville in 1750; died in 1783. Mac-ri-a'nus, [Fr. Macrien, mi^kReJ^N',] (Marcus FuLVius,) a Roman emperor, born in Egypt. He rose from the lowest to the highest rank in the army. The emperor Valerian having been taken prisoner by the Persians, a part of the army, in 261 a.d., chose for his successor Macrianus, who was then an old man. In 262 he was defeated in Illyricum, and put to death, by Domitian, a general of Gallienus. See TiLLEMONT, "Histoire des Einpereurs." Macrien. See Macrianus. Macrin. See Macrinus, and Salmon, (Jean.) Macrino d'Alba, mS-kRee'no dSKbi, an Italian painter, born at Alba, near Turin, about 1460. He was among the most skilful artists of his time, and one of the first to adopt the modern style. Many of his works are preserved at Turin and Alba. Died about 1520. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Macrinus, mt'kRe'niiss', (Charles Salmon,) a French writer, was a brother of Jean the poet, and pre- ceptor to Catherine of Navarre. He was a victim of the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, (1572.) Ma-cri'nus, [Fr. Macrin, mt'kRiN',] (M. Opelius or Opilius,) a Roman emperor, was born of obscure parents in Mauritania in 164 a.d. Pie obtained the high office of prefect of the praetorians under Caracalla. In April, 217 A.D., he instigated the assassination of Cara- calla, and was proclaimed emperor by the army, whose choice was confirmed by the senate. In the same year he was defeated by the Parthians at Nisibis. He was defeated near Antioch in June, 218, by the partisans of Elagabalus, and put to death. See TiLLEMONT, "Histoire des Einpereurs;" " Nouvelle Bicgra- phie Generale." Ma'cro, [Fr. Macron, mt'kR6N',] (N/evius Serto- RIUS,) a profligate Roman courtier, who enjoyed the favour of the emperor Tiberius and was the principal agent in the arrest of Sejanus. After the death of Sejanus, he became prefect of the praetorian guard. He was put to death by Caligula in 38 a.d. See Tacitus, " Annales." Macrobe. See Macrobius. Ma-cro'bi-us,[Fr. Macrobe, mt'kRob',](AMBROsius Aurelius Theodosius,) a grammarian and writer, who is supposed to have lived at Rome in the fifth century. 5 A, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u,y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m^t; ndt; good; moon; M ACT YE IRE 1491 MADISON It is not known whether he was a Christian or a pagan, a Greek or a Roman. He was the author of three Latin works which have come down to us, a " Treatise on the Latin and Greek Verb," a "Commentary on the Dream of Scipio," and a series of curious and valuable essays on history, mythology, criticism, etc., entitled "Saturna- liorum Conviviorum Libri Septem." See Fabkicius, " Bibliotheca Latina ;" Alphonse Mahul, "Dissertation sur la Vie etles Ouvrages de Macrobe," 1817; " Nou- velle Biographic Generale." Mactyeire, mak-te-air', ? (Holland Nimmons,) D.D., a Methodist divine, born in South Carolina in 1S24, became editor of the "Christian Advocate," at Nashville. Mac-vick'ar, (John,) D.D., an American Episcopal divine, born in New York in 1787. He was appointed in 1817 professor of moral philosophy and rhetoric in Columbia College. He has published " Outlines of Po- litical Economy," "The Professional Years of Bishop Hobart," and other works. Macwhorter, mak-hwiir'ter, ? (Alexander,) a Pres- byterian minister, born in New Castle county, Delaware, in 1734. He preached many years at Newark, New Jer- sey. Died in 1807. Madai, von, von mod'oy, (David Samuel,) a Hun- garian numismatist, born at Schemnitz in 1709. He pub- lished a work entitled "A Complete Cabinet of Medals," (1765-74.) Died in 1780. Mad^'an, (Martin,) an English clergyman, born near Hertford in 1726. He became a popular preacher at the Lock Hospital, and published, besides other works, " Thelyphthora," in which he advocated polygamy. Died in 1790. See the " Monthly Review" for October and November, 1780. Madan, (Spencer,) a brother of the preceding, be- came Bishop of Peterborough. Died in 1813. Madan, (Rev. Spencer,) a son of Martin, noticed above, was born in 1759. He was an eloquent preacher, and obtained the living of Ibstock and the prebend of Peterborough. For about thirty years he was chaplain to the king. Died in 1836. Mad'den, (Sir Frederick,) an eminent English antiquary, born at Portsmouth in 1801, was appointed keeper of the manuscripts in the British Museum in 1837. He was a valuable contributor to British history, and edited many works, among which are " Havelock the Dane," (1828,) and "Layamon's Brut, or Chronicle of Britain," (1847.) Mad'den, (Richard Robert,) an Irish physician and writer on various subjects, was born in Dublin in 1798. Among his numerous works are "Travels in Turkey, Egypt, and Palestine," (2 vols., 1829,) "The Lives and Times of the United Irishmen," (7 vols.,) and " Memoirs and Correspondence of the Countess of Blessington," (3 vols., 1855.) Madden, (Samuel,) an Irish clergyman and writer, whom Dr. Johnson said Ireland ought to honour, was born in 1687. He was noted for public spirit, and founded at Dublin a society for the promotion of the arts by pre- miums. He wrote " Memoirs of the Twentieth Cen- tury," (1732,) and the "Monument of Boulter," a poem. Died in 1765. See Nichols and Bowver, "Literary Anecdotes." Maddersteg, mid'der-stgG', (Michael,) a Dutch painter of marine views, etc., born at Amsterdam in 1659, worked in Berlin. Died in 1709. Maddius. See Maggi, (Carlo.) Mad'dox, (Isaac,) born in London in 1697, became Bishop of Worcester in 1743. He wrote a " Review of Nenl's History of the Puritans." Died in 1759. Madeleine. See Magdalene. Madelenet, mtd'leh-ni', (Gakrtel,) a French poet, born in the Auxerrois about 1 587, lived mostly in Paris. He composed elegant Latin odes. Died in 1661. Mader, miMer, (Joachim Johann,) a German philol- ogist, born at Hanover in 1626. He published editions of some Latin and Greek Fathers, and wrote " De Coro- nis sacris et profanis," (1662.) Died in 1680. Maderno, ml-d§R'no, (Carlo,) an eminent Italian architect, born in Lombardy in 1556. He studied or worked with his uncle, Domenico Fontana, in Rome. Having acquired a great reputation, he obtained about 1614 the title of architect of Saint Peter's Church, and was charged by the pope to finish the anterior part. He deviated from the original plan by adopting the form of a Latin cross instead of a Greek cross. His additions to this edifice are condemned by Milizia and others. Among his best works is the Mattel palace. Died in 1629. See QuATREM^RE DE QuiNCV, " Vies des plus cdl^bres Archi- tectes;" Cicognara, " Storia della Scultura;" Ticozzi, " Dizio- nario;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Maderno, (Stefano,) an Italian sculptor, born near Como in 1576. He adorned some churches of Rome with bas-reliefs and statues. Died in 1636. Madeweis, m§.''deh-'TN BuRKHARD,) a German historian, born at Pfortzheim in 1652. He wrote " De Rebus Badensibus," (1678,) and other works. Died in 1726. Majus or Maius, (Johann Heinrich,) an Oriental- ist, brother of the preceding, was born in 1653. wrote on theology and Hebrew antiquities. Died in 1 7 19. Makeblyde, m^'keh-birdeh, (Louis,) a Flemish religious writer, born at Poperingue in 1564; died in 1630. Makkaree, Makkari, or Makkary, Al, tl m^k'- kS-ree, (AHMED-lKN-MoHAMMED,lH''med ib'n mo-hlm'- m^d,) an Arabian historian, born at Tlemcen about 1585. He became a resident of Cairo about 1620, and wrote numerous historical and theological works, the most important of which is a valuable " History of Spain during the Domination of the Moors," which was trans- lated into English by Pascual de Gayangos, under the title of a " History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain," (2 vols., 1843.) Died in 1631. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Mako, mokOco, (Paul,) a learned Hungarian Jesuit, born in 1723. He wrote on geometry, physical science, etc. Died in 1793. Makouski. See Makowskl Makowski, mi-kov'skee, written also Makouski, [Lat. Macco'vius,] (John,) a Polish Protestant divine, born at Lobzenick in 1588. He was noted for disputa- tiousness and fondness for scholastic subtleties. Died in 1644. See Johann Cocceji, "Oratio in Funere J. Maccovii," 1644. Makreezee or Makrizi, Al, tl ml-kRee'zee, sur- nanied Takyah-ed-Deen or Taky-ed-Deen, (or Taki- EDDix,) t^k'yed-deen', (z>. the " Support of Religion,") a celebrated Arabic writer, born at Cairo about 1360. He held several civil and religious offices in his native city. He wrote many historical works, which attest the variety and extent of his knowledge. His " Historical and Topo- graphical Description of Egypt" gives an ample account of the events which occurred after the conquest of the Saracens, and of the customs and antiquities of that country. He also wrote a " History of Saladin and his Successors," and a treatise on Moslem Coins. The above-named works have been translated into French by Silvestre de Sacy. Al Makreezee has the reputa- tion of being, on the whole, an impartial, trustworthy, and eminently judicious writer. Died in 1442. See Silvestre de Sacy, " Chrestomathie Arabe." Makrizi. See Makreezee. Malabranca, mS-ia-bRan^kl, (Latino,) an Italian Dominican, called also Frangipani, was a nephew of Pope Nicholas HI. He was made Bishop of Ostia and Velletri in 1278. His diplomatic talents were employed and approved by several successive popes. Died about 1294. The celebrated hymn " Dies Irae" is attributed to him by many writers. Malacarne, ml IS-kaR'ni, (Michele Vincenzo,) an Italian surgeon, born at Saluzzo in 1744. He contributed by his works to the progress of science in Italy. He was professor of surgery at Padua from 1794 until his death, in 1816. Among his works is a treatise on Encepha- lotomv. MaVa-ehi, [Heb. 'DxSo.] the last of the minor He- brew prophets, is supposed to have prophesied about 420 B.C. Nothing is positively known of his history. The name signifies " angel," or " messenger of the Lord." The book of Malachi is the last book of the Old Testa- ment, in the order of time as well as of position. Malachowski, mS-li-Kov'skee, (Casimir,) a Polish general, born in 1765. He had the chief command at Warsaw when that place was taken by the Russians in 183 1. Died in 1845. Malagrida, mi-ld-gReeMI, (Gabriele,) an Italian Jesuit, born in the Milanese in 1689. He removed to Portugal, became a popular preacher, and wrote several works. He was suspected of complicity in the attempt to assassinate the King of Portugal, (1758,) and was convicted of heresy, for which he was burned in 1761. See Smith, "Memoirs of the Marquis of Pombal ;" Voltaire, " Precis du Siecle de Louis XV ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" Platel, " Relazione della Condamna ed Esecuzione del Gesuita G. Malagrida," 1761. Malaguti, mS-lS-goo'tee, (Francois,) a distinguished chemist, born at Bologna in 1802. Having settled in France, he studied in the laboratory of Gay-Lussac, and became in 1850 professor of chemistry at Rennes. He published several valuable works, among which is " Les- sons of Agricultural Chemistry," (1848.) Malaine, mt'lan', (Joseph Laurent,) a French painter of flowers, born at Tournai in 1745 ; died in Paris in 1809. Mal'a-la, Mal'e-la, or Mal'e-las, [Gr. MoAaAa or Ma^^Aa,] called also John of Antioch, was the author of a Greek chronicle which extends from the creation to the year 566 a,d. It was first printed by Chilmead, at Oxford, in 1691. The time and place of his birth and death are not known. He was, perhaps, the same as John of Antioch the Scholastic. See Cave, " Historia Literaria." Malan, mt^l6N', (Abraham Henri C6sar,) a Swiss theologian, born at Geneva in 1787, was the leader of a sect sometimes called momiers. Died in 1864. See the "Life, Labours, etc. of Caesar Malan," by his son, Lon- don, 1869. Malapert, mtli'paiR', (Charles,) a Flemish poet and geometer, born at Mons in 1581. He became a Jesuit, and a professor of mathematics in various col- leges. He published Latin poems, and several works on geometry. Died in Spain about 1630. Malarme, de, deh mt'ltRm', (Charlotte,) Count- ess, a novelist, born at Metz, France, in 1753, was a sister of Count de Bournon, the mineralogist. She wrote "Niralba," (1800,) and other novels. l3ied about 1830. Malaspina, ml-ia-spee'nS, (Ricordano,) the earliest historian of Florence, was born in that city in the thir- teenth century. He wrote a " History of Florence from its Origin to the Year 1281." See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Malaspina di Sannazaro, ma-l§,-spee'ni de sSn- nSd-z§.'ro, (LuiGi,) Marquis, an Italian writer and politi- cal economist, born at Pavi'a in 1754. He founded a school of fine arts in his native city. Died in 1834. Malatesta, mS-li-tSs'tS, a noble Italian family, which acquired the lordship of Rimini in the thirteenth cen- tury, and furnished several leaders of the Guelph party. Malatesta II. and Galeotto Malatesti, sons of Pandolfe I., began to reign over Rimini in 1335. They had a great military reputation, and next to the Visconti were perhaps the most powerful princes of Italy. The former died in 1364, and Galeotto in 1385, leaving two sons. Carlo and Pandolfo III. These two became able generals, and commanded the army of Visconti, Duke of Milan, from 1393 to 1408. Carlo, who was Lord of Rimini, died without issue in 1429. The de- scendants of Pandolfo III. possessed Rimini until 1528, when it was added to the papal dominions. Malatesta, (Battista,) an Italian lady of emii.e it talents, was married in 1405 to Galeotto Malatesta, Seigneur of Pesaro. She taught philosophy in public, made Latin orations before the emperor and pope, and wrote some admired verses. Malaval, mt'lt'vtK, (Franqois,) a French mystic, born at Marseilles in 1627, became blind in infancy, but studied Latin with success. He published, besides several prose works of a mystical character, " Poesies spirituelles," ("Spiritual Poems.") Died in 1719. Mal-bone', ( Edward G., ) an American portrait- painter, born at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1777. He € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Y.^ guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MALCHUS 1504 MALEBRJNCHE visited Europe in 1801 in company with Washington Allston, but returned the same year to America, where he soon acquired a high reputation in his art. Died in 1807. See DuNLAP, "History of the Arts of Design in America," vol. ii. chap. ii. ; Tuckerman, "Book of the Artists." MaF-ehus [Gr. MaA;t''f] of Philadelphia, called THE S(JPH1ST, a Byzantine historian, lived about 600 A.D. Fragments of his works are extant. See Cavk, " Historia Literaria." Malchus, von, fon mai'Kiis, (Karl August,) Baron, a German writer, born at Mannheim in 1770, was ap- pointed minister of the interior in the kingdom of West- phalia in 1813. He published several works on political economy. Died in 1840. Malcolm (mdl'kom) I., King of Scots, the son of Donald IV., succeeded his cousin, Constantine III., in 938 A.D. He was killed by soine of his own subjects who had revolted ; but the date of this event is not known. Malcolm II., King of Scotland, was the son of Ken- neth III. He began to reign in 1003, and resisted seve- ral hostile incursions of the Danes with success. He died in 1033, leaving two daughters, one of whom was the mother of Duncan I. Malcolm III., surnamed Canmore, (" Great Head,") was the son of King Duncan, whose virtues and tragical fate are commemorated in Shakspeare's " Macbeth." When Duncan was killed, in 1040, Malcolm escaped to England. (See Macbeth.) He returned with an army, defeated INIacbeth, and ascended the throne in 1057. About 1090 a war commenced between William II. of England and Malcolm, who was killed in battle at Aln- wick Castle in 1093. His sons Alexander and David became kings. See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. i. chap. xi. Malcolm IV., King of Scotland, was born about 1140, and succeeded his grandfather, David I., in I153. He made peace with Henry II. of England by ceding to him Northumberland. He died in 11 65, and was succeeded by his brother William. See BuRTcM, " Histoi-y of Scotland," vol. ii. chaps, xiii., xiv. ; Buchanan, " Kerum Scoticarum Historia." Malcolm, m^Kkom, (James Peller,) an engraver and antiquary, born in Philadelphia about 1768. He visited Europe in his youth, and became a student in the Royal Academy of London. He published " Lon- dinum Redivivum ; or. The Ancient History and Modern Description of London," (1802-05,) "Seventy Views taken within the Compass of Twelve Miles round Lon- don," (1811,) and other works. Died in 1815. See " Gentleman's Magazine," 1815. Malcolm, miKkom, (Sir John,) G.C.B., a British general and eminent historian, born in Dumfriesshire, Scotland, in 1769. In his youth he went to India as a cadet in the army of the Company. After performing an important political mission to Persia, (1799,) he was appointed to the presidency of Mysore in 1803. He was minister-plenipotentiary to the court of Persia in 1809 and 1810. Having collected information respect- ing Persia, he went to England in 1812, and published a valuable "History of Persia" (1815) from the earliest times to the date of publication. He returned to India in 1817, obtained the rank of brigadier-general, and, as second in command, distinguished himself at the battle of Mehidpoor, where Holkar was defeated. For several ensuing years he governed Malwa and the adjacent provinces in a manner which is highly commended. He returned to England in 1821, with the rank of major- general, was appointed Governor of Bombay in 1827, and resigned that post about the end of 1830. Sir John published, besides other works, a " Political History of India," (from 1784 to 1823,) and left a "Life of Lord Clive," which appeared in 1836. He was a brother of Admiral Sir Pulteney Malcolm. Died ini833. See J. W. Kave, " Life and Correspondence of Sir John Mal- colm," 2 vols., 1S56; "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1816, and July, 1823; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1812, and April, 1857; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Malcolm, (Sir Pulteney,) G.C.B., a British admiral, born near Langholm, Scotland, in 1768, was a brother of the preceding. He entered the navy in 1778, fought against the French in the West Indies, and was made a post-captain in 1794. He escorted the army of Sir Arthur Wellesley to Portugal in 1808, and obtained the rank of rear-admiral in 1813. In 1816 and 181 7 he was commander-in-chief of the Saint Helena station, where his duty called him into intercourse with Bonaparte, who expressed himself much pleased with his manners and conduct. He was promoted to the rank of full admiral in 1837. Died in 1838. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Mal'com, (Howard,) D.D., a Baptist divine, born in Philadelphia in 1799, was one of the founders of the American Tract Society and of the American Sunday- School Union. In 1835, as a missionary, he visited India and China, and on his return published "Travels in South-Eastern Africa," (1839.) He published a " Dic- tionary of the Bible," which had an extensive circulation, and other religious works. Malczewski, mil-chgv'skee, written also Mal- czeski, (Antuni,) an excellent Polish poet, born in Vol- hynia about 1792, was a son of a general in the Russian service. He received a French education, and entered the army in 1811. Having quitted the army in 1816, he travelled for some years, and is said to have been the first Pole that ascended Mont Blanc. His reputation is founded on a single poem, entitled "Maria; a Tale of the Ukraine," (Warsaw, 1826,) which is one of the most popular poems in the Polish language. He died poor at Warsaw in 1826. See BiELOwsKi, "A. Malczewski," etc., 1843. Maldachini - Pamfili, mai-di-kee'nee pim-fee'lee, (Donna Olimpia,) an Italian woman, noted for her am- bition, vices, and political influence, was born at Viterbo in 1594. She was married to a man whose brother, J. B. Pamfili, was elected pope in 1644 and assumed the title of Innocent X. Died in 1656, MaPden, (Henry,) an English writer, born about 1800, graduated at Cambridge in 1822. He became professor of Greek in University College, London, about 1830. Maldonado, mil-do-nl'Do, (Lopez,) a Spanish poet of the sixteenth century, was contemporary with Cer- vantes, who mentions him with eulogy. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Maldonado, (Lorenzo Ferrer,) a navigator, who was born probably in Spain. Pie wrote a narrative of a voyage which he made, or pretended to have made, from the Atlantic to the Pacific through Behring Strait in 1588. The majority of geographers liave discredited his story. See F. DK Navarrete, "Historia de la Nautica." Maldonat, m§,!-do-n.^t', [Lat. Maldona'tus,](Juan,) a celebrated Spanish theologian, born in Estremadura in 1534. Having entered the order of Jesuits, he went to Paris about 1564, and and acquired a high reputation as a professor of theology. He is said to have been a person of great talents, learning, and piety, and to have written Latin with much purity. He wrote, besides other works, " Commentaries on the Four Evangelists," (1596,) which, says Hallam, "have been highly praised by theologians of the Protestant side." Died in 1583. See Prat, " Maldonat et I'Universiie de Paris," 1857; Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, "Memoires." Maldonatus. See Maldonat. Malebranche,mtl'bR6Nsh',[Lat. Malebran'chius,] (Nicolas,) a French metaphysical philosopher of great eminence, was born in Paris on the 6th of August, 1638. His habits in youth were retired and studious. He became a priest of the Oratory in 1660, and was a zealous Carte- sian in philosophy, which was his favourite study. In 1674 he produced the first volume of his admirable and original " Search for Truth," (" Recherche de la Verite,") which was quickly and highly appreciated. New and enlarged editions of it rapidly followed. The general design of this work is to demonstrate the harmony of the Cartesian philosophy with revealed religion. His style is eminently pure, perspicuous, and elegant, having, says Fontenelle, " all the dignity which the subject requires, and all the grace or ornament which it could properly receive." a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, f^ll, f^t; mSt; ndt; good; moon; MALEBRANCHIUS 1505 MJLHERBE "He was," says Hallam, "a warm and almost enthusi- astic admirer of Descartes, but his mind was independent, searching, and fond of its own inventions ; he acknow- ledged no master, and in some points dissents from the Cartesian school. . . . The fame of Malebranche, and, still more, the popularity in modern times of his ' Search for Truth,' have been affected by that peculiar hypothe- sis, so mystically expressed, the seeing all things in God, which has been more remembered than any other part of that treatise." " He bears a striking resemblance," adds the same critic, "to his great contemporary Pascal. Both of ardent minds, endowed with strong imagination and lively wit, sarcastic, severe, fearless, disdainful of popular opinion and accredited reputations. . . . But in Malebranche there is a less overpowering sense of religion ; his eye roams unblenched in the light before which that of Pascal had been veiled in awe. He has less energy, but more copiousness and variety." (" Intro- duction to the Literature of Europe.") " This ingenious philosopher and beautiful writer," says Mackintosh, "is the only celebrated Cartesian who has professedly handled the Theory of Morals. . . . The manner in which he applied his principles to the particulars of human duty is excellent. He is perhaps the first phi- losopher who has precisely laid down, and rigidly ad- hered to, the great principle that virtue consists in pure intentions and dispositions of niindy without which actions, however conformable to rules, are not truly moral." He was involved in a long and intemperate controversy with Arnauld on the theory of ideas and on the doctrine of grace. In 1687 he combined all the parts of his system, and developed them more fully, in " Conversations on Meta- physics and Religion," (" Entretiens sur la Metaphysique ef la Religion.") He was author of other religious and Rjystical works, among which are "Christian and Meta- physical Meditations," (1683,) and a "Treatise on Mo- rality," ("Traite de Morale," 1684.) He gave proof of his profound attainments as a geometer by a "Treatise on the Communication of Motion." Died at Paris in October, 1715. See FoNTENELLE, " £ loge de Malebranche;" Mackintosh, "View of the Progress of Ethical Philosophy;" J. E. Erdmann, "Malebranche, Spinoza und die Sceptiker und Mystiker des sieb- zehnten Jahrhunderts," 1836; Karl Relstag, " Dissertatio de Malebranchio Philosopho," 1846; Nic^ron, "Memoires;" " Nou- velle Biographie G^nerale." Malebranchius. See Malebranche. Maleguzzi-Valeri, mS-li-goot'see vi-la'ree, (Vero- nica,) Countess, one of the most learned and gifted women of Italy, was born at Reggio, Lombardy, in 1630. She wrote a drama called " Innocence Recognized." Died in 1690. Maiek-Ibn-Anas, m^'lek ib'n Sn'as, the chief or founder of one of the four Moslem sects which are ac- counted orthodox, was born at Medina in 714 a.d. His doctrines, of which he published an explanation, were generally adopted by the Mussulmans of Spain, Egypt, and Barbary. Died about 795. See Hammer-Purgstall, " Literaturgeschichte der Araber;" " Noiivelle Biographie G^nerale. " Malek-Shah. See Malik-Shah. Malela. See Malala. Malermi, mS-lgn'mee, or Malerbi, ml-llR'bee, (Nic- Col6,) an Italian translator, born in Venice in 1422. He produced (1471) the first Italian version of the Bible that was ever printed. Malesherbes, de, deh mtl'ziRb', (Chretien Guil- Laume de Lamoignon — lt'mwtn'y6N',) a meritorious French judge and philanthropist, born in Paris in 1721, was a son of Chancellor de Lamoignon. At the age of twenty-four he was chosen a counsellor in the Parliament, and in 1750 became president of the Cour des Aides. He was directeur de la librairie, or censor of books, from 1750 to 1768, and was praised for his liberality or indul- gence by Rousseau, Voltaire, and the Encyclopaedists. He acqmVed great popularity by his defence of the Parlia- ment against the ministry about 1772. In 1775, having been indicated by the public voice, he was appointed a colleague of Turgot in the new ministry, as minister of the king's household and of the police, but he resigned in 1776, when Turgot was dismissed. He was elected to the French Academy in 1775, though he had not pro duced any purely literary work. He was author of treatises on rural economy and finances, and of a " Me* moir on the Liberty of the Press." When Louis XVI. was arraigned by the Convention in 1792, Malesherbes generously offered to him his services as counsel, which were accepted. This act of fidelity having rendered him suspected by the terrorists, he was executed in April, 1794. His virtues are warmly eulogized by both royal- ists and republicans. See Delisle de Sales, " Memoires sur la Vie publique et privee de Malesherbes," 1803; Gaillard, "Vie ou filoge historique de Malesherbes," 180=;; J. B. Dubois, "Notice sur Lamoignon-Males- herbes," 1806 ; Boissv d'Anglas, " Essai sur la Vie, etc. de Males- herbes," 2 vols., 1818 ; C. P. DuPLESsis, "£loge de Malesherbes," 1820; DupiN AiNE, "filoge de Lamoignon-Malesherbes," 1841 ; Sainte-Beuve, "Malesherbes," in " Causeries du Lundi," tome ii. Malet, de, deh mt'li', (Claude FRANgois,) a French general and conspirator, born at Dole in 1754. About 1806 he was dismissed from the service, and went to Paris, where he plotted against Bonaparte, and was im- prisoned from 1808 to 1812. Having formed another conspiracy, he announced at the barracks, in Paris, on the 24th of October, 1812, that Bonaparte had died in Russia, and that he (Malet) had been appointed gov- ernor of Paris by the senate. By forged orders he im- posed on the prefect of Paris, made Savary prisoner, and shot General Hullin. At this crisis his audacity was baffled by Laborde, who made him prisoner. Malet and his accomplices were shot, after a summary process, in October, 181 2. See Lafon, " Histoire de la Conspiration du General Malet," 1814; DouKiLLE, " Histoire de la Conspiration de Malet," 1840. Mal'e-vill or Mel'vill, (Geoffrey,) a Scottish states- man, became lord justiciary of Scotland in 1171. He is said to have been the first who held that oftice. Maleville, de, deh mtl'v^K, (Jacques,) Marquis, a French jurist, born in Perigord in 1741. He aided Por- talis and others in framing the Civil Code, about 1800, and wrote an " Analysis of the Discussion of the Civil Code," (4 vols., 1805.) Died in 1824. Maleville, de, (L60N,) a French advocate and poli- tician, born at Montauban in 1803. He was minister of the interior for a short time in December, 1848. He was a moderate royalist, and a devoted friend of Thiers. Colonel de Maleville, a brother of the preceding, born at Domme in 1813, was killed at Solferino in July, 1859. Malezieu, de, deh miKze-uh', (Nicolas,) a French scholar, born in Paris in 1650. He was a friend of Fene- lon and Bossuet, whose influence procured for him the place of preceptor of the Due du Maine. He after- wards taught mathematics to the Duke of Burgundy, was elected to the French Academy in 1701, and pub- lished "Elements of Geometry for the Duke of Bur- gundy," (1715.) Died in 1729. Malfiiatre or Malfiimtre, de, deh mSKfe'lStR', (Jacques Charles Louis,) a French poet, born at Caen in 1733. He composed a poem on the "Transla- tion of Elijah to Heaven," and another called " Narcissus in the Island of Venus," (1769,) which is said to possess great beauties. Died in 1767. See De Baudrh, " Discours sur la Vie, etc. de Malfilatre," 1825 ; La Harpe, "Cours de Litterature." Malgaigne, mtKgiii', (Joseph Franqois,) a French medical writer and surgeon, born in Paris about 1806. He published, besides other works, a "Treatise on Sur- gical Anatomy and Experimental Surgery," (2 vols., 1838.) Died in 1865. Malherbe, de, deh mt'liRb', ( Francois, ) a dis- tinguished French lyric poet, born at Caen about 1555. He served several campaigns in the civil wars of the League, and married Madeleine de Carriolis in 1581. In 1587 he composed his first work, "The Tears of Saint Peter." An " Ode to the Queen Marie de Medicis" (1600) was the foundation of his fame. He came to Paris a few years later, and enjoyed the patronage of Henry IV. during the life of that prince. Malherbe was called the poet of princes and the prince of poets. He died in 1628. " He was," says La Harpe, " the first [French] model of the noble style, and the creator of lyric poetry. He has its enthusiasm, its movements, and its tournures.''^ " Mal- € as ^; 5 as j; g hard; g as J; g, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 95 MALHOUET 1506 MALLET herbe," says Hallain, "gave a polish and a grace to the lyric poetry of France, which has rendered his name cele- brated in her criticism. In general, we find in his poems neither imagery nor sentiments that yield us delight." Comparing him with Horace, the same critic remarks, "He is far from deficient in that calm philosophy which forms the charm of the Roman poet." Introduction to the Literature of Europe.'') ijee Roux-Ai.PHERAN, " Recherches sur Malherbe et sa Famille," 1S40; "Malherbe, s.i Vie et ses CEuvres," by M. de Gournay, 1852 ; Saintr-Beuve, "Causeriesdu Lundi," tomeviii. ; " Nouvelle Blogrnphie Geiierale." Malhouet. See Malouet. Malibran, mS'le'bRdN', (Maria FelicitA,) a cele- brated singer and actress, born in Paris in 1808, was the daughter of Manuel Garcia, a Spanish tenor singer. She made her debut in London in 1825, and in 1826 visited New York, where she married M. Malibran, a banker. After he had become a bankrupt, she separated from him and went to Paris, where she performed with complete success in 1828. In Italy, England, and Germany she also obtained triumphs almost unexampled in the his- tory of artistes. Her voice was a mezzo-soprano of great volume. She was very successful as an actress. She died in England in 1836, soon after a second marriage with M. de Beriot, a violinist. See Fetis, "Biographic Uiiiverselle des Musicietis;" "Memoirs of Madame Malibran," by the Countess of Merlin. Malik (miKik) or Melik, m^l'ik. El Adel, l\ i'del, I., (Seif-ed-DeeD Aboobeker Mohammed, or Saif- Eddyn Aboubekr Mohammed, sif ed-deen' i'boo- bek'er mo-hSm'med,) Sultan of Egypt and Damascus, born at Baalbec in 1139, was a brother of the famous Saladin. He gained victories over the crusaders in 11 74 and 1 187. In 1201 he became Sultan of Egypt. He extended his dominions by conquest in Syria. Died in 1218. See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. iii, Malik-Shah, miKik shih, written also Malek- (Malec- or Melek-) Sh^h, a famous Seljookide sove- reign, the son of Alp-Arslan, whom he succeeded in 1072. Under Malik-Shah the Seljookian empire reached its highest point of power and glory. His character, like that of his father, appears to have been singularly noble. His succession to the throne had been disputed by his brother Toortoosh, (Tourtousch.) Before giving battle to his rival, he asked his minister, Nizam-ool-Moolk, as they came out of the mosque together, what he had prayed for. " I have prayed," answered the minister, " that God would give you the victory over your brother." "And I," said Malik-Shah, "that God would take away my life and crown, if my brother is worthier to reign than I." Perhaps the onlv stain upon the character of this great prince is his having, at the instigation of his Sul- tana, the Khatoon Toorkan, removed from office his minister, the illustrious Nizam-ool-Moolk,* to whose wise administration the empire was chiefly indebted for its long-continued prosperity. Nizam dbl-Mo61k died soon after by the dagger of an assassin. Malik-Shah survived his minister only a few months. He died in 1092. "There is no instance," says Sir John Malcolm, "in Persian history, of so vast an empire enjoying so long a period of tranquillity. The kingdom he inherited, which extended from the plains of Tartary to those of Syria, was, during the twenty years of his reign, only disturbed by a short contest with his uncle and brother, . . . Agri- culture was promoted, learning was encouraged; an as- sembly of astronomers from every part of Malik-Shah's wide dominions were employed for several years in re- forming the calendar." See Malcolm, " History of Persia," vol. i. chap. viii. Malinche or Malintzin. See Marina. _ Malingre, ma'l^NgR', (Claude,) a French histo- rian of little merit, born at Sens about 1580. He wrote several works on F'rench history, which were not suc- cessful. Died about '653. MaFla-ry, (Charles,) a Baptist minister, born in Poultney, Vermont, in 1801, removed to Georgia. He was one of the founders of Mercer Theological Seminary, at Penfield, Georgia. * I his name, the only one by vhich he was known, signifies the "regulator of the state or kingdom." Mallary, (Rollin Carlos,) a lawyer, a brother o! the preceding, was born in Cheshire, Connecticut, in 1784. He was a member of Congress from 1819 until his death, in 1831. Mallemans, mtl'mSN', (Jean,) a French writer, noted for singular and extravagant opinions, born at Beaune in 1649, was a brother of Claude, noticed below. He wrote a " History of the Church before the Reign of Jovian," (1704,) and other works. Died in 1740. Mallemans de Messanges, mtl'mow' deh ma's6Nzh', (Claude,) a French savant, born at Beaune in 1653. He was professor of philosophy for thirty-four years at the College du Plessis, Paris. He published " A Physical Treatise on the World," and other works. Died in 1723. Malleolus. See Hammerlein. Mallery, de, deh mtKre', (Charles,) a Flemish en- graver, born at Antwerp in 1576. His son Philip, born in 1600, was a skilful engraver. See F. Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." Mallet, mt'iy, (Charles Auguste,) a French phi- losopher, born at Lille in 1807. He published, besides other works, " Etudes philosophiques," (2 vols., 1837- 38,) which gained a prize of the French Academy. He wrote numerous articles in the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." MaFlet or Malloch, maKloK, (David,) a Scottish poet and dramatist, born at Crieff, in Perthshire, about 1698, was the son of James Malloch. He removed to London about 1724, and changed his name to Mallet. In 1728 he produced "The Excursion," a poem, and in 1731 " Eurydice," a tragedy. He became intimate with Pope, who procured him a situation as travelling tutor. His tragedy " Mustapha" (1739) was performed with ap- plause. About 1740 he was appointed under-secretary to Frederick, Prince of Wales. Among his other works are " Amyntor and Theodora," and a "Life of Bacon." He is censured for acting as the venal agent of Boling- broke in an attempt to blast the memory of Pope, (1749.) Died in 1765. "As a writer," says Dr. Johnson, "he cannot be placed in any high class. His dramas had their day, — a short day, — and are forgotten : his blank verse seems to my ear the echo of Thomson." See Johnson, " Lives of the Poets ;" Ruffhead, " Life of Pope ;" Boswell, " Life of Johnson;" Disraeli, " Quarrels of Authors;" Chamhers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Mallet, (Edme,) a French litterateur, born at Melun in 1 7 13. He published an "Essay on the Study of Belles-Lettres," and translated into French Davila's " History." Died in 1755. Mallet, miKlet, (Fredrick,) a Swedish writer on science, born in 1728, was for many years professor of mathematics at Upsal. He published many treatises between 1752 and 1774, and co-operated with Bergman in a general description of the earth. Of this work Mallet wrote the astronomical part. Died in 1797. Mallet, x\\t'W, (Jacques Andr6,) called Mallet- Favre, a vSwiss astronomer, born at Geneva in 1740, was a favourite pupil of Daniel Bernoulli. He became pro- fessor of astronomy at Geneva about 1770, and built an observatory there. He wrote memoirs on astronomy, mechanics, etc. for the Academy of Paris and the Royal Society of London, of which he was a member. Died in 1790. See PicoT, " filoge de J. A. Mallet," 1790. Mallet, (Paul Henri,) a Swiss historian, born at Geneva in 1730. He taught French to the Prince-Royal of Denmark, (Christian VII.,) and returned to Geneva in 1760. He was appointed professor of history in the Academy of that city. Among his works (in French) are "Monuments of the Mythology and Poetry of the Celts," (1756,) "Memoirs on the Literature of the North," (6 vols., 1760,) and a "History of Denmark," (3 vols., 1777,) which is highly esteemed and has been translated into English, German, etc. Died in 1807. His "Introduction a I'Histoire de Danemark" was translated into English, under the title of "Northern An- tiquities," which is one of the most valuable works on Northern mythology. See SisMONDi, "De la Vie et les ficrits de P. H. Mallet," 1807; Haag, " La France protestante ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gend- rale ;" " Monthly Review" for March, 1771. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; filr, fall, fit; m§t; nfit; good; moon; MALLET-DUPAN 1507 MALTE-BRUN Mallet-Dupan, mt'W dii'pdN', (Jacques,) a distin- guished publicist and editor, born at Geneva in 1749. He became a resident of Paris in 1782, and editor of a journal called " Mercure historique et politique," which was very successful. In the Revolution he defended the royalist cause, and in 1792 was compelled to suspend the publication of the " Mercure," of which he had written the political editorials. He then became an exile, and in 1799 began to issue, in London, the "Mer- cure Britannique," which was ranked among the ablest political journals of that time. Died in England in 1800. See "Memoireset Correspondance de Mallet-Dupan," Paris, 1851 ; S AiNTE- Beuve, " Causeries dii Lundi ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Geiierale;" "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1852. Mallet-Prevost, mt'l|' pRi\6', (Henri,) a scientific Swiss writer, born at Geneva in 1727. He published a valuable "Metrologic Manual, or Repertory of Weights, Measures, and Coins of Various Nations," (1802,) and a "Description of Geneva," (1807.) Died in 1811. He was a brother of Paul Henri Mallet, noticed above. Malleville, de, deh mtl'v^K, (Claude,) a French minor poet, born in Paris in 1597, was one of the first members of the Academic Fran9aise. " He seldom produced a finished piece," says Hallam, " though not deficient in spirit and delicacy." His poems are son- nets, one of which is called "The Fair Early-Riser," ("La belle Matineuse.") Died in 1647. See " Histoire de I'Acadeinie Frangaise." Mallinkrot, von, fon mlKlin-kRot^ (Bernard,) a German philologist, was dean of the chapter of Miinster. He wrote, besides other works, a treatise " On the Rise and Progress of the Art of Printing." Died in 1664. Mallio, miKle-o, (Michele,) an Italian writer of verse and fiction, born at Sant' Elpidio in 1756; died in 1831. Malloch. See Mallet, (David.) Mal'lo-ry, (Stephen R.,) an American Democratic politician, born about i8ro. He was elected a Senator of the United States by the legislature of Florida in 1850, and re-elected in 1856. He served as secretary of the navy of the Confederate States from March, 1861, to 1865. Malmesbury, Earl of. See Harris, (James.) Malmesbury, mims'ber-e, (James Howard Har- ris,) third Earl of, a British Tory statesman, a grand- son of the first Earl of Malmesbury, was born in 1807. He succeeded to the earldom at the death of his father, in 1841, before which he was styled Lord Fitzharris. In February, 1852, he was appointed secretary of foreign affairs in the Derby ministry, which was dissolved in December of that year. He again became foreign secre- tary under Lord Derby in 1858, and on the formation of the I-iberal ministry in June, 1859, was succeeded by Lord John Russell. He edited the " Diaries and Official Correspondence of the First Earl of Malmesbury," (1844.) About July I, 1866, he was appointed lord privy seal. He retired from office in December, 1868. Malmesbury, (William of,) an old English histo- rian, who is supposed to have been born in Somerset- shire about 1095. He became a monk in the monastery of Malmesbury, where he held the office of librarian. His principal works are a " History of England from 450 to 1127," (" De Gestis Regum Anglorum,") " Recent History," (" Historia Novella,") wherein he relates events of which he was an eye-witness, and a " History of the English Prelates," (" De Gestis Pontificnm." ) These are highly prized for accuracy, veracity, and critical judg- ment. He died in or after 1143. Malm.strbm or Malmstroem. mJlm'stRom, (Elts,) a Swedish poet, born in 1816. He published a collection of elegies entitled "Angelica," (1840,) and an epic poem of "Ariadne." Died at Stockholm in June, 1865. Malombra, ma-lom'bRa,(PfETRO,) aVenetian painter, born in 1556. He was successful in portraits and in historical pictures. Died in 1618. Malon, mt'l^N', (Julius,) a Belgian statesman and prominent leader of the Catholic party, born at Ypres in 1810. He became minister of finance in 1845. Ma-lone', (Edmund,) an Irish critic, chiefly distin- guished as an editor and commentator of Shakspeare, was born in Dublin in 1741. Having inherited an easy fortune, he removed to London and devoted himself to literature. He associated with Dr. Johnson, Burke, and other eminent authors. In 1790 he published his edition of Shakspeare, with commentaries. He excelled Stee- vens. a rival commentator, in candour and love of truth ; but "neither seems," says Hallam, "to have had a full discernment of Shakspeare's genius." Malone published an edition of Sir Joshua Reynolds's works, with a Me- moir of his Life, (1797,) and other works. He died in 1812, leaving unfinished an improved edition of Shak- speare, since published, (1821.) See James Boswell, " Biographical Memoir of Edmund Ma- lone ;" Sir James Prior, "Life of Edmund Malone," i860; "Monthly Review" for September, 1793. Malouet orMalhouet, mt'loo'i', (Pierre Victor,) a French statesman, born at Riom in 1740. In 1789 he was elected to the States-General, where he became prominent as a liberal royalist and co-operated with Clermont-Tonnerre. He took refuge in England in 1792, returned about 1802, and was chosen a councillor of state in 1810. Died in 1814. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Malouin, mt'loo-iN', (Paul Jacques,) a French chemist and physician, born at Caen in 1701. He be- came professor of chemistry in the Jardin du Roi, Paris, in 1745, wrote many articles on that science for the " Encyclopedie," and published an esteemed work on "Medical Chemistry," (1750.) He was a member of the Academy of Sciences. Died in 1778. See CoNDORCET, " filoge de P. J. Malouin ;" " Biographie Medi- cale." Malpighi, mll-pee'gee, (Marcello,) [Lat. Marcei/- LUS Malpic/hius,] a celebrated Italian anatomist and naturalist, born near Bologna in 1628. Having gradu- ated as a physician in 1653, he became professor at Pisa in 1656, and at Messina about 1664. He published, be- tween 1661 and 1665, treatises "On the Lungs," (" De Pulmonibus,") " On the Tongue," (" De Lingua,") anc! " On the Brain," (" De Cerebro.") Malpighi was the first who used the microscope in the study of anatomy. In 1670 he returned to Bologna, and wrote an important work on the anatomy of plants, " Anatome Plantarum," (1675,) a science which was first cultivated by Grew and Malpighi. He made discoveries in the structure of the skin and glands. In 1691 he was chosen chief physician to Pope Innocent XII. He died in Rome in 1694. See Regis, "Vita Malpighii," prefixed to his "Opera posthnma," i6q8; Fabroni, "Vita Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" G. Atti, " Notizie biografiche di M. Malpiphi," etc., 1847; Niceron, "Me- moires ;" Cuvier, "Histoire des Sciences naturelles ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Malpighins. See Malpighl Malsburg, mSls^booRG, (Ernst Friedrich Georg Otto,) Baron, a German litterateur, born at Hanau in 1786, translated Calderon's dramas into German, and published a number of religious poems. Died in 1824. Mait'by, (Edward,) an English^ theologian, born at Norwich in 1770. He became Bishop of Durham in 1836, and published several volumes of sermons. Died in 1859. See the " Monthly Review" for March, 1820. Malte-Brun, mault'brun' or mtKteh-bruN',(CoNRAD,) a Danish author and geogra])her of great merit and celeb- rity, was born at Thister, Jutland, in 1775. His original name, Malthe Conrad Bruun, (bRoon,) was changed by the French into Malte-Brun, by which he is now universally known. He had a great facility for learnv*« languages, and wrote French with an ease and elegance which perhaps no other foreigner ever acquired. In hi.^r; c as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, Yi,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz; %h as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MANHES 1512 MANN terms, (1841-53,) and was president of that body during the administration of Tyler. Died in 1861. Manhes, mt'ngs', (Charles Antoine,) a French general, born at Aurillac in 1777. He entered the service of Murat in 1809, and suppressed brigandage in Calabria with extreme severity. Died in 1854. Mani. See Manes. Manichaeus. See Manes. Manigault, man'e-go', .-'(Gabriel,) a wealthy Amer- ican merchant and patriot of the Revolution, born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1704; died in 1781. Ma-niFi-a Gens, the name of a plebeian Roman gens^ which was not numerous and consequently was not divided into families. Marcus Manilius, who be- came consul in 149 B.C., was the first member of this geiis that fic;ures in history. Ma-niFi-us, (Caius,) a Roman tribune, and partisan of Pompey. He was tribune of the people in 66 B.C. He proposed a bill called "Lex Manilla," granting to Pompey the command of the war against Mithridates in place of Lucullus. On this occasion Cicero uttered his celebrated oration " Pro Lege Manilla." Manilius, (Marcus or Caius,) a Latin poet, known as the author of an astrological poem called " Astro- nomica." His name is sometimes written Mallius or Manlius. Nothing is certainly known of his nativity or history ; but he is supposed to have lived in Rome in the reign of Augustus or of Tiberius. His poem, first discovered by Poggio about 1410, is a work of much learning, and contains some fine passages, but is faulty in style. See ScAi.iGER, " Prolegomena in Manilium," 1600 ; F. Jacob, "De M. Manilio Poeta," etc., 1832; " Nouvelle Biographic G^ne- rale." Manin, mi-neen', (Daniele,) an eminent Italian patriot and statesman, born in Venice in May, 1804, was educated for the profession of advocate. He was a re- publican, and promoted the liberation of Venetiaby legal means rather than by arms. In March, 1848, he pro- claimed a republic at Venice, and became president of the provisional government. Having vainly opposed the annexation of Venetia to Piedmont, he resigned in July, 1848. He was soon recalled, and governed Venice as dictator during the siege, which lasted a year, and ended, after a heroic struggle, in August, 1849. He went into exile, and died in Paris in 1857. His remains were honoured with a magnificent public funeral, by order of the Italian Parliament, in the metropolitan church of Venice, in March, 1868. See Henri Martin, "Life of Daniel Manin," 1859; G. V. RovANi, " Memoria storica di D. Manin," Turin, 1850; H. Cas- Tii-LE, "Manin;" Chassin, "Manin et I'ltalie," 1859; Edmond Flagg, "Venice, the City of the Sea," New York. 1853 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1857; "Westminster Review" for April, i860. Manin or Manini, mS-nee'nee, (Lodovico,) the last Doge of Venice, was born about 1727. He was elected in 1788, a period when the republic manifested evident signs of approaching ruin. He refused to join Austria in a coalition against the French in 1 792, and remained neutral in the war that ensued. Venice was invaded by the French in 1797, the form of the government was changed, and Manini retired to private life. See Daru, " Histoire de Venise." Manini, mi-nee'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian writer on theology and history, was born at Ferrara in 1750; died in 1834. Manini, (Lodovico.) See Manin. Man'ley, (James R.,) an American physician, born in the latter part of the eighteenth century, became professor in the Medical College of New York. Died in 1851. Manley, (John,) Captain, an American naval officer of the Revolution, born in 1734. He performed several important services. Died in Boston in 1793. ManTey, (De la Riviere,) Mrs., a popular English authoress, born in Guernsey about 1672, was the daughter of Sir Roger Manley. To procure a subsistence, she wrote " The Royal Mischief," (1696,) a tragedy, which was successful. Her next work was a romance called Memoirs of the New Atalantis," containing severe strictures on some of the persons in power, which caused her to be prosecuted and imprisoned for libel. She wrote political articles for the Tory ministry between 1710 and 1714, and edited the " Examiner" with ability after Dean Swift had retired from the direction of that paper. Died in 1724. See Gibber, " Lives of the Poets." Man'li-a Gens, one of the most ancient and cele- brated of the patrician genles or tribes of Rome. The family names of the Manlii were Cincinnatus, Acidinus, Capitolinus, Torquatus, and Vulso. Among the emi- nent persons of this gens was Man'li-us Cap-it-o-li'nus, (Marcus,) who was elected consul in 392 B.C. In 399 the Gauls under Bren- nus captured Rome and besieged the Capitol, which Manlius and others defended. According to tradition, an attempt of the Gauls to surprise this fortress by night was defeated by Manlius, who was awakened by the clamour of a flock of geese. For this service he received the surname of Capitolinus. He became a champion of the popular party, or plebeians, in 385, spent his for- tune freely for the relief of those who were oppressed by debt, and was accused of aspiring to royalty. His enemy Camillus was appointed dictator, and Manlius, having been tried for treason and condemned to death by the patricians, was thrown from the Tarpeian rock in 381 B.C. See Livv, " History of Rome ;" Cicero, "DeRepublica ;" Aure- Lius Victor, " De Viris ilhistribus." Man'li-us Tor-qua'tus, or, more fully, Ti'tus Man'- lius Capitoli'nus Torqua'tus, a popular Roman hero, was the son of L. Manlius Imperiosus, who was dictator in 362 or 363 B.C. He signalized his filial affection by extorting from Pompon ius an oath that he would desist from the prosecution of his father. In 359 he was elected a military tribune. He killed in battle a Gaul of gigantic stature and despoiled him of a (torques,) from which he derived the surname Torquatus. He was ap- pointed dictator in 353, and again in 349 B.C. Having been elected consul for the third time in 340, he defeated the Latins, and punished with death his own son, who had violated orders by fighting a single combat with one of the enemy. See Livv. " History of Rome," books vii., viii. ; Aurelius Vic- tor, "De Viris illustribiis ;" P. Ekerman, " Dissertatio de T. Man- lio Torqiiato," 1767. • Manlius Torquatus, (Titus,) a Roman general, of the same family as the preceding, was consul in 235 B.C. Sardinia having been subjected by him in that year, the temple of Janus was shut, for the second time in the his- tory of Rome, because the Romans enjoyed a universal peace. He was re-elected consul in 224, and made a speech against the motion to ransom the prisoners taken by Hannibal at Cannae, (216.) In 215 B.C. he gained a decisive victory over the Carthaginians in Sardinia. He was appointed dictator in 208, and died in 202 B.C. See Livv, " History of Rome," books xxii., xxiii., xxv., etc. Man'lius Vul'so, (Cneius,) a Roman general, elected consul about 190 B.C. He conquered the Gauls of Ga- latia, and received the honour of a triumph in 186 B.C. Man'l;^, (Basil,) a Baptist minister, born in Chatham county. North Carolina, in 1798. He became president of the University of Alabama in 1837. Died in 1868. Mann, (Horace,) LL.D., an eminent American edu- cationist, born in Franklin, Norfolk county, Massachu- setts, May 4, 1796. His father was a farmer in limited circumstances, so that Horace was obliged to procure by his own exertions the means of obtaining an education. The books to which he had access in early life, as he informs us, "were few, and their contents meagre and miserable." "My teachers," he adds, "were very good people, but they were very poor teachers." There was, however, no lack of hard work, and in summer his labours often encroached upon the hours which should have been devoted to sleep ; yet, with all these disad- vantages, his mind gave early ])roof of uncommon power and intense activity. He had earned his school-books, when a child, by braiding straw; and his severe and frugal life gave him the habit of depending solely upon himself for the gratification of all his wants. When about the age of twenty, he commenced the study of Latin, and in six months prepared himself to enter the a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; \ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; at, e, j, q, obscure; f^r, fUll. fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; MANN 1513 MANNING sophomore class in Brown University, at Providence, Rhode Island, where he graduated with the highest honours in 1819. The subject of his discourse on that occasion was " The Progressive Character of the Human Race." This was always a favourite theme with him, and his first oration may be said to have foreshadowed his subsequent career as philanthropist and statesman. While at Providence he became acquainted with the young lady whom he afterwards married. She was the daughter of Dr. Messer, president of the university. In 1 82 1 he entered the law school at Litchfield, and in 1823 was admitted to the bar. He commenced the practice of law at Dedham. He was elected in 1827 to the .State legislature, and during his connection with that body was distinguished for the zeal with which he devoted himself to the interests of education and temperance. In the practice of his profession he had adopted the principle never to take the unjust side of any cause : it is said that he gained four out of five of all the contested cases in which he was engaged. The extraordinary influence which he exerted over the minds of the juries was owing in a great measure to the confidence which all felt in his honesty of purpose. In 1833 he removed from Dedham to Boston, and soon after was elected to the State Senate. In 1836, and again in 1837, he was chosen president of the Senate. About this time he became acquainted with Dr. W. E. Channing and Dr. S. G. Howe, for whom he ever afterwards cherished the sincerest respect and affection. To his enlightened philanthropy and untiring efforts was due the establishment of the State Lunatic Hospital at Worcester. In 1837 he was elected secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, (then recently organ- ized,) and was unanimously re-elected to the same posi- tion for eleven successive years. From the moment that he entered upon his new duties, he devoted himself to them with undivided attention and unremitting zeal. By his lectures and writings he awakened an interest in the cause of education that had never been felt before. Through his influence, important changes were made in the school laws of Massachusetts, and a thorough reform was effected in the educational system of the State. In May, 1843, Mr. Mann married as his second wife Miss Mary Peabody, daughter of Dr. Nathaniel Peabody and sister-in-law of Mr. Hawthorne ; and immediately afterwards he sailed for Europe, chiefly for the purpose of visiting European schools, particularly those of Ger- many. He returned to his native country in the autumn of the same year. In the spring of 1848, Mr. Mann was elected to Con- gress, as successor to J. Quincy Adams, who had died in February of that year. His first speech in the House of Representatives was in advocacy of the right and duty of Congress to exclude slavery from the territories. He says, in a letter dated December, 1848, "I think the country is to experience serious times. Interference with slavery will excite civil commotion at the South. Still, it is best to interfere. Now is the time to see whether the Union is a rope of sand or a band of steel." In another letter, dated January, 1850, he says, "Dark clouds overhang the future ; and that is not all : they are full of lightning." Again, " I really think if we insist upon passing the Wilmot Proviso for the territories that the South — a part of them — will rebel. But / would pass it, rebellion or not. / consider no evil so great as that of the extension of slavery.'" On the 7th of March, 1850, Webster delivered his great speech against the Wilmot Proviso. This led to an open rupture between him and Mann. Through the influence of Webster's friends, in the following November Mann failed by a single vote to obtain a re-nomination in the Whig convention. He, however, appealed to the people as an independent can- didate, and was triumphantly re-elected. In September, 1852, Mr. Mann was chosen president of Antioch College, at Yellow Springs, Ohio. On the same day he was nominated for Governor of Massachusetts by a convention of the Free Democracy (otherwise called the Free-Soil party) assembled at Lowell. Although not elected Governor, his popularity was shown by his vote running far ahead of that of the other Free-Soil candi- dates. He accepted the presidency of Antioch College, which under his able management attained a large measure of success. But the labours and anxieties of that responsible position proved at length too much for his health, never strong, and now undermined by a life of the most intense and unremitting activity. He died August 2, 1859. The immediate cause of his death was doubtless the extraordinary and unceasing mental effort called forth at the college commencement in July, 1859. His address to the graduating class on that occasion* is an eloquent resume of the great principles by which his life was governed, and forms an appropriate close to the labours of this heroic and gifted philanthropist. See " Life of Horace Mann," by his wife, Boston, 1865; "New American Cyclopjedia." Mann, min, (THioDORE Augustin,) Abb6, a Flem- ish writer and antiquary, born about 1740, resided at Brussels. He published a "Tableau of the Coins, Weights, and Measures of Different Nations," (1779,) a "Description of Brussels," (1785,) and other works. Died at Prague in 1809. Manne, de, deh mtn, (Louis Charles Joseph,) a French librarian, born in Paris in 1773. He became in 1820 keeper of the Bibliotheque Nationale, in which he classified 300,000 volumes. Died in 1832. His son Edmond succeeded him as librarian. Manners. See Rutland, Duke of. Manners, (John.) See Granby, Marquis of. Man'ners, (John James Robert,) Lord, a second son of the Duke of Rutland, was born in 1818. He entered the House of Commons in 1841, and identified himself with the Tory party. He was first commissioner of the board of works for a short time in 1858-59, and obtained the same position in the Derby cabinet in July, 1866. He resigned in December, 1868. Manners, (Robert,) Lord, a younger son of John, Marquis of Granby, was a brother of the^ fourth Duke of Rutland. He died of wounds received at a battle in the West Indies in August, 1782, where he commanded the ship Resolution. Manners, (Robert William,) Lord, an English general, born in 1781. He entered the army in 1798, served Wellington as aide-de-camp in the Peninsular war from 1808 to 1813, and was wounded at Waterloo, (181 5.) In 1830 he obtained the rank of major-general. He was frequently elected to Parliament. Died in 1835. Mannert, mSn'ngRt^, (Konrad,) a German writer, born at Altclorf in 1756, was tltc author of a "History of the Vandals," (1785,) " History of Bavaria," (1826,) and other works. Died in 1834. Manni, mSn'nee, (Domenico Maria,) a distinguished Italian antiquary and printer, born at Florence in 1690. He published new editions of early Italian works, which he enriched with prefaces, notes, etc., and wrote valuable dissertations on the history of Florence. His " Historic Observations on the Seals of the Middle Ages" (30 vols., 1739-86) is a work of merit. Died in 1788. See ToMiTANO, " Elogio di D. M. Manni," 1789. Manni, (Giannicola,) an Italian painter, born at Perugia about 1478, was a pupil of Perugino. Died in 1544- Man'ning, (Henry Edward,) a Roman Catholic prelate, born in London in 1809, graduated at Oxford. He took orders in the Anglican Church, and became Archdeacon of Chichester in 1840. In 1851 he entered the priesthood of the Catholic Church. He was ap- pointed Archbishop of Westminster in 1865. Among his works are "The Unity of the Church," (1843,) and "The Temporal Sovereignty of the Popes," (i860.) He took a prominent part in the CEcumenical Council which held its sessions in Rome from December, 1869, to May, 1870, and he maintained the dogma of papal infalli- bility. Man'ning, (James,) D.D., an American Baptist di- vine, born at Elizabethtown, New Jersey, in 1738, was the first president of Brown University, Rhode Island. Died in 1791. Manning, (Owen,) an English antiquary, born in Northamptonshire in 1721. He became Vicar of Godal- ming and rector of Pepperharrow, (1769.) He wrote the * Printed in his "Life," pp. SS4-S7S- € as^- 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as 2; th as in this, (2i:^="See Explanations, p. 23.) MANNING 1 5 14 MANSO ** History and Antiquities of Surrey," and completed Lye's " Saxon Dictionary." Died in 1801. SeeW. Kray, " Life of O. Manning," prefixed to the first volume of his "Antiquities of Surrey." Manning, (Thomas,) an English linguist, born in Norfolk in 1774. He resided for a long time in Thibet, and accompanied Lord Amherst to China in 1816. Died in 1840. Mannini, min-nee'nee, (Jacopo Antonio,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1646; died in 1732. Manno, min'no, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Palermo in 1754; died in 1831. Mannory, mt'no^e', (Louis,) a French advocate, born in Paris in 1696. He published " Voltairiana," (1748,) and " Plaidoyers et Memoires," (18 vols., 1759.) Died in 1777. See Voltaire, " Correspondance." Mannozzi, man-not'see, (Giovanni,) an excellent Italian fresco-painter, born at San Giovanni, near Flor- ence, in 1590, was sometimes called Giovanni da San Giovanni. He was a pupil of Rosselli. In 162 1 he went to Rome, where he painted, in rivalry with Guido's "Aurora," a picture of "Night in a Chariot," Having returned to Florence, he painted " The Judgment of Paris," "Aurora and Tithonus," etc. The picture of " The Patronage of the Arts and Sciences by Lorenzo de' Medici" is called his master-piece. Died in 1636. See Baldinucci, " Notizie ;" Ticozzi, " Dizionario ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Man'nyng or Man'ning, (Robert,) an English monk, was also called Robert de Prunne. He lived in the reign of Edward I. and Edward II., and was a canon in the monastery of Brunne or Bourne. He trans- lated into English rhyming chronicles from the " Brut d'Angleterre" and " Roman le Rou." Manoel. See Manuel. Manoel of Portugal. See Emmanuel. Manoncourt. See Sonnini. Manrique, m^n-ree'ki, (Jorge,) a Spanish poet, born about 1420. His reputation is founded on his moral poems, which are highly commended. Died about 1485. See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Mansard or Mansart, mSN^'^tR', (Francois,) an excellent French architect, born in Paris in 1598. He restored the Hotel Toulouse, and erected the chateaus of Berny and of Choisy-sur-Seine, and several churches in Paris. The Chateau de Maisons, a few miles from Paris, is one of his most admired works. His designs are remarkable for nobleness and majesty. He invented the curb-roof called " Mansard." Died in 1666. See FoNTENAV, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Mansard or Mansart, (Jules Hardouin,) a cele- brated architect, born in Paris in 1645, was a son of Jules Hardouin, a painter. His mother was a sister of F. Mansard, noticed above. He studied the art with this uncle, and assumed his name. Having obtained the favour of Louis XIV., he designed the most im- portant architectural works of his reign. He had a rare opportunity to display his genius in the chateau or royal palace of Versailles, which, though imposing in dimen- sions and rich in ornaments, fails to satisfy the require- ments of good taste. He built the Hotel des Invalides, — in the grand dome of which he attempted to rival Sir Christopher Wren, — the Chateau de Marly, the Place Vendome, and other public works. In 1699 he was chosen superintendent of buildings, arts, and manufac- tures. Died in 1708. See QuATKEM^RE DE QuiNCV, " Vies des plus celebres Archi- tectes ;" Fontenay, " Dictionnaire des Artistes;" Jean Duchesne, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de J. H. Mansart," 1805. Mansart. See Mansard. Man'sel, (Rev. Henry Longueville,) a prominent English writer on metaphysics and theology, logic, etc., was born at Cosgrove, in Northamptonshire, in 1820. He became professor of moral and metaphysical philos- ophy at Oxford about 1859, and regius professor of ecclesiastical history in 1867, Among his works is "The Limits of Religious Thought Examined," (1858,) which has attracted much attention and no little criti- cism and has passed through a number of editions. In this treatise he takes as the basis of his argument Sir William Hamilton's position that "the unconditioned is incognizable and inconceivable ;" and the work is justly regarded as one of the most important applications of the Hamiltonian philosophy to questions of religion. He edited Sir W. Hamilton's works on logic and meta- physics. He also contributed to the "Encyclopaedia Britannica" a valuable treatise on metaphysics, which has since been published in a separate form. He was ap- pointed Dean of Saint Paul's, London, in October, 1868. Mansfeld, von, fon mins'fglt, (Ernst,) Count, one of the greatest generals of his time, born in 1585, was the natural son of Peter Ernst, noticed below. After fighting for the King of Spain and the Emperor of Ger- many, he left their service about 1610, and became art enemy of the house of Austria. He avowed himself a convert to the Reformed faith, and in 1618 was chosen general-in-chief of the Bohemian insurgents. In the service of Frederick, whom those insurgents had elected king, he fought many battles, and defeated the Bavarians in 1622. He afterwards marched into Flanders and re- pulsed the Spaniards at Fleurus. Having raised another army to attack Austria, he was defeated by Wallenstein in 1626, and died near Zara in the same year. He was one of those generals who are as formidable after defeat as before. See "Acta Mansfeldica," 1624; Niemann, " Geschichte der Gra- fen von Mansfeld," 1834; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mansfeld, von, (Peter Ernst,) Count, an able German general, born in 1517. In his youth he entered the army of the emperor Charles V. After serving in several campaigns, he commanded an army against the French in 1552, and in 1569 led another army to aid Charles IX. against the Huguenots. He distinguished himself at the battle of Moncontour. He succeeded the Duke of Parma as Governor-General of the Low Coun- tries in 1592. Died in 1604. See Schannat, " Histoire du Comte de Mansfeld," 1707; Mo- Ri^Ri, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" Motley, " United Netherlands," vol. i. Mans'field, (Jared,) an American mathematician, born at New Haven, Connecticut. He became pro- fessor of natural philosophy in the Military Academy at West Point. He published several scientific worlds. Died in 1830. Mansfield, (Joseph King Fenno,) an American general, born at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1803, graduated at West Point in 1822. He served as captain in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and became a colonel in 1853. He commanded the department of Washington in June and July, 1861, and directed a corps at the battle of Antietam, where he was killed, September 17, 1862. He was a brigadier-general in the regular army. See Tennev, "Militai-y History of the Rebellion." Mansfield, Lord. See Murray, (William.) Mansi, man'see, (Giovanni Domenico,) a learned Italian prelate, born at Lucca in 1692. He translated into Latin Calmet's " Dictionary of the Bible" and the " Commentary" of the same author, and edited several works of theology. One of the most important of his works was an edition of the " Collection of Councils," (" Sacrorum Conciliorum nova et amplissima Collectio," 1757 et seg.,) in which he was aided by N. Coleti. He was appointed Archbishop of Lucca in 1765. Died in 1769. See Zatti, "Vita di D. Mansi," 1772. Manso, mSn'so, orManzo, man'zo, (Giovanni Bat- TISTA,) Marquis de Villa, an Italian author, eminent as a patron of literature, was born in Naples about 1560. He expended part of his fortune in founding in Naples the Academy degli Oziosi. He was intimate with the poet "I'asso, who commemorated their friendship in his dialogue entitled "II Manso." Milton, who had been his guest in Naples, addressed to him in complimentary terms a beautiful Latin poem or eclogue entitled " Man- sus." Manso wrote the " Life of Torquato Tasso," (1619,) and several poems. Died in 1645. See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Manso, min'so, (Johann Kaspar Friedrich,) a German scholar and historian, born in the duchy of a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; \ h, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, ?, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; ^"o^pn; MANSOOR MJNTUJNO Gotha in 1759. He published a "Life of Constantine the Great," (181 7,) and a number of poems and an- tiquarian treatises. Died in 1826. See Klug, "Manso als Schulmann und Gelehrter," 1826. Mansoor, (Aboo-Amir-Mohammed.) See Al- Mansoor. Mansoor, Mansour, Man90ur, or Mansur, Al,* 3.1 mInsooR', ( Aboo-Jaafar- (or Djafar-) Abdallah, S'boo jS'far Sb-diKlah, tlie second Abbasside caliph of the Arabian empire, succeeded his brother As-Seffah (or Al-Saffah) in 754 a.d. About 765 he founded Bagdad, which thenceforth was the capital of the empire for five centuries. He waged war with success against the Turcomans and the Greeks of Asia Minor, but lost Spain, which was taken possession of by the Omeyyads. He is said to have united superior talents with great cruelty and other vices. He died in 775 A.D., leaving the throne to his son Mahdee, (or Mahdi.) See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. ii. chap. ii. Manstein, von, fon mSn'stln, (Christoph Her- mann,) an able general and historical writer, born in Saint Petersburg in 171 1. In 1745 he entered the ser- vice of Prussia, and a few years later became a major- general. He was employed by Frederick the Great in important political affairs, and took part in the battle of Prague, (1757.) He was killed in a skirmish the same year. He left "Historical, Political, and Military Me- moirs of Russia," (in French, 2 vols., 1772.) This work has been translated into English. See HuBER, "Vie de Manstein," prefixed to his "Memoires." Mansueti, mSn-soo-a'tee, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, born in Venice about 1450 ; died after 1500. Mant, (Richard,) an English bishop and commen- tator, born at Southampton in 1776. In conjunction with D'Oyly, he prepared an edition of the Bible, with notes, (1 81 7.) He became Bishop of Down and Connor about 1823. He wrote, besides other works, a " History of the Church in Ireland." Died in 1848. See Bkrens, " Memoir of the Life of Bishop Mant," 1849 ; " Lon- don Quarterly Review" for December, 1812. Mantegna, mdn-tgn'yi, (Andrea,) an eminent Italian historical painter and engraver, born at Padua about 1430, was a pupil of F. Squarcione, who adopted him as,ason. After he had worked at Padua and Verona, he went to Milan, where he painted the "Triumph of Julius Caesar," which Vasari esteemed his master-piece, and which was purchased by Charles I. of England. It is now at Hampton Court. He painted several frescos in the Vatican at Rome, and worked some years in Man- tua, where he was patronized by the Marquis de Gon- zaga. Among his most admired oil-paintings is the "Delia Vittoria," (1495,) picture of the Marquis of Mantua rendering thanks to the Virgin for his victory at Fornovo,) which still retains its beauty. He was probably the first engraver of his time. Died in 1506, See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ridoi.fi, "Vite degli illnstri Pittori Veneti ;" LoMAZZo, " Idea del Temjiio delta Pittura ;" Mks. Jameson, "Me- moirs of Early Italian Painters;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Mantegna, (Bernardino,) a painter of the Mantuan school, born in 1490, was a son and pupil of the pre- ceding. Died in 1528. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." Mantegna, (Francesco,) an able Italian painter, son of Andrea, noticed above. He was a pupil of his father, and completed several works which the latter left un- finished at iMantua. It is stated that he was the first master of Correggio. Died after 15 14. Mantegna, del, d§l man-tgn'yS, (Carlo,) an Italian painter, was a relative and pupil of Andrea Mantegna, noticed above. In 1514 he was master of a school of artists in Genoa. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." Man'tell, (Gideon Algernon,) an eminent English geologist and palaeontologist, born at Lewes, in Sussex, in 1790. He adopted the medical profession, which he practised many years at Lewes. A mine near that place offered him a rich field for observations in geology, to which his attention was early directed. He collected * Al Mansoor signifies "the Victorious." | from the Wealden formation and the chalk a museum of specimens of extinct reptiles, fishes, and plants, which was afterwards bought by the trustees of the British Museum £S'^'^o. About 1825 he discovered the Iguanodon, an extinct reptile about sixty feet long, and in that year was elected to the Royal Society. He also discovered three other genera of the colossal Dinosaurian reptiles. In 1822 he published " The Fossils of the South Downs." He removed to Clapham in 1839, and a few years later to London. He not only enriched the science by his discoveries, but was unsurpassed by any English geolo- gist of his time as a lecturer and a popular expounder of geological facts. His most important works are "On the Iguanodon," "The Geology of the Southeast of England," (1838,) "The Wonders of Geology," (1838,) and "The Medals of Creation," (1844.) Died in 1852. See Agassiz and Strickland, " Bibliographia Zoologias et Geologise." Manteuffel, mSn'toiffel, (Otto Theodor,) Baron, a Prussian statesman, born at Liibben in 1805. He was appointed director in the ministry of the interior in 1846, and minister of the interior about November, 1848. Many of the notes and diplomatic circulars of 1848 and 1849 were written by him. He was president of the council of ministers from December, 1850, to December, 1858. See G. Hesekiel, "O. T. Manteuffel: ein Preussisches Lebens- bild," 1851. Mantica, mSn-tee'ki, (Francesco,) an Italian prel- ate and jurist, born at Pordenone in 1534, published " Decisiones Romanae," (1618.) Died in 1614. Man'to, [Gr. Mavrw,] a prophetess, daughter of Tire- sias, was taken prisoner by the Argives at Thebes, and was dedicated to Apollo, under whose auspices she is said to have uttered oracles at Delphi. She was some- times called Daphne. She became the wife of Rhakius or Rhacius, and the mother of Mopsus. Man'ton, (Thomas,) an English divine, born in Somersetshire in 1620. He obtained the living of Stcke Newington in 1643, and afterwards preached at Covcnt Garden in London. He was eminent for eloquence and learning, and was appointed chaplain to Cromwell in 1653. In 1660 he became a chaplain to Charles II., but was ejected from his church in London for non- conformity in 1662. Several volumes of his sermonSj lectures, etc. were published. Died in 1677. Mantouan, Le. See Mantuano. Mantovano. See Mani uano. Mantuan, man-too-an',or Mantuano, m§,n-too-S'no, (Battista, ) or Battista Spagnuoli, (spSn-yoo-o'lee,) a Latin poet, once of great celebrity, was born at Mantua in 1448. He had great facility as a versifier, but was de- ficient in taste, and his works, consisting of eclogues, silvcs, etc., are now entirely neglected. " He was, and long continued to be," says Hallam, "the poet of school-rooms. Erasmus says that he would be placed by posterity not much below Virgil." He was a Car- melite friar. Died in 151 6. Mantuano, mSn-too-a'no, (Adamo Ghisi,) an able engraver, born at Mantua about 1530, was a son of Giovanni Battista, noticed below. He engraved after Michael Angelo, Giulio Romano, and other masters. Mantuano, (Giorgio Ghisi,) born at Mantua about 1522, was a skilful engraver and painter. He worked many years in Rome, and engraved the finest works of Michael Angelo, Raphael, and other masters. Among them are "The Last Judgment," after Angelo, and the " Holy Family" and "School of Athens," after Raphael. He was living in 1578. His sister, Diana Mantuana, a skilful artist, en- graved several works of Raphael about 1570-80. Mantuano, [Fr. Le Mantouan, leh m6N'too''5N',] (Giovanni Battista Bertano,) an ' Italian painter, sculptor, engraver, and architect, the father of the pre- ceding, was born at Mantua about 1500. He was the head of a family which produced several artists, and whose proper name was Ghisi. He was the pupil of Giulio Romano. His engraving of the "Burning of Troy" is highly praised. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." / Mantuano, (Teodoro.) See Ghisl € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, Y.^ guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^=='See Explanations, p. 23.) MANU 1516 MAN WOOD Manu, [modern Hindoo pron. mun'oo,] written also Menu, [from the Sanscrit man, to "know,"] a celebrated Hindoo sage, the son of Brahma, and the revealer of the code of laws known as the "Institutes of Manu." See Wilson, " Sanscrit Dictionary;" Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." Manuce, (Aldk.) See Manutius, (Aldus.) Maii'u-el I. Com-ne'nus, [Gr. yiavovrfk 6 Kofivrjvog ; Fr. Manuel Comnene, mi^nxx^kV kom^nin',] a Greek emperor, born about 1 120, was a younger son of John Comnenus, who designated him for his successor. Manuel began to reign at Constantinople in 1 143. He was am- bitious, brave, and licentious. He is accused of perfidy towards the crusaders Conrad of Germany and Louis VH., King of France, who passed, with their armies, through his dominions in 1 147, and with whom he had made a treaty of alliance. He afterwards waged war against Roger, King of Sicily, the Hungarians, and the Turks, over whom he gained several victories. Peace was made between him and Roger in 1155. In 1176 he was defeated disastrously by Az-ed-Deen, the Turkish Sultan, near Myriocephalus, where Manuel fought in person. The Turks were defeated in turn by his army in Lydia, in 11 77, when the war was ended by treaty. He died in 1 180, and was succeeded by his only son, Alexis II. See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas- Empire;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Manuel II. Palaeologus, (pal-e-oKo-gus,) [Gr. Ma- vov7/?i 6 na?iaLo?i6-yoc ; Fr. Manuel Pal^ologue, mt'nii'^K pt^laVlog',] Emperor of Constantinople, was the second son of John VI., who admitted him as his associate in the empire about 1372. At the death of his father, in 1391, Manuel was held as a hostage by Sultan Bayazeed I. He escaped from Nicasa, and fled to his own capital, in the same year. The enraged Sultan marched against him, and besieged Constantinople. The French and German chivalry came to his assistance with a large army, and forced Bayazeed to raise the siege ; but he de- feated those allies at Nicopolis (Nicopol) in 1396. The Sultan prosecuted the siege for several years, until the alarming jirogress of Tamerlane called him away for the defence of his own kingdom. After the defeat and death of Bayazeed, in 1403, Manuel reigned in peace. He died in 1425, aged seventy-seven, and was succeeded by his son, John VII. Palaeologus. See Gibbon, "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Von Hammer, " Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs ;" Berger dh Xivrev, " Memoire sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Ma- nuel Paleologue," 1853. Manuel, m^-noo-^K, or Manoel, ml-no-§K, (Fran- cisco,) an eminent Portuguese poet, born at Lisbon in 1734. He wrote admired odes, sonnets, and epistles, and attained the reputation of the most excellent modern lyric poet of Portugal. Among his poems is an ode to Washington. The liberality of his principles subjected him to a charge of heresy, for which he was sunmioned before the Inquisition. He escaped, and retired to Paris in 1788. He made admirable Portuguese versions of La Fontaine's "Fables," Chateaubriand's "Martyrs," and Wieland's " Oberon." His poems were published, under the name of" Filinto Elysio." Died in Paris in 1819. Manuel, mt'nii'^l', (Jacques Antoine,) a French orator and republican, born at Barceloimette (Low Alps) in 1775. In the profession of advocate he attained eminence at Aix. He was a member of the Chamber of Deputies during the Hundred Days, (1815,) when he S])oke against the pretensions of Bonaparte and of the Bourbons. In 1818 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies by the liberals, and was ranked among the ablest debaters of that assembly. "Of all the revolu- tionary orators," says Lamartine, "he was the most feared and hated by the majority." After a speech in reply to Chateaubriand, he was expelled from the Cham- ber in 1823. Died in 1827. "He had no one to con- sole him," says Lamartine, "but Beranger, whose heart loved in Manuel the antique stamp of the premature but intrepid, moderate, and upright republican. ... He was rnore remarkable for character than eloquence ; he preferred action to speech," etc. See Fadeville, " Manuel jiige par ses Actions," 1824; Ramond DE LA Croisette, " M. Manuel," 1824; Fourtanier, " Eloge de Manuel," 1849; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Manuel, xni-noo-hV, (Don Juan,) a Spanish prince and author, was a nephew of Alfonso X. of Castile. He was Regent of Castile during part of the minority of Alfonso XL, and distinguished himself in battle against the Moors. He wrote many works, in prose and verse. His political and moral treatise called "The Count of Lucanor" (" El Conde de Lucanor") was esteemed by Bouterwek as the finest monument of Spanish literature in the fourteenth century. Died about 1350. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." Manuel, (Louis Pierre,) a French revolutionist, born at Montargis in 1751. According to Beaulieu, he took a prominent part in the riot of the loth of August, 1792, and was a partisan of Danton. Soon after this date he conducted the royal captives to the prison of the Teiiiple. He rescued Madame de Stael and Beaumar- chais from the massacre of September. As a member of the Convention, he voted against the death of Louis XVI. For this he was proscribed and executed in 1793. See Pkudhomme, " Les Revolutions de Paris ;" Louis Blanc, " Histoire de la Revolution ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Manuel, mt'nii'eK, (Nicolas,) a Swiss artist, author, and Reformer, born at Berne in 1484, was sometimes called Deutsch, in Italian Tedesco, {i.e. the "German.") About 1510 he went to Venice and became a pupil of Titian. He returned to Berne, and painted "The Dance of Death," in fresco. He wrote satirical poems and songs, and " Dramatic Moralities and Mysteries," a hu- morous composition. In his latter years he held several l^ublic offices, and was an active promoter of the Swiss Reformation. Died in 1530. Manutius, ma-nu'she-us, (Al'dus,) [It. Aldo Ma- nuzio, SKdo mi-noot'se-o ; Fr. Alue Manuce, tld mt'niiss',] a celebrated Italian printer and scholar, born at Bassiano, in the Papal States, in 1447. With the patronage of Pico de Mirandola and Alberto Pio, he established a printing-press at Venice about 1490. He invented the form of type called Italic, procured manu- scripts from various countries, and published editions of classics which surpassed all others in correctness. About 1500 he formed at Venice a literary association called the Aldine Academy, the design of which was to promote literature by perfecting the copies of the models of an- tiquity. He compiled a Greek-and-Latin Lexicon, (1497.) Died in 1515. See Unger, " De Aldi Pii Manutii Vita Meritisque," 1752: D. M. Manni, "Vita di Aldo Pio Manuzio," 1749; A. Renouard, "Aiinales de I'lmprimerie des Aide;" Ambroise Firmin Didot, article in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Manutius, (Aldus,) or Manuzio, (Aldo,) the Younger, born at Venice in 1547, was a son of Paolo, noticed below. At the age of fourteen he j^ublished a " System of Orthography," (" Orthographiae Ratio.") He was professor of eloquence at Bologna, Pisa, and Rome. He wrote, besides antiquarian treatises, "The Life of Cosimo I. de' Medici," and "The Accomplished Gentle- man," ("II perfetto Gentil'uomo.") Died in 1597. See A. Renouard, "Annales des Aide." Manutius, (Paulus,) or Manuzio, (Paolo,) an Italian printer, author, and critic, born at Venice in 15 12, was a son of Aldus Senior. As the successor of his father in the printing-establishment, he published excel- lent editions of Latin classics in Venice. About 1562 he removed his press to Rome, whence he returned to Venice in 1570. He acquired a high reputation as a critic and as a writer of elegant Latin. Among his ])rin- cipal works are "On the Roman Senate," (" De Senatu Romano,") "On the Roman State," (" De Civitate Ro- mana,") "Roman Antiquities," and a volume of Latin Epistles. " The letters of Manutius," says Hallani, " pall on the reader by their monotonous elegance. . . . Sciop- pius thinks him consummate in delicacy and grace." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1574- See A. Renouard, "Annales de i'lmprimerie des Aide," 1834; . G. Krause, "Apparatus ad P. Manutii Vitam," 1669; Ambroisb irmin Didot, article in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Manuzio. See Manutius, Man'wood, (John,) an English jurist, flourished about 1600, and wrote a " Treatise on the Laws of the Forest." a, e, T, 6, u, y, lon^; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, ?, i, o, obscure; fSr, fSU, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; MAN WOOD 1517 MJRJNSIN Manwood, (Sir Roger,) probably the father of the preceding, was chief baron of the court of exchequer. Died in 1593. Manzi, niSn'zee, (Gulielmo,) an Italian litterateur, born at Civita Vecchia in 1784. He made a good Italian version of Lucian, (1819,) and wrote a "Discourse on the vSpectacles, Festivals, and Luxury of the Italians of the Sixteenth Century," (1818.) Died in 1821. See TiPALDO. " Biografia degli Italian! illustri ;" Rossi, " Elogio storico di G. Manzi," 1822. Manzi, (Pietro,) an Italian writer, born at Civita Vecchia in 1785, was a brother of the preceding. He published " The Conquest of Mexico," {1817,) and other works. Died in 1839. Manzo. See Manso. ManzoUi, mSn-zoKlee, or Manzoli, min-zo'lee, (Pie- tro or Pier Angelo,) a Latin poet, born at Stellata, on the Po, in Italy, flourished about 1510-40. He was bet- ter known by his assumed name, Palingenio or Palin- Ge'nius Stella'tus. The events and circumstances of his life are unknown. Pie wrote a long moral poem, entitled " Zodiacof Life," (" Zodiacus Vitae," Bale, 1537,) the books of which are named from the signs of the zodiac. "It is not very poetical," says Hallam, "but by no means without strong passages of sense and spirit, in a lax Horatian metre. The author has said more than enough to incur the suspicion of Lutheran- ism." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") See Grrdes, " Historia Reformationis ;" "Palingene," in Bayle's "Historical and Critical Dictionary." Manzoni, min-zo'nee, (Alessandro,) a celebrated Italian novelist and poet, was born at Milan, March 8, 1784. His father bore the title of .count, and his mother was a daughter of the Marquis Beccaria, the eminent jurist and writer. About 1805 he made a long visit to Paris, where he formed an intimate friendship with Fauriel and produced a poem on the death of Carlo Imbonati, (1806.) He married Henriette Louise Blondel, of Geneva, in 1808, and became a zealous member of the Roman Catholic Church. Soon after this event he produced several hymns on the Nativity, the Passion, the l^esurrection, etc., which have much literary merit. His next work was a tragedy, called "II Conte di Car- magnola," (1820,) in which the three unities are not ob- served. This drama was warmly applauded by Goethe. He published another tragedy, entitled " Adelchi," and an admirable ode on the death of Napoleon, " II cinque Maggio." His capital work is the historical novel of "I promessi Sposi," (3 vols., 1827,) an English version of which has appeared under the title of " The Betrothed Lovers." It presents a vivid picture of Italian society of the seventeenth century. The style is natural, elo- quent, and beautiful. Manzoni became a senator of the kmgdom of Sardinia in i860. See LmiisDE Ixim^nie, " M. Manzoni, par un Homme deRien," 1842; Sainte-Eeuve, "A. Manzoni; Fragment biograpliique," 1845 ; Longfellow, " Poets and Poetrv of Europe ;" " Nonvelle Biographie Generale ;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for July and November, 1827; "Blackwood's Magazine" for August, 1826; "North American Review" for October, 1840. Manzoni, (Francesca,) an Italian poetess, born in the Milanese in 1710, was versed in the Greek and Latin languages. Died in 1743. Manzuoli, mSn-zoo-o'lee, (Tommaso,) an able Italian painter, born near Florence in 1536, was also called Maso da San Friano. He adorned several churches of Florence. His master-piece is the " Visitation," which is preserved in the gallery of the Vatican. Died in 1575. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. Mapes, map,? or Map, (Walter,) an old English author, born in the Welsh marches about 11 50. He became a favourite of Henry II., who sent him on a mis- sion to the King of France and gave him several bene- fices. In 1 196 he was appointed Archdeacon of Oxford. He wrote satirical Leonine Latin poems, among which is an ode which begins " Meum est propositum in taberna mori." In Latin prose he wrote a curious and interesting work called " De Nugis Curialium." He was the re- puted autlior of several romances in French or Anglo- Norman. See G. Phillips, " W. Map, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte Konig Heinrichs IL von England," 1853. Maphaeiis. See Maffei and Maffeo. Mapletoft, ma'pel-toft, (John,) an English physician, born in LIuntingdonshire in 163 1. He was appointed professor of medicine in Gresham College, London, in 1675. About 1680 he took holy orders. He translated into Latin Sydenham's "Observations," at the request of the author, and wrote "The Principles and Duties of the Christian Religion." Died in 1721. Mapp, mtp, [Lat.^MAP'pus,] (Marc,) a French bot- anist and physician, born at Strasburg in 1632. He wrote a mediocre " Description of the Plants of Alsace." Died in 1701. Mappus. See Mapp. Maquet, mt'ki', (Auguste,) a French novelist, born in Paris in 1813. He was author (in part) of a number of works which were published under the name of Alex- andre Dumas. Among these is " Monte-Cristo." Mar, Earl of. See Erskine, (John.) M^ra, mi'ra, a famous deva of the Hindoo mythology, mentioned in the history of Gautama, (which see.) Mara, m^'rS, originally named Schmelling, (Eliza- beth,) a celebrated German singer, was born at Cassel in 1749. She was a pupil of Paradisi, and became the wife of J. Mara, a violoncellist of Berlin. Between 1784 and 1787 she appeared four times as first vocalist at the Handel Commemoration, and was gi'eatly admired. She afterwards performed with applause in Paris and Berlin. She sang in four languages. Died in 1833. See Grosheim, "Das Leben der Kiinstlerin Mara," 1823. Mara, de, deh mi'rt', (Guillaume,) a priest and Latin poet, born in the diocese of Coutances, France, about 1470; died about 1530. Maracci. See Marraccl Maracci, mi-rSt'chee, or Marracci, mSr-rlt'chee, (GiovANNL) an Italian historical painter, born at Lucca in 1637, was a pupil of Pietro da Cortona. Died in 1704. Marais, mt'ri', (Marin,) a French musical composer, was born in Paris in 1656. Among his works is an opera entitled "Alcyone," (1706.) Died in 1728. Marais, (Mathieu,) a French jurist and writer, born in Paris in 1664. He wrote some articles for Bayle's " Historical and Critical Dictionary," and a " Life of La Fontaine," (1811.) Died in 1737. Marais, des. See Regnier-Desmarais. Maraldi, ma-rSKdee, (Jacques Philippe,) an as- tronomer, born at Perinaldo, in the county of Nice, in 1665, was a nephew of Giovanni Domenico Cassini, under whom he studied astronomy in Paris. About 1700 he was elected to the French Academy of Sciences. He spent many years in astronomical observations, and in forming a Catalogue of the fixed stars, which he left in manuscript when he died, in 1729. See Farroni, "Vitas Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" Fonte- NELLE, " filoge de Maraldi." Maraldi, (Jean Dominique,) a nephew of the pre- ceding, was born at Perinaldo in 1 709. He became assistant astronomer at the Paris Observatory, and made many observations, which were inserted in the collection of the Academy of Sciences. Died in 1788. Maran, mSV6N', [Lat. Mara'nus,] (Dom Prudent,) a learned French Benedictine monk, born at Sezanne in 1683. He wrote a " Dissertation on the Semi-Arians," and edited the works of Saint Cyprian. Died in 1762. Marana, mS-r^'ni,(GiovANNi Paolo or Giampaolo,) an Italian writer, born at Genoa about 1642. He was imprisoned four years (1670-74) for a political reason. About 1682 he removed to Paris, and obtained a pen- sion from the king. In 1684 he published, in French, the first volume of " The Turkish S])y," (" L'Espion Turc,") which was very successful. " The Turkish vSpy," says Hallam, " is no ordinary production, but contains as many proofs of a thoughtful, if not very profound, mind, as any we can find. It suggested the Persian Letters to Montesquieu." He puljiished a second volume in 1686. Died in 1693. Marangoni, mS-rSn-go'nee, (Giovanni,) an Italian antiquary, born at Vicenza in 1673. He wrote a learned treatise on the Flavian Amphitheatre, and "Thesaurus Parochorum." Died in 1753. Maransin, mfrSN^s^N', (Jean Pierre,) Baron, a French general, born at Lourdes in 1770 ; died in 1828. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MARANTA 1518 MARCEL Maranta, mi-rilt/ta, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian bot- anist and physician, lived at Venosa, in the kingdom of Naples. He assisted Ferrante Imperato in writing his " Natural History," and wrote an esteemed elementary work on botany, entitled " Methodus Cognoscendorum Medicainentorum simpliciuni," (1559.) "The author," says Hallam, " is independent, though learned, extremely acute in discriminating plants known to the ancients, and has discovered many himself." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died about 1554. See TiRABOSCHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Maranus. See Maran. Marat, mt'rt', (Jean Paul,) a notorious Jacobin demagogue, born near Neufchatel, in Switzerland, in 1744. He practised medicine in Paris before the Revo- lution, and published many treatises on electricity, optics, etc. In 1789 he incited the populace to anarchy and bloodshed by his journal "The Friend of the Peo- ple," (" L'Ami du Peuple.") Among the Jacobin leaders he was probably the mo«;t rancorous enemy of the royal- ists and the Girondists. In 1792 he was elected to the Convention, and, uniting with Danton and Robespierre, formed the bloody triumvirate of the reign of terror. He became a self-constituted public accuser before the commune and the Convention. In May, 1793, the ma- jority of the Convention ordered his arrest for outrages committed against that assembly. He was tried, but was acquitted by the tribunal and brought back to the Convention in triumph by the mob. "The hesitation of Danton," says Lamartine, "and the temporizing of Robespierre, raised Marat at this moment to the apogee of his popularity and power. He shrugged his shoulders at the names of Danton and Robespierre, expressing his doubts of their capacity to guide the Revolution." He WJS assassinated by Charlotte Corday in his own house in July, 1793. (See Corday, Charlotte.) See, also, Desmarest, "Vie de Marat deptiis 1789;" Val- tOuiSE, "Marat," 1840; " Skizzen aus Marats Leben," Hamburg, 1846; Paul Lacroix, "Marat Philosophe, Naturaliste," etc., 1854; Thiers, " History of the French Revolulion." Maratta, m^-rit'ti, or Maratti, mi-rit'tee, (Carlo,) an Italian painter, born at Camurano, in the March of Ancona, in May, 1625, enjoyed in his time the reputation of being one of the best painters in Europe. He became a pupil of Andrea Sacchi and a devout student of Ra- phael's works, and chose Rome as his jjermanent resi- dence. He was employed by Clement IX. and by four other successive popes, and received the title of painter- ordinary to Louis XIV., for whom he painted a picture of Daphne. His Madonnas are admired for modest dignity and amiable expression. He preferred to paint pictures for galleries and altars, rather than large works. Maratta also excelled in the art of etching. He was the last great painter of the Roman school. Died in 1 713. See Bei.lori, "Vita del Cavalier Maratti," 1732; Lanzi, "His- tory of Painting in Italy;" Pascoi.i, "Vite de' Pittori inoderni ;" Ticozzi, " Dizionario ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Maratta or Maratti, (Maria,) a daughter of the preceding, was a painter and a poetess. She was mar- ried to G. Zappe, the poet. Maratti. See Maratta. Maraviglia, mi-ri-veKyi, (Giuseppe Maria,) an Italian philosopher and moralist, born at Milan. His Latin name was Miraiulia. Died in 1684. Marazzoli, mS-rit-so'lee, (Marco,) an Italian com- poser of operas and oratorios, born at Parma ; died in 1662. Marbach, maR'blK, (Johann,) a German Protestant theologian, born at Lindau in 1 52 1. Among his works is " The Faith of Jesus and of the Jesuits," (" Fides Jesus et Jesuitarum.") Died in 1581. Marbeau, mtR'bo', (Jean Baptiste Francois,) a French writer on social economy, born at Brives in 1798. He founded in 1844 charitable institutions called Creches, for infants whose mothers serve as labourers out of their own houses. Mar'beck, (John,) an English composer of cathedral music, was organist of Windsor in the reign of Henry VHI. He coinposed the notes to the /'rd'c^j and Re- sponses used in the English cathedrals. Having iden- tified himself with the Protestant cause, he was con- demned to be burned for heresy about 1545, but was pardoned, — perhaps on account of his musical skill. He published a "Book of Common Prayer Noted," (1550,) and a "Concordance." Died in 1585. See Hawkins, " History of Music." Marbeuf or Marboeuf, mtR'buf, (Louis Charles Ren6,) Marquis, a French general, born near Rennes in 1712. He commanded in Corsica against Paoli, by whom he was defeated in 1768. Died in 1786. Marbois, mtR^bwi', ( Francois de Barbe— deh btR'bi',) Marquis, called also Marquis de Marbois, a French statesman and writer, born at Metz in 1745. About 1780 he was charge-d'affaires and consul-general to the United States. In 1792 Louis XVI., who esteemed him for his probity, sent him on an embassy to Vienna. He was elected in 1795 to the Council of Elders, in which he spoke often and with ability. In September, 1797, he was, with others, deported to Guiana by the Directory. Bonaparte appointed him director of the treasury, or min- ister of finance, in 1801. Marbois was dismissed in 1805, but in 1808 became first president of the Cour des Comptes, (Chamber of Accounts, or exchequer.) He held this office about thirty years. He was keeper of the seals and minister of justice in 181 5 and 1816, and received the title of marquis in 181 7. He wrote numerous moral, political, and historical works, among which are "The Conspiracy of Arnold against the United States," (i8r6,) and a "History of Louisiana," (1828.) Died in 1837. See Antoine Passy, " Notice sur le Marquis de Barbe-Marbois," 1838; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Marbot, mtn^bo', (Antoine Adolphe Marcellin,) a French general, born at Altillac in 1781 ; died in 1844. Marbot, (Jean Baptiste Antoine,) a general, born at Altillac in 1782, was a brother of the preceding. Na- poleon left him a legacy of one hundred thousand francs. Died in 1854. Marc, the French for Mark, which see. Marc, mtRk, (Charles Chretien Henri,) a physi- cian, born at Amsterdam in 1 771, settled in Paris in 1798. About 1 818 he became physician to the Duke of Orleans, who, on his accession as Louis Philippe, in 1830, gave him the title of first physician to the king. He wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on Insanity," (" De la Folic," etc., 2 vols., 1840,) and published several able medical treatises. Died in 1841. See Pariset, " filoge de Ch. Ch. H. Marc," 1842; Reveill^- Parisse, "Notice sur C. C. H. Marc," 1842. Marc, Saint. See Mark, Saint, and Marcus. Marc Antoine, the French for Mark Antony. See Antonius, (Marcus.) Marc Antonio. See Raimondl Marc Aurel, the German for Marcus Aurelius. Marc Aurele. See Aurelius, (Marcus.) Marca, de, deh mtk^kt', (Pierre,) an ambitious and learned French prelate, born in Bearn in 1594. At the request of Cardinal Richelieu, he wrote his famous treatise on the liberty of the Galilean Church, entitled "De Concordia Sacerdotii et Imperii," (1641,) which offended the court of Rome. He was made Bishop of Toulouse in 1652, minister of state about 1658, and Archbishop of Paris in 1661. Among his works is a " History of Bearn." Died in 1662. See Dr Facet, "Vie de Pierre de Marca;" Bompart, "filoge de Marca," 1672. Marceau, mtR's5', (FRANgois S^vertn De.sgra- VIERS,) a French general, born at Chartres in 1769. He entered the army in 1786, and becatne a general of brigade at the age of twenty-two. In 1793 he obtained the chief command of the army sent against the Ven- deans, whom he defeated at Mans. In 1795 and 1796 he commanded a division on the Rhine and in the Palati- nate, where he gained advantages over the Austrians. He was killed in battle near Altenkirchen in 1796. Kleber, who was his friend, said, "I have never known any general so capable as Marceau to change the plan of battle on the spot with sang-froid and judgment." See Claude Desprez, "Kleber et Marceau," 1857; Lavalt.^, "filoge liistorique du General Marceau," 1797; Sergent-Mar- CEAU, " Notice sur le General Marceau," 1820. Marcel. See Marcellus L, Bishop of Rome. fi, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mfit; ndt; good; moon; MARCEL MJRCELLUS Marcel, nitR's^K, (firiENNE,) a French partisan chief and agitator of reform, was provost of the merchants of Paris when King John was defeated and made prisoner at Poitiers, in 1356. He became the leader of the popular party in its contest with the dauphin Charles, who acted as regent. Marcel was predominant in Paris, and con- trolled a majority in the States-General, which refused to vote supplies for the war unless their grievances should be redressed. A revolution was effected which rendered the government almost repul:)lican. Having given the command of Paris to Charles the Bad, of Navarre, he was betrayed by him, and was assassinated in 1358. See Naudet, "Conjuration d'fitienne Marcel," etc. ; FroIssart, " Chroniqiie ;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Frangais." Marcel, (Guillaumr,) a French chronologist, born at Toulouse in 1647. He negotiated a treaty with the Dey of Algiers in 1677. He published valuable "Chro- nological Tablets," and a " History of the Origin and Prog'ress of the French Monarchy," (1686,) which is commended for accuracy in dates. Died in 1708. Marcel, (Guillaiimf.,) a French writer and priest, born about 1612, He wrote Latin and French verse, etc. Died in 1702. Marcel, (Jean Joseph,) an eminent French Orien- talist and historian, born in Paris in November, 1776. He went to Egypt in 1798 as a member of the scientific commission, and, having returned to France in 1801, was selected as one of the redactetance, considered in its Relations with Poetry, Eloquence, and the Fine Arts," (" La Gaule poetique," etc., 1813.) Died in 1826. Marchant, mtR'shSN', (Nicolas,) a French botanist, was one of the founders of the Academy of Sciences, (1666.) Died at Paris in 1678. Marchant, (Nicolas Damas,) Baron, a French antiquary and physician, born in 1767; died in 1833. Marche, de la, deh It tntRsh, (Olivier,) a poet and chronicler, born in Burgundy in 1426. He served Charles the Bold as captain of his guards, and was made prisoner at the battle of Nancy, (1477.) He was afterwards mattre-d'hStel (steward) of Mary of Burgundy and her son Philip. He wrote, in French, " Historical Memoirs," (of events which occurred from 1435 to 1492,) which are considered valuable and candid. He also wrote several poems, one of which is called " Le Chevalier delibere, ou la Vie de Charles le Temeraire." Died in 1501. See CoMiNES, "Memoires;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Marchena, maR-cha'nS, (Jos6,) a Spanish litterateur, born in Andalusia in 1768, went to France about 1790. Bei^ig an expert linguist, he was employed as secretary by General Moreau, (i 798-1804.) He' translated into Spanish Moliere's " Tartuffe," Rousseau's "£mi]e,"and other works. Died in 1821. Marches!, maR-ka'see, or Zaganelli, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Cotignola. He lived about 1520, and worked at Ravenna. Marches!, (Girolamo,) a painter, was born about 1480. He painted portraits and history at Rome and Naples. Vasari dates his death about 1550. Marchesi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1699; died in 1771. Marchesi, (Pompeo,) an able Italian sculptor, born in 1790, was a pupil of Canova. Among his works are a marble statue of Goethe at Frankfort, and a Saint Am- brose at Milan. Died at Milan in 1858. Marchetti, maR-ket'tee, (Alessandro,) an eminent Italian poet and professor, was born at Pontormo. in a, e, T, 6, u, y, lon^; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; ndt; gootl; moon ; MARCHETTI MARCUS Tuscany, in 1633. He was professor of philosophy at Pisa from 1659 to 1679. In the latter year he obtained the chair of mathematics at Pisa. He published an able treatise " On the Resistance of Solids," and other works on physics and mathematics. His reputation rests chiefly on his Italian versions of Anacreon and Lucretius. The version of Lucretius, in sciolti, or blank verse, is generally admired for fidelity and elegance. He wrote, also, short original poems. 13ied in 1 7 14. See Francesco Marchetti, "Vita di A. Marchetti," 1755; Fa- BRONi, '"Vits Italoruni doctrina excellentium ;" Niceron, "Me- moiies;" Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Marchetti, ( GiovAxNNI, ) an Italian ecclesiastical writer, born at Empoli in 1753. He defended the cause of the pope in some of his numerous works. Among these is a " Critique on Fleury's History of the Church," (2 vols., 1782.) Died in 1829. Marchetti, (Giuseppe Salvagnoli — sil-vin-yo'lee,) an Italian poet, born near Empoli in 1799. He com- posed several small poems, and translated Virgil's Eclogues into Italian verse. Died in 1829. Marchetti, (Marco,) called Marco da Faenza, a Bkilful Italian painter, born at Faenza; died in 1588. Marchettis, di,dee maR-ket'tess, (Pietro,) an Italian writer on surgery, born at Padua in 1593. He published *' Sylloge Observationum Medico-Chirurgicarum," (1664, often reprinted.) Died in 1673. Marchi, da, dimaR'kee, (Francesco,) a distinguished Italian engineer, born at Bologna about 1506. He served the King of Spain as military engineer in Flanders for thirty years, and made inventions in fortification. His reputation was founded on a work entitled " On Forti- fication," (Della Architettura militare," 1599.) Died about 1599. See Marini, "Vita di F. Marchi," 1810; Ginguene, " Histoire de la Litteiature Italienne." Marchin, de, deh mtR'shix', (Ferdinand,) Count, sometimes written Marsin, a French general, born in 1656. He was sent on an embassy to the King of Spain in 1 701. He returned to France in 1 703, and was raised to the rank of marshal. At the battle of Blenheim (1704) he was second in command, and, after Tallart was made prisoner, conducted the retreat in good order. He com- manded under the Duke of Orleans at the great battle of Turin, (1706,) where the French were defeated by Prince Eugene and Marchin was killed. See Saint-Simon, " Memoires ;" De Courcelles, "Diction- naire des Generaux Fran^ais." Marchini, maR-kee'nee, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian ecclesiastic, born at Vercelli in 17 13. He pub- lished a " Treatise on the Divinity of the Sacred Books," and other works. Died in 1774. Marchione (maR-ke-o'ni) of Arezzo, a mediaeval Italian sculptor and architect, flourished about 1200. One of his works, the church of Santa Maria della Pieve, is extant at Arezzo. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. Marchmont, Earl of. See Hume, (Sir Patrick,) and Hume, (Hugh Campbeli.) Marcia or Martia (mar'she-a) Gens, a Roman gens, originally patrician, claimed to be descended from Ancus Marcius. The family of Coriolanus belonged to this gens. Marcian, mar'she-an, [Lat. Marcia'nus ; Gr. Map/c«- avbq; Fr. Marcien, mtR'se-SN',] Emperor of the East, was born of obscure parents in Thrace about 390 a.d. He had risen by his merit to a high rank in the army when Theodosius the Younger died, in 450. He then accepted from Pulcheria, a sister of Theodosius, the offer of her hand, and became emperor. His reign was wise and peaceful. He refused to pay the tribute demanded by Attila, King of the Huns, saying, "I have gold for my friends, and iron for my enemies." He died, without issue, in 457 a.d., and was succeeded by Leo I. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire." Marcianus. See Marcian. Marcianua, mar-she-a'nus, (2E1.IUS,) a Roman jurist, who wrote in the reigns of Septimius Severus and Cara- calla. He survived the latter, who died in 217 a.d. The Digest contains many excerpts from his " Institutiones," his " Publica Judicia," and other works. See Oelrichs, " De Vita ^Elii Marciani," 1754. Marcianus of Heracleia, (in Pontus,) [Fr. Mar- cien d'H^racl^e, mtR^se-iN' dk'rt'kli',] a Greek geographer, who is supposed to have lived in the fourth century. He wrote a "Periplus of the External Sea, both Eastern and Western," of which fragments have come down to us and are esteemed valuable. See Ukert, " Geographie der Griechen und Romer." Marcien. See Marcian. Marcile. See Marcilius. Marcilius, mar-see'le-us, [Fr. Marcile, mtR^s^l',] (Theodorus,) a Dutch philologist, born at Arnhem in 1548. He was professor of rhetoric in several colleges of Paris from 1578 to 161 7. He published notes on Persius, Horace, Lucian, and other classics, and wrote " Lusus de Nemine," (1586,) a poem, and a "History of New- Year's Gifts," (" Historia Strenarum," 1599.) Died in 1617. See P. Valens, " Marcilii Elogium," 1620. Marcion, mar'she-on, [Gr. Map/ci'wv,] a celebrated heresiarch of the second century, was born at Sinope, in Pontus. Having been excommunicated for some youthful fault, he went to Rome about 140 a.d. He devised a new creed or system, which was accepted by numerous disciples (Marcionites) and was opposed by Tertullian, Origen, and other Fathers. He taught the existence of two original principles, — the authors of good and evil, — and ascribed the Mosaic law to the evil principle. He also rejected a large part of the New Testament. See TiLi.EMONT, "Memoires ecclesiastiques Lardner, " His- tory of Heretics ;" ScHEi.r.iNG, " Dissertatio de Marcione," 1795; Neander, " History of the Christian Church :" Cave, " Historia Literaria ;" Tertullian, "Contra Marcionem." Marck, de la, deh It maRk, (Guillaume,) a Flemish chief, born in 1446, was noted for his ferocity, and was surnamed THE Wild Boar of Ardennes. He assas- sinated the Bishop of Liege, and ravaged Brabant, but was defeated by the archduke Maximilian. He then made an alliance with Rene of Lorraine in order to re- new the war. Maximilian caj^tured him, and put him to death in 1485. William de la Marck is a conspicuous character in Scott's romance of "Quentin Durward." Marck, de la, (Robert,) Count, was master of the duchy of Bouillon and of Sedan. He was an ally of France in the war against the Austrians. He was driven out of his dominions by the armies of Charles V., but was restored by the treaty of Madrid, (1526.) Died in 1535. His son Robert became marshal of France. (See Fleuranges.) Marco Calabrese, maR'ko kS-lS-bRa'si, an Italian painter of the Neapolitan school, flourished from 1508 to 1541. His proper name was Cardisco. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." Marco da Faenza. See Marchetti, (Marco.) Marco da Forli. See Palmegianl Marco Polo. See Polo. Marconville, de, deh mtR^k^NV^l', or Marcou- ville, mtR'koo'v^K, (Jean,) a French writer, born in Le Perche about 1540. Among his works are a "Treatise on the Origin of the Diversity in the Opinions of Men," and one " On the Goodness and Depravity of Women," (" La Bonte et Mauvaistie des Femmes.") Marcot, mtk'ko', (Eustache,) a French physician, born at Montpellier in 1686. He became first physician- in-ordinary to the king. Died in 1755. Marculfe, mar'kulf, a French monk, who is supposed to have lived about 650 a.d. He formed a collection of formulas of contracts, deeds, and public acts which were used and approved in his time. This collection is valued as a monument of French history and jurisprudence. Mar'cus, [Fr. Marc, miRk,] a native of Rome, was elected Pope or Bishop of Rome, in place of Sylvester, in 336 A.D. He died about nine months after his elec- tion, and was succeeded by Julius I. Marcus Aurelius. See Aurelius Antoninus. Mar'cus Grae'cus (gree'kus) passes for the author ot a Latin work on the art of destroying enemies by fire, (" Liber Ignium ad Comburendos Hostes,") a manuscript of which is said to be found in the Royal Library of « as 9 as s; g hard; g as g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (2!^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) 96 MARCr 1522 MARGARET Paris. No ancient writer mentions him, and nothing is known of his history. G. Fournier (of the " Biographic Universelle") conjectures that he wrote near the close of the thirteenth century, and thinks the " Liber Ignium" is a rather bad version of a Greek original. " It is a tissue of errors," he adds, "and a collection of recipes, one or two of which give almost exactly the composition of gunpowder." See F. HoEFEK, " Histoire de la Chimie." Mar'cy, (Randolph B.,) an American general, born in Massachusetts about 1812, graduated at West Point in 1832. He became a captain in 1846, and colonel in 1861. He served as chief of the staff of the army of the Potomac in 1862, under General McClellan, his son-in- law. Marcy, (William L,,) a distinguished American statesman of the Democratic party, born at Southbridge, Massachusetts, in 1786. Having graduated at Brown University in 1808, he studied law at Troy, New York. He entered the army as lieutenant on the breaking out of the war of 1812, and distinguished himself in several engagements in Canada. About 1820 he became editor of the "Troy Budget," a Democratic journal, and in 1823 was elected comptroller of the State. He became a United States Senator in 183 1, and was chosen Governor of New York in 1832, 1834, and 1836. He was a candi- date in 1838, but was defeated by Mr, Seward. He was appointed by President Polk secretary of war in March, 1845, and displayed much ability in this position, which was rendered more arduous by the occurrence of the Mexican war. He retired from office in March, 1849, after which he passed four years in private life. He supported General Cass in the Presidential election of 1848, and was secretary of state in the cabinet of Presi- dent Pierce from March 4, 1853, to March 4, 1857. During this period he gained a high reputation as a diplomatist. He died at Ballston Spa on the 4th of July, 1857. Mar-do'ni-us, [Gr. Map^oviof,] an able Persian gen- eral, was a son-in-law of Darius Hystaspes. In 492 B.C. he commanded a large armament sent by Darius against the Grecian states. Having lost a great part of his fleet in a storm, he returned without success. In 481 he held a high command in the expedition which Xerxes led against the Greeks. After the Persians had been defeated at Salamis, (480 B.C.,) Xerxes returned home, leaving 300,000 men under Mardonius, who captured Athens without much resistance. He was defeated and killed at Plataea in 479 B.C. by the army of Pausanias. See Grote, "History of Greece;" Herodotus, "History," books vi.-ix. Mare, de la, deh It mtR, (Nicolas,) a French magis- trate, born near Paris in 1639. He wrote a "Treatise on the Police," ("Traite de la Police," 4 vols,, 1707-38.) Died in 1723, Mare, de la, (Philibert,) a French historical writer, born at Dijon in 1615. He wrote " De Bello Burgundico," (1641,) and other works. Died in 1687. Marec, mt'rgk', (Pierre,) a French legislator, born at Brest in 1759, was a moderate member of the Conven- tion, (1792-95.) He rendered valuable services in the committees of finance and marine. Died in 1828. Marechal, mt'ri^shtK, (Georges,) a French surgeon, born at Calais in 1658. He was appointed in 1703 first surgeon to Louis XIV. He wrote several valuable treat- ises on surgery. Died in 1736. Marechal, (Laurent Charles,) a French painter on glass, born at Metz about 1800, adorned many of the grand churches of France with windows of painted glass. Marechal, (Pierre Sylvain,) a French litteratetcr, born in Paris in 1750, is said to have been an atheist. He published a " Dictionary of Atheists," (1800,) and many other works. His chief production is " Travels of Pythagoras in Egypt, Chaldea, India," etc., (" Voyages de Pythagore en Egypte," etc., 6 vols., 1799,) which dis- plays much learning and research. Died in 1803. See Lalande, "Notice sur S. Marechal," 1803; " Nouvelle ]?iographie G^n^iale." Marenco, mS-rSn'ko, (Vincenzo,) an Italian poet, born near Mondovi in 1752. He wrote "Osiris, sive De Legum Origine," (1797,) and other poems. Died in 1813. Marenzeo, mi-rSn'ze-o, (LucA,) an eminent Italian composer, born at Brescia about 1550. His works are principally madrigals, which are esteemed models of ten- derness and harmony. Died in 1599. Marescalchi, mS-res-kaKkee, (Ferdinando,) an Ital an diplomatist, born at Bologna in 1764. He was employed in 1803 to negotiate a treaty between the Italian republic and the court of Rome. Died in 1816. Marescalco, mS-rgs-kiKko, (Pietro,) sometimes called La Spada, a painter of the Venetian school, born at Feltre, lived about 1500. Marescot, de, deh mS'rgs'ko', (Armand Samuel,) Count, a skilful French military engineer, born at Tours in 1758. He was appointed first inspector-general by Bonaparte in 1800, and was made a count in 1804. Died in 1831. Maresius. See Desmarets, (Samuel.) Marestier, mt'rgs'te^i', (Jean Baptiste,) an able French engineer and naval architect, born at Saint-Ser- van about 1780. He constructed the first steamboat used by the military marine for the service of seaports. He published a "Treatise on the Steamboats of the United States," etc., (1824,) Died in 1832. Maret, mt'ri', (Hugues,) a learned French physician and writer, born at Dijon in 1726. He was a corre- sponding member of the Academy of Sciences, Paris, and a friend of the celebrated chemist Guyton de Mor- veau. One of his sons was the Duke of Bassano, noticed below. Died in 1786. Maret, (Hugues Bernard,) Duke of Bassano, an able French statesman and diplomatist, born at Dijon in 1763. He studied law in Paris, and in 1789 reported the debates of the National Assembly in a daily "Bul- letin." This was soon united with the " Moniteur," which owed its success to the reports of Maret. Under the new regime he was rapidly advanced in the depart- ment of foreign affairs, and was sent on missions to England and Naples in 1793. On his way to Naples he was arrested by the Austrians, and confined in a dun- geon about two years. From 1800 to 181 1, as secretary- general, or secretary of state, he directed the home department with great credit, had a large share of Bona- parte's confidence, and accompanied him in his cam- paigns. In 1811 he was appointed minister of foreign affairs, and received the title of Duke of Bassano. On the return of Bonaparte from Elba, Maret became again his secretary. He was restored to the rank of a peer of France in 183 1, and in 1834 was minister of the interior for a short time. He had been admitted into the Institute (Academic Fran9aise) in 1803. Died in 1839. See "Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale ;" Las Cases, "Memorial de Sainte'Helene." Maret, (Jean Philibert,) a French surgeon, born at Dijon in 1705; died in 1780. Marets, des. See Desmarets. Marezoll, ml'rgt-soK, (Gustav Ludwig Theodor,) a German jurist, born at Gottingen in 1794. He was the author of several legal works. Mar'ga-ret of Anjou, [Fr. Marguerite d'Anjou, mtR'gR^t' dbn'zhoo' ,] a daughter of Rene of Anjou, Duke of Lorraine, was born in Lorraine in 1429. She was married in 1445 to Henry VI., King of England, and, in consequence of his imbecility, had the principal share in the government. In the ensuing contest be- tween the houses of York and Lancaster, her troops were several times victorious over the former ; but they suffered a fatal defeat at Towton in 1461. After several unsuccessful efforts to repair her fortunes, Margaret was again defeated and made a prisoner at Tewksbury by Edward IV. in 147 1. She was ransomed by the French king, Louis XT., and passed the remainder of her life in France, where she died in 1481. See Agnes Strickland, "Lives of the Queens of England;" Abbe Provost, "Histoire de Marguerite d'Anjou," 2 vols., 1750; Louis Lallemand. "Marguerite d' Anjou-Lorraine," 1855; J. J. Roy, " Histoire de Marguerite d'Anjou," 1857. Margaret of Austria, [Ger. Margarethe von Oestreich, maR-gi-ra'teh fon ost'rlK,] daughter of Max- imilian, Emperor of Germany, and Mary of Burgundy, was born at Ghent w 1480. She was betrothed when a child to Charles VTTI. of France. But he refused to keep the engagement, and married in 1491 Anne, the a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; \ k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; filr, {1.11, ftt; mSt; nflt; good; moon; MARGARET 1523 M ARGON heiress of Brittany. Margaret was married in 1497 to Don Juan, Infant of Spain, son of Ferdinand and Isa- bella, who survived but a few months. She was again married in 1501 to Philibert the Handsome, Duke of Savoy, who died in 1505. In 15 17 Margaret was ap- pointed by her father ruler of the Netherlands, in which post she displayed signal ability. She had a part in the League of Cambray, formed in 1508 by the principal European powers against Venice. She died in 1530, leaving a number of works in prose and verse, including her "Correspondence," which was published in 1839, (2 vols.) See MuN'CH, "Leben Margarethes," 1833; Altmeyer, "Vie de Marguerite d'Autriche," in the "Revue Beige," 1839; P- J- d'Avoine, " Essai historique sur Marguerite d'Autriche," 1849. Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Parma, born at Brussels in 1522, was a natural daughter of Charles v.. Emperor of Germany. She was married in 1533 to Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence, and after his death to Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma. In 1599 she was appointed Governor of the Netherlands by Philip II. of Spain. This difficult post she occupied till 1567, when she resigned it to the Duke of Alva. The cele- brated Alexander Farnese, afterwards Duke of Parma, was her son and only child. See Motley, "History of the Dutch Republic;" Prescott, "History of Philip II.;" Schiller, "Geschichte des Abfalls der Niederlande." Margaret, [Danish, Margarethe, maR-gl-ra'teh,] daughter of Waldemar III., King of Denmark, born at Copenhagen in 1353, was married in 1363 to Haquin, King of Norway. In 1376 she was appointed Regent of Denmark during the minority of her son Olaus, then but five years old. On the death of Haquin, in 1380, she be- came Queen of Norway, and, her son dying in 1387, the Danes also acknowledged her as their sovereign. Soon after this, Margaret engaged in a war with Albert, King of Sweden, against whom his subjects had rebelled. Her army defeated the Swedes and captured Albert, (1388,) who obtained his liberty only by renouncing the crown of Sweden. At an assembly of the estates of the three kingdoms, held at Calmar in 1397, the famous treaty called "the Calmar Union" was formed. By this it was agreed that Sweden, Denmark, and Norway should in future be united under one sovereign, and Eric VII., nephew of Margaret, was appointed her successor. Died in 141 1. See SuHM, "Historic af Danmark;" Magnus, "Gothorum His- toria;" WiCHMANN, "Margarethe Dronning til Danmark Norge og Sverrig," 1824. Margaret [Fr. Marguerite, mtR^gR^t'] of France, daughter of Francis I., born in 1523, was distinguished for her learning and accomplishments and her patron- age of literature. She was married in 1559 to Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy. Died in 1574. See Brantome, "Vies des Dames illustres;" M^zeray, " His- toire de France." Margaret of France, or of Valots, [Fr. Margue- rite de Valois, mtR^R^f deh vtKwi',] a daughter of Henry II. and Catherine de Medicis, was born in 1553. She had respectable talents, but little virtue. In 1572 she was married to Henry of Navarre; but love apparently had no part in this fatal alliance. During the festivities that followed the marriage, the perfidious court of Charles IX. ordered the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew. She had lived separately from her hus- band some years before he became Henry IV. of France, and their union was formally dissolved about the year 1600. Died in 1615. See MoNGES, "Histoire de la Reine Marguerite de Valois," etc., 1777 : Brantome, "Vies des Dames illustres." Margaret, Queen of Navarre, originally Margaret of Angoulime, fFr. Marguerite d'Angouleme, mtR^gR^t' ddN'goo'lf m',] daughter of Charles, Count of Angouleme, and Louise of Savoy, and sister of Francis I., was born in 1492. She was married in 1509 to Charles, Duke of Alen9on, who died in 1525, and in 1527 she became the wife of Henry d'Albret, King of Navarre. She was distinguished for her beauty, talents, and supe- rior culture, and exercised great influence in the govern- ment of her brother, Francis I., to whom she was warmly attached. The mildness and toleration she displayed towards the Protestants, and particularly her protection of Calvin, brought upon her the imputation of heresy from the Catholic party. She was the author of nume- rous w^orks in prose and verse, among which may be named the " Heptameron," a collection of tales in the style of Boccaccio's " Decamerone," and a devotional treatise entitled "Mirror of the Sinful Soul." She died in 1549, leaving a daughter, Jeanne d'Albret, afterwards the mother of Henry IV. of France. See Brantome, "Vies des Dames illustres;" Sismondi, "His- toire des Frangais ;" Miss Freer, "Life of Marguerite, Queen of Navarre," 1855; Victor Durand, "Marguerite de Valois et la Cour de Frangois I," 2 vols., 1848; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1842. Margaret of Provence. See Marguerite. Margaret, Saint, [Lat. Sanc'ta Margari'ta ; Fr. Sainte-Marguerite, siNt mtR'gR^t',] a virgin of An- tioch, supposed to have suffered martyrdom in 275 A.D. According to tradition, she was solicited in marriage by Olibrius, governor of Antioch, and on her refusal was tortured and put to death by his order. This legend has formed the subject of Milman's " Martyr of Antioch," and of numerous works of art. See Baillet, "Vies des Saints;" Mrs. Jameson, "Sacred and Legendary Art." Margaret, Saint, daughter of Edward, a Saxon prince, and sister of Edgar Atheling, was born in 1046. She was married about 1070 to Malcolm III., King of Scotland, and died a few days after the death of her husband and son, who fell in battle in 1093. See Saint ./Elred, "Vita Sanctse Margarita;" Baillet, "Vies des Saints." Margaret of Scotland, daughter of James I., was married in 1436 to the Dauphin of France, afterwards Louis XI. Died in 1445. See Sismondi, "Histoire des Fran9ais;" Duclos, "Histoire de Louis XI." Margarit, maR-gi-r^', or Marguerit, de, di maR- gi-r6t', (Jos6,) Marquis d'Aguilar, a Spanish soldier, born in Catalonia in 1602, was a prominent leader in the insurrection of that province against the Spanish government in 1640. He was afterwards appointed Governor of Catalonia by Louis XIII. Died in 1685. Margarit or Marguerit, de, (Juan,) a Spanish car- dinal, born at Girona about 1415, rose to be chancellor of Aragon. He wrote a history of Spain, entitled " Para- lipomenon Hispaniae." Died in 1484. Margarit, (Pedro,) was educated at the court of Ferdinand V. He sailed with Christopher Columbus in 1492, and discovered the archipelago to which he gave the name of Marguerite Isles. Margaritone, maR-gi-re-to'ni, an Italian painter, sculptor, and architect, born at Arezzo about 1236. His pictures were executed in fresco on wood and on copper, and he sculptured in wood as well as marble. His monument to Pope Gregory X., in the cathedral of Arezzo, is ranked among his best works. Died about 1313- See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters, Sculptors," etc.; Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Margeret, mtRzh'ri', (Jacques,) a French officer, born in Burgundy. He entered the Russian service, which he exchanged about 1610 for that of Poland. He wrote an "Account of the Russian Empire, etc. from 1590-1606," (in French, 1607,) which was translated into Russian. Marggraf, maRg'gR^f, (Andreas Sigismund,) an eminent German chemist, born in Berlin in 1709. He was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1738, and director of the class of physics about 1762. He was an ingenious and sagacious experimenter, and wrote many able treatises or memoirs, which were inserted in the records of the Academy of Berlin. He made the important discovery that sugar can be procured from the beet. Died in 1780. See F. Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chimie ;" " Nouvelle Biogra- phie Generale." Marggraf, (Georg.) See Marcgraf. Margon, de, deh mtR'g6N', (Guillaume Plantavit de la Pause,) Arb6, a French satirist, born near Beziers about 1685. He wrote several controversial works, dis- tinguished for their virulence and bitter personalities, t: as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as G, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (2!:^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MJRGUERIE 1524 MAR I ALVA and directed alternately against the Jesuits and the Jan- senists. ])ie(l in 1760. Marguerie, mtRg're', (Jean Jacques,) a French mathematician and writer, born near Caen in 1742. He served as lieutenant in the navy against the British in 1778-79, and was killed near Grenada in 1779. Marguerit. See Margarit. Marguerite. See Margaret. Marguerite de Provence, mtR^R^t' deh pRo'- v6nss', daughter of Raymond lierenger, Comte de Pro- vence, born in 1221, was married in 1234 to Louis IX., King of France, commonly called Saint Louis. She accompanied him in his expedition to Egypt, and while in Damietta gave birth to a son. She died in a convent in 1295. See JoiNViLLE, "Memoires ;" Guillaume de Nangis, "Vie de Saint-Louis." Marguerittes,mtR'gR^t', (Jean Antoine Teissier,) a French dramatist and royalist, born at Nimes in 1744, was a deputy to the Constituent Assembly. He was executed by the terrorists in 1794. Margunius, maR-goo'ne-iis, or Marguiiio, maR- goo'ne-o, (Maximus,) a modern Greek prelate and scholar, born in the island of Candia about 1525. He founded a printing-office at Venice, where he published numerous editions of the Greek classics, remarkable for their accuracy. In 1585 he was appointed Bishop of Cerigo. He wrote " Anacreontic Hymns," and several ecclesiastical works. Died in 1602. Marheineke, maR-hT'neh-keh, (Philipp Konrad,) a German Protestant theologian of high reputation, born at Hildesheim in 1780, became successively professor of theology at Erlangen, Heidelberg, and Berlin. He pub- lished a " History of the Reformation in Germany," (4 vols., 1816,) " Christian Symbolics," and several philo- sophical works, in which he favours the system of Hegel. Died in 1846. Maria, the Latin of Mary and Marie, which see. Ma-ri'a of Austria, a daughter of the archduke Philip the Handsome and Joanna of Aragon, vvas born at Brussels in 1503. She was married in 152 1 to Louis II., King of Hungary and Bohemia, and after his death was appointed by her brother, Charles V., ruler over the Netherlands. Soon after the abdication of the emperor she resigned her office and retired to Spain, where she died in 1558. See Lanz, " Correspondenz Karls V. ;" Brantome, "Vies des Dames illustres. " Maria, mS-ree'l, II., (da Gloria, dS glo're-S,) daugh- ter of Don Pedro, Emperor of Brazil, and Leopoldine, Archduchess of Austria, was born at Rio Janeiro in 1819. Her father succeeded to the throne of Portugal in March, 1826, but renounced his right in favour of Dona Maria. Her uncle Don Miguel usurped the throne about May, 1828, and was supported by the absolutist party. A civil war ensued, Don Miguel was defeated, and Dona Maria became queen about September, 1833. She married Duke Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Kohary in April, 1836. Her reign was disturbed by emeutes and insurrections. She died in November, 1853, and was succeeded by her son, Pedro V. Maria, m^-ree'^, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter and architect, surnamed Falconetti, born at Verona in 1458. He formed a lasting friendship with the celebrated Louis Cornaro, in whose household he lived for twenty-two years. Died in 1534. Maria, di, de mS-ree'S, (Francesco,) a Neapolitan painter, born in 1623, was a pupil of Domenichino. Died in 1690. Ma-ri'a El-e-o-no'ra of Brandenburg, daughter of John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg. She was married in 1620 to Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, whom she accompanied in his campaigns in Germany. Died in 1655. See Geijer, " History of Sweden," (translated by Turner.) Maria Leszczynska, mS-ree'd Igsh-ch^ns'skS, daughter of Stanislas Leszczynski, King of Poland, was born in 1703, and was married in 1725 to Louis XV. of France. Died in 1768. See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XV;" Proyart, "Vie de Marie Leszcinska." Maria Louisa, ma-rl'aloo-ee'za, [Fr. Marie Louise, mt're' loo'^z',] daughter of the emperor Francis I. of Austria and Maria Theresa of Naples, was born at Vienna in 1791. She was married in 1810 to Napo- leon I., Emperor of France, to whom she bore a son in March, 1811. On the abdication of Napoleon, in 1814, she retired to Vienna, and in 1816 the allied powers gave her the duchy of Parma. She was pri- vately married to Count Neipperg, her chamberlain. Died in 1847. See " Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale." Maria Theresa, mS-ree'a ti-ra'sl, [Fr. Marie Th6- RfesE, mt're' ti'r^z',] daughter of Philip IV. of Spain, was married in 1660 to Louis XIV. of France. (See Louis XIV.) Maria Theresa, ma-ri'a te-ree'si, [Fr. Marie Th:6- RESE, mt're' tk'rkz' ; It. Maria Teresia, mS-ree'S tk- ra'se-S,] daughter of Charles VI., Emperor of Germany, and Elizabeth Christina of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel, was born in May, 1 71 7. She was married in 1736 to Francis, Duke of Lorraine. Charles VI. having died in 1740, his daughter succeeded him on the throne of Germany, in accordance with the act called the Pragmatic Sanction. Her title was soon disputed by the Electors of vSaxony and Bavaria and the Kings of Prussia, Spain, and Sar- dinia, each claiming some portion of Germany in the name of the Austrian princesses with whom they were connected. Maria Theresa immediately repaired to Vi- enna, where she received the homage of her Austrian states, and thence proceeding to Presburg was crowned Queen of Hungary in 1 741. She received offers of as- sistance from Frederick II. of Prussia on condition of her ceding to him Lower Silesia, but she firmly refused. Her capital being soon after threatened with a siege by the Elector of Bavaria and his French allies, the empress convoked the Hungarian Diet at Presburg, where, with her infant children, she said to the deputies that, "being assailed by enemies on every side, she had no hopes ex- cept in their loyalty, and she had come to place under their protection the daughter and son of their kings." The Hungarian nobles responded with enthusiasm to this appeal, and drew their swords, exclaiming, " We will die for our king, Maria Theresa !" (" Moriamur pro rege nostro, Maria Theresia !") The French and Bavarians were soon driven out of her hereditary states by the Imperial forces under General Kevenhuller and Prince Charles of Lorraine. In 1742 a treaty of peace was concluded between Maria Theresa and the King of Prussia, by which the latter obtained Silesia. The Elec- tor of Bavaria, who had been previously chosen Emperor of Germany under the name of Charles VII., having died in 1745, Francis, the husband of Maria Theresa, was elected to that dignity. In 1746 the Imperialists gained important victories in Italy, and defeated the French and Spaniards at Piacenza. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, put an end to the war of the Austrian succession, leaving the empress in possession of all her hereditary estates except Silesia. The Seven Years' war, carried on by Prussia against France, Russia, and Austria, ter- minated in 1763, leaving the boundaries of Austria and Prussia the same as before. The emperor Francis having died in 1765, his son Joseph was elected to the imperial dignity ; but Maria Theresa still retained the administration of the government. She is said to have refused to take any part in the partition of Poland (1772) until prevailed upon by the representations of Joseph II. and Prince Kaunitz. Among the important reforms of her reign was the abolition of the torture (1776) and of feudal service. She also abolished the Inquisition at Milan, and suppressed the order of Jesuits. She died in November, 1780, and was succeeded by her son, Joseph II. See Paolo Frisi, " Elogio di Maria Teresia," 1783; Sabatier DE Castres, "Abreg^ de la Vie de Marie Therese,"_i773 ; Rich- TER, " Lebens- iind Staatsgeschichte Mariae Tberesiae," 3 vols., 1745; Duller, "Maria Theresia und ihre Zeit," 1844; Rauten- STRAUCH, " Biographic der Kaiserin Maria Theresia," 1780; Rrn- ner, " Maria Theresia und Friedrich der Grosse," 1831 ; Wolf, "Oestreich unter Maria Theresia," 1855; "Nouvelle Biographic Gene rale." Marialva, m^-re-kVvk, (Dom Joao Coutinho — ko-t^n'yo,) Count, a Portuguese officer, fought under a , e, T, 6, u, y, /on£-; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s^ori; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, fit; mgt; n6t; good; moon; MAR I Air A 1525 MARIE Alphonso V. against the Moors in Africa, and was killed while assisting in the capture of Arzilla, in 1471. Marialva y Menezes, mi-re-iKvi e mi-na'z^s, (Antonio Luiz,) Count de Castanhede, an able Portu- guese general and statesman, born about 1627. In 1659 he gained a signal victory over the Castilians at Elvas, and soon after became principal minister of state, Marquis of Marialva, and lieutenant-general of the armies of the kingdom. Died about 1668. See Laclede, " Histoire de Portugal." Ma-ri-am'ne, [Gr. Mapm/zv??,] a beautiful Jewess, a granddaughter of the high-priest Hyrcanus II., became in 38 B.C. the wife of Herod the Great, who, when he departed from his capital to meet Octavian, gave secret orders that she should be put to death in case he did not return in safety. • This secret having been revealed to her, she received him coldly on his return, and excited his jealousy, which was increased by the intrigues of Herod's sister Salome, who suborned the royal cup- hearer to testify that Mariamne designed to poison the king. She was put to death in 29 B.C. This story is the subject of one of Voltaire's tragedies. See JosKPHUs, " History of the Jews;" Smith, " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography." Mariana, de, d^ ml-re-J'ni, (Juan,) an eminent Spanish historian, born atTalavera in 1536. He studied at Alcala, and, having entered the order of Jesuits, was appointed professor of theology in their college at Rome, (1560.) He returned to Spain in 1574, where he passed the remainder of his life in retirement, devoted to literary pursuits. He published in 1599 his "Treatise on Roy- alty," ("De Rege et Regis Institutione,") in which he maintains that it is lawful in certain cases to put a king to death. This work caused a great sensation, particu- larly in France, where it was denounced by the Sorbonne, and soon after the assassination of Henry IV. it was publicly burned by order of the Parliameur. In 1592 he brought out his great work entitled " Historia de Rebus Hispaniae," ("History of Spain,") which was received with great favour and was soon after translated by him into Sjianish. His Latin style is characterized by great elegance and animation, and has been compared to that of Livy ; while his Spanish history is generally esteemed the most admirable work of the kind in the language. " Noble, pure, and rich without diffuseness, it unites with rare felicity," says a French critic, "the picturesque vivacity of the chroniclers with the dignity of history ;" and Ticknor, in his " History of Spanish Literature," observes, "Its admirably idiomatic style, so full yet so unencumbered, so pure and yet so rich, renders it, if not the most trustworthy of annals, at least the most remarkable union of picturesque chronicling with sober history that the world has ever seen." Mariana also published a treatise "On Weights and Measures," "On Death and Immortality," and other learned works, in Latin, and an essay entitled "De las Enfermedades de la Compania y de sus Remedios," ("On the Disorders of tlie Society [of Jesuits] and their Remedies," 1625,) in which he boldly exposes and condemns the errors of the Jesuits. Died in 1623. See I'icKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature ;" Tamajo (or TAMAYfA UE Vargas, "Vida del P. Juan Mariana;" N. Antonio, " Bihliotheca Hispana Nova;" Acosta, "Vida de Mariana;" F. BuCHHOi.z, "J. de Mariana, oder Entwickeiungsgeschichte eines Jestiiten," 1804; Bouterwrk, "Histoire de la Liiterature Espa- gnole;" and L. Joubert's excellent article in the " Nouvelle Bio- grapliie Generale." Mariani, mS-re-i'nee, (Camillo,) an Italian sculptor and painter, born at Vicenza in 1565 ; died in 161 1. Mariani, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian painter, born at Ascoli about 1650. Among his master-pieces is a " Bajitism of Saint James," at Rome. Ma-ri-a'nus Sco'tus, a Scottish chronicler, born in 1028, is said by Matthew of Westminster to have been a relative of the Venerable Bede. His principal work is a " Universal Chronicle from the Creation to the Year 1083," (in Latin.) Died in 1086. See Vossius, "De Historicis Latinis." Marichi, ma-ree'chi, a celebrated Hindoo sage or demi-god, was, according to one account, the son of Brahma, — according to another, the son of Bhrigu. He was the father of Kasyapa. By some he is considered as the god of "light," which appears to be the etymo- logical signification of his name. See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon ;" " Institutes of Manu," chap. i. Marie, the French for Mary, which see. Marie, mt're', (Alexandre Thomas,) a French ad- vocate and republican, born at Auxerre in 1795. He was minister of public works from February to June, 1848, and minister of justice from July to December of that year. He was elected to the Corps Legislatif in 1863. Died in 1870. Marie Adelaide de Savoie, mt're' t'di'lt'W deh st'vwi', daughter of Victor Amadeus, Duke of Savoy, born at Turin in 1685, was married in 1697 to the Duke of Burgundy, grandson of Louis XIV. of France. She died in 1 712, leaving one son, afterwards Louis XV. See Saint-Simon, "Memoires de Louis XIV," etc.; Madame de Maintenon, " Lettres." Marie Amelie de Bourbon, mt're' t'mi'le' deh booR'boN^, Queen of France, born near Naples in 1782, was a daughter of Ferdinand I., King of the Two Sici- lies. She was married in 1809 to the Duke of Orleans, afterwards King Louis Philippe. After his death she retired to England, where she resided at Claremont, near London. Died in 1866. Marie Anne Christine Victoire de Baviere, mtfre' tn kR^s't^n' v^k'twiR' deh bt've^aiR', daughter of Ferdinand, Elector of Bavaria, was born at Munich in 1660. In 1680 she was married to Louis, the Dauphin of France, son of Louis XIV. She died in 1690, leaving three sons. Marie Antoinette Josfephe Jeanne d'Autriche, mS^re' 6N'twS.'net' zho''zif' zhtn do'tR^sh', (commonly called simply Marie Antoinette,) born at Vienna in 1755, was the daughter of Maria Theresa and the em- peror Francis I. of Germany. She was married in 1770 to the Dauphin of France, afterwards Louis XVI. liigh-spirited and energetic, she strove during the revolutionary troubles to inspire the king with her own courage ; but her counsels often led him into greater difficulties. It was her misfortune and the misfortune of France that she resisted all those reforms which might have prevented or moderated the violence of the Revo- lution. Possessing extraordinary personal charms and great vivacity of disposition, the freedom of her manners was often misconstrued by her enemies ; but their accu- sations are generally believed to have been groundless. During the terrible scenes which followed the captivity of the royal family, she displayed the greatest firmness and dignity, showing on all occasions more concern for her husband and children than for herself. After the fall of the Girondists, Marie Antoinette was condemned to death by the Jacobins, and executed in October, 1793. (See Louis XVL) See Madame Campan, " Memoirs of the Court of Marie Antoi- nette ;" " Memoires de Mademoiselle Berlin sur la Reine Marie Antoinette ;" Madame Vigee-Lebrun, " Souvenirs," 1835 ; Thiers, " Histoire de la Revolution Frangaise ;" Lamartine, " History of the Girondists ;" Weber, " Memoires concernant Marie Antoinette," 1822. Marie Clotilde Adelaide Xaviere de France, mt^re' klo'teld' t'di'lt'ed' zi^ve-aiR' deh fR6Nss, sister of Louis XVI., born at Versailles in 1759, was married in 1775 to the Prince of Piedmont, afterwards Charles Emmanuel, King of Sardinia. Died in 1802. Marie de Bourgogne. See Mary of Burgundy. Marie de Guise. See Mary of Guise. Marie de I'lncarnation, mfre' deh 15,N'ktR'na'- se-6N', a French missionary, whose original name was Guyard, born at Tours in 1599, visited Canada in 1639, where she made many converts among the Indians, and founded a convent of her order. Died in 1672. See " Vie de la Mere Marie de I'lncarnation," by P. Ch/.rle- voix. Marie de Lorraine. See Mary of Guise. Marie Madeleine. See Magdalene. Marie de Medicis, mt're' deh mi'de^s^ss', or Maria de' Medici, mS^-ree'i d^ mid'e-chee, the daughter of Francis, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and the archduchess Joan of Austria, was born at Florence in 1573. She was married in 1600 to Henry IV. of France. She had moderate abilities, but exorbitant ambition ; and her ob- stinacy and violent temper were the source of constant € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Sl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MARIE 15 26 MJRINEO dissension between her and her husband. On the death of Henry she became regent, for which office she proved herself utterly incompetent. Having given offence to her subjects by her partiality for unworthy favourites, she was deposed and imprisoned, but, effecting her escape, again took part in the government. She introduced Richelieu into the administration, who soon possessed himself of the highest power, and induced her son, Louis Xni., to imprison her (1630) at Compiegne. After a second escape, she died at Cologne in 1642. See Miss Pardoe, "Life of Marie de' Medici;" Richelieu, *' Memoires ;" Sismondi, " Histoiredes Frangais ;" RuAU, " Tableau de la Regeiice de Marie de Medicis," 1615. Marie d'Orleana, mt^re' doR^li'Sw', {Marie Chris- tine Caroline Adelaide Fran^oise LAopoldine de Valois, mt're' kR^s't^n' kt'ro^l^n' t'di'lt'^d' fRdN'swSz' li'o'poKd^n' deh vtKwS.',) Duchess of Wurtemberg, born at Palermo in 1813, was the youngest daughter of Louis Philippe, King of France. Having early mani- fested a love for the arts, she studied sculpture and de- sign under Ary Scheffer. Among her works the statue of Joan of Arc is the most generally admired. She was married in 1837 to Duke Alexander of Wurtemberg. Died in 1839. Marie Therese. See Maria Theresa. Mariette, mt're'^t', (Auguste £douard,) a cele- brated French archaeologist, born at Boulogne in 1821. Having acquired a knowledge of Egyptian hieroglyphics, he was charged in 1850 with a scientific mission to Egypt, where he discovered the site of the city of Mem- phis and disinterred the temple of Serapis and a ne- cropolis of vast extent. In this were found the granite sarcophagi of the bulls of Apis, hewn out of a single stone, fifteen feet long, nine in width, and the same in height. He also removed the sand from the colossal Sphinx, which was cut entire from a rock. He published, about 1856, a work on the monuments discovered during the disinterring of the Serapeum at Memphis, a specimen of a larger work which he has in preparation. Mariette, (Jean,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1660, executed a number of prints after Poussin and Le Brun. Died in 1742. Mariette, (Pierre Jean,) son of the preceding, born in Paris in 1694, was one of the most distinguished ama- teurs of his time, and became director of the Imperial Gallery at Vienna. He was a member of the Academy of Painting in Paris, and of the Academy of Design at Florence. He published, among other works, a " Treat- ise on the Engraved Gems of the Royal Cabinet." Died in 1774. See DuMESNiL, " Histoire des plus cdlfebres Amateurs Frangais," 1856 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Marignano, mS-r^n-y^'no, written also Melegnano, [Fr. Marignan, mt'r^n'ySN',] (Gian Giacomo,) Mar- quis de Medichino, a celebrated Italian soldier, born at Milan in 1497. He entered the service of the emperor Charles V., who sent him in 1540 to reduce the city of Ghent, of which he was afterwards appointed governor. He took an active part in the siege of Metz, in 1552, and was subsequently employed by the grand duke Cosimo de' Medici to suppress the revolt in the republic of Sienna, where he ravaged the country and was guilty of great barbarity towards the inhabitants. Died in 1555. See De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis ;" Brantome, "Vies des grands Capitaines;" Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes;" Misagi.ia, "Vita del Marchese di Marignano," 1605; Robertson, " History of Charles V.," book xi. Marignie, de, deh mt'r^n'ye-^', (Jean Etienne Franqois,) a French litteratetir^ born in Languedoc about 1755, was one of the most zealous defenders of Louis XVI. in the National Convention. He published a num- ber of dramas and political treatises. Died about 1830. Marigny, de, deh mt'r^n'ye', (Abel FRANgois Pois- son — pwS's^N',) Marquis, a French architect, born in Paris in 1727, was a brother of Madame de Pompadour, through whose influence he was appointed in 1 75 1 di- rector-general of the royal buildings. Died in 1781. Marigny, de, (Enguerrand,) a French statesman, filled several high offices under Philippe le Bel, and attained the rank of prime minister. Soon after the ac- cession of Louis X., he was condemned to death on the false accusations of his enemies, and executed about 13 15. Marigny, de, (FRANgois Augier,) a French Orien- talist and historian, born about 1690. He produced a "History of the Twelfth Century," (5 vols., 1750,) and a " History of the Arabs under the Government of the Caliphs," (4 vols., 1750.) Died in Paris in 1762. Marigny, de, (Gaspard Augustin Ren^: Bernard,) a French officer, born at Lu5on in 1754, was one of the royalist chiefs in the Vendean war. He was condemned to death by his own party for alleged neglect of duty, and executed in 1794. Marigny, de, (Jacques Carpentier, ) a French priest, noted for his wit, born near Nevers. He wrote several poems, and Letters, (1678.) Died in 1670. Marillac, de, deh mt're'ySk', (Charles,) an able French negotiator, born in Auvergne about 1 5 10. He was chosen Archbishop of Vienne, and conducted suc- cessfully some important negotiations in Germany and Rome. He was at the head of a small number of French bishops known by their tendency to a philosophic spirit. Died in 1560. Marillac, de, (Louis,) a nephew of the preceding, was born in Auvergne in 1572, He served with distinc- tion in the armies of Henry IV., and was made a mar- shal of France in 1629. Being afterwards suspected of conspiring against Cardinal Richelieu, he was executed, on a charge of peculation, in 1632. See " Proces du Marechal de Marillac," etc., 1633; Richelieu, "Journal." Marillac, de, (Michel,) a French statesman, brother of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1563, He was appointed by Cardinal Richelieu keeper of the seals, (1626.) Having subsequently incurred the enmity of the cardinal, he was imprisoned at Chateaudun in 1630, where he died in 1632. Marin. See Marinus of Tyre. Marin, mt'riN', a French mechanician, and a native of Lisieux, invented the air-gun, which he exhibited in the presence of Henry of Navarre. Marin, (Franqois Louis Claude,) a French Uttira- teiir, born in Provence in 1721. Among his principal works is a " History of Saladin, Sultan of Egypt," etc. Died in 1809. Marin, (Michel Ange,) a French ecclesiastic and devotional writer, born at Marseilles in 1697. He pub- lished " Lives of the Hermits of the East," (3 vols. 4to, 1 761,) and numerous other works. Died in 1767. See Chaudon, " filoge historiquedu Pere M. A. Marin," 1769. Marina, mi-ree'ni, Malinche, ml-l^n'chk, written also Malintzin, the daughter of a Mexican chief, born about 1505, was sold as a slave, and subsequently fell into the hands of Cortez, whom she accompanied in all his expeditions. She possessed rare beauty and talents, and, from her knowledge of the Spanish as well as Mexican languages, was of great service as an inter- preter. After the death of Cortez, she was married to Don Juan de Xamarillo, a Spanish officer. Marina has been celebrated by the Spanish poet Moratin in his " Noves de Cortes." See Bernal Diaz, "Historia de la Conquista del Mexico;" Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Mexico," book ii. Marina, m^-ree^ni, (Don Francisco Martinez,) a Spanish political writer of the liberal party, born about 1757. He published the " Theory of the Cortes," (1821,) " Discourse on the Origin of the Spanish Monarchy," etc., and other works. Died in 1833. See Prescott, "History of Ferdinand and Isabella." Marinali, mi-re-nd'lee, (Orazio,) an Italian sculptor, born at Bassano in 1643 ; died in 1720. Marinari, m^-re-ni'ree, (Onorio,) a Florentine painter, born about 1660, was a pupil and imitator of Carlo Dolce. Died in 1715. Marinas, de las, di lis mi-ree'nis, (Enriquez,) a Spanish painter, born at Cadiz in 1620, was celebrated for the excellence of his marine views, from which he derived his surname. Died in 1680. Marinella, mi-re-nel'li, or Marinelli, mi-re-nei'lee, (Lucrezia,) an Italian poetess, born at Venice in 1571. She wrote, besides other works, " Life of the Virgin Mary," ("Vita di Maria Vergine," 1617.) Died in 1653. Marineo, mi-re-na'o, (Lucio,) a Sicilian scholar and historian, born at Bidino about 1460. He became chap- a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, r, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; filr, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; MARINI 1527 MARIUS lain and historiographer to Ferdinand V. of Spain, and was also distinguished by the favour of the emperor Charles V. He wrote several works on Spanish history, (in Latin.) Died about 1535. Marini, ma-ree'nee, (Benedetto,) an Italian painter, born at Urbino, lived about 1625. Mariui, (Gaetano Luigi,) an Italian antiquary, born at San Arcangelo in 1740. He wrote several valuable works, one of which is entitled "Acts and Monu- ments of the Rural Brothers," etc., (2 vols., 1795.) Died in 1815. Marini or Marino, mS-ree'no, (Giambattista,) an Italian poet, born at Naples in 1569, was a friend of Tasso. He produced " Adonis," and many other poems, which were greatly admired by his contemporaries, but are marred by affected conceits and extravagant meta- phors. He passed several years in Paris, and received a pension from Queen Marie de Medicis. Died in 1625. See Baiacca, "Vita del Cavalier Marino," 1625; F. Chiaro, •'Vita del Cavalier Marino," 1626; Loredano, "Vita del Cavalier Marino," 1633; Camola, "Vita di G. B. Marini," 1633; Poppe, "Vita J. B. Marini," 1771; Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Lives of the Italian Poets," by the Rev. Henrv Steb- BING, London, 1831. Marini, (Giovanni Ambrogio,) an Italian writer, born at Genoa about 1594. He wrote two popular romances, entitled " II Caloandro fedele" and " Quarrels of the Desperadoes," (" Le Gare de' Desperati.") Died about 1650. Marini, (Giovanni Antonio,) a Piedmontese phy- sician and writer, born in 1726 ; died in 1806. Marini, (Giovanni Filippo,) an Italian Jesuit and missionary, born near Genoa in 1608. He resided four- teen years at Tonquin, and published a valuable work entitled "A New and Curious Account of the Kingdoms of Tonquin and Laos," (1666.) Died in 1677. Marino. See Marini, (Giambattista.) Marinoni, mi-re-no'nee, (Giovanni Giacomo,) an Italian mathematician, born at Udine in 1676. He was appointed court mathematician by the emperor Leopold I., and drew a plan of Vienna and its environs. He was one of the founders of the Academy of Military Science at Vienna in 171 7, and subsequently built at his own expense an observatory, which is esteemed one of the best in Europe. He published several scientific works. Died in 1755. Ma-ri'nus, [Gr. Maptvof,] a native of Samaria, studied philosophy at Athens under Proclus, whom he succeeded as a teacher in 485 a.d. His only work extant is a " Life of Proclus." See Vossius, "De Historicis Graecis." Ma-ri'nus, Saint, [It. San Marino, sin m^-ree'no; Fr. Saint-Marin, sIn mt'riN',] an ecclesiastic of the fourth century, was a native of Dalmatia, and lived as a hermit near Rimini, in Italy. The miracles said to have been wrought at his tomb drew thither many pilgrims, who in time built a town called San Marino, which for ten centuries has formed the centre of a little republic. See Baillet, "Vies des Saints." Marinus of Tyre, [Fr. Marin de Tyre, mt^r^N' deh t^R,] a Greek geographer, who lived about 150 a.d. His works were highly esteemed by his contemporaries, but none of them are extant. See Ukert, "Geographie der Griechen und Romer." Mario Nuzzi. See Fiori, de', (Mario.) Marion, mt're'6N', (Elie,) a leader of the Camisards in France, born in 1678, was the author of several re- ligious works and so-called prophecies. Mar'i-on, (Francis,) a celebrated American general of the Revolution, was born in South Carolina in 1732. Soon after the breaking out of the war he entered the army, and assisted in the defence of Sullivan's Island against the British in 1776. The enemy having taken possession of Georgia and besieged Charleston, Marion raised a brigade of soldiers, at the head of whom he carried on for more than three years a guerilla warfare, often attended with brilliant successes, and baffling all the attempts of the British generals to effect his capture. Died in 1795. See the " Life of General Marion," by P. Horrv and M. L. Weems, and the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Ameri- cans," vol. iii. Marion Delorme. See Delorme. Marion - Dufresne, mt're'6N' dii^frin', (Nicolas Thomas,) a French navigator, born at Saint-Malo in 1729, sailed on a voyage of discovery to the South Sea in 1 771. Soon after landing at New Zealand, Marion was treacherously murdered by the natives, together with the greater part of his men, (1772.) Marion du Mersan, mt're'6N' dii m^R^sSN', (Th^o- phile,) a French antiquary and dramatist, born in 1780, published a great number of popular comedies and prose essays on various subjects. Died in 1849. Mariotte, mt're'ot', (Edme,) an eminent French mathematician and physicist, was a resident of Dijon. He was one of the earliest experimental philosophers in France, and discovered the law of elastic fluids called by his name. Among his principal works are his " Dis- course on the Nature of Air," (1676,) "Treatise on the Movement of Waters," (1690,) "Experiments on the Colours and Congelation of Water," and an " Essay on Logic," which is highly commended by Condorcet. Died in 1684. See Condorcet, " Eloges des Academiciens," etc. ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generaie." Mariti, mi-ree'tee, (Giovanni,) an Italian traveller and writer, born at Florence in 1736, visited the isle of Cyprus, Syria, and Palestine, and published in 1769 an account of his journey, which was translated into French, German, and Swedish. Died in 1806. Maritz, mi'rits or mi'r^ts', (Jean,) a Swiss mecha- nician, born at Berne in 17 11, invented a machine for boring and turning cannon. For this service he was ennobled by the French government. Died in 1790. Mariuccia. See Marozia. Ma'ri-us, (Caius,) a Roman general, distinguished for his splendid talents, indomitable energy, and unprin- cipled ambition, was born near Arpinum (now Arpino) in 157 B.C. His parents were poor and plebeian. He served under Scipio Africanus at the siege of Numantia, and was chosen tribune of the people in 119. He ob- tained the praetorship in 115, though strongly opposed by the patrician party, and about the same time married Julia, an aunt of Julius Caesar. Having accompanied Metellus as legate and second in command into Africa, (109 B.C.,) he won such popularity by his skill and bravery that he was elected consul for 107 B.C. and intrusted with the command of the Jugurthine war. He defeated Jugurtha, who was made prisoner in 106. In 104 B.C. Marius was again chosen consul, as being the only one capable of defending the state from the threatened in- vasion of the Teutones and Cimbri. He defeated the barbarians at Aix, (Aquae Sextiae,) in Gaul, in 102 B.C. Having been elected consul the next year, for the fifth time, Marius, in conjunction with Catulus, gained a sig- nal and overwhelming victory over the Cimbri in the plain of Vercellae, (Vercelli.) By the aid of the tribune Saturninus, Marius became consul for 100 B.C., in spite of the determined hostility of the patricians. During this consulate an agrarian law was passed, and Metellus Numidicus was exiled for refusing to conform to it. On the expiration of his term of office, Marius went to Asia, under the pretext of sacrificing to Cybele, but really in order to excite Mithridates to a war with Rome, that he n\ight again distinguish himself in his congenial element. In 90 B.C. both Marius and Sulla entered the service of the consuls Octavius and Cinna in the Marsian or Social war ; but, jealous of the reputation of his rival, the former soon resigned. Sulla, having become consul in 88 B.C., obtained the command in the Mithridatic war, upon which Marius, assisted by his friends, caused a law to be passed transferring it to him. He was soon driven from the city by Sulla and his adherents, and forced to take refuge in Africa. When Sextilius, Gov- ernor of Libya, sent him orders to leave the country, on pain of being treated as an enemy, Marius replied to the messenger, " Go tell him that you have seen the exile Marius sitting on the ruins of Carthage." The next year, while Sulla was absent in Greece, Marius, joined by the consul Cinna, entered Rome and ordered a general massacre of the opposite party. Among the patricians who perished was M. Antonius, the orator so highly praised by Cicero. Marius and Cinna became € a« 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^'See Explanations, p. 23. ) MARim 1528 MARLBOROUGH consuls, (86 B.C.,) but the former was attacked by a fever, of which he died the same year. See Plutarch, "Life of Marius ;" George Long, "Life of Marias," London, 1844; Merimee, " ]£tiides sur I'Histoire Ro- maine," etc. ; Sallust, "Jugurtha;" F. Weiland, " C. Marii sep- ties CoiisuHs Vita," Berlin, 1845 : P. Ekerman, "Dissertatio de C. Mario septies Consule," 1742; Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman P>iography;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Marius, (Caius,) nephew and adopted son of the pre- ceding, took refuge, after the proscription of his uncle, with Hiempsal, King of Numidia. He was made consul in 82 B.C., and signalized himself by many acts of in- justice and cruelty. Having been defeated by Sulla, he caused himself to be killed by one of his officers. See Plutarch, "Marius." Marius, (Marcus Aurelius, ) one of the Thirty Tyrants of Gaul, was, on the death of Victorinus the Younger, chosen emperor by the army. He was assas- sinated about 268 A.D., after a reign of a few months. Marivaux, de, deh mS're\o', (Pierre Carlet de Chamhlain,) a French novelist and dramatic writer, born in Paris in 1688. His principal works are his ro- mances entitled "Marianne" and " Le Paysan parvenu," which enjoyed great popularity at the time, and were among the first novels which delineated real life and manners. He also wrote a number of comedies. The affected style and false sentiment of these productions have given rise to the term marivaudage. " Never," says La Harpe, "did any one turn common thoughts in so many ways, each more affected than the last ;" and Voltaire, admitting that Marivaux knew "the paths to the heart," maintains that "he was ignorant of the high- road." He was elected to the French Academy in 1743, having Voltaire for a competitor. Died in 1763. See Voltaire, " Correspondance avec D'Alembert ;" Grimm, " Correspondance litteraire;" La Harpe, " Lycee ;" Villemain, " Histoire de la Litterature Frangaise au dix-huitieme Siecle ;" Sain ie-Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale.'* Marivetz, de, deh mi're'vk', (Etienne Clement,) Baron, a French savant, born at Langres in 1728, pub- lished several treatises on phvsics. etc. He was executed, by order of the Revolutionary Tribunal, in 1793. Marjolin, mtR^zho'liw', (Jean Nicolas,) a French writer and surgeon, born in 1780; died in 1850. Mark, f Gr."Map/co? ; Lat. Mar'cus; It. Mar'co ; Fr. Marc, maRk,] Saint, the Evangelist. He was a coinpanion of Saint Peter in his travels, (see I. Peter v. 13,) and is supposed to have planted the Church at Alex- andria. The early Christian writers believed that he was the interpreter of Saint Peter, and that he wrote his Gospel in Greek, under the direction and with the appro- bation of that apostle. Saint Augustine thought it was an abridgment of the Gospel of Matthew. According to tradition, he suffered martyrdom in Egypt in 68 a.d. By many critics he is identified with John surnamed Mark, who was a companion of Paul and Barnabas in their mission to the Gentiles about 45 a.d., (Acts xii. 12, 25, xiii. 13, XV. 37,) and who was in Rome with Paul in 63 A.D. See Colossians iv. 10; IL Timothy iv. 11. Markham, mark'am, (Gervase,) an English soldier and miscellaneous writer, born in Nottinghamshire about 1570, served in the royalist army in the civil war. He was the author of a tragedy entitled " Herod and Antipater," "The Poem of Poems, or Sion's Muse," etc., and other works. Died about 1655. See Warton, " History of English Poetry;" Langbaine, "Dra- matic Poets;" Drake, " Shakespeare and his Times." MarkTand, (Jeremiah,) an eminent English scholar and critic, born in Lancashire in 1693. He published editions of the " Sylvae" of Statins (1728) and the "Snpplices" of Euripides, which are esteemed master- pieces of acute criticism. He also assisted Dr. Taylor in preparing his editions of Demosthenes and Lysias, and ]niblished " Remarks on the Epistles of Cicero to Brutus," etc., in which he attempts to prove them spu- rious. Died in 1776. See Nichols and Bowyer, "Literary Anecdotes." Markof, maR'kof, Markov, or Markow, (Arcadi Ivanovitch.) Count, a Russian diplomatist. On the accession of Alexander I. he was appointed minister- plenipotentiary to France, (1800.) Marlborough, miKbur uh, (popularly called in French Malkrouk, mtl'brook' ; Sp. Mamhru, mSm- broo',) Duke of, originally John Churchill, an English general, whose military genius and triumphs have been equalled by those of few men of modern times, was born at Ashe, in Devonshire, June 24, 1650. He was the son ot Sir Winston Churchill and of Elizabeth Drake. His education was rather defective. He received from nature an eminently handsome person, a bland temper, and all the qualities essential to a successful general and cour- tier. In 1672, with the rank of captain, he served in the army which fought in alliance with France against the Dutch. His bravery in this and the ensuing campaigns attracted the favourable notice of Turenne and Louis XIV. At the peace of 1678 he returned to England, and married Sarah Jennings, whose talents and impe- rious temper enabled her to exert an important influence over his political conduct. He was the favourite attendant and confidential agent of the Duke of York before his accession as James II., in 1685 ; and soon after that event he was raised to the peerage, as Baron Churchill of Sandridge. Having contributed to the defeat of Monmouth at Sedge- moor, he was made a major-general. His wife was the favourite of the king's daughter. Princess Anne, over whom she had a complete ascendency. In the combi- nations and intrigues which preceded the revolution of 1688, Lord Churchill acted with deep duplicity. After secretly committing himself to the cause of William of Orange, he professed his devotion to James in Novem- ber, 1688, and, a few days later, deserted to the stronger party. He was created Earl of Marlborough on the accession of William HI., (1689,) and made a lord of the bedchamber. He commajided the English forces employed against the P'rench in the Low Countries in 1689, and led a suc- cessful expedition against Cork and Kinsale in Septem- ber, 1690. While he was thus trusted by William and hated as an arch-traitor by the Jacobites, he opened a treasonable correspondence with the dethroned king, who was at Saint Germain's. According to Macaulay, he undertook to corrupt the army, with which his bril- liant successes and winning manners rendered him a favourite in spite of his sordid avarice. The country being apprised of this plot, he was deprived of his offices in January, 1692, and committed to the Tower a few months later. Though he was quickly admitted to bail, he passed the next four years in disgrace. About the end of 1696 he was restored to his military rank and command, and admitted to the privy council. (Respecting Macaulay's charges against Marlborough, see J. Paget's "New Examen," 1861, and the "Quarterly Review" for April, 1868.) In 1 701, William took Marlborough to Holland, gave him command of his army, and invested him with ample powers to negotiate with the allies in relation to the im- pending war of the Spanish succession. He displayed here the sagacity and address of a consumntate diplo- matist. The accession of Queen Anne, in March, 1702, opened to him a brilliant career of glory abroad and power at hoine. He became conmiander-in-chief of the allied army, and at the end of the campaign in Flanders, December, 1702, was created Duke of Marlborough. About this time he and Prince Eugene began to act in concert, and formed a cordial friendship, which greatly promoted the success of the allies. Among their most celebrated achievements was the decisive victory at Blen- heim over the French marshal Tallard, August 13, 1704. Marlborough gained a great victory at Ramillies in 1706, and shared with Eugene the triumph at Oudenarde in 1708. The allies also claimed the victory over Mar- shal Villars at Malplaquet, (1709,) although their loss amounted, it is said, to 25,000 men. During these foreign transactions, Godolphin, the duke's personal and political friend, had been the head of the English Tory ministry. The Tories, who had the warm sympathy of the queen, wished to discontinue the war, and fomented intrigues against Marlborough. His duchess, a zealous Whig, with much importunity pre- a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; k, d, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, .6, u, y, s/iori; ^, ?, j, 9, obscuu; f3j, (iLll, f^t; m^t; ndt; good; moon; MARLBOROUGH 1529 MARMONTEL vailed on him to coalesce with the Whigs, who insisted on prolonging the war. The fondness of the queen for the Duchess of Marlborough was at length turned into violent aversion. The Tories obtained a complete as- cendency in 1 7 10, and Marlborough was dismissed with disgrace from all his employments at the end of 171 1. On the accession of George I. (1714) he was restored to favour, and again became captain-general and master of the ordnance. He died in 1722, leaving his titles and estate to the male heirs of his daughter, who was mar- ried to Charles Spencer, Earl of Sunderland. See CoxR, "Memoirs of John, Duke of Marlborough," 3 vols., 1818; Sir A.Alison, "Life of Marlborough," 1847; Macaulay, " Hii^tory of England ;" Thomas Ledyard, " History of John, Duke of Marlborough," 3 vols., 1736; John Campbell, "Military Historj' of Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough," 2 vols., 1736; Charles Bucke, "Life of John, Duke of Marlborough," 1839; J. F. HuGUEs Dutems, " Histoire de J. Churchill," etc., 3 vols., iSq6-o8, written by the order of Napoleon L ; George Murray, "History of the Duke of Marlborough;" Abraham de Vkyer, " Historic van J. Churchill," etc., 4 vols., 1738-40; " History of Prince Eugene and Marlborough," by Dumont and Rousset, translated from the French, 1736; "London Quarterly Review" for May. 1S20; " Blackwood's Magazine" for July and November, 1846, and June, 1859. Marlborough, (Sarah Jennings,) Duchess of, the wife of the preceding, born in 1660, was celebrated for her beauty, ambition, and political influence. She was brought up from childhood with the princess Anne, who regarded her with romantic fondness, combined with the deference which the weak feel for superior minds. Im- patient of the restraints of etiquette, Anne, in conversa- tion and correspondence with her favourite, assumed the name of Mrs. Morley, and addressed her friend as Mrs. Freeman. In 1678 Miss Jennings was married to Colo- nel Churchill, in whom she found an uxorious husband. " History," says Macaulay, " exhibits to us few specta- cles more remarkable than that of a great and wise man who could carry into effect vast and profound schemes of policy only by inducing one foolish woman, who was often unmanageable, to manage another woman who was more foolish still. ... To the last hour of her hus- band's life, she enjoyed the pleasure and distinction of being the one human being who was able to mislead that far-sighted and sure-footed judgment, who was fer- vently loved by that cold heart and servilely feared by that intrepid spirit." Having been supplanted in the royal favour by Mrs. Masham, she was dismissed from court in 1 7 10, and became an inveterate misanthrope. Died in 1744. See " Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by Loi;iSA S. Cos- TELi.o, London, 1844. Marliani, maR-le-i'nee, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian antiquary, born at Milan. He wrote "Topography of Rome," (" Urbis Romae Topographia,") and other works. Died about 1560. Marlorat, mSR^o^rt', (Augustin,) a French Prot- estant theologian, born at Bar-le-Duc in 1506. He be- came minister of the Reformed Church at Rouen in 1560, and acquired a great influence by his talents. He wrote commentaries on Scripture, and other works. He was put to death at Rouen in 1563. See Ha AG, " La France protestante." Marlowe, mar'Io, (Christopher,) an English drama- tist, born at Canterbury in 1564. He studied at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where he took his degree in 1587. He afterwards devoted himself to dramatic writing, and, according to some authorities, became an actor. He was addicted to low vices", and was killed in a quarrel with a footman in 1593. The principal dramas known to be his are "The Jew of Malta," "Edward tlie Second," and "The Tragical History, etc. of Dr. ?'austus:" the last-named was the original of Goethe's celebrated " Faust." Marlowe is characterized by the French critic Villemain as a genius, whose rude dramas, disorderly as his life, contain splendid beauties and a gloomy audacity, the influence of which has not been lost upon Shakspeare. His " Faust" is less elegant and less ironical than that of Goethe, but every thing that the pathos of such a subject can effect — the fever of doubt in a superstitious imagination, the boldness of impiety in a despairing heart — stamps this work with the impress of extraordinary power. His " Edward II," was greatly admired by Charles Lamb, who says that one of its scenes moves pity and terror beyond any scene, ancient or modern. See Warton, " History of English Poetry ;" Campbell, " Speci- mens of the British Poets;" Villemain, "Melanges litt^raires ;" Drake, "Shakspeare and his Times;" "Retrospective Review," vol. iv., (1821.) Marmier, mtR'me-4', (Xavier,) a French litterateur and traveller, was bonTat Pontarlier in 1809. He pub- lished, among other works, " Studies on Goethe," " Poetic Sketches," and " History of Literature in Denmark and Sweden," (1839,) and made numerous translations from the English and German. Mar'mi-pn, (Shakerly,) an English dramatist, born in Northamptonshire in 1602. His principal works are the comedies of " Holland's Leaguer," " A Fine Com- panion," and "The Antiquary." Died in 1639. See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica ;" Wood, "Athenae Oxo- nienses." Marmitta, maR-m^t'tS, (Ludovico,) an Italian gem- engraver, born at Parma. Among his master-pieces is a cameo representing a head of Socrates. He lived about 1500. Marmol, de, dk maR-moK, (Luis Caravajal,) a Spanish writer, born at Granada about 1520, accom- panied the emperor Charles V. in his African campaigns. He wrote a "General Description of Africa," (1599,) and a " History of the Rebellion, etc. of the Moors of Granada," (1600.) See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" Prescott, " History of Piiilip IL," vol. iii. book v. Marmont, de, deh mtR^miN', (Auguste Frederic Louis Viesse,) Duke of Ragusa, a celebrated French marshal, born at Chatillon-sur-Seine in 1774, received his military education at the artillery school of Chalons. He accompanied Bonaparte as aide-de-camp in the Ital- ian campaign of 1794, and, as general of brigade, took part in the invasion of Egypt in 1798. He fought with distinguished bravery at the battle of Marengo, (1800,) obtained command of a division, and was appointed inspector-general of artillery about 1802. Having as- sisted at the capture of Ulm, in 1805, Marmont became in 1806 general-in-chief of the army in Dalmatia, and gained a signal victory over a superior force of Russians and Montenegrins at Castelnuovo. In 1807 he carried out a system of public works, the most important of which was a line of road-way two hundred and ten miles in length ; and for this service he was created Duke of Ragusa. Soon after the battle of Wagram (1809) he was made a marshal of France, and appointed Governor- General of the lUyrian provinces. As commander of the second corps, in 1813 he took part in the battles of Bautzen, Dresden, and Leipsic, and closed the cam- paign of 1814 by his engagement near Paris with the allied army of Russia, Prussia, and Austria, (March 30.) Though contending against a greatly superior force, Marmont and Mortier refused to capitulate until au- thorized to do so by Joseph Bonaparte. In April, 1814, Marshal Marmont, after stipulating with Prince Schwar- zenberg for the withdrawal of the French troops into Normandy, entered the service of the allies. He subse- quently filled several high offices under the Bourbons. Being called upon to suppress the revolt of July, 1830, he brought great opprobrium upon himself by his failure in this difiicult task ; his name was struck off" the army list, and he was exiled. He died at Venice in 1852, leaving " Memoires du Due de Raguse," (8 vols., 1856.) See Thiers, "History of the Consulate and of the Empire;" Vaulabelle, "Histoire des deux Restaurations ;" Bourrienne, "Memoires;" Lamartine, "History of the Restoration;" Mau- DUiT, "Derniers Jours de la grande Armee ;" L. de Lomenie, " M. le Marechal Marmont, par un Homme de Rien," 1844: Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi," tome vi. ; " Nouvelle Bio- graphic G^nerale;" "London Quarterly Review" for June, 1845; " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1857. Marmontel, mtR'm6N'tgK, (Jean Francois,) a cele- brated French critic and miscellaneous writer, born in Limousin in 1723. His family was poor, and he was educated in the Jesuits' College at Mauriac, but he did not enter their order. At an early age he acquired the friendship and patronage of Voltaire, on whose recom- mendation he visited Paris in 1746, and published the same year a translation of Pope's "Rape of the Lock." He brought out in 1748 his "Dionysius the Tyrant,'* < as /t; c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (JJ^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) MARMORA MARONI (*' Denys le Tyran,") which was soon followed by ** Aris- tomene" and " Cleopatre," three tragedies, which had considerable success at the time. His *' Moral Tales" ("Contes moraux," 1761) were received with extraor- dinary favour, and were translated into the principal languages of Europe, including Danish and Hungarian. They are written with great elegance and animation ; though their morality is often questionable. About this time Marmontel was imprisoned for a short time in the Bastille, on a false accusation of having satirized a person of rank. He published in 1763 his " Poetic^ue Fran9aise," and in 1767 his political romance of " Beli- saire," which obtained great popularity and has taken its place among the classics of the language. The empress Catherine II. ordered a translation of it into Russian, and versions of it appeared in nearly all the European languages. Some passages in the book, how- ever, which favoured toleration, were denounced by the Sorbonne, and the work was condemned by the Arch- bishop of Paris, as containing impious and heretical propositions. In the exciting controversy which followed, Voltaire took an active part, and published several witty and caustic pamphlets in defence of his protege. Mar- montel was soon after appointed historiographer of France. Among the most important of his other works we may name *' Les Incas," a romance, dedicated to Gustavus III. of Sweden, the comic operas of " Le Hu- ron," "Sylvain," and "Zemire et Azor," and the tragedy of " Le-s Ileraclides," which is highly commended by La Harpe. His "Elements de Litterature" (6 vols., 1787) is also ranked among his best productions. In 1 783 Marmontel succeeded D'Alembert as perpetual secretary of the French Academy. He lived in retirement in the country during the greater part of the Revolution, and died in 1799, leaving " Memoires" of his life. He had married about 1778 the niece of Abbe Morellet. See Voltaire, " Correspondance ;" Saint-Surin, "Notice sur Marmontel," 1824; La Harpe, "Lycee;" Grimm, "Correspon- dance litteraire;" Villenave, "Notice sur les Ouvrages de Mar- montel," 1820; Sainte-Beuve, "Caiiseries du Lundi," tome iv. ; Morellet, " Eloge de Marmontel," 1805; " Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale;" "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1806; "Monthly Review" for November and December, 1805. Marmora, della, deKli maR'mo-rS, (Alberto Fer- rero — f^r-ra'ro,) Count, a Sardinian general and savant, born in 1789. He entered the French army, and rose to be military commander in the island of Sardinia in 1849. He published "Travels in Sardinia; or. Statis- tical, Physical, and Political Description of that Island." Marmora, della, (Alessandro Ferrero,) brother of the preceding, born in 1799, fought in the war for Italian independence in 1848, and became a major-gene- ral. He died in the Crimea in 1855. Marmora, della, (Alfonso Ferrero,) an Italian general and statesman, brother of the preceding, was born in Turin in 1804. He was appointed minister of war by the King of Sardinia in November, 1849, resigned in February, 1855, and the same year took command of the Sardinian forces in the Crimean war, after which he again served as minister of war. He was president of the Council of Ministers from July, 1859, to July, i860. In September, 1864, he became minister of foreign affairs and president of the Council of Ministers in the kingdom of Italy. He was succeeded by Ricasoli in June, 1866, took command of the army, and was defeated by the archduke Albert of Austria, at Custozza, in July of the same year. Marmora, della, (Carlo Ferrero,) Marquis, Prince of Masserano, eldest brother of the preceding, was born in 1788. Having been made lieutenant-general and sen- ator of the kingdom of Sardinia, he accompanied Charles Albert as first aide-de-camp in the campaigns of 1848 and 1849. Died in 1854. Marne, de, deh mikn, (Jean Baptiste,) a Flemish Jesuit and historian, born at Douai in 1699, wrote a History of the County of Namur," which has a high reputation. Died in 1756. Marne, de, or Demarne, (Jean Louis,) a painter, born at Brussels in 1744. He was reduced to the neces- sity of working at the porcelain-manufactory of Sevres, and fell into a mannerism called the maniire porcelaine. His early style was much more graceful. Died in 1829. Marner, maR'ner, (Konrad,) a German minnesinger, flourished about 1250-70. Marnesia or Marnezia. See Lezay-Marnesia. Marnix de Saint- Aldegonde, van, vtn mtr'n^ks' deh s^N'ttKdeh-gdNd', (Philippe,) an eminent Flemish virriter and Protestant Reformer, was born at Brussels in 1538. He studied at Geneva, where he acquired the friendship of Calvin and adopted his faith. In 1566 he drew up the celebrated formulary of the Flemish nobles against the Inquisition. As burgomaster of Ant- werp, he defended that city in 1584 against Alexander, Duke of Parma ; but he was forced to capitulate in 1585. He was the author of a " Picture of the Difference be- tween the Christian Religion and Popery," and "The Romish Bee-Hive." He also translated the Psalms into Dutch verse, and was engaged on a Flemish version of the Scriptures when he died, in 1598. "He was," says Motley, "a man of most rare and versatile genius. Scholar, theologian, diplomatist, swordsman, orator, poet, pamphleteer, he had genius for all things, and was eminent in all." See Motley, " History of the United Netherlands," vol. i. chap, iii. ; Strada, " De Bello Belgico:" Johannes Prins, " Leven van P. van Marnix," 1782; Dressei.huis, " F. van Marnix, Heer van Mont Saint- Aldegonde," 1832; Willem Broes, " F. van Marnix, Heer van Saint- Aldegonde," etc., 2 vols., 1838-40. Maro, the cognomen of Publius Virgilius Maro. (See Virgil.) Maroohetti, mi-ro-ket'tee, (Charles,) Baron, a celebrated Sardinian sculptor, iDorn at Turin about 1805. After executing several works in Paris, among which was an equestrian statue of Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy, he went to London in 1848. Under the patron- age of the court and the nobility, he produced a colossal equestrian statue of Richard Coeur-de-Lion, (1851,) a bust of Prince Albert, an equestrian statue of Queen Victoria at Glasgow, (1854,) a statue of Lord Clyde, (1867,) and several groups of statuary. He was elected a Royal Academician in 1866. Died in December, 1867. Marochetti, (Vincenzio,) an Italian scholar, father of the preceding, was born in Piedmont about 1768. He was appointed advocate to the court of cassation in Paris. Died in 1820. Maroli, mi'ro-lee, (Domenico,) a Sicilian painter, born at Messina in 1612. He was killed in the revolu- tion of Naples, (1676.) MaroUes, de, deh mt'rol', (Michel,) a French litti- rateiir, born in Touraine in 1600, was Abbe de Villeloin. He made translations from Juvenal, Statins, and other classics, which were much esteemed at the time. He made a valuable collection of prints, which were added to the royal cabinet. Died in 1681. See NiCERON, "Memoires;" M. de Marolles, "Memoires," 1656, (and in 3 vols., 1755.) Matron, Saint, written also Maroun, an anchorite of the fourth century, resided in Asia Minor. He is supposed by some writers to have been the founder of the Maronites, while others ascribe the origin of that sect to another of the same name, living in the seventh century. Maroncelli, mS-ron-cheKlee, (Piero,) an Italian pa- triot, musician, and poet, born at Forli in 1795. He published in 1819 a hymn, for which he was imprisoned a short time. He was again arrested in 1820, and con- demned to twenty years' imprisonment in the fortress of Spielberg, where his intimate friend Silvio Pellico was confined at the same time. They were at first sepa- rated, but at the end of three years were permitted to enjoy each other's society. They were released in 1830, Maroncelli having previously suffered the amputation of one of his legs, in consequence of a disease contracted in the prison. Died in New York in 1846. See Silvio Pellico, "My Prisons;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Marone, mi-ro'ni, (Andrea,) an Italian improvisa- tore, born in the Friuli in 1474, was celebrated for his skill in improvising Latin verse on any given subject. Died in 1527. Maroni, da, di mi-ro'nee, or Maron, m^-ron', (Theresa,) a sister of the celebrated Raphael Mengs, was distinguished as a painter of miniatures. Having accompanied her brother to Rome, she was there mar- e, 1, 0, u, y, long; il, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, f3,t; mSt; ndt; good; moon; MAR OOF MARK TAT ried to the Chevalier da Maroni, an artist. Died in 1806. _ Maroof- (or Marouf-) el-Karkhi, mS-roof §1 kan'- Kee, one of the founders of the Soofees, (Soufis,) or Mussuhnan mystics, born near Bagdad about 750; died about 815. See Hammer-Purgstall, " Literaturgeschichte der Araber." Maroof- (or Marouf-) Mohammed-ben-Abdel- Khalik, ma-roof mo-hirn'mgd hln K^'lik, an Arab lexicographer of the ninth century. His principal work is an Arabic Lexicon, in which words are explained in Persian. Marot, mt^ro', (Clement,) a French poet, born at Cahors in 1495, was a son of Jean, noticed below. He was patronized at the court of Francis I,, and became a page to his sister, Margaret of Valois. He was impris- oned in 1526 on a charge of heresy, and during his con- finement composed his " Enfer," (" Hell,") an allegorical satire, and prepared a new edition of the " Roman du Rose." After his release he visited Geneva, where he professed Calvinism ; but he was subsequently obliged to leave the place, on account of some misdemea- nour, and, having renounced his new faith, accompanied Francis I. in his Italian campaign of 1535. He was the author of numerous lyric poems, epigrams, etc., which were greatly admired for their grace and vivacity ; and the style Marotiqtie has been imitated by La Fontaine and other French writers. His version of the Psalms was very popular at the time. Died in 1544. See AuGUis, "Vie de Marot," prefixed to an edition of his works, 5 vols., 1823; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Jan Suet, "Leven en Bedrijf van C. Marot," 1655 ; Sainte-Beuve, " Tableau de la Poesie Frangaise au seizi^me Si^cle :" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Niceron, "Memoires;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Marot, (Daniel,) son of the architect Jean Marot noticed below, was born in Paris about 1660. He be- came architect to William, Prince of Orange, whom he accompanied to England in 1688. Marot, (FRANgois,) a French painter, born in Paris in 1667 ; died in 1719. Marot, (Jean,) a French poet, born near Caen in 1463, was patronized by Anne of Brittany, queen of Charles VHI. He subsequently accompanied Louis XH. in his expedition to Venice and Genoa, of which he wrote an account. Died in 1523. See Sainte-Beuve, "La Poesie Frangaise au seizi^me Si^cle." Marot, (Jean,) a French architect and engraver, born in Paris about 1630. He furnished the design for the principal fafade of the Louvre. Although a Protestant, he was appointed royal architect. Died in 1679. Maroto, mi-ro'to, (Don Rafael,) a Spanish Carlist general, born at Conca in 1785. On the death of Zu- mala-Carreguy, he was appointed to the chief command in Biscay, and soon after defeated Espartero at Arrigoria. In 1839 he concluded with the queen's party the treaty of Bergara. Died in 1847. Maroun. See Maron. Maroutha. See Marutha. Marozia, mS-rot'se-i, or Mariuccia, mS-re-oot'chS, a Roman lady, celebrated for her beauty and profligacy, was the daughter of the famous Theodora. She was successively married to Duke Alberic of Tuscany, Guido, Marquis of Tuscany, and Hugo, King of Italy and Aries. In 928 she caused Pope John X. to be murdered, and afterwards raised three others to the tiara, among whom was her son by Pope Sergius III. Her son Alberic hav- ing revolted against her, she was imprisoned for the remainder of her life. Mar-pes'sa, [Gr. '^upirriGaa ; Fr. Marpesse, mtR^- p§ss',] a daughter of Evenus, beloved by Apollo. See Homer's "Iliad," book ix. Marpurg, maR'pooRG, (Friedrtch Wilhelm,) an eminent writer on music, born at Seehausen, in Prussian Saxony, in 17 18. Among his principal works are "Treat- ises on Fugue," "Critical Introduction to the History of Music," ( 1 754,) and " Rudiments of Theoretic Music," (1760.) Died in 1795. See Fi^Tis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Marquard. See Freher, (Marquard.) Marquet, mtR'kV, (FRANgois Nicolas,) a French botanist, and physician to Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, was born at Nancy in 1687. He wrote several medica^. and botanical works. Died in 1759. Marquette, mtR'kgt', (Jacques,) a celebrated French missionary and discoverer, was born in Picardy. He travelled and laboured several years in Canada and other regions. The first Europeans who are certainly known to have discovered and explored the Mississippi River were Father Marquette and M. Joliet, who in 1673 con- ducted a small exploring party from Quebec. Entering the great river at the mouth of the Wisconsin, they de- scended in canoes nearly to the mouth of the Arkansas, or to latitude 34°, which they reached in July, 1673. They were deterred from pursuing the voyage by reports that the river below was infested by armed savages, and they returned in canoes to the mouth of the Illinois, which they ascended. Marquette wrote a narrative of this expedition, which was published in Paris in 1681. *' He writes," says Professor Sparks, " as a scholar and as a man of careful observation and practical sense. In every point of view, this tract is one of the most interesting among those that illustrate the early history of America." Having resumed his missionary labours among the Miamis on Lake Michigan, he died there in 1675. See Charlevoix, " Histoire de la Nouvelle France ;" Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique ;" Sparks, "American Biography," vol. X., ist series. Marquis, mtR'ke', (Alexandre Louis,) a French botanist, born at Dreux in 1777. He published *' Frag- ments of Botanic Philosophy," and other works. Died in 1828. Marracci, mar-rSt'chee, (Luigi,) an Italian priest, eminent as an Oriental scholar, was born at Lucca in 1612. He became professor of Arabic in the College della Sapienza, Rome. His principal work is an excellent edition of the Koran in Arabic, with a Latin version, (1698.) "This," says Hallam, "is still esteemed the best." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1700. See Niceron, "Memoires." Marrast, mt'rSs', (Armand,) a French republican journalist and political writer, born in Haute-Garonne in 1801. Soon after the revolution of 1830 he became associate editor of the "Tribune," the organ of the ultra- Liberal party. He was imprisoned in 1834 on a charge of being implicated in the " Conspiracy of April," but he soon effected his escape, and repaired to England, where he married Lady Fitz-Clarence. On his return to France he succeeded Armand Carrel (1836) as prin- cipal editor of " Le National," a popular daily journal, which he conducted with great ability for nearly twelve years. After the abdication of Louis Philippe, (1848,) Marrast became successively secretary of the provisional government, mayor of Paris, and president of the Con- stituent Assembly. He made valuable contributions to the " Paris Revolutionnaire" and other works. Died in 1852. See Regnault, "Armand Marrast," in "Le Si^cle," 1859; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Marre, van, vtn maR, (Jan,) a Dutch poet, born at Amsterdam in 1696. His principal works are tragedies entitled "Jacqueline of Bavaria" and " Marcus Curtius." Died in 1763. Marrier, mt're-i', (Martin,) a learned French Bene- dictine monk, born in Paris in 1572. He published "Bibliotheca Cluniacensis," (1614.) Died in 1644. Marron, mt'r6N', (Marie Anne Carrelet,) Ba- ronne de Meillonaz, a French artist and dramatic writer, born at Dijon in 1725. She was a friend and corre- spondent of Voltaire. Died in 1778. See Voltaire, " Correspondance." Marron, m^'r6N', (PaulHenpi,) a Protestant divine, of French extraction, born at Leyden in 1754. He be- came pastor of a church in Paris in 1788, and favoured the Revolution, He contributed numerous valuable articles to the " Biographie Universelle," and published other works, on various subjects. He died in 1832, leaving a large collection of engraved portraits, which were purchased by Louis Philippe. See Haag, "La France protestante." Mar'r5^-at, (Frederick,) a popular English novelist and naval officer, born in London in 1792. He entered « as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, Y^, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MJRS 1532 MARSHALL the service as midshipman under Lord Cochrane in 1806, and distinguished himself during the three follow- ing years in numerous engagements in the Mediterra- nean and off the French coasts. He was made a captain in 1815, and in 1821 commanded the Rosario, which brought to the English government the news of the death of Napoleon. He assisted in the attack on Ran- goon in 1823, and in the expedition against the Malays in 1824. He published, besides other novels, " Peter Simple," (1834,) "Jacob Faithful," (1834,) " Japhet in Search of his Father," (1836,) "Mr. Midshipman Easy," (1836,) and " Masterman Ready," (1841.) Among his works is " Valerie," an Autobiography, and a " Diary in America," (6 vols., 1839.) Died in 1848. See " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1839. Mars, [Gr. *Apw, (Ares;) It. Marte, maR'tk,] the name of the Roman god of war, was a contraction of Mayors. He was supposed to be a son of Jupiter and Juno, and was identified with the Ares of Greek my- thology. According to Ovid, he was a son of Juno, but had no father. He was worshipped with extraordinary honours by the Romans, of whom he was one of the tutelary deities. Homer and other poets relate that Mars fought for the Trojans at the siege of Troy and was wounded by Diomede. He was called Gradivus, Quirinus, Mavors, Salisubulus, Mamers, Enyalus, and Camulus. The amours of Mars and Venus are very celebrated. He was said to be the ifather of Romulus, Remus, Cupid, Harmonia, and Meleager. Ares was one of the twelve great Olympian gods of the Greeks, and was especially worshipped in Thrace. According to tradition, he fled to Egypt during the contest between Typhon and the gods, and changed himself into a fish. Having killed a son of Neptune, he was prosecuted before the Areopagus (Mars Hill) at Athens, and was acquitted. Mars was believed to love war for its own sake, and to delight in carnage. He is usually repre- sented as a grim soldier in full armour, — sometimes as driving furiously in a war-chariot. Mars, marz or mtRs, (Anne FRANgoiSE Hippolyte Boutet Monvel — boo'ta' m6N'vgK,) Mademoiselle, a celebrated French actress, born in Paris in 1779. She was the daughter of Monvel, a popular actor at the Theatre Fran9ais, and an actress named Mars, and was early trained for the stage. She excelled in genteel comedy, in which she was considered unrivalled among the actors of her time. She retired from the stage in 1841. Died in 1847. See A. LiREUx, "Mademoiselle Mars; Notice biographique," 1847; L. Fusii., "Notice sur Mademoiselle Mars," 1847; R. de Beauvoir, " Memoires de Mademoiselle Mars," 2 vols., 1849; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Marsais, du. See Du mars a is. Marsand, maR-sind', (Antonio,) an Italian littera- teur, born at Venice in 1765. He published an excellent edition of Petrarch's poems, with a memoir, and several original works on various subjects. Died in 1842. Marschall von Bieberstein, maR'shil fon bee'ber- stln^, (Friedrich,) Freiherr, a German botanist, born in 1766, removed to Russia, where he became a council- lor of state. He published "Flora Taurico-Caucasica," (1808-19.) Died in 1826. Marschner, maRsh'ner, (Heinrich,) a German com- poser and musician, born at Zittau in 1795, was appointed chapel-master at Hanover. Among his most popular works are the operas of "The Vampyre," "The Templar and the Jewess," and " Hans Heiling." Died in 1861. See F^Tis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Mars'den, (William,) an eminent Orientalist, of English extraction, born at Dublin in 1754. Having en- tered the service of the East India Company, he sailed in 1 771 to Bencoolen, Sumatra, where he w^as appointed principal secretary to the government and devoted him- self to the study of the Malay language. He returned in 1779 to England, and was soon after elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He published in 1782 his "His- tory of Sumatra," which was very favourably received and was translated into French and German. He was subsequently appointed chief secretary to the board of admiralty, with the war salary of ;^4000 per annum. Having resigned this post in 1807, he brought out in I 1812 his "Grammar" and "Dictionary" of the Malay language, which are esteemed standard works. He also made an excellent translation of the "Travels of Marco Polo," with a commentary, and wrote a description of Eastern coins, entitled " Numismata Orientalia Illus- trata," (1823.) He gave up his pension to the gov- ernment in 183 1, and soon after presented his valuable collection of coins and medals to the British Museum, and his library to King's College. Died in 1836. See "Memoir of the Life, etc. of William Marsden," by himself, 1838. Marsh, (Anna Caldwell,) Mrs., an English au- thoress, born in Staffordshire about 1798. Among her most popular works we may name "Tales of the Woods and Fields," (1836,) " Ravenscliffe," "Mount Sorel," (1843,) and "Emilia Wyndham," (1846.) Marsh, (Catherine,) an English writer, born at Colchester about 181 5. Among her works are "Me- morials of Captain Hedley Vicars," " English Hearts and English Hands," and "Light for the Line, or the Story of Thomas Ward," which have gained extensive popularity. Marsh, (Dexter,) an American geologist, born in 1806, made a large and choice collection of specimens of fossil footprints, obtained chiefly in the Connecticut valley. Died in 1853. Marsh, ( George Perkins, ) LL.D., an American philologist and diplomatist, born in Windsor county, Vermont, in 1801. He was appointed minister resi- dent at Constantinople in 1849, ^"f^ 1^52 was sent on an embassy to Greece. He has published, among other works, a "Compendious Grammar of the Old Northern or Icelandic Language, compiled and translated from the Grammar of Rask," (1838,) and " Man and Nature," (1864.) His wife, Caroline C. Marsh, has published a number of poems and made translations from the Ger- man. In 1861 he was appointed minister to Italy. See Gkiswold, "Prose Writers of America." Marsh, (Herbert,) a learned English theologian, born in London in 1757. He became professor of di- vinity at Cambridge in 1807, and rose to be Bishop of Peterborough in 1819. He published several religious and controversial treatises, and translated Michaelis's " Introduction to the New Testament" into English. Died in 1839. Marsh, (James,) an English chemist, born in 1789, was the inventor of an apparatus, called by his name, which detects the presence of arsenic in liquids, how- ever minute the quantity. Its utility and certainty were verified by Orfila and other toxicologists. Died in 1846. Marsh, (James,) D.D., a distinguished American scholar and divine, born at Hartford, Vermont, in 1794. He was appointed professor of classics at Hampden- Sidney College, Virginia, and in 1826 president of the University of Vermont. He translated from the German Herder's "Spirit of Hebrew Poetry," and contributed religious and philosophical essays to the "Christian Spectator" and other journals. Died about 1842. Marsh, (Narcissus,) a learned prelate, born in Wilt- shire in 1638, became successively Archbishop of Dublin and of Armagh. He wrote an " Essay on an Introduc- tion to the Theory of Sounds," which was inserted in the " Philosophical Transactions" of the Royal Society. Died in 1713. Mar'shall, (Charles Kimball,) an American Meth- odist divine, born at Durham, Maine, in 1812, became pastor of a church at Natchez, Mississippi. Marshall, (Humphry,) an American botanist, was a resident of Pennsylvania. He published in 1785 his " Arbustum Americanum," or catalogue of the trees and shrubs of America, which was translated into French. Died about 1805. See W. Darlington, " Memorials of John Bartram and H. Marshall,". 184Q. Marshall, (John,) an eminent American jurist and statesman, born at Germantown, Fauquier county, Vir- ginia, on the 24th of September, 1755. He was the eldest son of Colonel Thomas Marshall and Mary Keith, who had fifteen children. He never attended a college, but he was well educated under the care of his father. He enlisted in the army in 1776, became a captain in a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; ^, T, 6, u, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; f^x, fill, f&t; mSt; ndt; good; moon; MARSHALL 1533 MARSTON May, 1777, and served at the battles of Brandy wine, September, 1777, Germantown, and Monmouth, June, 1778. Having resigned his commission in 1 781, he be- gan to practise law, and was chosen a member of the House of Delegates in 1782. In 1783 he married Mary "Willis Ambler, of York, Virginia, and became a resi- dent of Richmond. As a member of the Convention of Virginia, in 1788, he advocated the adoption of the Federal Constitution by several powerful speeches. He contributed more to the adoption of this Constitution by Virginia than any man except James Madison. He became identified with the Federal party, and cordially supported the administration of Washington. His reputation was widely extended by a speech in the Assembly of Virginia in favour of the treaty negotiated by John Jay with Great Britain in 1794. In 1797 he was associated with General Pinckney and Mr. Gerry in a special mission to the French Directory. His incli- nation or interest induced him to decline several high offices, but, at the special request of General Washing- ton, he became a candidate for Congress, and was elected, in 1799. He made a great speech in Congress, defend- ing President Adams for his surrender of Thomas Nash, alias Robbins, who was claimed by the British govern- ment as a fugitive from justice. This speech settled forever the question whether such cases should be decided by the executive or the judiciary. "That argu- ment," says R. W. Grisvvold, "deserves to be ranked among the most dignified displays of human intellect." He was appointed secretary of state by President Adams in May, 1800, and displayed great diplomatic ability in his correspondence with Rufus King, minister to Eng- land. On the 31st of January, 1801, he was appointed chief justice of the supreme court of the United States. He performed the functions of this high office for thirty- four years, and rendered important services by the just and liberal principles according to which he construed the Constitution. His profound learning and wisdom, his moral courage, and his high-toned virtue secured for him universal respect and confidence. His services as an expounder of constitutional law are commended by Judge Story in the following terms: "If all others of the chief justice's judicial arguments had perished, his luminous judgments on these occasions would have given an enviable immortality to his name." In 1804 he published a "Life of George Washington," (5 vols.,) which is highly esteemed. Judge Marshall was distin- guished for his benevolence, modesty, urbanity, and simplicity. He was a devout believer in Christianity, and was happy in his domestic relations. He died in Philadelphia (whither he had gone for medical advice) in July, 1835. "To one who cannot follow his great judgments," says R. W. Griswold, "in which at the same time the depths of legal wisdom are disclosed and the limits of human reason measured, the language of just eulogy must wear an appearance of extravagance. In his own profession he stands for the reverence of the wise rather than for the enthusiasm of the many." See Griswold, "Prose Writers of America:" Judge Joseph Stoky, notice ot John Marshall, in the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i. ; Horace Binney, " Eulogy on the Life and Character of John Marshall ;" " North American Review" for January, 1828, and January, 1836. Mar'shall or Mareschal, (Thomas,) an English scholar, born in Leicestershire about 1621. He became successively rector of Lincoln College, Oxford, chaplain- in-ordinary to the king, and Dean of Gloucester, (1681.) He was distinguished for his knowledge of the Oriental tongues and of the Anglo-Saxon, and published " Ob- servations on Two Ancient Versions of the Gospels, — the Gothic and the Anglo-Saxon," (in Latin, 1665,) also a "Life of Archbishop Usher." Died in 1685. See Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses." Marshall, (William Calder,) a Scottish sculptor, born in Edinburgh in 1813, was a pupil of Chantrey. He visited Rome about 1836, and settled in London in 1839. Among his chief works are " Sabrina," "Una and the Lion," the "Dancing-Girl Reposing," (1846,) which gained a prize of five hundred pounds, and a statue of Sir Robert Peel. Marshall, (William Humphrey,) an English bota- nist and agricultural writer, born in 1745. He published a number of works which contributed greatly to the im- provement of agriculture in England. He also wrote " The American Grove ; or, Catalogue of the Trees, etc. of the United States." Died in 1818. Marsh'am, (Sir John,) an English chronologist, born in London in 1602. He embraced the cause of the royalists in the civil war. He was the author of a work entitled " Chronologicus Canon ^gyptiacus, Ebraicus," etc., (1672,) in which he attempts to reconcile Egyptian chronology with the Hebrew Scriptures, by supposing four collateral dynasties of Egyptian kings reigning at the same time. This theory has been adopted by several eminent scholars. Died in 1685. See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses;" Shuckford, "Sacred and Profane History." Marsh'man, (Joshua,) an eminent English divine and Orientalist, born in Wiltshire in 1767. Being sent by the Baptist Missionary Society to India in 1799, he became a proficient in the Chinese, Sanscrit, and Bengalee languages. He translated the four Gospels into Chinese, and assisted Dr. Carey in preparing a Sanscrit Grammar and a Bengalee-and-English Diction- ary. He also translated the works of Confucius, and wrote a " Defence of the Deity and Atonement of Jesus Christ, in Reply to Rammohun Roy," (1822.) Died in 1837. See Cox, "History of the Baptist Missionary Society." Marsigli, maR-s^Kyee, (LuiGi Ferdinando,) a dis- tinguished Italian naturalist and mathematician, born at Bologna in 1658. He served in the Austrian army against the Turks in 1683 and in several succeeding campaigns, and was made a colonel in 1689. He was one of the founders of the Society of Sciences and Arts at Bologna, (1712,) to which he gave a very valuable scientific collection. He afterwards visited England, where he acquired the friendship of Newton and Halley and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was the author of "Physical History of the Sea," (1725,) a description of the shores of the Danube, entitled " Danu- bius Pannonico-Mysicus," etc., (1726, 7 vols, fob, finely illustrated,) "The Military State of the Ottoman Em- pire," (1732,) and other works. He had been elected in 1725 a member of the Academy of Sciences, Paris. Died in 1730. See QuiNCY, " M^moires sur la Vie du Comte de Marsigli," 1741 ; FoNTENELi.E, " Eloges des Academiciens ;" Fabroni, "Vitae Ita- lorum doctvina excellentium ;" G. Fantuzzi, " Memoria della Vita del Conte Marsigli," 1770; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Marsilio (maR-see'le-o) [Lat, Marsil'iusJ of Padua, an Italian jurist, sometimes called Menandrino, born at Padua. He was patronized by the emperor Louis of Bavaria, in whose favour he wrote his "Defensor Pacis," an attack on the papacy, for which he was excommuni- cated in 1327. Died in 1328. Marsilius. See Marsilio. Marsilius Ficinus. See Ficmus. Marsin. See Marchin. Marso, maR'so, [Lat. Pisci'nus,] (Paolo,) an Italian savant, said to have been born at Piscina. He wrote a commentary on the " Fasti" of Ovid, published in 1485, and several Latin poems. MarsoUier, mtR'so'le-i', (Jacques,) a French writer, born in Paris in 1647, was author of a " History of the Inquisition and its Origin," (1693,) and several other works. Died in 1724. See NiCERON, "Memoires." MarsoUier des Vivetieres, miR'so'le-i' di v^v'- te-aiR', (Benoit Joseph,) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1750, produced numerous comic operas, which had great popularity. Died in 181 7. Mars'ton, (John,) an English dramatist, was the author of tragedies entitled "Antonio and Mellida," " Sophonisba," and " Antonio's Revenge," and several comedies ; he was also associated with Ben Jonson and Chapman in writing "Eastward, Ho !" His comedy of " The Malecontent" is esteemed his best work ; but lie is said to have borrowed a great part of it from Webster. Died in 1634. See Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets." Marston, (Westland,) an English poet and drama- tist, born in Lincolnshire in 1819. He wrote "The € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; § as z; %h as in this. (2i^=See Explanations, p. 23.) MARSUPIUS MARTIAL Patrician's Daughter," "The Heart and the World," and several other popular dramas. Marsupius. See Marsuppini. Marsuppini, maR-soop-pee'nee, [Lat. Marsu'pius,] (Carlo,) an Italian scholar, sometimes called Are- TiNO, born at Arezzo about 1399. He was appointed professor of rhetoric at Florence in 1434, and secretary of the Florentine republic in 1444. He translated into Latin hexameter verse Homer's " Batrachomyomachia," and wrote a number of Latin poems. Died in 1453. See TiRABOSCHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Mar'sus, (Domitius,) a Roman_poet under the reign of Augustus, was a friend of Virgil and Tibullus. Among his extant works is a poem entitled " Cicuta," and a number of fragments have been collected by Broek- huisen in his edition of Tibullus. See Weichert, " De Domitio Marso, Poeta." Marsy, mSk'se', (Gaspard and Balthasar,) brothers and distinguished French sculptors, born at Cambray, the former in 1625 and the latter in 1628. Among their master-pieces are the figures of the Baths of Apollo, representing the " Tritons showering the Horses of the Sun," and the group of" Latona and her Children." Both brothers were members of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture. Balthasar died in 1674, and Gaspard in 1681. See Lenoir, "Musde des Monuments Fran^ais." Marsy, de, deh mtR'se', (FRANgois Marie,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1 7 14. He published, among other works, a " History of Mary Stuart," and a Latin poem entitled " Painting," (" Pictura,") which was much admired. Died in 1763. See La Harpe, " Cours de Littdrature." Mar'sy-as, [Gr. Mapavaf,] a personage of the Greek mythology, was called by some authors a Satyr, and a son of Olympus. According to tradition, he found a flute which Minerva had thrown away, (because her face was distorted by playing on it,) and challenged Apollo to a trial of skill in music, on the condition that the victor might do what he pleased with the van- quished. Apollo gained the victory, and flayed Marsyas alive. This story was a favourite subject of ancient poets and artists. Martainville, mtR^tiN'v^K, ( Alphonse Louis Dieu- DONn6,) a littiratenr 2iwd journalist, of French extraction, born at Cadiz in 1776. He became associate editor of several political journals of Paris. He wrote a number of bold and witty satires on the Jacobins, and several popular comedies. Died in 1830. Martange, de, deh mtR't6Nzh', (N. Bonnet,) a French general and writer, born at Beauce in 1722, served in the Austrian army in the Seven Years' war. He wrote several poems and tales. Died in 1806. Marteilhe, mtR'tal' or mtR'tk'ye, (Jean,) a French Protestant, born at Bergerac in 1684, was condemned in 1702 to the galleys at Dunkirk, where he spent seven years. Died in 1777. See " The Huguenot Galley-Slave," New York, 1867 ; " Quarterly Review" for July, 1866. Martel, (Charles.) See Charles Martel. Martel, mtR't^K, (FRANgois,) a French surgeon, born at Perigueux in 1549. He became first surgeon to Henry IV. Died about 1610. Martel, maR-t^K, (Geronimo,) a Spanish historian, wrote a valuable work entitled " Forma de celebrar Cortes." He became royal historiographer in 1597. See Prescott, "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. pirt i. Marteliere, de la, deh It mtRt'le-aiR', (Pierre,) a celebrated French lawyer, was born^ at Bellesme in the sixteenth century. He published a number of pleas, one of which, in favour of the University of Paris against the Jesuits, was very much admired. Died in 1631. Martelli, maR-teKlee, (Lunovico,) an Italian poet, Dorn at Florence in 1499. He wrote lyric poems, and " Tullia," a tragedy. Died in 1527. See GiNGUENii, " Histoire litt^raire d'ltalie." Martelli or Martello, maR-tel'lo, (Pietro Giacomo,) an Italian litterateur, born at Bologna in 1665. He wrote poems and dramas, which were popular at the time. Died in 1727. See Fabroni, "Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" "Vita di Martelli," (written by himself,) in Calogera's "Raccolta," vol. ii. Martelly, de, deh miR^ti'le', (Honor6 Franqois Richard,) a French actor and dramatist, born at Aix in 175 1, published a comedy entitled "The Two Figaros," and other works. Died in 1817. Martene, mtR'tiN', (Dom Edmond,) a learned French ecclesiastic, of the order of Benedictines, born in the diocese of Dijon in 1654. In 1708 he visited the abbeys and cathedrals of France, in order to procure materials for a new edition of the "Gallia Christiana." He also published a "Collection of Old Authors and Historical Monuments," (1700,) in Latin, and, conjointly with his friend Durand, "Literary Travels of Two Benedictines of Saint-Maur," (1717.) Died in 1739. See Tassin, " Histoire litt^raire de la Congregation de Saint- Maur." Martens, maR'tens, written also Mertens, [Lat. Marti'nus,] (Thierry,) a Flemish printer, born at Alost about 1450, is said to have introduced the art of printing into the Netherlands. He exercised his profession at his native town, and subsequently at Louvain and Ant- werp. He printed in Roman characters, hitherto un- known, and his editions of the classics were highly prized. Martens was an intimate friend of Erasmus, who com- posed a Latin epitaph upon him. Died in 1534. See Maittaire, "Annales Typographicae ;" Marchand, "His- toire de rimprimerie ;" F. A. van Lseghem, "Biographic de Thierry Martens," 1852; Theodore Juste, "Notice biographique sur T. Martens," 1849. Martens, von, fon maR'tens, (Georg Friedrich,) a German jurist, born in Hamburg in 1756. Among his works, which are chiefly written in French, we may name his "Collection of Treaties," (1791,) and "Summary of Modern European Law," (1821.) Died in 1821. Martens, von, (Karl,) a nephew of the preceding, was born about 1790. He was employed as a diplomatist by the King of Prussia. He published, besides other works in French, "Causes celebres du Droit de Gens," (3 vols., 1827,) and " Guide diplomatique," (2 vols., 1832.) Martensen, maR' ten-sen, (Hans Lassen,) a Danish theologian, born at Flensborg in 1808. He became Bishop of Seeland in 1843, and court preacher at Copen- hagen in 1845. His principal work is a treatise on Christian Doctrine, " Den Christelige Dogmatik," (1849.) Mar'tha, [Gr. Map^a; Fr. Marthe, mtRt,] a sister of Mary and Lazarus of Bethany. See John xi. ; Luke x. Marthe. See Martha. Marthe, mlRt, (Anne Biget — be'zha',) a French nun, called Sister Martha, born at Besan9on in 1749, devoted herself during the Revolution to the relief of the sick and wounded, and of prisoners of all nations. Died in 1824. Marti, maR'tee, [Lat. Marti'nus,] (Manuel,) a Spanish scholar and poet, born near Valencia in 1663. He published a collection of poems, entitled " Amalthea Geographica," and made several translations from the Latin. Died in 1737. See Mayan, "Vita Emanuelis Martini," 1735. Martial, mar'she^l, [Fr. Martial, mtR'se'iK; Lat. Martia'lis ; It. Marziale, maRt-se-i'li,] or, more fully, Mar'cus Vale'rius Martia'lis, a famous Latin epi. grammatic poet, born at Bilbilis, in Spain, about 40 a.d., went to Rome at the age of twenty-two, and resided there thirty-five years. The events of his life are very imper- fectly known ; but it appears that he devoted his atten tion chiefly to poetry. Some epigrams which he wrote on the occasion of the public spectacles given by Titus about the year 80, procured him the favour of that prince. He was also patronized by Domitian, who made him a tribune and a Roman knight. He was intimate with Juvenal, Quintilian, and Pliny the Younger. About 98 A.D. he returned to his native place, where he died a few years later. Fourteen books of his " Epigrams" are still extant, and are much admired by some eminent critics, such as Scaliger, Lipsius, and Malte-Brun. The latter thinks his writings are among the most interesting monu- ments of Roman literature, though many of them offend against good taste and pure morality. Probably no poet i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, h, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; MARTIAL 1535 MARTIN ever estimated his works more justly than he did in the following line : * " Sunt bona, sunt quaedam mediocria, sunt plura mala." (" Some are good, some indifferent, and more are bad.") See Crusius, " Life of Martial," in "Lives of the Roman Poets," 1726: Lessing, "Vermischte Schriften;" A. P^ricaud, " Essai sur Martial," 1816: Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Latina ;" " M. V. Mar- tialis als Mensch und Dichter," Berlin, 1843; "Martial and his Times," in the "Westminster Review" for April, 1853. Martial d'Auvergne. See Auvergne, d', (Mar- tial.) Martialis. See Martial. Martiaiiay, nitR'se^t^ni', (Dom Jean,) a French Benedictine monk and theological writer, born in 1647 ; died in 1717. Martignac, de, deh mtR't^n^ytk', (£tienne Algay,) a French litth-ateiir, born at Brives-la-Gaillarde about 1620. He published " Memoirs of Gaston, Duke of Orleans," and made translations from Horace, Juvenal, and other classics. Died in 1698. See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV." Martignac, de, (Jean Baptiste Sylv^re Gaye,) VicoMTE, an able and eloquent French statesman under Charles X., was born at Bordeaux in 1776. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1821. As the head of the ministry that came into power in January, 1828, he held the office of minister of the interior, and sought to unite conflicting parties for the support of the throne ; but, unable to effect this object, and forsaken by the king and the court, he resigned his place in August, 1829, and was succeeded by Polignac. On the trial of the latter, Martignac became his eloquent defender in the Chamber of Peers. He died in 1832, leaving a " Historical Essay on the Spanish Revolution," and other works. See Capefigue, " Histoire de la Restauration ;" Chateaubriand, " Memoires d'Outre-Tombe ;" L. de Lom^nie, " M. de Martignac, par un Homme de Rien," 1842 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Martigues, mtR't^g', (S6bastien de Luxembourg,) Viscount, a brave French officer, who assisted at the siege of Metz, (1552,) and in the capture of Calais by the Duke of Guise, (1558.) He was killed in 1569. Mar'tin [Lat. Mart/nus] I. succeeded Theodore as pope in 649 a.d. Having condemned the Monothelites, he was banished by the emperor Constans II., who favoured that sect, to the Thracian Chersonesus, where he died in 655 a.d. Martin II., or Marinus I., succeeded John VIII. as pope in 882 a.d. Died in 884, and was succeeded by Adrian III. Martin III., or Marinus II., born at Rome, suc- ceeded Stephen VIII. in 942, and died in 946. His successor was Agapetus II. Martin IV., (Cardinal Simon de Brion — deh bRe'6N', (or Brie — bRe,)) a native of Touraine, in France, succeeded Nicholas HI. in 1281. He adhered to the cause of Charles of Anjou, and when, after the Sicilian Vespers, that sovereign lost his power in Sicily, Martin excommunicated Peter of Aragon, who had been chosen king of that country. He died in 1285, and was suc- ceeded by Honorius IV. Martin V. (Cardinal Otho Colonna — ko-lon'na) was elected pope in 141 7, in the place of John XXIII., deposed by the Council of Constance. In 1431 he called a council at Bale, in Switzerland, for the purpose of effecting a reform in the Church, and sent Cardinal Julian Cesarini as his legate. He died soon after, and was succeeded by Eugene IV. See Artaud de Montor, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes Romains." Martin, son of Martin, King of Aragon, ascended the throne of Sicily in 1399, He married in 1401, as his second wife, Blanche, daughter of the King of Navarre. He died in 1409, and the kingdom of Sicily was united to that of Aragon by his father, who survived him. Martin, surnamed Gallus, a French ecclesiastic of the thirteenth century, was a missionary to Poland, and wrote a history of that country, (" Chronica Polonorum,") a valuable work, and the earliest one written on that subject. Mar'tin, (Alexander,) born in New Jersey about 1740, served as a colonel in the war of the Revolution, and was chosen Governor of North Carolina in 1782. Died in 1807. Martin, mtR^t^N', (Andr^,) a French ecclesiastic, born in Poitou in 1621. He was one of the earliest advocates of the Cartesian philosophy, and wrote "Christian Moral Philosophy," (" Philosophia Moralis Christiana.") Died in 1695. Mar'tin, (Benjamin,) an English mathematician, born in Surrey in 1704. He was the author of "The Philo- sophical Grammar," (1735,) "New System of Optics," (1740,) and other scientific works. Died in 1782. Martin, (Bon Louis Henri,) an eminent French historian, born at Saint-Quentin in 1810. He has pub- lished a " History of France from the Earliest Times to 1789," (18 vols., 1838-53,) " Monarchy in the Seventeenth Century," (1848,) a "Life of Daniel Manin," (1859,) and other similar works. The first enjoys a high reputation, and has gained a prize of the Academic Fran9aise. He published a revised edition of his " History of France," (1855-60.) See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1857. Martin, (Christian Reinhold Dietrich,) a Ger- man jurist, born near Gottingen in 1772, was the author of several legal works. Died in 1857. Martin, (Claude,) a French soldier, born at Lyons in 1732. He accompanied General Lally to India, and sub- sequently entered the English service. Having amassed a large fortune, he built a magnificent palace near Luck- now. He died in 1800, leaving numerous bequests for charitable purposes. See G. Martin, " £loge historique de C. Martin," 1830. Martin, (Claude,) a learned French Benedictine monk, born at Tours in 1619, published several devo- tional works. Died in 1696. Martin, (David,) a French Protestant theologian, born at Revel in 1639. He published a "History of the Old and New Testament," " Treatise on Natural Religion," and other works, which enjoy a high reputa- tion. Died in 1721. See Nic^RON, "Memoires." Martin, (Franqois,) an agent of the East India Com- pany, born in France. In 1674 he formed a colony at Pondicherry, of which city he afterwards became gov- ernor. Died about 1725. Martin, (Edme,) a French jurist, born near Sens about 1 7 14, became professor of canon law in Paris. Died in 1793. Martin, (Franqois Xavier,) LL.D., born at Mar- seilles, France, in 1764, emigrated about 1785 to North Carolina, and subsequently settled in Louisiana. He attained a high reputation as a jurist, and published His- tories of Louisiana and North Carolina. Died in 1846. Martin, (Gregory,) an English Catholic theologian, was a native of Sussex. He became professor of Hebrew at Douai, and subsequently at Rheims. His principal work is an English translation of the Bible, which appeared in 1610. Died in 1582. Martin, (Jean Baptiste,) a French painter, surnamed DES Batailles, ("of battles,") born in Paris in 1659. On the death of Van der Meulen, in 1690, he was ap- pointed by Louis XIV, to paint his battles. Died in 1735. Martin, (Jean Blaise,) a celebrated French vocalist, born in Paris in 1767. He held the place of tenor solo in the imperial chapel under Napoleon and his succes- sors, Louis XVIII. and Charles X. Died in 1837. Martin, (John,) an English painter, born in North- umberland in 1789. He studied under Bonifacio Musso, and in 1815 obtained the prize at the British Institution for his picture of " Joshua commanding the Sun to stand still." This was followed by "The Fall of Babylon," (1818,) " Belshazzar's Feast," ( 1821,) "The Deluge," (1826,) "The Fall of Nineveh," (1828,) and other works on similar subjects, which enjoyed great tem- porary popularity. He published in 1828 "A Plan for supplying with Pure Water the Cities of London and Westminster." Died in 1854. See "Autobiography of John Martin," in the "Athenaeum," 1854; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Martin, (Louis Aim6,) a French litterateur, born at Lyons in 1781, became professor of rhetoric, history, € as 9 as s; | hard; g as j; g, h, Yi^ guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) MARTIN MARTINET etc. in the Polytechnic School, Paris, about 1815. He was an intimate friend of Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, whose widow he married. Among his principal works are his "Letters to Sophia on Physics, Chemistry," etc., (1810,) "Collection of Tales, etc. in Verse and Prose," (1813,) and an "Essay on the Life and Works of Bernardin de Saint-PieVre," (1820.) Died in 1847. See Lamartine, '* Discours prononce sur la Tombe de M. Aim^ Martin;" Quhkakd, "La France Litteraire." Martin, (Luther,) an American lawyer, born about 1745. He was a delegate from Maryland to the conven- tion which in 1787 formed the Constitution of the United States. In this body he advocated the sovereignty and equality of the States, contending that a small State should send as many members to Congress as a large State. Died in 1826. Martin, (Margaret Maxwell,) born at Dumfries, Scotland, in 1807, emigrated to America, and was mar- ried in 1836 to the Rev. William Martin, a Methodist divine. She has published " Methodism, or Christianity in Earnest," and other religious works. Martin, (Nicolas,) a French poet, born at Bonn, in Prussia, in 1814. His mother was a sister of Karl Sim- rock the poet. Among his works is *' Le Presbytere, Epopee domestique," (1856.) Martin, (Pierre,) an admiral, of French extraction, born in Canada in 1752. In 1795 he maintained a prolonged fight with a superior English fleet under Hotham, and was soon after made vice-admiral. Died in 1820. Martin, (Robert Montgomery,) an English writer, born in Tyrone county, Ireland, about 1803. He published, besides other works, "The Colonies of the British Em- pire," (1834-38,) and "The Indian Empire : its History, Topography," etc., (1858-6L) Died in 1870. Martin, [Lat. Marti'nus,] Saint, an eminent eccle- siastic of the fourth century, was a native of Pannonia. He was converted to Christianity at an early age, and was made Bishop of Tours about 360 A.D. He founded the abbey of Marmoutier, near the river Loire, and he also established a monastery at Liguge, near Poitiers, said to be the oldest institution of the kind in France. Died about 396. See Gervaise, "Vie de Saint-Martin," 1699 ; Mrs. Jameson, " Sacred and Legendary Art ;" A. Dupuv, " Histoire de Saint- Martin," 1852. Martin, Saint, born in Hungary, became Archbishop of Braga, in Portugal, and founded a number of monas- teries in Galicia. He was the author of several theo- logical works, in Latin. Died in 580 A.D. Martin, (Sarah,) an English philanthropist, born near Yarmouth in 1791, was distinguished for her labours in the cause of prison -reform. Died in 1843. See " Brief Biographies," by Samuel Smiles; Rev. Erskine Neale, " Cliristianity and Infidelity Contrasted ;" " Edinburgh Re- view" for April, 1847. Martin, (Theodore,) a British writer, born in Edin- burgh in 1816. He became a resident of London about 1846. In conjunction with Professor Aytoun, he pro- duced a version of Goethe's poems and ballads, (1858.) He also translated the Odes of Horace, (i860.) See the "North British Review" for February, 1862, and March, 1866. Martin, (Thomas,) an English antiquary, born in Suffolk in 1697. was the author of a "History of Thetford," published after his death by Gough, (1779,) and was a contributor to Le Neve's " Monumenta Angli- cana." Died in 1771. Martin, (Thomas PIenri,) a French philosopher, born at Bellesme, in Orne, in 1813. His "Studies on the TimjEus of Plato" (2 vols., 1841) obtained a prize of the French Academy. He also published a "History of the Physical Sciences in Antiquity," (2 vols., 1849.) Martin, (William,) an English naturalist, born in Nottinghamshire in 1769. He published " Figures and Descriptions of Petrifactions in Derbyshire," and other scientific works. Died in 1810. Martin, (William D.,) an American jurist and poli- tician, born in South Carolina in 1789; died in 1833. Martin, de, deh mtR't^N', (Jacques,) a French writer, born in the diocese of Mire])oix in 1684. He published, among other works, a " History of the Gauls and of 'heir Conquests," etc., and "The Religion of the Gauls." Died in 1751. * Mar'tin-dale, (John Henry,) an American general, born at Sandy Hill, New York, about 1815, graduated at West Point in 1835. ^ lawyer before the civil war. He commanded a brigade at the battles of Gaines's Mill, Junie 27, and Malvern Hill, July i, 1862. He commanded a division of General Grant's army in the summer of 1864. In November, 1866, he was elected attorney-general of New York. Mar'tme, (Georg?:,) a Scottish physician, born in 1702, accompanied Lord Cathcart to America, where he died in 1743. He published "Commentaries on the Anatomical Tables of Eustachius," (in Latin,) and other works. Martineau, mar'te-n5, (Harriet,) an English mis- cellaneous writer, born at Norwich in 1802, was de- scended from a French Huguenot family. Being left in limited circumstances on the death of her father, she devoted herself to literature as a means of support, and published, in 1823, " Devotional Exercises for the Use of Young People," which was succeeded by a number of popular tales, among which we may name "Christmas Day," "The Rioters," (1826,) "Mary Campbell," (1827,) "The Turn-Out," and "My Servant Rachel," (1828.) Her "Traditions of Palestine" came out in 1831, and were soon followed by a series of tales illustrating po- litical economy, which were received with great favour and were translated into French and German. In 1835 she visited the United States, where she spent about two years, and published, after her return, " Society in America," (1837,) and " Retrospect of Western Travel," (1838.) Her novel of " Deerbrook" appeared in 1839, and in 1840 the romance of "The Hour and the Man." Her health becoming impaired about this time, she was obliged to suspend her literary labours. After her re- covery she published, besides other works, "Life in a Sick-Room," (1845,) ^'""^^ " Forest and Game Law Tales," (1845.) Among her later publications are a " History of P^ngland during the Thirty Years' Peace," (2 vols., 1850,) " Letters between Miss Martineau and Mr. H. G. Atkinson," etc., (1857,) and "Biographical Sketches," (London, 1869.) She has also been a contributor to the " Westminster Review" and other literary journals. See "Men and Women of the Time;" "Brief Biographies," by Samuei, Smii.es; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1833, April, 1S38, and April, 1847 : " London Quarterly" for January, 1839; " Eraser's Magazine" for April, 1851. Martineau, (James,) a Unitarian divine, brother of the preceding, was born at Norwich, in England, about 1805. He became professor of moral and metaphysical philosophy in Manchester New College, London, in 1853, and in 1858 associate pastor of the Unitarian Chapel in Little Portland Street Among his principal works are "Rationale of Religious Inquiry," (1839,) "Endeavours after the Christian Life," (1843,) and "Studies of Chris- tianity," (1858.) Mr. Martineau occupies a prominent position both as theologian and philosopher, being the representative on the one hand of Unitarianism as op- posed to Trinitarian orthodoxy, and on the other of Theism and Spiritualism as opposed to the materialistic tendencies of the age. See the " British Quarterly Review" for October, 1859. Martinelli, maR-te-neKlee, (Domenico,) an Italian architect and painter, born at Lucca in 1650. Among his best works is the palace of Prince Lichtenstein at Vienna. Died in 171 8. Martinengo, maR-te-n§n'go, (Girolamo Silvio,) Count, an Italian poet, born at Venice in 1753, pub- lished a translation of Milton's " Paradise Lost" (" II Paradiso Perduto") into Italian verse. Died in 1834. Martinengo, (Tito Prospero,) a learned Ituiian ecclesiastic, born at Brescia, published a nun ber of devotional poems, in Latin and Greek. Died in 1595. , Martinengo-Coleoni, maR-te-n^n'go ko-li-o'nee,l (Giovanni Ettore,) an Italian officer and diplomatist, born at Brescia in 1754, entered the French service. Died about 1830. Martinet, mtR'te'ni', a French officer, who lived about 1660-80 and introduced great improvements into military tactics and the organization of the army. See Voltaire, " Sifecle de Louis XIV." a, e, T, 6, u, y, hug; i, 4, ' of England." Mary, [Gr. Mapk; Lat. Mari'a ; Fr. Marie, mt're'; It. Maria, mS-ree'i,] Saint, a Hebrew woman, cele- brated as the mother of the Lord Jesus Christ, and styled by the Roman Catholics the Blessed Virgin Mary, (Beata Virgo Maria,) also the Mother of God and Queen of Heaven. See Matthew i. ; Luke i. ; John i. and xix. 25; Duvergier de H.ALR.AKNE, "Vie de la sainte Vierge," 1664 ; F. W. Genthe, " Die Jungfrau Maria," etc, 1852; Carlo Massini, "Vita della santissima Vergine Maria," 1830; Orsini, "La Vierge: Histoire de la Mere de Dieu," etc., 1S37. Mary of Burgundy, [ Fr. Marie de Bourgogne, mt're' deh booR'gon'.J daughter of Charles the Bold and Isabella de Bourbon, was born at Brussels in 1457. On the death of her father, in 1477, she became heiress of Burgundy, and was married the same year to the archduke Maximilian, son of the Emperor of Germany. She died in 14S2, in consequence of a fall from her horse. She left two children, Philip, the father of Charles V., and Margaret, Duchess of vSavoy. See Barante, " Histoire des Dues de Bourgogne ;" Gaillard, "Histoire de Marie de Bourgogne;" Munch, "Marie von Bur- gund," 1S32. Mary of Guise, (^weez,) [Fr. Marie de Guise, mt're' deh gii-ezM or Mary of Lorraine, [Fr. Marie DE Lorraine, mt're'' deh lo^rai/,] a daughter of Claude, Duke of Guise, born in 15 15, was married in 1534 to Louis d'Orleans. Duke of Longueville, who died the following year. In 1538 she was married ^to James V. of Scotland, and after his death became, for a short time, regent of the kingdom. She is described by the histo- rian De Thou as naturally inclined to justice and tolera- tion, but she was influenced by the court of France and her brothers, the Duke and Cardinal of Guise. She died in 1560, leaving a daughter Mary, afterwards the celebrated Queen of Scots. See Burton-, " Histon.' of Scotland," vol. iv. chaps, xxxvii. and xx.xviii. : De Thou, " Historia sni Temporis;" Robertson, "His- tory- of Scot'and ;" Frocde, " History of England." Mary Magdalene. See Magdalene. Mary de' Medici. See Marie de M6dicis. Mary Stu'art, Queen of Scots, born at Linlithgow about the 7th of December, 1542, was the only surviving child of James V. and Mary of Guise, (or Lorraine,) who was a daughter of the French Duke of Guise. James V. died a few days after the birth of Mary, who was crowned in September, 1543, by Cardinal Beatoun. This ambitious and unscrupulous prelate, who was the head of the Roman Catholic party, usurped the office of re- gent. A treaty having been negotiated for the marriage of Mary with the Dauphin of France, she was sent to France in the summer of 154S to complete her education. Before the year just mentioned, Scotland had been in- volved in a war against Henry VIII. of England, who wished to obtain the hand of Mary for his son and thus unite the two countries under one crown. Educated at the polite and voluptuous court of Paris, Mary excelled in various accomplishments, and at an earlvage became mistress of the Latin, French, and Ital- ian languages. About the age of fourteen she composed and pronounced before Henry II. a Latin oration, in which she maintained that it is becoming for women to learn literature and liberal arts. Her rare and radiant personal beauty, her intellectual graces, and her fasci- I nating manners rendered her a general favourite and the chief ornament of the French court. " Graceful alike in person and intellect," says Froude, "she possessed that peculiar beauty in which the form is lost in the expres- sion, and which every painter, therefore, has represented differently. Rarely, perhaps, has any woman combined so many noticeable qualities as Mary Stuart : with a feminine insight into men and things and human life, she had cultivated herself to that high perfection in which accomplishments were no longer adventitious I ornaments, but were wrought into her organic constitu- j tion. . . . She had vigour, energy, tenacity of purpose, with perfect and never-failing self-possession, and, as the ' one indispensable foundation for the effective use of all ' other qualities, she had indomitable courage." (" History of England," vol. vii. chap, iv.) In April, 1558. she was married to the dauphin, who on the death of his father, Henry II., ascended the throne of France, as Francis II., in 1559. On the death of the English queen Marv, Francis and Mary assumed I the titles of King and Queen of England, refusing to recognize the right of Elizabeth to the throne. The 1 brilliant prospects of Mary were suddenly clouded by € as c as /.• g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gutiural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in tkit. (2:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) MARY 1540 MART the death of Francis, who died, without issue, in De- cember, 1560. One great obstacle to her prosperity was her zealous attachment to the Roman Catholic re- ligion, which was rejected or abhorred by a majority of her subjects. The Scottish Estates sent Lord James Stuart, Mary's half-brother, to invite her to Scotland and to offer her the free exercise of her religion. Having resolved to return to her native land, she requested permission to pass through England on her way thither ; but Elizabeth would not grant this favour to a rival claimant of her crown. Mary was thus reduced to the alternative of a voyage by sea, with the risk of being captured by the English fleet. She embarked in August, 1 561, and parted with regret from la belle France, at which, with eyes bathed in tears, she continued to gaze until it was hidden by the darkness. After a passage of four days, she arrived safely at Leith, and chose for her chief advisers Lord James Stuart and William Maitland, of Lethington, both Protestants. She made friends even among the Protestants, but failed to propitiate John Knox, with whom she had an interview. According to Randolph, he made her weep on this occasion. Soon after her arrival in Scotland, Mary sent Secretary Maitland to London as ambassador. He made overtures of peace and friendship, requiring, however, as an indis- pensable condition, that Elizabeth and the English Par- liament should recognize Mary as her successor in case the former should die without issue. On this condition Mary promised she would not claim the English crown during the life of Elizabeth. " Elizabeth," says Froude, "refused positively to name Mary Stuart her successor, knowing that she would be signing her own death- warrant." These words suggest the probable assassina- tion of Elizabeth by the partisans of her rival. Mary attempted to open the chapel " royal for public Catholic service, but the Protestant mob drove away the priest with a broken head, and the queen made concession to the popular will by ordering that the service should be performed privately. In 1562 Mary wrote a letter to Elizabeth, and expressed a great desire to have an inter- view with her. Several courteously-worded letters were exchanged by them, and their correspondence grew more and more cordial ; but a serious difference arose on the choice of a husband for Mary. Elizabeth objected to her proposed marriage with Don Carlos of Spain, and suggested Lord Robert Dudley, her own favourite; but Mary preferred her cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, (a son of the Earl of Lennox,) whom she married on the 29th of July, 1565, By this act she provoked the violent hostility of the English queen, and estranged from her support her half-brother, James Stuart, Earl of Murray, the ablest Scottish statesman of his time. " Her gentle administration," says Robertson, " had secured the hearts of her subjects, who were impatient for her marriage and wished the crown to descend in a right line from their ancient monarchs. She herself was the most amiable woman of her age. . . . No event in that age excited stronger political fears and jealousies, none interested more deeply the passions of several princes, than the marriage of the Scottish queen." (" History of Scotland.") Mary made an un- wise choice at last ; for the character of Darnley was at once weak, capricious, and obstinate. She gave him the title of king, by a stretch of her prerogative which, according to Robertson, was a strong proof of the vio- lence of her love or the weakness of her counsels. In- stigated by Queen Elizabeth, the Scottish malcontents, including the Earl of Murray, took arms against Mary in August, 1565 ; but this revolt was quickly suppressed by the queen, who rode on horseback at the head of her army, and the leaders of the insurgents took refuge in England. Elizabeth disclaimed all responsibility for their conduct, and expressed her abhorrence of their treason. In 1566 Mary Stuart joined the King of France, the pope, and others, in a Catholic league for the extirpation of heresy, and began to attempt the restoration of popery in Scotland. " To this fatal resolution," says Robertson, " maybe imputed all the subsequent calamities of Mary's life." She took into her confidence and favour David Rizzio, (or Ritzio,) an Italian musician, who became her French secretary and inseparable companion, even in the council-room. " He had the control," says Froude, "of all the business of the state." Mary soon repented of her union with the insolent and dissolute Lord Darn- ley, who treated her with rudeness and neglect and became jealous of Rizzio, whom he resolved to remove by violence. Rizzio was dragged from the queen's pres- ence by the accomplices of Darnley, and killed, in March, 1566. This act was the result of a plot in which the Earl of Morton, Ruthven, Maitland, and other Protestants united for political reasons. Deserted and betrayed by Darnley, they failed to recover power, and fled to Eng- land. Although Mary deeply resented the conduct of her husband, she plied him with caresses and gained him over to her interest. About this time a new favourite acquired an ascendant over her heart and began to influence her counsels. This was James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, a man of some ability, but unscrupulous and reckless to the last degree. In June, 1566, occurred an event which apparently tended to confirm the power and promote the interest of Queen Mary, — the birth of her son James. In January, 1 567, Darnley was attacked with a severe illness at Glasgow, where Mary visited him, and, having employed her artifices to gain his confidence, persuaded him to be removed to the vicinity of Edinburgh. He was lodged in a detached house at Kirk-a-Field, very near the capital. Mary attended her husband assidu- ously, and slept two nights in the house at Kirk-a-Field, which she left on the 9th of February at ii p.m. About three hours later the house was blown up by gunpowder, and Darnley was found dead in the garden. Suspicion fell on Bothwell as the chief perpetrator of this crime, and on Mary as an accessary. She outraged public sen- timent so far that she not only screened Bothwell from a fair trial, but married him in May, 1567. Robertson and Froude agree in the opinion that Mary was responsible for the death of Darnley. Impelled by a just and burning indignation, the Scottish lords and people, both Protestant and Catholic, rose in arms against Mary and Bothwell, who, in June, 1567, met them at Carberry Hill with a small army. The troops of the queen, however, refused to fight, and she was compelled to surrender herself to her adversaries, who confined her on a little island in Loch Leven. Queen Elizabeth now interposed in favour of Mary, thinking the treatment she received a dangerous example, and de- manded her release, — without effect. The captive queen abdicated in favour of her son, and the Earl of Murray became regent, (July, 1567.) Letters which Mary had written to Bothwell were produced in the Scottish Par- liament, by which she was declared to be accessory to the murder of the king. By the aid of George Douglas, a youth of eighteen, she escaped from prison in May, 1568, and was quickly joined by an army of six thousand men, which Regent Murray routed at Langside on the 13th of May. Mary fled to England, and rashly threw herself on the generosity of her rival, who refused to admit her into her presence because she was not yet cleared from the charge of murder. Treated as a pris- oner, Mary was confined at Bolton Castle, Coventry, and Fotheringay. She had many adherents in England, who made several attempts against the power and life of Elizabeth. In 1586 she was accused of complicity in Babington's conspiracy, for which she was tried by a commission, and condemned without proof. She was be- headed at Fotheringay Castle on the 8th of February, 1587. "All contemporary authors," says Robertson, "agree in ascribing to Mary the utmost beauty of countenance and elegance of shape of which the human form is ca- pable. Her hair was black, her eyes were a dark gray, her complexion was exquisitely fine, and her hands and arms remarkably delicate both as to shape and colour. Her stature was of. a height that rose to the majestic." j See Burton, " Histoiy of Scotland ;" Froude, " History of England :" Robertson, " History of Scotland ;" Tytler, " His- tory of Scotland ;" Hume, " History of England ;" Samuel Jebb, "Life of Mary Stuart," 1725; Chalmers, "Life of Mary, Queen of Scots," 1818: Miss Benger, "Life of Mary, Queen of Scots," 1823; Bell, " Life of Mary Stuart," 1831 ; Buckingham, " Life of Mary, Queen of Scots," 1844 ; De Marsv, " Vie de Mane Stuart," 3 vols., 1743: Gentz, "Marie Stuart's Leben," 1799; Schuetz, " Leben Marie Stuart's," 1839 : Mignet, " Histoirede Mane Stuart." 2 vols., 1854; Dargaud, " Histoire de Marie Stuart," 2 vols., 1850; Strickland, "Lives of the Queens of Scotland," 8 vols., 1854; Labanoff, "RecueildesLettres de Marie Stuart," 7 vols., 1844. a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, sAort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; MARZARI MASERS Marzari - Peucati, maRd-zS'ree p§n-ki'tee, (Giu- seppe,) Count, an Italian mineralogist, born at Vicenza in 1777, discovered in 1810 the mine of fossil coal at Borgo di Valsugna. He invented an instrument for measuring angles, called " Tachigonimetro." Died in 1836. Masaccio Guidi da San Giovanni, mi-sat'cho goo-ee'dee dS sin jo-vSn'nee, (Tommaso,) an eminent Italian painter of the Florentine school, born near Florence in 1401, ranks first among the artists of the second or middle age of modern painting. His works were studied by Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Leonardo da Vinci. His figures are characterized by great anima- tion and fidelity to nature and graceful arrangement of the draperies. He also excelled in perspective, which he learned under Brunelleschi. *' Masaccio," says Fuseli, " was a genius, and the head of an epoch in the art. He may be considered as the precursor of Raphael, who imitated his principles and sometimes transcribed his figures." Among his most admired works are the frescos of San Pietro del Carmine at Florence, and the picture of " Christ Curing the Demoniacs." Masaccio died in 1443, and is generally supposed to have been poisoned. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Mrs. Jameson, " Me- moirs of Early Italian Painters." Masaniello, ml-si-ne-el'lo, or Tommaso Aniello, born at Amalfi, in Italy, in 1622, was the son of a fisher- man, and in 1647 became leader of a revolt against the Duke of Arcos, Spanish Viceroy of Naples. At the head of 50,000 insurgents, he compelled the duke to abolish a tax which he had imposed, and also to give up the charter of exemption granted to Naples by Charles V. The intoxication produced by this sudden change of fortune seems to have affected the reason of Masaniello, and, having by his conduct alienated his friends, he was soon after assassinated by the adherents of the viceroy. See " History of the Rise and Fall of Masaniello," by Francis MiDON, London, 1729; A. Giraffo, " Rivohizioni di Napoli," 1647 ; Meissner, "Masaniello; historisches Pjrnchstiick," 1785; " Nou- velle Biographic Generale ;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for Au- gust, 1829. Mascagni, mis-kan'yee, (Donato,) an Italian monk and painter, called Fra Arsenio, born at Florence in 1579 ; died in 1636. Mascagni, (Paolo,) an Italian anatomist, born near Sienna in 1 752. He became professor of anatomy in the University of Sienna in 1774. He wrote an admi- rable work entitled " History and Iconography of the Lymphatic Vessels of the Human Body," an outline of which had previously obtained the prize offered by the Academy of Sciences in Paris. In 1801 he was appointed professor of anatomy, chemistry, and physi- ology at the hospital of Santa Maria Nuova at Florence. Among his works is "Anatomia universa." Died in 1815. See G. Sarchiani, " Elogio del P. Mascagni," 1816; Tipaldo, "Biografiadegli Italian! illustri ;" Desgenettes, article in the "Bio- graphie Medicale." Mascardi, nias-kaRMee,(AGOSTiNO,)an Italian writer, born at Sarzana in 1591. He was appointed by Pope Urban VHI. professor of rhetoric in the College della Sapienza at Rome, (1628.) He published, among other works, " Five Treatises on the Art of Writing History." Died in 1640. See TiRABoscHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Mascardi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian ecclesiastic and writer on jurisprudence, born at Sarzana, near Genoa, was an uncle of the preceding. Died in 1588. Mascaron, mts'kt'r6N', (Jules,) an eminent French prelate and pulpit orator, born at Aix in 1634. He acquired a high reputation by his funeral oration on Anne of Austria, (1666,) and was soon after appointed preacher-in-ordinary to Louis XIV, He was created Bishop of Tul'e in 1671, and of Agen in 1679. He is said to have converted many Calvinists in the latter dio- cese to Catholicism. He died in 1703, leaving all his property to the poor, to whom his virtues had greatly endeared him. A volume of his " Funeral Orations" was published in 1704. That on Marshal Turenne is eulogized by La Harpe as a master-piece. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Masch, mish, (Andreas Gottlieb,) a German writer and theologian, born in Mecklenburg in 1724. He published, besides other works, "Contributions towards the History of Remarkable Books," (1769,) and an excellent edition of Lelong's " Bibliotheca Sacra." Died in 1807. Mascheroni, mSs-ki-ro'nee, (Lorenzo,) an Italian mathematician, born near Bergamo in 1750. He became professor of Greek at Pavia, and subsequently of geoin- etry at Bergamo. On the invasion of Italy by the F rench, he was elected a member of the legislative body in the Cisalpine Republic. He published " Researches on the Equilibrium of Vaults," (1785,) and other mathematical treatises of a high character, also a curious work called "The Geometry of the Compass," (1797,) and a number of poems. Died in Paris in 1800. See Savioli, "Memorie alia Vita dell'Abate L. Mascheroni," 1801 : G. Mangili, " Elogio storicodi L. Mascheroni," i8og; Mc;n- TUCLA, " Histoire des Mathematiques ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Masclef, mts'kllf, (Franqois,) a French Orientalist, born at Amiens in 1662. He published a "Hebrew Grammar," (" Grammatica Hebraica,") in which he op- poses the use of vowel-points. It is regarded as one ot the best works of the kind. Died in 1728. See Querard, " La France Litteraire." Mascov, mSs'kof, (Gottfried,) a German jurist, born at Dantzic in 1698. He lectured at Gottingen, and published several works. Died in 1760. Mascov, [Lat. Masco'vius,] (Johann Jacob,) a German jurist and historian, born at Dantzic in 1689, was a brother of the preceding. He became professor of law at Leipsic in 17 19, and was the author of a treatise "On the Origin and Progress of Public Law," and other legal works, in Latin. He also wrote a " History of Germany to the Commencement of the Franconian Monarchy," (unfinished.) Died in 1761. See "Memoria J. J. Mascovii," Leipsic, 1761. Mascovius. See Mascov. Mascrier, Le, leh mts'kRe-i', (Jean Baptiste,) a French litterateur, born at Caen in 1697. assisted in the translation of De Thou's "Universal History," and published several original works. Died in 1760. Masdeu, misMS-oo, (Juan Francisco,) a Spanish Jesuit and historian, was born at Barcelona in 1740. He wrote a "Critical History of Spain and of Spanish Cul- ture in every Department," (20 vols., 1783-1800,) which has a high reputation for learning and accuracy. Died in 1817. Masen. See Masenius. Masenius, ml-sa'ne-us, or Masen, mi'sen, (James,) a Flemish writer, born in the duchy of Juliers in 1606. He became professor of eloquence in the college of Cologne, and was the author of a Latin poem entitled "Sarcotis," or ," Sarcothea," which, it is pretended by Lauder, suggested to Milton the idea of " Paradise Lost." Died in 1681. Maseres or Mazeres, mt'zaiR', (Francis,) Baron, a distinguished mathematician, of French extraction, born in London in 1731. He was for a time attorney- general for Canada, and in 1773 was appointed cursitor- baron of the exchequer. He was the author of a "Dis- sertation on the Use of the Negative Sign in Algebra," and other similar works, and reprinted at his own ex- pense a collection of the writings of Kepler and other mathematicians, also one containing the optical works of Descartes, Huyghens, Gregory, and Halley. The latter was completed by Mr. Bal)bage. He was recorder of the city of London for about forty years. Died in 1824. See "Gentleman's Magazine," 1824. Masers de Latude, mt'zaiR' deh It'tlid', (Henri,) was born in Languedoc in 1725. Having given offence to Madame de Pompadour, he was by her orders im- prisoned in the Bastille. After remaining captive nearly three years, he effected his escape, (1756,) with the assist- ance of a fellow-prisoner and by means of the most persevering toil. He was soon arrested, with his com- panion, D'Alegre, and, after suffering an imprisonment of thirty years, was at length released, by the efforts of Madame Legros, who interested Cardinal Rohan, « as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, Vi,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) MASHAM 1542 MASON Madame Necker, and others, in his behalf. His "Me- moirs" were published by M. Thierry. Died in 1805. See Thiekrv, " Le Despotisme devoile, ou Memoires de La- tiide," 3 vols., 1792. Mash'am, (Abigail Hill,) born in London about 1670, was a cousin of the celebrated Duchess of Marlbo- rough, upon whose recommendation she became waiting- maid to the princess, afterwards Queen Anne. She continued in this post after Anne ascended the throne, and by her arts supplanted the Duchess of Marlborough in the royal favour. She was married in 1 707 to Mr. Mashani, who was made a peer in 1711. It appears that her influence raised Harley and the Tories to power in 1 7 10, deprived the Duke of Marlborough of the com- mand of the army, (1712,) and made important changes in the politics of Europe. In allusion to her intrigues, Macaulay says, "The great party which had long swayed the destinies of Europe was undermined by bedchamber- women." Died in 1734. See Macaulay's Review of Lord Mahon's " Histoiy of the War of the Succession." Masham, (Lady Da maris,) the daughter of Dr. Ralph Cudworth, born at Cambridge, England, in 1658, was married to Sir Francis Masham, of Essex. She was distinguished for her piety and for her attainments in history, philosophy, and divinity. She was a friend and pupil of the celebrated Locke, who died at her house, having resided there for some time. Lady Masham wrote several religious treatises. Died in 1708. See Lord King, "Life of Locke." Mas-i-nis'sa, [Gr. M.aoaavaaarjc,'] King of Numidia, the son of Gula, who reigned in Massylia, was born about 250 B.C. In the second Punic war he fought at first for the Carthaginians in Spain, but, having been generously treated by Scipio Africanus, he became a zealous and faithful ally of the Romans. He waged war with Syphax, a Numidian prince, and was defeated by him twice. The Romans under Scipio came to his assistance, and in 203 the allies gained a decisive victory. Among the captive^s was the charming Sophonisba, a Carthaginian lady, whom Masinissa married. Being sternly reproved by Scipio for this impolitic act, he sent her a cup of poison, which she drank, it is said, with heroic spirit. He con- tributed to the victory of the Romans at the battle of Zama, and was rewarded with the kingdom of Numidia. He is said to have been a wise ruler and to have done much to civilize his subjects. He died about the age of ninety-seven, leaving the kingdom, under the guardian- ship of Scipio ^milianus, to his three sons, Micipsa, Gulussa, and Mastanabal. See NiEBUHR, "Lectures on Roman History," vol. i. ; Livv, "History of Rome," books xxiv.-xxx. ; Sallust, "Jugurtha;" " Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale." Masius. See Maes, (Andreas.) Mas'ke-lyne, (Nevil,) an English astronomer of great merit, born in London in 1732. He was sent to Saint Helena in 1761 to observe the transit of Venus, in which enterprise he failed because the sun was ob- scured by clouds. In 1765 he succeeded Mr. Bliss as astronomer royal. He originated the "Nautical Alma- nack," (1767,) and superintended its publication till his death. It acquired a high reputation in Europe, and was styled by Lalande "the most perfect Ephemeris that had ever been made." For forty-seven years Maskelyne made exact observations of the sky at Greenwich, and was the first to give a standard catalogue of stars, (1790.) In 1772 he visited Scotland, in order to ascertain the density of the earth by observing the effect of the moun- tain Schehallien upon the plumb-line. He was the author of several astronomical treatises in the " Philosophical Transactions," and was a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was also a foreign associate of the Academy of Sci- ences in Paris. Died in 1811. See Dklambre, "Notice sur la Vie de N. Maskelyne," 1813; Rees, "Cyclopedia;" Dei.ambre, " Hlstoire de I'Astronomie au dix-huitieme Siecle ;" " Monthly Review" for March, 1786. Mas-Latrie, de, deh mi'lt'tRe', (Jacques Marie JosEiMi Louis,) a French archaeologist and historical writer, born at Castelnaudary in 1815. He published a "Historic Chronology of the Popes, General Councils," etc., (1837,) "History of the Isle of Cyprus under the Rule of the Princes of the House of Lusignan," (1852,) and other works. Maso. See Finiguerra. Maso da San Friano. See Manzuoll Ma'spn, (Armistead Thom.son,) a son of Stevens T. Mason, (i 760-1803,) was born in Loudon county, Virginia, in 1787. He was chosen a Senator of the United States by the Democrats in 181 5, and was killed in a duel by J. M. McCarty in 1819. Ma'son, (Charles,) an English astronomer, who assisted Dr. Bradley in the Royal Observatory at Green- wich. He published an improved edition of Mayer's "Lunar Tables," and, in company with Mr. Dixon,' was sent to America to determine the limits of Maryland and Pennsylvania. They measured a degree of the meridian, and in 1768 Dr. Maskelyne published an account of their operations in the " Philosophical Transactions" for that year. Died in 1787. Mason, (Francis,) an English clergyman, born at Durham in 1566, became Archdeacon of Norwich. He published a "Defence of ihe Anglican Church," (" Vin- diciae Ecclesias Anglicanae.") Died in 1621. Mason, (Francis,) D.D., a learned Baptist divine and missionary, born at York, England, in 1799. Having emigrated to America, he studied theology at Newton, Massachusetts, and sailed for India in 1830. He pub- lished a "Memoir of Mrs. Helen M. Mason," (1847,) " Burmah, its People and Natural Productions," (1852,) " Life of Kotha-byn, the Karen Apostle," a translation of the Bible into the Karen language, (1853,) and other works. He was also editor of a Karen journal, entitled "The Morning Star." Mason, (George,) Colonel, an English statesman and soldier under the reigns of Charles I. and Charles II., emigrated to America about 1654, and settled in Virginia. Mason, (George,) an American statesman, a de- scendant of the preceding, was born in Stafford county, now Fairfax county, Virginia, in 1726. He wrote the Declaration of Rights and the Constitution of Virginia, (1776,) after which he served in the legislature. In 1777 he was elected to the Continental Congress. He was reputed one of the ablest debaters that Virginia ever produced. He was a member of the national convention which framed the Constitution of the United States, but he refused to sign that Constitution, and vehemently opposed its adoption in the Virginia Assembly, for the alleged reason that it tended to monarchy. He was highly eulogized by Jefferson. Died in 1792. Mason, (George,) an English litterateur, who wrote a " Life of Lord Howe," an "Answer to Thomas Paine," and an "Essay on Designs in Gardening." Died in 1806. Mason, (James,) a distinguished English engraver, born about 1710, executed a number of landscapes after Claude Lorrain, G. Poussin, Hobbema, and other artists. Died about 1780. Mason, (James Murray,) an American Democratic politician, born in Fairfax county, Virginia, about 1798. He became a member of Congress in 1837, and was elected a Senator of the United States by the legisla- ture of Virginia in 1847. He continued to be a member of the Senate for fourteen years, and was the author of the fugitive-slave law of 1850. He was sent with J. Slidell on a mission to England by Jefferson Davis in 1861. During the passage in the steamer Trent they were seized by Captain Wilkes, of the Federal navy, in November, 1861. They were claimed by the British government, and were liberated in January, 1862, after which Mr. Mason passed several years in England, remaining abroad during the civil war. Died in 1871. Mason, (Jeremiah,) an American statesman and lawyer of high reputation, born at Lebanon, Connecticut, in April, 1768, graduated at Yale College. He practised law many years at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, to which he removed in 1797. He was a Federalist, and a friend of Daniel Webster, who expressed a very high opinion of him. He represented New Hampshire in the Senate of the United States from 1813 to 181 7. In 1832 he removed to Boston, where he died in October, 1848. He was considered in the early part of the present cen- tury to be the foremost lawyer in New England. a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; \ hy 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nSt; good; nuxjn; MASON 1543 MASSJSSOIT Mason, (Sir John,) an English statesman, born at Abingdon in 1500. He was privy councillor in the reigns of Henry VIH., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. Died in 1566. Mason, (John,) a native of England, born in 1600, emigrated to America, where he became Deputy Gov- ernor of Connecticut. He was the author of a "History of the Pequot War." Died in 1672. See G. E. Ellis, " Life of John Mason," in Sparks's "Amer- ican Biography," vol. iii., 2d series. Mason, (John,) an English divine and religious writer, born in Essex in 1706, was the author of a popular work, entitled "Self-Knowledge," (1745,) which was translated into several languages. Died in 1763. Mason, (John Mitchell,) a celebrated American theologian and pulpit orator, born in New York in 1770. He graduated at Columbia College in 1789, and subse- quently finished his theological studies in Edinburgh. In 1 793 he succeeded his father as pastor of the Reformed Presbyterian Church in Cedar Street, New York, where he attracted great numbers by his eloquence. He was the founder of the first theological seminary in the United States, of which he was appointed professor. He be- came editor of the " Christian's Magazine" in 1807, and was elected in 181 1 provost of Columbia College, and in 1821 president of Dickinson College, Pennsylvania. Among his most admired writings is his " Oration on the Death of Alexander Hamilton," who was his intimate friend. Dr. Mason died in 1829. His works (in 4 vols.) were edited by his son, the Rev. Ebenezer Mason. See "Memoirs of J. M. Mason," by J. Van Vechten, 1856; DuYCKiNCK, " Cyclopsedia of American Literature," vol. i ; Cleve- land, " Compendium of American Literature." Mason, (John Thomson,) an American lawyer and statesman, son of Thomson Mason, noticed below, was born in Stafford county, Virginia, in 1764. He was a personal friend of Jefferson, who appointed him to seve- ral high offices. Died in 1824. Mason, (John Thomson,) son of the preceding, born in Washington county, Maryland, in 1 81 5, became collector of the port of Baltimore under President Buchanan. Mason, (John Y.,) born in Sussex county, Virginia, about 1795, was secretary of the navy under President Tyler, and attorney-general and secretary of the navy (1846-49) under President Polk. He was afterwards appointed minister to France by President Pierce. Died in Paris in 1859. Mason, (Lowell,) an American composer and teacher of music, born at Medfield, Massachusetts, in 1792. He received the degree of doctor in music from the New York University in 1855. He has been a contributor to the " Musical Review," and has published numerous works on music, both original and compiled. Mason, (Richard B.,) grandson of George Mason, noticed above, served with distinction in the Mexican war of 1848, and became civil and military Governor of California. Died in 1850. Mason, (Stevens Thomson,) a nephew of George Mason, was born in Virginia in 1760. He served in the war of the Revolution, and was elected to the United States Senate in 1794. Died in 1803. Mason, (Stevens Thomson,) grandson of the pre- ceding, was born in Loudon county, Virginia, in 1811. He was elected in 1835 first Governor of Michigan. Mason, (Thomson,) younger brotherlof George Ma- son, noticed above, was born in 1730. He distinguished himself as a jurist and a patriot, and was the author of several able political essays. Died in 1785. Mason, (William,) an English poet, born at Hull in 1725. He was chosen a Fellow of Pembroke College in 1747, and, after taking orders, became chaplain to the king. Mason is chiefly remembered as the friend and biographer of the poet Gray. His principal works are two tragedies, entitled " Elfrida" and " Caractacus," several odes, and "The English Garden," a descriptive poem. He was also distinguished for his skill in paint- ing and music. Died in 1797. See Hartley Coleridge, " Lives of Distinguished Northerns;" 'Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets;" Warton, " History of English Poetry;" "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1816; " Monthly Review" for March. 1772, June, 1783, and August, 1796. Masoodee Alee-Abool-Hassan, Mas'udi Ali- Abul-Hassan, or Masoudy Ali-Aboul-Hassan, mi-soo'dee i''lee' ^'hobV his'san, often called Al-Ma- soodee, (or Al-Mas'udi,) an eminent Arabian historian, born at Bagdad in the ninth century. His profound and various attainments in almost every department of know- ledge have obtained for him the admiration of Eurt)peans as well as of his own countrymen. He travelled over a great part of Asia, and as far west as Morocco and Spain. Among his most important works are his " History of the Times," and his "Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems," the latter of which comprises the history, poli- tics, religion, and geography of Eastern and European nations. Masoodee is supposed to have died at Cairo, in 956 A.D. See firiENNE Quatremere, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Mas'oudy," 1839 ; Reinaud, article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Masotti, ma-sot'tee, (Domenico,) a distinguished Italian surgeon, born at Faenza in 1698, was appointed professor of physiology and surgery at Florence, and afterwards of lithotomy. In 1763 he published his prin- cipal work, entitled "Lithotomy for Women Perfected." Died in 1779. Masoudi. See Masoodee. Masque de Fer, mtsk deh fiR, (L'Homnie an, lo;n 6,) (the "Man with the Iron Mask,") an unknown person, who in 1662 was imprisoned in the chateau of Pignerol, afterwards conveyed to the isle of Sainte-Mar- guerite, and in 1698 to the Bastille, where he died in 1703. Various conjectures have been formed concerning this mysterious prisoner, who was evidently a person of high rank and refined tastes. Some writers have supposed him to have been a twin brother of Louis XIV. ; others, that he was the Count of Vermandois, the Duke of Beaufort, or Count Mattioli. See G. J. W. A. Ellls, (Lord Dover,) " History of the Stats Prisoner called The Iron Mask," 1826; Paul Lacroix, "L'Homme au Masque de Fer," 1837 : L. Letourneur, " Histoire de I'Homme au Masque de Fer," 1849; Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" "London Quarterly Review" for June, 1826. Masquelier, mtsk'le-a', (Louis Joseph,) a French engraver, born near Lille in 1741. In 1802 he obtained from the gallery of Florence a gold medal for his en- gravings. Died in 1811. Massa, mis'si, (Niccol6,) an Italian physician and medical writer, born at Venice ; died about 1563. Massard, mt'stR', (Jean,) a French engraver, born at Belleme in 1740. He became a member of the Acad- emy of Painting in the reign of Louis XVI., and, on the restoration of the Bourbons, was made, in 1814, engraver to the king. His most admired works are "The Family of Charles I.," after Van Dyck, and "The Death of Socrates," after David. Died in 1822. Massard, (Jean Baptiste Raphael Urbain,) a skil- ful French engraver, son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1775. He engraved some works of Raphael, Giulio Romano, and David. Died in 1849. See Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Massaredo. See Mazarkedo y Salazar. Massari, mas-si'ree, (Lucio,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1569, was a pupil of Ludovico Caracci. He was intimate with Albano, and took part in some of his labours. Among his master-pieces are the "Mar- riage of Saint Catherine," and a " Noli me Tangere." " Some of his works," says E. Breton, " are so graceful that they defy the severest criticism." Died in 1633. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" Baldinucci, " No- tizie ;" Malvasia, " Felsina piltrice." Massaria, mas-sS-ree'S, (Ai.essandro,) a learned Italian physician, born at Vicenza about 15 10. He studied under Fracantianus and Fallopius, and in 1587 succeeded Mercuriale as professor of medicine in the University of Padua. He was the author of a "Treatise on the Plague" and a "Treatise on Bleeding," which are highly esteemed. Died in 1598. See Portal. "Histoire de I'Anatomie." Mas'sas-soit, an Indian chief of the Womponoags, born in Massachusetts. In 1621 he formed a league with the colonists at Plymouth, which was never violated. He was the father of the celebrated w-arrior King Philip. Died in 1661. € as ^; 9 as s; | hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (3[^=^See Explanations, p. 23.) MASSE 1544 MASSINGER Masse, mS'sk', (Jean Baptiste,) a French artist, born in Paris in 1687, engraved the pictures which Le- brun had executed for the gallery of Versailles. Masse became painter to Louis XV. Died in 1767. Masse, (Victor,) a French composer, born at Lorient in 1822. He produced, besides other works, a comic opera entitled "Galathee." Massena, mt'si'nS^ [It. Massena, mSs-sa'ni,] (An- dre,) Prince of Essling, Duke of Rivoli, and one of the most distinguished marshals of Napoleon L, was born of Jewish parentage at Nice in 1758. He enlisted in 1775 as a private of the royal Italian regiment, from which he retired at the expiration of fourteen years, having attained no higher rank than that of a sergeant. At the beginning of the French Revolution he again en- tered the army, and in a short time was successively pro- moted to the rank of colonel, general of brigade, and general of division. In 1794 he gained a victory over the Austrians near Tanaro, took Ormea, and rendered effi- cient service at the battle of Saorgio. The following year, while serving under General Scherer, he drove the Aus- trians from their position at Vado and gained over them the decisive victory of Loano. In 1796 he acquired great distinction at the engagements of Montenotte, Mil- lesimo, Castiglione, and Areola, His gallant conduct at the battle of Rivoli, in 1797, subsequently procured for him the title of Duke of Rivoli. The next year he was appointed to the command of the army in the Papal States ; but his rapacity and avarice excited so great hostility both in his soldiers and in the inhabitants that he was soon after compelled to resign. In 1799, as com- mander-in-chief of the armies of Switzerland and the Danube, he exhibited the highest order of military talent, especially at Zurich, where he gained an important and brilliant victory over the Russians. In 1804 he was created a marshal of France, The next year he was sent to Italy, to command against the Archduke Charles, whom he finally succeeded in driving back into Germany. In 1806 he reduced the insurgent Calabrians to subjec- tion, took the fortress of Gaeta, and enabled Joseph Bonaparte to seat himself firmly upon the Neapolitan throne. He reaped further laurels in 1809, at the battles of Landshut and Eckmiihl and by the capture of the fortress of Ebersdorf. The same year he was created Prince of Essling, for his distinguished services at the battle of that place. Massena was appointed in 1810 general-in-chief of the army in Portugal, where, although he exhibited his usual courage and military skill, he was ultimately obliged to yield to the superior genius of Sir Arthur Wellesley. He has, however, received the highest commendation from English as well as French historians for the strategic skill with which he conducted his re- treat into Spain, In 1812 Marmont was appointed to succeed him. The year following, Massena joined the Bourbons. He acknowledged the authority of Napoleon when he returned from Elba, but took no part in the affairs of government during the Hundred Days. He was subsequently appointed commander-in-chief of the National Guard in Paris, and also received several marks of distinction from Louis XVIII. He died in Paris, April 4, 1817. See General Koch, " M^moires de Massena," 1849; Napier, " History of the Peninsular War ;" M ajor-Gener ai, J. Mitchell, "Biographies of Eminent Soldiers of the Last Four Centuries," 1S65 ; Pons, " Notice historique snr le Marechal Massena," 1837 ; Thiers, '' History of the Consulate and of the Empire;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Massenbach, von, fon mas'sen-blK', (Christian,) a Prussian officer, born at Schmalkalden in 1768. He published several historical works. Died in 1827. Mas'sey, (Gerald,) an English poet, born in Hert- fordshire in 1828. The child of indigent parents, he was ol)]iged at an early age to work in a factory, and re- ceived no other instruction than that of a penny school. He published in 1847 "Poems and Chansons," which were followed in 1853 by "The Ballad of Babe Chris- tabel, with other Lyrical Poems," See " Brief Biographies," by Samuel Smiles. Massiac, de, deh mS'se'Sk', (Gabriel,) a French officer and historical writer, born at Narbonne in 1657, He wrote " Memoirs of the Most Important Events of the War from 1688 to 1698." Died in 1727. Massias, mt'se'ds', (Nicolas,) Baron, a YrtnchlittS- rateur, born at Villeneuve d'Agen in 1764. Among his philosophical works is an " Essay on Instinct, Intelli- gence, and Life," (4 vols., 1822.) Died in 1848. Massie, mas'se, (Nathaniel,) an American soldier and pioneer, born in Goochland county, Virginia, in 1763, settled in Ohio, where he became one of the largest land- owners in the State. He founded in 1796 the town of Chilicothe. Died in 1813, Massieu, mt'se-uh', (Guillaume,) a French lit- terateur, born at Caen in 1665, He was appointed in 1 7 10 professor of Greek in the College of France. He translated the Odes of Pindar, and wrote a "His- tory of French Poetry," brought down to the reign of Francis I. Died in 1722. See Gros de Boze, "lEloge de Massieu;" Thery, " Notice sur I'Abbe Massieu." Massieu, (Jean Baptiste,) a French ecclesiastic, born in Picardy, became constitutional Bishop of L'Oise in 1 791, He voted for the death of Louis XVI. in the National Convention, Died in 1818. Massillon, mt's^KyiN' or mt'se^y^N', (Jean Bap- tiste,) a French pulpit orator of great celebrity, born at Hieres, in Provence, in 1663. He was educated in the college of that town, and became a priest of the Oratory. After professing belles-lettres and theology at Montbrison and Vienne, and pronouncing some funeral orations, he was called to Paris in 1696 to direct the Seminary of Saint-Magloire. .His talent was gradually developed by the ecclesiastic conferences which he com- posed at this period. He admired the austere eloquence of Bourdaloue, but chose for himself a different style, characterized by profound pathos and an insight into the most secret motives of the human heart. In 1699 he preached at Paris the Lent sermon, which was warmly applauded. The same year he was chosen to preach the Advent at court, on which occasion Louis XIV. said to him, "I have heard many great orators and been pleased with them ; but after hearing you I am displeased with myself" The death of Bossuet and Bourdaloue, in 1704, left him at»the head of French pulpit orators. In this year he again preached before Louis XIV., whose funeral oration he pronounced in 1 715. He was ap- pointed Bishop of Clermont in 171 7, and preached before the young king the Lent sermon called " Petit-Careme," which is esteemed his master-piece. His diction is noble, simple, and unaffected, Voltaire kept a volume of his sermons constantly on his desk, as a model of eloquence. Massillon was admitted into the French Academy in 1719. In the government of his diocese he was moderate, charitable, and conciliatory. He died in 1742, His pub- lished works consist of Sermons, Ecclesiastical Con- ferences, Paraphrases of certain Psalms, Letters, etc. Voltaire thought him " the preacher who best understood the world, — whose eloquence savoured of the courtier, the academician, the wit, and the philosopher." See La Harpe, " Cours de Litterature ;" Maury, " filoquence de la Chaire ;" F. Theremin, " Demosthenes und Massillon," 1845; D'Alembert, " filoge de Massillon;" Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi ;" Talbert, " ^ lege de Massillon," 1773; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Massimiliano. See Maximilian. Massimo, See Maximus, Mas'sin-ger, (Philip,) an eminent English dramatic poet, was born at Salisbury in 1584. In his eighteenth year he entered Saint Alban's Hall, Oxford, supported by the Earl of Pembroke, Here, according to Anthony Wood, "he spent his time in reading poetry and ro- mances instead of logic and philosophy, which he ought to have done, as he was patronized to that end." He became a resident of London about 1606, and assisted Fletcher in the composition of several dramas. The first production of Massinger was the "Virgin Martyr," (1622,) Eighteen of his dramas are extant, mostly tragedies and tragi-comedies. Among the most admired are "The City Madam," "The Maid of Honour," "A New Way to Pay Old Debts," and "The Fatal Dowry," The latter has given to Rowe the outline of the " Fair Penitent," Massinger's dramas are reinark- ably free from profanity ; and the coarseness which dis- figures some of them is probably to be attributed to his coadjutors. He is said to have been the only dramatist a. e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, ^, short; ai, ^, i, q, obscure; fSr, f^ll, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; MASSMANN 1545 MATHAM of that time who rejected the doctrine of the divine right of kings. Died in 1 640. See Davies, "Some Account of the Life and Writings of P. Massinser," lySg: "Lives of the British Dramatists," by Camp- bell, Leigh Hunt, etc. Massmann, mSs'iTian, (Hans Ferdinand,) a Ger- man sciiolar, born at Berlin in 1797. He published an edition of the "Explanation of the Gospel of Saint John" in Gothic. Massolino, da, dS mSs-so-lee'no, (Panicale, pJ-ne- kS'ii,) an Italian painter, born near Florence in 1378. His master-pieces are the pictures in the chapel of San Pietro al Carmine, re])resenting leading incidents in the life of Saint Peter. He numbered among his pupils the celebrated Masaccio. Died in 141 5. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. Masson. See Latomus. Masson, mS'sdN', (Antoine,) a French engraver, born near Orleans in 1636. He excelled particularly in representing colour and the different textures of objects. His jM-int of the "Disciples at Enimaus," after Titian, is esteemed one of his master-pieces, though not free from a fantastic style of executing the hair, peculiar to himself. Masson was also a painter, and his engravings from his own portraits, as well as from those of other artists, are greatly admired, many of them representing the most distinguished men of that time. He was engraver- in-ordinary to the king. Died in 1702. Plis daughter, Madelene Masson, born in 1666, was a skilful imitator of her father's style, and executed the portraits of Maria Theresa, the Duchess d'Alengon, and several others. See DuMESNiL, " Le Peintre-Graveur Fran^ais." Masson, (Augusts Michel BENofr Gaudichot,) a French novelist and dramatist, born in Paris in 1800. Masson, (Bartholomew.) See Latomus. Masson, (Charles Franqois Philibert,) a French litterateur, born in Franche-Comte in 1762. He was a member of the Institute of France. He wrote " Me- moirs of Russia," (3 vols., 1800-02,) and a poem entitled "The Helvetians." Died in 1807. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mas'son, (David,) a Scottish critic and litterateur, born at Aberdeen in 1823, became a contributor to " Era- ser's Magazine" and the " North British" and " Quarterly Reviews," and other publications. In 1859 he became editor of " Macmillan's Magazine," and in 1865 was appointed professor of rhetoric and English literature in the University of Edinburgh. His principal works are "The Life and Times of Milton," (1859,) "British Novelists and their Styles," (1859,) and "Critical and Biographical Essays." Masson, (Francis,) a distinguished Scottish botanist, born at Aberdeen in 1741. About 1771 he visited the Cape of Good Hope, where he made a valuable collec- tion of plants for the Kew Gardens. After having spent some time in Portugal and the West Indies, he was sent to Canada, where he died in 1805. He left an admirable work entitled " Stapeliae novae," in folio, with 41 coloured plates. See Rees, "Cyclopaedia." Masson, (FRANgois,) a French sculptor, born in Nor- mandy in 1745. Among his master-pieces are several groups in the garden of the Tuileries, the bas-reliefs of the Pantheon, the sculptures on the tomb of Vauban, and an exquisite tigure of Flora. Died in 1807. See Regnault, " Notice historique sur Fran9ois Masson." Masson, (Jean,) a French litteratetir and Protestant divine, born about 1680, wrote the Lives of Horace and Ovid, and several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1750. Masson, (Jean Papire — pt'p^R',) [Lat. Papir'ius Masso'nus,] a French writer, born at Saint-Germain- Laval in 1544. He became an advocate of Parliament in 1576. ITe was the author of " Annals of France," (1577,) a " Description of the Rivers of France," (1618,) and a collection of biographies of eminent persons, entitled " Elogia." Masson was a friend of the historian De Thou, who has written his Life. Died in 1611. See Dk Thou, "Vita P. Massoni ;" Niceron, "Memoires." Masson de Pezay. See Pezay. MSssooa or Massoua, mis'soo'a, written also Ma- sua and Mesne, a celebrated Arabian savant, who was physician to the caliph Haroun-al-Raschid. Massuet, mt'sii-i', (Pierre,) a learned French phy- sician, born near Sedan in 1698, studied under the celebrated Boerhaave. He wrote several historical treatises. Died in 1776. Massuet, (Rene,) a learned French ecclesiastic, born in Normandy in 1666. On the death of Mabillon and Ruinart, he wrote a continuation of the "Annals of the Benedictine Order." He also published an excellent edition of the works of Saint Irenasus. Died in 1716. Mastelletta. See Donducci. Mas'ters, (Robert,) an English divine and antiquary, born in 1713, published a "History of the College of Corpus Christi," (1753,) and other works. He was a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. Died in 1798. Masters, (Thomas,) an English poet, born in Glou- cestershire about 1600. He was a friend of Lord Her- bert of Cherbury, whom he is said to have assisted in some of his writings. He wrote a Greek poem on the " Passion of Christ," and other works. Died in 1643. See Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses." Mastlin or Maestlin, m§st-leen', (Michael,) a Ger- man astronomer, born in Wurtemberg about 1550. He passed a portion of his early life in Italy, where he asso- ciated with Galileo. Having returned home, he was appointed professor of mathematics at Tubingen, where he was the tutor and generous friend of Kepler. He accepted the Copernican theory. He was author of " Thesis de Eclipsibus," " Epitome Astronomiae," (1597,) and other works. Hallam designates him as "the illus- trious master of Kepler." Died in 1590 or 1631. See Kastner, " Geschichte der Mathematik ;" Vossius, "De Scientiis Mathematicls." Mastropetro, mis-tRo-pa'tRO, (Orto,) was elected Doge of Venice in 1179. He abdicated in 1191, and retired to a monastery, and was succeeded by the cele- brated Dandolo. Masuoci, mi-soot'chee, (Agostino,) an Italian painter, born at Rome in 1691, was a pupil of Carlo Maratta. Among his master-pieces is a " Holy Family." Died in 1758. Masuccio, mS-soot'cho, I., an Italian architect and sculptor, born at Naples in 1230. He built the church of San Domenico Maggiore, and completed that of Santa Maria del Nuova, begtui by Giovanni Pisano. Diedin 1305. Masuccio II., (Tommaso de' Stefan l) a pupil of the preceding, was born in 129 1. Among his works are the castle of Saint Ermo, and the church of San Lorenzo at Naples. He also executed sculptured monuments of great merit. Died in 1338. See CicoGNARA, "Storia della Scultura." Masudi or Al-Masudi. See Masoodee. M^tali, mi'ta-li, in the Hindoo mythology, the chariot- eer of Indra. See Williams's translation of " Sakoontala," Act vi. Matani, ml-t3,'nee, (Antonio,) a learned Italian phy- sician, born at Pistoia in 1730. He was a corresponding member of the Royal Society of London. He published a treatise " On the Figure of the Earth," and several medical works. Died in 1779. See TiPALDO, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Match'am, (George,) an English traveller, born in 1755, published a "Journey from Aleppo to Bagdad across the Arabian Desert." Died in 1833. Matelief, ml'teh-leef,(CoRNELis,) a Dutch navigator, born about 1570, was sent in 1605 as commander of a squadron to the East Indies, for the purpose of opposing the Portuguese and of opening relations with China and Japan. He died about 1628, and an account of his voy- age was published at Amsterdam, (1705.) See Motley, "United Netherlands," vol. iv. chap. xlix. Maternus. See Firmicus. Matham, ml'tim, (Jacob,) a Dutch engraver, born at Haarlem in 1571, was a pupil of Henry Goltzius. Died in 1631. Matham, (Theodorus,) son of the preceding, born at Haarlem in 1589, engraved a number of portraits, and several historical pieces of great merit. Died in 1677. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) MATHER 1546 MATILDA Matli'er, (Cotton,) D.D., a celebrated American theologian and writer, born at Boston in 1663, was a son of Increase Mather, noticed below. He was ordained as a minister in 1684, and preached in Boston. Among his principal works are "The Wonders of the Invisible World," (1693,) "Magnalia Christi Americana, or The Ecclesiastical History of New England," (1702,) "Essays to do Good," (1710,) " Psalterium America- num,"(i7r8,) " The Christian Philosopher," (1721,) and " Illustrations of the Sacred Scriptures," (in manuscript.) His character exhibits a remarkable compound of ardent piety, (which, however, was not without a tincture of self-conceit,) uncommon activity, and force of intellect joined to a credulity which, even in that age, had scarcely any parallel among educated men. From the first he was eager to bring to trial and punishment those supposed to be guilty of witchcraft, and, when others began clearly to see the folly and injustice of these cruel persecutions, he earnestly, though vainly, strove to stem the reaction in the popular mind. Died in 1728. See DuYCKiNCK, " Cyclopjedia of American Literature," vol. i. : "North American Review" for July, 1840; Hildreth, " History of the United States," vol. ii. chap. xx. Mather, (Increase,) son of Richard Mather, a non- conformist divine who removed from Lancashire to New England, was born at Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1635. He was sent about 1685 to England as agent of the province for the redress of grievances. He published, among other works, an " Essay on Remarkable Provi- dences." Died in 1723. Mather, (Moses,) D.D., a relative of the preceding, born at Lyme, Connecticut, in 17 19. He was the author of a " Systematic View of Divinity," and other works. Died in 1806. Mather, (Richard,) an English Puritan, born in Lan- cashire in 1596, emigrated to New England in 1635. He preached at Dorchester, Massachusetts, f«r many years. Died in 1669. See a " Life of R. Mather," by his son Increase. Matheson. See Mattheson. Math''ew, (Rev. Theobald,) the celebrated Apostle of Temperance, a Catholic priest, born in the county of Tipperary, Irelaiid, in 1790. He was appointed afte\- his ordination to a missionary charge at Cork, where he established a charitable association on the model of that of Saint Vincent de Paul. About 1838 he became presi- dent of a temperance society, and in a few months admin- istered the pledge to 150,000 persons in Cork alone. He afterwards visited different parts of Ireland, the cities of London, Manchester, and Liverpool, and the United States of America, being everywhere received with en- thusiasm. For these eminent services in the cause of religion and morality. Queen Victoria bestowed upon Father Mathew an annuity of £^00. Died in 1856. See "Father Mathew, a Biography," by J. F. Maguire; P. M. MoRKis, " Memoirs of the Life of Theobald Mathew," New York, 1841 : I. S. Henshaw, "Life of Father Mathew," New York, 1849; "Biographical Sketches," by Harriet Martineau, 1869 ; " Fra- ser's Magazine" for January, 1841. Math'ews, (Charles,) a celebrated English come- dian, born in London in 1776. Having visited the United States in 1822, he brought out on his return his enter- tainment entitled "A Trip to America," which obtained great popularity. He was distinguished for his extraor- dinary talent for imitation, in the exercise of which he was seldom if ever ill-natured or offensive. He died in 1836, leaving "Memoirs" of his life, which were finished by his widow, (4 vols., 1839.) See " Fraser's Magazine" for March, 1836 ; " Blackwood's Maga- zine" for December, 1839; "London Quarterly Review" for Janu- ary, 1839. Mathews, (Charles James,) an English comedian, a son of the preceding, was born in 1803. He mar- ried Madame Vestris in 1838, and, after her death, in 1857, another actress, Mrs. Davenport. He produced several dramas, among which is "My Wife's Mother," (1833.) Math'ews, (Cornelius,) a distinguished American litterateur and journalist, born at Port Chester, New York, in 1817. Having previously contributed numerous articles in prose and verse to the "American Monthly Magazine," " New York Review," and "Knickerbocker Magazine," he published, in 1839, " Behemoth, a Legend of the Mound-Builders." Among his other works may be named "The Politicians," a comedy, (1840,) "Poems on Man in the Republic," (1843,) " Witchcraft," a tragedy, (1846,) "Money-penny, or the Heart of the World," (1850,) and a comedy entitled "False Pretences," (1856.) Mr. Mathews has been a zealous advocate of inter- national copyright. See DuvcKiNCK, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; Griswold, "Prose Writers of America." Mathews, (George,) an American jurist, born near Staunton, Virginia, in 1774, removed to Louisiana, where he was appointed presiding justice of the supreme court. Died in 1836. Mathias, mS-tWas, (Thomas Jame.s,) an English lit- terateur, born about 1 757, wrote a poem entitled " Pursuits of Literature," (1794,) " Runic Odes," and other English works ; also a number of poems in Italian. He died at Naples in 1835. He translated Milton's "Lycidas" into Italian. Mathieu, mt'te-uh', (Adolphe Charles Ghislain,) a Belgian poet and journalist, born at Mons in 1804, pub- lished numerous works. Mathieu, mt'te-uh', (Claude Louts,) a French mathematician and astronomer, born at Macon in 1784. He was elected to the Acaderny of Sciences in 181 7. He was a brother-in-law of Francis Arago. Mathieu de la Redorte, mt'te-uh' deh It reh-doRt', (David Maurice Joseph,) Com'i% a French general, born at Saint- Affrique in 1768. He became general of division in 1799, and peer of France in 1819. He married Mademoiselle Clery, a sister of Joseph Bona- parte's wife. Died in 1833. Mathieu de Dombasle, mt'te-uh' deh d6N'baK, (Christophe Joseph ALEXANDRE,y~a French agricul- tural writer, born at Nancy in 1777 ; died in 1843. Mathieu-Mirampal, mt'te-uh' me''r6N^ptl', (Jean Baptiste Charles,) born at Compiegne, in France, in 1764, was a deputy to the National Convention in 1792, and voted for the death of the king. Died in 1833. Mathilde. See Matilda. Mathon de la Cour, mt'tdN' deh It kooR, (Charles Joseph,) a French litterateur, son of Jacques, noticed below, born at Lyons in 1738. He wrote a treatise " On the Danger of reading Books hostile to Religion," (1770,) which was crowned by the Academy of Inscrip- tions, and other works. He was guillotined at Lyons in 1793. Mathon de la Cour, (Jacques,) a French mathe- matician, born at Lyons in 17 12. He published several scientific treatises. Died about 1770. Mathusalem. See Methuselah. Matignon, mt't^n'ydN', (Charles Auguste de Goyon — deh gwi'ydN',) Comte de Gace, a French marshal, born in 1 647, accompanied James II. of Eng- land in his Irish campaign. He afterwards distinguished himself at Fleurus, Mons, and Namur, and was created a marshal in 1708. Died in 1729. Matignon, de, deh mt'tin'y6N', (Jacques de Goyon,) Comte, a French marshal, born in Normandy in 1525. He served in the wars of Henry II. and Henry III. against the Protestants. He was made a marshal in 1579. Died in 1597. See Brantome, "Vies des grands Capitaines Frangais;" Cal- LifeRES, " Histoire du Mareschal de Matignon," i66i. Ma-tiFda, Maud, or Maude, [Fr. Mathilde, mt'- t^kK,] Empress of Germany and Queen of England, born about 1 102, was a daughter of Henry I. of England. She was married in mo to Henry V. of Germany, who died in 1125. About 1127 she became the wife of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, and was recognized by her father as his successor. On the death of Henry (1135) her title was disputed by Stephen of Blois, and a long civil war ensued between them. Matilda prevailed in 1141, and was crowned in London. She was the mother of Henry II. Died in 1167. See Matthew Paris, " Historia major." Matilda, daughter of Boniface III., Marquis of Tus- cany, was born about 1046. She was first married to God- frey le Bossu, son of the Dnke of Lorraine. He died in 1076, and, her mother having died the same year, Matilda a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; ai, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, fit; m^t; n5t; good; moon; MATILDA 1547 MATTHESON came into possession of lier vast estates, including the greater part of Northern Italy. In the contest for su- premacy between Pope Gregory VII. and the Emperor of Germany, she espoused with great zeal the cause of the former ; and it was at her castle of Canossa that Henry IV. underwent the humiliating penance imposed by the pope. In 1077 she made a reversionary grant of all her dominions to the Church of Rome. She was married in 1089 to Guelph, Duke of Bavaria, from whom she was divorced in 1095. Died in 1 1 15. See FiORENTiNi, " Memorie di Matilda la Coiitessa di Toscana," 1642; Amedee Renee, "La grande Italienne," 1859; Mozzi de' Capitani, "Sulla Contessa Matilda," etc., 1845; " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Matilda, (Caroline.) See Caroline Matilda. Matius. See Calvena. Matius, ma'she-us, written also Mattius, (Cneius,) a Roman poet in the time of Julius Caesar, whose friend- ship and patronage he enjoyed. He was the author of epic and dramatic poems, and mimiambi. Of the last- named there are fragments extant, which are greatly admired. He also translated the "Iliad" into Latin verse. He is supposed by some to be the same as Cal- vena, (which see.) Maton de la Varenne, mt'toN' deh It vt'r^n', (P. A. L.,) a French litterateur, born in Paris about 1760; died in 1813. Matooan- (or Matouan-) lin, mi-too-ln' lin, a very learned Chinese writer, born in the province of Kiang-si about 1250. He was the author of a historical work, entitled " Wen-hian-thoon-khao," which displays im- mense erudition and embraces a great variety of sub- jects. Abel Remusat says of this production, " It is in itself worth a library, and, if Chinese literature contained no other, it would be worth while to learn Chinese in order to read it." Matos, de, di ma''t6s, (Joao Xavier,) a Portuguese poet of the latter part of the eighteenth century, was the author of sonnets, odes, etc., and of a tragedy entitled " Viriacia." See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Matos Fragoso, mi't6s fR^-go'so, (Juan,) a dramatic writer, born at Elvas, in Portugal, about 1630, was the author of numerous popular comedies, (in Spanish.) Died in 1692. Matsko, motsh'ko, (John Matthias,) a Plungarian astronomer, born at Presburg in 1721 ; died in 1796. Mats'ya, [modern Hindoo pron. miits'ya,] a Sanscrit word signifying a "fish," and forming the najne, in the Hindoo mythology, of the first avatar of Vishnu. On that occasion the preserving deity is said to have as- sumed the form of a great fish shining like gold, and, according to one account, " extending a million leagues," that he might protect the ark which contained Satyavrata and the seven Rishis with their wives, all the rest of the human race having been destroyed by the deluge. See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." Matsys- mSt-sTs', (Cornelis,) a Dutch or Flemish engraver, born about 1500 ; died in 1560. Matsys, (Jan,) a relative of Quentin, noticed below. His pictures are few in number, but of great merit, and painted in the style of Quentin Matsys. Died about 1560. Matsys, mat-sis', or Metsys, mgt-sTs', written also Messis, (QiTENTiN,) a celebrated Flemish painter, born at Antwerp about 1450. He was originally a blacksmith, and is said to have changed his vocation in order to obtain the hand of a lady he loved, who was the daughter of an artist. Among his master-pieces are " The Descent from the Cross," in the Museum at Antwerp, "The Misers," in the Gallery at Windsor, and the " Portrait of a Jeweller," in the imperial collection of Vienna. Died in 1529. See Drscamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc.; E. van EwKN, " Notice biographique sur Q. Metsys," 1846. Mat-ta-thi'as, a Jewish priest, appointed to officiate in tiie Temple, was the founder of the family of the Maccabees, and the father of the celebrated warrior udas Maccabaeus. During the persecution of the Jews y Antiochus Epiphanes, he was conspicuous for his zeal in the defence of his religion, and, with a band of his followers, marched against the idolaters and over- threw their altars. Died in 166 B.C. Matte, mSt, (Nicolas Augusi'in,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1781. Among his works we may name busts of Racine and Corneille. Died about 1840. Matteani, mdt-ta-a'nee, (Angelo,) an Italian jurist and mathematician, born at Marostica in 1535. He be- came professor of law at Padua in 1589. Died in 1600. Mattei, mSt-ta'ce, (Alessandro,) an Italian cardinal, born at Rome in 1744. In 1777 he became Archbishop of Ferrara, and in 1797 he was sent to negotiate with Bonaparte, then marching towards Rome. Died in 1820. Mattei, (Loretto,) an Italian poet, born at Rieti in 1622. He was the author of " II Salmista Toscano," a paraphrase, in verse, of the Psalms. Died in 1705. Mattei, (Saverio,) an Italian litterateur, born in Cala- bria in 1742. He became in 1767 professor of Oriental languages at Naples. His translation of the Book of Psalms was very popular. Died in 1795. Mattei, (Stanislao,) an Italian composer, born at Bologna in 1750 ; died in 1825. Matteis, mSt-ta'ess, or Mattei, mjt-ta'ee, (Paolo,) an Italian painter and engraver, born near Naples in 1662. Among his master-pieces are the pictures of the " Sa- viour and Saint Gaetano," in the church of Saint Paul at Pistoia, and the "Meeting of Erminia and the Shep- herds," in the Museum of Vienna. Died in 1728. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Matte-Lafaveur, mtt It'ft'vuR', (S^;bastien,) a French chemist, wrote a work entitled " Practice of Chemistry." Died about 1684. Matte'o da Siena, nidt-ia^o di se-a'nd, or Matteo di Giovanni, mit-ta'o de jo-van'nee, an Italian painter, born at Sienna in 1420. He adorned the cathedral of that city with his works. Died in 1495. Matter, mt'taiR', (Jacques,) a French historian and philosopher, born near Saverne in 1791. He published, besides other works, a "Critical History of Gnosticism," etc., (2 vols., 1828,) a " General History of the Christian Church," (4 vols., 1828-35,) and "The Philosophy of Religion," (1857,) all in French. He became in 1845 inspector-general of the libraries of France. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Matteucci, mat-too'chee, [It. pron. mSt-t|^ot-chee,] (Carlo,) an Italian writer, distinguished for his researches in electro-physiology, was born in 1811. He published, besides other valuable works, " Lectures on the Physico- Chemical Phenomena of Living }>odies," (1844,) for which he received the prize of the French Academy of Sciences and the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London. He became minister of public insti uction. Died at Flor- ence in 1868. (For two of his works, see " Smithsonian Reports" for 1865 and 1867.) Matteucci, (Petronio,) an Italian astronomer. In 1786 he gave an account of the transit of Mercury. Died in 1810. Matthaeus, mit-ta'us, (Antoon,) a Dutch jurist and anticjuary, born at Utrecht in 1635 ; died in 17 10. Matthai or Mattheei, mit-ta'ce, (Christian Fried- rich,) a German scholar, born in Thuringiain 1744, was appointed professor of Greek at Wittenberg, and subse- quently of classic literature at Moscow. He published a number of critical treatises and editions of various Greek classics. Died in i8ii. Matthai or Matthcei,(FRiEDRiCH,) a German painter of history and portraits, born at Meissen in 1777. He was a pupil of Casanova, and subsequently of Fiiger, at Vienna, and was appointed in 1809 professor in the Academy of Painting at Dresden. Died in 1832. His brother, Ernst Gottlieb, born in 1779, was a sculptor of great merit, and was appointed honorary professor in the university at Rome. Died in 1842. Matthesius, mSt-ta'ze-us, (Johann,) a German Prot- estant minister, born at Rochlitz in 1504. He became first preacher at Joachimsthal about 1543. He wrote a " History of Luther's Doctrine, Life, and Death," (in German, 1565.) Died in 1568. Mattheson, mit'teh-son, (Johann,) a German mu- sician and composer, born at Hamburg in 1681. His works are very numerous, comprising operas, church mu.sic, sonatas, etc. He also published several treat- c as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; ^i, -nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MATTHEW 1548 MATTIOLl ises on music, which are highly esteemed. He was an intimate friend of Handel. Died in 1764. See BuRNEY, " History of Music;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^- rale." Matthew, math'ii, [Gr. yiaTQdioq ; Fr. Matthieu, mt'te-uh'; It. Matteo, mit-ta'o,] Saint, the Evan- GELibrTa native of Galilee, is generally believed to have been the same person as Levi, the son of Alpheus, men- tioned in Mark (ii. 14) and Luke, (v. 27.) His employ- ment was that of a publican, or collector of customs, under the Romans, and while engaged in this function he was called by Christ to be one of the apostles. The history of Matthew after the ascension of Christ is not known, some writers asserting that he suffered death at Naddabar, in Ethiopia, and others that he was one of the ap(jstles who escaped martyrdom. Matthew of Cracow, [Lat. Matthi'as Cracovi- en'sis,] a German bishop and Reformer, born in Pome- rania. He became Bishop of Worms in 1405, and wrote against the corrupt practices of the Church. Among his works is a treatise " On the Pollutions of the Romish Court." Died in 1410. See Hodgson, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867. Matthew of Westminster, an English monk and historical writer of the fourteenth century, was the author of "Flowers of History," (" Flores Historiarum,") ex- tending from the creation to the death of Edward L It is highly valued for its accuracy. Matthew, math'u, (Tobias,) an English prelate, born in Bristol in 1546. In 1572 he was chosen president of Saint John's College,. Oxford, and one of the queen's chaplains-in-ordinary. In 1595 he was created Bishop of Durham, and in 1606 Archbishop of York. The learning and piety of Archbishop Matthew have been warmly eulogized by Camden. Died in 1628. See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." Matthew, (Tobias,) son of the preceding, born at Oxford in 1578, became a Roman Catholic. He was employed by James I. in 162 1 to negotiate the marriage of the Prince of Wales with the Infanta of Spain. He was knighted in 1623. Among his works are a "Life of Saint Theresa," and a "Collection of Letters includ- ing a Character of Lucy, Countess of Carlisle." Died in 1655- See Wood, " Atheiise Oxonienses." Matthew Paris, math'vl pir'iss, a celebrated English chronicler, enjoyed the patronage of Henry III., from whom he obtained important privileges for the Univer- sity of Oxford. He was the author of " Historia Major Anglias," and " Historia Minor Anglias." The former extends from the time of William the Conqueror to the reign of Henry HI. Died in 1259. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Matthews, math'uz, (George,) an American officer of the Revolution, born in Augusta county, Virginia, in 1739. He was elected Governor of Georgia in 1780, and again in 1794. Died in 1812. Matthews, (Thomas,) a British naval officer, born in Wales in 1681, distinguished himself in the engage- ment at Cape Passaro under Admiral Byng, (1718,) and in other campaigns of the war of the Spanish succession. He obtained the rank of admiral of the blue. Died in 1751- See Van Tenac, " Histoire generale de la Marine." Matthia or Matthiae, mat-tee'a", (August Hein- RICH,) a German philologist, born at Gottingen in- 1769. He published "Elements of Greek and Roman Litera- ture," a " Complete Greek Grammar," which was trans- lated into French, an excellent edition of the Tragedies of Euripides, and other works. Died in 1835. Matthia, (Johan,) a Swedish prelate, born in Ostro- gothia in 1592, became court preacher and almoner to Gustavus Adolphus. He was afterwards appointed pre- ceptor to Christina, the daughter of that monarch, and was created Bishop of Strengnas in 1643. He wrote several moral and theological works. Died in 1670. Matthiae. See Matthia. Matthias, ma-thi'ass, [Ger. pron. mit-tee'Sss ; It, Mattia, mit-tee'^,] Emi)eror of Germany, born in 1557, was the son of Maximilian II. and Mary, daughter of Charles V. He was invited in 1578, by the Catholics of the Netherlands, to assume the government of that country, which office he soon resigned. He was ap- pointed Stadtholder of Austria in 1595, and in 1611 was invited by the Bohemians to become their ruler. On the death of his brother Rudolf, Emperor of Germany, in 1612, Matthias succeeded to the throne. In the en- suing contest between the Protestant and Catholic fac- tions he pursued a vacillating policy, and while striving to direct made himself distrusted by both. He con- cluded a disadvantageous treaty with the Turks, then in possession of Hungary, (1615,) and soon after caused his cousin Ferdinand to be proclaimed King of Bohemia and Hungary. (See Ferdinand II.) Matthias died in 1619, in the midst of the dissensions which preceded the Thirty Years' war. See Khevenhuli.er, " Annales Ferdinandei ;" P. Santoric, "Vite di Ridolfo e Mattia Imperatori," 1664; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Matthias, ma-thl'ass, an American fanatic and impos- tor, originally named Matthews, born in Washington county, New York, about 1790, became a street-preacher in Albany, and prophesied the destruction of that city. See "Matthias and his Impostures," by Wm. L. Stone, New York, 1835; "North American Review" for October, 1835. Matthias of Janow, (yl'nov,) a German priest and Reformer, preached in Prague. He wrote against popery, and published "The Abomination of Carnal Priests and Monks." Died in 1394. See Hodgson, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867. Matthias Corvinus, See Corvinus. Matthieu, the French for Matthew, which see. Matthieu, mt'te-uh', (Pierre,) a French poet and historical writer, born in Franche-Comte in 1563. He became historiographer of France under Henry IV., wrote a tragedy entitled " La Guisiade," of which the Duke of Guise is the hero ; also a " History of Henry III. and Henry IV." Died in 1621. See PoiRSON, "Histoire du R^gne de Henri IV;" Nic^ron, " Memoires." Matthieu de Vendome, mt'te-uh' deh v5N'dom', a French statesman and ecclesiastic,"Korn about 1220, was appointed regent of the kingdom by Louis IX. on his departure for Palestine. After the accession of Philip he was made prime minister in 1270. Died in 1286. Matthieu de Vendome, a French scholar and Latin poet, lived about 1180-1200. Matthiolus. See Mattioli. Matthisson, von, von mit'te-son^ (Friedrich,) an eminent German lyric poet, born near Magdeburg in 1 761. He studied at Halle, and in 1794 accompanied the Princess of Anhalt-Dessau on her tour through Switzerland, Italy, and the Tyrol. In 1812 the King of Wurtemberg appointed him his chief librarian and conferred upon him a title of nobility. His poems are characterized by great tenderness of feeling, graceful versification, and faithful delineations of nature. He also published an interesting work entitled " Remi- niscences," (" Erinnerungen," 5 vols., 1810-16,) being an account of persons and places he had visited. Died in 1831. See DoRiNG, " Matthisson's Leben," 1833 ; Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" F. von Matthisson, " Selbstbiographie," 1818. Matthys, m§.t-tis', (Gerard,) a Flemish philosopher and Greek scholar, born in Gelderland in 1523. He published a number of commentaries on Aristotle, and other critical works. Died in 1574. Matti, mit'tee, (Emanuel,) a Spanish ecclesiastic and Latin poet, born at Oropesa in 1663, was appointed Dean of Alicante. Died in 1737. Mattioli, mit-te-o'lee, (Luigi,) an Italian engraver, born at Crevalcore in 1662, executed a number of prints after the Caracci. He was also distinguished as a painter. Died about 1745. See G. Atti, "Vita di L. Mattioli," 1836. Mattioli, [Lat. Matthi'olus,] (Pietro Andrea,) an eminent Italian physician and botanist, born at Sienna in 1500. Being invited to Prague by the emperor Fer- dinand, he was made aulic councillor, and subsequently appointed first physician to Maximilian II. He published a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/iori; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fSll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; MATTIVS 1549 MAUPEOU " Coniiiientaries on the Materia Medica of Dioscorides," (in Latin, 1554,) which are highly esteemed and have been translated into several languages ; also a number of medical and botanical treatises. The well-known genus Matthiola (Stock-gilliflower) was named in honour of this botanist. Died in 1577. See CuviEK, " Histoire des Sciences naturelles;" Hallek, " Bibliotheca Botanica ;" Van der Linden, "De Scriptoribus Me- dicis." Mattius. See Matius. Mafu-rin, (Charles Robert,) a distinguished poet, novelist, and pulpit orator, born at Dublin in 1782, was descended from a French Protestant family. He studied at Trinity College, and was subsequently appointed curate of Saint Peter's, Dublin. He published in 1807 "The Fatal Revenge, or the Family of Montorio," which was followed by " The Milesian Chief," "Women, or Pour et Contre," "Melmoth the Wanderer," and other romances of the Radclifife school. His tragedy of "Ber- tram," brought out at the Drury-Lane Theatre in 1816, met with brilliant success. It has been translated into French, as well as several of his romances. In 1824 he published " Controversial Sermons," directed against the corruptions of the Roman Church, which obtained great popularity. Died in 1824. See the "Edinburgh Review" for June, 1818; "London Quar- terly Review" for December, 1818, and January, 1821 ; "Monthly Review" for August, 1818, et seq. Maturino di Firenze, mS-too-ree'no de fe-r^n'zi, an Italian painter, born at Florence about 1490, was a pupil of Raphael, and a friend of Polidoro Caravaggio, in conjunction with whom he executed a number of frescos at Rome. These works are preserved in the engravings of Cherubino, Alberti, Goltzius, and other artists. Died about 1528. Matuszewic, mS-too'shi-vits, (Thaddeus,) a Polish statesman, was appointed minister of finance in 1815. Died in 1818. Maty, mi'tee, (Matthew,) an eminent physician and writer, born near Utrecht in 1718, studied at Leyden, and subsequently settled in England, (1740.) He founded in 1750 the "Journal Britannique," a literary periodical of great merit, which was highly commended by Gibbon. He was elected in 1758 a Fellow of the Royal Society, of which he became perpetual secretary in 1765. In 1772 he succeeded Dr. Knight as chief librarian of the British Museum. He published an " Essay on the Character of the Great Physician, or a Critical Eulogy on Boerhaave," (in French, 1747,) "Authentic Memoirs of Richard Mead," (1755,) and " Memoirs of Lord Ches- terfield." Died in 1776. See Nichols, "Literary Anecdotes;" Gibbon, "Memoirs." Maty, (Paul Henry,) a son of the preceding, was born in London in 1745. He became one of the secre- taries of the Royal Society in 1778. He published a translation, from the German, of Riesbeck's "Travels," (1787.) Died in 1787. Maubert de Gouvest, mo'baiR' deh goo'vi', (Jean Henri,) a French litterateur, born at Rouen in 1 721, wrote a work entitled " Political History of the Age," which was commended by Lord Bolingbroke. Died in 1767. Maubeuge. See Mabuse. Maubreuil, de, deh mo'bRuI' or mo'bRuh'ye, (Ma- rie Armand Guerri,) Marquis, a French political adventurer, born in Bretagne in 1782. He served in the army as captain. According to his own statement, he was authorized and bribed by certain members of the provisional government in i8i4to assassinate Napoleon and to rob the Queen of Westphalia of her diamonds. He performed the latter part of his mission, and was cast into prison for that offence. Died in 1855. Mauburne, mo'biiRn', or Momboir, m6N'bw3.R', (Jean,) a Flemish ecclesiastic and devotional writer, born at Brussels about 1460, was a friend and corre- spondent of Erasmus. Died in 1502. Maucomble, m5'k6Mbl', (Jean FRANgois Dieu- Donne,) a French writer, born at Metz in 1735, pub- lished a " History of the Antiquities of the City of Nimes," (1767.) Died in 1768. Maucroix, de, deh mo^kRw^', (Francois,) a French scholar, born at Noyon in 1619. He made translations from the " Philippics" of Demosthenes, the " Homilies" of Saint Chrysostom, and other Greek classics. He was an intimate friend of Boileau, Racine, and La Fontaine, and published conjointly with the last-named a collection of works in prose and verse. Died in 1708. Maud or Maude. See Matilda. Maudsley or Maudslay, mawdz'le, (Henry,) an English artisan, born at Woolwich in 1771, was an em- ploye of Joseph Bramah. He made several valuable mechanical inventions. Died in 1831. See Smiles, " Industrial Biography." Mauduit, mo'dii-e', ( Antoine Ren6, ) a French mathematician, born in Paris in 173 1. He published, among other works, " Elements of Conic Sections De- monstrated," which is highly commended by Lalande. Died in 181 5. Mauduit, mo'dwe', (Israel,) an English writer, of French extraction, born at Bermondsey in 1708, was appointed agent for the province of Massachusetts. He published a " Short View of the History of the New England Colonies," (1769,) and several other works. Died in 1787. Mauduit, (Michel,) a French theologian, born at Vire, in Normandy, in 1644. He was the author of an "Analysis of the Gospel, according to the Historic Order," etc., a " Treatise on Religion," and other works. Died in 1709. Mauduit du Plessis, mS'dii-e' dii pli'se', (Thomas Antoine,) a French officer, born at Hennebon in 1753, served in the American war, where his courage and abilities won for him the particular regard of Washington. Having joined the royalists soon after the breaking out of the French Revolution, he was killed in attempting to suppress a mutiny among his soldiers in Hayti, in 1791. Maugras, mo'gRi', (Jean Baptiste,) a French phi- losopher and writer, born near Bourbonne-les-Bains in 1762 ; died in 1830. Mauguin, mo'giN', (Franqois,) an eloquent French advocate, born at 13ijon in 1785. He took a prominent part in the revolution of 1830, and sat in the Chamber of Deputies until 1848. Died in 1854. See M. DE CoRMENiN, " Le Livre des Orateurs ;" L. deLom^nie, " M. Mauguin, par un Homme de Rien," 1840. Maule, (Fox.) See Panmure, Lord. Maulmont, moKm6N', or Malmont, de, deh mSK- m6N', (Jean,) a French scholar and theologian, was an intimate friend of J. C. Scaliger. Maultrot, mS'tRo', (Gabriel Nicolas,) a French jurist, born in Paris in 1 714, published numerous treat- ises on canon law. Died in 1803. Maun'der, (Samuel,) an English compiler, born about 1790. He published, besides other works, a " Treasury of Useful Knowledge," and a " Biographical Treasury," (6th edition, 1847.) Died in 1849. See Wm. Jerdan, "Men I have known." Maundeville. See Mandeville, (Sir John.) Maun'drell, (Henry,) an English traveller, born about 1650, visited Palestine in 1697, and published in 1698 his " Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem," etc., which was translated into French. Died about 1710. Maunoir, mo'nwSR', (Julien,) a learned French ec- clesiastic, born in 1606, wrote several theological treat- ises in Latin, and a number of works in the dialect of Brittany, including a grammar and dictionary. Died in 1683. Maupas, de, deh mo'pi', (Charles Cauchon,) a French soldier, born at Rheims in 1566, was appointed councillor of state by Henry IV., and was subsequently ambassador to the court of England. Died in 1629. Maupas du Tour, de, deh mo^pS' dii tooR, (Henri Cauchon,) a French writer, born near Rheims in 1600, rose to be Bishop of Evreux in 1661. He wrote a " Life of Saint Francis de Sales," and other works. Died in 1680. Maupeou, de, deh m5'poo', ( Ren^: Charles,) a French statesman, born in Paris in 1688. He was suc- cessively appointed first president of the Parliament of Paris, keeper of the seals, and vice-chancellor, (1763.) Died in 1775. See De Tocqueville, " Histoire de Louis XV ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." € as k; 9 as .y; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nai il ; r, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MAUPEOU 1550 MAURICE AU Maupeou, de, (Rf,n6 Nicolas Charles Augus- TIN,) a son of the preceding, born in 1714, rose through various high offices to be chancellor of France in 1768. In this post he directed all his efforts towards the over- throw of the parliament, which, by his intrigues, was accomplished in 1771. The president Lamoignon and several distinguished members were exiled ; but on the accession of Louis XVI. (1774) they were recalled, and the former system was re-established. Maupeou was ban- ished to his estate, near Les Andelys, where he died in 1792, having bequeathed to the nation the sum of 800,000 livres. He was the last chancellor of the ancient monarchy. See "Letti es de Madame du Deffand ;" De Tocqueville, " His- toiie de Louis XV;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Frangais." Maupertuis, de, deh mo'p^R'tii-e', (Pierre Louis MoREAU,) an eminent French mathematician, born at Saint-Malo in 1698. He finished his studies in Paris, was elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1723, and in 1727 became a Fellow of the Royal Society, London. In 1736 he was the chief of a party of savants, in- cluding Clairaut and Lemonnier, who were sent to Lajiland by the Academy in order to measure a degree of the meridian. The result of this experiment, which is his chief title to celebrity, exposed the error which had been made by Dominic and Cassini in their measure- ment in France, and tended to confirm Newton's theory of the oblate form of the earth. On the invitation of Frederick II, of Prussia, Maupertuis repaired in 1740 to Berlin, where he was appointed president of the Acad- emy of Sciences. He was the author of an " Essay on Moral Philosophy," "The Balistic Arithmetic," "The Measure of the Northern Degree," " Discourse on the Figure of the Stars," and several able treatises on geom- etry. Died in 1759. See L. A. de i.a Beaumelle, " Vie de Maupertuis," 1856 ; Dam^- RON, " Memoire siir Maupertuis;" Voltaire, " Correspondance Generale ;" J. H. Formey, " Eloge de Maupertuis," 1761; " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Mauquest de la Motte, mo'ka' deh It mot, (Guil- LAUME,) a French surgeon, born at Valognes in 1655, wrote a "Treatise on Surgery," (3 vols., 1722.) Died in 1737. Maur. See Raran-Maur. Maurand or Mauran, mo'rSN', (Pierre,) the first leader of the Albigenses, was born at Toulouse. It is said that, under the pressure of severe persecution, he abjured his doctrines. Died in 1199. Maureillan, mo'r^'ySN', (Casimir Poitevin,) Vi- COMTE, a French general, born at Montpellier in 1772, succeeded the Duke of Ragusa as Governor of Dalmatia in 1806. Died in 1829. Maurepas, de, deh moR'p3.', (Jean Fr^d^ric Phe- lypeaux — fa']e']35',) Comte, a French statesman, born at Versailles in 1701, was a grandson of Chancellor Pont- chartrain. He succeeded his father, Jerome de Pontchar- train, as secretary of state in 1715, and in 1725 became minister of marine. Though frivolous in his character and superficial in his attainments, he was a liberal patron of learned men, and i)romoted the scientific expeditions of Maupertuis and his companions to Lapland and of Jussieu to South America. Having offended Madame de Pompadour by an epigram, he was banished from court ; but after twenty-five years he was recalled. The principal measure of his subsequent administration was the restoration of the parliaments. Died in 1781. See CoNDORCET, " iSloge de M. de Maurepas," 1782; Voltaire, "Siecle de Louis XV ;" Droz, " Histoire de Louis XVI;" Mar- MONTEL, "Memoires;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Maurer, mow'rer, (Christoph,) a Swiss painter and engraver, son of Josias, noticed below, was born at Zurich in 1558. He was a pupil of Tobias Stimmer. Died in 1614. Maurer, mow'rer, (Gf.org Ludwig,) a German jurist, born near Durkheim, in Bavaria, in 1790, became min- ister of foreign affairs and of justice in 1847. He pub- lished a number of treatises on German law. Maurer or Murer, moo'rer, (Josias,) a Swiss artist and litteratetir, born at Zurich in 1530, excelled as an engraver and painter on glass. Died in 1580. Maurice, Emperor of the East. See Maurtcius. Maurice, the French for Mauricius, which see. Maurice, mo'r^ss', (Antoine,) a French Protestant theologian and Orientalist, born in Provence in 1677. He became professor of history, Oriental languages, and theology at Geneva. Died in 1756. Maurice, (Antoine,) a theological writer, a son of the preceding, born at Geneva in 1716, succeeded his f^ither in the chair of theology in that city, (1756.) Died in 1795. Maurice, (Fr6d6ric Guillaume,) Baron, a Swiss writer, son of Antoine, (the second of the name,) born at Geneva in 1750, was one of the founders of the " Bi- bliotheque Britannique," (1796,) and published several agricultural works. Died in 1826. Maurice, mau'riss, (John Frederick Dennison,) an English divine and prominent leader of the "Broad Church" party, born in 1805. He studied at Trinity Col- lege, Cambridge, and subsequently became editor of the London "Athenaeum." Among his principal works are his "Theological Essays," "Prophets and Kings of the Old Testament," "Unity of the New Testament," "The Kingdom of Christ," (1841,) "Religions of the World," "Philosophy of the First Six Centuries," "Doctrine of Sacrifice deduced from the Scriptures," "Lectures on National Education," "Philosophy of the Middle Ages," "Claims of the Bible and of Science," (1862,) and "The Conflict of Good and Evil in our Day," (1865.) He was appointed professor of moral philosophy at Cambridge in 1866. See " Fraser's Magazine" for April, 1854 ; " New American Cy- clopjedia." Maurice, (Rev. Thomas,) an English divine and scholar, born in Hertford in 1755, became vicar of Cud- ham, in Kent. He was the author of " Indian Antiqui- ties," (7 vols., 1797,) "History of Hindostan," (3 vols., 1799,) and "Modern History of Hindostan," (2 vols., 1804.) He also translated into verse the "OEdipus Tyrannus" of Sophocles, and published several poems and dramas. Died in 1824. See "Memoirs of Rev. Thomas Maurice," 1819, by himself; "Gentleman's Magazine," 1824. Maurice of Nassau. See Nassau. Maurice, mau''riss, [Ger. Mo'ritz; Lat. Mauri'tius,] Elector of Saxony, a celebrated general and champion of the Protestant cause, was born at Freiberg, March 21, 1521. He succeeded his father, Henry, Duke of Saxony, in 1541, and married Agnes, a daughter of Philip, Landgrave of Hesse. In 1546 he formed a secret alliance with the emperor Charles V. against the Protestant League of Schmalkalden, with a design to supplant John Frederick as Elector of Saxony, whose dominions he invaded with success. The title of elector was trans- ferred to him by Charles V. In consequence of his un- expected hostility to the Protestants, the Imperial army gained a decisive victory at Miihlberg in April, 1547, and the Protestant cause was apparently ruined. Having changed his policy, and formed, in 1551, a secret treaty with Henry II. of France, Maurice, aided by several Ger- man princes, in the spring of 1552 took arms for the assertion of religious liberty, and marched against Charles v., who was at Innspruck. Surprised by this sudden movement, Charles was compelled to retreat, the Council of Trent was dispersed in confusion, and hostilities were terminated by the memorable treaty of Passau, August 22, 1552, which secured religious liberty to the Protest- ants of Germany. Maurice was killed in a battle against Albert of Brandenburg, at Sievershausen, in July, 1553. See J. Camerarius, "Vita Mauritii Electoris Saxoniae," 1569; Georg Arnold, "Vita Mauritii," 1719; F. A. von Langenn, " Moritz Herzog und Cluirfiirst von Saclisen," 2 vols., 1841 ; Schi.en- kert, " Moritz Churfiirst von Sachsen," 4 vols., 1798-1800; " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Maurice, mau'riss, [Fr. pron. mo'r^ss',] Saint, a Christian martyr, was commander of the Theban Legion, which was composed entirely of Christians. Being or- dered by the emperor Maximian to make a sacrifice to the gods for the success of the Roman arms, he refused to comply, and was put to death, together with the greater part of the legion he commanded, (286 A.D.) See J. DE Llsle, " Defense de la Verite du Martyre de la Legion Thebeenne," 1737. Mauriceau, mo're'so', (Francois,) a French phy- sician, born in Paris, published a "Treatise on the Dis- 3, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; ndt; good; moon; MAURICUNUS 1 55 1 MAFOR eases of Pregnancy," which was translated into several languages. Died in 1 709. Maiiricianus, mau-rish-i-a'nus, (Junius,) a Roman jurist under the reign of Antoninus Pius. Mauricius or Mauritius, mau-rishl-us, [Gr. Mav- o'lmog : Fr. Maurice, mo'r^ss' ; It. Maurisio, mow- ree'se-o,] (Flavius Tiberius,) Emperor of the East, born in Cappadocia in 539 A.D. Having been appointed bv the emperor Tiberius commander of his armies against the Persians, he gained several important victo- nes, and was, on his return, rewarded by Tiberius with his daughter's hand. After carrying on war for some time with the Abares, a barbarous tribe on the Danube, a mutiny broke out among his soldiers, who chose for their leader a centurion named Phocas. Mauritius was put to death, having previously witnessed the execution of five of his sons, (602.) See GiBBo.v. "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas- Empire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- raie. ' ' Maurisio, mow-ree'se-o, (Gerardo,) an Italian jurist and historian, born at Vicenza, lived about 1200-1240. He served under the Ghibeline commander Ezzelino da Romano, and subsequently wrote a history of his achievements, which enjoys a high reputation. Mauritius. See Maurice of Saxony, and Mauri- cius. Mauro, Fra, fRi mow'ro, an eminent Italian geog- rapher, was a monk of the order of the Camaldules, near Venice. His principal work is an excellent map of the world, executed about 1458. Several copies of it have been made ; one of the best of these is in the British Museum. See Placido Zurla. "II Mappamundo di Fra Mauro," 1806. Maurooenus. See Morosini. Maurocordato. See MavroCORD.\tos. Maurolico, mow-ro'ie-ko, (Fra.nce.sco,) a celebrated Sicilian gcumeter, born at Messina in 1494, was for many years professor of mathematics in his native city. He was the author of a "Treatise on Conic Sections," "Op- tical Ti.eorem," and other valuable works in Latin, and made translations from Euclid, Apollonius, and Auto- lycus. Died in 1575. See F. Mauroi.ico, "Vita del .\bbate Francesco Maurolico," 1613 ; i). SoiNA, •• E.ogio di F. Mauro. ico," iSoS. Mau'rus Terentia'nus, (te-rgn-she-a'nus,) a Latin writer, supposed to have been a native of Carthage, was the author of a poem on the rules of Latin versification, entitled De Literis, Syllabis, Pedibus," etc. Maury, m5're', ( Jean Siffrein,) a celebrated French prelate and pulpit orator, born in the Venaissin in 1746. He repaired to Paris about 1766, and soon acquired a high reputation by his " Funeral Oration on the Dauphin." and his " Eulogy of Fenelon." He published in 1777 his "Treatise on Pulpit Eloquence," and in 1778 was ap- pointed to preach the Careme (Lent) sermon before the king. His " Panegyric on Saint Vincent de Paul," which is esteemed his master-piece, appeared in 1785, and he was soon after chosen a member of the French Academy. In 1789 he was a deputy of the clerg}- of Peronne to the States-General, where he was conspicuous as the elo- quent advocate of the Church and of the royalist party and the most powerful opponent of Mirabeau. On the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly he was obliged to leave the countn.', and at the invitation of Pius VI. he took up his residence at Rome, where he was made a cardinal in 1794. In 1804 he wrote a letter of con- gratulation to the emperor Xapoleon, and henceforth attached himself to the interests of the new sovereign. He was successively created by him a member of the Institute, first almoner of Jerome Bonaparte, and Arch- bishop of Paris, (1810.) After the restoration of the Bourbons, Cardinal Maury was deprived of his place, and retired to Rome, where he died in 1817. Maury was noted for his brilliant repartee, of which the following instances may be given. Being asked by Xapoleon how he stood with regard to the Bourbons, he replied, " Sire, my respect for them is unalterable ; but I have lost faith and hope, and there remains to me only charity." Once, in the Assembly, some ladies of rank, known for their republican opinions, attempted by their loud conversa- tion to drown his voice, when, turning to the president, he said, "I pray you silence those Sans-culottes." See "Viedu Cardinal Maury," 1827, by his nephew; Poujoulat, " Le Cardinal Maury, sa Vie et ses CEuvres," 1855 ; " Nouvelle Bio- eraphie Generale ;" "Monthly Review," vol. Ixix., 1812, (Appen- dix) Maury, mow-ree', (Juan Maria,) a Spanish poet and critic, born at Malaga, published in 1826 a collection of Spanish lyrics, entitled "Poetical Spain," ("Espagne poetique,") which were translated into elegant French verse and accompanied with critical and biographical notices. Died in 1845. Maiury, (Louis Ferdinand Alfred,) a French anti- quarian writer, born at Meaux in 181 7. He became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1857. He pub- lished a number of works, the most valuable of which is his " History of the Religions of Ancient Greece," (3 vols., 1857.) Mau'ry, (Matthew Fontaine,) LL.D., an American hydrographer and naval officer, born in Spottsylvania county, Virginia, in 1806. About 1826 he sailed in the Vincennes on a voyage around the world, and after his return was made a lieutenant in 1836. He has published a "Treatise on Navigation," (about 1835,) "Letters on the Amazon and the Atlantic Slopes of South America," "Relation between Magnetism and the Circulation of the Atmosphere," "Astronomical Observations," (1853,) and " Physical Geography of the Sea," (1855, sixth edi- tion, 1856,) a work which has been highly praised by competent judges. See the " North British Re\'iew" for May, 1858. Mausole. See Mausolus. Mau-soTus, [Gr. Mafaw/^f ; Fr. Mausole, mo'zol',] son of Hecatomnus, became King of Caria, in Greece, about 377 B.C. He made considerable conquests in Persia and in different parts of Greece, and was, accord- ing to Demosthenes, one of the instigators of the Social war. From his name is derived the word " Mausoleum." (See Artemisia.) See Clinton, "Fasti Hellenici." Maussac, de, deh mo'stk', [Lat. Maussa'cus,] (Philip Jacques,) an eminent French critic and scholar, born near Beziers about 1590. He became first president of the Chambre des Comptes at MontpelHer in 1647. He published the "Greek Lexicon" of Harpocration, with notes, (1614,) an edition of Aristotle's "History of Animals," and of Psellus"On the Virtues of Minerals." Maussac was one of the first Greek scholars of his time, and was an intimate friend of Salmasius. Died in 1650. See Baillet, " Jugements des Savants." Maussacus. See Maussac. Mautour, de, deh mS'tooR', (Philtbert Bernard ; MoREAU,) a French antiquary, born at Beaune in 1654. I Among his works is a " Dissertation on the History of ! the Amazons." Died in 1737. I Mauvais, mo'v|', (F6lix Victor,) a French astron- ' omer. born at Maiche, in Doubs, in 1809; died in 1854. I Mauvillon, mo've'v^N', (El6azar,) a French litfe- I rateui\ born in Provence in 1712, became secretary to ' Frederick Augustus, King of Poland. He published a I "History of Prince Eugene of Savoy," (5 vols., 1740,) !a "History of Peter the Great," (1742,) "History of ' Gustavus Adolphus," (1764,) and other works, (in French.) Died at Brunswick in 1779. I Mauvillon, (Jacob,) son of the preceding, born at ' Leipsic in 1743, became professor of military- science at ; Cassel in 1771. He wrote a "Historical Essay on the 1 Art of War," etc., (in French, 1784,) and other works i in French and German, also "The Prussian Monarchy," ("La Monarchic Prussienne," ) in conjunction with j Mirabeau, who was his intimate friend. Died in 1794. See Haag, "La France protestante ;" "Nouvelle Biographie i Generale." I Mauzinho Quevedo de Castello Branco, mow- I zen'yo kk-va'do di kis-teKlo bRSn'ko, a Portuguese j poet, wrote a poem entitled " Alphonso the African," commemorating the achievements of King Alphonso V. MaVor, (WIlliam Fordyce,) a Scottish writer, born ' near Aberdeen in 1758, became tutor to the children of the Duke of Marlborough. He published a number I of useful compilations, among which we may name a € as ^; 9 as s; g kard; g2cs,j; g, h, K,guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^='See Explanations, p. 23.) MAVORS 1552 MAXIMILIAN " Historical Account of the Most Celebrated Voyages," *• Elements of Natural History," and "The British Cor- nelius Nepos." Died in 1837. Mavors. See Mars. Mavrocordatos, mSv-ro-kor-di'tos, or Mavrocor- dato, mav-ro-kor-di'to, (Alexander,) a modern Greek physician, statesman, and scholar, born about 1636. He studied at Rome and Padua, and took his medical degree at Bologna. Having settled at Constantinople, his pro- found knowledge of both Oriental and European lan- guages procured for him the post of grand dragoman to the Ottoman Porte, (1673.) He was afterwards employed in important embassies to Vienna, and negotiated the treaty of Carlowitz, (1698.) His services to Austria on this occasion were rewarded by the emperor Leopold with the title of count of the empire, while he was ap- pointed secretary of state by the Sultan, and obtained other distinctions. He was the author of a medical work entitled " Pneumaticum Instrumentum," etc., which was translated into French, German, and Spanish, a "Modern Greek Grammar," and a collection of letters. Died in 1709. See Von Hammer, " Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Mavrocordatos, (Alexander,) a Greek statesman, born at Constantinople in 1791. He took arms against the Turks in 1821, and was appointed president of the executive committee in January, 1822, soon after which he took command of the army. Having been rendered almost powerless by the dissensions among the Greeks and by the enmity of Colocotronis and Ypsilanti, he re- signed or refused the office of president in 1823. In 1832 he was appointed a member of the cabinet by King Otho, whom he served as ambassador to Munich, Berlin, and London between 1834 and 1840. He was prime minis- ter for a short time in 1841, and president of the council in 1844. About May, 1854, he was restored to power, which he resigned a few months later. Died in 1865. See Tricoupis, " History of the Greek Revolution," (in modern Greek,) 4 vols., 1853-56; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" L. de LoMENiE, " Galerie des Contemporains." Mavrocordatos, ( Constantine, ) was appointed Hospodar of Wallachia in 1735. abolished serfdom, and introduced great improvements in the agriculture of the country. Died in 1765. Mavrocordatos, (Nicholas,) son of Alexander, (the first of the name,) was appointed successively dragoman to the Sultan, Hospodar of Moldavia (1709) and of Wallachia, (1711.) Died in 1730. Mavromichalis, mav-ro-me-Ki'lis, known also as PiETRO Bey, a modern Greek patriot, born in the Morea about 1775. He fought against the Turks in the revo- lution which began in 1821, and became a member of the provisional government. Died in 1848. Mawe, maw, (Joseph,) an English naturalist, born in Derbyshire in 1764, published " Travels in the Interior of Brazil," etc., (1812,) "Treatise on Diamonds and Precious Stones," (1813,) "Mineralogy of Derbyshire," and other scientific treatises. Died in 1829. Mawmoisine, maw'moi-zin, or Malvoisine, de, deh miKvo-zin, (William,) a prelate, supposed to have been a native of France. Having visited Scotland, he was made Bishop of Saint Andrew's in 1202. He estab- lished many monasteries in that country, and was active in promoting a crusade to the Holy Land. Maxcy, mak'see, (Jonathan,) D.D., an American Baptist divine, born at Attleborough, Massachusetts, in 1768. He became successively professor of divinity at Brown University, Rhode Island, (1791,) president of Union College, New York, (1802,) and president of South Carolina College, (1804.) Died in 1820. See the " Literary Remains of Rev. Jonathan Maxcy," with a Memoir by R. Elton, D.D., 1844. Maxence. See Maxentius. Maxentius, maks-§n'she3s, [Fr. Maxence, mtk'- s6nssM (Marcus Aureliijs^Valerius,) a Roman em- peror, was the son of Maximian, who abdicated in 305 A.n. He married the daughter of the emperor Galerius. He thought himself slighted by the promotion of Con- stantine to the rank of Caesar in 306, and excited a revolt among the PriEtorian guards, who proclaimed him emperor at Rome in the same year. Galerius, who was then in a distant province, sent against him an army under Severus, who was defeated and killed by the aid of Maximian. Maxentius and his father reigned together for a short time, and made an alliance with Constantine, who married Fausta, a sister of Maxentius. Maximian was expelled from Rome in 308, in consequence of a quarrel with his son. In 312 the army of Constantine defeated that of Maxentius, who, in the retreat, was drowned in the Tiber. See Gibbon, ."Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Tille- MONT, " Histoire des Empereurs." Maxime. See Maximus. Maxime de Tyr. See Maximus Tyrius. Max-im'i-an, [Fr. Maximien, mtk'se'me2|.N' ; Lat. Maximia'nus,] or, more fully, Mar''cus Vale'rius Maximia'nus, a Roman emperor, born in Pannonia, was the son of a peasant. He had obtained high rank in the army when Diocletian, in 286 A.D., adopted hiin as his colleague in the empire. In the division of the em- pire, Italy and Africa were assigned to Maximian. In 305 Diocletian and Maximian formally abdicated in favour of Galerius and Constantius Chlorus. The next year he joined his son Maxentius in an effort to recover power, and was proclaimed emperor. In the war that ensued between him and Constantine he was taken prisoner, and executed in 310. (See Maxentius.) See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Tille- MONT, " Histoire des Empereurs." Maximianus. See Maximian. Maximien. See Maximian. Max-i-miFi-an [Ger. pron. mSk-se-mee'le-Sn ; Fr. Maximilien, mtk'se'me^le'iN'; Lat. Maximilia'nus ; It. Massimiliano, mis-se-me-le-i'no] I., Emperor of Germany, born at Neustadt in 1459, was the son ot Frederick HI. and Leonora of Portugal. He married, in 1477, Mary of Burgundy, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, who died in 1482, leaving two children, Philip and Margaret. In accordance with the stipulations of the peace of Arras, (1482,) he betrothed his daughter Margaret to the Dauphin, (afterwards Charles VIII. of France,) with Burgundy, Artois, and Flanders for her portion. For several years following he was involved in a contest with France, and with his subjects in the Neth« erlands, incited to revolt by Louis XI. About 1492 he prepared to make war on Charles VIII., who not only refused to keep his engagement with Maximilian's daugh- ter, but had deprived him of his intended bride, Anne, the wealthy heiress of Brittany. By the mediation of Philip, Elector of the Palatinate, a treaty of peace was concluded,, between the two sovereigns at Senlis, (1493,) by which Charles was compelled to give up the dowry of the princess. Maximilian was crowned Emperor of Germany, and in 1494 married Bianca Sforza, daugh- ter of the Duke of Milan, which alliance gave rise to a succession of wars in Italy. He soon after joined the League of Cambray, formed between Pope Julius II., Ferdinand of Spain, and Louis XII. of France, against the Venetians ; but, that republic having soon after become reconciled to the pope, Maximilian joined the so-called Holy League between England, Spain, Venice, and the pope, in opposition to the French, who were signally defeated by the forces of Henry VIII. and the emperor, in the " battle of the spurs," near Guinegate, (1513.) Francis I., having succeeded to the throne of France, captured Milan, and compelled Maximilian to give up Verona to the Venetians for 200,000 ducats. By the treaty of Bale (1499) he had been obliged to acknow- ledge the independence of Switzerland. Though often unsuccessful in his wars, he had the fortune to acquire extensive territories by the marriage of his son Philip with the Infanta of Spain, and of his grandchildren P'er- dinand and Maria with the son and daughter of Ladislaus, King of Hungary and Bohemia. His daughter Mar- garet was married to the Spanish prince Don Juan, a son of Ferdinand and Isabella. Among the important acts of his reign were the establishment of the Imperial Chamber and Aulic Cotmcil, and the abolition of the Secret Tribunal of Westphalia ; he also created a stand- ing army and introduced military discipline. He was a liberal patron of learned men, and was the author of 5, e, T, o, u, y, lo7ig; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fa.t; mSt; n6t; good; mooi. ; MAXIMILIAN 1553 MJXIMUS several works in prose and verse. He died in January, 1519, and was succeeded by his grandson, Charles V. See CoxH, "History of the House of Austria;" Hegewisch, " Gescliichte der Regieruug Maxitniliaus I.," 1782 ; Karl Haltaus, "Geschichte des Kaisers Maximilian," 1850; Van dkr Voort, "Maximilian van Oostenrijk," 1844; LiCHNOwsKY, " Geschichte des Hauses Habsburg." Maximilian II., born in 1527, was the son of Fer- dinand I., whom he succeeded in 1564 as Emperor of Germany. He was soon after engaged in a war with the Turks, who had established themselves in Hungary. After the death of Solyman H. a truce of eight years was concluded between his successor and the emperor. Maximilian was favourably inclined towards the Protest- ants, whom he allowed to fill important offices; but the influence of the pope, the King of Spain, and the Catho- lic princes of Germany prevented him from formally embracing their doctrines. He died in 1576, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Rudolph. See CoxE, " History of the House of Austria;" DeThou, " His- toria sui Temporis;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Maximilian I., Elector of Bavaria, born in 1573. On the formation by the Protestants of the confederacy called the Union, {1608,) Maximilian put himself at the head of the opposing Catholic faction of the League. In conjunction with the emperor Ferdinand II., he fought in the Thirty Years' war against the Palatine Frederick V., and conquered the Upper and Lower Palatinate. In 1623 he obtained the electoral dignity of the Palatinate and the hereditary domains of Frederick V. Maximilian was an able ruler, and founded a number of colleges and other useful institutions. Died in 165 1. See Karl Maria von Aketin, "Geschichte des Herzogs und Kurfiirsten Maximilian I.," 1842. Maximilian II., (Joseph,) King of Bavaria, the eldest son of King Lewis, was born in 181 1. He mar- ried in 1842 a daughter of Prince Frederick William of Prussia. In March, 1848, he succeeded his father, who abdicated the throne. He opposed the project to unite the German peoples into one nation or confederacy of which the King of Prussia should be the head. He died in March, 1864, and was succeeded by his son Lewis. Maximilian, (Ferdinand Joseph,) Emperor of Mexico and Archduke of Austria, born in July, 1832, was a brother of the emperor Francis Joseph. He married Carlotta, or Charlotte, a daughter of Leopold, King of Belgium, about 1858. In 1859 he was appointed an admiral and commander-in-chief of the Austrian navy. In 1863 he was tempted by Napoleon III. to act the part of emperor in Mexico, then partly conquered by the French and partly governed by the republican President Juarez. He arrived at the Mexican capital in June, 1864. He issued a decree that all who adhered to the republic or resisted his authority should be shot. Many prisoners, including General Orteaga, accordingly suffered death by his order. According to the New York "Evening Post," July I, 1867, he ordered the enslavement of the whole labouring population of Mexico. The United States refused to recognize him as emperor, and required Na- poleon to withdraw his army. Maximilian was much embarrassed by the want of money, and offended the clerical party (which had favoured him) by refusing to restore the property of the Church, which had been confiscated by the Liberals. The French troops de- parted about the end of 1866, after which the republicans gained several victories and the empire quickly collapsed. Maximilian was captured at Queretaro in May, and shot on the 19th of June, 1867. See his "Recollections of my Life," 3 vols., 1868; F. Hall, "Life of Maximilian," 1868. Maximilian, (Alexander Philipp,) Prince of Neu- wied, a German naturalist and traveller, born at Neu- wied in 1782. In 1815 he set out on a journey through Brazil, where he spent two years and made a rich col- lection of specimens. On his return he published his "Travels in Brazil" and a "Description of the Natural History of Brazil." In 1833 he visited the western part of the United States. His "Journey through North America," a magnificent work, illustrated with eighty- one engravings, came out in 1843, and is said to be superior to anything of the kind that had hitherto appeared in Germany. Maximilian Mari'a Eman'uel, Elector of Bavaria, born in 1662, was a grandson of Maximilian I. In 16S5 he married Maria Antonia, daughter of the emjjeror ^ Leopold I., and was appointed in 1692 Governor of the Netherlands. Having taken part with the French in the war of the Spanish succession, he delivered up to them the Spanish Netherlands. After his defeat at the battle of Schellenberg, he was obliged by the emperor to give up his possessions, which, however, were restored at the peace of Baden in 17 14. Died in 1726. Max''i-min, [Lat. Maximi'nus; Fr. Maximin, mtk'- se'ttiiN',] or, more fully, Cai'us JuTius Ve'rus Max- imi''nus, a native of Thrace, born in 173 A.D., served in the Roman army under Septimius Severus. Having followed Alexander Severus in his German canq^aign, he caused him to be assassinated, a.d. 235, and was proclaimed emperor in his stead. In consequence of his cruelties, the province of Africa soon after revolted, and Gordianus was made emperor by the senate of Rome, A.D. 237. Maximinus, having defeated and slain Gor- dianus, laid siege to Aquileia, during which he was killed in a mutiny of his soldiers, together with' his son, in 238 A.D. If we may trust the concurrent testimony of ancient writers, Maximin was above eight feet high, well propor- tioned, and of such strength that he could easily draw a loaded wagon, and with a kick break the leg of a horse. He is said to have used his wife's bracelet for a finger- ring. See TiLLEMONT, "Histoire des Empereurs," Max-i-mi'nus Da'za, an Illyrian peasant, a relative of Galerius, was raised by him to the dignity of Caesar, A.D. 305. He ruled over Syria and Egypt, and perse- cuted the Christians. On the death of Galerius, in 311, Maximinus took possession of all the Asiatic provinces. He afterwards made war on Licinius, but was defeated, and died by poison at Tarsus in 313 A.D. Max'I-nius, |Fr. Maxime, mtk's^m'; It. Massimo, mis'se-mo, ] ( Magnus Clemens, ) a usurper of the Roman empire, was a native of Spain. Having for sev- eral years commanded the Roman army in Britain with success, he revolted against Gratian about 381 A.D., and was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers. He then invaded Gaul to offer battle to Gratian, who was defeated, or fled without fighting, and was killed in 383. Theo- dosius and Valentinian recognized him as Emperor of Gaul, Spain, and Britain. Attempting to obtain Italy also by conquest, he was defeated by Theodosius, taken prisoner, and executed in 388 A.D. See Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire;" Tillemont, " His- toire des Empereurs." Maximus, [Fr. Maxime, mik's^m',] Saint, sur- named the Confessor and the Monk, an eminent Greek theologian, born at Constantinople about 580 A.D. He zealously opposed the heresy of the Monothe- lites, and wrote many works on theology, which were highly esteemed in the middle ages. Died in 662 a.d. Max'i-mus the Greek, a native of Albania, was invited to Russia by the grand duke Vassili Ivanovitch, in order to examine numerous Greek manuscripts re- cently discovered. He made translations of the princi- pal ones into Latin, which were rendered by others into Slavonian. At the request of the Czar, he undertook to revise the early translations of the books of the Greek Church ; but the humerous corrections which he made gave great offence, and he was excommunicated as a heretic in 1525. Died in 1556. Maximus Fabius. See Fabius. Max'i-mus Pe-tro'ni-us, an ambitious Roman cour- tier, born in 395 A.D. He was twice chosen consul. In 455 he procured the assassination of Valentinian III., was proclaimed emperor, and married Eudoxia, the widow of Valentinian. Genseric the Vandal, invited by Eudoxia, marched an army towards Rome, when Maxi- mus attempted to escape by flight, but was killed by his soldiers, or by the officers of Eudoxia, in 455 A.D. See Tillemont, " Histoire des Empereurs." Max'i-mus Ru-til'i-us, a Roman jurist, supposed to have lived under Severus and Caracalla. He was the author of " Ad Legem Falcidiam," or Commentary on the Lex Falcidia. Max'i-mus Tyr'i-us, [Fr. Maxime de Tyr, mSk'- s^m' deh t^R,] an eminent Platonic philosopher, born at € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, h, K, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^="See Explanations, p. 23. ) 98 MAXWELL 1554 MATER US Tyre in the second century, lived at Athens and Rome in the reigns of the Antonines and of Commodus. He wrote, in Greek, numerous philosophical dissertations, the style and sentiments of which are commended. Two of these are entitled *' On the Daemonium of Socrates," and " On Plato's Ojjinion respecting the Deity." See RiTTKR, " History of Philosophy ;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Gfjeca." Max'well, (Sir Murray,) a Scottish naval ofificer, born near Perth in 1766, served with distinction in sev- eral campaigns against the French and Spaniards, and in 1815 accomjianied Lord Amherst on his embassy to China. lie was made a knight in 1818. Died in 1831. See Basil Halt., " Voyage of Discovery to the Western Coast of Corea," etc. ; " Eraser's Magazine" for October and November, 1S42. Maxwell, (Rorert,) one of the Scottish lords of the regency during the absence of James V. in France, had a share in the mutiny at Solway Moss. In the first Parliament of Mary Queen of Scots, (1543,) he intro- duced a bill to allow the reading of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue, 'which was passed in spite of the oppo- sition of the lord chancellor, the bishops and priests. Died in 1546. Maxwell, (William Hamilton,) a writer, born in Ireland in 1795. He published, besides several novels, a " Life of Wellington," and contributed to " Bentley's Miscellany." Died in 1850. Maxwell, (Wiixiam Stirling.) See Stirling. May, (Caroline,) an American writer, and resident of New York, has jDublished several poems and prose works, and prepared an edition of the ''American Female Poets," with notes. May, (Edith.) See Drinker. May, (Edward H.,) an American painter, of English extraction, resided in New York City. He studied under Couture, in Paris, and produced a number of pictures which were highly commended by French critics. Among his master-pieces are " Jewish Captives at Babylon," " Francis I. at Prayer after hearing of the Death of his Son," and a " Scene from Waverley." See TucKERMAN, " Book of the Artists." May, (Thomas,) an English writer, born in Sussex about 1595, was appointed by Cromwell secretary and historiographer to the Parliament. He was the author of a " History of the English Parliament which began November, 1640," which is commended by Warburton ; also the tragedies of " Antigone" and "Agrippina," a comedy entitled "The Heir," and other works. He likewise translated Lucan's " Pharsalia," and wrote a continuation of it, in Latin and English. It is eulogized by Dr. Johnson and other critics. Died in 1650. See CiBBER, "Lives of the Poets;" Warburton, "Letters to Hard;" "Monk's Contemporaries," by Guizot, London, 1864. May, (Thomas Erskine,) an English historian and writer on law, born about 181 5. He published, besides other works, a " Constitutional History of England from 1760 to i860," (1861-63.) May de Romain-Motier, mh deh ro^miN' mo'te-i', (Emmanuel,) a Swiss writer, born at Berne in 1734, published a " Military History of the Swiss," etc., (1772.) Died in 1799. May^, m^'ya, a Sanscrit word, signifying *' Illusion," and applied by the Hindoos in a philosophical or mys- tical sense to that Power which caused or created the visible phenomena of the universe, it being assumed that external objects have no absolute existence, but that they are mere impressions on the mind, according to the theory held by Berkeley and some other European philosophers. The Maya of the Hindoo mythology is, according to some, a mighty goddess, regarded as the wife or consort of Brahma. See Moor, " Hindoo Mythology ;" Wilson, " Sanscrit Dic- tionary." Mayans y Siscar, mT-^ns' e s^s-kaR', [Lat. Maian'- Sius,] (Gregorio,) a Spanish jurist and scholar, born at Oliva in 1699. He luiblished a "Life of Miguel Cer- vantes," (1738,) and a number of legal and critical works of a high character. Died in 1781. See TiCKNOR, " History of Spanish Literatnre;" Strodtmann, "G. Maiansii Vita," 1756. Maydieu, m^'de-uh', (Jean,) a French litterateitr, who was born at Troyes, and lived about 1 760-1800. He wrote several works of fiction. Mayenne or Maienne, de, deh mt^ygn', (Charles de Lorraine,) Due, an able French general, born in 1554, was the second son of Francis, Duke of Guise. He fought against the Huguenots in the civil wars under Charles IX. and Henry III. His brother Henry and he organized the Catholic League in 1577. (See Guise, de, Henry, Duke.) On the death of his brother Henry, in is88, the Duke of Mayenne became com- mander-in-chief of the army of the League. He occupied Paris in February, 1589, and opposed the succession of Henry IV., who defeated Mayenne at Ivry in March, 1590. The duke retained possession of Paris until 1593, and concluded a treaty of peace with Henry IV. in 1596. Died in 161 1, See Nerv^ze, " Histoire de la Vie du Due de Mayenne," 1618; SiSMONor, " Histoire des Fran^ais ;" Davila, " History of the Civil Wars of France ;" H. Martin, " Histoire de France." Mayenne, de, (Henri de Lorraine,) Due, a son of the preceding, born in 1578. He acted a prominent part in the tumults and violent feuds which prevailed during the minority of Louis XIII. In 1621 he was killed at Montauban, where he fought against the Prot- estants. Mayer, mi'er, (Andreas,) a German astronomer, born at Augsburg in 1716 ; died in 1782. May'er, (Branz,) an American lawyer and writer, born at Baltimore in 1809. He published " Mexico — Aztec, Spanish, and Republican," (1851,) "Observa- tions on Mexican History and Archaeology," etc., and "Mexican Antiquities," (1858.) Mayer, mS'ya', (Charles Joseph,) a French novel- ist and historical writer, born at Toulon in 1 751 ; died about 1825. Mayer, (Johann Christoph Andreas,) a German anatomist, born at Greifswalde in 1747, became physician to the King of Prussia in 1789. Died in 1801. Mayer, ml'er, [Lat. Maye'rus,] (Johann Tobias,) an eminent German mathematician and astronomer, born at Marbach in 1723. At an early age he devoted him- self to the study of the exact sciences, and in 1750 became professor of mathematics in the University of Gottingen, and the next year director of the observatory in that place. In 1755 he published his " Lunar Tables," a work of the greatest accuracy and which at once gained him a high reputation. Among his many able productions we may name the " Zodiacal Catalogue," a treatise " On the Libration of the Moon," " Solar Tables," and " Terrestrial Refractions." Mayer also discovered the principle of the repeating circle, since developed by Borda and employed by him to measure the arc of the meridian. After Mayer's death, which took place in 1762, the British Parliament, at the suggestion of the board of longitude, paid to his widow the sum of ;i^3000, being the prize offered for the "Lunar Tables." See A. G. Kastner, " Elogium T. Mayeri," 1762; Nopitsch, " Lebensbeschreibung Tobias Mayers," 1805; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Mayer or Mayr, miR, (Simon,) a celebrated German composer, born at Mend(jrf, in Bavaria, in 1763. He studied under Lenzi and Bertoni in Italy, and in 1802 became chapel-master at Bergamo. He composed a great number of operas, among the most popular of which are his " Medea," " Lodoiska," and " Music-Mad," (" II Fanatico per la Musica.") Died in 1845. See Fetis, " Biographic Universelle des Miisiciens." Mayerne - Turquet, de, deh mt'y^Rn' tuR'ki', (Louis,) a French writer, born at Lyons about 1550, was the author of a " General History of Spain," and other works. Died in 161 8. Mayerne-Turquet, de, (Th^;odore,) son of the preceding, born at Geneva in 1573, became physician- in-ordinary to Henry IV. of France. In 1611 he was appointed first physician to James I. of England, and held the same office under Charles I. He was the author of several valuable medical works in Latin. Died in 1655. See S^NEBiER, " Histoire litt^raire de Geneve." Mayerus. See Mayer, (Johann Tobias.) a, e, T, o, ii, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s^ort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, ail, fit; mSt; n£t; good; moon; MATEUR 1555 MAZARIN Mayeur de Saint-Paul, mt'yuR' deh siN'poK, (Francois Marie,) a French actor and dramatist, born in Paris in 1758, published a number of comedies, romances, and poems. Died in 1818. Maygrier, ma'gRe'k', (Jacques Pierre,) a French surgeon, born at Angouleme in 1 77 1, wrote on anatomy and medicine. Died in 1835. May'hew, (Henry,) an English litterateur and jour- nalist, born in London in 1812. He was one of the found- ers of the periodical entitled " Figaro in London," and in 1841 became the first editor of " Punch." He sub- sequently edited the " Comic Almanac." Among his works may be named " What to Teach, and How to Teach it," (1842,) "London Labour and the London Poor," (1851,) and "The Wonders of Science." In conjunction with his brothers Augustus and Horace, he published a series of comic sketches. May'hew, (Jonathan,) D.D., an American divine, born in Martha's Vineyard in 1720, was distinguished as a preacher and controversialist, and published a number of theological works. Among these we may name " Observations on the Charter and Conduct of the So- ciety for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts," and "Christian Sobriety." Died in 1766. Maynard, mcVn^R', (Francois,) a French poet, born at Toulouse in 1582, was an intimate friend of Malherbe. He was the author of odes, epigrams, and other poems, which are characterized by La Harpe as possessing great eloquence of diction, but are deficient in warmth. Died in 1646. May'nard, (Sir John,) an English lawyer, born in Devonshire in 1602. He became Cromwell's sergeant in 1653, and, after the restoration, filled the same office under Charles H. He was active in promoting the Revo- lution of 1688, and was appointed in 1689 one of the lords commissioners of the great seal of England. Died in 1690. Mayne, man, (Jasper,) an English divine and poet, born in Devonshire in 1604. He obtained several offices under Charles L, of which he was deprived after Crom- well's usurpation. On the restoration he was appointed chaplain-in-ordinary to Charles H., and Archdeacon of Chichester. He was the author of a comedy entitled "The City Match," and a tragi-comedy called "The Amorous Warre." Died in 1672. See Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses ;" Princk, "Worthies of Devon ;" Campbell, " Specimens of the British Poets." Mayno, mi'no, (Juan Bautista,) a Spanish painter, born at Toledo about 1590, was drawing-master to Philip IV. Among his best productions are "The Nativity" and "The Resurrection." Died in 1654. See QuiLLiET, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." Maynwaring, min'si-ring, (Arthur,) an English satirist and political writer, born in Shropshire in 1668. He was for a time attached to the cause of James II., and satirized the government of William III., to which, however, he was afterwards reconciled. After the peace of Ryswick he visited Paris, where he made the ac- quaintance of Boileau. He was a member of Parliament for Preston in 1705. Maynwaring's productions, both in prose and verse, were much esteemed, and Sir Richard Steele dedicated to him the first volume of the "Tatler." Died in 1712. See Oldmixon, "Life and Posthumous Works of A. Mayn- waring." Mayo, ma'o, (Amory Dwight,) an Am.erican divine, born at Warwick, Massachusetts, in 1823, became pastor of the First Congregational Unitarian Church in Albany. He published "Graces and Powers of the Christian Life," (1852,) "Symbols of the Capital," and other works. His wife, S. C. Edgarton Mayo, was the author of a number of poems of great beauty, chiefly on religious subjects. She died about 1850. Ma'yo, (Herbert,) an English physician, became professor of anatomy and physiology at King's College, London, and acquired distinction as a lecturer. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Geological Society. Among his principal works are "Outlines of Human Physiology," (1827,) " Outlines of Human Pa- thology," (1836,) (translated into German,) "Philosophy of Living," (1837,) "The Nervous System and its Func- tions," (1842,) and "Letters on the Truths contained in Popular Superstitions," (1849.) Died near Mentz in 1852. Ma'yo, (Richard Southwell Bourke,) Earl of, and Lord Naas, a Conservative statesman, was born in Dublin in 1822. He was appointed chief secretary for Ireland in 1852, in 1858, and again in 1866. In 1868 he became Governor-General of India. Died in 1870. Mayo, (William Starkuck,) an American physician and writer, born at Ogdensburg, New York, in 1812. Fie published, in 1849, " Kaloolah," a fictitious tale of African adventure, which was followed by "The Berber, or the Mountaineer of the Atlas," (1850,) and "Romance-Dust from the Historic Placer." Mayow, ma'6, ? (John,) an English physician, born in Cornwall in 1645, was the author of a valuable work "On Nitre and Nitro-Aerial Spirit," in which he origi- nated some of the most important modern discoveries in pneumatic chemistry. Died in 1679. Mayr, von, fon mlR, (Johann Marie Eck,) a Ger- man general, born in Vienna in 1716, fought for Frede- rick the Great in the Seven Years' war. Died in 1759. Mayseder, mi^zeh-der, (Joseph,) a German violinist and composer, born at Vienna in 1789. Mazarin, maz'a-reen', [Fr. pron, mt'zS'r^N'; It. Ma- ZARINI, mid-zi-ree'nee ; Lat. Mazari'nus,] (Giulio or Jules,) Cardinal, a celebrated courtier and prime min- ister of France, was born in Italy in 1602. He was edu- cated in a college of Jesuits at Rome, (where his father, Pietro Mazarini, resided,) and adopted the profession of law. He had acquired the reputation of an adroit nego- tiator in the service of the pope, when, in 1630, he met Cardinal Richelieu, who secured his attachment to the interest of France. When the French and Spanish were about to engage at Casal, he prevented a battle, and ne- gotiated the treaty of Cherasco in 1631. He was nuncio extraordinary to France in 1634, and gained the favour of the French king, who sent him as ambassador to Savoy in 1640. Through the influence of the French court, Mazarin was made a cardinal in 1641. The next year he was admitted into the supreme council. The death of Richelieu (in 1642) and of Louis XIII. (in 1643) 0]3ened a wider sphere to the ambition of Mazarin, whom Richelieu recommended as his successor. By the will of the late king he was declared sole adviser of the queen-regent, Anne of Austria, in respect to ecclesiastic affairs, and he soon acquired the principal power in the government, as well as the confidence of that queen. He used his power at first with moderation, and courted popularity by gracious and affable manners. He prose- cuted the war against Spain which began under his pre- decessor, and in which Conde and Turenne maintained the honour of the French arms. A dispute which arose between the court and the Parliament of Paris was fo- mented by Cardinal de Retz into the revolt of the Paris- ians called "the Day of the Barricades," (August 27, 1648,) and was followed by the civil war of the Fronde. The queen, with her son, Louis XIV., and Mazarin, were driven out of Paris in 1649 by the Frondeurs. This civil war was more remarkable for the levity of the people than for their military exploits. Ladies directed the several factions, and cabals were made or broken by amorous intrigues. In the midst of these domestic broils, Maza- rin had been so fortunate or politic as to conclude with the German emperor the famous treaty of Westphalia, (1648,) by which the latter ceded to France the province of Alsace. In 165 1 the cardinal was exiled to Cologne ; but about two years later he returned to the capital in triumph, and the end of the rebellion, in 1654, restored him to his former power. He made in 1655 a treaty of alliance with Cromwell, who, being solicited as an ally by the French and the Spanish courts, preferred the former. He acquired the same influence over the king, who had attained his majority, as he had exerted over the queen. It is said that Louis XIV. wished to marry Marie Mancini, a niece of his minister, but the latter discouraged the match, and in 1659 negotiated a marriage with a Spanish princess. Mazarin once said " Louis con- tained the material for four kings and one honest man." He died at Vincennes in March, 1661. His person was remarkably handsome, and his manners fascinating. "Mazarin," says Mignet, "had a far-seeing and invent- ^ € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, h, y., guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^=°See Explanations, p. 23.) MAZJRINI 1556 MAZZINI ive mind, a character rather supple than feeble. His device was 'Le Temps et moi.'" Much diversity of opinion exists respecting his merit as a statesman ; but it may safely be affirmed that he was able and skilful, and, though avaricious, he was not a cruel or revengeful minister. See AuBERY, " Histoire du Cardinal Mazarin," 1751 ; Mignet, "Memoires relatifs la Succession d'Espagne;" Saint-Aulaire, " Histoire de la Fronde ;" Hazin, " Histoire de France sous le Mi- nistere du Cardinal Ma/arin ;" Voltaire, " Si^cle de Louis XIV ;" Gualdo-Pkiorato, "Vita del Cardinal Mazarini," 1662; John Calvert, "Life of Cardinal Mazarin," 1670; Retz, "Memoires;" SisMONDi, "Histoire des Francais ;" Gramont, "Memoires;" V. Cousin, " La Jeunesse de Mazarin;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- rale ;" " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1831, and February, 1832. Mazarini. See Mazarin. Mazarinus. See Mazarin. Mazarredo y Salazar, ma-th^r-ra'Do e sl-li- thaR', (Jose Maria,) a Spanish admiral, born at Bilbao in 1 714, distinguished himself by his defence of Cadiz against the English in 1797. He was appointed by Joseph Bonaparte minister of the marine in 1808. Died in 1812. Mazdak, miz^dak, or Maz'dek, a Persian impostor, who was born about 470 a.ix, professed to be a prophet, and advocated a community of property. He induced King Kobad to adopt his system, and effected great changes in the social order. Mazdek. See Mazdak. Mazeas, mt'za'i', (Guillaume,) a French writer, born at Landernau in 17 12, was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1776. Mazel, vci^/lV, (Abraham,) one of the leaders of the Camisards in France, born at Saint-Jean-du-Gard. After the insurrection of the Cevennes, in 1702, he was imprisoned, but, having escaped, he again attempted to rouse the people to revolt, and was killed in a skirmish near Uzes in 17 10. See Court, " Histoire des Camisards." Mazeline, mtz''len', (Pierre,) a French sculptor, born at Rouen in 1633. The palace of Versailles is adorned with several of his works. Died in 1708. Ma-zep'pa, (Ivan Stepanovitch,) a celebrated Po- lish adventurer, born in the government of Kief in 1644, was educated at the court of John Casimir, King of Poland. Having been detected in an intrigue with the wife of a nobleman, he was bound by his orders to one of the wild horses of the Ukraine and carried to the country of the Cossacks. He was kindly received by them, and rose to be hetman, or commander-in-chief of their armies, about 1687. When Peter the Great attempted to take possession of the Ukraine, Mazeppa strongly opposed the measure, but, finding resistance vain, en- tered into a negotiation with Charles XH. of Sweden for the independence of his country. The plan being discovered, and Mazeppa deserted by his troops, he joined the Swedish army, and after the battle of Pultava took refuge in Turkey, where he died in 1709. The ad- ventures of Mazeppa have formed the subject of one of Byron's poems. See Voltaire, "Histoire de Charles XII;" Lesur, "Histoire des Cosaques;" Adlerfei.d, " Histoire militaire de Charles XII ;" Kamenski, "Life of Mazeppa," (in Russian,) 1834. Mazois, mt'zwi', (Charles FRANgois,) a French architect and antiquary, born at Lorient in 1783, was employed by Murat, King of Naples, to restore the Portici palace, and other edifices. He afterwards in- vestigated the antiquities of Pompeii. He published in 1811 his principal work, "The Ruins of Pompeii," the last two volumes of which appeared after his death. Died in 1826. Mazolini, mid-zo-lee'nee, [Lat. Prie'rias, derived from the name of his birthplace,] (Silvestro,) an Italian theologian, born at Prierio about 1460; died in 1523. Mazo-Martinez, del, del mi'tho maR-tee'n^th, (Juan Bautista,) a Spanish painter, born at Madrid about 1620, was a pujiil and son-in-law of Velasquez, whom he succeeded in 1661 as painter to Philip IV. His portraits and landscapes are highly esteemed. Died in 1687. Mazure, mt'ziiR', (F. A. J.,) a French journalist and litterateur, born in Paris in 1776, wrote a " History of the English Revolution of 1688," and a *' Life of Vol- taire." Died in 1828. Mazza, mIt'sS, (Andrea,) an Italian philologist, born at Parma in 1724. He published "Select Chap- ters of Church History," (in Latin, 1757.) Died in 1797. Mazza, (Angelo,) an Italian poet, born at Parma in 1 741, became professor of Greek in his native city, (1768.) He was the author of an ode entitled "Aura Armonica," and a number of lyrics, which obtained for him a high reputation. Died in 1817. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Mazza, (Giuseppe,) an Italian sculptor, born at Bo- logna in 1652 ; died in 1741. Mazzinghi, mit-s^n'gee } (Joseph,) an English mu- sician and composer, born in London in 1768, was patronized by George HI. and George IV. Among his inost popular operas we may name "The Blind Girl," "The Exile," and "Paul and Virginia." Died at Bath in 1844. Mazzini, mit-see'nee, (Giuseppe,) a distinguished Italian patriot and writer, born at Genoa about 1807, was educated for the profession of law. In his youth he wrote a number of literary articles for the " Indicatore Genovese" and other journals, and was an adherent of the romantic school. He devoted himself at an early age to the liberation and unity of Italy, which was then degraded and oppressed by Austria and by various petty despots. In 1830 he joined the Society of Carbonari, which he proposed to reform. Having been banished or proscribed, he retired in 1831 to Marseilles, where he organized a political association called " Young Italy," ( La Giovine Italia,) whose watchword was " God and the People," and whose fundamental idea was that the liberty of the Italians can only be secured by the union of the several states or kingdoms into one nation. He propagated his principles by writings, and, during a long period of exile and adversity, pursued his purpose with invincible constancy. About 1842 he became a resident of London, and began to contribute political and scientific articles to various journals, among which was the " Westminster Review." His letters were opened in the post-office in 1844 by the British secretary for the home department, Sir James Graham. The revolutionary movements of 1848 restored him to his native country. He issued a journal called " Italia del Popolo," and, although he preferred a republic, was disposed to co-operate with King Charles Albert in resistance to Austrian domina- tion, and he enlisted under the standard of Garibaldi. In February, 1849, he went to Rome, in which a republic had recently been organized after the flight of the pope. He was quickly recognized as the leader and master- spirit of the republicans, and in March of that year Mazzini, Safii, and Armellini were appointed triumvirs. They defended Roine resolutely against the French army, by which that city was at length captured in July, 1849. Mazzini then went into exile, and chose London as the base of his operations. He associated himself with Kossuth and Ledru-Rollin to form an international revolutionary committee about 185 1. In 1857 he incited an insurrection in Northern Italy, and went to Genoa to direct it ; but the movement failed. He co-operated with Garibaldi in his victorious expedi- tion to Sicily in i860, and opposed the project which Napoleon III. formed for a confederation of Italian states. In 1861 he republished, with additions, an es- say " On the Unity of Italy," in which he says, " I know that the idea of a confederation is both the counsel and design of one whom many Italians still regard as the friend and protector of Italy ; but I know, too, that he is treacherous, a foreigner, and a despot. That he should seek to weaken in order to dominate us is easily under- stood ; but the mere fact that the suggestion springs from such a source ought to be one of the most powerful warnings against it." Some of his predictions have been verified by recent events in Italy, which have tended to raise his reputation for sagacity and practical wisdom. He is the author of a work entitled "The Duties of Man," (1858; English version, 1862,) which enjoys great popularity in Italy, and of many other works. In 1864 appeared the first volume of the " Life and Writings of Joseph Mazzini," in English, (6 vols.) a, e, T, 0, % y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, \\, y, sAort; a, e, i, o, obsmre; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; nftt; good; moonJ n MAZZOCCHI 1557 MEADE The character of Mazzini is well described by Thomas Carlyle in a letter to the London "Times," June, 1844, reprinted in the "Westminster Review" for September of that year. He says, " I have had the honour to know M. Mazzini for a series of years ; and I can, with great freedom, testify to all men that he, if I have ever seen one such, is a man of genius and virtue, a man of sterling veracity, humanity, and nobleness of mind, — one of those rare men, numerable, unfortunately, but as units in this world, who are worthy to be called martyr-souls ; who in silence piously in their daily life understand and practise what is meant by that." See his "Autobiography," 6 vols., 1864; Jules de Breval, " Mazzini juge par lui-meme," 1853 ; " Jahrbuch zum Conversations- Lexikon" for 1859. Mazzocchi, mlt-sok'kee, or Mazzoccolo, mit-sok'- ko-lo, (Alessio Simmacho,) an Italian antiquary, born at Santa Maria di Capua in 1684. He became professor of Greek and Hebrew at Naples, and was a member of the Academy of Inscriptions of Paris. He wrote many valuable treatises in Latin and Italian. Died in 1771. Mazzoccolo. See Mazzocchl Mazzola, mat-so'li, (Girolamo Bedolo,) an Italian painter, sometimes called Mazzolino, born near Parma in 1503, was the most distinguished pupil of Parmigiano. He excelled as a colorist and in perspective. Among his best productions are a "Madonna with Saint Cathe- rine," and "Miracle of the Multiplication of Loaves." Died about 1590. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. Mazzola, Mazzuola, mat-soo-o'li, or Mazzuoli, mit-soo-o'lee, (Girolamo Francesco Maria,) an emi- nent Italian painter, surnamed IL Parmigiano, ("the Parmesan,") born at Parma in 1503. He visited Rome in 1523, and was employed by Clement VII. to execute a number of works in that city. His style, formed on that of Correggio and Raphael, is characterized by exceeding grace and delicacy of form and softness of colouring, and it was said by his admirers that "the spirit of Raphael had passed into him." Among his master-pieces are the " Madonna della Rosa," in the gallery of Dresden, an " Annunciation," in the principal church of Viadana, the "Madonna with Saint Margaret, Saint Jerome," etc., in the Museum at Bologna, the " Madonna dello Lungo Collo," at Florence, and the "Vision of Saint Jerome," in the National Gallery, Lon- don. Mazzola was the first Italian artist who engraved with aquafortis. Died in 1540. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc.; Affo, "Vita di F- Mazzola," 1784; Mrs. Jameson, "Memoirs of Early Italian Painters;" F. Bellini, " Cenni intnrno alia Vita ed alle Opere di F. Mazzola," 1844; Mortara, " Memoria della Vita di F. Maz- zuola," 1846. Mazzolari, mit-so-li'ree, (Giuseppe Maria,) called also Mariano Partenio, an Italian writer and excellent Latin scholar, born at Pesaro in 1712. He published poems, orations, critical essays, commentaries, etc. Died in 1786. See Montenaki, " Biografia di G. M. Mazzolari," 1837. Mazzoli. See Mazzola. Mazzolino, mit-so-lee'no, (LuDOVico,) a celebrated Italian painter, surnamed IL Ferrarese, was born at Ferrara in 1481. His "Adoration of the Magi," and " Christ in the Midst of the Scribes," are ranked among his master-pieces. Died about 1530. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. Mazzoni, m^t-so'nee, (Giacomo,) an Italian writer, born at Cesena in 1548. He produced several critical and philosophical works, the most important of which is his "Defence of Dante," ("Defesa di Dante," 1573.) He was an intimate friend of Tasso. Died in IS'^S. See Serassi, "Vita di G. Mazzoni," 1790; Ginguene, " Histoire de la Litterature Italienne." Mazzuchelli, mit-soo-kel'lee, (Giovanni Maria,) Count, an Italian biographer, born at Brescia in 1707. He was the author of " Historical and Critical Notices of the Lives and Writings of Learned Italians," (" Scrit- tori d'ltalia, cioe Notizie storiche e critiche intorno alle Vite ed agli Scritti de letterati Italiani,") a work of great merit, which he did not live to complete. He published two volumes of this work, (1753-63.) Among his other works are a "Life of Archimedes," (1737,) and a "Life of Pietro Aretino," (1741.) Died in 1765. See Rodella, "Vita del Conte G. Mazzuchelli," 1766; Fabroni, " Vitae Italoruni doctrina exceilentium ;" TiPALiio, " Biografia degli Italiani illiistri;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." Mazzuchelli, (Piero Francesco,) an Italian painter, surnamed IL Morazzone, was born at the village of that name in 1571. He studied at Milan, where he after- wards established a school. Among his principal works are a " P'lagellation," and " Saint Michael Triumphant." Died in 1626. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Mazzuola. See Mazzola. Mazzuoli. See Mazzola. Mazzuoli, m3.t-soo-o^lee, or Mazzola, mSt'so-lS, (FiLiPPO or Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, surnamed il Bastaruolo, born at Ferrara about 1530; died in 1589. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. Mead, (Matthew,) an English nonconformist divine, born in Buckinghamshire in 1629. He was the author of " The Young Man's Remembrancer," and " Sermons on Ezekiel's Wheels." Died in 1699. Mead, (Richard,) a celebrated English physician, son of the preceding, was born at Stepney in 1673. He studied at Leyden, and subsequently visited Italy, where he took his medical degree at Padua. He was after- wards elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the College of Physicians, and on the accession of George II. (1727) becaiTie his physician-in-ordinary. He was the author of a " Mechanical Account of Poisons," (1702,) " A Short Discourse concerning Pestilential Con- tagion," (1720,) which was translated into French and Latin, " Medicina Sacra," (1749,) or an account of dis- eases mentioned in the Bible, and other medical works of a high character. Dr. Mead numbered among his friends Pope, Newton, and Boerhaave. Died in 1754. See Maty, "Authentic Memoirs of Richard Mead," 1755; Le- MAN, " Memoirs of the Life, etc. of Dr. Richard Mead." Meade, meed, (George G.,) a distinguished American general, was born in 1816, at Cadiz, in Spain, where his father, R. W. Meade, was United States consul. He graduated at West Point in 1835, served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and became a captain in 1856. He was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers in August, 1861, and served in the battle of Gaines's Mill, June 27, 1862. At Malvern Hill he received two wounds, July I. He commanded a division at Antietam, Sep- tember 17, 1862. Having been raised to the rank major-general, he directed a corps at the battle of Fred- ericksburg, December 13, 1862, and at that of Chancel- lorsville, May 2-3, 1863. On the 28th of June ensuing, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army of the Potomac. Just before the date last named, Gen- eral Lee had invaded Pennsylvania with a large army, which the Union army encountered at Gettysburg on the ist of July. General Meade, whose forces occu- pied a good position on a range of hills, acted mostly on the defensive at this battle, which lasted three days and contributed largely to the triumph of the Union cause. (See Lee, R. E.) General Meade reported that he took at Gettysburg 13,621 prisoners, some of whom were probably wounded, and he lost 16,643 killed and wounded. He was promoted to be a brigadier-general of the regu- lar army by a commission dated July 3, 1863. About the i8th of July he moved his army across the Potomac into Virginia, where he had several skirmishes with the enemy in October and November, 1863. He was second in command of the army of the Potomac in its operations against Richmond in 1864. " I tried as far as possible," says General Grant, " to leave General Meade in inde- pendent command of the army of the Potomac. My instructions for that army were all through him, and were general in their nature, leaving all the details and the execution to him. The campaigns that followed proved him to be the right man in the right place." In August, 1864, he was appointed a major-general of the regular army. The army of which he had the immediate com- mand fought great battles at the Wilderness, Spottsyl-^ vania Court-House, and Cold Harbour, and was em- ployed many months in the siege of Petersburg. (See Grant, U. S.) General Meade was appointed com- € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, y:., guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MEADE 1558 MEDICI inander of the third military district, comprising Georgia, Florida, and Alabama, in December, 1867. Meade, (Richard Kiddkr,) an American soldier of the Revolution; born in Nansemond county, Virginia, about 1 750, was one of General Washington's aides. Died about 1 810. Meade, (William,) D.D., son of the preceding, was born in Clarke county, Virginia, in 1789. He graduated at Princeton College in 1808, and in 1841 succeeded Bishop Moore as Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Virginia. Me published several theological works. Died in 1862. Meadowcourt, m§d'o-kort, (Richard,) an English critic, born in Staffordshire in 1697, published Notes on Milton's " Paradise Regained." Died in 1769. Meagher, manner or ma'er, (Thomas Francis,) a general, born at Waterford, Ireland, in 1823. He joined the movement for the independence of Ireland, and was condemned in 1848 to banishment or penal servitude for life. He escaped from Tasmania in 1852, and took refuge in the United States. He raised in 1861 an Irish brigade, which he commanded at Gaines's Mill, June 27, at Antietam, September 17, and at Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862. Died in 1867. Mean, de, deh mk'hn', (Charles,) Baron, a Belgian jurist, born at Liege in 1604; died in 1674. Means, (Alexander,) a Methodist minister, born in North Carolina in 1801. He became professor of natural science in Emory College in 1838, and professor of chemistry in a medical college at Atlanta, Georgia, in 1855. Meaume, m5m, (Edouard,) a French jurist and archaeologist, born at Rouen in 1812. Among his works is a " Life of Jacques Callot," (2 vols., i860.) Mecenate. See M/^lCenas. Mecene, the French of M^cenas, (which see.) Mechain, ma'sh^N', (Pierre Franqois Andr6,) an eminent French astronomer, born at Laon in 1744. Having visited Paris, he acquired the friendship and patronage of Lalande. He was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences about 1782, and in 1785 succeeded Jeaurat as editor of the " Connaissances des Temps."' In 1 791 he was appointed, conjointly with Delambre, to measure the arc of the meridian between Dunkirk and Barcelona. Dissatisfied with the result of his calcula- tions, he was preparing to prolong the measurement to the Balearic Isles, when he was attacked with fever, and died on the journey, (1805.) See Delambre, " Histoire de I'Astronomie au dix-huitieme Siecle." Mecliel, mik'el, (Christian,) a Swiss engraver, born at l^ale in 1737 ; died in 181 7. Mecheln, m^K^gln, or Meckenen, van, vtn mhk^- keh-nen^, (Israel,) a celebrated German painter and engraver, said to have been born near Bocholt, in the bishojjric of Munster. It is, however, supposed by many that there were two artists of the name. The principal works attributed to Meister Israel, as he was called, are in the Pinakothek at Munich. They possess great excel- lence, and entitle him to rank with Van Eyck, Memling, and other eminent painters of the Flemish school. Died in 1503. Mecherino. See Beccafumi. Mechi, m§k'e, ? (John Joseph,) a distinguished cul- tivator and agricultural writer, of Italian extraction, born in England about 1800. Having made a fortune by trade in London, he purchased in Essex a farm, which is es- teemed one of the finest in England. He also published ''Letters on Agricultural Improvement," "Experience in Drainage," and "How to Farm Profiitably," (1859.) Mechitar. See Mekhitar. Meckel, ni§k'kel, (Johann Friedrich,) an eminent German anatomist, born at Wetzlar in 1 714. He became surgeon to the King of Prussia. He made discoveries in anatomy, and wrote numerous medical and anatomical works. Died in 1774. See J. H. S. FoRMEY, " filoge de M. Meckel," 1774. Meckel, (Johann Friedrich,) a German anatomist, "hoxn at Halle in 1781, was a grandson of the preceding. He became professor of surgery and anatomy at Halle in 1806. He ])ublished " Contributions to Comparative Anatomy," and translated Cuvier's " Comparative Anat- omy," to which he added valuable notes. Died in 1833. Meckenen. See Meckeln. Meda, mi'dt^ or Merda, mgRMf, (Charles An- Dr6,) a French general, born in 1775, served in the prin- cipal wars of the Revolution, and attained the rank of general of brigade, (1808.) He was mortally wounded at the battle of Moskwa, (1812.) Mede, meed, (Joseph,) an eminent English scholar and divine, born in Essex in 1586. He studied at Christ College, Cambridge, where he afterwards became pro- fessor of Greek. His " Clavis Apocalyptica," published in 1627, is esteemed a standard work. Died in 1638. See "Life of Joseph Mede," prefixed to his works, 1672. Me-de'a, [Gr. MZ/dem; Fr. Medee, ma'da',] a famous sorceress, daughter of ^etes, King of Colchis. Having assisted Jason to obtain the golden fleece, she became his wife and accompanied him to Greece. Being after- wards deserted by him, she destroyed their two sons. The story of Medea has formed the subject of tragedies by Euripides and Sophocles among the ancients, and Corneille among the moderns. Those written by Soph- ocles, /Eschylus, and Ovid are lost. Medee. See Medea. Mederer, maMeh-rer, (Johann Nepomuk,) a Ger- man litterateur, born in 1734, published several works on German history. Died in 1808. Med^hurst, (Walter Henry,) an English mission- ary and Chinese scholar, born in London in 1796. Hav- ing spent many years in China, Java, and Malacca, and become thoroughly versed in the languages of those countries, he published a " Chinese-and-English Dic- tionary," (1842,) " Chinese Dialogues," (1844,) " English- and-Japanese Vocabulary," and other works. Died in 1857. Medici, (Alessandro de'.) See Leo XI. Medici, de', di mSd'e-chee or ma'de-chee, (Alessan- dro,) the subverter of the liberties of Florence, born in 1 5 10, is sup|Dosed by some to have been a natural son of Lorenzo, Duke of Urbino, and by others, of the cardi- nal Giulio de' Medici, afterwards Clement VII. After the sacking of Rome, in 1527, the latter made a treaty with the emperor Charles V. in 1529, by which it was agreed that the Medici should be restored to their former rank at Florence, with Alexander as chief of the republic. A marriage was also arranged between him and Margaret of Austria, a natural daughter of the em- peror. In 1530 Florence was taken by the Imperial troops under Ferdinand de Gonzaga, and soon after the pope obtained from the emperor a diploma which was to decide the constitution of Florence. By this article Alexander was declared head of the republic, but the Florentines were left in possession of the same privileges they had enjoyed under the former Medici. At length, by the united intrigues of Clement VII. and Alexander, the latter was declared duke of the republic in 1532, and the old form of government was abolished. He now sig- nalized himself by every species of cruelty and oppres- sion. In 1535, Cardinal Ippolito de' Medici, whom he had long feared as a rival, was poisoned by his orders ; and he is believed to have caused the death of his own mother in the same manner. In 1537, Lorenzino de' Medici, a distant relative of the duke, desiring to rid his country of such a tyrant, procured his assassination. Alexander left a son, named Giuliano. See SiSMONui, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes;" Madame Allart, " Histoire de la Republiqiie de Florence." Medici, de', (Cosimo or Cosmo,) surnamed the Elder, a celebrated statesman of the Florentine repub- lic, was born in 1389. Pie was a liberal patron of learning and the arts, and made a munificent use of the immense fortune he had accumulated by commerce, in adorning his native city with public edifices and founding institu- tions for educational and charitable purposes. Among the most important of these was an academy at Florence for teaching the Platonic philoso])hy, at the head of which he placed Marsilio Ficino. He also made a large col- lection of Latin, Greek, and Oriental manuscripts, which he bestowed on the Laurentian Library. These benefits, and the urbanity and moderation of his character, won for him great personal popularity and the title of "Father a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; \ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, xi, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, f5.t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; MEDICI 1559 MEDINA of his Country." To give a detailed account of his ser- vices to literature and art would be to write the history of the Renaissance in the first half of the fifteenth cen- tury. In the words of Ginguene, " One saw at Florence Masaccio and Lippi adorn churches and palaces with the productions of their pencil, Donatelli give life and expression to marble, and Brunelleschi, architect, sculp- tor, and poet, raise the magnificent cupola of Santa Maria del Fiore ; while the Greek refugees, in return for the noble asylum he had given them, spread abroad the treasures of their beautiful language and the master- pieces of their orators, philosophers, and poets." Cosimo died in 1464, leaving a son, named Piero. Medici, de', (Cosimo,) called the Great, [Lat. Cos'mus Medice'us Mag'nus,] son of the general Giovanni de' Medici, was born in 1519. On the death of Alexander he was declared his successor in 1537, through the influence of Cardinal Cibo, which choice was con- firmed by Charles V. In 1537 he obtained a victory at Montemerlo over the hostile Florentines. Cruel and suspicious in his disposition, he caused upwards of four hundred Florentine emigrants to be put to death in the early part of his reign, and, having deprived the magis- trates of all authority, was invested with absolute power. In 1554 the Marquis de Marignano, one of his generals, defeated the French army under Marshal Strozzi, at Siannagallo, and soon after Philip II., having succeeded the emperor, conferred upon the Duke of Florence the state of Sienna, with the exception of the ports. In 1562 Giovanni de' Medici, a son of Cosimo, died suddenly, as is supposed, by the hand of his brother Don Garcias. A short time after, the latter also died, and his father was charged with his death. Eleonora of Toledo, wife of the grand duke, soon followed her sons, and her death was likewise attributed to Cosimo. These fatal events form the subject of Alfieri's tragedy of "Don Garcias." In 1564 Cosimo made his son Francesco his associate in the government, and in 1569 he was declared Grand Duke of Tuscany by a bull of Pius V. He died in 1574, leaving three legitimate sons, Francesco, Ferdinand, and Piero. See Baldini, "Vita di Cosmo de' Medici I.," 1578; Fabroni, "Magni Cosmi Medicei Vita;" Aldo Manucci, "Vita di Cosimo de' Medici," 1586; Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Itali- ennes." Medici, de', (Cosimo II.,) Grand Duke of Tuscany, born in 1590, was a son of Ferdinand I. He began to reign in 1609, and ruled with moderation and clemency. Died in 1621, See Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Medici, de', (Cosimo III.,) a son of Ferdinand II., was born in 1642, and became grand duke in 1670. He married Marguerite d'Orleans, (a daughter of Gaston de France,) who regarded Cosimo with extreme dislike and caused him much trouble. He died in 1723, and his family then became extinct. See BoTTA, " Storia d'ltalia." Medici, de', (Giovanni.) See Leo X. Medici, de', (Giovanni,) an Italian statesman, born in 1360, was the father of Cosimo the Elder, noticed above. He amassed a large fortune by commerce, and rose through various offices to be gonfaloniere of justice in 142 1. Died in 1428. Ste Machiavel, " Storie Fiorentine." Medici, de', (Giovanni,) an Italian general, of the same family as the preceding, was born in 1498. He distinguished himself both by his courage and his ferocity in the civil wars of his country, and afterwards entered the French service. He was mortally wounded in battle in 1526. Medici, de', (Giuliano,) youngest son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, was born in 1478. He married in 15 15 Philiberta of Savoy, aunt of Francis I., by whom he was created Duke of Nemours. Died in 15 16. See Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Medici, de', (Giuuo.) See Clement VIL Medici, de', (Ippolito,) an Italian cardinal, born at Urbino in 1511, was a natural son of Giuliano, noticed above. He possessed immense wealth, and was noted for his accomplishments and his profligacy. He died in 1535, from the effects of poison administered, it is supposed, by order of Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence. See Varchi, "Istoria Fiorentina." Medici, de', (Lorenzo I.,) surnamed the Magnifi- cent, [Fr. Laurent le Magnifique, lo'rdN^ leh mtn^- ye'f^k' ; Lat. Lauren'tius Med'ices or Medicf/us ; It. Lorenzo il Magnifico, lo-r§n'zo ^1 man-y^Fe-ko,] Prince of Florence, was born in 1448. He was the son of Piero I., and grandson of Cosimo the Elder, and, having early entered public life, succeeded to the influ- ence and popularity of his predecessors. He was care- fully educated by the best masters of the time, being instructed in the Platonic philosophy by the celebrated Marsilio Ficino. In 1478 he narrowly escaped falling a victim to a conspiracy formed by the Pazzi family of Florence in conjunction with the Archbishop of Pisa and Pope Sixtus IV. His brother Giuliano was assas- sinated, and he received a slight wound. The Arch- bishop of Pisa was hanged for this offence, and Lorenzo was excommunicated by Pope Sixtus IV. In 1484 the latter died, and was succeeded by Innocent VIII., who became a friend and ally of Lorenzo. Florence enjoyed great prosperity under the government of Lorenzo, who acquired the favour of the people by his munificence, prudence, and clemency. He was highly distinguished as a patron of literature and art, founded at Florence an academy for the study of the antique, and expended large sums in the erection of public edifices and in the collec- tion of libraries. He also attained considerable eminence as a poet. Died in April, 1492. See RoscoE, " Life of Lorenzo de' Medici," 2 vols. 4to, 1795 ; Angelo Fabroni, " Laurentii Medicis Magnifici Vita," 2 vols., 1784; Papire-Ma.sson, " Vita Laurentii Medicis," 1587 ; Macchia- VELLi, " Istorie Fiorentine ;" N. Valori, " Laurentii Medicei Vita," 1749; Scipione Ammirato, " Istorie Fiorentine;" Sismondi, " His- toire des Republiques Italiennes;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene- rale ;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Lives of the Italian Poets," by the Rev. Henry Stebbing, London, 1831. Medici, de', (Lorenzo II,,) eldest son of Piero II., born at Florence in 1492, was placed, through the in- fluence of his uncle, Leo X,, at the head of the republic. He married in 15 18 Madeleine de La Tour, daughter of Jean, Count d'Auvergne, and died in 15 19, leaving an infant daughter, Catherine de Medicis, afterwards Queen of France, Medici, de', (Ludovico,) Duke of Sarto, called also the Chevalier de Medici, a Neapolitan statesman, born in 1760. He was appointed minister of finance in 1810, and in 181 5 was sent as ambassador to Vienna. Died in 1830. Medici, de', (Piero I.,) eldest son of Cosimo the Elder, born in 1414, succeeded his father as chief of the Florentine republic. He had powerful rivals in the Pitti family and other nobles of Florence, whose attempt to assassinate him was defeated by the prudence of his son Lorenzo, Died in 1469, See Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Medici, de', (Piero II,,) eldest son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, was born at Florence in 1471, He succeeded to the rank and influence of his father in the republic ; but his arrogance and rashness soon deprived him of the popularity hitherto enjoyed by his family. On the in- vasion of Italy by Charles VIII., in 1494, Piero made overtures to the French king, into whose hands he sur- rendered several important places. Having subsequently entered the French army, he shared in its defeat at the Garigliano by Gonsalvo de Cordova in 1503, and was drowned in attempting to cross the river. See Sismondi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." Medici, de', (Salvestro,) a Florentine statesman, belonged to the Ghibeline faction, and was one of the principal rivals of the Albizzi family. He was made gonfaloniere of justice in 1378; but, the Guelph party having again come into power, he was banished in 1381. See Noble, "Memoirs of the House of Medici." Medicis. See Catherine de Medicis. Medicus, ma'de-kus, (Friedrich Casimir,) a Ger- man botanist, born at Grumbach in 1736. He published several able botanical and medical works. Died in 1808. Medina, mi-dee'na, (Sir John Baptist,) a Flemish painter, of Spanish extraction, born at Brussels in 1630, resided the greater part of his life in Great Britain, He < as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; o, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) MEDINA MEHEMET-ALEE -v'as a pupil of Rubens, and enjoyed a high reputation. Died in 171 1. Medina, mi-Dee'nS, (Pedro,) a Spanish writer, born at Seville about 1510, was the author of several historical and mathematical works, and a treatise on navigation, entitled "Arte de Navegar," (1545,) which was trans- lated into several languages. Medina, de, di m^-Dee'ni, (Salvador Jacinto Polo,) a Spanish poet, born at Murcia, wrote the " Fable of Apollo and Daphne," and a number of epigrams, lyrics, etc. Died about 1660. Medina de Medinilla, de, dk mi-Dee'ni di mi-De- n^Kyi, (Pedro,) a Spanish poet, supposed to have been a native of Seville. He wrote an eclogue on the death of Isabella, wife of Lope de Vega, his intimate friend. Medina- Sidonia, de, dk mk-Dee'ni se-do'ne-S, (Gasi'ar Alonzo Perez de Guzman — pa'rgth d^ gooth-mS.n^,) Duke, a Spanish grandee, who lived about 1640, was a nephew of the prime minister Olivarez. He formed a project to make himself King of Andalusia ; but his design was discovered before he began to exe- cute it. Medinilla, mi-De-n^KyS, ( Balthasar Elisio,) a Spanish poet, born at Toledo in 1585, was a friend and disciple of Lope de Vega, who wrote an elegy on his early death. Med-i-tri'na, a Roman goddess of medicine, in whose honour the festival of Meditrinalia was celebrated in the month of October. Med'ows, (Sir William,) an English general, born in 1738. He served in America, and was wounded in the battle of Brandywine, (1777.) He was made lieu- tenant-general in 1792, and in 1801 succeeded Lord Coinwallis as Viceroy of Ireland. Died in 1813. Medrano, de, di mi-DR^'no, (Francisco,) a Spanish lyric poet of the seventeenth century, whose works are highly praised. Little is known of his life. Me-du'sa, [Gr. M.e6ovoa; Fr. M^;duse, mk'diiz',] one of the Gorgons, was represented as a beautiful woman who captivated Neptune and ofifended Minerva by re- ceivirig his embraces in her temple. The goddess changed her hairs into serpents, after which Perseus cut ofif her head and gave it to Minerva, who placed it in the centre of her asgis. (See Gorgon.) Meduse. See Medusa. Meek, (Alexander Beaufort,) an American lawyer and writer, born at Columbia, South Carolina, in 1814. As a member of the legislature of Alabama, he procured the adoption of a system of free schools about 1853. Among his works is a volume of "Songs and Poems of the South," (1857.) Meel. See Mi el. Meer, van der, vtn der maR, (Jan,) an eminent Dutch painter, born at Schoenhoven in 1627. His fa- vourite subjects were sea-views, landscapes, and animals, in which he attained great excellence. Died about 1690. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, HoUandais," etc. Meer, van der, (Jan,) a Dutch landscape-painter, born at Haarlem about 1665, was a pupil of Nicholas Berghem. Died in 1704. Meerbeeck, van, vtn maR'bak, (Adrian,) a Flemish writer, born at Antwerp in 1563, was the author of several historical works in Latin and Flemish. Died about 1630. Meerman, maR^man, (Geraart,) a learned Dutch jurist, born at Leyden in 1722, was appointed pensionary of Rotterdam. He published a valuable work on civil law, entitled " Novus Thesaurus Juris Civilis," etc., (7 vols., 1751,) and "Origines Typographies," (1765,) a treatise on the origin of printing. Died in 1 771. Meerman, (Jan,) son of the preceding, was born at the Hague in 1753. He studied at Gottingen, and took his degree of doctor of law at Leyden. He was made a senator and count of the empire by Napoleon, (1811,) and became minister of public instruction under Louis l^onaparte. He wrote a supplement to his father's "Thesaurus," and published several works in French. He died in 181 5. See Cras, " Elogium Johaiuiis Meerman," 1S17, Meerveldt, von, fon maR'fSlt', . ( Maximilian, ) Count, a German general, born in Westphalia in 1766, commanded a corps of Austrians at Leipsic in 1813. Died in 1814. Meerza or Mirza, meeR'zS, (Samuel,) a Persian his- torian, born near Ispahan about 1490, was a son of Shah Ismail, founder of the dynasty of Softs. He wrote a " History of Poets." Died after 1550. Meerza- (or Mirza-) Iskander-Kazem-Beg, meeR'- zl is-kSn'der ka'zem-b§g, (Moliam'med APee,) a Persian philologist, born in the province of Ghilan in 1803. Having settled in Russia, he was converted to Christianity in 1822, and subsequently became ])rofessor of the Persian language and literature at the University of Saint Petersburg. He published an "Essay on Arabic Literature," (in Persian,) and other works in Russian and Persian, and has written a " Concordance of the Koran," (in Arabic,) and a " General History of the Turks," (in Russian.) Meetkercke. See Metkerke, (Adolphus.) Megabyze. See Me(;abyzus. Meg-a-by'zus or Meg-a-ba'zus, [Gr, lAeyaSvCpQ or MeyutiaCpq ; Fr. Megabyze, mi'gt'b^z', or Megabaze, m^'gt'btz',] a Persian nobleman, and one of the seven who conspired against Smerdis the Magian in 521 B.C. He afterwards commanded an army of Darius I. in Europe. See Herodotus, books iii. and vii. Megeera. See Furi^. Meg'a-ra, [Gr. Meyupa ; Fr. M^gare, mi'gtR',] a daughter of Creon, King of Thebes, was a wife of Her- cules, who, after he had in a paroxysm of insanity killed her children, gave her to lolas. Megare. See Megara. Megasthene. See Megasthenes. Me-gas'the-nes, [Gr. Meyaadevtjc ; Fr. Megasthene, mi'gts'tin',] a Greek geographer under the reign of Seleucus Nicator, King of Syria, whom he served as secretary about 300 B.C. He was the author of a work entitled " Indica," extracts from which are contained in the writings of vStrabo, yElian, and Arrian. Megerie. See Abram a Sancta Clara. Meggot. See Elwes. Megingjord or Megingjardar. See Thor. Me-gis'ti-as, [Meviarmf,] a celebrated soothsayer, a native of Acarnania, fell with Leonidas at Thermopylae. Meglio, del, del meKyo, (Jacopo Coppi,) an Italian painter of the Florentine school, born in 1 523, assisted Vasari in painting the pictures in the Palazzo Vecchio. Died in 1591. Meliegan, mi'i'gSN', (Guillaume Alexandre,) a French litterateur, born at La Salle in 1721. He became professor of French literature at Copenhagen in 175 1. His most important work is entitled " Picture of Modern History from the Fall of the Western Empire to the Peace of Westphalia," (1766.) Died in 1766. Mehemet-Alee, (or -Ali,) m^h'heh-m^t i'lee, or Mo-ham'med-APee, Viceroy of Egypt, was born at Kavala in 1769. Having lost his parents at an early age, he was protected by the Turkish governor of the town. His distinguished abilities and energy soon won for him a high reputation, and he was sent in 1799 to assist the British in expelling the French from Egypt. He was appointed in 1804 Pasha of Cairo, for his services in defending that city from the oppression of the Mame- lukes, and in 1806 was made Governor of Upper Egypt by the Sultan. After a protracted contest with the Mame- lukes, who had for centuries been the scourge of the country, Mehemet Alee invited them to a festival at Cairo, and, having enclosed them in the citadel, ordered a general massacre, in which four hundred and seventy perished, (1811.) This sanguinary act was followed by the destruction of the Mamelukes in other parts of Egypt. In 1830 he invaded Syria, which he soon subdued, and which, after the interference of the sovereigns of Europe, was ceded to him by the Sultan, on condition of his being a vassal of the Porte, (i"833.) The Sultan, becoming jealous of his powerful rival, made a treaty, in conjunc- tion with several Eiiropean powers, in 1841, by which Me- hemet was obliged to relinquish Syria, but his family was permitted to retain the pashalic of Egypt. He died in 1849, having the previous year resigned the government to his son, Ibraheem Pasha. As a ruler, Mehemet Alee a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; at, j, o, obscure; tlr, fill, f^t; mSt; nfit; good; moon; MEHEMET-ALEE MEINICKE displaj^ed talents of a very high order, and few princes have h)unded nioie beneficent institutions or shown a more just and liberal spirit. He established schools and colleges, created an army and navy, and introduced the manufactures of Europe. He protected his Christian subjects, and aided by his liberality the researches of Champollion, Lepsius, and other eminent savants. See F. Mengin, " Histoire de I'figypte sous le Goiivernejnent de Mohammed Ali," 1839; A. de Vaulabelle, "Histoire del'figypte." Mehemet-Alee, (Pasha,) m§h'heh-mlt S'lee pS'shi', an Ottoman minister of state, born at Trebizond about 1807. He became a general of division in 1840, and mar- ried a daughter of Sultan Mahmood in 1844. He was grand vizier of Turkey from October, 1852, to May, 1853. Died in 1865. Mehul, ma'iiK, (Stienne Henri,) a celebrated French composer, born in the department of Ardennes in 1763. Having previously received some instruction from Hau- ser, a German organist, he repaired in 1778 to Paris, where he became a pupil of Gluck. In 1790 he brought out his opera of "Euphrosyne and Coradin," which met with brilliant success and was pronounced by Gretry equal to the finest productions of Gluck. Among his operas, which are more than forty in number, we may name *' Stratonice," "Joseph in Egypt," and "The Blind Man of Toledo." His " Song of Victory" and other popular melodies of the kind are also greatly admired. Mehul was one of the inspectors of the Conservatory of Music, and a member of the French Institute. Died in 181 7. See QuATREMEKE DE QuiNCV, " Notice sur Mehul;" F^tis, " Biographie Univeiselle des Musiciens;" Vieillard, "Notice sur Mehul, sa Vie et ses CEuvres," 1S59; "Nouvelle Biographic Gene- rale." Melius, ma'iis', (Livio,) a Flemish painter, born at Oudenarde in 1630, studied in Italy under Pietro da Cortona, and died at Florence in 169 1. Melius, ma'oos, (Lorenzo,) an Italian scholar, a native of Florence, lived about 1730-50. Meibom, mi'bom, [Lat. Meibo'mius,] (Heinrich,) a German historian and philologist, born at Lemgo in 1555. He devoted himself chiefly to the history of Germany in the middle ages. Died in 1625. Meibom, (Johann Heinrich,) a German physician and litterateur, born at Helmstedt in 1 590, was a son of the preceding. He wrote a number of medical treatises, and also a "Life of MiEcenas." Died in 1655. His son, Heinrich Meibom, born at Lubeck in 1638, became professor of medicine at Helmstedt in 1661, and of his- tory and poetry in 1678. He was the author of several able medical works and a " History of Germany," (in Latin.) Died in 1700. Meibom, (Markus,) a German philologist, born at Tonningen in 1630. He was a profound classical scholar, and published a work entitled " Seven Greek Writers on Music," (2 vols., 1652,) which he dedicated to Chris- tina of Sweden, at whose court he resided for a time. He afterwards became professor of history at Amsterdam, where he died in 1711. Meibomius. See Meibom. Meier. See Major, (George.) Meier, mi'er, (Georg Friedrich,) a German critic and philosopher, born near Halle in 1 7 18, was appointed professor of philosophy at Berlin in 1746. He was the author of a " Critique on the Poetry of Gottsched," " Thoughts on Spectres," (1748,) and other works. Died in 1777. See S. G. Lange, "Leben G. F. Meier's," 1778. Meier, (Moritz Hermann Eduard,) a German an- tiquary and philologist, born at Glogau in 1796, was appointed in 1848 to the chair of eloquence at Halle. Among his works is a treatise " On the Life and Orations of Lycurgus." Died in 1855. Meierotto, mi'eh-rot'to, (Johann Heinrich Lud- WIG,) a German scholar and popular teacher, born at Stargard in 1742, became in 1772 professor of eloquence in Joachim College, Berlin. He wrote a treatise "On the Manners and Customs of the Romans," etc., and other works, in Latin and German. Died in 1800. ^ee Brunner, " Lebensbeschreibung Meierottos," 1802. Meigs, mggz, (James Atkins,) M.D., a distinguished American physician and naturalist, born at Philadelphia in 1829. He became in 1856 librarian of the Academy of Natural Sciences, and in 1859 professor of the insti- tutes of medicine in Pennsylvania College. In 1868 he was appointed professor of the institutes of medicine in Jefferson Medical College as successor to Dr. Dunglison. He has published several ethnological treatises, among which we may name " The Cranial Characteristics of the Races of Men." Meigs, (Montgomery C.,) an American general, born in Georgia about 1816. He graduated at West Point in 1836, served several years as an engineer, and was appointed about 1852 to superintend the extension of the Capitol at Washington. In May, 186 1, he became quartermaster-general of the Union army, the duties ot which office he continued to perform with distinguished zeal and ability till the end of the civil war. Meigs, (Return Jonathan,) an American officer, born at Middletown, Connecticut, in 1740, served with distinction in the Revolutionary war. Died in 1823. His son, of the same name, became Governor of Ohio in 1810, and in 1814 was appointed postmaster-general. Died in 1825. Meikle, mik'el, ? (James,) a Scottish surgeon and writer, born at Carnwath in 1730. He wrote, besides other works, "Metaphysical Maxims," (1797,) and " Soli- tude Sweetened," (1803.) Died in 1799. Meikle, (William J.) See Mickle. Meil, mil, (Johann Heinrich,) a skilful German designer and engraver, born at Gotha in 1729, furnished illustrations for Gellert's and La Fontaine's Fables and Biirger's poems. Died in 1803. Meil, (Johann Wilhelm,) brother of the preceding, was born at Altenburg in 1732. He became director of the Academy of Fine Arts at Berlin. His prints and vignettes are highly esteemed. Died in 1805. Meilleraie, de la, deh It mirra' or m^'ye-rk', (Charles de la Porte — deh It poRt,) Due, a French general, was cousin-german to Cardinal Richelieu. He served in several campaigns, and in 1639 was created marshal of France. He was regarded as the most skil- ful general of his time in conducting sieges. He died in 1664, leaving an only son, who married liortense Mancini, niece of Cardinal Mazarin. Meiiieke, mi'neh-keh, (Johann Albrecht Fried- rich August,) a German scholar, born at Soest in 1791. He published excellent editions of Menander and Phi- lemon, and wrote a number of critical treatises on the classics, among which are " Commentationes Miscel- laneae," (1822.) His " Fragments of the Greek Comic Poets," (" Fragmenta Comicorum Graecorum," 5 vols., 1839-43,) preceded by biographical notices of the same, is highly esteemed. Meiner, mi'ner, (Johann Werner,) a German phi- lologist, born in Francoriia in 1723 ; died in 1789. Meiners, mi'ners, (Christoph,) a learned German writer and antiquary, born near Otterndorf, in Hanover, in 1747. He obtained a chair of philosophy at Gottingen about 1774, and published numerous and various works, among which are a " History of the Origin, Progress, and Decline of the Sciences in Greece and Rome," (2 vols., 1782,) and "Biographies of the Eminent Men of the Time of the Renaissance," ("Lebensbeschreibung berlihmter Manner aus den Zeiten der Wiederherstell," etc., 3 vols., 1796-99.) Died in 1810. See C. G. Heyne, "Memoria C. Meiners," 1810; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Meinhold, min'holt, (Johann Wilhelm,) a German writer and divine, born in the island of Usedom. He was the author of various poems, and a novel entitled "The Amber Witch," ("Die Bernstein Hexe," 1843,) which made a great sensation and was for some time regarded as a true narrative. It was translated into English, and is characterized by a writer in the " London Quarterly Review" as a tale worthy of De Foe. He also published " Sidonia the Sorceress," etc., (" Sidonia von Borck die Kloster-Hexe," New York, 1850.) Died in 1851. See the "London Quarterly Review" for June, 1844; "British Quarterly Review" for February, 1846; "Eraser's Magazine" for October, 1848. Meinicke, ml'nik-keh, (Karl Eduard,) a German geographer, born in Brandenburg in 1803. Among his € as ^; 5 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, guttural, N, nasal; R, trilled; I as z; th as in this. (^[^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) MEIR 1562 MELJNCHTHON works we may name a ** History of the European Colo- nies in the West Indies," (1831,) and "The Continent of Australia," (1837.) Meir ben Todros, ni5.r b§n to'dR6s, a learned Spanish rabbi, wrote several able treatises on the Tal- mud and the Mosaic rites. Died in 1244. Meisner, mis'ner, (Balthasar,) a German Lutheran theologian, born in 1587 ; died in 1626. Meissel, (Conrad.) See Celtes. Meissner, mis'ner, (Alfred,) a German poet, born at Toplitz in 1822, has published, among other works, " Ziska," an epic poem, " The Son of Atta Troll," and •'Recollections of Heinrich Heine." Meissner, (August Gottlieb,) a celebrated German litth-ateiir and dramatist, born in Upper Silesia in 1753. He wrote several dramas, of which his "John of Suabia" is esteemed the best. He owes his reputation princi- pally to his " Sketches," (" Skizzen,") consisting of nar- ratives, anecdotes, fables, etc, which obtained extensive popularity and have had many imitators. Died in 1807. See Mkusel, "Gelehrtes Deutschland," Meissonier, ma'so'ne^', (Jean Louis Ernest,) a celebrated French paint^r^born at Lyons about 1811. Among his most admired works are " The Little Mes- senger," "The Painter in his Studio," and " The Chess- players," His pictures are of small size but of exquisite finish, and command high prices. He was made officer of the legion of honour in 1856, and has received a number of medals. Meissonier, (Juste Aur^le,) a French artist, born at Turin in 1675, was skilled in painting, sculpture, and architecture. He excelled particularly in ornamental gold-work, and became goldsmith to the king, Louis XV. Died in 1750. Meister, mls'ter, (Jacques Henri,) a Swiss writer, born at Zurich in 1744, was an intimate friend of Necker, Diderot, and Grimm. He wrote " Letters on Imagina- tion," (1794,) "Studies on Man," (1805,) and other works. Died in 1826. Meister, (Leon hard,) a Swiss lilth-ateur, born near Zurich in 1 741, wrote several historical works. Died in 181 1. Meister, mis'ter, (Simon,) a German painter, born at Coblentz in 1803, studied under Horace Vernet, and acquired great skill in painting battles and horses. Died in 1844. Mejanes, de, deh ma'zhin', (Jean Baptiste Marie de Piquet — deh pe'ki',) Marquis, a French nobleman, born at Aries in 1729, was the owner of a library of more than seventy-five thousand volumes, which at his death, in 1786, he bequeathed to the city of Aix. Mejia. See Mexia. Mekhitar or Mechitar, miK'e-tar', (Peter,) an Armenian i^riest and reformer, born at Sebaste in 1676. Having embraced Catholicism, he became a distinguished and popular preacher, and founded, in 1740, an Armenian monastery at Venice. He also established there a print- ing-house for the Armenian language. Among the works issued from this press were an Armenian Grammar and Lexicon. Mekhitar Kosh, the Beardless, a learned Arme- nian ecclesiastic, born about 1140, founded a monastery in the valley of Dandsoud, in Eastern Armenia, of which he became the first abbot. Died in 12 13. Me'la, (Pomponius,) an eminent Roman geographer, born in Spain, flourished probably about 50 A.D. He wrote a valuable work entitled "On the Situation of the Earth," (" De Situ Orbis.") A good edition of it was published by Tzschucke, Leipsic, (7 vols., 1807 et seq.) See Malte-Buun, article on " Mela" in the " Biographie Univer- selle." Melampe. See Melampus. Me-lam'pus, [Gr. M.tkaii7:ovq ; Fr. Melampe, m^'- 16Nj/,] a mythical personage of Argos, famous as a soothsayer, was a son of Amythaon. He was considered as the first mortal that possessed prophetic power, and the first that practised medicine. Me-lan-eh'thon [Ger. pron. mi-iauK'ton] or Me- lan'thon, (Philip,) an eminent German Reformer and scholar, whose original name was Schwarzerd or SCHVVARZERDT,(shwaRts'lRt: i.e. "Black Earth,") which, | according to the usage of the time, he changed into Greek, was born at Bretten, in the Palatinate, February 16, 1497 His father was a skilful and prosperous armourer. He entered in 1507 the Academy of Pforzheim, where he en- joyed the patronage of Reuchlin, who was his great-uncle. About the age of twelve he passed to the University of Heidelberg, where he took the degree of bachelor of arts, and went in 15 12 to finish his studies in the Uni- versity of Tubingen, He learned the Greek language, mathematics, jurisprudence, etc., and remained in this university a number of years, during which he gave public lectures on the classics and other subjects. In 1 5 18 he was appointed professor of Greek in the Uni- versity of Wittenberg, then recently founded, and there became the colleague and friend of Luther, whose doc- trines he adopted. The renown of his learning and eloquence soon attracted multitudes of students from all parts of Germany. In 15 19 Luther and Melanchthon held a public disputation at Leipsic with Eckius, one of the ablest champions of the Roman Catholic Church. Melanchthon married in 1520 Katharina Krapp, daugh- ter of a burgomaster of Wittenberg. It appears that he was never ordained as a minister of the gospel. He gave much attention to biblical exegesis, and became a prominent advocate of the Reformed religion by his writings. Compared with the other Reformers, he was distinguished for moderation and gentleness, which tended to restrain the impetuosity of Luther. In 1521 he published an able defence of the Reformed doctrines, in a systematic treatise on theology, entitled "Loci com- munes Rerum theologicarum," which enjoyed great popu- larity. It was commended by Luther as being "next to the Holy Scriptures the most excellent work on theol- ogy." He aided Luther in his German translation of the Bible, on which he expended much time, (1522-34.) In 1529 he attended the Diet of Spire. Having been appointed by the leading Reformers to compose a formal exposition of the Lutheran faith, he wrote the celebrated "Augsburg Confession," which was presented to the emperor Charles V. at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, and is perhaps the most important symbolical book of the Lutheran Church. A Latin version of this Con- fession was published under the title of "Confessio Fidei exhibita invictissimo Imperatori Carolo V.," etc, (1531.) He also wrote, in reply to certain Catholic theologians, an "Apology of the Confession," (" Apologie der Augs- burgischen Confession.") He was invited by Henry VIII. of England and Francis I. of France to visit their courts ; but he declined both invitations, and remained at Wit- tenberg. He was one of the theologians that disputed with the Roman Catholics at the Conference of Worms (1540) and the Conference of Ratisbon, (1541,) where he proposed concessions and compromises which the other Reformers rejected. After the death of Luther, in 1546, Melanchthon was recognized as the leader of the Refor- mation in Germany. His conduct was conformed to the maxim "In necessariis unitas, in dubiis libertas, in om- nibus caritas," (" In essentials unity, in doubtful points liberty, in all things charity,") which subjected him to violent denunciations from some Protestant zealots. In 1 55 1 he was sent as a delegate to the Council of Trent, which, however, was dispersed by the hostile movements of Maurice of Saxony before Melanchthon arrived at Trent. The latter years of his life were greatly troubled by the acrimonious dissensions among the Protestant theologians. He died at Wittenberg on the 19th of April, 1560, leaving three surviving children. He was a man of small stature. Among his numerous works were " Elements of Logic and Ethics," a Greek Grammar, Commentaries on the Scriptures, editions of several classic authors, with notes, and an extensive corre- spondence with his eminent contemporaries. An edi- tion of his works was published at Wittenberg by his son-in-law, Peucer, in 1562-64. See Camerarius, "Vita P. Melanchthonis," 1566; F. A. Cox, "Life of P. Melanchthon," 1815; A. H. Niemeyer, "P. Melanch- thon als Prasceptor Germaniae," 1817 ; C. Matthhs, " P. Melanch- thon, sein Leben und Wirken," 1841 ; M. Facius, " P. Melanchlhon's Leben," 1832; F. Galle, "Versuch einer Charncteristik Melanch- thon's," etc., 1840; Ledderhose, "P. Melanchthon nach se?n!%n aiissern nnd innern Leben dargestellt," 1847; D. Nisard, " fitndes sur la Renaissance ;" D'Aurigke. " History of the Reformation Dr. F. Hoefer's article in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." a, e, I, 6, u, y, lo7ig; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; m&t; n6t; good; moon; MELANDER 1563 MELETIUS Melander, mi-ian'der, or Melanderhjelm, mi-lSn'- dei"-he-elm', (Daniel,) an eminent Swedish astronomer, born at Stockholm in 1726. He succeeded Stromer as professor of astronomy at Upsal in 1761, and sub- sequently became perpetual secretary to the Academy of Sciences. He was also ennobled by Gustavus HI., (iSoi.) He wrote a " Synopsis of Astronomical Lessons," and other treatises, (in Latin.) Melander was a corre- sponding member of the Academy of Sciences in Paris. Died in 1810. See Lalande, " Bibliographic astronomique ;" Kjellin, " Are- niinne btver D. Melanderhjelm," 1811. Me-la'm-a, [Fr. Melanie, ma'lt'ne',] Saint, called THE Younger, a Roman lady of a noble family, born about 388 A.D. Having been converted to Christianity, she founded a convent in Palestine, and subsequently a monastery near Mount Calvary, See Mace, " Histoire de Sainte-Melanie." Melanie. See Melania. Melanippide. See Melanippides. Mel-an-ip'pi-des, [Gr. MeAavL'mTldrjg ; Fr. M^la- Nii'FiDE, ma'it''ne'p^d^] a Greek poet, born in the island of Melos, lived in the time of Perdiccas, King of Macedonia, (about 450 B.C.,) at whose court he died. He is styled by Xenophon one of the greatest dithyrambic poets of Greece ; and he also excelled in music. His only writings extant are to be found in Bergk's " Poetae Lyrici Grseci." See Plutarch, " De Musica;" Xenophon, "Memorabilia;" Fahricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" Scheibel, " Dissertatio de Me- lanippide, " 1848. Melanthe. See Melanthius, Me-lan'thi-us or Me-lan'thus, [Gr. MelavOLoq or Mi'Aavdog ; Fr. Melanthe, m^'lSNt',] an eminent Greek painter, was contemporary with Apelles, with whom he studied under Pamphilus. He ranked among the first artists of the time, and his pictures commanded very high prices. Melanthius, [Me/lav^wf,] a Greek tragic poet of Athens, flourished about 400 B.C., and was noted for his wit. He was satirized by Aristophanes and other comic poets. Plis works are lost. Melanthus. See Melanthius. Melas, ma'lis, (Michael,) Baron, an Austrian gen- eral, born in Moravia in 1730. He served under Mar- shal Daun in the Seven Years' war and in several subse- quent campaigns against the French, and in 1796 became commander-in-chief of the Austrian forces in Italy. He was signally defeated by the French army at Marengo, (1800,) and was obliged to sign a capitulation. Died in 1806. See Thiers, " History of the Consulate and of the Empire." Melbourne, m^l'biirn, (William Lamb,) Viscount, a popular English statesman, son of Sir Peniston Lamb, afterwards Lord Melbourne, was born in 1779. He entered the House of Commons in 1805, and advocated a moderate Whig policy. His father dying in 1828, he inherited his title, entered the House of Lords, and, on the formation of Earl Grey's ministry, in 1830, became secretary of state. He was appointed first lord of the treasury in 1834; but the Tories, under Peel and Wel- lington, soon gaining the ascendant, he was compelled to resign. In 1835 he succeeded in forming a Whig ministry, which lasted six years. He was distinguished for his tact and popular qualities and accomplishments. Died in 1848, Lord Melbourne was the author of a comedy entitled "The Fashionable Friends." His wife was known as an authoress. (See Lamb, Caroline.) See the " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1849. Melchthal, von, fon mglK'tSl, (Arnold,) a Swiss patriot, became, in concert with his friends Furst and Stauffacher, one of the founders of Swiss liberty. In 1307, in conjunction with thirty of their countrymen, they formed a confederacy for the defence of Switzer- land against Austrian oppression. In the course of the following year the adventure of William Tell with Gess- ler brought affairs to a crisis. (See Tell.) These incidents form the subject of " Wilhelm Tell," one of Schiller's most popular dramas. SeeTscHARNKR, "Histoire des Conf^d^res Muller, " Histoire de la Confederation Suisse." Melcombe, Lord. See Dodington. Melder, meKder, (Gerard,) a Dutch miniature- painter, born at Amsterdam in 1693 ; died in 1740. Meldolla, mel-doKli, (Andrea,) an Italian painter and engraver, born in Dalmatia about 1520, was a pupil of Mazzuoli, (Parmigiano.) He is supposed by some writers to have been the same as Andrea Schiavone. Died in 1582. See Le Blanc, "Manuel de I'Amateur d'Estampes." Me-le-a'ger, [Gr. Melmypog ; Fr. M^:l6agre, mi'li'- tgR',] a famous hero of classic mythology, was a son of CEneus and Althaea, or, as others say, a son of Mars. According to tradition, when he was seven days old the Moirae (or Fates) warned his mother that he would die as soon as the billet which was burning on her hearth should be consumed. Althaea then extinguished the fatal brand and hid it in a chest. He signalized his valour in the Argonautic expedition and the Calydonian hunt. He fought with the Calydonians against the Curetes, and offended his mother by killing her brothers. She therefore cast the above-mentioned brand into the fire, and Meleager speedily died. Meleager, [Gr. lAeledypoq,] a Macedonian general, who served under Alexander the Great, and, after the death of that monarch, attempted to raise Arrhidaeus to the throne in opposition to Perdiccas. His partisans were defeated, and he was put to death, 323 B.C. See Droysen, "Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen." Meleager, a Greek poet, supposed to have lived in the first century before the Christian era, is said to have been the first who made a collection of fugitive poems and epigrams called an "Anthology," (" Anthologia.") See Brunck, " Analecta," vol. i. Meleagre. See Meleager. Melece. See Meletius. Melek Shah, (a Seljookide Sultan.) See Malik Shah. Melendez-Valdez, mi-l§n'dgth vSKdlth, or Valdes, vSKdds, (Juan Antonio,) an eminent Spanish poet, born in Estremadura in 1754. He studied law at Salamanca, where he becaine intimate with the poet Cadalso, and distinguished himself by his attainments in English literature, of which he was a warm admirer. His idyl . " Batilo" (1780) won the prize at the Spanish Academy, and another was given to his " Pindaric Ode on the Fine Arts" by the Academy of San Fernando. He published in 1785 a collection of lyric and pastoral poems, which established his reputation as the first Span- ish poet of his time. He had been appointed in 1 781, through the influence of his friend Jovellanos, professor of humanities at Salamanca. In 1791 he obtained an important office in the chancery of Valladolid, and in 1798 became fiscal of the supreme court of Madrid. He published in 1797 another collection of poems, dedicated to Godoy, who soon after appointed him to a high office at court. On the fall of the minister Jovellanos, Melen- dez was exiled from Madrid, to which he was not per* mitted to return until the fall of Godoy, (1808.) Having subsequently joined the French party in Spain, he was created councillor of state and minister of public in- struction bv Joseph Bonaparte. He died in France in 1817. Of Melendez, Ticknor observes, "There can be no doubt that he was better fitted to form a new school, and give a guiding impulse to the national ])oetry, than any writer that had appeared in Spain for above a century." See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature;" Kennedy, " Modern Poets and Poetry of Spain Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Quintana, "Life of Melendez-Valdez," pre- fixed to an edition of his works, Madrid, 4 vols., 1820; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Meletius, me-lee'she-us, [Gr. MeAmof,] Bishop of Lycopolis, was founder of a sect called by his name. Having been deposed by the Bishop of Alexandria, about 301 A.D., he formed a schism, and united with the Arians. Meletius, [Fr. M^LfecE, mi'lis',] Saint, called the Great, born in Little Armenia, was appointed Bishop of Sebaste in 357 A.D., and in 360 Patriarch of Antioch. Through the influence of the Arians, he was thrice de- posed from his office and exiled, being finally restored € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Yiyguttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MELETIUS 1564 MELO in 378. He presided over the first General Council at Constantinople, (381,) and died the same year, having previously confirmed the nomination of Saint Gregory Nazianzen as Patriarch of Antioch, His funeral oration was delivered by Saint Gregory of Nyssa. See TiLi.EMONT, " Memoires," etc. ; Baillet, " Viesdes Saints;" Maimbourg, " Histoire de rArianisme." Meletius, a Greek prelate and geographer, born at Janina in 1661. He wrote an "Ecclesiastical History," (3 vols., 1798.) Died in 1714. Me-le'tus, [Me^T^rof,] written less correctly Me-li'tus, a Greek tragic poet, is chiefly known as one of the three principal accusers of Socrates. He was a licentious writer, and a man of profligate habits. He was put to death by the Athenians when they repented of their treatment of Socrates. Mel'fort, (John Drummond,) Duke of, was prime minister to King James H. of England, whom he ac- companied in his exile to France. Being accused of planning a second invasion of England, he was banished by Louis XIV. to Angers, where he died in 17 16. Meli, ma'lee, (Giovanni,) an eminent Sicilian poet, born at Palermo about 1740. His works, consisting chiefly of eclogues, odes, and sonnets, are written in the Sicilian dialect, to which he gave a grace and refinement hitherto unknown. His pastoral poems are exquisite specimens of their kind, especially the "Ecloghe Pesca- torie," or fishermen's dialogues, distinguished for their humour and the graceful simplicity of their language. Meli also wrote satires and fables, and a mock-heroic poem entitled "Don Quixote." Died in 1815. See LoMBARDO, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for November, 1829; A. Gallo, " Cenni biogra- fici di G. Meli," 1836. Mel-i-cer'ta or Mel-i-cer'tes, [Gr. MeXtneprTic; Fr. Melicerte, mi'le's^Rt',] a son of Athamas and Ino. The poets feigned that Ino threw herself and her son into the sea, and Neptune changed them into sea-deities. Melicerta then received the name of Palaemon. Melicerte. See Melicerta. Melingue, mi'liNg', (Etienne Martin,) a French actor and sculptor, born at Caen in 1808. Meliorati. See Innocent VII. Me-lis'sa, [Gr. MeXcaaa; Fr. M^;lisse, mil^ss',] a daughter of Melissus, King of Crete, was said to have fed the infant Jupiter with the milk of goats. Melissa, in classic mythology, a nymph who first dis- covered the use of honey, or the method of procuring it ; whence bees (in Greek MeXiGoai) are said to have derived their name. Melisse. See Melissa. Me-lis'sus, [MeXcaaog,] a Greek philosopher, born at Samos, flourished about 440 B.C. He was also distin- guished as a naval commander, and gained an important victory over the Athenians. He was a disciple of Par- men ides, and was the author of philosophical works of which only fragments are extant. Melissus, mi-lis'sus, (Paul,) a German, distinguished as a Latin poet, born in Franconia in 1539 ; died in 1602. MeFi-ton or Mel'i-to, [Gr. MeTihuu,] an ecclesias- tical writer of the second century A.D., Ijecame Bishop of Sardis in the reign of Marcus Aurelius. His works were highly esteemed by his contemporaries, but they have been lost, with the exception of a few fragments. See TiLLEMONT, " Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire ecclesias- tique." Melitus or Melitos. See Meletus. Me'li-us or Maelius, mee'le-us, (Spurius,) a Roman Icnight, who gained the favour of the people by the liberal or profuse use of his large fortune. He was ac- cused by L. Minucius Augurinus of a design to make himself king, and was summoned before Cincinnatus, who was appointed dictator for this occasion. Refusing to submit, he was killed by Servilius Ahala in 439 B.C. See LiVY, " History of Rome;" Niebuhr, " History of Rome." Mellan, m^'16N', (Claude,) an eminent French en- graver and painter, born at Abbeville in 1598, studied under Villamena and Vouet at Rome. He originated a new method of engraving, which consisted in producing light and shade by varying the thickness of the single lines instead of crossing one set by another. Among his master-pieces are *' Saint Peter Nolascus borne by Two Angels," the " Face of Christ," " Rebecca at the Well," and a portrait of Pope Urban VIII. Died in 1688. See RENO!JviER,"Des Types et Manieres des Maitres-Graveurs ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Melle, meKleh, (Jacob,) a German numismatist, born at Lubeck in 1659. He published several works on numismatics, etc. Died in 1743. MelTen, (Grenville,) an American poet, born at Biddeford, in Maine, in 1799, was a son of Chief-Justice Mellen, LL.D., of that State. Among his principal works we may name "Our Chronicle of Twenty-Six," (1827,) " Glad Tales and Sad Tales," (in prose, 1829,) " The Martyr's Triumph," and " Buried Valley, and other PoemsV (1834.) Died in 1841. See Griswold, "Poets and Poetiy of America;" Cleveland, " Compendium of American Literature." Mellin, mil-leen', (Gustaf Henrik,) one of the most popular Swedish novelists and historians, born in Fin- land in 1 813. Among his romances, which are generally founded on Swedish history, we may name " Flickorna i Askersund," (1832,) "Helena Wrede," (1834,) and "Johannes Fjallman." His "Den Skandinaviska Nor- dens Historia" (1850) and " Faderlandets Historia" (1852) are highly esteemed by his countrymen. The greater part of his romances have been translated into German. Mellin de Saint-Gelais, mi^iN'deh s^n zheh-li', a French poet, born in 149 1, was the author of ballads, sonnets, elegies, etc. Died in 1558. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Melling, mel'ling, (Anton Ignaz,) a German painter, born at Carlsruhe in 1763 ; died in Paris in 183 1. Melliiii, mil-lee'nee, (Giuseppe Zama,) an Italian writer on religion, born at Bologna in 1788; died in 1838. Mello, de, di meKlo, or Melo, ma'Io, (Francisco Manoel,) a Portuguese writer, born at Lisbon in 161 1, wrote (in Spanish) a valuable history of the Catalo- nian revolution, entitled " Historia de los Movimientos y Separacion, etc. de Cataluna," (1645.) He also wrote a number of dramas and poems, among which we may name "The Three Muses of Melodino," ("Las tres Musas de Melodino.") Died in 1665. See Barbosa-Machado, "Bibliotheca Lusitana." Mello, de, (P. Joz6,) an eminent Portuguese jurist, wrote a " History of Portuguese Civil Law," (3d edition, 1800.) Died in 1798. Melloni, m§l-lo'nee, (Macedonio,) an Italian savant, born at Parma in 1801. He was appointed in 1839 di- rector of the Conservatory of Arts and Trades at Naples. He wrote several scientific works, one of which was entitled "La Termocrasi," etc., explaining his theory concerning the radiation of heat and the coloration of light. He originated valuable discoveries on these sub- jects, for which the Royal Society of London bestowed upon him the Rumford medal. Died in 1854. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mel'motli, (William,) an English lawyer, born in 1666, was the author of a work entitled "Great Impor- tance of a Religious Life," which was ascribed by Walpole to the first Earl of Egmont. One hundred thousand copies of this work were printed after the author's death. Died in 1743. See Nichols, "Literary Anecdotes;" "Memoirs of a Late Emi- nent Advocate." Melmoth, (William,) an English litterateur, a son of the preceding, was born in 17 10. He published in 1747 a translation of the "Letters of Pliny," which is esteemed one of the best versions of a Latin author in the English language, and is mentioned by Warton as "one of the few that are better than the original." He also translated the " Letters of Cicero to Several of his Friends," and the treatises " On Friendship" (* 'De Amicitia") and " On Old Age" (" De Senectute") of the same author. Died in 1799. See Nichols, " Literaiy Anecdotes." Melo. See Mello. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mgt; ndt; good; moon; MELON 1565 MEMNON Melon, meh-l6N'', (Jean FRANgois,) a French lit- teraieur, resided at Bordeaux, and, in conjunction with the Duke de la Force, founded the Academy of that city in 1712. He afterwards became secretary to the regent Orleans. He wrote " Mahmoud the Gaznevide," an alle- gorical history of the regency, and a " Political Essay on Commerce." The latter work was highly commended by Voltaire. Died in 1738. See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XV," chap. iii. Meiot, meh-lo', (Anicet,) a French savant, born at Dijon in 1697, became in 1738 a member of the Acad- emy of Inscriptions, to which he contributed several able treatises. In 1741 he was appointed royal librarian. He wrote a '* Dissertation on the Capture of Rome by the Gauls," and other antiquarian works. Died in 1759- Melozzo da Forli, mi-lot'so di foR-lee', (Fran- cesco,) an Italian painter, born at Forli in 1438, invented the sotfo hi su, and discovered the rules of vertical per- spective. Among his finest extant frescos is *' Sixtus IV. giving to Platina charge of the Vatican Library," now in the Vatican. His works are highly commended by Vasari. He excelled in foreshortening. Died in 1492. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Mel-pom'e-ne, [Gr. MeXTrofievrj ; Fr. MELPOMfeNE, mSKpo'man',] one of the nine Muses, presided over tragedy, and was represented as holding in her hand a tragic mask. She was said to be the mother of the Sirens. (See Mus^.) Melun, de, deh meh-liiN', (Charles,) a French states- man under Louis XL, was appointed in 1465 grand master of France. Having subsequently incurred the displeasure of the king, he was condemned to death and executed, (1468.) Melvil. See Melville, (Sir James.) Mel'vill, (Rev. Henry,) an eloquent English divine, and chaplain-in-ordinary to Queen Victoria, was born in Cornwall about 1800. Having graduated at Cambridge, he was appointed principal of the East India College, Haileybury, about 1840. He published several volumes of sermons. Melvill van Carnbee, mIKvil vtn karn'ba, ( Pie- TER,) Baron, a geographer and naval officer, born at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1816. He produced the '* Mariner's Guide," ("Zeeman's Gid," 1842.) Died in 1856. Melville, m^Kvil, (Andrew,) an eminent Scottish Reformer and scholar, born in Forfarshire in 1545. He studied in Paris, and subsequently became professor of humanities at Geneva. After his return to Scotland he was appointed principal of Glasgow College, where he introduced great improvements in the discipline and was eminently successful as a teacher. Pie was actively engaged in the religious controversies of the time, and was chiefly instrumental in the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland. He became in 1580 principal of Saint Mary's College, Saint Andrew's, where he also filled the chair of theology and the Oriental tongues. Having given offence to King James by his bold opposition to the measures of the court, he was imprisoned five years, and subsequently retired to France, and was appointed professor of theology at Sedan. Died in 1622. See T. McCrie, "Life of Andrew Melville," 1819; Gardiner, " History of England from 1603 to 1616," vol. i. chap. ix. ; Cham- bers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "Black- wood's Magazine" for September, 1824. Melville, (George Whyte,) an English novelist, born about 1820. He was a captain in the Coldstream Guards. He produced popular novels, entitled "Digby Grand," (1853,) "General Bounce," "Kate Coventry," and " Holm by House," (i860.) Melville, (Henry Dundas,) Viscount, a British general, born in Edinburgh in 180L He served in India against the Sikhs in 1849, ^^<^ inherited the peerage at the death of his father, in 185L Melville, (Herman,) an American novelist and trav- eller, born in New York in 1819. Having made a voy- age to the Pacific in 1841, he spent several months on one of the Marquesas Islands, and subsequently visited the Sandwich and Society Islands. He published, after hi.s return, a narrative of his adventures, entitled "Typee," (1846,) which was received with great favour, both in the United States and England. Among his other principal works are " Omoo, a Narrative of Ad- ventures in the South .Seas," "White Jacket, or the World in a Man-of-War," (1850,) and "The Piazza Tales." See DuvcKiNCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. Melville or Melvil, (Sir James,) a Scottish states- man and historian, born in Fifeshire in 1530. Having been appointed page to Mary Queen of Scots during her residence in France, he accompanied her on her return to Scotland, and was made her privy councillor and employed in several important negotiations. He died in 1606, leaving in manuscript a work published in 1683, under the title of "Memoirs of Sir James Melvil of Halhill," etc., which are highly valuable as records of his time. Froude speaks of Melville as " a man who, without the faintest pretensions to statesmanship, was as skilled an intriguer as Europe could boast." (" His- tory of England," vol. viii. chap, viii.) See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Melville, Lord. See Dundas, (Henry.) Melville, (Robert,) a Scottish officer, born in Fife- shire in 1723, served against the French in the West Indies in 1762, and was appointed governor of the pos- sessions conquered from France. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Society of Antiquaries. Died in 1809. Melzi, mll'zee, (Gaetano,) Count, an Italian littera- teur, born at Milan in 1783, published a "Biography of Italian Romances and Poems of Chivalry," (1838,) and " Dictionary of Pseudonyms and Anonymous Works of Italian Writers," etc., (1848,) both of which enjoy a high reputation. He was the owner of a library of more than thirty thousand volumes, consisting chiefly of rare and valuable works. Died in 1852. Melzi d'Eril, mIKzee di-r^K, (Francesco,) an Ital- ian statesman, born at Milan in 1753. On the invasion of Italy by the French he had a prominent part in the establishment of the Cisalpine republic, of which he was made vice-president in 1802. He was afterwards created by Napoleon high-chancellor of Italy, and Duke of Lodi, (1809.) He was a grandee of Spain. Died in 1816. See Thiers, " History of the Consulate and of the Empire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Memling, m§m'ling, Hemling, hSm'ling, or Mem melinck, mem'meh-link', an eminent Flemish painter, the date and place of whose birth are unknown. He flourished about 1450-85. Among his master-pieces are the " Marriage of Saint Catherine," and a " Baptism of Christ." See P. H^DOUIN, "Memling, fitude sur sa Vie et ses Ouvrages,' 1847 ; " Lives of the Early Flemish Painters." Memmi. See Martini, (Simone da.) Memminger, mSm'min-jer, ? (Charles Gustavus,) a native of Wiirtemberg, Germany, born in 1803, settled at Charleston, South Carolina, where he became distin- guished as a lawyer and politician. He zealously opposed the State Rights party, which he satirized in his " Book of Nullification," (1832.) He was appointed secretary of the treasury in the cabinet of Jefferson Davis in February, 1861, and resigned in June, 1864. Mem'mi-us, (Caius,) a Roman tribune, was a strenu- ous opponent of the aristocrats. He became tribune of the people in in B.C., and exposed the venality and corruption of the aristocratic leaders in their manage- ment of the Jugurthine war. While a candidate for the consulship, he was killed by the mob led by Saturninus in TOO B.C. Memmius, (Caius Gemellus,) a Roman orator, poet, and politician, was a tribune of this people in 66 B.C., and praetor in 58. He was a son-in-law of Sulla, and friend of Lucretius, who dedicated to him his poem " De Rerum Natura." He is also frequently mentioned by Cicero. Having been accused of bribery, (ambitus,) he went into exile about 54 B.C. Mem'non, [Gr. Mc^uvov,] a mythical personage, sup- posed to have been a son of Tithonus and Eos, (Aurora,) and a king of Ethiopia or Egypt. According to tradition. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as G, H, V.^ guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; *h as in this. (J^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) MEMNON 1566 ME NCI US he fought for the Trojans at the siege of Troy, slew An- tilochus, and was killed by Achilles. The poets feigned that the dew-drops which appear in the morning are the tears which Aurora shed for the death of Memnon. Many writers identify Memnon with Amenophis II. of Egypt, in whose honour was erected the celebrated colossal statue near Thebes. This statue, which is still extant and is about fifty feet high, was commonly believed by the ancients to emit a sound when it was first touched by the beams of the morning sun. Some writers, in- cluding Sir Gardner Wilkinson, believe that the phe- nomenon was the result of imposture. See Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson, "Topography of Thebes," PP- 33-37- Mem'non, a Greek general in the service of Da- rius. King of Persia, attained the rank of high admiral, and Governor of Western Asia. He had great military talents. Died in 333 B.C. See Clinton, "Fasti Hellenici." Memnon, a Greek historian, supposed to have lived under the reign of Augustus or the Antonines. He wrote a history of Heraclea, of which only fragments are extant. See Vossius, "De Historicis Grjecis." Mena, de, dh. ma'na, (Felipe Gil,) a Spanish por- trait-painter of great merit, born at Valladolid in 1600 ; died in 1674. Mena, de, (Juan,) a Spanish poet, born at Cordova about 1410. He was patronized by John II., King of Castile, who made him his Latin secretary and historiographer. His principal work is an allegorical poem, entitled "The Labyrinth," (" El Labirinto,") which enjoyed a high repu- tation in his time. He was an intimate friend of Henry de Villena, the Marquis de Santillana, and other eminent writers of that age. Died in 1456, See TiCKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature ;" Prescott, "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. pp. 18, ig, 20; Long- fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Menabrea, ma-nS-bua'a, (L^ON Camille,) a littera- teur^ born near Chambery in 1804. He wrote several works on mediceval antiquities, and left unfinished an important work entitled " Les Alpes historiques." Died in 1857. Menabrea, ma-nS,-bRa'S, (LuiGi F.,) Count, an Ital- ian general and statesman, born about 1809. He was appointed minister of foreign affairs and president of the council of ministers of the kingdom of Italy in October, 1867. Meneechmus, m§-n§k'mus, [ M.haixiioq, ] a Greek sculi)tor, born at Naupactus, lived about 480 B.C. His principal work was a statue, in gold and silver, of Diana Laphyra at Calydon, in which he was assisted by Soidas. Menage, ma^ntzh', (Gilles,) a celebrated French critic and scholar, born at Angers in 1613. He studied law, and practised for a time in Paris, where he became an advocate to the Parliament. He subsequently de- voted himself entirely to literary pursuits, and his house became the resort of the distinguished wits and writers of the time, including Balzac, Sarrazin, and Madame Rambouiilet. He was patronized by Paul de Gondi, afterwards Cardinal de Retz, whose favour he subse- quently lost, owing to his arrogance and strong propen- sity for satire. He was also involved in a literary feud with Boileau, who has severely satirized him in one of his poems, and with Moliere, who introduced him into his " Femmes savantes," in the character of Vadius. His reputation rests principally on his "Etymological Dictionary of the French Language," (1650,) which is still esteemed a standard work. "He also published a number of poems in Latin, French, and Italian, and a collection of witticisms, etc., entitled " Menagiana," (1693,) which ranks among the best productions of the kind. His " Request of the Dictionaries," a satire on the Dictionary of the French Academy, is believed to have been the cause of his exclusion from that institu- tion. Died in 1692. See Antoine Galland, "Menagiana," 1693; Bayle, "His- torical and Critical Dictionary;" " M^moires pour servir i la Vie de Manage," prefixed to the "Menagiana," 1715; Moreri, " Diction- naire Historique ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Menageot, mi'nt'zho', (FRANgois Guillaume,) a painter, of French extraction, born in London in 1744. He studied in Paris under Vien and Boucher, and was appointed director of the French Academy at Rome in 1787. Among his works may be named "Time arrested by Study," and "Diana seeking Adonis." Died in 1816. Men'a-hem, [Heb. DnjD,] the son of Gadi, having slain Shallum, King of Samaria, usurped his throne and reigned ten years over that country. See IL Kings xv. 14. Me-nan'der, [Gr. 'Wivav^^oq ; Fr. M^nandre, mi'- nSNdk'; Ger. Menandros, ma-n^n^duos, ] a Greek dramatic poet, born at Athens in 341 B.C., is called the originator of the new comedy, giving representations of actual life and manners. He enjoyed the highest repu- tation among his contemporaries, and is eulogized by Julius Caesar, Plutarch, and other eminent men of anti- quity. His dramas were very numerous, but they have been lost, with the exception of the fragments preserved in the works of several Greek writers. See Clinton, "Fasti Hellenici;" K. O. MiJLLER, "History of Greek Literature;" Hauptmann, " De Menandro atque illius Comoediis," 1743; G. Guizot, "Menandre; fitude historique," etc., 1855; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1856. Menander, a Macedonian general, was appointed Governor of Lydia by Alexander the Great in 331 B.C. He became a partisan of Antigonus, for whom he fought against Eumenes in 320 B.C. Menander, a Roman jurist under the reigns of Severus and Caracalla. Me-nan'der Pro-tec'tor, a Greek historian of the sixth century, was one of the body-guard of the emperor at Constantinople. He was the author of a " History of the Eastern Empire from 559 to 582 A.D.," of which only fragments are extant. See Vossius, " De Historicis Grsecis." Menandre. See Menander. Menandrino, ma-nSn-dRee'no, (Marsilio,) an Italian jurist, sometimes called Marsilius of Padua. He was counsellor to Louis of Bavaria, for whom he wrote a treatise entitled " Defender of the Peace," in support of the authority of the emperor over the pope. For this he was excommunicated by John XXII. Died in 1328, Menandros. See Menander. Menard, mk'ntR', (Claude,) a French writer, born at Saumur about 1574, was the author of a "History of Anjou," which is commended by Menage. He also edited Joinville's " History of Saint Louis," and other works. Died in 1652. Menard, (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic and writer, born at Nimes in 1637, was an intimate friend of Flechier. Died in 1710. Menard, (L60N,) a French jurist and antiquary, born at Tarascon in 1706. He wrote a "History of the City of Nimes," a treatise " On the Manners and Customs of the Greeks," and other works. He was a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1767. See Le Beau, " Eloge de Menard," in the "M^moires" of th« Academy of Inscriptions. Menard, (Nicolas Hugues,) a French theologian and pulpit orator, born in Paris in 1585, wrote several religious and ecclesiastical works. Died in 1644. Me'nas, [Gr. Mt/t'c/c,] a freedman of Pompey the Great and of his son, Sextus Pompey. He commanded a fleet sent against Octavius, afterwards deserted Pom- pey for the service of Octavius, and was slain (b.c. 35) at the siege of Siscia. Men -as 'sell Ben Is'ra-el, an eminent Jewish rabbi, born in Spain about 1604, studied in Holland, and was appointed to explain the Talmud in the syn- agogue at Amsterdam. He published a treatise " On the Resurrection of the Dead," and a work on the Pen- tateuch, entitled "Conciliador nel Pentateucho," which was recommended by Grotius to students of theology. Died in 1659. Mencius, mln'she^s, the Latinized form of Meng- Tse, m^ng'tseh', or^eng-Tseu, m^ng'tsuh', (named also Meng-Kho, in his youth,) was, after Confucius, the most celebrated of all the Chinese philosophers. He was born in the little state of Tsow, (or Tsou,) which a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, ftt; m§t; n6t; good; moon; MENCIUS 1567 MENCIUS was subsequently included in the kingdom of Loo, and in the modern province of Shan-Toong, (or Shan-Tung,) about 370 years before Christ : he was, therefore, a con- temporary of Plato and Aristotle. He lost his father in his early childhood. To his mother, who appears to have been a woman of rare intelligence and worth, he was indebted, in a great measure, not merely for his inclina- tion towards learning and philosophy, but also for that pure and lofty virtue for which he was so distinguished. It is related that after the death of her husband she re- sided for a short time near a butcher's shop, but, fearing that the frequent sight of scenes of blood might harden and deprave the heart of her son, she removed to another abode. This happened to be near a cemetery, and young Mencius amused himself with acting the various scenes which he witnessed at the tombs. "This," said his mother to herself, "is no place for my son." She again changed her dwelling, and took a house in the market- place. But here he soon began to play the part of a salesman, vaunting his wares and chaffering with cus- tomers. The watchful and anxious mother was not yet satisfied. At last she found a house close by a school. Her son's attention was attracted by the various studies and exercises which he saw pursued in the school, and a desire for learning was awakened in his mind. Soon after she sent him to the school ; and he is said to have distinguished himself by the quickness of his intellect, and subsequently by his earnest application to study. The following story may serve to show his mother's con- scientious watchfulness in regard to the moral education of her son. Seeing a butcher killing pigs, he asked her what that was done for. She replied rather thoughtlessly, (as it appears,) "It is to furnish you with food." Her conscience at once reproved her for saying what was not strictly true, and, anxious not to set him an example of untruthfulness, she went and bought some pork in order to make good her words. One day when he returned home from school, she looked up from the web which she happened to be weaving, and asked him how he was getting on. He answered, carelessly, that he was doing well enough, whereupon she took a knife and cut through her web. Alarmed, he inquired what she meant. She then showed him that she had only done what he was doing : she had lost her labour and thrown away the time she had spent in weaving the web, he also was throwing away his precious time through neglect of his studies. The lesson was not lost upon him, and did not need to be repeated. Some writers represent Mencius as having studied under Tseu-sse, (or Tsze-sze,) the grandson of Confucius. But this is scarcely possible, since Tseu-sse, had he been living, would have been more than a hundred years old when Mencius was born. It is, however, certain that he diligently studied the writings of Confucius, to the neglect of whose precepts he attributed the miserable state of things which he saw everywhere around him, faith and justice being disregarded, the bonds of society breaking asunder, and the whole empire hastening to decay. He resolved to devote his life to correcting these evils and restoring, so far as it lay in his power, the virtues of the primitive ages. Although Mencius considered himself a follower of Confucius, yet in his mode of instruction, and especially in his behaviour towards those rulers who sought his counsel, he differed materially from his master. In his reasoning, if less grave than Confucius, he displayed more art and more acuteness. His method, indeed, was not unlike the dialectic of Socrates ; he pushed his ad- versary from one admission to another, until he obliged him either to confess his defeat or else to maintain the most obvious and palpable absurdities. In his inter- course with kings he was more bold and severe than Confucius, both in exposing folly and denouncing injus- tice and oppression. Mencius appears to have been held in great respect by most of the Chinese princes to whom his fame had penetrated. It is not known at what time in his life he first began to teach publicly ; but we are told that when he felt that he was sufficiently conversant with the doctrines and precepts of the great teachers of Chinese philosophy, he commenced his travels for the purpose of offering his counsels to the different petty sovereigns who ruled in the states adjacent or neighbour- ing to Loo. But, although he seems to have enjoyed more consideration than Confucius had done, he was scarcely more successful in carrying into practice his ideal plans of government. His theory of morals was too high and difficult for human nature in its ordinary condition. He appears not to have succeeded in a single instance in prevailing on any of the princes to embrace and consistently carry out his principles ; and accordingly he had little inducement to continue at any of the courts longer than was necessary in order to make a fair trial of what his influence could effect. He is said to have passed the last twenty years of his life in the more con- genial society of his disciples, and in writing those works by which he has perhaps exerted a greater influence on after-ages than he did upon that in which he lived. He is supposed to have died at an advanced age about 29c B.C. According to Dr. Legge, he died 288 B.C. ; some other authorities, however, place the date of his death many years earlier. The descendants of Mencius, like those of Confucius, constitute at the present day a class of what may be termed hereditary nobles, — the only hereditary nobility in China. One of the chief doctrines of Mencius was that man is naturally good, although he admitted that by far the greater part of mankind had, through unfavourable cir- cumstances or influences, become perverted. He says the way in which a man loses his natural goodness is like the way in which trees are deprived by the wood- man of their branches and foliage. And if they still send forth some buds and sprouts, then come the cattle and goats and browse upon them. As in the tree all appearance of life and beauty is destroyed, so in man, after a long exposure to evil influences, all traces of native goodness seem to be obliterated. But he main- tains that there is an original power of goodness in the race, and that all men may, if they will, become like Yao and Shun, two of the early sages and kings, who were pre-eminent for their virtue. A distinguished Chinese scholar says the great object of Mencius, in his writings, is to rectify men's hearts. "If a man once rectify his heart," says Mencius, "little else will remain for him to do." In another place he says, " The great or superior man is he who does not lose his child's heart," an expression which vividly recalls those beautiful lines of the great German poet, — " Wohl dem der frei von Schuld und Fehle Bevvahrt die kindlich reine Seele."* It is evident, however, that, owing to his sanguine and ardent nature, or to some other cause, Mencius did not very fully realize the exceeding difficulty of " rectifying one's heart." Yet Confucius, who was regarded by Mencius as the most perfect of human beings, recognized this great but melancholy truth, when he said it was only at the age of seventy that " he could follow what his heart desired without transgressing what was right." ("Analects," book ii.) Confucius had always inculcated the reciprocal obli- gation between kings and subjects. Mencius, without denying the general obligation of obedience on the part of subjects, taught nevertheless that among the various elements in a state " the people are the most important element, and the sovereign the least important ;" and he did not hesitate to draw the legitimate inference from such a position that a bad sovereign ought to be de- throned, and even slain, if his life should endanger or in any way interfere with the public good. The distinguished Orientalist Remusat, in drawing a comparison between Confucius and Mencius, says the former "is always grave, and even austere; he exalts men of virtue of whom he presents an ideal portrait ; he speaks of bad men only with a cool indignation. Mencius, with the same love of virtue, seems to feel for vice rather contempt than abhorrence. He assails it with the force of argument ; he does not disdain to even employ against it the weapons of ridicule." Men- cius combined a certain modesty with a just and manly appreciation of himself He seemed greatly surprised * " Happy he who, free from sin and fault, Preserves the pure childlike soul." Schiller's Kraniche des Ibicus. € as 5 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (g^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MENCKE 1568 MENDOZA when one of his disciples was disposed to rank him as a sage ; yet he said on another occasion, " When sages shall rise up again, they will not change my words." He believed that he was appointed by Heaven to uphold or restore the doctrines of the ancient sages, such as Yao, Shun, and Confucius. Han-Yu, a celebrated Chinese critic, says, "If we wish to study the doctrines of the sages, we must begin with Mencius. ... It is owing to his words that learners nowadays still know to revere Confucius, to honour benevolence and righteousness, to esteem the true sovereign, and to despise the mere pretender." We have already noticed some of the lead- ing opinions of Mencius. The following are a few of his most characteristic sayings : " I love life ; I also love righteousness. If I cannot keep both, I will let life go, and choose righteousness." (The Works of Mencius, book vi. chap, x.) "There is a nobility of Heaven, and there is a nobility of man. Benevolence, righteousness, self-consecration, and fidelity, with unwearied joy in these virtues, —these constitute the nobility of Heaven." (Book vi. chap, xvi.) "Benevolence subdues its opposite, just as water subdues fire. Those, however, who practise benevolence nowadays do it as if with one cup of water they could save a whole wagon-load of fuel on fire, and, when the flames are not extinguished, should say that water cannot subdue fire. This conduct, moreover, greatly encourages those who are not benevolent." (Book vi. chap, xviii.) " There is no greater delight than to be conscious of sincerity on self-examination." (Book vii. chap, iv.) Kung-Sun-Chow said to Mencius that his principles were admirable, but they were too difficult and lofty for ordinary minds, and asked him why he did not adapt his teachings to the capacity of the learners. He replied, "A great artificer does not, for the sake of a stupid workman, alter or do away with the marking-line." (Book vii. chap, xli.) See the excellent notice of Mencius prefixed to the works of that philosopher, in the second volume of Dr. Legge's "Chinese Clas- sics," Hoiig-Kong, i86i ; also Pauthiek's "Chine," pp. 187-193; " Nouvelle Biographie G^n^rale," article "Mencius," by L^on RosNY ; " Les quatre Livres de Philosophic, Morale at Politique de la Chine," translated by G. Pauthier, Paris, 1851 ; the Chinese Classical Works, translated by the late Rev. David Collie, Malacca Mission Press, 1828 ; Stanislaus Julien's translation (into Latin) of the Works of Mencius, Paris, 1824; "Confucius and the Chinese Classics," (book iv.,) by Rev. A. W. Loomis, San Francisco, 1867. Mencke, m^nk'keh, (Friedrich Otto,) a German scholar and writer, son of Johann Burkhard, noticed below, was born at Leipsic in 1708. He became pro- fessor of history at Leipsic in 1732. Among his works is a "Life of Angelo Poliziano," (in Latin, 1736.) Died in 1754. Mencke, (Johann Burkhard,) born at Leipsic in L675, became in 1708 historiographer to Frederick Augustus, King of Poland. He published, in Latin, " Two Orations on the Charlatanry of the Learned," (1715,) and a work entitled "Writers of German His- tory," (3 vols., 1728-30.) The former caused a great sensation, and was translated into several foreign lan- guages. Mencke also wrote a number of poems, and, after the death of his father, conducted the "Acta Eru- ditorum." Died in 1732. See R. Treitschke, " B. Mencke, Professor der Geschichle zu Leipzig," 1842; JocHER, " Gelehrten-Lexikon." Mencke, (Otto,) a learned German, the father of the preceding, born at Oldenburg in 1644. He became professor of moral philosophy at Leipsic. In 1682 he founded the first literary and scientific journal published in Germany. It was entitled "Acta Eruditorum," and numbered among its contributors Leibnitz and other eminent savants. Died in 1707. See Seligmann, " Leichenpredigt auf O. Mencken," 1707; Nice- RON, " Memoires." Mendana de Neyra, m§n-dln'ya di na^-rS, (Al- VARO,) a Spanish navigator, born in 1541, sailed on a voyage to the Pacific in 1567, and discovered between 7° and 12° south latitude the islands of Saint Chris- topher, Isabella, and Guadalcanar. He discovered in 1595 the isles since called by Admiral Byron the Dan- gerous Islands, and the large island of Santa Cruz, to which Carteret gave the name of Egmont in 1767. He also established a colony at Bahia Graciosa. The part of Australasia which includes the Marquesas has been named the Mendafia Archipelago. Died in 1595. See De Brosses, " Histoire des Navigations aux Terres australes," 1756. Mendelssohn, mSn'dels-sSn', (Moses,) an eminent philosopher, born at Dessau, in Germany, in 1729, was the son of a Jewish schoolmaster. In consequence of the limited means of his family, he owed his early educa- tion chiefly to his own exertions. In 1745 he repaired to Berlin, where he applied himself to the study of mathematics and the philosophy of Wolf and Leibnitz. In 1754 he formed an intimate friendship with Lessing, in conjunction with whom he afterwards wrote the treat- ise entitled " Pope a Metaphysician." He next pub- lished his " Letters on the Sensations," and in 1767 his " Phsedo, a Dialogue on the Immortality of the Soul." The latter work was received with great favour, and was translated into the principal languages of Europe. Men- delssohn was one of the most profound thinkers of his time, and was highly esteemed by his contemporaries for the excellence of his character, as well as his intellectual endowments. Died in 1786. See Mirabeau, " Sur M. Mendelssohn," etc., 1787; "Memoirs of Moses Mendelssohn," by M. Samuels; Winckler, " Notice sur M. Mendelssohn," 1798 ; Hkinemann, " M. Mendelssohn," 1819 ; J. A. L. RicHTER,_"M. Mendelssohn als Mensch," etc., 1829; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, m§n'dels-son' baR-tol'- dee, (Felix,) an eminent German composer, born at Hamburg in 1809, was a grandson of the preceding. At an early age he manifested extraordinary musical talent, which received the most elaborate culture under Zelter and Ludwig Berger. He performed with brilliant suc- cess in Berlin and Paris before he had completed his tenth year, and in 1827 he brought out at Berlin his "Overture to the Midsummer Night's Dream" and his opera of " The Wedding of Camacho." He subsequently visited London and Paris, where the " Overture" above named was received with enthusiasm. After his return to Germany, he was appointed, in 1835, director of the Gewandhaus concerts at Leipsic. In 1836 he brought out his oratorio of " Saint Paul," at Dusseldorf and Leipsic, and the following year at Birmingham, Eng- land. His " Elijah," an oratorio, performed at the Bir- mingham Festival in 1846, caused a greater sensation in the musical world than had been known in England since the days of Handel. Subsequently, Mendelssohn's health, which had been some time declining, failed rapidly, and he died soon after his return to Germany, in November, 1847. Among the more important of his other compositions, we may name the overtures of " Fingal's Cave," " A Calm Sea and Happy Voyage," (" Meeresstille und gliickliche Fahrt,") and "The Beau- tiful Melusina," ("Die schone Melusine,") besides a great number of cantatas and instrumental pieces. His "Songs without Words" are particularly admired. As a musician and composer, he is esteemed second only to Handel and Mozart. See Julius Benedict, "Life and Works of F. Mendelssohn- Bartholdy," 1850; W. A. Lampadius, " Life of Felix Mendelssohn- Bartholdy," 1865 ; F^Tis, " Biographie Universelle des Musicians ;" V. Magnien, "fitude biographique sur Mendelssohn-Bartholdy," 1850 ; ^ " Fraser's Magazine" for April, 1848, by Mrs. Austin ; " British Quarterly Review" for October, 1862. Mendez Pinto. See Pinto. Mendizabal, y, e m^n-de-th^-biK, (Don Juan Al- varez,) a Spanish statesman, of Jewish extraction, born at Cadiz about 1790. Having amassed a large fortune by trade, he rose to be minister of finance in 1835. Died in 1853. Mendoga or Mendoza, de, di m§n-do'sS, (Andrea Hurtado,) a Portuguese naval commander, who ren- dered great services to his country by clearing the South Seas of pirates and thus protecting the Portuguese es- tablishments in the East Indies. Died about 1606. Mendoza, de, di m^n-do'thi, (Antonio Hurtado,) a Spanish writer, born about 1590, was appointed private secretary to Philip IV. He wrote a number of popular dramas, also lyric poems and prose works. Died in 1644. See TiCKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature." Mendoza, de, (Antonio Sarmiento,) a Spanish writer, a native of Burgos, lived about 1630. He trans- lated Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered" into Spanish. a. e, T, 0, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, 3?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 1569 MENESTHEUS MENDOZA Mendoza, de, (Don Bernardino,) a Spanish his- torian and diplomatist, was employed by Philip II. in several missions to France and England. He had a prominent share, while in France, in the formation of the Catholic League. He was the author of a "History of the Netherlands from 1567 to 1577," and a treatise " On the Theory and Practice of War." See Motley, " History of the United Netherlands," vol. i. chap, iii. : Capkkic;ue, " Histoire de la Reiorme et la Ligue." Mendoza, de, (Dikgo Hurtado,) a celebrated Span- ish writer, soldier, and dij^lomatisr, born at Granada in 1503, was a grandson of the Marquis de Santillana, noticed below. He studied at Salamanca, and distin- guished himself by his attainments in the classics, theology, and civil and canon law. He was afterwards patronized by Chai les V., who sent him in 1538 on an embassy to Venice. While in this post, he devoted him- self to the collection of Greek and Latin manuscripts, of which he acquired a great number, comprising works of Saint Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Archimedes, They were subsequently ceded to the Library, of the Escurial. He was soon after appointed by the emperor ambassador at Rome and governor of Sienna. Having returned to Spain in 1554, he incurred the displeasure of Philip II., who banished him from court. He devoted himself thenceforth to literary pursuits, and published in 1610 his " History of the Wars against the Moors," (" Guerra de Granada contra los Moriscos.") This work, which has taken its place among Spanish classics, is charac- terized by great accuracv and impartiality, and is esteemed the best imitation of the Latin historians in modern lite- rature. He was also the author of a number of poems, and the celebrated comic romance of " Lazarillo de Tormes," (1554,) in which he originated the so-called Picaresque school of fiction, afterwards followed by Le Sage in his "Gil Bias." " Mendoza," says Prescott, "by the brilliant success which he achieved as a statesman, a diplomatist, a novelist, a poet, and a historian, has established a reputation for versatility of genius second to none in the literature of Spain." Died in 1575. See TiCKNOR, " Hi'story of Spanish Literature;" Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes;" Prescott, "History of Philip II.;" LoNGFEM.ow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" N. Antonio, " P>ibliotheca Hispana Nova;" Boutervvek, "Histoire de la Litlerature Es]iagnole;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale;" Notice of "Lazarillo de Tormes" in tlie "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., 1S20. Mendoza, de, (Inigo Lopez.) See Mondejar, Mar- quis DE. Mendoza, de, (Inigo Lopez,) Marquis de Santillana, (dk san-t61-yS'n3.,) a Spanish poet, born in 1398, was a friend of Juan de Mena and the Marquis de Villena, and one of the most brilliant writers of the court of John II. He is said to have introduced the sonnet into Spanish poetry. Among his best works is an " Elegy on the Marquis de Villena." Mendoza was also a distinguished soldier, and was created a marquis as a reward for his services at the battle of Olmedo, (1445.) Died in 1458. See I'lCKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature :" Bouterwek, " Geschichte der Spanische Poesie und Beredtsamkeit ;" Longfel- low, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Mendoza, de, (Juan Gonzalez,) a Spanish mission- ary, born at Toledo about 1 540. He visited China in 1580, and subsequently South America and Mexico. He died as Bishop of Popayan in New Granada, (1617.) He was the author of a " History of the Great Kingdom of China," (1586,) which enjoys a high reputation and has been translated into French. Mendoza, de, (Don Pedro,) a wealthy Spaniard, born at Cadiz about 1487. He offered his services, in 1529, to the em]jeror Charles V., to complete, at his own expense, the exploration of the rivers La Plata and Para- guay. Having been created by the emperor military chief of the country adjacent to those rivers, he set sail in 1534, and founded the city of Buenos Ayres in 1535. He died soon after, while at sea on his return to Spain. Mendoza, de, (Pedro Gonzalez,) a Spanish prelate and statesman, called the Grand Cardinal, born in 1428. He enjoyed the favour of John II. and Henry IV., and was created successively Bishop of Siguenza, Chancellor of Castile and Leon, and cardinal, (1473.) Under Ferdinand and Isabella he became Archbishop of Toledo. He also distinguished himself in the Moorish war, in which he held a command. He founded the magnificent College of Santa Cruz at Valladolid, and a hospital at Toledo. Died in 1495. See Mariana, "Historia Hispanise >" Salazar de Mendoza, "Coronica del gran Cardinal de Espaiia," 1625. Mendoza, de, (Pedro de Salazar,) a Spanish his- torical writer, born at Toledo about 1550, published a " Chronicle of the House of Ponce de Leon," (1620,) and a "Chronicle of the Grand Cardinal of Spain, Pedro Gonzalez de Mendoza," (1625.) Died in 1629. Me-nec'ra-tes, [Gr. MevmpuTr]^,] a physician who made himself ridiculous by calling himself Jupiter. His vanity was rebuked by Philip of Macedon, who in- vited him to a banquet and offered him only incense and libations. Menedeme. See Menedemus. Men-e-de'mus, [Gr. MeveSrjfxo^ ; Fr. M^n^d^me, mi'na'dim',] a Greek philosopher, born at Eretria in the fourth century B.C. He was the founder of the school of Eretria, and was a disciple of Plato and Stilpo. Died about 277 B.C. See C. Mallet, " Histoire de I'ficole de Megare et d'firetrie ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Meneghelli, m^-ni-geKlee, (Antonio Maria,) an Italian litterateitr, born in 1765, was professor of law at Padua. Among his works is a "Life of Livy," (" Vita di Tito Livio," 1835.) Died in 1844. See his Autobiography, " La mia Vita," 1845. Menelas. See Menelaus. Men-e-la'us, [Gr. Utvi'kaoq^ Mf veAewf,. or Me^eAaf ; Fr. M^n^las, ma''na'lSs', | a Grecian hero and king of Sparta, was a son of Atreus. He and his brother Agamemnon were called Atridae. He married the beautiful Helen, who preferred him to all of her nuiTierous suitors, but afterwards eloped with Paris. At the siege of Troy, which was the consequence of the abduction of Helen, Menelaus behaved with great spirit and courage, and fought a single combat with Paris, whom he was about to vanquish, when Venus interposed and rescued him. He was one of the daring band that entered Troy in the wooden horse. On the capture of Troy he recov- ered Helen, was reconciled to her, and, after a devious voyage of several years, returned to Sparta. A temple was erected in his honour at Therapne. Menelaus, a celebrated mathematician and astrono- mer of Alexandria, resided in Rome under the reign of Trajan. His only extant work is a treatise on spherical geometry, which was translated into Latin. Me-ne'nI-us A-grip'pa, surnamed Lana'tus, a Roman patrician and senator, was chosen consul in 503 B.C. He obtained a signal victory over the Sa- bines, for which a triumph was decreed him. Through his mediation the contest between the patricians and the plebeians was appeased in 493. On this occasion he related the fable of the belly and the members to the plebeians. Me'nei [Gr. Wtjvi]^, or Wfivtq\ was the first king of Egypt, according to the traditions of that country. He is said to have founded Memphis, and to have introduced the worship of the gods. He Jived probably 2000 B.C., or earlier. Meneses or Menezes, ma-na'sgs, (Aleixo,) a Por- tuguese prelate, born at Lisbon in 1559, became Arch- bishop of Goa, and in 1607 succeeded Alphonso de Castro as Viceroy of the Indies. He was appointed by Philip III. of Spain Viceroy of Portugal in 1614. Died in 1617. See Vevssi6re La Croze, " Histoire du Christianisme des Indes." Meneses Osorio, mi-na'sgs o-so're-o, (Francisco,) a Spanish painter, born at Seville in 1630, was one of the most distinguished pupils of Murillo. Among his master-pieces are "Saint Philip de Neri adoring the Virgin," and " Saint Catherine." Died in 1705. Menesthee. See MiNESTHEUS. Me-nes'theus, [Gr. MtTea^e?;f ; Fr. M^nesth^e, mi'- nSs't^',] a semi-fabulous king of Athens, obtained the throne in the absence of Theseus, who was the lawful monarch. He commanded the Athenians in the Trojan war. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) QQ MENESTHEUS 1570 MENTCHIKOF Menestheus, \M.evEad£v^,] an able Athenian general, was a son of Iphicrates. He was appointed commander in the Social war, 356 B.C. He also commanded a naval expedition against the Macedc^nians in 335 B.C. Menestrier, meh-nSs'tRc-a^ (Claude Francois,) a learned French ecclesiastic and antiquary, born at Lyons in 163 1. He was the author of numerous treatises on heraldry, antiquities, and history, among which we may name "On Ancient and Modern Chivalry," (1673,) "The Origin of Armorial Bearings," (1679,) and "The Philos- ophy of Images," (2 vols., 1682-83.) ^^i^d in 1705. Menestrier, Le, leh meh-nSs'tRe-i', (Claude,) a French antiquary, whose principal work is entitled " Statue of the Symbolical Ephesian Diana Explained." Died in 1639. Menestrier, Le, (Jean Baptiste,) a French anti- quary, born at Dijon in 1 564, was the author of a work entitled " Medals, Coins, and Antique Monuments of the Roman Empresses," (1625.) Died in 1634. Meneval, de, deh min'vtK, (Claude FRANgois,) Baron, a French historian, born in Paris in 1778. During the empire he served Napoleon as secretary, (secretaire da portefeuille. ) He wrote "Napoleon et Marie Louise, Souvenirs historiques," (3 vols., 1843-45.) Died in 1850. Menezes. See Meneses. Menezes. See Ericeira. Mengoli, raSn'go-lee, (Pietro,) an Italian geometer, born at Bologna in 1625 ; died in 1686. Mengs, m^ngs, (Anion Rafael,) a celebrated Ger- man painter, born at Aussig, in Bohemia, in 1728. He was instructed by his father, with whom he resided several years at Rome. On his return to Germany he was ap- pointed court painter at Dresden, in 1744. While on a second visit to Rome, he painted a " Holy Family," which won for him a high reputation. The Madonna in this picture was the portrait of a beautiful peasant-girl, whom Mengs afterwards married, having become a Catholic for her sake. He became in 1754 director of the Acad- emy of Painting at Rome, and in 1757 he executed his celebrated fresco of "Apollo and the Muses" in the villa of Cardinal Albani. On the invitation of Charles IH. of Spain, he repaired to Madrid, where he was appointed first painter to the king, with a large salary. Here he produced several of his master-pieces, among which we may name his "Temple of Glory" and "Triumph of Trajan" in the royal palace. He died at Rome in 1779. Mengs is ranked among the best painters of his time, his works being distinguished by great accuracy of de- sign and neatness of execution, but they are censured by critics as deficient in warmth and animation. See GuiBAL, " iSloge historique de Mengs," 1781 ; J. J. Ma- RiETTE, "Abecedario ;" Bianconi, " Elngio storico di R. Mengs," 1780; Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Meng-Tse or Meng-Tseu. See Mencius. Menil-Durand, de, deh ma'neK dli'rSN', (Francois Jean de Graindorge d'Orgeville — gRiN^oRzh' doRzh'v^K,) Baron, a French officer, born at Lisieux in 1729, published a number of works on military tactics. Died in 1799. Meniriski, meh-n^N'ske', (Franqois de Mesgnien,) a French Orientalist, whose original name was Menin, born in Lorraine in 1623. Having accompanied the Polish ambassador to Constantinople, he became inter- preter to the embassy, and subsequently ambassador. He was appointed in 1671 first interpreter of Oriental languages at the court of Vienna. His principal work is a " Dictionary of Oriental Languages," ("Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalium," 3 vols., 1680,) which is highly esteemed. Died in 1698. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Menippe. See Menippus. Me-nip'pus, [Gr. MewTTTrof ; Fr. Menippe, mi^i^p',] a Cynic philosopher and poet, was a native of Phoenicia, and lived probably about 60 K.c. Having amassed a large fortune by usury, he destroyed himself in con- sequence of having been robbed of his treasures. He was the author of numerous satires, none of which are extant. Varro is said to have imitated the style of Menip- pus. He is also mentioned by Lucian in his " Dialogues." See Varro, " Satirse Menippes ;" J. F. Ley, " Dissertatio de Vita Scriptisque Menippi Cynici," 1S43. Menippus, a Greek geographer under the reign of Augustus, was a native of Pergamus, in Asia Minor. See " Menippos der Geograph aus Pergainon," etc., 1841, by Grotefend and Ulrichs. Menippus of vStratonice, an eminent Greek rheto- rician, renowned throughout Asia for his eloquence. He is highly cotnmended by Cicero in his "BruClis." Mennander, mgn-'nan'der, (Carl Fredrik, ) a learned Swedish prelate, born at Stockholm in 1712. He became Bishop of Abo, in Finland, and subsequently Archbishop of Upsal, (1775.) Died in 1786. Mennechet, mSn'sha', (Sdouard,) a French litte- rateur, born at Nantes in 1794. He produced odes, dramas, and " Le Plutarque Fran9ais," a collection of lives of eminent Frenchmen, (8 vols.) Died in 1845. Mennes, menz, (Sir John,) an English poet and royalist, born in Kent in 1591 ; died in 1671. Menno, men'no, [Fr. Mennon, ma'n^N',] (Simonis,) the founder of the sect of Mennonites, was born in Fries- land in 1496. His doctrines resembled in some points those of the Anabaptists, but were free from the absurd- ities and excesses of the latter. The Mennonites were included in the proscriptive edicts of the emperor Charles V. in 1540, and a price was set on the head of their founder. Menno died in 1561. His followers settled in England, Holland, and North America, and are every- where favourably known for their virtues and industry. See MuLLER, "Cimbria Literata." Mennon. See Menno. Menochio, ma-no'ke-o, [Lat. Meno'chius,] (Gio- vanni Stefano,) a learned Italian Jesuit and theologian, born at Pavia in 1576. He became rector of the colleges of his order at Rome and Modena. His principal work is a commentary on the Scriptures, entitled " Brevis Ex- positio Sensus literalis totius Scripturse," (2 vols., 1630.) Died in 1655, Menochio, (Jacopo,) an Italian jurist, father of the preceding, was born at Pavia in 1532. He was appointed a president of the Council of Milan by Philip II. of Spain. He wrote several valuable legal treatises, in Latin. Died in 1607. Menochius. See Menochio. Me-nod'o-tus, [Gr. M.rivb6oToq^ a Greek physician of Nicomedia, lived probably about 100 A.D. He belonged to the sect of Empirici. He wrote a medical work, which Erasmus translated into Latin. Menoetius, me-nee'she-us, [Gr. Mewmof,] a son of Actor, and father of Patroclus, took part in the Argo- nautic expedition. Me'non, [Gr. Mevwi^,] a Thessalian general, who served in the Lamian war against the Macedonians. He and Antiphilus were defeated by Antipater at Cranon in 322 B.C. He was killed in battle in 321 B.C. Menon de Turbilly, de, deh meh-n6N' deh tiiR'- b^'ye', (Louis FRANgois Henri,) Marquis, a French agricultural writer, born near La Fleche in 17 12, wrote a "Treatise on Clearing Land." Died in 1776. Menou, de, deh meh-noo', (Jacques FRANgois,) Baron, a French general, born in Touraine in 1750. He served in the republican army in the Vendean cam- paign of 1793, and in 1795 commanded the National Guard which suppressed the insurrection in the Fau- bourg Saint-Antoine. As general of division, he accom- panied Napoleon to Egypt in 1798, and on the death of Kleber was invested with the chief command. In 1801 he was besieged in Alexandria by Sir Ralph Abercrom- bie, to whom he was obliged to capitulate. After his return to France, in 1802, he was appointed by Napo- leon Governor of Piedmont, and subsequently of Venice. Died in 1810. See Thiers, " History of the Consulate and of the Empire ;" De CouRCELLES, " Dictionuaire des Generaux Frangais '•Nouvelle Biographle Generale." Ment'chi-kor, written also Mentsohikow, Ment- schikof, and Menchikof, (Alexander Danielo- viTCH,) Prince, a celebrated Russian statesman and general, born at Moscow about 1670, was the son of a pastry-cook. His talents procured for him at an early age the notice and favour of Peter the Great, and, having served with great distinction in several campaigns against the Swedes, he was created a field-marshal after the battle a, e, I, 6, ii, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fdt; mSt; n6t; good; moon; MENTCHIKOF MERCER of Pultava, (1709.) He was also made a prince of the empire, and governor-general of Saint Petersburg, and obtained from the King of Prussia the decoration of the Black Eagle. On the "death of Peter (1725) Mentchikof caused the empress-dowager to be proclaimed empress, under the title of Catherine I., and appointed a council of regency for the son of Alexis, afterwards Peter II. The latter, becoming weary of the insolence of Mentchi- kof, caused him to be arrested for his abuse of power, and exiled to Siberia, where he died in two years, (1729.) See M. Ranft, " Leben des beriilimten Fiirsten Mentschikow," 1774; " Leben und Todt des Fiirsten Menzikofif," 1730; Voltaire, "Histoire de Russie sous Pierre le Grand;" "Anecdotes secretes de la Coiir du Czar," 1780. Mentchikof, (Alexander Sergeivitch,) a Russian adiniral, great-grandson of the preceding, born in 1789. Soon after the accession of the emperor Nicholas, he was sent as ambassador-extraordinary to Persia. He was appointed Governor-General of Finland in 1831, and was subsequently created an admiral and minister of the marine. In the Crimean war he was charged with the defence of Sevastopol, and was defeated at the Alma by the allies in September, 1854. Died in May, 1869. See Desessarts, " Portraits des Hommes de la Guerre de rOrient;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mentel, m5N't§]', (Jacques,) a French physician, born at Chateau-Thierri in 1597, wrote a Latin work in which he claims the invention of printing for John Men- tel of Strasburg. Died in 1671. Mentel, m^n'tel, or Mentelin, mgn'teh-leen^, (Jo- HANN,) the first printer of Strasburg, born at Schelestadt about 1410, is said to have been instructed in his art by Gutenberg.. He printed in 1473 the "Specula" of Vin- ceint de Beauvais, (10 vols, fol.) Mentel was ennobled by the emperor Frederick III. Died in 1478. See Laborde, "Debuts de I'lmprimerie k Strasbourg," 1840; Jacques Mentel, " De vera Typographiae Origine," 1650. Mentelle, mSx'tgK, (Edme,) born in Paris in 1730, was the author of a "Selection of Geographical and Historical Lectures," (6 vols., 1783,) and other similar works. He was a member of the French Institute. Died in 1815. See QuERAKD, "La France Litteraire ;" Salm-Dyck, "Notice sur la Vie de Mentelle," 1830. Men'tor, [Gr. Mfvrwp,] a wise and faithful friend of Ulysses, King of Ithaca, who, on his departure to the siege of Troy, intrusted to him the care of his house. Minerva is said to have assumed the form of Mentor, and to have accompanied Telemachus in his travels. (See "Odyssey," books ii., iii., and iv.) Minerva, as Mentor, performs a conspicuous part in Fenelon's cele- brated romance of " Telemaque." Mentor, a Greek artist of the time of Pericles, was celebrated for his exquisite chased work in gold and silver. His productions are eulogized in the highest terms by Pliny, Cicero, and Martial, and Crassus is said to have paid 100,000 sesterces for one of his goblets. Mentor, a Greek general, and a brother of Memnon. He entered the service of the Persian king Artaxerxes Ochus about 350 K.c, and led a successful expedition against the Egyptians. By treachery he obtained pos- session of Hermias, (a friend of Aristotle,) whom he delivered to King Artaxerxes. Mentzel, m^nt'sel, (Christian,) a German naturalist and philologist, born at Fiirstenwald in 1622. He pub- lished " Kurze Chinesischen Chronologic," ("Chinese Chronology Abridged," 1696,) and several botanical works. Died in 1701. Menu. See Manu. Menu de Chomorceau, meh-nli' deh sho^moR's5', (Jean Stienne,) a French litterateur, born in 1724, wrote a heroic poem entitled " Renaud," in imitation of Tasso. Died in 1802. Menuret de Chambaud, meh-nii^r^ deh sh6N'bo', (Jean Jacques,) a French physician, born at Monteli- mart in 1733. He contributed several valuable articles to the "Encyclopedic" of Diderot. Died in 1815. Menzel, meiit'sel, (Adot.ph,) a German painter, born at Breslau in 181 5. Among his principal works may be named "Frederick the Great at Sans-Souci," (in oil.) Menzel, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German, born about 1726, was private secretary at the court of Saxony. Having revealed to the Russian ambassador the secret correspondence between Russia, Saxony, and Austria, he was imprisoned at Konigstein, where he died, after a captivity of thirty-three years, in 1796. Menzel, (Karl Adolph,) a German historian, born at Griinberg in 1784, was the author of a " History of Germany till the Reformation," (1815,) and a "Modern History of Germany from the Reformation to the Act of Confederation," (14 vols., 1848,) both of which are highly esteemed. Died in 1855. Menzel, (Wolfgang,) a German critic and litterateur^ born at Waldenburg, in Silesia, in 1798. He became a resident of Stuttgart about 1825, and edited the " Litera- turblatt" for many years. He attacked the old German school and the disciples of Goethe. Among his nume- rous works are a "History of Germany," (1824-25,) " German Literature," (" Die Deutsche Literatur," 2 vols., 1828,) and a historical romance called " Furore," (3 vols., 185 1.) See L. WiENBARG, "Menzel und die Junge Literatur," 1835; L. Borne, "Menzel der Franzosenfresser," 1844; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1835; " Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1840. Menzies, mgn'zez, (Archibald,) a Scottish bota- nist, born in Perthshire about 1754. He served as as- sistant surgeon in the navy. Died in 1842. Menzini, mgn-zee'nee, (Benedetto,) an Italian poet, born at Florence in 1646. He visited Rome in 1685, and obtained the patronage of Christina of Sweden, then residing in that city. His poems are chiefly sonnets, hymns, and satires, which have a high reputation. His " Arte Poetica" especially ranks among the classics of the language. Died in 1704. See Paolucci, "Vita di B. Menzini," 1732; Fabroni, "Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" Tikaboschi, " Storia della Let- teratura Italiana ;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Menzocchi. See Minzocchl Merat, mi'rt', (Franqois Victor,) a French medical writer and botanist, born in Paris in 1780 ; died in 1851. Mercadante, meR-ki-ddn'ti, (Saverio,) an Italian composer, born at Altamura in 1 798, produced a num- ber of popular operas, among which we may name " Elisa e Claudio," " Didone," and " The Two Illustrious Rivals." He vvas appointed in 1839 director of the Con- servatory of Music at Naples. Died in 1870. See F^Tis, " Biographie Universelle des Musicians." Mercati, m§R-ki'tee, or Mercado, m^R-kl'do, (Mr- CHELE,) an Italian naturalist, born in Tuscany in 1541, became physician to Pope Clement VIII, He formed a valuable collection of minerals, which was placed in the Museum of the Vatican, and of which he wrote a de- scription entitled " Metallotheca," etc., (1717.) Died in 1593- See Nic^RON, "Memoires;" Magelli, "Vita di Mercati," pre- fixed to his " Metallotheca." Mercator. See Isidore Mercator. Mer-ca'tor, [Dutch pron. m§R-kcVtor,] (Gerard,) a celebrated geographer and mathematician, born at Rupel- monde, in East Flanders, in 1512, was originally named Kauffmann, ("Merchant," Lat. Mercator.) Through the influence of Cardinal Granvelle, he was introduced to the notice of the emperor Charles V., to whom he pre- sented two globes, superior to anything of the kind that had then appeared. He is chiefly known from the method of geographical projection called by his name. He pub- lished in 1569 the first hydrographic map of that kind. He was the author of a Latin treatise "On the Use of the Astronomical Ring," and other works. He also executed numerous maps and charts. Died in 1594. See Adam, "Vitae Phllosophorum ;" T. van Raemdonck, " Gerard Mercator, sa Vie et ses QEuvres." Mercator, m^R-kl'tor, (Nicholas,) a Danish mathe- matician, whose original name was Kauffmann, born in Holstein about 1630. He was the inventor of a new method of constructing logarithms, which he described in a work entitled " Logarithmotechnia," (1668.) Having visited England about 1660, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. Died in 1687. Mer'^cer, (Hugh,) a distinguished general in the American Revolutionary war, was a native of Scotland. He fought against the French and Indians, and served under Braddock in the campaign of 1755. He was € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MERCER 1572 MERE severely wounded at Fort Du Quesne, after which he travelled on toot to Fort Cumberland, a distance of more than one hundred miles. He afterwards took part in the engagements of Trentt)n and Princeton, and was mortally wounded at the latter place, January, 1777. A monument has been erected to his memory at Laurel Hill, near Philadelphia. Mercer, (Jkssk,) an American Baptist divine, born in Halifax county. North Carolina, in 1769. He published a collection of hymns entitled "Mercer's Cluster." He died in 1841, leaving the principal ])art of his estate to the university in Georgia called by his name. Mercer, (John,) an American officer and statesman, served in the war of the Revolution, and was a member of the convention which framed the United States Con- stitution. He was elected Governor of Maryland in iSor. Died in 1821. Mercerus. See Mercier, (Jean.) Mercey, de, deh meR'sa' or m^R'si', (Fr6d^;ric BouiiGKois,) a French litterateur 2i\\di landscape-painter, l^orn in Paris in 1808. He wrote works on art, and was jilaced at the head of the Direction des Beaux-Arts in 1853- Mercier, m^R^se-i', (Barthelemi,) a French eccle- siastic and writer, born at Ly(jns in 1734. He published a Supplement to Prosper Marchand's " History of Print- ing," and several bibliographical works. Died in 1799. Mercier or Le Mercier, leh m^R^se-ci', [Lat. Mer- Ce'rus,] (Jean,) a French Orientalist, born at Uzes, succeeded Vatable as professor of Hebrew in the Royal College in 1546. He made a number of translations from ihe Chaldee and Syriac, and published commenta- ries on various books of the Scriptures. Died in 1570. Mercier, (Josias,) Sieur des Bordes et de Grigny, a French scholar, born at Uzes, was a son of the pre- ceding. He was made a councillor of state by Henry IV. He published "Annotations" on Tacitus and other Classics. Mercier was father-in-law of the celebrated Salmasius. Died in 1626. Mercier, (Louis Sebastien,) an eccentric French writer, born in Paris in 1740, became professor of rhet- oric in the College of Bordeaux. He was the author of "The Year 2440," etc., (1770,) a caustic satire on Parisian society, entitled "Picture of Paris," ("Tableau de Paris," 1 781,) and a number of dramas, romances, and miscellaneous treatises. In his "Essay on the Dra- matic Art" he denounces the dramas of Racine and Corneille and proposes that his own should take their place on the French stage. Among the most successful of b.is plays were "The Deserter," and "The Wheel- barrow of the Vinegar-Dealer," (" La Brouette du Vinaigrier.") Mercier was chosen in 1792 a deputy to the National Convention, where he acted with the Girondists, voted for the imprisonment of the king, and was proscribed by the Jacobins. He was afterwards a member of the Council of Five Hundred, and of the Institute of France. Died in 1814. See Delisle de Sai.es, "Notice des Ouvrages de Mercier;" NoDiER, " Souvenirs de I'Empire ;" Qu^rard, " La France Litte- raire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mercier, (Philip,) a painter, of French extraction, born at Berlin in 1689, resided principally in England, where he was patronized by Frederick, Prince of Wales. His works are commended by Walpole. Died in 1760. See Wai.pole, "Anecdotes of Painting." Mercier de la Riviere, m^R'se-i' deh It re\^iR', a French writer on political economy, born about 1720. His jMincipal work is "The Natural and Essential Order of Political Societies," (1767.) Died about 1794. Merck, mguk, (Johann Heinrich,) a German lit- tcrahiir, born at Darmstadt in 1741, was an intimate friend of Goethe. He translated Addison's " Cato," and other English works, and contributed to Lavater's " Physiognomy." He also wrote for the " Deutschen Mercur," and other literary journals. He died, by sui- cide, in 1 79 1. See Auoi.i'H Stahr, "J. H. Merck; ein Denkmal," 1840; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1836. Mercklin, miRk-leen', (Georg Abraham,) a German physician and writer, born at Weissemburg in 1644; died in 1702. Mercceur, m^R'kuR', (£lisa,) a French poetess, born at Nantes in 1809, was patronized by Chateaubriand- Lamartine, and other celebrated writers of the time. Died in 1835. Mercoeur, de, deh m^R'kuR', (Philippe Emmanuel de Lorraine — deh* lo'rin',) Due, a French Catholic leader, born in 1558, was appointed Governor of Bre- tagne in 1582. He revolted against Henry III. in 1589, and afterwards defied the authority of Henry IV. until 1598, when he submitted, and received a large sum of money froni the king. Died in 1602. See Brusle de Montpi.ainchamp, " Vie de P. E. de Lorraine," 1689 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mercure or Mercur. See Mercury. Mercuri, mCR-koo'ree, (Paolo,) an Italian engraver, born at Rome about 1808. He worked with success in Paris from 1832 to 1847. Mercuriale, m^R-koo-re-i'li, or Mercuriali, m^R- koo-re-^'lee, [Latin, Mercuria'lis,] (Girolamo,) an Italian physician, born at Forli in 1530, succeeded Fra- cantiani as professor of medicine at Padua, (1569.) On the invitation of Maximilian II., he visited Vienna, and was made a chevalier and count palatine by the emperor. He edited the works of Hippocrates, and published, among other works, a treatise "On the Gymnastic Art," (in Latin.) Died in 1606. See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" F. Boer- ner, " Dissertatio de Vita H. Mercurialis," 1751. Mercurialis. See Mjercuriale. Mercuric. See Mercury. Mercurius. See Mercury. Mer'cu-ry, [Lat. Mercu'rius ; Fr. Mercure, m§R'- kiiR'; It. Mercurio, m§R-koo're-o ; Ger. Mercur, m§R-kooR',] in the Roman mythology, a god of com- merce and gain, (from the Latin merx^ plural merces, " merchandise,") was regarded as the messenger of the gods, the patron of orators, merchants, travellers, and thieves. He was identified by the Romans of the later ages with the Greek Hermes, and was said to be a sor. of Jupiter and Maia. The poets feigned that it was his office to conduct the souls of the dead to the infernal regions, — that he stole from Neptune his trident, from Venus her girdle, from Mars his sword, and from Jupiter his sceptre, — that he could assume whatever shape he pleased, and render himself invisible. Having invented the lyre and given it to Apollo, he received from that god a golden wand, called cadticeiis. The invention of the alphabet, of numbers, of astronomy, of music, and other things, was ascribed to Mercury, who was also interested in alliances and treaties. He was represented with a winged cap (petasus) and winged sandals, (talaria.) He received numerous surnames, among which are Cyllenius, (from Mount Cyllene, where he was born,) Caduceator, [i.e. the " herald" or " wand- bearer,") Argeiphontes, (the "slayer of Argus,") and many other names. See J. D. Guigniaut, " Commentatio de 'Ep/aov seu Mercurii Mythologia," 1835. Mercy, m^R'se', (Claude Florimond,) a distin- guished military commander, born in Lorraine in 1666, was a grandson of Fran9ois, noticed below. Having entered the Austrian service, he fought against the French in the principal campaigns from 1702 to 1734, and attained the rank of field-marshal and general-in- chief of the Imperial forces in Italy. He was killed at the battle of Parma, (1734.) Mercy, (FRAwgois,) a celebrated general, born in Lorraine about 1595. He served with distinction in the Austrian army during the Thirty Years' war, and gained a decided advantage over Turenne at Marienthal, in 1645. mortally wounded in an action with the Duke of Enghien, near Nordlingen, the same year. See Kraft, " Histoire de la Maison d'Autriche." Mercy d'Argenteau, de, deh m§R'se' dtR^zhSN^to', (FRAxgois,) CoMTE, was Austrian ambassador from the court of Vienna to Paris in 1791. He advised the flight of the royal family. Died in 1794. Mere, de, deh mi'^ra', (Georges Brossin — bRo'siw',) Chevalier, a French litterateur, born in Poitou about 1610. His principal work is entitled " Conversations of a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; MEREDITH 1573 MERLET Marshal Cleranibault and Chevalier de Mere." He was intimate with Pascal and Balzac. Died in 1685. See Sainte Beuve, " Derniers Portraits litteraires." Mer'e-dith, (Gkorge,) an English novelist, born in Hampshire about 1828. Among his works are "Farina, a Legend of Cologne," (1858,) and " Vittoria," (1866.) Mei'edith, (Henuy,) an English navigator, born in 17S2, visited the northern part of Guinea, and wrote an " Account of the Gold Coast, with a Brief History of the African Company." He died in Guinea of injuries received from the natives, (1812.) See W. HuTTON, "Voyage to Guinea," 1821. Meredith, (Owen.) See Bulwer. Mer'e-dith, (William Morris,) an eminent Amer- ican lawyer, born in Philadelphia, June 8, 1799, graduated with distinction at the University of Pennsylvania in 1812. He commenced the practice of law about 1820. From 1824 to 1828 he represented his native city in the Pennsylvania house of representatives, and from 1834 to 1849 was president of the select council of Phila- delphia. In 1837 he was chosen a member of the Con- vention for amending the Constitution of the State. On the inauguration of President Taylor, in March, 1849, Mr. Meredith was appointed secretary of the treasury, which position he held till the death of the President, in July, 1850. In 1 86 1 he became attorney-general of the State of Pennsylvania, and filled this office until 1867. As a lawyer, Mr. Meredith has for many years stood in the foremost rank in his native State, and has Ijeen constantly engaged in important cases both in the su- preme court of Pennsylvania and that of the United States. As an able and ready legal debater, he has few equals and scarcely any superior in our country. Mer'i-am, (Eben,) an American meteorologist, born at Concord, Massachusetts, in 1794. He was a diligent collector of statistics, and originated a theory of cycles of atmospherical phenomena. Died at Brooklyn, New York, in 1864. Merian, mi're'SN', (Jean Bernard,) a Swiss littera- teicr, born near Bale in 1723. He was the author of a number of philosophical essays of great merit, and trans- lated into French some of the " Essays" of Hume. Died in 1807. See Ancillon, " filoge de Merian," i8io. Merian, ma're-in, (Maria Sibylla,) a celebrated flower-painter and naturalist, born at Frankfort-on-the Main in 1647, was a pupil of Mignon. She was married in 1665 to John Andrew Graff, an artist, whose name, however, she did not assume. Having made a scientific tour in South America in 1698, she published, after her return, a magnificent work " On the Metamorphoses of Surinam Insects," (1705, in Dutch and Latin ;) also a treatise " On the Origin of Caterpillars, their Nourish- ment and Changes." These works are illustrated by designs from nature and painted with exquisite skill and accuracy. She died in 171 7, leaving two daughters, Jane Maria Helena and Dorothea Maria Henrietta, who were distinguished in the same department of art. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Merian, (Matthieu,) an eminent Swiss engraver, the father of the preceding, was born at Bale in 1593, and resided at Frankfort-on-the Main. His prints are very numerous, and are highly esteemed. Died in 165 1. Merian, (Maithieu,) born at Bale in 1621, was a son of the preceding. He studied under Sandrart and Carlo Maratta, and painted portraits of great excellence in the style of Van Dyck. Among his master-pieces is an eques- trian portrait of Count Soderini. Died in 1687. Meric, de, deh ma^r^k', (Jean,) a French general, born at Metz in 1 717, served under Marshal Saxe, and was killed in an engagement near Malines in 1747. Merilhou, ma'ie'loo', (Joseph,) a French lawyer, born at Montignac in 1788. He gained distinction as an advocate in political trials. In 1830 he became minister of public instruction in Lafitte's cabinet. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 183 1, and in 1837 was made a peer. He published a " Historical Essay on the Life and Works of Mirabeau," (1827.) Died in 1856. See P. S. DupiN, "Notice sur J. Merilhou," 1826; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Merille, xnk'xhV or mi-re'ye, (Edmond,) a French jurist and legal writer, born at Troyes in 1579; died in 1647. Merimee, mbJrt'nA', (Jean FRANg(jis L^nore,) a French painter, born in 1765; died in Paris in 1836. Merimee, (Prosper,) a distinguished novelist and historian, a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1803. He produced in 1825, as translations from the Spanish, several dramas, under the title of "Theatre de Clara Gazul." In 1834 he was appointed inspector- general of historical monuments. His novel of " Co- lomba" (1841) was very successful. He was elected a member of the French Academy in 1844, and became a senator in 1853. Among his numerous works are "The Double Mistake," (" La double Meprise,") a moral tale, (1833,) "Notes of a Journey in the South of France," (1835,) "Notes of a Journey in the West of France," (1836,) "Studies in Roman History," "The Conspiracy of Catiline," etc., (2 vols., 1844,) ^ *' History of Don Pedro I., King of Castile," (1848,) " Les faux Deme- trius; iSpisode de I'Histoire de Russie," (1853,) and "Melanges historiqnes et litteraires," (1855.) He had an excellent talent for narration. Died in 1870. See Sainte-Beuve, "Portraits conteniporains," and " Cause- ries du Lundi ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Blackwood's Mai^azine" for March, 1S49; " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1850. Merino, mi-ree'no, (Don Geronimo,) a Spanish guerilla chieftain, born at Villasbiado, in Old Castile, about 1770, distinguished himself in the principal cam- paigns against the French from 1808 to 1811. Having afterwards embraced the cause of Don Carlos, he suftered a total defeat in 1838, and fled to France, where he died in 1847. Me-ri'o-nes, [Gr. Mrjptot^rjc ; Fr. M^irione, mi're^on',] a Cretan hero, was one of the suitors of the celebrated Helen. He was a friend of Idomeneus, whom he served as charioteer in the Trojan war, in which he acted a prominent part. M6r''I-vale, (Charles,) an English historian, a son of John Herman Merivale, noticed below, was born about 1808. He graduated at Cambridge in 1830, and became rector of Lawford, Essex. He wrote a " History of the Romans under the Empire," (7 vols., 1850-62.) See the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1850, and July, 1857. Merivale, (Herman,) an English writer, a brother of the preceding, was born about 1805. He became professor of political economy at Oxford about 1837. Among his works are "Lectures on Colonization and the Colonies," (2 vols., 1841.) He completed the "Me- moirs of the Life of Sir Philip Francis," which had been commenced by Joseph Parkes, (2 vols., 1867.) Merivale, (John Herman,) an English lawyer and writer, the father of the preceding, was born at Exeter in 1779. He practised in the court of chancery, and published in 1827 a "Letter on the Chancery Com- mission." In 183 1 he was made a commissioner of bankruptcy. He translated the minor poems of Schiller, and various other works from the German, Greek, and Italian. Died in 1844. Mer'i-weth-er, (David,) an American soldier, born in Virginia in 1755, served in the war of the Revolution. He was chosen to represent a district of Georgia in Congress in 1800. Merkel, m^R'kel, (Garlieb,) born in Livonia in 1776, was an intimate friend of Kotzebue, with whoin he was associated as editor of the " Freimuthigen" in Berlin. Died in 1850. Merle, m^Rl, (Jean Toussatnt,) a French dramatist, born at Montpellier in 1785. Among his most po])ular works are " The Youth of Henry IV." and "The IS^ew- Market Races." Died in 1852. Merle, (Matthieu,) a French officer, born at Uz^s, in Languedoc, in 1548. He fought on the side of the Protestants in the civil wars of the time, and was dis- tinguished by the favour of Henry IV. Died about 1590. Merle, van. See Merula, (Paul.) Merle-d'Aubigne. See D'Aubign6. Merler. See Horstius, (Jacobus.) Merley, m^R'li', (Louis,) a French engraver of medals, born at Saint-fitienne in 1815. € as 9 as s; g Aard; g as/; G, H, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (3^=See Explanations, p. 23.) MERLIEUX 1574 MERU Merlieux, mgu^le-uh', (Louis Parfait,) a French sculptor, bcnn in Paris in 1796. He was employed by Cuvier in 1822 to reproduce the forms of extinct animals. Plis master-piece is a statue of "Capaneus struck with Thunder," (1837.) Mer'lin or Merdhin, merMin, [Lat. Merli'nus Ambro''siu.s,] a celebrated prophet and magician, is supposed to have lived in Britain about 450 a.d. He is alluded to by Spenser in his "Faerie Queene," and forms the subject ot the metrical romance of "Merlin." Another MicRLiN, called "the Caledonian," is said to have lived in the latter part of the sixth century. He is frequently mentioned in the works of Sir Walter Scott, and his grave, near the Tweed, is still pointed out. The " Prophecies" of Merlin have been attributed to both writers of the name. See T. Heywood, "Life of Merlin Ambrosius," etc. Meriin, m^R^aw', (Antoine FkANgois Eugene,) Count, a French general, son of Merlin de Douai, was born at Douai in 1778. Having accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt as his aide-de-camp in 1798, he was present at the battle of Aboukir. He afterwards served with dis- tinction in Austria, Prussia, and Spain. Died in 1854. Mei-lin, (Christoi'He Antoine,) Count, a French general, born at Thionville in 1771. He served under Josei)h Bonaparte in Spain. Died in 1839. Merlin, (Pierre,) a French Protestant minister, born about 1535, had much influence in the Church. He pub- lished several religious works. Died in 1603. Merlin de Douai, mCR'liN' deh doo^a^ (Philippe An roiNE,) CouN'J", a French statesman and jurist, born at Arleux in 1754. Elected to the Constituent Assembly in 1789, he at first favoured moderate measures, but sub- sequently identified himself with the republican party, and, as a member of the National Convention in 1792, voted for the death of the king. In 1793 he presented to the Convention the infamous decree called the law of the suspected, (hi des suspects.) He was appointed minister of justice in 1795, and was subsequently created by Napoleon a councillor of state, count of the empire, and grand officer of the legion of honour. He was chosen a member of the French Institute soon after its founda- tion. He died in 1838, leaving several legal treatises. See Mathieu, "£loge historiqiie du Comte Merlin," 1839; C. Paulmier, "Merlin," 1839; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Merlin de Thionville, m^R'l^N' deh te'AN'v^K, (An roiNE Christophe,) born at Thionville in 1762, was a brother of Christophe Antoine, noticed above. He was elected in 1792 to the National Convention, where he supported for a time the measures of the Jacobins, whom he afterwards opposed. He was a member of the Council of Five Hundred. Died in 1833. See Reynaud, "Vie et Correspondance de Merlin de Thionville," 1S60. Merlinus. See Merlin. Mermet, mgR'ma', (Julien Augustine Joseph,) a French general, born at Quesnoi in 1772. He served in several campaigns in Italy and Spain. Died in 1837. Merode, m§'ro-deh or ma'rod^ (Charles Ghislain,) a Belgian diplomatist, born at Brussels in 1763. Having been made a senator by Napoleon in 1809, he defended the cause of Pope Pius' VII. Died in 1830. Merode, (Jean Philippe Eugene,) Marquis of Wes- terloo, born at Brussels in 1674, entered the Austrian service, and was created a field-marshal and count of the empire. He died in 1732, leaving a volume of "Me- moirs," reprinted at Mons in 1840. Merode, (Ludvvig Friedrich Ghislain,) a Belgian count, born in 1792, was killed near Antwerp in 1830, while fighting against the Dutch. Merode, de, deh ma'ro-deh or mk'rod', (Philippe Felix Balthasar Othon Ghislain,) Count, a Bel- gian minister of state, born in 1791, was a brother of the preceding. He was the most eloquent chief of the Catholic party. He became minister of state under Leopold I. Died in 1857. Mer'o-pe, [Gr. mpdm] : Fr. Mi^rope, m^rop',] in classic mythology, was a daughter of Atlas, and one of the Pleiades. She was married to Sisyphus. It was fabled that she ajjpears less luminous than the other Pleiads, because she was ashamed of her marriage with a mortal. Merouan. See Merwan. Merovaeus. See M6rov6e. Merovee, mi'ro'vi', [Lat. Merov^'us ; Ger. Mero- vig, ma^ro-viG,] the son of Clodion, born about 411, is supposed to have been the third king of France, and was the founder of the Merovingian dynasty. In conjunc- tion with the Roman general Aetius, he defeated Attila, King of the Huns, in 451 a.d. Died in 457 or 458. See A. TuiEKRY, " Attila et I'Empire des Huns;" Gibbon, "De- cline and Fall of ilie Roman Empire." Merovee or Mer'o-vig, a son of Chilperic I., King of Neustria. He married in 576 a.d. Brunehaut, Queen of Austrasia, who was his aunt. By this act he lost the favour of his father. He was persecuted by Queen Fredegunda, his step-mother, who employed assassins to kill him. After he had fled for refuge to various cities, he was killed in 577 a.d. Merovig. See Merovi^e. Mer^ret, (Christopher,) an English physician and naturalist, born in Gloucestershire in 1614, was a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the College of Physicians. He published an "Account of the Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Productions of Great Britain," and several medical treatises. Died in 1695. See Wood, "Athens Oxonienses." Mer'rick, (James,) an excellent English divine and poet, born in 1720, published, at the age of fourteen, "The Messiah, a Divine Essay." In 1739 he translated the poem of Tryphiodorus on the " Capture of Troy." He became a Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1744. He also wrote a " Dissertation on Proverbs," and a translation of the Psalms into English verse, regarded as one of the best in the language. Died in 1769. See Doddridge, " Letters," p. 339 ; Coates, " History of Read- ing." Merritt, (Timothy,) an American Methodist divine, born at l^arkhamstead, Connecticut, in 1775, was editor of " Zion's Herald," Boston, and published several re- ligious works. Died in 1845. Mer'ry, (Robert,) an English poet and dramatist, born in London in 1755, was the author of "Lorenzo," a tragedy, and a drama entitled " Ambitious Vengeance." He died at Baltimore, in the United States, in 1798. See "Gentleman's Magazine," vol. Ixix. Mersch, van der, vtn der m^Rsh, (Jean Andr^,) a Belgian general, born at Menin in 1734, headed the revolt of his countrymen against the Austrian emperor Joseph II. in 1789. Having been deprived of his com- mand and imprisoned through the intrigues of his rivals, he was released when the Austrians regained their power in Belgium. Died in 1792. Mersenne, meR^sin', [Lat. Mersen'nus,] (Marin,) a learned French philosopher, mathematician, and theo- logian, born in Maine in 1588. He studied at the Col- lege de la Fleche, where he formed an intimate and lasting friendship with Descartes. He subsequently entered the religious order of Minims. Among his most important works are a commentary on Genesis, entitled "Quaestiones celeberrimae in Genesim," (1623,) and a " Treatise on Universal Harmony," (1627.) Died in 1648. See Hii.AKioN de Coste, "Vie dii Pere Mersenne;" Baillet, "Vie de Descartes;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mertens, meR'tens, (Charles,) a Flemish physician, born at Brussels in 1737 ; died in 1788. Mer'ton, de, (Walter,) an English prelate and statesman, was created chancellor of the kingdom in 1258, and Bishop of Rochester in 1274. He was the founder of Merton College, Oxford. Died in 1277. Meru, ma'roo, or Merus, ma'roos, [Gr. M//p6f,] a word of doubtful etymology, forming, in the Hindoo mythology, the name of a celebrated mountain, said to be situated in the centre of the seven continents. Its height is supposed to be 84,000 yojanas,* of which 16,000 are below the surface of the earth. The sacred river Ganges (Ganga) tails from heaven on its summit, and flows to the surrounding worlds in four streams, of which the southernmost is the Ganges of India. Brahma, A yo'jana (called yo'jun in the common dialect of India) is usu- ally reckoned at 16,000 yards, or about nine of our miles; but, ac- cording to some authorities, it is only five miles. i, e, T, o, u, y,long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; met; n5t; good; moon; MERVLA 1575 attended by Rishis (sages) and celestial minstrels, is supposed to reside on Mount Meru, on one of the highest summits of which, Kailasa, dwells also Siva, with his consort, Parvati. See Wilson, " Sanscrit Dictionary ;" Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." Merula, ma'roo-li or m§R'oo-li, (Giorgio,) an Italian scholar, born at Alessandria della PagHa in 1424. He brought out in 1470 an edition of Martial's Epigrams, said to be the first ever published, and wrote comment- aries on Cicero, Pliny, and other classics. He was the author of a " History of the Visconti, Princes of Milan," (in Latin.) Died in 1494. See GiNGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" Niceron, " Me- moires;" V(«sius, " De Historicis Latinis." Merula, mir'oo-ll, (Paul,) a Dutch jurist and writer, born at Dort in 1558, was originally named Van Merle. In 1593 he succeeded Justus Lipsius as professor of his- tory at Leyden. He wrote a " Life of Erasmus," and a number of legal and historical works, (in Latin.) Died in 1607. Merville, m^R^v^K, the assumed name of Pierre FRAN-gois Camus, a French dramatist, born at Pontoise in 1783 ; died in 1853. MerwSn or Merouan (merVIn') I., surnamed Ibn- Tarid, caliph of the dynasty of the Omeyyads, born at Mecca about 623. Having gained a victory over his rival, Abdallah ben Zobeir, Merwan was proclaimed caliph in 684. He was assassinated by one of his wives in 685 A.D. See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap. viii. Merw^n or Merouan II.,(Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Abdelmelek, a'boo Sbd-el-m^Kek,) one of the Omey- yad caliphs, grandson of the preceding, was born at Damascus in 688 A.D. He was victorious over several rivals, but was at last defeated by Abool-Abbas, son of Ibrahim, in 749 A.D. He was subsequently killed by the Christians, whom he had cruelly persecuted. See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap. xvii. Mery, m^'re', (Jean,) a French surgeon and anato- mist, born at Vatan in 1645, published a work entitled "New System of the Circulation of the Blood," (1700,) and other medical treatises. He was first surgeon of the Hotel-Dieu, in Paris, and a member of the Academy of Sciences. Died in 1722. See FoNTENELLE, " filoges des Academiciens," etc. Mery, (Joseph,) a French litterateur, born near Mar- seilles in 1798, wrote numerous poems, romances, and dramas. Merz, m^Rts, (Jacob,) a Swiss painter and engraver, born in the canton of Zurich in 1783; died in 1807. Merzliakof or Merzliakov, m§rz-le-a'kof, (Alexis Feodorovitch,) a Russian critic ancT^poet, born in 1778, became professor of eloquence and poetry at Moscow. Among his principal works is a " Discourse on the Poetry of the Ancients," etc. His lyric poems are highly esteemed by his countrymen. He also trans- lated into Russian Tasso's "Gerusalemme Liberata," and various works in Latin, Greek, and French. Died in 1827. Mesa, ma'sS, (Cristobal,) a Spanish poet, born in Estreniadura about 1540. During a residence of five years at Rome, he became an intimate friend of Tasso. He was the author of several heroic poems, which, how- ever, are much less esteemed than his translations of Virgil's "^neid," " Georgics," and " Bucolics." Died about 1620. See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature." Mesenguy or Mesengui, mi-z6N'ge', ( Franqois Philii'I'K,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Beauvais in 1677, was an adherent of Jansenism, and published sev- eraK treatises against the constitution Unigenitus. He also wrote an "Abridgment of the History of the Old and New Testament," (1737,) which is commended by Rollin. Died in 1793. See Lkqueux, " Memoire sur la Vie, etc. de I'Abbe Mesengui,'' 1763. Mesihi, m§s'e-hee, a celebrated Turkish poet, flour- ished in the reign of Solyman I. He is one of the seven whose names, written in golden letters, are suspended in the temple of Mecca, and who have been styled by MESSJLJ I their countrymen "the Pleiades." One of his idyls has been translated by Sir William Jones, in his " Commen- taries on Asiatic Poetry." See Von H.a.m.mer, "Geschichte der Osmanischen Dichtung." Mesle, ma'la', (Jean,) a French advocate in the Par- liament of Paris, wrote a valuable "Treatise on Minori- ties," (1714.) Died in 1756. Mesmer, mgs'mer, (Friedrich Anton,) founder of the doctrine of Mesmerism, or animal magnetism, was born at Meersburg, in Sual3ia, in 1733. Having made various experiments with the mineral magnet, he was led to the discovery of the power since called Mesmer- ism. This he made public in 1775, in his "Letter to a Foreign Physician on Magnetism." He soon after established a hospital at Vienna for the perfection and promulgation of his discovery, and repaired in 1778 to Paris, where he devoted himself to the cure of diseases and made many proselytes. He subsequently refused a large sum of money offered him by the French govern- ment for his secret. A number of his adherents having presented him with 340,000 livres, on condition of being instructed in his doctrine, he received the money, but did not perform his promise. He died in Germany in 1815, leaving several treatises, one of which was entitled "Memoire de Mesmer sur ses Decouvertes," (1799.) See Thouret, " Recherches et Doutes sur le Magnetisme ani- mal," 1784; JozwiK, "Sur le Magnetisme animal," 1832; Dr. HoEFER, article in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mesmes, de. See Avaux. Mesmes, de, deh mim, (Henri,) a French states- man, born in Paris in 1531, was a son of Jean Jacques, noticed below. He became chancellor of the kingdom of Navarre. Died in 1596. Mesmes, de, (Jean Jacques,) a French diplomatist, born in 1490, was patronized by Catherine of Navarre and Francis I., and was appointed master of requests in 1544. Died in 1569. Mesmon, de, deh mes'm6N', (Germain Hyacinthe de Romance — deh ro^mSNss',) Marquis, a French journalist, born in Paris in 1745. He edited succes- sively, at Hamburg, the " Spectateur du Nord," the " Reveil," and the "Censeur," and afterwards repaired to Saint Petersburg, where he became editor of the "Journal du Nord." Died in 183 1. Mesnager, Le, leh mi'nt'zha', (Nicolas le Baillif,) a French dii^lomatist, born at Rouen in 1658. He was sent as a secret agent to London in 171 1, to negotiate the preliminaries of peace, and he was one of the French diplomatists that signed the treaty of Utrecht, (1713.) Died in 1714. Mesnard, mi'ntR', (Jacques Andk^,) a French lawyer and senator, born at Rochefort in 1792. He became a counsellor in the court of cassation in 1841, and a senator in 1852. He translated into French the " Divina Commedia" of Dante, (3 vols., 1858.) Died in 1858. Mesnardiere or Menardiere, de la, deh It ma'- ntR^de-aiR', (Hippolytf. Jules Pilf.t,) a French poet, born at Loudun aliout 1610, was patronized by Cardinal Richelieu. In 1655 he was elected a member of the French Academy, a distinction which he owed chiefly to his brilliant conversational powers. Died in 1663. Mesnil, Du. See Dumesnil. Mesnil, du, du ma'n^K, (Jean Baptiste,) a French lawyer, born in Paris in 1517, was appointed in 1556 royal advocate. Died in 1569. Mes-o-me'des, [Gr. Mecr()uf;f57/f,] a lyric poet, who flourished under the emperor Hadrian. Three of his poems are preserved in the Greek Anthology. Mesonero y Romanos, de, di ma-so-na'ro e ro- nia'nis. (Ramon,) a pojnilar Spanish writer, born at Madrid in 1803. His principal works are a " Manual of Madrid, Description of the Court and the City," and " Panorama of Madrid," (" Panorama Matritense," 1S35,) which are admired for their faithful delineations of life and manners and the elegance of their style. Mes-saTa(orMes-salTa) Cor-vi'nu's, (Marcus Va- lerius,) a celebrated Roman orator and general, born 59 B.C., at first opposed the party of Antony, and commanded a division of the army of Brutus at the battle of Philippi. After the death of Brutus he became general-in-chief. « as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, H, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in thts. (2!^=See Explanations, p. 2^ J MESSJLINA 1576 METCALFE \ He was subsequently reconciled to Augustus, who made him consul, 31 n.C, and, five years after, prefect of Rome. Among his other important military services, he reduced Aquitania to subjection, for which he obtained a triumph, (27 H.c.) Died about 11 a.d. Of the writings of Messala only fragments remain ; but his eloquence is spoken of in the highest terms by Quintilian, Seneca, and the two Plinys. He was intimate with Horace, Ovid, and Pollio, and was a liberal patron of learning. See M. C. van Hall, " M. V. Messala Corvinus," etc., 2 vols., 1821 ; L. WiESE, " Dissertatio de Messalae Corvini Vita et Studiis," iSag; Tacitus, "Annales," books iv. and vi. ; Appian, " Bellum Civile." Mes-sa-li'na, [Fr. Messaline, ma'st'l^n',] a Roman empress, notorious for her crimes, was a daughter of M. Valerius Messala Barbatus. She was married to Clau- dius, who afterwards became emperor. She caused a number of eminent Romans to be put to death. She was executed, by order of Claudius, in 48 A.D. Mes-sa-irna Sta-tiPi-a, granddaughter of Statilius Taurus, became the third wife of the emperor Nero, in 66 A.D. Messalla. See Messala. Messape. See Messapus. Messapus, [Gr. MeaaaTToq; Fr. Messape, ma'stp',] in classic mythology, a son of Neptune, and a king of Etruria. He fought for Turnus against .^Eneas, and was supposed to be invulnerable. Mes-se'ne, [Gr. Mtacr^v//,] the wife of Polycaon, whom she induced to take possession of the country which was afterwards called, from her, Messenia. A temple was erected to her honour. Mes-se'ni-us, [Sw. pron. m§s-sn'ne-us,] (Arnold,) son of Johan Messenius, noticed below, was made his- toriographer to Christina of Sweden, and obtained a title of nobility. Having been concerned with his son in writing a libel on the royal family, they were both condemned to death and executed, (1648.) See "Anecdotes de Suede," The Hague, 1716. Messenius, (Johan,) a Swedish historian, born in Ostrogothia in 1 584, was professor of law in the Uni- versity of Upsal. lieing accused of a treasonable cor- respondence with the King of Poland and the Jesuits, he was imprisoned in 1616. During his confinement of nearly twenty years he wrote several historical works, of which the most important is entitled " Scandia Illus- trated," (in Latin.) Died in 1637. See " Biogrnphiskt-Lexicon ofver naninkunnige Svenska Man ;" P. Stenreck, " De Vita et Meritis Messeniorum," 1741. Mes'ser, (Asa,) D.D., LL.D., an American divine and scholar, born at Methuen, Massachusetts, in 1769. He graduated at Brown University, where he became suc- cessively professor of the learned languages, (1796,) of mathematics and natural philosophy, (1799,) and presi- dent of the institution, (1802.) Died in 1836. Messier, ma'se-a', (Chart,es,) a French astronomer, boni at Badonviller, in Lorraine, in 1730. Having visited Paris in 175 1, he was employed by De Lisle in his ob- servatory, and distinguished himself by the accuracy of his astronomical observations. He is said to have observed forty-six comets, of which he discovered twenty-one. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, and of similar institutions at St. Petersburg, Berlin, and other cities. He died in 1817, leaving "Memoires" con- taining his observations. I.alande named in honour of this astronomer a constellation situated between Ce- pheus, Cassiopeia, and the Camelopard. See Delamrre, " Notice sur la Vie, etc. de Messier," in the " Memoires"' of the Academy of Sciences, vol. ii. ; La Harpe, " Cor- res]iondance litteraire." Messina, da. See Antonello da Messina. Messis. See Matsys, (Quentin.) Mes'ton, (William,) a Scottish poet, born in Aber- deenshire about 1688, was the author of " Mother Grim's Tales," in verse, and a poem entitled "The Knight." Died in 1745. See " Life of William Meston." prefixed to hisvvorks ; Chambers, ' Biograjiliical Dictionary <>f Eminent Scotsmen." Mestrezat, mes'tkeh-zS', (Jk..a.n,) a Protestant theolo- gian and pulpit orator, born at Geneva in 1592, became pastor of the church at Charenton, and distinguished himself by his bold and eloquent defence of the Protest- ants against the Roman clergy. He was the author of theological treatises and sermons, which are nighly esteemed. Died in 1657. See Senerier, " Histoire litteraire de Geneve," Mesne or Messua. See Massooa. Meszaros, ma'st-rosh, (Lazar,) a Hungarian general and statesman, born in the county of Bacs in 1796. In 1848 he was appointed minister of war in the Hungarian cabinet of Batthyanyi, but on the breaking out of the war joined the revolutionary party. After sharing with Dembinski the defeat of Temesvar, he took refuge in Turkey, and afterwards visited England and America. Died in 1858. Metastase. See Metastasio. Metastasio, m^-tSs-ti'se-o, [Fr. Mi^tastase, ma'tts'- ttz',] (PiKTRO Bonaventura,) an eminent Italian poet, born at Rome in 1698, was originally named Trapassl He manifested at an early age extraordinary talents for improvisation on any subject. Having attracted the notice of the celebrated jurist Gravina, he was adopted by him, and his name was changed to Metastasio, (a "changing,") in allusion to his adoption. His benefactor died in 1718, leaving his property to Metastasio, who now devoted himself principally to literary pursuits, and brought out in 172 1 his lyric drama entitled "The Gardens of the Hesperides," ("Gli Orti Esperidi.") This piece was received with great favour, one of the principal parts in it being performed by Signora Bulga- rini, (La Romanina,) esteemed the first vocalist of her time. At the request of this lady, he relinquished the legal profession, which he had practised for a time, and gave his attention exclusively to poetry. His opera of " Didone Abbandonata" was performed with great ap- plause at Naples in 1724, and was followed by his " Ca- tone," " Semiramide," "Artaserse," and other operas, which established his reputation. On the invitation of the emperor Charles VI,, he repaired to Vienna, and succeeded Apostolo Zeno as imperial laureate. In 1734 he lost his "inestimable counsellor and friend," Signora Bulgarini, who bequeathed to him, after the death of her htisband, her property, amounting to twenty-five thousand 'crowns. This, with characteristic delicacy, he refused to accept. He brought out during his residence at Vienna two of his most admired operas, the " Olim- piade" and " La Clemenza di Tito," which the music of Mozart has contributed to render immortal. Besides the works above named, he composed a number of ora- torios, cantatas, sonnets, etc. He died at Vienna in 1782, The genius of Metastasio is eulogized by Vol- taire and La Harpe, the former of whom compares some of his scenes to the most sublime of the Greek poets. Rousseau, in his " Nouvelle Heloise," pronounces him " the only poet of the heart, the only genius who can move by the charm of poetic and musical harmony ;" and Schlegel observes that his purity of diction, grace, and delicacy have rendered him in the eyes of his coun- trymen a classic author, — the Racine of Italy. See Burnev, " Memoirs of Metastasio," 3 vols., 1796; Torcia, " Elogio del Abbate P. Metastasio," 1782 ; Hiller, " Ueber P. Me- tastasio und seine VVerke," 1786; Loncfellovv, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Altanesi, "Vita di P. Metastasio," 1787 ; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" "Lives of the Italian Poets," by the Rev. Henry Stkbring, London, 1831. Metcalfe, mlt'kc^f, (Charles Theophilus,) Baron, an able English statesman, born in Calcutta in 1785, was educated at Eton. He entered the service of the East India Company as a writer, and became a member of the Supreine Council of India in 1827. He resigned his office, returned to England in 1837, and was appointed Governor of Jamaica in 1839. For three years he per- formed the duties of this difficult position with surcess. He was appointed Governor-General of Canada about February, 1843, I" politics he was a Liberal. He re- signed on account of ill health in the autumn of 1845, and died at Basingstoke in September, 1846, See John William Kaye, " Life and Correspondence of Charles, Lord liletcalfe," 1854; "Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 1846, and February, 1855. Met'calfe, (Thomas,) an American Whig statesinan, born in Fauquier county, Virginia, in 1780, removed at an early age to Kentucky. He worked at the trade of a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolongfd; a, e, T, 6, ii, J?, short; 9, 5, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nfit; good; moon; METELLI METRODORUS stone-mason in his youth. He became Governor of Kenrucky in 1828, and filled that office four years. In 184.8 he succeeded Mr. Crittenden in the United States Senate. His term expired in March, 1849. Died in 1855. Metelli. See Mitelli. Me-tel'lus, (Quintus Ci^;ciLius,) called Macedo'ni- cus, an eminent Roman general, of a noble family, was chosen praetor in 148 B.C. He gained a victory over the Macedonians in that year, and took their leader, An- driscus, prisoner, for which a triumph was decreed him. In 146 he defeated the Achasans near Thermopylae. He was made consul in 143, and was sent to Spain to op- pose Viriathus. It was during the censorship of Metellus and Pompeius (13 1 B.C.) that the decree was passed obliging all Roman citizens to marry. He opposed the Gracchi. Died in 115 B.C. See Tacitus, "Annales;" LiVY, "Epitome." Metellus, (Quintus C.ecilius Numidicus,) an able Roman general, a nephew of the preceding, was a leader of the aristocratic party. Having been chosen consul for 109 B.C., he obtained as his province Numidia, then the seat of war with Jugurtha, who had hitherto suc- ceeded in outgeneralling or outwitting all the Roman commanders sent against him. Metellus was more suc- cessful, and finally gained a great victory over the African prince at the river Muthul, towards the close of that year. Before the end of this war the command was transferred to Marius ; but Metellus was honoured with a triumph on his return to Rome in 107, and received the surname of Numid'icus. He became censor in 102, and was banished about 100 B.C., through the influence of Marius and Saturninus, but he was recalled the next year. He was distinguished as an orator, and was reputed one of the most virtuous men of his time. See Sali.ust, " Bellum Jiigurthinum ;" Plutarch, " Marius." Metellus, (Quintus C^cilius Pius,) a Roman general, a son of the preceding, became praetor in 89 B.C. In the civil war between Marius and Sulla he fought for the latter, and gained a decisive victory over Carbo and Norbanus, near Faventia, in 82 B.C. lie was chosen consul with Sulla in the year 80, after which he commanded in Spain and spent several years in un- successful efforts to ct)nquer Sertorius. He became pontifex maxim us. Died about 63 B.C. Me-tel'lus Ce'ler, (Q. C/ECIlius,) a Roman states- man, and leader of the aristocratic party. He became praetor in 63 B.C., acted with Cicero against Catiline, and was chosen consul for the year 60. During his consulship he resolutely opposed the laws which his colleague Afranius desired to enact for the benefit of Pompey. Died in 59 B.C. Me-tel'lus Ne'pos, (Quintus,) a brother of the preceding, became tribune of the people in 63 B.C., and was a partisan of Pompey. As tribune, he opposed Cicero with some violence. He became prsetor in 60, and consul in 57 B.C. Died about 55 B.C. Meteren, van, vtn ma'teh-ren, (Emanuel,) a Flem- ish Protestant historian, born at Antwerp in 1 535, was the author of a " History of the Netherlands from the Early Part of the Sixteenth Century to his Own Time," (in Latin and Flemish.) It is valued for its accuracy; but the historian is accused by some writers of injustice towards the Catholics. Died in 1612. See S. Rcytinck:, " Biographie de Van Meteren," prefixed to his "Histnire," (French translation.) Metezeau, meh'teh'zo', (Clement,) a French archi- tect, born at Dreux, constructed the great dyke of La Rochelle, which, suggested by Cardinal Richelieu, was the principal means of reducing that city in 1628. Died about 1650. Method or Methode. See Methodius. Me-tho'di-us, [Fr. Methode, vak'iocV,] Saint, one of the early Christian martyrs, surnamed Patarensis on account of his having been Bishop of Patara. He was, also Bishop of Olympus, in Lycia, and afterwards of Tyre. His piety and learning are highly commended by Epiphanius and Jerome. He wrote a work entitled *'The Banquet of Ten Virgins," of which a great part is extant. He suffered martyrdom under Diocletian about 312. See Lardner, " Credibility of the Gospel History." Methodius [Gr. lAedodmg] the Confessor, born at Syracuse, was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople in 842 A.D. He was a zealous advocate of the worship of images, and was the author of several learned works. Died in 846. See Baronius, "Annales." Methodius, [Fr. Methode, mk'tod'; Ger. Method, ma'tod,] a native of Thessalonica, was sent, with his brother Cyrillus, by the Greek emperor Michael III., to convert the Saracens on the Euphrates, and about 863 went on a mission to the Slavonians. They invented the Slavonian alphabet, and translated the Psalter and Gospels into Slavonic. Methodius resided in the country nearly thirty years, and, it is said, translated all the Scriptures into Slavonic. See F. X. Richter, "Cyrill und Method der Slaven Apostel," Me-thu'se-lah, [Heb. nSiyiriD ; Fr. Mathusalem,* mt'tu'zS'lSN', or Mathusala, mt'tii'zt'lt^] a Hebrew patriarch, noted for his longevity, was a son of Enoch. He is supposed to have died about six years before the deluge, aged nine hundred and sixty-nine years. See Genesis v. Me'tis, [Gr. M^nf ; Fr. M^Tis, mi'tess',] in classic mythology, the personification of prudence, was the daughter of Oceanus, and the first wife of Zeus or Jupiter. Metius, ma'te-us, (Adriaan,) a Dutch mathematician, born at Alkmaar in 1571. He studied under Tycho Brahe in Denmark, and after his return to Holland was appointed, in 1598, professor of mathematics in the Uni- versity of Franeker. Among his works is a Latin essay *' On the Institutes of Astronomy." Died in 1635. See MoNTUCLA, "Histoire des Mathematiques." Metius, (Jakob,) brother of the preceding, is regarded by Descartes and some other savants as the inventor of the refracting telescope. See Barlow, "History of Optics;" Borel, " De vero Tele- scopii Inventore." Metkerke, van, vtn m^t'kgR^keh, or Meetkercke, mat'kek'keh, (Adolphus,) a distinguished Flemish phi- lologist, born at Bruges in 1528. He was a Protestant, and was sent by the United Provinces on an embassy to Queen Elizabeth of England. He translated Theocritus into Latin verse, and published an edition of Dion and Moschus. Metkerke was president of the Council of Flanders. Died in 1591. See Mt)Ti.EY, "United Netherlands," vol. i. chap. ill. Metochita, mgt-o-Kee'ta, (Theodore,) a modern Greek historian, was the author of a " Compendium of Roman History from Julius Caesar to Constantine the Great," and a " Paraphrase of the Physics of Aristotle." Died in 1332. Me'ton, [Merwv,] a Greek astronomer, flourished in 432 B.C. He observed the solstice at Athens, and dis- covered the lunar cycle of nineteen years, designed to make the solar and lunar years begin at the same time. This invention is called the Metonic cycle, and is still employed by the Western Churches in their computation of Easter. See SuiDAS, " Meton ;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." Metrodore. See Metrodorus. Met-ro-do'rus [Gr. MrjTpodupog ; Fr. Metrodore, mi'tRo'doR^J OF Chios, a (jreek philosopher, who lived about 400 B.C., and wrote a " Treatise on Nature," which was very celebrated. He is said to have been the mas- ter of Anaxarchus. See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Fabricius "Bibliotheca Grasca." Metrodorus of Lampsacus, a Greek philosopher, born in 230 B.C., was a disciple and intimate friend of Epicurus. He sensualized and debased the doctrines which he had received from his master, and contributed not a little to bring the Epicurean philosophy into con- tempt with the wise and virtuous. He wrote numerous works, the titles of which have been preserved by Dio- genes Laertius. See RiTTER, " History of Philosophy ;" Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grseca." * The name was sometimes so written by the old English poets. Cowley, in his "Fragments," says, "Seven royal years to a public spirit will seem more than the private life of a Mathusalem." € as ^; $ as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Kyguttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in ikis. (S^See Explanations, p. 23.) METRODORUS 1578 MEXIA Metrodorus, [Gr. MT/rpoc^wpof,] a celebrated Athenian, born about 200 B.C. After the defeat of Perseus by Paulus P^milius, in 168 B.C., the latter commanded the Athenians to send their best artist to paint his triumph and their greatest philosopher to educate his sons. Me- trodorus, being esteemed by his countrymen as first in both departments, was sent accordingly, and gave entire satisfaction to the Roman general. Mettenleiter, met'ten-li'ter, (Johann Michael,) a German engraver, born in 1765, executed a number of mezzotints and lithographs of great merit. Died in 1845. Metternich, von, fon met'ter-niK^ (Clemens Wen- ZEL,) Prince, an eminent Austrian statesman and diplo- matist, born at Coblentz in 1773, was a son of Count Metternich, who was a minister of state at Vienna and died in 1818. He was sent as minister to Dresden in 1801, and to Berlin in 1803. In 1806 he became ambas- sador to Paris, where he remained until the renewal of the war in 1809. After the capture of Vienna and the restoration of peace, he was appointed chancellor and minister of foreign affairs, October, 1809. For more than thirty years from that date he had the chief direc- tion of affairs in Austria. He represented his govern- ment at the Congress of Vienna, {1814,) after which he had great influence in European politics. "No diploma- tist," says Alison, " even in that age of intellectual giants, excelled, perhaps hardly any equalled, Metternich in the sagacious survey which he took of existing events, and the admirable tact with which he contrived to render them conducive to the interests of his country." (" His- tory of Europe.") In politics he was extremely conser- vative. He was driven from power and into exile by the revolution of March, 1848. He returned to Vienna in 1851. Died in 1859. " He always comprehended his position," says the "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1858, " and never lost an opportunity. He acted with equal jus- tice and calculation, and never made a retrograde step. His conduct was always politic, and never precipitate." See Binder, " Clement von Metternich und sein Zeitalter," 1836 ; J. VON HoRMAVR, " Kaiscr Franz und Metternich," 1848; Cape- FiGUE, " Diplomates contemporains ;" L. de Lomenie, " M. de Metternich, par un Homme de Rien," 1840; Thiers, " History of the Consulate and of the Empire;" "Biographical Sketches," by Harriet Martineau, 1869: " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" " British Quarterly Review" for October, 1859 ; " Eraser's Magazine" for February and March, 1844; " Jahrbuch zum Conversations-Lexi- kon" for 1861. Metternich, von, (Richard,) Prince, a diplomatist, a son of the preceding, was born about 1828. He was sent by the Austrian government as ambassador to Paris in 1859. Mettrie, de la, deh It mi'tRe', (Julien Offray,) a French physician and atheistic writer, born at Saint- Malo in 1709, published an infamous work entitled "The Man Machine," which he had the impertinence to dedi- cate to Haller. Died in 1751. See Voltaire, " Correspondance Generale." Metsys. wSee Matsys. Metz, mets, (Konrad Martin,) a German engraver, born at Bonn in 1755, executed a number of prints after Michael Angelo and Caravaggio. Died in 1827. Metzger, mgts'ger, (Eduard,) a German architect, born at Pappenheim in 1807, visited Greece in 183 1. He wrote several works on architecture. Metzu, mSt'zU, (Gabriel,) an eminent Dutch painter, born at Leyden in 161 5. Among his master-pieces we may name the " Vegetable-Market at Amsterdam," " Interior of a Kitchen," "Chemist Reading near a Win- dow," and a "Young Girl Looking at a Butterfly." Metzu is styled by Descamps one of the greatest artists of his nation. Died in 1658. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Hollandais," etc.; Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres." Meulan, de, (Pauline.) See Guizot, (Elisabeth Charloti e.) Meulemeester, de. See Demeulemeester. Meulen, van der, vtn der muh'len or mo'len, (An- TOON Fkans,) a celebrated Flemish battle-painter, born at Brussels in 1634, was a pupil of Snayers. Having visited Paris about 1666, he was patronized by Colbert, and employed by Louis XIV. to represent his principal engagements. He married the niece of Le Brun, and assisted that artist in hi? works at the castle of Ver- sailles. In 1673 was chosen a member of the Academy of Painting. As a painter of battles, Van der Meulen had perhaps no superior, and his landscapes also possess great merit. Died in 1690. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc.; Charles Blanc, "Histoire des Peintres." Meulen, van der, (Peter,) a Flemish painter of battles, was a brother of the preceding. He went to England in 1670, and was patronized by King Wil- liam IIL Meulen, Ver. See Vermeulen. Meun, Meung, muN, or Mehun, mi-iiN', (Jean,) a French poet, surnamed Clopinel, from his lameness, born about 1280. He was the author of the principal part of the " Romance of the Rose," one of the earliest poems in the language, which was begun by Guillaume de Lorris. The best edition was published in Paris in 1814, (4 vols. 8vo.) See Fauchet, "Originede la Po^sie;" Massieu, "Histoire de la Poesie Frangaise." Meurice, muh'r^ss', (FRANgois Paul,) a French dramatic writer, born in Paris in 1820, became a brother- in-law of Victor Hugo. He produced successful dramas called " Hamlet, Prince of Denmark," and "Benvenuto Cellini." Meurs, de, deh muRs, [Lat. Meur'sius,] (Jan,) a Dutch scholar and historian, born near the Hague in 1579. He was appointed professor of Greek at Leyden in i6u, and soon after historiographer to the States of Holland. He subsequently became royal historiographer to the King of Denmark. He published a number of treatises on Greek and Roman antiquities, and a " His- tory of Denmark," (in Latin.) Died in 1639. See SwEERT, "Athens Belgicse ;" Niceron, " Memoires ;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique;" Schramm, " Dissertatio de Vita et Scriptis J. Meursii," 1715. Meursius. See Meurs, de. Meusebach, moi'zeh-blK^, (Karl Hartwig Gre- GOR,) a German litterateur, born near Artern in 1 781, published a number of critical essays. He numbered among his friends Tieck and Goethe. Died in 1847. Meusel, moi'zel, (Johann Georg,) a German his- torian and bibliographer, born near Bamberg in 1743. He became professor of history at Erfurt in 1 769, and at Erlangen in 1779. He published, besides other works, " Bibliotheca Historica," (22 vols., 1782-84,) which con- tains notices of ancient and modern historians, a valuable collection of biographies of German scholars, entitled " Gelehrtes Deutschland," (15 vols., 1796-1812,) to which Ersch and Lindner added seven volumes, and a " Dic- tionary of German Authors who died between 1750 and 1800," (15 vols., 1802-16.) All of these are highly esteemed. Died in 1820. See Karl Heinrich Rau, "Dem Andenken J. G. Meusels," etc., 1820 ;" Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" " Monthly Review," 1800 et seq., (Appendix.) Meusel, written also Moezel, [Lat. Mus'culus,] (Wolfgang,) a German Protestant theologian and He- Ijraist, born in Lorraine in 1497. became minister of a church at Augsburg in 1531, and professor of the- ology at Berne in 1549. His reputation is founded chiefly on his commentaries on Genesis, Isaiah, and the Psalms. Died in 1563. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" M. Adam, " Vitse Theologoruni." Meusnier, muh^ne-i', (Jean Baptists Marie,) a French general and savant, born in Paris in 1754, in- vented several machines and apparatus. He was killed in battle, near Mentz, in June, 1793. Meusnier, (Philippe,) a French painter, born in Paris in 1656, was a favourite at the court of Louis XIV., and became treasurer of the Academy of Painting. He excelled in architectural views and perspective. Died in 1734. Meusnier de Querlon, muh'ne-i' deh kgR06N', (Anne Gabriel,) a French litterateur, born at Nantes in 1702. He wrote critiques, works of fiction, etc., and translated Pliny's " Natural History" into French. Died in 1780. Mexia or Mejia, mi-iiee'S, (Pedro,) a Spanish his- torian, born at Seville about 1496, published a compila- a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f3,r, fill, fSt; niSt; n6t; good; moon; METENDORFF 1579 MEZZOFJNTI tion entitled " Silva de varia Leccion," and a " History of the Roman Emperors from Julius Caesar to Maximilian of Austria." He was patronized by Charles V., who appointed him historiographer. Died in 1552. See TiCKNOR, " Histoiy of Spanish Literature." Meyendorff, von, fon ml'en-doRf, (Peter,) a Rus- sian diplomatist, born about 1790. He was sent as ambassador to Berlin in 1839, and represented Russia at Vienna from 1850 to 1854. Meyer, mi'er, (Conrad,) a Swiss painter and en- graver, born at Zurich in 1618. He is said to have been the first engraver who used soft instead of hard varnish. Died in 1689. Meyer, (Felix,) an eminent Swiss landscape-painter, born at Winterthur in 1653. His delineations of the mountain-scenery of Switzerland are esteemed master- pieces of the kind. Died in 1713. See PiLKiNGTON, "Dictionary of Painters;" Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Allemands," etc. Meyer, mT'er, (Friedrich Johann Lorenz,) a Ger- man litterateur, born at Hamburg in 1760 ; died in 1844. Meyer, mi'er, [Lat. Meye'rus,] (Jacob,) a Flemish historian, sometimes called Baliola'nus, born near Bail- leul in 1491, was the author of a "History of Flanders," and other works, (in Latin.) He was an intimate friend of Erasmus. Died in 1552. See SwEERT, "Athenae Belgicas." Meyer, (Jan Lodewyck,) a Dutch painter of marine views, born in Amsterdam about 1809. He painted landscapes in his youth, and afterwards distinguished himself as a marine painter at the Hague. Meyer, (Johann Georg,) a distinguished German painter, called Meyer von Bremen, born in 1813. His best works are delineations of domestic life, particularly those representing the actions and sports of children. Among these may be named " The Game of Blind-Man's Buff," and "The Youngest Brother." See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Meyer, (Johann Heinrich,) a Swiss artist and amateur, born at Stafa, on Lake Zurich, in 1759. While on a visit to Italy, in 1784, he formed an intimate friend- ship with Goethe and Herder. In 1807 he became director of the Academy of Design at Weimar. He was the author of a "History of the Plastic Arts among the Greeks," (1824,) and was a contributor to the " Pro- pylaen" and other works of Goethe. Died in 1832. See Goethe, " Briefwechseln." Meyer, (Jonas Daniel,) a Dutch jurist, born at Arn- hem in 1780. He published, in French, "The Spirit, Origin, and Progress of the Judicial Institutions of the Principal Nations of Europe," (5 vols., 1818-23.) Died in 1834. Meyer, von, fon mi'er, (Hermann,) a German geol- ogist and naturalist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1801, published several works. Meyerbeer, ml'er-baR^ (Giacomo,) an eminent Ger- man composer, of Jewish extraction, born at Berlin in 1794, was originally named Jacob Meyer Beer. He studied under Clementi and Vogler, and at the age of nine years was regarded as one of the best pianists in Berlin, His first operas, entitled " Jephthah's Daughter" and "Abimelech, or the Two Caliphs," were coldly re- ceived, but, having visited Italy in 1815, he there pro- duced his "Romilda e Costanza," (1818,) " Semiramide Riconosciuta," (1819,) and " Emma di Resburgo," (1820,) which met with enthusiastic applause. To these suc- ceeded, in 1824, his " Crociato in Egitto," which was performed with brilliant success in all the principal cities of Europe. His " Robert le Diable," brought out in Paris in 1831, raised his reputation to the highest point, and is ranked among the master-pieces of musical art. He afterwards produced operas entitled " The Huguenots," (1836,) and " Le Prophete," (1849,) both of which were greatly admired. About 1842 he was ap- pointed director-general of music by the King of Prussia. Among his later works are " L'fitoile du Nord," (1854,) and " Le Pardon de Ploermel," (1859,) Died in 1863. See L. de Lomenie. "M. Meyerbeer, par un Homme de Rien," 18^1; Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Biogra- plne G^nerale." Meyerheim, mi'er-hlm', (Friedrich Eduard,) a German painter of great merit, born at Dantzic about 1810. He studied at Berlin, and in 1838 became a mem- ber of the Academy of Arts in that city. His favourite subjects are rural and domestic scenes, which he repre- sents with exquisite skill and fidelity. Among his master- pieces are "The Blind Beggar," "The Village School," and an " Old Woman Teaching her Granddaughter to KniL" His brother Wilhelm has distinguished him- self as a painter of animals, battles, and camp-life. Meyering, mi'er-ing, (Albert,) a Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam in 1645 ; died in 1 714. Meyern, mi'^Rn, (Wilhelm Friedrich,) a Ger- man novelist, born near Anspach in 1762. He wrote a political romance, entitled " Dya-na-Sore, or the Wanderers," (1787.) Died in 1829. Meyerus. See Meyer, (Jacob.) Meygret or Meigret, ma'gRk', (Louis,) a French grammarian, born at Lyons about 1 5 10, produced in 1550 a " Treatise on French Grammar," said to be the first which ever appeared. He attempted to introduce a new orthography conformed to the sound. Died after 1560. Meyrick, m^r'ik, written alsoMyriok, (Sir Samuel Rush,) an English antiquary, born in 1783. His prin- cipal work is a "Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armour, with Special Reference to England from the Norman Conquest to the Time of Charles II.," (1824,) which is highly esteemed. He was knighted in 1832. Died in 1848. Mezence. See Mezentius. Mezentius, me-z§n'shenis, [Gr. MecrevriOf; Fr. Me- zence, mi'zdNss',] a fabulous king of the Etruscans, notorious for his cruelty and impiety. According to Virgil, he was an ally of Turnus, and was killed in battle by ^neas. He was the father of Lausus. See Virgil's "i^neid," book vii. 648, book viii. 482, and book x. 689-908. Mezeray, de, deh miz^Ri', (Franqois Eudes,) a French historian, born in Lower Normandy in 1610, was patronized ])y Cardinal Richelieu. His principal work is a " History of France," (3 vols., 1651,) which enjoyed extraordinary popularity at the time, owing in great part to the engraved portraits it contained. He suc- ceeded Voiture as a member of the French Academy in 1649, and became perpetual secretary of that institution in 1675. He was also historiographer of France. Died in 1683. See Larroque, "Vie de Frangois Mezeray," 1720; Sainte- Beuve, "Causeriesdu Lundi ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Meziriac, de, deh meh-ze^re'tk', (Claude Gaspar Bachet,) a French scholar and mathematician, born at Bourg-en-Bresse in 1581. He published an edition of the "Arithmetic" of Diophantus, (with notes,) and trans- lated a number of Ovid's " Epistles" into French verse. Died in 1638. Mezzofanti, m^t-so-fin'tee, (Giuseppe Gasparo,) a celebrated Italian linguist, born at Bologna in 1774. He studied at the episcopal seminary of his native city, and was ordained a priest in 1797. In 1804 he became pro- fessor of Greek and the Oriental languages at Bologna, and in 181 5 was appointed chief librarian of the uni- versity. Distinguished foreigners who visited Bologna at this time praised his extraordinary attainments and bore witness to the accuracy with which he spoke their respective languages. On the invitation of Pope Gregory XVI., he repaired in 1831 to Rome, where he succeeded Angeio Mai as keeper of the Vatican Library, and in 1838 was made a cardinal. A German scholar says of him at this period, " He is familiar not only with the principal European languages, but with the Irish, Welsh, and even Lappish." He is said to have spoken upwards of fifty languages, and was thoroughly versed in the idioms and provincialisms peculiar to each : he could entertain his English friends with specimens of York- shire dialect, and his French or German visitors with the patois of their respective countries. Lord Byron styles Mezzofanti a prodigy of languages, who should have lived in the times of the tower of Babel, to serve as a universal interpreter. Died in 1849. See William Russell, "Life of Cardinal Mezzofanti," etc., 1857; Manavit, " Esquisse historique sur le Cardinal Mezzofanti," 1854; " Edinburgh Review" for 1855. « as 5 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, y., guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^=See Explanations, p. 23.) MULL 1 5 80 MICHAEL ANGEL O Mi'all, (liDWARD,) an English dissenter, born at Pt)rtj^nioiUh in 1809. He founded " The Nonconformist," in London, and wrote several works against the union of Church and State. In 1852 he was elected a Liberal member of Parliament for Rochdale. He was returned to Parliament for Bradford in 1869. Miaulis or Miaoulis, me-ow'iis, (Andreas Vokos,) a distinguished patriot and admiral of modern Greece, born at Negroj^ont about 1768. In 1821 he was ap- pointed to the chief command of the fleet of the Greeks, and gained a signal victory over the Turks at Patras. In 1825 he burnt the Turkish fleet in the harbour of Modon, He was created high admiral in 1832. On the accession of King Otho to the throne of Greece, Miaulis became one of his most zealous adherents. He died in 1835, and was buried near the monument of Themistocles. See " Revue des Deux Mondes," 1859; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Miazzi, me-it'see, (Giovanni,) an Italian architect, born at Pergamo in 1699. Among his most admired works are the theatre at Treviso and the Spineda palace at Venegaz/.a. Died about 1780. Miscall, [Heb. HD'D ; Fr. Mich^e, me^shk',] one of the minor Hebrew prophets, was contemporary with Isaiah and Hosea, and flourished under the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, from 759 to 699 B.C. " His style," says Bishop Lowth, " is in many parts animated and sublime, and in general truly poetical." Mical, me'ktK, (N.,) an ingenious French mecha- nician, born about 1730, constructed several admirable automatons, among which were two speaking heads, presented by him to the Academy of Sciences in 1783. Died about 1790. See "Memoires secrets." Micali, me-kl'lee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian historian and antiquary, born at Leghorn about 1780. His prin- cipal work is entitled " Italy before the Dominion of the Romans," (4 vols., 1810.) Died in 1844. Mi'-eha-el, [Heb. S^uTr]c,] was made Emperor of the East in 1041, but he was deposed by his subjects in 1042. Michael VI., Emperor of the East, surnamed Stra- tiot'icus, began to reign in 1056. He was deposed in 1057, and was succeeded by Isaac Comnenus. Michael VII., surnamed Parapina'ces, a son of Constantine XL, succeeded Romanus III. in 107 1. He was feeble and incompetent to reign, and he abdicated in 1078. Michael VIII. PalseoPogus, [Gr. Uixa^l 6 Ualai' oloyog ; Fr. Michel Paleologue, me'sh^K pt'iyo'iog',] Emperor of the East, and a son of Androni'cus Palaeol- ogus, was born in 1224. He usurped in 1260 the throne of John Lascaris, the infant heir of the late Emperor of Nicaea. In 1261 his army took Constantinople from the Latin ruler, Baldwin II. He was excommunicated by the Patriarch Arsenius for his cruel treatment of John Lascaris, whom he deprived of sight. Under his auspices the Eastern and Western Churches made a treaty of union in 1274; but this attempt to restore the union proved abortive. In 1281 he defeated the army which Charles of Anjou and the pope sent to invade the Eastern empire. He died in 1282, and was succeeded by his son, Androni'cus II. See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" George Pachvmerrs, " Historia Rerum a Michaele Palseologo gestarum," 1666 ; Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mi'-eha-el An'ge-lo [Fr. Michel-Ange, me'sh^K oNzh ; It. Michelangelo, me-k^l-§.n'ji-lo ; Lat. Mi- chael An'gelus] Buonai-otti (boo-o-n^-rot'tee) or Buonarroti, a celebrated Italian painter, sculptor, and architect, was born in the castle of Caprese, in Tus- cany, on the 6th of March, 1474. He was descended from the noble family of Canossa. At the time of his birth, his father, Lodovico Buonarotti Simone, was podesta or governor of Chiusi and • Caprese. His mother's name was Francesca del Sera. He attended a grammar-school in Florence, and became in 1488 a pupil of Domenico Ghirlandaio. Soon after that date he began to study sculpture in an academy, or garden, which Lorenzo the Magnificent had furnished with antique statues and bas-reliefs, in Florence. He gained the favour of Lorenzo, who about 1490 invited him to be- come an inmate of his palace and treated him with much respect and kindness. Here he enjoyed the society of eminent literary men, one of whom, Angelo Poliziano, (Politian,) became his intimate friend. Among his ear- liest works was a marble bas-relief, the subject of which was "The Battle of Hercules with the Centaurs." This work, which was approved by his own mature judg- ment, is preserved in Florence. His patron, Lorenzo de' Medici, died in 1492, and was succeeded by his de- generate son Piero, by whose order Michael Angelo made a colossal statue of snow. In 1494 he went to Bologna, where he worked about a year. Having re- turned to Florence, he executed a statue of a " Sleeping Cupid," which some person passed off as an antique and sold for a high price to Cardinal San Giorgio. About 1497 he produced an admirable marble group, called a " Pieta," representing " The Virgin weeping over the Dead Body of her Son." " In none of his works," says Ernest Breton, "has he displayed more perfect know- ledge of design and anatomy, or more profound truth of expression." (" Nouvelle Biographie Generale.") This group now adorns a chapel in the church of Saint Peter at Rome. He found another patron in Pietro Soderini, the gonfaloniere (chief ruler) of Florence, who employed him in sculpture and painting. He executed a gigantic marble statue of the psalmist David, which stands in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, in Florence. He received four hundred ducats for this work, on which he spent about eighteen months and which he finished in 1504, Having been commissioned by Soderini to paint in fresco a historical picture in the hall of the ducal palace, he chose for his subject an event in the war between the Florentines and the people of Pisa. He displayed in the cartoon of this composition a grandeur of style and a knowledge of anatomy which had not been equalled by any modern painter, " Such was the excellence of this work," says Vasari, " that some thought it absolute per- fection." This cartoon has perished, and the painting itself was never begun. Among his early paintings is an oil-picture of the "Holy Family," (about 1504.) He was invited to Rome by Julius II. soon after the acces- sion of that pontiff, who employed him to build his monument or mausoleum. He formed a magnificent design for this work, which design was approved by the pope and has been described by Vasari, but was never completely executed. While they were consulting about a suitable place for the monument, the architect, a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; ^, j, g, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; MICHAEL JNGELO MICHJLLON San Gallo, suggested that a new chapel ought to be built expressly for so superb a mausoleum. The pope concurred in his opinion, and determined to rebuild the church of Saint Peter. Thus Michael Angelo's design is said to have been the cause of the erection of the most magnificent church in the world. In 1506 he was offended at the pope because he was not admitted to his presence when he went to the palace on business. He therefore abruptly quitted his service, and retired to Florence. Julius II. sent messengers to bring him back, but he refused to return, until the pope had urged him by several letters and mandates. Michael Angelo wished to finish the monument which he had begun, but Julius had changed his mind, and ordered the great artist to decorate with frescos the ceiling and walls of the Sistine Chajjel in the Vatican. He painted in the Sistine Chapel numerous scenes from the book of Genesis, and colossal figures of prophets and sibyls. " From the commence- ment," says Duppa, "to the conclusion of this stupen- dous monument of human genius, twenty months only were employed. So short a time for the completion of so vast a work could hardly be credited, if it were not more difficult to refuse the testimony on which it is supported." It was finished in 1 5 12. Michael Angelo and Raphael worked in the Vatican at the same time. Julius II. died in 15 13, and was succeeded by Leo X., who is censured for his illiberal conduct towards Michael Angelo. Leo ordered him to build the fa9ade of the church of San Lorenzo at Florence, and compelled him against his will to spend several years in procuring marble for that purpose. " It is a mortifying reflection," says Duppa, "that the talents of this great man should have been buried and his time consumed, during the whole reign of Leo X., in little else than in raising stone out of a quarry and making a road to convey it to the sea." (" Life of M. Angelo.") Under the patronage of Clement VII., who was elected pope in 1523, he began to build the library and chapel of San Lorenzo, at Florence. He erected fortifications at Florence in 1528 or 1529, and aided in the defence of that city against the papal troops. After the accession of Pope Paul III., in 1534, Michael Angelo was permitted to resume the monument of Julius II., which he completed on a smaller scale than that which he first designed. It consists of seven statues, one of which represents Moses, and was placed in the churcli of San Pietro in Vinculo. This statue of Moses is called one of his master-pieces. Among his greatest productions is a picture, in fresco, of "The Last Judgment," in the Sistine Chapel, Rome. This work, which occupied him about eight years and comprises nearly three hundred figures, was finished in 1541. It presents a confused mass of naked bodies in the most violent attitudes and most admired disorder, and excels chiefly in energy of expression. " In the ' Last Judgment,' " says E. Breton, " one will seek in vain for that celestial light and divine inspiration which ap- pear in the 'Transfiguration,'" (of Raphael.) In 1546 he was appointed architect of Saint Peter's Church, which Julius II. began to build about 1506. Michael Angelo accepted this appointment on the con- ditions that he should receive no salary, and that he should deviate from the design of San Gallo, the former architect of the church. He adopted a more simple design, formed a model for the dome, and devoted the remainder of his life chiefly to that grand fabric, but did not live to see it completed. He finished the Farnese palace, which is greatly admired, and is one of the most imposing edifices of modern Rome. In his latter years he adorned the Capitoline Hill with several fine buildings, among which is the senatorial palace. He was the au- thor of numerous sonnets and other poems, which are distinguished for elegance and purity of style. These were published in 1538, and often reprinted. He never married. He died in Rome in February, 1563, or, ac- cording to some authorities, in 1564. His moral character is represented as good. " He was the bright luminary," says Sir Joshua Rey- nolds, " from whom painting has borrowed a new lustre, under whose hands it assumed a new appearance and became another and superior art, and from whom all his contemporaries and successors have derived what- ever they have possessed of the dignified and majestic." (" Discourses on Painting," vol. ii.) Comparing him with Raphael, Quatremere de Quincy remarks, "If Michael Angelo is the greatest of draughtsmen, Raffaello is the first of painters." (" Life of Raffaello.") " In painting," says Duppa, " the great work on which Michael Angelo's fame depends, and, taking it for all in all, the greatest work of his whole life, is the ceiling of the Sis- tine Chapel. . . . His Sibyls and prophets exhibit with variety and energy the colossal powers of his mind. . . . In his great works, his superior abilities are shown in the sublimity of his conceptions and the power and facility with which they are executed." It is doubtful whether any oil-painting by this artist is now extant. See Vasari, " Lives of Painters and Sculptors ;" Condivi, " Vita di Michelangelo Buonan oti," 1553; Lanzi, " Storia della Pittura ;" Richard Duppa, " Life of Michael Angelo," London, 1806 ; Vignali, "Vita di Michelangelo," 1753; Hauchecorne, "Vie de Michel- Ange ;" Quatremere de Quincy, "Vie de Michel- Ange," 1835; WiNCKELMANN, " Neues Mahler- Lexikon ;" Nagler, " Kiinstler- Lexikon ;" Cicognara, " Storia della Scultura ;" B. Cellini, " Me- morie ;" Lannau-Roli.and, " Michel-Ange Poete ;" J. S. Har- ford, " Life of Michael Angelo," 1856; Marie Henri Beyle, " Histoire de la Peintiire en Italie," 2 vols., 1817, (said to contain an ample and well-written account of Michael Angelo ;) Hermann Grimm, "Michael Angelo's Leben," and English version of the same, London, 2 vols., 1S65. Michael Angelo delle Battaglie. See Cerquozzl Mi'chael Feodo'rovitch, (fa-o-do'ro-vitch,) Czar of Russia, born in 1596, was a son of Feodor Romanof. He began to reign in 1613. His rule is said to have been beneficial to Russia. He had two sons and three daughters. Died in 1645. See Berch, "Reign of Michael Feodorovltch," (in Russian,) 1832; Levesque, "Histoire de Russia." Michaeler, me-K^'eh-ler, (Karl Joseph,) a German historian and scholar, born at Innspruck in 1735; died in 1804. Michaelis, me-KS-a'lis, (Johann Benjamin,) a Ger- man poet, born at Zittau in 1746. He was the author of lyric poems, fables, and satires : the last-named are particularly esteemed. He was intimate with Jacobi and Gleim, and resided with the latter at the time of his death, (1772.) See ScHMiD, "Leben J. B. Michaelis," 1775. Michaelis, (Johann David,) an eminent German theologian and Orientalist, born at Halle in 1 71 7. He studied in the university of his native city, and acquired a profound knowledge of the Hebrew, Syriac, and Chal- dee languages and biblical exegesis. He subsequently visited Holland and England, and was appointed after his return professor of philosophy at Gottingen, (1745.) In conjunction with Haller, he founded the Society of Sciences in that city, of which he afterwards became director. He was editor of the " Gelehrte Anzeigen," at Gottingen, from 1753 to 1770, and about the same time held the office of librarian at the university. He was the author of "Introduction to the New Testament," ("Ein- leitung in die Gottlichen Schriften des Neuen Bundes," 2 vols., 1750,) "Commentaries on the Laws of Moses," ("Das Mosaische Recht," 6 vols., 1770,) and other works, which entitle him to rank among the most learned men of his time. He also published grammars of the Hebrew, Syriac, and Chaldee languages, and several valuable treatises on chronology and geography. Michaelis was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, member of the Academy of Inscriptions, Paris, and privy councillor of Hanover. Died in 1791. See J. D. Michaelis, " Leben sbeschreibung von ihm selbst abge- fasst," 1793; C. G. Heyne, " Elogium J. D. Michaelis," 1791; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Michaelis, (Johann Heinrich,) a German Oriental- ist and theologian, born at Klettenberg, Saxony, in 1668. He taught Hebrew, Greek, and Chaldee at Halle, and became professor of theology at that place about 1709. He wrote works on philology, etc. Died in 1738. Michailowski. See Mikhailofski. Michallon, me'sht'16N', (Achille Etna,) a French painter, born in Paris in 1796, He gained the first prize in 181 7, and went to Rome with a pension. Died in 1822. Michallon, (Claude,) a French sculptor, the fathe* of the preceding, was born at Lyons about 1751- He studied at Rome. Died in 1799. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; *h as in this. (2[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MICHAUD 1582 MICHELIUS Michaud, me'sho', (Claude Ignace Francois,) an able fVench general, born near the Jura Mountains in 1753. lie became general of division in 1793, and in 1794 succeeded Pichegru as commander -in-chief of the army of the Rhine. In the same year he gained victories at Kaiserslautern, Mannheim, and other places. From 1806 to 181 3 he was Governor of the Hanse towns. Died in 1835. Michaud, (Joseph Francois,) a distinguished French writer and journalist, born in Savoy in 1767. Soon after the breaking out of the French Revolution he repaired to Paris, where he was associate editor for many years of the royalist journals the "Gazette Fran9aise" and "La Quotidienne." In 181 1 he began, in conjunction with his brother, the publication of the celebrated " Bio- graphie Universelle," (completed in 1840, 85 vols. 8vo,) which numbered among its contributors the most emi- nent literary and scientific men of France. Michaud was the author of an excellent " History of the Crusades," (6 vols., 1841,) a poem entitled "The Spring-Time of an Exile," which had great popularity, and other works in prose and verse, besides a number of contributions to the " Biographie Universelle." He was for many years a prominent bookseller and publisher in Paris. Died in 1839. See ViLLENEUVE, "Notice historique sur Michaud," 1839; Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi ;" "Foreign Quarterly Re- view" for February, 1830. Michaud, (Louis Gabriel,) a French litterateur, born at Bourg-en-Bresse in 1772. He was a brother of the preceding, in conjunction with whom he established a printing-house in Paris, from which issued the principal royalist publications of the time. He was the author ^of a " Historical Picture of the First Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte," " History of Saint-Simonism," etc., and made numerous contributions to the " Biographie Uni- verselle." Died in 1858. Michault, me'sho'', (Jean Bernard,) a French phi- lologist and bibliographer, born at Dijon in 1707; died in 1770. Michaux, me'sho', (Andri^,) a distinguished French botanist and traveller, born at Versailles in 1746. After having traversed Persia and other countries, he was sent by the government to North America in 1785 for the purpose of collecting trees and plants. For about eleven years he thoroughly explored the botanical productions of the United States, Canada, etc., with a courage and energy which no danger or difficulty could overcome. In 1796 he returned to France with his collections, and prepared his " Description of the Oaks of North Amer- ica," (1801.) He accompanied Baudin's scientific ex- pedition to Australia in 1800, and, while pursuing his researches in Madagascar, he died of fever in 1802. He left a " Flora of North America," (" Flora Boreali- Americana," 2 vols., 1803,) which for many years was the most complete that had appeared. Both of his works are adorned with excellent engravings by Redoute. See CuBi^RES, "Notice sur F. A. Michaux," 1807; " Edijiburgh Review" for October, 1805 ; " Monthly Review" for November, 1806; "North American Review" for April, 1858. Michee, the French for Micah, which see. Michel, the French for Michael, which see. Michel, me^shgK, (Claude Etienne, ) a French general of division, born at Pointre in 1 772. He was killed at Waterloo, June, 1815. Michel, (Francisque Xavier,) a French archaeolo- gist, born at Lyons in 1809. He published editions of the " Romance of the Violet," (1834,) " Song of Roland," (1837,) "Anglo-Norman Chronicle," and other works of the middle ages. Michel, (Jean,) a French physician and dramatic poet. He enjoyed a high reputation in his time, and was appointed first physician to the king, Charles VIIL Died about 1493. Michel, (Jean Baptiste,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1748, resided many years in London, where he enjoyed a high reputation. Died in 1804. See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." Michel, (Robert,) a French sculptor, born at Puy in 1720, worked mostly in Spain. Died at Madrid in 1785. Michel-Ange. See Michael Angelo. Michelangelo or Michelagnolo. See Michael Angelo. Michel de Bourges, me'shgK deh booRzh, an elo- quent French advocate, born at Aix in 1798 ; died in 1853. Michel de Tours, me'shgK deh tooR, (Guillaume,) a French poet, who lived about 1500, was the author of a work entitled "The Forest of Conscience," (15 16.) Michelburne, mik'el-biirn, ? (Sir Edward,) an Eng- lish navigator, born about 1574. He sailed in 1604, with John Davis, on a voyage to the Indian Ocean. Michelet, m^sh'l^'', (Jules,) an eminent French his- torian, born in Paris in 1798. He was chosen chief of the historical department of the archives of France in 1830, before which he had published several historical works for schools. About 1832 he was appointed the substitute or successor of Guizot as professor of history at the Sorbonne. He published in 1831 a "Roman History: the Republic," and in 1833 the first volume of his "History of France." In 1838 he obtained the chair of history and moral science in the College of France, and was elected a member of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences. He distinguished himself as an adversary of the Jesuits and of Romanism. After the (ri^/^Z-i/VV^z^ of December, 1851, refusing to take the oath, he lost his place in the archives, and his chair in the College of France. His principal works are a "His- tory of the French Revolution," (7 vols., 1847-53,) ^ "History of France," (14 vols., 1833-62,) "Love," ("L'Amour," 1858,) and "Woman," ("La Femme," 1859.) These have been translated into English and often reprinted. His histories present a profusion of poetical images, with a brilliant style and ingenious generalizations. He also published "The Sea," ("La Mer," 1861,) and "The Bible of Humanity," ("La Bible de I'Humanite," 1864.) See L. LouvET, " fitudes biographlques : M. Michelet;" "For- eign Quarterly Review" for July, 1840; "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1844. Michelet, mesh'eh-li', (Karl Ludwig,) a distin- guished German philosopher of the school of Hegel, was born at Berlin in 1801. He was appointed in 1825 pro- fessor of philosophy and philology in the French gym- nasium at Berlin, and in 1829 obtained the chair of philosophy in the university. He published " The Ethics of Aristotle in their Relation to the System of Morality," (1827,) "Critical Examination of Aristotle'S' Metaphys- ics," (in French, 1836,) which was crowned by the Acad- emy of Moral Sciences of Paris, " History of the Last Systems of Philosophy in Germany, from Kant to Hegel," (1837,) and other works of a high reputation. Micheli, me-ka'lee, (Andrea,) an Italian painter, called Andrea Vicen tino, born at Vicenza in 1539. He was a good colorist, but lacked invention. Died in 1614. Micheli, (Domenico,) a Venetian statesman, became Doge of Venice in in 7. He conducted a fleet in a cru- sade to Palestine in 1123, and took Tyre in 1124. Died in 1 130. Micheli, me-ka'lee, or Michieli, me-ke-a'lee, [Lat. Miche'lius,] (Piero Antonio,) an eminent Italian botanist, born at Florence in 1679, was appointed by Cosimo de' Medici superintendent of his botanical garden. He gave particular attention to the classification of the mosses, fungi, and lichens. His principal work, pub- lished in 1729, is entitled " Nova Plantarum Genera," in folio, with plates, and is praised in high terms by Haller. Linnaeus has named the genus Michelia in honour of this botanist. Died in 1737. See CoccHi, " Elogio di P. A. Micheli," 1737; Cuvier, " His- toire des Sciences naturelles ;" G. Marsili, " Di P. A. Micheli botanico insigne," 1845; Fabroni, "Vitae Italorum," etc. Micheli, (Vitale,) a Venetian commander, elected Doge of Venice in 1096, sent a large fleet to co-operate with the leaders of the first crusade. Died in 1102. See Daru, " Histoire de Venise." Micheli du Crest, m^shOe' dii kRi, (Jacques Bar- th^lemy,) a Swiss mathematician and astronomer, born at Geneva in 1690, published, among other works, a " Description of a Universal Thermometer," of which he was the inventor. Died in 1766. Michelius. See Michell a, e, \ 6, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mgt; nflt; good; moon; MI CHE LOT 1583 MIDDLETON Michelot, m^sh'lc/, (Pierre Marie Joseph,) a French actor, born in Paris in 1785 ; died in 1856. Michelozzi, me-ka-lot'see, or Michelozzo, me-ki- lot'so, a Florentine sculptor and architect, was a pupil of Brunelleschi. He furnished the design for the Ric- cardi palace and for the chapel of the Annunciation at Florence. Died in 1470. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters, Architects," etc. ; Quatre- MERE DE QuiNCY, " Vles des Architectes illiistres." Michelsen, me'Kel-sen, (Andreas Ludwig Jakob,) a German jurist and historian, born in Sleswick in 1801, became professor of law at Jena in 1842. Michelson, mee'Kel-son, (Ivan,) a famous Russian general, born in Livonia in 1735 ; died in 1807. Michiel, me-ke-^K, (Giustina Renier,) a learned Italian lady, born at Venice in 1755. She translated " Macbeth" and " Othello" into Italian, and published " Feste Veneziane," (5 vols,, 1817-27.) Died in 1832. Michieli. See Micheli. Michiels, me'she-^K, (Joseph Alfred Xavier,) a French litth-ateur, born at Rome in 1813. He published, besides various other works, a " History of Flemish and Dutch Painting," (4 vols., 1845.) Mi-9ip'sa, [Gr. yiiKiipcu:,] King of Numidia, was a eon of Masinissa, at whose death, in 148 B.C., the king- dom was divided between Micipsa and his brothers, Gulussa and Mastanabal. After the death of these two, who survived their father but a short time, he was king of all Numidia. He was an ally of the Romans. Died in 1 18 B.C. Mickiewicz, mhs-ke-a'vitch, (Adam,) a celebrated Polish poet, born in Lithuania in 1798. He studied at the University of Wilna, where he became intimate with several distinguished patriots and joined the secret societies opposed to the Russian government. He pub- lished in 1822 a collection of poems, which at once es- tablished his reputation as the greatest poet his country had produced. He was banished in .1824 to the interior of Russia, on a charge of conspiring against the govern- ment, and while residing at Odessa wrote his " Crimean Sonnets." Having been permitted to leave Russia, in 1828 he visited Germany and Rome, and in 1834 took up his residence in Paris. He was appointed in 1840 professor of the Slavonic language and literature in the College of France, where he lectured for a time with great success. His subsequent connection with the Polish fanatic Towianski, who inculcated the worship of Napoleon Bonaparte, deprived him of his popularity, and he was ordered to quit Paris by the government. He was sent by Louis Napoleon on a mission to Constantinople in 1855, and died soon after his arrival. His principal works are his " Grajina," a historic pic- ture of Lithuania in early times, "Konrad Wallenrod," (1830,) the "Ancestors," ("Dziady," 1832,) — in the first part of which he gives the story of his unfortunate at- tachment to the sister of a fellow-student, and in the latter describes his imprisonment at Wilna, — and " Pan Tadeusz," {1833.) See L. DE LoM^NiE, " Galerie des Contemporains ;" George Sand, " Essai sur le Drame fantastique ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale :" "A. Mickiewicz; eine biographische Skizze," 1857; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1838. Mickle or Meikle, mik'el, (William Julius,) a Scottish poet and translator, born in Dumfriess-shire in 1734. Having visited London in 1763, he published several poems, which obtained for him the patronage of Lord Lyttleton, and in 1775 brought out his translation of the " Lusiad" of Camoens. It had great popularity in England, and procured for him the honour of ad- mission to the Royal Academy of Lisbon. This work, however, is far from being a faithful version of the origi- nal ; and Hallam observes that Mickle's " infidelities in translation exceed all liberties ever taken in this way." He also published several popular ballads, one of which, entitled " Cumnor Hall," suggested to Sir Walter Scott his romance of " Kenilworth." Died in 1788. See Gary, J' Lives of English Poets from Johnson to Kirke White:" Cham'bers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- men;" "Monthly Review" for September, 1771, and April, May, and July, 1776. Mi'con, [Gr. MZ/cwv,] an eminent Athenian painter and sculptor, flourished about the middle of the fifth century B.C. He was chosen by his countrymen to paint the walls of the temple of Theseus at Athens. His pictures representing the battles of the Amazons and Centaurs were especially admired for the skill displayed in the delineation of the horses. There were several other Greek artists named Micon. Micrelius or Micraelius, me-kRa'le-vis, (Johann,) a German historical writer, born at Coslin in 1597. He taught philosophy at Stettin, and published, besides other works, "Lexicon Philosophicum," (1653,) and " Royal Political Science," (" Regia Politica Scientia," 1654.) Died in 1658. Mi'das, [Gr. M<(5af,] a Phrygian king, who, according to tradition, requested of Bacchus that all he touched might turn to gold, and was gratified by the grant of that wish. Being thus in danger of starvation, he could only escape the curse he had brought upon himself by bathing in the Pactolus, which ever after flowed with sands of gold. It is also related of him that, having decided in favour of Pan in his musical contest with Apollo, Midas's ears were changed to those of an ass, which he endeavoured to conceal. They were at length discovered by a servant, who, unable to retain the secret, whispered it in a pit in the ground, and the reeds which grew around the spot revealed his disgrace, murmuring in the winds the words, " King Midas has asses' ears." This fable was a favourite theme with the Athenian dramatists. Middelburg, de, deh mid'del-buRH', (Paul,) a Dutch mathematician and writer, born at Middelburg in 1445, became professor of mathematics at Padua. He was made Bishop of Fossombrone in 1494. Died in 1534. Middendorp, van, vtn mid'den-doRp', (Jakob,) a Dutch historian, born in Overyssel in 1537. His his- tories are not reliable. Died in 161 1. Mid'dl-man, (Samuel,) an English engraver, born in 1746. He engraved landscapes with success. Died in 1818. Mid'dle-ton, (Arthur,) an American statesman, born in South Carolina, succeeded Nicholson as governc of that colony in 1 725. Middleton, (Arthur,) an American patriot of the Revolution, born in South Carolina in 1 743, was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. He took the degree of A.B. at Cambridge, England, and after his return was a delegate from his native State to the United States Congress in 1776. He was subse- quently re-elected in 1782. Died in 1787. See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- pendence." Mid'dle-t9n,(CoNYERS,)a celebrated English scholar, divine, and controversialist, born in Yorkshire in 1683. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he became a Fellow in 1706. He was created D.D. in 1 71 7, on which occasion he opposed the claims of Bentley (then regius professor of divinity) to an exorbitant fee. A law- suit followed, in which Bentley was defeated. Middleton published, soon after, "A Full and Impartial Account of the Proceedings in the University of Cambridge against Dr. Bentley," which, though highly vindictive in its tone, is esteemed a master-piece of English style. He was appointed chief librarian of the university about 1720. Having visited Italy in 1724, he published, after his return, his "Letter from Rome," (1729,) in which he maintains that "the religion of the present Romans is derived from their heathen ancestors." Having brought upon himself the charge of infidelity by this work and succeeding publications, he wrote a pamphlet in defence of his orthodoxy, which, however, failed to remove the unfavourable impression he had made. He brought out in 1741 his " History of the Life of M. T. Cicero," which, though marred with some grave defects, was received with extraordinary favour. "Never," says Macaulay, " was there a character which it was easier to read than that of Cicero. Never was there a mind keener or more critical than that of Middleton. But the great Iconoclast was himself an idolater, and, while he disputed with no small ability the claims of Cyprian and Athanasius to a place in the calendar, was himself com- posing a lying legend in honour of Saint Tully." In € as k; 9 as j; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MIDDLETON 1584 MIERIS 1749 he published "A Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers of the Christian Church," in which he insists that the Protestant clergy should deny the authority of the Fathers entirely, or admit the truth of the leading Catholic doctrines. Died in 1750. See " Encyclopjedia Britannica ;" E. Middleton, "Evangelical Biography;" Chalmers, "Biographical Dictionary;" " Biographia Britaniiica." Middleton, (Edward,) an English gentleman, born at Twickenham, settled in South Carolina, and was the founder of a family which produced several distinguished statesmen. Middleton, (I^rasmus,) an English writer, published a " Dictifjnary of Arts and Sciences," and a collection of lives of eminent Protestant theologians, entitled *' Piograpliia Evangelica." Died in 1805. Middleton, (Hknry,) son of Arthur Middleton, Governor of South Carolina, was president of Congress in 1775. Middleton, (Sir Henry,) an English navigator, born about 1570, entered the service of the East India Com- pany. In 1610 he conducted an expedition to Mocha, Surat, and Bar.tam. Died in 1615. Middleton, (Henry,) an American statesman under the administration of President Monroe, was elected Governor of South Carolina, and in 1820 was minister to Russia. Died in 1846. His son Henry, born in Paris in 1797, has published several political treatises. Middleton, (Sir Hugh,) a wealthy citizen of London, born about 1565, is chiefly known from the important service he rendered to London by uniting two streams in Hertfordshire and Middlesex, for supplying the city with water. The stream formed by this junction, called the New River, was conveyed a distance of about thirty-eight miles. He was made a baronet in 1622. Died in 163 1. See Lysons, " Environs of London." Middleton, (John Izard,) son of Arthur, noticed above, (1743-87,) was born in 1785. He wrote a work entitled "The Cyclopean Walls." Died in 1849. Middleton, (Thomas,) an English dramatist, flou- rished during the reigns of Elizabeth, James I., and Charles I. Nothing is known of his life, except that he was chronologer to the city of London in 1620. Two of his principal plays are entitled "A Mad World, my Masters," and "The Roaring Girl." The latter is said to be a true ])icture of London life at that time. Mid- dleton also assisted Rowley, Fletcher, and Jonson in the composition of several of their plays. One of his dramas, entitled " The Witch," is supposed to have fur- nished Shaksj^eare with the witch-scenes in "Macbeth." Died about 1626. See Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets;" Baker, " Bioqraph:a Dramatica." Middleton, (Thomas Fanshawe,) D.D., an English prelate, born in Derbyshire in 1769. He took his degree ni 1808, and was appointed Archdeacon of Huntingdon in 1812. Soon after this the government having decided to constitute a bishopric in India, Dr. Middleton was consecrated first Bishop of Calcutta, in 1814. Having previously been made a Fellow of the Royal Society, he set sail for India. He laid the foundation of the Bishops' College at Calcutta, in 1820, and established a consistory court in that city. While zealously engaged in his duties, he was attacked with a fever, of which he died in 1822. His principal work is entitled "The Doctrine of the Greek Article applied to the Criticism and Illustration of the New Testament." See the "Life of Thomas Fanshawe Middleton," by C. W. Le Bas : " Monthly Review" for May, 1810 et seq. Mid'garcTs* Serpent, (or MiSgarcSsormr, mith'- gart-hz-oRnlr^) called also the World-Serpent, and Jormungind, in the Norse mythology, the great serpent which surrounds the world, the offspring of Loki and the female Jotun Angurboda, (Angrbo^Sa.) The gods, having learned that the children of Loki and An- gurboda were destined at some future day to be fatal to them, determined to get possession of those children while they were still young. They were accordingly * Midgard ("middle-ward") was originally applied to man's dwelling-place in the middle of the universe, and hence signifies the "world." brought, and Midgard's Serpent was cast into the ocean, where it grew till it encircled the world, biting its own tail. At the end of the world (Ragnarock) the world-serpent will fight among the enemies of the gods and be slain by Thor, who, however, will die immediately afterwards from the effect of its venom. The myth of the world-serpent is supposed to signify the deep or main ocean, which, excited by Loki, (subterranean fire or earth- quake,) is thrown upon the land, thus proving scarcely less fatal to the works of man than the direct action of volcanic fire, represented under the form of Fenrir, (which see.) For fiirtlier particulars, the reader may consult Thorpe's " North- ern Mythology," vol. i. ; Mallet's "Northern Antiquities," vol. ii , Fables XVI., XXV., XXVI., XXVIL ; Kryser's "Religion of the Northmen :" and Pktersen's " Nordisk Mythologi." Mieczy.slaw, me-ltch^is-liv, |Lat. Miccisla'us or Micisea'us,] I., surnamed the Glorious, called also Miesko, (me-gs'ko,) Duke of Poland, was born at Posen in 931. Having become converted to Christianity, he showed great zeal in its promulgation and the extirpa- tion of paganism. He died in 992. A monument, by Ranch, was erected to his memory at Posen. See Kadlubeck, " Annates ;" Sridel, " Von dem ersten christ- lich-en Polnischen Fiirsten Miecislas," 1752. Mieczyslaw or Miesko II., King of Poland, born in 990, succeeded to the throne in 1025. He was de- ficient in talent and energy, and lost a considerable por- tion of his territory to the Germans and Hungarians. He died in 1034, and was succeeded by his son, Casimir I. Miel, meel, or Meel, mal, (Jan,) or Giovanni dello ViTE, (jo-vSn'nee dSKlo vee'ta,) a celebrated Flemish painter, born near Antwerp in 1599. He was a pupil of Andrea Sacchi, but he afterwards adopted the style of Bamboccio. His favourite subjects were pastoral and hunting scenes, gypsies, beggars, and carnivals, in which he has never been surpassed. He was patronized by Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy, who made him his painter and presented him with a diamond cross of great value. Many of the best works of this artist are in the Imperial Gallery at Vienna. Died in 1664. See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. ; C. Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Mielle, me'^K, (Jean FRANgois,) a French Htterateicr, born at Dole in 1757. Among his works is a " History of Portugal," (10 vols., 1828,) in which he was associated with Fortia d'Urban. Died in 1839. Mierevelt or Miereveld, mee'reh-vglt', (Michiei. Jansen,) a Dutch portrait-painter, born at Delft in 1567, was a pupil of Blocklandt. His works are esteemed master-pieces of the kind, and, though very numerous, are finished with exceeding delicacy and precision. His portraits are stated by Sandrart to have amounted to more than ten thousand. Mierevelt belonged to the sect of Mennonites, but, in consideration of his genius, was allowed the free exercise of his religion. Among his best portraits we may name those of Grotius, Gus- tavus Adolphus, William the Silent, Prince of Orange, Ambrose Spinola, Constantine Huyghens, the grand pensionary Barneveldt, Admiral de Coligny, INIanrice of Nassau, the Dutch poet Jacob Cats, and the Duke of Buckingham. Died in 1641. See PiLKiNGTON, " Dictionary of Painters:" Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Hollandais ;" Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres." Mieris, mee'ris, (Frans,) called the Elder, a cele- brated Dutch painter, born at Leyden in 1635, was a pupil of Gerard Douw, who called him the prince of his disciples. His works are principally domestic scenes, conversation-pieces, and interiors of palaces, and are distinguished by great brilliancy of colouring and skilful imitation of velvet, satin, and other rich materials. Among his master-pieces we may name "The Silk-Mer- chant," which was purchased by the archduke Leopold William of Austria for one thousand florins, a " Young Girl Painting," an "Assembly of Ladies," bought by the Grand Duke of Tuscany for one thousand dollars, a " Lady at her Toilet," " The Pearl-Stringer," "The Silk- Store," "Lady playing with a Parrot," and "The Sick Woman." Died in 1681. See Smith, "Catalogue of the Most Eminent Dutch, Flemish, and French Painters;" Charles Blanc, "Histoire des Peintres;" Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. ; "Nou- velle Biographia Gdn^rale." a, e, T, o, u, y, long; \ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; MIERIS 1585 MIKHAILOFSKI Mieris, (Frans,) the Younger, son of Willem, noticed below, was born at Leyden in 1689. He was a skilful artist, but is better known as a scholar and writer. Among his works is his " History and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of the Seven United Provinces," (1726.) Died in 1763. See Charles Blanc, "Histoire des Peintres." Mieris, (Jan,) son of Frans the Elder, was born at Leyden in 1660. He painted portraits and historical pieces of great merit. Died in 1690, Mieris, van, vtn mee'ris, (Willem,) son of Frans the Elder, was born at Leyden in 1662. He studied under his father, whose style he adopted. Among his best pictures are a " Dutch Kitchen," a " Game-Mer- chant," and '* Armida and Rinaldo." Died in 1747. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Mieroslawski, me-i-ro-sliv'skee, (Louis,) the son of a Polish officer and a French lady, was born in France in 1813. He wrote, in French, a " History of the Polish Revolution," (1837,) and a number of historical and political works in Polish. Mierre, Le. See Lemierre. Mifflin, (Thomas,) an American patriot and officer of the Revolution, was born at Philadelphia in 1744. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1774, became first aide-de-camp to Washington in 1775, served with distinction at Long Island and Trenton, and rose to the rank of major-general in 1777. He succeeded Franklin in 1788 as president of the supreme executive council of Pennsylvania. He was a member of the Convention which framed the Constitution of the United States in 1787. He was Governor of Pennsylvania from 1790 to 1799. Died at Lancaster in 1800. See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. Miger, me'zhi', (Pierre Auguste Marie,) a French litterateur, born at Lyons in 1771 ; died in 1837. Migliara, m^l-y^'ri, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, born in Piedmont in 1785. He excelled in landscapes, perspective, and architectural views. Among his best works are the "Cathedral of Milan," "Charles V. in a Convent," and " Interior of the Church of Saint Am- brose." Died in 1837. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri "Westminster Review" for April, 1841. Migliorati. See Innocent VII. Mignard, m^n'ytR', (Nicolas,) a French painter, engraver, and architect, born at Troyes in 1608. He was patronized by the Cardinal Archbishop of Lyons, brother of Richelieu, whom he accompanied to Rome in 1644. He painted portraits of Louis XIV. and his queen, and adorned the Tuileries with several historical pictures of great merit. His engravings M-e also highly esteemed. In 1663 he was appointed professor in the Academy of Painting. He died in 1668, leaving two sons, Pierre and Paul, who were artists of considerable merit. See R. DuMESNiL, " Le Peintre-Graveur Frangais;" Renouvier, "Des Types et Mani^res des Maitres-Graveurs." Mignard, (Pierre,) surnamed the Roman, one of the most eminent painters of the French school, was a brother of the preceding, and was born at Troyes in 1610. He studied in Paris under Simon Vouet, and in 1635 visited Rome, where he met with Poussin, Claude Lorrain, Dufresnoy, and other celebrated artists residing in that city. On his return to Paris, in 1658, he was pa- tronized by Louis XIV., whose portrait he painted many times. He was also employed to decorate the palaces of Versailles and Saint-Cloud. On the death of Le Brun he was appointed painter to the king, and director of the Gobelin Manufactory. Mignard was ennobled by Louis XTV., and became successively rector, chancellor, and director of the Academy of Painting. Died in 1695. See De Monville, "Vie de Mignard;" Robert Dumesnil, " Le Peintre-Graveiir Frangais ;" Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres ;" " Nouvelle Riographie Generale." Mignault, m^n'yS', (Claude,) better known by the name of Minos,* a learned French writer, born near * It may be proper to remind the reader that the final j in Latin and Greek names is sounded in French, contrary to the general rule of French pronunciation. Dijon about 1536. He edited several Latin classic authors, and published "Alciati Emblemata cum Notis Minois," (1574,) often reprinted. Died in 1606. Mignet, m^n'yi', (Franqois Auguste Marie,) a dis- tinguished French historian, born at Aix, May 8, 1796. He was educated at the College of Avignon, and studied law in his native city, where M. Thiers was his fellow- student. Having removed to Paris in 1821, he became editor of the " Courrier Fran9ais." ' He brought out in 1824 his "History of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1814," (2 vols. 8vo,) which had extraordinary success and was translated into the principal European lan- guages. In 1830 he was associated with Thiers and Armand Carrel as editor of the " National," and was one of the journalists who protested against the sub- version of the freedom of the press by the edict of July, 1830. He was soon after appointed archivist in the ministry of foreign affairs, and councillor of state. He was elected a member of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences in 1832, and in 1837 became perpetual secretary of that institution, and succeeded Raynouard in the French Academy. Mignet published, besides the history above named, " Introduction to the Negotiations, relative to the Spanish Succession under Louis XIV.," (1842,) "Antonio Perez and Philip II.," (1845,) "His tory of Mary Stuart," (1851,) "Charles Quint, son Abdi- cation, son Sejour et sa Mort au Monastere de Yuste," (1854,) which has been highly commended, and " filoges historicjues," (1864.) See Sainte-Beuve, "Revue des Deux Mondes" for March, 1845 I " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Edinburgh Review" for Janu- ary, 1849; " Fraser's Magazine" for October, 1866. Mignon, m^n'y6N', written also Minjon or Minion, (Abraham,) a German painter, born at Frankfort in 1639, was celebrated for his exquisite representations of flowers, fruit, insects, birds, etc. His works are esteemed second only to those of Van Huysum. Among his master- jiieces is a "Cat overturning a Vase of Flowers on a Marble Table." Died in 1679. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Allemands," etc. Mignot, m^n'yo', (Etienne,) a learned French ec- clesiastic, born in Paris in 1698, published a number of works on theology and church government. He was chosen a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1761. Died in 1771. Mignot, (Vincent,) a French writer, born in Paris about 1725, was a nephew of Voltaire. He published a " History of the Ottoman Empire from its Origin to the Peace of Belgrade in 1740," (1771,) and other historical works. Died in 1 740. See Grimm, " Correspondance." Miguel, me-g^K, (Dom or Don Maria Evaristo,) a Portuguese prince, born in Lisbon in 1802, was a younger son of John VI. He became the head of the absolutist party, and in 1828 usurped the throne, the lawful heir of which was his niece. Dona Maria. The partisans of this queen maintained her title by arms, and were aided by her father, Don Pedro, and Admiral Napier. Miguel was defeated in several actions, and was expelled from Spain in May, 1834. Mih-Teih, mih-ta', or Me-Teih, an eminent Chinese philosopher, who lived about 400 B.C. Dr. Legge says of him that he was an original thinker, and exercised a bolder judgment on things than Confucius or any of his followers. He taught that all the evils in society arise from the want of mutual universal love. For example, a prince loves only his own state, and does not love the neighbouring state. Therefore he makes war against it. "If princes," he asked, "regarded other states as their own, who would begin a war ? If every one regarded his neighbour's person as his own, who would be found to rob If universal love prevailed, all enmities, usur- pations, and miseries would disappear. Princes, loving one another, would have no battle-fields ; the chiefs of fanvlies, loving one another, would attempt no usur- pations ; men, loving one another, would commit no robberies." See Dr. Leggh, "Chinese Classics," vol. ii. chap. iii. Mikhailofski Danilefski or Michailowski Dani- lewski, me-Kl'e-loFskee d3.-ne-llfskee, (Alexander € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, vl, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this, (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 100 MIKLOSICH 1586 MILL IVANOVITCH,) a Russian general and historical writer, born in 1790, served with distinction in the principal campaigns against the French from 1812 to 1815, and in the Turkish war of 1829. He published, among other works, an '* Account of the Campaign in France in 1814." Died in 1848. Mlklosich, niik'lo-ziK', (Franz,) a German linguist, profoundly versed in the Slavonian language, born at Luttenberg, in Styria, in 1813. Among his principal works are a " Lexicon of the Old Slavonian Language," (in Latin, 1850,) and a "Comparative Grammar of the Slavonian Language," (unfinished,) which "promises to be for the Slavonian what the great work of Grimm is for the German dialects." (Brockhaus.) Milani, me-li'nee, (Aurelio or Aureliano,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1675, was a success- ful imitator of the style, the Caracci. Died in 1749. Milano, da, d^ me-li'no, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, was a native of Milan. He was a favourite pupil of Taddeo Gaddi, whom he assisted in several important works. He lived about 1370-90. Milbourne, miKbiirn, (Luke,) an English writer and divine, born in 1667, published a " Poetical Translation of the Psalms," (1698,) "Notes on Dryden's Virgil," and other works. He is one of the authors satirized in Pope's "Dunciad." Died in 1720. See Johnson, "Life of Dryden ;" Malone's edition of the Works of Dryden. Mil'burn, (William Henry,) a Methodist divine, known as "the Blind Preacher," born at Philadelphia in 1823. Having visited England in 1859, he gave lectures in the principal cities, and attracted large audiences by his eloquence. He published "Ten Years of Preacher Life," (1859,) and "The Pioneers and People of the Mississippi Valley," (i860.) Mild'may, (Sir Walter,) an eminent English states- man and scholar, born in 1522, was distinguished by the favour of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., and held the ofifice of chancellor of the exchequer under Elizabeth for more than twenty years. He was a liberal patron of learning, and founded Emanuel College, Cambridge. Died in 1589. Miles, mllz, (Dixon H.,) an American officer, born in Maryland about 1803, graduated at West Point in 1824. He became a colonel in 1859, and served at Bull Run, July 21, 1861. He commanded at Harper's Ferry, and there surrendered about 11,500 men, September 16, 1862. He was killed by a shell thrown after the sur- render. " It is impossible," says Greeley, " to resist the conclusion that Miles, in this affair, acted the part of a traitor." ("American Conflict," vol. ii. p. 202.) Miles, (James Warley,) an American scholar and missionary, born at Charleston, South Carolina, about 18 19. He became professor of Greek and history at Charleston College. He has been a contributor to the " Southern Review," and published various works in prose and verse. Mil'fort, (Le Clerc,) a native of France, who settled about 1776 among the Creek Indians of Georgia and fought as their ally in the war of the Revolution. He returned to France in 1796, and was created by Bona- parte a getieral of brigade. He published a narrative of his residence among the Creeks, entitled " Sejour dans la Nation Creek." Died about 1814. Milicz, mee'iitch, (Johann,) a priest and reformer, born in Moravia. He preached at Prague, and wrote a work "On Antichrist." Died soon after 1374. See Hodgson, "Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867. Milius, me'le'iis', (Pierre Bernard,) Baron, a French admiral, born at Bordeaux in 1773 ; died in 1829. Milizia, me-l^t'se-a, (Francesco,) an Italian archi- tect and writer, born in Otranto in 1725, was an intiinate friend of Raphael Mengs. He was the author of " Lives of the Most Celebrated Architects of all Nations," (1768,) a revised edition of which was entitled " Memorie degli Architetti antichi e moderni," ("Memoirs of Ancient and Modern Architects," 2 vols., 1781,) which were trans- lated into French and English, a treatise " On the Theatre," (1772,) "Principles of Civil Architecture," ("Elementi di Architettura civile," 3 vols., 1781,) which was highly esteemed and was translated into various lan- guages, a "Dictionary of Fine Arts," (1797,) and other works. He lived many years in Rome, where he died in 1798. See F. MiLiziA, " Notizie intorno alia sua Vita," 1804; L. Cico- gnara, " Memoria intorno all' Indole di F. Milizia," 1808 ; Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." Mill, (Henry,) an English engineer, born in London about 1680. He supplied the town of Northampton with water, and was appointed principal engineer to the New River Company. Mill, (James,) a British historian and writer on po- litical economy, born at Montrose, in Scotland, in 1773. He studied at Edinburgh, and distinguished himself by his attainments in the Greek language, metaphysics, and iTJoral philosophy. Having removed to London in 1800, he became a contributor to the " Edinburgh Review" and other periodicals. He published (1817-19) his "History of British India," (in 5 vols. 8vo,) a work of great merit, which procured for him the office of head of the department of Indian correspondence in the India House. " We know of no work,"«ays Mr. Grote, "which surpasses his ' History of British India' in the main excellences attainable by historical writers, — industrious accumulation, continued for many years, of original au- thorities, careful and conscientious criticism of their statements, and a large command of psychological ana- lysis, enabling the author to interpret phenomena of society both extremely complicated and far removed from his own personal experience." (See " Review of J. S. Mill's Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy," London, 1868.) Among his other pro- ductions are a series of essays on "Jurisprudence," "Liberty of the Press," "Law of Nations," etc. These, first published in the " Supplement to the Encyclo- paedia Britannica," were very favourably received, and were followed by his "Elements of Political Econ- omy," which appeared in 182 1, and his "Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind," in 1829. Mill was an intimate friend of Jeremy Bentham, and one of the ablest expounders of his system. Died in 1 836. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement;) "Edinburgh Review" for March, 1829; "Monthly Review" for August and October, 1821. Mill, [Lat. Mil'lius,] (John,) an English theologian and pulpit orator, born in Westmoreland about 1645. He became chaplain-in-ordinary to Charles II. in 1681, and in 1704 was made a canon of Canterbury. He pub- lished a critical edition of the New Testament in Greek, (1707,) which is highly esteemed. Died in 1707. See Chalmers, "General Biographical Dictionary." Mill, (John Stuart,) an eminent English philosopher and economist, son of James Mill, author of the " His- tory of British India," was born in London in May, 1806. He was educated at home by his father, and entered in 1823 the service of the East India Company as a clerk in the India House. In his early life he contributed to the "Edinburgh Review" and the "Westminster Re- view." He published in 1843 ^ "System of Logic, Rationative and Inductive," (2 vols,,) and, in 1844, " Essays on some Unsettled Questions in Political Econ- omy." He acquired a high reputation by a popular work entitled "The Principles of Political Economy, w'.th some of their Applications to Social Philosophy," (1848.) As a writer he is distinguished by originality of thought and acuteness in reasoning. In political principles he is an advanced Liberal, and all his sympathies are in favour of liberty and progress. About 1850 he married Harriet Taylor, a lady of rare intellectual powers. He became examiner of Indian correspondence in 1856. During the late rebellion in the United States, Mr. Mill was among the few prominent English writers who de- fended the cause of the North and of the Federal Union. Among his more recent works are an " Essay on Liberty," and "An Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Phi- losophy," (1865,) of which a highly favourable review from the pen of Mr. Grote, the historian, has been pub- lished, (London, 1868.) He was for some time editor of the "Westminster Review." In 1865 he was elected a member of Parliament for Westminster. He became an able debater, and made several speeches in favour of reform and extension of the elective franchise in 1866 and 1867. His career as a legislator has been very suc- i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, ^, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, {^11, f^t; mSt; nSt; good; moon; MILLAIS 1587 MILLER cessful. "Mr. Mill's success," says the "New York Commercial Advertiser," August 29, 1867, "has been the most marked and decided in the annals of Parlia- ment. No man has ever before acquired so high a con- sideration in so short a time." He was, however, defeated in the general election of 1868. Mr. Mill has distinguished himself as an earnest and able advocate of the rights of women. In a recent work, entitled " The Subjection of Women," (1869,) he takes the ground "that the principle which regulates the existing social relations between the two sexes — the legal subordina- tion of one sex to the other — is wrong in itself, and now one of the chief hindrances to human improvement, and that it ought to be replaced by a principle of perfect equality." See the "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1848, and October, 1869 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for October, 1848, and January, 1866 ,< " Fraser's Magazine" for September, 1848, and May, 1859; "British Quarterly Review" for August, 1846, January, i860, and July, 1868 ; "Westminster Review" for May, 1843. Millais, miria', (John Everett,) an English painter, of French extraction, born at Southampton in 1829, was one of the founders of what is called the " Pre-Raphaelite School." He studied at the Royal Academy, and at an early age produced several works of superior merit, among which was " The Benjamites seizing the Daugh- ters of Shiloh." His " Return of the Dove to the Ark," "Child of the Regiment," "Ophelia," "The Order of Release," and "Joan of Arc" are among his most ad- mired productions. He was elected a Royal Acade- mician in 1863. MiPlar, (John,) an eminent Scottish jurist, born in Lanarkshire in 1735. He studied at Glasgow, where he became in 1761 professor of civil law. The spirited and attractive style of his lectures, which, says a critic in the "Edinburgh Review," "gave to a learned discus- sion the charms of an animated and interesting conversa- tion," drew great numbers to the university, and made it for the time one of the most flourishing and popular in the kingdom. He was the author of " Origin of the Distinction of Ranks," (1771,) and a "Historical View of the English Government from the Settlement of the Saxons to the Accession of the House of Stuart," (1787.) The former was translated into French, German, and Italian. Died in 1801. See Chambeks, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" "Life of Millar," by Craig, prefixed to his "Origin of the Dis- tinction of Ranks;" "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1806. Milliard, (David,) an American divine, born at Ball- ston, New York, in 1794, published several theological works, also " Travels in Egypt, Arabia, and the Holy Land," (1843.) Mil'ledge, (John,) an American patriot and states- man, born at Savannah, Georgia, in 1757, distinguished himself in the war of the Revolution, and in 1802 was elected Governor of Georgia. He was one of the founders of the University of Georgia, and the former capital of the State was named in his honour. Died in 18 18. Milledoler, milMoKar, (Philip,) D.D., an American divine, of the Dutch Reformed Church, born at Far- mington, Connecticut, in 1775. became president of Rutgers College, New Brunswick, in 1825. Died in 1852. Mil'ler, (Edward,) an American physician, born in Delaware in 1760, was a brother of the Rev. Samuel Miller, noticed below. He became professor of the theory and practice of medicine in the College of Phy- sicians and Surgeons, New York, and wrote, among other works, a "Treatise on Yellow Fever," which is highly esteemed. He was one of the founders of the " Medical Repository," the first medical journal of America. Died in 1812. MiPler, (Edward,) an English musician and writer, born at Norwich, was a pupil of Dr. Burney. He was the author of " Institutes of Music" and " Elements of Thorough Bass and Composition." Died in 1807. Miller, me'yi', (Emanuel,) a French scholar, born in Paris in 1812, has published a "Catalogue of the Greek Manuscripts in the Escurial," (1840,) and edited several classical works. Mil'ler, (Hugh,) an eminent Scottish geologist and writer, born at Cromarty on the loth of October, 1802, was a son of a mariner and shipmaster, who per- ished in a storm in 1807. He attended the grammar- school of the parish, and received instruction from two maternal uncles, James and Alexander Wright, one of whom encouraged his taste for natural history. At an early age he began to write verses. He learned the trade of a stone-mason, and commenced in 1819 his life of labour in a quarry of old red sandstone at Cromarty. " It was the necessity which made me a quarrier," he writes, " that taught me to be a geologist." He worked as a mason in various parts of Scotland, and diligently improved the intervals of labour by the cultivation of his mind. In 1825 and 1826 he was employed at Edin- burgh as a stone-cutter. He afterwards published a vol- ume of poems, and in 1834 relinquished his trade to become an accountant in a bank at Cromarty. In 1835 he produced " Scenes and Legends of the North of Scot- land," which was received with favour. He married about 1836. In 1839 he defended with much ability the cause of the Free Church, in a " Letter from One of the Scotch People to Lord Brougham," which was praised by Mr. Gladstone. He became in 1840 editor of the " Witness," an organ of the Free Church or Non-Intrusionists, pub- lished in Edinburgh twice a week. He continued to edit this paper until his death, and rendered it very popular and influential. His reputation as a geologist was increased by his work entitled " The Old Red Sandstone, or New Walks in an Old Field," (1841,) which is written in an attractive style. He afterwards published "Footprints of the Creator," (1849,) "First Impressions of England and its People," (1851,) an inter- esting autobiography entitled " My Schools and School- masters, or the Story of my Education," (1854,) and "The Cruise of the Betsey." These works mark an important epoch in the progress of geology. "There was nothing in Miller's works," says the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1858, "which so much surprised the public as their mere literary merit. Where could this Cromarty mason have acquired his style ?" In consequence of excessive mental exertion, his brain became diseased. During a paroxysm of insanity, he killed himself with a pistol in December, 1856. He had just finished a work entitled "The Testimony of the Rocks, or Geology in its Bearings on the Two Theologies, Natural and Revealed," (1857.) In this work he rejects the theory that the Mosaic account of the creation is purely parable, while he censures those who refuse to accept the evidences of scientific truths when they seem to clash with traditionary interpretations of Scripture. His "Footprints of the Creator" was written to refute the theory of development advocated by the author of "The Vestiges of Creation." "Hugh lililler," says the "Edinburgh Review," "must undoubtedly be regarded as one of the most remarkable men whom Scotland has produced. . . . The interest of his narrative, the purity of his style, his inexhaustible faculty of happy and inge- nious illustration, his high imaginative power, and that light of genius which it is so difficult to define yet so impossible to mistake, all promise to secure for the author of the 'Old Red Sandstone' the lasting admira- tion of his countrymen." See the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1858, article " Hugh Mil- ler," (reprinted in the "Living Age," August 21, 1858;) "North British Review" for August, 1854; "North American Review" for October, 1851; Ai.i.ibone, " Dictionary of Authors." Miller, (James,) an English dramatist and satirical writer, born in Dorsetshire in 1703. He published sev- eral political pamphlets, a satire entitled "The Humours of Oxford," and a number of comedies. Died in 1744. Miller, (James,) an American officer, born at Peter- borough, New Hampshire, about 1776. He served as colonel with distinction at the battles of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane, July 25, 1814. His commander asked him if he could take a certain battery at Lundy's Lane. He answered, " I'll try, sir," and captured the battery. Died in 1851. Miller, mil'ler, (Johann Martin,) a German poet and fictitious writer, born at Ulm in 1750. He was the author of" Correspondence of Three Academic Friends," " Siegwart, a Convent History," (1776,) which was trans- lated into French, Dutch, and Polish, and several other « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^='See Explanations, p. 23.) MILLER 1588 MILMAN popular works. His lyric poems are highly esteemed. He was an intimate friend of Klopstock and Voss. Died in 1814. Miller, (Joseph,) a celebrated English comedian, whose appreciation as an actor of the wit of Congreve's plays contributed in a great measure to their success, was born in 1684. The jests ascribed to him were in reality compiled by John Motley, author of a "Life of Peter the Great." Died in 1738, Miller, (Philii',) an English botanist and florist, born in 1691. He published a "Catalogue of Hardy Trees, Shrubs, etc, cultivated near London," (with coloured plates, 1730,) "Gardener's Dictionary," (1731,) which was translated into several languages, and " Figures of Plants," (2 vols., 1755,) adapted to the Dictionary. The genus Milleria was named by Dr. Martyn in honour of this botanist. Died in 1771. Miller, (Samuel,) D.D., an American Presbyterian divine, born in Delaware in 1769. He became pastor of the First Presbyterian Church in New York in 1793. In 1813 he was appointed professor of ecclesiastical history in the Theological Seminary of Princeton. He was the author of numerous theological and controversial works, and wrote the " Life of Jonathan Edwards," in Sparks's "American Biography." Died in 1850. See Samuel Miller, "Life of Samuel Miller," 2 vols., 1869. Miller, (Stephen Franks,) an American lawyer and journalist, born in North Carolina, became associate editor of "De Bow's Review" about 1848. He published the " Bench and Bar of Georgia," and other works. Miller, (Sir Thomas,) a Scottish lawyer, born in 1718, was appointed lord advocate of Scotland in 1760. On the death of Dundas he became president of the court of sessions, (1788.) Died in 1789. Miller, (Thomas,) an English poet and basket-maker, born at Gainsborough about 1808. He was patronized by the poet Rogers, by whose aid he began business as a bookseller. He wrote, besides numerous poems, novels entitled " Royston Gower" and " Fair Rosamond." Miller, (William,) founder of the sect of the Miller- ites, was born at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, in 1781. About 1833 he began to prophesy the end of the world, which he affirmed would be destroyed in 1843. He died in 1849; his followers, who are said to have num- bered nearly fifty thousand, have since greatly decreased. Miller, (William Allen,) an English chemist and physician, born at Ipswich in 181 7. He took his medical degree in London, and subsequently studied in the labo- ratory of Liebig at Giessen. He was appointed pro- fessor of chemistry in the Royal College in 1845, ^'"''^ assayer at the Mint and Bank of England in 185 1. He was vice-president of the Royal Society and president of the Chemical Society, and wrote " Elements of Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical," (3 vols., 1850; 3d ed., 1866.) Miller, (William Hallows,) F.R.S., an eminent English mineralogist and physicist, was educated at Saint John's College, Cambridge, where he took the degree of B.A. about 1826. He became professor of mineralogy at Cambridge in 1832, and wrote several treatises on crystallography. His most important work rs a new and greatly-improved edition of Phillips's "Elementary Introduction to Mineralogy," (1852.) He was a member of a commission appointed by govern- ment in 1843 fo'' the restoration of the standards of weight and measure, and he constructed and verified the new national standard of weight. Milles, milz, (Jeremiah,) an English divine and an- tiquary, born in 1714, became Dean of Exeter in 1762. He was a contributor to the " Archaeologia," and made an unsuccessful attempt to vindicate the authenticity of Rowley's poems. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and president of the Society of Antiquaries. Died in 1784. . See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes." Millet, me'y^', ( Aim^;,) a French painter and sculptor, a sun of Frederic Millet, noticed below, was born in Paris about 181 8. Millet, (Fr^d^ric,) a French portrait-painter, born at Charlieu in 1786, was a pupil of Isabey. He executed a number of portraits of great merit, among which we may name that of the empress Josephine. Died in 1859. Millevoye, m^rvwi', (Charles Hubert,) a French poet and litterateur, born at Abbeville in 1782. He was the author of elegiac poems of great beauty, and ob- tained several prizes from the French Academy. Died in 1816. See Sainte-Beuve, "Portraits Litteraires ;" " Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Milliii, me'y^N',* (AuKiN Louis,) a French antiquary and naturalist, born in Paris in 1759. He published "Elements of Natural History," (1794,) "Dictionary of the Fine Arts," (3 vols., 1806,) " Mythological Gallery," (1811,) and other works. In 1795 he became editor of the " Magasin Encyclopedique," a journal of high char- acter, which he conducted for twenty years. Pie was a member of the French Institute and of several foreign Academies, and a chevalier of the legion of honour. In 1794 he had been appointed keeper of the medals and antiquities in the Royal Library. Died in 1818. See Krafft, "Notice sur A. L. Millin," 1818 ; Bon Joseph Daciek, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. Millin," 1821; Qu^.RARD, " La France Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographic Gene- rale." Milliiigen, mil'ling-gen, ? (James,) an eminent anti- quary, of Dutch extraction, born in London in 1774. He published " Remarks on the State of Learning and the Fine Arts in Great Britain," " Ancient Coins of Greek Cities and Kings," (1821,) and other similar works, which have a very high reputation. Died in 1845. Millon, me'y6N',* (Charles,) a French litterateur, born at Liege in 1754, wrote poems, histories, etc. Died in 1839. Millon, (EuGfeNp,) a French chemist, born at Chalons- sur-Marne in 1812. He published, besides other chemical treatises, " Elements of Organic Chemistry, comprising the Applications of this Science to Vegetable Physi- ology," (2 vols., 1845-48.) Millot, m^'yo',* (Claude FRANgois Xavier,) a French historian, born in Franche-Comte in 1726. He was the author of "Elements of Universal History," " Political and Military Memoirs towards the History of Louis XIV.," etc., (6 vols., 1777,) and other works of the kind. He was elected to the French Academy in 1777, and in 1778 was appointed preceptor to the Due d'Enghien. Died in 1785. See Grimm, " Correspondance ;" Lingay, " £loge de I'Abbd Millot," 1814; QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Mills, (Charles,) an English writer, born at Green- wich in 1788, was the author of a " History of Moham- medanism," (1812,) " History of the Crusades," (1820,) "Travels of Theodore Ducas," etc., (1822,) and other works. Died in 1825. Mills, (Clark,) a distinguished American sculptor, born in Onondaga county. New York, in 1815. Having removed to Charleston, South Carolina, he executed several busts in marble, which won for him a high repu- tation. In 1848 he began his bronze equestrian statue of Jackson, for which, owing to its size, he was obliged to construct a foundry. It was completed in 1853, and placed in Lafayette Square at Washington. His next work was the colossal equestrian statue of Washington, finished in i860. See TucKERMAN, " Book of the Artists." Mills, (Samuel John,) an American Congregational divine, born at Torringford, Connecticut, in 1 783, was one of the founders of the American Missionary Society. He also took a prominent part in the organization of the American Colonization Society, and in 181 7 visited Africa, in company with the Rev. E. Burgess, for the purpose of choosing a site for the colony. He died in 1818, while on his voyage home. MiPman, (Sir Francis,) an eminent English phy- sician, born in Devonshire in 1746. He published "Animadversion^ on the Nature and Cure of Dropsy," (1776,) " Treatise on the Source of the Scurvy," and other works. He was appointed physician to George III., and was a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Col- lege of Physicians. Died in 182 1. Milman, (Rev. Henry Hart,) an English poet, historian, and divine, son of the preceding, was born in * There seems to be some diversity respecting the pronunciation of these names: some speakers say me'law', meloN', etc., omitting all sound of the liquid /. a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; MILNE 1589 MILT I AD London in 1791. He graduated at Brazienose College, ( )xfoid, where in 1821 he became professor of poetry. Having filled several inferior offices in the Church, he was appointed Dean of Saint Paul's in 1849. His tragedy of " Fazio," published in 1815, was well received, and was followed by the poems of " Samor, Lord of the Bright City," (1818,) "The Fall of Jerusalem," {1820,) "The Martyr of Antioch," and others. In 1840 he brought out his " History of Christianity from the Birth of Christ to the Extinction of Paganism in the Roman Empire," (3 vols. 8vo,) and in 1854 his "History of Latin Christianity, including that of the Popes to the Pontificate of Nicholas V." He published excellent editions of the works of Horace, with a well-written life of the poet, and of Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Died in September, 1868. See W. E. H. Leckv, "History of European Morals from Au- gustus to Charlemague," (Pretace.) 1869; " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1S58, January, 1S64, and January, 1869; " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1S16, July, i8iS, May, 1820, and April, 1869; " Blackwood's Magazine" for March and July, 1822 ; " North Biiiish Review" for November, 1854, and March, 1869; "Eraser's Maga- zine" for October, 1854. Milne, miln, (Colin,) a Scottish divine and naturalist, born at Aberdeen. He was the author of a "Botanical Dictionary," "Indigenous Botany," etc. Died in 1815. Milne, miln, (Joshua,) an English writer, born in 1776, was ajjpointed actuary of the Sun Life Assurance Office. He published a valuable " Treatise on Annui- ties," in which he describes a new system of notation for the calculation of life-insurance. Milne-Edwards, miln ^d'wardz, [Fr. pron. m^ln i'doo-tRs',] (Henri,) an eminent French naturalist, of English descent, born at Bruges in 1800. After he had taught natural history for soine years in the College Henri IV. in Paris, he was elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1838. He published "The Natural His- tory of the Crustacea," (3 vols., 1834-41,) which is highly esteemed. In 1841 he obtained the chair of entomology in the Jardin des Plantes, and in 1844 was chosen adjunct professor of zoology and comparative physiology at the Faculty of Sciences. He succeeded I. Geofifroy Saint-Hilaire as professor of zoology in 1862. Among his works are " Elements of Zoology," (4 vols., 1834-37,) which obtained considerable popularity, and " Researches into the Anatomy and Physiology of Polypi," (1842.) See article " Milne," in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mil'ner, (Isaac,) an eminent English divine and mathematician, born near Leeds in 175 1. He studied at Queen's College, Cambridge, where he became in 1783 Jacksonian professor of experimental philosophy. He was subsequently appointed master of his college, (1788,) Dean of Carlisle, (1791,) and Lucasian professor of mathematics, (1798.) He was also twice elected vice- chancellor of his college. He was the author of a num- ber of sermons and miscellaneous essays, and wrote a continuation of his brother Joseph's "Church History." He numbered among his friends Pitt and Wilberforce. Died in 1820. See Mary Mii.ner, "Life of Isaac Milner," 1842. Milner, (John,) a learned Roman Catholic divine, born in London in 1752. He was the author of a " His- tory, Civil and Ecclesiastical, and Survey of the Anti- quities, of Winchester," and was a contributor to the " Archaeologia." He was a member of the Society of Antiquaries. Died in 1826. See the "London Quarterly Review" for May, 1810, and October, 1811. Milner, (John,) an English theologian, born near Halifax in 1628, became canon of Ripon. Died in 1702. Milner, (Joskph,) an English divine, born near Leeds in 1744, was a brother of Isaac, noticed above. He became vicar of the Church of the Holy Trinity at Hull in 1797. He wrote a " History of the Church of Christ," (5 vols., 1794-1812,) which is esteemed a standard work. It was completed by his brother, the Dean of Carlisle. Milner also published an "Answer to Gibbon's Attack on Christianity," and other works. Died in 1797. See Isaac Milner, "Life of J. Milner," prefixed to his Sermons. Milnes, mllnz, (Richard Monckton,) Baron Hough- ton, an English statesman and miscellaneous writer, born in Yorkshire in 1809. He graduated at Cambridge in 1831, and in 1837 was first elected a member of Par- liament for Pontefract, which he continued to represent until 1863, wher. he was raised to the peerage, as Baron Houghton. As a member of the liberal conservative party, he has been a prominent advocate of reform. Among his principal publications are " Poems, Legendary and Historical," "Palm-Leaves," (1844,) "Memorials of Many Scenes," and the "Life, Letters, and Literary Re- mains of John Keats," (1848.) He contributed to the "Edinburgh Review." See " Eraser's Magazine" for June, 1847, article " Literary Legis- lators;" "North American Review" for October, 1839, and July, 1842. MiPnor, (James,) D.D., an American Episcopal clergyman, born in Philadelphia in 1773, became rector of Saint George's Church, New York, in 1816. Died in 1845. See " Memoir of James Milnor, D.D.," by Rev. J. S. Stone. Mi'lo, [Gr. MfAwv; Fr, Milon, me'IoN',] an athlete, celebrated for his prodigious strength, born at Crotona, in Italy, was a pupil of Pythagoras. He is said to have once carried a bull on his shoulders to the sacrifice, and killed it with a blow of his fist. In 509 B.C. he gained a signal victory over the Sybarites. When advanced in years, he found one day, in passing through a forest, a tree partly cleft by wedges. Having introduced his hands for the purpose of severing it entirely, the wedges fell out, but, his strength failing him, the parts closed again, retaining him a prisoner, and in this helpless con- dition he was devoured by wild beasts. Mi'lo, (Titus Annius,) a famous Roman tribune, was a plebeian, and a man of unscrupulous character. He became tribune of the people in 57 B.C., and was a par- tisan of Pompey. By his efforts to restore Cicero from exile he incurred the hostility of Clodius, with whom he fought in several bloody affrays. In the year 53 Milo was a candidate for the consulship. Before the electoral contest was decided, Milo and Clodius met, each with a band of armed slaves, and a fight ensued, in which Clodius was killed. Milo was tried for homicide, and, though defended by Cicero, was condemned, and exiled himself to Marseilles. Llaving taken arms against Caesar in the civil war, he was killed in Lucania, 48 B.C. See Cicero, " Oratio pro Milone ;" Drumann, "Geschichte Roms;" Uion Cassius, "History of Rome;" Elberling, " Nar- ratio de T. A. Milone," 1840; Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography." Milon. See Milo. Milonof, Milonov, or Milonow, mee'lo-nof, (Mi- chael Vassilievitch,) a Russian poet, born in 1792, was the author of satires, epistles, and lyric poems, which enjoy great popularity. Died in 1821. See Gretch, " Essai sur I'Histoire de la Litterature Russe." Miloradovitch, me-lo-rSMo-vitch, (Michael An- DRiE:vncH,) Count, a Russian general, born at Saint Petersburg in 1770. He fought with distinction against the Turks and Poles and in the campaigns against the French from 1799 to 1814, arid attained the rank of general of infantry. He was appointed military gov- ernor of Saint Petersburg in 1819. He was killed in attempting to suppress the insurrection in that city, De- cember 25, 1825, Milosh. See Obrenovitch, MiProy, (Robert H.,) an American general, born in Indiana about 1814. He was appointed a brigadier- general of Union volunteers about September, 1861, and served at Cross Keys, June 8, 1862. He commanded about 8000 men at Winchester, was attacked June 15, 1863, and retreated, but lost nearly half of his force. Miltiade. See Miltiades. Mil-ti'a-des, [Gr. ULkTtadrig ; Fr. Miltiade, m^K- te'td',] a celebrated Athenian general, who flourished about 500 B.C., was the son of Cimon. He became suc- cessor to his uncle Miltiades, who had made himself a despot or master of the Chersonese in Thrace, and he appears first in history as an arbitrary ruler. Darius of Persia having sent a great armament, under Datis and Artaphernes, to conquer Greece, Miltiades was chosen one of the ten generals of the Athenian army, which awaited the enem.y at Marathon in 490 B.C. The Grecian € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as m thU, (2i^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) MILTITZ 1590 MILTON army numbered about 10,000 men, and the Persian prob- ably over 100,000. A regulation then prevailed that each of the ten generals should command by turns for one day. Some of them were averse to risking a battle. When the command devolved on Miltiades, he gained one of the most memorable and important victories recorded in history. To reward his patriotism and eminent ser- vices to national liberty, the Athenians decreed that he should have the foremost place in a painting which illus- trated the battle. Having failed in an attack on Paros, he was fined fifty talents, which he could not pay, and about the year 489 died in prison of a wound received in the action just named. The famous general Cimon was his son. See Cornelius Nepos, "Miltiades;" Herodotus, books iv. and vi. ; Grote, "History of Greece," vol. iv. ; Thiri.wall, " History of Greece;" Kikchmaiek, " Dissertatio de Miitiade," 1662. Miltitz, von, fon miKtits, (Karl,) a German prelate, born about 1490, became chamberlain to Leo X., who sent him in 15 18 as nuncio to Germany, in order to conciliate Luther or counteract his influence. On this occasion he displayed much tact, and used flattery or l)ersuasive means with some success. (See Luther.) Died in 1529. Miltitz, von, (Karl Borromaus Alexander Ste- PHAN,) a German poet and musical composer, born at Dresden in 1781. Among his best compositions are the operas of "Saul" and "Georg Czerny." Died in 1845. His brother Alexander was ambassador to Constantinople, and wrote a valuable work entitled "The Manual of Consuls." Died in 1843. MiFton, [Lat. Milto'nus ; It. Mil'ton or Miltono, m^l-to'no,] (John,) an itnmortal poet, and, if we except Shakspeare, the most illustrious name in English litera- ture, was born in Bread Street, London, on the 9th of December, 1608. He was the eldest son of John Milton, a scrivener, and Sarah Bradshaw, (or Caston, according to some authorities.) His early education was directed by a private tutor, — Thomas Young, a zealous Puritan. A portrait of his beautiful features, taken by C. Jansen, at the age often, has been preserved. Before he entered college he was an excellent Latin scholar. In severe and systematic study he laid the foundations of his fame. In a letter to a friend, written some years later, he says, "It is my way to suffer no impediment, no love of ease, no avocation whatever, to chill the ardour, to break the continuity, or to divert the completion of my literary pursuits." His first English poems were versions of the 114th and 136th Psalms, (1623.) In February, 1624, he was admitted as pensioner into Christ's College, Cambridge, where he acquired distinc- tion as a Latin poet. Dr. Johnson expresses the opinion that Milton "was the first Englishman who, after the revival of letters, wrote Latin verses with classic ele- gance." He took the degree of Bachelor in 1628, and that of Master of Arts in 1632, — before which he had been subjected to a temporary rustication (and, some say, to corporal chastisement) for an unknown offence, " By the intention of my parents," says Milton himself, " I was destined of a child to the service of the Church, and in my own resolutions. Till coming to some maturity of years, and perceiving what tyranny had invaded the Church, that he who would take orders must subscribe Si AVE, and take an oath withal, ... I thought better to prefer a blameless silence, before the sacred office of speaking, bought and begun with servitude and for- swearing." In 1632 he left the university, and retired to his father's house at Horton, Buckinghamshire, where he remained five years, during which he is said to have read all the Greek and Latin writers. He also took lessons in music, which he loved, and in which he was very skilful. In this studious retirement, it appears, he wrote his beautiful poems " Comus," " L' Allegro," " II Penseroso," and " Lycidas," (1637.) " Comus" — a drama in form, but essentially lyrical — was written and per- formed at Ludlow Castle in 1634, but not printed until 1637. "It is certainly," says Macaulay, "the noblest performance of the kind which exists in' any language." "Lycidas" is contemptuously depreciated by Johnson as a "pastoral, easy, vulgar, and therefore disgusting." But Hallam approves the judgment of a certain critir (whom he does not name) that "Lycidas" is " a good test of a real feeling for what is peculiarly called poetry." Milton s "Allegro" and "Penseroso" are universally admired. " It is impossible to conceive," says Macaulay, " that the mechanism of language can be brought to a more exquisite degree of perfection. These poems differ from others as ottar of roses differs from ordinary rose- water." In 1638, attended by a servant, he visited Florence, Rome, and Naples, conversed with Galileo, then a "pris- oner to the Inquisition," and received testimonials of honour and friendship from Carlo Dati, Francini, and Manso. He was admired as a great prodigy by these Italian celebrities. He returned in 1639, and opened in London a small boarding-school, in which he adopted a new system of education. His nephews, Edward and John Philips, were among his pupils. In 1641 he pro- duced his first prose work, — a " Treatise of Reforma- tion," — which was followed by other arguments against the Established Church and Prelacy. He sympathized with the popular party in the great crisis of English liberty, but took no active part in the civil war which began in 1642. At Whitsuntide, 1643, married Mary Powell, whose father was a justice of the peace and a royalist of Ox- fordshire. " The lady," says Dr. Johnson, " seems not much to have delighted in the pleasures of spare diet and hard study." A month after the marriage, she made a visit to her father's house, from which she refused to return. Having resolved to repudiate her, Milton pub- lished "The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce," (1644,) and other treatises on that topic, in his own justification. He also paid his addresses to a Miss Davis, until his wife iinplored forgiveness and was restored to favour. She became the mother of three daughters, who were all the children that Milton had. He published in 1644 his " Areopagitica," or " Plea for Unlicensed Printing," — probably his greatest prose work. " Many passages in this famous tract," says Hal- lam, " are admirably eloquent : an intense love of liberty and truth glows through it." He had taken a larger house in Barbican (about 1645) for the reception of scholars ; but his wife's relations, to whom, when ruined by the civil war, he generously gave refuge, occupied his rooms. In March, 1648-49, he was appointed Latin secretary to the council of state, which was the highest executive power in the new republic. As an antidote to the " Eikon Basil ike," i.e. the " Image (or Portrait) of the King," — a work designed to excite commiseration for the sufferings of Charles I., (see Gauden,) — Milton pro- duced his " Iconoclastes," (Eikonoklastes,) or "Image- breaker," and, by order of the council, appeared as the antagonist of the learned Salmasius, in reply to whom he wrote, in Latin, his celebrated work entitled " Defence of the English People," ("Defensio Populi Anglicani," 1650.) (See Salmasius.) About 1654 he became totally blind. His "Defensio Secunda" (1654) contains an eloquent allusion to this privation. His wife died about 1653, and in 1656 he mar- ried Catherine Woodcock, who died in the following year. After serving the Protector Oliver as Latin secretary for four or five years, he retired about 1657 from public life, with a pension of ;i^i50. Before that date he had meditated the plan of a great epic poem. One of the subjects that presented was the exploits of King Arthur. After much deliberation, "long choosing and beginning late," he preferred the subject of " Paradise Lost," which at first he proposed to dramatize. At the restoration, (1660,) his prosecution was ordered, and he concealed himself in the house of a friend until the Act of Oblivion released him from danger. He married his third wife, Elizabeth Minshul, in 1664; and when the great plague raged in London, (1665,) he retired to Chalfont, ]3ucks, where his friend EUwood had engaged a cottage for him. (See Ellvvood, Thomas.) In the course of the same year Milton showed to Ell wood the finished manuscript of " Paradise Lost," which the latter took home and perused. On returning it to the author, he remarked, "Thou hast said much here of Paradise Lost; but what hast thou to say of Paradise found Milton sold his a, Cj i, 6, u, y, long; i, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; llr, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon. MILTON MIND copy in April, 1667, to Samuel Simmons, for an imme- diate payment of five pounds and the promise of an equal sum after the sale of thirteen hundred copies. It was rather coldly received, only three thousand having been sold in the first eleven years. '* Its admirers," says Johnson, "did not dare to publish their opinion." He published in 1671 "Samson Agonistes," a tra- gedy, and " Paradise Regained," which he is said to have esteemed his most perfect production ; but the public and the critics have not sanctioned this preference. Milton died in London, by "a silent expiration," on the 8th of November, 1674. A manuscript of Milton's "On Christian Doctrine," (" De Doctrina Christiana,") found in the State-Paper Office, London, in 1823, was translated and published in 1825. The genuineness of this work, though some- times called in question, is considered by the great majority of critics to be established beyond reasonable doubt. Milton was not connected with any church, but ap- pears to have favoured the Independents, — a politico- religious party. " He grew old without any visible worship," says Johnson; who adds, " His studies and meditations were an habitual prayer." His favourite authors among the Greeks were Homer and Euripides, and Shakspeare and Spenser among the English. His stature was rather below the middle height. In his youth he was so eminently and delicately beautiful as to be called "the Lady" of his college, though his habits were far from effeminate. He had a fair complexion and auburn hair. Portraits of him were taken at the ages of ten, twenty-one, and about sixty. " Considered with respect to design," says Johnson, "'Paradise Lost' may claim the first place, and, with respect to performance, the second, among the produc- tions of the human mind. . . . His [Milton's] great works were performed under discountenance and in blindness ; but difficulties vanished at his touch : he was born for whatever is arduous ; and his work is not the greatest of heroic poems, only because it is not the first." " Was there ever anything so delightful," says Cowper, " as the music of 'Paradise Lost'? It is like that of a fine organ, — has the fullest and the deepest tones of majesty, with all the softness and elegance of the Dorian flute ; variety without end, and never equalled, unless, perhaps, by Virgil." Of Milton's prose writings, Macaulay ob- serves, "They are a perfect field of cloth of gold. The style is stiff with gorgeous embroidery." " It is certain," says Hume, " that this author, when in a happy mood and employed on a noble subject, is the most wonderfiilly sublime of any poet in any lan- guage. Homer and Lucretius and Tasso not excepted. More concise than Homer, more simple than Tasso, more nervous than Lucretius, had he lived in a later age and learned to polish some rudeness in his verses, had he enjoyed better fortune and possessed leisure to watch the returns of genius in himself, he had attained the pinnacle of perfection and borne away the palm of epic poetry." " It may be doubted," says Walter S. Landor, "whether the Creator ever created one altogether so great as Milton, — taking into one view at once his manly virtues, his superhuman genius, his zeal for truth, for true piety, true freedom, his eloquence in displaying it, his contempt of personal power, his glory and exultation in his country's." "Milton," says Macaulay, "did not strictly belong to Any of the classes which we have described. He was not a Puritan. He was not a Freethinker. He was not a Cavalier. In his character the noblest quali- ties of every party were combined in harmonious union. . . . We are not much in the habit of idolizing either the living or the dead. But there are a few characters which have stood the closest scrutiny and the severest tests, which have been tried in the furnace and have proved pure, which have been declared sterling by the general consent of mankind, and which are visibly stamped with the image and superscription of the Most High. Tliese great men we trust we know how to prize ; and of these was Milton. . . . His thoughts are power- ful not only to delight, but to elevate and purify. Nor do we envy the man who can study either the life or the writings of the great poet and patriot without aspiring to emulate, not indeed the sublime works with which his genius has enriched our literature, but the zeal with which he laboured for the public good, the fortitude with which he endured every private calamity, the lofty dis- dain with which he looked down on temptation and dan- gers, the deadly hatred which he bore to bigots and tyrants, and the faith which he so sternly kept with his country and with his fame." ("Essay on Milton.") Those who desire to know how this great poet is regarded by a nation whose taste and habits of thought differ most widely from those of the English, may con- sult the article "Milton" in the " Biographie Univer- selle," from the pen of the justly-celebrated French critic Villemain. He admits that Milton's picture of our first parents in Eden surpasses, in graceful and touching simplicity, anything to be found in the creations of any other poet, ancient or modern, and that the human imagination has produced nothing more grand or more sublime than some portions of " Paradise Lost." See the article "Milton," in Johnson's "Lives of the Poets;" Todd, "Life of Milton," 1801 ; Keightlev, "Life, Opinions, and Writings of John Milton," 1855; Masson, "Life and Times of Milton," vol. i., 1859; Toland, "Life of Milton," i6g8 ; Svmmons, " Life of Milton ;" Havlev, " Life of Milton," 1794 ; Dr. Channing, "Remarks on the Character and Writings of Milton," 1828; Mac- aulay, "Essays;" Hu.me, "History of England," chap. Ixii. ; J. Mosneron, "Viede Milton," 1804; Edwin P. Hood, "J. Milton, the Patriot and Poet," 1851 ; Joseph Ivimev, "J. Milton, his Life and Times," 1832; C. R. Edmonds, "J. Milton: a Biography," 1851 ; Edward Philips, "Life of J. Milton," 1604; notice in the " North American Review" for July, 183S, by R. W. Emerson; and the excellent article in Allibone's " Dictionary of Authors." Milton, Lord. See Fletcher, (Andrew.) Milutinovics or Milutinowitsch, pronounced alike me-loo-tee'no-vitch, (Simon,) a Servian poet, born in 1791. He was the author of "Popular Songs of the Montenegrins," etc., " History of Servia from 1813 to 181 5," and other works. Manias, [Gr. Mpara," 1837; MoLiNE de Saint- Yon, " Les deux ]\rma: Chron^.j^^i Es- pagnole du XIXe Siecle," 3 vols., 1840; Burckhardt, " Riego und Mina," etc., 1835. Mina, (X.wier,) a Spanish officer, born in Navarre in 1789, was a nephew of the preceding. He undertook to liberate Mexico, which he entered in April, 181 7, with a few hundred men. He gained several victories, but was captured and shot at Mexico in November, 181 7. Minano y Bedoya, de, di m6n-y^'no e bi-Do'e-S, (Sebastian,) a Spanish writer, born in the province of Palencia in 1779. He wrote "Letters from a Resident of Madrid," and a " History of the Spanish Revolution from 1820 to 1823," (in French.) Mind, mint, (Gottfried,) a celebrated Swiss painter, born at Berne in 1768, was surnamed the Raphael of Cats. He was the child of indigent parents, and a cretin, and was educated at Pestalozzi's institution for poor boys. His favourite subjects were cats and bears, •c as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jE^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MINDER ER MINUTUNUS which he delineated with unequalled skill and fidelity. He died in 1814, leaving numerous designs, which were sold at a high price. See Naglek, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" L. Bkightwell, " By-Palhs of Biograjiliy." Minderer, min'deh-rer, (Raimond,) a German phy- sician, born at Augsburg about 1570, was the discoverer of a new chemical compound, (acetate of ammonia,) since called Spiritus Mindereri. He published several medical works in Latin, and became physician to the emperor Matthias. Died in 1621. Minderhout, min'der-howt', a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 1577, excelled in marine views, seaports, etc. Died in 1663. Minelli, me-neKlee, [Lat. Minel'lius,] (jAN,)aDutch scholar, born at Rotterdam about 1625. He translated Terence into Dutch, and published numerous editions of the Latin classics, with notes, which had a high repu- tation at the time. Died in 1683. Minellius. See Minelli. Mi'ner, (Thomas,) an American physician, born at Middletown, Connecticut, in 1777. He wrote, conjointly with Dr. Tally, " Essays on Fevers and other Subjects," (1823.) Died in 1841. Mi-ner'va or A-the'na, [ Fr. Minerve, me'niRv',] one of the greater divinities of the Roman mythology, corresponding nearly to the Greek Athena or Athene, [Gr. 'Adf/vrj or 'Adrjvd.] She was regarded as the goddess of wisdom, arts, and sciences, or a personification of the thinking, inventive faculty. According to a popular tra- dition, she was the offspring of the brain of Jupiter, from which she issued in full armour. She was always repre- sented as a virgin. In war she was contradistinguished from Mars (the god of brute force) as the patroness of scientific warfare, and hence, according to the ancient poets, was always superior to him. The favourite plant of Minerva was the olive, and the animals consecrated to her were the owl and the serpent. Athena was the great national divinity of Attica and Athens, to which she is said to have given her name. Pope, in his "Temple of Fame," alludes to her twofold character as the patroness of arts and arms, where he says, "There Cjesar, graced with both Miiiervas, shone." In the Trojan war she fought for the Greeks. She was sometimes called Pallas, Parthenos, (i.e. "virgin,") Tritonia or Tritogeneia, and other names. The poets feigned that Neptune and Minerva disputed for the pos- session of Attica, which the gods promised to him or her who should produce the most useful gift to mankind. Neptune, striking the earth with his trident, produced a war-horse, and Minerva produced the olive, (the symbol of peace,) by which she gained the victory. She was usually represented with a helmet on her head, holding in one hand a spear and in the other an aegis, or shield, in the centre of which was the head of Medusa. There was a celebrated statue of Minerva, called Palladium, which was said to have fallen from the sky, and on which the safety of Troy depended. See G. Hermann, " Dissertatio de Graeca Minerva," 1837; GuiGNiAUT, "Religions de FAntiqnite ;" Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology;" " Biographie Uni- verselle," (Partie mythologiqne.) Minga, del, d^l m^n'gl, (Andrea,) an Italian painter, of the Florentine school, lived about 1550-70. Mingarelli, m^n-ga-reKlee, ( Giovanni Luigi,) an Italian ecclesiastic and writer, born near Bologna in 1722, was a friend of Tiraboschi. Died in 1793. See Cavalieri, "Vita di Mingarelli," 1817. Mingotti, m^n-got'tee, (Caterina,) an Italian vocal- ist, of German extraction, born at Naples in 1728. She studied under Porpora, and performed with brilliant suc- cess in the principal cities of Europe. Died in 1807. Miniana, me-ne-a'na, (Josi^ Manuel,) a Spanish histo'ian, born at Valencia in 1671. He wrote a continua- tion of Mariana's "History of Spain," (1733.) Died in 1730. Mini^, me'ne-4', (Claude Etiennf.,) a French of- ficer, born in Paris in 1810, was the inventor of the rifle called by his name. He was appointed by Napoleon III. su])erintendent of the school of ordnance at Vin- cennes, and received from him the sum of 20,000 francs. The Minie rifle was an immense improvement on any- thing of the kind that had previously been invented, both as regards precision and the extent of its range. Minion. See Mignon. Minjon. See Mignon. Mino da Piesole, mee'no dS fe-§s'o-l^ an eminent Italian sculptor, born at F'iesole about 1430. Among his works is a tomb of Paul II. at Rome. Died in i486. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters and Sculptors." Minoochihr, Minoutchihr, or Minuchihr, min- oo'chih'r, written also Manucheher, an ancient Persian king, the grandson ((^r, according to some authorities, the great-grandson) of Fereedoon, (Ferklun,) is said to have been the first of his nation who fortified cities with ramparts and ditches. With Minoochihr ended the glory and power of the Peshdadian dynasty. See "A Short History of Persia," in vol. v. of Sir William Jones's Works; Atkinson, "Abridgment of the Shah Nameh of Firdausi," 1832. Mi'nos, [Gr. M/vcjf,] a celebrated king and lawgiver of Crete, whose history is much obscured or embellished with fable. According to Homer, he was a son of Jupiter and Europa, a brother of Rhadamanthus, and the father of Ariadne and Deucalion. He was renowned for his justice and moderation, and it was fabled that after his death he became a judge of the souls which entered the infernal regions. He has by some writers been identified with Manu, (or Menu,) the great Hindoo lawgiver. Minos, a king and lawgiver of Crete, supposed to have been a grandson of the preceding, with whom, how- ever, he has been confounded by some writers. He was the husband of Pasiphae, and had many children. He is said to have been the first Greek prince that had an important naval power. The Cretans ascribed to Minos their laws and political institutions, which served as a model for the legislation of Lycui gus. According to one tradition, he was cruel and tyrannical, and compelled the Athenians, whom he vanquished, to pay him an annual tribute in the form of boys and virgins, who were devoured by the Minotaur. Min'ot, > (George Richards,) an American jurist and historian, born at Boston in 1 758. His principal works are a " Eulogy on Washington," " History of Shays's Rebellion," and " History of Massachusetts Bay." Died in 1802. Min'ot, } (Lawrence,) an English poet, whose works were discovered by Tyrvvhitt while he was preparing an edition of Chaucer. He lived about 1330-50. Min'o-taur, [Gr. Mtvwravpof; Lat. Minotau'rus ; Fr. Minotaure, me'no'toR',] a monster of classic my- thology, represented as half man and half bull. Accord- ing to the legend, he was the offspring of Pasiphae and a bull which was sent to Minos by Neptune; he was kept in the great labyrinth of Crete, was fed with youths and maidens whom the Athenians sent to Minos as tribute, and was finally killed by Theseus. Min'tha or Men'tha, [Gr. MtV^??,] a nymph, fabled to have been beloved by Pluto and changed by Ceres into the plant known as mint. Minto, Lord. See Elliot. Min'to, (Walter,) a Scottish mathematician, born in Edinburgh, emigrated to America in 1786. He was the author of several scientific works, and became pro- fessor of mathematics at Princeton College, New Jersey. Died in 1796. Mintrop, min'trop, (Theodor,) a distinguished German painter and designer, born at Heithausen, in Bavaria, in 1814. He produced designs in crayon, and several oil-paintings of religious subjects. Among his works are " The Riches of the Year," and " The Apo- theosis of Bacchus." Minturni, m6n-tooR'nee, (Antonio Sebastiano,) an Italian poet and canonist, born in Terra di Lavoro, was noted for his learning. Died in 1574. Minut, de, deh me'nii', (Gabriel,) a French litte- rateur, born at Toulouse about 1520. He was patronized by Catherine de Medicis, and was a friend of J. C. Scaliger. He published treatises on medicine, theology, and other subjects. Died in 1587. Minutianus, me-nu-she-a'nus, [It. Minuziano, me noot-se-d'no,] (Alessandro,) a learned Italian printer, a, e, ^, 0, u, y, long; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; filr, ftU, f4t; mSt; nfit; good; mooiij MINUTIUS 1593 MIRABEJU born at San Severe about 1450. He published the first complete edition of Cicero, and issued from his press numerous classics of great beauty and accuracy. Died about 1525. Miuutius or Minucius (mi-nu'she-us) Fe'lix, an early Christian writer, supposed to have been a native of Africa, lived in the third century. He was the author of a work entitled " Octavius," written in defence of Christianity. A good edition of it was published by Gronovius in 1707. See Bouchard, " Dissertatio de Minutio Felice," 1683; Hein- RICH Meier, " Commentatio de Minucio Felice," 1825. Minutoli, me-noo'to-lee, (Heinrich Menu,) Baron, a distinguished writer, of Italian extraction, born at Geneva in 1772. He served in the Prussian army, and attained the rank of lieutenant-general. In 1820 he accompanied the scientific expedition sent by the Prus- sian government to Egypt, and published, (in German,) after his return, a "Journey to the Temple of Jupiter Ammon and Upper Egypt," (2 vols., 1824.) Among his other works is " Recollections of a Soldier." He was a- member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and was appointed by the king, Frederick William, tutor to Prince Charles. Died in 1846. Minutoli, (Julius,) a lawyer, son of the preceding, was born at Berlin in 1805. He was appointed in 1851 consul-general for Spain and Portugal. He published a work entitled " Spain and its Progressive Develop- ment." Min'y-as, [Gr. Kivvag,'\ a fabulous personage, said to be a son of Neptune, a king of Boeotia, and the an- cestor of the MiNY.«, {M-Lvvai,) a race of heroes cele- brated in the most ancient epic poetry of Greece. The Argonauts were mostly descendants of Minyas, and were called Minyae. Minzocchi, mJn-zok'kee, or Menzocchi, mgn-zok'- kee, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Forli about 1500, was a pupil of Genga. Among his master-pieces we may name "The Sacrifice of Melchisedec," "The Fall of Manna," and a " Holy Family." Died in 1574. Minzoni, m^n-zo'nee, (Onofrio,) an Italian poet and Jesuit, born at Ferrara in 1734, became professor of phi- losophy at Venice. He was the author of a collection of sonnets of great beauty. Died in 181 7. See TiPAi.Do, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Miolan-Carvalho, me'o'lSN' ktR'vt'lo', (Caroline FltLlX,) a French vocalist, born at Chateau-Roux in 1829, She performed with success in Paris and London as an operatic singer. Miollis, me'c'l^ss', ( Sextius Alexandre Fran- cois,) Count, a French general, born at Aix in 1759. He was wounded at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781. He became a general of division in 1 799, and obtained command of all the French forces in Northern Italy in 1805. In 1809 he entered Rome, where, having expelled the pope, he remained, with the title of governor, until 1814. Died in 1828. Mionnet, mcVni', (Theodore Edme,) a French antiquary, born in Paris in 1770. He wrote a "Descrip- tive Catalogue of (ireek and Roman Medals," (7 vols., 1806-35,) a standard work, which still ranks among the best of its kind, a treatise " On the Rarity and Value of Roman Medals," etc., (2 vols., 1847,) and other similar works. Died in 1842. Miot, me^o', (Andr6 FuANgois,) Comte de Melito, a French statesman, born at Versailles in 1762. He was minister of the interior at Naples under Joseph Bona- parte. He died in 1841, leaving "Memoirs of the Con- sulate, the Empire, and King Joseph," (3 vols., 1858.) Mirabaud, me^rS'ho', (Jean Baptiste,) a French littcratejir, born in Paris in 1675. He made a transla- tion of Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered," which had great popularity at the time. He also translated the " Orlando Furioso," and published several treatises on various subjects. The atheistical work entitled " Systeme de la Nature" was for a time attributed to Mirabaud, biit is now known to have been written by Baron d'Holbach. Mirabaud was elected to the French Academy in 1726. Died in 1760. See D'Alembert, " Histoire des Membres de rAcademie Fran- faise." Mirabeau, de, deh me'rt'bo', (Boniface Riquetti,) Vicomte, a brother of Gabriel, noticed below, was born at Bignon in 1754. He served in the army of the United States about 1780. In 1789 he became a royalist mem- ber of the States-General, and was opposed to his brother in politics. He was so bloated by drinking that he was nicknamed "Barrel Mirabeau," ("Mirabeau Tonneau.") He was noted for his sarcastic wit. "In any other family," said he, " I should pass for a reprobate ( maitvais sujet) and wit; but in mine I am regarded as a fool, but a sedate man." When his famous brother reproved him for his intemperance, he wittily replied, "Of all the vices of our family, that is the only one which you have left for me." He emigrated in 1790, and joined the royalist army on the Rhine. Died in 1792. Mirabeau, de, deh me'rt'bo' or m!r'a-bo', (Honor6 Gabriel de Riquetti, (deh re'k^'te',) originally Arri- ghetti,) Comte, a famous French orator and states- man, was born at Bignon, near Nemours, March 9, 1749. His family was of Italian extraction. He was the oldest surviving son of the Marquis de Mirabeau and Marie Genevieve de Vassan. The last representative of that stormy and highly-gifted race, he inherited a passionate nature, a frank and open temper, and a mind of great amplitude of grasp and prodigious activity. The edu- cation which he received under the strict discipline of his father was far from judicious. In his fifteenth year he was sent to a boarding-school in Paris, where he made rapid progress in ancient and modern languages and mathematics, also in music and the fine arts. In compliance with his father's will, he entered the army in 1767. The next year, by an amorous intrigue, he pro- voked the ire of the marquis, who caused him to be imprisoned in the Isle of Rhe. In 1769 he obtained liberty to serve in Corsica against Paoli, where he won golden opinions, and returned in 1770 with the brevet of captain. It puzzled his father to find a proper sphere for one whom he called a windmill, a whirlwind, one who " had swallowed all formulas." On one occasion he writes, " I pass my life in cramming him with prin- ciples." In 1772 young Mirabeau married Marie fimilie de Covet, a daughter of the Marquis de Marignan, and became a resident of Aix. For running into debt, he was banished to Manosque, near the Alps, where he wrote an " Essay on Despotism." Having again displeased the grim marquis by some venial error, he was confined, by a lettre de cachet, in the castle of If, in 1774, and was finally separated from his wife, who was not inconsolable on that accourt. He was removed in 1775 to the castle of Joux ; and, having liberty to walk out on parole, he formed an ardent attachment for Sophie Monnier, un- hapiMly married to a man four times older than herself. With her he eloped in 1776, and went to Amsterdam, where he earned fair wages by translating Watson's " Philip II." and doing other literary jobs. The parlia- ment of Besan9on indicted him for abduction, and sen- tenced him to death. In May, 1777, the police-officers arrested him in Holland and consigned him to the prison of Vincennes, where he was kept forty-two months, ap- parently ruined, but still indomitable in spirit. Presenting himself before the court which had condemned him as contumacious, he pleaded his cause with such power that the sentence was annulled. He again met his father on amicable terms ; for it is recorded among his few conventional virtues that he loved his father to the end. The marquis, however, left him to his own resources for a supply of money. From about 1783 to 1788 he led a wandering life in England, France, and Germany, supporting himself by his wits, teeming with grand projects, and often en- gaging in questionable intrigues. Under the auspices of Franklin, he published an eloquent essay "On the Order of Cincinnatus," (1784,) which was followed by a tract " On the Opening of the Scheldt." A polemical tract on the water-company of Paris, in reply to Beau- marchais, produced a prodigious effect. In 1786 Calonne (partly from a desire to remove him out of the way) sent him on a secret mission to Berlin, where he met the Great Frederick, and collected materials for an important work, — " The Prussian Monarchy," — which appeared in € as k", 9 as j; g hard; g as/; g, h, y., guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; *h as in this. (2i:^See Explanations, p. 23.) MIRABEAU 1594 MIRANDA 1788. The States-General, which were convoked for May, 1789, offered to him a congenial arena for the exertion of his gigantic energies against the system of organized injustice and oppression which for ages had afflicted France. After he had been rejected with con- tempt by the noblesse of^ Provence, he was chosen tri- umphantly by the Tiers-Etat of Aix and Marseilles. He preferred to represent Aix, Aiming at reform by mod- erate means, he made overtures for co-operation with the ministry, l)ut was coldly received by Necker, and went away in ill humour. On the 23d of June, 1789, he gave a decisive direction to the Revolution by his famous speech in reply to the king's usher, De Breze, who re- minded the Assembly that the king had ordered them to disperse : — "The Commons of France have resolved to deliberate. We have heard what the king has been advised to say ; and you, who cannot act as his organ in the States-General, — you, who have here neither seat nor vote nor right of speech, — you are not the person to remind us of it. Go and tell your master that we are here by the will of the nation, and that nothing but the power of bayonets can drive us hence !" The usher quickly vanished, and Mirabeau became the master-spirit of the National Assembly. " Mirabeau's spiritual gift," says Carlyle, " will be found to be verily an honest and great one ; far the strongest, best practical intellect of that time." His brief and pithy sentences became the watchwords of the Revolution ; "his gestures were com- mands, his motions were coups d'etat^ Exchanging the role of tribune for that of a statesman, he soared above the intrigues of party and the ideal abstractions that were in vogue. " Where others grope darkly," says Lamartine, " he aims surely, he advances directly. . . . The philosophy of the eighteenth century, modified by prudence and policy, flows out all formulized from his lips. His eloquence, imperative as law, is only the gift of impassioned reasoning." He advocated the abolition of the double aristocracy of lords and bishops, the spoliation of the Church, and the formation of the national guard, but he demanded for the king an absolute veto and the initiative in making war and peace. One of his greatest triumphs as an orator was won over Barnave, on the latter question, in 1790. Loud explosions of popular fury greeted him when it was known that he favoured the royal veto. As he en- tered the Assembly to speak on the question, he said to a friend, *' I will either leave the House in triumph, or be torn to fragments." He gained his point, and re- stored his popularity. In the last part of his career he became more conservative, and formed a secret alliance with the court, from which he received large sums of money. He doubtless cherished an ambition to be prime minister of France. In January, 1 791, he was chosen president of the Na- tional Assembly. "Never had this office been so well filled," says Dumont. On parting with Dumont, who left Paris at the date just named, Mirabeau said, " I shall die at the stake, and we shall never, perhaps, meet again. That base faction whom I now overawe [the Jacobins] will again be let loose upon the country. I have none but direful anticipations." He died April 2, 1791. A^iong his last words were, " Envelop me with perfumes and crown me with flowers, that I may pass away into everlasting sleep." His strong constitution had been ruined by inordinate passions and immoral pleasures carried to the greatest excess, but veiled under a decorous exterior after he had attained eminence as a legislator. He had the art of enlisting men of talents in his service and appropriating their productions, on which he im- pressed the seal of his originality. Dumont, Claviere, and Duroverai were, perhaps, the chief persons who thus assisted him. Mirabeau had given development and outward form to the French Revolution ; but to control it was beyond his power. His indomitable will might for a time direct or overawe the fury of the populace ; but he possessed no virtues which could inspire the better portion of the people with that trust and confi- dence without which there can be no stability for any government. Alluding to the resemblance between Mirabeau and Chatham, Macaulay observes, " Sudden bursts which seemed to be the effect of inspiration, short sentences which came like lightning, dazzling, burning, striking down everything before them, ... in these chiefly lay the oratorical power both of Chatham and Mirabeau. . . . In true dignity of character, in private and public virtue, it may seem absurd to institute any comparison between them ; but they had the same haughtiness and vehemence of temper. In their language and manner there was a disdainful self-confidence, an imperiousness before which all common minds quailed. . . . There have been far greater speakers and far greater statesmen than either of them ; but we doubt whether any men have, in modern times, exercised such vast personal influence over stormy and divided assemblies." (Article on " Dumont's Recol- lections of Mirabeau," in Macaulay's "Essays.") See Mirabeau, "A Life- History," London, 2 vols., 1S48 ; Lamar- tine, "History of the Girondists," book i. ; Carlyle, "Essays," vol. i. ; Brougham, "Statesmen of the Time of George IIL," 2d series; Chaussard, " Esprit de Mirabeau," 2 vols., 1797: Victor Hugo, " fitude sur Mirabeau," 1834: F. Lewitz, "Mirabeau, Bild seines Lebens," etc., 2 vols., 1852-53; Cadet de Gassicourt, " Essai sur la Vie priv^e de Mirabeau," 1800 ; J. Merilhou, " Essai historique sur la Vie de Mirabeau," 1825; Louis de Montignv, " Memoires biographiques, litteraires et politiques de Mirabeau," 8 vols., 1833-41 ; Dumont, "Souvenirs sur Mirabeau," 1832; Pithou, " Abrege de la Vie de Mirabeau," 1791 ; " Memoires sur Mirabeau et son fipoque," (anonymous,) Paris, 4 vols., 1824; Schneidewind, " Mirabeau und seine Zeit," 1831. Mirabeau, de, (Jean Antoine Riquetti,) Mar- quis, surnamed Silverstock, a brave French officer, born in Provence in 1666, was the grandfather of the great orator Mirabeau. His ancestors, the Arrighettis, were exiled from Florence in 1267. He was called " Ven- dome's right arm." At the battle of Cassano, in 1706, where he commanded a regiment, he received twenty- seven wounds, one of which was in the neck. In conse- quence of this, he wore a silver stock to support his head. He married, and lived many years after that action. See " Memoires de Mirabeau;" Carlyle, "Essays," vol. i. Mirabeau, de, (Victor Riquetti,) Marquis, the self-styled "Friend of Men." born at Perthuis in 1715, was the son of the preceding, and father of the great orator. A proud, eccentric person, of violent passions and powerful intellect, he was regarded as the reverse of a "friend" by most men who had intercourse with him. His hobby was Political Economy, in which he was a disciple of Du Quesnay. He published on that science able and voluminous works, some of which were re- ceived with favour. His "Friend of Men," ("Ami des Homines,") which appeared about 1755, made a great sensation, tliough its style was extremely rugged, quaint, and tortuous. He lived mostly in Paris, and was am- bitious to diiect affairs of state. It is reported that he obtained from the ministry no less than fifty-four lettres de cachet, arbitrary warrants to imprison his children and others. Die£lini789. " Out of all which circumstances," says Carlyle, "there has come forth this Marquis de Mirabeau, shaped into one of the most singular, sublime pedants that ever stepped the soil of France. There never entered the brain of Hogarth or of rare old Ben such a piece of humour as in this brave old Riquetti nature has presented us ready-made. For withal there is such genius in him, rich depth of character, inde- structible cheerfulness and health breaking out in spite of these divorce-papers, like strong sunlight in thundery weather." Mirabella, me-rl-bel'li, (Vincenzo,) an Italian anti- quary, born at Syracuse in 1570. He wrote a "History of Syracuse," and other works. Died in 1624. Miraeus. See Lemire. Miramon, me-rS-m6n', (Miguel,) a Mexican general, born about 1832. He became the leader of the clerical party which began to wage war against Juarez in 1858. He was defeated in a decisive battle in December, i860, and went into exile. He afterwards returned, and fought for Maximilian, and was executed with him in June, 1867. Miranda, me-rin'dS, (Francisco,) a South American patriot, born at Caraccas about 1750. Having entered the French army, he served in the American campaigns of 1779 and 1 781, and in 1792 l^ecame general of division under Dumouriez. In the campaign of 1793 he was defeated by the allies at Neerwinden, and was brought to a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; ai» e, o, obscure; fSr> fill, f^t; mSt; ndt; good; moon; MIRANDA 1595 MITCHELL trial for mismanagement on this occasion, but he was acquitted. Being condemned by the Directory in 1797, he took refuge in England, and on his return to Paris, in 1803, was a second time banished. He sailed in 1806 to Venezuela, where he made an unsuccessful attempt to found a republic. He was arrested in 181 2 by the Spanish government, and imprisoned at Cadiz, where he died in 1816. See J. Biggs. " History of Miranda's Attempt to effect a Revo- lution in South America;" Dumouriez, "Memoires." Miranda, de, d^ me-rSu'dS, (Don Juan Garcia,) a Spanish artist, born at Madrid in 1677, became painter to the king, Philip V. Died in 1749. There were several other painters of the same family. See Cean-Bekmudez, " Diccionario Historico," etc. Miranda, de, da me-r&n'dl, (Sa,) one of the earliest Portuguese poets, born at Coimbra about 1495. He was one of the founders of Portuguese literature, and is said to have been the first to emjjloy the metres of Dante and Petrarch. He was the author of sonnets and dramas, but his reputation rests chiefly on his poetical epistles and eclogues. Died in 1558. See Barbosa Machado, " Bibliotheca Lnsitana;" Bouterwek, " Histoire litteraire ;" A. deVarnhagen, "O Panorama." Mirandola. See Pico della Mirandola, Mirbel, de, deh mhWhlV, (Charles FRANgois Bris- SEAU,) an eminent French botanist, born in Paris in 1776. He was appointed by the empress Josephine superintendent of the gardens of Malmaison in 1803, and in 1808 became a member of the Academy of Sciences, and adjunct professor of botany and vegetable physiology to the Faculty of Sciences. He afterwards held several public offices, and in 1828 was appointed professor of culture in the Jardin des Plantes. Among his principal works are "Elements of Botany and Vegetable Physi- ology," (3 vols., 1 81 5,) and "Natural History of Vege- tables," etc., (15 vols., 1826,) written in conjunction with Lamarck, also " Researches on the Marchantia Poly- morpha," and other treatises of great value, contributed to the "Journal de Physique" and various other scien- tific periodicals. He likewise assisted Sonnini in his •* Natural History of Plants." Died in 1854. See Payen, " filoge historique de M. de Mirbel," 1858; " Noii- velle Bio!;rapliie Generale." Mirbel, de, (Lizi.nska Aim6e Zot Ruf,) the wife of the preceding, was born at Cherbourg in 1796. She ac- quired a high reputation as a miniature-painter. Among her best works may be named the portraits of Louis Philippe, the Duke of Orleans, the Count of Paris, Madame Guizot, and fimile de Girardin. She obtained several medals, and was appointed after the restoration miniature-painter to the king. Died in 1849. See "Journal des Beaux- Arts," 1849. Mirecourt, m^R^kooR', (Charles Jean Baptiste Jacquot,) called Eugene de Mirecourt, a French lit- teratejir, born at Mirecourt, in Vosges, in 1812. He pro- duced a work called " Portrait-Gallery of Contempo- raries," ("Galerie des Contemporains," 60 vols., 1854- 57,) in which he iiululged in offensive personalities. He was prosecuted bv Lamennais, George Sand, and others. Mirepoix, de, deh m^R'pwa', (Charles Pierre Gaston Franqc^is de Levis — deh Ik've',) Due, a French general, born in 1699. He became a marshal of France in 1757. Died in 1 758. Mirevelt. See Mierfvelt. Mir'i-am, [Heb. a prophetess, a sister of Moses, the Hebrew lawgiver. She sang a song of tri- umph after the children of Israel had passed through the Red Sea. See Exodus xv. 20; Nnmliers xii. Mirkhond, mir'Kond', a celebrated Persian histo- rian, horn in 1433, ^^^^ '^'"'^ author of a work entitled " Garden of Purity, or History of Prophets, Kings, and Caliphs." There are manuscripts of this history in the libraries of Paris, London, Berlin, and Vienna, and por- tions of it have been translated into French and several other languages. Died in 1498. Miromesnil, de, deh me'ro'mi'n^K, (Armand Tho- mas Hue,) a French minister of state, born in the Or- leannais in 1723. He was keeper of the seals from 1774 to 1787. Died in 1796. Mirza. See MeerzA. Mi-se'nus, [Gr. M^ctt^voc; Fr. Mis^ne, me'z^n',] a Trojan warrior, distinguished for his valour and his skill as a trumpeter, was called ^Eoi/ides by Virgil. After the capture of Troy, he went to Italy with ^Eneas, whom he served as a trumpeter. He is said to have been drowned by a Triton who was envious of his musical skill. See Virgil's "^Eneid," book vi. 162-174. Misri-EfFendi, mis'ree ^f-fln'dee, a Turkish poet and enthusiast, born in Egypt about 1660. He cele- brated in verse the incarnation of Jesus Christ. Died in 1710. Missiessy, me'se'^'se', (Edouard Thomas Bur- GUES,) a French admiral, born in Provence in 1754. He commanded a squadron which, in May, 1805, was sent to the Antilles, and in 1809 commanded the naval forces at Antwerp. Died in 1832. Misson, me's^N', (Francois Maximilten,) a French writer, born at Lyons, was of a Protestant family, and settled in England after the revocation of the edict of Nantes. Having visited Italy in 1687, he published, after his return, an account of his travels, which was commended by Addison for its lively and faithful de- scriptions. Died in 1721. Mitch'el, (John,) an Irish adventurer, born in the county of Derry in 181 5. He was for a time associate editor of the Dublin " Nation," and subsequently of " The United Irishman," which, however, was soon sup- pressed by the British government, and Mitchel was sen- tenced to fourteen years' banishment to Australia in 1848. Having effected his escape in 1854, he came to New York, and subsequently settled in Tennessee, where he edited "The Southern Citizen." Soon after the breaking out of the war of 1 861, he became editor of the Richmond "Examiner," one of the most violent and scurrilous of the secession journals. Mitchel, (Ormsby Macknight,) an eminent Ameri- can astronomer, born in Union county, Kentucky, in 1810. Having graduated at West Point in 1829, he became in 1834 professor of mathematics, philosophy, and astronomy at Cincinnati College, Ohio. He first suggested the erection of an observatory at Cincinnati, and the successful accomplishment of the enterprise was chiefly due to his eff"orts ; and the institution, of which he became director, was provided through his exertions with one of the finest telescopes to be found in the United States. He delivered popular lectures on astronomy at various places, and published, besides other works, " Planetary and Stellar Worlds," which was very favour- ably received. In 1859 he became director of the Dud- ley Observatory at Albany. He was appointed a briga- dier-general in the Union army in August, 1861. He moved with a small army from Tennessee to Alabama in April, 1862, surprised Huntsville, and distinguished himself by his energy. Having been promoted to the rank of major-general, he was appointed commander of the department of the South, about August, 1862. He died of yellow fever at Beaufort, South Carolina, in October of that year. Mitch'ell, (Sir Andrew,) a distinguished diplomatist, born in Edinburgh about 1695, was elected to Parlia- ment in 1747, and in 1751 was appointed resident min- ister at Brussels. He was ambassador-extraordinary to Berlin in 1753, and acquired considerable influence over Frederick the Great, whom he succeeded in detaching from the interests of France. Died in 1 771. See " Memoirs and Papers of Sir Andrew Mitchell," by A. Bis- .sett, 1850; Thi^bault, "Souvenirs de vingt Ans de Sejour ^ Berlin." Mitchell, (Andrew,) a Scottish naval ofiicer, born about 1757, attained the rank of vice-admiral of the white in 1799, and in 1802 was appointed commander- in-chief on the coast of America. Died in 1806. Mitchell, (Sir David,) a naval commander under the reign of William HI., rose to be rear-admiral of the blue in 1693. He was afterwards employed in important missions to Russia and Holland. Died in 1710. Mitch'ell, (Donald Grant,) a distinguished Ameri- can writer, born at Norwich, Connecticut, in 1822. Having graduated at Yale College in 1841, he made the tour of Europe, and published after his return, under € as k; 9 as s; f hard; g as j; G, H, K^gitttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jp^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MITCHELL MIT FORD the pseudonym of Ik Marvel, " Fresh Gleanings ; or, A New Sheaf from the Old Fields of Continental Europe," (1847.) Mis *' Reveries of a Bachelor" came out in 1850, and "Dream Life" in 1851 : the former was received with great favour. lie has also been a contributor to the " Knickerbocker Magazine" and the ** Atlantic Monthly." He was appointed in 1853 United States consul at Venice. His agricultural writings have been received with much favour. One of his latest works is entitled " My Farm of Edgevvood," (1863.) Mitchell, (Elisha,) D.D., an American chemist and divine, born in Litchfield county, Connecticut, in 1793, became professor of mathematics in the University of North Carolina in 181 7, and subsequently of chemistry in the same institution. Heing appointed State surveyor, he first discovered the fact that the mountains of North Carolina are the highest in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. While exploring one of these heights, in, 1857, he was killed by a fall from a precipice. His name has been given to one of the highest summits. Mitchell, (John Kearsley,) M.D., an American physician, born in Jefferson county, Virginia, in 1796. He graduated at the University of Pennsylvania, and in 1 841 became professor of the theory and practice of medicine in Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia. He published a treatise "On the Cryptogamous Origin of Malarious and Epidemic Fevers," (1849,) and lectures on scientific subjects, which are highly esteemed and have been translated into foreign languages. Died in 1858. Mitchell, (Joseph,) a Scottish poet and dramatist, born about 1685, was the author of a tragedy entitled "The Fatal Extravagance," "The Highland Fair," a ballad opera, and a number of poems. Died in 1738. See Gibber. "Lives of the Poets." Mitchell, (Maria,) a distinguished American astron- omer, horn in the island of Nantucket in 1818. She has published, besides other astronomical treatises, a me- moir on a telescopic comet discovered by her in 1847. A gold medal was conferred upon her by the King of Denmark for this discovery. Miss Mitchell was ap- pointed professor of astronomy at Vassar College soon after the opening of that institution in 1865. See "Woman's Record of Distinguished Women," by Mrs. S. J. Hale. Mitchell, (Robert B.,) an American general, born in Ohio about 1825. He became a brigadier-general of the Union army about April, 1862, and commanded a division at Perryville, October 8 of that year. Mitchell, (S. Weir,) M.D., an American physician and physiologist, a son of Dr. J. K. Mitchell, noticed above, vi^as born in Philadelphia, February 15, 1829. He graduated at the Jefferson Medical College in 1850. He has particularly distinguished himself by his researches on the chemical nature and physiological action of the venom of serpents. Among his numerous contributions to medical science we may name "Researches upon the Venom of the Rattlesnake," etc., published among the Smithsonian Contributions, (i860,) "Experiments and Observations upon the Circulation in the Chelonura Serpentina," (Snapping-Turtle,) etc., published among the Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, 1862, and " Researches on the Physiology of the Cerebel- lum," (see the "American Journal of Medical Sciences" for April, 1869.) He has also published (with Drs. Keen and Morehouse) an excellent work on the "Effects of Gunshot Wounds and other Injuries of the Nerves," (1864.) Dr. Mitchell is a member of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, and of numerous other scientific institutions. Mitchell, (Thomas,) an eminent English scholar, born in London in 1783. He studied at Pembroke Col- lege, Cambridge, and in 1813 began the publication of a series of essays on Aristophanes and Athenian manners, in the "Quarterly Review," which won for him a high reputation. He afterwards published an excellent trans- lation of several comedies of Aristophanes into English verse ; also an edition of Sophocles, and five dramas of Aristophanes, (with English notes.) He died in 1845, leaving unfinished an edition of his " Pentalogia Aris- tophanica." See " Edinburgh Review" for November, 1820. Mitchell, (Sir Thomas Livingstone,) a Scottish traveller, born in Stirlingshire in 1792. He served in the Spanish campaigns from 1808 to 1814, and in 1827 sailed to Australia, where he was soon after appointed surveyor-general. He gave the name of Australia Felix to a region hitherto unexplored, and ascertained the courses of the Glenelg, the Darling, and other rivers. He published, among other works, " Outlines of a Sys- tem of Surveying for Geographical and Military Pur- poses," (1827,) "Three Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia," etc., (2 vols., 1838,) and " Australian Geography," etc., (1850.) He was a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Geographical Society. Died in 1855. Mitch'ill, (Samuel Latham,) M.D., LL.D., an Ameri- can physician and naturalist, born on Long Island in 1764. In 1786 he graduated as doctor of medicine at the Uni- versity of Edinburgh. He became in 1792 professor of chemistry, natural history, and philosophy in Columbia College, New York. He was for many years associate editor of the " Medical Repository." He was elected to the United States Senate in 1804, and in 1820 was appointed professor of botany and materia medica in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. He published "Observations on the Absorbent Tubes of Animal Bodies," and other scientific works. Died in 1831. See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i. ; DuvCKiNCK, " Cyclopasdia of American Literature," vol. i. Mitelli, me-teKIee, or Metelli, mk-tel'lee, (Agos- TINO,) an Italian painter and engraver of great merit, born near Bologna in 1609, was a pupil of Dentone and Falcetta. His principal works are perspective and ar- chitectural pieces, in which his friend Michael Angelo Colonna painted the figures. Among their master- pieces are the frescos in the palace of Cardinal Spada at Rome. Mitelli died in 1660, at Madrid, whither he had been invited by Philip IV. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Mitelli, (Giuseppe Maria,) an Italian painter and engraver, born in 1634, was a son of the preceding. His prints after Correggio and the Caracci are ranked among his best works. Died in 1718. Mifford, (John,) an English writer and journalist, was editor of the " Bon-Ton Magazine," " Quizzical Gazette," and other periodicals of the kind. He was the author of a naval romance entitled "Johnny New- come in the Navy," and several popular ballads. Died in 183 1. See TiMPERLEV, " Encyclopeedia of Literary Anecdote." Mitford, (John Freeman,) an English statesman and jurist, born in 1748, was a brother of the historian, noticed below. He studied at New College, Oxford, and, having been admitted to the bar, was elected to Parliament for Beer- Alston in 1789. He became attorney- general in 1799, Speaker of the House of Commons in 1801, and in 1802 lord chancellor of Ireland, being created at the same time a peer, with the title of Baron Redesdale. On the death of Mr, Pitt he resigned his office of chancellor. Died in 1830. Mitford, (Mary Russell,) a charming English writer, born in Hampshire in 1786. Her father was a physiciari of more than ordinary talent and culture, whose improvi- dence, however, and luxurious tastes had involved him in pecuniary embarrassment. In order to relieve his necessities. Miss Mitford devoted herself to authorship at an early age, and published in 1806 three volumes of poems, which met with severe criticism from some of the leading journals. Her next publications were the tragedies of "Julian," (1823,) "The Foscari," (1826,) " Rienzi," (1828,) and "Charles I.," several of which were favourably received. She had previously contrib- uted to the " Ladies' Magazine" a series of sketches of English life, which appeared in 1832 under the title of "Our Village," etc., (5 vols,) The genial spirit, graceful simplicity, and freshness of feeling displayed in these tales won for them the favour of all classes, and they passed rapidly through many editions. Among Miss Mitford's other works we may name " Belford Regis; or. Sketches of a Country Town," "Stories of American Life by American Writers," "Recollections a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, ?, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, f^t; n\lv, ndt; good; moon; MITFORD 1597 MITSCHERLICH of a Literary Life," (3 vols., 1852,) and " Atherton, and other Tales," (1854.) Died in 1855. See the " Life of Mary Russell Mitford, told by herself in Letters to her Friends," edited by the Rev. A. G. K. L'Estrange, Lon- don, 1870; "London Quarterly Review" for December, 1824; " Blackwood's Mai^azine" for June, 1854. Mitford, (William,) an English historian, born in London in 1 744. He entered Queen's College, Oxford, and subsequently studied law at the Middle Temple. He was appointed in 1769 a captain in the South Hamp- shire Militia, where he acquired the friendship of Gib- bon, the future historian, at that time an officer in the same regitnent. Mitford published in 1774 his " Inquiry into the Principles of Harmony in Languages," which was followed by a "Treatise on the Military Force," etc. Having visited France and Italy, he was appointed, after his return, lieutenant-colonel of the Hampshire Militia, (1779,) and was subsequently returned to Parlia- ment, as a Tory, for Newport, Beer- Alston, and New Romney. He brought out in 1784 the first volume of his " History of Greece," completed in five volumes in 1818. Its style is characterized by great spirit and warmth of colouring, and displays uncommon learning and research, but it is strongly tinctured with the anti- democratic prejudices of the author. Died in 1827. "The Athenian democracy," says an able critic in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale," " is treated by him with extreme injustice. Scarcely anything can be ima- gined more partial or more false than his picture of the great conflict between Athens and Philip of Macedon. Philip, as he represents him, unites the perfections of a king, a hero, and an accomplished statesman ; Demos- thenes, on the contrary, is a demagogue, violent, venal, and dishonest." " Mitford's History of Greece is," says DeQuincey, "as nearly perfect in its injustice as human infirmity will allow." See Macaulav, Review of "Mitford's History of Greece;" " Edinburgh Review" for July, 180S ; " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1821 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mith'rat or Mith'ras, [Gr. Wtdpaq ; Lat. Mn h'ras ; Sanscrit, Mit'ra or Mitras,] a deity of the ancient Persians, usually regarded as the god of the sun ; but he is more properly the god of day, and, in a higher and more extended sense, the god of light, presiding over the movements and influence of the principal heavenly bodies, including the five planets and the sun and moon. By the followers of Zoroaster he was regarded as the chief of the Izeds, (a class of angelic beings,) and in a particular manner as presiding over the light which mortals enjoy on earth, (but as distinct from the sun,) and as a mediator between men and Ormuzd. The primary signification of the Sanscrit Mitra is a " friend ;" and Mithra would seem to be the representative of light as the friend of mankind and as the mediator between earth and heaven. In this character of medi- ator, as well as in some other respects, he would seem to approach the character of Agni, (which see.) In the time of the emperors the worship of Mithra was introduced extensively into Italy and other parts of the Roman empire. He is usually represented as a hand- some young man, seated or kneeling on a bull, into which he is thrusting the sacrificial knife ; at his side are the evening and morning star, and near at hand a dog, a lion, and other animals, the signification of which is at present very imperfectly understood. See GuiGNiAUT, "Religions de I'Antiquite," vol. i. book ii. ; "Biographie Universelle," (Partie mythologique.) Mithridate. See Mithri dates. Mith-ri-da'tes, [Gr. 'M.LdpLdu.Tri^ or MLdpaSarTjc; Fr. Mithridate, me'tRe'dtt',] a Persian name, borne by several kings of Pontus, who were descended from Artabazes, a Persian noble. It is supposed to be de- rived from Mithra, (the sun,) and signifies "given by the sun." Little is known of Mithridates I., who was the son of Ariobarzanes. Mithridates II., the son of Ariobarzanes II., began to reign about 337 b.c. He extended his dominions by conquest, and was called the founder of the kingdom of Pontus. In a war with Antigonus he was defeated, made prisoner, and put to death, about 303 B.C. Mithridates III., a son of the preceding, succeeded his father, and made conquests in Paphlagonia. He died after a reign of thirty-six years, and was succeeded by his son, Ariobarzanes III. See Clinton, " Fasti Hellenici.' Mithridates IV., of Pontus, the son of Ariobarzanes III., began to reign probably about 245 B.C., when he was a minor. He waged a successful war against Seleucus Callinicus, who, to obtain peace, gave him his own sister in marriage, with one or two provinces as a dowry. He is supposed to have died in 190 B.C. His successor was Pharnaces I. Mithridates V., surnamed Evergetes, was a grand- son of the preceding, and a son of Pharnaces I., whom he succeeded in 156 B.C. He was a steadfast ally of the Romans, who ceded to him the province of Phrygia. After a peaceful reign, he died about 122 B.C. Mithridates VI., King of Pontus, surnamed Eu'pa- TOR, and more commonly called the Great, born about 135 B.C., was the son of Mithridates V., whom he suc- ceeded about the age of fifteen. He had great political and military talents, and is said to have been master of twenty-five languages. In the early part of his reign he found scope for his ambition in the conquest of Colchis and of the Scythian tribes which roamed on the north of the Euxine. His attempt to acquire Cappadocia by fraud and force was resisted by the Roman senate about 93 B.C. After forming an alliance with Tigranes, King of Armenia, — then the most powerful monarch of Asia, — he took the field in the year 88 with about 250,000 men, and defeated the Romans in several actions. In the same year he instigated a general massacre of the Romans resident in Asia Minor, of whom it was com- puted that 80,000 fell in one day. In the year 87 he sent a large army into Greece, where he was o])posed by Sulla and defeated at Chaeronea, 86 B.C. Tiinbria, with another Roman army, invaded Bi- thynia and gained a decisive victory in the year 85. The next year Sulla and Mithridates made a treaty of peace, by which the latter abandoned his recent conquests. Muraena, who had obtained command of the Roman army, with some flimsy pretext renewed hostilities, and was completely defeated on the river Halys in 82 B.C. As the Roman senate had not ratified the treaty which he signed with Sulla, Mithridates made great preparations for war, which was renewed in 74, when two Roman armies, under Lucullus and Gotta, entered Bithynia. De- feated with great loss by Lucullus at Cyzicus and Cabiri, Mithridates, retarding the pursuit of the Romans by the riches he threw in their way, took refuge in the kingdom of Tigranes (who was his son-in-law) about 72 B.C., and gave orders that his wives Monima, Berenice, etc. should be jiut to death. Tigranes, having espoused his cause, was defeated at Tigranocerta by Lucullus in 69, and at Artaxata in 68 B.C. Mithridates then entered Pontus, and in 67 B.C. gained a great victory over the Romans under Triarius, and re- covered his kingdom. Lucullus, whose victorious career had been interrupted by a mutiny of his troops, was superseded in 66 by Pompey the Great, who soon ter- minated the war. After losing a battle, the King of Pontus fled to Lake Masotis, (now the Sea of Azov,) and offered terms of peace, to which Pompey did not accede. While he was busy in raising a new army among the Scythians and other barbarous tribes, his son Pharnaces conspired against him, so that, to avoid the fate of a caj^tive, he took poison, in the year 63 B.C. After Han- nibal, Mithridates was the most formidable enemy Rome ever encountered. Cicero considered him superior in power and character to any other king against whom the Romans ever waged war. See Appian, " Mithridatica ;" Livv, " Jfistory of Rome ;" Jus- TW, "History;" Woltersdorf, " Commertatio Vitam Mithridatis Magni per annos digestam sistens," 1813; Dion Cassius, " Frag- inenta;" Plutarch, "Life of Lucullus;" 'Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" Clinton, "Fasti Hellenici;" Niebuhr, "Kleine Schriften." Mith-ri-da'tis, [Gr. Mt^paJanc,] a daughter of the preceding, died with her father by taking poison, B.C. 63. Mitscherlich,m!tsh'er-liK', (Christoph Wilhelm,) a distinguished German scholar, born in Thuringia in 1760, was professor of philosophy and rhetoric at Got- tingen. He published in 1800 an excellent edition of the Odes and Epodes of Horace. Died in 1854. € afl ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, ^ttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^See Explanations, p. 23.) MITSCHERLICH MODENA Mitscherlich, (Eilard,) an eminent German chem- ist, born near [ever in 1794. He studied at Heidelberg and Gottnigen, and in 1819 was invited to Stockholm by Berzelius, whose notice he had attracted by his valuable discoveries in isomorphism. After his return to Ger- many (1821) he became professor of chemistry at the University of Berlin, and a member of the Academy of Sciences in that city. He was chosen a member of the French Institute in 1852. He published a "Treatise on Chemistry," ("Lehrbuch der Chimie,"2 vols., 1829-40,) which has a very high reputation, and wrote contribu- tions to Poggendorf s " Annalen" and to other journals. Died in 1863. Mittarelli, m^t-td-reKlee, (Niccol6 Jacopo, after- wards Giovanni Benedetto,) an Italian theologian, born in Venice in 1707. He wrote a "History of the Camaldules," (" Annales Camaldulenses," 9 vols., 1755- 73,) a work of some merit. Died in 1777. Mittermaier, mit'ter-mi'er, (Karl Joseph Anton,) a celebrated German statesman and jurist, born in Munich in 1787. He was successively professor of law at Bonn and Heidelberg, president of the preparatory parliament at Frankfort in 1848, and soon after member of the National Assembly. He published a number of valuable legal treatises, among which we may name " The Common Civil Process of Germany compared with that of Prussia and France," (1826.) Mitzler (or Mizler) von Kolof, mits'ler fon ko'lof, (LoRENZ Chrisioph,) a German writer on music, born in Anspach in 17 11. He published a "Musical Library," (" Musikalische Bibliothek," 4 vols., 1736-54,) and other works. Died at Warsaw in 1778. Mjolnir. See Thor. Mnasalcas, na-siKkas, [Gr. Mi^aoaA/cac] an epigram- matic poet, a native of Sicyon, supposed by some to have lived in the time of Alexander the Great. Mnemon, nee'mon, a surname given to Artaxerxes on account of his retentive memory. Mnemosyne, ne-mos'i-ne, [Gr. UvTifioovvrj ; Fr. Mne- mosyne, na'mo'zen',] in the Grecian mythology, the goddess of memory, was the daughter of Uranus, and the mother of the nine Muses. Mnesicles, nes'e-klez, [Gr. MvijoiKTi^g,] an able Greek artist, of the age of Pericles, flourished about 433 B.C. He was the architect of the Propylaea of the Athenian Acropolis. Mnesimachus, ne-sim'a-kus, [Gr. MvTja'ifiaxoc ; Fr. MnEsimaque, na'ze'mSk',] an Athenian comic poet of the fourth century before the Christian era, was esteemed one of the finest writers of the so-called middle comedy. There are a few fragments of his plays extant. Mnestheus. See Menestheus. Mnioch, mnee'oK, (Johann Jakob,) a Prussian poet, born at Elbing in 1765, wrote a number of popular lyrics, among which we may name "The Song of the Grave," and " Song of the Masons at Saint John's Festival." Died in 1804. Mo'ab, [Heb. 3X10,] the son of Lot, was the father of the Moabites, who inhabited the country east of the Dead Sea and the Jordan. (See Genesis xix.) Mo^weeyah, Moawiyah, or Moawyah, mo-l^- wee'yah,* written also Muawia, Mauweiah, and Mo^- veah, [in German, Moawijah, Muav^ijjah, or Moa- WIJE,] a celebrated caliph, born at Mecca in 610 A.D., was the founder of the Omeyyad dynasty. He was the great-grandson of Omeyyah, who was the head of a powerful family of the Koreish, and cousin-german to Abd-el-Moottalib, the grandfather of Mohammed. He subjected Arabia to his power about 660, and deposed Hassan, the son of Alee, (Ali.) He was an able and successful but unscrupulous ruler. He died in 680, and was succeeded by his son, Yezeed, (Yezid.) His grand- son, MoAWEEYAH II., born in 660, became caliph in 683. He abdicated in 683 or 684 A.D. See Weil, " Gescliichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap. v. Mobius or Moebius, mo'be-Cis, (August Ferdi- nand,) a German astronomer and mathematician, born * There is a great diversity in the accentuation as well as in the spelling of this name. Hammer-Piirgstall, than whom there is no higher authority, places the full accent on the penultima; and we have thought it safe to follow his example. at Schulpforte in 1790. In 1844 he was appointed pro- fessor of astronomy at Leipsic. He published, among other scientific treatises, "The Barycentric Calculus, a New Expedient for the Analytic Treatment of Geome- try," (1827,) and "Manual of Statics," (1837.) Mocchetti, mok-ket'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian poet and physician, born at Como in 1766, published "Philosophical Odes." He became in 1815 physician to Caroline, Princess of Wales. Died in 1839. Mocchi, mok'kee, (Francesco,) an Italian sculptor, born near Florence in 1580 ; died in 1646. Mocenigo, mo-chi-nce'go, (Alvisio,) born in 1701, was elected Doge of Venice in 1763. He pursued a pacific policy. Died in 1778. Mocenigo, (Giovanni,) brother of Pietro, noticed below, was born in 1408. He was elected Doge of Venice in 1478. The country being devastated by famine and the plague, and at the same time invaded by the Turks, he made peace in 1479 with the Sultan, Mahomet II. Died in 1485. See Marino Sanuto, " Vite de' Duchi di Venezia." Mocenigo, (Luigi I.,) succeeded Pietro Loredano as Doge of Venice in 1570. The most important events of his rule were the capture of the isle of Cyprus by the Turks, and the victory of Lepanto, gained by the Vene- tians and their allies under Don John of Austria, (1571.) Died in 1577. See Daru, " Histoire de Venise." Mocenigo, (Luigi II.,) succeeded Valieri as doge in 1700. He governed with great wisdom and ability, and prevailed on the Venetians to keep a strict neutrality during the war of the Spanish succession. Died in 1709. See MuRATORi, "Annales d'ltalia." Mocenigo, (Pietro,) became Doge of Venice in 1474, having previously greatly distinguished himself in the wars against the Turks. Died in 1476. Mocenigo, (Sebastiano,) brother of Luigi IL, suc- ceeded Cornaco as Doge of Venice in 1722. Died in 1732. See Daru, " Histoire de Venise." Mocenigo, (Tommaso,) an able Venetian statesman, born in 1343. He was elected doge in 1414. The Vene- tian fleet defeated that of the Sultan in 1416. During his administration the republic was prosperous and power- ful. Died in 1423. See Marino Sanuto, "Vite de' Duchi di Venezia;" Antonio QuADRi, " Serto de' Dogi Mocenigo," 1840. Mocetto, mo-chet'to, (Girolamo,) an Italian artist, had a high reputation as an engraver. He lived about 1470-1500. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. Mochnacki, moK-nSt'skee, (Maurice,) a Polish patriot and historian, born in Galicia in 1804. He became in 1825 associate editor of the " Warsaw Jour- nal," and in 1830 published an excellent treatise "On the Polish Literature of the Nineteenth Century," which was instrumental in founding a new school of poetry in Poland. He was a prominent leader in the insurrection of 1830 against the Russian government. On the fall of Warsaw he took refuge in France, and began a " History of the Polish Revolution," which he did not live to complete. Died in 1834. Mocquard, mo'kta', (Constant,) a French poli- tician and litterateur, born at Bordeaux in 1 79 1. He practised law in his early life. During the reign of Louis Philippe he became a friend and adherent of Louis Napoleon, who in 1848 appointed him his private secretary. He performed an important part in the coup d'etat of December, 185 1, after which he was chef du cabinet of the emperor for many years. He publisiied a collection of criminal trials, " Nouvelles Causes cele- bres," (6 vols., 1847.) Died in 1864. Mo-deer', [Sw. pron. mo-dnr',] (Adolf,) a Swedish naturalist and economist, born in 1738, published several works. Died in 1799. Modena, mod'^-ni, (Gustavo.) a popular Italian writer and tragic actor, born at Venice in 1803. He made his debut in 1826 at Rome. He became an orator of the radical party during the revolutionary movement of 1847, and published "Popular Dialogues," ("Dialo- ghetti popolari.") S, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; mSon; MODENA 1599 MOHAMMED Modena, da, mod'i-nS, or Mutina, moo'te-nJ, (ToMMASu Barisini,) an eminent Italian painter, sup- posed to have been born at Modena in the early part of the fourteenth century. Among his master-pieces we may name an altar-piece of the Virgin and Child. See TiRABoscHi, " Notizie degli Artifici Modenesi." Mo-des-ti'nus He-ren'ni-us, a Roman jurist of the third century, was one of the counsellors of the emperor Alexander Severus, and was appointed preceptor to Maximinus the Younger. He wrote a number of legal works, of which only fragments are extant. Modi, mo'de, or MotSi, written also Mode, [that is, *' the Courageous," from a root cognate with the Danish mod and German vtutk, " courage,"] a son of Thor, des- tined to survive the destruction of the world at Ragna- rock. In the renovated world he will share with Magni the possession of their father's hammer, ( mjolnir,) and direct their efforts towards putting an end to all strife. See Thorpe, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Kevser, " Religion of the Northmen." Modigliano, mo-del-yl'no, (Gian Francesco,) an Italian painter, sometimes called Francesco da Forli, born at Forli about 1550. His works are principally historical pieces of a religious character, some of which have great merit. Mo'di-us, (Francois,) a Flemish philologist and jurist, born near Bruges in 1536 ; died in 1597. Moebius. See Mob i us. Moehler. See Mohler. Moehsen. See Mohsen. Moellendorf. See Mollendorf. Moeller. See Moller. Moerike. See Morike. Moeris, mee'ris, or Myris, mi'ris, [Gr. Mo?pt{- or Mi'pjf,] a king of Egypt, who, according to Herodotus, reigned about 1400 B.C. He is said to have been a pa- cific monarch, and to have adorned the kingdom with many monuments and temples, at Thebes, Edfou, fete. Moeris .ffilius, mee'ris ee'll-us, a Greek lexicog- rapher, surnamed AiTiciSTA, is supposed to have lived in the time of Adrian. His only work extant is a "Lexi- con Atticum," or vocabulary of Attic and Hellenic words. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca." Mocser. See Moser. Moffat, (Robert,) a Scottish missionary, born near Edinburgh in 1 795, set out for Africa about 1816. He spent more than twenty years in the southern part of that country, and about 1840 published Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa." He also translated the New Testament and Psalms into the Bechuana tongue. Mr. Moffat is father-in-law of the African explorer, Dr. Livingstone. Mohallal, mo-hdKlal, (Ada-Ben-Rebiah,) an Ara- bian poet, born at Diarbekir, lived about 600 A.D. He first fixed the rules and metre of Arabian poetry. He was an uncle of the poet Amrool-Kais. Mo-ham'med or Ma-hom'et,* written also Mo- hamed and Muhammed, [Arabic pron. mo-ham'- med ; Fr. Mahomet, mSVmy ; Ger. Mohammed, mo- him^mSt, or Muhammed, mdo-hSm'mgt ; It. Maometto, mi-o-met'to, or Macometto, mS-ko-met'to ; Lat. Mo- Ham^'med or (rarely) Moham'medes, (gen. of both, Mo- HAMMEDis,) or Muhammed ; Port. Mafoma, mi-fo'ml ; Sp. Mahomet, mS-o-m^t',] a celebrated religious teacher and pretended prophet, the founder of one of the most widely diffused religions of the globe, was born at Mecca about 570 A.D. The year of his birth is not positively ascertained ; the authorities are divided between 571 and 569, but the former date appears to be generally regarded as the more probable one. Both his parents belonged to the Koreish, at that time the most influential of all the Arabian tribes. His father, Abdallah, who was of the family of Hashem, was regarded as the handsomest youth of his time. He married A'minah, of the noble family Zohrah. Their only child was Mohammed, the * This name is often pronounced, especially by the poets, mah'- ho-met'orma'ho-met, an accentuation derived, in all probability, from the French. (See Introduction, page 13.) Mahom'et (with the accent on the penultima) is not only the prevailing English pronunciation, but it corresponds more nearly with the Arabic. future prophet. Aminah possessed, it is said, a pecu- liarly nervous temperament, and used to fancy, while between sleeping and waking, that she was visited by spirits. It is probable that Mohammed inherited from his mother his constitutional tendency to epilepsy, as well as his most remarkable mental peculiarities. Many mar- vellous stories are told of the circumstances attending his birth. It is related, among other things, that his mother experienced none of the pangs of travail. As soon as her child was born, he raised his eyes to heaven, exclaiming, " There is no God but God, and I am his prophet !" That same night the fire of Zoroaster, which, guarded by the Magi, had burned uninterruptedly for more than a thousand years, was suddenly extinguished, and all the idols in the world fell down.t When his son was only two months old, Abdallah died ; (according to some accounts, he died two months before the birth of Mohammed.) Aminah for a short time nursed her infant herself, but sorrow soon dried the fountains of her breast, and the young child was committed to the care of Haleemah, (Halimah,) a shep- herd's wife, with whom he remained about five years. It is related that when Haleemah showed the child to a celebrated soothsayer, (Kahin,) who was an idolater, the latter exclaimed, " Kill this child !" Haleemah snatched away her precious charge and fled. Afterwards the Kahin explained to the excited multitude : " I swear by all the gods," said he, "that this child will kill those who belong to your faith ; he will destroy your gods, and he will be victorious over you." When Mohammed was four years old, he was seized, while at play, with a nervous fit, which was supposed to be epilepsy. As this disease was ascribed to supernatural influence, his nurse was alarmed, and was anxious to return him to his mother ; but she was at last prevailed on to keep him somewhat longer. When he had completed his sixth year, his mother died. For the next two years he lived with his grandfather, Abd-el-Moottalib, who appears to have regarded him with great fondness. At his death, Abd-el-Moottalib recommended the orphan to the care of his son, the noble-minded Aboo-Talib. When only twelve years old, Mohammed accompanied his uncle on a trading expedition to Syria. Near Bostra they met with an Arabian monk named Baheera or Ser- gius. It is said that Aboo-Tilib, for some reason not explained, found it necessary to send the young Mo- hammed home again, and that Sergius took charge of him and accompanied him to Mecca. Early Christian biographers assert that Mohammed received his revela- tions from this monk ; and he himself tells us in the Koran that he was accused of having been taught by a foreigner. It is not improbable that on his different journeys to Syria he learned many facts respecting the religions of Western Asia ; but how far the knowledge of such facts influenced his future career must ever remain a subject of conjecture. When Mohammed was twenty-five years of age, his uncle, Aboo-Talib, proposed to him that he should take charge of the merchandise which Khadijah, (or Khadee'- jah,) a rich widow of Mecca, was about to send to the markets of Syria. He accepted the proposal, and appears to have fulfilled his charge with judgment and with entire fidelity. Khadijah was so well pleased with him on his return that she offered him her hand. Although she was forty (lunar) years of age, and he but twenty-five, it was considered by the family of Mohammed as a very desirable connection. Their nuptials were celebrated with a magnificent feast and great rejoicings. This mar- riage raised Mohammed to an equal position with the wealthiest inhabitants of Mecca. His moral character, moreover, appears to have inspired universal esteem and confidence, and he was generally known by the sur- name of El-Ameen, (El-Amin,) or "the Faithful." For several years after his marriage he continued his com- mercial journeys, visiting, with the caravans, the Arabian fairs and markets of Syria. But, being now above the necessity of anxiously toiling for a subsistence, he had leisure to give free scope to the natural tendency of his t It may be proper to observe that some of the most wonderful of these stories are not found in the earlier accounts of Mohammed's life, and are clearly the inventions of a later age. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, h, yl, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) MOHJMMED 1600 MOHAMMED mind, which inclined him to religious meditation and speculation. ** He had," says Carlyle, " no school learn- ing ; of the thing we call school learning, none at all. The art of writing was but just introduced into Arabia ; !t seems to be the true opinion that Mahomet never could write. Life in the desert, with its experiences, was all his education." Until his fortieth year Mohammed appears to have been a devout worshipper of the gods of his fathers. About this time he began to entertain serious scruples respecting the worship of idols. His followers ascribe the change to a divine revelation ; but others have sug- gested that his scruples were probably excited by a more extensive acquaintance with the Jewish and Christian vScripturc^, wliich he may have acquired from his wife's cousin, War'aka, who had, it is said, once been a Jew and afterwards became a Christian, and who made withal some pretensions to astrology. Supposing these con- jectures to have a basis of truth, it was perhaps fortunate for the new prophet's claims to an original revelation that Waraka died a short time before Mohammed pub- licly proclaimed his divine mission. But, however his thoughts may have been first directed to the subject of religion, there is every reason to believe that he was, at least in the early part of his career, sincere and unselfish in his desire to convert his countrymen to a better faith. He appears to have thought long and deeply, and to have had many mental struggles, before he resolved to announce himself as a divine teacher. He was of a nervous and melancholic temperament, and there were times, during the period of doubt and conflict which preceded the annunciation of his great mission, when he was strongly tempted to commit suicide by throwing himself down from a precipice. (See Sprenger's " Life," p. 105.) In all his trials he found a great support in his faithful wife Khadijah, who was the first, as he himself declared, among all his nation that believed in him. "God thus ordained it," says Ibn Ishak, "that his duties might be made easy to him ; for, as often as he had to hear reproachful language, or was accused of falsehood, or was cast down, she cheered him up and inspired him with courage, saying, 'Thou speakest the truth.' " We may well suppose, with Carlyle, that "of all the kind- nesses she had done him, this of believing the earnest, struggling word which he now spoke was the greatest." For a considerable time Mohammed preached his new doctrines respecting the unity and glorious attributes of God to his household and intimate friends only. In three years he had made, we are told, only fourteen converts ; but among these were the high-spirited, devoted, and indomitable Alee, (Ali,) who was afterwards surnamed the "ever-victorious Lion of God," (see Alee,) and Aboo-Bekr, whose character for good sense, benevolence, and straightforward integrity contributed not a little to the respectability and ultimate success of the new religion. In the fourth year of his mission, in obedience, as he alleges, to an express command from heaven, Mohammed resolved to make a public declaration of his faith. He addressed himself to the Koreish and others, asking them, " If I were to tell you that there is an army on the other side of that mountain, would you believe me " Yes," they answered, " for we do not consider thee to be a liar." He then said, " I come to warn you ; and if you do not believe me, a great punishment will befall you ;" he told them they must renounce idolatry, and make a profession of the one true God ; that unless they did so they could have no true happiness in this life nor salvation in the life to come. He formally separated him- self from the polytheists, and publicly condemned their religion. A powerful opposition was in consequence organized against him, — his uncle, Aboo-Lahab, (lih'hab,) and Aboo-Sofian, (of the family of Omeyyah,) the prin- cipal leader of the Koreishites, being among the number of his bitterest enemies. Not only the prophet himself, but his disciples were for a time in extreme danger ; he owed his life to the influence of the powerful family of Hashem, and especially to the magnanimity, courage, and indomitable firmness of his uncle, Aboo-Talib, who, although he refused to accept the new faith, resolved, at whatever cost, to protect his kinsman. Every form of persuasion and menace was tried upon him in vain. To the hostile Koreishites, who urged him to give up to their vengeance the blasphemer of his country's gods, he answered with indignant scorn, and declared that if they should slay his nephew the lives of the chiefs of their tribe should pay for the life of Mohammed. They were thunder-struck at his boldness and awed by his invincible determination. But, while they hesitated to provoke the vengeance of the Hashemites by laying violent hands upon Mohammed, they persecuted his disciples in a hundred ways, insulting and imprisoning those of the better class, and starving and torturing such as had no wealth, position, or family connections to pro- tect them. Under the pressure of this persecution many converts to the new faith apostatized ; and Mohammed, fearing that others might desert him, advised some of his followers to leave Mecca and seek refuge in Abyssinia, which was ruled, he said, by a just and pious king. The subsequent conduct of the Abyssinian monarch proved that the confidence of the prophet was not misplaced. In spite of all opposition, the new doctrines continued to spread. In the sixth year of Mohammed's mission two important conversions took place, — the prophet's kinsman Hamzah, surnamed, on account of his bravery, the " Lion of God," and Omar, who had at first been a bitter opponent of the Islam, but afterwards became one of its most zealous and powerful defenders. (See Omar.) Ten years after the commencement of his mission, (that is, about 619 a.d.,) Mohammed lost by death his generous and faithful wife, Khadijah, and his noble- minded uncle and protector, Aboo-Talib. He appears to have been greatly cast down by these severe afilictions, and seldom went out of his house. Meanwhile, his enemies seemed to have become more exasperated than ever by the failure of all their efforts to prevent the spread of the new religion. In this extremity, his uncle, Aboo-Lahab, who had hitherto been one of his most determined and bitter opponents, but upon whom now devolved the duty of protecting his kinsman, came for- ward with singular magnanimity and said to Mohammed, " Go wheresoever thou wilt, and do what thou wast ac- customed to, do when Aboo-Talib was alive : I swear by the gods of my country that no harm shall befall thee while I live." But a few days afterwards some one said to Aboo-Lahab, " Do you know what your nephew says of your father.? he says he is in hell." Aboo-Lahab asked Mohammed if the charge was true. The prophet had the hardihood to answer, "Your father died an idolater ; and every idolater goes to hell." Upon this, Aboo-Lahab withdrew his protection. So long as Khadijah lived, Mohammed maybe said to have been a strict monogamist. Shortly after her death the daughter of Hakeem and wife of Othman asked the prophet why he did not marry. "Whom shall I marry?" said he. She replied, "If thou wishest a virgin, take Ayeshah, the daughter of Aboo-Bekr; if a widow, take Sawdah, the daughter of Zamah, — she believes in thee." He instantly replied, " I will marry them both." After Mohammed was abandoned by Aboo-Lahab, another uncle, El-Abbas, (the brother of Aboo-Talib, and ancestor of the Abbasside caliphs,) became his pro- tector. Meanwhile the faith which had been rejected at Mecca was eagerly embraced in the neighbouring city of Medina. A numerous and powerful deputation from the most influential families of the latter city waited on the prophet, and in a solemn covenant promised, with an oath, that if he would come and live with them they would protect him as they would protect their own wives and children. The offer of this powerful aid did not come a moment too soon. His enemies, headed by Aboo-Sofian, had been unremitting in their efforts to procure his destruction. At length it was formally and ])ublicly resolved that he should be slain. In order to baffle the vengeance of the Hashemites, and to divide the guilt of his death, it was agreed that one man from every family should at the same moment plunge his sword into the heart of their victim. Nothing now re- mained for him but death or instant flight. At the dead of night, accompanied by his faithful friend Aboo-Bekr, he silently escaped from his house. The generous and de- voted Alee, covered with the shawl of the prophet, laid himself down on the bed of his master. Meanwhile a, e, T, 6, % y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; &, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, filll, fit; mSt; nftt; good; moon; MOHAMMED 1 60 1 MOHAMMED Mohammed and Aboo-Bekr had fled to the cave of Thor, about a league from Mecca : there they remained three days. According to one account, their enemies, after exploring every hiding-place in the vicinity, came to the mouth of the cave. But, a spider having providentially spread her web over the entrance, the Koreishites, deem- ing it impossible that Mohammed could have entered there, turned back from their pursuit. Perhaps a more probable explanation is that as the Koreishites knew Medina to be the destination of the fugitives, they never suspected that they could be concealed in the cave of Thor, which lay in an opposite direction. While they were in the cave, Aboo-Bekr, contrasting their weakness with the strength of their enemies, said, trembling, " We are but two." "No," replied Mohammed, "there is a third : it is God himself." On the fourth night the prophet and his companion left their hiding-place, and, riding on camels which the servant of Aboo-Bekr had brought, arrived safely at Medina sixteen days after his flight from Mecca. His approach having been made known, several hundred of the citizens went out to meet him. He was welcomed with loud acclamations ; and he who a few days before had left his native city as a fugitive, with a price upon his head, now entered Medina more like a king returning victorious from battle than an exile seeking a place of refuge. This separation or flight of Mohammed from the city of his nativity (called in Arabic Hefrah or Hifrah*) marks the commence- ment of the Mohammedan era.t After Mohammed's arrival at Medina, a marked change took place in his policy. He had hitherto asserted liberty of conscience and opposed religious violence. He now maintained that the Islam should, if necessary, be de- fended and propagated by the sword. " The sword," said he, "is the key of heaven and of hell : a drop of blood shed in the cause of God, or a night spent in arms, is of more avail than two months of fasting and prayer ; whoever falls in battle, his sins are forgiven him, and at the day of judgment the loss of his limbs shall be sup- plied by the wings of cherubim." He was not long in carrying his new principles into practice. His arch- enemy, Aboo-Sofian, had, with only thirty or forty fol- lowers, conducted a rich caravan of a thousand camels to the marts of Syria. The prophet resolved to inter- cept it on its return. Aboo-Sofian, having been informed of his design, dispatched a messenger to Mecca and obtained a reinforcement of nearly a thousand men. Mo- hammed's troops amounted to considerably less than half that number. The hostile fofces met in the vale of Bedr, (or Bedder,) about twenty miles from Medina. Mohammed was placed on a throne or pulpit whence his eye could command the field of battle. His followers, being outnumbered, were sorely pressed. At that critical moment the prophet started from his throne, mounted his horse, and threw a handful of dust into the air towards the Koreishites, crying, "Let their faces be covered with confusion !" Both armies heard his voice ; the Koreish- ites were stricken with terror, while the Mussulmans, assured of victory, rushed forward with an enthusiasm that was irresistible. Some of the Moslem writers state that when the prophet cast dust into the air three thou- sand angelic warriors on white and black steeds made their appearance and swept his foes before them like a whirlwind. Seventy of the Koreishites were killed, and about the same number taken prisoners. Among the slain was Aboo-Jahl, perhaps the most bitter and fero- cious of all the enemies of Islam. His head was brought to Mohammed, who exclaimed with exultation, " This man was the Pharaoh of our people." So great was the terror and hatred he had inspired that even after his death his name was never mentioned, it is said, by true believers without the addition, " May he be accursed of God !" * This word is often, but less correctly, written Hegira : it has, properly speaking, but two syllables. The vowel i has doubtless been added by the Italians or Germans to indicate the sound of/, (or £' soft.) Reiske, in his Latin version of Aboolfeda's (Abulfeda's) "Moslem Annals," ("Annales Moslemici,") invariably employs ^'or £1 to represent the sound of oury.- thus, he writes for Khadijah Chadigja, for Aboo-Jahl Abu Gjahl, etc. t The era of the Hejrah is not calculated from the very day of Mohammed's flight, but from the beginning of the lunar year in which it occurred, namely, July 16, 622 a.d. The prophet's success at Bedr was the first of that wonderful series of victories which, by spreading the new faith to the borders of China on the east and to the Atlantic Ocean on the west, were destined to change the face of the world. The Islamites were less successful in a second encounter with their foes, near Mount Ohod, six miles north of Medina. Mohammed himself was wounded in the face with a javelin, two of his teeth were shattered with a stone, and seventy of the faithful, in- cluding Hamzah, the prophet's uncle, were left dead on the field of battle. But his enemies gained no perma- nent advantage. The Koreishites signally failed in an attempt to take Medina by siege. The Islam constantly gained new adherents. " Caled [Khaled] and Amrou," says Gibbon, " the future conquerors of Syria and Egypt, most seasonably deserted the sinking cause of idolatry." Soon after, Mecca itself was taken by the followers of the prophet, who, led by Khaled, (surnamed afterwards, on account of his valour, the "Sword of God,") entered the^^ity in three divisions. The chiefs of the Koreish were prostrate at the feet of the prophet. " What mercy," asked he, "can you expect from the man whom you have so deeply wronged V " We trust to the generosity of our kinsman." " And you shall not trust in vain : go ; you are safe, you are free." He who seven years before had left his native city as a hunted fugitive was now received and honoured as prophet and king. But in an attempt made soon after to reduce the Arabian tribes who still adhered to idolatry, the army of Mohammed was surprised in a mountain-pass, and for a time his own life was in imminent peril. Several of his devoted followers who endeavoured to shield him with their bodies fell dead at his feet. In his distress he cried, " O my brethren, I am the apostle of truth ! O man, stand fast in the faith ! O God, send down thine aid !" His uncle Abbis, who was distinguished for the strength of his voice, called on the flying Moslems, repeating the promises of God to the faithful. The battle was soon restored, and what threatened to be a disastrous defeat was changed into a complete victory. About the year 630 Mohammed sent an army, under the command of Zeid, who had formerly been his slave, to invade Pales- tine, then belonging to the Greek empire. At the battle of Muta, where for the first time the Moslems encoun- tered a foreign foe, Zeid and two other of the leaders were slain. It is related of Jaafar, who succeeded Zeid in the command of the army, that when his right hand was struck off he seized the banner with his left ; this also being severed from his body, he embraced the stan- dard with his bleeding stumps, until at length he fell, pierced with no fewer than fifty wounds. The day was saved by the valour of Khaled, in whose hand it is said that nine swords were broken before the hosts of the enemy were turned backward. Mohammed had to be- wail, on this occasion, not only the death of his faithful servant Zeid, but also that of many of his bravest fol- lowers. We are told that when, after the battle, he first saw the young orphaned daughter of Zeid, he wept over her in speechless sorrow. " What do I see ?" said one of his astonished followers. " You see," said he, " a friend weeping the loss of his most faithful friend." The recent successes of the prophet, by inflaming the zeal of the faithful, confirming the wavering, and con- vincing the doubtful, — for, as it has been well observed, there is no argument like success, — contributed greatly to the rapid diffusion and final triumph of the new faith. But in the early part of 632, while he was engaged in organizing a formidable expedition against Syria, he was seized with a violent malady, (supposed by some writers to have been a fever,) which, before many days, terminated fatally. It is related that near the beginning of this ill- ness Mohammed said to one of his attendants, " The choice is given me either to remain on earth until the end of time, or soon to depart to the presence of God : I have chosen the latter." When he perceived that his end was near, supported by the arms of Alee and another relative, he went into the mosque and asked publicly if he had injured any one, — if so, he was ready to make full amends, or to suffer himself what he had inflicted on others. As no one answered, he asked again if he owed any man anything. A voice replied, "Yes, — to me, three € as 5 as s; g hard; g as j; G, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23. \ 101 MOHAMMED 1602 MOHAMMED drachms of silver." The prophet ordered the money to be paid, and thanked his creditor that he made his com- plaint now instead of deferring it till the day of judgment. His last words were the utterance of a broken prayer, — " O God, pardon my sins — yes — I come !" He died, according to the Arabian historians, on his birthday, the eleventh year of the Hejrah, (632 a.d.,) aged 63, or, ac- cording to some authorities, 65 years. He had ceased to breathe, but his followers refused to believe that he was dead. Omar, in his fierce zeal, threatened to strike off the heads of the infidels who should dare to assert that the great prophet and intercessor with God was no more. The authority of Aboo-Bekr was required to appease the tumult. "Is it Mohammed, or the God of Mohammed, whom you worship? God liveth forever and ever; but Mohammed, though his prophet and apostle, was mortal like ourselves, and, in dying, has but fulfilled his own prediction," In person Mohammed was of middle stature, with broad shoulders and chest, square-built and strong,'%ith large hands and feet. The unusual size of his head was partly concealed by long and slightly-curling locks of hair. His forehead was broad and fair for an Arab, and his fine eyebrows were separated by a vein which swelled up and became very conspicuous when he was angry. His eyelashes were long, and his eyes dark and glowing. His nose was large, prominent, and slightly hooked ; his mouth was wide, but adorned with a fine set of teeth. According to sonie accounts, he stooped, and was slightly round-shouldered. His natural disposition ap- pears to have been in a high degree kindly and humane. "He was naturally irritable," says Irving, "but had brought his temper under great control." One of his servants said, "I served him from the time I was eight years old, and he never scolded me, though things were sometimes spoiled by me." " He was," says a writer* who will scarcely be accused of exaggerating his virtues, " kind to women, — never beat one, and entertained more respect for them than is usual with nations addicted to polygamy. He frequently protected women who came to him for refuge. . . . He forbade the believers to beat their wives ; but on the remonstrance of Omar, who said that the wives would have the upper hand over their husbands, he allowed it." Nevertheless, he insisted that women should be fairly and justly treated, and not beaten unless the occasion absolutely demanded it. His own wives, having once become rebellious, were brought to submission by a revelation from Heaven and the blows of their relatives,! the prophet himself being disinclined to such severity, either from kindness of heart or from a regard to his apostolic dignity. "He was," says Sprenger, "affectionate towards his relations ; and, notwithstanding the gravity of his office, he was playful with his wives. Ayeshah, being only nine years of age when she married him, brought her toys into his house, and he occasionally played with her. She also used to race with him. . . . He would sometimes tell stories to his wives, such as the adventures of the man who had been carried away by the jinn (genii) and, after a long stay with them, returned to his family." The intellectual powers of Mohammed were of a very high order, and as a poet he ranks far above all others who have ever written in the Arabic tongue. It was usual for his followers to point to the beauty and sub- limity of the Koran as an irrefutable proof of his divine inspiration ; and he himself, in one of the chapters of that sacred poem, boldly challenges men and angels to produce anything to equal it, and confidently affirms that God alone could have dictated so incomparable a work. Probably no poet that ever lived more fully realized the state of mind known as poetic furor than Mohammed. It is said that while he was composing certain portions of the Koran he was in a state of such intense excitement as amounted almost to frenzy ; and, if we may believe those accounts of his life which seem best authenticated, some at least of the revelations of the Koran were actually communicated (or were believed by him to have been communicated) during his epileptic paroxysms, while wholly unconscious of things around See Sprenger, " Life of Mohammad," p. 93. t Idem., Ice. cit. him. With this view, there may have been no arrogance or vanity in his claiming that to rival the Koran was beyond the power of men or angels. Referring to the prophet's tendency to poetic and elevated thought, Sprenger says, " His mind dwelt constantly on the con- templation of God : he saw his finger in the rising sun, in the falling rain, in the growing crop ; he heard his voice in the thunder, in the murmuring of the waters, and in the hymns which the birds sing to his praise ; and in the lonely deserts and ruins of ancient cities he saw the traces of his anger." But combined with all his poetic and religious enthusiasm was a vein of strong common sense. He was free from all ostentation and parade : that he pretended to work miracles, is a cal- umny of his enemies. He considered it miracle enough that he was inspired with the Spirit of God: this he doubtless believed in all sincerity. One whom Heaven had so highly honoured had no need of earthly dignity or worldly splendour. He set a praiseworthy^ example of indifference to earthly riches, of patriarchal simplicity of manners, and of frugality in his diet and dress. With his own hands he milked his goats, and afterwards at- tended to his person. The costly presents which he received he gave to his friends. Tne riches which he obtained from the spoils of war and from tribute were spent in promoting the interests of religion and in re- lieving the wants of the poor. " His military triumphs," says Irving, "awakened no pride nor vain-glory. . . . In the time of his greatest power he maintained the same simplicity of manners and appearance as in the days of his adversity. So far from affecting regal state, he was displeased if on entering a room any unusual testimonial of respect were shown him." The most glaring moral defect of Mohammed's char- acter was his passion for women, to justify which he pre- tended that he had received a special revelation from heaven ;f and, while only four lawful wives were allowed to his followers, he himself had eleven wives, besides several concubines, Mohammed's conduct in this re- spect, viewed in connection with his pretended revela- tions, would seem to go very far towards justifying those who consider him to have been simply an artful and self- ish impostor. " But, however he betrayed the alloy of earth," observes Irving, "after he had worldly power at his command, the early aspirations of his spirit con- tinually returned and bore him above all earthly things. . . . On the mercy of God he reposed all his hopes of heaven." His wife Ayeshah once asked him if it were indeed true that none could enter paradise except through God's mercy. "None — none!" he replied, with emphatic earnestness. And when she again asked if an exception would not be made in his case, he answered, with great solemnity, "Neither can I enter paradise unless God clothe me with his mercy." Until recently, the belief has universally prevailed in Christendom that Mohammed was not merely the teacher of a false religion, but a conscious impostor, an artful, self-seeking charlatan. But such a theory of his life and character will not bear examination. Not to mention the thousand incidental proofs of his sincerity which are scattered through the history of his early life, it is wholly incredible that a mere self-seeking charlatan would have exposed himself to universal obloquy and certain per- secution, in the wild hope that he might at last triumph over those religious prejudices which had been for so many ages gaining strength among his countrymen. When Aboo-Talib, weary of defending his nephew against the implacable hostility of the Koreishites, be- sought him to abandon a course attended with so much peril to himself and his kinsmen, he replied, "O uncle, I swear by God that if they put the sun on my right hand and the moon on my left, I will not renounce the career I have entered upon until God gives me success, or until I perish." Aboo-Talib, touched with his heroic spirit, solemnly promised that he would not give him up, whatever he might preach. In considering the question of Mohammed's sincerity, it must not be forgotten that he possessed not only a $ "This is a peculiar privilege granted unto thee above the rest of the true believers." (See Sale's " Koran," chap, xxxiii.) S, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; MOHAMMED MOHSIN-FANEE vivid and powerful imagination, but a very peculiar phys- ical and mental constitution. It seems not unreasonable to believe, as traditions relate, that in those nervous paroxysms to which he was subject he had visions not unlike those which his mother saw between sleeping an^ waking. Such visions w^ould be almost certain to par- take of the character of those earnest thoughts and convictions with which his waking soul was filled; and nothing could be more natural than for such a mind not merely to regard those visions as a divine confirmation of his peculiar views, but to employ them, modified as they would necessarily be by his powerful imagination, to give force and authority to his public teachings. Nor will it appear at all unreasonable to those conversant with human nature that one who was perfectly sincere at the beginning of his career should afterwards — under the stimulus of fear, lust, hatred, or ambition — pretend to visions which he never had, for the purpose of giving a divine sanction to his cherished opinions, or, it may be, to his arbitrary caprices or selfish desires. How often, indeed, have the professors of a far purer and higher faith resorted to stratagem and deceit to promote what they sincerely believed to be a good cause, which they had not faith enough to trust to the care of Heaven or to the legitimate operation of purely moral influences ! While we must admit, with one of the prophet's ablest and most successful defenders, (Carlyle,) that in the Moslem heaven and hell " there is enough that shocks all spiritual feeling in us," we must also admit, on a candid examination, that his religion, on the whole, made him and his followers better, and not worse. In estimating the influence of the Islam upon the nations which em- braced it, it would be obviously unjust to take as a standard of comparison the highest forms of Christian civilization. We should rather compare the condition of those nations under the sway of Mohammedanism with their condition as it was before the advent of the prophet. If the religion of Mohammed was immeasurably inferior to the religion of Christ, it was in most respects greatly superior to every form of paganism of which we have any knowledge, and probably also to much of that spurious or half-spurious Christianity which it displaced in Western Asia and Northern Africa. "The general tenor of Mahomet's conduct," says Irving, "up to the time of his flight from Mecca, is that of an enthusiast acting under a species of mental de- lusion, — deeply imbued with a conviction of his being a divine agent for religious reform ; and there is something striking and sublime in the luminous path which his enthusiastic spirit struck out for itself through the be- wildering maze of adverse faiths and wild traditions, — the pure and spiritual worship of the one true God, which he sought to substitute for the blind idolatry of his childhood. . . . All the parts of the Koran supposed to have been promulgated by him at this time — inco- herently as they have come down to us, and marred as their pristine beauty must be in passing through various hands — are of a pure and elevated character, and breathe poetical, if not religious, inspiration. They show that he had drunk deep of the living waters of Christianity; and if he had failed to imbibe them in their crystal purity, it might be because he had to drink from broken cisterns and streams troubled and perverted by those who should have been their guardians." See Sprenger, "Life of Mohammad, from Original Sources," Allahabad, 1.851, London, 1852,(3 work of decided merit ;) Weil, " Mohannned der Propliet, sein Leben und sein Lehre," Stuttgart, 1843; luviNG, "Mahomet and his Successors," New York, 2 vols., 1850; Gagnier, "Vie de Mahomet;" Boulainvii.liers, "Vie de Mahomet;" "Preliminary Discourse" prefixed to Sale's translation of the Koran; Pkiueaux, " Life of Mahomet;" Maracci's trans- lation of the Koran, (in Latin.) with notes ; Reland, " De Religione Mohannnedica ;" Auulfeua, "Moslem Annals," (" Annales Mos- lemici,") and translated into Latin by Reiske; Abulfeua, "Life of Mohannned," rendered into Latin by Gagnier, with the title " De Vita et Rebns gestis Mohamedis," Oxford, 1732: Gibbon, "Decline and Fall ot the Roman Empire," chap. 1. ; Carlyle, " Hero and Hero-Worship," etc., article " Mahomet," (one of the best productions of its author ;) Rampoldi, "Vita di Maometto," 1822; Noel des Vergers, "Vie de Mahomet," 1833 ; George Bush, "Life of Mo- hammed," New York, 1830: Samuel Green, "Life of Mahomet," 1840; Charles M1LL.S, " History of Mohammedanism," etc., Lon- don, 181 2; F. R. TuRPiN, " Histoirede la Vie de Mahomet," 2 vols., 1773 ; De Rrequignv, " Vie de Mahomet," 1754; L. Addlson, "Life ot Mahomet," 1678. Mo-ham'med II., (commonly pronounced in India mo-Hum'm^d,) Emperor of India, born about 1 150, was one of the founders of the Gaurian dynasty. He became master of part of Hindostan in 1 171, after which he ex- tended his dominions by conquest. He took Lahore and Delhi between 1184 and 1 192, and Benares in 1193. He was assassinated in 1206. Mohammed IV., Emperor of India, born at Delhi in 1360, succeeded his father, Fyroz (or Feroze) III., in 1386. Died in 1394. Mohammed V., born at Delhi in 1406, succeeded Moobarek II. as Emperor of India in 1434. Died in 1443- Mohammed VI. of India. See Barer. Mohammed VII. of India. See Hoomayoon. Mohammed IX. of India. See Akbar. Mohammed XI. See Shah Jehan. Mohammed XIII., Emperor of India, of the dynasty of Grand Moguls, was born at Agra about 1685. He began to reign at Delhi in 1713. He granted the East India Company the privilege of exemption from the pay- ment of duties. He was deposed in 17 18, and died the same year. Mohammed XIV., often called Mohammed Shah, Emperor of India, born at Delhi about 1700, was a cousin of the preceding. He began to reign in 1720. In 1739 Nadir Shah invaded India, ca]3tured Delhi, massacred an immense number of the people, and robbed Moham- med of the celebrated diamond Kohinoor. Died in 1748. Mohammed, (Sultans of Turkey.) See Mahomet. Mohammed of Gazna. See Mahmood. Mohedano, mo-i-dcVno, (Antonio,) a Spanish painter, born at Antequera in 1 561, excelled in fresco- painting. Died in 1625. Mohl, von, fon m51, (Hugo,) a German botanist, bro- ther of Julius, noticed below, was a native of Stuttgart. He published "Contributions to the Anatomy and Physiology of Plants," (1834,) and other similar works. Mohl,"von, (Julius,) a German Orientalist, born at Stuttgart in 1800. He studied in Paris under Remusat and Silvestre de Sacy, and in 1845 became professor of the Persian language in the College of France. In 1852 he was appointed secretary of the Asiatic Society, having previously been chosen a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. He made a number of valuable contribu- tions to the "Journal Asiatique," and published editions of several Oriental works. Mohl, von, (Moritz,) brother of the preceding, was born at Stuttgart in 1802. He published "Results of a Journey in France for the Purpose of studying Arts and Trades," (1845.) Mohl, von, (Robert,) a German jurist, brother of the preceding, was born at Stuttgart in 1799. He be- came professor of law at Heidelberg in 1847, and after- wards filled several important civil offices. He published a number of legal works. Mohler or Moehler, mo'ler, (Johann Adam,) a German Catholic theologian, born at Igersheim in 1796, published in 1825 a work entitled " Unity in the Church ; or, The Principle of Catholicism." Died in 1838. Mohn, mon, (Gottlob Samuel,) a German glass- painter, born at Weissenfels in 1789, His most admired productions are the painted windows of the Imperial Chapel at Laxenburg, near Vienna. Died in 1825. Mohnike, mo'ne-keh, (Gottlieb Christian Fried- rich,) a German writer and theologian, born in Pome- rania in 1781, published a " History of the Literature of the Greeks and Romans," (1813.) Died in 1841. Mohs, mos, (Friedrich,) a German mineralogist, born at Gernrode in 1774. He succeeded Werner as professor of mineralogy at Freiberg in 181 7, and after- wards filled the same chair at Vienna. He became counsellor of mines in 1838. He published, among other works, "Elements of the Natural History of the Mineral Kingdom," (1832.) Died in 1839. Mohsen "or Moehsen, (Johann Karl Wilhelm,) a German medical writer and numismatist, born in Ber- lin in 1722. He was physician to the King of Prussia. Died in 1795. Mohsin-iPanee or Mohsm-Fini, mon'sin fi'nee, or Muhsin-Fani, mobn'sin fi'nee, (Mohammed,) a € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Yiyguttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jf^^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) MOIGNO MOLESCHOTT Persian poet, born on the coast of the Persian Gulf in 1615. His principal work is the " Dabistan," which gives an account of ancient religious sects. Died in 1670. See " Noiivelle Kiographie Generale ;" Sir John Malcolm, " History of Persia," vol. i. chap. vii. Moigno, mw^n^yo', (Fran(;ois Napoli^ion Marie,) a French mathematician, born at Guemene in 1804, pub- lished "Lessons in Differential and Integral Calculus," (1840,) a " Treatise on the Electric Telegraph," (1849,) and other works. Moine, Le. See Lemoine. Moine, Le, leh mwan, (Abraham,) a French Protest- ant divine, born in the seventeenth century, became pastor of a French church in London. He translated Bishop Gibson's " Pastoral Letters" into French, and published a "Sermon in Defence of the Sacred History, in Answer to Lord Bolingbroke." Died in 1760. Moir, (David Macheth,) a distinguished Scottish writer and physician, born near Edinburgh in 1798. He became at an early age a contributor to Constable's and Blackwood's Magazines, and published a number of poems in the latter, under the signature of the Greek Delta, (A.) Among his other works may be named his " Autobiography of Mansie Wauch," a novel, which had great popularity, " The Bombardment of Algiers, and other Poems," (1816,) " Outlines of the Ancient History of Medicine," etc., (1831,) " Practical Observations on Malignant Cholera," (1832,) and " Domestic Verses," (1843.) Died in 1851. See Dr. T. Aird, " Notice of Moir," prefixed to his Poetical Works ; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- men," (Supplement ;) " Blackwood's Magazine" for August, 1851. Moira, Earl of. See Hastings, Marquis of. Moirae, moi're, [Gr. Mofpat,] a name applied to the Fates. See ParC/^^. Moise. See Moses. Moitte, mw^t, (Jean Guillaume,) a French sculp- tor, born in Paris in 1747. He executed the large bas-relief of the front of the Pantheon, and statues of Cassini and General Custine. He was a member of the Academy of Fine Arts, and a chevalier of the legion of honour. Died in 1810. See QuATREM^RE DE QuiNCV, " £ loge de Moitte," in the "Mo- niteur," 1810. Moivre, de. See Demoivre. Mojon, mo'zh6N', (Bianca Milesi — me-la'see,) an Italian lady, distinguished for her talents, accomplish- ments, and elevated character, was born at Milan in 1790. She was married in 1825 to Dr. Mojon, physician to the court in Paris. An interesting account of her was written by her friend fimile de Souvestre. Died in 1849. See, also, Bessie R. Parke, "Twelve Biographical Sketches," London, 1866. Moke, mo'keh, ( Henri Guillaume, ) a Belgian writer, born at Havre in 1803. He produced, besides other works, a " History of Belgium," (2 vols., 1839-40.) Moktader-Billah.mok'ti-der biKlah,orMuktader- (m^ok'ta-der) Billah, (Abooi-Fadhl-Jaafar, I'bool fid'l ji'far,) an Abbasside calij^h of Bagdad, was born in 894 A.D., and began to reign in 909. He was defeated and killed in 932 by Monnes or Mounes. Mola, mo'ii, (Giambattista,) a painter, of Italian extraction, called MoLA Di Francia, born at Besan9on in 1614. He was a pupil of Vouet, and excelled as a landscape-painter. Died in 1661. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Mola, (PiETRo Francesco,) sometimes called Mola Di Roma, an eminent Italian painter, born about 1620, was a pupil of Albano. He painted a number of his- torical works of great merit, but he excelled particularly in landscapes. Among his master-pieces are his " Saint John in the Desert,""" History of Joseph," and "Saint Bruno." Died in 1666. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" Viardot, " Musses de r Europe." Molai or Molay, de, deh mo'iy,* (Jacques,) last grand master of the order of the Templars, was born in Burgundy. The wealth and power to which this order had arisen having excited the jealousy of Philippe le Bel, * See Introduction, V., 7 and 9. a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, h, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, King of France, and Pope Clement IV., a plan was laid by the two sovereigns for their destruction. Molai, being invited to France in 1306, was arrested on his arrival, together with all the Templars in that country, and, 011 yi^irious criminal charges, condemned to death. Nearly sixty of the knights perished at the stake ; and the grand master, after seven years' imprisonment, shared their fate, in 13 14. See Pierre Dupuv, " Histoire de la Condamnation des Tem- pliers," 1751 ; G. G. Ardison, " The Knights Templars," 1852. Molanus. See Vermeulen, (Jan.) Molard, mo'lSii', (Francois Emmanuel,) a French inventor of machinery, born in 1774; died in 1829. His brother Claude Pierre (1758-1837) also in- vented several useful machines. Molbech, moKb^K, (Christian,) an eminent Danish historian, philologist, and bibliographer, born at Soroe in 1 783. After travelling in England and other countries of Europe, he became in 1823 professor of the history of literature, and first secretary of the Royal Library, at Copenhagen. Among his principal works are a "History of the Wars of Ditmarschen," (1813,) "Danish Dialect-Lexicon," (1837,) and " History of Erik Plogpen- ning," (1846.) He published between 1814 and 1817 a literary journal of great merit, entitled the "Athene," and subsequently became editor of the "Nordisk Tid- skrift" and " Historisk Tidskrift," (1840.) Molbech also had a share in the great "Dictionary of the Danish Lan- guage," (unfinished.) Died at Copenhagen in 1857. See Erslew, " Forfatter- Lexicon." Molbech, (Christian Knud Frederik,) a Danish poet, a son of the preceding, was born at Copenhagen in 1821. Fie produced "Dante," a drama, and lyric poems, (1846,) which are highly commended. Mole, mo'Ii', (FRANgois Ren^,) a celebrated French comedian, born in Paris in 1734. He was a member of the Institute, and director of the Academy at the Theatre Fran9ais. Died in 1802. Mole, (Louis Mathieu,) Count, an eminent French statesman, born in Paris in 1781, was descended from Mathieu Mole, noticed below. He published in 1805 "Moral and Political Essays," which procured for him the favour of Napoleon, by whom he was soon after ap- pointed master of reipiests, and prefect of the Cote-d'Or. In 1813 he succeeded the Duke of Massa as minister of justice. He was created a peer by Louis XVIII., and in 1817 became minister of the marine. Under Louis Philippe he was minister of foreign affairs from August to November, 1830, and became in April, 1837, prime minister ; but, overcome by the opposition of Guizot, Thiers, and Berryer, he resigned his post, March 31, 1839. In 1840 he succeeded De Quelen in the French Academy. Died in 1855. See Louis de Lomenie, "M. le Comte Mole, par un Homme de Rien," 1840; A. de Cesena, " Le Comte Mole," 1842; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Mole, (Mathieu,) an eminent French magistrate, born in 1584. He was attorney-general in 1614, and in 1641 was appointed by Richelieu first president of the Parliament of Paris. During the civil war of the Fronde he was conspicuous for his intrepidity and his energetic measures in quelling the insurrections of Paris. In 1651 he became keeper of the seals. He left interesting " Me- moires," (published in 4 vols., 1855.) Died in 1656. See Barante, " Vie de Mole;" Henrion de Pansev, " £!loge de M. Mole," 1775; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Moleschott, mo'les-sKot^ (Jacob,) a Dutch natural- ist and physiologist, born at Bois-le-Duc in 1822, studied medicine and natural science at Heidelberg, and settled as a physician at Utrecht. He was the author of a "Critical Examination of Liebig's Theory of the Alimen- tation of Plants," (1845,) "Doctrine of Aliments," (1850,) "Circular Motion of Life," (1852,) and other similar works. He became professor of physiology and an- thropology at Heidelberg in 1847, and of physiology at Zurich in 1855. Among his works are " Light and Life," ("Licht und Leben," 1856,) and one on George Forster, entitled "Georg Forster der Naturforscher des Volks," (1854.) He is ranked among the most prominent ad- vocates of the materialistic philosophy, (although he recognizes a mixture of spiritual life with the material short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fJlr, fill, fit; mSt; nSt; good; moon; \ MOLESWORTH MOLINET life of the universe.) He totally rejects the idea of crea- tion in the ordinary signification of the term, referring the origin of all the species of animals to the operation of universal and unchangeable physical laws. Molesworth, molz'worth, (Rokert,) Viscount, a statesman and diplomatist, born at Dublin in 1656. He was appointed by William III. a member of his privy council, and in 1692 was envoy-extraordinary to Den- mark. He published, after his return, an " Account of Denmark," a severe criticism on the government and customs of the Danes, which gave great offence to that people but was very popular in England. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and numbered among his friends Locke and Lord Shaftesbury. Died in 1725. See Walpole, " Royal and Noble Authors ;" Lodge, " Peerage." Molesworth, (Sir William,) an eminent English statesman, born in Surrey in 1810. Having completed his studies at a German university, he was elected to Parliament for East Cornwall in 1832. He was for many years associated with John Stuart Mill as editor of the *' Westminster Review." He represented Southwark in Parliament in 1850, and was appointed first commissioner of public works in 1853, and secretary of the colonies in July, 1855. He died in October of the same year. Besides his articles in the " Westminster Review," Sir "William published a complete edition of the works of Hobbes. Moleville, (Antoine FRANgois Bertrand.) See Bertrand de Molleville. Moliere, mo'le-aiR', a celebrated French comic au- thor and actor, whose original name was Jean Baptiste Poquelin, (pok'l^N',) was born in Paris on the 15th of January, 1622. He received instruction in private from tlie philosopher Gassendi, and in his youth assisted his father, who was a dealer in tapestry, ( marchand tapissier.) He became valet- de-chambre to the king, Louis XHL, about 1640. Having assumed the name of Moliere, he adopted the profession of comic actor about 1644, and a few years later appeared in the provinces at the head of a small troupe which he had formed. His first regular drama was "The Giddy-Head," (" L'Etourdi,") which was performed with success by his troupe at Lyons in 1653. Attracted to the capital by a growing ambition, and favoured with royal patronage, he opened there a theatre in 1658. His " Affected Ladies," (" Precieuses ridicules,") a satire on the affected style and euphuism which were then in fashion, was performed with great applause in 1659. *' Sganarelle" came out in 1660. His fame was increased by his " School for Husbands," ("ficole des Maris," 1661,) a comedy of manners, char- acter, and intrigue. He produced in 1666 "The Mis- anthrope," esteemed one of his master-pieces. "The dialogue of this," says Hallam, "is uniformly of the highest style ; the female and indeed all the characters are excellently conceived and sustained." Still more popular was the "Hypocrite," ("Tartuffe," 1667,) an original creation in dramatic poetry, and generally con- sidered the greatest effort of his genius. He was the author of about thirty other comedies, in verse or prose, among which "The Bores," (" Les Facheux," 1661,) the "School for Wives," ("ficole des Femmes," 1662,) ** Love (or Cupid) as Physician," (" L'Amour Medecin," 1665,) "Le Medecin malgre lui," (1666,) "The Miser," (" L'Avare," 1667,) " Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme," (1670,) " Learned (or Pedantic) Ladies," (" Femmes sa- vantes," 1(672,) and "The Imaginary Invalid, (or Hypo- chondriac,") (" Le Malade imaginaire," 1673,) are greatly admired. Died in 1673. There is perhaps in the whole history of literature no more remarkable instance of the triumph of genius than is presented to us in the career of Moliere. Seldom, if ever, were the pride and tyranny of rank more predomi- nant than in France in the latter half of the seventeenth century. Yet many of the French nobility treated Mo- liere as a companion and equal. " Come to me at any hour you please," said the great Prince de Conde to our author: "you have but to announce your name: your visit can never be ill-timed." (See Scott's "Miscellanies.") The success of " Tartuffe" was a signal victory achieved in the face of an all-prevailing bigotry, which was strongly entwined in the very spirit of the age and had struck deep root into the heart of the king himself. But the castle of prejudice, invincible to every other assault, was fain to open its reluctant gates to the transcendent ge- nius of Moliere. He was remarkable not merely for his wonderful comic talent, but for his admirable delineation of human nature as it appears in all countries and all ages. "In the more appropriate merits of comedy," says Hal- lam, " in just and forcible delineation of character, skilful contrivance of circumstances, and humorous dialogue, we must award him the prize." The same eminent critic thinks "that Shakspeare had the greater genius, but perhaps Moliere has written the best comedies." He was not a member of the French Academy. After Moliere's death, that learned body placed his bust in their hall, with this beautiful and appropriate inscription: " Rien ne manque a sa gloire ; il manquait k la notre."* See Grimarest, "Vie de J. B. Poquelin de Moliere," 1705; Voltaire, "Vie de Moliere," etc., 1739; La Harph, " Idees sur Moliere ;" Caii.hava, " Etudessur Moliere," 1802 ; J. Taschrreau, " Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de Moiiere," 1825 ; Jean Sylvain Baillv, " Eloge de Moliere," 1770; Sainte-Beuve, "Portraits litteraires ;" " Nouvelle Biograi')hie Generale " Lives of the Most Eminent French Writers," by Mrs. Shelley;" Essay on Moliere, in Scott's " Miscellanies," vol. i., and the same article in the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1828; Prescott, "Miscellanies;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Edinburgh Re- view" for July, 1845. Molieres, de, deh mo'le-aiR', (Joseph Privat,) a French philosopher and mathematician, born at Taras- con in 1677, was a friend and disciple of Malebranche. He succeeded Varignon as professor of philosophy in the College of France in 1723, and was elected an associate of the Academy of Sciences in 1729. He was the author of several scientific works. It is related, as an instance of his abstraction of mind, that when a robber one day entered his apartment, Molieres showed him where his money was kept, but begged him not to disturb his papers. Died in 1742. Molin, mo'13.N', or Dumoulin, dii'moo'ldN', (Jac- ques,) a celebrated French physician, born near Mende in 1666, was patronized by Louis XIV. and Louis XV. He made free use of the lancet in his practice, and is supposed by some to have been the original of " Dr. San- grado" in Le Sage's "Gil Bias." On his death-bed he said to his attendants, " I leave behind me three great physicians, — Diet, Water, and Exercise." Died in 1755. See "Eloge de M. Molin," 1761. Molina, mo-lee'nS, (Giovanni Ignazio,) a naturalist, born in Chili in 1740, lived many years at Bologna. He wrote an " Essay on the Natural History of Chili," ( 1 782,) and a "Civil History of Chili," (1787,) both in Italian. Died in 1829. Molina, mo-lee'nS, (Luis,) a celebrated Spanish Jesuit, born in New Castile about 1535, was professor of theology at Ev'ora, in Portugal, for twenty years. His principal work is entitled " De Concordia Gratiae et Liberi Arbitrii," (1588,) in which he attempt^ to reconcile the free will of man with predestination. This treatise was severely assailed by the Calvinists, Dominicans, and Jansenists, and a bitter controversy ensued, which was partially suppressed by Pope Paul V. Died about 1600. See BossuET, " Avertissement aux Protestants;" N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Molina, de. See Argote de Molina. Molina, de, Count. See Carlos of Bourbon. Molineeus, the Latin of Dumoulin, which see. Molinari. See Mulinari, (Stefano.) Molinari, mo-le-ni'ree, or Mulinari, moo-Ie-ni'ree, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian painter, called also Caraccino, born at Savigliano in 1577; died in 1640. Moline de Saint-Yon, mo'l^n' deh siNt'y6N', (Alexandre Pierre,) a French general and writer, bom in Lyons in 1786. He was minister of war from November, 1845, ""'^i' May, 1847. Among his works is a " History of the Counts of Toulouse," (4 vols., 1859.) Molinet, mo^le'ni', (Jean,) a French poet and histo- rian of the fifteenth century. He was appointed librarian to Margaret of Austria, and historiographer to the house of Burgundy, and wrote numerous works in prose and verse. Died in 1507. See Reiffe-nberg, " Memoire sur J. Molinet," 1835. * " Nothing is wanting to his glory; but he was wanting to ours." € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) MOLINET 1606 MO MB R IS 10 Molinet, du, dii mo'le'iik', (Claude,) a French an- tiquary, born at Chalons in 1620, was the author of a History of the Principal Popes, taken from Medals." Died in 1687. Molinetti, mo-le-net'tee, (Antonio,) an eminent Italian anatomist and physiologist, born at Venice. He obtained the chair of anatomy at Padua in 1649. He wrote " On the Senses and their Organs," (" De Sensibus et eorum Organis," 1669.) Died in 1675. Molinier, mo'le'ne-i', (Jean Baptiste,) a French ecclesiastic, celebrated as a pulpit orator, was born at Aries in 1675. He published a translation of the Psalms into French verse, and " Select Sermons." Died in 1745- Moliiios, mo-lee'n6s, (Miguel,) a Spanish theologian, founder of the sect of Quietists, was born at Saragossa about 1630, His principal work is entitled " Spiritual Guide," (1675,) '^'^^ inculcates, as its leading doctrines, the abstraction of the mind from external objects, and the contemplation of the Deity. The book was con- demned by the Inquisition, and Molinos sentenced to perpetual imprisonment, from which he was released by death in 1696. See Hodgson, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867 ; Pluquet, " Dictioniiaire des Heresies;" Scharling, " Mystikeren M. Molino's Laere og Skjaebne," 1852. Molitor, mo'le'toR', (Gabriel Jean Joseph,) a French marshal, born in Lorraine in 1770. He was appointed Governor-General of Swedish Pomerania in 1807, and took an active part in the subsequent cam- paigns from 1808 to 1814. He gave in his adhesion to the Bourbons after the restoration, and was made cheva- lier of Saint Louis. He commanded the second corps of the army in the Spanish campaign of 1823, and by his skill and decision soon put an end to the war. He was created a marshal by Louis XVIII. Died in 1849. See De Courcelles, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Frangais." Mollendorf or Moellendorf, von, fon moKlen- doRf, (Richard Joachim Heinrich,) a Prussian com- mander, born in 1725, served under Frederick the Great in the principal campaigns of the Seven Years' war. In 1794 he succeeded the Duke of Brunswick as com- mander-in-chief of the Prussian army. Died in 1816. MoUer, moKler, [Lat. Molle'rus,] (Daniel Wil- helm,) a German scholar, born at Presburg in 1642. He became professor of history and metaphysics at Altorf in 1674, and was made a count palatine by the emperor Leopold. He wrote numerous Latin works, in prose and verse. Among them are dissertations on many Latin classic authors. Died in 1712. See " Memoria Molleri," 1713. MoUer, (Georg,) a German architect, born in Hano- ver in 1784. Among his best woi ks are the opera-house at Darmstadt and the theatre at Mentz. He published "Monuments of German Architecture," (3 vols., 1815- 45,) and other architectural treatises. Died in 1852. Moller or Moeller, nioKler, (John,) a Danish biog- rapher, born at Flensborg in 1661. He published "Cim- bria Literata," containing biographies of authors born in Sleswick-Holstein, (3 vols., 1744.) Died in 1725. Moller or Moeller, (Peter Ludwig,) a Danish poet and critic, born at Aalborg in 1814. He became a resi- dent of Paris in 1851. Among his works are "Lyric Poems," (1840,) and "The Fall of the Leaves," (1855.) MoUerus. See Moller. Mollet, mo'l^'', (Claude,) a French horticulturist, was first gardener to Henry IV. and Louis XIIL, and gave the designs for the gardens of the Tuileries, Fon- tainebleau, and Saint-Germain. Died about 1613. MoUevaut, mol'vo', (Charles Louis,) a French lif- terate2ir, born at Nancy in 1776. He wrote elegies, fables, and other original poems, and made successful translations from the Latin of Virgil's " /Eneid" and "Georgics," Horace's "Art of Poetry," and the "Ele- gies" of TibuUus and of Catullus, (all in verse.) Died in 1844. Molleville, de. See Bertrand de Molleville. Mollien, de, deh mo'le4,N', (Nicolas Francois,) CoMTE, a French statesman, born at Rouen in 1758. He was created minister of the treasury by Napoleon in 1806. He published an account of his life, entitled Memoires d'un Mini3tre du Tresor public," (1780* 1845.) Died in 1850. See Prosper de Barante, " Notice sur M. le Comte Molliei^' 1850; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "London Quarterly Re- view" for July, 1852. Mol-loy', (Charles,) an Irish dramatist and political writer, born in Dublin, became editor of the London journal called "Common Sense." He wrote comedies entitled "The Coquette," " Half- Pay Officers," and "The Perplexed Couple." Died in 1767. MoTo-eh or MoTe-eh, [Heb. a heathen deity worshipped by the Ammonites and other Oriental tribes, who offered to him human sacrifices. Molosse. See Molossus. Mo-los'sus, [Gr. Mokoaaoq ; Fr. Molosse, mo''loss',] a son of Pyrrhus and Andromache, is said to have reigned in Epirus. Molossia is supposed to have de- rived its name from him. Moltke, molt'keh, (Adam Wilhelm,) Count, a Danish statesman, son of Joachim Godske, noticed below, was born in 1785. He was minister of finance under Christian VIII. for many years. He resigned in 1848, and was president of the ministry from 1848 to 1852. Moltke, (Joachim Godske,) Count, a Danish states- man, and a liberal patron of learning, born at Nyegaard in 1746, became minister of state in 1781. Died in 1818. Moltke, (Magnus,) Count, a Danish jurist and writer, born in 1783. He published a "Journey in Upper and Middle Italy," (1833,) and several political treatises. Moltke, von, fon molt'keh, (Helmuth Karl Ber- nard,) Baron, a Prussian general, eminent as a strate- gist, was born in Mecklenburg in 1800. He became major-general in 1856, and lieutenant-general in 1859. He was chief of the royal staff, and planned the campaign which resulted in the great and decisive victory of Sa-> dowa, July 3, 1866. He directed in person the operations of the armies which, under the nominal command of the king, gained in France, in 1870, a series of great and memorable victories, for a notice of which see William I. Moltke, von, fon molt'keh, (Karl,) Count, a Danish absolutist politician, born in 1800 ; died in 1858. Moltzer, molt'ser, (Jakob,) a learned German writer, born at Strasburg in 1503. He translated Tacitus into German, and edited Homer. Died in 1558. Molyn, (Peter.) See Tempesta. Molyneux, moKe-nooks^, (William,) an eminent mathematician, born in Dublin in 1656, After studying law in the Middle Temple, London, for three years, he returned to Ireland in 1678. In 1683 he aided in organ- izing the Dublin Philosophical Society, of which he afterwards became president. For his attainments in the exact sciences he was elected in 1685 a Fellow of the Royal Society, whose "Transactions" contain many treatises composed by him on various subjects. In 1692 he produced his principal work, "Dioptrica Nova," a treatise on optics, which was revised by Halley. It was the first English work on optics that had appeared, and was for a long time the principal manual of opticians. He represented the University of Dublin in the Irish Parliament a few years before his death. Died in 1698. Molza, moKzS, or Molsa, (Francesco Maria,) an Italian poet, born at Modena in 1489. He wrote Latin elegies of great elegance, and a number of poems in Italian, chiefly of a licentious character. Died in 1544. Molza, (Tarquinia,) an Italian lady, distinguished for her knowledge of mathematics, philosophy, and languages, was a granddaughter of the preceding. She made translations from Plato, and wrote poems in Latin and Italian. The Roman senate conferred upon her the right of citizenship, and Tasso gave the name of Molza to his "Dialogue on Love." Died in 161 7. See HiLARioN de Coste, " filoges des Dames illustres;" GiN- GUENE, " Histoire litteraire d'ltalie." Mombelli, mom-bel'lee, (Domenico,) an Italian musician and composer, born near Vercelli in 1 75 1. He was noted as a tenor singer. Died in 1835. Momboir. See Mauburne. Mombrisio, mom-bRee'se-o, [Lat. Mombri'tius,] (Bonino,) an Italian scholar and writer, born at Milan in 1424. He published several editions of the classics, a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, ^, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; llr, f^ll, flit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; MOMBRITIUS 1607 MONCRIEFF which are highly esteemed, and "Lives of the Saints," (" Sanctuarium.") Died about 1482. Mombritius. See Mombrisio. Momiguy, de, deh nio'men'ye^ (Jerome Joseph,) a Fiench composer and musician, born at Philippeville in 1766. lie published several works on the theory of music. Died in 1838. Mommsen, mom'sen, (Johannes Tycho,) a German scholar, brother of the following, was born in 1819. He produced a good translation of Pindar into German verse, (1846,) and "Essays on Shakspeare," (1855.) Mommsen, (Theodor,) a German jurist, historian, and antiquary, born in Sleswick-Holstein in 1817. He became professor of Roman law at Breslau in 1854. Among his principal works maybe named "The Mone- tary System of the Romans," " Collection of Neapolitan Inscriptions," (1852,) and "Roman History," (" Ro- mische Geschichte," 3 vols., 1857.) He is an associate of the French Institute, and a member of other foreign Academies. Momoro, mo^mo^ro', (Antoine FRANgois,) a French Jacobin, born at Besan5on in 1756. He was guillotined as a Hebertist in 1794. Mo'mus, [Gr. Mw//of,] in classic mythology, was the god of mockery, ridicule, and irony, and was called the son of Night, (Nox.) He is said to have criticised the gods with great audacity, and to have censured Vulcan because, when he (according to one of the ancient myths) formed a man, he did not place a window or door in his breast, so that his secret thoughts might be perceived. Mona, mo'nS, Moni, mo'nee, or Monio, mo'ne-o, (Domenico,) an Italian painter, born at Ferrara in 1550; died in 1602. Monagas,mo-n§,'gis, (Don Jacinto,) a South Amer- ican commander, born in Venezuela in 1785, was one of the principal liberators of Colombia. He was killed in battle in 181 9. Monantheuil, de, deh mo'n6N'tuI' or mo'ndN^tuh'- ye, [Lat. Monantho'lius,] (Henri,) a French mathe- matician, born at Rheims about 1536. He became professor of mathematics in the Royal College, Paris, where he numbered among his pupils Lamoignon and De Thou. He was the author of several scientific treat- ises in Latin. Died in 1606. See NiCEKON, "Memoires." Monantholius. See Monantheuil. Monardes, mo-naR'd^s, (Nicolas,) a Spanish phy- sician and botanist, was a native of Seville. His prin- cipal work is a "Treatise on the Medicines of the New World." Linnaeus named in his honour the genus Monarda. Died in 1578. Mon-bod''do, (James Burnet,) Lord, a learned Scottish jurist and eccentric writer, iDorn in Kincardine- shire in 1714. He studied at Aberdeen, and subsequently at the University of Groningen, and was appointed, after his return to Scotland, one of the judges of the court of session, (1767.) He published (1774) his "Dissertation on the Origin and Progress of Language," in which he manifests an enthusiastic admiration for the literature and philosoj^hy of the ancient Greeks, and advances the theory that the human race was originally a species of monkey. In his "Ancient Metaphysics, or the Science of Universals," (1779,) Lord Monboddo has still further developed the same ideas. He was intimate with Dr. Johnson and other eminent men of the time, by whom he was highly esteemed for the excellence of his charac- ter. Died in 1799. See the "Monthly Review" for April, 1791, March, 1796, and January, 1798; " Gentleman's Magazine," 1799; Tytler, " Life of Lord Karnes." Monbron, de, deh m6N^bR6N', (N. Fougeret — foozh'ra',) a French litterateitr, born at Peronne, wrote "La Henriade travestie," (1745,) and " Le Cosmopol," (1750.) He was extremely censorious and misanthrop- ical. Died in 1761. Mcncada, de, d^ mon-WiA, (Don Francisco,) Count of Osuna, a celebrated Spanish general and his- torian, born at Valencia in 1586, was appointed general- issimo of the Spanish forces in the Netherlands, He was killed at the siege of Goch, in 1635. He was the author of a valuable "History of the Expedition of the Catalans against the Greeks and Turks," (1623,) and other works. See TicKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature." Moncada, de, written also Moncade, (Hugo,) a Spanish commander, born about 1466. He served with distinction against the Moors and Turks, was appointed Viceroy of Sicily by Charles V. about 1522, and was defeated in July, 1524, in a naval battle, by Andrew Doria, who commanded the French fleet. In 1526 he marched to Rome and liberated the imprisoned pope, Clement VII., on condition that he should abandon the French party. He was killed in a sea-fight near Naples in 1528. See SisMONDi, " Histoire des Frangais;" Robertson, " History of Charles V.," vol. ii. books iv. and v. Moncalvo, II. See Caccia. Moiiceaux, de, deh mdN^so', (Franqois,) a French writer, born at Arras, flourished about i57C»-9o. He wrote "Bucolica Sacra," (1587,) and other works in verse. Moncel, du, dii m6N'sgK, (Th^odose Achille Louis,) Vicomte, a French savant, born in Paris in 1821. He published, besides other works, "Expose des Applications de I'filectricite," (3 vols., 1857.) He has given special attention to electro-magnetism, and has invented several sorts of electrical apparatus. Moncey, de, deh m6N'si', (Bon Adrien Jeannot,) Due de Conegliano, a French marshal, born at Besan- 9on in 1 754. He served in the campaigns of 1793 and 1794, and attained the rank of general of division. He took an active part in the subsequent campaigns in Spain, Austria, and Italy, and was made a marshal in 1804. He soon after obtained the title of Duke of Cone- gliano, and the grand cordon of the legion of honour. He was elected to the Chamber of Peers under Louis XVIII., and was appointed gouverneiir des Invalides in 1834. Died in 1842. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" De Courcelles, " Dic- tionnaire des Generaux Frangais;" " loge du Mar^chal Monce>," by Baron C. Dupin. Monchy. See Hocquincourt. Monck, munk, (Charles Stanley,) Viscount, an English peer, born in Ireland in 1819. He entered the House of Commons as a Liberal in 1852, became a lord of the treasury in 1855, and was appointed Governor- General of Canada and British America in 1861. He was made a peer of the United Kingdom in 1866. Monclar, de, deh m6N'kli;R', (Jean Pierre Fran- cois de Ripert — deh re^paiR^,) Marquis, an eminent French magistrate and writer, was born at Apt, in Pro- vence, in 1 711. He became procureur-general in 1732. From about 1749 he distinguished himself by his zealous assertion of the liberty of the Protestants, and in 1762 he exposed the tendencies of the Jesuits, in a work which Villemain pronounces a master-piece. Died in 1773- Monconys, m^N'ko'ne',. (Balthasar,) a French traveller, born at Lyons in 1611, visited Palestine, Egypt, and other parts of the East, and published, after his return, an account of those countries. Died in 1665. Moncornet, mdN'koR^na', (Balthasar,) a French engraver, born at Rouen about 1615 ; died after 1670. Moncreiff or Moncrieff, mon-kreef, (Sir Henry Wellwood,) a distinguished Scottish divine, born in Perthshire in 1750, became minister of Saint Cuthbert's, Edinburgh, in 1775. was a zealous Whig, and took an active part in the ecclesiastical controversies of the time, in relation to which he published several treatises. He also wrote "Discourses on the Evidence of the Jewish and Christian Revelations," (181 5,) and an "Ac- count of the Life and Writings of John Erskine," (1818.) Died in 1827. See the "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1828; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Moncrieff^ (James,) a Scottish lawyer, son of the following, was born about 1812. He was lord advocate for Scotland from 1851 to 1858, and was re-appointed in 1859. In the latter year he was elected to Parliament, as a Liberal, by the voters of Edinburgh. Moncrieff, (Sir James Wellwood,) an eminent Scottish lawyer and judge, born about 1776, was a son € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2[^=See Explanations, p. 23.) MONCRIF 1608 MONK of the preceding. He became a judge of session, and lord justiciary. Died in 1851. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Moncrif, de, deh m6N'kR^f, (FRANgois Augustin Paradis,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1687, was a favourite at the court of Louis XV., and became secretary to Count d'Argenson. He was elected to the French Academy in 1733, ^'^^1 was intimate with Vol- taire, Marniontel, and other celebrated writers of the time. He was the author of a humorous work entitled a "History of Cats," etc., "The Rival Souls," a romance, " Essay on the Necessity and Means of Pleasing," and a number of operas, songs, and ballads. Died in 1770. See Grimm, " Correspondance Litteraire ;" D'Alembert, " His- toiie de rAcadt*mie f'raiiyaise." Moiidejar, de, da mon-da-HaR', (Caspar Ibanez de Segovia, Persalta y Mendoza,) Marquis, a Spanish historian, who wrote, besides other works, "Cronica del Rey Don Alonzo el Sabio," (1783.) Died after 1775. Mondejar, de, (Inigo Lopez de Mendoza — lo'- peth da mSn-do'thS,) Marquis, a distinguished Spanish commander under the reign of Philip H., was appointed Captain-General of Granada, and took an active part in the war against the Moors. See Prescott, " History of Philip II.," vol. iii. book v. Mondino de Luzzi. See Mundinus. Mondonville. See Cassanea. Mondory or Mondori, m6N'do're', a French actor, born at Orleans about 1580, is called one of the founders of the French theatre. Died in 1651. Mondragon, mon-dRS-gdn', (Cristobal,) a brave Spanish general, surnamed THE good Mondragon, fought with distinction against the Netherlanders, and rose to be governor of Antwerp. Died in 1596. See Motley, "United Netherlands," chap. xxxi. Mone, mo'neh, (Franz Joseph,) a German writer, born near Heidelberg in 1792, became professor of his- tory in that city in 1819. He published a "History of Paganism in Northern Europe," (1822,) and other his- orical works. Monet, xwo'wW (Philibert,) a French scholar and •philologist, born at Bonneville, in Savoy, in 1566. He wrote " Ligatures des Langues Frangoise et Latine," (1629,) and other works. Died in 1643. Mo-ne'ta, a surname given by the Romans to Juno. The temple of Juno Moneta at Rome was used as a mint, which in Latin is called moneta. See Smith, " Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology." Moneti, mo-na'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian poet, born at Cortona about 1635 ; died in 1712. Monfalcon, rn^N'ftrkoN', (Jean Baptiste,) a French physician and historian, born in Lyons in 1792. He practised in his native city, and wrote, besides other works, a "Code moral des Ouvriers," (1835,) and a "History of Lyons," (2 vols., 1846-47.) Mongault, m^N^go', (Nicolas Hubert,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1674. He made translations of the " History" of Herodian and the " Letters of Cicero to Atticus." The latter is particularly esteemed, and the notes accompanying it are said to have furnished Mid- dleton with important matter for his " Life of Cicero." Mongault was a member of the French Academy and of the Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1746. Monge, m6Nzh, (GASPARD,).Comte de Peluse, a cele- brated French savant, and the creator of descriptive geometry, was born at Beaune in 1746. Soon after he left the College of Lyons he obtained a place in the col- lege of military engineers at Mezieres. Having by his skill in geometry made an important improvement in the process used in the art of fortification, he became, about the age of twenty, professor of mathematics and of natural philosophy at Mezieres. While he filled these chairs with great credit, he gradually perfected the application of geometry to the arts of construc- tion, which is now called descriptive geometry. In 1780 he was chosen a rnember of the Academy of Sci- ences, and in 1783 removed to Paris, where he was employed as examiner of candidates for the marine, for whose use he wrote an able "Treatise on Statics." His political affinities in the Revolution were with the re- publicans, who appointed him minister of the marine in 1792. He resigned in April, 1793, and distinguished himself by his zealous services in the fabrication of arms, gunpowder, and other materials, which were urgently re- quired for the national defence. In 1795 he published the first edition of his excellent " Descriptive Geometry," and assisted in organizing the Polytechnic School, iu which he taught geometry and analysis. Monge, Fou- rier, and Berthollet were the directors of the scientific commission which accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt in 1798. Aided by pupils of the Polytechnic School, they executed the geodesic and monumental description of that country. Having returned home with Bonaparte, he presided over the arrangement and publication of the great work by which French science and art illustrated Egypt. During the Napoleonic regime he became a senator. Count of Peluse, and grand officer of the legion of honour. In 1816 he was expelled from the Institute on account of his political antecedents. He died in 1818. He left an important work called " Application of Analy- sis to Geometry." His discoveries in geometry form an epoch in that science, for which he is said to have done more than any one since the time of Archimedes. See D. F. Arago, " Piiographie de G. Monge," 1853; Charles DuPiN, " iSloge de Monge," 1849; DuPiN aine, " Essai historique surles Services de Monge," 1819 ; Walckenaer, " Notice historique sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. Monge," 1849; " Nouvelle Biogra- phie Generale." Mongez, m6N''zhi'', (Antoine,) a French archaeolo- gist, born at Lyons in 1747. He published a treatise "On the Names and Attributes of the Infernal Deities," and other works. He was a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1835. Mongez, (Marie Josephine Ang^lique Levol,) a French artist of great merit, born near Paris in 1775, was the wife of the preceding. She studied painting under Regnault and David. Among her best works are "The Death of Astyanax," "Orpheus in Hades," and "Perseus and Andromeda." Died in 1855. Mongitore, mon-je-to'ra, (Antonio,) an Italian biog- rapher and priest, born at Palermo in 1663. He pub- lished "Bibliotheca Sicula," (2 vols., 1708-14,) which contains notices of Sicilian authors, ancient and modern. Died in 1743. Monglave, de, deh m^)N'gltv', (FRANgois Eugene Garay,) a French novelist and historian, born at Bayonne in 1796. Moni. See Mona. Mon'i-ca, [Fr. Monique, mo'nik',] Saint, the mother of Saint Augustine, was born in 332 A.D. She was edu- cated in the Christian faith, and became eminent for her virtue and piety. She lived at Tagaste, in Numidia, and had several children. Died at Ostia in 387 a.d. See Saint Augustine, " Confessions ;" Karl Braune, " Monica und Augustinus," 1846; Petit, " Histoire de Sainte- Monique," 1848. Monier, mo'ne-i', (Pierre,) a French painter, born at Blois in 1639 ; died in 1703. Moniglia, mo-n^Kyl, ((Giovanni Andrea,) an Ital- ian dramatic poet and physician, born at Florence about 1640 ; died in 1700. Mon'i-ma, [Gr. Moi^«^?/,] a beautiful Greek woman, who became a wife of Mithridates the Great. She was put to death by order of that king in 72 B.C., to prevent her from being captured by the victorious Romans. Monino. See Florida Blanca. Monio. See Mona. Monique. See Monica. Monk, miink, (George,) Duke of Albemarle, a suc- cessful English general, born in 1608, was the son of Sir Thomas Monk, of Merton, Devonshire. After fight- ing in the service of Holland, he returned to England about the age of thirty. In the civil war he bore arms for Charles I., and had acquired some reputation as an able officer when he was made prisoner at Nantwich in 1644 by the Roundheads, who confined him in the Tower of London more than a year. Having accepted a com- mission from the Parliament, he commanded a repub- lican army in the north of Ireland between 1646 and 1650. Pie contributed to the victory of Cromwell at Dunbar, in 1650, and the next year was left in Scotland as commander of an army, with which he speedily com- a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; MONK MONOD pleted tne reduction of that country. Hume states that he put to the sword all the inhabitants of Dundee, which he had taken by assault ; though he elsewhere says his temper was humane and his moderation remarkable. In 1653 the government showed their confidence in his skill by selecting him to co-operate with Admiral Blake in a naval war against the Dutch. He commanded in the sea-fight where V an Tromp was defeated and killed. In 1654 he was successful in his efforts to enforce the will and authority of the Protector in Scotland. At the death of Oliver, in 1658, Monk proclaimed Richard Cromwell as his successor. When the officers of the army deposed Richard and restored the Long Par- liament, he acquiesced, and retained command of the army in Scotland. The royalists and republicans so- licited his aid in the impending crisis ; but he kept all parties in suspense by his dissimulation or irresolu- tion. About the beginning of 1660 he marched towards London, ostensibly to support the civil power against Lambert's army. "Cold-blooded and taciturn," says Macaulay, "zealous for no polity and for no religion, he maintained an impenetrable reserve" when he was im- plored to restore peace to the nation. Having cautiously removed from command those whom he distrusted, and prepared the way for the restoration, he declared for a free Parliament, which soon assembled, amidst general joy and exultation. Charles H. was proclaimed king in May, 1660, and rewarded the services of Monk by creating him Duke of Albemarle. In 1666 Monk main- tained his reputation in a great naval battle against the Dutch. He died in 1670, leaving a son, at whose death the family became extinct. Hume, after a eulogy of his character, says, " I confess, however, that Dr. Douglas has shown me an original letter of his, containing very earnest and certainly false protestations of his zeal for a commonwealth." See " State Papers of Charles II.," edited by Mrs. Green, Lon- don, 1866: GuizoT, "Memdiis of Monk:" "The Life of General Monk," by Thomas Skelton; T. Skinner, "Life of General Monk:" GuMBLE, "Life of General Monk," 1671 ; Clarendon, " History of the Rebellion;" Hallam, "Constitutional History;" Macaui.ay, "Histf)ryof England;" " Retrospective Review," vol. xiii., (1826;) Campbell, "Lives of the British Admirals." Monk, (James Henry,) an English clergyman and author, born at Huntingford in 1784. He became Bishop of Gloucester about 1830. He wrote a " Life of Bentley," (1831.) Died in 1856. Monk, (Mary Moi.esworth,) a distinguished writer, was a daughter of Robert, Lord Molesworth, and was married to George Monk, an Irish gentleman. She died in 1715, leaving a collection entitled "Marinda: Poems and Translations on Several Occasions," (1716.) See CiBBER, " Lives of the Poets." Monmerque, mdN^m^R^ki', (Louis Jean Nicolas,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1780. He wrote many articles for the " Biographie Universelle" of Mi- chaud, edited the " Letters of Madame de Sevigne," (10 vols., 1819,) and published other works. He became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1833. Died in i860. Monmorel, de, deh m^N^mo^rlK, (Charles le Bourg — leh booR,) a popular French preacher, born in Normandy; died in 1719. Monmouth. See Geoffrey of Monmouth. Monmouth, Earl OF. See Mordaunt, and Carey, (Henry.) Monmouth, mon'muth, (James Scott,) Duke of, born in 1649, was a natural son of Charles II. of Eng- land. His mother's name was Lucy Walters. He married about 1665 Anne Scott, Duchess of Buccleuch, said to have been the richest heiress in the kingdom, and as- sumed her name. He received the title of Duke of Buc- cleuch, and was loaded with royal favours. His personal advantages and agreeable manners rendered him very popular. "Though a libertine," says Macaulay, " he won the hearts of the Puritans." A rivalry or jealousy arose between him and the Duke of York, afterwards James II., through whose influence Monmouth was discarded from court. He was in Holland when Charles II. died, (1684.) A report that Charles II. had married Lucy Wal- ters privately was credulously received by the populace, who regarded Monmouth as the rightful heir to the throne and the champion of the Protestant cause. With a party of armed exiles he invaded England in June, 1685, and raised the standard of rebellion. He was received with enthusiasm by the people, and gained a victory over the royal troops at Axminster ; but he was completely defeated at Sedgemoor, July 6, and captured a few days later. Having been taken into the presence of King James, he threw hitnself at his feet, and, with abject spirit, begged for life at any price, but in vain. He was executed in July, 1685. See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. i. ; George Roberts, " Life of the Duke of Monmouth," 1844. Monnet, mo'ni', (Antoine Grimoald,) a French chemist, born in Auvergne in 1734, was appointed in- spector-general of mines. He opposed and undervalued the discoveries of Lavoisier, Berthollet, and others, and thus injured his own reputation. He published a " Treat- ise on the Solution of Metals," (1775,) "Historical and Political Memoir on tne Mines of France," (1791,) and numerous other scientific works. Died in 181 7. Monnet, (Louis Claude,) Baron, a French general, born in 1766. He commanded at Flushing when it was taken by the English in 1809. For this ill success he was condemned to death ; but he was then a prisoner in England. Died in 1819. Monnier, mo'ne-a', (Henri Bonaventure, ) a French litterateur, c^iedian, and caricaturist, born in Paris in 1805. He represented and caricatured the life and manners of the common people with the pen, and published several volumes of "Scenes populaires des- sinees a la Plume," (1830-46.) Among his works is "Memoires de M. Prudhomme," (2 vols., 1854.) Monnier, (Jean Chari.es,) Comte, a French gen- eral, born at Cavaillon in 1758. He led a division at Marengo in June, 1800. Died in 1816. Monnier, (Louis Gabriel,) a French engraver, born at Besan9on in 1733 ; died at Dijon in 1804. Monnier, de, deh mo'ne-^', (Marie Th^:rese Ri- chard de Ruffey — re'shSn^ :leh riiTa^) Marquise, a French lady, known under the name of Sophie, and celebrated in consequence of her connection with Mira- beau, was born at Pontarlier in 1754. Died in 1789. (See Mirabeau.) See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Monnier, Le. See Lemon nier. Monnier, Le,leh mo''ne-a', (Pierre,) a French savant, born in Normandy about 1675, published a work en- titled "Course of Philosophy." He was a member of the Academy of Sciences. Died in 1757. Monnoie or Monnoye, de la, deh It mo'nwl', (Bernard,) a French poet and critic, born at Dijon in 1641. He was the author of a poem entitled "The Duel Abolished," which obtained the first prize ever awarded by the French Academy. Pie was elected a member of that institution in 1713. He also published poems in Latin and French, and several critical treatises. Died in 1728. See R. DE JuviGNY, "Memoire historique sur la Vie, etc. de La Monnoye." Monnoyer, mo'nwi'yk', (Jean Baptiste,) a cele- brated painter of flowers and fruit, born at Lille, in Flanders, in 1635. Having visited Paris, he was em- ployed in the decoration of Versailles and the Trianon. He afterwards repaired to England, where he executed some of his best works. Among his master-pieces are the flower-border of a mirror at Kensington, and the decorations of Montagu House. His flower-pieces have never been surpassed for brilliancy of colouring and free and graceful grouj^ing. He died in 1699, leaving a son, An toine, who was also a flower-painter. See R. DuMESNiL, " Le Peintre-Graveur Frangais." Monod, mo'nod', (Adolphe, ) an eminent Swiss Protestant minister, born about 1800. He lectured on theology and Hebrew at the College of Montauban froiu 1836 to 1852, and became minister of the Reformed Church of Paris in 1853. He acquired a wide reputation a« a preacher and moralist, and wrote numerous religioug treatises. He belonged to the most orthodox school of French Protestants. Died in 1856. Monod, (Frederic,) a Swiss Protestant miiiister, born at Monnaz, in the Canton de Vaud, in 1794, was a € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MONOD 1610 MONROSE brother of tlie preceding. He became in 1832 pastor of the Protestant sect called "fivangelistes libres," in Paris. He edited for many years " The Archives of Christianity," and published a number of sermons. Died in 1863. Monod, (Jean,) a Swiss Protestant divine, born at Geneva in 1765, was the father of the preceding. He was pastor of a church in Paris, and in 1830 became presi- dent of the Consistory of the Reformed Church. He contributed to the " Biographic Universelle" many notices of eminent Swiss writers, etc. Died in 1836. Monpou, ni6N'poo', (Hippolytk,) a French com- poser and singer, born in Paris in 1804. He composed popular ballads and operas, among which is *' Les deux Keines," (1835.) Died in 1841. See " Noiivelle Biographie Generale." Mon-ro', (Alexander, distinguished as Primus, i.e. the " first,") an eminent physician and anatomist, born in London in 1697. He studied successively in London, Paris, and at Leyden under Boerhaave, and was ap- pointed, after his return, demonstrator of anatomy to the Surgeons' Company at Edinburgh. The lectures he delivered at this time won for him a high reputation, and were chiefly instrumental in founding the Medical School of Edinburgh. Under his direction also was established the Royal Infirmary of that city, in which he gave clinical lectures on surgery. He published in 1726 his " Osteology, or Treatise on the Anatomy of the Bones," which passed through numerous editions and was translated into French and German. Among his other works are an "Essay on Comparative Anatomy," (1744,) and "Account of the Inoculation of Small-Pox in Scotland," (1765.) Dr. Monro was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and a member of the Academy of Surgery in Paris. Died in 1767. See A. Duncan, " Account of the Life, etc. of Alexander Monro," 1780; "Life of Alexander Monro," prefixed to his works ; Cham- bers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Monro, (Alexander Secundits, or the "second,") son of the preceding, was born at Edinburgh in 1732. He succeeded his father in the chair of anatomy and surgery in the University of Edinburgh in 1759. He died in 181 7, leaving a number of medical treatises of great merit. Among these we may name " Observations on the Structure, etc. of the Nervous System," (1783,) and " Structure and Physiology of Fishes," (1785.) See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Monro, (Alexander Tertiiis, or the "third,") a physician, a son of the preceding, was born in Edin- iDurgh about 1774. He was professor of anatomy at Edinburgh, and .published several works on anatomy and medicine. Died in 1859. Monro, (Donald,) brother of Alexander, (1732-1817,) was born at Edinburgh in 1729. He was appointed chief physician to the army, which he accompanied to Ger- many in 1 761. He published, among other works, a treatise " On the Means of Preserving the Health of Soldiers." Died in 1802. Monro, (John,) an English physician, born at Green- wich in 1 71 5, was the author of "Remarks on Battle's Treatise on Madness." Died in 1791. Monroe, miin-r5', (James,) an American statesman, and the fifth President of the United States, was born in Westmoreland county, Virginia, April 28, 1758. He was a son of Silence Monroe, a planter, was educated at William and Mary College, and entered the army as a cadet in 1776. He soon became a lieutenant in the army of Washington, and served at the battles of Harlem Heights and White Plains. He was wounded in the battle of Trenton, December, 1776, and for his conduct there was promoted to the rank of captain. As aide- de-camp to Lord Stirling, he served with distinction at the battle of Brandywine, September, 1777, and at that of Monmouth, June, 1778. Having lost his rank in the regular army by becoming an aide to Lord Stirling, he retired from the service in 1778, and studied law under Thomas Jefferson. He was elected a member of the Assembly of Virginia in 1782, and a delegate to the General Congress in 1783 for three years. He married, about 1785, a Miss Kortright, of New York. As a member of the Convention of Virginia, in 1788, he opposed the adoption of the Constitution of the United States, which, in his opinion, gave too much power to the Federal government. He accordingly united himself with the Anti-Federalists, or Republican party, and was elected a Senator of the United States for four years by the legislature of Virginia in 1790. In 1794 he was sent to France as minister-plenipotentiary. He offended the heads of the home government by the open expression of sympathy with the French repub- licans, or by a departure from a neutral policy, and was recalled about the end of 1796. He was Governor of Virginia three years, (i 799-1802.) In 1802 he was sent to France as envoy-extraordinary, to unite with Edward Livingston, then the resident minister at Paris, in a negotiation for the purchase of Louisiana, — i.e. the whole valley of the Mississippi. They purchased that vast territory from Bonaparte for $15,000,000. In 1803 Mr. Monroe was sent as minister-plenipotentiary to England, and in 1805 performed a diplomatic mission to Spain in relation to the boundary of Louisiana. He returned to London in 1806, and, aided by Mr. Pinck- ney, negotiated a treaty for the protection of maritime interests and neutral rights ; but the government of the United States refused to ratify this treaty, because it did not provide against the impressment of seamen. He returned home in 1808, and passed about two years in a private station. In 181 1 he was elected Governor of Virginia. He was appointed secretary of state by President Madison in November, 181 1. He acted as secretary of war during the disastrous and gloomy period that followed the cap- ture of Washington, September, 1814-March, 1815, and rendered important services by his energetic measures to restore the public credit and reinforce the army. He did not cease to be secretary of state until March, 1817, He was the Democratic candidate for the Presidency in 1816, and was elected by a large majority, receiving one hundred and eighty-three electoral votes. His competi- tor was Rufus King, who received thirty-four votes. He appointed John Q. Adams secretary of state, William H. Crawford secretary of the treasury, John C. Calhoun secretary of war, and Smith Thompson secretary of the navy. The violence of party spirit abated during his administration, which encountered no strong opposition. In 1819 Spain ceded Florida to the United States. He was re-elected President in 1820 without oppositiori, receiving every electoral vote except one. During hia second term the independence of the South American colonies of Spain was recognized by the United States. In his message of December, 1823, he asserted the im- portant principle of foreign policy which forms the cele- brated "Monroe Doctrine," in these terms: "We owe it, therefore, to candour and to the amicable relations existing between the United States and those powers, \i.e. the European powers,] to declare that we should consider any attempt on their part to extend their sys- tem to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety." He retired from office in March, 1825, after which he resided at Oak Hill, Loudon county, Virginia. He was elected president of the convention which met in 1829 to revise the Constitution of Virginia. A speech which he made in that Convention contains this incidental remark on slavery : — "No imputation can be cast on Virginia in this matter. She did all that was in her power to do, to prevent the extension of slavery and to mitigate its evils so far as she could."* He died in the city of New York, at the residence of his son-in- law, Samuel L. Gouverneur, on the 4th of July, 183 1, leaving the reputation of a discreet and successful states- man, more distinguished for administrative talents than for oratorical powers. See J. Q. Adams, "Eulogy on James Monroe;" Hildreth, " History of the United States," vols. v. and vi. ; "National Por- trait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. Monrose, m6N^roz', the assumed name of Claude Louis Barrizain, (bt're'ziN',) a French comic actor, born at Besan9on in 1783 ; died in 1843. * This remark, doubtless, has reference to the efforts of the English government to introduce slaves into Virginia against the wishes of many of the colonists. a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; m§t; ndt; good; moon; MONS MONTJGU Mons, van, vtn m6ns or mdNss, (Jean Baptiste,) an eminent Belgian chemist and pomologist, was born at Brussels in 1765. Having learned the art of pharmacy, he was chosen in 1797 professor of chemistry, etc. in Brussels. He founded the "Journal de Chimie et Phy- sique," which for many years was a central depot of the progress of science in Europe. Having a ruling passion for the culture of fruit, he began at an early age to theo- rize and experiment on the production of new varieties. About the age of twenty he adopted the theory that seedlings of new varieties have more tendency to im- prove than those of old varieties, or, in other words, while good old varieties mostly produce inferior sorts, those which are recent and bad tend to change for the better. Having planted a large nursery and devoted his life chiefly to experiments on the pear, he was suc- cessful in producing ^^lany fine varieties, among which VMS the Beurre Diel. Soon after 1815 he was appointed professor of chemistry at Louvain. He published " Prin- ciples of Electricity," (1802,) " Principles of Philosophic Chemistry," (1818,) "Fruit-Trees and their Culture," (1835,) and other works. He was an associate of the Institute of France. Died in 1842. "The constant springing up of fine new sorts of fruit in the United States," says Downing, "is given with much apparent force as a proof of the accuracy of the Van Mons theory." See QuETELET, " Notice historique sur J. B. van Mons," 1843 ; J. S. Stas, "Notice sur J. B. van Mons," 1843. Mons, van, (Theodore,) a jurist, a son of the pre- ceding, was born at Brussels in 1801. He published several legal works. Monselet, m^N'seh-li', (Charles,) a French littera- teur, born at Nantes in 1825. He wrote, besides various other works, " Statues et Statuettes," (1851,) and " Figu- rines Parisiennes," (1854.) Mon'sell, (William,) M.P., was born in Limerick county, Ireland, in 1812. He was appointed a privy councillor in 1855, president of the board of health in 1857, was vice-president of the board of trade a few months in 1866, and became under-secretary for the colonies in December, 1868. Monsiau, m6iN'se-5', (Nicolas Andr^:,) a French historical painter, born in Paris in 1754, worked with remarkable facility. Died in 1837. Monsignori, mon-s^n-yo'ree, (Francesco,) some- times called Bonsignori, a skilful Italian painter, born at Verona in 1455. He was a pupil of Andrea Man- tegna, and worked mostly at Mantua. Died in 15 19. See Vasar[, "Lives of the Painters." Monsigny, m^N's^n'ye', (Pierre Alexandre,) a French composer, born at Artois in 1729. He produced, besides other operas, " Le Maitre en Droit," and " Le Cadi dupe," (1760,) the comic operas of "The King and the Farmer" and " Rose and Colas," and was elected a member of the Institute, (1813.) Died in 1817. See Fetis, " Biograpliie Universelle des Musiciens ;" Quatre- MERE DE QniNcv, " filoge dc Monsigny," i8i8; Pierre Hedouin, "Notice historique sur P. A. Monsigny," 1821. Mon'son, (Sir William,) an English naval com- mander, born in Lincolnshire about 1569, served with distinction against the Spaniards, Dutch, and French, and attained the rank of vice-admiral. He was the author of "Naval Tracts," which were published in Churchill's "Collection of Voyages." Died in 1643. See Campbri.i., "Lives of British Admirals;" J. Barrow, "Me- moirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen Elizabeth's Reign," 1845. Monson, (William John,) Lord, an English peer and antiquary, born in 1796. He entered the House of Lords in 1841. Died in 1862. Monstrelet, de, deh m6N'streh-li', (Enguerrand,) a French chronicler, born about 1390, wrote an account of the wars of his time between the factions of Armagnac and Burgundy. His " Chronicles," beginning in 1400 and brought down to 1444, fill the space between the histories of Froissart and Comines, and are highly esteemed for their accuracy and the perspicuity and simplicity of their style. Died in 1453. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Montagna, mon-tSn^yS, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian painter, born at Vicenza, lived about 1460-1500, and studied under Andrea Mantegna. Among his master- pieces we may name the " Madonna on a Throne with Saint Andrew and other Saints," at the Museum of Milan. Montagna, (Benedetto,) an Italian engraver, a relative of the preceding, was born at Vicenza about 1458 ; died in 1530. See Bartsch, "Le Peintre-Graveur." Montagne, mdN'tSfi', (Jean Francois Camille,) a French botanist, born at Vaudoy in 1784. Having studied medicine, he was appointed in 181 5 surgeon-in- chief of the army of Murat, He was chosen a member of the AcadeiTiy of Sciences in 1852, and in 1858 was made an officer of the legion of honour. He con- tributed to the "Archives de Botanique" and to other scientific journals a number of valuable treatises on the Cryptogamia, among which we may name " Notice of the Cryptogamous Plants recently discovered in France." Died in 1866. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Montagny, m6N'ttn^ye', (Etienne,) a French sculp- tor, born at Saint-Etienne in 1816. He obtained a medal of the first class for a statue of Saint Louis, in 1859. M6n'ta-gu, (Basil,) an eminent English lawyer and writer, born in London in 1770, was a natural son of John Montagu, Earl of Sandwich. Having graduated at Cambridge, he was called to the bar in 1798. He practised with ability and success, and extended his reputation by numerous legal publications, the most im- portant of which is a " Digest of the Bankrupt Laws, with a Collection of the Statutes and of the Cases de- termined upon that Subject," (1805.) He was associated with Romilly and Willjerforce in successful effort to abolish hanging for forgery and for certain other crimes. In 1825 he produced a valuable edition of Lord Bacon's works, on which he expended the labour of many years ; also a "Life of Bacon," in reference to which Macaulay saj's, "About his merit as a collector of materials there can be no dispute; and we are indebted to his minute and accurate researches for the means of refuting what we cannot but consider his errors." He published " Essays and Selections," and various other works. Died in 185 1. Montagu, (Charles.) See Halifax, Earl of. Montagu, (Edw^ard.) See Manchester, Earl of. Montagu, (Edward Wortley,) son of Lady Mary Montagu, noticed below, was born in Yorkshire in 1 7 13. At an early age he manifested a propensity to low vices, and great eccentricity of character. When placed at school he repeatedly ran away, and at length hired him- self as a cabin-boy in a ship bound for Spain. Being discovered and sent back to his family, he travelled soon after on the continent. After his return he was member of two successive Parliaments. He next went to Italy, where he was converted to Catholicism, and not long after visited Egypt, and there professed Mohammedanism. He was the author of " Reflections on the Rise and Fall of Ancient Republics." Died in 1776. See "Memoirs of E. Wortley Montagu," 2 vols., 1778; "Auto- biography of Edward Wortley Montagu," London, 1869; Nichols, "Literary Anecdotes." Montagu, (Henry.) See Manchester, Earl of. Montagu, (Lady Mary Wortley,) a celebrated English writer, born in Nottinghamshire about 1690. She was the daughter of Evelyn Pierrepont, Duke of Kingston, and Lady Mary Fielding, and cousin to the novelist Henry Fielding. She was early distinguished for the brilliancy of her intellect and her rapid acquisition of knowledge. In 1712 she was married to Edward Wortley Montagu, Esq., and a few years after, on his appointment to a place in the treasury, accompanied him to London. Here she attracted general admiration by her wit and remarkable beauty, and became intimate with Addison, Pope, and other celebrated writers of the time. In 1716 she accompanied her husband, on his being appointed ambassador, to Constantinople. During her residence of two years at the Porte, she wrote to her friends in England a series of Letters containing shrewd and lively descriptions of Oriental life and man- ners. On her return to England she became the means of introducing the Turkish practice of inoculation, having € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; o, H, Yi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (21^=' See Explanations, p. 23.) MONTAGUE 1612 MONTALEMBERT had the courage to have the experiment first tried on her own son. The next remarkalile event in Lady Mary's life is her quarrel with Pope, the cause of which is not v^ith certainty known. In 1739 she left England for Italy, where she resided upwards of twenty years. She returned in 1761, and died the following year. Besides the son mentioned above, she left a daughter Mary, who was married to the Earl of Bute, minister of George III. Lady Mary wrote a number of poems, of which the "Town Eclogues" only are entitled to much notice. Her literary reputation is owing chiefly to her " Let- ters," which are ranked among the finest specimens of epistolary composition. See "Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by L. S. Costeli.o; Mrs. Ei.wooo, " Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England;" " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1803, and April, 1S04, (by Jeffrey ;) "London Quarterly Review" for February, 1837; "Blackwood's Magazine" for July, 1868, (" Historical Sketches of the Reign of George IL ;") "Westminster Review" for April, 1837; "Monthly Review" for May and June, 1763 et seq. Montague, m6n'ta-ga, (Sir Edward,) an English statesman, born in Northamptonshire. He was ap- pointed chief justice of the court of king's bench in 1539, and chief justice of the common pleas in 1546. He was one of the counsellors designated in the will of Henry VIII. to administer the government during the minority of Edward VI. Died in 1556. See Fuller, "Worthies of England;" Collins, "Peerage of England." Montague, (Edward,) Earl of Sandwich, an English naval commander, born in 1625. He served for a time on the side of the Parliament, but subsequently went over to the royalists, and assisted General Monk in the restoration of Charles II. For this service he was suc- cessively created an earl, a knight of the Garter, mem- ber of the privy council, and admiral of the Narrow Seas. On the renewal of the war with Holland, in 1672, Lord Sandwich commanded the squadron under the Duke of York against De Ruyter, and perished in the burning of the Royal James. See Campbell, "Lives of the Admirals;" Clarendon, "Me- moirs." Montague, (Elizabeth,) a celebrated English lady, born in Yorkshire in 1720. Her early studies were directed by Dr. Conyers Middleton, who was connected with her family. In 1742 she was married to Edward Montague, Esq. After the death of her husband, in 1775, she resided in Portman Square, London, where she numbered among her visitors the most eminent men of the day, including Burke, Johnson, Goldsmith, and Reynolds. She was also intimate with Mrs. Elizabeth Carter and Hannah More. Mrs. Montague contributed several "Dialogues of the Dead" to those published by Lord Lyttelton ; but her principal work is an "Essay on the Genius and Writings of Shakespeare," which ob- tained for her a high reputation. In this production she has ably refuted the false charges of Voltaire against the great English poet. She is said to have been the founder of the literary society called the "Blue-Stocking Club." Her correspondence was published after her death. Died in 1800. See Mrs. Ei.wood, "Memoirsof the Literary Ladies of England," etc.; "Edinburgh Review" for October, i8og; "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1S13; "Mrs. Montague and her Friends," in "Eraser's Magazine" for January, 1848 ;"" Monthly Review" for October, 1814. Montague, (Gf.orge,) an English naturalist, born in Wiltshire. In 1802 he i^ublished an "Ornithological Dictionary, or Synopsis of British Birds," and soon after his "Testacea Britannica," or "Natural History of British Shells," illustrated. Both of these works are highly esteemed. Montague was a member of the Lin- naean Society of London. Died in 1815. Montague, (John,) Earl of Sandwich, an English statesman, born in London in 1718. He was first lord of the admiralty in 1749 and 1750, and obtained the same office in 1763. He supported the administration of Lord North, under whom he served as first lord of the admiralty from 1771 to 1782. He was more deficient in principle than in capacity. Died in 1792. See J. Cooke, "Memoir of the Earl of Sandwich." Montague, (Richard,) an English scholar and theo- logian. See MouNTAGU. Montaigne, m6n-tan', de, [Fr. pron. deh m^N'tin',] (Michel Eyquem— k'kSN',) a celebrated' French phi- losopher and essayist, born at the chateau de Mon- taigne, in Perigord, on the 28th of February, 1533. His father, who was one of the noblesse, placed him, while very young, under the tuition of masters who were ignorant of French, and who conversed with him only in Latin, which thus became his natural language. At the age of thirteen he had finished his studies at a college of Bordeaux. Having studied law, he became a judge at Bordeaux about 1554. In 1565 or 1566 he married, par convennnce, Fran9oise de la Chassaigne. In 1580 he produced his celebrated "Essays," which have enjoyed an almost unparalleled popularity. Soon after that date he made a tour in Germany, Italy, etc., of which he wrote a Journal. He often visited Paris, in order to perform his duties as gentleman of the king's (hamber. From 1 581 to 1585 he was mayor of Bordeaux. During the civil war of the League his impartial moderation did not exempt him from danger and persecution. He died in September, 1592. "The Essays of Montaigne," says Hallam, "make in several respects an epoch in litera- ture, less on account of their real importance than of their influence on the taste and opinions of Europe. . . . No prose writer of the sixteenth century has been so generally read, nor, probably, given so much delight. Whatever may be our estimate of Montaigne as a phi- losopher, — a name which he was far from arrogating, — there will be but one opinion of the felicity and bright- ness of his genius." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") "The author of these ' Essais,' " says Leo Joubert, "is certainly the most independent spirit that ever existed, — independent without revolt, and detached from the systems of others without having any system of his own. . . . We recognize in his 'Essays' a nature well endowed, not heroic, perhaps, but generous, exqui- sitely sensible, not aspiring to the sublime, capable of devotion, and incapable of a base act, — in fine, a model of what we may call average virtue," (la vertu moyenne.) (" Nouvelle Biographic Generale,") Sprightly humour, independence, naivete, and originality are the character- istics of his mind ; and his style is admired for its graceful simplicity. His works are highly seasoned with his own individuality, and afford much insight into his character. " The Essays," says Emerson, " are an entertaining soliloquy on every random topic that comes into his head, — treating everything without ceremony, yet with masculine sense. There have been men with deeper insight, but, one would say, never a man with such abundance of thoughts: he is never dull, never insin- cere, and has the genius to make the reader care for all that he cares for. . . . This book of Montaigne the world has endorsed by translating it into all tongues and printing seventy-five editions of it in Europe, — and that, too, a circulation somewhat chosen, namely, among courtiers, soldiers, princes, men of the world, and men of wit and generosity." (See article " Montaigne," in " Representative Men.") See J. BouHiER, " Memoires sur la Vie de Montaigne;" Ville- MAiN, " filoge de Montaigne," 1812; Payen. "Notice sur Mon- tnigne," 1837; Grun, "La Vie publique de M. Montaigne," 1855; Bayle Saint John, " Montaigne the Essayist." iS!:;S ; 1)k Thou, " Historia sui Temporis ;" Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi ;" ViCTORiN Fadre, " l?!oge de Montaigne," 1813: "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale ;" Mrs. Sheli.ey, " Lives of the Most Eminent French Writers ;" " Retrospective Review," vol. ii., (1S20 :) " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1856; "Westminster Review" for July, 1838. Montalbani, mon-t3,l-bcVnee, (OviDio,) an Italian naturalist, born at Bologna about 1602, became succes- sively professor of physical science, mathematics, and medicine in the university of his native city. He pub- lished a number of scientific works under the pseudonym of BuMALDi. Thunberg gave the name of Bumaldia to a genus of Japanese plants. Died in 167 1. See Ghilini, "Teatro d'Uomini letterati ;" Niceron, "Me- moires." Montalembert, (.\ndr^.) See Ess6. Montalembert, de, deh mix'tt'lSN^baiR', (Charles FoRi?ES,) Coi\iTE, a distinguished statesman, orator, and political writer, of French extraction, born in London in 1810, was a son of Marc Rene Anne Marie, noticed below. His mother was Miss Forbes, a Scottish lady. a, e, 1, 0, u,y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nflt; good; moon; MONTJLEMBERT 1613 MONTAUSIER He studied in Paris, and in 1830 became associated with Lamennais and Lacordaire as editor of " L'Avenir," in which post he was conspicuous as an eloquent champion of democracy and the Catholic Church. He entered the Chamber of Peers in 1831, and married, in 1843, Made- moiselle de Merode, a Belgian lady. Devoted to the Liberal Catholic party, of which he was regarded as the most eminent leader, he was an earnest advocate of re- ligious toleration, popular rights, and general education. ,JJe was a membrr of the Constituent Assembly in 1848, and in 1849 was elected to the Legislative Assembly, in which he opposed Victor Hugo in several brilliant efforts of oratory, especially during the debate on the revision of the constitution, in June, 185 1. He was elected to the French Academy in 1852, and M'as a member of the legislative body from 1852 to 1857, during which period he represented the opposition almost alone. In 1858 he was condemned to a fine, and imprisonment for six months, for a political essay entitled "A Debate on Lidia in the English Parliament ;" but the penalties were not actually inflicted. He published, among other works, a •'History of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary," (1836,) "On Vandalism and Catholicism in Art," (1839,) "The Po- litical Future of England," (1855,) "The Monks of the West, from Saint Benedict to Saint Bernard," (i860,) and "The Fre^ Church in the Free State," ("L'figlise libre dans I'Etat libre," 1863.) He sympathized with the Unionists in the American civil war. In a letter to an English friend, dated December, 1869, he wrote, "Tem- poral despotism has faded away in a most unexpected manner; and I sincerely hope spiritual despotism will follow, sooner or later. ... I am more convinced than ever that freedom in the sphere of religion, still more than in that of politics, is the vital condition of truth." A great sensation was produced by his letter dated Feb- ruary 28, 1870, in which he protested — almost with his latest breath — against the dogma of papal infallibility, and those ultramontanes "who have immolated justice and truth, reason and history, in one great holocaust to the idol they have raised up for themselves at the Vatican." Died in March, 1870. See L. DE LoMENiE, "M. de Montalembert, par un Homme de Rien," 1841 ; Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries dii Lundi ;" Nettement, " Histoiredela Litterature Frangaise ;" " Nouvelle Biograpliie Gene- rale ;" "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1856, and July, 1861 ; "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1861; "British Quarterly Re- view" for July, 1868; "North British Review" for August. 1861 ; and an interesting article on Montalembert in " Blackwood's Maga- zine" for April, 1870. Montalembert, de, (Marc Ren6,) Marquis, a French general and distinguished military engineer, born at Angouleme in 1 7 14. His family was noble, and had produced several distinguished captains. He entered the army in 1732, and was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1747. In the Seven Years' war (1756-63) he was attached to the staff of the Russian and Swedish armies, of whose operations he rendered an official ac- count to the French ministry. He published in 1776 an extensive and important work, named "Perpendicular Fortification, or the Defensive Art superior to the Offen- sive," (II vols.) He wrote several memoirs inserted in the "Collection" of the Academy, and other works, in prose and verse. Died in 1800. See "Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale;" " filoge historique du General Montalembert," 1801. Montalembert, de, (Marc Ren6 Anne Marie,) CoMTK, a French nobleman, born in Paris in 1777, emi- grated in 1792. From 1800 to 1814 he served in the Eng- lish army, and obtained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He returned to France in 1814, and in 1819 was created % peer of France. Soon after that date he was appointed minister to Denmark, but, having offended the ministers by a liberal speech in the Chamber, he was deprived of that post. From 1826 to the revolution of 1830 he was minister from France to the court of Sweden. Died in 1831. His eldest son, Charles Forbes, noticed above, was an eminent orator. See De Courceli.es, " Ge'n^alogie de la Maison de Montalem- bert." Montalivet, de, deh m6N'tt1e'vk', (Jean Pierre Bachasson— 1::i|'sht's6N',) Comte, a French states- man, born near Sarreguemines in 1766. He was made coimcillor of state in 1805, and minister of the interior in 1809. He entered the Chamber of Peers under the ministry of Decazes, in 1819. Died in 1823. Montalivet, de, (Marthe Camille Bachasson,) Comte, a French minister of state, a son of the pre- ceding, was born at Valence in 1801. He became min- ister of the interior in November, 1830, and minister of public instruction in March, 183 1. He served as minister of the interior from April, 1837, to March, 1839. Montalto. See Danedi, (Giovanni Stefano.) Montalvan, de, di mon-tai-vSn', (Juan Perez,) an eminent Spanish dramatist, born at Madrid in 1602, was a friend and disciple of Lope de Vega. Among his best works are the comedies entitled "There is no Life like Honour," (" No hay Vida como la Honra,") " The Lovers of Teruel," ("Los Amantes de Teruel,") and "La Lindona de Galicia." Died in 1638. See TiCKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature A. F. voN ScHACK, " Geschichte der dramatischen Literatur in Spanien." Montalvo. See Galvez, (Luis de.) Montan. See Montanus. Montanari, mon-tS-n^'ree, (Geminiano,) an Italian astronomer, born at Modena in 1632, was professor of mathematics at Bologna, and in 1674 filled the chair ot astronomy at Padua. He wrote a number of scientific treatises, and is said to have discovered the method of determining the height of mountains by the barometer. He was a friend of the celebrated Cassini. Died in 1687. See Fabroni, " Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium." Montanelli, mon-ti-nel'lee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian jurist and litteratettr, born in Tuscany in 1813, became professor of commercial law at Pisa in 1839. He pub- lished a number of lyric poems and dramatic works. Died in 1862. Montano, mon-ti'no, [Lat. Monta'nus,] (Giam- BATTISTA,) an Italian physician, of high reputation in his time, born at Verona in 1488. He was for many years professor of medicine at Padua, and published a number of medical works in Latin. Died in 1551. See TiRABOSCHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Montano, mon-ti'no, (Reginald Gonsalvo,) a Spanish Protestant of the sixteenth century, was an intimate friend of the Protestant martyr Juan Ponce de Leon. He published an account of the Inquisition, said to be the earliest on record. Montanus. See Arias Montanus. Montanus. See Montano, (Giambattista.) Mon-ta'nus, [Fr. Montan, mdw'tdN',] the founder of the sect of Montanists, was a native of Phrygia, and flourished in the second century. He pretended to be divinely inspired, and that he was commissioned to com- plete the reformation which the Saviour had begun on earth. Among those who embraced this delusion were Tertullian and Theodotus. See EusEBius, "Ecclesiastical History;" Pluquet, " Dlction- naire des Heresies." Montarroyo, de, di mon-tar-ro'yo, {Joz6 Freire,) a Portuguese writer, born in Lisbon in 1670. He pub- lished several historical works, and commenced an annual compilation, entitled " Historia annual do Mundo das Gazetas de Lisboa," (1714-58.) Died in 1730. Montauban, m6N'to'b6N', a famous French captain of buccaneers, was born about 1650. He inflicted great damage on the Spaniards on the coasts of America. Died in 1700. Montausier, de, deh m6N'to'ze-i', (Charles de Sainte-Maure — deh s^Nt moR,) Due, a French noble- man and general, born in Paris in 1610. He was loyal to the king during the civil war of the Fronde. He was appointed by Louis XIV. governor to the dauphin, in 1688. In conjunction with Huet, he superintended the editions of the classics called " ad usum Delphini," ("for the use of the dauphin.") He was distinguished for the integrity of his character, and is supposed to have been the original of Moliere's "Alceste" in " Le Misanthrope." He died in 1690, and his funeral sermon was preached by Flechier. See Petit, " Vie du Due (Je Montausier," 1729 ; Puget dh Saint- Pierre, " Histoire du Due de Montausier," 1784; Ami^dee Roux, " Montausier, sa Vie et son Temps," i860; " Nouvelle Biographic G^n^rale." € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, Yi,guttttral; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (gl^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) MONTJUSIER 1614 MONTEMATOR Montausier, de, (Julie I.ucine d'Angennes — db^'zhhV ,) DuCHKSSE, the beautiful and accomplished wife of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1607. She was a daughter of the celebrated Marquise de Rambouillet, (see Rambouillet,) and was an ornament of the bril- liant society of authors and wits who met in the Hotel Rambouillet. She was married in 1645 to the Duke of Montausier, who, aided by several poets and artists, had composed the famous "Garland for Julie," ("Guir- lande de Julie.") Died in 1671. See A. Roux, "Montausier, sa Vie et son Temps," i860; " Nou- velle Biographic Generale." Montbarey, de, deh moN'bt'ry, (Alexandre Marie L^ONOR de Saint-Mauris,) Prince, a French officer, born at Besan^on in 1732. He became marechal-de- camp in 1 761, and was minister of war from September, 1777, till December, 1780. Died in 1796. Montbel, de, deh m6N''b§K, (Guillaume Isidore Baron,) Comte, a French politician and royalist, born at Toulouse in 1787, Pie became minister of public instruction under Polignac in August, 1829, minister of the interior in November of that year, and minister of finance in May, 1830, Died in 1861. Montbeliard or Montbeillard. See Gu6neau. Montboissier, de, deh mdN^bwi'se-i', (Pierre,) called Pierre le Venerable, a French ecclesiastic and writer, born in Auvergne about 1092. He was chosen abbe of Cluny in 1122. A translation of the Koran was made under his auspices. Died in 1156. See "Gallia Christiana;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Montbret, de. See Coquebert. Montbruii, m6.\^bRuN', (Alexandre du Puy,) Mar- quis de Saint-Andre, a French general, born in 1600. He entered the French army as colonel in 1638. He declined the baton of marshal, which was ofifered to him if he would abjure Protestantism. Died in 1673. Montbrun, (Chari.es du Puy,) a French captain and zealous Protestant, born in the diocese of Gap about 1530. He performed several daring exploits in the civil wars. He was captured and executed in 1575. See Gm Allard, "Vie du brave Montbrun," 1675 ; J. C. Mar- tin, " Histoire de Charles Dupuy," 1816. Montbrun, (Louis Pierre,) Comte, a French gen- eral, born at Florensac in 1770, served with distinction at Eckmiihl, April, 1809, and at Raab, June, 1809. He was killed at the battle of the Moskwa, September, 1812. Mozitcalm (mSnt-kSm') de Saint-Veran, de, [Fr. pron. moN'kttm' deh s^N va'r5N',] (Louis Joseph,) Marquis, a French general, born near Nimes in 1712. Having previously served in several campaigns in France and the Netherlands, he was sent in 1756 to defend the French colonies in North America. He gained a victory over the English forces commanded l)y Lord Aber- crombie in 1758, but was defeated by General Wolfe at Quebec, and mortally wounded in the engagement, (1759.) (See Wolfe.) See Montgomery Martin, " History of the British Colonies;" Garneau, " Histoire du Canada." Montchal. See Barentin-Montchal. Montclial, de, deh m6N'shtK, (Charles,) a French prelate, born at Annonay in 1589, was made Archbishop of Toulouse in 1627. He was an accomplished scholar, and a generous patron of literary men, and was the author of " Memoires," (2 vols., 1718.) Died in 1651. Montchiestien, de, deh m6N^kRa'te;i.N', (Antoine,) a French poet and economist, born at Falaise about 1570. He wrote several dramas, etc. He joined the Protestants in revolt against the king, and was killed in 1621. Monteagle, mSnt-ee'gel, of Brandon, (Thomas Spring Rice,) Lord, a distinguished statesman of the Whig party, born at Limerick, Ireland, in 1790. He represented Limerick in Parliament from 1820 to 1832, having been appointed secretary of the treasury in 1830. He was a prominent advocate of the Reform and Test Acts, and other liberal measures. He became chancel- lor of the exchequer in 1835, retired from that office in 1839, and was raised to the peerage in the same year. Died in 1866. Montebello. See Lannes. Montecatino, mon-ti-ki-tee'no, (Antonio,) an Ital- ian philosopher, born at Ferrara in 1536, published commentaries on the *' Politics" and " Physics" of Aris- totle. Died in 1599. See TiRABOSCHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Montecuccoli, mon-t&-kook'ko-lee, written also Montecucculi, (Raimondo,) Count, one of the great- est military commanders of his time, was born at Modena, in Italy, in 1608. Having entered the Austrian service, he distinguished himself in the campaign of 1637 against the Swedes ; but he was subsequently defeated by the Swedish general Banner, (i'639,) and made prisoner. He was released after two years' captivity, and in 1664 gained a signal victory over the Turks at Saint Gothard, for which he was made lieutenant-general. He was sent in 1673 to oppose the celebrated Turenne ; but, although consummate skill was displayed by both generals in their manoeuvres, no decisive battle was fought. Mon- tecucculi regarded this his last campaign as the most glorious of all, since he had encountered Turenne and Conde without being defeated. He died in 1681, leaving a "Treatise on the Art of War," which is highly es- teemed. He was a liberal patron of learning, and was one of the founders of the Academy of Naturalists at Vienna. He had been created by the King of Spain a knight of the golden fleece, and obtained from him the principality of Amalfi. See Paradisi, " Elogio del Conte Montecucculi," 1776 ; Pezzl, " Lebensbeschreibung Montecucculi's," 1792; "R. Montecucculi's Leben," Leipsic, 1792. Montecucculi. See Montecuccoli. Montefalconius. See Montfaucon. Montefeltro, di, de mon-ti-f§Ktro, (Federigo,) Count, and first Duke of Urbino, was born about 1410. He was distinguished as a patron of learning, and was one of the most learned and eloquent princes of his time. As an ally of Alfonso, King of Naples, he waged war against Sigismund Malatesta about 1456-60. In 1467 he w^as chosen to command the army of Florence, and fought an indecisive battle with the Venetian general Coleoni. Died in 1482. See ZuccARDi, "Vita di Federigo Duca d'Urbino," 3 vols., 1824; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Montefiore, mon-ta-fe-o'ri, (Sir Moses,) an English Jew, distinguished for his philanthropy, was born about 1786. He became sheriff of London about 1837. He performed missions to several foreign countries for the relief of people who were oppressed on account of religion. Monteggia, mon-tgd'j^, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian surgeon, born at Laveno in 1762, wrote several treatises, one of which, entitled " Institutes of Surgery," is highly commended by Scarpa. Died in 1815. Montegut, m6N'ti'gu', (Emile,) a French critic and journalist of high reputation, born at Limoges in 1826. He became in 1857 associate editor of the " Revue des Deux Mondes." Monteil, m6N'ti!' or mSN^tcVye, (Amans Alexis,) a French historian, born at Rodez in 1769. His princi- pal work is a "History of the French," etc., ("His- toire des Fran^ais des divers fitats," 3d edition, 5 vols., 1848,) which the French Academy judged worthy to share the Gobert prize with Augustin Thierry. Died in 1850. See " Biographie Universelle," (new edition.) Monteith, mon -teeth', or Monteth, (Robert,) a Scottish historian, resided in Paris, and was patronized by Cardinal de Retz. He published, in French, a " His- tory of the Troubles of Great Britain," which was trans- lated into English, Died about 1660. Montelupo. See Baccio da Monte-Lupo. Montemagno, da, d^ mon-ti-mln'yo, (Buonac- CORSO,) an Italian poet of the fourteenth century, wrote sonnets which are greatly admired for the elegance and purity of their style. Montemayor, de, dk mon-ti-m^-yAR', (Jorge,) a Portuguese poet and novelist, born near Coimbra about 1520, was patronized at the court of Philip II. of Spain. His principal work is a pastoral romance entitled " Diana in Love," ("Diana enamorada,") which is written in Spanish. It is praised by Cervantes in his " Don Quixote," and has been many times translated. Mon- temayor is regarded as the founder of the Spanish pas- i, e, T, 0, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, n, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; MONTEMOLIN 1615 MONTEZUMJ toral ; and " his prose," says Bouterwek, " has served as a model to all romance-writers of that kind." See Bouterwek. " Histoire de la Litterature Espagnole ;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature;" "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1824. Montemolin. See Carlos, or, more fully, Carlos Luis Maria Fernando. Montemont, moN'ta'moN', (Albert,) a French poet and writer of books of travel, born at Remiremont in 1788. Among his works.is "Letters on Astronomy," in verse and prose, {4 vols., 1823.) Died about 1862. Monten, mon'ten, (Dietrich,) a German battle- painter, born at Dusseldorf in 1799. Among his prin- cipal works we may name "The Death of Gustavus Adolphus." Died in 1843. Monteuault. See Monthenault. Montepin, de, deh moN^ta'plN', (Xavier Aymon,) a French novelist, born in Haute-Saone about 1820. He produced several successful novels, one of which was condemned in a court of law as subversive of good morals. Montereau, (Pierre.) See Pierre de Montereau. Montesinos, mon-tk-see'nos, (Fernando,) a Spanish historian, born at Osuna, wrote a " History of Ancient Peru," which has been translated by Ternaux-Compans into French, under the title of " Memoires historiques de I'ancien Perou," (1849.) Died about 1660. See Prkscott, " History of the Conquest of Peru," vols. i. and ii. Montespan, mon'tes-p4n', de, |Fr. pron. deh m6N '- tls'pSN', (FRANgots Ath^nais de Rochechouart — deh rosh'shoo-tR',) Marquise, a French lady, of extra- ordinary personal beauty, born in 1641, was a daughter of the Due de Mortemart. She was married in 1663 to the Marquis de Montespan. She afterwards succeeded Mademoiselle de la Valliere as mistress of Louis XIV. She bore the king eight children, among whom were the Due de Maine, Louis Cesar, the Comte de Vexin, and the Comte de Toulouse, besides two sons who died young. Died in 1707, See Saint-Simon, "Memoires;" Madame de Sevign^, "Let- ters;" Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Montesquieu, moN't§s'ke-uh', Baron, a grandson of the following, was born in 1755. He served as an officer, with distinction, in the United States, (1779-81.) In 1792 he became a royalist emigre. He passed many years in England, where he died about 1824. Montesquieu, mSn^tes-kii', de, ( Fr. pron. deh m6N'- t^s'ke-ul/,] or, more fully, De la Brede et (deh It bRad i) de~Montesquieu, (Charles de Secondat — deh seh-k^N'dt',) Baron, a brilliant, original, and popular French author, was born of a noble family near Bor- deaux on the i8th of January, 1689. In his childhood he formed habits of intense application to study, and became an insatiable reader. lie has declared that he never felt a sorrow which an hour's reading would not dissipate or relieve. Having been educated for the law, he became a conseiller, or judge, in the parliament of Bordeaux in 17 14, president a mortier of the same in 1 7 16. The favourite studies of his mature powers were historical and moral sciences. In 1721 he acquired a rather sudden celebrity by his ** Persian Letters," a work which combines the attractions of romance with the resources of rational philosophy, and presents profound and luminous views of commerce, law, and social phenomena. Its prodigious success was due partly to its spirited, keen, and witty satire on French manners, and its brilliant, piquant style, full of happy reticences and unexpected contrasts. In 1726 he sold his office of president, and in 1728 was admitted into the French Academy. He then began a journey, in which he visited nearly all the countries of Europe. He passed two years in England, and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1734 he produced an admired work, "Considerations on the Causes of the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans," the most complete essay that had appeared on that subject. He afterwards devoted fourteen years to the composition of his greatest work, " The Spirit of Laws," (" L'Esprit des Lois," 1748,) which excited almost universal admiration. In eighteen months it ran through twenty-two editions. In this arduous enterprise of exploring the labyrinths of history and political science he was in advance of his age as an advocate of liberty and humanity. In reference to this work, Voltaire said, " The human race had lost its titles ; Montesquieu found and restored them." He died in Paris in February, 1755. He had married Mademoiselle de Lartigues in 17 15. His personal character was in a high degree amiable and estimable. See Voltaire, "Siecle de Louis XIV et Louis XV;" D'Alem- BERT, " Eloge de Montesquieu ;" Villemain, " Eloge de Montes- quieu," 1826; Francois RiAUX, " Notice sur Montesquieu," 1849; Maupertuls, "Eloge de Montesquieu," 1755; "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Montesquieu, de, deh m6N't^s'ke-oo', (Pierre,) Comte d'Artagnan, a French general, born at the chateau of Armagnac in 1645. He commanded the right wing at the battle of Malplaquet, (1709,) soon after which lie became a marshal of France. Died in 1725. Montesquiou-Fezensac, de, deh m6N't^s'ke-oo' feh'zSN^ztk', (Ambroise Anatole Augustin,) Count, a French general and poet, born in Paris in 1788, was a grandson of Anne Pierre, noticed below. Montesquiou-Fezensac, de, (Anne Pierre,) Marquis, a French general and writer, born in Paris in 1739. He was admitted to the French Academy in 1784, and supported the popular cause in the Revolution. He commanded the army which conquered Savoy in 1792. Died in 1798. See " Histoire de la Maison Montesquieu," Paris, 1847. Montesquiou-Fezensac, de, (FRANgois Xavier Marc Antoine,) Ahr6, a French ecclesiastic, born near Auch in 1757. He was a deputy from the clergy of Paris to the States-General in 1789, and was twice elected president of the National Assembly. During the reign of terror he took refuge in England, and, after the second restoration, was made a duke, and received the title of minister of state. Died in 1832. See GuizoT, " Memoires." Montesson, de, deh m6N'ti's6N', (Charlotte Jeanne Beraud — bi'ro',) Marquise, born in Paris in 1737, was married in 1773 to Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans. She was the author of numerous poems and dramas. Died in 1806. Monteth. See Montetth, (Robert.) Monteverde, mon-ti-v§R'di, (Claudio,) a celebrated Italian composer, born at Cremona about 1565. He introduced several great improvements into the science of music, one of which was the employment of double discords. His works include sacred music, operas, and madrigals. The last-named are especially admired. In 1613 he was appointed chapel-master of Saint Mark, at Venice. Died in 1649. See Fetis, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." Montez. See Lola Montez. Mon-te-zu'ma I., called also Moctheuzoma, Aztec emperor of Mexico, ascended the throne about 1437. Before this event he had been an eminent general. He extended the boundaries of his dominions by the con- quest of several adjacent nations. He was a powerful and despotic monarch, and multiplied human sacrifices. Died about 1470. Montezuma II., the last Aztec emperor of Mexico, was born about 1470. He was elected sovereign in 1502 for his superior merit as a warrior and a priest. When his election was announced to him, he was in the act of sweeping the stairs of the great temple Teocalli. In the former part of his reign he waged war with success against several peoples, and extended the limits of the empire. He offended his subjects by his haughty deport- ment, and oppressed them by the imposition of grievous taxes which were required to support his sumptuous style of living. In 1519 his empire was invaded by Cortez, against whom he employed a temporizing policy. He sent him a magnificent present, but forbade him to ap- proach the capital. "This was to reveal," says Prescott, " both his wealth and his weakness." Cortez entered the city of Mexico, without resistance, in November, 1 5 19, and found a hospitable reception. To secure himself against contingencies, the audacious Spaniard next seized Montezuma and held him as a hostage. His captors tried to convert him to the Roman Catholic religion, but without success. In compliance with the demand « as 5 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, VL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MONTFAUCON 1616 MONTGOMERT of Cortez, he formally recognized the supremacy of the emperor Charles V., to whom he sent an immense quan- tity of gold as tribute. In May, 1520, Cortez absented himself from the capital to fight his rival Narvaez, and during his absence the Mexicans revolted against the Spaniards. Montezuma was persuaded or compelled by Cortez to address his subjects and try to appease the tumult. He was assailed with missiles by the insur- gents, was wounded, and died in June, 1520. "Stately and decorous," says Prescott, "he v/as careful of his own dignity, and might be said to be as great an 'actor of majesty' among the barbarian potentates of the New World as Louis XIV. was among the polished princes of Europe. . . . Montezuma's amiable and inoffensive manners, together with his liberality, — the most popular of virtues with the vulgar, — made him generally beloved by the Spaniards." See W. H. Prescott, "History of the Conquest of Mexico;" Bernal Diaz, " Historia de la Conquista de la Niieva Espana ;" OviEDo, "Historia de las Indias;" Clavigero, " Storia antico del Messico, " 1780. Montfaucon, de, deh m6N'f5^k6N', [Lat. Montefal- co'nius,] (Bernard,) an eminent French antiquary and philologist, born in Languedoc in 1655, was a member of the congregation of Benedictines of Saint- Maur. Having visited Italy in 1698, he published, after his re- turn, his " Diarium Italicum," an account of the libra- ries of Italy, " Palaeographia Grgeca," a treatise on the origin and progress of Greek letters, " Antiquity Ex- plained and Represented in Figures," (10 vols, fol., 1719, in French and Latin,) and "The Monuments of the French Monarchy," (5 vols., 1729.) He also published excellent editions of Saint Chrysostom and other Greek writers. He was a member of the Academy of Inscrip- tions. Died in 1741. See D. Tassin, " Histoire litt^raire de la Congregation de Saint- Maur." Montferrat, de, (Conrad.) See Conrad, Marquis of Tyre. Montferrat, de, deh mbWi^W, (Boniface,) Mar- quis, was a brother of Conrad, King of Jerusalem. He became King of Thessalonica in 1 183, and was chosen the chief of the fifth or fourth crusade in 1202. He was an able commander, and contributed greatly to the conquest of Constantinople in 1204. Died in 1207. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Montferrat, de, (Guillaume,) Marquis, called THE Great, was born in 1243, and began to reign in 1254. He was a turbulent prince and continually en- gaged in war with the neighbouring states. He married Beatrix, a daughter of Alfonso X. of Castile, in 1271. Having been taken prisoner in 1290, he was confined in an iron cage, and died in 1292. Montferrier, de, deh m6N'fi're-k', (Alexandre Andr6 Victor Sarrazin,) a French mathematician, born in Paris in 1792. He published, besides other works, a " Dictionary of Mathematical Sciences, Pure and Applied," (3 vols., 1834-40.) Montfleury, de, deh mdN^fluh're', (Jean Le Petit,) a French poet, born at Caen in 1698 ; died in 1777. Montfort, Count de. See John, Duke of Brittany. Montfort, mSnt'fort, de, [Fr. pron. deh m6N%R',] (Simon,) Count, a French nobleman and military com- mander, born about 11 50, was conspicuous for his courage and for his cruelty in the wars against the Albigenses, (1208.) He was killed while besieging Toulouse, in 1218. Montfort, de, (Simon,) a son of the preceding, ob- tained at an early age the patronage of Henry HI. of England, who made him Earl of Leicester and gave to him in marriage his sister, the Countess of Pembroke. He was afterwards appointed lieutenant-general in Gascony. In 1258, a rupture having occurred between Henry and his barons, the latter, headed by Montfort, compelled the king to consent to the regulations called the Provisions of Oxford, which threw the legislative and executive power into the hands of twenty-four barons. In 1264 a battle took place at Lewes, in Sussex, in which the royalists were defeated and the king taken prisoner. Montfort summoned a Parliament in 1265, in which, in addition to the two knights returned from every shire, representatives were sent from the boroughs ; and in this way was founded the English House of Commons. In the battle of Evesham, the same year, Montfort was de- feated and slain by the royal troops under Prince Edward. See R. Paulli, "Life of Simon de Montfort;" Hume, " His- tory of England ;" "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1866. Montgaillard, m6N'gt'ytR', (Guillaume Honor6 RoQUES,) a historian, born near Toulouse in 1772. He wrote a " Chronological Review of the History of France, etc., 1787-1818," (1820,) which was once popular. Died in 1825. Montgaillard, (Jean Gabriel Maurice Roques,) a French adventurer and political writer, a brother of the preceding, was born at Toulouse in 1761. He was employed as a secret agent by the Bourbons and by their enemies. He published a "Memoir concerning the Treason of Pichegru," etc., and several other works. Died in 1841. Montgelas, m6N'zheh-ia', (Maximilian Joseph,) Count, a German statesman, of Savoyard extraction, born at Munich in 1759, was appointed minister of foreign affairs in 1799, minister of the interior in 1806, and minister of finance in 1809. Died in 1838. Montgolfier, m6nt-g6Kfe-er, [Fr. pron. m6N'goK. fe-i',] (Jacques £tienne,) an ingenious Frenchman, who invented the air-balloon, was born at or near Annonay (Ardeche) in 1745. After studying mathematics with success at Paris, he became an architect. At the request of his father, he quitted that profession in order to take charge of the paper-manufactory at Annonay. He in- vented new machines and more sim)/le processes in this art. On reading Priestley's treatise " On Different Kinds of Air," he conceived the possibility of aerial navigation, and imparted the idea to his brother Joseph, who was as another self Acting in concert and community, they contrived the means of realizing this project. After trying hydrogen gas and other fluids, they made the first public experiment at Annonay in June, 1783, and sent up a balloon about thirty-seven French feet in diameter, inflated with air rarefied by heat. This successful ex- periment made a great sensation, and was soon repeated at Paris. The brothers were admitted into the Acad- emy of Sciences. Their balloons were called Montgol- fih'es. The first who successfully used hydrogen gas in balloons was M. Charles. Montgolfier died in 1799. (See Charles, Jacques Alexandre.) See C. L. Brightwell, "Annals of Industry and Genius," London, 1863. Montgolfier, (Joseph Michel,) an ingenious French mechanician, born at Annonay in 1740, was one of the inventors of the air-balloon. In his youth he assisted his father, who was a successful manufacturer of paper. In partnership with a brother, he carried on the same business at Voiron and Beaujeu. He had made several improvements in the fabrication of paper before his aerostatic experiments blazoned his name throughout Europe. (See the preceding article.) About 1792 he made a valuable improvement in the hydraulic ram. He also invented a hydraulic press and other mechanical instruments. He was a member of the Institute of France. Died in 1810. See Delambre, '" lSlo;j;e de Joseph Montgolfier." Montgomerie, (Archibald William.) See Eglin- TON. Montgomery, mont-giim'e-re, (Alexander,) a Scot- tish poet under the reign of James VI., was the author of an allegorical piece entitled "The Cherry and the Slae." Died about 1610. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Montgomery, mont-gum'e-re, (George Washing- ton,) a native of Spain, settled in America, where he published "Bernardo del Carpio," a historical romance, and translated into Spanish Irving's "Conquest of Granada." Died in 1841. Montgomery, (Sir James,) a Scottish politician, and a chief of the Covenanters. He was appointed lord justice clerk in 1689. "In parliamentary ability and eloquence," says Macaulay, "he had no superior among his countrymen except Sir John Dalrymple." He was turbulent and perfidious. In 1690 he joined the Jacob- ites in plotting against William III. See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. iii. S, e, T, 6, u, y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; MONTGOMERT 1617 MONTIGNT Montgomery, (James,) a distinguished poet, born in Ayrshire, Scotland, in 177 1, was the son of a Moravian preacher. He was sent at an early age to the Moravian school at Fulneck, in Yorkshire, where his progress was not very satisfactory to his teachers, as he spent the greater part of his time in reading and writing poetry, which was prohibited by the rules of the school. After leaving Fulneck, he resided for a time, as shopman in a book-store, in London, and in 1792 began to contribute political articles to the "Sheffield Register," edited by Mr. Joseph Gales. He founded in 1794 a reform jour- nal, called the " Sheffield Iris," of which he was editor about thirty yfears. Several of his articles having been denounced as revolutionary, he was twice fined and imprisoned. He published in 1806 his "Wanderer of Switzerland," which was followed by " The West Indies," (1809,) " The World before the Flood," (1812,) and " The Pelican Island," (1827.) These poems are distinguished for depth and tenderness of feeling, elevated moral sentiment, and graceful description. He also wrote a number of hymns of great beauty, which enjoy exten- sive popularity. One of Mr. Montgomery's last works was a " History of Missionary Enterprise in the South Seas," (1830.) Died in 1854. See " Memoirs of the Life, etc. of James Montgomeiy," by J. Holland and James Everett; "Life of Montgomery," by Mrs. H. C. Knight: Chambers, " Biograpliical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement ;) " London Quarterly Review" for Decem- ber, 1811; "Blackwood's Magazine" for October, 1827; "Eraser's Magazine" for July, 1833, and October, 1856. Montgomery, (Richard,) a distinguished general, born in Ireland in 1737, served in Canada under Wolfe, and subsequently entered the American army. Being appointed commander of the forces in the Northern department, he took Fort Chambly and Montreal. He was killed in December, 1775, in an assault upon Quebec. See "Life of Richard Montgomery," by John Armstrong, in Sparks's "American Biography," vol. i., first series; "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. Montgomery, mont-giim'e-re, (Robert,) an English divine and poet, born at Bath in 1807. He was the author of a, poem entitled "The Omnipresence of the Deity," (1828,) which had great tem]-»orary success, eight editions being sold in as many months. He became in 1843 pastor of Percy Street Chapel, London. The extra- ordinary success of his poetry was chiefly to be ascribed to the nature of his subject and the favour of a large portion of the religious community. Died in 1855. See Macaulav, in the " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1830; "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iv. chap. xvii. ; "New Spirit of the Age," by R. H. Horne. Montgomery, (William R.,) an American officer, born in New Jersey, served in the Mexican war, became brigadier-general of volunteers in the Union army in 1861, and military commandant of Philadelphia in 1862. Montgomery, mont-giim'e-re, de, [ Fr. pron. deh m6N'gom''re',] (Gabriel,) a French nobleman, of Scot- tish extraction, born about 1530. Being present at a tournament given by Henry II. on the occasion of his daughter's marriage with the King of Spain, Montgomery was summoned by the French king to break a lance with him. He complied reluctantly, and had the misfortune to inflict a mortal wound on his antagonist. He subse- quently went to England, where he became a Protestant, and, after his return to France in 1562, distinguished himself as a leader of the Huguenots in the civil war of the time. Being made prisoner by Marshal Matignon at the siege of Saint-Lo, in 1574, he was condemned to death and executed, by order of Catherine de Medicis. "The queen," says Sismondi, "had no great affection for Henry II., or cause to regret him ; but she wished that a man should not be considered innocent after having, even by accident, caused the death of a king." See Sismondi, " Histoire des Frangais ;" BrantSme, " Capi- taines illustres." Montgon, de, deh m6N'g6N', (Charles Alexandre,) n French priest, born at Versailles in 1690. He entered the service of Philip V. of Spain, who sent him on a secret mission to the court of Paris. He published "Diplomatic Memoirs," (5 vols., 1742.) Died in 1770. Monthenault or Montenault d'l^gly, miN'teh^no' di'gle', (Charles Philippe,) a French writer, born in Paris in 1696. His chief work is a "History of the French Kings of the Two Sicilies," (4 vols,, 1741.) Died in 1749. Monthion, de, deh miN'te'AN', (FRANgois G6d^on Bailly,) Comte, a French general, born in the Isle of Bourbon in 1776; died in 1850. Montholon, de, deh m6N'to'16N', (Charles Tris- tan,) Marquis, a French general, born in Paris in 1782. He entered the army in 1798, and accompanied Napo- leon in the subsequent campaigns in Italy, Austria, and Prussia. He was sent in 181 1 on an important embassy to the archduke Ferdinand at Witrzburg, and in 1814 was made general of brigade. He shared the emperor's exile at Saint Helena, and served him with unwearied fidelity till his death, being appointed by him executor of his will and keeper of part of his manuscripts. After his return to France, Montholon iniblished, in conjunc- tion with General Gourgaud, "Memoirs towards the History of France under Napoleon, dictated by Hiinself at Saint Helena," (1823.) He also wrote an "Account of the Captivity of Napoleon at Saint Helena," (1847.) Died in 1853. See "Biographic du General Montholon," 1849 ; " London Quar terly Review" for March, 1848. Monthyon. See Montyon. Monti, mon'tee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian poet, born at Bologna in 1688; died in 1766. Monti, (Giuseppe,) an Italian botanist, born at Bo- logna in 1682. He published several botanical works. Died at Bologna in 1760. Monti, (Rafaelle,) an Italian sculptor, born at Milan in 1818. Among his master-pieces may be named the " Veiled Vestal," the " Boy catching a Grasshopper," and the " Circassian Slave." He was an active sup- porter of the popular cause in 1847-48, since which he has lived as an exile in London. Monti, (Vincenzo,) a celebrated Italian poet, born near Ferrara in 1753. He studied in the university of that city, and began at an early age to write Latin and Italian poems. These com])ositions obtained for him the notice and patronage of Cardinal Borghese, who took Monti with him to Rome in 1778. He published in 1785 his tragedy of " Aristodemo," which was received with great favour. His poem entitled " Bassvilliana," (1793,) suggested by the murder of Hugo de Bassville, envoy of the French republic at Rome, had also great popularity, and passed through eighteen editions in six months. Upon the French invasion in 1796, Monti repaired to Milan, where, accommodating himself to the new order of things, he wrote in favour of the Revolution. Some of his writings, which originally contained bitter in- vectives against Napoleon, were now altered so as to transfer the abuse to the allied sovereigns. On the Russian invasion in 1799 he took refuge for a time in France, and, soon after his return, published his tragedy of " Caio Gracco," " La Mascheroniana," a poem on the death of his friend Mascheroni, and his beautiful and popular hymn beginning " Bell' Italia," etc. Monti became in 1803 professor of eloquence at Pavi'a, and on the coronation of Napoleon, in 1805, was appointed his historiographer. He filled this office rather as court poet than historian, and lavished a profusion of eulogistic verses on the emperor and his family. He was created by him a chevalier of the legion of honour and of the iron crown, and was chosen a member of the Institute of the kingdom of Italy, Died in 1828. See " Notizie sulla Vita e sull'Ingegno di Vincenzo Monti," 1828 ; ZuccALA, " Elogio storico di V. Monti," 1828; Bozoli, " Ragiona- mento della Vita e delle Opere di V. Monti," 1837 ; " Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale;" Tipai.do, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri ;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Blackwood's Maga- zine" for February, 1826 ; " Eraser's Magazine" for November, 1832. Montiano y Luyando, de, di mon-te-^'no e loo- yin'do, (Augustin,) a Spanish dramatist, born in 1697 '> died in 1759. Monticelli, mon-te-chel'Iee, (Andrea,) a skilful Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1640, painted land- scapes, flowers, fruits, etc. Died in 17 16. Montigny, m^N^t^n^ye', (Florence de Montmo- rency — deh mb'H'mo'xh^'st' ,) Lord of, a Flemish nobleman, was ambassador to Spain in 1562. Being sent on a second mission in 1566, he was arrested by € as 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 102 MONTIGNT 1618 MONTMORENCr order of Philip II., accused of high treason, and exe- cuted in 1570. See Prescott, " History of Philip II.," vol. i. book ii. and vol. ii. book iii. Montigny, m6N't^n'ye', (Rose Marie Cizos,) a po]Hilar French actress of comedy, known as Rose Ch^rie, was born at fitampes in 1824. Montigny, de, deh m6N't^n'ye', (Jean,) a French poet, born in Bretagne in 1637, was a member of the French Academy, and Bishop of Leon. Died in 1671. Montjoie, mdN^zhwi^ (Christophe F^:lix Louis Ventre de la Touloubke,) a French political writer, born at Aix in 1746. He was a royalist in the Revo- lution of 1789-95. He wrote, besides other works, a " History of the Conspiracy of Robespierre," (1796.) Died in 1816. Montjosieu, de, deh m6N'zho'ze-uh', (Louis,) a French scholar and writer, born in Rouergue. He visited Rome in 1583. Among his works is "The Frenchman a Guest at Rome," (" Gallus Romae Hospes," 1585.) Montlosier, de, deh moNHo'ze-i', (FRANgois Do- minique Reynaud — ri^n5',) Comte, a French journal- ist, born at Clermont-Ferrand in 1755. He was a deputy to the States-General in 1789, and was a prominent ad- vocate of the aristocratic party. He repaired to London, where he edited an anti-revolutionary journal called the " Courrier de Londres." On his return to France, during the consulate, he modified or abandoned his roy- alist views. He was also for a time one of the editors of the " Constitutionnel." Having attached himself to the new dynasty on the revolution of July, he was made a peer in 1832. He wrote a work " On the French Monarchy from its Establishment to the Present Time." Died in 1838. See Barante, " Notice sur la Vie de M. le Comte de Montlo- sier," 1842; "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1823. Montluc, de, deh mdN'liik', (Blaise de Lasseran- Massencome — deh ia.s'r8N' mt's6N'kom^) Seigneur, a French marshal, born in Gascony in 1 501. He fought against the Imperialists commanded by the emperor Cliarles V., and assisted at the sieges of La Rochelle and Calais. In 1573 he was made a marshal by Henry HI. He died in 1577, leaving "Memoirs of his Military Lite," (1592,) which were praised by Henry IV. and often reprinted. Montluc, de, (Jean,) a bishop, the brother of the preceding, was born about 1508, and was distinguished by the favour of Francis I. and Henry II., who employed him in various embassies. He became Bishop of Valence in 1553. He is said to have been secretly attached to the Reformed religion ; but he retained the favour of Catherine de Medicis. Died in 1579. See Brantome, " Capitaines illustres." Montluc, de, (Jean,) Seigneur de Balagni, and mar- shal of France, a natural son of the preceding, was born about 1545. After he had fought for the League against Henry IV., he entered the service of the latter, who made him a marshal of France in 1594. Died in 1603. Montmaur, de, deh m6N^m5R', (Pierre,) a pedantic and witty Frenchman, born in Limousin or Le Quercy about 1564. He was professor of Greek in the College de France, and was notorious as a parasite. Died in 1648. See Sai.lengre, " Histoire de P. de Montmaur," 2 vols., 1715. Montmorency. See Luxembourg. Montmorency or Montmorenci, m6nt-mo-r§n'se, [Fr. pron. m6N'mo'r5N'se',] the name of a noble French family, whose celebrity dates as far back as the eleventh century, and which has produced many famous princes, peers, and generals. Among them were six constables and eleven marshals of France. Montmorency, de, deh miN^mo^rSN^se', (Anne,) Due, Constable of France, born at Chantilly in 1493, was the first of his family that received the title of duke. He was made a marshal in 1522, and was taken prisoner at Pavia in 1525. In 1536, by skilful manoeuvres, he defended Provence, which was invaded by Charles V. in person. He was appointed constable in 1538, and was chief minister of Francis I. from that date until 1541, when he fell into disgrace. Henry II. restored him to favour and power in 1547. Montmorency was defeated and made prisoner at the battle of Saint-Quentin, in 1557. The death of Henry II., in 1559, was fatal to his am- bitious prospects, and opened the way for the accession to power of his rival the Due de Guise. He fought for the Catholic party in the civil vyar, and in 1562 com- manded at Dreux, where he gained the victory, but was made prisoner. He was mortally wounded at the battle of Saint-Denis, in 1567. He has been censured for austerity and excessive rigour, but had several great qualities. See De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis;" Brantome, "Vies des Hommes illustres;" Lesconvrl, "Anne de Montmorency," i6g6; Davila, " History of the Civil Wars of France ;" " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale ;" Tavannes, " Memoires ;" Robertson, "His- tory of Charles V.," vols. ii. and iii. Montmorency, de, (Charles,) a French general, who became a marshal of France in 1343. He fought against the English at Crecy in 1346. Died in 1381. Montmorency, de, (Charlotte Marguerite,) a French lady, born in 1594, was the sister of Duke Henri II. de Montmorency. She was married to Henri, Prince de Conde, about 1609. Her beauty made such an im- pression on the king, Henry IV., that her husband was alarmed, and conducted her to a foreign country. She was the mother of the great Conde, of the Prince of Conti, and of the Duchess of Longueville. Died in 1650. See Bazin, " Histoire de Louis XIII ;" L'Estoile, "Memoires," etc. Montmorency, de, (Henry I.,) Due, the second son of Anne, noticed above, was styled Comte de Damville in his youth. He was a cousin of Admiral Coligni. At the battle of Dreux, in 1562, he took the Prince of Conde prisoner, and in 1566 obtained a mar- shal's baton. He rendered important services to Henry IV,,' who appointed him Constable of France in 1593. Died in 1614. It is stated that a mutual passion was felt by him and Mary Queen of Scots, whonj he fol- lowed to Scotland in 1561. Montmorency, de, (Henri II.,) Due, a son of the preceding, was born at Chantilly in 1595. His valour, generosity, and name rendered him a great favourite with the court, the army, and the people. He commanded for Louis XIII. in the civil war against the Huguenots which began about 1620, and defeated the Due de Rohan in 1628. For his victory over the Imperialists at Veillane, in 1629, he was made a marshal. Seduced by Gaston, a brother of Louis XIII. and heir-presumptive to the throne, and incited by enmity to Richelieu, he took arms against the government, and encountered the royal army at Castelnaudary in 1632. With too impetuous valour, he exposed himself at the head of his army, was wounded, and made prisoner. He was tried for treason, and beheaded in October, 1632. He left no issue, and the first ducal branch of the Montmorencies then became extinct. His sister was the mother of the great Prince de Conde and of the Duchesse de Longueville. See Desormeaux, " Histoire de la Maison de Montmorency." Montmorency, de, (Mathieu L,) was appointed Constable of France about 1130, and was the most pow- erful French seigneur of his time. He married first Aline, daughter of Henry I. of England, and secondly Alix or Adelaide, the widow of Louis le Gros and mother of Louis VII. of France. He died in 1160, leaving several children by his first wife. See Desormeaux, " Histoire de la Maison de Montmorency." Montmorency, de, (Mathieu II.,) sumamed le Grand, a grandson of the preceding, was born about 1174. He contributed greatly to the victory of the French at Bouvines, in 1214. In 1218 he obtained the office of constable, which his talents and merits raised to be the highest office of the kingdom. The Constable of France was thenceforth ex officio commander-in-chief of the army. He had great influence in the reign of Louis VIII. and in that of his successor. He was nearly related to two emj^erors and six kings. His grand- daughter married Louis de Bourbon, a great-great- grandfather of Henry IV. Died in 1230. See Desormeaux, " Histoire de la Maison de Montmorency." Montmorency, de, ( Mathieu Jean F^:LieiT6 de Montmorency-Laval — deh m6N'mo'r6N'se' It'- a, e, T, o, ii, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fdr, fill, fit; mfit; nftt; good; moon; MONTMORIN 1619 MONTTON viK,) Due, a French statesman, born in Paris in 1766, was a friend of La Fayette, in company with whom he served in the war of American Independence. He was a deputy to the States-General in 1789, and was an ad- vocate of liberal reform. On the restoration he became a zealous royalist, and was made a peer by Louis XVIIL He was appointed minister of foreign affairs in 1821, president of the cabinet, and governor to the Duke of Bordeaux in 1823. He was also a member of the French Academy. Died in 1826. See De Gerando, " filoge de M. de Montmorency," 1826; Cha- teaubriand, "Menioires d'Outre-Tombe ;" Vetillard, "Notice sur la Vie de M. le Due de Montmorency," 1826. Montmorin Saint-Herem, de, deh miN'mo'r^N'' siN-//a'r6N^ (Armand Marc,) Comte, a French states- man, born about 1745. He succeeded Count Vergennes as minister of foreign affairs in 1787, and became min- ister of the interior in 1 791. He was condemned to death by the Revolutionary Tribunal, and executed in September, 1792. See Dkoz, " Histoire de Louis XVI;" Lamartine, "History of the Girondists." Moiitmort, de, deh m^N'moR', (Pierre R6mond,) a French mathematician, born in Paris in 1678, was a pupil of Malebranche. He was the author of a popular work entitled "Analytical Essay on Games of Chance." He was a member of the French Academy of Sciences, and a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, He con- tributed to the " Philosophical Transactions" of that institution a valuable essay "On Infinite Series." Died in 1719. See FoNTENELLE, " ^logcs dcs Academiciens." Montolieu, de, deh m^x'to'l.e-uh', (Jeanne Isabelle Pauline Polier de Bottens — po'le-i' deh bo'tSN',) Dame de Crousaz and Baronne, a Swiss novelist, born at Lausanne in 1751 ; died in 1832. Montorfano, mon-toR'fi-no, (Giovanni Donato,) an Italian painter of the latter part of the fifteenth century. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Montorsoli, mon-toR'so-lee, (Fra Giovanni An- GELO,) a celebrated Italian sculptor and architect, born at Montorsoli, near Florence, about 1500. He was employed in several works by Michael Angelo, whose lasting friendship he acquired. He was selected by Pope Clement VII. to restore the famous group of Laocoon and the Apollo Belvedere. Among his master- pieces we may name the fountain in front of the cathe- dral at Messina, and the grand altar of the Church dei Servi della Nunziata at Bologna. Died in 1563. See CicoGNARA, "Storia della Scultiira ;" Vasari, " Lives of the Painters, Sculptors," etc. ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Montpensier, de, deh m^N^pfiN'seJ.', (Anne Ma- rie Louise d'Ori,6ans,) Duchesse, commonly called Mademoiselle, was born in Paris in 1627. She was the daughter of Gaston, Duke of Orleans, and cousin of Louis XIV, Of a bold and energetic character, she became a zealous adherent of the party of Conde in the wars of the Fronde, She rendered several important services to that faction, among which was the capture of the town of Orleans, About 1670 she was married to Count Lauzim. She died in 1693, leaving Memoirs which possess much interest. See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" Saint-Simon, "Me- niDiies ;" 'Mademoiselle's Campaigns," in the "Atlantic Monthly" for July, 1858. Montpensier, de, ( Antoine Marie Philippe Louis D'Orl^:ans,) Due, a younger son of King Louis Philippe of France, was born at Neuilly in 1824, He served with distinction in Algeria in 1844 and 1845, obtained the rank of marechal de camp in 1846, and married in that year Maria Luisa Fernanda de Bourbon, a sister of Isa- bella, Queen of Spain. In 1858 Queen Isabella gave him the rank of captain-general. He was a candidate for the vacant throne of Spain in 1869. In March, 1870, he killed Prince Henry of Bourbon in a duel near Madrid. Montpensier, de, (Antoine Philippe d'Orl^:ans,) Due, a younger brother of King Louis Philippe of France, was born in 1775. He was arrested in April, 1793, and imprisoned until 1796. Died near London in 1807. Montpensier, de, (Catherine Marie de Lorraine — deh lo'rin',) DueHESSE, a French lady, born in 1552, was a sister of Henri, Due de Guise. She acted with the League, and fomented rebellion against Henry III. of France. Died in 1596. Montpetit, de, deh m6N'peh-te', (Armand Vin- eENT,) a French painter, born at Macon in 17 13. He was the inventor of a method of painting which he called eludoriqtie, (elydoric) He published an account of his invention in a work entitled "Note interessante sur les Moyens de conserver les Portraits peints a I'Huile," etc, (1776.) Died in 1800, Montreuil, de, deh m6N^tRuI' or mdN'tRuh'ye, (Bernardin,) a French Jesuit and theologian, born in Paris in 1596, wrote a "Life of Christ taken from the Four Gospels," (1637,) and other religious works. Died in 1646. Montreuil, de, sometimes written Montereul, (Ma- THiEU,) a French poet, born in Paris in 1611 ; died in 1691. Montrichard, m6N're'shtR', (Joseph £lie D6sir6 PERRUQUET,)a French general, born in 1760. He com- manded the right wing at thef; battle of Trebbia, June, 1799. Died in 1828, Montrond, de, deh mdN'tr^N', (Clement MELeniOR Justin Maxime FouReHEUX,) a French writer, born in Gard in 1805. He wrote, besides other works, a " His- tory of the Crusades," (2 vols,, 1841.) Montrose, mont-roz', (James Grahame,) Marquis OF, a celebrated Scottish general, born at Edinburgh in 1612, Having finished his studies in France, after his return to Scotland he served for a time in the Pres- byterian army ; but he subsequently went over to the royalists. He was appointed by Charles I., in 1644, Marquis of Montrose, and commander-in-chief of the Scottish forces. He signally defeated the Covenanters at Tippermuir in 1644, also at Inverlochy and at Kilsyth in 1645 ; but his army was surprised and totally defeated by General Leslie at Philiphaugh in September, 1645. Montrose soon after went to Germany, where he was received with great distinction by the Austrian emperor and made a marshal of the empire. Having collected a small but ill-organized force, he returned to Scotland in 1650, but was soon after defeated and taken pris- oner. He was executed, without a trial, at Edinburgh, in May, 1650. See Clarendon, " History of the Rebellion;" Mark Napier, "Montrose and the Covenanters," 1838 ; Grant, " Life of Grahame, Marquis of Montrose," 1859; George Wi.shart, "Memoirs of Grahnme, Marquis of Montrose;" Sir Edward Cust, "Lives of the Warriors of the Civil Wars," 1867 ; " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1846; "Eraser's Magazine" for June, 1841. Montucci, mon-toot'chee, (Antonio,) an Italian philologist, born at Sienna in 1762, became in 1785 professor of the English language in the Tolomei Col- lege, and subsequently of Italian at Berlin and Dresden. He died in 1829, leaving unfinished a Chinese Dictionary. Montucla, m^N'tii'klf, (Jean Etienne,) a French mathematician, born at Lyons in 1725. Having studied philology and natural science at the Jesuits' College at Lyons, he visited Paris, where he became associate editor of the " Gazette de France" and formed an intimacy with Diderot, D'Alembert, and other savants of the time. In 1764 he accompanied Turgot to Cayenne, as first secre- tary and astronomer to the expedition. After his return he was appointed royal censor of mathematical books and commissioner of the royal buildings. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and of the Institute of France. His most important work is his "History of Mathematics," (1758,) which was com- pleted by Lalande. He also wrote a " History of the Researches for Determining the Quadrature of the Circle," and several other treatises. Died in 1799, See A. Savinien-Leblond, " Notice historique sur la Vie de J. fi. Montucla," 1800. Montureux, See Bourcier. Montyon or Monthyon, de, deh miN'te-^N', (Jean Baptiste Robert Auget — o'zha^) Baron, a wealthy and philanthropic French nobleman, born in Paris in 1733. He bequeathed the greater part of his large fortune to benevolent and learned institutions, and was the founder of the " Montyon Prize of Virtue" given € as k; 9 as j; g hard; g as j; G, H, Vi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; %h as in this. (^^T^See Explanations, p. 23.) MONFEL 1620 MOORB: by the^French Academy. He published " Researches and Cohsiderations on the Population of France," and other works. " His name," says Lamartine, " was the foremost on the roll of the national nobility." Died in 1820, See B. V. Franklin, " filoge historique de Montyon," Paris, 1834: Chazet, "Vie de M. de Montyon," 1829; Andrieux, " if loge de A. J. B. R. Auget," etc., 1834; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene- rale." Monvel, m6N'v§l', ( Jacques Marie Boutet,) a French actor and dramatist, born at Luneville in 1745, was the author of numerous comedies and comic operas. Died in 1812. Monville, de. See Botssel. Monvoisin, mAN''vwa''z4N', ( Raymond Auguste (^uiNSAC,) a French historical painter, born at Bordeaux in 17Q5, studied in Paris under P. Guerin. Died in 1870. Moojaert, mS'yaRt, written also Mooyaert, (Clas,) a Dutch landscape-painter and engraver, born at Am- sterdam about 1590. He was the master of Berghem and Jan Weeninx. MooUah-Firooz (or Moullah-Firouz) Ben-Ka- woos, a Persian poet, (horn at Bombay in 1759. He wrote an epic ]')oem, entitled " George-Nameh," the conquest of India by the British. Died in 1831. Moonen, mo'nen, (Arnold,) a Dutch theologian, distinguished as a poet and grammarian, was born at Zwolle in 1644. He became minister of a Protestant church at Deventer. His poems were published in 2 vols., 1720. Died in 171 1. Moor, moor, ? (Edward,) F.R.S., an English writer, born about 1770. He served several campaigns in India, and obtained the rank of major. He published, besides other works, "The Hindu Pantheon," (4to, 1810.) Died in 1848. Moor, van, vtn moR, Moro, or More, (Antonis or Antonio,) a celebrated Dutch portrait-painter, born at Utrecht in 1519, was a pupil of Jan Schooreel. He was patronized by Cardinal Granvelle, the emperor Charles v., and Philip II., and painted the portraits of the prin- cipal sovereigns of Europe. His works in this depart- ment are of the highest order. He also executed several historical pictures of great merit. Died in 1568. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Moor, van, (Karel,) a Dutch portrait-painter, of high reputation, born at Leyden in 1656, studied under Ge- rard Douw and Mieris. Among his best works are por- traits of Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough on horseback. He was created a knight of the empire by the Austrian emperor Joseph I. His "Assembly of Notables," in the Hotel de Ville at the Hague, is also esteemed a master-piece. Died about 1738. See PiLKiNGTON, " Dictionary of Painters ;" Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc.; Charles Blanc, "His- toire des Peintres." Moorad-Alee or Mourad-Ali, moo-rld i'lee, called also Moorad Khan, (Kan,) King of Persia, of the Zend dynasty, was born at Is])ahan about 1746. He defended himself for a time successfully against several rivals ; but he was at length defeated by Jaafar Khan in 1784. Died in 1785. See Malcolm, "History of Persia." Moorad (Mourad or Murad) Bey, moo-rld ba, a celebrated Mameluke chief, born in Circassia in 1750. On the invasion of Egypt by the French, in 1798, he opposed them with great bravery, but was at length compelled to retreat. He subsequently made a treaty with General Kleber, by which he became Prince of Assouan and Djirdjeh, under the protection of France. Died in 1801. See General Bertrand, " Campagnes d'^gypte et de Syrie," 1847; Thiers, "History of the French Revolution." Mooravief or Mooraviev, moo-rS-ve-^f, written in German Murawiew or Murawjew, but pro- nounced exactly like the preceding spellings, (ANDREW,) a Russian writer and traveller, was a younger brother of General Nicholas Mooravief. He published, in Ger- man, a " History of the Russian Church," (1845,) ^ "Description of Armenia," (3 vols., 1848,) and other works. r Mooravief or Murawiew, (Michael,) a Russian engineer and general, born about 1795, was a brother of the preceding. He became a member of the imperial council about 1850. Died in 1866. Mooravief or Murawiew, (Michael Nikitich,) a Russian litterateur, born at Smolensk in 1757, was ap- pointed preceptor to the grand dukes Alexander and Constantine. He was the author of " Historical Pieces," "Letters of Emilius," and several moral and literary essays, which are ranked among Russian classics. Died in 1807. See Gretch, " Essai sur I'Histoire de la Litterature Russe." Mooravief, Mouraviev, Muraview, or Mura- vieff, (Nicholas,) an able Russian general, born at Moscow in 1793. He served as general in the war against the Poles, (1830.) In 1854 he obtained com- mand of an army in Asia. He took Kars from the British, after a long siege, in November, 1855. He afterwards commanded with success against Schamyl, the Circassian chief. Died in 1866. Moorcroft, moor'kroft, (William,) an English trav- eller, born in Lancaster about 1780, spent several years in Hindostan, and explored parts of the country hitherto unknown to Eui-opeans. He was the author of " Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindostan," etc., (1841,) " On the Purik Sheep of Ladakh," and other works. Died in 1825. Moore, m5r, (Alfred,) an American jurist, son of Maurice, noticed below, was born in Brunswick county, North Carolina, in 1755. He was appointed associate justice of the supreme court of the United States in 1799. Died in 1810. Moore, (Benjamin,) an American clergyman, born on Long Island in 1748, became Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church of the diocese of New York. Died in 1816. Moore, (Clement C.,) LL.D., son of the preceding, was born in New York in 1779. He was appointed in 1821 professor of Hebrew and Greek literature in the Protestant Episcopal Seminary in New York. He published a " Hebrew-and-English Lexicon," and other works. Moore, mor, (Edward,) an English litterateur, born in Berkshire in 1712. He was the author of "Fables foi the Female Sex," which had great popularity, and "The Gamester," a tragedy, which was also very successful. He was one of the editors of " The World," a literary journal having arnong its contributors Horace Walpole, Soame Jenyns, and Lord Chesterfield. Died in 1757. See Walpole, " Letters ;" Johnson and Chalmers, " English Poets." Moore, (Edward M.,) M.D., an American surgeon, born at Rahway, New Jersey, July 15, 1814, graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1838. In 1838, in conjunction with Dr. C. L. Pennock, of Philadelphia, he performed a series of original experiments on the physiological action of the heart, which excited much attention among physiologists. About 1840 he removed to Rochester, New York, where he soon acquired a high reputation in his profession. For many years he has filled the chair of surgery in the medical college at Buffalo. Moore, (Frank,) son of Jacob Bailey, noticed below, has published " Songs and Ballads of the Amer- ican Revolution," the "Rebellion Record, a Diary of American Events," (ii vols., 1861-68,) and several other works. Moore, (Jacob Bailey,) an American political writer and editor, born at Andover, New Hampshire, in 1797. He edited the " New Hampshire Statesman," a Whig paper, and became librarian to the New York Historical Society. Among his works is "The Laws of Trade in the United States." Died in 1853. Moore or More, (James,) an English writer, was the author of a comedy entitled "The Rival Modes," and was associated with the Duke of Wharton as editor of " The Inquisitor." Moore is satirized by Pope in his "Dunciad." Died in 1734. Moore, (John,) an English prelate, born in 1644, be- came successively Bishop of Norwich and of Ely. He died in 17 14, leaving a library of thirty thousand volumes, a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sAori; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, f^t; mSt; nSt; good; moon; MOORE 1621 MOOSA which was purchased by George II. and presented to the University of Cambridge. Moore, mor, (John,) a Scottish physician and distin- guished writer, born at Stirling about 1730. He studied under Hamilton and Cullen at Glasgow, and afterwards spent several years on the continent. He published, after his return, "A View of Society and Manners in France, Switzerland, and Germany," (1778,) which was followed in 1781 by a similar work on Italy. They are written in a lively and attractive style, and had great popularity at the time. His principal work is his novel of "Zeluco," (4 vols., 1789,) which was received with great favour and still enjoys a high reputation. Died in 1802. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Moore, (John,) an English prelate, born at Gloucester in 1733. He became Bishop of Bangor in 1776, and Archbishop of Canterbury in 1783. Died in 1805. Moore, (Sir John,) a celebrated British general, born at Glasgow in 1761, was the eldest son of Dr. John Moore, noticed above. He entered the army at the age of fifteen, and was sent in 1794 to Corsica, where he acted in conjunction with Paoli, and was conspicuous for his courage in the attack on Fort Morello and at the siege of Calvi. As general of brigade, he served under Sir Ralph Abercrombie in the West Indies in 1796, and in 1798 assisted in quelling the Irish rebellion. He accompanied General Abercrombie to Egypt in 1801, and was severely wounded at the battle of Alexandria. He was made a knight of the Bath on his return to England, and, after various services in Sicily and Sweden, was created lieutenant-general, and sent in 1808 to Spain to unite with the forces in the north against the French. On the news of the defeat of the Spanish troops along the northern frontier, and of the numerous French armies approaching, he made a rapid retreat to Coruna, which, being performed in the depth of winter, was attended with great suffering. On the i6th of [anuary, 1809, an engagement took place at Corunna, in which the English claimed the victory but lost their brave commander. His death has been commemorated by the poet Wolfe in a beautiful and popular ode, which Byron pronounced the most perfect in the English language. See James C. Moore, " Life of Sir John Moore," 2 vols., 18:^4 ; R. SouTHEY, "History of the Peninsular War ;" Napirr, " His- tory of the War in the Peninsula;" Chambers, "Biographical Dic- tionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Moore, (Sir Jonas,) an English mathematician, born in Lancashire in 161 7, was appointed tutor to Prince James, son of Charles I., and subsequently became in- spector-general of artillery. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and the author of several scientific works. He was instrumental in founding a mathematical school for sailors at Christ's Hospital, and in the construction of an observatory at Flamstead House. Died in 1679. See Birch, " History of the Royal Society." Moore, (Maurice,) an*American jurist and patriot of the Revolution, born in Brunswick county, North Carolina ; died in 1777. His son Alfred served with distinction in the Revolutionary war, and became asso- ciate justice of the United States supreme court in 1799. Died in 1810. Moore, (Nathaniel F.,) LL.D., a nephew of Bishop Benjamin Moore, noticed above, was born at Newtown, Long Island, in 1782. He becaine professor of the Latin and Greek languages in Columbia College in 1820, and in 1842 president of that institution. He has published "Ancient Mineralogy," and other works. Moore, (Richard Chann'ing,) D.D., an American prelate, born in New York in 1762. He became rector of Saint Stephen's Church, in that city, in 1809, and in 18 14 succeeded Bishop Madison as Bishop of Virginia. Died in 1841. See a " Memoir of the Rev. Richard Channing Moore," by J. P. K. Henshaw. Moore, mor, (Thomas,) a celebrated Irish poet, born in Dublin in 1779. He entered Trinity College at an early age, but, being a Catholic, he was unable to obtain any of the university honours or offices. He afterwards studied law at the Middle Temple, London. He pub- lished in 1 801 his translation of the " Odes of Anacreon," which was very successful, and was followed by "The Poetical Works of the Late Thomas Little," (1802.) In 1804 he visited the United States of America, on the society and institutions of which he made many satirical comments in his "Odes and Epistles," (1806.) His other principal works are " Lalla Rookh," (1812,) an Oriental poem, "The Twopenny Post-Bag, by Thomas Brown, Jun.," (1813,) a witty satire directed against the Tories, which had great popularity, "The Fudge Family in Paris," (1818,) "Loves of the Angels," (1823,) and " Irish Melodies," (1834.) In 1830 he published a " Life of Lord Byron," his most important prose work, wliich, although written entirely from the stand-point of friend- ship, has been highly commended by the critics. He also wrote a "Life of Sheridan," (1825,) "The Epicu- rean," (1827,) a prose romance, and a " History of Ire- land," (1835.) Of his poems, his " Lalla Rookh" and " Irish Melodies" enjoy the highest reputation. The former, though deficient in the higher qualities of poetry, is characterized by exquisite melody of versifica- tion and splendid imagery, and in its moral tone affords a striking contrast to the frivolity and licentiousness of his earlier productions. It obtained extraordinary popi^larity, and was translated into many languages, including Persian. Hazlitt, in his critique on Moore, says that "his is the poetry of the toilette, of the saloon, of the fashionable world, — not the poetry of nature, of the heart, or of human life. His imagination may dally with insect beauties, but it should not attempt to span the great outlines of nature, or keep pace with the sounding march of events, or grapple with the strong fibres of the human heart." See " Memoirs, etc. of Thomas Moore," by Lord Russell ; "Edinburgh Review" for November, 1817, and April, 1854; "Lon- don Quarterly Review" for July, 1853 : " Blackwood's Magazine" for September, 1827, and January, 1853; " Eraser's Magazine" for October, 1830 ; "Monthly Review" for September, 1806. Moore, (Zephaniah Swift,) D.D., an American divine and scholar, born at Palmer, Massachusetts, in 1770, becatne president of Williams College in 1815, and in 1821 of Amherst College. Died in 1823. Moor'som, (Sir Robert,) a brave English admiral, born in Yorkshire in 1760. Being appointed in 1805 commander of the Revenge, he had a prominent part in the battle of Trafalgar. He afterwards represented Queensborough in Parliament, and was made an admiral in 1830. Died in 1835. Moosa. See Moses. Moosa, Mousa, or Musa, moo'si, third son of Bayazeed I., was born at Brusa about 1376. He was made prisoner with his father by Tamerlane after the battle of Angora. Being afterwards appointed by the latter governor of the Ottoman provinces of Asia Minor, he carried on a war against his elder brother Solyman, whose capital Adrianople he took in 1404, thus becoming master of the European part of the Ottoman empire. In 1412 he besieged Constantinople, but, having been forced to retire, he was taken prisoner, and strangled by order of Mahomet I. See Von Hammer, " Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." Moosa, Mousa, or Musa, Ibn, ibn moo'st, (Aboo- Abdallah-Mohanimecl, ¥h6b 3.b-dlKlah mo-him'- med,) an Arabian mathematician, was the author of a treatise on algebra entitled " Al Jebr e al Mokabalah." He is said to have been the first of his countrymen who wrote on that science ; and Europe is indebted to him for its introduction and its name. Moosa-Ibn-Noseyr, moo'si Tb'n no-sar', (or no- slr',) (Aboo-Abd-er-Rahman, ¥h6b Wd&v rih^min,) a celebrated Arab conqueror, was born at Mecca about 660 a.d. He was appointed in 703 Viceroy of Africa, and, having subjected the northern part of that country, from Tripoli to Morocco, he turned his arms against Spain. In conjunction with his lieutenant Tarik, he took Seville, Merida, Saragossa, and other cities of Southern and Central Spain, to which he subsequently added the most important towns of Catalonia. Among other ar- ticles of great value of which he had possessed himself was the emerald table called the table of Solomon, taken at Medina-Celi. Moosa, having been summoned to Da- mascus by the caliph, presented to him this table, and, « as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Yi^ guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^=*See Explanations, p. 23. ) MO OS A 1622 MORANT on his expressing his surprise that it should have three legs of emerald and one of gold, Moosa replied that he had found it in this condition, Tarik, however, imme- diately exposed the falsehood of his rival by producing the fourth leg of the table. For this offence he was condennied to a heavy fine by Solyman, who afterwards caused his son Abd-el-azeez to be assassinated. Moosa died in obscurity in 718. See Abooi.feda, " Annales Moslemici ;" Makkari, " History of the Mohanimedan Empire in Spain." Moosa- (Mousa- or Musa-) Ibn-Shakir, moo'sd ib'n sh3.''kir, an Arab writer of the early part of the ninth century, wrote a work entitled " vSources of History." He left three sons, the eldest of whom was eminent as an astronomer and was the author of several valuable works. Mooyaert. See Moojaert. Mop'sus, [Gr. M6i/;of,] a famous soothsayer of classic mythology, was called a son of Apollo and Manto. According to tradition, he gained celebrity by the truth of his prophecies at the siege of Thebes and at the temple of Claros, and he triumphed over Calchas in a trial of skill in divination. Moquin-Tandon, mo'k^N' t6N'd6N', (Horace Bene- dict Alfred,) a French physician and botanist, born at Montpellier in 1804. He was appointed in 1853 pro- fessor of natural history in the Medical Faculty of Paris, and in 1854 became a member of the Academy of Sci- ences. He published a "History of the Anomalies of Vegetable Organization," (1841,) and "Essay on the Multiplication of Organs in Vegetables." See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mora, de, di mo'rS, (Jose Joaquin,) a Spanish Ht- teratenr, born at Cadiz in 1784. Having previously edited a literary journal at Madrid, he repaired to South Amer- ica, and became editor of the "Cronica Politica" at Buenos Ayres. He was appointed in 1838 consul-general of Bolivia to London. He published a " History of the Arabs," (1826,) "Spanish Legends," (1840,) and a number of lyric poems and satires. He also trans- lated into Spanish Sir Walter Scott's romances of " Ivanhoe" and "The Talisman." See F. Wolf. " Floresta de Rimas modernas Castellanas." Morabin, mo^rt^biN^ (Jacques,) a French scholar, born at La Fleche in 1687. He was the author of a " History of Cicero," and translated into French Cicero's "Treatise on Laws" and "Treatise on Consolation." Died in 1762. Moraes, de, da mo-rl'ls, ( Cristovam Alao — §,-16vvn',) a Portuguese writer, born in 1632, was the author of a "Genealogy of the Families of Portugal," and a number of sonnets and other poems. Died in 1693. Moraes, de, (Francisco,) a Portuguese writer, born at Braganza. He went to Paris as secretary of legation in the reign of Francis L His chief work is " Libro del muy esforyado Cauallero Palmerin de Inglaterra," which was translated into English by Southey. Moraes was assassinated at Evora in 1572. Moraes Sarmento, mo-r^'§s saR-m^n'to, (Joao EvANGELiSTA,) a Portuguese poet of the present time. Among his works is an " Ode on War," See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe," Morales, mo-ri'l^s, (Cristoval,) a Spanish musician, and one of the greatest composers of his time, was a native of Seville. He was appointed by Pope Paul HI. composer in the pontifical chapel. He lived about 1550. Morales, (Juan Bautista,) a Spanish missionary, born in Andalusia about 1598. He went to China in 1633, but was compelled to quit that country in 1638 through the influence of the Jesuits, whom he censured for permitting their converts to sacrifice to idols. He returned to China, where he died in 1664. Morales, de, di mo-rS'l^s, (Ambrosio,) an eminent Spanish historian, born at Cordova in 1513. He studied at Alcala, where he subsequently became professor, and numbered among his pupils Don John of Austria. In 1570 he succeeded Ocampo as historiographer to Philip II. His principal work is a continuation of Ocampo's "Cronica general de Espaiia," (3 vols., 1577,) bringing the history of Spain down to 1037. Morales also pub- lished a valuable treatise " On the Antiquities of the Spanish Cities." Died in 1591. See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" Bouterwek, "Histoire de la Litterature Espagnole.'.' Morales, de, (Juan,) a Spanish poet, born in Anda- lusia, lived in the sixteenth century. He made admirable translations of some odes of Horace, and wrote original poems of much merit. Morales, de, (Luis,) an eminent Spanish painter, surnamed el Diving, ("the Divine,") born at Badajoz in 1509. He was employed by Philip II. to decorate the Escurial ; but he subsequently lost the king's patron- age and was reduced to great poverty. He was relieved a few years before his death by a pension bestowed upon him by Philip. His " Via Dolorosa," in the church of the Hieronymites, at Madrid, is esteemed one of his master- pieces. Died in 1586. See QuiLLiET, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols ;" Viardot, " Etudes sur I'Histoire des Beaux- Arts en Espagne," 1835. Morali, mo-r^-'lee, (Ottavio,) Abb6, an Italian phi- lologist, born near Bergamo in 1763, became professor of Greek at the College of Brera, in Milan. He pub- lished a good edition of Ariosto, (1818.) Died in 1826. Mo-ran', (Edward,) an American painter of marine views and landscapes, born about 1845. Among his best works are "The Swallows' Cave, Nahant," and "Pulpit Rock." His brother Thomas is also distinguished as a landscape-painter. See TucKERMAN, " Book of the Artists." Morand, mo'rdN', (Charles Antoine Louis Ale- xis,) Comte, a French general, born at Pontarlierin 1771. He served as general at Austerlitz, Jena, Eylau, Essling, and Wagram, (1805-09.) Died in 1835. Morand, (Jean Anioine,) a French architect, born at Brian9on about 1727. He executed several important works at Lyons, one of which is a wooden bridge over the Rhone, which bears his name. He was condemned by the Revolutionary Tribunal and put to death in 1794. Morand, (Jean Francois Cl^;ment,) a French phy- sician, son of Sauveur Fran9ois, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1726. He became librarian to the Academy of Sciences, and was a member of several other learned societies in Europe. Died in 1784. Morand,(SAUVEUR FRANgois,)adistinguished French surgeon, born in Paris in 1697, was the first who intro- duced into France Cheselden's method of lithotomy, having previously learned it in London. He was a Fel- low of the Royal Society of London, and a member of the French Academy of Sciences, and was appointed in 1730 royal censor and surgeon -in-chief of the hospital of La Charite. He published a number of surgical treatises. Died in 1773. See Eloy, "Dictionnaire historique de la Medecine." Morand, de, deh mo^rSN', (Pierre,) a French drama- tist, born at Aries in 1 701, was the author of a comedy entitled "The Spirit of Divorce," and several tragedies. Died in 1757. Morande, de, deh mo'rSNd', (Charles Thevenot or Theveneau — tiv^no',) a French adventurer and political writer, born at Arnay-le-Duc in 1748, was the author of "The Cynic Philosopher," and other works of a libellous character. Died about 1803. Morandi-Manzolini, mo-rSn'dee mSn-zo-lee'nee, (Anna,) a celebrated Italian anatomist, born at Bologna in 1716, was the wife of G. Manzolini, a physician, from whom she learned anatomy and the art of modelling in wax. Her works in this department were regarded as the most perfect of the kind, and obtained for her a European reputation. She was a member of the Insti- tute of Bologna, and in 1758 became professor of anatomy in that city. Died in 1774. Morandini, mo-ran-dee'nee, (Francesco,) called II Poppi, an able Italian painter, born at Poppi in 1544, was a pupil of Vasari. ^ He worked with great facility. Died about 1584. Morando, mo-r^n'do, (Filippo Rosa,) an Italian poet, born at Verona in 1732 ; died in 1757. Mo-rant', ? (Philip,) an English antiquary, born in the -v isle of Jersey in 1700, published, among other works, " History and Antiquities of Colchester," and "History of Essex." Died in 1770. a, e, 1, 6, u, y, lon^; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, till, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; MORARD 1623 MORE Morard de Galle, mo'riR' deh gtl, (Justin Bona- VENTURE,) a French admiral, born in Dauphine in 1741 ; died in 1809. Morata, mo-rS'ta, (Olympia Fulvia,) an Italian lady, esteemed one of the most learned women of her time, was born at Ferrara in 1526. She was married about 1550 to Andrew Gundler, a German physician, whom she accompanied to Germany. She died at Heidelberg in 1555, leaving a number of works, including Latin orations and Greek poems. See TuRNBULL, "Olympia Morata, her Life and Times," 1846; NoLTEN, "Vita Olympise Moratae," 1775; J. Bonnet, "Vied'Olym- pia Murata," 1856; Wildermuth, " O. Morata; ein christliches Lebensbild," 1854; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Moratin, de,di mo-ra-teen', (Leandro Fernandez,) an eminent dramatist, sometimes called "the Spanish Moliere," was born at Madrid in 1760. He was ap- pointed in 1787, through the influence of Jovellanos, secretary to the Spanish embassy in Paris, and published, soon after his return, his comedy of "The Old Man and the Young Girl," ("El Viejo y la Nina,") which was very successful. Among the most popular of his other works are "The Impostor," ("El Baron,") "Yes of the Maidens," ("Si de las Ninas,") "The Young Hypocrite," (" La Mogigata,") and "The New Comedy," ("La Comedia nueva.") His "Origines del Teatro Espanol," (1838,) a critical treatise, is also highly es- teemed. Moratin became first librarian to Joseph Bona- parte in 181 1, and during the subsequent troubles in Spain took refuge in France, where he died in 1828. See Kennedy, " Modern Poets and Poetry^ of Spain ;" Prescott, "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. ii. part i. ; Ochoa, No- tice of Moratin, prefixed to his "Origines del Teatro Espanol," 1838; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "Foreign Quarterly Re- view" for June, 1828. Moratin, de, (Nicolas Fernandez,) a Spanish poet and dramatist, the father of the preceding, was born at Madrid in 1737. He was the author of " Hormesinda," and several other dramas in the French style, also of an epic poem entitled "The Ships of Cortez Destroyed," ("Las Naves de Cortes destruidas,") which has a high reputation. Died in 1780. See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature ;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1827. Moray, Earl of. See Murray, (James Stuart.) Moray or Murray, miir're, (Sir Robert,) one of the founders of the Royal Society of London, was a native of Scotland. Having resided for a time in France, where he was patronized by Louis XIII. and Cardinal Richelieu, he was appointed, after the restoration, to several important offices. He was the first president of the Royal Society, which he assisted to found in 1661. Died in 1673. See Birch, " History of the Royal Society;" Chambers, "Bio- graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Morazan, mo-rS-s^n', (Francisco,) a Central Amer- ican general, born in Honduras in 1799. He became president or general-in-chief of the republic of Central America about 1830, was driven into exile in 1840, and put to death in 1842. Morazzone. See Mazzuchelli. Morcelli, moR-cheKlee, ( Stefano Antonio,) a learned Italian antiquary and Jesuit, born near Brescia in 1737. Among his principal works (which are mostly written in Latin) we may name "Africa Christiana," (3 vols., 1816-17,) illustrating the history of the Church in Africa, "Opera Epigra)>hica," (5 vols., 1818,) "Opus- coli ascetici," (3 vols., 1820,) and a treatise "On the Style of Latin Inscriptions," (3 vols., 1819-22.) He founded an academy of archaeology at Rome, where he passed many years. Died in 1821. See P. LoTTiERi, " Elogio storico di S. A. Morcelli," 1821 ; Baraldi, " Notizia di Morcelli," 1825. Mordaunt, mor'dant, (Charles,) Earl of Peter- borough, a famous English general, of chivalrous and eccentric character, born in 1658, was the son and heir of John, Lord Mordaunt. He first appears ])roniinently in history as a staunch Whig and op])onent of James II. In 1689 he was created Earl of Monmouth and placed at the head of the treasury, but the next year he retired from that office, which was ill suited to his volatile and generous character. He afterwards inherited the title of his uncle, the Earl of Peterborough. During the war of the Spanish succession he commanded an Eng- lish army of 5000 men which arrived in Spain in 1705 and performed a series of brilliant exploits, among which was the capture of Barcelona and Valencia, (1706.) Thwarted in his plans by the archduke Charles of Austria, he obtained leave to retire from the army, and was recalled to England in 1707. Through hostility to Marlborough, he supported the Tories in the political contests which ensued, and after the accession of George I. was consequently excluded from office. He died in 1735. His second wife was Anastasia Robinson, a cele- brated singer and actress. In the opinion of Macaulay, he was "the most extraordinary character of that age, the King of Sweden not excepted. His fertility and activity of mind were almost beyond belief. He loved to dictate six or seven letters at once. He was a kind friend, a generous enemy, and a thorough gentleman. But his splendid talents and virtues were rendered almost useless to his country by his levity, his restless- ness, his irritability, his morbid craving for novelty and excitement." ("Essays.") See Macaulay, "History of England," vol. iii. chap, xi., and his Review of Lord Mahon's " History of the War of the Succes- sion in Spain;" Friend, "Account of the Earl of Peterborough, etc. in Spain;" Burnet, "History of his Own Times;" Lord Mahon, "War of the Succession in Spain;" Walpole, "Royal and Noble Authors;" "Eccentric Personages," by William Rus- sell, 1866. More, moR, [Lat. Mo'rus,] (Alexander,) a French Protestant divine, of Scottish extraction, born at Castres in 16 16. He became professor of Greek at Geneva in 1639, and of history at Amsterdam in 1651. He was the author of Latin poems and other works. Died in 1670. See SvMMONS, "Life of Milton;" Senebier, " Histoire litte- raire de Geneve." More, (Antonio.) See Moor. More, (Hannah,) an English writer, whose moral and religious works enjoyed great popularity in her time, was born at Stapleton, near Bristol, in 1745. She pub- lished in 1773 a pastoral drama, entitled "The Search after Happiness," and in 1774 "The Inflexible Cap- tive," a tragedy, which introduced her to the notice of Garrick, Dr. Johnson, and other eminent men of that period, by whom she was greatly esteemed for the excel- lence of her character. She was the author of several other dramas, which were very favourably received ; but, owing to her convictions of the immoral tendency of the stage, she abandoned dramatic writing, and, while her popularity was still at its height, devoted herself to compositions of a moral and religious character. Among the principal of these we may name "Thoughts on the Manners of the Great," (1788,) "Strictures on the Modern System of Female Education," (1799,) "Hints towards Forming the Character of a Young Princess," (1805,) written for Charlotte, Princess of Wales, " Coelebs in Search of a Wife," (1809,) and several contributions to the " Cheap Repository Tracts," one of which is entitled "The Shepherd of Salisbury Plain." Died in 1833. See William Roberts, "Memoirs of the Life, etc. of Hannah More ;" Mrs. H. C. Knight, " A New Memoir of Hannah More ;" H. Thompson, "Life of Hannah More," etc., 1838; Mrs. Elwood, "Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England," etc.; "Monthly Review" for February, 1809, April, 1813, and February, 1820. More, [Lat. Mo' rus.] (Henry,) an English divine and philosophical writer, born in Lincolnshire in 1614. He studied at Christ's College, Cambridge, of which he was chosen a Fellow. He refused several high prefer- ments in the church, and passed his life in retirement, devoted chiefly to the study of philosophy. He was the author of " Psychozoia, or the Life of the Soul," (1640,) " Enchiridium Metaphysicum," "Conjectura Cabalis- tica," "The Mystery of Godliness," "Discourse on the Immortality of the Soul," and other works, in which he favours the Platonic system. He was a man of fine genius, profound learning, and rare excellence of char- acter. He was one of the first Fellows of the Royal Society, and was a friend and correspondent of Des- cartes. Died in 1687. See R. Ward, "Life of Henry More," 1710; Burnet, "His- tory of his Own Times ;" "Retrospective Review," vol. v., (1822.) « as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2[^=°See Explanations, p. 23.) MORE 1624 MOREAU More, (James.) See Moore. More, [Lat. Mo'rus ; It. and Sp. Mo'ro,] (Sir Thomas,) an eminent English wit, philosopher, and statesman, born in London in 1480, was a son of Sir John More, a judge of the court of king's bench. He received the first rudiments of his education at Saint Anthony's School, London, where he learned Latin. At the age of fifteen he became a page in the house of Cardinal Morton, Archbishop of Canterbury and prime minister, who was much pleased with the wit of young More and predicted that he would prove "a marvellous man." In 1497 he entered the University of Oxford, where he studied Greek as a pupil of Grocyn and formed an intimate and lasting friendship with Erasmus. He gained distinction at Oxford as a writer of English and of Latin verses. Having left college, he studied law at Lincoln's Inn. "He manifested," says Mackintosh, "a predilection for monastic life, and is said to have prac- tised some of those austerities and self-inflictions which prevail among the gloomier and more stern orders." He resolved, indeed, at one time to turn monk, and act- ually became a lay brother of the Carthusian convent (the Charter-House) in London, where he is said to have passed several years, devoting himself at the same time to the study of the classics, the French language, and music. He afterwards entertained thoughts of becoming a priest ; but on further reflection, and influenced per- haps by the general corruption of the priestly orders, he abandoned his design. In the words of Erasmus, " Ma- luit maritus esse castus quam sacerdos impurus," ("he preferred to be a chaste husband rather than an impure priest.") About 1502 he married Jane Colt, the eldest daughter of a gentleman of Essex. He had a slight preference for her younger sister, but was so good- natured that he sacrificed his inclination, that he might not wound the feelings of the eldest. This union proved very happy, but his wife died a few years after her mar- riage, leaving him a son and three daughters, of whom Margaret, the eldest, inherited the features, goodness, and genius of her father. His graceful and varied learn- ing was only surpassed by his sprightly, inexhaustible wit. "With him," says Erasmus, "you might imagine yourself in the Academy of Plato." He attained great eminence at the bar, and about 1502 became an under- sheriff of London, — i.e. a judge of the sheriffs court. He appears to have been the first Englishman that cultivated oratory with any great success. " He is," says Mackin- tosh, "the first person in our history distinguished by the faculty of public speaking, and remarkable for the successful employment of it in Parliament against a lavish grant of money to the crown." He was elected to Parliament about 1504, and, by persuading the Com- mons not to grant a supply to Henry VII. on the occa- sion of the marriage of his daughter, deeply offended that king. More had in consequence resolved to leave the country ; but the death of Henry relieved him from all apprehensions. Having lost his first wife, he married a widow named Alice Middleton. In 1513 he wrote a "History of Richard III.," which, says Hallam, "appears to me the first example of good English language, pure and per- spicuous, well chosen, without vulgarisms or pedantry." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") He was sent on a mission to Flanders in I^H' ^"'^ about that date became a favourite of Henry VIII., who not only consulted him in affiirs of state, but preferred him as the companion of his amusements and convivial hours. In 1516 he produced his famous Platonic fiction of "Utopia," (in Latin,) describing an imaginary common- wealth in the island of Utopia, the citizens of which had all things in common. He resigned the office of under-sheriff in 1 5 19, was appointed treasurer of the exchequer in 1521, and chosen Speaker of the House of Commons in 1523. He gave proof of his firmness and independence by his answer to Cardinal Wolsey, who demanded a very great subsidy for the king. About 1523 More began to write tracts against I^uther. In October, 1529, he was apjiointed lord chancellor in place of Cardinal Wolsev. Although the Protestants were i:)ersecuted while he held that office, it would appear that he was not responsible for the persecution. " It is a sufficient proof of his clemency," says Erasmus, " that while he was chancellor no man was put to death for these pestilent dogmas."* Suitors were astonished at the contrast between the affable More and the haughty Cardinal Wolsey. >3ir Thomas resigned the great seal in May, 1532, because his conscience refused to sanction the divorce of Queen Catherine and the second marriage of the king. " Henry had tried every possible means to obtain at least the appearance of his spontaneous approbation." (Mackin- tosh.) In 1533 he wrote a work called "The Apology of Sir Thomas More." Having declined to take the oath by which he was re- quired to acknowledge the validity of the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn, he was committed to the Tower in April, 1534. After he had been in prison more than a year, he was charged with denying the king's supremacy as the head of the Church ; and, his answers not having been found satisfactory, he was pronounced guilty of treason, and was beheaded on the 6th of July, 1535. "The scaffold had been awkwardly erected, and shook as he placed his foot upon the ladder. * See me safe up,' he said to Kingston ; * for my coming down I can shift for myself . . . The executioner offered to tie his eyes. ' I will cover them myself,' he said ; and, binding them in a cloth which he had brought with him, he knelt, and laid his head upon the block. The fatal stroke was about to fall, when he signed for a moment's delay, while he moved aside his beard. ' Pity that should l3e cut,' he murmured : ' that has not committed treason.' With which strange words, — the strangest, perhaps, ever ut- tered at such a time, — the lips most famous through Europe for eloquence and wisdom closed forever." (Froude's " History of England," chap, ix.) Alluding to his behaviour on the scaffold, Addison remarks, " The innocent mirth which had been so conspicuous in his life did not forsake him at the last. His death was of a piece with his life ; there was nothing in it new, forced, or affected. He did not look upon the severing his head from his body as a circumstance which ought to produce any change in the disposition of his mind; and, as he died in a fixed and settled hope of immor- tality, he thought any unusual degree of sorrow and concern improper." (" Spectator," No. 349.) According to the account of his great-grandson. More " was of a middle stature, well proportioned, of a pale complexion, his hair of chestnut colour, his eyes gray, his counte- nance mild and cheerful." See "The Lite and De.ith of Sir Thomas More," by his great- grandson, C. More, 1626 ; William Roper, "Vita T. Mori," 1626; Sir Tames Mackintosh, "Life of Sir Thomas More," 1830; Fer- NANiio DE Herrrra, " T. Moro," ii;q2: F. Warner, "Memoirs of the Life of Sir T, More," ly-^SlC. More, " Life of Sir T. More," 182S: DoMENico Rrggi, "VitadiT. More," 1675: Arthur Cay- ley, "Memoirs of Sir T. More," 2 vols., iSoS ; C. Dareste. "T. Morus et T. Campanello," 1843 ; Audin, " Histoire de T. Morns," iS=;2 : Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors :" W. J. Walter, " Life and Times of Sir T. More," 1847 ; J. Hoddrsdon, "T. Mori Vita," etc., 1652; Froude, " History of England ;" Rud- HART, " T. Moras," 1829. Moreau, mo'ro', (C^sar,) a French economist and writer on statistics, was born at Marseilles in 1791. He has i:»ub1ished several works on commerce, etc. Moreau, (Franqois Joseph,) a French physician, born at Auxonne in 1789, practised in Paris. He pub- lished a "Traite des Accouchements," (2 vols., 1838-41.) Died in 1862. Moreau, (H^g^sippe,) a French poet, born in Pans in 18 10, was the author of songs, elegies, and satires, of * This statement is contradicted bv Froude, who says, " Soon after the seals chanG;ed hands, the Smithfield fires recommenced : and, the chancellor acting in concert with them, the bisliops resolved to ob- literate, in these edifving spectacles, the recollection of their general infirmities." He afterwards cites tlie case of Rainham, who was bin-ned in April, T532, a short time before More resigned the office of chancellor. The account of Bainham's execution appears to rest upon the single testimony of Foxe, who, though generally trust- worthy, might possibly be mistaken, especially when he was obliged to depend wholly on the statements of others. He was but a boy when Bainham's death took place. More, whose word is not to be lightly set aside, expressly denies in his " Av>ology" (published the next year) that he was guilty of any cruel treatment of the heretics. If the denial was false, there were doubtless many then living who could prove it to be so. It appears, however, never to have been contradicted. How far he was responsible for the acts of the bishops it is difficult to say. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, Q, obscure; flr, fill, f^t; mSt; ndt; good; moon; MOREAU MORELIUS considerable merit, and a prose work entitled "The Mistletoe of the Oak/' (" Le Gui de Chene.") He died, in crieat poverty, in 1838. Moreau, (Jacob Nicolas,) a French writer, born at Saint-FliM-entin in 1717, was appointed historiographer of France under Louis XVT. He wrote a "Discourse on the History of France," " Duties of a Prince," and other works. Died in 1803. Moreau, (Jeax Baptiste,) a French musician and Composer, born at Angers in 1656, was patronized at the court of Louis XIV., and was employed by Racine to compose the choruses for his " Athalie" and "Esther." Died in 1733. Moreau, (Jean Michel,) a French engraver and designer, born in Paris in 1741, became draughtsman of the royal cabinet, and a member of the Academy of Painting. He executed one hundred and sixty plates for the " History of France," and upwards of one hun- dred for editions of Voltaire and Moliere. Died in 1814. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Moreau, (Jean Victor,) one of the most eminent generals of France, was born at Morlaix, in Brittany, August II, 1763. He studied law, and was provost of law at Rennes just before the Revolution. In 1792 he enlisted in the republican army, and, as chef de bataillon, served under Dumouriez. He became a general of brigade in 1793, and a general of division in 1794. In the latter year he commanded with eclat the right wing of Pichegru's army, which conquered Holland. In the spring of 1796 he succeeded Pichegru as commander-in- chief of the army of the Rhine and Moselle, and opened the campaign which was the foundation of his military fame. TTis passage of the Rhine at Strasbourg was greatly applauded. He drove the Austrians back to the Danube, and then, finding his army outnumbered, after several indecisive actions he performed the famous and masterly retreat through the Black Forest, which was one of his chief exi^loits. He was suspended from the command in 1797 by the Directory, who probably suspected him of comjjlicity in the defection of his friend Pichegru. The reverses of the French having rendered his ser- vices necessary, he was appointed general-in-chief of the army of Italy in the spring of 1799. At the battle of Novi he had three horses killed under him, and made a skilful retreat, soon after which he was transferred to the command of the army of the Rhine. In the political crisis of i8th Brumaire, (November 9, 1799,) Moreau was in Paris, and consented to support Bonaparte in subverting the power of the Directory. Some suppose that if he had been less modest, or more ambitious, he might have acted the jirincipal role in that great drama. The First Consul intrusted to Moreau the command of the army of Germany, and dictated to him a plan of the campaign, which the latter refused to adopt. " Moreau would not submit," says Alison, "to the indignity of acting as second in command to his former rival, and said, ' T have no notion of seeing a little Louis XIV. at the head of my army.'" ("History of Europe.") After an angry discussion, he persisted in his own plan, and, while Bonaparte marched to the conquest of Italy, he invaded the valley of the Danube in May, 1800, with about 100,000 men. Between the ist and loth of May he defeated the Austrians under Kray at Engen and Biberach. In the next month he gained a decisive vic- tory at Hochstadt, near Blenheim, After an armistice of a few months, the two armies met on December 3, 1800, at Hohenlinden, where Moreau won a very im- portant victory, which induced the Austrians to sue for peace. The war being thus ended, he went to Paris, and became the chief of a party composed of royalists and republicans united bv their enmity to Napoleon. In 1804 he was arrested as ai^ accomplice in Pichegru's conspiracy, and, although they failed to prove that he had any active part in it, he was sentenced to two years' imprisonment, which was commuted to exile in the United States. He resided with his wife at Morrisville, Pennsvlvania, and in the citv of New York, until over- tures from the Czar of Russia induced him to return to Europe in July, 1813. He was caressed by the allied sovereigns and received with triumphal demonstrations by the people of Germany, The Czar said to Moreau, (who, it appears, was still a republican,) "I know your opinions; I will do nothing which can thwart them, and will leave France perfectly free." With these views, he co-operated with the allies against the French, and was mortally woui.ded at Dresden, August 27, 1813. He announced the fact by letter to his wife in these terms: "At the battle of Dresden, three days ago, I had both legs carried off by a cannon-ball. That rascal Bonaparte is always fortunate. Excuse my scrawl," etc. See Lemaire, " Vie impartiale du General Moreau," 1814 ; " Me- moirs of General Moreau," by J. Philippart; Garat, " Eloge de Moreau," 1814 ; " Life and Campaigns of Victor Moreau," (translated from the French ;) A. de Beauchamp, "Vie politique, militaire et privee du General Moreau," 1814: Chateaoneuf, " Histoiie du General Moreau," etc., 1814; Fauche-Bokel, "Notices sur les Generaux Pichegru et Moreau," 1807; Hasse, "Moreau, sein Leben," etc., 1814; Cousin d'Avallon, " Histoire du General Moreau," 1814; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" Thiers, "His- tory of the French Revolution ;" "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1814. Moreau-Christophe, mo'ro' kn^s'tof , (Louis Ma- THURIN,) a French economist, born near Tours in 1799. He was sent to foreign countries to examine prisons, and wrote several works on the discipline and reform of prisons. Moreau de la Rochette, mo^ro' deh It ro^shlt', (FRANgois Thomas,) a French horticulturist, born in Champagne in 1720, founded near La Rochette an agri- cultural school. Died in 1 791. Moreau de Jonnes, mo'ro' deh zho'n^s', (Alexan- dre,) a French writer, born near Rennes in 1778, was the author of a number of treatises on mineralogy, statistics, and other scientific subjects. Moreau de la Sarthe, mo'r5' deh It stRt, (Jacques Louis,) a French physician and able writer, born near Le Mans in 1771. He published several professional works. Died in Paris in 1826. Moreau de I'Yonne, mo'r5' deh le^n', a French politician, born near Tonnerre in 1 750, was elected in 1798 to the Council of Ancients. Died in 1806, Moreau de Saint-Mery, mo'r5' deh s3.n ma're', (M^d6ric Louis Elie,) born, of French parentage, in the isle of Martinique in 1750, was administrator-general of the duchies of Parma and Piacenza from 1802 to 1806. He wrote several descriptive and scientific works. Died in 1819. Moreaux, mo'ro', (Jean Ren6,) a French general, born at Rocroi in 1758. He commanded the army of the Moselle in 1794, and took Treves and Coblentz. Died in February, 1795. Moreelze, mo-raKzeh, (Paul,) a Dutch painter, born at Utrecht in 1571, was a pupil of M. Mirevelt. He enjoyed a high reputation as a portrait-painter, and was extensivelv patronized by the nobility. Died in 1638, Morel,'mo''r§K, (Claijde,) a French printer, born in 1574, was a son of Federic the Elder, noticed below. Died in 1626, Morel, (F^D^Ric,) called the Elder, a celebrated French printer, born in Champagne in 1523, was ap- pointed printer to the king in 1571. Died in 1583. Morel, (Fed^ric,) the Younger, son of the pre- ceding, was born in Paris in 1558, He was distinguished as a Greek scholar, and the editions of the classics issued from his press were conspicuous for their accu- racy and the beauty of the typography. He succeeded his father as royal printer in 1583. Died in 1630, Morel, (Guillaume,) a French printer, born at Til- leul in 1505, was noted for the beauty and accuracy of his editions of the classics. He became printer to the king in 1555. Died in 1564. Morel, (Jean,) a French poet, born in Champagne in 1539 ; died in 1633. Morel. (Jean Marie,) a French architect and gar- dener, born in Lyons in 1728. He had a high reputation as a designer of gardens. Died in 1810. See J. B. Dumas, " Notice sur J. M. Morel," 1825. Morel de Vinde, mo'xhV deh viN'd^, (Charles Gilbert,) Vicomte, a French writer and agricultui'ist, born in Paris in 1759; died in 1842. Morel-Fatio, vc^o'xhV ft'te^o', (Antoine Li;oN,) a French landscape and marine painter, born at Rouen in 1810, Morelius. See Morely. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Yi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (gi^See Explanations, p. 23.) MORELL 1626 MORGAGNI Morell, mo^rll', (Andr^:,) a Swiss antiquary, distin- guished for his profound knowledge of numismatics, born at Ikrne in 1646. His principal work is entitled "Thesaurus Morellianus," being a description of the coins of the Roman families. It was left unfinished. Died in 1703. Mo-rell', (Georoe W.,) an American general, born at Cooperstown, New York, graduated at West Point in 1835. He was appointed a brigadier-general of Union volunteers in 1861. He comn)anded a division at the battles of Gaines's Mill and Malvern Hill, July i, 1862. Mo-rell', (J. D.,) an English contemporary writer, has published "An Historical and Critical View of the Speculative Philosophy of Europe in the Nineteenth Century," (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1846,) "The Philosophy of Religion," (1849,) ^"cl other works. He contributed to the "Encyclopaedia Britannica" the article on "National Education." See " Eraser's Magazine" for October, 1846; "British Quarterly Review" for August, 1849; "North British Review," vol. xi. Morell, (Thomas,) an English scholar and critic, born at Eton in 1703. He published an edition of Hede- rich's "Greek Lexicon," (1762,) and was a contributor to Hogarth's "Analysis of Beauty." He also edited Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales," and several Greek and Latin classics. Died in 1784. See Harwood, "Alumni Etonenses." Morellet, mo'ra'li', (Andr^:,) Abb6, an eminent French litterateur^ born in Lyons in 1727, was educated in the Sorbonne, at Paris. He became a friend of Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, and D'Alembert, to whose "Ency- clopedic" he contributed. He translated into French Beccaria's treatise "On Crimes and Penalties," (1766,) and wrote several treatises on political economy, and many other works, among which is "Melanges of Lite- rature and Philosophy of the Eighteenth Century," (4 vols., 1818.) In 1785 he was admitted into the French Academy, the archives of which he concealed at the risk of his life in the reign of terror. Died in 1819. See Lemontey, " filoge de Morellet," prefixed to Morellet's "Memoires," 2 vols., 1821 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" " Morellet and his Contemporaries," in the " North American Re- view" for October, 1822, (by A. H. Everett.) Morelli, mo-reKlee, (Cosimo,) a distinguished Italian architect, born at Imola in 1732. He was employed by Pope Pius VI. to construct the cathedrals of Macerata and Imola, and other edifices in the Pontifical States. Died in 1812. See TiPALDo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Morelli, (Giacomo,) an eminent Italian critic and bibliographer, burn at Venice in 1745, became a priest, and was appointed librarian at Saint Mark's, Venice, in 1778. He published, among other valuable works, a "Historical Dissertation on the Library of Saint Mark," (1774,) and "Library of Greek and Latin Manuscripts," {1802.) Many of his minor works were published in 1820, under the title of " Operette," (3 vols. Svo.) Died in 1819. See MoscHiNi, " Narrazione della Vita di G. Morelli," 1819; Zendrini, " Elogio di Morelli," 1821 ; Tipaldo, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Morelli, (Maria Maddalena,) an Italian poetess and improvisatrice, born at Pistoiain 1740; died in 1800. Morelly, mo'ra'le', a French writer on socialism, born about 1750. He published an able work entitled "The Code of Nature," which was attributed to Diderot, "The Rasiliade," a political romance, and a number of treatises on various subjects. Morelos, mo-ra'16s, (Don Jose: Maria,) a Mexican patriot and general, born in New Mexico in 1780. He joined the insurgent army under Hidalgo in 1810, and subsequently became leader of a band composed chiefly of negro slaves, with whom he carried on a successful guerilla warfare for a time against the Spaniards. He was made prisoner in 1815, and soon after executed at Mexico. See Don Jos^ Guerra, "Historiade la Revolucion de Nueva Espaiia," 1S13. Morely or Morelly, mo'ri'le', [Lat. More'lius,] (Jean Baftiste,) a French Protestant, noted for his efforts to organize the Church on democratic principles, was born in Paris about 15 10. His "Treatise on Chris- tian Discipline" (1561) was condemned by several Prot- estant synods. See Bavi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Nic^ron, " Memoires." Morenas, mo'reh-nts', (Joseph Elz^ar,) a French Orientalist, born near Carpentras in 1778. He wrote " On the Castes of India," (1822,) and other works. Died in Mingrelia in 1830. Moreno, mo-ra'no, (Jos6,) a Spanish painter, born at Burgos in 1642; died in 1674. See Cean-Bermudez, " Diccionario Historico," etc. Moreno, (Juan,) a Spanish admiral, born at Cadiz in 1743 ; died in 181 7. Mor^ri, mo'ra're', (Louis,) a learned French eccle- siastic, born in Provence in 1643. published in 1674 his " Historical Dictionary," (" Grand Dictionnaire His- torique," i vol. fol.,) a work of rare merit. He died in 1680, leaving unfinished his great work, which has been extended by subsequent writers to ten volumes, (Paris, I759-) Sec Nic^RON, "Memoires;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Mores, morz, (Edward Rowe,) an English antiquary, born in 1730. He published several works on English antiquities. Died in 1778. Moret, mo-r§t', (Jos6,) a Spanish historian, born at Pampeluna in 1615. Among his works is a History of Navarre, (" Annales del Regno de Navarra," 5 vols., 1715.) Died in 1705. Moret, de, deh mo'ri', (Antoine de Bourbon — deh booR'bdN',) Count, a natural son of Henry IV. of France, was born in 1607, and legitimated in 1608. He joined Gaston, Duke of Orleans, in his revolt against Louis XIII. in 163 1, and was killed or wounded at the battle of Castelnaudary, in September, 1632. According to some accounts, he survived till 1691. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Moreto y Cabana, mo-ra'to e ki-Bin'yS, (Don Au- GUSTIN,) a celebrated Spanish dramatist, born about 1600. Among his best works we may name " The Brave Justiciary," (" El valiente Justiciero,") " El Lindo Don Diego," and "Disdain for Disdain," (" Desden con el Desden." The last is said to have been the original of Moliere's " Princesse d'Elide." Died in 1669. See TiCKNOR, "Historyof Spanish Literature;" Ochoa, " Tca- tro Espanol ;" A. F. von Schack, " Geschichte der dramatischen Literatur in Spanien." Moretti, mo-ret'tee, (Gaetano,) an Italian astrono- mer, born at Bologna, wa» author of several scientific treatises. Died in 1697. Moretti, (Giuseppe,) an Italian savant, born at Pavi'a in 1783, became professor of botany at that city in 1832. Among his works is " Biblioteca Agraria." Died in 1853. Moretto da Brescia. See Bonvicino. Mor'fit, (Campbell,) an American chemist, born at Herculaneum, Missouri, in 1820. He was associated with Professor Booth in 1848 as editor of the "Ency- clopaedia of Chemistry." He has published, among other works, "Applied Chemistry in the Manufacture of Soap and Candles," (1847,) "Chemical and Phar- maceutic Manipulations," (1848,) and "Perfumery, its Manufacture and Use." Morgagni, moR-gln'yee, (Giambattista,) an eminent Italian physician and anatomist, born at Forli in 1682. He studied at Bologna, where he became the favourite pupil of Valsalva, and in 17 15 he was appointed pro- fessor of anatomy at Padua. His principal work is entitled " On the Seat and Causes of Diseases discovered by Anatomy," (" De Sedibus et Causis Morborum per Anatomen indagatis," 2 vols., 1762.) It was translated into French, Italian, English, and German, and still en- joys a very high reputation. His " Adversaria Anato- mica" is also highly esteemed. Morgagni made several valuable discoveries, and he has been called the founder of pathological anatomy. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and a member of the principal Academies of Europe. Died in 1771. See Fabroni, " Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" FoN- TENELLE, " Elogc de Morgagui ;" Mosca, "Vita di G. B. Mor- gagni," 1768; Torresini, "" Elogio storico di G. B. Morgagni," 1844; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." f^ g, 6, u, y, long; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, f^t; mSt; nfit; good; moon; MORGAN 1627 MORILLO Mor'gan, (Charles W.,) an American commodore, born in Virginia in 1790; died in 1853. Morgan, (Daniel,) an American officer, born in New Jersey in 1736, served with distinction in the war of the RevoUition. He was present at the capture of Burgoyne, and commanded a brigade at the battle of Cow]:.ens, (1781,) where he gained a signal victory, for which a gold medal was awarded him by Congress. Died in 1802. See the "Life of Daniel Morgan," by James Graham, 1856, and the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. Morgan, (Edwin D.,) an American Senator, born in Berkshire county, Massachusetts, in 181 1. He became at an early age a merchant in the city of New York. He was elected Governor of New York by the Repub- licans in i8«;8, and again in 1860. He was elected to the United i»tates Senate from New York in 1863 for six years. Mor'gan, (George Cadogan,) born in Wales in 1754, became ])astor of a dissenting church at Norwich, England, in 1776, and subsequently professor of physics at Hackney. He published " Lectures on Electricity," and other scientific works. Died in 1798. Morgan, (George W.,) an American general, born in Western Pennsylvania about 1820, practised law in Ohio before the civil war. He became a brigadier-gen- eral of Union volunteers about November, 1861. He took Cumberland Gap in June, 1862, and evacuated the same in September of that year. Morgan, (Sir Henry,) a Welsh buccaneer, born about 1637, commanded several expeditions against the Span- iards, and captured Porto Bello and Panama. He was afterwards made a knight, ajid appointed Governor of Jamaica by Charles 11. Died in 1690. See Van Tenac, " Histoire generale de la Marine." Morgan, (James D.,) an American officer, born in Boston in 1810, removed in 1834 to Illinois, and in 1862 became lirigadier-general of volunteers. Morgan, (John H.,) an American guerilla chief, born near Lexington, Kentucky, or, according to some authorities, at Huntsville, Alabama, in 1826. He took command of a troop of cavalry in 1861, and distinguished himself by his audacity in several raids against the rail- roads and other public works in Kentucky and Ten- nessee. He was apj^ointed a major-general in 1862. In July, 1863, he crossed the Ohio River with about 4000 men, and made a raid into Lidiana and Ohio, vrhere he destroyed railroads, bridges, etc. He was captured in Ohio and confined, in the penitentiary, from which he escaped, by digging, about the end of November, 1863. In September, 1864, he was surprised in the night at Greenville, Tennessee, by the troops of General Gillem, and was killed. See a Sketch of his Life in " Southern Generals," 1865. Morgan, (Lady Sydney,) a distinguished authoress, born at Dublin in 1789, was the daughter of an actor named Owenson. At an early age she published several romances, one of which, "The Wild Irish Girl," (1806,) was very popular. In 181 2 she was married to Sir Charles Morgan, whom in 1816 she accompanied to France and Italy, and the result of her travels appeared soon after, in her two works entitled " France," (181 7,) and " Italy," (1821.) Among her other productions we may name "Florence Macarthy," (1816,) "Absenteeism," (1825,) "The O'Briens and O'Flahertys," (1827,) "The Book of the Boudoir," (1829,) and "Woman and her Master," (1855.) In 1851 she published a "Letter to Cardinal Wiseman," Died in 1859. See " Lady Morc:an, her Career, Literary and Personal,'' by W. J. Fitzpatrick; " Autobiographv of William Jerdan," vol. iv. chap. V. : " EdinViurgh Review" for July, 1833; "Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1863: "Westminster Review" for April, 1863; " Fra- ser's Magazine" for February, 1831, and November, 1833; "Monthly Review" for December, 1808, and October and November, 1817. Mor'gan, (Sir Thomas Charles,) M.D., an English physician, born in London about 1783. In 181 1 he was made a baronet, and the next year married Miss Owen- S*n, who was already known as an authoress. He soon after settled in Ireland, where he advocated Catholic emancipation. He wrote " Sketches of the Philosophy of Life," and " Sketches of the Philosophy of Morals." He also contributed to Lady Morgan's "France" and "The Book without a Name." Died in 1843. Morgan, (William,) a learned divine, born in Wales, was appointed in 1601 Bishop of Saint Asaph. He assisted in translating into Welsh the Bible published in 1588. Died in 1604. Morgan, (William,) a Welsh mathematician, born in Glamorganshire, held the office of actuary to the Equitable Assurance Company, London. He published a "Review of Dr. Crawford's Theory of Heat," and other works. Died in 1833. Morgan, (William,) an American mechanic, born in Virginia about 1775, removed subsequently to Batavia, New York. In 1826 he was abducted from his home and murdered by a band of Freemasons for having written a work professing to disclose the secrets of their society. See Allen. " American Biographical Dictionary ;" " New Amer- ican Cyclopasdia;" "Gazetteer of the State of New York," by J. H. French, p. 323. Morgan, De. See De Morgan. Morghen, moR'gen, (Rafaelle Sanzio,) an eminent Italian engraver, of Dutch extraction, born at Florence in 1758, became professor of engraving in the Academy of Arts in his native city. His prints are numerous and of great excellence. Among his master-pieces are his " Transfiguration," after Raphael, " The Last Supper," after Leonardo da Vinci, and Guido's "Aurora." He was a member of the French Institute. Died in 1833. See Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon Palmerini, " Notice of R. Morghen," (in Italian,) 1824. Morgues, de. See Mourgues, de. Morhof, moR'hof, [ Lat. Morho'fius, J (Daniel Georg,) a German scholar, born at Wismar in 1639, became professor of poetry and eloquence at Kiel in 1665, and obtained the chair of history at that place in 1673. He published, besides many other works in prose and verse, a valuable contribution to literary history, entitled " Polyhistor, sive de Notitia Auctorum et Rerum Commentarii," (3 vols., 1688-92.) Died in 1691. See his Autobiography, "Vita propria ab Anno 1639 ad 1671," 1699; J. MoLLHR, " De Vita, Meritis Scriptisque D. G. Morhofii," 1710; NiCERON, "Meinoires." Morhofius. See Morhof. Morice de Beaubois, mo'r^ss'deh b5^bwl', (Pierre Hyacinthe,) a French Benedictine monk and writer, born at Quimperle in 1693. He wrote a " History of Bretagne," (2 vols., 1750-56.) Died in 1750. Morier, mo'ri-er, (James,) a popular English novelist, born about 1780. Having been appointed secretary to the English embassy in Persia, he became versed in the Oriental tongues. He published, after his return, a "Journey through Persia, Armenia," etc., (1812,) "Ad- ventures of Haji Baba of Ispahan," (5 vols., 1824,) a brilliant and entertaining romance, giving the experi- ences of a Persian in England, which had a wide popu- larity, "Zohrab the Hostage," (1832,) and " Ayesha, the Maid of Kars," (1834.) Died in 1849. See tlie "London Quarterly Review" for December, 1832, and June, 1S34 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1832; "Monthly Review" for April, 1824. Morigia, mo-ree'ja, (Giacomo Antonio,) an Italian cardinal, born at Milan in 1632. He became Archbishop of Florence about 1683. Died in 1708. Morigia, (Paolo,) an Italian historian, born at Milan in 1525, wrote on the antiquities of Milan, etc. Died in 1604. Morike or Moerike, mo're-keh, (Eduard,) a Ger- man poet, born at Ludwigsburg in 1804. He was the author of the "Idyl of Lake Constance," (1846,) and several novels and dramatic tales. Morillo, mo r^Kyo, (Don Pablo,) a Spanish general, born in the province of Toro in 1777. Having carried on a guerilla warfare against the French for several years, he was sent in 181 5 to subdue the revolted prov- inces of South America. He fought with varying suc- cess against Bolivar, with whom he concluded a truce in 1820. After Morillo's return to Spain he served for a time in the royalist army. He died in 1838, leaving Memoirs of his campaigns in America, which were translated into French. See Morillo's " Memoirs, relating the Principal Events of his Campaigns," translated into French by E. D. Blosseville. -€ as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MORIN 1628 Morin, nio'r^N', (Arthur Jules,) a French mathe- matician and general, born in Paris in 1795, was ap- pointed in 1852 director of the Conservatory of Arts and Trades. He pubh'shed numerous important treatises on mechanics, hydraulics, mathematics, etc. He became a member of the Institute. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Morin, (firiENNF,,) a French Protestant divine, born at Caen in 1625. He studied at Leyden, and became in 1686 professor of Oriental languages at Amsterdam. He published, among other works, "Exercises on the Primitive Language," (in Latin, 1694,) in which he at- tempts to prove that the Hebrew was the language of Paradise. Died in 1700. See NiCERON, " Memoires." Morin, (Fr^d^ric,) a French writer, born at Lyons in 1823, published a "Dictionary of Philosophy and Scholastic Theology," (2 vols., 1857,) and other works. He also contributed to the "Nouvelle Biographie Gene- rale." Morin, (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Blois in 1 591. He was distinguished for his knowledge of the Oriental tongues and biblical literature. Among his principal works we may name " Biblical Exercises," (" Exercitationcs Biblicae,") and an edition of the "Sa- maritan Pentateuch," with a Latin version. Died in 1659. See Perrault, " Hommes illustres;" Niceron, "Memoires." Morin, (Jean,) a French natural philosopher, born at Meung-sur-Loire in 1705. He published, besides other works, "Le Mecanisme universel," (1735.) Died in 1764. Morin, (Jean,) a French painter and engraver, born in Paris about 1609. Among his best works are prints of the "Madonna," after Raphael, and portraits of De Thou and Marie de Medicis. Died about 1666. Morin, (Jean Baptiste,) a French savant, born at Villefranche in 1583. was appointed in 1630 professor of mathematics in the Royal College. He was devoted to astrology, and he is said to have been consulted by Car- dinal Richelieu and other distinguished men. He wrote " Astrologia Gallica," and a number of treatises on mathematics and astronomy. Died in 1656. See Delambre, " Histoire de I'Astronomie moderne ;" Nice- Ron, " Memoires." Morin, (Louis,) a French physician and botanist of high reputation, born at Mans in 1636. He was the author of several medical and scientific treatises. In 1707 he succeeded Dodart as botanist to the French Academy of Sciences. Died in 1715. Morin, (Pierre,) a French philologist, born in Paris in 1 53 1, was emploved by Gregory XIIT. and Sixtus V. on editions of the Bible called Septuagint and Vulgate, (1590.) Died at Rome in 1608. Morin, (Simon,) a French fanatic, born near Aumale, in Normandy, published works of a visionary and pro- fane nature. He was condemned in 1663 to be burned alive for having prophesied the death of the king. See NiCEROM, "Memoires." Mor'i-son, (John,) D.D., a Scottish Presbyterian divine, born in Aberdeenshire in 1791. He became in 1816 minister of Trevor Chapel, London, and in 1824 was appointed editor of the " Evangelical Magazine," which post he occupied for thirty-two years. He was the author of seveial pojiular works, among which we may name " Lectures on the Reci])rocal Obligations of Life," etc., (1822,) " Book of Familv Worship," (1836,) and "Counsels to a Newly- Wedded Pair." Died in 1859. See Rev. Robert Steel, "Burning and Shining Lights," 1864. Morison, (Robert,) a Scottish physician and emi- nent botanist, born at Aberdeen in 1620, was patronized by Charles II., who made him his physician and be- stowed on him a pension. He became professor of botany at Oxford in 1669. He was the author of a "Universal History of Plants," "New Distribution of Umbelliferous Plants," (1672,) and other works, (in Latin.) Plumier named in his honour the genus Mori- sonia. Died in 1683. See Wood, " Athenje Oxonienses;" Cuvier, " Histoire des Sci- ences natnrelles ;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." MORLIERE Morisot, moWz5', (Claude Barth^lemi,) a French writer, born at Dijon in 1592, wrote a historical romance entitled " Peruviana," or the secret history of Cardinal Richelieu, Marie de Medicis, and Gaston, Duke of Or- leans. Died in 1661. Moritz, mo'rits, (Karl Philipp,) known also by his pseudonym of Anton Reiser, a German writer of considerable genius but eccentric and unsteady char- acter, was born at Hameln in 1757. Having visited England and Italy, he was appointed, after his return, professor of archaeology and aesthetics at the Academy of Fine Arts, Berlin, (1789.) Among his principal works we may name "Anton Reiser," a psychological romance, (1785,) said to be an autobiography somewhat idealized, " Essay on German Prosody," (1786,) and "Fragments from the Journal of a Visionary," (1787.) Moritz was a friend of Goethe, and was the first, it is said, to recognize and encourage the genius of Jean Paul Richter. Died in 1793. See Klischnig, " Erinnerungen aus den zehn letzen Lebensjah- ren meines Freundes A. Reiser," 1794. Mork, Moerk, moRk, or Moerks, moRks, (Jacob Henrik,) a Swedish author and minister, born at Stock- holm in 1 7 14; died in 1763. Morla, moR'ia, (Don Tomas,) a Spanish general, born in 1752. He surrendered Madrid to Napoleon in 1808, and entered the service of King Joseph. Died in 1820. Morlacchi, mor-l^k'kee, (Francesco,) an Italian composer of sacred music and operas, born at Perugia in 1784. He lived many years at Dresden. Died in 1841. MorTand, (George,) an English painter, born in London in 1764, excelled in delineations of rural land- scapes, scenes in low life, and domestic animals, par- ticularly pigs. He spent his leisure time chiefly in ale-houses, and died in 1804, a victim of intemperance. His works are numerous, and command high prices. See Cunningham, " Lives of Painters and Sculptors;" G. Dawe, "Life of Morland;"'J. Ha.ssel, "Memoirs of George Morland :" W. CoM.iNS, "Memoirs of the Life of George Morland," 1806; "Monthly Review" for August, 1808. Morland, (Sir Samuel,) an English mechanician and inventor, born in Berkshire about 1625. He was sent in 1653 on an einbassy to Sweden, and was subsequently employed by Cromwell to intercede with the Duke of Savoy on behalf of the persecuted Vaudois. After the restoration he was made a baronet by Charles II., and obtained other distinctions. He was the inventor of the Tuba Stentorphonica, or speaking-trumpet, and an arithmetical machine, and effected great improvements in the fire-engine, steam-engine, etc. He published a "Description of the Tuba Stentorphonica," (1671,) and other scientific works ; also a " History of the Evan- gelical Churches of Piedmont," (1658.) Died in 1695. See Rees, "Cyclopaedia;" Clarendon, "History of the Re- bellion." MorTey, (George,) born in London in 1597, became chaplain to Charles I. After the restoration he was created Bishop of Worcester by Charles II. in 1660, and of Winchester in 1662. He was a liberal patron of learning, and bequeathed large sums for charitable purposes. Died in 1684. See MiLNER, "History of Winchester Wood, "Athenae Ox- onienses." Morley, (Henry,) an English author and journalist, born in London in 1822. He published a "Life of Palissy the Potter," (1852,) a " Life of Jerome Cardan," (1854,) "Memoirs of Bartholomew Fair," (1857,) and other works. He became the editor of the " Examiner," a weekly paper. Morley, (Thomas,) an English musician and com- poser. His compositions include anthems, madrigals, and canzonets. He was the author of a valuable work entitled " A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practical Musicke," (1597.) Died about 1604. See BuRNEY, " History of Music," etc. ; " Athenas Oxonienses." Morliere, de la, deh It moR'le-aiR', (Charles Jac- ques Louis Auguste de la Rochette,) Chevalier, a French writer of romances, was born at Grenoble in 1701. Among his works is "Angola," (1746.) Died in 1785. I, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n5t; good; moon; MORLOT 1629 MORREN Morlot, moR'lo', (FRANgois Nicolas Madeleine,) a French prelate and writer, born at Langres in 1795. He became Archbishop of Tours in 1842, a cardinal in 1853, and Archbishop of Paris in 1857. Died in 1862. Mormando, moR-ni^n'do, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian architect, born at Florence about 1455, patronized by Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, He designed the beautiful church of San Severino, and other buildings, in Naples. Died in 1522. Moniac, nioR'ntk', (Antoine,) a French jurist, born in 1554, enjoyed a high reputation in his time, and pub- lished several legal works. Died in 1619. Mornand, moR'n6N^ (F^lix,) a French writer and journalist, born at Macon in 1815. He became chief editor of the " Courrier de Paris" in 1857. Mornay, de, deh moR^na', (Philippe,) Seigneur du Plessis-Marly, often called Du Plessis-Mornay, a noble French Protestant, eminent for virtue and talents, was born at Ruhy, in Vexin, in 1549. He studied law, the- ology, and other sciences in Paris, Germany, and Italy. In 1572 he narrowly escaped from the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, and in 1575 took arms for the Huguenots, of whom he became one of the chiefs. He married in 1576. About this time he entered the service of Henry of Navarre, who employed him in important negotiations and reposed in him entire confidence. He took part in the battle of Ivry in 1590, and then became a member of Henry TV.'s council. Mornay retained the favour of Henry after the latter had abjured his religion. In 1598 he published a "Treatise on the Institution of the Eu- charist," which provoked the Catholics to challenge him to a dispute. At a public conference before the king, in 1600, he was foiled by Duperron. It appears that one of his own party had as unwisely as dishonourably furnished him with forged quotations from the Fathers, which his antagonist easily exposed. He was for many years the virtual chief or oracle of the French Reformed Church, and was styled "the Pope of the Huguenots." He left many able religious works. Died in 1623. See " M^moires de Plessis-Mornay," 4 vols., 1624-52; M. Cru- sius, " Siiigularia Plessica," 1724; De Thou, "Historia sui Tem- poris;" J. Impert, " Duplessis-Mornay," 1S47; Sismondi, " His- toire des Fran^ais ;" L'Estoilr, "Journal ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for May, 1834. Mor'ning-ton, (Garret,) Earl of Wellesley, an Irish nobleman, distinguished for his musical talent, born about 1720, was father of the Duke of Wellington. He became professor of music in the University of Dublin, and composed a number of glees which are greatly ad- mired. Died in 1781. Morny, de, deh moR'ne', (Charles Auguste Louis Joseph,) Comte, a French statesman, born in Paris in 1811, was the reputed son of Hortense de Beauharnois and Count Flahaut. He served for a time in Algeria, and subsequently devoted himself to industrial and financial sj^eculations. He took an active part in the coup d'etat of December, 1851, by which his half-brother, Louis Napoleon, was made president, and was soon after appointed minister of the interior. He resigned in 1852, and became president of the legislative body in 1854. Died in 1865. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Moro, (Antonio.) See Moor. Mo'ro, (Cristoforo,) was an old man when he was elected Doge of Venice, in 1462. He waged war against the Sultan Mahomet II., who conquered Negropont from the Venetians in 1470. Died in 1471. Morogues, de, deh mo'rog', (S^bastien Francois Bigot — be''go^) Vicomte, a French naval officer, born at Brest in 1705. He wrote a good work on naval tac- tics, "Tactique navale, ou Traite des Evolutions," etc., (1763.) Died in 1781. His grandson, Pierre Marie S^:bastien, Baron de Morogues, (i 776-1 840,) wrote numerous works on rural and political economy. Morone, mo-ro'na, (Giovanni,) an Italian cardinal, born at Milan in 1509, was patronized by the popes Clement VII., Paul III., and Julius IIL, who employed him in several important missions. Suspected of favour- ing the Reformation, he was imprisoned by Paul IV. in 1557. Pius IV. sent him as his legate to the Council of I Trent, over which Morone presided when it closed, in 1563. He had been appointed Bishop of Novara about 1554. Died in 1580. See jACOiiELLi, "Vitadi Cardinale Morone Fri^d^ric Sclopis, " Le Cardinal Jean Morone," 1868. Morone or Moroni, mo-ro'nee, (Giovanni Bat- TISTA,) an Italian painter, born at Albino in 1 5 10, was a pupil of Buonvicino. He excelled in portraits, of which he executed a great number. Died in 1578. Morone, (Girolamo,) a celebrated and adroit Italian diplomatist, born in the Milanese about 1450, was the father of Giovanni, noticed above. He was employed by the Dukes of Milan. In 1526 he became secretary and chief counsellor of Constable Bourbon. He was one of the negotiators of the treaty between Charles V. and Pope Clement VII. in 1527. Died in 1529. See Robertson, " History of Charles V.," vol. ii. books ii. and iv. Morosi, mo-ro'see, (Giuseppe,) a skilful Italian me- chanician, was born in Tuscany in 1772. He invented an automaton chess-player, and constructed, at Milan, hydraulic machines for spinning cotton. Died in 1840. Morosini, mo-ro-see'nee, [Lat. Mauroce'nus,] (An- drea,) a Venetian senator, born in 1558, became a mem- ber of the Council of Ten, and was appointed in 1598 historiographer of the republic. His principal work is entitled " Historia Veneta," being a history of Venice from 1521 to 161 5. It is distinguished for its accuracy and the elegance of its style. Died in 1618. See NiCERON, "Memoires." Morosini, (Domenico,) a Venetian admiral, born in 1080. He took part in the crusade in 11 22, and captured Tyre. He was elected doge in 1148. Died in 11 56. Morosini, (Francesco,) Doge of Venice, born in 1618, was one of the first military commanders of his time. Having defeated the Turks in several actions, he was appointed in 1656 Governor of Candia. He afterwards defended that island for nearly two years against the grand vizier Mehemet Koprili, to whom he made an honourable capitulation in 1669. For his subsequent victories in the Morea he obtained the title of the Pelo- ponnesiac. He was elected Doge of Venice in 1688, having been previously appointed procurator of Saint Mark. Died in 1694. See Daru, " Histoire de Venise ;" Marino Sanuto, " Vite de' Duchi di Venezia;" Navagiero, " Storia Veneziana ;" A. Arrighi, "Vita di F. Morosini," 1749; G. Graziani, " F. Mauroceni Gesta," etc., 1698. Morosini, (Paolo,) a Venetian linguist and able diplomatist, born in 1406; died in 1483. Morozzo, mo-rot'so, (Carlo Luigt,) Count, an Italian savant and writer on physical science, was born at Turin in 1744; died in 1804. , Morpeth, Lord. See Howard, (George William Frederick.) Morphee. See Morpheus. Mor'pheus, [Gr. Mop^fvf ; Fr. Morphee, moR'fy,] an inferior deity of the Greek and Roman mythology, regarded as the son of Sleep and the god of dreams and also of sleep. The name is derived from i^op(p^, (" form,") because he was supposed to give form to the visions of the sleeper. Mor'phy, (Paul Charles,) a celebrated American chess-player, born at New Orleans in 1837. At the Chess Congress in New York in 1857 he defeated many of the best American players, and in 1858 visited Lon- don and Paris, where the same success attended him in his contests with the most distinguished players of Europe. Morrealese, II. See Novelli, (Pietro.) Mor'rell, (Benjamin,) an American navigator, born in Worcester county, Massachusetts, in 1795. He be- came captain of a whaling-ship, and published " Narra- tives of Four Voyages round the World," (1832.) Died in 1839. Morren, mor'ren or mo'rdN', (Charles FRANgois Antoine,) a Belgian naturalist, born at Ghent in 1807. He became professor of physics in that city in 1833, and obtained the chair of botany at Liege in 1837. Among his principal works we may name " Studies on Anatomy and Vegetable Physiology," (1841,) and "Researches on the Rubefaction of Waters and their Oxygenation by € as 9 as s; g kard; g as j; o, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^='See Explanations, p. 23.) MORRES 1630 MORRIS Animalcules and Algae." He also published valuable treatises on palaeontology and zoology, and was a liberal contributor to the scientific join-iials of his own and other countries. Died in December, 1858. See Ed. Morren, " Notice sur C. Morren," i860. Morres, mor'riss ? (Harvey Redmond,) Viscount Mountmorres, an English publicist. He was the author of several political and historical works, among which we may name '* History of the Principal Acts of the Irish Parliament from 1634 to 1666," etc., (1792,) and "The Crisis : a Collection of Essays on Toleration, Public Credit," etc., (1795.) He died by suicide in 1797. See Collins, "Peerage of Ireland." Mor'rill, (Justin S.,) an American legislator, born in Strafford, Vermont, in 1810. He represented the second district of Vermont, from 1855 to 1865, in the National House of Representatives, in which he served (1864-65) as chairman of the committee of ways and means. He was elected a Senator of the United States for Vermont in October, 1866. He acts with the Re- publican party. Morrill, (Lot M.,) an American Senator, born in Kennebec county, Maine, in 181 5, became a lawyer. He was Republican Governor of Maine three years, (1858-60,) and was chosen vSenator of the United States in 1 86 1. He was re-elected Senator in 1863 for six years, and again in 1869. Mor^ris, (Charles,) an American commodore, born in Connecticut in 1784. He was first lieutenant of the Constitution when that ship captured the British frigate Guerriere, in August, 1812. He had a high reputation as a naval commander, commanded squadrons at several foreign stations, and became chief of the ordnance bureau. Died in 1856. Morris, (Edward Joy,) an American writer, born in Philadelphia in 181 7. He represented the second dis- trict of Pennsylvania in Congress from 1857 to i86r, and acted with the People's party, which was afterwards merged in the Re])ublican party. About the end of 1861 he was appointed minister to Turkey. Among his works is a "Tour through Turkey, Greece, and Egypt." Morris, (Francis Orpen,) an English naturalist and clergyman, born about 1810. Pie published a " History of British Birds," (6 vols.,) " Anecdotes of Natural His- torv," and other works. Morris, (George P.,) an American lyric poet and journalist, born at Philadelphia in 1802. He became associate editor of the " New York Mirror" in 1823, and in 1844 one of the editors of the "Evening Mirror," a literary journal. He founded, conjointly with N. P. Willis, the "Home Journal," (1846.) He published a number of beautiful and popular songs, among which we may name "My Mother's Bible," " Woodman, Spare that Tree," and " Long Time Ago." He also wrote "The Deserted Bride," and other poems, and a drama entitled " Brierclifif," and edited, conjointly with Mr. Willis, " The Prose and Poetry of Europe and America." Died in 1864. See R. W. Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America," p. 281; DuYCKTNCK, " Cyclopedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; Cleve- land, " Compendium of American Literature." Morris, (Gouverneur,) an able American statesman, born at Morrisiana, in Westchester county. New York, in January, 1752, was a half-brother of Lewis Morris, noticed below. He studied law, and Was chosen a mem- ber of the Provincial Congress of New York in 1775. He became a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1777, and acquired distinction as an eloquent public speaker. About 1780 he removed to Philadelphia. He WAS appointed assistant superintendent of finance by Robert Morris in 1781, and served in that capacity for three years or more. He was one of the Pennsylvania delegates to the National Convention which framed the Constitution of the United States in 1787. His services in that convention were highly estimated by James Madison. In December, 1788, he went on private busi- ness to Paris, where he passed several years and kept a diary which possesses much historical interest. He was appointed minister from the United States to France early in 1792, and was recalled in October, 1794. He acted with the Federalist party, and was a friend of General Washington, whoin he is said to have resembled in per- sonal appearance. In 1800 he was elected a Senator of the United States by the legislature of New York. Hi.'i term in the Senate expired in March, 1803, after which he returned to private life. He married Anne C. Ran- dolph, of Virginia, in 1809. He was one of the origin- ators or promoters of the Erie Canal. Among his writings are a "Eulogy on General Hamilton," and a "Discourse on the Liberation of Europe from Military Despotism," (1814.) Died at Morrisiana in November, 1816. "Morris was endued by nature," says James Renwick, "with all the attributes necessary to the ac- complished orator, — a fine and commanding person, a most graceful demeanour, which was rather heightened than impaired by the loss of one of his legs, and a voice of much compass, strength, and richness." ("Life of Clinton.") See Jared Sparks, " Life of Gouverneur Morris, with Selections from his Correspondence," 3 vols., 1832; "Encyclopaedia Ameri- cana ;"" Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Duyckinck, " Cyclopae- dia of American Literature," vol. i. ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1832, and "North American Review" for April, 1832. Morris, (Henry W.,) Commodore, an American naval otificer, born in 1805, was a son of Thomas Morris, a member of the New York bar. He is said to have been a grandson of Gouverneur Morris. He obtained the rank of captain in 1856, and took command in January, 1862, of the new steamer Pensacola, with which he contributed to the victory gained by Captain Farragut below New Orleans in April of that year. Died in New York in August, 1863. Morris, (Jacob,) an American officer, born in West- chester couiity. New York, in 1755, ^ son of Lewis Morris, (1726-98.) He was aide-de-camp to General Charles Lee, and distinguished himself at the defence of Fort Moultrie. Died in 1844. Morris, (Lewis,) an American jurist, born in West- chester county, New York, became chief justice of that State, and was elected in 1738 first Governor of New Jersey. Died in 1746. Morris, (Lewis,) a Welsh poet and antiquary, born in 1702, made a valuable collection of ancient manu- scripts, and published a number of poems in the Welsh language. Died in 1765. Morris, (Lewis,) an American patriot and signer of the Declaration of Independence, born in Westchester county, New York, in 1726, was a grandson of Lewis Morris, (the first of the name,) and half-brother of Gou- verneur Morris, noticed above. He was elected to the Congress of 1775, and resumed his seat the following year. Died in 1798. Morris, (Robert,) a distinguished statesman and financier, born in Lancashire, England, in 1734. At an early age he removed to America and entered into mercantile business in Philadelphia. He was a delegate to Congress in 1775, and the following year signed the Declaration of Independence. He was appointed superintendent of finance in 1781, being the first who had filled that office in the LTnited States, and by his judicious and energetic measures rendered the most important services to the cause of the patriots. "The Americans," says a distinguished histor'an, "owe as much acknowledgment to the financial operations of Robert Morris as to the negotiations of Benjamin Franklin, or even the arms of George Washington." He pledged his private fortune to obtain supplies for the army, and originated the Bank of North America in 1 781. He resigned his office in 1784, was a member of the Convention which framed the Constitution of the United States in 1787, and was elected a Senator of the United States in 1788. He was imprisoned for debt in his old age. Died in Philadelphia in 1806. See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. Morris, (Thomas,) an American lawyer and states- man, born in Virginia in 1776. Having removed to Ohio, he was elected in 1830 a judge of the supreme court, and in 1832 a United States Senator. In this post he distinguished himself by his opposition to slavery, and in 1843 he was nominated for Vice-President by the Liberty party. Died in December, 1844. See " Life of Thomas Morris," by his son, B. F. Morris. a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; mSt; nftt; good; moon; MORRIS MORTIMER Morris, (Thomas A.,) D.D., an American Methodist divine, born in Kanawha county, Virginia, in 1794, was for a time editor of the "Western Christian Advocate," •»nd in 1836 became Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Morris, (Thomas A.,) an American general, born in Kentucky about 1812, graduated at West Point in 1834. He became a citizen of Indiana. He served as brigadier- general of the Union army in Western Virginia in June and July, i86r. Morris, (William,) an English contemporary poet, who has published, among other works, "The Defence of Guenevere," (London, 1858,) "Life and Death of Jason," "Cupid and Psyche," and " Earthly Paradise," (1870.) See the "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1870. Mor'ri-son, (John Ro]?ert,) son of Rev. Robert Morrison, noticed below, born at Macao in 1814. He succeeded his father as secretary and interpreter to the British Factory at Canton, and was the author of a valu- able work entitled "The Chinese Commercial Guide," (1834.) Morrison, (Sir Richard,) president of the Irish In- stitute of Architects, born at Cork about 1767; died in 1849. Morrison, (Rev. Robert,) D.D., an eminent English Orientalist and missionary, born in Northumberland in 1782. Having previously studied the Chinese language, he was sent by the London Missionary Society in 1807 to China, where he became translator to the East India Company's Factory at Canton. His translation of the New Testament came out in 1814, and was followed in 1815 by his "Chinese Grammar." In conjunction with Rev. Mr. Milne, he next translated the Old Testament into Chinese. It was completed in 1818, (in 21 vols. l2mo.) His great "Chinese Dictionary," printed at the expense of the East India Company, appeared in 1821. He visited England in 1824, and, having remained there two years, returned to his missionary labours in China, where he had founded in 1818 an Anglo-Chinese Col- lege. Among Dr. Morrison's other works we may name " Horae Sinicas," (1812,) a "View of China for Philo- logical Purposes," etc., (1817,) and "Chinese Miscel- lany," (1825.) He was the first Protestant missionary to China, and as a Chinese scholar he^ occupies the highest rank. Died in 1834. See "Memoirs of Robert Morrison," by his widow, 1839; A. R^MUSAT, in the "Journal des Savants," 1824. Mor'row, (Jeremiah,) born in Pennsylvania in '1770, became United States Senator from Ohio in 1813, and was elected Governor of that State in 1822. Died in 1852. Mors, [Fr. La Mort, It moR,] the Latin name of the personification of Death, [Gr. Gavarof,] said to be the offspring of Night. According to Homer, Death was the brother of Sleep. Morse, (Jedediah,) D.D,, an American geographer and divine, born at Woodstock, Connecticut, in 1761. He graduated at Yale College, and in 1789 became pas- tor of the First Congregational Church at Charlestown, Massachusetts. He is principally known by his geo- graphical works, which were the first of the kind pub- lished in America, and which also obtained a European reputation. He likewise published several historical works, and a number of sermons. Died in 1826. Morse, (Samuel Finley Breese,) an American in- ventor and artist, born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, in April, 1791, was a son of the preceding. He gradu- ated at Yale College in 1810, and went to England, where he studied painting under Benjamin West. He returned home in 181 5, and painted portraits at various places. He visited Europe in 1829, and returned in 1832. During the passage homeward he suggested the idea of an electric telegraph, in conversation with his fellow-passengers. He constructed the apparatus of a recording electric telegraph, by which he conveyed de- spatches through a small distance, in 1835. About the end of 1837 he applied to Congress for aid, without success. He went to England in 1838 to obtain a patent, which was refused. Wheatstone, an Englishman, had invented a different apparatus, for the same purpose, about 1837. In the spring of 1843, Congress voted thirty thousand dollars to enable him to construct a line between Wash- ington and Baltimore. His invention was brought into successful operation on that route in 1844, since which it has been rapidly introduced into nearly all countries of the civilized world. This result has been called the greatest triumph which human genius has obtained over space and time. Mr, Morse received gold medals and insignia of honour from several European sovereigns. The representatives of the principal European powers, assembled in Paris about 1857, presented to him the sum of 400,000 francs as a recompense for his invention. Morse's system is generally preferred to that invented in England, on account of its greater simplicity. See DuNLAP, " History of the Arts of Design in America," vol. ii. chap, xxiii. ; Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists ;" " North Amer- ican Review" for January, 1828. Morse, (Sidney Edwards,) brother of the nreced- ing, was born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1794. He graduated at Yale College in 1811, and about 1815 became editor of the " Boston Recorder," a religious journal. In 1823 he founded, conjointly with his brother, R. C. Morse, the " New York Observer." He was the author of several popular school geographies, and invented a new method of engraving maps, called cerography. Died in 187 1. Mortemart, de, deii moRt'mtR', (Casimir Louis ViCTURNiEN de Rocheohouart — deh rosh'shoo-tn',) Due, a French general and diplomatist, born in Paris in 1787. During the revolution of July, 1830, Charles X. requested him to form a new cabinet, of which he was nominated president; but it was too late. He was afterwards, in 183 1, ambassador to St. Petersburg, and was made a senator in 1852. Mortier, moR'te-i', (^douard Adolphe Casimir Joseph,) afterwards Duke of Treviso, a celebrated marshal of France, born at Cateau-Cambresis in 1768. He served with great distinction in the principal campaigns from 1792 to 1799, when he was made generaV of division. In 1803 he was sent by Napoleon to Hanover, of which he soon took possession. He was created a marshal in 1804, and the year following received the grand cordon of the legion of honour. Being appointed in 1805 to command a corps of the grand anny in Germany, he was attacked in November by the Russian general Koo- toosof with 30,000 men, against whom he made a most gallant defence with greatly inferior numbers until rein- forcements came up. For the signal bravery he displayed at the battle of Friedland, June, 1807, he was made Duke of Treviso. In the Spanish campaign of 1808 he assisted at the siege of Saragossa, and defeated the Spaniards at Ocana and Gebora. He accompanied Bonaparte to Russia in 1812, and was commissioned by him to blow up the Kremlin. In 1814, in conjunction with Marshal Marmont, he exerted himself to the utmost to defend Paris from the allies, but, not succeeding in this, gave in his adhesion to Louis XVIII. After the revolution of 1830 he entered the service of Louis Philippe, and in 1835, while accompanying that mon- arch to a review, was one of the victims of Fieschi's " infernal machine." See H. Ris, "Notice sur le Mar^chal Mortier;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mor'ti-mer, (Edmund,) Earl of March, an English nobleman, who married Philippa, only child of Lionel, Duke of Clarence. They had a son Roger, and were ancestors of Eflward IV. Died in 1381. Mortimer, (Edmund,) fifth Earl of March, born about 1390, was the son of Roger, and grandson of the pre- ceding. He was the lawful heir to the crown after the death of Richard II. Died in 1424. Mortimer, (John Hamilton,) an English painter of history, born at Eastbourne, Sussex, in 1739. Among his works are "Saint Paul preaching to the Britons," and " King John signing Magna Charta." He was an inferior colorist, but his design was admired by his contemporaries. Died in 1779. Mortimer, (Roger,) Earl of March, the paramour of Isabella, Queen of England, born about 1287. Having been twice convicted of treason and pardoned by Ed- ward II., he conspired with the queen against the life of € as 9 as s; g hard; g as g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (2(^='See Explanations, p. 23.) MORTIMER 1632 MORTON the king, who was barbarously murdered. The guilty pair reigned for several years in the name of the young prince Kdward III. ; but Mortimer was at length made prisoner by order of the prince, and executed in 1330, See HuMi!;, "History of England;" Froissart, "Chronicles." Mortimer, (Rogf.r,) fourth Earl of March, was a son of the third earl. He died in 1398, leaving a son Edmund and a daughter Anne, who was married to Richard, Earl of Camluidge, and was a grandmother of Edward IV. Mortimer, (Thomas,) an English litterateur, born in London in 1730. He published "The British Plutarch," (6 vols., 1762,) "Elements of Commerce," etc., (1772,) "Compendium of History, Chronology, and Biography," (1777,) and other valuable works. Morto da Feltro. See Feltro, da. Mor'tpn, (Chaulks,) a learned English Puritan min- ister, born about 1626. He was ejected for noncon- formity in 1662, after which he taught school in London about twenty years. He emigrated to New England in 1686, and became minister at Charlestown, Massachu- setts. He wrote several religious works. Died in 1698. Morton, (Charles,) an English physician and anti- quary, born in Westmoreland in 1716. Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1752, he became one of its secre- taries in 1760, and in 1776 succeeded Dr. Maty as libra- rian of the British Museum. He was also a member of the Imperial Academy of Saint Petersburg. He made several valuable contributions to the "Transactions" of the Royal Society. Died in 1799. Mor-'tpn, (James Douglas,) Earl of, Regent of Scotland, born in 1530, was a nephew of the Earl of Angus. He married Elizabeth, a daughter of James Douglas, third Earl of Morton, and inherited the earl- dom in 1553, at the death of the third earl, who left no male issue. He joined the Protestant party, and became one of the lords of the congregation about 1558. In 1563 he was appointed lord high chancellor of Scotland. He lost that office by his complicity in the assassination of Rizzio. He was invited by Bothwell to join him in the plot for the murder of Darnley. He declined to act in that affair, but failed to inform against Bothwell. For this course he afterwards offered the excuse that the queen was already aware of the plot, so that it would be useless to reveal the secret to her. He fought against Bothwell and the queen at Carbery Hill. In 1567 he was restored to the office of lord chancellor by Regent Murray. He was appointed regent of the kingdom in 1572, and rendered himself odious by his rapacity and oppressive acts, but was supported by Queen Elizabeth. Having been accused as an accessory to the murder of Darnley, he was convicted and beheaded in June, 1581. See Robertson, "History of Scotland;" Burton, "History of Scotland." Morton, (James Douglas,) Earl of, a Scottish astronomer, born in Edinl)urgh in 1707, was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and an associate of the Academy of Sciences, Paris. Died in 1768. Mor'ton, (James Saint Clair,) an American general, born in Philadelphia in 1829, was a son of Dr. Samuel George Morton, noticed below. He was educated at "West Point, where he graduated as second of his class in 1851, after which he was eitiployed as engineer at various places. He was appointed chief engineer of the army of the Ohio in May, 1862, and commanded the Pioneer Brigade at the battle of Stone River, January 1-2, 1863. For his services in this action he obtaiiied the rank of brigadier-general. He was killed in an assault on Petersburg in June, 1864. Morton, (John,) an English prelate and statesman, born in Dorsetshire in 1410. He held several high offices under Henry VI., and, soon after the accession of Edwaid IV., was appointed Bishop of Ely, and lord chancellor of England. He was imprisoned by Richard HI., but, having effected his escape, repaired to the con- tinent, where he is said to have formed the plan, in con- junction with Henry, Earl of Richmond, of uniting the parties of York and Lancaster by the marriage of Henry to the daughter of Edward IV. Under Henry VII., Morton was created Archbishop of Canterbury, (i486,) and a cardinal, (1493.) He was distinguished for his learning and munificent spirit, and promoted several public works of great utility. He was the patron of Sir Thomas More, who has eulogized him in his "Utopia." Died in 1500. See J. BuDDEN, " Life of John Morton," 1607; Collier, "Ec- clesiastical History;" W. F. HooK, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. v. Morton, (John,) one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, was born in Delaware county, Penn- sylvania, in 1724. He was for many years a member of the General Assembly of his native State, and was elected to the Congress of 1774. Died in 1777. Morton, (Marcus,) an American jurist and Governor, born at Freetown, Massachusetts, in 1784. He was a judge of the supreme court of Massachusetts from 1825 to 1840, and was elected Governor of that State by the Democrats in 1840 and 1843. Died in 1864. Morton, (Nathaniel,) one of the early settlers of Plymouth, born in England in 1612, was the author of "New England's Memorial," and a "History of the Church at Plymouth." Died in 1685. Morton, (Oliver P.,) an American Senator, born in Wayne county, Indiana, in 1823. He studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1847. He was Governor of Indiana from 1861 to 1865, and was elected a Senator of the United States by the legislature of that State in January, 1867, for a term ending in March, 1873. During the civil war he was conspicuous for his zeal in the cause of his country. He is a Republican, and an able speake«-. MtDrton, (Richard,) an English physician, born in Suffolk about 1635, had a high reputation for skill and learning, and became in 1670 physician to the Prince of Orange. He was the author of " Exercises on Phthisis," and other medical works, in Latin. See Ree.s, "Cyclopaedia of Medicine." Morton, (Samuel George,) an eminent American naturalist, ethnologist, and physician, was born in Phila- delphia, January 26, 1799. His father, George Morton, who was descended from a large and highly respectable family in Clonmel, Ireland, emigrated to America and engaged in mercantile pursuits. The subject of our sketch early evinced a passionate fondness for books and thirst for knowledge, and combined with these a habit of persevering and methodical industry. He graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in March, 1820, and in October of the same year entered as a matriculate the University of Edinburgh, the diploma of which insti- tution was conferred upon him in August, 1823. He returned to America in 1824, commenced the practice of medicine in 1826, and in 1827 married Rebecca G., daughter of Robert and Elizabeth Pearsall, highly re- spected members of the Society of Friends. His first scientific essay, entitled " Observations on Cornine, a New Alkaloid," was published in the "Medical and Physical Journal" for 1825-26. In 1827 he communi- cated to the Academy of Natural Sciences an "Analysis of Tabular Spar from Bucks County, Pennsylvania, with a Notice of Various Minerals found in the same Locality." During the same year he contributed to the "Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences," Philadelphia, a " Description of a New Species of Ostrea Convexa of Say." These papers were followed in rapid succession by many other scientific communications, and the Jour- nal of the Academy continued to be enriched by his labours until within a short period of his death. There were not less than forty of these contributions, besides others published in the "Transactions of the American Philosophical Society," and the " American Journal of Science and Arts," edited by Professor Silliman. These articles, by their varied range, exhibited great versatility of talent, treating as they did u])on subjects connected with anatomy, ethnology, archaeology, geology, palaeon- tology, zoology, and mineralogy. His celebrated mono- graph on the "Cretaceous Group of the United States" was received, at the time of its publication, with great favour by the inost eminent geologists of Europe. In 1834 he contributed to medical literature an important work on the " Anatomical Character, Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment of Pulmonary Consum])tion." He early began to make his now celebrated collection of crania, and up to 1840 had, with great labour and cost, succeeded a e, 1, o, u, y, long-; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, sAor^; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon ; MORTON MOSELET in collecting no less than 1468 crania. In 1839 he gave to the world his "Crania Americana," and in 1844 his Crania Egyptiaca," both of which were very favourably received. He was for some years president of the Phila- delphia Academy of Natural Sciences. He died in May, 185 1. His name is often associated with Nott and Glid- don's "Types of Mankind," (1854,) based to some extent on Dr. Morton's researches ; but that work, published after his death, and edited by those who very imperfectly understood his views, gives no just idea of the modest, impartial, and thoroughly scientific spirit with which he conducted all his inquiries. In the annals of science his name will always be associated with that of Blumenbach, the founder of human "craniography. To this study he gave a powerful impetus, by demonstrating the precise method in accordance with which it should be pursued, and by indicating its capability of throwing light upon the origin and affiliations of the various races of men. Dr. Morton left several sons, of whom the eldest, an officer of great merit, died fighting bravely for his country, (see Morton, James Saint Clair ;) another son, Thomas George, has become justly distinguished as one of the most skilful surgeons in the United States. See Gross's "American Medical Biography." Morton, (Thomas,) an English dramatist, born in Durham in 1764, was the author of numerous comedies and farces, which had great popularity in his time. His dramas entitled "Town and Country" and "A Roland for an Oliver" still retain their place on the stage. Died in 1838. See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica." Morton, (Thomas,) an English prelate, born at York in 1564, became successively Bishop of Chester, of Lich- field, and of Durham. He published several controver- sial treatises against papists and nonconformists. He was an intimate friend of Casaubon, to whose memory he erected a monument in Westminster Abbey. Died in 1659. See Barwick, "Life of Thomas, Bishop of Durham," 1660; Eaddily and Navlor, " Life of Thomas Morton," 1669. Morton, (William Thomas Green,) M.D., an American dentist and physician, born at Charlton, Mas- sachusetts, in 1819. He settled in Boston, as a dentist, about 1842, and made some improvements in the fabrica- tion of artificial teeth. He afterwards studied medicine and chemistry, to which he was attracted by a desire to discover a substance that would render his patients in- sensible to painful operations on their teeth. He began to use sulphuric ether as an anaesthetic in 1846. His claim to this invention was disputed by Dr. Jackson. Died in July, 1868. (See Wells, Horace.) Mortonval, moR''t5N'vtK, the assumed name of Furcy Guesdon, (fiiR'se' gi'dAN',) a French novelist, born in Paris about 1780. He wrote, besides other novels, " The Count of Villamayor," (5 vols., 1825.) Morus. See More, (Alexander, Henry, and Sir Thomas.) Morus, mo'riis, (Samuel Friedrich Nathanael,) a German scholar and theologian, born in Upper Lusa- tia in 1736. He published editions of Longinus, Plu- tarch, Isocrates, and other classics, and wrote several original works, among which are "Theological and Philo- logical Dissertations," (1787,) and an "Epitome of Christian Theology," (1789.) Died in 1792. Morveau. See Guyton de Morveau. Morville, de, deh moR^v^K, (Charles Jean Bap- TiSTE Fleuriau — flu're'6',) Comte, a French diploma- tist, born in Paris in 1686, was ambassador to Holland in 1 7 18, and induced the States-General to sign the Quadruple Alliance. He became minister of foreign afiairs in 1723, and was elected to the French Academy the same year. Died in 1732. See Saint-Simon, "Memoires." Morvillier, de, deh mor've'yk', (Jean,) a French ne- gotiator, born at Blois in 1506. He became Bishop of Orleans in 1552, and was keeper of the seals about two years, (1568-70.) Died in 1577. Mor'y-spn or Mor'i-spn, (Fynes,) an English travel- ler, born in 1566. He visited the greater part of Europe, and wrote an account of his travels, which was pub- lished after his death, under the title of " Itinerary, containing his Ten Years' Travel," (161 7.) Died about 1614. See Harris, " Ireland ;" " Retrospective Review," vol. xi.,(i82S.) Morzillo. See Fox, (Sebastian.) Mosbourg or Mosburg. See Agar, (Jean Antotne Michel.) Mosca, mos'kl, (Francesco,) called Moschino, (mos-kee'no,) an Italian sculptor and architect, born near Florence about 1520 ; died after 1572. Moscati, mos-kl'tee, (Pif.tro,) Count, an Italian physician and writer, born at Milan about 1740, was made president of the Cisalpine republic in 1798. He was afterwards created by Napoleon a count, and sena- tor of Italy. Died in 1824. Moscheles, mosh^eh-lgs', (Ignaz,) a celebrated Ger- man pianist and composer for the piano, born at Prague in 1794, was the son of a Jewish merchant. After visit- ing Holland, France, and England, he became in 182=; professor of music at the Academy in London. In 1846 he was associated with his pupil, Felix Mendelssohn, as director of the Conservatory at Leipsic. His principal works are sonatas, songs, and instrument-pieces of various kinds. Died in 1870. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des MusJeiens." Moscheni, mos-ka'nee, (Costanza,) an Italian poet- ess, born at Lucca in 1786; died in 1831. Mosoherosch, mosh'eh-rosh', (Johann Michael,) a German writer, born at Wilstadt in 1600. He was the author of "Wonderful and True Visions of Phi- lander von Sittewald," (1644,) a collection of allegorical satires in the style of Quevedo, which are characterized by great acuteness, originality, and powers of humour. Died in 1669. See Gervinus. " Geschichte der Deutschen Nationalliteratur." Moschini, mos-kee'nee, (Giannantonio,) an Italian writer, born at Venice in 1773. wrote a " History of Venetian Literature in the Eighteenth Century," (4 vols., 1807-09,) and other works. Died in 1840. Mos'-ehi-on, [Moa;t:«a»r,] a Greek medical writer, supposed to have lived in the second century of the Christian era, was the author of a treatise "On the Diseases of Women," which was first published in Wolfs " Gynaeciorum Commentarii," (1566.) See Fabkicius, " Bibliotheca Grasca." Moschopule. See Moschopulus. Mos-eho-pu'lus, [Gr. MoaxoTvovAog ; Fr. Moscho- pule, mo^sho'piiK,] (Manuel,) a Byzantine grammarian, supposed to have lived in the thirteenth century, and to have been a native of Crete, There was another writer of the same name, said to have been a nephew of the preceding, and born at Constantinople. Among the works attributed to them, which are chiefly grammatical, we may mention "Scholia on the Tragedies of Euripides," " Erotemata, or Grammatical Questions," and " Scholia on Hesiod and Pindar." See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grasca ;" Montucla, "Histoire des Mathematiques." Mos'-ehus, [Mo(T;^6f,] a Greek pastoral poet, born in Syracuse, flourished about 200 B.C. He was contempo- rary with Bion, to whose memory he wrote a beautiful elegy. A few idyls are the only extant works of Moschus. See " Fraser's Magazine" for January, 1836. Moscoso de Alvarado, de, di mos-ko'so d& il-vS- rS-'Do, (Don Luis,) a Spanish soldier, born at Badajoz in 1505. He served under Hernando de Soto in the conquest of Florida in 1539 and 1540. On the death of De Soto, Moscoso was chosen general in his stead. He died in Peru about 1560. Moseley, moz'le, (Benjamin,) born in Essex, Eng- land, became physician to Chelsea Hospital. He pub- lished a "Treatise on the Diseases of the Tropics," and other works ; but he is chiefly known from his violent opposition to vaccination. Died in 1819. Moseley, (Henry,) F.R.S., an English clergyman and scientific writer, born about 1800. He became pro- fessor of natural philosophy in King's College, London, and chaplain to Queen Victoria in 1855. Among his works is " Mechanical Principles of Engineering and Architecture," (1855.) € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, Kyguttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^=°See Explanations, p. 23.) 103 MOSELLANUS MOSSOP Mosellanus, mo-zgl-lS'nCis, (Petrus Schade — shS'deh,) a German scholar and promoter of classical learning, born in the diocese of Treves in 1493. In 15 14 he was appointed professor of Latin and Greek in the University of Leipsic. He was intimate with Melanchthon and Erasmus. Died in 1524. Mosen, mo'zen, (Julius,) a German litteratenr, born in Saxony in 1803. He wrote "Andreas Hofer," and other poems, also several novels and dramas. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Mosengeil, mo'zen-gil', (Friedrich,) a popular Ger- man writer, born near Eisenach in 1773. He published " Summer Evening Hours," " Liebenstein and the New Arcadians," and other fictitious works, which have a high reputation. Died in 1839. Mo'ser, (George Michael,) a Swiss artist, born at Schaffhausen about 1705. In 1726 he settled in London, where he soon acquired a high reputation for his orna- mental gold-work and enamelling. In 1768 he was ap- pointed keeper of the Royal Academy of Arts. " Moser," says Sir Joshua Reynolds, " had a universal knowledge in all branches of painting and sculpture, and may truly be said in every sense to have been the father of the present race of artists." See Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Moser, mo'zer, (Johann Jakob,) a German publicist, born at Stuttgart in 1 701, became in 1727 professor of law in the Imperial College at Tiibingen. In 1736 he was appointed director of the University at Frankfort- on-the-Oder. As a writer he was remarkable for his indefatigable industry, the whole number of his works amounting to upwards of four hundred. Died in 1785. See J. J. Moser's Autobiography, (" Lebensgeschichte J. J. Mo- ser's,") 1783 ; Ledderhose, "Ziige aus dem Leben J. J. Moser's," 1843; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Moser or Moeser, mo'zer, (Justus,) an eminent German writer and jurist, born at Osnabriick in 1720, was chief director of the government of Osnabriick for about twenty years, ( 1 761-81,) and rendered important services to the state. He wrote, besides other works, a good "History of Osnabriick," (1768,) and "Patriotic Fancies," (3 vols., 1775,) which was very popular. His complete works were published in 10 vols., 1843. Died in 1794. See F. NicoLAi, "Leben J. Moesers," 1797: Abeken, " Re- liquien von J. Moeser," 1837; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1843. Moser, (Mary,) daughter of George Michael Moser, noticed above, acquired great celebrity as a flower- painter. A room at Frogmore, which she adorned with flowers, is called "Miss Moser's room." She was chosen an Academician of the Royal Academy of Lon- don, and was the only lady besides Angelica Kauffman who ever received that honour. She became Mrs. Lloyd by marriage. Died in 1819. Moser, von, fon mo'zer, (Friedrich Karl,) a Ger- man jurist, born at Stuttgart in 1723, was a son of Johann JakolD Moser, noticed above. He was successively aulic councillor at Vienna, and member of the administration of Hesse-Darmstadt, (1770.) He published several legal works, a " History of the Waldenses," and " The Mas- ter and Servant," (" Der Herr und der Diener," 1759.) The last-named production, illustrating the duties of a sovereign and his minister, had great popularity. He was for some years editor of the " Patriotisches Archiv." Died in 1798. See H. VON Busche, " F. C. von Moser aus seinen Schriften sein Geist," etc., 1846. Mo'ses, [Heb. ni^D ; Gr. Mwcr^f; Lat. Mo'sES; Fr. MoYSE or MoiSE, mo'^z' ; It. Moisfe, mo-e-sa' ; Arabic, MoosA, moo'si,] an eminent Hebrew legislator and prophet, born in Egypt about 1570 B.C., was a son of Amram, of the tribe of Levi. In consequence of a royal edict that all male infants of the Hebrews should be killed, he was deposited by his mother in an ark or basket on the border of the Nile, and found by Pharaoh's daughter, who adopted him as her son. He became "learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and mighty in words and deeds," and about the age of forty began to meditate the liberation of the oppressed Hebrews. Having incurred the anger of the king by his active sympathy with his own race, he fled to Midian, where he served as a shepherd about forty years. He received a divine mission to bring the children of Israel out of Egypt to the land of Canaan. Under his guidance the chosen people passed through the Red Sea into the Wilderness. He was instrumental in composing for them a code of laws called by his name, and is the re- puted author of the book of Genesis and other books of the Pentateuch. The form of government which he prescribed to the Hebrews was a theocracy. The funda- mental principles of the Mosaic law were that man must worship the only true God exclusively, and love his neighbour as himself. Having appointed Joshua as his successor, and obtained a distant view of the promised land, Moses died on Mount Pisgah, aged about one hundred and twenty years. He was pre-eminent for meekness. See Exodus ii.-xl. ; Leviticus i.-xxvii. ; Numbers i.-xxxvi. ; Deuteronomy i.-xxxiv. : Matthew xvii. 3 ; Luke xxiv. 27 ; John iii. 14, V. 45, viu 19; Acts vii. 20-44; Hebrews iii. 2, 3, 5, xi. 23-29; Revelation xv. 3; Warburton, "Divine Legation of Moses De- monstrated," 1788; J. J. Hess, " Geschichte Mosis," 1777 ; E. Bous- QUET, " Histoire de sept Reformateurs," 1853; D. W. Moller, " Dissertatio de Mose Philosopho," 1707; John Campbell, "Life of Moses," 1738. Mo'ses -eho-re-nen'sis, {i.e. "of Chorene,") an Ar- menian writer and bishop, flourished about 460 A.D. He wrote, besides other works, a " History of Armenia." Mosheim, von, fon mos'him, [Lat. Moshe'mius or Moshei'mius,] (Johann Lorenz,) an eminent Ger- man theologian, pulpit orator, and historian, born at Lubeck in 1694. He studied at Kiel, and became pro- fessor of theology at Helmstedt in 1725. In 1747 he obtained the chair of theology at Gottingen, with the title of chancellor of the university. He was eminently successful as a teacher, and acquired a wide celebrity for his eloquence. His great work entitled " Institutes of Ecclesiastical History," (2 vols. i2mo, 1726,) originally written in Latin, has been translated into French, Ger- man, and English. Among his other writings we may name " Commentaries on Christianity before the Time of Constantine the Great," (1753,) and "Morality of the Holy Scriptures," (9 vols.) He also translated into Latin Cudworth's "Intellectual System." Died in 1755. See F. Lucke, " Narratio de J. L. Moshemio," 1837 ; J. M. Gessner, " Memoria J. L. Mosheimii," 1755; "Nouvelle Biogra- phie Generale." Moshemius or Mosheimius. See Mosheim. Moslemah, mos'le-mah, a famous Arabian captain, a son of the caliph Abd-el-Malek. He commanded the armies of his brothers, Waleed I., Soliman, Yezeed II., and Hesham. He defeated the army of the Greek em- peror in 716 A.D. Died about 740 A.D. Mosneron-Delaunay, mos''neh-r6N' deh-lo^nk', (Jean Baptiste,) Baron, a French litterateur, born at Nantes in 1 738, translated Milton's "Paradise Lost" into French. Died in 1830. Mosquera, mos-ka'rS, (Don RuY Garcia,) a Spanish navigator, born in 1 501, sailed with Sebastian Cabot on his voyage to South America in 1526, and subsequently became one of the founders of the city of Buenos Ayres. See Charlevoix, " Histoire du Paraguay ;" Southey, " Histoiy of Brazil." Moss, (Charles,) an English theologian, a nephew of Robert, noticed below, rose to be Bishop of Saint David's in 1766. He wrote several theological treatises. Died in 1802. Moss, (Robert,) an English divine, born in Norfolk in 1666. He obtained great popularity as a preacher, and was successively chaplain-in-ordinary to William III. and Queen Anne. He died in 1729, leaving a number of sermons, and some Latin and English poems. Mossen Jordi de San Jordi, mos-sSn' hoR-dee' di sin hoR-dee', a Spanish poet, who wrote in the Catalonian dialect, lived about 1230. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Mos'som, (RoRERT,) an Irish prelate, was created Bishop of Londonderry after the restoration. ' He wrote, among other works, "The Preacher's Tripartite," and " Zion's Prospect in its First View." Died in 1679. Mos'sop, (Henry,) an Irish tragedian, born in 1729. He obtained a high reputation as an actor, both on the Dublin stage and in London, where he was regarded as nearly equal to Garrick. Died in 1773. a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; \ fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; ftr, fSll, fit; mSt; nSt; good; moon; MOSTJERT 1635 MOTT Mostaert, mos'tlRt, (Francis and Giles,) Flemish painters, born at Hulst in 1525, were twins, and sons of Jan, noticed below. Francis painted landscapes with success, and died in 1 556, Giles, who was a historical painter, died in 1601. Mostaert, mos'ttrt, (Jan,) a Dutch paintenf born at Haarlem in 1499, was a pupil of James of Haarlem. He enjoyed a high reputation, and was patronized by the archduchess Margaret of Austria. Among his master- pieces are a " Nativity," " Ecce Homo," and " Discord throwing the Apple." Died in 1555. See PiLKiNGTON, " Dictionary of Painters ;" Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, HoUandais," etc. Mostaiiser-Billah, mos'tin'ser bil'lah, sometimes written Moiitaser-Billah, a caliph and patron of learn- ing, born at Cordova, Spain, in 910 A.D. He began to reign in 961. He founded several colleges, and a library of 600,000 volumes. Died in 976. See RoMEY, " Histoire d'Espagne." Mostasem-Billah, Al, tl mos'ti'sem bil'lah, ( Aboo- Ahmed-Abdallah, ^'hob WmM ab-diKlah,) the last Abbasside caliph of Bagdad, was born in 1221, and suc- ceeded his father Mostanser in 1242. He was conquered and put to death in 1258 by Hoolagoo. See Weil, " Geschichte der Chalifen." Mostowsky, mos-tov'skee, (Thaddeus,) Count, a distinguished Polish patriot and diplomatist, born at Warsaw in 1766. He published a good edition of the Polish classics, (25 vols., Warsaw, 1803-05.) He lived many years in Paris, where he died in 1842. Motanebby. See Al-Mootenabbee. Motasem- ( or Motassem- ) Billah, mo'tis'sem biKlah, Caliph of Bagdad, born near Samosata in 794 A.D., was a son of Haroun-al-Raschid. He succeeded his brother Mamoon in 833. He is said to have been a cruel tyrant. Died in 842. See Abooi.feda, " Annales Moslemici ;" Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen Sandenburg Matthiessen, " Historia Chalifatus Al-Motacinii," 1849. Motenabbi. See Al-Mootenabbee. Motenebbi. See Al-Mootenabbee. Mothe, La. See La Mothe. Mothe le Vayer, de la, deh It mot leh vt'yi', (FkANgois,) a French writer, born in Paris in 1588, was appointed preceptor to the Duke of Orleans, (1649,) and to the dauphin, afterwards Louis XIV., (1652.) He published a treatise "On the Virtue of the Pagans," (1642,) in answer to which Arnauld wrote his tract "On the Necessity of Faith in Jesus Christ." He was the author of other works on various subjects, which had great popularity at the time. He had been elected in 1639 a member of the French Academy. Died in 1672. See L. fixiENNE, " Essai sur La Mothe le Vayer," 1849 ; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary," Mor^ki, " Dictionnaire His- toriqiie ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Motherwell, muth'er-wel, (William,) a Scottish poet, born at Glasgow in 1798. He published in 1827 an interesting collection of ballads, entitled " Minstrelsy, Ancient and Modern." He afterwards edited succes- sively the " Paisley Magazine," " Paisley Advertiser," and "Glasgow Courier." His " Poems, Narrative and l,yrical," published in 1833, are remarkable for pathos and ei'-nestness of feeling. Died in 1835. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement ;) " Retrospective Review," vol. ii., second series, 1828 ; "Democratic Review" for January, 1842. Motiii, mo't^N', (Pierre,) a French poet, born at Bourges, lived about 1 570-1600. He wrote a number of short poems, which are commended for grace and delicacy of sentiment. Mot'ley, (John Lothrop,) an eminent American historian, born at Dorchester, Massachusetts, on the 15th of April, 1814. He graduated at Harvard in 1831, studied about a year in the University of Gottingen, and passed several years in visits to various countries of Europe. Having returned home, he studied law, which, however, he never practised to much extent. He pub- lished in 1839a novel entitled "Morton's Hope, or the Memoirs of a Young Provincial." In 1840 he was ap- pointed secretary of legation at Saint Petersburg, where he remained but a short time. He contributed articles to the " North American Review" and other periodicals, and produced in 1849 "Merry Mount, a Romance," which had little success. Having resolved to write a work on the history of Holland, he went to Europe in 185 1 to collect materials and to make researches on that subject. He passed several years at Dresden, Ber- lin, and the Hague, and published "The Rise of the Dutch Republic: a History," (London, 3 vols. 8vo, 1856,) a work of great merit and profound research, which ran through several editions and was translated into French, Dutch, and German. Commenting on Prescott's "Philip II." and Motley's " Rise of the Dutch Republic," the "Edinburgh Review" of January, 1857, says, "They do honour to American literature, and they would do honour to any literature in the world." His next work — a continuation of the first — is entitled "The History of the United Netherlands from the Death of William the Silent to the Synod of Dort," (4 vols., 1860-67.) " Mr. Motley's History of the Rise of the Dutch Re- public," says the "London Quarterly Review" for Janu- ary, 1861, "is already known and valued for the grasp of mind which it displays, for the earnest and manly spirit in which he has communicated the results of deep research and careful reflection. Again he appears before us, rich with the spoils of time, to tell the story of the United Netherlands from the death of William the Silent to the end of the eventful year of the Spanish Armada; and we still find him in every way worthy of this 'great argument.' . . . Many of Mr. Motley's char- acteristics as a historian will appear from the extracts which we have made. It will be seen how vividly he can depict the places, the men, the deeds, of other days. But the work itself must be read to appreciate the vast and conscientious industry which he has so lavishly bestowed upon it. . . . Diligent and painstaking as the humblest chronicler, he has availed himself of many sources of information which have not been made use of by any previous historical writer. At the same time, he is not oppressed by his materials, but has sagacity to estimate their real value ; and he has combined and ar- ranged with scholarly power the facts which they contain." In 1861 he was appointed minister-plenipotentiary to Austria. He resigned this position early in 1867, in consequence of an offensive letter which Mr. Seward, secretary of state, addressed to him. In the spring of 1869 he was sent as ambassador to England by President Grant. See " Edinburgh Review" for January, i86t ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 1859, and May, 1861 ; " London Quarterly Review" for October, i86g ; " British Quarterly Review" for April, 1861 ; " North British Review" for May, 1861. Mott, originally Coffin, (Lucretia,) an American reformer and philanthropist, born on the island of Nantucket in 1793. About 1808 her parents, who were members of the Society of Friends, or Quakers, removed to Philadelphia. In 1811 she was married to James Mott, of New York, who soon afterwards came to Phila- delphia and entered into mercantile business with her father. While still very young, her attention had been called to the iniquity of slavery, and she felt it her duty to abstain from the products of slave labour. She trav- elled extensively as a minister, preaching the peculiar doctrines of the society in which she had been educated, inculcating obedience to the Divine light within the heart, and exposing the sinfulness of slavery and war. At the time of the separation in the Society of Friends, in 1827, she joined those popularly known as " Hicks- ites," (see Hicks, Elias,) and distinguished herself by the advocacy of Unitarian views of the most radical kind. She took an active part (1833) in the organization of the Anti-Slavery Society in Philadelphia, and in 1840 went as a delegate to the World's Anti-Slavery Conven- tion, held in London ; but, though otherwise treated with the greatest respect and courtesy, she was not admitted as a delegate, a majority of the convention having de- cided that women should be excluded from any active participation in the business of the assembly. Mrs. Mott has long been known as an earnest and eloquent advocate of anti-slavery principles, of the rights of women, and of other reformatory movements. As a speaker she is characterized by an unaffected simplicity and earnestness of manner, as well as by clearness and propriety of expression. Her high moral qualities, her € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, Vi, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^^See Explanations, p. 2j MOTT 1636 MOULIN uncommon intelligence, the beauty and consistency of her general character, — illustrated in her domestic as well as in her public life, — are such as to command the respect even of those who in opinion differ most widely from her in regard to religious and social questions. See " Eminent Women of the Age," 1868. Mott, (Vat.entine,) a famous American surgeon, born at Glen Cove, Long Island, New York, in August, 1785, was a son of Dr. Mott, of New York City. He graduated as M.D. at Columbia College in 1806, and afterwards pursued his studies in London and Edinburgh. He became professor of surgery in Columbia College, New York, about 1809. In 1826 he united with Dr. Hosack and others in founding Rutgers Medical Col- lege. He acquired a wide celebrity by his skill as an operator and by the original operations which he per- formed. It is said that he was the first that exsected the entire right clavicle, and that he tied the common carotid artery forty-six times. Sir Astley Cooper ex- pressed the opinion that Dr. Mott " had performed more of the great operations than any man living." He was for many years professor of surgery and relative anatomy in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. Among his writings are "Travels in Europe and the East," (1842,) and " Mott's Cliniques," (i860.) Died in 1865. Motte, de la, deh It mot, (Antoine Houdart — /^ooMtR^) a French critic and dramatist, born in Paris in 1672. He was the author of the dramas of " Semele," "The Triumph of the Arts," and "Inez de Castro," (172-^.) The last-named was very successful. He trans- lated Homer's "Iliad," which he abridged for the sake of improving it, and thus, in the words of Voltaire, "changed a form glowing with youth and health into a fleshless skeleton." Among his other works we may name his "Reflections on Criticism," (1715,) in which he maintains the superiority of the moderns over the ancients. It caused a great sensation, and excited against him no little hostility among the literati. His prose writings are esteemed models of elegant compo- sition. La Motte had been chosen in 17 10 a member of the French Academy, having Rousseau as his com- petitor. Died in 1731. See Herissant, "Vie de Houdart de la Motte ;" Villemain, "Conrs de Litterature Frangaise "Nouvelle Biographie Gene- rale." Motte, du Bois de la, dii bw§, deh It mot, (Em- manuel AuGUSTE de Cahideuc — deh kt7^eMuk',) Com I'E, a French admiral, born at Rennes in 1683 ; died in 1764. Motte-Cadillac, de la, deh It mot kt'de'ytk', (An- toine,) a French officer, noted as the founder of Detroit, was born in Gascony about 1660. He formed a settle- ment at Detroit in 1701, and was appointed Governor of Louisiana about 1711. Died after 1717. Motte-Guyon. See Guyon, (Jeanne Bouvier de LA Motte.) Motte, La. See Lamotte. Motteux, mo'tuh', (Pierre Antoine,) a French litterateur, born at Rouen in 1660. On the revocation of the edict of Nantes he settled in London, where he acquired a thorough knowledge of English and pub- lished a number of dramas. Among the principal of these we may name " The Amorous Miser," and " Beauty in T^istress." He also made an English translation of " Don Quixote," wliich is pronounced by Lord Wood- houselee "by far the best version we have yet had of the romance of Cervantes." Died in 1718. See CiBBER, "Lives of the Poets;" Baker, " Biographia Dra- malica." Motteville, de, deh mot'v^K, (FRANgoiSE Bertaut — b^R'to',) a French lady, born in Normandy about 162T, was a favourite and companion of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis XHI. She was the author of " Memoirs towards the History of Anne of Austria." Died in 1689. See Sainte-Beuve, "Caiiseries du Lundi." Mottez, mo'ti', (Louis Victor,) a French painter of historv and portraits, born at Lille in 1809. MottTey, (Torn,) an English dramatic and his- torical writer, born in 1692. Among his works is a drama entitled " The Imperial Captives," a " Life of the Czar Peter the Great," " History of Catherine of Russia,** and the collection of witticisms called "Joe Miller's Jests." Died in 1750. See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica." Moucheron, moosh'r^N', (Frederik,) an eminent Dutch landscape-painter, born at Emden in 1633. His pictures are remarkable for the graceful form and group- ing of the trees and the transparency of the water. The figures and animals in his landscapes were painted by Helmbreeker and Adrian van der Velde. Among his master-pieces are "The Setting Sun," and "Morning." Died in 1686. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Hollandais," etc. Moucheron, (Izaak,) a painter and engraver, a son of the preceding, was born at Amsterdam in 1670. He painted in the same style as his father, and was regarded as his equal. Died about 1740. Mouchet, moo'shi', (Francois Nicolas,) a skilful French painter of history and portraits, was born in Franche-Comte in 1750; died in 1814. Mouohon, moo^shoN', (Pierre,) a Swiss litterateur, born at Geneva in 1733, was a friend of J. J. Rousseau. He published "Table analytique et raisonnee des Ma- tieres contenues dans I'Encyclopedie," (2 vols., 1780.) Died in 1797. Mouchy, de, deh moo'she', (Philippe de Noailles — deh no''tl' or no't'ye,) Due, a French marshal, born in Paris in 171 5, was a son of the Due de Noailles. He served in all the wars that the French waged between 1733 1759- He defended the king when the palace was attacked by a mob, in 1792, and was executed as a royalist in 1 794. Mouette, moo'^t', (Germain,) a French traveller, born near Dourdan in 1652, was taken by the Algerines, and was kept in captivity for eleven years. He pub- lished a " History of the Conquests of Mouley Archy, and his brother Mouley Ismael, Kings of Morocco," etc., (1683.) Died about 1690. Moufet, pronounced, and sometimes written, Muf- fett, (Thomas,) an English physician and naturalist, born in London about 1550. He was the principal author of the work entitled " Theatre of Insects," (" In- sectorum sive Minimorum Animalium Theatrum," 1634,) which is highly commended by Cuvier and Haller. He also published several medical treatises, among which are " Health's Improvement," etc., and " De Jure et Prasstantia Chymicorum Medicamentorum." Died in 1600. See Wood, "Athen^e Oxonienses;" Cuvier, " Histoire d«s Sciences naturelles." Mougin, moo'zhiN', (Pierre Antoine,) a French astronomer, born near Baume-les-Dames in 1735; died in 1816. Mouhy, de, deh moo'e', (Charles de Pieux— deh fe-uh',) Chevalier, a French novelist, born at Metz in 1701. He wrote many works of inferior quality. Died in 1784. Moulac, moo'ltk', (Vincent Marie,) an able French naval officer, born at Lorient in 1780 ; died in 1836. Moulin, (Jean Francois Auguste.) See Moulins. Movilin, du, (Charles.) See Dumoulin. Moulin, du, dii moo'l^N', (Louis,) a son of the fol- lowing, was born m 1606. He studied at Leyden, and afterwards became a zealous partisan of Cromwell and the Independents, through whose influence he was made Camden professor of history at Oxford. Died in 16S3. See Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses." Moulin, du, [Lat. Molin^'us,] (Pierre,) an eminent French Protestant theologian, born in 1568, was ap- pointed professor of philosophy in the University of Leyden. He afterwards filled the chair of theology at Sedan. He was the author of a treatise "On the Recent Origin of Popery," and of other works. Died about 1658. See Mkursius, "Athens Batavae." Moulin, du, (Pierre,) a son of the preceding, was born in Paris about 1600. Having graduated at Leyden, he repaired to England, where he subsequently became chaplain-in-ordina'ry to Charles TI. He is chiefly known as the author of a work entitled " The Cry of Royal e, T, 0, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, sAort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fSll, fit; mSt; nftt; good: moon; MOULINS 637 MOXON Blood to Heaven," written in reference to the execution of Charles I. He died in 1680, leaving a number of controversial treatises. See MM. Haag, "La France protestante." Moulins. See Desmoulins. Moiilins or Moulin, moo^aN', (Jean FRANgois AUGUSTE,) a French general, born at Caen in 1752. He was appointed general -in-chief of the army of England in October, 1798. In June, 1799, he was elected one of the Directors of the republic. He united with Gohier to oppose Bonaparte in the cotip d'etat of the i8th Bru- maire, (November, 1799.) Died in 1810. See De Barante, "Histoire du Directoire." Moullah. See Moollah. Moulton, moKton, (Joseph White,) an American antiquary and historical writer, born at Stratford, Con- necticut, in 1789, published a "History of Early New York," (1826,) and "New York One Hundred and Seventy Years Ago," (1849.) Moultrie, moo'tre, ? (John,) an English poet, born about 1804. He became rector of Rugby, in Warwick- shire, and published a volume of poems in 1837, and other works, among which is "The Dream of Life." Moultrie, moo'tre, (William,) a distinguished general of the American Revolution, born in South Carolina in 1731. In 1776 he received the thanks of Congress for his gallant defence of the fort on Sullivan's Island, which was named Fort Moultrie in his honour. He assisted General Lincoln in the defence of Charles- ton in 1780, after which he was appointed major-general. He was elected Governor of South Carolina in 1785. He wrote "Memoirs of the Revolution in the Carolinas and Georgia." Died in 1805. See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i. Mounier, moo'ne^i', (Claude Edouard Philippe,) Baron, a son of Jean Joseph, noticed below, was born at Grenoble in 1784. In 1809 he was appointed by Napoleon secretary of his cabinet, and in this capacity accompanied him in his campaigns. He was also created a baron, and in 1812 master of requests. Died in 1843. See PoRTALis, "filoo;e de M. le Baron Mounier," 1844; " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Mounier, (Jean Joseph,) a French legislator, eminent for his talents and virtues, was born at Grenoble in 1758. He studied law, and, after he had served as judge for several years, was elected in 1789 to the States-Gene- ral, where he distinguished himself by the moderation of his liberal opinions. He was chairman of the com- mittee appointed to form a new constitution, but his plan was rejected. He wished a legislature divided into two chambers. He presided with credit over the National Assembly from September 28 to October 8, 1789, during which time the sessions of that body were disturbed by a mob, and then hastily retired from the capital. Being denounced as a royalist, he emigrated in 1790, and lived in Switzerland, England, and other countries, until 1801. Having returned to France, he was appointed in 1802 prefect of Ille-et- Vilaine, and about 1804 councillor of state. He died in 1806, leaving several able political works, one of which is "The Influence ascribed to the Philosophers and Free-Masons on the French Revolution." See Berriat Saint-Prix, " filosre historique de Mounier," 1806 ; Thiers. " History of the French Revolution;" Mignet, "History of the French Revolution;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mount, (William Sidney,) an American painter, born in Long Island about 1808. His favourite subjects were rural and domestic scenes, and he excelled in humorous and comic delineations. His " Farmers Noon- ing," " Husking Corn," " Rafifling for a Goose," and " Dance of the Haymakers," enioy a wide popularity. Died in 1868. See DuNLAP, "Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in America;" Tuckerman, "Book of the Artists." Mount'a-gii or Mont'a-giie, (Richard,) a learned English prelate, born in Buckinghamshire in 1578. He was created Bishop of Norwich in 1638. He wrote several treatises on church antiquities, and was also engaged in many controversies with the Papists and the Calvinists. Died in 1641. Mount'ain, (George Jehoshaphat,) a Protestant prelate, born at Quebec, Canada, about 1789. He be- came Bishop of Quebec about 1837. Died in 1863. Mount'fort, (William,) a distinguished English actor and dramatic writer, born in Staifordshire in 1659. Among his principal plays are the tragedy of " Edward III.," and a farce entitled "The Life and Death of Dr. Faust." Died in 1692. See Baker, "Biographia Dramatica." Moura, mo'rl, (Joz6 de Santo Antonio,) a Portu- guese Orientalist, born at Almodovar ; died about 1845, Mourad. See Moorad. Mouradja d'Ohsson, moo-ri'jl dd'son, (Ignatius,) born at Constantinople in 1740, was descended from an Armenian family. In 1782 he was appointed ambas- sador-extraordinary from Sweden to the Porte. He published "A General View of the Ottoman Empire," (in 7 vols,) a work which is highly esteemed. Died in 1807. Mouravief. See Mooravief. Mouret, moo'ra', (Jean Joseph,) a French composer, born at Avignon in 1682, produced a number of popular operas and songs. Died in 1738. Mourgues, mooRg, (Michel,) a learned French Jesuit, born in Auvergne about 1642, became professor of mathematics at Toulouse. Among his writings are " New Elements of Geometry," and a " Parallel between Christian Morality and that of the Ancient Philoso- phers." Died in 1713. Mourgues, de, deh mooRg, or Morgues, moRg, (Mathieu,) Sieur de Saint-Germain, a French writer and theologian, born in 1582. He became in 1620 almoner to Marie de Medicis, whom he accompanied in her exile to Brussels, England, and Cologne. He published, among other works, a " Defence of the Queen-Mother and of Louis XIII.," (Antwerp, 1637.) Died in 1670. Mourlon, mooR'l6N', (Fr^d^ric,) a French jurist, born at Chambon about 1 8 14. He published several legal works. Mousa. See Moosa. Mouskes, moosk, or Mus, (Philippe,) a Flemish historian, born at Ghent about 121 5, became Bishop of Tournay in 1274. He wrote, in verse, a History of France, which was commended by Du Cange. It was published at Brussels in 1836-38. Died in 1283. Moustier, de, (Charles Albert.) See Demou.stier. Moustier, de, deh moo'te-i', (Clement Edou- ard,) Marquis, a French diplomatist, born at Coblentz in 1779 ; died in Paris in 1830. Moustier, de, (£l6onore Francois Elie,) Mar- quis, a diplomatist, born in Paris in 1751, was the father of the preceding. He was an adherent of the Bourbons. Died in 181 7. Mouton. See Lobau. Mouton, moo'toN', (Jean,) a French composer of the sixteenth century, was a pupil of Josquin Desprez, and was patronized by Louis XII. and Francis I. Mouton-Fontenille de la Clotte, moo'toN' f6Nt'- nhV deh It klot, (Marie Jacques Philippe,) a French naturalist, born at Montpellier in 1769. He wrote on botany and ornithology. Died in 1837. Movers, mo'vers, (Franz Karl,) a learned German Catholic theologian, born at Kosfeld, in Westphalia, in 1806. He became in 1839 professor of the theology of the Old Testament in the Catholic faculty at Breslau. His greatest work, entitled "The Phoenicians," (1850,) illustrates the religion, history, and antiquities of that nation. He also published several treatises on Biblical antiquities, and wrote the article " Phoenicia" in Ersch and Gruber's " Encyclopaedia." Mowatt. See Ritchie, (Anna Cora.) Mow'er, (Joseph A.,) an able American general in the service of the Union. He commanded a brigade in an attack on Vicksburg, May, 1863, and served under General Banks in Louisiana in April, 1864. He com- manded a division of the army of General Sherman in its march through the Carolinas, 1865. Died in Janu- ary, 1870. Mox'on, (Joseph,) born in Yorkshire in 1627, was hydrographer to Charles II. He published several treatises on mathematics, navigation, etc., and carried € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; %h as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MOT J 1638 MU CI AN US on the manufacture of globes and maps. Died about 1700. Moya, de, di mo'yS, (Don Pedro,) a skilful Spanish painter, born at Granada in 1610, was a pupil of Juan del Castillo. He excelled as a colorist. Died in 1666. See QuiLLiET, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." Moyle, inoil, (Walter,) an English jurist and writer, born in Cornwall in 1672, was a friend of Congreve and Wycherly. He was the author of an " Essay on the Roman Constitution," and other works, and translated Xenophon's treatise " On the Revenues of Athens." Died in 1721. See "Life of W. Moyle," prefixed to his works. Moyreau, mwi'ro', (Jean,) a French engraver, born at Orleans in 1690. Among his best prints are "The Lion- Hunt," after Rubens, and " Bacchus and Ariadne," after Boullongne. Died in 1763. See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." Moyse, the French for Moses, which see. Moy'ses, (David,) a Scottish historical writer, born at Lanark in 1573. He wrote "Memoirs of the Affairs of Scotland." Died in 1630. Mozart, mo^zart', [Ger. pron. mdt'siRt,] (Johann Chrysostom Wolfgang Amadeus,) a celebrated Ger- man composer, born at Saltzburg on the 27th of January, 1756. Both his parents were distinguished for personal beauty. He began to perform on the harpsichord when he was about four years old, and manifested an exquisite musical organization. His first teacher was his father, who devoted much time to his education. At the age of six years he composed short pieces of music, and was regarded as a prodigy of musical genius. He had a sister four years his senior, who in early childhood was an excellent musician. In 1762 Leopold Mozart took Wolfgang and his sister to Munich, where they performed before the court and excited great admira- tion. They also visited Vienna, and exhibited their skill before the emperor and his family, by whom they were encouraged and caressed. In 1763 young Mozart excited the astonishment of the Parisians by his per- formance on the organ and by his talent for improvisa- tion. He visited with his parents the principal cities of Germany, and published two of his compositions in 1763. The Mozart family passed the year 1764 in London, where they gave public concerts. About 1766 they returned to Saltzburg, where Wolfgang continued his studies, taking for models the productions of Handel and Emanuel Bach. He composed in 1768 an opera called " La Finta semplice," which was not represented. Accompanied by his father, he made the tour of Italy in 1769 and 1770, and was received with enthusiasm. He produced at Milan the opera of "Mitridate," which was performed with success in 1770. During his visit to Rome the pope created him a knight (cavaliere) of the Golden Spur. His next works were two serenatas, called " Ascanio in Alba," and "The Dream of Scipio," ("II Sogno di Scipione," 1772.) He composed in 1773 an opera entitled "Lucio Silla," which was very successful. He passed several years in travel, and solicited employ- ment in various foreign countries without success. In 1779 he obtained the places of organist and chapel - master to the Archbishop of Saltzburg. At the request of the Elector of Bavaria, he composed "Idomeneo," an opera, (1781,) which was superior to his former works and obtained immense applause. " This work," says Denne-Baron, "was nothing less than a complete trans- formation of the art." He quitted the service of the archbishop, — a coarse and sordid person, who required him to eat with his menial servants, — and in 1781 settled in Vienna. In 1782 he composed a German opera, " The Abduction from the Seraglio," (" Die Entfiihrung aus dem Serail,") and married Constance Weber. He became a friend of Haydn, the great composer. Mozart composed, with unremitting activity and in rapid succession, symphonies, sonatas, quartets, motets, waltzes, etc. About 1785 he produced "Davidde peni- tente," an oratorio, which abounds in beauties of the first order. His comic opera " The Marriage of Figaro" (" Le Nozze di Figaro," 1786) was performed with unbounded applause, and, in the opinion of some critics, formed an epoch in dramatic music. His master-piece is the opera " Don Giovanni," or " Don Juan," which was first performed at Prague in 1787. The King of Prussia offered him 3000 crowns a year to attract him to Berlin ; but he declined to quit the service of the em- peror Joseph, who paid him only 800 florins. He was often reduced to painful distress for want of money while he lived in Vienna. Among his later works is "The Magic Flute," an opera, (1791.) Mozart, as a performer on the piano, surpassed all the German musicians of his time. His constitution was naturally delicate, and his health rapidly declined in 1791, during which he was employed to compose a requiem by a mysterious stranger, or a person who wished his name to be a secret. This person was an agent of Count Walsegg. To his morbid and depressed imagination this seenied as a warning of his own impending death. With this presentiment, he composed his " Requiem," which is considered his most sublime work. He died in Vienna in December, 1791 or 1792, leaving several children. "Mozart occupies," says Denne-Baron, "a unique place in the history of music, by the universality of his genius. . . . He excelled in all departments, and the products of his radiant imagination improved the art in all its parts. ... In dramatic music he was un- rivalled. His enlightened mind and his exquisite sen- sibility enabled him to seize with equal tact and sagacity the jiuances and the true conditions of the lyrical drama." ("Nouvelle Biographic Generale.") See E. Holmes, " Life of Mozart," 2 vols., 1845; Niemetschek, "Mozart's Leben," 1798; Roechlitz, "Anecdotes of Mozart," (in German,) iSoi ; Arnold, "Mozart's Geist," Erfurt, 1S03 ; G. N. VON NissEN, "Biographic W. A. Mozarts," 1S28; Fetis, " Biogra- phie Universelle des Musiciens ;" H. Doring, "W. A. ISIozart," and a French version of the same, Paris, i860; Hehr Otto Jahn, "Mozart's Leben," 1856; Daines Bakrington, " Notice of Mo- zart," in the "Philosophical Transactions," 1770; "Letters of Mozart," translated by Lady Wallace, 2 vols., 1865; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1846. Mozart, (Leopold,) a German musician, born at Augsburg in 1719, was the father of the famous com- poser. He performed on the violin, and became about 1762 vice-chapel-master of the Prince- Archbishop of Saltzburg. He gave diligent attention to the education and training of his son. He composed several oratorios, etc. Died in 1787. Mozier, mo^zher, (Joseph,) an American sculptor, born at Burlington, Vermont, in 1812. He passed many years in mercantile business in the city of New York, and afterwards studied sculpture in Italy. Among his works are "Esther," "Pocahontas," and "Silence." Mozin, mo'z^N', (...,) a French grammarian, born in 1 771, tauL^ht in Germany many years. He published several works on grammar, and a good French-German Dictionary, (1S12.) Died in 1840. Mozin, (Charles Louis,) a French painter, born in Paris in 1806, studied under Leprince. His works are chiefly marine views, which have great merit. Among the best we may name " The Capture of the Isle of Bommel by the French Army in 1794," and "The Port of Honfleur." Mozzi, mot'see, (M.arcan rONio,) an Italian littera- teur and priest, born at Florence in 1678; died in 1736. Muawia or Muawias. See Moaweeyah. Mucianus, mu-she-a''nus, [Fr. Mucien, moo^se-iw'; It. MuziANO, moot-se-i'no,] (LiCiNius,) an able Roman general and orator, whose character was compounded of good and evil qualities. He was chosen consul in 52 A.D., and at the death of Nero, in 68, commanded four legions in Syria. To promote the interest of his friend Vespasian in his contest against Vitellius, he made a rapid march to Rome in 69 A.D., and acted the part of a sovereign until the arrival of Vespasian. Mucianus was consul in 70 and in 75 A.D. See Tacitus, " History of Rome." Mucianus, (P. LiciniusCrassus Dives,) an eminent Roman jurist and orator, was a son of P. Mucins Scas- vola. He was adopted by P. Licinius Crassus, suc- ceeded Scipio Nasica as pontifex maximus, and became consul in 131 B.C. Having led an army into Asia to oppose Aristonicus, who attempted to obtain Pergamus, he was defeated and killed, in 130 B.C. I, €, 1, o, ii, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, skart; a, i, g, obscure; fUr, fill, f^t; mSt; n6t ; good; moon; MUCIEN 1639 MUIRHEAD Mucien. See Mucianus, (Licinius.) Mucius Scaevola. See Sc^vola. Miicke or Muecke, niuk'eh, (Heinrich Karl An- ton,) a German historical painter, born at Breslau in 1806, was a pupil of Schadow. Among his master- pieces may be named "Saint Ambrose and the Emperor Theodosius," *' Ulysses and Leucothea in the Tempest," and a " Saint Catherine." See Nagler, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Mudee, mii'dcV, (Gabriel van der Muyden — vtn der nii'den,) an eminent Flemish jurist, born near Ant- werp in 1500. He wrote " De Restitutionibus in Inte- grum," (1586,) and other works. Died at Louvain in 1560. See Spinnael, "Gabriel Mudee et son ficole," 1844. Mud'fprd, (William,) an English editor and writer, born in London in 1782. He published, besides other works, a "Life of Oliver Goldsmith," (1804,) and a "Life of Richard Cumberland," (2 vols., 1814.) Died in 1848. Mudge, miij, (John,) F.R.S., an eminent optician and surgeon, was a younger son of Zachary, noticed below. He practised many years at Plymouth, and wrote medical essays, some of which were inserted in the " Philosophical Transactions." He was distinguished as the improver of the reflecting telescope, and as author of " Directions for Making the Best Composition for the Mirrors of Reflecting Telecopes, with a Description of the Process forgiving the Great Speculum the True Para- bolic Curve." For this he received the Copley medal from the Royal Society. Died in 1793. Mudge, (Thomas,) an excellent English mechanist, born at Exeter in 1 716, was a son of Zachary Mudge, noticed below. He served an apprenticeship to Graham, the famous watchmaker, and acquired great eminence in that art. About 177 1 he retired to Plymouth, where he employed several years in perfecting chronometers. In 1793 he received from Parliament a recompense of three thousand pounds for his improvements in these instruments. Died in 1794. His son Thomas wrote a " Description of the Time-Keeper invented by Thomas Mudge," (Senior.) Mudge, (William,) F.R.S., a scientific English gen- eral, born at Plymouth in 1762, was a son of Dr. John Mudge, noticed above. He served in the royal artil- lery, and obtained the rank of lieutenant. About 1798 he was appointed superintendent of the grand trigono- metrical survey of England and Wales, after he had been employed for several years as assistant in that work. During the progress of the survey he was raised to the rank of major-general. The results of his survey were published in the " Philosophical Transactions," and procured him much distinction. In the latter part of his life he was lieutenant-governor of the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich. Died in 1821. Mudge, (Zachary,) an eminent clergyman of the Anglican Church, was the father of John and Thomas Mudge, above noticed, and an intimate friend of Dr. Johnson. He became master of a free school at Bide- ford about 17 16, and rector of a church in Plymouth in 1736. He was also prebendary of Exeter. His ser- mons, of which a volume was published in 1727, were highly esteemed. Died in 1769. Mu'die, (Robert,) a Scottish naturalist and popular litterateur, born in Forfarshire in 1777, became a resi- dent of London. He published " Conversations in Moral Philosophy," "The Feathered Tribes of the British Islands," " Popular Mathematics," "The British Natu- ralist," " The Elements : The Heavens, the Earth, the Air, and the Sea," and numerous other works. Died in 1842. Mudo, El, gl moo'Do, (Juan Fernandez Ximenes de Navarete — di nl-vi-ra'ti,) a celebrated Spanish painter, born at Logrono in 1526, received the surname of el Mudo ("the Mute") because he was deaf and dumb. He was patronized by Philip II., and painted for the Escurial a "Nativity," a "Holy Family," and other works of great merit. He has been called "the Spanish Titian." Died about 1575. Muecke. See Mucke. Muefiling. See Muffling. Muegge. See Mugge. Muehlenbruch. See Muhlenbruch, Muelenaere, de, deh mu''el-na^reh, ? (Felix Amand,) CoMJE, a Belgian statesman, born in 1793. He was appointed in 1830 Governor of West Flanders, and minister of foreign affairs in 1834. Muellei". See Muller. Muellner. See Mullner. Muench. See Munch. Muench-Bellinghausen. See Munch-Belling- hausen. Muenchausen. See Munchausen. Muennich. See Munnich. Muenster. See Munster. Muenster-Ladenburg. See Munster-Ladenburg. Muenter. See Munter. Muenzer. See Munzer. Muffling or Mueffling, muffling, (Friedrich Fer^ dinand Karl,) Baron, a Prussian field-marshal, born at Halle in 1775. He was appointed in 181 5 governor of Paris. In 1829 he negotiated a treaty of peace be- tween Russia and Turkey. He became governor of Berlin in 1837, and president of the state council in 1841. He died in 1851. See " Passages from my Life," etc., by Bakon Muffling. Miigge or Muegge, mug'geh, almost muk'keh, (Theodor,) a German litterateur, born at Berlin in 1806, wrote several romances, also political works entitled " France and the Last of the Bourbons" and " Eng- land and Reform." He became in 1850 one of the founders of the Berlin "National Zeitung," of which he was afterwards editor. Died in 1861. Muggleton, nuig'g'l-ton, (Ludowick,) an English fanatic, born in London in 1609, was the principal founder of the sect called by his name.^, Muggleton and his coadjutor, John Reeve, professed to be the last and greatest prophets of Jesus Christ. Died in 1697. Mugnoz. See Munoz. Muguet de Nanthou, mu'gl' deh nSN^too', (Fran- cois Felix Hyacinthe,) a French lawyer and repub- lican, born at Besan9on in 1760. He was an active and influential member of the National Assembly in 1790-91. He was one of the commissaries appointed to maintain order in Paris on the flight of Louis XVI. to Varennes in 1 791. He died in 1808, leaving the reputation of a worthy and honourable man. Muhammed or Muhammad. See Mohammed. Muhaut, miiV, (Etienne,) a French naturalist, born at Thizy (Rhone) in 1797. He published a "Natu- ral History of the Coleoptera of France," (1839 et seq.) Miihlbach, Miss. See Mundt. Muhlenberg, mii'len-berg, (Gotthilf Henry Ernst,) D.D., an American divine and botanist, son of the following, was born in Montgomery county, Pennsylvania, in 1753. He published, among other works, a " Catalogue of the Plants of North America." Died in 1815. Muhlenber.g, (Henry Melchior,) D.D., born in Hanover, Germany, in 1711, emigrated to America, where he founded the German Lutheran Church, and settled as pastor at Philadelphia. Died in 1787. See the " Life and Times of Henry M. Muhlenberg," by M. L. Stoever, 1856. Muhlenberg, (Peter,) a general, son of the pre- ceding, was born in Montgomery country, Pennsylvania, in 1746. He served with distinction in the Revolutionary war, and was elected to the Senate of the United States in 1 801. Died in 1807. See the " Life of General Peter Muhlenberg," by Henry A. Muhlenberg, 1849. Miihlenbruch or Muehlenbruch, mii'len-bKooK^ (Christian Friedrich,) an eminent German jurist, born at Rostock in 1785. He filled the chair of law successively at Konigsberg and Halle, and in 1833 be- came professor at Gottingen. Among his most important works are a " Compendium of the Institutes of Roman Law," and "Doctrine of the Pandects, for the Use of Schools." Died in 1843. Muirhead, nnu'hed, (James P.,) a British writer of the present age, was a relative of James Watt, the great inventor. He published "The Origin and Progress of € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (2[^=See Explanations, p. 23.) MUIS 1640 MULLER the Mechanical Inventions of James Watt, illustrated by his Correspondence," etc., {3 vols., 1854,) and a *' Life of James Watt." Muis, de, deh mli-e', (Simeon Marotte — mt'rot',) a French ecclesiastic and Orientalist, born at Orleans in 1587, became professor of Hebrew in the Royal College. He published a number of valuable works, including a " Commentary on the Psalms," (1630,) which is esteemed one of the best that has appeared, Muis enjoyed the reputation of one of the most learned Hebraists and Biblical critics of his time. Died in 1644. See DupiN, " Bibliotheque des Auteurs ecclesiastiques." Mul'cas-ter, (Richard,) an English scholar, born at Carlisle about 1535, became in 1561 master of Merchant Taylors' School, then recently founded in London. He wrote Latin verses, some of which were spoken before Queen Elizabeth at Kenilworth, also several educational works. Died in 161 1. Mal'ci-ber, [supposed to be derived from mtilceo, to "tame," to "soften," because he softens iron and makes it tractable,] a surname given by the Romans to Vulcan, which see. Mulder, miil'der, (Gerard Jan,) a Dutch physician and chemist, born at Utrecht in 1802, became pro- fessor of chemistry in his native city. He published, among other works, an " Essay on General Physiological Chemistry," (1844,) and "Chemical Researches," (1847.) Died in 1847. Muley (or Mouley) Hassan, mu'lee hJs'san or moo'la' hts'sSn, King of Tunis, began to reign in 1533. He was driven from the throne by Barbarossa, but was restored by the emperor Charles V. in 1535. Died in I54v Muley Ismail, moo'la' is-ml'eeK, Emperor of Mo- rocco, born in 1546, began to reign in 1672. He took Tangier from the English about 1680. In 1697 he attacked the Algerines, by whom he was defeated. He was extremely cruel. Died in 1727. Muley Soliman, moo^la' so-Ii-mSn', Emperor of Morocco, began to reign in 1792. He abolished slavery, and is said to have been a prudent and able ruler. Under his reign Morocco enjoyed unusual tranquillity. Died in 1822. Mulgrave, Earl of. See Sheffield. MuFgrave, (Constantine Johnt Phipps,) Lord, a distinguished navigator, born about 1740, was the son of an Irish peer. In 1773 made a voyage to the Arctic regions in order to discover the Northwest Passage, in which he was not successful. After his return he was made a privy councillor, and raised to the peerage in 1784. He published, in 1774, "Jour- nal of a Voyage towards the North Pole." Died in 1792. Mulgrave, (Henry Philip Phipps,) Lord, a brother of the preceding, was born in 1755. He filled several important offices, and became in 1806 first lord of the admiralty. He exchanged this place in 1812 for that of grand master of artillery, and received the title of Earl of Normanby and Viscount Mulgrave. He died in 1831, and left a son, who became Marquis of Normanby, (which see.) Muliuari, moo-le-nS'ree, or Molinari, mo-le-ni'ree, (Stefano,) a Florentine engraver, executed a great number of prints after Michael Angelo, Raphael, and other eminent Italian masters. He published in 1780 a work entitled "Essay on the Five Italian Schools of Painting." Miilier or Mueller, muKler, (Adam Heinrtch,) a German jurist and writer, born at Berlin in 1 779, became aulic councillor at Vienna. Died in 1829. MuFler, (Alisert A..) an American divine, born at Charleston, South Carolina, about 1800, published a number of lyrics and sacred poems. Miilier, (Alexander,) a German writer, born in the bishopric of Fulda in 1780, was the author of "Archives for the most Modern Legislation of all the German States." Died in 1844. Miilier, (Andreas,) aGermnn divine and Orientalist, born in Pomerania in 1630. He assisted Walton in his Polyglot Bible, and contributed to CastelTs "Lexicon." He also published a "Treatise on Cathay," "Japanese Alphabet," "Chinese Basilicon," and other works. Died in 1604. Miilier or Mueller, (August Friedrich,) a Ger- man philosopher, born in 1684; died in 1761. See J. A. Ernesti, " Memoria A. F. Muelleri," 1761. Miilier, miilaiR', (Charles Louis,) a celebrated French painter, born in Paris in 181 5. Among his prin- cipal works maybe named "Christ's Entry into Jeru- salem," "Mttrtyrdom of Saint Bartholomew," "Lady Macbeth," " Marie Antoinette at the Conciergerie," and "The Sleeping Sylph," He obtained medals of the first class in 1848 and 1855. Miilier, (Friedrich,) a German poet, born at Kreuz- nach in 1750, was the author of "Ulrich von Kossheim," "Faust," and a drama entitled "Niobe." He was also a painter and engraver. Died in 1825. Miilier, (Friedrich August,) a German epic poet, born in Vienna in 1767, wrote poems entitled " Alfonso," (1790,) and "Richard Lowenherz," ("Richard Coeur-de- Lion," 1790.) Died in 1807. Miilier, (Friedrich Max,) an eminent German Orientalist, a son of the poet Wilhelm, noticed below, was born at Dessau in 1823. He studied the Sanscrit language at Leipsic, Berlin, and Paris, and subsequently visited England. In 1847 he was charged by the East India Company to publish an edition of the " Rigveda." He became Taylorian professor of modern languages at Oxford in 1854. He published, besides other works, " Buddhism and Buddhist Pilgrims," a " History of An- cient Sanscrit Literature," (1859,) and "Lectures on the Science of Language," which were very popular. These were first delivered at the Royal Institution in London in 1861. He was chosen a Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, in 1858. Miilier, (Gerhard Friedrich,) a German traveller and historian, born in Westphalia about 1705. Having visited Saint Petersburg, he accompanied Gmelin and De risle, as secretary, on their expedition to Siberia in 1733. He was subsequently appointed historiographer of Russia, (1747,) and keeper of the archives, (1766.) He pul)lished a " History of Siberia," " Collection of Russian Histories," and other works. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1783. See Gretch, " Essai sur I'Histoire de la Litterature Rnsse." Miilier, ( Heinrich,) a German Lutheran divine, born at Lubeck in 1631, wrote numerous theological treatises in Latin. Died in 1675. Miilier, (Jakob and Georg,) brothers, and Swiss artists, born in Grindelwald, lived about 1800, and were celebrated for their skill in painting on glass. Miilier, (Jan.) See Cadovius. Miilier, (Jan,) a Dutch engraver, born at Amsterdam about 1570, imitated the style of Goltzius. His prints are numerous and distinguished for great boldness and facility of execution. Miilier, (Johann.) See Regiomontanus. Miilier, (Johann,) a celebrated German physiologist and zoologist, born at Coblentz on the 14th of July, 1801. He entered the University of Bonn abwut 1819, studied medicine and other sciences, and graduated as M.D. in 1822. In 1826 he published a remarkable treatise "On the Comparative Physiology of the Sense of Sight." He became professor of physiology, etc. at the Univer- sity of Bonn in 1830. His work on the secreting glands, "De Glandularum secernentium Structura penitiori," etc., (1830,) is a valuable contribution to comparative anatomy. He succeeded Rudolphi as professor of anatomy in Berlin in 1833, ^"^^ acquired a wide re])u- tation as a lecturer. He made several anatomical dis- coveries. His principal work is a " Manual of Human Physiology," (" Handbuch (or Lehrbuch) der Physiologic des Menschen," 2 vols., 1841-44,) which is considered one of the best works ever written on that subject. There are few points of physiology on which he has not thrown light by numerous observations or new ideas. Among his numerous works are a Latin treatise "On the Respiration of the Foetus," (1823,) and "Grundriss der Vorlesungen liber allgemeine Pathologic," (1829.) Many of his works are illustrated by figures designed bv himself. He edited a journal called "Archives of Anatomy and Physiology," (1834-40.) In the opinion of 2, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; \ ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, f^t; m§t; nftt; good; moon; MULLER 1641 MULLER some critics, Miiller was the first physiologist of Europe. He died in Berlin in April, 1858. See RoDOLPH Virchow, "Joannes Miiller," 1858; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" C. Dareste, "Jean Miiller, ses Travaux," etc., in the "Revue Germanique" for February, April, and June, 1859 ; " Biographie Universelle." Miiller, (Johann,) a German natural philosopher of the nineteenth century. He was professor of physics at Friburg, in Brisgau. He published "Elements of Experimental Physics," (3d edition, 1852.) Miiller, (Johann Friedrich Wilhklm,) a German engraver, son of Johann Gotthard von Miiller, noticed below, was born at Stuttgart in 1782. Having completed hio studies in Paris, he was appointed in 1814 professor of engraving in the Academy of Arts at Dresden, where he was charged with the execution of a plate after Raphael's "Madonna di San Sisto." His severe application to this work caused his death soon after the completion of the print, (1816.) Besides the above- named, which is esteemed his master-piece, Miiller engraved "The Four Seasons," after Jordaens, "Saint John," after Domenichino, and portraits of Schiller and Hufeland. Miiller, (Johann Gottwerth,) a German littera- tetir, born at Hamburg in 1744, was the author of " Comic Tales from the Papers of the Brown Man." Died in 1828. Miiller, (Johann Heinrich,) a German astronomer and natural philosopher, born at Nuremberg in 1671, published many works on astronomy, etc. Died in 1731. Miiller, (Johann Jakob,) an excellent landscape- painter, born at Riga in 1765. He worked at Stuttgart and in Italy. Died in 1832. Miiller, (Johann Sebastian,) a German engraver, born at Nuremberg in 1715. His plates for the "Sexual System of Linnaeus Illustrated" are among his best works. Died in 1783. Miiller, (Karl Otfried — ot'fReet,) a distinguished German scholar, historian, and antiquary, was born at Brieg, in Silesia, in 1797. He studied at Breslau, and subsequently devoted himself to philology at Berlin under the celebrated Bockh. He became in 1817 pro- fessor of ancient languages in the Magdalenum at Bres- lau, and in 1819 obtained the chair of archaeology and Grecian art at Gottingen. In this post his able and eloquent lectures, and the numerous admirable works he jiublished during the fifteen years following, gave a new intpulse to the study of philology and antiquities in Germany. In 1839 Miiller visited Italy, and the next year arrived at Athens. Having greatly fatigued himself while making excavations at Delphi, he was soon after attacked by a fever, of which he died in 1840. He was buried near the ruins of the Academy, and the Univer- sity of Athens erected a monument over his grave. Among his principal works are his "History of the Hellenic Races and Cities," (1820,) "The Dorians," ("Die Dorier," 2 vols., 1824-30,) "Introduction to a Scientific System of Mythology," (1825,) "On the Origin and Ancient History of the Macedonians," (1825,) " The Etruscans," (2 vols., 1828,) " Manual of the Archae- ology of Art," (1830,) and "History of the Literature of Ancient Greece," (1840.) See Rrockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" "Nouvelle Biogra- phie CSenerale;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1839. Miiller, (Ludwig Christian,) a German engineer and mathematician, born in the march of Pregnitz in 1744. He served for a time in the Seven Years' war, and became in 1786 professor of mathematics in the Academy of Engineers at Potsdam. He wrote several valuable treatises on military tactics. Died in 1804. Miiller, muKler, (Otho Frederik,) an eminent Danish naturalist, born at Copenhagen in 1730. Being appointed in 1753 tutor to a young nobleman, he availed himself, while travelling with him, of the facilities for increasing his knowledge of botany and zoology. In 1764 he pub- lished his "Fauna Tnsectorum Friedrichsdaliana," and in 1767 his "Flora Friedrichsdaliana," giving an account of the insects and plants of Friedrichsdal. The great merit of these productions caused him to be appointed by King Frederick V. to continue the publication of the " Flora Danica," a magnificent work, surpassing anything of the kind that had hitherto appeared. Miiller added two volumes to the three already published by Oeder. In 1773-74 he brought out a treatise (in Latin) "On Earth Worms and Fresh-Water Worms." In the first part of this work he describes the infusoria, of which he discovered many new species ; and he was the first naturalist who distributed animalcules into genera and species. In 1781 his treatise "On the Hydrachnae" appeared, and in 1785 one "On the Monoculi," both written in Latin and illustrated with many plates. These two works, together with a treatise on the Infusoria, (in 4to, with fifty plates,) published in 1786, are esteemed his greatest productions. Miiller had begun in 1779 a "Zoologia Danica," a superb work, of which he pub- lished two parts, each with forty coloured plates. Several additions were made to it after his death, which took place in 1784. Miiller is characterized by Cuvier as one of the most laborious and accurate observers of the eighteenth century ; and the same writer adds, " The In- fusoria form, as it were, a new animal kingdom, which he revealed to the world." See Hansshn, "Tal til Erindring af O. F. Muller," 1787; HiRSCHiNG, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." Miiller, (Peter Erasmus,) a learned Danish theolo- gian and antiquary, born at Copenhagen in 1776. Having completed his studies in Germany, he was appointed in 1801 professor of theology in the University of Copen- hagen. In 1830 he succeeded Miinter as Bishop of Seeland. Among his works are "Christian Moral System," " Sagabibliothek," or "Library of the Sagas," and " Critical Examination of the Traditional History of Denmark and Norway from 1805 to 1830." Died in 1834. See Kraft og Nyerup, " Almindeligt Litteraturlexicon," etc. Miiller, (Sophie,) one of the most celebrated tragic actresses of the German stage, born at Manheim in 1803. She visited successively Vienna, Dresden, and Berlin, where her performances elicited the warmest applause. In private life she was highly esteemed. Died in 1830. Miiller, (Wenzel,) a popular German opera-com- poser, born in Moravia in 1767. He was appointed in 1786 chapel-master at Vienna. Among his numerous works is " The Magic Guitar." Died in 1835. Miiller, (Wij^helm,) one of the most distinguished lyric poets of Germany, born at Dessau in 1794. Having visited Italy in 181 7, he published, after his return, " Poems from the Papers left by a Travelling Bugle- Player," (" Gedichten aus den hinterlassenen Papieren eines reisenden Waldhornisten," 2 vols., 1821,) "Songs of the Greeks," ("Liedern der Griechen," 1821,) and "Lyrical Promenades," (" Lyrischen Spaziergangen.") He also published the " Library of the German Poets of the Seventeenth Century," (1822,) and was a contributor to Ersch and Gruber's "Encyclopaedia." Died in 1827. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Miiller, (William John,) an eminent landscape- painter, of German extraction, born at Bristol, in Eng- land, in 1812. He studied under J. B. Pyne, and subse- quently visited Egypt and Greece, where he executed a number of admirable pictures. Among these we may name his " Memnon at Sunset," " Turkish Merchants," etc., " View of Athens," and " Prayer in the Desert." Died in 1845. Muller, von, fon m^l'ler, (Johann Gotthard,) a celebrated German engraver, born near Stuttgart in 1747. He was patronized at an early age by Duke Charles of Wlirtemberg, by whose assistance he was enabled to study in Paris under Wille. He was chosen a member of the Academy of Fine Arts in 1776, and sub- sequently became professor of engraving in the Academy of Stuttgart, and obtained the order of the Wiirtemberg Crown. Among his master-pieces we may name the "Madonna della Seggiola," after Raphael, "Saint Ce- cilia," after Domenichino, and "The Battle of Bunker's Hill," after Trumbull, also a number of excellent portraits, including those of Moses Mendelssohn and Schiller. Died in 1830. See Nagler, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Miiller, von, fon mlJKler, (Johannes,) an eminent Swiss historian, born at Schaffhausen, January 3, 1 752. He studied history at Gottingen under Schlozer, and in 1772 published his " Cimbric War," ("Bellum Cim- bricum.") He became, soon after, professor of Greek « as ^; 9 as s; g Tiard-; g as /; g, h, y:.^ guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (E^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MULLER 1642 MUNCHAUSEN in the College of Schaffhausen, from which he removed to Geneva in 1774. About this date he formed a friend- ship with Victor de Bonstetten, He published in 1780 the first volume of his " History of the Swiss," which raised him to the first rank of historians. The second edition of it was entitled "The History of the Swiss Confederation," ("Die Geschichte der Schweizerischen Eidgenossen," 1786.) He was appointed in 1786 aulic councillor to the Elector of Mentz and librarian of the University of Mentz. About 1790 he accepted from Leopold II. of Austria the position of aulic councillor; but, the publication of his Swiss history having been prohibited by the Austrian court, he entered the service of the King of Prussia, as privy councillor, in 1795. The fourth volume of his great work appeared in 1805. In November, 1806, he had a private interview with Napo- leon, who had invited him for that purpose, and who, according to some authorities, effected some change in Miiller's political convictions. Through the influence of Napoleon he was appointed a councillor of state and director of public instruction by the King of Westphalia in January, 1808. He died at Cassel in May, 1809. Among his works are his correspondence with Bonstet- ten, entitled " Letters of a Young Savant to his Friend," (1801,) and Twenty-Four Books of Universal History," (3 vols., 181 1.) See his Autobiography, (" Selbstbiographie,") 1806; A. H. L. Heeren, "J. von Miiller der Historilter," i8og ; C. G. Heyne, "Memoria J. de Mueller," 1810; Heinrich Doring, " Leben J. von Miiller's," 1835 ; Charles Monard, "Biographic de J. de Mueller," 1839; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Miiller von KSnigswinter, mtiKler fon ko'niGs- ^in'ter, (Wolfgang,) a German litterateur, born at Konigswinter in 1816. He published "Ballads and Romances," "Voyage on the Rhine," "Lorelei," a charming collection of legendary ballads, and "The May Queen," an interesting village story. MulTi-gan, (James A.,) an officer, born at Utica, New York, in 1830. He removed in 1836 to Chicago, where he became editor of the " Western Tablet," a Catholic journal. He distinguished himself by his brave defence of Lexington, Missouri, in 1861, and was made a brigadier-general of Union volunteers in 1862. Miillner or Muellner, muKner, (Amadeus Gott- fried Adolf,) a German critic and dramatic writer, born near Weissenfels in 1774, was a nephew of the poet Burger. He became in 1820 associate editor of the "Morgenblatt." Among his most popular dramas are "The Confidants," "The Twenty-Ninth of Febru- ary," and "Die Schuld," (1816.) Died in 1829. See F. K. J. Schutz, "Miillner's Leben und Geist," 1830; F. Wagener, "Miillner in poetischer, kritischer und religibser Be- ziehung," 1831. MuUot or Mulot, miiOo', (FRANgois Valentin,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1749. He was a member of the Legislative Assembly in 1791. Among his works is " Le Museum de Florence, grave par David," (6 vols., 1788-95.) Died in 1804. MuTo-eh, (Dinah Maria,) an excellent and popular English author, born in Staffordshire in 1826. Her principal works are entitled "The Ogilvies," (1849,) "Olive," "The Head of the Family," "Agatha's Hus- band," (1852,) "John Halifax, Gentleman," (1857,) "A Life for a Life," " A Woman's Thoughts about Woman," "Studies from Life," "A Noble Life," (1866,) and "A Brave Lady," (1870.) MissMuloch has written admirably upon a variety of subjects. In 1865 she was married to George Lillie Craik, (noticed in this work,) who died in June, 1866. See the "British Quarterly Review" for July, 1866; "North British Review" for November, 1858. Mulot See Mullot. Mulready, muKred-e, (William,) a celebrated painter, born at Ennis, in Ireland, in 1786. He entered the Royal Academy at an early age, and subsequently formed his style on the model of the Dutch and Flemish masters. His "Idle Boys," exhibited in 1815, caused his election as associate of the Academy, and a few months later he was made a Royal Academician. Among his other works are "The Fight Interrupted," "The Roadside Inn," "Lending a Bite," "The Wolf and the Lamb," "Crossing the Ford," and "First Love." His "Choosing the Wedding-Gown," and other illustrations of the "Vicar of Wakefield," are also master-pieces of the kind, and have placed him in the first rank of modern British artists. Died in 1863. Mulsant, miil'sdN', (Martial Sitenne,) a French naturalist, born at Marnard (Rhone) in 1797. He pub- lished several works on entomology. Mum'mi-us, (Lucius,) an able Roman general, sur- named Acha-'icus, was noted for his integrity. He became praetor in 154 B.C., and consul in 146. In the same year he defeated the Achaean League, destroyed Corinth, and reduced Greece to a Roman province. Many works of art found at Corinth were carried to Rome to adorn the triumphal procession of Mummius, which occurred in 145 B.C. and formed an epoch in the history of Roman art. He was censor in 142 B.C., when Scipio Africanus the Younger was his colleague. See PoLYBius, " History ;" Livy, " Epitome." Mummol. See Mummolus. Mum'mo-lus, [Fr. Mummol, mii'mol',] (Ennius,) an able Gallic general, became Count of Auxerre about 560 A.D., and commander of the army of Gontran of Burgundy. He defeated the Lombards near Embrun in 572, and Didier, Count of Toulouse, in 576. Having revolted against Gontran, he was killed, by order of that king, in 585 a.d. Mun, (Thomas,) an English writer on commerce, lived about 1620-40. He was a merchant of London, and wrote "England's Treasure by Foreign Trade ; or, The Balance of our Foreign Trade is the Rule of our Treasure." Munari degli Aretusi, moo-ni'ree dil'yee S-rk-too'- see, (Pellegrino,) an Italian painter of Modena, was a pu])il of Raphael. Died in 1523. Munatius Plancus. See Plancus. Muncer. See Munzer. Munch, moonk, (Andreas,) a Norwegian poet, cousin of Peter Andreas, noticed below, was born in 1811. He was author of " Poems, Old and New," and other works. Miinch or Muench, munK, (Ernst Hermann Jo- seph,) a Swiss historian and voluminous writer, born at Rheinfelden in 1798. He became professor of ecclesias- tical history and canon law at Liege, (1828.) He wrote (in German) a " History of the House of Orange-Nassau," (1831-33,) "Universal History of Modern Times," (1833 -35,) and other works. Died in 1841. See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1838. Munch, (Peter Andreas,) an eminent Norwegian antiquary and philologist, born at Christiania in 1810, became professor of history in the university of his native city, (1841.) He published Grammars of the Runic, the Gothic, and the so-called Old Norwegian languages, " Historical and Geographical Description of Norway in the Middle Ages," (1849,) " History of the Norse Nations," (" Det Norske Folks Historic," 3 vols., 1853-59.) He also edited the "Ancient Laws of Norway," and the ancient " Edda." Died in 1863. Miinch-BelliEghausen or Muench-Bellinghau- sen, munK bel'ling-how'zen, (Eligius Franz Joseph,) Baron, a German poet and dramatist, born in Mecklen- burg-Schwerin in 1806, was known by the pseudonym of Friedrich Halm. He was the author of tragedies entitled " Griseldis," (1835,) "The King and the Peas- ant," (1841,) "The Son of the Wilderness," (1842,) and "The Gladiator of Ravenna," (1857.) The two last- named were received with great favour. In 1845 was appointed keeper of the Imperial Library of Vienna. Munchausen or Muenchausen, miinK'how'zen, (Gerlach Adolf,) Baron, a German statesman, born at Hanover in 1688, was for many years curator of the University of Gottingen. He made valuable contribu- tions to the library of that institution, and founded the Society of Sciences at Gottingen. He was appointed first minister of Hanover in 1765. Died mi 1770. Munchausen, commonly pronounced in English mun-chaw'sen, (Hieronymus Karl Friedrich,) Ba- ron, a famous German officer, whose name has become proverbial as a synonym of extravagant boasting, was born in Hanover in 1720. Having entered the Russian service, he fought against the Turks in 1737. After his return, he acquired great notoriety by his exaggerated i, e, 1, o, u, y, long; hy 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, sAort; a, 9, i, q, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n&t; good; moon; MUNCK 1643 MUNTER stories of adventure, a collection of which appeared in England under the title of " Baron Munchausen's Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in Russia." It obtained great popularity, and was trans- lated into German by Biirger. Died in 1797. See E1.LISEN, '■ Nachricht iiber den Freiherrn von Munchausen," prefixed to his "Adventures," Berlin, 1849; Allibone, "Diction- ary of Authors," article "Raspe." Munck. See Munk. Mundaiiella, moon-di-neKlS, (LuiGi,) an Italian phy- sician, born at Brescia, published "Theatrum Galeni," (155 1.) Died about 1570. Mun'day, (Anthony,) an English dramatist, born in 1554, wrote "The Downfall of Robert, Earl of Hun- tingdon," and " The Widow's Charm," and published an enlarged edition of Stowe's *' Survey of London." Died in 1633. See Collier, "History of English Dramatic Poetry." Mun'den, (Joseph S.,) an English comedian, born in London in 1758; died in 1832. Mun-di'nus or Mondino da Luzzi, mon-dee'no dS loot'see, an Italian physician and anatomist, born in the latter part of the thirteenth century, became pro- fessor of medicine at Bologna. He is said to have been the first among the moderns who dissected human bodies. Died in 1326. See Portal, " Histoire de TAnatomie." Mundt, moont, (Theodor,) a German litterateur, born at Potsdam in 1808. He was appointed professor of general literature and history at Breslau in 1848, and in 1850 librarian of the University of Berlin. He has published numerous tales, romances, political essays, and sketches of travel. His wife — originally LuiSE Muhlbach, (muKbSK,) — has also written a number of historical romances of a somewhat extravagant character. Several of them have been translated into English and have enjoyed great popularity. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mun'dy, (George Rodney,) an English naval officer, a grandson of Admiral Rodney, was born in 1805. He served as captain against the pirates of Borneo in 1846, and published a " Narrative of Events in Borneo," (2 vols., 1848.) Munk or Munck, moonk, (Han or Johann,) a Danish navigator, born about 1589. He was sent about 1620 to search for a Northwest Passage. Died in 1628. Munk, moonk, (Salomon,) a German Orientalist, born at Glogau in 1802. He studied in Paris under Sil- vestre de Sacy, and was appointed in 1840 one of the keepers of the Oriental manuscripts in the Imperial Library. He was elected a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in i860. Among his works is a "Geo- graphical, Historical, and Archaeological Description of Palestine," (in French, 1845.) Miinnich or Muennich, m^n'niK, ( Burkhard Christoph,) Count, a Russian general and statesman, of German extraction, born in 1683. Having served against the French in 17 12, he was afterwards patron- ized by Peter the Great, and rose to be field-marshal under the empress Anna. He subsequently gained a series of victories over the Turks. He caused himself to be made prime minister during the minority of Prince Ivan ; but on the accession of Elizabeth he was exiled to Siberia, in 1 741. He was recalled by Peter III. in 1762, Died in 1767. See Hempel, "Leben Miinnichs," 1742; Von Hammer, "Ge- schichte des Osmanischen Reichs ;" G. A. voN Halem, " Lebensbe- schreibung des Grafen von Miinnich," 1803; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mun'nlks, (Jan,) a Dutch anatomist, born at Utrecht in 1652 ; died in 1711. Munniks, (Winoed,) a Dutch physician, born in Friesland in 1744; died in 1806. Munoz, nioon-yith', (Evarista,) a Spanish painter, of high reputation, born at Valencia in 1671, was noted for his gallantry and adventures. Died in 1737. See 0 (jilliet, " Diciionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." Munoz, (Fernando,) Duke of Rianzares, a Spanish officer, born at Tarancon about 1808. He was secretly married to the queen-regent Maria Christina in 1833. They were married publicly in 1844. Munoz, (Juan Bautista,) a Spanish historian, born near Valencia in 1745, was appointed cosmographer to the Indies. He published a " History of the New World," (1793,) which is highly eulogized by Humboldt. Died in 1799. See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" Prescott, "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. ii. part 2. Munoz, sometimes improperly written Mugnoz, (Se- bastian,) a Spanish artist, born at Naval Carnero in 1654, was one of the best Spanish fresco-painters of his time. He was a pupil of Coello, and was appointed painter to the king, Charles II., in 1688. Died in 1690. See Quilliet, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols," etc. Munoz, (ToMAS,) a Spanish naval officer and en- gineer, born about 1745. He defended the foundations of Cadiz against the encroachments of the sea. Died in 1823, Mun-ro', (Sir Thomas,) an able English general and governor, born at Glasgow in 1760 or 1761. He went to India about 1780, and entered the army of the East India Company. Having served with distinction in several campaigns, he was also employed in important civil offices. In 1819 he was appointed Governor of Madras, and raised to the rank of major-general. He died in India in 1826 or 1827. See G. R. Gleig, "Life of Sir Thomas Munro," 2 or 3 vols., 1830; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1830. Mun'sell, (Joel,) an American printer and journalist, born at Northfield, Massachusetts, in 1808, published the " Every-Day Book of History and Chronology," "Annals of Albany," and other works. Munster, von, fon moon'ster, (Ernst Friedrich Herbert,) Count, a Hanoverian politician, born in 1766. He was a member of the Congress of Vienna in 1814. Died in 1839. Mun'ster, (George Fitzclarence,) Earl of, an English general, born in 1794, was a natural son of King William IV. He served with distinction in the Penin- sular war, and afterwards in India. He wrote a "Journal of Travels in India," (1819.) Died in 1842. Munster or Muenster, miin'ster, (Sebastian,) a German theologian and Orientalist, born at Ingelsheim in 1489, became professor of Hebrew and Biblical litera- ture at Heidelberg. He published a Latin translation of the Hebrew Bible, (with notes,) and a " Universal Cos- mography." " MUnster," says De Thou, " was so learned in theology and geography that he was styled the Esdras and Strabo of Germany." Died in 1552. Munster - Ledenburg, mun ' ster la ' den - booRc', (Ernst Friedrich Herbert,) a German statesman, born at Osnabriick in 1766. He became minister of finance in 1798, and was afterwards sent on missions to England and Russia. Died in 1839. Muntaner En Ramon, moon-tl-naiR' hv\ rS-m^)n', a Spanish chronicler, born in Catalonia in 1265. His principal work is a "History of the Achievements of the Princes of Aragon, from James the Conqueror to Alfonso IV." The writer narrates, in a pleasing, un- affected style, events of which he was a witness, and his chronicle is esteemed one of the best of the middle ages. Miinter or Muenter, mun'ter, (Balthasar,) a Ger- man pulpit orator and writer of sacred poetry, born at Lubeck in 1735. His "Collections of Spiritual Songs" are greatly esteemed by his countrymen. In 1772 he attended the unfortunate Count Struensee a short time before his execution, and afterwards wrote an account of his conversion. This work became widely celebrated, and was translated into the principal European lan- guages. Died in 1793. See Friedrich Munter, "Leben und Character B. Miinters," 1794. Miinter, (Friedrich,) son of the preceding, born in 1 761, became successively professor of theology at Co- penhagen (1790) and Bishop of Seeland, (1808.) He also attained great distinction as an antiquary and Oriental scholar. Among his most important works is a treatise " On the Symbols and Art-Representations of the Early Christians." Died in 1830. Frederika Sophia Christiana Brun, sister of the preceding, was likewise celebrated as an author. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z, %h as in this. (g^^See Explanations, p. 23.) MUNTING 1644 MURCHISON Munting, mun'ting, (Abraham,) a Dutch physician and botanist, born at Groningen in 1626, was professor of botany and chemistry in the university of that place. He wrote, among other treatises, a ** Curious Descrip- tion of Plants." Died in 1683. Miinzer, Muenzer, or Miincer, m^nt'ser, (Thomas,) a German fanatic, who held principles similar to the Anabaptists. Having collected forty thousand followers, they committed many outrages ; but they were at length defeated by the Landgrave of Hesse and his allies, and Miinzer was executed, (1526.) See Strobel, " Leben, Schriften, etc. Thomas Munzers," 1785; Seidemann, "Thomas Munzer," 1842. Mura, da, di moo'rS, (Francesco,) sometimes called Franceschetto, (frin-ch^s-k^t'to,) an Italian painter, born at Naples. He painted several works in the palace of the King of Sardinia. Died about 1 745. Miirad. See Moorad. Murad, (Sultans of Turkey.) See Amurath. Murad Bey. See Moorad Bey. Muraire, mu^-3,R', (Honor^;,) Count, a French judge and politician, born at Draguignan in 1 750. He was elected to the Council of Elders in 1795, was banished in 1797, and was appointed first president of the court of cassation in Paris in 1804. Died in 1837. Muralt, de, deh moo'rilt, (B6at Louis,) a Swiss litteratem', born at Berne. He wrote a " History of Fred- erick the Great of Prussia," and various other works. Died in 1760. Muralt, de, (Jean,) a Swiss physician and naturalist, born at Zurich in 1645. He became professor of physics and mathematics at Zurich in 1645, and published several scientific works. Died in 1733. Murant, mii-rint', } (Emmanuel,) a Dutch landscape- painter, born at Amsterdam in 1622. His works are finely finished. Died at Leeuwarden in 1700. Murat, mii'rt', (Jean,) a French painter, born at Felletin in 1807. He gained the grand prize in 1837 for a picture of " Noah Offering Sacrifice." Murat, [sometimes Anglicized in pronunciation as mu-rit',] (Joachim,) a celebrated marshal of the French empire, and King of Naples, was born near Cahors, in the south of France, in 1771. His father was an inn- keeper. Soon after the Revolution began, young Murat entered the guard of Louis XVL, from which he passed into a regiment of chasseurs. As he was a warm parti- san of the popular cause, he was rapidly promoted, and in the campaign of 1796 was a favourite aide-de-camp of Bonaparte, whose fortunes he thenceforth followed and shared. Having signalized his impetuous bravery in the campaigns of Italy and Egypt, he was made a general of division in 1799. Soon after Bonaparte ob- tained the chief power, he gave to Murat his sister Caroline in marriage. Murat commanded the cavalry at Marengo in 1800, and was appointed governor of Paris in 1804, with the rank of general-in-chief. He received a marshal's baton in 1804, and in 1806 was created Grand Duke of Berg and Cleves. At Austerlitz, Jena, and Eylau he directed the cavalry with brilliant effect. He was pronounced by Napoleon "the best cavalry officer in Europe," and was admired for his handsome figure, gorgeous costume, and chivalrous demeanour. Murat commanded the army which invaded Spain in 1808, and in the same year was placed on the throne of Naples, where he was received with general joy, and reigned liberally and peacefully until 1812. He shared the reverses of the Russian campaign, (181 2,) and in 1813 again fought for Napoleon, whose cause he deserted after the battle of Leipsic. He made a treaty with the court of Vienna in January, 1814, and engaged to sup- port the allies with his army ; but he failed to aid them efficiently, and was accused of duplicity. As the Con- gress of Vienna appeared indisposed to recognize his claim, he secretly renewed his relations with the exiled emperor, whose cause he openly espoused in March, 1815. Calling the Italians to rise for liberty, he com- menced hostilities against the Austrians in Northern Italy, but was repulsed and finally defeated at Macerata in May, and then fled to France. In October, 1815, he landed with about thirty men in his former kingdom, and made a desperate attempt to recover it, but was soon captured and shot. As a ruler, he appears to have been mild and humane, but he was deficient in political ability as well as moral courage. His wife survived him many years, and took the title of Countess of Lipano. (See Bonaparte, Caroline.) Murat left two sons. Napoleon Achille and Lucien Charles Joseph. See F. Macirone, "Interesting Facts relating to the Fall, etc. of J. Murat;" A. de Beauchamp, "Catastrophe de Murat;" Leon Gai^lois, " Histoire de Joachim Murat," 1828; A. Serikys, "Vie publique et privee de Joachim Murat," 1816; A. Bruggemans, " Leven en Lotgevallen van Joachim Murat," 1816 ; C. Miramont, "Vie de J. Murat, Roi de Naples," 1836; Thiers, " History of the French Revolution;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for August, 1S26. Murat, (NAPOLifeoN Achille,) a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1801. He emigrated to Florida about 1822. He wrote a " Moral and Political View of the United States," (1832,) and several other short works. Died in Jefferson county, Florida, in 1847. Murat, (Napoleon Lucien Charles,) Prince, a French senator, born at Milan in 1803, was a son of Joachim Murat. He married Miss Eraser, an American, about 1827. After a long exile, he was permitted to enter France in 1848. He supported the policy of Napoleon III., who appointed him a senator in 1852. Muratori, moo-ri-to'ree, (Ludovico Antonio,) an eminent Italian scholar, historian, and antiquary, iDorn near Modena in 1672. He became librarian and ar- chivist to the Duke of Modena in 1700, and continued in this office till his death. He published in 1751 his great work entitled " Writers of Italian History," (" Rerum Italicorum Scriptores," 27 vols, fob, 1723-38,) which was followed by his " Italian Antiquities of the Middle Ages," (6 vols., 1738,) " New Treasury of Ancient Inscriptions," (6 vols., 1739,) and "Annals of Italy," (in Italian, 12 vols., 1744.) He died in 1750, with the reputation of one of the most learned men of his time. See G. F. Muratori, "Vita del celebre L. A. Muratori," 1756; Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri ;" Fabkoni, "Vitae Italo- rum doctrina excellentium ;" Schedoni, " Elogiodi L. A. Muratori," 1818; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Muravief. See Mooravief. Murawiew or Murawjew. See Mooravief. Murazan, moo-r^-sSn', (Juan,) a South American patriot, born at San Salvador in 1796, was president of the republic of Guatemala from 1831 to 1838. Died in 1852. Mur'-ehi-spn, (Sir Roderick Impey,) an eminent British geologist, born at Taradale, Ross-shire, Scotland, on the 19th of February, 1792, was a son of Kenneth Murchison. He was educated at the Military College of Marlow, entered the army in 1807, and served in seve- ral battles in the Peninsula. He was also on the staff of his uncle. Sir Alexander Mackenzie, in Sicily. He mar- ried a daughter of General Hugonin in 1815, and quitted the army about 1816. By the advice of Sir Humphry Davy, he applied himself to the study of natural science, and attended lectures at the Royal Institution. About 1 82 5 he produced a "Geological Sketch of the Northwestern Extremity of Sussex." He became a member of the Geological Society in 1825, and of the Royal Society in 1826. In company with Sir Charles Lyell, he explored in 1828 the geology of Auvergne, Provence, and Pied- mont, on which they wrote jointly three memoirs. In 1830 he began to examine the older sedimentary strata of England and Wales, to which he gave the name of Silurian system. He published the results of these researches in an important work entitled " The Silurian System." He was the first who discovered the relations of these palaeozoic strata and classified them according to the succession of organic remains. In 1845 Mr. Murchison and M. de Verneuil published "The Geology of Russia and the Ural Mountains," (2 vols. 4to.) The former received the honour of knighthood in 1846. He was elected president of the Royal Geographical So- ciety in 1844 '^•''d 1852, and received the Copley medal in 1849, for the establishment of the Silurian system. Among his numerous works is " Siluria : the History of the oldest known Rocks containing Organic Remains, with a Brief Sketch of the Distribution of Gold over the Earth," (1854.) He had been chosen president of the Geological Society several times between 1830 and 1842. In 1855 he was appointed Director-General of the Geo- logical Survey of the United Kingdom. He was elected a, e, J, 6, u, y, long; \ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sAorf; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fSr, f^ll, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; MURDOCH MURPHT president of the Royal Geographical Society in 1864, and received the Copley medal in 1866. Died in 1871. See " Noiivelle Biographic Generale ;" "Edinburgh Review" for u!y, 1S60 ; " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1868; "Eclectic lajiazine" for December, 1S64, (with a portrait;) "North British Review" for August, 1854; " Men of the Time" for 1868. Murdoch, murMgk, (James Edward,) an American actor and elocutionist, boVn in Philadelphia, January 25, 181 1. His first public performance was in Philadelphia in 1829. In 1833 he appeared successfully in the charac- , ter of "Romeo," with Miss Fanny Kemble as "Juliet," and from that time became a leading actor in tragedy and comedy. About five years later he retired from the stage, and opened a school in Boston for mental and physical training. He afterwards returned to the stage, and in 1853 he visited California. In 1855 he went to Europe, and while in London performed at the Hay- market Theatre with great applause. He returned to the United States in 1857. Mr. Murdoch's style is strictly original, his articulation distinct, and his versatility and range of character remarkable. At the commencement of the war of the rebellion he devoted his time and atten- tion to his country, giving readings and recitations in the camps, caring for the sick and wounded, and rousing the people to the aid of the suffering. He served for some time on the staff of General Rousseau. Since the close of the war he has devoted himself to his profession. Mur'dock, (James,) D.D., a learned American Con- gregational divine, born at Westbrook, Connecticut, in 1776. He graduated at Yale College, and was appointed professor of ancient languages at the University of Ver- mont in 181 5, and in 1819 of sacred rhetoric and eccle- siastical history in the theological seminary of Andover. He translated from the German Mosheim's "Institutes of Ecclesiastical History," and Miinscher's "Elements of Dogmatic History," (1830,) and published several original works. Died in 1856. Mure, mvir, (William,) a Scottish critic and scholar of great eminence, born at Caldwell in 1799. He studied at Edinburgh, and subsequently at Bonn, in Germany, and after his return was elected to Parliament for Ren- frew, in 1846. He published in 1850 his "Critical Ac- count of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece," (5 vols. 8vo,) which is esteemed a standard work. He was also the author of a " Calendar of the Zodiac of Ancient Egypt," (1832,) and "Journal of a Tour in Greece," {1838.) Pie was elected in 1855 lord rector of the University of Glasgow. Died in i860. Mure, (Sir William,) a Scottish poet, born in Ayr- shire about 1594, was the author of traditional "Ballads and Songs." Died in 1657. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1850. Mu-re'na, (A. Terentius Varro,) was conml stiffectus in 23 B.C., and was put to death in 22 for complicity in the conspiracy of Fannius Caepio. Murena, moo-ra^iS, (Carlo,) an Italian architect, born in 1 713, was a pupil of Vanvitelli. He worked in Rome. Died in 1764. Murena, (Lucius Licinius,) a Roman soldier and consul, was one of the lieutenants of Sulla, whom he accompanied in his campaign against Mithridates. After Sulla made peace with Mithridates, in 84 B.C., Murena remained in Asia and renewed hostilities. Died about 80 B.C. Murena, (Lucius Licinius,) a Roman general, who served under Lucullus in Asia. He was elected praetor about 65, and consul in 63 B.C. Having been accused of bribery in the year last named, he was defended by Cicero and acquitted. See Cicero, " Oratio pro Murasna." Mures, moo'rSs, (Alonzo,) a Spanish painter, born m 1695. He worked at Badajoz, where he died in 1 761. Muret, miiW, [Lat. Mure'tus,] (Marc Antoine,) a French classical scholar, born at Muret, in Limousin, in 1526. He lectured on philosophy and law at Paris, which he quitted about 1552. He afterwards lived in Venice and Rome, and was patronized by Ippolito d'Este. In 1563 he opened a course of philosophy at Rome, where he became professor of civil law about 1566. He was styled the "luminary and pillar of the Roman school" by Pope Gregory XIII. He composed commentaries on Aristotle, Cicero, Horace, Tacitus, and other classic authors. Among his various works are Latin poems and "Variae Lectiones." Died in Rome in 1585. See F. Benci, " Oratio funebris Mureti," 1585 ; Vogt, "Apologia pro Mureto ;" ViTRAC, " filoge de Muret," 1775; " Menagiana ;" LuNDBLAD, "Dissertatio de M. A. Mureto," 1819 ; Niceron, "Me- moires;" " Nouveile Biographie Generale." Muret, (Theodore C6sar,) a French litterateur, born at Rouen in 1808. He wrote a number of dramas and histories, among which is a " History of the Wars of the West," (5 vols., 1848.) Muretus. See Muret. Murger, miiR'zh^', (Henri,) a French littirateur, born in Paris in 1822, contributed to the "Revue des Deux Mondes" a number of tales and dramas. His most popular work is entitled "Scenes in Bohemian Life." Died in 1861. See G. Planche, in the " Revue des Deux Mondes," 1853. Muriel, moo-re-^l', (Andres,) a Spanish litterateur^ born in Old Castile in 1776, settled in Paris about 1812. He wrote on Spanish history, and translated into French Coxe's "Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the Plouse of Bourbon," (Paris, 6 vols., 1827.) Murillo, mu-ril'lo, [Sp. pron. moo-r^l'yo,] (Bar- tolom6 Esteban,) the most celebrated painter of the Spanish school, was born at Seville in 1618, and was a pupil of his uncle, Juan del Castillo. About the age of twenty-four he went to Madrid, where he derived ad- vantage from the friendly counsels of Velasquez and perfected himself in his art. Having returned to Seville in 1645, he soon acquired a high reputation in history, portraits, and other branches of painting. He was pa- tronized by the King of Spain, and adorned the churches of Madrid, Seville, and Cadiz with his works. As a colorist he surpassed all other Spanish artists. His productions are remarkable for originality, fidelity to nature, freedom of touch, and softness, splendour, and harmony of colour. He delighted and excelled in the representation of virgin saints and of beggar-boys at play. Among his master-pieces are "Moses Striking the Rock," " The Marriage of Saint Catherine," " Saint Elizabeth of Hungary," "Christ Feeding the Five Thousand," a "Young Beggar," "The Prodigal Son," a "Holy Family," and "Saint Anthony of Padua." He died, in consequence of a fall from a scaffold, in 1682. See Cean-Bermudez, "Diccionario Historico," etc. ; J. F. Boijr- GoiNG, "Tableau de I'Espagne moderne Quilliet, " Diciionnaire des Peintres Espagnols ;" C. Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres ;" E. Davies, "LifeofB. E. Murillo," 1819 ; " Encyclopaedia Britannica ;" "Nouveile Biographie Generale;" " Eraser's Magazine" for April, 1846. Muris, de, deh mii'r^ss', (Jean,) a learned French ecclesiastic, sometimes called Meurs or Murs, lived about 1310-40. He was the author of a valuable treat- ise on music, entitled " Speculum Musicae," an abridg- ment of which has been published. Died after 1345. Murner, mooR'ner, (Thomas,) a famous German satirist and controversialist, born at Strasburg in 1475. He possessed uncommon abilities and caustic wit, and the offensive personalities in which he indulged kept him in constant warfare with his contemporaries. His satires are chiefly directed against Luther and his asso- ciate Reformers ; and some of them are regarded as the ablest which have been levelled at the Reformation. He also wrote " The World of Fools," and " The Mill of Schwindelsheim," in which he keenly satirized the follies of the time. Died about 1536. See Waldau, " Nachrichten von Murners Leben," 1775; Flo- gel, " Geschichte der komischen Literatur." Mur'phy, (Arthur,) a dramatic and miscellaneous writer, born in the county of Roscommon, in Ireland, about 1728. He edited for a time "The Gray's-Inn Journal," and wrote, among other plays, a tragedy entitled "The Grecian Daughter," and "The Way to Keep Him," a comedy. He also made a translation of Tacitus, and wrote the tives of Johnson and Garrick. Died in 1805. See J. Foot, "Life of Arthur Murphy." Murphy, (James Cavanagh,) a distinguished archi- tect and writer, born in Ireland about 1760. In 1788 he € as ^; 5 as s; g hard; g as j; G, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2l^=See Explanations, p. 23,) MURPHT 1646 MURRjr visited Portugal, and after his return published an ac- count of that country. Among his principal works we may name "The Arabian Antiquities of Spain," with 97 plates, (1813-16.) Died in 1816. Murphy, (Robert,) an excellent self-taught Irish mathematician, born at Mallow in 1806. In 1825 he entered Caius College, Cambridge, of which he was chosen a Fellow in 1829. He became a resident of London in 1836. Among his works are "Analysis of the Roots of Equations," and "The Theory of Algebraic Equations," published by the Useful Knowledge Society. Died in 1843. Murr, von, fon mooR, (Christoph Gottlieb,) a German scholar and antiquary, born at Nuremberg about 1734, published an " Essay on the History of the Greek Tragic Poets," (1760,) "Antiquities of Herculaneum," (6 vols., 1777-82,) and a number of historical works, among which is "Commentatio de Re diplomatica Fre- derici II.," {1756.) He was noted for his various and extensive learning. Died in 181 1. See Meusel, " Gelehrtes Deutschland ;" " Biographic Univer- selle." Murray, mur're ? (Adolphus,) a Swedish physician, born at Stockholm in 1 750. He was professor of anatomy at Upsal. Died in 1803. Murray, mur're, (Alexander,) an eminent Scottish linguist, born at Dunkitterick in 1775. The son of a shepherd, his early instruction was very limited ; but, with the aid of a powerful memory and his persevering exertions, he acquired, before the age of twenty, the French, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages. He entered the University of Edinburgh in 1794, where he studied theology and became versed in the Oriental tongues. He was appointed professor of those languages at Edinburgh in 1812, and soon after was created D.D. He died in"i8i3, of consumption. His principal work is a " History of the European Languages," etc., (1813.) See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- men ;" " Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. i. Murray, miar're, (Alexander,) an American com- modore, born at Chestertown, Maryland, in 1755. In 1802 he was commander of the Constellation, in the Mediterranean, for the protection of American trade. Died in 1821. Murray, miir're, (Charles,) an English actor and dramatist, born in Hertfordshire in 1754. His principal plays are entitled "The Experiment," and "The New Maid of the Oaks." Died in 1821. Murray, (Charles Augustus,) an English diplo- matist, a son of the Earl of Dunmore, was born about 1806. He was sent as envoy to Persia in 1854, and as minister to Saxony in 1859. He wrote "Travels among the Indians of North America," (1839.) His Indian tale or novel entitled "The Prairie Bird" (1844) has been warmly praised. Murray, (Sir George,) a British general, born in Perthshire in 1772. He served in Flanders and Egypt with distinction, and rendered important services as quartermaster-general in the Peninsular war, (1808-14,) after which he was employed in France as lieutenant- general of the army of occupation. He was appointed governor of the Royal Military College at Woolwich about 1819, and secretary of state for the colonies in 1828. In 1 84 1 he became master-general of the ord- nance. Died in 1846. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen.' Murray, (Hugh,) a Scottish geographer and miscel- laneous writer, born in East Lothian in 1779. Among his principal works are "Discoveries and Travels in America," (1829,)" Encyclopaedia of Geography," (1834,) and " History of British India." Died in 1846. See " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1821. Murray, (James,) a Scottish writer, born at Dunkeld in 1702, was the author of a work entitled "Aletheia; or, A System of Moral Truths." Died in 1758. Murray or Moray, (Jame^Stuart,) Earl of, often called Regent Murray, born about 1533, was a natural son of James V. of Scotland and Margaret Erskine. In 1558 he joined the " Lords of the Congregation," as the Protestant chiefs styled themselves, and in 1560 was sent to France to invite Queen Mary (his half-sister) to return to her kingdom. She returned in 1561, and he became her most favoured and powerful minister, and was made Earl of Murray. His talents, firmness, and courage had already caused the Reformers to regard him as the head of their party. The marriage of Mary with Darnley, (1565,) against the advice of Murray, caused a breach between him and the queen, which was afterwards greatly widened by the countenance she showed to Darnley's murderers. Mary having been deposed, he was ap- pointed regent of the kingdom in August, 1567. In 1568 she escaped from Lochleven Castle, and raised an army, which was quickly routed by the regent at Lang- side. At the trial of Mary, which Queen Elizabeth in- stituted, the regent appeared as evidence against the captive queen. By this and other acts he had incurred the bitter hatred of the queen's party, and they resolved upon his destruction. In January, 1570, he was waylaid, shot, and mortally wounded by James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh, a notorious desperado, who was after- wards selected by the agents of Philip II. to assassinate the Prince of Orange. The character of the regent Murray has been estimated very dififerently, according to the temper or prejudice of those who have judged him. By his firmness, modera- tion, humanity, and impartial justice, he appears to have well deserved the title of "the Good Regent," by which he was known among the people of Scotland. "Those," observes Froude, "who can see only in the Protestant religion an uprising of Antichrist, and in the Queen of Scots the beautiful victim of sectarian iniquity, have exhausted upon Murray the resources of eloquent vitu- peration, and have described him as a perfidious brother, building up his own fortunes on the wrongs of his in- jured sovereign. . . . But facts prevail at last, however passionate the predilection ; and, when the verdict of plain human sense can get itself pronounced, the 'good regent' will take his place among the best and greatest men who have ever lived." See Froude, " History of England," vols. viii. and ix., but more particularly chaps, viii., ix., xiii., xiv., xv., xvi., and xviii. ; Robert- son, " History of Scotland ;" Knox, " History of the Reformation MiGNET, " Histoire de Marie Stuart." Murray, (Johan Anders,) a Swedish physician and botanist, born at Stockholm in 1740, was a pupil of Lin- naeus. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences of Stockholm, and of the Royal Society of Gottingen, and was created a privy councillor by the King of Eng- land. Linnaeus gave the name of Miirraya exotica to an East Indian tree. He was a brother of Adolphus, noticed above. Died in 1791. See C. G. Hevne, " Elogium J. A. Murray," 1791. Murray, (John,) a Scottish physician, published a "System of Materia Medica and Pharmacy," and "Ele- ments of Chemistry." Died in 1820. Murray, (John,) a celebrated divine and preacher, born in Hampshire, England, in 1 741, is regarded as the founder of Universalism in America. Having emigrated to the United States in 1770, he was appointed in 1775 a chaplain in the army. He took part in the proceedings of the Universalist Convention in 1785, and subsequently became pastor of a church in Boston. Died in 181 5. See "Records of the Life of John Murray," written by himself. Murray, (John,) an eminent English publisher, born in London in 1778. He commenced in 1803 a career of publication which is perhaps unrivalled in the annals of literature. About 1807 he projected the "Quarterly Review," in which he obtained the co-operation of Can- ning and Scott, and published the first number in 1809. His sagacity in discerning the merits or talents of authors, and his tact in anticipating the wants of the public, rendered him very successful. He was a liberal patron of literature, and a generous friend to Byron and other eminent authors. Died in 1843. See "Gentleman's Magazine" for August, 1843; "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iii. chap. ii. Murray, (Lindley,) a distinguished American gram- marian and educational writer, born near Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1745, was a member of the Society of Friends. Having removed at an early age to New York, he studied law, but he subsequently engaged in mercan- tile pursuits. The latter part of his life was spent in a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, 6, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; n5t; good; moon; MVRRAT MUSCULUS England, to which he removed about 1784. Among his works, which obtained great popularity both in England and America, we may name his " Power of Religion on the Mind," etc., (1787,) "Grammar of the English Lan- guage," (1795,) "English Reader," "Introduction to the English Reader," and " Duty and Benefit of a Daily Perusal of the Holy Scriptures," (1817.) He also com- piled several French readers. He died near York, England, in 1826. See the " Memoirs of the Life, etc. of Lindley Murray," written by himself; E. Frank, " Memoirs of the Life of L. Murray," 1826; " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. ; Cleveland, "Compendium of American Literature." Murray, (Nicholas,) D.D., a Presbyterian divine, born in Ireland in 1803, studied theology at Princeton, New Jersey, and in 1834 became pastor at Elizabethtown, in that State. He published several theological works. His "Letters to Bishop Hughes," (1847-48,) under the signature of Kirwan, have enjoyed a great popularity, and have been translated into several foreign languages. Died in 1861. Murray, (Patrick,) a Scottish writer, born in 1703, was the fifth Lord Elibank. He published an " Inquiry into the Origin and Consequence of the Public Debts," " Thoughts on Money, Circulation," etc., and a " Let- ter to Lord Hailes on his Remarks on the History of Scotland." His writings were highly esteemed. Died in 1778. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Murray, (Sir Robert.) See Moray. Murray, (William,) Earl of Mansfield, lord chief justice, a British lawyer and orator of great merit and celebrity, was born at Perth, Scotland, in 1704. He was a younger son of Andrew, Viscount Stormont. Having gained distinction as a classical scholar at Oxford, and enlarged his mind by foreign travel, he was called to the bar in 1731. He speedily rose into extensive practice, and in 1743 was appointed .solicitor-general. About this time he entered the House of Commons, where he was successful as an elegant and persuasive speaker, and defended the government when Mr. Pitt (Lord Chatham) was the leader of the opposition. "He surpassed Pitt," says Macaulay, "in correctness of taste, in power of reasoning, in depth and variety of knowledge ; but he wanted the energy, the courage, the all-grasping and all- risking ambition which make men great in stirring times." (" Review of the Life of the Earl of Chatham.") He was appointed attorney-general in 1754, and chief justice of the king's bench in 1 756. Over that great court he pre- sided with honour above thirty years. In 1756 he was raised to the peerage, as Baron Mansfield. On more than one occasion he refused high political positions, among which was that of lord chancellor. He had, however, a seat in the cabinet for more than a year. In the trial of Woodfall for publishing " Junius's Letters," Lord Mansfield gave offence to the popular party, and was censured for leaning against the freedom of discus- sion in cases of libel. During the riots of 1780, his house in London was burned down by a mob. He died, with- out issue, in 1793. "His mind and his habits," says Lord Brougham, " were eminently judicial ; and it may be doubted if, taking both the externals and the more essential qualities into the account, that go to form a great judge, any one has ever administered the laws in this country whom we can fairly name as his equal." See the " Life of William, Earl of Mansfield," by John Holli- DAY ; I'ROUGHAM, " Statesmen of the Time of George IIL ;" Foss, "The Judges of England;" Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Chief Justices ;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- men." Murray, (William,) a Scottish actor, born in 1791, performed in Edinburgh for many years. Died in 1852. Murray, (Rev. William H. H.,) a popular and eloquent Congregationalist minister, born at Guilford, Connecticut, April 26, 1840, graduated at Yale in 1862. Having been licensed to preach in 1863, he officiated during several years as minister at Greenwich and other places in Connecticut. In 1868 he accepted an invita- tion from Park Street Church, Boston, where he was installed as pastor in November of that year. He pub- lished a work on the Adirondack Mountains, which has attracted a good deal of attention. Murray, (William Vans,) an American diplomatist, born in Maryland about 1762. Having studied law in England, he was elected to Congress in 1791. He was afterwards appointed by Washington United States minister at the Flague. Died in 1803. Mursinna, mooR-sin'nl, (Christian Ludwig,) an eminent German surgeon, born at Stolpe in 1744. He became chief surgeon in the army in 1787, and published several surgical works. Died in 1823. Murtola, mooR'to-lJ, (Gasparo,) an Italian poet, born at Genoa. He wounded, with a pistol, Marini the poet, who had criticised one of his poems. Died in 1624. Mus. See Decius Mus. Musa. See Moosa. Mu'sa, (Antonius,) a celebrated Roman physician, originally a slave of the emperor Augustus, and a brother of Euphorbus, is said to have been the first who pre- scribed the use of the cold bath. Having cured the emperor by this remedy, he received his freedom, and was created a knight. Musa was also distinguished for his literary tastes, and enjoyed the friendship of Virgil and Horace. See Ackermann, "De Antonio Musa," 1786; Atterbury, " Reflections on the Character of lapis, in Virgil, or the Character of A. Musa," etc., 1740; Haller, " Bibliotheca IBotanica." Musae, mu'ze, [Gr. Movaai,] the Muses, sometimes called Pier'ides, in the Greek mythology, the daughters of Jupiter and Mnemosyne, (Memory,) were supposed to preside over poetry, the liberal arts, and the sciences. According to the generally received opinion, there were nine Muses, namely. Calliope, Clio, Euterpe, Erato, Mel- pomene, Polyhymnia, Terpsichore, Thalia, and Urania. (See these names under their separate heads.) The places especially consecrated to the Muses were Mount Parnassus, Mount Helicon, and the fountains of Castalia and Aganippe. Musaeus. See Musaus. Musaeus, mu-zee'us, [ Gr. Mowe^of ; Fr. Mus6e, mii'zi',] a celebrated and ancient Greek bard, commonly regarded as a semi-fabulous personage. He was said to be the son of Eumolpus and Selene, or, according to others, of Orpheus, of whom he was a disciple. Tradition in- forms us that he presided over the Eleusinian mysteries in the time of Hercules. He was the reputed author of several poetical works, among which were "Oracles," and a hynm to Ceres. Pausanias regarded this hymn as the only genuine poem of Musaeus that was extant in his time. Onomacritus collected the Oracles of Musaeus and mixed with them some of his own productions, which he wished to pass for the work of Musasus. For this imposture he was banished by Hipparchus, the son of Pisistratus. See ViRGit,, "^neid," book vi. 666; Ulrici, "Geschichte der Hellenischen Dichtkunst." Musceus, surnamed Grammat'icus, or "the Gram- marian," is supposed to have lived in the fifth century. He is celebrated for his poem of " Hero and Leander," a production of rare merit, of which several good editions have been published. See Kromaver, "De Musseo Grammatico." Musaus or Musaeus, moo-sa'us, (Johann Karl August,) a celebrated German writer, born at Jena in 1735. His principal works are a novel entitled "The German Grandison," (" Der Deutsche Grandison," 1760,) "Physiognomic Travels," (1778,) a satire on the theories of Lavater, "Popular Legends of Germany," (1782) which enjoy great popularity, and " Friend Hein's Ap- paritions, in Holbein's Manner," (1785.) His writings are characterized by delightful humour, simplicity, and genial satire. Musaus was a relative of Kotzebue, who published in 1791 his posthumous works, with an inter- esting notice of the author prefixed. Died in 1787. Muschenbroek. See Musschenbroek. Muscher. See Musscher. Mus'cu-lus [Ger. pron. moos'koo-liis] or Meusel, moi'zel, (Andreas,) a German Lutheran theologian, born at Schneeberg in 1540. He preached at Frankfort- on-the-Oder, and wrote "Compendium Theologicum." Died in 1581. Musculus, Miisslin, miis-leen', orMeusslin, moiss- leen', (Wolfgang,) a German Reformer and scholar, born € as ^/ 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Yiyguttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ({J^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) MUSEE 1648 MUSSO in Lorraine in 1497, was a monk in his youth. He was converted by Luther about 1520, became minister of a church at Augsburg in 1531, and acquired a high reputation as a preacher. Having been banished from Augsburg in 1548, he settled at Berne. He published commentaries and other works. Died in 1563. See Craik, "Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties." Mus6e. See Mus^'Eus. Muselli, moo-seKlee, (Giovanni Giacomo,) Mar- quis, an Italian antiquary and writer, born at Verona in 1697 ; died in 1768. Musemeci, moo-si-ma'chee, (Mario,) an Italian architect and antiquary, born at Catanea in 1778. He wrote several works on antiquities and art, among which is " Opere archeologiche ed artistiche," (2 vols., 1851.) Died in 1852. Mus'grave, (Rev. George,) an English writer, born about 1798. He published "Rambles in Normandy," and other books of travel. Mus'grave, (Sir Richard,) an Irish historian, born about 1758, published in 1801 a "History of the Irish Rebellions." Died in 1818. Musgrave, (Samuel,) a grandson of the following, was a distinguished classical scholar. He published, among other works, an edition of Euripides, and a treat- ise on Grecian Mythology. Died in 1782. Musgrave, (William,) an English physician and antiquary, born in Somersetshire in 1657. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1684 became its secretary. He wrote several treatises on the gout, and a number of dissertations on British and Roman An- tiquities. Died in 1721. Mush'et, (David,) a Scottish metallurgist and in- ventor, born at Dalkeith in 1772. He acquired distinc- tion by his improvements in the fabrication of iron and steel, on which subject he wrote several treatises. He originated the method of assaying iron ores which is now generally used. Died in 1847. Mush'et, (Robert,) an officer of the royal mint in England, wrote able treatises on the currency and mint regulations and the state of finances. Died in 1828. Musis or Musi, de, (Agostino.) See Agostino Veneztano. Musitano, moo-se-tS'no, (Carlo,) a learned Italian medical writer, born in Calabria in 1635; died in 1714. Musius. See Muvs, (Cornelius.) Mu-so'm-us Ru'fus, (Caius,) a Stoic philosopher, born in Etruria, flourished about 70 A.D. He was banished from Rome by Nero, but he returned under Vespasian, and was excepted by him from the sentence of exile pronounced against the Stoics. He was highly esteemed by Pliny, Tacitus, and other eminent writers. Fragments of his works are to be found in Stobaeus. See NiEUWLAND, "Dissertatio de C. Musonio Rufo," 1783; Tacitus, " Annales," books xiv. and xv. Muspell, mus'pgl or mdos'p§l, written also Mus- pel, Muspellheim, and Muspelheim, [etymology unknown,] in the Norse mythology, the world of light and heat, situated in the south part of the universe, — Niflheim, the habitation of mist and cold, being situated in the north. (See Hela.) The inhabitants of this world are called " the sons of Muspell," among whom Surt, or Surtur, is chief, and the ruler of Muspellheim. (See Surt.) Mus'pratt, (James Sheridan,) a distinguished chemist, born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1821. He was a pupil of Professor Graham at Glasgow and at London. About 1843 went to Giessen to pursue his studies under Liebig. He produced at Giessen a remarkable treatise on Sulphites. He founded a College of Chem- istry in Liverpool, and married Miss Susan Cushman, the actress, in 1848. Among his works is a "Dictionary of Chemistry ; or, Chemistry, Theoretical, Practical, and Analytical," (2 vols., i860.) Muss, (Charles,) a painter in enamel. Among his works is a picture of the " Holy Family." Died in 1824. Mussato, moos-sd'to, (Albertino,) an Italian his- torian and poet, born at Padua in 1261. He wrote a " History of the Life and Actions of Henry VII.," and a number of eclogues, hymns, and tragedies. Died in 1330. See GiNGUEN^, " Histoire Liiteraire d'ltalie." Musschenbroek, van, vtn miis'Ken-budok', (Pe- ter,) a celebrated Dutch savant, born at Leyden in 1692. He studied medicine in the university of his native citv, but he subsequently devoted hiinself chiefly to experi- mental physics, in which he was eminently, successful and made important discoveries, especially in magnetism and the cohesion of bodies. Having visited England in 1717, he made the acquaintance of Newton, whose sys- tem he was one of the first to introduce into Holland. He became professor of physics and mathematics at Duisburg in 17 19, and afterwards filled the same chair at Utrecht. In 1740 he obtained the professorship of philosophy at Leyden, where he resided till his death, in 1761. Among his princij^al works are his " Physicoe Experimentales et Geometric^ Dissertationes," (1729,) and Elementa Physicae," or " Introduction to Natural Philosophy," (1734.) He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and a member of the principal learned institutions of Europe. See Sav^rihn, " Vies des Philosophes ;" Condorcet, " filoges ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Musscher or Muscher, van, vtn mus'Ker, (Mi- chael,) an eminent Dutch painter, born at Rotterdam in 1645. He studied successively under Van Tempel, Metzu, and Jan Steen, and painted landscapes, historical subjects, and portraits. The last-named are most highly esteemed. Died in 1705. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Musset, de, deh mii'sa', (Louis Charles Alfred,) a celebrated French poet, born in Paris on the nth of November, 1810, was a son of Musset-Pathay, noticed below. He was educated at the College Henri IV. In 1830 he produced a volume entitled "Tales of Spain and Italy," (" Contes d'Espagne et d'ltalie,") which at- tracted much attention. His reputation was increased in 1833 by "The Cup and the Lips," (" La Coupe et les Levres,") a drama, "A quoi revent les jeunes Filles?" and "Namouna." He fell into a morbid state of mind, and expressed misanthroj^ic sentiments in several of his works, which are censured for an immoral tendency. He published " Rolla," a poem, in 1835, and "Confessions of a Child of the Age," (Enfant du Sihle,) in 1836 He contributed to the " Revue des Deux Mondes" a number of prose tales, which were admired. Under the reign of Louis Philippe he was librarian to the ministry of the interior. He was admitted into the French Academy in 1852. Among his finest works are four poems entitled the " Nights," etc., (" Nuits : La Nuit de Mai, La Nuit d'Aout, La Nuit d'Octobre, et La Nuit de Decembre," 18315-37.) Died in Paris in May, 1857. "None of his illustrious contemporaries," says Leo Joubert, "has surpassed him in spontaneity of poetical genius, in the ardent and sincere expression of passion, in vivacity, grace, and eclat of soul, (esprit;) no one has represented with more fidelity the spiritual unrest, the melange of skepticism and religious aspirations, which characterize our epoch." ("Nouvelle Biographie Generale." See Sainte-Beuve, "Portraits contemporains," and " Cause- ries du Lundi ;" Clement de Ris, "Portraits k la Plume; A. de Musset," etc., 1853; "Eraser's Magazine" for July, 1857; "West- minster Review" for April, 1869. Musset, de, (Paul Edme,) a novelist, a brother of the preceding, born in Paris in 1804. He published, numerous novels, which are said to be well written, and atnong which we notice " Lauzun," (1835,) " The Brace- let," (1839,) "Mignard et Rigaud," (1839,) and "Les Femmes de la Regence," (2 vols., 1841.) Musset, de, (Victor Donatien,) called Musset- Pathay, a French litterateur, born in the Vendomois in 1768, was the father of the preceding. He wrote, besides other biographies, histories, and tales, a " Life of lean Jacques Rousseau," (2 vols., 1821.) Died in 1832. See "Souvenirs historiquesde Musset-Pathay," 1810; Qui^rard, " La France Litteraire." Miisslin. See Musculus, (Wolfgang.) Musso, moos'so, (Cornelio,) an Italian bishop, dis- tinguished as a preacher, born at Piacenza in 1511. He became Bishop of Bitonto. Died at Rome in 1574. See G. Musso, " Vita di Cornelio Musso," 1586. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; ftr, fill, fSt; mSt; nSt; good; moon; MVSTAFA 1649 MTLNE Mustafa, Mustapha, Moustapha, or Moustafa, moos'tS-fa, I., succeeded his brother, Ahmed I., as Sul- tan of Turkey, in 161 7. He was soon after deposed, and his nephew, Osman, raised to the throne. Though re-established as Sultan in 1622, Mustafa was again deposed in 1623, and strangled, in 1639, by order of Amurath IV. See Von Hammer, " Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." Mustafa, Mustapha, or Moustapha II., son of Mahomet IV., was born in 1664, and succeeded Ahmed II. as Sultan in 1695. He fought against the Austrians and Venetians with varying success, and in 1699 con- cluded with those powers the peace of Carlowitz. Being deposed in 1703, he died in a few months, and his brother, Ahmed III., became Sultan. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Mustafa, Mustapha, or Moustapha III., son of Ahmed III., born in 1717, succeeded Osman III. in 1757. He began in 1769 to wage war with the Russians, who took possession of the Crimea and Bessarabia. He died in 1774, and his brother, Abdool Hamid, succeeded to the throne. See Von Hammer, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." Mustafa, Mustapha, or Moustapha IV., son of Abdool Hamid, became Sultan on the deposition of Se- lim III., in 1807. Having caused Selim to be strangled, Mustafa was deposed by Bairaktar, Pasha of Rudshuk, and his brother, Mahmood, was raised to the throne. During the revolt of the Janissaries, in 1808, Mustafa was executed by the orders of Mahmood. See F. Mengin, " Histoire de I'figypte sous Mehemet All." Mustafa, Mustapha, or Moustapha Ben-Ismail, mdos'tl-fS hhn is-mS-eeK, an Arabian chief, born in Algeria about 1770. He became an able adversary of Abd-el-Kader, against whom he fought in co-operation with the French, who gave him the rank of general. He was killed in battle in May, 1843. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Mustapha. See Mustafa. Mus-tox'y-dis or Mustoxidis, (Andreas,) a dis- tinguished modern Greek scholar, born at Corfu in 1785. He studied at Pavfa, and in 1804 was appointed histori- ographer for the republic of the Seven Islands. Among his works, which are chiefly written in Italian, we may name " Considerations on the Present Language of Greece." Mu-su'rus, (Constantine,) a Turkish diplomatist, born in 1807. He became Turkish ambassador at Lon- don about 1856. Mu-su'rus, (Marcus,) a learned modern Greek, born in Candia about 1470, was professor of the Greek lan- guage in the University of Padua. He assisted Aldus Manutius in the revision of Greek manuscripts, and published, among other works, the *' Etymologicum Magnum Graecum." In 1516 he was appointed by Leo X. Archbishop of Malvasia. Died in 1517. Mu'ta, (from mutus, "silent,") the name of the god- dess of silence among the Romans. Mutiano. See Muziano. Mutina. See Modena. Mutio. See Muzio. Mutis, moo't^ss, ? (Don Jos6 Celestino,) a cele- brated Spanish botanist and physician, born at Cadiz in 1732. He became professor of anatomy at Madrid in 1757, and in 1760 accompanied the Spanish viceroy to South America as his physician. He subsequently devoted himself to scientific explorations, and was ap- pointed in 1790 director of the Royal Academy of Natural History at Santa Fe. He died in 1808, leaving un- finished his " Flora of New Granada," one of the most valuable works of the kind that had then appeared. He was the first who distinguished the various species of Cinchona, (Peruvian bark,) the different properties of which he has described in his " Historia de los Arboles del Quina." See Humboldt, "Voyage dans les Regions ^quinoxiales ;" Weddell, "Monographie du Quinquina." Muy, du, dii mii-e', (Louis Nicolas Victor de F^- LTX,) CoMTE, a French military commander, born at Marseilles in 1711. He served in Germany in the prin- cipal campaigns from 1741 to 1760. He enjoyed the favour of Louis XV. and Louis XVI., and was appointed by the latter minister of war, (1774,) and marshal of France, (1775.) ^'^^^ in 1775- See Beauvais, "Oraison funebre du Comte du Muy;" Tressan, " filoge du Marechal du Muy." Muys, mois, [Lat. Mu'sius,] (Cornelis,) a Dutch priest and Latin poet, born at Delft in 1503. He was hung by some soldiers at Leyden in 1572. Muys, (Wyer WiLLEM,) a Dutch savant and writer, born at Steenwyk in 1682. He was professor of medi- cine and chemistry at Franeker. He wrote, besides other works, one " On the Matter of Light," (" De Materia Luminis," 1722.) Died in 1744. Muziano, moot-se-a'no, or Mutiano, moo-te-l'no, (Girolamo,) one of the first Italian painters of his time, born near Brescia in 1528, was the pupil of Romanino. At an early age he visited Rome, where his admirable landscapes obtained for him the name of "the landscape youth." He also attained great excellence in historical pictures, and his mosaics in the Gregorian Chapel are esteemed the finest of modern times. Among his best productions are " The Resurrection of Lazarus," in the Quirinal palace, and "A Company of Anchorites listen- ing to a Preacher in the Desert," in the Church of the Carthusians. Muziano completed the drawings from the Trajan column begun by Giulio Romano. He was the founder of the Academy of Saint Luke. Died in Rome in 1592. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Orloff, " Histoire de la Peinture en Italic." Muzio, moot'se-o, or Mutio, moo'te-o, (Girolamo Nuzio,) an Italian litterateur, born at Padua in 1496. He wrote polemical treatises against the doctrines of Luther, which procured him the surname of the " Ham- mer of Heretics," ("Malleus Hereticorum,") also vari- ous other works, in prose and verse. Died in 1576. See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Muz'zey, (Artemas Bowers,) an American Unita- rian divine and miscellaneous writer, born at Lexington, Massachusetts, in 1802, He published "The Young Man's Friend," (1836,) "Moral Teacher," (1839,) and other works. Myconius, me-ko'ne-iis, (Friedrich,) a German Re- former, born in Franconia in 1491, was a monk in his youth. He became a friend of Luther, whose doctrines he propagated with zeal and success. He preached many years at Gotha, and wrote several religious works. Died in 1546. See Anton Probus, "Vita F. Myconii," 1547; Lommatzsch, "Narratio de F. Myconio," 1825. Myconius, me-ko'ne-Cis, (Oswald,) or Geisshau- ser, (gis'how'zer,) a Swiss Protestant divine, born at Lucerne in 1488, was a pupil of Erasmus. He became pastor of a church and professor of divinity at Bale. He wrote a " Narrative of the Life and Death of Zuin- glius." Died in 1552. See KiRCHHOFER, "Leben O. Myconius Reformators," 1814- Mydorge, me'doRzh', (Claude,) a French geometer, born in Paris in 1585, was an intimate friend of Des- cartes, and furnished the glasses used by that philosopher in his optical experiments. He wrote several treatises on optics and mathematics, and a defence of the works of Descartes against the Jesuits. Died in 1647. See Baili.et, " Vie de Descartes." My'ers, (Abraham C.,) an American officer, born in South Carolina about 1814, served in the Mexican war, and became in 1862 brigadier-general in the Confederate army. Myers, (Peter Hamilton,) an American novelist, born in Herkimer county. New York, in 1812, has pub- lished "The First of the Knickerbockers," (1848,) " The King of the Hurons," (1850,) "The Van Veldens," and several other historical romances. Mylius, mee'le-us, (Johann Christoph,) a German bibliographer, born in Weimar in 1710. He published " Bibliotheca Anonymorum et Pseudonymorum," (1740,) and "Historia Myliana," (1752,) which contains biog- raphies of many men named Mylius. Died in 1757. Mylne, m!ln, (Robert,) a Scottish architect, born at Edinburgh in 1734. He was appointed engineer to the € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^='See Explanations, p. 23.) 104 MTN 1650 NADAVD Ne.w River Company, London, and surveyor of Saint Fail's Cathedral. His principal work is Blackfriars' Bridge, completed in 1769. Mylne was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and a member of the Academy of Saint Luke at Rome. Died in 181 1. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Myn, van der, vtn der min, ( Herman, ) a Dutch artist, born at Amsterdam in 1684, visited London, where he gained a high reputation by his portraits. His fruit- and flower-pieces were also admired. Died in 1 741. Mynsiclit, von, fon min'siKt, (Adrian,) a German chemist and physician, flourished between 1610 and 1650. Mynster, mun'ster or minister, (Jakob Peter,) a Danish theologian and pulpit orator, born at Copenhagen in 1775, became in 1828 court chaplain. He was created Bishop of Seeland in 1834. He published "Reflections on Christian Doctrine," and other theological works. Died in 1854. My-rep'sus, (Nicholas,) \^LKokaoq b Mvpei/'of,] a Greek physician of the thirteenth century, practised in Rome or Constantinople. He wrote a treatise ** On the Composition of Medicines," (" De Compositione Medi- camentorum," etc.) Myrick, (Sir Samuel Rush.) See Meyrick. Myrmidon, mir'me-don, [Gr. Mup^icJwv,] in classic mythology, was supposed to be a son of Jupiter and Eurymedusa. According to one tradition, he was the ancestor of the Myrmidons, a people of Thessaly, some of whom Achilles led to the siege of Troy. My'ron, [Mwpwv,] an eminent Greek sculptor, born in Boeotia about 480 B.C., was celebrated for his skill in representing the varied forms of animal life. He worked with equal success in marble, brass, and wood. Among his best productions are a Cow lowing for its Calf," in bronze, which has been celebrated by the Latin and Greek poets in numerous epigrams, a colossal group of Jupiter, Athene, and Hercules, the "Discobolus, or Quoit-Thrower," and " Perseus killing Medusa." His athletes, dogs, and sea-monsters were also greatly ad- mired. See K. O. Muller, " Handbuch der Archaologie der Kunst;" Goethe, "Propylaen;" Winckelmann, "Werke," vol. vi. Myronide. _ See Myronides. My-ron'i-des, [Gr. Wvpi^vl^riq ; Fr. Myronide, me'- ro'n^d',] an Athenian general, who gained a victory over the Corinthians in 457, and another over the Boeotians in 456 B.C. Myrtis, mir'tis, [Mvpnf,] a Greek lyric poetess of high reputation, was born at Anthedon, and flourished about 500 B.C. Pindar is said to have received instruction from her. Mytens, mi't§ns, (Arnold,) a Flemish painter, born at Brussels in 1541. Among his best works is an altar- piece representing the " Assumption of the Virgin, with the Apostles," at Naples. Died in 1602. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Mytens, (Daniel,) the Elder, a Dutch artist, born at the Hague about 1590. He was patronized by James I. and Charles L of England, and painted the portraits of a number of the royal family and of the nobility. He was regarded as second only to Van Dyck in portrait- painting. Died after 1656. Mytens, (Daniel,) the Younger, born at the Hague in 1636, was a son of the preceding. He became director of the Academy at the Hague. His principal work is the ceiling of the Painters' Hall. Died in 1688. Mytens, mii'tens, (Martin,) a Swedish painter, born at Stockholm in 1695. After visiting Rome, he settled in Vienna, where he became painter to the court. Among his best pieces is the " History of Esther and Ahasuerus." Died in 1755. N. Na'a-man, [Heb. pJ^J.] a Syrian general, commander of the army of Benhadad, King of Damascus, lived about 890 B.C. He was cured of leprosy by the prophet Elisha. See II. Kings v. Nabaj or Nabadj, nS-baj', a Hindoo poet, flourished about 1580-1600. He wrote a poem entitled "Bhakta- mala," which treats of the adventures and miracles of Jayadeva and other ascetics. Nabega - Ziad - Ibn - Moaweeah- Aldobiani, n be-g^ ze-id' ib'n mo-S-wee'ah il-do-be-i'nee, an Arabian poet, flourished in the latter part of the sixth century. One of his poems, and several fragments, are given in the " Chrestomathie" of Silvestre de Sacy. Na'bis, [Gr. Nu^i^-,] tyrant of Sparta, succeeded Ma- chanidas about 206 B.C., and signalized himself by his cruelty and avarice. In conjunction with Philip IL of Macedon, he subjected different parts of the Pelopon- nesus, but he was afterwards defeated by the Roman consul Flamininus. He was assassinated by his own allies, (192 B.C.) Nab-o-nas'sar, [Gr. Nagovacrapof,] King of Babylon, lived in the eighth century B.C. He is celebrated for the chronological era which bears his name, and which was employed as a point of departure in ancient astronomical tables. This era began in 747 B.C. Nab-o-po-las'sar, King of Babylon, was originally a satrap of Sardanapalus, King of Assyria. He re- volted against that king, and, aided by Cyaxares, King of the Medes, took Nineveh, the capital of Assyria. He died in 605 B.C., and was succeeded by his son, Nebuchadnezzar. See EusEBius, "Chronicles;" Hoefer, "La Ph^nicie, la Baby- lonie," etc. Nacchianti, nak-ke-Sn'tee, [Lat. Naclan'tus, ] (GiACOMO,) an Italian theologian, born at Florence. He was a member of the Council of Trent, and wrote several works. Died in 1569. Nachman, Ben, bgn nSK^mln, ? (Moses,) a Spanish rabbi, born at Girone in 1194, was versed in the science of the Cabala. He wrote, besides other works, "Lex Hominis," (1519,) and "Fons Jacobi," (1547.) Naclitigall. See Luscinius. Nachtigall, naK'te-g3,K, [Lat. Luscin'ius,] (Otmar,) a German scholar and writer, born at Strasburg about 1487. He preached against the doctrines of Luther at Augsburg, and taught Greek at Strasburg. Among his works is " Evangelica Historia e Graeco versa," (1523.) Died about 1535. See Niceron, "Memoires." Nacke or Naecke, nek'keh, (Gustav Heinrich,) a German historical painter, born at Frauenstein in 1 785. He became professor of painting in the Academy of Dresden in 1824. His works are highly commended. Died at Dresden in 1835. Naclantus. See Nacchiantl Na'dab, [Heb. DIJ,] son of Jeroboam, King of Israel, succeeded him in 968 B.C. While engaged soon after in fighting against the Philistines, he was slain by Baasha, the son of Ahijah, who ruled in his stead. Nadal, nt'dtK, ( Augustin, ) Abbi^, a mediocre French author, born at Poitiers in 1664, wrote tragedies in verse, criticisms, and moral essays. Died in 1740. Nadasti, ni-dis'tee, written also De Nadzad, (Thomas,) a Hungarian general, was an ancestor of the following. He distinguished himself by the defence of Buda against the Sultan Solyman in 1529, and afterwards rendered important military services to Charles V. See IsTHVANFi, " Historia Hungarorum." Nadasti, de, deh nS-dis'tee, ? (Francis,) Count, a patriotic Hungarian statesman, who opposed the des- potic policy of the emperor Leopold. He was accused of a conspiracy against the life of Leopold, unjustly condemned, and beheaded in 167 1. He was author of a " History of Hungary," (1664.) See MailAth, " Geschichte der Magyaren." Nadaud, nt'd5', (Gustave,) a French musician and writer of songs, born at Roubaix in 1820. He produced both the words and the music of many popular songs. a, e, T, 6, 11, y, lor^; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ia, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure: fSr, fill, fit; mSt; nSt; good; moon; NADAULT NAKHIMOF Nadault de Buflfon, nt'do' deh bu'f6N', (Benjamin Henri,) a French engineer and writer, born at Mont- bard in 1804. He published, besides other works, a "Course of Agriculture," (4 vols., 1853-56,) and " The Correspondence of Buffon," (2 vols., i860.) Nadezhdin, niMezh-din, written also Nadeshdin, (Nicholas Ivanovitch,) a Russian litterateur, born in Riazan in 1804, He became a councillor of state at Saint Petersburg, where he died in 1856. Nadir Shah, nSMir shSh, written also Nader Chah, Nadir Schah, and Nauder Shah, also called Koolee (or Kouli) Khan, koo'lee kSu, a celebrated Persian conqueror, of Turkish extraction, born in Khorassan in 1688. His courage and abilities early gained him dis- tinction in the service of the governor of that province ; but, in consequence of ill treatment, he left Khorassan and became the head of a band of robbers. Being soon after called upon by Tahmasp, Shah of Persia, to oppose the Afghans, he succeeded, within two years, in expelling them from the country, upon which he was made com- mander-in-chief, (1729.) Tahmasp having in 1732 made a disadvantageous treaty with Turkey, Nadir resolved to prosecute the war, and gained such popularity by the success of his arms that on his return he dethroned the Shah and assumed the supreme power. In 1738 he conquered Candahar and Afghanistan. Having soon after invaded India, he entered Delhi in 1739, and took possession of the imperial treasures. The inhabitants, on a false report of Nadir's death, attacked his soldiers. After an ineffectual attempt to restrain them, he ordered a wholesale massacre, in which, it is stated by Fraser, 120,000 perished. His many acts of tyranny and cruelty at length caused him to be assassinated, (1747.) In the early part of his career Nadir Shah appears to have been not only an able, but, on the whole, a just and humane, prince ; but later in life, having become a prey to avarice and suspicion, his acts, it is said, "exceeded in barbarity all that has been recorded of the most bloody tyrants." See Fraser, "History of Nadir Shah," 1742: "Life of Nadir Shah," by his secretary, Madhv Khan, translated into French by Sir William Jones ; Malcolm, " Historj' of Persia," vol. ii. Naecke. See Nacke, Naenia, nee'ne-a, [Fr. N^nie, ni'ne',] a Roman god- dess that presided over funerals. This word signifies a " dirge" or " funeral song." Naerssen, van, vtn nSRs'sen, [Lat. Nars'sius,] (Jan,) a Dutch writer of Latin poetry, born at Dort in 1580. He became physician to Gustavus Adolphus at Stockholm, and wrote " Gustavidos Libri III.," (1632.) Died in 1637. Naevius, nee've-us, (Cneius,) a Roman poet, born in Campania about 272 B.C., was the author of an epic poem on the Punic War, and of several dramas. A few frag- ments only of his writings are extant. He is praised by Cicero as being in some respects superior to Ennius. He died about 204 B.C. "Cneius Nsevius," says Pro- fessor Sellar, "is the first in the line of Roman poets and the first writer in the Latin language whose frag- ments give indication of original power." See CiCKRo, " De Oratore ;" Sellar, "Roman Poets of the Republic," cliap. iii. ; Klussmann, " C. Nsevii Poetze Vita," 1843. Naga, ni'ga, a Sanscrit word, signifying "snake," and forming, in the Hindoo mythology, the name of a mon- ster regarded as a demi-god, having a human face, with the tail of a serpent and the expanded neck of a cobra de capello. The race of these beings is said to have sprung from Kasyapa, in order to people Patala, or the regions below the earth. (See Patala.) See Wilson, "Sanscrit Dictionary." Nagele, na'geh-leh, (Franz Karl,) a German medi- cal writer, born at Dusseldorf in 1778; died in 1851. Nag'lee, (Henry M.,) an American general, born in Philadelphia about 1815, graduated at West Point in 1835. He became a brigadier-general early in 1862, and commanded a brigade at the battle of Fair Oaks, May 31 of that year. Nagler.'na'gler, (Karl Ferdinand Friedrich,) a Prussian statesman, born at Anspach in 1770. Being appointed in 1823 postmaster-general, he effected a great reform in the postal system. He was made minister of state in 1836. He made a very valuable collection of works of art, which, with the exception of the pictures, was purchased for the Museum at Berlin. Died in 1846. Nagy Sandor, nody (almost noj) sSn'dor, (Joseph,) a Hungarian general, born at Grosswardein in 1804. He fought for the national cause in 1848, became a general about April, 1849, served with distinction in several battles. Having been taken prisoner at Vilagos, he was executed in October, 1849. Naharro, ni-ar'ro, (Bartolom6 de Torres— di toR'- rls,) a Spanish dramatic poet, born at Torres, flourished about 1500-20. He wrote comedies, satires, epistles, etc. See TiCKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature." Nahl, nSl, (Johann August,) a German sculptor, born in Berlin in 1710. He adorned the public buildings of that city with his works. Died in 1781. Nahl, (Johann August,) a German painter, born near Berne in 1752, was a son of the preceding. He worked at Rome and Cassel. He painted subjects of Greek mythology, and landscapes. Died in 1825. Nahl, (Johann Samuel,) a German sculptor, born at Anspach in 1664. He settled at Berlin, where he was appointed court sculptor, and rector of the Academy of Fine Arts. Died in 1728. Nahl, (Samuel,) a sculptor, brother of Johann August, (1752-1825,) was born at Berne in 1748; died in 1813. Na'hum, [ Heb. Dinj,] one of the twelve minor prophets of the Hebrews, flourished under the reign of Hezekiah, about 720 B.C. He is supposed to have been born at Elkosh, in Galilee, from which he was surnamed THE Elkoshite. He foretells the destruction of the Assyrian empire and the city of Nineveh in the most glowing and forcible language, and in sublimity is equal if not superior to any other of the minor prophets. Nahuys, n^'hois, (Hubert Gerard,) Baron, a Dutch writer and military officer, born at Amsterdam in 1782. He rendered important services in Java, where he passed many years, and wrote, besides other works, " Considerations on Dutch India," (1847.) Died in 1858. Naiades. See Naiads. Naiad.s, na'yads, [Gr. ^atd6eg or Nr/Wfc; Lat. Nai'a- DES,] in classic mythology, were fresh-water Nymphs, or inferior female divinities, supposed to preside over rivers, lakes, brooks, and fountains, and to be daughters of Jupiter. They were represented as young and beautiful virgins leaning upon an urn from which flows a stream of water. Naigeon, ni'zhiN', (Jacques Andr^:,) a mediocre French litterateur, born in Paris in 1738. He was a friend of Diderot, whose skeptical opinions he shared, and was one of the redacteurs of the " Encyclopedie." He edited the works of Diderot and of other French authors. Diedini8io. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Dictionnaire des Sci- ences philosophiques." Naigeon, (Jean,) a French painter, born at Beaune in 1757, was a pupil of David. Died in Paris in 1832. • Naigeon, (Jean Guillaume Elzidor,) a French painter, born in Paris in 1797, was a son of the pre- ceding. He became conservator of the Musee Egyptien in 1861. Naillac, de, deh nt'ytk', (Philibert,) a French chevalier, born about 1340, became grand master of the order of Saint John of Jerusalem in 1396. He fought against Bayazeed (Bajazet) at the siege of Nicopolis, (1396,) and took a prominent part in the Council of Pisa. Died in 1421. Naima, ni'mi, a Turkish historian, flourished about 1700. He wrote an "Ottoman History from 1591 to 1659," which was published in 2 vols., (1734.) Nain, Le. See Tillemont. Naironi, ni-ro'nee, (Antonius Faustus,) a learned Maronite, born near Mount Libanus in 1 631, was pro- fessor of the Chaldee and Syriac languages in the College della Sapienza at Rome. Died in 1711. See DiTpiN, " Auteurs ecclesiastiques," etc. Naiven, ni'ven, (M.,) a Dutch painter, born in 1570 ; died in 1651. Nakhimof, ni'Ke-mof, written alsoNakhimow and Nakhimov, (Akim Nikolaevitch,) a Russian poet, € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23J NAKE 1652 NANTEUIL born at Kharkof in 1782. His principal works are satires in verse, fables, and a witty piece in prose entitled "The Speaking Monkeys," on the subject of Napoleon's attempted conquest of Russia. He died in 1814, at the early age of thirty-one. Nake or Naeke, na'keh, (August Friedrich,) a German philologist, born at Frauenstein in 1788. He produced "Opuscula Philologica," {2 vols., 1842-44.) Died in 1838. Nakoola or Nakoula, nS-koo'li, (Mooal'lem,) sur- named el Turk, an Arabian historian, born in Syria in 176:; ; died in 1828. Nakwaska, nik-vis^ka, (Anne,) a Polish novelist, born in 1779, was the wife of senator Nakwaska. Died at Warsaw in 1851. NaPa, [Hindoo pron. niiKa,] in the Hindoo mythology, the name of a monkey chief, who, according to some authorities, built for Rama the bridge from continental India to the island of Ceylon. (See Rama.) vSee Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." Naldi, nSKdee, [Lat. Nal'dius,] (Matteo,) a learned Italian medical writer and linguist, born at Sienna. He became chief physician to Pope Alexander VII. Died at Rome in 1682. Naldi, (Naldo,) an Italian poet, born at Florence about 1420, was a friend of Politian. He wrote the *' Life of G. Manetti," and several admired poems. Died about 1470. Naldi, (Sebastiano,) an Italian singer, performed in London. Died in Paris in 1819. Naldini, nil-dee'nee, (Battista,) a skilful Italian painter, born at Florence in 1537. He painted in oil and fresco at Rome and Florence. Died after 1590. Naldini, (Paolo,) an Italian sculptor, born at Rome, flourished about 1650. He was admitted into the Academy of Saint Luke in 1654. Naldius. See Naldl Nalian, n^'le-Sn, (James,) an Armenian religious writer, born at Zimara about 1695. He became Arme- nian Patriarch of Constantinople in 1 741, and acquired a high reputation by his writings. Died in 1764. NaPspn, (John,) an English clergyman, born about 1638. He became rector of Doddington and prebendary of Ely. His chief work is " An Impartial Collection of the Affairs of State from 1639 to the Murder of Charles L," (1683.) Died in 1686. Namur, nt'miiR', (Jean Pie,) a Belgian bibliographer, born at Luxemburg in 1804, published several works. Nana-Sahib, nl'nS sl^Hib, a Hindoo chief of mu- tineers, born in Poonah about 1820. He committed atrocious cruelties on English women and children at Cawnpore in 1857. See McLeod Innes, " Rough Narrative of the Siege of Lucknow," Calcutta, 1857 ; E. D. Forgues, " La Revoke des Cipayes;" " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Nancel, de, deh nSN^s^l', [Lat. Nance'lius,] (Nico- j>AS,) a French physician and writer, born in 1539. He wrote, besides other works, a " Life of Peter Ramus," (1600.) Died in 1610. Nancelius. See Nancel. Nan'di, [modern Hindoo pron. nun'di,] in the Hindoo mythology, the name of a white bull, regarded as the vahan or vehicle of Siva, which see. Nanek, ni'nek, or Naiiak, sometimes written Na- nuk, called also Yanaka, (yi'na-ka,) and Nirankar, the founder of the sect of Sikhs, was born in Lahore about 1468. He wrote a book called " Adi-Granth," and taught a species of monotheism. Died in 1539. Nangis, de, deh nSN'zhe', (Guillaume,) a French historian and Benedictine monk. He wrote a " Life of Saint Louis," a general chronicle, and a "Chronicle of the l<.ings of France." Died about 1302. Nangis, de, (Louis Armand de Brichanteau— deh bRe'sbdN'to^) Marquis, a French general, was born in 1682. He served in several campaigns in Flanders, and obtained the rank of marshal of France in 1741. Died in 1742. Nani, nl'nee, (Giambattista Felice Gasparo,) a Venetian historian, born in 1616. He was for twenty- five years ambassador at the court of France, where he enjoyed the confidence of Cardinal Mazarin. He was successively appointed historiographer and archivist of the republic, and procurator of Saint Mark, (1661.) His principal work is a "History of the Venetian Republic from 1613 to 1671," (2 vols., 1662-79.) Died in 1678. See NiCERON, "Memoires." Nani, (Tommaso,) an Italian jurist, born at Morbegno in 1757 ; died in 1813. Nanini, nS-nee'nee, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian composer, born at Vallerano about 1540, served as a chanter in the pontifical chapel in Rome. He composed motets, madrigals, and canzonettas. Died in 1607. Nan'na, or nSn'ni, [etymology uncertain ; according to Keyser, it is derived from iienna, to "be inclined to," to "like,"] in the Norse mythology, the wife of Balder "the Good." When her husband was slain, she grieved so intensely that her heart burst, her spirit followed his to Hela's realm, and her body was laid on the same funeral pile with that of her beloved Balder. See Keyser, "Religion of the Northmen;" Thorpe, "North- ern Mythology," vol. i. Nanni, (Giovanni.) See Annius of Viterbo. Nanni, nSn'nee, (Giovanni,) called also Giovanni DA Udine, an Italian painter, born at Udine about 1490. He was celebrated for the excellence of his stuccos and grotesque ornaments. Many of his best works are at Rome and Florence. Died in 1564. Nanni, (Peter.) See Nanning. Nanni, (Remigio,) [sometimes called, in French, Remi de Florence, ri^me' deh flo'rSNss',] an Italian Dominican monk and writer in verse and prose, was born at Florence about 1 521. He edited Villani's " His- toric universali," and Guicciardini's "Istoria d'ltalia." Died in 1581. See Nic^RON, "Memoires." Nanni di Baccio Bigio, nSn'nee dee bSt'cho bee'jo, a Florentine sculptor and architect, worked at Rome about 1530-50. He is chiefly remembered for his enmity to Michael Angelo. Nanni di Banco, n^n^nee dee bin'ko, an Italian sculptor, born at Florence in 1383 ; died after 1421. Nanning, nin'ning, or Nanni, nSn'nee, [Lat. Nan'- Nius,] (Peter,) a Dutch philologist and critical writer, born at Alkmaar in 1500. He was the author of " Ob- servations on the Institutes of Civil Law," and a trans- lation of the Psalms into Latin verse. Died in 1557. Nannini, n^n-nee'nee, (Agnolo or Giovannini,) surnamed Firenzuola, an Italian litterateur, born at Florence in 1493, was the author of satirical and bur- lesque poems, dramas, and a number of novels in the style of Boccaccio's " Decamerone." Nannius. See Nanning. Nannoni, nSn-no'nee, (Angelo,) an eminent Italian surgeon, born at Florence in 171 5. He became pro- fessor and chief surgeon in the Hospital of Florence. His success as an operator and as a lecturer attracted patients and pupils from the most distant parts of Europe. He wrote several esteemed works, among which is "Delia Semplicita del Medicare," (1761-67.) Died in 1790. See Agostino Nannoni, " Elogio del Professore A. Nannoni," 1790. Nannoni, (Lorenzo,) a surgeon, born at Florence in 1749, was a son of the preceding. He wrote on anatomy and surgery. Died in 1812. Nansouty, de, deh nSN'soo'te', (Etienne Antoine Marie Champion — sh6N'pe-6N',) Count, a French general, born at Bordeaux in 1768. He was made a general of brigade about 1798, and a general of division in 1803. According to Chateaubriand, he was one of the best cavalry officers that the war of the Revolution produced. The same writer states that he completed the victory at Austerlitz, (1805,) and commenced that of Wagram, (1809.) He was wounded at Borodino, (1812,) and commanded the cavalry at Leipsic. In 18 14 he entered the service of the restored Bourbons. Died in February, 1815, See De Courcelles, " Dictionnaire des G^n^raux Frangais." Nanteuil, n5N'tuF or n5N'tuh'ye, (C^lestin,) a French painter and lithographer, born in Rome in 1813. He became a resident of Paris. a, e, I, o, u, y, long; \ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f?lr, fill, fJt; mSt; n5t; good; moon; NANTUEIL 1653 NAPIER Nanteuil, (Charles FRANgois Leboeuf— leh'buf',) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1792. He gained the grand prize in 1817. Among his works is "Eurydice Dying." Nanteuil, (Robert,) a French artist, born at Rheims in 1630, painted excellent portraits in pastel, but was chiefly distinguished as an engraver. Among his mas- ter-pieces are the portraits of the secretary of state, Simon Arnaud de Pomponne, and Van Steenbergen, the Dutch advocate. In the department of portrait- engraving Nanteuil has never been surpassed. He was designer and cabinet engraver to Louis XIV. Died in 1678. See R. DuMESNiL, " Le Peintre-Graveur Frangais ;" Basan, "Dictionnaire des Graveurs ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Nanteuil, de, deh nSN'tuI', (Gaugiran,) a French dramatist, born at Toulouse in 1778 ; died after 1830. Nantier-Didiee, n6N'te-a' deMe-k', Madame, a French operatic singer, born in the Isle of Bourbon in 1832. She performed with success in Paris and London. Nantigny or Nantigni, de, deh nSw^t^n^ye', (Louis Chasot,) a French writer on genealogy, was born in Burgundy in 1692. He published "Historical Genealo- gies of Kings, Emperors, and Sovereign Houses," and other works of the kind. Died in 1755. Napseae, na-pee'e, [Gr. NaTratat; Fr. Naples, nt'pk',] in the classic mythology, were nymphs of forests, groves, and glens. (See Nymphs.) Napees. See Nap.^;^. Naper. See Napier, (John.) Na''pi-er, (Sir Charles James,) a British general, born at Whitehall in 1782, was the son of the Hon, George Napier and Lady Sarah Lennox, a daughter of the Duke of Richmond. He was a cousin of Admiral Charles John Napier, and a brother of Sir William, the historian. He gained the rank of major in 1806, was wounded in several actions in Spain between 1808 and 1812, became lieutenant-colonel in 1811, and was employed in ravaging the coasts of the United States in 1813-14. He acted with credit for several years as Governor of Cephalonia, from which he was recalled in 1830. Having risen to the rank of major-general, he was appointed commander of the army in Bengal in 1841. Pie increased his reputation by the conquest of Sinde, (1843,) i'"* which he performed several exploits that were highly extolled. His efforts to reform the civil administration of Sinde are also commended. He returned to England in 1847, and was again sent to India in 1849, to oppose the Sikhs, but on his arrival found that the war was ended. In 1850 he returned home. He was the author of "Lights and Shadows of Military Life," and other works. Died in 1853. See Sir W. F. P. Napier, "Life and Opinions of Sir Charles J. Napier ;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for July and August, 1857. Na'pi-er, (Sir Charles John,) K.C.B., an eminent British admiral, born in Stirling county, Scotland, in 1786, was the son of the Hon. C. Napier, of Merchiston Hall, Scotland, and a descendant of the inventor of logarithms. He entered the navy in 1799, and, after fighting in several actions with the French, distinguished himself at Baltimore and other places in the United States in 1813 and 1814. After 1814 he passed about fifteen years in inaction, on half-pay. He commanded the Portuguese fleet which in 1833 gained a decisive victory over the fleet of Don Miguel, for which he was made a Portuguese grandee of the first class. As second in command, Captain Napier served with distinction at the reduction of Acre, in 1840, and was rewarded with the title of knight commander of the Bath. In 1841 he became rear-admiral, and commanded the Channel fleet for several years. He advocated naval reform in letters which were printed, and as a member of Parliament supported liberal, or rather radical, measures. After the commencement of the Russian war, he was appointed commander of the Baltic fleet, (1854,) and proposed to take Cronstadt, but found it too well fortified, and re- turned without any remarkable achievement. After his return to Parliament, in 1855, he imputed his failure to the fault of the ministers. He attained the rank of admiral in 1858. Died in November, i860. "In his name is summed up all that he was, A Napier is a man possessed of high spirits, immense courage, great in- genuity, and prodigious egotism," (" London Times," November, i860.) See General E. Napier, " Life and Correspondence of Admiral Sir Charles J. Napier," 1861. Napier, (Francis,) Lord, a British diplomatist, a son of the eighth Baron Napier, was born in 1819. He became minister-plenipotentiary to the United States about 1856. In December, i860, he was appointed am- bassador-extraordinary to the court of Russia, and in 1864 was transferred to Berlin. In 1866 he became Governor of Madras. Napier, (Henry Edward,) an English naval officer and writer, born in 1789, was a brother of Sir Charles James Napier. He published " Florentine History from the Earliest Authentic Records," (6 vols., 1847.) Died in 1853. Napier, written also Naper, Neper, or Nepair, [Lat. Napie'rus,] (John,) Baron of Merchiston, a Scottish mathematician, celebrated as the inventor of logarithms, was born at Merchiston Castle, near Edinburgh, in 1550. He was the son of Sir Archibald Napier, master of the mint. He entered the University of Saint Andrew's about 1563, and a few years later travelled in France, Germany, and Italy. He appears to have returned about 1571, after which he devoted himself to mathe- matics, theology, and literature. In 1593 he published an ingenious work called "A Plain Discovery of the Revelation of Saint John," in which he labours to prove that popery is antichristian. It is probable that prior to 1594 he began the train of inquiry which resulted in the discovery of logarithms. His tables were first published in 1614, with the title of "The Description of the Won- derful Law of Logarithms," ("Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio.") " The invention of logarithms," says Hallam, "is one of the rarest instances of sagacity in the history of mankind ; and it has been justly noticed as remarkable that it issued complete from the mind of its author, and has not received any improvement since his time." In solving the problems of trigonometry, this invention is of immense utility, as it reduces the labour of months to a few days, and liberates the ope- rator from the errors which are almost inevitable in long calculations. He died in 161 7, leaving several sons, the eldest of whom, named Archibald, was raised to the peerage in 1627, with the title of Lord Napier. See "Life, Writings, and Inventions of John Napier," by Earl OF BucHAN and Walter Minto, 1787 ; Mark Napier, " Memoirs of John Napier," 1834; Hutton, "Mathematical Dictionary;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen " Westminster Review" for July, 1835. Na'pi-er, (Joseph,) an Irish lawyer and politician, born at Belfast in 1804. He was called to the bar in 1831, and elected to Parliament for the University of Dublin in 1848. He became attorney-general for Ireland in 1852, and was lord chancellor of Ireland from March, 1858, to June, 1859. Napier, (Macvey,) a Scottish editor, born in the county of Stirling in 1776. He became professor of conveyancing in the University of Edinburgh, He edited the seventh edition of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," and succeeded Lord Jeffrey as editor of the " Edinburgh Review" in 1829. He performed the duties of this po- sition with ability for about eighteen years. Among his contributions to the " Edinburgh Review" is an article on " Raleigh," (April, 1840.) Died in 1847. See "Notice of Macvey Napier," London, 1847; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Napier, (Robert,) a Scottish mechanical engineer, distinguished for the construction of steamships, was born at Dumbarton in 1791, He served an apprenticeship to a blacksmith, and in 181 5 became master of a smithery in Glasgow, A few years later he began to make engines for steamboats ; and he has since become the head of the large establishment of Robert Napier & Sons, of Glas- gow, He constructed the machinery of the British Queen, and about 1840 furnished Mr, Cunard with four steamships which plied between England and the United States. In 1856 he built the Persia, which was perhaps unrivalled in strength and speed. Since 1859 he has built several iron-clad ships for the royal navy. € as 9 as s; g kard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^'See Explanations, p. 23,) NJPIER NAPOLEON Napier, (Sir Robert,) a British general, born in Cey- lon about 1810. He served as an officer of the army in India, and became chief engineer of Bengal. During the Sepoy mutiny of 1857-58 he rendered important services as military engineer. He commanded an expe- dition sent against Abyssinia about the close of 1867. He gained a decisive victory at Magdala in April, 1868, over King Theodore, (who was killed in that action,) and was rewarded with the title of Lord Napier. Napier, (Sir William Francis,) a British general, famous as the historian of the Peninsular war, was born at Castletown, Kildare county, Ireland, in 1785. He was a brother of General Charles James Napier, and cousin of Admiral Charles J. Napier. He entered the army in 1800, and obtained the rank of captain in 1804. From 1808 to 18 14 he served in the Peninsular war, during which he was frequently wounded. He received medals for his conduct at Salamanca, (1812,) and at the battles of the Nivelle and Orthes, etc., and became lieutenant-colonel in 1813. In 1828 he produced the first volume of his " History of the War in the Penin- sula from 1807 to 1814," (6 vols.,) which was finished in 1840, and found its way to the summit of public favour, although its tenor was not in accordance with the popular and political prejudices of the times. He disapproved the policy of the English government, and estimated with candour the acts of Napoleon and his army. The work is admired for dignity of tone, fidelity to truth, and beauty of style. He was made major- general in 1841, and lieutenant-general in 185 1. His wife was a daughter of General H. E. Fox, a relative of Lord Holland. Sir William published a " History of the Conquest of Scinde," and a few other works. Died in February, i860. See Harriet Martineau, " Biographical Sketches," London, 1869; "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1857; " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1836, and April, 1864. Napierus. See Napier, (John.) Napione, nl-pe-o'na, (C. Antonio Galeani,) an Italian mineralogist, born at Turin ; died at Rio Janeiro in 1814. His brother, J. Galeani, Count de Napione, was a dramatist and litterateur. Napione da Coccoiiato, nS-pe-o'ni dl kok-ko-ni'to, (Gian Francesco Galeani — gS-li-l^nee,) Count, a learned Italian writer on various subjects, was born at Turin in 1748. He was a cousin-german of the eminent author Joseph de Maistre. He held several high civil offices. Among his numerous works are an essay on the Italian language, (" Dell'Uso e dei Pregi della Lin- gua Italiana," 2 vols., 1791,) and "Lives of Illustrious Italians," (3 vols., 1818.) Died in 1830. See L. Martini, " Vita del Conte G. F. Napione," 1836 ; " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Napoleon I. See Bonaparte. Napoleon II. See Reichstadt, Duke of. Na-po'le-on [Fr. Napoleon, nt'po'li'oN'] III., (Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte,) Emperor of France, a son of Louis Bonaparte and Hortense de Beau- harnais, was born at Paris, in the Tuileries, April 20, 1808. He was inscribed at the head of the register of the family of the Napoleonic dynasty, the emperor having recog- nized Louis and his heirs as successors to the crown in preference to his elder brothers. His mother, being compelled to quit France in 181 5, took this son with her in her exile, and gave him for preceptors P. Lebas and Colonel Armandi. He passed several years of his youth at Arenenberg, in the Swiss canton of Thurgau. On the accession of Louis Philippe, in 1830, Louis Napo- leon requested permission to return to France, which was not granted. He and his brother then went to Italy and enlisted in the army of insurgents, who at first gained some advantages over the papal troops, but were defeated and dispersed by the Austrians in 1831. On the death of the Due de Reichstadt, in 1832, Louis Napoleon became a pretender to the throne of France. He published a work entitled " Political Reveries," and a "Manual of Artillery," (1836.) His ambition, his name, and his unscrupulous audacity urged him to enter a career which presents the most wonderful vicissitudes of fortune. Having secured the aid of Colonel Vaudrey and other officers stationed at Strasbourg, he made an attempt on that place, with a few adherents, in October, 1836. He failed, was arrested, and was banished or trans- ported to the United States in November of that year. In 1837 he returned to Europe, attended Queen Hor- tense in her last illness at Arenenberg, and took refuge in England, where he passed about two years. In 1839 he published his "Napoleonic Ideas," ("Idees Napo- leoniennes,") which has been described as a "melange of liberal principles and praetorian domination." It is an apology for the regime of Napoleon I. The unpopu- lar measures of Louis Philippe encouraged Louis Napo- leon to engage in another rash and desperate enterprise. Attended by about fifty partisans and a tame eagle, which was expected to perch upon his banner as the harbinger of victory, he sailed from England in August, 1840, and entered Boulogne, where he obtained but little support, and was speedily arrested by the soldiers who he had hoped would be induced to join his standard. He was tried on a charge of treason by the House of Peers, and, after he had made a speech in his own de- fence and professed his devotion to the principle of popular sovereignty, was sentenced to perpetual impris- onment. He was confined in the Castle of Ham, where he pursued his political studies and wrote several political and historical treatises. Aided by his physician. Dr. Conneau, and disguised as a labourer, he escaped from Ham in May, 1846, and retired to England. The revolution of 1848 afforded him an opportunity to return to France, and thus opened a new field to his irrepressilile ambition. In June, 1848, he was elected to the National Assembly for the department of the Seine. He was excluded from that body by Lamartine and his colleagues for a time, but he took his seat in September, 1848, and became a candidate for the office of president of France. On the loth of December, 1848, he was elected president for four years, having received 5,562,834 votes. His chief competitor was General Ca- vaignac, who obtained 1,469,166 votes. He soon became involved in a contest with the Constituent Assembly, the republican majority of which regarded him with hostility or suspicion. In April, 1849, he sent an army to Rome to intervene in favour of the pope, who had been ex- pelled by the republicans. The French army took Rome, and continued to occupy that city until 1866. The Constituent Assembly dissolved itself, and was succeeded by the Legislative Assembly in May, 1849. The president appointed the celebrated De Tocqueville minister of foreign afi'airs in June, 1849. This minister, perceiving that the president expected him and his col- leagues to be the pliant instruments of his will, resigned in October of that year. De Tocqueville afterwards remarked, " We were not the men to serve him on those terms." Louis Napoleon encountered a strong opposition in the Legislative Assembly, which in May, 1850, restricted universal suffrage and ordered that a residence of three years in a commune must be a qualifi- cation of voters. A long and violent struggle between the president and the representatives of the people was terminated by the coup d'etat of December 2, 185 1. Having secured the support of the army, by a reckless violation of his plighted faith he raised himself to the supreme power. The Assembly was forcibly dis- solved, and the leading statesmen were arrested. Legis- lators and felons, statesmen and vulgar culprits, were huddled together in the same vehicle and conveyed to prison. Before the end of the year his acts were ratified by the form of a popular election, and he was chosen president for a term of ten years. A new constitution was adopted in January, 1852, and the legislative func- tions were divided between two houses, the Senate and the Corps Legislatif, which, however, were so organized that they offered little or no check to his absolute power. The question whether he should take the title of em- peror was submitted to the vote of the people in No- vember, 1852, when, according to the official report, 7,824,189 voted in the affirmative. He assumed the title of Napoleon III., and married a Spanish lady of great personal attractions, Eugenie Marie de Guzman, Countess de Teba, in January, 1853. Having formed an alliance with England and publicly announced that his policy was peace, he, in conjunction with his new ally, a. e, i, 6, u, y, long; hy 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m^t; n6t; good; moon; NAPOLEON NJRASINGHA declared war against Russia in March, 1854, and sent an army to the Crimea. After a long siege, the allies took Sevastopol in September, 1S55, and the war was ended by the treaty of Paris in March, 1856. Among the events of this year was the birth of the prince imperial, Napo- leon Eugene Louis, etc. One great aim of Napoleon III. appears to have been to reconcile the French people to the loss of liberty by promoting their material prosperity, by splendid public improvements, and by gratifying their passion for mili- tary glory. Accordingly, as an ally of the King of Sardinia in the war caused by the aggressions of Aus- tria, he led a large army into Italy in May, 1859. He commanded in person at the battle of Solferino, where the Austrians were defeated, June 24, 1859, and in the next month concluded the peace of Villafranca. (See Francis Joseph.) Among the results of this war was the cession of Nice and Savoy to France by the King of Sardinia, who had extended his own dominions by the conquest of Lombardy. In 1861 he availed himself of the opportunity presented by the breaking out of the civil war in America, to intervene in Mexico, and fitted out against that republic an expedition which landed a well-appointed army under General Forey early in 1862. After several victories over the Mexican Liberals, the French forces entered the city of Mexico in June, 1863. Napoleon offered the imperial crown of Mexico to Maximilian of Austria, who accepted the fatal gift and was supported by a part of the native population. The United States refused to acknowledge the Mexican em- peror, and intimated to Napoleon that European powers would not be permitted to establish monarchies by arms in North America. He accordingly withdrew his army from Mexico about the end of 1866, so that the result of the Mexican enterprise was the reverse of glorious for France. It is well understood that he sympathized with the slaveholders in their war against the Union, at least so far as they sought the disruption of the confederation. Before the commencement of the American war, Napo- leon was justly regarded as the most adroit and most suc- cessful sovereign in Europe. But his prestige was greatly impaired by the events of 1866. He remained neutral in the war between Austria and Prussia, which war he probably might have prevented ; but in the diplomatic contest which ensued between France and Prussia he appears to have found more than a match in the genius of Count Bismarck, who suddenly raised Prussia to the rank of a first-rate power and united the Germans in a determined attitude against the aggressiveness of France. The French felt themselves humiliated by the fact that so great changes in the map of Europe should have been effected without their agency or concurrence, and condemned the policy by which France was isolated and excluded from the hope of extension towards the Rhine. After the battle of Sadowa, July 3, 1866, Napo- leon offered himself as a mediator between the belligerent powers. The Emperor of Austria ceded to him Venetia, instead of surrendering it to the King of Italy, to whom it seemed naturally to belong. About the loth of De- cember, 1866, the French army was withdrawn finally from Rome, and the pope, finding himself in a critical position, addressed to Napoleon language which was far from complimentary. Napoleon and Bismarck were in- volved in a dispute about Luxemburg, which the former purchased of the King of Holland ; but the Prussians occupied a strong fortress in that province, which they refused to relinquish. It was generally believed that war was imminent ; but the difficulty was settled by a European Convention which met in London in May, 1867, and decided that neither France nor Prussia should retain possession of Luxemburg. The exciting and warmly-contested elections of May and June, 1869, showed so great an increase of votes against imperial despotism, that Napoleon thought it expedient to make large concessions to the people and the legislative body. He gave the latter the right to elect its own officers, to have partial control over the expenditure of the public money, the right of interpel- lation, and the privilege to share with himself the power of initiating laws. He proclaimed a general amnesty for political offences in August, 1869. In December of that year he appointed Emile Ollivier prime minister, and requested him to form a cabinet. " Designate per- sons," he said, " who will, associated with yourself, form a homogeneous cabinet faithfully representing the legis- lative majority." This was regarded as the end of per- sonal government in France, and the beginning or resto- ration of a constitutional regime. He addressed to prime minister Ollivier, March 22, 1870, an important letter, in which he says, " I think it opportune, under present cir- cumstances, to adopt all the reforms required by the constitutional government of the Empire, in order to put an end to the immoderate desire for change which pre- vails in certain minds." He afterwards issued an address and appeal to the people, asking their votes, in these terms: "Do the people approve the liberal reforms which have been effected in the Constitution since i860 by the Emperor, with the concurrence of the great legis- lative bodies of the state, and ratify the senatus-consultum of April 20, 1870?" On the eve of the election the government detected or concocted an extensive plot to assassinate Napoleon, and arrested many suspected per- sons. The result of the plebiscite of the 8th of May was that about 7,000,000 voted yes, and 1,500,000 voted no. Louis Napoleon has written a "History of Julius Caesar," (1867,) in which he carries out the "Ideas Na- poleoniennes," inculcating the doctrine that certain gifted men are appointed by Providence or destiny to rule, and that it is as necessary for the people as for themselves that this destiny should be fulfilled. Without a reasonable pretext or tangible cause, he declared war against Prussia about July 15, 1870, and, having appointed the Empress regent, took the com- mand of his army in person. The Germans crossed the frontier early in August, and assumed the offensive. The French were outnumbered and outgeneralled in a series of great battles at Worth, Metz, and near Sedan. On the 2d of September, Napoleon, who had displayed great incapacity as a general, surrendered himself, with about 100,000 men as prisoners of war, at Sedan. The deche- ance of Napoleon was passed in the corps legislatif, and a republic was formed, without violence, by the citizens of Paris, September 4, 1870. See Amedee Hennequin, " Histoire de Louis Napoleon Bona- parte," 1848 ; A. BouDiN, " Histoire politique du Prince Louis Napo- leon," etc., 1852; Adrien Pascal, "Histoire de Napoleon III," 1853 ; Victor Hugo, "Napoleon le Petit," 1852; Paul Lacroix, "Histoire de Napoleon IH," 1853; J. B. Fellens, "Louis Napo- leon, sa Vie," etc., 1853; W. L. Wesche, "Napoleon II L Kaiser der Franzosen," 1853; Schoenhuth, "Napoleon III. Kaiser," etc., 1853; Abbott, "The History of Napoleon III.," 1S69 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Nap'per-Tan'dy, (James,) an Irish insurgent, born near Dublin in 1747. He invaded Ireland with a body of French troops in 1798, was taken prisoner and con- demned to death, but was released after an imprisonment of two years. Died in 1803. N^rada, ni'ra-da, written also Nareda, the name of a celebrated Hindoo sage and lawgiver, supposed to have been the son of Brahma and Saraswati. He was the inventor of the Vina, a sort of lute, and is said to have been an intimate friend of Krishna. See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." Nar'a-siug'ha, [modern Hindoo pron. niir^a-sing'ha or niir'a-sing', from the Sanscrit tidrdy a " man," and singhd, a "lion,"] (the "Man-Lion,") the name, in the Hindoo mythology, of the fourth Avatar of Vishnu. It is related that Hiranyakasipu,* by his penances and sacri- fices in honour of Brahma, had obtained as a boon from that deity that he should possess universal monarchy and be wholly exempt from death or injury from every god, man, or creature in existence. Having now nothing * Pronounced by the modern Hindoos hl-run'ya-kiis'a-poo. By some blunder, as it would seem, on the part of the writers from whoni he has copied, Southey gives this name in a strangely corrupted form, — Errenen : " For often would Ereenia tell Of what in elder days befell, When other tyrants in their might Usurped dominion o'er the earth, And Veeshnoo took a human birth, Deliverer of the sons of men. And slew the huge Ermaccasen, And piecemeal rent with lion force Er'renen's accursed corse." Ctirse of Kehama, vol. i.. x. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23. ) NARATANA 1656 NARUSZEfVICZ to fear, his arrogance and impiety became insufferable. He had, however, a son of a wholly different character, and remarkable for his piety and virtue. The son, re- proving his father's wickedness, once said to him that the Deity was present everywhere. "Is he in that pillar.?" said the angry tyrant. " Yes," replied his son. There- upon Hiranyakasipu, in contempt, struck the pillar with his sword, when the stony mass fell asunder, and a being, half man and half lion, issuing from its centre, tore to pieces the impious wretch who had thus insulted and defied the Divine Power. See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." N^r^yana, nS-ri'ya-na, a Sanscrit word of somewhat uncertain etymology, commonly supposed to signify " moving upon the waters," and applied, in the Hindoo mythology, to the universal Divine Spirit, which existed before all worlds. {Compare Genesis i. 2.) In this sense, Narayana may be regarded as another name for Brahm, (which see ;) but it is also frequently used as one of the many appellations of Vishnu. See Moor,." Hindu Pantheon." Narayani, ni-ri'ya-nee', the consort (or sakti) of Na- rayana, considered as Vishnu, and hence a name of LAKSHMf, (which see.) Narbonne, de, deh nlR'bon', (Louis,) Count, a French courtier and minister of state, was born of the noble family of Narbonne-Lara at Colorno, in Parma, in 1755. Ms was taken to Paris in 1760, and educated at court, where his mother was a lady of honour. He was handsome, accomplished, and witty, and a favourite of the royal family. In the Revolution he acted with the constitutional party, and became a confidential friend of Madame de Stael, who regarded him with admiration. "She exalted him in her imagination," says Lamartine, " until she raised him to the height of her ideal." By her influence, partly, he became minister of war in De- cember, 1791. He tried with success the policy of frank- ness and confidence towards the Assembly, and extorted applause even from the stern and suspicious radicals. He performed prodigies of activity in raising armies and preparing for war. Inspired by his fervent, rapid, and martial eloquence, a glow of patriotism pervaded France. He was suddenly dismissed from office in March, 1792, in consequence of a difference with his colleague and rival De Lessart. About the loth of August he was proscribed by the Assembly, but, by the efforts of Ma- dame de Stael, escaped to England. He returned to France in 1800, and was restored to his rank as lieu- tenant-general in 1809. Soon after that he was made ambassador to Bavaria, He attended Bonaparte as aide- de-camp in the Russian campaign, (1812.) Died in 1813. See ViLLEMAiN, "Souvenirs contemporains ;" Bignon, "His- toire de France sous Napoleon;" Marmont, " Memoires " Nou- velle Biograpbie Generale." Narborough, nar'bur''eh, ( Sir John, ) an English naval officer, distinguished himself in the war with the Dutch in 1666. In 1672 he served as second captain under the Duke of York against De Ruyter in the en- gagement of Solebay, where his bravery and skill were conspicuous. He was created rear-admiral and made a knight in 1673. In 1674 he was sent against the pirates of the Mediterranean, and forced the Bey of Tripoli to give up his British captives and pay a large sum of money for previous injuries to British trade. Died in 1688. See Charnock, " Biographia Navalis." Nar-cis'sus, [Gr. 'NapKLoaog ; Fr. Narcisse, ntR'sfess',] a beautiful youth, in the Greek mythology. He is said to have been insensible of amorous passion until he saw his own image in the water, with which he fell in love. Having died of disappointed love, he was changed into the flower of the same name. Narcissus, a profligate Roman courtier and favourite of the emi:)eror Claudius, was a slave in his youth. He acquired unlimited influence over Claudius, and pro- cured the death of several innocent persons. He also caused Messalina to be assassinated. He was put to death, by order of Agrippina, in 54 A.D, Nardi, naRMee, (Jacopo,) a distinguished historian, born at Florence in 1476. His principal work is a "His- tory of Florence from 1494 to 1531," (1582.) He also wrote a comedy entitled " L'Amicizia," and made a translation of Livy, (1540,) esteemed one of the best in the Italian language. Died about 1555. See C. Nardi, "Vita di Jacopo Nardi." Nardin, ntR'd^N', (Jean Frederic,) a French Prot. estant minister, born at Montbeliard in 1687. He preached at Blamont. Died in 1728. See DuvERNOY, "Vie dej. F. Nardin," prefixed to his Sermons ' 1754- Nardin, (T.,) a French negotiator and litterateur^ born at Besan9on in 1540; died in 1616. Nardini, naR-dee'nee, (Pietro,) an Italian musician, born at Leghorn in 1725, was esteemed one of the best violinists of his time. He composed a number of pieces for the violin and flute. Died in 1796. Nareda. See Narada, Nares, narz, (Rev. Edward,) nephew of James Nares, noticed below, was born in London in 1762. He became professor of modern history at Oxford in 1814. He was the author of a novel entitled " Thinks I to Myself," and of the " Life and Administration of Lord Burghley," which is severely criticised by Macaulay in the " Edin- burgh Review," (1832.) Died in 1841. Nares, (James,) an English composer, born in Mid- dlesex in 1715. His principal compositions are anthems and other church music ; he also published " Lessons for the Harpsichord," and various treatises on music. In 1756 he succeeded Green as organist and composer to the king. He was the preceptor of the composer Arnold, Died in 1783, Nares, (Robert,) a distinguished critic and theolo- gian, a son of the preceding, was born in 1753. He be- came Archdeacon of Stafford, and pastor of AUhallows Church, London ; he also held the office of assistant librarian of the British Museum, He published, among other works, "Elements of Orthoepy," (1784,) and a "Chronological View of the Prophecies relating to the Christian Church," (1805.) He was one of the founders of the "British Critic." Died in 1829. Narfi. See NoRvr. Nariiio, nS-rin'yo, (Antonio,) a South American general, born at Santa Fe de Bogota in 1769. He fought against the Spaniards in 1812-13, was made prisoner, and was confined at Cadiz, where he died about 1822, See Captain I^>onnycastle, " Spanish America," 1818; Lalle- MANT, " Histoire de la Colombie," 1826. Narni, di, de naR'nee, (Girolamo Mautin — mow- teen',) an Italian monk and eloquent preacher, lived in the seventeenth century. Nar'ri-en, (John,) F.R.S., an English geometer, born at Chertsey in 1782, was a maker of mathematical and philosophical instruments in his youth. He contributed to the " Penny Cyclopaedia," and published, besides several works on geometry, a " History of the Origin and Progress of Astronomy," (1838.) Nar'ses, [Gr. Napa^f,] a celebrated general under the emperor Justinian I., was a eunuch, and is supposed to have been a native of Asia. He was early distinguished by the favour of the emperor, and in 538 A.D. was ap- pointed to a command under Belisarius in Italy. Owing to dissensions arising between them, Narses was recalled in 539, but he was sent again in 552 as commander-in- chief of the Italian army. He obtained a signal victory over the Goths, led by Totila, and recovered Rome. Having driven the barbarians from the country, he was appointed in 553 Exarch of Italy. On the accession of Justinus II,, Narses was superseded in his command by Longinus. Died in 558. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Lb Beau, "Histoire du Bas-Empire;" Procopius, " Bellum Gothi- cum." Nar'ses or Narsi, nar'see, [Gr. Ndpcrj/f,] a Sassanide king of Persia, a son of Varanes II., began to reign in 294 A.D. He waged war against the emperor Diocletian, whose army he defeated in Mesopotainia in 296. Having been defeated in the second campaign, Narses sued for peace, and in 297 made a treaty by which he ceded Mesopotamia and Armenia to Diocletian. Narses abdi- cated in favour of his son, Hormisdas II., in 303 A.D. Narssius. See Naerssen. Naruszewicz, n5.-roo-sha'vitch, (Adam Stanislas,) a Polish historian and poet, born in 1733. He was ap- 5,e,T, 6,u,y,/<7«^; i, ^, A, same, less prolonged; a, e,i, 6,u,y, short; a,?,i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fSt; mSt; ndt; good; moon; NARVAEZ NASMTTH pointed successively professor of poetry in the Jesuits' College of Nobles at Warsaw, and Bishop of Smolensk. His principal works are a " History of Poland," an ex- cellent translation of Tacitus into Polish, and a number of lyrics, fables, and satires. Died in 1796. See Bentkowski, "Histoire de la Litterature Polonaise." Narvaez, de, di naR-vi-^th', (Panfilo,) a Spanish conmiander, born at Valladolid. He went to America in or before 15 10, and served in the army. When Ve- lasquez, Governor of Cuba, learned that Cortez disowned his authority in Mexico, he sent an army against him, and gave the command to Narvaez, in 1520. The latter was defeated and made prisoner by Cortez at Zampoala. He was killed by the Indians in Florida about 1527. See Prescott, "Conquest of Mexico." Narvaez, de, (Ramon Maria,) Duke of Valencia, a Spanish general and minister of state, born in Andalusia about 1798. He fought against the Carlists in 1836-38, and was the leader of the insurrection which drove Es- partero from power in 1843. He was prime minister from May, 1844, to February, 1846, and was restored to power in 1849. resigned in January, i85i,was again appointed president of the council in October, 1856, and retired from office in November, 1857. About Septem- ber, 1864, he again became prime minister. Died in April, 1868. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Nascimento, do, do nis-se-mgn'to, (Manoel,) an eminent Portuguese poet, born in Lisbon in 1734. He was driven into exile by the persecution of the Inquisi- tion in 1778, after which he lived in Paris until his death. Among his works, which he published under the assumed name of "Filinto Elysio," are a number of odes and a translation of La Fontaine's Fables. Died in 1819. See A. M. Sane, " Poesie lyrique Portugaise," etc., 1808; L. DE Mendo^a, " Memorias de Litteratura contemporanea." Naseef-al-Yazajee or Nasif-al-Yazaji, nd-seef II yl'za-jee, a distinguished Arabic scholar and writer, born in "the Lebanon," probably near the commence- ment of the present century. Although a Christian, he is said to have devoted his life solely to the study of the language, history, literature, and grammar of the Arabs. In his treatise on grammar he has condensed, with rare ability and skill, the whole system of the Arab gram- marians. " No more complete exposition of the subject," says Mr. Chenery, "has ever been brought into a vol- ume of the same size." He has also written " Makamat," ("Assemblies,") in imitation of Hareeree, (Hariri.) "Nasif," says the same critic, "has little of the poetical power of his great original, but in curious learning he almost equals him." See " Assemblies of Hariri," Introduction, pp. q8-ioi. Naselli, na-seKlee, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Ferrara. The churches of Ferrara contain many of his works. Died about 1630. Nash, (Abner,) an American statesman and lawyer, born in Prince Edward county, Virginia. Having set- tled in North Carolina, he was elected in 1779 Governor of that State. Died in 1786. Nash, (Francis,) an American brigadier-general, brother of Abner Nash, noticed above, was mortally wounded at the battle of Germantown, (1777.) Nash, (Frederick,) an American jurist, born at Newbern, North Carolina, in 1781, was a son of Abner Nash. He resided mostly at Hillsborough. He became a judge of the supreme court of North Carolina in 1844. Died in 1858. Nash, (John,) an English architect, born in London in 1752. He was appointed in 1815 inspector of the royal buildings. He furnished the designs for the Hay- Market Theatre, Buckingham Palace, and the Pavilion of Brighton, also the plans of Regent Street and Re- gent's Park. Died in 1835. Nash, (Joseph,) an English painter and designer, born about 1812. He designed illustrations for "The Architecture of the Middle Ages," (1838.) He is dis- tinguished as a painter of architecture. Nash, (Richard.) usually called Beau Nash, was born at Swansea, Wales, in 1674. He entered the Mid- dle Temple as a student of law, but had an invincible aversion to study and business. He distinguished him- self as a man of fashion, a master of the science of gentility, and a paragon of effrontery. His skill as a gambler yielded him an ample revenue. In 1704 he found Bath a vulgar and mismanaged watering-place, infested with ill-bred people. He got himself appointed master of ceremonies, and, by enforcing the rules of good breeding at balls, public assemblies, etc., converted Bath into a fashionable and elegant place of resort. His person was coarse and ungainly, but his vivacity and benevolent or prodigal habits rendered him popular. He is said to have taken measures to guard the unwary youth from falling victims to the designs of villains. During a part of his long period of prosperity and supremacy at Bath, he rode in a six-horse coach with a retinue of servants. In his old age he was impoverished by the act of Parliament which suppressed gaming. Died in 1761. See Oliver Goldsmith, " Life of Richard Nash," 1763; " Ec* centric Personages," by Wm. Russell, 1866. Nash, (Thomas,) an English wit and dramatist, born in Suffolk about 1564. He was the author of "The Supplication of Pierce Penniless to the Devil," (1592,) "Dido," a tragedy, (1594,) a comedy entitled "Suiii- mer's Last Will and Testament," (1600,) and several other works, which had great popularity in that age. Died in 1601. See Warton, "History of English Poetry;" Disraeli, "Ca- lamities of Authors." Nash, (Treadway Russel,) an English divine and antiquary, born in 1725 or 1726. He published "Col- lections for a History of Worcestershire," and a fine edition of Hudibras, and contributed several papers to the " Archaeologia." Died in 1811. Nasif-al-Yazaji. See Naseef-al-Yazajee. Nasini, na-see'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian painter of history and portraits, born at Sienna in 1641 ; died in 1716. Nasini, (Giuseppe Niccol6,) a skilful painter, born near Sienna about 1655, was a brother of the preceding. He painted in oil and fresco many works, the subjects of which are mostly religious. Died in 1 736. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." N^sir - ed - Deen - Mohammed - Ibn - Hassan, or Nassir-eddyn-Mohammed-Ibn-Ha9an, nd'sir ed- deen' mo-htm'med ib'n hd'san, surnained Al-Too'see, (or Al-Thousi,) from the place of his birth, a celebrated Persian astronomer, born at Toos, (Tus or Thous,) in Khorassan, about 1200 a.d., became superintendent of an observatory in Azerbaijan. He was the author of "Ilchanic Tables," which are said by Delanibre not to differ essentially from those of Ptolemy. Died in 1274. Nasir- (or Nasser-) Ledeen- (Ledin-) lilah, ni'sir le-deen' iKlah, (Abool- Abbas- Ahmed, i'bool ib-bas' ^H'med,) an Abbasside caliph, began to reign at Bagdad in 1 1 80, as successor of his father Mostadee. He founded many colleges, hospitals, and mosques. Died in 1225. Na'smith, (David,) a Scottish philanthropist, born in Glasgow in 1799, was distinguished for his zeal in promoting religious and benevolent associations. He founded in 1826 the Glasgow City Mission, and, having subsequently visited England, Ireland, France, and the United States of America, he established missions in their principal cities. The London City Mission, which began its operations in 1835 with four missionaries, numbered in 1856 upwards of three hundred. Nasmith also founded the London Female Mission, the Adult School Society, and other similar institutions. Died in 1839. See Dr. John Campbell, "Memoirs of David Nasmith," 1844. Na'smith, (James,) an English divine and antiquary, born at Norwich in 1740, published editions of the " Itineraries" of Simon and William of Worcester, and Tanner's "Notitia Monastica." Died in 1808. Na'smyth, (Alexander,) a celebrated Scottish painter, founder of the so-called Nasmyth school, was born at Edinburgh in 1758. He painted landscapes and portraits of great merit. Among the latter, that of Burns is highly esteemed, and is said to be the only authentic likeness of the poet. Died in 1840. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) € as 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y^, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as z; as in this. (S^See Explanations, p. 23.) NASMTTH 1658 NAUBERT Nasmyth, (James,) a Scottish engineer and inventor, son of the preceding, was born in Edinburgh in 1808, He commenced business for himself as a mechanical engineer, at Manchester, in 1834. He invented a steam hammer, a steam pile-driver, and other machines. See Samuel Smiles, " Industrial Biography," etc., 1864. Nasmyth, (Patrick,) a brother of the preceding, was born at Edinburgh in 1786. He enjoyed a high reputation as a landscape-painter, and had five sisters who were distinguished in the same department of the art. Died in 1831. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Nassare, nis-si'ri, (Blas Antonio,) a Spanish writer on various subjects, born at Alguezar in 1689; died in 1751. Nassau, nas'saw, [Ger. pron. nis'sow,] House of, a noble family, of German origin, which produced many great men, and derived its title from Nassau, on the Rhine. In the sixteenth century the family acquired the principality of Orange, in the southeast of France, after which the Counts of Nassau took the title of Prince of Orange. (See Orange, and William IH. of Eng- land.) See Kremer, " Geschichte des Nassauischen Hauses." Nassau, (Henry,) Count of, a Flemish nobleman, inherited from his father large estates in Brabant, Flan- ders, and Holland. In 15 15 he married the sister of Philibert, Prince of Orange, by whom he had a son Rene. Henry was a confidential friend of Charles V., whose governor he had been in that emperor's boyhood. " It was he," says Motley, " whose influence placed the im- perial crown upon the head of Charles." He was the uncle of William of Orange, the founder of the Dutch republic. Nassau, (Maurice of,) [Dutch, Maurits van Nas- sau, mow'rits vtn nis'sow ; Ger. Moritz von Nassau, mo'rits fon nSs'sow,] one of the greatest captains of modern times, was born at the castle of Dillenburg in November, 1567, and was the second son of William the Silent, Prince of Orange, who founded the Dutch repub- lic. About the age of twenty he was elected Governor and Captain-General of the Seven United Provinces, which were then at war with Spain. In 1591 he took Deventer, Zutphen, and other fortified towns. He defeated the Spaniards in a great pitched battle at Turnhout in 1597, and gained a decisive victory over the Archduke Albert of Austria at Nieuwport in 1600. In the ensuing cam- paigns his skill as a tactician was exerted with uninter- rupted success until 1609, when Spa-in recognized the independence of the Dutch, and a truce of twelve years was signed by the two powers. The patriot Barneveldt, by promoting this peace and opposing the ambitious pro- jects of Maurice, incurred his enmity, and finally became a victim of his cruelty. (See Barneveldt.) Maurice received the title of Prince of Orange at the death of his elder brother, about 1618. In 1621 he renewed the war against the Spaniards, who opposed to him the celebrated general Spinola. " His great capacity in the military art," says Hume, " would have compensated the inferior- ity of his forces, had not the Spanish armies been com- manded by Spinola." Maurice compelled his rival to raise the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom in 1622, but Spinola took Breda in 1625. He died in 1625, and was succeeded in the office of Stadtholder by his brother, Frederick Henry, who was the grandfather of William HI. of Eng- land. Maurice made important improvements in the military art, and excelled especially in the reduction and defence of fortified places. See Stolker, "Prins Maurits," 1827; Oudemans, " Het Leven en de Daden van Maurits Prins van Oranje-Nassau," 1832; C. M. VAN DER Kemp, " Maurits van Nassau Prins van Oranje," etc., 1844; Motley, "History of the United Netherlands." Nassau-Siegen, de, deh nis'sow see'gen, (Charles Henri Nicolas Othon,) Prince, bom in Nassau in 1745, gained distinction by his adventures. He served in the French army, and afterwards entered the service of Russia. He gained a naval victory over the Turks in 1788. Died about 1809. Nassau-Siegen, de, (Jan Maurits,) Prince, called the American, a Dutch commander, born in 1604, was a grandson of John, Count of Nassau. He was appointed captain-general of the Dutch possessions in Brazil in 1636, and gained several successes over the Portuguese. He returned to Holland in 1644, and was made general-in-chief of the cavalry. He left in manu- script a work on the Animals of South America. Died in 1679. See Van Kampen, "Johann Moritz von Nassau: eine Bio- graphie," 1842 ; L. Driesen, " Leben des Fursten Moritz von Nassau-Siegen," 1849. Nast, (William,) D.D., a native of Germany, emi- grated in 1828 to America, where he became a preacher of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He has translated numerous Methodist works into German, and published several books in that language. Natal, Bishop of. See Colenso. Natale, nS-ti'li, [Lat. Nata'lis,] (Geronimo,) a Spanish Jesuit, born in Majorca in 1507. He declined the office of general of the order of Jesuits in 1558. He wrote "Commentaries and Meditations on the Gospels," (" Adnotationes et Meditationes in Evangelia," 1594.) Died at Rome in 1580. See H. Fisquet, "Notice sur Jerome Natalis," 1856. Natali, na-ti'Iee, (Giovanni,) an Italian poet and physician, born at Messina in 1642 ; died about 1730. Natali, (Giuspippe,) an Italian painter, of the school of Cremona, born in 1652 ; died in 1722. Natalis. See Natale. Natalis, nS-ti'lis, (Michael,) a Flemish engraver, born at Liege about 1609, worked at Rome and Paris. He engraved some works of Titian, Rubens, and Poussin. Died in 1670. Na'than, [Heb. \T\1 ; Gr. Na^av,] a Hebrew prophet, who lived in the reigns of Kings David and Solomon. He wrote a Life of David, which is not extant. See II. Samuel xii. ; I. Chronicles xxix. 29; I. Kings i. Nathan, (Isaac,) called also Mordecai, a Jewish rabbi of the fifteenth century, published the first Hebrew Concordance to the Bible. It is entitled " Mair Netib," or "Light to the Path." Na'than Ben Jechiel, [hln yDa't-lV,) a Jewish rabbi, president of the synagogue at Rome. He wrote a Tal- mudical Lexicon, which was printed about 1480. Died in 1 1 06. Nathanael, (of Scripture.) See Bartholomew. Natoire, nftw^R', (Charles,) a French painter, born at Nimes in 1700, studied under Lemoine, whose un- finished works he completed. Some of his best pictures are at Versailles and the Hotel de Soubise. Died near Rome in 1777. See DuMESNiL, " Le Peintre-Graveur Frangais." Natter, n^t'ter, (Johann Lorenz,) a celebrated Ger- man gem-engraver, born in Suabia in 1705. After re- siding for a time at Rome, he visited the principal courts of Europe, where his works were in great demand. His imitations of the antique are so perfect as scarcely to be distinguished from the original. Among his best pro« ductions are a medal in honour of Sir Robert Walpole, and a victorious Britannia, on a gem. Natter published a "Treatise on the Antique Method of engraving Gems, compared with the Modern." Died at Saint Petersburg in 1763. See Nagler, " Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." Natterer, nit'ter-er, (Johann,) a German naturalist, born at Laxenburg, near Vienna, in 1787. Pie travelled in Brazil, and wrote several works on reptiles and mam- mifera. Died in 1843. Nattier, nS'te-i', (Jean Marc,) a French portrait- painter, born in^ris in 1685. Among his master-pieces are the portraits of Marshal Saxe and the Duke of Richelieu. He was professor in the Academy of Arts. Died in 1766. Natzmer, von, fon nSts'mer, (Dubislaw Gneomar,) a Prussian general, born in Pomerania in 1654. He distinguished himself at Blenheim, (1704,) and com- manded the Prussian corps at Malplaquet, (1709.) Died in 1739. Naubert, now'bgRt, (Christiane Benedicte Eu- genie,) a celebrated romance-writer of Germany, born at Leipsic in 1756. Among her most admired works are "Conradin of Suabia," "Walter of MOntbarry," and " Thekla of Thurn." The latter, it is said, suggested to ft, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, g, obscure; f^r, f^U, fit; mfet; n6t; good; moon; NJUBRIGENSIS 1659 NJFEZ Schiller many fine passages in '* Wallenstein." Her *' Popular Legends of Germany" are also greatly esteemed. Died in 1819. Naiibrigensis. See Little, (William.) Nauclerus, now-kla'rus, (Johann Vergen,) a chron- icler, born in Suabia about 1430. He wrote, in Latin, a chronicle, which was printed in 1516. Died abouti5io. Nau'cra-tes, [NaD/cpaT??^,] a Greek orator, was a pupil of Isocrates, and flourished about 350 B.C. He wrote on rhetoric. Nau-cy'des, \NavKv6r]q,'\ a celebrated Greek sculptor, born at Argos about the 95th Olympiad. Among his best productions were two statues of Chimon, a Mer- cury, and a bronze statue of Erinna. Naudaeus. See Naud6, (Gabriel.) Naude, n5'da', [Lat. Naud.^:'us,] (Gabriel,) a dis- tinguished French bibliographer and savant, was born in Paris in 1600. He was chosen physician-ordinary to Louis XHL in 1633, and librarian to Cardinal Richelieu in 1642. Soon alter the death of Richelieu (1642) he became librarian to Mazarin. He had extensive learning and an acute understanding, and was an intimate friend of Gassendi. His principal works are an " Apology for Great Men falsely accused of Magic," (1625,) " Biblio- graphia Politica," (1633,) and " Considerations on Coups d'Etat." A collection of anecdotes entitled " Naudaeana" was published in 1701. Died in 1653. See Louis Jacob, " Gabrielis Naudasi Tumulus," 1659 ; Niceron, " Memoires ;" Sainte-Beuve, " Portraits litt^raires," 1855 ; " Nou- velle Biogiaphie Generale." Naude, (Philippe,) a French mathematician and Protestant theologian, born at Metz in 1654. Having removed to Berlin, he was appointed, in 1696, professor of mathematics in the Academy of Arts, and subsequently in the Academy of Sciences, soon after its foundation. He was the author of a number of moral and theological works, and of "Elements of Geometry," (1706.) Died in 1729. Naudet, wb'cW, (Joseph,) a French scholar and his- torian, born in Paris in 1786. He became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1817, and professor of Latin poetry in the College de France about 1821. Among his works is a " History of the Monarchy of the Goths in Italy," (1811.) See " Nouvelle Biographic Getidrale." Naudet, (Thomas Charles,) a French landscape- painter, born in Paris in 1774. He travelled over a considerable part of Europe, and made a collection of three thousand designs. Died in 1810. Naugerius. See Navagero. Naumann, now'mSn, (Johann Andreas,) a German naturalist, born near Kothen in 1744. He published a " History of the Birds of North Germany," (i 795-1804.) Died in 1826. Naumann, (Johann Friedrich,) an ornithologist, born near Kothen in 1780, was a son of the preceding. His chief work is a " Natural History of German Birds," (1822-44.) T)\Qd in 1857. Naumann, (Joh \nn Gottlieb or Amadeus,) a Ger- man composer, born near Dresden in 1741. He pro- duced several popular operas ; but his reputation rests chiefly on his church music. Died in 1801. See Meissner, " Bruchstiicke aus J. A. Naumanns Lebensge- schichte," 2 vols., 1804; Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Mu- siciens." Naumann, (Karl Friedrich,) a German mineral- ogist, born at Dresden in 1797, was a son of Johann Gottlieb, noticed above. He published several suc- cessful works on mineralogy. Naumann, (Moritz Ernst Adolph,) a brother of the preceding, and a medical writer, was born at Dresden in 1798. He wrote an important work on clinic medi- cine, " Handbuch der medicinischen Klinik," (8 vols., 1829-39,) and other works. Naun'ton, (Sir Robert,) an English statesman, rose to be secretary of state and master of requests under James I. He was the author of '* Fragmenta Regalia," or an account of the court of Queen Elizabeth. Died in 1635. Nausea, now'zi-l, otherwise called Unrath, oon'rSt, and Eckel, §k'kel, (Friedrich,) a German theologian, born near Wiirtzburg about 1480. He became preacher to the court at Vienna in 1534, and Bishop of Vienna in 1 541. He published several works on theology. Died about 1550. See DupiN, " Biblioth^que des Auteurs ecclesiastiques." Nau-sic'a-a, [Gr. Nanci/caa,] a daughter of Alcinous, King of the Phaeacians, showed kindness to Ulysses when he was wrecked on the island of Phasacia, (Corfu.) Tradition adds that she became the wife of Telemachus. Nau-sic'ra-tes, [NavaLKpdrrj^,] a Greek comic poet, whose works' are not extant. He is classed by some critics among the writers of the middle comedy. Nauze, La. See La Nauze. Navagero, na-va-ja'ro,[Lat. Nauge'rius,] (Andrea,) an Italian scholar and eminent Latin poet, born in Venice in 1483. He passed about four years (1525-28) at Madrid as Venetian ambassador to Charles V., and exercised an important influence on Spanish literature. Having been sent on a mission to France, he died at Blois in 1529. His Latin and Italian poems are admired for their ele- gance and purity of style. See GiNGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" Meneghelli, " Elogio di A. Navagero," 1813. Navagero, (Bernardo,) a Venetian statesman and cardinal, born at Venice in 1507. He was sent as am- bassador to France and Germany, and attended the Council of Trent. He wrote a " Life of Pope Paul IV." Died in 1565. See L. Manin, "Elogio del Cardinale Navagero," 1814; Au« BERY, " Histoire des Cardinaux." Navailles, de, deh nt'vtl' or nt'vt'ye, (Philippe de Montault de Benac — deh m6N''t5' deh ba^ntk',) Due, a French general, born in 1619. He obtained the rank of marshal of France in 1675. Died in 1684. See "Memoires de sa Vie," etc., written by himself, 1691. Navarre or Navarrese, Doctor. See Azpilcueta. Navarre, ni-vSr'ri, (Pedro,) a Spanish captain, born in Biscay, was a skilful engineer. He invented or im- proved the art of undermining, and took the Castello del Ovo at Naples in 1503. In 15 14 he entered the service of Francis I. of France. Died in 1528. See Brant6me, "Vies des grands Capitaines." Navarrete or Navarete. See Mudo, El. Navarrete, na-vir-ra'ta, (Domingo Fernandez,) a Spanish Dominican, born in Old Castile, was a mission- ary to China in 1646. After his return he was created Archbishop of Saint Domingo in the West Indies. He was the author of a valuable work on the moral, political, and religious condition of the Chinese, entitled "Tra- tados historicos, etc. de la Monarchia de China," (1676.) Died in 1689. See Churchill, " Collection of Voyages and Travels." Navarrete, (Don Martin Fernandez,) an eminent Spanish historian and geographer, born at Abalos in 1765. He was appointed in 1823 director of the Hydro- graphic Institute at Madrid, and in 1837 was made a senator and director of the Academy of History. His principal work is entitled a "Collection of the Voyages and Discoveries made by the Spaniards since the Close of the Fifteenth Century." It is eulogized by Humboldt, and has furnished Irving with material for his " Life of Columbus." He also wrote a " Biography of Cervantes," and assisted in preparing a valuable "Collection of Un- published Documents for the History of Spain," (un- finished.) He was a member of the Spanish Academy, and proposed a new system of orthography, which was adopted by that institution. Died in 1844. See D. DE Mofras, "Mendoza et Navarrete," 1845. Navarro, ni-vlR'ro, (Augustin,) a Spanish painter, born at Murcia in 1754; died in 1787. Navarro, (Felipe,) a Spanish painter, born at Va- lencia about 1680. See QuiLLiET, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." Nave or Naeve, na'feh, written also Nefe, (Kaspar,) a German medical writer, born at Chemnitz in 1514; died about 1580. Navez, ntVy, (FRANgois Joseph,) an eminent Bel- gian historical painter, born at Charleroi in 1787, was a pupil of David. He worked mostly at Brussels, and € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S;^=^See Explanations, p. 23k) NAVIER 1660 NEBENIUS painted many scriptural subjects. He was regarded as the chief of the Academic school of Belgian artists. Navier, wi'vo-kf, (Pierre Toussaint,) a French physician and chemist, born at Saint-Dizier in 1712, was the discoverer of nitrous ether. He was a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences, and published several scientific works. Died in 1779. Navieres, de, deh nt've^iR', (Charles,) a French poet, born at Sedan in 1544 ; died in Paris in 16 16. Naville, nt^v^K, (Francois Marc Louis,) a Swiss writer on education and moral philosophy, born at Geneva in 1784. Among his works is a "Treatise on Legal Charity," (2 vols., 1836.) Died in 1846. Nay'lpr, (James,) an English enthusiast, born in Yorkshire in 1616. He became an eloquent preacher of the Society of Friends, after he had served in the army of the Parliament, which he left in 1649. Having fallen into delusions and received acts of worship from some fanatical persons, he was convicted of blasphemy by the Parliament in 1656. He was branded, pilloried, and imprisoned several years. Died in 1660. See Sewel, "History of the Quakers;" and article in the "Democratic Review" for March, 1846, (by Whittier.) Nazianzen. See Gregory Nazianzen. Ne or Ni, a name sometimes given to Confucius, which see. Neagle, na'gel, (John,) an American artist, chiefly known as a portrait-painter, was born in Boston in 1799. He practised his art in Philadelphia, where he married a daughter of Sully. Among his works are portraits of Washington and Henry Clay. Died in 1865. See DuNLAP, "History of the Arts of Design in America;" TucKERMAN, " Book of the Artists." Neal, (Alice B.) See Haven, (Alice.) Neal, neel, (Daniel,) a celebrated English dissenter, born in London in 1678. After completing his studies at Utrecht, he became minister of a congregation in Aldersgate Street, London. His principal works are a •* History of the Puritans," (in 4 vols.,) and a " History of New England." Died in 1743. See Wilson, " History of Dissenting Churches." Neal, (John,) an American poet and litterateur, born at Portland, Maine, in 1793. His first publications were a series of essays on the works of Byron, which ap- peared in " The Portico," a monthly magazine. These were soon followed by his novel entitled " Keep Cool," (1817,) "The Battle of Niagara," (1818,) " Goldau, the Maniac Harper," and other poems ; also " Logan," (1822,) "Seventy-Six," (1823,) and other novels. In 1824 he visited England, where he contributed a num- ber of able and interesting articles on American litera- ♦ ture to "Blackwood's Magazine." After his return, he published the novels of " Rachel Dyer," (1828,) "The Down-Easters," (1833,) "True Womanhood," (1859,) and several other works. In 1870 appeared his " Wan- dering Recollections of a Somewhat Busy Life." "The elements of poetry," says R. W. Griswold, " are poured forth in his verses with a prodigality and power alto- gether astonishing ; but he is deficient in the constructive faculty." See Griswold, " Prose Writers of America ;" Dt;YCKiNCK, " Cy- clopsedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." Neal, (Joseph C.,) an American journalist and hu- morous writer, born at Greenland, New Hampshire, in 1807. Having settled in Philadelphia, he became in 1831 editor of "The Pennsylvanian," and in 1844 of a literary journal entitled " Neal's Saturday Gazette," which soon acquired extensive popularity. He published in 1837 "Charcoal Sketches, or Scenes in a Metropolis," which were received with great favour, and were republished in London. They were followed by " Peter Ploddy, and other Oddities," (1844,) and another series of "Char- coal Sketches." Died in 1848. See Griswold, " Prose Writers of America." Ne-al'ges, [Nm/i/c??c,] a Greek painter, born about 213 B.C., is supposed to have been a native of Sicyon. His works were highly esteemed by his contemporaries, and are eulogized by Plutarch and Pliny. One of his principal pieces represents a battle between the Egyp- tians and the Persians on the Nile. Neale, neel, (John Mason,) an English theologian and historical writer, born about 1818. He published, besides several books for children, a " History of the Holy Eastern Church," and other works. Neander, ni-in'der, (Christoph Friedrich,) (changed from Neumann,) a German divine and poet, born in Courland in 1724. He was the author of " Spiritual Songs," (" Geistliche Lieder,") which are ranked among the best compositions of that kind in the language. Died in 1802. See " Bruchstiicke von Neanders Leben," Berlin, 1804. Ne-an'der, [Ger. pron. ni-ln'der,] (Johann August WiLHELM,) an eminent German theologian and ecclesi- astical historian, of Jewish extraction, was born at Got- tingen in 1789. He became in 181 2 professor of theology at Berlin, where he devoted himself zealously to the duties of his office and the advancement of Christianity by his numerous writings. Of these the most important is his "Universal History of the Christian Religion and Church," (in 5 vols., 1843.) Among his other produc- tions we may name " The Emperor Julian and his Times," (1812,) "Memorable Occurrences from the History of Christianity and Christian Life," (3 vols., 1822,) "His- tory of the Planting of the Apostolic Church," (1832,) and "The Life of Jesus Christ in its Historical Rela- tions," (1837,) an able refutation of the well-known work of Strauss. Neander was a member of the Consistory of the province of Brandenburg. His writings have obtained great reputation and influence in foreign coun- tries, as well as in Germany. Died in Berlin in July, 1850. " Neander still remains beyond doubt the greatest church historian, thus far, of the nineteenth century. Great, too, especially in this, that he never suff'ered his renown to obscure at all his sense of the sinfulness and weakness of every human work in this world. With all his comprehensive knowledge, he justly regarded him- self as, among many others, merely a forerunner of a new, creative epoch of ever-young Christianity. . . . 'We stand,' he said, *on the line between the old world and a new, about to be called into being by the ever-fresh energy of the gospel. For a fourth time an epoch in the life of our race is in preparation by means of Christianity.'" (Dr. Schaff's "History of the Apostolic Church.") See Krabbe, "A. Neander," 1852; " Zum Gedachtniss A. Nean- der's," Berlin, 1S50; Herzog, " Real-Encyklopadie ;" W. Farrell, "Memorial of A. Neander," 1851 ; "North British Review" for February, 1851 ; "British Quarterly Review" for October, 1868. Neander, (Michael,) a German Protestant divine and classical scholar, born in Lower Silesia in 1525, was a pupil of Melanchthon. He wrote a number of Greek and Latin treatises. Died in 1595. See Reinhard, " De Vita M. Neander," 1756: Niceron, "M^- moires Havemann, " Mittheilungen aus dem Leben M. Nean- der's," 1841. Neander, (Michael,) a learned German physician, born in Misnia in 1529. Among his works we may name a " Synopsis of Weights and Measures according to the Romans, Athenians," etc. Died in 1581. Ne-ar'-ehus, [Gr. '^seapxo^; Fr. N^arque, nk''tRk',] a celebrated admiral of Alexander the Great, was a native of Crete, or, as some assert, of Amphipolis. About 327 B.C. he set sail from the Indus for the Persian Gulf, and discovered on his passage the mouths of the Euphrates and the Tigris. A detailed account of this voyage is given by Arrian, the accuracy of which has been confirmed by Vincent and other modern geographers. Nearchus, on his return, was received with distinguished favour by Alexander, who assured him that he rejoii:ed more in the success of the expedition than in having conquered Asia. He also received from his sovereign a golden crown. After the death of Alexander, Nearchus was made governor of Pamphylia and Lycia. See Plutarch, "Vita Alexandri ;" Vincent, "Voyage of Near- chus to the Euphrates," etc., 1797; Gosselin, "Geographic des Grecs." Nearque. See Nearchus. Nebel, na'bel, (Daniel,) a German botanist, born at Heidelberg in 1664. He published several works on botanv. Died in 1733. Nebenius, ni-ba'ne-us, (Karl Friedrich,) a Ger- man statesman and able writer on political economy, a,e, 1, 6, ii, y, long; i, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; NEBI 1661 NECKHJM born near Landau in 1784. He was president of the Council of Baden from 1846 to 1848. Among his works is a "Treatise on Public Credit," (1820.) Died in 1857. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Nebi, n^b'ee, an admired Turkish poet of the seven- teenth century, flourished under the reign of Mahomet IV. Neb-ris-sen'sis, (Antonius,) an eminent Spanish scholar, whose proper name was Antonio DE Lebrixa, (di la-bRee'HS,) was born at Lebrixa in 1444. He studied the classics in Italy, and, returning to Spain in 1473, came to that country what Erasmus was to Germany or Bude (Budaeus) to France. As professor in the Univer- sity of Salamanca, he initiated a reform in the method of teaching Latin and Greek. He published a Latin Lexi- con, (1492,) a "Lexicon of Civil Law," (1506,) which is highly commended, and grammars of the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages. About 15 14 he became professor of rhetoric at Alcala. "The men to whom Spain chiefly owes the advancement of useful learning," says Hallam, "were Arias Barbosa and the more renowned Antonio de Lebrixa." ("Introduction to the Literature of Eu- rope.") Died in 1522. See Prescott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. part i. Ne'brus, [Gr. Ne(5p6f,] an eminent Greek physician, flourished about 580 B.C. He is supposed to have been a native of Cos. When the Amphictyons besieged the town of Crissa, in Phocis, Nebrus assisted in reducing the town by poisoning the water. Neb'u-Ghad-nez'zar, [Heb. nj^WnD^J ; Fr. Na- BUCHODONOSOR, n t'boo'ko''do^no^zoR', or Naboko- DROSSOR, ufbo^koMRo'soR',] King of Babylon, succeeded his father Nabopolassar. He took Jerusalem in 606 B.C., and carried to Babylon many captives, among whom was the prophet Daniel. King Zedekiah having revolted, Nebuchadnezzar took his capital in 588, destroyed the great temple by fire, threw down the walls of the city, and transported the Jewish people to Babylon. He afterwards captured Tyre, conquered Egypt, and became probably the most powerful monarch of that age in the world. Having become too much elated by pride and prosperity, he was, by divine visitation, deprived of his reason and deposed from his throne. Restored to reason and power a short time before his death, he published a pious proclamation of his experience and of his recog- nition of the King of heaven. See II. Kings xxv. i ; Daniel i., ii., iii., and iv. ; also, Samuel Clarke, " Life and Death of Nebuchadnezzar," 1664. Necliam. See Neckham. Ne'-eho [Gr. Ne/cwf, 'Nexau, or Nc;\:wf] or Pha'ra-oh Ne'-elio, King of Egypt, a son of Psammeticus, reigned from 617 to 601 B.C. He was a warlike prince, and defeated Josiah, King of Judah, in battle at Megiddo, but was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar in 606 B.C. at Carchemish. See BuNSEN, "Egyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte." Neck, van, vtn n^k, (Jan,) a Dutch painter, born at Naarden in 1635. His master-piece is " Simeon in the Temple holding the Infant Jesus in his Arms." Died at Amsterdam in 1714. See Drscamps, "Vies des Peintres Hollandais," etc. Necker,nek'ker or na'kaiR', (Albertine Adrienne de Saussure — deh so'sur',) a Swiss authoress, born at Geneva in 1766, was a daughter of the naturalist, H. B. de Saussure. She was married to J. Necker, a nephew of the great financier, and a cousin of Madame de Stael, of whom she was an intimate friend. She wrote a "Notice of the Character of Madame de Stael," (1820,) and " Progressive Education," (2 vols., 1828-32.) Died in 1 84 1. See Senebier, " Histoire litt^raire de Geneve." Necker, nek'ker, [Fr. pron. n^'kaiR',] (Jacques,) an eminent Swiss financier, and prime minister of France, born at Geneva in September, 1732. On leaving col- lege he became a clerk in a banking-house in Paris, and, having acquired a large fortune as partner of the great banker Thelusson, he retired from business in the prime of life, and aspired to public honours and more brilliant financial achievements. In 1773 he gained the prize offered by the French Academy for a eulogy on Col- bert, and published a treatise on the corn-laws, " Sur la Legislation des Grains." The disorder of the finances was so alarming that, without regard to official routine, he was appointed director of the treasury in 1776, and director-general of the finances in 1777. By publicity, order, and economy, he restored the public credit and lightened the burdens of the people. His famous compte rendtt of 1781 (which was the first public exposi- tion of the revenue and expenses of the State) was re- ceived with great favour ; but his reforms made for him many enemies at court and elsewhere. To defend him- self against their intrigues, he asked for a seat in the council, which was refused because he was a Protestant. He iminediately resigned, (1781,) and retired to Coppet, on Lake Leman. In 1784 he published his excellent work," On the Ad- ministration of the Finances," of which eighty thousand copies were sold in a few days. The convocation of the States-General was decreed by the royal council in August, 1788. The court was convinced that the skill of Necker was indispensable in the political and financial crisis that followed. He succeeded Brienne as prime minister, or controleur-general of finances, about Sep- tember I, 1788, and the next day the funds rose 30 per cent. He favoured the Revolution by granting to the Tiers-Etat a double number of deputies. He is censured for this concession, and for temporizing in the contest between the Tiers-Etat and the other orders after the meeting of the States-General in 1789. The court having adopted more violent measures than he approved, he tendered his resignation, (June 23,) which was not ac- cepted. On the nth of July he was suddenly dismissed by a note from the king, who ordered him to leave the kingdom privately ; and the same night he departed for Brussels. Indignant at his dismissal, the populace of Paris rose in arms, stormed the Bastille, and obtained a bloody triumph over the court. Necker was recalled on the 2ist of July, and, when he entered Paris, was received with enthusiastic demonstrations by the people. His first act was an amnesty for political offences. But he was too conservative to satisfy the popular party, and resigned his office in September, 1790. He passed the rest of his life at Coppet, where he wrote several political and religious treatises. Died in 1804. The highly-gifted Madame de Stael was his daughter. See Madame de Stael, " Vie priv^e de M. Jacques Necker,' 1804 ; Droz, " Histoire du R^gne de Louis XVI ;" Thiers, " His- tory of the French Revolution ;" Lanjuinais, " Etudes biographiquea sur Antoine Arnauld, P. Nicole et J. Necker," 1823; Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi ;" A. L. de Stael-Holstein, "Notice sur Necker," 1821 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1803, (by Sydney Smith.) Necker, (Louis Albert,) a Swiss naturalist, born at Geneva in 1786, was a son of Albertine A. de Saussure- Necker. He published " Le Regne mineral ramene aux Methodes de I'Histoire naturelle," (2 vols., 1835.) Nec'ker, (Noel Joseph,) a botanist, born in Flanders in 1729, gave special attention to mosses. He wrote, besides other works, a Description of the Wild Plants of France and Belgium, ("Deliciae Gallo-Belgicae Syl- vestres," 2 vols., 1768,) and " Methodus Muscorum," (1771.) Died in 1793. See P. R. WiLLEMET, " Notice sur la Vie de N. J. Necker," 1794. Necker, (Susanne Curchod — kiiR^sho',) an accom- plished and literary Swiss lady, born at Grassier in 1739. She was intimate in her youth with Gibbon the historian, who wished to marry her ; but his father opposed the match. She was married to M. Necker in 1764. Her salon in Paris was the resort of the most eminent authors, including Buffon, Diderot, and D'Alembert. She founded a hospital in Paris which bears her name. She died in 1794, leaving manuscripts which her husband published under the title of "Melanges," (5 vols., 1798-1802.) See Gibbon, " Memoirs ;" Grimm, " Correspondance ;" Marmon- TEL, " Memoires." Neck'ham or Nec'kam, written also Necham, (Alexander,) an English monk and Latin poet, born at Saint Alban's or Hartford about 1150. He wrote, in elegant Latin, several works, among which is a long scientific and descriptive poem, " De Naturis Rerum." Died in 1227. See Cave, "Historia Literaria," etc. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as G, H, Y.^ guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^=='See Explanations, p. 23.) NECTJNABIS 1662 NEHER Nec-tan'a-bis or Nec-tan'e-bes, [Gr. ISSeKravafSig or Nefi-aviiSTjc] King of Egypt, began to reign about 360 B.C. He waged war against Artaxerxes III. of Persia, who invaded and conquered Egypt about 350 B.C. Nec- tanabis was the last king of the Sebennite dynasty. Nec-taM-us, [NsKrapoog,] a Greek prelate, became Patriarch of Constantinople in 381 A.D. His moderation is said to have been exemplary. He died in 397, and was succeeded by Chrysostom. Nee, ni, (pRANgois Denis,) a French engraver, born in Paris about 1732. He engraved many landscapes and plates for illustrated works, among which is "Tableaux pittoresques de la Suisse." Died in 1818. See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." Neeb, nap, (Johann,) a German philosopher, born near Hanau in 1767. He published several works on philosophy. Died in 1843. Needham, need'am, (John Turberville,) F.R.S., an English naturalist, born in London in 1 7 13, was a Roman Catholic priest. He published "New Micro- scopical Discoveries," (1745,) and a treatise on genera- tion, in French, " Idee sommaire, ou Vue generale du Systeme physique et metaphysique sur la Generation," (1780.) He became director of the Academy of Sciences at Brussels, where he died in 1781. See HuTTON, "Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary." Needham, (Marchmont,) an English political writer, born at Burford in 1620. He supported the cause of the Parliament in his " Mercurius Britannicus," a weekly journal, (1643-47,) and that of the king in his "Mercu- rius Pragmaticus." In 1649 he again changed sides, and became editor of the " Mercurius Politicus," an organ of the Independents. His most remarkable work was a " Discourse on the Excellency of a Free State over a Kingly Government." Died in 1678. See Wood, "Athenze Oxonienses." Needham, (Walter,) an English anatomist, studied (it Oxford, and practised medicine in London. He be- came a Fellow of the Royal Society about 1667. He wrote an able treatise " De Formato Foetu." Died in 11691. Neefs, nafs, or Neef, naf, (Peter,) the Elder, a Dutch painter, born at Antwerp about 1 565. He excelled in perspective, and in representing the interiors of Gothic churches and convents, illuminated. The figures in his pictures are generally painted by Breughel, Teniers, and others. His " Cathedral of Antwerp" is esteemed a master-piece. Died in 165 1. His son, Peter Martin, the Younger, imitated his father's style, but did not equal him. See PiLKiNGTON, "Dictionary of Painters." Neele, neel, (Henry,) an English poet, born in Lon- don in 1798, was an attorney. He wrote "Dramatic Scenes," " The Romance of History," and other works. Died in 1828. Neer, van der, vtn der nair, (Aart or Arnold,) a Dutch landscape-painter, born at Amsterdam about 1619. His moonlight scenes, winter landscapes, and pictures into which water is introduced, are ranked among the finest productions of the kind. Died in 1683. Neer, van der, (Eglon Hendrik,) son of the pre- ceding, was born at Amsterdam in 1643. He studied under Vanloo, and attained eminence as a painter of landscapes, portraits, and historical pieces. Died in 1703. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Hollandais," etc. Neercassel, van, vtn naiR'kSs'sel, (Jan,) a Dutch bishoj) and writer, born at Gorcum in 1623. He was the only Roman Catholic bishop in Holland. He wrote, besides other works, " Amor Poenitens, seu de recto Usu Clavium," (1683.) Died in 1686. Nees von Ijsenbeck, nas fon a'zen-bSk', (Chris- tian Gottfried,) a German botanist, born in 1776. He became professor of natural history at Bonn about 1819, and afterwards lectured at Breslau. Among his numerous works are a " Manual of Botany," (2 vols., 1821,) and " Bryologia Germanica," (2 vols., 1823-51.) Died in 1858. See F. L. Bi.ev, " Leben und Wirken der Gebriider Nees von Esenbeck," 1844. Nees von Esenbeck, (Theodor Friedrich Lud- WiG,) a botanist, a brother of the preceding, was born near Erbach in 1787. He wrote several botanical works. Died in 1837. Neff, nef, (F^Lix,) a meritorious Swiss missionary, called "the Apostle of the Alps," was born at Geneva in 1798. He laboured as missionary among the Swiss mountaineers. Died in 1829. See a "Memoir of Felix Neff, Pastor of the High Alp>s," etc., by William S. Gillv, London, 1832 ; " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1833, (by Southey.) Nefftzer, n^ft'ser, (Auguste,) a French journalist, born at Colmar in 1820. He was an assistant editor of the "Presse," a daily paper of Paris, from 1844 to 1857. Nefi, n^fee, a distinguished Turkish satirist, whi> flourished in the seventeenth century. Negelein, na'geh-lin'', (Joachim,) a German theolo- gian and numismatist, born at Nuremberg in 1675 ; died in 1749. Neg'ley, (James S.,) an American general, born in Alleghany county, Pennsylvania, in 1826. In 1861 he raised a brigade, which he commanded in Tennessee in 1862. He took command of the post of Nashville in September of that year, and led a division at Stone River, December 31, 1862-January 2, 1863. For his conduct in this battle he was raised to the rank of major- general, in which capacity he served at the battle of Chickamauga, September 19 and 20, 1863. Negrelli-Moldelbe, von, fon nk-gRel'lee mol-dSl'- beh, (Alois,) an engineer, born in the Tyrol in 1799. He constructed the first railroad in Austria, (finished in 1841,) and other railroads. Died in 1858. Negri. See Negro. Negri, na'gRee, (Francesco,) a learned Italian eccle- siastic of Ravenna. He travelled in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, and returned home in 1666. The results of his observations appeared in a work entitled "Travels in the North." Died in 1698. Negri, (Francesco Vincenzo,) an Italian scholar and writer, born at Venice in 1769. He wrote a "Life of Apostolo Zeno," (1816,) and other works. Died in 1827. See TiPALDO, "Notizie della Vita di F. Negri," 1835; G. J. FoNTANA, "Elogio di F. Negri," 1829. Negri, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian antiquary and artist, born at Bologna in 1593. He founded two Academies, — namely, the Indistinti, devoted to the arts of design, and the Indomiti, (1640,) Died in 1659. Negri, (Girolamo,) an Italian classical scholar, born at Venice in 1494. He died in 1577, leaving "Orationes et Epistolae," (1579.) Negri, (Giulio,) an Italian Jesuit and biographer, born at Ferrara in 1648. He rendered an important service to literary history by his "Storia degli Scrittori Fiorentini," (" History of the Florentine Authors," 1722.) Died in 1720. Negri or Neri, na'ree, (Pietro Martine,) a skilful Italian painter of history and portraits, born at Cremona, flourished in 1600. Negrier, ni'gRe-i', (Francois Marie Casimir,) a French general, boirn at Mans in 1788. He served in Algeria, and was killed in Paris by the insurgents in June, 1848. Negro, na'gRo, or Negri, na'gRee, (Francesco,) an Italian philologist and Reformer, born at Bassano in 1500, embraced Protestantism, and removed to Ger- many. He published several works. Died about 1 56c. See G. B. Roberti, "Notizie della Vita e delle Opere di F. Negri," 1839. Negnizzi, nk-gRoot'see, (Constantine,) a Moldavian poet, born in 1809. He wrote, besides other works, a historical poem. Ne-he-mi'ah, [Heb. H^DHJ ; Fr. N^h^mie, ni'- a'me',] a Hebrew governor and writer, was cup-bearer to Artaxerxes, King of Persia, who appointed him Governor of Judea about 445 B.C. He probably wrote the book of the Old Testament which bears his name. Nehemie. See Nehemiah. Neher, na'er, (Bernard,) a German historical painter, born at Biberach in 1806. He painted frescos at Munich and in the palace of the grand duke at Weimar. These a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; \ d, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; NEIDHJRDT 1663 represent scenes from the dramas of Schiller and the works of Goethe. Neidhardt. See Gneisenau. Neidhart von Neuenthal, nit'haRt fon noi'en-tSr, one of the principal German lyric poets of the thirteenth century, was a native of Bavaria. The best collection of his songs is that published by Beneke in his "Contri- butions to the Knowledge of the Old German Language and Literature." Neigebaur, ni'geh-bowR', (Johann Daniel Ferdi- nand,) a German traveller and writer, born in Silesia in 1783. He published books of travel and descriptions of Italy, France, and other countries of Europe, which are said to be well written. Neikter, nlk'ter, (Joseph Frederik,) a Swedish archreologist and writer, obtained the chair of eloquence at Upsal in 1787. Died in 1803. Neill, neel, (James George Smith,) a British general, born about 1810. He rendered important services in India during the mutiny of the Sepoys, and was killed at the siege of Lucknow, in September, 1857. Neill, neel, (Patrick,) a Scottish naturalist and hor- ticulturist, born in 1776. He followed the trade of a printer in Edinburgh, and published a " Tour through some of the Islands of Orkney and Shetland," (1806,) and "The Fruit, Flower, and Kitchen Garden," (1839.) Died in 1851. Neipperg, von, fon nip'p§RG, (Albrecht Adam,) Count, an Austrian general, born about 1774. He dis- tinguished himself in several campaigns, and rose to a higli rank in the army. He was appointed cavalier i'honneur to the empress Maria Louisa about 1815. He is said to have married her secretly. Died in 1829. Neipperg, von, (Wilhelm,) an Austrian field-mar- shal in the service of Francis I. and Maria Theresa, was born in 1684, and was the grandfather of the preceding. In 1739 he concluded the disadvantageous peace of Bel- grade, and in 1 741 was defeated by Frederick the Great at Molhvitz. He retained the favour of his sovereigns, however, and was made imperial counsellor of war, and commander of Vienna. Died in 1774. Nelaton, ni'lt't^N', (Auguste,) an eminent French surgeon, born in Paris in 1807, graduated in 1836, and became professor of surgery to the Faculty of Medicine, Paris, in 185 1. He published, besides other treatises, "Elements of Pathological Surgery," (5 vols., 1844-61,) which is called a capital work. He was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1867. He was employed professionally by Napoleon III. about 1869. Neledinsky Meletzky, ni-li-d^n'ske mk-l&t'skee, (YooRiT,) an eminent Russian lyric poet, born in Mos- cow in 1 75 1. He was patronized by the emperor Paul, who conferred upon him a valuable estate and several honorary distinctions. His songs are among the most admired productions of the kind in the language. Died in 1829. See G RETCH, " Essai historique sur la Litterature Russe." Nelee_^ See Neleus. NeTeus, [Gr. Nt/?i£v^ ; Fr. N6l6e, ni'li',] a mythical personage, said to be a son of Neptune (or, according to some authorities, of Cretheus) and Tyro. Neleus and his brother Pelias disputed for the throne of lolchos, which the latter obtained. Neleus afterwards became King of Pylos and the father of Nestor and other sons. According to some writers, he was killed by Hercules. Neller, nel'ler, (Georg Christoph,) a German canon- ist and antiquary, born in 1710; died in 1783. Nelli, neKlee, (Pietro,) an Italian satirical poet of the sixteenth century, was a native of Sienna. His satires were published in 1546. Nelli, de', di neKlee, (Giambattista,) an Italian architect, born at Florence in 1661. He wrote a "Treat- ise on Architecture," (1753.) Died in 1725. Nelli, de', (Giambattista Clemente,) an Italian writer, born at Florence in 1725, was a son of the pre- ceding. Among his works is a " Life of Galileo," (1793.) Died in 1793. Nel'son, (David,) an American Presbyterian divine and eloquent preacher, born near Jonesborough, Ten- nessee, in 1793. He became pastor of a church at Dan- ville, Kentucky, in 1828, and subsequently assisted in NELSON founding a college in Marion county, Missouri, of which he was appointed president. His work entitled " The Cause and Cure of Infidelity" enjoys a high reputation, and has passed through numerous editions. Dr. Nelson was an earnest advocate for the abolition of slavery. Died in 1844. NePson, (Horatio,) Lord, a British naval hero and admiral of the first order, born at Burnham Thorpe, in Norfolk, on the 29th of September, 1758, was the son of Rev. Edmund Nelson and Catherine Suckling. He was endowed with great intrepidity and energy, and pos- sessed a generous, impetuous temper. He went to sea about the age of thirteen, served a number of years in the East Indies, and took part in several actions of the American war. In 1779 he became a post-captain, and in 1787 married the widow of Dr. Nisbet, of the island of Nevis. He obtained command of a ship in the Medi« terranean fleet in 1793, contributed to the victory over the Spaniards at Saint Vincent in 1797, and was raised to the rank of rear-admiral in the same year. His next enterprise was an attack on Teneriffe, where he was repulsed, with the loss of his right arm. In 1798 he attempted to intercept the passage of the French armament to Egypt, but missed it, until he over- took it in Aboukir Bay, where in August he gained the decisive battle of the Nile. For this service he was re- warded with the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile, and a pension of ^3000. While he was employed on the coast of Naples, (1799,) he became fascinated by the pernicious influence of Lady Hamilton, and tarnished his fame by executing Prince Carraccioli and other re- publicans, who were sacrificed to the vengeance of the court of Naples. Soon after these events he separated from his wife, who was supplanted in his affections by Lady Hamilton, He was second in command under Sir Hyde Parker of the armament sent against Copenhagen in 1801 ; but the honour of the victory at the battle of the Baltic is ascribed to Nelson. In the midst of the battle, Parker having made a signal to retreat, Nelson put a spy-glass to his blind eye and exclaimed, " I really don't see the signal." " He had won the day," says Southey, " by disobeying orders." For this success he was raised to the rank of viscount. War against France having been renewed in 1803, he took the command of the Mediterranean fleet, hoisted his flag on the Victory, and watched the French fleet off Toulon for more than a year. In May, 1805, he sailed for the West Indies in pursuit of Admiral Villeneuve, but was disappointed, and the hostile fleet returned safely to Europe, followed by the English admiral. He then went home and proposed to suspend his active service, but was re-appointed in September, 1805, in accordance with the general wishes of the nation, by whom he was more idolized than almost any other man had been. On the 2ist of October, (1805,) with twenty-seven sail of the line and four frigates, he attacked the combined French and Spanish fleets, of forty ships, under Ville- neuve, near Cape Trafalgar. Before the fight began, he gave the famous signal, " England expects every man to do his duty." The English gained a complete victory, but Nelson was mortally wounded by a musket-ball fired from the Redoutable, which was in close proximity to the flag-ship, the Victory. He is eulogized by Southey as " the greatest naval hero of our own and of all former times." See R. Southey, "Life of Nelson," 1813; J. S. Clarke, "Life of Admiral Lord Nelson," i8og: Thomas Pettigrew, "Memoirs of Lord Nelson," 1849; J. M. Tucker, "Memoirs of the Life of Lord Nelson," 1847; Joseph Allen, "Life of Viscount Nelson," 1853; John Charnock, "Memoirs of Lord Nelson," 1806; Al- PHONSE DE Lamartine, "Nelson," 1853; E. Forgues, " Histoire de Nelson," i860: Alison, " History of Europe ;" "London Quar- terly Review" for Februaiy, 1810, (by Southey;) " Edinburgh Re- view" for September, 1814 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for r)ecember, 1844; " Westminster Review" for January, 1848. Nelson, (Robert,) an English devotional writer, born in London in 1656. Among his works we may name "The Whole Duty of a Christian," and "Practice of True Devotion." In 1680 he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was an intimate friend of Arch- bishop Tillotson and of Dr. Halley. Died in 1715. Nelson, (Roger,) an American general, who served in the Revolutionary war. He represented a district of e as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. ([J^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) NELSON 1664 NEPOS Maryland in Congress for several terms, (1804-10.) Died in 181 5. Nel'spn, (Samuel,) an Irish patriot, born in 1759, was editor of a political journal called the " Northern Star," He was imprisoned six years, and released after the treaty of Amiens, in 1802. Nelson, (Samuel,) an American judge, born in the State of New York. He became an associate justice of the supreme court of the United States in 1845. He concurred in the decision of the court in the Dred Scott case, (1857.) Nelson, (Thomas,) an American patriot, and signer of the Declaration of Independence, born at York, in Virginia, in 1738. He was educated at Cambridge, Eng- land, and after his return was elected to the Congress of 1775. He was subsequently appointed brigadier- general and commander-in-chief of the forces of the commonwealth. In 1781 he succeeded Jefferson as Governor of Virginia. Died in 1789. See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of In- dependence." Nelson, (William,) an American general, born at Maysville, Kentucky, in 1825. He served in the navy, and obtained the rank of master in 1854. In September, 1861, he was appointed a brigadier-general of the Union army. He commanded a division at the battle of Shiloh, April, 1862. He was killed in a private quarrel at Louis- ville in September, 1862, by Jefferson C. Davis. Ne-me-si-a'nus, [Fr. N^:m6sien, ni'mi'z^N',] (Marcus Aurelius Olympius,) a Latin poet, born at Carthage. He lived at the court of the emperor Carus in 283 a.d. His works are lost, except fragments of a poem on hunting, entitled " Cynegetica," the style of which is commended for purity. Nemesien. See Nemesianus. Nem'e-sis, [Gr. Ne/xeaic, from vifiu, to "deal out," to "distribute;" Fr. N6m^;sis, n^'mi^s^ss',] a personage of Greek mythology, represented as a daughter of Night or Erebus. She was the goddess of retribution, and the divinity who rectified the errors of partial and capricious Fortune. At Rhammus, in Attica, there was a celebrated temple dedicated to Nemesis. Ne-me'si-us, [Ne/iiaioc,] a Greek philosopher, who lived probably between 350 and 450 A.D. He is styled Bishop of Emesa. He wrote an ingenious treatise on physiology and psychology, entitled "On the Nature of Man," ( Ilepl (^vaeog uvdptjnov.) It contains a passage which suggests an idea of the circulation of the blood. See Haller, "Bibliotheca Anatomica." Nemours, de, (Gaston de Foix,) Due. See Foix. Nemours, de, deh neh-mooR', (Henri de Savoie — d^h st^vwS',) Due, a French general, a son of Jacques, noticed below, (1531-85,) was born in Paris in 1572. He joined the League about 1588, but entered the ser- vice of Henry IV. a few years later. Died in 1632. Nemours, de, (Jacques d'Armagnac — dtk^mtu'- ySk',) Due, born about 1437, was a son of Bernard d'Armagnac. In 1465 he joined the league of the Bz'efz public against Louis XI. He was executed, on a charge of treason, in 1477. See SisMONDi, "Histoire des Fran^ais;" Barante, " Histoire des Dues de Bourgogne." Nemours, de, (Jacques de Savoy,) Due, a distin- guished French general, born in Champagne in 1531, was the son of Philip, Due de Genevois and de Ne- mours, whose sister Louise was the mother of King Francis I. He fought against the Protestants in the civil war, and distinguished himself at the battle of Saint-Denis, in 1567. He opposed the ambitious designs of the Guise family, and took no part in the civil war be- tween the League and the king. Died in 1585. See Brantome. "Vies des grands Capitaines." Nemours, de, (Louis d'Armagnac,) Due, a French military commander, born about 1472, was a son of Jacques, noticed above. He served in Italy against the Spaniards, and was made Viceroy of Naples by Louis XII. _ He was killed in the battle of Cerignola, while opposing Gonsalvo de Cordova, (1503.) He was the last of the family of Armagnac, and the duchy of Nemours was given to Gaston de Foix in 1505. See SisMONDi, " Histoire des Fran^ais ;" Saint-Gelais, "His- toire de Louis XII." Nemours, de, (Louis Charles Philippe Raphael d'Orleans — doRli'Sw',) Due, a French prince, a son of King Louis Philippe, was born in 1814. He was chosen King of Belgium by a congress of that nation in 1831, but was compelled by his father to decline the offer. He served in the army in Algeria, and obtained the rank of lieutenant-general in 1837. After the death of his elder brother (1842) he was recognized as future regent in case the king should die during the minority of his heir, the Count of Paris. On the abdication of Louis Philippe (1848) he waived his claim to the re- gency in favour of the Duchess of Orleans, whom he attended when she presented herself, with her son, before the Chamber of Deputies. See A. Pascal, " Le Due de Nemo urs, son Pass^ et son Avenir politique," 1842. Nemours, de, (Marie d'Orleans,) Duchesse, daughter of the Duke of Longueville, was born in 1625, and married in 1657 to Henry of Savoy, Duke of Ne- mours. She died in 1707, leavi-ag interesting "Memoirs" of her life and times, which were published in 1709. See ViLLEFORE, "Vie de Madame de Longueville;" Saint- Simon, "Menioires." Nen'ni-us, one of the early British chroniclers, is stated by some writers to have lived in the seventh, and by others in the ninth, century. He was the author of a " History of the Britons," (" Historia Britonum," or "Elogium Britanniae,") first published in Gale's "Col- lection of English Historians," (1691.) See Wright, "Biographia Britannica Literaria." Neobar, niVbtR', (Conrad,) a learned printer, of German extraction, was patronized by Francis I. in Paris. Died in 1540. Ne'o-phron, [Ne6i/»pov,] an Athenian tragic poet, flourished in the fifth century B.C. Only small frag- ments of his works are extant. See Clinton, " Fasti Hellenici." Neoptoleme. See Neoptolemus. Ne-op-tol'e-mus, [Gr. 'NeoTTToAefj.og ; Fr. N^optq. LfeME, na'op'to'lim',] also called Pyrrhus, a fabulous Greek warrior, was a son of Achilles. He was one of the heroes concealed in the wooden horse at the siege of Troy. According to Virgil, he killed Priam at the capture of Troy, ("v^^neid," book ii. 546.) In the dis- tribution of captives, he obtained Andromache, widow of Hector. Neoptolemus, a Macedonian general in the service of Alexander the Great. After the death of Alexander he became governor of Armenia, and united with An- tipater in a hostile movement against Perdiccas and Eumenes. He was killed in battle by Eumenes, whom he encountered in single combat, about 320 B.C. Neoptolemus, King of Epirus, was a cousin-german of Alexander the Great. He began to reign in 302 B.C. He was assassinated by order of the celebrated Pyrrhus, who became king. Nepair or Neper. See Napier, (John.) Nepomucene. See Nepomuk. Nepomucenus, See Nepomuk. Nepomuk, na'po-mook', or Nepomucky, ni-po- moots'kee, [Lat. Nepomuce'nus ; Fr. Nepomucene, ni^po^mii'san',j (John,) the patron saint of Bohemia, born at Nepomuk about 1330. Having given offence to King Wenzel, he was drowned, by his orders, in the Moldau, (1383.) He was canonized by Pope Innocent XIII. in 1721. See Balbinus, "Vita Nepomuceni," 1680; Johanneaud, "Jean Nepomucene," 1851; Passi, "Vita di S. Giovanni Nepomuceno," 1729. Ne'pos, (Cornelius,) a celebrated Roman historian of the time of Julius Caesar. He was an intimate friend of Cicero and Atticus, and dedicated to the latter his "Vitas Excellentium Imperatorum," ("Lives of the Illus- trious Generals.") This work, which is his only one extant, is distinguished for the purity and graceful sim- plicity of its style, and has been generally adopted as a class-book in schools and colleges. See J. C. F. Baehr, " Geschichte der Romischen Literatur ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Nepos, (Flavius Julius,) was created Emperor of the West, A.D. 473, by Leo X., the Emperor of the East. He a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, Ioh£^; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, sAor^; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nflt; good; moon ; NEPTUNE NERONI concluded a peace with Euric, King of the Visigoths, to whom he ceded a portion of Gaul. In 475 Orestes, a native of Pannonia, marched against Nepos, defeated him, and proclaimed his own son Romulus Emperor of the West. In 480 Nepos was assassinated at Salona. See GiBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Nep'tune, [Lat. Neptu'nus,] the god of the sea, a Roman divinity, identified with the PoseiMon of the Greek mythology. He was said to be a son of Saturn and Rhea, the brother of Jupiter, and the father of Triton. His wife was Amphitrite. He was regarded as equal in dignity to Jupiter, but inferior in power. The poets feigned that he once conspired with Apollo and Juno against Jupiter, that he built the walls of Troy for Lao- medon, and that he resented the perfidy of that king by fighting against the Trojans at the siege of Troy. Nep- tune and Minerva disputed for the possession of Attica, or for the honour of naming its capital, and the gods decided that the preference should be given to the one who should bestow on man the most valuable gift. Neptune, with a stroke of his trident, produced the war- horse, and Minerva created the olive, which was judged to be the more useful of the two. He is also fabled to have disputed with Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva for the sovereignty of several other countries. The symbol of his power was the trident, with which he shook the solid land and controlled the stormy sea. The poets describe him as riding in a chariot drawn by horses on the surface of the sea, the waves of which subside at his approach, and attended by a retinue of marine monsters which play around him. Besides his residence on Olympus, he had a fine palace in the depth of the sea near JEg?e. Neptunus. See Neptune. Nera'tius (ne-ra'she-us) Pris'cus, a Roman jurist under the reigns of Trajan and Adrian, whose favour and patronage he enjoyed. He was the author of nume- rous books on the Roman law, which have been often quoted by later jurists. See SiCKEL, "De Neratio Prisco," 1788. Nerciat, de, deh nSR'se''a',(ANDR6 Robert Andrea,) a French litterateur, born at Dijon in 1739. He wrote several licentious novels. About 1790 he emigrated to Na])les, and gained the favour of Queen Caroline. Died in 1800. Neree. See Nereus. Neree, x\\'\\', (R. J.,) a French poet, lived in the time of Henry IV., and wrote a drama entitled " The Triumph of the League," (1607.) Ne're-ids, [Gr. N??p7?Wec, sing. N7?pether works. Died in 1715. See Tacken, " Leben Neumanns," 1741. Neumann, (Franz Ernst,) a German natural philos- opher, born in Ukermark in 1798. He became professor of physics at Konigsberg in 1826, and gained distinction by his researches in crystallography, the theory of light, etc. Neumann, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German poet and litterateur, born in Berlin in 1787. He was asso- ciated with his friend Varnhagen von Ense in the com- position of the " Almanac of the Muses," and other works. He translated Macchiavelli's " History of Flor- ence." Died in 1834. Neumann, (Johann Georg,) a German Lutheran theologian, born at Hertz, near Merseburg, in 1661. He was professor of theology at Wittenberg. Died in 1709. See ScHONBACH, "Vita Neumanni," 1716. Neumann, (Karl Friedrich,) a German Orientalist and historian, born near Bamberg in 1798. He published numerous works, among which are " Asiatic Studies," (1837,) a "History of the British Empire in India." (2 vols., 1857,) and a " History of the United States," (Berlin, 3 vols., 1865.) Died in March, 1870. Neumann, (Karl Georg,) a German medical writer and poet, born at Gera hi 1774. He became professor of medicine in Berlin in 1818. Among his works is "Specielle Pathologic uid Therapie," (4 vols., 1837.) Died in 1850. Neumann, (Kaspar,^ a German chemist, born in 1682 or 1683, became prolessor of chemistry in the Royal College of Berlin. He w> ote a number of scientific treat- ises, which were transited into English. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1737. See F. HoEFER, " Histoire de la Chimie." Neumark, noi'maRk (Georg,) a German poet and musician, born at Miihlhausen (Thuringia) in 162 1. He was living in great destitution at Hamburg, when his talents attracted the notit^e of Rosenkrantz, the Swedish ambassador, who made him his secretary. He after- wards became librarian and secretary of the archives at Weimar, where he died in 1681. He is chiefly celebrated for the beautiful hymn " Wer nur den lieben Gott lasst walten," a translation of which is to be found in the " Lyra Germanica." Neumayr von Flessen-Seilbitz, noi'miR fon flSs'- sen sTl'blts, (Anton,) a German critic and able writer on art, was born in Vienna in 1772. He passed many years in Italy, and wrote, in Italian, besides other works, a "Historical and Critical Memoir on Painting," (1811,) "The German Artists," (6 vols., 1819-23,) and a "Life of Albert Diirer," (1823.) Died in 1840. Neureuther, noi'roi'ter, (Eugen,) an eminent Ger- man designer, born at Munich in 1806. Among his works are illustrations of the poems of Goethe, Wieland, and other German authors. Neuville. See Hyde de Neuville. Neuville.de, deh nuh'v^K,(CHARLES FREY,)a French Jesuit, eminent as a pulpit orator, born in the diocese of Coutances in 1693; died in 1774. Neuville, de, deh nuh've'ya', (Didier Pierre Chi- CANAU,) a French writer, born at Nancy in 1720. He published "The Philosophic Dictionary," (1751,) and other works. Died in 1781. Nevenarius. See Neuenar. Nevers, de, deh neh-vaiR', (Louis de Gonzague — deh g6N'ztg',) Due, a French commander, born in 1539. He fought against the Huguenots in the civil war, and in the reign of Henry III. was one of the chiefs of the League. In 1590 he entered the service of Henry IV., who gave him command of an army. Died in 1595- See Turpin, "Histoire de Louis de Gonzague," 1789; Bran- tome, "Vies des grands Capitaines." Nevers, de, (Philippe Julien Mancini Mazarini,) Due, born in Rome in 1641, was a nephew of Cardina] Mazarin, and a brother of Hortense Mancini. He en- joyed the favour of Louis XIV., who appointed him lieutenant-general of Nivernais. He wrote agreeable verses, and was noticed by Voltaire in his Catalogue of the writers of the age of Louis XIV. Died in 1707. See Saint-Simon, "Memoires." Neveu, neh-vuh',(MATTHiAS,) a skilful Dutch painter, born at Leyden in 1647, was a pupil of Gerard Douw Died after 1718. Nevil. See Neville. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Yi, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; *h as in this. (^(^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) NEFILE 668 NEWMAN Nevile or Nevyle, ngv'il, (Alexander,) an English classical scholar, born in Kent in 1544, was secretary to Archbishop Parker. His paraphrase of the "QEdipus" of Seneca is highly eulogized by Warton. Died in 1614. See Warton, " History of English Poetry." Nevile or Neville, (Henry,) an English writer, born in 1620, embraced the republican cause, and became a member of the council of state, but resigned on the usurpation of Cromwell. He was the author of "Plato Redivivus, or a Dialogue concerning Government." Died in 1694. See Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses." Neville, (Richard Cornwallis.) See Braybrooke, Lord. Neville, n^v'il, (Richard Griffin,) Baron Bray- brooke, an English antiquary, born in Berkshire in 1783. He edited the "Diary of Samuel Pepys," (1825.) This was the first edition of that work ever printed. Died in 1858. Neville or Nevil, (Thomas,) an English theologian, born at Canterbury. He became a Fellow of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, in 1570, master of Trinity College in 1593, and Dean of Canterbury in 1597. He expended ^^3000 or more on a building for Trinity College, called Nevil's Court. Died in 161 5. Nev'in, (John Williamson,) D.D., an American Presbyterian divine and theological writer, born in Franklin county, Pennsylvania, in 1803. He became president of the theological seminary at Mercersburg in 1841. He has published "The Anxious Bench," (1843,) "The Mystical Presence," (1846,) and "Anti-Christ, or the Spirit of Sect and Schism," (1848,) and translated several theological works from the German. He was editor for a time of the "Mercersburg Review." Nevizan, ni-ved-zSn' or r\lv-c-zhV, (Giovanni,) an Italian jurist, born at Asti. He published " Sylvae Nup- tialis Libri sex," (1521,) a curious work, often reprinted. Died in 1540. Newborough or Newburgh, nu'biir-eh, [Lat. Neu- brigensis,] (William of,) an English chronicler, born in Yorkshire in 1136, wrote a " History of England," (in Latin,) beginning with the Norman conquest and brought down to 1197. Newcastle. See Cavendish, (William.) Newcastle, nu-kas^el, (Henry Pelham Clinton,) Duke of, born in London in 1811, was the eldest son of Henry, Duke of Newcastle. He was styled Earl of Lincoln until the death of his father, (1851,) and entered Parliament in 1832. For a short time in 1846 he was chief secretary for Ireland. In 1852 he became secretary for the colonies in Lord Aberdeen's coalition ministry. He was appointed secretary of war in 1854. As war minister he was so much censured for the discomforts and disasters of the army in the Crimea in 1854 that he resigned, or was removed, in 1855. In June, 1859, he accepted office as colonial secretary in the Liberal min- istry of Palmerston. He was the attendant and chief counsellor of the Prince of Wales in his visit to Canada and the United States in i860. Died in 1864. See "Gentleman's Magazine" for December, 1864. Newcastle, (Henry Pelham Fiennes Pelham Clinton,) fourth Duke of, an English peer, born in 1785. He inherited the title of duke at the death of his father. He was a Tory, and an opponent of the Reform bill of 1832. He died in 1851, leaving a son, Henry, fifth Duke of Newcastle. Newcastle, (Thomas Pelham,) Duke of, an Eng- lish Whig minister of state, born in 1693, was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Pelham, of Sussex. His mother was a sister of John Hollis, Duke of Newcastle, who, dying in 171 1, left a princely fortune to the subject of this article. In 1 71 5 he was created Duke of Newcastle, and in 1724 appointed secretary of state. In 1754 he was promoted to the office of first lord of the treasury, (or premier,) which was then vacated by the death of his brother, Henry Pelham. He resigned reluctantly in November, 1756, and, after a ministerial crisis, formed a coalition with Pitt, and was again prime minister, or co-ordinate chief minister, from 1757 until May, 1762, when Lord Bute became premier. " His love of influence," says Macaulay, (in his Review of Walpole's "Letters to Horace Mann,") "was so intense a passion that it sup- plied the place of talents, that it inspired even fatuity with cunning. ... All the able men of his time ridiculed him as a dunce, a driveller, a child who never knew his own mind for an hour together ; and he overreached them all round." He died, without issue, in 1768, when the title passed to Henry Clinton, Earl of Lincoln, who had married a daughter and heiress of Henry Pelham. See M acaulay, Review of Thackeray's " History of Lord Chat- ham," 1834. Newcomb, nu'kum, (Thomas,) an English poet, born in 1675, became rector of Stopham, in Sussex, about 1734. He wrote, besides other poems, "The Library," (171 8,) and "The Last Judgment," (1723.) Died about 1766. New'cpme, (Peter,) an English clergyman, born in 1656, was vicar of Aldenham, in Hertfordshire. He pub- lished several volumes of sermons, etc. Died in 1738. ^ Newcome, (William,) a learned prelate and eminent biblical scholar, born in Bedfordshire in 1729. He be- came successively Bishop of Ossory and of Waterford, in Ireland, and in 1795 Archbishop of Armagh. He was the author of a " Historical View of the English Biblical Translations," and " Harmony of the Gospels," (1778.) Died in 1800. See the " Monthly Review" for October, 1779. New-com'en, (Matthew,) an English nonconform, ist, was a member of the Westminster Assembly of divines. He was one of the five persons who wrote " Smectymnus," a controversial work against Bishop Hall. I3ied at Leyden in 1666. Newcommen or Newcomen, nu-kom'en, (Thom- as,) an English locksmith, born in Devonshire, was one of the inventors of the steam-engine. In 1705 New- commen and Cawley (a glazier of that place) obtained a patent for an engine combining for the first time the cylinder and piston, with a separate boiler. The steam admitted below the piston was condensed by the applica- tion of cold water, and the pressure of the atmosphere, forcing down the piston, moved a working-beam, to one end of which a pump-rod was attached. This engine was much used in mines. See J. RoBisoN, "System of Mechanical Philosophy." New'di-gate, (Sir Roger,) an English gentleman of fine taste and classical attainments, born in Warwick- shire in 1 7 19. He was for inany years representative in Parliament for the University of Oxford. He was a generous patron of that institution, to which he gave the Florentine Museum, Piranesi's works, and the cande- labra in the Radclifife Library. Died in 1780. New'ell, (Harriet,) wife of Samuel Newell, noticed below, was born at Haverhill, Massachusetts, in 1793. She accompanied her husband to India in 1812, and died soon after their arrival. Her "Memoirs" were written by Dr. Woods, of Andover. New'ell, (RoRERT Hassell,) an English clergyman, born in 1780. He edited the works of Oliver Gold- smith, (1811,) and wrote "The Zoology of the British Poets corrected," etc., (1845.) Died in 1852. Newell, (Samuel,) an American missionary, born at Durham, Maine, in 1784. Having graduated at Har- vard College, he was ordained in 1812, and soon after set sail for Calcutta, accompanied by the Rev. Adoniram Judson. He published, conjointly with Mr. Hall, " The Conversion of the World, or the Claims of Six Hun- dred Millions," (1818.) Died in 1821. NewTand, (John,) an English monk and diplomatist, was abbot of a monastery at Bristol. He was employed by Henry VIII. in diplomatic missions. Died in 1515. New'land, [Dutch, Nieuwland, nyo'lSnt,] (Peter,) a Dutch mathematician and poet, born near Amsterdam in 1764. He wrote, besides other works, a " Treatise on Navigation." Died in 1794. New'man, (Francis W.,) an English author, brother of John Henry, noticed below, was born in London in 1805. He was educated at Oxford, and, after he left col- lege, passed three years in the Turkish empire, (1830- 33.) In 1840 he became professor of languages at Man- chester New College. He was appointed professor of Latin in University College, London, in 1846. Among ai e, T, 6, ii, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, 5?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fUll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; NEWMAN \66g NEWTON his principal works are a " History of the Hebrew Mon- archy," (1847,) "The Soul: its Sorrows and Aspira- tions," (1849,) " Phases of Faith, or Passages from the History of my Creed," (1850.) His religious opinions differ widely from those of his brother and from those of the orthodox churches. In 1856 he produced a metrical translation of Homer's "Iliad." See "Westminster Review" for October, 1858. Newman, (John Henry,) an eminent English theo- logian, born in London in 1801. He entered Trinity College, Oxford, in 1816, and was elected a Fellow of Oriel College in 1822. At Oriel College he formed a friendship with John Keble the poet, and with Dr. Whately. He was ordained a priest in 1824, and became vice-principal of Alban Hall in 1825, and a tutor of Oriel College in 1826. In 1828 he was appointed vicar of Saint Mary's, Oxford, and of Littlemore. In 1833 Newman, Keble, and Pusey initiated the " Oxford move- ment" in favour of High-Church doctrines, which they advocated in a series of "Tracts for the Times." He manifested a growing tendency to Roman Catholicism in his " Arians of the Fourth Century : their Doctrines, Temper, and Conduct," (1833,) his "Tract No. 90," {1841,) and his "Essay on the Development of Chris- tian Doctrine." He became a member of the Roman Catholic Church in 1845, '^^^ principal of the Oratory of Saint Philip Neri at Birmingham from 1848 to 1852. In the latter year he was fined one hundred pounds for a libel on Dr. Achilli. He defended or ex- plained his religious course in a work entitled "Apology for his Life," ("Apologia pro Vita sua," 1864.) See, also, Jules Condon, " Notice biographique sur le P. New- man," 1853; "London Quarterly Review" for March, 1846, and October, 1864; " Eraser's Magazine" for September, 1864; "North British Review" for August, 1864. New'port, (Christopher,) an Englishman, com- manded the vessels which in 1606 conveyed the party of emigrants that first settled at Jamestown, Virginia. Newport, (George,) F.R.S., an English comparative anatomist and entomologist, born at Canterbury in 1803. He practised medicine, and devoted much time to the study of the anatomy and physiology of insects, on which subjects he contributed to the "Philosophical Trans- actions" a number of memoirs. One of these was " On the Nervous System of the Sphinx." He was elected president of the Entomological Society in 1844. Died in 1854. Newport, (Sir John,) an Irish Whig politician, born at Waterforci about 1760. He became a member of Parliament in 1803, and controller of the exchequer. Died in 1843. New'ton, (Gilbert STUART,)a distinguished painter, of English extraction, born at Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1794. He painted numerous small pictures of great merit, among which we may name "Shylock and Jes- sica" and "Portia and Bassanio." Died in 1835. Newton, (Sir Isaac,) an illustrious English philoso- pher and mathematician, born at Woolsthorpe, in Lin- colnshire, on the 25th of December, 1642, (Old Style.) He was the posthumous and only child of Isaac Newton, a farmer, who died in 1642. His mother, whose original name was Hannah Ayscough, was married again to the Rev. Barnabas Smith in 1645. He attended the schools of Skillington and Stoke for several years, and about the age of twelve entered the grammar-school of Grant- ham. There he manifested much mechanical ingenuity by the construction of a windmill, a water-clock, a sun- dial, and other pieces of mechanism. He also wrote verses in his boyhood. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, as a sub-sizar, in June, 1661, before which date it does not appear that he had been a profound student of mathematics. It has been stated that he commenced the study of Euclid's " Elements," but he found the first propositions so self-evident that he threw the book aside as too trifling. " When Newton entered Trinity College," says Brewster, " he brought with him a more slender portion of science than at his age falls to the lot of ordinary scholars." Among the works which he first studied at Cambridge were the "Optics" of Kepler and the " Geometry" of Descartes. In 1664 he read Wallis's " Arithmetica Infinitorum," and discovered the method of infinite series, or the binomial theorem, which enabled him to compute the area of curves and to solve with ease problems which before were insoluble or very difficult. He took the degree of B.A. in 1665, and discovered the differential calculus, or method of fluxions, probably in the same year. This important method of mathematical investigation was discovered by Leibnitz about the same time, and before Newton had published anything on the subject. A controversy arose between the English and foreign mathematicians about the priority of the discovery. Sir David Brewster gives this decision of the question : i. That Newton was the first inventor of the method of Jluxiojis ; that the method was incomplete in its notation, and that the fundamental principle of it was not published to the world till 1687. 2. That Leibnitz communicated his differential calculus to Newton in 1677, with a complete system of notation, and that he published it in 1684. As a precaution against the plague, he retired from Cambridge to his native place in tlie summer of 1665. He then and there began to speculate on the subject of gravity. It was in the autumn of 1665 that the apple which suggested to him the idea of gravitation is said to have fallen from the tree at Woolsthorpe. " When sitting alone in the garden," says Brewster, "and speculating on the power of gravity, it occurred to him that as the same power by which the apple fell to the ground was not sensibly diminished at the greatest distance from the centre of the earth to which we can reach, ... it might extend to the moon and retain her in her orbit in the same manner as it bends into a curve a stone or cannon- ball when projected in a straight line from the surface of the earth." He arrived at the conclusion that the force of gravity by which the planets were retained in their orbits varied as the squares of their distances from the sun ; but, not being prepared to verify this hypothe- sis, he abandoned or deferred the subject for many years. He returned to Cambridge in 1666, and applied him- self to the grinding of optic glasses, and began to study the subject of colours in connection with the prismatic spectrum. He was elected a Minor Fellow in October, 1667, and took his degree of M.A. in March, 1668, as twenty-third on the list of one hundred and forty-eight graduates. He made a small reflecting telescope in 1668, and succeeded Dr. Barrow, as Lucasian professor of mathematics, in 1669. About this date he made the grand discovery that light is not homogeneous, but consists of rays of different refrangibility. He also perceived that this different refrangibility was the real cause of the imper- fection of refracting telescopes. In 167 1 he constructed with his own hands a second reflecting telescope, which is preserved in the library of the Royal Society. New- ton read a course of lectures on optics, at Cambridge, in 1669, 1670, and 167 1. He was the author of the theory of light called the Emission theory, according to which light is composed of, or produced by, material particles of inconceivable minuteness, emitted by luminous bodies in all directions. On this subject he was involved in a controversy with Hooke and Huygens, who maintained the undulatory theory. In a letter to Leibnitz, dated December 9, 1675, he writes, " I was so persecuted with discussions arising out of my theory of light, that I blamed my own iinprudence for parting with so sub- stantial a blessing as my quiet to run after a shadow." He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in January, 1672. In December, 1675, he communicated to that body a discourse entitled a "Theory of Light and Col- ours." " The theory of Newton," says Sir John Hersche), "gives a complete and elegant explanation of what may be considered the chief of all optical facts, — the produc- tion of colours in the ordinary refraction of light by a prism, the discovery of which by him marks one of the greatest epochs in the annals of experimental science." (" Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Phi- losophy.") His optical discoveries are described in a work entitled " Opticks, or a Treatise on the Reflexions, Refractions, Inflexions, and Colours of Light," which was published in 1704, but written many years earlier. "To avoid being engaged in disputes about these mat- ters," says the author, "I have hitherto delayed the printing," The only other optical work by Newton was € as 9 as s; g hard; gasj; g, h, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) NEWTON 1670 NEWTON his "Lectiones Opticze," (1728,) which contains the lec- tures he read at Cambridge in 1669-71. Newton had abandoned the subject of gravity in 1665, after an attempt to verify his theory by a calculation which failed because he had employed an erroneous measure of the earth's radius. About 1684 he resumed his inquiries and calculations in relation to the moon, and employed Picard's more accurate measure of the earth's diameter. He thus demonstrated the great truth that the orbit of the moon is curved by the same force which causes bodies to fall on the surface of the earth. According to a doubtful tradition, he became so much agitated as his calculations drew to a close, that he was obliged to ask a friend to finish them. "This anec- dote is not supported by what is known of Newton's character." (Brewster's "Life of Newton.") He an- nounced this discovery to the Royal Society in 1685 by his treatise " De Motu," This was the germ of his greatest work, the " Principia," (composed in 1685-86,) which Laplace regarded as "pre-eminent above all other productions of the human intellect." The full title of this work, which was published by the Royal Society or by Halley in 1687, is "The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy," ("Philosophise Na- turalis Principia Mathematica.") It consists of three Books, of which the first and second are entitled " On the Motion of Bodies," and the third " On the System of the World." "The great discovery," says Brewster, "which characterizes the ' Principia' is that of the prin- ciple of universal gravitation, that every particle of matter in the universe is attracted by, or gravitates to, every other particle of matter, zvith a force inversely proportional to the squares of their distances. '''' " The glory of these men," says Macaulay, referring to Wallis and Halley, " is cast into the shade by the tran- scendent lustre of one immortal name. In Isaac New- ton two kinds of intellectual power, which have little in common, and which are not often found together in a very high degree of vigour, but which nevertheless are equally necessary in the most sublime departments of natural philosophy, were united as they have never been united before or since. ... In no other mind have the demonstrative faculty and the inductive faculty coex- isted in such supreme excellence and perfect harmony." ("History of England," vol. i. chap, iii.) In 1687 James II. sent an illegal mandamus to the University of Cambridge, directing that a certain monk should be admitted a master of arts without taking the oath of allegiance. Newton took an active and influen- tial part in defending the privileges of the university on this occasion. He represented Cambridge in the Con- vention Parliament, January, 1689-February, 1690, and maintained the principles of civil and religious liberty in that critical period of revolution. In 1689 he became acquainted with John Locke, with whom he associated on friendly terms and corresponded until his death. Newton, though satiated with fame, had gained no pecu- niary benefit by his writings, and had received no mark of national gratitude for his discoveries. Locke and Charles Montague endeavoured to procure for him some permanent appointment, but without success. In 1692 and 1693 he wrote to Bentley four celebrated letters on the formation of the sun and the planets, etc., in which he affirms that the motions of the planets could not be produced by any natural cause alone, but were impressed by an intelligent agent and Divine power, A report was circulated, chiefly on the conti- nent, that Newton was insane, about 1692. The story that his precious manuscripts were burned through the agency of his little dog Diamond, seems to be equally unfounded. "He never had any communion with dogs or cats." (Brewster.) In 1694 Newton was occupied by researches on the lunar theory, and obtained from Flamsteed his observa- tions on the moon. Letters were exchanged between them in relation to these observations, which became the occasion of an intemperate and discreditable controversy. Newton was appointed warden of the mint in 1695 or 1696 by his friend Montague, Earl of Halifax, who had resolved on an important scheme of re-coinage of clipped and debased coin. The salary of this office was about ;^6oo. In 1699 he was promoted to be master of the mint, with a salary of from 1 200 to 1 500. In 1703 he was returned to Parliament by the University of Cam- bridge, and was elected President of the Royal Society. He continued until his death to occupy the latter po- sition, to which he was annually re-elected. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705. Among his important works are "The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended," (1728,) and "Observations upon the Pro- phecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of Saint John," (first published in 1733.) "That the greatest philoso- pher of which any age can boast," says Brewster, " was a sincere and humble believer in the leading doctrines of our religion* and lived conformably to its precepts, has been justly regarded as a proud triumph of the Christian faith." Newton's religious opinions, however, were not strictly orthodox: like Milton, he appears to have had a decided leaning towards Arianism. Newton was never married. His latter years were passed in London, where he lived in a handsome style and kept six servants. He was extremely generous and liberal in the use of money, for which he is said to have had a great contempt. On one occasion he offered Dr. Cheselden, as a fee, a handful of guineas out of his coat- pocket. He was often so absorbed in meditation that he forgot to eat, and it was necessary for his servants to remind him of his meals. He died at Kensington on the 20th of March, 1727, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. His collected works were published by Bishop Horsley in 5 vols. 4to, (1779-85.) Near the end of his life he said, "I know not what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me." "Though there be few," says Dr. Chalmers, "who comprehend or follow Newton in his gigantic walk, yet all may participate in his triumphant feeling when he reached that lofty summit where the whole mystery and magnificence of nature stood submitted to his gaze, — an eminence won by him through the power and patience of intellect alone, but from which he descried a scene more glorious far than imagination could have formed, or than ever had been pictured and set forth in the sublimest visions of poetry." ("Treatise on the Adap- tation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man.") " Whichever way we turn our view," says Sir John F. W. Herschel, "we find ourselves compelled to bow before his genius, and to assign to the name of Newton a place in our veneration which belongs to no other in the annals of science. His era marks the accomplished maturity of the human reason as applied to such objects. . . . His wonderful combination of mathematical skill with physical research enabled him to invent at pleasure new and unheard-of methods of investigating the effects of those causes which his clear and penetrating mind detected in operation. Ascending by a series of close- compacted inductive arguments to the highest axioms of dynamical science, he succeeded in applying them to the complete explanation of all the great astronomical phe- nomena." ("Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy.") See Sir David Brewster, "Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton," 2 vols., 1855; FoNTENELi.E. " Eloge de Newton," 1728 ; Pemberton, "Account of Newton's Philosophy;" Biot, article " Newton" in the "Biographic Universelle ;" Arago, "Notices biographiqiies," tome iii. ; Birch, " History of the Royal Society," vols. iii. and iv. ; Maclaurin, "Exposition of the Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton," 1748; RiGAUD, "Historical Essay on the Principia of Newton ;" "Life of Newton" in the " Biographia Britannica :" Paoi.o Frisi, " Elogio storico del Cavaliere I. Newton," 1778; Wm. Wheweil, "Newton and Flamsteed." 1836: Carl Snell, "Newton imd die mechanische Naturwissenschaft," 1843: Voltaire, " Elements de la Philosophic de Newton ;" " Encyclopajdia Britannica ;" " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1832; " London Quarterly Review" for Octo- ber, 1861 ; "North British Review" for August, 1855; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1833. Newton, (John,) an English mathematician, born in Northamptonshire in 1622, was the author of "Geo- metrical Trigonometry," " Astronomia Britannica," and other works. Died in 1678. See Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses." a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; ^, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; flr, fill, f^t; m§t; n6t; good; moon; NEWTON 167 1 NICJENETUS Newton, (John,) an English divine, born in London in 1725. Having for many years led a profligate life as a sailor, and engaging in the African slave-trade, he was converted, and distinguished himself thenceforth by his zeal in the cause of religion. In 1764 he became curate of Olney, where he acquired the friendship of Cowper, and wrote, in conjunction with him, the " Olney Hymns." He also published a " Review of Ecclesiastical History," (1770,) " Cardiphonia," etc., and other works. Died in 1807. See a "Narrative of his Life," by himself, 1764; R. Cecil, "Life of John Newton;" "Autobiography and Narrative of John Newton," London, 1869; "London Quarterly Review" for Decem- ber, 1824. New'ton, (John,) an American general, born in Vir- ginia, graduated at West Point in 1842. He became a brigadier-general of Union volunteers in 1861, and com- manded a brigade in the battles before Richmond, June, 1862, and a division at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. He served under General Sherman in Georgia in 1864, with the rank of major-general. Newton, (Richard,) an English divine, born about 1675, became canon of Christ Church, Oxford. He published a work entitled " Pluralities Indefensible," (1744.) He was the founder of Hertford College, Ox- ford. Died in 1753. See Chalmers, " History of Oxford." New'ton, (Robert,) a Scottish Methodist clergyman, born in 1780. He preached in London and Liverpool, and was appointed in 1839 a delegate to the General Conference of the United States. He was a popular preacher. Died in 1854. Newton, (Thomas,) an English divine, born at Lich- field in 1704, rose through various preferments to be Bishop of Bristol, (1761.) He published an excellent edition of Milton's "Paradise Lost," with notes, (1749,) and "Dissertations on the Prophecies," etc., (3 vols., 1754-58,) which were translated into German and Danish. Died in 1782. See "Life of Thomas Newton," prefixed to the second edition of his Works; " Monthly Review" for February and March, 1783. Newton, (Thomas,) an English litterateur, born in Essex, became master of Macclesfield School. He was the author of a "History of the Saracens," (1575,) of a number of Latin poems, and other works. Died in 1607. See Warton, " History of English Poetry." Newton, (William,) an English architect and writer, published an English translation of Vitruvius, (2 vols., 1771.) Ney, n^, (Franqois,) a Flemish diplomatist, born at Antwerp, became general of the order of Saint Francis, in Spain, in 1607. He was the principal agent of the Spanish king in the negotiation of the treaty of peace which recognized the independence of the revolted Dutch provinces in 1609. Watson the historian speaks highly of his talents and address. See Grotius, "Histoire des Troubles des Pays-Bas." Ney, n^, (Joseph Napoleon,) Prince of the Moskwa, (in French, "de la Moskowa,") a French general, born in Paris in 1803, was the eldest son of Marshal Ney. He served in Algeria in 1837-38, and entered the Chamber of Peers in 1841. After the revolution of 1848 he was ■elected a member of the Legislative Assembly, in which he was a ])artisan of Louis Napoleon, Died in 1857. Ney, (Michel,) Duke of Elchingen, Prince of the Moskwa, a famous French marshal, born at Sarre-Louis in January, 1769, was the son of a cooper. He entered the army as a private in 1787, became adjutant-general in 1794, and a general of brigade in 1796. As general of division, he acquired a high reputation under Massena, in Switzerland and Germany, in 1799. In 1800 he passed into the army of Moreau, and contributed to the victory of Hohenlinden. He obtained a marshal's baton in 1804. For an important victory over the Austrians at Elchingen, in October, 1805, he received the title of Duke of^El- chingen. His impetuous courage rendered essential ser- vices at the battle of Jena, in 1806. \n this year he took Magdeburg, the garrison of which amounted to about 20,000 men. He commanded an army in Spain in 1809, and obtained advantages at Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida in 1810. In the Russian campaign of 1812 he received from Bonaparte the appellation of the " Bravest of the Brave." He commanded the centre at the great battle of Borodino, or the Moskwa, from which he derived his title of Prince. In the retreat from Moscow, Mar- shal Ney commanded the rear-guard, and maintained his reputation by heroic conduct amidst the greatest dis- asters. " It was when danger was greatest and success most doubtful," says Alison, " that his courage was most conspicuous and his coolness most valuable." When summoned to capitulate, in November, 1812, he replied, " A marshal of France never surrenders !" He took a prominent part in the battles of Lutzen, Bautzen, and Dresden, in 1813, and was defeated at Den- newitz by Bernadotte in September of that year. On the abdication of Napoleon, in 1814, Ney submitted to Louis XVIIL, who permitted him to retain his titles and mili- tary rank. In March, 1815, he received orders to lead an army against Napoleon, whom he promised to bring back in an iron cage. His moral courage, however, was not proof against the seductive offers of his former chief, to whom he transferred the army, as well as his own services. He fought with his usual resolution at Water- loo, where he led several charges of the Old Guard and had five horses shot under him. He was tried for treason by the court of the peers, and shot on the 7th of De- cember, 1815. " When the Parisians awoke," says Lamartine, " and found that Ney had been executed, bitter shame seized on every soul. . . . We must say, however, in the de- fence of the king and the ministers, that they were re- pugnant, from moderation, honour, and sensibility, to this useless, cruel, and shameful sacrifice. In their eyes, and in those of the impartial portion of the world, Ney was a great culprit, but his was a glorious life. His fault was among those which are condemned but par- doned. He had redeemed it beforehand by exploits which will be an eternal theme in the camps of France." (" History of the Restoration.") See "Menioiresdu Marechal Ney," published by his family, 1833; RouvAL, "Vie du Marechal Ney," 1833: Dumoulin, "Histoire du Proces du Marechal Ney," 2 vols., 1815; J. Nollet-Fabert, "filoge historique du Marechal Ney," 1852; Charlemont, "Vie du Marechal Ney,"i8i4; Vergara, " Vida del Mariscal Ney," 1819; Thiers, "History of the Consulate and the Empire;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale " Ney, (Michel Louis F^lix,) Due d'Elchingen, a son of the preceding, was born in 1804. He served several campaigns in Algeria, and became a general of brigade in 1851. Died in 1854. Ney, (Napoleon Henri Edgar,) Prince of the Moskwa, a son of Marshal Ney, was born in Paris in 1812. He entered the army about 1830, was elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1850, became aide-de-camp to the emperor in 1852, and general of brigade in 1856. Neyen, ni'en or wi'hn', (Auguste,) a Belgian his- torian, born at Luxemburg in 1809. Among his works is "Biographie Luxembourgeoise," (2 vols., 1861.) Neyn, nin, (Pieter,) a I)utch painter and architect, born at Leyden in 1597 ; died in 1639. Neyra. See Mf.ndana. Nezahualcoyotl, ni-zd-whll-ko-yotl', surnamed the Great, King of Tezcuco, born in 1403. He was dis- tinguished as a legislator and a patron of the sciences. Died in 1470. See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Mexico." Ni or Ne. See Confucius. Nibby, n^b'bee, (Antonio,) an antiquary, born at Rome in 1792. He became professor of archaeology in the College of Rome in 1820. He was a corresponding member of the French Institute, and the author of several antiquarian works. He also published a translation of Pausanias, with notes. Died in 1839. Nibelungen-Lied. See Siegfried. Niboyet, ne'bwS'yi', (Eugenie,) a French authoress, born about 1804. She wrote several educational works and novels, and founded in 1844 a socialist journal. Nicaenetus, ni-s§n'e-tus, [Gr. Nt/caiVerof ; Fr. Nic^:- n^te, ne'si'nit',] a Greek epigrammatic poet, born at Abdera or Samos, probably lived in the third century B.C. Several of his epigrams are inserted in Jacobs's " Anthology." « as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Sl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) NICJISE 1672 NICE RON Nicaise, ne'kiz', (Claude,) a French antiquary, born at Dijon in 1623. He published a treatise " On the Music of the Ancients," " On the Sirens," etc., and other works. He was a member of the principal Academies of Europe. Died in 1701. See " Menagiana." Nicaise, ne'kaz', [Lat. Nica'sius,] Saint, a Christian prelate and martyr, became Bishop of Rheims. ^He was put to death by the Vandals when they sacked that city, in 407 a.d. See FrsQUET, " France pontificale." Ni-can'd^r, [Gr. Nucavdpog ; Fr: Nicandre, ne'- kSNdk',] a celebrated Greek physician and poet, born near Colophon, is supposed to have flourished about 1 75- 135 B.C. Of his numerous works only two have come down to us entire. These ' are two poems, entitled " Theriaca" and " Alexipharmaca." The latter treats of venomous animals and the remedies for their wounds. As a poet, he is eulogized by Cicero, but severely criti- cised by other writers. His works are said to be obscure and jiedantic. Among his lost works was a poem of Georgics, which Virgil is said to have imitated. See Haller, " Bibliotlieca Botanica ;" Clinton, "Fasti Hel- lenici." Nicander, a king of Sparta, of the family of Pro- clidae, was a son of Charilaus. He reigned about 780 B.C. Nicander, ne-k^u'der, (Karl August,) a distin- guished Swedish poet, born at Strengnas in 1799. In 1826 he obtained the first prize from the Swedish Acad- emy for his "Death of Tasso." He visited Italy in 1827, and published on his return "Recollections of the South." Among his other vtorks we may name "The Runic Sword, or the First Knight," a tragedy, in verse, (1821,) "King Enzio," (1825,) and " Runor." These are said to be excellent models, both in style and other respects. Died in 1839. See Crusenstolpe, " C. A. Nicander," 1840; G. H. Mellin, "K. A. Nicander," 1839. Nicandre. See Nicander. Ni-ca'nor, [Gr. Ni«:avwp,] a Macedonian officer, com- manded the foot-guards of Alexander the Great at the battles of the Grani'cus, Issus, and Arbela. He died about 330. He was a son of the famous Parmenio. Nicanor, a Macedonian general, who became gov- ernor of Cappadocia in 321 B.C. As a partisan or ally of Antigonus, he fought against Eumenes. He was ap- pointed governor of Media about 316, and was defeated in battle by Seleucus near the Tigris in 312 B.C. Nicanor, a Greek general, commanded an army which Demetrius I., King of Syria, sent to subjugate Judea. He was defeated and killed by Judas Maccabaeus. Nicanor, called IiTiyfiana^, an eminent Greek gram- marian of Alexandria or Hierapolis, lived in the reign of Hadrian, (11 7-1 38 a.d.) He wrote a treatise on Punc- tuation, and annotations on Homer. See Fabricius, " Bibliotlieca Graeca." Nicasius. See Nicaise. Niccoli, nfek'ko-lee, or Nicoli, ne'ko-le, [Lat. Nico'- LUS,J (NiCCOLO,) a learned Florentine, born in 1364, who rendered important services to literature by the discovery of ancient authors and by transcribing manu- scripts. At his death, in 1437, he bequeathed his valuable library to the public. He is said to have been the first man in modern times who founded a public library. See Vespasiano, " Vita Nicoli ;" Tiraboschi, " Storia della Let- teratura Italiana." Niccolini, n^k-ko-lee'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian poet and dramatist, born near Pisa in 1 785. He was appointed in 1807 professor of history and mythol- ogy in the Academy of Fine Arts at Florence. He was the author of tragedies entitled "Antonio Foscarini," (1827,) "Polissena," "Giovanni da Procida," (1830,) and "Filijipo Strozzi," (1847.) Died in 1861. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe:" " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale :" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1836. Niccolo, the Italian for Nicholas, which see. Niccolo, ne'ko'lo', or Nicolas, we^ko^W, (Isouard,) a French dramatic composer, born at Malta in 1775. He produced numerous operas, among which are " Joconde" and " Jeannot et Colin." He died in Paris in 1818. See Fetis. " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Niccolo d'Arezzo, n^k-ko-lo' d^-rgt'so, an Italian sculptor, born at Arezzo about 1350. He worked at Florence and Rome. Died in 141 7. Niccolo da Pisa, n^k-ko-lo' di pee'sS, or Niccolo Pisano, o^k-ko-lo' pe-si'no, an eminent Italian archi- tect and sculptor, lived in the latter part of the thirteenth century. Among his best works are the church and monastery of the Holy Trinity at Florence, and the church of San Antonio at Padua. His bas-reliefs in the cathedral of Sienna were esteemed superior to any sculp- tures of the kind since the antique. Died about 1278. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc.; Quatremere de Quincy, "Vies des plus illustres Architectes." Niccolo del Abate. See Abb ate. Niccols. See Nichols, (Richard.) Ni'ce or Ni'ke, [Gr. NIktj,] the goddess of victory in the Greek mythology, was, according to Hesiod, the daughter of Paflas and Styx, and corresponded to the Victoria of the Romans. Nicenete. See Nic.^;netus. Nicephore. See Nickphorus. Ni-geph'o-rus [Gr. NiKTjipdpo^ ; Fr. Nicephore, ne'- sa'foR'J I., Enijjeror of Constantinople, became leader in 802 of a conspiracy against the empress Irene, who had usurped the throne, and, having banished her, was made emperor. In 811 he was slain, while fighting the Bulgarians. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Nicephorus II., surnamed Phocas, a distinguished Byzantine commander, married about 963 the widow of Romanus II., and assumed the title of emperor. He gained several victories over the Saracens in Syria and Cilicia, but was assassinated by John Zimisces in 969. Nicephorus III., surnamed Botani'ates, a Byzantine officer, having in 1078 revolted against Michael Ducas, caused himself to be proclaimed emperor in his stead. He was, however, soon compelled to give up the throne to Alexis Comnenus, who banished him. Died in 1081. See Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire." Nicephorus, [Fr. Nicephore, ne'sSToR',] Patriarch of Constantinople, and a Byzantine historian, born about 758 A.D., was a zealous opponent of the iconoclasts. He obtained the office of patriarch in 806, and was de- posed in 815 by Leo V. He wrote, in Greek, besides other works, a " History of the Eastern Empire from 602 to 770A.D.," the Latin title of which is " Breviarium Historicum." He was one of the best writers of his time. Died in 828 a.d. See Cave, " Historia Literaria." Ni-geph'o-rus Blem''mi-das, a Greek ecclesiastic of the thirteenth century, lived at Nicasa. He wrote several works "On the Procession of the Holy Spirit." See Cave, " Historia Literaria." Ni-geph'o-rus Cal-lis'tus, a learned Byzantine monk of the fourteenth century, was the author of an " Ecclesiastical History from the Birth of Christ to 911." See Cave, "Historia Literaria." Ni-geph'o-rus Greg'o-ras, Patriarch of Constan- tinople, flourished in the fourteenth century. He was the author of a " Byzantine History," in twenty-eight books, twenty-four of which are extant. Ni-ggr'a-tus, [NiKr^parog,] a Greek physician who flourished about 40 B.C. None of his writings are extant ; but he is mentioned by Pliny, Dioscorides, and others. Niceron, n^s'riw', ?* (Jean Francois,) a French mathematician and optician, born in Paris in 1613. He was a friend of Descartes. He published "Thau- maturgus Opticus : de iis quag spectant ad Visionem directam," (1646.) Died at \\x in 1646. Niceron, ne'si'r6N' ?* ( Jean Pierre,) a noted French * Some of the best French authorities are not consistent with themselves in regard to the spelling of this name. In the early part of the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale" the name, whenever re- ferred to, appears to be invariably' written with the accent on the second syllable, — Niceron, — but under the biographical notice it is spelled Nicekon, which is also the spelling of the " Biographie Universelle." But tiiis fact will not by any means be deemed decisive by those who are aware of the exceeding negligence of most French writers in re- gard to marking the accent. It has become very common in France to omit the accent in certain names (6; 9 as s; g hard; g as / g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; =th as in this. (gl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) NICHOLLS NICOLAI He wrote, besides other works, a " History of the Eng- lish Poor-Lavv," (1854.) Died in 1865. NichoUs, (William,/ a learned English divine, born in Buckinghamshire in 1664. Among his writings we may mention '* A Defence of the Church of England," and *' The Religion of a Prince." Died in 1712. See Wood, "Athenae Oxoiiienses." Ni-eh'ols, (Ichabod,) D.D., an American Unitarian divine, born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1784. He was the author of a treatise On Natural Theology," and " Hours with the Evangelists," the latter published after his death. He was distinguished for his mathe- matical attainments, and was for a time vice-president of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Died in 1859. Ni-eh'ols, (John,) an English litterateur, born at Islington in 1 744, was a partner of William Bowyer, the eminent printer. He became in 1778 one of the publishers of the "Gentleman's Magazine," and was subsequently editor of that journal for many years. He published, besides other works, the "History and An- tiquities of Leicestershire," (6 vols., 1795-1811,) and "Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century," (8 vols., 1812-15.) Died in 1826. See A. Chalmers, "Memoir of J. Nichols," 1826; "Monthly Review" for October and November, 1782, and November, 1813. Nichols, (John Bowyer,) an archaeologist, a son of the preceding, was born about 1780. He succeeded his father in business, and edited several volumes of the "Illustrations of the Literary History of the Eighteenth Century," which his father commenced. Died in 1863. Nichols, (John Gough,) an English antiquary, son of the preceding, was born in London about 1807. He was editor of the "Gentleman's Magazine" for many years, ending in 1856. He published, besides other works, " The Herald and Genealogist." Nichols or Niccols, (Richard,) an English poet, born in London in 1584. He wrote "The Cuckow," a poem, (1607,) and published a new edition of "The Mirror for Magistrates," (1610,) to which he added a " Winter Night's Vision," and a piece on the Life of Queen Elizabeth. Ni-eh'ol-son, (Alfred Osborn Pope,) an American statesman and journalist, born in Williamson county, Tennessee, in 1808. He has been successively editor of the "Western Mercury," the "Nashville Union," and the " Washington Union," an organ of President Pierce. In 1857 he was elected to the United States Senate. Nicholson, (James,) an American naval officer, born at Chestertown, Maryland, in 1737; died about 1804. His brother Samuel attained the rank of commodore, and became commander of the frigate Constitution. Died in 181 1. Ni-eh'pl-son, (John,) a British general, born in Ire- land in 1 82 1 or 1822. He served with distinction in the war against the Afghans and in the campaign against the Sikhs. In the Sepoy mutiny he commanded a column or division, and performed an important part in the capture of Delhi. He died of wounds received at Delhi in September, 1857. See J. W. Kaye, " Lives of Indian Officers," vol. ii., London, 1867. Nicholson, (William.) See Nicolson. Nicholson, (William,) an English chemist and sci- entific writer, born in London about 1755. He published, ami^ng other works, a " Dictionary of Chemistry," (2 vols., 1795,) and a " Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts," (5 vols., 1797-1800.) Died in 1815. Nicias, nish'e-as, or Nik'i-as, [Nt/cmf,] a celebrated Athenian general, was the son of Niceratus, who left him a large fortune. His moderate and cautious char- acter and conservative principles identified him with the aristocratic party. On the death of Pericles he became a prominent opponent of Cleon, the democratic leader. By prudence rather than by skill, he generally obtained success in his earlier military operations against the Spartans. In 426 B.C. he commanded a successful ex- pedition against Melos, and in 421; invaded Corinth, the army of which he defeated. Cleon, his princij^al rival, having died, Nicias exerted his influence in favour of peace, and a treaty was made between Athens and Sparta in 421 B.C. This was called the peace of Nicias, A long contest ensued between him and Alcibiades, the leader of the democracy, who wished to renew the war, and who prevailed in 415, when an expedition was sent against Syracuse, the ally of Sparta. Nicias, Alcibiades, and Lamachus were chosen joint commanders; but the second was recalled before the fleet arrived at Syracuse. In the spring of 414 Nicias blockaded the port of Syra- cuse, seized the heights of Epipolae, and had nearly en- closed the city on the land side by a wall, when Gylippus, the Spartan general, arrived. Nicias was disabled by ill health and wished to resign, but was compelled to retain the command. The Athenians were defeated in several actions on land and water, and the timidity or incapacity of Nicias caused the total loss of his large army. He was made prisoner, and put to death in 414 or 413 B.C. See Plutarch, "Life of Nicias;" Grote, "History of Greece," vol. vii. chaps. Ivii., Iviii., lix., Ix. ; Thucyuides, " History ;" Thirl- WALL, *' History of Greece." Nicias, a celebrated Greek painter, born at Athens, flourished probably between 350 and 300 B.C. He was a pupil of Antidotus, and is also called the most eminent disciple of Euphranor. According to Pliny, he was em- ployed by Praxiteles to colour or varnish marble statues, ( in statuis ciraimlinendis.) This was probably in his youth, before he had attained celebrity. He painted chiefly in encaustic, and was very skilful in representing female figures. He excelled in design and chiaroscuro. His master-piece was a picture of the infernal regions as described by Homer, "Necromantia Homeri," which, says Plutarch, he refused to sell to Ptolemy of Egypt, although he was offered the enormous price of sixty talents. Among his other works were a " Calypso," a "Diana," and a " Hyacinthus." See SiLLiG, " Catalogus Artificum ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Nicias, physician to Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, pro- posed to Fabricius, the Roman general, to poison his master for a sum of money. His treachery being dis- closed by Fabricius, he was put to death. Ni-co-eh'a-res, [N(/co;t:ap;yf,] an Athenian comic poet, was a son of the poet Philonides, and a contemporary of Aristophanes. He flourished about 375 B.C. His works are lost. Nic'o-cles, [ Gr. Ni/co/cA^f,] *King of Salamis, in Cyprus, was a son of Evagoras I. He began to reign about 375 B.C. Isocrates wrote a panegyric on him. Nicodeme. See Nicodemus. Nicodemo. See Nicodemus. Nic-o-de'mus, [Gr, NtKodrjfioc ; Fr. Nicodeme, ne'- ko'dim' ; It. Nicodkmo, ne-ko-da'mo,] a Pharisee and ruler of the Jews. See John iii. and xix, 39. Nic-o-de'mus, [Fr. Nicodeme, ne'koMim',] (Adam Burchard Selly,) a Russian monk and historian, of Danish origin. His chief work is " De Rossorum Hierarchia," (5 vols.) Died in 1746. Nicolai, nee'ko-li^ (Christoph Friedrich,) a cele- brated German litterateur, born at Berlin in 1733. Having at an early age acquired the friendship of Lessing and Moses Mendelssohn, he published, conjointly with the latter, the first four volumes of the " Library of Belles- Lettres," (1758.) "The Universal German Library," (" AUgemeine Deutsche Bibliothek,") in which he was assisted by several eminent writers, came out in 1792, in 106 vols. A continuation of this standard work was published in 1805, making in all 162 vols. Among his other writings may be named a " Description of Berlin and Potsdam," " Life and Opinions of Sebaldus No- thanker," (3 vols., 1773,) a "Tour through Germany and Switzerland," (12 vols., 1783,) and "Anecdotes of Fred- erick II.," (1788.) The conservative spirit of Nicolai's criticisms, and his hostility to all innovations in German literature, exposed him to the severe strictures of Goethe, Schiller, and other writers of the time. Died in 1811. See GocKiNG, "Nicolai's Leben und literarischen Nachlass;" J. G. FiCHTE, "F. Nicolai's Leben und sonderbare Meinungen," 1811; Meusel, "Gelehrtes Deutschland ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Nicolai, (Ernst Anton,) a German medical writer, born at Sondershausen in 1722. He became professor at Jena in 1758, and wrote numerous works. Died in 1802. S, e, T, 6, u, y, long; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, i, 9, obscure; fSr, fill, ftt; mgt; nSt; good; moon; NICOLJI NICOMACHUS Nicolai, ne''kont^e', (Jean,) a French theologian, born at Monza in 1594. He wrote several polemical works against the Jansenists, and edited Thomas Aquinas, (1663.) Died in 1673. Nicolai, (Johann,) a German antiquary, born at Ilm in 1665. He wrote numerous works on Jewish, Greek, and Roman antiquities. Died in 1708. Nicolai, (Philipp,) a German Lutheran theologian, born at Mengeringhausen in 1556. He preached at Hamburg, and published several works on theology. Died in 1608. Nicolai, de, deh ne'koltV, (Antoine Chretien,) Co.MTE, a French general, born in 1712, commanded a corps at Rossbach, Crefeld, and Minden, (1758.) He became a marshal of France in 1775. Died in 1777. Nicolas, the French for Nicholas, which see. Nicolas, ne'ko'li', (Auguste,) a French writer and judge, born at Bordeaux in 1807. His chief work is l^hilosophical Studies on Christianity," (4 vols., 1842- 45,) which obtained great success. Nicolas, (AuGUSTiN,) a French poet litterateur, born at ljesan9on in 1622; died in 1695. Nicolas, (Michel,) a learned French writer and philosopher, born at Nimes in 1810, is a Protestant minister. He became professor of philosophy at Mon- tauban about 1838. Among his numerous works are a "Treatise on Eclecticism," (1840,) and a "Literary History of Nimes," (3 vols., 1854.) He wrote many, articles for the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Nic'o-las, (Sir Nicholas Harris,) a distinguished English antiquary and biographical writer, born in Corn- wall in 1799. Among his most important works are "Notitia Historica," or "The Chronology of History," (1824,) a "Life of Chaucer," and the "History of the Battle of Agincourt." Pie was a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. He left unfinished a "History of the British Navy," (2 vols.) Died in 1848. Nicolas, (Pierre,) a French mathematician and Jes- uit, born at Toulouse in 1663. He wrote able works on geometry. Died in 1708. Nicolas, (Pierre Franqois,) a French chemist and medical writer, born at Saint-Mihiel in 1743; died in 1816. Nicolas OF Amiens, a French scholastic philosopher and writer, lived about 1 180-1200. Nicolas OF Bale, a Swiss reformer, born at Bale. He joined a society called "Friends of God," and was an eminent witness to the spirituality of true religion. About 1340 he was instrumental in the conversion of ohn Tauler. He went to Rome in 1377, and openly re- uked the pope. He was burned at the stake about 1395. See Hodgson, "Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867. Nicolaus. See Nicholas L, Pope. Nicolaiis Damascenus. See Damascenus. Nicolaus Myrepsus. See Myrepsus. Nic-o-la'us Prsepositus, (pre-pos'e-tus,) surnamed Salerni ta'nus, a physician of the twelfth century, was the founder of a celebrated medical school at Salerno. His " Antidotarium" has often been confounded with the work of Nicolaus Myrepsus on the same subject. Nicolay, nee'ko-lf, (Ludwig Heinrich,) Baron, a German poet, born at Strasburg in 1737. He was ap- pointed, in 1769, preceptor to the grand duke Paul, after- wards Emperor of Russia, and subsequently became director of the Academy of Sciences at Saint Petersburg. He was made a privy councillor in 1801. His works consist of elegies, epistles, narrative poems, and fables. Died in 1820. See P. VON Gerschau, "Aus dem Leben des H. L. Nicolay," 1834. Nicole, ne^col', (Claude,) a French poet, born at Chartres in 1611, was a cousin-german of Pierre Nicole, noticed below. He produced versions of the Odes of Horace, the Elegies of Ovid, and of other classic poems. Died in 1685. Nicole, (Francois,) a French mathematician, born in Paris in 1683. He wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on the Calculus of Finite Differences," (1727.) Died in 1758. Nicole, (Pierre,) an eminent French theologian and philosopher, born at Chartres in 1625. He was a promi- nent member of the institution of Port-Royal, and an intimate friend of Arnauld,in conjunction with whom he wrote the treatise entitled "Perpetuity of the Faith of the Catholic Church concerning the Eucharist," (1664.) His most important work is a collection of treatises called "Moral Essays and Theological Instructions," (25 vols., 1671 et seq.) One of these, entitled "On the Means of Preserving Peace," is styled by Voltaire " a master- piece of its kind, to which we can find nothing equal in antiquity." Among his other productions we may name his "Treatise on Human Faith," (1664,) and " Les Imaginaires et les Visionnaires," (2 vols., 1667.) Died in 1695. See Abb6 GoujET, "Vie de Nicole;" Sainte-Beuve, "Port- Royal," vol. iv. ; Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;' NicERON, "Memoires;" Besoigne, "Vie de Nicole," in his " His- toire de Port-Royal," vol. iv. ; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Nicolini, ne-ko-lee'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian lit- terateur, born at Brescia in 1788. He wrote a didactic poem " On the Culture of Cedars," and translated the tragedy of "Macbeth" into Italian. Died in 1855. Nic'pll, (Robert,) a Scottish poet, born in Perthshire in 1 814. He published in 1835 ^ collection of poems, which were very well received. In 1836 he became editor of the " Leeds Times," which, however, he did not long have charge of, as he died the following year, at the age of twenty-two. See "Brief Biographies," by Samuel Smiles; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement;) "Westminster Review" for October, 1842. NicoUe, ne'koK, (Charles Dominique,) a French teacher and educational writer, born in the department of Seine-Inferieure in 1758. He was appointed in 1821 rector of the Academy of Paris. Died in 1835. Nicolle, (Gabriel Henri,) brother of the preceding, was born in 1767, and became successively associate editor of the " Journal Fran9ais," " Courrier Universel," and "L'Eclair." Died in 1829. Nicollet, ne'ko^la', (Joseph Nicolas,) a French as- tronomer and explorer, born in Savoy in 1786, or, as some say, about 1795. He obtained the place of secretary and librarian of the Observatory of Paris in 181 7. About 1832 he emigrated to the United States. He made a scientific exploration of the region drained by the Mis- souri, Arkansas, and Red Rivers. He was afterwards employed by the government of the United States to explore the country west of the Mississippi, of which he produced a good map. He wrote, besides other works, a treatise on the geology of the valley of the Upper Mis- sissippi. Died at Washington in 1843. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire;" Quetelet, "Notice sur J. N. Nicollet," 1844. Nic'olls, (Jasper,) an English officer, born about 1780, served with distinction in India in the campaigns of 1817 and 1825, and was made lieutenant-general in 1841. Died in 1849. Nicolls, (Richard,) Colonel, an English officer, who in 1664 compelled the Dutch Governor Stuyvesant to surrender New Amsterdam, to which he gave the name of New York. He was appointed first English governor of that city. In the same year he took Fort Orange, (or Williamstadt,) which was afterwards called Albany, in honour of the Duke of York and Albany. Nicolopoulo, ne^ko-lo-poo^o, (Constantine,) a philologist, of Greek extraction, born at Smyrna in 1786. He became professor of Greek literature at the Athe- naeum in Paris, and was a contributor to the " Revue encyclopedique." Died in 1841. Nicolosi, ne-ko-lo'see, (Giambattista,) a Sicilian geographer, born at Paterno in 1610; died in 1670. Nic'ol-son, (William,) an English prelate, born in Cumberland in 1655, rose through various preferments to be Archbishop of Cashel, in Ireland. He was the author of three works, entitled "The English Historical Library," (1696,) "The Scottish Historical Library," (1702,) and "The Irish Historical Library," (1724.) Died in 1727. Ni-com'a-ehiis, [Gr. l^iKOfxaxog ; Fr. Nicomaque, ne'ko'mtk',] a Greek tragic poet, born in the Troade, wrote about 450-420 B.C., and was contemporary with Euripides. His works are lost, except small fragments. € as i; 5 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^I^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) NICOMACHUS \6j6 NIEBUHR Nicomachus, a Greek physician of Macedonia, who flourished about 400 B.C., was the father of Aristotle, and was patronized by Amyntas II., King of Macedonia. Nicomachus, a son of Aristotle, lived about 320 B.C. Little is known of his life. His mother was a slave, named Herpyllis. Some critics have ascribed to him certain ethical treatises which are generally included among the works of Aristotle. Nicomachus, a Greek mathematician, born at Gerasa, in Arabia, lived probably between 50 and 150 A.D. He was a Pythagorean. He wrote several works on arith- metic, one of which is extant, and a Life of Pythagoras, which is lost. Nicomachus {^LnofLaxo^] of Thebes, an excellent Greek painter, was a son and pupil of the painter Aris- todenius. He flourished about 350-300 B.C. His skill is praised by Cicero, who classes him with Apelles. Among his works noticed by Pliny were "Apollo and Diana," the " Tyndaridae," and the "Rape of Proser- pine." He was renowned for rapidity of execution. His brother Aristides was also an eminent painter. See Cicero, "Brutus." Nicomaque. See Nicomachus. Nicomede. _ See Nicomedes. Nic-o-me'des [Gr. N//co/z^(5?7f ; Fr. Nicomede, ne'- ko'mad'] I., King of Bithynia, began to reign at the death of his father, 278 B.C. He was opposed by his brother Zipoetes, and took into his service an army of Gauls, by whose aid he gained the victory. He founded the great city of Nicomedia. Died about 250 B.C. See Dkoysen, " Hellenismus." Nic-o-me'des II. E-piph'a-nes [Fr. Nicomede fipiPHANE, ne'ko^mad' a'pe'ftn'j was a son of Prusias XL, who sent him to Rome as a hostage. He gained the favour of the Roman senate, and excited the jealousy of his father, who sent an agent to assassinate him. In- formed of this design, Nicomedes dethroned and killed Prusias in 149 B.C. He was afterwards an ally of the Romans. Died about 90 B.C. See Justin, books xxxiv., xxxvii., etc. Nicomedes III., surnamed Philop'ator, was a son of the preceding, whom he succeeded in 91 B.C. In the Mithridatic war, which ensued soon after, he was an ally of Rome, but, having been defeated, he was driven from his kingdom. Bithynia was subsequently restored to Nicomedes, who, dying without children, (74 B.C.,) left it to the Romans. Nicomedes, a Greek geometer, the inventor of the curve called the "conchoid," flourished about 100 B.C. Ni'con [Nkwv] of Pergamus, a Greek architect and geometer, was the father of the celebrated Galen. Died about 150 A.D. Ni'con, Saint, a monk, who preached in Armenia about 960 A.D., and wrote a work "On the Impious Re- ligion of the Armenians." Died about 998. Ni-coph'a-nes, [Ni/co^av?;^,] a Greek painter, who is supposed to have lived about 300 B.C. His works are praised by Pliny in high terms. Nic'o-phon or Nic'o-phron, [Ni/co^wv or Ni«:60pwv,] an Athenian comic poet, lived about 400 B.C. Only small fragments of his plays are extant. Nicostrate. See Nicostratus. Ni-cos'tra-tus, [Gr. NiKooTparoc ; Fr. Nicostrate, ne^ko'strSt',] an Athenian comic poet, was a son of Aristophanes, and lived in the latter part of the fourth century B.C. His works are lost. Nicostratus, an Athenian general, commanded in the war against the Spartans about 425 B.C. He was a colleague of Nicias in the expedition to Chalcidice. Nicot, ne'ko', (Jean,) a French scholar, born at Nimes in 1530. By his merit and talents he acquired the confidence of Henry II. and his successor, and was employed as secretary of the king. On his return from an embassy to Lisbon, about 1 560, he brought the tobacco- plant, which was then unknown in France, and which was named in his honour Nicotiana by the botanists. The honour of producing the first model of a French dictionary is ascribed to him. It was entitled " Treasure of the French Language," (1606.) Died in 1600. See F. HoEFER, " Dictionnaire de Botanique pratique." Nicou-Choron, ne'koo'sho'r6N', (Stephano Louis,) a French composer, born in Paris in 1809. His worka are chiefly masses, oratorios, and other kinds of sacred music. Nicquet, ne'ki', (Honorat,) a French Jesuit and religious writer, born at Avignon in 1585; died in 1667. Nicuesa, de, dk ne-kwa'si, (Diego,) a Spanish ad- venturer, born in 1464, accompanied the expedition of Amerigo Vespucci to the Gulf of Urata in 1501. See Irving, "History of Christopher Columbus;" Gomera, " Historia general de las Indias." Nidda, von, fon nid'di, ( Friedrich Albrecht Franz Krug,) a German poet, born near Querfurt in 1776. He wrote tales, ballads, etc. Died in 1841. Nider, Nieder, or Nyder, nee'der, (Johannes,) a German theologian, was appointed by the Council of Bale(i53i) to labour for the conversion of the Hussites. Having tried argument without success, he resorted to violent persecution, and was responsible for the death of thousands. Died about 1440. Nid'hogg (NiShoggr) or Nidhoger, [from m'd, "malignity," and hoggva, to " hew" or "cut,"J in the Norse mythology, the name of a dragon or serpent which dwells in the fountain of Hvergelmir,* (or Vergelmir,) in Niflheim, and continually gnaws at the root of the life-tree Yggdrasil. From Hvergelmir flow the rivers of Hell. (See Hela.) According to some writers, Nid- hogg typifies the original evil principle which forms an element in the creed of so many of the Indo-Germanic nations. See Thorpe's "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Keyser's "Re- ligion of the Northmen." Niebelungen-Lied. See Siegfried. Niebuhr, nee'booR, (Barthold Georg,) a cele- brated German historian and critic, born at Copenhagen on the 27th of August, 1776, was the son of Carstens Nie- buhr, noticed below. He had a great facility for learning languages, and he read the works of Shakspeare in the original about the age of seven. In 1794 he entered the University of Kiel, where he profoundly studied Roman lavir, history, philosophy, and ancient languages. He was appointed secretary to Count Schimmelmann, minister of finance at Copenhagen, in 1796, made a tour in Great Britain in 1798, and became an assessor in the council of commerce at Copenhagen in 1800. In the last-named year he married Amalie Behrens. In 1806 he passed into the service of Prussia, as joint director of commerce, and in 1809 he became privy councillor and member of the commission of finances at Berlin. Al- though he performed these various functions with much ability and success, he soon retired from political life, and in 1810 was chosen professor of history in the Uni- versity of Berlin. His lectures on Roman history, pub- lished in 1811-12, announced the important discoveries and original ideas which have effected a great revolution in the principles of Roman history, and constitute his chief title to durable celebrity. During the war of liberation (1813) he attended the head-quarters of the allies, and was employed in nego- tiating loans. In 1816 he went as Prussian ambassador to Rome, where he remained until 1822 and pursued with ardour his researches in the history of ancient Rome and the study of philology. He became a resident of Bonn in 1823, and in 1825 opened there a course of lectures on history and Roman antiquities. In 1827 he published the first volume of a revised edition of his "History of Rome," ("Romische Geschichte,") which is considered the most original and profound work on ancient history that any modern has produced. The third and last volume appeared in 1832. The author died at Bonn in January, 1831, leaving a son, Marcus, who held a high position in the Prussian civil service. Niebuhr had refused several titles of nobility. His character was eminently truthful, upright, and generous. He had * The etymology of this name is uncertain. It is probably derived from a root cognate with the Anglo-Saxon hiverfan or hweor/att^ to "turn," to " whirl," and ^^/w. (or ^<>/;«r.)a " bunch" or " mass," thus signifying the "whirling mass," [of waters. 1 According to Key- ser, hver means a "hot spring" or "cauldron;" but the etymology is not improbably the same, the term having been applied to a boiling spring on account of the constant turning or whirling of its waters. a, e, 1, 0, u, y, lo7tg; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; NIEBUHR 1677 NIEMETER noble features, and a graceful facility of elocution. His attainments as a critic and philologist were of the highest order.* He spoke all the languages of Europe, and was master of the Hebrew, Greek, Arabic, and Persian, Among his principal works are an edition of the Byzantine Historians, (1828,) "Short Historical and Philological Treatises," (1828,) "Lectures on Ancient Ethnography and Geography,'' and " Lectures on An- cient History." In 1838 appeared an interesting col- lection of his Letters, with memoirs of his life, edited by Madame Hensler, (" Lebensnachrichten iiber B. G. Niebuhr," etc., 3- vols.) His reputation as a historian continued to increase after his death, though several of his positions are controverted by eminent critics. He rejected as fabulous many stories which other historians had credited, and aimed to construct a fabric of rational probability out of the confused mass of traditions, con- jectures, and mythical legends. " He would have been the first writer of his time," says Macaulay, "if his talent for communicating truths had borne any proportion to his talent for investigating them." (Preface to "Lays of Ancient Rome.") See "The Life and Letters of B. G. Niebuhr, with Essays on his Character and Influence," by Chevalier Bunsen, London, 2 vols., 1852; Francis Lieber, " Reminiscences of B. G. Niebuhr," 1835; "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1833, and July, 1852; "Quar- terly Review," article on " Early Roman History," vol. xxvii. and vol. xxxii., (by Arnold ;) " Westminster Review" for May, 1843 ; " Lon- don Quarterly Review" for September, 1840: "Foreign Quarterly Review" for June, 1828, and July, 1831 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for July and December, 1852 : " North American Review" for April, 1823, (by Edward Everett;) "North British Review" for August, 1852; "Westminster Review" for December, 1843, (by G. H. Lewes.) Niebuhr, (Carstens or Karstens,) a German trav- eller of distinguished talent and energy, was born at Liidingworth, in Hanover, in 1733. He entered the Danish service as lieutenant-engineer in 1760, and was appointed by Frederick V. in 1761 to accompany a sci- entific expedition to Arabia. Soon after their arrival at Mocha, Von Haven, one of the company, died, and within a year Niebuhr had the misfortune to lose his three re- maining companions. He now adopted the diet of the Arabians, and his health, which had previously suffered, continued good during the rest of his journey. He spent six years in the country, taking upon himself all the labours of the mission, and in 1767 returned to Den- mark. His "Description of Arabia" came out in 1772. The accuracy, research, and freedom from exaggeration which characterize this production have caused it to be regarded as a standard work. In 1778 he brought out "Travels in Arabia and the Surrounding Countries." In addition to the above, he edited and published the "Flora Egyptiaco-Arabica," and " Descriptions of Animals" by Forskil, the naturalist of the expedition. Niebuhr was a councillor of state, and a member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. Died in 1815. See H. G. Niebuhr, " Leben Carstens Niebuhr's," 1817; "Monthly Review," vol. liii., 1776, (Appendix.) Niebuhr, von, fon nee'booR, (Marcus,) a son of Barthold G. Niebuhr, was born at Rome about 181 7. He was carefully educated by his father, who declared his determination that he should believe in the letter of the Old and New Testament, and said, " I shall nurture in him from his infancy a firiri faith in all I have lost or feel uncertain about." He obtained several high offices in the Prussian government. He was opposed to the Liberal party in politics. Died in i860. * It is interesting to know that he who was perhaps the most thorough and searching of all historical critics, and whose intellect, as he tells us hiniself, "early took a skeptical direction," felt himself nevertheless obliged to accept the Gospel narratives as true history in all essential points. He says, " He whose earthly life and sorrows were depicted had for me a perfectly real existence, and His whole history had the same reality even if it were not related with literal exactness in any single point. Hence, also, the fundamental fact of miracles, which, according to my conviction, must be conceded, un- less we adopt the not merely incomprehensible, but absurd, hypothesis that the Holiest was a deceiver and His disciples either dupes or liars, and that deceivers had preached a holy religion, in which self-renun- ciation is everything, and in which there is nothing tending towards the erection of a priestly rule, — nothing that can be acceptable to vicious inclinations. As regards a miracle in the strictest sense, it really only requires an unprejudiced and penetrating study of nature to see that those related are as far as possible from absurdity, and a comparison with legends, or the pretended miracles of other religions, to perceive by what a different spirit they are animated." (Niebuhr's "Letters," vol. i. p. 340, Letter 148.) Niederer, nee'deh-rer, (Jean,) a Swiss teacher, born at Appenzell in 1778, published a treatise on the system of Pestalozzi. Died in 1843. Niedermeyer, neeMer-mi'er, (Louis,) a Swiss com- poser and musician, born in the canton de Vaud in 1802. Among his works are the opera of " La Fronde," and a number of songs and religious pieces. Died in 1861. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Niel, ne-^K, (Adolphe,) a French marshal, born at Muret (Haute-Garonne) in 1802. He served in the expedition to Rome in 1848, and became a general of brigade in 1849, ^rid general of division in 1853. As general of engineers, he directed with success the opera- tions at the siege of Bomarsund, in 1854. In May, 1855, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the engineers and artillery at Sebastopol. He commanded a corps at the battles of Magenta and Solferino, June, 1859. For his services at Solferino he was raised to the rank of marshal of France. He became minister of war in Feb- ruary, 1867, and showed himself an able administrator. Died in August, 1869. See Baron de Bazancourt, " Campagnes de Crimee et d'ltalie ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Nield, neeld, (James,) an English philanthropist, born in Cheshire in 1744. He devoted much time to the cause of prison-reform. Died in 1814. Nielly, ne'i^le', (Joseph Marie,) Baron, a French naval officer, born at Brest in 1 751, served against the English in several campaigns, and became vice-admiral in 1815. Died in 1833. Nielsen, neeKsen, (Johan Moses Georg,) a Danish poet and lawyer, born near Nyborg in 1804; died in 1855 Nielsen, (Nikolaus Peter,) a popular Danish actor, born in Seeland in 1795. Niem, neem, (Thierry,) a German historian, borr near Paderborn, became Bishop of Cambray in 1396 He wrote the " Lives of the Roman Pontiffs," and othei historical works, in Latin. Died about 141 7. Niemann, nee'min, (August Christian Heinrich,) a Danish publicist and writer on political economy, born at Altona in 1761 ; died in 1832. Niemann, nee'min, (Johann Friedrich,) a Germari physician, born in Anhalt-Dessau in 1764, was the authoir of several medical works. Died in 1846. Niemcewicz, ne-^m-tsa'vitch, (Julian Ursin,) a celebrated Polish statesman, historian, and poet, born in Lithuania in 1757. Being appointed a deputy to the Constitutional Diet, he had the principal share in drawing up the " Constitution of the 3d of May," 1791, and about the same time became one of the editors of a popular journal called " Gazeta Narodowa." After the battle of Maciejowice, he was made prisoner with Kosciusko and confined in the fortress of Saint Petersburg, from which they were released on the accession of Paul, in 1796. He accompanied Kosciusko to America in 1797, and in 1800 married Mrs. Livingston Kean, a lady of New York. He returned to Europe on the entrance of Napoleon into Poland, and when that country was united with Russia he was appointed by the emperor Alexander president of the committee of the constitution, and per- « petual secretary of the senate. A short time previous to the fall of Warsaw he visited England, and then went to Paris, where he died in 1841. His principal works are " Historical Songs of Poland," " History of the Reign of Sigismund III.," "Memoirs towards the Ancient His- tory of Poland," and "John of Tenczyn," a romance. He also wrote several dramas, which were successful, and made some translations from the English poets. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Niemeyer, nee'mi'er, (August Hermann,) a Ger- man theologian, born at Llalle in 1754. He was ap- pointed in 1799 director of the charitable institutions founded by A. H. Francke, and became in 1808 chan- cellor and perpetual rector of the University of Halle. He wrote educational and religious works in prose and verse, and was highly esteemed for his virtue and learn- ing. Died in 1828. See Fritsch, "Ueber des verewigten A. H. Niemeyer's Leben," 1828; Jacobs und Gruber, "A. H. Niemeyer: zur Erinnerung an dessen Leben," 1831 ; A. H. Rein, " Erinnerungen an A. H. Nie- meyer," 1841. € as y^-; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, H, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) NIEMOJOWSKI 678 NIGHTINGALE Niemojowski, ne-§m-o-yov'skee, (Joseph,) a Polish patriot, born about 1 760, was appointed general of the palatinate of Posnania. He was killed at the battle of Polotzk, in 1813. Niemojowski, (Vincent,) born near Kalisch in 1784, distinguished himself by his zeal in the cause of Poland, and held for a time the post of minister of the interior at Warsaw. Died in 1834. Niepce, ne-gps', (Joskph Nic^phore,) a French chemist and inventor of photography, born at Chalons- sur-Saone in 1765. He served in the army in 1792- 95. About 1814 he began his researches on the action of light on prepared surfaces. In 1822 he obtained copies of engravings from polished metallic plates cov- ered with a bituminous varnish. He gave the name of Heliographie to this art. He formed a partnership with Daguerre in 1829. It is stated that Niepce was the first to fix permanently images formed by the camera. Died in 1833. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Niepce de Saint-Victor, ne-§ps' deh sIn' v^k'toR', (Claude F6lix Abel,) a French chemist and pho- tographer, a nephew of the preceding, was born near Chalons-sur-Saone in 1805. He entered the army, in which he gained the rank of captain. Having applied himself to the task of perfecting the invention of his uncle, he announced in 1847 to the Academy of Sci- ences an important discovery of a method of obtaining images on glass prepared with starch or albumen. He also invented a j^rocess of heliographic engraving on metal covered with a varnish which consists chiefly of benzii.e. In 1854 he was appointed commandant of the Louvre. He explained his discoveries in numerous memoirs, which he published collectively under the title of " Photographic Researches," (1855.) Died in April, 1870. See a " Memoir of Niepce de Saint-Victor," prefixed to the work just named, by M. E. Lacan; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" " Britisli Quarterly Review" for July and October, 1866. Nieremberg,nee'rem-b^Rg^ [Lat. Nierember'gius,] (Johann Eusebius,) a learned Spanish Jesuit, of Ger- man extraction, born at Madrid about 1590. He was the author of numerous theological and miscellaneous works, in Latin and Spanish ; among the principal of these is his " Historia Naturae maxime peregrinae," (1635,) being an account of the natural history of the Indies. Died in 1658. See "Vie du P. de Nieremberg," prefixed to his "Opera Par- thenica;" A. de Andrada, "Vida del P. J. E. Nieremberg," 1658; MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Nierembergius, See Nieremberg. Nieritz, nee'rits, (Karl Gustav,) a German littera- teur, born at Dresden in 1795, has published several works for children and youth. Niethammer, neet'ham'mer, (Friedrich Imma- NUEL,) a German philosopher, born at Beilstein, in Wiirtemberg, in 1766. He was associated with Fichte as editor of the " Philosophisches Journal" at Jena. Died in 1846, Nieto, ne-a'to, (David,) a learned Jewish rabbi, born at Venice in 1654 ; died in 1728. Nieto, ne-a'to, (Don Vincente,) a Spanish general, born in 1769, fought on the side of the royalists in the civil war of 1810 in South America. Having been made prisoner by the patriot General Balcarca in Upper Peru, he was shot by his order in 1810. Nieuhoff, noi'hof, (Johann,) a German traveller, born in Westphalia in 1630, visited China and Batavia, and published in 1666 an account of his journey, (in Dutch,) which was very popular at the time and was translated into Latin and several other languages. Having gone ashore at Madagascar in 1672, he was lost, killed, or disappeared mysteriously. See Macartney, "Travels in India, China," etc. Nieulant, ne-uh'iant, (Willem,) a skilful Flemish painter and engraver, born in 1584, studied at Rome. Among his works are engravings of Italian landscapes. Died in 1635. Nieupoort,ne-uh'p6Rt,( Willem HENDRiK,)aDutch historian and jurist, born about 1670, became professor of law at Utrecht. Died about 1730. Nieuport, de, deh ne-uh'poR^ (Charles FRANgois Ferdinand Flokent Antoine,) Vicomte, a distin- guished mathematician, born in Paris in 1746, was ap- pointed in 1816 director of the Academy of Brussels. He died in 1827, leaving numerous mathematical works. Nieuwelandt, ne-u^'eh-lSnt', or Nieulandt, ne- uh'lint, (Adrian,) a Flemish painter, was a native of Antwerp. His works are chiefly landscapes and sea- views. Died in 1601. Nieuwelandt, (Jan,) son of the preceding, was born at Antwerp in 1579. He studied painting under his father, and produced a number of landscapes of superior merit. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Nieuwelandt, van den, vtn den ne-uw'eh iant, (Willem,) a Flemish artist and dramatic writer, born at Antwerp in 1584, was a son of Adrian, noticed above. He painted architectural pieces of great merit, and was also a skilful engraver. He was the author of a popular tragedy, entitled " Nero," and of other works. Died in 1635. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Nieuwentyt, ne-uh'x^en-tlt'', (Bernard,) a Dutch writer and mathematician, born in North Holland in 1654, became burgomaster of Purmerend. He wrote treatises against the differential calculus, and a popular work entitled "The Right Use of the Contemplation of the World," (" Het regt Gebruik der Wereltbeschou- ingen," 171 5,) which was translated into several lan- guages. Died in 17 18. See NiCERON, "Memoires." Nieuwerkerke, de, deh ne-uh'^gr-k§R'keh, (Al- fred Emilien,) Comte, a French sculptor, of Dutch extraction, born in Paris in 1811. He has executed numerous busts and statues, among which we may name those of Descartes and Isabella the Catholic. Nieuwland, ne-uh'lint, (Pieter,) a Dutch poet and savant, born near Amsterdam in 1764. He displayed in youth great precocity and aptitude for learning languages and sciences. He wrote several able scientific treatises, and poems of great beauty, one of which is entitled "Orion." In 1793 he became professor of natural phi- losophy, astronomy, and mathematics at Leyden. Died in November, 1794. See p. MiCHELL, "Jets ter Nagedachtenis van P. Nieuwland," 1794; J. H. van Swinden, "Lykredeop P. Nieuwland," 1795; C. L. Brightwell, " Annals of Industry and Genius," London, 1863. Nifanius, ne-f3,'ne-ils, (Christian,) a German theo- logian and scholar, born at Lelingen in 1629; died in 1689. Niflheim. See Hela. Nifo, nee'fo, [Lat. Ni'phus,] (Agostino,) an Italian scholar and philosopher, born in Calabria about 1473, published several Latin treatises and commentaries on Aristotle. He was patronized by Leo X., and was a professor at Rome and Naples. Died about 1538. See GiNGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Nigel, ni'jel, ? an ecclesiastic, born in Normandy, be- came treasurer to Henry I. of England, who subsequently created him Bishop of Ely. Died in 1169. Ni'ger, (Caius Pescennius.) a Roman commander, and governor of Syria. On the death of Pertinax, 193 A.D., he became a competitor for the empire, with Sep- timius Severus and Clodius Albinus for his rivals. Aftei his army had been several times defeated by the former in Asia Minor, he was made prisoner and put to death in 194 a.d. See T1LI.EMONT, " Histoire des Empereurs." Nigetti, ne-jet'tee, (Matteo,) an Italian architect and sculptor, born at Florence about 1560; died in 1646. Night'in-gale, (Miss Florence,) a lady celebrated for her philanthropy, the daughter of William E. Night- ingale, of Derbyshire, England, was born at Florence in 1820. From her childhood she took a deep interest in schemes of benevolence, and, after having visited the hospitals and other similar establishments of England, she went to Germany, with the view of inspecting the institution at Kaiserswerth, founded in 1833 by Fliedner. In 1849 she entered Kaiserswerth, in order to qualify herself as a hospital nurse in the training-school which forms a part of that establishment. The Crimean war a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; mSt; nflt; good; moon; NIGHTINGALE NISARD having broken out soon after her return to England, Miss Nightingale, accompanied by a number of volun- tary nurses, set out in 1854 for the East, where, in the military hospitals at Scutari, they devoted themselves to the care of the sick and wounded soldiers. In 1856 she returned to England, where the queen conferred upon her various distinctions in acknowledgment of her eminent services. Miss Nightingale has published a pamphlet entitled "The Institution at Kaiserswerth on the Rhine, for the Practical Training of Deaconesses, under the Direction of the Rev. Pastor Fliedner," (1850,) and " Notes on Nursing," one of the best works that has appeared on the subject. See Mrs. Jameson, " Sisters of Charity;" "London Quarterly Review" for April, i860. Nightingale, (Joseph,) an English dissenting divine, born in Lancashire in 1775. wrote, among other works, "A Portraiture of Catholicism," and "English Topography." Died in 1824. Night'in-gail, (Sir Miles,) K.C.B., an English officer, served under Sir William Meadows in India in 1791-92, and was subsequently engaged in the continental war. About 1820 he became a member of Parliament for Suf- folk. Died in 1829. Nigidius. See Figulus. Nigrisoli, ne-gRe-so'lee, (Giovanni Maria,) an Ital- ian physician, born at Ferrara in 1648, became professor of medicine in his native city. Died in 1727. Nigroni, ne-gRo'nee, (Giulio,) a learned Jesuit, born at Genoa in 1553 ; died in 1625. Nihus, nee'us, (Barthold,) a German Catholic theo- logian, born in the duchy of Brunswick in 1589, wrote a number of controversial treatises. Died in 1657. Nikitin, ne-ke-tin' or ne-ke-teen', (Athanasius,) a Russian traveller, who visited Persia and Hindostan, and wrote an account of those countries, which was dis- covered and published by Karamzin. Died in 1472. See Gretch, " Essai historique sur la Litt^rature Russe." Nike. See Nice. Nikolai, nee'ko-lT, (Tzaak,) a Dutch painter, born at Leyden in 1536. He died in 1619, leaving three sons, all of whom were artists. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, HoUandais," etc. Nikolaus, the German for Nicholas, which see. Nikon or Nicon, nee'kon, a Russian scholar and theologian, born near Novogorod in 1605. He was ap- pointed Patriarch of Russia in 1652 ; but he afterwards lost favour at court, and was deposed. He rendered great services to Russian literature by correcting the Slavonian ecclesiastical works from the Greek originals ; and he is believed to have compiled the " Russian Chronicles," published by the Academy of Sciences at Saint Petersburg, (1792.) Died in 1681. See Ivan Choucherin, "Vie du Patriarche Nikon," 1817; Apollos, "Vie du Patriarche Nikon," 1839. Nil, Saint, an ecclesiastic of the fifth century, be- longed to a noble family of Constantinople. He was author of numerous theological works, only a part of which are extant. Nilakantha, a surname of Siva, (which see.) Niles, nllz, (Hezekiah,) an American journalist, and founder of the " Register" called by his name, which he edited for twenty-five years at Baltimore, was born about 1777; died in 1839. Niles, (John Milton,) an American journalist and statesman, born at Windsor, Connecticut, in 1787. He became editor in 1817 of the "Hartford Times," a Democratic journal, and in 1840 was appointed post- master-general by President Van Buren. He was elected to the United States Senate in 1842. He wrote the "Lives of Perry, Lawrence, Pike, and Harrison," "His- tory of South America and Mexico," etc., and other works. Died in 1856. Niles, (Nathaniel,) an American divine and inventor, born at South Kingston, Rhode Island, in 1741, was a member of Congress from Vermont in 1791. He was the author of religious and miscellaneous works, and wrote a popular war-song, called "The American Hero." Died in 1828. Niles, (Samuel,) an American divine, born at Brain- tree, Massachusetts, in 1744. He graduated at Prince- ton College, and subsequently became minister of Abing- ton, Massachusetts. Died in 1814. Ni'leus or Neleus, [Nci^erf,] a Greek physician of uncertain epoch, probably lived before 200 B.C. He invented a machine for the reduction of dislocations. Nilson, niKson, (Johann Esaias,) a German painter and engraver, born at Augsburg in 1721 ; died ni 1788. Nilson, n!l'son, or Nilsson, (Sven,) an eminent Swedish naturalist and physician, born near Landskrona in 1787. Among his principal works are his "Swedish Ornithology," (" Ornithologia Suecica,") "Scandinavian Fauna," (" Skandinavisk Fauna," 1820,) and an antiqua- rian treatise " On the Primitive Inhabitants of Northern Scandinavia," (1838.) Nilsson, niKson, (Christine,) a celebrated singer, born in Smaland, Sweden, in 1843. ^'""^ made her debut in Paris in October, 1864, appeared in London in 1867, visited the United States in 1870, and was everywhere received with unbounded applause. Nimeegen, van, vtn ne-ma'nen, (Elias,) a Dutch painter of landscapes, history, and still life, born at Nymwegen in 1667; died about 1737. Nina, nee'nS, a Sicilian poetess of the latter part of the thirteenth century. Ninnin, ne'n^w', (Henri,) born at Poix, in Cham- pagne, in 1722, was one of the physicians of Louis XV. He published a translation of the medical works of Celsus, (2 vols., 1753.) Died in 1800. Nino, n^n'yo, (Andres,) a Spanish navigator, born about 1475, made a voyage to the Moluccas in 1522. Nino, (Pedro Alonzo,) a Spanish navigator, sur- named el Negro, (" the Black,") born in Andalusia in 1468, was one of the companions of Columbus in his third voyage. He afterwards sailed as commander of a caravel, and made several discoveries on and near the South American coast. Died about 1505. See Irving, " Life of Columbus." Nino de Guevara. See Goevara, de. Ninon. See L'Enclos, de. Ni'nus, [Gr. NZvof,] a celebrated ruler of antiquity, said to have been the founder of the Assyrian monarchy, flourished about 2048 B.C. After having conquered the greater part of Asia, he built the city of Nineveh, and at his death left his kingdom to his warlike queen Semi- ramis, (which see.) Ni'9-be, [Gr. Ni6/??7; Fr. Niob6, neVbk',] a person- age of classic mythology, said to have been a daughter of Tantalus, (or, according to some authorities, of Pe- lops,) and the wife of Amphi^on. She was celebrated for her numerous and beautiful offspring, and had seven sons and seven daughters, or, according to some ac- counts, six of each. The poets relate that she was so proud of her children that she claimed superiority over Latona, (Leto,) who had borne only two. Apollo and Diana, (Artemis,) exasperated by her arrogance, slew all her children. The sons are said to have fallen by the arrows of Apollo, the daughters by those of Diana. Niobe was changed into a stone by her excessive grief. Her story was a favourite subject of the. ancient poets, and has been commemorated by an admirable group of statuary, which is now at Florence, and which is variously ascribed to Praxiteles and Scopas. (See tiie " Iliad," book xxiv.) Niou, ne'oo', (Joseph,) a French revolutionist, born at Rochefort in 1 751, was elected to the National Con- vention in 1792, and voted for the deat^i of the king. Died in 1828. Niphus. See Nifo. Nisami. See Nizamee. Nisard, ne^ztR', (Jean Marie Napoleon D^sir^,) a French critic and litterateur, born at Chatillon-sur- Seine in 1806. He became associate editor of the "Journal des Debats" and of "Le National," (1831,) and was subsequently appointed master of requests in the council of state, and professor of Latin eloquence in the College of France, (1844.) He was elected in 1850 to the French Academy, and in 1852 succeeded M. Vil- lemain in the chair of French eloquence in the Faculty of Letters. Among his works we may name his " Studies of Morals and Criticism on the Latin Poets during the Decline of Learning," (2 vols., 1834,) which is highly < as 9 as s; | kard; g as g, h, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^="See Explanations, p. 23.) NISARD 1680 NOAH commended by Villemain and other critics, " History of French Literature," (4 vols., 1844-61,) esteemed his best production, and "Studies on the Revival of Let- ters," (1855.) See Sainte-Beuve, "Portraits contemporalns ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Nisard, (Jran Marie Nicolas Auguste,) a French scholar, Ijrother of the preceding, was born at Chatillon- sur-Seine in 1805. He published a translation of Horace's ** Art of Poetry" and of Virgil's works. Nisard, (Marie L^ionard Charles,) brother of the preceding, was born at Chatillon-sur-Seine in 1808. He published several original works, and made translations from Ovid, Martial, and other Latin classics. Among his works are " Les Ennemis de Voltaire," (1853,) a " History of Popular Books since the Fifteenth Century," (2 vols., 1854,) and " Les Gladiateurs de la Republique des Lettres au quinzieme, seizieme et dix-septieme Sie- cles," (i860.) Nisbet. See Nesbit, (Alexander.) Nissel, nis'sel, [Lat. Nisse'lius,] (Johann Georg,) a Gennan editor, born in the Palatinate, lived mostly at Leyden. He published, at his own expense, a Hebrew Bible, (about 1659,) which is said to be accurate. Died in 1662. Nisselius. See Nissel. Nissole, ne''soK, (Guillaume,) a French botanist, born at Montpellier in 1647. The genus Nissolia was named in his honour by Tournefort. Died in 1734. Ni'sus, [Gr. Wlooq,] in classic mythology, a son of Pandi'on, and a king of Megara. The poets relate that Megara was taken by Minos through the treachery of Scylla, a daughter of Nisus, who died because she cut off the purple or golden hair on which his life de- pended. Nisus, a Trojan warrior and friend of Euryalus, came to Italy with ^neas, and was killed in the war against Turnus. The story of Nisus and Euryalus forms the .subject of a beautiful episode of Virgil's " ^Eneid," book ix., 175-448. Nithard, ne'ttR', a French historian, born in 790 A.D., was the son of Angilbert and Bertha, daughter of Charle- magne. His principal work is a " History of the Dis- sensions between the Sons of Louis le Debonnaire," (in Latin.) Died in 853. See " Histoire lilteraire de la France," vol. v. Ni-to'cris, [Gr. NiTw/cptc,] a queen of ancient Egypt, lived before the time of Herodotus, who says she was the only female in a list of three hundred and thirty mon- archs which the Egyptian priests showed to him. She was celebrated as a heroine in the legends of ancient Egypt. See BuNSEN, "^gyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte." Nitsch, nitsh, (Paul Friedrtch,) a German archas- ologist, born at Glauchau in 1754, published a "New Mythological Dictionary," (1793,) and other learned works. Died in 1794. Nitzsch or Nitzch, n!tsh, (Gregor Wilhelm,) a German philologist and antiquary, born at Wittenberg in 1790, was a son of Karl Ludwig, noticed below. He became professor of ancient literature at Kiel in 1827, and professor of archaeology at Leipsic in 1852. He gained distinction by his speculations on the Homeric poems. Among his works is "The Epic Poetry of the Greeks," (2 vols., 1852.) Died in 1861. Nitzsch, (Karl Immanuel,) a German theologian, a brother of the preceding, was born at Borna, in Saxony, in 1787. He became professor of theology at Bonn in 1822, and obtained the high office of Oberconsistorial- rath in 1843. 1847 was appointed preacher to the Utiiversity of Berlin. His opinions are said to be liberal. Nitzsch, (Karl Ludwig,) a German theologian, born at Wittenberg in 1751, was the father of the preceding. He was appointed professor of theology at the Univer- sity of Wittenberg about 1790. He wrote, besides other works, " On the ^Salvation of the World," (" Ueber das Heil der Welt," 181 7.) He favoured a compromise or reconcilement between orthodoxy and rationalism. Died in 1831. See HoppE, " Denkmal des verewigten K. L. Nitzsch," 1837. Nivelle, ne'vSK, (Gabriel Nicolas,) a French Jan- senist, born in 1687, was the author of" The Cry of the Faith," and "The Constitution Unigenitus submitted to the Universal Church." Died in 1761. Nivelle de la Chaussee. See Chauss^e, de la. Nivernais, de. deh ne'vgR'na', (Louis Jules Bar- bon Mancini Mazarini — btR''b6N' mSw'se'ne' mt'- zt're'ne',) Due, a distinguished French litteraieur ^d,nd diplomatist, born in Paris in 1716. He was employed in several important missions, and in 1763 negotia'ted the treaty between England and France. He made translations from the Latin, English, and Italian, and , wrote a number of fables, which are highly esteemed. He was a member of the French Academy. Died in 1798. See Sainte-Beuve," Causeries du Lundi ;" F. de Neufchateau, " Elogedu Ducde Nivernais," prefixed to his "CEuvres posthumes,'' 1807 ; Andre Dupin, " ^loge du Due de Nivernois," 1840. Nivers, ne'vaiR', (Guillaume Gabriel,) a French musician and writer on music, born near Melun in 1617. Nix'pn, (John,) an American general of the Revo- lution, born at Framingham, Massachusetts, in 1725. He distinguished himself at the battles of Ticonderoga, Lexington, and Bunker Hill, and rose to be brigadier- general in 1776. Died in 181 5. Niza, di, de nkKzS, (Marco,) an Italian missionary, is said to have first discovered the province of Sonora, in New Mexico, (1540.) Nizam-el-Molouk. See Nizam-el-Moolk. Nizam-el-Moolk, ne-zim' el moolk, written also Nizam-el-Mulk and Nizam-al-Moulk or -Molook, a Persian statesman, was grand vizier to the Sultan Alp- Arslan. He was a distinguished patron of learning, and founded the College of Bagdad. He wrote a valuable work containing precepts for government. Died about 1092. Niz^m-ool- Moolk or Nizam - ill - Mnlk, (or -Moulk,) ne-zam' dol moolk, a general and politician, born at Delhi, in Hindostan, about 1650. He is said to have been daring, successful, and treacherous. He made himself master of the Deccan, Died in 1748. Nizam-ul-Mulk. See Nizam-el-Moolk and Ni- ZAM-OOL-MOOLK. Nizamee, Nizami, or Nisami, ne-zi'mee, written also Nidhami, (Aboo -Mohammed -Ibn-Yoosuf, ^'boo mo-h3,m'med ib'n yoo'soof or yoo'suf,) a cele- brated Persian poet of the twelfth century. One of his princi]Dal poems furnished the subject of Gozzi's drama of " Turandot," which was subsequently imitated by Schiller. Died in 1180. Niz^mi. See Nizamee. Nizolius. See Nizzoll Nizzoli, n^t'so-lee, [Lat. Nizo'lius,] (Mario,) an Italian scholar, and one of the best Latin writers of his time, was born near Modena in 1498. His principal works are "The Ciceronian Treasure," ("Thesaurus Ciceronianus,") and an essay " On the True Principles of Philosophising." Njord or Niord, nyord, (Nj6r?$r,) [etymology very uncertain; some derive it from nofdr, "north,"] the god of winds, and the third in order (after Odin) among the gods of the Norse mythology. He appears to be a personification of trade or commerce, and dwells in Noatun, (no^i-toon',) or " Ship-town." His wife is named Skadi, (which see.) He is particularly worshipped by sailors and fishermen. He is very rich, and can give wealth in abundance to those who invoke him. He rules the course of the wind, stills the ocean, and quenches fire. He was originally an inhabitant of Vana- heim, but was sent by the Vanir as a hostage to the ^sir, among whom he is now numbered. See Thorpe's "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Keyser's "Re- ligion of the Northmen;" Petersen's " Nordisk Mythologi." No'ah, [Heb. HJ; Gr. Nwf ; Fr. No^, no'^,] the son of Lam.ech, a patriarch of the tenth generation from Adam, is supposed to have been born about 2950 B.C. He was distinguished for his integrity and piety in an age of almost universal corruption. (Genesis vi. 9 ; IT. Peter ii. 5.) He was six hundred years old when the great Deluge destroyed all the human race except Noah and his family, who were saved in the Ark (Genesis vii., 3, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; \ fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f3,ll, fit; mSt; n5t; good; moon; NOAH 1681 NODAL viii., and ix.) and entered into a new and everlasting covenant. He died at the age of nine hundred and fifty. No'ah, (MoRDECAi Manuel,) an American journalist and politician, of Jewish extraction, born in Philadelphia in 1785. He removed to New York, where he was successively editor of "The National Advocate," "The Enquirer," "Evening Star," and " Sunday Times." He was appointed consul to Morocco in 1813. He pub- lished "Travels in England, France, Spain, and the Barbary States." Died in 1851. Noaille, no'tF or no't'ye, (Jacques Barth^lemy,) a French magistrate and revolutionist, of the royalist party, born at Beaucaire in April, 1758 ; died in 1828. Noailles, de, deh no'tF or no't'ye, { Adrien Maurice,) Due, an eminent French general and states- man, born in Paris in 1678, was the eldest son of Anne Jules, noticed below. He married Fran9oise d'Aubigne, a niece of Madame de Maintenon. During the war of the Spanish succession he served with distinction as general and diplomatist in Spain from 1705 to 1712. He was minister of finance from 171 5 to 1718. In 1734 he became a marshal of France and commander-in-chief in a war against the Emperor of Germany. He wrote "Political and Military Memoirs," (6 vols., 1777.) He is represented as a man of great talents and many virtues. Died in 1766. See MiM.OT, "Memoires du Due de Noailles," 1777; Saint- Simon, "Memoires:" Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" Mo- RERI, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Cesena, " La Maison de Noailles," 1842. Noailles, de, (Anne Jules,) Due, an able French general, born in 1650, was the eldest son of the first Duke of Noailles, and father of the preceding. He commanded in Catalonia between 1689 and 1695, and gained several advantages over the Spaniards. He ob- tained the rank of marshal of France in 1693, and became Viceroy of Catalonia. Died in 1708. See Saint-Simon, "Memoires;" De Courcelles, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Frangais ;" Cesena, " La Maison de Noailles," 1842. Noailles, de, (Antoine,) a French admiral, born in 1504 ; died in 1562. Noailles, de, (FRANgois,) a French diplomatist, brother of the preceding, was born in the department of Limousin in 15 19. He was employed by Henry H. in missions to London, Venice, and Constantinople. Died in 1585. Noailles, de, (Jean Paul Francois,) Due, son of Louis, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1739. He served in the last campaigns of th» Seven Years' war, was made a knight of the golden fleece, and obtained the rank of lieutenant-general. He wrote several scientific treatises, and became a member of the Academy of Sciences, (1777.) He was the father-in-law of General La Fayette. Died in 1824. See De Courcelles, " Histoire des Pairs de France ;" A. de Cesena, "La Maison de Noailles," 1842. Noailles, de, (Louis,) Due, born in 1713, was a son of Adrien Maurice. He was styled Due d'Ayen before his father's death. He distinguished himself in the campaigns of Flanders and Germany, and obtained the rank of marshal in 1775. Died in 1793. When Louis XV. said that the fermiers-ghierattx support the state, the Due de Noailles replied, " Yes, as the rope supports a man who is hung." See Voltaire, " Precis du R^gne de Louis XV," chap. Ixvii. Noailles, de, (Louis Antoine,) a French cardinal, born in 165 1, was a son of the first Duke of Noailles, and a brother of Anne Jules, noticed above. He suc- ceeded Harlay as Archbishop of Paris in 1695. In the controversy which broke out soon after between the Jesuits and the Jansenists, he endeavoured to act as mediator ; but he lost the confidence and incurred the displeasure of both parties. Having refused for a long time to accept the papal bull Unigenitus, he gave in his submission to the pope in 1728. Died in 1729. See Saint-Simon, "Memoires;" "Histoire de Port-Royal;" "Gallia Christiana," tomes i., viii., and ix. ; "Nouvelle Biographie G^n^rale." Noailles, de, (Louis Joseph Alexis,) son of Louis Marie, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1783. He was a zealous adherent of the Bourbons, and fought against Napoleon in the army of the allies in 1813. At the Congress of Vienna he was one of the ministers- plenipotentiary of France, and in 181 5 was appointed minister of state and a member of the privy council. Died in 1835. See De Courceli.es, " Histoire des Pairs de France ;" " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Noailles, de, (Louis Marie,) Vicomte, a French statesman, born in 1756, was a son of Marshal de Mou- chy. As a deputy to the States-General in 1789, he pro- posed, on the 4th of August, the suppression of feudal rights and other privileges of the aristocracy. He mar- ried the sister of Madame La Fayette. Soon after the commencement of the reign of terror he emigrated to the United States. Having been sent by Napoleon to Saint Domingo as general of brigade in 1803, he was killed in a naval engagement with the English, in 1804. See Bailly, "Memoires;" Thiers, " History of the French Revolution;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Noailles, de, (Paul,) Due, a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1802. He has published a "History of Madame de Maintenon and the Principal Events of the Reign of Louis XIV.," (1848,) and several other works. In 1849 he succeeded Chateaubriand as a member of the French Academy. See A. DE Cesena, " Le Due de Noailles," 1842. Noailles, de, (Philippe.) See Mouchy. Noback, no'bSk, (Friedrich Eduard,) born at Crefeld, in Germany, in 1815, published a " Systematic Manual of the Science of Commerce," (1848.) Noback, (Karl August,) a German writer on com- merce, brother of the preceding, was born at Kolleda in 1810. He published a treatise "On Commercial Asso- ciations," (1842,) and other works of the kind. Nobel, no'bel, written also Noble, (Constantin,) a Dutch navigator, born about 1616, obtained a high rank in the service of the Dutch East India Company. Died after 1674. Van Hoorn and Nobel went on a mis- sion to Peking in 1665. Nobili, no'be-lee, (Leopoldo,) an Italian botanist, born in 1784; died in 1834. See V. Antinori, " Elogio storico del Professore L. Nobili," 1836. Nobili, de', di no'be-lee, [Lat. de Noril'ibus,] (Roberto,) a celebrated Italian Jesuit and missionary, born at Monte-Pulciano in 1577, was a nephew of Car- dinal Bellarmino. He resided many years in Southern India, where he converted great numbers to Christianity. He wrote several religious treatises in different Indian dialects. Died in 1656. See JouvENCV, " Histoire des Jesuites;" Parigi, " Notizie de' Cardinale R. de' Nobili," etc., 1836. Nobilibus, de. See Nobili, de'. Noble, no'b'l, (Mark,) an English divine and writer, became rector of Barming, in Kent. He published "Memoirs of the House of Medici," (1797,) " Lives of the English Regicides," (1798,) and other works. He was a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, and a con- tributor to the " Archgeologia." Died in 1827. Noble, (Matthew,) an English sculptor, born about 1820. Among his works are a colossal statue of the Duke of Wellington at Manchester, and a statue of Lord Canning. Noble, (Samuel,) an English theologian and engraver, born in London in 1779. He practised engraving in his early life, and became a Swedenborgian minister about 1820. He published, besides other works, "Plenary Inspiration of the Scriptures," and a volume of Ser- mons, (1848.) Died in 1853. Noble, Le. See Le Noble. Nobleville. See Ai^nault de Nobleville. Noblot, no'blo', (Charges,) a French geographer, born in Burgundy in 1668; died in 1742. Nobrega, da, di no-bRa'gS, (Mangel,) a Portuguese Jesuit, was one of the first band of missionaries that laboured in Brazil, where they arrived about 1550. Died in 1570. Nocret, no^kpi', (Jean,) a French painter and en- graver, born at Nancy in 1612; died in 1672, See Dumesnil, " Le Peintre-Graveur Frangais." Nodal, de, di no-diK, (Gonzalo and Bartolom^ GAReiA,) Spanish navigators, born in Galicia, were « as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (^i^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 106 NODIER 1682 NDINTEL brothers. They commanded two ships sent by the King of Spain in i6r8 to explore and fortify Le Maire Strait, near Cape Horn. They discovered a group of small islands in latitude 56° 40', which they called "Diego Ramirez," and which was the most southern land marked on maps for a century or more. See De Brosses, " Histoire des Navigations aux Terres aus- trales." Nodier, no'de-i', (Charles,) a celebrated French litterateur^ was born at Besan9on in 1783. He studied in the Central School of his native city, and soon after repaired to Paris, where he published his " Painter of Saltzburg," (1803,) and "The Exiles," romances in the style of Werther. About this time he also wrote a satirical poem entitled "La Napoleone," for which he was subjected to a short banishment. Having spent several years in Switzerland and Illyria, he returned to Paris, where he became associate editor of the "Journal des Debats," and subsequently took charge of" La Quo- tidienne." On the accession of Louis XVHI. Nodier obtained a title of nobility and the cross of the legion of honour. He was appointed in 1824 librarian of the Arsenal, in Paris. His works are numerous and on various subjects, including many compositions of a brilliant and original character. Among these may be named his "Entomological Bibliography," (1801,) " Dic- tionary of French Onomatopoeia," etc., (" Dictionnaire raisonne des Onomatopees Frangaises," 1808,) an etymo- logical treatise of great merit, and the romances of "Jean Sbogar," (f8i8,) " Therese Aubert," (1819,) and " Picturesque and Romantic Travels in Ancient France," (1820.) H^e was also a contributor to the "Biographic Universelle." Nodier had been elected to the French Academy about 1833. He died in 1844, leaving a volume of " Souvenirs," in which he professes to narrate the events of his early life ; but they are said to be mixed with fiction. See Merimee, " filoge de Nodier;" Sainte-Beuve, "Portraits Litteraires ;" L.deLomenie, " M. Nodier, par un Homme de Rien," 1842; Querard, "La ranee Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" Nodier, "Souvenirs," etc., 1832. Nodot, no'do', (Francois,) a French litterateur, who lived about 1680-1700. Noe, the French for Noah, which see. Noe, de, deh no^a', (Marc Antoine,) a French prel- ate, born in 1724, was appointed in 1802 Bishop of Troyes. He died the same year. Noel, no'^K, (Alexis Nicolas,) a French landscape- painter and designer, born near Paris in 1 792, was a pupil of David. He published in 1818 a "Picturesque Tour in France and Germany." No'el, (Rev. Baptist Wriothesley,) an eminent English dissenting minister, a brother of the Earl of Gainsborough, was born in 1799. He was in his youth a minister of the Anglican Church, which he left and joined the Baptists about 1849. He became popular as a preacher and as a writer and a prominent promoter of benevolent enterprises and liberal movements. Among his works are "Christian Missions to Heathen Nations," an "Essay on Christian Baptism," (1849,) and "Letters on the Church of Rome." See the " British Quarterly Review" for February, 1849. Noel, no'SK, (FRANgois,) a Flemish Jesuit, born in Hainault in 165 1, spent many years as a missionary in China. He wrote several theological and scientific works, in Latin. Died in 1729. Noel, (FkANgois Jean Bap i iste,) a French antiquary, born at Nancy in 1783 ; died in 1856. Noel, (FRANgois Joseph . Michel,) a French litte- rateur and diplomatist, borjiV at Saint-Germain-en-Laye about 1755. published a^' Mythological Dictionary," (2 vols., 1801-23,) "Lessons' in Literature and Morals," (2 vols., 1804,) several valuable dictionaries, and nume- rous other compilations. His " French Grammar" (1823) passed through forty-six editions. He became minister- plenipotentiary to Venice in 1 793, minister to the Hague in 1795, inspector-general of public instruction in 1802, and inspector-general of the University in 1808. He retained the last office under several reigns. Died in 1841. See Querard, "La France Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Noel, (Jean T^apiisie,) a member of the French National Convention, was born at Remiremont in 1727* He voted against the death of the king, was condemned to death by the Jacobins, and executed in 1793. Noel, (Jules,) a French painter, born at Quimper about 18 18. Noel de la Moriniere, xvo'hV deh It mo're'ne-aiR', (Simon Barth6lemy Joseph,) a French naturalist, born at Dieppe in 1765, published, among other works, a " General History of Ancient and Modern Fisheries," (1815,) which was translated into Russian and German. He was a member of the Imperial Academy of Saint Petersburg. Died at Drontheim, Norway, in 1822. Noel des Vergers, no'ei' di vgR'zhi', (Joseph Marin Adolphe,) a French Orientalist and antiquary, born in Paris in 1805. He made a translation of Abool- feda's "Life of Mohammed," (1837,) and contributed numerous articles to the "Nouvelle Revue Encyclope- dique," "Athenaeum Fran9ais," and "Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale." Noelting. See Nolting. Noet. See Noetus. No-e'tus, [Fr. Noet, no'i',] a schismatic among the early Christians, flourished about 240 A.D., and is sup- posed to have been a native of Ephesus. He opposed the doctrine of the Trinity, and his views were afterwards promulgated by Sabellius, one of his disciples. See Fleury, " Histoire ecclesiastique." Nogaret, no'gt''ri', (FRANgois F6lix,) a French litterateur, born at Versailles in 1740. He was the author of poems, tales, dramas, and prose essays. Among his works are an essay on natural history, entitled "L'Apologie de mon Gout," (1771,) which was com- mended by Voltaire, a translation or imitation of Aris- taenetus, (" L'Aristenete Fran9ais," 1780,) and "Tales in Verse," (5th edition, 1810,) Died in 183 1. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Nogaret, (Henri.) See Candale, (Henrl) Nogaret, de, deh no'gt'ri', (Guillaume,) a French statesman, born about 1260, became chancellor under Philippe le Bel. Died in 1313. Nogaret, de, (Jacques Ramel,) a French statesman, born at Carcassonne in 1760. As a member of the Na- tional Convention, he voted for the death of the king. He afterwards entered the Council of Five Hundred, and was minister of finance under the Directory from February, 1796, to July, 1799. Died in 1819. Nogaret, de, (JRan Louis.) See Epernon, de. Nogari, no-gi^ee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, born at Venice in 1699 ; died in 1763. Nogari, (Paride,) an Italian fresco-painter, born at Rome about 1535 ; died about 1600. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Nogarola, no-g^-ro'lS, (Isotta,) an Italian lady, cele- brated for her talents and learning, born at Verona about 1420 ; died in 1466. See Ginguene, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Nogarola, (Luigi,) an Italian scholar and theologian, born at Verona about 1509. He translated several Greek works into Latin. He took a prominent part at the Council of Trent. Died in 1559. Noghera, no-ga'rS, (Giambattista,) an Italian lif^i- rateur and Jesuit, born in the Valtellina in 1719. He published, besides other works, translations of the ora- tions of Demosthenes, (1753.) Died in 1784. Noguez, no'ga', (Pierre,) a French physician and medical writer, born at Sauveterre about 1685. Nohden or Noehden, no'den, (Georg Heinrtch,) a German scholar and writer, born at Gottingen in 1770, published a " German-and-English-Grammar," (1800,) and a " German-and-English-l3ictionary," (1814,) also several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1826. Nointel, de, deh nwiN^tgl', (Charles Franqois Olier — o^le-^',) Marquis, a French diplomatist in the reign of Louis XIV., was sent as ambassador to Turkey in 1670. He negotiated a treaty favourable to French commerce in 1673. owes his celebrity chiefly to the medals, inscriptions, and specimens of ancient art which he collected in the Levant. Died in 1685. See D'Arvikux, " M^moires." 2, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mfit; ndt; good; moon; NOINriLLE 1683 NONNUS Noinville, de, deh hwSn'v^I', (Jacques Bernard DuREY,) a French historian, born at Dijon in 1682. He wrote, besides other works, a " History of the Opera in France," (1753.) Died in 1768. Noir, le, leh nwSR, (Jean,) a French Jansenist priest and writer, born at Alen9on in 1622 ; died in 1692. Noirlieu, de, deh nwiR'le-uh', (Louis Francois Martin,) a French theologian and religious writer, born at Sainte-Menehould in 1792. He published, among other works, a " Philosophic Catechism for the Use of Men of the World," (i860.) Noirot, nwi'ro^ (Joseph Mathias,) Abb^;, a French philosopher, born at Latrecey (Haute-Marne) in 1793. He was professor of philosophy at Lyons about twenty- five years. His " Lectures" were published in 1852. Noisette, nwi'z^t', (Louis Claude,) a French horti- culturist, born near Paris in 1772, published several valuable works on pomology, floriculture, and similar subjects. Died in 1849. Nola, da, dino'la, (Giovanni Marliano,) an Italian sculptor and architect, born near Naples, lived about 1500-50. See CicoGNARA, " Storia della Scultura." No'lan, (Captain Lewis Edward,) a brave English officer, served under Sir Henry Pottinger in India in 1839. He afterwards had a part in the Russian cam- paign of 1854, and was killed in the battle of Balaklava. No'lan, (Michael,) an Irish lawyer, was the author of " Reports of Cases relating to the Duty and Office of a Justice of the Peace," and other practical law treatises. Died in 1827. Nolasque. See Peter Nolasque. Nolde, noKdeh, (Adolph Friedrich,) a German physician, born at Neustrelitz in 1764, became professor of medicine at Halle in 1810. He published several medical works. Died in 1813. Noldius, noKde-us, (Christian,) a Danish divine and biblical writer, born in Scania in 1626; died in 1683. Noli, da, di no'lee, (Antonio,) sometimes called Uso di Mare, (oo'so de mS'ri,) a Genoese navigator in the service of Prince Henry of Portugal, made a voyage to the western coast of Africa, where he discovered the Cape Verd Islands. Having joined the fleet of Cada- mosto, they pursued their discoveries together. Noli also accompanied Cadamosto in his second voyage, in 1456. See Baron Humboldt, " Histoire de la Geographic du nouveau Continent ;" Walckenaer, " Histoire generale des Voyages." Nolin, no'liN', (Denis,) a French biblical critic, born in Paris in 1648 ; died in 17 10. Nolin, (Jean Baptiste,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1657 ; died in 1725. Nol'le-kens, (Joseph,) a celebrated English sculptor, born in London in 1737, was a son of Joseph Francis, noticed below. In 1760 he visited Rome, where he re- sided many years and executed several works of great merit. Among these were busts of Garrick and Sterne, and a group representing "Timocleus and Alexander." After his return he was chosen a Royal Academician, in 1772. He devoted himself chiefly to making portrait- busts, and was extensively patronized by the nobility and the fashionable world. His monument to Mrs. Howard, at Corby Castle, and his statue of Venus, are ranked among his master-pieces. Nollekens was noted for his parsimony, and amassed a large fortune. Died in 1823. See J. T. Smith, "Nollekens and his Times," 1829; Cunning- ham, " Lives of Painters, Sculptors," etc. Nollekens, noKleh-kens, (Joseph Francis,) a Flem- ish landscape-painter, born at Antwerp about 1690, set- tled in London, where he died in 1748. • Nollet, no'li', (Dominick,) a Flemish painter, born at Bruges in 1640 ; died in 1736. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands." Nollet, no'la', (Jean Antoine,) Abb6, an eminent French philosopher, born at Pimpre, in the diocese of Noyon, in 1700. On leaving college he went to Paris, where he studied natural philosophy and co-operated with M. Dufay in electrical experiments. In 1739 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences, and repeated his experiments before the Duke of Savoy in Turin. He published in 1743 the first part of his *' Lectures on Experimental Physics," (" Le9ons de Physique experi- mentale,") the clearest and most methodical work that had appeared on that subject. In this he gave the first popular explanation of Newton's discoveries in light. He obtained by the favour of the king the chair of ex- perimental philosophy in the College of Navarre in 1756, and a brevet of master of philosophy and natural history to the princes-royal. He published "Researches on the Causes of Electric Phenomena," (1749,) and an "Essay on the Electricity of Bodies," (1750.) Died in 1770. See " Necrologe des Homines celebres de France;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Nolpe, noKpeh, (Pieter,) a Dutch engraver, born at the Hague in 1601. Among his master-pieces is the "Adoration of the Magi," after Rubens. See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." Nolten, noKten, [Lat. Nolte'nius,] (Johann Ar- nold,) a German theologian, born in Westphalia in 1683 ; died in 1740. Nolten or Nolte, noKteh, (Johann Friedrich ) a German philologist, born at Eimbeck in 1694. He pub- lished "Lexicon Latinae Linguae Antibarbarum," (1740.) Died in 1754. Nolten, (Rudolph August,) a brother of the pre- ceding, born in 1 703, published " On the Genuine Sources of Russian History," (" De genuinis Historiae Russicae Fontibus," 1739,) and other works. Died in 1752. See Ballenstadt, "Vita Noltenii," 1755. Noltenius. See Nolten. Nolting or Noelting, noKting, (Johann Heinrich ViNCENZ,) a distinguished scholar and philosopher, born at Schvvarzenbek, in Denmark, in 1735. He became professor of philosophy and eloquence at Hamburg. Died in 1806. Nominoe, no-min'o-i', written also Nomenoi, an Armorican chief, who became King of Bretagne, was born about 790 or 800 A.D. He was created Duke of the Bretons by the emperor Louis le Debonnaire in 826 A.D. After the death of Louis, (840,) he raised the standard of independence, and defeated Charles the Bald, who led an army to reduce him to subjection. Died in 851. See A. DE CouRSON, "Histoire des Peuples Bretons," 1846; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Nomsz, nomz, (Jan,) a Dutch poet and dramatist, born at Amsterdam in 1738. He was the author of an epic poem on William I., Prince of Orange, (1779,) and tragedies entitled " Maria van Lalain," "Zoroaster," and "Duchess de Coralli." The first of these dramas was very popular. Died in 1803. See De Vries, " Histoire de la Poesie Hollandalse." Nonius, (Louis.) See Nunez. No''ni-us, (Marcellus,) a Roman gfammarian of the fourth century, wrote a work entitled " De Proprietate Sermonis," which is valued for the passages it contains from Latin writers not extant. Nonnos. See Nonnus. Nonnotte, no'not'', (Claude FRANgois,) a French Jesuit, born at Besan9on in 1711, published, besides other books of little merit, a work entitled " Errors of Voltaire," (2 vols., 1762,) which elicited several bitter rejoinders from that writer. Died in 1793. Nonnotte, (Donat,) a French painter, brother of the preceding, born at Besan9on in 1707 ; died in 1785. Non'nus or Nonnos, [Nowof,] a Greek poet, who lived about 410 a.d., was a native of Panopolis, in Egypt, and probably a Christian. His only extant works are a " Paraphrase of Saint John," and a long poem en- titled " Dionysiaca," or the History of Bacchus. It is bombastic in style, and is chiefly valued for the infor- mation it contains on mythological subjects not to be found elsewhere. See Weichert, " Dissertatio de Nonno," 1810; S. Uwarrow, " Nonnos von Panopolis," 1817; A. F. Naeke, "De Nonno I mi- tatore Homeri," 1835. Nonnus or No'nus, (TheophAnes,) a Greek phy- sician of the tenth century, was the author of a com- pendium of Medicine, ("Compendium totius Artis Medicae,") which he dedicated to the emperor Con- stantine Porphyrogenitus. See Freind, " History of Physic ;" Haller, " Bibliotheca Medica," etc. € as k; 9 as s; g /lard; g as J; g, h, tl^ guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^^See Explanations, p. 23.) NOODT 1684 NORGJTE Noodt, not, (Geraert,) one of the most eminent jurists of his time, was born at Nymwegen in 1647. He became successively professor of law at Franeker, (1679,) Utreciit, {1684,) and Leyden, (1686.) He was also rector of the University of Leyden. Among his principal works, which are written in elegant Latin, we may name his "Probabilia Juris Civilis," (1674-79,) and "On the Rights of Sovereign Power," ("L)e Jure Summi Im- perii," etc., 1707.) Died in 1725. See Barbeykac, " Historica Vitae Auctoris Narratio," prefixed to the collected works of Noodt, 1735. Nooms, noms, (Remi,) a Dutch marine painter and engraver, surnamed Zeeman, (" Seaman,") born at Am- stei dam in 1612 ; died about 1672. Noor-ed-Deen, Nour-Eddyn, Noureddin, or Nureddin, noor-ed-deen^ (" Light of the Faith,") (Mahmood- (Mahmoud- or Mahmud-) Malek-al- Adel, niin'mood' mal'ek-al-iMei,*) a celebrated Sultan of Syria and Egypt, was born at Damascus in 11 16. In 1146 he successfully opposed the attempts of Louis VII. of France and other crusading princes to recapture Edessa and possess themselves of Damascus, which, after he had conquered the greater part of Syria, he made the capital of his dominions. He took advantage of the dissensions which agitated Egypt in 1163 to es- tablish his power in that country, vvhere he apjjointed his general Shirakoh governor in 1168. The most im- portant event in the subsequent part of Noor-ed-Deen's reign was the extirpation of the Sheeah heresy in Egypt. Noor-ed-Deen was one of the most able and virtuous of Oriental rulers, and his piety and integrity made him the idol of his subjects, who gave him the surname of " Light of the Faith." Died in 1173. See MiCHAUD, Histoire des Croisades;" Guillaume de Tvr, " Histoire des Croisades." Noor-ed-Deen, Noureddin, or Nureddin, (Ma- lek-al-Mansoor, maK^k-al-mSn'sooR',) second Sultan of the dynasty of Tartar Mamelukes in Egypt, succeeded his father Ibek in 1257. He was deposed at the end of two years, on account of his youth and inexperience, and the Emir Kotuz ruled in his stead. Noor-eddin, Nour-eddin, or Nureddin, (Arslan Shah, ars-lan' shih,) Prince of Mesopotamia, was grand- nephew of the celebrated Noor-ed-Deen, and ascended the throne in 1 193. He governed with wisdom and ability, and recovered much of the power of which his family had been deprived. Died in 1210. Noort, van, vtn noRt, sometimes written Oort, (Adam,) a skilful Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 1557, was a son of Lambert, noticed below. He was a good colorist. His habits were intemperate. He was the master of Rubens, who expressed a high opinion of his talents. Died in 1641. See Weverman, "De Schilderkonst der Nederlanders." Noort, van, ( Lambert, ) a Flemish painter and architect, born at Amersfoort in 1520. He settled at Antwerp, and was admitted into the Academy of Ant- werp in 1547. Noort, van, (Oliver,) the first Dutch navigator who sailed around the world, was born at Utrecht in 1568. An account of his voyage, published in 1602, was trans- lated into several languages. Died after 161 1. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Noot, van, vtn n5t, (Hendrik Nikolaas,) leader of the Belgian revolution of 1788, was born at Brussels in 1750. The revolt against the Emperor of Austria being suppressed in 1790, he was compelled to leave the country. Died in 1827. See Dewez, "Histoire de la Belgique." Noowairee or Nouwairi, ndo-wi'ree, written also Nowairi and Nuwayri, an eminent Arabian historian and scholar, born in Egypt about 1283. He was the author of a valuable work on history, chronology, moral philosophy, and natural science. See Haji-Khalfa, " Bibliographic Lexicon." Nop, nop, (Gerrit,) a Dutch painter, born at Haarlem in 1570. See Descamps, " V:es des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Nor. See Norvi. * Malek-el-Adel signifies "the Noble King." Nor-ba'nus, (Caius,) a Roman general, was tribune of the people in 95 B.C., and praetor in Sicily about the year 90. In the civil war between Sulla and Marius he was a partisan of the latter. He became consul in 83 B.C., and commanded an army which was defeated by Sulla in Campania. He killed himself about 8i B.C. See Cicero, " De Oratore." Norberg. See Nordberg. Norberg, noR'bgRC, (Matthias,) a Swedish Orien- talist, born in 1747, became professor of the Oriental languages at Lund. He wrote a treatise " On the Re- ligion and Language of the Sabaeans," (1780,) in Latin, and other learned works. Died in 1826. See LiNDFORS, " Memoria M. Norberg," 1832; Lindgren, " Me- moria M. Norberg," 1832. Norbert, Pere. See Parisot, (Pierre.) Nor^b^rt, [Fr. pron. noR'baik',] Saint, a French ecclesiastic, born at Santen, was created Archbishop of Magdeburg in 1126. He had founded in 1120 a religious association at Premontre, in the diocese of Laon, since celebrated as the order of the Premonstrants. He died in 1134, and was canonized by Gregory XIII. in 1582. See Hugo, "Vie de Saint-Norbert," 1704; "Gallia Christiana." Norblin, noR'bliN', (Sebastian Louis William,) son of the following, was born at Warsaw in 1796, and studied painting under Regnault. He produced a num- ber of historical pictures. He gained the first prize in Paris in 1825. Norblin de la Gourdaine, noR'bl^N' deh It gooR'- din', (Jean Pierre,) a skilful French painter and en- graver, born near Montereau in 1745, worked in Warsaw from 1774 to 1804. Died in 1830. Nordberg, noRd'b^Rg, or Norberg, noR'b^Rg, (Georg,) a Swedish historian, and chaplain to Charles XH. of Sweden, was born at Stockholm in 1677. He was the author of a "History of Charles XII.," (2 vols., 1740,) which, though unattractive in style, is valued for its accuracy. Died in 1744. Norden, noR'den, (Frederick Louis,) a Danish artist and writer, born at Gliickstadt in 1708. Having studied in Italy, he was sent by the government in 1737 to de- scribe and copy the monuments of Egypt. After his return he entered the English service, and fought against Spain in the campaign of 1740. He died in 1742, leav- ing " Travels in Egypt and Nubia," which were published in French, (2 vols., 1755.) This work, containing one hundred and fifty-nine plates, was translated into Eng- lish and German. See Meusel, " Bibliotheca Historica ;" Kraft og Nyerup, " Litteraturlexicon ;" "Monthly Review" for September, 1756. Nor'den, (John,) an English engraver and writer, born in Wiltshire about 1548. He published the "Spe- culum Britanniae," etc., and " The Surveyor's Dialogue," (1607.) Died about 1626. See GouGH, "Anecdotes of British Topography." Nordenflycht, noR'den-flukt', (Hedwige Char- lotte,) a Swedish authoress, born in 1718, published poems entitled " The Passage of the Belts," "Victory of the Duna," *' Sweden Emancipated," (" Den fralsa Swea,") and "An Apology for Women, against J. J. Rousseau." Died in 1763. See HowiTT, " Literature and Romance of Northern Europe RuHS, " Schicksale der schonen Redekiinste in Schweden." Nordin, noR-deen', (Karl Gustaf,) a Swedish prel- ate, born at Stockholm in 1749, became Bishop of Her- nosand. Died in 1812. Nores, di, de no'rSs, (Giasone,) born at Nicosia, in the island of Cyprus, became professor of moral phi- losophy at Padua. He was the author of several critical and philosophical works. Died in 1590. t Norfolk, Duke of. See Howard, (Thomas,) and Howard, (Charles.) Norfolk, norTok, (Henry Granville Fitz Alan Howard,) Duke of, was born in London in 181 5. He was a member of the House of Commons before the death of his father, (1856.) He was a Roman Catholic, and advocated the cause of his fellow-believers in Parlia- ment. Died in i860. Nor'gate, (Edward,) an English artist, celebrated for his skill in illuminating or colouring engravings. His S, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mfet; nSi; good; moon; NOR IS 1685 NORTH performances are highly commended by Fuller. Died in, 1650. See Fuller, "Worthies;" Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting." Noris, no'r^ss, (Henry,) a learned Italian theologian, of English extraction, was born at Verona in 163 1. He was appointed by Pope Innocent XII. chief librarian of the Vatican, and was made a cardinal in 1695. He wrote a " History of Pelagianism," and several valuable antiquarian treatises. Died in 1704. See Fabroni, " Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium." Noris, (Matteo,) a prolific Italian dramatic poet, born in Venice about 1640; died about 17 10. Nor'man-by, (Constantine Henry Phipps,) Mar- quis OF, an English statesman, son of Henry, first Earl of Mulgrave, was born in 1797. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1818 became a member of Parliament for Scarborough. He there distinguished himself as the advocate of Catholic emancipation and parliamentary reform. In 183 1 he succeeded to the title of Earl Mulgrave, and in 1832 was appointed Governor of Jamaica. He became lord privy seal in 1834, lord lieutenant of Ireland in 1835, and was secretary of state for the home department from 1839 to 1841. He received the title of Marquis of Normanby in 1838. He was subsequently employed on embassies to France and Italy. He published in 1857 "A Year of Revolu- tion, from a Journal kept in Paris in 1848." Lord Nor- manby was also the author of novels entitled " Matilda," (1825,) and "The Contrast." Died in 1863. See Capefigue, " Diplomates Europ^ens." Normanby, Earl of. See Mulgrave, (Henry Philip Phipps.) Normand. See Le Normand. Normand, noR'm6N', (Alfred Nicolas,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1822. He obtained a medal of the first class in 1855. Normand, (Charles Pierre Joseph,) a French architect and engraver, born in the department of Somme in 1765. He published several professional works. Died in 1840. Normand, (Claude Joseph,) a French physician, born in Franche-Comte in 1704; died in 1761. Normand, (Louis Marie,) a French engraver, a son of Charles Pierre Joseph, noticed above, was born in Paris in 1789. He engraved the "Marriage at Cana," after Paul Veronese, and published several illustrated works, among which is " Monuments Fran9ais," etc., (2 parts, 1830-47.) Nor'man-dy, (Alphonse,) an English chemist and writer, born about 1810, was a coadjutor of Dr. Ure. He published a " Hand-Book of Chemistry," and " The Chemical Atlas," and invented a valuable apparatus for the distillation of aerated fresh water from sea-water. Died in 1864. Normann, noR'mSn, (Lars,) a Swedish prelate, born at Strengnas in 165 1. He became professor of Oriental languages at Upsal in 1681, and in 1703 Bishop of Gothenburg. He died the same year. See A. Norreltus, "Vita L. Normanni," 1738. Normann-Ehrenfels, noR'm3,n a'ren-f§ls', (Karl Friedrich Lebrecht,) son of the following, was born in 1784. He entered the French service, and held a command in the Russian campaign of 1812. He after- wards fought for the Greeks in 1822, and had a share in the victory of Kombotti. Died in November, 1822. Normann-Ehrenfels, (Philipp Christian,) Count, a distinguished statesman, born in Swedish Pomerania in 1756, entered the service of Duke Charles of Wiirtem- berg. He rose to be minister of state in 1802, and was created a count in 1806. Died in 1807. Normant, noR^mSN', (Alexis,) an eloquent French advocate, born in Paris in 1697 ; died in 1745. Normant, (Antoine,) a benevolent French manu- facturer, born at Romorantin in 1783. He was propri- etor of a large manufactory of cloth at Romorantin. Norn or itTorna. See Nornas. Nor'nas or Norns, sometimes called in the English plural Nor'nies, [Norse plural, Nornir,*] three virgins, * The etymology is unknown. " The word Norn," says Thorpe, "does not occur in any kindred dialect." called Urd, (Urdr, or Urda,) Verdandi, and Skuld, (or Skulld,) — the Past, the Present, and the Future, — whc preside over the destiny of men and gods. They corre- spond to the Parcae (Molpai) of classic mythology. See Thorpe, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Kevser, " Religion of the Northmen." Nornies, an English plural form of Norna or Norn. See Nornas. Norns. See Nornas. Norona, no-rfin'yS, (Caspar Maria de Nava Al- varez,) a Spanish soldier and poet, born at Castcllon de la Plana in 1760, served against the French republic, and attained the rank of lieutenant-general. He pub- lished an epic poem entitled "La Ommiada," an ode on the death of the poet Cadalso, who fell, while fighting by his side, at Gibraltar, and a number of lyrics. Died in 1816. Noronha, no-R6n'yl, (Affonso,) a Portuguese cap- tain, born in the fifteenth century, was a nephew of Albuquerque. He captured Socotora in 1508. Died in India in 1540. See Faria y Souza, " Asia Portugueza." Nor'ris, (Edwin,) an English ethnologist and linguist, born at Taunton in 1795. He was appointed in 1847 translator to the foreign office, and in 1856 principal sec- retary to the Royal Asiatic Society. Pie has contributed a number of valuable treatises to the "Transactions" of that society and to the " Penny Cyclopaedia." He is also editor of the "Ethnographical Library." Norris, (Sir John,) an English general, was a son of Lord Norris of Rycot. He was distinguished by the favour of Queen Elizabeth, who sent him in 1585 to assist the Dutch in their war against the Spaniards. His skill and bravery were conspicuous in the principal campaigns, and he won the reputation of one of the best English soldiers of the time. See Motley, " United Netherlands," vol. i. chap, vi., and vol. ii. chap. xiii. Norris, (John,) an English philosopher and mystical divine, born in Wiltshire in 1657. He was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and became an admirer of Plato, who was his favourite author. About 1690 he was ap- pointed rector of Bemerton, near Salisbury. He was a disciple of Malebranche. He published "An Idea of Happiness," (1683,) "The Theory and Regulation of Love," (1688,) and other works on religion and philoso- phy. His principal philosophical work is "An Essay towards the Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World," (2 vols., 1701-04,) in which he develops the system of Malebranche and controverts the opinions of Locke. Died in 171 1. See " Biographia Britannica." Norris, (Sir John,) an English naval officer of high rank, entered the navy in 1689. He was called Foul- Weather Jack. Died in 1749. Norris, (John,) born in Norfolk in 1734, bequeathed to the University of Cambridge one hundred and ninety pounds per annum for the endowment of a divinity professorship and prize essay which bear his name. Died in 1777. Norris, (Robert,) an English traveller, visited Daho- mey, and other parts of Western Africa, of which he published an account in 1789. Died in 1792. See Walckenaer, " Histoire generale des Voyages." Norry, no're', (Charles,) a French architect, born near Paris in 1756, accompanied the scientific expedition to Egypt, and published in 1799 a description of some of the monuments of that country. Died in 1832. North, (Christopher.) See Wilson, (John.) North, (Dudley,) Lord, an English writer and poli- tician, born in 1581, was an adherent of the Parliament during the civil war. He died in 1666, leaving a collec- tion of poems and prose works. North, (Dudley,) Lord, son of the preceding, born in 1604, wrote the "Life of Edward, Lord North," and several other works. Died in 1677. See R. North, "Lives of the Norths." North, (Sir Dudley,) an English merchant and able financier, born in 1641, was a brother of Lord-Keeper Guildford. In his youth he passed many years in mer- € as i; 9 as s; g Aard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i;^^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) NORTH 1686 NORTHUMBERLAND cantile pursuits at Smyrna and Constantinople. Having acquired wealth, he returned home, (1680,) and became a London merchant. " He had meditated deeply on the philosophy of trade," says Macaulay, "and thought out, by degrees, a complete and admirable theory," substan- tially the same as that of Adam Smith. He was chosen a commissioner of customs and of the treasury, and elected to Parliament. About 1685 he was the person on whom the lord treasurer chiefly relied for the conduct of financial business in the lower House. He wrote a "Voyage from Smyrna, with an Account of Turkey." Died in 1691. See Roger North, "Life of Sir Dudley North," 1740-42. North, (Sir Edward,) a distinguished English lawyer under the reigns of Henry VHI. and Queen Mary. Died in 1564. North, (Francis,) Baron Guildford or Guilford, com- monly styled Lord-Keeper Guilford, was the son of Lord Dudley North, and was born in 1637. About 1655 he entered as a student the Middle Temple. Soon after he was called to the bar he went on the Norfolk circuit, where his family interest lay, and relied for success on sycophantic arts. He was appointed solicitor-general in 1671, attorney-general in 1673, and chief justice of the common pleas in 1675. He was the obsequious servant of the court, and an ultra-royaiist, or Tory, in politics. "He was a party," says Macaulay, "to some of the foulest judicial murders recorded in our history." In 1682 he obtained the great seal, with the title of lord keeper. On the accession of James H. (February, 1685) the great seal was left in his custody, but he was super- seded in his political functions by his rival. Lord Jeffreys. Lord Guilford died in September, 1685, leaving his title to his son Francis. See Roger North, " Life of Francis North ;" Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors;" "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., (1820 ;) Macaulay, " History of England," vol. i. chap. ii. North, (Frederick,) second Earl of Guildford, an English Tory statesman, better known as Lord North, was born in 1733. ^ of Francis, Earl of Guildford, who died in 1790, and was a great-grandson of the lord keeper of that name. In 1763 he was chosen one of the lords of the treasury. He became chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the House of Commons in 1769. He was a successful debater, and, on account of his wit and suavity of temper, a great favourite with the House. He also gained the extraordinary favour of the king by his readiness to accept the responsibility of prime minister in the emergency which arose on the resignation of the Duke of Grafton in 1770. The prin- cipal event of his administration was the American war, ■which he prosecuted with great pertinacity. Though fiercely assailed by Burke, Fox, and Lord Chatham, he maintained his power with eminent tact and ability, and ■was supported by large majorities in the House, until March, 1782, when he resigned, after the surrender of Cornwallis had terminated the American war. He re- tained, however, the royal favour until he entered into the ill-omened coalition with Fox against the Shelburne ministry. In March, 1783, Lord North became secretary of state in the coalition ministry of which the Duke of Portland was the nominal head. He was dismissed in December, 1783, when Pitt became premier. In 1790 he succeeded to the earldom of Guildford. Died in 1792. " As a statesman," says Lord Brougham, " his merits are confessedly far inferior to those which clothed him as a debater and a man. The American war is the great blot on his fame." See Lord Brougham, " Statesmen of the Time of George IIL ;" Macaulay, "Essays," article "Chatham;" Lodge, " Portraits of Illustrious Personages." North, (George,) an English antiquary, born in London in 1710, published several treatises on numis- matics. Died in 1772. North, (John,) D.D., a son of Lord Dudley North, ■was born in 1645. He became professor of Greek at Cambridge, and published editions of several works of Plato. Died in 1683. -See Roger North, " Life of John North." North, (Roger,) a younger son of Lord Dudley North, and a brother of Sir Dudley North, was born about 1650. He studied law, and became steward of the courts to Archbishop Sheldon. He was author of several works, the most important of which is " The Lives of Francis North, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, Sir Dudley North, and Rev. John North," (1740-42.) This is written in an affected, pedantic style, but contains valuable matter. Died in 1733. See Roger North, "Lives of the Norths." North, (Sir Thomas,) an English writer, translated " The Dial of Princes" from the French, and the " Moral Philosophy" of Doni from the Italian. He also made the first translation of Plutarch's "Lives" into English, (1579.) He died after 1579. Northampton, Earl of. See Howard, (Henry.) Nor-thamp''t9n, (Spencer Joshua Al'wyne Comp- TON,) Marquis of, an English patron of science and literature, was born in 1790. He became president of the Royal Society. Died in 185 1. North'cote, (James,) an English artist, celebrated as a portrait and hiistorical painter, born at Plymouth in 1746. Having studied under Sir Joshua Reynolds, he visited Italy in 1777, and, after his return, was made a Royal Academician. Among his best productions are "Hubert and Arthur" and "The Murder of the Princes in the Tower." He also published " The Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds," (1813,) and several able treatises on Art. Died in 1831. See Cunningham, "Lives of British Painters," etc. Northoote, (Sir Stafford,) an English conservative politician, born in London about 1818. He became president of the board of trade in June, 1866, and sec- retary for India in March, 1867. He resigned with his colleagues in December, 1868. Northington, Lord. See Henley, (Robert.) Nor-thum'ber-land, ( Algernon Percy, ) tenth Earl of, born in 1602, was a son of Henry, ninth earl. He was lord high admiral under Charles I. Died in 1668. Northumberland, (Algernon Percy,) Duke of, a British peer, born in 1792. He entered the navy in his youth, and served against the French. In 1847 inherited the dukedom at the death of his brother Henry. He obtained the rank of rear-admiral about 1850. Died in 1865. Northumberland, Duke of. See Dudley, (John.) Northumberland, (Henry Percy,) first Earl of, an English commander, was a son of Henry Percy. His mother was Mary, a daughter of the Earl of Lancaster, and a great-granddaughter of King Henry III. He was a friend of Wycliffe, the Reformer. In 1377 he was created Earl of Northumberland by Richard II. He was one of the chief agents of the revolution which raised Henry IV. to the throne in 1399. In 1402 Percy defeated the Scotch under Douglas at Homildon Hill. He tniited with his son Hotspur in rebellion against the king in 1403, and was killed in battle in 1408. Northumberland, (Henry Percy,) second Earl OF, was a son of Hotspur. He succeeded his grand- father, the first earl, in 1408, and was restored to the earldorn by Henry V. In the civil war of the Roses he fought for the house of Lancaster, and was killed at the battle of Saint Alban's, in 1455. His son, the third earl, fell at the battle of Towton, in 1460. Northumberland, (Henry Percy,) ninth Earl of, surnamed the Wizard, born in 1563, was a son of Henry, the eighth earl, who died in the Tower in 1585. He commanded a ship in the battle against the Invin- cible Armada in 1588. He was a cousin of Thomas Percy, an accomplice in the Gunpowder Plot, (1605,) and, although the earl himself was a Protestant, he was confined many years in the Tower on suspicion. He acquired the appellation of " Wizard" by his study of occult sciences in prison. Died in 1632. See Lodge, " Portraits of Illustrious Personages ;" Clarendon, "History of the Rebellion." Northumberland, (Hugh Percy,) Duke of, born in 1742, was a son of Sir Hugh Smithson, who was au- thorized to take the name of Percy. He entered the army, served at Bunker Hill, (1775,) and gained the rank of general. In 1786 he inherited the title of duke. Died in 1 81 7. See Burke, " Peerage ;" "Gentleman's Magazine," 1817. a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; \ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; ftr, f^ll, f^t; mSt; nAt; good; moon; NORTHUMBERLAND 1687 NOT A Northumberland, (Hugh Percy,) Duke of, son of the preceding, was born in 1785, and inherited his father's title in 181 7. He favoured the Tory party. He w as a liberal patron of science, and was much interested in botany and horticulture. Died in 1847. Nor'tpn, (Andrews,) D.D., an eminent American theologian and scholar, born at Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1786. He graduated in 1804 at Harvard College, and in 1813 succeeded Dr. Channing as biblical lecturer in that institution. He filled the chair of Dexter professor of sacred literature at Harvard from 1819 till 1830. His most important work is entitled "Evidences of the Gen- uineness of the Gospels," (3 vols., 1837-44.) He was for a time editor of the " General Repository and Re- view,** published at Cambridge, and contributed many able articles to the religious and literary periodicals of the time. Among these may be named articles on "Franklin" and "Byron," in the "North American Re- view." In his theological views Dr. Norton was a Unitarian of the conservative school. He married a daughter of Samuel Eliot, of Boston. Died at Newport in 1853. ^6 Isft ^ "Translation of the Gospels," pub- lished in 1856. "He displayed," says R. W. Griswold, "exact and comprehensive learning and a style singu- larly clear, compact, and beautiful." (" Prose Writers of America.") He also wrote poems which were much admired. Norton, (Asahel Strong,) an American minister, born at Farmington, Connecticut, in 1766. He preached at Clinton, New York, for many years. Died in 1853. Nor'tpn, (Caroline Elizabeth Sarah,) an emi- nent English writer, born in 1808, is a granddaughter of Richard Brinsley Sheridan. She received a superior education, and in her seventeenth year wrote a volume of poetry entitled "The Sorrows of Rosalie," which was published anonymously, (1829.) In 1827 she was mar- ried to the Hon. George Chappie Norton ; but this union proved most unfortunate, and a divorce took place between the parties in 1836. She had published in 1830 her poem of "The Undying One," which was received with great favour. It was succeeded by "A Voice from the Factories," (1836,) "The Dream, and other Poems," (1840,) "The Child of the Islands," (1845,) and "Aunt Carry's Ballads," (1847.) She has also written a romance, entitled "Stuart of Dunleith," (1847,) and "Tales and Sketches in Prose and Verse," (1850,) many of which are remarkable for their fidelity to nature, pathos, and intensity of feeling. Among her more recent works are a "Letter to the Queen on Lord Cranworth's Marriage and Divorce Bill," ( 1855,) "Lives of the Sheri- dans," "Lady of La Garaye," (1861,) and "Lost and Saved," (1863.) Mrs. Norton is described by Mrs. Sedg- wick, in her " Letters from Abroad," as the perfection of intellectual and physical beauty, uniting masculine force with feminine delicacy. See MoiR, "Sketches of the Poetical Literature of the Past Half- Century," 1851 ; RowTON, " Female Poets of Great Britain," (with a portrait ;) "Edinburgh Review" for June, 1831; "London Quar- terly Review" for September, 1840. and June, 1845; " Fraser's Magazine" for September, 1830, (with a portrait;) "Westminster Review" for June, 1845. Norton, (Lady Frances,) an English moralist and writer, born about 1650, was the wife of Sir George Norton. She wrote " Memento Mori," and " The Ap- plause of Virtue," (1705.) Died in 1720. See Prudhomme, " Biographie des Femmes celebres." Norton, (John,) an English writer of the seventeenth century, published a work entitled " The Scholar's Vade- Mecum." Norton, (John,) a learned Puritan divine and theo- logical wtiter, born in Hertfordshire, England, in 1606, emigrated in 1635 to America, and became a minister at Boston. Died in 1663. Norton, (John P.,) an American chemist, was pro- fessr)r of agricultural chemistry at Yale College. Died - in 1 85 1. Norton, (Thomas,) an English Calvinistic writer, born in Bedfordshire in the sixteenth century, published some tracts against popery. He is also said to have assisted Sackville in his tragedy of " Ferrex and Porrex." See W.ARTON, "History of English Poetry;" Ellis, "Specimens of the Early English Poets." Norvi (nor've) or Nor, written also Narfi, [etymology doubtful,] a giant mentioned in the "Edda" as the first of all the inhabitants of Jotunheim. He had a daughter named Night, who was married to Anar or Onar.* The offspring of this union was the Earth. She afterwards became the wife of Delling or Dellinger, [i.e. the " Dawn,") and bore to him a bright and beautiful son called Day. Then Odin took Night and Day and placed them in heaven, and gave them two horses and two cars, that they might journey in succession round the world. Night rides first with her horse, called Rimfaxi or Hrimfaxi, (hrim- (or hreem-) fdk'se, — that is, "Frosty-mane,") who every morning bedews the earth with foam from his bit. The horse of Day is named Skinfaxi, (or " Shining- mane,") because his radiant mane sends forth the light which illuminates heaven and earth. See Mallet, " Northern Antiquities," vcd. ii. fable vi. ; Thorpe, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. Norvins, de, deh noR^•iN^ (Jacques Marquet — mtR'ka',) Baron de Montbreton, (mdN^bueh-toN',) a French litterateur and politician, born in Paris in 1769. He wrote a "Picture of the French Revolution," (1819,) a " History of Napoleon," (9th edition, 4 vols., 1839,) and other works. Died in 1854. Nor'wood, (Richard,) an English geometer, who lived about 1630-50, was the author of several treatises on trigonometry, navigation, etc. He is chiefly celebrated for having been one of the first who measured a degree of the meridian. See HuTTON, "Mathematical Dictionary." Nosselt or Noesselt, nbs'silt, (Johann August,) a German theologian, born at Halle in 1734 ; died in 1807. Nos'sis, a Greek poetess, born at Locris or Locri, in Southern Italy, flourished about 310 B.C. She wrote graceful epigrams, twelve of which are in the Greek Anthology. See Bentley, "Dissertation upon the Epistles of Phalaris." Nostitz und Janckendorf, von, fon nos'tits oont y^n'ken-doRf, (Gottlob Adolf Ernst,) a German poet, known under the pseudonym of Arthur von NoRDSTERN, was bom in Upper Lusatia in 1765. He was the author of "Songs for Free-Masons," "Christian Emblems," and other poems. Died in 1836. His son, Eduard Gottlob, rose through various oflices to be minister of the interior for the kingdom of Saxony. Nos-tra-da'mus or Notre-Dame, not'R-dtm', (Mi- chel,) a famous French astrologer and physician, of Jew- ish extraction, born at Saint-Remi, in Provence, in 1503. During the prevalence of the plague at Aix and Lyons (1546-47) he acquired a high reputation from the cures he effected with a medicine of his own invention. In 1555 he puljlished a collection of prophecies, (in verse,) entitled " Centuries," which caused a great sensation and obtained for him the favour and patronage of Cathe- rine de Medicis. He was invited by her to Paris, loaded with favours, and charged to draw the horoscope of the princes, her sons. He afterwards became physician-in- ordinary to Charles IX. He died in 1556. Several of his predictions are said to have been fulfilled. Owing to his having foretold the downfall of Romanism, his works were interdicted by the pope, (1781.) See E. Jaubrrt, "Vie de M. Nostradamus," 1656; P.J. de Haitze. "Vie de M. Nostradamus," 1712; "La Vie de Nostra- damus," (anonymous,) Paris, 1789: E. Bareste, "Nostradamus," Paris, 1S42 ; Th. Bouvs, "Considerations sur les Sibyles et sur Nostradamus," 1806. Nota, no'ta, (Alberto,) an Italian dramatist, born at Turin in 1775, was the author of several popular plays of the class called sentimental comedy. Among these may be named "The Duchess of La Valliere," "The Widow in Solitude," and " Domestic Peace." They have passed through numerous editions, and have been translated into French, German, Spanish, Swedish, and Russian. Died in 1847. See " Vie d'. Alberto Nota." prefixed to the tenth edition of his works ; Schedom, " Tratteniinenio sopra le Commedie di A. Nota," 1826 ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1828. * Probably allied to the Anglo-Saxon an and the Norse einr, signi- fying "origin." and hence, as an adjective, "original," "primeval." See Bosworth's "Anglo-Saxon Dictionary." € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (J^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) NOTHNAGEL 1688 NO FA Nothnagel, n5t'ni-gel, (Johann Andreas Benja- min,) a German painter and engraver, born in Saxe- Cohurg in 1729; died about 1800. Nothomb, n(/t6N^ (Jean Baptiste,) a Belgian states- man, born at Messancy in 1805. He was appointed min- ister of public works in 1837, and in 1841 minister of the interior. His " Historical and Political Essay on the Belgian Revolution" (1833) was translated into German and Italian. He was president of the Council from 1843 to June, 1845. See L. DE LoMENiE, "Galerie des Contemporains ;" *' Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Notker, not'ker, surnamed Phys'icus, a learned Ger- man monk and physician of the tenth century, was like- wise celebrated as an artist and poet. Died in 975. Notker, a German ecclesiastic, was a nephew of the emperor Otho I. He became dean of the convent of Saint Gall, and Bishop of Liege, (972.) Died in 1007. Notker, surnamed La'keo, and called also Teu- ton'icus, born about the middle of the tenth century, entered the monastery of Saint Gall, where he was appointed principal teacher. He had a high reputation for learning, and made numerous translations from the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. His version of the Psalms is esteemed one of the most important monu- ments of early German literature. Died in 1022. Not'man, (John,) a distinguished architect, born in Edinburgh, Scotland, July 22, 1810, In 183 1 he emi- grated to the United States, and settled in Philadel- phia, where he continued to reside for the rest of his life. He laid out the grounds of Laurel Hill Cemetery, designed all the architectural embellishments, and su- perintended their execution. He devoted himself par- ticularly to church architecture, in which department he had few if any superiors in the United States. He was distinguished for his thorough acquaintance with me- diaeval architecture. He possessed great enthusiasm for his art, as well as poetic sensibility, and in his works he seemed to address himself not so much to the senses as to the soul. He died March 3, 1865. Among his chief works may be mentioned Saint Mark's Church, in Lo- cust Street, regarded as among the very best specimens of the Gothic style in America, the facade of the Roman Catholic cathedral on Logan Square, and the Church of the Holy Trinity, near Walnut and Nineteenth Streets, of which the noble doorway is especially admired. Notre, Le. See Lenotre. Notre-Dame, (Michel.) See Nostradamus. Notre-Dame, de, deh not'R'dtm', (Cesar,) a French writer, born at Salon in 1555, was a son of Michel Nos- tradamus. He obtained the title of gentleman of the chamber to Louis XIII. He wrote several poems, and a " History of Provence," (1614.) Died in 1629. Nott, (Abraham,) an American jurist and politician, born at Saybrook, Connecticut, in 1767, settled in South Carolina, and was elected to Congress in 1800. Died in 1830. Nott, (Eliphalet,) D.D., LL.D., an American divine, born in Windham county, Connecticut, in 1773. was for many years pastor of the Presbyterian church at Albany, and in 1804 became president of Union College, Schenectady, New York. He filled this post for nearly sixty years, and was greatly instrumental in promoting the prosperity and reputation of the college. He published "Counsels to Young Men," "Lectures on Tem])erance," etc. Died in 1866. Nott, (Henry Junius,) son of Abraham Nott, noticed above, was born in 1797. He graduated at South Caro- lina College, and was afterwards professor of logic and the philosophy of language in that institution. He \ published "Novelettes of a Traveller," etc., and was a contributor to the "Southern Review." He was wrecked in the steamer Home in 1837. _ Nott, (John,) an English poet, scholar, and physi- cian, born at Worcester in 1751. He made translations from the Latin and Italian, and from the Persian of Hafiz ; he also published an original poem, entitled " Alonzo." Died in 1826. Nott, (Josiah Clark,) brother of Henry Junius, noticed above, was born at Columbia, South Carolina, in 1804, and graduated as a physician in Philadelphia. He has published " The Physical History of the Jewish Race," "Types of Mankind," (1854,) and "Indigenous Races of the Earth," (1857,) the last two conjointly with G. R. Gliddon. Nott, (Sir William,) a distinguished officer, born in Carmarthen, in Wales, in 1782, served in the Afghan war, and attained the rank of major-general. Died in 1845. Nottingham, Earl of. See Finch, (Daniel.) Nottingham, not'ting-am, (Heneage Finch,) first Earl of, an English jawyer and statesman, born in Kent in 1621. He entered Christ Church, Oxford, about 1635, studied law in the Inner Temple, and became an eloquent lawyer. On the restoration of Charles II. (1660) he was appointed solicitor-general, and took part in the prosecution of the regicides. He was chosen in 1661 to represent the University of Oxford in Parlia- ment, became attorney-general in 1670, and lord chan- cellor of England in December, 1675. In 1681 he was created Earl of Nottingham. Died in 1682. See Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors;" Foss, "Tlie Judges of England;" " Biographia Britannica." Nouailher, noo'a'li', (Jean Baptiste,) a French painter and enameller, born in 1742 ; died in 1804. Noue, dela, deh It noo, (Franqois,) called Bras de Fer, (bR3, deh f^R,) i.e. " Iron-arm," a celebrated French commander and Huguenot, was born near Nantes in 153 1. He commanded the rear-guard at the battle of Jarnac, in 1569, and was taken prisoner at Moncontour. Having lost his left arm at the siege of Fontenay, he supplied its place by an iron arm. In 1573 he took command of the insurgents at La Rochelle, which he defended for four years. After peace had been concluded between Henry of Navarre and the Catholics, La Noue went in 1578 to Flanders, where he fought against the Spaniards and soon became general-in-chief. He was taken prisoner in 1580, and detained as such for five years. Having joined the army of Henry IV., he fought at the battle of Ivry, (1590,) and was killed at Lamballe in 159 1. He had a high reputation for virtue and talents. His " Po- litical and Military Discourses" (1587) entitle him to a place among the best prose writers of his time. See Brantomk. " Vies des grands Capitaines;" Davila, " His- tory of the Civil Wars of France;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Fran- gais;" De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" Haag, "La France protestante ;" Motley, "United Netherlands," vols. ii. and iii. Noue, de la, (Odet,) Seigneur de Teligny, a French officer and poet, was a son of the preceding. He fought for Henry IV., and obtained the rank of marechal-de- camp, with the title of counsellor to the king. He wrote an essay called a " Paradox that Adversity is more necessary than Prosperity," (1588,) and "Christian Poems," (" Poesies chretiennes," 1594.) Died in 1618. Noue, La. See Lanoue. Nouet, noo'^', (Jacques,) a French Jesuit, born at Mans in 1605, wrote a number of moral and religious works. Died in 1680. Nouet, (Nicolas Antoine,) a French astronomer, born in Lorraine in 1740; died in 1811. Nougarede de Fayet, noo'gt'rid' deh ft'yi', (An- dr6 Jean Simon,) Baron, a French jurist and magis- trate, born at Montpellier in 1765, published several legal and historical works. Died in 1845. Nougarede de Fayet, (Auguste,) a French jurist, son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1811. He wrote a number of legal and miscellaneous treatises. Died in 1853. Nougaret, noo'gt'ri', (Pierre Jean Baptiste,) a voluminous and mediocre French writer, born at La Rochelle in 1 742, was the author of poems, tales, dramas, and historical works. Died in 1823. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." NouUeau, nooOo', (Jean Baptiste,) a French eccle- siastic and theological writer, born at Saint-Brieuc in 1604 ; died in 1672. Noureddin or Nour-Eddyn. See Noor-ed-Deen. Nourrit, noor'e', (Adolphe,) a popular French singer and actor, born at Montpellier in 1802 ; died in 1839. Nova, de, di no'vi, (Juan,) a Spanish navigator, born in Galicia, entered the service of Emanuel, King of Portugal. He sailed for the Indies in 1501, and dis- 3, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, q, obscure; ftr, fill, fit; m§t; ndt; good; moon; NOrALIS 1689 NOT covered on his route the Isle of Conception, and another at no great distance, to which he gave his name. On his return, in 1502, he discovered Saint Helena. Novalis, no-vi'lis, the assumed name of (B'riedrich) Von Hardenberg, (fon haR'den-b§Rc/,) a celebrated German philosopher and mystical writer, born at Wider- stadt. Saxony, May 2, 1772. He was a son of Baron von Hardenberg, amember of the Society of Herrnhuters or Moravians. He studied successively at the Univer- sities of Jena, Leipsic, and Wittenberg. Among the intimate friends of his early youth were Frederick Schle- gel, Fichte, and Schelling. About 1797 he produced his *' Hymns to the Night." He was affianced to Julia von Charpentier in 1798, but their marriage was prevented by his death. About this date he wrote the " Disciples at Sais." His constitution had always been delicate. He died of consumption, at Weissenfels, in March, 1801. His most extensive work is a mystical romance entitled Heinrich von Ofterdingen," which, however, he left unfinished. It is enveloped in a rather obscure sym- bolism, and displays a wild and eccentric imagination. He also wrote a remarkable work called "Christianity in Europe." See a " Biography of Novalis," by Tieck, prefixed to his collected works, (" Novalis Schriften,") 2 vols., 1802 ; Carlvle, " Miscel- lanies," article " Novalis ;" Madame de Stael, " De rAUemagne ;" Gervinus, " Geschichte der Deutschen Dichtung ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Novara, no-vi'rS, (Domenico Maria,) an Italian astronomer, born at Ferrara in 1464, taught astronomy at Bologna, and numbered among his pupils the cele- brated Copernicus. Died in 1 5 14. Novarini, no-vi-ree'nee, (LuiGi.) an Italian theo- logian, born at Verona in 1594, wrote "Commentaries on tiie Gospels," and other works. Died in 1650. Novat. See Novatus. Novatian, no-va'she-an, [Lat. Novatia'nus ; Fr. NoVATiE.v, no\t^seJ,N',J the founder of a sect called Novatians. He became a presbyter of the Church at Rome, and insisted on a rigorous enforcement of the discipline against the Lapsi, — i.e. those members of the Church who under the pressure of persecution had relapsed into idolatry or had been guilty of apostasy. On this question the Church was divided into two par- ties, which in 251 A.D. elected two rival bishops of Rome, Novatian and Cornelius, the latter of whom advocated greater laxity or charity in the treatment of the weak brethren. Novatian was condemned by a general Council held at Rome, and his rival obtained the office. The Novatians became numerous, and existed for more than a century as a separate sect. Some writers con- found him with Novatus, mentioned below. See Fleury, " Histoire ecclesiastique ;" Pluquet, "Diction- naire des Heresies." Novatianus. See Novatian. Novatien. See Novatian. No-va'tus, [Fr. Novat, no'vt',] a presbyter of Car- thage, called a heresiarch by Catholic writers, was an adversary of Cyprian. He was excommunicated in 251 A.D., — i^robably because he resisted the assumption of the bishops who wished to domineer over the Church; for he is not charged with dogmatical heresy. See Fleury, " Histoire ecclesiastique." Novella, no-vel'lS, a learned and beautiful Italian lady, born at Padua in 13 12, was a daughter of the celebrated ju*ist Giovanni d'Andrea. She was profoundly versed in philosophy and jurisprudence, and was accustomed, in her father's absence, to lecture in his place. She is said to have lectured with a curtain drawn before her, " Lest the students Should let their young eyes wander o'er her, And quite forget their jurisprudence." Died in 1366. See GiNGUEN^, "Histoire Litt^raire d'ltalie ;" "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Novelli, no-vel'lee, (Antonio,) an Italian sculptor, born at Castel-Franco in 1600, worked at Florence. A statue of Mary Magdalene is called his master-piece. He also made telescopes so superior that Torricelli said of him, "Behold, another Galileo flourishes!" ("En virescit Galilaeus alter !") Died in 1662. See Baldinucci, "Notizie." Novelli, (PiETRO,) called II Morrealese, {h\ mor- ri-i-li'sa,) an Italian painter and architect, born at Mor- reale in 1608. He adorned the churches of Palermo with many oil-paintings. He also painted some frescos. According to E. Breton, in the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale," he was the greatest painter that Sicily ever produced. Died in 1647. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ticozzi, "Dizio- nario." Novelli, (Pietro Antonio,) an Italian painter and poet, born at Venice in 1729; died in 1804. His son Francesco, born in 1764, was an engraver. Novell©, no-veKlo, (Clara,) Countess Gigliucci, (j^l- yoot'chee, ) a famous singer, a daughter of Vincent Novello, was born in London in 1818. She performed in Paris and London. She was married to Count Gi- gliucci about 1845. Novello, (Vincent,) an eminent musician, born in London in 1781, was the son of an Italian. He com- posed music for the Church, and published several col- lections of the works of other composers. He was the father of Mary Cowden Clarke, and Clara, Countess Gigliucci. Died in 1861. See "Life of V. Novello," by his daughter, Mrs. Clarke. . Noverre, no'vaiR', (Jean Georges,) born in Paris in 1727, is celebrated for the improvements he introduced into the ballet and the art of dancing. He was the author of "Letters on the Imitative Arts," etc., (1807,) and several dramatic works, and was appointed chief ballet-master of the Royal Academy of Music, Paris. Died in 1810. See the "Monthly Review" for April, 1786. Noves, de, deh nov, (or no'v^s,) (Laura,) a French lady, celebrated as the subject of Petrarch's sonnets, was born near Avignon in 1307 ; died in 1348. See De Sade, " Memoires sur Petrarque," 1744. Novikof, Novikov, or Novikow, nov'e-kof, (Ni- kolai IvANOViTCH,) a Russian litterateur., born near Moscow in 1744. He published a " Lexicon of Russian Authors," and a work entitled "The Painter," which was very successful. He established in Moscow a Ty- pographical Society for the cheap printing of valuable books, and contributed in many ways to promote the cause of education. Died in 1818. See Gretch, " Essai sur I'Histoire de la Litterature Russe." No'vi-us, (Q.,) a Latin comic poet, lived about 80 B.C., and was contemporary with Sulla the dictator. He wrote plays called Atellane. Nowell, n5'el, (Alexander,) an English theologian, born in Lancashire about 1508, was a zealous pro- moter of the Reformation. On the accession of Queen Mary he went into exile. He became Dean of Saint Paul's, London, in 1560, and took a prominent part in the Convocation of 1563, at which the articles of re- ligion were revised. His most important work is his " Catechism," which was published in Latin in 1570 and in English about 1571. This is the "Larger Cate- chism" adopted by the Anglican Church. He had a high reputation for learning and candour. Died in 1602. See Churton, " Life of Alexander Nowell," 1809. Nowell, (Lawrence,) a younger brother of the pre- ceding, graduated at Oxford in 1544. He became Dean of Lichfield in 1559. He compiled a Saxon Vocabulary, which he gave to William Lambarde in manuscript. Died in 1576. Nox or Nyx, [Gr. Ni^ ; Fr. Nuit, niiV ; It. Notte, not'ta,] one of the most ancient deities in classic my- thology, is a personification of Night. - She was supposed to be the daughter of Chaos, the brother of Erebus, and the mother of Day, (Hemera.) Among her offspring were Death, Sleep, Momus, Nemesis, and the Parcae. Noy, (William,) a celebrated English lawyer, born about 1577. He was appointed attorney-general in 1631, and thenceforth became the advocate of the royal pre- rogative, though he had previously been one of its strongest opponents. It was at his suggestion that King Charles I. levied the tax of ship-money, which was one of the exciting causes of the civil war. He wrote, among other legal works, "The Complete Lawyer," and a " Treatise on the Rights of the Crown." Died in 1634. See Clarendon, "Memoirs;" Fuller, "Worthies." ■e as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Yi^ guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^=^See Explanations, p. 23.) NOTDENS 1690 NUNEZ Noydens, no-e-d§ns', ? (Benito Remigio,) a Spanish philologist, born in Aragon about 1630, published a Spanish Dictionary, (1674.) Died in 1685, Noyer, du. See Dunoyer. Noyes, noiz, (George Rapall,) D.D., an American scholar and divine, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1798. He was elected in 1840 Hancock professor of Hebrew and Oriental languages, and Dexter lecturer on Biblical literature, at Harvard College. He published translations of the Psalms, the book of Job, and other parts of the Bible, and contributed to the " Christian Examiner." Died in 1868. See the "North American Review" for October, 1832. Noyes, (William Curtis,) an American jurist, born in Rensselaer county, New York, in 1805. He practised law in the city of New York, where he died in December, 1864. Nucci, noot'chee, (Benedetto,) an Italian painter, of the Roman school, was born at Gubbio about 1520; died in 1587. Nuck, nook, (Anton,) a skilful German anatomist and physician, born about 1660. He was professor of surgery and anatomy at Leyden, and subsequently presi- dent of the College of Surgeons. He made several valu- able discoveries relative to the lymphatic vessels and glands, and published a treatise "On the New Salival Duct," and one "On the Motion of the Circular Bile." Died in 1692. Nuenarius. See Neuenar. Nii'gent, the name of a noble family, originally from Normandy, who settled in Ireland in the twelfth century. Richard Nugent was created by King James I. Earl of Westmeath in 1621. George Thomas John Nugent, born in 1785, became Marquis of Westmeath in 1822. He was a prominent leader of the Orange party. Sir George Nugent, grandson of Viscount Clare, born in 1757, served in America and the Netherlands. He was successively appointed Governor of Jamaica and com- mander-in-chief of the army in the West Indies, and in 1846 field-marshal. Died in 1849. His brother. Sir Charles Edmund Nugent, served with distinction under Rodney, and was created admiral of the blue in r8o8. In 1833 he received the title of admiral of the fleet. Died in 1844. Nugent, (Christopher,) an Irish physician of con- siderable reputation, was father-in-law of the celebrated Edmund Burke. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. His principal work is an "Essay on Hydrophobia," (1753.) Died in 1775. Nugent, (George Nugent Grenville,) Lord, an English writer and liberal statesman, a son of the Mar- quis of Buckingham, was born in 1788. On entering Parliament, in 1812, he became a protninent advocate of the cause of the Greeks, and was also conspicuous in the defence of Queen Caroline. In 1830 he was made lord of the treasury, and soon after lord high commissary of the Ionian Islands. He returned to England in 1835, and died in 1850 or 1851. He published very interesting " Memorials of John Hampden," and wrote, in conjunction with his wife, " Legends of Lilies, by the Lord and Lady thereof." See the "London Quarterly Review" for June, 1846. Nugent, (Comte Laval de Westmeath,) a general, born in Ireland in 1 777. He entered the Austrian army at an early age. He gained some advantages over the troops of Murat in 181 5. About 1849 he was raised to the rank of feld-marechal. Nugent, (Robeijt Craggs,) Earl, a poet and poli- tician, born in Ireland. He married in 1736 Anne Craggs, a daughter of Secretary Craggs, who was a friend of Addison. He entered the House of Commons in 1741, and became a lord of the treasury. About 1776 he obtained the title of Earl Nugent. Died in 1788. He published a volume of poems in 1739. Nugent, (Thomas,) LL.D., a learned writer and com- piler, was a native of Ireland. He published, among other works, "Travels through Germany," (1768,) and a " French-and-English Dictionary," (1774,) often re- printed. Died in 1772. Nu'ma Pom-piFI-us, the second king of Rome, celebrated in Roman legends or fables as the author of the religious ceremonies of the Romans. According to these legends, Numa was a Sabine, and was elected king as successor to Romulus. Instructed by the Ca- mena Egeria, he prescribed the rites of public worship, and appointed pontiffs, augurs, flamens, and vestals. His reign was pacific and prosperous. There was a prevalent tradition among the ancients that Numa de- rived his wisdom from Pythagoras. See Plutarch, "Lives;" Niebuhr, " Rbntische Geschichte ;" J. Meyer, "Delineatio Vitje Numse Pompilii," 1765. Nu-me'ni-us, [Noy^^vwf,] a Greek philosopher, born at Apamea, in Syria, is called a Pythagorean, or rather a professor of a Platonico-Pythagorean philosophy. He lived in the second century of our era, and was favour- ably mentioned by Origen. He attempted to reconcile the great Greek schools with the doctrines of the Brah- mans. Magi, and Jews, and to restore the philosophy of Plato to its original purity. His works are not extant. See J. Simon, " Histoire de I'ficole d'Alexandrie ;" Ritter, " History of Philosophy." Nu-me'ri-an, [Lat. Numeria'nus ; Fr. Num^rien, nii'ma're^N'',] (Marcus Aurelius,) son of Carus, suc- ceeded him as Emperor of Rome in 284 A.D., in conjunc- tion with his brother Carinus. He was afterwards put to death in the same year, as is supposed, by his father- in-law, Arrius, and Diocletian was chosen emperor. Numerianus was famed as an orator and a poet. His character is said to have been excellent. See VoPiscus, "Numerianus." Numerien. See Numerian. Nu-me-si-a'nus or No-mis-i-a'nus, a physician of Corinth, flourished in the second century of the Chris- tian era. He numbered the celebrated Galen among his pupils. Numitor. See Romulus. Nunes-Barreto, noo'ngs bar-ra'to, (Belchior,) a Portuguese missionary, born at Oporto in 1520. He was employed many years in India, and wrote interesting letters on Oriental affairs. Died in 1571. Nunez, noon'y^th, (Alvarez,) surnamed Cabe<;a de Vaca, (ki-ba'thi di vi'kS,) a Spanish explorer, was the second in command of a party which discovered or ex- plored Florida in 1528. He was appointed adelantado of Rio de la Plata about 1540. Died in 1564. See'GoMARA, " Historia general de las Indias;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Nunez, [Lat. No'nius,] (Fernando de Guzman,) a distinguished Spanish scholar and promoter of classical learning, was born at Valladolid about 1470. He was descended from the noble family of Guzman, and was surnamed Pincianus, from Pincium, the Latin name of Valladolid. After having studied Greek in Italy, he was appointed one of the professors of that language in the University of Alcala. He afterwards filled the chair of ancient lane^i-iages and rhetoric at Salamanca. Nunez had a share in the celebrated " Complutensian Poly- glot" of Cardinal Ximenes, and in the Latin version of the Septuagint. He also published, among other works, an excellent edition of Seneca. Died in 1553. Nuiiez, [Lat. No'nius or Non'nius,] (Luis,) a Flem- ish or Spanish medical writer, born about 1555, lived at Antwerp. He was eminent for learning, and wrote several works, among which is a treatise on diet, " Diae- teticon, sive de Re Cibaria," (1627.) Died after 1645. See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana." Nunez, noo'n^z, or No'nI-us, (Pedro,) an eminent Portuguese mathematician, born in 1492. He wrote a number of very able treatises on navigation, geometry, and the projection of maps ; and the improved scale which he invented for reading an observed angle is still called by his name. He is also said to be the in- ventor of the loxodromic curve. Nunez was professor of mathematics at Coimbra, and royal cosmographer. Died in 1577. See MoNTUCLA, " Histoire des Mathematiques ;" Barbosa Ma- CHADO, "Bibliotheca Lusitana." Nunez de Balboa. See Balboa, de. Nunez de Villavicencio, noon'yith di v^Ky^-ve- thgn'the-o, written also Nunnez de Villavicencio, a Spanish painter, born at Seville about 1635, was a pupil ofMurillo. Died in 1700. €, 1, o, u, y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; at, §, j, q, obscure; ftr, fill, fit; m^t; ndt; good; moon; NUNNJNG 1691 O^BEIRNE Nunning, ndoi/ning, (JoDOCUS Hermann,) a German antiquary, born at Schuttorp in 1675 ; died in 1753. Nunz'iante, noon-ze-Sn'ti, (Vito,) Marquis, an Ital- ian general, born at Campagna in 1775. He commanded the army which the King of Naples sent in 1820 against his insurgent subjects, but was abandoned by that army. He became commander-in-chief of all the Neapolitan armies in 183 1. Died in 1836. See F. Palermo, "Vita e Fatti di V. Nunziante," 1839. Nureddin. See Noor-ed-Deen. Nus, nils, (Eugene,) a French dramatist, born at Chalons-sur-Saone in 1816. Nushirwan or Nuschirwan. See Khosroo. Nuftall, (Thomas,) an English botanist of high repu- tati(ni, burn in Yorkshire in 1786. He emigrated to the United States about 1808, after which he explored the country bordering on the Missouri River, and published his valuable " Genera of North American Plants," (1818.) He was professor of natural history at Harvard from 1822 to 1834. He performed an excursion to the Rocky Mountains and Columbia River about 1834. Among his works is a " Manual of the Ornithology of the United States and Canada," (2 vols., 1834.) Died in 1859. Nuvolone, noo-vo-lo'ni, (Carlo Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Milan in 1608. He imitated the style of Guido so successfully that he was surnamed the GuiDO of Lombardy. Among his master-pieces is •'The Miracle of Saint Peter at the Beautiful Gate." Died in 1661. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Nuvolone, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, born at Milan in 1619, was a brother of the preceding. He was sometimes called Panfilo. Died in 1703. Nuvolone, (Panfilo,) an Italian painter, born at Cremona, was the father of the preceding. He worked at Milan. Died, at an advanced age, in 165 1. Nuwayri. See Noowairee. Nuzzi, noot'see, (Mario,) called Mario de' Fiori, (mi're-o di fe-o'ree,) a celebrated Italian flower-painter, born near Naples in 1603. His pictures enjoyed a great reputation in his time, and commanded high prices. Died in 1673. Nyberg, nii'blRg, (Julia Christina,) a Swedish poetess, whose assumed name is Euphrosyne, was born in 1785. Nyctee. See Nycteus. Nyc'teus, [Gr. Nv/creyf; Fr. Nyctee, n^k'ti',] a fabulous king of Thebes, said to have been a son of Ne|)tune and the father of Antiope. Nyder. See Nider. Nye, nT, (Philip,) an English nonconformist divine, born about 1596, was distinguished for his hostility to the cause of Charles I. In 1647 he attended as chap- lain the commissioners sent to treat with that monarch in the Isle of Wight. He died in 1672, leaving numerous controversial treatises. Nyerup, nii'er-up, (Rasmus,) an eminent DanisV. scholar and antiquary, born at Fiinen in 1759. He was appointed in 1796 professor of the history of literature and librarian of the University of Copenhagen. Among his numerous and valuable works we may name his "Symbols to Illustrate Teutonic Literature," (1787,) and "Historical and Statistical Account of the Condition of Denmark and Norway in Ancient and Modern Times," (4 vols., 1802-06.) In conjunction with Rahbek and Abrahamson, he published in 1812 an edition of old Danish heroic songs, with historical explanations. He published, conjointly with Kraft, a work on Danish, Nor- wegian, and Icelandic biography, entitled " Almindeligt Litteraturlexicon for Danmark, Norge og Island," (2 vols., 1819.) Died in 1829. See C. Moi.BECH, "Mindeord over R. Nyerup," 1830; "R. Ny- erup's Levnetslob beskrevet af ham selv," 1820: Kraft og Nverup. " Litteraturlexicon ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Nymann, nee'min, (Gregor,) a German physiologist, born at Wittenberg in 1594. He published " De Vita Foetus in Utero," (1628,) which is commended. Died in 1638. Nymphae, nim'fe, [Gr. Nv/z^af; Fr. Nymphes, n^Mf,] the name of a numerous class of female divinities with which the imagination of the ancient Greeks peopled the groves, the mountains, the lakes, the rivers, the fountains, and the valleys. They may be described as personifications of the genial and beneficent powers of nature. Among their common attributes were youth and beauty. They were divided into several classes or species, namely, Oceanides and Nereides, sea-nymphs ; Oreades, mountain-nymphs; Naiades, fresh-water nymphs ; Dryades, wood-nymphs, or nymphs of trees ; Limniades, nymphs of lakes ; and Napaeae, nymphs of forests and groves. The poets feigned that the Nymphs were the nurses of Bacchus, Jupiter, and Pan. (See Oceanides, Nereides, Oreades, etc.) Nymphes. See Nymph/E. Nym'phis, [Ni'/z^tf,] a Greek historian, a native of the Pontic Heraclea, lived about 250 B.C. He wrote a " History of Alexander the Great and his Successors," and two other works. None of these are extant. Nymphodore. See Nymphodorus. Nym-pho-do'rus, [Gr. Nv/nfodupog ; Fr. Nympho- dore, ndM'fo'doR',] a Greek surgeon, mentioned by Celsus and Galen, lived probably in the third century B.C. He invented a machine for the reduction of dislo- cations. Nymphodorus, a Greek historian of Amphipolis, whose epoch is unknown. He wrote a work on the lav/s and customs of Asia, called lS6/j.Lp.a 'Kaiag. Nysten, nis'ten, (Peter Hubert,) a Dutch physician, born at Liege in 1771. He was the author of a "Dic- tionary of Medicine and its Accessory Sciences," (1810,) and "Researches in Physiology and Pathological Chem- istry," (1811.) Diedini8i8. O. O, d', do, (FRANgois,) Marquis, a French financier, born in Paris in 1535. He became superintendent of the finances in 1 578. Died in 1594. Oakes, oks, (Urian,) a learned nonconformist divine, born in England in 163 1, emigrated to America, and settled as minister at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1671. He became president of Harvard College in 1680. Died in 1681. Oates, ots, (Titus,) a notorious impostor, the in- ventor of the famous Popish Plot, was born in or near London about 1620. He became a clergyman of the Anglican Church, was deprived of his living for vicious conduct, and turned a Roman Catholic. He passed some time in a Jesuit college at Saint-Omer, from which he was expelled in 1677. In 1678 he appeared as an informer, and swore that the pope and Jesuits had con- spired to massacre the prominent Protestants, make themselves masters of the kingdom, and establish popery. His story was generally credited, and produced a furious excitement. Many Catholics were put to death for alleged complicity in the plot. Oates received a ]Dension of ^1200. After the accession of James II. he was convicted of perjury, severely whipped, and imprisoned from 1685 to 1689. He died in 1705. See Macaulay, " History of England ;" Burnet, " History of his Own Times;" Hume, " History of England ;" Evelyn, " Diary." Ob-a-di'ah, [Heb. nn3>',] one of the minor Hebrew prophets, lived probably about 590 B.C. Nothing is known respecting the events of his life. His prophecy is comprised in a single chapter. Obeidah. See Aboo-Obeidah. O'Beirne, o-beern', ? (Thomas Lewis,) an Irish prel- ate and writer, born in the county of Longford in 1748. He accompanied Lord Howe to America, as his chaplain, in 1775, was created, after his return. Bishop of Meath. He was the author of a poem entitled "The Crucifixion," (1776,) and of several prose works. Died in 1823. € as /c; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Y.^ guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) OBELERIO 1692 OCARITZ Obelerio, o-M-la're-o, a Venetian doge, born about 760, began to rule in 804 A.D., soon after which Venice was invaded by Pepin, King of the Lombards. He was exiled in 809, and died in 831 A.D. Obentraut, von, fon o'ben-tRowt', (Johann Mi- chael,) a German general, born in the Palatinate in 1574, He fought for Frederick, Elector Palatine, and was second in command of the army which, under Ernst of Mansfeld, gained advantages over Spinola and Tilly in Flanders. He was killed in battle at Kalemberg in 1625. See Schiller, "History of the Thirty Years' War;" C. G. de Koch, "Tableau des Revolutions de I'Europe." Obereit, o'beh-rit^ (Jakob Hermann,) a German or Swiss alchemist and mystic, l)orn in Aargau in 1725, practised medicine in his early life. He wrote, besides other works, a "Defence of Mysticism," (1775,) and "Promenades de Gamaliel, Juif Philosophe," (1780.) Died at Jena in 1798. Oberliauser, o'ber-hoi'zer, (Benedict,) a German canonist, born in Upper Austria in 1719 ; died in 1786. See " Memoria B. Oberhauseri," Saltzburg, 1786. Oberhauser, (Georg,) a manufacturer of micro- scopes, was born at Anspach, in Bavaria, in 1798. He became a resident of Paris about 181 5, and made some improvement in the form of microscopes. Between 1831 and 1856 he constructed a great number of these instru- ments, which were exported to all civilized nations. Oberkampf, o'ber-kampf, (Christoph Philipp,) a distinguished German artisan, born at Weissenbach in 1738. Having removed to France, he established at Jouy the first manufactory of printed cottons, (1759.) He brought this art to a degree of excellence hitherto unknown, and conferred an immense benefit upon his adopted country. He received from Napoleon the cross of the legion of honour. Died in 181 5. Oberlin, o'ber-lin, [Ger. pron, o'beR-leen' ; Fr. pron. o'bSk'liN',] (Jean Frederic,) an eminent philanthropist and reformer, born at Strasburg in 1740. In comi)liance with his father's wishes, he studied theology, instead of embracing the military profession, for which he had a strong inclination. He became in 1766 Protestant pastor of the Steinthal, or Ban de la Roche, a barren and rocky valley in Alsace, the inhabitants of which, owing to their country having been repeatedly laid waste during the French and German wars, were in a state of wretched poverty and ignorance. Oberlin now devoted himself to the reform which had been begun by his predecessor, Stouber, and, by his energy and mildness, succeeded in overcoming the prejudices of the people, who at first opposed all innovations. Besides great improvements in agriculture and the mechanical arts, he introduced many new employments, such as cotton-spinning, weav- ing, and straw-plaiting. He founded schools, to which he gave competent teachers, originated infant-schools, and took upon himself the principal religious instruction of his parishioners. So highly was Oberlin esteemed for the excellence of his character, and so deep was the sense of the benefits he had conferred, that during the troubles of the French Revolution the Ban de la Roche remained undisturbed ; and he received from Louis XVHL the cross of the legion of honour, (1819.) After the death of his wife, (1784,) Oberlin was assisted in his benevolent labours by his housekeeper, Louisa Schepler, formerly a servant in his family. She obtained from the French Academy, in 1829, one of the Montyon Prizes of Virtue, (five thousand francs.) Oberlin died in 1826, after a short illness, at the age of eighty-six. See August Neander, " Ziis^e aus dem Leben und Wirken des Pastors Oberlin," 1835 Paul Merlin, " Le Pasteur Oberlin," 1833 ; RoTHERT, " Leben J. F. Oberlins," 1847: "The Ran de la Roche and its Benefactor," London, 1820; " Le Pasteur Oberlin, Souvenir d'Alsace," 1824; H. Lutteroth, " Notice sur J. F. Oberlin," 1826; D. E. Stoeber, "Vie de J. F. Oberlin," 1834: G H. von Schu- bert, " Ziige aus dem Leben Oberlins," 1834 ; " Memoirs of J. F. Oberlin," London, 8th edition, 1838. Oberlin, (J6r6mie Jacques,) a scholar and antiquary of high reputation, born at Strasburg in 1735, was a brother of Jean Frederic, noticed above. He became professor of logic and metaphysics in the university of his native city, (1782.) Among his principal works are his " Tables of Roman Rites," ("Rituum Romanorum Tabulae," etc., 1774,) and "On the Amatory Poets of Alsatia in the Middle Ages," (" De Poetis Alsatise Ero- ticis Medii ^vi," 1786.) He also published excellent editions of Horace, Tacitus, and other Latin classics. Died in 1806. SeeWiNCKLER, " Notice sur la Vie de J. J. Oberlin," 1807 ; D. E. Stoeber, " Biographische Notiz iiber J. J. Oberlin," 1807; " Nou- velle Biographic Generale." Oberweg. See Overweg. Obreclit, o'bRgKt, (Elias,) an antiquary, brother of Ulrich, noticed below, was born at Strasburg in 1654. He wrote several treatises on Roman antiquities. Died in 1698. Obrecht, (Georg,) a German jurist, born at Stras- burg in 1547 ; died in 1612. Obrecht, (Ulrich,) a learned jurist, grandson of the preceding, was born at Strasburg in 1646. He published a number of legal works, and editions of Latin classics. Died in 1701. Obregon, o-bRk-g6n', (Bernardino,) a Spaniard, born near Burgos in 1540, founded an order of monks devoted to the service of the sick in hospitals. Died in 1599. See H. Maldonado, " Vida de Bernardino de Obregon." Obrenovitch or Obrenowitsch, o-brk-no'vitch, (Milosch,) styled Prince of Servia, born in 1780, was originally a Servian peasant. He became about 1815 a leader of the Servian insurgents, and gained several vic- tories over the Turks. In i8i6or 1817 he was elected prince. He afterwards made a compromise with the Sultan, who permitted him to govern Servia as tributary to the Turkish empire. His tyranny having provoked his subjects to revolt, he abdicated in 1839. He was restored in January, 1859, and died in i860. See Fossart, "Das Leben des Fursten Milosch und seine Kriege," 1836. O'Bri'en, an Irish family of rank, descended from the famous chieftain Brian Boroimhe, who was slain at the battle of Clontarf, in 1014. Murrough O'Brien was created in 1800 Marquis of Thomond. Died in 1808. His nephew, James O'Brien, Marquis of Thomond, served as a naval officer against the French, and in 1847 was made an admiral. Sir Lucius O'Brien, born in 1800, became lord lieutenant of Clare in 1843. He was twice chosen a member of Parliament for Clare, and was a zealous ad- vocate of conservative principles. His brother, William Smith O'Brien, born in 1803, was elected to Parliament for the county of Limerick in 1832. Here he became an earnest coadjutor of O'Connell in the Repeal move- ment. He was afterwards the leader of a party called " Young Ireland," which, not satisfied with the legal agitation of O'Connell, advocated a forcible separation from England. Soon after the French revolution of 1848 he visited Paris, but, disappointed in his hopes of assistance from France, he returned to Dublin, where he summoned a national convention of three hundred mem- bers. This assembly was prohibited by the government, and O'Brien, with other leaders, was arrested. He w^as condemned to death ; but this sentence was afterwards commuted to banishment, and in 1849 he was sent to Australia. He was subsequently pardoned. Died in 1864. See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1S61. Obry, o'bRe', (Jean Baptiste,) a French Orientalist, born at Albert (Somme) in 1793. resided for many years at Amiens. Ob'se-quens, (Julius,) a Roman writei, of whose personal history nothing is known. He was the author of a work entitled " De Prodigiis," in which he records the wonderful occurrences from the foundation of Rome to the time of Augustus. vSome parts of it which were lost have been supplied by Lycosthenes, (Woolfhart.) Obsopoeus. See OpsniHKUs. Ocana, de, dk o-kin'yS, (Francisco,) a Spanish poet, born in the latter part of the sixteenth century, was the author of religious poems. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Ocaritz, d', do-k^-r^ts', ? ( Jos6, ) Chevalier, a Spanish diplomatist, born in the province of Rioxa in 1750. He was charge-d'affaires at Paris in 1792, and made great efforts to save the life of Louis XVI. In a. e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, sAorf; a, e, i, o, obscure; ftr, All, ftt; mSt; nftt; good; moon* O' CAROL AN O'CONNOR 1805 he was sent as ambassador to Turkey. Died at Varna in 1805. See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution." O'Car'o-lan, (Turlough,) a famous Irish bard and musical composer, born in 1670, was a skilful performer on the harp. Died in 1738. Oc'cam or Ockham, ok'kam, (William,) an Eng- lish philosopher and eminent logician, surnanied THE Invincible Docjor, born in Surrey in the thirteenth century, was the founder of a sect called by his name. He studied theology under Duns Scotus, whose tenets of Realism he opposed, and aimed to restore those of Nominalism. He was excommunicated by Pope John XXH. for his bold defence of the emperor Louis of Bavaria against the encroachments of the papal power. Among his principal works is a treatise " On the Power of the Sovereign Pontiff." Died at Munich in 1347. See B. Haukeau, "De la Philosophie scolastique." Occleve. See Hoccleve. Occo, ok'ko, (Adolf,) a German physician and nu- mismatist, born at Augsburg in 1524. He published "The Coins of the Roman Emperors," (" Imperatorum Romanorum Numismata," 1579,) and other works. Died in 1604. See Brucker, "Vita A. Occoni." Oc'com, (Samson,) a converted Indian, born in New London county, Connecticut, about 1723, became cele- brated as a preacher among his people, and in 1766 visited England. Died in 1792. Ocean. See Ocean us. O-ce-an'i-des, [Gr. '^iKeavLdeq ; Fr. Oc^ anides, o'si'- i^n^d',] sea-nymphs or ocean-nymphs, daughters of Oceanus and Tethys. They were supposed to have been several thousand in number. (See Nymphs.) O-ce'a-nus, [Gr. '^iKEavog ; Fr. Oc^:an, o's^'An',] in classic mythology, was the god of the river Oceanus, by which the ancient Greeks supposed the earth to be sur- rounded. According to Hesiod, he was the first-born of the Titans, the son of Uranus and Ge, (or Coelus and Terra,) the husband of Tethys, and a parent of the Oceanides and of several thousand rivers. O-cel'lus Lu-ca'nus, so named from his birthplace, Lucania, in Italy, is supposed to have been a disciple of Pythagoras, and to have flourished about 500 B.C. His treatise "On the Nature of the Universe" is the only one of his works extant. It maintains the doctrine of the eternity of the world. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Oceola. See Osceola. Ocheda, o-ka'di, (Tomxiaso,) an Italian litterateur^ born at Tortona in 1757, became librarian to Lord Spen- cer in 1 790. He wrote essays on philosophy. Died in 183 1. Ochin. See Ochino. Ochino, o-kee'no, [Lat. Ochi'nus; Fr. Ochin, o'shiN',] (Bernardino,) one of the most celebrated Italian Protestants, was born at Sienna in 1487. He became a popular preacher, and was chosen general of the order of Capuchins in 1538. It is also stated that he was confessor to Pope Paul III., and was venerated as a saint. Having formed an acquaintance with Juan Valdez, a Reformer, he avowed his conversion to the Protestant faith, and escaped to Geneva in 1542. In- vited by Cranmer, he went to England in 1547, and preached in London until the accession of Queen Mary, in 1553, after which he lived at Zurich. He became a Unitarian, and was banished from Zurich about 1562. Died in Moravia in 1564. He had published several volumes of sermons, and other works on theology. See Marchand, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" Daniel Meyer, " Essai sur la Vie, etc. de B. Ochin," 1851. Ochinus. See Ochino. Ochoa, de, di o-cho'l, (Don Eugenio,) a Spanish writer and translator, born in Madrid about 1812. He wrote various works in prose and verse, and translated many from the French and English. Ochosias or Ochozias,* the French form of the name Ahaziah, which see. Ochoziah or Ochozias. See Ochosias. * Cowley — following, it would seem, the French spelling — writes the name, in English, Ochoziah. (See "Davideis," book ii., line 595.) Ochs, oks, (Pe'IER,) a Swiss statesman and jurist, born at Bale in 1749, was chancellor and grand tribune of Bale. He was created by Napoleon a councillor of state, and director of the Helvetic republic. He wrote a " History of Bale," ("Geschichte von Basel," 6 vols., 1 785-1 822,) and also published several dramas. Died in 1821. Ochsenbein, ok'sen-bin', (Ulrich,) a Swiss poli- tician and general, born in the canton of Berne in 1811. He was a leader of the radical party, and became presi- dent of the Federal Diet in 1847. He took a prominent part in the war against the seven Catholic cantons, which formed a separate confederacy, called the "Sun- derbund," in 1847. Ochterlony, oK'ter-lo'ne, (Sir David,) a British gene- ral, born in 1758. He served in India, and distinguished himself in the campaign of Nepaul in 1815-16. Died in 1825. Ockenfuss. See Oken. Ockenheim. See Okeghem. OckTey, (Simon,) an English divine and Oriental scholar, born at Exeter in 1678, became professor of Arabic in the University of Cambridge in 1711. He published in 1718 his "History of the Saracens," a valu- able work, which is commended by Gibbon. He also translated the second Apocryphal Book of Esdras from the Arabic version, and wrote an " Introduction to the Oriental Tongues," (1706.) Died in 1720. See Chalmers, "Biographical Dictionary." O'Con'nell, (Daniel,) a famous Irish orator and political agitator, born near Cahirciveen, Kerry, in Ah- gust, 1775, was educated as a Roman Catholic at Saint- Omer, in France. He entered Lincoln's Inn as a student of law in 1794, and was admitted to the bar in 1798. He quickly attained the foremost rank in his profession, and became pre-eminent as the advocate of Catholic eman- cipation, — i.e. the relief of Catholics from political dis- abilities. In the promotion of this cause he entirely discouraged a resort to physical force. He married his cousin, Mary O'Connell, about 1802. In 1823 he founded the Catholic Association. He -was elected a member of Parliament for Clare in 1828, and refused to take the oath which was designed expressly to exclude Roman Catholics from the House. This affair caused a violent excitement and agitation, which resulted in the passage of the bill for Catholic emancipation in 1829, and O'Con- nell then took his seat in the House of Commons. He represented Dublin in Parliament from 1832 to 1835, and from 1837 to 1841. Having given up his lucrative practice to devote himself to legislative duties, he was indemnified by an annual subscription raised by his polit- ical friends under the name of "rent." About 1840 he commenced an agitation for the repeal of the union, on which subject he made speeches at monster meetings in Ireland in 1842 and 1843. was arrested, tried, and found guilty of sedition or conspiracy, for which he was sentenced in 1844 to imprisonment for one year, and fined two thousand pounds. This judgment was reversed by the House of Lords. He supported the Whig min- istry which came into power in 1846, after which he witnessed a decline of his influence in Ireland and the rise of dissensions among his followers. He died at Genoa in May, 1847, in the course of a journey to Rome. See " Life and Times of Daniel O'Connell," by his son John, 2 vols., 1846; Fagan, "Life and Times of Daniel O'Connell," 2 vols., 1848; Schipper, "O'Connell's Leben," 1844 ; Gondon, " Biographic de D. O'Connell," 1847 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale L. de LoMENiE, " M. O'Connell, parun Homme de Rien," 1842 ; " Eraser's Magazine" for May, 1841. O'Con'nor, (Arthur,) an Irish general, born at Ban- don, near Cork, in 1767, was a Protestant. He joined the society of United Irishmen, who sent him on a secret mission to France, where he negotiated with General Hoche about the liberation of Ireland. In 1797 or 1798 he was tried on a charge of treason, and acquitted. He entered the French service, and became a general of division in 1804. About 1807 he married Elisa, a daughter of the famous Condorcet. Died in 1852. See Thomas Moore, " Life and Death of Lord Edward Fitz- gerald," 1831 ; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." O'Connor, (Feargus,) the celebrated leader of the English Chartists, was born near Cork, in Ireland, in € as 5 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^='See Explanations, p. 23.) OCT AVI A 1694 ODIER • 1796. In 1832 he became a member of Parliament for the county, of Cork, and acquired great popularity with the radicals. Dissatisfied with the moderate policy of O'Connell, he advocated the rights of the working-class, whom he succeeded in uniting into a numerous party called Chartists. In 1838 they summoned a national convention in London, in order to prepare for a general insurrection. In November, 1839, after a sanguinary conflict at Newport, the Chartists were dispersed by the government troops, and many of their leaders taken and transported. O'Connor, however, who had carefully avoided any infringement of the law, escaped, and soon after founded. a journal called "The Northern Star," which obtained an immense circulation. In 1843 returned to Ireland, where he engaged with ardour in the repeal agitation, and in 1847 was elected to Parliament for Nottingham. After the French revolution of 1848 he called another convention, and presented to the House of Commons a monster petition for the introduc- tion of the national charter, which produced no effect. Disappointed in his hopes of reform both in England and Ireland, O'Connor fell into a state of hopeless lunacy, and in 1852 he was taken to an insane-asylum. Died in 1855. See " Eraser's Magazine" for February, 1848. Oc-ta'vi-a, [Fr. Octavie, ok'tt've',] a Roman lady, born about 70 B.C., was a daughter of C. Octavius, and a sister of the emperor Augustus. She was married first to Marcellus, who died in 41. Soon after his death she became the wife of Mark Antony. This marriage was intended to confirm amicable relations between Antony and Augustus. By her beauty and virtue she obtained a favourable influence over Antony for a short time. She accompanied him in his expedition against the Parthians as far as Corcyra ; but, supplanted in the affections of Antony by Cleopatra, she was sent back to Italy. In 32 B.C. he sent her a bill of divorce. She died in II B.C., leaving several daughters. Her son, M. Marcellus, died before her. (See Marcellus.) See Plutarch, " Lives^" article "Antony:" Dion Cassius, " History of Rome," books xlvii.-li. ; Saint-Real, " Vie d'Octavie, Soeur d'Auguste," 1761. Octavia, a Roman empress, born in 42 A.D., was a daughter of the emperor Claudius and Messalina. She was married in 53 to Nero, who became emperor. He divorced her in 62 A.D., and a few months later put her to death. Octavian or Octavianus. See Augustus, (Em- peror of Rome.) Octavie. See Octavia. Octavius. See Augustus. Oc-taVi-us, (Catus,) the father of the emperor Au- gustus. He married Atia, a daughter of Julia, who was a sister of Julius Caesar. He became prastor in 61 B.C., and was proconsul in Macedonia in 60. Died in 58 B.C. His official conduct was highly commended by Cicero. Velleius Paterculus characterizes him as "gravis, sanc- tus, innocens, dives." He had a daughter, Octavia, noticed above. See Suetonius, "Augustus." Octavius, (Cneius,) a Roman officer, was elected praetor in i68 B.C., and commanded a fleet sent against Perseus, King of Macedon, whom he took prisoner. He was consul in 165 with Manlius Torquatus, and was assassinated at Laodicea in 162 B.C. Octavius, (Cneius,) a grandson of the preceding, was a partisan of Sulla. He became consul in 87 B.C. as the colleague of L. Cornelius Cinna, who was a partisan of Marius. The soldiers of Cinna entered Rome and killed Octavius in 87 B.C. See Appian, " Bellum Civile." Octavius, (Marcus,) a Roman officer, was a partisan of the senate in the civil war against Caesar. At the battle of Actium (31 B.C.) he commanded a division of the fleet of Antony. Odazzi, o-dat'see, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, born at Rome about 1663, was a pupil of Ciro Ferri. Died in 1731. Oddi, od'dee, (Muzio,) an Italian geometer, born at Urbino in 1569. He wrote " On Sun-Dials or Clocks," ("Degli Orologi solari nelle Superficie plane," 1614.) Died in 1639. Oddi, degli, diKyee od'dee, (Marco,) an Italian medical writer, born at Padua in 1526; died in 1591. Oddi, degli, (Odo,) an Italian physician, born at Padua, was the father of the preceding. He was pro- fessor of medicine at Padua, and wrote several medical works. Died in 1559. Oddi, degli, (Sforza,) an Italian poet and jurist, born at Perugia in 1540; died in 161 1. O-delF, (Thomas,) an English dramatist, born in Buckinghamshire, was the author of comedies entitled "The Chimera" and "The Prodigal." Died in 1749. See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica." Odenath. See Odenatus. Odenathus. See Odenatus. Od-e-na'tus or Od-e-na'thus, [ Fr. Odenath, oMeh-nSt',] Prince of Palmyra, the husband of Zenobia, was an able general. After the emperor Valerian had been defeated and captured by the Persians, (260 A.D.,) Odenatus raised an army, drove Sapor, the Persian king, from Syria, and assumed the title of King of Palmyra. He also invaded Persia, and pursued the King of Persia to Ctesiphon. For these services he received the title of Augustus from Gallienus, who recognized him as his colleague in 264. He was assassinated in 266 or 267 a.d. (See Zenobia.) See Trrbelltus Pollio, "Triginta Tyranni;" G. Hoyns, "Dis- sertatio de Zenobise atque Odenathi Rebus," 1847. Oderborn, o'der-boRn', (Paul,) a Lutheran minister, born in Pomerania, lived about 1585. He wrote a work on the Russian religion and customs, "De Russorum Religione, Ritibus," etc., (1581.) Oderic. See Oderico. Oderico (o-di-ree'ko) [Fr. Oderic, oMeh-r^k'] of PoRDENONE or PoRTENAU, an Italian monk, born at Pordenone, in the Friuli, in 1286, travelled over a con- siderable part of Asia as a missionary. His "Life and Travels" were published after his death, which took place in 1331. See Venni, " Elogio storico del B. Oderico," Venice, 1761. Oderico, (Gasparo Ludovico,) an Italian antiquary, and librarian of the University of Genoa, born in 1725. He was the author of several learned treatises on nu- mismatics and inscriptions, and was a member of the French Institute. Died in 1803. See Carrega, "Elogio storico di G. L. Oderico," Genoa, 1804. Oderigo da Gubbio. See Gubbio. Odescalchi, (Benedetto.) See Innocent XI. Odescalchi, o-dis-kai'kee, (Marcantonio,) an Ital- ian nobleman, eminent for his philanthropy, was a cousin of Pope Innocent XI. He founded several institutions for the sick and the friendless, and at his death, in 1670, left all his property for their benefit. Odescalchi, (Tommaso,) a relative of the preceding, was almoner to Pope Innocent XI. In 1686 he founded an asylum for the education and employment of poor children. Died in 1692. Odevaere, o-deh-va^eh, (Josephus Dionysius,) a celebrated Belgian painter, born at Bruges in 1778. Hav- ing studied under David in Paris, he visited Rome, where he executed two large frescos in the Quirinal palace, and the " Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence," now in a church of Bruges. He was appointed court painter to William I., King of the Netherlands, in 1815. Among his best works may be named the " Peace of Utrecht" and the " Battle of Nieuport." Died in 1830. Odier, o'de-a', (Louis,) a distinguished physician, born at Gene^ in 1748. He finished his studies at Edinburgh under Dr. Cullen, and, on his return, intro- duced vaccination into France and Switzerland. He was a corresponding member of the Institute of France, and filled several important offices in his native city. He was the author of a " Manual of Practical Medicine," and published, about 1798, in the " Bibliotheque Bri- tannique," a translation of one of Jenner's treatises on vaccination. Died in 1817. See Maunoir, "Notice de la Vie et des ficrits de L. Odier," 1818 : PrEKRE Prevost, " Notice de la Vie de L. Odier," 1818. Odier, (Pierre,) a Swiss jurist, born at Geneva in 1803 ; died in 1859. 6, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fa.t; mSt; ndt; good; moon; ODILLON 1695 Odillon Barrot. See Barrot. Odilo (o'de'lo') or Odilon de Mercoeur, oMc'IAn' deh meR''kuR', Saint, a French monk, born in 962, was eminent for learning. He was elected Abbot of Cluny, which, under his direction, became one of the most celebrated monasteries of Europe. Died in 1048 or 1049. See " Histoire litteraire de la France ;" *' Gallia Christiana." Odilon. See Odilo. O'din or OtSinn, (o'thin,) written also Othin, [called by the Germans Wo'dan or Wo'den ; Old German, WuoTAX, derived from va'^a, to *' wade," to "go," to "pervade,"] in the Norse mythology, the greatest of all the gods, corresponding in the main to the Zeus or Jupiter of the Greeks and Romans. His name is sup- posed to signify "mind" or "spirit." As the father of the JEs'n, (the ruling gods of heaven and earth,) he is styled All-father, (Al-fo^5r or Al-fa^Sir,) although he him- self was the son of Bor,* and the grandson of Buri.t He is also called Val-father, (Val-fo'Sr, i.e. "father of the fallen,") because all who fell in battle were supposed to belong in an especial manner to him. Hence his hall is called" Valhalla, (or Valholl,) the "hall of the fallen" or "slain." Valhalla is situated in Odin's mansion, called Gladheim or Gladsheim, (the "home or habitation of gladness.") The roof of the hall is formed of spears and shields. The hall itself is surrounded by a roaring river called Thund, and has five hundred and forty gates, through each of which eight hundred men can go abreast. Here are assembled all the chosen warriors ( Einheriai ) who have fallen in battle ; it is their pastime to fight and slay each other every day, but the wounded are quickly healed, and the dead are restored to life. They then ride back to Valhalla, where they refresh themselves by drinking mead (or beer) with the gods and feasting on the flesh of the boar Saehrimnir. The Valkyries (Val- kyrjur or Valkyriur) wait upon the warriors, furnish- ing them with drink and food, (see Valkyria;) but Odin himself lives on wine alone. Near Valhalla is Vingolf, the hall where the goddesses assemble. Odin's throne was called Hlidskjalf (hlid'ske-Slf) or Lidskialf, whence his eye is said to survey the whole world. Regarding Odin as the living spirit which pervades the universe, the Norse poets have represented living nature under the symbol of the ash -tree, (YggMrasil or IgMrasil,) that is, the seat or abode of O^xw.X "All life," says Carlyle, "is figured by them [the Northmen] as a tree. Igdrasil, the Ash-tree of Existence, has its roots deep down in the kingdom of Hela, (or Death,) its trunk reaches up heaven-high, spreads its boughs over the whole universe. ... At the foot of it, in the Death- kingdom, sit Three Nomas, Fates, — the Past, Present, Future, — watering its roots from the sacred Well. . . . Its boughs are histories of nations. The rustle of it is the noise of human existence. ... I find no similitude so true as this of a tree. Beautiful ; altogether beautiful and great. The 'machine of the universe,' — alas, do but think of that in contrast !" Although Odin (Spirit or Thought) was the principal creator of the heavens and the earth, he was assisted by his brothers Vili (Will) and Ve, (Holiness.) " The gods, having got the giant Ymir slain," says Carlyle, "deter- mined on constructing a world with him. His blood made the sea, his flesh was the land, and the rocks his bones ; of his eyebrows they formed Asgard, ... his skull was the great blue vault of immensity, and the brains of it became the clouds. What a Hyper-Brob- : dignagian business !" It is, however, only in the creation : of the world that Vili and Ve are mentioned ; they ap- * In like manner Jupiter was called " Father of the gods and king of men," (" Divum pater atque hominum rex,") although the son of ( Saturn, (or Cronos,) who again was the son of Coekis (Uranus) and Terra, (Ge.) ^ ^ t BuRi, (boo're,) written also Bure, ii.e. " producing," because, be- j ing the first of the gods, he was the progenitor of all the others,] is described as a mighty and beautiful being in human form, who came into existence soon after the mythic cow Audhumla began to lick the frost-covered rocks of the primeval chaos. He had a son named Bor : (boR) or Bore, {i.e. "born" or "produced," and hence " son,"] who ( is said to have married the daughter of the giant Bolthorn, and to have bad by her three sons,— Odin, Vili, and Ve, X Ygg or Yggr {i.e. the " terrible") is one of the many names of Odin, Drasill or drdsull is said to signify " chariot" or "seat." ODOACER pear afterwards to have become blended or absorbed in Odin, the all-embracing World-Spirit. Among Odin's possessions may be mentioned a horse of wondrous powers, with eight legs, called Sleipnir, on which he rides over land and sea ; and Gungnir, (gung'nir,) a spear, which never failed to strike whatever it was aimed at. He has also two ravens, named Hugin and Munin, which he sends forth over the whole world to get intel- ligence. In addition to his other attributes, Odin was supposed to possess marvellous powers as a magician. Odin is to be considered to represent energy and courage rather than knowledge. Hence it is said that he once went to Mimir's§ well, at the root of Yggdrasil, for a drink from the fountain of knowledge, but, in order to obtain it, it was necessary for him to deposit one of his eyes as a pledge, whence he is usually represented as one-eyed. War being almost the sole occupation of the ancient Northmen, Odin, their principal deity, became of neces- sity the god of war, his character in this respect nearly corresponding to that of the Mars (Ares) of classic my- thology.|J He is represented as having first introduced war and slaughter among mankind. Again, he differed from Jupiter in not wielding the thunderbolt, this weapon belonging to Thor ; but, in a region where thunder- storms are comparatively unfrequent, the possession of the thunderbolt was less essential to the dignity of the chief of the gods than in the countries where Olympian Zeus was worshipped. (See Thor.) Odin is not nnmortal in the fullest sense ; at Ragna- rock (the final destruction of the ^sir and the world) he is fated to be destroyed by the wolf Fenrir, the off- spring of Loki. (See Loki.) See Thorpe, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. : "Religion of the Northmen," by Rudolph Keyser, translated by Barclay Pen- nock, New York, 1854 ; Mallet, " Northern Antiquities," vol. ii. ; Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe," section "Icelandic Language and Poetry ;" Petersen, " Nordisk Mythologi," p. 30 et seq. O'ding-ton, (Walter,) a learned English monk under the reign of Henry VHI., was called Walter of Eves- ham, from the monastery of that name in Worcester- shire. He was the author of valuable works on music, astronomy, and mathematics. Odiot, oMeV, (Jean Baptiste Claude,) a French goldsmith, born in Paris in 1763. His works had a European reputation. Died in 1850. Odo, o'Ao\ or Odon, oM6n', [Lat. Odoar'dus,] a French prelate of great learning and influence, was born at Orleans. He was elected Bishop of Cambray in 1 105. He wrote several works on theology, which have been printed. Died in 1 1 13. See " Gallia Christiana ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." O'do, [Fr. Odon, o'd6N',] Saint, an English ecclesi- astic, was patronized by King Alfred and his immediate successors, and was made Archbishop of Canterbury by King Edmund in 944. Died in 958. See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. i. ch. vii. Odo or Odon, Saint, Abbot of Cluny or Clugny, was born in France about 879 A.D. He was distinguished as a reformer of monastic discipline. Died in 943. See B. Haur^au, "Histoire litteraire du Maine." Odo or Odon de Conteville, o^d6N' deh k6Nt'- v^K, born in Normandy in 1032, was a half-brother of William the Conqueror. He became Bishop of Bayeux in 1049. After the conquest of England he obtained the title of Earl of Kent and Hereford, and was grand justiciary. He is said to have been cruel and arrogant. Died in 1097. See Provost, " Histoire de Guillaume le Conquerant ;" " Gallia Christiana;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Odo of Kent, Abbot of Battle, an English theolo- gian, born in Kent, was a friend of Thomas a Becket. He wrote several works. Died in 1200. Od-o-a'cer, [Gr. 'OdoaKpog; Fr. Odoacre, o'do'tkR',] a Gothic military commander in the service of the West- ern Roman empire. Soon after the deposition of the § Mimir signifies the "knowing one." 11 Saxo Grammaticus, writing in Latin, calls Odin Mars. « as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2!^=See Explanations, p. 23.) ODOJCRE 1696 (EGIR emperor Julius Nepos by Orestes, who had usurped the throne in the name of his son Romulus, Odoacer ad- vanced to Pavia, took Orestes prisoner, and caused him to be executed, in 475 a.d. Having banished Romulus, he was proclaimed King of Italy by his army; but he refused the imperial titles, and the Western Empire was thenceforth considered at an end. In 488, Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, invaded Italy, and besieged Odoacer in Ravenna. After a brave and protracted re- sistance, he was compelled to surrender, and was exe- cuted in 493, by order of Theodoric, who proclaimed himself king. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas- Empire;" Jornandes, " De Rebus Goth- icis;" Procopius, " Bellum Gothicum;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." Odoacre. See Odoacer. Odoardus. See Odo. O-do-fre'dus, an Italian jurist of high reputation, born at Bologna; died in 1265. Odolant-besnos, oMo'16n' dk'no', (Joseph,) a French savant, born at Alen9on in 1797, wrote several scientific and descriptive works. Odolant-Desnos, (Pierre Joseph,) a French writer on various subjects, born at Alen9on in 1722, was grand- father of the preceding. Died in 1801. Odon. See Odo. O'Don'nell, (Leopold,) Count of Lucena and Duke of Tetuan, a Spanish general, of Irish extraction, was born in 1808 or 1809. He fought for the queen against the Carlists in the civil war which began about 1833, and defeated Cabrera at Lucena in 1839. He became the enemy of Espartero, whom he drove from power in 1843. In 1854 he instigated a revolt which resulted in a change of the ministry, and he was appointed minister of war. lie was prime minister from July to October, 1856, and w.-\s restored to the same office in June, 1858. He com- manded with success in a war against Morocco in 1859- 6c. He died in exile at Biarritz in 1867. O'Don'nell or O'Don'el, (Roderick,) was created Earl of Tyrconnel by James I. in 1603. Several of his descendants espoused the cause of James II., and, after his defeat at the battle of the Boyne, settled in Austria, where they rose to distinction in the State and the army, Charles O'Donnell served in the Seven Years' war, and became field-marshal lieutenant, and in 1768 was made Governor-General of Transylvania, Died in 1770. Maurice O'Donnell married Christine, daughter of the Prince of Ligne, and rose to be chamberlain and field-marshal lieutenant. Died in 1843. Joseph Henry O'Donnell entered the Spanish service about 1795, and gained several advantages over the French. For his victory at L'Abispal he received the title of Count of Abispal. Having subsequently incurred the sus- picions of the constitutional party, he was deprived of his command, and took refuge in France, where he died in 1834. O'Don'o-van, (John,) an Irish archaeologist and eminent Celtic scholar, born in Kilkenny county about 1808, He produced, besides other works, "The Annals of Ireland, by the Four Masters, from the Earliest His- toric Period to A.D. 1616," etc, (3 vols. 4to, 1848-51.) Died in 1861. See Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." Odoran, oMo^rSw', or Odoranne, o'do'rtn', a French monk of Sens, born in 985. He wrote a general chron- icle from 675 to 1032. Died after 1045. Odorico da Pordenone. See Oderico. O-dys'seus, [Gr. 'Odvaaev^; Fr. Odyss^e, oMe'sk',] the Greek name of the hero of Homer's "Odyssey." (See Ulysses.) CBagre. See CEagrus. CEagrus, ee'a-grus, [ Gr. Olaypoc ; Fr. CEagre, i'igR',1 a semi-fabulous king of Thrace, was the father of Orpheus and Linus. CBcolampade. See CEcolampadius. CEcolampadius, ek-o-lam-pa'de-us, [Ger. pron. a-ko-lim-p^Me-us ; Fr. CEcolampade, i ko'lSN^ptd'; Ger. Oekolampad, o-ko-lim-pit',] an eminent German Reformer, whose original name was Hausschein or HusGEN, was born in Franconia in 1482. He studied theology at Heidelberg, and became in 1515 pastor of a church at Bale, in Switzerland, where he strongly de- nounced the abuses of the Roman Church. About 1522 he openly declared in favour of the Reformed faith, and in 1524 was appointed professor of divinity at l^ale. In the controversy between Luther and Zuinglius concern- ing the real presence, he adopted the views of the latter. He was the author of numerous theological works, among which may be named his Commentaries on Isaiah, Job, Daniel, and Jeremiah, a treatise "On the Passover," (" De Ritu Paschali,") and "Annotations on Genesis." He was one of the most profound scholars of his time, and was remarkable for the moderation and general excellence of his character. Died in 1531. See W. Capito, "Vita J. Oecolampadii," 1793; Gryn>«us, "Vita J. Oecolampadii," 1536; S. Hess, " Lebensbeschreibung des Dr. J. Oecolampadius," 1793 ; Wagner, " Lebensbeschreibung des Oeco- lampadius," 1804 ; J. J. Herzog, "Das Leben J. Oekolampads," 2 vols., 1843; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." OBcumenius, ek-u-mee'ne-us. Bishop of Tricca, in Thessaly, is supposed to have flourished in the ninth or tenth century. He wrote Commentaries on the Acts, on Saint Paul's Epistles, and on the Apocalypse. See Cave, " Historia Literaria." Oeder, o'der, (Georg Ludwig,) a German exegetical writer, the lather of the following, was born near Anspach in 1694. He published several commentaries on the Scri])tares. Died in 1760. Oeder, (Georg Ludwig,) a distinguished German botanist, born at Anspach in 1728. He studied at Got- tingen under Haller, through whose influence he was appointed professor of botany at Copenhagen in 1752. His most important work is his splendid " Flora Danica," (3 vols., 1762-72,) illustrated with upwards of sixteen hundred figures of plants. It was afterwards continued by Miiller, The 9th and last volume was issued in 1814. Oeder also wrote several able treatises on political econ- omy and finance. Died in 1791, See Halem, " Andenken an Oeder," 1793; Kraft og Nverup, " Litteraturlexicon ;" Hirschjng, " Historisch-literarisches Hand- buch." CEdipe, See CEdipus, CEdipus, Sd'e-pus, [Gr. OuYnrovc; Fr. CEdipe, k'dhp',] a son of Laius, King of Thebes, and Jocasta, was cele- brated in Greek mythology and tragic poetry as a type or instance of the fatality which man cannot escape. According to the legend, an oracle warned Laius that if he ever had a son, that son should kill his father and marry his mother, Laius therefore exposed his first- born son soon after his birth, in order that he might perish ; but he was found by a shepherd of Polybus, King of Corinth, was named CEdipus, and brought up as the son of Polybus. Having consulted the oracle of Delphi, h-e was informed that he should commit parricide. In the course of a journey he met Laius in the road, with attendants, who provoked a quarrel, in which CEdipus killed the King of Thebes, Soon after this event the throne of Thebes and the hand of Jocasta, the queen, were offered to him who should solve the riddle of the Sphinx, (See Sphinx.) CEdipus solved the riddle, ob- tained the throne, and became father of several children by Jocasta. He afterwards discovered his guilt, and suffered penalties and misfortunes of which contradictory accounts are given by different writers. See Sophocles, "CEdipus Tyrannus ;" "The Odyssey," book xi. ; Euripides, " Phoenisss ;" S.mith, " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology." CBdman, od'mSn, (Samuel,) a Swedish savant and theologian, born in Smaland in 1750. He became pro- fessor of theology at Upsal in 1806, and wrote com- mentaries' on the Scriptures. Died in 1829. Oedumla. See Audhumla, Oefele, o'feh-leh, (Franz Ignaz,) a skilful German painter, born at Posen in 1721 ; died in 1797. CEgir. See ^^iGiR, CEgir, [from o^a, to "shudder at," to "dread,"] or Hler, hlair, le. the " Shelterer," [from /z//, "lee,"J the god of the sea or ocean. His wife Ran has a net, with which, it is said, she catches seafarers. Their nu- merous daughters are the waves of the ocean. CEgir and Hler appear to have been originally regarded as two distinct personages, — the former ruling over the stormy, the latter over the tranquil, sea. Ran (signifying a, e, T, 6, u, y, ^on^-; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, J, short; a, e;, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, f^t; mSt; ndt; good; moon; OEHLENSCHLAEGER 1697 OERSTED ** robbery," or "one who robs or bereaves") represents the tendency of the sea to rob men of life and of their most precious treasures. It is related in one of the Norse legends that, the yEsir having once paid a visit to CEgir, he was in want of a kettle large enough to brew beer for them. Thereupon Thor and Tyr went to the dwell- ing of the giant Hymir, who had a very spacious kettle, a mile deep. Thor grasped the kettle by the rim and threw it over his head, so that the rings came down to his feet, almost hiding him from view. After that, Oigir and the iEsir had an ample supply of beer for their banquets. See Thorpe, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. pp. 67-6(5; Kevser, "Religion of the Northmen;" Petersen, " Nordisk Mythologi." Oehlenschlager or Ohlenschlager, o'len-shla'ger, (Ad.am Gottlob,) an eminent Danish poet, born in a suburb of Copenhagen on the 14th of November, 1779, was the son of a German who had settled in Denmark. He began at an early age to write plays, which he would act in company with his sister and young associates. His enthusiasm for the drama introduced him to the notice and friendship of Rahbek and Rosing. He was after- wards attracted to the study of Scandinavian antiquities and historical legends, which furnished material for some of his most popular dramas. He published in 1805 a collection of poems, including the dramatic tale of "Aladdin," which displays the splendid colouring of Oriental fiction. The same year he visited Germany, where he acquired the friendship of Goethe, Tieck, and other celebrated writers of the time. While there he composed several dramas in Danish, which he translated into German and submitted to the criticism of his friends. From Germany he proceeded to Paris, and thence to Rome, returning to Copenhagen in 1810. He had written during his absence his tragedies of " Pal- natoke," (1809,) "Axel and Valborg," {1810,) and "Cor- reggio," which are ranked among his best productions. He was appointed soon after his return professor oi aesthetics in the University of Copenhagen, and the same year married Christiana Heger, a sister of Rahbek's wife. Among the most important of his other works are the dramas of " Hakon J^^rl," " Staerkodder," " Hagbarth and Signa," (1814,) "The Normans at Byzantium," "Charlemagne," " Tordenskiold," and " Amleth," also the poems entitled " Helge," (1814,) " Hroar's Saga," (i8i7,)and his si^lendid epic, "The Gods of the North," (" Nordens Guder," 1819.) He died in January, 1850, and his funeral was solemnized with great magnificence by his countrymen, by whotn he is generally regarded as the great national poet of Denmark. " Few men," says M. Marmier, " have been endowed with a genius as fer- tile and as facile as that of Oehlenschlager. The verses fall from his pen like water from a fountain. Hence his style is charming in its grace, flexibility, and abandon, but it is frequently very negligent." See his Autobiography, "A. Ohlenschlager's Levnet," 2 vols., 1831 ; Marmier, " Histoire de la Litterature Danoise ;" Le F^ivre- Deumiek, " Oehlenschlager le Poete national du Danemarck," 1854 ; C. MoLRF.CH, " Stiidier over Ohlensclilagers Poesie," 1850; Erslew, " Forfatter- Lexicon ;" " Noiivelle Biographie Generale ;" Long- FEi.i.nw, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Howitt, "Literature and Romance of Nortliern Europe;" ''Blackwood's Magazine" for December and April, 1820, and March, 1821 ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for June, 1830, article " Danish and Norwegian Literature also the " Foreign Quarterly" for July, 1831. Oekolampad. See CEcolampadius. Oelrichs, ol'riks, (Johann,) a German writer and clergyman, born at Bremen in 1724. Among his works are contributions to the literary history of Germany, Belgium, etc. Died in 1801. Oelrichs, [Lat. CElrich'sius,] (Johann Karl Con- rad,) a German scholar, born at Berlin in 1722, was appointed in 1784 counsellor of legation at the court of Prussia. He was the author of " Historical and Literary Miscellanies," (1760,) and other works on history and bibliography. Died in 1798. See Meierotto, "Vita CElrichsii," 1799. GGlrichsius. See Oelrichs. CEnee. See GEneus. CEneus, ee'nus, [Gr. Olvevg ; Fr. CEnSe, A'ni',] a king of Calydon, married Althaea, and was the father of Meleager, Tydeus, and other children. According to the fable, he offended Diana, who sent a wild boar to ravage his dominions. This boar was the object of the famous Calydonian hunt. CEneus is said to have been the first whom Bacchus taught to cultivate the vine. CEnomas. See CEnomaus. GGnomaus, e-no'ma-us, [Gr. Oivofiaog; Fr. CEnomas, i^no'mSs',] a king of Pisa, in Elis, was called a son of Mars. The poets feigned that he promised to give his daughter Hippodami''a to the man who should con- quer him in a chariot-race, with the annexed condition that every one who tried and failed must suffer death. After many suitors had failed and perished, Pelops gained the victory, and CEnomaus killed himself. CEnomaus, [Olvofiaog,] a Greek philosopher of the Cynic school, born at Gadara, lived about 120-40 a.D. He wrote, besides other works, a treatise in which he exposed the impostures of Oracles. His works are not extant. CEnone, e-no'ne, [Gr. Oivuvij; Fr. Oenone, i'non',] a nymph of Mount Ida, who was said to have received from Apollo the gift of prophecy, and to have been married to Paris before he was known to be a son of Priam. CGnopideS, e-nop'e-d^z, [Olvomdi^g,] a Greek astrono- mer, born at Chios, lived in the fifth century B.C. He is said to have derived his knowledge from the Egyptian priests, yf^lian attributes to him the invention of the cycle of fifty-nine years to make the lunar year coincide or accord with the solar year. He was acquainted with the obliquity of the ecliptic. CEnopion, e-no'pe-on, [Gr. Oivomuv ; Fr. Oenope, i'nop', or Oenopion, i'no'pe^oN',] in classic mythology, a son of Bacchus, and King of Chios, (Scio.) His daugh- ter Merope, it is said, was ravished by Orion. (See Orion.) Oernhielm or Ornhielm, oRnHie-glm', (Claudius Arrhenius,) a Swedish historian, born at Linkoping in 1627. He wrote, besides other works, "On the Mon- archies of the World,"" (" De Monarchiis Orbis," 1683.) Died in 1695. Oersted or Orsted, oR'st^d, (Anders Sandoe,) an eminent Danish jurist and statesman, born at Rudkjo- bing in 1778. He married Sophia, a sister of the famous poet Oehlenschlager, in 1802. He published numerous legal works, one of which is entitled " Eunomia," (4 vols., 1815-22.) In 1841 or 1842 he became a minister of state, and opposed the liberal or popular measures. He resigned in 1848, and \vas appointed prime minister in 1853, policy having been condemned by the Diet, he was removed about the end of 1854. He published a " History of my Life and Times," (4 vols., i85i-$6.) Died in i860. See Erslew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." Oersted, (Anders Sandoe,) a naturalist, a nephew of the preceding, was born at Rudkjpbing in 1816. He travelled in the West Indies, and published several works on natural history. Oersted, (Hans Christian,) a celebrated Danish natural philosopher, the founder of the science of electro magnetism, was born at Rudkjobing, in the island of Langeland, on the 14th of August, 1777. He was edu- cated with his brother, Anders Sandoe, the jurist, at the University of Copenhagen. In 1806 he obtained the chair of physics in that institution. He produced in 1812 an "Essay on the Identity of Chemical and Elec- trical Forces." In 1820 he announced his great dis- covery of the relation between magnetism and electricity, in a short work entitled "Experimenta circum Effectum Conflictus electrici in Acum magneticum." The electric telegraph is one of the most direct practical results of this discovery. He demonstrated that the electric cur- rent, according to a uniform law, "exercises determined and similar impressions on the direction of a magnetic needle" near which it passes. This discovery was re- ceived with great enthusiasm, as the revelation of an important fact which had long escaped the researches of so many sagacious minds. " Of all the philosophers who had speculated on this subject," says Sir John Her- schel, "none had so pertinaciously adhered to the idea of a necessary connection between'^ the phenomena as Oersted. Baffled often, he returned to the attack, and his perseverance was at length rewarded by the complete disclosure of the wonderful phenomena of electro-mag- « as ^/ 9 as s; g hard; g as^; G, H, KyguUura/; N, nasal; R, tril/ed; s as 2; th as in t/its. (J^See Explanations, p. 23.) 107 OERTEL 1698 OGGIONE netism." (" Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natu- ral Philosophy.") "Tlie desideratum of a clear expression of the manifest alliance between electricity and magnetism," says James David Forbes, " had been so long and so universally felt that the discovery placed its author in the first rank of scientific men. There was not even, so far as I am aware, a suspicion that he had been, however remotely or dimly, anticipated. The prize of the French Institute, which had been awarded to Davy for his galvanic dis- coveries, was bestowed upon Oersted." (Sixth Disser- tation of the "Encyclopaedia Britannica," vol. i.) "I scarcely know," says Niebuhr, "another natural philoso- pher with so much intellect and freedom from prejudice and esprit de corps.''' Oersted received for this discovery the Copley medal of the Royal Society of London, and was created a knight of the order of Danebrog. He also made discoveries in chemistry, and wrote a number of works on that science. Among these are " Materialien zu einer Chemie des igten Jahrhunderts," (1803,) and "Tentamen Nomenclaturas chemicee," (1814.) He wrote a poem called "The Balloon," (" Lufskibet," 1836.) His writings have contributed greatly to popularize science. A selection of his works was published in 1850, under the title of "The Spirit in Nature," (" Der Geist in der Natur,") preceded by a biographical notice of Oersted by P. L. Moller. Died in March, 1851. See " H. C. Oersteds Leben," by Hauch and Forchhammer, (from the Danish,) 1853; Hkcquerru "Resume de I'Histoire d'fileciricite," etc., 185S ; Cai.i.ishn, " Medicinisches Scliriftsteller- l,exikon ;" *' Nouvelle Biographie (jen(^rale ;" " Memoir of Oersted," by Ei.iE DE Beaumont, in tlie "Smithsonian Report" for i868. Oertel, van. See Ortklius. Oeser or Oser, o'zer, (Adam Friedrich,) a distin- guished painter and sculj^tor, of German extraction, born at Presburg, in Hungary, in 1717. He studied in 1739 at Dresden, where he formed an intimacy with Winckelmann. He was subsequently director of the Academy of Architecture, Painting, and Design at Leip- sic. Among his pupils here was the celebrated Goethe, who entertained a great regard for him. His best paint- ings are in fresco ; and a number of them adorn the church of Saint Nicholas at Leipsic. His monument to Queen Matilda of Denmark is one of his most ad- mired pieces of sculpture. Died in 1799. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Ehcyklopaedie ;" Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Oeser or Oser, (Johann Ludwig,) a landscape- painter and engraver, born at Dresden in 1 75 1, was a son of the preceding. Died in 1792. Oesterley or Osterley, os'ter-li^, (Kari,,) a German painter of history and portraits, born at Gottingen in 1805. fie became court painter at Hanover. Oetinger, o'ting'er, sometimes written Ottinger, (Friedrich Christoph,) a learned German theologian, and prominent leader of the Pietists, was born in WUr- lemberg in 1702. He wrote a number of commentaries on the Scriptures, a treatise entitled "The Age of Gold," and " Ancient Philosophy." He also translated several of the works of Swedenborg, of whom he was a warm admirer, and whom he much resembled in purity of character and religious fervour. He was a friend of Count Zinzendorf, whom he assisted in a new translation of the Scriptures. Died in 1782. See " Neues Gelehrtes-Europa ;" Auberlen, " Die Theosophie F. C. Oetinger's nach ihren Grundziigen," 1847 ; Hirsching, " His- torisch-iiterarisches Handbuch." Oetter or Otter, ot^'ter, (Samuel Wilhelm,) a Ger- man antiquary, born at Goldcronach in 1720. He wrote on history and antiquities. Died in 1792. See F. G. Oetter, " Leben Getters," 1792. Oettinger or Ottinger, ot'ting'er, (Eduard Marie,) a German journalist and novelist, born at Breslau in 1808. He edited several satirical journals, and published a number of novels, among which is"Onkel Zebra," (7 vols., 1843.) ^I'^o vvrote a work entitled " Rossini," (1847,) which is said to be a romance rather than a biography, and " Bibliographie biographique univer- selle," (2 vols., 1850-54,) the most complete work on that subject. See A. DE Reume, " Notice bio-bibliographique sur M. E. M. Oettinger," 1854; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Ofalia, o-fd'le-a, (Don Narciso de HKRKDfA,) Count, a Spanish statesman, bt)rn in 1771, became min- ister of the interior under Zea Bermudez in 1832. He was appointed by Ferdinand VH. executor of his will and a member of the ctnincil of regency. He was jiresi- dent of the council of ministers in 1837. Died in 1843. O'Far'rill, (Don Gonzai.o,) a Spanish general, born at Havana in 1 754, became minister of war under Joseph Bonaparte. Died in Paris in 183 1. Orfa, a Saxon, who succeeded Ethelbald as King of Mercia in 755 a.d. Having murdered Ethelbert, King of East Anglia, he took possession of his kingdom. See Turner, "History of the Anglo-Saxons:". Henry Mac- kenzie, "Essay on the Life and Institutions of Ofifa," 1840. Offenbach, of'fen-blK', (Isaac,) a popular composer of comic operas, born at Cologne in 1822, studied in Paris. Among his works are the " Grand Duchess of Gerolstein," " Orpheus in the Lower Regions,"(" Orphee aux Enfers,") " La Belle Helene," " Blue-Beard," (" Barbe Bleue,") " La Vie Parisienne," and "La Bavarde de Saragosse." Of'for, (George,) an English writer, and a bookseller ir^ London, was born about 1786. He published a "Life of John Bunyan," (1853.) Died in 1864. O'Fihely, o-fee'le, } (Maurice,) an Irish prelate and scholar, who w^s made Archbishop of Tuam by Pope Julius II. in 1506. He was eminent for his learning, and was surnained Flos Mundi, (" Flower of the World.") Died in 1513. O-fiPi-us, (AuLUS.) a Roman jurist of high reputa- tion, was a friend of Cicero, and a pupil of Sulpicius. His writings are cited in the Digest. Among his pupils were Capito and Labeo. O'Flaherty, o-fl^her-te, (Roderic,) born at Moycul- lin, Ireland, in 1630, published in 1685 a Latin " History of Ireland from the Deluge to the Year 1684." Died in 1 718. Ofterdingen, von, fon of'ter-ding'en, (Heinrich,) a famous German minstrel or minnesiitger o{ the thirteenth century, was a favourite of Leopold, Duke of Austria. He is supposed by some writers to have been the author of the " Nibelungenlied ;" but of this there appears to be little evidence. See Hagen, " Museum fur Alt-Deutsche Literatur und Kunst," 1810. Og'den, (Aaron,) born at Elizabethtown, New Jer- sey, in 1756, served in the war of the Revolution, and was elected Governor of New Jersey in 1812. Died in See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i. Ogden, (David B.,) a distinguished American lawyer and resident of New York City, was born in 1769. He removed from New Jersey to New York in 1802. Died in 1849. Ogden, (Jacob,) an American physician and medical writer, born at Newark, New Jersey, in 1721 ; died in 1779. Ogden, (Matthias,) an American bngadier-general in the Revolutionary war. He died at Elizabethtown, New Jersey, in 1 791. Og'den, (Samuel,) an English clergyman, born at Manchester in 1716. He became Woodwardian pro- fessor at Cambridge in 1764, and published several volumes of sermons. Died in 1778. Oge, o'zhi', (Vincent,) a Creole of Saint Domingo, who, having in vain solicited the French National As- sembly to grant equal rights to the coloured people, became in 1790 the leader of an insurrection, with a view of gaining his object by force of arms. His party were soon overpowered by the French troops, and Oge, together with his lieutenant, Chavannes, who had been guilty of the principal outrages, was executed in 1791. See Dai.mas, " RevolutioH de Saint-Domingue ;" Malenfant, " Histoire des Colonies." Oggione, d', d6d-jo'ni, (Marco,) written also Ug- gione, an eminent Italian painter, born in the Milanese about 1470, was a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci, whose style he imitated successfully. Among his master-pieces are his " Three Archangels," and an altar-piece at Milan. His most important works are two copies of "The Last a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; \, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sAort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; nflt; good; moon; OGIER OJEDA Supper" of Da Vinci, one of which is in the Academy of Arts in London. The excellence of these pictures, and the destruction by time of the original, have caused them to be greatly prized. Died in 1530. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. Ogier, o''zhe-^', (Charles,) a French scholar, born in Paris in 1595. He published notes of his travels in Denmark, Sweden, etc., " Ephemerides, sive Iter Dani- cum, Suecicum et Polonicum," (1656.) Died in 1654. Ogier, (FRANgois,) a French writer and ecclesiastic, was a brother of the preceding. He published an "Apology for M. de Balzac," (1627,) and other works. Died in 1670. O'gil-by or Ogleby, o'gel-be, (John,) a Scottish lit- terateur and printer, born at Edinburgh in 1600, was noted for the variety and versatility of his talents. In 1633 he accompanied Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, to Ireland, in the capacity of dancing-master and copyist. After his return to England he published, in 1650, a poetical translation of Virgil, and, in conjunction with James Shirley, afterwards translated the Iliad" and "Odyssey" into English verse, having learned Greek for that purpose when upwards of fifty years of age. These versions were very popular at that time, and possessed great typographical beauty. Ogilby was also appointed royal cosmographer, and published a number of geo- graphical works. Died in 1676. See Gibber, " Lives of the Poets ;" " Biographia Britannica." Ogilvie, o'gil-ve, (James,) a Scottish orator and teacher of elocution, born about 1760, or, as others say, 1775. ^6 delivered lectures as models of oratory in the chief cities of the United States, and received much applause. He died at Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1820. Ogilvie, (John,) a Scottish divine and writer, born 1733' Among his works are "Britannia," an epic poem, (1801,) and an "Examination of the Evidence of Prophecy in Favour of Christianity," (1803.) Died in 1814. Oginski, o-g^n'skee, (Michael Casimir,) a Polish nobleman, born at Warsaw in 1 73 1. He constructed a canal in Poland. Died in 1803. Oginski, (Michael Cleophas,) a Polish composer, born at Warsaw in 1765, was a nephew of the preceding. He settled in Italy about 1815, and gained distinction as a musical composer. He wrote "Memoirs of Poland from 1788 to 181 5," (2 vols., 1826.) Died in 183 1. See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1829. Ogive. See Edgiva. Ogleby. See Ogilby. Oglesby, o'gels-be, (Richard J.,) an American gene- ral, born in Kentucky in 1824. He removed to Illinois, and practised law in that State. He commanded a brigade at Fort Donelson, February, 1861, and was severely wounded at the battle of Corinth, October 4, 1862. He was elected Governor of Illinois for four years, (1865-68.) Oglethorpe, o'gel-thorp, (James Edward,) an Eng- lish general, born in London in 1698. Having served for a time under Marlborough and Prince Eugene in Germany, he obtained in 1733 the royal charter for founding a colony in North America, which he called Georgia in honour of the reigning king. Having passed several years in Georgia, he returned to England in 1743, and commanded an army against the Pretender in 1745. He was a member of Parliament for many years. Died in 1785. The virtues and talents of General Ogle- thorpe have been celebrated by Pope, Thomson, and Dr. Johnson. See "Memoirs of James Oglethorpe," by Robert Wright, London, 1867; Hildreth, "History of the United States," vol. ii. chap. xxiv. ; Bancroft, " History of the United States," chap. xxiv. Ognibuono di Lonigo. See Lonicenus, (Omni- BONUS.) Og'y-ges or Og'y-gus [Gr. 'Q.yvyr]g, "Q.yvyog, or Qyvyi/g ; Fr. Ogyges, o'zhe'zhgs'] is said to have been the first king or ruler of Thebes, which was sometimes called Ogygia. According to some writers, he was also King of Attica, and the father of Eleusis. In his reign occurred a great inundation of Greece or Boeotia, which is called the Ogygian deluge and is supposed to have been anterior to that of Deucalion. Ogygus. See Ogyges. O'HalTo-ran, (Sylvester,) an Irish antiquary avd surgeon, born in 1728. He became surgeon of the Lim- erick Hospital. He published an " Introduction to the Study of the History and Antiquities of Ireland," (1772,) and a "General History of Ireland," (2 vols., 1772.) Died in 1807. See the " Monthly Review" for January and February, 1779. O'Hara, o-hi'ra, (James,) a native of Ireland, emi- grated in 1772 to America, where he became quarter- master-general under General Wayne. He was one of the founders of Pittsburg. Died in 1819. O'Hara, (Kane,) a popular Irish dramatist, wrote, among other plays, "The Golden Pippin," "The Two Misers," and "Midas." Died in 1782. Ohlenschlager. See Oehlenschlager. bhlmiiller, oKmuKler, (Joseph Daniel,) an eminent German architect, born at Bamberg in 1791. Among his best works are the national monument at Upper Wittels- bach, the chapel at Kiefersfelden, and the Gothic church near Munich. The last-named structure is esteemed one of the most magnificent specimens of its style erected in modern times. Died in 1839. Ohm, om, (Georg Simon,) a German natural phi- losopher, born at Erlangen in 1787. He became professor of mathematics in the Jesuits' College of Cologne in 181 7. He gained distinction by the discovery of the laws of electric currents, on which he published in 1827 a work called " Die galvanische Kette mathematische bearbeitet." He received the Copley medal of the Royal Society of London in 1841. Died at Munich in 1854. See " Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale." Ohm, (Martin,) a German mathematician, brother of the preceding, was born at Erlangen in 1792, and became professor of physics and mathematics at Berlin in 1839. He was the author of an "Essay on a Perfect System of Mathematics," and other works. Ohmacht, o'm§.Kt, (Landolin,) a German sculptor, born near Rotweil in 1760, was a friend of the poet Klop- stock, and of Lavater. Among his best works are the "Judgment of Paris," a "Neptune," a "Flora," a monument to General Kleber, and a bust of Klopstock. Died in 1834. See "Journal des Beaux-Arts," 1831. Ohsson, 6'son, (Constantine,) Baron of, born at Constantinople about 1780, was the son of Mouradja d'Ohsson, an Armenian, (see Mouradja d'Ohsson.) He wrote a " History of the Mongols," (1835,) and a " History of the Caucasians in the Tenth Century." He also finished his father's " Picture of the Ottoman Empire." Oicoiiomos or CBconomos, e-kon'o-mos, (Con- STANTIN,) a learned Greek priest and writer, born in Thessaly in 1780. He taught Greek at Smyrna for ten years, and afterwards preached at Saint Petersburg and at Athens. He wrote several works on language, and "De la Version des Septante," (4 vols., 1843-50.) Died in 1857. See SiviNi, "Memoire compose k la Hate sur Oiconomos," 1857. Oilee. See Oileus. Oileus, o-i^iis, [Gr, 'OilaV; Fr. Oilee, wi'Ia^] a king of the Locrians, and the father of Ajax the Less, He is said to have been one of the Argonautae. Oisel, oi'zel, [Lat. Oise'lius,] (Jakob,) written also Ouzel, ow'zel, a Dutch critic and jurist, born at Dant- zic in 163 1. He became professor of public law at Groningen in 1667. He edited Aulus Gellius, and published a work on numismatics, called " Thesaurus selectorum Numismatum antiquorum," (2 vols., 1677.) Died in 1686. See Nic^RON, " M^moires ;" Morhof, " Polyhistor." Oisel, (Philip,) a nephew of the preceding, was born at Dantzic in 1671. He was an excellent Hebrew scholar, and a Protestant minister. He published sev- eral theological works. Died at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1724. Oiselius. See Oisel. Ojeda, de, di o-Ha'Di, (Alonzo,) a Spanish explorer and lieutenant of Columbus, was born at Cuenca about € as k; 9 as s; g Aarti; g as J; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) O'KEEFE 1700 OLDENBURG 1465 or 1470. He accompanied Columbus in his second voyage to America in 1493, '^'^"^ commanded an ex- pedition which Columbus sent to explore the interior of Hispaniola, where he captured the chief Caonabo. Having returned to Spain, he obtained command of an ex- ploring expedition sent out in 1499. Among his officers or passengers was Amerigo Vespucci. He discovered a part of the new continent, which he named Venezuela, and returned to Spain in 1500. In 1508 he attempted to colonize New Andalusia, and to conquer the natives, but was not successful. See OviEDO, "Cronica de las Indias;" Irving, "History of Columbus ;" Charlevoix, " Histoire de Saint-Domingue ;" Her- REKA, " Historia general ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." O'Keefe, o-keef, (John,) an Irish dramatist, born at Dublin in 1747. The number of his plays amounted to upwards of sixty, and, though their merits are not of a high order, they enjoyed great popularity. Among the most admired we may name " The Agreeable Surprise" and " Wild Oats." Died in 1833. See " Recollections of the Life of John O'Keefe," by himself, 1826. Okeghem, o'Keh-h^m, written also Ockenhein, (Jan,) an eminent Flemish musician and composer, born in Hainault about 1430 ; died after 1500. Oken, o'ken, or Ockenfuss, ok'ken-fooss'',(LoRENz,) an eminent German naturalist of the transcendental school, was born at Bohlsbach, in Wiirtemberg, in Au- gust, 1779. He abridged the original name of his family, Ockenfuss, into Oken. He studied at Gottingen, and became a privat-docent in that university. In a remark- able work, entitled "Elements of Natural Philosophy, the Theory of the wSenses, and the Classification of Ani- mals," ("Grundriss der Naturphilosophie," etc., 1802,) he gave the outlines of a scheme that he afterwards de- voted himself to perfect, and advanced the idea that " the animal classes are virtually nothing else than a represen- tation of the organs of sense." He accordingly divided the animal kingdom into five classes. He was an ad- vocate of the theory of develojjment in its largest sense. Among his doctrines, as quoted by Professor Hitchcock, are the following : " Plants and animals can only be metamorphoses of infusoria. No organism has been created of larger size than an infusorial point ; whatever is larger has not been created, but developed. . . . The mind, just as the body, must be developed out of these animals, [infusoria.] . . . Everything that is, is material." (" The Religion of Geology," p. 299.) He produced in 1805 a treatise on Generation, in which he maintained that " all organic beings originate from and consist of cells or vesicles." In 1807 he was appointed extraor- dinary professor of medical sciences in the University of Jena, where he gained a high reputation by his lec- tures on zoology, physiology, etc. He developed his peculiar system of natural science in his "Manual of Natural Philosophy," (1809.) From i8i6to 1848 he was editor of the "Isis," a journal of natural history. In 1832 he obtained a professorship at Zurich, where he died in 1851. Among his works is a "General Natural History," (13 vols., 1833-41.) See Callisen, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon " Ency- ciopjedia Britannica ;" Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Okolampadius. See CEcolampadius. Okolski, o-koKskee, (Simon,) a Polish historian and ecclesiastic of the seventeenth century. His principal work is entitled " Orbis Polonus," (3 vols., 1641-45,) which treats of the origin of the Sarmatians, etc. Okoonef, Okounev, Okounef, Okunev, Okou- new, or Okunew, o-koo-nlf, (Nikolai Alexandro- viTCH,) a Russian general and writer on military science, born at Saint Petersburg in 1792, served in the campaign of 1829 against the Turks. He became in 1840 lieu- tenant-general. He published, besides other works, "Reflections on the System of Modern War," (1823,) and a " History of the Second Epoch of the Polish Campaign of 1831." Died in 1851. Okounev. See Okoonef. Okimew. See Okoonef. Olaf, o'laf, or O-la'iis, I., or Olof, o'lof. King of Norway, born in 956, was surnamed Trygvason. He was a corsair or sea-rover in his youth, and became king about 996. He is said to have established Christianity in his kingdom. Died in 1000. See ToLLSTORp, " Norske Konungen Olof," etc., 1847. Olaf or Olaus II., called the Saint, obtained the throne of Norway about 1 01 8. He waged war against Canute, King of Denmark. Died in 1030. See Hagerup, "Om Oluf den Hellige," 1805. Olaf or Olaus III. became King of Norway about 1068. He ordered that one slave should be liberated in each district every year, and made other reforms. Died in 1093. Olaf IV., born in 1098, was a son of Magnus III. of Norway. Died in 11 16. Olaf v., a son of Haquin VII., King of Norway, was born in 1371, and succeeded his father in 1380. Died in 1387. Olafsen, o'laf-sen, (Eggert,) a naturalist of Iceland, born in 1721. He published, among other treatises, " A Historical Account of the Nature and Constitution of Iceland," and poems in Latin and Danish. Died about 1770. Olahus or Olaus, o-la'us, (Nicolas,) a learned Hun- garian ])relate, born at Hermannstadt in 1493, rose to be chancellor, and Archbishop of Strigonia, (1552,) He wrote a treatise " On the Origin of the Hungarians," and a "History of Attila." Died in 1568. Olaus. See Olaf. Olaus Magnus. See Magnus, (Olaus.) Olavides, o-ia-vee'D§s, or Olavide, o-lJ-vee'D^, [Fr. Oi.AViD^, o'lt've'da',] (Pablo Antonio Jos^,) Count of Pilos, was born at Lima, in South America, about 1725. He was appointed intendant-general of Andalusia, and colonized a part of the Sierra Morena, by introducing into it an agricultural and manufacturing population. He was subsequently imprisoned for a time in the Inquisition on a charge of heresy, but, having made his escape, he took refuge in France. He died in Spain in 1803, leaving a religious work, entitled "Triumph of the Gospel," ("El Evangelio en Triunfo.") See L. Brightweli., "By-Paths of Biography ;" J. F. Bour- GoiNG, "Tableau de I'Espagne moderne," 1807; A. Hennings, "Olavides," 1779; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Olbers, oKbers, (Heinrich Wilhelm Mathias,) an eminent German astronomer and physician, born at Arbergen, near Bremen, in October, 1758. He studied medicine at Gottingen, and practised at Bremen, where he constructed a private observatory. He gained dis- tinction by his observations on the comet of 1779, and discovered an improved method of calculating the orbits of comets. He published about 1797 a treatise on this method, which is considered a very important contribu- tion to astronomy. In March, 1802, Olbers discovered a new asteroid, which he named Pallas, the orbit of which is nearly as distant from the sun as that of Ceres. He adopted the hypothesis that Ceres and Pallas were frag- ments of a large planet which had been broken by an internal convulsion, and predicted that other asteroids would be found. In 1804 Harding discovered Juno, and in March, 1807, Olbers discovered the fourth asteroid, which he named Vesta. The mean distance of their orbits from the sun is nearly the same as that of the orbits of Ceres and Pallas. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1804. In 181 5 he discovered a comet which is called by his name, and which performs a revolution in about seventy-four years. Among the pupils of Olbers are Bessel and Gauss. He died at Bremen in 1840. See De Zach, " Allgemeine geographischen Ephemeiiden ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Oldcastle. See Cobham, Lord. Oldenburg, oKden-booRG^ House of, an ancient and noble family, from which the Emperors of Russia, the Kings of Denmark, and one of the dynasties of Sweden are descended. Theodoric ( Dietrich ) of Oldenburg obtained by marriage Sleswick and Holstein. Died about 1440. His son Christian became King of Denmark in 1448, and King of Sweden in 1458. Adolf. a grandson of Christian, was the founder of the house of Holstein-Gottorp, and an ancestor of the present imperial family of Russia. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; \ h, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon: \ OLDENBURG 1701 OLIER Old'en-burg, (Henry,) a learned German writer, born at Bremen about 1626. Having settled in England, he acquired the friendship of Milton and Robert Boyle, with whom he afterwards corresponded. On the forma- tion of the Royal vSociety, in 1662, he was appointed one of its secretaries. He published the "Transactions" of the Society from 1664 to 1677, and was the author of several political and theological works. He sometimes signed his name Grubendol. Died about 1678. See Martin, " Biographia Philosophica." Oldenburger, oKden-booR''ger, (Philipp Andreas,) a German jurist and publicist, born in Brunswick or in the duchy of Celle. He was professor of public law at Geneva, and published several works, among which is "Pandects Juris publici Germanici," (1670.) Died in 1678. Oldendorp, oKden-doRp', (Johann,) a German jurist, born at Hamburg about 1480. He published, besides other works, " An Introduction to the Law of Nature and of Nations," {" Isagoge seu Introductio Juris Naturae Gentium et Civilis," 1549.) Died in 1567. Oldermann, oKder-min, (Johann,) a German scholar and writer, born in Saxony about 1686. He was pro- fessor of Greek at Helmstedt. Died in 1723. Old'field, (Anne,) a celebrated English actress, born in London in 1683. She excelled both in tragedy and comedy, and her talents are eulogized in the "Tatler." Died in 1730. See " Life of Anne Oldfield," London, 1731 ; Baker, " Biographia Dramatica." Oldham, old'am, (Hugh,) an English bishop, born probably near Manchester, was a patron of learning. He became Bishop of Exeter in 1504. He founded a free school at Manchester, and added to the endowment of Corj^us Christi College, Oxford. Died in 1519. Oldham, (John,) an English satirical poet, born in Gloucestershire in 1653. He was a friend of Dryden, who has eulogized him in some of his verses. He wrote " Pindaric Odes," and " Four Satires against the Jestn'ts," and made translations from Juvenal. " His poems," says Hallam, " are spirited and pointed, and he ranks perhaps next to Dryden." Died in 1683. See E. Thompson, "Life of John Oldham," and a Memoir, by RoBEKT Bell, prefixed to Oldham's Poems, 1854. Old'is-wprth, (William,) an English poet and trans- lator, born in the seventeenth century, was one of the first writers for the "Examiner." He translated the Odes of Horace into verse, and wrote a few poems, and other works, among which is " Timothy and Philotheus," (3 vols., 1709-10.) Died in 1734. Old-mix'on, (John,) an English historical and po- litical writer, born in Somersetshire in 1673. E[e wrote a "Critical History of England," (3 vols., 1730-39,) a " History of the Stuarts," and other works of little merit, in which he manifests a decided partiality to the Whigs. In his " Prose Essay on Criticism" he attacked Pope, who took revenge in the " Dunciad." Died in 1742. See CiBBER, "Lives of the Poets;" Baker, "Biographia Dra- matica." Oldoini, ol-do-ee'nee, (Agostino,) an Italian biogra- pher, born at La Spezia in 1612. He wrote memoirs of several popes, cardinals, etc. Died after 1680. Oldys, oKdis or oldz, (William,) an English biogra- pher and bibliographer, born about 1690. He wrote a " Life of Sir Walter Raleigh," prefixed to Raleigh's " His- tory of the World," (1738,) and a number of Wographies in the " Biographia Britannica," under the signature " G." He also published " The British Librarian, exhibiting a Compendious View of all Unpublished and Valuable Books," (1737,) which is esteemed for its accuracy. Died in 1761. See Chalmers, "Biographical Dictionary." Olearius, o-lk-S^re-us, or Olschlager, oKshla^ger, (Adam,) a distinguished German writer and traveller, born at Aschersleben about 1600, was court mathema- tician and librarian to the Duke of Holstein. In 1633 he accompanied an embassy sent by the Duke of Hol- stein to Russia, and some years after visited Persia in the same capacity. After his return he published, in 1639, a very interesting account of his travels in the East He also translated from the Persian the " Rose-Garden" of Saadee, (Sadi.) Died in 167 1. See Nic^RON, "Memoires;" Mollek, "Cimbria Literata;" " Noiivelle Biograpliie Generale." Olearius, (Gottfried,) a German Lutheran divine, born at Halle in 1604. He preached in his native city, and published several works on theology. Died in 1685. Olearius, (Gottfried,) a theologian and philosopher, born at Leipsic in 1672, was a grandson of the preceding. He was professor of theology at Leipsic. Among his works is a " Logical Analysis of the Epistle to the He- brews," (1706.) Died in 171 5. Olearius, (Johann,) a German divine, born in 1639, was professor of theology at Leipsic. He wrote a num- ber of theological treatises, and was for a time editor of the "Acta Eruditorum." Died in 1713. He was a son of Gottfried, noticed above, (1604-85.) Olearius, (Johann Christoph,) a German historian and numismatist, born at Halle in 1668, was a son of Johann Gottfried. He became Protestant Bishop at Arm- stadt in 1736. He wrote numerous-works. Died in 1747. See J. C. Otto, " In Exsequias Olearii," 1747 ; Ersch und Gru- ber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." Olearius, (Johann Gottfried,) born at Halle in 1635, was a brother of Johann, noticed above. He was pastor at Halle, and author of a work entitled "Abacus Patrologicus," (1673.) Died in 1711. O'Leary, o-lee^re, (Arthur,) an Irish Catholic clergy- man, born at Cork in 1729, was the author of several controversial works. Died in 1802. Oleaster, o-li-ls'ter, (Jerome,) a Portuguese monk and linguist, born at Lisbon. He was versed in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, and wrote a " Commentary on Isaiah," (1623.) Died in 1563. O'leg, (Russ. pron. o-l§g' or o-1§k',] Prince of Russia, was a native of Scandinavia, from which he emigrated about 862 A.D. He was a relative of Rurik, who, dying in 879, appointed Oleg guardian of his minor son, Igor. Oleg usurped the sovereignty, and extended his do- minions by conquest. Died in 912. See Karamzin, "History of the Russian Empire." O'len, [Gr. 'Qlrjv,'] a mythical Grecian bard, who is said to have been the most ancient lyric poet of that nation, and was called a prophet of Apollo, whose wor- ship he introduced into Delos. He was supposed to have been born in Lycia, and to have lived before the time of Orpheus. Olenschlager, von, fon o'len-shlS^ger, (Johann Daniel,) a German publicist, born at Frankfort in 1711. He wrote on the public law of the German empire. Died in 1778. Oleszczynski, o-l^sh-chins'kee, (Antony,) a Polish engraver, born in Lublin in 1796. He studied and worked in Paris. Among his subjects are portraits of eminent Poles. Olevianus, o-li-ve-^'nus, (Kaspar,) one of the early Reformers, was born in Treves, August 10, 1536. He studied law at Paris and theology at Geneva, and adopted the views of Calvin. He afterwards resided successively at Treves, Heidelberg, and Herborn. He published sev- eral theological works, including sermons explanatory of Paul's Epistles. Died in March, 1587. See Pierer, " Universal-Lexikon." Ol'ga, Saint, a Russian lady, was married about 903 A.D. to Igor, a son of Rurik, Prince of Russia. On the death of Igor (945) she became regent She afterwards adopted the Christian religion. Died in 969. Oli. See Olid. Olid, de, da o-1^d', or Oli, o-lee', (Crlstoval,) a Spanish officer, born about 1492. He served under Cortez in the conquest of Mexico, (1519-21,) and after- wards attempted to make himself independent. He was taken prisoner by the soldiers of Cortez, and executed in Honduras in 1524. See Prescott, "Conquest of Mexico;" Oviedo, " Historia d« las Indias." Olier, o'lej3', (Jean Jacques,) a French ecclesiastic and reformer, born in Paris in 1608. He founded the congregation of Saint-Sulpice, and several charitable institutions. He also formed a society for the preven- « as 4; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, yl, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^=See Explanations, p. 23.) OLIN 1702 OLIVIER tion of duels, and wrote a number of devotional works. Died in 1657. See GiRY, "Vie de M. Olier," 1687; Nagot, "Vie de M. Olier," iSi8; Dk Bketonvili.iers, "Memoires siir M. Olier," 2 vols., 1841 ; " Noiivelle Bioj^raphie Geiieiale." O'lin, (STF.rHKN,) D.D., LL.D.,an American Method- ist divine and pulpit orator, born at Leicester, Vermont, in 1797, became president of the Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut. He died in 1851, leaving a collection of sermons, "Travels in the East," "Greece and the Golden Horn," etc. His "Life and Letters" were published in 1853. See the " North American Review" for October, 1843, (by Edward Robinson.) Ol'i-phant, (Lawrence,) an English traveller and writer of books of travel, was born in 1832. He pub- lished in 1853 "The Russian Shores of the Black Sea," which was received with favour. He afterwards travelled in North America and the Caucasus, and published several books, one of which is called "Minnesota." About 1857 he went to China as secretary of Lord Elgin. He wrote a "Narrative of the Earl of Elgin's Mission to China and Japan," (1859.) Ol'i-phant, (Margaret,) a Scottish authoress, born about 1820. She published several popular novels, among which are "Harry Muir" and "Zaidee," also a "Life of Edward Irving." See the " British Quarterly Review" for April, 1869. Oliva, o-lee'vS, ( Alessandro,) an Italian cardinal and pulpit orator, born in 1408, preached at Rome, Naples, and Venice. Died in 1463. Oliva, (Giovanni,) an Italian antiquary, born at Rovigo in 1689, was librarian to Cardinal de Rohan. He wrote several treatises on medals and on Roman antiquities. Died in 1757. Oliva, de, da o-lee^S,, (Fernan Perez,) a Spanish scholar and writer, born at Cordova in 1497, was one of the founders of the University of Salamanca, (1528,) of which he subsequently became rector. He died about 1530, having previously been appointed by Charles V. preceptor to his son Philip. He was the author of a " Dialogue on the Dignity of Man," and other prose essays, which are esteemed the first models of a pure and classical style in the Spanish language. He was not, however, according to Ticknor, a man of genius in the true sense of this word. His works, including a number of poems and dramas, were published by his nephew, Ambrosio de Morales, (1586.) See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova ;" Ticknor, " His- tory of Spanish Literature." Olivares, de, da o-le-v§,'r§s, (Enrique de Guzman — di gooth-min',) second Count, a vSpanish general, born in 1530. He took part in the battle of Saint-Quentin, in 1558, and became major-domo of Philip II. in 1562. He was afterwards Viceroy of Naples. Died in 1599. See Hkrrera, " Historia general." Olivares, de, or Olivarez, o-le-vi'rgth, (Gaspar de Guzman,) Duke of San Lucar de Barrameda, a cele- brated Spanish statesman, was born at Rome in 1587. The heir of a wealthy family, he early obtained distinc- tion at the court of Philip HI., and so thoroughly in- sinuated himself into the favour of his son that, on the accession of the latter as Philip IV., in 1621, Olivares soon found himself in possession of the most important offices of the kingdom. He was appointed successively first minister of state, grand chancellor of the Indies, treasurer-general of Aragon, captain-general of the cavalry, and Governor of Guipuscoa. I)uring his ad- ministration Spain carried on war against France and the Netherlands, and Olivares found in Richelieu an adversary who was more than his equal. The Spanish armies suffered reverses, and the prosperity of the king- dom declined. He was dismissed from power in 1643, and died in 1645. See CoMTE DR LA RoccA, " Histoire du Minist^re du Comte-Duc d'Olivares," 167.:;: Mai.vezzi, " Ritratto de' Conte-Duca di San Lucar," 1636; " Caduta del Conte d'Olivares," Lyons, 1644; "Life of C«iunt Olivares," London, 1836. Olivarez. See Olivares. Olive, o'l^v', (Jean Pierre,) a French monk and writer, born at Serignan in 1247. He was zealous for the enforcement of strict monastic discipline. After his death he was condemned as a heretic by a council held in 1312, and by Pope John XXII. Died in 1298. See " Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale." Olivecrantz, o-lee'veh-kRants^ ? (Johan Paulin,) a Swedish statesman and I.atin poet, born at Strengnas in 1633. He was appointed Governor of Revel in 1680, and supreme judge of Gothland. He gained the favour of Queen Christina, who corresponded with him after her abdication. Died in 1707. Ol'i-ver, (Andrew,) an American magistrate, born in 1707, was appointed in 1770 lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts. Having become obnoxious to the colo- nists by favouring the designs of the British government, they petitioned for his removal, as well as for that of his brother-in-law, Governor Hutchinson. Died in 1774. Oliver, (Daniel,) M.D., LL.D., an American phy- sician and scholar, born in Massachusetts in 1787, published " First Lines of Physiology." Died in 1842. OPi-ver, (George,) D.D., an English antiquary and writer, born about 1782. He published several works on Freemasonry. Died in 1867. Oliver, (Isaac,) an eminent English artist, born in 1556, excelled in miniature-painting. Among his mas- ter-pieces are portraits of Mary Queen of Scots, Queen Elizabeth, and Sir Philip Sidney. Died in 161 7. His son Peter, born about 1600, became equally celebrated for his portraits, and also produced a number of historical pictures. Died about 1654 or 1664. See Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting." Oliver, (Peter,) LL.D., an American jurist, brother of Andrew, noticed above, was born in 1 7 13, and gradu- ated at Harvard College. He was appointed chief justice of Massachusetts. Died in 1791. Oliver, (William,) of Bath, an English physician, wrote on the Bath mineral waters. Died in 1764. Oliver of Malmesbury, an English monk and able mathematician of the eleventh century. His works, if he wrote any, are lost. Olivet, d', do'le'vi', (Joseph Thoulier,) Akbe, a celebrated French critic and scholar, born at Salins in April, 1682. He entered the order of Jesuits at an early age, but he renounced it about 1 7 14. He was elected to the French Academy in 1723, and subsequently visited England, where he made the acquaintance of Pope. He was the author of a "Treatise on French Prosody," " which," says Voltaire, " will subsist as long as the lan- guage," and " Essays on Grammar," ( 1 732.) He also wrote a continuation of the " History of the French Academy," begim by Pellisson, and made excellent translations of Cicero's " De Natura Deorum" and his " Orations against Catiline," and of the " Philippics" of Demosthenes. His edition of Ciceio's works (9 vols. 4to, 1742) is esteemed one of the best that has appeared. The Abbe d'Olivet was an intimate friend of Boileau and Voltaire, the latter of whom he assisted and directed in his studies. Died in 1768. See Mairet, "filoge historique de I'Abbe d'Olivet," 1839; D'Alembert, " Histoire des Menibres de I'Academie Francaise ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Olivetan, o'lev'tSN', (Pierre Robert,) a French Protestant, born at Noyon in the fifteenth century, is supposed to have been the first of his countrymen who translated the Bible from the original Greek and Hebrew. It is asserted, however, by some writers that he only retouched the version of Lefevre d'Etaples. This work was first published in 1535, and is said to have been revised by Calvin, who was a relative of Olivetan. Died in 1538. See Senebier, " Histoire litteraire de Geneve." Oliveyra, o-le-va^-r^, (Francisco Xavier,) a Por- tuguese gentleman.^was born at Lisbon in 1702. Being sent as secretary of the embassy to Vienna in 1732, he was converted to Protestantism. He published a " Dis- course to his Countrymen on the Earthquake at Lisbon," (1756,) and "Familiar Letters." Died in 1783. Olivier, o'le've-^', (Claude Mathieu,) a French litterateur, was bonT'at Marseilles in 1701. He was one of the founders of the University of Marseilles. As counsellor to the Parliament of Paris, he gained a great a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, f^t; mSt; ndt; good; moon; OLIVIER 1703 OLTMPUS reputation as a pleader. He published a " Dissertation on the Critias of Plato," and a " History of Philip, King of Macedon," (2 vols., 1740.) Died in 1736. Olivier, (FkA.\gois,) a French judge and statesman, born in Paris in 1497. He became chancellor of France in 1545. Died in 1560. Olivier, (Guillalime Antoine,) an eminent French naturalist, born near Toulon in 1756. In 1792 he accom- panied Bruguiere on a scientific expedition to Persia and Turkey, where they made a valuable collection of objects in natural history. He was chosen a member of the Institute in 1800. He published a " Dictionary of the Natural History of Insects, Butterflies, Crustaceans," etc., (7 vols., 1789-1825,) "Travels in the Ottoman Empire, Egypt," etc., (6 vols., 1801,) and several other works. Died in 1814. See CuviER, " Jfiloges historiques ;" Silvestre, " Notice sur G. A. Olivier," 1815. Olivier, o'leVe-a', (Juste Daniel,) a Swiss poet, born in the cantoiT'of Vaud in 1807. He became a resident of Paris in 1842, and wrote, besides other poems, "Chansons lointaines," (1847.) Olivier, (Nicolas Th^:odore,) a French prelate, born in Paris in 1798. He was appointed Bishop of Evreux in 1841. Died in 1854. See A. DE BoucLON, " Histoire de Monseigneur Olivier," 1855. Olivier, (S6raphin,) a French cardinal, born at Lyons in 1538, was auditor de rota at Rome for many years. Died in 1609. Olivier, d', do'le've-i', (Gabriel Raimond Jean de Dieu FKANgois,) a F^ich jurist, born at Carpentras in 1753. He published many legal works. Died in 1823. Olivieri, o-le-ve-a'ree, (Pietro Paulo,) an Italian architect and sculptor, born at Rome in 1551 ; died in 1599- Olivieri degli Abbati, o-le-ve-a'ree dil'yee Sb-b^'- tee, (Annibale,) an Italian antiquary, born at Pesaro in 1708. He published, besides other works, " Marmora Pisaurensia Notis illustrata," (1737.) Died in 1789. See Marignoni, " Elogio di A. Olivieri," 1789. OUivier, o'le've-i', (Charles Prosper,) a French medical writer, boriT^at Angers in 1796; died in Paris in 1845. Ollivier, (D^MOSTHfeNE,) a French democrat, born at Toulon in 1799, was the father of Emile, noticed be- low. He founded at Marseilles in 183 1 a journal called " Le Peuple Souverain," and was elected to the Con- stituent Assembly in 1848. He was banished about De- cember, 1851. Died in 1869. Ollivier, (Emile,) a French advocate and orator, born at Marseilles in 1825. He practised law with success in Paris, and was elected to the legislative body by the voters of that city in 1857. He was re-elected in 1863. He acted with the Liberal party for many years, but became in 1869 an adherent of Napoleon, who in De- cember of that year appointed him prime minister, and requested him "to name persons who will, associated with yourself, form a homogeneous cabinet, faithfully representing the legislative majority." He took the position of minister of justice in the new cabinet formed (January 2, 1870) partly of the leaders of the Left Centre and partly of those of the Right Centre, The formation of this coalition ministry was regarded as an important event, and as the beginning of a constitutional regime. The Corps Legislatif, after an excited debate, adopted a resolution of confidence in the minister, April 5, 1870, by a vote of 227 to 43. The most liberal members of the cabinet resigned about the 1st of May, 1870; but the policy of Napoleon and Ollivier was approved by a majority of the popular votes, May 8. Ollivier was elected to the French Academy in April, 1870. He resigned the olifice of prime minister, August 9, 1870. Ollivier, (FRAxgois Antoine Joseph,) a French judge, born at Loriol in 1762 ; died in 1839. Ollivier, (Jules,) an antiquary, born at Valence in 1804, was a son of the preceding. He wrote on the antiquities of Dauphine. Died in 1841. Olmo, del, dl\ oVmo, (Jos6 Vincent,) a Spanish antiquary, born at Valencia in 1611. He wrote, besides other works, a curious account of a grand auto de fe of 1680. Died in 1696. Olmutz, von, fon oKmoots, (Wenzel,) a German engraver and designer, flourished about 1500. Olmsted, Sm'sted or ilm'sted, (Denison,) LL.D., an American chemist and geologist, born at East Hartford, Connecticut, in 1791. He graduated at Yale College, and became in 181 7 professor of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology in the University of North Carolina. He made the first geological survey of that State. In 1825 he obtained the chair of mathematics and natural phi- losophy at Yale College. He was the author of a "School Philosophy," "Rudiments of Natural Philoso- phy and Astronomy," (1842,) "Letters on Astronomy," and other valuable text-books. Died in 1859. Olmsted, (Frederick Law,) an American agricul- tural writer and architect, born at Hartford, Connecticut, in 1822. He visited England in 1850, and published, after his return, " Walks and Talks of an American Farmer in England," (1852.) He has also written "A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States, with Remarks on their Economy," (1856,) and "A Journey through Texas," etc., (1857.) In 1857 Mr. Olmsted was ap- pointed chief engineer and architect of the New York Central Park. Olof. See Olaf. Olozaga, ol-o-tha'gl, (Don Salustiano,) a Spanish statesman, born at Logrono about 1803. He was the chief of the monarchical opposition after the fall of Mendizabal in 1836, and chairman or reporter of the committee on the constitution in 1837. After the re- moval of Lopez, in 1843, commissioned to form a new cabinet ; but he was soon driven from power by Narvaez. He was elected in 1855 a deputy to the Cortes, in which he voted with the Progresistas. He was appointed president of the council of state in April, 1870. Olschlager. See Olearius. Olshausen, ols'how'zen, (Hermann,) a German Prot- estant theologian, born at Oldeslohe in 1796. In 1827 he was appointed professor of theology at Konigsberg. He published a "Biblical Commentary on all the New Testament," (4 vols,, 1830-40,) Vvhich has been highly commended, and other religious treatises. Died at Erlangen in 1839. Olshausen, (Justus,) a German Orientalist, born at • Holstein in 1800, He was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen in 1845, and be- came professor of Oriental languages at Konigsberg in 1853. He published a work entitled "The Pehlevi Legends on the Coins of the Last Sassanides," (1843,) Olshausen, (Theodor,) a brother of the preceding, was born at Gliickstadt in 1802. In 1830 he founded at Kiel a patriotic journal, entitled the " Correspondenz- blatt," in which he advocated the independence of Hol- stein. In 1848 he was a deputy to the Assembly, and in 1849 established the "North German Free Press" at Hamburg, He was exiled in 1 85 1 by the Danish gov- ernment to America. Oltmanns, olt'mSns, (Jabbo,) a German geometer, born at Wittniund in 1783. He wrote the astronomical part of Humboldt's "Travels in America," (1808-10.) Died in Berlin in 1833. Olug- (or Oloog-) Beg, o'loog b§g, written also Ooloogh-, Oulough-, and Ulugh-Beg, (Meer'za Mo- ham'med,) an eminent Mongol astronomer, a grandson of Tamerlane, and King- of Transoxana, was born in 1394. He began to reign in 1446, and was killed by his son in 1459. O-lyb'ri-us, (Anicius,) a Roman emperor. He be- came consul in 464 a,d,, and married Placidia, the widow of Valentinian III. Through the influence of Genseric or Ricimer, he succeeded Anthemius, who was killed in 472. He died in the same year. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Olympe. See Olympus. O-lym'pi-as, [Gr, '0/lu/z7rfaf,] Queen of Macedon, was a daughter of Neoptolemus, King of Epirus, She was married about 357 B.C. to Philip II, of Macedon, and became the mother of Alexander the Great. She is said to have been a woman of violent temper. Philip soon became alienated from her, and divorced her. After the accession of her son Alexander, she put to death € as /^■; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; N» nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) OLTMPIODORE 1704 OMETTADES Cleopatra, the second wife of Philip. She was put to death by Cassander in 316 B.C. See Plutarch, " Vita Alexandri." Olympiodore. See Olympiodorus. O-lym-pi-o-do'rus, [Gr. 'OAy/irrwcJwpof ; Fr, Olym- PIODORK, o'liN'pe'o'doR',] a Greek historian, born at Thebes, in Egypt, wrote a " Chronicle" of his time, from 407 to 425 A.D., being a continuation of that of Eunapius. There are fragments of this work extant in the '* Myrio- biblon" of Photius. See Fabkicius, " Bibliotheca Grzeca." Olympiodorus II., called the Younger, a Peripa- tetic philosopher, supposed to have flourished in the sixth century, was a native of Alexandria. His chief work is a Commentary on the " Meteorologica" of Aristotle. Olympiodorus III., a Platonic philosopher, born in Alexandria, is said to have lived in the sixth century. He wrote commentaries on the " Phaedon," the " Phile- ' bus," the " Gorgias," and the " First Alcibiades" of Plato ; also a " Life of Plato." As an interpreter of Plato he is much esteemed. Olympiodorus, a Greek commentator on the Scrip- tures, was a deacon of Alexandria, and lived probably in the first half of the sixth century. Olympus, (the habitation of the Grecian gods.) See Zeus. O-lym'pus, [Gr. 'O/Lv/zTrof ; Fr. Olympe, o'13.mp',] a celebrated Greek or Phrygian musician, supposed to have lived about 650 B.C. He naturalized in Greece the music of the flute, and invented the system or genus of music called enharmonic. See MuLLER, "History of Greek Literature;" Plutarch, " De Musica." Olzofski or Olzowski, ol-zofskee, (Andrew^,) a Polish prelate, born about 1618. He wrote several political treatises. After the election of Sobieski (1674) he was appointed Archbishop of Gnesen and Primate of Poland. Died in 1678. Omaiadae. See Omeyyades. Omaides. See Omeyyades. Omajjaden. See Omeyyades. Omajjah or Omajja. See Omeyyah. Omalius d'Halloy, d', do^mt'le'iis' dt'lwl', (Jean Baptiste Julien,) a Belgian geologist, born at Liege in 1783. He published several works on geology. O'mar (or O'mer) I., written also Oomur or Umar, do'mar,' ( Aboo-Haifsah-Ibn-ool-Khatab or Abu- Hafsah-Ibnul-Khattab, i'boo hifsah ib'ndol K^t- tab',) the second caliph or successor of Mohammed the Prophet, was a cousin in the third degree to Abdallah, the father of that legislator. After he had attempted to kill Mohammed, Omar was converted to Islamism, about 615 a.d. He succeeded Aboo-Bekr in the year 634. His army took Damascus in 635, defeated the Greeks at Yar- mook or Yermuk, and besieged Jerusalem. This city in 637 or 638 was surrendered to Omar, who treated the Christians with great lenity. On the site of Solomon's temple he built the magnificent mosque which bears his name. About 638 he completed the conquest of Syria and of Persia, (see Yezdejerd,) and founded the city of Koofah. Amroo, one of Omar's generals, subdued Egypt in 640 or 641, and consumed by fire the great library at Alexandria, after the caliph had decided, as we are told, that "if the books accord with the Koran, they are un- necessary ; and if they are contrary to the Koran, they are pernicious, and should be destroyed." He was assas- sinated by a Persian slave, Firooz, in his capital, Medina, in 644 A.D., at the age of sixty-three, and was succeeeded by Othman. Omar is praised for wisdom, justice, and moderation, and is said to have contributed more to the progress of his religion than Mohammed himself. His name is greatly venerated by the orthodox sect of Mos- lems, called Sunnites. See Stmon Ocki.ey, " History of the Saracens," 1708-18: Gib- bon, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," vol. ix. ; Irvinc;, "Mahomet and his Successors;" Weil, " Ge- schichte der Khalifen," vol. i. chap. ii. ; Aroolfrda, "Annates Moslemici ;" O. von Platen, " Geschichte der Todtung des Cha- lifen Omar;" " Nonvelle P>ioe;raphie Generale." Omar (or Omer) II., the eighth caliph of the Omeyyade dynasty, was the son of Abd-el-Azeez, (Abdelaziz,) and the nephew of Abd-el-Maltk. He was also a great-grand- son of Omar I., whom he resembled in his virtues. He succeeded his cousin Solyman in 717 A.D. He suppressed the maledictions which in former reigns were pronounced in the mosques against the descendants of Alee. The princes of his own race, fearing that he should bequeath the empire to one of the race of Alee, poisoned him in 720 A.D. Omar, a Moorish physician, born at Cordova in 990 A.D., was celebrated for his skill in surgery, and was also a profound mathematician. Died in 1080. Omar, an eminent physician, astronomer, and mathe- matician, supposed to have been a native of Hadramaut, in Arabia. He settled in Spain, where he died in 1071. Omar, (Al-Mutawakkel-Billah, ai mdo-ii-wak^kel bli'lah,) the last king of Badajoz of the Beni-al- Aftas, began his reign in 1082 A.D. In conjunction with his ally, Yoosuf, King of Morocco, he gained a signal victory over the Christian army at Zalaca in 1086 A.D. Yoosuf soon after made war upon Omar, took him prisoner, and had him put to death about 1090, after having promised to spare his life. Omar-Ibn-Hafsoon, (or -Hafssun,) o'mar ib'n hM'- soon', a famous Moorish chieftain, was a native of Ronda, in Spain. In 859 A.D. he headed a rebel army, with which he laid waste the kingdom of Cordova and other parts of the empire. After having for a long time main- tained himself against Mohammed, King of Cordova, he was totally defeated by him at Aybar in 882, and died in 883 A.D. O'mar (or O'mer) Pasha, (pl'shd^) Dey of Algiers, began to reign in April, 1815, after a revolution in which his predecessor had been killed. In 1816 the English admiral Exmouth, after failing in his efforts to procure the abolition of slavery in Algiers by negotiation, bombarded that city with success. Omar was forced to submit to the treaty dictated by the victor. In September, 1817, he was killed by his own mutinous troops. Omar (or Omer) Pasha, o'mer pi'shl', (Michael Lat'tas,) a Turkish commander, born in Croatia about 1805. About 1828 he removed to Turkey, changed his name to Omer, and adopted the Moslem religion. He became a colonel in the army in 1839, and a pasha about 1845. suppressed a revolt in Bosnia in 1850-51. When the Crimean war broke out, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Turkish army. He defeated the Russians at Oltenitza, November, 1853, and at Kalafat in 1854. In the early part of 1855 he led an army to the Crimea and formed a junction with the Anglo-French army at Sebastopol. In 1868 he suppressed a formidable insurrection in Crete. Died in 187 1. O'Meara, o-ma'ra, (Barry Edward,) the favourite physician of Napoleon at Saint Helena, was born in Ire- land about 1780. Being on board the Bellerophon when the emperor was made prisoner, the latter requested that O'Meara might accompany him as his surgeon. He re- mained in Saint Helena till 181 8, when he was recalled. In 1822 he published his " Napoleon in Exile; or, A Voice from Saint Helena," which had great popularity, and, though not entirely impartial, it is esteemed a valu- able contribution to Napoleon's history. Died in 1836. See La.s Casas, "Memorial de Sainte-Helene "Monthly Re- view" for July, 1822. Omeiadae. See Omeyyades. Omer. See Omar. Omero, the Italian for Homer, which see. Omeyyades or Omeyyads, o-ma'yadz, [Fr. pron. o'mi'ytd',] sing. Omeyyade or Omeiiade, o-ma'yad ; written less correctly Ommaiades and Ommyiades, [Ger. Omejjaden, o-mi-y^'den, or Om.\tJaden, o-mi- yl'den ; Lat. Omei'ad.^ or Omai'iad.^,] the name of a famous dynasty of caliphs, founded (660 A.D.) by Moaweeyeh, the great-grandson of Omeyyah, (or Umey- yah,) who was cousin-german to Abd-el-Moot^-ilib, the grandfather of Mohammed ; whence the Omeyyade princes are commonly styled " Benee- (Beni-) Omeyyah," {i.e. " Sons, or descendants, of Omeyyah.") The imme- diate successors of Moaweeyeh continued to reign at Damascus until 749 A.D., when their power was over- thrown, and all the princes of the house of Omeyyah, (it is said,) except two, were put to death by order of a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, \\, y, short; e, i, o, obscure; fir, f^ll, fit; m§t; nflt; good; moou: OMETTAH 1705 OORT Abool-Abbas-Abdallah, (surnamed As-Seffah, or "the shedder of blood,") the founder of the new dynasty of Abbassides. Of the two Omeyyade princes who escaped the vengeance of As-Seffah, one fled to a remote part of Arabia; the other, named Abd-er-Rahman-I bn-Moa- weeyeh, went first to Egypt, thence to Spain, and estab- lished at Cordova (756 a.d.) a dynasty which was destined to rival in splendour and magnificence that of the Ab- basside caliphs in the East. The power and glory of the Benee-Omeyyah in Spain culminated in the reign of Abd-er-Rahman I., who was the first of his line who assumed the title of caliph ; but they began soon after to decline, and they may be said to have terminated with the reign of Hisham II., in 1013. See Al-Makkari, " History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain," translated by Gayangos, 2 vols. 4to, London, 1840-43; Hammer Pi'RGSTALL, " Literaturgeschichte der Araber." Omeyyah, o-ma'yah, written also Omeyyeh, Om- maya, Umeyyah, and in various other modes, was a cousin of Mohammed's grandfather, Abd-el-Mo6t'alib. His great-grandson, Moaweeyeh, was the first caliph of the illustrious dynasty of the Benee-Omeyyah. (See Omeyyades.) Ommaides. See Omeyyades. Ommajjaden, (more correctly, Omajjaden.) See Omeyyades. Ommaya. See Omeyyah. Ommeganck, om'meh-gSnk^, (Balthasar Paul,) a distinguished landscape-painter, born at Antwerp in 1755. He also excelled in painting animals, particularly sheep. He was a corresponding member of the Academy of Fine Arts in Paris, and chevalier of the order of the Belgic Lion. Died in 1826. See A. VoisiN, " filoge du Peintre B. P. Ommeganck," 1826. Ommiades or Ommiadae. See Omeyyades. Ommiyades or Ommyiades. See Omeyyades. Ommiyah. See Omeyyah. Om'pha-le, [Gr. '0//^«/l77,] a queen of Lydia, cele- brated for her connection with the story of Hercules. She is said to have been mistress of the kingdom after the death of Tmolus, her husband. According to the fable, Hercules sold himself as a slave to Omphale, assumed the female attire, and assisted her servants in spinning. Om'ri, [Heb. "''^^J^'>] King of Israel, began to reign about 930 R.C. He reigned eleven years, and founded the capital city of Samaria. He was succeeded by his son Ahab. See L Kings xvi. Onar. See Norvl O-na'tas, [Gr. 'Ovarac,] an eminent Greek sculptor and ]>ainter, born at ^gina, was the son of Micon, and flourished about 460 B.C. Among his best works were statues of Apollo, Hercules, and Mercury, and a picture of the expedition of the Argives against Thebes. His skill as a sculptor is highly extolled by Pausanias. See K. O. MuLLEK, " Handbuch der Archaeologie der Kunst." Ondegardo, de, di on-di gak'do. (Polo,) a Spanish Jesuit and historian of the sixteenth century, was the author of historical memoirs of Peru, entitled " Rela- ciones," which are still in manuscript. See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. 1. book i. On'der-donk, (Benjamin T.,) born in the city of New York in 1791, became Episcopal Bishop of Eastern New York about 1830, and was suspended for disgraceful conduct in 1845. Died in 1861. O'Neall, o-neeK, (John Belton,) LL.D., an Ameri- can jurist, born near Bush River, South Carolina, in 1793, rose through various offices to be chief justice of his native State. He became in 1841 president of the State Temperance Society. He has written "Biographi- cal Sketches of the Bench and Bar of South Carolina," and other works. O'Neil, o-neel', (Henry,) an English historical and genre painter, born al)out 1818. Among his works are " By the Rivers of Babylon," " A Scene from Hamlet," "Eastward Ho ! August, 1857," " Home Again ! 1858," and " Mary Stuart's Farewell to France." Onesicrite. See ONKsicRrrus. On-e-sic'rI-tus, (Gr. 'OvrjolnptToc ; Fr. On^stcrite, o'ni^ze^kket',] a Greek historian, lived about 350-330 1 B.C., and was a disciple of Diogenes the Cynic. He fol* lowed Alexander the Great in his expedition to Asia, and was chief pilot of the fleet which descended the Indus. He wrote a " History of Alexander," which is lost. He was censured by Aulus Gellius and other ancient critics for mixing fables with his narrative. See Vossius, "De Historicis Grzecis ;" Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Suidas, " Onesicritus." Ongaro, on-gS'ro, (Antonio,) an Italian poet, born at Padua or Adria about 1569. He wrote "Alceo," a pastoral or piscatorial poem, in which he substituted fishermen for shepherds. Died in 1599. Onk'e-los, a learned Chaldee writer, of uncertain era, supposed to have been a native of Babylon and contemporary with Gamaliel. He was the author of a Targum, or Chaldee paraphrase of the Pentateuch, which is highly esteemed for its accuracy. Onomacrite. See Onomacritos. On-o-mac'ri-tos, [ Gr. 'OvofiuK(nTog ; Fr. Onoma- crite, o'no'mi'kRet',] a celebrated Greek poet and sooth- sayer, lived in the sixth century B.C. He was banished by Hipparchus from Athens for having falsified or inter- polated the oracles of Musccus for political purposes. He is supposed by some writers to have been the author of much that is attributed to Orpheus. See EiCHHOFF, " Commentatio de Onomacrito," 1840; K. O. MijLLER, " History of Greek Literature." On-o-mar'-ehus, [Gr. 'Ov6fj.apxog ; Fr. Onomarque, o^no^m^Rk',] a general of the Phocians in the Sacred war. He obtained the chief command in 353 B.C., and seized the sacred treasures of Delphi. He defeated Philip of Macedon in two battles, but was defeated and killed by that king in 352 B.C. Onomarque. See Onomarchus. On-o-san'der, [Gr. 'Ovoaai^Spog ; Fr. Onosandre, o'no'zSNdR',] one of the principal military writers of antiquity, lived at Rome under the reigns of Claudius and Nero. He was the author of a treatise on tactics, entitled " Strategeticos," (written in Greek,) which has been translated into Latin, French, and Italian. He was a Platonic philosopher, and wrote a commentary on the "Republic" of Plato, which is not extanL See ScHOELL, "Histoire de la Litterature Grecque." Ono-sandre. See Onosander. Ons-en-Bray, (Louis L60N Pajot.) See Pajot. Onsenoort, van, vtn on'seh-noRt', (Antoon Ge- raard,) a Dutch surgeon and oculist, born at Utrecht in 1782. He wrote several professional works. Died in 1841. See F. CuNiER, "Notice sur A. G. van Onsenoort," 1842. OnsTow, (Arthur,) an English statesman, born about 1690. He was chosen Speaker of the House of Commons in 1727. "During thirty-three years," says Lord Mahon, "he filled that chair with higher merit, probably, than any one either before or after him, — with unequalled impartiality, dignity, and courtesy." He re- tired from the chair and from public life in 1761. Died in 1768. His son was created Earl Onslow about 1800. Onslow, (George,) an eminent musician and com- poser, born at Clermont, in France, in 1 784, was de- scended from an English family of rank. His works include symphonies, duets, quintets, sonatas, and operas. His opera " Le Colporteur" was performed with great success. Died in 1853. See Fi4tis, " Biographie Universelle des Musicians ;" " Ncuvelle Biographie Generale." Onslow, (Sir Richard,) an English admiral, born in 1 741. He served with distinction against the Dutch, as vice-admiral, in 1797. Died in 181 7. Onuphrius. See Panvinius. Ooloogh-Beg. See Olug-Beg. Oomnr. See Omar. Oorkh^n or Urkhan, oor'kSn', written also Orkhan, (sometimes surnamed Ghazee or Ghazy, g^'zee,) a Turkish Sultan, was the son of Osman (Othman) I., the founder of the present Turkish dynasty. He began to reign at Prusa in 1326, and made extensive conquests from the Greeks in Asia Minor. He is said to have had superior military and political talents. He died in 1360, leaving the throne to his son Amurath (or Moorad,) I. Oort, van, (Adam.) See Noort, van. € as 9 as s; g Aard; g as /; G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) OOST OPPIAN Oost, van, vtn ost, (Jacob,) the Elder, one of the most admired painters of the Flemish school, was born at Bruges in 1600. He studied at Rome, and formed his style on the model of Annibal Caracci. His works are numerous, and are principally on sacred subjects. Among his master-pieces are a " Descent from the Cross," a "Nativity," "Virgin and Child, with Saints," and "The Descent of the Holy Ghost on the Virgin and Apostles." His copies of Rubens and Van Dyck are so perfect as to deceive the most skilful connoisseurs. Died in 1671. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. ; " Nouvelle Biogiapliie Generale." Oost, van, (Jacob,) the Younger, son of the pre- ceding, was born about 1637. He studied under his father, and afterwards visited Italy and France, where he resided many years. He was esteemed one of the best portrait-painters of his time, and also executed his- torical works of great merit, one of which, the "Martyr- dom of Saint Barbara," is regarded as his master-piece. Died in 17 13. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Oosterwyck, van, vtn os'ter-wik', (Maria,) a Dutch painter of flowers and fruit, born near Delft in 1630. She is placed in the first rank of painters of the subjects above named. Died in 1693. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Oovarof, Ouvarof, or Uwarow, 00-vi'rof, written also Ouvarov, (Theodore,) a Russian general, born about 1770. He distinguished himself at the battle of Borodino. Died in 1824. Operman, o'per-min^. Count, a German general and engineer, entered the Russian service about 1783. Died in 1832. O-phe'li-pn, [^l^eXiov,'] an Athenian comic poet, sup- posed to have flourished in the fourth century B.C. His works are not extant. Ophelte. See Opheltes. O-phel'tes, [Gr. 'O^eArT/f ; Fr. Ophelte, o'fglt',] a son of Lycurgus, King of Nemea, was killed in infancy by a serpent, having been left alone on the grass by his nurse, Hypsipyle, while she went to guide Adrastus to a spring. Opie, o'pe, (Amelia,) a popular English writer, wife of John Opie, noticed below, and daughter of Dr. James Alderson, was born at Norwich in 1769. Her first pub- lications were a volume of poems, and a tale entitled " Father and Daughter," which were very well received, and were succeeded by the novel of " Adeline Mow- bray," (1804,) "Simple Tales," (1805,) "The Orphan," " Valentine's Eve," " Madeline," and other works of fiction, distinguished for their pathos and for their ele- vated moral and religious tone. In 1825 Mrs. Opie became a member of the Society of Friends, and pub- lished the same year her "Illustrations of Lying." Having visited Paris in 1830, she wrote an interesting account of the revolution of July, Among the most important of her other works may be named " Detrac- tion Displayed," (1828,) and " Lays for the Dead," (1833.) She had also published her husband's "Lectures on Painting," with a memoir, (1809.) Died in 1853. See Miss C. F.rightwell, "Memorials of the Life of Amelia Opie," 1854; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1806; "Monthly Re- view" for August, 1820; H. Martineau, "Biographical Sketches," i86g. Opie, (John,) a distinguished English painter, born near Truro, in Cornwall, in 1 761. Some of his portraits and sketches attracted the notice of Dr. Wolcott, the satirist, who took the young artist under his protection and introduced him into London society, where he en- joyed for a time the patronage of the fashionable world. He married as his second wife, in 1798, Miss Amelia Alderson, who afterwards obtained great popularity as a writer. Opie gave particular attention to historical subjects, and painted "The Death of Rizzio," "Jeph- thah's Vow," and " Iklisarius." He succeeded Fuseli as professor of painting in the Royal Academy in 1806. Died in 1807. See tlie " Monthly Review" for February, 1810. O-piPl-us, (Aurelius,) a Latin grammarian, who taught philosophy and rhetoric at Rome. He went into voluntary exile in 92 B.C. as a companion of his intimate friend Rutilius Rufus, who had been banished. Opilius Macrinus. See Macrinus. O-pim'i-us, (Lucius,) a Roman politician, was a leader of the aristocratic party, and adversary of Caius Gracchus. He became consul in 121 B.C., and a violent contest then ensued between the senate and the party of Gracchus. Having been authorized by the senate to decide the question by force, Opimius killed Grac- chus and about three thousand of his partisans. Ac- cording to Cicero, (" In Catilinam, Oratio I.,") Gracchus was killed on suspicion of sedition. Opimius was cor- rupted by Jugurtha in 112, fell into disgrace, and passed his latter years in exile. Died about 100 B.C. See Plutarch, " C. Gracchus;" Sallust, "Jugurtha." Opis. See Ops. Opitius. See Opitz. Opitz, o'pits, [Lat. Opi'tius,] (Heinrich,) a German Orientalist, born at Altenburg in 1642, was professor of Greek and of divinity at Kiel. He published, besides other works, " Bible in Hebrew," (" Biblia Hebraica," 1709.) Died in 17 12. See Hetzel, " Geschlchte der Hebraischen Sprache." Opitz, [Lat. Opi'tius,] (Martin,) a celebrated Ger- man critic and writer, born at Bunzlau, in Silesia, in 1597, is called the founder of the modern school of Ger- man poetry. He was crowned as poet-laureate by the emperor in 1628, and was appointed in 1638 historiogra- pher to Ladislaus IV., King of Poland. His principal work is entitled a "Poem of Consolation amid the Dis- asters of War," (162 1.) He also translated the Psalms, the "Antigone" of Sophocles, and other classics. Died in 1639. His essay on German versification (" Biichlein von der Deutschen Poeterei," loth edition, 1668) was highly esteemed. He contributed greatly to the purity of the German language, into which he introduced a new prosody. " He is reckoned," says Hallam, " the inventor of a. rich and harmonious rhythm. . . . No great elevation, no energy of genius, will be found in this German Heinsius and Malherbe. Opitz displayed, however, another kind of excellence. He wrote the language with a purity of idiom in which Luther alone, whom he chose as his model, was superior." (" Intro- duction to the Literature of Europe.") See GoTTscHED, "Lob- und Gedachtnissrede auf M. Opitz," 1739; Lindner, " Nachricht von des weltberiihmten Schlesiers M. Opitzen," etc., 2 vols., 1740; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Opoix, o'pwd', (Christophe,) a French savant, born at Provins in 1745, was a member of the Convention of 1792-95. He wrote several scientific works. Died in 1840. See Ramon, "Notice sur C. Opoix," 1841. Oporin, o-po-reen' or o'po'riw', [Lat. Opori'nus,J (Johann,) a learned Swiss printer, whose original name was Herbst, born at Bale in 1507. He became professor of Greek in his native city, where he afterwards estab- lished a printing-house. He published many excellent editions of the classics, corrected by himself, and wrote annotations on Cicero and Demosthenes. Died in 1568. See Heinzel, "De Ortu, Vita et Obitu Oporini." Oporinus. See Oporin. Oppede, d', do'pad', (Jean de Maynier — deh ma'- ne-a',) Baron, a French judge, born at Aix in 1495, was notorious for his cruel persecution of the Vaudois, who were massacred, without distinction of age or sex, about 1546. Died in 1558. See Gauffridi, " Histoire de la Provence." Oppenord, op^noR', (Gilles Marie,) a French archi- tect, born in Paris in 1672; died in 1742. Oppert, op'peat, (Julius,) a German Orientalist, of Jewish parentage, was born at Hamburg in 1825. He studied Arabic, Sanscrit, etc., and was naturalized as a citizen of France. He was sent by the French govern- ment, with F. Fresnel and F. Thomas, on a scientific mission to Mesopotamia in 1 85 1, and began in 1S57 to publish an account of the same, entitled "Expedition scientifique en Mesopotamie." He is distinguished as a decipherer of cuneiform inscriptions. Op'pi-an or Op-pi-a''nus, [Gr. 'Oivmavog ; Fr. Op- pien, o'pe;|,N',] a celebrated Greek poet, born at Ana- a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mil; n6t; good; moon; OPPUNUS 1707 ORANGE zarba, in Cilicia, is supposed to have lived in the second century of the Christian era. Two poems, entitled "On the Chase," (" Cynegetica,") and " On Fishing," (" Ha- lieutica,") are ascribed to him. The great superiority of the latter production to the former has led to the supposition that they were written by different persons. The author of the " Halieutica" is compared by Scaliger to Virgil for the harmony and graces of his style. It is said that Oppian was presented by the emperor Caracalla with a gold piece for every verse in his "Halieutica." Both poems display considerable knowledge of natural history, mingled with many errors and absurdities. See the article "Oppianus" in Ersch and Gruber's " En- cyklopaedie," by F. Ritter ; Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca;" FoERTSCH, "De Oppiano ^eta Cilice," 1749; "Nouvelle Bio- gra})hie Generaie." Oppianus. Sc^Oppian. Oppien. See Oppian. Op'pi-us, (Caius,) a Roman writer, who was an inti- mate friend of Julius Caesar. It is stated that he was oOgnizant of all the projects and plans of that dictator, whose private affairs he managed. He wrote biographies (which are not extant) of several eminent Romans. The book of Caesar's " Commentaries" which treats on the war in Africa is attributed to Oppius by some critics. See Drumann, " Gescliichte Roms ;" Vossius, "De Historicis Latinis ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generaie." Ops or O'pis, a Roman goddess of plenty and fertility, was identified with the Rhea of the Greek mythology, and was also called Tellus. She was supposed to be the wife of Saturn, and was worshipped as the protec- tress of agriculture. Opes, the plural of Ops, signifies " riches, power, help." Opsopoeus or Obsopous, op-so-po'iis, (Johann,) a German physician and scholar, born at Bretten in 1556, became professor of physiology and botany at Heidel- berg. He published an edition of the "Sibylline Ora- cles," and of several works of Hippocrates. Died in 1596. Opsopoeus or Obsopous, (Vincenz,) a German philologist, born in Franconia in the fifteenth century. He was the author of a Latin poem "On the Art of Drinking," (" De Arte Bibendi,") and made translations from Diodorus and other Greek writers. Died in 1539. Opstal, van, vtn op'stSl, ( Gaspard Jacques,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 1660. He painted religious and mythological subjects. Died about 1724. Opstraet, op'stnlt, (Jan,) a Flemish ecclesiastic, born at Beringhen in 165 1, was the author of several religious works, one of which was entitled "The Chris- tian Theologian." Died in 1720. Optat. See Optatus. Optatianus, op-ta-she-a'nus, [Fr. Optatien, op'tf- se;^N',] (PuHi.ius PoRPHYRius,) a degenerate Latin poet, flourished about 325 a.d. He wrote a Panegyric on Constantine the Great, the style of which is very bad. See TiLLEMONT, " Histoire des Empereurs." Optatien. See Optatianus. Op-ta'tus, [Fr. Optat, op'tt',] a saint of the Romish calendar, born in Africa about 315, He was Bishop of Milevia or Melevia, and is favourably mentioned by Saint Augustine. He wrote a treatise against the Dona- tists, which is extant. Died after 386 a.d. See E. DupiN, "Vie de Saint-Optat," prefixed to his works, Paris, 1700. Opzoomer, op'zo^mer, ( Carl Willem,) a distin- guished Dutch jurist and philosopher, born at Rotter- dam in 1 82 1, was the author of a "Commentary on the Books of Civil Law in Holland," and a treatise "On Conservatism and Reform," (1852.) He became pro- fessor of philosophy at Utrecht in 1846. Or'ange, (Frederik Hendrik van Nassau — vtn nis'sow,) Prince of, born at Delft in 1584, was the youngest son of William I. of Orange, surnamed "the Silent." His mother was a daughter of Admiral Co- ligni. He served in the army under his half-brother, Maurice of Nassau, and succeeded him as Stadtholder of the United Provinces in 1625. He prosecuted with ability the war against the Spaniards, from whom he took Maestricht in 1632 and Breda in 1637. As a gen- eral, he was prudent and mostly successful. He died in 1647, and was succeeded by his son, William II., who died in 1650, aged twenty-four. The latter had married Mary, a daughter of Charles I. of England, and left a son, who became William III. of England. See Arnold Montanus, " Leven en Bedrijf van Frederik Hen- drik,'" 1652; CoMMELiN, " Leven van Fred. Hendrik van Nassauw," 1651-59; Zeeman, "Leven van Fr. Hendrik Prins van Oranje," 1832; D'AuBERY, "Memoires." Orange, (Maurice,) Prince of. See Nassau. Or''ange, [Fr. pron. o'r6Nzl/,j (Philihekt de Cha- lons — sha'ldN',) Prince of, a distinguished commander, born in Burgundy in 1502, was the son of the Baron of Arlay. He entered the service of Charles V. about 1521, and fought against the French. When Constable Bourbon was killed in the assault on Rome, in 1527, he succeeded to the command of the army, and compelled the pope to subscribe the conditions which he dictated. He became Viceroy of Naples in 1528, and was killed at the siege of Florence, in 1530. His nephew, Rene of Nassau, be- came his heir. • See La Pise, " Histoire de la Maison d'Orange." Orange, (William [Prince] of,) [Eat. Guilhel'- Mus (or Guiliei/mus) Auri'acus ; Fr. Guillaume d'Orange, ge^yom' do'r6Nzh' ; Ger. Wilhelm von Oranien, wiKhelm fon o-ri'ne-en ; Dutch, Willem VAN Oranje, wiKl^m vtn o-rSn'yeh,] called also Wil- liam the Silent, [ Fr. Guillaume le Taciturne, ge'yom' leh t^'se'tiirn',] the illustrious founder of tha Dutch republic, was born at Dillenburg, in Nassau, in April, 1533. He was the eldest son of William, Count of Nassau, and was descended from an ancient sovereign family, one of whose members, Adolph of Nassau, had occujiied the imperial throne. From his cousin-german Rene, who died in 1544, he inherited princely estates in Brabant, Flanders, and Holland, besides the small prin- cipality of Orange, in the southeast of France. He was educated as a Protestant by his parents ; but about the age of fifteen he became a page of the emperor Charles v., who quickly discerned his excellent qualities and admitted him into his secret councils. Charles testified his confidence in the young prince by appointing him general-in-chief of the army in 1554, in the absence of the Duke of Savoy, and leaned on his shoulder at the ceremony of his own abdication, in 1555. William, who was regarded as the greatest Flemish subject of Spain, was one of the hostages given by Philip II. of Spain to Henry II. of France in 1559 for the execution of the treaty of Cateau Cambresis. Henry II., in conversation with his hostage, (whom he supposed to be a Catholic and to be privy to the secrets of the Spanish court,) im- prudently revealed to him a plot which those two kings had formed to massacre all their Protestant subjects. " William earned," says Motley, " the surname of 'The Silent,' from the manner in which he received these communications from Henry without revealing to the monarch, by word or look, the enormous blunder which he had committed. His purpose was fixed from that hour." He was a Catholic nominally and in outward observance, but had then no dogmatic zeal, — perhaps no interest in questions of theology. Humanity and patriotism, however, determined him to counteract the cruel and tyrannical designs of the court He acted with characteristic caution and secrecy in his opposition for several years, and continued to serve as Stadtholder of Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht, and councillor of state. A mutual but dissembled enmity existed between him and Philip II. In 1566 a great insurrection was provoked by the attempt of Philip to establish the In- quisition in all its rigour in the Netherlands. William refused to take a new oath of unlimited obedience, and offered to resign all his offices, in 1567. In the same year the famous Duke of Alva was sent with an army, and with supreme civil power as governor, to complete the subjection of the revolted provinces. In this crisis, Egmont, who had been the friend of the Prince of Orange, refused to co-operate with him in resistance to the im- pending invasion. By hastily retiring to Nassau, Orange escaped the doom which had been pronounced on him at Madrid. In February, 1568, a sentence of the Inqui- sition condemned to death as heretics all the inhabitants of the Netherlands, with a few exceptions. (Motley.) € as 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this, (^^="566 Explanations, p. 23.) ORBIGNT 1708 ORELLANA Having raised a large army, William entered Brabant in 1568, and offered battle to Alva, who declined to fight. At the end of the campaign, Orange was forced to dis- band his army for want of money to pay them. In 1572 many cities of Holland raised the standard of Orange, and the contest was maintained with desperate resolution through long years of adversity. He founded a famous republic by the union of the seven Protestant provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, Overyssel, and Guelderland, in 1579, and was chosen Stadtholder. In 1584 he was assassinated by Balthazar Gerard, a fanatical Catholic. He left three sons, Philip, Maurice, (see Nassau,) and Frederick Henry, the first of whom was seized by Alva in 1568, sent to Spain as a hostage, and detained many years in captivity. "His enemies," says Motley, "never contested the subtlety and breadth of his intellect, his adroitness and capacity in conducting state affairs, and the profoundness of his views. In many respects his surname of 'the Silent' was a misnomer. William of Orange was neither * silent' nor ' taciturn ;' — yet these are the epithets which will be forever associated with the name of a man who in private was the most affable, cheerful, and delightful of companions, and who or. a thousand public occasions was to prove himself, both by pen and speech, the most eloquent man of his age." To William the Silent is due the honour of being the first among European states- men to make a practical application in government of the principle of religious toleration. See Motley, "Rise of the Dutch Republic," (especially the remarks at the close of the third volume ;) Grotius, " Annales ;" Strada, "De Bello Belgico ;" Hooft, " Nederlandsche Historie ;" De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis;" Beaufort, " Leven van Wil- lem I., Prins van Oranje," 3 vols., 1732; Eugene Mahon, "Guil- laume le Taciturne," 1852; J. B. Champagnac, " Guillaume le Taciturne et sa Dynastie," 1851 ; Spandaw, " Lofrede op Willem den Ersten," etc., 1821 ; Amelot de la Houssaye, " Histoire de Philippe Guillaume de Nassau," etc., 2 vols., 1754: Meur.sius, " Guillelmus Aui iacus," 1621 ; " Nouvelle Bio2;raphie Generaie ;" R. Burton, " History of the House of Orange," 1693. Orbigny, d', doR'b^n'ye', (Alcide Dessalines,) an eminent French naturalist, born at Coueron (Loire-In- ferieure) in 1802. He was sent on a scientific mission to South America in 1826 by the managers of the Mu- seum of Natural History. He spent eight years in the exploration of Brazil, Chili, Peru, Bolivia, etc., and pub- lished the results in an important work entitled " Travels in South America," (9 vols. 4to, 1834-47.) In 1853 he obtained a new chair founded in the Jardin des Plantes for the study of organic remains. Among his chief works is "The Palaeontology of France," (" Paleonto- logie Fran9ai.se," 14 vols., 1840-54, with 1430 plates,) and " Cours elementaire de Paleontologie et de Geologie stratigraphiques," (3 vols., 1849-52.) Died in 1857. See Damour, " Discours aux Funerailles d'A. d'Orbigny :" "Notice analytique sur les Travaux d' Alcide d'Orbigny," 1856; " Nouvelle Biographic Generaie." Orbigny, d', (Charles Dessalines,) a French geolo- gist, a brother of the preceding, was born at Coueron in 1806. He published a "Universal Dictionary of Natu- ral History," (24 vols., 1839-49,) in which he was aided by Arago, Jussieu, and other savants ; also, several works on geology. Or-biFi-us Pu-piFlus, a Roman grammarian and teacher, famed for his severe discipline. He taught languages at Rome, and numbered among his pupils the poet Iiorace, who has immortalized him under the name of " the flogging (plagosum ) Orbilius." See Horace, " Epistol^ ;" Suetonius, "De illustribus Gram- maticis." Orcagna, oR-kln'yl, (Andrea DI Cione,) an emi- nent Florentine architect, painter, and sculptor, some- times called OrgaCxNA, born about 1325. He built the Loggia di Lanzi at Florence, which was commended by Michael Angelo as a model of elegance. Among his master-pieces in painting are the frescos of the " Last Judgment," and the " Triumph of Death," in the Campo Santo at Pisa. Died about 1385. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters, Architects," etc. ; Quatre- M^RE DE QuiNCY, " Vies des plus illustres Avchitectes ;" Baldinucci, " Notizie ;" Lanzl " Histoiy of Painting in Italy." Or'cus, the Roman god of the lower regions, identi- fied with the Pluto or Hades of the Greek mythology. (See Pluto.) Ord, (Craven,) an English antiquary, born in 1756. He furnished materials to Gough and John Nichols their works. Died in 1832. Ord, (Edward O. C.,) an American general, born in Maryland in i8r8, graduated at West Point in 1839. He became a captain in 185 1, and served several years in California and Oregon. He was appointed a briga- dier-general of volunteers about September, 1861, and gained a victory at Dranesville, Virginia, December 20 of that year. In May, 1862, he was raised to the rank of major-general. He served under General Grant at the siege and capture of Vicksburg, July, 1863, soon after which he was sent to Louisiana. He obtained command of the eighteenth corps in July, 1864, and led the same in a successful operation against Fort Harrison, near Richmond, in September of that year. He suc- ceeded General Butler as commander of the department of Virginia and North Carolina in January, 1865. He commanded a corps in the final assault on Petersburg, April 2, 1865, and his command contributed greatly to the success gained on the 6th of that month near the Appomattox. He was commander of the fourth military district, comprising Mississippi and Arkansas, from April 1867, to December of that year. Ord, (John W.,) an English poet and medical writer born in 181 1. He produced, besides other works, " England : an Historical Poem." Died in 1853. Ordaz, oR-dith', (Don Diego,) a Spanish captain and explorer, served under Cortez in the conquest of Mexico. He was the first white man that ascended Popocatepetl. Having been authorized by Charles V. to conquer the country between Cape Vela and the Bay of Venezuela, he ascended the river Orinoco one hun- dred and sixty leagues about 153 1. Died in 1533. See Prescott, "Conquest of Mexico;" Las Casas, "Historia de las Indias." Ordener, oRd^nk', (Michel,) a French general, born at Saint- Avoid (Moselle) in 1755. He obtained the rank of general of division for his services at Austerlitz, (1805.) Died in 181 1. Orderic Vital. See Ordericus Vitalis. Or-de-ri^cus Vi-ta'lis, [Fr. Orderic Vital, or'deh- rek' ve'ttK,] one of the most distinguished early English historians, born near Shrewsbury in 1075, was descended from a French family. In 1107 he was ordained a priest. He was the author of "The Ecclesiastical History of England and Normandy" from the birth of Christ to 1141, which, according to Guizot, contains more valuable information on the history of the eleventh and twelfth centuries than any other single work. Died about 1141. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generaie." Ordinaire, orMe'n^R', (Claude Nicolas,) a French naturalist, born at Salins in 1736, published a "Natural History of Volcanoes," (1802,) which is commended. Died in 1808. Oreades. See Oreads. O're-ads, [Gr. 'OpeLu6eg; Lat. Ore'ades ; Fr. Ore- ades, o'ra'td',] mountain-nymphs of classic mythology, derived their name from the Greek opof, a "mountain." They attended Diana in hunting-excursions. Oregio, o-ra'jo, [Lat. Orf/gius,] (Agostino,) a learned Italian cardinal and theologian, born at Santa Sofia, in Tuscany, in 1577. He was the author of treatises " On the Trinity" and " On the Work of Six Days." Died in 1635. See Oldoini, " Vitae Pontificum et Cardinalium." Oregius. See Oregio. O'Reilly, o-ri'le, (Alexander,) a Spanish general, of Irish descent, born near Chinchilla in 1725. He fought for the French at Minden (1759) and Corbach, (1760,) soon after which he returned to the Spanish service. He took possession of Louisiana in 1768, and afterwards commanded an expedition against Algiers. Died in 1794. See BouRGOiNG, "Tableau de I'Espagne moderne." O'Reilly, o-ri'le, (Andrew,) a general, born in Ire- land in 1740. He entered the Austrian service, and fought against the French in many campaigns. He commanded a corps at Austerlitz, (1805.) Died in 1832. Orellana, o-rll-yi'nS, (Francisco,) a celebrated navi- gator, born at Truxillo, in Spain, in the sixteenth century. 5, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, q, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; m§t; n6t; good; moon; ORELLI 1709 OR IE NT J US In 1 53 1 he set sail with the brothers Pizarro for Peru. Having heard from the natives of a country in the east producing gold, silver, and spices, he set out in 1540, in company with Gonsalez Pizarro, on an exploring expe- dition. After following the course of the Napo, a branch of the Maranon, for about two hundred leagues, their provisions failed, and Orellana was directed to proceed down the river, obtain supplies, and return immediately. Instead of this, he continued his course along the main stream, though suffering severely from famine and from the attacks of the Indians. In August, 1541, he reached the mouth of the Maranon, to which he gave the name of Amazon, from the warlike women whom he states he encountered on its shores. On his return to Spain he obtained from Charles V. letters patent for colonizing the country he had discovered ; but soon after reaching the Amazon, in 1549, he was attacked with fever, and died in 1550. See A. VON Humboldt, "Voyages aux Regions ^quinoxiales du nouveau Continent." Orelli, o-reKlee, (Johann Caspar,) a distinguished Swiss critic and scholar, born at Zurich in 1787. In 1819 he became professor of eloquence and hermeneutics in his native city. He published excellent editions of Cicero, (8 vols., 1826-37,) Horace, (2 vols., 1844,) Tacitus, (2 vols., 1846-48,) and other Roman classics. In conjunction with Baiter, he published an edition of Plato, (4 vols., 1839-41.) His "Onomasticon Tulli- anum," {3 vols., 1837,) containing a life of Cicero, a lexicon of proper names, several indexes, etc., is a work of great value for the history of the period in which Cicero lived. Died in 1849. See " Lebensabriss von J. C. von Orelli," Zurich, 1851; "Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Oresme, o'rSm', (Nicolas,) a learned French prelate, was a native of Normandy. He was appointed suc- cessively grand master of the College of Navarre, aiid Bishop of Lisieux, (1377.) He translated the "Ethics" and " Politics" of Aristotle into French, and published several scientific treatises. Died in 1382. Oreste. See Orestes. O-res'tes, [Gr. 'OpeoTTjg ; Fr. Oreste, o'rSst',] a son of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, was an intimate friend of Pylades. The poets relate that he avenged the death of his father by killing his own mother and ^gisthus ; that after this act he became insane, and was tormented by the Furies ; that he consulted the oracle of Delphi, and was told that he might be relieved if he would go to Tauris and bring away the image of Diana ; that he and Pylades went to Tauris, where they were taken captives, and would have been sacrificed, but they were saved by Iphigenia, who was a sister of Orestes and was the priestess of Diana at Tauris. With her aid, he succeeded in his enterprise, and afterwards became King of Mycenae. See Euripides, "Orestes;" Sophocles, " Electra ;" ^Eschylus, " Eiimenides." Orestes, [Fr. Oreste, o'rest',] a Roman commander, who became secretary to Attila, King of the Huns, about 446. Having deposed the emperor Julius Nepos, {475 A.D.,) he assumed the chief power, as Regent of Italy, in the name of his infant son, Romulus Augustulus. Being besieged soon after in Pavia by Odoacer, he was made prisoner and put to death in August, 476 a.d. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Emigre." Orfanel, oR-fl-n^K, (Jacinto,) a Spanish missionary, born at Jana in 1578. He laboured in Jajjan about fifteen years, and wrote an account of the progress of Christianity in thaj: country, (1633.) He was put to death by the Japanese in 1622. Orfeo. See Orpheus. Orffyre, oR'fe'ri', or Orffyreus, oRf-fe-ra'iis, (Jo- hann Ernst Eltas,) a German mechanician, born at Zittau in 1680. His proper name was Bessler. Died in 1745. Orfila, or'fe-la, [Fr. pron. oR^fe'li',] (Mathieu Jo- seph Bonaventure,) an eminent physician and chem- ist, born at Mahon, in the island of Minorca, in 1787. Having been made a French citizen in 1818, he was ap- pointed professor of medical jurisprudence and toxicology m the Faculty of Medicine in Paris in 1819. In 1823 he obtained the chair of chemistry in the same institution, which he continued to occupy for thirty years. He was created successively by Louis Philippe grand ofiicer of the legion of honour, dean of the Medical Faculty, and member of the Council of Hospitals. Among his most important works are his "Treatise on Poisons, or General Toxicology," (1813 ; 4th edition, 2 vols., 1843,) " Elements of Chemistry applied to Medicine and the Arts," (2 vols., 1817-43,) "Treatise on Juridical Exhu- mations," (2 vols., 1830,) and "Treatise on Medical Jurisprudence," (4 vols., 1847.) Orfila was an accom- plished and popular lecturer, and enjoyed the highest reputation as a writer on toxicology and legal medicine. He died in 1853, leaving large sums to the Academy of Medicine and the School of Pharmacy, for the promo- tion of science. He was the principal founder of the anatomical museum in Paris called the Musee Orfila. See Meniere, " Necrologie : M. Orfila," 1853; Sachaile, " Les Medecins de Paris ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" " Monthly Review," vol. Ixxxv., 1818, (Appendix.) Orford, Earl of. See Russell, (Edward. Orford, Earl of. See Walpole, (Robert,) and Walpole, (Horace.) Or-get'o-rix, a rich and powerful chief of the Helvetii, whose intrigues are recorded in Caesar's " Commenta- ries," book i. He aspired to the sovereign power, and persuaded the Helvetii to emigrate to Gaul. A judicial process was instituted against him for his ambitious projects ; but before the decision he died, — as was sup- posed, by his own hand, — about 62 B.C. Oriani, o-re-i'nee, (Barnaba,) an eminent Italian astronomer, born near Milan in 1752. Having visited London in 1786, he made the acquaintance of Herschel, with whom he afterwards maintained a regular corre- spondence. On his return, he assisted Reggio and De Cesaris in measuring an arc of the meridian and exe- cuting the triangulation for a new map of Italy. When the astronomer Piazzi, in 1801, discovered Ceres, which he mistook for a comet, Oriani, by calculating its orbit, recognized it as a planet; and he was the first to deter- mine the orbit of Uranus. After Napoleon was crowned at Milan, he created Oriani a count, and senator of the kingdom of Italy, and one of the first members of the Italian Institute. Among his principal works are " Tables of Uranus," (1785,) "Theory of the Planet Mercury," (1798,) and " Spherical Trigonometry," (1806.) The last- named is esteemed one of the most admirable treatises of the kind. Oriani was a member of the Institute of France and the Royal Society of London. Died in 1832. See A. Gabba, " Elogio di Oriani," 1834; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Oribase. See Ortbasius. Oribasius, or-e-ba'she-us, [Fr. Oribase, o're'btz',] a celebrated physician, was a native of Sardis, in Lydia, or of Pergamus. He enjoyed the friendship of the em- peror Julian, who made him his physician and in 361 A.D. appointed him quaestor of Constantinople. On the death of Julian, (363,) Oribasius was banished by Valen- tinian and Valens, but was recalled about 370 on account of his medical skill. Of his principal work, entitled "Medicinalia Collecta," (in seventy books,) less than half is extant. It was written at the request of the emperor, and, though principally a compilation from Galen and other physicians, contains some important original mat- ter. It is also highly valued for its explanations of many passages in Galen's writings, and for the extracts it con- tains from works not extant. Oribasius was the first who described the salivary glands ; he also advanced new ideas on dietetics and gymnastics. Died about 400 a.d. See Fkeind, "History of Physics;" Haller, " Bibliotheca Medica ;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Oricellarius. See Rucellai. Orichovius. See Orzechowskl O'ri-ent, [Lat. Orien'tius,] Saint, a Latin poet, who became Bishop of Auch (Augusta) about 410 A.D. He wrote a Latin poem, entitled " Commonitorium," which has been printed. Died in 439 A.D. Oriente, do, do o-re-ln'ta, (Fernao Alvarez,) a Portuguese poet, born in Goa about 1550. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Orientius. See Orient. € as ^; 9 as s; g Aard; g as /; g, h, y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) 0 RIG EN 1710 ORLEJNS Or'i-gen, [Gr. 'Qptyevyc; Lat. Orig'enes ; Fr. Ori- GfeNK, o're'zhii/,] one of the most remarkable, eloquent, and influential of the early Christian writers styled the Fathers, was born in Egypt about 186 A.D. He was the son of Leonides, a Christian martyr of Alexandria, and bore the additional name of Adamantius. He was a pupil of Clement of Alexandria, and became versed in grammar, rhetoric, logic, geometry, music, and philoso- phy. At the age of eighteen he was appointed by Bishop Demetrius to the office of catechist, the duties of which he performed with zeal and self-denial. He became very ascetic in his course of life, and mortified himself by a form of self-mutilation which he supposed to be recommended in Matthew xix. 12. Having learned the Hebrew language, he devoted himself to biblical studies. While passing through Palestine on a journey, about 228 or 230, he was ordained a presbyter at Cassarea. This is said to have aroused the jealousy of Deme- trius, Bishop of Alexandria, who excommunicated him and induced the Bishop of Rome and of other churches to concur in this sentence. In 231 Origen removed to Caesarea, where he acquired a high reputation as a preacher and commentator on Scripture. That he might be better qualified to make proselytes, he studied the Greek philosophy, of which he adopted the more noble and beautiful dogmas, and attempted to harmonize Platonism with Christianity. He made an innovation (which many think dangerous) in the mode of interpreting Scripture. His desire to find a mystical sense led him frequently into a neglect of the historical sense. In 235 he sought refuge from persecution in Cappadocia. He compiled about this time a valuable edition of the Old Testament, entitled " Hexapla," which exhibits in six columns the Hebrew text and various Greek versions. Fragments of the '* Hexapla" have been preserved in the writings of the Fathers. He afterwards wrote an able defence of Christianity against Celsus, an Epicurean philosopher, which is still extant. Decius having renewed the persecution of the Christians in 250 A.D., Origen was imprisoned and subjected to torture, but survived, and was released a short time before his death, which occurred at Tyre in 253. The greater part of his numerous works are lost. His opinions gave rise to a great controversy long after his death. He held the doctrine of the universal restoration of sinners, and was charged with teaching the heretical notions which, after his time, prevailed under the name of Arianism. His defenders afiirmed that the passages on which this charge was founded had been interpolated in his works. About the end of the fifth century, Origenism prevailed in Egypt and Syria ; but it was condemned by the Council of Constantinople, in 553 A.D. See EusEBius, "Ecclesiastical History;" Neander, "History of the Church;" Huet,_ " Origeniana ;" E._ R. Redepenning, "Origeiies, Darstellung seines Lebens und seiner Lehre," 2 vols., 1841-46; RiNGBERG, " Vita Origenis Adamantii," 1792 ; Karsten, "Dissertatio de Origene," 1824; G. Thomasius, " Origenes Beitrag Eur Dbgmengeschiclite," etc., 1837 ; Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grasca ;" Dr. Hoefer, article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" " Lon- don Quarterly Review" for July, 1851. Origen, a Platonic philosopher, was a disciple and friend of Porphyry, and predecessor of Plotinus in the chair of philosophy. He lived in the first half of the third century. Origene. See Origen. Origenes. See Origen. Origny, d', do'r^n'ye', (Abraham Jean Baptists Antoink,) a French writer, born at Rheims in 1734. He published '* Dictionnaire des Origines," (6 vols., 1776-78.) Died in 1798. Origny, d', (Pierre Adam,) a French historian and antiquary, born at Rheims in 1697. His principal works are entitled "Ancient Egypt" and " Chronology of the Kings_of the Egyptian Empire." Died in 1774. O^ri'on, [Gr. 'Op'iup ; It. Ortone, o-re-o'ni,] a cele- brated giant and hunter of classic mythology, was a son of Hyrieus. He loved Merope, a daughter of CEnopion, and once, when intoxicated, offered violence to her. Her father resented this act by depriving him of his eyes. He was befriended by Vulcan, was guided by Cedalion to the Sun-God, and recovered his sight. He was killed by Diana, whose motive is variously represented, and was placed among the stars. According to one legend, Diana loved him, and wished to marry him, against the will of Apollo, who one day questicjned her ability to hit a distant object on the sea. She discharged a shaft and pierced the mark, which proved to be the head of Orion, who was swimming or wading in the sea. Orion, a Greek grammarian of Thebes, in Egypt, lived about 450 A.D. He composed a " Lexicon Etymo- logicum," which was published by Sturz in 1820. Orlandi, or-l^n'dee, (Pkllkguino Antonio,) an Ital- ian litterateur^ born at Bologna in 1660. He published a "Dictionary of Artists," (1704,) aiid a "History of Bolognese Writers," (1714.) Died in 1727. Orlandin. See Orlandini. Orlandini, oR-ldn-dee^iee, or Orlandin, oR-lin- deen', (Niccol6,) an Italian Jesuit and writer, born at Florence in 1554. He wrote a Life of Loyola, entitled " Ilistoria Societatis Jesu Pars I., sive Ignatius," (1615.) Died at Rome in 1606. Orlando di Lasso. See Lasso, di. Orlandus Lassus. See I>asso, di, Orlay, van, (Bernard.) See Orley. Orleans, (Charles,) Duke of. See Charles d'Or- leans. OrTe-ans, Duke of, [Fr. Due d'Orl^ans, diik doR'Ia'SN',] (Ferdinand Philippe Louis Charles Henri,) a French prince-royal, born at Palermo in 1810, was the eldest son of King Louis Philippe, He was educated at the College Henri IV., and in 1832 received a medal for his services to patients who had the cholera in the hospital. In 1837 he married Helena of Mecklenburg. He served with the rank of general in Algeria in several campaigns between 1835 and 1840. He was thrown from his carriage and killed, near Neuilly, in July, 1842. He left two sons, the Count of Paris and the Due de Chartres. See Adrien Pascal, "Vie militaire, politique et privee du Due d'Orleans," 1842 ; Jules Janin, " Le Prince royal," 1842 ; Lindall, " Biographie du Due d'Orleans," 1842; J. Mendelssohn, "Ferdi- nand Pliilipp Herzog von Orleans," 1S42 ; "Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Orleans, Maid of. See Joan of Arc. Orleans, d', (Gaston Jean Baptiste de France,) Due, a younger son of Henry IV. and Marie de Medicis, was born at Fontainebleau in 1608. He was created Due d'Orleans in 1626, and married Mademoiselle de Montpensier. In 1630 he was appointed lieutenant- general of the kingdom. He quarrelled with Richelieu, by whom, according to Voltaire, he was persecuted. In 1632 he raised an army against the king, Louis XIII., and was supported by the Duke of Montmorency. The latter having been defeated in battle, Gaston made peace with the court, and was pardoned ; but, when he learned that Montmorency was punished with death, he left France in anger. In 1642 he engaged in a conspiracy with Cinq-Mars and others against Richelieu, who detected the plot and induced Gaston to betray his accomplices or give evidence against them. At the death of Louis XIII., (1643,) Gaston was appointed lieutenant-general, and he commanded in several cam- paigns against the Spaniards. He took Gravelines in 1644, and Courtrai in 1646. In the civil war of the Fronde (1648-52) he displayed his usual inconstancy, and supported both sides by turns. He died, without male issue, in 1660. See Retz, " Memoires;" Richelieu, " Memoires." Orleans, d',(H^:LENE Louise Elisabeth,) Duchesse born at Ludwigslust in 1814, was a daughter of Frederick Lewis, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. She married the prince-royal of France«in 1837. After the abdication of Louis Philippe, February, 1848, she pre- sented herself, with her minor son, the Count of Paris, before the Chamber of Deputies, and made an unsuccess- ful effort to obtain the regency. She died at Richmond, in England, in 1858. See "La Vie de la Duchesse d'Orleans," (anonymous,) Paris 1858. Orleans, d', (Louis.) See D'Orl^:ans. Orleans, d', (Louis,) Due, the second son of Charles V. of France, and the head of the first house of Orleans, was born in 1371. He married Valentina Visconti, a daughter of the Duke of Milan. After his brother. S e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, hy d, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6> ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fJr, fill, fit; m&t; n6t; good; moon; ORLEANS 1711 ORLOF Charles VI., was rendered by insanity incapable of reign- ing, the kingdom was divided into two factions, of which the Duke of Orleans and the Duke of Burgundy were the rival chiefs. In 1407 the former was assassinated in Paris by Jean Sans Peur, Duke of Burgundy. A civil war followed between the Burgundians and Armagnacs, the latter of whom were partisans of the house of Orleans. Louis of Orleans left two sons, Charles and Jean. (See Charles d'Orl^ans, and Dunois.) Louis, third Duke of Orleans, the son of Charles just named, became king, as Louis XII. See Anselme, " Histoire genealogique de la Maison de France aux Dues d'Orleans." Orleans, d', (Louis,) Due, a son of Philippe, (1674- 1723,) noticed below, was born in 1703, and was noted for his Christian virtues. He retired to a monastery in 1742, devoted much time to literature, and died in 1752, leaving his title to his son, noticed in the next article. Orfeans, d', (Louis Philippe,) Due, a grandson of the regent d'Orleans, and son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1 725. He was the grandfather of Louis Philippe, King of the French. He served with distinc- tion at Dettingen in 1743, was made lieutenant-general in 1744, and fought at Fontenoy and at Hastenbeck in 1757. He died in 1785, leaving a son, Louis Philippe Joseph, surnamed Egalite. Orleans, d', (Louis Philippe Joseph,) Due, sur- named Egalit^, born at Saint-Cloud in 1747, was the son of the preceding, and was the first prince of the blood. He was styled the Due de Chartres during the life of his father, and married the daughter of the Due de Penthievre. His fortune was immense. He courted popularity with success, and became alienated from the royal family, who appear to have treated him ill. He signalized his courage in a sea-fight against the English near Ushant in 1 778. His Palais Royal in Paris became the focus of the ideas which caused the Revolution, and he came to be regarded as the chief of the popular party. In 1789 he was elected to the States-General, and, with the minority of the noblesse, joined the Tiers-Etat. The insurgents of July assumed the colours of his livery, — red, white, and blue. Some historians affirm that he instigated the attacks on the royal palace, and as]:)ired to the throne. Lamartine defends him from this charge, but admits that he remains an enigma to posterity. "Through lack of audacity or of ambition," says he, " the Duke of Orleans never took the attitude of the role that opinion assigned to him. He respected or he de- spised the throne. Either of these sentiments exalts him in the eyes of history." His popularity declined. Wish- ing to be reconciled to the king, he went to court in 1791, but was insulted by the courtiers. He then allied him- self with Danton for the subversion of the monarchy, renounced his title, assumed the name of Egalit^;, and voted for the death of the king. By order of the Con- vention, he was imprisoned at Marseilles in April, 1793, and in November of that year he was executed at Paris by the Jacobins, apparently without any just grounds. His son, Louis Philippe, became King of the French. See A. DucoiN, " fitudes revolutionnaires : Philippe d'Orleans figalite," 1S45 ; F. Backhaus, " Ludwig Philipp Joseph Orleans," etc., 184^ ; W. Cooke Taylor, " Memoirs of the House of Orleans," 1849; Thiers, "History of the French Revolution." Orleans, d', (Marie.) See Marie d'Orleans. Orleans, d', ( Philippe,) Due, the founder of the present house of Orleans, was born in 1640. He was the only brother of Louis XIV., and a nephew of Gas- ton, Duke of Orleans, whose title he received in 1660. He married Henrietta, daughter of Charles I. of Eng- land, in 1661. In IJ672 he joined the army, and distin- guished himself in several campaigns against the Dutch. He defeated the Prince of Orange (afterwards William III.) at the battle of Cassel, in 1677. His daughter Marie Louise became the queen of Charles II. of Spain. He died in 1701, leaving his title to his son, Philippe, Regent of France. See Saint-Simon, "Memoires;" Voltaire, " Si^cle de Louis XIV ;" W. Cooke Taylor, " Memoirs of the House of Orleans," 3 vols., 1849. Orleans, d', (Philippe,) Due, Regent of France, a son of the preceding, was born at Saint-Cloud in 1674. He received at his birth the title of Due de Chartres. He was endowed with superior talents, and made much progress in learning ; but his heart was corrupted by his tutor, the Abbe Dubois. He entered the army at the age of seventeen, and displayed courage and skill at Steenkerke and Neervvinden. In 1706 he was appointed commander of the army of Italy, and was defeated at Tinin by Prince Eugene. He had better success in Spain in 1707 and 1708. At the death of Louis XIV., in 1715, the Duke of Orleans became regent, with nearly absolute power, and in many respects reversed the policy of the government. His regency, though less despotic than the reign of Louis XIV., was a period of great profligacy in politics and morals. (See Louis XV.) The regent himself set the example of irreligion and licentiousness. He died in December 1 723. See L. B. Neel, "Histoire de Louis, Due d'Orleans," 1753; Saint-Simon, "Menioires;" La Motte, "Vie du Due d'Orleans," 1737; Marmontel, " Histoire de la Regence," 1805; Capefiguh, " Histoire de Philippe d'Orleans, Regent de France," 2 vols., 1838; Lemontey, "Histoire de la Regence," 2 vols., 1832; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Orleans, d', (Pierre Joseph.) See Dorl^;ans. Orley or Orlay, van, vtn or'II, (Bernard,) also called Barent of Brussels, an eminent Flemish painter, born in 1490. He studied at Rome under Raphael, in several of whose works he had a part. On his retin n to Brussels he was employed by Charles V. to execute a number of models for tapestry, which were chiefly hunting-scenes and landscapes of remarkable beauty. Among his best historical pieces are a " Holy Family," a "Last Judgment," and "The Saviour Lamented by his Friends." Died about 1560. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. ; Michiels, "Histoire de la Peinture Flamande," 1845; Weyerman, "De Schilderkonst der Nederlanders." Orley or Orlay, van, (RieHARD,) a Flemish painter, born at Brussels in 1652, was also an engraver. His design is said to be correct. Died at Brussels in 1732. His brother Jan, born about 1656, was a historical painter and engraver. Orlof, Orlov, or Orlow, oR-lof, (Alexis,) Count, a Russian admiral, born about 1736. He was remarkable for his large stature, personal strength, and audacity. In 1762 he was an accomplice in the conspiracy which made Catherine autocrat of Russia in place of her hus- band, Peter HI., whom he strangled with his own hands. He became an admiral, though he had not served in the marine, and commanded a naval expedition sent against the Turks, who were defeated by the Russians at Chesme in 1770. It is said that he ordered a Russian frigate to be blown up in 1772, merely to furnish a model to the painter, Hackert, whom he employed to paint the battle of Chesme. He died in 1808. Orlof, Orlov, or Orlow, (Alexis,) Count, a famous Russian diplomatist and general, born in 1787, was a son of Feodor, noticed below. He entered the army in his youth, and served as adjutant to the grand duke Constantine in the war against Bonaparte. In 1825 he commanded a regiment of guards in the capital, and gained the favour of the Czar Nicholas by his zeal and efficiency in suppressing a great revolt of the troops. He was created a count, and received a high command in the army. In 1829 he negotiated the treaty of Adri- anople, and was sent as ambassador to the Ottoman Porte. He was appointed commander of the army sent in 1833 to aid the Sultan against the Viceroy of Egypt, and negotiated the treaty of Unkiar-Skelesi. He was the intimate companion of Nicholas in his journey to England, Italy, and other countries. In 1856 he was the representative of Russia at the Congress of Paris, and signed a treaty of peace with France and England. He became in 1856 president of the Grand Council of the empire and ministry, — the highest functionary of Russia. Died in May, 1861. He left one son. Orlof, Orlov, or Orlow, (Feodor,) a Russian officer, born in 1741, was a brother of Alexis first above no- ticed, and father of the preceding. He distinguished himself in the war against the Turks, from whom he took Navarino in 1770, and afterwards rose to the rank of general-in-chief. Died in 1796. Orlof, Orlov, or Orlow, (Gregory,) a Russian cour- tier and general, born about 1734, was a brother of c as k; 5 as j; g hard; g as /; g, h, y.^ guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ORLOF 171 2 ORMUZD Alexis first above noticed. He served in the Seven Years' war, (1755-62,) and was one of the principal actors in the revolution which ;-aised Catherine 11, to the throne in July, 1762. About that time he became the favourite paramour of Catherine, and was appointed grand master of the artillery. It is stated that she pro- posed a secret marriage with him, but his ambition to reign with her as her acknowledged consort induced him to decline the offer. She was offended by this refusal, and supplied his place by a new favourite about 1772. Died in 1783. See Frf.uoenreich, "Die Familie OrlofF als Morder der Rus- sischen Kaiser," 1832. Orlof, Orlov, or Orlow, (Gregory,) Count, born in 1777, was a nephew of Alexis first above noticed. He lived many years in Paris and Italy. He published, in French, "Travels in Part of France," (1824,) and "Me- moirs, Historical, Political, and Literary, of the Kingdom of Naples." Died in 1826. Orlof, (Michael,) born in 1785, was a son of Feodor, noticed above. He served in several campaigns against Bonaparte, and in 1814 was one of the allied generals who received the capitulation of Paris. Having taken part in the secret associations formed in the Russian army in the latter part of Alexander's reign, he was dis- graced in 1825, and passed the rest of his life in a private station. Died in 184 1. Orlofski, Orlovski, or Orlowski, oR-lofskee, (Boris Ivanovitch,) a Russian sculptor, born in 1793, was sent by the government in 1822 to Italy, where he studied under Thorwaldsen. Among his master-pieces are a statue of " Paris with the Apple," (of Discord,) and a colossal bust of the emperor Alexander I. Died in 1837. Orlov. See Orlof. Orlow. See Orlof. Orme, orm, (Rowert,) a distinguished historian, of English extraction, born in 1728 at Anjengo, in Hin- dostan. He was appointed in 1754 a member of the Council at Fort Saint George, and was afterwards made a commissary and accountant-general. In this capacity he contributed greatly to establish British power in India, and on his recommendation the celebrated Clive obtained the military command in that country. He became historiographer to the East India Company, and in 1778 published his " History of the Military Trans- actions of the British in Hindostan." He also wrote *' Historical Fragments of the Mogul Empire of the Mahrattas," (1782.) Died in 1801. See "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1807. Orme, orm, (William,) a Scottish minister and biog- rapher, born at Falkirk about 1787. He published a "Life of John Owen, D.D.," (1820,) " Bibliotheca Bib- lica," a select list of books on sacred literature, etc., (1824,) which is highly esteemed, and a "Life of Richard Baxter," (1830.) Died in 1830. Ormea, d', doR-ma'3., (Carlo Francesco Vincenzo Ferrero — fer-ra'ro,) Marquis, an Italian statesman, born at Mondovi. He was the chief minister of Charles Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, from 1730 until his death. Died in 1745. See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XV." Ormesson, d', doR'ma'soN', (Henri Franqois de Paule le Fi:VRE,) a French financier, born in 1 751. He was appointed controller-general of the finances in 1783, and removed a few months later. He was very incompetent for that office. Died in 1807. Ormesson, d', (Louis Franqois de Paule le FivRE,) a French judge, born in 1718, was a son of the preceding, and a nephew of Chancellor d'Aguesseau. He became first president of the Parliament of Paris in 1788. Died in 1789. Or'mond, (James Butler,) first Duke of, an eminent statesman, born of an ancient Irish family in London in 1610, was the eldest son of Thomas Butler, Viscount Thurles. On the death of his grandfather, in 1632, he succeeded him as Earl of Ormond. The next year he went to Ireland, and became the friend and confidential adviser of the Earl of Strafford. In 1641 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army designed to suppress the Irish rebellion. He showed himself an able general, and defeated the rebels at Kilrush and Ross. He adhered constantly to the king during the civil war, and in 1644 was appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland, then a prey to fierce factions. He was com- pelled to surrender Dublin to the English Parliament in 1647, and retired to France. Ormond was a favoured companion and adviser of Charles II. in his exile, and soon after his restoration he was created Duke of Ormond. In 1662 he was again chosen lord lieutenant of Ireland, which he governed with wisdom until 1668. In 1670 he was seized in Lon- don by a ruffian named Blood, who bound him and designed to hang him at Tyburn ; but the duke was rescued by his servants. He died in 1688. He had a son who was Earl of Ossory, and a daughter who was married to the Earl of Chesterfield. "His claims on the royal gratitude," says Macaulay, " were superior to those of any other subject." See Thomas Carte, " History of the Life of James, Duke of Ormond," 3 vols., 1736: Hume, " History of England ;" Claren- don, " History of the Rebellion." Ormond, (James Butler,) second Duke of, born in Dublin in 1665, was a grandson of the preceding, and a son of the Earl of Ossory. He succeeded to the duke- dom in 1688, and in the same year joined the standard of the Prince of Orange, who afterwards treated him with favour and confidence. He commanded the Life Guards at the battle of the Boyne, (1690,) and fought several ensuing campaigns in Flanders. From 1703 to 1706 he was Viceroy of Ireland, and in 1712 was appointed commander-in-chief of the British army in place of Marlborough. In compliance with secret orders from the ministry, he declined to co-operate with the allies against the French in Flanders. For this offence he was impeached by the Whigs in 171 5, and, having escaped to France, was attainted. He then became a partisan of the Pretender, and obtained command of an armament which Spain sent against England, and which was dispersed by a storm. He died in exile in 1745. Ormuzd, or'miizd or or'mdozd, [Gr. 'Q,pojLiua(h/c ; Lat. Oromas'des, the Ahura-Mazda of the Zend-Avesta,] written also Ormusd and Hormuzd, in the religion of the ancient Persians, the principle of light, purity, truth, and goodness, as opposed to Ahriman, (MVre- min',) [in Latin, Arima'nes or Arima'nius,] the prin- ciple of evil and darkness. Ormuzd was considered to be the creator of whatever was good or beautiful in the universe. He not only created the world of light, including the firmament and all the heavenly luminaries, but also various orders of celestial or angelic beings, among which were the Amshaspands, presiding over the various kingdoms of the universe : one, for ex- ample, is the king of light, another the spirit of fire and of life ; after these are the king of metals, the king of the seasons, and, lastly, the creator and protector of trees, flocks, and herds. Among the Amshas])ands is reckoned also Sapandomad, the daughter of Ormuzd, and the mother of the human race. The next order of beings are the Izeds, who have charge of particular portions of nature. Some of these are male and some female. Of the Izeds, the most worthy of mention is Mithra or Mithras, the god of day, who presides over the light which mortals enjoy on earth. He is often identified with the sun ; but he is more properly regarded as a being distinct and separate from the latter. Below the Izeds are the Fervers, who may be regarded as the original patterns or prototypes of all inferior beings. They are emanations from the essence of Ormuzd. Ac- cording to Zoroaster, an incomprehensible being named Zeruane- (or Zervane-) Akerene (or "time without bounds") created both Ormuzd and Ahriman. The latter was originally pure, but, becoming envious of Ormuzd, he created orders of evil beings (Devs, or demons) cor- responding to the celestial orders of Ormuzd. And in every part of the universe, even to the minutest particle of matter, the principle of Evil opposes the principle of Good. But after a certain period the power of Ahriman will be utterly overthrown, and all evil will come to an end. Some say Ahriman will be destroyed ; others, that he will continue to exist, without the power to do evil. See GuiGNiAUT, " Religions de I'Antiquitc," vol. i. book ii. a, e, 1, o, u, y, /ou£-; k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ia, y, s^ort; a, e, j, o, obscure; fSr, Ell, fit; mll\ n6t; good; nidot; ORNANO 1713 ORSINI Ornano, d', doR-ni'no, called Sampierro, (sSm-pe- Sr'ro,) a general, born in Italy in 1497, entered the French army in 1533. In 1553 he defeated the Genoese in Corsica, which was annexed to France in 1557. Henr}^ II. having restored it to the Genoese about 1560, D"Or- nano invaded that island in 1564 and conquered part of it. He was assassinated in 1567. See " Noiivelie Biogranhie Geiierale." Ornano, d', (Alphonse,) a son of the preceding, was born in 1548. He fought against the Huguenots in the civil wars of France, and afterwards rendered military services to Henry IV., who raised him to the rank of marshal of France. Died in i6io. His son, Jean Bap- TISTE, born in 1583, became a marshal of France. He was imprisoned by Richelieu, and died in prison in 1626. See De Thou, "Memoires." Ornano, d', (Philippe Antoine,) Count, a French general, born at Ajaccio in 1784. His mother was Isa- belle Bonaparte. He obtained the rank of colonel for his conduct at Jena, (1806,) and became a general of brigade in 1811. As a general of division, he distin- guished himself at the battle of Borodino, (1812,) and commanded the cavalry of the guard at Dresden, Baut- zen, and Leipsic, in 1813. He obtained the dignity of senator in 1852, and became a marshal of France in 1861. Died in 1863. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale. ' Orobio, o-ro'be-o, (Baltasar,) a learned Spanish few, was professor of philosophy at Salamanca. He was the author of a work entitled " Certamen Phiio- sophicum," being a refutation of the doctrines of Spi- noza. Died in 1687. O-ro'des I., King of Parthia, a son of Phraates III., began to reign about 56 B.C. He is also styled Arsaces XIV. His dominions were invaded by the Roman gen- eral Crassus, who was defeated with great loss by the Parthians, near Carrhae, in 53 B.C. About 40 B.C. he sent an army under his son Pacorus to fight against Mark Antony, (See P.\coRUS.) See Dion Cassius. "History of Rome;" Plutarch, "Antony;" Saint-Martin, " Memoires historiques, etc sur I'Armenie." Oromasdes. See Or.muzd. Oronce. See Fine. Orontius. See Fine. Orose, (Paul.) See Orosius Paulus. O-ro'si-us Pau'lus, [Fr. Paul Orose, pol o'roz',] a Latin historian and Christian presbyter, who lived about 410-30 A.D., was a native of Tarragona, in Spain. He was a friend of Saint Augustine and Saint Jerome, and in several theological treatises opposed the doctrines of Origen and Pelagius. His principal work is entitled " Historiarum Libri VII. adversos Paganos," being a defence of Christianity against pagan writers, who as- serted that since the overthrow of the old religion the world had suffered greater calamities. This history, though deficient in accuracy, contains much important information, and quotes from various authors whose writings are not extant. Among the translations of this work is one made by Alfred, King of England. See Ceillier, " Histoire des Auteurs ecclesiastiques ;" Bahr, "Geschichte der Romischen Literatur ;" Vossifs, " De Historicis Latinis ;" Morner, "De Orosii Vita," 1844. Orphee. See Orpheus. Orpheus, or'fus or or'fe-us, [Gr. 'OpoeiV ,• Fr. Orphee, OR'fi'; It. Orfeo, oR-fa'o,] a mythical or semi-fabulous personage, who was celebrated in the legends of the ancient Greeks as a poet, musician, and inventor. His name does not occur in the poems of Homer or Hesiod, but is mentioned by Ibycus, Euripides, and Aristophanes. Plato refers to Orpheus and his works, calls him the son of CEagrus, and ascribes to him the origin of religious mysteries. He is supposed to have lived in Thrace not long before the Trojan war, or about 1200 B.C. Ac- cording to tradition, Apollo presented him with a lyre, with which he enchanted wild beasts, trees, etc., lulled asleep the dragon that guarded the golden fleece, and rendered other important services in the Argonautic expedition. Virgil has commemorated in an admirable episode of his "Georgics" (book iv.) the descent of Or- pheus to the infernal regions after his lost Eurydice. (See Eurydice.) The poets relate that he was torn in pieces by Thracian women in their Bacchanalian orgies, because he neglected their sex or treated their charm."* with contempt. See TiEDEMANN, " Griechenlands erste Philosophen ; oder Le- ben und Systeme des Orpheus," etc., 1780; Gkote, "History of Greece ;" Ulrici, " Geschichte der Hellenischen Dichtkunst." Orr, (James L.,) an American lawyer and politician, born at Craytonville, South Carolina, in 1822. He represented a district of that State in Congress from 1848 to i860. He was elected Speaker of the House of Representatives by the Democrats in December, 1857. In the Convention of South Carolina held December, i860, he voted for secession. He was one of three com- missioners sent by South Carolina to Washington to negotiate in the winter of 1860-61. In February, 1862, he was elected a Senator of the Confederate States. He was elected Governor of South Carolina in October, 1865. Orrente, or-r§n'ti, (Pedro,) a Spanish painter, born in Murcia about 1550. Among his finest productions are a "Saint Sebastian" and a "Nativity." Died in 1644. See QuiLLiET, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." Orrery, Earl of. See Boyle, (Robert,) and Boyle, (Charles.) Orrizonte. See Bloemen, (John Francis.) Orry, o're', (Philibert,) Count de Vignori, a French ; financier, born at Troyes in 1689. He was controller- I general of the finances from 1 730 to 1745. Died in 1747. I Orsato, oR-si'to, (Giambattista,) an Italian anti- quary and physician, born at Padua in 1673 ; died in 1720. Orsato, [Lat. Ursa'tus.] (Sertorio.) an Italian antiquary, born at Padua in 161 7. He published, among other treatises, " De Notis Romanorum Commenta- rius," (1672,) or an explanation of the abbreviations used by the Romans, and a "History of Padua," (1678.) The former work is highly esteemed by antiquaries. Died in 1678. See Fabkoni, "Vita; Italorum doctrina excellentium." Orsay, d', dor'sk', [Fr. pron. doR'si',] (Alfred Guil- laume Gabriel,) Count, an artist and leader of fashion, distinguished for his rare accomplishments and his fasci- nating manners, was born in France in 1801. He married in 1827 Lord Blessington's daughter, from whom he separated a few years later. He became an intimate friend of Lady Blessington, in whose house he lived many years, (in London.) His wit, his amiable temper, and his brilliant personal qualities rendered him a general favourite. Among his friends were Lord Byron, (of whom he produced a good portrait,) Sir Edward Bulwer, and Napoleon III. Died in 1852. See "Gentleman's Magazine" for September, 1852: Dr. R. R. Madden, "Literary Life and Correspondence of the Countess of Blessington," 3 vols., London, 1855. Orseolo, oR-si-o'lo, or Urseolo, ooR-si-o'lo, (Otto,) Doge of Venice, was a son of Piero II., noticed below. He was elected doge in 1009, and was banished in 1026. Died in 1032. Orseolo or Urseolo, (Piero I.,) was elected Doge of Venice in 976. He gained a victory over the Sara- cens in Apulia, and established a regular financial sys- tem. Died in 987. Orseolo or Urseolo, (Piero II.,) an able Venetian commander, a son of the preceding, became Doge of Venice in 991. He conquered Dalmatia, and annexed it to the republic. Died in 1009. See Daru, " Histoire de Venise." Orsi, oR'see, (Giovanni Giuseppe,) Marquis, an Italian author, born at Bologna in 1652, wrote verses and several prose works, among which is " De Moralibus Criticae Regulis Monita," (1706.) Died in 1733. Orsi, (Giuseppe Agostino,) an Italian cardinal, born at Florence in 1692. His principal work is an "Eccle- siastical History of the First Six Centuries of the Church," (20 vols., 1746 et seq.) Died in 1761. See Fabroni, " Vitje Italorum doctrina excellentium." Orsi, (Lelto,. or Lelio da Novellara — dl no-vel- li'ri,) an Italian painter, born in Lombardy in 1 511. His copy of Correggio's " Night" is greatly admired. Died in 1587. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Orsini, oR-see'nee, the name of an illustrious and powerful Italian family, which for many years was hos- tile to the house of Colonna. Giovanni Gaetani Or- < asi; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; as in this. (2l^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 108 ORSINI 1714 OSCEOLA SINI was made pope in 1277, under the name of Nicholas III. In 1503 Francesco and Paolo ORSiNiwere assas- sinated by order of Caesar Borgia, and about the same time Cardinal Orsini was poisoned at Rome by Pope Alexander VI. Orsini, (Felice,) an Italian revolutionist, born at Meldola in 1819. He took an active part in the revolu- tionary movements of 1848, after which he continued to conspire against the government. He was confined in prison at Mantua about 1854, but escaped in 1856 and went to England. He was the chief of a band of con- spirators who attempted to assassinate Napoleon III, in January, 1858, by bombs or explosive apparatus. He was executed in March, 1858. Orsini, (Fulvio.) See Ursinus Fulvius. Orsini, Pope. See Benedict XIH. Orsted. See Oersted. Orta, (Garcia da.) See Horto. Ortega, oR-ta'gS, (Casimtr Gomez,) a Spanish bot- anist, born at Madrid in 1730. He published an Ele- mental Course of Botany," and other treatises of the kind. The name of Ortegia has been given to a genus of plants. Died in 1810. Ortelius, van, vtn or-ta'le-us, Ortel, or Oertel, OR'tel, (Abraham,) an eminent geographer and mathe- matician, apparently of German extraction, was born at Antwerp in 1527. After travelling in England and on the continent, he published in 1570 his "Universal Geography," (" Theatrum Orbis Terrarum,") and in 1575 was appointed geographer to Philip II. He was an intimate friend of Mercator, Justus Lipsius, and other eminent men of the time. Besides the above-mentioned work, which is still highly valued, and which obtained for its author the name of the " Ptolemy of his age," Oertel wrote several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1598. See F. SwEERT, " Insignium ejus ^vi Poetariim Lacrymas in Obitum A. Ortelii," 1601. Ortigne, d', doR^t^g', (Joseph Louis,) a French jour- nalist and writer on nmsic, born at Cavaillon in 1802. He became professor de chant at the College Henri IV., Paris, in 1839. Ortigue, d', (Pierre,) a French novelist, born at Apt in 1610. He wrote several novels, and " The Art of Pleasing in Conversation," (1688.) Died in 1693. Ortiz, oR-t6th', (Alonzo,) a Spanish historian and theologian, born at Toledo, lived in the early part of the sixteenth century. See TiCKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature." Ortolan, oR^to'lSN', ( Joseph Louis Elz^ar, ) a French jurist, born at Toulon (Var) in 1802. He pub- lished in 1827 his principal work, a "Historical Expli- cation of the Institutes of Justinian," (3 vols.,) which is considered classic in several universities of Europe. Or'ton, (Job,) an English nonconformist minister, born at Shrewsbury in 171 7. He preached at Shrews- bury about twenty-four years, and removed to Kid- derminster about 1766. He wrote "Memoirs of Dr. Doddridge," " Sacramental Meditations," and other re- ligious works. Died in 1783. Orton, (Reginald,) an English surgeon and medical writer, born in 1810. He practised at Sunderland, where he died in September, 1862. Orts, oRts, (Charles,) a Belgian politician, born at Brussels about 181 5. He is an orator of the Liberal party. Orus. See Horus. Orville, d', doR'vel', (Jacques Philippe,) a distin- guished critic and scholar, born at Amsterdam in 1696, was descended from a French family. After having visited England, Italy, and Paris, where he acquired the friendship of Bentley, Muratori, Montfaucon, and other eminent men, he became professor of humanities at Amsterdam about 1730. He published a number of valuable criticisms on the classics, and a " Dissertation on the Inscriptions of Delos," which is particularly esteemed. Died in 1751. Orvilliers, d', doR'v^'ye-i', ( Louis Guillouet, ) Count, a French admiral, \vas born at Moulins in 1708. He commanded a large fleet which fought an indecisive battle against the English under Keppel, near Ushant, in 1778." Died after 1791. See SiSMONDi, " Histoire des Fran^ais." Orzechowski, oR-zi-Kov'skee, [Lat. Orich(/vius,] (Stanislaus,) a Polish orator and historian, born in 1 5 13, studied theology under Luther at Wittenberg. He wrote, besides other works, " Annals of Poland from the Death of Sigismund," ("Annales Poloniae," etc., 1611.) Died in 1567. Os, van, vtn oss, (Jan,) a Dutch artist, born at Mid- delharnis in 1744, excelled as a fruit- and flower-painter. He was regarded as the most successful imitator of Van Huysum, Died in 1808, His son Pieter Gerardus, born at the Hague in 1776, painted landscapes with animals of various kinds, which are esteemed master- pieces. Died in 1839. Georg Jacob Jan, younger brother of Pieter, was born in 1782, and gained a high reputation as a flower-painter. He visited France in 1812, where he painted for the porcelain-manufactory at Sevres. In 1850 one of his flower-pieces sold at Am- sterdam for four thousand five hundred florins. Osaibia, o-si'be-a, or, more fully, Ibn-Abi-Osaibia, ib'n i'bee o-si'be-J, written also Osaiba, an Arabian physician, born in 1203. He practised at Sarchad, in Syria, and wrote " Fontes Relationum de Classibus Medicorum," which contains biographical notices of many ancient physicians, and is highly commended. Died in 1269. Osann, o-z^n', (Emil,) a German physician, born at Weimar in 1787, was a relative of the celebrated Hufe- land. After filling various professorships, he became in 1838 priw councillor of medicine at Berlin. He wrote several treatises on mineral waters. Died in 1842. Osann, (Friedrich Gotthilf,) a German antiquary and philologist, born at Weimar in 1794. In 1825 he became professor of ancient literature at Giessen. Among his most important works we may name his "Contributions to the History of Greek and Roman Literature," (2 vols., 1835-39.) Died in 1858. Osbeck, os'blk, (Peter,) a Swedish naturalist and traveller, born. near Gottemburg in 1723. He published a "Journal of a Voyage to the East Indies," (1757,) which is a work of merit. Died in 1805. Os'born, (John,) an American physician, born in 1766. He was professor of medicine in the city of New York. Died in 1819. Osborn, (Selleck,) an American poet and journalist, born in Connecticut in 1783 ; died in 1826. Os'born, (Sherard,) Captain, a British naval officer and writer, born about 1820. He wrote, besides other works, " The Career, Last Voyage, and Fate of Sir John Franklin." Osborne, oz'burn, (Francis,) an English writer, born in Bedfordshire about 1589, was an adherent of Crom- well in the civil war. His " Advice to a Son," published in 1659, was very popular at the time. He also wrote several historical and biographical works. Died in 1659. See Wood, "Atliense Oxonienses." Osborne, oz'burn, (George,) a composer and pianist, born at Limerick, Ireland, in 1806, Osborne, (Ralph Bernal,) an English Liberal mem- ber of Parliament, noted for his wit and facetious speeches. He entered the House of Commons in 1841, was returned for Middlesex in 1847, for Dover in 1857.. for Liskeard in 1859, and for Waterford in 1870. Osborne, (Sir Thomas.) See Danby, Earl of. Os'car or Os'kar I., King of Sweden, born in Paris in 1799, was the son of General Bernadotte, (Carl XIV. of Sweden.) He married Josephine, a daughter of Eugene de Beauharnais, in 1823, and acted as regent during the illness of his father in 1828. He succeeded his father in March, 1844. His reign was pacific. Died in 1859. See G. H. Mkllin, "Oscar I. Historia," 1844; " Fraser's Maga- zine" for February, 1848. Os-ge-oTa or As-se-ho'lar Nik-kan-o'chee, some- times written Oceola, an Indian chief of the Semi- noles, born in Florida in 1803. His wife having been claimed as a slave, and carried off by order of a slave- holder, in 1835, Osceola declared war against the whites, and, after fighting two years with varying success, was taken prisoner and confined in Fort' Moultrie, where he died in 1837. See a " Narrative of the Early Days, etc. of Osceola Nikkanochee," by his guardian. i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure] fir, fill, fit; mSt; nftt; good; moon • OSCVLATI 1715 OSSAT Osculati, os-koo-li'tee, (Gaetano,) an Italian natu- ralist and traveller, born at Vedano, in Lombardy, in 1808. He visited many countries of Asia, Africa, and South America, between 1830 and 1848. He published a work called " Exploration of the Equatorial Region near the Napo," (1854.) Osee, the French for HosEA, which see. Oserof, Oserov, or Oserow, o's§r-of, (Vladtslaf Alexandrovitch,) a Russian dramatist, born in 1770. Among his best works are the tragedies of " Polixena," " Fingal," and "The Death of Olga." He also pub- lished a collection of lyric poems. Died in 1816. See Gretch, " Essai sur I'Histoire de la Litterature Russe." Os'good, (David,) D.D., an American Congrega- tional divine, born at Andover, Massachusetts, in 1747, settled as pastor at Medford, where he preached many years. Died in 1822. Osgood, (Frances Sargent,) an American poetess, born at Boston about 1812. At an early age she con- tributed a number of poems to the " Juvenile Miscellany," edited by Mrs. L. M. Child, and subsequently wrote for the " Ladies' Magazine." She was married in 1835 to Mr. S. S. Osgood, a distinguished artist. While re- siding with her husband in London, she published a col- lection of poems entitled " A Wreath of Wild Flowers from New England," which were favourably received. After her return she edited the souvenirs entitled " The Floral Offering" and "The Poetry of Flowers." Died in 1850. See Griswold, " Female Poets of America ;" Cleveland, "Compendium of American Literature." Osgood, (Samuel,) born at Andover, Massachusetts, in 1748, was elected to Congress in 1781. He was ap- pointed first commissioner of the treasury, (1785,) post- master-general, (1789,) and naval officer for the port of New York, (1803.) Died in 1813. Osgood, (Samuei,,) D.D., an American Unitarian divine, born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 181 2, became pastor of the Church of the Messiah, New York, in 1849. He has published " Studies iif Chris- tian Biography," (1851,) "God with Men," (1854,) and " Milestones in our Life-Journey," (1855.) He has also made translations from the German, and contributed to the " North American Review," " Christian Examiner," and "Bibliotheca Sacra." Osiander, o-ze-in'der, (Andreas,) originally Hose- mann, a German theologian, and one of the first schol- ars of his time, was born near Nuremberg in 1498. He was a devoted adherent of Luther, and was present at the Conference of Marburg in 1529, and at the Diet of Augs- burg in 1530. He became subsequently professor of theology in the University of Konigsberg. About 1549 he engaged in a controversy on the nature of repentance and other points of doctrine with Martin Chemnitz and Melanchthon. He died in 1552, leaving a number of theological and controversial treatises. See WiLKEN, " Andreas Osianders Leben," 1844 ; M. Adam, "Vitje Theologorum Germanorimi." Osiander, (Andreas,) a son of Lucas, noticed below, was born in 1562. He was chancellor of the University of Tubingen, and wrote several works on theology. Died in 1617. Osiander, (Johann Adam,) born at Tubingen in 1626, was professor of theology in that city. He wrote a Commentary on the Pentateuch, (1676-78,) and on other books of Scripture. Died in 1697. Osiander, (Johann Adam,) a philologist, born at Tiibingen in 1 701, was a grandson of the preceding. Died in 1756. Osiander, (Lucas,) the Elder, a son of Andreas, (1498-1552,) was born at Nuremberg in 1534. He was apjwinted in 1567 court preacher to Duke- Frederick of Wiirtemberg, and published several polemical treatises. Died in 1604. Osiander, (Lucas,) the Younger, a son of the pre- ceding, was born at Stuttgart about 1570. He became chancellor of the University of Tiibingen. His writings are chiefly controversial. Died in 1638. Osinski, o-s^ns'kee, (Lewis,) a distinguished Polish poet and litterateur^ born in 1775. He published in 1804 an excellent translation of Corneille's tragedies into Polish. Among his poems, which are highly esteemed, we may name the "Ode to Copernicus." Died in 1838. Osio, o'se-o, [Lat. O^'sius,] (Felice,) an Italian litte- rateur^ born at Milan in 1587, was professor of rhetoric in the University of Padua in 162 1. He pul)lished, among other works, a "Eulogy of Illustrious Writers," and a number of "Orations." Died in 1631. O-si'ris, [Gr. 'Oaes, was born at Fano, in Upland, June 16, 1583. He was educated at Jena and Wittenberg. At the age of twenty-six he was chosen a senator, after a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mgt; ndt; good; moon; OXENSTIERN 1723 PACCA having been employed in important negotiations. In 161 1 Gustavus Adolphus appointed him chancellor of Sweden, or prime minister. The prudence, zeal, and profound combinations of Oxenstiern contributed greatly to the success of the Swedish hero. After Gustavus was killed, in 1632, the chancellor was invested with full power by the senate, and prosecuted the war against the Emperor of Germany. He was recognized as the head of the Protestant league, which gained several vic- tories under his direction. During the minority of Queen Christina he governed Sweden with ability, restored the finances to good order, and patronized learning. He was prime minister after Christina began to reign, (1645,) and strenuously opposed her abdication. He died in August, 1654. Oxenstiern was the author of the often- quoted observation, addressed to his son, " You do not know, my son, with how little wisdom the world is governed," (" Nescis, mi fili, quantilla prudentia homi- nes regantur.") He was the reputed author of the second volume of " Historia Belli Sueco-Germanici," (" History of the Swedish-German War,") of which Chemnitz wrote the first volume. He was considered an equal match for Richelieu in diplomacy. He had two sons, John and Erik, who obtained high offices in the public service. See J. F. LuNDBLAD, " Svensk Plutarch," 2d vol., 1826-31 ; JoHAN Gezemus, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver A. Oxenstierna," 1774; C. P. Hagberg, " Areminne ofver A. Oxenstierna," 1808; Puffen- DORF, "De Rebus Suecicis ;" Geijer, " Histoire de la_ Suede ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Richelieu, " Memoires ;" E. GvLLENSTOLPE, " Areminne ofver A. Oxenstierna," 1777. Oxenstiern, (Benedict,) an able Swedish statesman, of the same family as the preceding, was born in 1623. He was appointed governor of Warsaw by Charles X., after whose death (1660) he returned to Sweden and had great influence in the government. About 1672 he obtained the confidence of Charles XL, who appointed him chancellor and chief minister. The pacific system of Oxenstiern was disturbed by the death of Charles XL, in 1697. After Charles XIL had defeated the Danes and conquered Poland, Oxenstiern advised him to make peace, in a memoir which is called a master-piece of wisdom. Died in 1702. See ScHi.ozER, " Schwedische Biographie." Oxenstiern, (Erik,) a son of the celebrated states- man, was born in 1624. He became a senator in 1652, and vice-chancellor in 1654, soon after which he con- ducted negotiations with the Elector of Brandenburg. Died in 1656. Oxenstiern, (Johan,) a brother of the preceding, was born at Stockholm in 161 1. He entered the army, and oljtained the rank of colonel. About 1639 he was raised to the dignity of senator. He was employed for several years as minister-plenipotentiary in Germany, and represented Sweden in the negotiations which re- sulted in the peace of Westphalia, (1648.) Died at Weimar in 1657. Oxenstierna. See Oxenstiern. Oxenstierna, oks'en-shlR'ni, (Gabriel Thureson,) a Swedish diplomatist, born at Stockholm in 1641. He wrote, in French, a " Collection of Thoughts," (" Recueil de Pensees," 1725.) Died in 1707. Oxford, Eakl of. See De Vere, (Edward,) and Harley, (Rohert.) Ox-y-ar'tes or Ox-ar'tes, [Gr. 'O^yapr??^,] a Bactrian chief, whose daughter Roxana was married to Alexander the Great. This king appointed him satrap of Paropa^ misus. Died after 316 B.C. Ozanam, o''zt'n6N', (Antoine Fr^d^ric,) a French scholar and elegant writer, born at Milan in 1813. He became a good classical scholar, and studied law. In 1844 he succeeded Fauriel as professor of foreign litera- tur-e at the Sorbonne, Paris. He attained eminence as a lecturer, and published, besides other works, " Dante and the Catholic Philosophy in the Thirteenth Century," (1839,) and "£tudes Germaniques pour servir a I'His- toire des Francs," (2 vols., 1847-49.) Died in Septem- ber, 1853. See Lacordaire, "Notice sur A. F. Ozanam," prefixed to his collected works, 8 vols., 1S55; Legeay, " fitude biographique sur Ozanam," 1854; J. J. Ampere, "Notice biographique sur A. F. Ozanam," 1853; Collombet, "Biographie de F. Ozanam," 1853. Ozanam, (J. A. F.,) a French physician, born in Bresse in 1772, was the father of the preceding. He published a " History of Epidemic Diseases," (5 vols., 1817-23.) Died at Lyons in 1836. Ozanam, (Jacques,) a distinguished French mathe- matician, born at Bouligneux in 1640. Among his nu- merous and useful treatises are " Mathematical Diction- ary," (1691,) "Mathematical and Physical Recreations," (1694,) and "Theoretical and Practical Perspective," (171 1.) He taught mathematics in Paris, where he died in 1717. See Fontenelle, "filoge d'Ozanam." Ozaneaux, o'zt'n5', (Jean George,) a French writer of prose and verse, was born in Paris in 1 795. He wrote a " History of France," (2 vols., 1846,) which gained a prize of the French Academy, and "Erreurs poetiques," (3 vols., 1849.) Died in 1852. Ozanne, o'ztn', (Nicolas Marie,) a French designer and engraver, born at Brest in 1728 ; died in Paris in 1811. O-zell', (John,) an English litterateur, of French ex- traction, was contemporary with Pope, who has given him a place in the " Dunciad." He made translations from Racine, Moliere, and Boileau, and from several Italian and Spanish writers. Died in 1743. See Gibber, " Lives of the Poets." Ozeretskofsko or Ozeretzkovsko, o-zeh-ret-skof - sko, sometimes written Ozeretzkoffsky, (Nicholas,) a Russian scientific writer, born about 1750. He wrote several treatises on zoology, botany, mineralogy, etc. Died about 1827. P. Paalzow, von, fon pSlt'so, (Auguste,) a German lady, born at Berlin in 1788, was a sister of the painter Wach. She was the author of a popular romance, entitled "Godwie Castle," (1836,) and other fictitious works. Died in 1847. Paas. See Pass. Paaw, (Cornelis.) See Pauw. Paaw, pS'oo or pow, (Pieter,) a Dutch physician and naturalist, born at Amsterdam in 1564, was professor of medicine at Leyden, where he also founded the botanic garden. He published several valuable treatises on botany and anatomy. Died in 161 7. Pabodie, pal/o-de, (William Jewett,) an American poet, born at Providence, Rhode Island, about 181 2. He has published " Calidore, a Legendary Poem," and a number of smaller pieces. Pabst, pSpst, (Heinrich Wilhelm,) a German agriculturist, born near Lauterbach, in Hesse, in 1798. He published, besides other works, a " Treatise on Rural Economy," (5th edition, i860.) Pabst, (Johann Heinrich,) a German philosopher, born at Lindau, in Thuringia, in 1785. Among his works is "Man and his History," (1830.) Died in 1837. Pa'ca, (William,) one of the signers of the Ameri- can Declaration of Independence, was born in Harford county, Maryland, in 1740. He was elected to the Con- gress of 1774, and continued in this office till 1778. He became Governor of Maryland in 1782, and in 1789 was appointed judge of the district court of the United States for Maryland. Died in 1799. See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- pendence." Pacatianus, pa-ka-she-a'nus, [Fr. Pacatien, pt'- kt'se4,N^] (Titus Claudius Marcellus,) a Roman emperor, whose existence is indicated only by medals. It is si»pposed that he assumed the title in 249 A.D. Pacatien. See Pacatianus. Pacatus. See Drepanius. Pacca, p^k'kS, (Bar tolommeo,) an Italian cardinal, born at Benevento in 1756. He became papal secretary € as /ft; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (2!:^=°See Explanations, p. 23.) PACCARD 1724 PACT HOD of state [i.e. prime minister) in 1808, and was imprisoned about three years by Napoleon, (1809-12.) Died in 1844. He wrote " Historical Memoirs," which have been pub- lished, (London, 1850.) See Aktaud de Montor, " Notice sur le Cardinal B. Pacca," 1846. Paccard, pt'ktR', (Alexis,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1813. He gained the grand prize in 1841. Paochiarotto, pik-ke-i-rot'to, (Jacopo,) an eminent Italian painter, born at Sienna in the fifteenth century. /He painted in oil and fresco with equal success. His 'style resembles that of Perugino. Among his best works in oil are an "Ascension," a "Nativity of the Virgin," and a Madonna, (at Munich.) His frescos may be seen at Sienna. His heads are greatly admired. To escape the penalty of a political conspiracy, he left Sienna in 1535, and fled to France. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- ing in Italy." Pacchioni, pik-ke-o'nee, (Antonio,) an able Italian anatomist, born at Reggio in 1665. He removed to Rome about 1700, and was associated in the scientific labours of Lancisi. Died at Rome in 1726. His writings were published under the title of " Opera Omnia," ( 1 741.) Paccioli, pat-cho'lee, or Pacioli, pd-cho'lee, (Luca,) an Italian mathematician and monk, born at Borgo San Sepolcro about 1450, was often called LucA di Borgo or DE BuRGO. He taught at Perugia, Rome, Naples, Pisa, and Venice. His chief work is " Summa de Arith- metica, Geometria, Proportioni," etc., (1494,) — the first printed book in which the method of keeping accounts by double entry was explained. He also wrote a work " On Divine Proportion," (" De Divina Proportione," 1509,) the plates of which were engraved by his friend Leonardo da Vinci. He was living in 1509. See TiRABOSCHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Pace, [Lat. Pa'ceus,] (Richard,) an English nego- tiator and priest, born in or near Winchester about 1482. He was employed in important missions by Henry VHL, and sent to Rome about 1521 by Wolsey to urge his claims to the papacy. He was a friend of Erasmus, who addressed several letters to him. Pace obtained the deanery of Saint Paul's, London, about 1520, and other benefices. He incurred the ill will of Wolsey, by whom he was confined in the Tower for two years, and became insane. Died in 1532. Pacetti, p^-chet'tee, (Camillo,) an Italian sculptor, born in Rome about 1760, became professor of sculpture in Milan. Died in 1827. Paceus. See Pace, (Richard.) Pache, ptsh, (Jean Nicolas,) a French revolutionist, born in Paris in 1746. He was controller of the king's household under the ministry of Necker. In October, 1792, he was appointed minister of war by the influence of the Girondists, who removed him in February, 1793, because he had joined the Jacobin party. He was elected mayor of Paris in the spring of 1793, and took a prominent part in the ruin of the Girondists. Died in 1823. Pacheco, pi-cha'ko, (Francisco,) an eminent Span- ish painter and writer, born at Seville in 1 571, was a pupil of Luis Fernandez. He opened an academy in Seville in 1611, and was appointed painter to King Philip IV. after 1625. He designed well, and is com- mended for simplicity, but he was not a good colorist. Among his chief works are "The Last Judgment," "Daedalus and Icarus," and " The Archangel Michael expelling Satan from Paradise." He wrote a treatise on the art of painting, entitled " Arte de la Pintura," (1649,) which is highly esteemed. Among his pupils were Alonzo Cano and Velasquez. Died in 1654. See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" Cean-Ber- MUDEZ, " Diccionario Historico." Pacheco, (Maria.) See Padilla. Pa'-ehes, [Gr. na;tW»l an Athenian general, com- manded the army which took Mitylene in 427 B.C. Pa-eho'mi-us, [Gr. Uaxdnioq ; Fr. Pacome, pfkom',] an Egyptian ascetic of the fourth century, was born in the Thebaid. He is reputed the founder of regular monastic communities, or the first who prescribed fixed rules of life to the monks and nuns. He founded a monastery at Tabenna, on the Nile, and became so noted for his piety that many others were built in the vicinity by his disciples. Died about 348 A.D. Pachymere. See Pachymeres. Pa-ehym'e-res, [Gr. Pewpyiof 6 ^axviimx; ; Fr. Pachymere, pt'she'maiR',] one of the most eminent of the later Byzantine historians, was born at Nicaea about 1242. He lived in Constantinople, and was chief justice of the imperial court. He wrote, besides other important works, a " Historia Byzantina," which com- prises the reigns of Michael Palaeologus and his son Andronicus. It is written with dignity, and is highly prized for its fidelity. He died probably after 13 10. See Fabkicius, " Bibiiotheca Graeca." Pacian, pa'she-an, [Sp. pron. pl-Z/^e-Sn'; Lat. Pa- CiANUS, pa-she-a'nus ; Fr. Pacien, pt'se4,N',] a Spanish saint and writer, who flourished about 375 A.D., and was Bishop of Barcelona. Pacianus. See Pacian. Paciaudi, pS-chowMee, (Paolo Maria,) a learned Italian antiquary, born at Turin in 17 10, entered the order of Theatines. He published, besides other works, a " History of the Grand Masters of the Order of Malta," (3 vols., 1760, unfinished,) and " Peloponnesian Monu- ments," (" Monumenta Peloponnesiaca," 1761.) He became librarian to the Duke of Parma about 1762. Died in 1785. See Fabroni, "Vltae Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" " Nou- velle Biographie Generale ;" Dacier, " E!loge de Paciaudi." Pacichelli, pS-che-keKlee, (Giamhattista,) an Ital- ian writer, born at Pistoia about 1640. He wrote "The Kingdom of Najjles," ("II Regno di Napoli," 3 vols., 1703.) Died in 1702. Pacien. See Pacian. Pacifico. See Pacificus. Pa-9iri-cus Max'i-mus, [It. Pacifico Massimo, p3.-chee'fe-ko mSs'se-mo,] a Latin poet, born at Ascoli in 1400. He wrote many poems, which were published in 1489, under the title of "Jocose and Festive Elegies," ("Elegiae Jocosae et Festivas.") Died about 1500. Pacini, pS-chee'nee, ( Giovanni, ) a popular com- poser, born at Syracuse, Sicily, in 1796 or 1790. He composed with a marvellous facility many operas, among which is "Adelaide e Comingio," (1818,) and "Niobe," (1826.) Pacio, pi'cho, sometimes written Pace, [Lat. Pa'- cius A Ber'iga,] (Giulio,) an eminent Italian jurist and classical scholar, born at Vicenza in 1550. Having been converted to the Protestant religion, he went into exile, and was professor of philosophy at Heidelberg and Sedan. About 1616 he obtained a chair of law at Valence, in France. He wrote "On the Method of Law," (" De Juris Methodo," 1597,) "On Contracts," (" De Contractibus,") and other works. Died at Va- lence in 1635. See Berriat Saint-Prix, "Notice sur la Vie de J. Pacius," 1840; Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Nice- ron, " Memoires." Pacioli, See Paccioll Pacius a Beriga. See Pacio. Pack, (Richardson,) an English writer, born in Suf- folk about 1680. He rose to the rank of major in the army. He published a volume of poems, (1718,) a " Life of Pomponius Atticus," and other works. Died in 1728. Pac6me. See Pachomius. Pac'o-rus, [Gr. Ha/copof,] the eldest son of Orodes, King of Parthia, was born about 66 B.C. At an early age he was associated with his father on the throne. In 51 B.C. he led an army into Syria, where he was defeated by Caius Cassius. After the battle of Philippi, the Par- thian king sent to Syria another expedition, commanded by Pacorus and Titus Labienus, a Roman, who gained a victory over an officer of Antony. After Pacorus had subjected Syria, he was defeated and killed by the army of Ventidius, in 38 B.C. See Dion Cassius, " History of Rome." Pacorus, a king of Parthia, who reigned in the time of Domitian and Trajan. Little is known respecting him. Pacthod, ptk'to', (Michel Marie,) Count, a French general, born in Savoy in 1764. He gained the rank of fi, e, 1, 6, ii, y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; at, e, i, o, obscure; filr, fill, fSt; mSt; n6t; good; moon* PACVVIO 1725 PAGANI general of division on the field of Espinosa, (1808,) and commanded in Naples and lllyria from 1810 to 1812. Died in 1830. Pacuvio. See Pacuvius. Pa-cu^'vi-us, [It. Pacuvio, pl-koo've-o,] (Marcus,) an eminent Roman tragic poet and painter, born at Brundusium about 220 B.C., was a nephew of the poet Ennius. According to the judgment of Quintilian and other ancient critics, his dramas had some merit. His works are lost, except small fragments. He died at the age of ninety. His epitaph, composed by himself, has been preserved by Aulus Gellius. See Vossius, " De Poetis Latinis;" Annibale de Leo, " Dis- sertazione intorno la Vita di M. Pacuvio," 1763; " Nouvelle Biogra- phie Generale." Paderna, pS-d^R'nl, (Paolo Antonio,) an Italian painter of history and landscapes, was born in 1649. His landscapes are highly praised. Died in 1708. Padilla, de, di pl-DeKyS, (Francesco,) a Spanish historian, born at Antequera in 1527, was a nephew of the following. He wrote an "Ecclesiastical History of Spain." Died in 1607. Padilla, de, (Don Juan Lopez,) a Spanish patriot and general, born in Castile, was a son of a nobleman. He became in 1520 the leader of the malcontents whom the extortions and misrule of the Flemish ministers of Charles V. provoked to revolt. The insurgents elected a council called Junta de las Comunidades. Padilla de- feated the royal troops at Segovia, took Valladolid, the capital of Spain, and deposed the regent, Adrian of Utrecht. Dissensions arose among the popular party, Padilla was deprived of the command, and his successor was defeated. About the end of 1520 he was restored to the command. He was defeated and taken prisoner at Villalar in April, 1521, and executed the next day. See Robertson, " Charles V.," vol. ii. book iii. Padilla, de, (Lorenzo,) a Spanish historian, born at Antequera about 1485. He was eminent for learning, and leceived the title of historiographer to Charles V. He left in manuscript a "General History of Spain," and a work on the antiquities of Spain, which was pub- lished in 1669. Died in 1540. See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Padilla, de, (Dona Maria Pacheco,) the wife of Juan Lopez, noticed above, was a woman of great energy and talents, and devoted herself to the popular cause. After her husband's death she took his place as leader, and made heroic but unsuccessful efforts to defend Toledo against the royalists. She escaped to Portugal, where she remained until her death. See Mariana, "Historia de Espaiia." Padilla, de, (Pedro,) a Spanish poet, born at Linares, was a friend of Cervantes. He published "Pastoral Eclogues," (1582,) and other poems. He was one of the best pastoral poets of his time. Died about 1600. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Pad'ma', [modern Hindoo pron. pud''mi',] written also Pedma, [from pddnid, a " lotus,"] one of the names of Lakshmi, (which see.) Padouan or Padovano. See Cavino. Padouanino. See Leoni, (Ottavio.) Padouanino, pi-doo-S-nee'no, (Francesco,) an ex- cellent Italian painter of history and portraits, was born at Padua in 1552. He was correct in design and fertile in invention. Among his works is a picture of the de- liverance of two persons who were condemned to death. Died in 161 7. His son Ottavio was a skilful portrait-painter. He died about 1634, at the age of fifty-two. Padovano. See Leoni, (Luigi and Ottavio.) Paean, pee'an, [Gr. Ilamv, UaiT^uv, or Uattjv ; Fr. P6an, pa'6N',] a name applied to Apollo, and also a surname of ^sculapius, the god who had the power of healing. It was afterwards applied to hymns sung in honour of Apollo, and to martial songs by which a victory was celebrated. Paelinck, pi'link, (Joseph,) a Belgian painter, born near Ghent in 1781. He worked at Rome five years. Among his works is "The Discovery of the Cross." Died at Brussels in 1839. Paeonius, pe-o'ne-us, [TiaiuvLo^,] of Ephesus, a Greek architect, probably lived about 400 B.C. He completed (with Demetrius) the great temple of Diana at Ephesus. Paeonius of Mende, an eminent Greek sculptor, of whom little is known, is supposed to have lived about 430 B.C. He adorned with statues the temple of Jupiter at Olympia. Paer, pS-aiR', (Ferdinando,) an eminent Italian composer, born at Parma in 1771. Having produced some successful operas, he was appointed chapel-master at Dresden in 1801. He entered the service of Napoleon in 1807 as imperial composer, and was employed to direct the music of the court theatre. He was elected to the Institute in 1831. Among his most admired operas are "Griselda," (1796,) "Achille," (1806,) and "Agnese," (1811.) Died at Paris in 1839. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens;" " NouveI3e Biographie Generale." Paesiello. See Paisiello. Paez, pi-^s', (Francesco Alvarez,) a Portuguese monk, asserted the temporal power of the pope in a treatise " De Planctu Ecclesiae." Died in 1532. Paez, pS-gth', (Francisco,) a Jesuit missionary, born at Olmedo, in Spain, in 1564. He entered Abyssinia in 1603, learned a native dialect, and converted the king, Za-Denghel. He is said to have visited one of the sources of the Nile in 161 8. He died in Abyssinia in 1622, (as is supposed,) leaving a History of Abyssinia in manuscript, and some letters. Paez, pS-^th', (Jos^: Antonio,) a South American general, born at Varinas about 1785. He served with distinction in the army of Bolivar against the Spaniards. The victory at the great battle of Carabobo\ or Carabolo, in 1821, is ascribed to him. In 1830 he was elected President of Venezuela for four years. He was re-elected in 1838 or 1839, and was appointed dictator in 1846. Having failed in an armed contest with Monagas in 1848, he was taken prisoner and exiled in 1850. He is represented as an able and respectable statesman. See his Autobiography, " Autobiografia del Jose Antonio Paez,' 1867; "North American Review" for July, 1827. Pagan, de, deh pt'gdN', (Blaise Francois,) Count, an eminent French engineer and geometer, was born at Avignon in 1604. He distinguished himself by skill and courage in the war against the French Protestants, and directed the siege of Nancy, in 1633. He had just been made a marechal-de-camp, in 1642, when he was deprived of sight by disease. Continuing to apply himself with success to mathematics, he gained a high reputation by his writings. In 1645 published in his "Treatise on Fortifications" ("Traite des Fortifications") a new sys- tem of fortification, which quickly superseded all others. He is reputed one of the greatest masters and improvers of the art on which that work treats. Died in 1665. See Perrault, " Hommes illustres." Paganel, pt'gt'n^K, (Camille Pierre Alexis,) a litterateiir, born in Paris in 1797. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies six times between 1834 and 1846, and voted with the Centre. Among his works is a " His- tory of Frederick the Great," (1830.) Died in 1859. Paganel, (Pierre,) a French politician, the father of the preceding, was born at Villeneuve d'Agen in 1745. He was a moderate member of the Convention in 1792- 95. He voted, however, for the death and reprieve of the king. He wrote an " Essay on the French Revolu- tion," (3 vols., 1810.) Died in 1826. Pagani, pS-g&'nee, (Francesco,) a Florentine painter, born in 1531. He painted frescos in his native city. Died in 1561. Pagani, (Gregorio,) a son of the preceding, was born at Florence in 1558. He was a pupil of Cigoli, whose style he imitated, was an excellent colorist, and was one of the best masters that Florence possessed at the end of the sixteenth century. His master-piece, " The Discovery of the Cross," was destroyed by fire. His extant works are not numerous. Died in 1605. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Pagani, (Paolo,) a painter, born in the duchy of Milan in 1661. He worked in Venice with success. The gallery of Dresden contains his picture of a Mag- dalene in meditation. Died in 17 16. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Yi^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ((J^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) PAGJNLCESA 1726 PAGNERRE Pagani-Cesa.pa-gi'nee cha'sS, (Giuseppe Urbano,) an Italian poet, l)orn at Belluno in 1757. He wrote " La Villegiatura di Clizia," (1802,) and other poems of some merit. He also produced a mediocre version of Virgil's " /Eneid," (1822.) Died in 1835. Paganini, p^-gl-nee'nee, (Nrccoi.6,) a celebrated Ital- ian performer on the violin, was born at Genoa in 1784. He received lessons from RoUa, Ghiretti, and Paer, and is said to have composed a sonata of merit at the age of nine, about which time he began to perform in public concerts, and by his wonderful powers produced the most extraordinary excitement among the audience. "When not yet fifteen, he escaped from the control of his father, and commenced business on his own account. But, unhappily, the admiration and flatteries which he received, and the control of large sums of money, which he procured almost without effort, exerted a most in- jurious effect on his moral character, and he fell into habits of gambling and into the practice of other vices. About 1802 he retired for a time from public view ; but his former habits of life, and the necessity of excitement, soon induced or compelled him to return. After he had given concerts in the great cities of Italy, he visited Vienna in 1828, and was received with the wildest enthusiasm. His performances created a furor wholly unparalleled in the history of music. He gained enormous sums of money in Paris and London. His marvellous perform- ance on a single string excited especial astonishment. He composed sonatas, etc. for the violin, which display an inventive genius. Died at Nice in 1840. With all his rare gifts, he is said to have been sensual, extremely avaricious, aiid excessively vain. See ScHOTTKY, " Paganini's Leben und Treiben," Prague, 1830; CoNESTABiLE, " Vita del celebre N. Paganini;" J. Imbert de la pHAL^EQUE, " Notice siir N. Paganini," Paris, 1830; G. E. Anders, "Paganini. sa Vie, sa Personne," etc., 1831 ; Fr. Fayolle, "Paga- nini et Beriot," 1831 ; Fetis, "Biographic Universelle des Musi- ciens ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1831. Pagano, pJ-g^'no, (Francesco Maria,) a political writer, born at Brienza, in the kingdom of Naples, in 1748. He obtained the chair of law at Naples in 1787. His principal work is "Political Essays," (" Saggi po- litici," 1792.) He was a partisan of the Neapolitan re- public formed in 1798. Having been taken prisoner by the royalists, he was executed in 1800. Paganucci, pi-ga-noot'chee, (Jean,) a French mer- chant, born at Lyons in 1729, wrote an excellent "Mer- chants' Manual," (" Manuel des Negociants," 3 vols., 1762.) Died in 1797. Page, (John,) an American patriot and Governor, born in Gloucester county, Virginia, in 1743. He ren- dered important services during the Revolution, was a member of Congress from Virginia for eight years, (1789-97,) and was elected Governor of Virginia in 1802. lie was a personal friend of Thomas Jefferson. Died at Richmond in 1808. Page, (Thomas Jefferson,) an American naval officer, born in Virginia about 1815. He was appointed a commander in the United States navy in 1855. Page, (William,) an English divine, born at Harrow in 1590, was master of a free school at Reading. He wrote "The Peace-Maker, or a Brief Motive to Unity." Died in 1663. Page, (William,) an American painter, born at Al- bany in 181 1. He studied for a time under S. F. B. Morse, in New York, and subsequently produced several portraits and historical pieces which established his reputation. He visited Rome about 1850, and returned in i860 to New York. Among his principal works are the " Flight into Egypt," " Moses and Aaron on Mount Horeb," and " The Infant Bacchus." See TucKERMAN, " Book of the Artists." Pagenstecher, pa'gen-st§K'er> (Alexander Ar- nold,) a German jurisconsult, born at Bentheim in 1659. He became professor of law at Groningen, and wrote many works. Died in 1716. Pages. See Garnier-Pag£s. Pages, pt'zhls', (FRANgois Xavier,) a French litte- rateur, born at Aurillac in 1745. He published, besides many novels, " Historical Tableaux of the French Revo- lution," (3 vols., 1791-1804.) Died in 1802. Page.s, (Pierre Marie FRANgois,) a French voyager, born at Toulouse in 1748, was a captain in the navy. He published in 1782 " Voyages around the World and towards the Poles in 1 767-1 776." He was massacred be the negroes in Saint Domingo in 1793. Pages de I'Ari^ge, pt'zhgs' deh irre'izh', (Jean Pierre,) a French political writer, born in Ariege in 1784. He was an editor of several Liberal journals of Paris after the restoration. In 1848 he was elected to the Constituent Assembly. He published several works. Pag'et, (Lord Clarence Edward,) a British ad- miral, a brother of the Marquis of Anglesey, was born in 181 1. He served as captain in the navy, and com- manded the Princess Royal in the Baltic in 1854. He was elected to Parliament by the Liberals in 1847, again in 1857. In 1859 he was appointed secretary to the Admiralty. He became a vice-admiral in 1865. Paget or Pag'it, (Eusebius,) an English Puritan minister and writer, born in Northamptonshire about 1542. He became rector of Saint Anne and Saint Agnes, London, in 1604. His chief work is a "History of the Bible." Died in 1617. His son Ephraim (1575-1647) was noted as a linguist. He wrote a " Christianographia," (1635.) Paget, (George Frederick Augustus,) Lord, a brother of Clarence Edward, noticed above, was born in 1818. He became lieutenant-colonel of dragoons about 1846, and distinguished himself at Balaklava, (1854.) Paget, (Henry William,) Lord. See Anglesey. Paget, (James,) F.R.S., an English physiologist and surgeon of high reputation, was born in Great Yarmouth in 1814. He was admitted into the College of Surgeons in 1836, and afterwards became Hunterian professor of surgery. He wrote articles for several medical journals. Among his works are "Lectures on Surgical Pathology," (1853-) Paget, (William,) Baron, an English statesman, born in London in 1506. He became one of the secre- taries of state in 1543. Designated by Henry VIII. as one of the executors of his will, Paget took a prominent part in the events of the reign of Edward VI., and was keeper of the seals in the following reign. In 1561 he advised Elizabeth to make an alliance with the King of Navarre and the Huguenots rather than the King of Spain. Died in 1563. Paggi, pad'jee, or Pagi, pi'jee, (Giovanni Battista,) an eminent Italian painter, born at Genoa in 1554, was a pupil of Luca Cambiaso. He worked about twenty years at Florence, and returned to Genoa in 1600, after which he adorned the churches of that city with many paintings. He was the master of a school in which sev- eral able artists were formed, and excelled as a colorist. Among his master-pieces are "The Transfiguration" and " The Massacre of the Innocents." Died in 1627. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" Soprani, "Vite de' Pittori Genovesi." Pagi, pt'zhe', (Antotne,) a French chronologist, born in Provence in 1624. His reputation is founded on his " Historical and Chronological Criticism on the Ec- clesiastical Annals of Baronius," ("Critica historico- chronologica in Annales Ecclesiasticos Baronii," 4 vols., 1705.) Died in 1699. Pagi, (Francois,) a French historian, born at Lam- besc in 1654, was a nephew of the preceding. Died in 1 72 1. Pagi, L'Abb^:, a French historian, born at Martigue about 1690. He published a " History of the Revolu- tions of the Low Countries," (1727.) Pagit. See Paget, (Eusebius.) Paglia, piKyS, ( Antonio, ) a distinguished Italian painter, born in 1680. He was a skilful imitator of the old masters. He worked in Brescia, the churches of which contain many of his pictures. Died in 1747. Paglia, (Francesco,) the father of the preceding, born at Brescia in 1636, was a pupil of Guercino. He excelled in portraits and in the science of clair-obscur. He died soon after 1700. Pagnerre, ptn'yaiR', (Laurent Antoine,) a French republican, born in Seine-et-Oise in 1805. He was ap- pointed assistant to the mayor of Paris, Garnier-Pages, in February, 1848, secretary-general of the provisional a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fSt; mSt; ndt; good; moon ; PJGNEST 1727 PAINE government on the ist of March, and director of the Comptoir national d'Escompte on the 9th of March. He was the first proposer of this institution, which rendered great services to the puljlic in that crisis. Died in 1854. Pagnest, ptg'ni^ ( Amarle Louis Claude,) a French portrait-painter, born in Paris in 1790; died in 1819. Pagiiini, pSn-yee^iee, [Lat. Pagni'nus,] (Luca An- tonio,) an Italian classical scholar and monk, born at Pistoia in 1737. He wrote Greek and Latin epigrams-, " Epigrammi morali cento," (1799,) which were admired, and produced good translations of Anacreon, (1766,) Theocritus, (1780,) Hesiod, (1797,) and Horace's " Sa- tires and Epistles," (1814.) He corresponded with Alfieri, Frugoni, and Cesarotti. In 1806 he became professor of Latin at Pisa. Died in 1814. See CiAMPi, "Elogium L. A. Pagnini," 1814; Tipaldo, " Bio- grafia degli Italian! illiistri." Pagnino, pin-yee'no, [Lat. Pagni'nus,] (Sante,) an Italian Orientalist, was born at Lucca about 1470. He entered the order of Dominicans, and became a resident of Lyons in 1525. He produced a Latin version of the Bible from the original Hebrew and Greek, (1528,) which was highly commended by Buxtorf, Huet, and other critics. Among his works is a " Hebrew-Latin Dic- tionary," (1529.) Died about 1538. See A. Prricaud, " Notice sur S. Pagnino," 1850; Tiraboschi, "Storia deila Letteratura Italiana." Pagninus. vSee Pagnino. Pahlen, von der, fon d^r pi'len, (Peter,) Baron or Coun t, a Russian general, born about 1744. He gained the favour of the Czar Paul, who appointed him Gov- ernor-General of Saint Petersburg. He took an active part in the assassination of Paul, in 1801, and is said to have been the chief of that conspiracy. He retired to his estate in Livonia, where he died in 1826. Pahlen, von der, (Peter,) Count, a Russian gen- eral, and son of the preceding, distinguished himself in the campaigns of 1812 and 1813. He was ambassador to Paris from 1835 to 1842. Paice. See Pace, (Richard.) Paillet, pt'ya', (Alphonse Gabriel Victor,) an eminent French advocate, born at Soissons in 1795, settled in Paris about 1826, and acquired a very high reputation for eloquence and probity. He displayed consummate art in the statement and exposition of facts. In 1849 he was elected to the Legislative Assembly. Died in 1855. "Nature had given him," says the "Bio- graphic Universelle," "in a just measure and in perfect equilibrium, all the qualities which are requisite to form a great advocate." See, also, J. Larnac, " filoge de M. Paillet," 1857. Pailliet, pt'ye-i', or Paillet, pt'y^', (Jean Bap- tists Joseph,) a^ench jurist, born at Orleans in 1789. He published a "Manual of French Law," (9th edition, 1836,) which was perhaps more popular than any other similar book. He also wrote other works. Died about i860. Paillot de Montabert, pt'yo' deh m6N'tt'baiR', (Jean Nicolas,) a French painter, born at Troyes in 1771. He wrote a " Complete Treatise on Painting," (9 vols., 1829.) Died in 1849. Paine, pan, (Eleazar A.,) an American general, born in Ohio about 181 5, graduated at West Point in 1839. He became a brigadier-general about September, 1861, and served in Tennessee and Mississippi in 1862-63. Paine, (Elijah,) LL.D., an American jurist, born at Brooklyn, Connecticut, in 1757. He was elected to the United States Senate in 1794, and in 1801 became judge of the United States court for Vermont. He was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and of other learned institutions. Died in 1842. Paine, (Elijah,) son of the preceding, was born at "Williamstown, Vermont, in 1796, and rose to eminence as a jurist. He published, in conjunction with John Duer, Practice in Civil Actions and Proceedings in the State of New York," (1830.) Died in 1853. Paine, (Martyn,) M.D., LL.D., brother of the pre- ceding, was born at Williamstown, Vermont, in 1794, and graduated at Harvard College in 1813. He afterwards settled in New York, where he gained a high reputation and extensive practice. In 1841 he was one of the founders of the University Medical College, in which he filled the chair of therapeutics and materia medica. He has pub- lished, among other works, " The Cholera Asphyxia of New York," " Medical and Physiological Commentaries," (1840,) and "Institutes of Medicine," (1847.) The two last-named have a very high reputation. He has also written a treatise on "Theoretical Geology." Paine, (Robert Treat,) an American jurist and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born at Boston in 1731. He was a member of Congress for about four years, (1774-78.) In 1780 he was one of the com- mittee which formed the State Constitution of Massa- chusetts, and in 1790 became judge of the supreme court of that State. Died in 1814. See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- pendence." Paine, (Robert Treat,) a son of the preceding, was born at Taunton, Massachusetts, in 1773. He graduated at Harvard College in 1792, and, having subsequently studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1802. He was the author of a very popular political song, entitled "Adams and Liberty," and of other works, in prose and verse. Died in 1811. See R. W. Gkiswold, " Poets and Poetry of America," p. 75 Paine, (Thomas,) a political and deistical writer, born at Thetford, in Norfolk, England, in January, 1737. His father was a Quaker, and brought up his son to his ow^n trade, that of stay-maker. Paine married young, and settled in 1759 at Sandwich. Having lost his wife about 1 761, he removed to London, where for a short time he was employed as a school-teacher. After seve- ral changes of business and residence, he emigrated to America in 1774, with a letter of recommendation from Dr. Franklin, whom he met in London. He became editor of the " Pennsylvania Magazine," and gave an impulse to the Revolution by his famous pamphlet called " Common Sense," in which he advocated the policy of separation and independence. It was issued in January, 1776, and appears to have contributed in an extraordi- nary degree to the advancement of republican ideas. He enlisted as a volunteer in the army in the autumn of 1776. To counteract the depression of spirits which prevailed in the winter of 1776-77, he published "The Crisis," a periodical, which appeared at irregular in- tervals for some years and was very successful. The phrase " These are the times that try men's souls" was first used in the "Crisis." He was secretary to the committee on foreign affairs in Congress from April, 1777, to January, 1779, and went to France in 1781, with Colonel Laurens, to negotiate a loan for the United States. His services in the Revolution were rewarded by Congress in 1785 with a present of three thousand dollars, and the State of New York gave him three hundred acres of land. In 1787 he visited France, from which he passed to England. He invented an iron bridge, and procured the construction of such a bridge at Rotherham, in York- shire. He returned to Paris in 1789, and, in answer to Burke's "Reflections on the French Revolution," wrote his " Rights of Man," (1791,) which obtained great popu- larity. In September, 1792, he was elected a member of the French National Convention by the citizens of the Pas-de-Calais. He acted with the Girondists, and, . in the trial of the king, voted for his banishment. About the end of 1793 he was expelled from the Convention, as a foreigner, by the Jacobins, who also issued a decree that all natives of England found in France should be imprisoned. He was accordingly cast into prison, and narrowly escaped death in the reign of terror. In November, 1794, he was released, through the influence of James Monroe, (afterwards President of the United States,) and resumed his seat in the Convention. He produced in 1795 a deistical work entitled "The Age of Reason," which gave great offence to many of his polit- ical friends.* This work, although characterized by a certain vigour as well as flippancy of style, and though from its very indecency calculated to obtain currency among the less refined portion of society, yet, being * See an interesting letter from Franklin to Paine on this subject, in Sparks's edition of Franklin's works, vol. x. p. 281. ♦ as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, H, Yi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) PAINTER 28 PALJFOX conspicuously wanting in a spirit of candour, and betray- ing an utter deficiency in true scholarship, is likely to exert but little influence upon intelligent and reflecting minds, and least of all on those whose learning qualifies them to judge of the ignorance of the writer and the essential shallowness of most of his arguinents. He returned to the United States in 1802, and passed his latter years in private life and comparative obscurity. He became intemperate in the latter part of his life. Died in New York in June, 1809. See Cheetham, " Memoirs of Thomas Paine," 1809 ; Carlile, "Life of Thomas Paine," 1814; G. Chalmers, "Life of Thomas Paine," 1791; G. Vale, "Life of Thomas Paine," 1841; W. T. Sherwin, "Life of Thomas Paine," i8ig; William Cobbett, "Life of Thomas Paine;" Duyckinck, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. ; Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors ;" " North American Review" for July, 1843 ; "Atlantic Monthly" for July and December, 1859; "Monthly Review" for May, 1791, and March, 1792 ; " New American Cyclopa;dia." Paint'er, (William,) an English writer or translator, lived in the reign of Elizabeth. He published "The Palace of Pleasure, beautified, adorned, and well fur- nished with Pleasant Histories and Excellent Novels," etc., (2 vols., 1566-69.) Died after 1590. Paisiello, pI-se-eKlo, or Paesiello, pl-^-se-el'lo, (Giovanni,) a celebrated Italian composer, born at Tarento in 1741, studied five years under Durante at Naples. About 1764 he produced operas entitled "La Pupilla" and " II Mondo alia Rovescio," which extended his reputation throughout Italy. He was chapel-master to the King of Naples from 1786 to 1798. Having been invited by Bonaparte, he went to Paris in 1802, and officiated as chapel-master for two years. He returned to Naples in 1804. Among his popular operas are " King Theodore," (" 11 Re Teodoro,") " The Barber of Seville," " Frascatina," "La Locanda," "Pirro," and " lo son Lindoro," (or " Hope told a Flattering Tale.") " He is superior to his rivals," says Denne-Baron, "in the suavity of his melody and the charm of his expression." His works display ve^'ve, originality, an extreme fertility of invention, and a grace and elegance which are almost unequalled. Died in 1816. See Quatremere DE Quincy, "Notice sur Paisiello;" F^tis, "Biograpliie Universelle des Musiciens;" Lesueur, "Notice sur G. Paisiello," i8i6; ScHizzi, " Raggionamento della Vita di G. Pai- siello," 1837 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Paitoni, pl-to'nee, (Giacomo Maria,) an Italian monk and bibliographer, born at Venice about 1 7 10. His reputation is founded on an accurate work entitled "Library of Ancient Latin and Greek Authors," etc., ("Biblioteca degli Autori antichi Greci e Latini vol- garizzati," 5 vols., 1767.) Died in 1774. Paixhans, paks'anz or pak'sSN', (Henri Joseph,) a French general, born at Metz in 1783. He served in the campaigns of Austria and Prussia, and at the battle of Moskwa, (1812.) He represented Metz in the Cham- ber of Deputies many years, ending in 1848, and rose to the rank of general of division. He made improvements in artillery and projectiles, which bear his name, and published several works on artillery and the art of war. The Paixhan guns were first used in France about 1824. Died in 1854. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" "Foreign Quarterly Re- view" for June, 1828. Pajol, pt'zhoK, (Claude Pierre,) Comte, a French general, born at Besan9on in 1772. He signalized him- self at Ulm and Austerlitz, (1805,) was made a general of brigade in 1807, and became a general of division in 1812. His defence of Montereau was praised by Na- poleon, who appointed him grand officer of the legion of honour in 1814. He fought against Charles X., and was second in command of the Parisian troops in July, 1830. Died in 1844. Pajon, pt'zh^N', (Claude,) a French Protestant minister, born at Romorantin in 1626. He preached at Orleans, and gained a high reputation by his writings, among which is a defence of the Protestant faith against Nicole, entitled "Examen des Prejuges legitimes," (de Nicole,) (1675.) Died in 1685. Pajot, pt'zho', (Louis L6on,) Comte d'Ons-en-Bray, (d6N s6n bK;\,) a French mechanician and collector, born in Paris in 1678. He collected a rich cabinet of machines and rare works of art, etc. He invented an anemometer, and wrote several scientific treatises. In 1708 he became director-general of the post-office. Died in 1754. Pajou, pt'zhoo', (AUGUSTIN,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1730, was a pupil of Lemoyne. He gained the grand prize in 1748, and went as royal pensioner to Rome, where he remained twelve years. He enjoyed great celebrity in France in his time. Among his works are statues ot Pascal, Descartes, Fenelon, Turenne, and Bossuet. Died at Paris in 1809. See Lebreton, " Notice historique sur la Vie de M. Pajou," 1810 ; "Biographie Universelle." Pajou, (Jacques Augustin,) a historical painter, a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1766 ; died in 1828. Pakenham, pa'ken-am, (Sir Edward,) a British general, who commanded the army which attacked New Orleans and was defeated by General Jackson, January 8, 181 5. He was killed in this action. He was a brother- in-law of the Duke of Wellington. Pakenham, (Sir Thomas,) a British admiral, born in 1758. As captain of a ship of seventy-four guns, he took part in Lord Howe's victory over the French in June, 1794. He became admiral about 1810. Died in 1836. Pa'king-ton, (Dorothy,) a learned English lady, was a daughter of Lord Coventry, and wife of Sir John Pakington. Died in 1679. She was supposed to be the author of "The Whole Duty of Man." Pakington, (Sir John Somerset,) an English con- servative politician, a son of William Russell, of Powick Court, Worcestershire, was born in 1799. He assumed the name of his uncle about 1830. He entered Parlia- ment in 1837, and was colonial secretary for a short time in 1852. From February, 1858, to July, 1859, he was first lord of the admiralty. He became secretary of war in March, 1867, and resigned in December, 1868. Palacky, pS-lits'kee, sometimes Anglicized in pro- nunciation as pci-lak'kee, (Francis,) an eminent Bohe- mian historian and critic, born at Hodslawitz in June, 1798, is a Protestant. He was a])pointed historiographer of Bohemia about 1830, and edited the "Journal of the Bohemian Museum" from 1827 to 1837. He was an active supporter of liberal principles in 1848, and pre- sided over a Congress of Slavonians at Prague in that year. His principal work is an excellent " History of Bohemia," in German, (8 vols., 1836-60.) Paladines. See Palladines. Paladini, pft-lS-dee'nee, (Arcangela,) a painter and poetess, born at Pisa in 1599 ; died in 1622. Paladini, (Filippo,) an able Florentine painter, born about 1544, was the father of the preceding. His picture of the "Death of John the Baptist" is admired. Died in 1614. Paleemon, pa-lee'mon, [Gr. UaXaifiuv ; Fr. Pal^:mon, pt'la'moN',] in the Greek mythology, the son of Athamas and Ino, was first called Melicerta. He was regarded as a marine divinity, and the Isthmian games were insti- tuted in his honour. He was identified with the Roman Portumnus. (See Melicerta.) Palaemon, pa-lee'mon, (Quintus Remmius,) a Ro- man grammarian, who lived in the time of Tiberius, about 45 a.d. Palaeologus, pa-le-ol'o-gus, [Gr. ITaAatoAoyof; Fr. Pal^iologue, pt'l^'oOog',] the name of an illustrious Byzantine family which acquired distinction in the elev- enth century. They reigned in Constantinople from 1260 until 1453, when that capital was taken by the Turks. (See Andronicus II., Constantinus XIII., Manuel II., John VI., and John VII.) Palaephatus, pa-l^f'a-tus, a Greek historian of Aby- dos, was a friend of Aristotle, and lived about 350 B.C. According to Suidas, he wrote on Attica, Arabia, and Cyprus. Palaephatus, a Greek writer of an uncertain period, to whom Suidas attributes an " Explanation of Things related in Mythology." By some critics this is identified with an extant work "On Things Incredible," (-rrspl to)v uTTLOTiJV.) Suidas also mentions an Athenian epic poet of this name, who lived before Homer. Palafox, de, dk pl-li-f6H', (Juan,) a Spanish bishop and writer, born in Aragon in 1600. He became Bishop of Osma in 1653. He wrote, besides works of devotion, " The Shepherd of Christmas Eve," (" Pastor de Noche a, e, T, 6, u, y, lou^; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, sAorf; a, e, i, o, obscure; f2lr, fill, fdt; mSt; nSt; good; moon; PAIAFOX 1729 PAIET Buena," 1655,) and " The Conquest of China by the Tar- tars," (1678.) Died in 1659. See DiNoUART, "Vie de J. de Palafox," 1767; Champion, "Histcire de J. de Palafox," 1688. Palafox y Melzi, pS-lS-foH' e meK///ee, (Jos^:,) com- monly called simply Palafox, (which in pronunciation is usually Anglicized as p^Ka-foks',) a Spanish general, born in Aragun in 1780. lie became in his youth a member of the military household of the king. When an attack on Saragossa by the French was expected, in 1808, he was nominated captain-general by popular ac- clamation. He defended that city obstinately for sixty days, at the end of which term the French retired, August, i8c8. Another force, under Lannes, renewed the siege in November, and Palafox was forced to capitulate in February, 1809. He supported the popular cause against Ferdinand VII. in 1820. About 1836 he was made Duke of Saragossa. Died in 1847. See " NoLivelle Biographie Generale." PaPa-mas, [TlaAa/iai-,] (Gregorius,) a Greek monk and mystical writer, lived about 1350. He was the leader of a sect or party called Palamites, whose claims to mystical light caused a great controversy. Palaniede. See Palamedes. P51-a-me'des, [Gr. na^a/z^Jj/f ; Fr. Palam^de, pt'- It'mad',] a jiersonage of classic mythology, supposed to have been the inventor of scales, measures, chess, dice, and several letters of the Greek alphabet. Having joined the expedition against Troy, he exposed by an ingenious stratagem the feigned insanity of Ulysses, and thereby incurred his enmity. The poets relate that Ulysses concealed in the tent of Palamedes a sum of money and a forged letter from Priam, on the evidence of which Palamedes was convicted of treason and put to death. See Virgil, "iEneid," book ii. 82. Paiaprat, pt'lt^pRt', (Jean de Bigot,) a French dramatic poet, born at Toulouse in 1650. He was sec- retary to the grand prior of Vendome, and was noted for wit. He wrote dramas entitled "The Secret Re- vealed" and "The Prude of the Time," ("La Prude du Temps,") and assisted Brueys in the composition of several i)lays. Died in 1721. Pal-a-ti'nus, a surname given by the Romans to Apollo, to whom a temple was erected on Mount Pala- tine. Palazzi, pi-lit'see, (Giovanni,) an Italian historian, born at Venice about 1640. He wrote many mediocre works, among which is a " History of the German Em- pire," (9 vols., 1671-79.) Died about 1702. Paleario. See Palearius. Pal-e-a'ri-us or Paleario, pi-li-3.'re-o, (AoNius or Aon 10,) a good Italian writer and scholar, was born in the Campagna of Rome about 1500. His proper name was Deij.a Paglia, (pSl'yi.) He acquired distinction as a Latin poet, and became professor of eloquence at Milan in 1 555. His Latin poem on the immortality of the soul (1536) was commended by Sadolet. Having been converted to the doctrines of the Reformers, or advocated religious liberty, he was tried for heresy and hung at Rome in 1570. See " Life and Times of Aonio Paleario," by M. Young, 2 vols., i860; GuRi.iTT, " Leben des A. Palearius," 1805; Bayle, "His- torical and Critical Dictionary;" Nic^ron, "M^moires." Palemon. See Pal^mon. Palencia, de, (Alfonso.) See Alfonso de Pa- lencia. Palencia, de, di pi-l^n'the-S, (Fernando,) a Spanish soldier and writer, lived in the sixteenth century. He served in the army in Peru, and published in 1571 a " History of Peru." See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. ii. book V. Paleologue. See Pal^ologus. Paleotti, pS li-ot'tee, (Gabriel,) an Italian cardinal, born at Bologna in 1524. He was sent to the Council of Trent by Pius IV., and became a cardinal in 1565. Among his works is " De Bono Senectutis," (1598.) Died in 1597. PaTes, [Fr. Pal^s, pt'lgs',] a divinity who presided over cattle, shepherds, and pastures among the ancient Romans. Pales was represented by some as a male and by others as a female deity, and was the personification of the same idea as Pan among the Greeks. Palestrina, da, dS pi-l^s-tRee'na, (Giovanni Pier- LUlGl,) an Italian composer of great celebrity, was born at Palestrina, (the ancient Przeneste,) near Rome, about 1524. He studied at Rome under Claude Goudimel, a Frenchman. In 1551 he was appointed cha])el-master to Pope Julius HI. He produced in 1554 his first work, four masses for four voices, and obtained a place among the singers of the pontifical chapel, from which Paul IV. removed him because he was married. From 1561 to 1571 he was chapel-master of Santa Maria Mag- giore. During this i)eriod the pope resolved to reform the music of the Church or to banish it. Pale^rina was directed to compose a mass which should be con- formed to a pure orthc^dox standard. The result was the famous mass for six voices, called the "Mass of Pope Marcellus," (1565,) which was received with great admiration and determined his superiors to retain music in the Roman Church. " The unrivalled genius of Pa- lestrina," says Denne-Baron, referring to this mass, " created the only kind of music which comports with the majesty of the Church ; and among the productions of succeeding composers nothing has equalled the power, the profound and simple accent, the mystic tenderness, the ravishing sweetness, of his chants." (" Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale.") In 1571 he was appointed chapel- master in Saint Peter's. Died in 1594. See Wintrrfeld, "J. Pierluigi von Palestrina," etc., 1832; Baini, " Memorie storico criticbe della Vita e delle Opere di Pales- trina," 182S; Fetis, " Biograpiiie Universelle des Musiciens." Paletta, pi-l^t'tS, or Palletta, pS.l-lgt'ta, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian anatomist and writer, born in the valley of Ossola, in Piedmont, in 1747. He became surgeon-in-chief of the grand hospital of Milan in 1787. Among his works is " Pathological Exercises," ( " Exer- citationes Pathologicae," 2 vols., 1820.) Died in 1832. See G. Ferrario, "Vita del Professore G. B. Paietta," 1833. PaTey, (Frederick Apthorp,) an English scholar, a grandson of the famous author, William Paley, was born near York in 1816. He edited the works of M.'s,- chylus a^id Euripides, and was the author of several works on church architecture. Paley, (William,) an eminent English writer, born at Peterborough in 1743. He graduated in 1763 at Christ's College, Cambridge, — where he does not appear to have been distinguished for his application,* — took holy orders, and was chosen a Fellow of his college in 1766. He was subsequently employed as a tutor at Cambridge, and became rector of Musgrove, in West- moreland, in 1775, soon after which date he married. In 1782 he was appointed Archdeacon of Carlisle. He published in 1785 "The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy," regarded by some as the most important of all his works. As a writer he excels in logical power and in clearness of style. He denies the existence of a moral sense, and adopts the maxim that " whatever is expedient is right." He was liberal in theology, was a friend of civil and religious liberty, and earnestly advocated the abolition of the slave-trade. Ir 1790 he produced an admirable work entitled " Horce Paulinae, or the Truth of the Scripture History ox Saint Paul evinced." He was appointed a prebendary of Saint Paul's in 1794, and was presented to 'the sub-deanery of Lincoln Cathedral. About 1795 he obtained the rec- tory of Bishop-Wearmouth. His other principal works are " A View of the Evidences of Christianity," (3 vols., 1794,) one of the best works ever written on the subject of which it treats, and " Natural Theology, or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity," (1802,) which has a very high reputation and has often been reprinted. Died in 1805. " This excellent writer," says Mackintosh, " who, after Clarke and Butler, ought to be ranked among the * It is said that during the early part of his term at Cambridge he spent his time in agreeable idleness. One of his companions called on him early one morning, and told him he had been unable to sleep, from the conviction that he (Paley) was squandering talents which, if properly directed, might be most useful to himself and to the world, concluding with these words: "If you persist in your indolence, I must renounce your society." The result was that Palev entirely changed his course of life. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 109 PALFY 1730 PALISOT brightest ornaments of the English Church in the eigh- teenth century, is in the history of philosophy naturally placed after Tucker, to whom, with praiseworthy libe- rality, he owns iiis extensive obligations. . . . His style is as near perfection in its kind as any in our language, . . . The most original and ingenious of his writings is the * Horae Paulina;.' 'The Evidences of Christianity' are formed out of an admirable translation of Butler's 'Analogy' and a most skilful abridgment of Lardner's 'Credibility of the Gospel History.' . . . His ' Natural Theology' is the wonderful work of a man who after sixty had studied anatomy in order to write it ;* and it could only have been surpassed by a man who to great originality of conception and clearness of exposition added the advantage of a high place in the first class of physiologists. ... It cannot be denied that Paley was sometimes rather a lax moralist, — especially on public duties." (See Mackintosh's " Progress of Ethical Philosophy.") "On one great topic — that of Christian evidence — he has shed new light. By felicity of arrangement and illustration, he has given an air of novelty to old argu- ments, whilst he has strengthened his cause by important original proofs. His ' Horae Paulinae' is one of the few books destined to live. Paley saw what he did see through an atmosphere of light. He seized on the strong points of his subject with an intuitive sagacity, and has given his clear bright thoughts in a style which has made them the property of his readers almost as perfectly as they were his own. . . . He was character- ized by the distinctness of his vision. He was not, we think, equally remarkable for its extent. He was popular rather than philosophical. He was deficient in that intellectual thirst which is a chief element of the philo- sophical spirit. He had no irrepressible desire to sound the depths of his own nature, or to ascend to wide and all-reconciling views of the works and ways of God. Moral philosophy he carried backward ; nor had he higher claims in religious than in ethical science. His sermons are worthy of all praise, not, indeed, for their power over the heart, but for their plain and strong expositions of duty and their awakening appeals to the conscience." (See " Remarks on the Character and Writings of Fenelon," in Channing's "Discourses.") See G. W. Meadley, " Memoirs of the Life of W. Paley," i8og ; Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors :" "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1813 ; "Monthly Review" for August and December, 1785. Pdlfy, pSKfe, (Albert,) a Hungarian litterateur and publicist, born at Grosswardein in 1813. Soon after the commencement of the republican movement in 1848, he founded a daily paper called "The 15th of March," which obtained great popularity and had a marked in- fluence on the Hungarian revolution. In 1849 the journal was confiscated, and its editor for a time imprisoned. Palfy is the author of several novels, which rank among the best in Hungarian literature. Pdlfy, (JXnos,) Count of, a Hungarian field-marshal, born in 1659, served under Prince Eugene in the Italian campaigns of 1 701-2, and subsequently against the Turks. He was appointed in 1741 commander-general in Hun- gary, where he was a zealous adherent of Maria Theresa. Died in 1751. * We do not attach any very great importance to the charge of "stupendous plagiarism" brought against Paley for what he has borrowed from Dr. Nieuwentyt. (See the article on this subject in the " London AthenjEum," published in August, 1S48.) Macaulay well remarks that "the reasoning by which Socrates, in Xenophon's hearing, confuted the little atheist Aristodemus is exactly the reason- ing of Paley's ' Natural Theology.' " (See article on " Ranke's His- tory of the Popes," in Macaulay's " Essays.") If, then, Paley's line of argument is exactly like that of Socrates, and also the same as that employed by Dr. Nieuwentyt, it is at least possible that Dr. Nieu- wentyt may have derived some of his ideas and arguments — if not his particular illustrations — from Socrates. We should be very sorry to say anything to encourage plagiarism; but those who are best ac- quainted with what has been done in this department of philosophy will probably be most ready to admit the impossibility of any one claiming justly absolute originality, or anything near it, in this great field of thought. The chief merit of Paley, w-ho does not appear to have made any especial pretension to originality as respects the in- dividual ideas or illustrations of his subject, consists in the admirable skill and ability with which he combines and presents the whole argument. Without being the creator, or even the first discoverer, of many of the different points of evidence adduced by him, he may be said to marshal them as a consummate general marshals his forces, ■o as to render them in combination irresistible. Palfyn, pal-fn/, sometimes written Palfin, (Jkan,) a skilful Flemish anatomist, born at Ghent in 1650. He lectured on surgery at Ghent, made some improvements in that art, and published a valuable work on " Surgical Anatomy," (1710.) Died in 1730. See De Mersseman, " Notice sur J. Palfyn," 1844. Pai'frey, (John Gorham,) LL.D., an American divine and historian, born at Boston in 1796. Having gradu- ated in 181 5 at Harvard College, he studied theology, and was appointed in 1831 Dexter professor of sacred literature at Harvard. He became in 1836 editor of the " North American Review." He published "Lectures on the Jewish Scriptures and Antiquities," (4 vols., 1838-52,) "Evidences of Christianity," (1843,) "Review of Lord Mahon's History of England," (1852,) and "The Relation between Judaism and Christianity," (1854.) He was elected in 1847 to Congress, where he distinguished himself as an advocate of emancipation, having pre- viously liberated a number of slaves bequeathed to him by a relative in New Orleans. In 185 1 he became asso- ciate editor of "The Commonwealth," a leading journal of the Free-Soil party. The second volume of his " His- tory of New England" came out in i860. See the "North American Review" for April, 1859, and October, i860; Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." Palfrey, (William,) an American patriot, born at Boston in 1741. He took an active part in the move- ments which preceded the Revolution, and visited Eng- land in 1771. In March, 1776, he became an aide-de-camp to General Washington. He was appointed paymaster- general, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, in April, 1776. Having been appointed consul-general in France by a unanimous vote of Congress in November, 1780, he embarked in a ship which was never heard of after she left the Capes. See " Life of William Palfrey," by his grandson, John G. Pal- frey, in Sparks's " American Biography," vol. vii., 2d series. PdPgrave, (Sir Francis,) F.R.S.,an English historian, born in London in 1788. His family name was Cohen, which he exchanged for that of Palgrave. In 1827 he was admitted to the bar. He published in the " Family Library," in 1831, "The History of England: Anglo- Saxon Period," and in 1832 " The Rise and Progress of the English Commonwealth : Anglo-Saxon Period," (2 vols.,) which were received with favour. A few years later he was appointed deputy keeper of her Majesty's public records. Among his principal works is a " His- tory of Normandy and England," (ist vol., 185 1 ; 2d vol., 1857.) Died in July, 1861. See "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1832, and October, 1837; " Eraser's Magazine" for July, 1851, and July, 1857. Palice. See Chabannes, de, (Jacques.) Palice, de la, deh It pt'less', (Jacques de Cha- bannes — deh sht'btu',) Seigneur, an able French general, whom Charles VIII. appointed lieutenant of the kingdom of Naples about 1498. He was wounded at Agnadel in 1509. When Nemours fell at Ravenna, in 1 5 12, the army demanded La Palice for their general. He was defeated at Guinegate in 15 13, obtained a mar- shal's baton in 1515, and served under Lautrec in the Milanese in 1521. In 1523 he opposed Constable Bour- bon with success in Provence. He was killed at Pavia in 1525. Palingenio. See Manzolli. Palingenius Stellatus. See Manzolll Palinure. See Palinurus. Pal-i-nu^rus, [Gr. TIoAn'of/joo; Fr. Palinure, pt'le'- niiR',] the pilot or helmsman of the ship which carried iEneas in his sea-voyage. Palisot de Beauvois, pt'le^zo' deh bo\w3.', (Am- broise Marie Franqois Joseph,) a French botanist and zoologist, born at Arras in 1752. He explored Benin and a part of Guinea in 1786-87, after which he visited Saint Domingo. Escaping from the revolted slaves, who were about to kill him, he'took refuge in Philadelphia in 1793, after which he made a scientific excursion in the interior. He returned to France in 1798, and succeeded Adanson in the Institute in 1806. He published a " Flora of Owara and Benin," (2 vols., 1804-21,) "Insects col- lected in Africa and America," (1805-21,) and other works. His "Flora of Owara," etc. is described by .i, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; nSt; good; moon; PALISSOT 1 73 1 PALLAS Depping as " a beautiful work, rich in discoveries." Died in 1820. See CuviER, " filoge de Palisot de Beaiivois," 1820: Thiebaut DE Berneaud, " Eloge historique de Palisot de Beauvois," 1821. Palissot, pt'Ie'so', (Charles de Montenoy — moN'- teh-nwi',) a French poet and prose writer, born at Nancy in 1730. A caustic and satirical temper involved him deeply in literary quarrels, especially against the En- cyclopedists. He ridiculed Rousseau in his comedy entitled "The Circle," ("Le Cercle," 1755,) and Diderot in " Little Letters on Great Philosophers," (" Petites Lettres sur de grands Philosophes," 1757.) His comedy of "The Philosophers" (" Les Philosophes," 1760) was very successful ; but his satirical poem the "Dunciade" (1764) was a failure. Died in 1814. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Paris-sy, [Fr. pron. pt'le'se',] (Bernard,) a cele- brated French potter and enameller, born near Agen (Lot-et-Garonne) about 1506. He studied natural his- tory, chemistry, and other sciences. He expended many years in experiments on the art of enamelling stone- ware or pottery, and, after great trials and sufferings, at last succeeded, in 1555. During this period he was converted to the Reformed religion, for which he was arrested and imprisoned. About 1565 he was invited to Paris, employed by the king, and lodged at the Tuileries. By the favour of his noble or royal patrons, he escaped the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, in 1572. In 1575 he opened a course of lectures on physics and natural his- tory at Paris. He was the first in France who applied sound methods and demonstrations in explaining the phenomena of nature. He ornamented his ware, called rusttques figiilines, with accurate coloured figures of ani- mals. Among his works is a "Treatise on the Origin of Fountains, and on the Nature of Metals, Salts, Stones," etc., (1580.) He died in 1589, in the Bastille, where he was confined for his religious principles. He was dis- tinguished no less for his virtue than for his talents. See Alfred Dumesnil, " Bernard Palissy," Paris, 1S51 ; Henry Mqrley, "The Life of B. Palissy, his Labours and Discoveries," London, 2 vols., 1852; Camili.e Duplessis, " fitude sur Palissy," 1855; "Biographic Universellc ;" "Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale." Palitzsch, p^'litsh, (Johann Georg,) a German astronomer, born near Dresden in 1723, was a cultivator of the soil. He discovered with the naked eye Halley's comet in December, 1758, before it had been seen by any telescopic observer. Died in 1788. PaPla-das, [na/lAaf5ac,] a Greek poet, lived about 400 A.D. He wrote many epigrams, preserved in the Greek Anthology. He ridicules some Christians who con- verted statues of the gods into images of the saints. Pallade. See Palladius. Palladines or Paladines, de, deh pt'lt'den', (D'Au- RELLES,) a French general, born about 1820. He served in the Crimean war, and became a general of division in 1867. He commanded the army of the Loire, which de- feated the Germans near Orleans, November 10, 1870. Palladino da Teramo. See Teramo, da. Palladio, pil-ia'de-o, [Lat. Palla'dius,] (Andrea,) an illustrious architect, born at Vicenza, in Italy, in 1518. It is not known who was his master; but he states in one of his works that he chose Vitruvius as his guide in architecture. He found a liberal patron in Trissino the poet, and visited Rome several times to study the monu- ments of antiquity. Having settled in Vicenza, he ex- hibited his superior talents in the design of the Palazzo della Ragione. He adorned his native city with many private residences or villas, and built on the Brenta the Foscari palace, which was much admired. The Villa Capra, or Rbtonda, near Vicenza, and the Teatro Olimpico, in that city, are considered among his master- pieces. He built several fine edifices in Venice, among which is the church of II Redentore, begun about 1577. In 1570 he published a "Treatise on Architecture," which was often reprinted. He died in 1580. "He combines," says Castellan, "in the style of his edifices, simplicity and grandeur. . . . He seems to have derived from the ancients the quintessence of their taste." ("Biographic Universelle." ) It is, however, proper to observe that while perhaps no other architect has enjoyed a higher or more universal reputation for genius and taste, so that the term " Palladian" has been exten- sively used throughout Europe as equivalent to beautiful and excellent in architecture, his designs, in the opinion of many critics, are very far from being faultless. For some severe strictures on the style of Palladio, the reader is referred to the article on "Architecture," by Professor Hosking, in the " Encyclopaedia Britannica." Sec P. GuALDO, "Vita di A. Palladio," 1749; T. Temanza, "Vita di A. Palladio," 1763; A. Rigato, " Osservazioni sopra A. Palladio," 1811 ; A, Magrini, "Memorie intorno la Vita e le Opere di A. Palladio," 1845 ; Milizia, " Memorie degli Architetti antichi e moderni;" Ticozzi, " Dizionario." Palladio, (Biagio Pallai,) called Blosio, (blo'se-o,) a Latin poet, born at Castelvetro, in Italy. He became Bishop of Foligno in 1540. Died in 1550. Palladium. See Minerva. Palladius. See Palladio. Pal-laMi-us, [TlaAAafkof,] surnamed Iatrosophis'ta, a Greek medical writer of an uncertain epoch. As he quotes Galen, he must have lived after 200 A.D. He left a short treatise on Fevers, [Txzpl nvpercjv avvTO/xog cvvoipic,;) and scholia on Hippocrates' book on Fractures. Both of these are extant. Palladius, Bishop of Helenopolis, in Bithynia, is supposed to have flourished about 400 A.D. He wrote a work, in Greek, called the " Lausiac History," which contains biographies of some ascetics or saints of Pales- tine and Egypt. Palladius, [Fr. Pallade, pt'ltd',] a bishop, who was sent by Pope Celestine to convert the Irish or Scotch (Scotos) about 431 A.D. He is honoured as a saint both by the Irish and the Scottish Romanists. Palladius of Methone, a Greek Sophist, lived about 325 A.D. He wrote on the Festivals of the Romans. Palladius,(RuTiLius Taurus ^milianus,) a Roman writer on agriculture, lived probably between 300 and 400 A.D. His work "On Agriculture" ("De Re Rustica") was popular in the middle ages, and is still extant Pallajuolo. See Pollajuolo. PaPlas, [Gr. naPiXuf,] an appellation of the goddess Minerva or Athena. (See Minerva.) In Homer this name always appears united with Athena, as Pallas Athena. Pal'las, a favourite of the Roman emperor Claudius, was a slave in his youth. He was an accomplice of Agrippina in the crime of poisoning Claudius. Died in 63 A.D. Pallas, a son of Evander, King of Arcadia, was an ally of ^neas in the war against Turnus. He was re- nowned for his courage, and was an intimate friend of ^neas. He was killed by Turnus. See Virgil's "^neid," book viii. 104, x. 365-489. Pallas, a son of Pandi'on, King of Athens, and a brother of .^E^geus. He was said to have been killed by Theseus. Pallas, paKlSs, (Peter Simon,) a distinguished Prus- sian naturalist and traveller, born in Berlin in 1741. He was educated for the medical profession at Gottingen and Leyden, and made himself master of Latin, French, and English. He acquired reputation by his "Miscel- lanea Zoologica," (1766,) and at the invitation of Cathe- rine II. he became professor of natural history in the Academy of Saint Petersburg in 1767. He wrote for the Academy a " Memoir on the Fossil Bones of the Huge Quadrupeds found in Siberia." Pallas was one of the many scientific men whom the empress sent in 1768 to explore Siberia. He devoted his attention in this great enterprise to zoology, botany, and geology, and, after extending his researches to the frontier of China, returned to Saint Petersburg in 1774. His "Travels through Different Provinces of the Russian Empire" (in German, 1771-76) is highly esteemed for its exact descriptions and just observations. He discovered in the mountain-ranges of Siberia the general law of the succession of the three primitive orders of rocks, — the granitic, the schistose, and the calcareous. "This great fact," says Cuvier, "expressed in his Memoir read to the Academy in 1777, has given birth to all modern geology." He displayed his superior geniuJP in many other works, among which are a "History of the Mon- golian Nations," " Essays on the North in Relation to € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2!^^See Explanations, p. 23.) PALLAVICINI 1732 PALMER Physical Geography, Ethnography," etc., (1781-96,) and "Flora Rossica," (a "Flora of Russia," 1785.) In 1795 he removed for his health to the Crimea, the climate of which had appeared pleasant to him as he formerly passed through it. Although he was disappointed by finding the climate extremely variable, he remained there abuut fifteen years, after which he removed to Berlin, where he died in 181 1. He left unfinished a great work on the Zoolog\:^of the Russian Empire, of which 3 vols, were published, entitled " Fauna Asiatico-Rossica." He was a foreign associate of the French Institute. See RuD« :,PHi, " Essai historique sur Pallas," 1812; Cuvier, "Elopes his-.: Cliques;" Mkusel, " Gelehrtes Deutsclilaiid ;" " Nou- velle l^)i()graphie Generale ;" "Monthly Review" for January, 1S05. Pallavicini, pil-ia-ve-chee'nee, or Pelavicino, pi- lA-ve-chee'no, (Oberto,) Marquis, an able general, born at Piacenza. He became the ally of the emperor Fred- erick against Gregory IX. in 1234, after which he gained victories over the Guelphs and made himself master of a large part of Northern Italy. His power was subverted by Charles of Anjou in 1266. Died in 1269. Pallavicini or Pallavicino, pai-li-ve-chee'no, (Pie- TRO Sforza,) an Italian historian and cardinal, was born at Rome in 1607. Fie wrote a treatise on style, "Dello Stilo," (1662,) and other works, the best-known of which is a " History of the Council of Trent," (2 vols., 1656, and 3 vols., 1664.) It is said to be well written. Died in 1667. See Ireneo Affo, "Memorie della Vita del Cardinale S. Palla- vicino," 1794; TiRABOSCHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Pallavicini, (Stefano Benedetto,) an Italian poet, born at Padua in 1672. He became a resident of Dres- den in his youth. He produced several original poems, and a version of the Odes of Horace, {1736,) which is elegant, but rather free. Died at Dresden in 1742. Pallavicini della Priola, pil-lS-ve-chee'nee del'lS pRee'o-ia, (Emilio,) Marquis, an Italian general, born at Ceva in 1823. He distinguished himself in the war against Austria in 1859. He commanded the force which captured Garibaldi at Aspromonte in August, 1862. Pallavicino. See Pallavicini. Pallavicino, pil-ia-ve-chee'no, (Ferrante,) an Ital- ian monk and satirical writer, born at Piacenza about 1618. He wrote licentious works, and satires against Pope Urban VIII. and the Barberini. Having impru- dently entered the papal territory, he was seized and beheaded at Avignon in 1644. Palliere, pt'le^iR^ (Vincent L^on,) a French his- torical painter, born at Bordeaux in 1787. He gained the first prize at Paris in 1 81 2, and went to Rome, with a pension. Among his works is " Homer dictating his Poems." He died prematurely in 1820. Palliot, pt^le'o', (Pierre,) a French genealogist, born in Paris in 1608 ; died at Dijon in 1698. PaFlis-er, (Sir Hugh,) a British admiral, born about 1720. He was second in command under Keppel at the battle off Ushant, in 1778, and was then involved in a dispute with Keppel, which was referred to a court of inquiry. Palliser was censured by this court. Died in 1796. See " Life of Sir Hugh Palliser," by R. M. Hunt, London, 1844. Palloni, pll-lo'nee, (Gaetano,) an Italian medical writer, born in 1770, was professor of medicine at Flor- ence. He was ennobled by the Grand Duke of Tuscany. Died in 1830. Palluel. See Crett6 de Palluel. Palm, pilm, (Johann Georg,) a German Lutheran divine, born at Hanover in 1697, published several works. Died in 1743. Palm, (Johann Philipp,) a German publisher, born at Schorndorf in 1766, lived in Nuremberg. For the publi- cation of a pamphlet against Bonaparte, he was tried by a French military commission, and shot, in August, 1806. Palma, p^Kma, (Jacopo,) styled II Vecchio, (el vek'- ke-o,) or the Elder, an eminent painter of the Venetian school, born near Bergamo. His birth is variously dated from about 1480 to 1520. He is said to have been a pupil of Titian. He excelled in vivacity and softness of colouring. *^rhe galleries of Europe contain a great many works attributed to him. Among his master-pieces are a " Last Supper" and a Madonna at Vicenza. His works exhibit good taste in composition, and such a union of tints that no trace of the brush is perceptible. Died at the age of forty-eight. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters;" Rodolfi, "Vite degli il- lustri Pittori Veneti ;" Lanzi, *' History of Painting in Italy." Palma, (Jacopo,) the Younger, a nephew of the preceding, was born at Venice in 1544. He imitated Titian and Tintoretto, and acquired a high reputation. In the opinion of some writers, he combined the best principles of the Roman and Venetian schools. "The distinctive mark of his talent," says the "Biographic Universelle," "is facility. His tints are fresh and trans-' parent, and more agreeable than those of Tintoretto." He is charged, however, with depraving the style of the Venetian school. Among his works are an " Annuncia- tion" and "The Plague of the Serpents." Died in 1628. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Palmaroli, pai-ma-ronee,(PiETRO,) an Italian painter, distinguished for his skill in transferring frescos to can- vas. He practised this art first with success in 1811. He transferred and restored many pictures of the old masters in Rome. Died in 1828. Palmblad, paim'biad,»(WiLHELM Fredrik,) a Swe- dish editor and writer, born near Soderkoping in 1788. He edited several literary periodicals, one of which was the " Phosphorus," and became a member of a new school, called Phosphorists, who preferred German lit- erature and influence to the French. He was professor of history and of the Greek language at Upsal. His chief production is a "Biographical Dictionary of Emi- nent Swedes," (23 vols.,) a work of much merit, com- menced about 1835 and finished in 1857. He wrote a successful novel, called "Aurora Konigsmark," (6 vols., 1846-51.) Died in 1852. See " Biographiskt- Lexicon ofver namnkunnige Svenska Man." Palmegiani, pal-mi-ji'nee, or Palmezzano, pil- met-s§.'no, (Marco,) an able Italian painter, born at Forli in the fifteenth century. His works are dated from 1 5 13 to 1537. Palmella, pil-meKlS, (Pedro de Souza-Holstein — so'zS ol-stan', ?) Duke of, a liberal Portuguese states- man, born at Turin in 1786. He was appointed min- ister of foreign affairs and president of the council by ' John VI. of Portugal in 1823. He was an adherent of Don Pedro in his contest against Don Miguel, (1830-33.) After the accession of Queen Maria (1834) he became prime minister. Died in 1850. See "Biographie Universelle." Palmer, pi'mer, (Erastus Dow,) a distinguished American sculptor, born in Onondaga county. New York, in 181 7. Among his principal works are an "Indian Girl Contemplating a Crucifix," "The White Captive," the "Sleeping Peri," and the "Landing of the Pilgrims." He has also executed a number of por- traits, busts, and bas-reliefs. See TucKERMAN, " Book of the Artists." Palmer, pd'mer, (Herbert,) an English Puritan min- ister, born in Kent in 1601. He preached at Canter- bury, Cambridge, and London, and published a popular work entitled "Memorials of Godliness," (1644.) Died in 1647. Palmer, (Innis N.,) an American general, born in New York, graduated at West Point in 1846. He fought as brigadier-general in the Union army at Fair Oaks, and at Malvern Hill, July i, 1862. He commanded in the district of North Carolina from April, 1864, to March, 1865. Palmer, (James S.,) an American rear-admiral, born in New Jersey, entered the navy in 1825. He com- manded the Iroquois in the passage of the batteries of Vicksburg, June, 1862, and was captain of Farragut's flag- ship when she ran past the batteries of Port Hudson, in March, 1863. Having gained the rank of cominodore, he was appointed commander of the Western Gulf Blockading Squadron about the end of 1864. Died in December, 1867. See J. T. Headlev, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders." Palmer, (John,) an English Unitarian minister, born in 1729, preached in London many years. Died in 1790. a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; \ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nSt; good; moon; PALMER 1733 PALSGRAVE Palmer, (John,) the projector of mail-coaches in Eng- land, was born at Bath in 1742. He obtained the office of controller-general of the post-office, but was removed in 1792. Died in 1818. Palmer, (John,) an English actor, born in London about 1740 ; died in 1798. Palmer, (John McAuley,) an American general, born in Scott county, Kentucky, in 1817, was a lawyer before the civil war, and practised in Illinois. He was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers in December, 1861, and commanded a division at the battle of Stone River, December 31, 1862-January 2, 1863. For his services in this action he was promoted to the rank of major-general. He took part in the battle of Chicka- mauga, September 19 and 20, 1863, and commanded a corps under Sherman in the campaign against Atlanta, May-September, 1864. He was elected Governor of Illinois by the Republicans in November, 1868. Palmer, (Sir Roundet l,) an eminent English lawyer and legislator, born at Mixbury, Oxfordshire, in 1812. He was called to the bar in 1837, elected to Parliament in 1847, and appointed solicitor-general in 1861. He was attorney-general from 1863 to June, 1866. He is one of the ablest debaters of the Liberal party in Par- liament. He was returned to Parliament for Richmond in 1861, in 1865, and in 1868. In 1869 he voted against the disestablishment of the Irish Church. Palmer, (Samuel,) an English printer, published a "General History of Printing," (1733.) Died in 1732. Palmer, (Whxtam Pitt,) an American poet, born at Stockbridge, Berkshire county, Massachusetts, in 1805. He passed a large part of his mature life in the city of New York, and was successively a medical student, a teacher, a writer for public journals, and a clerk in a public office. He wrote a hymn or ode entitled " Light," and other short poems. Palmerston, pc^'mer-ston, (Henry John Temple,) Viscount, an eminent English prime minister, born at Broadlands, near Romsey, in Hampshire, on the 20th of October, 1784. He was the eldest son of Henry Tem- ple, second Viscount Palmerston, and was descended from an ancient family, of which the famous Sir William Temple was a member. He was educated at Harrow, Edinburgh, and Saint John's College, Cambridge. At the death of his father, in 1802, he succeeded to the estate and title of viscount, (in the Irish peerage.) He was elected a member of Parliament by the Tories in 1807, and was appointed a lord of the admiralty in the same year. He soon distinguished himself by his talents for business and his political tact. In 1809 he became secretary at war in the ministry of Percival, and in 1811 he was returned to Parliament for the University of Cambridge, which he continued to represent for about twenty years. He retained the office of secretary at war during the long administration of Liverpool (1812-27) and under the ministries of Canning and Goderich. As an advocate of Catholic emancipation, he declined to serve under the Duke of Wellington, and resigned office in 1828. Before this date he had become an eminent debater, especially on foreign affairs, in respect to which he favoured the policy of Canning. Although he had hitherto been a Tory, he accei:)ted office as secretary of foreign affairs in the Whig ministry formed in November, 1830. Having resigned with his colleagues in November, 1834, he was appointed to the same office in the Melbourne ministry in April, 1835, and held it until the accession of Sir P.obert Peel, in September, 1841. During this term of official service he had a prominent part in the settlement of the Eastern question. He induced Russia, Austria, and Prussia to unite with England in a treaty signed in London in July, 1840, and to resist the progress of Me- hemet Ali in Syria. France, which favoured Mehemet Ali, was thus ignored in the settlement of the question. He married about 1839 the first Lord MellDOurne's daughter, who was the widow of Earl Cowper. On the formation of a new ministry by Lord John Russell, in 1846, Palmerston again became minister of foreign affairs. He pursued the policy of neutrality towards the revolutionary movements by which Europe was con- vulsed in 1848 and 1849, but he promptly recognized the French republic, and favoured Napoleon's coup d''etat in 185 1. In consequence of a disagreement with Lord John Russell, he was removed in December of that year. In December, 1852, Lord Aberdeen formed a coalition ministry, in which Palmerston was secretary for the home department, while the ministry "drifted" into war against Russia. He succeeded Lord Aberdeen as prime min- ister in February, 1855, and formed a cabinet chiefly of Whigs or Liberals. Peace was restored with Ru.^sia in March, 1856. Having been defeated in Parliament on the subject of the Chinese war in March, 1857, he appealed to the country, which sustained his policy by a large majority. He failed in his effort to pass the Conspiracy bill occasioned by Orsini's conspiracy against Napoleon III., and was compelled to resign in February, 1858. In June, 1859, he succeeded Lord Derby as the head of a ministry in which Russell was foreign secretary and Gladstone chancellor of the exchequer. He con- tinued to be prime minister until his death, October 18, 1865. He had no children. Palmerston retained in his old age much of the vigour and vivacity of youth. He was an excellent master of parliamentary science and political tactics, and enjoyed a high degree of popularity. He represented Tiverton in the House of Commons from 1835 to his death. See G. H. Fkancis, " Opinions and Policy of Viscount Palmer- ston as Minister, Diplomatist, and Statesman," 1852; "Thirty Years of Foreign Policy: a History of the Secretaryships of Earl Aberdeen and Lord Pahiierston," 1855; Comte de Ficquelmont, "Lord Palmerston, I'Angleterre et le Continent," 1852; L. de Lomenie, " Lord Palmerston, jiar un Homme de Rien," 1842 ; Harriet Mar- TiNEAi', " Hiograpliical Sketches," 1S70; " Fraser's Magazine" lor November, 1865 ; "Westminster Review" for January, 1866. Palmezzano. See Palmegianl Palmieri, pal-me-a'ree, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter of history and. animals, born at Genoa in 1674; died in 1740. Palmieri, (Giuseppe,) an Italian economist, born in the province of Otranto in 172L He was director- general of the finances at Naples. He wrote a " Treatise on the Art of War," (1761,) and "Thoughts on Economy," (" Pensieri economici," 1789.) Died in 1793. Palmieri, (Matteo,) an Italian historian, born at Florence in 1405. His chief work is a " General Chroni- cle from the Creation to his Own Time." Died in 1475. Palmieri, (Matteo,) an Italian philologist, born at Pisa in 1423. He wrote a continuation of the chronicle of Matteo Palmieri from 1449 to 1481, (1483.) Died in 1483. Palmquist, pSlm'kwist, (Frederik,) a Swedish ma- thematician, born in 1720 ; died in 1771. Palmquist, (Magnus,) Baron, a Swedish military officer, born in 1660. He was very skilful in fortifica- tions, and was president of the Council of Mines. Died in 1729. Palombi, pS-lom'bee, (Gaetano,) an Italian poet, born near Spoleto in 1753, wrote "II Medoro coronato," (1828.) Died in 1826. See Montana, " Elogio di G. Palombi," 1837. Palomino de Castro y Velasco, pS-lo-mee'no di kis'tro e vi-las'ko, (Don AciSLO Antonio,) a celebrated Spanish painter, born near Cordova in 1653. His name is sometimes written Palomino de Velasco. He was a pupil of Juan de Valdes Leal. Having painted the story of Psyche for Charles II., he obtained, at an early age, the title of painter to the king. His chief merits are correct design, beautiful colour, and excellence in perspective. "The Confession of Saint Peter" is called one of his best works. His reputation is chiefly founded on his treatise on painting, entitled "El Museo pictorico y Escala optica," (2 vols., 1715,) and his "Lives of Spanish Painters" contained in his "Parnaso Espanol pictorico," (i vol., 1724.) Died at Madrid in 1726. See QuiLLiET, " Dictioimaire des Peintres Espagnols;" Cean- Bermudkz, " Diccionario." P^ls'grave, (John,) an English grammarian, born in London. He gave lessons in French to Mary, a sister of Henry VIII., in 15 14, and published a French gram- mar, (1530.) This is the most ancient printed work on that subject of which we have any knowledge, according to Barbier, who praises his sagacity and taste. Died in 1554. € as k; 935 j; g hard; g as /; G, H, Yi^ guttural; N, nasal'; R, trilled; s as z; as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) PJLU 1734 PJNCKOUCKE Palu, de la, deh It pt'lu', [ Lat. Paluda'nus, ] (PiKRRE,) a French Dominican monk, born at Varam- bon about 1280. He was appointed Patriarch of Jeru- salem about 1330, and wrote several works on theology. Died in 1342. Paludan - Miiller, pai'do-dtn' muKler, (Caraps Petkr,) a Danish historian, a brother of Frederic, was born in 1805. He published several works on Danish history, and "Researches on Machiavel," (1839.) Paludan-MuUer, ( Frederic, ) a popular Danish poet, born in Fiinen in 1809. He produced in 1832 "Cupid at Court," a comedy, and in 1833 a poem called "The Danseuse," (" Dandserinden,") which is much ad- mired. His most remarkable work, perhaps, is "Adam Homo," (1841-49,) a humorous poem. He is commended for happy images, noble ideas, and force of sentiment, but is deficient in invention as a dramatist. Paludanus. See Palu. Paludanus, pa-lu-d^'nus, (Bernard Ten Broek — Xh\ IjRook,) a Dutch philosopher and traveller, born at Steenwyk in 1550 ; died in 1633. Paludanus, ( Jean van den Broek, ) a Flemish theologian, born at Malines in 1565. He was professor at Louvain, and author of several works. Died in 1630. Pamard, pt'mtR', (Jean Baptiste Antoine,) a French surgeon, born at Avignon in 1763 ; died in 1827. Pamele, de.deh pt'maK, [Lat. Pame'lius,] (Jacques,) a Flemish priest, born at Bruges in 1536. He edited the works of Cyprian (1568) and Tertullian, (1579,) and w rote " Liturgica Latinorum," (1571.) Died in 1587. Pamelius. See Pamele. Pani''me-nes, [ITa^/zn'r/f,] a Theban general, was a friend of Epaminondas. Philip of Macedon was in the custody of Pammenes while he was a hostage at Thebes. Pammenes commanded an army sent to Megalopolis in 352 B.C. Pammenes, an Athenian orator and teacher of rhetoric, lived in the time of Cicero, who extols his eloquence in high terms. Pam'phi-la, [Gr. Ila^^i/l?/,] a Roman or Greek histo- rian, lived in the reign of Nero. She wrote a historical work entitled vTTOfivriiiara loropiKu, which was highly es- teemed by some ancient critics. It is not extant. Pamphile. See Pamphilus. Pam'plii-lus, [Uuju(l)c?iog,] one of the most eminent Greek painters, was a native of Amphipolis, and riour- ished between 390 and 350 R.c. He was the pupil of Eupompus, whom he succeeded as the master of the Sicyonian school of painting. As a teacher of art, he was probably surpassed by none of the ancients. His school was remarkable for the importance which the master attached to general learning and the great attention he paid to accuracy in drawing. Pliny says that he was the first artist who was well versed in all sciences, and that he thought geometry necessary to the perfection of his art. He excelled in composition, and in what Quin- tilian calls rc7fw, or proportion. Pliny mentions four of his works, among which was "Ulysses on his Raft." Apelles and Melanthius were his pupils. Pamphilus, a grammarian of Alexandria, is supposed to have lived in the first century of our era. He was the author of a "Greek Lexicon." Pamphilus, [Fr. Pamphile, pSN^f^l',] Saint, an emi- nent martyr, born at Berytus, (Beyroot,) in Syria, about 245 A.D. He became presbyter of Caesarea, in Pales- tine, where he founded a large and renowned public library. He was eminent for learning and piety. Hav- ing a high esteem for the works of Origen, he tran- scribed nearly all of them with his own hand. Pamphilus and Eusebius composed jointly an " Apology for Origen." He suffered martyrdom in the reign of Maximin, at Caesarea, in 309 a.d. Eusebius testified his friendship and honour for him by adopting the name of Pamphili. See Saint Jerome, " De Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis ;" Baronius, " Amiales." Pan, [Gr. Uav,] the god of flocks, shepherds, and pastures, in classic mythology, was said to be a son of Mercury, and was sometimes identified with the Roman Lupercus. He combined the form of a man with that of a goat, having horns and feet like the latter animal. He was fond of music and riotous noise, and was the inventor of the syrinx, the pastoral pipe or flute. The principal seat of his worship was Arcadia. He was regarded by some philosophers as the symbol of the universe ; for Pan signifies "all." Panic terrors were ascribed to Pan, who sometimes appeared to travellers, and sur- prised them with a sudden alarm. The Romans ob- served an annual festival, called Ltipercalia, in honour of Pan, whose priests were styled Ltiperci. See Smith, " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology;" " Biographic Universelie," (Partie mythologique.) Pan-a-ge'a, [Gr. UavaKEca ; Fr. Panacee, pt'nS'sk',] (/.(?. the "all-healing,") a daughter of ^sculapius, is simply a personification of the healing power. Panacee. See Panacea. Panaenus, pa-nee'nus, [Uavatvoc,] an eminent Athe- nian painter, who lived about 450 B.C., was a brother of Phidias, according to Pausanias, or his nephew, accord- ing to Strabo. He aided Phidias in the decoration of the temple of Jupiter at Olympia, in which he painted, among other subjects, "Atlas Upholding Heaven," and the "Combat of Hercules with the Nemean Lion." His master-piece was a series of pictures of the battle of Marathon in the Poecile at Athens. Panaetius, pa-nee'she-us, [Uav air Log,] a Greek Stoic or Eclectic philosopher, was born at Rhodes, and was a pupil of Diogenes the Stoic, and perhaps of Carneades. About 140 or 150 B.C. he visited Rome, taught philos- ophy to Scipio Africanus and Laslius, and enjoyed the intimate friendship of the former. He was afterwards the head of the Stoic school at Athens, and died, at an advanced age, before in B.C. He is the representative of a moderate stoicism, and appears to have rejected the principle of apathy. None of his works are extant. Among them was a treatise " On Duties," to which Cicero was indebted for many principles of his book " De Ofificiis." Cicero avowed this fact, and expressed a very high esteem for Panaetius. See SuiDAS, "Panaetius:" Van Lijnden, " Disputatio historico- critica de Panastio," 1802; Ritter, "History of Philosophy." Panard, pt'ntR', (Charles Francois,) a French chanson nier and dramatist, born near Chartres about 1694. He wrote successful songs, vaudevilles, comedies, and pleasant satires. Died in 1765 or 1769. Panartz. See Pannartz. Panchamuki, one of the names of Siva, which see. Panciroli, pin-che-ro'lee, (Guido,) an Italian jurist and antiquary, born at Reggio in 1523. He was pro- fessor of Roman law at Turin (1571-82) and at Padua. Among his important works is one on illustrious jurists, " De Claris Legum Literpretibus," (1637 ;) also one en- titled "Rerum Memorabilium Libri duo," (1599,) which treats of ancient arts and inventions of which the secret is lost. Died in 1599. See Ersch imd Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Nic^- RON, " Memoires." Panckoucke, pdN^kook', (Andre Joseph,) a French bookseller and compiler, born at Lille in 1700. He pub- lished a "Philosophic Manual," (2 vols., 1748,) a "Dic- tionary of French Proverbs," (1749,) and other works. He also wrote "The Battle of Fontenoy," in burlesque verse, a parody on Voltaire's poem on that subject. Died in 1753. Panckoucke, (Charles Joseph,) a son of the pre- ceding, born at Lille in 1736, was an eminent publisher in Paris, and a writer of some merit. He was the pro- prietor or editor of the "Mercure de France," for which he procured 15,000 subscribers. About 1781 he formed the plan of the " Encyclopedie Methodique," a very large and important work. He founded the "Moniteur," a daily journal, in 1789. He translated Lucretius, (1768.) and "Orlando Furioso," (1798.) He corresponded with Buffon, Voltaire, and Rousseau. Died in 1798. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Panckoucke, (Charles Louis Fleury — fluh're',) a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1780. He was distinguished as a publisher and translator. He was the publisher of a " Dictionary of Medical Sciences," (60 vols.,) and of a collection of Latin classics, with translations, entitled "Latin-French Library," ("Biblio- theque Latine-Fran9aise," 174 vols., 1828 seq.) He translated Tacitus, (7 vols., 1830-38.) Died in 1844. a e, i, 6, u» y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a» e, 1, 6, u, ^, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon: PJNCRJTIUS 1735 PANS E RON Pancratius, pan-kra'she-us, one of the early Chris- tians, suffered martyrdom under Diocletian. Pandare. See Pandarus. Pau^da-rus, [Gr. I\.dv6apog: Fn Pandare, pSw'dtR',] a semi-fabulous warrior, who fought against the Greeks in the Trojan war, and was an excellent archer. He was killed by Diomede. Pan-di'on, [Gr. YLavdiuv,] a son of Cecrops, became King of Athens, but was expelled from that country and afterwards ruled over Megara. He was the father of yEgeus, Pallas, and other sons. Pandion, a mythical king of Athens, was a son of Erichthonius, and the father of Erechtheus, Philomela, and Procne. It was fabled that Ceres and Bacchus came to Attica in the reign of Pandion. Pandolfe. See Pandolfo. Pandolfi, pIn-doKfee, (Giangiacomo,) an Italian painter, born at Pesaro, was a pupil of F. Zuccaro. He flourished about 1630. Pandolfini, pin-dol-fee'nee, (Angelo,) an Italian statesman, economist, and writer, born at Florence in 1360 ; died in 1446. Pandolfo, pan-doKfo, [Fr. Pandolfe, pSNMolf ; Lat. Pandul'phus,] Prince of Benevento and Capua, began to reign in 961. He was one of the most power- ful princes of Italy. Died in 981 A.D. Pan-do'ra, [Gr. Havdupa, from ttuv, "every," and 6upov, "gift;" Fr. Pandore, pSN^doR',] the name given in the Greek mythology to the first woman, who was endowed by Minerva and Venus with every attractive quality, — whence her name, which signifies possessing "every gift." Jupiter gave her a beautiful box, which she was to present to the man who should marry her. She became the wife of Epimetheus, who opened the box, whereupon there issued from it the numerous evils that have since infested human life. Pandora closed the box in time to prevent the escape of Hope. According to one account, Pandora herself, prompted by curiosity, opened the box, though she had been forbidden to do so. Another legend tells us' that Pandora's box con- tained various blessings, which escaped when she opened it, and could never be recovered. See ScHOEMANN, " De Pandora Commentatio," 1853; "Biogra- phic Universelle," (Partie mythologique.) Pandore. See Pandora. Pandulphus. See Pandolfo. Panel, pt'nIK, (Alexandre Xavier,) a French nu- mismatist, born at Nozeroy in 1699. He became a pro- fessor in the Royal College at Madrid, and wrote many works on ancient coins and other antiquities. Died in 1777. Panetti, pS-net'tee, (Domenico,) a skilful Italian painter, born at Ferrara in 1460; died in 1530. Panfili. See Innocent X. Pan-hel-le'ni-us, [Gr. IlaveX/l^vwf,] {i.e. " the god worshipped by all the Hellenes or Greeks,") a surname of Zeus or Jupiter. Panicale, da, di p^-ne-ki'lk, (Masolino,) a painter of the Florentine school, born in 1378. Some of his frescos still exist at Florence. He was one of the first artists that attained skill in chiaroscuro. According to Vasari, he died in 1440. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." Panigarola, pS-ne-gl-ro'lS, (Francesco,) the most eloquent Italian pulpit orator of his time, was born at Milan in 1548. He entered the order of Cordeliers, and became Bishop of Asti in 1587. In 1589 he perverted his talents by advocating in Paris the cause of the League against Henry IV. He left many volumes of Italian and Latin sermons, which have nearly passed into oblivion, and other works. Died in 1594. See BoNGRATiA DE Varenna, "Vita di Panigarola," 1617; Ugheli.i, " Italia sacra." Panin or Panine, pS-neen', ? (Nikita Ivanovitch,) a Russian statesman, born in 1718. He became governor of the grand duke Paul in 1760, and was appointed min- ister of foreign affairs by Catherine on the abdication of Peter HI., (1762.) Died in 1783. See "Vie du Comte de Panine," London, 1784. Panlni, pa'ni-ni, the most celebrated of Sanscrit philologists, lived at a very remote and uncertain period. He is said to have been a grandson of the legislator Devala. He is considered by some as the creator of grammatical science and the inventor of the analytic processes to which linguistics owes its discoveries. The rules of his grammar amount to three thousand nine hundred and ninety-six. Panini, pi-nee'nee, or Pannini, pan-nee'nee, (Gio- vanni Paolo,) an able painter of the Roman school, born at Piacenza about 1694. He was very skilful in perspective, and was an excellent painter of architecture and landscapes, which he adorned with graceful figures. Among his works are " Ruins of the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli," " The Traders driven from the Temple," and views of ruins at Rome. Died at Rome in 1764. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Panis, pt'ness', (Etienne Jean,) a French Jacobin, born in Perigord in 1757. He was accessory to the outrages of his party in Paris, and was elected to the Convention in 1792. He joined the enemies of Robes- pierre on the 9th Thermidor. Died in 1833. Panizzi, pi-nit'see or pi-n^t'see, (Sir Antonio,) an Italian bibliographer and litterateur^ born in the duchy of Modena in 1797. He became assistant librarian of the British Museum in 1831, and principal librarian of that institution in 1856. He resigned this position in July, 1865. He has published editions of "Orlando Furioso," (1830-34,) and other poems. Panniure, pan'mur or pan-mur',(Fox Maule,) Lord, and Earl Dalhousie, a British politician, a son of the first Baron Panmure, was born in Forfarshire in 1801. He was elected to Parliament by the Whigs about 1835, and was secretary of war from July, 1846, to February, 1852. He held the same office under Palmerston from 1855 to February, 1858. He is a cousin of the late Earl of Dalhousie, whose title he inherited in December, i860. Pannard. See Panard. Pannartz, pSn'nc^Rts, (Arnold,) a German printer, who was emjjloyed at Mentz by Gutenberg. He re- moved to Italy in 1462, and established a press at Su- biaco. Died in 1476. Pannini. See Panini. Pannonius. See Cisinge, de. Pan-no'ni-us, (Janus,) a Hungarian bishop and Latin poet, born in 1434 ; died in 1472. Panofka, pS-nofki, (Heinrich,) a German composer and violinist, born at Breslau in 1808, has performed in Paris with success. Panofka, (Theodor,) a German archaeologist^ born at Breslau in 1801. He published numerous works, among which are " De Rebus Samiorum," (1822,) and " Pictures of the Life of the Ancients," (" Bilder Antiken Lebens," 1843.) He became professor in the University of Berlin in 1844. Died in 1858. Pan'o-pe, [Gr. ITavoTr?/,] in classic mythology, was one of the Nereids, and was invoked by mariners. Panormita, pS-noR-mee'tS, (Ani'onio Beccadelli — bek-ki-deKlee,) a distinguished Italian writer, born at Palermo (the Panormus of the ancients) in 1394. He was patronized by the Duke of Milan, and by Alphonso, King of Naples, whom he served as an ambassador. He wrote obscene epigrams, which were admired for wit and elegance of style, and other works, among which is "Familiar Letters," etc., ("Epistolae familiares ac Campanae," 1553.) Died in 1471, See F. CoLANGELO, "Vita di A. Beccadelli," 1821 ; Niceron, " Menioires." Pan'sa, (C. Vibius,) a Roman general, who was a partisan of Cjesar in the war against Pompey. As a colleague of Hirtius, he obtained the consulship in 43 B.C. Hirtius and Pansa joined the party of the senate and marched against Antony, and were both killed in battle near Modena in 43 B.C. Pansa, p^n'sl, (Muzio,) an Italian philosopher and writer, born in the Abruzzi about 1560. He wrote a work on "The Library of the Vatican," ("Delia Libre- ria Vaticana," 1590.) Panseron, pSNss^r^N', (Auguste,) a French musician and composer, born in Paris in 1795. He gained the grand prize in 1813, and became professor de chant at the Conservatory of Paris in 1824. He composed operas, masses, and requiems. His reputation is founded € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; li^nasal; "s^.trilLed; sa&z; th as in this. (2[^=See Explanations, p. 23.) PJNSERON 1736 PAPETT chiefly on a great number of popular ballads, ( romances,) among which are ** Au Revoir," " Vogue ma Nacelle," and " The Dream of Tartini." See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Panseron, (Fiekrk,) a French architect, born near Provins about 1730. He published several good works, one of which is entitled " New Elements of Architec- ture," (3 vols., 1775-80.) Pantaenus, pan-tee'nus, [Gr. Hayraivof; Fr. Pan- Ti:NE, pSN'tan',] a Christian philosopher, born about 155 A.D., was a Stoic before his conversion. He became, about i8o, the head of the celebrated school at Alexan- dria, where Saint Clement was one of his pupils. Ac- cording to an ancient tradition, he preached in India. His works, if he wrote any, are not extant. Died about 216 A.D. Pan-tag'a-thus, (Octavius,) [It. Pantagato, (Ot- TAVio,)] an Italian monk of great erudition, born at Brescia in 1494. He left some works in manuscript. Died in 1 567. Pantaleon, p6N'ti'la'6N', written also Pantaleo, (Henri,) a Swiss historian, born at Bale in 1522, became professor of dialectics and physics in his native city. He obtained a wide reputation by his writings, among which is a work on the illustrious men of Germany, ("Proso- pographia Virorum illustrium Germanise," 3 vols., 1566.) Died in 1595. Pantene. See Pant^nus. Pantin, pdN'tiN', (Peter,) a Flemish classical scholar, born at Thiel about 1555 ; died in 161 1. Pantoja, pin-to'ni, (Juan de Lacruz,) a Spanish painter, born at Valencia about 1550, was a pupil of Coello. He worked at the Escurial for Philip II. He excelled in design and in the expression of his figures. Among his works is '* The Adoration of the Shepherds." Died in 1610. Panvinio, pin-vee'ne-o, (Onufrio,) [Lat. Panvin'- lUS Onu'phrius,] an eminent Italian antiquary, born at Verona in 1529. He collected many inscriptions and medals, and was patronized by Cardinal Farnese. Among his numerous treatises are " Festivals and Triumphs of the Romans," (" Fasti et Triumphi Romanorum," 1557,) "On the Roman Republic," ("De Republica Romana," 1581,) and "On the Circus Games," (" De Ludis Cir- censibus," 1600.) He was one of the first who applied criticism to history, and confirmed his statements by medals, inscriptions, etc. Died at Palermo in 1568. See D. W. Moli.er, " Disputatio circularis de Onuphrio Pan- vinio," 1697 ; Maffei, " Verona illustra ;" Niceron, " Memoires." Panvinius. See Panvinio. Pa-ny'si-sis, [Gr. Havvaaiq^ a Greek poet of the fifth century B.C., was, according to Suidas, an uncle of He- rodotus. He wrote an epic poem entitled " Heraclea," which is not extant. In the Alexandrian canon he was ranked among the great epic poets. Died about 460 B.C. See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Muller, " Histoire de la Litterature Grecque ;" Funcke, " Dissertatio de Panyasidis Vita ac Poesi," 1837. Panzacchia, p^n-z^k^ke-S, (Maria Elena,) an Ital- ian painter, born at Bologna in 1668; died in 1709. Panzer, pint'ser, (Friedrich,) a German antiquary, born in Bavaria in 1794. He wrote "The Traditions and Customs of Bavaria," (2 vols., 1848-55.) Died in 1854. Panzer, (Georg Wolfgang,) an eminent German bibliographer, born at Sulzbach in 1729. He preached at Nuremberg, to which he removed in 1760. His most 'important work is one in Latin, entitled "Annals of Typography from the Origin of Printing to 1536," (11 vols., 1 793-1 803,) which is said to be the most complete treatise on that subject. Died in 1804. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Meusel, " Gelehrtes Deutschland." Paoli, pd'o-lee, almost pow'lee, (Giacinto,) a Cor- sican general, born at Bastia in 1702. He commanded with success against the Genoese about 1734, and after- wards opposed the French until 1739, when he was com- pelled to submit. He retired to Naples, where he died in 1768. Paoli, (Paolo Antonio,) an TtaTian antiquary, born at Lucca about 1720, was a nephew of Sebastiano. Among his works is an account of the ruins of Paestum, (1784.) Died about 1790. Paoli, (Sebastiano,) a learned Italian antiquary and monk, born near Lucca in 1684. He'wr(^te, besides many other treatises, "On the Poetry of the Greek and Latin Fathers in the First Century," (1714,) and "On the Diplomatic Code of the Order of Malta," (" Codice diplomatico dell'Ordine di Malta," 2 vols., 1733-37.) Died in 1751. Paoli, di, de p^'o-lee, (Pasquale,) a celebrated Cor- sican general, born at Rostino in 1726, was a s(jn of Giacinto, (noticed above,) who took him to Naples in 1740. In 1755 he was chosen general-in chief of the Cor- sicans, who had revolted against the Genoese. He gained many victories, rendered himself master of nearly all the island, and organized a government with a representative system. In 1768 the Genoese, baffled in their efforts to reduce Corsica, ceded it to the French, whose army Paoli defeated twice in that year. He was defeated in a decisive battle at Ponte Nuovo in 1769, and retired to England. In 1789 he was recalled from exile by the National Assembly, and received from Louis XVI. the title of lieutenant-general, with the command of Corsica. He assumed an attitude of hostility to the dominant party in France in 1793, ^I'^d became an ally or partisan of the English, to whom he transferred the sovereignty of the island in 1794. Having been deprived of his command by the British, he left Corsica in 1795 or 1796. He died near London in 1807. See BoTTA, " Storia d' Italia ;" Boswell, " Journal of a Tour to Corsica;" Arrighi, "Vie de Pascal Paoli;" Pompei, " fitat de la Corse," 1S21 : Karl L. Klose, " Leben P. Paoli's," 1853; " Nou- velle I3iographie Gdnerale." Paolini, pow-lee'nee, (Pietro or Luca Pietro,) an Italian painter, born at Lucca in 1603. He painted religious subjects. Died in 1681. See Lanzi, "History of Painting," etc. Paolo, the Italian for Paul, which see. Paolo Sarpi. See Sarpi. Paolo Veronese. See Cagliarl Paolucci, pow-loot'chee, (Sigismondo,) an Italian poet, born in Umbria about 1 5 10. He wrote canzoni, which were admired, and celebrated the African expe- dition of Charles V. in " The African Nights," (" Le Notti d'Africa," 1535.) Died in 1590. Paon, du, dii pt'6N', sometimes called Le Paon, a French painter of battles, born near Paris about 1740. He was a pupil and rival of Casanova, whom he ex- celled in design and in fidelity as an imitator of nature. Died in 1785. Papa, del, d^l pi'pl, (Giuseppe,) an Italian medical writer, born at Empoli in 1649. was physician to the Grand Duke of Tuscany. Died in 1735. Papacino. See Anton i, d'. Papadopoli, pi-pi-dop'o-lee, (Niccol6 Comneno,) a learned priest, born in Candia in 1655. He became in 1688 professor of canon law at Padua, and wrote a "History of the University of Padua," (2 vols., 1726.) Died in 1740. Pape, de la, deh It ptp, (Gui,) a French jurist, born at Lyons about 1400 ; died alsout 1475. Papebroch, p^'peh-bRoK^ or Papebroeck, pa'peh- bRook', (Daniel,) a learned Flemish Jesuit, born at Antwerp in 1628. He compiled a number of volumes of the " Acta Sanctorum" commenced by Bollandis. Died in 1714. Papebroeck. See Papebroch. Papencordt, pS'pen-koRt^ (Felix,) a German his- torian, born at Paderborn in 181 1. Among his works are a " History of the Domination of the Vandals in Africa," (1837,) and a " Life of Cola di Rienzo," (1841.) Died in 1841. Papendrecht, van, vtn pa'pen-dR^Kt', (Cornelis Paul Hoynck,) a Dutch historian and priest, born at Dort in 1686. He wrote a " History of the Church of Utrecht," (1725,) and " Analecta Belgica," (3 vols., 1743.) Died in 1753. Papety, ptp'te', (Dominique Louis Fer6ol,) a French painter, born at Marseilles in 1815. He gained the grand prize in 1836. Among his works is "Dream of Happiness," (" Reve de Bonheur.") Died in 1849. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; \ k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, skort.; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nSc; good; mu"on; PAPI ^111 PARACELSUS Papi, pi'pee, (Lazzaro,) an Italian historian and translator, born near Lucca in 1763. He translated "Paradise Lost" into Italian. Died in 1834. Pa'pi-as, [Gr, Tlama^,] Saint, was Bishop of Hie- rapolis, in Phrygia, in the second century. He wrote an "Exposition of the Words of the Lord," which is not extant. According to Irenaeus, he had seen and heard the apostle John. Several writers state that he suffered martyrdom in 163 A.D. See Smith, " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography," etc. Papillon, pt'pe'y^N', ( Jean, ) a French engraver, born at Rouen in 1639; died in 1710. His son Jean, born at Saint-Quentin in 1661, was a skilful engraver and designer. He especially excelled in designing horses. Died in 1723. Papillon, (Jean Michel,) an eminent engraver on wood, born in Paris in 1698, was a nephew of the pre- ceding. He published a " Treatise on Wood-Engraving," (1766.) Died in 1776. Papillon, (Philibert,) a French biographer and priest, born at Dijon in 1666. He wrote a good work on Burgundian authors, " Bibliotheque des Auteurs de Bourgogne," (2 vols., 1742.) Died in 1738. Papillon, (Thomas,) a French jurist, born in 15 14, gained distinction as a writer on law. Died in 1596. Papin, pap'in, [Fr. pron. pt'piN',] (Denis,) a French natural philosopher, born at Blois in 1647. He was the associate of Robert Boyle in scientific experiments in England, and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1681. He invented an apparatus for softening bones, called " Papin's Digester," and is ranked among the inventors of the steam-engine. " Papin," says F. Arago, " first conceived the idea of a steam-engine with a piston." To escape persecution as a Protestant, he went into exile in 1685, and obtained a chair of mathematics at Marburg. Died about 1712. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Papin, (Isaac,) a French theologian, born at Blois in 1657, was a nephew of Claude Pajon, and was educated as a Protestant. He wrote " Essays on Theology," (1687,) which subjected him to the enmity of Jurieu. In 1690 he joined the Roman Catholic Church. Died m 1709. Papineau, pt'pe-no', (Lours Joseph,) a Canadian revolutionist, born near Montreal in 1787. In 1814 he represented Montreal in the Canadian Parliament, and in 181 5 became Speaker of the House. He was a leader of the liberal or radical party, which revolted in 1837. After the defeat and dispersion of the insurgents, he took refuge in the United States. Pa-pin'i-an, [Lat. ^mil'ius Papinia'nus ; Fr. Pa- Pinien, pt'pe'ne-^N',] a celebrated Roman jurist, born about the middle of the second century. He was advo- catiis fisci in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, and after the accession of Severus was libellortim magister and preto- rian prefect, (203 a.d.) He was put to death, by order of Caracalla, in 212, probably because he had condemned the execution of Geta. The Digest contains extracts from his " Quaestiones," " Responsa," and " Defini- tiones." He was considered by some persons as the greatest jurist of antiquity. He had a high reputation for integrity. See EvERHARD Otto, " Papinianus," etc., 1718 ; Ersch und Grubrr, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" G. L. Mencke, "Papini- anus," 1775. Papinianus. See Papinian. Papinien. See Papinian. Papire-Masson, See Masson, (Jean Papire.) Pa-plr'i-us, (Justus,) a Roman jurist, lived in the reign of Marcus Aurelius. The Digest contains extracts from his "Constitutions." Papirius, (Sextus,) the author of a supposed collec- tion of the " Leges Regiae," (laws enacted during the reigns of the Roman kings,) which was called "Jus Pa- pirianum." He is said to have lived in the time of Tarquinius Superbus. Nothing certain is known about his compilation. See PvPERs, "Dissertatio de Papirio," 1825. Pa-pir'i-us Cras'sus, (Lucius,) a Roman commander, was appointed dictator in 339 B.C., to conduct the war against the Latins, and was twice elected consul, 336 and 330 B.C. Pa-plr'i-us Cur'sor, (Lucius,) a famous Roman general, whom Livy represents as one of the ablest men of his time. He was appointed dictator to conduct the war against the Samnites, in 332 B.C. Fabius Maximus, whonR'as master of the horse, in the absence of his chief and in disobedience to his orders, attacked and defeated the enemy. For this offence Papirius ordered him to be punished with death ; but Fabius appealed to the people, and was pardoned or acquitted. Papirius prosecuted the war with success until the Samnites sued for peace. He was elected consul about 320, and soon after defeated the Samnites at Luceria. In 313 he was chosen consul for the fifth time, and in 308 B.C. was made dictator for another war against the Samnites, over whom he gained a signal victory. History is silent respecting the sub- sequent events of his life. His son, of the same name, was elected consul in 293, and again in 272 B.C. He defeated the Samnites. Papirius Ma.ssonus. See Masson, (Papire.) Papon, pt'poN', (Jean Pierre,) a French historian and priest, born near Nice in 1734. He wrote a "His- tory of Provence," (4 vols., 1777-86,) which is com- mended, and a "History of the French Revolution from 1789 to the i8th Brumaire, 1799," (6 vols., 1815.) Died in 1803. Pappenheim, von, fon pSp'pen-him', (Gottfried Heinrich,) Count, a celebrated German general, born at Pappenheim in 1594, was a zealous Roman Catholic. After he had served with distinction in the army of Bavaria, and received several wounds at Prague, (1620,) he entered the service of the emperor, about 1630, as field-marshal. The victory of the Imperialists at Magde- burg (1631) is ascribed to him. He commanded a corps under Wallenstein in 1632, and was killed at the battle of Lutzen, in November of that year. See FoRSTER, " Wallensteins Briefe ;" Schiller, " History of the Thirty Years' War." Pap'pus, [Gr. TlaTTTro^-,] an eminent Greek geometer of Alexandria, flourished about 380 or 400 a.d. He left a work entitled " Mathematical Collections," (Ma l^^^'" in the same year he visited Europe, returning in the summer of 1844. Soon after his return he began to preach in Boston, at the Melodeon, where he was regu- larly installed in 1846. He was the principal editor of the " Massachusetts Quarterly," which was commenced in 1847 continued three years. In addition to his duties as minister, and his laborious intellectual pursuits, which extended to almost every department of human knowledge, he gave numerous lectures on various sub- jects. But the question which seems to have enlisted most fully all the faculties of his ardent and powerful mind was Southern slavery, with its attendant iniquities and abominations. His health having become greatly impaired by his unceasing and intense activity, in Feb- ruary, 1859, he visited the island of Santa Cruz, in the "West Indies, and in the following summer went to Europe, spending the winter of 1859-60 at Rome. He left Rome in April, i860, and with difficulty reached Florence, where he died on the loth of May, Of his extensive collection of books, he left the principal part, amounting to 11,190 volumes and 2500 pamphlets, to the Boston Public Library. A complete edition of his works, edited by Frances Power Cobbe, was published in London in 1863-65, in 12 vols. See " Life of Theodore Parker," by John Weiss, 2 vols., 1864; " Life of Theodore Parker," by Albert Revim,e, 1861; ; Almbone, '* Dictionary of Authors;" " New American Cyclop?edia ;" "West- minster Review" for April, 1847, article "Dr. Strauss and Theodore Parker," (by the Rev. James Martineau :) "North American Review" for April, 1864; "Eraser's Magazine" foi February, 1864. Parker, (Thomas,) Earl of Macclesfield, an English judge, born at Leek in 1666. He became lord chancellor in 1718. He was accused of selling some offices in the court of chancery, and of other corrupt practices, of which he was convicted in 1725, and was fined heavily. Died in 1732. Parker, (Sir William,) an English admiral, born in Staffordshire in 1781, was a relative of Lord Macclesfield. He became a rear-admiral in 1830, and a lord of the admiralty in 1834. In 1841 he was appointed com- mander-in-chief of the operations against China. He took Chusan and Ning-po, entered the Yellow River or Blue River, and compelled the Chinese to sign the treaty of Nanking. He obtained the rank of admiral of the blue in 1851. Died in 1866. Parkes, parks, (Joseph,) an English lawyer, born at Warwick in 1796. He published, besides other works, a " History of the Court of Chancery," (1828,) and "The Equity and Real Property Laws of the United States of North America," (1830.) He distinguished himself as an advocate of parliamentary reform previous to 1832. Died in 1865. Parkes, (Josiah,) a civil engineer, a brother of the preceding, was born at Warwick in 1793. He became draining-engineer under the board of works, in which capacity he rendered important service to the public. He published " Essays on the Philosophy and Art of Land Drainage," (1848,) a "Treatise on Climate, Soils," etc., and other works. Parkes, (Samuel,) an English chemist, born in Wor- cestershire in 1759. He manufactured chemical products in London. lie published a "Chemical Catechism," (1806,) and "Chemical Essays, principally relating to the Arts and Manufactures," etc., (8 vols., 1815.) Died in 1825. Park'hurst, (John,) an English bishop, born in Surrey in 15 11. He adhered to the Reformed religion, and went into exile in the reign of Mary. In 1560 he became Bishop of Norwich. He wrote some Latin epi- grams, (1560 and 1573.) Died in 1574. Parkhurst, (John,) an English linguist, born in Northamptonshire in 1728. He officiated without salary as curate at Catesby for many years. In 1762 he pub- lished a "Hebrew-and-English Lexicon without Points," which was highly esteemed. His " Greek-and-English Lexicon" (1769) was reprinted and extensively used. He also wrote " The Divinity and Pre-Existence of Jesus Christ demonstrated from Scripture," (1787.) Died in 1797. Park'iu-son, (John,) a botanist and apothecary, born in London in 1567. He received from Charles I. the title of "Botanicus Regius Primarius." He published " Paradisus Terrestris, or a Garden of all Sorts of Pleas- ant Flowers," (1629,) with 109 figures, and "Theatrum Botanicum," (1640.) Died about 1650. Parkinson, (Thomas,) an English mathematician and parson, born in Lancashire in 1745. He published a " System of Mechanics." Died in 1830. Park'man, (Francis,) an American writer, born at Boston in 1823, published "The California and Oregon Trail," (1849,) " History of the Conspiracy of P<}ntiac," etc., (1851,) " The Pioneers of France in the New World," (1865,) "The Jesuits in North America," (1866,) and " The Discovery of the Great West," (1869,) which have enjoyed a great and deserved popularity, Par'k^ns, (Sir Thomas,) an English writer, born m 1636, was the author of " Progymnasmata, or a Treatise on Wrestling," (1714.) See " Retrospective Review," vol. xi., (1825.) Parlatore, paR-ia-to'ri, (Filippo,) an Italian botanist, born at Palermo in 1816. He obtained a chair of botany at Florence in 1842. Among his works are a "Me- moir on Organography, Vegetable Morphology," etc., (1841,) "Comparative Botany," (1843,) and "Travels in Northern Europe," (1854.) It is stated that he is en- gaged on a large work on botanical geography. Parma, Duke of. See Farnese. Parma, Duke of. See CAMBAC^;R]ks, (Jean Jacques R6gis.) Parmenide. See Parmenides. Par-men''i-des, [Gr. Hap^mc^f; Fr. Parm6nide, pik'ma'n^d',] a distinguished Greek philosopher of the Eleatic school, was born at Elea, in Italy. He is said to have been a disciple of Xenophanes. Plato informs us that Parmenides, at the age of sixty-five, visited Athens in company with Zeno, who was twenty-five years younger, and became acquainted with Socrates. The date of this event is supposed to have been about 450 B.C. He developed his philosophy in a didactic poem " On Nature," of which some fragments have come down to us. Plato speaks of him with veneration, and Aristotle preferred him to the other masters of the Eleatic school. Zeno of Elea was one of his disciples, among whom some writers also reckon Empedocles. See F. RiAUX, " Essai sur Parmenide d'filee," 1840; Ritter, " History of Philosophy ;" G. H. Lewes, " Biographical History of Philosophy;" Plato, "Parmenides;" C. A. Brandis, "Commen- tationum Eleaticarum Xenophanis, Parmenidis, Pars L," 1815; Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Gmeca." Par-me'ni-o, [Gr. Jlap/uEVLuv : Fr. Parm^nion, pIr'- mi^ne'. Parthenopee, ptR'ti'no'pi',] a mythical personage, called a son of Milanion and Atalanta. He was one of the seven heroes under the command of Adrastus engaged in the expedition against Thebes, where he was killed. Par-then'o-pe, [Gr. Uapdevom] ; Fr. Parth^nope, ptR'ti'nop',] a famous Siren, from whom the city of Naples derived its ancient name. Parthenopee. See Parthengp/eus. Par'the-nos, [Gr. Uapdevoc; Fr. Parth^nos, ptR'- ti'nos',] {i.e. " the Virgin,") a surname given by the Athenians to Minerva, in whose honour they built the Parthenon. (See Minerva.) Particelli. See Emery. Par'ton, (James,) an able and popular writer and journalist, born at Canterbury, England, in 1822, became a resident of New York, where he was for a time asso- ciate editor of the " Home Journal." He published a "Life of Horace Greeley," (1855,) "Life of Aaron Burr," (1857,) "Life of Andrew Jackson," (i860,) and a "Life of General Butler," (1863,) all of which have been eminently successful ; also, " Famous Americans of Recent Times," (1867.) He has contributed to the "Atlantic Monthly" and the "North American Review." See the " North American Review" for April, 1867. Parton, (Sarah Payson Willis,) the wife of the preceding, and sister of the poet N. P. Willis, was born at Portland, Maine, in 1811. She has published, under the pseudonym of Fanny Fern, "Fern Leaves," (1853,) "Little Ferns," (1853,) "Ruth Hall," (1854,) " The Play-Day Book," (1856,) "Fresh Leaves," (1857,) and "Rose Clark," (1857,) which obtained great popu- larity in the United States, and were republished in England. Partouneaux, ptR'too'no', (Louis,) Count, a French general, born at Romilly, on the Seine, in 1770; died in 1835. Part'ridge, (Alden,) an American teacher of mili- tary schools, born at Norwich, Vermont, about 1785. He graduated at West Point in 1806. He was the leader of a party which surveyed and determined the northwest boundary of the United States, in 1819. He opened a military academy at Norwich, Connecticut, and afterwards established one at Portsmouth, in Virginia. Died in 1854. Paruta, pi-roo'tl, (Filippo,) an antiquary, born at Palermo. He wrote " Sicily Described by Medals," ("La Sicilia descritta con Medaglie," 1612,) reprinted in 1649 and 1697. Died in 1629. Paruta, (Paolo,) an eminent Italian historian and diplomatist, born at Venice in 1540. He was sent as ambassador to the pope in 1592, before which he had held several high offices. In 1596 he became procurator of Saint Mark, the highest functionary in the state ex- cept one. He wrote " On the Perfection of Political Life," (" Delia Perfezione della Vita politica," 1579,) which was translated into English and French, and a "History of Venice from 1513 to 1551," ("Storia Vene- ziana," 1605,) which is highly commended. "He was the first," says Daru, "who introduced the details of civil history into his narrative." His " Political Dis- courses" (" Discorsi politici," 1599) are judicious, and sometimes profound. Died in 1598. See A. Zeno, "Vita di P. Paruta," 1738; A. M. Meneghhlli, " Elogiodi P. Paruta," 1812 ; Niceron, " Memoires ;" A. Mezieres, " £tudes sur les CEuvres politiques de Paruta," 1853. P&rvati, paR'va-tee^ {z.e. the "mountain [goddess,"]) [from the Sanscrit pdrvata,?i "mountain,"] in the Hin- doo mythology, the name of the consort or Sakti of Siva, was supposed to be the daughter of Himala, the sove- reign of the snowy mountains in the north of India. She is known by a multitude of names, according to her a, e, T, o, u, y, long; \ h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, u, y, s/wri; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; PARTS ATIS 1745 PASCAL various characters, such as BHAvANt, corresponding to the " Venus genetrix" of the Romans ; Durga, so called in her character of active or militant virtue ; KAli, {i.e. " black" or " terrible,") applied to her in her most terrible form, when she appears as the destroyer of the enemies of the gods ; and Parvat!, as the devoted wife and inseparable companion of Siva. She (like Juno) may be regarded as a personification of femineity. (See SiVA.) See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon ;" Wilson, " Sanscrit Dictionary." Pa-rys'a-tis, [Gr. liapvaaTi^,] a. Persian queen, was a daughter of Artaxerxes I., and the wife of her brother, Darius Ochus, over whom she had great influence. She abused her power by the execution of a nuniber of per- sons, among whom were two brothers of Darius. She was the mother of Artaxerxes Mnemon and of Cyrus the younger. Pas. See Pass. Pas, de, (Antoine.) See Feuqui±res, de. Pascal. See Paschal I. Pascal, pts'kiK, (Adrien,) a French military writer, born about 181 5. He published, besides other works, "The Military Life of Louis Philippe," (1841,) a "His- tory of the Army, and of all the Regiments, from the Thirteenth Century to our Times," (4 vols., 1845-49,) and a "History of Napoleon HI.," (1853.) Pascal, pas'kal, [Fr. pron. pts'ktK ; Lat. Pascha'lis,] (Blaise,) a celebrated French philosopher and mathe- matician, was born at Clermont-Ferrand, in Auvergne, on the 19th of June, 1623. He was the only son of Etienne Pascal, president of the court of aids, and An- toinette Begon. He was very inquisitive in his early childhood, and showed an extraordinary aptitude for geometry ; but his father, who directed his education, wished him to study the ancient languages, to the ex- clusion of geometry, and carefully concealed from him all works on that science. In his twelfth year, however, he was surprised in the act of demonstrating proposi- tions, having privately discovered or learned the elements of geometry without the aid of books. His father then ceased to restrain him from the study of the science to which he was so powerfully attracted. It is stated that at the age of sixteen he wrote a treatise on Conic Sec- tions which astonished Descartes. He made rapid pro- gress in mathematics, and soon began to associate with Mersenne and Roberval. About the age of eighteen he invented an ingenious calculating-machine. His consti- tution was always delicate, and his health was probably impaired by excessive application to study. After the age of eighteen he was a continual sufferer. In 1648 he made with the barometer, on the mountain called Puy de Dome, a celebrated experiment, which established the theory of atmospheric pressure and exploded the ancient error that nature abhors a vacuum. He wrote two treat- ises entitled "On the Equilibrium of Fluids," and " On the Weight of the Atmosphere." In the experiment just mentioned he was assisted by M. Perier, his brother- in-law. Impressed by powerful religious convictions, he renounced in 1649 the brilliant prospect of temporal re- nown towards which his genius was conducting him, and turned his attention from scientific pursuits. In 1654 he narrowly escaped from a dangerous accident to which he was exposed by his unruly horses as he was riding in a carriage on the Pont de Neuilly. This event confirmed his resolution to devote himself to religious duties and a life of retirement. He became very abstemious in his diet, denied himself many innocent enjoyments, and subjected himself to a severely ascetic discipline. It is stated that he beggared himself by his prodigal bene- factions to the poor, and that he wore beneath his clothes a girdle of iron armed with sharp points as an instru- ment of self-imposed penance. He entered the cloister of Port-Royal, to which his sister Jacqueline had retired several years before, and there enjoyed the society of Arnauld, Le Saci, Nicole, Saint-Cyran, (Duvergier,) and other Jansenist writers. In 1656 he produced his celebrated "Provincial Let- ters," the full title of which is " Lettres ecrites par Louis de Montalte a un Provincial de ses Amis et aux Jesuites sur la Morale et la Politique de ces Peres," (" Letters written by Louis de Montalte to the Jesuits," etc.) "Pascal," says Hallam, "by his 'Provincial Letters," did more to ruin the name of Jesuit than all the con- troversies of Protestantism or all the fulminations of the Parliament of Paris. . . . He has accumulated so long a list of scandalous decisions, and dwelt upon them with so much wit and spirit, and yet with so serious a severity, that the order of Loyola became a byword with mankind." ("Introduction to the Litera- ture of Europe.") Voltaire expressed the opinion that " Moliere's best comedies do not excel these Letters in wit, nor the compositions of Bossuet excel them in sub- limity." The most competent French critics, including Voltaire and D'Alembert, concur in the judgment that the " Provincial Letters" contributed more than any other composition to form and polish the French language. There is not a single word in these Letters that has become obsolete. "The severely pure and simple taste," says Henry Rogers, " which reigns in Pascal's style seems, when we reflect on those vices which more or less infected universal letters, little less than a miraculous felicity. . . . Upon all the great fea- tures of his moral character one dwells with the serenest delight. Greatly as he is to be admired, he is yet more to be loved. His humility and simplicity, conspicuous as his genius and acquisitions, were those of a very child." ("Edinburgh Review" for January, 1847.) In one instance he relapsed into the study of the abstract sciences which he had renounced. About 1658 he di- verted his attention from the pain which deprived him of sleep by entertaining a luminous idea which presented itself to him and led him to some important discoveries in relation to the problem of the cycloid. Before he made these public, he challenged the mathematicians of Europe to solve the problem, and offered a prize to him who should succeed. Several persons competed for the prize, but the judges decided that none of their solutions fulfilled the conditions of the challenge. He published in 1659 a Treatise on the Cycloid, ("Traite general de la Roulette.") He meditated and began to compose an extensive and systematic work on the fundamental truths of religion and the evidences of Christianity, which he did not live to finish ; but he left in manuscript nume- rous detached sentences which are supposed to be frag- ments of that work. They were published in 1670, under the title of " Thoughts of Pascal," (" Pensces de Pascal,") not without suppressions and alterations. A more cor- rect edition was published by M. Prosper Faugere in 1844. "The Thoughts of Pascal," says Hallam, "are to be ranked, as a monument of his genius, above the ' Provincial Letters, though some have asserted the contrary. They burn with an intense light ; condensed in expression, sublime, energetic, rapid, they hurry away the reader, till he is scarcely able or willing to distin- guish the sophisms from the truth they contain. For that many of them are incapable of bearing a calm scrutiny is very manifest to those who apply such a test. The notes of Voltaire, though always intended to detract, are sometimes unanswerable ; but the splendour of Pascal's eloquence absolutely annihilates, in effect on the general reader, even this antagonist." (" Intro- duction to the Literature of Europe.") Among his works are " New Experiments on the Va- cuum," ("Nouvelles Experiences touchant le Vide,") "History of the Cycloid," (" Ilistoire de la Roulette,") and " De I'Esprit geometrique." He endured with for- titude the maladies which in his latter years were aggravated by his ascetic habits, and died in Paris on the 19th of August, 1662. His complete works were published by Bossut, (in 5 vols. 8vo, 1779.) Prosper Faugere published in 1844 two volumes of "Thoughts, Fragments, and Letters of Blaise Pascal," many of which had never before been printed. " His intellectual powers," says Macaulay, " were such as have rarely been bestowed on any of the children of men ; and the vehe- mence of the zeal which animated him was but too well proved by the cruel penances and vigils under which his macerated frame sank into an early grave. His spirit was the spirit of Saint Bernard ; but the delicacy of his wit, the purity, the energy, the simplicity of his rhetoric, had never been equalled, except by the great masters of Attic eloquence. All Europe read and admired, laughed and wept. The Jesuits attempted to « as 9 as s; g Aard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^='See Explanations, p. 23.) 1 10 PASCAL 1746 PAS OR reply, but their feeble answers were received with shouts of mockery." ("History of England," vol. ii. p. 18.) See BossuT, " Discours siir la Vie de Pascal," 1781 ; Andrieux, " filoge de Pascal," 1813; Raymond, " JSloge de Pascal," 1816; FAUcfeRE, "£loge de Pascal;" Sainte-Beuve, "Port-Royal;" Bordas-Demoumn, "Genie et l^crits de Pascal," 1847; Cousin, " Des Pensees de Pascal," 1844 ; Vinet, " jfitudes siir Pascal," 1848 ; Abbi^ Maynard, "Pascal, sa Vie et son Caractere," 2 vols., 1850; "Vie de Pascal," by Madame Perier, his sister; "Lives of the Most Eii)ineiit French Writers," by Mrs. Shelley; " Fraser's Magazine" for December, 1840; "North British Review" for November, 1861. Pascal, (FRANgois Michel,) a French sculptor, born in Paris about 1815. He gained a medal of the second class in 1848. Pascal, (Jacqueltne,) a sister of Blaise Pascal, was born at Clermont in 1625. She was beautiful and highly gifted. About the age of ten she began to write verses, some of which were printed in 1638. The poet Corneille, who often visited the family of Pascal, aided in the de- velopment of her poetic talent. She became religious in 1646, and entered the convent of Port-Royal in 1652. She wrote a powerful letter on the formulary which the nuns were required to sign, and which condemned Jan- senism. She died in 1661. " To annihilate self," says M. Vinet, " and then to efface the most minute traces of that very annihilation, had been the task of this heroic girl for years. She had deemed it her especial duty to mortify her noble intellect ; but she was unable to destroy it: it still clung to her. And, though every thing which she achieved or wrote bears the stamp of mental supe- riority, there is nothing comparable in this respect to the 'Letter on the Formulary.'" See "Jacqueline Pascal, or a Glimpse of Convent-Life at Port- Royal," from the French of Victor Cousin, M. P. Faug6:re, and M. Vinet. Pascal, (Jean Baptiste Etienne,) a French anti- quary and priest, born at Marvejols in 1789. He wrote " Gabalum Christianum," (1853,) and other works. Died in 1859. Pascal-Valloiigue, pts'ktK vtlAwg', (Joseph Se- cret,) a French general, born at Sauve (Gard) in 1763. He served with distinction in Germany and Italy during the empire, and was killed at Gaeta in 1806. Pasch, pish, [Lat. Pas'chius,] (Georg,) a German philosopher, born at Dantzic in 1661. He became pro- fessor of theology at Kiel about 1702. Among his works is " Tractatus de novis Inventis quorum cultui facem protulit antiquitas," (1695.) Died in 1707. Pasch, pash, (Johan,) a Swedish landscape and ma- rine painter, born at Stockholm in 1706 ; died in 1769. Paschal. See Pasqualt. Pas'-ehal [ It. Pasquale, pSs-kwS'l^ ; Fr. Pascal, pis'ktK ; Lat. Pascha'lis] I., Pope, a native of Rome, was elected as successor to Stephen V. in 817 A.D. He crowned the emperor Lothaire in 823. Died in 824. Paschal II., Pope, (Rainieri,) born near Viterbo, succeeded Urban II. in 1099. He maintained a contest on the subject of investitures with the emperor Henry v., who marched with an army to Rome in i no, arrested the pope after a violent resistence, and extorted from him a concession of the right of investiture. This con- cession of Paschal was condemned by a council which he convoked. He was too feeble and irresolute to main- tain the supremacy of the papal power. He died in 11 18, and was succeeded by Gelasius II. Paschal III., Anti-Pope, (Guido di Crema, gwee'- do de kRa'm^,) was elected in 1164 or 1165 in opposition to Alexander III., and was recognized by the emperor Frederick I. He died at Rome in 1168. Paschalis. See Pascal, (Blaise.) Paschalis, (Popes.) See Paschal. Paschius. See Pasch. ^ Pascoli, p^s'ko-lee, (Alessandro,) an Italian phy- sician, born at Perugia in 1669. He became professor of anatomy in Rome, and published several works. Died in 1757. Pascoli, (Leone,) an Italian biographer, brother of the preceding, was born at Perugia "in 1674. He wrote " Lives of Perugian Painters, Sculptors, and Architects," (1732,) and "The Live? of Modern Painters, Sculptors, and Architects," (2 vols., 1736,) both in Italian. Died in 1744. Pas'i-cles, a Greek philosopher, lived probably be- tween 400 and 350 B.C. He was at one time the head of the school of Megara. Pasinelli, pS-se-neKlee, or Passinelli, pSs-se-neKlee, (Lorenzo,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1629, was a pupil of Cantarini. He imitated the noble man- ner of Paul Veronese, whom, it is said, he equalled in design. *' His colour is so fresh and brilliant," says the "Biographic Universelle," "that one might take his works for the productions of the best time of the Venetian school." Among his master-pieces are "The Entrance of Christ into Jerusalem," and a " Holy Family." Died in 1700. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Pasini, pS-see'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian linguist, born about 1690. He published a Hebrew Grammar, (1721,) and a "Latin-Italian Dictionary," (" Vocabolario Italiano e Latino," 1731,) often reprinted. Died about 1770. Pa-siph'a-e, [Gr. Jlaotfaij; Fr. Pasipha^;, pt'zeTt'i',] a fabulous personage, said to be a daughter of Helios, a sister of Circe, and the wife of Minos. Among her children were Androgeos, Ariadne, Phaedra, and the Minotaur, the last of whom was fabled to be the offspring of a bull. Pa-sit'e-les, lYlaaiTeTiTjc,] an excellent statuary and silver-chaser, of Greek origin, who lived at Rome. He was a minor when he obtained the right of Roman citi- zenship, about 90 B.C. He improved the art of modelling. Pliny represents him as a great artist, and mentions one of his works, — an ivory statue of Jupiter. He was also an eminent writer on art. He appears to have been living in 30 B.C. Paskevitch or Paskewitsch, pSs-ka'vitch, written also Paskievitch, (Ivan Feodorovitch,) Prince of Warsaw, (in French, " Prince de Varsovie,") a cele- brated Russian general, born at Poltava in 1782. He served at Austerlitz, (1805,) received several wounds at Brailof, (1809,) and obtained command of a brigade in 1811. In 1812 he distinguished himself at Borodino, and gained advantages over the French in several actions. Having been selected to conduct an army against the Persians in 1825, he gained a victory at Elizabethpol, and took Erivan in 1827. For his successes in a war against the Turks (1828-29) he obtained the rank of field-marshal. In 1831 he took the command against the revolted Poles, and ended the war by the capture of Warsaw. For these services he was created Prince of Warsaw and made Governor-General of Poland. He was successful in his operations against the Hungarians in 1849, but failed at the siege of Silistria, in 1854. Died in 1856. See Tolstoi, " Essai biographique sur le Prince de Varsovie," 1835 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Pas'ley, (Sir Charles William,) an English en- gineer, general, and writer, born about 1780. He served at the battles of Corunna and Flushing, (1809,) and be- came a lieutenawt-colonel about 1814. He published, among other works, " A Course of Military Instruction for the Royal Engineer Department," (1817,) "Obser- vations on Limes, Calcareous Cements, Mortars," etc., (1838,) and "Rules for conducting the Practical Opera- tions of a Siege," (1843.) He obtained the rank of lieutenant-general in 185 1. Died in 1861. Pasolini, pi-so-lee'nee. Count, a liberal Italian statesman of high reputation. He was minister of for- eign affairs of the kingdom of Italy in the cabinet of Farini from December i, 1862, until March 24, 1863. Pasolini, (Serafino,) an Italian friar, born at Ra- venna in 1649. He wrote on the history of Ravenna, "Lnstri Ravennati," (7 parts, 1678-1713.) Died in 1715. Pasor, p^'zor, (Georg,) a German philologist, born at Herborn in 1570. He became professor of Greek at Franeker in 1616, and published a good "Greek-Latin Lexicon," (1622, often reprinted.) He wrote other works for students. Died in 1637. Pasor, (Matthaus.) a son of the preceding, was born at Herborn in 1599. He was professor of Oriental lan- guages at Oxford, England, from which he removed to Groningen in 1629. He left a Journal, which was pub- lished in 1658. Died in 1658. a, e, T, o, u, y, /ok^; k, b, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, sAort; a, e, i, o, obscure; ftr, f3.ll, filt; m5t; nSt; good; moon; PASQUJLI 1747 PASSIONEI Pasquali, pSs-kw^'lee, written also Paschal,(CARLO,) a negotiator and antiquary, born at Coni, Piedmont, in 1547. He served Henry IV. of France as ambassador to England in 1589. He wrote many works, among which are "The Ambassador," (" Legatus," 1598,) and "Coronae," a treatise on crowns, (1610.) Died in 1625. See Mansueti, " C. Paschal, illustre Piemontese," 1844; Nic^- RON, " Memoires." Pasqualiiii, pis-kwi-Iee'nee, or Pascalini, pSs-ka- lee'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter and engraver, born near Bologna about 1600. Pasqualino, pis-kwi-lee^no, or Pasquelino, pis- kwi-lee'no, (Pasquale Rossi,) an Italian painter, born at Vicenza in 1641. His design is correct and his colour- ing true. Died in 1700. Pasquier, pts'ke-a', (Etienne,) a French historian and lawyer, born in 1529, in Paris. He gained distinction by a great speech for the University of Paris in a suit or contest against the Jesuits in 1564. He opposed the fac- tion of the League, and served Henry III. and Henry IV. with honour as advocate-general. His chief works are "Researches on France," (" Recherches de la France,") — in which the origin and history of civil and religious in- stitutions, customs, etc. are traced with ability, — and his interesting Letters. The first part of his " Recherches" appeared in 1560. Died in 1615. See DupiN, " Eloge de Pasquier," 1843 : L- FEUcfeRE, " Essai sur laVieetles Ouvrages d'fitienne Pasquier," prefixed loan edition of Pasquier's select works, 2 vols., 1849 ; C. Giraud, " Notice sur fi. Pasquier," 1848. Pasquier, de, deh pts'ke-i', (Etienne Denis,) Due, a French statesman, born in 1767, in Paris. He became master of requests in 1806, and prefect of police in 1810. At the restoration of 181 5 he was appointed minister of state and privy councillor, and united with the moderate royalists. He was keeper of the seals under Richelieu from January, 1817, to December, 1818, and minister of foreign affairs from November, 1819, to December, 1821. During this period he made many eloquent speeches in the Chamber, and defended his policy with admirable adroitness and sang-froid. He was the virtual chief of the cabinet after the retirement of Decazes, in February, 1820. Pasquier was president of the Chamber of Peers from 1830 to 1848. In 1837 he obtained the title of Chancellor of France. He was admitted into the Aca- demic Fran9aise in 1842, and received the title of duke in 1844. Died, without issue, in 1862. See LoM^NiE, " Galerie des Contemporains," tome vi. ; " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Pass, van, vtn pSss, or Paas, van, vtn pSss, written also Passe, (Crispin.) an eminent Dutch designer and engraver, born in Zealand about 1536, or, as some say, 1560. He worked at Paris and other foreign cities. His works are highly finished. Among them are numerous portraits, and the plates of the "Manege royal," (1618.) He was alive in 1628.. Pass, van, (Crispin,) the Younger, born at Utrecht about 1570, was an able engraver, and a son of the preceding. Died after 1655. Pass, van, (Madeleine,) a skilful engraver, daughter of Crispin the Elder, was born in 1576. "Her land- scapes," says the " Biographie Universelle," "entitle her to a rank among the ablest engravers." A print of the -Wise and Foolish Virgins" is called her master-piece. Pass, van, (Simon,) an engraver, a Tarother of the preceding, vt'as born about 1580. He worked in London with a high reputation. " The Pilgrims of Emmaus" is called one of his best works. Pass, van, (Willem,) born at Utrecht about 1585, was a son of Crispin the Elder, whom he imitated. He removed to England, and engraved portraits after Van Dyck with great success. Passaglia, pSs-saKyS, (Carlo,) Abr^;, an Italian theological writer of the present age. He wrote about 1861 a pamphlet in which he advised the pope to resign his temporal power. In 1863 he was elected a member of the Italian Parliament. Passarotti, pSs-sa-rot'tee, written also Passerotti, (Bartolommeo,) an eminent Italian painter and en- graver, born at Bologna about 1535, was a pupil of Vignola. He was master of a school in Bologna, which produced some able artists. He excelled in portraits. Among his works is "The Martyrdom of Saint Paul.** Died about 1594. His sons, TiBURZio, Ventura, and Aurelio, were also painters. Tiburzio was born in 1575, and died in 1612. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lomazzo, "Idea del Tem- pio della Pittura." Passavant, pt'st'v6N', ? (Johann David,) a German painter and writer upon art, born at Frankfort-on-the- Main in 1787. He wrote, besides other works, a valua- ble memoir entitled "On Raphael of Urbino and his Father," (1839,) "On Christian Art in Spain," (1853,) and a good history of engraving, entitled " Le Peintre- Graveur," (2 vols., i860.) A French version of his " Life of Raphael" was published in i860. Died in 1861. See Nagler, " Kiinstler-Lexikon." Passavanti, pis-sl-vSn'tee, (Jacopo, ) an Italian writer, born at Florence, gained celebrity by his " Mirror of True Penitence," (" Specchio della vera Penitenza.") Died in 1357. Passe. See Pass. Passemant, pts''m5N', (Claude Simeon,) a skilful optician and mechanician, born in Paris in 1702. He made telescopes, time-pieces, and other astronomical instruinents, and wrote a treatise on the fabrication of telescopes, (1738.) Died in 1769. Passerat, pts'rt', (Jean,) a French poet and excellent Latinist, born at Troyes in 1534. He succeded Ramus as professor of Latin at Paris, (1572.) He co-operated with Rapin, Leroy, Durant, and other friends in the "Satyre Menippee," a famous satire against the League. He composed graceful verses in French and Latin, Died in 1602. See Nic^RON, "Memoires." Passeri, pSs-sa'ree, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian pointer and biographer, born at Rome about 1610, was a friend of Domenichino. He became president of the Academy of Saint Luke, but was an artist of only moderate ability. His reputation is founded on his " Lives of Painters, Sculptors, and Architects who died at Rome from 1641 to 1673," (1772,) which is highly esteemed for accuracy. Died in 1679. See TiRABOSCHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Passeri, (Giovanni Battista,) a learned Italian antiquary, born near Rome in 1694, chose the profes- sion of law. In 1 741 he exchanged that for the church. Among his numerous works are " Earthen Lamps," ("Lucernae Fictiles," 3 vols., 1739-51,) and "Pictures on the Vases of the Etruscans," (" Picturae Etruscorum in Vasculis," 3 vols., 1767-75.) Died in 1780. See A. Olivieri, " Memorie di G. B. Passeri," 1780. Passeri, (Giuseppe,) an able painter, born in Rome in 1654, was a nephew of Giovanni Battista, (1610-79,) and a pupil of Carlo Maratta. He adorned many churches of Rome with his works. "The Last Judg- ment" is called one of his master-pieces. Died in 1715. Passeroni, pis-si-ro'nee, (Gian Carlo,) a popular Italian poet, born at Condamine, near Nice, in 1713. He was ordained a priest in 1738, and lived mostly at Milan. Having learned to be content with little, he declined the bounty of the rich. He wrote burlesque satirical and humorous poems, which are admired for their graceful simplicity and originality. They are en- titled "II Cicerone," (1750,) and " ^sopian Fables," (" Favole Esopiane," 6 vols., 1786.) Died at Milan in 1803. See C. G. Scotti, " Elogio di Passeroni," 1814 ; Ugoni, " Lette- ratura Italiana;" Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Passerotti. See Passarottl Passignano, da, di pis-sen-yi'no, (Domenico,) or DoMENico Cresti, (kR^s'tee,) Cavaliere, a painter of high reputation, was born in Tuscany about 1555. He worked at Venice, Rome, and Florence. At Rome he painted "The Crucifixion of Saint Peter," and other works for several popes. He contributed to reform the Florentine school in respect to colouring. It is said that Luigi Caracci was one of his pupils. Died in 1638. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Passionei, pis-se-o-na'ee, (Domenico,) a learned Italian cardinal and patron of learning, born at Fossom- € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; *h as in this. (Sl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) PJSSOS PATERS ON brone in 1682. He was versed in classical literature and in the study of antiquities, and corresponded with many foreign scholars, among whom were Montfaucon and Gronovius. He was appointed nuncio to Vienna in 1730, secretary for briefs in 1738, and librarian of the Vatican in 1755. His hostility to the Jesuits was well known. He wrote a funeral oration on Prince Eugene, (1737.) Died in 1761. See GoujET, " filoge du Cardinal Passionei," 1763 ; L. Galetti, Memorie per la Vita del Cardinale Passionei," Rome, 1762. Passes, pis'sds, (Manoel da Silva,) a Portuguese politician, born near Oporto in 1802. He was the leader of the radical or liberal party, which made a successful insurrection in September, 1836, and then became min- ister of the interior. Passot, pts'so', (Gabriel Aristide,) a French min- iature-painter, born at Nevers about 1798. He gained a first medal in 1841, and the second medals in 1837 and 1848. Passovius. See Passow. Passow, pis'so, [Lat. Passo'vius,] (Franz Ludwig Karl Friedrich,) a distinguished German scholar, born at Ludwigslust, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, in 1786. Pie studied at Leipsic under Hermann, and in 1815 became professor of ancient literature at Breslau. He published " Elements of Greek and Roman Literature and Art-History," an excellent "Lexicon of the Greek Language," (1819-24,) and editions of Persius, Musaeus, and other classics. Died in 1833. See Wachler, " Passows Leben und Briefe," 1839; Linge, "De Passovii Vita et Scriptis," 1839; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Eiicyklopaedie." Passy, pt'se', (Hippolyte Philibert,) a French minister of state, born in Seine-et-Oise in 1793. He entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1830, and became a leader of the Left Centre. Commissioned by the king to form a new cabinet. May, 1839, he reserved for himself the portfolio of finance under the presidency of Soult. He retired from office in March, 1840, and was again minister of finance from December, 1848, to October, 1849. He is a member of the Institute. Pasta, pSs'tS, (Andrea,) an Italian physician, born at Bergamo in 1706. He published several professional works, and *' The Celebrated Pictures of Bergamo," C* Le Pitture notabili di Bergamo.") Died in 1782. See A. Venanzio, " Elogio di A. Pasta," 1843. Pasta, (GiUDETTA,) a popular Italian vocalist, of Jew- ish extraction, born near Milan in 1798. She performed operas at Paris, London, Vienna, etc. with great success between 1824 and 1832, and displayed a superior dramatic talent. Died in 1865. Pasta, (Giuseppe,) a medical writer, born at Bergamo in 1742, was a cousin of Andrea, noticed above. His *'Galateo dei Medici" (1791) was often reprinted. Died in 1823. Pasteur, pts'tUR', (Jan David,) a Dutch naturalist, born at Leyden in 1753. He wrote a "Natural History of Mammifera." Died in 1804. Pasteur, pts'tUR', (Louis,) a French chemist, born at Dole (Jura) in 1822. He received the Rumford medal of the Royal Society of London in 1856 for his dis- coveries in rotary polarization and molecular chemistry. He became director of the £cole Normale of Paris in 1857. He is a prominent opponent of the doctrine of spontaneous generation. The arguments and experi- ments of Pasteur and his opponent Pouchet on this subject attracted much attention about 1862-65. M. Pasteur was chosen a member of the Institute, and pro- fessor of geology, physics, and chemistry at the Ecole des Beaux- Arts, in 1863. Pastoret, pts'to'rcV, (Am6d6e David,) a French legitimist politician, poet, and historian, born in Paris in 1 791. He became a councillor of state in 1824, and senator in 1852. Among his works is a " History of the Fall ot the Greek Empire," (1829.) Died in 1857. Pastoret, de, deh pts'to'rk', (Claude Emmanuel Joseph Pierre,) Marquis, the father of the preceding, ■was born at Marseilles in 1756. He was a royalist member of the Assembly in 1791, emigrated in 1792, and was created a peer of France in 1814. In 1820 he succeeded Volney as member of the French Academy. He wrote a " History of Legislation," (11 vols., 1817-37,) and other works. His treatise "On Penal Laws" (1790) gained the Montyon prize of the French Academy. Died in 1840. See Michel Berr, " Notice biographique sur le Comte Pastoret," 1841; QuERARD, "La France Litteraire;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Pastorius von Hirtemberg, pSs-to^re-us fon he^R'- tem-bCRG', (Joachim,) a historian, born in Silesia in 1610. He received from Casimir V. the title of histo- riographer of Poland. Among his numerous works are an "Epitome of Polish History," in Latin, (1641,) and " Scythian and Cossack War," (" Bellum Scythico-Cosac- cicum," 1652.) Died in 1681. Pastrengo, da, di pis-tRen'go, (Guglielmo,) a learned Italian writer and jurist, born near Verona, was a friend of Petrarch. He wrote a biographical dictionary called " De Viris illustribus," which was printed in 1547. Died about 136^. Pasumot, pt'zu^mo', (Francois,) a French geogra- pher and antiquary, born at Beaune in 1733. He wrote " Geographical Memoirs on some Antiquities of Gaul," (1765,) and " Scientific Travels among the Pyrenees," (1797,) which are works of much merit. Died in 1804. Pataia, pj-ti^a, [etymology obscure,] in the Hindoo mythology, the name of the lower regions, or Hell, re- garded as the abode of the dead and the habitation of the nagas, or serpents. (See Yama.) Patarolo, pA-tl-ro'lo, (Lorenzo,) an Italian littera- teur, born at Verona in 1674. He founded the first botanic garden of Venice. Died in 1757, Pataud, pt't5', (Jean Jacques FRANgois,) a French writer of history and biography, was born at Orleans in 1752 ; died in 1817. Patel, pt'tgK, (Pierre,) an excellent French land- scape-painter, born about 1650. He imitated Claude Lorrain with some success. The forms of his trees are elegant, the buildings are designed with taste, and the distances are admirably rendered. His touch is firm and light, his colour generally clear and true. Accord ing to some writers, he was killed in a duel in 1703. Others date his death about 1676. His son Pierre was a landscape-painter of inferior ability. See Robert Dumesnil, " Le Peintre-Graveur Frangais." Patenier, de, deh pt'teh-ne-i', or Patiner, pt'te'na', (Joachim,) a Flemish landscape-painter, born at Dinant about 1490. Pie worked at Antwerp, and had a high reputation. Albert Diirer painted his portrait in 1520, and is said to have admired his works. " His perspec- tives," says the "Biographie Universelle," "are charm- ing, and his figures touched in an exquisite manner." Died about 1545. Pater, pt'ta', (Jean Baptiste,) a French painter, born at Valenciennes in 1695, was a pupil and imitator of Watteau. Died in Paris in 1736. Pater, pi'ter, (Paul,) a mathematician, born in 1656, was professor at Dantzic. He wrote a treatise on the art of printing, (1710,) and a work "On the Caspian Sea," (" De Mari Caspio," 1723.) Died in 1724. Pa-ter'cu-lus, (C. Velleius,) a Roman historian, born about 20 B.C. He entered the army in the reign of Augustus, and became a military tribune. He served under Tiberius, in Germany, as prefect or legatus, be- tween 4 and 12 A.D., and gained the favour of the future emperor. On the accession of Tiberius, in the year 14, he was chosen praetor. He wrote a valuable historical compendium, (" Historise Romanas,") the object of which is to give a brief view of universal history, in connection with that of Rome. He is considered impartial, except where he speaks of Augustus and Tiberius, whom he flatters extravagantly. His style is admired for clear- ness, conciseness, and energy. He is supposed to have died soon after 30 A.D. See Moi.LER, " Disputatio de Vellejo Paterculo," 1685; Speck- ERT, "Dissertation de la Sincerite de Vellejus Paterculus," 1848. Pat'er-son, (Samuel,) an English bibliographer, born in London in 1728, was librarian to Lord Shelburne. He published a "Universal Library," (" Bibliotheca Universalis," 1786.) Died in 1802. Pat'er-son, (William,) a banker and projector, born in Scotland about 1658. He is the reputed founder of %. e, T, 6, u, y, long; it, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; PJTICCHI 1749 PATROCLES the Bank of England, established in 1694. He projected the Darien expedition, and was one of the directors of a company which planted a colony at Darien in 1698. This enterprise was a failure. He was an advocate of free trade. See his "Life," by Bannister. Paticchi, pJ-t^k'kee, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, born at Rome in 1762. He had a rare facility of in- vention, and a superior talent for the imitation of the great masters. Among his works is " The Translation of Elijah." Died in 1788. Patin, pa'tix', [Lat. Pati'nus,] (Charles,) a phy- sician and numismatist, born in Paris in 1633, was a son of Gui Patin, noticed below. He became professor of medicine at Padua in 1677. He published, besides other works, a "History of Medals," (1665,) often reprinted, and '* Brass Coins of the Roman Emperors Described," (" Imperatorum Romanorum Numismata ex ^re de- scripta," 1671.) Died at Padua in 1693. Patin, (Gui,) a French physician and writer, distin- guished for his learning and wit, was born near Beauvais in 1601 or 1602. He became professor at the College de France, Paris, in 1654, and wrote several medical works. His reputation is founded chiefly on his Letters, (7 vols., 1692,) which contain curious details, bon-mots, and anec- dotes. Died in 1672. See " Patiiiiana," 1703; Reveille Parise, " Biographie de Guy Patin ;" Sainte-Beuve, " Causeriesdu Liindi ;" Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Patin, (Henri Joseph Guillaume,) a French writer and critic, born in Paris in 1793. He was chosen to supply the pkce of Villemain at the Sorbonne in 1830, and succeeded Lemaire as professor of Latin poetry in 1833. In 1842 he was admitted into the French Acad- emy. His most important work is "Studies on the Greek Tragic Poets," (3 vols., 1841-43.) Patino or Patinho, p§,-t^n'yo, (Balthasar,) Mar- quis de Castellar, a Spanish diplomatist, born at Milan. He was sent as ambassador to Paris in 1730, and died there in 1733. Patifio or Patinho, (Jos6, or Giuseppe,) a brother of the preceding, was born at Milan in 1667. He became minister of the marine and of the Indies in 1726, and was the most powerful minister of Spain after the death of La Paz, in 1734. Died in 1736. Patinus. See Patin. Patkvl, pSt'kul, (JoHANN Reinhold,) a Livonian atriot, born about 1660. He was condemned to death y the Swedish court for sedition or treason in 1694, but escaped, and entered the service of the Russian Czar, who sent him as ambassador to the King of Poland. He ob- tained in 1702 command of a corps which fought against the Swedes. In accordance with a treaty dictated by Charles XH. to the King of Poland, Patkul was de- livered to the former, and executed in 1707. See " Letzte Stunden Patkuls," Cologne, 1714; "Anecdotes con- cerning J. R. Patkul," London, 1761 ; Voltaire, " Histoire de Charles XII." Pat'more, (Coventry,) an English poet, born at Woodford, Essex, in 1823. He published in 1853 " Ta- merton Church Tower, and other Poems." His "Angel in the House" (2 Parts, 1854-56) was very favourably received. Among his later works is "Faithful Forever," (i860.) "His 'Angel in the House,'" says Ruskin, " is a most finished piece of writing, and the sweetest analysis we possess of quiet, modern domestic feeling." He became assistant librarian of the British Museum about 1846. See " Fraser's Magazine" for September, 1844, and July, 1863; " North British Review" for May, 1858. Patron, (Andrew^ A.,) an English traveller, born early in the nineteenth century. He published, besides other works, "Researches on the Danube and the Adriatic." Pat'on, (Sir Joseph Noel,) a Scottish painter of high reputation, born at Dunfermline in 1823. He obtained a premium of ;^200 for a cartoon of " The Spirit of Re- ligion," (1845.) At the Westminster Hall competition, in 1847, he received a second-class prize (£2>'^o) for his "Christ bearing the Cross" and "The Reconciliation of Oberon and Titania," Among his works, which are finely finished, are "Luther at Erfurt," and "Pursuit of Pleasure," (1855,) which was sold for two thousand guineas. He was knighted in 1867. Paton, (Richard,) an English painter and etcher, born about 1720. He excelled in naval battles and other marine pieces. Among his works is the "Defeat of De Grasse in 1784" Patouillet, pS'too''yi', (Louis,) a French Jesuit, born at Dijon in 1699, wrote several controversial treatises against the Jansenists and the philosophers. He was one of the Jesuits against whom Voltaire directed his sarcasm and ridicule. Died in 1779. Patrat, pt'tRt', (Joseph,) a French dramatist, born at Aries in 1732. He wrote comedies which were re- ceived with favour. Died in 1801. Patrice. See Patrick, Saint. Patricius. See Patrick, Saint, and Patrizzi. Pat'rick, [Lat. Patri^'ius ; Fr. Patrice, pt'tR^ss',] Saint, the apostle and patron saint of the Irish, was born at Bannevan, a small village of Tabernia, in Scot- land, about 372 A.D. He is supposed to have been one of the first that preached Christianity in Ireland. His death is variously dated from 454 to 493. A " Confes- sion" or autobiography, supposed to have been written by him, is extant. The Irish observe the 17th of March in his honour. See Butler, "Lives of the Saints," 1779; J. H. Todd, "Life of Saint Patrick," 1863; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "British Quarterly Review" for October, 1867. Pat'rick, (Marsena R.,) an American officer, born in Jefferson county. New York, in 1811. He served in the Mexican war, and in 1862 became brigadier-general of volunteers in the Union army. Pat'rick, (Samuel,) an English philologist, was one of the masters of the Charter-House. He published editions of Hederich's "Greek Lexicon," (1727,) and Ainsworth's "Latin Lexicon." Died in 1748. Patrick, (Simon,) an eminent English divine, born at Gainsborough in 1626. He became rector of Saint Paul's, Covent Garden, in 1662, Dean of Peterborough in 1679, Bishop of Chichester in 1689, and Bishop of Ely in 1691. He wrote a Paraphrase and Commentaries on the Old Testament, which are highly esteemed, and other devotional works, among which are " The Heart's Ease," (1659,) "Parable of the Pilgrim," (1668,) and "Christian Sacrifice," (1671.) Died in 1707. See his Autobiography, 1839; Burnet, "History of his Own Times;" " Biographia Britannica." Patrin, pt'tR^N', (Eugene Louis Melchior,) a French mineralogist, born near Lyons in 1742. He was elected to the Convention in 1790, and voted for the exile of the king. His chief works are a "Journey to the Altai Mountains," (1783,) and a "Natural History of Minerals," (5 vols., 1801.) Died in 1815. Patrix, pftReks', (Pierre,) a French poet, born at Caen in 1583; died in 1671. Patrizzi, pi-tr^t'see, written also Patrizi, [Lat. Patri^'ius,] an Italian historian, born at Sienna, be- came in 1460 secretary to Pope Pius II. Among his works is an "Account of the Councils of Bale and Florence," (" Summa Conciliorum Basiliensis et Floren- tini.") Died in 1496. Patrizzi, [Lat. Patriq'ius,] (Francesco,) an Italian philosopher, born in Dalmatia in 1529. He obtained a chair of philosophy at Rome about 1592, and taught the philosophy of Plato under the patronage of Pope Clem- ent VIII. He was a zealous opponent of the doctrines of Aristotle. Among his works are " Peripatetic Dis- cussions," ( " Discussiones peripateticae," 1571,) and "Military Parallels," (" Paralleli militari," 1594.) Died in 1597. See GiNGUEN^, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie ;" Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteraturaftaliana." Patrocle. See Patroclus. Pa-tro'cles, [HaTpoiikfiq,'] a Greek statuary, mentioned by Pliny and Pausanias, lived probably about 400 B.a Patrocles, a Macedonian general, was appointed commander at Babylon by Seleucus I. about 312 B.C. He was commander-in chief of the army of Antiochus I. about 280 B.C. He wrote a work on the geography of India, etc., which is not extant. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; *h as in this. (2[^=See Explanations, p. 23.) PJTROCLUS 1750 PAUL Pa-tro'clus, [Gr. XldrpoKkog ; Fr. Patrocle, pi'- tRokK, [ a Greek hero, a son of Menoetius, and the dearest friend of Achilles, with whom he fought at the siege of Troy. Having borrowed the armour of Achilles, he slew a multitude of Trojans, but was killed by Hector, aided by Apollo. See the " Iliad." Pa'tron, [Gr. Ilarpwv,] an Epicurean philosopher, lived at Rome, associated with Cicero, and was a friend of Atticus. He afterwards went to Athens, and became the head of the Epicurean school in 52 B.C. Patru, pt'tRii', (Olivier,) an eminent French advo- cate, born in Paris in 1604. He made some reforms in forensic eloquence, and polished his style with minute attention. He had a high reputation as a critic, and has been compared to Quintilian. In 1640 he was admitted into the French Academy. The speech which he made at h's reception became a precedent for all such occasions. His VDrks were published in 1681. Died in 1681. See Peronne, " Barreau de Paris; filoge d'O. Patru," 1851 ; N.CERON, "Memoires." Patte, ptt, (Pierre,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1723. He wrote'several works on architecture. Died in 1 814. Pat'ten, (Robert,) an English divine under the reign of Queen Anne, born in Northumberland, was the author of a " History of the Rebellion of 1715," (London, 1745.) See "Retrospective Review," vol. xi., (1825.) Patten, (Thomas,) an English theologian, graduated at Oxford in 1754. Died in 1790. Pat'ter-son, (Daniel T.,) a distinguished naval offi- cer, born in the State of New York, served in the war of 1812, and in 1814 commanded the naval forces at New Orleans. He received the thanks of Congress for the part he took in the defence of that city. Died in 1839. Patter.son, (Francis Engle,) an American general, son of General Robert Patterson, noticed below, was born in Philadelphia in 1821. He served in the Mexi- can war, and, as brigadier-general of volunteers, fought under General McClellan in 1862 in his campaign against Richmond. He was killed by the accidental discharge of his pistol in November of that year. Patterson, (Robert,) LL.D., born in Ireland in 1743, emigrated to America, and was appointed in 1779 pro- fessor of mathematics in the University of Pennsylvania. He became director of the United States Mint in 1805, and was also president of the American Philosophical Society. Died in 1824. Patterson, (Robert,) a general, born in the county of Tyrone, Ireland, in 1792; emigrated to Philadelphia in his youth, and became a merchant. He commanded a division at Cerro Gordo in 1847. I" June, 1861, he ob- tained command of an army of about 20,000 men, which he moved across the Potomac on the 2d of July. He was instructed to defeat or hold in check the army of General J. E. Johnston near Winchester, but he failed to effect this object, while Johnston marched to Bull Run and decided the victory of July 21. General Patterson was, in consequence, severely censured by many. On the 18th of July, General Scott had written to him, " I have certainly been expecting you to beat the enemy. . . . You have been at least his equal, and, I suppose, supe- rior, in numbers." General Scott, however, appears not to have been aware of the actual strength of John- ston's army, which is now admitted to have been superior to that of his opponent in the field. General Patterson was honourably discharged from service when the term for which his troops had been enlisted had expired. Patterson or Paterson, (William,) an American statesman and jurist, born in New Jersey, or at sea, about 1744. He was one of the delegates representing New Jersey in the Convention which formed the federal Constitution in 1787. He was a United States Senator in 1789-90, and was Governor of New Jersey from 1791 to 1794. In the latter year he was appointed a judge of the sui>reme court of the United States. He is said to have been an upright judge. Died in 1806. Patti, pat'tee, (Adelina Maria Clorinda,) a popu- lar operatic singer, of Italian extraction, was born in Madrid in 1843. performed at New York in 1859, and in 1861 made her first appearance in London, and j became at once a distinguished favourite with the public. She was received with equal applause in the chief cities of the continent. Her vt)ice is a high soprano. She is distinguished for versatility and comic power. In 1868 she was married to the Marquis de Caux. Patti, (Carloita,) an excellent singer, a sister of the preceding, has performed with success at concerts in the United States. Her voice is said to be the highest soprano ever known. See " Men of the Times," London, 1868. Pat'ti-son, (Robert Everett,) D.D., an American Ba])tist divine, born at Benson, Vermont, in 1800, became in 1846 president and professor of Christian theology at the Baptist Theological Institute, Covington, Kentucky. Pat'ti-son, (William,) an English poet, born in Sus- sex in 1706; died in 1727. His poems (published in 2 vols., 1728) are commended. Patu, pftii', (Claude Pierre,) a French dramatic poet, born in Paris in 1729; died in 1757. Patuzzi, p^-toot'see, (Giovanni Vincenzo,) an Ital- ian theologian, born at Conegliano in 1700, was a Do- minican friar. Among his works is "Moral Theology," (7 vols., 1790.) Died in 1769. Patzke, pats''keh, (Johann Samuel,) a German min. ister and poet, born near Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1727. He became a popular preacher at Magdeburg. He published serrnons, hymns, dramas, and a translation of Tacitus, (6 vols., 1765-77.) Died in 1787. Paucton, pok'toN', (Alexis Jean Pierre,) a French mathematician, born in Maine in 1732 or 1736. Ho wrote an excellent work named " Metrologie, or a Treat- ise on the Measures, Weights, and Coins of Ancient and Modern Nations," (1780.) Died in Paris in 1798. Pauditz, powMits, (Christoph,) a painter, born in Lower Saxony about 1618, was a pupil of Rembrandt, He was patronized by Albert Sigismund, Duke of Ba- varia. He painted history and genre. Died in 1646. Paul, [Gr. Jlavlog ; Lat. Pau'lus ; Fr. Paul, p5l ; It. Paolo, pow'lo ; Ger. Paulus, povv'liis ; Sp. Pablo, P^'hIo,] Saint, the great Apostle of the Gentiles, origin- ally called Saul, was a native of Tarsus, a city of Ci- licia. He was a Jew and a Roman citizen by birthright, and a rigid Pharisee by education. He probably studied Greek literature at Tarsus, which was then a celebrated seat of learning, and he learned the trade of a tent- maker. He afterwards received instruction in the law from Gamaliel, an eminent rabbi and jurist at Jerusalem. (Acts xxii. 3.) He became a zealous supporter of the j[ewish religion and a violent persecutor of the Christians. The first passage of Scripture in which he is mentioned is Acts vii. 58, narrating the death of the martyr Stephen, to which Saul was accessory. During a journey from Jerusalem to Damascus, about 36 A.D., he was miracu- lously converted and ordained an apostle to preach the gospel to the Gentiles. (Acts ix.) He went from Damas- cus into Arabia, and had an interview with Saint Peter at Jerusalem about the year 39, after which he ])reached for several years in Syria and Cilicia. He passed a whole year at Antioch, where he " taught much people." About 45 A.D. Saul and Barnabas departed from Antioch on an extensive mission to the Gentiles. They traversed the island of Cyprus, from, which they passed into Asia Minor, and Paul preached a memorable sermon at Antioch in Pisidia. Though violently persecuted, they converted many at Antioch, Iconium, and Lystra, and returned in 47 a.d. to Antioch in Syria, where they abode a long time. In the course of a second apostolic journey he founded churches at Philippi and Thessa- lonica, and uttered a remarkable discourse at Athens. He also made many converts at Corinth, where he re- mained a year and a half, and where he wrote the Epis- tles to the Thessalonians. Much diversity of opinion prevails among the learned about the date of the prin- cipal events of his life. The divine origin of his doctrine was attested by many miracles, by " signs, and wonders, and mighty deeds." (II. Cor. xii. 12.) After he had visited Jerusalem the fourth time since his conversion, he commenced a third apostolic tour. He laboured for about two years at Ephesus, and after- wards revisited the churches of Macedonia and Greece. About the year 59 he was again at Jerusalem, the popu- S, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fl,r, filll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; PAUL PJULDING lace of which assailed him, and would have killed him, but an officer took him into custody and sent him to the Roman governor Felix, at Caesarea. He was confined in prison there for a long time, defended himself by a noble and eloquent speech before King Agrippa, and appealed to Caesar. He was taken by sea to Rome, where he "dwelt two whole years in his own hired house," and preached the gospel without hindrance. We have no authentic record of his death ; but, according to tradition, he suffered martyrdom at Rome about 66 a.d. "In perusing the history and writings of Saint Paul," says W. I.. Alexander, " it is impossible not to be struck with the amazing energy of thought and action by which he was characterized. . . . Removed alike from the extremes of fanaticism on the one hand and. apathy on the other, his whole life was a noble instance of the consecration, on sound and elevated principles, of the highest powers and the most indefatigable energies to a work in which he had no personal interest apart from that of his fellow-Christians. ... In his peculiar ca- pacity as one of the founders of the Christian Church and an inspired expositor of divine truth, he stands without a rival in his claims upon our gratitude and rev- erence." ("Encyclopaedia Britannica," article "Paul.") See the Acts of the Apostles, chaps, xi., xiii.-xxviii. ; Epistles of Saint Paul; Neander, "History of the Church;" Lewins, "Life and Epistles of Saint Paul," 2 vols., London, 1851 ; Cony- BEAREand HowsoN, "Life of Saint Paul," 2 vols., 1850; Schrader, "Der Apostel Paulus," 5 vols., 1829-36; Hemshn, " Der Apostel Paulus," 1850 ; Baur, "Paulus," 1845; Lutzelberghr, "Paulus und Johannes," 1839; Ernest Renan, " Saint- Paul," 1869. Paul [Lat. Pau'lus ; It. Paolo, pow'lo] I., a native of Rome, was elected pope, as successor to Stephen III., in 757 A.D. Died in 767 or 768. He was succeeded by Stephen IV. Paul II., Pope, (Pietro Barbo — baR'bo,) a native of Venice, and a nephew of Eugene IV., was born in 1418. He succeeded Pius II. in 1464. He was unfavourable to human learning, and suppressed an academy of literati which was formed in Rome. He was the first who gave the cardinals the privilege to wear purple. He died in 1471, and was succeeded by Sixtus IV. See Michel Canese, "Vie de Paul H," 1740. Paul III., Pope, (Alessandro Farnese — far-na'si,) was born at Canino about 1466. He succeeded Clement VII. in 1534. He approved the newly-formed order of the Jesuits about 1540. To oppose the progress of Luther, he convoked a council, which, after a delay of several years, met at Trent in 1545. Before the last date he excommunicated Henry VIII. of England. He sent about 12,000 troops to fight for ►Charles V. against the Protestant princes of Germany, and obtained for his grandson, Ottavio Farnese, the hand of Margaret, a daughter of the emperor. Paul protested against the interim treaty of peace which Charles V. granted to the Protestants in 1547. He died in November, 1549, and was succeeded by Julius III. See QuiRiNi, " Imago Pontificis Pauli IIL ;" Onufrio Panvinio, "Vita Pauli III. ;" Ranke, " History of the Popes;" Robert.son, " History of Charles V.," vols. ii. and iii. Paul IV., Pope, (Gian Pietro Caraffa— ki-rafm,) born at Capriglio about 1476, was elected pope in 1555. He was intolerant and tyrannical. He quarrelled with Philip [I. of Spain, whose army under the Duke of Alva blockaded Rome in 1557 and compelled the pope to sue for peace. He refused to recognize Elizabeth as Queen of England, and by his arrogant course promoted the triumph of Protestantism in England. He died in 1559, and was succeeded by Pius IV., who put to death two nephews of Paul IV. for their crimes. See Hromato, "Vita di Paolo IV.," 1748 : Ranke, " History of the Popes ;" Robertson, " History of Charles V.," vol. iii. books xi. and xii. Paul v., Pope, (Camillo Borghese — boR-ga'si,) born at Rome in 1552, succeeded Leo XI. in 1605. He was involved in a contest with the Venetians respecting the trial of ecclesiastics by lay tribunals, the foundation of religious houses, etc., and placed Venice under in- terdict in 1606. The senate of Venice retaliated by banishing the Jesuits. Through the mediation of Henry IV. of France, a compromise was effected in 1607. He died in 1621, and was succeeded by Gregory XV. Paul [Russ. Pavlof, pSv^lof] I., (Petrovitch, pi- tRo'vitch,) Emperor of Russia, born in 1754, was the son of Peter III. and Catherine II. After the assassination of his father by order of Catherine, Paul was treated by her with great severity, and deprived of all participation in ]3ublic affairs. He married Mary of Wiirtemberg in 1776. On his accession to the throne, in 1796, he dis- tinguished himself for a time by his liberal policy towards Poland, and in 1798 joined the coalition against France. He sent an army under Suwarow (Soovorof) to Italy to fight against the French. (See Suv^arow.) In a fit of caprice, he left his former allies, and attempted to form a coalition against England, in 1800. His numerous acts of folly and tyranny at length caused a conspiracy to take his life, at the head of which was Count Pahlen. Under pretence of compelling him to sign an abdication of the throne, the conspirators forced their way into his chamber and put him to death, (March, 1801.) His death was not regretted by his subjects. He was succeeded by his son, Alexander I. He left three other sons, Con- stantine, Nicholas, and Michael, and several daughters. See Von Tannenberg, " Leben Pauls I.," 1804; P. R. AuGUis, " Histoire de Catherine II et de Paul I," 1813; " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Paul, powl, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) Duke of Wiir- temberg, a German naturalist and traveller, born at Carlsruhe in 1797. He visited North America, the southern parts of Europe, and Egypt, and made valuable collections of objects in natural history. Died in i860. Paul, (Gabriel R.,) an American general, born in Missouri about 1814, graduated at West Point in 1834. He served as captain in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and became a brigadier-general of Union volunteers in 1862. He was severely wounded at Gettysburg, July, 1863, losing both his eyes. Paul, (Saint Vincent de.) See Vincent. Paul [Sp. Pahlo, pi'Klo] de Burgos, (da booR^gis,) or Paul de Santa Maria, (di sSn'ti mi-ree'S,) a Span- ish bishop, born at Burgos about 1350, was converted from Judaism to Christianity. Died in 1435. Paul (or Paulus) [Gr. X\.avkoq\ of Samosata, [Fi Paul de Samosate, p61 deh st'mo'ztt',] a noted here siarch of the third century. He was chosen Bishop of Antioch about 260 a.d., and soon provoked general censure by his rapacity, arrogance, and affectation of worldly pomp. He was also charged with heretical opinions respecting the divinity of Christ, and was de- posed by a council in 269. According to Epiphanius, he denied the distinct personality of Christ. By the favour of Queen Zenobia, Paul kept possession of the church at Antioch until about 272 a.d. His opinions were afterwards maintained by a small sect called Pauliani. Paul the Silentiary, a Greek poet, who was chief of the Silentiarii in the palace of Justinian. He wrote, about 562 A.D., a description of the church of Saint Sophia at Constantinople, in verse. Paul Veronese. See Cagliari, (Paolo.) PauTa, Saint, a Roman lady, noted for ascetic piety, born in 347 a.d., was descended from the Scipios. She was a disciple of Saint Jerome. Died in Palestine in 404. Paul'ding, (Hir.am,) an American rear-admiral, a son of John Paulding, noticed below, was born in Westches- ter county. New York, about 1800. He became a captain in 1844, and arrested Walker the filibuster at Punta Arenas in 1857. For this act he was censured by Presi- dent Buchanan, who released Walker. In April, 1861, he was appointed commander of the navy-yard of Norfolk, and burned the shipping and other public property which it seemed impossible to defend. The ships-of-war had been scuttled before he took command there. He connnanded the Brooklyn Navy- Yard from 1862 to 1865. See Headley, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 1S67; Greeley, "American Conflict," 1866. Paulding, (James Kirke,) a popular American novel- ist and miscellaneous writer, born in Pawling, Dutchess county. New York, in August, 1779. He published in 1807, conjointly with Washington Irving, a series of witty and satirical papers, entitled "Salmagundi," which were greatly admired at the time. His satire entitled "The Diverting History of John Bull and B/other Jonathan" appeared in 1816, and was followed by " The c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; sas z; th as in this. (2i:^^See Explanations, p. 23.) PAULDING 1752 PAULUS Backwoodsman," a poem, {1818,) "John Bull in America, or the New Munchausen," (1824,) "Merry Tales of the Three Wise Men of Gotham," (1826,) and "The Dutch- man's Fireside," the most admired of his novels, (1831.) His more recent works are a " Life of Washington," and the novel entitled " The Old Continental," (1846.) Mr. Paulding was appointed in 1837 secretary of the navy by President Van Buren. Died in i860. See Griswold, " Prose Writers of America Duycktnck, " Cy- clopjEdia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." Paulding, (John,) one of the American soldiers who in 1 780 captured Major Andre. A monument was erected to him near Peekskill. Died in 1818. Paulet, po'la', (Jean Jacques,) a French physician, born at Anduze in 1740. Rewrote a good "Treatise on Mushrooms," (2 vols., 1793,) and other works. Died in 1826. Pau'let or Paw'lett, (William,) Marquis of Win- chester, an English cotirtier, born about 1476. He held a place at court in the reigns of Henry VIII. and his successors. Died in 1572. See his "Life," by Rowland Broughton. Pau'lett, (William,) Lord, an English politician, born in 1666, represented Lymington in Parliament. Died in 1729. Pauli, pow'lee, (Karl Friedrich,) a German his- torian, born at Saalfeld, in Prussia, in 1723, became professor of history at Halle. Among his works is " Preussische Staatsgeschichte," (8 vols., 1760-69.) Died in 1778. Pauli or PauUi, powl'lee, (Simon,) a German phy- sician and botanist, born at Rostock in 1603, became first physician to Frederick III. of Denmark. He wrote "Flora Danica," (1648.) Died in 1680. Paulian, po''le-dN', (Aim^: Henri,) a French Jesuit, born at Nimes in 1722. He wrote several works on natural science. His "Dictionary of Physics" ("Dic- tionnaire de Physique," 3 vols., 1 761) was often re- printed. Died in 1801. Paulin. See Paulinus. Paulin de Saint - Barth^lemi. See Paulinus, (JOHANN PhILIPP WeREDIN.) Pau-li'nus, [Gr. HovAirof,] Bishop of Tyre, was a friend of Eusebius of Caesarea. He became Bishop of Tyre before 313 A.D., and was translated to the see of Antioch about 325. He was charged with being an Arian. Paulinus of Antioch was a leader of the Eusta- thian party. He was ordained Bishop of Antioch about 362 A.D. Meletius was at the same time the bishop of the opposite party. Died about 388. Pau-li'nus, an Italian missionary, sent by Pope Greg- ory to England, is said to have converted King Edwin of Northumbria. He became Archbishop of York about 627. Died in 644. Pau-li'nus, [Fr. Paulin, p5'liN',] (Pontius Mero- rius,) Saint, Bishop of Nola, was born at Burdigala (Bordeaux) about 353 a.d. He was a pupil of the poet Ausonius, and became consul at Rome in 378. Having been converted to Christianity, he renounced the world, and was elected Bishop of Nola in 409 A D. He wrote letters and poems, which are extant. Died in 431. See F. A. Grrvaise, "Vie de S. Paulin," 1743; Rabanis, " S. Paulin de Nole," 1841 ; Tillemont, " M^moires acclesiastiques." Paulinus, Saint, Patriarch of Aquileia, born in Friuli or Austrasia about 728 A.D., was noted as a zeal- ous defender of the doctrine of the Trinity. Died in 804. Paulinus, p6w-lee'nus, (Johann Philip? Weredin,) or Paulin de Saint-Barthelemi, a German Orien- talist, was born at Hof, near Mannersdorf, in Austria, in 1748. He was sent as a missionary to Malabar in 1774, and learned the Sanscrit language. He published, besides other works, a "Sanscrit Grammar," (1790,) and the " Liturgical, Mythological, and Civil System of the Brahmans," (" Systema Brahmanicum liturgicum, mythologicum et civile," 1791.) Died at Rome in 1806. Paulli. See Pauli. PauUini, powl-lee'nee, (Christian Franz,) a Ger- man physician and miscellaneous writer, born at Eise- nach in 1643 ; died in 1712. Paulmier de Grentemesnil, p6'me-i' deh gR^Nt'- mi'n^K, (Julien le,) a Protestant French physician, born in the Cotentin in 1520. He practised in" Paris, and is said to have cured Charles IX. of inability to sleep, (insomnia.) Died in 1598. Paulmier, le, leh po'me-i', [ Lat. Palme'rius, ] (Jacques,) a French philologist, born in Auge in 1587, was a son of the preceding. He served against the Spaniards under Maurice about eight years, (1620-28.) He wrote " Exercises on the Best Greek Authors," (" Exercitationes in optimos Autores Graecos," 1668,) a work of some merit, and a "Description of Ancient Greece," (in Latin, 1678.) Died in 1670. Paulmy. See Argenson, (Marc Antoine Ren6.) Paulo, (Marco.) See Polo. Paulus. See Paul. Pau'lus was elected Patriarch of Constantinople, by the orthodox or Homoousians, in 336 A.D. The Arians at the same time elected Macedonius. Paulus was ban- ished by the emperor, but was restored in 342, and was supported by Julius, Bishop of Rome. He died in exile about 350. Paulus, pow'liis, (Heinrich Eberhard Gottlot},) a German theologian, distinguished as the leader of the old rationalistic school in Germany, was born near Stutt- gart in 1 761. He became professor of Oriental languages at Jena in 1789, and subsequently of exegesis and eccle- siastical history at Heidelberg. He was the author of a " Philological, Critical, and Historical Commentary on the New Testament," (4 vols., 1800-04,) " Exegetic Manual on the First Three Gospels," (1830,) and other similar works. He died in 185 1. His wife, Caroline, and his daughter, Emilie, were also distinguished as writers. The latter was married to A. W. Schlegel. See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." Pau'lus, (Julius,) one of the most eminent of the Roman jurists. The place of his birth is not known. Having been exiled by Elagabalus, he was recalled by Alexander Severus about 222 a.d. and appointed pre- torian prefect. He was remarkable for fertility as a writer and for the extent of his legal learning. The excerpts from Paulus in the Digest are more numerous than those from any other jurist except Ulpian. His great work is " Ad Edictam," in eighty books. He also wrote twenty-six books of " Quaestiones," and twenty- three books of "Responsa." Died about 235 A.D. See RiTTERHUsius, "Vita J. Pauli;" Ersch und Gruber, "All- gemeine Encyklopaedie." Paulus, (L. ^milius,) f Fr. Paul-Emile, pol iixnhV It. Paolo Emilio, pow'lo i-mee'le-o,] a Roman general of a patrician family, was consul for the first time in 219 B.C. He was again elected consul for the year 216, by the aristocratic party. Against his advice, his rash colleague, Terentius Varro, offered battle to Hannibal at Cannas, where ^milius Paulus was killed, in 216 B.C. His brave conduct on this occasion is applauded by Horace. ("Carmina," Lib. I., Ode 12.) His daughter ^Emilia was the wife of Scipio the Great, surnamed Africanus. See LiVY, " History of Rome," books xxii. and xxiii. Paulus, (Lucius ^milius,) a son of the preceding, was born about 230 B.C., and was the most celebrated member of his family. He was a fine specimen of the old Roman aristocracy, and was a brother-in-law of Scipio Africanus, the conqueror of Hannibal. Elected praetor for the year 191 B.C., he obtained as his province Farther Spain, where he defeated the Lusitani in a great battle. In the year 189 he returned to Rome, and in 182 was elected consul, after having been defeated at several elections. With a view to finish the Macedonian war, the people elected him consul in 168 B.C. He gained in the same year a decisive victory over Perseus at Pydna, and afterwards took that king prisoner. He returned to Rome in 167, and obtained the honour of a triumph, with the surname of Macedonicus. He died in 160 B.C., leaving a high reputation for honour and integrity. Plutarch has written his life and drawn a comparison between him and Timoleon. One of his sons was adopted by the son of the great Scipio above named, and became afterwards celebrated as Scipio Africanus the younger. See Livv, "History of Rome," books xxxiv.-xl. ; Plutarch, " Paulus ^milius ;" AuREi.ius Victor, " De Viris illustribiis." a, e, T, o, ti, y, lon^; h, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; at, e, }, o, obscure; fir, fill, mSt] ndt; good; moon; PAULUS 1753 PAWLETT Paulus, pow'lus, (PiETER,) a Dutch statesman, born at Axel in 1754. He was president of the Assembly which abolished the office of Stadtholder in 1795. He wrote a "Memoir on Equality among Men," (1792.) Died in 1796. Pauaus iEgine'ta, (gj-e-ne'ta,) [Fr. Paul d'Egine, pol di'zh^n',] a celebrated Greek medical writer, of whose personal history little is known, except that he was born in the island of ^gina. He is supposed to have lived in the seventh century of our era. He trav- elled extensively, and wrote several medical works, one of which, called " De Re Medica Libri septem," is still extant. It is mostly compiled from Galen and other writers. The sixth book ("On Surgery") is the most valuable and original part of the work. See Sprengel, "Histoirede la Medecine;" Haller, " Biblio- theca Medica." Paulus .fflmilius. See Emilio, (Paolo.) Pau'lus Di-ac^o-nus, [Fr. Paul Diacre, p51 de'- tka',] (" Paul the Deacon,") a medizeval historian, some- times called Warnefridus, was born at Friuli (Forum Julii) about 735 a.d. He passed some years at the court of Charlemagne. He wrote Latin verses, and a valuable " History of the Lombards," in a clear and elegant style. Died about 798 A.D. Paumgarten, von, fon powm'gaR'ten, (Maximilian SiGiSMUND Joseph,) Baron, an Austrian general, born in Styria in 1767. He took part in the battles of Aspern and Wagram, (1809.) Died in 1827, Paur, powR, ( Theodor,) a German writer, born at Neisse, in Silesia, in 1805. He became professor in the College of Neisse in 1842. Pau-sa'ni-as, \U.avaaviaq^ a Spartan general, was the son of Cleombrotus, and a nephew of Leonidas, who fell at Thermopylae. In 479 B.C. he became guardian of his cousin Pleistarchus, for whom he exercised the functions of royalty for several years. He commanded the Greek army which defeated the Persians under Mardonius at Plataea in 479. In 477 the confederate Greeks sent out a fleet under Pausanias, who captured Byzantium. Having formed ambitious and treasonable designs, he made secret overtures to the King of Persia. He also offended the allies by his arrogant and domineering con- duct, and was recalled to Sparta. His intrigues with the Persian court were detected a few years later by the Ephori, who ordered his arrest. He then took refuge in a temple, where he died of starvation, about 468 B.C. See Herodotus, " History;" Cornelius Nepos, " Pausanias ;" Thirlwall, "History of Greece." Pausanias, King of Sparta, was a son of Pleistonax, whom he succeeded in 444 B.C., being then an infant. During the contest between Thrasybu'lus and the Thirty Tyrants (403 B.C.) he intervened in favour of the former. Died about 380 B.C. Pausanias, a Greek traveller and author, who flour- ished between 150 and 200 A.D. He is sup])osed to have been born in Lydia ; but nothing is known respecting him except what we learn from his writings. He was the au- thor of a valuable " Itinerary or Description of Greece," ('EAA(x(5of UeptTf-yrjaig.) His description of places is minute and accurate, but mainly relates to objects of antiquity and works of art. If he mentions mountains and rivers, it is chiefly for the sake of legends or myths connected with them. He describes pictures, statues, etc. with simplicity, and makes no pretensions to be a critic. His work is the more highly prized for this reason. " With the exception of Herodotus," says George Long, "there is no writer of antiquity who has comprehended so many valuable facts in a small volume. The work of Pausanias is full of matter, — mythological, historical, and artistic ; nor does he omit matters physical and eco- nomical." His work has been translated into English by Thomas Taylor. See Koenig, " De Pausanis Fide et Auctoritatein Historia," etc,, 1832 ; Siebelis, " Quaestio in Pausaniae Periegetae Patrja," etc., i8ig. Pausias, pau'she^s, \llav) which were suc- cessful. Died at Paris in 1745. Pellegrini, p§l-li-gree'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian painter of history, born at Venice in 1675. He worked in England and Paris, and settled at Venice. Among his master-pieces is "The Brazen Serpent." " He was ingenious," says the " Biographie Universelle," "and painted with great facility."" Died in 1741. Pellegrini, (Camillo,) an Italian historian, born at Capua in 1598. He spent much time in collecting an- cient documents for the history of Italy, and published a valuable "History of the Princes of Lombardy," (" Historia Principum Longobardorum," 1643.) Died in 1663. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; \ fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, 5?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m6t; ndt; good; moon; PELLEGRINI 1759 PELLISSON Pellegrini, (Domenico,) an architect and engraver, born in 1541, was a brother of Pellegrino, noticed below. He designed the palace de Magnani at Bologna, and other fine edifices of that city. His etchings are prized by amateurs. Died in 1 582. "Pellegrini, (Giuseppe Luigi,) an Italian poet and Jesuit, born at Verona in 1718, was distinguished as a pulpit orator. He published " Latin and Italian Poems," (" Poesie Latine ed Italiane," 1 791.) Died in 1799. Pellegrini, (Pellegrino,) called also Tibaldi, te- bal'dee, an eminent painter and architect, born in the Milanese in 1527. He studied in Rome, and appears to have taken Michael Angelo as his model. He acquired a grandeur of style which was less extravagant than that of Michael Angelo. Among his best paintings are the frescos in the Poggi Chapel, representing John the Bap- tist baptizing, and other subjects. He was appointed in 1570 chief architect of the Duomo (cathedral) of Milan, and designed the fa9ade of that great Gothic structure, which was commenced about 1387. His design was censured by many artists, but was partially executed. He worked for Philip II. of Spain in the Escurial, both as painter and architect. He died at Milan about 1595 or 1600. See Z ANOTTi," Vita di Tibaldi ;" Vasari," Lives of the Painters QuATREMERE DE QuiNCY, " Dictioimaire d'Architecture." Pelleport, pgKpoR', (Pierre,) Vicomte, a French general, born in Haute-Garonne in 1773. He fought at Jena, (1806,) at Eylau, (1807,) obtained the rank of colonel at Essling, and the title of baron at Wagram, (1809.) Died in 1855. Pellerin, pSKraN'', (Joseph,) a French numismatist and linguist, born near Versailles in 1684. He became commissioner of the navy in 1718, and chief clerk some years later. He formed a cabinet of 32,500 medals, which is said to have been the richest that ever belonged to a private person, and pul^lished a description of them, entitled " Collection of Medals of Kings, Nations, and Cities," (" Recueil de Medailles de Rois, Peuples et Villes," 10 vols., 1762-78.) He adopted an improved system of classification. Died in 1782. See Chaudon et Delandine, " Dictionnaire Universe!." Pellet, pk^li', (Jean Franqois,) a French poet and advocate, born at Epinal in 1782 ; died in 1830. Pelletan, pIKtSN', (Eug^ine,) an able French littera- teur, born in Charente-Inferieure in 1813. His father was a Protestant minister. He wrote literary critiques for the " Presse" for about ten years, (1839-50,) and con- tributed to other journals. In 1848 he was a republican, and intimate with Lamartine. Among his popular works are " The Profession of Faith of the Nineteenth Century," (1853,) and " The Pastor of the Desert," (1855.) He was elected to the corps legislatif in 1869, and became a mem- ber of the provisional government in September, 1870. Pelletan, (Philippe Jean,) a French surgeon of high re])utation, was born in Paris in 1747. He suc- ceeded Desault as surgeon-in-chief of the Hotel-Dieu in Paris, and was consulting surgeon to Napoleon I. He lectured in Paris about thirty years, with such elo- quence that he was called the " Chrysostom of surgeons." Died in 1829. See " Biographic Medicalc ;" Qu^rakd, " La France Litt^raire;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Pelletan, (Pierre,) a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1782, and was a distinguished physician. He became professor of physique medicale at Paris in 1823. In 1843 he resigned this chair. He published a "Dic- tionary of Medical Chemistry," (2 vols., 1823.) Died in 1846. Pelletier. See Peletier, Le, (Claude.) Pelletier, pSKte-i^ (Bertrand,) an eminent French chemist, born at B^yonne in 1761. He became professor of chemistry at the Polytechnic School in Paris in 1795, and a member of the Institute. He wrote for the " An- nalesde Chimie," and made some important discoveries. " He showed himself a man of genius," says Fournier- Pescay, " in his researches on phosphorus and on its combinations with metals." Died in 1797, His col- lected works were published, under the title of " Me- moirs and Observations," (2 vols.,) in 1798. Pelletier, pirte-i, (Caspar,) a Dutch physician and botanist, was born at Middelburg ; died in 1659. Pelletier, (Jean Baptiste,) a French general, born at Eclaron (Haute-Marne) in 1777. He became general of brigade in 1809, obtained command of the artillery, and served with credit at Moskwa, (1812.) Died in 1862. Pelletier, (Pierre Joseph,) a chemist, born in Paris in 1788, was a son of Bertrand, noticed above. He dis- played a rare talent for observation and analysis, and discovered several vegetable salifiable bases. The im- portant discovery of quinine (1820) was made by Pelle- tier and Caventou, who was his associate. For this service the Academy of Sciences gave him a prize of ten thousand francs' in 1827. He published a "Memoir on Quinine," (1821,) and other works. Died in 1842. Pelletier, Le, (Jean.) See Lepelletier. Pellew, (Edward.) See Exmouth, Lord. PeFlew, (George,) D.D., a younger son of Lord Exmouth, was born in 1793. He became Dean of Nor- wich in 1828. Among his works is "The Seven Ages of a Christian Life," (1855.) Pellican, perie-k^n', [ Lat. Pelltca'nus ; Ger. Kurschner, kiiRsh'ner,] (Conrad,) a learned Reformer and biblical critic, born at Ruffach, in Alsace, in 1478. He took the monastic vows, learned Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and became superior of the convent at Ruffach about 15 17. Having been converted to the doctrines of Luther, he was appointed professor of Hebrew at Zurich in 1526. He was intimate with Erasmus. Among his works are Latin Commentaries on the Bible, (5 vols, fob, 1534-38,) which are highly esteemed. "Pellican," says Richard Simon, "is more exact than the other Protestants. . . . He aimed to be useful to his readers rather than to display his rabbinagey Died in 1556. See "Chronicon Vit^e ipsiiis ab ipso conscriptum," inserted in Melchior AnAM'.s"Vits Theologoriim Germanoriim ;" Johann Fabricius, " Oratio historica de Vita C. Pellicani," 1608; Salomon Hess, " C. Pellicans Jugendgeschichte," 1795. Pellicanus. See Pellican. Pellicer, pgl-ye-thaiR', (Jos6 de Ossau — dS. os- s6\v',] a Spanish historian, born at Saragossa in 1602 ; died in 1679. Pellicer, (Juan Antonio,) a Spanish antiquary, born at Valencia in 1738. He wrote " Ensayo de una Bibli- oteca de Traductores Espanoles," ("Library of Spanish Translations," 1778,) and published a good edition of "Don Quixote," (1797.) Died in 1806. Pellicier or Pellissier, pa1e'se-i', (Gutllaume,) a French diplomatist, born in Laiiguedoc about 1490. He became Bishop of Montpellier, and was employed in important missions by Francis I. His vast erudition is extolled by De Thou and Turnebus. Died in 1568. Pellico, peKle-ko, (Silvio,) an Italian poet, born at Saluzzo, Piedmont, in 1789. He became in 1 810 teacher of French in a college of Milan, where he formed a friendship with Ugo Foscolo and Monti. He pro- duced " Francesca da Rimini," a tragedy, which was performed with great applause. In Milan he became acquainted with Lord Byron, Madame de Stael, and Lord Brougham. He was the principal founder of " II Conciliatore," a literary periodical, first issued in 1818, which was quickly suppressed by the Austrian govern- ment. In October, 1820, he was arrested as a member of a secret society, and in 1822 was condemned to im- prisonment for fifteen years carcere duro. He was con- fined at Spielberg, in Moravia, until August, 1830, and then released, having suffered with great resignation. He wrote a narrative of his sufferings, entitled "My Prisons," (" Le mie Prigioni," 1831,) which excited great sympathy and was translated into all the languages of Europe. His prose treatise " On the Duties of Man" is praised for its good morality. Died at Turin in 1854. See L. DE LoMENiE, "M. S. Pellico, par un Homme de Rien," 1842 ; V. Chiala, " Vita di S. Pellico,'" 1852 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" Longfellow^, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for April and October, 1833. Pellisson, pi'le'sdN', or Pellisson-Fontanier, pi'- le's^N' f6N'tt'ne-k', (Paul,) a French author, born, of Protestant parents, at Beziers in 1624. He wrote a "History of the French Academy," (1653,) which ob- tained such success that this society nominated him a € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; *h as in this. (2[^='See Explanations, p. 23.) PELLOUTIER PENATES titular member and voted that he should be admitted to the first vacant seat. In 1657 he became chief clerk of Fouquet, minister of finance. He was confined for four years (1661-65) ""i ^^"'^ Bastille on account of his connection with Fouquet. Having been selected by Louis XIV. to write the history of his reign, he abjured Protestantism in 1670, entered into holy orders, and obtained several benefices. He wrote a " History of Louis XIV.," (3 vols., 1749,) and other works. His writings were more admired in his own time than at present. Died in 1693. See Fenelon, " filoge de Pellisson;" Voltaire, " Si^cle de Louis XIV." Pelloutier, p|'loo'te-i', (Simon,) a French historian, born at Leipsic in 1694. He became minister of a Prot- estant church at Berlin in 1725, and a member of the Academy of Sciences of that city in 1743. His chief work is a " History of the Celts, Gauls, and Germans from Fabulous Times to the Capture of Rome by the Gauls," (in French, 2 vols., 1740-50,) which, says the "Journal des Savants," "is extremely curious and agree- able." Died at Berlin in 1757. See Haag, " La France protestante." Pe-lop'i-das, [ Gr. Ylelom6ag, \ an eminent Theban statesman and general, was a son of Hippoclus. He inherited a large fortune, of which he made a liberal use, and became an intimate and constant friend of Epaminondas, who saved his life at the battle of Man- tinea, (385 B.C.) As a leader of the popular party, he went into exile when the Spartans made themselves masters of Thebes, in 382. He was the master-spirit of the small band of patriots who surprised by night and expelled the Spartans and aristocrats from Thebes in 379 B.C. "It is not easy," says Plutarch, "to find an instance so remarkable of the few overcoming the many, merely by courage and conduct. . . . The war which humbled the pride of the Spartans and deprived them of empire took its rise from that night." Pelopidas was chosen general-in-chief, and in 375 gained at Tegyrae a decisive victory over the Spartans, who then lost their prestige of invincibility. He was captain of the Sacred band at the battle of Leuctra, where he gained as much honour, says Plutarch, as Epaminondas, the commander- in-chief. In 369 B.C. Pelopidas and his friend com- manded jointly an army which entered Peloponnesus, forced Argos and Arcadia to renounce the alliance of the Spartans, and ravaged a large part of Laconia in a winter campaign. (See Epaminondas.) He acted as mediator between two sons of Amyntas, King of Mace- don, and carried as a hostage to Thebes another prince, who w^as afterwards famous as Philip of Macedon. Having been sent as ambassador to Persia in 367, he was re- ceived with great honour by the king and courtiers, who said, " This is the man who deprived the Spartans of the empire of the sea and land ;" and he induced Ar- taxerxes to recognize the liberty of all the Greek states. He commanded an expedition against Alexander, tyrant of Pherae, in a battle with whom he was killed in 364 B.C., as he too rashly urged the retreating enemy. See "Life of Pelopidas," by Plutarch, who compares him to Marcellus, and says that Pelopidas was "inclined to every virtue ;" Cornelius Nepos, " Pelopidas ;" Thirlwall, " History of Greece." PeTops, [Gr. ITfAoi/'; Fr. Pi:LOPS, pi'lops',] a demi-god of Greek mythology, said to have been a son of Tanta- lus, a grandson of Jupiter, and a king of Pisa. Among his children were Atreus and Thyestes, whose mother was Hippodami'a, a daughter of CEnomaus. (SeeOENO- MAUS.) The poets relate that Tantalus once entertained the gods at his house, and offered them the flesh of Pelops, whom he killed and boiled, that all the guests refused to partake of that dish, except Ceres, who ate one shoulder, and that Pelops was restored to life by Mercury, with an ivory shoulder in place of that which was devoured. Tradition adds that during the siege of Troy an oracle declared that this city could not be taken unless one of the bones of Pelops was brought to the camp of the Greeks. According to another legend, the Palladium at Troy was made of the bones of Pelops. The southern peninsula of Greece is supposed to have derived from him the name Peloponnesus, (or "island of Pelops.") Pelouze, peh-looz', (Tii^ophilk Jules,) a French chemist, born at Valognes (Mane he) in 1807, was a pupil of Gay-Lussac. He obtained a chair of chemistry at Lille in 1830, soon after which he became the assistant ( siippleant) of Gay-Lussac in the Polytechnic School. He was admitted into the Institute in 1837, and was ap- pointed president of the Commissit)n des Monnaies (or director of the Mint) in 1848. His labours and memoirs place him in the first rank of contemporary chemists. Pelouze and Fremy published a "Treatise on Chem- istry," (6 vols., 1853-56.) Died in 1867. PeLs, pgls, (Andrkas,) a Dutch poet, who founded a school or literary society which favoured the imitation of French models. He wrote "The Death of Dido," a tragedy, (1668,) and translated into Dutch verse Horace's "Art of Poetry," (1667.) Died in 1681. Peltan, de, deh p^Kt^n, or Pelte, peKteh, [Lat. Pel- ta'nus,] (Theodore Antoine,) a Flemish Jesuit, born at Pelte. He wrote a " Commentary on the Book of Proverbs," and other works. Died in 1584. Peltanus. See Peltan. Peltier, peKte-a', or Pelletier, (Jean Gabriel,) a French journalist, born at Nantes. He began to issue in London, in 1800, " L'Ambigu," in which he attacked Bonaparte with virulence. He was tried for libel in 1803, was defended in a famous speech by Sir James Mackintosh, and was sentenced to pay a small fine. Died in Paris in 1825. Peluse, de, Comte. See Monge. Pelzel, pglt'sel, (Frans Martin,) a Bohemian his- torian, born at Reichenau in 1735, wrote a "History of Bohemia," (1774,) and other works. Died in i8oi. Pem'ber-tpn, (Ebenezer,) an able American divine, born about 1672, preached in Boston. Died in 171 7. Pemberton, ( Ebenezer, ) LL.D., an American teacher, born in 1746. He was tutor at Princeton Col- lege, and at Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts. Died in Boston in 1835. Pem'ber-ton, (Henry,) an English chemist, anat- omist, and geometer, born in London in 1694, was a pupil and friend of Boerhaave. He became a professor of physic in Gresham College, (Oxford,) where he gave lectures on chemistry, (published in 1771.) Among his works are a " View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy," (1728,) and "Lectures on Physiology," (1733.) He edited Newton's " Principia," (1726.) Died in 1771. Pemberton, (John C.,) an American general, born in Pennsylvania about 1818, graduated at West Point in 1837. He served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) be- came a captain, and resigned his commission in April, 1861. Having taken arms against the Union, he ob- tained the rank of lieutenant-general, and commanded at Vicksburg during the long siege of that place. He was defeated by General Grant at Champion Hill, May 16, and retired to Vicksburg, which he surrendered, with more than 25,000 prisoners, on the 4th of July, 1863. Pemble, pem'bel, (William,) a learned English Cal- vinistic minister, born in Kent about 1590. He was an able preacher and linguist. His works were published in 1635. Died in 1623. Pembroke, (Anne,) Countess of. See Clifford. Pembroke, Earl of. See Herbert. Pembroke, (Mary,) Countess of. See Sidney. (Mary.) Pembroke, pem' brook, (Thomas,) an English painter, born in 1702; died in 1730. Pena, peh-ni', (Pierre,) a French botanist of the sixteenth century, was born at Narbonne, or in the diocese of Aix. He was intimate with Lobel, to whom he furnished materials for his work. Penalosa, de, di pan-ya-lo'si, (Don Juan,) a Spanish painter, born at Baeza in 1581 ; died in 1636. Pe-na'tes, [Fr. P^;nates, pi'ntt^] the household gods of the Roinans, so called, probaljly, because their images were kept in the penetralia, the innermost part or centre of the house. The number of these gods or genii was indefinite. The Lares were included among the Penates, and were sometimes represented as iden- tical with them. Vesta was regarded as one of the Penates, which, according to some authors, were per- sonifications of the powers of nature. a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 11, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; ndt; good; mSon; PENAUD PENN Penaiid, peh-n6', (Charles,) a French rear-admiral, born in iSoo, coninianded the squadron which operated against Russia in the Baltic in 1855. Died in 1864. Pencz or Pentz, pents, written also Pens and Peins, (Gregor,) a German painter and engraver, was born at Nuremberg about 1500. Among his master-pieces are a "Crucifixion," in the gallery at Augsburg, and a "Judith, ' in the Pinakothek at Munich, His engravings are numerous and of great merit. Died about 1554. Peii'der, (William D.,/ an American general, born in North Carolina, graduated at West Point about 1854. He commanded a division of General Lee's army at the battle of Gettysburg, where he was killed, July 3, 1863. Pendleton, pei/del-ton, (Edmund,) an eminent American statesman and judge, born in Virginia in 1721. He was elected to the General Congress in 1774 and in 1775. In 1776 he was president of the Virginia Con- vention, and was the author of the resolutions by which that body instructed their delegates in Congress to vote for a declaration of independence. He was appointed presiding judge of the court of appeals about 1779. He was president of the convention which met in Virginia in 1788 to consider the new Constitution of the United States, and he advocated the adoption of the same. His ability as a debater was highly extolled by Thomas Jefferson. Died at Richmond in 1803. Pendleton, (George H.,) an American poh'tician, a son of Nathaniel Greene Pendleton, formerly a member of Congress, was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, in July, 1825. He became a lawyer, and was elected a member of the Senate of Ohio in 1854. He represented the first dis- trict of Ohio in the National House of Representatives from December, 1857, till March, 1865. He acted in Congress with the Democrats who opposed the coercion of the secessionists, and was nominated as candidate for Vice-President of the United States by the Democratic Convention in August, 1864. He received twenty-one electoral votes out of two hundred and thirty-three, which was the whole number. About 1867 he began to advocate the payment of the public debt in paper money, — "greenbacks." As a candidate for the Presidency he received, at the National Democratic Convention, July 8, 1868, one hundred and fifty-six and one-half votes out of three hundred and seventeen, on the eighth ballot. He was the Democratic candidate for Governor of Ohio in 1869, but was not elected. Pendleton, (Henry,) an American jurist, and resi- dent of South Carolina, was one of the judges appointed to make a digest of the laws of that State. Died in 1788. Pene, de,deh pin, (Henri,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1830. He wrote for the " Figaro," and offended the mii'itary by some remarks, for which he was challenged by several subaltern officers in succession, (1858.) In the second duel he was desperately wounded, so that for a time he was not expected to live. Pe-neFo-pe, [Gr. UtiveTuotttj or UeveXonT) ; Fr. P6n6- lope, pa'nalop',] the wife of Ulysses, King of Ithaca, and a cousin of Helen, was renowned for conjugal fidelity. During the long absence of her husband she evaded the importunity of her suitors by a promise to decide which she would accept when she had finished a shroud for the aged Laertes. She ravelled at night what she had woven by day, and thus postponed the decision until the return of Ulysses. She was the mother of Telemachus. Penguilly I'Haridon, de, dih pfiN'ge'ye' It'reMdN', (Octave,) a French painter, born in Paris in 181 1. Penhouet, peh-noo'i', (Armand Louis Bon Mau- det,) a French antiquary, born in Bretagne in 1764. He wrote " Researches on Bretagne," (1814,) and other works. Died in 1839. Penicaud, pa'ne'ko', (Pierre,) a French enameller and painter on glass, born in 1515, worked at Limoges. He was an able artist. Pen'ing-ton, (Isaac,) an eminent minister of the Society of Friends, was born about 1618. His father was lord mayor of London and a member of the Long Parliament. He married Mary, the widow of Sir Wil- liam Springett, (whose daughter became the wife of William Penn,) and resided at Chalfont, Bucks. During •he reign of Charles II. he was imprisoned six times for his religious principles. " He grew rich and fruitful in all heavenly treasure," says William Penn, — "full of love, faith, mercy, patience, and long-suffering. Insomuch that I may say he was one of a thousand; zealous, yet tender, wise, yet humble. . . . One that ever loved power and life more than words." Died in 1679. He left "Let- ters" and other writings, which are highly prized. See " The Penns and Peniiigtons of the Seventeenth Century," by Maria Webes, London, 1867. Penn, (Granville,) an English author, born in Phila- delphia in 1 76 1, was a son of Thomas Penn, and a grandson of William Penn. He was a clerk in the • British war office. Among his works are "Remarks on the Eastern Origin of Mankind and of the Arts of Cultivated Life," and a "Life of Admiral Penn," (1833.) Died in 1844. Penn, (John,) an American patriot, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born in Caroline county, Virginia, in 1741. Having removed in 1774 to North Carolina, he was elected in 1775 to the Conti- nental Congress. Died in 1788. Penn, (Sir William,) an able English admiral, father of William Penn, was born at Bristol in 162 1. He became a rear-admiral about 1644, obtained the rank of admiral in 1653, and commanded the fleet which co-operated with Venables in the capture of Jamaica from the Spaniards in 1655. He promoted the restora- tion of Charles 11. In 1660 he was appointed governor of Kinsale. He was commander-in-chief, under the Duke of York, of the fleet which gahied a victory over the Dutch in 1665, He retired from the service in 1669, and died at Wanstead, Essex, in 1670. See Granville Penn, " Memorials of the Life of Admiral Sir William Penn," 1833. Penn, (William,) the founder of Pennsylvania, and one of the most illustrious of Christian philanthropists, was born in London on the 14th of October, 1644. He was the eldest son of Captain (afterwards Admiral) Penn and Margaret, the daughter of John Jasper, a merchant of Rotterdam. At an early age he was sent to the Chig- well School, in Essex. While here, before he was eleven years old, his nn'nd was deeply impressed with the im- portance of religion, and he believed that he was even then divinely called to consecrate his life to the service of God. When about fifteen, he was sent to Christ Church, Oxford, where he became acquainted with John Locke, afterwards so distinguished as the author of the "Essay on the Human Understanding." While at the university, Penn appears to have applied himself dili- gently to his studies, and to have made rapid progress not only in the classics but likewise in several of the modern languages. He is said also to have devoted much of his attention to theology and history. Nor did he neglect the cultivation of his physical powers. With a handsoine person, in which were united strength and grace, he appears to have been well fitted to excel in those out-door exercises which were then and are still in vogue among the students of Oxford. He was, we are told, a skilful boatman as well as an adventurous sportsman. But, while he was thus applying himself with youthful zeal to the pursuits deemed appropriate to young gentlemen of his condition, a new influence arose, which was destined to change entirely the current of his future life. Thomas Loe, who had formerly belonged to the university, but now one of the new sect of Friends or Quakers, preached at Oxford. The views which he promulgated made a powerful impression on the mind of Penn. He, with several other students who had beheld with displeasure the recent attempt to intro- duce into the university certain forms and observances which they considered to be little better than papistical mummeries, absented themselves from the established worship, and began to hold meetings among themselves, conducting their devotional exercises in their own way. Thereupon they were fined by the heads of the college for nonconformity ; but this, instead of deterring them from the course they had taken, only added fuel to their zeal. It happened soon after that an order came down from the king that the surplice should be worn by the students, according to the custom of former times. This so exasperated some of them, among whom Penn appears € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as G, H, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^=See Explanations, p. 23.I III PENN 1762 PENN to have taken a leading part, that they not only refused to wear the surplice themselves, but, falling upon those who appeared in surplices, they forcibly tore off from them the offensive badge. For this flagrant and open violation of the laws of the university, Penn and sev- eral of his associates were expelled. This disgrace was a bitter mortification to the admiral, a worldly and ambitious man, who had built the greatest hopes on his eldest and favourite son. When William returned home, his father received him with cold and stern disapprobation. His son, although for the time carried away with a fanatical zeal, was perfectly sincere, and, finding his conduct not disapproved by some men of note who were jealous of what they considered the encroachments of popery, would not admit that he had done wrong in resisting the authority of the king with respect to the surplice. His father, having tried in vain to reclaim him by argument, proceeded next, like one accustomed to arbitrary power, to blows, and at last, it is said, turned him out-of-doors. It was not long, how- ever, before the admiral, who really loved his son and was proud of his abilities, began to relent ; and at the intercession of his mother, an amiable and excellent woman, William was forgiven and recalled. With a view to dissipate his son's religious impres- sions, the admiral at length resolved to send him to France, in company with some other young gentlemen of rank who were about to set out on a tour across the con- tinent. At Paris he was introduced to a brilliant circle, including some of the most distinguished young noble- men of England, and was presented to the king, Louis XIV., at whose court he is said to have been a frequent and welcome guest. During his stay in the French capital, as he was returning one night from a party, a man, who seems to have been a total stranger, under some imaginary affront, drew his rapier upon him, and, in an angry tone, bade him defend himself. Penn expos- tulated with him, but in vain ; so that at last, to protect himself, he was fain to use his sword. His hot-headed antagonist was quickly disarmed ; but, instead of taking any advantage of his vanquished foeman, he courteously returned him his rapier, much to the surprise, it appears, of the bystanders, who naturally enough supposed that he would have used the opportunity thus afforded to take ample revenge upon one who had so causelessly attacked him. After leaving Paris he spent several months at Saumur, reading the works of the Fathers and studying theology under the instruction of Moses Amyrault, one of the ablest and most learned of the French Protestant di- vines. He afterwards commenced a tour through Italy, but on reaching Turin he received a letter from his father, recalling him to England, that he might take charge of the affairs of the family while the admiral was engaged abroad in the war against Holland. The ap- pearance of young Penn on his return from his conti- nental tour was well calculated to fill a father's heart with joy and pride. He had grown into a tall, graceful, and handsome man, with a countenance of singular gen- tleness and sweetness, yet expressing both intelligence and resolution. His sojourn in the gayest and most brilliant capital of Europe appears to have completely effaced those serious impressions which, in his father's judgment, were so unsuited to a youth of his rank and accomplishments. All the hopes which the admiral had formerly cherished of the future distinction of his son were now revived. That his son might not relapse into his former seriousness, he resolved to keep him constantly employed. With this view, he had him entered at Lincoln's Inn as a student of law. In the early part of 1665, Admiral Penn, accompanied by the Duke of York, then lord high admiral of Eng- landi gained a decisive victory over the Dutch, com- manded by Admiral Opdam. The duke had the good sense to intrust all the important movements of the fleet to the direction of Admiral Penn, who had the title of Great Captain Commander. The plague having broken out in London, it appears to have affected William Penn, as it did thousands of others, and to have awakened in his mind the most serious thoughts. His father, fearing lest he should lose the fruit of all his former care, resolved to send his son with letters to the gay and brilliant court of the Duke of Ormond, Viceroy of Ire- land, with whom Admiral Penn was on terms of intimate friendship. Soon after his son's arrival, a mutiny occurred among the troops at Carrickfergus. Penn volunteered his services in reducing them to obedience, and, in the siege that followed, won by his courage and coolness general applause; and the viceroy himself wrote to the admiral, expressing his great satisfaction with young Penn's con- duct, at the same time proposing that he should join the army. He himself was at first so much elated by the distinction he had acquired, that he resolved to become a soldier, and, under the influence of this new ambition, caused himself to be painted in military costume. "It is," says Dixon, "a curious fact that the only genuine portrait of the great apostle of peace existing represents him armed and accoutred as a soldier." The admiral, however, disapproving his son's project, sent him to take charge of the large estates which he possessed in the south of Ireland. While on business at Cork, Wil- liam Penn had an opportunity of again hearing Thomas Loe, by whose preaching he had been so strongly im- pressed some years before. His early convictions were revived; and from that time he felt it to be his impera- tive duty, in defiance of ridicule and persecution, to join his lot with the despised Quakers. Being at a meeting at Cork in 1667, he was arrested, with several other Quakers, and taken to prison. While here, he wrote to the Earl of Orrery, setting forth the injustice of his imprisonment and advocating universal toleration in faith and worship. On receiving his letter. Lord Or- rery gave an order for his immediate release. A rumour that Penn had become a Quaker reached his father. He immediately ordered him home. When the admiral, on seeing his son, observed that he was still dressed like a gentleman, that he wore lace, plume, and rapier, he felt reassured, and began to hope that he had been misin- formed. But these hopes were soon dispelled. His son candidly acknowledged to him that his religious convic- tions had undergone a radical change, and that he was now a Quaker. The disappointment and vexation of the admiral were extreme. Yet, in the hope of winning back his son, he made use of every argument, and even condescended to entreat and implore ; but all in vain. The refusal of his son to uncover in the presence of his superiors in rank was especially mortifying to him.* Al- though his arguments and entreaties had proved alike unavailing, he was unwillitig to abandon all hope. As a last resort, he proposed a compromise : he would yield to the scruples and wishes of his son in every other re- spect, if the latter would only consent to take off his hat in his father's presence and in that of the king and the Duke of York. William asked time to consider this proposition. After some time spent in reflection and earnest prayer, he announced to his father that he was unable to comply with his wishes. Thereupon the in- dignant admiral again expelled him from the house. For some months he was dependent upon the hospitality of his friends, and upon such pecuniary aid as his mother could from time to time find an opportunity of sending him. At length his father relented so far as to allow him to return home ; but he still refused to see or hojd any intercourse with him. About this time (1668) Wil- liam Penn first began to preach and to write in defence of the new doctrines which he had embraced. His first work, entitled "Truth Exalted," was addressed to kings, priests, and people, whom he earnestly exhorted to re- examine the foundation of their faith and worship, and to inquire how far they were built upon the authority of God, or whether they "did not rest in a great measure on the mere notions of men. A number of publications, mostly controversial, followed. One of these, entitled "The Sandy Foundation Shaken," attracted much at- tention. Pepys considered it too good to be the ]>ro- duction of so young a man. In this work Penn had attempted, among other things, to refute "the Notion of one God subsisting in three distinct and separate Persons." For this " heresy" he was apprehended and * For a brief explanation of tlie views of the Quakers with respect to taking off the hat, and some other of their prominent peculiarities, see the article on George Fox. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; ^, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, sAori; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nflt; good ; moon; PENN 1763 PENN sent to the Tower, where he was kept in soh'tary con- finement for more than eight months. While in the Tower, a report reached him that the Bishop of London had resolved that he should recant, or die in prison. Penn replied, with the spirit of a martyr and a hero, "that his prison should be his grave before he would re- nounce his just opinions ; for that he owed his conscience to no man." During his confinement in the Tower he comp sed " No Cross, No Crown," perhaps the most popular of all his larger works. He also wrote to Lord Arlington, then principal secretary of state, on the in- justice and absurdity of attempting to coerce men's religious opinions. Learning that the views advanced in his " Sandy Foundation Shaken" had been misrepre- sented, he wrote " Innocency with her Open Face," in which he showed that to deny the existence in the God- head of "three distinct and separate persons" did not necessarily involve a denial of Christ's eternal divinity, which he acknowledged to the fullest extent. In this Penn took substantially the same ground as was afterwards taken by Barclay and many other of the lead- ing Quakers. They felt that in speaking of the great and awful mysteries of the Divine nature there was a sort of presumption in going beyond the words of the Holy Scriptures. They accordingly rejected the term "Trinity," as not found in the Scriptures, and, on still stronger grounds, as they conceived, they refused to accept the doctrine of "three distinct and separate persons" in the Godhead, as being neither expressed nor necessarily implied in the language of inspiration. The manly behaviour of his son while in prison ap- pears to have strongly excited the respect and sympathy of the admiral. lie used his influence at court, and, after a time, William Penn was set at liberty. In 1669, at the desire of his father, who intimated his wishes to his son through Lady Penn, William went pgain to Ireland, to take charge of the estates belonging to the admiral in that island. He remained there about eight months, when he was recalled on account of his father's failing health. His sister Margaret had been married, and his younger brother Richard was then travelling in Italy. Feeling that his days were drawing to a close, the admiral was anxious to be reconciled to his eldest son, who appears, before the recent disagree- ment, to have always been his favourite. As soon as William returned to England, the reconciliation took place, to the joy of all parties, especially of his mother. In August of the same year, William Penn preached at a meeting in Grace Church Street, where he and William Mead were arrested by warrants from the mayor of Lon- don. "The trial which followed was," says Dixon, " perhaps the most important trial that ever took place in England. Penn stood before his judges, in this cele- brated scene, not so much as a Quaker pleading for the rights of conscience, as an Englishman contending for the ancient and imprescriptible liberties of his race." The jury having brought in a verdict favourable to the prisoners, the recorder said they should be locked up, without meat, drink, fire, and tobacco, "till we have a verdict the court will accept, — or you shall starve for it." Though repeatedly menaced with starvation and other crurlties, such as slitting their noses, (a barbarous but not uncommon punishment for offenders in those days,) the jury still persisted in their verdict. They were kept for two days and nights without food, drink, or fire ; but this, as well as the threats of the court, proving in- effectual, they were at last fined for their obstinacy, and, on refusing to pay their fines, were sent to prison. " For centuries," says Dixon, " it had remained an unsettled question of law, whether the jury had or had not a right so far to exercise its own discretion as to bring in a ver- dict contrary to the sense of the court." This'important question was now to be decided. Bushel and his fellow- jurors, at Penn's suggestion, brought an action against the mayor and recorder for unjust imprisonment. The case was brought before the court of common pleas, con- sisting of twelve judges, and decided ail-but unanimously in favour of the jurymen, who were accordingly set at liberty and left their prison in triumph. Although Penn and Mead had been declared not guilty by the verdict of the jury,'yet they were still detained in prison, be- cause they refused to pay the fines which the mayor and recorder had arbitrarily and most unjustly imposed on them for contempt of court. At length, as the admiral, from his increasing illness, became more and more anx- ious to have his son with him, he sent privately and paid the fines both for him and his friend. He also sent a dying request to the Duke of York that he would be a friend to his son in the trials and sufferings to which, while the persecuting laws of England continued in force, he foresaw he would necessarily be exposed. On his death-bed the admiral expressed entire satisfaction with the course his son had pursued. He said to him, among other things, " Let nothing in this world temp', you to wrong your conscience. Have a care of sin : it is that which is the sting both of life and death." On his father's decease, William Penn came into the pos- session of an estate yielding an annual income of about fifteen hundred pounds, a sum which was probably equal to twice or three times the same numerical amount at the present day. Rarely, if ever, has wealth fallen into better hands. "There is abundant evidence," says Janney, "that throughout life he made use of his wealth for the benefit of others, rather than to promote his own ease and indulgence." The persecution against the Quakers continuing, Penn published a number of books and tracts in vindication of the peculiar views of the society, and in defence of the great principle that in matters of faith men are ac- countable to Heaven only, and, provided their moral conduct is blameless, no human government has a right to inquire into or exercise any control over the religious opinions of its subjects. The following are the titles of some of the most important of these publications : " A Seasonable Caveat against Popery," (1670,) "The Great Case of Liberty of Conscience Debated and Defended," {1671,) "Truth Rescued from Imposture," (1671,) "The Spirit of Truth Vindicated," (1672,) " Quakerism a New Nickname for Old Christianity," etc., " England's Pres- ent Interest Considered," (1674,) — a most able work in defence of freedom of conscience and the rights of Eng- lishmen. Several of his smaller works, as well as "The Great Case of Liberty of Conscience," were written while he was imprisoned in Newgate in 167 1. In 1672, when Penn was in his twenty-eighth year, he married Gulielma Maria Springett, daughter of Sir William Springett, who as a colonel had greatly distinguished himself in the service of the Parliament, and who died during the civil wars, at the early age of twenty-three. His widow was afterwards married to Isaac Penington, one of the most prominent of the early Quakers. In 1677, William Penn, accompanied by Robert Barclay and others, made a journey into Holland and Germany, and visited the princess Elizabeth of the Rhine, the grand- daughter of James I. and sister of the famous Prince Rupert. She received them with great kindness. Hav- ing previously met with Penn, she was not unacquainted with the religious views of the Quakers, which she appears to have regarded with much favour. Penn did not think that it was the duty of a Christian to withdraw himself wholly from public affairs, but rather to strive in every way to promote the freedom, enlight- enment, and happiness of mankind. The true friends of liberty everywhere found in him a sympathizer and a friend. A little previous to the election of 1679, when the celebrated Algernon Sidney offered himself as a candidate for Parliament, Penn issued a pamphlet show- ing the importance of electing to the great legislative body of the kingdom wise men and such as feared God and hated covetousness. He not only felt the deepest interest, but he himself bore a very active part, in the canvass for Sidney, the representative and devoted champion of political freedom. Sidney was triumph- antly elected, in spite of much unfair opposition. I)ut soon after the assembling of the new Parliament it was dissolved by the king, and another election became necessary, Sidney was again duly returned, but he was prevented from taking his place in Parliament by the intrigues of the royalist party. It was a bitter disap- pointment to Penn ; but, in proportion as he lost hope of freedom in England, he bent his thoughts more earnestly towards realizing the dream of his youth, — the founding € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^=See Explanations, p. 23.) PENN 1764 PENN of a new and more perfect commonwealth amid the forests of North America. In 1675 he had been chosen umpire to settle a dispute between Edward Byllinge and John Fenwick (both Quakers) respecting their claims to a tract of land known as West Jersey, He decided in fa/our of Byllinge ; but the latter, having become much embarrassed in his affairs, in order to satisfy his creditors gave up to them his interest in the territory. At the earnest solicitation of Byllinge, Penn was asso- ciated with the creditors as a joint trustee. Within the next two or three years several vessels came to West Jersey, with about eight hundred emigrants, of whom the greater number were Quakers. Through the influence of Penn there was adopted a very liberal constitution, among the provisions of which were the right of free worship and the right of the people (with only very slight restrictions) to legislate for themselves. There was to be no imprisonment for debt: the property of the debtor being given up to his creditors, he himself was to go free. Penn had inherited from his father a claim against the government of ^16,000. In 1680 he obtained from the king, in jjayment of that claim, an extensive tract of land immediately west of the river Delaware and north of Maryland. In the patent given by the king the name "Pennsylvania," contrary to Penn's wishes, was applied to the territory. He had previously suggested Sylvania, on account of its being then a land of forests. Penn offered twenty guineas to one of the secretaries to have the name changed, but he was refused. He even applied to the king; "for," says he, " I feared lest it should be looked on as a vanity in me." But the king said it should remain as it was, the Penn having been added in honour of the admiral. The patent conferred upon the people and governor a legislative power, so that no law could be made nor money raised without the people's consent, and they could pass what laws they pleased, provided they did not interfere with the allegiance which all the colonies owed to the crown. Aided by the counsels of Algernon Sidney and others, he drew up a masterly scheme of government, the wis- dom of which has been amply vindicated by the expe- rience of two hundred years. The constitution which Penn gave to his colony will compare advantageously not merely with the plan of government formed by Locke for Carolina, but with any of the systems of the wisest lawgivers that have ever lived. "To understand," says Dixon, " how much Penn was wiser than his age, . . , he must be measured not only against unlettered men like Fox, but against the highest types of learning and liberality which it afforded. Between John Locke and William Penn there is a gulf like that which separates the seventeenth and the nineteenth century. Locke never escaped from the thraldom of local ideas." About the beginning of September, 1682, Penn set sail in the ship Welcome, and on the 27th of October cast anchor in Delaware Bay, off New Castle. He was re- ceived by the inhabitants of that town with the greatest enthusiasm. Soon after he proceeded to the site of Philadelphia, then covered for the most part with lofty trees. About the end of November, 1682, was held the famous treaty with the Indians, under a magnificent elm-tree, in what is now Kensington. Of this treaty, Voltaire says it was "the only league between the abo- rigines and the Christians which was never sworn to and never broken," Referring the reader to other works for a more particu- lar account of the early colony, we shall for the future confine ourselves chiefly to the personal history of Penn. In 1684, having committed the government to the provin- cial council, he embarked for England, leaving behind him in the colony a white population of about 7000 per- sons. He set sail on the 12th of August, and on the 6th of October landed in Sussex, within seven miles of his own house, after an absence from his family of rather more than two years. He soon after visited the king and the Duke of York, by both of whom, he says, he was received very graciously. The first use he made of his influence at court was to intercede for the persecuted Quakers, against whom the recent oppressive enactments were at that time enforced with a merciless rigour. Their con- scientious scruples against swearing exposed them to peculiar hardships. When evil-disposed persons charged them with being disaffected to the government, they might in many instances have delivered themselves from the hands of their persecutors by simply taking the oath of allegiance and supremacy ; but this their religious convictions would not permit them to do. It is scarcely necessary here to do more than allude to the charges made by Macaulay against the character of Penn, as those charges have already been completely and unanswerably refuted,* and are now rejected by all candid and intelligent persons who have taken the trou- ble to give them a careful examination. But another accusation, scarcely less formidable, though somewhat vague, has found supporters among men of great intel- ligence and respectability, — namely, that the fact that Penn enjoyed such favour with James II., and that he continued at court after he had every opportunity of knowing the character of that monarch, proves him to have been either lax in principle or deficient in the firm- ness of true virtue. If this reasoning be correct, then we ought to applaud the conduct of the early Christian ascetics, who held that the best mode of preserving one's soul unspotted and preparing it for heaven, was to abandon all intercourse with a corrupt world. But the most virtuous and enlightened men of modern times have usually taught a very different doctrine, — that they who, without partaking of its sins, mingle with the world * for the purpose of reforming it, are far more praise- worthy than those who, leaving it to its fate, seek shelter for their feeble virtue in inactivity and selfish seclusion. If it shall be clearly shown that while at court Penn was guilty of a single act inconsistent with the character of an honest man and a true lover of his country, we shall then be prepared to abandon his defence ; but if the whole charge against him limits itself simply to this, that he had favour and influence with a corrupt and tyrannical monarch, when it is well known that he often exerted that influence successfully to restrain the injus- tice, or to soften the severity, of James, and when there is not a shadow of evidence that he ever, even in a soli- tary instance, exerted it for any unworthy purpose, — if this, we repeat, be the whole extent of the charge against him, we cannot but regard such an accusation as con- ferring on the accused the highest honour. It should be remembered that Admiral Penn had made a dying request to the Duke of York (afterwards James II.) that he would be a friend and protector to his son. It is but just to say that James, who seems to have cherished the warmest regard for the admiral, not only never forgot his friend's request, but appears to have observed it with the most scrupulous fidelity. It was but natural that William Penn should be sincerely attached to a prince who had been his father's friend and was to him a generous and faithful guardian. He doubtless gave James far more credit for liberality and sincerity than he deserved. But his gratitude and affec- tion towards a bigoted and, in some respects, an un- scrupulous prince, appears never for a single moment to have warped him from the path of rectitude. It would have been indeed wonderful if, in the vio- lent party excitements of those times, his character had wholly escaped suspicion and calumny. But the various charges made against him are found, on examination, to be unsupported by a particle of real evidence. To have absented himself from court at that time, when it was in his power to do so much, not only for his persecuted brethren, but for all, of whatever name, who suftered from unjust laws or from the unjust suspicions of the government, would have been a most culpable abandon- ment of duty. Yet the fact that he did not thus absent himself has been the principal, if not the only, ground of all the charges which the envious or the misinformed have circulated against him. During the reign of Charles II., Penn obtained for himself and his friends many favours from his sovereign through the mediation of the * For the correctness of this statement, we confidently appeal to all who liave dispassionately and attentively read the evidence in the case. See, on this subject, Dixon's "Life of Penn;" VV. E. FoR- ster's " William Penn and Thomas Babington Macaulay," 1850; J. Paget's " New Examen," London, 1861 ; and the " Quarterly Re- view" for April, 1868. a, e, T, 6, u, y, hng; 4, 6, same, less prolpnged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nflt; good; moon; PENN 1765 PENTHEUS Duke of York ; but after the accession of James II. his influence at court became very great. He removed his residence to Holland House, at Kensington. " His in- fluence with the king," says Dixon, " was well known, and every ma?i with a real grievance found in him a coun- sellor and a friend.'" " If any fault," says the same writer, in another place, "can be found with his conduct, it is that his charity was a little too universal, a little too indiscriminate." As his sympathies were chiefly with the liberal party, he had often occasion to intercede for mercy or indulgence to those who were regarded by the king as his most determined enemies. And, though he often failed in obtaining his request, he appears never to have omitted an opportunity of interceding when there was the slightest chance of success. He sometimes excited the violent anger of James by his zeal in behalf of the friends of liberty.* But nothing could deter him from exercising that influence with his sovereign which he believed Providence had given him for the most im- portant ends, — the promotion of justice and mercy. In 1686, chiefly through Penn's influence, a proclama- tion was issued by which more than twelve hundred im- prisoned Quakers were set at liberty. Another proclama- tion in 1687 gave liberty of conscience to all, unrestricted by any tests or penalties. After the accession of William III., in 1688, Penn, having incurred suspicion on account of his intimacy with James, was tried before the royal council for treason ; but, no evidence being found against him, he was discharged. He was subsequently tried for conspiracy, and was again honourably acquitted. In the early part of 1694 he lost his wife Gulielma; about two years after he married, as his second wife, Hannah Cal- lowhill. In 1696 his eldest son, Springett Penn, died of consumption. He made in 1699 a second visit to America. But, learning not long after his arrival in the colony that there was a measure before the House of Lords for bringing all the proprietary governments under the crown, he returned to England in 1701. Happily, the obnoxious measure was soon after abandoned. In consequence of the bad management and dishonesty of some of the agents to whom he had intrusted the care of his property, he sustained great losses, and be- came so involved as to be unable to pay the claims of his creditors. He preferred to go to prison rather than attempt to satisfy certain unjust and extortionate claims which the very agent who had mismanaged his aff"airs brought against him. By the intervention of some of his friends, a compromise was effected, and he was at length released. It was a great sorrow to him in his latter years that, although he had never spared himself or his means to promote the interests of his colony, when he desired of the colonial legislature a moderate loan to relieve him from his difficulties it was refused. Worn out at length with the incessant labours and cares of a life spent almost wholly in the service of others, he died, from the effects of paralysis, in 1718. For a full account of William Penn's writings, and of those which relate to him, see Joseph Smith's "Cata- logue of Friends' Books," vol. ii. pp. 282-326. See W. Hepworth Dixon, " Biographical History of William Penn," 1851 ; S. Jannky, '' Life of William Penn," i vol. 8vo, 1852 ; T. Ci.ARKsoN, " Life of William Penn," 2 vols. 8vo, 1813; J. Mar- siLi.AC, "Vie de G. Penn," 2 vols., 1791: H. van Lil, " Leven, Gevoelens en Lotgevallen van W. Penn," 2 vols., 1826 ; Jacob Post, "Popular Memoir of W. Penn," 1850: M. L. Weems, "Life of W. Penn," 1829 ; W. A. Teller, " Lebensbeschreibung des beriibmten W. Penn," 1779; " Westminster Review" for October, 1850, (article " William Penn and Lord Macanlay ;") " The Penn and Logan Cor- respondence," published by the Pennsylvania Historical Society, 1870. Pen'nant, (Thomas,) an English naturalist and an- tiquary, born at Downing, in Flintshire, in 1726. He published in 1761 the first volume of a large work on British Zoology, which was translated into Latin and German and often reprinted. A tour on the continent in 1765 procured for him the acquaintance of Buffon, Haller, and Pallas. In 1771 he published a " Synopsis of Quadrupeds," an enlarged edition of which appeared in 1 781 as a " History of Quadrupeds." This work was described by Cuvier, about 1823, as "still indispensable." Among |iis other works are the " Genera of Birds," * For a curious instance of this kind, see Dixon's " Life of Penn," pp. 239-40- (1773, unfinished,) a "Second Tour in Scotland and a Voyage to the Hebrides," (2 vols., 1774-76,) and "Arctic Zoology," (3 vols., 1784-87,) which Cuvier commends as precieux to naturalists. Died in 1798. See "The Literary Life of T. Pennant," by himself, 1793; Cuvier, " Histoire des Sciences naturelles ;" " Monthly Review" for January and February, 1772, and September and October, 1801. Pennecuik or Pennicuick, pen'ne-kuk', ? (Alex- ander,) a Scottish physician and writer on various subjects, born in 1652 ; died in 1722. Pennefather, pgn'fi-ther, ? (Sir John Lysaght,) a British general, born in 1800. He served with distinc- tion as brigadier in India in 1843. Crimean war he commanded a brigade at the Alma, and a division at Inkerman, November, 1854. Pennethorne, pin'thorn, ? (James,) an English archi- tect, born at Worcester in 1801, was a pupil of Nash and Pugin. He designed many public buildings of London, among which are the Museum of Practical Geology, the General Record Repository, and an ad- dition to Somerset House. He was appointed, several years since, architect and surveyor of her Majesty's parks, palaces, etc. Pennethorne, (John,) a younger brother of the pre- ceding. He studied the principles of Grecian architecture at Athens, and wrote a small work on " The Elements and Mathematical Principles of the Greek Architects," (1844.) Penni, pen'nee, (Giovanni Francesco,) a celebrated Italian painter, surnamed IL Fattore, ("the Steward,") was born at Florence in 1488. He was in his youth the steward of Ra])hael, who was his friend. He aided Ra- phael in painting the cartoons of the Vatican, and, after the death of his master, he and Giulio Romano finished a " Coronation of the Virgin," designed by Raphael. He excelled in landscapes. Died at Naples in 1528. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Penni, (Luca,) a painter and engraver, a brother of the preceding, was born at Florence about 1500. He worked for Henry VIII. in England, and with II Rosso in Paris. Pennington. See Penington. Pen'ning-ton, (William,) an American Governor, born at Newark, New Jersey, in 1797. He was elected Governor of New Jersey in 1837, and re-elected four or five times between that year and 1843. He became a member of Congress in December, 1859, and, after a long contest, was elected Speaker of the House by the Republicans in February, i860. Died in February, 1862. Pen'ny, (Edward,) an English portrait-painter, born in Cheshire in 17 14. He was a professor in the Royal Academy. Died in 1 791. Pen'rose, (Thomas,) an English poet, born in Berk- shire in 1743. He was successively curate of Newbury and rector of Beckington. Died in 1779. His poems were published in 1781. Pen-rud'dock, (John,) Colonel, an English royal- ist, was one of the leaders of an insurrection against Cromwell in 1655. He was beheaded in the same year. Penary, Pen'ri, or Ap Hen'ry, (John,) a Welsh religionist, called Martin Mar-Prelate, was born in 1559. According to Anthony Wood, he became a Brownist or Anabaptist, and wrote against the Anglican Church a tract entitled "Martin Mar-Prelate." He was unjustly condemned for sedition or felony, and executed, in 1593- See " John Penry, the Pilgrim Martyr," by J. Waddington, 1854. Penthee. See Pentheus. Penthesilee. See Penthe.sileia. Pen-the-si-le'ia or Pen-the-si-ie'a, [Gr. llexi'toL' Tieia; Fr. PenthesIl^r, pSN'ta'ze'la',] the queen of the Amazons. According to some traditions, she fought against the Greeks at the siege of Trov, and was killed by Achilles, who admired too late her beauty and valour and lamented her fate. Pen'theus, [Gr. YiEvdevQ ; Fr. Penth^ e, pSN'ti',] a mythical person, said to be a son of Echion, and King of Thebes. He was killed by his mother and other women because he opposed the worship of Bacchus and ascended a tree to witness furtively their revels and orgies. e 38 k; 9 as j; g hard; g as /; o, h, K,guttural; n, ttasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^='See Explanations, p. 23.) 0 PENTHIEl^RE 1766 PERCEVAL Penthievre, de, deh p6N'te'ivR',(Louis Jean Marie DE BoURKON,) Due, a French nobleman, born in 1725, was a son of the Count of Toulouse. He served as general at Fontenoy, (1745.) He was noted for his libe- rality or benevolence. His daughter was the mother of King Louis Philippe. Died in 1793. Penzel, pent'sel, (Abraham Jacob,) a German phi- lologist, born near Dessau in 1749, was professor of poetry at Laybach. He translated Strabo's "Geog- raphy" into German, (1777,) and wrote several treatises. Died in 1819. Pepagomeiius. See Demetrius Pepagomenus. Pepe, pa'pa, (Florestan,) a Neapolitan general, born at Squillace in 1780, entered the French service about 1806, served in Spain and Russia, and received the rank of lieutenant-general from Murat in 1815. Died at Naples in 1851. Pepe, (Gabriello,) an Italian officer, cousin of the preceding, was born in 1781. He served in the French army during the empire. About 1822 he fought a duel at Florence with Lamartine, who had offended him by some verses which Pepe regarded as injurious to the Italian people. Died in 1849. Pepe, (Guglielmo,) a general, born in 1783, was a brother of Florestan, noticed above. He joined the French party in 1799, and obtained the rank of marechal- de-camp in 1813. In 1820 he was chosen commander- in-chief by the insurgents who rose against the King of Naples. His army was defeated or dispersed by the Austrians in 1821, and he escaped to England. In 1848 King Ferdinand, constrained by public opinion, gave him command of an army sent to aid the people of Lombardy. He wrote a " History of the Revo- lutions and Wars of Italy in 1847-49," {1850.) Died in 1855. Pepin. See Pepyn, (Martin.) Pepin, pep'in or pippin, [Fr. pron. peh-p^N',] a son of Louis le Debonnaire, was born about 802 A.D., and was made King of Aquitania about 817. He joined his brothers Lothaire and Louis in a revolt against his father in 830. He died in 838 A.D., leaving a son Pepin, who contested the succession with Charles the Bald and was defeated. See " Nouvelle Biogravihie Gendrale." Pepin, King of Italy, a son of Charlemagne, was born in 776 A.D., and crowned by the pope in 781. He died in 810, leaving a son Bernard. Pepin, peii-piw', (Alphonse,) a French historical and i^olitical writer, born in Paris. Among his works is " Two Years of Rule," (" Deux Ans de Regne," 1830- 32.) Died in 1842. Pepin le Bref, peh-pjlw' leh bR§f, King of the Franks, was a son of Charles Martel, at whose death he obtained Neustria and Burgundy. Having propitiated the favour of the pope, he confined the nominal king, Childeric III., in a monastery in 751 A.D., and usurped the throne. He assisted the pope in a war against the Lombards, and waged war with success against the Saxons. He died in 768 A.D., and was succeeded by his son, Charlemagne. See SisMONDi, " Histoire des Frangais;" "Nouvelle Biographje Generale." Pepin le Gros, peh-piN' leh gRo, or Pepin d'He- ristal, (dcVr^s^tSK,) an ambitious French nobleman, be- came Duke of Austrasia in the reign of Dagobert II. About 680 A.D. he assumed royal power as mayor of the palace, and defeated Thierri III., King of Neustria. He permitted Thierri to retain the title of king, and the latter was the first of a succession of rois faineants, '"do-nothing kings.") Pepin died in 714 A.D., and succeeded by his son, Charles Martel. Pepoli, pa'po-lee or pip'o-lee, (AlessandroErcole,) an Italian litterateur, born at Venice in 1757. He pub- lished a number of dramas, or dramatic essays, entitled " Efforts of Italy," (" Tentativi dellTtalia," 6 vols., 1788.) Died in 1796. Pepoli, (Carlo,) an Italian litterateur, born at Bologna in i8or. He was exiled for political reasons, and was professor of Italian literature in the London University from 1839 to 1848. He composed for Bellini the words of " I Puritani," an opera, and wrote other works, in prose and verse. Pep'per-ell, (Sir William,) an American general, born in Maine in 1696, commanded at the siege of Louisburg, in 1745. He was made a baronet for his services, and in 1759 was appointed lieutenant-general. Died in 1759. See Parsons, " Life of Sir W. Pepperell," 1856. Pepusch, pa'poosh, (Johann Christoph,) a German musical composer and writer, born at Berlin in 1667. He settled in England about 1700, and received from the University of Oxford the degree of doctor in music. He was also chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. His "Treatise on Harmony" (1731) still enjoys a high repu- tation. Died in 1752. Pepyn, pi-pin', sometimes written Pepin, (Martin,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp about 1570. He worked at Rome for some years, and painted religious subjects. His works are highly praised. Died at Rome in 1641. Pepys, (Charles C.) See Cottenham. Pepys, pgps, (Lady Charlotte Maria,) a daughter of Lord-Chancellor Cottenham, is the author of " Quiet Moments," " Female Influence," and other works. Pepys, (Samuel,) aii English gentleman, gossip, and connoisseur, celebrated as the writer of a diary, was born in 1632, and educated at Cambridge. He was appointed clerk of the acts of the navy in 1660, and retained this important position until 1673. His official duties brought him into the favourable notice of the Duke of York, who was lord high admiral. He was secretary to the admiralty for about four years, ending at the revolution, (1688.) In 1684 he was elected presi- dent of the Royal Society. He was well versed in naval affairs, and was a connoisseur in the fine arts. His reputation is founded on his " Memoirs, comprising a Diary from 1659 to 1669," which was published in 1825. Died in 1703. See " Edinburgh Review" for November, 1825, and October, 1849; " Blackwood's Magazine" for October, 1849. Pepys, (William Haseldine,) F.R.S., an English chemist and philosopher, born in London in 1775. He was one of the founders of the Askesian Society, and an active member of the London Institution and of the Geological Society. His skill in the construction of chemical apparatus contributed to the progress of science. He was associated with William Allen in successful researches on respiration, and was a friend of Sir Humphry Davy. Died in 1856. Peranda, pa-rin'di, (Santo,) a Venetian painter, born at Venice in 1566, was a pupil of Jacopo Palma. He learned to design correctly at Rome, and painted many good portraits. Among his best works are "The Children of Niobe," and a "Descent from the Cross." Died in 1638. Perard-Castel, peh^rtR' kts't^K, (Franqots,) a French canonist, born at Vire in 1647; died in 1687. Perau, peh-ro', (Gabriel Louis Calabre,) a French biographer and editor, born in Paris in 1700. He edited the works of Bossuet, (20 vols., 1743-53,) ^""^ continued the "Lives of Illustrious Men of France," begun by D'Auvigny, to which Perau added thirteen volumes, (1754-60.) Died in 1767. Perceval. See Caussin de Perceval. Per'ce-val, (John,) Earl of Egmont, was born at Barton, Yorkshire, in 1683. He was one of the princi- pal founders of a colony planted in Georgia about 1732. He wrote several small works. Died in 1748. Perceval, (John,) second Earl of Egmont, a son of the preceding, was born in 1 7 11. He entered the House of Lords, with the title of Lord Lovel and Holland, in 1762, and was first lord of the admiralty from 176^ to 1766. He wrote a successful pamphlet named " Faction detected by the Evidence of Facts." Died in 1770. Perceval, (Spencer,) a minister of state, born in London in 1762, was a son of the preceding. He studied law, and practised with success on the Midland circuit. Having been returned to Parliament in 1796, he became a supporter of Mr. Pitt, and an able speaker. He was appointed solicitor-general in 1801, and attorney-general in 1802. At the death of Pitt (1806) he went out of office. He became chancellor of the exchequer in 1807, and first lord of the treasury (prime minister) at the a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; \ 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, ftt; mSt; n6t; good; moon; FERCHERON PEREFIXE death of the Duke of Portland, (1809.) He opposed reform and liberal measures, and pursued the foreign policy of Pitt. On the nth of May, 1812, he was as- sassinated with a pistol in the lobby of the House of Commons by John Bellingham, a merchant, who had resolved to kill some member of the ministry because they had rejected or neglected a private claim which he had preferred. See "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. i. chap, xviii. ; Charles \ . Willi.^ms, "Life of llie Ri.ght Hon. S. Perceval," 1812; Henri de L.^salle, " Essai biographique sur M. Perceval," 1S12. Percheron, p^Rsh'rdN', (Achille Remy,) a French naturalist, born in Paris in 1797. He published several W(jrks on entomology. Percier, p^R'.se-i', (Charles,) a distinguished French architect, born in 1764, in Paris, was a pupil of Gisors. At the age of twenty-two he gained a prize, which enabled him to pursue his studies at Rome. He formed a friend- ship with the architect Fontaine, with whom he was constantly associated in his professional labours until his death. They were employed by Bonaparte to restore and complete the palaces of tlie Tuileries and the Louvre. Among their works are the triumphal arch of the Car- rousel, and the northern wing of the court of the Tuile- ries. By their skill and taste in design they produced in their art a reformation similar to that which David effected in painting. They published some excellent works, among which is " The Palaces, Mansions, and other Modern Edifices designed at Rome," (1798.) (See F0.NT.A.INE, Pierre Francois.) Percier died in 1838. Per'ci-val, (James Gates.) an eminent American poet and scholar, born at Berlin, Connecticut, in 1795. He graduated at Yale College in 181 5, and, having sub- sequently studied medicine, took the degree of M.D. in 1823. He published in 1822 his "Prometheus," a poem in the Spenserian stanza, also two volumes of miscella- neous poetry and prose. He was appointed in 1824 professor of chemistry in the Military Academy at West Point. In 1827 he was employed by Dr. Webster to revise the manuscript of his large Dictionary, and in 1835 was appointed conjointly with Professor C. U. Shepard to make a geological survey of Connecticut, a report of which he published in 1842. He brought out in 1843 "The Dream of a Day, and other Poems." He was appointed in 1854 vState Geologist of Wisconsin ; but while preparing his second report his health declined, and he died in May, 1856. He had published in 1833 an excellent translation of Malte-Brun's "Geography." See "Life and Letters of James G. Percival," by J. H. Ward, i860; "North American Review" for January, 1822, (by Edward Everett,) April, 1826, and July, i860. Per'ci-val, (Thomas,) a popular English medical and moral writer, born at W'arrington in 1740. He settled in 1767 at Manchester, where he practised with success, and founded the " Manchester Philosophical Society" about 1 780. He wrote, besides other works, " Essays, Medical and Experimental," (3 vols., 1767-78,) "A Father's Instructions, consisting of Moral Tales," etc., (17S8,) and "Medical Ethics," (1803.) He was a dis- senter from the Anglican Church. Died in 1804. See " Life of T. Percival," by his son, prefixed to his works, 1807. Percy. See Northumberland. Per'cy, the name of an ancient and noble English family, descended from William de Percy, who, in the reign of William the Conqueror, possessed several manors in the counties of Lincoln and York. He was probably a Norman. In the reign of Edward I. a Henry DE Percy acquired Alnwick and other estates in North- umberland. Another Henry de Percy, in the reign of Edward III., married Mary Plantagenet, a great-grand- daughter of King Henry III., and had two sons, Henry, Earl of Northumberland, and Thomas, Earl of Worces- ter. Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur, a son of Henry last nanied, rebelled against Henry IV., and was killed at tlie battle of ShrewslDury, (1403.) A son of Hotspur was restored to the earldom, fought for the house of Lancaster, and fell at Saint Alban's, in 1455, leaving several sons, who were killed in the war of the Roses. In the reign of Elizabeth a Percy, Earl of Northumber- land, was executed for rebellion, (1572.) Percy, pCR'se', (Pierre FRANgois,) Baron, an emi- nent French surgeon, born in Franche-Comte in 1754. He became about 1792 surgeon-in-chief of the armies of the Rhine and the Moselle, and organized in concert with Larrey a coi'J)s mobile of surgeons with ambulances. Attached to the grand army, he served in all the cam- paigns of the empire, except those of Russia and Saxony. He was professor in the Faculty of Medicine, Paris, and wrote several able treatises on surgery. Died in 1825. See A. F. Silvestre, " Notice biographique sur Percy," 1825; " Histoire de la Vie de Percy," by his nephew Laurent, 1827 ; "Biographic Medicale." Percy, (Thomas,) an Englishman of noble family, was one of the leading conspirators in the famous Gun- powder Plot, (1604-05.) He was executed in the early part of 1606. Percy, (Thomas,) an eminent English scholar and writer, was born in Shropshire in 1728. He became vicar of Easton Maudit in 1756, chaplain to the king in 1769, Dean of Carlisle in 1778, and Bishop of Dromore, Ireland, in 1782. His reputation is founded on an in- teresting work, entitled " Reliques of Ancient English Poetry," (1765,) which has enjoyed a great popularity. He translated from the French Mallet's "Northern Antiquities," (1770.) Among his works are a "Key to the New Testament," (1765,) and "The Hermit of Warkworth," a poem, (1770.) Died in 181 1. He was a friend of Dr. Johnson. See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes." Perczel, p^Rt'sel, (Moricz,) a distinguished Hunga- rian general, born at Tolna in 1814. He gained several victories over the Austrians in 1848, but after the defeat of Temesvar he took refuge in Turkey, and afterwards settled in the island of Jersey. Per-dic'cas [Gr. Ilepc5k«:af] I., King of Macedon, was, according to Herodotus, the founder of the Macedonian monarchy. He is supposed to have lived about 750 B.C. Perdiccas II., King of Macedon, was the son and successor of Alexander I. He waged war against the Athenians. Died about 413 B.C. Perdiccas III., a son of Amyntas II. of Macedon, began to reign about 364 B.C. He was killed in battle against the Illyrians in 359, and was succeeded by his brother, Philip IL Perdiccas, [Gr. IlepcJk/caf,] a prominent Macedonian general, who commanded a division of the army of Alexander the Great in his invasion of Asia, was a son of Orontes. It is reported that Alexander, on his death- bed, gave his royal signet to Perdiccas, as if to designate him for the office of regent. Having obtained command of the household troops who guarded the young king, he exercised the power of regent, or chief minister, and, to secure the succession of Roxana's son, put her rival Statira to death. He also put to death his rival Me- leager. He failed in a matrimonial intrigue in relation to Cleopatra, a sister of Alexander, and became the enemy of Antigonus and Antipater, who formed with Ptolemy a coalition against him. Perdiccas found an able adherent or ally in Eumenes, (who opposed Antip- ater and Antigonus in Asia Minor,) and marched against Ptolemy in Egypt. He met with a reverse near the Nile, and was killed by his mutinous soldiers,* in 321 B.C., leaving the reputation of a crafty, cruel, and am- bitious man. See Arrian, "Anabasis;" Justin, books xii. and xiii. ; Droy- SEN, "Geschichte Alexanders." Per'dix, [Gr. HeptJi^,] a nephew, or, as some say, a sister, of Daedalus, was regarded as the inventor of the saw, the compasses, and other implements. According to the fable, Perdix was changed into a partridge. Pereda, de, dk pi-ra'D^, (Antonio,) an eminent Spanish painter, born at Valladolid in 1599. He painted history and genre with success, and was patronized by the Duke of Olivarez. He excelled in colouring. Among his works is a picture of " Human Vanity." Died in 1669. Perefixe, de, deh pi''ra'fSks', (Hardouin de Beau- mont,) a French historian, born at Beaumont in 1605. He was appointed preceptor to Louis XIV. in 1642, succeeded Balzac in the French Academy in 1654, and wrote a " History of Henry IV.," (1661,) which, says € as k; c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Y,, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this^ (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) PEREGRINO 1768 PERIANDER M. Weiss, will assure him a durable reputation. He became Archbishop of Paris in 1662, and required the Port-Royalists to subscribe the formulary of Pope Alex- ander VII. Died in December, 1670, or January, 1671. See "Gallia Christiana," tome vii. Peregrino (or Peregrini) da Cesena, pi-ri-gRee'- no (or pi-ri-gRee'nee) dl ch^-sa'nd, a celebrated Italian engraver and worker in niello, flourished about 1500 or 1520. Little is known of his life. Nagler gives a list of many prints ascribed to him. Per-e-gri'nus Pro'te-us, a Greek Cynic philosopher, notorious for his vices and licentious life, was born at Parium, on the Hellespont, and lived in the reign of the Antonines. He committed suicide by fire at the Olympic games, in 165 A.D. See "De Morte Peregrini," by Lucian, (who witnessed his death.) Pereira, pi-ra^-rS, (Bartholomeu,) a Portuguese epic ])oet, flourished about 1640, and wrote "Paciecis." Pereira, pa-ra^-ri, (Gomez,) a Spanish physician and writer, who lived about 1570. Pereira, [Fr. Pereire, peh-r^R',] (Jacob Rodri- guez,) a Spaniard, born in Estremadura in 1715, is called tiie first instructor of deaf-mutes. He removed to Bordeaux about 1742, and exhibited a pupil before the king, who granted him a pension in 1 75 1. Died in 1780. Pereira, pe-ree'ra or pa-ra'ra, (Jonathan,) an Eng- lish physician and pharmacologist, born in London in 1804. He published an excellent work entitled " Ele- ments of Materia Medica and Therapeutics," (2 vols., 1839,) regarded as the most comprehensive and com- plete treatise on materia medica in the English language, and a treatise "On Food and Diet," (1842,) which is highly commended. In 1846 he was appointed assistant physician to the London Hospital. He became full phy- sician to the same hospital in 185 1. Died in 1853. Pereira, (Manoel,) a Portuguese sculptor of high reputation, was born in 1614. He worked in Spain, and died at Madrid in 1667. Pereira or Pereyra, (Nuno Alvarez or Nunez Al- varez,) a general and statesman, called " the Portuguese Cid," was born in 1360. He gained victories over the Spaniards. Died in 143 1. See A. DE Escobar, " Heroe Portuguez. Vida del Senor N. A. Pereyra," 1670; Da Costa, "DeVita et Rebus gestis N. A. Pe- reiras," 1723. Pereira de Figueiredo, pk-ra^-ri dk fe-gk-e-raMo, (Antonio,) a learned Portuguese^riter, born at Macao in 1725. He was an opponent of the Jesuits, and he wrote an able work against the temporal power of the pope, entitled " Theological Essays," ("Tentativa Theo- logica," 1766.) He published a Latin Grammar, (1752,) a Portuguese version of the Bible, (23 vols,, 1778-90,) and other works. Died at Lisbon in 1797. Pereire. See Pereira, (Jacob Rodriguez.) Pereire, peh-rS^R', (Smile and Isaac,) French finan- ciers, grandsons of Jacob Rodriguez, noticed above, were born at Bordeaux in 1800 and 1806 respectively. They gained distinction as originators of the railway from Paris to Saint-Germain in 1835, and other railroads. They were the chief founders of the Credit Mobilier, a joint-stock company, with a capital of sixty million francs, which was established in 1852. Perelle, peh-rSK, (Gabriel,) a French designer and etcher, born at Vernon-sur-Seine ; died in 1675. His sons, Nicolas and Adam, were engravers. Adam was born in 1638, and died in 1695. Perenna. See Anna Perenna. Peres, pk'rls'', (Jean Baptiste,) a French litterateur, who wrote a curious work, entitled " How Napoleon never Existed," etc., ("Comme quoi Napoleon n'a ja- mais existe, ou grand Erratum," etc., 1817, often re- printed.) Died in 1840. Pereyra, pi-ra;^ ri, (Diogo,) a skilful Portuguese landscape-painterT^as born about 1570, His favourite subjects were the " Burning of Troy," and the " Com- bustion of Sodom." Died in 1640. Pereyra, (Manoel, and Nuno Alvarez.) See Pe- reira. Perez, pa'r^th or pee'rez, (Antonio,) a Spanish courtier, born about 1 540, was a son of Gonzalo Perez, who was secretary of state under Charles V. and Philip II. He succeeded his father in 1567, and obtained the confidence and favour of the king, who used him as his instrument in the assassination of Escovedo, the intriguing secretary of Don John of Austria, (1578.) Soon after this event, Perez and the princess El:)oli were arrested by order of Philip, who, it appears, induced Perez to give up all the papers which would iinplicate him in the death of Escovedo. Subjected to the rack, Perez confessed his own share in that crime, and ac- cused the king of complicity in it. About 1590 he escaped from prison, and sought refuge at Saragossa, the citizens of which rose in arms to protect him and assert their own civil rights. He escaped to France, published an account of his sufferings, (1594,) and received a pension from Henry IV. Died at Paris in 1611, or, as others say, 1616. See Prrscott, " History of Phih'p IL Antonio Perez, " Memorial y Relaciones," 159S; S. Bermudez de Castro, "An- tonio Perez," Madrid, 1841 ; Mignet, "Antonio Perez et Philippe II," 1845; Motley, "The Rise of the Dutch Republic ;" " Fraser's Magazine" for December, 1867. Perez, (Antonio,) a Spanish painter, who lived about 1550, was one of the three founders of the Academy of Seville. Perez, (Antonio,) a Spanish jurist, born at Alfaro, on the Ebro, in 1583. He became professor of civil law at Louvain in 1628, and wrote several works. Died at Louvain in 1672. Perez, pa'redz, (Davide,) a composer, of Spanish origin, born at Naples in 1 711. He composed several popular operas, among which is " Semiramide," Died in 1778. Perez, pa'r^s, (Don Jos6 Joaquin,) an able Chilian statesman, born at Santiago de Chili in 1801. He was chosen a deputy to Congress in 1833, and was appoiirted minister of finance in 1844. In 1849 he became foreign minister. He was afterwards a senator, and held other high offices. In the summer of 1861 he was elected president for five years. Perez, [Lat. Petre'ius,] (Juan,) a Spanish poet, born at Toledo in 1 5 12, wrote an admired Latin poem named " Magdalena," (1552,) and other works. Died ill 1545- Perez de Pineda, pa^ eth di pe-na'D^, (Francisco,) a painter, born at Seville, was one of the best pupils of Murillo. Died about 1682. Perfetti, p§R-fet'tee, (Bernardino,) an Italian im- provisator, born at Sienna in 1681. He exercised in public his talent of extempore versification on all sub- jects. He is said to have been the* best improvisator of Italy in his time. Died in 1747. Pergamini, pgR-gi-mee'nee, (Jacopo,) an Italian writer, born at Fossombrone, lived about 1600, He published a good "Treatise on Grammar," (1602.) Pergola, della, deKld pgR'go-U, (Angelo,) an able Italian general, born near the line between Tuscany and the Romagna. He served the Duke of Milan against the Florentines. Died in 1427. Pergolese. See Pergolesi. Pergolesi, p^R-go-la'see, or Pergolese, p^R-go-la'si, [Fr. Pergolese, p^R'go'liz',] (Giovanni Battista,) a celebrated Italian composer, born at Jesi about 1708, (some say in 1704,) He studied at Naples under Gae- tano Greco and Durante. In 1731 he produced a dra- matic work called "The Servant Mistress," (" La Serva Padrona,") which was warmly applauded. He devoted himself chiefly to sacred music. Among his works is a celebrated and pathetic " Stabat Mater," for two voices, " Dixit Dominus," a motet, and " Salve Regina," a motet. His death is variously dated 1736, 1737, and 1739. See Fi^Tis, " Bio.2;rapliie Universelle des Mnsiciens ;" C. Blasis, " Biografia di Pergolese;" Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illus- tri ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Peri, pa'ree, (Giacomo,) an Italian composer, born at Florence in the latter half of the sixteenth century He composed the music of " Dafne," (1594,) and "The Death of Eurydice," lyrical dramas. He entered the service of the Duke of Ferrara in 1601. Per-I-an'der, [Gr. ITe/Jt (wc5pof ; Fr. P^RIAndre, pi'- re^dNdR',] tyrant of Corinth, began to reign about 625 B.C. He is usually reckoned among the Seven Sages of a, e, T, o, u, y, long; k, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, ii, y, short; gi, e, j, Q, obscure; ftr, f^ll, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; PER UNDER 1769 PERIGNON Greece, — probably on account of his skill and success in kingcraft. His rule was at first mild, but became severe and arbitrary. It is reported that he consulted the tyrant of Miletus in relation to the best mode of maintaining his power, and that that tyrant answered by cutting off the tallest ears in a field of corn. Periander followed this advice by depressing the noble and rich. Died about 585 B.C. See Herodotus, "History;" Aristotle, "Politica;" Schu- bert, " Periander von Korinth," 1765. Periander, pi-re-Sn'der, (Gilles,) a Latin poet, born at Brussels about 1545, wrote the "Mirror of the Owl," (" Noctuae Speculum," 1567.) Periandre. See Periander. Pericaud, pi're'ko', (Marc Antoine,) a French antiquary and biographer, born at Lyons in 1782. He published works on the antiquities of Lyons, and wrote articles for the " Biographie Universelle." In 1827 he was made keeper of the public library of Lyons. Per'i-cles, [Gr. liepiKlf]^ ; Ger. Perikles, pa're-kl^s,] an illustrious Athenian statesman, and one of the great- est orators that ever lived, was a son of Xanthippus, who defeated the Persians at Mycale. His mother, Agariste, was a niece of Clisthenes. He studied various arts and sciences under Damon the musician, Zeno of Elea, and Anaxagoras. "The philosopher," says Plutarch, "who gave him that force and sublimity of sentiment superior to all the demagogues, who formed him to that admi- rable dignity of manners, was Anaxagoras." He kept himself aloof from public affairs for some years after he had arrived at manhood. About 470 B.C. he began his public career as the leader of the democratic party, and, lest he should make himself too cheap among the people, reserved himself for great occasions. He had a grace- ful figure, a sweet voice, and complete self-command. "Adorning his orations with the rich colours of philos- o|)hy," says Plutarch, "adding the loftiness of imagina- tion and all -commanding energy with which philosophy supplied him, to his native powers of genius, and using whatever he found to his purpose in the study of nature, he far excelled all other orators." He gained popularity by a law that the people should enjoy theatrical amusements at the public exjjense, and deprived the Areopagus of the judicial power which ren- dered it a dangerous engine of the aristocracy, (461 B.C.) About this date he used his influence to procure the ostracism of Cimon, the leader of the conservative or aristocratic party. Pericles displayed courage at the battle of Taiiagra, in 457, and proposed the decree that Cimon should be recalled from exile. After the death of Cimon and the ostracism of Thucydides, (444 B.C.,) Pericles directed the government with undisputed su- premacy. " He became sole master of Athens," says Plutarch ; "he kept the public good in his eye, and pur- sued the strait path of honour," He commanded in the Samian war, which ended in the conquest of Samos in 440 B.C., and extended the influence of Athens by plant- ing colonies at Chalcis, Sinope, Thurii, and other places. He expended the public money profusely in the erection of magnificent temples and monuments, which have never been equalled as models of art and taste. Under his auspices the Parthenon was built and was adorned with the sculptures of Phidias. The age of Pericles was the most brilliant period of Grecian art and dramatic literature. He silenced those who murmured at his ex- travagance in building, by an offer to pay the expense out of his own purse on condition that his name alone should be inscribed on the new edifices. The foreign policy of Pericles was not less far-sighted than his internal policy. He constantly opposed the ambitious schemes of foreign conquest which the Athe- nians were prone to entertain, and took effectual measures to render the maritime power of Athens superior to that of any other state. The long walls which connected Athens with the sea, and protected it fi'om the attack of an army by land, formed an important part of his foreign policy, continuing on a gigantic scale the plans of Themis- tocles. This measure excited great alarm among the Spar- tans and their allies. Under his administration Athens became an imperial state, with an extensive list of allies, partly free and partly tributary, and attained the maxi- mum of her power. To subvert this power, the Spartans organized a league and involved all Greece in the great Peloponnesian war, which began in 431 B.C. The mova- ble property of the Athenians was conveyed within the walls of the capital, and, while the enemy ravaged Attica, the fleet of Pericles made reprisals on the coast of the Peloponnesus. At the end of the first campaign, Pericles pronounced a long and inimitable funeral oration on those who had fallen in battle. "The eleven chapters of Thucydides which comprise this funeral speech," says Grote, "are among the most memorable relics of antiquity, consider- ing that under the language and arrangement of the historian ... we possess the substance and thoughts of the illustrious statesman. . . . After a few words on the magnitude of the empire, and on the glorious efforts as well as endurance whereby their forefathers and they had acquired it, Pericles proceeds to sketch the plan of life, the constitution, and the manners under which such achievements were brought about." (Chap, xlviii.) In the second year of the war a great plague raged at Athens. The people became so demoralized that they deprived Pericles of command and punished him with a fine. He had recovered his influence a short time when he died, in the autumn of 429 B.C. "As a military commander," says Grote, "though noway deficient in personal courage, he rarely courted distinction, and was principally famous for his care of the lives of the citizens. His private habits were sober and recluse, . . , while the tenderest domestic attachment bound him to the engaging and cultivated Aspasia." (See Aspasia.) To use the language of a writer in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica," "he wielded the powers of his majestic intelligence and the stores of his spacious imagination with consummate ease and mastery." See Plutarch, "Lives;" Thucydides, "History;" Grote, " History of Greece," ciiaps. xlv., xlvi., xlvii., xlviii., and xlix. ; KuFFNER, " Perikles der Olympier; biojjraphische Darstellung," 2 vols., 1809: Clari.sse, "Vita Periclis," Utrecht, 1835; Thirlwall, " History of Greece;" F. von Raumer, "Perikles und Aspasia," 1810 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Pe-ricTy-tus, a Greek sculptor, of whom little is known, lived probably about 420 B.C. He is mentioned by Pausanias as a pupil of Polycletus. Perier. See Perrier. Perier, pi're-i'', (Auguste Casimir Victor Lau- ren r,) a litterateur, born in Paris in 181 1, was a son of Casimir, noticed below. He was elected a deputy in 1846, and sat in the Legislative Assembly of 1849. He voted with the majority, and protested against the coup d'etat o{ December, 1 85 1. He wrote for the " Revue des Deux Mondes" on finance and other subjects. Perier, (Casimir,) a French minister of state, was born at Grenoble in 1777. He became about 1800 a partner of his brother vScipion in a banking-house, (in Paris,) which engaged in large industrial enterprises and was prosperous. In 181 7 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, in which he acted with the opposition. He gave an active su])port to the popular cause in the revo- lution of 1830, and succeeded Lafitte as prime minister (president of the council) on the 13th of March, 1831. He intervened with an army to aid the revolted Belgians, but resisted the popular pressure which would have in- volved France in a war against the allied powers for the liberty of the Poles. Died, of cholera, in May, 1832. See LoMENiE, "Galerie des Contemporains ;" GuizoT, " Md- moires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^uerale ;" " Blackwood's Maga- zine" for July and August, 1838. P6rier, (Jacques Constantin,) a French mechanician and constructor of steam-engines, was born in I'aris in 1742 ; died in 1818. Periers, des. See Desperiers. Peries, pk're'Ss', (Jean Vincent,) a French litfpra- teiir, born in 1785. He produced a translation of the complete works of Machiavel, (12 vols., 1823-26,) which is commended. He wrote many notices of artists for the " Biographie Universelle." Died in Paris in 1829. Perignon, pi'r^n'y6N', (Alexis,) a French painter, born in Paris in 1806. He gained a medal of the first class in 1844. Perignon, (Pierre,) a French monk, born at Saint- Menehould about 1640. He was procureur of the abbey € as k; 9 as r; g hard; g as/; G, H, Yi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; as in this. (2l^See Explanations, p. 23.) PERIGNON 1770 PERON of Hautvilliers, and is said to have rendered a great service to Champagne by perfecting the quality of its wine. He wrote a treatise on the culture of the grape and the fabrication of wine. Died in 171 5. Perignon, de, deh pi'r^n'ydN', (Dominique Cathe- rine,) Mar(2U1S, a French general, born near Toulouse in 1754. He became a general of division in 1793, suc- ceeded Dugommier as general-in-chief of the army in Spain, and gained a victory at Escola in November, 1794. He negotiated a treaty of alliance with Spain at Madrid in 1796. In 1804 he became a marshal of France. Died in 1818. Perigord. See Talleykand. Perikles. See Pericles. Perin, pa^riw', (Henri Charles Xavier,) a Belgian economist, born at Mons in 1815, wrote a treatise "On Riches in Christian Societies," ("De la Richesse dans les Societes chretiennes," 2 vols., 1861.) Perin, pa'riN', (Li^; Louis,) a French portrait-painter, born at Rheims in 1753, excelled in miniatures. Died in 1 81 7. Perin, (Ren6,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1774. He wrote dramas, biographies, and other works. He published " The Thoughts and Maxims of Rousseau," (1820,) and "The Thoughts and Maxims of Voltaire," (2 vols., 1821.] Died in 1858. Peringskiold, pu'rings-chold', (Johan,) a Swedish antiquary, born at Strengnas in 1654. His original name was Peringer. He published "Monuments of Upland," ("Monumenta Uplandica," 2 vols,, 1710-19,) and other works, of some value. Died in 1720. Perino del Vaga, pi-ree^io dh\ vi'g^, written also Pierino (pe-i-ree'no) del Vaga, an Italian painter, whose proper name was Pietro Buonaccorsi, (boo-6n- ik-kor'see,) was born in Tuscany in 1500 or 1501. He was a pupil of Raphael, whom he assisted in the decora- tion of the Vatican. According to Vasari, he was the greatest designer of the Florentine school after Michael Angelo. About 1528 he removed from Rome to Genoa, where he painted admirable frescos in the palace of Ad- miral Doria. Among his works are "The Creation of Eve," a fresco, a "Holy Family," (in oil,) and "The Combat of Horatius Codes." Died at Rome in 1547. See Vasart, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Perion, pa're'6N', (Joachim,) a French monk and linguist, born in Touraine about 1500. He wrote "The Lives of the Apostles," (1551,) and translated the works of Aristotle, (7 vols., 1540-59.) Died in 1559. Permit, (Pelatiah,) an American merchant, born at Norwich, Connecticut, in 1785. He settled in the city of New York in 1809, acquired a fortune by trade, and became president of the chamber of commerce in 1853. He was distinguished for active benevolence. Died in March, 1864. See Hunt's "Merchants' Magazine" for April, 1864. Perizonius, pa-re-zo'ne-us, (James Voorbroek — voR^bkook,) an eminent Dutch philologist and critic, born at Dam, in the province of Groningen, in October, 165 1. He studied under Graevius at Leyden, became rector of the gymnasium of Delft in 1674, and professor of history, etc. at Franeker in 1681. In 1685 he pub- lished an excellent critical work on the ancient writers of Roman history, entitled " Animadversiones Histori- cae," etc. He was professor of history and the Greek language at Leyden from 1693 to 17 15, and wrote many dissertations on classical subjects. Died in 171 5. See "Life of Perizonius," prefixed to his " Opuscula minora," 2 vols., 1740; WiLHELM Kramer, " Elogium J. Perizonii," 1828. Per'kins, (Elisha,) an American physician, known as the inventor of the "Metallic Tractors," was born in Connecticut in 1740. He practised at Plainfield, Con- necticut. His metallic tractors, and his system, called Perkinism, were in high repute for a time, but soon sunk into neglect. He died in 1799. Perkins, (George Roberts,) LL.D., an American mathematician and astronomer, born in Otsego county. New York, in 1812, was appointed in 1858 deputy State engineer and surveyor of the State of New York. He has published, among other works, a " Treatise on Al- gebra," (1841,) " Elements of Geometry," (1847,) "Trigo- nometry and Surveying," (1851,) and "Plane and Solid Geometry." Perkins, (Jacob,) an American mechanician and in- ventor, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1766. Among his principal inventions are a machine for cut- ting and heading nails at once, a gun in which steam was successfully used for propelling instead of powder, the bathometer, for measuring the depth of water, and the pleometer, to mark the speed with which a vessel moves. He also substituted steel for copper plates in engraving bank-notes. Died in 1841. See Henry Howe, "Lives of Eminent American Mechanics," 1847. Perkins, (James H.,) an American writer, born about 1810, was a son of Samuel G. Perkins, of Boston. He contributed to the "North American Review." Died at Cincinnati in 1849. Perkins, (Nathan,) an American theologian, born at Norwich, Connecticut, in 1749. He served as min- ister at West Hartford about sixty-five years. He pub- lished a volume of Sermons, (1795,) ^^'^^ other works. Died in 1838, aged eighty-eight. Perkins, (Simon,) an American general, born at Norwich, Connecticut, about 1770. He served in the war of 1812-14. Died in Warren, Ohio, in 1844. Perkins, (Thomas Handasyd,) a wealthy American merchant, born at Boston in 1764. He gave his house and grounds on Pearl Street, Boston, valued at fifty thousand dollars, for the Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind, called also the Perkins Institution. He likewise gave large sums to the Boston Athenaeum and General Hospital. Died in 1854. See "Memoir of T. H. Perkins," by T. G. Carey. ■ Per'kins, (William,) an eminent English Calvinistic divine, born at Marston, in Warwickshire, in 1558. He preached in Saint Andrew's, a parish of Cambridge. Among his works, which were highly praised by Bishop Hall, are " Foundation of the Christian Religion," and commentaries on several books of the New Testament. Died in 1602. His works were translated into French, German, Italian, and Spanish. Perkins, (William,) an Englishman, celebrated for longevity, died in New Hampshire in 1732, at the age of one hundred and sixteen years. Permoser, pgR'mo-zer, ( Balthasar, ) a German sculptor, born at Kammer, in Bavaria, in 165 1. He worked for the King of Prussia at Berlin, from which he removed to Dresden in 1710. Among his works are an "Ecce Homo," and a statue of Prince Eugene. Died in 1732. See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Perne, pgRn, (Francois Louis,) a French musician, born in Paris in 1772. He was appointed inspector- general of the Conservatory in 1816. He wrote on the musical notation of the Greeks. Died in 1832. Pernetti, peR'na'te^ or Pernety, pgrn'te', (Jacques,) a French priest and mediocre writer, born in Forez in 1696 ; died in 1777. Pernety, pgRn''te', (Antoine Joseph,) a French litterateur, born at Roanne in 17 16. He became libra- rian of Frederick the Great some time after 1766, and returned to France in 1783. He published, besides other works, a " Dictionary of Painting, Sculpture, and Engraving," (1757,) and a "Voyage to the Falkland Islands," (2 vols., 1769.) Died in 1801. Pernety, (Joseph Marie,) Vicomte, a French gene- ral, born at Lyons in 1766. He served as colonel at Austerlitz and Jena. As general of division, he con- tributed to the victories of Wagram, Borodino, (1812,) and Dresden, (1813.) Died in 1856. Pernot, pgR'no', (Alexandre Franqois,) a French landscape-painter, born at Vassy (Haute-Marne) in 1793. He gained a first medal in 1839. Perofski or Perowski, pi-rov'skee, (Leon Alexie- vitch,) a Russian general and politician, born in 1 791. He became minister of the interior in 1 841, and was placed at the head of the Council of the Empire about 1852. Died in 1856. Peron, pi'r6N', (Francois,) a French naturalist, born at Cerilly (Allier) in 1775. He accompanied Baudin in his expedition to the South Sea in 1800, as physician &, e, T, 6, % y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; e, i, 9, obscure; fSr, f^Il, fit; mlt; n6t; good; moon; PER ONI PERRON ET and zoologist, collected more than 100,000 specimens of animals, and wrote a " Voyage of Discovery to Southern Lands," (" Voyage de Decouvertes aux Terres aus- trales," 4 vols., 1811-16,) a work of much merit. Died in 1810. • See the " London Quarterly Review" for August, 1810, Peroni, pi-ro'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, born at Parma about 1700 ; died in 1776. Perotti, pi-rot'tee, (Niccol6,) an eminent Italian grammarian, born in Uuibria in 1430. He became Arch- bishop of Siponto, or Manfredonia, in 1458. He wrote a Latin grammar, ( 1473,) " Cornucopia, or Commentaries of the Latin Language," ("Cornucopia, sive Commen- taria Linguae Latinas," 1489,) and other works. He translated into Latin the first five books of Polybius. Died in 1480. Perouse, pa'rooz', (Jean FRANgois Galaup de la — gt'l5' deh Yi.,) an eminent French navigator, born at or near Albi (Tarn) in 1741. He entered the royal navy in 1756, became lieutenant in 1775, and fought against the English in the American war, (1778-83.) In 1782 he took the British fort York, on the west coast of Hudson Bay. He was selected by the government to command an exploring expedition, and sailed with the Boussole and Astrolabe in August, 1785. Having doubled Cape Horn, he sailed northward to the sixtieth degree, and explored the coast between that point and California. In the autumn of 1786 he crossed the ocean to Macao. He explored the eastern coast of Asia from China to Avatsha in Kamtchatka, from which point he sailed to Botany Bay. The last letter received from him by his friends was dated at Botany Bay, P^bruary 7, 1788. About 1826 it was ascertained that he and his party perished by shipwreck at Vanicoro, (or Wanicoro). See PiRRRE Dillon, "Relation de la Decouverte du Sort de La Perouse," Paris, 2 vols., 1836; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Monthly Review" for November and December, 1798. Perowski. See Perofski. Per-pen'na or Per-per'na, (M. Vento,) a Roman officer, was a partisan of Marius in the civil war. He served under Sertorius in Spain about five years. He was one of the assassins of Sertorius, who was killed in 72 B.C. After the death of Sertorius he was defeated by Pompey in Spain, taken prisoner, and put to death, (72 B.C.) Perperna. See Perpenna. Perpinian, p^R-pe-ne-ln', [Lat. Perpinia'nus,] (Pe- dro Juan,) a Spanish scholar, born in the province of Valencia in 1530. He was professor of eloquence at Rome. His " Eighteen Orations," (" Orationes duo- deviginti," 1587,) arguments for the old religion, were very popular. Died at Paris in 1566. See Lazeki, " De Vita et Scriptis P. J. Perpiniani," 1749. Perpinianus. See Perpinian. Perquit, p^R^ke', (S^bastien Birgy,) a French gene- ral, born in the department of Bas-Rhin in 1768. He served with distinction during the first empire. Died in 1856, Perrache, pk'rtsh', (Michel,) a French sculptor, born at Lyons in 1686 ; died in 1750. Perraud, pcVra', (Jean Joseph,) a French sculptor, born at Monay (Jura) in 1821. He obtained a medal of the first class in 1855. Perrault, pcVro', (Charles,) a French author, born in Paris in 1628. Having obtained the favour of Col- bert, he was appointed controller-general of the king's buildings, (bdthnents.) He was admitted into the French Academy in 1671. He scandalized the admirers of ancient classic authors by his " Parallel between the Ancients and Moderns," (4 vols., 1688-98,) which was the signal of a long literary contest. This work was refuted by Boileau in his "Reflections on Longinus." Among his other works is one entitled " The Illustrious Men of the Age of Louis XIV.," (1696-1701.) "Perrault would probably have been surprised," says the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale," "if any one had predicted to him tliat he should owe his immortality exclusively to his 'Fairy-Tales,' (' Contes des Fees,' 1697,)" which obtained great success in the nursery. Died in 1703. See " Memoires de Perrault," first published in 1759; Sainte- Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi," tome v.; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Perrault, (Claude,) a celebrated French architect, born in Paris in 1613, was a brother of the preceding. His reputation is founded on the design of the fa9ade of the Louvre. Colbert having invited the artists of France to compete for this work, the design of Perrault was preferred. The colonnade of the Louvre, commenced in 1666 and finished in 1670, is considered one of the most beautiful structures of the seventeenth century. He was also the architect of the Observatory of Paris. He pub- lished a translation of Vitruvius, (1673,) and other works. Died in 1688. See FoNTENAY, " Dictionnaire des Artistes ;" Cicognara, " Storia della Scultura;" Quatkem^re de Quincy, "Vies des plus illustres Architectes." Perray. See Duperray. Perreau, p^'ro', (Jean Andr^;,) a French writer and jurist, born at Nemours in 1749, He was a member of the Tribunal, (1800-04,) one of the rapporteurs of the Code Civil. Among his works are "Elements of Natural Legislation," (1801,) and "Elements of Roman Civil Law," ("Juris civilis Romani Elementa," 1809.) Died in 1813. Perreciot, p^R^se-o', (Claude Joseph,) a French antiquary, born at Roulans in 1728. He wrote "On the Civil State of Persons, etc. among the Gauls, from the Celtic Times to the Adoption of the Common Laws," ( Coutidues,) (1784-86.) Died in 1798. Perree, pa^rk', (Jean Baptiste Emmanuel,) a French admiral, born in Picardy in 1761. He was killed in a battle against Nelson in 1800. Perrein, pa'riw', (Jean,) a French naturalist, born in 1750. He travelled in Africa and North America. Died at New York in 1805. Perrenot. See Granvelle. Perret, pi'ra', (Jean Jacques,) a French cutler and writer, born at Beziers in 1730. He invented surgical instruments, and wrote " On the Art of Shaving One- self," (1769.) Died in 1784. Perrier. See Perier. Perrier or Perier, pa're-i', (FRANgois,) a painter and engraver, was born in Burgundy about 1590. He worked at Rome and Paris, and was one of the founders of the Academy of the latter city. He painted the Hotel de la Vrilliere, at Paris. His engravings of antique statues, etc. are commended. Died at Paris about 1654. Perrimezzi, per-re-met'see, (Giuseppe Maria,) an >' Italian prelate and writer, born in Calabria in 1670 ; died in 1740. Perrin, pi'riN', (Alphonse,) a French painter of history and landscapes, born in Paris in 1798. Perrin, (Claude.) See Victor, Duke of Belluno. Perrin, (Jean Paul,) a French historian and Prot- estant minister, born at Lyons in the sixteenth century. He wrote a " History of the Vaudois," (1619.) Perrin, (Maximilien,) a French novelist, born in Paris in 1796. Perrin, (Narcisse,) a French Orientalist, born at Lyons in 1795. He wrote a work on Persia, entitled "La Perse," (7 vols., 1823.) Perrin, (Olivier Stanislas,) a French painter, born at Rostrenen in 1761 ; died in 1832. Perrin, (Pierre,) a French poet, born at Lyons, is said to have been the first writer of French operas. He produced a musical drama, entitled " Pastorale," in 1659, and obtained letters-patent to open an academy of music in Paris in 1669. Died in 1680. Perrin des Vosge.s, pk'iiiN' di vozh, (Jean Bap- tiste,) a Frenchman, born at Epinal. He was elected in 1792 to the Convention, in which he opposed the excesses of the royalists and terrorists. He sat in the Council of Elders in 1798, and was the first president of the corps legislatif, about 1800. Died in 1815. Perron, Du. See Du perron. Perrone, pgr-ro'nk, (Giovanni,) an eminent Italian theologian, born at Chieri (Piedmont) in 1794. He wrote, besides other works, " Theological Lessons," (" Praelectiones Theologicse," 9 vols., 1835 et seq.,) which ran through twenty-five editions. He became rector of the Roman College in 1853. Perronet, p^'ro'ni', ( Jean Rodolphe, ) an able French engineer and architect, born at Suresne, near € as 5 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) PERROT 1772 PERSIUS Paris, in 1708. He became first engineer of the roads and bridges of France about 1750, and organized the ficole des Fonts et Chaussees, which was frequented by students from foreign countries. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Among his master-pieces are the bridges of Neuilly, Nemours, and Pont Louis XVI, Paris. He invented a number of machines. Died in 1794. '* Perronet," says A. Jadin, "was for bridges one of those creative geniuses whose appearance makes an epoch." (" Nouvelle Biographie Generale.") See Bertrand, "Notice sur Perronet;" Prony, "Notice histo- rique sur Perronet," 1829. Perrot. See Ablancourt, d'. Perrot, pi^ro', (Charles,) a French Protestant min- ister, born in 1541, preached at Geneva, and advocated toleration. Died in 1608. Perrot, (Ferdinand Victor,) a French painter, born at Paimboeuf in 1808. He removed in 1840 to Saint Petersburg, where he was patronized by the imperial family. Died in 1841. Per'rot, (Sir John,) an English courtier or states- man, born about 1527, was appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland in 1583. Died in 1592. Perrottet, pi'ro'ti', (G. Samuel,) a French bot- anist, born in 1793. He wrote narratives of voyages to Senegal and other places, and a " Flora of Sene- gambia," (1831.) Per'ry, (James,) an able British journalist, born at Aberdeen in 1756. He became a resident of London about 1776, and distinguished himself as a reporter for the "General Advertiser." He was afterwards editor of the "Gazetteer" and the "Morning Chronicle," a Whig organ, which he edited more than twenty years. He improved the method of reporting speeches, by employing a succession or relay of reporters on the same speech. Died in 1821. See William Jerdan, "Men I have known," London, 1866. Perry, (John,) an English engineer, born about 1670. He entered the service of Peter the Great, as engineer, in 1698, and published a work called "The State of Russia under the Present Czar," (1716.) Died in Eng- land in 1733. Per'ry, (Matthew Galbraith,) an American naval officer, born at South Kingston, Rhode Island, in 1795, was a brother of Commodore Perry. He served in the Mexican war of 1847, and in 1852 commanded the expe- dition to Japan, which opened the way to intercourse between that country and the United States. An account of this voyage was published, in 3 vols., in 1856. Died in 1858. Perry, (Oliver Hazard,) a distinguished American commodore, born at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1785. On the 13th of September, 1813, as commander of a squadron on I^ake Erie, he defeated the British under Commodore Barclay, after an engagement of three hours. For this brilliant victory he was made a captain and received from Congress a gold medal. Having been appointed commander of a squadron bound for the coast of Columbia, he died of yellow fever, in the island of Trinidad, in August, 1819. See " National Portrait-Gallery ofDistinguished Americans, "vol. ii. Persaeus, per-see'us, [liepaatog,] a Greek philosopher, surnanied Cittif/us because he was born at Cittium, in Crete. He was a favourite disciple of Zeno the Stoic, and flourished about 260 B.C. He was patronized by Antigonus Gonatas, who appointed him governor or commander at Corinth. --According to Pausanias, he was killed at the capture of Corinth, in 243 B.C. He wrote several works, which are lost. Perse. See Persius. Persee. See Perseus. Per-seph'o-ne, [Gr. Tlspae^ovr] ; Fr. Persephone, p^R'si'fon',] the Greek name of Proserpine, which see. Perses. See Perseus, King of Macedonia. Per'seus, [Gr. He^oEvg ; Fr. PersEe, p^R^si',] a famous hero and demi-god of classic mythology, was called a son of Jupiter and Danae. (See DanaS.) Ac- cording to the fable. King Polydectes extorted from him a rash promise to bring to him the head of Medusa. To equip him for this enterprise, Minerva, Mercury, and the Nymphs gave him winged sandals, a helmet which rendered him invisible, and a mirror by means of which he could see the image of the Gorgon and avoid the petrifying effect of looking at the reality. After he had cut off her head, he flew through the air to Ethiopia, where he rescued Andromeda from a sea- monster and married her. Per'seus or Pereses, [Gr. Jlepaevg ; Fr. Pers6e, p^R'si',] the last king of Macedonia, was the eldest son of Philip v., whom he succeeded in 179 B.C. Before this date, by perfidy and intrigues, he had procured the death of his brother Demetrius. He began early to pre- pare for a renewal of hostilities against the Romans, who declared war against him in 171 B.C. Several campaigns were fought, without decisive results, until L. ACmilius Paulus took command, in 168 B.C. He defeated Per- seus with great loss at Pydna, in June, 168, after which the whole kingdom submitted to the victors. Perseus escaped from this battle, but was soon taken prisoner, and was kept in captivity at Alba until his death, about 164 B.C. See LiVY, " History of Rome," books xxxvlii.-xlv. Perseus, a Greek painter and disciple of Apelles, flourished about 300 B.C. He is mentioned by Pliny. Persiani, pgR-se-i'nee, (Fanny Tacchinardi— tlk- ke-naR'dee,) an Italian operatic singer, born in Rome in 1818. She married a composer named Persiani about 1835. Died in 1867. Persigny, (per-seen'ye,) de, [Fr. pron. deh p^R's^n'- ye',] (Jean Gilbert Victor de Fialin— deh fe'S'liN',) CoMTE, a French minister of state, born in the depart- ment of Loire in 1808. He became about 1833 a zealous partisan of Louis Napoleon, and is said to have been the instigator of the attempt made by him at Strasbourg in 1836. In 1840 he was arrested with Louis Napoleon at Boulogne, and condemned to imprisonment for twenty years. He was, however, released before the revolution of 1848, and renewed his intrigues. In January, 1852, he obtained the office of minister of the interior, which he resigned in June, 1854. He was sent as ambassador to London in 1855, was reappointed minister of the in- terior in November, i860, and removed in June, 1863. Died in 1872. M. Delaroa published in 1866 a work entitled "Le Due de Persigny et TEmpire." See H. Castille, " Le Comte de Persigny;" E. de Mirecourt, " M. de Persigny." Persil, p^r'sM', (Jean Charles,) a French politician and advocate, born at Condom in 1785. He was minister of justice in 1834 and 1835. He published a good work, entitled "Regime hypothecaire," (1809.) Persic, p^R'se-o, (Ascanio,) an Italian philologist, born at Matera about 1550. He wrote a "Treatise on the Conformity of the Italian Language with the Greek," etc., (1592.) His brother Antonio wrote several works on philosophy. Died after 1608. Persius, per'she-us, [Fr. Perse, p3,Rss,] or, more fully, Au'lus Per'sius Flac'cus, [It. Aulo Persio Flacco, ow'lo plk'se-o fl^k'ko,] a celebrated Roman satirical poet, was born of an equestrian family at Volaterrae, in Etruria, in 34 A.D. He was a pupil of Cornutus the Stoic, to whom he became attached by an intimate friendship, which lasted until the death of Persius. He associated with Lucan and Seneca. His moral character appears to have been excellent. He died prematurely in November, 62 a.d., leaving six satires, extending altogether to only six hundred and fifty hexameter lines. Though his language is obscure, his style unpolished, and his delineations of men and manners greatly inferior to those of Horace and Juvenal, his sententious satires have been very popular in ancient, mediaeval, and mod- ern times. His object is to inculcate the morality of the Stoics. Among the chief merits of his satires is * the moral beauty of his doctrines. His dialogues are remarkably spirited, and display much dramatic power. The best English versions of Persius are those by Dryden, Gifford, Brewster, and Howes. Among the best editions of the text are those of Isaac Casaubon, (Paris, 1605,) Konig, (Gottingen, 1803,) and O. Jahn, (Leipsic, 1843.) See " A. Persii Flacci Vita," attributed by some scholars to Sue- tonius; G. Massa, "Osservazioni e Racconto della Vita di A. Per- sio Flacco," 1666; Baylr, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" N. J. S^lis, "Dissertation sur Perse," 1783. 8, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fSr, fill, ftt; mSt; nSt; good; moon; PERSON 1773 PESNE Person, peR'soN', (Felix,) a French writer, born at Caen in 1795. published several books on the breed- ing of horses, * Persona, p§R-so'ni, (Cristoforo,) an Italian Hel- lenist, born at Rome in 1416. He translated into Latin some works of Athanasius, Origen, and Chrysostom. Died in 1485. Persona, p§R-so'nS, (Gorelin,) a German chronicler, born in Westphalia in 1358; died after 1418. Persoon, pgR-s6n', (Christian Hendrik,) a Dutch botanist and physician, born at the Cape of Good Hope about 1770. He settled at Paris about 1802, and published, besides several interesting works on cryptogamous plants, "Synopsis of Plants," ("Synopsis Plantarum," 2 vols., 1805-07.) Died in 1836. Persoz, p^r'so', (Jean Francois,) a chemist, born in Switzerland in 1805. He obtained a chair in the Con- servatoire des Arts et Metiers, Paris, in 1852. He has published a "Treatise on the Printing of Tissues," (4 vols., 1846,) and other works. Persuis, de, deh p^R^sii-e', (Louis Luc Loiseau,) a French composer, born at Metz in 1769. He composed •operas and ballet-music. Died in Paris in 1819. Perthes. See Boucher de Perthes. Perthes, pgR'tIs, (Friedrich Christoph,) a learned German bookseller and publisher, born at Rudolstadt in 1772. He opened a bookstore in Hamburg in 1796, married a daughter of the editor Claudius, and made acquaintance with many literary men, among whom were Voss, Stolberg, Niebuhr, and the Schlegels. In 1822 he removed to Gotha, where he published the "Alma- nach de Gotha." He died in 1843, was succeeded in his business by his son Justus. See " F. Perthes Leben," by his son Clemens Theodor, 2 vols., 1848; " Eraser's Magazine" for November, 1856. Perti, peii'tee, (Giacomo Antonio,) an Italian com- poser, born at Bologna in 1661. He composed success- ful operas. Died in 1756. Perticari, pgR-te-k^'ree, (Giulio,) Count, an Ital- ian writer, born in the Romagna in 1779. He married a daughter of the poet Monti in 1812. His works, which form two volumes of the " Biblioteca Scelta," (Milan, 1831,) are commended. Died in 1822. See MoNTANARi, " Biografia di G. Perticari," 1836. Per'ti-nax, (Helvius,) a Roman emperor, born at Alba Pompeia, on the Tanaro, in 126 A.D., was a son of a dealer in charcoal. He was a teacher of grammar before he entered the army. As prefect of a cohort, he served with distinction against the Parthians. He was admitted into the senate, and obtained command of a legion in the reign of Marcus Aurelius. In 179 A.D. he was consul. He suppressed a mutiny in Britain in the reign of Commodus, and was proclaimed emperor by the senate at the death of Commodus, in January, 193 a.d. By the announcement of important reforms, and his efforts to restore discipline, he made enemies among the courtiers and praetorians, who murdered him in his palace in March, 193 a.d. See Capitomnus, "Pertinax;" Dion Cassius, "History of Rome ;" Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Pertusier, de, deh p§R'tu'ze-i', (Charles,) a ///- terateur, born at Baume-les-Dames, in France, in 1779; died in 1836. Pertz, pgRts, (Georg Heinrich,) a German historian, born at Hanover in 1 795. He became royal librarian and councillor of the archives in his native city, and was a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. His most important work is entitled " Historical Monuments of Germany," (" Monumenta Germanise historica," 13 vols., 1854.) Perugin, Le. See Perugino. Perugino, pi-roo-jee'no, [called in French Le Pe- rugin, leh pk^ii'zh^N',] originally Pietro Vanucci, (vi-noot'chee,) written, also, Vannucci and Vanuzzi, an eminent Italian painter, born at Castello della Pieve in 1446. He painted some frescos for Sixtus V. in the Sistine Chapel, Rome, about 1480, after which he worked at Florence and Perugia, from which circumstance he received his surname IL Perugino, or "the Perugian." He was a good colorist, and surpassed most of his contemporaries in the gracefulness of his heads and figures. His style, however, is considered rather dry. Among his best works are an "Infant Christ with the Virgin," in the Albani palace, Rome, the frescos of Scriptural subjects in the Sala del Cambio at Perugia, and an oil-picture of "The Holy Family," and a " Dead Christ," in the Pitti palace, Florence. He was the master of Raphael. Died in 1524. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters ;" B. Orsini, " Vita di Pietro Perugino," 1804; Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Mrs. Jameson, " Memoirs of Early Italian Painters ;" A. Mezzanotth, "Commentario storico della Vita di P. Vannucci," 1836. Peruzzi, pi-root^'see, (Baldassare,) an able Italian architect and painter, born near Sienna in 1481. He painted some frescos at Rome, and attained great skill in perspective and scene-painting. His fresco of the " Judgment of Paris," in the Villa Belcaro, is called his master-piece. He designed the beautiful Palazzo Massimi, Rome, and the celebrated Palazzo Farnesina, in which he painted " Perseus and Medusa." Having been appointed architect of Saint Peter's about 1520, he made a design for that church ; but it was not executed. His works are characterized by grandeur, purity of de- sign, and nobleness of expression. Died in 1 536. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzt, "History of Painting in Italy ;" Quatremi^re de Quincy, " Vies des plus illus- tres Architectes." Peruzzini, pi-root-see'nee, (Giovanni,) an Italian historical painter, born in 1629 ; died at Milan in 1694. Pesarese, II. See Cantarini, (Simone.) Pesaro, pa's§,-ro or pgs'J-ro, (Giovanni,) an able Venetian diplomatist, born in 1589. He was elected doge in 1658. Died in 1659. Pescaire, de. Marquis. See Avalos, d'. Pescara, de, Marquis. See Avalos, d'. Pescatore, p§s-kd-to'ri, (Giambattista,) an Italian poet, born at Ravenna. He wrote a continuation of Ariosto's "Orlando Furioso," (1548,) and other works. Died in 1558. Pesce, pa'shi, (Nicola or Cola,) a Sicilian, who was noted as a swimmer and diver, lived about 1360- 80. It is said that he dived into the whirlpool of Charybdis and brought up a gold cup which Frederick II. had thrown there to test his skill. Pescennius Niger. See Niger. Peselli, pi-seKlee, or Pesellino.pk-sgl-lee'no,(FRAN- CESCO,) a painter, born in 1426, was a son of Pesello, noticed below. Died in 1457. Peselli, (Francesco Pesello,) an Italian painter, born at Florence in 1380. He painted animals with success. Died in 1457. Peselli, (Pesello,) an Italian painter of history and animals, born at Florence in 1404; died in 1481. Pesh-da'di-an or Pish-da'di-an; [from the Persian phhddd or pishddd, i.e. "lawgiver,"] the name of one of the earliest of the ancient Persian dynasties, so called, according to Sir William Jones, from Hoosheng, (Hu- sheng,) who was distinguished for his justice and was surnamed Peshdad, or the "lawgiver." Kaiobmers, the grandfather of Hoosheng, is commonly called the founder of the Peshdadian dynasty, and is said to have been the first who established a code of laws and a regu- lar government in Persia. To this line of Persian kings belonged the famous Jemsheed, (or Jamschid,) who occupies so prominent a place in the ancient legends of the East. See Atkinson, " Abridgment of the Shah Nameh of Firdausi," London, 1832 ; "A Short History of Persia," in vol. v. of the works of Sir William Jones. Pesmes, de, deh pfm, (Francois Louis,) a Swiss general, called Saint-Saphorin, (siN st'fo'riN',) was born in the Pays de Vaud in 1668. He was sent by the Swiss government to the Congress of Utrecht, and signed the treaty of alliance in 17 14. He entered the service of George I. of England in 1716 as a general, and was sent as minister to Vienna. Died in 1737. Pesne, pfn, (Antoine,) a French painter, born in Paris in 1683. He worked at Berlin, to which he was invited by the king. He painted many portraits and historical pieces, and received the title of first painter to the king. Died in Berlin in 1757. Pesne, (Jean,) a painter and engraver, the father of the preceding, was born at Rouen about 1624. He en- « as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, ^ttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2/ *h as in this. (2[^=See Explanations, p. 23.) PESSELIER PETER graved many admirable prints after Nicolas Poussin, whose style and spirit he reproduced with great success. Died in Paris in 1700. Pesselier, pgs'le-i', (Charles Stienne,) a French litterateur, was born in Paris in 17 12. He wrote com- edies, fables, and other works. Died in 1763. Pessuti, p^s-soo'tee, ( Giovacchino, ) an Italian mathematician, born at Rome in 1743. He obtained in 1787 the chair of mathematics at the Roman Col- lege of Sapienza. He wrote treatises on hydraulics and oil the occultation of fixed stars by the moon, (1802.) Died in 1814. Pestalozzi, p§s-tS.-lot'see, (Johann Heinrich,) a Swiss teacher and educational reformer of great merit and influence, was born at Zurich in 1746. He received a liberal education, and became a cultivator of the soil, but in this occupation he was not successful. He wrote a popular novel, ** Leinhardt und Gertrud," (4 vols., 1 781,) designed to promote the better education of the poor, and " Inquiries into the Process of Nature for the Development of the Human Race," {1797.) In 1798 he opened a school for orphans at Stanz, where he adopted a system of mutual instruction. Having been driven from Stanz by the Austrians in 1 799, he removed to I')urgdorf, where his school prospered and acquired a wide reputation. In 1804 he removed to Yverdun. He was distinguished for energy, philanthropy, and originality, but was deficient in practical ability to manage a large institution. Died in 1827. See his Autobioerraphy, entitled "The Fortunes of my Life," 1826 ; Oppel. "J. H. Pestaiozzi's Leben," 1846; Life, by Von Raumer, 1855; Bandlin, "Pestalozzi, seine Zeit, seine Wirkiingen," 1843; Blochmann, " H. Pestalozzi," Dresden, 1846; Ahrends, "Pesta- lozzi, sein Leben und sein Wirken," 1846; E. Biber, " Beitrag zur Biographie J. H. Pestalozzi," 1827; " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^- rale ;" "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1828; "Blackwood's Magazine" for July, 1849. Pestel, pgs'tel, (Frtedrtch Wilhelm,) a German jurist, born at Rinteln in 1724 ; died at Leyden in 1805. Pestel, pes'tel, (Paul,) a Russian revolutionist, born in 1794, was a leader of a secret society or conspiracy which designed to substitute liberal institutions for absolutism in Russia. He was hung in 1826. Petagna, pa-tSn^ya, (Vincenzo,) an Italian botanist, born at Naples in 1734. He was professor of botany in the University of Naples, and published "Botanic Institutes," (" Institutiones Botanicse," 5 vols., 1785.) Died in 1810. Petau, peh-to', or Petavu, peh-tt'vu', [Lat. Peta'- vius,] (Denis,) a French scholar and Jesuit of great learning, born at Orleans in 1583. He was professor of theology at Paris from 162 1 to 1644. He published a great work on chronology, " De Doctrina Temporum," (2 vols., 1627,) which is highly esteemed. Among his other works is "Theologica Dogmata," (5 vols., 1644-50.) He wrote against Salmasius. Died in Paris in 1652. See Bavi.e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Henri de Vai.ois, "Oratio in Obitum D. Petavii," 1653; Leon Allatius, " Melissolyra de Laudibus D. Petavii," 1653; Niceron, "Me- moires." Petau, (Paul,) an antiquary, born at Orleans in 1568. He wrote on medals, etc. Died in 1614. Petavius. See Petau, (Denis.) Petavu. See Petau. Pe'ter, [Gr. XVhpoq; Lat. Pe'trus ; Fr, Pierre, pe-aiR'; Ger. Peter, pa'ter ; Ital. Pietro, pe-a'tRo ; Span. Pedro, pa'oRo,] Saint, one of the twelve apostles, was born at Bethsaida, on the Sea of Galilee, and was a brother of Andrew. His original name was SiMON ; but when he became a disciple of Christ he received the name of Peter, which in Greek signifies a "rock." He was sometiines called Cephas. His occupation was that of a fisherman. He was a man of ardent tempera- ment, affectionate and generous. He was favoured with special manifestations of his Master's confidence, and performed a more prominent part in the sacred history than any other of the twelve disciples. Peter and An- drew were the first of the apostles in the order of time. On several occasions Peter acted as spokesman for his fellow-apostles ; and it is supposed by many that he possessed some pre-eminent authority. When the Lord Jesus was arrested, Peter drew a sword and cut off the ear of the high-priest's servant ; but, in the severe crisis that followed, his faith and courage failed, so that he denied IJs Master. Having recovered from this lapse by hearty repentance, he became a zealous and powerful minister, and spoke with great effect at Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost. He raised Tabitha, or Dorcas, from the dead, and performed other miracles. He received a divine mission to preach the gospel to Cornelius, a gen- tile. About 44 A.D. he was cast into prison by Herod the king, but he was delivered by an angel. The last passage of sacred history which mentions Saint Peter is the account of a council held at Jerusalem about 50 A.D. (Acts XV.) Tradition adds that he preached in Galatia, Cappadocia, Bithynia, and Pontus, and that he suffered martyrdom in Rome about 65 A.D. He wrote two epistles, which are included in the canon of Scrip- ture, and are highly prized. See Matthew x. 2, xvi. 16-19, xvii., xxvi. 33-75 ; Mark i. 10, /,9, ix. 2, 5, X. 28, xiv. 2g, 33, 54, 66-72; Luke v., vi. 14, xviii. 28, xxii. 31-34, 54-62, xxiv. 12; John i. 40-44, vi. 68, xiii. 6-9, 24, 37, xvui. 10, 15-18, 25-27, XX. 2-6, xxi. 2-21 ; Actsi., ii., iii., iv., v., viii. 14, 20, ix. 32-43- X- 5-48, xi. passim, xii. 3-17, and xv. 7. Also, L. Cuccagni, "Vita di San Pietro," 1777. Pester, (or Pedro, pa'dRo,) often called Dom Pedro, (Antonio Joz6 de Alcantara— dk il-kin'ti-ra,) Em- peror of Brazil and King of Portugal, a son of John VI. of Portugal, was born at Queluz in 1798. On the con- quest of Portugal by the French, in 1807, he was taken by his father to Brazil. He married Maria Leopoldina of Austria about 1816, and became Regent of Brazil in 1821. A revolution having rendered Brazil indepen- dent of Portugal, Dom Pedro was proclaimed emperor on the I2th of October, 1822. He was recognized as such by the Portuguese government in 1825. At the death of his father (1826) he inherited the throne of Portugal, which he soon abdicated in favour of his daughter. Donna Maria da Gloria. The disaffection of his subjects became so violent that he abdicated the crown of Brazil in favour of his son in 1831, and re- turned to Portugal, from which he expelled his brother, Dom Miguel, who had usurped the royal power. Died in 1834. See Eduard Grosse, "Dom Pedro I., oder Geschichte der neuesten Revolution von Brasilien und Portugal," 1836; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Peter or Pedro II. de Alcantara, Emperor of Brazil, born at Rio Janeiro in December, 1825, is a son of the preceding, who abdicated in his favour in 1831. He began to act as emperor on the 23d of July, 1840, when he was declared of age. In 1843 ^""6 married Theresa Christina Maria, a daughter of the King of the Two Sicilies. He cultivates literature, and has the reputation of a liberal and popular ruler. Peter, Emperor of Constantinople. See Courtenay, DE, (Pierre.) Peter [Russ. Petr, pe-6tr'] I., or Peter the Great, [Fr. Pierre le Grand, pe-aiR' leh gR6N ; Ger. Peter DER Grosse, pa'ter d^r gRos'seh ; It. Pietro il Grande, pe-a'tRo h\ gR^n'da ; Lat. Pe'trus Mag'nus,] Czar of Russia, born at Moscow, June 10, 1672, was the third son of Alexis Mikhailovitch, His mother was Natalia, the second wife of Alexis. Feodor, the eldest son of Alexis, having died without issue, in 1682, Peter was recognized as his successor, in preference to Ivan, who was a feeble- minded youth. Their ambitious sister Sophia, however, fomented a bloody mutiny among the strelitzes, and procured the proclamation of Ivan and Peter as joint sovereigns. Sophia acted as regent until 1689, when she was confined in a convent and Peter began to reign as sole autocrat. He married Eudoxia Feodorovna in 1689. Some years before this date he had received scientific instruction from Le Fort, a native of Geneva, who became one of his advisers or ministers after his accession. Peter had received from nature violent passions and an indomitable energy. In the early part of his reign he determined to reform the institutions, governmental system, and customs of Russia, which was far behind other countries of Europe in civilization. His first care was to organize an army with the European discipline ; and he set the example by entering the army himself as a private soldier. He also gave much attention to the construction of a navy, and learned practical seamanship a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fJt; mSt; ndt; good; moon; PETER PETER by cruising on the White Sea. He procured the ser- vices of many foreign engineers, shipwrights, artisans, etc. In 1696 he captured Azof from the Turks by the aid of his new navy. Prompted by an irrepressible activity and desire of knowledge, in 1697 he visited Western Europe incognito, accompanied by several of his favourite officers or min- isters, who were accredited as ambassadors to Holland. He took a lodging in a small house at Saardam, where he worked for wages as a ship-carpenter, under the name of Pieter Timmerman. In January, 1698, he went to England, where he passed about three months. Here, says Macaulay, *' his stately form, his intellectual forehead, his piercing black eyes, his Tartar nose and mouth, his gracious smile, his frown, black with all the stormy rage and hate of a barbarian tyrant, . . . were during some weeks popular topics of conversation." He returned to his capital, Moscow, after an absence of seventeen months, and punished with great severity the strelitzes, who had rebelled while he was absent. He established naval and other schools, caused useful works to be translated into Russian, re- quired his subjects to trade with foreigners, and made various other innovations, against which a great number of his subjects were deeply prejudiced. He also dis- banded the strelitzes, who had served as a body-guard of the Czars. In 1700 he formed an alliance with the Kings of Poland and Denmark against Charles XII. of Sweden, who defeated the Russians at Narva in the same year. Peter founded Saint Petersburg in 1703, and prosecuted vigorously the war against Charles, who was defeated at the decisive battle of Pultowa, in 1709. (See Charles XII.) In 1711 he married Catherine, a girl of obscure origin, who had been taken prisoner at Marienburg. (See Catherine I.) The war between Russia and Turkey having been re- newed, Peter conducted an army in person across the Pruth into the dominions of the Sultan. Hemmed in by the Turkish army, and unable to obtain a regular supply of provisions, he was reduced to a dangerous situation, from which, it is said, the empress Catherine rescued him by overtures of peace and rich presents to the grand vizier. Peter obtained peace by restoring Azof and Taganrog in July, 171 1, after which he prosecuted with success the war against the Swedes in Pomerania and conquered Finland. He transferred the senate to Saint Petersburg in 1 7 13, soon after which the imperial ])alaces of that city were finished. In 1716 he visited Gerniany, Holland, Denmark, and France. During his visit to Copenhagen he was appointed commander-in- chief of the combined fleets of Russia, Holland, England, and Denmark. Alexis, the eldest son of Peter, had constantly opposed his projects of reform, and had selected his favourites and advisers among the enemies of his father's policy. Having remonstrated without effect against this conduct, Peter compelled him, in February, 1718, to renounce the succession. Alexis was then tried for conspiracy by a council of judges and bishops, who condemned him to death. The circumstances attending the death of Alexis, attested as they appear to be by unimpeachable wit- nesses, seem to prove l^eyond a doubt that he was poisoned by order of his father. (See Alexis.) In 1719 Peter was afflicted by the death of his second son, Peter, the heir-apparent and the issue of Catherine. He made, in September, 1721, at Nystad, (or Neustadt,) a treaty of peace with the King of Sweden, who ceded to him Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, Carlia, and Viborg. Finland was restored to Sweden by this treaty. Having thus fortunately ended a war of twenty years, he assumed, at the request of the senate, the titles of" Peter the Great, Emperor of all the Russias, and Father of his Country." He afterwards directed his attention to internal improve- ments, and founded the Academy of Sciences about 1724. The public offices and tribunals had been removed in 1721 to Saint Petersburg, the population of which he had rapidly increased by arbitrary measures. Among his favourite ministers and courtiers were Mentchikof and Galitzin. He died at Saint Petersburg on the 28th of January or the 8th of February, 1725, leaving two daughters, Elizabeth, who became empress, and Anna. Catherine reigned until her death, in 1727, and was suc- ceeded by Peter II., a son of Alexis. See John Mottley, "Life of Peter the Great," 3 vols., 1739; Mauvii.i.on-, " Histoire de Pierre ler," 1742 : Alex. Gordon, " His- tory of Peter the Great," 1755 ; Voi-taire, " Histoire de Russia sous Pierre le Grand," 1759-63; Claudius, " Peter der Grosse," 3 vols., 1798-1818; GoLiKow, "Life of Peter the Great," (in Russian,) 12 vols., 17S8-98 ; Rakener, " Leben Petri L," 1725; Von Halem, " Leben Peters des Grossen," 3 vols., 1803-05; Grosse, "Peter der Grosse," 1836 ; Ph. de Segur, " Histoire de Russie et de Pierre le Grand," 1829 ; Reiche, " Peter der Grosse und seine Zeit," 1841 ; Benjamin Bergm ann, " Peter derGrosse als Mensch und Regent," 3 vols., 1S23-26; "North American Review" for October, 1845, (by J. Lothrop Motley.) Peter II., (Alexievitch,) a grandson of Peter the Great, was born in 1714 or 171 5. He began to reign in May, 1727. His accession was promoted by Mentchikof, who expected to have great ])ower or influence during his minority. Ivan Dolgoruki, however, became the favourite of Peter, who banished Mentchikof to Siberia. Peter died in January, 1730, and was succeeded by Anna Ivanowna. Peter III., (Feodorovitch,) Emperor of Russia, born in 1728, was a grandson of Peter the Great, and a son of Anna, who was married to the Duke of Holstein- Gottorp. He was recognized as heir to the throne by Elizabeth in 1742, and married, in 1745, Sophia Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, who assumed the name of Catherine. He succeeded his aunt Elizabeth in January, 1762. Among his first acts was a treaty of peace with Frederick the Great, Having provoked the enmity of the nobles and clergy by some innovations, he was dethroned and strangled in July, 1762, by conspirators, of whom his wife was an accomplice. (See Catherine II.) See Ranft, " Lebensbeschreibung des Kaisers Peter III.," 1773; Thiebault de Laveaux, " Histoire de Pierre III," 3 vols., 1798; Goldern, "Biographic Peters II L," 1792; Helbig, " Biographie Peters III.," 2 vols., 1808-09. Peter (or Pedro, pa'DRo) I., King of Aragon, was a son of Sancho Ramirez. Died in 1104. Peter (or Pedro) II., King of Aragon, born in 11 74, was a son of Alfonso II. Died in 1213. Peter (or Pedro) III., surnamed the Great, King of Aragon, was born in 1236, and succeeded his father, James I., in 1276. He had married about 1262 Con- stance, a daughter of Manfred, King of Naples and Sicily. After the death of Manfred, Peter asserted his claim to the kingdom of Naples against Charles of Anjou, who had possession of it and who was supported by the pope. The interest of Peter was promoted by the mas- sacre of the French at the Sicilian Vespers, March 30, 1282, and by several naval victories gained by his ad- miral, Roger di Loria, over the fleet of Charles. He died in 1285, and was succeeded by his son, Alfonso III. See ZuRiTA, " Anales de Aragon ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- rale." Peter (or Pedro) IV., surnamed the Ceremonious, King of Aragon, born in 13 17, was the son of Alfonso IV. He began to reign in 1336. Died in 1387. Peter (or Pedro) 1, surnamed the Cruel, King of Castile and Leon, born about 1334, succeeded his father, Alfonso XL, in 1350. He married Blanche de Bourbon, a French princess, in 1353, but he soon imprisoned her and married Jiiana de Castro, whom he also maltreated. The friends of these ladies revolted without success, and Blanche was put to death by order of Peter. About 1366 he was driven out of Castile by Du Guesclin and others, who supported Pedro's brother, Henry de Trans- tamare, as king. Peter was restored by the English Black Prince in 1367, and was assassinated by Henry de Transtamare in 1369. See Lopez de Ayala, " Cronica de los Reyes Pedro I.," etc., 1591 ; Count de la Roca, " El Rey Don Pedro defendido," 1648; Dillon, " History of the Reign of Peter the Cruel," 2 vols., 1788 ; Prosper Merim^e, "Histoire de Don Pedro, Roi de Castille," 2 vols., 1848; Froissart, "Chronicles;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Peter (Pedro) I., King of Portugal, born in 1320, was a son of Alfonzo IV., whom he succeeded in 1357. Died in 1367. Peter (Pedro) II., King of Portugal, a younger son of John IV., was born in 1648. Having deposed his brother, Alfonzo VI., in 1667, he became regent. He reigned as king from 1683 until his death, in 1706. € as k; q as s; g /lard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Si^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) PETER 1776 PETERS Peter or Pedro IV. of Portugal. See Peter I,, Emperor of Ikazil. Peter or Pedro V., King of Portugal, born at Lisbon in September, 1837, was a son of Queen Donna Maria da Gloria, and a nephew of the preceding. He succeeded his mother in November, 1853, under the regency of his father, and assumed the functions of royalty in Septem- ber or November, 1855. He was a popular prince. He died in November, 1861, and was succeeded by his brother, Louis I. Peter (or Pierre, pe-aiR') I., surnamed Mauclerc, Duke of Brittany, and Count de Dreux, was a grandson of Louis VI. of France. He married, about 1212, Alix de Thouars, the heiress of Brittany. He served under Louis IX. in the crusade of 1249, and died in 1250. Peter (Pierre) II., Duke of Brittany, succeeded his brotlier, Francis t., in 1450. Died in 1457. Peter, [Gr. Ilerpof,] Bishop of Alexandria, succeeded Theonas in 300 a.d. He was beheaded in the reign of Maximinus H., in 311. He is eulogized by Eusebius. Peter or Pe'trus of Alexandria, the companion and successor of Athanasius. Having been designated by the latter, he was elected bishop by the orthodox party in 373 a.d., but was quickly deposed by the Arians. He was restored in 378, and died in 381 a.d. Peter of Blois, [Lat. Pe'trus Blesen'sis,] an emi- nent French ecclesiastic, born at Blois. He was ap- pointed Archdeacon of Bath by Henry II. of England. He died in 1200, leaving many letters and other works, which have been printed, (1519 and 1667.) Peter or Pe'trus of Sebas'te, a bishop, born in Cappadocia about 350 a.d., was a brother of Basil the Great, by whom he was ordained a presbyter. He became Bishop of Sebaste, in Armenia, about 380. Died after 390 A.D. Peter, [Lat. Pe'trus,] surnamed Chrysol'ogus, a Bishop of Ravenna, who died in 450 A.D. Peter de Bruys, (deh bRii-e',) a French preacher, who began about mo to speak against the corruptions of the Church. He is said to have rejected masses, the Lord's Supper, and other ordinances. He was burned at the stake in 1 130. See Hodgson, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867. Peter Comestor. See Comestor. Peter the Deacon, an Italian chronicler, born at Rome in 1107 ; died after 1159. Peter the Hermit, [Fr. Pierre l'Ermite, pe-aiR' IgR'm^t'; It. Pietro l'Eremita, pe-a'tRo la-ri-mee'ti,] a famous enthusiast, agitator, and crusader, was born in the diocese of Amiens about the middle of the eleventh century. He performed a pilgrimage to Palestine about 1094, and was filled with indignation by the oppressions to which the pilgrims were subjected. On his return he received a commission from Pope Urban II. to preach a crusade against the infidels. He traversed France and other countries barefoot, and by his fervent appeals enlisted a host of crusaders and outlaws estimated at nearly 100,000. He led them as far as Constantinople, and, after the defeat of this rabble near Nice, he accom- panied Godfrey to Jerusalem. Nearly all of the rabble perished miserably. He died in Flanders in 1 1 15. See MiCHAUD, " Histoire des Croisades;" H. Prat, "Pierre rErinite et la premiere Croisade," 1840. Pe'ter Lom'bard, a distinguished Italian theologian, born in the district of Novara. He was elected Bishop of Paris in 1159. He produced a celebrated compilation of sentences from the Fathers, (" Sententiarum Libri IV.,") wliich was much used as a text-book, and often reprinted and commented on. Died about 1160. Peter Martyr. See Anghiera, de. Pe'ter Mar'tyr, [Ital. Pif;tro Martire, pe-a'tRo maR^te-rk,] or Piepro Vermigli, (v^R-m^Kyee,) an emi- nent Protestant theologian, was born at Florence in 1500, and educated in the Catholic faith. Having been con- verted to the Reformed religion, he repaired in 1542 to Zurich, where he acquired the friendship of Bullinger. He afterwards became professor of theology at Stras- burg, having the celebrated Bucer for his colleague. At the invitation of Edward VI., he visited England, and was appointed in 1549 professor of divinity at Oxford. Soon after the accession of Mary, he left England, and | was invited to fill the chair of theology at Zurich. As a Protestant writer he is esteemed second only to Calvin, whom he is said to have surpassed in learning, and his virtues and eloquence were eulogized by Catholics as well as Protestants. He was the author of several com- mentaries on the Scriptures, and other theological works. Died at Zurich in 1562. ^ See M'Crie, " History of the Reformation in Italy;" Schlosser, 'Leben Peter Martyrs," 1809; Wood, "Athense Oxonienses ;" Schmidt, "Vie de Pierre Martyr Vermigli," Strasbourg, 1S35. Pester Moii'gus, [Gr. Ilcrpof 6 Uoyyog,] became Mo- nophysite Patriarch of Alexandria in 477 a.d. Having been deposed by the emperor Zeno, he was restored in 482. By a comproinise or temporizing policy he retained his ofifice until he died, in 490. See Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography," etc. Peter Nolasque (no'lSsk') or Nolasco, (no-lSs'ko,) the founder of the Order of Mercy, (for the redemption of captives taken by the Moors,) was born in Languedoo about 1189; died in 1256. Peter the Venerable, a French monk, born about 1092, became Abbot of Clugny. Died in 1156. Peter, pa'ter, ( Wenceslaus,) a Bohemian painter, born at Carlsbad in 1742. He worked at Rome, and was a skilful painter of animals. Died at Rome in 1829. Peterborough. See Mordaunt. Peterman, pa'ter-mSn^ (August Heinrich,) a Ger- man geographer, born near Nordhausen in 1822. He aided Johnston, of Edinburgh, in the " Physical Atlas," and T. Milner in the " Atlas of Physical Geography." He became about 1854 editor of a monthly journal devoted to geographical discovery, published at Gotha. He wrote or edited " An Account of the Expeditions to Central Africa." Peterneefs. See Neefs, (Peter.) Peters, pa'ters, (Bonaventure,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 1614, was the best marine painter of his time. His favourite subjects were storms and shipwrecks. He also painted views of the sea in a calm. Died at Antwerp in 1652. Pe'ters, (Charles,) an English divine, born in Corn- wall. He became rector of Saint Mabyn in 1727, and wrote a " Critical Dissertation on the Book of fob." Died in 1777. A volume of his sermons was published after his death. Peters, (Francis Lucas,) a Flemish landscape- painter, born at Mechlin (Malines) in 1606; died at Brussels in 1654. Peters, (Gerard.) See Pieters. Peters or Peter, (Hugh,) an English dissenting minister, born in Cornwall in 1599. He preached in Salem, Massachusetts, several years, between 1635 1641. On his return to England he became a par- tisan of the Parliament, acquired much influence, and was a preacher to the army which fought against the king. He was tried for treason and hung by the royalists in 1660. His reputation is defended by some respectable writers. See S. Peters, " History of Hugh Peters," 1807 ; Brook, "Lives of the Puritans " Peters, (Jan,) an excellent Flemish marine painter, a brother of Bonaventure, noticed above, was born at Antwerp in 1625. His figures are well designed and his landscapes finely touched. Among his master-pieces is the " Port of Oran." Died in 1677. Pe'ters, (John Charles,) M.D., an American homoe- opathic physician, born in New York in 1819, has pub- lished a " Treatise on Diseases of the Head," a " Treatise on Diseases of the Eyes," and other medical works, and was for a time editor of the " North American Journal of Homoeopathy." Peters, (Phillis Wheatley.) See Wheatley. Peters, (Richard,) an American jurist, born in Phila- delphia in 1744. He was appointed in 1776 secretary of the board of war, and was afterwards judge of the United States district court for Pennsylvania. Died in 1828. He was remarkable for his dry humour, ready wit, etc. Peters, (Samuel,) an Episcopal divine, born at Hebron, Connecticut, in 1735. Dm'i'ig the Revolution he sided with the Tories, and took refuge in England, a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ia, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fUll, ftt; mSt; nftt; good; moon; PETERS ^111 PETIT where he published a "General History of Connecticut," He is satirized in Trumbull's " McFingal" under the name of " Parson Peter." Died in 1826. Peters, (Samuel Jarvis,) an American merchant, born in Canada in 1801, settled in New Orleans, and became president of the State Bank of Louisiana. Died in 1855. Petersen, pa'ter-sen, ( Frederik Christian, ) a Danish scholar, and professor of philology at Copen- hagen, was born in Seeland in 1786. Among his prin- cipal works are a "Manual of Greek Literary History," and an " Introduction to the Study of Archaeology," (1825.) Petersen, (Niels Matthias,) an eminent Danish historian and antiquary, born at Sanderum, in the isle of Funen, in 1791. He was a fellow-student of Rask, who became his friend. He published in 1829 a "His- tory of the Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish Lan- guages," (2 vols.,) which is highly esteemed. In 1845 he became professor of Northern literature in the Uni- versity of Copenhagen. Among his important works are a " History of Denmark in Heathen Times," (3 vols., 1834-38,) and "Contributions to the History of Danish Literature," (ist vol., 1853.) He died in Copen- hagen in May, 1862. See Erslew, " Forfatter- Lexicon." Pe'ther, (Abraham,) an English landscape-painter, born at Chichester in 1756, was a son of William Pether, noticed below. He painted moonlight scenes with suc- cess. Died in 1812. His son Sebastian, born about 1790, was also a landscape-painter. Died in 1844. Pether, (William,) an English engraver in mezzotint, and painter, born about 1730, flourished about 1770. He engraved some works of Rembrandt, and some of his own designs. Pethion. See Petion, (J6r6me.) Petiet, pi'te-i', (Claude,) a French administrator, born at Chatillon-sur-Seine in 1749. He was minister of war from February, 1796, to July, 1797, and governor of Lombardy, (1800-02.) Died in 1806. Petigny, de, deh pi't^n'ye', (Franqois Jules,) a French antiquary, born in Paris in 1801. He received a prize of nine thousand francs for his "Studies on the History, Laws, and Institutions of the Merovingian Period," (2 vols., 1842-44.) Died in 1858. Pet'I-gru, (James Louis,) an eminent American lawyer and statesman, born in Abbeville district. South Carolina, about 1789. He practised law at Charleston, and was attorney-general of South Carolina from 1822 to 1830. He differed from the large majority of the people of his State on the subject of nullification about 1831. He also opposed the secession movement of i86o-6r. Died in 1863. See Wm. J. Grayson, "James L. Petigrn ; a Biographical Sketch," 1 866. Petion, pi'te-6N', (Alexandre,) the first President of the republic of Hayti, was born at Port-au-Prince in 1770. His father was a wealthy colonist, his mother a mulatto. He was sent to France to be educated, and served at an early age in the French army. Afterwards, when the Revolution broke out, he took an active part in the rising of the coloured people, and distinguished himself as an officer of artillery. His humane disposi- tion and pleasing manners gained for him the favour of all classes ; and during the period of terror he succeeded in protecting many of the colonists. When the blacks, under Toussaint, began to proscribe the whites and mulattos, Petion resisted them by arms, but he was soon forced to fly from the island. Returning with General Le Clerc, he fought for some time under the French standard ; but, disgusted at length by the cruelties of the French, and especially by their treachery towards Tous- saint and their attempt to re-establish slavery, he again joined Dessalines, and on the death of the latter was elected President of the southern and western portion of the island, while Christophe, who had been general- in-chief under Dessalines, became ruler of the northern part. Petion was a man of sincere and deep religious convictions. As a ruler he was distinguished for the republican simplicity of his manners and mode of life, as well as for his humanity and impartial justice. But the anxieties caused by the difficulties of his position, in the midst of a population hitherto wholly unaccustomed to self-control, — anxieties which were still further in- creased, on his part, by an extreme and almost morbid conscientiousness, — proved too much for his health. He died, universally lamented, on the 29th of March, 1818. As a military officer, he was remarkable for skill and serene courage. For some very interesting particulars respecting President Petion, the reader is referred to numbers 48 and 49 of volume xxxix. of "The Friend," (1866,) published in Philadelphia. The article in ques- tion is from the pen of Stephen Grellet. See Saint-Remi, "Petion et Haiti," Paris, 5 vols., 1854-58. Petion (or Pethion) de Villeneuve, pi'te-^N'* deh v^l'nuv', (Jerome,) a French revolutionist, born at Chartres in 1753. He was a radical member of the National Assembly in 1790. His abilities were mediocre. He was one of the three deputies sent to conduct the king from Varennes to Paris in 1791, and was censured for his harshness or rudeness to the royal captives. In November, 1791, he was elected mayor of Paris, in preference to La Fayette, who was supported by the moderate reformers. He appears to have been remiss in his duties during the massacres of August and Sep- tember, 1792. Having been elected to the Convention, he acted with the Girondists, and was proscribed about the 1st of June, 1793. He escaped to the department of the Gironde, where he was found dead in a field in June, 1794. The manner of his death was not ascer- tained. See Regnault-Warin, "Vie de J. Petion, Maire de Paris," 1796; Lamartine, " History of tlie Girondists." Petis de la Croix, peh-te' deh It kRwS, (Alexandre Louis Marie,) a French Orientalist, born in Paris in 1698, was a son of Fran9ois, (1653-1713.) He was pro- fessor of Arabic in the Royal College. Died in 1 751. Petis de la Croix, (FRANgois,) a French Oriental- ist, born in 1622. He was interpreter to the king, and published a " History of Genghiz-Can," (Jengis Khan,) (1710.) Died in 1695. Petis de la Croix, (Franqols,) an Orientalist, born in Paris in 1653, was a son of the preceding. He studied Arabic, Persian, and Turkish at Aleppo, Ispahan, and Constantinople. As interpreter, he rendered important services in the negotiations between the French court and the Sultan and the Dey of Algiers. In 1695 he became interpreter to the king. He translated from the Persian " The Thousand and One Days," (5 vols., 1710-12,) and a "History of Taimoor," (Tamerlane,) (4 vols., 1722.) Died in 1713. See Qij^RARD, "La France Litteraire." Petit, peh-te' or p'te, (Alexis Th^rese,) a French natural philosopher, born at Vesoul in 1791, was a brother-in-law of Arago. He became a teacher of phys- ics in the Polytechnic School in 1810, and titular pro- fessor in the same in 181 5. He wrote an able "Memoir on the Use of the Principle of Living Forces in the Calculation of Machines," (1818.) Died in 1820. See J. B. BioT, " Notice sur Petit," 1821. Petit, (Antoine,) an eminent French physician, born at Orleans in 1718. He became professor of anatomy at the Jardin du Roi, Paris, in 1768, and. attracted a large concourse of auditors. He published " Palfyn's Surgical Anatomy, with Notes," ("Anatomic chirurgi- cale de Palfyn, avec des Notes," 1753.) Died in 1794. Petit, (Jean Louis,) a celebrated surgeon, born in Paris in 1674. He served as army surgeon from 1692 to 1700, and then returned to Paris. His success was great as a lecturer and a practitioner. He was for some years the most celebrated surgeon in Europe. "The services which he rendered to surgery," says a French writer. " are immense." He was one of the founders of the Academy of Surgery, (1731.) His chief work is an excellent " Treatise on Surgery," (" Traite des Maladies chirurgicales," etc., 3 vols., 1774.) Died in 1750. See A. Louis, " filoge de J. L. Petit," 1750; " Biographie Me- dicale." * We are informed in the " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale" that, although Petion generally wrote his name without the accent, it was always pronounced Petion. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, v., guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^=°See Explanations, p. 23.) PETIT 1778 PETRARCH Petit, (Jkan Louis,) a French historical and marine painter, born in Paris in 1793. He gained a first medal in 1841. Petit, (Jkan Martin,) a French general, born in Paris in 1772. He served as lieutenant-general at Waterloo. Died in 1856. Pet'it, (Lewis Hayes,) F.R.S., an English gentle- man and patron of literature, was born in 1774; died in 1849. Petit, (Marc Antoine,) a French physician and skilful surgeon, born at Lyons in 1766. He wrote " Essai sur la Medecine du Coeur," (1806,) and several poems. Died in 181 1. See Baumes, " iSloge de M. A. Petit," 1812. Petit, (Pierre,) a French mathematician, born at Montlu9on (Allier) about 1596. He obtained the offices of engineer, counsellor to the king, and intendant-gene- ral of fortifications. He formed a friendship with Pas- cal, whom he aided in experiments on the vacuum and barometer, (1646-47.) Among his works are a treatise "On the Use of the Compass of Proportion," (1634,) and "Observations on the Vacuum," (1647.) He was a Cartesian. Died in 1677. See Nic^RON, " Memnires ;" Mor^ri, " Dictionnaire Historique." Petit, (Pierre,) a learned French writer, born in Paris in 1617. Among his poems (in Latin) are "On Tears," ("De Lacryniis Libri tres," 1661,) "Chinese Tea," (" Thea Sinensis," 1685,) "On the Amazons," (" De Amazonibus," 1685,) and "On the Sibyl," (" De Sibylla," 1686.) fie was one of the Latin poets who formed the " Pleiade" of Paris. Died in 1687. Petit, (Samuel,) a learned French Orientalist, born at Nimes in 1594, was a Protestant minister. It is said that he could speak Hebrew with ease. He wrote on Jewish and Greek antiquities, chronology, etc. His friendship was sought by Peiresc, Selden, Gassendi, Vossius, and Gronovius. Died in 1643. Petit, du, diip'te', (Franqois Pourfour,) a learned French physician, born in Paris in 1664. He was suc- cessful in the treatment of cataract, and wrote several treatises on the eyes. Died in 1 741. Petit-Didier, peh-te' de^e-i', (Mathieu,) a learned French monk, was born in Lorraine in 1659. He wrote " Remarks on the First Volumes of Dupin's Biblio- theque Ecclesiastique," (3 vols., 1691-96,) and other works. Died in 1728. Petit-Pied, peh-te' pe^', (Nicolas,) a French Jan- senist, born in 1665. He was a doctor of the Sorbonne, and wrote many works in favour of Jansenism. Died in 1747. Petit-Radel, peh-te' rt'dgK, (Louis Charles Fran- cois,) a French antiquary, born in Paris in 1756. He was a member of the Institute, and keeper of the Mazarin Library. He published "Explanations of the Antique Monuments of the Museum," (4 vols., 1804-06,) and "Researches on Cyclopean Monuments," (1841.) Died in 1836. See QuERARD, "La France Litt^raire." Petit-Radel, (Louis FRANgois,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1740, was a brother of the preceding. Died in 1818. Petit-Radel, (Philippe,) a surgeon and medical writer, born in Paris in 1749, was a brother of the pre- ceding. He obtained in 1798 the chair of surgical clinic. He published " Medical Institutes," (" Institutions de Medecine," 2 vols., 1801,) and compiled the " Dictionary of Surgery," (3 vols., 1 790,) which forms part of the "Encyclopedic Methodique." Died in 1815. See "Biographic M^dicale." Petit-Thouars. See Du Petit-Thouars. Petitain, peh-te't^N', (Louis Germain,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1 765. He wrote some works of fiction. Died in 1820. Petitot, peh-te'to', (Claude Bernard,) a French litterateur, born at Dijon in 1772. He translated the dramatic works of Alfieri, (4 vols., 1802,) and edited the works of Racine, (5 vols., 1805,) and the works of Moliere, (6 vols., 1813.) Died in 1825. Petitot, (Jean,) an eminent painter on enamel, born, of French parents, at Geneva in 1607. He visited Eng- land, where he obtained from the chemist Mayern some important secrets respecting colours, and was patronized by Charles I. He painted portraits of the royal family, and copied some, works of Van Dyck. About 1650 he returned to France. He received a pension from Louis XIV., whose portrait he painted many times. By order of the king, Bossuet attempted to convert Petitot to the Romish Church, but failed. His master-piece is a whole-length portrait, in enamel, of the Countess of Southampton, the dimensions of which are about nine inches by five. His works are remarkable for delicacy of design and harmonious richness of col6ur. Died at Vevay in 1691. See L. Brightwell, " By-Paths of Biography ;" "NouvelleBio- graphie Generale." Petitot, (Louis Messidor Lebon,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1794. He gained the grand prize in 1814, and went to Rome with a pension. Among his works are many marble busts of Frenchmen. His capital work is a colossal monument to Louis Bonaparte at Saint-Leu. He was a member of the Institute. Died in June, 1862. Petitot, (Pierre,) a sculptor, born at Langres in 1 75 1, was the father of the preceding. Died in Paris in 1840. Pet'i-ver, (James,) F.R.S., an English botanist, was an apothecary of London. He furnished materials for Ray's " History of Plants," published " Pterigraphia Americana," (1712,) and other works, and formed a rich collection of plants, minerals, and animals. Died in 1 718. Pe'to, (Sir Samuel Morton,) an English engineer and contractor, born in Surrey in 1809. He constructed the Grand Trunk Railway in Canada, with the tubular bridge near Montreal, and several railways on the con- tinent of Europe. He was returned to Parliament for Finsbury in 1859. Sir S. Morton Peto visited the United States in 1865, and published "The Resources and Pros- pects of America," (1866.) Petofi or Petoefi, pgf'o-fee, (Sandor, or Alexan- der,) a Hungarian poet and litterateur, born in Little Cumania in 1822. He published in 1847 a number of patriotic songs, which enjoyed great popularity and had a powerful influence in exciting the revolutionary feeling of his countrymen. He also wrote several dramas and prose works. His lyrics and odes display uncommon genius, and have procured for him the name of "the Hungarian Burns." He is supposed to have been killed at the battle of Schassburg, (1849.) See Kertbenv, " Petoefy der Ungarische Nationaldichter ;" Chassin, " Petoefy et ses OEuvres," 1861. Petrarca. See Petrarch. Pe'trar-eh, [It. Petrarca, pa-tRaR'ki; Fr. P^;- trarque, pa'tRiRk'; Lat. Petrar'cha,] (Francesco,) a celebrated Italian poet, was born at Arezzo, in Tuscany, on the 20th of July, 1304. His father, a friend of Dante, was banished from Florence in 1302 for his political principles, and removed in 13 13 to Avignon, which was then the residence of the pope. He was sent to study law at Montpellier, where he remained about four years, (1318-22;) but he preferred the study of the classic au- thors, especially Cicero and Virgil. lie made, however, some progress in law under Cino da Pistoia at Bologna. His fine personal and mental endowments procured for him admission into the brilliant society of Avignon. He was so handsome as to attract observation as he walked in the streets. He was patronized by Cardinal Colonna, and was an intimate friend of Giacomo Colonna, a brother of the cardinal. In 1327 his heart for the first time was touched by a violent and profound passion. He has recorded the place, the day, and the hour in which he first saw Laura de Sade, a daughter of Audibert de Noves, and the wife of Hugh de Sade, — a lady distinguished by her rank, but more by her beauty and modesty. With consum- mate tact, she contrived, by a mixture of reserve, discre- tion, and sympathy, to preserve him and herself from the fatal consequences of his wayward passion. "She took my heart into her hand," he writes, "saying, * Speak no word of this.' " By her pure and excellent example his passion appears to have been purified and exalted; but a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, long; i, h, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fJt; mSt; ndt; good; moon; PETRARCH 1779 PETRIE his admiration of her never abated, and the whole tenor of his life was changed by her influence. He sought re- lief by the composition of the sonnets and canzoni which have rendered the name of Laura immortal. She ac- cepted this homage, which the usage of that age sanc- tioned, and was, perhaps, proud of his admiration. He passed much time in collecting, collating, and copying ancient manuscripts. We owe to him the preservation of many Latin authors which were buried in the dust of monastic libraries. About 1335 he visited Rome, the ruins of whidh made a deep impression on him. He also travelled in France, Germany, and Spain. ?Te dis- covered two orations of Cicero at Liege, the " Institu- tions" of Quintiiian at Arezzo, and Cicero's " Familiar Letters" at Verona. Petrarch corresponded with the most eminent scholars of his time, founded the library of Saint Mark at Venice, and was one of the principal revivers of classical literature in Italy. About 1336 he retired to Vaucluse, a romantic valley near Avignon, where he passed several years in solitude and in vain efforts to forget his unhappy passion. Here he meditated a great work which should be worthy of his genius, and commenced a Latin epic poem, of which Scipio Africanus was the hero. This poem, entitled "Africa," is inferior to his Italian sonnets. In 1340 he accepted an invitation from the Roman senate to come to Rome and receive the laurel crown of poetry. He was crowned at the Capitol in 1341. Petrarch appears to have had much influence with several potentates of his time. He exerted his eloquence to induce successive popes to transfer the papal court from Avignon to Rome. He was the colleague of the famous Rienzi in an embassy sent by the Romans to Clement VI. for that purpose. He became Archdeacon of Parma, and canon of several cathedrals. His love of independence caused hini to de- cline the office of apostolic secretary and the dignity of bishop. In 1342 he met Laura, whose beauty had faded, and who was not happy in her domestic relations. Her husband was jealous and ill-tempered. Laura sang to Petrarch, and parted from him with emotion and regret. The death of Laura, which occurred in 1348, inspired a new series of beautiful and exquisite sonnets, the melody and pathos of which have probably never been surpassed. It is reported that she died on the anni- versary of the day and hour that he first saw her. Between 1350 and 1360 he resided at the court of Vis- conti. Lord of Milan, who employed him in diplomatic missions to Venice, to the Emperor of Germany, and to the King of France. Among his intimate friends at this period was Boccaccio. In 1370, for the sake of retirement and the restoration of his health, he fixed his residence at Arqua, among the Euganean Hills, north of Padua. He was found dead in his library at Arqua on the 19th of July, 1374.* He left, besides other prose works in Latin, a treatise " On Contempt of the World," ('*De Contemptu Mundi,") and many epistles, which are highly prized as memorials of important events which he witnessed. He had composed in praise of Laura above three hundred sonnets and fifty canzoni. Among his most perfect productions is " The Triumph of Death," ("Trionfo della Morte,") a poem, in which he describes the death of Laura. The most complete edition of Petrarch's works is that published at Bale, (2 vols, fol., 1581.) It contains, besides his Italian and Latin poems, and the works already named in this notice, "De Vera Sapientia," " De Officio et Virtutibus Impe- ratoris," and "Vitarum Virorum lUustrium Epitome." "The peculiar charm of Petrarch's character," says one of his biographers, "is warmth of heart and a native ingenuousness of disposition, which readily laid bare his soul to those around." He was a believer in re- * His epitaph, as given by some writers, is a curious specimen of Latin versification, — rliyming hexameters: " Frigida Francisci lapis hie tegit ossa Petrarchse. Suscipe Virgo Parens animam : Sate Virgine parce ; Fessaque jam terris cceli requiescat in arce." (See " Bibliotheca Vetus et Nova," by G. M. Konig, Altdorf, 1678) . . The fWlowing is a nearly literal translation: "This stone covers the cold bones of Francis Petrarch. Virgin Mother, receive his soul ; O thou Son of the Virgin, have mercy ; and may [his soul,] neary with earth, now find repose in the citadel of heaven." vealed religion ; but he often protested openly agains the corruptions of the papal court. See L. Beccadelli, " Vita di Petrarca," (translated into English by W. PvE, 1766;) L. Aketino, "Vita di Petrarca," 1672; Fernow, "'F. Petrarca, nebst dem Leben des Dichters," 1818; Tomasini, " Petrarcha Redivivus," 1635 and 1650; Abbe deSade, " Memoires pour la Vie de Pe'trarque," 3 vols., 1764-67; Fabroni, " Petrarch ae Vita," 1799; Levati, " Viaggi di F. Petrarca," 5 vols., 1820: Ugo Foscoi-o, " Essay on Petrarch ;" LoNGFELt^ow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe," 1825; Thomas Campbell, "Life of Petrarch," 1841 ; " Lives of Eminent Men of Italy," in Lardner's " Cabinet of Biog- raphy ;" Gibbon, "Decline and Fall," chap. Ixx. ; S. Dobson, "Life of Petrarch," 2 vols., 1775: Meinart, "Franc. Petrarca's Biografie," 1794 ; Lord Woodhouselee, "Essay, Historical and Critical, on the Life and Writings of Petrarch," 1810; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Pre.scott, "Miscellanies," p. 616 ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1843. Petrarcha. See Petrarch. Petrarque. See Petrarch. Petrazzi, pi-tR^t'see, (Astolfo,) an Italian painter of the Siennese school, was born in 1579 ; died in 1653. Petre, p^t'tr or pe'ter, (Edward,) an English Jesuit, born about 163 1. He was confessor or clerk of the closet to James II., over whom he is said to have exerted an evil influence in political affairs. Died in 1699. Petre, (Sir William,) an English statesman, born in Devonshire. He became a Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, in 1523, and afterwards master of requests. About 1543 he was appointed secretary of state. He held a high office in the reign of Edward VI., and was secretary of state during the reign of Mary. Died in 1572. Pe-tre'i-us, (Marcus,) a Roman general, to whom the victory over Catiline (62 B.C.) is ascribed. He was a partisan of the senate in the civil war, fought against Caesar at Pharsalia, and commanded (with Afranius) in Spain, where he was defeated by Caesar in 49 B.C. He killed himself in Africa in 46 B.C., or was killed by Juba in accordance with an agreement that they should kill each other. See Dion Cassius, " History of Rome," books xli.-xliii. Petrettini, pii-trlt-tee'nee, (Spiridion,) an Italian classical scholar, born at Corfu in 1777, became a resi- dent of Venice. He translated Velleius Paterculus into Italian. Died in 1833. Petri, pa'tRee, [in Flemish, Peeters, pa'ters,] (Bar- tholomew,) a Flemish theologian, born in Brabant about 1545. He was professor at Louvain and Douai. Died in 1630. Petri, pa'tRee, (Bernhard,) a German rural econo- mist, born at Deux-Ponts in 1767. He wrote several works on the raising of sheep, and made improvements in the rural economy of Germany. Died in 1842. Petri, pa'tRee, (Christiern,) a Danish divine, who published in 1529 a Danish version of the New Testa- ment. Petri, pa'tRee, or Peterson, pa'ter-son, (Lars,) the first Protestant Archbishop of Upsal, -was born at Oerebro in 1499. He studied under Luther at Witten- berg, and became archbishop in 1531. With the aid of his brother Olaus and L. Andreae, he produced a Swedish translation of the Bible, (1541.) He published several works of theology. Died in 1573. See " Biographiskt-Lexicon ofver namnkunnige Svenska Man." Petri, (Olaus,) a brother of the preceding, was born in 1497, and was a zealous preacher of the Reformed religion. He became first minister of Stockholm in 1539. He published some religious works. Died in 1552. Petri, pa'tRee, (Suffrid or Suffridus,) a Dutch philologist, born in Friesland in 1527. He obtained a chair of law at Cologne in 1577. He was very learned, but was deficient in taste and critical ability. Among his works are "Orations on the Utility of the Greek Language," (1566,) and "On the Writers of Friesland," ("De Scriptoribus Frisiae Decades," 1593.) Died at Cologne in 1597. See Nic^RON, "Memoires ;" Vossius, "De Historicis Latinis." Petrie, pee'tre, ? (Dr. George,) an Irish antiquary, born at Dublin in 1791, was the author of an "Essay on the Round Towers of Ireland," which obtained for him the gold medal of the Royal Irish Academy. He also published an "Essay on the Military Antiquities of Ire- land." Died in 1866. See the " London Quarterly Review" for September, 1845 ; " Fra- ser's Magazine" for July, 1858. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) PETRIE PETRARD Petrie, pee'tre, ? (Henry,) an English antiquary, born in 1768, became keeper of the chancery records in the Tower. He collected materials for the history of Great Britain, of which two volumes were published, (1830-48.) Died in 1842. Petrini, pi-tRee'nee, (Pietro Antonio,) an Italian translator, born at Palestrina in 1722. Among his works is a good version of Horace's "De Arte Poetica," (1777.) Died in 1803. Petrof, Petrov, or Petrow, pa'tRof, (Vasstli Pe- TROVItch,) a Russian poet, born at Moscow in 1736. He wrote odes and other poems, which have some merit, and translated Virgil's " yEneid" into Russian, (1781-86.) He became imperial librarian about 1775. Died in 1799. Petrone. See Petronius Arbiter. Petroni or Petronj, pa-tRo'nee, (Stefano Egidio,) an Italian poet, born near Perugia in 1770. Among his works is "The Napoleonid : a Lyrical-Numismatical Poem," ("La Napoleonide ; Poeme lyrique-numisma- tique," 1810.) Died about 1845. Pe-tro'ni-us, [Fr. Petrone, pi'tRon',] or, more fully, Petro'nius Ar'biter, a licentious Latin writer, sup- posed to have lived in the reign of Nero. He described the vices of his time in a satire or novel, in mingled prose and verse, entitled " Satyricon," fragments of which are extant. His style is classical, and the work displays much talent, but is extremely licentious. The author of this is supposed to be identical with Petronius, a refined voluptuary who figured at the court of Nero as arbiter elegantice, (umpire of fashion and taste,) and who killed himself in 66 A.D. See Tacitus, " Annales," book xvi. ; J. C. von Orelli, "Lec- tiones Petronianae." 1836; Dunlop, " History of Fiction;" " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Petrunti, pk-tRoon'tee, (Francesco,) a skilful Italian surgeon, born at Campobasso in 1785. He practised at Naples, and wrote a "Treatise on Surgery," (2 vols., 1822.) Died in 1839. Petrus, the Latin for Peter, which see. Petrus Aponis. See Abano, (Pietro di.) Petrus Blesensis. See Peter of Blois, Pe'trus Patricius (pa-trish'e-us) et Mag'is-ter, a Byzantine historian of the sixth century, was born at Thessalonica. He wrote a work on the history of the empire under Tiberius and several of his successors, some portions of which have been preserved. Petter, pet'ter, (Anton,) a German painter of history, born at Vienna in 1783. He gained the grand prize for his " Death of Aristides," and became director of the Academy of Vienna in 1830. He painted many clas- sical subjects. He excels in harmony and brilliancy of colouring. Pettigrew, pet'te-gru, (Thomas Joseph,) an English surgeon, antiquary, and biographer, born in London in 1790. He was admitted to the College of Surgeons in 181 2. He published, besides other works, a "History of Egyptian Mummies," (1834,) a "Medical Portrait- Gallery, or Memoirs of Celebrated Physicians and Sur- geons," a " Life of Lord Nelson," and a work " On Superstitions connected with the Practice of Medicine," (1844.) Died in 1865. Pettiti, pgt-tee'tee, Count, an Italian general, was second chief of the staff in the army led by the king against the Austrians in June, 1866, Pettrich, pSt'tRlK, (Franz,) a Bohemian sculptor, born in 1770, became professor in the Academy of Arts at Dresden. Died in 1844. His son Ferdinand, born at Dresden in 1798, studied under Thorwaldsen at Rome. He has produced several works of superior merit. Pet'tus, (Sir John,) an English writer, born in Suf- folk. He became deputy governor of the royal mines, and published "The History, Laws, ai>d Places of the Chief Mines in England and Wales," (1670.) Died about 1690. Petty, (Henry.) See Lansdowne. Petty, (William.) See Shelburne. Pet'ty, (Sir William,) an eminent English political economist, was born at Romsey, in Hampshire, in 1623. He became professor of anatomy at Oxford in 1650, and physician of the army in Ireland in 1652. He served Henry Cromwell as secretary while he was lord lieutenant of Ireland, about 1655. His reputation is founded on his writings on commerce and political economy, on which subjects he was in advance of his age. Among his works are a "Treatise on Taxes and Contributions," (1662,) "Political Arithmetic," (1682,) and "The Political Anatomy of Ireland," (1692.) One of his sons became Baron Shelburne, Died in 1687. See a "Notice of Sir William Petty," prefixed to his "Political Arithmetic," by his son : Wood, " Aihenae Oxonienses." Pet'tyt or Pet'yt, (William,) an English writer on law, born in Yorkshire in 1636. He was keeper of the records of the Tower. Among his works is " Parliament- ary Law," ("Jus Parliamentarium," 1739.) Died in 1707. Peucer, poits'er, [Lat. Peuce'rus,] (Kaspar,) a German scholar and physician of high reputation, born at Bautzen in 1625, married a daughter of Melanchthon. He became professor of medicine at Wittenberg about 1559. Having offended the Lutherans by advocating some doctrines of Melanchthon, he was confined in prison about eleven years, (1574-85,) and treated with rigour. He wrote numerous works on geometry, theology, and medicine; also an account of his imprisonment, "His- toria Carcerum Peuceri," (1604.) Died in 1602. See Leupold, " Lebensbeschreibung Peucers," 1745; Heimburg, " De Casp. Peiicero," 1842; Niceron, "Memoires;" Ersch und Griirer, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Peucerus. See Peucer. Peu-ges'tas or Peii-kes'tas, [Gr. ITev/cearaf,] an offi- cer of Alexander the Great. He attended that prince's person in the expedition against Persia, and gained his favour in a high degree. He was appointed satrap of Persia in 331 or 330 B.C., and joined Alexander's army at Babylon with about 20,000 Persians in 323. Having co-operated with Eumenes against Antigonus, he was deprived of his satrapy by the latter in 316 B.C. Peuchet, puh^shi', (Jacques,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1758. He published, besides other works, "Statistics of France and its Colonies," (7 vols., 1803,) "Commercial Library," (" Bibliotheque commer- ciale," 12 vols., 1802-06,) and a "Dictionary of Political Economy," (4 vols., 1810.) Died in 1830. Peukestas. See Peucestas. Peurbach. See Purbach. Peut, puh, (Franqois Marie Hippolyte,) a French publicist and economist, born at Lyons in 1809. He published several journals and pamphlets. Peuteman, puh^'teh-min', (Niklaas or Pieter,) a Dutch painter, born at Rotterdam about 1654. He painted, with success, still life, cemeteries, and allegori- cal subjects. His death was hastened by fright. As he was working in an anatomical cabinet, he fell asleep among some skeletons. On awaking, he was horrified by seeing them move rapidly and jostle against each other. This was the effect of the earthquake of Sep- tember 18, 1692. He died the same month. Peutinger, pu'tin-ger, [Ger. pron. poi'ting'er; Lat. Peutinge'rus,] (Conrad,) an eminent German scholar and antiquary, born at Augsburg in 1465. He was secre- tary of the city of Augsburg, and councillor to the empe- ror Maximilian. He -was a diligent collector of statues, medals, inscriptions, etc., and is called the founder in Germany of the science of Roman and German antiqui- ties. He published "Convivial Discourses," ("Sermones conviviales," 1506,) "Old Roman Inscriptions," ("In- scriptiones vetustae Romanae," 1520,) and other works. Died in 1547. See J. C. Wendler, " De Vita et Mentis Peutingeri ;" Lotter, "Vita Peutingeri," 1729; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Peutingerus. See Peutinger. Peyer, pi'er, (Johann Conrad,) a Swiss anatomist, born at Schaffhausen in 1653. He was professor of logic and physical sciences at his native place, and wrote several works on anatomy. He was the first who described accurately the small bodies called Peyer's glands. Died in 1712. Peyrard, pi'rtR', (Francois,) a French mathema- tician, born at Vial (Haute-Loire) in 1760. He pub- lished a treatise " On Nature and its Laws," (4th edition, 1794,) and other works. His translations of the works of Archimedes (1807) and of Euclid (3 vols., 1814-18) are said to be the best in the French language. Died in 1822. 3, e. 1 6 u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nftt; good; moon; FEY RAT PFEIFFER Peyrat, pi'rt', (Alphonse,) a French journalist and political writer, born at Toulouse in 1812. He became an assistant editor of Girardin's " Presse" about 1844, Peyre, pSR, (Anioine Fran(;ois,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1739. He gained the grand prize in 1763, and became a member of the Institute. He pub- lished some works on architecture. Died in 1823. See QuATREMfeRE DE QuiNCY, " Notice sur A. F. Peyre," 1824. Peyre, (Antoine Marie,) an architect, born in Paris in 1770, was a nephew of the preceding. He was ap- pointed architect of the Palais de Justice in 1809. Among his works are the Salle de Spectacle of Soissons, and the restorations or additions to the Palais de Justice in Paris. Died in 1843. Peyre, (Marie Joseph,) a French architect, father of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1730. He pub- lished "Architectural Works," ("CEuvres d'Architec- ture," 1765.) Peyre and Waillywere architects of the theatre of Paris called the Odeon. Died in 1785. Peyrere, de la, deh It pk^raiR', (Isaac,) a French writer, born at Bordeaux in 1594. He pul)lished, be- sides other works, one entitled " Pre-Adamites," (" Prie- adamitae," 1655,) in which he maintained that some men were created before Adam. Died in 1676. Peyrilhe, pi'R^F or pk-re'ye, (Bernard,) a French physician, was born at PompigiTaTn in 1737 ; died in 1804. Peyron, pi'roN', (Jean FRANgois Pierre,) a French historical painter, born at Aix, in Pravence, in 1744. He gained the grand prize in 1773, studied the antique in Rome, and promoted the reformation of the French school. Died in 1814. Peyron, pi'r6N', (Victor Am6d6e,) Abb6, an Ori- entalist, born at Turin in 1785. He published a " Lexicon of the Coptic Language," (1835,) and other works. Peyronie. See La Peyronie. Peyronnet, de, deh pi'ro'n^', (Charles Ignace,) Count, a French politician and lawyer, born at Bor- deaux in 1778. He was minister of justice from 1821 to January, 1828, and became minister of the interior in May, 1830. He procured in 1825 the passage of a very unpopular and odious law against sacrilege. Having been convicted of treason in 1830, he was imprisoned six years in the fortress of Ham. Died in 1854. Peyssonel, pi'so'n^K, (Charles,) an antiquary, father of the following, was born at Marseilles in 1700. He explored the coasts of Asia Minor, where he co\- lected marbles. He wrote a " Memoir on the Kings of Bosphorus," and "Travels in the Levant." Died in 1757. Peyssonel, (Charles,) a French political writer, born at Marseilles in 1727. He was consul at Smyrna and in the Crimea. He wrote, besides other works, "The Numbers," ("Les Numeros," 4 vols., 1784,) and "The Political Situation of France, and its Relations with all the Powers of Europe," (2 vols., 1790.) Died in 1790. Peyton, pa'ton, (Baillie,) an American lawyer and orator, born in Sumner county, Tennessee. He repre- sented a district of Tennessee in Congress from 1833 to 1837, voted with the Whigs, and was sent as minister to Chili about 1850. Pezarese, II, a name of the painter Cantarini. (See Cantarini.) Pezay, de, deh peh-zk', (Alexandre Fr^:deric Jacques Masson — mt's6N',) Marquis, a French writer of prose and verse, born at Versailles in 1741. He gave lessons in tactics to Louis XVI. Among his works are "Series of Trifles," ("Suite des Bagatelles," 1767,) and "Helvetian Evenings," ("Les Soirees Helvetiennes," 1771.) Voltaire addressed to him some verses. Died in 1777. Pezenas, piz'ni' or peh-zeh-ni', (Esprit,) a French Jesuit and mathematician, born at Avignon in 1692. He published " Memoirs on Mathematics and Physics," (5 vols., 1756,) an "Astronomy for Mariners," (1766,) and other works. Died in 1776. Pezet, pi-thgt', (General Juan Antonio,) a Peruvian statesman, who became vice-president of Peru in Octo- ber, 1862, and at the death of San Ramon succeeded to the presidency, in April, 1863. He was removed, or ceased to be president, about the end of 1865. Pezron, p§z'r6N', (Paul,) an able French chronolo- gist and philologist, born in Bretagne in 1639. He wrote "The Antiquity of the World (des Tlv^/jj Restored and Defended," (1687,) in which he argued that the world was created 5872 years before the Christian era. Died in 1706. Pfaff, pf^f, (Christoph Matthaus,) an eminent Ger- man Protestant theologian, born at Stuttgart in 1686, was a man of great erudition. He became professor of theology at Tubingen in 171 7, and received the title of count palatine in 1724. He wrote (in Latin) numerous works, among which are " Institutions of Dogmatic and Moral Theology," (1719,) remarkable for mental inde- pendence, and " Introduction to the Literary History of Theology," (1720.) He became dean of the faculty at Giessen in 1756. Died in 1760. See Leporin, " Nachricht von C. M. Pfaffens Leben," etc., 1726 ; HiRSCHiNG, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." Pfaff, (Johann Christoph,) father of the preceding, was born in Wiirtemberg in 1631. He was professor of theology at Tiibingen, and wrote several works. Died in 1720. Pfaff, (Johann Friedrtch,) a mathematician, born at Stuttgart in 1765. He became professor of mathe- matics at Halle in 1810. Among his works are "Ana- lytic Essays mostly relating to the Integral Calculus," etc., (1797.) Died at Halle in 1825. Pfaff, (Karl,) a German historian, a son of the pre- ceding, published a "History of Wiirtemberg," (2 vols., 1818-21,) and other histories. Pfanner, pf^n^ner, (Tobias,) a German historian, born at Augsburg in 1641. He was keeper of the archives at Gotha. Among his works is a " History of the Peace of Westphalia," (1679.) Died in 1716. Pfeffel, pfgffel, (Christian Friedrich von Krie- gelstein — fan kRee'gel-stin',) a historian, born at Col- mar, Upper Rhine, in 1726. His chief work is a "Chronological Epitome of the History of the Public Law of Germany," in French, (1754; 5th edition, 1766.) Died in 1807. Pfeffel, (Gottlieb Konrad,) a distinguished Ger- man fabulist and poet, brother of the preceding, born at Colmar in 1736, became blind while pursuing his studies at Plalle. He was appointed in 1803 president of the Evangelical Consistory at Colmar. Died in 1809. See RiEDER, " G. C. Pfeffel; biog;raphischer Versuch," 1820; Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Pfeflferkorn, pf^f fer-koRn', (Johann,) a German Jew, who was converted to Christianity, and, in excess of zeal, advised the emperor to burn all Jewish books except the Bible. He lived about 1500. Pfeiffer, pfif fer, (Augustus,) a German scholar, and professor of Oriental literature at Leipsic, was born in Lower Saxony in 1640. He wrote a number of works in relation to Jewish antiquities and Biblical criticism. Died in 1698. See J. E. Pfeiffer, " Memoria A. Pfeifferi," 1700. Pfeiffer, (Burchard Wilhelm,) a German jurist and publicist, born at Cassel in 1777. He published "Prac- tical Deductions concerning all Parts of Jurisprudence," (8 vols., 1825-46,) and other works. Died in 1852. Pfeiffer, fi'fer, (Carl,) a skilful architect, born in Brunswick, Germany, in 1834. At the age of sixteen he came to the United States, and passed several years as assistant architect in Ohio and other parts of the West. He afterwards spent four years in the same capacity in the city of New York. In 1864 he commenced business on his own account, and soon acquired a high reputation as an excellent architect. Among the buildings designed and erected by him are the church of the Messiah, the Roosevelt Hospital, and the mansion of Mr. Barroda, one of the largest houses in New York, and, for its admirable arrangement, probably unsurpassed, if not unequalled, by any other private dwelling in the United States. His plans have recently been accepted for the New City Hospital, and other public buildings belonging to New York City. Pfeiffer, pflffer, (FRANgois Louis,) a Swiss general, born at Lucerne in 17 16. He served with distinction in the French army, (1734-75.) Died in 1802. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^='See Explanations, p. 23.) PFEIFFER 1782 PHARNABAZUS Pfeififer, (Ida,) Madame, a celebrated German trav- eller, born in Vienna about 1795. ^'^^ March, 1842, for Asia Minor, where she spent nearly a year, and in 1845 iii^ide the tour of Sweden, Norway, and Iceland. In 1846 she undertook a journey round the world, which she accomplished in a little more than two years, after encountering great hardships and dangers. She pub- lished in 1850 "A Woman's Journey round the World, from Vienna to Brazil, Chili, Tahiti, China, Hindostan," etc. In 1851 she entered upon a second journey, having received for this purpose a sum of money from the Aus- trian government. Her account of this expedition ap- ])eared in 1855, under the title of ** A Second Voyage round the World, from London to the Cape of Good H()|)e, Borneo, the Moluccas, California, Peru, and the United States." Died in 1858. Pfeiffer, (Johann J'riedrich,) a German economist, born at lierlin in 1718. He wrote many works on rural and political economy, among which is a " Treatise on all the Economical Sciences," (4 vols., 1770-78.) Died in 1787. Pfeiffer, (Louis,) a Swiss general, born at Lucerne in 1530. He fought for Charles IX. of France against the Huguenots. Died in 1594. Pfeiffer, (Louis Geokg Karl,) a German naturalist and physician, a son of Burchard Wilhelm, noticed above, was born at Cassel in 1805. He published a number of treatises on botany and conchyliology, among which may be named "Monograph of Living Snails," ("Mono- graphia Heliceorum Viventium," 3 vols., 1847-53,) ^""^ a " Flora of Hesse," (2 vols., 1847-55.) Pfeniiinger, pfen'ning-er, (Henri,) a Swiss engraver, born at Zurich in 1749. He engraved portraits for Lavater's '* Physiognomy," which are admired. Died in 181 5. Pfeniiinger, (Matthias,) a Swiss designer and en- graver, born at Zurich in 1739. He engraved Swiss landscapes with skill. Died about 1810. Pfinzing or Pfintzing, pffnt'sing, (Melchior,) a German poet, born at Nuremberg in 148 1. He com- posed a dull poem called " The Adventures of Theuer- dank," (15 17.) This edition was adorned with more than one hundred fine engravings, and was a master- piece of typography. Died in 1535. Pfister, pfis'ter, (Albrecht,) a German printer, born about 1420. He made use of movable types ; but it is not known whether he was an assistant of Gutenberg or invented them himself. His i^rincipal work is a Latin 36-line Bible, in 3 vols. fol. Died about 1470. Pfister, (Johann Christian,) a German historian, born near Marbach in 1772. He wrote a "History of Suabia," (5 vols., 1803-27,) and a "History of the Ger- mans," (5 vols., 1830-35.) He became minister of a church at Stuttgart, where he died in 1835. See Ersch iind Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." Pfizer, pflt'ser, (Gustav,) a German critic and littera- tetir, born at Stuttgart in 1807. Among his principal works are a " Life of Martin Luther," an " Essay on Uhland and Ruckert," (1837,) and a "History of Alex- ander the Great, for the Young," (1846.) See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Pfizer, (Paul Achatius, ) a German publicist, a brother of the preceding, was born at Stuttgart in 1801. Pforr, pfoR, (Johann Georg,) a distinguished Ger- man painter of animals, was born at Upfen, in Saxony, in 1745. He painted horses, hunting-scenes, battles, etc. with much skill. Died in 1798. Phadl. See Fade. Phaeax, fee'aks, [4>am^,] an Athenian orator, who was sent as ambassador to Sicily in 422 B.C. He is men- tioned by Plutarch as one of the two persons capable of competing in some degree with Alcibiades, — i.e. when the latter first entered the public service. Phaedon, fee'don, or Phaedo, fee'do, [af(5wv,] a Greek philosopher, born at Elis. He came to Athens about 400 B.C., and was a disciple of Socrates, after whose death he founded a school of philosophy at Elis. His writings have not come down to us. The name of Phae- don is the title of a celebrated dialogue of Plato. See Diogenes Laertius ; Suidas, "Plijedon." Phaedra, fee'dra, [Gr ^ai6pa ; Fr. Phedre, fidR,] a daughter of Minos and Pasiphae, was the wife of The- seus, King of Athens. She is said to have indulged a guilty passion for her step-son Hippolytus, and to have caused his death by a false accusation. Phaedrus, fee'drus, [Gr. ci(5pof ; Fr. PnfeDRE, f|dR,] a Greek Epicurean philosopher, was a friend of Cicero. He was the head of the Epicurean school at Athens from 80 to 70 B.C., and wrote a work which Cicero used freely in composing the first book of his " Natura Deorum." Phaedrus, a Latin fabulist, who wrote about 20 or 30 A.D., was originally a slave. He was probably born in Thrace or Macedonia. It is supposed that he belonged to Augustus, and was liberated by him. He left ninety- seven fables in iambic verse, the subjects and ideas of which are partly borrowed from /Esop. They are ad- mired for the purity and simplicity of the style. See Lindner, " Bemerkungen iiber den Phaedrus," 1782; ScHvvABE, "Vita Phjedri," 1806. Phaser, (Thomas,) a Welsh poet and physician, born in Pembrokeshire. He translated the first nine books of Virgil's " yEneid" into English verse. Died in 1560. Pha'e-thon or Pha'e-ton, [Gr. ^aeduv; Fr. Phae- thon, ft'a't6N',] a mythical personage, called a son of Helios (the Sun) or Phoebus. His name signifies " the Shining." The poets feigned that, in his youthful pre- sumption, he persuaded his father to permit him to guide for one day the chariot of the sun, that he was unable to control the fiery coursers, which ran out of the right course and came too near the earth, that Jupiter killed Phaethon with a thunderbolt, and he fell into the river Po. Phalanthe. See Phai.anthus. Pha-lan'thus, [Gr. ^uTiavOoc ; Fr. Phalanthe, fl'- l6Nt',] a Spartan chief, who founded a Greek colony at Tarentum about 708 B.C., and subdued the natives of the adjacent country. PhaPa-ris, [Gr. ^akain^,] a ruler of Agrigentum, in Sicily, notorious for his cruelty. He began to reign about 570 B.C., according to Eusebius and Suidas. He rendered his name infamous by burning his victims in a brazen bull. Tradition adds that he was deposed by Telemachus, the ancestor of Theron, and suffered the same cruel death which he had inflicted on others. Cer- tain epistles ascribed to Phalaris were the subjects of a celebrated controversy between Boyle and Bentley, who demonstrated them to be spurious. See Suidas, "Phalaris ;" Cicero, " De Officiis," ii. and iii. Phalereus. See Demetrius Phalereus. Pha'ni-as [avmf] or Phaenias, fee'ne-as, [$amaf,] a Greek philosopher, born in Lesbos, was one of the most eminent disciples of Aristotle, and was a friend of Theophrastus. He wrote many works on logic, history, etc. See Vossius, " De Historicis Gr^cis ;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca." Phan'o-cles, [^^avoKl^q,] a Greek elegiac poet, who lived probably between 350 and 300 B.C. He wrote a poem called "Epwref r} Kakoi, of which a fragment is extant. This is niuch admired by some critics. See Smith, "Greek and Roman Biography," etc. Phan-o-de'mus, [4>aTO(5?7^of,] an Athenian historian of uncertain period. He lived before the Christian era. He wrote a work on the antiquitie? of Attica, entitled 'kTd'ir, of which fragments are extant. Pha'on, [Gr. a«v,] a mariner or boatman of Lesbos, celebrated as a favourite of Sappho. According to the fable, Venus endowed him with youth and beauty because he once carried her across the water without charge. Phar'a-mond, a king of the Franks, who is sup- posed to have reigned in the first half of the fifth cen- tury. His history is involved in obscurity, and is the subject of some romances. The first historian who mentions him is Prosper Tyro. Pharnabaze. See Pharnabazus. Phar-na-ba'zu.s, [Gr. ^apvuSaCpg ; Fr. Pharnabaze, ftR'nt'btz^,] a Persian satrap, governed the provinces near the Hellespont, under Darius II. He was an ally of the Spartans in the war against the Athenians, and was defeated by Alcibiades, near Abydos, in 409 B.C. He was defeated in 395 by the Spartans, under Agesilaus, who had invaded his province. Pharnabazus and Iphic- a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fdt; mSt; ndt; good; moon^ PHARNACE 1783 PHIL A rates commanded an expedition to Egypt in 374, which was a failure. See Xenophon, " Hellenica," books i., iii., and iv. Pharnace. See Pharnaces. Phar^na-ces [Gr. ^apvuKjjg ; Fr. Pharnace, flR^- nts'] I., King of Pontus, was a son of Mithiidates IV., whom he succeeded about 190 B.C. He invaded Galatia in 181, and was opposed with success by Eumenes. He was succeeded by his son, Mithridates V. Pharnaces II., King of Pontus, was a son of Mithri- dates the Great. He conspired against his father after his defeat by the Romans, (about 63 B.C.,) and was supported by the army. He made peace with Pompey, who recog- nized him as King of the Bosphorus. During the civil war of Rome he seized Pontus, and provoked the hos- tility of Caesar. He was defeated by the Romans and killed in battle in 47 B.C. Phavorinus Varinus. See Guarino. Phedre. See Ph.-edra and Ph^drus. Pheidias. See Phidias. Pheidon. See Phidon. Phelippeaux, de, deh feh-le'po', or Philippeaux, fe'le'po, (Antoine le Picard — leh pe'ktR',) a French officer, born in Poitou in 1768. He emigrated in 1791, fought against the republic, and procured the escape of Sir Sidney Smith from prison, (1797.) Having entered the British service, he distinguished himself at the defence of Acre, where he directed the artillery, in 1799. Died at Acre the same year. Phelps, ( Almira Hart Lincoln,) an American teacher and educational writer, born at Berlin, Connec- ticut, in 1793. She was for many years associated with her sister, Mrs. Emma Willard, as teacher of the Female Seminary, Troy, New York, and in 1841 took charge of the Patapsco Institute, Maryland. Among her principal works are " Familiar Lectures on Botany," " Geology for Beginners," (1832,) "Lectures on Natural Philoso- phy," (1835,) and "Hours with my Pupils," (1859.) Phelps, (Anson Greene,) an American merchant, born at Simsbury, Connecticut, in 1781, became president of the New York Blind Asylum, and of the American board of commissioners for foreign missions. He died in 1853, bequeathing to various charitable institutions the sum of $371,000. Phelps, (Elizabeth Stuart,) an American writer, a daughter of Professor Moses Stuart, D.D., was born at Andover, Massachusetts, in 181 5. She published a number of moral and religious tales, which obtained great popularity. Among these we may name "The Kitty Brown Series," (1850,) "The Sunny Side," (1851,) " Peep at Number Five," (1851,) and "The Angel over the Right Shoulder," (1851.) Died in 1852. Her daughter, of the same name, has written, besides other works, "The Gates Ajar," (1868,) which has had an almost unexampled popularity, having in less than one year passed through more than twenty editions. Phelps, (John S.,) an American politician, born in Hartford county, Connecticut, in 1814. He emigrated to Springfield, Missouri, in 1837, and was elected to Congress in 1844. He also represented the sixth dis- trict of Missouri in Congress for several terms, ending about 1862. He was appointed military Governor of Arkansas by President Lincoln in 1862. Phelps, (John W.,) an American general, born at Guilford, Vermont, in 1 813, graduated at West Point in 1836. He became a captain in 1850, and resigned his commission in 1859. He was appointed a brigadier- general in 1861, and served under General Butler in the expedition against New Orleans. In December, 1861, he issued a proclamation against slavery, which was disapproved by General Butler. He resigned in July or August, 1862. Phelypeaux. See Maurepas and Pontchartrain. Pherecrate. See Pherecrates. Phe-rec'ra-tes, [Gr. (^epeKpurrjg ; Fr. Pherecrate, fk'ri'kktt',] an Athenian poet of the old comedy, wrote about 430 B.C., and was a contemporary of Plato and Aristophanes. Small fragments of his plays are extant. He invented a new metre, called Pherecratic. His dic- tion is elegant, and his plots are ingenious. See Meineke, " Fragmenta Comicorum Grsecoriim.."^ Pherecyde. See Pherecyl>es. Pher-e-9y'des, [Gr. ^epeKvdrig ; Fr. PhErEcyde, fk'- rk'sbcV,] a Greek philosopher, born at Syros about 600 or 570 B.C., was the teacher of Pythagoras. He is said to have taught the doctrine of Metempsychosis, or the transmigration of the soul. Pherecydes, an Athenian historian, a contemporary of Herodotus, lived between 490 and 450 B.C. His chief work was a mythological history, in ten books, sometimes entitled Avroxdove^. Phid'i-as, written also Pheidias, [^eidcac,] regarded by many as the greatest sculptor and statuary that ever lived, was a son of Charmidas or Charmides. He was probably born at Athens between 500 and 485 B.C. The details of his personal history are very deficient, consid- ering his renown. His principal master was Ageladas, a sculptor of Argos. Among his earlier works were a colossal bronze statue of Athena Promachos, dated about 460 B.C., which stood on the Acropolis for many centuries, and an ivory or chryselephantine statue of Athena at Pellene. Having formed a new style, characterized by sublimity and ideal beauty, he obtained the friendship and patronage of Pericles, who about 444 B.C. began to adorn the Acropolis with works of art. " Phidias was appointed by Pericles superintendent of all the public edifices," says Plutarch, "although the Athenians had other eminent architects." The sculptured ornaments of the Parthenon, executed by Phidias and his disciples, exhibited a perfection which has never been surpassed, if equalled, by other artists. He formed with his own hand the colossal statue of Minerva which was enclosed within the Par- thenon and was dedicated in 438 B.C. It was chrysele- phantine, — that is, the naked parts were made of ivory and the drapery of gold. The height of this statue was nearly forty feet. It was his most celebrated work at Athens. His other master-piece was a colossal ivory and gold statue of Jupiter at Olympia, (Elis,) which was enclosed in the temple dedicated to that god. He was represented seated on a throne, holding in his right hand a statue of Victory. This figure, in the opinion of the Greeks, expressed and realized their highest ideal of supreme majesty and divine complacency. It was destroyed by fire at Constantinople about 475 a.d. Some of the Elgin marbles in the British Museum are considered to be works of Phidias. In the latter part of his life, Phidias was accused of defrauding the state of part of the gold appropriated to the statue of Minerva ; but, as Pericles ordered the gold to be taken off and weighed, this charge was abandoned ; for Phidias, by the advice of Pericles, had artfully con- trived that the gold could be easily taken off. According to Plutarch, he died in prison, into which he was thrown on a charge of impiety, because he had sculptured on the shield of Minerva images of himself and Pericles. Some writers ascribe his death to poison, and others doubt the truth of the statement that he was imprisoned. His death, however, occurred about 432 B.C. "The three greatest architects hitherto known in the world," says Ruskin, "were Phidias, Giotto, and Michael Angelo, — with all of whom architecture was only their play, sculpture and painting their work." In the course of his remarks on Repose as a test of greatness in works of art, Ruskin says, "We shall see by this light three colossal images standing up side by side, looming in their great rest of spirituality above the whole world- horizon, — Phidias, Michael Angelo, and Dante." See K. O. Mur.LER, " De Phidi^-e Vita et Operibus Commenta- tiones tres," 1827; Ersch iind Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklo- paedie;" " Nouvelle ]>io£;raphie Generale." Phi'don or Phei'don, [Gr. ^eldov,] a king of Argos and descendant of Hercules, is said to have changed the government of that state to a despotism about 750 B.C. He was the reputed inventor of weights and measures, and is said to have been the first prince who coined silver money. He was deprived of power or defeated by the Spartans and Eleians. PhiTa, [Gr. $;Za,] a daughter of Antipater, the Re- gent of Macedonia, was distinguished for her virtue and wisdom. She was married to Craterus, and after his death to Demetrius, the son of Antigonus. Died in 287 B.C. < as 9 as s; g /lard; g as J; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in tkis. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) PHIL^NI 1784 PHILIP Philaeni, fe-lee'nT, [Gr. ^i'kaLvoL,] two Carthaginians and brothers, whose name was rendered memorable by an act of patriotic devotion. When the boundary be- tween Carthage and Cyrene was disputed, the parties agreed that two men of each state should start at the same time and walk or run towards the other, and that the place where they met should be the boundary. The Philaeni traversed a greater space than the Cyrenians, who accused the former of unfairness. The Philaeni then offered to prove their honesty by a sacrifice of their lives, and were buried alive in the sand. Phi-la'gri-us, [^tXayp^of,] a Greek medical writer of Thessalonica, lived probably in the third century of our era. His works are lost, except small fragments. Phi-lam'mon, [^Lkdn^tov,] a mythical Greek poet and musician, was supposed to be the son of Apollo, the inventor of choral music, and the institutor of the Delphian worship of Apollo. Philander. See Philandrier. Philandrier, fe'16NMRe-i', [Lat. Philan'der, ] (GuiLLAUME,) a French scholar, born at Chatillon-sur- Seine in 1505. He published "Notes on Quintilian," (1535,) and "Annotations on Vitruvius," (1544.) Died in 1565. Philarete. See Philaretus. Philar^te, fe'irrit', or Phi-lar'e-tus, {Vasil Dro- SOF,) Metropolitan of Moscow, was born near Moscow in 1782. He became Bishop of Revel in 181 7. and Archbishop of Moscow in 1820. He published "Com- mentaries on Genesis," and other works. Died in 1867. Phi-lar'?-tus, [Fr. Philarete, fe^lS'rit',] the reputed author of a small Greek treatise " On the Pulse," which is sometimes attributed to Philotheus. Phi'le or Phi'les, (Manuel,) a Byzantine poet, born at Ephesus about 1275. He wrote, in barbarous Greek verse, a curious work, Wepl ^tj(ov I.6l6tt]toc, (" On the Nature of Animals,") which is extracted mostly from Elian's "Natural History." Died about 1340. PhiPe-as, [4>t/lmf,] a Greek geographer, born at Athens, lived probably several centuries before Christ. He is quoted by Dicaearchus. He wrote a " Periplus." Philelphe and Philelphus. See Filelfo. Phi-le'mon, [^i?iTj/j.(ov,\ an eminent Athenian comic poet, was born at Soli in Cilicia, or at Syracuse, about 360 B.C. He was a rival of Menander, and was the first poet of the new comedy in order of time. He began to exhibit comedies about 330 B.C., and obtained great favour with the Athenians. He gained several victories over Menander in dramatic contests. Fragments of his works are extant. He was a witty and elegant writer. Died about 262 B.C. His son, Philemon, was also a comic poet, but less famous. See SuiDAS, " Philemon ;" Meineke, " Menandri et Philemonis Reliquiae," and " Fragmenta Comicorum Grzecorum ;" Haupt- MANN, " Dlssertatio de Philemone," 1745. Philemon, a Greek grammarian, who lived probably between 600 and 700 A. D., was the author of a "Lexicon Technologicon," part of which is extant. Philemon, one of the primitive Christians, was a friend of the apostle Paul, who addressed to him an epistle, which is included in the canon of Scripture. Philepicus. See Philippicus. Philetaerus, fil-e-tee'rus, [^I'AeTaipo^,] an Athenian comic poet of the middle comedy. Little is known of his life or works. Philetcerus, the founder of the kingdom of Pergamus. He became king about 280 B.C., and died about 262 B.C., leaving the throne to his nephew Eumenes. Phi-le'tas [^iXrjTd^] of Cos, an eminent Greek poet and critic, who flourished between 350 and 290 B.C. He was the preceptor of Ptolemy Philadelphus. He wrote elegies and epigrams, and prose works on grammar. Fragments of his poems have come down to us. He was a favourite model of the poet Theocritus. See Ersch iind Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" N. Bach, " Piogianima de Piiileta Coo," 1828. PhiPe-us, sometimes written Phiteus, Pytheus, or Phileos, an eminent Greek architect, who lived about 25 B.C. He designed two magnificent edifices in Asia Minor, — viz., the Mausoleum and the temple of Athena Polias at Priene. PhiPi-bert [Fr. pron. fe'le'baiR'; It. Filiberto, fe-le- bgu'to; Lat. Philiber'tus] I., Duke of Savoy, a son of Amadeus IX., was born in 1464; died in 1482. Philibert II., Duke of Savoy, a son of Philip IL, was born in 1480. He succeeded his father in 1497, and died in 1504, leaving the dukedom to his brother, Carlo IIL Philidor. See Danican. Philieul, fe'le-uK, (Vasquin,) a French litterateur, was born at Carpentras in 1522. He published " Laura d' Avignon," {1548,) and "Toutes les CEuvres vulgaires de F. Petrarque," (1555.) Died about 1582. Phi-li'nus, [4>iAZyof,] a Greek physician, born in Cos, was a pupil of Herophilus. He lived about 250 B.C., and wrote a treatise on botany, which is not extant. He was the reputed founder of the sect of Empirici. Philinus, an Athenian orator, a contemporary of Demosthenes. Philinus, a Greek historian, who accompanied Han- nibal in his campaign in Italy, and wrote a History of the First and Second Punic Wars, which is not extant. He was a native of Sicily. PhiPip [Gr. on," 1847 ; CoMiNES, "Memoires;" Froissart, "Chronicles;" Barante, " Histoire des Dues de Bourgogne ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- rale." Philip of Orleans. See Orleans. PhiPip Au-gus'tus, [Fr. Philippe Auguste, fel^p' o'giist'' ; Lat. Philip'pus Augus'tus,] called Philip II., King of France, born in 1165, was the son of Louis VII., whom he'succeeded in 1180. He married Isabella of Hainault, a niece of the Count of Flanders. In the first part of his reign he banished the Jews and confiscated their property. He aided and abetted the sons of Henry II. of England in rebellion against their father. Having taken the cross in 1188, he raised an army and united with Richard I. of England in a crusade. They embarked at Genoa and Marseilles in 1190, passed the winter in Sicily, and arrived at Acre in the spring of 1191. Dis- sensions or jealousies having arisen between Philip and Richard, the former, on the pretext of ill health, aban- doned the enterprise, and arrived at Paris in December, 1191. (See Richard I.) A war ensued between Philip and the English king for the possession of Normandy, and lasted until the death of Richard, in 1199. The crimes and incapacity of John of England afforded a favourable opportunity to the ambition of Philip, who extended his dominions by the conquest of Normandy, Anjou, and Touraine, (1204-06.) In 1 2 13, at the instigation of Pope Innocent III., who had deposed John, Philip prepared to invade England. He was forced to renounce this enterprise by the abject submission of John to the pope, and by the loss of his fleet, which was defeated by the English. He invaded Flanders, the chief towns of which surrendered to his army, and gained in 1214 a decisive victory over the em- peror Otho IV. and the Flemings at Bouvines, where he commanded in person. He died in 1223, leaving his throne to his son, Louis VIII. SeeRiGORD, " De Gestis Philippi Augusti ;" Baudot de Juilly, "Histoire de Philippe Auguste," 1702; Capefigue, "Histoire de Philippe Auguste," 4 vols., 1829; Sismondi, "Histoire des Fran- gais;" Rvmer, " Foedera ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Philipon de la Madelaine, fe''l^'p6N' deh It mtd'- lin', (Louis,) a French litterateur, born at Lyons in 1734. He published a "Dictionary of Homonyms," (" Dictionnaire des Homonymes," 1 799,) a "Dictionary of the French Language," (1809,) and other works, which were received with favour. Died in 1818. PhiPi-pot, (John,) an English antiquary and herald, born in Kent. Among the works attributed to him is " Villare Cantianum, or Kent Surveyed." Died in 1645. Phi-lip'pa OF Hainault, a daughter of William, Earl, of Hainault, was married to Edward III. of Eng- land abc-ut 1326. She saved the lives of six citizens of Calais, whom Edward intended to put to death. Died in 1369. Philippar, fe'le'ptR', (FRANgois Aken,) a French writer on agriculture, born at Peuving, Austria, in 1801. He became director of the botanic garden at Versailles in 1841. Philippe, the French of Philippus, which see. Philippe, (Kings of France.) See Philip. Philippe de Mons, fe^lep' deh m6N, a Belgian com- poser, born at Mons about 1522. He composed masses, motets, etc., and was the most famous Belgian composer of his time, except Orlando de Lasso. Philippe de NerL See Neri. Philippe de la Sainte-Trinite, fe'l^p' deh It siNt tRe'ne''t£', (Esprit Julien,) a French missionary, born in the Comtat in 1603. He preached in Syria, Persia, etc., and published " Itinerarium Orientale," (1649.) Died in 1671. Philippe le Bon. See Philip the Good. Philippe le Hardi. See Philip the Bold. Philippeaux. See Phelippeaux. Philippeaux, feOe'po', (Pierre,) a French revolu- tionist, born in the department of Orne in 1759. He was elected in 1792 to the Convention, in which he voted for the death of the king and an appeal to the people. He was proscribed by Saint-Just, arrested as an accomplice of Danton in March, 1794, and guillotined in the ensuing month. Philippi, fe'le'pe', (Henri,) a French Jesuit, born at Saint-Hubert, in the Ardennes, about 1575. He wrote several works on Chronology. Died in 1636. Phi-lip'pi-cus or Phi-lep'i-cus, also called Bar- danes. Emperor of Constantinople, was a son of Ni- cephorus Patricius. He began to reign in 711 A.D., and was deposed in 713. He was a partisan of Mono- thelism. Philippide. _ See Philippides. Phi-lip'pi-des, [Gr. ^iliTnTLdiK ; Fr. Philippide, fe^- le'p^d',] an Athenian comic poet, flourished about 300 or 330 B.C. His works are not extant. He was considered one of the best poets of the new comedy. He is said to have died of joy because one of his plays had gained the prize. His character is eulogized by Plutarch in the life of Demetrius. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca." Philippon. See Philipon. Philippon, fe'le^p^N', (Armand,) a French general, born at Rouen 'in 1761. He commanded at the siege of Badajos, in 1811 and 1812. Died in 1836. Philipp oteaux, fe^e^po'to', (F^lix Henri Em- manuel,) a French historical painter, born at Sedan in 1 81 5. He obtained a first medal in 1840. Among his works is the "Last Banquet of the Girondists," (1850.) Philippus OF AcARNANiA. See Philip of Agar- NAN I A. Phi-lip'pus, an impostor, whose proper name was Andriscus, pretended to be a son of Perseus, King of € as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23.) PHIL I FPUS 1788 PHILLIPS ^ Macedon. He obtained some success, but was expelled by the Roman general Q. Caecilius Metellus. Philippus, a son of Antiochus VIII., became King of Syria about 88 B.C., after fighting against Antio- chus X. Philippus OF Thessaloni'ca, an epigrammatic poet, who is supposed to have lived about 100 a.d. He com- posed many epigrams, which are in the Greek Anthol- ogy, and compiled a "Greek Anthology." Philippus, a physician, who lived about 150 A.D. and belonged to the sect of Empirici. He is mentioned by Galen, his contemporary. Philippus, [Fr. Philippe, fe'l^p',] (L. Marcius,) a Roman general, who became consul in 186 B.C. and again in 169. At the latter date he obtained the conduct of the Macedonian war. He invaded the territory of Perseus, King of Macedonia, without important results. He was censor in 164 B.C. Philippus, (L. Marcius,) a Roman orator, who be- longed to the popular party. He was consul in 91 B.C. with Sextus Julius Caesar, and was an enemy of M. Livius Drusus, the tribune of the people, by whose order Philip- pus was dragged to prison in the year just named. In 86 B.C. he was censor. He remained neutral in the war between Marius and Sulla, and was afterwards a friend of Pompey. He was one of the most eminent orators of his time, and was noted for his sarcastic wit. Horace refers to him in his Epistle i. : " Strenuus et fortis causis- que Philippus agendis clarus." He died after 76 B.C. Philippus, (L. Marcius,) a son of the preceding, was consul in 56 B.C. He married Atia, a niece of Julius Csesar, and thus became the stepfather of the emperor Augustus. He was neutral in the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. Philippus, (M. Julius,) a Roman emperor, was a native of Trachonitis. He obtained the imperial power by the murder of Gordian, in 244 a.d. The senate confirmed the choice of the army. He made peace with Persia in 244. In 248 or 247 A.D. he celebrated the thousandth anniversary of the origin of Rome. He was killed at Verona in 249 a.d., in a battle against Decius, who had usurped the title of emperor. According to Eusebius and other writers, Philippus was a Christian. His son, M. Julius Philippus, who had been asso- ciated with him in the empire, (247 a.d.,) was killed by the partisans of Decius, in 249 a.d. Philippus Augustus. See Philip Augustus. Phil'ips, (Ambrose,) an English poet and dramatist, born probably in Leicestershire about 1670. Among his early productions were six Pastorals, (about 1708,) and a " Letter from Copenhagen," in verse, (1709,) which was praised by Steele and others. His tragedy " The Distressed Mother" was performed with applause in 1712. It was highly commended in the " Spectator" by Addison and Steele, who were friends of the author. He was an adherent of the Whig party, and an object of Pope's ill-natured satire. He made a translation of Sappho's " Hymn to Venus," which Addison printed in the " Spectator," No. 223. His version of Sappho's "Ode to Lesbia" is praised by Addison, as "written in the very spirit of Sappho." (See " Spectator," No. 229.) He became secretary to Dr. Boulter, Primate of Ireland, in 1723, and for some time represented the county of Armagh in the Irish parliament. In 1733 became a judge of the prerogative court in Ireland. Died in 1749. The term "namby-pamby" is said to have been first applied to his style. See Johnson, " Lives of the English Poets." Philips, (Catherine,) an English poetess, born in London in 163 1. Her maiden name was Fowler. She translated Corneille's tragedy of " Pompey," and wrote poems, which were published in 1667. She was called by her admirers " the Matchless Orinda." Died in 1664. See " Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by L. S. Costello. Philips or Philipps, (Fabian,) an English political writer, born at Prestbury in 1601, was a lawyer and a partisan of Charles I. Died in 1690. Philips, (John,) an English poet, born at Bampton, Oxfordshire, in 1676. His first successful work was "The Splendid Shilling," a mock-heroic poem, (1703.) He produced in 1705 "Blenheim," a poem in imitation of the style of Milton. His principal work is a poem "On Cider," (1706,) in which he imitated Virgil's "Georgics" with some success. Died in 1708. See Johnson, "Lives of the English Poets." Phi-lis'cus, [^lKLgko^,] an Athenian comic poet of the middle comedy, wrote probably about 400 B.C. The titles of some of his plays are given by Suidas. Philiscus OF ^gina, a Cynic philosopher, who, according to Suidas, was a disciple of Diogenes the Cynic, and taught grammar to Alexander the Great. Philiscus OF Corcyra, lived about 290 B.C., and was one of the seven poets that formed the "Tragic Pleiad." His works are not extant. Philiscus OF Rhodes, a sculptor, who is believed to have flourished about 146 B.C. ; though some suppose him to have lived in the reign of Augustus. His works were placed in the temple of Apollo at Rome, for which they were probably originally designed. Meyer identifies the statue at Florence called Apollino with the Apollo of Philiscus. Phl-lis'ti-on, [^ikiaTLuv,] a Greek physician, born in Sicily or Italy, lived in the fourth century B.C. He was the teacher of Eudoxus the physician and astronomer. Phi-lis'tus, [Gr. ^iliaTog,] an eminent Syracusan his- torian and politician, born about 4^5 B.C. He aided Dionysius to obtain power in Syracuse about 405 B.C.. soon after which he was keeper of the citadel. About 396 he was banished, because he married a niece of Dionysius without his consent. He was recalled from exile by Dionysius the Younger, over whom he acquired much influence. He used this influence against Plato and Dion, and "employed his talents," says Plutarch, " in defence of the despotic policy." Having been de- feated in a naval battle by the party of Dion, in 356 B.C., he was killed, or killed himself to avoid falling into the hands of the victors. He wrote a " History of Sicily," which is lost. His style resembled that of Thucydides. Cicero characterizes him as "creber, acutus, brevis, pasne pusillus Thucydides." See Rayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Goeller, "Vita Philisti,"in his " De Situ et Origine Syracusarum." PhiPli-more, (John George,) M.P., an English writer on law, born in 1809. He wrote a " History of the Law of Evidence," and other works. Died in 1865. PhiPlip, (Arthur,) an English navigator, born in London in 1738, was the first governor of Botany Bay. Died in 1814. PhiPlip, (John,) a Scottish painter, born at Aberdeen about 1815, became a resident of London. Having visited Spain about 1852, he painted numerous success- ful pictures of Spanish life. Among his works are a " Scotch Fair," " The Letter-Writer of Seville," " El Pasco," "The Spanish Contrabandistas," and "The House of Commons." He was elected a Royal Acade- mician in 1859 or i860. Died in 1867. PhiPlips, (Charles,) an Irish barrister, born at Sligo about 1788. He practised with success in criminal cases in London, and gained a wide reputation by his speeches, the style of which is rather florid. He was for many years a commissioner of the insolvent debtors' court in London. He published, besides other works, "Recollections of Curran and some of his Contempo- raries," (1818.) Died in 1859. See "Edinburgh Review" for November, 1817; " Monthly Re- view" for December, 1819. PhiPlips or Philipps, (Edward,) a nephew and pupil of the poet Milton, was born in London in 1630. He wrote a "Life of Milton," (1694,) and published, besides other works, "Theatrum Poetarum," or a com- plete collection of the most eminent poets of all ages, with observations, etc., (1675.) It is supposed that he was assisted by Milton in this - work, which is highly esteemed. Died about 1680. See William Godwin, "Lives of Edward and John Phillips," iSis ; " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1815. Phillips, fiKlips, (Georg,) a Prussian historian, born at Konigsberg in 1S04. He was a Roman Catholic of the ultramontane party. In 185 1 he became professor of the history of law at Vienna, Among his works are a "History of Germany," (1834,) and a "Treatise on S, e, T, 6, ii, y, long; i, h, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; ^, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fllll, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; "PHILLIPS 1789 PHILO Canon Law," ( Kirchenrecht,) (5 vols., 1845-51.) Died in i860. Phillips, (John,) a brother of Edward, noticed above, was a pupil of Milton. He wrote *' Maronides," a parody of part of Virgil's " /Eneid," (1672,) a " Defence of Mil- ton," (" Miltoni Defensio,") and a few other works. See " Lives of Edward and John Phillips, Nephews and Pupils of John Milton," by William Godwin, London, 1815. Phillips, (John,) a nephew of William Smith the geologist, was born December 25, 1800. He assisted this uncle in the explorations and surveys which he made in order to prepare geological maps of England. He lectured on his favourite science with success at various places. In 1844 he obtained the chair of geology at Dublia. He wrote articles on geology, etc. for the *' Penny Cyclopaedia" and the " Encyclopaedia Britan- nica." Among his works are a "Treatise on Geology," (2 vols., 1837,) and "Palaeozoic Fossils of Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset," (1841.) He became pro- fessor of geology at Oxford in 1853, and president of the Geological Society in 1858. Phil'lips, (John,) LL.D., an American merchant, born at Andover, Massachusetts, in 1 719, founded an academy at Exeter, New Hampshire, called by his name, and gave a large sum to Phillips Academy, at Andover. Died in 1795. Phillips, (Morgan,) or Philip Morgan, a Welsh Catholic writer, graduated at Oxford in 1537. He was so skilful in disputation that he was called " Morgan the Sophister." He wrote in 1571 an answer to Knox's *' Blast of the Trumpet against the Regiment of Women." Phillips, (Sir Richard,) an English writer, born in London in 1767 or 1768, He published the "Monthly Magazine," which advocated liberal politics, and other works. Died about 1840. See " Memoirs of the Public and Private Life of Sir Richard Phillips." Phillips, (Richard,) F.R.S., an English chemist and pharmacist, born in 1778. He learned his profession with William Allen, of Plough Court, London, and ac- quired great skill as an analytic chemist. He wrote articles on chemistry and mineralogy for the " Penny Cyclopaedia." He lectured on chemistry at the London Hospital, and became president of the Chemical Society about 1850. Died in 1851. Phillips, (Samuel,) nephew of John Phillips, noticed above, (1719-95,) was born at North Andover in 1751, and rose through numerous offices to be Lieutenant- Governor of Massachusetts. He was the founder of Phillips Academy, Andover. Died in 1802. Phillips, (Samuel,) an English writer, born in Lon- don in 1815. He published "Caleb Stukely," a novel, and wrote tales for " Blackwood's Magazine" and other periodicals. He became an editor of the London "Times," for which he wrote able literary criticisms and reviews. In 1852 and 1854 he published two volumes of " Essays from the Times." Died in 1854. Phillips, (Thomas,) an English Catholic priest, born in Buckinghamshire in 1708. He published a "Life of Reginald Pole," (1764.) Died at Liege in 1774. Phillips, (Thomas,) an English portrait-painter, born at Dudley, in Warwickshire, in 1770. He was professor of painting in the Royal Academy from 1824 to 1832. Among his works are portraits of Sir Joseph Banks, Lord Byron, the poets Scott, Coleridge, and Southey, Lord Brougham, Sir Francis Chantrey, and Major Den- ham. Died in 1845. Phillips, (Sir Thomas,) an English antiquary, born in Worcestershire in 1792. He formed a great collection of manuscripts, and wrote several antiquarian treatises. Phillips, (Wendell,) an American reformer, dis- tinguished for his uncompromising hostility to the in- stitution of slavery and to oppression in every form, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, November 29, 1811. He graduated at Harvard in 183 1, studied law, and was ad- mitted to the bar in 1834. His sympathies were strongly aroused by the persecution of the early abolitionists, more particularly during the Boston mob, headed by "gentlemen of property and standing," in October, 1835, when Garrison narrowly escaped with his life. In 1836 he joined the abolitionists, relinquishing the practice of law because he was unwilling to act under an oath to the Constitution of the United States. In 1837 a meeting of the citizens of Massachusetts was called in Faneuil Hall for the purpose of expressing public condemnation of the murder of Lovejoy, who fell (November 7) at Alton, Illinois, in defence of the freedom of the press. The pro-slavery feeling in Boston was at that time very strong, and the object of the meeting was in imminent danger of being defeated through the influence of Attor- ney-General Austin, who asked how Mr. Lovejoy had merited the distinction of being thus commemorated, and whether he had not died "as the fool dieth." At the conclusion of his speech, Wendell Phillips arose, and, in a burst of indignant and powerful eloquence, rebuked the craven and sordid spirit of those who sought to defend or excuse that great crime against the liberty of the press and the rights of humanity. Dr. Channing, who had been chiefly instrumental in calling the meeting on that occasion, often referred to the speech of young Phillips before that vast assembly, many of whom were bitterly hostile to freedom, as "morally sublime." Be- lieving that the Constitution of the United States was an unrighteous compact between freedom and slavery, Mr. Phillips refused to recognize its authority by voting or in any other manner, and maintained that a dissolu- tion of the Union would be the most effectual mode of giving freedom to the slaves. In 1865 he succeeded Mr. Garrison as president of the American Anti-Slavery Society, which position he held until the dissolution of the society, April 9, 1870. Mr. Phillips is an accom- plished scholar, and one of the most eloquent orators in the United States. In addition to his labours in the anti-slavery cause, he has devoted no inconsiderable portion of his time and attention to the temperance movement and other reforms. His principal speeches and lectures have been published in an octavo volume, (Boston, 1863.) See Mrs. Stowe, "Men of our Times," Hartford, i868; "Golden Age of American Oratory," by Edward G. Parker, Boston, 1857. Phillips, (William,) F.R.S., an English mineralogist and geologist, born in London in 1773, was a brother of Richard, noticed above, and was a member of the Society of Friends. He distinguished himself by the accurate measurement of crystals by means of the reflective goniometer. He published "Outlines of Mineralogy and Geology," (4th edition, 1826,) and an "Introduction to the Knowledge of Mineralogy," (1816.) He aided Conybeare in an important work, — "The Geology of England and Wales," (1822.) Died in 1828. PhilPpptts or PhiPpptts, (Henry,) an English bishop, was born at Bridgewater in 1777 or 1778, and educated at Oxford. He obtained the living of Stanhope, became Dean of Chester in 1828, and Bishop of Exeter in 1830. He acted with the Tory party in the House of Lords, in opposing many measures of reform. He wrote many controversial works, among which is a "Letter on Catholic Emancipation," (1827.) He was regarded as the head of the extreme High-Church party in the House of Lords. Died in September, 1869. See "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1852; "Blackwood's Magazine" for June, 1827. PhiTo or Phi'lon, [4>i/l6jv,] a son of Anti pater, a Greek statuary, who lived about 330 B.C. He made a statue of Zeus Ourios, which stood on the shore of the Black Sea, near Chalcedon. Philo or Philon, an excellent Greek architect, worked at Athens about 320 B.C. He built the portico of twelve Doric columns of the great temple at Eleusis. Philo, a physician of the sect of Methodici, is men- tioned by Galen. The time in which he lived is unknown. Philo or Philon the Academic, a philosopher, born at Larissa, was a disciple of Clitomachus. He taught philosophy and rhetoric at Rome in the time of Cicero, who was one of his auditors or pupils. Philo, (Philon,) [4>4Awi^,] an ancient Greek physician, born at Tarsus in Cilicia, lived probably about the time of Augustus. He wrote, in Greek verse, directions for compounding an antidote called Philonium, which are preserved by Galen. Philo, (Q. PuBLiLius,) a Roman general, who was consul in 339 B.C. He procured the passage in that e as 5 as s; g hard; g as /; g, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2(^='See Explanations, p. 33.) PHILO PHILOSTRATUS year of the important Publilian laws, which increased the power of the plebeians. He was re-elected consul in 327 and in 320 B.C. In the latter year he defeated the Sam nites. Philo, (Philon,) [Gr. «I>awv,] called also Philo By- zantius, (be-zan'she-us,) a Greek mechanician, who lived in the second century B.C. He wrote a "Treatise on Military Machines and Missiles," part of which is ex- tant, — i.e. the fourth and fifth books, — and a treatise on mechanics. Philo [Fr. Philon, fe'l6N'] of Byblos, (Heren- Nius,) a Greek historian and grammarian, who lived between 50 and 125 a.d. Among his numerous works was an account of the reign, or part of the reign, of Hadrian. Suidas says he wrote peri tes basileias Adrianou. Philo made a translation of the History of Sanchoniathon, a Phoenician. Phi'lo(orPIn'lon) JudaB'us,(ju-dee'us,)fFr. Philon LE JuiF, fe'l6N' leh zhii-ef',] ("Philo the Jew,") a Greek philosopher, born at Alexandria, lived between 20 B.C. and 50 A.D. He was a member of the sacerdotal family, and was distinguished for learning and eloquence. He was a man of mature age when he was sent by the Jews of Alexandria on an embassy to Caligula, {40 A.D.) It appears that he was a believer in the Platonic philoso- phy. He wrote many works on the Jewish religion, on the interpretation of the Pentateuch, and other subjects. He is partial to figurative or allegorical interpretations. See J. Bryant, "The Sentiments of Philo Judjeus," 1798; Jo- SHPHUS, "Jewish Antiquities :" Fabkicius, " Bibliotheca Gr£eca ;" RiTTER, "History of Philosophy." Phi'lo or Phrion Thy-a-nSn'sis, an able geome- trician, whose period is unknown. He wrote on curved lines, and lived before 100 A.D. Phi-lo-eh'a-res, a Greek painter, mentioned by Pliny. He is supposed to be the same as the brother of M.'i- chines, who lived about 340 B.C. Phi-lo-eh'o-rus, S^Ckbxopoq^ a distinguished Athenian writer, who states that he held an office at Athens in 306 B.C. He wrote a work on the antiquities, legends, and history of Athens, entitled " Atthis," of which many frag- ments are extant. Suidas says he was put to death by order of Antigonus. According to some writers, he flourished between 306 and 260 B.C. PhiPo-cles, [/l£/(jv,] a chronologer, born at Tralles, in Lydia, lived in the first half of the second century. He was a freedman of the emperor Hadrian. His most im- portant work is called 'OXv/iTnoviKuv koL ;\;pow«:wv ovva- yciyrj. It is not extant. Saint Jerome cites him as a wit- ness to confirm the gospel narrative in relation to the miraculous darkness which occurred at the death of Christ. Phlegon states that in the fourth year of the 202d Olympiad there was a great eclipse of the sun at the sixth hour, and an earthquake in Bithynia. Phlegyas, flee'je-as, [Gr. w/of§f(Jaf,] a Spartan gene- ral, who commanded in the Olynthian war, (382 B.C.) He seized by treachery the Cadmeia of Thebes. He was killed in a battle against the Thebans about 378 B.C. PhcBbus, fee'bus, [Gr. *^ol6og; Fr. Ph^bus, f^'biis',] a name given by the Greeks to Apollo as god of the sun. (See Apollo.) Phoenix, fee'niks, [Gr. ^oivi^-, Fr, Ph^inix, fi'n^ks',] a mythological personage, whom tradition represents as King of the Dolopes, and preceptor of Achilles, whom he accompanied to the siege of Troy. The invention of the alphabet was ascribed to him. Phoenix, [Gr. a>riof,] an ambitious and highly-gifted Byzantine prelate and writer, was born of a noble family probably at Constantinople. He was a man of sound judgment and of profound and various erudition. After he had held several high civil offices, he was proto-secretarius under Michael HI. He be- came in 857 or 858 A.D. Patriarch of Constantinople in place of Ignatius, who was deposed by Bardas. The cause of Ignatius was supported by Pope Nicholas, who anathematized Photius in 862 or 863. A council as- sembled by Photius excommunicated the pope, and thus originated the great schism between the Western and Eastern Churches. In 867 the emperor Basil I. ban- ished PTaotius and restored Ignatius, whose rights were confirmed by an oecumenical council in 869. Photius gained the favour of Basil, and on the death of Igna- tius, in 877, was restored to his see, and was recognized by the pope, John VIII. A dispute about the jurisdic- tion of Bulgaria, however, revived the schism between the Greek and Roman Churches. Photius was banished by the emperor Leo VI. in 886 a.d., and died in exile a few years later. He is treated with more favour by Prot- estant writers than by the Roman Catholics. He was a voluminous author. His most important work, " Myrio- biblion, seu Bibliotheca," is a review or critical analysis of ancient Greek authors, and is considered one of the most precious monuments of ancient literature. He also left a Greek Lexicon, which was published in 1808. See Klose, " Geschichte und Lehre des Marcellus und Photius," 1837; Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire;" J. G. Philippi, "Commentatio de Photio," 1699; Ch. Faucher, "Histoire de Pho- tius," 1762; Maultrot, " Histoire de Saint-Ignace et de Photius," 1791 ; FoNTANi, "De Photio Novse Romae Episcopo;" Jaeger, "Histoire de Photius," 1844; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Phraates. See Arsaces. Phra-a'tes, King of Parthia, a son of Orodes, began to reigii in 37 B.C. He restored to Augustus in 20 B.C. the prisoners and ensigns taken from Crassus in 53 B.C. Phrad'mon [^(}u6ijluv\ of Argos, a Greek statuary, who lived about 425 B.C. He produced an Amazon for the temple of Diana at Ephesus, in competition \vith other eminent artists, several of whom were more suc- cessful than he in this trial of skill. Phran'za or Phran'zes, [Gr. ^pavrl^rj or 4>pavrC??c,] the last Byzantine historian, was born in 1401. He served the emperor Constantine XIII. as a diplomatist and soldier, and was captured by the Turks in 1453. He wrote a " Chronicon," or History, of the period from 1260 to 1477, which is highly prized. Phra-or'tes, [Gr. ^paopriij^,] King of Media, reigned from 656 to 634 B.C. He conquered Persia and other parts of Asia. He was killed at the siege of Nineveh, and was succeeded by his son Cyaxares. Phreas or Freas, frees, ? (John,) a learned Englis.h- man, born in London, studied medicine under Guarini at Ferrara. He produced some translations and poems. Died at Rome in 1465. Phry-gilTus, a very ancient and celebrated engraver of precious stones, was probably a native or citizen of Syracuse. Phry'ne, [^pvvT],] an Athenian courtesan, born at Thespiae, in Boeotia, lived in the fourth century B.C. She was the model of the statues of Venus produced by Praxiteles. Phryn'i-ehus, [^pvvixog,] an Athenian tragic poet, was a disciple of Thespis. He exhibited a play in 511 B.C., and made important improvements in the drama. He introduced masks representing females, but admitted only one actor. The chorus retained the principal place in his dramas. He gained a prize in 476 B.C. for his "Phoenician Women." His works are not extant. See Fabricius, " Hibliotlieca Grc-eca ;" K. O. Muller, "History of the Literature of Ancient Greece ;" J. G. Droysen, " Phrynichos, iEschylos und die Trilogie," 1841. Phryniohus, a distinguished Athenian comic poet of the old comedy, flourished about 430 B.C. His vigour and elegance are attested by the small fragments of his works which are extant. See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grseca ;" Meineke, " Fragmenta Comicorum Graecorum." Phryniohus, an Athenian general, had a high com- mand in 412 B.C. He co-operated with Theramenes and Antiphon in the revolution by which the Four Hundred came into power, in 411 B.C. Phryniohus, a Greek grammarian, (called Arrha- Bius by Photius,) lived about 180 a.d. He wrote " Eclogues of Attic Names and Verbs," (" Eclogae Nominum et Verborum Atticorum,") in which he taught the use of words as sanctioned by writers of the pure Attic diction. This work has been printed. Phryn' nis [Gr. ^pvvt^tg] or Phry'nis, an eminent dithyrambic poet, born at Mitylene, lived about 425 B.C. Phul or Pul, King of Assyria, reigned from 759 to 742 B.C. Menahem, King of Israel, was tributary to him. See II. Kings xv. 19. PhuU, fool, (Karl Ludwig,) Baron, born in Wiir- temberg, became a lieutenant-general in the Russian service, and was the author of several military works. Died in 1826. Phy-lar'-ehus, [Gr. <^v?iapxo^; Fr. Phylarque, fe'- l$Rk',] a Greek historian, born at Athens or Naucratis, in Egypt, lived about 215 B.C. He wrote a History of Greece from 272 to 220 B.C., of which only fragments are extant. His style was graphic and animated. Plutarch's lives of Cleomenes and Agis are said to be copied, or taken without much change, from Phylarchus. See J. F. Thoms, " Dissertatio de Phylarchi Vita et Scriptis," 1835 ; Voss, "De Historicis Graecis." Phylarque. See Phylarchus. Phyl'lis, [Gr. ^uAAfV,] in classic mythology, a daugh- ter of Sithon, King of Thrace, was betrothed to Demo- phoon, a son of Theseus. The poets feigned that she killed herself because he failed to come at the appointed time, and she was changed into an almond-tree. Phy-rom'a-ehus, [(l?vp6ftaxo^,] an able Athenian sculptor, lived about 410 B.C. He made the bas-reliefs on the frieze of the temple Athena Polias. He is prob- ably the same as the Pyromachus mentioned by Pliny. Phys'ick, (Philip Sing,) one of the most eminent of American surgeons, was born in Philadelphia in 1768. His father, Edmund Physick, was keeper of the great seal under the colonial government of Pennsylvania, and, after the Revolution, had charge of the estates of the Penn family. In 1785 he took the degree of A.B. in the University of Pennsylvania. Soon after, he commenced the study of medicine under Dr. Adam Kuhn. It is said that the first time he witnessed the amputation of a limb he fainted, and was obliged to be taken out of the room ; but he afterwards succeeded so completely in conquering this weakness of the nerves as to equal, if not surpass, any other surgeon of his time in steadiness of hand and perfect self-possession while performing an important operation. During his attendance at the Philadelphia College of Medicine, he had for his in- structors Dr. Shippen and Dr. Rush, who, with Dr. Kuhn, were lecturers in that institution. Early in the year 1789 Mr. Edmund Physick, accompanied by his son, visited London, where the young student was placed under the care of the celebrated John Hunter, by whose recommendation he was subsequently appointed to the post of house-surgeon at Saint George's Hospital. In one of Hunter's papers he compliments Dr. Physick on the accuracy of some physiological experiments which he had performed while house-surgeon at the hospital ; and such were the esteem and confidence which the great anatomist entertained for him that he actually invited him, we are told, to remain in London and take a share in his own extensive professional business. But this offer Dr. Physick thought proper to decline. Having in 1 791 received his license from the Royal College of Surgeons, in London, he repaired to Edinburgh, where he attended the medical lectures of the University, and in May, 1792, took his degree of doctor of medicine. He returned to Philadelphia in September of the same year. He distinguished himself by his faithful atten- 8, e, 1, o, u, y, /on^-; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, sAori; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^U, f^t; mfit; ndt; good; moon; PU 1793 PIC ART Hon to his professional duties during the frightful mor- tality caused by the yellow fever in 1793. The alarm was so great on that occasion that not only nearly all the citizens, who had it in their power to go away, fled from the city, but many of the physicians left also. Dr. Physick himself had an attack of fever ; but it appears to have been comparatively light. In 1798 he received a flattering testimonial to his courage and faithfulness during the epidemic* of that and preceding years, from the managers of the Marine and City Hospitals, ac- companied by a present of plate valued at more than a th')usand dollars. In 1800 he commenced, in Phila- delphia, a course of lectures on surgery, which were continued for several years. His success induced the trustees of the University to establish a professorship of surgery in the medical department of that institution, and to appoint Dr. Physick to the new chair. In 1819 he was transferred from the chair of surgery to that of anatomy, made vacant by the death of Dr. Dorsey. He resigned this position in 1831 ; and the trustees of the University, on accepting his resignation, unanimously elected him "Emeritus professor Of surgery and anat- omy." In 1825 he was elected a member of the French Royal Academy of Medicine, and was, it is said, the first American who received this honour. He closed his long and useful life on the 15th of December, 1837. He had married in 1800 Miss Emlen, of Burlington, by whom he had four children. See Gross, "Medical Biography," pp. 351-459; "Memoir of Dr. Physick," by his son-ui-law, Dr. Jacob Randolph ; " Necrological Notice of Dr. Physick," by Dr. Wm. E. Horner; "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. Pia, pe't', (Philippe Nicolas,) a French chemist, born in Paris in 172 1. He introduced reforms in public hygiene, and invented methods or apparatus for restoring the drowned. Died in 1799. Piacentini, pe-i-chgn-tee'nee, (Dionisio Gregorio,) an Italian antiquary, born at Viterbo in 1684. He pub- lished an "Epitome of Greek Palaeography," (1735.) Died in 1754. Piacentino. See Placentinus. Piacenza, Duke of. See Lebrun, (Charles Fr.) Piali Pasha, pe-^lee pl'shi^ an admiral, born in Hungary about 1520. He became capudan pasha in the service of the Sultan, who sent him in 1555 to aid Francis 1. of France. He gained in 1560 a decisive vic- tory over the fleet of Philip II. of Spain and his allies. In 1570 he commanded a fleet which Selim II. sent against Cyprus. Died in 1571. Piarron. See Chamousset, de. Piazza, pe-it'sS, (Andrea,) a painter of the Venetian school, born at Castelfranco ; died, at an advanced age, in 1670. Piazza, (Calisto,) a painter of the Venetian school, called Calisto da Lodi, was born at Lodi. He was a pupil and successful imitator of Titian, and was a good colorist. His works are dated 1524-56. He ex- celled in fresco. Among his best works is " The Mar- riage at Cana," a fresco at Milan. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy ;" Ridolfi, " Vite degii Pittori Veneti." Piazza, (Girolamo Bartolommeo,) an Italian Prot- estant, who taught French and Italian at Cambridge, England, and published "An Account of the Inqui- sition," (1722.) Died about 1745. Piazza, (Paolo,) an Italian painter, born at Castel- franco in 1557. He was employed by the em])eror Ru- dolph II. and by Pope Paul V. Having become a monk, he took the name of Cosimo. Died in 1621. Piazza, (Vincenzo,) Marquis, an Italian poet, was born in the Romagna in 1670. Among his works is the "Capture ot Bona," ("Bona espugnata," 1694.) Died at Parma in 1745. Piazzetta, pe-St-set'tJ, (Giovanni Battista,) a dis- tinguished painter, born at Venice in 1682. He was skilful in chiaro-oscuro. His master-piece is "The Be- heading of John the Baptist." The shades of his pictures have become too dark, from the effect of time. Died in 1754. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." * Yellow fever. Piazzi, pe-it'see, (Joseph,) an eminent astronomer, born at Ponte, in the Valtelline, Switzerland, in [uly, 1746. He entered the monastic order of Theatms, and studied under Tiraboschi and Lesueur. In 1780 he became professor of the higher mathematics at Palermo, where he founded an observatory. He visited Paris and London in 1787 and 1788. In 1803 he published a "Catalogue of Fixed Stars," which obtained for him a high reputation as an accurate observer. He discovered, on the 1st of January, 1801, the first of the asteroids, or small planets, whose orbit is between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. He gave it the name of Ceres. Among his works is a "Discourse on Astronomy," (1790.) He became director of an observatory at Naples in 181 7. Died at Naples in 1826. See ScROFANi, "Elogio del Piazzi," 1826; Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri," vol. i. Pibrac, de, deh pe'bRtk', [Lat. Pibra'chius,] (Gui du Faur — dii foR,) Seigneur, a French poet, orator, and lawyer, was born at Toulouse in 1529. He was sent as ambassador to the Council of Trent by Charles IX. in 1562, and obtained the office of president a 7nor- tier in 1577. He wrote a popular poem called "Fifty Quatrains, containing Useful Precepts," etc., (1574,) and other works. Died in 1584. See Paschal, " Vidi Fabricii Pibrachii Vita," 1584; L:^pine db Grainville and L'Abb^ Sepher, " Memoires sur la Vie de Pi- brac," 1761 ; Mayer, "Discours historique et critique sur Pibrac," 1778; De Thou, "Historia sui Temporis ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Pibrachius. See Pibrac. Pic de la Mirandole. See Pico. Picard, pe'ktR^, (Ernest,) a French advocate and radical politician, born in Paris in 1821. He was elected to the legislative body by the voters of Paris in 1858, in 1863, and in 1869. He became minister of finance Sep- tember 4, 1870. Picard, (Jean,) an eminent French astronomer, born at La Fleche, July 21, 1620. He was a priest and prior of Ville, in Anjou, when he observed with Gassendi the solar eclipse of August 25, 1645. He succeeded Gassendi as professor in the College de France in 1655. He was the first who applied the telescope to the meas- urement of angles, and was the inventor of the lunette d'epreuve. He is said to have invented the transit in- strument. His most important work was the measure- ment of an arc of the meridian of Paris between Amiens and Malvoisine in 1669-70, of which he wrote an account, entitled "LaMesurede la Terre," (1671.) " When he had," says Delambre, "so good reason to regard himself as the first astronomer of France, and even of Europe, he used his influence with Colbert to attract to France Cassini, whose reputation was already established." Died in 1682. See CoNDORCET, " filoge de Picard;" Arago, "Notices bio- graphiques," tome iii. ; Delambre, " Histoire de I'Astronomie moderne." Picard, (Louis BENofr,) a popular French dramatist, born in Paris in 1769. He produced in 1792 a comic opera called " Visitandines," which had great success. Among his popular comedies, in verse, are "The Col- lege Friends," (" Les Amis de College," 1795,) " Ordi- nary and Mean," ("Mediocre et Rampant," 1797,) and " The Ambitious Husband." He wrote dramas, in prose, entitled "The Small Town," ("La petite Ville," 1801,) and "The Puppets," ("Les Marionnettes," 1805.) In 1807 he was admitted into the French Academy. He delineates the manners of his time with much success, and displays a rich fund of witty sallies. Died in 1828. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Picart, pe'ktR', (BENotr,) a French historical writer and monk, born at Toul in 1663. He wrote a " History of the City and Diocese of Toul," (1707,) and other works. Died in 1720. Picart, (Bernard,) a French designer and engraver, born in Paris in 1673. He had a talent for the imi- tation of various masters, and obtained a high reputation. Having removed to Amsterdam in 1710, he worked for the booksellers, and lapsed into a degenerate manner. ?Ie engraved after his own designs, and after Poussin, Le Brun, and others. Died in 1733. « as 9 as s; g hard; g as G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^='See Explanations, p. 23.) 113 PIC ART 1794 PICHON Picart, (Etienne,) an eminent engraver, called Le ROMAIN, born in Paris in 1631, was the father of the preceding. He worked some years at Rome, and settled at Amsterdam in 17 10. His works, which consist of portraits and history, display more firmness than har- mony. Died at Amsterdam in 1721. Piccart, pik'k^Rt, (Michael,) a learned German philologist and philosopher, born at Nuremberg in 1574. He was professor of philosophy at Altdorf. He pub- lished, besides other works, a "Commentary on the Political Works of Aristotle," (1615,) which is com- mended. Died in 1620. Picchena, p^k-ka'nS, (Curzio,) an Italian philolo- gjst, born in Tuscany about 1 550. He published a good edition of Tacitus, (1607.) Died in 1629. Piccini, p^t-chee'nee, (Luigi,) a musician and com- poser, born at Naples in 1766, was a son of Niccolo. He composed operas which obtained little success. He was chapel-master to the King of Sweden from 1796 to 1801. Died in 1827. Piccini, p^t-chee'nee, or Piccinni, p^t-cheen'nee, (Niccol6,) a popular Italian composer, born at Bari, in the kingdom of Naples, in 1728. He studied under Leo and Durante at Naples. His serious opera " Zenobia" (1756) obtained a complete success. His reputation was widely extended by the comic opera "Good Little Daughter," ("La buona Figliuola," 1760,) which some consider his master-piece. In 1776 he removed to Paris, where he produced the operas of " Roland," (1778,) " Atys," etc. A great commotion and wordy warfare was raised by the rivalry between Piccini and Gluck. The French literati and the general public were divided into two par- ties, the Piccinists and the Gluckists. Piccini became singing-master to the queen Marie Antoinette about 1780. He returned to Naples in 1791. Among his most admired works are " Olimpiade," and the French opera of "Didon," (1783.) Died at Passy, near Paris, in 1800. See GiNGUEN^, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Piccinni," 1800; F^Tis, " Biographic Universelle des Musicians;" " Nouvelle Biographic G^n^rale." Piccinino, p^t-che-nee'no, (Niccol6,) an able Ital- ian general, born at Perugia in 1375. Fie served some years under Braccio da Montone. In 1425 he entered the service of Filippo Maria Visconti, of Milan, to whom he remained loyal to his death. He defeated Carmagnola and the Venetians in 143 1, and gained a decisive victory over the Florentines and Venetians near Imola in 1434. Died in 1444. See SiSMONDi, " Histoire des Republlques Italiennes." Piccinni. See Piccini. Piccinni, p^t-cheen'nee, ? (Alexandre,) a French composer, born in Paris in 1779, was a grandson of Niccolo Piccini, noticed above. Piccolomini. See Pius II. Piccolomini, p^k-ko-lom'e-nee, (Alessandro,) an Italian writer and prelate, eminent for learning, was born at Sienna in 1508. He was the first who wrote on philosophy in the Italian language. In 1574 he was appointed Archbishop of Patras. Among his w#rks are a treatise "On the Sphere of the World," (1540,) and "Commentaries on Aristotle," (1575.) Died in 1578. See Fabiani, "Vita di Piccolomini," 1749. Piccolomini, (Alfonso,) Duke of Monte Marciano, an Italian condottiere, born about 1550. He was the leader of an army of brigands. In 1581 he defeated the army of the pope. He was defeated by the Duke of Tuscany, and hung, in 159 1. Piccolomini, (Francesco,) an Italian scholar, born at Sienna in 1520, was a professor of philosophy. He wrote " Universal Philosophy of Morals," etc., (" Uni- versa Philosophia de Moribus," etc., 1583,) and other works. Died in 1604. Piccolomini, (Giacomo,) a cardinal, whose proper name was Ammanati, was born near Lucca in 1422. He left "Commentaries and Epistles," (" Commentarii et Epistolse," 1506.) Died in 1479. Piccolomini, (Maria,) an Italian operatic singer, born at Sienna about 1835. She performed in London about 1856, and in Paris. In 186 1 she married and re- tired from the stage. Piccolomini, (Ottavio,) an Austrian general, of Italian origin, was born in 1599. He led a regiment at the battle of Lutzen, in 1632, and was one of the principal agents in the conspiracy which procured the ruin of Wallenstein. He contributed to the victory at Nord- lingen, (1634,) and was defeated by Torstenson in Silesia in 1641 or 1642. In 1643 entered the service of Spain, and obtained the chief command in Flanders. He became a field-marshal of the Austrian army in 1648. Died in Vienna in 1656. See Crasso, " Elogii di Capitani illiistri ;" Schiller, " History of the Thirty Years' War," and his tragedy of "Wallenstein." Pichat, pe'shS', (L^:on Laurent,) a French poet, critic, and novelist, born in Paris in 1823. He became in 1854 editor and proprietor of the "Revue de Paris," which was suppressed by government in 1858. Among his works are political verses entitled "Free Words," (" Libres Paroles," 1847,) and "La Paienne," a novel, (1857-) Pichat, (Michel,) a French dramatic poet, born at Vienne in 1786. Among his works is "Leonidas," a drama, (1825.) Died in 1828. Picliegru, p^sh'gRoo or pJsh'gRii', (Charles,) a French general, born at Arbois (Jura) in 1761. He en- tered the army in 1783, and became a zealous partisan of the Revolution in 1789. He was raised to the rank of general of division in 1793, obtained command of the army of the Rhine in October of that year. About the end of the same year he became general-in-chief of the united armies of the Rhine and the Moselle. He was a favour- ite of the Jacobins at this period. In February, 1794, he succeeded Jourdan as commander of the army of the North, with which, by rapid and skilful movements, he gained advantages at Cassel, Courtrai, and Menin. In the winter of 1794-95 he crossed the Waal on the ice and reduced Holland to submission. Having taken command of the army of the Rhine in 1795, he incurred suspicion of treason, and was superseded by Moreau in 1796. He continued to intrigue against the Directory, by which he was transported to Cayenne in September, 1797 ; but he escaped from that place in 1798. He con- spired with Cadoudal and others against Bonaparte, and was arrested by the police in Paris in February, 1804. Before his trial was finished, he was found dead in prison, in April, 1804. See Cousin d'Avallon, " Histoire du General Pichegru," 1801 ; Fauchk-Borel, "Notices sur Pichegru et Moreau," 1807; Gas- sier, "Vie du General Pichegru," 1814; Savary, Due de Rovigo, "Memoires sur la Mort de Pichegru," 1825; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Picliler, pfK'ler, (Caroline,) originally named Von Greiner, (fon gRi'ner,) a popular German novelist, born in Vienna in 1769. She was married in 1796 to Andreas Pichler, and in 1802 produced " Idyllen." She illustrated the salutary influence of Christianity in " Agathocles," a novel, (1808,) which was much admired. In 1814 she published "The Count von Hohenburg," the first of numerous historical novels, the subjects of which are taken from the national history. Among her later works are " Pictures of the Times," (" Zeitbilder," 2 vols,, 1840,) and "Memoirs of my Life," (4 vols., 1844.) Died in 1843. See " Edinburgh Review" for February, 1843. Pichler or Pikler, (Johann,) a son of the following, was born at Naples in 1734, and was probably the most skilful engraver of gems of his time. He lived at Rome, and engraved several pictures after Raphael. Among his works are many portraits of modern persons, of which the resemblance was the least merit. He was also a painter. Died at Rome in 1791. Sec Jean Gerard de Rossi, " Histoire de la Vic ds J Pikler, Rome, 1792. Pichler, (Johann Anton,) a celebrated engraver of gems, born at Brixen, in the Tyrol, in 1697. He worked at Naples and Rome. Died in 1779. Pichon, pe'sh^N', ( Pierre Auguste, ) a French painter of history and portraits, was born at Sorreze (Tarn) in 1805. He received a first medal (for history) in 1846. Pichon, (Thomas,) a French litterateur, born at Vire in 1700. He was the second husband of Madame Le Prince de Beaumont. He published a work " On the a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, h, d, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; f3r, fill, f^t; mfit; n5t; good; moon; PICHON J795 PICTET Natural and Civil History of Cape Breton," (1760.) Died in 1781. Pichon, (Thomas Jean,) a French writer and priest, born at Mans in 1731 ; died in 1812. Pichot, pe'sho', (Am^d^e,) a French litterateur, born at Aries in 1796. He became in 1843 chief editor of the "Revue Britannique." Among his works are "Travels in England," (1825,) and a "Chronicle of Charles V.," (1853-) Pick'en, (Andrew,) a Scottish writer of fiction, born at Paisley in 1788. Among his works is "The Domi- nie's Legacy." Died in 1833. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) Pick 'ens, (Andrew,) a distinguished American general, born at Paxton, Pennsylvania, in 1739. He co-operated with General Marion in his partisan warfare against the British, and commanded the militia at the battle of Cowpens. He was elected to Congress in 1794. Died in 1817. See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. Pickens, (Francis W.,) a grandson of the preceding, was born in Saint Paul's parish. South Carolina, in 1807. He was a member of Congress from 1834 to 1844. He was appointed in 1857 minister to Russia, and in December, i860, was elected Governor of South Carolina for two years. Pick'er-ing, (Charles,) M.D., an American natu- ralist, a grandson of Timothy Pickering, was born in Susquehanna county, Pennsylvania, in 1805. Having travelled in India and Eastern Africa, he published, after his return, the " Races of Man and their Geographical Distribution," (1848,) and "Geographical Distribution of Animals and Man," (1854.) Pickering, (John,) LL.D., an American jurist and scholar, born at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1777, was a son of Timothy Pickering. He was the founder and first president of the American Oriental Society, and president of the American Academy of Arts and Sci- ences. He published a " Greek-and- English Lexicon," (1826,) "Remarks on the Indian Languages of North America," (1836,) and "Vocabulary of Americanisms." Died in 1846. Pickering, (Timothy,) an American statesman, born at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 17th of July, 1745. He graduated at Harvard College in 1763, studied law, and became a judge of the common pleas in 1775. In the autumn of 1776 he joined the army of Washington as colonel. He was appointed adjutant-general in 1777, and took part in the battles of Brandywine and Ger- mantown, October, 1777. He was elected a member of the board of war by Congress in November, 1777, and quartermaster-general in August, 1780, as successor to General Greene. He performed the arduous duties of this office until 1785. During the Revolution he kept a journal of public events. He was identified with the Federal party, and was appointed postmaster-general by Washington in August, 1791, and secretary of war in January, 1794. In December, 1795, he became secre- tary of state. He was continued in the department of state by President Adams, but did not obtain his confidence or approve his measures. He was removed from that office in May, 1800, and settled on a farm which was situated near Salem, and which he cultivated with his own hands. He was elected a Senator of the United States by the legislature of Massachusetts in 1803, and continue^ to serve in the Senate until 181 1. From 1814 to 181 7 he was a member of the national House of Representatives. He had a fair reputation for ability and moral character. He died at Salem in January, 1829, leaving several sons. See " Life and Correspondence of Timothy Pickering," by his son OcTAVius, 2 vols., 1867; " National Portrait-Gallery of Distin- guished Americans," vol. i. Pick'ers-gill, (Frederick Richard,) an eminent painter of history, born in London in 1820. He gained a prize of one hundred pounds for his "Death of King Lear," (1843,) ^^'^^ a prize of five hundred pounds for his " Burial of Harold," (1847,) which was purchased for the House of Lords. He was elected a Royal Acade- mician in 1857. Among his best works is " Samson Betrayed," (1850.) Pickersgill, (Henry William,) an English por- trait-painter, born about 1782. He painted many emi- nent authors, statesmen, etc., and won a high reputation. He was elected Royal Academician in 1825. Died in 1861. Pick'ett, (Albert James,) an American writer, born ua Anson county, North Carolina, in 1810, was the author df a " History of Alabama," (1851.) Died in 1858. Pico della Mirandola, pee'ko deKli me-rSnMo-ia, [Fr. Pic de la Mirandole, p^k deh It me'r6N'doK,J (Giovanni,) an Italian theologian and philosopher, born in 1463. He had a prodigious memory and great learn- ing, but was rather superficial as a thinker. He offered to dispute at Rome with all comers on a great number of theses, " On all Things that may be known," (" De Omni Re Scibili,") to which Voltaire added " and Some Things besides," ("et de Quibusdam aliis.") Died in 1494. He left several works on theology, etc. See a " Life of Pico della Mirandola," by his nephew, Giovanni Francesco della Mirandola; Nic^ron, "Memoires;" Gin- GUENE, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie ;" " Noiivelle Biographie Generale." Pico(orPicus) della Mirandola, (Giovanni Fran- cesco,) Prince, an Italian writer, nephew of the pre- ceding, was born about 1469. He wrote several works on theology, and a "Life of Savonarola," (1530.) Died if' ^533- Picot, pe'ko', (FRANgois £douard,) a French his- torical painter, born in Paris in 1786. He gained a first medal in 1819. The palaces of the Louvre and of Ver- sailles contain some of his works. Picot, pe'ko', (Jean,) a Swiss historian, born in 1777. He was for many years professor of history at Geneva. He published a " History of the Gauls," (3 vols., 1804,) and a " History of Geneva," (3 vols., 181 1.) Picot, (Michel Joseph Pierre,) a French writer, born near Orleans in 1770. He published, besides other works, a " Memoir contributory to the Ecclesiastical History of the Eighteenth Century," (3 vols., 1806.) Died in 1841. He wrote many articles for the "Bio- graphie Universelle." Picot, (Pierre,) a Swiss writer, and professor of the- ology, born at Geneva in 1746, was the father of Jean, noticed above. He published " On the Manifold Utility of Mountains," (" De multiplici Montium Utilitate," 1790,) and Sermons, (1823.) Died in 1822. Pictet, p^k'ti', (Benedict,) an eloquent Swiss Prot- estant minister, born at Geneva in 1655. He became professor of divinity at Geneva in 1702, and a member of the Academy of Berlin in 17 14. His principal works are " Christian Morality," (8 vols., 1695-98,) " Theologia Christiana," (2 vols., 1696,) and a " History of the Church and the World in the Eleventh Century," (1712.) Died at Geneva in 1724. See NiCERON, " Memoires." Pictet, (FRANgois Jules,) a Swiss naturalist, born at Geneva about 1790. He became professor of anatomy and zoology in his native city. Among his works are " Itinerary to the Valleys around Mont Blanc," (1818; 3d edition, 1840,) and a "Treatise on Palaeontology," (4 vols., 1845.) Pictet, (Jean Louis,) an astronomer, born at Geneva in 1739. He was employed by the Academy of Saint Petersburg to observe the transit of Venus in Siberia, and wrote " Observations on the Transit of Venus in 1769." Died at Geneva in 1781. Pictet, (Marc Auguste,) a Swiss natural philoso- pher, born at Geneva in 1752, was a brother of Charles, (de Rochemont,) noticed below. He was a friend of Saussure, whom he succeeded as professor of philosophy in 1786. He wrote, besides other works, an "Essay on Fire, (or Heat,") (1791,) and "Travels in England and Scotland," (1803.) He founded in 1796 a periodical entitled " Bibliotheque Britannique," and changed the name in 1816 to "Bibliotheque Universelle," which still exists. He gave special attention to meteorology. Died in 1825. See Vaucher, "Necrologie de M. A. Pictet," 1825. Pictet de Rochemont, p^k'ti' deh rosh'mdN', (Charles,) a Swiss rural economist, born at Geneva in € as k; 9 as j; g hard; g as j; G, H, Viyguttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (g^^See Explanations, p. 23.) PICTON 1796 PIERQUIN 1755. As envoy-extraordinary, he attended the Congress of Vienna in 1814, and tliat of Paris in 181 5. He wrote a '* Picture of the Present Condition of the United States of America," (1796,) and a "Treatise on Agriculture." He was one of the editors of the '* Bibliotheque Univer- selle." Died in 1824. Pic'ton, (Sir Thomas,) a British general, born in Pembrokeshire about 1758. He served with distinc^on in Spain, at Badajos, Ciudad Rodrigo, and Vitoria. Having obtained command of a division, he was killed at Waterloo in 1815. See H. B. Robinson, "Memoirs of Sir Thomas Picton," 1835. Pictor. See Fabius Pictor. Picumne. See Picumnus. Pi-cum'nus and Pi-lum'nus, [Fr. Picumne, pe'- kiimn', and Pilumne, pe'liimn',] two Roman or Latin gods of matrimony, were regarded as brothers. To Pi- cumnus was ascribed the discovery of the art of ma- nuring land, Pi'cus, [Gr. Ili/cof,] a fabulous king of Latium and prophetic divinity, was represented as a son of Saturn, the husband of Canens, and the father of Faunus. Ac- cording to the fable, Circe was enamoured of him, and changed him into a woodpecker (picus) because her passion was not requited, Picus della Mirandola. See Pico. Pidou de Saint-Olon, pe'doo' deh siNtVl^N', (Francois,) a French diplomatist and writer, born in Touraine in 1646. He wrote "An Account of the Em- pire of Morocco," {1694.) Died in 1720. Piel, pe'^K, (Louis Alexandre,) a French architect, born at Lisieux in 1808, He restored the church of Saint-Nicolas at Nantes, and other churches, and wrote several professional works. Died in 1841. Piemont, pe'i'moN', (Niklaas Opgang,) a Dutch landscape-painter, born at Amsterdam in 1659, He worked some years in Rome. Died in 1709, Pierce, perss or peerss, (Benjamin,) born in New Hampshire in 1757, vvas elected Governor of that State in 1827 and 1829. He was the father of President Franklin Pierce. Died in 1839. Pierce, peerss, (Edward,) an English painter of his- tory and portraits, lived in the reigns of Charles L and Charles II. Died near the close of the seventeenth century. Pierce, (Franklin,) the fourteenth President of the United States, was born at Hillsborough, New Hamp- shire, on the 23d of November, 1804. He was a son of General Benjamin Pierce, who was Governor of New Hampshire, He graduated at Bowdoin College, Maine, in 1824, studied law under Levi Woodbury, and was admitted to the bar in 1827. He practised first at Hills- borough. In 1833 he was elected a member of Congress by the Democrats. Having been re-elected, he served in the House of Representatives until 1837, and in that year was chosen a Senator of the United States by the legislature of New Hampshire. He became a resident of Concord about 1838, and resigned his seat in the Senate in 1842, after which he devoted himself to the practice of law. He had married about 1834. He favoured the annexation of Texas to the United States, (1844-45,) served in the Mexican war with the rank of brigadier-general, (1846-47.) At the National Democratic Convention, June, 1852, the prominent candidates for the Presidency were Cass, Buchanan, and Douglas. After thirty-five ballots with- out decisive result, the name of General Pierce was pro- posed, and he was nominated on the forty-ninth ballot. His Whig competitor was General Winfield Scott. General Pierce was elected President, receiving two hundred and fifty-four electoral votes out of two hundred and ninety-six, which was the whole number. He ap- pointed W. L. Marcy secretary of state, James Guthrie secretary of the treasury, Jefferson Davis secretary of war, Robert McClelland secretary of the interior, J. Dobbin secretary of the navy, and Caleb Gushing attor- ney-general. In his inaugural address he denounced the agitation of slavery. Among the important events of his administration were the repeal of the Missouri Compro- mise and the passage of the Nebraska-Kansas bill, which he approved and signed in 1854, and which produced great excitement in the Free States, and the bombard- ment and destruction of Greytown, in Central America, (July, 1854,) by Captain Hollins, acting under the in- structions of the United States Government. In August, 1854, Mr. Pierce directed the American ambassadors, J. Buchanan, J, Y. Mason, and P. Soule, to meet in some European city and confer on the best means of acquiring Cuba. They met at Ostend and issued a document called the " Ostend Manifesto," the purport of which was that if Spain would not sell Cuba the Americans would take it by force. He used his official influence to promote the de- signs of the pro-slavery party in Kansas. In the National Democratic Convention of 1856, J. Buchanan and Presi- dent Pierce were the chief competitors. Pierce received one hundred and twenty-two votes on the first ballot, but failed to obtain the nomination. He retired to private life in March, 1857. In a letter to his friend Jefferson Davis, dated January 6, i860, he says, "I have never believed that actual disruption of the Union can occur without blood ; and if, through the madness of Northern abolitionists, that dire calamity must come, the fighting will not be along Mason and Dixon's line merely. It will be within our own borders, in our own streets, between the two classes of citizens to whom I have referred. Those who defy law and scout constitutional obligations will, if we ever reach the arbitrament of arms, find occupation enough at home," He delivered an oration at Concord in the summer of 1863, in which he opposed the coercion of the seceded States, and called Vallandigham "that noble martyr of free speech." Died in 1869, See N. Hawthorne, " Life of Franklin Pierce," 1852. Pierce, (George Foster,) D.D., an American Meth- odist divine, born in Greene county, Georgia, in 1811. He was elected president of Emory College, Georgia, in 1848, and in 1854 was made a bishop. Pierer, pee'rer, (Heinrich August,) a German bookseller, born at Altenburg in 1794. His principal publication was the " Encyclopaedic Dictionary," (" En- cyklopadischen Worterbuch," 26 vols., 1824,) begun by his father. A fourth edition appeared in 1857-65, in nineteen vols., under the title of " Universal-Lexikon." Died in 1850. Pierer, (Johann Friedrich,) a German physician, born at Altenburg in 1767. He founded the "General Annals of Medicine." Died in 1832. Pi-er'i-des, [Gr. Ilicpt^cf ; Fr. Pi^RiDES, pe'k'r^d',] a surname of the Muses, which they received because they were born in Pieria. Pierino del Vaga. See Perino. Piermarini, pe-^R-mi-ree'nee, (Giuseppe,) an emi- nent Italian architect, born at Foligno in 1 734. He be- came architect to the Archduke of Milan in 1769. He designed at Milan many grand public edifices, among which are the magnificent theatre Delia Scala, the Monte di Pieta, the Porta Orientale, and the imposing fa9ade of the Palazzo Belgiojoso. Died in 1808. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri," Pieron, pe'a'r6N', (Charles Philippe Ren6,) a French judge, born at Arras in 1793, was a liberal member of the Chamber of Deputies from 1834 to 1848. Pierpont, peer'pSnt, (John,) an American poet and Unitarian divine, born at Litchfield, Connecticut, in April, 1785. He graduated at Yale College in 1804, and afterwards studied law, which, however, he soon abandoned. He published in 1816 his "Airs of Pales- tine," which immediately established his reputation. In the same year he studied theology at Harvard, and in 1819 was ordained pastor of the HoUis Street Church, Boston, In 1835 he made the tour of Europe, also visiting Greece and Asia Minor, Mr. Pierpont was a prominent advocate of temperance, anti-slavery, and other reforms. In 1845 he became minister of the Unitarian church of Medford. "Many of his hymns, odes, and other brief poems," says Griswold, "are remarkably spirited and melodious." Died in 1866. See R. W. Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America ;" " North American Review" for October, 1840; "Atlantic Monthly" for December, 1866. Pierquin, pe^iR'k^N', (Jean,) a French priest and writer, was born at Charleville in 1672 ; died in 1742. a, e, 1, 6, u, y, lo7tg; \ k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f2ir, f^ll, fit; mSt; nSt; good; mocm; PIERQUIN 1797 PIGOREAU Pierquin de Gerabloux, pe-aiR'k3,N' deh zHSn'- bloo', (Claude Charles,) a French antiquary and mis- cellalieous writer, born at Brussels in 1798. He has written many works on French antiquities, medicine, philology, and other subjects. Pierre, pe-aiR', (Jean Baptiste Marie,) a French painter, who~was born in Paris in 17 13. He became first painter to the king in 1770. He was remarkable for facility. Died in 1789. Pierre, the French for Peter, which see. Pierre, Saint. See Saint-Pierre. Pierre d'Auvergne, See Auvergne, d'. Pierre de Montereau, pe-a.iR deh mANt'rS', a French architect, was patronized by~TLouis IX., for whom he built La Sainte-Chapelle, (1248.) His works are mostly in the flamboyant ogival style. Died in 1266. Pierre des Vignes. See Pietro delle Vigne. Pierron, pe-i'r6N', (Eugene Athanase,) a French actor and dramatic writer, born near Meulan in 1819. Pierron, (Pierre Alexis,) a French Hellenist, born in Haute-Saone in 1814. He produced a version of iEschylus, (1841,) which was crowned by the French Academy, and a version of Plutarch's "Lives," (1843.) Pierrot, pe-i'ro', (Jules Amable,) a French classi- cal scholar, was born in Paris in 1792. He published a "Course of French Eloquence," (2 vols., 1822.) Died in 1845. Pierson, peer'son, (Abraham,) an American divine, and first president of Yale College, born about 1648. He preached at Killingworth and Saybrook. Died in 1707. . Pierson, peeR'son, (Christoph,) a Dutch painter, born at the Hague in 1631. He settled at Gouda in 1679. His design and colour are commended. He painted history, still life, dead game, etc. with success. Died in 1714. Pierson, (Jan,) a Dutch philologist, born in Friesland in 1631. He proposed corrections of the texts of Greek and Latin authors in " Verisimilium Libri duo," (1752.) Died in 1759. Pieters, (Bonaventure.) See Peters. Pieters, pee'ters, or Peters, pa'ters, (Geraard,) an able Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam about 1580. He worked at Rome, and returned to his native city. He painted portraits, conversation-pieces, and interiors. Pieters, pee'ters, (Jacob,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 1648. He removed to England, and was employed by Kneller to paint draperies and accessories of portraits. It is said that he counterfeited some works of Rubens with skill. Pietri, pe-a'tRee, ( Pietro, ) an Italian historical painter, born about 1665, worked in Rome, where he died in 1716. Pietro da Cortona. See Cortona. Pietro della Franoesca. See Francesca. Pietro delle Vigne, pe-a'tRo deKli xhxVyk, [Lat. Pe'trus de Vin'eis ; Fr, Pierre des Vignes, pe-aiR' di vhn,] a distinguished Italian minister of state, was chancellor of the emperor Frederick II. Died in 1249. His "Letters," printed in 1566, have some historical value. Pieyre, pe-aiR', (Pierre Alexandre,) a French dramatist, borrTat Nimes in 1752. He composed the " School for Fathers," (" ficole des Peres,") a comedy, (1782.) He was preceptor of the Due de Chartres, (Louis Philippe.) Died in 1830. Pigafetta, pe-gl-fet'tl, (Antonio,) an Italian voy- ager and geographer, born at Vicenza about 1492. He sailed as a volunteer with the expedition of Magellan, who departed from Seville in August, 15 19. He wit- nessed the affray in which Magellan lost his life, and wrote a daily journal of this voyage. In company with Cano, he returned to Spain in 1522, having performed the first voyage around the world. A complete copy of his narrative, "First Voyage around the World," (" Primo Viaggio intorno al Globo,") was found by Amoretti at Milan, and was published in 1800. An abridgment, in French, had been published in the sixteenth century. Pigafetta, (Filippo,) an Italian traveller and military engineer, born at Vicenza in 1533. He was sent by Sixtus V. to Persia to negotiate an alliance against the Turks. He wrote a " Treatise on the History and Use of the Compass," (1586,) and other works. Died in 1603. Pigalle, pe'gtK, (Jean Baptiste,) an eminent French sculptor, born in Paris in 1 714, was a pupil of J. B. Lemoyne. He studied at Rome, and after his return to Paris produced a statue of Mercury, which opened to him the doors of the Academy in 1744. He was pa- tronized by Louis XV., and received the title of sculptor to the king. His master-piece is a monumental group in honour of Marshal Saxe at Strasbourg. He imitated nature with fidelity, or, as some say, with servility, and had the sentiment of the true rather than of the beautiful. Died in 1785. See P. Tarbe, " La Vie et les CEuvres de J. B. Pigalle ;" " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Piganiol de la Force, pe'gt'ne-ol' deh IS foRss, (Jean Aimar,) a French litterateur, born in Auvergne in 1673. He published a " Historical and Geographical Description of France," (5 vols., 1715,) which was the best work on that subject, and other works. Died in 1753- Pigault-Lebrun, pe'gd' leh-bRuN', originally Pigault de L'^pinoy, (deh l^pe^nwi',) (Charles Antoine GuiLLAUME,) a popular French novelist, born at Calais in 1753. He wrote many successful novels, among which is " The Child of the Carnival," (" L'Enfant du Carna- val," 1792.) He held an office in the Custom-Hoiise, Paris, from 1806 to 1824. Parisot calls him "the most famous romancer of the imperial epoch." His works display much fertility of imagination and an abundant stock of gaiety. Died in 1835. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Pigeau, pe'zho', (Eustache Nicolas,) a French jurist, born near Senlis in 1750. He published "Intro- duction a la Procedure civile," (1784; 5th edition, 1833,) which is regarded as a classic work. Died in 1818. Pighius, pee'ge-us, (Albert,) a Dutch Catholic theo- logian, born at Kempen about 1490, was the author of several controversial works against the Protestants. He also wrote on mathematics. Died in 1542, See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Nic^ron, " Memoires." Pighius, (Stephanus Vinand,) a Dutch historian and antiquary, born at Kempen in 1520, was a nephew of Albert. He was librarian to Cardinal Granvelle. He published a work of great research, entitled " Roman Annals," ("Annates Romanorum," 1599-1615,) in 3 vols., only one of which was published during his lifetime. Died in 1604. Pigna, pen'yi, (Giambattista,) an Italian historian and poet, born at Ferrara in 1530. He wrote "The Prince," ("II Principe," 1560,) to refute the famous work of Machiavel, a " History of the Princes of Este," (1570,) and other works. Died in 1575. Pignatelli. See Innocent XII. Pignone, p^n-y6'ni, (Simone,) a Florentine painter, born about 1614. He was a good colorist. Among his works is a picture of " Saint Louis of France." Died in 1698. Pignoria, p^n-yo're-^,(LoRENZO,) an Italian antiquary and priest, born at Padua in 1 571. He wrote, besides other works, "Egyptian Characters," ( " Characteres ^igyptii," 1608,) and "The Origin of Padua," (1655.) Died in 1631. See Nic^RON, "Memoires." Pignotti, p^n-yot'tee, (Lorenzo,) an Italian historian, poet, and physician, born at Figlini, in Tuscany, in 1739. He became in 1774 professor of natural philosophy at Pisa, where he remained many years. He wrote Fables in verse, (1779,) which were received with much favour. His chief work is a " History of Tuscany, with Essays on Sciences, Letters, and Arts," (9 vols., 1813,) which has some merit. He was chosen rector of the Univer- sity of Pisa in 1809. Died in 1812. See Aluobrando Paolini, " Elogio storico-filosofico di Pignotti," 1817; TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Pigoreau, pe'go'ro', (Alexandre Nicolas,) born in Paris in 1765, published a " Dictionnaire des Roman- ciers," or a biographical and bibliographical dictionary of romance-writers of all ages and countries. Died in 185 1. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, Yiy guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^P"See Explanations, p. 23.) PIGOTT 1798 PIN^US Pig'ott, (Sir Arthur,) an English lawyer, born in 1750. He became attorney-general in 1805. He was a friend of Edmund Burke. l5ied in 1819. Pigray, pe'gRi', (Pierre,) a French surgeon, who received the title of first surgeon to Henry IV, He was the author of several professional works. Died in 1613 Piis de, deh pe'^ss', (Antoine Pierre Augustin,) a French dramatist and song-writer, born in Paris in 1755. He wrote some popular vaudevilles, etc. Died in 1832. Pike, (Albert,) an American poet and journalist, born at Boston in 1809. At an early age he removed to the Southwest, and in 1834 became editor of the "Ar- kansas Advocate" at Little Rock, Arkansas. He has published " Prose Sketches and Poems," " Hymns to the Gods," etc. He commanded a body of Indians fighting against the Union at Pea Ridge, March, 1862. SeeGRiswoLD's " Poets and Poetry of America;" "Blackwood's Magazine" for June, 1839. Pike, (Zebulon Montgomery,) an American officer and traveller, born in New Jersey in 1779. He set out in 1805 to explore the sources of the Mississippi, and subsequently visited the interior of Louisiana. He rose to the rank of brigadier-general in the war of 181 2, and was killed during the attack upon York, (now Toronto,) in 1813. See Henry Whiting, "Life of Zebulon M. Pike," in Sparks's "American Biography," vol. v., second series. Pikler. See Pichler. Pilate, (L^;oNCE.) See Leo Pilatus. Pi'late, (Pontius, pon'she-us,) [Lat. Pon'tius Pila'- Tus ; P"r. Ponce Pilate, p6nss pe'Itt', a Roman governor of Judea, before whom Christ was arraigned by the Jews, and who, against his own convictions, consented to their iniquitous design. (See Matthew xxvii., Mark xv., Luke xxiii., John xviii. and xix.) According to Eusebius and others, Pilate was banished, and killed himself, about 38 A.D. Pilati, pe-la'tee, (Carlo Antonio,) an Italian pub- licist, born at Tassulo, near Trent, in 1733. wrote several treatises on natural and civil law, and a " His- tory of the German Empire and Italy from the Time of Carolingi to the Peace of Westphalia," (2 vols., 1769-72.) Died in 1802. Piiatre de Rozier, pe'lltR' deh ro'ze-a.', (Jean Francois,) a French aeronaut, born at Metz in 1756. He ascended in a balloon filled with heated air in No- vember, 1783, and attempted to cross the Channel in a balloon of hydrogen gas surmounting a cylinder filled with heated air. This apparatus fell to the ground near Boulogne, and Pilatre and his companion were killed, in June, 1785. See TouRNON de la Chapelle, "Vie et Memoires de Pilatre de Rozier," 1786. Pilatus. See Pilate, (Pontius.) Piles, de, deh p^l, (Roger,) a French painter, diplo- matist, and writer on art, born at Clameci (Nievre) in 1635. He went with Amelotde la Houssaye to Venice, as secretary of legation, in 1682, and was sent to the Hague by Louvois about 1692, to negotiate in secret while he seemed to be employed in painting. He wrote "The Lives of the Painters," (1699,) and several treat- ises on painting, which display good taste. He painted good portraits of Boileau and Madame Dacier. Died ir. 1709. Pilk'ing-ton, (James,) born in Lancashire, England, in 1520, became Bishop of Durham in 1561, and pub- lished commentaries on Scripture. He was distinguished as a promoter of the study of the Greek language. Died in 1575- Pilkington, (Letitia van Lew'in,) an authoress, born in Dublin in 1712, was the wife of the Rev. Mat- thew Pilkington, noticed below. She wrote poetry, and " Memoirs of her own Life," (1749.) Died in 1750. Pilkington, (Mary,) an English authoress, born at Cambridge in 1766; died about 1840. Pilkington, (Matthew,) an English biblical scholar, was prebendary of Lichfield. He published, besides other works, a " Rational Concordance ; or, An Index to the Bible," (1749.) E)ied in 1765. PilTans, (James,) a British scholar, born at Edin. burgh in 1777. He became professor of humanity in the University of Edinburgh in 1820, and filled tfcat chair about forty-three years. He published, besides other works, "Lectures on the Proper Objects and Methods of Education," (1836,) and "Rationale of Dis- cipline," (1852.) Died in Edinburgh in 1864. See "Gentleman's Magazine," 1864. Pille, \)h\, (Louis Antoine,) Comte, a French gene- ral, born at Soissons in 1749; died in 1828. Pillement, pe'ye-m6N', (Jean,) a French landscape- painter, born at Lyons in 1728; died in 1808. His son Victor, born at Vienna in 1767, was a skilful engraver and etcher. Died in Paris in 1814. Pillet, pe'yi^ (Claude Marie,) a learned French litterateur, born at Chambery in 1771. He wrote articles for the " Biographie Universelle," and acted as chief editor of that work from the sixth to the forty-fourth volume inclusive. He devoted fourteen years to this task. Died in 1826. Pillet, (Fabien,) a French litterateur, born at Lyons in 1 772. He wrote dramatical critiques for the " Journal de Paris" for many years, articles for the " Biographie Universelle," and other works. Died in 1855. Pilliard, pe'ye-tR', (Jacques,) a French painter, born at Vienne about 1815. He has worked in Rome for many years. Pillon, pe'yiN', (Anne Adrien Firmin,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1766, wrote comedies and poems. Died in 1844. His son, Alexandre Jean Baptiste, was born at Amiens in 1792. He became librarian of the Louvre in 1858. Among his works are a " Greek-and-French Dictionary," (1837,) and "Greek Synonyms," (1847,) which obtained the Volney prize. PilTow, (Gideon Johnson,) an American general, born in Williamson county, Tennessee, in 1806. As brig- adier-general, he fought with distinction in the Mexican war, (1847,) and was promoted to be a major-general. He was second in command at Fort Donelson when it was taken by Geiieral Grant, in February, 1862. See Livingston, " Portraits of Eminent Americans." Pilon, piKlon, ? (Frederick,) a mediocre dramatist, born in Cork, Ireland, about 1750; died in 1788. Pilon, pe'l6N', (Germain,) an excellent French sculp- tor, born about 15 15, was patronized by Henry II. and Catherine de Medicis. His master-piece is a marble group (now m the museum of the Louvre) of three Graces clothed, and supporting on their heads a gilded bronze urn, which contained the heart of Henry II. He excelled in the execution of drapery. Died about 1590. Pilot, pe'lo', (Jean Joseph Antoine,) a French anti- quary, born in Piedmont in 1806. Pilpay, piKpi or piKpi'e, Pilpai, or Bidpai, bid'pT, a famous Oriental fabulist, of whom little is known. He is supposed to have been a Brahman gymnosophist, and to have lived several centuries before our era. Bidpai's fables, originally written in Sanscrit, were translated into Arabic and afterwards into almost every other lan- guage. The Sanscrit collection entitled " Hitopadesa" {i.e. " Friendly Counsel") was translated into English by Wilkins, (1787.) Several European fabulists, including La Fontaine, have drawn largely from the fables of Pilpay. Pils, p^l, (Adrien Auguste Isidore,) a French his- torical painter, born in Paris in 1813. He gained the grand prize of Rome in 1838. Among his works is " The Battle of Alma." Pilummis. See Picumnus. Pimentel, pe-men-t§l', (Manoel,) a Portuguese geog- rapher, born in Lisbon in 1650. He wrote on geography and navigation. Died in 1719. Pin, p^N, (Elzi^ar,) a French poet, born at Apt (Vau- cluse) in 1813. He published a volume of poems in 1839. Pina, de, di pee'nS, (Ruy,) an eminent Portuguese historian, who held the office of historiographer in the reigns of Emmanuel and John III. He wrote "Chroni- cles of the Reigns of Six Kings, from Sancho I. to Al- fonzo IV., inclusive," which were published after his death. Died about 1520. Pinaeus. See Pineau, (S^verin.) a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nSt; good; moon; PINJIGRIER 1799 PINEDA Pinaigrier, pe'nk'gRCjJ.', (Robert,) a French painter on glass, was born in Touraine about 1490. He worked in several churches of Paris. Died about 1550. Piuas, pee'nis, (Jan,) a Dutch painter of landscapes and history, was born at Haarlem in 1596. He painted landscapes and figures with equal success. His colouring is remarkably vigorous. Among his works is "Joseph Sold by his Brethren." Died about 1660. His brother James, or Jacob, was a skilful painter. Died in 1659. Pinciano, pin-the-l'no, (Alonzo Lopez,) a Spanish poet, who lived about 1480-1530, was physician to Charles V. He wrote "El Pelayo," an epic poem, and "Ancient Poetical Philosophy," (" Philosophia antigua poetica.") Pinck'ney, (Charles,) an American statesman, born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1758. His father was a first-cousin of Charles C. Pinckney. The subject of this article was a member of the Convention which formed the Constitution of the United States in 1787. He was Governor of South Carolina from 1789 to 1792, and again from 1796 to 1798. In the latter year he was elected a Senator of the United States by the legislature of South Carolina. He acted with the Republican party, and was an eloquent speaker. He was minister to Spain from 1802 to 1805. Died in 1824. Pinckney, (Charles Cotesworth,) an American statesman, born at Charleston, South Carolina, in Feb- ruary, 1746, was a son of Chief Justice Pinckney. He graduated at Oxford, England, and studied law. He served as aide-de-camp to Washington at the battles of Brandy wine and Germantown, September-October, 1777, and obtained the rank of colonel. In October, 1779, he took part in the battle of Savannah. He was taken prisoner at Charleston in May, 1780, and detained until the end of the war. He was a member of the Conven- tion which formed the Constitution of the United States, (1787,) advocated the adoption of the same in the Con- vention of South Carolina, and became a leader of the Federal party. General Washington offered him a place in his cabinet, in 1795, as secretary of war, and afterwards as secretary of state, both of which positions he declined. He was sent as minister to France in 1796, but the French Directory refused to receive him, and ordered him to leave the country in February, 1797. He after- wards returned to Paris with John Marshall and E. Gerry, who had been appointed his colleagues in an embassy. He was appointed a major-general about 1798. At the presidential election of 1800, General Pinckney and John Adams were the Federal candidates ; but the Republicans were victorious. He died at Charleston in 1825. See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. Pinckney, (Henry Laurens,) son of Charles Pinck- ney, born at Charleston in 1794, distinguished himself as a lawyer and politician. He became in 1819 editor of the " Charleston Mercury," an organ of the " State- rights" party. He published the " Life and Services of Andrew Jackson," and several political works. Died in February, 1863, Pinckney, (Thomas,) an American officer and states- man, brother of Charles Cotesworth, noticed above, was born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1750. As aide of General Lincoln, he distinguished himself at the assault on Savannah, and was severely wounded at Camden, August, 1780. He became Governor of South Carolina in 1787, and was appointed by Washington minister to London in 1792. Having been afterwards sent on a mission to Spain, he negotiated the treaty of Ildefonso, and returned in 1796. Died in 1828. See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. Pingon, piN's6N', (Pierre,) a French bibliographer, born at Montauban in 1802. He published a "Manual of Universal Bibliography," (3 vols., 1857.) Pin'dar, [Gr. liivdapog ; Lat. Pin'darus ; Fr. Pin- Dare, pdw'dtR' ; Ger. Pindar, pinMSr, and Pindaros, pinMi-ros ; It. Pindaro, p^nMS-ro,] the greatest lyric poet of Greece, was born near Thebes about 520 B.C. He was a son of Daiphantus, or, according to some writers, of Pagondas. It is stated that he studied poetry and music at Athens under Lasus, and that he was a pupil of the celebrated Corinna, who advised him to choose themes for his muse from mythology. He after- wards composed an ode in which all the mythical legends of Thebes were inwoven, and showed it to Corinna, who reminded him that he "ought to sow with the hand, and not with the whole sack." He became a professional composer of choral odes, and was employed by various states and princes of Greece to write odes for special occasions. Among his patrons were Hiero of Syracuse, Theron of Agrigentum, and Alexander of Macedon. About 473 B.C. he visited the court of Hiero, where he remained four years. His rival Simonides was at Syra- cuse at the same time. Pindar was a favourite of the Athenians, whose city he praised in an ode, and who presented to him ten thousand drachmas. He appears to have taken no part in the Persian war and other great events of his time. The only poems of Pindar which have come down to us entire are the "Epinicia," or triumphal odes composed in honour of victors at the public games. Fragments of his dithyrambs, paeans, encomia, and dirges are extant. Horace attributes to Pindar unrivalled skill in several forms of verse. The best translations of Pindar into English verse are those of H. F. Cary and Abraham Moore. Pindar excelled in energy, picturesque effect, and sublimity. He had a son Daiphantus, and two daughters. His death is variously dated at 439 or 442 B.C. See J. G. Schneider, " Versuch iiber Pindar's Leben," 1774; MoMMSEN, " Pindaros, zur Geschichte des Dichters," etc., 1845; ViLLEMAiN, " Essal sur le Gdnie de Pindare," 1857 ; K. O. Mullek, "History of the Literature of Ancient Greece;" W. Camenz, " Pindari Ingenium," 1804 ; Clausen, " Pindaros der Lyriker," 1834; BipPARD, "Pindar's Leben," 1S48 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Pindar, (Peter.) See Wolcott, (John.) Pindare. See Pindar. Pindaro. See Pindar. Pindarus or Pindaros. See Pindar. Pindemonte, p^n-di-mon'ti, (Giovanni,) an Italian dramatist, born at Verona in 1 75 1, produced several tragedies. Died in 1812. Pindemonte, (Ippolito,) an Italian poet of high reputation, born at Verona in November, 1753, was a brother of the preceding. He entered the order of Malta in his youth, but resigned his membership about the age of thirty. He described the delights of the country in poems entitled " Rural Poems," (" Poesie campestri," 1785,) which were received with favour. He exhibited a contemplative and ingenious philosophy in his "Rural Prose," ("Prose campestri," 1795.) About 1805 he published a volume of Horatian satires, entitled " Ser- moni." His translation of the " Odyssey," in blank verse, (1809-22,) is commended. He was a friend of Foscolo and Monti. Among his works is "Eulogies of Literary Men," ("Elogj di Letterati," 2 vols., 1826,) which contains biographies of Italian authors. Died at Verona in 1828. See Mario Pieri, " Intorno alia Vita ed agli Scritti di Pinde- monte," in his " Elogj di Letterati," 1826; B. Montanari, "Delia Vita e dalle Opere d'Ippolito Pindemonte," 1834 ; Del Bene, " Elogio d'L Pindemonte," 1829 ; LoNGFELLf)w, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for November, 1825. Pindemonte, (Marco Antonio,) a mediocre Italian poet, born at Verona in 1694, was grandfather of the preceding. Died in 1744. Pine, (John,) a skilful English engraver, born in 1690. He published an edition of Horace, illustrated, (1737.) Among his works is "The Destruction of the Invincible Armada." Died in 1756. Pine, (Robert Edge,) a son of the preceding, was born in London about 1742, and was a painter of history and portraits. A picture of " Canute on the Sea-Shore" is one of his best works. Died at Philadelphia in 1790. Pineau, pe^no', [Lat. Pin^e^us,] (S:6verin,) a French surgeon, born at Chartres. He wrote some works on anatomy, which had a high reputation. Died in 1619. Pineau, du, dii pe'no', [Lat. Pinel'lus,] (Gabriel,) a French jurist, born at Angers in 1573. He was noted for integrity, and was called "the Cato of Anjou." Died in 1644. See Nici^RON, "Memoires." Pineda, de, di pe-na'Dl, (Juan,) a Spanish theolo- gian, born at Seville in 1557, was a monk or Jesuit. He € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) PINEL 1800 PINTO was a counsellor to the court of the Inquisition, and was charged to search out dangerous or unsound books in the libraries of Spain. He wrote commentaries on Scripture, and a "Universal History," {5 vols., 1620.) Died in 1637. See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Pinel, pe'nSK, (Philippe,) a distinguished French physician, born in the department of Tarn in 1745. He published in 1791 a " Treatise on Mental Alienation," which promoted a reform in the treatment of the Insane. He became in 1793 chief physician of the Bicetre of Paris, and was successful in the treatment of insanity by sub- stituting kindness for harshness. His most remarkable work is " Philosophical Nosography," (" La Nosogra- phie philosophique," 2 vols., 1798; 6th edition, 1818.) He was admitted into the Institute in 1803. Died in 1826. See CuviER, " filoge de Pinel;" G. Dupuytken, "Notice sur Pinel," 1826; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Pinelli, pe-neKlee, ( Bartolommeo, ) an eminent painter and engraver, born at Rome about 1780. He etched many plates representing scenery in the vicinity of Rome, events in the history of ancient Rome, and Roman costumes. He left designs which were highly prized. Among his publications is " Istoria degli Im- peratori," (1829,) Died in 1835. See F. Gerardi, "Biografia di B. Pinelli," 1835 ; C. Falconieri, " Memoria intorno alia Vita di B. Pinelli," 1835. Pinelli, (Gian Vincenzo,) an Italian patron of learn- ing and bibliophile, born at Naples in 1535. His house at Padua was a rendezvous of the learned men of all countries. He was a diligent collector of books and manuscripts. Died in 1601. See Paolo Gualdo, "Vita J. V. Pinelli," Augsburg, 1607. Pinelli, (Luca,) an Italian theologian, born at Melfi. He wrote several religious works, which were popular. Died in 1607. Pinelli, (Maffeo,) an Italian bibliophile, born at Venice in 1736. He collected medals and pictures, and formed a rich library, of which Abbe Morelli made a catalogue, (in 6 vols., 1787.) His library was sold at auction in London in 1790. Died in 1785. Pinellus. See Pineau, (Gabriel.) Pinelo, y, e pe-na'lo, (Antonio de Leon,) a Span- ish writer, born in Peru. He published, besides other works, " Epitome of the Eastern and Western Nautical and Geographical Library," (" Epitome de la Bibliotheca oriental y occidental nautica y geografica," 1629.) Died about 1675. Pinet, Du. See Dupinet. Pineton de Chambrun, p6n't6N' deh sh6N''bRiiN', (Jacques,) a French Protestant minister, born at Orange, was exiled about 1685. He died in London in 1689. Pingel, ping'el, (Christian,) a Danish naturalist, born at Copenhagen in 1793. He contributed many memoirs to the " Transactions" of the Academy of Sciences. Pingeron, piNzh'rdN', (Jean Claude,) a French translator, born at Lyons about 1730. He translated, from the Italian, Milizia's " Lives of the Architects," (1771,) and other works. Died in 1795. Pingre, piN'gRi', (Alexandre Gui,) a distinguished French astronomer, born in Paris in 1711. He began to study astronomy about the age of thirty-eight. His observation of the transit of Mercury in 1753 procured his nomination as correspondent of the Academy. In 1760 he was sent to the island of Rodrigo to observe the transit of Venus, (1761.) His most important work is " Cometography, or a Historical and Theoretical Treatise on Comets," (1783.) Died in 1796. See Ventenat, "Notice sur la Vie d'A. G. Pingre," 1796. Pinheiro-Ferreira, pen-ya^-ro f^r-ra/^-ri, (Silves- TRE,) a Portuguese writer, born^in LisbcnTin 1769. He wrote, besides other works in French, " Principles of Public Law," (3 vols., 1834.) Died in 1847. Pini, pee'nee, (Ermenegildo,) an Italian naturalist, born at Milan about 1740. He was professor of natural history at Milan, (1772-1812.) He wrote treatises on mineralogy, geology, and natural history. Died in 1825. Pink'er-tpn, (John,) a Scottish historian, poet, and antiquary, born in Edinburgh in 1758. He became a resident of London about 1780, and published a volume of verses, entitled "Rimes," in 1781. In 1784 he pro- duced an " Essay on Medals," which was well received. His reputation was increased by the publication of " An- cient Scottish Poems never before in Print," etc., (2 vols., 1786.) He published an ingenious "Dissertation on the Origin and Progress of the Scythians or Goths" in 1787. Among his other works are a "History of Scotland from the Accession of the House of Stuart to that of Mary," (2 vols., 1797,) and "Modern Geography Digested after a New Plan," (2 vols., 1802,) both of which have some merit. He is censured for his arro- gance and his enmity to religion. Died at Paris in 1826. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "Monthly Review" for May, 1797. Pink'ney, (Edward Coate,) son of William Pink- ney, noticed below, was born in London in 1802. He published in 1825 " Rodolph, and other Poems." Died in 1828. See Griswold, " Poets and Poetry of America." Pinkney, (William,) an eminent American lawyer and orator, born at Annapolis, Maryland, in March, 1764. He was admitted to the bar in 1786, and repre- sented a district of Maryland in Congress from 1789 to 1792. In 1796 he was sent to London as a commissioner under Jay's treaty. He remained in London about eight years, and was appointed minister to England in 1806. Having returned home in 1811, he settled in Balti- more. He was attorney-general of the United States from December, 1811, to February, 1814, was appointed minister to Russia in 1816, and was elected a member of the Senate of the United States in 1819. He advo- cated the Missouri Compromise in the Senate in 1820. He was a man of brilliant talents, and was generally considered the foremost American lawyer of his time. His wife was a sister of Commodore Rodgers. He died in February, 1822. See Henry Wheaton, "Life of William Pinkney," 1826; "Golden Age of American Oratory," by Edward G. Parker, Bos- ton, 1857; "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. ; "North American Review" for January, 1827, Pino, pee'no, (Domenico,) Count, an Italian gen- eral, born at Milan in 1760. He served in the French army as general of division in Germany, Spain, and Russia, (1805-13.) Died in 1826. Pino, da, di pee'no, (Marco,) an able Italian painter, sometimes called Marco da Sienna. He worked many years at Naples, where he settled about 1560. Among his chief works is a " Descent from the Cross." Pinon, pe^n6N', (Jacques,) a French lawyer and writer of Latin poetry, wrote "On the Roman Year," (" De Anno Romano,") and other poems. Died, at an advanced age, in 1641. Pins, de, deh p^N, [Lat. Pi'nus,] (Jean,) a French diplomatist, born at Toulouse about 1470, became Bishop of Rieux in 1523. He wrote, in elegant Latin, a number of epigrams, and "On Court Life," (" De Vita aulica.") His style was praised by Erasmus, who said, " Potest inter Tullianae dictionis competitores numerari Johannes Pinus." As ambassador to Venice and Rome, about 1520, he displayed superior diplomatic talents. Died in 1537- See Chardon, " Memoires pour servir i I'Eloge de J. de Pins," 1748. Pinson, piN's6N', (Nicolas,) a French painter and engraver, born at Valence about 1640, worked many years in Italy. Pinsson, p4n's6n', (Francois,) a French jurist, born at Bourges about 1612; died in 1691. Pintelli, p6n-teKlee, (Baccio,) an Italian architect, born probably at Florence. He was employed by Pope Sixtus IV., who reigned from 147 1 till 1484. Among his great works in Rome are the church of Santa Maria del Popolo, the Sistine Chapel, (in which Michael Angelo painted the fresco of the " Last Judgment,") the church of Saint Augustine, and a bridge called the Ponte Sisto. Died about 1492. See Vasari," Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Ticozzi, " Dizionario." Pinto, p^n'to, ( Fernao Mendez, ) a Portuguese traveller, born near Coimbra about 1 5 10. He wrote a marvellous book of travels in India, etc., (1614,) which a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fkt; mSt; n6t; good; moon; PINTO 1801 PIRKHEIMER was translated into many languages. His veracity has often been questioned. Died in 1583. Pinto, (Hector,) a Portuguese monk or priest, be- came professor at Coimbra about 1570. He wrote "Pic- ture of Christian Life," (" Imagem da Vida Christam," 1565.) Died in 1584. Pinto, (Isaac,) a Portuguese Jew, born about 1715. He wrote an " Essay on Luxury," (1762,) and an "Apol- ogy for the Jews," (1762.) He died at the Hague in 1787. Pintor, p^n-toR', (Pedro,) a Spanish physician, born at Valencia in 1423 ; died in Rome in 1503. Pinturicchio, p6n-too-r^k'ke-o, (Bernardino Bet- Ti,) an Italian painter, born at Perugia in 1454, was a pupil or assistant of Perugino. He worked in the Vatican for Alexander VI. Among his best works are "Jesus before the Doctors," a portrait of Isabella of Castile, and "The History of Pius II.," in the cathedral of Sienna. It is said that Raphael assisted him in the latter work. He painted portraits and landscapes with success. Died in 1513. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters Lanzi, " History of Paint- ing in Italy." Pinu.s. See Pins. Pinzon, p^n-th6n', (Martin Alonzo,) a Spanish navigator, who commanded the Pinta in the first voyage of Columbus to America. He is said to have been en- vious towards his chief. Died in 1493. Pinzon, (Vincencio Yanez,) a younger brother of the preceding, commanded the Nina in the voyage of Columbus, (1492.) He conducted an expedition in 1499, and explored part of the coast of Brazil. He was living in 1523. Pio. See Pius, Pope. Pio, pee'o, (Alberto,) Prince of Carpi, an Italian scholar, born about 1475, "^^^ ^ nephew of Pico della Mirandola. He was a patron of literary men, and author of a treatise against Luther. Died in Paris in 1531. Pio, (Battista,) an Italian philologist, born at Bo- logna. He wrote notes on Horace, Lucretius, Ovid, and other classic authors. Died at Rome about 1540. Piobert, peVbaiR', (Guillaume,) a French general and mathematician, born in 1793. He was elected a member of the Institute in 1840, in place of De Prony. He wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on Artil- lery," (2 vols.) Piola, pe-o'lS, (Domenico,) a Genoese painter, born in 1628. He painted infants with especial skill. Among his works is a " Repose of the Holy Family." Died in 1703. Piola, (P.,) a painter, born at Genoa in 161 7, was a brother of the preceding. He was an artist of high promise, but died young, in 1640. Piombino. See Bonaparte, (Marie Anne Elisa.) Piombo, del, d^l pe-om'bo, (Sebastiano,) an emi- nent Italian painter, born at Venice in 1485, was also called Luciano or Veneziano. He was a pupil of Giorgione. In the early part of his life he went to Rome, and painted in the Farnese palace a fresco in competition with Raphael, and received instruction from Michael Angelo. He painted in San Pietro in Montorio a fresco of the "Transfiguration," which is remarkable for beauty of colour. Among his master-pieces is a "Raising of Lazarus," which now adorns the British National Gallery. He excelled in portraits. About 1531 he obtained from Clement VII. the office of keeper of the seal, ( nffizio del piojnho,) and assumed the name of Fra Sebastiano del Piombo. Died in 1547. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Biagi, " Memorie storiche di F. Sebastiano del Piombo," 1826; Ridolfi, " Vite degli Pittori Veneti ;" Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Piorry, peVre', (Pierre Adolphe,) a French medi- cal writer, born at Poitiers in 1794. He gained dis- tinction by a treatise "On Mediate Percussion," ("De la Percussion mediate," 1828.) He obtained in 1840 a chair of internal pathology at Paris. Among his works is a " Treatise on Diagnostics and Semeiology," (3 vols., 1836.) Piozzi, pe-oz'ze, [It. pron. pe-ot'see,] Mrs., an Eng- lish authoress, whose maiden name was Esther Lynch Salusbury, was born in Carnarvonshire in 1739. She became the wife of Mr. Thrale, a brewer of London, in 1763, and was intimate with Dr. Johnson. Having lost her husband, she was married in 1784 to an Italian teacher of music, named Piozzi. She published in 1786 "Anecdotes of Dr. Samuel Johnson during the Last Twenty Years of his Life," and in 1788 "Letters to and from Dr. Samuel Johnson," (2 vols.) Among her other works is a short poem, called "The Three Warnings," Died at Clifton in 1821. See "Piozziana; or, Recollections of the Late Mrs. Piozzi;" "Atlantic Monthly" for June, 1861 ; Mrs. Elwood, "Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England from the Commencement of the Last Century," vol. ii., (1843;) "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1861; "Eraser's Magazine" for March, 1861 ; "Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1862. Pi'per, [Sw. pron. pee'per,] (Carl,) Count, a Swed- ish minister of state, was a man of superior talents. He was councillor of state in the reign of Charles XL, and became the principal minister of Charles XII., whom he accompanied in his campaigns. He was taken prisoner at Pultowa (Poltava) in 1709, and kept in prison until his death, in 1716. See Gezelius, " Biographiskt-Lexicon." Pi'per, Le, (Francis,) an English comic painter, noted for his skill in portraits of ugly and deformed persons. Died about 1740. Pippi. See Giulio Romano. Pipping, pip'ping, (Heinrich,) a German theologian and biographer, born at Leipsic in 1670; died in 1722. Piquer, pe-kaiR', (Andres,) a Spanish medical writer, born in Aragon in 1711. He received the title of first physician of the kingdom in 1752. Among his works is "Medicine Old and New," (" Medicina vetus et nova," 1735.) Died in 1772. Piranesi, pe-rJ-na'see, ( Francesco,) an engraver, born at Rome in 1748, was a son of Giovanni Battista, noticed below. He succeeded his father as a dealer in prints. About 1800 he removed to Paris, where he pub- lished a large number of plates of Roman antiquities, partly executed by his father. Died in 1810. Piranesi, (Giovanni Battista,) an excellent Italian engraver and designer, born at Venice in 1720. He studied architecture in his youth at Rome, where he passed the greater part of his life. He was unrivalled as an architectural draftsman and an engraver of archi- tecture and ruins, and had great facility of execution. He etched nearly two thousand plates, which represent the edifices of ancient and modern Rome, antique bas- reliefs, vases, monuments, etc. Among the titles of his works are " Architectura Romana," (208 plates,) and " Magnificence of the Romans," (" Magnificenza dei Romani," 44 plates.) Died at Rome in 1778. His daughter Laura was an engraver. She died in 1785. See BiANCONi, " Elogio storico del Cavaliere G. B. Piranesi," 1779; P. BiAGi, " SuU'incisione e sul Piranesi," 1820. Pirokheimer. See Pirkheimer. Pire, de, deh peW, (Hippolyte Marc Guil- laume de Rosnyvinen — deh ros^ne^ve^i6N',) Comte, a French general, born at Rennes in 1778. He com- manded the light cavalry of the left wing at Waterloo. Died in 1850. Piringer, pee'ring-er, (Benedict,) a German en- graver, born at Vienna in 1780. He went with Count A. de Laborde to Paris in 1809. Among his works are landscapes after Claude Lorrain and Poussin. Died at Paris in 1826. Pi-rith'o-us or Pei-rith'o-us, [Gr. YlEipidooq,] a son of Ixi'on, and a chief of the Lapithae. The celebrated fight of the Lapithae and the Centaurs originated at the marriage of Pirithous and Hippodami^a. He was a friend of Theseus, whom he aided in the abduction of Helen from Sparta. Theseus, in return, abetted him in an attempt to carry off Proserpine from the palace of Pluto; but in this they failed, and Pirithous was killed by Cerberus. See Virgil, "/Eneid," book vi. 393-397. Pirkheimer or Pirokheimer, p^Rk'hi'mer, (Wili- bald,) a German historian and philologist, born at Nu- remberg in 1470. He learned the Greek language, and translated into Latin some writings of Plato, Xenophon, and others. He was a friend of Erasmus, and was dis- € as i; c as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (^l^^See Explanations, p. 23. ) PIROGOF 1802 PISO tinguished for his efforts to diffuse learning in Germany. Among his works is " Germaniae perbrevis Explicatio," (1530.) Died in 1530 or 1531. See Panzer, "W. Pirckheimer und Charitas Pirckheimer," etc., 1802; Nic^RON, "M^moires;" F. Campe, "Zuni Andenken W. Pirckheimer's," 1828; '* Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Pirogof, Pirogov, or Pirogow, pee'ro-gof, (Nicho- las,) a Russian surgeon, born about 1810, celebrated as the inventor of a new method of amputating the foot by dividing the os calcis. He was for several years chief surgeon in a military hospital at Saint Petersburg. Piroli, pee'ro-lee or pe-ro'lee, (Prospero,) an Italian painter, born in 1761, worked several years in Russia, and was patronized by the Czar. Died at Milan in 1831. Piroli, (ToMMASO,) a skilful designer and engraver, born at Rome in 1 750, engraved the Prophets and Sibyls of the Sistine Chapel, after Michael Angelo, "Cupid and Psyche," after Raphael, etc. Died in 1824. Piromalli, pe-ro-mai'lee, (Paolo,) a learned Italian missionary, born in 1592, laboured in Asia. He compiled a "Latin-Persian Lexicon." Died in 1667. Piron, pe'r6N', (Aim^:,) a French poet, born at Dijon in 1640 ; died in 1727. See AuGusTE dr Mastaing, " Les Piron," 1844. Piron, (Alexis,) a French dramatist and poet, born at Dijon in 1689, was a son of the preceding. He had a talent for bon-mots and epigrams. In his youth he wrote comedies and licentious odes. Among his works are several unsuccessful tragedies. He produced in 1738 a drama entitled "The Mania for Writing Verse," (" La Metromanie,") which is considered a master-piece of intrigue, of style, and of comic genius. He married Marie Therese Quenaudon when she had passed the age of fifty. He was chosen a member of the French Academy in 1753, but was rejected by the king. Died in 1773. See RiGOLEY de Juvigny, "Vie de Piron," 1776; Auguste de Mastaing, "Les Piron," 1844: Cousin d'Avallon, "Pironiana, ou Recueil des Aventures plaisantes, Bon-mots, etc. d'A. Piron," 1800; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Piron, (Bernard,) a French poet, born at Dijon in 1718, was a nephew of the preceding. Died in 1812. Piron, (Marie Therese Quenaudon — keh-n5'- d6N',) called Mademoiselle de Bar, born in 1688, was a literary and witty lady. She was married in 1741 to Alexis Piron. Died in 1751. Pirro, p^r'ro, (Rocco,) a historian, born in Sicily in 1577, was chaplain to the king. He published a his- tory of the churches of Sicily, entitled "Sicilia Sacra," (3 vols., 1644-47,) which is esteemed valuable. Died in 1651. Pisa, (Leonard of.) See Leonardo da Pisa. Pisan, (Christina.) See Christine de Pisan. Pi-san'der or Pei-san'der, [Yleiaav6pog,'\ a Greek poet of Rhodes, flourished about 650 B.C. He wrote an epic poem on the exploits of Hercules, which is lost. He was received into the epic canon with Homer by the critics of Alexandria. Pisander or Peisander, an Athenian demagogue, who was archon eponymus in 414 B.C. He was a promi- nent agent in the revolution which subverted the de- mocracy and raised the Four Hundred to power in 412 B.C. Pisander, a Spartan, who was a brother-in-law of Agesilaus II. He became admiral of the fleet in 395, and was defeated and killed by the Athenians under Conon in 394 B.C. Pisanello, pe-sl-neKlo, or Pisano, pe-s^'no, (Vit- TORE,) a celebrated painter of the Venetian school, flourished about 1450. He surpassed the artists of his time in painting horses and other animals, and was an excellent engraver of medals. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." Pisani, pe-si'nee, (Niccol6,) a Venetian admiral, who acquired celebrity in the war against the Genoese which began about 1350. He commanded in an indecisive battle against Paganino Doria at the outlet of the Bos- phorus in 1352. Pisani, (Veitore or Vettor,) a famous admiral, a son or nephew of the preceding, obtained command of the fleet in 1378. He displayed skill in the defence of Venice against the Genoese, whose fleet he captured at Chiozza in 1380. He died in the same year. See Giovanni Molin, "Memorie per servire alia Storia di Vet- tor Pisani;" Grassi, "Vita di Vettor Pisani," 1837. Pisano, (Andrea.) See Andrea Pisano. Pisano, pe-sa'no, (Giovanni,) called also Giovanni da Pisa, an eminent sculptor and architect, born at Pisa about 1238, was a son of the sculptor Niccolo. He was architect of the famous Campo Santo (cemetery) of Pisa, completed in 1283. It is a cloister of sixty-two arcades or arches. He built the Castel Nuovo at Naples. Among his master-pieces of sculpture are the high altar in the cathedral of Arezzo, and a statue of the Virgin which adorns the exterior of the cathedral of Florence. Died in 1320. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters and Sculptors ;" Cico- gnara, "Storia della Scultura;" Ticozzi, " Dizionario." Pisano, (Giunta,) an old Tuscan painter, was born in the twelfth century. He was one of the most skilful artists of his time. About 1235 he painted some works in a church of Assisi. His works present the meagre forms of the Byzantine style. A figure of Christ painted on wood by Giunta still exists. Pisano, (Niccol6.) See Niccol6 da Pisa. Pisano, (Vittore.) See Pisanello. Pisari, pe-sS'ree, (Pasquale,) an Italian composer, born at Rome about 1725 ; died in 1 778. Piscator. See Fischer. Piscinus. See Marso. Pise, (Charles Constantine,) D.D., a distinguished Catholic clergyman, born at Annapolis, Maryland, in 1802. He was for some time chaplain of the United States Senate, and in 1849 became pastor of the church of Saint Charles Borrotneo, Brooklyn, New York. He has published a " History of the Church from its Es- tablishment to the Reformation," (1830,) "Aletheia, or Letters on the Truth of the Catholic Doctrines," "Lives of Saint Ignatius and his First Companions," and nume- rous hymns and other poems. Pishdadian. See Peshdadian. Pisistrate. See Pisistratus. PisistratidaB, pis-is-trat'e-de, an appellation given to the sons of Pisistratus. (See Hippias and Hipparchus.) Pi-sis'tra-tus or Pei-sis'tra-tus, [Gr. lieLaiaTpaToq ; Fr. Pisistrate, pe'ze''stRtt',] a tyrant or ruler of Athens, born about 612 B.C., was a son of Hippocrates, and a relative of Solon. He courted popularity by various means, and obtained power by the following artifice. Having inflicted wounds on himself, he presented him- self to the people, pretended that he had been attacked by his political enemies, and persuaded them to grant him a guard of fifty men, by whose aid he seized the citadel, 560 B.C. He was the head of the party of the highlands, which was the more popular or democratic party. He was twice expelled by a coalition of the party of the coast with that of the plain, but was restored as often. He made little or no change in the constitution, and left the reputation of an able and rather liberal ruler. He patronized literature, formed a library, and erected fine public buildings. It is commonly supposed that we owe to him the first written text of the whole of the poems of Homer. Died in 527 B.C. See Herodotus, " History r' Gkote, " History of Greece;" Jan Meursius, "Pisistratus, sen de ejus Vita Liber singularis," 1632; Thirlwall, "History of Greece." Pi'so, [Fr. PisoN, pe'z^N',] (Catus Calpurnius,) a Roman orator, who became consul in 67 B.C., and com- manded in Gallia Narbonensis in 66. He was defended by Cicero, in 63 B.C., against a charge of extortion pre- ferred by Caesar, and urged the former to accuse Caesar as one of the conspirators with Catiline. He probably died before the civil war began, (49 B.C.) See Drumann, "Geschichte Roms." Piso, (Caius Calpurnius,) the leader of a con- spiracy against Nero in 65 a.d. He was a patrician, and very popular. Having been betrayed by one of his accomplices, he killed himself. Piso, (Cneius Calpurnius,) was consul in 7 B.C., with I'iberius, who, after his accession, used him as an instrument to impair the influence of Germanicus. He obtained command of Syria in 18 A.D., and was sus- a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, skort; a, 9, i, 9, obscure; f^r, fill, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; PISO PITT pected of having poisoned Germanicus. He was found dead in his room in 20 A.D. Piso, (Lucius Calpurnius,) was the father of Cal- purnia, the wife of Julius Caesar. He was consul in 58 B.C., and promoted the banishment of Cicero. He mis- governed Macedonia from 57 to 55 B.C. His public con- duct and private character were denounced by Cicero in a very vituperative speech, " Oratio in Pisonem," in 55 or 54 B.C. After the death of Caesar (44 B.C.) Piso made a speech which was applauded by Cicero, (Philippic I.) SeeAppiAN, " Bellum Civile ;" Drumann, "Geschichte Roms." Piso, (L. Calpurnius,) a son of the preceding, was consul in 15 B.C. He was appointed prefect of Rome by Tiberius. He was one of the persons to whom Horace addressed his Epistle "De Arte Poetica," according to Porphyrion. Died in 32 A.D., at the age of eighty. His virtue and integrity are attested hy several writers. Piso, (Lucius Calpurnius Frugi,) a Roman his- torian and consul, belonged to the aristocratic party. He became consul in 133 B.C., and opposed the measures of Caius Gracchus. He wrote *' Annals of Rome," which are not extant. Piso, (Lucius Calpurnius Licinianus,) a Roman whom Galba adopted as heir to the throne in 69 A.D. He was killed by the partisan:! of Otho in the same year, Pison. See Piso. Pi'son, (Jakob,) a Latin poet, born in Transylvania ; died in 1527. Pison, pee'son, (Willem,) a Dutch naturalist and physician, accompanied the Prince of Nassau in a voyage to Brazil in 1637. The researches of Pison and his companion Marcgraf were published, under the title of "Natural History of Brazil," (" Historia Naturalis Bra- siliae," 1648,) a work of some merit. Pistoia, da, (Cino.) See Cino. Pistoia, da, dl p^s-to'yS, (Leonardo Grazia — gR^t'- se-S,) an Italian painter, born at Pistoia, lived about 1550. He was a pupil of F. Penni, with whom he worked at the Vatican and at Naples. He was skilful in portraits. Pistorius, pis-to're-us, (Johann,) a German histo- rian, born at Nidda (Hesse) about 1544. He was con- verted from the Protestant faith to that of the Roman Church, and was confessor to the emperor Rudolph H. He wrote " German Historical Writers," (" Rerum Ger- manicarum Scriptores,"3 vols., 1582-1607.) Diedini6o8. Pitagora. See Pythagoras. Pitaro, pe-ta'ro, (Antonio,) an Italian natural phi- losopher and writer, born at Borgia in 1774; died in Paris after 1830. Pitau, pe'to', (Nicolas,) a skilful Flemish engraver, born at Antwerp about 1633. He worked at Paris, and engraved after Raphael, Guercino, and L. Caracci. His master-piece is a " Holy Family," after Raphael. Died in 1676. His son Nicolas was also an engraver. Died at Paris in 1724. Pitaval, de. See Gayot. Pitcairne, pit'kSrn, (Archibald,) a Scottish phy- sician, born at Edinburgh in 1652. Having finished his education in Paris, he practised with great distinction in his native city. His medical system was based partly on mathematics. He was a zealous Jacobite. He was professor of medicine at Leyden about one year, (1692,) and was one of the teachers of Boerhaave. His principal work is "Elementa Medicinae physico-mathematica." He also wrote Latin verses. Died in 1 7 13. See Charles Webster, " Life of A. Pitcairne," 1781 ; Cham- bers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Pitho. See Pithon. Prthon or Pi'tho, [YlLOoiv,] a Macedonian officer, who had a high comniand under Alexander in India. He was appointed satrap of Babylon by Antigonus in 316 B.C., and was killed fighting for Demetrius at Gaza, in 312 B.C. Pithon, [YIlOov,] an officer of Alexander the Great, whose person he attended as a guard. He was the leader of the mutineers who killed Perdiccas in 321 B.C., after which he was joint regent with Arrhidaeus for a short time. He was second in command in the army of Antigonus, to whom he rendered important services in the war against Eunienes. He was put to death, by order of Antigonus, in 316 B.C. Pithou, pe'too', (FRANgois,) a learned French jurist, born at Troyes in 1543, was a brother of Pierre, noticed below. He wrote "Traite de la Grandeur, des Droits, Pre-eminences des Rois et du Royaume de France," (1587.) Died in 1621. Pithou, (Pierre,) an eminent French jurist and scholar, was born at Troyes in 1539. He was educated as a Protestant, but became a Roman Catholic in 1573, after a narrow escape from the massacre of 1572. He supported the cause of Henry IV., and was one of the authors of the " Satire Menip])ee," which had an im- portant influence in the political affairs of the time. Among his works are "The Liberties of the Galilean Church," (1594,) and "Body of Canon Law," ("Corpus Juris canonici," 1687.) Died in 1596. See Groslev, "Vie de Pierre Pithou," 1756: Loisel, "Vie de Pierre Pithou;" Nic^ron, "Memoires;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Pitiscus, pe-tis'kiis, (Bartholomaus,) a German geometer, born near Griinberg in 1 561 ; died at Heidel- berg in 1613. Pitiscus, pe-tis'kus, (Samuel,) a Dutch philologist, born at Zutphen in 1637. He published a "Lexicon Latino-Belgicum," (1704,) a "Lexicon of Roman An- tiquities," (1713,) and good editions of Quintus Curtius, Suetonius, and Aurelius Victor, Died in 1727. Pit'kin, (Timothy,) an American lawyer and his- torical writer, born at Farmington, Connecticut, in 1765, published a " Political and Civil History of the United States, from 1763 to the Close of Washington's Ad- ministration," (1828.) Died in 1847. See the " North American Review" for January, 1830. Pitoni, pe-to'nee, (Giuseppe Ottavio,) an Italian composer of sacred music, born at Rieti in 1657 ; died at Rome in 1743. Pitot, pe'to', (Henri,) a French geometer, born at Aramon in 1695. He contributed several memoirs to the Academy of Sciences, and published a good work on naval tactics, entitled "Theorie de la Manoeuvre des Vaisseaux," (1731.) Died in 1771. Pit'ri, [a Sanscrit word signifying "father,"] a title applied in the Hindoo mythology to the deified pro- genitors of mankind, supposed to inhabit the orbit of the moon. Pits, [Lat. Pit'seus,] (John,) an English biographer, born at Alton in 1560, was a Roman Catholic. He be- came canon of Verdun, in Lorraine, and dean of Liver- dun. He wrote "The Lives of the Kings, Bishops, and Writers of England," (4 vols.) The last volume was published in 1619. Died in 1616. Pitseus. See Pits. Pitt, (Christopher,) an English poet, born at Bland- ford in 1699. He became rector of Pimpern, in Dorset- shire, and published a volume of poems in 1727. He produced a translation of Virgil's "^neid," (1740,) which was received with favour. Died in 1748. Pitt, (Thomas,) a grandfather of the Earl of Chat- ham, was born at Blandford in 1653. He was for some years Governor of Madras. He purchased in India for ;^24,ooo a large diamond, (called the Pitt diamond,) which he sold to the Regent of France for ^135,000. Died in 1726. Pitt, ( William, ) Earl of Chatham, an illustrious English statesman and orator, was born at Boconnoc, in Cornwall, November 15, 1708. He was the second son of Robert Pitt, and a grandson of Thomas Pitt, Governor of Madras, who brought from India the Pitt diamond, which is now esteemed the most precious of the crown-jewels of France. His mother was Harriet Villiers. He was educated at Eton, and at Trinity Col- lege, Oxford, which he entered at the age of seventeen. The torments of the gout, to which he was subject nearly all his life, induced him to leave college without taking a degree, and to travel in France and Italy for his health. On his return home he accepted a cornet's commission in the army, and in 1735 was chosen a member of Parlia- ment for Old Sarum. He began his political life as an opponent of the Walpole ministry, and addressed the House for the first time in April, 1736, on the subject of the marriage of the Prince of Wales. Soon after this date he was appointed a groom of the bed-chamber € as c as s, g hard; g as /; o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal' r. trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) PITT PITT to that prince, and he continued t& declaim against Walpole with increasing power. His figure was re- markably graceful and commanding, and his manner highly imposing. " His play of countenance," says Mac- aulay, " was wonderful : he frequently disconcerted a hostile orator by a single glance of indignation or scorn. Every tone, from the impassioned cry to the thrilling aside, was perfectly at his command. . . . Yet he was not a great debater. His merit was almost entirely rhetorical. He did not succeed either in exposition or refutation ; but his speeches abounded with lively illus- trations, happy allusions, passionate appeals. His in- vective and sarcasm were tremendous." Having been excluded from the new cabinet which was formed on the resignation of Walpole, in 1742, he continued to act with the opposition, and fiercely de- nounced Carteret for the favour shown to the German dominions of George H. The offence which he thus gave to the king retarded his own promotion when, in 1744, the Pelhams came into power. By tendering their resignations in the critical period of the Jacobite rebel- lion, the ministers at last prevailed over the king, and Pitt was appointed paymaster of the forces in 1746. The rare disinterestedness which he showed in this lucrative office convinced the public that he was proof against all sordid temptations. He married Hester Grenville, a sister of the Earl of Temple and of George Grenville, in 1754. In this year the premier, Henry Pel- ham, died, and was succeeded by his brother, the Duke of Newcastle. Pitt, who was perhaps offended because his rival Henry Fox was chosen secretary of state, be- came the leader of the opposition in November, 1755, soon after which date war broke out between England and France. Newcastle having been forced to resign, Pitt was premier about five months, ending in April, 1757. The king, who disliked Pitt and his colleague Temple, dismissed them, but found great difficulty in forming a new ministry, as Pitt was the most popular statesman in England. After the nation had remained eleven weeks without a ministry, a coalition was formed between Pitt and Newcastle, the former of whom became secretary of state, with the supreme direction of the war and of foreign affairs. He infused new energy and ardour into every branch of the service, and his fame was raised to the highest point by a succession of victories in Canada, India, and Europe. About 1760 he was almost idolized by the people, who called him "the Great Commoner" and regarded him as the foremost Englishman of his time. On the accession of George III., Pitt was supplanted by Lord Bute, the royal favourite, the success of whose intrigues was promoted by dissensions and jealousies among the ministers, some of whom were offended by the imperious demeanour of the premier. Pitt resigned in October, 1761, and received an annual pension of ;^3000 for three lives, {i.e. his own, his wife's, and his eldest son's.) In 1765 the king requested Pitt to resume the direction of affairs ; but the latter declined the offer because his friend the Earl of Temple refused to take office with him. During the next session of Parliament he condemned the Stamp Act in an eloquent speech, and argued that England had no right to tax the colo- nies. The renewed overtures and insidious smiles of the court prevailed on him, in 1766, to form a new ad- ministration, in which he took the office of privy seal. At the same time he sacrificed his popularity by accepting a peerage, with the title of Earl of Chatham. This was the cabinet that Burke described as a " piece of joinery so whimsically dovetailed ; a tesselated pavement with- out cement," etc. His mental and physical maladies soon became so aggravated that he ceased to take any part in the government, and he resigned in October, 1768. With improved health, he returned to public life about 1771, and spoke often against the ministers. In 1775 he made a brilliant speech on the American war. Alluding to the Boston Port bill, etc., he exclaimed, "You must repeal these acts, and you will repeal them. I pledge myself for it that you will repeal them. I stake my reputation on it. I will consent to be taken for an idiot if they are not finally repealed." In 1777 he ma-de a memorable speech against employing Indians to fight in the United States. As he rose to speak in the House of Lords, in 1778, he was seized with an apo- plectic fit. He lingered a few weeks, and died in May, 1778, leaving three sons, the second of whom was the celebrated statesman William Pitt the Younger. " His eloquence," says Brougham, " was of the very highest order : vehement, fiery, close to the subject, concise, sometimes eminently, even boldly, figurative ; it was original and surprising, yet quite natural. The fine passages or felicitous hits in which all popular as- semblies take boundless delight . . . form the grand charm of Lord Chatham's oratory. ... A noble state- ment of enlarged views, a generous avcwal of dignified sentiments, a manly and somewhat severe contempt for all petty and mean views, always pervaded his whole dis- course ; and, more than any orator since Demosthenes, he was distinguished by the grandeur of feeling with which he regarded, and the amplitude of survey which he cast upon, the subject-matters of debate. He is the person to whom every one would at once point if desired to name the most successful statesman and most brilliant orator that this country ever produced. Some fragments of his speeches have been handed down to us ; but these bear so very small a proportion to the prodigious fame which his eloquence has left behind it, that far more is manifestly lost than has reached us." Several volumes, entitled "Chatham Papers: Correspondence from the Original MSS.," were published in 1838-40, 4 vols. See " History of W. Pitt, Earl of Chatham," by Francis Thack- eray, 2 vols., 1827; John Almon, "Anecdotes of W. Pitt, Earl of Chatham," 2 vols., 1792; Brougham, "Statesmen of the Time of George III. ;" MacAULAv's Review of Thackeray's " Life of Chat- ham," 1834; Macaulay, "Essay on the Earl of Chatham," in the "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1844; Louis de Vielcastel, " Essai historique sur les deux Pitt," 2 vols., 1846. Pitt, (The Right Honourable William,) a celebrated statestnan and debater, was the second son of the pre- ceding, and was born at Hayes, in Kent, in May, 1759. At the age of seven, when he heard that his father was raised to the peerage, he said, " I am glad that I am not the eldest son. I want to speak in the House of Com- mons, like papa." He received the rudiments of educa- tion at hotne, under the diligent supervision of his father, and acquired great proficiency in Latin, Greek, and mathematics, before he entered Pembroke Hall, Cam- bridge, in 1773. Having chosen the profession of the law, he took chambers in Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the bar in 1780. In 1781 he entered Parliament for Appleby, as an opponent of the ministry, and before the end of the second session assumed his place in the first rank of debaters. His talents and conduct amply justi- fied and responded to the partiality with which the public regarded the son of the Great Commoner. He acquired a new claim to public favour by a motion (in May, 1782) for a reform in the representation, which was rejected by a small majority. His principles at that time were the same with those of the Whigs. On the formation of the ministry of Lord Shelburne, in July, 1782, Mr. Pitt was appointed chancellor of the exchequer. By a coalition between Lord North and Mr. Fox, this ministry was forced to resign in March, 1783, and Pitt became the leader of the opposition in the House. The king, after procuring the defeat of Fox's India bill, dismissed Fox and Lord North, whose coalition was very unpopular, and appointed Pitt first lord of the treasury (prime min- ister) in December, 1783. He had to contend against a large majority in the House, led by Fox, Burke, North, and Sheridan, who triumphed in sixteen divisions. This important contest lasted until March, 1784, when Parlia- ment was dissolved. His appeal to the people resulted in a great triumph of the minister, who, thus sustained by the favour of the court and by that of the nation, became at the age of twenty-five the most powerful subject of Europe. The first eight years of his adininistration were peace- ful and prosperous. A new constitution for the East India Company was framed in 1784, and a new sinking- fund established in 1786. He changed his course on the question of parliamentary reform, which he opposed at several periods after 1792. He supported with his elo- quence and his vote the motions of Wilberforce for the abolition of the slave-trade. " All authorities agree," i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fail, f^t; m^t; n6t; good; moon; PITT PIUS says Brougham, "in placing his speech on the slave- trade, in 1791, before any other effort of his genius." Yet he permitted, for many years, every one of his col- leagues to vote against the abolition, and thus furnished the ground of the gravest charge to wrhich his memory is exposed. His ascendency was confirmed by the ex- cesses of the French Revolution, and by the division which that subject produced in the Whig party ; but the tide of his success began to ebb when he involved Eng- land in a war with the French republic in 1793, — a war which, according to Alison, added three hundred millions to the national debt. (See Bonaparte, and George III.) " His conduct of the war," says Brougham, " betrayed no extent of views, no commanding notions of policy. To form one coalition after another in Germany, and subsidize them with millions of free gift, or aid with profuse loans, until all the powers in Our pay were de- feated in succession, and most of them either destroyed or converted into allies of the enemy, — such were all the resources of his diplomatic policy." In 1800 an act for the union of Ireland with Great Britain was passed in the Parliament of the latter. He resigned office in March, 1801, and was succeeded by Addington. The ostensible cause of his resignation was that the king objected to the measures which Pitt proposed for the relief of the Roman Catholics. Alison intimates that he retired to make way for a pacific administration. A combination of Whigs and Tories having been formed against Addington, he resigned, and Pitt was again appointed prime minister, in May, 1804. The new ministry was formed exclusively of Tories. The pre- mature death of Pitt appears to have been hastened by the vexation which he suffered from the failure of the new coalition, and the victories of Bonaparte at Ulm and Austerlitz. He died on the 23d of January, 1806, having never been married. " Unequalled in the ability with which he overcame the jealousies and awakened the activity of cabinets," says Alison, "he was by no means equally felicitous in the warlike measures which he recommended for their adoption. Napoleon has observed that he had no turn for military combinations ; and a retrospect of the cam- paigns which he had a share in directing, must confirm the justice of the opinion. By not engaging England as a principal in the contest, and trusting for land operations to the continental armies put in motion by British sub- r.idies, he prolonged the war for an indefinite period." ("History of Europe.") He is admitted by all parties to have been a consummate debater, and almost un- equalled as a master of sarcasm. His declamation was copious, polished, and impressive. He poured forth a long succession of round and stately periods, with a full and sonorous voice and with an unbending dignity of manner. " Yet, with all this excellence," says Brougham, " the last effect of the highest eloquence was for the most part wanting : we seldom forgot the speaker, or lost the artist in the work." His private character is described as amiable. Pride appears to have been his principal fault. See Brougham, " Statesmen of the Time of George III. ;" " Me- moirs of W. Pitt," by George Tomi.ine, 1821 ; Macaulay, article "William Pitt," in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica;" Lord Stan- hope, (Mahon,) "Life of William Pitt." 1862; John Gifford, " History of the Political Life of William Pitt," 3 vols., 1809 ; Pierre Chanin, "ViedeM. Pitt," 1805; Auguste Vidalin, "Etude sur la Carri^re de W. Pitt," 1851 ; Alison, " History of Europe ;" "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1856, and "The Addington and Pitt Administrations," in the "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1858. Pit'ta-cus, [ITiTra/cof,] a celebrated Greek statesman, philosopher, and poet, called one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece, was born at Mitylene, in Lesbos, about 650 B.C. He distinguished himself in a battle against the Athenians (whose leader, Phrynon, he killed) in 606 B.C. About 590 he was chosen supreme ruler by the popular party, which had expelled the aristocratic party. The poet Alcaeus belonged to the latter, and was exiled in the time of Pittacus. Having governed the state wisely for ten years, he resigned his office in 580 B.C. He was famous as an elegiac poet ; but only a few of his lines are extant. Died in 569 B.C. See Diogenes Laertius; Suidas, "Pittacus." Pitthee. See Pittheus. Pit'theus, [Gr. liLTdevc ; Fr. Pitthee, pe'ti',] a son of Pelops and Hippodami'a, was a king of Troezene, the father of Mthrz, and grandfather of Theseus. Pausanias ascribes to him a work on the art of speaking. Pit'tis, (Thomas,) an English clergyman, born in the Isle of Wight, entered Trinity College, Oxford, about 1652. Died in 1687. Pittoni, p^t-to'nee, (Battista,) an Italian painter and engraver, born at Vicenza about 1520 ; died after 1585. Pittoni, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter, born at Venice in 1687. Among his best works is "The Miracle of the Loaves." Died in 1767. Pittorio, p^t-to're-o, or Pittori, p^t-to'ree, [Lat. Picto'rius,] (Lodovico Bigi,) a Latin poet, born at Ferrara in 1454. He wrote " Candida," (1491,) " Moral Epigrams," (" Epigrammata moralia," 1516,) and other poems. Died about 1524. Pitts, (William,) an English sculptor, called "the British Cellini," was born in London in 1790. He learned the trade of gold-chaser. He displayed a fine fancy for design, and remarkable executive skill. Among his works are "The Creation of Eve," (1824,) "The Shield of ^neas," (1828,) "The Shield of Hercules," (1834,) and the " Apotheoses of Spenser, Shakspeare, and Mil- ton," in bas-relief. He committed suicide in 1840. Pi'us [It. Pio, pee'o ; Fr. Pie, pee] I., Pope or Bishop of Rome, was born at Aquileia. He succeeded Hyginus in 142 A.D., and died in 157, His successor was Anicetus. Pius (or Pio) II., Pope, (^ne'as Syl'vius Picco- lomini — pek-ko-lom'e-nee,) was born at Corsignano, Tuscany, in 1405. He was liberally educated, and was familiar with the ancient classics. In 1535 he produced a history of the Council of Bile. He was a partisan of this council in its contest against Pope Eugenius IV., and became the secretary of Felix V., who was elected pope in place of Eugenius, whom the council deposed. About 1442 he entered the service of the emperor Fred- erick III., of whotn he wrote a history, " Historia Rerum Friderici III." In the pontificate of Nicholas V., ^neas Sylvius was sent as nuncio to Germany. He distin- guished himself as a negotiator and orator on various occasions. He became a cardinal in 1456, and was elected pope in 1458, in place of Calixtus III. In 1459 he procured the meeting of a European congress on the subject of a crusade against the Turks ; but the jealousies and dissensions among the Christian powers rendered his efforts abortive. He issued a bull in which he retracted and condetnned what he had formerly writ- ten in favour of the supremacy of councils. He died in August, 1464, and was succeeded by Paul II, Pius II. was an eminent historian and scholar. Among his nu- merous works are "Epistolae," (1473,) and a "History of Bohemia," (1475,) which are highly prized. See " Pii II. Commentarii Rerum memorabilium," an auto- bIos;raphy, published by his secretary, Gobelinus, 1477 and 1614; Campanus or Campmanus, "Vita Pii II.;" Platina, "Vita Pontificum ;" Hei.wing, " De Pii II. Rebus gestis," 1825; VoiGT, " Eneas Piccolomini," Berlin, 1859; " Nouvelle Biographic Generate." Pius III., Pope, (Francesco Todesohini Piccolo- mini — to-d§s-kee'nee p^k-ko-lom'e-nee,) born at Sienna in 1439, was a nephew of Pius II. He succeeded Alex- ander VI. in September, 1503, and died in October of the same year. His successor was Julius II. Pius IV., Pope, (Giovanni Angelo de' Medici — di m§d'e-chee,) was born at Milan in 1499, and was an uncle of the eminent Carlo Borromeo. He was elected pope, in place of Paul IV., about the end of 1559. He convoked the Council of Trent which reassembled in 1 561 and finished its labours in 1563. The decrees of this council in relation to discipline, etc. were rejected by the French. He is represented by some historians as an able but rather unscrupulous pontiff. He died in December, 1565, and was succeeded by Pius V. See Ranke, " History of the Popes." Pius v., Pope, (Michele Ghislieri — ges-le-a'ree,) was born at or near Alessandria in 1504. He became a cardinal in 1557, and Inquisitor-General of Christen- dom. In 1566 he was elected pope. He was a rigorist € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, yl, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) PIUS 1806 PIZARRO in discipline, and a violent persecutor of dissenters. Palearius, Zanetti, and other learned men were put to death by his inquisitors. He published in 1568 the bull "In Coena Domini," which asserts the extreme ultra- montane doctrines in relation to the papal supremacy. The publication of this bull was forbidden by the Kings of France and Spain and the Emperor of Germany. Pius V. was one of the allies whose fleet gained the victory of Lepanto over the Turks, in 1571. He died in 1572, and was succeeded by Gregory XIH. See Ranke, '* History of the Popes ;" Agatio di Somma, " Vida di Pio Quinto ;" J. B. Feuillet, "Vie du Pape Pie V," 1674; De Falloux, " Histoire de Saint Pie V," 2 vols., 1844; "Life and Pontificate of Saint Pius V.," by Rev. Joseph Mendham, 1832. Pius VI., Pope, (Cardinal Angelo Braschi — br^s'- kee,) was born at Cesena in 1 71 7. He succeeded Clem- ent XIV. in February, 1775. He drained the Pontine marshes, and enriched the Museum of the Vatican. In 1782 he went in person to Vienna to treat with the emperor Joseph, who had suppressed convents and meddled with spiritual affairs in a manner which dis- pleased the pope. He failed in his effort to change the purpose of the emperor. The French Revolution in- volved him in a still greater trouble. He entered into alliance with Austria and other powers against the French republic. After his states had been invaded by Bonaparte, he sued for peace, which he obtained by the treaty of Tolentino, in 1797. To avenge the death of General Duphot, (who was killed by a Roman mob,) the French army entered Rome in February, 1798, and deposed the pope, who was conveyed to Valence, in France, where he died in August, 1799. See Ferrari, " Vita Pii VI.," 1802 ; Tavanti, " Fasti del Papa Pio VI.," 3 vols., 1804; Artaud de Montor," Histoire de Pie VI, " 1847; " Nouvelle Blographie Generale." Pius VII., Pope, (Cardinal Gregorio Barnaba Chi- aramonti — ke-a-ri-mon'tee,) was born at Cesena in August, 1742. He became a cardinal, and Bishop of Imola, in 1785. After the French had become masters of Imola, he exhorted his people to submit to the new regime. He was elected pope by a conclave of car- dinals assembled at Venice in March, 1800, and ap- pointed Cardinal Consalvi secretary of state. The first important event of his reign was a treaty with Bonaparte, by which the Roman Catholic religion was re-established in France. This treaty, called the Concordat, was signed on the 15th of July, 1801. In compliance with the re- quest of Bonaparte, Pius went to Paris and crowned or anointed him as emperor in December, 1804. He re- fused to comply with the will of Napoleon when the latter required him to banish the English, Russians, and Swedes from the Papal States, (1806,) and resisted him in other designs. The French army occupied Rome in February, 1808, but permitted the pope to retain some temporal power. In May, 1809, Napoleon issued a decree that the Papal States were united to the French empire. The pope, having resorted to a bull of ex- communication against his adversaries, was seized and abducted from Rome in July, 1809. He was detained at Savona, near Genoa, until 1812, and was then removed to Fontainebleau. In his captivity the pope firmly resisted the will of the emperor, who probably wished him to transfer his court from Rome to Avignon. Pius refused to give canonical institution to the bishops appointed by Napoleon. In January, 1813, he was persuaded to sign a new concordat and to make concessions, which, however, by the advice of his cardinals, he soon re- tracted. In January, 1814, he received an order or permission to return to Rome, which he entered in May. He afterwards made some laudable reforms. He died in August, 1823, and was succeeded by Leo XII. Pius VII. left a fair reputation for moderation and other virtues. See Artaud de Montor, " Histoire de Pie VII," 2 vols., 1836 : Cohen, "Precis historique sur Pie VII," 1823; A. de Beauchamp, " Histoire des Malheurs de Pie VII," 1814 ; Guadet, " Esquisses liistoriqiies et politiques sur Pie VII," 1823; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1858; " Recol- lections of the Last Four Popes," by Cardinal Wiseman, Lon- don, 1858. Pius VIII,, Pope, (Cardinal Francesco Castiglioni — kis-til-yo'nee,) was born at Cingoli in 1761. He suc- ceeded Leo XII. in March, 1829, and issued an encyclical letter in which he denounced religious toleration, the freedom of the press, and civil marriage, as impious. He died in November, 1830. His successor was Greg- ory XVL Pius IX., [Ital. Pio Nono, pee'o no^io,] Pope, (Gio- vanni Maria Mastai Ferretti — mis'ti f^r-ret'tee,) was born, of a noble family, at Sinigaglia, near Ancona, on the 13th of May, 1792. He visited South America in 1823 on a religious mission, and was made Archbishop of Spoleto in 1827. In 1840 he obtained the dignity of cardinal. He was elected by acclamation the successor of Pope Gregory XVI. in June, 1846. He granted an amnesty to political transgressors, and acqtiired great popularity by various measures of reform which he commenced soon after his election. His first secretaiy of state, Cardinal Gizzi, was a friend of progress and a liberal policy. The expenses of the papal court were reduced, the censorship of the press was modified, and the Jews were relieved from some oppressive regulations. His reforms were partly frustrated by the ill will of many of his functionaries, who opposed innovation. His popu- larity began to decline before the end of 1847. Excited and elated by the French revolution, the Italian liberals required greater concessions than the pope was willing to grant. After several violent demonstrations of the populace, Pius IX. escaped from Rome in disguise in November, 1848, and retired to Gaeta. A republic was organized at Rome in February, 1849, but was subverted by a French army which took the city in July of that year and restored the pope. Among the later events of his pontificate was the formal definition and recognition of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception as a part of the Roman Catholic creed, (1854.) During the war which Austria waged against the French and Sar- dinians in 1859, the people of the Romagna and the legations revolted against the pope, and the Papal States were annexed to the kingdom of Victor Emmanuel. In January, i860, the pope issued an anathema, or bull, against those who abetted the invasion of his dominions. This was probably aimed at Napoleon III., who sup- pressed the journal in which it was published. Rome was declared the capital of the new kingdom of Italy in i860, since which the question of the pope's temporal power has remained in suspense, as one of the great problems of European diplomacy. The recognition of the kingdom of Italy by the French court (1861) was accompanied by the reservation that " French troops shall continue to occupy Rome so long as the interests which caused their presence shall not be protected by sufficient guarantees." The pope was the only power that recognized the "Confederate States of North Amer- ica." The results of the war between the Emperor of Austria and the allied Kings of Prussia and Italy in 1866 were unfavourable to papal domination. About the loth of December, 1866, the French army departed from Rome, and Italy was relieved from the presence of for- eign soldiery, for the first time probably in a thousand years. He convoked by an encyclical letter an oecu- menical council which met at Rome in December, 1869, to assert or define the dogma of the pope's infallibility, which, after a long deliberation, was finally established in July, 1870. The Italian army took Rome on the 20th of September, without serious resistance, and the tem- poral power of the pope was then abolished. Pius pro- tested against this innovation, but he remained in Rome. See A. Balleydier, "Rome et Pie JX," 1847; G. B. Nic- COT. INI, "History of the Pontificate of Pius IX.," London, 1851; Bretonneau, "Notice sur Pie IX," 1847; "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale;" "Quarterly Review" for December, 1847. Pivati, pe-vd'tee, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Ital- ian litterateur, born at Padua in 1689. He published "Scientific Dictionary," etc., ("Dizionario scientifico e curioso," 10 vols., 1750.) Died in 1764. Pix, (Mary,) originally Griffith, an English drama- tist, born in Oxfordshire about 1665; died about 1720. Pizarre. See Pizarro. Pizarro, pe-zdr'ro, [Sp. pron. pe-thir'ro; Fr. Pi- zarre, pe'ztRM (Francisco,) the conqueror of Peru, was born at Truxillo, in Spain, about 1475. ^'^^ natural son of Gonzalo Pizarro, who was a colonel in the Spanish army. He was employed as a swineherd in his youth, and never learned to read or write. The date e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; m§t; ndt; good; moon; PIZARRO 1807 PLAN CHE of his emigration to the New World has not been pre- served ; but in 1 5 10 he took part in the expedition of Ojeda from Hispaniola to Terra Firma. He afterwards served under Balboa, with whom he performed an ar- duous march across the mountains from Darien to the Pacific Ocean. In 1522 Pizarro, who had risen to the rank of captain, associated himself, at Panama, with Almagro and a rich priest named De Luque, in an enter- prise to explore and conquer the region which lies south of the Isthmus of Darien. Having enlisted in his service about one hundred desperadoes, he sailed from Panama with one small vessel in November, 1524. His first ex- pedition was unsuccessful and attended with great hard- ships. He renewed the enterprise in 1526, but made slow progress and lost many men. He landed at the city of Tumbez without opposition, and was stimulated to pursue his project by the sight of the gold trinkets and utensils which the natives displayed in great pro- fusion. Having explored the coast as far as Truxillo, about 9° south latitude, he found it inexpedient to pro- ceed with his reduced force, and returned to Panama in 1528. With the consent of Almagro and De Luque, Pizarro went to Spain to solicit aid from the king. In this mission he was successful. He procured for himself an appointment as governor and captain-general* of the region which he might conquer for a distance of two hundred leagues south of vSantiago; but he neglected to obtain any high office for Almagro, who was disgusted with this perfidious conduct. In January, 1531, Pizarro sailed from Panama with one hundred and eighty men and about thirty horses, leaving Almagro behind to muster reinforcements. A civil war which raged in Peru between Atahualpa and Huascar presented a favour- able opportunity for his design. Having marched across the sierra of the Andes to Caxamarca, he met the Inca Atahualpa in November, 1532. The treacherous and audacious Spaniard seized the Inca, who had come to the Spanish camp for a friendly interview. To obtain his liberty, the Inca offered to fill a room twenty-two feet long and sixteen feet wide with golden vessels and utensils, etc. up to a line as high as he could reach. Pizarro assented to this proposal, and obtained about 1,326,000 pesos of gold, the value of which Prescott estimates at over fifteen millions of dollars ; but he caused Atahualpa to be put to death by the garote. "The blood-stained annals of the conquest," says Prescott, " afford no such example of cold-hearted and systematic persecution, not of an enemy, but of one whose whole deportment had been that of a friend and benefactor." In November, 1533, Pizarro entered Cuzco, the capital, and the conquest of Peru was virtually effected. Civil war broke out in 1537 between Pizarro and Almagro, who was defeated and executed in 1538. (See Almagro.) To avenge his death, a conspiracy was formed by Alma- gro the Younger, and Pizarro was assassinated at Lima in June, 1541. "The name of Pizarro became a by-word of perfidy," says Prescott, who, however, praises his invincible constancy. See Prescott, "Conquest of Peru;" Robertsom, " Histnrj' of America ;" Zarate, " Historia de la Conquista de Peru ;" Her- RERA, " Novus Orbis:" Garcilasso de la Vega, " Comentarios Reales ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Pizarro, (Gonzalo,) a brother of the preceding, was born about 1506. He went to the New World in 1530, and served under Francisco Pizarro in Peru. According to Prescott, he was inferior in talent to his brother, but quite as unscrupulous. He was appointed governor of Quito in 1540, and discovered the river Napo. In 1544 he became the leader of malcontents who revolted against the viceroy Nunez. About the end of 1545 the latter was defeated and killed in battle by Pizarro, who remained master of Peru. He in turn was defeated near Cuzco by the viceroy Gasca in April, 1548, and beheaded in the same month. See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Peru;" Herrera, " Novus Orbis." Pizarro, (Hernando,) was a half-brother of the pre- ceding. He left Spain in 1530, and took a prominent part in the conquest of Peru. With a force of about seven hundred men he defeated Almagro at Las Salinas in April, 1538. He returned to Spain in 1539, and was imprisoned twenty years, probably for the execution of Almagro. Died about 1566. See Herrera, " Novus Orbis." Pizarro, (Juan,) a brother of the preceding, was born at Truxillo about 1505. He assisted in the conquest of Peru, and became governor of Cuzco. He was killed in battle at Cuzco in 1535. Pizarro, (Pedro,) a Spanish historian and soldier of the sixteenth century, born at Toledo, was a relative of the celebrated commander Francisco Pizarro. He wrote a work entitled "Account of the Discovery and Ccn- quest of the Kingdoms of Peru," ("Relaciones del Des- cubrimiento y Conquista de los Reynos del Pe'u,") published about 1847. See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. li. book iii. Pizzi, p^t'see or pit'see, (Gioacchino,) an Italian poet, born in Rome in 1716. Among his poems is " The Vision of Eden," (1778.) Died in 1790. Plaas, van der, vtn der plSss, written also Plas, (David,) a Dutch portrait-painter, born at Amsterdam in 1647. He passed some years at Venice. Died at Amsterdam in 1704. Placaeus. See La Place. Placcius, pllt'se-us, (Vincenz,) a German writer, born at Hamburg in 1642. He published, besides other works, "Atlantis Retecta," a poem, (1659,) and "Treat- ise on Anonymous and Pseudonymous Works and Writers," ("De Scriptis et Scriptoribus anonymis et pseudonymis Syntagma," 1674.) Died in 1699. Place, (Francis,) an English engraver and painter, born in Durham. His etchings are highly commended. Died in 1728. Place, de la, (Josu^:.) See La Place, de. Place, de la, deh Itpltss, (Pierre,) a French Prot- estant'jurist, born at Angouleme about 1520. He wrote a journal or history of public events in France from 1556 to 1561, (1565,) and other works. He became president of the ca7ir des aides, Paris, in the reign of Henry II. He was a victim of the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, (1572.) Place, de la, (Pierre Antoine,) a mediocre French writer of fiction and dramas, born at Calais in 1707 ; died in 1793. Place, La, (Pierre Simon.) See Laplace. Pla-cen-ti'nus, [It. Piacentino, pe-a-ch§n-tee'no,] an Italian jurist of the twelfth century, born at Piacenza ; died in 1 192. Placentius, plSt-sgn'se-iis, (Peter,) or Johann Leo, a German writer, who lived about 1530, and wrote a Latin poem entitled "The Battle of the Pigs," ("Pugna Porcoruni,") in which every word begins with P. Placette, La. See La Placette. Pla-cid^i-a, [Fr. Placidie, plt'seMe',] a Roman princess, born about 390 A.D., was a daughter of Theo- dosius the Great. She was taken captive by the Goths, and became the wife of Ataulphus, King of the Goths, (414.) Died in 450 a.d. ^ Pla9'i-tus Pa-p^r-i-en'sis, ( Sextus, ) sometimes called Sextus Platon'icus or Sextus Empir'icus, a physician, who is supposed to have lived about the fourth century. He wrote a work "On Medicaments made from Animals," (" De Medicamentis ex Ani- malibus.") Plaisance, de, Due. See Lebrun. Plana, pl§.'na, (Giovanni Antonio Amedeo,) Baron, an Italian savant, born in 1781. He became director of the observatory at Turin, professor of analysis, and senator. He published, besides other works, a "Theory of the Motion of the Moon," (3 vols., 1832.) Planard, de, deh plt'ntR', (FRANgois Antoine Eu- G^:ne,) a French dramatist, born in Aveyron in 1783= He produced successful comedies and comic operas. Died in 1855. Planche, ploN'sha', (James Robinson,) an English dramatist, born in London in 1796. He published about 1827 "Lays and Legends of the Rhine," and "The Descent oi the Danube." He composed numerous successful extravaganzas and dramas, among which were " Oberon," an opera, and "Charles XIL," (1828.) He also wrote a " History of British Costume," (1834.) € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this, (2[^=°See Explanations, p. 23.) PLANCHE 1808 PLATNER Planche, plSNsh, ( Jean Baptiste Gustave, ) a French litterateur and critic, born in Paris in 1808. He wrote many able criticisms on art and literature for the " Revue des Deux Mondes," and published " Literary Portraits," (4 vols., 1836-49.) Died in 1857. Planche, (Joseph,) a French Hellenist, born at La- dinhac (Cantal) in 1762, was professor at the College Bourbon, at Paris. He published, besides other books for students, a " Greek-French Dictionary," (1809,) which was successful and was adopted in the university. Died in 1853. Plancher, pldN'shi', (Urbain,) a French monk and historian, born in Anjou in 1667. He wrote a " History of Burgundy," (3 vols., 1739-48.) Died in 1750. Planciades. See Fulgentius. Plancius, plin'se-us, (Pieter,) a Dutch theologian, born in Flanders in 1552, was a zealous Calvinist. He preached at Brussels and Amsterdam. By his astro- nomical and nautical science he rendered good service to the commerce of Holland. Died in 1622. Planck, plink, (Gottlieb Jakob,) an eminent Ger- man theologian and church historian, born at Niirtingen, in Wiirtemberg, in 1 75 1. He was professor of theology at Gottingen from 1784 to 1833. His principal works are a '* History of the Protestant Doctrinal System," (" Geschichte der Bildung des Protestantischen Lehr- begriffs," 6 vols., 1781-1800,) and a "History of the Origin and Development of the Organization of the Christian Church," (5 vols., 1803-05.) Died in 1833. See LuECKE, " Dr. G. J. Planck; biographischer Versuch." Planck, (Heinrich Ludwig,) a son of the pre- ceding, was born at Gottingen in 1785. He wrote several theological and exegetical works, and was professor of theology at Gottingen, Died in 183 1. ^ Plan9on, p15n's6n', (Guillaume,) a French phy- sician, born at Javron, in Maine. He translated Galen's " Commentary on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates,"(i55i.) Died in 1611. Plan'cus, (Lucius Munatius,) a profligate Roman politician, who was a partisan of Caesar in the civil war. He took arms for the senate in 43 B.C., but soon deserted to Antony, and was consul in 42 B.C. In 32 B.C. he abandoned Antony and became a partisan of Octavius. He was the person to whom Horace addressed the seventh ode of his first book. His brother, Titus Munatius Plancus Bursa, was tribune of the people in 52 B.C. He was a violent enemy of Milo, and caused a popular riot at the funeral of Clodius, for which he was prosecuted by Cicero, and condemned about 50 B.C. Planer, pli'ner, (Johann Jacob,) a German botanist and physician, born at Erfurt in 1743. He translated Linnasus's " Systema Naturae" into German, (1774,) and wrote several scientific treatises. Died in 1789. Planque, pl6Nk, (Francois,) a French physician, born at Amiens in 1696. He published a good manual of surgery, "Chirurgie complete," (2 vols., 1744,) and "Select Library of Medicine," (" Bibliotheque choisie de Medecine," 10 vols., 1748-70.) Died in 1765. Plant, plint, (Johann Traugott,) a German writer, born at Dresden in 1756. He wrote a " Biographical and Critical Treatise on the History of German Poetry," (1782,) and other works. Died in 1794. Planta, plln'ti, (Joseph,) a Swiss historian and phi- lologist, born in the Grisons in 1744. He became in 1799 principal librarian of the British Museum. He was secretary of the Royal vSociety of London for twenty years or more. He published a " History of the Hel- vetic Confederacy," (2 vols., 1800,) and other works. Died in 1827. See the " Monthly Review" for June, 1800. Planta, de, deh pUn'tS, (Martin,) a Swiss natural philosopher, born in 1727. He is said to have been the inventor of electrical machines with plates, (h plateaux.) Died in 1772. Plantade, de, deh plfiN'ttd', (Francois,) a French astronomer, born at Montpellier in 1670. He wrote "Observations on the Aurora Borealis," (1730.) He made some good maps of Languedoc. Died in 1741. Plantagenet. See Edmund Plantagenet. Plantagenet. See Henry II. of England. Plantin, plSN'tiN', (Christophe,) an eminent printer, born near Tours, in France, in 15 14. He became the proprietor of a printing-office in Antwerp about 1550. His publications were renowned for correctness and beauty. He employed Kilian, Pulmann, (or Poelmann,) and other learned men as correctors of the press. His most remarkable performance was an edition of a Poly- glot Bible, superintended by Arias Montanus, (1568-72.) Died in 1589. See "Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Plantin, plfiN't^N', (Jean Baptiste,) a Swiss histo- rian, born at Lausanne about 1625. He wrote a " His- tory of Switzerland," (" Helvetia antiqua etnova," 1656,) and other works. Died about 1680. Planude. See Planudes, Pla-nu'des, [Gr. W^vov^q ; Fr. Planude, plt'niid',] (Maximus,) a Byzantine monk, born at Nicomedia, was sent by Andronicus II. on a mission to Venice in 1327. He is chiefly noted as an editor of a Greek Anthology, a collection of Greek epigrams, some of which he ex- tracted from an Anthology compiled by Constantinus Cephalas in the tenth century. Planudes was very deficient in the judgment and taste required to edit such a work, and is accused of literary forgeries. His Anthology was printed at Florence in 1494. See Fabkicius, " Bibliotheca Graeca." Plas, van der, vSn der plis, (Pieter,) a Dutch painter, born in 1578; died at Brussels in 1634. Platao. See Plato. Platea, plS-ta'S, (Francesco Piazza,) an Italian canonist, born at Bologna about 1390 ; died in 1460. Plateau, plftS', (Joseph Antoine Ferdinand,) a Belgian natural philosopher, born at Brussels in 1801. He has written on optics and on the statics of liquids removed from the effects of gravity. Platen, von, fon pli'ten, (Dubislav Friedrich,) a Prussian general, born in 17 14. He served with dis- tinction against the Russians and Swedes in the Seven Years' war, and became a lieutenant-general about 1758. Died in 1787. Platen-Hallermiinde.pl^'ten hSKlSr-munMeh, (Au- gust,) Count, a German litterateur, born at Anspach in 1796. Among his works are a " History of the King- dom of Naples from 1414 to 1443," and a satirical poem entitled " The Romantic CEdipus." Died in 1835. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Minckwitz, "Graf von Platen als Mench und Dichter," 183S. Plater, pll'ter, (Emilie,) a Polish heroine, born at Wilna in 1806. She fought, with the rank of captain, against the Russians in the insurrection of 1830. Died in 1831. See " Emilie Plater, sa Vie et sa Mort," Paris, 1834, and "Life of Countess E. Plater," New York, 1842; "Democratic Review" for July, 1842. Plater, pli'ter, (F^lix,) a Swiss physician, born at Bale in 1536. He lectured and practised with success in that place. He wrote " Medical Practice," (" Praxis Medica," 1602,) often reprinted, and other medical works. Died in 1614. Plater, (F6lix,) a son of the preceding, was born in 1605, and became a physician of Bale. Died in 167 1. Plater, (Stanislas,) Count, a Polish soldier, his- torian, and antiquary, born in Lithuania in 1782. He published, in French, a " Historical Atlas of Poland," and several other works. Died in 185 1. Platina. See Paul II. Platina, plS-tee'ni, (Bartolommeo de Sacchis,) an able Italian historian, born at Piadena, near Cre- mona, in 1421. He wrote, besides other works, "The Lives of the Popes," (" In Vitas Summorum Pontificum Opus," 1479,) a work of much merit, often reprinted, and a " History of Mantua," (1675.) He became li- brarian of the Vatican about 1472. Died in 1481. He was a member of the Academy founded at Rome by Pomponius Laetus, and as such was persecuted by Pope Paul II. See Baylh, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Niceron, "Memoires;" Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Platner, plSt'ner, (Eduard,) a German jurist, born at Leipsic in 1786. He wrote, besides many literary essays, a treatise " On the Attic Races," (" De Gentibus a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, q, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; raSt; nSt; good; moon; PLATNER PLATO Atticis," 1811,) and " Questions on the Roman Criminal Law," ("Quaestiones de Jure criminum Romano," 1842.) Platner, (Ernst,) a German philosopher and phy- sician, born at Leipsic in 1744, was the father of the preceding. He became professor of medicine at Leipsic in 1770. He had a high reputation as a lecturer and a writer. Among his works are " Anthropology for Phy- sicians and Philosophers," (2 vols., 1774,) and "Philo- sophic Aphorisms," (2 vols., 1776-82.) His style is commended for precision and elegance. Died in i8i8. See " Biographie Medicale." Platner, (Ernst Zacharias,) a writer, a son of the preceding, was born at Leipsic in 1773. He published a " Description of Rome," (3 vols., 1830-43.) Platner, (Johann Zacharias,) a surgeon, born at Chemnitz in 1694, was the father of Ernst, noticed above. He taught at Leipsic, and was a skilful oculist. He wrote, in elegant Latin, " Surgical Institutes," (" Insti- tutiones Chirurgiae rationales," 1745,) and other works. Died in 1747. Pla'to,*[Gr.ILlar6;v; Lat. Pla'to ; Fr. Platon, plf- t6N'; Ger. the same as the Latin ; It. Platone, pl^-to'ni ; Sp. Platon, pia-t6n' ; Port. Platao, pli-towN' ; Arab, and Persian, Aflatoon, a-flt'toon',] one of the most illustrious philosophers of all time, was born about 429 B.C. He belonged to one of the highest families of Athens, being descended on the side of his father, Aris'to, (or Aris'ton,) from Codrus, and on that of his mother, Pericti'one, he was related to the celebrated lawgiver Solon. As to the place of his birth there is some dispute. Some writers say that he was born at Athens ; others, in the island of /Egina. His original name was Aris'tocles, after his grandfather : he was sur- named Plato, (from TrAariif, "broad,") on account of the breadth of his forehead, or, as some say, of his shoulders. Very little is certainly known of the history of his life, and, as is usual in such cases, the absence of positive information is liberally supplied by what is legendary or fabulous. It is related that while an infant, as he was one day sleeping in a bovver on Mount Hymel- tus, a number of bees dropping honey settled upon his lips, thus foreshadowing the extraordinary sweetness of his eloquence. According to another story, his future greatness was foreshown by a dream of Socrates, who saw in his sleep a young swan coming from the grove of Academus ; after nestling in his bosom, it soared aloft, singing sweetly as it rose. The next morning, just as Socrates had finished relating his dream, Aristo presented himself,- leading by the hand young Plato, whom he wished to place under the instruction of that distinguished sage. Plato was a remarkable example of that universal culture which characterized the best period of ancient Greece. He appears to have neglected no branch of science or art which was considered to form any part of a liberal education. He studied music, rhetoric, and painting, and, after the manner of his countrymen, paid great attention to gymnastics, in which he was so ex- pert, we are told, that he contended at the Isthmian and Pythian games. In early life he is said to have turned his attention to poetry, and to have written an epic poem, which, however, on comparing it with the " Iliad," he burned in despair. He also composed some lyrics and several tragedies. But "having once," as i^^lian ex- presses it, "been captivated by the siren of Socrates," he gave himself up wholly to the study of philosophy. He was in his twentieth year, as it appears, when he began to attend the school of Socrates, where he con- tinued until his master's death, (399 B.C.) After this event, in order to escape the persecutions which threat- ened them, he, with several other Socratic disciples, withdrew to Megara, where they were received by the philosopher Euclid, who had also been a pupil of Socra- tes. Plato is said subsequently to have travelled exten- sively, visiting Egypt, Sicily, and Magna Grascia, where he became acquainted with the doctrines of Pythagoras. Some writers speak of his having journeyed into the interior of Asia for the purpose of enriching his mind with the wisdom of the Persians, Babylonians, and other * Chaucer gives the name Platon, or Platone, and Plato. nations of the East ; but of this there is not a particle of trustworthy evidence. While in Sicily he became acquainted with Dion, (or Dio,) who introduced him to Dionysius the Elder. But the philosopher, as might well be supposed, was not likely to find much favour ii\ the eyes of an unscrupulous and reckless tyrant. They soon quarrelled, and on one occasion Dionysius, it is said, was so deeply offended with the freedom of some of Plato's remarks, that, had not Dion interposed, he would have punished him with death. Although the tyrant was prevailed on to spare his life, he caused him to be sold as a slave. He was, however, ransomed and set at liberty, — some say by Dion, others, by Anniceris of Cyrene. Having returned to Athens, he opened a school, called the Academy, ( Academia,) in a grove, which had formerly belonged to a citizen named Academus or Hecademus. His school was numerously attended by young men of the most distinguished families of Athens and of all Greece. Even women were numbered, it is said, among his disciples. After having taught in Athens more than twenty years, he again visited Sicily, at the solicitation of Dion, who hoped that Plato's influ- ence might be successful in winning to philosophy thr younger Dionysius, and in establishing, through him, a model government in Syracuse. (For a most interesting account of this experiment and its failure, see Grote's " History of Greece," vols. x. and xi.) He afterwards visited Syracuse for the third time, in order to effect a reconciliation between Dionysius and Dion ; but in this attempt he was wholly unsuccessful. He returned to Athens, where he continued to write and teach until his death, which occurred 347 B.C., in his eighty-fourth year. According to some writers, however, he died in his eighty- first year. He was, as Cicero informs us, occupied in writing at the very moment of his death. There is per- haps in the history of the human intellect no example of any one having dedicated himself with a more abso- lute devotion to philosophy (the "love or study of wis- dom") than Plato. He was never married ; and, from the time when he first became acquainted with Socrates, (about his twentieth year,) every moment of his long life appears to have been spent in the interest of his favourite pursuit. This entire dedication of all his powers to one grand object has not been without results of the highest im- portance to mankind. Probably no other philosopher, of whatever age or nation, has contributed so much as Plato towards the moral and intellectual culture of the human race. This pre-emiiience is to be ascribed not solely to his transcendent intellect or to the marvellous depth and comprehensiveness of his philosophic views, but also in no small measure to his poetic power, and to that unrivalled grace and beauty of style which led the ancients to say that if Jove should speak Greek he would speak like Plato. Macaulay, alluding to Plato's wonderful power as a writer, speaks of him as "the finest of human intellects, exercising boundless dominion over the finest of human languages." ("Essay on Lord Bacon.'") The charms of his style, indeed, by awakening the interest and admiration of all loA'ers of literature, have doubtless been one of the chief causes of that state of excellent preservation in which his works have come down to us. For, by a singular good fortune, all his philosophical writings, there is reason to believe, have been preserved, not only unmutilated with respect to the different parts, but with the text, comparatively speaking, uncorrupted and unimpaired. With respect to Plato's character as a man we know scarcely anything except what is revealed in his works. " Despite the disposition of the Greeks for calumny," says Ritter, "there are but few evil rumours against which we have to vindicate the purity of his moral con- duct." The same writer not only rejects as unfounded the charges against the purity of Plato's private char- acter, but regards as either wholly unjust or greatly exaggerated the imputation against him of malice or ill feeling towards certain other disciples of Socrates, such as Xenophon, Euclid, Aristippus, and others, whose views on many points differed widely from his own. Plato has been accused by some modern writers of being wanting in patriotism and in a sympathy for € as^; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gutiural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; %h as in this, (2[^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 114 PLATO 1810 PLATO humanity. Both of these charges seem to us unjust. The state of political morals in his time was such that he could scarcely hope to effect any good by taking an active part in public affairs. By doing so, there is every reason to believe, he would have only embroiled himself in an endless conflict with men with whom his standard of right would not permit him to co-operate. Besides, his talents do not appear to have fitted him for politics ; and he is certainly not to be censured for confining him- self to that field of labour for which nature had best qualified him. The charge that he was wanting in a sympathy for human nature appears to have no other foundation than the fact that he had no sympathy with vice and ignorance, two most conspicuous features in the human nature which he saw around him. Yet the great object, and, we may add, the tendency, of nearly all his teachings was to make mankind happier by making them wiser and better.* With respect to Plato's philosophic system, it is im- possible to say with any precision how much of it was properly his own, and how much was derived from his great master. (See Socrates.) It is a fine saying of Mr. Emerson, that " Socrates and Plato are the double star which the most powerful instruments will not en- tirely separate."t The plan and limits of the present work will permit us only to glance at some of the most striking characteristics of Plato's ])hilosophy as we find it unfolded in his writings. His system may be consid- ered from two points of view, — the one having reference to the method, the other to the results, of his philosophic investigations. His method, which appears to be scarcely more than an extension of that of Socrates, was undoubt- e*lly a great improvement on the methods of previous philosophers. But the admirable lessons of his great teacher, re- specting the manner and spirit with which the search after truth should be conducted, would in all probability have been quickly forgotten and lost to the world, had not Plato made them immortal by his writings. Re- ferring the reader to the article on Socratp:s for a brief notice of the Socratic method, we shall here limit our- selves to simply calling attention \^ some of the most remarkable points in Plato's philosophic creed, without attempting, in our narrow space, to give even a complete outline of his system. He taught that God was the supreme Idea or Essence of the universe, comprising within himself all other beings, and was the Cause of all things, celestial and terrestrial. He alone is good, with- out envy, willing good to all so far as each is capable of receiving it : God alone is unchangeable. Plato strongly condemned the views, then prevalent, which represented the gods as having human passions and as influenced by selfish human motives. While he taught the exist- ence of one supreme God, the source and upholder of all things, he appears to have recognized, at the same time, a class of inferior deities, or beings with godlike attributes, far superior to man. One of the most re- markable features of Plato's philosophy is his theory of ideas. With him, an idea is not simply an image or conception formed by the human mind : it is rather an eternal thought of the Divine mind. He held that the * We need scarcely say that we utterly and totally dissent from Macaiilay's estimate of Plato's philosophic writings, (see " Essay on Lord Bacon," second part,) which he compares to a magnificent tree, full of beautiful leaves and flowers, but producing no fruit. Writings which have inspired the souls of so many thousands with loftier aspi- rations and with a more earnest love of virtue, may be truly said to have borne fruit of the most precious kind, compared with which tlie boasted products of the Baconian philosophy are little better than the apples of the Dead Sea. That Plato's writings have often pro- duced the results wliich we have ascribed to them will scarcely be denied, we think, by any one familiar witli those writings or with the history of antiquity. To cite one example out of many, Cato the Younger, confessedly one of the noblest and most virtuous of all the Romans, when surrounded with misfortunes on every hand, and amid the ruins of his country, sought and found consolation and hope in the sublime teachings of Plato's " Phsdo." t See "Representative Men," article "Plato," the whole of which is well worthy of perusal by those who would have a vivid conception of Plato's power as a philosopher. This essay, it seems to us, is one of Mr. Emerson's happiest efforts ; and, if he some- times exaggerates the greatness and worth of liis hero, the fault is more than atoned for by a thorough and vivid appreciation of his subject, — perhaps the most important, as it is the rarest, qualification of a good critic. human soul is not only immortal, but that it has always existed. I In its pre-existent state it has had a perception of the eternal ideas {i.e. the perfect forms or patterns of things) as they exist in the mind of God. A dim, shadowy remembrance of those celestial patterns is what sometimes enables us to form a conception of loveliness, virtue, etc. far more perfect, more divine, than anything our mortal eyes have ever beheld. It is thus that the gifted painter is enabled to give us forms of beauty more exquisite than any that can be found in this world. It is thus, also, that on hearing of a generous action we are enabled to form an idea of generosity ; for it is ob- vious that such an action could have no significance to one who had never known the feeling of generosity in his soul : in a perfectly selfish man, if such a one ci>uld be found, it would not awaken admiration, but simply con- tempt. Xenophon tells us, in the second book of his "Anabasis," that Menon the Thessalian considered honesty and truth to be nothing else than stupidity or folly. A Phitonist would explain this by saying that ail traces of the Divine ideas of truth and justice had, through the love of gain or love of power, become obliterated from his soul. Plato taught that the oniy way in which men can rise in wisdoin and virtue is by striving to restore the lost ideas and to make their minds approximate the mind of God. Plato appears to have made himself thoroughly ac- quainted with all the previous philosophic systems which had appeared in Greece. He had not only diligently studied the doctrines of Heracli'tus, Pythagoras, and Socrates, but also those of Anaxagoras, Parmenides, and others of less note. "He reduced," says Ritter, "into a beautiful whole the scattered results of the earlier Greek philosophy, reconciling their seeming differences and conflicting tendencies. . . . When, indeed, we com- pare the barrenness of the earlier philosophers with the fertility of Plato, that love, which he knows so well how to inspire in us, warms almost to veneration, so rich, so varied, and so abundant are his observations, and so profound his knowledge of man and of the world. . . . To such richness of materials Plato united the rarest skill of language and composition to a degree which has never since been equalled." Respecting Plato's intellectual power as a philosopher, Mr. Emerson grandly observes that " his strength is like the momentum of a falling planet, and his discretion the return of its due and perfect curve." Again he says, "The way to know him [Plato] is to compare him, not with nature, but with other men. How many ages have gone by, and he remains unapproached !" (" Representa- tive Men.") The philosophic writings of Plato are, with some slight exce]5tions, in the form of dialogues, in all of which, save one, ("The Laws,") Socrates is one of the chief interlocutors. The different dialogues have been distributed by Schleiermacher into three divisions. The first division, in which the development of the dialogistic method is the chief object, includes the "Phaedrus," "Lysis," "Protagoras," "Laches," "Char- mides," "Euthyphro," and "Parmenides," to which are added, by way of appendix or supplement, the "Apolf)gy of Socrates," " Critos," "Ion," " Hippias Minor," "Hip- parchus," "Minos," and " Alcibiades II." The second division, in which the predominant subject is the expla- nation of knowledge, including the difference between philosophical and coinmon knowledge, comprises the " Gorgias," " Theaetetus," "Meno," " Euthydemus," "Cratylus," " Sojihistes," " Politicus," ("Statesman,") "Symposium," ("Banquet,") "Phasdo," (or " Ph^edon,") and "Philebus," with an appendix containing the "The- ages," "Erastse," "Alcibiades I.," "Menexenus," " Hip- pias Major," and "Clitophon." The third division consists of such as contain an objective scientific ex- position, — in other words, combine practical science with speculative philosophy: these are the "Republic," "Timasus," and "Critias," to which may be added "The X He appears to have believed not that the soul has always existed in its present form or condition, or anything like it, but that as God is tlie source of all things, and as His thoughts and purposes are eternal, the soul may therefore be said to have always liad an exist- ence in that infinite Being of whom it is an emanation. a, e, I, 6, u, y, lonp;, i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure: fir, fill, fit; m&t; nSt;good; moon; PLATO 1811 Laws." The first edition of Plato's entire works was that published in Venice by Aldus in 1513; the best are perhaps — first, that of Ast, published at Leipsic, in 9 vols. 8vo, 1819-27, and, second, that of G. Stallbaum, in 8 vols. 8vo, Leipsic, 1821-25, (and the same text in 8 vols. i2mo, 1826.) See Fri'edrich Ast, " Plato's Leben und Schriften," Leipsic, 1816; Stallbaum, "Disputatio de Platonis Vita, Ingenio at Scriptis," prefixed to his edition of Plato's works ; Ritter, " His- tory of Ancient Philosophy," translated by A. J. W. Mokison, 4 vols. 8vo, Oxford, 1838 ; Schleiermacher, " Introductions to the Dialogues of Plato," translated by Wm. Dobson, i vol. 8vo, Cam- bridge, 1836; Conrad Lagus, " Oratio de Vita Platonis," 1538; "Remarks on the Life and Writings of Plato," Edinburgh, 1660; CoMBES-DouNOUS, Essai historique sur Platon," etc., 2 vols., 1809 ; A. Folker, "Dissertatio de Vita Platonis," 1797 ; Andre Dacier, " Plato's Leben, mit einer nahern Angabe seiner philosophischen Lehrsatze, aus dem Franzosischen," 1829; L Ogienski, "Pericles et Plato: Inquisitio historica et philosopliica," 183S ; T. van Swin- DEREN, "Oratio de Platone optimo in Legibus condendis Principe magistro," 1807; also the articles on "Plato" in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica," in Smith's " Greek and Roman Biography," etc., and in the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale," from the pen of Dr. Hoefer. Plato, [Gr. Il/lurwv,] an eminent Athenian comic poet of the old comedy, flourished about 428-390 B.C., and was contemporary with Aristophanes. He attacked Cleon and other demagogues in his plays, which dis- played keen wit, vigour, and purity of style. Many fragments of them have come down to us. According to some critics, he was a writer of the middle comedy. Platof, Platov, or Platow, pUVtof, Hetman of the Cossacks, was born on the Don about 1760. He served as general in the Russian army which marched to the aid of Prussia in 1806. He harassed the retreating French army in 181 2, and entered Paris with a troop of Cossacks in 1814. Died in 1818. Platon. See Plato. Platon, plS'ton, (LEFSHiNor Leffschin,) an eminent Russian prelate, born near Moscow in 1737. He dis- tinguished himself as an eloquent pulpit orator, and be- came court preacher to Catherine II. He was appointed Archbishf)p of Moscow in 1775, and Metropolitan of the Russian Church in 1787. He published many sermons and theological works, which are highly commended. Died in November, 1812. Platone. See Plai o. Platte-Montagne, pltt'miN^ttn', (Matthew van Plathen-Berch or Plattenherg,) a Flemish painter and engraver, born at Antwerp about 1606. He removed to Paris, where he painted portraits and engraved land- scapes. Died in 1660. His son Nicolas (1631-1706) was also a painter and engraver. Plaute. See Plautus. Plauto. See Plautus. Plau'tus, [Fr. Plaute, plot ; It. Plauto, plow'to,] (Marcus Acciusor Attius,) the most celebrated of the Roman comic poets, was a native of Sarsina, in Umbria. It is supposed that he was born about 254, or, as some say, in 224 B.C. In his youth he served a baker by grinding corn with a hand-mill. Little is known of his history. According to Cicero, he died in 184 B.C. His plays were very popular in his own time, and are gen- erally admired by modern critics. His elegance, re- finement, and wit are commended by Cicero and other ancient critics. Horace censures his coarse jests and his versification. The titles of his extant plays are "Amphitruo," " Asinaria," "Aulularia," " Bacchides," " Captivi," "Curculio," "Casina," " Cistellaria,"' " Epi- dicus," "Menaechmi," " Mercator," "Miles Gloriosus," " Mostellaria," " Persa," " Poenulus," " Pseudolus," " Ru- dens," "Stichus," "Trinummus," and " Truculentus." There is a good English version of Plautus by Bonnel Thornton. The "Captivi" was pronounced the most perfect of comedies by Lessing, who, as a critic, had scarcely any superior. See Grondvius, " Lectiones Plautinse," 1740; Loman, "Speci- men critico-literarium in Plautnm et Terentium," 1845 ; Andesen, "De Vita Plauti," 1843; Lessing, "Von dem Leben und den Werken des Plautus,'' in the third volume of his works, Berlin, 1838 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1843. Play'fair, (John,) an eminent Scottish mathemati- cian and astronomer, born at Benvie, Forfarshire, on the loth of March, 1748, was educated at the University of Saint Andrew's. He became minister of the parishes of PLEMP Lifif and Benvie in 1773, and professor of mathematics in the University of Edinburgh in 1785. In 1805 he succeeded Professor Robison as professor of natural philosophy in the same university. He contributed to the "Edinburgh Review" many articles, among which is a review of La Place's "Traite de Mecanique celeste," (1808.) He published "Elements of Geometry," (1795,) which was extensively used in schools, "Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth," (1802,) and "Outlines of Natural Philosophy," (2 vols., 1812.) Among his contributions to the " Transactions" of the Edinburgh Royal Society are " Remarks on the Astron- omy of the Brahmins," and " On the Solids of Greatest Attraction." He wrote the article " Physical Astronomy" for the "Encyclopaedia Britannica." Died in 1819. " He possessed in the highest degree," says Jeffrey, "all the characteristics both of a fine and powerful under- standing;, at once penetrating and vigilant, but more distinguished perhaps for the caution and sureness (or success) of its march than for the brilliancy or rapidity of its movements." See a "Life of J. Playfair," prefixed to his collected works, 4 vols., 1822; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary;" Jeffrey, " Miscellanies." Play'fair, (Lyon,) an English chemist, born in Bengal, in India, in 1819. He studied at Saint Andrew's, and at Giessen under Liebig. He became in 1843 professor of chemistry in the Royal Institution in Manchester. For his services as a commissioner of the Great Exhibition of 185 1 he was made a Companion of the Bath. He was appointed professor of chemistry in the University of Edinburgh in 1858. He has published a number of treatises and lectures on chemistry. Playfair, (William,) a Scottish political writer and ingenious inventor, born near Dundee in 1759, was a brother of' Professor John Playfair. He made several useful mechanical inventions. About 1814 he became editor of Galignani's " Messenger," in Paris. He after- wards resided in London. Among his numerous works are a "History of Jacobinism," (1795,) and "British Family Antiquity," (9 vols., 1809-12.) Died in 1823. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Play'ford, (John,) an English writer on music, born in 1613 ; died in 1693. His son Henry published "Orpheus Britannicus." Plgas'on-ton, (Alfred,) an American general, born in Washington, District of Columbia, in 1824, graduated at W^est Point in 1 844. He gained the rank of captain in 1855, and became a brigadier-general of volunteers in 1862. He commanded a body of cavalry at Antietam, September, 1862, and at Chancellorsville, May, 1863, and had the chief command of the Union cavalry at Gettys- burg, July 1-3, 1863. He served in Missouri when that State was invaded by General Price in October, 1864. Pleas'ants, (James,) an American Senator, born in Virginia in 1769. He was a Senator of the United States from 1819 to 1822, and Governor of Virginia from 1822 to 1825. Died in 1836. Pleg'mund, an English prelate under the reign of Alfred the Great, was made Archbishop of Canterbury in 890 A.D. He was distinguished for his learning and virtues, and was honoured with the friendship of the king. He is supposed to have had a part in the com- pilation of the "Saxon Chronicle." See W. F. Hook:, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. i. chap, vi., i860. Pleiades, plee'ya-d^z, [Gr. TlleLade^ or Tlekeiadeg ; Fr. Pleiades, pla'e-td' ; Eng. Pleiads, plee'yads, ] the daughters of Atlas and Pleione, were seven in number, and were said to be sisters of the Hyades. Their names were Electra, Maia, Taygete, Alcyone, Cel^no, Sterope, and Merope. According to one legend, they were attendants of Diana, and, to protect them from the amorous pursuit of Orion, were changed into doves and placed among the stars. They were sometimes called Atlantides. Plemp, plSmp, (Cornelts,) a writer of Latin poetry, was born at Amsterdam in 1574; died in 1638. Plemp, [Lat. Plem'pius,] (Vopiscus Fortunatus,) a physician and writer, born at Amsterdam in 1601, be- came professor at Louvain in 1633. Died in 1671. e as ^; 9 as s; | hard; g as J; G, h, k, gu^ral; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (Sl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) PLEMPIUS 1812 PLOT IN US Plempius. See Plf.mp. Plenck, von, fon pl^nk, (Joseph Jakob,) a German surgeon and botanist, born at Vienna in 1738. He pub- lished, besides other works, one "On Diseases of the Eyes," (" De Morbis Oculorum," 1777,) and "Figures of Medicinal Plants," ("Icones Plantarum medicina- lium," 7 vols., 1 788-1804.) Died in 1807. See Mkusel, "Gelehrtes Deutschland." Plessing, plgs'sing, (Friedrjch Victor Lebrecht,) a German philosopher, born near Magdeburg in 1752. He was professor of philost)phy at Duisburg, and wrote two works on the philosophy of the ancients, entitled "Osiris and Socrates," (1783,) and "Memnonium, or an Essay to Unveil the Mysteries of Antiquity," (1787.) Died in 1806. Plessis. See Duplessis and Richelieu. Plessis d'Argentre. See A rgentr6, d'. Plessis-Mornay. See Mornay. Plessis-Praslin. See Choiseul. Pletho or Plethon. See Gemis i us. Pleville le Pelley, pla'v^K leh (George Rene,) a French admiral, born at Granville in 1726. He fought with distinction for the United States, (1778-83.) He was minister of the marine in 1797. Died in 1805. Pleyel, pla'^K, (Joseph Etienne Camille,) a com- poser and pianist, was born at Strasburg about 1790. He became a partner of Kalkbrenner in the fabrication of pianos in Paris. Died in 1855. Pleyl, pill, or Pleyel, plT'el, (Ignaz,) a celebrated composer, father of the preceding, born at Ruppersthal, near Vienna, in 1756 or 1757. Having studied under Haydn and subsequently visited Italy, he was appointed, after his return, chapel-master at Strasburg. In 1795 he settled in Paris, where he established a piano-manu- factory and published the " Bibliotheque Musicale." His works are chiefly pieces of instrumental music, which were very popular in his time. Died in 1831. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Pline. See Pliny. Plinio. See Pliny. Plinius. See Pliny. Plin'i-us Va-le-ii-a'nus, the reputed author of a medical work called " Medicinae Plinianae Libri quinque." It is supposed to have been compiled several centuries after the Christian era. Plin'y [Fr. Pline, plin ; It. Plinio, plee'ne-o] the Elder, (or, more fully, Ca'ius Plin'ius Secun'dus,) a celebrated Roman naturalist, was born at Verona, or, according to some authorities. Novum Comum, (the modern Como,) in 23 a.D. He served in the army in Germany, under Lucius Pomponius, and returned to Rome about the age of thirty. He studied law, and practised as a pleader for a few years. He was after- wards procurator in Spain in the reign of Nero, and became a friend and favoured officer of Vespasian. We possess but little other information of his public life, except that at the time of his death he had command of a fleet stationed at Misenum. In August, 79 A.D., occurred a great eruption of Vesuvius. Observing the immense cloud of smoke which arose in the form of a tree from the volcano, he embarked at Misenum on a vessel and approached nearer to the scene of danger. He calmly noted the variations of the portentous phe- nomenon, amidst the shower of cinders and pumice- stones which fell around his vessel, and landed at Stabia. In the ensuing night he attempted to return to the vessel, but he perished on land, suffocated by ashes or sul- phurous exhalations. This was probably the eruption which destroyed the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. He left historical and grammatical works, which are lost. The only work of Pliny that has come down to us is his " Natural History," (" Naturae Historiarum Libri XXXVII.,") which is thus characterized by Cuvier, (in the " Biographie Universelle :") " It is at the same time one of the'i;>iost precious monuments that antiquity has left for us, and the evidence of an erudition very wonderful in a warrior and statesman. In order to appreciate justly this vast and celebrated composition, it is necessary to direct our attention to the plan, the facts, and the style. The plan is immense. . . . He includes astronomy, natural philosophy, geography, agriculture, commerce, medicine, and the arts, as well as natural history properly so called. . . . Pliny was not an observer like Aristotle ; still less was he a man of genius, capable, like that great philosopher, of tracing the laws and relations ili ac- cordance with which the works of nature are formed and arranged, (co-ordontiee.) In general, he is only a» compiler. ... A comparison of his extracts- with the originals which are extant, especially with Aristotle, convinces us that Pliny did not prefer to take from the authors he consulted that which was most important or most exact. In general, he prefers the singular and marvellous. ... If Pliny has for us little merit as a naturalist and critic, it is far otherwise in respect to his talent as a writer, and the vast treasury of Latin terms and locutions which have made his work one of the rich- est depositories of the language of the Romans." He was a decided pantheist, and had no faith in the future existence of the human soul. His style is vigorous, condensed, pointed, and abounds in antithesis. Among the best editions of Pliny is that published by Sillig, Hamburg. " His profound erudition," says Buffon, "is enhanced by elevation of ideas and nobleness of style. He not only knew all that could be known in his time, but he had that large faculty of thinking which multi- plies science, he had that delicacy (finesse) of reflection on which depend elegance and taste, and he imparts to his reader a certain freedom of spirit and boldness of thought, which is the germ of philosophy." See Salmasius, " Exercitationes Plinianae," 1629; A. Jos. a TUKRE Rezzonico, " Dlsquisitioiies Plinians," 2 vols., 1763-67; Paul Eber, " Dissertatio de Vita C. Plinii," 1556; A. L. A. F6e, " filoge de Pline le Naturaliste," 1821 ; Hahr, " Geschichte der Roniischen Literatur:" " Noiivelie Biographie Generale." Pliny THE Younger, [Fr. Pline le Jeune, pl^n leh zhun,] (or, more fully, Cai'us Plin'ius Caecil'ius Se- cun'dus,) a Latin author and orator, born at Comum, (now Como,) on Lake Larius, (Lake Como,) in 61 or 62 A.D., was a nephew and adoi)ted son of the preceding. He was a son of Caius Caecilius and Plinia, a sister of Pliny the Elder. At the age of fourteen he wrote a Greek tragedy. He studied rhetoric under Quintilian, and practised law at Rome. After he had held other high oflices, he became, in 103, governor or proconsul of Bithynia. He wrote to Trajan a famous letter, in which he bore testimony to the good morality of the Christians and requested directions in relation to their treatment. Although he was a man of humane disposition, he enforced the law which condemned to death those who refused to abjure their religion. He was a friend of the historian Tacitus. Pliny wrote, besides several works which are lost, a " Panegyric on Trajan," which is greatly admired, and left a collection of Letters, in ten books, which, after those of Cicero, are perhaps the most precious relics of Roman epistolary correspondence that have come down to us. They have been translated into English by Lord Orrery and Mr. Melmoth. See Masson, "Vita Plinii junioris," Amsterdam, 1709; Cella- Rius, "Vita Plinii;" "Life of Pliny the Younger," prefixed to E. Thierfeld's German version of his Epistles, etc., 182S ; Olpe, "Commentatio de C. Plinio Secundo," etc., 1784; Jules Janin, " Pline le Jeune et Quintilien," 1838; '* Nouvelle Biographie Gene- rale." Ploos van Amstel,pl5s vtn Sn/stel, (Cornelis,) a Dutch amateur engraver and designer, born at Amster- dam in 1726. He imitated many drawings of old Italian, Flemish, Dutch, and German masters, and made a rich collection of the engravings of those artists. Died about 1800. A collection of his imitations was published in 1821. Plot, (Robert,) an English naturalist and antiquary, born in Kent in 1641. He became professor of chemistry at Oxford about 1684, and historiographer-royal in 1688. He published a " Natural History of Oxfordshire," (1677,) anda"Natural History of Staffordshire," (1686.) Died in 1696. Plotin. See Plotinus. Plo-ti'na, (Pompeia,) the wife of the emperor Tra- jan, is represented as a woman of excellent character. She died in the reign of Hadrian, who erected a temple in her honour. Plo-ti'nus, [Gr. lIAwn i^of ; Fr. Plotin, plo^tiN'; Ger. Plotin, plo-teen',] an eminent Greek philosopher of the a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; \ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, o^cure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon: PLOUCQUET PLVTAR CH Neo-Platonic school, was born at Lycopolis, in Egypt, in 204 A. D. He was a pupil of Ammonius Saccas. In order to become versed in the doctrines of the Oriental sages, he accompanied the expedition of Gordian against Parthia in 243. He taught philosophy at Rome from 245 A.D. until his death, and enjoyed the favour of the emperor Gallienus, He had many disciples. He died about 270 A.D., leaving fifty-four books on abstract sub- jects of philosophy and metaphysics, which are extant and have exerted an important influence in modern times. His life was written by Porphyry, who was his disciple. Plotinus was preferred by Longinus, who knew him well, to all other philosophers of that time. " He was intensely religious," says Hallam, " and if he had come a century later would, instead of a heathen phi- losopher, have been one of the first names among the saints of the Church." See Porphyry, " Life of Plotinus," (in Greek ;) Kirchner, "Die Philosophic des Plotin," 1854; Daunas, " Plotiu et sa Doctrine," 1848. Ploucquet, ploo^ki', (Godefroi,) a metaphysician, born at Stuttgart in 1716. He obtained in 1750 the chair of logic, etc. at Tubingen. Among his numerous works is "Ground-Work of Speculative Philosophy," (" Fundamenta Philosophiae speculativas," 1759,) in which he expounds the system of Leibnitz. Died in 1790. See J. L. HuBER, "Ploucquet's Denkmal," 1790. Plougoulm, ploo'goolm', ( Pierre Ambroise, ) a French judge, born at Rouen in 1796. He was for many years procu'reur-general, and became a counsellor to the court of cassation in 1854. P16w'den, (Edmund,) an eminent English lawyer, born in Shropshire about 15 17, was a zealous Roman Catholic. He became a serjeant-at-law in the reign of Queen Mary, and left " Reports or Commentaries" of cases tried in the reigns of Edward VI., Mary, and Eliza- beth, — a work of high reputation. Died in 1 585. See Ar.LiBONE, "Dictionary of Authors." Plowden, (Francis,) an Irish historian and barrister, wrote, besides other works, a " History of Ireland," (1812.) Having been prosecuted for libel, he retired to France, where he died in 1829. See " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1804; " Monthly Review" for May and January, 1796. Pluche, plUsh, (Noel Antoinf.,) an ingenious French writer and naturalist, born at Rheims in 1688. He became a priest or abbe, and lectured on history and geography at Paris. In 1732 he published a description of the outward creation, entitled " Spectacle of Nature," ("Spectacle de la Nature," 9 vols.,) which had great success and was often reprinted. He also wrote a work on cosmogony, entitled " History of the Heavens," ("Histoire du Ciel," 2 vols., 1739,) and other works, and produced a version of the Psalms, which is com- mended. Died in 1761. See R. fixiENNE, " f-Ioge de Pluche." Pluk'e-net, (Leonard,) an English botanist, born in 1642. Little is known of the events of his life, except that in his old age he was appointed by Queen Mary director of the garden at Hampton Court. He published a work of some merit, entitled " Phytographia," (1691- 96,) also " Almagestum Botanicum," (1696,) and " Amal- theum Botanicum," (1705.) Plum'^r, (William,) an American Governor, born at Newbury, Massachusetts, in June, 1759. He studied law, and was elected a metnber of the legislature of New Hampshire eight times, was a Senator of the United States from 1802 to 1807, and was chosen Governor of New Hampshire in 1812. He was re-elected in 1816, 1817, and 1818. His latter years were devoted to lite- rary pursuits. Died at Epping, New Hampshire, in 1850. See a " Life of William Plumer," by his son William, 1856. Plumer, (William,) a son of the preceding, was born at Epping, New Hampshire, in 1790. He was a member of Congress from 1819 to 1825. He published two volumes of Poems. Died in 1854. Plumier, plU'me-i', (Charles,) a distinguished French botanist, born at Marseilles in 1646, was a pupil of Tournefort. He explored the West Indies with Su- rian in 1689, and, soon after his returrt, published a ••Description of the Plants of America," (1693, with 108 good plates,) which was very favourably received. Ijy the order of the king, he revisited America in 1693 and 1695. In 1703 he produced "New Genera of American Plants,"(" Nova Plantarum Americanarum Genera.") He was about to sail for Peru, to make researches on the subject of quinquina, (Peruvian bark,) when he died near Cadiz in 1704. Among his works is a "Treatise on the Ferns of America," (1705, with 172 plates, ex- quisitely engraved.) "This magnificent collection," says the " Biographie Universelle," "is one of the most admirable monuments of skill and patience that can be named." See NiCERON," M^moires;" Mor^ri," Dictionnaire Historique ;" Haller, " Bibliotheca Botanica." Plum'mer, (John,) an English poet, born in London in 183 1, removed to Northamptonshire. He published a volume entitled "Songs of Labour," (i860,) and is author of numerous essays. Plum'mer, (Joseph B.,) an American general, born in Massachusetts about 1822, graduated at West Point in 1841. He became a captain in 1852, and a brigadier- general of volunteers in October, 1861. He served in several actions in Missouri. Died at Corinth, Missis- sippi, in October, 1862. Pliimp'tre, (James,) an English clergyman and dram- atist, born in 1770. He obtained the living of Great Gransden in 1812. He wrote "Osway," (1795,) and other dramas, and " Discourses on the Amusements of the Stage," (1810.) Died in 1832. Plum'ridge, (Sir James Hanway,) an English ad- miral, born in London in 1787. He served as rear- admiral in the Baltic during the Russian war, (1854-55.) Died in 1863. Plunk'et, (Oliver,) a Catholic prelate, born in the county of Meath, Ireland, about 1630. He received from the pope the title of Primate of Ireland in 1669. He was executed at Tyburn, on a charge of treason, in 1681 ; but his innocence was afterwards proved. Pliink'ett or Plunket, (William Conyngham,) first Lord Plunkett, an eminent Irish orator and judge, was born at Enniskillen in July, 1764. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and was called to the bar in 1787. Having been elected to the Irish Parliament, he acquired distinction by his impassioned speeches against the union with England, in 1800. He acted as consul for the insurgents who were engaged in the rebellion of 1798. He became solicitor-general for Ireland in 1803, and attorney-general in 1805, but retired from office with the Whigs in 1807. In the same year he was elected to the British House of Commons, in which he voted with the Whigs and made a. few speeches that were greatly applauded. He was returned to Parlia- ment for the University of Dublin in 1812, and again in 1818. He was a zealous advocate of Catholic emanci- pation. He was lord chief justice of the common pleas in Ireland for three years, (1827-30.) About 1827 he was created a peer of the United Kingdom. He was lord chancellor of Ireland from 1830 to 1841, excepting an interval of some months in 1834-35. He died in 1854, leaving the title to his son, who is Bishop of Tuam. See the "Life, Letters, etc. of Lord Plunkett," London, 1867; " Edinburgh Review" for July and October, 1867 ; " Eraser's Maga- zine" for June, 1867. Pluquet, plii'ki', (Francois Andr^ Adrien,) a learned and judicious French writer, born at Bayeux in 1 7 16. He published in 1757 an "Inquiry into Fatalism," (3 vols.,) which is commended. His best or most popu- lar work is a "Dictionary of Heresies," (2 vols., 1762.) He obtained in 1776 a chair of moral philosophy in the College de France, Paris. He published a translation of the classic books of the Chinese, collected by Pere Noel, (7 vols., 1786.) Died in 1790. See Qu^RARD, " La France Litt^raire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Pluquet, (Fr6d6ric,) an antiquary, born at Bayeux in 1 781, was a nephew of the preceding. He wrote many works on French antiquities. Died in 1834. Plu'tar-eh, [Gr. UlovTapxog ; Lat. Plutar'chus; Fr. Plutarque, plu'ttRk'; It. Plui arco, ploo taR'ko,] an eminent Greek philosopher or moralist, and the greatest biographer of antiquity, was a native of Chaeronea, in € as 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) PLUTJRCHUS 1 8 Bceotia, He was born probably about 50 a.d., as, ac- cording to his own statement, he studied philosophy under Ammonius, at Delphi, in 66 a.d. He passed some time at Rome, where he lectured on philosophy, in the reign of Vespasian or of one of his sons. " When I was in Rome and other parts of Italy," says Plutarch, ** I had not leisure to study the Latin tongue, on account of the public commissions with which I was charged, and the number of people that came to be instructed by me in philosophy. It was not, therefore, until a late period in life that I began to read the Roman authors." ("Life of Demosthenes.") Plutarch resided at his native place in the latter part of his life, and filled several mu- nicipal offices. "As to myself," says he, "I live in a little town, and I choose to live there, lest it should be- come still less." He had a wife named Timoxena, and several children. On the death of his infant daughter he wrote to his wife a consolatory letter, in which he commemorated her conjugal and maternal virtues, with an infusion of the antique sentiments and poetic allu- sions which render his writings so attractive. He was an admirer of the philosophy of Plato, and a decided opponent of Epicureanism. The date of his death is not known ; but it is supposed that he attained the age of seventy or more. Plutarch was a very prolific writer. His works, by their extent and variety, constitute perhaps the most copious treasury of facts, ideas, and traditions which we have inherited from antiquity. There is no uninspired Greek prose author whose works have found in modern times so many readers and admirers. His principal work is his " Parallel Lives" (Bfoi HapuXkrj'AoL) of eminent Greeks and Romans, arranged in pairs. The biography of each Greek is accompanied by the life of some Roman as a pendant, and the latter is followed by a rather minute comparison, in which the two persons are measured together, trait for trait. The best English versions of Plutarch's "Lives" are those of Sir Thomas North, (1612,) of Langhorne, (1771,) and of Arthur Hugh Clough, {1859.) Among the extant works of Plutarch are many moral essays, which were translated into French by Amyot. His morality, less rigid than that of the Stoics and less speculative than that of Plato, is generally pure and practical. Among his lost works are a " Commentary on Homer," and biographies of Pindar, Hesiod, Scipio, Epaminondas, Augustus, Tiberius, Ca- ligula, Claudius, and Nero. Respecting Plutarch's merits as a writer, we extract the following passage from an article in the " Biographic Universelle," by M. Villemain. Alluding to Plutarch's truthful and naive minuteness in the delineation of his characters, that great critic remarks, " Perhaps this merit, which all recognize in Plutarch, has diverted attention from the picturesque beauty of his style ; but it is this double character of eloquence and truth which has ren- dered him so powerful over all vivid imaginations. . . . This immortal vivacity of the style of Plutarch, seconded by a happy choice of the noblest subjects that can occupy the imagination and the thoughts, explains the prodigious interest excited by his historical works. He has painted man as he is ; he has worthily recorded the greatest characters and most admirable actions of the human species. The attraction of such reading will never pass away ; it appeals to all ages and conditions of life ; it kindles the enthusiasm of youth, and commends itself to the sober wisdom of age." See Hheren, " De Fontibus et Auctoritate Plutarchi," i8io; NiTzscH, "Disputatio de Plutarcho," 1849; Ritter, " History of Philosophy;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" ScHOELr., " flis- toire de la Litt^rature Grecque ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1861. Plutarchus. See Plutarch. PUitarco. See Plutarch. Plutarque. See Plutarch. Pluto, the Italian of Plutus, which see. Plu'to, [Gr. nXowruv; Fr. Pluton, plu't6N' ; It. Plutone, ploo-to'ni,] the god of the infernal regions, was also called Hades, Orcus, Dis, and Aidoneus. He was said to be a son of Saturn (Cronus or Kronos) and Rhea, and a brother of Jupiter and Neptune. Ac- cording to the fable, these three brothers agreed to a division of the world, and Pluto obtained as his portion 14 POCHARD the subterranean region, the realm of shades, which waa called Erebus or Hades, and the entrance of which was guarded by Cerberus, a dog with three heads. Some poets imagined that the realm of Pluto was divided into two regions, — namely, Tartarus, in which the wicked were confined and punished, and Elysium, or the Elysian Fields, the abode of the good. The most remarkable features in the geography of the infernal world were five rivers, — namely, Ach'eron, Co- cy'tus, Styx, Phleg'ethon, and Le'the, {Gr. AtiOt},) the river of Oblivion. Departed souls about to enter Elysium drank of the river Lethe and forgot all their troubles, or, as some say, forgot all the past : " Securos latices et ionga oblivia potant."* Vikgil: ^?ieid, book vi. 715. The Styx was said to encompass the kingdom of Pluto seven or nine times with its circumvolutions, and was described as a sluggish stream, for which reason it was sometimes called the Stygian pool or lake. The souls of the dead were carried across the Styx in a boat by Charon. The gods usually swore by the river Styx. Phlegethon was described as a river of fire, and Cocytus as a branch or affluent of the Styx, which see. Among the most celebrated adventures of Pluto was the abduction of Proserpine, whom he married. The poets feigned that he possessed a helmet which rendered the wearer invisible. (See an amipie and admirable de- scription of Pluto's dominions in Virgil's "/Eneid," book vi. passim.) Pluton. See Pluto. Plutone. See Pluto. Plu'tus, [Gr. n^iovrof; It. Pluto, ploo'to,] in the Greek mythology, the god of riches, was said to be a son of lasion and Ceres. The poets relate that Jupiter de- prived him of sight in order that he might distribute riches blindly and bestow his favours indiscriminately on the evil and the good. He was represented as lame, because he generally comes so slowly to those who seek him ; yet he had wings, to indicate how swiftly he often forsakes those whom he seems most to favour. (See KuvfiRA.) Pluvinel, de, deh plii've''ngK, (Antoine,) a French- man, noted for his skill in horsemanship, was born in Dauphine in 1555. He was under-governor (sons* goiwerneiir) of the dauphin, (Louis XIII.,) and wrote a work called "Manege Royal," (1623.) Died in 1620. Plu'vi-us, {i.e. " the rainy,") a surname of Jupiter among the Romans, who invoked him during long droughts. Pluymer, ploi'mer, (Jan,) a mediocre Dutch poet, born at Amsterdam, wrote during the reign of William HI. of England, and published a volume of verses in 1691. Po, del, d&l po, (PiETRO,) an Italian painter and en- graver, born at Palermo in 1610, was a pupil of Domeni- chino. Died at Naples in 1692. His son Giacomo, born at Rome in 1654, was a painter. He worked at Naples with success. Died in 1726. Po-ca-hon'tas, daughter of Powhatan, an Indian chief of ' Virginia, is celebrated for her heroism in inter- ceding for the life of Captain Smith, who was con- demned to death by her father. She was afterwards converted to Christianity, and married to John Rolfe, an English gentleman. Among her descendants in Vir- ginia was the celebrated John Randolph. Died in 1617. Poccetti, pot-chet'tee, properly Bernardino Bcir- batelli, (bak-ba-teKlee,) a skilful Italian painter, born at Florence about 1542. He painted figures, landscapes, flowers, and draperies with success, and displayed a great fertility of invention. Among his works is " The Mission of the Apostles." " He was considered," says Peries, " the Paul Veronese of his school." Died at Florence in 1612. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Pocci, pot'chee, (Franz,) Count, a poet and de- signer, of Italian origin, was born at Munich in 1807. He has written verses and tales. Pochard, po'shti^', (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic, born near Pontarlier in 1715. He wrote "Method for * "They quaff profound oblivion, secure from pain and woe." a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; \ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, r, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fdi; met; n6t; good; moon; POCHOLLE 1815 POGGIO the Guidance of Souls," (" Methode pour la Direction des Ames," 1772.) Died in 1786. Pocholle, po'shoK, (Pierre Pomponne Am^dee,) a French revolutionist, born at Dieppe in 1764, was a member of the Convention of 1792. Died in 1832. Pockels, pok'kels, (Karl Frieurich,) a German moralist, born near Halle in 1757. He wrote, besides other works, '* An Essay on the Character of Women," (5 vols., 1799-1802,) and "Man," (" Der Mann," 4 vols., 1805-08.) Died in 1814. Po'cock, (Edward,) an eminent English divine and Orientalist, born at Oxford in 1604, studied in Corpus Christi College. He passed about six years at Aleppo as chaplain to the English merchants, (1630-36,) and learned Arabic, Syriac, Hebrew, etc. In 1636 he be- came the first professor of Arabic at Oxford. Pocock is said to have been the best Arabic scholar of his time in England. He was presented to the rectory of Childrey in 1643, and obtained the chair of Hebrew at Oxford in 1648. He published in 1648-50 " Specimen Historiae Arabum," consisting of extracts from the History of Aboolfaraj, (Abulpharagius,) with a Latin version and notes. His most important work is a Latin translation of the entire History of the same author, which was pub- lished (with the original text) in 1663, in two volumes. Died at Oxford in 1691. See a " Life of E. Pocock," prefixed to his theological works, by Leonard TvvELLS, 1740. Pocock, (Edv^ard,) an Oriental scholar, a son of the preceding, was born aljout 1646. He published in 1671 the Arabic text, with a Latin version, of a work of Ibn-Tofayl, " Self-Taught Philosopher," (" Philosophus autodidactos.") Pocock, (Isaac,) an English painter and dramatist, born at Bristol in 1782 ; died in 1835. Pococke, po'kok, (Richard,) an English traveller, born at Southampton in 1704. He travelled in Egypt, Palestine, Syria, etc. in 1734-41, and published a "De- scription of the East and of Some Other Countries," (3 vols., 1743-45,) which was highly esteemed. He became Bishop of Ossory in 1756, and Bishop of Meath in 1765. Among his other works is a " Description of the Giants' Causeway." Died in 1765. Poczobut, de, deh potch'o-boot, (Martin,) a Polish astronomer, born near Grodno in 1729 ; died in 1810. Podest^, po-dgs-t^', ( Giambattista, ) an Italian Orientalist, born in Istria. He became professor of Arabic at Vienna in 1674, and published "Grammatical Course of Oriental Languages," (" Cursus grammaticalis Linguarum Orientalium," 3 vols., 1687-170^.) Podiebrad, pod-ya'brkl, (George,) King of Bo- hemia, born in 1420. He commanded an army of Hussites in the civil war about 1450, and was elected king in 1458, with the concurrence of the Catholic nobles. In 1466 he was excommunicated by Pope Paul II., because he maintained the right of communion under two forms. The pope also caused a crusade to be preached against him. In 1467 he was involved in a war against Matthias Corvinus, whom he defeated. He is said to have been an able and patriotic ruler. He died in 147 1, and was succeeded by Ladislaus of Poland. See M. Jordan, "Das Kbnigthum Georgs Podiebrad," 1861 ; " Noiivelle Biographic Generale." Poe, po, (Edgar Allen,) a distinguished American poet, born at Baltimore in 1811. He graduated at the University of Virginia in 1826, and, having spent a year in Europe, became successively editor of the " Southern Literary Messenger" at Charleston, and the "Gentle- man's Magazine" and "Graham's Magazine" at Phila- delphia. In 1844 he took charge of the "Broadway Journal," New York. He died at Baltimore, in 1849, of delirium tremens. Among his princi])al prose works are "The Fall of the House of Usher," "Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque," and " The Gold Bug." His " Raven" and other small poems have been much admired. He also wrote a collection of critical essays. " His poems," says R. W. Griswold, "are constructed with wonderful ingenuity and finished with consun>mate art. They illustrate a morbid sensitiveness of feeling, a shadowy and gloomy imagination, and a taste almost faultless m the apprehension of that sort of beauty most agreeable to his temper." See Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America," and a " Memoir of Poe," prefixed to a collectio*i of his works published by R. W. Griswold, in 3 vols. ; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1858 ; " North American Review" for October, 1856; "Eraser's Magazine" for June, 1857. Poel, van der, vin der pool, (Egbert,) a Dutch painter, born at Rotterdam about 1620. He painted landscapes, interiors, and nocturnal conflagrations with success. Died about 1690. Poelemburg, poo'lem-bviRG', (Cornelis,) surnamed IL Brusco and IL Satiro, an eminent Dutch painter, born at Utrecht in 1586, was a pupil of Abraham Bloe- maert. After spending many years at Rome and Florence, he was invited to England by Charles I., for whom he painted some works. He excelled in landscape-painting, and also produced several historical pictures. Died at Utrecht in 1660. See Charles Blanc, " La Vie des Peintres." Poelitz. See Politz. Poellnitz. See Pollnitz. Poeppig. See Poppig. Poerio, po-a're-o, (Carlo,) a liberal Italian politician, born at Naples in 1803. He was minister of public in- struction at Naples for a short time in 1848. He was arrested by order of the Neapolitan government in July, 1849, and condemned to twenty-four years' im- prisonment and hard labour. The cruel treatment inflicted on him and others was denounced by Mr. Gladstone in a famous letter to Lord Aberdeen. He escaped, or was released, about 1858, after which he was a member of the Italian Chamber of Deputies. Died in 1867. Poerio, (Giuseppe,) an eloquent Italian advocate, born at Catanzaro, was the father of the preceding. He was an active supporter of the republic formed at Naples in 1799. In 1808 he was appointed procureur-general by Murat. Died at Florence in 1843. Poerner. See Porner. Poerson, po'§r's6n', (Charles Francois,) a French painter of history, born in Paris about 1652; died at Rome in 1725. Pogge, Le. See Poggio. Poggendorf, pog'gen-doRf, (Johann Christian,) a German savant and professor of natural philosophy at Berlin, was born at Hamburg in 1796. He became in 1824 editor of the " Annals of Physics and Chemistry." Among his principal works is a treatise "On the Mag- netism of the Voltaic Pile," in which he was the first to explain the principles of the multiplicator and its application. Poggi, de', di pod'jee, (Giuseppe,) Chevalier, an Italian writer, born near Piacenza in 1761. He was a member of the French legislative body from 181 1 to 1814. He wrote " On Sincere Reformation," (" Delle Emende sincere," 3 vols., 1791,) and other works. Died in France in 1842. Poggiani, pod-jS'nee, (GiULio,) an Italian scholar, born at Suna, on Lake Maggiore, in 1522. He was secretary of Carlo Borromeo. He left " Epistles and Orations," in Latin, (4 vols., 1756-62,) which are said to be elegant. Died in 1568. Poggio Bracciolini, pod'jo brSt-cho-lee^'nee, [Fr. Le Pogge, leh pozh,] (Giovanni Francesco,) a dis- tinguished Italian scholar and reviver of learning, was born near Florence in 1380. He was a pupil of John of Ravenna, was appointed apostolic secretary about 1413, and served several successive popes in that capacity. He rendered important services to literature by the dis- covery of ancient manuscripts, for which he searched in monasteries. He discovered seven orations of Cicero, twelve plays of Plautus, the commentaries of Asconius Pedianus, the history of Ammianus Marcellinus, and other classic works. He wrote satires against the monks and clergy, and against Filelfo, with whom he was in- volved in a long and acrimonious controversy. In 1435 he married a young lady named Selvaggia Buondelmonti. After this event he resided many years at Florence, and published in 1437 a collection of letters, which were greatly admired. Having passed several years in Rome, « as 5 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2C^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) POHL 8i6 POISSONNIER ne returned to Florence about 1450, and was appointed chancellor there in 1453. Among his works, which are all in Latin, are a " Dialogue on Nobility," (" De No- bilitaie Dialogus,") a " History of Florence from 1350 to 1455," (" Historia Florentina," etc., 1476,) and " On the Mutability of Fortune," (" De Varietate Fortunae.") He died in Florence in October, 1459. See William Shepherd, "Life of Poggio Bracciolini," 1802; Thorschmidt, " Dissertatio de F. Poggii Bracciolini Vita," 1713 ; J. Lenfant, "Poggiana," etc., 2 vols., 1720; Niceron, " Me- moires ;" C. Nisard, "Le.s Giadiateurs de la Republique des Let- tres ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1836. Pohl, p5l, {JoHANN Christoph,) a German physician, born near Liegnitz in 1706; died in 1780. Pohl, (JoHANN Emanuel,) a German botanist, born at Vienna in 1784. He published, in Latin, "Descrip- tions and Figures of Brazilian Plants," (2 vols., 1827-31,) and, in German, " Travels in Brazil," (2 vols., 1832.) Died in 1834. Poilly, de, deh pvvi'ye', (FRANgois,) an eminent French engraver, born at Abbeville in 1622. He worked in Rome and Paris, and engraved some works of Raphael, Giulio Romano, and Poussin, In 1664 he received the title of engraver to the king. Died in Paris in 1693. Poilly, de, (Jean Baptiste,) a skilful engraver, a nephew of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1669 ; died in Paris in 1728. Poilly, de, (Nicolas,) an engraver, born at Abbe- ville in 1626, was the father of the preceding. He was not equal to his brother Francois. Died in 1696. Poin'dex-ter, (George,) an able American states- man and jurist, born in Louisa county, Virginia. Hav- ing removed to Mississippi, he was appointed in 1813 United States judge for that district, and was elected to Congress in 181 7. He there distinguished himself by his eloquent defence of the course of General Jack- son in the Seminole war. He was afterwards elected Governor of the State, and in 1831 a Senator of the United States. He became an opponent of President Jackson, and ceased to be a Senator in 1835. Died m 1853. Poin'sett, (Joel Roberts,) a distinguished Ameri- can statesman and diplomatist, born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1779. Having been several times elected to Congress, he was sent in 1825 as minister to Mexico by President Adams. In the contest between the Nul- lification and Union parties he became the leader of the latter. He was appointed secretary of war by President Van Buren in March, 1837. He retired from that office in March, 1841, after which he was not employed in the public service. He wrote " Notes on Mexico." Died in December, 1851. See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i. ; " Democratic Review" for February and March, 1838, (with a portrait.) Poinsinet, pwiN'se^ni', ( Antoine Alexandre Henri,) a French dramatist, born at Fontainebleau in 1735. He wrote several successful comedies and comic operas, among which is ^*The Circle, or Soiree a la Mode," (1771.) He was accidentally drowned at Cor- dova, in Spain, in 1769. Poinsinet de Sivry, pwiN'se'iii' deh sd'vRe', (Louis,) a French litterateur, born at Versailles in 1733. He produced a popular tragedy, named " Briseis," (1759,) and various other works of little merit. He translated Pliny's "Natural History," (1771-81.) He was a brother-in-law of Palissot. Died in 1804. Poinsot, pwiN^so', (Louis,) a French geometer, born in Paris in 1777. He published in 1803 "Elements of Statics," which presents new and ingenious ideas. Among his other works is a "Memoir on the Applica- tion of Algebra to the Theory of Numbers," (1820.) He was elected to the Institute, in place of La Grange, in 18 13. In 1852 he became a senator. Died iu De- cember, 1859. Poiret, pwi'ri', (Jean Louis Marie,) a French naturalist, born at Saint-Quentin about 1755. He pub- lished "Travels in Barbary," (2 vols., 1789,) a work of merit, a "Botanical Dictionary," (20 vols., 1789-1823,) which forms part of the " Encyclopedie Methodique," and "The Philosophical, Literary, and Economical History of the Useful Plants of Europe," (7 vols., 1825 -29.) Died in 1834. See Querard, " La France Litteraire.' Poiret, (Pierre,) a French philosopher and mystical writer, born at Metz in 1646. He became a Protestant minister, and preached at Hamburg and Amsterdam. It is stated that he rejected the light and guidance of reason. He wrote, in Latin, besides many other works, "The Divine Economy," (7 vols., 1687.) Died in 1719. See Niceron, "Mdmoires;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Poirier, pw^'re-i', (Germain,) a French monk, was born in Paris in 1724. He wrote a "History of the Reign of Henry I. of France." Died in 1803. Poirson, pwiR^s^N', (Auguste Simon Jean Chry- SO.STOME,) a French historian, born in Paris in 1795. He was principal of the College Charlemagne from 1837 to 1853. chief works are a "History of Rome," (2 vols., 1824-26,) and a "History of Henry IV.," (2 vols., 1857.) Poirson, ( Jean Baptiste, ) a French geographer, born in the Vosges in 1760. He excelled in the con- struction of terrestrial globes. Died in 1831. Pois, Le, leh pwS, (Antoine,) a French numismatist, born at Nancy in 1525 ; died in 1578. Pois, Le, (Charles,) [Lat. Caro'lus Pi'so,] a dis- tinguished physician, born at Nancy, France, in 1563. He published a work entitled " Book of Select Observa- tions and Counsels," (" Selectiorum Observationum et Consiliorum Liber," 1618,) which, says Weiss, "assures to him the reputation of a great physician." Died in 1633. Pois, Le, (Nicolas,) the father of the preceding, born at Nancy in 1527, was a skilful physician. He published a good work " On the Knowledge and Cure of Diseases," (" De Cognoscendis et Curandis Morbis," 1580.) Died in 1587. Poiseuille, pwJ'zuI' or pwS'zuh'ye, (Jean Louis Marie,) a French physician and physiologist, born in Paris in 1799. He wrote, besides other works, "Re- searches on the Course of the Blood in the Veins," (1831.) Poissant, pwS^sftN', (Thibaut,) a French .sculptor, born near Crecy in 1605 ; died in 1660. Poisson, pw^'s^N', (Nicolas Joseph,) a French ecclesiastic, born in Paris in 1637, was a disciple of Des- cartes. He published "Delectus Actorum Ecclesiae Universalis," (2 vols., 1706.) Died in 1710. Poisson, (Raymond,) a popular French comedian, born in Paris in 1633 ; died in 1690. His grandson, FRANgoTS Arnoul, (1696-1753,) was a favourite comic actor of the Parisian stage. Poisson, (Simeon Denis,) an excellent and profound French geometer, born at Pithiviers (Loiret) on the 21st of June, 1 781. He entered the Polytechnic School in 1798, and attracted the notice of La Grange and La Place. He became professor in the same school in 1802, a member of the Bureau of Longitudes in 1808, a member of the Institute in 1812, and counsellor of the University in 1820. In t8ii he published an excellent treatise on mechanics, "Traite de Mecanique," (2 vols.) In his "New Theory of Capillary Action" (1831) he completes the researches of La Place by superadding the consideration of the variation of density. He pub- lished a " Mathematical Theory of Heat," (2 vols., 1835,) and a treatise on the theory of probabilities ai)plied to judicial trials, " Recherches sur la Probabilite des Juge- ments," etc., (1837.) He also contributed more than three hundred memoirs to various journals and periodi- cals. Among these is a remarkable treatise "On the Invariability of the Mean Movements of the Grand Planetary Axes." It was in the domain of mathematical physics that the genius of Poisson was most signally displaved. He brought this science to great perfection, especially in its application to static electricity and mag- netism. In 1837 he was raised to the dignity of a peer of France, although he never was a politician. Died in April, 1840. See Arago, "Notices biographiqiies," tome ii. : "Notice sur Poisson," Orleans, 1840; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Poissonnier, pwi'so^ie-i', ( Pierre, ) a French chemist and physician, born at Dijon in 1720. He was a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e^ 1, 6., u, y, r, short; a, i, 9, obscure; ilx, fUll, fit; mit; nftt; good; moon: POITEFIN 1817 POLI sent by the king about 1760 on a secret mission to Eliza- beth of Russia, and, on his return, received the title of councillor of state. He invented an apparatus or pro- cess to convert sea-water into fresh water. In 1764 he became inspector and director of medicine for all the hospitals and maritime arsenals of France. Died in 1798. Poitevin, pwit'viN',(jACQUES,) a French astronomer, born at Montpellier in 1742. He published " An Essay cm the Climate of Montpellier," (1803.) Died in 1807. Poitevin, (Pierre Alexandre,) a French architect, born at Bordeaux in 1782 ; died in 1859. Poitevin, (Robert,) a French physician, born proba- bly in Poitou about 1390. He was employed by the queen, and by Agnes Sorel. Died in 1474. Poitevin de Maureillan, pwitV^N' deh mo^ra^ySN', (Casimir,) Vicomte, a French general, born at Mont- pellier in 1772. He distinguished himself at Austerlitz, in 1805, and at Borodino, in 1812. Died in 1829. Poitiers, de, (Diane.) See Diane. Poivre, pwJvR, (Pierre,) a French traveller, born at Lyons in 1 7 19. He visited China in 1740, after which he became an agent of the French East India Company, and went to the Moluccas, from which he transplanted the nutmeg-tree and other spices to the Isle of France. He was intendatit of the Isles of France and Bourbon from 1767 to 1773. He is said to have exhibited there an almost perfect model of an administrator and public benefactor. Died in 1786. See DupoNT de Nemours, " Notice sur la Vie de M. Poivre," 1786; A. BouLLEE, "Notice sur Poivre," 1835. Poivre, Le, leh pwSvR, a geometer, born at Mons, Belgium, lived about 1700. He wrote a "Treatise on Sections of a Cylinder and Cone," (1704.) Poix, pwi, (Antoine Claude Dominique Just,) Comte de Noailles and Prince de Poix, a French diplo- matist, born in Paris in 1777 ; died in 1846. Poix, de, deh pwi, (Louis,) a learned French monk, born in the diocese of Amiens in 17 14. He published a new version of the Psalms, (1762,) and "Principles discussed to facilitate the Study of the Prophetic Books," (i6 vols., 1755-64.) Died in 1782. Pojarski. See Pozhakski. Polain, po'liN', (Mathieu Lambert,) a Belgian historian, born at Liege in 1808. His chief work is a " History of Liege," (" Histoire de I'ancien Pays de Liege," 2 vols., 1844-48,) which is commended. Polanco, po-lin'ko, the name of three good Spanish painters, who were brothers and natives of Seville. The latest work (jf Carlos Polanco is dated 1686. Pole, [Lat. Po'lus,] (Reginald,) a celebrated Eng- lish cardinal and scholar, was born in Staflfordshire in 1500. His mother, Margaret Plantagenet, was a niece of Edward IV., a daughter of George, Duke of Clar- ence, and cousin-german to Queen Elizabeth who was the mother of Henry VIII. He was educated at Oxford, and became Dean of Exeter at the age of nineteen. He pursued his studies at Padua, where he formed friend- ships with Erasmus, Bembo, and Sadolet, and returned lo jEngland in 1525. About 1531 he lost the favour of [fenry VIII. by his opposition to the divorce of Queen Catherine. Having retired to the continent for safety, he wrote a famous treatise "For the Unity of the Church," ("Pro Unitate Ecclesiae,") printed at Rome without date, in which he controverted the pretensions of Henry to be the head of the Church. His mother and brother were executed by order of the king, and he was attainted. On the accession of Queen Mary (1553) he was sent by the pope as legate to England. He suc- ceeded Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1555 or 1556. Historians are divided in opinion in relation to his complicity in the persecutions of this reign ; and his character is commonly represented as mild and humane. Died in 1558. See Bkccadelli, "Vita Poli Cardinalis," 1533; an English ver- sion of the same, published by Pve in 1766; Froude, " History of England;" Thomas Phim.ipps, "Life of R. Pole," 1764; Hume, " History of England ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Polemburg. See Poelemburg. PoFe-mo or Pol'e-mon, [Gr. Wo')^iiu>v; Fr. PoLi^- MON, po'li'miw',] a Greek philosopher, born at Athens, or in Attica. He succeeded Xenocrates as the head of the old Academy about 315 B.C., and wrote several works, which are not extant. Among his disciples were Zeno the Stoic, and Arcesilaus. Died about 272 B.C. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca;" Diogenes Laertius. Polemo, a Greek writer, who is supposed to have lived between 100 and 250 A.D. He left a work on Physiognomy, which is extant. He is quoted by Origen. Polemo or Polemon, surnamed Periege'tes, [Fr. Pol^:mon le P^ri^g^te, po'lk'm^N' leh p^'re'a'zhit',] a Greek geographer, born at Samos or Sicyon, obtained the citizenship of Athens, and lived about 200 B.C. He wrote many works on geography, etc., of which fragments are extant. Polemo, or Polemo the Sophist, a cj Jebiated Greek rhetorician, born at Laodicea, flourished about 130 A.D. He taught rhetoric at Smyrna, and obtained the favour of Trajan and Hadrian. He wrote several works, which are lost, except two orations. He died at the age of fifty-six. See Philostratus, " Vitse Sophistarum ;" Fabricius, "Biblio- theca Grsca." Polemon. See Polemo. Poleni, po-la'nee, (Giovanni,) Marquis, an Italian natural philosopher, born at Venice in 1683. He be- came professor of physics at Padua in 171 5, and suc- ceeded N. Bernoulli as professor of mathematics in 1719. Among his numerous works are a "Dialogue on Celes- tial Vortices," (1712,) and "On the Mixed Motion of Water," ("De Motu Aquae mixto," 1717.) He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1761. See P. CossALi, " Elogio del Professor Poleni," 1813; Fabroni, "Vit^ Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" G. Gennari, " Elogio del Marchese G. Poleni," 1839. Polenta, da, di po-lSn'ti, (Guido Novello,) became Lord of Ravenna in 1275. He befriended the exiled Dante, who came to his court in 13 19 and remained there until his death in 1321. Died in 1323. Polentone, po-l§n-to'ni, [Lat. Polento'nus,] (Sec- co or Xicco,) an Italian scholar and writer, born at Padua about 1390. Among his works are a " Life of Seneca," and a comedy called "Catinia," (1842.) Died about 1462. See J. E. Kapp, " Dissertatio de X. Polentono," 1733. Polevoi, po^llh-voi', ( Nikolai Alexievitch, ) a Russian litterateur and journalist, born in Siberia in 1796, became in 1825 editor of the "Moscow Telegraph," a periodical of great ability and influence, which was after- wards suppressed by the government on account of its liberal views. Among his works, which are very nume- rous, we may name a "Life of Soovorof," (Suwarow,) a " Life of Peter the Great," (4 vols., 1843,) regarded as the best life of that sovereign that has been written, the dramas of " Parasha the Siberian Girl" and "The Grandfather of the Russian Fleet," and a " History of the Russian People," a part of which only has been published. He also translated " Hamlet," and wrote a number of valuable critical essays on Russian litera- ture. Died in 1846. See " Nouvelle Riographie Generale." Polhem, poKh^m, or Polhelm, pol'h§lm, (Kristo- FER,) a Swedish engineer and mechanician, born in Gothland in 1661. He invented several useful machines, constructed the docks at Carlscrona, and obtained a title of nobility. Died in 1751. Poli, po'lee, (Giuseppe Saverio,) an Italian natural- ist and physiologist, born at Molfetta, in the kingdom of Naples, in 174^. He became professor of geography and history in a military school at Naples about 1776, after which he was sent by the king to France and England to examine educational institutions and procure scientific apparatus. He was the preceptor of the prince who reigned as Francis I. His reputation is chiefly founded on an excellent work on testaceous mollusca, " History and Anatomy of the Testacea of the Two Sicilies," (" Testacea utriusque Siciliae eorumque Historia et Anatome," 2 vols., 1791-95.) The third volume was published in 1826. "This magnificent work," says Cu- vier, "represents their anatomy with much accuracy, and throws new light on their physiology." Died in 1825. See P. N. Giampaolo, "Elogio di S. Poli," 1825: Serafino Gatti, " Biografiadi G. S. Polj," 1825; Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (S^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) POLI 1818 POLK Poli, (Martino,) an Italian chemist, born at Lucca .n 1662 ; died at Paris in 1714. Po'li-as, [Gr, YloMag, from rroAif, a "city,"] (the " protec- tress of cities,") a surname of Athena, (Minerva.) There was at Athens a celebrated temple of Athena Polias. Polibio. See Polyhius. Polidoro. See Cakavaggio. ■ Poller, po'le-i', (Antoine N06,) a Swiss writer, born in 1 7 13, was a friend of Voltaire. He became pastor of Lausanne in 1754, and wrote articles for the "Encyclopedic." Died in 1783. Polignac, de, deh po'l^n'ytk', (Auguste Jules Ar- MAND Marie,) Prince, a French minister of state, born at Versailles in 1780. His mother, the Duchess of Po- lignac, was a favourite of Marie Antoinette. He became minister of foreign affairs in August, 1829, and the chief minister before the end of the year. His ultramontane and absolutist policy rendered him very unpopular. In consequence of the victory of the liberals and insurgents over Charles X. in 1830, he was arrested, tried for treason, and condemned to imprisonment for life. He was re- leased in 1836, and retired to England. Died in 1847. See " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1832, (by Southey.) Polignac, de, (Melchior,) a French diplomatist and Latin poet, born at Puy-en-Velay (Upper Loire) in 1661. He was sent in 1695 as ambassador to Poland, where by his address he induced a majority of the electors to choose the French prmce De Conti as king in 1697. He succeeded Bossuet in the French Academy in 1704. In 1 712 he was sent as plenipotentiary to the Congress of Utrecht, He became a cardinal in 1 7 13. He acquired a high literary reputation by his Latin poem (in refu- tation of Lucretius) entitled " Anti-Lucretius, sive de Deo et Natura Libri novem," (1745.) Died in 1742. Voltaire, in his " Temple du Gout," praises Polignac as a successful opponent of Lucretius, and as one who combined the qualities of Virgil and Plato : " Reunissant Virgile avec Platon, Vengeur du Ciel et vainqueur de Lucrece." See Chrysostome Faucher, " Histoire du Cardinal de Po- lignac," 2 vols., 1777; DoRTOUS DE Mairan, " filoge du Cardinal de Polignac," 1742; Saint-Simon, "Memoires;" " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Poliniere, poHe'ne^iR', (Pierre,) a French natural philosopher, born near Vire in 167 1. He gained dis- tinction at the College of Harcourt as a teacher of natural philosophy by the experimental method, and published "Experiments in Physics," (1709.) Died in 1734. Poliorcetes. See Demei rius Poltorcetes. Polit, po'le', Polite, po'l^t', or Le Poli, leh poOe', [Lat. Poli'tus,] (Jean,) a Flemish poet, born at or near Liege about 1554; died after 1601. Politi, po-lee'tee, (Alessandro,) an Italian scholar, born at Florence in 1679. He became professor of eloquence at Pisa in 1733. He published, besides other works, an edition of Eustathius's " Commentary on Homer," with a Latin version and notes, (3 vols., 1730- 35.) Died in 1752. See Fabroni, " Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentiuni." Politi, (Lancelot.) See Catharinus. Politian, po-lish'e-an, [It. Poliziano, po-l^t-se-i'no ; Lat, Politia'nus ; Fr, Politien, po'le^se-|,N',] (An- GELO,) a celebrated Italian classical scholar and poet, born at Montepulciano, (Mons Politianus,) in Tuscany, in July, 1454. His family name was Ambrogini. He studied Latin under Cristoforo Landino, and Greek under An- dronicus of Thessalonica. About 1468 he wrote stanzas, in Italian, in honour of Giuliano de' Medici, which were much admired. He was patronized by Lorenzo de' Medici, who employed him as preceptor of his sons and treated him as a friend as long as he lived. As pro- fessor of Greek and Latin at Florence, he acquired a high reputation. He produced elegant Latin versions of the History of Herodian, of the Manual of Epictetus, and of the " Charmides" of Plato. He wrote notes on Ovid, Catullus, Pliny the Younger, and other Latin authors. Among his works are Latin odes and epi- grams, and a Latin poem called " Rusticus." "In his Latin poems," says Ginguene, " we find the fire of an imagination truly poetic, and that taste and elegance which were the natural attributes of his mind." Died at Florence in 1494. " In 1480 or 1483," says Hallam, " Politian was placed in the chair of Greek and Latin eloquence at Florence, a station perhaps the most conspicuous and the most honourable which any scholar could occupy. It is beyond controversy that he stands at the head of that class in the fifteenth century. The envy of some of his contemporaries attested his superiority. In 1489 he published his once celebrated 'Miscellanea,' consisting of one hundred observations illustrating passages of Latin authors," ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe,") He was characterized by Erasmus as " rarum naturae miraculum," ("a rare miracle of nature,") See Serassi, "Vita di A. Poliziano j" F. Otto Mencken, " His- toria Vitae A. Politiani," 1736; William P. Greswell, " Memoirs of Angelus Politianus," etc., 1801 ; Fabroni, " Elogj di Dante, di A. Poliziano," etc., iSoo; D. Moller, " De Politiano." 1698 ; Long- fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" N. A. Bonafous, " De A. Politiani Vita et Operibus," 1845; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary," Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Ita- liana;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" "Lives of the Italian Poets," by Rev. Henry Stebbing ; "Italian Narrative Poetry," in the " North American Review" for October, 1824, (by Prescott.) Politianus or Politiano. See Politian. Politien, See Politian. Politus. See Polit, Politz or Poelitz, po'lits, (Karl Heinrich Lud- WIG,) a German historian, born at Ernstthal in 1772. He became professor of history and statistics at Leipsic in 1815, Among his numerous works are a "History of Saxony and the Duchy of Warsaw," (3 vols,, 1808-10,) and " Political Sciences according to the Ideas of our Epoch," (5 vols,, 1823-28.) Died in 1838. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Poliziano, See Politian, Polk, pok, (James Knox,) the eleventh President of the United States, was born in Mecklenburg county, North Carolina, on the 2d of November, 1795, and re- moved with his father to Middle Tennessee in 1806. He graduated in the University of North Carolina about 1 81 6, and studied law. He was elected a member of Congress from Tennessee in 1825 and at several suc- ceeding elections. In 1835 was chosen Speaker of the House of Representatives by the Democrats, He was also Speaker of the twenty-fifth Congress, (1837-38.) In 1839 he was elected Governor of Tennessee for two years. At the election of 1841 he was defeated by the Whig candidate for Governor. In 1844 Polk and Dallas were nominated for the offices of President and Vice- President by the Democratic National Convention, which on the first ballot had not given Mr. Polk a single vote. His competitor was Henry Clay, The principal issue in this election was the annexation of Texas, which Mr. Polk was pledged to promote. He was elected, receiving one hundred and seventy electoral votes oat of two hundred and seventy-five, which was the whole number. He appointed James Buchanan secretary of state, and, after the formal annexation of Texas to the Union, (1845,) involved the country in an aggressive war against Mexico, which began in May, 1846. The army of the United States, commanded by General Scott, after several victories, took the city of Mexico in September, 1847, The Mexicans obtained peace by the cession of Upper California and New Mexico. A dispute with the British government about the boundary of Oregon was settled during his administration, by an agreement that the parallel of 49° should be the dividing line. He re- tired from office in March, and died at Nashville in June, 1849. See L. Chase, " History of the Administration of James K. Polk," 1850 ; Levi Woodbury, " Eulogy on James K. Polk," 1850, Polk, (Leonidas,) an American who became famous for his twofold character of bishop and general, was born at Raleigh, North Carolina, in 1806, and graduated at West Point in 1827, He was ordained an Episcopal clergyman about 1831, and was chosen Bishop of Loui- siana in 1841. In 1861 he took arms against the Union, with the rank of major-general, and distinguished him- self by his activity and zeal in the Confederate service. He occupied Columbus, Kentucky, in September, i86r, and evacuated it about the ist of March, 1862. He commanded a division at the battle of Shiloh, April, 1862, and served as lieutenant-general at the battle of Stone River, which ended January 2, 1863. He led a a, e, T, 6, vl, y» long; i, h, \ same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, \x, y, short; at, i, 9, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fSt; m^t; nfit; g«3od; moon; POLLJJUOLO 1 8 19 POLO corps at the battle of Chickamauga, September 19-20, 1863. He was killed near Kenesavv Mountain, Georgia, in June, 1864. See a notice of General Bishop Polk in "Southern Generals," 1865. Pollajuolo, pol-li-yoo-o'lo, (Antonio,) an eminent Italian painter and sculptor, born at Florence in 1426 or 1431, was also a skilful goldsmith. His master-piece of painting is "The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian," He was invited to Rome by Innocent VHI., for whom (with the aid of his brother Pietro) he made a monument to Sixtus IV. He excelled in composition and in knowledge of anatomy. Died in 1498. SeeVASARi, "Lives of the Painters." Pollajuolo, (Pietro,) a painter and sculptor, born at Florence about 1434, was a brother of the preceding, whom he aided in many of his paintings and sculptures, but was less eminent than he. Died in 1498. Pollajuolo, (SiMONE.) See Cronaca. Pollet, po'lk', (Joseph Michel Ange,) a French sculptor, born at Palermo in 1814. He became a resi- dent of Paris about 1844, and obtained a first medal in 1850. His works adorn the Tuileries and other imperial palaces. Pollet, (Victor Florence,) a French painter and engraver, born in Paris about 1810. He gained by his engravings the prize of Rome in 1838, and a medal of the first class in 1849. PoFlfx-fen, (Sir Henry,) an English judge, born probably in Devonshire. He was counsel for the bishops in their famous trial, (1688.) He was appointed chief justice of the common pleas in 1689. Died in 1692. See Foss, "The Judges of England." PoUich, poKliK, (JoHANN Adam,) a German natural- ist, born at Lautern in 1740. He published a good Flora of the Palatinate, " Historia Plantarum in Palatinatu Electorali sponte nascentium," (1776.) Died in 1780. Pollich, [Lat. Pollich'ius,] (Martin,) a German physician, eminent for learning, born at Mellerstadt, was an ancestor of the preceding. He became in 1503 professor of theology in the University of Wittenberg, of which he was the first rector. He published " La- conismi," (1504,) and other works. Died in 1513. See BoERNER, " Vita Pollichii," 1751 ; Bismark, "Vita Pollichii," 1614. Pollichius. See Pollich. PoFli-o, (AsiNius,) a sophist or philosopher, born at Tralles, in Asia Minor. He taught at Rome about 50 B.C., and, according to Suidas, wrote a commentary on Aristotle's treatise "On Animals." Pol'li-o, [Fr. PoLLioN, po'le'^N',] (Caius Asiniu.s,) an eminent Roman orator, author, and patron of litera- ture, was born at Rome in 76 B.C. He was a partisan of Caesar in the civil war which began in 49 B.C., and crossed the Rubicon with that chief. He took part in the battle of Pharsalia, in 48, and commanded in Spain against Sexlus Pompey at the time of Caesar's death, 44 B.C. Having taken arms for Antony and Octavius, he obtained the office of consul by their influence in 40 B.C. and saved the patrimony of Virgil from confiscation. Virgil addressed to him the fourth eclogue in 40 B.C., and the eighth eclogue soon after that date. Pollio retired from the public service about the year 38, and remained neutral in the war between Octavius and An- tony. He founded the first public library at Rome, and patronized Virgil, Horace, and other poets. He wrote a valuable history of the civil wars of Rome, and several poems, which were praised by Virgil. None of these works are extant. His excellence as an orator is attested by Quintilian and other ancient writers. He was also distinguished as a critic. He had a son named C. Asi- nius Gallus. (See Gallus.) Died in 4 a.d. See Thorbecke, " Commentatio de C. A. Pollionis Vita et Stu- diis," 1820; Ekerman, " Dissertatio de C. A. Pollione," 1745; Appian, "De Bello Civili;" De Bugny, " Pollion, 011 le Siecle d'Auguste," 4 vols., 1808 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Pollio, (Trebellius,) a Roman historian who lived in the reign of Constantine I. He was one of the authors of the " Historia Augusta," to which he con- tributed the lives of the two Valerians, of the two Gallieni, of the Thirty Tyrants, and of Claudius. Pollion. See Pollio. Pollnitz or Poellnitz, poKnits, (Karl Ludwig,) a German adventurer and historical writer, born at Isso- min (Prussia) in 1692. He sought fortune at several courts of Europe, and was appointed grand master of ceremonies by Frederick the Great. He wrote, besides other works, " Saxe galante," (1737,) which narrates the amours of King Augustus, and Memoirs of his own life and times, ("Memoires du Baron de Poellnitz," 3 vols., 1734.) Died in 1775. Pol'lpck, (Sir Frederick,) an English judge, born in London in 1783. He became attorney-general in 1834, and lord chief baron of the exchequer in 1844, which position he held until 1866. Died in 1870. See Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. ; "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. i. chaps, iii.-iv. ^ Pollock, (Sir George,) an English general, a brother of the preceding, was born in London in 1786. He commanded an army which defeated the Affghans in 1841. Pol'lpck, (James,) an American Governor, born in Pennsylvania, graduated at Princeton College in 183 1. He represented a district of Pennsylvania in Congress from 1843 to 1849, and was elected Governor of that State by the People's party, or Republicans, for three years, (1855-58.) PoFlpk, (Robert,) a British poet, born at Muirhouse» in Renfrewshire, Scotland, in 1798 or 1799. He studied at the University of Glasgow, and chose the profession of minister of the gospel. He obtained a license as minister in the United Secession Church in 1827, but his health was already fatally impaired by excessive study. His reputation is founded on " The Course of Time," (1827,) a didactic poem, which found many ad- mirers, especially among those who take an interest in religious poetry. It contains some beautiful and many powerful passages, but it has great defects, and is not considered very attractive as a poem, apart from its religious and moral doctrines. "The Course of Time," says Moir, " is a very extraordinary poem, vast in its conception, vast in its plan, vast in its materials, and vast, if very far from perfect, in its achievement." " The Course of Time," says Professor Wilson, "for so young a man, was a vast achievement. . . . He had much to learn in composition. . . . But the soul of poetry is there, though often dimly enveloped ; and many passages there are, and long ones too, that heave and hurry and glow along in a divine enthusiasm." He wrote, in prose, "Tales of the Covenanters." Died near Southampton in September, 1827. See " I>ife of R. Pollok," by his brother, 1842; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "Blackwood's Magazine" for June, 1827. Polluche, po''lush', (Daniel,) a French antiquary, born at Orleans in 1689. He wrote a "Description of Orleans," (1736.) Died in 1768. PoPlux, a demi-god of classic mythology, and a brother of Castor. See Castor and Pollux. PoPlux, (Julius,) a Greek grammarian, whose proper name was Polydeuces, was born at Naucratis, in Egypt, about 130 A.D. He enjoyed the favour of Marcus Aure- lius and Commodus, and taught rhetoric at Athens in the reign of the latter. His works are all lost, except his " Onomasticon," a kind of dictionary of Greek words, (not in alphabetical order,) which is highly prized. He died at the age of fifty-eight. See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grseca." PoPlux, (Julius,) a Byzantine writer, who lived in the tenth or eleventh century. He wrote a "Chronicle, or Universal History from the Creation to the Time of Valens," which is extant. Po'lo, (Caspar Gil,) a Spanish poet and novelist, born at Valencia about the middle of the sixteenth century. He was a lawyer and a professor of Greek, He gained celebrity by a poetical romance, entitled " Diana in Love," (" Diana enamorada,") which was translated into English, French, and Latin. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Polo, (Jayme,) called the Elder, a Spanish painter, born at Burgos in 1560, was a good colorist. Died in 1600. € as 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, Vi,guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (g^See Explanations, p. 23.) POLO 1820 POLTCARP Polo, (Jayme,) the Younger, a painter, born at Uurgos in 1620 ; died at Madrid in 1655. Po'lo, (Marco,) [Fr. Marc Pol, m^Kk pol, (or Paul, pol,)] a famous Venetian traveller, born about 1252, was a son of Niccolo Polo, a merchant of noble rank. About 1255 Niccolo and his brother Matteo, or Maffeo, commenced an extensive expedition, with a stock of precious stones, which they sold to a Tartar chief on the Volga. They arrived in 1261 at Bokhara, where they learned the Mongol language. Accepting the in- vitation of a Persian envoy whom they met at Bokhara, they accompanied him to the court of Kooblai Khan, the Great Mogul, who ruled over China and Tartary. This prince received them favourably, and accredited them as his ambassadors to the pope, whom he desired to senri to him a hundred learned men to teach his Mongol subjects. They returned home in 1269, and found that the pope had died in 1268. His successor, who was not elected until 1271 or 1272, gave them letters to Kooblai Khan, to whom they returned accompanied by young Marco. They arrived at the court of Kooblai in 1275. Marco learned several Asiatic languages, and obtained the favour of the Khan, who sent him on im- portant missions to China and other provinces. He was the first European that entered China, in which he passed several years. Having obtained the consent of Kooblai Khan, the three Venetians quitted his ser- vice about 1292, and, embarking on the coast of China, came to Ormuz by water, and reached Venice in 1295, with many diamonds, rubies, etc. of great value. Marco commanded a galley in a battle against the Genoese, by whom he was taken prisoner. During his long cap- tivity he composed a narrative of his adventures, by the aid of notes which he had written previously. It is said that a French version of his book was made under his direction. His narrative produced a great sensation, and was translated into many languages, but for several ages was regarded as a tissue of fictions or gross ex- aggerations. The researches and revelations of suc- cessive centuries have more and more confirmed his veracity; and it is now recognized that his services had great influence on the progress of navigation and com- merce. " When in the long series of ages," says M. Walckenaer, "we search for three men who by the grandeur and influence of their discoveries have con- tributed most to the progress of geography or of our knowledge of the globe, the modest name of the Venetian traveller presents itself in the same line with the names of Alexander the Great and Christopher Columbus." He died about 1324. Among the best editions of his book is that of Baldelli, " II Milione di Messer Marco Polo," (4 vols., 1827.) An English ver- sion, by Marsden, was published in 1818. See Pi-ACiDO ZuRLA, "Di M. Polo e degli altri aiitichi Viag- giatori," etc., 1818 ; Stein, " Ueber den Venetianer M. Polo," 1821 ; G. B. Baldelli, "Vita di M. Polo," 1827; G. Pauthier, article "Polo," in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" "London Quar- terly Review" for January, 1819, and July, 1868. Polonceau, pon6N's5', (Antoine R6mi,) a French engineer, born at Rheims in 1778. As engineer-in-chief of the department of Mont Blanc, he constructed a road over Mont Cenis about 1812. Among his works is the Pont du Carrousel at Paris, (1834.) He wrote several professional works. Died in 1847. His son, Jean Bar- th6lemy Camille, (1813-59,) was distinguished as a railway engineer and director. Poltrot de Mere, pol'tRo' deh meh-ri', (Jean,) a French fanatic, who assassinated Francis, Duke de Guise, in 1563. He was executed the same year. Polus. See Pole. PoTus, a Sophist of Agrigentum, lived about 400 B.C., and was a disciple of Gorgias. He wrote a work on rhetoric. Polus, (Matthew.) See Poole. Polwhele, poKwheel, (Rev. Richard,) an English antiquary and poet, born at Truro in 1759 or 1760. Among his works is a " History of Cornwall," Died in 1838. Polyaenus, pol-e-ee'nus, [Holvaivog,] of Lampsacus, was an eminent mathematician ; but, having become a friend and disciple of Epicurus, he renounced geometry, as unworthy of his notice. Polyaenus, a Macedonian writer, who lived about 150 A.D. He wrote a work on "Stratagems in War," which he dedicated to Marcus Aurelius and Verus. It is extant, and is prized for the numerous anecdotes and facts which he has collected, and which are not found elsewhere. Polybe. See Polybius. Polybius. See Polybus. Po-lyb'i-us, [Gr. UoAvGiog ; Fr. Polybe, po'l^b'; It. PoLiBio, po-lee'be-o,] a celebrated Greek historian, born at Megalopolis, in Arcadia, about 206 B.C. He was a son of Lycortas, who succeeded his friend Philopoemen as general of the Achaean League in 182 B.C. Polybius obtained in 169 B.C. command of the cavalry raised to fight for the Romans against Perseus ; but his ser- vices were declined by the Roman general. In 167 the Romans transported to Italy, as hostages or exiles, one thousand Achaeans, among whom was Polybius. He found a home in the house of Paulus ^milius, and became the preceptor of his son Scipio, afterwards the famous Scipio Africanus the younger. A warm friend- ship was formed between this pupil and Polybius, who accompanied him in all his campaigns. He witnessed the conquest and destruction of Carthage, (146 B.C.,) soon after which he went to Greece and exerted his influence with some success to procure favourable terms for the conquered Achaeans. He afterwards devoted himself to the completion of a general history, for which he had been preparing himself for some years by studies and by journeys to Egypt, Spain, Gaul, etc. The exact date of his death is unknown. Lucian states that he died at the age of eighty-two. His great work, entitled Kado- TiuiT], KOLVT] laTopia, ("Universal History,") comprised the period from 220 to 146 B.C., and consisted of forty books, the greater part of which are lost. We have the first five books entire, and many fragments and extracts of several other books. His impartiality, his love of truth, his sound judgment and experience in military and civil affairs, render this one of the most valuable and reliable histories that have ever been written by an uninspired writer. He is thus briefly characterized by Cicero : " Polybius bonus auctor in primis." Livy's account of events after the second Punic war appears to be much like a translation from Polybius. The latter despised or neglected rhetorical ornaments, and was deficient in imagination. His style, consequently, is not attractive. He aimed only to instruct, and, accord- ing to some critics, carried too far his didactic and moralizing tendency. He wrote, also, a " Life of Phi- loposmen," and a " Treatise on Tactics." " Polybius and Arrian," says Macaulay, " have given us authentic accounts of facts ; and here their merit ends. They were not men of comprehensive minds ; they had not the art of telling a story in an interesting manner." ("Essay on History," 1828.) An English version of Polybius, by Hampton, (1772,) is commended. See K. W. Nitzsch, "Polybius 7.ur Geschichte antiker Politik," etc., 1842; L. F. Heyd, "Vita Polybii," 1812; Van Heii.sde, " School van Polybius of Geschiedkunde voor the negentiende eeuw," 1841 ; F. H. Bothe, "Polybiana," 1844; "Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale." PoFy-bus, [Gr. U6lv6og ; Fr. Polybe, po'l^b',] a king of Corinth, who was said to have educated or adopted GEdipus. Polybus [IIoAfffof] or Polybius, a pupil and son-in- law of Hippocrates, lived in the island of Cos about 400 B.C. He was one of the founders of the sect of Dogmatici. Several treatises usually printed with the works of Hip- pocrates are ascribed to Polybus by many critics. Pol'y-carp, [Gr. Ro'^mapTrog ; Lat. Polycar'pus ; Fr. Polycarpe, po'le''liring with Tickell, who had produced (in part) a rival translation of the "Iliad." Pope revenged himself by writing the keen, not to say malicious, satire on " Atticus." "He was," says Macaulay, "a great master of invective and sarcasm. He could dissect a character in terse and sonorous couplets brilliant with antithesis." ("Essay on the Life and Writings of Addison.") His talent for satire is conspicuous in the "Dunciad," (1728,) a poetical work of much critical merit. He published in 1733 his "Essay on Man," a philosophic poem, which has en- joyed an extraordinary popularity, and which Bulwer pronounces " unequalled in didactic solemnity and splen- dour since Lucretius set to music the false creed of Epi- curus." With the aid of Broome and Fenton, he translated the "Odyssey," (1725.) He also produced admirable *' Imitations of Horace." He wrote, in prose, a number of essays and letters, the style of which is considered excellent. "Pope's epistolary excellence," says Dr. Johnson, "had an open field : he had no English rival, living or dead." In the latter part of his life he lived at Twickenham, where he had purchased a house. He fa- voured the Tory party and the Roman Catholic Church. Among his intimate friends were Swift, Atterbury, and Lord Bolingbroke. Died in May, 1744. He possessed little originality or creative imagination ; but he had a vivid sense of the beautiful, and an exquisite taste. He owed much of his popularity to the easy harmony of his verse, the keenness of his satire, and the brilliancy of his antithesis. "The Essay on Man," says Dr. Johnson, "affords an egregious instance of the predominance of genius, the dazzling splendour of imagery, and the seductive powers of eloquence. Never was penury of knowledge and vulgarity of sentiment so happily disguised. The reader feels his mind full, though he learns nothing, and, when he meets it in its new array, no longer knows the talk of his mother and his nurse." The same critic pro- nounces the "Rape of the Lock" "the most airy, in- genious, and delightful of his compositions, and the most exquisite example of ludicrous poetry. . . . He was sometimes wanton in his attacks, and before Chandos, Lady Wortley, and Hill, was mean in his retreat. His malignity to Philips, whom he had first made ridiculous and then hated for being angry, continued too long." He was extremely addicted to artifice and insidious de- signs. It has been said that "he hardly drank tea without a stratagem." An edition of his works, with a commentary, was published by Warburton, (9 vols., 1751-60.) See Johnson, " Lives of the Poets;" a "Memoir of Pope," by Bowles, 1807; a "Memoir" prefixed to W. Roscoe's edition of Pope's Works, 1824; R. Caruthers, "Life of Alexander Pope," 1857 ; " Life of Pope," by Owen Ruffhead, 1767 ; William Ayre, "Memoirs of the Life of A, Pope," 2 vols., 1745; Joseph Warton, " Essay on the Genius and Writings of Pope," 2 vols., 1756-82 ; M. Mendelssohn, "Pope ein Metaphysiker," 1757; Lord Byron, "Letter to Murray on Bowles's Strictures," 1821 ; Thackeray, "The English Humourists;" Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors;" " Encyclopedia Britannica," article " Pope," (by De Quincey,) also "Biographical Essays," by the same; Campbell, " Specimens of the British Poets;" "Works and Cliaracter of Pope," in the "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1825; "Pope and his Contemporaries," in the "British Quarterly Review" for August, 1847; Spence, "Anecdotes, Observations," etc., 1820. Pope, (John,) an American general, born at Kas- kaskia, Illinois, in March, 1823. He graduated at West Point in 1842, served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and commanded an expedition sent to survey the route of the Pacific Railroad in 1854-59. He obtained the rank of captain in 1856, and became a brigadier-general of volunteers in May, 1861. He ca])tured New Madrid in March, and Island No. 10 in April, 1862, with several thousand prisoners. In June, 1862, he was appointed commander of the Army of Virginia, composed of three corps. He was promoted to be a brigadier-general in the regular army in July, 1862. His army was defeated by Stonewall Jackson at Manassas, or Bull Run, on the 29th and 30th of August, 1862. He retreated to Wash- ington, and resigned the command about September 3, after which he was employed against the Indians in Minnesota. He commanded in the third military dis- trict, comprising Georgia, Alabama, and Florida, from March or April to December, 1867. Pope, (Sir Thomas,) an English politician, born at Dedington about 1 506, was a patron of learning. He held several offices in the reign of Henry VIII., and had the care or custody of the princess Elizabeth in the reign of Mary. He founded Trinity College, Oxford. Died in 1559. See Warton, "Life of Sir Thomas Pope." Pope, (Walter,) an English physician, born in Northainptonshire about 1630. He was professor of astronomy at Oxford from 1660 to 1687, and Fellow of the Royal Society. He wrote "The Old Man's Wish," a poem, (1693,) a " Life of Seth Ward," (1697,) and other works. Died in 1 7 14. Popeliniere, de la, deh It popHe'ne-aiR', (Lance- lot Voisin — vwS'z^n',) Sieur, a Fi-ench historian, born in Poitou about 1540. He was an officer in the Huguenot army, and wrote a " History of the Civil War which began in 1 562," ( 1 57 1 ,) a work of some merit. Died in 1608. Popham, pop'am, (Sir Home Riggs,) a British naval officer, born in 1762. He commanded the naval forces employed in the capture of the Cape of Good Hope and Buenos Ayres in 1806. He became a rear-admiral in 1814. Died in 1820. Popham, (Sir John,) an English judge, born in Somersetshire in 1531, became chief justice of the king's € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as s; th as in this. (J[^°See Explanations, p. 23. ) POPMA 1828 PORSON bench about 1592. He had a high reputation as a lawyer. Died in 1607. Popma, pop'ma, (Ausonius,) a Dutch philologist and jurist, born in Friesland in 1563. He published a good work on Latin synonyms, ('* De Differentiis Ver- boruni," 1635,) and other works. Died in 1613. See D. RiCHTER, "Vita Aiisonii a Popma," 1746. Poppae'a (pop-pee'a) Sa-bi'na, a Roman empress, the wife of Nero, was more remarkable for beauty than modesty. Died in 65 a.d. Poppe, von, fon pop'peh, (Johann Heinrich Mo- RITZ,) a German scientific writer, born at Gottingen in 1776. He published numerous works, among which are a "Technological Lexicon," (5 vols., 1816-20,) and " Neueste Handwerks- und Fabrikschule," (9 vols., 1827- 36.) Died in 1852. Poppi, II. See Morandini. Poppig or Poeppig, pop'pic, (Eduard,) a German naturalist and traveller, born at Plauen, in Saxony, in 1797. He visited the West Indies and North and South America, where he made valuable zoological and botan- ical collections. He published in 1835 his "Travels in Chili, Peru, and on the Amazon." In 1845 he became professor of zoology at Leipsic. Died in December, 1868. Poppig and Endlicher published a work on the plants of Chili and Peru, " Nova Genera et Species Plantarum," etc., (3 vols., 1835-45.) See " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1836. Poppo, pop'po, (Ernst Friedrich,) a German scholar, born in Lower Lusatia in 1794, published editions of Thucydides and other classics, and several critical works. Poquelin. See MoLifeRE. Porbus, poR'bus, (Frans,) a Flemish painter, born at Bruges in 1540. He painted portraits, history, and genre with success. Died about 1582. His father, Peter, born at Gouda about 15 10, was a painter of history and portraits. Died in 1584. Porbus, (Frans,) the Younger, a skilful painter of portraits and history, a son of Frans, noticed above, was born at Antwerp in 1570. He worked mostly in Paris. " His picture of the Last Supper," says the " Biographic Universelle," " is one of the finest productions of the Flemish school." Died in Paris in 1622. See Felibien, " Entretiens sur la Vie des Peintres." Porcacchi, poR-kik'kee, (Tommaso,) an Italian litte- rateur, born in Tuscany about 1530. Among his works are "The Most Famous Islands of the World," (1572,) and " Ancient Funerals of Divers Nations," (1574.) Died at Venice in 1585. Porcellio, poR-cheKle-o, (Pietro,) an Italian poet and historian, was secretary of Alfonso, King of Naples, in 1452. Porchat, poR'sht', (Jean Jacques,) a Swiss writer and translator, born near Geneva in 1800. He wrote " The Mission of Joan of Arc," a drama, in verse, (1844,) and translated the complete works of Goethe into French. Porcheron, poRsh^-6N', (Dom Placide,) a French Benedictine monk, born at Chateauroux in 1652. He edited a few old works. Died in 1694. Porcia or Portia, p5r'she-a, [Fr. Porcie, poR^se',] a Roman matron, eminent for her magnanimity, pru- dence, and fortitude, was the daughter of Cato, and the wife of Marcus Brutus. Plutarch relates that she inflicted a wound on herself to prove that she was worthy to be the confidante of her husband in respect lo affairs of state. Died in 42 B.C. Porden, (Eleanor Anne.) See Franklin. Pordenone, II, ^1 poR-di-no'n4, an excellent Italian painter, whose proper name was Giovanni Antonio Licinio (le-chee'ne-o) or Licino, (le-chee'no,) born at Pordenone, in Friuli, in 1483. He assumed the name of Regillo. He was an imitator of Giorgione, and a rival of Titian. It is not known who was his master. He was a good colorist, and had great skill in design. He painted frescos in Venice, Mantua, Cremona, and Piacenza. His frescos (which represent subjects from the New Testament) in the cathedral of Cremona are highly praised. Among his best oil-paintings is his " San Lorenzo Giustiniani with John the Baptist," etc., at Venice. He died at Ferrara in 1540. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ridolfi, " Vite degli illustri Pittori Veneti." Pordenone, (Giulio Licinio,) a skilful painter, a nephew and pupil of the preceding, was born at Venice in 1500. He painted some frescos at Augsburg, where he died in 1561. Poree, po'ri', (Charles,) a French Jesuit, born near Caen in 1675, was professor of rhetoric at Paris for thirty years. Voltaire was his pupil. He published Latin tragedies and orations. Died in 1741. Poree, (Charles Gabriel,) a brother of the pre- ceding, was born at Caen in 1685. He wrote " Histoire de Don Ranuccio d'Aletes," (1736,) and other works. Died in 1770. Porfirio. See Porphyry. Porlier, poR-le-aiR', (Don Juan Diaz,) Marquis de Matarosa, a Spanish general, born in 1775. He fought for the Cortes against the absolutists, by whom he was taken prisoner and shot in 1815. Porner or Poerner, poR'ner, (Karl Wilhelm,) a German chemist, born at Leipsic in 1732. He published several works on chemistry and the art of dyeing. Died in 1796. Porphyre. See Porphyry. Porphyrins. See Porphyry. Porphyry, por'fe-re, [Gr. Tlop^vpLog ; Lat. Porphyr'- lus ; Fr. Porphyre, poR'feR^; It. Porfirio, por-fee're-o,] a celebrated Neo-Platonic philosopher, born at Bata- naea, (Bashan,) in Syria, in 233 a.d. His original name was Malchus or Melech, the Hebrew and Syriac for "king." Porphyrins signifies "purple," or "wearer of purple." He was a pupil of Longinus, and perhaps of Origen. About the age of thirty he went to Rome, where he became a disciple and friend of Plotinus, whose doctrines and mysticism he adopted. He edited (or corrected) and arranged the works of Plotinus, at his request. He wrote (in Greek) a famous work, in fifteen books, against the Christians, which is not extant, the emperor Theodosius having ordered it to be burnt in the fourth century. Among his extant works are a "Life of Plotinus" and a "Life of Pythagoras." Died at Rome about 304 a.d. See HoLSTENius, " De Vitaet Scriptis Porphyrii," 1711 ; Ritter, "History of Philosophy ;" Vai.^rien Pakisot, " Dissertatio his- torica de Porphyrio," 1845 ; Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Gra^ca ;" F. Hoefer, article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Porpora, poR'po-ra,(NiccoL6,)a distinguished Italian musician and composer, born at Naples about 1686. He composed successful operas, among which is " Ariana e Teseo," (171 7,) also oratorios, masses, symphonies, and cantatas. About 1730 he went to London to direct the Italian Opera, and Ijecame a competitor of Handel. He obtained much success in England, where he remained several years. Died at Naples in 1767. See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens ;" Burney, " Histoi-y of Music ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Porporati, poR-po-ri'tee, (Carlo Antonio,) an Ital- ian engraver of high reputation, born near Turin in 1740 or 1 741. He was admitted into the Academy at Paris in 1773. He engraved some of the works of Raphael, Cor- reggio, and other masters. Died at Turin in 1816. Porquet, poR'ka', (Pierre Charles Franqois,) a mediocre French poet, born at Vire in 1728 ; died in 1796. Porro, por'ro, (Girolamo,) an Italian engraver, born at Padua about 1520, worked at Venice. Porro, (Ignazio,) an Italian engineer, born at Pi- gnerol in 1795. He settled in Paris about 1850. He published a "Traite de Tachometrie," (1847.) Por'se-na or Por-sen'na, (Lars,) a famous prince of Clusium, in Etruria. According to tradition, he marched against Rome to restore the Tarquins about 508 B.C., but was checked by Horatius Codes, who defended a bridge over the Tiber. It is the opinion of the best historians that Porsena actually made himself master of Rome. See Macaulay, " Horatius: a Lay of Ancient Rome;" Niebuhr, " History of Rome. " Porsenna. See Porsena. Por'son, (Richard,) a pre-eminent Greek scholar and critic, born in Norfolk, England, December 25, e, I, o, Vi, y, long; ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nd:; good; moon; PORTA 1829 1759. He was educated at Eton, and at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he was elected a Fellow in 1782. He became regius professor of Greek at Cambridge in 1790 or 1792, with a salary of forty pounds per annum. His scruples against subscription to the Thirty-Nine Articles induced him to decline holy orders, and he was compelled to resign his Fellowship in 1791. He had a prodigious memory and great critical acumen, and was remarkable for probity and love of truth. About 1795 he married Mrs. Lunan, a widow. He edited " Seven Tragedies of vEschylus," (1795,) and the " Ifecuba," "Orestes," *' Phoenissae," and "Medea" of Euripides, (1797-1801.) In 1805 he was appointed librarian of the London Institution. Among his works are " Letters to Archdeacon Travis," (1790,) in which he maintained that the seventh verse of the fifth chapter of John's First Epistle is an interpolation, " Notes and Emendations on the Greek Poets," (*' Adversaria Notse et Emendationes in Poetas Graecos," 1812,) and an edition of the " Lexicon" of Photius, (1822.) Died in London in September, 1808. He is considered by the English scholars, and perhaps by foreigners, the greatest verbal critic of modern times. " It may safely be conceded to common fame and partial friendship," says Dr. Thomas Young, "that he was one of the greatest men, and the very greatest critic, of his own or any other age." Porson was, according to several authorities, addicted to intemperance in drink. Like Dr. Johnson, he could practise abstinence more easily than a moderate use of wine or ardeiit spirits. Wonderful stories are told of his powers of memory. He could repeat several pages of a book after he had read them once. See " Life of Porson," by J. S. Watson, i86i ; article on Porson in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica," by Dr. Thomas Young; "A Vindication of the Literary Character of Porson," by Crito Canta- BRiGiENSis, 1827 ; Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors ;" " Edinbiirgli Review" for November, 1811, and July, 1861 ; " Porsoniana." Lon- don, 1814 ; Stephen Weston, "Short Account of the Late R. Porson," i8o8. Porta, poR'tl, (Berardo or Bernardo,) an Italian composer of operas, was born at Rome about 1755 ; died in Paris in 1829. Porta, (Carlo,) an Italian poet, born at Milan in 1776, wrote several popular poems. Died in 1821. Porta, (Giovanni BAmsrA,) a skilful Italian sculp- tor, born at Porlizza in 1542 ; died at Rome in 1597. He is said to have been a son of Guglielmo, noticed below. Porta, (Giuseppe Salviati,) an Italian painter, born at Castel-Nuovo about 1530, was a pupil of F. Salviati, whose name he assumed. He settled at Venice, where he painted frescos with success. He was employed by Titian to decorate the library of Saint Mark. Among his best oil-paintings is a " Descent from the Cross." Died in 1570, or, as some say, in 1585. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ticozzi, "Dizio- tAario." Porta, (Simon.) See Porzio. Porta, della. See Baccio. Porta, della, d^Kli poR'tS, (Giacomo,) a distin- guished Italian architect and sculptor, born at Milan about 1525. He built in Rome the portal of Saint John Lateran, (about 1574,) the College della Sapienza, and the fa9ade of Santa Maria de' Monti, (1579.) He was subsequently employed to finish the basilica of Saint Peter's, and, with the aid of Domenico Fontana, constructed the vault (or roof) of the dome, after the plans of Michael Angelo, (1588-90.) He died in the pontificate of Clement VIII., (1592-1605,) aged about seventy-five. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters and Sculptors;" Fontenav, " Dictionnaire des Artistes;" Cicognara, " Storia della Scultura ;" QuATREMfeRE DE QuiNCV, " Dictioiinaire d' Architecture." Porta, della, ( Giambattista, ) an eminent Italian natural philosopher, was born at Naples about 1540. He promoted the progress of physical science by found- ing schools, and by experiments in optics, etc. He was versed in the ancient languages. His house was the seat of an academy called " I Segreti," which he founded for the promotion of physical science. He invented the camera obscura, and made improvements in lenses. His principal works are " Perspectiva," (1555,) "Natural PORTER Magic," (" Magiae Naturalis Libri XX.," 1558-89,) " Phy- tognomonica," (1583, a treatise on plants,) an able "Treatise on Physiognomy," (1586, often reprinted,) " Villae Libri XII.," (on rural economy, 1592,) and " On Refraction a Part of Optics," (" De Refractione Optices Parte," 1593.) Died at Naples in 1615. See NicERON, "Menioires;" Ginguenh, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana :" G. H. Duchesne, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de J. R. Porta," 1801 ; Colangelo, "Vita di G. B. Porta," 1818; " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Porta, della, (Guglielmo,) an able sculptor, born near Como about 15 12, was a nephew of Giacoino, noticed above. He worked at Rome about 1550, and made the mausoleum of Paul III. He was a favourite pupil of Michael Angelo. Died about 1577. Portaels, poR-tais', (Jean Francois,) a Belgian painter, born at Vilvorde (Brabant) in 1820. He gained the grand prize of Rome in 1843. Portal, poR''ttK, (Antoine,) Baron, a distinguished French physician and anatomist, born at Gaillac (Tarn) in 1742. He began to practise in Paris about 1765, and obtained the chair of medicine in the College of France in 1770. He published an important work on the " His- tory of Anatomy and Surgery," (7 vols., 1770-73,) and became professor of anatomy at the Jardin des Plantes in 1775. ^v^s fi''st physician to Louis XVIII. and Charles X. Among his chief works is "Course of Medical Anatomy," (" Cours d'Anatomie medicale," 5 vols., 1803.) Died in 1832. See Pariset, " filoge de Portal;" "Nouvelle Biographic Gene- rale." Portal, (Pierre Barth^lemi,) Baron, a French administrator, born near Montauban in 1765. He was minister of the marine from December, 1818, to Decem- ber, 1821. Died in 1845. Portalis, poR'tt'l^ss', (Auguste,) a French writer and liberal legislator, born at La Ciotat in 1801, was a nephew of Jean fitienne Marie. He wrote " Essays in favour of Liberty of Worship." Died in 1855. Portalis, (Jean Eiienne Marie,) a distinguished French jurist and minister of state, was born at Bausset (Var) in 1745. He was an eloquent advocate before the Revolution, and was imprisoned for his moderation in the reign of terror. In 1795 he became a member of the Council of Elders, in which he advocated humane measures. He was one of the committee charged with the redaction of the Civil Code in 1800, and became minister of worship in 1804. Before this date he had acquitted himself with credit in the task of reorganizing the Roman Catholic Church in France. He published several able political and legal works, and was a member of the French Academy. Died in 1807. See Blessig, " Gedachtnissrede auf den Minister Portalis," 1807 ; F. Hacquin, " filoge historique de Portalis," 1845 ; Louis LAi.t,E- mant, "filoge de J. E. M. Portalis," iS6i ; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" Rene Lavollee, " Portalis et ses CEuvres." Portalis, (Joseph Marie,) Count, an eminent states- man and judge, a son of the preceding, was born at Aix in February, 1778. He became councillor of state in 1808, and director-general of the press and book-trade (librairie) in 1810. In 1819 he was raised to the peerage. In the moderate ministry of Martignac he was keeper of the seals from January, 1828, to May, 1829. Pie was minister of foreign affairs from that date to August 7, 1829, and then became first president of the court of cassation. He retained until 1852 this office, (the highest judicial position in France,) for which he was qualified by profound knowledge of public law and a union of dignity in manner with suavity of temper. Died in 1858. See Mignet, " Notice historique sur la Vie de M. le Comte de Portalis," i860 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Porte, de la, deh It poRt, (Pierre,) a French courtier, born in 1603, was a favourite agent of Anne of Austria, and a valet-de-chambre of Louis XIV.- He wrote " Me- nioires," which were printed in 1756. Died in 1680. Porte, La. See Laporte and La Porte. Por'ter, (Alexander,) born in Tyrone county, Ire- land, in 1786, settled in Louisiana, where he acquired a high reputation as a lawyer. He was appointed a judge of the supreme court in 1821, and in 1833 was elected to the United States Senate. Died in 1844. € as>e; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, jiasal ; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) PORTER 18 Por't^r, (Andrew,) an American general, born in Pennsylvania about 1810. He served as colonel at Bull Run, July 21, 1861, and a few days later was appointed provost-marshal of Washington. Por'ter, (Anna Maria,) an English novelist, born at Durham about 1 781, was a sister of R. Ker Porter. She resided successively in London, at Thames Ditton, and at Esher. She wrote many popular novels, among which are "The Hungarian Brothers," (1807,) "Don Sebastian," (1809,) "The Recluse of Norway," (1814,) "The Fast of Saint Magdalene," and "The Barony." Died in 1832. See Mrs. Elwood, "Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England from the Commencement of the Last Century," vol. ii., 1S43. Porter, (Benjamin F.,) an American jurist, born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1808, translated the " Ele- ments of the Institutes" of Heineccius, and published a collection of poems. Porter, (David,) an American commodore, born at Boston in 1780. He became captain of the frigate Essex in July, 1812, and in the same year captured the vessel- of-war Alert and a number of British trading-vessels. He performed a cruise in the Pacific Ocean with the Essex in 1813, and took many prizes. In March, 1814, the Essex was attacked near Valparaiso by two British vessels, and, after a long and desperate resistance, was captured. Porter served as a naval commissioner from 1815 to 1823, was sent as charge-d'affaires to Turkey in 1831, and became minister resident at Constantinople in 1839. He died at Pera in 1843. ^'^^ ^'^^ father of Admiral D. D. Porter and Commodore William D. Porter. See the " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1815. Porter, (David D.,) an admiral, a son of the preced- ing, was born in or near Philadelphia in June, 1813. He entered the navy as midshipman in 1829, and became a lieutenant about 1841. He served in the naval operations against the Mexicans in 1846-47. In 1861 he was pro- moted to the rank of commander. He commanded the mortar-boats, twenty-one in number, which bombarded Forts Jackson and Saint Philip, below New Orleans, April 18-24, 1862. These forts were surrendered to him on the 28th. In September or October, 1862, he took command of a flotilla of gunboats on the Mississippi River. He aided the land army in the capture of Arkan- sas Post, January, 1863, and co-operated with General Grant in his operations against Vicksburg. For his services in the reduction of the last-named place he was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral by a commission dated July 4, 1863. Co-operating with General Banks in an expedition against Shreveport, he ascended Red River with a fleet of iron-clad gunboats to a ])oint many miles above Grand Ecore, in April, 1864. He com- manded the naval forces in the attack on Fort Fisher in December, 1864, and bombarded the same fort with success on the 14th and 15th of January, 1865. Ac- cording to General Grant, this was " the most formidable armada ever collected for concentration upon one given pomt." He was appointed vice-admiral July 25, 1866, and admiral in August, 1870. He holds a higher rank than any other officer in the navy of the United States. See J. T. Headlev, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders,'* 1867; Greeley, "American Conflict." Porter, (Ebenezer,) an American Congregational divine, born at Cornwall, Connecticut, in 1772, was ap- pointed in 1812 professor of sacred rhetoric at Andover Theological Seminary, of which he was afterwards presi- dent. He wrote aii "Analysis of the Principles of Rhe- torical Delivery," ( 1827,) and other works. Died in 1834. Porter, (Fitz-John,) an American general, born in New Hampshire, graduated at West Point in 1845. He became a captain in 1856, and a colonel in 1861. He commanded a corps at the battle of Gaines's Mill, June 27, and at Malvern Hill, July i, 1862, and for his bravery in these engagements, in which he had to sustain the brunt of the enemy's attack, was appointed a major- general of volunteers the same month. His corps took no part in the battle of Bull Run, August 29 and 30, 1862, although it was "within sight and sound of the battle." For this delinquency he was censured by Gen- eral Pope, tried by a court-martial, cashiered in January, 30 PORTE US 1863, and dismissed from the service. In 1870 he ap- pealed to President Grant for a reversal of the decision of the court-martial : the grounds for this appeal are succinctly stated in "Old and New" for June, 1870, pp. 816-820. Porter, (Francis,) an Irish Catholic priest and writer, became a resident of Rome, where he died in 1702. Porter, (George Richardson,) an English writer on trade, manufactures, etc., was born in London in 1792. He wrote a valuable work on "The Progress of the Na- tion in its Social and Commercial Relations," (3 vols., 1836-39.) In 1841 he became a secretary to the board of trade. He was the author or compiler of statistical tables issued annually by that board, and wrote a treatise "On the Manufacture of Porcelain and Glass," (1842.) Died in 1852 or 1855. Porter, (Jane,) an English novelist, born at Durham in 1776, was a sister of Sir Robert Ker Porter. She lived with her mother and her sister Anna Maria until the death of the former, in 183 1. She published in 1803 her first novel, "Thaddeus of Warsaw," which was very successful. Her historical novel of "The Scottish Chiefs" (1809) also found many admirers,, although it is very defective as a delineation of character and manners. She succeeded in mystifying the public by her anony- mous story "Sir Edward Seaward's Diary," (1831.) Died in 1850. See "Eraser's Magazine" for April, 1835, (with a portrait.) Porter, (Noah,) D.D., an able American writer on psychology, was born in Farmington, Connecticut, in 1811. He graduated at Yale College in 183 1, and in 1846 became professor of moral philosophy and meta- physics in that institution. He has published, besides other works, "The Human Intellect : with an Introduc- tion upon Psychology and the Soul," (i vol. 8vo, 1868; 2d edition, 1869,) which has been highly praised by several competent critics, among whom we may name Dr. McCosh, the distinguished president of Princeton College. See Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." Porter, (Peter Buel,) an American general, born at Salisbury, Connecticut, in 1773. On the breaking out of the war of 1812 he was appointed quartermaster- general of New York. He distinguished himself in tht> battles of Chippewa, Lundy's Lane, and the other prin cipal actions of the war, and obtaii^ed a gold medal frons Congress for his services. He was appointed secretary of war in May, 1828. General Porter was one of the commissioners who explored a route for the Erie Canal. Died in 1844. Porter, (Sir Robert Ker,) an English painter and traveller, born at Durham about 1775, was a brother of Anna Mnria and Jane Porter. He became a student of the Royal Academy, London, in 1790, and acquired distinction as a painter of battles. Among his works are "The Siege of Acre" and "The Battle of Agincourt," and an "Ecce Homo." He went to Russia in 1804, and received the title of historical painter to the emperor. Having traversed several countries of Asia from 181 7 to 1820, he published "Travels in Georgia, Persia, Arme- nia, Ancient Babylonia," etc., with engravings, (2 vols., 1822. ) Died at Saint Petersburg in 1842. See the "Gentleman's Magazine" for July, 1H42; "Monthly Re- view" for September, 1821, and January and February, 1823. Porter, (William D.,) an American naval officer, born in New Orleans in 1809, was a son of Commodore David Porter, noticed above. He entered the navy in 1823. In 1861 he took command of the iron-clad Essex on the Mississippi River. He fought at Fort Henry, where the Essex was disabled and Captain Porter was severely scalded, in February, 1862. In August, 1862, having repaired the Essex, he destroyed the strong iron-clad ram Arkansas, between Baton Rouge and Vicks- burg. He was promoted to the rank of commodore. Died in 1864. See J. T. Headlev, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 1867. Portes, Des. See Desportes. Por'te-us, (Beilby,) an English prelate of high repu- tation, was born at York in 173 1. He was educated at Cambridge, where he gained the Seaton's prize for an a. e, T, 6, u, y, /on^; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, "y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moor.; PORTIA POSSEFINO English poem " On Death." He was successively rector of Hunton, prebendary of Peterborough, and rector of Lambeth, (1767.) In 1769 he was appointed chaplain to George III. He became Bishop of Chester in 1776, and Bishop of London in 1787. His principal work is a series of " Lectures on the Gospel of Matthew," which are highly esteemed. His works were published in five volumes (181 1) by his nephew, Robert Hodgson. Died in 1808. See "Life of Bishop Porteus," by R. Hodgson, 1811. Portia. See Porcia. Portland, Duke of. See Bentinck. Port'lock, (Joseph Ellison,) Lieutenant-Colo- nel, an English engineer and geologist, born about 1795. He assisted Colby in the trigonometrical survey of Ireland commenced about 1824, and produced an able " Report on the Geology of the County of London- derry and of Parts of Tyrone and Fermanagh," (1843.) He also wrote on Geognosy and Palaeontology. He was elected president of the Geological Society in 1856. Died in 1864. Portogallo, poR-to-glKlo, (Marco Antonio Simao,) a Portuguese composer, born at Lisbon in 1763. He lived many years in Italy, and composed successful operas. " Fernando in Messico" is called his master- piece. Died in 1829. Port-Royalists, a name popularly given to the mem- bers of the celebrated convent or society of Port-Royal- des-Champs, near Versailles. It fills a prominent place in the history of the Jansenist controversy. The nuns were removed to Paris about 1638, (or 1644, according to Hallam,) after which the old convent of Port-Royal- des-Champs became the residence of a community of religious and learned men, who practised some monastic austerities and were called "Les Solitaires de Port- Royal." Among these recluses were Claude Lancelot, Antoine Arnauld, Le Maistre de Sacy, Pierre Nicole, and Blaise Pascal. They were leaders of the Jansenist party. They opened a boarding-school which became celebrated, and published several good works on gram- mar. The convent of nuns was suppressed by Louis XIV. in 1709. The history of Port-Royal has been written by Racine, Reuchlin, Sainte-Beuve, and others. See the "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1841; Sainte-Reuve, "Histoire de Port-Royal," 4 vols., 1840-62; Mary Anne Schim- MELPENNiNCK, " History of Port-Royal." Portsmouth, Duchess of. See Keroual. Portugal, de, di poR-too-gSK, (Francisco,) Count of Vimioso, a Portuguese nobleman and poet, born at Ev'ora about 1490; died in 1549. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Portumne. See Portumnus. Por-tum'nus or Por-tu'nus, [Fr. Portumne, poR'- tiimn',] a marine deity or genius among the Romans, was regarded as the protector of ports and harbours, and was identified with the PaL/^:mon of the Greek mythology. Portunus. See Portumnus. Portus, poR'toos, (/Emilius,) an eminent critic and editor, born at Ferrara in 1550. He was professor of Greek at Lausanne from 1581 to 1591, soon after which date he obtained the chair of Greek at Heidelberg. He produced good editions (with Latin versions) of Thu- cydides, Aristotle on Rhetoric, Xenophon, iLuripides, and other Greek authors. Among his works is "Lexi- con Doricum-Graeco-Latinum," (1603.) Died in 1610. Portus, (Francis,) an eminent philologist, father of the preceding, was born in Candia (Crete) in 15 11. He became professor of Greek at Modena in 1536, and teacher of the sons of Renee, Duchess of Ferrara, in 1542. Having been converted to the Protestant faith, he removed to Geneva in 1561, and obtained there a chair of Greek in 1562. He wrote commentaries on Aristotle, Pindar, Longinus, Thucydides, and other Greeks. Died at Geneva in 1581. See TiRABOsCHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana ;" Sax, " Onomasticon." Po'rus, [Gr. Uupo^,] a king of India, who reigned between the Hydaspes and Acesines when that country was invaded by Alexander the Great, 326 B.C. He op- posed the Macedonians with an army composed partly of elephants, was defeated in a great battle, and taken prisoner. When asked by the victor how he wished to be treated, he answered, " Like a king." (Plutarch.) He was restored to his kingdom by Alexander. He was killed by Eudamus (or Eudemus) in 317 B.C. Another Porus reigned at the same time east of the Acesines, (Chenab.) See Arrian, "Anabasis." Pory, por're, ? (John,) an English geographer born about 1570. He published a "Geographical History of Africa, translated from Leo Africanus," (1600.) In 1616 he went to Virginia and became secretary to that colony. Died after 1623. Porzio, poRt'se-o, (Luc Antonio,) an Italian phy- sician, born near Amalfi in 1639. He taught in Rome, and published a work on the diseases and treatment of soldiers, (1685, often reprinted.) Died in 1723. Porzio or Porta, poR''ta, [Lat. Por'tius,] (Simone,) an Italian philosopher, born at Naples in 1497. He pub- lished a treatise " On the Human Mind," (" De Humana Mente," 1551,) and other works. Died in 1554. Posadas, de las, di lis po-sa'DSs, (Miguel,) a Spanish painter, born at Segorbe in 171 1 ; died in 1753. Po-sei'don or Po-si'don, [Gr. Uoaadcjv,] the Greek name of the god of the sea. (See Neptune.) Poseidonius. See Posidonius. Po'sey, (Thomas,) an American general, born on the banks of the Potomac, in Virginia, in 1750. He became a captain in 1775, served with distinction at the battles near Saratoga and Stillwater, September 19 and October 7, 1777. He took part in the capture of Stony Point, July, 1779, and commanded a brigade of the army which General Wayne led against the Indians in 1792. He was Governor of Indiana from 1813 to 1816. Died in 1818. See James Hall, "Memoir of Thomas Posey," in Sparks'3 " American Biography," vol. ix. of new series. Posidippe. See Posidipfus. Pos-i-dip'pus, [Gr. UoalSfmrog ; Fr. Posidippe, po'- ze'd^p',] a Greek comic writer, born at Cassandria, in Macedonia. He began to write about 290 B.C. His works are lost. Pos-i-do'ni-us or Pos-ei-do'm-us, [Uoaadcjvtog,] a Greek Stoic philosopher, born at Apamea, in Syria, about 135 B.C., was a disciple of Panaetius, whoin he succeeded as head of the school. He taught at Rhodes, had a high reputation, and wrote works on astronomy, history, geography, moral philosophy, etc., all of which are lost. He was visited at Rhodes by Pompey about 68 B.C. Cicero, who was one of his pupils, expresses a very favourable opinion of him. Like many other Stoics, Posidonius held that pain is not an evil. According to Suidas, he removed to Rome in the consulship of M. Marcellus, (52 B.C.) " Was it not a fine acknowledgment of the inherent supremacy of wisdom, when the impe- ratorial fasces were lowered, by command of Pompey, before the person of Posidonius .?■" (Arthur H. Hallam.) See RiTTER, " History of Philosophy ;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" Diogenes Laertius. Posidonius of Alexandria, a mathematician, often confounded with the preceding. He is said to have been a pupil of Zeno. Possel, pos'sel, (Johann,) a German philologist, born at Parchim in 1528. He published " Syntaxis Graeca," (1560,) and other works. Died at Rostock in 1591. Posselt, pos'sglt, (Ernst Ludwig,) a German his- torian, born at Durlach, in Baden, in 1763. He began to issue in 1795 "The European Annals," a periodical, which he edited until 1804, and which, says Depping, " was the best German periodical work on history and politics." He also published several works on German and French history. Died in 1804. See ScHUBART, " Leben Posselt's," 1805; Gehres, " Lebenbe- schreibung Posselts," 2 vols., 1827. Possevin. See Possevino. Possevino, pos-si-vee'no, [Lat. Possevi'nus ; Fr. Possevin, posVaN' or pos^seh-viN',] (Antonio,) an Ital- ian Jesuit, negotiator, and writer, was born at Mantua in 1534. He was sent by the pope on important missions to Germany, Hungary, Sweden, Poland, and Russia. Among his chief works are "Select Library on the Method of Study," (" Bibliotheca selecta de Ratione Studiorum," 2 vols., 1593,) and "Apparatus sacer," (3 € as k; c as s: g Aard; g as J; G, H, Yi, guttural ;: N, nasal; R, trilled-^ s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) POSSEFINUS 1832 POTTER vols., 1603-06,) in which he gives a list and review of the works of all ecclesiastical writers. Died in 161 1. See Jean d'Origny, "Vie de Possevin," 1712 ; Niceron, " M^- moires;" Ginguene, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" " Nouvelle Biograpliie Geiierale." Possevinus. See Possevino. Post, (Francis.) See Poost. Postel, pos't^K, [Lat. Postel'lus,] (Guillaume,) a French visionary, born in Normandy in 15 10, is said to have been one of the most learned men of his time. He became professor of Oriental languages at Paris in 1539, but soon resigned, and led a wandering life. It appears that he asserted the power of reason to be sufficient to demonstrate the dogmas of religion and to convert all nations. His book " On the Harmony of the World" (" De Orbis Terrae Concordia," 1544) is called his best work. Died in Paris in 1581. See Desbillons, " Nouveaux ficlaircissemens sur la Vie de Pos- tel," 1773; Chaufepie, "Reiiiarques sur Postel;" A. Pericaud, " F. Wilson, G. Postel et Louis Castelvetro," 1850; Niceron, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Postellus. See Postel. Postlethwayt, pos's'l-thwat, (Malachi,) an English writer on commerce, of whom little is known. It is supposed that he was born about 1707. He published, besides other books, " The Merchant's Public Counting House," (1750,) and "Great Britain's True System," (1757,) which are works of merit. Died in 1767. Pos'tu-mus or Post'hu-mus, a Roman general, whom Valerian appointed governor of Gaul. He was proclaimed emperor by his army in 257 a.d. He waged war against Gallienus, and continued to rule Gaul until he was murdered by his mutinous soldiers, in 267 A.D. He is represented as an able and virtuous ruler. See Mermet, "Notice sur Posthumus," 1827. Pofa-mo or Pot'a-mon, [lioTa^uv,] a Platonic or Eclectic philosopher of Alexandria, is supposed to have lived in the second or third century after Christ. He is sometimes called the founder of the Eclectic school. His works are not extant. Potamon. See Potamo. Pote, (Joseph,) an English printer of Eton, wrote a •* History of Windsor Castle." Died in 1787. Po-tem'kin, [Russ. pron. pot-yom'kin,] (Gregor Alexandrovitch,) Prince, a Russian field-marshal and favourite of the empress Catherine II., was born near Smolensk in 1736. He rose rapidly to the highest offices and honours of the empire, and exercised almost un- bounded influence in political affairs. He induced the empress to engage in the Turkish war of 1771, and in the campaign of 1787 was appointed to the chief com- mand of the Russian army. As a reward for his services in taking several provinces from the Turks, Catherine bestowed upon him a superb palace at Saint Petersburg, which she called Taurida, the name previously given to the conquered provinces. Died in 1791. See Madame de Cerenville, "Vie de Potemkin," 1S07-08 ; " Privatleben des F'iirsten von Potemkin," Gratz, 1793; "Memoirs of Prince Potemkin," London, 1S14 ; "Monthly Review" for January, 1813. Pot'en-ger or Pot'tin-ger, (John,) an English poet and barrister, born at Winchester in 1647 ; died in 1733. Pothier, po'te-^', (Robert Joseph,) a celebrated French jurist, born at Orleans in 1699. He was ap- pointed professor of French law at Orleans in 1749, before which he had served as conseiller au chdtelet. He published a great work on Roman law, entitled " Pan- dects of Justinian digested into New Order," (" Pandectie Justinianae in Novum Ordinem digestas," 3 vols., 1748- 152,) and several treatises on contracts. The compilers of the Napoleonic Civil Code availed themselves of the works of Pothier to a large extent. Di^d at Orleans in 1772. See JoussE, "filoge de Pothier," 1772: P. Bernadeau. "Vies de Domat, Furgole et Pothier," 1789 ; Dupin, " Dissertation sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Pothier," 1627; Fremont. " Recherches bio- graphiques sur Pothier," 1859. Pothoven, pot'ho^•en, (Henri,) a Dutch paJnter of portraits and cabinet-pictures, born at Amsterdam in 1725; died about 1795. Potier, po'te-i'', (Charles Gabriel,) a French comedian, was born in Paris in 1774; died in 1838. Potocki, po-tots'kee, (Claudia,) Countess, a patri- otic Polish lady, born in Posen in 1802, was noted for her benefactions to the sick and wounded during the war in 1830-33. Died in 1836. Potocki, (Ignatius,) Count, a Polish patriot, born about 1750. He was a coadjutor of Kosciusko in 1794. Died in 1809. Potocki, (Jan,) Count, a Polish historian, born in 1761, was the author of a "Primitive History of the Russian People," "Chronicles, Memoirs, and Researches towards the History of all the Slavic Nations," and other works of the kind, in French. Died in 181 5. Potocki, (Stanislas Felix,) Count, a Polish noble- man, born in 1750, took sides with Russia in the Polish revolution of 1791, and was made a field-marshal by Catherine II. Died in 1803. Potocki, (Stanislas Kostka,) Count, a Polish patriot and statesman, born in 1757. As a member of the Diet of 1788-92, he was celebrated for his eloquence. He was appointed in 181 5 minister of public instruc- tion. He wrote an admired treatise " On Eloquence and Style." Died in 1821. See Lelevvel, "Histoire de Pologne," 1844. Pott, pot, (August Friedrich,) a German philolo- gist, born near Minden, in Hanover, in 1802. He be- came professor of philology at Halle in 1833. Among his works are *' Researches in the Etymology of the Indo- Germanic Languages," (2 vols., 1833-36,) and " Personen- Namen," (a treatise on proper names, 1853.) Pott, (Johann Heinrich,) a German chemist, born at Halberstadt in 1692. He was professor of chemistry in Berlin, and was chiefly noted for his successful ex- periments in search of clay for the manufacture of porcelain. Died in 1777. Pott, (Percival,) F.R.S., an eminent English sur- geon, born in London in 17 13. He was surgeon of Bartholomew's Hospital from 1749 to 1787, and made important improveinents in the practice of surgery. He wrote many aljle works, among which are a "Treatise on Ruptures," (1756,) "Observations on Injuries of the Head," (1760,) "Remarks on Fistula in Ano," (1765,) and "Remarks on Fractures and Dislocations," (1768.) The style of his writings is much admired. Died in 1788. See John Earle, "Short Account of the Life of P. Pott," 1790. Pofter, (Alonzo,) D.D., LL.D., an American Episco- pal bishop, born in Dutchess county. New York, in 1800. He graduated at Union College, where he was elected in 1821 professor of mathematics and natural philosophy. Having been ordained the same year, he became rector of Saint Paul's Church, Boston, in 1826, and in 1831 vice-president and professor of moral philosophy at Union College. He was consecrated Bishop of Penn- sylvania in 1845. published "Political Economy, its Objects, Uses, and Principles considered," (1841,) " Hand-Book for Readers and Students," (1847,) and other works. Died in 1863. Pot'ter, (Barnabas or Barnaby,) an English prelate, born in Westmoreland in 1578. He was appointed Bishop of Carlisle in 1628. He was an eloquent preacher, but was regarded by the high-church party as a Puritan. Died in 1642. Potter, (Christopher,) a nephew of the preceding, was born near Kendal in 1591. He became Dean of Worcester in 1635, and vice-chancellor of Oxford University in 1640. He was a partisan of Charles I. in the civil war. He translated Sarpi's " History of the Quarrels of Pope Paul V. with the State of Venice," (1626.) Died in 1646. Potter, (Cipriani,) an eminent English musician and composer, born in London in 1792. He was prin- cipal of the Royal Academy of Music in London for many years. He composed overtures, symphonies; duets, trios, and sonatas for the piano, on which he was a skilful performer. His style is represented as purely classical. He became professor of composition in the Royal Acad- emy soon after it was founded. Potter, (FRANCis,)an English mechanician and clergy- man, born in 1594; died in 1678. Potter, (Hazard Arnold,) an American physician and surgeon, born in Yates county, New York, in 181 1, a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, 6, 6., same^ less proloi:iged; a, e, T, 6., it., y, short; gt, e, i, q, ohscure; flr^ fill, fit^ m€t; ndt; good; moon; POTTER 1833 POURCHOT graduated at Bowdoin College in 1835. He subsequently settled at Geneva, New York, where he acquired a high reputation as a surgeon. Potter, (Horatio,) D.D., LL.D., brother of Alonzo Potter, noticed above, was born in Dutchess county, New York, in 1802. He graduated at Union College, and in 1828 was appointed professor of mathematics and natu- ral philosophy at Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut. He became Bishop of the diocese of New York in 1861. Potter, (JoiiN,) Archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Wakefield, Yorkshire, in 1674. While a student at Oxford he published "Antiquities of Greece," ("Ar- chaeologia Graeca," 2 vols., 1698,) often reprinted. He became Bishop of Oxford in 1715, and Archbishop of Canterbury in 1737. He was author of some works on theology, and editor of a good edition of Clemens Alexandrinus, {1715.) Died in 1747. See Anderson and Dunbar, " Life of John Potter ;" Hook, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury." Potter, pot'ter, (Paul,) a celebrated Dutch painter of animals, was born at Enkhuysen in 1625. Among his master-pieces are a "Herdsman with Cattle," in the gallery of the Louvre, a '* Bear-Hunt," in the Amster- dam Museum, and a landscape with cattle and figures, in the collection of the Marquis of Westminster. His pictures are generally of cabinet size, and are remark- able for accuracy of design and exquisite finish. He also produced a number of excellent engravings. Died in 1654. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands;" Lecarpentier, "Paul Potter," i8i8; Nagler, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Potter, (Robert,) an English poet and translator, born in 1721. He became vicar of Scarning, prebendary of Norwich, and vicar of Lowestoft and Kessingland. He published a volume of poems in 1774, and a trans- lation of i^^schylus in 1777, which is conunended. He also translated Euripides (1782) and Sophocles, (1788.) Died in 1804. Potter, de, deh pot'ter, (Louis Joseph Antoine,) a l^elgian historian and liberal politician, born at Bruges in 1786. He published a rationalistic history of the Church, entitled "Esprit de I'figlise," (6 vols., 1821,) which produced a great sensation. He was a chief promoter of the union of Catholics with Liberals which secured the success of the revolt against the King of Holland in 1830. Among his works is a " Philosophical, Political, and Critical History of Christianity," (8 vols., 1836.) Died in 1859. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Pottier, po'te-i', (Andre Ariodant,) a French an- tiquary and savant, born in Paris in 1799, lived many years at Rouen. Pottier, (Francois,) a French missionary, born at Loches in 1718, laboured in China. Died iii 1792. Pot'tin-ger, (Sir Henry,) Bart., G.C.B., a British administrator, born in Down county, Ireland, in 1789. He entered the service of the East India Company in his youth. About 1840 he was sent to China as am- bassador and superintendent of the British trade. He negotiated in 1842 a treaty which ended the opium war in China. In 1846 he became Governor of the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1847 Governor and commander- in-chief of Madras, He returned to England in 1854, and died at Malta in 1856. See "Gentleman's Magazine" for May, 1856. Pottinger, (John.) See Potenger. Pouchard, poo'shtR', (Juli'^.n,) a French classical scholar, born near Domfront in 1656. He was chief editor of the "Journal des Savants." Died in 1705. Poiichet, poo'shi', (F61.IX ARCHiMfeDE,) an eminent French naturalist and physiologist, born at Rouen in 1800. He acquired distinction by his numerous works, among which are an " Elementary Treatise on Botany," (1835,) a "Natural History of the Anitnal Kingdom," (2 vols., 1841,) and a " Theory of Spontaneous Ovulation and Fecundation of Mammifera," (1847.) He is an advocate of the doctrine of spontaneous generation, on wliich he wrote "Traite de la Generation spontanee," (1859,) and "Nouvelles Experiences sur la Generation spontanee et la Resistance vitale," (1863.) " His works," says the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale," "are distin- guished for scrupulous accuracy, extent of views, and an excellent method. To him belongs the lionour of having formulated in a neat and precise manner the fundamental laws of fecundation among the mammifera. His experi- ments on spontaneous generation, in opposition to those of M. Pasteur, had a great celebrity ( retentissement) in the scientific world." One of his works has been trans- lated into English, with the title " The Universe : the Infinitely Great and Infinitely Little," (1870.) See the " British Quarterly Review," 1869. Pouchkin or Pouschkin. See Pooshkin. Pougatclief or Pougatchev. See Poogatchef. Pougens, de, deh poo'zhdN', (Marie Charles Jo- seph,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1755. He became blind at the age of twenty-four. He wrote, besides other works, "The Four Ages," a poem, (1819,) and " Philosophical Letters," (1826.) He was a mem- ber of the Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1833. See T. LoRiN, "Notice sur Charles de Pougens," 1836; Sil- VESTRE DE Sacy, " Noticc sur la Vie de M. le Chevalier de Pougens," 1837- Pouget, poo''zh4', (FRANgois Aim^,) a French priest, born at Montpellier in 1666, was vicar of Saint-Roch, in Paris. He published a " Catechisme de Montpellier," (1702,) which was adopted in all France. Died in 1723. Pouillet, poo'ya', (Claude Servais Matthia.s,) a French natural philosopher and elegant writer, born in the department of Doubs in 1791. He was elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1837, and obtained the chair of physics at the Sorbonne in 1838. He pub- lished, besides other works, "Elements of Experimental Physics and Meteorology," (2 vols., 1827 ; 7th edition, 1856,) which is said to be the most complete and best- written treatise on that subject in French. Died in 1868. Pouilly, de. See L^vesque. Poujoulat, poo'zhoo'la', (Jean Joseph Fran(;ois,) a French litterateur, born at La Fare (Benches du Rhone) in 1808. He accompanied Michaud on a visit to the Levant, (1830,) and wrote, in partnership with him, "Oriental Correspondence," ("La Correspondance d'Orient," 7 vols., 1832-35.) He received prizes from the French Academy for his " History of Jerusalem" (1840) and " History of Saint Augustine," (3 vols., 1844.) Poullain-Duparc, poo'l^N' dii'ptR', (Augustin Marie,) a French jurist, born at Rennes in 1703, was a brother of Poullain de Saint-Foix. He wrote on the laws of Bretagne. Died in 1782. Poullain de Grandprey, poo'l^N' deh gR5N'pRi', (Joseph Clement,) a French politician, born near Mirecourt in 1744. He was a moderate republican member of the Convention, 1792-95. Died in 1826. Poullain de Saint-Foix. See Saint-Foix. Poulle, pool, ( Nicolas Louis, ) a French pulpit orator, born at Avignon in 1703. He obtained the title of preacher to the king. Died in 1781. PouUetier de la Salle, pooKte-a' deh It stl, (Fran- cois Paul Lyon,) a French physician and chemist, born in Lyons in 17 19. He founded three hospitals in Paris, and aided Macquer in a "Dictionary of Chemistry," (1766.) Died in 1788. Poultier-Delmotte, pooKte-i' dlKmot', (FRANgois Martin,) a French revolutionist, born at Montreuil-sur- Mer in 1753. He voted for the death of the king in the Convention, and edited the "Ami des Lois," a journal, (1795- 1 800.) Died in 1826. Pounds, (John,) an English philanthropist, born at Portsmouth in 1766, was a shoemaker, and the founder of ragged schools. He collected a number of poor children in his workshop and taught them gratis. Died in 1839. Poupart, poo'ptR', (Franqois,) a French naturalist and anatomist, born at Mans in 1661 ; died in 1709. Pouqueville, pook'v^K, (FRANgois Charles Hu- GUES Laurent,) a French writer of travels, was born in Orne in 1770. He published a work entitled "Travels in the Morea," etc., ("Voyage en Moree, a Constanti- nople et en Albanie," 1805,) and "Travels in Greece," ("Voyage en Grece," 5 vols., 1820-22.) Died in 1838. Pourchot, pooR'sho', (Edme,) a French philosopher, born at Poilly, near Sens, in 165 1. He became about 1678 professor of philosophy in the University of Paris, € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K,giittural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) POURBUS POTNET of which he was chosen rector seven times. He was a friend of Boileau and Racine. He published " Philo- sophical Institutes," ( " Institutiones Philosophicae," 1695,) which was highly esteemed. It is said that he was one of the first who taught philosophy by a rational method. Died in 1734. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Pourbus. See Porbus. Pourfour. See Petit, du. Poussin, (Caspar.) See Dughet. Poussin, poo'stlN^, (Nicolas,) an excellent French painter of history and landscapes, called "the Raphael of France," was born at or near Andelys, on the Seine, in Normandy, in 1 594. He studied design with Quentin Varin, of Amiens, and at the age of eighteen went to Paris, where he received lessons from Ferdinand Elle. His early efforts were embarrassed by poverty. He made several attempts to visit Rome, which failed for want of funds. His long-cherished desire to see that metropolis of art was gratified in 1624. He there formed an inti- macy with the sculptor F. Duquesnoy, and studied the works of Raphael with ardent admiration. He also made designs or models of antique statues and bas-reliefs. For Cardinal Barberini, who became his. patron, he painted "The Death of Cermanicus," and "The Capture of Jerusalem by Titus." Poussin married in 1630 Anne Marie Dughet, a sister of the eminent painter Gaspard Dughet surnamed Pous- sin. Among the works which he painted (in oil) at Rome are a series of "The Seven Sacraments," "The Rape of the Sabine Women," "The Triumph of Flora," and "The Passage of the Red Sea." He had acquired a wide celebrity when, about the end of 1640, he returned to France at the request of the king, who appointed him his first painter. He painted for the king a beautiful altar-piece of "The Last Supper," but soon became dis- gusted with the intrigues of the court and the jealousy of rival artists. In 1642 he returned to Rome, where he remained until his death, November, 1665. " With a laborious and mighty grasp," says Hazlitt, "he put Nature into the mould of the ideal and antique, and was among painters (more than any one else) what Milton was among poets. There is in both something of the same pedantry, the same stiffness, the same ele- vation, the same grandeur, the same mixture of art and nature, the same richness of borrowed materials, the same unity of character." ("Table-Talk.") " His life," says Delacroix, " was reflected in his works, and accorded with the beauty and nobleness of his in- ventions." He is considered the greatest historical painter that France has produced. " Poussin has a far greater power," says Ruskin, " and his landscapes, though more limited in material, are incomparably nobler, than Claude's." The same critic calls him " the principal master of the classical landscape." ("Modern Painters.") See Charles Blanc, " fitudes sur N. Poussin;" Maria Gra- ham, "Memoirs of N. Poussin," 1820; Castellan, "Vie de N. Poussin," iSii ; ISmeric-David, " Discours sur la Vie de Poussin," 1812; Raoul-Rochette, "Discours sur N. Poussin," 1S43; Pas- SERI, " Le Vite de' Pittori," 1772; Bouchitte, "Le Poussin, sa Vie et son OEuvre ;" Gandar, "Les Andelys et N. Poussin;" Fe- libien, " Entretiens sur la Vie des Peintres ;" "Nouvelle Biogra- phic Generale." Poussines, poo'sfen', (Pierre,) a French Jesuit, born at Laurac in 1609. He edited and translated several Greek works, among which was Anna Comnena's " Alexias." Died in 1686. Pouteau, poo''t5', (Claude,) a French surgeon, born at Lyons in 1724. He published several volumes on surgery. Died in 1775. Pow'ell, (The Rev. Baden,) F.R.S., an English phi- losopher and geometer, born in or near London about 1798. He became in 1827 Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford, of which he was a graduate. He contributed to the " Philosophical Transactions" and " Philosophical Magazine" able memoirs on optics and other sciences. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1824. Among his principal works are " A Historical View of the Progress of Physical and Mathematical Sciences," (i vol., 1834,) "The Connection of Natural and Divine Truth," (1838,) a "View of the Undulatory Theory as applied to the Dispersion of Light," (1841,) "The Unity of Worlds and of Nature : Three Essays on the Spirit of the Inductive Philosophy, the Plurality of Worlds, and the Philosophy of Creation," (1856,) "Christianity without Judaism," (1857,) and "The Order of Nature considered with Reference to the Claims of Revelation," (1859.) Died in i860. See the " North British Review" for November, 1859. Pow'ell, (David,") a Welsh historian, born in Den- bighshire about 1552, was vicar of Ruabon and rector of Llanfyllin. He published Caradoc's "History of Cambria," with notes, (1584.) Died in 1598. Powell, (Edward,) an English Roman Catholic priest, wrote against the divorce of Henry VIII. and Catherine, and was hung in 1540 for that offence. Powell, (Gabriel,) a son of David, noticed above, was born in 1575. He was distinguished for learning, and was author of some polemical works on theology. Died in 1611. Powell, (George,) an English actor and dramatist, wrote " Alphonso," a tragedy. Died in 17 14. Pow'ell, (George,) an American historical painter, born in New York in 1823. Among his works is "The Discovery of the Mississippi." Powell, (Griffith,) was born in Wales in 1561. He became principal of Jesus College, Oxford. Died in 1620, Powell, (Sir John,) a British judge, noted for his honesty, was born in Carmarthenshire. He was de- prived of office by James II. about 1688 for his conduct in the trial of the seven bishops. Died in 1696. Powell, (William,) an English actor, who performed with success at Drury Lane from 1763 until 1767. Died in 1769. Powell, (William Samuel,) an English parson, born at Colchester in 171 7, became archdeacon of that place about 1766. Died in 1775. Pow'er, (Tyrone,) an Irish comic actor, born in the county of Waterford in 1795. He performed in the United States in 1840, and took passage in the steamer President, which left New York in March, 1841, and was never heard of afterwards. Powders, (Hiram,) an eminent American sculptor, born at Woodstock, Vermont, in 1805. Having re- moved to Cincinnati, Ohio, he employed himself for a time in modelling busts in plaster, and subsequently engaged in the same occupation at Washington. In 1837 he was enabled to visit Italy, where he has resided many years. His statue of " Eve" was exhibited in 1838, and was at once acknowledged as a master-piece. It was followed soon after by his "Greek Slave," which became widely celebrated and has placed the artist in the first rank of living sculptors. Among his other works may be named " II Penseroso," " The Fisher- Boy," "California," "America," statues of Washington and Calhoun, and busts of Chief-Justice Marshall, Adams, Webster, and Van Buren. See Tuckerman, "Book of the Artists;" "Living Age" for October, 1847, by Edward Everett. P6w'hat-an', an Indian sachem who ruled over a tract of country in the vicinity of James River, Virginia. Died in 1618. (See Pocahontas.) Pow'is, (William Herbert,) Earl of, an English peer, who in his youth fought for Charles I. against the Parliament. He was regarded as the chief of the Roman Catholic aristocracy. He was sworn of the privy council in 1686, and, according to Macaulay, gave James II. judicious and patriotic advice. Powlett. See Pawlett and Pa u let. Pow'nall, (Thomas,) an English goi-eraor and an- tiquary, born at Lincoln in 1722. He became Governor of Massachusetts Bay in 1757, and of New Tersey in 1759. He returned to England in 1761. Among his works is a " Description of the Antiquities of the Pro- vincia Romana of Gaul," (1788.) Died at Bath in 1805. Poyet, pwd'yi', (Bernard,) a French architect, born at Dijon in 1742; died at Paris in 1824. Poy'net or Po''net, (John,) an English bishop, born in Kent about 1516, was a zealous advocate of the Reformation. He became Bisho]) of Rochester in 1549, and Bishop of Winchester in 1551. He wrote, besides other works, a book called " King Edward's Catechism," a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, flit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; POTNINGS 1835 PR AS LIN (1553,) Having gone into exile on the accession of Mary, in 1553, he died at Strasburg in 1556. Poyn'ings, (Sir Edward,) an English gentleman, who in the reign of Henry VII. performed an important part in the suppression of the Irish rebellion of which Desmond and Kildare were the leaders. Died in 1512. Pozharski or Pojarski, po-zhaR'skee, (Dmitri,) Prince, a Russian general, born in 1578, drove out the Poles from Moscow in 1612. He is called by Prince A. Gallitsin " one of the most popular heroes of Russia.'' Died in 1642. See Malinowsky, "Life of Pozharski," (in Russian,) 1817. Pozzetti, pot-set'tee, (Pompilio,) a Florentine writer of biography, etc., born in 1769; died in 1816. Pozzi, pofsee, ( Giovanni Battista, ) an Italian painter, born at Milan, flourished about 1585. Died at the age of twenty-eight. Pozzi, (GiUSEPPK,) an Italian poet and physician, born at Bologna about 1695 5 ^752. Pozzo, pot'so, (Andrea,) an Italian painter and architect, born at Trent in 1642, was a Jesuit. He excelled in colouring and perspective, and adorned the ceiling of Sant' Ignazio, Rome, with pictures, which are commended. He published a " Treatise on Per- spective," (2 vols., 1693-1702.) Died at Vienna in 1709. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" Milizia, " Memorie degli Architetti." Pozzo, (Modesta.) See Fonte, (Moderata.) Pozzo, dal, dil pot'so, (Cassianu,) an Italian an- tiquary, born at Turin in 1584. He formed at Rome a rich cabinet of antiquities, and was a friend and patron of N. Poussin. Died in 1657. Pozzo, dal, (Ferdinando,) Count, an Italian lawyer and political writer, born in Piedmont in 1768. He was elected to the French legislative body in 1803, and be- came first president of the imperial court at Genoa in 1809. Died at Turin in 1843. Pozzo, dal, (GiROLAMO,) Count, an Italian archi- tect, born at Verona in 1718, was a skilful amateur. Pozzo di Borgo, pot'so de boR^go, (Carlo An- drea,) an eminent diplomatist, born at or near Ajaccio, in Corsica, in 1764. He entered the service of Paoli about 1790, and was elected to the French Legislative Assembly in 1 791. He was secretary of state in the new government formed by Paoli in 1793. In 1803 he entered the service of Russia, and devoted himself to diplomacy, for which he was qualified by his penetration and address. He performed a mission to Vienna in 1804 or 1805, and another to Turkey in 1807. He re- garded Napoleon as a personal enemy, and contributed to his overthrow. In 1813 he took a prominent part at the Congress of Frankfort, and composed the famous declaration of the allies. He acted as Russian commis- sioner with the army of the allies in 1815, and signed the treaty of Paris. He was Russian ambassador at, Paris from 1815 to 1835. Died in 1842. See VuHRER, " Notice biograpliique sur Pozzo di Borgo," 1842 ; Capefigue, "Notice sur la Vie du Comte Pozzo di }5orgo," 1844 ; Lamartine, " History of the Restoration ;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." Pradel, de, deh pRt'd^K, (Pierre Marie Michel CoUTRAY,) a French poet and improvisateur, born in Paris in 1787. He produced many short poems. Died at Brussels in 1857. Pradier, prt'de-i', (Jacques,) a French sculptor of high reputation, was born at Geneva in 1792. He gained the grand prize of Rome (at Paris) in 18 13, and studied at Rome for five years. He became a member of the Institute in 1827. His works are remarkable for soft- ness and grace. His imagination was vivid, his design correct, his execution good ; and with more elevation of style he would have raised himself to the highest rank of French sculptors. Among his best works are a *' Isyche," (1824,) "The Three Graces," (1831,) a mar- ble group of "Venus and Cupid," (1836,) and a marble statue of Sappho, (1852.) Died near Paris in 1S52. See Gkorge Bell, "Pradier," Paris, 1852; "Nouvelle Biogra- phie Generale." Prado, prS'do, (Ignacio,) a Peruvian general, was appointed president or dictator of Peru about the end of 1865. Prado, del, d^l pRi'Do, (Blas,) a Spanish painter, born at Toledo in 1544, was patronized by Philip II. Died about 1605. Pradon, pRfd^N', (Nicolas,) a mediocre French tragic poet, born at Rouen in 1632. He produced in 1674 " Pyramus and Thisbe," and attempted to rival Racine in " Phedre et Plippolyte," (1677,) which was applauded by a certain party or cabale. Died in 1698. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Pradt, de, deh pRit, (Abbe Dominique Dufour,) a French diplomatist and political writer, born in Auvergne in 1759. He became almoner of Napoleon about 1804, Bishop of Poitiers in 1805, and Archbishop of Malines in 1808. In 1812 he was sent as ambassador to Warsaw, and, according to some writers, incurred the displeasure of Napoleon, with whom he had a curious conversation during his retreat from Moscow. He published many political and historical works, among which is a " His- tory of the Embassy to Warsaw," (1815.) Died in 1837. See QuERAKD, " La France Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1816; "Monthly Review," vol. Ixxx., 1816, (Appendix.) Praed, prad, (Winthrop Mackwokth,) an English poet and lawyer, born in London in 1802. He was the chief contributor to "The Etonian," a monthly paper issued in 1820 ; after which he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. He gained prizes for the Greek ode and epigram, and for English poems, entitled " Australia," (1823,) and "Athens," (1824.) In 1829 he was called to the bar. He was returned to Parliament about 1830, opposed the Reform bill, and was re-elected in 1835. He became a successful debater and a zealous conserva- tive. Died in 1839. His poems are highly commended for wit and elegance. See the "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1865; "British Quarterly Review" for 1866. Praet, van, vtn prat, (Joseph Basile Bernard,) a Belgian bibliographer, born at Bruges in 1754. He became in 1784 an assistant in the Royal Library at Paris. About 1795 Van Praet and Capperonnier were appointed keepers of the same. He published a " Catalogue of the Books printed on Vellum in the Royal Library," (5 vols., 1822-28.) Died in 1837. See Daunow, " Notice sur Van Praet ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Praj^pati, pra-jS'pa-ti, [from the Sanscrit prajd, " people," or the " world," and pati, " master,"] in the Hindoo mythology, a title given to certain divine per sonages, called also Brahmadikas, among whom are Marichi, Bhrigu, Daksha, and Narada. See Wilson, "Sanscrit Dictionary." Pram, pR^m, (Christian Henriksen,) a distin- guished litterateur and journalist, born in Guldbrands- dal, in Norway, in 1756. He founded at Copenhagen, conjointly with Rahbek, the periodical entitled "The Minerva," and in 1811 became president of the Scandi- navian Literary Society. Among his principal works, which are written in Danish, are "Emilias Kilde," a poem, (1782,) a heroic poem entitled " Starkodder," (1785,) and the tragedy of "Damon and Pythias." He also published several treatises on political economy and statistics. His genius and character are eulogized by Oehlenschlager. Died in 1821. See Ersi.ew, " Forfatter-Lexicon ;" J. K. Hoest, "C. H. Pram: biografisk Omrids," 1820; Howitt, " Literature And Romance of Northern Europe." Prarond, pRt'r^N', (Ernest,) a French writer of verses, fiction, etc., born at Abbeville in 1821. Praslin, de, deh pRt'I^N', (Cesar Gakriel de Choiseul — deh shwd'zuK,) Due, a French minister of state, born in Paris in 17 12, was a cousin of the Due de Choiseul. He obtained in 1748 the rank of lieutenant- general, became minister of foreign affairs in 1760, and minister of the marine in 1766. He was removed in 1770. Died in 1785. See CoNDORCET, " filoge du Due de Praslin." Praslin de Choiseul, i)rtiaN' deh shw^'zuK, (Charles Raynard Laure F^lix,) Due, a French peer, born in Paris in 1778 ; died in 1841. See Nestor Aronssohn, " Notice sur M. le Due de Praslin,' 1844. . *> as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^="See Explanations, p. 23.) PRAT 1836 PRENTICE Prat, du. See Duprat. Prati, pRi'tee, (Giovanni,) an Italian lyric poet, born at Dascindo, in the province of Trent, in 1815. He composed " Edmenegarda," a poem, (1841,) which was received with favour. Among his other popular poems ire "A Hymn to Italy," "The Song of the Future," "Rodolfo," and "Count Riga," ("II Conte Riga," 1856.) In 1861 he published a poem called " Ariberto," (2 vols.) Pratilli, pRd-t^lMee, (Francesco Maria,) an Italian antiquary, born at Capua about 1700; died about 1766. Prat'i-nas, [Ilparivaf,] an Athenian dramatic and lyric poet, lived about 500 B.C., and made an improve- ment in the tragic art. He is regarded by some as the inventor of the satiric drama. Pratt, (Benjamin,) an American judge, born at Bos- ton in 1709. He gained distinction as a lawyer, and became chief justice of New York. Died in 1763. Pratt, (Calvin E.,) an American lawyer and soldier, born near Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1828. He practised law for a time in New York City, and in 1861 commanded the Thirty-first regiment of New York volunteers at the battle of Bull Run. He became brigadier-general of volunteers soon after the battle of Antietam. Pratt, (Charles.) See Camden, Earl of. Pratt, (Sir Charles,) a British general, born in 1771, served in the Peninsular war at Vitoria, Nivelles, Or- thes, etc. Died in 1839. Pratt, (Samuel Jackson,) an English poet and novel- ist, born in Huntingdonshire in 1749. He published, under the assumed name of Courtney Melmoth, " Sympathy," and other poems, and several successful novels, among which are "The Pupil of Pleasure," (1779,) and "Emma Corbett," (1781.) Died in 1814. Praun, von, fon pRown, (Georg Andreas Septi- mus,) Baron, a German numismatist, born in Vienna in 1701. He published a " Treatise on Coins or Numis- matics," (1739.) Died in 1786. Prax-ag'o-ras, [Hpa^a/opaf,] an eminent Greek phy- sician of Cos, lived about 300 B.C. He was noted for his skill in anatomy, and appears to have been the first who explained the difference between veins and arteries. He wrote several works, of which only a few fragments are extant. Among his pupils was Herophilus. See Sprengei,, " Histoire de la Medecine." Prax-il'la, [Upa^LKka,] a Greek lyric poetess, born at Sicyon, lived about 450 B.C. Her works are lost. Praxiphane. See Praxiphanks. Prax-iph'a-nes, [Gr. U.pa^c(f)avT]^ ; Fr. Praxiphane, pRtks'eTtn',] a Greek philosopher, born at Mitylene, was a pupil of Theophrastus, and a teacher of Epicurus. See Preller, "De Praxiphane," 1842. Praxitele. See Praxiteles. Prax-it'e-les, [ Gr. Upa^LT£?ir]c ; Fr. Praxitele, pRtks'e'tiK,] one of the greatest of Grecian sculptors, flourished about 360 B.C. The time and place of his birth are unknown. He was probably a contemporary of Apelles, and an Athenian. According to Pausanias, he lived three generations after Alcamenes. The name of his master has not been preserved. Praxiteles is regarded as the founder of a school, or the author of a new style of art. Ancient writers represent him as cele- brated for refinement and softness of contour, grace in attitude, and delicacy in the expression of tender affec- tions. Cicero considered the expression which animated the heads of Praxiteles as one of the most admirable and difiicult results which human skill could attain. Among his best works in bronze were a statue of Bac- chus, a Satyr or Faun, and a statue of Apollo, called *' Sauroctonos." An ancient copy (in marble) of the last work is preserved in the Vatican. His master-piece was a marble statue of Venus (of Cnidos) without drapery, which was destroyed by fire at Constantinople about 475 A.D. No work of Grecian sculptors, except the Jupiter of Phidias, appears to have been so celebrated as this Venus of Cnidos. He produced also a statue of Venus draped, and a marble statue of Cupid, which was praised by Pliny. He was one of the lovers of the celebrated courtesan Phryne. See Pliny, "Natural History;" K. O. MiiLLER, "Archaologie der Kunst ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Pray, pRoi, (George,) a Hungarian historian, born at Presburg in 1723 or 1724. He published " Annals of the Ancient Huns," (" Annales veterum Hunnorum," 1761,) and a " History of Hungary from 997 to 1564," (5 vols., 1764-70.) Died in 1801. Preau. See Dupr6au. Preault, pRiV, (Auguste,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1809. Among his works are a bust of N. Poussin in the Louvre, Charlemagne, (1836,) and " Ophe- lia," a bas-relief, (1849.) Preble, pr^b'l, (Edward,) a celebrated American commodore, born in Maine in 1761. Having been made a captain in 1799, he sailed in the Essex to Batavia, whencq he convoyed home a fleet of fourteen merchant- vessels. In 1803 he was appointed to command a squadron sent against Tripoli, having for his flag-ship the Constitution. He attacked the batteries and gun- boats which defended Tripoli several times in August and September, 1804. He captured three gun-boats, and sunk four others. For these services he received a gold medal from Congress. Died in 1807. See Sparics, "American Biography;" "National Portrait-Gal- lery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii. Precipiano, di, de pRi-che-pe-i.'no, ( Humbert Guillaume,) Count, a prelate, born at Besanjon in 1626. He became Archbishop of Malines in 1690, and was an opponent of Quesnel. Died in 1711. Precy, de, deh pRa'se', (Louis FRANgois Perrin — pi'RiN',) Comte, an able French general, born near Semur in 1742. He was chosen general-in-chief by the insurgents of Lyons who revolted against the Conven- tion in 1793. He defended Lyons for about sixty days against the besieging army, and escaped to Switzerland. Died in 1820. Preisler or Preissler, pRTs'ler, (Georg Martin,) a German engraver and painter, born at Nuremberg in 1700 ; died in 1754. Preisler or Preissler, (Johann Daniel,) a German painter and designer, the father of the preceding, was born at Dresden in 1665. Died in 1737. Preisler or Preissler, (Johann Georg,) an engraver, born at Copenhagen in 1757, was a son of Johann Justin, noticed below. Died in 1808. Preisler or Preissler, (Johann Justin,) an engraver and painter, born at Nuremberg in 1698, was a brother of Georg Martin, noticed above. He etched some works of Rubens. Died in 1771. Preisler or Preissler, (Johann Martin,) a skilful engraver, a brother of the preceding, was born at Nu- remberg in 1 7 15. He was appointed court engraver at Copenhagen, to which he removed in 1744. His en- graving of " Frederick V. on Horseback" is esteemed a master-piece. He executed some works of Raphael and other masters. Died in 1794. Preissler. See Preisler. Preller, pReKler, ( Ludwig, ) a German classical scholar and antiquary, born at Hamburg in 1809. He became professor at Jena in 1846. Among his works are a " History of Greek and Roman Philosophy," (1838,) and a " Greek Mythology," (2 vols., 1854.) Died in i86r. Premare, pR^'mtR^ (Joseph Henri,) a French mis- sionary, born about 1670. He went to China in 1698, and studied Chinese literature with success. He wr.^te " Account of the Chinese Language," ("Notitia Lingiiae Sinicae,") and " Letters on China." Died at Peking about 1735. Premontval, pRi'm^N'vtK, the assumed name of Andr6 Pierre Le Guay, (g^,) a French writer, born at Charenton in 1716. He removed to Berlin in 1752, and was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences of that city. He wrote " Monogamy," (" La Monogamie," 3 vols., 1 75 1,) and other works. Died in 1764. Premier, von, fon pR^n'ner, (Anton Joseph,) a Ger- man painter and engraver, born at Wallerstein in 1683. He engraved the pictures of the Belvedere gallery of Vienna. Died in 1743. Prenner, von, (Georg Caspar,) a painter and en- graver, a nephew of the preceding, was born in 1708. He worked at Rome, where he died in 1766. Prentice, prgn'tiss, (George Denison,) an American poet and journalist, born at Preston, Connecticut, in 5, e, 1, 6, u, y, /on^-; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/ipr^; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, f^t; m^t; n6t; g<^"od; moon; PRENTISS 1837 PRESCOTT 1802, graduated at Brown University in 1823. He founded in 1828 "The New England Review," and, having removed to Kentucky, became in 1831 editor of the " Louisville Journal," which soon acquired the repu- tation of one of the ablest and most brilliant journals in the country. He published a number of small poems of great beauty. A collection of his witticisms, entitled " Prenticeana," appeared in i860. Died in 1870. See Griswold, " Poets and Poetry of America." Pren'tiss, (Benjamin M.,) an American general, born in Wood county, Virginia, in 1819. He became a citi- zen of Illinois about 1842, and was appointed a brigadier- general in 1861. He was taken prisoner at Shiloh, April 6, 1862. About July 3, 1863, he defeated Generals Holmes and Price, who attacked him at Helena, Arkansas. Prentiss, (Sergeant Smith,) an American orator, born at Portland, Maine, in 1808. He studied law, and became about 1832 a resident of Vicksburg, Mississippi, where he practised with success. He was elected a member of Congress by the Whigs in 1837. In 1840 he advocated the election of General Harrison by several public speeches. He had a high . reputation as an orator, and as an advocate in jury-trials was equal or superior to any lawyer in the Southwestern States. Died near Natchez in 1850. See a " Memoir of S. S. Prentiss," by his brother, 1855. Pres'cott, (George,) Colonel, an American officer, born in Littleton, Massachusetts, in 1829. He served as colonel at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863, and at the great battles in Virginia in May, 1864. He was killed near Petersburg, June 18, 1864. Prescott, (Oliver,) M.D., an American physician and patriot of the Revolution, born at Groton, Mas- sachusetts, in 1 731. He served as an officer in the Revolutionary war. Died in 1804. Prescott, (Oliver,) an American physician, a son of the preceding, was born in 1762. He practised at Gro- ton, and wrote several medical treatises. Died in 1827. Prescott, (William,) Colonel, an American officer of the Revolution, born at Groton, Massachusetts, in 1725, was a brother of Oliver, noticed above. He fought with distinguished bravery at the battle of Bunker Hill, where he appears to have had the chief command, and in other important engagements. Died in 1795. Prescott, (William,) LL.D., an American jurist, son of the preceding, was born at Pepperell in 1762. He was appointed in 1818 a judge of the court of common pleas. He enjoyed a high reputation for legal attainments. He was the father of William H. Prescott, the historian. Died in 1844. Prescott, (William Hickling,) an eminent American historian, a son of the preceding, and grandson of Colonel Prescott who commanded at Bunker Hill, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May, 1796. Both his parents were remarkable for their high moral qualities. His father was distinguished for his manly beauty, as well as for the dignity and gentleness of his character. His mother, originally Miss Catherine Greene Hickling, was a woman of great energy, vivacity, and active be- nevolence ; and to her influence her son appears to have owed not only much of the happiness of his life, but also some of those admirable moral traits which formed the crowning ornament to his rare intellectual endowments. In the summer of 1808 his father removed to Boston, and the following autumn sent his son to what was then regarded as the best classical school in New England. It was kept by Dr. Gardiner, an excellent scholar, who had been educated in England under the celebrated Dr. Parr. In 1811 young Prescott entered the Sophomore class at Harvard College. In his knowledge of Greek and Latin he was far in advance of most of the members of his class ; but he had no fondness for mathematics, and never attained any proficiency in mathematical studies. During his Junior year at college an accident befell him which was destined to influence the whole of his subse- quent life. One day in the Commons Hall, while the students — as too often happened after the professors had left the table — were indulging in a rude frolic, Prescott rose to go out of the room, but, attracted by the tumult behind him, suddenly turned his head to see what it was. At that instant a hard piece of bread, thrown at random, struck him on his left eye, which, under the peculiar circumstances, having no warning, was open, so that nothing — not even the eyelid — was interposed to mitigate the blow. He instantly fell prostrate and powerless, as if the brain itself had received a severe concussion. After some weeks he was able to resume his studies ; but the sight of his left eye — though this was to appearance unchanged — was gone forever. This early misfortune, while it tended to check his somewhat exuberant vivacity, far from discouraging him in the pursuit of his studies, seemed to excite in him a more earnest and determined resolution to become a respectable scholar. He graduated in August, 1814, and soon after cotnmenced the study of law. But the excessive use of his remaining eye induced a severe inflammation in the organ, followed by opacity of the cornea, so that for some weeks the power of vision was completely lost. Among the many interesting and admirable traits in Mr. Prescott's character, perhaps none is more re- markable than the invincible cheerfulness and heroic resignation with which he bore the frequent and severe suft'ering and the life-long privations to which he was subjected in consequence of the injury of his sight. In the hope of improving his general health, which had been seriously impaired by confinement, and also of indirectly benefiting his eyes, he was induced to under- take a voyage to Europe. He set out in the autumn of 1 81 5. He remained abroad nearly two years, visiting England, France, and Italy. His sight, though not strong enough to permit him to read much, seems to have been sufficient to give him a vivid enjoyment of the various scenes and places through which he trav- elled ; but his health appears not to have been benefited by his foreign tour, and in the summer of 181 7 he re- turned to his native country. He now decided to aban- don the law and devote himself wholly to literature. His eye, however, was so irritable and feeble that he was obliged to pass much of his time in a darkened room, with barely light enough to admit of some one reading to him, — this being now his only means of cultivating an acquaintance with his favourite authors. In May, 1820, Mr. Prescott was married to Miss Susan Amory ; and the union appears to have been a singularly happy one. About 182 1 he commenced a systematic course of reading, (by the ear,) which was to embrace the works of the best English prose writers from Roger Ascham to the present day, and afterwards the best productions of the literatures of France and Italy. He appears to have enjoyed with a peculiar zest the great works of Italian genius, and especially the " Divina Com- media" of Dante. He seems to have taken less delight in the celebrated authors of France, though he admired Montaigne and Pascal, and, above all. La Fontaine and Moliere. In the autumn of 1824 he commenced in earnest the study of that magnificent language and lite- rature which have been immortalized by the genius of Lope de Vega and Cervantes. " This," says Mr. Tick- nor, " was the opening of the Spanish campaign, which ended only with his life." He had at one time enter- tained the design of writing a sort of general history of Italian literature ; but this was now abandoned for labour in a different field. After "long choosing," to adopt the words of Milton, "and beginning late," he at last decided, in January, 1826, to write the " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," which, eleven years later, was published, in three 8vo volumes, simultaneously in Bos- ton and in London. The success of the work was of the most flattering kind, and at once placed him in the very highest rank of contemporary historians. After six years of additional labour, appeared his " Conquest of Mexico," (3 vols. 8vo, 1843.) Four years afterwards he gave the world his " Conquest of Peru," (2 vols. 8vo.) In 1845 appeared a volume of his "Miscellanies," con- sisting of contributions to the " North American Review." In 1850 he made a short visit to Europe. Soon after his return he commenced the " History of the Reign of Philip II. of Spain," a work which he did not live to complete, although the first three volumes were published in his lifetime, the first two having appeared in- 1855, the third in 1858. The entire work was designed to € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^^^See Explanations, p. 23.) PRESL 1838 PREFILLE be included in 6 vols. 8vo. The third volume was pub- lished in the summer of 1858, after the occurrence of his first slight apoplectic attack, (February 4, 1858,) from which he seemed speedily to recover. He resumed his literary labours, but was forced to limit himself to the lightest kind of work ; and he never afterwards had that enjoyment in his studies which he had experienced in previous years. On the 28th of January, 1859, he was seized with a second attack of apoplexy, of which he died in about three hours. In person Mr. Prescott was tall and well formed, with light-brown hair, a fine clear complexion, and an ex- pression of countenance singularly bright, genial, and attractive. *' His smile," says Mr. Ticknor, " was abso- lutely the most contagious I ever looked upon." His disposition was in the highest degree social, generous, and kindly. " Indeed, take him for all in all," says Mr. Ticknor, " I think no man ever walked our streets, as he did day by day, that attracted such regard and good will from so many ; for, however few he might know, there were very many that knew him, and watched him with unspoken welcomes as he passed along." Mr. Prescott's merits as a historian are of the very highest order. In vigour of thought and in grandeur of style he has undoubtedly been surpassed by many of the great masters of historical composition ; but he pos- sessed other qualities, which, if less imposing, are far more essential to the character of a perfect historian. In that spirit of thorough research which never rests satisfied until every field has been explored and every accessible source of information consulted and ex- hausted, he has had few if any superiors ; while in that impartiality which proceeds from a high and scrupulous sense ■>f justice and unswerving devotion to truth, he has perhaps never been equalled — certainly never sur- passed — by any historian, of whatever age or country. His style, moreover, is for the most part remarkable for its animation, clearness, and grace ; and in the general treatment of his subject he exhibits in an eminent de- gree the " eloquence" and " lucid order" which the great poet-critic of ancient Rome tells us will not be wanting to him who knows how to choose his subject wisely.* (For the opinions of various eminent critics on the works of Mr. Prescott, the reader is particularly re- ferred to Allibone's "Dictionary of Authors.") See, also, the admirable " Life of William Hickling Prescott," by George Ticknor, Boston, 1864 ; R. W. Griswold, " Prose Writers of America;" Duyckinck, " Cyclopedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; "New American Cyclopaedia;" "London Quarterly Re- view" for December, 1843, and September, 1847 ; " North American Review" for January, 1864. Presl, pR§sl, (Jan Swatopluk,) a Bohemian botanist, born at Prague in 1 791. He wrote " Symbolae Botanicas," (1832,) and other works. Died in 1849. Presle, de, deh pR§l, (Charles Marte Wladimir Brunet,) a French Hellenist, born in Paris in 1809. He published, besides other works, a "Critical Inquiry into the Succession of Egyptian Dynasties," (1850,) and " Greece since the Roman Conquest," (" La Grece depuis la Conquete Romaine," 1859.) Pressense, de, deh pRa'sSN'si', (Edmond,) an emi- nent French Protestant divine and pulpit orator of the present age. Among his works are a " History of the. First Three Centuries of the Church," "The Religions before Christ : being an Introduction to the History of the First Three Centuries of the Church," (1862,) and "Jesus Christ: his Times, Life, and Work," (1866.) The second and third of these have been translated into English. With respect to faith he is evangelical. Prestel, pR§s'tel, (Johann Gottlieb,) a German engraver and portrait-painter, born at Griinbach, in Suabia, in 1739. He worked at Nuremberg for some years. Died in 1808. Pres'ter John or Joao, [Fr. Le Pretre Jean, leh pritR zh6N,] ("the Priest John,") the title of an imaginary personage whom the Europeans of the middle ages supposed to reign in the interior of Asia and to have been converted to Christianity. Rubruquis, a friar, was sent by Louis IX. of France to search for Prester Cui lecta potenter erit res, Non facundia deseret hunc, nec lucidus ordo." Horace : De A rte Poetica. John, in 1253, and explored Central Tartary, but did not rind him. The general belief in his existence originated perhaps in a report of some Nestorian missionaries that Oong, (or Oungh,) a Khan of Tartary, had been con- verted by them. See S. Baring-Goui.d, "Curious Myths of the Middle Ages ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Prestet, pri'ti', (Jean,) a French mathematician, born at Cha!ons-sur-Sa6ne in 1648; died in 1690. Pres'ton, (John,) an eminent English divme and Puritan, born at Heyford, in Northamptonshire, in 1587, adopted Calvinistic opinions. He was chosen master of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, about 1622. He was the author of a "Treatise on the Covenant," and other works. By the favour of the Duke of Buckingham, he obtained the lectureship of Trinity Church, Cambridge. According to Fuller, he was "an excellent preacher, a celebrated disputant, and a perfect politician." Died in 1628. Pres'ton, (John S.,) an American politician, brother of W. C. Preston, was born near Abingdon, Virginia, in 1809. He removed to South Carolina, where he was elected to the State legislature. Soon after the election of Mr. Lincoln to the Presidency, he joined the seces- sionists. Preston, (Thomas,) an English dramatist, was a Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, He wrote about 1564 "A Lamentable Tragedy, mixed full of Pleasant Mirth, containing the Life of Cambyses, King of Persia." Died in 1598. Preston, (William,) an American general, born near Louisville, Kentucky, in 1816. He practised law in Louisville, and was sent as minister to Spain in 1858. He joined the disunionists in 1861, and was appointed a brigadier-general. Preston, (William C.,) an American Senator and orator, born in Philadelphia in 1794. His grandrnother was a sister of Patrick Henry. He studied in Edin- burgh. About 1822 he removed to Columbia, South Carolina, where he practised law and gained much dis- tinction. He was elected a Senator of the United States by the legislature of South Carolina in 1832. He op- posed the policy of John C. Calhoun, and resigned his seat about 1842. He was afterwards president of the South Carolina College. Died at Columbia in i860. Pretender, The First. See James Francis Ed- ward. Pretender, The Second. See Charles Edward Stuart. Preti, pRa'tee, (Girolamo,) an Italian poet, born in Tuscany in 1582 ; died in 1626. Preti, (Mattia,) called II Calabrese, an Italian painter, born in Calabria in 1613, was a pupil of Lan- franc and Guercino. He worked in Rome, Naples, and other places, preferring scriptural and tragical subjects. Among his works are frescos of the life of Saint An- drew, at Rome. His design was vigorous rather than graceful, and his colouring sombre. Died in 1699. See Pascoli, "Vita de' Pittori moderni ;" Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Preuschen, pRoi'shen, (A. T.,) a German litfh-ateur and theologian, born in Hesse in 1734. Among his works is " Monuments of Ancient Physical and Political- Revolutions in Germany," (1787.) He invented typome- trie, or the art of printing plans and maps with movable types. Died in 1803. ' Preuss, pRoiss, (Johann David Erdmann,) a Ger- man historian, born at Landsberg, on the Warthe, in 1785. He published several works relating to Frederick the Great and his times, among which is a " Biography of Frederick the Great," (9 vols., 1832-34.) Preval, de, deh pRi\iK, (Claude Antoine Hip- POLYTE,) VicoM'i'E, a French general, born at Salins (Jura) in 1776. He became a lieutenant-general in 1814, and president of the committee of war in the council of state in 1837. He gained distinction as a writer on military affairs. Died in 1853. See Du Haillan, "Biographie du General Preval," 1842; QtTERARD, " La France Litteraire." Preville, pRi'v^K, (Pierre Louis Dubus,) a popular French comic actor, born in Paris in 1721. He performed in Paris from 1753 to 1786. Died in 1799. i, e, I, o, il, y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, skorf; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon: PREVITALE PRICE Previtale, pRi-ve-t?l']&, (Andrea,) an Italian painter, born at Bergamo, was a pupil of Giovanni Bellini. He painted Madonnas, which are highly commended. Died about 1528. Prevost, pRi'v5', (Claude Joseph,) a French jurist, born in Paris in 1674; died in 1753. Prevost, prgv'ost, } (Sir George,) an English gen- eral, born in 1767. He distinguished himself at the attack on Martinique in 1809, and became Governor- General of the British possessions in North America in 1812. He was defeated at Plattsburg in 1814, soon after which he was recalled. Died in London in 1816. See " Some Account of the Public Life of General Sir George Prevost," London, 1823. Prevost, pRi'vo', (Isaac BENofT,) a Swiss natu- ral philosopher, born at Geneva in 1755. He became professor of philosophy at Montauban in 1810. His chief work is a " Memoir on the Cause of the Caries of Wheat, and of other Diseases of Plants," (1807.) Died in 1 8 19. See P. Prevost, "Notice sur L B. Prevost," 1820. Prevo.st, (Jean,) a Swiss medical writer, born near Bale in 1585. He succeeded Alpini as professor of botany at Padua in 1617, and wrote many works, which were often reprinted. Died at Padua in 163 1. Prevost, (Louis Constant,) an eminent French geologist, born in Paris in 1787. He published in 1820 an important work " On the Geological Constitution of the Basin of Vienna," (in Austria,) and became professor of geology at the Sorbonne in 1831. Among his works are " Chronology of Rocks and Synchronism of Forma- tions," (1845,) " Bearing of Ancient Fossils in the Basin of the Gironde." Died in 1856. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Prevost, (Pierre,) a Swiss natural philosopher, born at Geneva in 1751, was eminent for the variety and pro- foundness of his learning. He became professor of philosophy at Berlin in 1780, and professor of belles- lettres at Geneva about 1784. In 1788 he published a work '* On the Origin of Magnetic Forces." He obtained the chair of philosophy at Geneva in 1793, and that of general physics in 1810. He published, besides other works, " Researches on Heat," (1792,) " Radiant Caloric," (1809,) and an "Exposition of the Principles of Radiant Heat," (1832,) which were highly esteemed. Died in 1839. See A. P. Decandolle, "Notice sur P. Prevost," in the " Bi- bliotlieque universelle de Geneve," 1839. Prevost, (Pierre,) a French painter of landscapes and panoramas, born near Chateaudun in 1764. He designed or painted from nature panoramas of Rome, Naples, Jerusalem, Athens, etc. " He would perhaps have obtained," says Peries, " only the second rank of landscape-painters, if a new discovery had not induced him to adopt a kind of painting in which he remains un- rivalled." The invention of the panorama is ascribed both to Prevost and to Robert Fulton. Died in 1823. Prevost, (Zachee,) an eminent French engraver, born in Paris in 1797. He obtained a medal in 1827 for *' Corinne at Cape Misenum," after Gerard, and a medal of the first class in 1839. He engraved "The Wedding at Cana," after Paul Veronese, (1852.) Died in 1861. Prevost d'Exiies, pRa'vo' d^k's^K, ( Antoine Fran- cois,) a French writer, born in Artois in 1697. He took the monastic vows in his youth, but soon became dis- gusted with that life, and fled to Holland. He wrote nearly two hundred volumes, including many works of fiction, among which his novel entitled " Manon Les- caut" (1733) was especially celebrated. He published a "General History of Voyages," (20 vols., 1745-70.) Died in 1763. See Le Blanc, " Essai sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de I'Abbe Pre- vost," 1810; J. Janin, " Notice sur Prevost," jjrefixed to an edition of " Manon Lescaut," 1838 ; P. Bernakd, " Essai sur la Vie de I'Abbe Prevost," 1810; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Prevost d'Exmes, Le, leh pRi'vo' diksm, (Fran- cois,) a French litterateur, born near Argentan in 1729; died in 1793. Prevost-Paradol, pRi'v5' pt'rt'doK, (Lucien A'na- TOLE,) a French litterateur and orator of great eminence, born in Paris in 1829. He obtained from the French Academy in 1851 the prize of eloquence for an "Eloge de Bernardin de Saint-Pierre." In 1856 he began to write for the "Journal des Debats," of which he was for many years one of the ablest editors. He was ad- mitted into the French Academy in 1865, in place of Ampere. On this occasion Guizot addressed him in a very complimentary speech. He published a volume of " Essais de Politique et de Litterature," (1859,) " Essais de Politique et de Morale," (1862,) and "Etudes sur les Moralistes Fran9ais," (1864.) He had a great talent for irony and raillery. In June, 1870, he was appointed minister to the United States. He committed suicide at Washington, July 20 of the same year. Pri'am, [Gr. IT/jm^of ; Lat. Pri'amus; Fr. Priam, pRe'SN^,] a fainous king of Troy, in whose reign occurred the siege of Troy, which is the theme of Homer's " Iliad." He was a son of Laomedon, and the father of Hector, Paris, and other heroes. According to Virgil, he was killed by Pyrrhus at the capture of Troy. See the "^neid," book ii. 506-558. Priamus. See Priam. Priape. See Priapus. Pri-a'pus, [Gr. HpiaTrof; Fr. Priape, pRe'tp',] an obscene idol of the Greek and Roman mythology, repre- sented as a son of Bacchus and Venus, and worshipped as the protector of flocks of sheep and goats, of grape- vines and gardens, and as the god of fertility. Price, (David,) an English Orientalist, born in 1762. He served as a major in the army of the East India Company, and published a " Chronological Retrospect ; or, Memoirs of the Principal Events in Mohammedan History from the Death of the Arabian Legislator to the Accession of the Emperor Akbar," (4 vols., i8ii-2i.) Died in 1835. Price, (James,) an English chemist or alchemist, born in 1752. He committed suicide in 1783. Price, (Sir John,) an English or Welsh antiquary, wrote a " Defence of British History," in answer to Polydore Vergil, (1573.) Died about 1553. Price, (John,) an English critic, born in London in 1600. He published commentaries on Scripture. Died in a convent at Rome in 1676. Price, (John,) an English divine, who was chaplain to General Monk, and became rector of Petworth, in Sussex, under the reign of Charles II. He published "The Mystery and Method of his Majesty's Happy Restauration," etc., (London, 1660.) Died in 1691. See "Monk's Contemporaries," by Guizot. Price, (Richard,) an eminent English dissenting min- ister and speculative philosopher, was born at Tynton, in Glamorganshire, in 1723. He was chaplain to Mr. Streathfield, or Streatfield, from 1743 to 1756, after which he preached at Newington Green Chapel and the Gravel-Pit Meeting-House, at Hackney. He married in 1757 a Miss Blundell. He advocated the cause of American liberty in his " Observations on Civil Liberty and the Justice and Policy of the War with America," (1776,) which was a popular work. In 1778 he was in- vited by Congress to become a citizen of the United States ; but he declined. He was an intimate friend of Dr. Franklin and Dr. Priestley. Among his chief works are a "Review of the Principal Questions and Diffi- culties in Morals," (1758,) "Four Dissertations, on Providence, Prayer, the State of Virtuous Men after Death, and Christianity," (1766-68,) and Sermons. Died in London in 1 791. See "Life of R. Price," by W. Morgan, 1815. Price, (Sterling,) an American general, born in Virginia. He emigrated to Missouri, and represented a district of that State in Congress from 1845 to 1847. He was Governor of Missouri from 1853 to 1857, and joined the disunionists in 1861. He served as major-general at Wilson's Creek in August, i86r, took Lexington, Sep- tember 20, and retired to Springfield. He commanded a division at Pea Ridge, March, 1862, and at Corinth, in October of that year. In September, 1864, he entered Southeastern Missouri with an army, made a successful raid to Lexington, and, after several fights, returned by a different route to Arkansas about the end of October. Died in 1867. See a notice of Sterling Price in " Southern Generals," 1865. € as ^; c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^'See Explanations, p, 23. ) PRICE 1840 PRIEUR Price, (Rev. Thomas,) a distinguished Welsh scholar, born at Pencaerelin, near Builth, in 1787. He became vicar of Cwmdu in 1825. He wrote, besides other works, "A Critical Essay on the Language and Literature of Wales," and (in Welsh) a " History of Wales and the Welsh Nation from the Early Ages to the Death of Llewelyn ap Gruffydd," (1836-42,) which is said to be the best work on the subject. Died in 1848. Price, (Sir Uvedale,) an English gentleman, born in Herefordshire in 1747. He made some improvements in landscape-gardening, and wrote a work on that sub- ject, entitled "An Essay on the Picturesque as compared with the Sublime and Beautiful ; and on the Use of Studying Pictures for the Purpose of Improving Real Landscape," (1794.) An enlarged edition was published in 2 vols., 1797. Died in 1829. Price, (William,) an English Orientalist, born in 1780. He went to Persia in 18 10 as secretary of the British embassy. He published a "Grammar of the Hindostanee, Persian, and Arabic Languages," (1823,) and other works. Died in 1830. Prichard, prltch'ard, (James Cowles,) an eminent English ethnologist and physiologist, born at Ross, Herefordshire, in 1785. He graduated as a physician at Edinburgh, and began to practise at Bristol about 1810. In 1813 he published "Researches into the Physical History of Mankind," (i vol.; 3d edition, 5 vols., 1849,) a work of high reputation. He wrote a more popular treatise on the same subject, entitled "The Natural His- tory of Man," (1843.) Among his important works are "The Diseases of the Nervous System," (1822,) "The Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations," (1831,) and a "Treatise on Insanity," (1834.) He removed from Bristol to London in 1845. Died in December, 1848. See Callisen, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon ;" "Lon- don Quarterly Review" for September, 1836; " Eraser's Magazine" for November, 1844. Prichard, prftch'ard, (Rev. Rees,) a Welsh poet, born in Carmarthenshire; died in 1644. Prideaux, prid'o or prid'ux, (Humphrey,) a learned English divine and historian, born at Padstow, in Corn- wall, in 1648. He was educated at Oxford, where he published the inscriptions of the Arundel marbles in 1676. He became prebendary of Norwich in 1681, rector of Bladen in 1683, rector of Saham in 1686, archdeacon of Suffolk in 1688, vicar of Trowse in 1696, and Dean of Norwich in 1702. He opposed the acts of James II. which caused the revolution of 1688. His principal works are "A Life of Mahomet," (1697,) once held in high esteem, but now admitted to be very deficient in impartiality as well as in true historical research, and a " History of the Connection of the Old and New Testa- ment," (6 vols., 1715-17,) which was much esteemed and often reprinted. Died in 1724. See "Life of H. Prideaux," anonymous, 1748; " Biographia Britannica." Prideaux, (John,) an English divine of great learn- ing, was born at Stowford, in Devonshire, in 1578. He became in 161 5 regius professor of divinity at Oxford, canon of Christ Church, and rector of Ewelme. In 1641 he was appointed Bishop of Worcester. He suffered much loss in consequence of his adherence to the royal- ist party in the civil war. He left many works on the- ology, logic, and other subjects. Died in 1650. See Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses." Prierias. See Mazolini. Priessnitz, pRees'nits, (Vincenz,) celebrated as the founder of the system of hydropathy, ( Kalhvasserair, " cold-water cure,") was born at Grafenberg, in Austrian Silesia, in 1799. Having been severely injured by a loaded cart passing over his body, he was enabled to effect a cure by the application of cold water, which he subsequently made use of as a healing agent in various diseases when consulted by his neighbours. In 1826 he opened a hydropathic institution at Grafenberg, which was soon resorted to by invalids from different parts of Germany and other countries of Europe. The fame of his successes became at length so great that the num- ber of his annual guests exceeded one thousand. His system excluded all medicine and stimulants of whatever kind, as well as blistering and depletion in any form. relying only on the various applications of water, abun- dant out-door exercise, wholesome diet, etc. He died in 185 1. The water-cure has been received with favour in the principal countries of Europe, and in the United States. See Dhcken-Himmelreich, "V. Priessnitz und die Wassercur." 1845; Selinger, "Vincenz Priessnitz," 1852. Priestley, preest'le, (Joseph,) an eminent English philosopher, chemist, and theologian, was born at Field- head, near Leeds, on the 13th of March, 1733. He studied at a dissenting academy at Daventry about three years, (1752-55,) and became' versed in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. At an early age he admitted doubts re- specting some doctrines of the orthodox creed, though he had been educated as a Calvinist. He preached to a small company of dissenters at Needham-Market from 1755 to 1758, and then removed to Nantwich, Cheshire. In 1 761 he became tutor of languages and belles-lettres in the academy of Warrington, and published "The Scripture Doctrine of Remission," in which he rejects the dogma of the atonement. During a visit to London he formed an acquaintance with Dr. Franklin, who encouraged him to write a "His- tory of Electricity." He published in 1767 a work with this title, which was favourably received. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1766. In 1767 he took charge of a dissenting congregation at Leeds, where he wrote several works on theology and found recreation in experiments on pneumatic chemistry. He obtained in 1773 the Copley medal for his "Observations on Dif- ferent Kinds of Air." He discovered the effect of respi- ration on the blood, and the tendency of vegetation to restore to vitiated air its vivifying principle. He also discovered nitrous gas, muriatic gas, and oxygen, which he called " dephlogisticated air." He obtained the last in 1774 from red precipitate of mercury. "As a physicist and chemist," says Cuvier, "the talents of Priestley were of the first order. His researches and writings have contributed much to the progress of the science." He published in 1772-74 "Institutes of Natural and Revealed Religion." He was librarian and literary companion of the Earl of Shelburne from 1773 to 1780, during which period he published "Experiments and Observations on Air," (5 vols., 1774-80,) a "Defence of Socinianism," and other works. In 1780 he settled at Birmingham as minister of the principal dissenting con- gregation. He incurred public odium by the heterodox and liberal opinions expressed in his " History of the Corruptions of Christianity," (1782,) "Familiar Letters to the Inhabitants of Birmingham," (1790,) and "Reply to Burke's Reflections on the French Revolution," (i 791.) In July, 1 79 1, his house was attacked and set on fire by a mob, who inflicted great damage on his library, appa> ratus, etc., while he and his family escaped by flight. For the sake of a more tranquil life, he emigrated with his wife and children in 1794 to Northumberland, Penn- sylvania, where he was coldly received, especially by the Anti-Gallican party. Died in February, 1804. See John Corrv, "Life of Priestley," 1805; "Autobiographic Memoirs," 1806; Cuvier, " filoge de Priestley," 1805: Thomson, " Annals of Philosophy," vol. i., 1813 ; J. P. Smith, "Discourse on the Death of J. Priestley," 1805: English translation of Cuvier's eulogy, in the " Smithsonian Report" for 1858, page 138 ; Dr. Hohfer, " Histoire de la Chimie;" T. Belsham, "discourse on the Death of Joseph Priestley;" Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors ;" " Nou- velle Biographie Generale ;" "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1806, (by Jeffrey;') "Monthly Review" for August, October, and December, 1767, et seq. Prieur, pre'UR', (Barth^lemy,) a French sculptor and Huguenot. His chief work was a monument to Constable Anne de Montmorency. Died in 1611. Prieur de laMarne, pRe'uR'deh It mtun, a French revolutionist and lawyer, born in Champagne about 1760. He was an active democratic member of the Convention, and voted for the death of the king. In June, 1794, he became a member of the committee of public safety. Died at Brussels in 1827. Prieur-Duvernois, pRe'uR' dii'v^R'nwS', (Claude Antoine,) a French republican, born at Auxonne in 1763. He was chosen a member of the Convention in 1792, and of the committee of ])ublic safety in 1793. He is said to have shared with his friend Carnot the honour of having organized victory. The reform which a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fJt; mlx.\ n6t; good: moon; PRIEUR 1841 PRIOLO rendered weights and measures uniform in France is ascribed mostly to him. Died in 1832. Prieur, Le, leh pRe''uR', (Philippe,) a French scholar, born at Saint-Vaast, published a work " On Canonical Letters," (" De Literis canonicis," 1675.) Died in 1680. Priezac, de, deh pRe'ztk', (Daniel,) a French advo- cate and writer on law, politics, etc., was born in Bas- Limousin in 1590. He was a member of the French Academy. Died in 1662. His son Solomon was author of numerous works, among which is a " History of Ele- phants," (1650.) Prilesky, pRe-l§s'kee, (John Baptist,) a Jesuit, born in Hungary in 1 709. He wrote several works, among which is " Account of the Holy Fathers who flourished in the Two First Centuries," ("Notitia SS. Patrum qui duobus primis Seculis floruerunt," 1753.) Prim, pR^m, (Juan,) Count de Reus and Marquis de los Castillejos, a Spanish general, born in Catalonia about 1814. He took arms against Espartero in 1843, and acted with the party of Progresistas. In 1859 or i860 he obtained command of a division of the army sent against Morocco, and was rewarded for his services at Marabout with the title of Marquis de los Castillejos, He commanded the Spanish army which co-operated with the French and British in the invasion of Mexico in 1861, and returned to Spain in 1862. He was a leader of the insurgents who deposed Queen Isabel in Septem- ber, 1868, and he became in the next November minister of war and commander-in-chief of the army of Spain. Prim and Serrano were the most powerful and promi- nent members of the provisional government formed by the insurgents ; and the former was the virtual dictator of Spain in 1869-70. He was assassinated, December, 1870. Primaticcio, pRe-mS-t^t'cho, [Fr. Le Primatice, leh pRe'mt't^ss',] (Francesco,) an Italian painter, sculp- tor, and architect, born at Bologna in 1490. He studied design under Innocenzio da Imola, Bagnacavallo, and Giulio Romano. In 1531 he went to France, and was employed by Francis 1. to adorn the chateau of Fon- tainebleau, in which he painted a number of large frescos. Among these were pictures of scenes from the "Odys- sey," which were much admired. He was patronized by Henry II. and Francis II. Died at Paris in 1570. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Bolognini-Amorini, "Vita del Pittore F. Pri- maticcio," 1838; FoNTENAY, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." Primatice, Le. See Primaticcio. Prime, (Samuel IreN/^:us,) D.D., an American Pres- byterian divine, born in Saratoga county. New York, in 1812. He became editor of the " New York Observer" in 1840. He has published "Travels in Europe and the East," (2 vols., 1855,) "The Power of Prayer," (1859,) and various other works. Prime, (William Cowper,) a lawyer, a brother of the preceding, was born in Washingtcjn county. New York, in 1825. He has published, among other works, "The Old House by the River," ( 1853,)' " Boat-Life in Egypt and Nubia," (1857,) and "Tent-Life in the Holy Land," (1857.) Primerose or Primrose, prlm'roz, (Gilbert,) an ecclesiastic, born in Scotland. He became chaplain to the king, and canon of Windsor. Died in 1643. Primerose, (James,) a physician, a son of the pre- ceding, was born at Bordeaux. He j^ractised in York- shire, and wrote several medical works, which are commended. Died about 1660. Pri'mus, ( Marcus Antontus,) a Roman general, born at Tolosa, (Toulouse,) in Gaul. He raised an army for Vespasian in 69 a.d., and gained victories over the troops of Vitellius at Verona, Bedriacum, and Rome. Prince, (Henry,) an American officer, born at East- port, Maine, in 181 1, fought with distinction in the Mexican war, and was made brigadier-general of volun- teers in the United States army in 1862. Prince, (John,) an English biographer, born at Ax- minsttr in 1643, was vicar of Totness. He wrote "The Worthies of Devon," (1710.) Died in 1723. Prince, (Oliver H.,) an American jurist and United States Senator from Georgia, perished in the wreck of the steamboat Home in 1837. Prince, (Thomas,) an American divine, born in New England in 1687, was the author of several historical and religious works. Died in 1758. Prince de Beaumont. See Le Prince. Prince, Le. See Le Prince. Pringle, pring'g'l, (Sir John,) a British physician, born in Roxburghshire, Scotland, in 1707. He studied at Leyden and in Paris, settled in Edinburgh about 1734, and became physician to the Earl of vStair, who was commander of the army on the continent, in 1742. In 1743 he was appointed chief physician to the army in Flanders. He held this office until the peace of 1748, after which he resided in London. He gained a Euro- pean reputation by a valuable work "On the Diseases of the Army," (1752.) In 1763 he was appointed phy- sician to the queen. He was elected president of the Royal Society in 1772, and became physician-extraor- dinary to George III. in 1774. In 1778 he succeeded Linnaeus as member of the Academy of Sciences of Paris. He corresponded with the most eminent scien- tific men of Europe. Among his works was a treatise entitled "Experiments on Septic and Antiseptic Sub- stances," (1750,) which obtained the Copley medal. Died in 1782. See A. Kippis, "Life of Sir John Pringle," 1783; Condorcet, "filoge de Pringle :" Vicq-d'Azvr, " filoge de J. Pringle," 1787; "Biograpliie Medicale ;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Pringle, (Thomas,) a meritorious Scottish poet, born at Blaiklaw, in Teviotdale, in January, 1789. During his infancy an accident occurred which compelled him to use crutches for life. He wrote in 1816 "The Au- tumnal Excursion," a poem, which procured for him the friendship of Sir Walter .Scott. In 181 7 he united with Lockhart, Wilson, and others in founding the " Edin- burgh Monthly Magazine," of which for a short time he was the editor. During his connection with it the name was changed to "Blackwood's Magazine." He emigrated in 1820 to the Cape of Good Hope, where he edited the " South African Journal" and founded an academy. His success having been hindered by the enmity of the governor, he returned to England in 1826, and published a very interesting " Narrative of a Resi- dence in South Africa." He wrote a number of poems, which are admired for elegance. Died in 1834. See L. Ritchie, " Life of Thomas Pringle," prefixed to his Poems ; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Snp- plement ;) J. Conuer, " Biographical Sketch of T. Pringle," 1835. Prins, pRins, (J. H.,) a Dutch painter, born at the Hague in 1758 or 1759. He painted views of the in- teriors of cities. Died about 1805. Prin'sep, (Charles Robert,) an English political economist, born about 1788, published an "Essay on Money," (1818,) and translated Say's " Political Econ- omy" from the French. Died in 1864. Prinsep, (Henry Thohy,) an English Orientalist, born in 1792, was a son of John Prinsep, M.P., of Lon- don. He entered the civil service of the East India Company, and became a director of the same in 1849. Prinsep, (James,) an eminent English Orientalist, born in 1800. He entered the service of the East India Company in his youth, passed some years at Benares as assay-master, and wrote "Sketches of Benares." Having removed to Calcutta, he became in 1832 editor of the " Journal of the Asiatic Society," for which he wrote valuable articles on chemistry, Indian coins, and Indian antiquities. He succeeded H. H. Wilson as secretary of the Asiatic Society in 1832. He made some important discoveries in the history of India by the aid of inscriptions, which he deciphered, and which had baffled other antiquaries. He died at sea, during a voyage to England, in 1840. Printz, pidnts, ( Wolfgang Caspar, ) a German composer, born in the Palatinate in 1641. He published a "Historical Description of Song and Music," (1690.) and other works. Died at Sorau in 1 717. Priolo, pReVlo', or Prioli, pRe'o'le', (Benjamin,) a French historian, of Italian extraction, was born in Saintonge in 1602. He wrote, in Latin, a " History (^f France from the Death of Louis XIII.," (1662,) which is praised by Bayle. Died in 1667. See J. Rhodius, "De Vita B. Prioli," 1672. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2[^='See Explanations, p. 23.) 116 PRIOR 1842 PROCJCCINI Pri'pr, (Sir James,) an English biographer and sur- geon, born in 1790, served many years in the navy. He wrote a "Life of Edmund Burke," (1824,) regarded as the best life of that great statesman that has yet appeared, <»nd a *' Life of Oliver Goldsmith," (1836.) Died in 1869. See Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." Prior, (Matthew,) an English poet and diplomatist, was born in Dorsetshire on the 2 1st of July, 1664. He was educated, at the expense of the Earl of Dorset, in Saint John's College, Cambridge, where he was ad- mitted to his bachelor's degree in 1686, and obtained a Fellowship. To ridicule Dryden's " Hind and Panther," Prior and Charles Montague wrote a poem entitled "The City Mouse and Country Mouse," (1687.) About 1690 he was initiated into public business as secretary to the embassy which was sent to the Congress of the Hague. He was secretary to the embassy which nego- tiated the treaty of Ryswick, in 1697, and under-secretary of state for a short time in 1699. In 1700 he produced "Carmen Seculare," a poetical panegyric on William III., which Johnson calls "one of his most splendid compositions." He entered Parliament in 1701, and, deserting the Whigs, joined the Tory party, which, having attained power, sent Prior to Paris privately with propositions of peace in July, 171 1. He was accredited as ambassador at Paris in August, 17 13, and obtained the reputation of a skilful diplomatist. The Whigs, having come into power, recalled him in August, 1714, and charged him with treason. He was imprisoned about two years, (during which he wrote " Alma," a poem,) and was then released without trial. He died at Wimpole in September, 1721. Among his poems are " Solomon," an " Ode on the Battle of Ramillies," ( 1 706,) and several tales. " Prior has written with great variety," says Dr. Johnson, " and his variety has made him popu- lar. . . . If his poetry be generally considered, his praise will be that of correctness and industry rather than of compass of comprehension or activity of fancy. He never made any effort of invention." See Johnson, " Lives of the Poets ;" Campbell, " Specimens of the British Poets;" " Biographia Britannica ;" Thackeray, "The English Humourists;" " North British Review" for November, 1857. Pri'or, (Thomas,) an Irishman, noted for public spirit, was born at Rathdowney, Queens county, in 1679. He founded the Royal Dublin Society, and published " A List of Absentees, with Observations on Trade," etc., (1729.) Died in 1751. Priscian, prish'e-an, [Lat. Priscia'nus ; Fr. Pris- CIEN, pRe'se4,N',] a distinguished Roman grammarian, is supposed to have been a Christian, and native of Gaesarea. He taught grammar at Constantinople about 525 A.D., and left several works, which are extant. His work " De Arte Grammatica," or " Conimentaria Gram- matica," is the most complete and philosophic treatise on that subject that has come down to us from antiquity. Its value is enhanced by many quotations from works which are lost. See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Latina ;" Bahr, " Geschichte der Rbmischen Literatur." Priscianus. See Priscian. Priscien. See Priscian. Pris-cil'li-an, [Lat. Priscillia'nus ; Fr. Prtsctl- LIEN, pRe'se'le^N',] a Spanish ecclesiastic, born near Corduba, (Cordova,) is said to have professed the doc- trines of the Gnostics and Manicheans. He was charged with heresy and beheaded by Maximus about 385 a.d. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale." Priscillianus. See Priscilltan. Priscillien. See Priscillian. Pris'cus, [Gr. Up'iaKoc,] an able Byzantine historian, born at Panium, in Thrace. He was sent by Theodosius on an embassy to Attila in 445 a.d. He wrote an account of this embassy, and of the life of Attila, frag- ments of which are extant. His style is commended, and his history is esteemed for veracity. Died about 470 a.d. See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grseca." Priscus, (C. LuTORius,) a Roman poet, composed a poem on the death of Germanicus, which was very popu- lar. Died about 21 a.d. Priscus, (Helvidius,) a Roman senator, distinguished for his love of liberty and his boldness of speech. He was banished by Nero in 66 A.D., and became prietor in 70, soon after which he was put to death by Vespasian. Priscus, (Tarquinius.) See Tarquinius. Pritch'ard, (Andrev^,) an English naturalist and microscopist of the present century. He published a number of valuable works, among which are "The Mi- croscopic Cabinet," (1832,) a " Natural History of Ani- malcules," (1834,) " Micrographia : Essays on Micro- scopes," (1837,) and a " History of Infusoria, Living and Fossil," (1841 ; 4th edition, 1861.) Pritz, pRits, (JoHANN Georg,) a German Lutheran minister, born at Leipsicin 1662. He preached at Leip- sic, Zerbst, and Frankfort, and published several works Died in 1732. Proaeresius, pro-e-ree'she-us, [Gr. UpoaLpeato^,] a teacher of rhetoric, born in Armenia about 275 a.d. He taught at Athens with a high reputation. Died about 365 A.D. Pro'bus, (Marcus Aurelius,) an excellent Roman emperor, born at Sirmium about 235 A.D. He served with distinction in the armies of Valerian and succeeding emperors, in Egypt, Arabia, Persia, and Germany. He received the command of all the legions in the East from Tacitus, at whose death, in 276 A.D., Probus was pro- claimed emperor by his army. The senate confirmed their choice. He defeated the Germans in Gaul, and his rivals Saturninus, Proculus, and Bonosus. He was killed by mutinous soldiers in 282 A.D., and left a very high reputation for virtue and ability. It is said that he had offended his troops by the expression of a hope that the time was near when armies would be no longer necessary. See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Aure- lius Victor, "De Csesaribus" and " Epitome." Probus, (Marcus Valerius,) a Roman grammarian, born at Berytus, (Beyroot,) lived in the first century of our era. He is identified by some with the Probus of the next article. Probus, (Valerius,) an eminent Roman grammarian, who flourished probably about 100 a.d. He wrote a commentary on Virgil, often cited by Servius, and other works. Procaccini, pRo-kit-chee'nee, (Andrea,) an Italian painter, born in Rome about 1675. He became painter to the King of Spain in 1720. Died in Spain in 1734. Procaccini, (Camillo,) a painter, born at Bologna in 1545 or 1546, was a son and pupil of Ercole the Elder. He was remarkable for facility and for fecundity of in- vention. "He had," says Lanzi, "a simplicity, grace, and spirit which charm the eye, if they do not always satisfy the judgment." Among his works are a fresco of " The Last Judgment," at Reggio, and an oil-picture of "Saint Rocco curing the Sick." Died in 1626. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ticozzi, " Dizio- nario." Procaccini, (Carlo Antonio,) a painter, was a younger brother of the preceding. He painted land- scapes, fruits, and flowers with success. Some of his works are dated 1605. Procaccini, (Ercole,) the Elder, a painter, born at Bologna in 1520, was the father of the preceding. His style was accurate and free from mannerism, but his design was rather minute. Among his disciples were Sabbatini, Bertoja, his three sons, and other eminent artists. He was living in 1591. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Procaccini, (Ercole,) the Younger, a son of Carlo Antonio, was born at Milan in 1596. He was an able painter of flowers and history. Died in 1676. Procaccini, (Giulio Cesare,) a brother of Camillo, noticed above, was born at Bologna in 1548, and was the ablest painter of the family. He was one of the best imitators of the style of Correggio. Among his works are a " Virgin and Child" and " The Passage of the Red Sea." His design was correct, his composition inge- nious, and his style noble, or grandiose. He worked mostly at Milan, where he died in 1626. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ticozzi, "Dizio- narlo." a, €, T, 6, u, y, /on^^; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, s/tort; a, e, i, 9, obscure; filr, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; P ROC ID A PROKOPOVITCH Procida, di, de pRo'che-da, (Giovanni,) an Italian conspirator, born at Salerno about 1225, was a partisan of the house of Hohenstaufen. He entered the service of Pedro of Aragon, and was engaged in intrigues or conspiracies against Charles of Anjou, who had made hin:iself master of Sicily. He is said to have l>een the master-spirit of that massacre of the French called the Sicilian Vespers, (March 30, 1282.) Died after 1302. See N. BuscEMi, *' Saggio della Vita di Giovanni di Procida," 1836; Amari, " La Guerra del Vespro Siciliano;" " Nouvelle Bio- graphic Gen^rale." Pro-cil'li-us, a Roman historian, was a contemporary of Cicero. His works are not extant. Pro'cles, flTpo/cA^f,] a skilful Greek engraver of medals, whose period is unknown. His name is found on coins of Naxos and Catana. Pro'clus, [Gr. Ilpo/t/lof ; Ger. Pro'khjs,] an eminent Greek philosopher of the Neo-Platonic schdol, was born at Constantinople in 412 a.d., and was surnamed DiA- DOCHUS, ("the Successor.") He studied under Hero and Olympiodorus at Alexandria, and under Plutarchus at Athens, where he afterwards succeeded Syrianus as the head of the Neo-Platonic school. He was very deficient in judgment. Among his numerous works are a treatise " On the Sphere," commentaries on the '* Parmenides" and "Timaeus" of Plato, a treatise against the Chris- tians, and " Institutio Theologica," (l^TOixduGiq Qeo'koytKT],) all of which are extant, (except part of the commentary on the "Timaeus.") He died in 485 a.d. According to the extravagant estimate of M. Cousin, all the philo- sophic rays which emanated from Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, etc. were concentrated in Proclus. See Brucu;er, " History of Philosophy ;" Rittrr, " History of Plulosophy ;" Tennemann, " Geschichte der Philosophic;" " Nou- velle Biographic Gen^rale." Proclus, Saint, was Patriarch of Constantinople from 434 A.L/. until his death, in 446. He left homilies and epistles, which are extant. Proc'ne, [Gr. YipoKvt]; Fr. Progn^:, pRog'n^',] a- daughter of Pandi'on, King of Athens, a sister of Philo- mela, and wife of Tereus. She was said to have been changed into a swallow. Procope. See Procopius. Procope-Couteau, pRo'kop' koo'to', a French phy- sician and comic author, born in Paris in 1684. His real name was Michel Coltelli. Died in 1753. Pro-co'pl-us, a Roman general, born in Cilicia. He aspired to supreme power in the East in 363 a.d., and waged war against Valens, by whom he was put to death in 366. Pro-co'pl-us, [Gr. UpoKomo^ ; Fr. Procope, pRo'- kop',] an eminent Byzantine historian, born at Caesarea, in Palestine, about 495 a.d. He became in 527 a.d. secretary to Belisarius, whom he attended in his cam- paigns against the Persians, the Vandals, (in Africa,) and the Goths. In the Gothic war he had a high com- mand in the navy. He returned to Constantinople about 541 A.D., and obtained the favour of Justinian, who ap- pointed him a senator and in 562 prefect of the capital. The question whether he was a Christian or a Pagan has been disputed by many modern writers. His principal work is a " History of his Own Times," in eight books, which is highly esteemed for veracity. His style is com- mended for vigour and elegance. There is extant a secret and scandalous history of the Byzantine court, entitled 'Ave/c(Wa, which is ascribed to him ; but his authorship is doubted. Died about 565 a.d. See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Graeca;" Cavr, " Historia Lite- raria;" Hankius, " Scriptores Byzantini;" "Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale." Procopius, (Anthemius.) See Anthemtus. Procopius, (Demetrius,) a biographer, born at Mos- copolis, in Macedonia, lived about 1730. He wrote, in Greek, a series of biographies of Greek scholars of the seventeenth century, which is commended. It was published by Fabricius in 1722 in his "Bibliotheca Grffica." Procopius OF Gaza, a biblical commentator, flour- ished about 550 A.D. Pro-oo'pl-us Ra'sa, an able Bohemian general, suc- ceeded Ziska in 1424 as the leader of the Hussites or Taborites. He defeated the Austrians in a number of battles, and ravaged Moravia, Austria, and Saxony. In 143 1 he routed an imperial army which had invaded Bohemia. He was killed in battle in 1434. Pro-criis'tes, [Gr. UpoKovGrriQ ; Fr. Procruste, pRo'- kRiist',] {i.e. "the Stretcher,") a surname of Damastes or Polypemon, a famous robber, who compelled his captives to lie on a bed, and made them coincide with it in length by cutting off their legs or stretching them in case they were too long or too short. He was killed by Theseus. Proc'ter, (Adelaide Anne,) an English poetess, born in London in 1825, was a daughter of Bryan Waller Procter. She became in 1853 ^ contributor to " Household Words" and " All the Year Round," and published in 1858 "Legends and Lyrics." A second volume of "Legends and Lyrics" came out in 1861. Died in 1864. See an article, by Charles Dickens, in the "Atlantic Monthly" for December, 1865. Procter, (Bryan Waller,) an English poet, who wrote under the assumed name of Barry Cornwall, was born about 1790. He studied law, and was called to the bar in 1831. He acquired distinction by a volume entitled "Dramatic Scenes, and other Poems," (i8ig.) His tragedy of " Mirandola" (1821) was performed with success. Among his other works are "The Flood of Thessaly," " English Songs, and other Small Poems," (1832,) "Essays and Tales in Prose," (1851,) and "Charles Lamb: a Memoir," (1866.) His songs have obtained much popularity. See "Edinburgh Review" for January and November, 1820; "Blackwood's Magazine" for March, 1820, and May, 1823. Proc-u-le'lus, (Caius,) a Roman knight, was an in- timate friend of Octavian, (Augustus.) After the battle of Actium he was sent by the victor to Antony and Cleopatra. He is mentioned favourably by Horace, (Carm. ii. 2.) Proc'u-lus, an eminent Roman jurist, was a contem- porary of Nerva. He gave his name to a school or sect, (Proculiani or Proculani.) Among the jurists cited in the Digest he is the second in order of time. Proculus, a Roman officer, who attempted to usurp imperial power in Gaul in 280 A.D. He was defeated by Probus, and put to death. Prod'i-cus, [ITpoc^^/cof,] an eloquent Greek Sophist or philosopher, born in Ceos, lived about 430 B.C. He lectured at Athens and other places. Among his pupils or auditors were Isocrates, Euripides, and perhaps Soc- rates. He was accused of atheism without sufficient evidence. He wrote a beautiful apologue entitled "The Choice of Hercules," an outline or abridgment of which has been preserved by Xenophon. See Xenophon, "Memorabilia;" Hummel, "Dissertatio his- torica de Prodico Sophista," 1847; Plato, " Protagoras^ " Progn^. See Procne. Proetides, pr§t'e-d6z, the daughters of Proetus, King of Argolis or Argos, were named Lysippe, Iphinoe, and Iphianassa. According to the fable, they became insane and imagined that they were cows. Proetus, pree'tus, [Gr. Tipdlrog,] a king of Argos, was a twin-brother of Acrisius, by whom he was defeated in a contest for the throne. He afterwards recovered a share of the kingdom, by the aid of Jobates. He is said to have given Melampus a part of his kingdom for curing his daughter of insanity. Prokesch-Osten, von, fon pRo'kSsh os'ten, (Anton,) Baron, an Austrian diplomatist, general, and able writer, born at Gratz, in Styria, in 1795. He was sent as am- bassador to Athens in 1834, to Berlin in 1849, and to Constantinople in 1855. He published "Memoirs and Souvenirs of the Orient," (1836,) which is said to be a work of much merit. Died in 1867. Proklus. See Proclus. Prokne. See Procne. Prokofief or Prokophief, pro-ko'fe-?f, (Ivan Pro- kofievitch,) a Russian sculptor, born in Saint Peters- burg in 1758, was a pupil of Julien, of Paris. He worked with success at his native place. Died in 1828. Pro-ko'po-vitch, (Theophanes,) a Russian prelate, born at Kiev in 1681. He became Bishop of Pskof in 1 71 5, and composed, at the request of Peter the Great, € as k; 9 as j; g hard; g as/; g, h, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; § as z; %h as in this. (2i:JP"See Explanations, p. 23.) PROMETHEE PROTOGENE an ecclesiastical code, in which priests are treated as employees of the civil power. Died in 1736. See TcHisTOViTCH, "Theophane Prokopovitch et Theophilacte Lopatinski," i86i. Promethee. See Prometheus. Pro-me'the-us, [Gr. Upo/n/dsv^ ; Fr. Prom^fh^e, pRo'mi'ta',] a personage of the Greek mythology, was a son of lapetus. According to one tradition, he stole fire from heaven, for which offence Jupiter chained him to a rock or pillar, and an eagle daily devoured his liver, which was nightly restored, ^schylus represents him as an immortal being, a benefactor of men, the giver of fire, and a heroic sufferer, who was oppressed by the power of Jupiter, but maintained an inflexible spirit until he was liberated by Hercules, His name signifies "forethought." Some authors relate that he created a man out of clay and animated him with fire which he stole from heaven, and that he was the husband of Pan- dora. (See ^schylus, " Prometheus Bound.") See, also, Lassaulx, "Prometheus; die Sage uiid ihr Sinn," 1843. Pro-mo'tus, {^Elius,) a physician of Alexandria, whose period is unknown. It is supposed that he lived before the Christian era. Some of his works are extant in manuscript. Prompsault, pr6n's5', (Jean Henri Romain,) a French ecclesiastical writer, born at Montelimart in 1798.' He published a "Dictionary of Canon Law," and several works on grammar. Died in 1858. Prony, de, deh pRo'ne', (Gaspard Clair FRANgois Marie Riche,) a French mathematician and engineer, born at Chamelet (Rhone) in July, 1755. He was ap- pointed in 1 791 director of the Cadastre, and received an order to compose logarithms or mathematical tables adapted to the decimal division of the circle, a work of great labour and utility. In 1791 he was appointed chief engineer of bridges and causeways. He became about 1794 professor of mechanics in the Polytechnic School, a member of the Bureau of Longitudes, and a member of the Institute. In 1 798 he was invited by Bonaparte to join the expedition to Egypt, but declined. He received the title of baron in 1S28, and became a peer of France in 1835. Among his principal works are "Hydraulic Architecture," (2 vols., 1790-96,) "Philosophical Me- chanics," (1800,) "Lectures on Analytical Mechanics," (1810,) and a " Hydrographic and Statistical Description of the Pontine Marshes," (1823,) which is a work of much merit. He wrote a number of articles for the "Biographic Universelle." Died in 1839. See Arago, " Notices biographiques," tome iii. ; " filoge de Prony," by C. Dupin ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Properce. See Propertius. Propertius, pro-per'she-us, [Fr. Properce, pRo'- plRss'; It. Properzio, pRo^^Rt'se-o,] (Sextus Aure- Lius,) an eminent Roman elegiac poet, born in Umbria about 50 B.C. He informs us that he was born in Umbria, on the border of Etruria. His paternal estate was confis- cated by Octavius because his father had been a partisan of Antony, He began early to write poetry, became a resi- dent of Rome, and obtained the patronage of Maecenas. His life appears to have been that of "a man of wit and pleasure about town." His career as a poet was influenced by a passion for Cynthia, a poetess and lady of superior talents, who furnished a theme for his early elegies. He chose Callimachus as his model, and be- came a rather pedantic imitator of the Greeks. His style is censured as too artificial. Both ancient and modern critics, however, assign to him a high rank as a poet. He enjoyed the friendship of Ovid. The time of his death is unknown. Four books of elegies are the only works of Propertius that are now extant, A cor- rect English version of his first book was published anonymously in 1781. Among the best editions of the text is that of Lachmann, (Leipsic, 1816,) See "Vita Propertii," in Lachmann's edition, 1816 ; Gillet de MoiVRE, "La Vie et les Amours de Properce," 1744; "Nouvelle i iographie Generale ;" " Westminster Review" for January, 1854. Properzio, See Propertius. Piopiac, de, deh pro'pe'tk', (Catherine Joseph Ferdinand Girard,) a French littirateu}-, born at Dijon in 1759; died in 1823. Pros'er-pine, [Gr. Il£poe(j)6v7], ( Perseph^one ;) Fr Proserpine, pRo'z^R'p^n'; Lat. Proserpi'na,] the goddess and queen of the infernal regions, was said to have been a daughter of Jupiter and Ceres, and the wife of Pluto. The poets feigned that as she was gather- ing flowers near Enna she was abducted by Pluto ; that Ceres, not knowing what had become of her, searched for her with torches in all parts of the earth for nine days ; that Helios revealed the secret of her abduction ; that Jupiter, induced by the importunity of Ceres, re- quested Pluto to restore her, and that Pluto consented that she should spend two-thirds of the year with the gods above, and the other third in the lower world. Later writers say that she was to pass the half of her time in Hades and the other half in the regions of light. She is supposed to be a symbol of vegetation, and of the creative and destructive power of heat. Prosper, pRos'paiR', surnamed Aquita'nus, ("of Aquitaine,") a theologian, born at Bordeaux, in Gaul, about 404 a.d. He was a zealous opponent of the Semi- Pelagians, and wrote in defence of the doctrines of Saint Augustine, His works, among which are some poems, are still extant. Died after 463 a.d. Pros'per Ti'ro or Ty'ro, a poet, who is often con- founded with Prosper Aquitanus, was born in Gaul, and lived about 400 a.d. He wrote a " Poem of a Husband to his Wife," (" Poema Conjugis ad Uxorem,") Prost, pRo, (Claude,) Baron, a French general, born at Auxonne in 1764; died in 1834, Prost de Royer, pRo deh rw§,'yi^ (Antoine Fran- cois,) a French jurist, born at Lyons in 1729; died in 1784. Pro-tag'o-ras, [Gr, TlpijiTaybpa^ ; Fr. Protagore, pRo'tt'goR^,] an eminent Greek philosopher and Sophist, born at Abdera, in Thrace, flourished about 440 B.c, He is said to have been a pupil of Democritus ; but this is doubted by some, because Protagoras was probably older than his supposed master. According to Plato and Diogenes, he was the first who adopted the name of Sophist and taught for pay. He taught oratory at Athens and other cities. He was banished from Athens because he said that he did not know whether the gods existed or not. His works, which treated on ethics, physics, etc., are lost, but his peculiar doctrines are ex- plained in the " Theaetetus" of Plato. He reached the age of seventy or more, and died about 410 B.C. It was a maxim of Protagoras that "man is the measure of the universe or of all things, and that whatever he judges to be true is true," Cicero says, " Putet id cuique verum esse quod cuique videatur," (" Quaestiones Academicae,") See Plato's dialogue entitled " Protagoras ;" Grote, " Plato and the other Companions of Socrates," 3 vols., 1865; Herbst, " Des Protagoras Leben und Sophistik," etc., 1832; J. Frei, "Quaestiones Protagoreas," Bonn, 1845; Vitring.a, " Disquisitio de Protagorae Vita et Philosophia," 1S53; C. Mallet, " fitudes philosophiques," tome ii. ; Grote, " History of Greece," chap. Ixvii. Protagore. See Protagoras, Protain, pRo't&N', (Jean Constantin,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1769. He was employed in Egypt in 1798-99 as architect to the .commission of arts and sciences, and became a member of the Institute of Cairo in 1801. Died in 1837. Protee. See Proteus, Protet, pRo'ti', (Auguste Leopold,) a French rear- admiral, born at Saint-Servan about 1810. He was Governor of Senegal from 1850 to 1855, during which period he made an exploration of that region. He was killed in a battle against the Taepingsof China, in 1862, Pro'te-us, [Gr, np«Tfi;f; Fr, Prot6e, pRo'ta',] a divinity of the Greek mythology, was sometimes called a son of Neptune and a king of Egypt, He was repre- sented as a prophetic old man, who lived in the sea and could foretell future events, but eluded those who seized and importuned him to prophesy, by transforming him- self into a great variety of shapes. If his efforts to escape were baffled, he resumed his original or usual form and revealed his secret knowledge. His occupation was to tend the flocks of seals or sea-calves belonging to Neptune. See Homer, "Odyssey," book iv. ; Virgil, "Georgics," book iv. 387-529- Protogene. See Protogenes. a, e, 1, 6, u, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, sAor^; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; PROTOGENES PR US US Pro-tog'e-nes, [Gr, npoToyevTjg ; Fr. Pro togenk, pRo'to'zhin',] a Greek painter of great celebrity, was a native of Caunus, in Caria. He flourished about 332 B.C., was a contemporary of Apelles, and lived mostly at Rhodes. The name of his master is not known. His advancement in fame and fortune was retarded by his modesty, until Apelles visited Rhodes and purchased, at the enormous price of fifty talenis each, several of his pictures, which he proposed to sell as his own works. (See Apelles.) In the opinion of some, Protogenes carried the elaboration of his works to a fault ; but Cicero speaks of his works as perfect in every respect. His master-piece was a picture of lalysus, on which he is said to have expended seven years. One of the ad- mirable parts of this picture was the foam at the mouth of a hound, " which," says Pliny, " he produced, after many vain efforts, by throwing a sponge at the place, under the impulse of vexation or despair." See Pliny, "Natural History," book xxxv. ; Suidas, "Proto- genes;" K. O. MuLLER, " Archaologie der Kunst." Proudhon, pRoo'ddN', sometimes written Prudhon, (Jean Baptiste Victor,) a French jurist, born in Franche-Comte in 1758. He was for many years pro- fessor of law at Dijon. He published, besides other works, an excellent treatise on the laws of Usufruct, etc., "Traite des Droits d'Usufruit, d'Usage, d'Habita- tion et de Superficie," (9 vols., 1823-25,) said to be the best work on that subject. Died in 1838. See Lorain, " filoge historique de M. Proudhon," 1839; J. Cu- RASSON, "Eloge de M. Proudhon," 1839. Proudhon, (Pierre Joseph,) a French socialist and political writer, born at Besan9on in 1809. In 1848 he became editor of "The Representative of the People," and was elected to the Constituent Assembly. He made a motion which a large majority of the Assembly rejected as "an odious attack on public morality and subversive of the rights of property." He published several works on social and political economy. In his essay entitled "What is Property.''" ("Qu'est-ce que la Propriete .''") he affirms that "property is robbery," ("La propriete, c'est le vol.") Died in 1S65. See J. Vrau, "Proudhon et son ficonomie politique," 1853 ; Qu^RARD, " La France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Geu^- rale;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for March, 1849. Proust, pRoo, (Louis Joseph,) a French chemist, born at Angers about 1760. He was admitted into the Institute in 1816. He contributed many memoirs on chemistry to various periodicals, and distinguished him- self as a supporter of the theory of equivalents or definite proportions. Died in 1826. Prousteau, pRoo'to', (Guillaume,) a French jurist, born at Tours in 1628. He founded a public library at Orleans, and wrote legal works. Died in 171 5. Prout, Father, the assumed name of Francis Ma- Honey. (See Mahoney.) Prout, prowt, (Samuel,) a skilful English painter of architecture, scenery, etc., was born at Plymouth in 1783. He published about 1816 "Views in the North and West of England," "Rudiments of Landscape," and other successful works. He acquired distinction as a painter in water-colours, a delineator of mediaeval archi- tecture, and a lithographer. After a tour on the conti- nent, he published lithographic " Fac-Similes of Sketches made in Flanders and Germany," and " Sketches in France, Switzerland, and Italy," (1839.) Died in 1852. Ruskin pronounces him " a very great man, who, though, partly by chance and partly by choice, limited in range of subject, possessed for that subject the profoundest and noblest sympathy. ... In reality he is to be num- bered among the true masters of the nobler picturesque." ("Modern Painters.") See J. Ruskin, "Memoir of S. Prout," in tlie "Art Journal," 1849. Prout, (William,) an eminent English chemist and physician, was born in 1786. He practised in Lc^ndon, and was probably the first physician who applied the doctrines of chemistry to the explanation of the phe- nomena of disease. Among his important works are one " On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Renal Diseases ; being an Inquiry into the Connection of Diabetes, Calculus, etc. with Indigestion," and "Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Diges- tion considered with Reference to Natural Theology." The latter is one of the " Bridgewater Treatises." Died in London in 1850. Provana, pRo-v§,^ia, (Andrea,) an Italian admiral, born in Piedmont in 1511 ; died in 1592. Provenzale, pRo-vdn-zi'la, (Marcello,) an Italian painter in mosaic, born at Cento in 1575. Among his works is a portrait of Paul V. Died in 1639. Provoost, pro'vost, ? (Samuel,) D.D., an American divine, born in New York in 1742, was chaplain to the Continental Congress and subsequently to the United States Senate, lie was elected Bishop of New York in 1786. Died in 1815. Provostaye, de la, deh It pRo'vo^sti', (Ferdinand Herv6,) a French natural philosopher, born at Redon in 1812. He has written on optics, heat, etc. Proyart, pRwi'ytR', (Abbe Lievin Bonaventure,) a French historian, born at Arras in 1743, published, besides other works, a "History of Stanislas, King of Poland," (2 vols., 1782,) which is commended. Died in 1808. Prudence. See Prudentius. Prudent, prii'ddN', (Emile,) a French composer and pianist, born at Angouleme in 181 7. Among his works is " Fantaisie sur Lucie," (1842.) Prudentius, pru-d^n'she^ois, or Pru'dence, Saint, a learned bishop, born in Spain. He became Bishop of Troyes about 846. fle wrote against Erigena on pre- destination. Died in 861. See Le Ci.erc, "Vie de Saint-Prudeno^^" 1689; Brever, "Vie de Saint-Prudence," 1725. Pruden'tius (pru-d§n'she-us) [Fr. Prudence, pRii'- dSNss'J Clem'ens, (AureliIjs',) a Latin Christian poet, was born in Spain in 348 a.d. He practised law, and became a judge of a civil and criminal court. He wrote, in barbarous or unclassical Latin, hymns, and other re- ligious poems, which procured for him a high reputation in the middle ages and are admired by some modern critics. He visited Rome about 405, and passed his latter years in Spain. Erasmus thought that his piety and learning entitled him to a place among the doctors of the Church. See Ludewig, " Dissertatio de Vita A. Prudentii Clementis," 1692; TiLLEMONT, " Memoires ecclesiastiques." Prudhomme, piui'dom'', (Louis Marie,) a French revolutionist, born at Lyons in 1752. He issued an ultra- republican journal in Paris in 1789. Among his works is a "History of the French Revolution," (6 vols., 1796,) which is of little value. Died in 1830. Prudhon, (Jean Baptiste Victor.) See Prou- dhon. . Prud'hon, prii'diN', (Pierre Paul,) a French histor- ical painter, was born at Cluny (Saone-et-Loire) in 1758. Having studied in Rome, he settled in Paris in 1789, and obtained a high reputation. Among his works are "Venus and Adonis," "The Abduction of Psyche," and "Justice and L)ivine Vengeance pursuing Crime." The gracefulness of his style has procured for him the sur- name of "the French Correggio." Died in 1823. See Arsene Houssave, "Philosophers and Actresses," vol. ii. ; VoiART, " Notice historique sur la Vie de Prud'hon," 1824 ; Qua- TREMEKE DK QujNCY, " Notice sur P. P. Prud'hon," 1824; "Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Prunelle, pRii'ngK, (Clement Francois Victor Ga12RIKL,) a French physician, born at La Tour du Pin (Isere) in 1777. He lectured at Montpellier from 1807 to 1819, and published several medical works. Died in 1853. See A. F. F. Potton, " Le Docteur Prunelle," 1855. Pruner, pRoo'ner, (Franz,) a German physician and ethnologist, born in Bavaria in 1808. He became chief physician of Abbas Pasha of Egypt in 1847, before which he had visited Syria and other parts of the Le- vant. He afterwards returned to Europe. Among his works is "Man in Space and Time," (" Der Mensch im Rnnm und in der Zeit," 1859.) Pru.sias, pru'she-as, [Gr. Upovaiag,] I., King of Bithy- nia, was a grandsorTof Nicomedes I. He began to reign I about 228 H.c, and gained a great victory over the Gauls I in 216. He aided Philip of Macedon in his first war € asifc; 9 as s; g Aard; g as /; g, H, y.^ guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^^='See Explanations, p. 23.) PR US US 1846 PTOLEMY against the Romans, but became the ally of the latter about 190 B.C. The power and prosperity of the king- dom were increased by his ability as a ruler. He lacked the virtue or courage to refuse when the Romans demanded the surrender of Hannibal, who had taken refuge in his dominions. See PoLYBius, "History;" Appian, " Syiiaca." Prusias II. of Bithynia was the son and successor of the preceding. He began to reign about 180 B.C. He was neutral in the war between the Romans and Perseus, his brother-in-law. In 156-154 he waged war against Attains of Pergamus. Having rendered himself odious by his cruelty, he was killed by his subjects in 149 B.C. Prutz, pRoots, (Robert Ernst,) a German poet and prose writer, born at Stettin in 1816. He became pro- fessor of literary history at Halle in 1849. Among his works are "Poems," {1841,) "Political and Literary Essays," (2 vols., 1847,) and "Dramatic Works," (4 vols., 1847-49,) Prynne, prin, (William,) an English Puritan poli- tician and antiquary, was born near Bath in 1600. He published in 1632 a scurrilous pamphlet, entitled " His- trio-Mastix, or a Scourge for Stage-Players," for which the court of the Star-Chamber sentenced him to pay a large fine, to be exposed in a pillory, to lose his ears, and to be imprisoned for life. He was released by a warrant from the Speaker of the Commons in 1641, and elected to the Long Parliament. He was an opponent of Cromwell's, and was ejected from the House of Commons by the army in 1648. He compiled several volumes of Records. Died in 1669. See Anthony Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses ;" Disraeli, "Ca- lamities of Authors." Pry'or, (Roger A.,) an American general, born at Richmond, or in Dinwiddie county, Virginia, about 1826. He was editor of several papers issued at Petersburg and Richmond, and was elected to Congress in 1859. He challenged John F. Potter, M.C., in i860, but refused to fight with the weapons which the latter selected. He fought against the Union, with the rank of brigadier- general, in the civil war. Przipcovius, pzhip-ko've-us, (Samuel,) a Polish Socinian writer, born about 1592; died in 1670. Przybylski, pzhip-biKskee, (Hyacinth,) a Polish writer and translator, born at Cracow in 1756. He pro- duced versions of Homer, Milton, Virgil, Horace, etc. Died in 1819. Psalmanazar, sal-ma-na'zar, (George,) the assumed name of a literary impostor, born about 1679, probably in the south of France. He passed his youth as a vaga- bond, pretended to be a native of Formosa, and pub- lished in England a fictitious account of that island,(i 704.) About the age of thirty-two he renounced his evil habits, became religious, and applied himself diligently to study. He obtained considerable success as an English author. He wrote for a work entitled " Universal History" nearly all of the ancient history except that of Rome, and left memoirs of his own life, (1765.) His proper name re- mains a secret. Died in London in 1753 or 1763. See " Memoirs of * * *, commonly known by the name of Geore;e Psalmanazar," 1765 ; " Nonvelle Biographic Generale ;" "Monthly Review" for November and December, 1764. Psammeiiitus, sam-me-nl'tus, [Gr. ■^aiifiTjvLTog ; Fr. Psamm^nite, psS'm^'n^t^] King of Egypt, succeeded his father, Amasis, in 526 B.C. He was conquered and aeposed in 525 B.C. by Cambyses. Soon after this event he was accused of inciting the Egyptians to revolt, and was put to death. Psammetichus or Psametik. See Psammitichus, Psammis, sam'mis, [Gr, ^a^//ff,] King of Egypt, a son of Necho, reigned from 601 to 595 B.C., and was succeeded by his son Apries. Psammitichus, sam-mit'e-kus, or Psammetichus, sam-met'e-kus, [Gr. -^afifitTixo^ or ■^a/^firjnxog ; Fr. Psam- mitique, pst'me't^k' ; Egyptian, Psametii;,] a king of Egypt, and founder of the Saitic dynasty, began to reign about 670 B.C. According to Herodotus, he reigned fifty- four years. During his reign, which was an important epoch, the Greeks were first introduced into Egypt. See Herodotus, "History;" Grote, "History of Greece." Psammitique. See Psa^hmitichus. Psellus, seKlus, [^eAAof,] (Michael,) a Greek scholar of the ninth century, was a native of Andros, and emi- nent for learning. Psellus, (Michael Constantinus, ) a celebrated Greek writer, born at Constantinople in 1020 A.D. He is said to have been the most excellent scholar of his time. He wrote in prose and verse on various subjects, and received from several emperors the title of " Prince of Philosophers." He was living in 1105. Psyche, si'ke, [Gr. -fvxv ; Fr. Psych^, pse'ki',] the name given by ancient Greek poets and fabulists to a personification of the human soul. Having gained the affections of the god of Love, (Amor,) she lived happily with him until her curiosity to know who he was de- prived her of his presence. Wandering in search of Amor, she entered the palace of Venus, who reduced her to slavery, from which she was finally liberated by the return of her first love. According to a beautiful, allegory of Apuleius, Psyche was a daughter of a king, and her beauty excited the jealousy of Venus, who per- secuted her. She was represented in works of art as a maiden with the wings of a butterfly. See Thorlacius, " Disquisitio mythologica de Psyche et Cu- pidine," 1801. Psychristus, si-kris'tus, or Psycochristus, sT-ko- kris'tus, (Jacobus,) an eminent physician of the fifth century, was a native of Alexandria. He became phy- sician to Leo the Great, who reigned at Constantinople from 457 to 474 A.D. Ptolemaeus. See Ptolemy. Ptolemaus and Ptolemaer. See Ptolemy. Ptolemee. See Ptolemy. Ptolemy, tol'e-me, [Gr. TiToT^alo^ Lat. Ptole- m^'us ; Fr. Ptol6m6e, pto'lk'mk' ; Ger. Ptolemaus, pto-leh-ma'us, plural Ptolemaer, pto-leh-ma'er ; It. ToLOMEO, to-lo-ma'o, plural Tolomei, to-lo-ma'ee,] L, surnamed Soter, or " Saviour," the son of Lagus, was the founder of the dynasty of Greek kings of Egypt. It is supposed that he was a son of Philip II. of Mace- don, as his mother was a concubine of that king. He had a high command in the army of Alexander, and displayed great abilities as a general in India, He was one of the personal attendants of Alexander, who ap- pears to have regarded him with great favour. At the distribution of provinces which followed the death of the king, (323 B.C.,) Ptolemy obtained the government of Egypt. He raised a large army, and formed a secret alliance with Antipater against Perdiccas, who invaded Egypt in 321 and was defeated. As the ally of Cas- sander, Seleucus, and Lysimachus, he waged by sea and land a long war against Antigonus. This war began in 315, and was ended by the defeat of Antigonus at Ipsus, in 301 B.C. By his able administration Ptolemy rendered the kingdom prosperous and powerful. He promoted commerce, science, and literature, and invited many Greek philosophers and authors to his court. Historians generally represent him as eminent for po- litical wisdom. He died in 283 B.C., and was succeeded by his son, Ptolemy Philadelphus. See Geier, "De Ptolemjei Lagidae Vita et Scriptis;" Arrian, " Anabasis," books ii.-vii. ; Diodorus Siculus, " History," books xvii.-xx. ; Drumann, "Dissertatio de Rebus PtolemiEoruni," 1821. Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) II., commonly called Ptol- emy Philadelphus,* [Fr. Ptol6m^:e Philadelphe, pto'la'mi' fe'lt'dSlf,] a son of the preceding, was born at Cos in 309 B.C. His mother was Bereni/ce. The partial favour of his father secured the throne for him in preference to the eldest son, P. Ceraunus. He pursued a pacific policy, promoted foreign commerce, and employed his vast resources in the patronage of literature and science and the construction of public works. He founded a great library at Alexandria, and a museum which was the resort of eminent philosophers. He had received a learned education, and manifested a special interest in natural history. Among the celebrated * I.e. "brother-loving," so called in irony, because he had ex- cluded his brother Ceraunus from tlie throne and put to deatli two other of his brothers. Some writers, however, suppose that he received the surname (which may also mean "loving one's sister") from his having married his sister Arsinoe, to whom he appears to have been tenderly attached, and to whose memory he caused a temple to be erected after her death. a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; tlr, fill, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; PTOLEMT PTOLEMT men whom he attracted to his court were the poet The- ocritus, Hegesias the philosopher, Euclid the geometer, and Aratus the astronomer. According to a tradition which is credited by many, the Holy Scriptures were translated into Greek by his command. His dominions included Cyprus, Lycia, Caria, Ccele-Syria, and parts of Arabia and of Libya. During his reign Egypt was raised to a high degree of power and prosperity. He died in 247 B.C. See Justin, " History," books xvii. ^nd xviii. ; Droysen, "Hel- lenismus;" Georg Green, " Dissertatio de Ptolemaeo (II.) Phila- delpho," 1676; Drumann, "Dissertatio de Rebus Ptolemaeoruin, " 1821. Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) III., surnamed Euer'getes, (the " Benefactor,") [Fr. Ptol^mee EvERciTE, pto'la'- mi' i'v^R'zhit',] was a son of the preceding, whom he succeeded in 247 B.C. To avenge the death of his sister Bereni'ce, he invaded Syria about 245 B.C., defeated Seleucus Callini'cus, took Babylon, and subjected many large provinces of his enemy. His victorious career was interrupted by a sedition in Egypt, to which he re- turned about 243 B.C. He was distinguished as a patron of literature, and made large additions to the library of Alexandria. His reign was eminently prosperous. He died in 222 B.C. According to Justin, he was poisoned by his son, Ptolemy Philopator. See Justin, '* History," book xxvii. Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) IV., surnamed PniLep'A- TOR,* the eldest son of the preceding, began to reign in 222 B.C. He was greatly inferior to his predecessors in ability, and was notorious for cruelty and sensual vices. He put to death his mother and his brother Magas. His army defeated Antiochus the Great at Raphia, near Gaza, in 217 B.C. He died in 205 B.C., leaving one son, Ptolemy V. See PoLYBius, " History," books v., xiv., and xv. Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) V., surnamed Epiph'anes, (the " Illustrious,") succeeded his father in 205 B.C., when he was only five years old. During his minority Antio- chus the Great conquered Coele-Syria, Phoenicia, and Judea, but was checked in his encroachments by the intervention of the Romans. At his coronation, in 196 B.C., a decree was issued which has been preserved in the famous inscription of the Rosetta Stone. In his reign the power of the Egyptian monarchy declined rapidly. He died (it is said, hy poison) in 181 B.C. See PoLVBius, "History," books xv., xvi., xvii., etc. Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) VI., surnamed Phtlomf/- TOR, was an infant when he succeeded his father, Ptolemy v., in 181 B.C. His mother, Cleopatra, was regent until her death, in 173. Antiochus of Syria invaded Egypt in 171 B.C., reduced several cities, and took the young king prisoner. The title of king was then assumed by a younger brother, Ptolemy Euergetes or Physcon. Philometor was soon released, and reigned jointly with his brother for several years. Dissensions having arisen between them, about 164 B.C. Philometor invoked the mediation of the Roman senate, who restored him to the sole sovereignty of Egypt. As an ally of Demetrius II., he led an army into Syria, took Antioch, and defeated Alexander Balas, in 146 B.C. At this battle he was fatally injured by a fall from his horse. See P01.VBIUS, History," books xxvii. -xxxiii. Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) VII., surnamed Euer'getes or Phys'con, obtained the throne in 146 B.C., and put to death Ptolemy Eu'pator, the infant heir of the late king. Provoked by his cruelty and vices, the people revolted, burnt his palace, and drove him out of Egypt in 130 B.C. He recovered the throne in 127, and died in 117 B.C. See Justin, " History," books xxxviii. and xxxix. Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) VIII., surnamed So'ter II., and more frequently called Lath'yrus, [Fr. Ptol^:m6e Lathyrk, pto'li'mV WihK',] succeeded his father, Ptolemy VII., in 117 B.C. He reigned jointly with his mother, Cleopatra, until 107, when she procured his ex- pulsion in order to raise to the throne her favourite son, Alexander. Ptolemy reigned in Cyprus until the death * I.e. " father-loving," so styled ironically because he was sus- pected (though probably without sufficient grounds) of having poisoned his father. of his mother, (89 B.C.,) and was then restored to the throne of Egypt. He died in 81 B.C., leaving a daughter, Berenice, who succeeded him, and a natural son, Ptolemy Auletes. The Alexander mentioned in the preceding para- graph is styled Ptolemy IX. by some writers. See Justin, " History," book xxxix. Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) X., (sometimes called Alex- ander II.,) the son of Ptolemy VIII., was killed by the Alexandrians on account of his cruelty. Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) XL, surnamed Aule'tes, (i.e. the "Piper,") [Fr. Ptol6m6e AuLfexE, pto'li'mi' o'lit',] also surnamed Ne'us Diony'sus, was a son of Ptolemy VIII. He began to reign in 80 B.C. He was one of the worst kings of the race of Ptolemies, and was dethroned by his subjects in 58 B.C. In 55 he was restored by the Roman proconsul Gabinius. He had two sons named Ptolemy, and a daughter, the famous Cleopatra. Died in 51 B.C. See Dion Cassius, " History of Rome," Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) XII. of Egypt was the eldest son of the preceding. According to his father's will, he reigned jointly with Cleopatra from 51 to 48 B.C. Dissensions between the minister Pothinus and the young queen resulted in her expulsion. Ptolemy was involved in war with Caesar, who entered Egypt in 48 B.C., and he was drowned in a retreat from a fight with the Romans about the end of that year. His brother Ptolemy received from Caesar the title of king in conjunction with Cleopatra ; but his reign was merely nominal. He was put to death by Cleopatra in 43 B.C. See CjESar, " Bellum Civile." Ptolemy, (Ptolemaeus,) a nephew of Antigonus, King of Asia. He obtained in 315 B.C. command of one of the armies of Antigonus, and defeated the generals of Cassander in Asia Minor and Greece. He was put to death by Ptolemy Soter in 309 B.C. Ptolemy, (Ptolemaeus,) a son of Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, born in 295 B.C., was a prince of great promise. He was left in charge of Epirus when his father led the expedition against Italy, in 280. He was slain in a combat against the Spartans, in 272 B.C. PtoPe-my (Ptolemae'us) QJe-rau'nus, [Gr. oKepav- vof,] King of Macedonia, was a son of Ptolemy I. of Egypt by his wife Eurydice. Having been disinherited by his father, he retired to Thrace. He murdered Seleucus of Macedonia, and usurped his throne, in 280 B.C. About a year later he was killed in battle by the Gauls, who had invaded Macedonia. PtoPe-my (Ptolemae'us) Clau'di-us, [Gr. TItoIe- /ualog K?iavdio^ ; Fr. Ptol6m6e Ci-AUDE, pto'lk'mi' klod,] a celebrated Greek astronomer and geographer, was a native of Egypt, and lived at Alexandria. His mature life probably extended from 125 to about 160 A.D. Of his personal history we know nothing. He was the most celebrated, but not the greatest, astronomer of antiquity. His contemporaries and commentators usually added to his name the epithet " admirable" or "divine." Pie was also a great mathematician. His prin- cipal work is a treatise on astronomy, entitled MsyulT} JiVVTa^L^ TTjq 'AoTfjovofjIag, to which the Arabian translators gave the name of "Almagest," composed of the Arabic article a/ and the Greek neylarr], i.e. "greatest." In this work he availed himself of the observations and dis- coveries of Hipparchus, to whom he gives the credit with commendable candour. Indeed, it is chiefly through the medium of the "Almagest" that the merit of Hipparchus has been recognized by the moderns. Ptolemy main- tained that the earth is a sphere, and that the sun and stars revolve daily around the earth, which is fixed in the centre of the universe. " We find in the Almagest," says Delambre, " a clear exposition of the system of the world, of the arrangement of the celestial bodies and their revolutions, a complete treatise of rectilinear and spherical trigonometry, and all the phenomena of diur- nal motion explained and calculated with remarkable precision. . . . Such was the ' Syntaxis,' (' Almagest,') a monument of great value at the present day, since it alone contains the verified ( avere) history of the science, € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, Yiyguttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) PTOLEMY 1848 PUG IN and the whole astronomical knowledge of his times." His astronomical theory is called the Ptolemaic system. He also wrote a work on general geography, (Few- ypa(j)iKT/ 'T(pf]y7iaig,) which for many ages was the chief authority on that subject, and did not become obsolete until the fifteenth century. He gave special attention to the determination of the latitudes and longitudes of places by mathematical processes, but neglected the descriptive part of geography. See ScHAUBACH, " Ueber den Griechischen Astronomer) C. Ptolemsus," 1S25; Fabkicius, " Ribliotheca Grasca ;" Heeren, " Comiiientatio de Fontibus Geographicorum Ptolemjei," etc., 1828; Dr. Hoefer, article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale." Ptoiemy Lagi, (or the son of Lagus.) See Ptol- emy I. SOTER. Pub-lic'o-la, (L. Gellius,) a Roman general, was elected consul in 72 B.C., and was defeated in battle by Spartacus. He supported Cicero in opposition to Cati- line. Died soon after 55 B.C. Publicola, (PuBiJU.s Valerius,) one of the founders of the Roinan republic, was consul with Brutus in 509 B.C., and was author of laws which protected the liber- ties of the common people, who gave him the surname of Publicola, " the people's friend." He was re-elected consul in 508 and 507 B.C., and fought against Porsena, who attempted to restore the Tarquins. It is supposed that he was killed at the battle of Regillus, (496 B.C.) See NiEBUHR, " History of Rome ;" Cicero, " De Republica." Pub-lil'i-us, (Vol'ero,) a Roman, who effected a change in the constitution. He was tribune of the people in 472 B.C., and procured for the plebeians greater freedom in the election of tribunes. Pub'li-us Sy'rus, an eminent mimographer, born in Syria, lived at Rome in the time of Julius Ccesar. Pie was a slave in his youth. At games exhibited by Caesar in 45 B.C. Publius excelled all competitors as a composer of mimes. There is extant a collection of proverbs or moral sayings ascribed to him. Pucci, poot'chee, [Lat. Puc'cius,] (Francesco,) an Italian theologian, born at Florence ; died in 1600. Puccinelli, poot-che-neKlee, (Placido,) an Italian biographer, born in Tuscany about 1609; died in 1685. Puccius. See Pucci. Pucelle, pti'sSK, (Ren^;,) a French lawyer, born in Paris in 1655, was a nephew of Marshal Catinat. Died in 1745. Pucelle d'Orleans. See Joan of Arc. Puchta, pooK^ta, (Georg Friedrich,) a German jurist, born at Cadolzburg in 1798. He published an excellent work on Roman law, " Cursns der Institu- tionen," (3 vols., 1841-47,) and a " Manual of the Pan- dects," (5th edition, 1854.) Died at P>er!in in 1846. Puchta, (Wolfgang Heinrich,) a German jurist, father of the preceding, was born near Erlangen in 1769 ; died in 1845. Piickler-Muskau, puk'ler moos'kow, (Hermann LuDWiG Heinrich,) Prince of, a German writer of travels, born at Muskau, in I^tsatia, in 1785. He visited England, France, Northern Africa, and Asia, and gave an account of those countries in a work entitled " Let- ters of a Defunct," (" Priefe eines Verstorbenen," 1830.) This was followed by "Semilasso in Africa," (1836,) and other sketches of travel. Died i-n 1871.. See the "London Quarterly Review" for June. 1837; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for May, 1832, May, 1834. and July, 1836. Puech-Dupont, i>ush dii'p^N', (Leonari:),) a French naturalist and anatomist, born at Bayeux in 1795 ; died in 1828. Pufendorf, poo'fen-doRf, written also Piiffendorf, (ESAIAS,) a German writer, born in 1628, was a brother of Samuel. He is supposed to be the author of a satirical work entitled " Anecdotes of Sweden." Died in 1689. Pufendorf, (Samuel.) See PuFFENnoRF. Puffen-dorf, [Ger. PuFENnoRF, pof/fen-doRf; Lat. Pufendor'fiu.s,] (Samuel,) Baron, an eminent Ger- man jurist and publicist, born near Chemnitz, in Saxony, in 1632. He studied at Leipsic and Jena, giving his attention chiefly to the political works of Grotius and Hobbes. He ]niblished in 1660 his "Elements of Uni- versal Jurisprudence," (in Latin,) which was received with general favour. Puffendorf was soon after ajipointed by the Elector-Palatine, Charles Louis, professor of the law of nature and of nations at Heidelberg, that chair having been created expressly for him. He exposed the absurdities of the constitution of the Germanic empire in his work " De Statu Imperii Germanici," published under the name of "Severini de Mozambano," (1667,) which attracted great attention. On the invitation of Cliarles XI. of Sweden, he accepted a similar professor- ship at Lund in 1670. He brought out in 1672 his greatest work, entitled " On the Law of Nature and of Nations," (" De Jure Naturae et Gentium.") This treat- ise is regarded as superior in some respects to that of Grotius. The new principles which he advocated were violently opposed by some of his contemporaries ; but the work procured for him a durable European reputa- tion. He was subsequently appointed historiographer to the King of Sweden, and made a baron. Died at Berlin in 1694. See Jhnisch, "Vita Pufendorfii," 1802; Daniel Muller, " Laudes Pufendorfii," 1723; Niceron, "Memoires;" Sax, "Ono- masticon." Pugatchef See Poogatchef. Pugatschew. See Poogatchef. Puget, pii'zh^', (FRANgois,) a French painter and architect, was a son of Pierre, noticed below. He excelled in portraits. Died in 1707. Puget, (HiLARioN Paul Francois Bienvenu,) a French general, born in Paris in 1754. He had a high command in the campaign against Spain in 1793. Died in 1828. Puget, (Louis,) a French naturalist, born at Lyons in 1629. He gained distinction by researches on magnetism. Died in 1709. Puget, (Pierre,) an eminent French sculptor, archi- tect, and painter, born at Marseilles in 1622, was a pupil of Pietro da Cortona, with whom he worked at Rome. He worked as architect at Marseilles, where he also painted some historical pieces. About 1655 he renounced painting, on account of ill health, and devoted himself to sculpture, on which his celebrity is founded. At Genoa, where he passed some years, he executed an admirable statue of Saint Sebastian, abas-relief of the Assumption, and other works. Having been invited by Colbert, he returned to France in 1669, after which he produced, as sculptor, " Alexander and Diogenes," and " Milo of Cro- tona," which is regarded as his master-piece. He has been called " the Michael Angelo of France." Died at Marseilles in 1694. S-^e CicoGN'ARA, " Storia della Scultura Emrric-David, "Vie dp P. Puget, Peintre," etc., 1840: Feraud, " filoge historique de P. Puget," 1807; A. Rabre, "filoge de P. Puget," 1807; "Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Pughe, pu, (William Ow^en,) a Welsh philologist and antiquary, born in Merionethshire in 1759. He ])ublished a " Welsh-and-English Dictionary," (1793- 1803,) a collection of old Welsh poetry and chronicles, entitled " Myvyrian Archaiology of Wales," (1801-07,) and "Cambrian Biography," (1803.) Died in 1835. Pugin, pii^zh^N', (Augustus,) an eminent architec- tural draftsman, born in Normandy about 1765, emi- grated to London in his youth. He published, besides other works, " Speciiriens of Gothic Architecture, se- lected from Various Ancient Edifices of England," (2 vols., 1821-23,) and " Specimens of the Architectural Antiquities of Normandy," (1825-28.) Died in 1832. Pu'giii, (.Augustus Northmore Wei.by,) an able English architect, born in London in 181 1, was a son of the preceding. He was a zealous Roman Catholic, and an admirer of the mediaeval Gothic style of archi- tecture. He designed the Cathedral of Saint Marie at Derby, and a great number of Rornan Catholic churches at Liverpool, Oxford, Cambridge, Reading, Newcastle, and other places. It appears that his zeal would not i:)ermit him to build a Protestant church. His writings, one of which is entitled " The True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture," (1841,) contributed much to the prevalence of the Gothic style of churches. He ruined his constitution by excessive labour, was sent to a lunatic-asylum, and died in 1852. See P>. Ferrey. "Recollections of A. N. Welby Pugin and Au- gustus Pugin:" " Blackwood'.s M.igazine" for December, 1861. Pugin, i^Edward Welby,) an architect, and a son of the precedmg, was born in 1834. He designed several a, e, T, o, u, y, ion^; k, h, 6, same^ less prolonged; a, e, i, Q, u, y, sAot-t; i, %,oksctir£.; fSr, fill, ftt; mSt; n6t; good; moon; PUG L 10 PULTENET large churches of Liverpool, and completed some works which his father had commenced. Puglio. See Puligo. Pugnani, poon-yd'nee, (Gaetano,) an Italian com- poser, born at Turin in 1728 ; died in 1798. Pugnet, pu^^•i^ (Jean Franqois Xavier,) a French medical writer, born at Lyons in 176!;, was chief phy- sician of a hospital at Dunldrk from 1805 to 1821. Died in 1846. Puibusque, de, deh pii-e'biisk', (Adolphe Louis,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1801. He obtained a prize of the French Academy for his "Comparative History of the Spanish and French Literatures," (2 vols., 1843.) Puisaye, de, deh pii-e'zJi', (Joseph Genevieve,) Count, a French royalist general, born in 1754. He commanded the army of emigrants and Chouans which was completely defeated at Quiberon in 1794. . He died in England in "^1827. Puiseux, pii-e'zuh', (Victor Alexandre,) a French mathematician, born at Argenteuil in 1820. He became in 1857 professor of astronomy at the Faculty of Sciences in Paris. He has written several memoirs on astronomy. Puisieux, de, deh pu-e'ze-uh', (Madeleine d'Ar- SANT,) a French authoress, born in Paris in 1720, wrote " Les Caracteres," and other works. Died in 1798. Puisieux, de, (Pierre Brulart,) Vicomte, Marquis de Siilery, a French diplomatist, born in Paris in 1583. He was employed in important missions in the reign of Louis XHI., with whom he had much influence. Died in 1640. Puissant, pii-e's5N', (Louis,) a French mathemati- cian, born near Chatelet (Seine-et-Marne) in 1769. He devoted himself chiefly to geodesy, in which he acquired eminence, and succeeded La Place in the Academy of Sciences in 1828. Among his works is a "Treatise on Geodesy," (1805.) Died in 1843. Pujati, poo-yi'tee, (Giuseppe Antonio,) an Italian physician, born in Friuli in 1701. He became professor at Padua in 1754. Died in 1760. Pujol, pii'zhoK, (Alexandre Denis Abel,) called AiiEL DE Pujol, a French historical painter, born at Valenciennes in 1785, was a pupil of David. He gained the first prize in i8ii, and went to Rome with a pension. Among his best works are "Saint Stephen preaching the Gospel," "Caesar on the Ides of March," and a large picture of the " Renaissance of the Arts," painted on a ceiling in the Louvre. He was chosen a member of the Academy in 1835. Died in 1861. See "Nouvelle Biographle Generale." Pujol, (Alexis,) a French medical writer, born near Beziers in 1739. His best work is an " Essay on Chronic Inflammations of the Viscera," (1791.) Died in 1804. Pujoulx, pii'zhoo', (Jean Baptiste,) a mediocre French litterateur, born in Gironde in 1762 ; died in 1821. Pulaski, pu-las'ke, [Polish pron. poo-lSs'kee,] (Count Casimir,) a celebrated Polish officer, was born in 1747. He was a son of the patriotic Count Pulaski who formed the Confederation of Barr in 1768. Casimir took arms in that year against the Russian invaders, commanded in many battles and sieges, and performed many daring exploits. " Never was there a warrior," says Rulhiere, " who possessed greater dexterity in every kind of service," He went into exile in 1772, and en- tered the service of the United States in 1777. Four days after the battle of Brandywine he was appointed commander of the cavalry, with the rank of brigadier- general. He resigned this command in March, 1778, and raised a body called Pulaski's Legion, which was ordered to South Carolina in February, 1779. He was killed in the autumn of that year, at the siege of Savannah. See Sparks, "American Biography," vol. iv. of second series. Pul-che'rf-a, [Gr. TlovlxEpia ; Fr. Pulch^;rie, piil'- shi're',] Empress of the East, born in 399 A.D., was a daughter of Arcadius. She governed the empire in the name of her brother Theodosius from 414 until his death, in 450 A.D., and in her own name from that event until her death, in 453 a.d. She was canonized as a saint by the Greek Church. See OiisBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Con- Tucci, "Vita deirimperatrice Pulcheria," 1754. Pulci, pooKchee, (Bernardo,) an Italian poet, born at Florence about 1425, was a brother of Luigi, noticed below. He translated Virgil's " Bucolics," (1481,) and wrote several elegies. He was living in 1494. Pulci, (LuCA,) an Italian poet, was a brother of the preceding. He wrote "II Ciriffo Calvaneo," and other poems. Pulci, (Luigi,) an Italian poet, was born at Florence in 143 1. He lived on familiar terms with Lorenzo de' Medici, to whom his wit rendered him an agreeable com- panion. His principal work is "Morgante Maggiore," (1481,) a romantic poem, in which the serious and ludi- crous are blended, and which contains some beautiful passages. It is sometimes styled a heroico-comic poem. He employed the idioms and niceties of the Tuscan language with much skill. His style was commended as a model by Machiavel. Died about 1487. See TiRABoscHi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" Long- fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Ginguene, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie ;" " Lives of the Italian Poets," by Rev. Henry Stebbing ; " North American Review" for October, 1824, article "Italian Narrative Poetry," (by Prescott.) Pulgar, del, d§l pool-giR', (Hernando,) a Spanish historian of high reputation, was born at Pulgar, near Toledo, about 1436. He was appointed in 1482 histo- riographer of Castile by Queen Isabella, whom he served as secretary and attended in various journeys and cam- paigns. He wrote a " History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella," (1565,) which, however, does not extend quite to the capture of Granada, Among his works is a collection of biographies, entitled "Claros Varones de Espana," ("Illustrious Men of Spain," 1524.) He died about 1490. See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" Prescott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. part i. ; N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." Puligo, poo-lee'go, or Puglio, pooKyo, (Domenico,) an Italian painter, born at Florence in 1475 ; died in 1527. Pul'lus or Pul'len, (Robert,) an English cardinal, noted as a promoter of learning. Died about 11 50. Pulmann, pooKmin, [written in Dutch Poelmann,] (Theodor,) a German philologist, born in the duchy of Cleves about 1510; died about 1580. Pulszky, pooKske, (Francis Aurelius,) a Hunga- rian writer and patriot, born at Eperies in 1814. Having made the tour of Great Britain and Ireland, he published in 1837 "Extracts from the Journal of a Hungarian trav- elling in Great Britain," (in German.) He took a promi- nent part in the revolution of 1848, and was appointed under-secretary of state for Hungary. After the defeat of the Hungarians he accompanied Kossuth as an inti- mate friend to America, and published in 185 1 an account of the journey, entitled " Red, White, and Black," (in English,) in which his wife had a part. She was also a contributor to his "Tales and Traditions of Hungary," (3 vols., 1851.) See the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1851. Pulszky, (Theresa,) an authoress, the wife of the preceding, was born in Vienna in 181 5. She was mar- ried about 1845. published "Memoirs of a Hunga- rian Lady," (in English, 2 vols., 185 1.) Pulteney, pult'ne, (Richard,) an English botanist and physician, born in Leicestershire in 1730. He wrote a "General View of the Writings of Linnseus," (1782,) and " Sketches of the Progress of Botany in England," (2 vols., 1790.) Died in 1801. Pulteney, (William,) Earl of Bath, an English statesman and orator, born in 1682, descended from" an old family of Leicestershire. He began his public fife as a Whig, entered Parliament about 1705, was appointed secretary at war on the accession of George I., in 1715, and became a brilliant debater in Parliament. He ceased to act with the ministry in 1725, after which he was a determined opponent of Walpole. As the leader of the opposition, or the " patriots," he enjoyed great popularity for a number of years. He contributed to "The Craftsman," edited by Lord Bolingbroke. "He became," says Lord Macaulay, " the greatest leader of opposition that the House of Commons had ever seen." (Review of Thackeray's "Life of Chatham.") When Walpole was removed from power, in 1742, Pulteney € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as // g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (S^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) PULTOCK 1850 PUTNAM might have been his successor. The formation of a new ministry was intrusted to him, but, ft om timidity or some other reason, he declined the office of prime minister, and recommended the incompetent Lord Wilmington. At the same time he sacrificed his own popularity by accepting the title of Earl of Bath. The composition of the new cabinet was unsatisfactory to his party and to the public. His rival, Walpole, meeting him in the House of Lords, said, " Here we are, my lord, the two most insignificant fellows in England." " He was," says the "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1840, "one of the most accomplished debaters, perhaps one of the finest speakers, that ever appeared in our senate. . . . His style was correct and classical beyond that of all other men, and his unpremeditated compositions were as correct and elegant as his most prepared." He died in 1764, and left no issue. See Chalmers, "Biographical Dictionary;" " Nouvelle Bio- graphic Geuerale." PuFtock, (Robert,) an English author of the eigh- teenth century. Very little is known of his life. He published in 1750 "The Life and Adventures of Peter "Wilkins," a romance, which was praised by Southey. Pulzone, pool-zo'ni, (Scipione,) a skilful Italian painter, born at Gaeta in 1550; died about 1590. Pu-pi-e'nus Max'i-mus, (Clodius,) a Roman officer, who was elected (238 A.D.) emperor with Balbinus. He was killed in 239 by his mutinous soldiers. Purina, pdo-rd'na, a Sanscrit word, signifying " an- cient," and applied to certain sacred books of the Hin- doos, treating of the creation, destruction, and renovation of worlds, and of the history of gods and heroes. There are eighteen recognized as eminently sacred. The pu- ranas are very voluminous, comprising, according to Professor Wilson, four hundred thousand stanzas. See Wilson's Preface to his translation of the Vishnu Purana. Purbacli, pooR'biK,or Peurbach,poiR'baK,(GEORG,) an eminent German astronomer, born at Peurbach, in Austria, in 1423. He studied at Vienna and subsequently in Italy, and, after his return, succeeded Gmunden as professor of astronomy at Vienna. He wrote an ex- planation of the first six books of the "Almagest" of Ptolemy, and a work entitled " New Theories of the Planets," ("Theoriae novae Planetarum,") which had a high reputation in his time. The celebrated MUller (Regiomontanus) was his pupil. Died in 1461. Piir'cell, (Henry,) an eminent English musician and composer, born, probably in Westminster, in 1658, was a pupil of Captain Cook. He became organist of West- minster Abbey in 1676, and one of the organists of the chapel royal in 1682. His first compositions were an- thems, which were greatly admired. He displayed greater genius in dramatic music and other secular music. In 1690 he produced the music of Lee's "The- odosius ; or, The Force of Love," and that of the "Tempest" as altered by Dryden. He composed many songs, cantatas, sonatas, duets, glees, etc. Among his popular works are the song "Genius of England," "Britons, strike Home," (in " Bonduca,") the cantata of " Mad Bess," and several songs in Dryden's " King Arthur." He is considered by some critics the most excellent composer that England has produced. Died in November, 1695. See BuRNEY, " History of Music;" Fetis, " Biographie Univer- selle des Musiciens." Purcell, (Thomas,) an English musician and com- poser, was an uncle of the preceding. He became a gentleman of the chapel royal in 1660. Died in 1682. Pur'chas, (Samuel,) an English compiler of travels, was born at Thaxted, in Essex, in 1577. He became rector of Saint Martin's, Ludgate, in London, and chap- lain to Archbishop Abbott. He published " Purchas his Pilgrimage ; or. Relations of the World and the Re- ligions observed in all Ages and Places," etc., (1613,) and "Purchas his Pilgrimes," (1625,) which are collec- tions of great research and some value. Died in 1628. See " Biographia Britannica." ''Purl, poo'ree or pu're', (David,) a Swiss philanthro- pist, born at Neufchatel in 1709. He founded a hospital at his native town, to which he bequeathed about five million francs for charitable objects. Died in 1786. Puricelli, poo-re-cheKlee, (Francesco,) an Italian poet, born at Milan about 1657; died in 1738. Puricelli, (Giovanni Pietro,) an Italian scholar and priest, born in the Milanese in 1589. He published " Ambrosianae Mediolanae Basilicae Monumenta," (1645.) Died in 1659. Pursh, (Frederick,) a distinguished botanist, born at Tobolsk, in Siberia, in 1774. He resided in the United States from 1799 to 1811, and in the latter year went to England. He published a valuable work on the plants of North America, entitled "Flora Americae Septentrio- nalis," (London, 1814.) Died at Montreal in 1820. Pur'ver, (Anthony,) an English linguist, born in Hampshire about 1702, was a minister of the Society of Friends. He studied Greek and Hebrew, and pro- duced a new version of the Old and New Testament, which he published (1764) by the aid of Dr. Fothergill. Died in 1777. Purver's translation of the Bible has been pronounced superior to all others for "closeness to the original." (For an interesting account of Purver's life, see " Social Hours with Friends," New York, 1867, PP- 75-77.) See " Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. i., 1839. Puschkin. See Pooshkin. Pu'sey, (Edward Bouverie,) D.D., the founder of Puseyism, was born in 1800. His father, Philip Bou- verie, was a brother of the Earl of Radnor, and assumed the name of PusEY. He graduated at Oxford in 1822, became Fellow of Oriel College, canon of Christ Church, and Regius professor of Hebrew in 1828. In conjunction with John Henry Newman, he wrote "Tracts for the Times," (1833,) which produced great excitement. He was suspended from his pastoral functions on account of a sermon on the eucharist, which he preached in 1843. He favours auricular confession and several doctrines and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. See R. H. Horne, "New Spirit of the Age," 1844. Pusey, (Philip,) an agriculturist, a brother of the preceding, was born in 1799. He inherited an estate in Berkshire, which county he represented in Parliament from 1834 to 1852. His political principles were con- servative. He wrote several essays on agriculture, and edited the "Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society." Died in 1855. Pushkin. See Pooshkin. Puteaiius. See Dupuy. Puteanus, pu-ta-§.'nus, (Erycius,) originally Hen- DRiK van der Putten, (vtn der piit'ten,) a Flemish antiquary and historian, born at Venloo in 1574. He became in 1606 professor of ancient literature at Lou- vain. Died in 1646. Puthod, pu'tod^ (Jacques Pierre Marie Louis Joseph,) a French general, born in Bresse in 1769; died in 1837. Putlitz, poot'lits, (Gustav Heinrich Gans,) a Ger- man nobleman and litterate7ir, born in 1821, has published several dramas, and a collection of charming tales, en- titled " What the Forest tells Itself," (" Was sich der Wald erzahlt.") Piit'nam, (Israel,) a celebrated American general of the Revolution, born at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1 718. He distinguished himself in the French war by his reckless courage and adventurous spirit, and, being captured by the Indians in the neighbourhood of Ticon- deroga in 1758., was only saved from being burned alive by the interposition of a French officer. On the breaking out of the Revolutionary war, he embraced with ardour the cause of the patriots, and was conspicuous for his skill and bravery at the battle of Bunker Hill. He was made a major-general in 1775. In May, 1777, he was appointed commander of the army of the Highlands in New York. He superintended the construction of the fortifications at West Point. Died in 1790. Among his exploits was a fight with a wolf, which he followed into a dark cavern with a torch and killed with a gun. The aperture of the cavern being very small, he crept in head-foremost, and had a rope fastened to his legs, by which his companions drew him out. This occurred at Pomfret, Connecticut, where he resided. According to President Dwight, he was a "man whose generosity was singular, whose honesty was proverbial, who raised him- a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, j, q, obscure; fir, fSll, fit; mSt; nfit; good; moon; PUTNAM PTM self to universal esteem and offices of eminent distinction by personal worth and a useful life." See " Essay on the Life of General Putnam," byD. Humphreys; O. W. Peabody, "Life of Israel Putnam," in Sparks's "American Biography," vol. vii. ; " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i. Putnam, (Rufus,) an American general of the Revo- lution, born at Sutton, Massachusetts, in 1738, was one of the first settlers of the State of Ohio. In 1788, in company with a considerable number of colonists from New England, he founded the city of Marietta. He was appointed in 1796 surveyor-general of United States lands. Died in 1824. Putnam, (William Lowell,) an American officer, born in Boston in 1840, was a nephew of the poet James R. Lowell. He graduated at Harvard College, and gave promise of extraordinary genius. Having enlisted as a lieutenant, he was killed at the battle of Ball's Bluff, October, 1861. Putschius, piit'sKe-us, (Elias,) a Flemish philolo- gist, born at Antwerp about 1580. He published a valuable work on the ancient grammarians, entitled "Grammaticae Latinae Auctores antiqui," (1605.) Died at Stade in 1606. Putte, van, (Henry.) See Dupuy, (Henry.) Puttenham, piit'ten-am, (George,) an English poet, born about 1533. He wrote " Partheniades," and " The Art of Poesie," (1589.) Died about 1600. Putter or Puetter, ptit'ter, (Johanxn Stephan,) a celebrated German publicist, born at Iserlohn,in West- phalia, in 1725. He became in 1757 professor of public law at Gottingen, where he lectured more than forty years. Among his numerous works are "Institutes of German Public Law," (" Institutiones Juris publici Germanici," 1770,) and a '* Historical Development of the Constitution of the German Empire," (3 vols., 1786.) Died at Gottingen in 1807. See "Putters Selbstbiographie," 1798. Puvis, pii\'^ss', (Marc Antoine,) a French agricul- turist, born at Cuiseaux (Saone-et-Loire) in 1776. He rendered important services by his experiments and writings on agriculture. Died in 1851. Puy, du. See Dupuy. Puymaurin, de, deh pii-e'mo'r^N', (Nicolas Joseph DE Marcassus,) a French administrator and painter, born at Toulouse in 1718 ; died in 1791. His son, Jean Pierre Casimir, (i 757-1841,) was a useful member of the Chamber of Deputies, and wrote some scientific treatises. Puysegur, de, deh pii-e^zi'giiR', (Antoine Hya- CINTHE Anne,) a French naval officer, born in 1752; died in 1809. Puysegur, de,( Armand Marie Jacques de Chaste- net — deh shit'ni',) Marquis, a P>ench general, born in 1 75 1. He was a zealous advocate of animal magnet- ism, on w^hich he wrote several works. Died in 1825. Puysegur, de, (Jacques Franqois de Chastenet,) Marquis, an able French general, born in Paris in 1656. He was sent to Spain in 1703, with the title of director-general of the troops, and was raised to the rank of lieutenant-general in 1704. In 1734 he received a marshal's baton. Died in 1743. He left a "Treatise on the Art of War." His father, Jacques, born in 1602, was a general of some distinction. Died in 1682. See De Courcelles, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Frangais." Puzos, pii'zo', (Nicolas,) a French physician, born in Paris in 1686, excelled in obstetrics. Died in 1753. Pyat, pe't', (F6lix,) a French litterateur, born at Vierzon (Cher) in 1810. He has composed several dramas and contributed to various journals. He is a radical in politics. He joined Ledru-Rollin in a se- ditious plot in June, 1849, after which he became an exile. He was one of the Communist leaders in 1871. Pye, pi, (Henry James,) an English poet, born in London in 1745. He translated Aristotle's "Poetics," and wrote many poems, among which are "The Progress of Refinement," (1783,) and "Alfred," an epic poem, (1802.) He became poet-laureate in 1790, and was a member of Parliament. Died in 1813. Pye, (John,) an English engraver of landscapes, was born at Birmingham in 1782. He engraved with success some pictures of Turner, among which are " Pope's Villa" and The Temple of Jupiter." He published a work entitled " Patronage of British Art," (1845.) Pyg-maTi-on, [IIu/jaaAiwv,] in Greek mythology, a king of Cyprus, who is said to have fallen in love with an ivory image of a young woman which he had formed, and which Venus at his request endowed with life. Pygmalion, King of Tyre, and a son of Bel us, is supposed to have lived about 800 K.c, and to have been the brother of Dido, who founded Carthage. See Virgil's "^neid," book i. Pygmees or Pygmsei. See Pygmies. Pyg'mies, [Gr. YivymioL ; Lat. Pygm^i, pig-mee'i; Fr. Pygm^;es, p^g'mi',] a fabulous nation of dwarfs, whom the ancients supposed to live near the sources of the Nile, or in India. According to Homer, they waged against the cranes a warfare which was annually re- newed. Some writers relate that an army of pygmies once assailed Hercules when he was asleep. Pylade. See Pylades. PyFa-des, [Gr. Ti.v7Mi]q ; Fr. Pylade, pe'ltd',] a son of Strophius, King of Phocis, was a cousin and intimate friend of Orestes, whose sister Electra he married. The friendship of Pylades and Orestes was proverbial. (See Orestes.) Pyle, pil, (Thomas,) an English theologian, born in Norfolk in 1674. He was prebendary of Salisbury, and vicar of Saint Margaret, at Lynn. He wrote paraphrases on the Acts, Epistles, and some other books of the Bible, Died in 1756. Pym, (John,) an eminent British statesman and orator, born at Brymore, in Somersetshire, in 1584. He entered Broadgate Hall, now Pembroke College, Oxford, in 1599, and was elected to Parliament in 1614, after he had acquired financial skill by a service of some years in the Exchequer. He became a leader of the country party, and so strenuously opposed the measures of the court that King James 1. stigmatized him as "a very ill- tempered spirit." He represented Tavistock in all the Parliaments held in the reign of Charles I. In 1626 he was one of the managers of an impeachment against the Duke of Buckingham, and made a speech for which he was imprisoned by the court. He was released on his election to the third Parliament. He was once a friend of Wentworth, who, having resolved to desert the pop- ular cause, obtained a private interview with Pym and began to sound him in a set speech. Pym, understand- ing his drift, stopped him short with these words : " You need not use all this art to tell me that you have a mind to leave us ; but, remember what I tell you, I will never leave you while your head is on your shoulders !" In the Parliament which met in April, 1640, Pym made a long and celebrated speech on grievances. "A more massive document," says Forster, "was never given to history." Pym and Hampden were the most eminent leaders of the popular party when the Long Parliament met, in November, 1640. He attacked Wentworth (now Earl of Strafford) in a powerful speech, which had such an effect that he was unanimously, and without delay, impeached of high treason. "The result," says Forster, " proved this to have been, what Pym anticipated, the master-stroke of the time. It struck instant terror into every quarter of the court, and left the king, for a time, powerless and alone." At the trial of Strafford he ap- peared as accuser. His influence is thus estimated by Clarendon: "I think Mr. Pym was at this time [1641] the most popular man, and the most able to do hurt, that hath lived in any time." On the 22d of November, 1641, he presented to the House the Grand Remon- strance, a final appeal to the people. In January, 1642, the king attempted to arrest Pym and four other mem- bers of the House; but they escaped. (See Charles I., and Hampden.) Pym had received, through Lady Carlisle, timely notice of this attempt. At a conference of the two Houses on the subject of grievances, in the same month, Pym made a celebrated speech. He was nicknamed "King Pym" by the royalists. He was ap- pointed lieutenant-general of the ordnance of the king- dom in November, 1643. He d'ed in December of that year, leaving several children. Pym was a consummate master of parliamentary science and political tactics. He € as 9 as j; g kard; g as/; o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2[^=See Explanations, p. 23.) I PTM 1852 PTRRHUS was net extreme in his opinions, and did not partake of the Puritanic formality and rigorism which prevailed among the members of his party. "There is nothing more remarkable in the speeches of Pym," says Forster, "than what maybe emphatically termed their wisdom. . . . The wisdom I have spoken of was, as it always is with the greatest men, a junction of the plain and practical with the profound and contemplative ; to such an extent, however, in his case, and in such perfection, as may not be equalled in that of any other speaker of ancient or modern times, with the single exception of Burke." See Forster, "Lives of Eminent British Statesmen ;" Claren- don, "History of the Rebellion;" Hume, "History of England." Pym, (Sir William,) an English physician, born in Edinburgh or in Warwickshire about 1775. He served as surgeon in the army, and was appointed inspector- general of the army hospitals about 1816. He wrote a "Treatise on the Yellow Fever," (1815.) Died in 1861. Pynacker. See Pynaker. Pynaker or Pynacker, pi'ni'ker, (Adam,) a skilful Dutch landscape-painter, born at Pynaker, between Delft and Schiedam, in 162 1. He studied at Rome, and re- turned to Holland. " In his small compositions," says the " Biographic Universelle," " he shows himself a skil- ful artist. We distinguish the form and aspect of the different species of trees ; his colour is always beautiful and true ; his distances and skies are vapory," etc. Died about 1676. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Hollandais." Pyn'chon, (William,) an Anglo-American writer on theology, born about 1 59 1. He emigrated from England in 1630, and was one of the first settlers of Springfield, Massachusetts. Died in Buckinghamshire in 1662. Pyne, pin, (James B.,) an able English landscape- painter, born at Bristol in 1800. He became a resident of London about 183.5, '^"^ visited Italy and Switzerland in 1846. In 1853 he published some beautiful landscai:)es in a volume entitled "The English Lake District." His style is vigorous and brilliant, but not free from manner- ism. He was vice-president of the Society of British Artists for many years. Died in 1870. Pyne, (William Henry,) an English painter and writer, born in London in 1770. He painted portraits and landscapes with some success, but gained more distinction by his publications, viz., "The Microcosm, or a Picturesque Delineation of the Arts, Manufactures, etc. of Great Britain," (1803,) a "History of the Royal Residences," (3 vols., 1819,) and " Wine and Walnuts," (1823.) Died in 1843. See "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iii. chap. vii. Pyn'son, (Richard,) an early printer, who was born in Normandy, and lived in England about 1500. He was king's printer in the reign of Henry VII. Pyot, pe'o', (Jean Jacques Richard,) a French phy- sician, born at Isomes (Haute-Marne) in 1792; died in 1841. Pypers, pi'pers, (Pieter,) a Dutch poet, born at Amersfoort in 1749. He wrote several short poems, and produced many dramas, some of which were trans- lated or imitated from the French. Died in 1805. See Van der Aa, " Biographisch Woordenboek." Pyra, pee'ri, (Jacob Emanuel,) a German poet, born in Lusatia in 1715. He wrote "The Temple of True Poetry," and other poems. Died in 1744. Pyr'a-mus, | Fr. Pyrame, pe'rtm'.] See Thisbe. Pyrard, pe'rtR', (Franqois,) a French voyager, born at Laval about 1570. He published a "Narrative of a Voyage to the East Indies," (1611,) which is highly commended. Died in 1621. Py-re'i-cus, a Greek painter of unknown period, is supposed to have lived after Alexander the Great. He painted low subjects with success. Pyr-got'e-les, [YlvpyoTElriq,] an excellent Greek en- graver of gems, lived about 330 B.C. An edict of Alex- ander the Great designated him as the only artist who was permitted to engrave the royal seal-rings or gems. The extant works ascribed to him are probably forgeries. Pyrker, pd^R'ker, (Johann Ladislaw,) a German poet, born at Langh, in Hungary, in 1772. He became Archbishop of Erlau in 1821. Among his poems is one entitled " Pearls of the Good Old Time," (" Perlen der heiligen Vorzeit," 1823.) Died in 1847. Py-rom'a-ehus, [ Yivpoiiaxog, ] sometimes written Phyromachus or Philomachus, a Greek statuary, who is supposed to have flourished about 300 or 250 B.C. A famous statue of Asclepius is ascribed to him. Pj^r'rha, a daughter of Epimetheus and Pandora, was the wife of Deucalion. According to tradition, she and her husband were saved in an ark when mankind were generally drowned by a deluge. (See Deucalion.) Pyr'rho or Pyr'rhon, [r[t'/>/6wv,] a Greek philosopher and skeptic, was a native of Elis, and was born about 380 B.C. He was a pupil of Anaxarchus or Anaxan- drus. It is said that he accompanied Alexander the Great to India. His writings, if he left any, are not extant. He had numerous disciples, and is regarded as the founder of a skeptical school, the doctrines of which are called Pyrrhonism. He recommended a suspension of judgment, and cultivated a habitual composure or tranquillity of mind, {uiradeLa.) After his return from India he became high-priest at Elis. Died about the age of ninety. See C. Mai.let, " fitudes philosophiques," tome ii. ; Diogenes Laektius; Munch, " De Notione et Indole Scepticismi nominatim Pyrrhonism!," 1797; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Pyrrhon. See Pyrrho. Pyrrhus. See Neoptolemus. Pyr'rhus, [Ilv^l)og,\ King of Epirus, a son of King /Eacides and Phthia, was born about 318 B.C. His father was killed in battle while Pyrrhus was a child. The young prince himself was expelled by the Epirotes at the age of seventeen, and then joined the army of Demetrius, who was his brother-in-law. He signalized his courage at the battle of Ipsus, (301 B.C.) Having raised a small army, he entered Epirus, and obtained the throne in 295 B.C. His courage and generosity rendered him very popular. Ambition appears to have been his ruling passion. In 291 B.c he was involved in a war against Demetrius, his brother-in-law, for the pos- session of Macedonia, which he invaded in 287 B.C. The army which Demetrius led against him, impelled by ad- miration of the character of Pyrrhus, deserted to him in a body, and Demetrius fled from the kingdom. Pyrrhus divided his conquest with his ally Lysimachus, who soon made himself master of all Macedonia. An irresistible temptation was presented to the ambition of Pyrrhus by the Tarentines, who in 281 B.C. solicited his aid in a war against the Romans. His wise minister Cineas could not prevail on him to renounce his vast projects of for- eign conquest. In 280 B.C. he crossed over to Italy with about 25,000 men and a number of elephants. The frivolous and unwarlike Tarentines failed to support him with the large army which they had promised. He en- countered the superior numbers of the Romans on the river Siris, and defeated them after a long and obstinate contest. His victory was so dearly bought that he is reported to have said, " Another such victory, and I must return to Epirus alone." He made overtures of peace, which were rejected by the Roman senate. In 279 B.C. another battle was fought, near Asculum, where the Romans lost 6000 and Pyrrhus 3500 n.en. Pyrrhus was unable to improve his victory, and, having received an invitation to aid the Greeks of Sicily against the Carthaginians, he concluded a truce with the Romans in 278 B.C. He remained two years in Sicily, and gained some victories, but failed to conquer the island. Hav- ing returned to Tarentum to renew the war against the Romans, he was defeated by M. Curius Dentatus near Benevejitum. He retired from Italy to Epirus in 274 B.C., and invaded Macedonia, of which he soon became master in consequence of the desertion of the Macedonian army from Antigonus Gonatas. At the request of Cle- onymus, he engaged in a new enterprise, a war against the Spartans, who repulsed his attack on their capital. He was killed in Argos, in battle, in 272 B.C., after hav- ing been stunned by a tile thrown from a house by a woman. He was the greatest general of his time, and Hannibal is reported to have said that he was the great* S, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, sAort; a, 9, i, o, obscure; ftr, f3.ll, felt; mix.; n6t; good; moon; PYTHAGORAS 1853 PYTHON est of any age. "He was reputed," says Plutarch, "to excel in military experience and personal prowess all the princes of his time. But what he gained by his achieve- ments he lost by vain hopes ; his desire of something absent never suffered him effectually to persevere in a present pursuit." See Plutarch, "Life of Pyrrhus;" J. B. Jourdan, " Histoire de Pyrrhus," 2 vols., 1749, and English version of the same ; Livv, "History of Rome," book xxxv. ; Jacob Abbott, "History of Pyrrhus," 1853. Py-thag'o-ras, [Gr. Ilv^ayopaf ; Fr. Pythagore, pe'- tt'goR' ; It. PiTAGORA, pe-tl'go-rl,] one of the most celebrated philosophers of antiquity, was born in Samos about 600 B.C. Very little is known with certainty re- specting his personal history. His father was Mnesar- chus, a merchant, and generally believed to have been a foreigner, (not a native of Samos,) but whether a Phoenician or Pelasgian is uncertain. He is said to have been first instructed in his own country by Creophilus, and afterwards by Pherecydes in Syros. There was a prevailing belief among the ancients that Pythagoras travelled very extensively, visiting Egypt, Babylon, and even India. That he visited Egypt seems very probable, and it is perhaps not improbable that he journeyed as far as Babylonia. The notion that he included India in his travels would seem to have no other ground than the circumstance that certain doctrines of his bear a striking resemblance to some of those held by the Indian Brahmans or Booddhists. He not only taught the doc- trine of metempsychosis, (or transmigration of souls,) but, like the Hindoos, made this the ground for incul- cating the duty of kindness and tenderness towards animals, and of abstinence from their flesh. It is related that on a certain occasion he interceded to prevent a dog from being beaten, saving that he recognized in its cries the voice of one of his friends who had died. Py- thagoras attached a great importance to the study of mathematics. He is regarded as the inventor of several important geometrical theorems, among which may be named the following: that the three angles of a triangle are together equal to two right angles, and that in any right-angled triangle the square formed on the hypo- tenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two sides. He is said also to have been the inventor of stringed musical instruments. It is said that Pythagoras first made use of the word philosopher, (4>tA6ao0of,) applying it to himself He had, we are told, witnessed the various public games of Greece, and came at length to Phlius, in Achaia. Leon, the king of that country, was delighted with his ingenuity and eloquence, and asked him what art or profession he followed. He replied that he was a philosopher. Leon asked him wherein philosophers differed from other men. Pythagoras answered that as at the public games some were contending for glory and others were buying and selling for the sake of gain, but there was one class who came simply as spectators, so in human life there were those who, regarding as unworthy of a wise man the desire of fame or of gain, sought above all to be- come wise : those he called philosophers, or lovers of wisdom. Pythagoras differed essentially from the other cele- brated teachers of wisdom among the ancient Greeks, in that he combined the character of priest with that of philosopher. He appears to have given great attention to the means of acquiring influence over the minds of men, and for this purpose established a secret brotherhood among his disciples and followers. He had certain doc- trines of which he spoke only to his chosen disciples, which, as being strictly limited to those within the favoured circle, were called esote/ic, (hatoTF.pMu.) Other doctrines were freely communicated to those withoitt, or to the people at large : these were called exoter'ic, (e^ure- piKu.) One of the necessary parts of the discipline of his pupils was the practice of absolute silence. According to some authorities, they were required to maintain silence for five years, aiid during that period were not allowed once to behold the face of Pythagoras ; but this is probably an exaggeration. So great was his authority with his disciples that when any one asked why they believed this or practised that, they were wont to answer, avro^ £(prj, (or e^a,) i.e. "he himself said so," (in Latin, ipse dixit,) which was re- garded as the most efficient mode of silencing all cavils or doubts. Pythagoras, on returning from his travels, settled at Crotona, in Italy, where for a time he seems to have pos- sessed an almost boundless influence over the minds of the people. Many of the most wealthy and influential among the citizens of Crotona joined the brotherhood, which soon became the controlling power in the state. Its extraordinary success appears to have rendered its members so arrogant that they became objects of jeal- ousy and bitter hatred to those who were not admitted to the favoured circle, — that is, to the large majority of the populace. An attack was made upon them while assembled in one of their general meetings. The building in which they met was set on fire, so that a great number of them perished in the flames : only the younger and more active, it is said, were able to escape. According to one account, Pythagoras himself perished with the others on this occasion, though some writers state that he died at Metapontum soon after the expulsion of his disciples from Crotona. A similar reaction took place in other parts of Italy ; many of the Pythagoreans were killed, and many others were driven into exile. The brotherhood as an organization was completely sup- pressed. Amid the uncertainty which prevails in regard to the history of Pythagoras and his doctrines, we can form only an imperfect conjecture respecting the greater number of his religious and philosophic tenets. None of his writings are extant ; and what we know of his philosophy is derived mainly from writers who under- stood it very imperfectly. See Andre Dacier, " Vie de Pythagore," 1706; A. Postelman, "Leven van Pythagoras," 1724; Hambkrger, " Dissertatio de Vita et Symbolis Pytliagorje," 1678; Eilstock, " Historisch-kritisches Leben des weltweisen Pythagoras," 1756; Tiedemann, " Griechen- lands erste Philosophen, oder Leben des Orpheus, Pythagoras," etc., 1780; Heinkich Ritter, " Geschichte der Pythagoraischen Philo' sopliie," 1826; Reinhold, " Beitrag zur Erlaulerung der Pythagora- isclien Metaphysik," 1S27 ; Rittek, " History of Philosophy;" G H. Lewes, " Biographical History of Philosophy." Pyth'e-as [Gr. Uvdrng ; Fr. Pyth^e, pe'ta'] of Mas- silia, in Gaul, an ancient Greek navigator of unknown period. He probably lived between 350 and 200 B.c He sailed to the western and northern parts of Europe, and wrote an account of his discoveries, which is not extant. He described a place called Thule, composed of a mixture of earth, sea, and air. His statements were credited by Hipparchus, but discredited by Strabo and others. Pythee. See Pytheas. Pyth'i-a, the name of the priestess of Apollo at Delphi, where she uttered oracles. Pythias. See Damon. Pyth'i-us, [livdiog,] a surname of Apollo, applied to him because he was worshipped at Delphi, the ancient name of which was Pytho. Py^thon, [livdcoVy] the name of a fabulous dragon of Delphi, killed by Apollo. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; o, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23.) QUACKENBOS 1854 QUATREMERE Q. Quack'^n-bos, (George Payne,) an American teacher and educational writer, born in New York in 1826, has published an "Advanced Course of Compo- sition and Rhetoric," (1854,) "Primary History of the United States," (i860,) " English Grammar," (1862,) and other works. Quade, kwS'deh, (Michael Friedrich,) a German philologist, born in Pomerania in 1628. He wrote much of what the Germans call micrologie, — i.e. treatises on minute or unimportant subjects. Died in 1757. See Oelrichs, " Memoria M. F. Quade," 1758. Quaden, kwS'den, (Matthias,) a German geogra- pher, born at Kilkenbach ; died at Cologne in 1609. Quad-ra'tus, [Gr. Ko(5parof,] an early Christian min- ister, who, according to Saint Jerome, was chosen Bishop of Athens in 125 A.D. He presented an Apology for the Christian religion to Adrian in 126 A.D. Quadri, kwi'dnee, (Antonio,) an Italian writer on statistics and political economy, was born at Vicenza in 1777. He obtained in 1815 the office of secretary of the government at Venice. Quadri, (Giovanni Lodovico,) an Italian architect and engraver, born at Bologna in 1700 ; died in 1748. Quad-ri-ga'ri-us, (Quintus Claudius,) a Roman historian, lived about 80 B.C. He wrote Roman Annals, some extracts from which are preserved by Aulus Gellius. Quadrio, kwI'dRe-o, (Francesco Saverio,) a learned Italian Jesuit and critic, born in Valtellina in 1695. He was employed as professor at Padua, Bologna, Venice, etc. He published, besides other works, a general his- tory of poetry of all nations, (" Storia e Ragione d'ogni Poesia," 7 vols., 1739-591) a work of great labour and some value. It contains extracts from a great number of poets. Died in 1756. Quaglio, kw^Kyo, ((Angelo,) an able scene-painter, was a brother of the following. Died in 1815. Quaglio, (DoMENico,) a painter, born at Munich in 1786, was surnamed THE German Canaletto. He acquired a wide reputation as a painter of architecture. Among his works is a picture of the Ratisbon Cathedral. He contributed much to revive a taste for the archi- tecture of the middle ages. Died in 1837. His father. Giuseppe, born in 1747, was a skilful scene-painter. Died at Munich in 1828. See Nagler, " Allgemekies Kikistler-Lexikon." Quaglio, (GiULio,) an Italian fresco-painter, born at Laino, was the ancestor of several artists, noticed above and below. Died in 1800. Quaglio, (Lorenzo,) an architect, born at Laino in 1730, was a son of Giovanni Maria, an architect, who worked at Vienna. Lorenzo designed theatres at Man- heim and Frankfort. He died at Munich in 1804. He was an uncle of Giuseppe, noticed above, and father of Giovanni Maria, a painter of architecture and dra- matic scenery, who was born in 1772. Quain, kwan, (Jones,) a skilful anatomist, born at Mallow, Ireland, studied in Paris. He distinguished himself as professor of anatomy and physiology in the London University, now called University College, and resigned this position in 1836. His chief work is "Ele- ments of Anatomy," (6th edition, 1856,) which is said to be better than any English work previously published on systematic anatomy. Died in 1865. Quain, (Richard,) a younger brother of the pre- ceding, and a distinguished anatomist and surgeon, was born at Mallow. He became professor of anatomy at University College, London, about 1836. He was ap- pointed professor of clitiical surgery at the University College Hospital in 1848. He published an excellent work entitled "The Anatomy of the Arteries of the Human Body," (1845.) Quain, (Richard,) a cousin of the preceding, became a physician to the Consumption Hospital, Brompton, and invented an instrument called the Stethometer. Quaini, kwi'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1611, was particularly successful in painting architectural views. Died about 1680. Quaini, (Lodovico,) a son of the preceding, was bom at Bologna in 1643, and was a pupil of Carlo Cignani, whom he imitated. He is said to have painted the land- scapes and architecture of some of Cignani's great works. He worked in partnership with Franceschini at Rome, Genoa, etc., and painted some historical pictures com- posed by himself. Died in 1 71 7. Quandt, kwint, (Johann Gottlob,) a German writer on fine arts, born at Leipsic in 1787, became distin- guished as an amateur and collector of pictures. Among his works are " Excursions in the Domain of Art," and " Lectures on Esthetics." Died in 1859. Quanz, kwints, (Johann Joachim,) a German com- poser, born near Gottingen in 1697; died in 1773. Quarenghi, kwi-rSn'gee, (Giacomo il Cavaliere,) an Italian architect, born at Bergamo in 1744. Invited by the empress Catherine, he went to Saint Petersburg, and acquired a high reputation by works erected in that city. Among these are the Exchange, and the Theatre of the Hermitage. Died in 181 7. See Nagler, " Allgemeines Kiinstier-Lexikon." Quarin, kw3,-reen', (Joseph,) a German physician, born at Vienna in 1733. He gained distinction by his writings on Fevers and Inflammations, (1774,) and became first physician to the emperor Joseph II. Died in 1814. Quarles, kwdrlz, (Francis,) a quaint but popular English poet, born in Essex in 1592. He was secretary to Archbishop Usher before 1641, and was then deprived of his situation by the Irish rebellion. In the civil war he favoured the royalist party. His most popular poem is entitled "Emblems," (1635,) and has been often re- printed. Among his other works are "Divine Poems," " Hadassa," and a " History of Samson." " We find in Quarles," says Headley, "original imagery, striking sentiment, fertility of expression, and happy combina- tions." Died in 1644. See " Retrospective Review," vol. v., (1822:) Wood, "Athense Oxonienses;" Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." Quarles, (John,) a son of the preceding, was born in Essex in 1624. He wrote several poems. Died in 1665. Quarre, kt'ri', (Antoinette Suzanne,) a French poetess, born at Recey-sur-Ource in 1813; died at Dijon in 1847. Quatrefages de Breau, de, deh kttR'ftzh' deh bRo, (Jean Louis Armand,) a French naturalist, born in the department of Gard in 1810. He became professor of anatomy and ethnology at the Museum of Natural His- tory, Paris. His favourite science is zoology. He has written numerous works, among which are " Souvenirs of a Naturalist," (2 vols., 1854,) and "Anatomical and Zoological Researches made during a Voyage to Sicily." See " Nouvelle Biojjraphie Generale ;" " North British Review" for February, 1858; "Eraser's Magazine" for April, 1858. Quatremere, kttR'maiR', (Etienne Marc,) an emi- nent French Orientalist, born in Paris, July 12, 1782. He was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1815, and became professor of Plebrew, Syriac, etc. at the College of France in 1819. Among his principal works are " Researches on the Language and Literature of Egypt," (1808,) "Geographical and Historical Memoirs of Eg'ypt," (2 vols., 1810,) and a " History of the Mon- gols of Persia," (1836.) Died in 1857. He had a library of about 50,000 volumes. His father was first-cousin to Quatremere de Quincy. " Few savants," says Ernest Renan, "can be compared to him for extent and accuracy of erudition." See Renan's article in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Quatremere de Quincy, kttR'maiR' deh kAN'se', (Antoine Chrysostome,) a French archaeologist and art-critic, was born in Paris in October, 1755. He pub- a. e, T, 6, u, y, long, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, f2lt; mSt; nflt; good; moon ; QUATREMERE 1855 QUESNEL lished the first volume of his " Dictionary of Architec- ture" in 1788. In 1 791 he was elected to the Legislative Assembly, and in 1797 was condemned to deportation as a royalist ; but he escaped. He was appointed in- tendant of arts and public monuments in 1815, and perpetual secretary of the Academy of Fine Arts in 1816. Among his works are "Letters to Canova on the Elgin Marbles," (1818,) an "Essay on the Nature, Object, and Means of Imitation in the Fine Arts," (1823,) and a " History of the Life and Works of Raphael," (1824.) Died in 1849. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Quatremere-Disjonval, kttR'maiR' de'zh6N^'tK, (Denis Bernard,) a naturalist, born in Paris about 1754, was a brother of Quatremere de Quincy. He was very eccentric, and was confined for some years in an asylum for the insane. Died in 1830. Quatremere -Roissy, kttR'malR' RwS'se', (Jean Nicolas,) a French writer of biography and tales, born in Paris in 1754, was an uncle of Etienne Marc, above noticed. Died in 1834. Quattromani, kw^t-tRo-mi'nee, (Sertorio,) an Ital- ian writer, born at Cosenza in 1541 ; died in 161 1. Queens'ber-ry, (William Douglas,) fourth Duke OF, and Earl of March, a Scottish peer, born about 1724, was notorious for his vices. He became Duke of Queens- berry about 1778, and inherited a large fortune. Died, without issue, in 1810. See " Life of George Selwvn," by J. H. Jesse. Qneiros, de, di ka^-r(i)s, or Quiros, de, di kee'r6s, (Pedro Fernandez^T^ Spanish or Portuguese navi- gator, born about 1560, commanded an exploring expedition sent from Callao in 1605. He discovered Tahiti, the New Hebrides, and other small islands of the Pacific, and wrote a narrative of his voyage. Died at Panama in 1614. Quekett, kwek'et, (John,) an English microscopist, born in Somersetshire in 181 5, He published a "Treat- ise on the Use of the Microscope," and " Lectures on Histology," (1854.) He succeeded Professor Owen as conservator of the Hunterian Museum in London. Died in 1861. Quelen, de, deh keh'lSN', (Hyacinthe Louis,) a French prelate, born in Paris in 1778. He became Archbishop of Paris in 1821, and a member of the French Academy in 1824. Died in 1839. See Henrion, " Vie et Travaux de M. de Quelen," 1840 ; Belle- mare, "M. de Quelen pendant dix Ans," 1840. Quellinus. See Quellyn. Quellyn, kw§l-lin', (Artus,) a Flemish sculptor, born at Antwerp in 1630, was a nephew of Erasmus, noticed below. Died in 1 71 5. Quellyn, [Lat. Quelli'nus,] (Erasmus,) an eminent Flemish painter of history and landscapes, born at Ant- werp in 1607. His design, colour, and distribution of light and shade are commended. Among his works are a "Repose in Egypt," a "Last Supper," and "The Guardian Angel." Died in 1678. Quellyn, (Jan Erasmus,) a son of the preceding, was born at Antwerp in 1629 or 1630, and was a good painter of history. He worked in his native city and other towns of Flanders. A picture of "Christ healing the Sick" is called his master-piece. "Some of his works," says Descamps, "may be compared to those of Paul Veronese." Died in 1 715. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Quenstedt, kw^n'st^t, (Johann Andreas,) a Ger- man Lutheran theologian, born at Quedlinburg in 161 7. He was professor of theology at Wittenberg, and pub- lished several works. Died in 1688. Quental, do, do k^N-tSK, (Bartholomeu,) a Por- tuguese theologian, born in one of the Azores in 1626. He was the author of works which are said to be well written. Died in 1698. Quentel or Quentell, kwgn'tel, (Hetnrich,) a cele- brated printer of Cologne, flourished in the fifteenth centiyy. Quentin, kSx'tiN', (Nicolas,) a French painter, born at Dijon, where he died in 1636. Quer y Martinez, kaiR e maR-tee'n§th, (Jos6,) a Spanish botanist, born at Perpignan in 1695. Pub- lished a Flora of Spain according to the system of Tourne- fort, — "Flora Espanola, o Historia de las Plantas que se crian en Espana," (6 vols., 1762-84.) He is said to have been the first Spaniard who published a work on Spanish plants. Died in 1764. Querard, ki'riR', (Joseph Marie,) a French bibli- ographer, born at Rennes in 1797. He published an important work on French bibliography, entitled "La France Litteraire, ou Dictionnaire bibliographique," (10 vols., 1826-42.) He left several unfinished works. Died about December i, 1865. See " Life and Works of J. M. Querard," by O. Hamst, London, 1867; Querard, "La France Litteraire," tome xi. Querbeuf, de, deh k^R'buf , (Yves Mathurin Ma- rie,) a French litteratetir, born at Landerneau in 1726; died about 1799. Quercetanus, the Latin of Duchesne, which see. Querela, della, dSKli kw^R'chS, (Jacopo,) an able Italian sculptor, born near Sienna about 1378. He decorated the Duomo or Cathedral of Florence with some bas-reliefs, and sculptured the ornaments of the door-way of San Petronio at Bologna. Died in 1442. Querenghi, kwi-r§n'gee, (Antonio,) an Italian poet, born at Padua in 1546. He was secretary of the Sacred College at Rome under five popes. He wrote verses in Latin and Italian. Died in 1633. Querini, kwi-ree'nee, or Quirini, kwe-ree'nee, [Lat. Queri'nus,] (Angelo Maria,) Cardinal, an eminent Italian writer, born of a noble family at Venice in 1680. He published on the liturgy of the Greek Church a work entitled " Olficium Quadrigesimale Graecorum," (1721.) About 1722 he was made Archbishop of Corfii. He was translated to the see of Brescia in 1728, soon after which he became librarian of the Vatican. Among his works are " Specimen of Brescian Literature," ("Specimen Literaturae Brixianae," 1739,) and many Latin Epistles, (1742-49.) Voltaire dedicated his "Semi- ramis" to Querini, who was remarkable for his amiable virtues. Died in 1755. See his autobiography, " Commentarius de Rebus pertinentibus ad A. M. Querinum," 2 vols., 1749; Breithaiipt, "Geschichte des Cardinal Querini," 1752 ; C. F. Hoffman, " Programma de Quirino g;lorioso," 1753; Sambuca, " Lettera intomo alia Morte del Cardinal Quirini," 1757 ; Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri ;" " Nou- velle Biographic Generale." Querlon, de, deh k^R'liN', (Anne Gabriel Meus- nier,) a French editor and compiler, born at Nantes in 1702. He edited the works of many ancient and mod- ern authors, and was for twenty years editor of a journal entitled "Les Petites Affiches." Died in 1780. Querno, kw^R'no, (Camillo,) an Italian poet, born at Monopoli about 1470. He wrote a Latin poem en- titled "Alexias." Died at Naples in 1528. Querouaille. See Keroual, de, (Louise.) Quesnay, ki'ni', (Francois,) a French physician, distinguished as a political economist, was born at Merei, near Montfort I'Amaury, in 1694. He was self-educated, and settled in Paris about 1737. He purchased the office of physician-in-ordinary to the king about 1745. He advocated the abolition of corvees, free trade in grain, and other reforms, which have been since adopted. Among his works was one entitled " Economic Pic- ture," ("Tableau economique," 1 758.) He was called the chief of the sect of economistes, whose favourite maxim was " Laissez faire et laissez passer," ("Let things take care of themselves.") Died in 1774. Turgot was one of his disciples. See "Vie de Quesnay," prefixed to his vi'orks ; Grandjean dh FoucHV, " filoge de Quesnay;" Albon, " filoge historique de M. Quesnay," 1775 ; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Quesne, ki'ny, (Jacques Salbigoton,) a French litterateur, born at Pavilly in 1778 ; died in 1859. See "Confessions de J. S. Quesne," 3 vols., 1828-35. Quesne, du. See Duquesne. Quesnel, ki'n^l', (Francois,) a painter, of French origin, born at Edinburgh about 1544; died in Paris in 1619. Quesnel, (Francois Jean Baptists,) Baron, a French general, born at Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1765 ; died in 1819. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, Vi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) QUESNEL 1856 QUINCr Quesnel, (Louis FRANgois,) a French general, born in Paris in 1773. He distinguished himself in Spain, (1808-11.) Died in 1815. Quesnel, (Pasquier,) a French Jansenist writer, born in Paris in 1634. He became a priest of the Oratory, from which he was expelled in 1684 because he refused to sign a formulary which condemned Jansenism. To escape persecution, he retired to Brussels in 1685, and published his work on the New Testament, called " Re- flexions morales," etc., (1694,) which was condemned by the spiritual and temporal powers and anathematized by the pope in the famous bull ** Unigenitus," (1713.) Quesnel wrote other works, and, after the death of Ar- nauld, was regarded as the chief of the Jansenists. He died at Amsterdam in 17 19. See " Causa Qiiesnelliaiia," ]-5riissels, 1704; Moreri, " Diction- naire Historique ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generals/' Quesnel, (Pierre,) a French writer, born at Dieppe about 1699. He wrote a " History of the Jesuits," (4 vols., 1740,) in which he shows himself hostile to that society. Died about 1774. Quesnoy, du. See Duquesnoy. Questel, ki'tSK, (Charles Auguste,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1807, He obtained medals of the first class in 1852 and 1855. Quetant, keh-t6N^ (Antoine FRANgois,) a French dramatic author, born in Paris in 1733 ; died in 1823. Quetelet, ket-la^ (Lambert Adolphe Jacques,) a Belgian astronomer, born at Ghent in 1796. He became director of the Royal Observatory of Brussels in 1828, and perpetual secretary of the Royal Academy in 1834. Among his numerous works are " Criminal Statistics of Belgium," (1832,) "Elements of Astronomy," (4th edition, 1848,) and "Annals of the Royal Observatory," (14 vols., 1843-59.) He contributed many scientific articles to various journals. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Quetif, keh-t^f, (Jacques), a learned French Do- minican monk, born in Paris in 161 8. He wrote " Scriptores Ordinis Praedicatorum recensiti," (2 vols., 1719-21,) which contains notices of many Dominicans who were authors. Died in 1698. Quevedo. See Mauzinho. Quevedo y Villegas, de, dk ki-va'Do e v^l-ya'gSs, usually called simply Quevedo, (Francisco Gomez — go'mSth,) an eminent and original Spanish author and satirist, born in Madrid in September, 1580. He was brought up in the royal palace by his mother, who was a lady of the bed-chamber, and learned the ancient lan- guages at Alcala. He was distinguished for his gallantry, was an expert swordsman, and fought several duels. In the prime of life he was employed in imjjortant affairs at Naples by the viceroy, the Duke of Ossuna. He wrote in prose and verse a variety of works, which were very popular. Among his prose works are " Sueiios," ("Visions," or "Dreams," 1649,) which are greatly ad- mired for their wit and humour, and " Life of the Great Knave," (" Vida del gran Tacano,") a romance. He wrote dramas, (which are lost,) odes, sonnets, satires, etc. He is said to have resembled Voltaire in his talent for ridicule, his versatility, and the skill with which he arraigned abuses before the tribunal of public opinion. He suffered much political persecution, and was im- prisoned several years. Died in 1645. See Don Pablo Antonio de Tarsia, "Vida de Don Fr.de Quevedo y Villegas," Madrid, 1663; "Nouvelle Biographic Gene- rale;" TiciCNOR, " History of Spanish Literature," vol. ii. ; Baena, "Hijos de Madrid," vol. ii. Queverdo, keh-v§RMo', (FRAwgois Marie Isidore,) a French designer and etcher, born in Bretagne in 1740; died in 1808. Quicherat, k^sh'Rt', (Jule.s,) a French antiquary, born in Paris in 1815, has written" several works on French antiquities and on the history of Joan of Arc. Quicherat, (Louis,) a lexicographer, a brother of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1799. He published an excellent " Poetical Treasury of the Latin Language," ("Thesaurus poeticus Linguae Latinae," 1836,) and a Latin-PVench Dictionary, (1844,) which is said to be the best work of the kind published in France. Quick, (John,) an English nonconformist minister, born at Plymouth in 1636. He wrote, besides other works, " Synodlcon in Gallia reformata," (1692.) He preached in London for many years. Died in 1706. Quick, (John,) an English comedian, born in London in 1748 ; died in 1831. Quien. See Lequien. Qui-e'tus, a Roman, who in 260 A.D. was supported by part of the army as emperor or partner of his brother Macrianus in imperial power. He was put to death in Asia by Odenatus in 262 A.D. Quignones. See Quinones. Quillet, ke'yi', (Claude,) a French writer of Latin poetry, sometimes called Calvidus L/^tus, was born at Chinon, in Touraine, in 1602. He wrote a poem entitled " On the Method of having Beautiful Offspring," (" Calli- paedia, seu de pulchrae Prolis habendae Ratione," 1655,) which was generally admired. Died in 1661. Quilliard, ke'e-ytl<^ (Pierre Antoine,) a French painter and etcher, born in Paris in 171 1 ; died in Lisbon in 1733- Quin, (James,) an eminent English actor, born in London in 1693, was a grandson of Mark Quin, a lord mayor of Dublin. He began to perform at Drury Lane about 1716, obtained great success in the ro/e of "Fal- stafif " in 1720, and was the most popular actor of England until he was surpassed by Garrick. He taught elocution to Prince George, (afterwards George III.) On hearing that king's first speech from the throne, Quin exclaimed, " I taught the boy to speak." He once released the poet Thomson from prison by payment of the debt for which he was confined. He retired from the stage in 1748. Died at Bath in 1766. See a " Life of Quin," anonymous, 1766. Quinault, ke'nd', ( Jean Baptiste Maurice, ) a French comic actor, born in Paris about 1690 ; died in 1744. Quinault, ( Jeanne Fran^oise, ) a comic actress, a sister of the preceding, was born about 1700; died in 1783. Quinault, (Philippe,) a French dramafic poet, born in Paris in 1635. He produced in his youth several tragedies and comedies, among which is "La Mere Coquette," (1664,) and was admitted into the French Academy in 1670. His reputation is founded chieflly on his operas, the music of which was composed by LuUi. Between 1672 and 1686 Quinault and LuUi produced fourteen operas, among which "Armide" (1686) is the master-piece. Others are entitled " Cadmus," " Alceste," "Isis," " Persee," "Roland," etc. He is called by some the first writer of French operas. " What can be more beautiful, and even sublime," says Voltaire, "than this chorus in * Alceste,' ' Tout mortel doit ici paraitre' ?" etc. Died in 1688. See "Vie de Quinault," prefixed to his Works, 5 vols., 1739; Crapelet, "Notice sur la Vie de Quinault," 1824; Perrault, " Les Hommes illustres;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Quinault-Dufresne, ke'no' dii'fRiN', ( Arraham Alexis,) a popular French actor, born at Verdun-sur- le-Doubs in 1693. He performed in tragedy and high comedy. He was a brother of Jean B. M. Quinault, noticed above. Died in 1767. Quin'by, (Isaac F.,) an American general, born in New Jersey, graduated at West Point about 1843. He became a brigadier-general of volunteers early in 1862, and commanded a division of General Grant's army in the operations against Vicksburg in 1863. Quincey, De. See De Quincey. Quinctilianus. See Quintiltan. Quin'cy, (Edmund,) an American writer and oppo- nent of slavery, a son of Josiah Quincy, noticed below, was born in Boston in 1808. He contributed to several newspapers and periodicals, and wrote " Wensley, a Story without a Moral," (1854.) Quin'cy, (John,) an English medical writer, practised medicine in London. Among his works is "Lexicon Physico-Medicum." Died in 1723. Quincy, (Josiah,) an American orator and patriot, born in Massachusetts in 1744, was a son of Josiah Quincy, a merchant of Boston. He became a lawyer, and began about 1767 to write political essays against the measures of the British ministry. He also rendered important services to the popular cause by his fervid a, e, T, 6, ii, y, /on^^; h, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sAori; a, e, i, o, obscure; Qx, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; QUINCr 1857 QUINTUS and powerful eloquence. His chief political work is "Observations on the Boston Port Bill, with Thoughts on Civil Government," etc., (1774-) He gave proof of moral courage by defending Captain Pre.ston and several soldiers in their trial for killing certain citizens in the Boston massacre of March, 1770, To promote the public welfare and the cause of liloerty, he made a voyage to England in October, 1774. He heard and reported a celebrated speech made by Lord Chatham in defence of the Americans, January 20, 1775. He conferred with Dr. Franklin and other friends of the cause in England, and hastened to return with counsels and plans which it was not prudent to commit to writing; but before the end of his voyage he died at sea, April, 1775. He was deeply lamented by the public. See a " Life of Josiah Quincy, Jr.," by his son Josiah, 1825. Quincy, (Josiah,) an eminent statesman and scholar, born in Boston on the 4th of February, 1772, was a son of the preceding. He graduated at Harvard College in 1790, and studied law. He joined the Federalist party, and represented Boston in Congress from 1804 to 18 13. During this period he opposed the measures of the dominant party with great energy and decision. He made a celebrated speech against the bill for the admis- sion of Louisiana in 181 1, and opposed the war of 1812. " He was equal to the emergency," says R. W. Griswold, "and sustained himself on all occasions with manly in- dependence, sound argument, and fervid declamation." He was a member of the Senate of Massachusetts from 1814 to 1820, became a judge of the municipal court of Boston in 1822, and served as mayor of Boston from 1823 to 1829. In 1829 he was elected president of Har- vard University. He published, besides other works, a "Memoir of Josiah Quincy, Jr.," (1825,) a "History of Harvard University," (2 vols., 1840,) "Speeches in Congress and Orations," and a " Life of John Q. Adams," {1858.) He resigned the presidency of Harvard in 1845. In 1856 he publicly advocated the election of Colonel Fremont to the Presidency. He died in July, 1864, aged ninety-two. • See "Life of Josiah Quincy," by his son, Edmund Quincy; R. W. Griswold, "Prose Writers of America;" Duvckinck, "Cyclo- pasdia of American Literature." vol. i. Quincy, de, deh k^N'se', (Charles Sevin — seh- viN^,) Marquis, a French general and military writer, born near Meaux in 1666. He wrote a "Military His- tory of the Reign of Louis XIV.," (8 vols., 1726.) Died in 1736. Quincy, de, (QuATREMiRE.) See QuATREMfeRE. Quinet, ke'n^', (Edgar,) a French writer and phi- losopher, born at Bourg (Ain) in 1803, became a friend of Michelet. He obtained in 1842 in the College of France a chair of southern literatures, (litteratures meri- dionales.) He acted with the republicans ( extreme gauche) in the Constituent and Legislative Assemblies of 1848-9. Among his various works are " Prometheus," a poem, (1838,) "Germany and Italy: Philosophy and Poetry," (1839,) "The Genius of Religions," (1S43,) and "The Revolutions of Italy," (3 vols., 1852.) He was banished from France in 1852. See Chassin, " E. Quinet, sa Vie et son CEuvre," 1859 ; G. Planche, " Portraits Litleraires ;" Bataii.i.ard, " QEuvre philoso- phique et sociale d'E. Quinet," 1845 ; Quinet, " Histoire de mes Idees," 1858; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Quinette, ke'ngt', (Nicolas Marie,) a French revo- lutionist, born at Soissons in 1762. He was elected to the Convention in 1792, and was one of the four com- missaries sent to arrest Dumouriez, who seized and delivered them to the Austrians, (April, 1793.) He was minister of the interior for a short time in 1799. Died in 1821. Quinones, de, di k^n-yo'n&s, sometimes written Quignonez, (Francisco,) a Spanish cardinal, born in the kingdom of Leon, became confessor to Charles V. He negotiated the release of Pope Clement VII., de- tained or 1)esieged by the Spanish army, in 1527. He published "Breviarium Romanum," (1535.) Died in 1540. Quinsonas, de, deh k^N'so'nls', (Francois Dugas,) a French poet, born at Lyons in 1 7 19, wrote epigrams against Voltaire. Died in 1768. Quintana, YhnAllxA, (Manuel Jos^,) an eminent Spanish poet and patriot, was born in Madrid in Apiil, 1772. lie studied law at Salamanca, where he formed a friendship with Melendez and Cienfuegos. He began tcf write verses about 1790. His "Ode to the Sea" (1798) is one of the most beautiful in the Spanish lan- guage. He wrote other excellent odes, one of which is "On the Battle of Trafalgar." In 1807 he published the first volume of the " Lives of Celebrated Spaniards," (3 vols., 1807-34,) which is highly commended. Between 1808 and 1814 he employed his talents and influence against the French invaders, and wrote several eloquent manifestoes for the national party. These services were rewarded with rigorous imprisonment for six years (1814-20) by Ferdinand VII., who was offended because Quintana advocated liberal principles. He propitiated the king by an ode in honour of his marriage in 1828, and was permitted to return to Madrid. In 1835 he was appointed director-general of public instruction, and became a senator. He directed the education of the young queen in 1840-43. He was publicly crowned with laurel by the queen in 1855. Died in March, 1857. See TiCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature:" Kennedv, "Modern Poets of Spain;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Quinte-Curce. See Quintus Curtius. Quin-til'I-an, [Lat. Quintilia'nus or Quinctilia'- Nus ; Fr. Quintilien, klN'te1e4.N',] (Marcus Fabius,) a celebrated Roman critic and teacher of rhetoric, was born probably between 40 and 50 a.d. Jerome states that he was a native of Calagurris, (Calahorra,) in the northern part of Spain ; but some modern writers think he was born in Rome. He obtained a high reputation as a pleader, and was the first public instructor who received from the imperial treasury a regular salary. Among his pupils was the Younger Pliny. He taught rhetoric for twenty years, and retired from that pro- fession in the reign of Domitian, who appointed him preceptor of his grand-nephews. His chief work is a treatise on the education of an orator, " Institutio Ora- toria," divided into twelve books. This is the most complete and methodical treatise on rhetoric that has come down to us from antiquity. An entire copy of it was found by Poggio at Saint Gall in 141 7. His style is clear, elegant, and highly polished. His practical ideas are good, but his criticisms are rather superficial. He gives judicious precepts for students, and interesting details of the education and classic studies of the an- cients. His merit consists in sound judgment, propriety, and good taste, rather than in originality or elevation of mind. He is supposed to have died about 118 A.D. He wrote a work on the corruption or decadence of elo- quence, "De Causis Corruptae Eloquentiae," which is not extant. His "Institutio" has been translated into English by Guthrie (1756) and Patsall, (1774.) See RuDiGER, "De Quintiliano Pjedagogo," 1850 ; V. Otto, "Quintilian und Rousseau," 1836; J. Janin, "Pline le Jeune et Quintilien," 1838; Hummel, " Quintiliani Vita," 1843; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Quintilianus. See Quintilian. Quintilien. See Quintilian. Quintinie, de la, deh It kiN'te'ne', (Jean,) an emi- nent French gardener and writer on gardening, was born at Chabanais (Angoumois) in 1626. He was appointed intendant of the fruit-gardens of the king at Versailles in 1673. He made much improvement in the cultivation of fruit-trees, and left a work which was for a long time the guide of French cultivators. It is entitled " Direc- tions for Fruit and Kitchen Gardens," (" Instructions pour les Jardins fruitiers et potagers," 1690.) Died in 1688. Quinto Curzio. See Quintus Curtius. Quin'tus CaFa-ber or Q. Smyr-nae'us, (smir- nee'us,) [Fr. Quintus De Calabre, k^N'tiiss' deh kt'- ItbR', or Quintus de Smyrne, kiN^tiiss' deh sm^Rn,] a Greek poet, known only as the author of one poem, is supposed to have lived about 500 a.d. He is called Calaber because a manuscript of his work was found in Calabria. According to his own statement, he was a native of Smyrna. He wrote a continuation of Homer's " Iliad," {'Ofxr/pov TiapaTinrdfieva,) which contains some € as i; 9 as s; g Aard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2!^=°See Explanations, p. 23.) 117 QUINTUS 1858 RABELAIS beautiful passages. The subjects of it are those events of the Trojan war which are not related by Homer. Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius. See Quadri- GARIUS. Quin'tus Cur'tius (kur'she-us) Ru'fus, [Fr. Quinte- CuRCE, k^Nt kiiRss ; It. Q^nto CuRzro, kw^n'to kooRt'se-o,] a Roman historian of uncertain period, is supposed to have lived after the Augustan age. Nothing is known of his birthplace or personal history. We find in ancient writers no passage which certainly refers to him. He is the author of a " History of Alexan- der the Great," (" De Rebus Alexandri Magni Regis Macedonum,") in ten books, of which the first and second are lost. The merit of this history is variously estimated. His style is easy, clear, and rhetorical. He is deficient in critical judgment and in a knowledge of geography and military tactics. Among his modern admirers are Vossius, Bayle, Rapin, Tiraboschi, and La Harpe. His work has been translated into English by Brende and Digby. See BuTTMANN, " Ueber das Leben des Geschichtschreibers Quintus Curtius Rufus," 1820; J. E. Muller, " Programma de Q. Curtio Rufo," 1695; Adolph Hirt, "Ueber das Leben des Geschichtschreibers Q. Curtius Rufus," 1820; Niebuhr, "Kleine Schriften," i. Quintus de Calabre or de Smyrne. See Quin- tus Calaber. Quiot du Passage, ke'o' dii pt'stzh', (J^:r6me Joachim,) a French general, born at Alixan (Drome) in 1775 ; died in 1849. Quirini. See Querinl Quirinus, a surname of Romulus, (which see.) Quiroga, ke-ro'ga, (Jos6,) a Spanish Jesuit, born in Galicia in 1707. About 1745 he was sent by the King of Spain to explore Patagonia. He wrote a journal of his voyage, which was inserted by Charlevoix in his " History of Paraguay," Died in 1784. Quiros, kee'ris, (Lorenzo,) a Spanish painter, born in Estremadura in 1 717. He worked at Seville, and imitated Murillo with success. Died in 1789. Quiros, (Pedro.) See Queiros. Quirot, ke'ro', (Jean Baptiste,) a French advocate, born in Franche-Comte about 1760, was a moderate member of the Convention, (1792-95.) In the trial of the king he voted for imprisonment. Died in 1830. Quistorp, kwis'toRp, (Johann,) a German Lutheran divine and biblical commentator, born at Rostock in 1584. He became professor of divinity in his native city in 1614. Died in 1648. Quistorp, von, fon kwis'toRp, (Johann Christian,) a German jurist, born at Rostock in 1737, became pro- fessor of law at Biitzow. Died in 1795, Quita, kee'ta, (Domingos dos Reis,) a Portuguese poet, born in 1728. He wrote "Inez de Castro," and other tragedies. Died in 1770, See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetrj' of Europe." Quit'man, (John Anthony,) an American general and Democratic politician, born in Dutchess county, New York, in 1799. Appointed to the command of a brigade in 1846, he fought with distinction in the prin- cipal engagements of the Mexican war, and was subse- quently elected Governor of Mississippi. He was chosen a member of Congress in 1855 and in 1857, Died in 1858. See Claiborne, " Life of J. A. Quitman," i860. R. Rabanis, rt'bt'n^ss', (Jean,) a French historian, born about 1800. He wrote a " History of Bordeaux," (ist vol., 1837,) Raban Maur, See Rabanus. Rabanus Maurus Magnentius, rS-bi'nus mow'- rus mig-n§n'se-us, [Fr. Raban Maur, rt'bdN' moR,] a German theologian, born at or near Mentz about 786 or 776 A.D. He became Archbishop of Mentz in 847. He wrote commentaries on Scripture, and was regarded as one of the greatest scholars and writers of his time. Died in 856 a.d. See " GaUia Christiana ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Rabaut, rt'bo', (Paul,) an eininent French Protestant minister, born at Bedarieux in 1718. He preached many years at Nimes, and was much persecuted. Died at Nimes in 1794. See J. Pons, " Notice sur P. Rabaut," 1808. Rabaut-Pommier, rt'bo' po'me^', (Jacques An- TOINE,) a French Girondist, born atTJimes iii 1744, was .1 son of the preceding. He was elected to the Conven- tion in 1792, was proscribed in 1793, and imprisoned until the 9th Thermidor, 1794. In 1801 he became pas- tor of the Protestant Church of Paris. Some French writers claim for him the honour of the discovery of vaccination. Died in 1820. See Haag, " La France protestante." Rabaut-Saint-^tienne, rt'bo' siN^ti'te-^n', (Jean Paul,) a brother of the preceding, was born at Nimes in 1743, and was a Protestant minister before the Revolu- tion. He distinguished himself by his eloquence in the Constituent Assembly, (1789-92,) and voted against the death of the king in the Convention. Having taken side with the Girondists, he was outlawed in July, and exe- cuted in December, 1793, He left several able historical and political works. See Collin de Plancy, " Notice de Rabaut-Saint-fitienne," prefixed to his works, 1826; Haag, "La France protestante;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Rabbe, rtb, (Alphonse,) a French litterateur, born at Riez, in Provence, in 1786. He was one of the editors of the " Biographie universelle des Contemporains," by Rabbe, Boisiolin, and Saint-Preuve. Died in 1830, Rabel, rrb^K, (Daniel,) a French painter of por- traits and flowers, was born about 1578; died after 1630, Rabel, (Jean,) a painter and engraver, born at Beau- vais, was the father of the preceding. He painted portraits of several kings and queens. Died in Paris in 1603. RabelaBsius. See Rabelais. Rabelais, rt'beh-li' or rtl/la', [Lat. Rabel^'sius,] (Francois,) a famous and humorous French satirist, born at Chinon, in Touraine, in 1495, '^^^ some say, in 1483, At an early age he joined the order of Franciscans, but, finding the monastic life incompatible with his genial disposition, he quitted the convent without the consent of his superiors. He had made himself master of Greek, Latin, and other languages. He was also versed in several sciences. It is difficult or impossible to distin- guish the real events of his life amidst the multitude of strange adventures and ludicrous anecdotes which are told respecting hitn. He began to study medicine at Montpellier alDout 1530, after which he practised at Lyons. In 1536 he accompanied to Rome the ambas- sador Cardinal Du Bellay, who had been his friend in early life. He obtained absolution from the pope for his neglect of the monastic vows, and took his degree in medicine at Montpellier in 1537, His chief work is a humorous romance, entitled "The Pleasant Story of the Giant Gargantua and his Son Pantagruel," (" Les Faits et Diets du Geant Gargantua et de son Fils Panta- gruel,") in which he satirizes all classes of society, es- pecially the monks. He obtained from Francis I, in 1545 a privilege to print the third part of this work. The first part had been published anonymously in 1535. The work was denounced as heretical by the clergy and monks, but the author was protected by Francis I. He became curate of Meudon about 1545. Died about 1553. "The most celebrated," says Hallam, "and certainly the most brilliant performance in the path of fiction that belongs to this age is that of Rabelais. Few books are less likely to obtain the praise of a rigorous critic ; but few have more the stamp of originality, or show a more redundant fertility always of language and sometimes of imagination." (" Introduction to the Literature of Eu- rope.") " Beyond a doubt," says Coleridge, " he was among the deepest as well as boldest thinkers of his age. ... I class Rabelais with the great creative minds, Shakspeare, Dante, Cervantes, etc." 5, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; RABENER 1859 RACINE A good edition of his chief work was published by Burgaud des Marets and Rathery, (2 vols., 1858.) See Delecluse, " F. Rabelais," 1841; P. Lacroix, "Vie de Rabelais," 1859; E. Noel, "Legendes Francaises ; Rabelais," 1859; Almquist, " Dissertatio de Vita et Scriptis F. Rabelsesii," 1838; "Lives of the Most Eminent French Writers," by Mrs. Shelley; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1843 ; " British Quarterly Review" for November, 1849; " Eraser's Magazine" for November, 1839. Rabener, r^'beh-ner, (Gottlieb Wilhelm,) a popu- lar German writer, born near Leipsic in 17 14, was an intimate friend of Gellert. He published a collection of satires in the form of letters, (1751,) also "Friendly Letters." He was employed many years at Dresden as counsellor in the department of customs. Died in 177L See MuRR, "An Rabeners Schatten," 1771 ; Gervinus, " Natio- nalliteratur." Ra-birl-us, (Caius,) a Roman poet, was a contem- porary of Virgil. He wrote a poem on the battle of Actium, fragments of which are extant. Rabirius, (Caius,) a Roman, who was accused of complicity in the death of Saturninus. He was defended by Cicero (63 B.C.) in a speech, part of which is extant. Raboteau, rt'bo't5', (Piprre Paul,) a French poet, born at La Rochelle in 1765 ; died in 1825. Rabou, ri'boo', (Charle.s,) a French novelist and journalist, born in Paris in 1803. Rabuel, rt^bii-^K, (Claude,) a French mathematician, born at Ponte-de-Vesle in 1669 ; died at Lyons in 1728. Rabus, ri'bus, (Pieter,) a Dutch poet," born at Rot- terdam in 1660. He wrote "Britain Delivered," ("Ver- iest Britannie," 1689,) and some prose works. Died in 1702. Rabutin. See Bussy-Rabutin. Rabutin, de, deh rfbii'tSx', (Francois,) a French historical writer, was a grandfather of Bussy-Rabutin. He wrote a " History of the War between Henry H. and Charles V.," (1555.) Died in 1582. Racagni, rS-kin'yee, (Giovanni,) an Italian pro- fessor of physical sciences, born near Voghera in 1741. He wrote "Theory of Fluids," ("Teorica de' Fluid!," 1779.) Died at Milan in 1822. Racan, de, deh rS'kSx', (Honorat de Bueil — deh bul or buh'ye,) Marquis, a French poet, born in Tou- raine in 1589, was a friend of Malherbe. He wrote "Les Bergeries," (" Pastorals," 1628,) and other poems. " Racan had more genius than Malherbe," says Boileau, "but he was more negligent." He was a member of the French Academy. Died in 1670. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Racchetti, rik-ket'tee, (Bernardo,) an Italian painter, born at Milan in 1639 ; died in 1702. Ra'chel, [Heb. ; It. Rachele, ri-ka'li,] a He- brew matron, was a daughter of Laban, and the favourite wife of the patriarch Jacob. See Genesis xxix., xxx., xxxi., and xxxv. Rachel, rt'sh^l', ( Elisabeth Rachel F6lix, ) a ! French tragic actress, born in the canton of Argovie, j Switzerland, in 1821, was a daughter of a Jewish ped- | lar. She made her debut at the Theatre Fran9ais of Paris in 1838, and performed parts in the tragedies of Corneille and Racine with great success. Her gait, j attitudes, gestures, and voice concurred to produce power- j ful effects with a great simplicity of means. She was I much applauded in the ro/es of " Marie Stuart" and j "Joan of Arc." In 1855 she performed in New York, | Boston, and Philadelphia. She died near Cannes (Var) in 1858. See EucfeME deMirecourt, " Mademoiselle Rachel L. Beau- vali.et, " Rachel et le Nouveau-Monde," 1S56; "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Rachel, rSK'el, (Joachim,) a German satirical poet, born at Lunden, Holstein, in 1618. He was rector of colleges at Norden and Sleswick, and wrote ten satires, (1664,) in which he imitated Juvenal and Persius with some success. Died in 1669. See Gervinus, " Nationalliteratur." Rachetti, rl-ket'tee, or Racchetti, rik-ket'tee, (Vincenzo,) an Italian physician, born at Crema in 1777. He wrote a " Theory of the Physical Prosperity of Nations," (1802.) Died in 1819. See Cornelian!, " Elogiodel Professore V. Rachetti," 1832. Racine, rt's^n', (Bonaventure,) a French Jansenist ecclesiastic, born in the diocese of Noyon in 1 708, was a relative of the poet Racine. He published an " Eccle- siastical History," (13 vols., 1748-56.) Died in 1755. Racine, ras'seen' or ri's^n', (Jean,) an excellent French dramatic poet, born at Ferte-Milon (Aisne) De- cember 21, 1639. His parents, who were bourgeois, died before he was four years old. He studied at the College of Beauvais, and afterwards at the famous school of Port- Royal, in which he passed three years, (1655-58.) He became a good Latin and Greek scholar. He began his poetical career by "La Nymphe de la Seine," (1660,) an ode on occasion of the marriage of Louis XIV., which procured for him a small pension. Having become dis- gusted with the study of theology, which an uncle had persuaded him to pursue, he went to Paris, and forn^ friendships with Boileau and Moliere. He produced^n 1664 the tragedy of " La Thebaide, ou les Freres enne- mis," which had some success. The first work which revealed the power and peculiar character of his genius was " Andromaque," (1667.) In 1668 he surprised the public by a comedy called " The Litigants," (" Les Plai- deurs,") which was very successful. He afterwards pro- duced the tragedies of " Britannicus," (1669,) " Bere- nice," (1670,) " Bajazet," (1672,) " Jjfithridate," (1673,) "Iphigenie," (1674,) and " Phedre,*(i677.) "I avow," says \^oltaire, " that I regard ' Iphigenie' as the chef- d'mivre of the stage." He was admitted into the French Academy in 1673. At the age of thirty-eight he resolved to renounce dramatic composition. This resolution is variously ascribed to religious scruples, wounded sensibilities, or disgust excited by envious intrigues and malicious criti- cisms. He married in 1677 a pious young woman of Amiens, named Catherine Romanet, and was appointed historiographer by Louis XIV. In compliance with the wish of Madame de Maintenon, Racine wrote " Esther," a drama, (1689,) and " Athalie," (1691,) which was his last, and, in the opinion of Boileau, his best, drama. In the latter part of his life he was geiitleman-in-ordinary to the king, who often conversed with him, and treated him with favour. Among his intimate friends were Boileau, La Fontaine, and La Bruyere. Racine wrote about 1695 a " History of Port-Royal," the style of which is so neat and perspicuous that it entitles him to rank in the list of those authors who have succeeded both in verse and prose. His natural disposition was rather melancholy and tender. During the last twenty years of his life he was a devout member of the Church. He died on the 21st of April, 1699. It is usual to compare Racine with Corneille as a rival poet. "Voltaire, La Harpe, and in general the later French critics," says Hallam, "have given the prefer- ence to Racine. I presume to join my suffrage to theirs. Racine appears to me the superior tragedian ; and I must add that I think him next to Shakspeare among all the moderns. The comparison with Euripides is so natural that it can hardly be avoided. Certainly no tragedy of the Greek poet is so skilful or perfect as 'Athalie' or 'Britannicus.' . . . The style of Racine is exquisite. Perhaps he is second only to Virgil among all poets. But I will give the praise of this in the words of a native critic : ' If we consider that his perfection in these respects may be opposed to that of Virgil, and that he spoke a language less flexible, less poetical, and less harmonious, we shall readijy believe that Racine is, of all mankind, the one to whom nature has given the greatest talent for versification.' (La Harpe.) " See " Memoirs of J. Racine," by bis son Louis, 1747; La Harpe, " filoge de Racine," 1772; S.-\inte-Bel've, " Causeries du Lundi;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" L. A. C. Beyle, "Racine et Shakspeare," 2 vols., 1823- 25; Naigeon, "Notice sur la Vie de Racine," 1783; Villemain, " Cours de Literature ;" "Lives of the Most Eminent Erench Writers," by Mrs. Shelley. Racine, (Louis,) the second son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1692, and was a poet and critic of considerable merit. Boileau advised him not to write verse; for, said he, "since the world began there has been no instance of two great poets related to each other as father and son." He wrote a poem entitled "La Grace," (1720,) and another entitled "La Religion," € as k; 9 as j; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) RACK i860 RADOWITZ (1742,) which was highly praised by J. B, Rousseau, and passed through sixty editions. He was employed for many years as clerk or collector of taxes, (directeur des fervies.) In 1755 his son was drowned at Cadiz by the earthquake which nearly destroyed Lisbon. Died in 1763. See Le Peau, "filoge de Louis Racine," 1763; Adrien de la RoQUE, "Vie de L. Racine," 1852; " Nouvelie Biographic Gene- rale." Rack, (Edmund,) an English poet, born in Norfolk in 1735 ; died in 1787. Racle, rtkl, (Leonard,) a French architect, born in Dijon in 1736. He was employed at Ferney by Voltaire, who recommended him to the prime minister Choiseul. Died in 1791. ^Raczynski, rS-chin'skee, (Athanasius,) a Polish ■m-iter on art, born in 1788. He was Prussian minister at Copenhagen, Lisbon, and Madrid from 1840 to 1853. He wrote (in French) a " History of Modern Art in Germany," (3 vols., 1836-42,) which is a work of some merit. Raczynski, (Eduard,) a Polish count and writer, born at Posen in 1786, was a brother of the preceding. He presented to his native city a library of twenty thou- sand volumes. Aj»ong his publications are "Travels in the Ottoman Empffe," (1821,) and a "Cabinet of Polish Medals," (4 vols., 1841-45.) He committed suicide in 1845. Rad'bert, [Fr. pron. rtd'baiR',] (Paschase,) a French monk, born near Soissons. He wrote several works, one of which is *' On the Eucharist." He advocated the dogma of transubstantiation. Died in 865 a.d. Radcliffe or Radclyffe, rad''klif, (Ann,) a popular English novelist, born in London in 1764. Her maiden name was Ward. She was married about 1786 to Wil- liam Radcliffe, editor of the "English Chronicle." Her most successful works are "The Romance of the Forest," (1791,) and "The Mysteries of Udolpho," (1794.) The terrible, sombre, mysterious, and marvellous predomi- nate in her compositi(Mis. Died in 1823. See Sir Walter Scott's Miscellaneous Prose Works; Mrs. Elwood, " Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England from the Commencement of the Last Century," vol. ii., 1843: "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1834; "Monthly Review" for May, 1792, and March, 1797. Radcliffe, (James.) See Derwentwater. Radcliffe, (John,) a successful English physician, born at Wakefield, Yorkshire, in 1650, was educated at Oxford. He settled in London in 1684, and soon ob- tained a large practice, to which his talent for pleasantry and witticisms is said to have contributed. He became chief physician to the princess Anne in 1686, after which date he was employed professionally by King William, whom he once offended by his rudeness or freedom of speech. He died in November, 1 7 14. He bequeathed ;^40,ooo to build or found a library at Oxford which bears his name, and other large sums for charitable uses. See W. PiTTis, " Radcliffe's Life and Letters," 1715 ; " Biogra- phia Britannica." Radcliffe or Ratcliffe, (Thomas,) Earl of Sussex, an English statesinan, born about 1526, was a son of Henry, Earl of Sussex. He was sent to Spain to nego- tiate the marriage between Queen Mary and Philip IL, and on his return became lord deputy of Ireland. Li 1569 he was appointed president of the North. He rendered important services in the suppression of the northern rebellion. He became lord chamberlain about 1572. Died in 1583. Raddi, rSdMee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian botanist, born at Florence in 1770. He was associated in 1828 with Rosellini and Champollion in a mission to Egypt. When about to return home, he died at Rhodes in 1829. See G. Savi, "Alia Memoria di G. Raddi," 1S30. Radegunde, rrdeh-goon'deh, or Radegonde, rt'- deh-goNd', a Thuringian princess, whom Clothaire I. made captive and forced to become his wife. She was noted for piety, and abounded in works of charity to the poor. She escaped from Clothaire about 544 a.d., be- came a nun, and founded a large convent at Poitiers. Died in 587 a.d. See Ed. de Flei;rv. "Viede Sainte-Radegonde," 1843; "Nou- velie Biographic Generale." I Rademacher, ra'deh-maK^er, or Radermacher, xV- der-maK'er, (J. C. M.,) a Dutch geographer, born in 1741. j He founded the Society of Sciences at Batavia in 1778. Died at sea in 1783. Rademacher, ri'deh-tnSK'er, (Johann Gottfried,) a distinguished German physician, born at Hamm in 1772 ; died in 1849. Rademacker. See Rademaker. Rademaker, ri'deh-mak'er, written also Rade- macker, (Abraham,) a Dutch landscape-painter and engraver of high reputation, born at Amsterdam in 1675. He painted in oil and in water-colours. His landscapes are adorned with figures, ruins, and buildings. He pro- duced after his own designs many engravings, which are highly prized. Died in 1735. See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Rademaker or Rademacker, (Gerard,) an emi- nent painter of history and architecture, born at Amster- dam in 1673, is supposed to have been a brother of the preceding. He studied in Rome, and returned to Holland. He excelled in invention, in facility of execution, and in perspective. Died in 1711. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. Rader, r^'der, [Lat. Rade'rus,] (Matthaus,) a learned Jesuit, born in the Tyrol in 1561. He wrote notes on Quintus Curtius and Martial, and several original works, among which is " Bavaria Sancta," (3 vols., 1625-27.) Died at Mimich in 1634. Rader or Raeder, ra'der, (Jacob Tode,) a military writer, born in Norway in 1798. He wrote a "Military and Political History of Denmark," (3 vols., 1845-52.) Raderus. See Rader. Radet, ri'di', (Etienne,) a French general, born at Stenay in 1762. He was made a general of brigade in 1800 by Bonaparte, who gave him the chief command of all the gendartnerie, (armed police.) In 1809 he was ordered to Rome. In July of that year he arrested the pope in his palace and conducted him to Florence. He received the title of baron, (1809,) and became a general of division in 1813. Died in 1825. See "Nouvelie Biographie Generale." Radet, (Jean Baptiste,) a French dramatist, born at Dijon in 1752. He wrote vaudevilles. Died in 1830. Radetzky, rl-d^t'skee, (Joseph Wenzel,) a cele- brated field-marshal in the Austrian service, born in Bohemia in 1766. He served in the Turkish campaigi^s of 1788-89, and subsequently against the French on the Rhine and in Italy. For his distinguished bravery at the battle of Wagrara he was made lieutenant-field-mar- shal, and he took an active part in the campaigns from 1813 to 181 5. In the revolution of 1848 he effected a masterly retreat from Milan, then in open revolt against Austria, and, having soon after gained several advantages over the Sardinians under Charles Albert, signally de- feated them at Novara in March, 1849. He next took possession of Venice, after an obstinate siege, and was appointed governor-general and military commander of Upper Italy. He had been created a field-marshal in 1836, and had received the order of Maria Theresa and the principal military orders of Euro])e. Died in 1858. See Graf Radetzky, " Biographische Skizze nach den eigenen Dictaten," etc., Stuttgart, 1858; Prince Trubetzkoi, " Les Cam- pagnes de Radetzky," 1861 ; "Jahrbuch zum Conversations-Lexi- kon," i860. Rad'ford, (William,) an American naval officer, born in Virginia. He entered the navy in 1825. He adhered to the Union in 1861, and commanded the Ironsides in the attack on Fort Fisher in December, 1864. He was appointed rear-admiral in July, 1866. Radier, du. See Dkeux du Radier. Rad'nor, (William Pleydell Bouverie,) Earl OF, an English peer, born in 1779. He acted with the Liberal party. Radonvilliers, de, deh rtM6N've'ye-i', (Claude Franqois Lysarde,) a French writer, born in Paris in 1709. He became sub-preceptor of the princes in 1757, and was admitted into the French Academy in 1763. Ainong his works is a "Treatise on Grammar," (1768.) Died in 1789. Radowitz, von, fon rJMo-^^its', (Joseph,) a Prussian statesman and general, born at Blankenburg in 1797, a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; ftr, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; RADZIWILL 1861 RAGNAR became professor of mathematics at the military school at Cassel, and was subsequently appointed teacher to Prince Albert. He was minister-plenipotentiary to the Diet at Frankfort in 1836. He published several works on mathematics and military aflfairs. Died in 1853. Radziwill, rM'ze-\^il, (Christopher,) a Lithuanian general, born in 1585. He commanded a Polish army which held Gustavus Adolphus in check in Livonia and Courland. Died in 1640. Radziwill, (George,) a Lithuanian general, born in 1480. He gained a number of victories over the Mus- covites and Tartars, and in 1533 obtained the rank of grand general. Died in 1 541. Radziwill, (Nicolas,) a Lithuanian nobleman, born about 1 5 15. He was palatin of Wilna, and a zealous supporter of the Reformation. Died about 1565. Rae, ra, (Sir William,) a Scottish lawyer, born in 1772, was a son of Sir David Rae, a judge. He became a conservative member of Parliament, and lord ad- vocate of Scotland. Died in 1842. Raeburn, ra'burn, (Sir Henry,) a British portrait- painter, born at or near Edinburgh in 1756. He studied in Italy, from which he returned to Edinburgh in 1787. He was afterwards the most eminent porttait-painter of that city or of all Scotland. In 181 5 he was chosen a member of the Royal Academy of London. Among his works are portraits of Sir Walter Scott, Lord Jeffrey, and James Watt. The heads of his portraits are es- pecially admired. Died in 1823. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Raeder. See Rader. Raemond. See R^mond. Raepsaet, rIp'sSt, (Jean Joseph,) a Belgian histo- rian, born in 1750. He sat in the corps legislatif France from 1803 to 1813. His chief work is "An Analysis of the Origin and Progress of the Civil, Political, and Re- ligious Laws of the Belgians and Gauls." Died in 1832. See CoRNELissEN, " Notice sur M. Raepsaet," 1836. Raethel. See Rathel. Raffaelle or Raffaello. See Raphael. Raffaelli, rif-fd-eKlee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian advo- cate and jurist, born in Calabria in 1750. He succeeded Beccaria in the chair of public law at Milan in 1801. His chief work is "Nomotesia Penale," (5 vols., 1820-25.) Died at Naples in 1826. Raffaellino dal Colle. See Colle, dal. Raffaellino del Garbo, rlf-fa-§l-lee'no del gaR'bo, a painter, born at Florence in 1466. His style is said to have degenerated in consequence of the haste with which he worked after he began to be pressed with the care of a family. Died in 1524. Raifei, rJf-fa'ee, (Stefano,) an Italian antiquary, born in Tuscany in 1712 ; died in 1788. Raffeneau-Delile, rtfno' deh-l^K, (Alire,) a French botanist, born at Versailles in 1778. He was associated with the savants who accompanied the expedition to Egypt in 1798, and performed a scientific mission to the United States in 1803. He wrote a "Flora of Egypt," and other works. Died at Montpellier in 1850. Raffenel, rtfnSK, (Anne Jean Kaptiste,) a French traveller, born at Versailles in 1809. He published "Travels in Western Africa, comprising the Exploration of the Senegal," (1846,) and a description of Soodan, entitled " New Journey in the Country of the Negroes," ("Nouveau Voyage dans le Pays des Negres," 2 vols., 1856.) Died in Madagascar in 1858. Raffenel, (Claude Denis,) a French litterateur, born in 1797 ; died at Athens in 1827. Raffet, rt'fi', '(Denis Auguste Marie,) a French designer and painter, born in Paris in 1804. He pub- lished many lithographs of battles and other martial scenes. Died in i860. Raffles, raf felz, (Thomas,) D.D., LL.D., an English dissenting minister, born in London in 1788, was a cousin of vSir vStamford Raffles. He became minister of a Congregational church in Great George Street, Liverpool, about 1812, and acquired a wide reputation as a preacher. He continued to occupy that ])ulpit about fifty years. He published a number of sermons and lectures. Died in Liverpool in 1863. See BAi.nwiN Brown, " Life of Thomas Raffles," 1863. Raffles, (Sir Thomas Stamford,) an English natu- ralist and administrator, born at sea, off Jatnaica, in 1 781. He was appointed secretary of the government of the East India Company at Pulo-Penang about 1806, and became in 1811 lieutenant-governor of Java, to the capture of which he had greatly contributed. He made researches into the geography and natural history of that island, and published a " History of Java," (2 vols., 181 7.) In 1818 he was appointed lieutenant-governor at Bencoolen, in Sumatra, in the zoology of which he made some discoveries. He made a large collection of animals, plants, etc., many of which, with his papers and drawings, were destroyed by fire on board of a ship, (1824.) His loss was estimated at ;,{^20,ooo. He re- signed in 1824, and died in England in 1826. See "Memoir of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles," by his wife, 1830; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" "London Quarterly Re- view" for March, 1830; " Monihly Review" for August, 1818. Rafinesque, rSTe'ngsk', (C. S.,) born near Constan- tinople, of French parents, in 1784, became professor of botany and natural history at Transylvania University, Lexington, Kentucky, and subsequently settled in Phila- delphia. He published a book of travels and several botanical works. Died about 1840. Rafifort, rt'foR', (Etienne,) a French painter, born at Chalons-sur-Saone about 1805. He painted land- scapes, sea-ports, etc. Rafn, rSfn, (Carl Christian,) a Danish antiquary, distinguished as a lover of Icelandic literature, was born in the island of Fiinen in 1796. He published " Heroic Traditions of the North," (3 vols., 1825-30,) "Nordlanda," (3 vols., 1829-30,) and "American An- tiquities," (" Antiquitates Americanae," 1837,) which contains evidence that the Icelanders or Scandinavians discovered America in the tenth century. He resided at Copenhagen. Died in 1865. See Erslew, " Udsigt over C. Rafn's Levnet," 1840, and "For- fatter-Lexicon." Raggi, rid'jee, (Nicolas Bernard,) a sculptor, born at Carrara in 1 791, worked at Paris. Among his works are statues of Henry IV., "Bayard dying," and " Meta- bus, King of the Volsci." Died in 1862. RagTan,(jAMES Henry Fitzroy Somerset,) Baron, an English general, born in 1788, was a younger son of Henry, fifth Duke of Beaufort. His mother was a daughter of Admiral Boscawen. He served as aide-de- camp to the Duke of Wellington in the Peninsula from 1809 to 1814, and at Waterloo, where he lost his right arm. In 1819 he became military secretary to the Duke of Wellington, whom he accompanied to the Congress of Vienna and that of Verona, (1822.) He was appointed master-general of the ordnance in 1852, and raised to the peerage as Baron Raglan. Before this promotion he was styled Lord Fitzroy Somerset. He commanded the British army in the Crimean war, which began in 1854, and co-operated with the French at Alma in Sep- tember. His army suffered great disasters during the long siege of Sebastopol, (1854-55,) for want of pro- visions, etc. He was painfully affected by the repulses and losses of the allies, and died in the camp in June, 1855, leaving his title to his son, Richard Henry Fitzroy. See E. Texier, " Les Hommes de la Guerre d'Orient: Lord Raglan," 1854; "Biographical Sketches," by H. Martineau; "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1857. Ragnar, rSg'nar, (or Ragnar Lodbrok — lod'brok,) written also Reg'ner, a famous legendary hero of the Northmen, is supposed to have been the son of King Sigurd of Sweden, and to have lived about 800 A.3. Matthew Arnold calls him* " No god, but of the hero troop the chief, — Regner, who swept the northern sea vvitli fleets. And ruled o'er Denmark and the heathy isles ; * * « * « * « A king whose fame then filled the vast of Heaven; Now time obscures it, and men's later deeds." He is regarded as the most striking type of the ancient vikings of the North. There is a legendary history of him, entitled " History of King Ragnar Lodbrok and his Sons," (" Saga af Ragnari Konungi LoSbrok ok Sonum bans,") which is supposed to have been written in the * In the poem entitled " Balder Dead." € as g as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, Y.,guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (St^^See Explanations, p. 23.) RAGNJROCK 1862 RAINS fourteenth century, although it contains many poems of an older date, belonging to the golden age of Skaldic literature, — that is, about the tenth century. (For an account of some of the principal events of the life of Ragnar, the reader is referred to Thorpe's "Northern Mythology," vol. i. pp. 108-113; see, also, the Intro- duction to Keyser's " Religion of the Northmen.") Ragnarock. See LoKi. Ragon, rt'g6N', (F.,) a French historian, born about 1795. He published a "General History of Modern Times," (3 vols., 1846,) and other works. Ragotzky. See Rakoczy. Ragueau, rt'go', (FRANgois,) a French jurist, born at Bourges ; died in 1605. Raguenet, rtg'ni', (FRANgois,) a French priest and litterateur, born at Rouen about 1660. He published a " Life of Cromwell, "(1691,) " The Monuments of Rome," (1700,) and a "Life of Turenne," (1738.) Died in 1722. Raguet, ri'ga', ? (Condy,) an American diplomatist and writer, born at Philadelphia in 1784, was appointed in 1822 consul at Rio Janeiro. He was the author of a treatise "On Currency and Banking," "Principles of Free Trade," and other works. Died in 1842. Ragusa, Duke of. See Marmont. Ragusa, rS-goo'si, (Geronimo,) a learned Jesuit, born in Sicily in 1655 ; died about 1715. Rahbek, r^'bek, (Knud Lyne,) a Danish author and critic, born at Copenhagen in 1760. He became pro- fessor of aesthetics in his native city in 1790. He wrote dramas, tales, and lyric poems, and translated many English works. Among his best works is "The Danish Spectator," a periodical, (1791-1806.) He was a judi- cious and candid critic. His writings are said to have exerted a happy influence on Danish literature and the public taste. He resigned the chair of aesthetics in 1825. Died in 1830. See his Souvenirs, " Erindringer af mit Liv," 4 vols., 1824-29; J. P. MvNSTER, " Ved Etatsraad Professor K. L. Rahbek's Jorde- faerd," etc., 1830; Beeken, " Etatsraad Professor og Ridder K. L. Rahbek's," etc., 1838; Erslew, " Forfatter- Lexicon ;" Howitt, "Literature and Romance of Northern Europe," vol. ii. ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for June, 1830, article "Danish and Norwegian Literature ;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Rahl, ril, (Karl,) a historical painter, son of the following, was born at Vienna in 1812. Rahl, (Karl LIeinrich,) a German engraver, born near Heidelberg in 1779, was a member of the Academy of Arts at Vienna. Among his master-pieces are prints after Raphael's " Saint Margaret," Correggio's " Night," and the "Madonna" of Perugiiio. Died in 1843. Rahn, rSn, (Johann Hiclmrich,) a Swiss physician, born at Zurich in 1749, vvas itoted for his beneficence. He published numerous works. Died in 1812. See UsTERi, " Denkrede auf Rahn," 1812. Rahn, (Johann Heinrich,) a Swiss historian, born at Zurich in 1646. He wrote in German, besides other works, a "History of Switzerland," (1690.) Died in 1708. _ R^hu, r^'hoo, in the Hindoo mythology, a mighty giant, the son of Kasyapa and Diti, (or, according to some authorities, the son of Sinhika,) was supposed to cause eclipses by swallowing the sun or moon. This fable is doubtless astronomical in its origin : rdhu signifies also the "ascending node." See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon," p. 282. Raibolini. See Francia. Raidel, x\'dh\, [Lat. Raide'lius,] (Georg Martin,) a German savant, born at Nuremberg in 1702, wrote a work " On the Geography of Ptolemy," etc., (" De Ptolemaei Geographia ejusque Codicibus," 1737.) Died in 1741. See A. GoTz, "Vita Raidelii," 1741. Raikes, raks, (Robert,) an English philanthropist, born at Gloucester in 1735 or 1736, was a printer, and the editor of the " Gloucester Journal." He is noted as the founder of Sunday-schools. In 1781 he employed several women to teach a number of ragged children found in the streets of Gloucester. Died in 181 1. Raim'ba-eh, (Abraham,) an English line-engraver, born in London in 1776, was a pupil of J. Hall. He became an intimate friend of Wilkie, who employed him to engrave a number of his paintings, among which are "The Village Politicians," "The Rent-Day," (i8i6,) and "Blindman's Bufi"." These engravings are highly prized. Died in 1843. He left an autobiography, published in 1843, entitled "Memoirs and Recollections." Raimond. See Raymond. Raimondi, ri-mon'dee, (Annibale,) an Italian mathematician, born at Verona in 1505. He published a " Treatise on the Flow and Ebb of the Sea," ("Trattato del Flusso e Reflusso del Mare," 1589.) Raimondi, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian Ori- entalist, born at Cremona about 1540. He was director of an establishment of Oriental typography at Rome, and printed in Arabic the Gospels (1591) and Euclid, (1594.) Died about 1610. Raimondi, (Marcantonio,) an excellent Italian en. graver, born at Bologna about 1475, or, as some say, in 1488. He studied design under Raibolini called Francia. He went to Rome about 15 10, and formed a friendship or acquaintance with Raphael, who employed him to engrave some of his paintings. He engraved for that master "The Death of Lucretia," "The Judgment of Paris," "The Massacre of the Innocents," "Saint Ce- cilia," " The Last Supper," " Parnassus," " Saint Paul preaching at Athens," and other works. Fie was the first Italian engraver who acquired great celebrity. He was a correct designer, and rendered the outlines with fidelity. When Rome was taken and pillaged by the army of Constable Bourbon, in 1527, Raimondi lost his property and removed to Bologna, where he continued until his death, which is variously dated 1534 and 1546. One of his prints is dated 1539. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc.; Delessert, "No- tice sur la Vie de M. A. Raimondi," 1853; N. Belloni, "Vita di M. Raimondi," 1815 ; Malvasia, " Felsina Pittrice ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Rairaund, ri'moont, (Ferdinand,) a German litte- ratejir, born at Vienna in 1791, published a number of dramatic works and poems. Died in 1836. Rainaldi, rl-nSKdee, (Carlo,) an Italian architect, born at Rome in 1611. He designed the old Acade- mic de France at Rome, the church of Saint Agnes, the church of Santa Maria di Miracoli, and that of Santa Maria del Monte Santo. The last two are on the Piazza del Popolo at Rome. Died in 1691. Rainaldi, (Francesco,) an Italian Jesuit, born in the march of Ancona in 1600. He published " Food for the Sdul," (" Cibo dell'Anima," 1637,) and other works. Died in 1677. Rainaldi, (Gir(jlamo,) an architect, born at Rome in 1570, was the father of Carlo, noticed above. Ainong his works were the ducal palace of Parma, and the Palazzo Pamfili (or Pamphili) at Rome. Died in 1655. See Mii-iziA, " Meinorie degli Architetti." Rainaldi, (Oderic.) See Rinaldl Rainaud. See Raynaud. Raine, ran, (James,) an English antiquary, born at Ovington, Yorkshire, in 1 791, became rector of Meldon in 1822. He published a " History of North Durham," (1830-52.) Died in 1858. Raine, (Matthe;w,) an English scholar, born in 1760, became preacher of Gray's Inn in 1809. Died in 1810. Rainer, ri'ner, (Joseph Johann Michael Franz Hieronymus,) Archduke of Austria, and seventh son of the emperor Leopold II., was born in 1783. He became Viceroy of Austrian Italy in i8i8. On the breaking out of the insurrection at Milan in 1848, he left Lombardy for the Southern Tyrol, where he died in 1853. He had married in 1820 Elizabeth, sister of Charles Albert, King of Sardinia. Rainolds, rgn'oldz, (John,) an English theologian, born near Exeter in 1549. He was professor of divinity at Oxford, and favoured the Puritan doctrines. He was one of the persons who assisted in translating the Bible into English by order of James I. Died in 1607. Rainolds, (William,) a brother of the preceding, became a Fellow of New College, Oxford, in 1562. He was afterwards professor of Hebrew at Rheims, France. Died in 1594. Rains, (James,) an American general, born in North Carolina, graduated at West Point in 1827. He com- a, e, I, o, u, y, long; h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; ftr, fill, ftt; mfet; n6t; good; moon; RAINSSANT 1863 RALEIGH tianded a division of the army of General Bragg, when he was killed at the battle of Stone River, which ended January 2, 1863. Raiussant, riN^sSw', (Pierre,) a French numis- matist, born at Rheims about 1640. He became keeper of the royal cabinet of medals. Died in 1689. Rais or Retz, de, deh riss, (Gilles de Laval — deh li'vtK,) Lord, a French baron, notorious for his prodi- gality and crimes, was born about 1406, and inherited a great estate. He entered the army, and became a mar- shal of France about the age of twenty-three. He was accused of sorcery and of sacrificing children in dia- bolical rites. He was executed in 1440. See Akmand Gu^raud, " Notice sur Gilles de Rais," 1855. Raisson, ri's^N', (Horace Napoleon,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1798. He published a " His- tory of Napoleon," (10 vols., 1830,) and other works on recent French history. Died in 1854. Ra'itch, rS'itch or ritch, a Servian historian, born at Karlovitz in 1726. He published a "History of the Slavonians and Servians," (4 vols., 1795.) Died in 180 1. Rakbczy, ri'kot-se, written also Racoczi and Ragotzky, (Franz Leopold,) Prince of Transylvania, born near Patak in 1676. He commanded the Hun- garian insurgents who revolted against Austria in 1703. He was defeated in a decisive action in 1708. Died in exile at Rodosto in 1735. See Horn, " Fr. Rakoczy," Leipsic, 1854. Rile or Rasle, rll, (S^bastien,) a French Jesuit and missionary, born in Franche-Comte in 1658. He was sent on a mission to the Lidians of Canada in 1689, and laboured nearly thirty years at Norridgewock, on the Kennebec River. He gained great influence over the Indians, and, according to some authorities, instigated them to hostile acts against the English colonists of Massachusetts, who regarded him as their worst enemy. He was killed by a party of English soldiers who sur- prised the village at Norridgewock in 1724. See CoNVERs Francis, " Life of Sebastian Rale," in Sparks's 'American Biography," vol. vii., new series. Raleigh, raw'le, (Carew,) a son of Sir Walter, was born in the Tower of London in 1604. He was educated at Oxford. After the accession of Charles I. an act was passed to " restore him in blood but he failed to obtain the paternal estate. He wrote a vindication of his father, (1645,) and a "Brief Relation of Sir Walter Raleigh's Troubles." In 1659 he was appointed Governor of Jersey. Died in 1666. Raleigh or Ralegh, (Sir Walter,) a famous English navigator, author, courtier, and commander, was born at Hayes, in Devonshire, in 1552. He was a son of Walter Raleigh, Esq., and Catherine Champernon, who by a former marriage was the mother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. He studied for a short time at Oriel College, Oxford, and in 1569 joined a company of volunteers, with whom he fought for the Huguenots in France for five years. He took part in several great battles of that war. In 1580, as commander of a company, he served with distinction against the Irish insurgents. He is supposed to have gained the favour of Queen Elizabeth by an act of gallantry, of which we have no evidence but tradition. According to this tradition, the queen, in her progress from the royal barge to the palace, came to a spot where the ground was so wet that she hesitated. Raleigh immediately covered the place with his richly- embroidered cloak, on which she stepped with much conjplacency. It is stated that he received a grant of twelve thousand acres of forfeited land in Ireland soon after he attracted the notice of the queen. One of his biographers observes that "all the more important and interesting transactions and occurrences of his life are involved in obscurity or perplexed with doubt." In 1584 he obtained a royal patent investing him with ample powers to colonize and govern any territories he might acquire in the unoccupied parts of North America. An exploring party in his service discovered in 1584 a region to which the queen gave the name of Virginia. He sent out in 1585 a body of colonists who attempted to settle on or near Roanoke Island, but failed, and re- turned before the end of 1586. He renewed the enter- prise in 1587 ; but this colony did not prosper, and those colonists who escaped disease and famine were killed by the natives. In 1589 he transferred his patent and colonial privileges to a company of merchants. Accord- ing to some writers, he distinguished himself in several contests with the Spanish Armada in 1588, and rendered important services to the queen as a member of Parlia- ment. The introduction of the potato and tobacco into Europe is generally attributed to him. About 1590 he became intimate with the poet Spenser, and married privately a daughter of Sir Nicholas Throg- morton. She was a maid of honour to the queen, who showed her resentment by confining Raleigh in the Tower for several weeks. Being excluded from the royal favour through his marriage, his ambitious and adventurous spirit was attracted by a project for the discovery and conquest of El Dorado, a fabled paradise of gold-seekers, which was supposed to exist in South America. He sailed from Plymouth with five vessels in February, 1595, and ascended the Orinoco in boats about sixty leagues, but his farther progress is said to have been prevented by the sudden rise of the water. Having returned to England before the end of 1595, he published a rather fabulous narrative, entitled "The Discovery of the Large, Rich, and Beautiful Empire of Guiana." Raleigh was restored to the royal favour soon after his return, and served as rear-admiral at the capture of Cadiz, in 1596, to which his skill greatly contributed. He had the chief command of the fleet which took Faya] in 1597. He was appointed Captain of the Guard and Governor of Jersey about 1 597. It is stated by some of his biographers that he received large sums of money from the condemned partisans of the Earl of Essex, who bribed him to intercede for them with the queen. The death of Elizabeth terminated the prosperity of Raleigh, who had rendered himself very unpopular by his enmity to Essex and perhaps by his habitual haughty demeanour. It appears that James I. was prejudiced against him by the insinuations of his rival Cecil. Accused of com- plicity in Lord Cobham's treason. Sir Walter was arrested in July, 1602, and convicted, without sufficient proof, in 1603. During his trial the public sentiment was converted from hostility to warm sympathy and admiration. In expectation of a speedy death, he wrote to his wife an affecting letter, which is praised by William Penn. Near the close of it he writes thus : " I can say no more : Time and Death call me away. The everlasting God, powerful, infinite, and inscrutable, God Almighty,' who is goodness itself, the true light and life, keep thee and thine, have mercy on me, and send us to meet in his glorious kingdom." He was, however, reprieved, and confined in the Tower, where he remained thirteen years and wrote his chief work, "The History of the World," (from the creation to the year 150 B.C.) "The Greek and Roman story," says Hallam, "is told more fully and exactly than by any earlier English writer, and with a plain eloquence which has given this book a classical rejiutation in our language." Another eminent critic (Hume) pronounces Raleigh "the best model of our ancient style." He wrote several short poems, which are admired. In 1615 he obtained his release by bribery and by an offer to open a mine of gold in (iuiana. He conducted a fleet of thirteen vessels to Guiana in 161 7, and sent an exj^loring party up the Orinoco. They encountered at Saint Thomas a body of Spaniards, in a fight with whom Raleigh's son Walter was killed ; but their search for the gold-mine was unsuccessful. Raleigh sailed for New- foundland, intending to refit and to obtain provisions ; but he was forced by his mutinous crew to return to England, where he arrived in July, 1618. He was soon after arrested, and a demand was made by the Spanish court that he should be punished for the attack on Saint Thomas. The king at that time courted the alliance of the Spanish monarch, and sacrificed the required victim to promote his policy. He resolved to execute the sentence which had been passed on him in 1603, and for which pardon had never been granted. Raleigh was beheaded in October, 161 8. His stature was tall, his features handsome, and his presence imposing. His € as^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal ; r, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (2[^=^See Explanations, p. ^3.) RALPH 1864 RAM EL moral character seems to have been deformed by several vices. Impartial writers agree that truth and probity were not always his guiding principles. "The name of Sir Walter Raleigh," says the "Edin- burgh Review," "is unquestionably one of the most renowned and attractive, and, in some respects, the most remarkable, in English story. . . . His mind presents a surprising union of strength and versatility, of intellect- ual and practical power, and of an observing, reflective, and philosophical with a highly imaginative or poetical temperament." An able French critic and geographer, M. Walckenaer, defends Raleigh from the charge of falsehood and ex- aggeration : "The details which he has pul)lished on his voyage [to Guiana in 1595] include nothing which has not been confirmed by subsequent explorers : they are definite, exact, important, and do honour to his sagacity as well as his truthfulness." See Macvev Napier, "Lord Bacon and Sir Walter Raleigh," 1853; Edward Edwards, " Lite of Raleigh," 1868: Arthur Cay- ley, " Life of Sir W. Raleigh," 1805 ; W. Oldys, "Life of Sir W. Raleigh," 1740; Mrs. A. T. Thomson, " Memoirs of the Life of Sir W. Raleigh," 1830; P. Eraser Tytler, "Life of Sir AV. Raleigh," etc., 1833; J. Barrow, "Memoirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen Elizabeth's Reign," 1845; Campbell, "Lives of the British Ad- mirals;" De Thou, " Histoire universelle ;" Hume, " History of England," particularly chaps, xlv. and xlviii. ; Gardiner, " History of England from 1603 to 1616," chap. ii. ; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1840; "Eraser's Magazine" for July, 1832; Southey, "Lives of British Admirals," vol. iv., 1837. Ralph OF EscuRES, an English prelate, who was elected Archbishop of Canterbury in 11 14. He had a high reputation for learning and virtue. Died in 1122. See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. ii. chap. iv. Ralph, (James,) an English pamphleteer and poetas- ter, born at Philadelphia. He emigrated to England in 1725 in company with Benjamin Franklin, and pub- lished a poem on "Night" in 1728, which was ridiculed by Pope in these lines of the "Dunciad:" " Silence, ye wolves, while Ralph to Cynthia howls And makes night hideous ; answer him, ye owls !" He afterwards wrote several dramas and political pam- phlets. His continuation of Guthrie's "History of England" (2 vols., 1744-46) is a work of some value. Died in 1762. Ram. See Rama. Ram, de, deh r6N, (Pierre FRAwgois Xavier,) a Belgian historian, born at Louvain in 1804, jniblished " Sy- nodicon Belgicum," (4 vols., 1828-58,) and other works. Rama, ri'ma, often called R^m (ram) by the modern Hindoos, [a Sanscrit word signifying " pleasing," " dear," "beloved," from the verb ram, to "play,] called also R^ma Chandra, (chvin'dra,) in the Hindoo mythology, the name of the seventh avatar of Vishnu, who on this occasion appeared as a great hero and warrior. It is generally supposed that, with the exception of Krishna, this is the most glorious of all the manifestations of the preserving deity. The great Hindoo epic entitled Ra- mayana (r5-mi'ya-na) is chiefly occupied with the ad- ventures and exploits of Rama and his famous minister Hanuman, the monkey king. The consort of Rama was Sita, (see'ta,) eminent for her purity and other virtues. Her deliverance from the power of the great giant Ra- vana, and the triumphant issue of the ordeal by fire, by which her perfect virtue was comjiletely established, form perhaps the most interesting portion of the great poem or romance above named. They are also among the most popular subjects for pictures among the Hindoos. See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." Ramage, ram'ej, (Adam,) a distinguished mechani- cian, born in Scotland in 1770, settled in America. He was the inventor of a printing-press called by his name. Died in 1850. Ramanuja or Ramanoudja, r J-ma-noo'ja, a Hindoo philosopher, a votary of Vishnu and adversary of Bood- dhism. He is supposed to have lived in the tenth century. Ramftyana. See Rama, and Valmiki. Ramazziiii, ri-mit-see'nee, (Bernardo or Bernar- dino,) an eminent Italian physician, born at Carpi in 1633. He became professor of medicine at Modena about 1680, and removed to Padua in 1700. He ob- tained the first chair of medicine at Padua in 1708. He wrote, besides other works, a popular treatise " On the Di.seases of Artisans," (" De Morbis Artificum," 1701,) which was often reprinted, and was translated into French by Fourcroy. Died in 17 14. See Ettmuli.er, "Viede B. Ramazzini," 1711; a "Memoir of Ramazzini," prefixed to his collected works ("Opera Omnia") by his nephew, Bart. Ramazzini, London, 1716; Fabroni, " Vitas Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" Niceron, "Memoires." Rambaldi, rim-bil'dee, (Carlo,) an Italian painter' of history, born at Bologna in 1680 ; died in 1717. Ramberg, rSm'bgRG, (Johann Heinrich,) a German jjainter and engraver, born at Hanover in 1763, studied in London under Sir Joshua Reynolds. He was after- wards appointed court painter at Hanover. He excelled in caricature, and produced, among other works, illus- trations of "Reineke Fuchs." Died in 1840. Ram'bha' or Rem'bha', [modern Hindoo pron. rumb'hS',] sometimes incorrectly written Rhemba, [ety- mology obscure,] the name, in the Hindoo mythology, of a famous Apsara, produced by the churning of the ocean. (See Apsara and Kurma.) Rambha is some- times identified with Lakshmi. See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." Rambouillet, de, deh rSN'boo'yi', (Catherine de Vivonne — deh ve'von',) Marquise, a French lady, born in 1588, became mistress of the Hotel Rambouillet, in which she presided over a celebrated reunion of the elite of Paris, the first which in France united the aris- tocracy of rank and of genius in one circle. Her house was frequented by Malherbe, La Rochefoucauld, Voiture, Balzac, Corneille, and many other literati of successive generations. The court over which she presided was recognized as the arbiter of taste and propriety in language, manners, etc. Died in 1665. Her daughter, Julia d'Angennes, (dSN'zh^n',) was celebrated for her beauty and accomplishments. She was married to the Duke of Montausier. (See Montausier.) See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Rambour, r6N''booR', (Abraham,) a French Prot- estant minister, born at Sedan about 1590, He became professor of Hebrew at Sedan in 1620, and published several works. Died in 165 1. Rambuteau, de, deh rSN^bii'to', (Claude Philibert Barthelot — btRt'lo',) Count, a French administrator, born at Charnay in 1781. He was prefect of the depart- ment of Seine from 1833 to 1848. Rameau, rt'mo', (Jean Philippe,) a celebrated French composer and writer on music, was born at Dijon in October, 1683. He received his first lessons in music from his father, and visited Milan in 1701. Having joined a company of itinerant actors or singers, he performed on the violin in various cities of France. He became organist of the cathedral of Clermont (Au- vergne) about 1718, and settled in Paris in 1722. Pie established his reputation as a theorist by a " Treatise on Harmony," (1722,) and "New System of Theoretic Music," (1726,) in which he developed his theory of basse fondamentale. In 1733 he composed the music of the opera " Hippolyte et Aricie," which was very successful and produced a great excitement in the musical world. The partisans of Lulli were indignant at the innovations of Rameau. He produced in 1737 the opera of " Castor and Pollux," which is called his master-piece. Among his numerous operas are " Dar- danus," (1739,) and "Zoroaster," (1749.) Died in 1764, See Maret, " filoge historique de Rameau," 1766; F^tis, " Bio- graphie Universelle des Musiciens :" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- rale." Ramee, rt^m^, (Daniel,) an architect, born at Ham- burg in 1806, was a son of Joseph Jacques, noticed below. He restored the cathedrals of Noyon, Senlis, and Beau- vais. He published a " Manual of the History of Archi- tecture," (2 vols., 1843,) and other works. Ramee, (Joseph Jacques,) a French architect, born at Charlemont in 1764. He designed the Exchange of Hamburg, and Union College, at Schenectady, in the United States. Died near Noyon in 1842. Ramee, La. See Ramus. Ramel. See Nogaret, de, (Jacques.) Ramel, ri'm^K, (Jean Pierre,) a French general, born at Cahors in 1768, was assassinated in August, 181 5, at Toulouse, of which he was then the commandant. a,e, T, 6, a, y, long; \, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 0, ii, ^, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; mgt; n6t; good; moon; RAMELLI 1865 RAMSDEN Ramelli, ri-meKlee, (Agostino,) an Italian mecha- nician, born at Milan about 1530, served as engineer in the army of Charles V. Died in 1590. Ramelli, (Felice,) an Italian priest and painter in miniature, born in Piedmont in 1666. He worked at Rome. Died in 1740. Ramenghi. See Bagnacavallo. Ram'e-ses or Ram'ses, written also Ramesses, a name common to several kings of ancient Egypt. Rameses III. became king about 1550 B.C., and reigned nearly sixty years. lie was succeeded by his son Rameses, (also called Amenophis II.,) who, ac- cording to some historians, was the father of Rameses the Great, otherwise called Sesostris. See BuNSEN, " Egypt's Place in Universal History." Ramey, rt'm^', (Claude,) a French sculptor, born at Dijon in 1 754. He gained the grand prize in 1782. Among his works are statues of Napoleon and Riche- lieu. Died in Paris in 1838. His son, firiENNE Jules, born in 1796, was also a successful sculptor. He adorned the Louvre with several works, and was admitted into the Institute in 1829. Died in 1852. Ramirez, ri-mee'rith, (Jost,) a Spanish painter, born at Valencia in 1624 ; died in 1692. Ramiro (r^-mee'ro) I., King of Asturias, was a son of Eermudez. He began to reign in 842 A.D., and defeated the Normans in 843. Died in 850. Ramiro II., King of Asturias and Leon, began to reign about 930 a.d. He defeated a large army of the caliph Abderrahman III. in 939 A.D. on the plain of Simancas. Died in 950 a.d. Ramler, rSn/ler, (Karl Wilhelm.) a German poet, born at Kolberg, on the Baltic Sea, in 1725. He was for many years professor of belles-lettres at Berlin. His works are chiefly lyrics, and are remarkable for elegance of language. His " Death of Jesus," one of his most esteemed pieces, was set to music by Graun. He also translated Horace, Martial, Catullus, and Sappho's odes. Died in Berlin in 1798. See HErNsius, " Biographisclie Ski/.ze Ramlers," 1798; Long- fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Euroiie ;" Ghrvinus, " Geschichte der Deutsciien Dichtung :" Hikschinc, " Historiscii-literarisches f^andbucli ;" " Noiivelle Biograpliie Generale." Ram'mo-hun' Roy, a Hindoo reformer and linguist, was born in Bengal about 1776. His parents were Brah- mans of high rank. He was master of Sanscrit, Persian, Arabic, Hindostanee, and English. At an early age he renounced the Brahmanical religion. He believed in Christ as a divine teacher, but held Arian or Unitarian views. He wrote several works against the prevailing superstitions of India, and published in 1820 "The Precepts of Jesus the Guide to Peace and Happiness," which consists of selections from the New Testament. In 1830 he was sent by the King of Delhi as ambas- sador to London. Died near Bristol in 1833. See Lant Carpenter, " Review of the Labours, Opinions, and Character of Rammohun Roy ;" " Lapt Days in England of the Rajah Rammohun Roy," edited by Mary Carpenter, London, 1867; " Blackwood's Magazine" for November, 1818. Ramond de Carbonnieres, rS^m^N' deh ktR^bo'- ne-aiR', (Louis FRANgois, ) Baron, a distinguished French savant and politician, born at Strasburg in 1755. He was elected to the Legislative Assenrbly in 1791, and sat in the corps legislatif from 1800 to 1806. He wrote several able scientific and descriptive works, among which is "Travels in the Pyrenees," (1801,) which treats of geology, etc. Died in 1827. Cuvier wrote a eulogy on him. See, also, Qui^rard, " La France Litteraire." Ramondini, ri-mon-dee'nee, (Vincenzo,) an Italian naturalist, born at Messina in 1758, was professor at Naples. Died in 181 1. Ramorino. See Remorino. Ramos, ri'mis, (Enrique,) a Spanish writer, born at Alicante in 1738, was an officer of the army. He wrote successful tragedies, named "Guzman," (1780,) and " Pelagius" or " Pelayo," (1784.) Died in 1801. Rampalle, rSN'ptK, (N.,) a P>ench poet, whom Boi- leau, in his " Art Poetique," mentions among authors who were no longer read in his time. Died about 1660. Rampen, rSm'pen, (Hendrik,) a Flemish theologian, born at Hui in 1572 ; died at Louvain in 1641. Rampinelli, rSm-pe-nel'lee, (Ramiro,) an Italian mathematician, born at Brescia in 1697 ; died at Milan in .759. Rampon, r6N'p6N', (Antotne Guillaume,) Count, a French general, born at Saint-Fortunat (Ardeche) in 1759. He distinguished himself as general of brigade at Montenotte, Roveredo, and Areola, (1796.) For his services at the battle of the Pyramids and in Syria he was made general of division in 1800. Died in 1842. Ramsay, ram'ze, (Alexander,) born in England about 1760, emigrated to America, where he died in 1824. He published an " Anatomy of the Heart, Brain, etc.," (1813.) Ramsay, ram'ze, (Allan,) a distinguished Scottish poet, born of poor parents in Lanarkshire in 1685. He was successively a barber and bookseller in Edinburgh. He published in 1721 a volume of poems, which were well received. His principal work is a pastoral poem called "The Gentle Shepherd," (1729,) which has been greatly admired. Died in 1758. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Campbell, "Specimens of British Poets;" Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors;" "Monthly Review" for March, 1762. Ramsay, (Allan,) a portrait-painter, a son of the preceding, was born in Edinburgh in 1713. He became principal painter to George III. in 1767, and surpassed most of his British contemporaries in his art. He wrote several political tracts, and visited Rome four times. On his return from his last journey he died at Dover, in 1784, leaving a son, who became a general in the army. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Ramsay, [Fr. pron. rSN^za',] (Andrew Michael,) called Chevalier Ramsay, was born at Ayr, in Scot- land, in 1686. He was converted by Fenelon from skepticism to Roman Catholicism about 1709, and be- came tutor to the Prince de Turenne. He acquired distinction by his writings, which are in French and are admired for purity of style. His chief works are "Travels of Cyrus," ("Voyages de Cyrus," 1727,) which is an imitation of Fenelon's " Telemachus," a valuable "Life of Fenelon," (1723,) and a "Life of Turenne," (1735.) Died in France in 1743. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" " Biographia Britannica." Ramsay, ram'ze, (David,) an American historian and physician, born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, in 1749. Having graduated in 1765 at Princeton College, he studied medicine in Philadelphia under Dr. Rush. He soon after removed to Charleston, and became a member of the legislature of South Carolina, and in 1782 was elected to the Continental Congress. He published in 1785 his "History of the Revolution in South Caro- lina," which was followed in 1790 by the "History of the American Revolution." His "Life of Washington" ajipeared in 1801. He also wrote a "Eulogium on Dr. Rush," and other works on various subjects. He was mortally wounded by a lunatic in the streets of Charles- ton in 1815. His work entitled "Universal History Americanized" was published after his death. He wrote " Memoirs of Martha Laurens Ramsay." See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. ; Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." Ramsay, (Edward Bannerman,) a Scottish writer, born about 1793. became an Episcopal minister in Edinburgh in 1830. Among his works are "Reminis- cences of Scottish Life and Character," (1857,) and "Thomas Chalmers, D.D., a Biographical Notice," (1867.) Ramsay, (George and James.) See Dalhousie. Ramsay, (James,) a clergyman, born in Aberdeen- shire, Scotland, in 1733. He published Sermons, and other works. Died in 1789. Ramsay, (William,) an eminent classical scholar, born at Edinburgh in 1806. He became professor of humanity in the University of Glasgow in 183 1, and publis-hed, besides other works, a "Manual of Roman Antiquities," (1851.) He was one of the principal con- tributors to Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman 4^iogra])hy." Died in 1865. Rams'den, (Jesse,) an eminent English optician and maker of astronomical instruments, was born near € as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; *h as in this. (2[^='See Explanations, p. 23.) RAMSES 1866 RANDOLPH Halifax, Yorkshire, in 1735. He settled in London about 1755, married a daughter of Mr. Dollond, and became master of a manufactory of instruments about 1764. He improved the sextant, and invented a dividing machine for the graduation of instruments, for which he received a premium of six hundred and fifteen pounds from the board of longitude in 1777. Among his re- markable productions were telescopes erected at the Observatories of Blenheim, Paris, Gotha, and Dublin. He improved the theodolite, equatorial, micrometer, barometer, etc. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1786. Died at Brighton in 1800. See Thomson, "History of the Royal Society;" " Nouvelle Biographie Geiierale." Ramses. See Rameses. Ramus, rt'miis', (Joseph Marius,) a French sculp- tor, born at Aix in 1805. He obtained a first medal in 1839. His works are praised for elevation of style. Ramus, rt'miis', (Peter,) or Pierre de la Ra- mee, pe-aiR' deh IS rS'ma', a French philosopher and classical scholar, born in Vermandois in 15 15, or, as others say, in 1502. He was a son of poor parents, who employed him to tend sheep in his boyhood. Prompted by a thirst of knowledge, he ran away from home and entered the College of Navarre, in Paris, as a servant. He showed his independence of mind at college by writing a thesis to prove that Aristotle was not infallible. He incurred much persecution from the partisans of Aristotle, and was accused of impiety. In 1543 he published a *' Treatise on Logic," which ob- tained great success. He was appointed by the king professor of philosophy and eloquence in the College of France in 1551. About 1562 he avowed his attachment to the Reformed religion. He published many works on grammar, mathematics, philosophy, theology, etc., among which is " Dialectique," (1555.) His disciples, called Ramists, were numerous in France and England. He perished in the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, at Paris, in 1572. He is called the precursor of Descartes. See Waddington, "Ramus, sa Vie, ses ficrits et ses Opinions," 1855 ; Lentz, " Historia P. Rami," 1713 ; Tknnemann, " Geschichte der Pliiiosophie ;" Breithaupt, "Dissertatio de tribus LogicjE Restaiiratoribus, Ramo, Verulamio et Cartesio," 1712 ; E. Saisset, " Les Precurseurs de Descartes," 1862 ; Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Nicekon, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Ramusio, ri-moo'sfe-o, or Rannusio, ran-noo'se-o, (GiAMBATTiSTA,) an Italian compiler and translator, was born at Treviso in 1485. He was for many years secretary to the Venetian Council of Ten. He pub- lished a valuable collection of narratives of voyages and discoveries made in ancient and modern times, entitled "Collection of Navigations and Journeys," (" Raccolta di Navigazioni e Viaggi," 3 vols., 1550-59.) He trans- lated into Italian those narratives which were written in other languages, and inserted some prefaces and dis- courses written by himself. Died in 1557. See NiCERON, "Memoires;" Tiraboschi, " Storia della Lettera- tura Italiana;" De Thou, " filoges." Ran. See CEgir. Ranc, r6N, (Jean,) a French painter, born at Mont- pellier in 1674. He was patronized by Philip V. of Spain. Died at Madrid in 1735. Ranee, de, deh rSw'si', (Armand Jean le Bouthil- lier — l.eh boo'te'ye-i',) a French abbe, born in Paris in 1626, was noted as the reformer of the monks of La Trappe. He subjected them to the practice of great austerities and the endurance of extreme privations. Died in 1700. See Le Nain de Tillemont, "Vie de Ranee," 1719; Marsol- LiER, "Vie de I'Abbe de Ranee," 1703 ; Chateaubriand, "Vie de Raiice," 1844; Charles Butler, "Lives of A. J. le Bouthillier, Thomas a Kenipis," etc. Ranchin, r6N'shS.N', (FRANgois,) a French physician, born at Montpellier in 1564; died in 1641. Ranconet, de, deh rSw'ko'ni', (Aimar,) a learned French jurist, born at Perigueux about 1498, was a Greek and Latin scholar. He wrote "Treasure of the French Language," ("Tresor de la Langue Fran5aise," 1606.) Died at Paris in 1559. ^ Randa, rSu'dS, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna, painted sacred history. Died in 1650. Ran'dall, (John,) an English divine, born in Bucks. He was chosen a Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford, in 1587, after which he preached in London. He pub- lished Sermons and other works. Died in 1622. Ran'dolph, (Edmund,) a son of John Randolph, (who left the country with Lord Dunmore at the breaking out of the Revolution,) was elected Governor of Virginia in 1786, and was a member of the Convention which formed the Federal Constitution in 1787. In 1789 he was appointed attorney-general. He was a political friend of Jefferson, whom he succeeded as secretary of state in January, 1794. Having been accused of bribery and a corrupt intrigue on the evidence of an intercepted de- spatch from Fauchet, the French envoy, he resigned in August, 1795, and published a vindication of his course. Died in 1813. Randolph, (George W.,) an American politician, born in King George county, Virginia, about 1812, was a son of Governor Thomas M. Randolph. He was a lawyer before the civil war, took arms against the Union in 1861, and became a brigadier-general. He was secre- tary of war of the Confederate States from March to November, 1862. Died in 1867. Ran'dolph, (John,) an English prelate, born in 1749, was a son of Thomas, (1701-83.) He became Bishop of Oxford in 1799, of Bangor in 1807, and of London (or York) in 1809. Died in 1813. Randolph, (John,) of Roanoke, an American orator, born at Cawsons, in Chesterfield county, Virginia, in June, 1773, was a son of John Randolph. He claimed to be a descendant of Pocahontas the Indian princess. He studied at Princeton and Columbia College, New York, for short periods. In 1799 he was elected a member of Congress to represent the Charlotte district. He was a Democrat, a partisan of State rights, and a political friend of Jefferson. He was re-elected many times to Congress, and gained a high reputation as a debater. About the end of 1804 he was appointed chief manager to conduct the trial of Judge Chase, who was impeached before the Senate. He became estranged from Jefferson about 1806, separated from his political associates, tried to defeat the election of Madison, and opposed the war of 1812. He was defeated at the next election, (1813,) but was again elected in 1814 or 1815. He opposed the charter of the United States Bank in 1816. In a letter dated September, 181 8, he says, " When I speak of my country, I mean the commonwealth of Virginia." He spoke against the Missouri Compromise bill of 1820, because it prohibited the extension of slavery north of the line 36° 30^ At the same time he stigmatized the Northern members who voted for it as " dough-faces," a term which has since come into general use in the United States. He was elected a Senator of the United States in December, 1824, to fill a vacancy for two years. In a speech against the President in 1826, he insulted Mr. Clay by allusion to a " combination of the Puritan with the' blackleg." His apologist Garland admits that "he indulged in language of the grossest personal in- sult." He was challenged by Mr. Clay, and a duel ensued. Randolph's pistol went off before the word. Clay fired without effect, and his adversary then threw away his fire. He was defeated in the election of Senator in 1827. In a letter dated May 27, 1828, he wrote, "The country is ruined, thanks to Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Ritchie." He supported General Jackson for the Presidency in 1828, and was appointed minister to Russia in 1830. He re- turned home, in very feeble health, in the autumn of 183 1. He sympathized with the nullifiers of South Carolina, and in December, 1832, denounced the proclamation of President Jackson, which he called "the ferocious and bloodthirsty proclamation of our Djezzar Pacha." He died, in 1833, in Philadelphia, to which he went to take passage for Europe. He was never married. He owned about three hundred slaves, whom he manumitted by his last will. In 1803, as chairman of a committee of Con- gress, he reported against the introduction of slaves into Indiana, as not calculated to promote the prosperity of the territory. He was a man of decided genius, and was distinguished for his ready wit, which, joined to his mastery of the weai)ons of sarcasm and invective, ren- dered him a formidable opponent in debate. " He was a, e, 1, 6, u, y, lojig; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; RANDOLPH 1867 RAOUL like an Ishmaelite," says Garland, — "his hand against every man, and every man's hand against him." See Hugh A. Garland, "Life of John Randolph," 2 vols., 1850: James Parton, "Famous Americans of Recent Times," 1867 ; " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. ; " Edinbiirsih Review" for October, 1807 ; " North American Review" for July, 1866. Randolph, (Peyton,) an American jurist and states- man, born in Virginia in 1723, was first president of the American Congress w^hich met in 1774. He was re-elected president of that body in May, 1775. Died in Philadelphia, October, 1775. Randolph, (Sir Thomas,) an able British diijloma- tist, born in Kent about 1525. He performed many missions to Scotland, France, and Russia in the reign of Elizabeth, and was an adept in political intrigues. He married a sister of Walsingham. Died in 1590. His Letters, which are of great historical importance, are preserved in the British Museum, and are largely quoted by Froude in his " History of England." Randolph, (Thomas,) an English poet, born in Northamptonshire in 1605. On leaving college he be- came a resident of London and a friend or protege of Ben Jonson. He wrote, besides other poems, several dramas, among which is " The Muses' Looking-Glass," (1638.) His habits were dissipated. Died in 1634. See " Retrospective Review," vol. vi., (1822.) Randolph, (Thomas,) an English theologian, born at Canterbury in 1701. He became professor of divinity at Oxford in 1768. He published several works on theology, among which is "Christian Faith," (1744.) Died in' 1783. Randon, r6N'd6N', (Charles Joseph,) Comte de Pully, a French general, born in Paris in 1751 ; died in 1832. Randon, (Jacques Louis C6sar Alexandre,) Count, a French general, born at Grenoble in 1795. He became a colonel in 1838, served in Algeria, and obtained the rank of general of division in 1847. He was appointed minister of war in January, 1851, and Governor-General of Algeria in December of that year. In 1856 he was made a marshal of France. He was minister of war from 1859 to 1867, Died in 1871. Randon-Dulauloy, r5N'd6N' du'15'lwa', (Charles Francois,) Count, a French general, born at Laon in 1764. As general of division, he distinguished himself at Eyiau, Friedland, Lutzen, and Dresden. Died in 1832. Rangabe. See Rizo Rangab6. Raiiieri, r3,-ne-a'ree, (Antonio,) an Italian writer, born at Naples in 1806. He wrote "Ginevra," a tale, (1838,) and a "History of Italy from Theodosius to Charlemagne," (1841.) Ranieri-Biscia, ri-ne-a'ree bee'shS, (Luigi,) an Ital- ian poet, born in Tuscany in 1744. He wrote a poem "On the Cultivation of Anise," (1772,) and other works. Died about 1824. Rank, rink, (Joseph,) a German writer of tales, born near Neumark, Bohemia, in 181 5. He wrote, besides other works, " Aus dem Boehmerwalde," (3 vols., 1851,) and " Florian," (1853.) Ranke, rink'eh, (Friedrich Heinrich,) a distin- guished Protestant theologian and preacher, brother of the historian Leopold, was born in 1707. He became professor of dogmatics at Erlangen in 1840. Ranke, (Karl Ferdinand,) a brother of the pre- ceding, was born in 1802. He published several educational and philological works. Ranke, (Leopold,) one of the most eminent German historians of recent times, was born at Wiehe, in Thurin- gia, in 1795. He published in 1824 a "History of the Roman and German Peo])le from 1494 to 1535," and was appointed the following year professor-extraordinary of history at Berlin. To this succeeded his " Princes and Nations of Southern Europe in the Sixteenth and Seven- teenth Centuries," (1827,) "The Servian Revolution," (1829,) and "The Cons])iracy against Venice in 1688," (1831.) His "Popes of Rome, their Church and State in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," (3 vols., 1834,) and "German History during the Reformation," (5 vols., 1839-43,) are among his most popular works, and have become widely known by the admirable trans- lations of Mrs. Austin. Besides the above-named, he jjublished "Nine Books of Prussian History," (3 vols., 1847,) which has been translated by .Sir Alexander and Lady Duff Gordon, a " History of France in the Six- teenth and Seventeenth Centuries," (1852,) and other similar works. Ranke was appointed historiographer of Prussia in 1841. His " History of the Popes" is highly commended by Macaulay. See Macaulay's review of the same, first published in the "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1S40; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Brockhai;s, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1840. Rankine, rank'in, ( William John Macquorn, ) F.R.S., a British civil engineer, distinguished as a writer on heat, elasticity, mechanics, etc. He became professor of civil engineering and mechanics at Glas- gow about 1855. Among his works are a "Manual of Api^lied Mechanics," (1858,) and " On Energetics," Rannequin, rtn'neh-kin, Ren'kin, or Rennequin, (SWALM,) a hydraulic engineer, born at Liege in 1644, He constructed the machine of Marly, near Versailles, in France. Died in 1708. Ran^'som, (Thomas Edward Greenfield,) a brave and skilful American general, born at Norwich, Ver- mont, in November, 1834. He was a civil engineer in Illinois before the civil war. In July, 1861, he became a lieutenant-colonel, and in February, 1862, he was se- verely wounded at Fort Donelson. He commanded a regiment at Shiloh in April, 1862, obtained the rank of brigadier-general in January, 1863, and served under General Banks in the Red River expedition. He was disabled by a wound at Sabine Cross- Roads, Louisiana, in April, 1864. He joined the army of Sherman after his wound had healed, and took command of a division or corps just before the capture of Atlanta, (September 2.) He died at Rome, Georgia, in October, 1864. See Tenney, "Military History of the Rebellion," p. 793; " Sherman and his Campaigns," by Colonels Bowman and Irwin, Ransonnette, rfiN^so'nlt', (Charles Nicolas,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1797. He engraved plates for several books of travel. Rantoul, ran'tool, (Robert,) a distinguished states- man of the Democratic party, was born in Beverly, Massachusetts, in 1805. He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1827, and was elected in 1834 to the legis- lature, in which he advocated the abolition of capital punishment. In 1845 was appointed a district attor- ney of the United States by the President, and in 185 1 succeeded Daniel Webster as Senator of the United States for a short term. Having avowed himself a decided opponent of the extension of slavery, he was elected to Congress by the united votes of the Demo- crats and Free-Soilers. Died in August, 1852. See " Memoir" prefixed to a volume of his speeches, published by L. Hamilton in 1854; "Democratic Review" for October, 1850, (with a portrait.) Rantzau, de, deh rSNt'so', (Josias,) Count, a mar- shal of France, born in Denmark in 1609. He com- manded a French army with success in Flanders from 1642 to 1649. Died in 1650. Rantzau, von, fon rint'sow, (Johann,) Count, a German general, born in 1492. He entered the service of the Duke of Holstein, (afterwards Frederick I. of Denmark,) for whom he conquered Denmark about 1525. Died in 1565. Ranzani, r§.n-zi'nee, (Camillo Abbate,) an eminent Italian naturalist, born at Bologna in 1775. He was appointed professor of natural history in the university of his native city in 1803. About 1810 he visited Paris, where he was treated with much attention by Cuvier. He began in 1819 to publish a great work entitled " Ele- ments of Zoology," which he was not able to finish. About twelve volumes of it have been published. Died in 1841. See CoRRADO Politi, "Elogiodi C. Ranzani," 1842; Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Raoul, rS'ooK, or Rodolphe, ro'dolF, [Lat. Ra- dui/fus,] Duke of Burgundy, married Emma, a daughter of Robert, Duke of France. In 923 he was chosen king by the barons who deposed Charles IH. He waged war against the Normans under RoUo. Died in 936, € as i,- 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Sf^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) RAOUL 1868 RAPIN Raoul. See Roi.i.o. Raoul-Rochette. See Rochki te. Raoux, rt'oo', (Jean,) a French painter, born at Montpellier in 1677. He obtained some vogue as a portrait-painter. Died in 1734. Raoux, (SciPioN Edouard,) a Swiss litterateur, born at Mens (Isere) in 181 7, became professor at Lausanne. Rapetti, rJ-pet'tee, (Louis Nicolas,) a distinguished jurist and biographer, born at Bergamo in 1812. He wrote for the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale" a notice of Napoleon I., and other articles. He lectured on Roman law in the College of France from 1841 to 1848. Raphael (ra'fi-el or rtfa-el) [It. Raffaei.i.e, rSf-fl- el'lij Sanzio, sin'ze-o, (Raffaello,) the most illus- trious of modern painters, was born at Urbino, in the Papal States, April 6, 1483. fTe was the only son of Giovanni di Santi (or Sanzio) and Magia Ciarla. After he had received the first lessons in design from his father, who was a painter of moderate talents, he became about 1495 a pupil of Perugino. whom he imitated so well that when that master and Raphael worked on the same canvas the result seemed to be the product of one hand. Among his earliest works are a " Holv Family," (1500,) the "Adoration of the Magi," "The Coronation of the Virgin," (now in the Vatican,) and "The Marriage of the Virgin," (" Sposalizio,") dated 1504, which is now at Milan. "The Virgin," says Lanzi, "is a model of celestial beauty." In the autumn of 1504 he visited Florence, where he painted several works and formed friendships with Fra Bartolommeo and Ridolfo Ghir- landaio. During the period from 1505 to 1508, which he passed at Perugia and Florence, he produced a Christ in glory, the "Madonna del Gran Duca," and other Madonnas. These works show that his style had been modified by his studies in Florence. Having received from Julius TT. an invitation to orna- ment the Vatican, he went to Rome in 1508. Here he studied the remains of Grecian genius, associated with eminent scholars, among whom were Bembo, Ariosto, and Sadoleto, and entered into a rivalry with Michael Angelo. Raphael painted in the Vatican (in fresco) the large and noble composition called "Disputa del Sacra- mento," the admirable " School of Athens," " Parnassus," (151 1,) "The Miracle of Bolsena," " Attila repelled from Rome," and other frescos. "In the composition and execution of the 'School of Athens,'" says Quatremere de Quincy, "Raphael had recovered, so to speak, the long-lost thread of the manner and taste of antiquity, and had at length connected with the eternal models of the true and beautiful the chain of modern inventions." He also painted in oil numerous works, among which are the "Madonna di Foligno," (1511,) and a portrait of Julius H. Soon after his arrival at Rome he adopted what is called his third style. Like all great painters of the sixteenth century, Raphael was a skilful architect. In 15 15 the pope ap- pointed him chief architect of Saint Peter's Church, in compliance with the dying request of Bramante. Raphael made a model or design for this edifice ; but it was not executed. He designed the Pandolfini palace at Flor- ence, of which an able critic remarks, "There is not in architecture a palatial design more noble, of a purer style, of a more judicious distribution." About 1^15 he produced the celebrated Cartoojis, ten designs for the tapestry of the pope's chapel, seven of which are now at Hampton Court, England, They represent " The Charge to Peter," " Saint Paul preaching at Athens," and other scenes from sacred history. Among his later oil-paintings are " Saint Cecilia," (at Bologna,) the "Madonna del Pesce," (or "del Pez,") (at the Escurial,) the "Madonna di San Sisto," (the glory of the gallery of Dresden,) and the " Transfiguration," which some consider his master-piece, and which is now in the Vatican. His great power was in the ex- pression of passion and character. He also excelled in composition, invention, and design ; but as a colorist he was inferior to Titian and others. It is asserted that in all his endless inventions a single repetition of him- self is not to be found. He died at Rome on the 6th of April, 1520, at the age of thirty-seven. He was never married. He had a delicate constitution, brown hair and eyes, regular and handsome features. His modest, amiable, and noble character rendered him a general favourite. "The bent of his genius," says Lanzi, "led him to that ideal beauty, grace, and expression, the most refined and difficult province of painting. . . . Rafifaelle is by common consent placed at the head of his art." " Raff;ielle was solely a painter," says Hazlitt ; " but in that one art he seemed to pour out all the treasures and various excellence of nature, — grandeur and scope of design, exquisite finishing, force, grace, delicacy, the strength of man, the softness of woman, the playfulness of infancy, thought, feeling, invention, etc. He received his inspiration from without, and his genius caught the lambent flames of peace, of truth and grandeur, which are reflected in his works with a light clear, transparent, and unfading." " If Michael Angelo is the first of draughtsmen," says Quatremere de Quincy, " Raphael is the first of painters. . . . His 'Galatea' is a work which explains, far better than any language of ours, the diversity between Michael Angelo and Raphael, manifesting the exquisite refinement of the latter, and his tendency towards that pure, noble, graceful manner which constituted the beau-ideal of the ancient Greeks." Among the numerous eminent pupils of Raphael were Giulio Romano, Penni called II Fattore, Perino del Vaga, Pellegrino da Modena, Garofalo, and Polidoro da Caravaggio. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- ing in Italy;" Duppa, "Life of Raphael," 1815; Passavant, "Ra- pliael d'Urbino," 1839; G. C. Bratin, "Raphael Sanzio's Leben," 1815; QuATREMfeKE DE QuiNcv. "Vie de Raphael," 1824, (trans- lated into English by Hazlitt, 1846;) Von Wolzoghn, "Raphael Santis Leben," (an English version of which was published in 1866 ;) Nacjler, " Raphael als Mensch und Kunstler;" Landon, " Vie et G^iivies de Raphael ;" C. F. von Rumohr, " Ueber Raphael von Urbino ;" PuNGii.EONi, " Elogio storico di Raffaello," 1829: Baldi- Nucci, "Notizie;" Adolph Sirkt, "Raphael et Rubens," 1849; Carlo Fea, " Notizie intorno Raffaello Sanzio," 1822 ; F. Rehberg, " Raphael Sanzio aus Urbino," 2 vols., 1824; " Nouvelle Biographie Oinerale;" "Raphael and his Times," in the "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1870. Raphael of Volterra. See Mafff.t, (Raphael.) Raphall, r^Vf^l, (Morris Jacob,) a Jewish rabbi and theological writer, born at Stockholm, in Sweden, in 1798. He studied in Germany, and subsequently resided many years in England, where he edited in 1834 "The He- brew Review, or Magazine of Rabbinical Literature." Having removed to New York in 1849, he became rabbi-jireacher of the first Anglo-German Hebrew con- gregation in that city. He published " Post-Biblical History of the Jews," (1856,) and other works, and made translations from the Hebrew. Rapheleng, ri'feh-l^ng', Rapheling, rS'feh-ling', written also Raulengien, (F'rancis,) a learned printer, born near Lille in 1539, was a son in-law of Plantin. He worked at Antwerp, taught Hebrew at Leyden, and published an Arabic Lexicon. Died in 1597. Rapheling. See Raphei-eng. Rapin, \^'\A^', (Nicolas,) a French poet, born at Fontenay-le-Comte about 1540. He fought for Henry IV. against the League, and wrote part of the famous "Satire Menippee." (See Leroy, (Pierre,) and Du- RANT.) He produced, in Latin and French, a number of odes, epigrams, elegies, etc., which were admired. Died in 1608. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" "Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale." Rapin, (Ren6,) a French Jesuit, distinguished as a Latin poet, was born at Tours in 1621. He composed, besides many other works, a series of " Parallels of Great Men of Antiquity," (Homer, Virgil, Demosthenes, Cicero, Plato, and Aristotle,) (1669-71.) His chief pro- duction is an ingenious Latin poem "On Gardens," (" Hortorum Libri IV.," 1665,) which was translated into English by Evelyn. "For skill in varying and adorning his subjects," says Hallam, " for a truly Virgilian spirit of expression, for the exclusion of feeble, prosaic, or awkward lines, he may perhaps be equal to any poet, — to Sannazarius himself" ("Introduction to the Litera- ture of Europe.") Died in Paris in 1687. See B WLE, "Historical and Critical Dictionary:" Bouhours, "Vie deRanin," in his " Poeniata," 1723; Nic^ron, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, ^, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon- RAP IN 1869 RATHIER Rapin, de, deh rap'in or rt'piw', (Paul,) Sieur de Thoyras, a French historian, born of a Protestant family at Castres in 1661. He entered the service of William, Prince of Orange, with whom he went to England in 1688. He served as captain in the war in Ireland about 1690. In 1724 he published, in French, a "History of England from the Roman Conquest to the Death of Charles I.," (8 vols.,) a work of considerable merit. According to Voltaire, it was the best history of Eng- land that had then appeared. It was translated into English by Tindal, who also wrote a continuation of Rapin's work. (See Tindal.) Died at Wesel in 1725. See Haag, "La France protestante ;" ".Nouveile Biographic G^nerale." Rapoport, rS'po-poRt', (Solomon Jehudah,) a Jew- ish scholar and rabbi, born at Lemberg, in Germany, in 1790. He published, in Hebrew, a number of his- torical and antiquarian treatises, and translated Racine's ** Esther' into Hebrew. Rapp, (George,) the founder of the sect of Har- monists or Rappites, born at Wiirtemberg, Germany, in 1770. He emigrated in 1803 to the United States, and founded a community at Economy, Beaver county, Pennsylvania. Died in 1847. Rapp, rtp, (Jean,) Count, an able French general, born at Colmar in 1772. He was aide-de-camp of De- saix at Marengo, and on his death became an aide to Bonaparte, whose confidence he acquired. For his ser- vices at Austerlitz (1805) he was raised to the rank of a general of division. He received his ninth wound at Golymin, (1806,) obtained the chief command at Dant- zic in 1807, and distinguished himself at Essling in 1809. He received four wounds at the battle of Moskwa, (1812.) In 1815 he was appointed by Napoleon com- mander of the army of the Rhine, and fought several actions against the allies. He is said to have been noted for his humanity and moderation. Died in Paris in 1821. See "Memoirs of General Count Rapp, First Aide-de-Camp to Napoleon, by himself ;" " Nouveile Biographic G^nerale." Ra'rey, (John S.,) a celebrated American horse- tamer, born at Madison, Franklin county, Ohio, about 1825. He was very successful in subduing the most vicious animals by substituting kindness and scientific skill for the harshness usually employed on such occa- sions. Died in 1866. Rasario, rJ-sl^re-o, [Lat. Rasa'rius,] (Giambat- TISTA,) an Italian physician, born in the province of Novara in 1 51 7. He was professor of Greek and rhetoric at Venice for twenty-two years. He translated from Greek into Latin some works of Pachymeres, Oribasius, and Galen. Died at Pavia in 1578. See Ghh-ini, " Teatro d'Uomini letterati." Rasarius. See Rasario. Rascas, rts'kSs', (Pie3,re Antoine,) Sieur de Bagar- ris, a French antiquary, born at Aix about 1567. He was keeper of the cabinet of Henry IV., and wrote a treatise on medals. Died in 1620. Rasche, rish'eh, (Johann Christoph,) a German numismatist, born near Eisenach, in Saxony, in 1703. He published, besides other works, " Lexicon of the Monetary Affairs of the Ancients," ("Lexicon universae Rei numariae Veterum," 6 vols., 1785-94.) Died in 1805. Raschi, ras^Kee, ? (Rabbi Solomon,) an eminent Jew- ish writer, born at Troyes, in France, in 1040. He wrote commentaries on the Pentateuch and Talmud. Died in 1 105. Raschid, Al. See Haroun-al-Raschid. Rasheed-Eddeen or Raschid-Eddin, rS-sheed' ed-deen', a Persian histarian, born at Hamadan in the thirteenth century. Died about 1320. Rasis. See Razes. Rasis or Rases. See Razee. Rask, risk, (Ramus or Rasmus Christian,) an emi- nent Danish linguist, was born near Odense, in the isle of Fiinen, in 1787. He gave much attention to com- parative philology, in the prosecution of which study he visited Russia, Persia, India, etc., (1817-21.) He be- came professor of literary history at Copenhagen in 1825, and professor of Oriental languages at the same univer- sity in 1828. Among his works are an "Anglo-Saxon Grammar," (1817,) "Researches on the Origin of the Icelandic Language," (1818,) and "On the Age and Authenticity of the Zend-Avesta," (1826.) He possessed a rare talent for linguistic researches. Died in 1832. See P. L. MoELLER, " R. K. Rask;" Erslew, " Forfatter- Lexi- con ;" "Nouveile Biographic Generale." Rasmussen, ris'moos'sen, (Janus Lassen,) a Dan- ish Orientalist, born at Vestenkov in 1785. He published a " History of the Kingdoms of the Arabs," (" Historia Arabum Regnorum," .1817,) "Annals of the Moslems," ("Annales Islamicae," 1825,) and other works. Died about 1828. Rasori, rS-so'ree, (Giovanni,) an eminent Italian physician, born at Parma in 1766 or 1767. He became professor at Pavia about 1796, and settled at Milan in 1800. He was author of a new medical doctrine, called "theory of the Counter-Stimulus," and wrote several medical works. He died in 1837. See G. Perini, " Cenni suUa Mente di G. Rasori," 1837; Chi- APPA, "Delia Vita di G. Rasori," 1838; "Nouveile Biographic Generale." Raspail, rts'pti' or ris'pt'ye, (FRANgois Vincent,) an able French chemist and politician, born at Carpen- tras in 1794. He took arms against Charles X. in 1830, and became a leader of the republicans. In 1831 he published the first volume of his able " Course of Agri- culture and Rural Economy." At the revolution of February, 1848, he proclaimed a republic at the Hotel de Ville before the formation of a provisional govern- ment. In March, 1849, he was condemned to six years' imprisonment for conspiracy against the new regime. Among his works is a "New System of Organic Chem- istry," (2d edition, 3 vols., 1838,) which has been trans- lated into English, and "The Natural History of Health and Disease of Plants and Animals, especially Man," (3 vols., 1846.) He was elected to the corps legislatij in 1869. See Charles Marchal, "Biographic de F. V. Raspail," 1848; QuERARD, " La France Litteraire ;" "Nouveile Biographic Gene- rale." Raspe, rSs'peh, (Rodolph Eric,) a German anti- quary, born at Hanover in 1737 ; died in Ireland in 1794. Rasponi, rSs-po'nee, (Cesare,) an Italian cardinal and negotiator, born at Ravenna in 161 5 ; died in 1675. Ras'tall or Ras'tell, (John,) an English printer, was a native or citizen of London. One of the first books which he printed is dated 1 51 7. He was con- verted to the Protestant religion by J. Frith. He was the reputed author of " Chronicle of the Kings of England," (" Anglorum Regum Chronicon," 1529.) Died in 1536. His son William, born in 1508, was a printer and lawyer. He emigrated to Louvain in 1558, and died there in 1565. Rast-Maupas, rSs-m5'p3.', (Jean Louis,) a French rural economist, born at La Voulte in 1731. He founded the Condition des Soies, and made several useful inven- tions. Died at Lyons in 1821. Rastopchin. See Rostopchin. Rastrelli, r^s-tReKlee, (Joseph,) a German composer and musician, born at Dresden in 1799. He composed " Salvator Rosa," (1832,) and other operas. Rataller, rS-ti'ler, (George,) a Dutch philologist and jurist, born at Leeuwarden in 1528. He translated into Latin verse Hesiod's great poem and the tragedies of Sophocles. He became president of the council at Utrecht about 1570. Died in 1581. See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." Ratazzi. See Rattazzi. Ratcliffe, (Thomas,) Earl of Sussex. See Rad- cliffe. Ratdolt. See Rathold. Rathel or Raethel, ra'tel, (Wolfgang Christoph,) a German scholar, born at Selbitz in 1663 ; died in 1729. Ratherius. See Rathier. Rathery, rtt're', (Edme Jacques BENotT,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1807. He became assistant keeper of the Imperial Library in 1859. He has con- tributed to the " Nouveile Biographie Generale," the " Revue des Deux Mondes," and other periodicals. Rathier, rt'te-i', [Lat. Rathe'rius,] a learned ec- clesiastic, was born at Liege. He became Bishop of Verona in 931 a.d. Died about 974 a.d. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; %h as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) RATHOLD RJFAISSON Rathold, rSfholt, written also Ratdolt, (Erhard,) a German printer, born at Augsburg. He settled at Venice in 1475, where he published excellent editions of Appian, Euclid, and other classics. Died about 1516. Rat'i, written alsoReti, [modern Hindoo pron. rut'i,] a Sanscrit word signifying "passion," "sexual desire," and forming, in the Hindoo mythology, the name of the consort of Kamadeva, or the Indian god of love. See Wilson, " Sanscrit Dictionary." Ratier, rt'te-i', (F6lix S^verin,) a French medical writer, was borlTin Paris in 1797. He published nu- merous works. Ratramne, rt trtni', [Lat. Ratram'nus,] a learned French monk of the ninth century, belonged to the abbey of Corbie. He wrote a treatise " On the Body and Blood of the Lord," (" De Corpore et Sanguine Domini,") which was printed in 1532 and 1712. He is sometimes called Bertram. Died after 868 a.d. Ratramnus. See Ratramne. Ratschky, ritsh'kee, (Joseph Franz,) a German poet, born in Vienna in 1757. He published a volume of poems in 1785, which were somewhat popular. He became a councillor of state. Died in Vienna in 1810. Rattazzi, rSt-tit'see, or Ratazzi, (Urbano, ) an Italian minister of state, born at Alessandria about 1810. He gained distinction as an advocate, was elected to the Chamber of Deputies at Turin in 1848, and became a leader of the democratic party. About the end of 1848 he was intrusted with the formation of a new ministry, which was dissolved in consequence of the disastrous battle of Novara, March, 1849. was appointed min- ister of justice in 1854, was prime minister a short time in 1859, and succeeded Ricasoli as prime minister about March i, 1862. His opponents denounced him as sub- servient to the policy of the French emperor. He went out of power about December i, 1862, and became prime minister again in April, 1867. He is the leader of the "left centre." He resigned in October, 1867. See "Westminster Review" for January, 1863; " Nouvelle Bio- grapbie Generale." Ratte, de, deh rtt, (Etienne Hyacinthe,) a French astronomer, born at Montpellier in 1722. He wrote scientific articles for the " Encyclopedie," and observed the transit of Venus in 1761. Died in 1S05. See J. PoiTEViN, " ^loge d'E. H. de Ratte," 1805. Ratti, r^t'tee, (Niccola,) an Italian antiquary, born at Rome in 1759, published several biographies and antiquarian treatises. Died in 1833. Rau, (Christian.) See Ravius. Rau, row, (Johann Jakob,) a German physician, born at Baden, in Suabia, in 1668, was a successful lithotomist. He became professor of anatomy at Leyden in 1713. Died in 1719. Rau, (Karl Heinrich,) a German political econo- mist, born at Erlangen in 1792, became in 1822 professor of political economy and financial science at Heidelberg. His principal work is a "Manual of Political Economy," (3 vols., 1826-32,) which is highly commended. Died in 1870. Rau, (Sebald,) a German Orientalist, born at Herborn in 1724. He obtained the chair of Oriental languages at Utrecht in 1749. Died about 1810. Rau, (Sebald Foulques Jan,) an Orientalist, a son of the preceding, was born at Utrecht in 1765. He be- came minister of a church at Leyden in 1788. Died in 1807. See Teiss^dre l'Ange, "Vie de Rau," 1810. Rauch, rowK, (Christian,) one of the most eminent German sculptors, born at Arolsen, in the principality of Waldeck, in 1777. He studied for a time under Pro- fessor Ruhl, at Cassel, and in 1804 was enabled to visit Rome, where he was patronized by W. von Humboldt and acquired the friendship of Thorwaldsen. While at Rome he executed the bas-reliefs of " Hippolytus and Phcedra," and " Mars and Venus wounded by Diomed," also a colossal bust of the King of Prussia, a life-size bust of his queen Louise, and a portrait bust of Raphael Mengs. In 1813 he completed the moniiment of the Queen of Prussia, at Charlottenburg, which is esteemed one of the most admirable works of the kind. During a second visit to Ronie he executed statues of Generals Scharnhorst and Biilow, and a great number of busts of celebrated persons. After his return to Prussia he pro- duced two colossal bronze statues of Marshal Bliicher, a statue of Goethe, regarded as the most perfect re- semblance to that great writer, a monument to Albert Diirer, and statues of Luther, Schiller, and other eminent Germans. In 185 1 he finished his monument to Fred- erick the Great, with an equestrian statue, at Berlin, upon which he was employed more than ten years, and which is esteemed his greatest work. Died in 1857. See Nagler, " Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale ;" " Jahrbuch 7,um Conversations-Lexikon," 1859. Raulengien. See Rapheleng. Raulin, ro'liN', (F6lix Victor,) a French geologist, born in Paris in 1815. He has written several treatises on geology. Raulin, (Jean,) a French professor of theology at Paris, born at Toul in 1443 ; died in 1 5 14. Raulin, (Joseph,) a French physician, born near Auch in 1708. He became physician to the king, and wrote several able medical works. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died in Paris in 1784. Raumer, von, fon row'mer, (Friedrich Ludwig Georg,) an eminent German historian, born near Des- sau in 1 781. He studied law and financial science at Halle and Gottingen, and in 1819 became professor of history and political economy at Berlin. He published in 1810 a treatise "On the British System of Taxation," and in 1813 a "Manual of Remarkable Passages from the Latin Historians of the Middle Ages." His "His- tory of the Hohenstaufen and their Times" (6 vols., 1823) was very well received, and is esteemed a standard work. Among his other productions may be named a " History of Europe from the End of the Fifteenth Cen- tury," (1832,) " England in 1835," which was translated by Mrs. Austin, and "The United States of North America," (1845.) Died in 1871. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" Brockhaus, "Conver- sations-Lexikon;" "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1835; '' Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1829, and April, 1833. Raumer, von, (Georg Wilhelm,) a German jurist and historical writer, born at Berlin about 1 790; died in 1856. Raumer, von, (Karl Georg,) a German geologist, born at Worlitz in 1 783, became professor of natural history and mineralogy at Erlangen. He was a brother of the eminent historian. Raumer, von, (Rudolf,) son of the preceding, was born at Breslau in 1 81 5. He was professor of the Ger- man language and literature at Erlangen in 1852. Raupach, row'piK, (Ernst Benjamin Solomon,) a popular dramatic poet, born near Liegnitz, in Silesia, in 1784. After residing several years in Russia as a teacher, he became professor of German literature at Saint Peters- burg in 1817. His works, which are very numerous and include both tragedy and comedy, were published in 18 vols., 1830-44. Died in 1852. See Paui,ine Raupach, " Raupach ; biographlsche Skizze," 1854; " Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1838. Rauter, row'ter or r5'taiR', (Jacques Fr^id^ric, ) a French jurist, born at Strasburg in 1784. He was pro- fessor of law in his native city. Died in 1854. Rauwolf, row'^olf, (Leonhard,) a German botanist, born at Augsburg. He visited the Levant in 1573, in order to study and identify the plants noticed by Pliny, Galen, Dioscorides, etc. After his return he published a valuable " Narrative of a Journey in Syria, Judea, Arabia, Mesopotamia," etc., (1582.) Died in 1596. See M. Adam, " Vitae Medicorum ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Ravaillac, rt'vtl'ytk' or rt'vt'ytk', (Franqois,) a French assassin and fanatic, born at Angouleme in 1578. He approached the royal carriage, which was stopped in the street by a number of wagons, and stabbed Henry IV. mortally, in May, 1610. At his examination he de- nied that he had any accomplice. He was executed in May, 1 6 10. Ravaisson, rt'vi's6N', (Jean Gaspard F6lix,) a French philosopher, born at Namur in 1813. He was adinitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1849, and became a member of the imperial council of public instruction in 1852. He wrote an "Essay on the Meta- physics of Aristotle," (2 vols., 1837-46.) 5, e, T, 0, u, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; n6t; good; moon; RAVANA RAT Ravana * li'va-na, or Ravanen, in the Hindoo my- thology, the name of a famous many-headed giant, King of Ceylon, who was killed by Rama. (See Rama.) See MooK, " Hindu Pantheon." Ravenel, i tv'neK, (Jules AM^DiED^siR^;,) a French bibliographer, born in Paris in 1801. He became keeper of the printed works of the Royal Library in 1848. Ravenet, rSv'ni', (Simon Francois,) an eminent French engraver, born in Paris about 1708, removed to England in 1750. Died in 1774. Ravenet, (Simon FRANgois,) an engraver, born in London about 1755, was a son of the preceding. He went to Parma, and engraved the works of Correggio. Died about 1812. Ravenna, da, di ri-ven'nS, (Marco,) an able Italian engraver, born at Ravenna about 1496, was a pupil of Raimondi. He engraved some works of Raphael. Died at Rome in 1527. Ravenna, di, de ri-vln'nS, ( Giovanni Malpa- GHINO,) an Italian classical scholar, born at Ravenna. He was employed by Petrarch as a copyist, and after- wards taught the classics at Florence. Died about 1420. Ra'vens-croft, (John Stark,) born in Prince George county, Virginia, in 1772, was elected in 1823 Bishop of the diocese of North Carolina. Died in 1830. Ra'vens-croft, (Thomas,) an English composer, born in 1592. He published in 1611 a collection of songs called "Melismata, Musical Phansies," etc., and in 1621 "The Whole Book of Psalms, composed into Four Parts by Sundry Authors to such Several Tunes as are usually sung in England," etc. He was the composer of some of these tunes. Ravesteyn, van, vtn ra'veh-stTn',(HuRERT,) a Dutch painter, born at Dort about 1645, painted fairs, interiors of shops, etc. Ravesteyn, van, (J.\n,) a Dutch portrait-painter, born at the Hague about 1575. His works are highly praised by Descamps and others. Died at the Hague in 1657. His son Arnold ( 1615-67) was a portrait-painter. See Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres." Ravesteyn, van, (Nikolaas,) a relative of the pre- ceding, was born at Bommel in 1661. He painted por- traits and history with success, l^ied at Bommel in 1750. Ravignan, de, deh rt'v^n'ySN', (Gustavk FRANgois Xavier Delacroix,) a French Jesuit, noted as a pulpit orator, was born at Bayonne in 1795. He preached in Notre-Dame, Paris, for ten years, (1837-48,) and wrote a book in defence of the Jesuits, (7th edition, 1855.) Died in 1858. See P. DE PoNLEvoY, " Le P^re de Ravignan," 2 vols., 1850 ; H. DE Saint-Albin, "Vie du Pere de Ravignan." Ra-vis'l-us Tex'tor, the Latin name of Jean Tixier DE Ravisi, (te'se-i' deh rt've'ze',) a French classical scholar, born in Nivernais about 1480. He published "Latin Epithets," (" Epitheta Latina," 15 18,) and other works. Died in 1524. Ravius, rS've-us, Rave, ri'veh, or Ran, row, (Chris- tian,) a German Orientalist, born at Berlin in 1603, or, as others say, in 1613. He went to the Levant in 1639, and studied the Turkish, Persian, Italian, Modern Greek, etc. at Smyrna. In 1644 he obtained the chair of Oriental languages at Utrecht, and in 165 1 became professor of Arabic at Upsal. Among his works are a Latin version of part of the Koran, " Primae tredecim Partium Alcora- ni," etc., (1646,) and a " Grammar of the Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, andChaldaic Languages," (1650.) Died in 1677. See BuRMANN, "Trajectum eruditum ;" " Nouvelle Biograpliie G^nerale." Ravizza, r3.-v^t'sa or ri-vit'sl, (Domenico,) an Ital- ian writer, born in the Abruzzi in 1707 ; died in 1767. Rawdon, Lord. See Hastings, Marquis of. Rawle, rawl, (William,) a distinguished American jurist, born in Philadelphia in 1759, was appointed by Washington district attorney of Pennsylvania. He drew up the new civil code of Pennsylvania, and wrote several legal works. Died in 1836. Rawleigh. See Raleigh. Raw'ley, (William,) an English clergyman, born at Norwich about 1588. He became chaplain to Lord Bacon and to Charles 1. He wrote a " Life of Bacon," * He is called Ravenen in Southev's " Curse of Kehama." which Hallam calls " the best authority we have," and edited the works of Bacon, (1657.) Died in 1667. Raw'lins, (John A.,) a distinguished American general, born in Jo Daviess county, Illinois, in 1831, was a lawyer before the civil war. He became assistant adjutant-general of General Grant in September, 1861, and served as such in the campaigns of 1862 and 1863. In March, 1865, he was appointed chief of General Grant's staff, with the rank of brigadier-general in the regular army. He became secretary of war in March, 1869. Died in Septeml^er, 1869. Raw'lin-son, (Christopher,) an English antiquary, born in Essex in 1677. He published an edition of King Alfred's Saxon version of Boethius " De Consolatione Philosophise," (1698.) Died in 1733. Rawlinson, (Rev. George,) an English scholar, born about 181 5, was educated at Oxford, and was chosen a Fellow of Exeter College in 1840. He became professor of ancient history at Oxford in 1861. He jniblished a translation of Herodotus, (4 vols., 1858-60,) in which he was assisted by his brother Sir Henry, and "The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World," (4 vols., 1862-68,) which is highly esteemed. See the " Edinburgh Review" for January, i860 ; " North British Review" for June, 1866. Rawlinson, (Sir Henry Creswick,) an English Orientalist, a brother of the preceding, was born in Oxfordshire in 1810. He entered the military service of the East India Company about 1826, and served in Persia some years, during which he studied the Persian cuneiform inscriptions with success. In 1843 he became political resident, or agent, at Bagdad. He deciphered the cuneiform inscriptions at Nineveh, and wrote " An Outline of the History of Assyria as collected from the Inscriptions," etc., (1852.) He was sent as British ambassador to the court of Persia in 1859, and obtained the rank of major-general. Rawlinson, (Richard,) an English antiquary, born in London about 1690. He published a " Life of Anthony Wood," (1711,) and " The English Topographer," (1720.) Died in 1755. Rawlinson, (Thomas,) a brother of the preceding, was born about 1680. He was noted as a collector of books, and is supposed to have been the original of Addison's character of" Tom Folio." (See the " Tatler," No. 158.) Died in 1725. Raw'son, (Sir William,) an English surgeon and oculist, born in Cornwall. His family name was Adams, which he exchanged for Rawson when he became heir to a person of that name. He settled in London in 1810. Died in 1820. Raxis, rtk^s^ss', (Ga^tan,) Comte de Flassans, a French publicist, born at Bedouin in 1760. He pub- lished, besides other works, a " History of French Diplomacy," (6 vols., 1808.) Died in Paris in 1845. Ray, (Isaac,) M.D., an American physician, born at Beverly, Massachusetts, in 1807, was appointed in 1841 superintendent of the. State Insane Hospital at Augusta, Maine, and in 1845 of the Butler Hospital for the In- sane at Providence, Rhode Island, He has published "Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity," (1838,) which is highly commended. Ray or Wray, (John,) an eminent English botanist and zoologist, born near Braintree, in Essex, on the 29th of November, 1628, was the son of a blacksmith. He studied in Trinity College, Cambridge, where he became Greek lecturer at the age of twenty-three. In 1660 he published a " Catalogue of Plants growing around Cambridge." He was ordained as a priest, but declined to subscribe to the Act of Uniformity of 1662, and never performed clerical functions. He found a friend and patron in Francis Willoughby, in company with whom he made scientific excursions in France, Germany, and Italy in 1663-66. In 1667 he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. He published a "Cata- logue of the Plants of England," ("Catalogus Plan- tarum Anglize," 1670 or 1677,) and in 1682 a " New Method of Plants," ("Methodus Plantarum Nova,") in which he proposed a new method of classification. Of this work Cuvier and Du Petit-Thouars (" Biographie Universelle") remark, " We find the natural families of € as 9 as s; g hard; g as G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ({J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) RAT 1872 RJTNAUD plants better defined, and the grand division of mono- cotyledons and bicotyledons fully established ; he gave the characters of many classes with much precision, and introduced several technical terms which are very use- ful ; finally, he established many principles and general laws of classification which have since been adopted." His principal or largest botanical work is " Universal History of Plants," (*' Historia Plantarum Universalis," 3 vols., 1686-1704.) Ray is said to have been the first modern zoologist who made use of comparative anat- omy. He published in 1693 " Synopsis of Quadrupeds and Serpents," (" Synopsis Animalium Quadrupedum et Serpentini Generis.") " His works on zoology," says Cuvier, " are even more important than those on botany, for their utility has been more durable. They may be considered as the foundation of all modern zoology. . . . His distribution of the classes of quadrupeds and birds has been followed by the English naturalists almost to our own days." He wrote other works. Died in 1705. See Dr. Derham, "Select Remains of J. Ray," 1760; " Memo- rials of J. Ray," by Edwin Lankester, 8vo, 1844; " Biograpliia Britannica;" Dr. Hoefer's article in the " Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale ;" Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." Ray, (Joseph,) an American mathematician, born in 1807. He was an eminent teacher, employed in various places, and published several works on algebra and arithmetic. Died in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1855. Ray, (William,) an American poet, born at Salis- bury, Connecticut, in 1771 ; died in 1827. Rayer, rt'yi', (Pierre FRANgois Olive,) a French physician, born at Saint-Sylvain (Calvados) in 1793. He practised in Paris, and in 1852 was comprised in the medical service of the household of the emperor. He published several works. Ray'mond (or Raimond) I., Count of Toulouse, succeeded his brother Fredelon in 852 a.d. Died in 864 or 865. Raymond (or Raimond) II. succeeded his father, Eudes, in 918. He gained a victory over the Normans in 923 A.D. Died the same year. Raymond III., called Raymond Pons, a son of the preceding, began to reign in 923. His dominions included the large territory extending from the Loire to the Pyrenees and eastward to the Rhone. Died about 950. Raymond IV., called Raymond de Saint-Gilles, became Count of Toulouse about 1090, about the age of forty-five. He was one of the most powerful princes of Southern Europe, and was a famous leader in the first crusade. In 1096 he led a large army (about 100,000 men) by land to Asia. Jerusalem was taken in 1099 by the crusaders, who appreciated so highly the talents and merit of Raymond that they offered him the throne ; but he declined it. He died at Tripoli in 1105, and was succeeded by his son Bertrand. See MoLiNE DE Saint-Yon, " Histoire des Comtes de Toulouse," 4 vols., 1862 ; "Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale." Raymond V., a grandson of the preceding, born in I134, became Count of Toulouse in 1148. He married <.'onstance, a sister of Louis VH. of France. Henry H. of England invaded his dominions and besieged Tou- louse about 1160, but Raymond, aided by Louis of France, made a successful resistance. Died in 1194. Raymond VI., Count of Toulouse, born in 1156, succeeded his father, Raymond V., in 1194. His reign was disturbed by wars and crusades instigated by the pope in order to exterminate the Albigenses, who were very numerous in Provence. Raymond was disposed to protect or tolerate these subjects, and was excommu- nicated several times. His dominions were invaded by a large army of crusaders under Simon de Montfort in 12 10. Raymond opposed them bravely in several battles, but was decisively defeated in 1213, and lost his throne. He was restored in 1217. Died in 1222. See Moi,iNE de Saint- Yon, " Histoire des Comtes de Toulouse," 4 vols., 1S62 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale." Raymond, the last Count of Toulouse, a son of the preceding, made peace with the pope and became a persecutor of the Albigenses. Died in 1249. Raymond, rk'm6N', (Gp:orge Marie,) a meritorious teacher and writer, born at Chambery, in Savoy, in 1769. He published a variety of works on education, morality, etc., and wrote many articles for the " Biographic Uni- verselle." Died in 1839. Ray'mond, (Henry Jarvis,) an able American jour- nalist, born in Livingston county. New York, in 1820. He became associate editor of the " New York Courier and Enquirer" in 1843, founded the "New York Times." He was elected Lieutenant-Governor of the State in 1854, and, as a leader of the Republican party, favoured the election of Mr. Lincoln in i860. The " New York Times," which he continued to edit until his death, was very successful. In 1864 he was elected a member of Congress by the Republican voters of New York City. He published *'The Life, Public Services, and State Papers of Abraham Lincoln," (1865.) He took a prominent part in the National Conven- tion of the friends of Andrew Johnson which met in Philadelphia in the summer of 1866 for the purpose of forming a new political party, and wrote the address to the people of the United States which that convention issued. This enterprise proved a complete failure. Died in June, 1869. See " Henry J. Raymond and the New York Press for Thirt7 Years," by Augustus Maverick, 1870. Raymond, rk'm6N', (Jean Arnaud, ) a French architect, born at Toulouse in 1742, was a member of the Institute. Died in 1811. Raymond, (Jean Michel,) a French chemist, born at Saint- Vallier (Drome) in 1766. He was professor of chemistry at Lyons. About 1810 he discovered a colour called bleu- Raymond, for which he received a present of 8000 francs from the government. Died in 1837. Raymond, (Michel Joachim Marie,) an able French general, born near Auch in 1755. He entered the service of the Nizam of Deccan about 1786, and fought against the English and Mahrattas. Died at Hyderabad in 1798. Raymond, (Robert,) Lord, an English judge, born about 1673, was chief justice of the king's bench in the reign of George L, and a privy councillor. His "Reports" were published in 3 vols. Died in 1733. See Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Chief Justices.'' Raymond, (Xavier,) a French journalist, born in Paris in 1810 or 1812. He became an editor of the "Journal des Debats" about 1838, and published works entitled " L'Afghanistan," (1843,) and "L'Inde," (1845.) See the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1863. Raymond-Berenger. See B6renger. Raymond Lulli. See Lulli. Raymond (Raimond, rT-m5nd'. orRamon, r5-mon') de Penafort, (Pegnafort,) di pin'y^-foRt', a Spanish canonist and Dominican, born at Barcelona in 1175 or 1186. He compiled the "Decretals." Died in 1275. Raymondi. See Raimondl Raynal, rk'ntK, (Guillaume Thomas Fran^iois,) L'Abb6, a French philosopher and historian, born at Saint-Geniez, in Rouergue, in 1711. He was a priest in his youth, but renounced that profession soon after his removal to Paris, (1747.) He published several mediocre histories, and became intimate with Helvetius and Baron Holbach. He acquired temporary celebrity by a " His- tory of the Colonies planted by Europeans in America and India, and of their Influence on the Political Con- dition, Commerce, and Prosperity of Europe," ("His- toire philosophique et politique des fitablissements et du Commerce des Europeens dans les deux Indes," 4 vols., 1770.) It is said that Diderot wrote some of the ablest passages of this work, which abounds in declama- tions against the political and religious institutions of France. The Parliament in 1 781 ordered the book to be burnt and the author to be arrested ; but he escaped, and passed about six years in exile. Died in Paris in 1796. See A. Jay, " Notice biographique sur Raynal," 1821 ; Cherhal- MoNTREAL, " filoge philosophique de Raynal," 1796; "Nouvelle Biographic Generalc." Raynal, de, deh ri'ntl', (Louis Hector Chaudru,) a French historian of the present age. His chief work is a "History of Berri," (4 vols., 1844-47.) Raynaud, x\'wo\ written also Rainaud and Rai- naudo, (ri-nowMo,) (Th£ophile,) an Italian Jesuit, a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nSt; good; moon; RJTNEFAL 1873 REAGAN born in the county of Nice in 1583. He wrote many works on theology, which obtained success, though they are said to be trivial and prolix. Died in 1663. See jNIoreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." Rayneval, de, deh r^n'vtK, (Alphonse Gerard,) a French diplomatist, born in Paris in 1813. He was ap- pointed to represent the French government at the court of Pius IX. after his flight to Gaeta, (1849,) and entered Rome with the army which restored the pope. He was raised to the rank of ambassador in 1851, and remained at Rome in that capacity six years. Died in 1858. Rayneval, de, (FRANgois Maximilien Gerard,) the father of the preceding, was born in 1778. He was sent as ambassador to Vienna in 1829, and to Madrid in 1832. Died at Madrid in 1836. His father, Joseph, (1746-1812,) was author of a "Treatise on the Law of Nature and of Nations," (3d edition, 1832,) and "On the Liberty of the Seas," (2 vols., 181 1.) Raynolds. See Rainolds. Raynouard, ri'noo-tR', (FRANgois Juste Marie,) a French author and philologist, born at Brignoles (Pro- vence) in 1 761. He practised law in his youth, was im- prisoned as a Girondist in 1793, and became a resident of Paris about 1800. He produced in 1805 a tragedy (in verse) entitled "The Templars," (" Les Templiers,") which was very successful, and opened to him the doors of the French Academy, (1807,) of which he became perpetual secretary in 181 7. He was a member of the legislative body from 1806 to 1813. He wrote other dramas, and philological treatises, among which is a " Dictionary of the Language of the Troubadours," (6 vols., 1838-44.) Died in 1836. See C. Labitte, notice of Raynouard in the " Revue des Deux Moiides," February i, 1837; Reiffenberg, "A la Memoire de F. J. M. Raynouard," 1839; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Razee or Razi, Al, ai-rS'zee or ar-rJ'zee, [written in Latin RA'zis,RA''sis,or Ra'ses,] (Ahmed-Ibn-Moham- med-Ibn-Moosa,(or-Musa,) aH'medib'n mo-hSm^med il^ji'n moo'sa,) an Arabian historian, born at Cordova, in Spain, about 866 a.d. He wrote a " History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arabs." Only portions of his works are extant. There appears to have been another Arabian or Moorish historian bearing the same name. See Al-Makkari, "History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain," translated by Gavangos, vol. i. p. 314. Raizes, Rha'zes, or Ra'sis, Latin forms of the sur- name Razee, ri'zee, (or, rather, Ar-Razee or Ar-RazJ,) of a celebrated Arabian physician, whose proper name was Mohammed-Ibn-Zakaria-Aboo-Bekr, (mo-him'- raed ib'n za-kS-ree'a i'boo hhVr'.) He was born in Irak-Ajemee about the middle of the ninth century. He practised at Bagdad, and travelled into several foreign countries. Among his numerous works are " Al-Hawi," or " Continens," and a treatise on the smallpox and measles. He is said to have been the first who de- scribed the smallpox accurately. Died about 930 a.d. See Ibn-Khaxlikan, "Biographical Dictionary;" Sprengel, "Geschichte der Medicin ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Razis. See Razee. Razoomofski or Razoumovski, rl-zoo-mof'skee, written also Razumowskij, (Gregory,) a Russian savant, published in French several works on mineralogy, and " Coup-d'CEil geognostique sur le Nord de I'Europe," (1S16.) Died in Moravia in 1837. Razout, rt'zoo', (Jean Nicolas,) a French general, born at Paris in 1772. He distinguished himself as general of division at Borodino (1812) and at Dresden, (1813.) Died in 1820. Razzi, rSt'see, or Bazzi, (Giovanni Antonio,) Cavaliere, surnamed il Sodoma, {h\ so-do'ml,) an able Italian painter, born at Vercelli, in Piedmont, or at Vergelli, near Sienna, about 1479. He painted in the Vatican some works which were effaced by order of Julius IL to make room for thosefiof Raphael. The palace called Farnesina, at Rome, contains his picture of "The Marriage of Roxana." He afterwards worked at Sienna. A picture of "The Scourging of Christ" (at Sienna) is called his master-piece. Died about 1550. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- ing in Italy." Razzi, (Girolamo,) afterwards called Silvano, s^l- v^'no, an Italian monk and writer, born at Florence about 1530. He produced several dramas and biogra- phies. Died in 161 1. Re, ra, (Filippo,) an Italian agriculturist, born at Reggio in 1763. He published in 1798 an excellent work on agriculture, "Elementi d'Agricoltura," (2 vols.,) and became professor of agriculture at Bologna in 1803. He was author of other works on rural economy, etc. Died in 1817. See A. Fappani, " Elogio del Conte F. Re," 1820. Re, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian botanist and physician, born near Susa in 1773. He published a "Flora of Susa," (1805,) and a "Flora of Turin," (2 vols., 1825,) both in Latin. Died at Turin in 1833. Reach, (Angus Bethune,) a Scottish author and journalist, born at Inverness in 1821. He wrote a novel entitled " Clement Lorimer," and contributed to various periodicals. Died in 1856. Read, (Abner,) an American naval officer, born in Ohio about 1820. He served in the civil war with dis- tinction, and gained the rank of commander. He was killed near Donaldsonville, Louisiana, in July, 1863. See Tennev, " Military History of the Rebellion," p. 763. Read, (Alexander,) a Scottish medical writer, grad- uated at Oxford in 1620 ; died about 1680. Read, (George,) an American patriot and signer of the Declaration of Independence, born in Maryland in 1734. He was elected to the Congress of 1774, and was subsequently a member of the Convention which framed the United States Constitution, and chief justice of the supreme court of the State of Delaware. Died in 1798. Read, (John Meredith,) an American lawyer, born in Philadelphia in 1797, was a grandson of the pre- ceding. He was called to the bar in 1818, and became a district attorney of the United States. In 1851 he was associated with Thaddeus Stevens as counsel for the defence in the celebrated trial of C. Hanway for con structive treason. About 1854 he began to advocate the principles of the Republican party by his speeches and writings. About i860 he was elected a judge of the supreme court of Pennsylvania. Read, (Nathan,) an American mechanician, born in Worcester county, Massachusetts, in 1759. He invented a machine for cutting nails which formed heads on the nails by the same operation. In 1800 he was elected a member of Congress. He made some improvements in the steam-engine about 1790. Died in Maine in 1849. Read, (Thomas Buchanan,) a distinguished Amer- ican poet and artist, born in Chester county, Pennsyl- vania, in 1822. He visited Italy in 1850, and subsequently spent some time in England, where he published a col- lection of poems, which were very favourably received. He afterwards resided several years at Florence and Rome, whence he returned in 1858. Among his works may be named his prose romance "The Pilgrims of the Great Saint Bernard," and his poems of " The House by the Sea," " The New Pastoral," (1855,) " Sylvia, or the Lost Shepherd," etc., (1857,) and "The Wagoner of the Alleghenies, a Poem," (1862.) Flis group of " Longfel- low's Children" is esteemed one of his best pictures. See "Quarterly Review" for October, 1857; "North British Review" for August, 1852 ; Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." Reade, reed, (Charles,) a popular English novelist, born in 1814, graduated at Magdalene College, Oxford, in 1835. He established his reputation by " Peg Wof- fington," (1852.) In 1856 he published "Never too Late to Mend." Among his other novels are " Love me Little, Love me Long," (1859,) " The Cloister and the Hearth," (1861,) "Very Hard Cash," (1863,) "Griffith Gaunt," (1866,) "Foul Play," (1868,) (written conjointly with Boucicault,) and "Put Yourself in his Place," (1870.) See "Atlantic Monthly" for August, 1864; " Blackwood's Maga- zine" for October, 1869. Reading, rgd'ing, (John,) an English clergyman, born in Buckinghamshire in 1588. He was chaplain to Charles I., and favoured the royalist cause in the civil war. He wrote several works on theology. Died in 1667. Reagan, ree'gan, ? (John H.,) an American politician, born in Sevier county, Tennessee, in 18^8. He emi- e as 9 as .r; g hard; g as j; g, h, Vi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 118 REAL 1874 RECHBERGER grated to Texas, and became a member of Congress in 1857. He was re-elected in 1859. He was postmaster- general of the Confederate States from March, 1861, to April, 1865. Real, de, deh ri'tK, (Gaspard,) Seigneur de Curban, a French publicist, born at Sisteron in 1682. He wrote an able work "On the Science of Government," (8 vols., 1751-64.) Died at Paris in 1752. Real, de, (Pierre FRAwgois,) Count, a French poli- tician and lawyer, born near Paris about 1760. He was a partisan of Danton in 1793, and contributed actively in 1799 to the success of Bonaparte, who appointed him a councillor of state and gave him in 1808 the title of count. Died in 1834. See "Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale." Real, Saint. See Saint-R^:al. Realino, ri-S-lee'no, (Bernardino,) a learned Italian Jesuit, born at Carpi in 1530. He wrote notes on Catul- lus and other ancient authors. Died in 1616. Reaumur, de, deh ri'o'miiR', (Ren^: Antoine Fer- CHAult,) a celebrated French natural philosopher and entomologist, born at Rochelle in February, 1683. He inherited an easy or independent fortune, and became a resident of Paris in 1703. By some memoirs on geometry he obtained admission into the Academy of Sciences in 1708. His favourite studies were general physics, natural history, and the industrial arts. He made important discoveries or improvements in the fab- rication of steel, and published in 1722 a "Treatise on the Art of Converting Iron into Steel," for which he received a pension of 12,000 livres. He made successful experi- ments on the artificial incubation of eggs and on the manufacture of tin wares. His most important contribu- tion to general physics was the thermometer, which he invented in 1 731. He divided the interval between the freezing and boiling points of water into eighty degrees. "The most remarkable of the works of Reaumur," says Cuvier, "are his 'Memoirs Illustrating the History of Insects,' ('Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire des In- sectes,' 6 vols., 1734-42.) The author here exhibits the highest degree of sagacity in the observation and dis- covery of all those instincts, so complicated and so constant in each species, which maintain these feeble creatures. He constantly excites our curiosity by new and singular details. . . . Unfortunately, it is not quite finished." Died in 1757. See Haller, "Bibliotheca Botanica "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Rebecque. See Constant. Rebecqui, reh-bi'ke', ( Francois Trophime, ) a French Girondist, born at Marseilles about 1760. He was a member of the Convention, was proscribed in June, 1793, and escaped to Marseilles. Having learned the fate of his colleagues, he drowned himself in the sea in June, 1794. Rebentisch, ra'ben-tish', (Johann Friedrich,) a German botanist, born at Landsberg in 1772. He pub- lished a Catalogue of Plants growing near Berlin, (1805,) Died in 1810. Reber, ri'baiR', (Napoleon Henri,) a French mu- sician and composer, born at Mulhouse in 1807. He composed melodies for a single voice, and comic operas, entitled "Christmas Eve," (1848,) and " Le Pere Gail- lard," (1852,) which are highly commended. Rebkow or Repkow, von, fon rip'ko, [Lat. Rep- Ko'vius,] (Eyke,) a German jurist, born in Thuringia, flourished about 1210-40. He compiled a code or col- lection of laws, entitled "Speculum Saxonicum," which was extensively used in Germany. His German trans- lation of it, called " Sachsenspiegel," was printed in the fifteenth century. ReboUedo,' de, di ri-bol-ya'Do, (Bernardino,) Count, a Spanish poet and commander, born at Leon in 1597. He distinguished himself at the capture of Nice, (1626,) commanded a corps of lancers in Flanders in 1632, and was the leader of a force sent in 1636 to aid the emperor Ferdinand II., who rewarded his ser- vices with the title of count of the empire. He was sent as ambassador to the court of Denmark about 1650 or 1648. He showed respectable talents as a poet in his "Military aad Political Groves,"? ("Selvas militares y politicas," 1652,) "Selvas Danicas," (1655,) and "Selvas sagradas," (1657.) Died at Madrid in 1676. See TiCKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature;" Bouterwek, " Geschichte der Poesie." Reboul, reh-booK, (Henri Paul Ir6n6e,) a French savant, born at Pezenas in 1763. He assisted Lavoisier in his scientific labours, and wrote several treatises on geology and other sciences. He was appointed admin- istrator of Lombardy by Bonaparte about 1798. Died in 1839. Reboul, (Jean,) a French poet, born at Nimes in 1796. He produced in 1828 a poem called "The Angel and the Infant," which was much praised. He after- wards wrote other successful poems. Died in 1864. See CoLLOMBET, " fitude biographique sur Reboul," 1839. Reboulet, reh-boo'li', (Simon,) a French historian, born at Avignon in 1687. He wrote a mediocre " His- tory of the Reign of Louis XIV.," (3 vols., 1742-44.) Died in 1752. Rebuffi, reh-biiTe', (Pierre,) an eminent French jurist, born near Montpellier in 1487. He lectured on law at Kourges and Paris, and published several works. Died in Paris in 1557. Recamier, r^'kS'me-a', (Jeanne FRANgoiSE Julie Ad^:laide Bernard, )~a beautiful and accomplished F'rench lady, born at Lyons in 1777. She was married to M. Recamier, a rich banker, in 1793, after which she became an intimate friend of Madame de Stael. She was courted in vain by Napoleon in 1805. In conse- quence of the bankruptcy of her husband, (1806,) she went to reside with Madame de Stael at Coppet. There she captivated the heart of Prince August of Prussia, and gave him a promise of marriage ; but her compassion for her first husband, who was living, prevailed on her to break the engagement. In 181 1 she was banished from Paris by Napoleon, on account of her intimacy and sympathy with Madame de Stael and other enemies of the emperor. Having returned to Paris after the restoration, she lived in intimate relations with Cha- teaubriand until his death. Her salon at L'Abbaye-auX- Bois was the most celebrated of those which flourished between 1815 and 1840. There was a remarkable dis- proportion between the modesty of her life and the greatness of her fame. Died in 1849. " We think with infinite respect of one who, having an unequalled in- fluence over the hearts and wills of men, scorned to ask a favour, and endured poverty . . . and exile, which fell with tenfold severity on one so beloved and admired, without the smallest sacrifice of dignity and independ- ence." ("Edinburgh Review" for January, i860.) See " Memoirs and Correspondence of Madame Recamier," trans- lated from the French and edited by Miss Luyster, Boston, 1867; an eloquently-written article on "Madame Recamier and her Friends," in the " Christian Examiner" for May, 1867; "Atlantic Monthly" for October, 1864; W. H. Adams, " Famous Beauties and Historic Women ;" " London Quarterly Review" for April, i860 ; " Eraser's Magazine" for September, 1849. Recamier, (Joseph Claude Anthelme,) a French physician, born near Belley (Ain) in 1774. He was physician (medecin ordinaire) at the Hotel-Dieu, Paris, for forty years, (1806-46,) and succeeded Laennec as professor at the College of France in 1827. He was deprived of this place by the revolution of 1830. Died in 1852. See Sachaile, "Les Medecinsde Paris." Reochi, rek'kee, (Nardo Antonio,) an Italian bota- nist and physician, born at Montecorvo, lived about 1550-80. He prepared an abridgment of the manuscripts left by Hernandez. After the death of Recchi this work was published under the title of "Treasury of the Ma- teria Medica of New Spain," (" Rerum medicinalium Novae Hispanias Thesaurus," 1651.) Receveur, res-vUR', (Franqois Joseph Xavier,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Longueville (Doubs) in 1800. He published, be|ides other works, a " History of the Church from its 1^ oundation until the Pontificate of Gregory XVI.," (8 vols., 1840-47.) Died in 1854. Rechberger, rgK^b^Rc/er, (P^ranz,) an eminent Ger- man designer, landscape-painter, and etcher, born in Vienna in 1771. His etchings of landscapes are said to be beautiful and spirited. Died about 1842. a, e. T, 6, u, y, long; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; filr, filll, fit; m§t; ndt; good; moon; RECKE REED Recke, von der, fon der rgk'keh, (Elisabeth Charlotte Constantia,) a German authoress, born in Courland in 1754. She was for a time a believer in Cagliostro's pretensions of holding intercourse with the dead, but subsequently wrote a work entitled " Cagliostro Unmasked," (1787.) She also published "Travels in Italy," and several poems. Died in 1833. See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Reclam, r^k'lim, (Friedrich,) a German painter and engraver, born at Magdeburg in 1734 ; died in 1774. Reclam, (Pierre Chretien Frederic,) a Protest- ant minister, of French origin, born at Magdeburg in 1 741. He became minister of a church in Berlin in 1767. Died in 1789. Recorde, rek'ord, ? (Robert,) an eminent British mathematician, born in Pembrokeshire about 1500. He studied at Oxford, and took the degree of M.D. at Cam- bridge in 1545. He also taught mathematics at Oxford, and published several works, among which are " The Ground of Arts, teaching the Work and Practice of Arithmetic," (1540,) and "The Castle of Knowledge," (1556.) The latter treats on astronomy. He was phy- sician to Edward VI. and to Queen Mary. He is said to have invented the sign of equality in algebra. Died in 1558. See Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses ;" Hutton, "Mathematical Dictionary." Recupero, ri-koo-pa'ro, (Alessandro,) an Italian numismatist, born at Catania about 1740; died in 1803. Recupero, (Giuseppe,) an Italian mineralogist, born at Catania in 1720, was a brother of the preceding. He wrote a "Natural History of Etna," (1815.) Died in 1778 or 1787. Recurt, reh-kiiR', (Adrien Barnab^: Athanase,) a French physician and republican, born at Lassalle (Hautes-Pyrenees) in 1797. He was elected to the Constituent Assembly in 1848, and became minister of the interior on the nth of May. He was minister of public works from June to October, 1848. Red-Beard, (Barbarossa.) See Frederick L Red'ding, (Cyrus,) an English journalist and poet, born at Penryn about 1785. He was associated with the poet Campbell in the editorship of the " New Monthly Magazine" from 1820 to 1830. He published, besides other works, a "History of Modern Wines," (1833,) " Literary Reminiscences and Memoirs of Thomas Campbell," (2 vols., 1859,) and "Past Celebrities whom I have known," (2 vols., 1865.) Died in 1870. See " Eraser's Magazine" for February, 1858. Reden, von, fon ra'den, (Friedrich Wilhelm Otto Ludwig,) Baron, an eminent German writer on statistics, was born in Lippe-Detmold in 1804. Among his works are " General and Comparative Statistics of Finances," (2 vols., 1851-56,) and "Statistics of the Products and Commerce of Prussia," (3 vols., 1854.) Died in 1857. See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." Redern, von, fon ra'dern, (Sigismond Ehrenreich,) Count, a Prussian diplomatist, born in Berlin in 1755. He became a partner of Saint-Simon, the French so- cialist, in speculations. Died in 1835. Redesdale, reedsMal, (John Freeman Mitford,) Baron, an English lawyer, born in 1748. As solicitor- general, he conducted the state trials in 1794. He became attorney-general in 1799, and Speaker of the Plouse of Commons in 1801. Died in 1830. Red'field, (William C.,) an American geologist and meteorologist, born in Middletown, Connecticut, in 1789, became a resident of New York about 1825. He contributed articles on meteorology to several periodicals, and wrote on steam-navigation. Died in February, 1857. " The ingenious theories of Mr. Redfield and Mr. Espy," says R. W. Griswold, " have commanded the respect and admiration of scholars." ("Prose Writers of America," p. 27.) Red'grave, (Richard,) an English painter of land- scapes, domestic scenes, etc., was born in London in 1804. He exhibited in 1837 a successful picture of _" Gulliver on the Farmer's Table." His favourite subjects in a subsequent period were illustrations of the trials of the poor, such as "The Sempstress" and "The Poor Teacher." He also acquired popularity as a painter of landscapes. He was elected a Royal Academician in 185 1. Among his works are "The Country Cousins," " Ophelia," and " Little Red-Riding-Hood." Redi, ra'dee, (Francesco,) an eminent Italian natu- ralist and poet, born at Arezzo in 1626. He practised medicine at Florence with a high reputation, and wrote poetry with success. In philosophy he belonged to the school of Galileo. He is ranked among the greatest observers of his age. Among his works are " Experi- ments on the Generation of Insects," (1668,) a poem on the wine of Tuscany, called " Bacchus in Tuscany," (" Bacco in Toscana," 1685,) and "Letters on Philoso- phy, Natural History," etc., (2 vols., 1724-27.) "Few have done so much in any part of science," says Hal- lam, " who have also shone so brightly in the walks of taste. The sonnets of Redi are esteemed ; but his famous dithyrambic ' Bacco in Toscana' is admitted to be the first poem of that kind in modern language." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died at Pisa about 1695. See GoRANi, " Elogj di due illustri Scopritori, (Redi a Bandini,") 1786; A. Fabroni, "Vitas Italorurh illustrium ;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Niceron, " Meinoires ;" G. V. M. Fabroni, " Elogio storico di F. Redi," 1796; Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Redi, (ToMMASO or Giuseppe,) an Italian painter of history and portraits, born at Florence in 1665, was a pupil of Carlo Maratta. Died in 1726. Reding, von, fon ra'ding, (Aloys,) a Swiss officer, born in 1755. He commanded the Swiss troops that checked the French army at Morgarten in May, 1798, and was elected Landamman in 1801. He was the chief of the confederes^ the aristocratic and anti-Gallican party. Died in 1818. Red Jack'et, or Sa-go-ye-wat-ha, ("Keeper- Awake,'') a celebrated Indian chief of the Senecas, born in Western New York about 1759. He was noted for his eloquence, and earnestly opposed the treaty between the Six Nations and the United States for the cession of lands. General Washington bestowed upon him a silver medal. Died in 1830. See the "Life and Times of Sa-go-ye-wat-ha, or Red Jacket," 1841, by William L. Stone. Red'man or Red'mayne, (John,) an English divine, born in Yorkshire in 1499. He was chosen master of Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1547, and became archdeacon of Taunton. He wrote several works on theology. Died in 1551. Red'man, (John,) an American physician, born in Philadelphia in 1722, graduated at Leyden. He acquired a high reputation in his profession, and was the first president of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia. Died in 1808. Redmayne. See Redman. Redoute, reh-doo'ti', (Pierre Joseph,) an eminent French painter of flowers, born at Saint-Hubert, near Liege, in 1759. He worked mostly in Paris, and received the title of painter of the cabinet of Queen Marie An- toinette. He published an admirable "Monography of the Roses," (" Monographic des Roses," 3 vols., 1817- 24.) In 1832 he became professor of iconography at the Jardin des Plantes, Paris. Died in 1840. See Bouchard, " Notice snr la Vie et les Travaux de M. Re- doute," 1840 ; M. Bonafous, " Notice historique sur P. J. Redoutd. Redschid. See Resheed Pasha. Redwitz, rSd'^^its, (Oskar,) Baron, a German poet and litterateur, born near Anspach in 1823. He became in 185 1 professor of literary history at Vienna. Among his principal works are the poem of " The Amaranth," and "Tales of the Forest-Brook and Fir-Tree," (1850.) Reed, (Andrew,) D.D., an English dissenter and philanthropist, born in London in 1787. He was sent on amission to the churches of the United States in 1834 by the Congregationalists. He preached at Wycliffe Chapel, Stepney, for fifty years, and founded two orphan- asylums and a hospital for incurables. Died in 1862. See " Memoirs of the Life, etc. of Andrew Reed," London, 1863. Reed, (Henry,) a distinguished American scholar and writer, born in Philadelphia in 1808. He graduated € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Y^, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (Sl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) REED 1876 REGIS in 1825 at the University of Pennsylvania, became assist- ant professor of moral philosophy in 1831, and in 1835 professor of rhetoric and English literature, in that insti- tution. In 1854 he visited Europe, and, having embarked in the steamship Arctic, was lost on the voyage home. He was the author of " Lectures on English Literature from Chaucer to Tennyson," (1855,) "Lectures on the British Poets," (2 vols., 1857,) "Lectures on English His- tory," etc., and the "Life of Joseph Reed" in Sparks's "American Biography." He also prepared editions of Graham's " English Synonymes," Arnold's " Lec- tures on Modern History," Lord Mahon's " History of England," and the " Poetical Works of Thomas Gray." See DuYCKiNCK, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; Ali.ibone, " Dictionary of Authors." Reed, (Isaac,) an English editor, critic, and biogra- pher, born in London in 1742. He wrote biographical notices for Dodsley's "Collection," (6 vols., 1782,) contributed to the " Gentleman's Magazine," and edited, among other works, " Biographia Dramatica," (1782,) and Shakspeare's Works, (10 vols., 1785.) Died in 1807. Reed, (Joseph,) an English dramatist and miscella- neous writer, born at Stockton-upon-Tees in 1723. Among his works are "Dido," a tragedy, (1767,) and "Tom Jones," an opera, (1769.) Died in 1787. Reed, (Joseph,) an American ofificer of the Revo- lution, born at Trenton, New Jersey, in 1 741. He was president of the first provincial convention held in Penn- sylvania, (1775,) and was subsequently aide-de-camp and secretary to General Washington. He was made adjutant-general in 1776, and in 1778 became president of the supreme executive council of Pennsylvania. He died in 1785. His Life, written by his grandson. Pro- fessor Henry Reed, is included in Sparks's "American Biography." Respecting President Reed's character as a man and a patriot, very different opinions have prevailed from his own time to the present day. See, on this subject, Bancroft's " History of the United States," vols. viii. and ix. ; a pamphlet by William B. Reed, entitled " President Reed of Pennsylvania, a Reply to Mr. George Bancroft and Others," February, 1867, and Mr. Bancroft's re- joinder, — "Joseph Reed, a Historical Essay," 1867. See, also, Reed, (William B.,) in Allibone's " Dictionary of Authors." Reedtz, rats, (Holger Christian,) a Danish min- ister of state, born at Odense in 1800. He was minister of foreign affairs from August, 1850, to December, 1851. Died in 1857. Rees, reess, (Abraham,) an English encyclopaedist, born in North Wales in 1743. He became minister of a dissenting congregation in London about 1768. He edited "Chambers's Cyclopaedia," (4 vols., 1778-85,) and used that as the basis of a more extensive and extremely valuable work published under the title of " Rees's Cyclopaedia," (45 vols., 1802-20.) Died in 1825. See "Gentleman's Magazine" for August, 1825. Reeve, reev, (Clara,) an English authoress, born at Ipswich in 1725. She produced in 1778 a romance called " The Old English Baron," which was often reprinted. Among her works is "The Progress of Ro- mance through Times, Countries, and Manners," (2 vols., 1785.) Died in 1803. Reeve, (Lovell, ) an English conchologist, born about 1814. He published "Conchologia Systematica, or a Complete System of Conchology," (London, 2 vols. 4to, 1842,) and "Conchologia Iconica, or Figures and Descriptions of the Shells of Molluscous Animals, with Critical Remarks," etc., (1856.) Died in 1865. Reeve, reev, (Tapping.) an eminent American lawyer, born on Long Island in 1744. He began to practise at Litchfield, Connecticut, in 1772, and married a sister of Aaron Burr. In 1792 he opened a law school, which he taught for many years at Litchfield. He became a judge of the superior court in 1798. Died in 1823. Reeves, reevz, (John,) an English lawyer, born in London in 1752. He wrote, besides other works, a " History of English Laws," (1783.) He was a deter- mined opponent of reform. Died in 1829. Reeves, (Wh.liam,) an English clergyman, born in 1668. He was vicar of Saint Mary's, Reading. Several volumes of his sermons were published, (1704-29.) Died in 1726. Rega, ra'gi or ra'nS, (Hknri Joseph,) a Flemish physician, born at Louvain in 1690. His reputation is founded on a work "On Sympathy," (" De Sympathia," 1721.) Died at Louvain in 1754. See Martens, " Notice sur la Vie de H. J. Rega," 1840 ; Mal- CORPS, "Rega, sa Vie et ses Merits," 1846. Reganhac, de, deh reh-gS'ntk', (G6raud Valet,) a French lyric poet, born at or near Cahors in 1719; died Reggio, Duke of. See Oudinot. . .vr,. - . ( Reggio, rgd'jo, (Francesco,) an Italian astronomer,' born at Genoa in 1743. He wrote several memoirs on astronomy, and aided in the triangulation of Northern Italy, finished in 1794. Died in 1804. Reggio, da, (Luca.) See Ferrarl Regillo. See Pordenone. Re-gi'no, [Fr. R^ginon, rk'zhe'n6N',] a learned monk of the ninth century, was Abbot of Prum, in the diocese of Treves. He wrote a chronicle, which has been printed. Died in 915 a.d. Regio, ra'jo, (Raffaello,) an Italian classical scholar, born at Bergamo ; died in 1520. Regiomontan. See Regiomontanus. Re-gi-o-mon-ta'nus or Regiomontan, ra'ge-o-mon- ihV, a celebrated German astronomer, whose proper name was Johann Muller, (mt5l'ler,) was born in June, 1436, probably near Konigsberg, (Saxe-Hildburghausen.) The Latin name Regiomontanus is derived from Konigs- berg. Doppelmayer and others give Konigshofen, in Franconia, as the place of his birth. He wrote his own name sometimes Johannes Germanus de Regio- monte. About the age of fifteen he began to study astronomy under Purbach, in the University of Vienna. In 1462 he went to Rome, where he studied Greek and bought or copied Greek manuscripts on his favourite science. He passed several years in Rome, Padua, and Venice, whence he returned to Vienna and became professor of mathematics. About 1471 he removed to Nuremberg, where, by the liberal aid of a rich citizen, Bernard Walter, he was enabled to construct instru- ments, and made a series of observations. He published there, with his own press, his " Ephemerides" for thirty, years, (1475-1506,) and other works, among which was a " New Calendar" (" Kalendarium Novum") for the years 1475, 1494, and 1 5 13. This is supposed to have been the first almanac published in Europe. Pope Sixtus IV. in- vited him to Rome to reform the calendar, and offered him the bishopric of Ratisbon. About a year after his arrival in Rome he died there, in 1476. "He was a man of great sagacity and enterprise," says Delambre, " by whose premature death astronomy sustained a loss which for a long time was not repaired." A treatise " On Triangles, Plane and Spherical," ("De Triangulis Planis et Spheri- cis Libri V.,") composed about 1464, but not published until more than fifty years after his death, is pronounced by Delambre his most interesting work. See E. Riihinholt, "Oratlo de J. Regiomontano," 1549; Pan- zer, " Bruchstiicke zu J. Regiomontan's Leben," 1796. Regis, ra'j^ss, (Francesco,) an Italian professor of Greek, born near Mondovi. He produced a good Ital- ian version of Xenophon's " Cyropaedia," (1809.) Died at Turin in 181 1. Regis, ri'zh^ss', (Jean Baptiste,) a French Jesuit, born about 1665, was a missionary to Peking, in China. He spent several years in executing a map of China for the emperor. Died in China in 1737. Regis, (Jean Franqois,) a French Jesuit, born in the diocese of Narbonne in 1597. He gave to the poor large sums of money which he collected by begging. Died in 1640. He was canonized in 1737. See D'AuBENTON, " Vie de Saint- Franfois-Regis," 1716 ; A. Bonnet, "Vita J. F. Regis," 1692. Regis, (Pierre,) a French physician, born at Mont- pellier in 1656 ; died at AiTisterdam in 1726. Regis, (Sylvain, or Jean Sylvain,) a French Car- tesian philosopher, was born near Agen in 1632. He propagated the doctrines of Descartes by lectures at Toulouse and Paris. His chief work is a "System of Philosophy according to the Principles of Descartes," (3 vols., 1690.) Died in Paris in 1707. "No one has left," says Hallam, " so comprehensive a statement and 5, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; mSt; hftt; good; moon; REGIUS 1877 REGNIER defence of Cartesianism as Jean Sylvain Regis." (" In- troduction to the Literature of Europe.") See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, "Memoires;" Fontenelle, " filoge de Regis." Regius. See Leroy. Regnard, reh-ntR', (Jean FRANgois, ) a popular French comic poet, born in Paris in 1655, was a son of a merchant, who left him a handsome fortune. On a voyage between Civita Vecchia and Toulon, Regnard and a lady whom he loved were captured in 1678 by Algerine pirates, who sold them as slaves. They were ransomed after a captivity of two years. It is said he was on the point of marrying the lady when the fact transpired that her first husband was living. In 1681 and 1682 he performed a tour through Sweden and Lap- land as far as the Frozen Ocean, Having returned to Paris, he purchased the office of treasurer, ( tresorier de France.) He was much addicted to the vice of gambling. "Regnard," says Hallam, "is always placed next to Moliere among the comic writers of France in this, and perhaps in any, age. The plays, indeed, which entitle him to such a rank are but few. Of these the best is acknowledged to be 'The Gambler,' ('Le Joueur,' 1696.) Regnard, taught by his own experience, has here admirably delineated the character of an inveterate gamester." (" Introduction to the Literature of Eu- rope.") Among his most admired works are " The Absent-Minded," (" Le Distrait," 1697,) and "The Uni- versal Legatee," (1708.) His comedies are characterized by an inexhaustible fund of humorous sallies. Died in September, 1709. See Gilbert, " £loge de Regnard," 1857; "Atlantic Monthly" for June, 1865; Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries dn Lundi ;" Niceron, "Memoires;" La Harpe, "Cours de Litterature ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Regnaud, reh-n5', (Pierre Etienne,) a French political writer, born in Paris in 1736, was a constant adherent of the Bourbons. Died about 1820. Regnaud (or Regnault) de Saint-Jean-d'An- gely,* reh'no' deh siN zh6.\ dd.N'zha'le', (Auguste Michel Etienne,) Count, a French general, born in Paris in 1794. He served as a volunteer in the Morea in 1828, became general of brigade in 1841, and general of division in July, 1848. He commanded the iinperial guard at the battle of Magenta, June 4, 1859, and on the next day was made a marshal of France. Died in December, 1869. Regnaud (or Regnault) de Saint- Jean-d'Angely, (Michel Louis Etienne,) Count, the father of the preceding, was born at Saint-Fargeau (Yonne) in 1762. He was a moderate member of the Assembly- in 1790, and became a member of the council of state in 1800. He was employed in important affairs during the em- pire as procureur-general and secretary de Vetat of the imperial family. In 1803 he was chosen a member of the French Academy. Died in 1819. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Regnauldin or Regnaudin, reh'no'diN', (Thomas,) a French sculptor, born at Moulins in 1627. He exe- cuted some works for Louis XIV. at Versailles. Died in 1706. Regnault. See Regnaud. Regnault, reh-no', (£lias,) a French historian, born in Paris about 1802. He published, besides other works, a " History of Napoleon," (4 vols., 1847.) See the " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1850. Regnault, (Henri Victor,) a distinguished French chemist and natural philosopher, was born at Aix-la- Chapelle in 1810. He was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1840, and obtained a chair of physics in the College of France in 1841. He has written memoirs on- the compressibility of elastic fluids, on the elastic forces of aqueous vapour at different temperatures, and on the laws and numerical data which enter into the calculations respecting the constructibn and power of steam-engines. He published a good "Elementary * Authorities are divided in regard to the proper mode of writing this name : formerly it was universally written Ang6ly, but at pres- ent many respectable works systematically omit the accent, and some say that the e should be suppressed in pronunciation. (See note under Petion (or Pethion) de Villeneuve.) Treatise on Chemistry," (4 vols., 1849,) which has been translated into English. Regnault, (Jean Baptiste,) Baron, a French painter of history, born in Paris in 1754. He gained the first prize in 1776. Among his best works are a " Descent from the Cross," and the "Education of Achilles," (1783.) He was a member of the Institute. Died in 1829. See C. Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres." Regnault, (Jean Baptiste Etienne,) a French phy- sician, born at Niort in 1759, was consulting phvsician to Louis XVIII. Died in 1836. Regnault, (Noel,) a French natural philosopher and Cartesian, born at Arras in 1683. He wrote a popular work entitled " Conversations of Ariste and Eudoxe on Philosophy," (" Entretiens physiques d' Ariste," etc., 3 vols., 1729.) Died in 1762. Regnault-Warin, reh'no' vt'riN', (Jean Baptiste Joseph,) a mediocre French litterateur., born at Bar-le- Duc about 1772. He wrote "Memoirs of La Fayette," (1824,) and many other works. Died in 1844. Regner. See Ragner. Regner van Oosterga, reo'ner vSn 5s-tgR'gl, (or os- tlR^Hl,) (Cyprian,) a Dutch jurist, born in Friesland in 1614; died at Utrecht in 1687. Regnier, reh-ne-i', (Claude Ambroise,) Due de Massa, (mt^st',) a French minister of state, born at Blamont, in Lorraine, in 1736. As a member of the Council of Elders, he supported Bonaparte on the i8th Brumaire, 1799. During the consulate he was one of the redacteurs of the Civil Code. He was appointed _^r<2;z^/ juge (minister of justice) in 1802, and received the title of Due de Massa in 1809. Died in 1814. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Regnier, (Edme,) a French mechanician, born at Seniur-en-Auxois in 1 751. He invented a number of machines or instruments. Died in Paris in 1825. Regnier, General. See Reynier.' Regnier, (Jacques Auguste Adolphe,) a French philologist, born at Mentz in 1804. He became in 1843 preceptor of the Count de Paris, whom he followed into exile in 1848. He was admitted into the Institute in 18^5. Among his works are a " German Dictionary," (1841,) in which he was aided by Shuster, and the " Pra- ti9akya" of the " Rig-Veda," Sanscrit text, with French version, (3 vols., 1856-58.) Regnier, (Jacques Augustin,) a French landscape- painter, born in Paris in 1787. Regnier, (Louis,) Sieur de la Planche, a French Huguenot, noted as a negotiator and writer. He wrote a " History of France in the Reign of Francis II.," (1576,) which is commended. Died about 1580. Regnier, (Mathurin,) a French satirical poet, born at Chartres in 1573, was a nephew of the poet P. Des- portes. He obtained a canonicate at Chartres in 1604, but he was licentious in morals. His works consist of six- teen satires, and some elegies, odes, etc., the first edition of which was dated 1608. He imitated Horace, Juvenal, and Martial. His style is natural and remarkable for facility. " The satires of Regnier," says Hallam, " have been highly praised by Boileau, — a competent judge, no doubt, in such matters. Some have preferred Regnier even to himself, and found in this old Juvenal of France a certain stamp of satirical genius which the more pol- ished critic wanted." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died at Rouen in 16 13. See Brossette. " Notice sur Regnier," prefixed to an edition of his works, 1729; Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" Niceron, "Memoires:" Sainte-Beuve, "Tableau de la Poesie Frangaise;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Regnier-Desmarais, reh-ne-i' di'mt'ri', (Francois S^raphin,) a French poet anT' grammarian, born in Paris in 1632. He was appointed prior of Grammont by the king in 1668, and admitted into the French Acad- emy in 1670. He was one of the principal authors or editors of the Dictionary of the French Academy. Among his works are a good "Treatise on French Grammar," (1705,) and "Poems in French, Italian, Spanish, and Latin," (1707.) Died in 1713. See D'Alembert, "Histoire des Membres de I'Academie Fran- gaise." € as /^,- 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (Jil^^See Explanations, p. 23.) REGNIER 1878 RE ID Regnier-Destourbet, reh-ne-i' di'tooR'bi', (Hippo- LYTE FRANgois,) a French litierateur, born at Langres in 1804, wrote dramas, tales, etc. Died in Paris in 1832. Reg'u-lus, (Marcus Atillius,) a Roman general, distinguished in the first Punic war. He was consul for the second time in 256 B.C., and gained a naval vic- tory over the Carthaginians. Having invaded Africa, he defeated the enemy and advanced nearly to Carthage. He was defeated in turn, and taken prisoner, in 255. The victors sent him with some ambassadors to Rome to negotiate a peace, on condition that he should return if the Roman senate should reject their terms. ^ He advised the senate not to make peace, and returned to Carthage. This act of patriotism was much celebrated by ancient writers, according to whom Regulus died a victim to the cruelty of his captors. See Ernesti, " Dissertatio de M. A. Regulo," 1684; Niebuhr, "History of Rome;" J. Rey, "Dissertation sur Regulus," 1836; Cicero, "De Officiis." Rehberg, ra'blRG, (August Wilhelm,) a German publicist, born at Hanover in 1757; died in 1836. Rehfues, von, fon ra'fiis, (Philipp Joseph,) a Ger- man writer and journalist, born at Tubingen in 1 779. He was for a time associate editor of the " Morgenblatt." He published in 1813 his work on Spain, which was translated into French by Guizot. Died in 1843. Rehm, ram, (Friedrich,) a German historian, born in Hesse in 1792. He wrote a " History of the Middle Ages," (8 vols., 1820-38.) Died in 1847. Rehnskjold, ran'chold, (Carl Gustav,) Count OF, a Swedish general, born at Stralsund in 1651. He gained a victory over the King of Poland at Frauen- stadt, (1703,) and accompanied Charles XH. in the invasion of Russia. After Charles was wannded at Pultowa, (1709,) Rehnskjold took command of the army, and was made a prisoner. Died in 1722. Re-ho-bo'am, [Heb. D;r3n"n ; Fr. Roboam, ro'- bo'6N',] King of Judah, succeeded his father Solomon in 975 B.C. By his rash and ungracious answer to a petition that he would lighten the yoke which his father had imposed, he provoked ten tribes to revolt. He waged a long war against Jeroboam, the leader of the ten tribes. His reign lasted seventeen years. See I. Kings xii. and xiv. ; II. Chronicles x., xi., and xii. Reicha, rl'KS, (Anton,) a German composer and eminent writer on music, was born at Prague in 1770. He produced a symphony which was performed with success at Paris in 1799. About 1802 he went to Vienna, where he became intimate with Haydn and Beethoven, and composed, besides other works, thirty-six fugues for the piano. He resided in Paris from 1808 until his death. His reputation is founded chiefly on his "Treat- ise on Melody," ("Traite de Melodic," 1814,) and his "System of Harmony," ("Traite complet et raisonne d'Harmonie pratique," 1818.) Died in 1836. _ See Fetis, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Delaire, "Notice sur Reicha, Musicien," 1837- Reichard, rl'KiRt, (Christian Gottlieb,) a Ger- man geographer, born at Schleiz in 1758. He published a number of valuable maps and charts, among which we may name the "Chart of the World according to Mercator's Projection," and "Chart of Gaul" for the explanation of Caesar's writings. Died in 1837. Reichard, (Heinrich August,) a German litterateur, born at Gotha in 1751. He wrote dramas, political treatises, descriptive works, and a "Traveller's Guide" for Europe, (1793,) which was very successful. Died in 1828. Reichard, (Heinrich Gottfried,) a German phi- lologist, born at Schleiz in 1742. He produced a Latin version of the New Testament, (1799,) the style of which is praised for purity. Died in 1801. Reichardt, ri'KaRt, (Johann Friedrich,) a Ger- man composer and writer on music, was born at Konigs- berg in 1751. He was patronized by Frederick the Great, who appointed him chapel -master at Berlin on the death of Graun. Among his master-pieces is a funeral hymn ( Trauercantate ) for Frederick the Great. Died in 1814. See F]6tis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." Reichenbach, rl^Ken-b^K', (Anton Benedict,) a German naturalist, a brother of the following, was born at Leipsic in 1807. He has published several works oi\ animals, etc. Reichenbach, ( Heinrich Gottlieb Ludwig, ) professor of natural history in the Surgical Academy at Dresden, was born at Leipsic in 1793. He published a "Flora Germanica," (in 15 vols., 1853,) and the first part of a great work devoted to birds and mammalia. His son Gustav, born in 1822, a botanist, aided in the composition of the "Flora Germanica." Reichenbach, von, fon ri''Ken-baK', ( Georg, ) a German mechanician, born at Durlach in 1772. He established at Munich a great manufactory of telescopes and other optical and philosophical instruments of su- perior quality. Fraunhofer was his assistant or partner. Died in 1826. Reichenbach, von, ( Karl, ) Baron, a German chemist, born at Stuttgart in 1788. He discovered parafiin and creosote, and wrote, besides other works, "Geological Researches in Moravia," (1834.) He main- tained the existence of an imponderable agent, which he calls Od, and which he supposes to be widely diffused in nature. Died in 1869. Reichstadt, rlK'stit, Duke of, ( Napol^ion IL,) King of Rome, the only son of Napoleon L and Maria Louisa, was born in Paris on the 20th of March, 1811. His full name was Napoleon FRANgois Charles Joseph. In 1814 Napoleon L abdicated in favour of his son; but Louis XVIH. was preferred by the senate, and the young Napoleon was taken to Austria by Maria Louisa. He received the title of Duke of Reichstadt from the Emperor of Austria in 1818. He entered the Austrian army, and obtained the rank of lieutenant- colonel in 1831. His physical organization was feeble, but his intellect was active, and he is said to have pos- sessed a rare aptitude for the acquisition of languages. Died near Vienna in July, 1832. See De Montbel, " Le Due de Reichstadt," 1832 ; Fr. Le- COMTE, "Histoire de Napoleon II," 1842; J. DE Saint-F^lix, " Histoire de Napoleon II," 1856. Reid, reed, (David Boswell,) M.D., a Scottish chemist and writer, born in Edinburgh in 1805. He began to lecture on chemistry in Edinburgh in 1833. He invented an improved method of ventilation, and was employed about five years in the ventilation of the new Houses of Parliament. He published, besides other works, a " Text-Book for Students of Chemistry," (1834.) About 1856 he removed to the United States. Died in Washington in April, 1863. Reid, reed, (Mayne,) a novelist, born in the north of Ireland in 1818. He began about 1838 a tour in Mexico, Texas, etc., and passed some months among the savages. In 1846 and 1847 he fought as captain in the army of the United States against the Mexicans. He wrote several successful novels, among which are "The Rifle Rangers," (1849,) and "The War-Trail," (1857.) Reid, reed, (Samuel Chester,) Captain, an Ameri- can naval officer, born at Norwich, Connecticut, in 1783. He commanded the brig General Armstrong in a fight against three British vessels at Fayalin September, 1814. Died at New York in 1861. Reid, (Thomas,) a Scottish divine and eminent writer on mental philosophy, was born at Strachan, in Kin- cardineshire, in April, 1710. He studied at Marischal College, Aberdeen, and became minister of New Machar in 1737. In 1752 he was appointed professor of moral philosophy at King's College, Aberdeen. He succeeded Adam Smith as professor of moral philosophy at Glas- gow in 1763, and published an "Inquiry into the Human Mind," (1764,) which was designed to neutralize the skeptical doctrines which Hume had advocated as de- ductions from the ideal system of Berkeley. His other principal works are " Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man," (1785,) and "Essays on the Active Power of the Human Mind," (1788.) Died atGlasgowin October, 1796. In reply to some writers who are disposed to deny the name of philosopher to Reid, Mackintosh observes, "As there are too many who seem more wise than they are, so it was the more uncommon fault of Reid to appear less a philosopher than he really was." a, e, T, o, ii, y, long; \ 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^, f^U, f^t; mSt; n5t; good; moon; REJD REINESIUS In another place he calls Reid "a patient, modest, and deep thinker." Hume himself appears to have enter- tained a similar estimate of Reid, although differing from him so widely in his philosophical views. See a "Life of Dr. Reid," by Dugald Stewart, prefixed to a posthumous edition of his "Essays;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" Mackintosh, "View of the Progress of Ethical Philosophy," in his preliminary remarks on Dugald Stewart; Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors;" "Monthly Review" for May and July, 1764, and February, 1804; "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1804; "British Quarterly Review" for May, 1847. Reid, (Sir William,) Major-General, F.R.S., a British engineer and scientific writer, born in Fifeshire in 1791. He served as an officer of engineers in Spain, America, etc., became Governor of Bermuda in 1838, and commanding engineer at Woolwich in 1849. He published a work entitled "An Attempt to Develop the Law of Storms by Means of Facts arranged according to Place and Time," (1838,) which attracted much at- tention. In 1849 he produced "The Progress of the Development of the Law of Storms," etc. He was Governor of Malta from 185 1 to 1858. Died in London in October, 1858. Reiffenberg, de, deh rlf fen-b^Rc', (Fred^iric Au- GUSTE Ferdinai^d Thomas,) Baron, a Belgian litte- rateur, born at Mons in 1795. He wrote a "History of the Order of the Golden Fleece," (1830,) and several works on the history of Flanders. Died in 1850. See Luthereau, " Notice sur M. le Baron de Reiffenberg." 1850 ; QuETELET, "Notice sur F. A. F. T. Baron de Reiffenberg," 1852. Reigny, rkn'ye', (Louis Abel Beffroi, ) called Cousin Jacques, an eccentric French writer of plays and burlesque works, was born at Laon in 1757; died in 1810. Reil, rll, (Johann Christian,) a Dutch or German physician, born at Rauden, in East Friesland, in 1758. He became professor of therapeutics at Halle in 1788. He published a number of esteemed medical works. Died in 1813. Reille, ri! or ri'ye, (Honor^: Charles Michel Joseph,) Count, a French general, born at Antibes (Var) in 1775. He commanded a brigade at the battle of Jena, (1806,) soon after which he became a general of division, and aide-de-camp to Napoleon. He con- tributed to the victory at Friedland, (1807,) distinguished himself at Wagram, (1809,) and obtained command of the army of Portugal in 1812. In 181 5 he fought for Napoleon at Waterloo, where he commanded a corps- d'armee. He became a marshal of France in 1847. Died in i860. See "Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale." Reimar. See Reimarus. Reimarus, rl-m^'rus, [Fr. Reimar, ri'mtR',] (Her- mann Samuel,) a German philologist, born at Hamburg in 1694, became professor of Hebrew and mathematics in his native city. He was the author of the celebrated " Wolfenbiittel Fragments," a series of essays published by Lessing in 1777. (See Lessing.) Reimarus was a son-in-law of J. A. Fabricius, whom he assisted in sev- eral of his philological works. He also wrote a treatise "On the Principal Truths of Natural Religion," (1754,) and "Observations on the Instinct of Animals," (1762.) Died in 1765 or 1768. See J. G. BiiscH, "Memoria Reimari," 1769; Hirsching, " Histonsch-literarisches Handbuch." Reimarus, (Johann Albrecht Heinrich,) a Ger- man philosopher and economist, born at Hamburg in 1729, was a son of the preceding. He practised medi- cine at Hamburg, and wrote several works on commerce and political economy. Died in 1814. See Ebeling, " Memoria Reimari," 1815 ; and " Autobiography," 1814. Reimer, ri'mer, (Georg Andreas,) a German book- seller, born at Greifswalde in 1776, founded at Berlin, in 1800, a publishing-house which rose to be one of the most important in Germany. Among the works issued from this establishment were the writings of Jean Paul, Novalis, W. von Humbolf't, Niebuhr, Ranke, Lach- mann, and other Germans most eminent in literature and science, to which we may add Schlegel's transla- tion of Shakspeare. Died in 1842. Reimmann, rim'min, (Jakob Friedrich,) a German bibliographer, born at Groningen in 1668. He became minister of a church at Hildesheim in 1 71 7. Among his works are "An Essay of an Introduction to Literary History," (6 vols., 1703-13,) and "Idea of the Literary System of Antiquity," (" Idea Systematis AntiquitatiSs literariae," 1718.) Died in 1743. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" Reimmann, Autobiog- raphy, (" Eigene Lebensbeschreibung," etc.,) 1745. Reina, ra^-ni, } (Francesco,) an Italian litterateur, born in the"~province of Como in 1772. He edited the works of Ariosto, Zanotti, and other Italian authors. Died in 1826. Reinagle, rin'a-gel, } (George Philip,) an excellent English marine painter, born in London about 1802, was a son of R. Ramsay Reinagle. Among his works is " The Battle of Navarino." He witnessed this action. Died in 1833 or 1835. Reinagle, (Philip,) an able English painter of land- scapes, hunting-scenes, and animals, born about 1750, was a pupil of Allan Ramsay, He was elected a mem- ber of the Royal Academy in 1811. Among his works is the " Sportsmen's Cabinet." Died in 1833 or 1834. Reinagle, (Richard Ramsay,) a son of the preceding, born about 1772, painted portraits and landscapes with success. He was elected Royal Academician in 1822. Reinaud, ri'nd', (Joseph Toussaint,) a French Orientalist, born at Lambesc (Bouches-du-Rhone) in 1795. He was admitted into the Academy of Inscrip- tions in 1832, and succeeded Silvestre de Sacy as pro- fessor of Arabic at Paris in 1838. In 1854 he became keeper of the Oriental manuscripts of the Imperial Library, Among his works is "The Invasions of the Saracens in France, Savoy, and Piedmont in the Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth Centuries," (1836.) Died in June, 1867. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Reinbeck, rln'b^k, (Johann Gustav,) a German Lutheran divine, born at Zell in 1683. He became first minister of the church of Saint Peter, Berlin, (or at Co- logne on the Spree,) in 171 7. He wrote, besides other works, " Considerations on the Divine Truths contained in the Confession of Augsburg," (4 vols., 1731-41.) Died in 1742. Reindel, rin'del, (Albrecht,) a German engraver, born at Nuremberg in 1784, numbered among his pupils Wagner, Miiller, and other distinguished artists. He was professor in the Academy of Fine Arts of Nurem- berg. Died in 1853. Reineccius. See Reineck. Reineccius, ri-n§t'se-vis, (Christian,) a German theologian, born in the principality of Anhalt-Zerbst in 1668. He wrote, in Latin, a " Hebrew Key ( yanua) to the Old Testament," (1733.) Died in 1752. Reineck, ri'nSk, [Lat. Reinec'cius,] (Reiner,) a German historian, born at or near Paderborn in 1541. He taught belles-lettres at Frankfort and Helmstedt. Among his works is " Syntagma heroicum, continens Historiam Chaldaeorum, Assyriorum," etc., (3 vols., 1594,) which treats of the history of the Chaldeans and Assyrians. Died in 1595. See HXberlin, " De Reineccii Meritis," etc., 1746 ; Teissier, " filoges." Reinecke, rl'ngk-keh, (Johann Friedrich,) a noted German actor, born at Helmstedt in 1747 ; died in 1787, Reineggs, rl'nggs or ri'n^ks, (Jakob,) a German physician, born at Eisleben in 1744. He practised at Tiflis, in Georgia, and wrote a " Description of Cau- casus." Died at Saint Petersburg in 1793. Reiner, rl'ner, (Wenzel Lorenz,) a German painter, born at Prague in 1686. He painted history and land- scapes with success, both in oil and fresco. His design and colour are much praised. Died at Prague in 1743. Reinesius, rl-na'ze-iis, (Thomas,) a German phy- sician and scholar, born at Gotha in 1587, was styled by Haller "a miracle of learning." He was for several years public physician at Altenburg, and subsequently removed to Leipsic. About the same time he was made a councillor by the Elector of Saxony. Among his numerous works may be named " On the Syrian Gods," (1623,) "Syntagma of Ancient Inscriptions," (1682,) < as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, k, gtittural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Sf^^See Explanations, p. 23.) REINHARD 1880 R EL AND "Critical Dissertation on the Sibylline Oracles," (1702,) and "Observations on Suidas," (all in Latin.) He also wrote an account of his life, (in German.) Died in 1667. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, "Memoires." Reinhard, ru/h^Rt, (Christian Tobias Ephraim,) a German physician, born at Camenz in 1719; died in 1792. Reinhard, (Franz Volkmar,) a Protestant theolo- gian and distinguished pulpit orator, born at Vohen- strauss, in Bavaria, in 1753. He became professor of theology at Wittenberg in 1782, and iii 1792 chief court preacher at Dresden. He died in i8i2, leaving a num- ber of sermons and religious treatises. His "System of Christian Morality" (5 vols., 1788-1815) is regarded as a valuable and profound work. See Karl August Bottiger, F. V. Reinhard," etc., 1813; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" Politz, " Reinhard nach seinem Leben und Wirken," 1813. Reinhard, (Karl Friedrich,) a diplomatist, born in Wiirtemberg in 1761. He became French minister of foreign affairs in July, 1799, and was employed in several missions by Bonaparte from 1800 to 1814. He owed his promotion to the favour of Talleyrand. Died in Paris in 1837. Reinhard, von, fon rin'hiRt, (Adolf Friedrich,) a German philosopher, born at Strelitz in 1726. He wrote a treatise "On Optimism," (1755,) and other works. Died at Wetzlar in 1783. Reinhart, rln^hSkt, (Johann Christian,) a German landscape-painter and engraver, born at Hof in 1761. Some of his best pictures are to be seen in the Massimi palace at Rome. His " Landscape in a Storm," one of his master-pieces in engraving, was dedicated to Schiller. Died in 1847. ■ Reinhold, rin'holt, (Christian Ernst Gottlieb ENS,) a philosopher, a son of Karl Leonhard, noticed elow, was born at Jena in 1793. He became professor of logic and metaphysics in his native city, and wrote, besides other works, a " History of Philosophy," (2 vols., 1828-29.) Died in 1855. Reinhold, [Lat. Reinhoi/dus,] (Erasmus,) a Ger- man astronomer, born at Saalfeld, in Thuringia, in October, 1 5 11. He taught astronomy and mathematics for some years at the University of Wittenberg, from which he removed in 1552. He published a "Com- mentary on Purbach's New Theory of Planets," (" Com- mentarius Theoricae novas Planetarum G. Purbachii," 1542,) and tables formed from the observations of Copernicus compared with those of Hipparchus and Ptolemy, "Tables of the Motions of the Heavenly Bodies," (" Prutenicae Tabulae Ccelestium Motuum," 1 55 1,) in which he clearly explains the equation of time. Died in 1553. His son, Erasmus, was a physician and astronomer. See Delambre, "Astronomic moderne." Reinhold, (Karl Leonhard,) a German philoso- pher, born at Vienna in 1758. Having married the daughter of Wieland, he became associated with him as editor of the " Deutschen Mercur." In 1794 he became professor of philosophy at Kiel. He was the author of " Letters on the Philosophy of Kant," and other works. Died in 1823. See "K. L. Reinholds Leben," by his son, 1828; Kuno Fis- cher, "Die neuere Philosophic seit Kant;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Reinholdus. See Reinhold, (Erasmus.) Reinick, ri'nik, (Robert,) a German painter and poet, born at Dantzic in 1805 ; died in 1852. Reinoso, ri-e-no'so, (Antonio Garcia,) a Spanish painter, born at Cabral in 1623, was also an architect. He died at Cordova in 1677. Reinsberg, von, fon rins'b&RG, (Ida von Diirings- feld — fon dii'rings-f^lt',) Baroness, a German authoress, born in Silesia in 181 5. She has written many tales and novels, which are said to display a rich imagination and much knowledge of human nature. Among them are "Sketches of the Great World," (1845,) "Antonio Foscarini," (1850,) and "Clotilda," (1855.) Reinwardt, rIn''<^aRt, (Caspar Gkorg Carl,) a naturalist, born at Liittringhausen, in Germany, in 1772. 1 He wrote " Observations on the Gold-Mines and Natural History of the Moluccas." Died at Leyden in 1854. Reisch, rish, (Geokg,) a German savant and ecclesi- astic, lived in the second half of the fifteenth century. He was confessor to the emperor Maximilian I. He wrote "Margarita philosophica," ("Philosophic Pearl," 1496,) often reprinted. Reisen, rl'zen, (Charles C.,) an able engraver of gems, born in London about 1695, was the son of a Danish artist. Died in London in 1725. Reiser, (Anton.) See Moritz, (Karl Philipp.) Reiset, de, deh ri'zk', (Marie Antoine,) Vicomte, a French general, born at Colmar in 1775. He distin- guished himself at the battle of Dresden, (1813.) Died in 1836. See " Notice sur Jacques ct Antoine de Refeet," 1851. Reisig, rl'zic, (Karl Christian,) a German philolr». gist, born at Weissensee in 1792. He was professor of ancient literature at Halle. He wrote " Vorlesungen iiber Lateinische Sprachwissenschaft," ( " Praelections on Latin Philology.") Died at Venice in 1829. Reiske, ris'keh, (Johann,) a German teacher and writer on various subjects, born at Gera in 1641 ; died in 1 701. Reiske, [Lat. Reis'kius,] (Johann Jakob,) a Ger- man physician and Orientalist, born near Leipsic in 1716. At the University of Leipsic he devoted himself chiefly to the study of Arabic, and subsequently visited Leyden, where he was patronized by Burmann and other learned men. On his return to Leipsic he obtained the title of professor of Arabic, and became rector of the College of Saint Nicholas. Among his works are Latin translations of the "Geography" of Abulfeda, the "Moslem Annals" of the same writer, and a German translation of the poems of Mootenabbee, (Motenabbi,) (unpublished,) also editions of Theocritus, (1766,) "The Greek Orators," (12 vols., 1770-75,) Plutarch's Works, (12 vols., 1774-79,) Dionysius of Halicarnassus, (6 vols., 1774-77,) and other Greek and Latin classics. Died in 1774. His wife, Ernestine Christine Muller, born near Wittenberg, was distinguished for her love of learning, and rendered him important assistance in his literary labours. After his death she completed several of his works. She also published a work entitled " Hellas," (2 vols., 1778.) Died in 1798, aged about sixty-three. See Reiske's Autobiography, Leipsic, 1783; S. F. N. Morus, "Vita Reiskii," 1777; Meusel, " Gelehrtes Deutschland ;" Hir- SCH(NG," Historisch-literarisches Handbuch ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Reiskius. See Reiske. Reissiger, ri'sic-er, (Karl Gottlieb,) a German musician and composer, born near Wittenberg in 1798. He was appointed first chapel-master at Dresden in 1827. He composed religious music, and a number of operas, among which are " Didone," (1823,) and "Turandot." Died in 1859. Reiz, rits, (Friedrich Wolfgang,) a German phi- lologist, born at Windsheim, Franconia, in 1733. He became professor of Greek and Latin at Leipsic in 1782, and edited some works of Aristotle, Persius, and other classics. Died in 1790. Reiz or Reitz, rits, (Johann Friedrich,) a German philologist, born at Braunfels in 1695 ; died at Utrecht in 1778. Reland, ra'llnt, [Lat. Relan'dus,] (Adriaan,) an eminent Dutch Orientalist, born at Ryp, near Alkmaar, in 1676. He was versed in Greek and Roman antiquities, as well as in many Oriental languages. He became pro- fessor of Oriental languages and ecclesiastical history at Utrecht in 1700. His principal works are an "Account of the Moslem Religion," (" De Religione Mohammedica Libri duo," 1705,) and " Palestine illustrated by Monu- ments," (" Palestina ex Monumentis veteribus illustrata," 2 vols., 1714,) which is highly commended. He died at Utrecht in February, 1718. See Niceron, "Memoires;" Paquot, "Memoires;" "Nou- velle Biographie Generale;" Serrurier, " Oratio in Obitura A. Relandi," 1718. Reland, (Pieter,) a brother of the preceding, was a magistrate of Haarlem. He wrote a work entitled a, e, I, 6, ij, y, long; i, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, f^t; mSt; ndt; good; moon; RELJNDUS 1881 REMT "Consular Calendars," ("Fasti Consulares,") published in 1 71 5. He died before that date. Relandus. See Reland. Relhan, (Richard,) an English botanist, born about 1755. He became rector of Hunningsby, Lin- colnshire, in 1791. He wrote a " Flora Cantabrigensis," (1785.) Died in 1823. Rellstab, rel'stSp, (Ludwig,) a German litterateur, born at Berlin in 1799, published romances, dramas, and critical essays. Died at Berlin in i860. See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1837. Rem-ber'tus, [Ger. pron. r^m-b^R'tus,] Archbishop of Hamburg, born in Flanders, was a disciple of Ansgar. He laboured as a missionary in Denmaik. Died in 888. Rembha. See Rambha. Rembraudt van Ryn or Rijn, rgn/bRint vtn rin, or Rembrandt Gerritz, r^m'bRint H^r'rits, (Paul,) a celebrated Dutch painter of history and portraits, was born on the Rhine, near Leyden, June 15, 1606. He was a son of a miller named Hermann Gerritz. His masters in design were P. Lastmann and Jacob Pinus, to whom some add George Schooten. He became a citizen of Amsterdam in 1630, and soon acquired celebrity by the originality of his style, formed by the study of nature. In 1632 he painted " The Lecture on Anatomy of Dr. Tulp." He married in 1634. He became the master of a numerous school, and, it is said, sold the copies painted by his pupils as original works, after he had retouched them. His biographers represent him as avaricious, and some of them affirm that he contracted the habits of a miser ; but this charge is not substantiated. He derived a very large income from the sale of his etchings, the fees of his pupils, and the sale of copies of his works made by his pupils; yet he became insol- vent in 1656. Rembrandt was a brilliant colorist, and a consummate master of chiaroscuro. He imitated the effects of light with great success, but was deficient in design and taste. He neglected or despised the antique. Among his cele- brated pictures are "Tobit and the Angel Raphael," "The Woman taken in Adultery," "The Round of the Night," "The Syndics of the Merchant Drapers," and a portrait of himself with his wife. His portraits are by some critics considered more admirable than his his- torical works. He produced a great number ef etchings, some of which command enormous prices, (100 guineas each.) As an engraver in aquafortis he has never been surpassed. Arnong his engravings are a " Descent fronr the Cross," "Christ healing the Sick," "The Raising of Lazarus," and portraits of Van Coppenol and Van Thol. He died at Amsterdam in October, 1669. See a " Life of Rembrandt," by J. Burn'et, 184S ; P. Schelthma, "Redevoering over het Leven eu de Verdieiisten van Rembrandt van Rijn," 1853; Drscamps, "Vies des Peintres Flaniands," etc. ; J. Immekzeel, " Lofrede op Rembrandt," 1841 ; Nagler, " Leben und Werke des Malers Rembrandt von Ryn," 1843; J. Renouvier, "Des Types et des Manieres des Maitres-Graveurs ;" Houbraken, "Vies des Peintres;" Daui.by, "Descriptive Catalogue of the Works of Rembrandt," 1796; " Nouvelle Biographic Generaie." Rembrantz, r&m'bRdnts, (Thierry,) a Dutch as- tronomer, born near the Zuyderzee about 1615; died after 1677. Remer, ra'mer, (Julius August,) a Gennan historian, born at Brunswick in 1736. He published a " Manual of Universal History," (3 vols., 1783,) which was received with favour. Died in 1803. Remi, ra'me, or Re-mig'I-us, Archbishop of Rheims, converted Clovis to Christianity. Died in 533 A.D. Remi or Remigius, a French prelate, was Arch- bishop of Lyons. Died in 875 A.D. Remi (or Remigius) of Auxerre, a French monk, who wrote on theology and grammar. He is said to have been the first doctor who taught publicly in Paris. Died about 908. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generaie." Remi, ri'me', (Joseph Honor^;,) a French litterateur, born at Remiremont in 1738; died in Paris in 1782. Remigio, ri-mee'jo, (Fiorentino,) an Italian Do- minican and writer, born at Florence about 15 18. He translated Ovid's "Heroic Epistles," and Cornelius Nepos. Died in 1580. Remigius. See Reml Remilly, reh-me'ye', (Ovide,) a French politician, born at Versailles in 1800. He was elected mayoi of Versailles seven times between 1837 and 1855, and was a member of the Chamber of Deputies from 1839 to 1848. He was a moderate republican in the Constituent Assembly of 1848. Remond, ri'miN', (Francois,) a French Jesuit and Latin poet, born at Dijon in 1558; died at Mantua in 1631. Remond, de, deh \\'mh^', written also Raemond, (Florimond,) a French historian, born at Agen about 1540. He wrote a " History of the Rise and Progress of Heresy in this Century," (1605.) Died in 1602. Remond de Sainte-Albine, r^'m6N' deh siNt tl'b^n', (Pierre,) a French critic, born in Paris in 1699. He wrote a work entitled " Le Comedien," (1747.) Died in 1778. Remond de Saint-Mard, ri'miN' deh saN mtR, (ToussAiNT,) a mediocre French writer, born in Paris in 1682 ; died in 1757. Remondini, ri-mon-dee^nee, (Baldassare Maria,) an Italian antiquary, born at Bassano in 1698, was Bishop of Zante. He wrote a work "On the Antiqui- ties of Zante," (1756.) Died in 1777. Remorino, ri-mo-ree'no, (Giovanni Pietro, ) sometimes improperly written Ramorino, (Jerome,) an Italian general, born at Genoa about 1790. He com- manded a division of the Sardinian army at Novara in 1849. He was tried for disloyalty by a military court, and shot, in May, 1849. Re'mus, one of the founders of Rome, was a brother of Romulus, which see. Remusat, \^m\i!zt', (Jean Pierre Abel,) an emi- nent French Orientalist, born in Paris in September, 1788. He studied medicine in compliance with the wish of his father, and learned the Chinese language without a teacher. In i8ii he published an "Essay on the Chinese Language and Literature." He obtained an exemption from the conscription of 1813 by the influence of his friend Silvestre de Sacy, and became professor of Chinese in the College of France in 1814. In 1822 he founded the Asiatic Society of Paris. Among his chief works are " Researches into the Tartar Languages," (1820,) and " Elements of the Chinese Grammar," (1822.) " This vast and important work," says Henri Thiers, " is the true monument of the reputation acquired by Abel Remusat." He wrote articles for the "Biographie Universelle." Died in 1832. See Silvestre de Sacy, " filoge d'Abel Remusat;" Ampere, "Notice siir Abel Remusat" in the "Revue des Deux Mondes," November i, 1832, and November 15, 1833; "Nouvelle Biographie Generaie." Remusat, de, deh rk^mii^zS', (Auguste Laurent,) Count, a French politician and advocate, born in Provence in 1762. He became first chamberlain of Napoleon in 1804. Died in 1823. Remusat, de, (Charles,) Count, a French philoso- pher and minister of state, born in Paris in 1797, was a son of the preceding. He was elected in 1830 to the Chamber of Deputies, in which he acted with the con- servatives. He was minister of the interior from March to October, 1840. In 1842 he published "Essays on Philosophy," which were received with favour. He was admitted into the French Academy in 1846, in place of Royer-Collard. In the Constituent and Legislative As- semblies of 1848 and 1849 he voted with the friends of order, ( droite moderee.) He has been a frequent con- tributor to the "Revue des Deux Mondes." Among his works is a "Treatise on German Philosophy," (1845,) " Abelard," (2 vols., 1845,) "Bacon, sa Vie, son Temps," etc., (1858.) See Sainte-Beuve, "Derniers Portraits ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generaie." Remusat, de, (Claire Elisabeth Jeanne,) Count- ess, the mother of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1780. She was a companion (dame du palais) of the empress Josephine, and wrote an " Essay on the Edu- cation of Women," (1824.) Died in 1821'. See Sainte-Beuve, " Portraits des Femmes celebres." Remy, reh-me', (Jules,) a French traveller and naturalist, born near Chaions-sur-Marne in 1826. He spent several years in the exploration of Brazil, Peru, < as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, yl, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Sl^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) REN AN 1882 RENDU Chili, the Sandwich Isles, California, Utah, etc. He has published, besides other works, a " Journey to the Country of the Mormons," (2 vols., i860,) and a " His- tory of the Sandwich Isles," (1862.) Renan, reh-ndN', (Ernest,) an eminent French writer. Orientalist, and critic, born at Treguier (Cotes du Nord) in 1823. He began to study for the priesthood, but renounced that profession because he doubted the truth of the orthodox creed. He displayed much learn- ing in his "General History of the Semitic Languages," (1855,) was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1856, and was sent to Syria in i860 to search for relics of ancient learning and civilization. Soon after his return he was appointed professor of Hebrew in the College of France, but he was suspended in 1862, in deference to the will of those who considered him unsound in faith. He admits the excellence of the Christian religion, but dis- credits its supernatural origin and rejects the miracles. Among his works is a "Life of Jesus," (1863,) the suc- cess of which is attributed partly to the perfection of his style. It has been denounced as impious by several French prelates. Among his later works is " Histoire des Origines de Christianisme," "The Apostles," ("Les Apotres," 1866,) and "Vie de Saint-Paul," (1869.) "It is not easy," says M. de Pressense, " to grasp the He- gelian atheism athwart the sensibilities, the lyric and mystic effusions, the prayers to the Celestial Father, which abound in M. Kenan's books ; but under this unctuous surface is soon perceived the hollow void, the abyss whence we have emerged, the impersonal ideal of which the name of God is a heavy and vulgar translation." See ScHERER, " Melanges ;"" Noiivelle Biographie Generale;" "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1864: "Blackwood's Magazine" for November, 1861 ; " British Quarterly Review" for July and October, 1863, and October, 1866 ; "Westminster Review" for October, 1866; "North British Review" for February, 1864. Renard, reh-ntR', (Jean Augustin,) a French archi- tect, born in Paris in 1744. He studied in Rome, and was patronized by the king. Among his works was the glass roof ( co^nble ) of the Salon d'Exposition of the Louvre. Died in 1807. Renard, (Jean Baptiste Bruno,) a Belgian military writer, born at Tournai in 1804. Among his works is a " Political and Military History of Belgium," (2 vols., 1847-51-) Renard, (Simon,) a diplomatist, born at Vesoul, in France, entered the service of Philip II. of Spain, who employed him as an ambassador. He was an enemy of Cardinal Granvelle. Died at Madrid in 1575. Renata. See Ren^:e. Renatus. See Ren6. Renau d'^li9agaray, reh-no' di^le^st'gt'ra', (Ber- nard,) a French naval officer and military engineer, born in Bearn in 1652. He made improvements in the construction of vessels, and invented bomb-vessels or mortar-boats, (galiotes,) with which Algiers was bom- barded in 1680. He directed the siege of Gibraltar in 1704, m the service of Philip V. of Spain. He published a "Theorie de la Manoeuvre des Vaisseaux," (1689.) Died in 1719. See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV Fontenelle, " ^filoges ;" '* Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Renaud. See Regnaud, Renaudie, de la, deh It reh-n5'de', (Godefroi,) a French Huguenot, was the leader of a conspiracy against the family of Guise, called "the conspiracy of Amboise." The design having been betrayed, he was killed in a fight with the partisans of the Guises, in 1560. See Davila, "The Civil Wars of France;" "Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale." Renaudiere, La. See La RENAUDiiRE. Renaudin, reh-noM^N', (Jean Francois,) a French admiral, born in Saintonge in 1757. He distinguished himself as captain of Le Vengeur in a battle against the English on the 1st of June, 1794. His ship was sunk in this action. Died in 1809. See Van Tenac, " Histoire de la Marine ;" "Nouvelle Biogra- phic Generale." Renaudin, (Leopold,) a French Jacobin, born in Lorraine in 1749, was a partisan of Robespierre. He was guillotined with Fouquier-Tinville in 1 795. Renaudot, reh-n5'do', (Claude,) a French historian, born at Vesoul about 1730, wrote "The Revolutions of Empires," (2 yols., 1769,) and other works. Died about 1780. See Qu^RARD, " La France Litteraire." Renaudot, (Eus^be,) Abb^:, a French Orientalist and writer on the history of the Eastern Church, a grandson of Theophraste, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1646. He was versed in the Syfiac and Arabic languages. In 1689 he was chosen a member of the French Academy. Among his principal works are a "History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria," (1713, ) which is said to be the most complete work on the ecclesiastic history of Christian Egypt, and a " Col- lection of Oriental Liturgies," (2 vols., 1 7 16.) Died in 1720. See Nic^RON," Memoires;" Moreri," Dictionnaire Historique ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Renaudot, (Th^;ophraste,) a French physician and journalist, born at Loudun in 1584, was the grandfather of the preceding. He founded in 1631 the "Gazette de France," the first of French newspapers, which he continued to publish in Paris until his death, in 1653. After his death it was published by his sons, Eusebe and Isaac. Sec "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Renauldin, reh-n5'diN', (Leopold Joseph,) a French physician, born at Nancy in 1775. served as phy- sician in the army during the empire, and was one of the consulting physicians of King Louis Philippe. He wrote articles for the "Biographie Universelle," and a "Sketch of the History of Medicine," (1812.) Died in 1859, See Sachaile, " Les Medecins de Paris." Renazzi, rk-nSt'see, (Filippo Maria,) an Italian jurist, born at Rome in 1742. He was professor of criminal law at Rome about thirty-four years. He pub- lished "Elements of Criminal Law," (3 vols., 1773-81,) which was highly esteemed and often reprinted. Died in 1808. See MoNTANARi, "Elogio dell'Avvocato F. M. Renazzi," 1836; Cancellieri, "Elogio di F. M. Renazzi," 1819. Ren'del, (James Meadows,) an English civil engi- neer, born near Dartmoor, in Devonshire, in 1799. He was distinguished as a constructor of bridges, docks, harbours, and hydraulic works. He settled in London in 1838. Among his works are the harbours of Holy- head and Portland, and the docks at Birkenhead. In 1855 he was employed by the senate of Hamburg to protect the port of that city from the accumulation of sand. Died in November, 1856. Rendu, rSN^dii', (Ambroise Marie Modeste,) a Frenchman, noted as the organizer of primary instruc- tion in France, was born in 1778. He was appointed a member of the council of the university in 1809, and was for many years superintendent of primary schools. He \j;rote several works on education, morals, etc. Died in i860. See Eugene Rendu, "Ambroise Rendu et I'Universite de France," i86i ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Rendu, (Eugene,) a publicist, a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1824. He has written on educa- tion, and on the political relations of France, Italy, and Germany. Rendu, (Jeanne Marie,) called Sister Rosalie, a French nun and philanthropist, born at Comfort in 1787. She lived in Paris, and was eminent for her charitable deeds. Several sovereigns selected her as the dispenser of their alms. Died in 1856. See Eugene Rendu, "Notice sur la Soeur Rosalie Rendu," 1856; VicoMTE de Melun, "_Vic de la Soeur Rosalie," 1857; Bessie R. Parkes, "Twelve Biographical Sketches;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Rendu, (Louis,) a French prelate and writer, born at Meyrin in 1789, was a first-cousin of the preceding. He became Bishop of Annecy in 1843. He wrote sev- eral scientific works, and a "Treatise on the Influence of Laws on Morals, and of Morals on Laws," (1833.) Died in 1859. Rendu, (Victor,) a French writer on rural economy, born in Paris about 1800, is a son of Ambroise Marie, a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; k, fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, flll, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; RENE T883 RENOU noticed above. He wrote "Nouveau Spectacle de la Nature," (10 vols., 1839.) Rene, reh-ni', [Lat. Rena'tus,] of Anjou, Duke of Anjou and Lorraine, King of Naples, etc., called "the good King Rene" by his subjects, was born in 1409. He was a son of Louis H., Duke of Anjou and Count of Provence. He succeeded his brother, Louis HL, in 1434, and by the will of Queen Joanna, who died in 1435, he became heir to the throne of Naples. This throne, however, was claimed by Alfonso of Aragon, who drove Rene out of Naples in 1442 and remained master of that kingdom. Rene was an ally of Charles VH. of France in his war against the English. He found recrea- tion in art and literature; he was a painter and a poet. His daughter Margaret was the wife of Henry VL of England. He died in 1480, after which Provence was annexed to France. See M. DE Villeneuve-Bargemont, " Histoire de Rene d'An- jou," 3 vols., 1825; Cordellier-Delanouk, "Rene d'Anjou," 1851 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Reneaulme, reh-nom', (Michel Louis,) a French botanist, born at Blois about 1675. He became a mem- ber of the Academy of Sciences, and was charged by his colleagues to revise and publish the manuscripts of Tournefort, but appears not to have performed that task. Died in 1739. Reneaulme, de, deh reh-n5m', (Paul,) a French botanist and physician, born at Blois about 1560. He published " Specimen of the History of Plants," (" Speci- men Historiae Plantarum," 161 l) Died in 1624. Ren6e, [It. Renata, rk-wlfi^,] or Renee de France, reh-ni' deh fR6Nss, a daughter of Louis XH., was born in 1510, and was married in 1527 to the Duke of Ferrara. She was eminent for talents and learning, and was a liberal patron of literary men. She was converted to Protestantism by Calvin about 1535. After the death of her husband (1559) she resided in France, at Mon- targis, where she displayed firmness and courage in protecting the persecuted Huguenots. Died in 1575 or 1576. See Catteau-Cali.eville, "Vie de Renee de France," 1781: MiiNCH, "Renee von Est," 1831 ; "Memorials of Ren^e of France, Duchess of Ferrara," London, 185^. Renee, reh-ni', (Am6d6e,) a French litterateur, born at Caen in 1808. He became librarian of the Sorbonne in 1849, ^'"'^^ chief editor of the " Constitutionnel" in 1857. He wrote articles for the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale," and published several works, one of which is oititled "The Nieces of Mazarin," (2 vols., 1856.) Died in November, 1859. Rent, (GuiDO.) See GuiDo. Renier, reh-ne-i', (Charles Alphonse L^on,) a French antiquary^born at Charleville (Ardennes) in 1809. He became a member of the Academy of In- scriptions in 1856. His researches in Latin inscriptions were so successful that a chair of Roman antiquities and epigraphy was founded for him at Paris in 1861. In 1855 he was elected president of the Imperial Society of Antiquaries. Renier, r^-ne-aiR', (Stefano Andrea,) an Italian naturalist, born at Chioggia, near Venice, in 1759. He obtained the chair of natural history at Padua in 1806. He wrote "Tables of Zoology," a "Catalogue of Shell- Fish," (1802,) and "Elements of Mineralogy," (1825-28.) Died in 1830. See Caixagno, "Elogio storico di S. A. Renier," 1830. Renieri, ri-ne-a'ree, (Vincenzo,) an Italian astron- omer, was born at Genoa. He was a pupil of Galileo, who, when his sight failed in 1637, committed to his care some observations on the satellites of Jupiter. Renieri published these, under the title of "Tabulae Medicese universales," (2 vols., 1639-47.) Died at Pisa in 1648. Renkin, (Sw^alm.) See Rannequin. Rennefort, de, deh rgn'fok', (Urbain Souchu,) a French traveller, born about 1630. He published a "Narrative of a Voyage to Madagascar," (1668,) and a "History of the East Indies," (1688.) Rennel. See Rennell. Ren'nell or Ren'nel, (James,) a British engineer and eminent geographer, was born near Chudleigh, in Devonshire, in 1742. As an engineer of the East India Company, he served in the campaigns of Lord Clive, obtained the rank of major, and became surveyor-gene- ral of Bengal. Having returned to England about 1782, lie published an excellent map of Hindostan, accom- panied by a Memoir, (1783.) He was elected about 1783 a Fellow of the Royal Society. His reputation was widely extended by "The Geographical System of Herodotus Examined and Explained," (1800,) a work of great merit. Among his other works are " Illustrations, chiefly Geographical, of the History of the Expedition of the Younger Cyrus from Sardis to Babylon, and the Retreat of the Ten Thousand," (1816,) and a "Treatise on the Comparative Geography of Western Asia," with an Atlas, (1831.) Died in London in 1830. See Walckenaer, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. Rennell," 1842; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "Monthly Review" for December, 1800. Rennell, (Thomas,) an English portrait-painter, born in Devonshire in 17 18; died in 1788. Rennell, (Thomas,) an eloquent English preacher, born in 1753. He became Dean of Winchester in 1805. It is said that William Pitt called him the "Demos- thenes of the pulpit." A volume of his sermons was published. Died in 1840. Rennell or Rennel, (Thomas,) a learned English theologian, born at Winchester in 1787. He became vicar of Kensington in 1816, and prebendary of Salis- bury in 1823. He wrote several works on theology. Died in 1824. Renneville, de, deh xhVvhV, (Reni^ Auguste Con- STAntin,) a French litterateur, born at Caen about 1650. He was confined in the Bastille from 1702 to 1713, on a charge that he was a spy. He wrote a " History of the Bastille," (1715,) and several poems. Died in 1723. Rennie, ren'ne, (George,) a civil and mechanical engineer, born in Surrey in 1791, was a son of John, noticed below. He formed a partnership with his brother John. They built docks at Deptford, Chatham, and Plymouth, the East and West India Docks at London, the harbour of Liverpool, and other harbours. They constructed steam-engines for many vessels-of- war and for the steamers of the Peninsular and Oriental Navigation Company. Among their works are several iron ships, the dock-gates of Sebastopol, and a number of railroads. George Rennie wrote treatises " On the Friction of Solids," and "On Hydraulics." Died in 1866. Rennie, (John,) a distinguished British civil engineer, architect, and mechanician, born at Phantassie, in Had- dingtonshire, Scotland, in June, 1761. He removed to London about 1782, and was first employed in the fabri- cation of steam-engines and other machinery. About 1800 he erected a fine bridge at Kelso. He was after- wards employed as engineer of many public works, among which are the Kennet and Avon Canal, the South- wark Bridge over the Thames, the London Docks, the pier at Holyhead, and the Waterloo Bridge, which is considered his best work of that class. It was finished about 1817. Died in 1821. See Smiles, " Lives of the Engineers;" Chambers, " Biographi- cal Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Rennie, (Sir John,) F.R.S., a younger son of the preceding, was born about 1796. He was architect of the London Bridge, which was finished in 1 831. He ceased to be a partner of his brother in 1845, after which he devoted his time to architecture. Ren'ni-ger, written also Rhanger, (Michael,) an English clergyman and Latin poet, born in Hampshire in 1529. Lie was one of the chaplains of Queen Eliza- beth, and Archdeacon of Winchester. Died in 1609. Re'no, (Jesse L.,) an American general, born in Vir- ginia in 1825, graduated at West Point in 1846. He served as an oliicer in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and became a captain in i860. He commanded a brigade of the Union army at Roanoke Island and at Newbern, March, 1862. He served with the rank of major-gene- ral at the second battle of Bull Run, August 29 and 30 of the same year. He rendered important services at South Mountain, where he was killed, September 14, 1862. Renou, reh-noo', (Antoine,) a French painter and versifier, born in Paris in 1731. He translated Dufres- € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^=See Explanations, p. 23.) RENOUARD RESENDE noy's Latin poem on Painting, (1789,) and Tasso's "Je- rusalem Delivered." Died in 1806. Renouard, reh-noo'tR', (Antoine Augustin,) a French bibliographer, born in Paris in 1765, was a book- seller. He published, besides other works, "Annals of the Printing-Press of Aldus, or a History of the Three Manutii and their Editions," (1803,) and a " History of the Family of Estienne (Stephanus) and of their Edi- tions," (1838.) Died in 1853. See QuERARD, "La France Litteraire." Renouard, (Augustin Charles,) an advocate, a son of the preceding, was born in 1794. He became a peer of France in 1846. He published a " Treatise on the Rights of Authors in Literature," etc., (2 vols., 1838,) and other works. Renouard, (Nicolas,) a French translator, born in Berry, lived about 1615-40. He produced a version of Ovid's "Metamorphoses," (1615,) which was very popular. Renouvier, reh-noo've-i', (Charles Bernard,) a French writer on politics and philosophy, born in 1815, joined the radical party. Among his works are a "Manual of Ancient Philosophy," (2 vols., 1844,) and " Essays of General Criticism," (" Essais de Critique generale," 1854.) Renouvier, (Jules,) a French archasologist, born at Montpellier in 1804. He was a republican member of the Constituent Assembly of 1848, and an opponent of Louis Napoleon in 1850. He wrote, besides other works, " Notes on the Gothic Monuments of Pisa, Florence, Rome, and Naples," (1841,) and a valuable treatise on engraving, entitled " Des Types et des Manieres des Maitres-Graveurs," (4 parts, 1853-56.) Died in Paris in i860. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Ren'shaw, (William B.,) an American naval officer, born in New York State, entered the navy in 183 1. He became a lieutenant in 1841, and a commander in 1861. In the latter part of i8'''2 he obtained command of a squadron which blockaded Galveston. He blew up his ship, which had run aground near Galveston, rather than surrender it, and was killed by the explosion, in January, 1863. See Tenney, " Military and Naval History of the Rebellion." Renti or Renty, de, deb rSN'te', (Gaston Jean Baptists,) Baron, a French ascetic, born near Bayeux in 1611, was noted for piety. Died in 1648. See P. DE Saint-Jure, "Vie de M. de Renty," 1651. (This was abridged by John Wesley.) Renty, de. See Renti, de. Renucci, ri-noot'chee, (Francesco Ottavtano,) an Italian historian, born in Corsica in 1767. He wrote a "History of Corsica from 1789 to 1830," (1834.) Died in 1842. Renusson, de, deh reh-nii's^N', (Philippe,) a French jurist, born at Mans in 1632 ; died in 1669. The French biographer who gives the dates as above says, " At the age of forty-nine he passed for one of the ablest jurists." Ren'wick, (James,) a Scottish preacher, called a martyr of the Covenant, was born in Dumfries-shire about 1662. He was an active and uncompromising promoter of the cause of the Covenanters. He was executed in 1688. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Ren'wick, (James,) LL.D., an American savant, born in 1792, became in 1820 professor of chemistry and physics at Columbia College, New York. He published "Treatise on the Steam Engine," (1830,) "Outlines of Natural Philosophy," (1832,) "Outlines of Geology," (1838,) a "Memoir of De Witt Clinton," (1840,) and Lives of Robert Fulton, David Rittenhouse, and Count Rumford, in Sparks's "American Biography." Died in New York in 1863. See Ai.MBONE, " Dictionary of Authors." Renzi, rgn'zee, (Antonio.) an Italian scholar and critic, born at Castelsalfi in 1780. He edited the works of Dante, Ariosto, and Petrarch. Died in 1823. Repelaer van Driel, ra'peh-lSR' vtn dReel, (Ok- KER,) a Dutch statesman, born at Dort in 1759 ; died in 1832. Repfold, rgp'folt,(JoHANN Georg,) a German mecha* nician, born in the kingdom of Hanover in 1770, became noted for the excellence of his astronomical and other instruments. Died in 1830. Repnin, r§p-n^n' or r^p-neen', written also Repnine, (Nicholas Vasilievitch,) Prince, a Russian general and diplomatist, born in 1734, was a nephew of Count Panin. He was sent as ambassador to Poland in 1764, and gave much offence to the Poles by his arrogance and by his efforts to destroy their nationality. In 1774 he signed with the Turkish vizier the treaty of Koutchouk- Kainardji. Having obtained command of the arm> of the Ukraine, he defeated the Turks at Matzin in 1791. He was raised to the rank of field-marshal in 1796. Died in 1801. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Repp, rgp, (Thorleif Gudmundsson,) an Icelandic linguist, born at Reykiadal in 1794. He was versed in nearly all the modern languages of Europe, and in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. About 1825 he became under-librarian of the Advocates' Library of Edinburgh. He removed to Copenhagen in 1837. Among his works are a " Historical Treatise on the Trial by Jury," in Eng- lish, (1832,) and " Dano-Hungarian Discoveries," (1843,) See Erslew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." Rep'ton, (Humphry,) an English landscape-gardener, born at Bury Saint Edmund's in 1752. He was a mer- chant in his youth, but, having failed in business, he adopted the profession of landscape-gardener, in which he found little or no competition. He was author of "Sketches and Hints on Landscape-Gardening," (1795,) and other professional works. Died in 1818. See the " Monthly Review" for July, 1804. Requeno y Vives, ra-ka^'no e vee'vgs, (Vincencio,) a Spanish antiquary and writer on fine arts, was born at : Granada about 1730. (Another writer says he was born at Calatraho in 1743.) He became a resident of Rome about 1767. He produced a treatise on ancient painting, entitled "Essay on the Restoration of Ancient Art," ("Saggiosul Ristabilimento dell'antica Arte," etc., 1784.) Died about 1805. Requesens, ra-ka-slns', (Luis de Zuniga — thoon- yee'gS,) a Spanish commander, born in 1522. He dis- tinguished himself as lieutenant of Don John of Austria at the battle of Lepanto, and succeeded the Duke of Alva in 1573 as Governor of the Netherlands, the people of which were then in arms against the Spanish domi- nation. His army gained a victory over Louis of Nassau near Nymwegen ; but this advantage was neutralized by a mutiny of the Spaniards. While his army was besieging Ziriczee, he died, in 1576. He was an able general, and inclined to moderation in the use of power. See Motley's " History of the Dutch Republic," vol. ii. Requier, reh-ke-i', ? (Augustus Julian,) an Ameri- can politician and writer, was born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1825. On the secession of Alabama, in 1861, he was appointed district attorney for the southern district of that State. He has written several poems and dramas. Requier, reh-ke-i', (Jean Baptiste,) a French writer and translator, bonT'at Pignans in 1715 ; died in 1799. Requin, reh-k^N', (Achille Pierre,) a French medi- cal writer, born at Lyons in 1803 ; died in Paris in 1855 Reresby, reers'be, (Sir John,) an English loyalist and member of Parliament, wrote " Memoirs containing several Private and Remarkable Transactions from the Restoration to the Revolution inclusively," (1734.) See " Memoires de Sir John Reresby," Paris; "Monk's Con- temporaries," by Guizot; "Retrospective Review," vol. viii., (1823.) Resbecq. de, deh rSs'bSk', (Adolphe Charles Theodose Fontaine,) a French writer, born at Lille in 1813. He published many juvenile books. Reschid. See Resheed. Resende, de, dk ri-s^n'di, (Garcia,) a Portuguese historian, born at Evora about 1470. He wrote a " His- tory of John IT.," (1545.) Died in 1554. Resende, de, (L. Andrea,) a Portuguese antiquary and poet, born at Evora in 1498. He wrote, besides other works, "Antiquities of Portugal," (" Antiquitates Lusitaniae," 1593.) He opened a school at Evora, in a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; ^, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, !, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; f3.r, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon; RESENIUS 1885 REUCHLIN which many eminent scholars were educated. According to M. Weiss, he was "the restorer of learning in Por- tugal." Died in 1573. Hesenius, ri-sa'ne-iis, (Johan Paul,) a Danish theo- logian, born in Jutland about 1560. He was professor of theology at Copenhagen, and translated the Bible into Danish, Died in 1638. Resenius, (Peter,) a grandson of the preceding, was born at Copenhagen in 1625. He obtained a chair of law in the University of that city in 1662. He published " Copenhagen Inscriptions, Latin, Danish, and German," ('* Inscriptiones Hafnienses, Latinas, Danicae et Germa- nic3e," 1668,) and some legal works. Died in 1688. See Nic^RON, "M^molres." Resheed (or Reschid) Pasha, reh-sheed' pS'shS', called also Mustafa (moos'ti-f^) Resheed, a Turkish grand vizier and reformer, born at Constantinople about 1800, was a brother-in-law of Alee Pasha. He obtained the rank of pasha in 1834, and was sent as ambassador to Paris and London. He was grand vizier for a short time in 1837, and was appointed minister of foreign "affairs in 1839, and afterwards ably and constantly promoted the political and social reforms begun by Mahmood IL Died in 1858. Resnel du Bellay, du, dii rk'nlK dii hh'W, (Jean Francois,) Abb6, a French poet aild translator, born at Rouen in 1692, became canon of a church in Paris in 1724. He produced poetical versions of Pope's " Essay on Criticism" (1730) and "Essay on Man," (1737,) in which, it is said, he was aided by Voltaire. He was ad- mitted into the French Academy in 1742. Died in 1761. See " Noiivelle Biographic Gen^rale." Restaurand, rgs'to'rSN', (Raymond,) a French medical writer, born at Pont Saint-Esprit about 1627 ; died in 1682. Restaut, r§s'to', (Pierre,) a French grammarian and advocate, born at Beauvais in 1696. He wrote an ele- mentary "Treatise on French Grammar," (1730,) which the University adopted as classic. Died in 1764. Restout, ris'too', (Jean,) a French painter, born at Rouen in 1692, was a pupil and nephew of Jouvenet. His works were more admired by his contemporaries than they are now. Died in 1768. Restout, (Jean Bernard,) a painter, born in Paris in 1732, was a son of the preceding. He gained the first prize in 1758, after which he studied at Rome. Died in 1796. Rethel, ra'tel, (Alfred,) an eminent German his- torical painter, born at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1816. He studied at the Academy of Dusseldorf, and there painted " Daniel in the Lions' Den," and a picture of " Nemesis," both of which were greatly admired. About 1840 he removed to Frankfort. Among his chief works are a series of frescos at Aix-la-Chapelle, representing the exploits of Charlemagne, and "The Passage of the Alps by Hannibal." He was an excellent designer. His last years were passed at Rome, where he died in 1859. Reti. See Ratl Retif or Restif de la Bretonne, xhfiW deh It bReh- ton', (Nicolas Edme,) a prolific and licentious French writer of fiction, born near Auxerre in 1734 ; died poor, in Paris, in 1806. Rettberg, r^t'blRO, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a Ger- man theologian and professor of theology at Marburg, born at Celle in 1805. His principal work is an " Eccle- siastical History of Germany," (1846.) Died in 1849. Retz, riss, (N.,) a French medical writer, born at ^.rras. He obtained the title of physician to the king about 1790. Died about 1810. Retz, de, deh riss, (Albert de Gondi — deh g^N'- de',) a French courtier and general, born at Florence in 1522, was a grandfather of Cardinal de Retz. He be- came a favourite of Charles IX., and was one of the instigators of the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, (1572.) Died in 1602. See BrantSme, "Grands Capitaines;" Mor^ri, " Dictionnaire Historique." Retz, de, (Gilles.) See Rais. Retz, rets, de, [Fr. pron. deh riss,] (Jean FRANgois Paul de Gondi,) Cardinal, an ambitious French prel- ate, distinguished for his talents and factious intrigues. was born of a noble family at Montmirail in 1614. He attempted, by debaucheries and scandalous actions, to frustrate the purpose of his family, who destined him for the church. He studied, however, with ardour, gained distinction as a disputant, and courted popularity by profuse donations to the poor. In 1643 he was nominated coadjutor of the Archbishop of Paris, who was his uncle. The civil war of the Fronde, which began in 1649, afforded him an opportunity to gratify his ambition to be the chief of a party. He became the master-spirit of the Frondeurs, but is said to have opposed the more violent tendencies of that faction. He was nominated a cardinal by the queen-regent, who wished to conciliate him. Mazarin having recovered his power in Paris, De Retz was arrested in December, 1652, and confined at Vincennes. He was transferred to the chateau of Nantes, from which he escaped in 1654. He went to Rome and took part in the election of a new pope. After he had passed some years in the Low Countries, he was permitted to return to France. He paid his debts, which were very large, and spent the rest of his life in retirement. It appears that his moral character was somewhat reformed after his imprison- ment. He died in 1679, leaving some interesting " Me- moires," (1717,) which have been translated into English. "Their animated style," says Hallam, "their excellent portraitures of character, their acute and brilliant re- marks, distinguish their pages as much as the similar qualities did their author." "They are written," says Voltaire, "with an air of greatness, an impetuosity, and an inequality which are the image of his life." See " Memoires du Cardinal de Retz," first printed in 3 vols., 1717; Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" Musset- Pathav, " Recherches historiques sur le Cardinal de Retz," 1807, and 4 vols., 1859; English translation of Retz's "Memoires," 1723; Saintb- Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi :" Michei.et, " Histoire de France ;" SisMONDi, "Histoire des Frangais;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene« rale." Retzius, rSt'se-iis, (Anders Johan,) a Swedish natu- ralist, born at Christianstadt in 1742, was a pupil of Linnaeus. He became professor of natural history at Lund in 1777, and published a good work on the plants of Sweden, Norway, etc., entitled "Florae Scandinaviae Prodromus," (1779.) His treatise on botany, " Obser- vationes botanicae," (1779-91,) is called his capital work. Died in 1821. See Gezelius, " Biographiskt- Lexicon." Retzius, (Anders Olof or Adolf,) a Swedish phy- sician, born at Lund in 1796, was a son of the preceding. He became professor of anatomy at Lund about 1824. He wrote important works on medicine and natural history. Died at Stockholm in i860. Retzius, (Magnus Christian,) an able medical writer, a brother of the preceding, was born at Lund about 1794. He became professor of chemistry at Stockholtn about 1820. Retzsch, r^tsh, (Moritz,) an eminent German de- signer and painter, born at Dresden in 1779. He studied at the Academy of Arts in that city, where he became professor of painting in 1824. His etchings illustrating Goethe's "Faust," published in 1812, established his reputation both irl Germany and other countries. They were followed by illustrations of Schiller and Shakspeare, of Burger's " Lenore" and " Ballads," and other popular works. As a portrait-painter, also, Retzsch is highly esteemed. He was pre-eminent as an original designer in outline among the artists of his time : his illustra- tions of Goethe's " Faust," in particular, have probably never been surpassed by any works of the kind. Died at Dresden in 1857. See Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler - Lexikon ;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for June, 1828, October, 1833, and October, 1836. ReubelL See Rewbell. Reu'ben, [Heb. pIX") ; Fr. Ruben, ru'bSN',] the eldest son of the Hebrew patriarch Jacob, was the an- cestor of one of the twelve tribes of Israel. See Genesis xxix. 32, xxxv. 22, and xxxvii. Reuchlin, roiK-leen',[Lat. Reuchli'nus,] Hellenized as Capnio, kSp'ne-o, (Johann,) an eminent German writer, born at Pforzheim in 1455. He became an excellent Greek and Latin scholar, and studied law at € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as G, H, vi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) / REUCHLINUS 1886 REWBELL Orleans. He was patronized by Eberhard, Duke of Wiirtemberg, who employed him as secretary. Having accompanied Eberhard to Rome, he became acquainted with Politian and other eminent Italian literati. He resided mostly at Stuttgart, where he was appointed assessor of the supreme court about 1484. He was sub- jected to persecution because he opposed a proposition to burn all Hebrew books except the Bible, and was involved in a long controversy with the monks and bigots on this subject. He defended his opinions in relation to Hebrew books in his "Ocular Mirror," ("Speculum Oculare," 151 1.) Between 1518 and 1522 he taught Hebrew and Greek at Ingolstadt and Tubingen. He published a " Hebrew Lexicon," and several other works. He contributed much to the revival of classical learning. Died at Stuttgart in 1522. See Melanchthon, " Histona Reuchlini," 1552; J. H. Majus, "Vita Reuchlini," 1687 ; Mayerhoff, " Reiichlin und seine Zeit," 1830; Lamey, "Johann Reiichlin," 1855; F. Barham, "Life and Times ofReuchlin," 1843; Gabi.er, " Dissertatio de J. Reuchlino," 1822: M. Adam, "Vitas Philosophorum ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Reuchlinus. See Reuchltn. Reuilly, ruh'ye', (Jp:an,) a French traveller, born in Picardy in 1780. He published "Travels in the Crimea in 1803," (1806.) Died at Pisa in 1810. Reumont, von, fon roi'mont, (Alfred,) a German diplomatist and litterateur, born at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1808, was employed on missions to Florence and Rome. He wrote several works on Italian history and art, among which are " Roman Letters," (" Romische Briefe," 4 vols., 1840-44,) and "Benvenuto Cellini," (1846.) Reusner, rois'ner, [Lat. Reusne'rus,] (Nikolaus,) a German poet and jurist, born at Lemberg, in Silesia, in 1545. He was professor of law at Strasburg and at Jena. He published numerous poems and treatises on law. Died at Jena in 1602. See Johann Weitz, "Vita N. Reusneri," i6q3 ; " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Reuss, roiss, (Eduard Wilhelm Eugen,) a Prot- estant theologian, born at Strasburg. He wrote a " His- tory of Christian Theology in the Apostolic Age," (in French,) and other works. Reuter, roister, (Fritz,) a distinguished German poet, born at Stavenhagen, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, November 7, 1810. He studied jurisprudence at Ros- tock, and in 1832 went to Jena, where he joined the Biirsckensckaff* (the association of German students,) and the next year was arrested in Prussia and con- demned to death ; but the sentence was commuted to thirty years' imprisonment. He was, however, released in 1840, having been included in the general amnesty. He has written, in the Low German ( Plattdeutsch ) dialect, various poems, comedies, and novels, which are much admired. Among his works are "Lauschen un Riemels," (1853; 3d edition, 1856,) " Polterabendge- dichte," (1855,) " Reise na Belligen," (1855,) a poetical romance, " Bliicher in Treptow," etc., (1857,) a comedy, "Kein Hiisung," (1858,) a poem, and " Olle Kamellen," (i860,) a novel. See Pierer, " Universal-Lexikon." Reuter, (Julius,) a German, born about 181 5, gained distinction as the institutor of a telegraphic system. He was the first who furnished telegrams of political or general news to the public journals of Europe. He established his office in London in 1 85 1. Reuterdahl, roi'ter-dSr, (Henrik,) a Swedish theo- logian, born at Malmo in 1795. was appointed professor of theology at Lund in 1844. Among his works are an "Introduction to Theology," (1837,) and a "His- tory of the Swedish Church," (1838 et seq.) Reuven, rul/ven, (Pieter,) a Dutch painter, born at Leyden in 1650; died in 1718. Reuvens, roi'vens, (Caspar Jacob Christian,) a Dutch antiquary, born at the Hague in 1793. He became professor of history and archaeology at Leyden * The Burschenschaft was very obnoxious to the government on account of its political character, and also on account of some of its overt acts. It was as a member of the Burschenschaft that Sand assassinated Kotzebue, who had shown himself a determined enemy of the association. in 1818, and wrote several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1837. See Leemans, " Epistola de Vita Reuvensii," 1838. Reuvens, (Jan Everaard,) an eminent Dutch jurist, born at Haarlem in 1763, was the father of the preceding. He became a counsellor of the supreme court at Paris about 1810, and was author of the cripiinal code of Hol- land. Died in 1816. Revay, ra'voi, (Nicholas,) a Hungarian poet and philologist, born in 1751. He was professor of litera- ture at Pesth. Died in 1807. Reveille-Parise, ri'vk'yi' pt'r^z/, (Joseph Henri,) a French medical writer, born at Nevers in 1782. He practised in Paris, and wrote, besides other works, " Researches on the Physique, Habits, and Diseases of Literary Men," (1834,) which gained the Montyon prize in 1835 and is called a model treatise. Died in 1852. See Callisen, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon." Revel, reh-vgl', (Gabriel,) a French painter, born at Chateau-Thierry in 1643 ; died in 1712. Rev'^-ley, (Willey,) an English architect and an- tiquary. According to several authorities, he completed the "Antiquities of Athens," left unfinished by Stuart. Died in 1799. Revelliere-Lepaux. See Lar^:veillere. Rever, reh-vk^ (Marie FRANgois Gilles,) a French antiquary, born at Dol in 1753 ; died in 1828. Reverchon, reh-vgR'sh6N^ (Jacques,) a French Jacobin, born in 1746, was a member of the Convention, (1792-95,) of the Council of Five Hundred, and of the Council of Elders. Died in 1828. Revere, ri-va'ra, (Giuseppe,) an Italian writer, born at Trieste in 1812. He published between 1829 and 1840 four dramas, which were popular, and one of which is entitled " Lorenzo de' Medici." He has also written some sonnets. Revere, re-veer', (Paul,) an American patriot of the Revolution, and one of the earliest American en- gravers, was born at Boston in 1735. Among his best prints are "The Seventeen Rescinders," and "The Boston Massacre." He took an active part in the destruction of the tea in Boston harbour, and was con- spicuous for his patriotism in the political movements of the time. His midnight expedition to Concord, to give notice of the intended attack of General Gage, forms the subject of one of the poems in Longfellow's " Wayside Inn." Died in 1818. Revere, (Paul Joseph,) Colonel, an officer, born in Boston in 1832, was a grandson of the preceding. He was severely wounded at Antietam, September, 1862, aind was killed at Gettysburg, July 3, 1863. See P. C. Headley, "Massachusetts in the Rebellion," p. 634. Reveroni, ri-vi-ro'nee, (Jacques Antoine,) a French military engineer, born at Lyons in 1767. He wrote sev- eral dramas, novels, and military works. Died in 1828. Reves, de, deh ra'vgs, [Lat. Re'vius,] (Jakob,) a Dutch Protestant divine, born at Deventer in 1586. He became professor of theology at Leyden about 1640, and wrote several works. Died in 1658. Rev'ett, (Nicholas,) an English antiquary and archi- tect, was born in Suffolk in 1722. In company with James Stuart, he went to Greece about 1750 and spent two years in exploring and delineating the ruins of Athens. He was a partner of Stuart in the important work entitled the " Antiquities of Athens," (3 vols., 1762, 1790, 1794.) He also produced, with Chandler, "Ionian Antiquities," (1769.) After his return to Eng- land he practised as an architect. Died in 1804. Reviczky, ra'vits-ke, ? (Karl Emerich,) Count of, a Hungarian linguist and diplomatist, born in 1737. He published an edition of Petronius, (1784,) and a Cata- logue of his own library, (Berlin, 1784.) Died in 1793. 'Revius. See Reyes, (Jakob.) Revoil, reh-vwdK, (Pierre Henri,) a French painter of history and genre, born at Lyons in 1776, was a pupil of David. He was professor of design in the Academy of Lyons. He composed songs and other verses with some success. Died in 1842. Rewbell or Reubell, ruh'b^K, (Jean Baptiste,) a French republican and Director, born at Colmar, near a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, h, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, ftt; mSt; ndt; good; moon; RET 887 RETNOLDS the Rhine, about 1746. He was a member of the Con- stituent Assembly and of the Convention, in which he mostly voted with the radicals ; but after the 9th Ther- midor he became an opponent of the Jacobins. In 1795 he was chosen a member of the Directory, and assumed control of foreign affairs. He acted with the victorious party in the coup d'etat of i8th Fructidor, 1797, and was dismissed from office by lot in May, 1799. Died in 1807. See De Barante, " Histoire du Directoire ;" Thiers, "History of the French Revolution." Rey, rk, (Antoine Gabriel Venance,) a French general, born in Rouergue in 1768. He became a gene- ral of division in 1793 or 1794, and commanded with success in several actions in Spain between 1808 and 1813. Died in 1836. Rey, (GuiLLAUME,) a French medical writer, born in 1687, practised in Lyons. Died in 1756. Rey, (Jean,) a French physician and chemist, born at Bugue, in Perigord. He published in 1630 "Essays to ascertain the Cause why Tin and Lead increase in Weight when they are calcined." He maintains that this increase is the result of a combination of the metal with atmospheric air. Died about 1645. Rey, (Jean,) a French writer and manufacturer, born at Montpellier in 1773. He substituted the forms of flowers for the fantastic designs of the Orientals in the fabrication of Cashmere shawls. Among his works is a *' Histoire des Chiles," (1823.) Died in 1849. Rey, (Jean Bapiiste,) a French composer, born in 1734, became director of the emperor's chapel in 1804. Died in 1810. Rey, (Joseph Auguste,) a French writer on law, education, etc., was born at Grenoble in 1794. Among his works is "Theory and Practice of Social Science," (3 vols., 1842.) Reybaud, ri'bo', (Charles,) a French litterateur, born at Marseilles in 1800, was a brother of Marie Roch Louis, noticed below. Reybaud, (Henriette Arnaud,) a French novel- ist, born at Aries about 1800, became the wife of the preceding. Reybaud, (Marie Roch Louis,) a popular French author, born at Marseilles in 1799. He began life as a merchant, and settled in Paris about 1830. In 1841 he gained the Montyon prize of the French Academy (5GXD0 francs) for his " Studies on Modern Reformers or Socialists," (2 vols., 1840-43.) His most original and po])ular work is a novel called "Jerome Paturot in Search of a Social Position," (3 vols., 1843.) He has written other novels. See "Noiivelle Biographic G^n^rale ;" "London Quarterly Re- view" for September, 1848; "Eraser's Magazine" for September, 1843. Reyher, ri'er, (Samuel,) a German professor of law and mathematics, was born in Saxony in 1635. He pub- lished "Mathesis Mosaico-Biblica," (1678,) and other works. Died at Kiel in 17 14. Reyn, de, deh rin, (Jean,) a Flemish painter, born at Dunkirk about 1610, was a pupil of Van Dyck, whom he is said to have imitated with success. He worked in JEngland for Van Dyck ; but after the death of the latter he returned to Dunkirk. " The majority of his pictures," says Peries, " have often passed for the works of his master." Died in 1678. Reyna, de, di ra'nl or ra^-nS, (Cassiodorus,) a Spanish translator of the Bible, born at Seville, is said to have been a Protestant. His version of the Bible, printed at Bale in 1569, was the first in the Spanish language. Died at Frankfort in 1594. Reynaud, ri^no', (Antoine Andr6 Louis,) Baron, a French mathematician, born in Paris in 1771. He was employed about thirty years in the Polytechnic School as teacher and examiner. He published a number of standard works on geometry and algebra, which were in- troduced as text-books into public schools. Died in 1844. See Qu^RARD, " La France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gdnerale." Reynaud, (Jean Ernest,) a French philosopher, born at Lyons in 1806. In 1836 he became associated with Pierre Leroux as editor of the " Encyclopedie Nou- velle." He was a moderate democrat in the Assembly of 1848, and supported Cavaignac. His chief work, entitled "Earth and Heaven," ("Terre et Ciel," 1854,) had great success. See " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." Reyneau, ri'no', (Charles Reni^,) a French ge- ometer, born at Brissac, in Anjou, in 1656. He was professor in a college at Angers. He published "Analysis Demonstrated," (1708,) and "Elements of Mathematics," (1714.) Died in 1728. Reyner, ra'ner, ? (Edward,) an English Puritan minister, born in Yorkshire in 1600. He preached at Lincoln. Died about 1670. Reynier, ri'ne-i', (Augustin BenoIt,) a Belgian poet, born at Liege^n 1759 ; died at Cologne in 1792. Reynier, r^'ne-i', (Jean Louis,) a French general, was born at Lausanne in 1771. As chief of the staff of Mo- reau, he displayed skill at Rastadt, Friedberg, Biberach, and in the famous retreat of 1796. He commanded at the siege of Acre in the temporary absence of Bonaparte, and is said to have decided the victory at Heliopolis, (1799.) In 1807 he had command of the army of Joseph, King of Naples. He was taken prisoner at Leipsic, (1813.) Died in 1814. Reynier, ri'ne-i', (Jean Louis Antoine,) a Swiss naturalist, born at Lausanne in 1762, was a brother of the preceding. He accompanied the expedition to Egypt in 1798. Among his works are " Egypt under the Domination of the Romans," (1807,) and "Treatises on the Public and Rural Economy of the Celts and Germans," (1808,) of the " Arabs and Jews," (1820,) of the "Persians and Phoenicians," (1829,) etc. Died in 1824. See La Harpe, "Notice sur L. Reynier," 1825; "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Reynold de Chauvancy, de, deh ri^noK deh sho'- v5N'se', (Charles,) a French naval officer, born at Pont de Veyle (Ain) in 1810. He produced a work on mari- time signals, entitled "Code de Signaux, Telegraphic nautique polyglotte," (1856,) which has been adopted by seventeen maritime powers, Reynolds, rgn'olz, (Alexander W.,) an American officer in the Confederate service, born in Virginia, was made a brigadier-general in i86r. Reynolds, rgn'olz, (Edw^ard,) an English bishop, born at Southampton in 1599. He favoured the Pres- byterians during the civil war, and took the Covenant. In 1648 he became Dean of Christ Church and vice- chancellor of the University of Oxford. He was ejected from these positions about 1650, after which he preached in London. He was appointed Bishop of Norwich in 1660. He published a number of religious works, which are highly esteemed. Died in 1676. Reynolds, (John.) See Rainolds. Reynolds, (John Fulton,) an American general, born at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1820, graduated at West Point in 1841. He served as first lieutenant in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and obtained the rank of captain in 1855. He commanded a brigade in the Seven Days' battles near Richmond in June, 1862, and for his services there received brevets as colonel and brigadier- general in the regular army. In January, 1863, he was appointed a major-general of volunteers. His corps formed the vanguard of the army at Gettysburg, where he was killed on the 1st of July, 1863. See Tenney, "Military and Naval History of the Rebellion," p. 760. Reynolds, (John Hamilton,) an English poet, born in 1795, was a member of the legal profession. He wrote a poem called " Safie." Died at Newport in 1852. Reynolds, (Sir Joshua,) the most celebrated por- trait-painter that England has produced, was born at Plympton, in Devonshire, on the i6th of July, 1723. He was a son of the Rev. Samuel Reynolds. At the age of eighteen he became a pupil of Hudson in London, with whom he remained about two years. . He afterwards worked at Plymouth as a portrait-painter until 1746, when he settled in London. About 1750 he visited Rome, Florence, Venice, and other cities of Italy. When he first saw the works of Raphael in the Vatican, he felt much disappointment, — which he attributed to his own ignorance. The works of Titian and Tintoretto contributed more to the formation of his style than those € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23 .) REYNOLDS 1888 RHETICUS of the Roman school. He returned to England in the autumn of 1752, soon after which he acquired a high reputation by a portrait of Commodore Keppel. In 1760 he raised his price to twenty-five guineas for a head, and one hundred guineas for a whole-length por- trait. He painted in 1762 a picture of " Garrick between Tragedy and Comedy." j In 1764 Mr. Reynolds and Dr. Johnson, who had become intimate friends, founded the Literary Club, composed of twelve members, among whom were Burke and Goldsmith. He was chosen president of the Royal Academy in 1768, and was knighted on that occasion. He delivered before the Academy a series of " Lectures on Painting," which were generally admired and were translated into several languages. In 1784 he produced a beautiful allegorical portrait of *' Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic Muse," and received the title of principal painter to the king. He painted for the Empress of Russia a picture of " The Infant Hercules strangling the Ser- pents," (1786,) which is one of his best historical works. He was never married. His career was a remarkable instance of continual prosperity. He died in February, 1792, leaving an estate of about ;i^8o,ooo. Sir Joshua is considered as the founder or the head of the British school of painting. He obtained powerful effects by a rich and harmonious colour and by his distribution of light and shade. His historical pieces indicate that he was deficient in the grand style of design. "Sir Joshua Reynolds is the most invulnerable man I know," says Dr. Johnson, — "the man with whom if you should quarrel, you will find the most difficulty how to abuse." " Reynolds, swiftest of painters, was gentlest of companions," says Ruskin ; "so, also, Velasquez, Titian, and Veronese." See James Northcote, " Memoirs of Sir Joshua Reynolds," 1818 ; Malone, "Life of Sir J. Reynolds;" Thomas Reynolds, "Life of Sir J. Reynolds," by his son, 2 vols., 1839; "Life of Sir J. Reynolds," commenced by C. R. Leslie and completed by Tom Taylor, 2 vols.) 1865; "Memoirs of Sir Joshua Reynolds," by Joseph Farrington, London, 1819; "London Quarterly Re- view" for April and July, 1866; " Edinburgh Review" for August, 1820. Reynolds, (Richard,) an English benefactor, born in Bristol in 1735, was a member of the Society of Friends. He married Hannah Darby in 1757, and be- came a partner in the iron and coal works at Ketley. In 1763 he removed to Coalbrook Dale, where he super- intended a large manufactory of iron. He is said. to have been the first who employed iron instead of wood in the construction of railways. His business afforded him a large income, a great part of which he expended in deeds of charity. He removed to Bristol in 1804. Died in 1816. See "Letters of Richard Reynolds, with a Memoir of his Life," Dy his granddaughter, Hannah Mary Rathbone, Philadelphia, I8SS. Reynolds, (Samuel William) an eminent English engraver in mezzotint, was born in 1774. He engraved many portraits and historical pieces after Sir Joshua Reynolds, also Rubens's " Chapeau de Faille," and a number of the works of Horace Vernet. Died in 1835. Reynoso. See Reinoso, Reyrao, de, deh rk'rtk', (Francois Philippe Du- LAURENS,) a French poet and priest, born in Limousin in 1734. He wrote "Rural Poems," and a "Hymn to the Sun," (1777,) in poetical prose, which was often reprinted. Died in 1782. See Berenger, " Eloge de Reyrac," 1783. Reyre, raiR, (Abbe Joseph,) a French teacher and writer of juvenile books, was born in Provence in 1735 ; died in 1812. Reys, dos, d6s ras, (Antonio,) a Portuguese priest and Latin poet, born near Santarem in 1690; died in 1738. Rezzano, rgt-sl'no, (Francesco,) a mediocre Italian poet, born at Como in 1731 ; died in 1780. Rezzonico, rSt-so-nee'ko, ( Antonio Giuseppe, ) Count de la Tour, (or della Torre, deKll tor'rii,) an Italian litterateur, born at Como in 1709, became an ofiicer in the Spanish army. His chief work is "Re- searches into the Life and Writings of Pliny,-" (" Disqui- sitiones Plinianae," 2 vols, in fol., 1763-67,) which is praised as a model of criticism. Died at Parma in 1785. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani iilustri." Rezzonico, (Carlo.) See Clement XIII. Rezzonico, (Carlo Gaston della Torre,) Count, an Italian poet and prose writer, born at Como in 1742, was a son of Antonio Giuseppe, noticed above. Among his works is a poem entitled "The Ruin of Como,' which is admired. Died at Naples in 1796. See G. B. Giovio, " Della Vita di G. Rezzonico," 1802. Rhadamante. See Rhadamanthus. Rhad-a-man''thus, [Gr. 'Padu/j.avdog ; Fr. Rhada- mante, rt'dS'mSNt',] a son of Jupiter and Europa, and a brother of Minos. According to tradition, he married Alcmena, the mother of Hercules, was eminent for his justice, and after death became one of the chief judges of the lower world, or Elysium. Rhallis, rdKlis, (George Alexander,) a modern Greek jurist, born at Constantinople in 1804. He be- came minister of Justice of Greece in 1841, and after- wards president of the Areopagus, or court of cassation. He published several legal works. Rham, rSm, (Rev. William Lewis,) an eminent writer on agriculture, born at Utrecht in 1778. He was educated at Edinburgh and at Cambridge University, and became rector of Fersfield, Norfolk. He wrote many articles for the " Penny Cyclopaedia," which were published separately under the title of " Dictionary of the Farm." Died in 1843. Rhangabe. See Rizo Rangab6. Rhe'a, [Gr. Tda, Tea, Tetv, or Tej} ; Fr. Rh^a, rk'S',] a goddess of classic mythology, whom the P^omans called Ops or Cybele. According to Hesiod, she was a daughter of Uranus and Ge, or Coelus and Terra, the wife of Cronos, (Saturn,) and the mother of Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto, Juno, Ceres, and Vesta. She was called "the Great Mother," and "the Mother of tho Gods." The principal seat of her worship was Pessinus, in Galatia. (See Cybele.) See Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology." Rhe'a SiPvi-a, or Jl^-a, [Fr. R6a (or Rh6a) Silvia, ra'i' s^l've'S', or Ilie, e'le',] in Roman mythology, was a daughter of Numitor, and mother of Romulus and Remus, whose father was supposed to be Mars. The king Amulius had compelled her to become a vestal virgin to prevent her from having offspring, and after the birth of her sons he drowned her in the river. The poets feigned that she was changed into a goddess and became the wife of the Anio. Rheede, van, vtn ra'deh, (Hendrik Adriaan Draakenstein — dRi'ken-stn/,) a Dutch naturalist, who became Governor-General of the Malabar coast. He collected materials for a costly work on the plants of India, entitled " Hortus Indicus Malabaricus," (12 vols., 1670-1703,) in which he was aided by Casearius, Commelin, and others. He died about 1700. Rhegas. See Rhigas. Rheinek, ri'n^k, (Christoph,) a German musical composer, born at Memmingen in 1748, was author of several operas. Died in 1796. Rheita, von, fon ri'ta, (Anton Maria Schyrle,) a German astronomer, born in Bohemia about 1597. He constructed a telescope with four lenses. Died at Ra- venna in 1660. Rhenanus, (Beatus.) See Beatus. Rhenferd, rhVi^Rt, (Jakob,) a German Orientalist, born in 1654. He became professor of Oriental lan- guages at Franeker. Died in 171 2. Rhese, rees, ? (John David,) M.D,, a philologist, born in the island of Anglesey in 1534. He taught school in Italy, and published a number of works in the Italian language. Died in 1609. Rhet'i-cus, [Ger. pron. ra^te-kus,] the surname of an astronomer, whose proper name was George Joachim. He was born at Feldkirch, near the Rhine, in 1514. He became a pupil and assistant of Copernicus in 1539 or 1540, and advocated the Copernican system in his " Nar- ratio de Libris Revolutionum Copernici," (1540.) In 1 541 he obtained a chair of mathematics at Wittenberg. He left a work of great labour, entitled " Opus Palatinum de Triangulis," (1596,) which contains, besides a treatise on trigonometry, a table of sines, cosines, tangents, etc. Died in 1576. a, e, T, o, ii, y, /oh£-; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, sAort; a, e, i, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good: moon; RHETT RIBERA Rhett, (Robert Barnwell,) an American politician, born at Beaufort, South Carolina, in 1800. Being elected in 1833 attorney-general of the State, he acted with the Nullification party, and in 1850 became a United States Senator. On the election of Mr, Lincoln, in i86o, he was a member of the State Convention which passed an ordinance of secession, and drew up the address giving reasons for this measure. Rhi-a'nus, a Greek poet, born in Crete, lived about 250 or 225 B.C. He wrote five or more poems, two of which are entitled '* Heracleia" and " Thessalica." Frag- ments of his works are extant. Rhigas, ree'gis, written also Rhegas and Rigas, a modern Greek patriot and writer, born in Thessaly about 1760. He formed in early life a design to liberate Greece from the Turkish yoke, and, in order to promote this design, organized a secret society, wrote popular songs, founded a journal, published educational works, etc. All these were in the modern Greek language. In 1798 he was arrested at Trieste, delivered by the Austrians to the Turks, and drowned in the Danube by the latter. See Revbaud, "M^moires sur la Grece ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Rhin'thon, [Ttv^wv,] a Greek dramatic poet, born at Syracuse or Tarentum, lived about 300 B.C. His works are not extant. Rhizoa Rhangavis. See Rizo Rangab^;. Rho, ro, (Alessandro,) an Italian jurist, born at Milan in 1543 ; died in 1627. Rhode, roMeh, or Rhodius, ro'de-us, (Johann,) a Danish medical writer and antiquary, born at Copen- hagen about 1587; died at Padua in 1659. Rhode, ro'deh, (Johann Gkorg,) a German Orien- talist of Breslau, was noted for his researches in the antiquities and natural history of Iiulia. Died in 1827. Rhodes, rodz, (Robert E.,) an American general, born at Lynchburg, Virginia, commanded a division of General Lee's army at Gettysburg, July, 1863. He was killed at the battle of Winchester, September 19, 1864. Rhodes, de, deh rod, (Alexandre,) a French mis- sionary, born in 1 591. He preached in Cochin China and Tbnquin. He published a " History of Tonquin," (1650,) and other works. Died in Persia in i66o. Rhodiginus, ro-de-jee'noos, ( Ccelius, ) an Italian philologist, whose family name was Ricchieri (r^k-ke- a'ree) or Riccheri, (rfek-ka'ree,) was born at Rovigo about 1450. He became professor of Greek and Latin at Milan in 1515. His chief work is "Ancient Readings," ('* Antiquae Lectiones," 1 5 16.) Died in 1525. See TiRABOSCHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Rhodius. See Rhode, (Johan.) Rhodomann. See Rhodomannus. Rhodomannus, ro-do-man'nus, or Rhodomann, ro'do-mdn^ (Laurentius,) a German Hellenist, born at Sassawerf, in Saxony, in 1546. He was professor of Greek at Jena, and afterwards lectured on history at Wittenberg. He wrote Greek verse with facility, and is called one of the restorers of the Greek language in Germany. Among his works are a "Life of Luther, in Greek Verse," (1579,) and "Christian Poem on Pales- tine," (" Poesis Christiana Palestinae," 1589.) Died in 1606. See Lange, "Vita Rhodomanni," 1741 ; Nic^ron, " M^moires." Rhunken. See Ruhnken. Rhy'mer, Thomas the, or Thomas of Ercil- doune, a Scottish poet, flourished between 1250 and 1300. He had the reputation of a prophet. Rhyndacenus or Rhyndaconus. See Lascaris. Rhyne, Ten, t§n ri'neh, (Willem,) a Dutch natu- ralist, born at Deventer about 1640. He practised medicine at Batavia, explored the plants of Java, and aided Van Rheede in composing his "Hortus Mala- baricus." Rhyzeliua, re-za'le-us, (Andreas,) a Swedish an- tiquary, born in Westgothland in 1677. He became Bishop of Linkoping, and wrote several works on Swedish antiquities. Died about 1758. Riancey, de, deh re'dN'si', (Henri LlfeoN Ca- MUSAT,) a French historian, born in Paris in 1816. He published, besides other works, a " History of the World," (4 vols., 1838-41.) In 1852 he became chief editor of "L'Union," a journal. Rianzares, Duke of. See Munoz, (Fernando.) Riario, re-i're-o, (Girolamo,) Seigneur of Forli and Imola, a nephew of Pope Sixtus IV., was born about 1442. He was an enemy of Lorenzo de' Medici and of the family of Colonna. He was assassinated by his own guards in 1488. Riario, (Pietro,) Cardinal, a brother of the pre- ceding, was born in 1445. He was a corrupt favourite of Sixtus IV., who appointed him Archbishop of Flor- ence. He had great influence at the papal court, and was notorious for his debauchery. Died in 1474. Ribadeneira, re-Ba-di-na^-rS, (Pedro,) a Spanish Jesuit and biographer, was iDoi^n at Toledo in 1527. He gained some distinction as a preacher, and was employed by Loyola to propagate Jesuitism in Flanders and Spain. He wrote, besides other works, a " Life of Loyola," (" Vida de San Ignacio," 1570.) He is said to have iDeen deficient in judgment. Died at Madrid in 1611. See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Ribalta, re-Bil'tl, (Francisco,) an eminent Span- ish painter, born at Castellon de la Plana in 155 1. He studied the works of Raphael and Sebastian del Piombo in Rome, and settled in Valencia. His design, colour, and composition are highly commended. Among his works are a " Last Supper," a " Holy Family," and "The Entombment of Christ." He was a skilful anato- mist. Died in 1628. Ribalta, de, di re-BSKtl, (Juan,) a son of the pre- ceding, was born at Valencia in 1597. He was a painter of great promise, and died prematurely in 1628. Ribas, de, deh ree'bds, (Joseph,) born at Naples about 1735, entered the service of Russia, and became an admiral. He commanded a fleet which operated against the Turks in 1790. Ribault or Ribaut, re^jo', (Jean,) a French Prot- estant navigator, born at Dieppe about 1520. He com- manded a party sent by Coligni in 1562 to explore and colonize some parts of North America. He explored Port Royal, South Carolina, built a fort there, and re- turned to France. In 1565 he obtained command of a fort and colony which the French had planted on the Saint John's River, Florida. He had seven vessels under his command. The French were attacked by a Spanish fleet just after the arrival of Ribault. He was about to bring his vessels into action, when a storm drove them ashore. Ribault and his men escaped to land, but were massacred by the Spaniards. " John Ribault," says Sparks, " was the pioneer of a great enterprise ; . . . and, although he was assisted by brave and able asso- ciates, yet his energy and zeal were the chief springs of the whole." See Sparks, " Life of Ribault," in the seventh volume of his " American Biography," second series ; Hildreth, " History of the United States," vol. i. chap. iii. Ribault, re'b5', (J. F.,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1767 ; died in 1820. Ribbing von Leuven, rib'bing fon loi'ven, ? (Adolph Ludwig,) a Swedish conspirator, born at Stockholm in 1764. He was an accomplice of those who killed Gustavus III., and was banished for life. Died in Paris in 1843. Ribeiro or Ribeyro, re-ba^-ro, (Bernardin,) a Portuguese pastoral poet of the sixteenth century, was born at Torrao, in Alemtejo. He is pronounced by Longfellow " one of the best poets of Portugal, and the first Portuguese writer who gained a high reputation as a pastoral poet." See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Ribeiro dos Santos, re-ba^-ro d6s sSn'tis, (Anto- nio,) a Portuguese poet of the^esent century, has pub- lished, among other works, an " Ode to the Infante Dom Henrique," which is greatly admired. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Ribera. - See Spagnolei to. Ribera, re-Ba'r5, (Carlos Luis,) a Spanish painter, the son of a distinguished artist, was born in Rome about 1812. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, H, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 119 RIB ERA 1890 RICCIARDI Ribera, (Francisco,) a Spanish Jesuit and commen- tator, born in Segovia in 1537. He wrote Commentaries on the minor prophets and on the Gospel of John. Died at Salamanca in 1 591. Ribera, de, di re-Ba'ri, (Anastasio Pantaleon,) a Spanish wit and burlesque poet, born at Saragossa in 1580. He was assassinated at Madrid in 1629. Ribes, r^b, (Francois,) a French surgeon, born at Bagneres de Bigorre in 1770. He succeeded Uesgenettes fis chief physician at the Hotel des Invalides in 1837. He wrote on anatomy, etc. Died in 1845. Ribes, de, deh r^b, (Anne Arnaud,) a French officer of engineers, born in 1731 ; died in 181 1. Ribeyro. See Ribeiro. Riboud, re'boo', (Thomas Philibert,) a French litterateur and judge, born at Bourg-en-Bresse in 1755. He was a member of successive legislative bodies be- tween 1791 and 1814. Died in 1835. Riboutte, re'boo'ty, (FRANgois Louis,) a French dramatist, born at Lyons in 1770 ; died in 1834. Ricard, re'ktk', (Dominique,) a French abbe and translator, born at Toulouse in 1741. He translated Plutarch's "Moral Works," (17 vols., 1783-95,) and his "Parallel Lives," (13 vols., 1798-1803.) He wrote a poem on the Sphere. Died in 1803. Ricard, (Etienne Pierre Silvestre,) a French general, born at Castres in 1771. He won the rank of general of division at Borodino in 1812. Died in 1843. Ricard, (Jean Marie,) an eminent French jurist, born at Beauvais in 1622 ; died in Paris in 1678. Ricardo, re-kar'do, (David,) an eminent political economist, born in London in April, 1772, was a son of a Jewish broker. He became a member of the Stock Exchange in London, and a partner of his father. In consequence of his marriage with a Christian, in 1793, this partnership was dissolved. He published in 1809 a pamphlet called " The High Price of Bullion a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank-Notes." His reputation is founded on "The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation," (1817,) which is highly esteemed. He was elected to Parliament in 1819, and spoke frequently on financial subjects. Died in September, 1823. See J. R. McCuLLOCH, " Life of Ricardo," prefixed to Ricardo's Works, 1846; Allibone, " Dictionaiy of Authors; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" " Edinburgh Review" for June, 1818 ; "Monthly Review" for December, 1820. Ricardo, (John Lewis,) an English writer on inter- national law, born in 1812. He was elected a member of Parliament in 1841, and greatly promoted the suc- cessful operation of the electric telegraph. Among his works is a " History and Anatomy of the Navigation Laws." Died in London in 1862. Ricardos, re-kS.R'd6s, (Don Antonio,) a Spanish general, born at Seville in 1727. He commanded the army which opposed with some success the French invaders in 1793, and he was promoted to be captain- general in 1794. Died in 1794. See J. M. Hervas de Almenakia, " Elogio historico del Gene- ral A. Ricardos." 1798. Ricardus Corinensis. See Richard of Ciren- cester. Ricasoli, re-ki'so-lee, (Baron Bettino,) an eminent Italian statesman, born of an ancient noble family in Tuscany about 1805. He was a prominent advocate of the independence and unity of Italy in 1848, and acted as dictator of Tuscany in 1859. In June, 1861, he suc- ceeded Cavour as prime minister of Italy. The policy of his administration was similar to that of Cavour. He resigned about the ist of March, 1862, and was succeeded by Ratazzi. In June, 1866, he again assumed the direc- tion of the government as president of the council and minister of the interior. He retired from office about April 7, 1867. See F. dall'Ongaro, "Bettino Ricasoli;" "Nouvelle Biogra- phie Generale." Ricaut. See Rycaut. Riccaltoun or Riccalton, rik'al-ton,? (Robert,) a Scottish divine, born near Jedburgh in 1691. He preached for many years at Hobkirk, and wrote several able and suggestive religious works, among which is the "Sober Inquiry," etc. Died in 1769. Riccati, di, de r^k-ki'tee, (Jacopo Francesco,) Count, an Italian mathematician, born at Venice in 1676, was the father of Vincenzo, noticed below. Died in 1754. His son Giordano, born in 1709, was a mathema- tician and writer. Died in 1790. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Riccati, di, (Vincenzo,) an Italian mathematician, born at Castel-Franco in 1707; died in 1775. Ricchieri, (Lodovico.) See Rhodiginus. Ricci, r^t'chee, (Antonio,) called Barbalunga, (baR-ba-loon'gi,) an Italian painter, born at Messina in 1600 ; died in 1649. Ricci, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian Latinist, born at Lugo in 1490. He wrote, besides other works, a Dic- tionary of the Latin language, entitled "Apparatus Latinae Locutionis," (1533.) Died in 1569. See G. DELLA Casa, " Discorso sulla Vita di B. Ricci," 1834. Ricci, (Camillo,) an Italian painter, born at Ferrara in 1580; died at Ferrara in 1618. Ricci, (Giovanni BAiTisrA,) an Italian painter, born at Novara in 1 545. He was employed by Pope Sixtus V. in the Vatican and Quirinal. Died at Rome in 1620. Ricci, (Lorenzo,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Florence in 1703, was elected general of the order of Jesuits in 1758. He opposed the proposition to reform that order, which was suppressed by Pope Clement XIV. in 1773. Died in prison at Rome in 1 775. See Sainte-Foi, "Vie du Pere Ricci;" Caraccioli, "Vie du Pere Ricci," 1776. Ricci, (Marco,) a painter, born at Belluno in 1676. He worked some years as assistant of his uncle Se- bastian in England. According to the " Biographie Universelle." he was one of the most skilful landscape- painters of the Venetian school. Died at Venice about 1728. Ricci, (Matteo,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Macerata in 1552. He was one of the first missionaries who went to China, (1583.) In 1600 he was admitted into Peking, where he gained the favour of the emperor. He wrote interesting Memoirs and Letters on China. Abel Re- musat calls him the founder of the mission of China. Died in Peking in 1610. See D'Orleans, " Vie de M. Ricci," 1693 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Ricci, (Michelangelo,) an Italian cardinal and mathematician, born at Rome in 1619 ; died in 1682. Ricci or Ricchi, rfek'kee, (Pietro, ) an Italian painter, born at Lucca in 1606, worked at Milan and Venice. Died in 1675. Ricci, (Scipione,) an Italian reformer, born at Flor- ence in 1 741. He became Bishop of Pistoia and Prato in 1780, and co-operated with the grand duke Leopold in his projects of religious reform. He was opposed to monastic orders, to indulgences, and other practices of the Church of Rome. In consequence of the riotous demonstrations of the populace against him, he resigned in 1790. Died in 1810. See De Potter, "Vie et Memoires de Scipion Ricci," 4 vols., 1825, (translated into English by Thomas Roscoe, 1829;) " Nouvelllf Biographie Generale." Ricci or Rizzi, r^t'see, (Sebastiano,) an Italian painter, born at Cividal di Belluno (Venetia) in 1660. He worked at Rome, Vienna, Florence, and London, to which he was invited by Queen Anne. Having passed ten years in England, he returned to Venice, and prac- tised his art with success. He was a skilful imitator of the styles of many masters. Among his remarkable works are "The Abduction of the Sabines," at Rome, and "The Assumption of the Virgin." Died at Venice in 1734. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ticozzi, "Dizio- nario." Ricciardi, r^t-chaR'dee, ( Francesco, ) Count de Camaldoli, an Italian statesman, born at Foggia in 1758. He was minister of justice under Murat from 1809 to 181 5. He made some reforms in the penal code. Died in 1842. See Ceva-Grimaldi, " Elogio storico del Conte F. Ricciardi," 1834- a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon: RICCIARDI 1 891 RICHARD Ricciardi, (Irene,) an Italian poetess, a sister of Joseph Napoleon Ricciardi. She was married in 183 1 to a composer named Capecelatro. Ricciardi, (Joseph Napoleon,) an Italian poet and politician, a son of Francesco, noticed above, was born in Naples in 1808. A liberal in politics, he has lived in exile since 1848, He has written a "History of the Italian Revolution," (1850,) and several political poems. Ricciarelli, See Volterra, de, (Daniele.) Riccio, (Bartolommeo.) See Neroni. Riccio, (David.) See Rizzio. Riccio, r^t'cho, (Domenico,) an eminent painter of the Venetian school, surnamed Brusasorci, ("Rat- Burner,") was born at Verona in 1494. His father in- vented a rat-trap and burned rats : hence the Surname. He studied the works of Titian, and perhaps was his pupil. He painted in the Palazzo Ridolfi, in Venice, a fresco called the "Cavalcade of Clement VII. and Charles V.," (in Bologna.) Died in 1567. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Ridolfi, "Vite degli illustri Pittori Veneti ;" Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Riccio, (Felice,) a son of the preceding, born at Verona in 1540, was a skilful painter, especially of portraits. Died in 1605. Riccioli, r^t'cho-lee, (Giovanni Battista, ) an Italian astronomer and Jesuit, born at Ferrara in 1598. He was professor of philosophy, theology, etc. at Bologna and Parma. His superiors authorized him to devote himself to astronomy, that he might confute the Copernican system. This he attempted to do in his "Almagestum Novum," (2 vols., 165 1.) According to his theory, the sun, moon, Jupiter, and Saturn revolve around the earth, while Mercury, Venus, and Mars are satellites of the sun. He also published an able treatise on mathematical geography and hydrography, (1661,) and "Improved Astronomy," ("Astronomia Reformata," 1665.) Died in 1671. See Fabroni, "Vitse Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" Tira- BOSCHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana:" " Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale." Riccoboni, r^k-ko-bo'nee, (Antoine Francois,) a son of Luigi, noticed below, was born at Mantua in 1707, and lived in Paris. He wrote an ingenious work called "Theatrical Art," (" L'Art du Theatre," 1750.) Died in 1772. His wife, Marie Jeanne Laboras de M^zi^res, born in Paris in 1714, was a successful novelist. Among her novels are "The Letters of Julia Catesby," (1758,) "Ernestine," and "Sophie de Vailiere," (1771.) M. Weiss calls her one of the most s/>iriiue//e womeu of her time. Died in 1792. Riccoboni, (Antonio,) an Italian philologist, born at Rovigo in 1541. He translated into Latin Aristotle's " Rhetoric," " Ethics," and " Poetica," (1579,) and wrote several works. Died in 1599. Riccoboni, ( Luigi, ) an Italian comic writer and actor, born at Modena about 1675. Among his works is a poem " On Representative Art," (" Delia Arte repre- sentativa," 1728.) Died in Paris in 1753. Rice, ( Luther,) an American Baptist divine and missionary, -born at Northborough. Massachusetts, in 1783. He was one of the founders of the American board of commissioners for foreign missions, and assisted in the establishment of the Columbian College, at Wash- ington, District of Columbia. Died in 1836. Rich, (Claudius James,) an Orientalist and traveller, born at Dijon, in France, in 1787, was educated at Bris- tol. He learned Arabic, Syriac, Persian, etc. in his early youth, became an excellent linguist, and entered the service of the East India Company in 1803. In 1808 he married a daughter of Sir James Mackintosh, at Bombay, and was appointed the East India Company's resident at Bagdad. He collected in that vicinity many Oriental manuscripts, medals, and coins, and wrote a " Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon," which he had visited in 1811. A second edition of it was issued in 1839. He visited the ruins of Nineveh and Persepolis, and made an ex- cursion into Koordistan. He died of cholera, at Shiraz, in October, 1821, leaving a "Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan," (1836.) See a brief notice of his life, prefixed to the work last named. Rich, (Richard,) Baron, an English judge, born in London about 1498. He became solicitor-general in 1533, and lord chancellor in 1547. He united with Pro- tector Somerset in measures for the conviction and exe- cution of Lord Seymour. In 1551 he resigned his office on pretext of ill health. Died in 1568. According to Lord Campbell, he was "a very consistent character in all that was base and profligate." One of his sons became Earl of Warwick. See Lord Campbell's "Lives of the Lord Chancellors," vol. ii. Rich'ard [Lat. Richar'dus ; It. Ricardo, re-kaRMo] I., King of Etigland, surnamed CcEUR de Lion, (kuR deh le'dN',) was the third or second son of Henry II. and his queen Eleanor. He was born at Oxford in 1 1 57, and was invested in the duchy of Guienne. He united with his brother Henry in a revolt against his father in 1 1 73. On the death of Prince Henry, in 11 83, Richard became the heir-apparent to the throne. He formed in 1188 a secret alliance with Philip, King of France, the enemy of Henry II., and openly revolted against the latter in 1189. The allies waged war with success against Henry in France, and induced him to accept their terms of peace. At this juncture Henry died, in July, 1189. Richard showed compunction for his undutiful conduct, and chose for his ministers the faithful servants of his father. Having agreed a short time before his accession to join the King of France in a crusade, he appointed his mother regent of the king- dom. "Impelled more by the love of military glory than by superstition," says Hume, "he acted from the beginning of his reign as if the sole purpose of his government had been the relief of the Holy Land and the recovery of Jerusalem from the Saracens." The combined army of Richard and Philip, amounting to 100,000 njen, began to march in 1190. They em- barked on ships at Marseilles and Genoa, and sailed to Sicily, where they passed the winter, during which serious dissensions arose between Richard and Philip, who re- garded each other with jealous rivalry. Richard married Berengaria, Princess of Navarre, at Cyprus, in 1191, and in the summer of that year arrived at Acre, which had been besieged by the crusaders for two years and was still defended by Saladin. The French and English kings were incited by emulation to extraordinary acts of valour at this siege. "Richard in particular," says Hume, "animated with a more precipitate courage than Philip, . . . acquired a great and splendid reputation." Acre surrendered in July, 1191, soon after which Philip returned to France. In September, Richard defeated Saladin in a great battle, in which " he performed," says Hutne, "the part both of a consummate general and gallant soldier." Having concluded a truce with Saladin for three years, three months, three weeks, and three days, he sailed homeward in October, 1 192, and was wrecked on the coast of Istria. Attempting to pass through Germany in disguise, he was arrested by Leopold of Austria, who transferred him to the emperor, Henry VI., who was an enemy of the captive prince. He was confined in a dungeon, and subjected to many insults, until February, 1194, when he obtained his liberation by paying a large ransom. In the mean time his brother John had at- tempted to usurp the royal power, but was resisted with success. The rivalry between Richard and Philip after- wards involved them in several wars, the results of which were insignificant. Hostilities were suspended in 1198 by a truce of five years. At the siege of the castle of one of his vassals near Limoges, Richard was mortally wounded by an arrow, in March, 1199. He left no lawful issue, and was succeeded by his brother John. " Of an impetuous and vehement sjDirit," says Hume, "he was distinguished by all the good as well as the bad qualities incident to that character : he was open, frank, generous, sincere, and brave ; he was revengeful, domineering, ambitious, haughty, and cruel." Richard I. forms a prominent and brilliant character in Scott's novel of " Ivanhoe." See P. J. Bruns, " De Rebus gestis Richardi Angliae Regis," 1780; J. White, "Adventures of Richard Coeur de Lion," 3 vols., 1791 ; G. P.R.James, " Life of Richard L," 1843; Hume, "History of England," diap. x. ; W. E. Aytoun, "Life of Richard L of England," 1840. € as ^; 5 as s; | Aard; g as j; g, h, Yiyguttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) RICHARD 1892 RICHARD Richard II., King of England, born at Bordeaux in 1366, was a son of Edward the HIack Prince. He suc- ceeded his grandfather, Edward III., in June, 1377. Among the remarkable events which occurred during his minority was the rel^ellion of Wat Tyler, (1381,) which was provoked partly by the tax imposed to sup- port a war against France. The insurgents, who were peasants or common people, entered London, massacred many persons of the higher class, among whom was the Archbishop of Canterbury, and committed other out- rages. Richard acted with much presence of mind, and persuaded the rioters to disperse. A great number of them were afterwards executed. Edward III. had left the kingdom involved in wars against the French and the Scotch. In 1385 Richard invaded Scotland and reduced to ashes Edinburgh, Perth, Dundee, etc. The Scots offered no resistance, but at the same time made a successful raid into England. The power of Richard, who was indolent and incapable, was nullified for a time by his uncle the Duke of Gloucester, who put to death the king's favourites and ministers in 1388. The wars against France and Scotland were conducted with little vigour, and suspended by frequent truces. In 1396 Richard concluded a long truce with the French court, and was affianced to Isabella of France, who was seven years of age. In 1398 he banished the Dukes of Here- ford and Norfolk, who had met to fight a duel. Here- ford (who at the death of his father became Henry, Duke of Lancaster) had gained the favour of the people by his conduct and abilities. Taking advantage of the absence of Richard, who was in Ireland, Henry landed in Eng- land in July, 1399, raised a large army, and made him- self master of the kingdom without serious opposition. The troops which Richard brought from Ireland nearly all deserted. " His personal character had brought him into contempt," says Hume. He was deposed by Par- liament, which recognized his rival as King Henry IV., and ordered or advised that Richard should be impris- oned in some secret jilace. He died mysteriously in the thirty-fourth year of his age. " It is more probable," says Hume, "that he was starved to death in prison." He left no posterity. Richard II. gives name to one of Shakspeare's tragedies. See J. Evesham, "Historia Richardi II.," 1729; Hume, " His- tory of England," chap. xvii. ; "Life and Reign of Richard II.," London, 1681 ; R. Howard, " History of the Reigns of Edward III. and Richard II.," 1690. Richard III., King of England, a younger son of Richard, Duke of York, and a brother of Edward IV., was born in Northamptonshire on the 2d of October, 1452, and was styled the Duke of Gloucester. He took part in the battle of Tewksbury, in 147 1, and, according to a report which obtained currency, was instrumental in the death of Henry VI. In 1472 he married Lady Anne Nevil, a daughter of the Earl of Warwick. He became regent or protector at the accession of his ne])hew, Edward V., who was a minor, (April, 1483.) " His exorbitant ambition," says Plume, *' unrestrained by any principle either of justice or humanity, made him carry his views to the possession of the crown itself." By dissimulation and professions of loyalty he obtained possession of the king's person. He arrested and exe- cuted the Earl of Rivers, Edward's maternal uncle and tutor, with other friends of the young king. About the end of June, 1483, he usurped the royal power openly and without resistance. Soon after this date Edward V. md his brother were put to death in the Tower by the order of Richard. His authority was recognized by a Parliament which met in 1484. " But the crimes of Richard were so horrid and so shocking to humanity that the natural sentiments of men, without any political or public views, were sufficient to render his government unstable." (Hume.) Many nobles and malcontents as- sembled in Brittany and offered their services to Henry, Earl of Richmond, who was regarded by the Lancas- trians as the rightful heir to the crown. Henry landed at Milford Haven in August, 1485, with a small army, which was increased to 6000 men. The rivals met at Bosworth on the 21st of August. In number of men Richard had the advantage ; but, soon after the battle began, Lord Stanley, whose conduct had been equivocal, j joined Richmond with about 7000 men and decided the I victory. Richard fought with the energy of despair, and was slain as he was rushing forward to attack Henry in person. Richard was of small stature, humpbacked, and had a disagreeable countenance. Several modern writers have appeared as his apologists. Richard III. furnishes the name to one of Shakspeare's most popular dramas. See Sir George Buck, "Life of Richard III. ;" Jesse, "Life of Richard III.," i860: Beai.e, "Richard III. and his Times," 1844 ; Sir Thomas More, " History of Edward V. and the Ditke of York," 1641 ; Hume, " History of England," ciiap. xxiii. ; Horace Walpole, "Historic Doubts on Richard III.," 1768; J. Rev, " Essais historiques et critiques sur Richard III," 1818. Richard (re'shti^') I., Duke of Normandy, surnamed San.s Peur, ("without fear,") was born about 933 ; died in 996. Richard II., Duke of Normandy, was the son of the preceding, whom he succeeded. He died in 1027 or 1026, and was succeeded by his son, Richard HI., who died in 1028. Richard, a native of Normandy, was a friend of Thomas a Becket, whom he succeeded as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1 1 74. Died in 1184. See W. F. Hook, " Lives of the Arclibishops of Canterbury," vol. ii. chap. viii. Richard, a learned and liberal prelate, whose family name was Fitz-Ralph. He became Archbishop of Armagh in 1347, and denounced the superstition and licentious habits of the mendicant friars. For this offence he was arraigned before Pope Innocent VI., and condemned. Died at Avignon in 1360. Richard, re'shtk', (Achille,) a French botanist, born in Paris in 1794, was a son of Louis Claude Marie, noticed below. He wrote many monographs, and con- tributed greatly to popularize the science of botany. His " Elements of Botany and Vegetable Physiology" (1819; 7th edition, 1846) is highly commended as a text- book for students. It has been translated into many languages. Died in 1852. See BoucHARDOT, " ]filoges de Royer-Collard et d'A. Richard," 1853 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Richard, (Charles Louis,) a French theologian, born in Lorraine in 1711. He published a "Diction- ary of Ecclesiastical Sciences," (6 vols., 1760.) Died in 1794. Richard, (Fleury Francois,) a French historical painter, born in Lyons in 1777. He received the title of painter to Charles X. about 1824. Richard, (Francois,) called Richard Lenoir, a French manufacturer, born in Calvados in 1765. He and his partner Lenoir introduced the manufacture of fine cotton stuffs into France about 1795. Died in 1839. See his autobiograpl)ic " Memoires," 1837. Richard, (Francois Marie Claude,) Baron, a French physician, born in the eighteenth century. He was the author of " Observations on the Medicine of the Military Hospitals," (" Observations de Medecine des Hopitaux militaires," 1766.) He died in the reign of Louis XVI. Richard, (Jean,) a French moralist and religious writer, born at Verdun in 1638. His chief work is " Universal Science of the Pulpit, or Moral Dictionary," (" La Science universelle de la Chaire, ou Dictionnaire morale," etc., 5 vols., 1700-12.) Died in 1719. Richard, (Joseph Charles,) a French revolutionist, born at La Fleche in 1752, was a moderate member of the Convention. He was specially excepted from the operation of the law which exiled regicides in 1816. Died in 1834. Richard, (Louis Claude Marie,) an eminent French botanist, born at Versailles in 1754. He passed about eight years (1781-89) in exploring the botanical and other productions of Guiana and the Antilles. After his return he was admitted into the Institute, and was professor of botany in the ficole de Medecine, Paris. He was a good observer, and was versed in various branches of natural history. He wrote, besides several memoirs or monographs, an excellent "Analysis of the Fruit, considered in general," (1808.) Died in 1821. See CuviER, " filoge de L. C. M. Richard;" Kunth, "Notice sur L. C. M. Richard," 1824; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nftt; good; moon; RICHARD 1893 RICHARDSON Richard, (Ren6,) a French historian, born at Sau- mur in 1654, obtained the office of royal censor, (of books.) Died in 1727. Richard, (Theodore,) a French landscape-painter, born at Milliau (Aveyron) about 1805. Richard de Bury, an English prelate and patron of learning, whose family name was Richard Angerville or Angarville, was born at Bury Saint Edmund's in 1287. He was tutor to Prince Edward, (afterwards Ed- ward III.) Having been sent on a mission to the pope, he formed a friendship with Petrarch, was appointed Bishop of Durham in 1333, and chancellor of England in 1334. He collected a great number of books, which he bequeathed to a company of scbolars at Oxford. It is stated that he owned more books than all the other English bishops together. He was eminent for learning. Died in 1345. See an account of his life in his " Philobiblon," an English ver- sion of which was published in London, 1832. Richard de Saint- Victor, re'shtR' deh sin v^k'- toR', a mystical theologian and philosopher, born in Scotland, was a pupil of Hugh de Saint-Victor. He became prior of the abbey of Saint- Victor, at Paris, in 1 164. He was an eloquent and celebrated writer on theology, ethics, etc. An edition of his works was pub- lished by John of Toulouse in 1650. Died in 11 73. See Joannes de Tolosa, "Vita Richardi," prefixed to the edi- tion of his works, 1650. Richard of Cirencester, (sis'e-ter,) an English his- torian and monk, called Ricar'dus Corinen'sis, or the Monk of Westminster. He entered a monastery at Westminster in 1350. He wrote, besides several works on Saxon and British history, a celebrated " Description of Britain," (" De Situ Britanniae,") the manuscript of which was first found in 1747 by Charles Julius Bertram, of Copenhagen, The authenticity of this work is doubted by many critics. Richard of Hexham. See Roger. Richard Plantagenet. See Yokk, third Duke of. Rich'ard Plan-tag'e-net, Earl of Cornwall, a soi^ of lohn, King of England, was born in 1208. "His ruling passion was to amass money, — in which he suc- ceeded so well as to become the richest subject in Chris- tendom," (Hume.) According to Michaud, he fought as a crusader in Palestine about 1240. He was elected King of the Romans in 1256. "He was tempted," says Hume, "to expend vast sums of money on his election." Though he was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, his reign was only nominal. He died in England in 1272. See Rymer, " Foedera ;" Gebauer, " Leben und Tliaten Herrn Richards," etc., 1744. Richardot, re'shiR'do', (FRANgois,) Bishop of Arras, a learned French prelate, born in 1507; died in 1574. Rich'ards, (William,) an American missionary, born at Plainfield, Massachusetts, in 1792. He sailed in 1822 to the Sandwich Islands, where he became interpreter and chaplain to the king, and in 1845 was appointed minister of public instruction. Died in 1847. Richards, (W. T.,) a distinguished American land- scape-painter, is a resident of Philadelphia. He is one of the most successful cultivators of the pre-Raphaelite style in landscape-painting. His works are remarkable for their accuracy of detail and the perfection of their finish. See TucKERMAN, "Book of the Artists." Rich'ard-son, (Charles,) an eminent English lexi- cographer, born in 1775. He published in 1805 "Illus- trations of English Philology," in which he advocated the philological opinions of Horne Tooke. His chief work is a "Dictionary of the English Language," (2 vols. 4to, 1835-37, reissued in 1838, 1839, 1844, 1849, and 1855 ; with Supplement, 1856 and 1859,) which is very highly esteemed. It was pronounced by Dean Trench the best dictionary in the language. Died in 1865. See Ai.LiBONE, "Dictionary of Autliors." Rich'ard-son, (Israel B.,) an American general, born at Burlington, Vermont, about 1818, graduated at West Point in 1841. He served with distinction in the Mexican war, became a captain in 185 1, and resigned his commission in 1855. He commanded a division in the Chickahominy campaign, (May-July, 1862,) was ap- pointed a major-general in July, and rendered important services at Antietam, September 17, 1862. He received in this battle a wound of which he died, November, 1862. See Tenney, "Military and Naval History of the Rebellion." Richardson, (James,) an English traveller, horn in Lincolnshire in 1806. He engaged in an expedition to Lake Tchad, in Africa, and departed from Tripoli in 1850 with Barth. He died at Ungouratona in March, 185 1, leaving a "Narrative of a Mission to Central Africa," (1853.) See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Richardson, (John,) a learned English theologian, born at Chester. He became Bishop of Ardagh, Ire- land, in 1633. Died in London in 1654. Rich'ard-son, (Sir John,) a British naturalist and traveller, born at Dumfries, Scotland, in 1787. He served as surgeon to Captain Franklin's expedition to the Arctic Ocean in 1819, and to the second expedition of that navigator in 1825. He published "Zoology of the Northern Parts of British America," (" Fauna Bo- reali-Americana," 3 parts, 1829-37,) in which he was assisted by William Swainson and William Kirby. In 1848 he conducted an expedition sent to search for Sir John Franklin. His route was through the lakes of British America to Slave Lake, and thence down the Mackenzie River, the mouth of which he reached in August, 1848. After his return he published a "Journal of a Boat- Voyage through Rupert's Land to the Arctic Sea," etc., (185 1.) Died in 1865. See "Life of Sir John Richardson," London, 1868; "Bio- graphical Sketches," by H. Martineau. Richardson, (John Peter,) an American statesman, grandson of Richard, noticed below, was born in Sumter district, South Carolina, in 1801. He was a prominent leader of the Union party in the Nullification contest of 1835, elected to Congress in 1836, and became Governor of the State in 1841. Died in 1850. Richardson, (Jonathan, ) an English portrait- painter and writer on art, was born about 1665. He painted heads with great success, but failed in attitudes, draperies, and backgrounds. After the death of Knel- ler he was considered the foremost portrait-painter of England. His durable reputation is founded on an "Essay on the Whole Art of Criticism as it relates to Painting, and an Argument in behalf of the Science of a Connoisseur," (1719,) which is highly commended. Died in 1745. Richardson, (Joseph,) an English poet, born in Northumberland. He studied law, and was called to the bar in 1784. He was one of the writers of the satires of the " Rolliad" and the " Probationary Odes." Died in 1803. Richardson, (Richard,) an American soldier and patriot, born near Jamestown, Virginia, in 1704, served in the Revolutionary war, and was made a brigadier- general. Died in 1780. Richardson, (Samuel,) an eminent English novel- ist, born in Derbyshire in 1689, was a son of a joiner. At the village school which he attended he began to dis- play his faculty for invention. He has informed us that in his boyhood he was a favourite of young women, who availed themselves of his talents in the composition of letters to their lovers. About the age of seventeen he was apprenticed to a printer of London, named Wilde. He served as foreman in the printing-office about five years, and then became a master-printer in Fleet Street. He married Miss Wilde, a daughter of his former master. In 1740 he published his first novel, "Pa- mela," which was very popular and opened a new era in English romantic literature. Fielding's novel "Joseph Andrews" was an avowed burlesque of " Pamela." Richardson acquired a European reputation by his "History of Clarissa Harlowe," (1748,) which is con- sidered his capital work. " His personages have all the reality possible," says Diderot ; "his incidents are realized in the manners of all polished nations. What fertility in the invention of personages ! what variety in the delineation of characters !" He afterwards produced the novel of "Sir Charles Grandison," (1753,) which was less successful. Richardson was prosperous in « as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) RICHARDSON RICHELIEU business. By the favour of Speaker Onslow he obtained the lucrative privilege of printing the Journals of the House of Commons, He wrote No, XCVH. of the " Rambler" of Dr. Johnson, who was his friend and a warm admirer of his works. Died on the 4th of July, 1761, See Francis Jeffrey, "Swift and Richardson," 1853; Dide- rot, " £loge de S. Ricliardson," 1762; Mrs. Barbauld, " Life of S. Richardson," prefixed to his " Correspondence," 6 vols., 1S03; Sir Walter Scott, " Memoirs of Eminent Novelists ;" E. Man- gin, " Liie and Writings of S Richardson," 181 1 ; Allibone, " Dic- tionary of Authors;" "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1804; "Blackwood's Magazine" for March, 1S69, article "Historical Sketches of the Reign of George II. ;" "Westminster Review" for >3nuary, 1869 ; "Monthly Review" for January, 1805. Richardson, (Sir Thomas,) an English judge, born in Norfolk in 1569, He was elected Speaker of the in 1806. Richter, von, fon riK'ter, (Otto Friedrich,) a Russian traveller, born in 1792. He visited Egypt, Syria, etc. Died at Smyrna in 1816 or 1817. ' Rig'i-mer, an ambitious general of the Roman army, was a Gothic chief. He deposed Avitus about 457 a.d., and raised to the throne Majorian, whom he put to death in 461. He obtained imperial power, though he did not assume the title of emperor. In 472 a.d. he captured Rome, and caused Anthemius to be killed. He died the same year. See Gibbon, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;"Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire;" "Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale." Rick'etts, (James B.,) an American general, born in the city of New York. He graduated at West Point in 1839, and became a captain in 1852. He commanded a division at the battle of Antietam, September, 1862, and at that of the Wilderness, May 5 and 6, 1864. He was disabled by a severe wound at the battle of Cedar Creek, Virginia, October 19, 1864. Rickman, (Georg Wilhelm.) See Richmann. Rick^man, (John,) F.R.S., an English statistician, born in 177 1, was assistant clerk of the House of Com- mons. Died in 1841. Rickman, (Thomas,) an English architect and emi- nent writer on Gothic architecture, was born at Maiden- head in 1776. He became a clerk in the service of an insurance-broker of Liverpool about 1808, after which he began to study design in his leisure hours. Having adopted the profession of architect, he removed to Bir- mingham, and published " An Attempt to discriminate the Styles of Architecture in England," (181 7,) which is esteemed a standard work. He was the architect of many Gothic churches erected at Bristol, Birmingham, Carlisle, Liverpool, etc. Among his best works is the New Court of Saint John's College, Cambridge. Died in 1841. Ricord, re'koR', (Philippe,) a skilful physician, of French parentage, born at Baltimore, United States, in 1800. He became chief surgeon of the Hopital du Midi, Paris, in 183 1, and gave special attention to vene- real diseases, on which he has written with great suc- cess. His practice is said to be immense : it is probably not surpassed by that of any other physician in Paris. Among his works are " Letters on Syphilis," (1854.) Ri'der, (John,) a Protestant bishop, born in Cheshire about 1562. He became Bishop of Killaloe, in Ireland, in 1612. Among his works is " An English-Latin and Latin-English Dictionary," (1589.) Died in 1632. Rider, (Rev. William,) an English historian, pub- lished a " History of England." Died in 1785. RidgTey, (Thomas,) a dissenting minister, born in London about 1666. He succeeded Thomas Gouge in London about 1700, and became tutor in an academy of the Independents in 1712. He published a "Body of Divinity," (1731.) Died in 1734. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; ?i, i, 9, obscure; ftr, f^ll, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; RID INGE R 1897 Ridiuger. See Riedinger. Rid'ley, (Gloucester,) an English clergyman, born at sea, on board the "Gloucester" East Indiaman, in 1702. He wrote a "Life of Dr. Nicholas Ridley, Bishop of London," (1763,) and several poems, one of which was called " Psyche," (1782.) Died in 1774. Ridley, (James,) a son of the preceding, was a chap- lain in the army. He wrote " Tales of the Genii," often reprinted. Died prematurely in 1765. Ridley, (Nicholas,) an eminent English Reformer and martyr, born in Northumberland near the beginning of the sixteenth century. He was educated at Pembroke College, Cambridge, and obtained a high reputation as a preacher. About 1540 he became chaplain to the king. He was appointed Bishop of Rochester in 1547, and succeeded Bonner as Bishop of London in 1550. He assisted Cranmer in composing forty-one or forty- two articles of faith in 1 551, attempted to convert the princess Mary, and induced King Edward to found several hospitals in London. On the death of Edward VI. he advocated the claim of Lady Jane Grey. He was committed to the Tower by Queen Mary in July, 1553, and was removed in 1554 to Oxford, where he took part in a disputation on the questions which divided the Protestants from the Roman Catholics. Having been condemned as a heretic, he suffered death by fire with fortitude on the i6th of October, 1555. See Gloucester Ridley. " Life of Bishop Ridley," 1763 ; Hume, "History of England;" '"Monthly Resiew" for December, 1763, and January, 1764. Ridley, (Sir Thomas,) an English civilian, born at Ely. He wrote a " View of the Civil and Ecclesiastical Law." Died in 1629. Ridolfi, re-dol'fee. (Carlo,) an able painter of the Venetian school, was born at or near Vicenza about 1598. He avoided the degenerate style which prevailed among his contemporaries. A "Visitation" which he painted for a church in Venice is especially admired. He wrote "The Lives of the Venetian Painters," (2 vols., 1648,) which is a work of much literary and critical merit. Died about 1660. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Ridolfi, (Claudio,) an Italian painter, born at Ve- rona in 1560, was a jjupil of Paul Veronese. He is said to have been a good colorist. Died in 1644. Ridolfi, (Lorenzo,) a popular Florentine statesman, who in 1425 rendered an important service to the re- public by inducing the Venetians to form an alliance with Florence against the Duke of Milan. Ridolfi, di, "de re-doKfee, (Cosimo,) Marquis, an Italian agriculturist, born at Florence in 1794. He founded an agricultural school at Meleto, and wrote articles for the "Journal of Agriculture," founded by himself and a few^ others in 1827. He was minister of the interior and president of the council for a short time in 1847 ^"fl iM^- Riedel, ree'del. (August,) a German painter, was horn at Baireuth in 1800. He worked some years in Rome. Riedel, (Friedrich Justus,) a German litterateur, born near Erfurt in 1742. Among his works are Satires, (3 vols., 1786.) Died in Vienna in 1785. Riedesel,ree'deh-zeK, (Joseph Hermann,) a German traveller, born in 1 740. He published an account of his travels in Greece, etc., ("Remarques d'un Voyageur au Levant," 1773.) Died in 1785. Riedesel, von, fon ree'deh-/iK, (Frederika,) Bar- oness, a German lady, born at Brandenburg in 1746. She went to the United States in 1777 with her husband, an officer in the British service. She wrote Letters on the campaign which she witnessed in New York, Died in Berlin in 1808. See the " North American Review" for January, 1828. Riedesel, von, (Friedrich Adolph,) Baron, a German officer, born in 1738, was the husband of the preceding. He served in the British army against the Americans, (1777-82,) and obtained the rank of general. Died in 1800. See "Memoirs, Letters, and Journals of Major-General Riede- Bel," translated from the German by William L. Stone, (New York, 1868.) RIENZI Riedinger or Ridinger, ree'ding-er, ( Johann Elias,) an eminent German designer and engraver, born at Ulm in 1695. His delineations of animals, es- pecially wild ones, are unsurpassed for accuracy and fidelity to nature. Among his master-pieces are " Obser*. vations on Wild Animals," (40 copper-plates,) "Fables of Animals," (16 plates,) and "Paradise," (12 plates,) He worked mostly at Augsburg. Died in 1767. See Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" Hirsching, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." Riegger, von, fon reeg'ger, (Joseph Anton,) a Ger- man jurist and writer on canon law. He became professor of law at Vienna in 1764. Died in 1795. Riego y Nunez, del, d^l re-a'go e noon'y^th, a Span- ish general and patriot, born in Asturias about 1785. He was a leader of the insurgents who in January, 1820, took arms for the Constitution of 1812. He was after- wards appointed Captain-General of Asturias, or of Aragon, and president of the Cortes. He resisted the French army of intervention in 1823, was taken prisoner, and executed in November of that year. See Miguel Riego, "Memoirs of the Life of Riego," 1823 ; Nard y Pirala, " Vida miiitar y politica de Riego," 1844; Ed. BuRCKHARDT, " Riego und Mina," 1835. Riem, reem, (Johann,) a German rural economist, born at Frankenthal, on the Rhine, in 1739. He wrote on the methods of raising bees and obtaining honey. Died in 1807. Riemer, ree'mer, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German scholar and writer, born at Glatz in 1774. He was employed as a tutor in the family of W. von Humboldt, and subsequently in that of Goethe. He became first librarian at Weimar in 1828. He published a " Greek- German Hand-Lexicon," and a number of poems. Died in 1845. Riencourt, de, deh reJ.N'kooR', (Simon,) a French historian, born about 1605, in Paris, published a " His- tory of the French Monarchy under the Reign of Louis XIV,," (2 vols., 1688,) and a "History of Louis XIIL," (1695.) Died in 1693. Rienzi, re-ln'zee, or Rienzo, re-§n'zo, (Nicola Ga- brlni,) called Colas Di Rienzi, ko'lasdee re-en'zee, an eloquent Roman tribune, was born probably at Rome. He received a liberal education, and became a friend of Petrarch about 1340. At that period anarchy prevailed in Rome, the citizens of which were robbed and out- raged by barons who occupied fortified castles. Rienzi was a colleague of Petrarch in a deputation sent by the Romans to Avignon in 1342 to persuade the pope to return to Rome. In 1347, by the popular favour, he obtained power, with the title of tribune, and made some reforms. He soon became elated with success, and dis- gusted the people by his vain pomp and extravagance. " He degenerated," says Gibbon, "into the vices of a king." He was driven out of the city about the end of 1347, after he had been anathematized as a rebel and a heretic by the legate of the pope. Having passed seven years as a fugitive in Germany, etc, he was arrested and taken to Avignon, as a captive or culprit, in 1352. In 1354 he was sent to Rome, with the title of senator, by the pope, who proposed to use the talents and influence of Rienzi for the restoration of order in that capital. Before the end of the year he was killed in a tumult fomented by the barons. " Never, perhaps," says Gibbon, " has the energy and effect of a single mind been more remarkably felt than in the sudden though transient reformation of Rome by the tribune Rienzi. . . . More eloquent than judicious, more enterprising than resolute, the faculties of Rienzi were not balanced by cool and com- manding reason." Byron apostrophizes Rienzi as the " Redeemer nf dark centuries of siiame, — The friend of Petrarch, — hope of Italy, — Rienzi ! last of Romans !" Childe Harold, canto iv. stanza cxiv. The history of Rienzi forms the basis of one of Bul- wer's most popular novels. See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," vol. iv, chap. Ixx. ; Schiller, "History of Rebellions;" " Life of Rienzi," in French, by Du Cerceau, 1733: Gabrini, " Osservazioni sulla Vita di Rienzo," iSq6; Zefirino Re, " La Vita di Rienzi," 1828; Papen'cokdt, "Rienzi et Rome a son Bpoque," 1841; "The Life and Times of Rienzi," Philadelphia, 1836: F. Benedetti, "Vita di Rienzi." 1831 ; " Noiivelle Biographie Generale ;" "London Quarterly Review" for March, 1842, € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (SQ^See Explanations, p. 23.) RIENZO 1898 RIMINALDl Rienzo. See Rienzi. Riepenhausen, ree'pen-how'z^n, (Franz,) an emi- nent German painter of history, and engraver, born at Gottingen in 1786. He went to Rome about 1807 with his brother Johann. They produced several oil-paintings, and designs to illustrate the poems of Goethe and Schil- ler ; also a " History of Painting in Italy," (3 vols., 1820, with twenty-four engravings after Italian masters.) He died at Rome in 183 1. Riepenhausen, (Johann,) a painter and engraver, a brother of the preceding, was born at Gottingen in 1788. He worked many years at Rome. After the death of Franz, he published a series of engravings illustrative of the life of Raphael, under the title of "Vita di Raflfaello," (1834.) Ries, reess, (Ferdinand,) a German composer and pianist, born at Bonn in 1784, was a pupil of Beethoven. He visited Paris, Stockholm, Saint Petersburg, and London, and in the last-named city 'was received with distinguished favour. His compositions include sym- phonies, instrument pieces, and operas ; also an oratorio called "David." Died in 1838. See Fetis, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." Rieter, reenter, (Henri,) a Swiss landscape-painter, born at Winterthur in 1751. He worked at Berne, and painted Swiss scenery with success. He published col- oured engravings of the same subjects. Died in 1818. Rietschel, reet'shel, (Ernst,) an eminent German sculptor, and professor in the Academy of Arts at Dres- den, was born at Pulsnitz in 1804. He studied under Ranch at Berlin, and subsequently in Italy. Among his master-jiieces we may name " Mary Kneeling over the Dead Body of Christ," a bust of Luther, a *' Ceres," colossal statues of Goethe and Schiller, (at Weimar,) and the " Christ-Angel." Died at Dresden in 1861. See "Biographic Universelle." Rietschoof, reet'sKof, (Hendrik,) a skilful Dutch painter of marine views, was born in 1678. Rietschoof, (Jan Klaasz,) a Dutch painter of ma- rine views, born at Hoorn in 1652, was father of the preceding. Died in 17 19. Rieux, de, deh re-uh', (Jean,) a marshal of France, who was born in 1342. He served with distinction under Charles VI., and became marshal in 1397. Died in 141 7. Rieux, de, (Pierre,) a French general, a son of the preceding, was called Mar6chal de Rochefort, and was born at Ancenis in 1389. He fought for Charles VII. against the English. Died in 1438. Riffault, re''f5^, (Jean Ren6 Denis,) a French chem- ist, born at Saumur in 1752. He improved the method of making gunpowder, and wrote, besides other works, a "Manual of Chemistry," (1825.) Died at Paris in 1826. Riffaut or Riffault, re'fo', ( Adolphe Pierre,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1821. He obtained a medal of the first class in 1855. Died in 1859. Rigal, re^gtK, (Jean Jacques,) a French surgeon and writer, born at Cussac in 1755 ; died in 1823. Rigaltius. See Rigault. Rigas. See Rhigas. Rigau or Rigaud, re'gS', (Antoine,) a French gene- ral, born at Agen in 1758. He commanded the depart- ment of the Marne when Napoleon returned from Elba. Having been condemned to death for his defection from the cause of the Bourbons in 1815, he escaped to the United States. He died in 1820. Rigaud, (Hyacinthe,) an eminent French portrait- painter, born at Perpignan in 1659, was a pupil of Ranc and of other masters. He painted Philip V. of Spain in 1700, and Louis XIV. in 1701, soon after which he received the title of court painter. Among his works are portraits of Bossuet and Lebrun. His touch is bold and free and his design correct. He has been called "the French Van Dyck." His portraits have been engraved by Edelinck and Audran. Died in 1743. See FoNTENAV, " Dictionnaire des Artistes;" C. Blanc, " His- toire des Peintres." Rigaud, (Pierre Augustin, often called Auguste,) a French fabulist and merchant, born at Montpellier in 1760. He published, besides several poems, a volume of Fables, (1823,) by which he is said to have acquired a durable reputation. Died in 1835. Rigaud, re'g5', (Stephen Peter,) F.R.S., an able English astronomer, born at Richmond, Surrey, in 1774. He became Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford in 1810. In 1827 he was appointed director of the Rad- cliffe Observatory, and Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford. He wrote papers for several scientific pe- riodicals on astronomy and other physical sciences, and edited the " Miscellaneous Works and Correspondence of Bradley," (1831.) He was eminent as a mathematical antiquary. Died in 1839. Rigault, re'go', (Ange Hippolyte,) an able French litterateur, born at Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1821. He became an editor of the "Journal des Debats" in 1853. He wrote a " Histoire de la Querelle des Anciens et des Modernes," (1856,) which gained the prize of the French Academy. Died in December, 1858. Rigault, [Lat. Rigai/tius,J (Nicolas,) a French philologist and able critic, born in Paris in 1577. He succeeded Casaubon as keeper of the King's Library about 1610, and obtained the office of procureur-general at Nancy after 1633. He edited Martial, Juvenal, and Tertullian. Among his works are an ingenious satire called " P'unus Parasiticum," (1601,) and a continuation of the "History" of De Thou, (1620.) Died in 1654. See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Mokeri, "Dictionnaire Historique;" Niceron, " Memoires." Rigault de Genouilly, re^o' deh zheh-noo'ye', (Charles,) a French admiral, born in 1807. He ob- tained the rank of rear-admiral in 1854, and served in the Crimean war. He commanded the naval division which co-operated with the British in the capture of Canton in 1857. Rig'by, (Edward,) an English physiologist, born at Norwich in 1747. He produced, besides other works, an "Essay on the Theory of the Production of Animal Heat," (1785.) Died in 1821. Righini, re-gee'nee, (Vincenzo,) an able Italian composer, born at Bologna about 1758. He composed, besides other operas, " Armida" and "Tigrane," which are commended. Died in 1812. Rigny, de, deh r^n'ye', (Henri Gauthier,) Comte, an able French admiral, born at Toul in 1782. He commanded the French fleet which defeated the Turks at Navarino in October, 1827. He became minister of the marine in March, 1831, and was minister of foreign affairs from April, 1834, to March, 1835. Died in 1835. See " Biographic Universelle." Rigoley de Juvigny, recoil' de zhii'vin'ye', (Jean Antoine,) a mediocre French litteratetir, wrote " On the Decadence of Letters and Morals since the Times of the Greeks and Romans," (1787.) Died in 1788. RigoUot, re'go''lo', (Marc J6rome,) a French anti- quary and physician, born at Douilens in 1796, wrote several treatises on French antiquities. Died in 1854. Rigord, re'goR', [Lat. Rigor'dus,] a French chron- icler, born in Languedoc, wrote a history of the reign of Philip Augustus of France. Died in 1207. Rigord, (Jean Pierre,) a French antiquary, born at Marseilles in 1656 ; died in 1727. Ri'ley, (James,) an American sea-captain, born at Middletown, Connecticut. He was wrecked on the western coast of Africa in 1815, and afterwards pub- lished a "Narrative" of his captivity among the Arabs, which enjoyed a great popularity. Died in 1840. See the " London Quarterly Review" for January, 181 7. RiTey, (John,) an English portrait-painter, born in London in 1646, took Van Dyck as his model. He was patronized by Charles II., James II., and William HI. He is considered the best English portrait-painter before Sir Joshua Reynolds. Died in 1691. Rileyef, re-la'ef, written also Rylejew, Rilieff, and Rileef, (Konrad,) a Russian poet and republican, was a leader of a secret society formed about 1820 to liberate Russia from absolute power. He was hung in 1826. See the "Foreign Quarterly Review" for May, 1832. Rilieff. See Rileyef. Rimfaxi or Rimfaxe. See Norvi. Riminaldi, re-me-nil'dee, (Domenico,) an Italian sculptor in wood, was born at Pisa in 1595; died in 1637- a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; \ fe, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, ^, short; ^, ?, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n5t; good; moon; RIMINALDI RIPLEY Riniinaldi, (Orazio,) an Italian painter of sacred history, born at Pisa in 1 598, was a promising artist when he died, in 1630. Rinaldi, re-nSKdee, (Oderico,) an Italian ecclesi- astical historian, born at Treviso in 1595. He wrote a continuation of Baronius's "Ecclesiastical Annals," to which he added ten volumes, (1646-77,) extending the narrative to 1564. Died in 1671. See TiRABOscHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Rinck or Rink, rink, (Friedrich Theodor,) a German Orientalist, born at Slave in 1770; died in 181 1. Rincon, del, dgl r6n-k6n', (Antonio,) a Spanish painter, born at Guadalaxara about 1446. He aban- doned the Gothic style, promoted a revolution in Spanish art, and was considered the best Spanish painter of his time. He \Aas court painter to Ferdinand the Catholic. Died at Seville in 1500. His son Fernando was also a skilful painter. See Palomino, " El Museo pictorico." Ring, (John,) an English surgeon and writer, born near Salisbury in 1751. He published a "Translation of the Works of Virgil," partly original and partly altered from Dryden and Pitt, (1820.) Died in 1821. Ring, van, vtn ring, (Pieter,) a Dutch painter of still life, flourished about 1650. Ringelbergh, van, vtn ring'el-blRc/, [Lat. Rtngel- ber'gius,] (Joachim Sterck or Joachim Fortius,) a Flemish philosopher and professor of Greek, born at Antwerp about 1500. He was the author of various well- written works. Died in 1536. See NiCERON, "Memoires." Ringelbergius. See Ringelbergh. Ring'gold, (Major Samuel,) an American officer, born in Washington county, Maryland, in 1800, served with distinction in the Mexican war. He was mortally wounded at the battle of Palo Alto, (May 8, 1846,) and died a few days after. Ringli, ring'lee, written also Ringly and Ringgli, (GoTHARD,) a Swiss painter and engraver, born at Zurich in 1575, passed most of his life at Berne. His works are highly commended. Died in 1635. Ringwaldt, ring'Mlt, (Bartholomaus,) a German preacher and sacred poet, born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1530 ; died in 1 598. Rink or Rinck, rink, (Eucharius Gottlieb,) a German biographer and numismatist, born in Saxony in 1670. Among his works are a treatise "On the Value and Quality of Ancient Money," ("De veteris Numis- matis Potentia et Qualitate," 1701,) and a "Life of Leopold the Great," (1708.) Died in 1745. See Heumann, " Lebensbeschreibung E. G. Rinkens," 1749. Rink, (Johann Christian Heinrich,) a German organist and composer, born in the duchy of Saxe-Gotha in 1770. He became court organist at Darmstadt in 18 13. His reputation is founded on his compositions for the organ. Died in 1846. Rinmann, rin'mSn, (Sven,) a Swedish mineralogist, wrote a "History of Iron," (1782,) and other works. Died in 1792, aged seventy-three. Rintoul, rin'tool, (Robert Stephen,) a British editor, born near Perth in 1787, became a resident of London about 1825. He was the founder and editor of the "Spectator," a liberal journal. Died in 1858. See " Eraser's Magazine" for May, 1858. Rinuccini, re-noot-chee'nee, (Alamanno,) an Italian scholar and translator of Greek authors, was born at Florence in 1426; died in 1504. Rinuccini, (Ottavio,) an Italian poet, born at Flor- ence about 1565. He was one of the inventors of the lyrical drama, and excelled in the anacreontic verse. Among his works are pastorals or operas entitled "Eu- ridice," (1600,) and "Arianna," (1608.) Died in 1621. See GiNGUKNi^, " Histoire Litt^raire d'ltalie;" Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Rio, di, de ree'o, (Niccol6,) Count, an Italian geologist, born in 1765. He was president of the Faculty of Philosophy in the University of Padua. Died in 1845. See Saint-Mauricr-Cabanv, "Le Comte N. de Rio," 1845. Rioja, de, di re-o'na, (Francisco,) a Spanish poet, born at Seville in 1600. He was librarian to the Duke of Olivares while he was prime minister. He wrote a number of short poems which are regarded as modeU of elegance. Died in 1658. See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." ' Rioja, de, (Pedro Soto,) a Spanish poet, born at Granada about 1590, was a friend of Lope de Vega. Died in 1658. Riolan, re'o'lSN', (Jean,) a learned French physician and writer, born at Amiens in 1539. He practised in Paris. Among his works is a " Compendium of Universal Medicine," (" Universas Medicinae Compendium," 1598.) Died in 1606. Riolan, (Jean,) an able anatomist and medical writer, born in Paris about 1578, was a son of the preceding. He was chief physician to Queen Marie de Medicis. He wrote, besides other works, " Anatomy of the Human Body," ("Anatome Corporis huniani," 1610,) and was an adversary of the doctrine of the circulation of the blood. Died in 1657. See "Biographic Medicale." Rions, de, deh re'6N', (Francois Hector d'Albert,) Comte, a French naval officer, born at Avignon in 1728; died in 1802. Rioomantsof or Rjumanzow, ryoo-mSn'tsof, sometimes written Rioumiantzof, Romanzof, and Romantzof, (Alexander,) a Russian diplomatist, born in 1680, was a favourite of Peter I. Died in 1749. Rioomantsof or Romanzof, (written in Polish Rumiancow,) (Nicholas,) a minister of state and patron of learning, born in 1754, was a son of the fol- lowing. He became minister of foreign affairs in 1807. At his expense Kotzebue sailed on a scientific and exploring expedition in 1815-18. Died in 1826. Rioomantsof-Zadoonaiski, ryoo-min'tsof zi-doo- nl'skee, written also Rioumiantzof- (or Rumian- COV-) Zadunaiski, (Pefer,) Coun r, a Russian general, born in 1725, was surnamed the Russian Turenne. He gained a great victory over the Turks on the Kagool in 1770, and negotiated the famous treaty of Koutchouk- Kainardji. Died in 1796. See "Vie du Comte Rioumiantzof," Moscow, 1803. Rioumiantzof See Rioomantsof. Rios, de los, deh lis ree'6s, (Jean Franqois,) a Flemish bibliographer, born at Antwerp in 1728. He published notices of rare books in a work called "Biblio- gra))hie instructive," etc., (Lyons, 1777.) Died in 1820. Rios y Rosas, de los, di 16s ree'6s e ro^'s^s, (An- tonio,) a Spanish politician and minister of state, born at Ronda in 1812. He opposed Espartero and the progresistas. He became minister of the interior in 1856. Riouffe, re'oof, (Honor^,) Baron, a French poli- tician, born at Rouen in 1764, was a member of the Tribunat, (1800-1804.) Died in 1813. See Pariset, " Notice sur Riouffe ;" Bekr, " Notice sur le Baron Riouffe," 1823. Rioult, re'oo', (Louis Edouard,) a French painter, born at Montdidier in 1790; died in 1855. Ripamonte, re-pS-mon'ti, (Giuseppe,) an Italian historian, born at Tignone in 1573 ; died in 1641. Ripault. See Desormeaux. Ripault, re''p5', (Louis Madeleine,) a French litte- rateur and Orientalist, born at Orleans in 1775, was a nephew of Desormeaux. He was a member of the scientific commission of Egypt in 1798, and wrote " An Abridged Description of the Moninnents of Upper Egypt," (1800,) also a " History of Marcus Aurelius,'* (4 V0IS., 1820.) Died in 1823. Ripert. See Monclar, de. Rip'ley, (Eleazar Wheelock,) an American officer, born at Hanover, New Hampshire, in 1782, served with distinction in the war of 1812, and was made a major- general. Died in 1839. I Rip'ley, (George or Gregory,) an English poet and alchemist, wrote "A Compound of Alchemic." Died in 1490. Ripley, (George,) an able American editor and scholar, born at Greenfield, Massachusetts, in 1802. I Among his publications are "Edited Specimens of I Foreign Standard Literature," (14 vols., 1838-42,) and ' "Hand-Book of Literature and the Fine Arts," (1852- « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Yi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this, O^^See Explanations, p. 23.) RIP LET 1900 RITSON 54,) conjointly with Bayard Taylor. In 1849 became literary editor of the New York " Tribune." He was associated as chief editor with Mr. C. A. Dana in the publication of Appleton's " New American Cyclopaedia," (16 vols, large 8vo, 1858-63.) See Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." Ripley, (Henry Jones,) D.D., an American Bap- tist divine, born at Boston in 1798, became professor of biblical literature at the Newton Theological Institution, Massachusetts. He has published " Notes on the Four Gospels," and other theological works. Ripley, (James W.,) an American general, born in Connecticut in 1797, graduated at West Point in 1814. He became a captain in 1825, a lieutenant-colonel in 1854, and a brigadier-general in 1861. Died in 1870. Ripley, (Roswell S.,) an American general, born in Ohio about 1824, graduated at West Point in 1843. He published "The War in Mexico," (2 vols., 1849.) He fought against the Union at Antietam, September 17, 1862. Died at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1863. Rip'on, (Frederick John Robinson,) first Earl OF, an English minister of state, born in London in 1782, was a younger son of Lord Grantham. He began public life as a moderate Tory. He became a member of the board of admiralty in 1810, and vice-president of the board of trade in 1812. In January, 1823, he was appointed chancellor of the exchequer. When Canning became prime minister, in 1827, he obtained the office of colonial secretary, and entered the House of Lords, with the title of Lord Goderich. He was prime minister from the death of Canning, August, 1827, to January, 1828. In the Whig ministry formed in 1830 he was colonial secretary and lord privy seal. He was created Earl of Ripon about 1833, and resigned office in 1834. In 1841 he accepted the presidency of the board of trade from Sir Robert Peel, who appointed him president of the Indian board in 1843. He resigned with Peel in 1846. Died in 1859. See William Jerdan, " Men I have known," London, 1866. Riposo, II. See Ficherkllt. Ripperda, de, deh rip-p§R'da, (Jan Willem,) Duke, an adventurer and diploinatist, was born at Groningen (Holland) in 1680. He served in the Dutch army, and attained the rank of colonel. About 1715 he was sent as envoy to Madrid to negotiate a commercial treaty. Having acquired the favour of Alberoni and the King of Spain, he abjured the Protestant religioii in 1718, and was appointed director of the royal manufactories. He negotiated a secret treaty between the King of Spain and the emperor Charles VI. in 1725, and was rewarded with the title of duke. He was prime minister of Spain for a few months in 1726-27, and his next step was into prison, from which he escaped about 1729. He entered the service of the King of Morocco about 1732. Died at Tetuan in 1737. See "Vie dii Due de Ripperda," par P. M. B., 173Q, which was translated into English by John Campbell. 1739: " Vidadel Duque de Ripperda," Madrid, 1740; G. Moore, "Lives of Cardinal Albe- roni and the Duke de Ripperda," 1806. Rippingill, rip'ing-gil, ? (Edward Villiers,) an English painter, born at King's Lynn in 1798; died in I8S9. ■ Riquet. See Caraman, de. Riquet, re'ki', (P(-erre Paul,) Baron de Bonrepos, a French engineer, born at Beziers in 1604, was a rela- tive of the famous Mirabeau. He acquired honourable distinction as the projector and engineer of the great canal of Languedoc, which extends from the Garonne to the Mediterranean. It was commenced in 1667 and finished about 1680. Died in 1680. See Andreossy, " Histoiredu Canal du Midi ;" Decampe, " filoge de P. Riquet," 1812. Riquetti. See Mirabeau. Risbeck, ris'bSk, (Caspar,) a German publicist, born near Mentz in 1749 or 1750. His reputation is founded on "Letters of a French Traveller about Germany," (2 vols., 1783,) in which he exposed with ability the political and social evils which prevailed in that country. Died in 1786. See J. Pezzl, " Biographisches Denknial J. C. Risbeck's," 1786; HiRSCHiNG, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." Ris'dpn, (Tristram,) an English topographer, born in Devonshire in 1580; died in 1640. Rish'i, a Sanscrit word, signifying " saint" or "sage," and applied in the Hindoo mythology to certain sages or demi-gods, among whom Kasyapa, Viswamitra, and Gautama are perhaps the most worthy of mention. See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." RisT^y, ( Thomas,) an English Puritan preacher, born near Warrington in 1630. He was ejected as a nonconformist in 1662. Died in 1 7 16. Risso, r^s'so, (Antonio,) a distinguished Italian naturalist, born at Nice in 1777. He made discoveries in the zoology of the Mediterranean, and published, be- sides other works, "The Ichthyology of Nice," (1810,) and a " Natural History of the Principal Productions of Southern Europe," etc., (5 vols., 1826,) both in French. Died in 1845. Rist, rist, (Johann,) a once popular German poet, born near Hamburg in 1607. He wrote dramas and religious poems, which are said by a French critic to be elegant in style but devoid of sentiment. Died in 1667. Ristori, r^s-to'ree, (Adelaide,) a celebrated Italian actress, born in Venetia in 1821. She has performed with great applause both in tragedy and comedy. She visited the United States in September, 1866. "In ac- cording to Ristori the highest order of dramatic genius, we merely allow what has long since been decided beyond appeal by the critical tribunals of France, Italy, Ger- many, England, and Spain. What Shakspeare is among dramatists, Ristori is among actors." (" Atlantic Monthly" for April, 1867.) Risueno, re-swan'yo, written also Risvenno, (Jos6,) a Spanish painter and sculptor, born at Granada in 1652, was a pupil of Alonzo Cano. Died in 1 72 1. Ritchie, ritch'e, originally Ogden, (Mrs. Anna Cora MoWATi',) an American authoress and actress, born in Bordeaux, France, of American parents, about 1822. She was married first to a Mr. Mowatt, and afterwards to Mr. W. Ritchie, an editor, of Richmond, Virginia, about 1854. She published, besides other works, " Pelayo, or the Cavern of Covadonga," a poem, a comedy entitled "Fashion," (1845,) ^"<^ " Armand," a drama, (1847.) She made her debut as an actress about 1845. Died in 1870. See "Autobiography of an Actress," by Anna C. Ritchie; Griswolij, "Female Poets of America." Ritchie, ritch'e, (Joseph,) an Englishman who ac- companied Cajjtain Lyon in an expedition to Central Africa. He died during the journey, in 1819. Ritchie, ritch'e, ([>EircH,) a British journalist and novelist, born at Greenock about 1800. Among his novels are " Schinderhannes, or the Robber of the Rhine," (1848,) "The Game of Life," (1851,) and "The Magician," (3 vols., 1853.) He contributed to several London journals and magazines. In the latter part of his life he was an editor of " Chambers's Journal" of Edinburgh. Died in 1865. Ritchie, (Thomas,) an American journalist and poli- tician of the Democratic party, was born at Tappahan- nock, Virginia, in 1778. In 1804 he became editor of the " Richmond Enquirer," over which he continued to preside for forty years, and which, under his editorship, was, for a time, the most influential journal of his party. Died in 1854. Rit'iier, (Joseph,) an American Governor, born near Reading, Pennsylvania, in 1780. He served in the legis- lature of that State from 1820 to 1827, and was nomi- nated for the office of Governor by the Anti-Masonic party in 1829, but was not elected. In 1835 he was chosen Governor for three years. He was an efficient promoter of common schools, and was distinguished for his opposition to slavery. Died in 1869. Ritschl, ritsh'l, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German philologist, and professor of classical literature at Bonn, was born in Thuringia in 1806. He published several critical treatises on the classics, and a number of anti- quarian works. His edition of Plautus (3 vols., 1848- 53) is highly praised. See " Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale." Rit'spn, (Isaac,) an English writer, born near Pen- rith in 1 761, resided in London. Died in 1789. 5,e, T, 6, u, y, long-; k, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, sAorf; ^, ?, j, o, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; mgt; ndt; good; moon; RITSON 1901 RirjUD Ritson, (Joseph,) an English antiquary and poetical critic, born at Stockton (Durham) in 1752, resided mostly in London. He published many works, among which are "Observations on (Warton's) History of English Poetry," (1782,) "Ancient Songs from the Time of Henry HI. to 1^88," (1790,) and " Robin Hood," (1795.) Died in 1803. See Sir N. Harris Nicolas, " Life and Letters of J. Ritson," 1833; Haslewood, "'Life of J. Ritson," 1824; "Edinburgh Re- view" tor January, 1806 ; " F'l aser's Magazine" for May, 1834 ; " Monthly Review" for September, 1803. Rit'ten-house, (David,) an eminent American as- tronomer and mathematician, born at Germantown, near Philadelphia, on the 8th of April, 1732. He worked on his father's farm in his early youth, learned to make c'.ocks without instruction, and made himself master of Newton's " Principia" about 1750. It is stated that he discovered the method of fluxions before the age of nineteen. He learned Latin after he was nineteen or twenty years old. He worked for some years at the trade of clock-maker at Norriton, in Montgomery county, Pennsylvania. About 1767 he constructed an orrery, which was purchased by Princeton College. He also made mathematical instruments of a superior quality. His first communication to the American Philosophical Society was a calculation of the transit of Venus which occurred on the 3d of June, 1769, and which he observed with success. In 1764 he married Eleanor Colston. He was elected treasurer of Penn- sylvania in 1777, and continued to fill that office until 1789. During this period he was employed to determine the boundaries of Pennsylvania. He was chosen presi- dent of the American Philosophical Society in 1791, and became first director of the Mint, at Philadelphia, in 1792. In 1795 he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Having lost his first wife, he mar- ried Hannah Jacobs, of Philadelphia, about 1774. On account of ill health, he resigned in 1795 the direction of the Mint, which he had organized by arduous and successful efforts. He contributed numerous scientific treatises to the "Transactions of the American Philo- sophical Society." Died in Philadelphia, June, 1796. "Were we called upon," says Renwick, " to assign him a rank among the philosophers whom America has produced, we should place him, in point of scientific merit, as second to Franklin alone. ... He had shown himself the equal, in point of learning and skill as an observer, to any practical astronomer then living." See James Renwick, "Life of David Rittenhouse," in Sparks's "American Biography," vol. vii. ; VV. Barton, "Life of David Rittenhouse," 1813; "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii. Ritter, rit'ter, (Heinrich,) a German philosopher and historian, born at Zerbst in 1791. He became pro- fessor of philosophy at Berlin about 1824, and removed to Gottingen in 1837. He published a number of works on philosophy, etc. His principal work is a " History of Philosophy," (" Geschichte der Philosophic," 12 vols., 1829-53,) which is highly esteemed. It has been well translated into English by A. J. W. Morrison, (4 vols. 8vo, 1838-46.) Ritter is called an Eclectic philosopher. See Hrockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." Rit'ter, ( Henry,) an artist, born at Montreal, in Canada, about 1 81 5, studied painting at Hamburg and Dusseldorf. Among his principal works may be named "Indians Flying from a Burning Prairie." Died in 1853. Ritter, (Johann Daniel,) a German scholar and writer on Roman antiquities, etc., was born near Bres- lau in 1709 ; died at Wittenberg in 1775. Ritter, (Johann Wilhelm,) a German natural phi- losopher, born at Samitz, in Silesia, in 1776. He wrote "Memoirs on Physics and Chemistry," (3 vols., 1806,) and an autobiography, (2 vols., 1810.) Died at Munich in 1810. Ritter, (Joseph Ignaz,) a German Catholic theo- logian, born near Griineberg in 1787. He became in 1823 professor of ecclesiastical history at Bonn. Died in 1857. Ritter, (Karl,) an eminent German geographer, born at Quedlinburg in 1779. Having travelled in Switzer- land, France, and Italy, he succeeded Schlosser as pro- fessor of history at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1819. His " Portico of a History of the European Nations before Herodotus" came out in 1820. In 1822 he published the first volume of the second and enlarged edition of his "Geography in Relation to the Nature and Histor) of Man," ("Die Erdekunde im Verhaltniss zur Natui und zur Geschichte des Menschen," 18 vols., 1822-59,) which is esteemed his greatest work. Among his other productions we may name "A Glance at Palestine and its Christian Population," " The Colonization of New Zealand," (1842,) and "The Jordan and the Navigation of the Dead Sea," (1850.) Ritter was a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and of the Royal So ciety of London. He has been called the founder of the science of comparative geography. Died in Berlin in 1859. See W. L. Gage, "Life of Karl Ritter," New York, 1867; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1837; " Nouveile Bio- graphie Generale." Rittershuys, rit'ters-hois', or Rittershausen, rit'- ters-how'zen, | Lat. Rittershu'sius,] (Conrad,) a Ger- man jurist and able critic, born at Brunswick in 1 560. He became professor of law at Altorf. He was a good classical scholar, and wrote commentaries on Phaedrns, Oppian, and other authors. Died in 1613. See "Vita C. Rittershusii," by his son Georg ; M. Ada.m, " Vitae Germanorum Jurisconsultorum." Rittershuys, (Nikolaus,) a son of the preceding, was born at Altorf in 1597. He wrote "Genealogy of Emperors, Kings," etc., ("Genealogia Imperatorum, Regum, etc., 1400-1664," 1674.) Died in 1670. Ritzio. See Rizzio. Rivail. See Rivault. Rivallius. See Rivault. Rivalz, re'vtK, (Antoine,) a French painter and engraver, born at Toulouse in 1667 ; died in 1735. His father, Jean Pierre, born in 1625, was a painter at Toulouse, where he died in 1706. Rivard, re'v-ta', (Denis,) a French surgeon and lithotomist, born at Neufchateau, practised at Luneville. Died in 1746. Rivard, (Dominique Francois,) a French mathe- matician, born at Neufchateau in 1697. was professor in the College of Beauvais for forty years, and published several valuable works on geometry and mathematics. Died in Paris in 1778. Rivarol, re'vt'rol', (Antoine,) a witty and satirical French writer, born at Bagnols, in Languedoc, in 1753, assumed the title of Count de Rivarol. He was cele- brated for his colloquial powers, and abounded in that ready wit which goes far to justify all pretensions and to excuse all excesses of audacity. He produced in 1784 an able "Essay on the Universality of the French Language," and a free translation of Dante's "Inferno," which had a great success. His talent for satire, irony, and persiflage was displayed in a series of lampoons against living authors, entitled "Little Almanac of Great Men," (" Petit Almanach des grands Hommes," 1788.) He also gained distinction as a journalist. He married an English lady named Flint. Having identi- fied himself with the royalist party, he emigrated in 1792. Died in Berlin in 1801. See CuBifeRES-PAi.MEZEAUX, "Vie de Rivarol," 1803: Imbert DE i.A Platiere, "Vie de Rivarol," 1808; Leonce-Curnier, "Rivarol, sa Vie et ses Ouvrages," 1858: Sainte-Bkuve, "Cause- ries du Lundi," tome v.; Lescu'RE, "Rivarol, sa Vie et ses Ou- vrages," 1862; " Notice sur Rivarol," by his wife, 1802; "Nouveile Biographie Generale." Rivarol, (Claude Franqois.) a brother of the pre- ceding, was born at Bagnols in 1762. He was a captain in the army, and a royalist emigrant in 1791. Having returned to Paris as a secret agent of the Bourbons, he was imprisoned twenty-two months, (1795-97.) He wrote dramas, verses, etc. Died in 1848. Rivarola, re-vl-ro'll, (Alfonso,) a promising Italian painter, born at Ferrara in 1607, was a pupil of Carlo Bononi. Among his works is "The Brazen Serpent." Died in 1640. Rivas, de, Duke. See Saavedra. Rivaud de la RafBniere, re'vo' deh It rt'fe'ne-aiR', (Olivier Macoux,) a French general, born in I'oitoii in 1766. He served with distinction at Marengo and Austerlitz. Died in 1839. € as ^; 9 as s; | Aard; g as j; G, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i^=*See Explanations, p. 23. ) RIFAULT 1902 RIZZIO Rivault, re'vo', [Lat, Rival'lius,] (Aymar,) written also Rivail, a French' jurist, born about 1490. He was counsellor to the parliament of Grenoble, and wrote a " History of the Civil or Roman Law," (" Historia Juris civilis," 1527.) Rivault, (David,) a French writer, born at Laval about 1 57 1. He was appointed preceptor to the young king Louis XHL in 1612. He published, besides other works, "Minerva Armed, or the Union of Literature and Arms," ("Minerva armata, sive de Conjungendis Literis et Arniis," 1610,) and *' Archimedis Opera," (1615.) Died in 1616. Rivaz, de, deh re'vi', (Pierre Joseph,) a Swiss mechanist and inventor, born at Saint Gingolph, on the Lake of Geneva, in 1711 ; died in 1772. Rive, r^v, (Joseph Jean,) a French bibliographer, born at Apt in 1730. He wrote numerous works, and was librarian to the Due de la Valliere. Died in 1791. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Rive, de la, (Auguste.) See La Rive, de. Rivera, re-va'rS, (Jos6 Fructuoso,) a South Amer- ican general, born about 1790, was a Gaucho. He was elected president of the republic of Uruguay in 1830 for four years. Died in 1854. Riverius. See Riviere. Riv'ers, (Anthony Woodville or Wydeville,) Earl of, an accomplished English peer, born in 1442, was a brother of the queen of Edward IV. After the death of that king he had charge of the young heir to the throne. He was beheaded by Richard HL, without a form of trial, in 1483. He left some original poems and translations from the classics, which are commended. (Cunningham's "History of England," vol. i.) Riv'frs, (William J.,) born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1822, became professor of Greek literature at South Carolina College in 1856. He has published several works, in prose and verse. Rives, reevz, (John C.,) an American editor, born in Kentucky about 1796. With F, P. Blair, he founded at Washington "The Congressional Globe" about 1830. He continued to publish that journal until his death, in 1864. Rives, (William C.,) an American Senator, born in Nelson county, Virginia, in May, 1793. He studied law, and was elected a member of Congress in 1823. He was sent as minister to France in 1829, returned in 1832, and was then elected to the Senate of the United States by the legislature of Virginia. Having resigned his seat in 1834, he was re-elected in 1835. I" ^^4° ^^'^ elected a Senator for a third term. He was minister to France again from 1849 to 1853. He published the " I^ife and Times of James Madison," (3 vols., 1859-68, unfinished.) He was a member of the Confederate Congress from February, 1862, until the end of the rebellion. Died in April, 1868. See the " Democratic Review" for January, 1838, (with a por- trait.) Rivet, re'vi', [Lat. Rivf/tus,] (Andr^:,) a French Protestant minister and biblical critic, born at Saint- Maxent in 1572 or 1 573. He became professor of theology at Leyden in 1620, and was governor of the young Prince of Orange, (William III. of England.) He wrote several works on theology. Died at Breda in 165 1. " Rivet," says Hallam, " was the highest name among the Calvinists," [i.e. in the department of sacred criticism.) See Dauber, " Oratio funebris in Excessiim A. Riveti," 1651 ; Haac;, " La France protestante." Rivet de Champvernon, re'vi' deh shftN'vdR'nAN', (GuiLLAUME,) a Protestant minister", born at Saint- Maxent in 1580, was a brother of the preceding. He wrote on theology. Died in 1651. Rivet de la Grange, re'vi' deh It gR6Nzh,( A ntoine,) a learned French Benedictine, born at Confolens in 1683. He was punished for opposition to the bull " Unigenitus" by confinement in a monastery at Mans. He projected a great work entitled " The Literary History of France," of which he composed 9 vols., (1733-50.) He died in 1749. His work was continued by Clemencet and others. See C. L. Taillandier, " filoge historique de Dom Rivet," in the ninth volume of the " Literary History of France." Rivetus. See Rivet, (Andr6.) Riviere. See Mercier and Lariviere. Riviere, re-ve-aiR', [Lat. Rive'rius,] (Lazare,) a French medical writer, born at Montpellier in 1589. His "Praxis Medica" ("Medical Practice," 1640) was often reprinted. Died in 1655. Riviere, de, deh re've^iR', (Charles FRANgois de Riffardeau — deh re'fSR'do',) Due, a French royalist officer, born at Ferte-sur-Cher in 1763. He was sen- tenced to death as an accomplice of Pichegru in 1804, but his life was saved by the empress Josephine. Died in 1828. Riviere, de la, deh It re've^j-iR', (Roch le P.aillif, rosh leh btKy^f,) Sieur, a French physician, born at Falaise ; died in Paris in 1605. Rivieren, van, vtn re-vee'ren, [Lat. Riv'ius,] (Jean,) a Belgian monk, born at Louvain in 1599. He wrote a "Life of Saint Augustine,'' (1646.) Died in 1665. Riv'ing-ton, (James,) an English printer and book- seller, born in London about 1724, emigrated to Amer- ica, and founded in New York a journal entitled the " New York Gazetteer, or the Connecticut, New Jersey, Hudson's River, and Quebec Weekly Advertiser." In consequence of his denunciations of the patriots, his press was destroyed in 1775 by a party of American soldiers. He subsequently resumed the publication of his journal, under the title of the " Royal Gazette." After the evacuation of New York by the British he changed the name of his paper to " Rivington's New York Ga- zette and Universal Advertiser." Died in 1802. See DuvcKiNCK, "Cyclopjedia of American Literature," vol. i. Rivinus, re-vee'nus, (Andreas,) a German philolo- gist and physician, born at Halle in 1600 or 1601. His proper name was Bachmann. He was professor of poetry and medicine at Leipsic. Died in 1656. See Kromayer, " Programma ad Funus A. Rivini," 1656. Rivinus, (August Quirinus,) an eminent botanist and anatomist, son of the preceding, was born at Leipsic in 1652. He became professor of physiology and botany in his native city in 1691. His chief work is "General Introduction to Botany," (" Introductio generalis in Rem Herbariam," 1690,) in which he proposed a classifica- tion of plants founded on the form of the corolla. Died in 1723. See G. F. Jenichen, "Programma in A. Q. Rivini Obitum,' 1724;" Biographie Universelle ;" Nic^ron, " Memoires ;" "Bio- graphie Medicale." Rivius. See Rivieren. Rivoli, Duke of. See Massena. Rizi, re-f/iee',} (Francisco,) Don, a Spanish painter, born in Madrid in 1608, was a pupil of Carduccio. He became first painter to Philip IV. about 1656. He had great fertility of invention and facility of execution, but contributed to the decline of art by his superficial habits. Died in 1685. Rizi, (Juan,) a Spanish painter, born at Madrid in 1595, was a brother of the preceding. Died in 1675. Rizo-Rhangab^, ree'zo rin'gi-be, (Alexander,) also written Rhizos-Rhangavis, an eminent Greek poet, orator, and statesman, was born about 18 10. He published in 1837 a collection of poems, among which is a drama called "The Eve," ('H Uapa/nov?},) and in 1842 "Hellenic Antiquities," ("Antiquites Helleniques,") in French. In 1845 he was appointed professor of archae- ology at Athens. He was minister of foreign affairs from April, 1856, to June, 1859. The second volume of "Hellenic Antiquities" appeared in 1855. He was appointed minister to the United States in 1867. Rizzio or Ritzio, rit'se-o, written also Riccio, (David,) an Italian musician, born in Piedmont about 1540. He went to Edinburgh about 1563, in the train of the ambassador from Savoj^ and gained the favour of Mary Queen of Scots, who employed him as her French secretary. " He became," says Froude, " the queen's inseparable companion in the council-room and the cabinet. She kept late hours, and he was often alone with her till midnight. He had the control of all the business of the state." The same historian, alluding to the injurious influence of Rizzio over Mary Stuart, says, " The counsels of David Ritzio were worth an army to English liberty." (" History of England," vol. viii. chap. S) e, 1, o, u, y, /ong; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sAort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fSt; mSt; ndt; good; moon; ROBBIA 1903 ROBERT ix.) He was dragged from the queen's presence and assassinated by Lord Darnley and others, in 1566. See Burton, "History of Scotland," vol. iv. chaps, xliii. and xliv. ; Robertson, " History of Scotland." Robbia, della, del'ia rob'be-i, (Andrea,) an Itah'an sculptor, born at Florence in 1444. He worked in marble and enamelled terra-cotta. Died in 1527. His son Giovanni, born in 1470, was a sculptor. Another son, Girolamo, went to France, and was employed by Francis I. He made a marble statue of Catherine de Medicis at Saint-Denis. See Barbet de Jouy, " Les Della Robbia, fitude." Robbia, della, (Luca,) a famous sculptor and worker in enamelled terra-cotta, born at Florence about 1390 or 1400, was a brother or an uncle of Andrea. He adorned with bassi-rilievi the Campanile of the Cathedral of Florence, and made a bronze door for the sacristy of the same. He invented the enamelled terra- cotta, and acquired a European reputation by the fabri- cation of figures of this material, which are called " della Robbia" ware. Died in 1463, or, as some say, 1482. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters and Sculptors ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Rob'bins, (Ashur,) an Ameqcan lawyer and states- man, born at Wethersfield, Connecticut, in 1757, settled in Rhode Island, and was elected to the United States Senate in 1825. He served in the Senate fourteen years. Died in 1845. Roberjot, ro'b^R^zho', (Claude,) a French diplo- matist, born at Macon in 1753, was a republican member of the Convention, (1793.) With Bonnier and Debry, he represented France at the Congress of Rastadt, in 1799. He was assassinated by Austrian soldiers just after he departed from Rastadt, in April of that year. Rob'ert of Bavaria, born in 1352, was elected Em- peror of Germany in 1400. He attempted to conquer the Milanese, but was defeated by Visconti in 1401. Died in 1410. Rob'ert [Fr. pron. ro'baiR'; Lat. Rober'tus ; It. Roherto, ro-b§R'to] I., King of France, was the second son of Robert the Strong, Duke of France. After the death of his brother Eudes, 898 A.D., the throne was obtained by Charles the Sinij^le. In 922 the malcontent barons revolted against Charles, and proclaimed Robert as his successor. In 923 the army of Robert gained a victory over that of his rival ; but Robert was killed in the action. Robert II., King of France, born at Orleans in 971, was a son of Hugh Capet, whom he succeeded in 996. He was reputed to be very devout, but was excommu- nicated by the pope for his marriage with a cousin in the fourth degree. In 1024 he refused the imperial crown, offered to him by the Italians. His reign was pacific. He died in 1031, and left the throne to his son Henry. See Raoul Glaber, " Chronique ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Robert of Anjou, King of Naples, born about 1275, was a son of Charles II. He began to reign in 1309, and waged war against the emperor Henry VII. He was the judge selected to decide whether Petrarch was qualified to receive the crown of poet-laureate. Died 1343- Robert I. of Scotland. See Bruce, (Robert.) Rob'ert II., King of Scotland, born in 1316, was the first king of the House of Stewart or Stuart. The family name was originally Allan, or Alan. (See Stuari' Family.) His mother, Marjory, was a daughter of Robert Bruce, and his father, Walter Allan, was the high steward of Scotland. He acted as regent from 1338 to 1341, and again while David II. was held as a prisoner by the English, (1346-57.) He succeeded David II. in 1371. Among the important events of his reign were a war against the English, and the battle of Otterburne, (1388.) Died in 1390. See Burton, " Histoiy of Scotland," vol. iii. chap. xxvi. Robert III., King of Scotland, born about 1340, was a son of Robert II. His bai:)tismal name was John ; but John Baliol (called "King John") had rendered this so unpopular that it was changed to Robert. He began to reign in 1390. Hostilities were renewed between the Scotch and English in 1399, and the former were de feated at Homildon Hill, in 1402. " Robert died in 1406^ leaving the throne to his son, James I. See Burton, "History of Scotland," chap. xxvi. Robert [Fr. pron. ro-baik'] I., Duke of Normandy, surnamed le Diable, leh de'tbK, ("the Devil,") was a son of Richard II. He succeeded his brother, Richard III., in 1027. In 1035 he made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, on his return from which he died at Nicaea in July, 1035. He was succeeded by his son, William the Conqueror of England. See Depping, "Histoire de Normandie;" A. Deville, "Notice historique sur Robert le Diable," 1836. Robert II., Duke of Normandy, surnamed Curt- Hose or Short-Shanks, born about 960, was the eldest son of William I. surnamed the Conqueror. He was brave, but imprudent and unstable. He obtained the dukedom of Normandy in 1087. In 1096 he went to Palestine as a leader of the first crusade. He distin- guished himself at the siege of Antioch and at the battle of Dorylaeum, (1097,) and returned home in iioo. In his absence his younger brother, Henry, obtained pos- session of the throne of England, left vacant by the death of William Rufus. In the war that ensued between Robert and Henry, the former was defeated and taken prisoner in 1106. He was confined at Cardiff until his death, in 1134. See Depping, "Histoire de Normandie;" Ordericus Vitalis, " History of Normandy." Robert I., Count of Artois, born in 1216, was a son of Louis VIII. of France. He accompanied his brother, Saint Louis, in a crusade against the Saracens, and was killed at Mansourah in 1250. His son Robert, born in 1250, gained a victory over the English near Dax in 1296, and over the Flemings at Furnes in 1297. He was killed in battle in 1302. Robert III., Count of Artois, a grandson of the pre- ceding, was born in 1287. He was banished by Philip VI. of France in 1332, and entered the service of Edward III. of England. Died in 1343. Robert, ro'baiR', (C6sar Alphonse,) a French sur- geon and medical writer, born at Marseilles in 1801. He became a resident of Paris. Robert, (Claude,) a French ecclesiastical historian, born near Bar-sur-Seine in 1564 or 1565. His chief work is "Christian Gaul," ("Gallia Christiana," 1626,) which was continued by the Benedictines and extended to thirteen volumes, (1785.) Died in 1637. See E. SocARD, " Notice historique sur Claude Robert." Robert, ro'b^Rt, (Ernst Friedrich Ludwtg,) a German litterateur, of Jewish extraction, born at Berlin in 1778, was a brother of Rahel Varnhagen von Ense. He was the author of poems, tales, and dramas. Died in 1832. Robert, (Francois,) a French geographer, born near Chalons-sur-Saone in 1737. He published, besides other works, a "Geographical Dictionary," (1818.) Died in 1819. Robert, (Hubert,) an excellent French painter of architecture, etc., was born in Paris in 1733. He studied in Rome, and passed twelve years in Italy, (1753-65,) He painted views of the monuments and ruins of Rome. After his return to Paris he was appointed keeper of the royal cabinet and dessinateur of the royal gardens. Died in Paris in 1808. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Robert, (Louts L^:opold,) an eminent painter, born at Chaux-le-Fonds, in the canton of Neufchatel, in 1794. He was a pupil of Girardet and of David. In 1818 he went to Italy, in which he passed the remainder of his life. He represented Italian life and scenery with fidelity in numerous works, among which are "The Neapolitan Improvisator," (1824,) "The Vintage in Tuscany," " The Reaj^ers of the Pontine Marshes," and "The Departure of the Fishermen of the Adriatic," (1835.) He committed suicide at Venice in 1835. This act is ascribed to a passion for Charlotte, a daughter of Joseph Bonaparte. See E. Dei.ecluzh, "Notice sur la Vie de L. Robert," 1838; Feuillet de Conches, " L. Robert, sa Vie et ses CEuvres," 1848 ; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." € as 9 as s; g hard; g as J; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal ; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ROBERT 1904 ROBERTSON Robert, (Louis Valentin Elias,) a French sculp- tor, born at fitampes about 1818. Robert, (Nicolas,) a French miniature- and flower- painter, born at Langres about 1610. He commenced a work called "Recueil de Velins." Died in Paris in 1684. Robert, (Paul Ponce Antoine,) a French painter and engraver, born near Rheims in 1686; died in 1733. Robert, (Pierre FRANgois Joseph,) a French regi- cide, born at Ginniee in 1763, was a friend of Danton. He married Mademoiselle de Keralio, the authoress. t)ied in 1826. Robert de Courtenay, ro'baiR' deh kooRt'ni', a French prince, a son of Pierre de Courtenay, became Latin Emperor of Constantinople in 1220. Died in 1228. Robert de Vaugondy, roHjaik' deh v5'g6N'de', (Didier,) a French geographer, born in Paris in 1723. He published an "Atlas of France and Europe," (1785,) and other works. Died in 1786. Robert de Vaugondy, (Gilles,) a French geogra- pher, born in Paris in 1688, was the father of the pre- ceding, and a grandson of Nicolas Sanson. He produced a "Universal Atlas," (1758.) Died in 1766. Robert of Avesbury, an English chronicler, author of an unfinished *' History of the Reign of Edward HL," which comes down to 1356. Died about 1360. Robert of Bavaria. See Ruperi', Prince. Robert of Geneva, (Anti-Pope,) born in 1342, was elected pope in 1378, in opposition to Urban VI. He took the name of Clement VH., reigned at Avignon, and was recognized by the French and Spaniards. Died in 1394. Robert of Gloucester, an English chronicler of the thirteenth century. He wrote, in verse, a chronicle or history of England from fabulous times down to the death of Henry HL De Quincey speaks of this chronicle as "the very earliest of all English books." See the interesting account of De Quincey's interview with George III., in his "Autobiographic Sketches." Robert the Strong, [Fr. Robert le Fort, ro'baiR' leh foR,] Count of Anjou and Duke of France, was noted as a military chief. He was killed in a fight with some Normans, led by the famous sea-king Hastings, in 866 A.D. He was great-grandfather of Hugh Capet. Robert Grosstete. See Grosseteste. Robert-Fleury, ro'baiR' fluh're', (Joseph Nicolas,) a popular French historical painter, was born at Co- logne in 1797. He was elected a member of the Institute in 1850. Among his works are " Benvenuto Cellini" and "Charles V. at the Monastery of Saint Just." About 1855 he became professor in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. Roberti, ro-b§R'tee, (Albert,) a Belgian painter, born at Brussels in 1811. Roberti, ro-b§R'tee, (Giovanni Battista,) a me- diocre Italian poet and essayist, born at Bassano in 1 719. He was professor of philosophy at Bologna. Died in 1786. Roberti, (Jean,) a learned Belgian Jesuit, born at Saint-Hubert in 1569; died in 1651. Roberto, the Italian for Robert, which see. Rob'erts, (Benjamin S.,) an American general, born at Manchester, Vermont, about 1811, graduated at West Point in 1835. He was serving with the rank of major in New Mexico when the civil war began. In July, 1862, he was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers in the Union army. Rob'erts, (David,) an eminent British painter of landscapes and architecture, was born at Stockbridge, Edinburgh, in 1796. Between 1838 and 1840 he travelled in Egypt and Syria, in which he sketched many scenes which he afterwards reproduced on canvas. He was elected a Royal Academician in 1841. Among his works are "Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives," (1841,) "Pyramids of Ghizeh," (1844,) "Ruins of the Great Temple of Karnak," "The Destruction of Jerusalem," (1849,) " Rome," (1855.) The splendid work entitled " The Holy Land, Syria, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia" (4 vols., 1842) is illustrated by lithographs of his sketches. Died in 1864. See William Jerdan, "Men I have known," London, 1866; "Biographical Sketches," by Harriet Maktineau. Roberts, (Emma,) an English authoress, wrote "Memoirs of the Rival Houses of York and Lancas- ter," and "Oriental Scenes, Sketches, and Tales." Died at Poonah, in India, in 1840. Roberts, (Francis,) an English Puritan minister and writer, born in Yorkshire in 1609, became rector of Wrington in 1649. He wrote "Key to the Scriptures," ("Clavis Bibliorum," 1649,) "The True Way to the Tree of Life," (1673,) ^"^ other works. Died in 1675. Roberts, (William,) an English writer, born in 1768. Among his works is a " Life of Hannah More." Died in 1849. Robertson, ro'baiR's6N', (Etienne Gaspard Ro- bert,) a Belgian aeronaut and natural philosopher, born at Liege in 1763. It is stated that he made fifty-nine ascensions in balloons. Died in 1837. Rob'eit-son, (Frederick William,) an eloquent minister and original thinker of the Anglican Church, was born in London on the 3d of February, 1816. He was the eldest son of Captain Frederick Robertson, of the royal artillery. After preparatory studies at Edin- burgh, he entered Brasenose College, Oxford, in 1836. Among his fellow-students at Oxford was John Ruskin, in whom he found a congenial spirit. He would have preferred the profession of a soldier ; but, in compliance with the wishes of his father, he devoted himself to the church. After he left college he improved his health by a pedestrian tour among the Alps, and on that occasion became acquainted with Miss Helen Denys, whom he married in 1842. He served as curate at Cheltenham about four years, and became incumbent of Trinity Chapel, Brighton, in August, 1847. Though he rather shunned than courted popularity, his eloquence and originality soon excited general admiration. The libe- rality and independence of his principles, however, subjected him to persecution from some members of his own communion. He belonged to what is called the Broad Church. Three series of his sermons have been published, and have passed through about eight editions. He delivered several "Lectures and Addresses on Lit- erary and Social Topics," which have been printed. He died August 15, 1853, and was buried at Brighton. See Stopford A. Brooke, "Life and Letters of F. W. Robert- son," 2 vols., 1865 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for January, 1866. Robertson, (George,) an English landscape-painter, born in London about 1742; died in 1788. Rob'ert-son, (James,) called Rabbi Robertson, was born at Cromarty, in Scotland. He became professor of Oriental languages at Edinburgh in 1751. Died in 1795. Robertson, (James,) D.D., a Scottish divine, born in 1803. He became professor of ecclesiastical history at Edinburgh. Died in i860. Robertson, (Rev. Joseph,) an English writer, born in 1726. He wrote an "Essay on Punctuation," and translated " Telemachus," (1795.) Died in 1802. Robertson, (Patrick,) a Scottish judge, versifier, and lawyer, noted for his wit and humour, was born in 1794. He was elected Dean of the Faculty of Advocates in 1842. Died in 1855. Robertson, (Thomas,) an English grammarian, born at or near Wakefield. He became a Fellow of Magda- lene College, Oxford, in 1532, and Dean of Durham about 1557. Died about 1560. Rob'ert-son, (William,) an Irish divine, born in Dublin in 1705, is reputed to have been an Arian or Unitarian. He wrote "An Attempt to Explain the Words Reason, Substance, Person, Creed, Orthodoxy," etc. Died in 1783. Robertson, (William,) often called Principal Rob- ertson, a celebrated Scottish historian, was born at Borthwick,in Edinburghshire, (Mid-Lothian,) September 19, 1 72 1. His father, the Rev. William Robertson, was minister at Borthwick when his son was born. He afterwards removed to Edinburgh. Young Robertson manifested an ardent devotion to literature from a very early age. He began to preach before he was twenty years old. He was presented to the living of Gladsmuir, in East Lothian, in 1743, and acquired a high reputation as an eloquent pulpit orator. He took a prominent part in the debates of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, and obtained great influence in ecclesiastical a, e, 1, o, u, y, loug: i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, skort; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fSll, fit; mStj nftt; good; moon; ROBERT Ah 1905 ROBESPIERRE affairs. He was the leader of what was called the mode- rate party, and was more inclined to liberality and tole- rance than many other members of his church. He has, however, been charged, perhaps not without reason, with preferring the interests of literature to those of religion. In 1759 he published a " History of Scotland during the Reigns of Mary and of James VI. till his Accession to the Crown of England," which was received with great and general favour. It was extolled by Hume, Burke, and other eminent critics. He removed to Edinburgh about 1759, became one of the king's chaplains in 1761, and principal of the University of Ediniiurgh in 1762. His reputation was increased by his " History of the Emperor Charles V., with a Sketch of the Political and Social State of Europe," etc., (3 vols., 1769,) which is considered his capital work. He afterwards published a " History of America," (2 vols., 1777.) He is gene- rally accurate and impartial in the narration of events and judicious in the estimation of character. His style is elegant, clear, and vigorous, with occasional passages of great beauty. As a writer he is remarkable for a sustained unimpassioned dignity of manner, which, how- ever, too often approaches monotony. In politics he was a Whig, with a strong leaning towards republicanism. He died in June, 1793. See DuGAi.D Stewart, "Account of the Life and Wrhings of W. Robertson," 1801 ; Suard, "Notice sur la Vie et les ficrits de Dr. Robertson;" "Memoirs of Adam Smith, W. Robertson, and Thomas Reid," iSii ; Bishop Gi.eig, " Metioir of W. Robertson," prefixed to his works ; Brougham, " Men of Letters in the Time of George IIL;" Chambers, " Biograpliical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors;" "'Monthly Re- view" for July and August, 1769. Roberval, de, deh ro'b§R^'tI^ (Giles Personne — p^R'son', or Fersoiiier, p^R'so'ne-^',) a French mathe- matician, was born at Roberval, near Senlis, in 1602. He removed to Paris in 1627, and formed an intimacy with Mersenne. About 1632 he obtained the chair of mathematics founded by Ramus at the College de France. He discovered about 1636 a method to deter- mine the area of a cycloid, and a method to determine the direction of a tangent at any point of a curve line. Among his works are a "Treatise on Indivisibles," ("Traite des Indivisibles,") and "On the World's Mo- tions and Parts, according to the System of Aristarchus the Samian," ("Aristarchi Samii de Mundi Systemate Partibus et Motibus," 1644.) It is related that, having been asked how he liked a dramatical performance which he had just witnessed, he answered, "Qu'est-ce que cela prouve ?" (" What does that prove .'"') Died in Paris in 1675. Robespierre, ro'b§s'pe-aiR', (Augustin Bon Jo- seph,) called THE Young, a brother of the dictator, was born at Arras in 1764. He was elected to the National Convention in 1792. When the Convention ordered the arrest of his brother, he exclaimed, "In- clude me with him ; I partake his crimes !" He was executed July 28, 1794. Robespierre, rob'es-peer, [Fr. pron. ro'bls'pe-aiR',] (Maxim I LIEN Marie Isidore,) a French dem^ogue and Jacobin, was born at Arras on the 6th of ^iay, 1758. He was sent to the College of Arras, from which he passed in 1770 to the College Louis-le-Grand, in Paris. His habits at college were studious and regular. He studied law, acquired some distinction as an advo- cate at Arras, and was sent to the States-General in Maj , 1789, as one of the sixteen representatives of the pro\ince of Artois. He was a person of small stature, and had nothing attractive or imposing in his aspect. His voice was weak, his complexion " sea-green," his disposition reserved and timid, and his moral habits tem- perate and regular. According to M. Etienne Dumont, he had a sinister aspect, and a continual blinking (clignotement) of the eyes. In political opinions he was a radical democrat. He spoke often in the Constituent Assembly and in the Jacobin Club, over which he soon acquired a predominant influence. While men of greater talents wasted their energies in vain efforts to refoim the old regime by half-way measures and tem- porizing expedients, he seems to have perceived the necessity of a radical revolution. " He will go far," says Mirabeau ; "for he believes all he says." In the Constituent Assembly he maintained a position somewhat independent of party. He defended with zeal the interests of the inferior clergy, advocated the abo- lition of the death-penalty, (May, 1791,) and made a vehement speech against the re-election of the members of the Constituent Assembly to the Legislative Assem- bly, on which question he differed from the other chiefs of thegatiche. On critical occasions he usually presented himself to the people as a resigned and devoted victiui whom nefarious persons designed to immolate because he loved the people too well. Thus, after he had de- nounced the king, the ministry, etc., June 21, 1 791, he said, " I know that I sharpen against myself a thousand daggers ; but if in the first stage of the Revolution, when I was scarcely known in the National Assembly, I offered my life as a sacrifice to truth, now that the approbation of my fellow-citizens has rewarded me for this sacrifice, I should receive almost as a benefit a death which shall prevent me from witnessing the public calamities which I foresee to be inevitable." In December, 1791, he opposed in a speech the declaration of war against the Emperor of Germany which was proposed by the Girondists. Although not a great orator, he was always plausible, and more logical than the most of his competitors. He never took an active or open part in the violent acts and outrages of the populace, such as the attack on the Tuileries, August, 1792. In September, 1792, he was elected to the Convention as a deputy from Paris. A few days after the session began, several Girondist deputies accused him of aspiring to a dictatorship, and cast on him the responsibility of the recent massacre in the prisons of Paris. These charges were repeated by Louvet in a long speech, (October 29,) to which Robespierre read an artful and successful defence. The result of this affair was that Robespierre becaine the accepted chief of the Mountain and the implacable enemy of the Girondists. The first victim of his unscrupulous policy was the king, whom the Girondists wished to save. He said, (December 2, 1792,) "I pronounce with regret this fatal truth ; but Louis must die that the country may live," ("Louis doit mourir parcequ'il faut que la patrie vive.") Aided by the commune of Paris and the mob, he triumphed over the Girondists about June I, 1793. Then began the Reign of Terror, during which, as presi- dent of the committee of public safety, (or salvation,) Robespierre exercised almost unlimited power. Two of his partisans, Couthon and Saint-Just, were associated with him in the triumvirate of Robespierre. It is just to admit that they defended France with great vigour and ability against the allied armies of nearly all Europe and the Vendean royalist insurgents. In March, 1794, Hebert and the Hebertists were guillotined as exageres or ultra-revolutionary. It is stated that when the committee of public safety determined to destroy Danton and his friends, Robespierre at first opposed the measure ; but he supported, by a speech in the Convention, Saint-Just's motion for their arrest, and Danton, with Desmoulins and others, was executed in April, 1794. But the death of a powerful rival did not render his own position secure. His statesmanship was not adequate to solve the enigma of the Revolution. He presided as a high-priest and pronounced an oration at a public ceremony called the Festival of the Supreme Being, in June, 1794. In the mean time, multitudes of innocent persons, of both sexes, perished daily by the guillotine. This excessive cruelty provoked against him a combination of various parties, afterwards called " Thermidoriens," including Tallien, Barras, Billaud- Varennes, Fouche, and Carnot. The Convention ordered the arrest of Robespierre on the 9th Thermidor. His partisans rallied in the night and released him from arrest. He was then declared an outlaw by the Conven- tion, and was guillotined, with twenty of his partisans, on the lOth Thermidor, (28th of July,) 1794. He was sur- named " the Incorruptible," because he was proof against pecuniary temptations. " Robespierre," says Macaulay, in his article on Barere, "was a vain, envious, and sus- picious man, with a hard heart, weak nerves, and a gloomy temper. But we cannot with truth deny that he was, in the vulgar sense of the word, disinterested, tha* € as ^; 5 as s; | hard; g as G, H, y.^ guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (S^^'See Explanations, p. 23.) I 20 ROB I L ANT 1906 ROBINSON his private life was correct, or that he was sincerely zealous for his own system of politics and morals." See LoDiEU, " Biographie de Robespierre ;" Vii.ate, "Causes secretes de la Revolution du 9 Thermidor," 1796 ; Pkoyart, " Vie de Robespierre," 1794; George H. Lewes, "History of Maximilian Robespierre," 1849; Lamartine, " Histoire des Girondins :" Er- nest Hamel, " Histoire de Robespierre," 3 vols., 1867 ; Carlyle, " History of the French Revolution ;" P. F. Tissot, " Histoire de Robespierre," 2 vols., 1844: Opitz, " Robespierre's Triumph and Stiirz," 1850; MiGNET, "Histoire de la Revolution Frangaise ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" " London Quarterly Review" for September, 1835. Robilant, de, deh ro^be'lfiw', ? (Esprit BENof r Nico- las,) an engineer and writer on metallurgy, etc., born at Turin in 1724. He was a son of Count Joseph Robilant, author of an able work on Strategy, (1744.) Died in 1801. Robin, ro''biN', (Charles PhIlippe,) a French anato- mist and microscopist, born at Jafferon (Ain) in 1821. He became professor of anatomy at Paris (professeur agregehla Faculte) in 1847. He applied the microscope to the study of anatomy and the intimate structure of tissues. He published a number of professional works, among which is "Traite de Chimie anatomique et phy- siologique, normale et pathologique," (1852.) Robin, (Jean,) a French botanist, born in Paris in 1550. He was patronized by Henry IV., and planted a garden which was the finest in Paris, lie published a work on the plants which grow near Paris, " Catalogus Stirpium tain indigenarum quam exoticarum," etc., (1601.) The genus Robinia was named in his honour. Died in 1629. See Haller, " Bibliotheca Botanica." Robin, (Vespasien,) a botanist, born in Paris in 1579, was a son of the preceding. He succeeded his father in the title of arboriste du roi, and lectured on botany at the Jardin Royal. Died in 1662. Robin Hood. See Hood, (Robin.) Robineau. See Beaunoir. Robinet, ro'be'ni', (Edmond,) a French litterateur, born at Saint-Pol-de-Leon in i8u. He wrote several historical works. Robinet, (Jean Baptiste Ren6,) a French writer on various subjects, born at Rennes in 1735 ; died in 1820. Robinet, (St^phane,) a French chemist, born in Paris in 1796. Rob'ins, (Benjamin,) an eminent English mathema- tician, born at Bath in 1707, is called the founder of the science of gunnery. He was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society at the age of twenty. His chief work is "New Principles of Gunnery," (1742.) He was ap- pointed chief engineer of the East India Company in 1749, and died at Madras in 1751. See Dr. Wilson, "Life of Benjamin Robins;" " Biographia Britannica," (Supplement.) Robins or Robyns, (John,) an English astronomer, born in Staffordshire about 1500. He was canon of "Windsor, and chaplain to Henry VIII. He left in manu- script several treatises on the Fixed Stars. Died in 1558. Rob'in-son, (Anastasta,) an English singer, who was married to the Earl of Peterborough before 1735. Died in 1750. Rob'in-spn, (Edm^ard,) an eminent American bibli- cal scholar, born at Southington, Connecticut, in 1794. He graduated at Hamilton College, New York, in 1816, and went to Europe in 1826, after which he studied Oriental languages at Paris and Halle. About 1828 he married a daughter of Professor Jacobi or von Jakob, of Halle. He began to edit the " Biblical Repository" in 1831, was appointed professor of biblical literature in the Union Theological Seminary, in the city of New York, in 1837, and travelled in Palestine in 1838. In 1841 he published his principal work, "Biblical Re- searches in Palestine, Mount Sinai, and Arabia Petraea," (3 vols.,) which is considered the best that had then been published on that subject. " The work was recog- nized," says R. W. Griswold, "as one of the most learned and judicious jiroduced in the world in this century." He received for this work the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. Among his other works is "The Harmony of the Four Gospels," in Greek, (1845,) and " Bibliotheca Sacra." Died in New York in January, 1863. "The names of Edward Robin- son and Moses Stuart," says R. W. Griswold, " stand at the head of the catalogue of learned men who have cultivated biblical literature in America." (" Prose Writers of America," p. 382.) See tiie "London Quarterly Review" for December, 1841; "North American Review" for April, 1851. Robinson, (Frederick John.) See Ripon, Earl OF. Robinson, (Henry Crabb,) an English lawyer and writer, born at Bury Saint Edmund's, was an intimate friend of Coleridge, Wordsworth, and other eminent per- sons of his time. He died in London in 1867, at the age of ninety-one, leaving a very interesting "Diary, Remi- niscences, and Correspondence," (3 vols., London, 1869.) See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1869 ; " British Quar- terly Review" for October, 1869; " Fraser's Magazine" for October, 1869; "Macmillan's Magazine" for August, 1869, (by Professor Maurice.) Robinson, (John,) an English dissenting minister, born in 1575, was educated at Cambridge. To escape from persecution, he emigrated to Holland with the con- gregation of which he was pastor, in 1608. He and they settled at Leyden, where they remained eleven years. A ])ortion of his society emigrated to Plymouth, Massa- chusetts, in 1620, in the Mayflower. He intended to follow them, but was prevented by death. He was an Independent, and a man of superior talents. He wrote several religious works. Died at Leyden in 1625. Robinson, (John,) an English prelate, born in York- shire in 1650. He became Bishop of Bristol in 1710, and was one of the plenipotentiaries who formed the treaty of Utrecht, (1713.) He was transferred to the see of London in 1714. Died in 1723. Robinson, (John C.,) an American general, born at Binghamton, New York, in 1817. He was appointed a brigadier-general about April, 1862, and served at the battle of Gaines's Mill, June 27, and at Malvern Hill, July I, 1862. He commanded a division at the battle of Gettysburg, July, 1863, and at that of the Wilderness, May, 1864. In the advance from the Wilderness to Spottsylvania Court-House he was severely wounded, May 7. Robinson, (John H.,) an able English line-engraver, born at Bolton, Lancashire, in 1796. He engraved a portrait of Sir Walter Scott, after Lawrence, Leslie's "Mother and Child," Murillo's " Flower-Girl, " etc. Robinson, (Mary or Maria,) an English poetess and actress, born at Bristol in 1758. Her maiden name was Darby. She was a mistress of the Prince of Wales, (afterwards George IV.) Died in 1800. See " Autobiography of Mrs. Robinson," London, 1827 ; "Monthly Review" for September and December, 1801. Robinson, (Richard,) Archbishop of Armagh, and Baron Rokeby, was born in Yorkshire in 1709. He founded a public library and a school at Armagh. Died in 1794. Robinson, (Robert,) an English Baptist minister, born at Swafifliam, in Norfolk, in 1735. He preached at Cambridge from 1759 to 1773, and then removed to Chesterton. He was an eloquent preacher. In the latter part of his life he adopted Socinian doctrines. He wrote, besides other religious works, a "History of Baptism," (1790.) Died in 1790. See Georgr Dyer, " Life of R. Robinson," 1796. Robinson, ( Tancred, ) an English physician and writer, received the title of physician-in-ordinary to George I. Died in 1748. Robinson, (Therese- Albertine Louise,) wife of Dr. E. Robinson, noticed above, was born at Halle, Germany, in 1797. She published a collection of tales under the signature of Talvf, and translated a number of poems from the Servian language, entitled "Volks- lieder der Serben." She has also translated into Ger- man Pickering's treatise " On the Indian Tongues of North America." Among her other works may be named a " Historical View of the Languages and Lite- rature of the Slavic Nations, with a Sketch of their Popular Poetry." Died in 1870. Robinson, (Rev. Thomas,) an English naturalist, wrote an " Essay toward the Natural History of West- moreland and Cumberland." Died in 1719. a, e, 1, 6, u, y, ^«^; i, ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, j/if^r/"; z.,^,\,q, obscure; ftr.fJII. fit; mSt; nfit; good; moon; ROBINSON 1907 ROCHEFOUCAULD Robinson, (Thomas,) an English divine, born at Wakefield in 1749. He preached at Leicester for many years, and published "The Christian System Unfolded." Died in 1813. See Edward T. Vaughan, "Life of T. Robinson." Robiquet, ro'be'ki', (Pierre Jean,) a French chemist born at Rennes in 1780. He was professor of chemistry and materia medica in Paris, and succeeded Chaptal in the Academy of Sciences in 1833. Died in Paris in 1840. See "Biographic Universelle." Robl-son, (John,) a Scottish mathematician and natural philosopher, born at Boghall, county of Stirling, or at Rosehall, near Glasgow, in 1739. He succeeded Dr. Black as professor of chemistry at Glasgow in 1767, and was appointed professor of natural philosophy at the University of Edinburgh in 1774. His principal work is " Elements of Mechanical Philosophy," (4 vols., 1822.) Died in Edinburgh in 1805. See David Brewster, " Notice of J. Robison," prefixed to the work above named; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Emi- nent Scotsmen." Roboam. See Rehoboam. Robortello, ro-boR-teKlo, (Francesco,) an Italian philologist and antiquary, born at Udine in 1516. He was professor of rhetoric at Venice, and taught Greek and Latin at Padua. Among his works are " Annotations of Various Passages," ("Variorum Locorum Annota- tiones," 1543,) and " De Facultate historica," (1548.) Died in 1567. See Gtrii-iNi, "Teatro d'Uomini letterati ;" Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Rob Roy, a Scottish adventurer, whose original name was Macgregor, born about 1660, was a ]5artisan of the Pretender in the rebellion of 1715. The Duke of Montrose having seized his lands, Koh Roy carried on a war of reprisals for many years, and became widely celebrated for his exploits. He is the hero of one of Sir Walter Scott's most popular novels. Died in 1743. See K. Macleav, "Historical Memoirs of Rob Roy," iSiS ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for October, November, and December, 1817. Rob'son, (Frederick,) an English comic actor, born at Margate in 1821. He performed in London and Dublin with success. Died in 1864. Robson, (George Fennel,) an English landscape- painter, born at Durham, worked in London. Died in 1833- Robusti. See Tintoretto. Robusti, ro-boos'tee, (Domenico,) a painter, some- times called Tintoretto, born at Venice in 1562, was a son and pupil of the great painter Tintoretto. He painted history and portraits with success. Among his works are an "Annunciation" and a " Nativity of Christ." Died in 1637. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." Robusti, (Marietta,) an excellent Italian portrait- painter, born in 1560, was a daughter of Tintoretto. She died in 1590. Ro'by, (John,) an English writer of prose and verse, born in Lancashire, became a banker of Rochdale. He wrote "Sir Bartram," a poem, (181 5,) and "Traditions of Lancashire," (2 vols., 1829.) He perished in the wreck of the Orion, in June, 1850. Rocaberti, de, dk ro-ki-b^k'tee, (Juan Tommaso,) a Spanish prelate, born at Perelada about 1625. He advocated the infallibility of the pope in his work "On the Authority of the Roman Pontiff," (" De Romani Pontificis Auctoritate," 1693.) Died in 1699. Rocca, ruk'ki, (Angelo,) an Italian scholar, born at Rocca Contrata in 1545. He founded at Rome a public library called Bibliotheca Angelica. Died in 1620. Roch, rok, Saint, born at Montpellier, in France, in 1295, was renowned for his charity and his humane attentions to the sick. Died in 1327. See De Saint-Alban, " Vie de Saint-Roch," 1849; CoFFiNifeRES, "Saint-Roch, fitude historique," 1855 ; Mrs. Jameson, "History of Sacred and Legendary Art." Rochambeau, de, deh ro'shSN'bo', (Donatien (do'- nt'seJ^N') Marie Joseph de Vimeur — deh ve'muR',) VicoMTE, a French general, born near Vendome in 1750. He went to Saint Domingo with Leclerc, at whose death, in 1802, he became commander-in-chief. He was killed at Leipsic in 1813. Rochambeau, de, (Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur,) a French marshal, born at Vendome in 1725, was the father of the preceding. He served with dis- tinction in Minorca, at Crevelt, and at Minden, (1759.) He commanded an army of six thousand men sent to the United States in 1780, and contributed to the victory at Yorktown in October, 1781. In 1791 he obtained the baton of marshal. He commanded an army against the Austrians in 1792, but resigned in the same year. Died in 1807. See "Memoires de Rochambeau," by himself, 1809; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate;" " Biographie Universelle " Roche, rosh, (Achille,) a French political and his- torical writer, born in Paris in 1801, was a republican. He wrote " Albert Renaud," (4 vols., 1825,) and a " His- tory of the French Revolution," (1825.) Died in 1834. Roche, (Charles Louis,) a French medical writer, born at Nevers in 1790. Among his works is " Elements of Medico-Surgical Pathology," (5 vols., 1825-28.) Roche, rotch, ? (Maria Regina,) an English novelist, born in 1764. She wrote "The Children of the Abbey," and other tales. Died in 1845. Roche-Aymon, de, deh rosh &'m6N', (Antotne Chart.es Etiennp:,) Marquis, a French general and writer on the art of war, born in Paris about 1775. He was aide-de-camp of Prince Henry of Prussia, (1794- 1802.) Died in 1862. Rochechouart. See Montespan, de, and Morte- MART, de. Rochefort, rosh'foR', (Guillaume,) Chancellor of France, was noted for wisdom. Died in 1492. Rochefort, (Henri,) Vicomte de Lugay, (deh lii'si',) a French republican agitator, born about 1835. He be- came editor of the " Lanterne," in which he so violently assailed the imperial policy that he was banished. Having returned to Paris, he began to issue a journal called "The Marseillaise," and was elected a member of the legislative body in 1869. He published offensive remarks and lampoons on Napoleon III., for which he was in 1870 sentenced to an imprisonment of six months. He became a member of the provisional government, Sep- tember 4, 1870, but resigned about the ist of November. Rochefort, de, deh rosh'foR', (Guillaume Dubois,) a French writer and translator, born at Lyons in 1 73 1. He wrote against the Materialists, and translated Ho- mer's " Iliad" (1770) and "Odyssey," (1777,) also the works of So])hocles, (1788.) Died in 1788. Rochefort, de, (Henri Louis d'Aloigny,) Mar- quis, a French general, who became marshal of France in 1675. Died in 1676. Rochefoucauld, de la, deh It roshToo'ko', (Fran- cois,) Prince de Marsillac, (maR^se-ytk',) a French Huguenot leader, was a brother-in-law of the Prince of Conde. He fought at Chartres and Jarnac, (1569.) He perished in the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, in Paris, August 24. 1572. Rochefoucauld, de la, (Francois,) Due, Prince de Marsillac, a celebrated French moralist and courtier, born in December, 1613. He married Mademoiselle de Vivonne about 1637. In his youth he was engaged at court as the confidential agent of the queen in intrigues asjainst Richelieu. He formed in 1646 a liaison with Madame de Longueville, and in the war of the Fronde was one of the chiefs of the party which opposed the court. He was severely wounded at the battle near Paris in 1652, after which he renounced intrigues and fac- tious enterprises. He produced in 1665 his "Maxims," (" Reflexions, ou Sentences et Maximes morales,") which, according to Voltaire, is one of the works which con- tributed most to form and rectify the national taste. The essential principle of this book is that self-love or interest is the chief motive of huinan actions. In his latter years he enjoyed the friendshi]) of Madame de La Fayette and Madame de Sevigne. Died in 1680. See his autobiographic "Memoires," 1662; Suard, "Notice siir La Rochefoucauld," 1782 ; Madame dr Si^vign^," Lettres ;" Saixte- Heuve, " Situdes sur La Rochefoucauld," 1853; G. B. Depping, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de La Rochefoucauld." 1822; "Lives of the Most Eminent French Writers," by Mrs. Shelley. € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, k, gicttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; *h as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ROCHEFOUCJULD 1908 RODGERS Rochefoucauld, de la, (Fr6d6kic Charles,) Earl of Lifford, a French general, born in 1633, was a zealous Protestant. Died at Bath, England, in 1690. Rochefoucauld, de la, (Louis Alexandre,) Due de la Roche»Guyon, (deh It rosh ge'iN',) a French patriot, born in 1743. He favoured the popular cause in the Revolution, and was an active member of the States- General in 1789. He was massacred at Gisors in 1792. Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, de la, deh It rosh'- foo'ko' le'SN'kooR', (FRANgois Alexandre Frederic,) D'.":" a libera] French peer and philanthropist, born in 1747 was a cousin of the preceding. He was a member of the Constituent Assembly in 1789-90, and went into exile in 1792, after which he travelled in the United States. He returned to Paris in 1799. He founded the school of Arts et Metiers, (at Chalons,) and the first saving-fund in France. He published " Travels in the United States of America," (8 vols., 1800.) Died in 1827. His son, Fr^d^ric Ga6tan, Marquis de la Rochefou- cauld-Liancourt, born at Liancourt in 1779, is author of several poems, dramas, and historical works. See Ga^tan de i,a Rochefoucauld, "Vie du Due de la Roche- foucauld- Liancourt," 1827; " Biographie Universelle." Rochejaquelein, de la, deh It rosh'zhtk'liN', (Henki du Verger — dii veR'zhi',) Count, a French royalist chief of the Vendean war, was born in Poitou in 1772. He took command of a band of peasants in 1793, and was victorious in several small battles. He said to his men, " If I advance, follow me ; if I retreat, kill me ; if I die, avenge me." In October, 1793, he was appointed general-in-chief of the insurgents. He gained a victory at Entrames, October 27, but was defeated with great loss at Mans, December 13. He was killed in battle at Nouaille in March, 1794. See THioDOKE Muret, "Vie populaire de H. de la Rochejaque- lein," 1845. Rochejaquelein, de la, (Louis,) a brother of the preceding, was born in 1777. He was an officer in the army, and served against the negroes in Hayti. In May, 1815, he raised a body of Vendeans to fight for Louis XV HI. He was killed in an action at Pont des Mathis in June of that year. See Madame de la Rochejaquelein, " Memoires ;" "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1816. Rochejaquelein, de la, (Marie Louise Victoire de Donnissan — deh do'ne'sfiN',) Marquise, was born at Versailles in 1772. She married in 1790 the Marquis de Lescure, who was killed at the battle of Chollet. About 1800 she became the wife of Louis de la Roche- jaquelein, noticed above. She wrote " Memoires" of ner own life and of the exploits of those whose name she bore, (181 5.) Died in 1857. See Alfrkd Nettement, " Vie de Madame de la Rochejaque- lein," 1S5Q ; "Edinburgh Review" for February, 1816. Rochers, Des, See Desrochers. Roches, Des. See Desroches. Rochester. See Hyde, (Lawrence.) Rochester, Bishop of. See Fisher. Roch'es-ter, (John W^ii.mot,) Earl of, a witty and profligate English courtier, born in Oxfordshire in 1647, was a son of Henry, Earl of Rochester. He became a favourite of Charles II., and indulged in debauchery and drunkenness to such excess that his constitution was eventually ruined. In 1665 he entered the navy, and signalized his courage in several actions. He wrote a number of songs, satires, etc. He died in 1680, professing penitence for his sins. See Johnson, " Lives of the English Poets ;" Burnet, " Some Passages of the Life and Death of John, Earl of Rochester," 1681. Rochet, ro'shi', (Louis,) a French sculptor, born in I'aris in 1817. Rochette, ro'shJt', (D6sir6 Raoul,) an eminent French archaeologist, born at Saint-Amand (Cher) in 1790. He married a daughter of Houdon the sculptor, and succeeded Guizot as professor of modern history in 181 5. He became professor of archaeology in Paris in 1826, and acquired much popularity as a lecturer. In 1838 or 1839 he was elected perpetual secretary of the Academy of Fine Arts. He published, besides other works, a "Critical History of the Greek Colonies," (4 vols., 1815,) and "Memoirs of Comparative Archaeology, Asiatic, Greek, and Etruscan," (1848.) He left unfinished a " History of Ancient Art." Died in 1854, See Querard, "La France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" "Biographie Universelle." Rochlitz, roK'lits, (Friedrich,) a German litterateur, born at Leipsic in 1769 or 1770, published a number of tales and musical treatises, among which is "Blicke in das Gebiet der Kiinste." Died in 1842. Rochon, ro'shiN', (Alexis Marie,) a French as- tronomer and navigator, born at Brest in 1741. He was appointed astronomer of the marine in 1766, and made, a voyage to the East Indies, of which he published an account, (3 vols., 1791.) He wrote an "Essay on An- cient and Modern Coins," (1792,) treatises on optics, etc. Died in 1817. See Delambre, "Notice sur Rochon," 1818; "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Rochon de Chabannes, ro'sh6N' deh sht'bSn', (Marc Antoine Jacques,) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1 730. He wrote some successful comedies. Died in 1800, Rochow, von, fon ro'Ko, (Gustav Adolf Rochus,) a Prussian statesman, born in Rathenowin 1792, became minister of the interior and of the police in 1834. Died in 1847. Rockingham, rok'ing-am, (Charles Watson Went- worth,) second Marquis of, an English Whig states- man, was born in 1730. He succeeded to the marquisate in 1750, and inherited a large fortune, which, joined with an honourable character, rendered him a person of great influence. He became prime minister in July, 1765, and took Edmund Burke into his service as private secretary. The notorious Stamp Act was repealed by this ministry, which by the enmity of the king was driven from power in July, 1766. He opposed the measures by which Lord North provoked the American colonies to revolt. When North resigned, (in March, 1782,) the king was reduced to the painful necessity of accepting a Whig ministry, of which Lord Rockingham was premier. He died July I, 1782, leaving no issue. See Lord ALnEMARLE, "Memoirs of the Marquis of Rocking- ham," 2 vols., 1852: Lord Mahon, "History of England;" "Edinburgli Review" for July, 1852. Rock'well, (James Otis,) an American poet, born in Lebanon, Connecticut, in 1807. He became associate editor of the Boston "Statesman," and in 1829 assumed charge of the "Patriot," a journal published at Provi- dence. He died in 183 1, of an illness caused chiefly, it is supposed, by pecuniary embarrassment. Among his poems we may name "The Lost at Sea," and lines "To the Ice-Mountain." The former is of remarkable beauty and pathos. Rockwell was a friend of Whittier, who has written an eloquent tribute to his memory. See Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America." Rocoles, de,deh ro'koK, (Jean Baptiste,) a French historian, born at Beziers in 1620. He changed sides three or four times in religion, being a Catholic in France and a Protestant in Holland. Died in 1696. Rode, roMeh, (Christian Bernhard,) a German painter and engraver, born at Berlin in 1725. He painted history and portraits. Among his prints are illustrations of Gellert's " Fables." Died in 1797. Rode, rod, (Pierre,) a French violinist and com- poser, born at Bordeaux in 1774. He composed con- certos, which are much admired. Died in 1830. Rod'er-ic or Roderick, [Fr. Rodrigue, ro'dR^g'; Lat. RoDERi'cus,] King of the Visigoths in Spain, re- belled against Witiza and usurped the throne in 709 or 708 a.d. Soon after this event his dominions were invaded by an army of Arabs or Berbers, under Tarik, whose aid was perhaps solicited by the sons of Witiza. Roderic was defeated and killed by these invaders in 711. He was the last of the Visigoths that reigned in Spain. His story forms the subject of one of Southey's most popular poems, entitled " Roderick the Goth." See Conde, "Historia de la Dominacion de los Arabes;" Mas- deu, " Historia critica." Rodericus. See Sanchez de Arevalo, and Ro- driguez. Rodg'ers, (John,) an American commodore, born in Maryland in 1 771. Being appointed to the conmiand of a, e, T, 6, u, y, lo7tg; \ k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, sAort; a, e, i, 9, obscure: fir, filll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; RODGERS 1909 ROGER a squadron on the breaking out of the war of 1812, he captured seven British merchantmen. He was after- wards president of the board of navy commissioners, and commander of the squadron in the Mediterranean. Died in 1838. Rodgers, (John,) a brave American commodore, born in Maryland about 1809. He entered the navy in 1825. He served with distinction at the battle of Port Royal, in November, 1861. In May, 1862, he attacked Fort Darling, or Drury's Bluff, on the James River, with the iron-clad Galena and other gun-boats, but was repulsed. He commanded the Weehawken in the attack on Fort Sumter in April, 1863, and captured the iron-clad At- lanta near Savannah in June of that year. He was complimented by the secretary of the navy "for these heroic and serviceable acts." In 1870 he was raised to the rank of rear-admiral. See Headlev, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," p. 542. Rod'man, (Isaac Peace,) an American general, born at South Kingston, Rhode Island, in 1822. He served as captain at Bull Run, July 21, 1861, and as colonel at the cap' ire of Roanoke Island and at Newbern, North Carolina. He became a brigadier-general in 1862, com- manded a division at Fredericksburg, and was killed at the battle of Antietam, in September of the same year. See Tennev, "Military History of the Rebellion," p. 737. Rod'ney, (Caesar,) one of the signers of the Decla- ration of American Independence, was born at Dover, in Delaware, about 1730. He became a member of the Continental Congress of 1774, and in 1777 was elected President of the State of Delaware. Died in 1783. See "Lives of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence." Rod'ney, (George Brydges,) Lord, a British ad- miral, born at Walton-upon-Thames in 1 718. He obtained the rank of rear-admiral in 1759, and that of admiral of the white in 1778. He defeated a Spanish fleet near Cape Saint Vincent in 1780. Having been raised to the rank of vice-admiral of England, he gained an important vic- tory over the French admiral De Grasse in the West Indies, April 12, 1782. He was raised to the peerage, as Baron Rodney. Died in 1792. SeeMtiNDV, "Life of Lord Rodney;" Campbell, " Lives of the British Admirals." Rodolph OF Hapsburg. See Rudolph. Rodolphe, the French for Rudolph, which see. Rodon, de. See Derodon. Rodrigues, ro'dR^g', (Benjamin Olinde,) a French socialist, born at Bordeaux in 1794. He became a favour- ite disciple of Saint-Simon, who bequeathed to him his manuscripts. Died in i8i^o. Rodriguez, ro-dRee'g^th, [I.at. Roderi'cus,] (Al- fonso,) a Spanish theologian, born at Valladolid in 1526. He wrote a work on "Christian Perfection," (1614,) which was often reprinted and translated. Died in 1616. Rodriguez, (Ventura,) an eminent Spanish archi- tect, born at Cienpozuelos in 1717. He designed or constructed churches, palaces, and colleges at Saragossa, Toledo, Malaga, Granada, etc. He became professor of architecture at Madrid in 1752. Died in 1 785. See PoNZ, "Viage de Espafia." Roe, ro, (Azel Stevens,) an American novelist, born in New York in 1798. Among his principal works are "The Star and the Cloud," " A Long Look Ahead," " Time and Tide, or Strive and Win," (1852,) and " True to the Last," (1859.) Roe, ro, (Sir Thomas,) an English ambassador, born in Essex about 1580. He was sent on an embassy to the Great Mogul in 1614, and to Constantinople in 1621. Died in 1644. Roe'buck, (John,) an English chemist and iron- master/ born in Sheffield in 1718, practised medicine in Birmingham. He invented a method of procuring sul- phuric acid at a greatly-reduced cost, and about 1760 established at Carron extensive iron-works, in which he im]iroved the method of snielting iron. He was con- nected with James Watt in his early experiments on the steam-engine. Died in 1794. Roebuck, (John Arthur,) a British politician, a grandson of the preceding, was born at Madras in 1801. He was elected member of Parliament for Bath in 1832, and again in 184L After 1849 he represented Sheffield in the House of Commons until he was defeated in 1868. He originated the motion on the conduct of the Crimean war which resulted in the defeat and removal of the Aberdeen ministry. He displayed a violent hostility to the United States and sympathy with the slaveholding Confederacy during the great civil war. See the " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1852 ; " Eraser's Magazine" for November, 1846, (article "Contemporary Orators.") Roederer, ro'deh-rer or ri'deh-raiR',(jEAN Georges,) a French physician, born at Strasburg in 1726. He became professor of midwifery at Gottingen in 1751. He published "Elements of the Obstetric Art," ("Ele- menta Artis obstetriciae," 1752,) "On Mucous Disease," (" De Morbo mucoso," 1762,) and other works. Died in 1763. See " Biographie Medicale." Roederer, (Pierre Louis,) Comte, a French states- man, was born at Metz in 1754. As a member of the National Assembly, (1790,) he advocated liberty and equality. He was elected a member of the Institute in 1796. promoted the accession of Bonaparte to power in I79>., and became a senator in 1802. In 1806 Joseph Bonaparte appointed him minister of finance in Naples. He held no office under the Bourbons. He wrote an able "Memoir on Polite Society in France," (1835.) Died in 1835. See MiGNET, " Roederer, sa Vie et ses Travaux," 1838: Sainte- Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi," and "LeComtede Roederer," 1853; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." Roelas, de las, di lis ro-a'lis, (Juan,) an excellent Spanish painter, born at Seville about 1560, was called El Clerigo Roelas. He worked for some time in Madrid, and removed to Olivares about 1624. The churches of Seville are adorned with many of his works. Among his master-pieces are " El Transito" of San Isi- doro, a " Holy Family," and " Santiago." Died in 1625. See Cean-Bermudez, "Diccionario Historico." Roell. See Roll. Roemer. See Romer. Roenne. See Ronne. Roepel, roo'pel, (Conrad,) a Dutch painter of flowers and fruits, born at the Hague in 1679 ; died in 1748. Roer or Roeer, ro'er, (Hans Heinrich Eduard,) a German Orientalist, born at Bnmswick in 1805. In 1839 he visited Calcutta, and became in 1846 one of the secretaries of the Asiatic Society. About the same time he founded the " Bibliotheca Indica," to which he contributed a number of translations from the Sanscrit, Arabic, and Persic. Roestraten, roos'tRi'ten, (Pieter,) a Dutch painter of portraits and still life, born at Haarlem in 1627. He worked for some years in London, where he died in 1698. Roetscher. See Rotscher, Roffensis. See Fisher, Bishop of Rochester. Rog'er, [It, Ruggiero, rood-ja'ro,] Count of Sicily, born in Normandy in 103 1, was an enterprising warrior. He conquered Sicily from the Saracens. Died in iioi. See "Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." Roger I., King of Sicily, born about 1096, was a son and successor of the preceding. At the death of his cousin, Duke of Apulia, he obtained possession of Apulia and Calabria, (1127.) He took arms against Pope Innocent II., and made him prisoner, in 1139. By recognizing Roger as King of Sicily, etc., the pope obtained his liberty. Roger was an able and powerful prince. Died in 1 154. See MuRATORi, "Annali d'ltalia ;" Ordericus Vitalis, " His- toria Ecclesiastica ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Rog'er, Bishop of Salisbury, a powerful English prel- ate, became prime minister of Henry I. about 1107. Died in 1139. Roger, ro'zhi', (Adolphe,) a French painter of his- tory, born at Palaiseau (Seine-et-Oise) about 1797. Roger, (Gustave Hippolyte,) a French vocalist, born in Paris in 1815. His voice is a pure tenor. Roger, (Jean FRANgois,) a French dramatist, born at Langres in 1776. He produced "The Lawyer," (" L'Avocat," 1806,) and other successful comedies. In i8i6he became secretary-general of the post-office. He € as c as j; g hard; g as j; G, H, v:.^ guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ROGER 1910 ROGNETTA was admitted into the French Academy in 1817. Died in 1842. See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Roger, (Pierre.) See Clement VI. Roger Ducos. See Ducos. Roger di Loria. See Loria, di. Roger (or Richard) of Hexham, an English chroni- cler, was prior of a convent at Hexham about 1 150. Roger of Hoveden. See Hoveden, de. Roger of Weudover, an English chronicler, wrote ** Flowers of History," (" Flores Historiarum,") which commences at the creation. Died in 1237. Rog'^rs, (Benjamin,) an English composer of sacred music, born at Windsor; died about 1698. Rogers, (Charles,) an English antiquary, born in Westminster in 1711 ; died in 1784. Rogers, (Daniel,) an English scholar and diplo- matist, born at Aston about 1540, was a pupil of Me- ianchthon. He was employed by Queen Elizabeth in embassies to Germany, etc. Died in 1590. See Wood, "Athene Oxonienses." Rogers, (George,) an English theological writer, born in 1 741. He was rector of Sproughton for about fifty years. Died in 1835. Rogers, (Henry,) a distinguished English essayist, born at Saint Alban's in 1806, was an Independent min- ister in early life. He contributed to the " Edinburgh Review" a number of essays and biographical notices, which were republished in 1850. He is author of "The Eclipse of Faith," (1852,) and of other works, some of which are designed to prove that philosophy and re- vealed religion are in accordance with each other. He became principal of an Independent College near Man- chester in 1857. In 1866 he published "Reason and Faith, with other Essays." Rog'ers, (Henry Darwin,) an eminent American geologist, born at Philadelphia in 1809. He made a survey of the State of New Jersey, of which he published a report, and a geological map, in 1835. His report on the geology of Pennsylvania came out in 1858, (2 vols. 4to.) It enjoys a high reputation for thoroughness and accuracy. He was appointed in 1857 regius professor of geology and natural history at Glasgow, vScotland. He also became associate editor of the " New Philo- sophical Journal," Edinburgh, and contributed to various other periodicals. Died in Glasgow in May, 1866. Rogers, (James Blythe,) M.D., an American phy- sician, brother of the preceding, was born in Philadelphia in 1803. He was appointed in 1847 ])rofessor of chem- istry in the University of Pennsylvania. He was author of several valuable scientific treatises. Died in 1852. Rogers, (John,) an English martyr, was in his youth a Roman Catholic priest. Having been converted at Antwerp, he settled at Wittenberg as pastor of a Prot- estant church. He returned to England in the reign of Edward VI., and became prebendary of Saint Paul's. He was committed to prison in 1553 or 1554, condemned as a heretic by Bonner and Gardiner, and burned at Smithfield in 1555, refusing to save his life by apostasy from the truth. See Chester, "Life of John Rogers." Rogers, (Rev. John,) an English writer on theology, born at Ensham, in Oxfordshire, in 1679, lived some time in London. He published a "Discourse of the Visible and Invisible Church of Christ," (1719,) and other controversial works. Died in 1729. See Samuel Miller, "Memoirs of John Rogers." Rogers, (John,) an American sculptor, born at Salem, Massachusetts. Among his works are the " Slave Auc- tion," " The Returned Volunteer," " The Picket Guard," " The Wounded Scout," " The Union Refugees," and other spirited illustrations of the war of 1861-65, and of common life. See TucKERMAN, "Book of the Artists." Rogers, (Robert Empie,) M.D., brother of Henry Darwin, noticed above, was born at Baltimore in 1814. He graduated at the University of Pennsvlvania, where he became in 1852 professor of chemistry. He was subsequently appointed dean of the medical faculty in that institution. Rogers, (Samuel,) an eminent English poet, born at Newington Green, a suburb of London, on the 30th of July, 1763. He was the third son of Thomas Rogers, a London banker. After leaving school he became suc- cessively a clerk and a partner in his father's banking- house. He published in 1786 a volume entitled "An Ode to Superstition, and other Poems," which attracted little notice. In 1792 he produced his "Pleasures of Memory," a beautiful and highly-finished poem, which was received with much favour. He removed in 1803 to a fine house in Saint James Place, in which he passed the rest of his long life. This house was celebrated as a resort of eminent literary and political characters, including Scott, Byron, Moore, Wordsworth, Southey, and Coleridge. He retired from business in the prime of life, with an ample fortune, of which he made a gen- erous use. He gave liberally to artists and literary men who were in pecuniary distress. His reputation was fully maintained, or perhaps increased, by "Human Life," a poem, (1819.) In 1822 he produced the first part of an admirable poem, entitled "Italy," which is his most extensive work. It is stated that he spent 10,000 in the illustration of this poem, the complete edition of which, with engravings after Prout and Turner, appeared in 1836. He was never married. Died in December, 1855, over ninety-two years of age. See "Recollections of the Table-Talk of Samuel Rogers," 1856; Jeffrey, "Miscellanies;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" "Ed- inburgh Review" for October, 1S13, and March, 1819; "London Quarterly Review" for March, 1S13 ; " Eraser's Magazine ' for April, 1856; Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors;" "North British Review" for August, 1856; "Biographical Sketches," by H. Martineau. Rogers, (Thomas,) an English theologian, entered a college at Oxford in 1 568. Died in 1616. Rogers, (William,) D.D., an American Baptist di- vine, born at Newport, Rhode Island, in 175 1. He was appointed in 1778 a chaplain in the Continental army, and in 1792 became professor of English and oratory in the University of Pennsylvania. Died in 1824. Rogers, (William Bartom,) brother of Henry Dar- win, noticed above, born in Philadelphia in 1805, was appointed professor of natural philosophy and geology in the University of Virginia. He has published, among other works, "Elements of Mechanical Philosophy," f (1852,) and has contributed to various scientific journals, both American and foreign. Rogers, (Woodes,) Capi'ain, an English navigator and buccaneer, commanded an expedition against the Spaniards in the South Sea about 1709. Died in 1732. Roget, ro'zhi', (Pktkr Mark,) F.R.S., an English physiologist and physician, of French extraction, born in 1779, graduated as M.D. at Edinburgh in 1798. He settled in London, and was secretary to the Royal Society. His reputation is founded on an able work entitled "Animal and Vegetable Physiology," (1834,) which is one of the " Bridgewater Treatises." He is author of other scientific works, and of a "Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases," (1853.) Died in September, 1869. .See " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1834. Roggeween, rog'geh-wan', (Jacob,) a Dutch navi- gator, born in Zealand in 1669. He commanded an exploring expedition sent from Holland to the South Sea in 1721. Died in 1733. Roghman, roo'mln, (Roland,) a Dutch landscape- painter, born at Amsterdam in 1597. He painted Dutch and German scenery. He also produced some fine etchings of landscapes. Died in 1686. Rogier, ro'zhe-i', ( Chakles Latour, ) a Belgian statesman, was born at Saint-Quentin in 1800. He was a prominent member of the provisional government formed in 1830. In 1833 he was appointed minister of the interior, and in 1840 minister of public works. He became again in 1847 minister of the interior in a cabinet of which the king confided to him the formation. Having retired in 1852, he was reappointed to the same office in 1857, and became minister of foreign affairs in 1861. He is a leader of the Liberal ])arty. See L. DE Lomenie, " M. Rogier, par un Homme de Rien," 1843. Rognetta, r6n-y^t'ti, (Filippo,) an Italian medical writer, born about 1805, practised in Paris. Died at Naples in 1857. a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; 4, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, f3lt; mSt; nftt; good; moon; ROGNUT 1911 ROLAND Rogniat, xo\Vyt^', (Joseph,) Baron, a French gene- lal of engineers, born at Saint-Priest in 1776. He was chief engineer of the grand army in 1812. Died in 1840. Rohan, de. See Soubise. Rohan, de, deh ro'dN', (Anne,) a French Protestant lady, distinguished for her piety and learning, born in 1584, was a sister of Henri, Due de Rohan. She was mistress of the Hebrew and other ancient languages. Died in Paris in 1646. Rohan, de, (Henri,) Due, Prince de Leon, an able French Huguenot chief, born in Brittany in 1579, was a son of Renee, noticed below. He married in 1605 Marguerite de Bethune, daughter of the Due de Sully. He commanded an army which fought for religious liberty in the civil war w"hich began in 1621, was sus- pended by a treaty in 1623, renewed in 1627, and ended in 1629. Having retired to Venice, he was appointed general-in-chief of the Venetian army in 1630, and was chosen by Cardinal Richelieu to direct the war in the Valtelline. He defeated the Imperialists in 1635 at Luvino and Tirano. He was mortally wounded at Rheinfelden, where he fought for his friend Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, in 1638. He left Memoirs of events which occurred in France from 1610 to 1629, and a treatise on war, — "Le parfait Capitaine," (1636.) See CouRTiLZ de Sandras, "Histoire secrete du Due H. de Rohan," 1697; Haag, "La France protestante ;" Bazin, "Histoire de Louis XIII ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Rohan, de, (Louis,) Prince, a Frenchman, noted for his gallantry and intrigues, was born about 1635. He was a son of Louis de Rohan, Prince de Guemene. Having engaged in a conspiracy against Louis XIV., he was executed in 1674. Rohan, de, (Louis Ren^ Edouard,) Prince Car- dinal, was born in Paris in 1734. He was sent as ambassador to Vienna in 1772, but, having offended Maria Theresa, he was recalled in 1774. He became a cardinal in 1778. He was a patron of Cagliostro, and was scandalously implicated in the affair of the "Diamond Necklace," (1784,) in which he was the dupe of Madame La Motte, who, by forged letters, signed " Marie Antoinette," persuaded the cardinal to buy a necklace as a present to the queen. For this he was tried and acquitted. Died in 1803, See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Rohan, de, (Marie.) See Chevreuse, de. Rohan, de, (Ren^e,) Vicomte, Sieur de Pontivy et de Frontenay, a French Protestant, born in 1550, was one of the most valiant captains of his time. He married the celebrated Catherine de Parthenay-Larche- veque. Died in 1586. See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Haag, "La France protestante." Rohault, ro'o', (Jacques,) a French natural philoso- pher, born at Amiens in 1620, was a teacher of Cartesian philosophy. He wrote a " Treatise on Physics," (" Traite de Physique," 1671,) which was for a long time a standard work on that subject. Died in 1675. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique." Rohault de Fleury, roV deh fluh're', (Charles,) a French architect, born in Paris in 1801. The govern- ment committed to him the construction of the Museum of Natural History about 1830. Rohini, ro'hi-nee', [etymology obscure,] in the Hindoo mythology, the name of one of the daughters of Daksha, said to be the favourite wife of Chandra, (or the moon.*) She is the bright star in the bull's eye, called in Arabic Aldebaran, (or Al Dabaran.) Other stars regarded as the sisters of Rohini are also num- bered among the wives of Chandra. See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." Rohmann, ro'mSn, (Jorgen Lindegaard,) a Danish historian and poet, born in the island of Seeland in 1797. He published several works on Danish history, and be- came Bishop of Fiinen. Died in 1855. "Rohr or Roehr, roR, (Johann Friedrich,) a Ger- man theologian, born near Naumburg in 1777. He was identified with the rationalistic school, and published * The moon in Sanscrit (as in German) is masculine, — not feminine, as in the languages of Greece and Rome. several works on theology. He resided at Weimar, where he died in 1848. Rohrbacher, roR'bt'shaiii', (Ren6 Franqois, ) a French ecclesiastical writer, born at Langatte in 1789. He wrote a "General History of the Catholic Church," (29 vols., 1849-53.) Died in 1856. Rojas or Roxas, de, di ro'nis, (Fernando,) a cele- brated Spanish author, who flourished about 1500. His dramatic romance "Celestina" obtained great popu- larity. The first edition of it was dated 1500. Rojas or Roj as-Zorilla, de, dk ro'His tho-r^Kyl, (Francisco,) an eminent Spanish dramatist, born at Toledo in 1601. Among his dramas are " Garcia del Cas- tanar," "El Desden vengado," ("The Insult Avenged,") " Progne y Filomena," and " Entre Bobos anda el Juego." Rokes, ro'kSs, (Henry,) called Zorg, a skilful Dutch painter, born at Rotterdam in 1621, was a pupil of David Teniers. Died in 1682. Rokitansky, ro-ke-tln'ske, (Karl,) a distinguished physician and pathologist, born at Koniggratz, in Bo- hemia, in 1804. He became in 1844 professor of patho- logical anatomy at Vienna, and subsequently a member of the Academy of Sciences and rector of the University in that city. He was the projector of the great Vienna Hospital. He has published a " Manual of Pathological Anatomy," (5 vols., 1842,) which is regarded as a stand- ard work and has been translated into English. Rokmeny. See RukminI Rowland, [Lat Rutlan'dus; It. Orlando or Ro- lando,] a hero celebrated in the romances of chivalry, was supposed to have been a nephew of Charlemagne. He was killed at the battle of Roncesvalles, in 778 a.d. See Ariosto, "Orlando Furioso." Roland, J-o'ISn', a brave and able leader of the French Camisards, was born in Gard in 1675. He gained several victories about 1702 over the royal forces, who could not capture him until he was betrayed by one of his party. He was shot in 1704. RoTand, [Fr. pron. ro'l6N',] Madame, (originally Marie Jeanne Phlipon (fle^p^N') or Philipon, (fe'- le'pAw',) also called Manon Phlipon,) one of the most noble and highly-gifted women that France has produced, was born in Paris, March 17, 1754. She was the only child of an engraver, and was liberally educated. Latin and music were included in the list of her studies. She was fond of books in early childhood, and received a lasting influence from Plutarch, who was her favourite author when she was nine years of age. In youth she was an enthusiastic devotee of the Catholic Church, and about the age of twelve persuaded her jjarents to send her to a convent for one year. Her mature opinions about religion are thus indicated in a passage of her Memoirs: "I can still attend with interest the celebra- tion of divine worship when it is conducted with dignity. I forget the quackery of the priests, their ridiculous fables, and their absurd mysteries. . . . The woes of mankind, the consoling hope of an all-powerful Remune- rator, occupy my thoughts ; all other fancies vanish ; the sense of duty is quickened," etc. After she had arrived at womanhood, though her faith in the Church was shaken, she preferred studious retirement to the hollow and frivolous pleasures of the gay world. She rejected many successive suitors, whom her beauty attracted in such numbers that she compared them to -Alevee en ?nusse, and resolved to marry none but a philosopher. About 1775 she was introduced to M. Roland, whom she characterizes as "un veritable homme de bien," ("a truly good man.") He took several years to consider the subject, and when he offered his hand her father refused his consent, although he (M. Phlipon) was re- cently ruined in fortune by his dissipated habits. Before this time, it appears, she had lost her mother, who was an excellent woman. Her father's house having ceased to be a desirable, or even tolerable, residence, she retired to the convent in Paris in which she had formerly )iassed a year. After she had lived here five months, M. Roland renewed his offer, which was accepted. They were mar- ried in 1780, after which thev resided successively at Paris, Amiens, and Lyons. She visited England with her husband in 1784, and Switzerland in 1787. She was an enthusiastic votary of republican liberty, and in « as /t; 5 as s; | hard; g as/; g, h, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; *h as in this. (Sl^See Explanations, p. 23:) ROLAND ROLLI the first stage of the Revolution enlisted in the cause with ardour, although she expressed a presentiment that she would be placed in the forlorn hope of the army. By her fascinating manners, commanding genius, and great conversational powers, she acquired such an influ- ence in the councils of the Girondists that she has been called the "inspiring soul" of that party. She assisted M. Roland in his official duties while he was minister of the interior, in 1792. He found that the literary success of his reports, etc. was in an exact ratio to the part that she took in their composition, and people were surprised at the amount of work which he despatched. She com- posed the important letter addressed by her husband to Louis XVI. in May, 1792. About this time she became deeply interested — too deeply for her own peace — in Buzot, a young Girondist of noble character and handsome person, to whom she alludes in this passage of her "Memoires:" "I honour and cherish my husband as a sensible girl loves a vir- tuous father, to whom she would sacrifice even her lover ; but I have found a man who might be this lover ; and, remaining faithful to my duties, my ingenuity has failed to conceal the feelings or passion which for the sake of duty I subdued." She adds that her husband became jealous, and they were both unhappy. M. Roland, having been proscribed by the Jacobins, retired to the country in May, 1793; but his wife pre- ferred to remain in Paris, and was committed to prison about the ist of June. She seems to have considered the prison as an asylum from the suspicion of a jealous husband, and her imprisonment as a relief from the struggle of passion against duty. In a letter to Buzot she says, '* I owe to my persecutors the possibility of combining love and duty. Ah ! do not pity me ! Others may admire my courage, — you alone can appreciate my joy." She improved her time in prison by writing her *' Memoires," which are enlivened by many anecdotes and portraits of eminent persons. Her style is admi- rable and graceful in the highest degree. " I never heard any woman," said Count Beugnot, " speak with so much accuracy and elegance." In the passage from the prison to the scaffold she had a full view of the house in which she had spent many happy years in youth. There was the window from which she had often gazed on the sun setting behind the distant hills. Her last words, according to a popular statement, were, " O LilDerty ! what crimes are committed in thy name !" She was beheaded on the 9th of November, 1793. She left one child, Eudora, born in 1781. " According to our modern notions," says the " Edin- buigh Review" for April, 1865, " she was neither gentle, nor pious, nor delicate, nor even virtuous. . . . But, viewed by that strange light of her own times, she stands out in noble and lofty pre-eminence. Of her greatness, if heroism is greatness, there can be no doubt." See C. A. Dauban, "Etude sur Madame Roland et son Temps, suivie des Lettres de Madame Roland k Buzot," 1864 ; " Memoires de Madame Roland ecrites durant sa Captivite," nouvelle Edition, revue et completee par M. P. pAUCifeRE, 1864; Louise Coi.et, "Charlotte Corday et Madame Roland," 1842; " Memoires de Ma- dame Roland," edition entierement conforme au manuscrit auto- graphe, etc., publiee avec des notes par C. A. Dauban, 1864; Sai vite-Beuve, " Portraits ;" "Edinburgh Review" for Aiiril, 1865 : " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Memoires de Madame Roland," by MM. BRRVii.LEand Harriere: "Appeal to Impartial Posterity," etc., by Madame Roland; "Lives of the Most Eminent French Writers," by Mrs. Shelley. Roland, (Philippe Laurent,) an able French sculp- tor, born at Marcq-en-Baroeul (Nord) in 1746. He was a member of the Institute of Paris, and was commissioned by the government to make statues of Homer, Solon, and Malesherbes. Died in Paris in 1816. Roland d'Erceville. See R()I.l.\nd. Roland de la Platiere, ro'16N' deh It plt'te^iR', (Jean Marie,) a French Girondist minister of stat^was born near Villefranche (Beaujolais) in 1734. He was inspector-general of manufactures before the Revolution. His house in Paris was the head-quarters of the party of the Gironde in 1791-92. He became minister of the interior in March, 1792, but was dismissed from office in June of the same year, in consequence of a famous letter addressed to the king. This letter was composed by his wife. (See Roland, Madame, noticed above.) He again acted as minister of the interior from August 10, 1792, to January 23, 1793, when he resigned, having vainly striven against the reign of anarchy and violence. He retired to Rouen in May, and, on hearing of the death of his wife, committed suicide, in November, 1793. See Madame Roland, "Memoires;" Lamartine, "History of the Girondists;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Rolander, ro-lSnMer, (Daniel,) a Swedish natural- ist, born in Smdland, explored the botany and zoology of Surinam in 1755, and returned home in 1756. He died soon after, before he could publish his manuscripts. Rolandino, ro-lin-dee'no, an Italian chronicler, born at Padua about 1200. He wrote a Latin chronicle of events which occurred from 1200 to 1260. Died in 1276. Rolando, ro-lSn'do, (Luigi,) an eminent Italian anat- omist, born at Turin in 1773, became professor of anatomy in the university of that city about 1814, and wrote several able works, etc. Died in 1831. See Carlo Bellingeri, " Elogio storico del Professore L. Ro- lando;" "Biographic Universelle." Roldan, rol-din', (Pedro,) a Spanish sculptor, born at Seville in 1624, worked at Rome, Madrid, and Seville, where he died in 1700. Rolewinck, ro'leh-e, a daughter of Constantine IX., whom he succeeded in 1028. He was poisoned by Zoe, his wife, in 1034. Romanus IV., Diogenes, obtained the throne by marriage with Eudocia, the widow of Constantine Ducas, in 1067 or 1068. He gained several victories over the Turks in Asia Minor, but was defeated by Alp Arslan in Armenia. He was dej^osed by Michael VII., b •- whose order he was put to death about 1072. See Le Beau, "Histoire du Bas-Empire;" Gibbon, "Declini and Fall of the Roman Empire." Romanus, (^gidius.) See Colonna, (Egtdio.) Ro-ma'nus, [Fr. Romain, ro'm^N',] Pope, born near Civita Castellana, in Italy. He was elected pope in September, 897 a.d. Died in 898. Romanzof. See Rioomantsof. Romberg, rom'bSRC, (Andreas,) a German violinist and composer, born in 1767, became director of music € as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (Sl^See Explanations, p. 23.) ROMBERG 1914 ROMNET at Gotha in 181 5. He produced several sacred pieces and operas, and set to music Schiller's "Song of the Bell" and other poems. Died in 1821. Romberg, (Bernhard,) a cousin of Andreas, born at Bonn in 1770, was celebrated for his performance on the violoncello. He was appointed professor at the Conservatory of Music in Paris in 1801. Died in 1841. Rombout, rom'bowt, (J.,) a Dutch landscape-painter, lived about 1670. Rombouts, rom'bowts, (Theodork,) an excellent Flemish painter of history, born at Antwerp in 1597, was a pupil of A. Janssens. He worked in Rome and Florence, from which he returned to Antwerp in 1625. Among his works are "The Sacrifice of Abraham," "The Oath of Hannibal," and a "Descent from the Cross." Died in 1637. See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. Rome de Lisle, (or de I'lsle,) ro'mi' deh \h.V, (Jean Baptiste Louis,) a French mineralogist, born at Grai in 1736. He visited India and China, and returned to France in 1764. He wrote a work on "Crystallography," (4 vols., 1783,) and " Metrologie," (1789.) Died in 1790. " He first ascertained the important fact of the constancy of the angles at which the faces of crystals meet, and, observing further that many of them appear in several different shapes, first conceived the idea that these shapes might be reducible to one, appropriated in a peculiar manner to each substance and modified by strict geometrical laws." (Sir John F. W. Herschel, "Dis- course on the Study of Natural Philosophy.") See La Metherie, " filoge de Rome de Lisle," 1790; " Bio- grapliie Universeile." Romegas, ro'mk'gts', (Mathltrin d'Aux-Lescout, mt'tu''r£LN' do'i^s'koo',) a brave French knight of the order of Malta, which he joined in 1547. He distin- guished himself in battle against the pirates and the Turks. He was appointed commander of the galleys, and lieutenant-general. Died in 1581. Romer or Roemer, roomer, (Olaf or Olaus,) a Danish astronomer, born at Aarhuus on the 25th of September, 1644. He went to Paris in 1672, and aided Picard, who procured for him the office of tutor to the dauphin. In 1675 he made (at Paris) the important discovery of the velocity of light by observations of the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites. He became professor of mathematics in the University of Copenhagen in 1681. He first applied the epicycloidal curve in the formation of the teeth of wheels. Romer held several high civil offices. Died in 17 10. See a notice of Romer prefixed by Horrebow to Romer's "Basis Astronomise," 1735; Nyerup, " Litteraturlexicon ;" De- LAMBRE, "Histoire de rAstronomie moderne;" " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Romer or Roemer, von, fon ro'mer, (Friedrich,) a German statesman, born in the Wiirtemberg Alps in 1795. He was appointed minister of justice for Wiir- temberg in 1848, and resigned office in October, 1849. Died in 1861. Romey, ro^mi', (Charles Octave,) a French his- torian, born in Paris in 1804. He produced, besides other works, a " History of Spain," 10 vols., (1838-48.) Romeyn, ro'min, (Theodoric D.,) an influential minister of the Dutch Reformed Church, was born at New Barbadoes, New Jersey, in 1744. He preached many years at Schenectady, New York, to which he removed in 1784. He is said to have been the principal founder of Union College, Schenectady. Died in 1804. Romieu, de, deh ro'me-uh', (Marie,) a French poet- ess and prose writer, lived at Viviers. Died after 1584. Romiguieres, ro'ine^ge-a i r', (Jean Dominique Jo- seph Louis,) a French advocate, born at Toulouse in 1775, was a constant adherent of the liberal party. Died in Paris in 1847. Romilly, ro'me'ye', (Jean Edme, ) a Swiss Protest- ant minister, born at Geneva in 1739, was a friend of Rousseau. Died in 1779. His father, Jean, born in 1714, was a skilful watchmaker. Died in Paris in 1796. Rom'il-ly, (John,) Baron, an English lawyer, a son of Sir Samuel Romilly, was born in London in 1802. He was elected to Parliament as a Liberal in 1832, was appointed solicitor-general in 1848, and attorney-general in 1850. In 1851 he became master of the rolls, and was raised to the peerage, as Baron Romilly, in 1866. See Foss, " The Judges of England," vol. ix. Romilly, (Sir Samuel,) a celebrated English lawyer and statesman, born in London on the ist of March, 1757. He was a son of Peter Romilly, a jeweller, whose father was a French Protestant exiled for his religion. His education at school was defective, but he studied Latin after he was fifteen years of age, and became a good self-taught scholar. He entered himself at Gray's Inn as a student of law in 1778, and was called to the bar in 1783. In 1784 he became acquainted with the famous Mirabeau, who introduced him to a Mr. Vaughan. By the favour of the latter, Romilly made the acquaintance of Lord Lansdovvne, in whom he found a friend and patron. He obtained an extensive practice in the court of chan- cery. In politics he was a Whig and advanced liberal. In 1806 he was elected to Parliament and appointed solicitor-general. He acquired great reputation by his eloquent speech against the slave-trade. In 1807 he was removed from office in consequence of the dissolution of the Whig ministry. He afterwards directed his efforts to the reform of the penal code, which at that period was very severe. Nearly three hundred crimes of various grades were punishable by death. He procured the pas- sage of a bill, about 1809, to repeal the statute which made stealing from the person a capital crime. In this enterprise he encountered strong opposition from igno- rance, prejudice, and party spirit. He made an unsuc- cessful effort in 1810 to repeal the statute which punished with death the crime of stealing from a shop goods valued at five shillings. He opposed in an eloquent speech the declaration of war against Napoleon on his return from Elba in 1815. He was a zealous advocate of Roman Catholic Emancipation. In his profession he is said to have been more successful and more distinguished than any other Englishman of his time. Although his style was remarkable for plainness and simplicity, the im- pressiveness of his speeches was, we are told, almost unparalleled. In 1818 he was returned, at the head of the poll, by the voters of Westminster. His wife died in October, 1818. In a fit of delirium or insanity, he put an end to his own life in November, 1818. He was author of " Observations on the Criminal Law of Eng- land," (1810.) See "The Life of Sir Samuel Romilly, written by himself," edited by his sons, 3 vols., 1840; Benjamin Constant, " Eloge de Sir Samuel Romilly," 1819; R(jscoe, "Lives of Eminent British Lav;- yers ;" "Nouvelle Bioo;raphie Generale;" "Edinburgh Review" for February, 1812; " Westminster Review" for June, 1840; "Lon- don Quarterly Review" for September, 1840. Romme, rom, (Charles,) a French geometer, born at Riom about 1744. He wrote several useful works on navigation, etc. Died in 1805. Romme, (Gilheri',) a brother of the preceding, born at Riom in 1750, was a Jacobin and an active member of the Convention. Having been condemned to death by the Thermidoriens, he killed himself in 1795. Rommel, rom'mel, (Dietrich Christoph,) a Ger- man historian, born at Cassel in 1781, became in 1815 professor of history at Marburg. He wrote a " History of Hesse since the Peace of Westphalia," (1853.) Died in 1859. Rom'ney, (George,) an eminent English historical and portrait painter, was born at Dalton, in Lancashire, in December, 1734. In his youth he worked in the shop of his father, a cabinet-maker. He married Mary Ab- bot in 1756. After he had studied and practised paint- ing at Kendal for five years, he settled in London in 1762, but left his wife and children in the country, where they remained neglected while he was prosperous and famous, lie obtained rapid success in his profession, and became thtr rival of Reynolds. He passed about two years (1773-75) in visits to several cities of Italy. At Rome he painted a " Wood Nymph," which was greatly ad- mired. He gradually raised his price for a portrait to thirty-five guineas for a head and sixty guineas for a whole-length. Among his works are "Milton and his Daughters," "Nature unveiling herself to Shakspeare," and portraits of Cowper the poet, Warren Hastings, Lord Chatham, and William Pitt. About 1798 he was compelled to desist from work by ill health and nervous a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, ^, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; ftr, fill, f^t; m^t; ndt; good; moon; ROMNET ROOMOFSKI dejection. He removed in 1799 to Kendal, where he was nursed by his patient and forgiving wife until he died, in November, 1802. See Havlev, "Life of G. Romney," i8og ; J. Romnev, (his son,) "Memoirs of the Life and Works of G. Romney," 1830; Allan Cunningham, "Lives of British Painters;" "London Quarterly Review" for November, 1809. Romney, (Henry Sidney,) Eakl of. See Sidney. Rom'u-lus, called also Qui-ri'nus, the founder of Rome, a semi-fabulous personage, supposed to have lived about 750 B.C. According to tradition, Romulus and Remus were the twin sons of Mars and Rhea Silvia, who was a daughter of Numitor, King of Alba. Amu- lius dethroned Numitor and ordered the young twins to be exposed to destruction ; but they were suckled by a wolf and educated by Faustulus, a shepherd of the king. After they were grown up and informed of the secret of their birth, they killed Amulius, restored Numitor, and founded the city of Rome. Remus was punished with death by Romulus for jumping, in derision, over the wall of the new city, and Romulus became the first and sole king of Rome, the population of which was increased by exiles, outlaws, and fugitive slaves invited from ad- jacent states. The deficiency of wives was remedied by the abduction of Sabine maidens who assembled at Rome as spectators of a public festival. The Sabines waged war against Rome on this account, but peace was restored by the mediation of the Sabine wives, and the Romans and Sabines were united into one state, which Romulus and the Sabine Tatius ruled jointly. Romulus reigned about thirty-seven years, and, after death, was worshipped under the name of Quirinus. According to tradition, he disappeared mysteriously during a thun- der-storm which occurred as he was reviewing his army in the Campus Martius, and the opinion prevailed that he was carried up to heaven. See NiEBUHR, "History of Rome:" Tanneguv-Lkfevre, " Discours sur Romulus," i666 ; Plutarch, "Life of Romulus;" J. Gronovius, " Oratio de Origine Romuli," 1684. Romulus Augustulus. See Augustulus. Roncaglia, ron-kSKyi, (Constantino,) an Italian writer on theology, etc., born at Lucca in 1677 ; died in 1737. Roncalli, ron-kSl'lee, ( Cristoforo,) called Pome- RANCio or Pomarancio, an excellent painter of the Florentine school, born at Pomerance in 1552, was a pupil of N. Circignani. He worked at Rome, Genoa, etc., and painted the cupola of the church of Loretto. Died at Rome in 1626. Rondani, ron-dd'nee, (Francesco Maria,) an Ital- ian painter, born at Parma about 1490, was a pupil of Correggio. Died about 1548. Rondel, du, dii r6N''deK, (Jacques,) a French phi- losopher, born about 1630, was professor of Greek at Sedan from 1664 to 1681. He published a " Life of Epicurus," (1679,) and other works. Bayle, who was his friend, calls him (under the article " Epicurus") a good poet and a good Greek scholar. Died at Maestricht in 1715. See Haag, "La France protestante." Rondelet, riNd'li' or r6N'deh-li', (Guillaume,) a French naturalist, born at Montpellier in 1507. He practised medicine and lectured in that city. He pub- lished a treatise " On Sea-Fish," (" De Piscibus marinis," 1554,) and several medical works. Died in 1566. See NiCERoN, " Memoires ;" Sainte-Marthe, "filoges;" "Biographie Medicale." Rondelet, (Jean,) a French architect, born in Lyons in 1734, or, as some say, in 1743. He was a pupil of Soufflot, and became in 1781 his successor as architect of the Pantheon, or church of Sainte-Genevieve, at Paris. He built the dome of this edifice. He published an important treatise on architecture, " Traite de I'Art de Batir," (5 vols., 1802-17,) which is called a classical work. Died in Paris in 1829. See Vauooykr, "Discours sur la Tombe de J. Rondelet," 1829. Rondet, ron'di', (Laurent firiENNE, ) a French writer on religion and morality, born in Paris in 1717; died in 1785. Rondot, r^N'do', (Natalis,) a French economist and editor, born at Saint-Quentin in 1821. Ronge, rong'eh, (Johannes,) a celebrated reformer among the Catholics, born in Silesia in 1813. He was ordained a Catholic priest in 1840; but he was soon after suspended for his heretical opinions, and in 1844 published a letter denouncing the exhibition of the "holy coat," which Arnoldi, Bishop of Treves, had just proclaimed. Although excommunicated by the chapter of Breslau, Ronge rapidly gained adherents, and in 1845 a German Catholic Church, independent of that of Rome, was founded. In the revolution of 1848 he took refuge in England, and many of the new societies were suppressed. See "Vindication of J. Ronge," translated from the German by Robert Taylor, 1845; Eduako Duller, "J. Ronge und die freie Kirche," 1849; " Autobiography of J. Ronge," translated from tlie German by John Lord, London, 1846; "Westminster Review" for December, 1845, (article " German Theology.") Ronne or Roenne, von, fon ron'neh, (Ludwig Moritz Peter,) a German jurist, born in Holstein in 1804. He became about 1843 ^ ju<^g^ o"" councillor in Berlin. Among his important works is "The Political Law of the Prussian Monarchy," (ist vol., 1850.) See " Jahrbuch zum Conversations- Lexikon," 1857. Ronsard, de, deh r^N'stR', (Pierre,) an eminent French poet, born in the Vendoniois in 1524. He learned to speak English, German, and Italian, and was instructed in Greek by Dorat and Turnebe. He wrote odes, epi- grams, hymns, eclogues, etc., and was considered the most popular poet of his time. Malherbe and Boi- leau, however, did not appreciate him highly. Ronsard conceived the idea of grouping seven French poets, including himself, into a constellation called the Pleiade. The other six were his imitators. Died in 1585. See Claude Binet, "Vie de Ronsafd," 1586; Guillaume Col- i.ETET, "Vie de Ronsard," prefixed to an edition of his works, 1854 Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" E. Gandak, "Ron- sard considere comnie Imitateur d'Homere et de Pindare," 1854; " Nouvelle Biographie Geiierale." Ronsin, riN's^N', (Charles Philippe,) a French Jacobin and dramatist, born at Soissons in 1752. He became a general in 1793, and was one of the most violent agents of his party. He was executed with Hebert in 1794. Ron'tho, (Matthew,) a monk and Latin poet, born in Greece, translated Dante's " Divina Commedia" into Latin verse. Died at Sienna in 1443. Roodtseus,rot'se-us, (Jan Alhert,) a Dutch portrait- painter, born at Hoorn in 1615 or 1617 ; died in 1674. Rooke, rook, (Sir George,) an English admiral, born near Canterbury in 1650. He obtained the rank of post-captain about 1680, and that of vice-admiral of the blue in 1692. In this year he burnt ten or more French ships at La Hogue. He was appointed "vice-admiral and lieutenant of the admiralty" by Queen Anne in 1702. Sir George Rooke and Sir Cloudesley Shovel captured Gibraltar in July, 1704. He commanded the combined English and l^utch fleets in the war of the Sj^anish succession, which began about 1702. Died in 1709. See Campbell, "Lives of British Admirals;" " Biographia Bri- tannica." Rooke, (Lawrence,) an English mathematician and astronomer, born at Deptford in 1623, was one of the original Fellows of the Royal Society. He became professor of astronomy at Gresham College, London, in 1652. Died in 1662. Roo'ker, (Michael Angelo,) an English landscape- painter and engraver, born in London in 1 743, was a son of Edward Rooker, an engraver. Died in 1801. Rook'wood, (Ambrose,) an accomplice in the Gun- powder Plot, was the head of an old and wealthy English family. He was induced by his friendship for Catesby and by his sectarian zeal t(j take part in that conspiracy. He was put to death in 1606, aged about twenty-eight. Roome, room, (Edward,) an English lawyer and satirist. He offended Pope by a satire entitled " Pas- quin," and wrote "The Jovial Crew," a drama. Died in 1729. Roomofski, Roumovsky, or Rumowsky, roo- mofskee, (Stephen,) a Russian astronomer, born in Vladimir in 1734. He became professor of astronomy at Saint Petersl>urg in 1763, and vice-]jresident of the Academy of Sciences in 1800. He published several € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as j; g, H, YL^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[^="See Explanations, p. 2^.) ROON 1916 ROSJ mathematical works, and translated the " Annals" of Tacitus into Russian, (1808.) Died about 1814. Roon, von, fon ron, (Albrkchf Thkodor Emil,) a Prussian general and writer, born at Kolberg about 1803. He became a major-general in 1856, and minister of war in 1859. He rendered important services by the re- organization of the army- The Prussian Chambers in 1866 voted 1,500,000 thalers as a national recompense to six men, among whom was Von Roon. He has published several valuable treatises on geography and ethnology. Roorda van Eysinga, roR^dl vtn i'sing-i, (Pieter Theodore,) a Dutch Orientalist, born at Leeuvvarden about 1790. He published, besides other works, a Dutch- Javanese Dictionary, (1855.) Died in i860. Rooi'e, de, deh ro'reh, (Jacob,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 1686, was a pupil of Van Opstal. Among his works are "The Capitol besieged by Bren- nus," and "The History of Pandora." Died in 1747. Roos, ros, (JoHANN Heinrich,) a celebrated German painter of landscapes and animals, and a skilful engraver, born at Otterndorf in 163 1. Both his prints and paintings command high prices. Died at Frankfort in 1685. Roos, (JoHANN Melchior,) a painter of landscapes and animals, born at Frankfort in 1659, was a son of the preceding. He was not equal to his brother Philip Peter. Died in 1731. Roos, (Philip Peter,) surnamed Rosa da Tivoli, a skilful painter of animals and landscapes, born at Frank- fort about 1655, was a son of Johann Heinrich, noticed above. He worked many years at Tivoli : hence his sur- name. He painted with great facility. His touch is said to be broad and mellow. Among his works are many pastoral landscapes. His backgrounds and skies are admirable for fidelity to nature. Died at Rome in 1705. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" " Biographie Univer- selle." Roos, (Theodor,) a German painter, born at Wesel in 1638, was a brother of Johann Heinrich, noticed above. He painted portraits and landscapes. Died in 1698. Roose. See Liemaecker, (Nikolaas.) Roose, ro'zeh, (Theodor Georg Augltst,) a Ger- man medical writer, born at Brunswick in 1771. He published "Principles of Legal Medicine," (1802,) and other works. Died in 1803. Roostam, Roostem, Roostum, Rustem, or Rus- tam, roos'tem, written also Roustem, Roustam, and Rostam, the most illustrious of Persian heroes, is sup- posed to have lived about 600 years B.C. He was the son of the celebrated warrior Zal or Zalzer and an Indian princess named Rudaba, The exploits of Roostam form the favourite theme of the Persian poets and romance- writers ; and it is difficult to determine what is historical and what is fiction in the accounts of him which have come down to us. Sir William Jones says, " Rostam was certainly a commander under Cyrus, [the Great,]" Roostam forms the most prominent figure in Firdousee's great epic, the "Shah Nameh," or "Book of Kings." See "A Short History of Persia" in volume v. of Sir W. Jones's Works ; J. Atkinson, " Abridgment of the Shah Nameh of Firdaiisi," London, 1832; "Memoirs of Celebrated Characters," by Lamar- TiNE, 1856. Roostam- (Roustam- or Rustam-) Pasha, roos'- tani pi'shi', an able and unscrupulous Turkish minister of s'late, became grand vizier under Solyman the Mag- nificent, who reigned from 1520 to 1566. Root, (Erastus,) an American politician, born at Hebron, Connecticut, in 1772. He removed to Delhi, New York, about 1796, and was elected a member of Congress four times between 1802 and 181 7. He was a political friend of De Witt Clinton. Died in 1846. Ro'per, (William,) an English biographer, married in 1528 Margaret, a daughter of Sir Thomas More, a learned an^i accomplished lady. He wrote a " Life of Sir Thomas More," which is commended. Roque, de la, deh It rok, (Antoine,) a French th-ateur, born at Marseilles in 1672, edited the "Mercure de France" from 1721 until 1744. Died in 1744. Roque, de la, (Gilles Andr6,) a French genealogist, born near Caen about 1598. Among his works is a valuable "Treatise on the Nobility," ("Traite de la Noblesse," 1678.) Died in 1686. Roque, de la, (Jean,) a French traveller, born at Marseilles in 1661, was a brother of Antoine, noticed above. He published several books of travels in Arabia, Palestine, and Syria, (1716, 1717, 1722.) Died in 1745. Roquefort, de, deh rok'foR', (Jean Baptisi-e Bona- venture,) a French philologist and antiquary, born at Mons in 1777. He published an "Etymological Dic- tionary of the French Language," (1829.) Died in 1834. See " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Roquelaure, de, deh rok'loR', (Antoine,) Baron, a French marshal, born in 1544, was a constant adherent of Henry IV. He was in the carriage with that king when the latter was killed, (1610.) Died in 1625. See MoRERi, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" L'Estoile, "Journal." Roquelaure, de, (Gaston Jean Baptisie,) Due, a son of the preceding, was born in 161 7. He served in the army, and obtained the rank of lieutenant-generaJ. He was noted for his facetious sayings. Died in 1683. His son Antoine Gaspon Jean Baptists, born in 1656, became marshal of France. Died in 1738. Roqueplan, rok'pl6N', (Camille Joseph EriENNE,) an eminent French painter of landscapes and genre, born at Marie mort in 1802, was a pupil of Gros and Abel de Pujol. He obtained a medal of the first class in 1828. Many of his works are illustrative of Rousseau's "Con- fessions" and Sir Walter Scott's Novels. Died in 1855. Roqueplan, (Louls Victor Nestor,) a litterateur, a brother of the preceding, was born at Marlemort in 1804. He became editon of the " Figaro" about 1827, and was director of the Opera of Paris from 1847 to 1854. Died in 1870. Roques, rok, (Pierre,) a French Protestant writer, born at LaCaune in 1685. He became pastor of a church at Bile in 1710, and published, besides other works, " The Evangelical Pastor," ( 1 723,) and a new edition of Moreri's "Dictionary," (6 vols., 1731.) Died in 1748. See Frey, "Vie de Pierre Roques," 1784. Roquette, de, deh ro'kgt', (Gabriel,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Toulouse in 1623, became Bishop of Autun in 1666. He was notorious as the prototype of Moliere's "Tartuffe." Died in 1707. Rorario, ro-rS're-o, [Lat. Rora'rius,] (Girolamo,) an Italian ecclesiastic and writer, born at Pordenone in 1485. He wrote a curious treatise " That Brutes often reason better than Man," (" Quod Animalia bruta saepe Ratione utantur melius Homine," 1648.) Died in 1556. Rorarius. See Rorario. Rosa, ro'sS, (Cris foforo,) a painter of the Venetian school, born at Brescia. He excelled in perspective, and painted the architecture in some works of Titian. Died in 1576. Rosa, (PiETRO,) a son of the preceding, was a favour- ite pupil of Titian. He was a good colorist. He died young, in 1576. Rosa, (Salvator,) [Anglicized in pronunciation as sil-vi'tor ro'za,] a famous Italian painter of history, landscapes, and battles, was born at Arenella, near Naples, on the 20th of June, 161 5. He received lessons in art from F. Francanzani, his brother-in-law, and was a diligent student of nature. About 1635 went to Rome, where he worked and attained a high reputation. In 1647 he took part in the revolt at Naples, and fought for Masaniello. After the final defeat of the insurgents, Salvator escaped to Florence, where he was patronized by the grand duke. He was partial to wild, romantic, and desolate scenery. His imagination was morbid, gloomy, and extravagant. After he had worked at Florence for several years, he returned to Rome, where he exhibited some pictures in 1663. He produced at Rome his " Conspiracy of Catiline," which is accounted his master-piece. He made for himself enemies at Rome by his poetical satires. Died in March, 1673. "Salvator possessed real genius," says Ruskin, " but was crushed by misery in his youth. ... In heart disdainful, in temper adventurous, conscious of power, impatient of labour, ... he fled to the Calabrian hills, seeking not knowledge, but freedom. . . . He had not the sacred sense, — the sense of colour : all the loveliest hues of the Calabrian air were invisible to liim. He saw only what was gross and terrible. ... I see in him, a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, 9, i, 0, obscure: fSll, felt* mSt; ndt; good; moon: ROSA ROSE notwithstanding his baseness, the last traces of spiritual 'ife in the art of Europe." See CANTt;, "Salvator Rosa," 1844; Lady Morgan, "Life of Salvator Rosa," London, 2 vols., 1824, wliich is said to be a romance, or romantic biography ; Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy ;" RusKiN, "Modern Painters;" Passeri, " Vite de' Pittori ;" Do- MENici, "Vite de' Pittori Napoletani ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1824. Rosa da Tivoli. See Roos, (Philip Peter.) Rosa, de la, (F. Martinez.) See Martinez. Rosalba Carriera, ro-sSKbi kSr-re-a'rS, a famous Italian portrait-painter, often called simply Rosalka, was born at or near Venice about 1674. She is said to have been the most excellent artist of her time in the use of the crayon or pastel. Her Madonnas were much ad- mired. She visited Paris in 1 720, and obtained there great success. About 1746 she became blind. Died in 1757. Rosamel, de, deh ro'st'mhV, (Claude Charles Marie Ducampe — dii'kSNp',) a French admiral, born at Trencq in 1774. He was minister of marine from September, 1836, to March, 1839. Died in 1848. Ros'a-mond, [Fr. Rosemonde, roz'm^Nd', or Rosa- MONDE, ro'zt'm6Nd',] often called The Fair Rosamond, was a daughter of Walter, Lord Clifford. She became a favourite of Henry H. of England, and mother of two sons, William Longsword, and Jefifery, Archbishop of York. Died in 1177. Rosapina, ro-s^-pee'nS, or Rosaspina, ro-sS-spee'- nl, (Francesco,) an Italian engraver, born at Bologna about 1 762. Among his chief works is " La Pinacoteca," a series of seventy-two engravings of the finest pictures of the gallery of iBologna. Died in 1841. Rosas, de, di ro'sis, (Juan Manuel Ortiz — or- t^th',) a South American dictator, born in Buenos Ayres in 1793. He lived as a Gaucho in his youth, and was an active partisan of the Federals in the civil war against the Unitarians. Li 1829 he was elected Governor of the Argentine Republic, or Buenos Ayres. He became dictator in 1835. By some writers he is represented as a monster of cruelty. His administration, however, was beneficial in respect to trade and finance. He was defeated in battle by an army under General Urquiza in February, 1852, after which he lived in exile. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" " Eraser's Magazine" for May, 1852; "Democratic Review" for May, 1846. Roscelin, ros'liN', written also Ruzelin, [Lat. Ros- CELi'nus or Roscelli'nus,] a famous French theologian and schoolman, born at or near Compiegne. He was a Nominalist, and was for some time regarded as the inventor of Nominalism. In 1092 he was condemned as a heretic by a council at Soissons. Died about 1122. See B. Hauri^au, " De la Philosophic scolastique ;" Chladen, "De Vita et Haeresi Roscelini," 1756. Roscelinus or Roscellinus. See Roscelin. Roscher, rosh'er, (Wilhelm,) a German political economist, born at Hanover in 1817. He became pro- fessor of political science, etc. at Leipsic in 1848. He published, besides other works, "The Life and Times of Thucydides," (1842.) Roschid, (or Roschd,) Ibn. See Averroes. Roschlaub or Roeschlaub, rosh'lowp, (Andreas,) a German medical writer, born in 1768 ; died in 1835. Roscius, rosh'e-us, (Quintus,) a celebrated Roman actor, was born near Lanuvium. He am.assed a large fortune by his performance on the stage. His name was so proverbial for excellence that Garrick was styled "the British Roscius." An oration which Cicero pro- nounced for Roscius in a civil suit is extant. Died about 60 B.C. Ros'coe, (Henry,) an English lawyer and writer, born in 1800, was a son of the historian. He wrote a " Life of William Roscoe," (1833,) and "The Lives of Eminent British Lawyers," in Lardner's "Cyclopaedia." Died in 1836. Roscoe, (James,) an English poet and lawyer, born about 1 791. He resided at Knutsford, Cheshire, for nearly fifty years. He contributed to "Blackwood's Magazine" and other periodicals. Died in May, 1864. Roscoe, (Robert,) a barrister, a brother of Henry, noticed abcve, was born about 1790. He wrote poems of some merit. Died in 1850. Roscoe, (Thomas,) an Englfsh author and translator, a brother of the preceding, was born about 1790. He produced several poems and tales, a "Tour in the Isle of Wight," and other illustrated works. Among the works translated by him are Sismondi's " Literature of Southern Europe," and Silvio Pellico's "Memoirs." Roscoe, (William,) an eminent English historian and poet, born at or near Liverpool on the 8th of March, 1753. -H^fi practised as an attorney in his early life, and married Miss Grifiiths in 1781. He wrote several pam- phlets against the slave-trade, and a poem on the same subject. His reputation is chiefly founded on his " Life of Lorenzo de' Medici, called the Magnificent," (2 vols., 1796,) which was very successful and was translated into French, German, and Italian. He retired from business as an attorney about 1800, became partner in a banking- house, and purchased an estate in land. In 1805 he pub- lished an interesting and popular work, "The Life and Pontificate of Leo X." He became a Whig member of Parliament (for Liverpool) in 1806. He was the prin- cipal founder of the Royal Institution of Liverpool. In 1816 the banking-house with which he was connected failed, and he was under the necessity of parting with his magnificent library. He died in June, 1831, leaving four sons, noticed in this work. As a historian, Roscoe has been censured by some critics for a too great indul- gence shown to the character of Leo X. and to the vices of his court, and particularly for his defence of Lucretia Borgia. (See, on this subject, the "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1806; also Dr. Hoefer's article on Alex- andre VI, in the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale.") See Henry Roscoe, "Life of William Roscoe," 2 vols.. 1833; "Lives of Distinguished Northerns," by Hartley Coleridge; An.iBONE, "Dictionary of Authors;" "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1833; " Fraser's Magazine" for December, 1832, (with a portrait.) Roscoe, (W. S.,) an English poet, born in 1781, was a son of the preceding. He was author of a volume of poems. Died in 1843. Ros-com'mon, (Wentworth Dillon,) Earl of, an English poet, born in Ireland about 1633, was the son of James Dillon, third Earl of Roscommon, and a Ro- man Catholic. His mother was a sister of the famous Earl of Strafford. When the latter was impeached, young Dillon was sent to study at Caen, under Bochart. He returned to England about 1660, became master of the horse to the Duchess of York, and married Frances, a daughter of the Earl of Burlington. He wrote odes, prologues, epilogues, and an " Essay on Translated Verse," (1680.) He also translated Horace's "Art of Poetry" into blank verse, (1680.) Died in 1684. See Johnson, "Lives of the English Poets." R5§e, (George,) a British politician, born at Brechin, Scotland, in 1744, was noted for business talents and practical sagacity. He was secretary of the treasury from 1782 to 1801, and was a constant adherent of Mr. Pitt, who in 1804 appointed him joint paymaster-general of the forces. In 1807 he became treasurer of the navy. He was a grandfather of General Sir Hugh Henry Rose. Died in 1818. See "Diaries and Correspondence of George Rose," 3 vols., i860; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen " "Edinburgh Review" for July, i860. Rose, roz, [Lat. Ross^/us,] (Gutlt-aume,) a French prelate, notorious for his factious violence, was born at Chaumont about 1542. He was a partisan of the League against Henry III. and Henry IV. Died in 1602. Rose, ro'zeh, ( Gustav, ) a distinguished German mineralogist, a brother of Heinrich, noticed below, was born at Berlin in 1798. He became (1822) keeper of the mineral collection and professor of mineralogy (1839) at Berlin. He wrote "Elements of Crystallography," and contributed the geognostic and mineralogical part to the "Journey to the Ural and Altai Mountains, " etc., which he made with Humboldt and Ehrenberg in 1829. Rose, (Heinrich,) son of Valentin the Younger, born at Berlin in 1795, was a pupil of Berzelius at Stockholm. He became, after his return, professor of chemistry in his native city, in 1835. His principal work, entitled "Manual of Analytical Chemistry," (2 vols., 1851,) has < as 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, \i,guttural; n, nasal: R, trilkd; s as 2; %h as in this. (2i^=See Explanations, p. 23.) ROSE 1918 ROSENMULLER been translated into several languages. As a practical analyst in the department of inorganic chemistry he is highly distinguished. He discovered in 1844 the sub- stance called Niobium. Rose, (Sir Hugh Henry,) an able British general, born in 1803. His father, Sir George H. Rose, was British minister at Berlin. He commanded a division in India, (1857-60,) and contributed to the suppression of the mutiny of the Sepoys. In 1866 he was raised to the peerage, as Baron Strathnairn. Rose, (Hugh James,) an English divine and volumi- nous writer, born in Surrey in 1795. He became vicar of Horsliam in 182 1, and rector of Hadleigh in 1830. In 1836 he was appointed principal of King's College, London. He published numerous sermons and contro- versial works, and a new edition of Parkhurst's "Greek Lexicon." He projected the " Biographical Dictionary" which bears his name, but did not live to finish it. Died at Florence in 1838. Rose, (Jean Baptiste,) a French priest and writer on morals, born in Franche-Comte in 17 14; died in 1805. Rose, (Samuel,) an English lawyer and biographer, born at Chiswick in 1767. He wrote a "Life of Oliver Goldsmith." Died in 1804. Rose, (Valentin,) the Elder, a German pharma- cist, born at Neu-Ruppin in 1735, was assessor of the medical college at Berlin. Died in 1771. Rose, (Valentin,) the Younger, a son of the preceding, was born at Berlin in 1762. He studied chemistry under Klaproth, and was author of several useful chemical treatises. Died in 1807. Rose, (William Stewart,) a distinguished scholar and translator, born in the latter part of the eighteenth century, was a friend of Sir Walter Scott. He was the author of a "Naval History of the Late War," (1802,) and translated " Amadis de Gaul" from the French, and the "Orlando Innamorato" (1823) and "Orlando Furioso" (1823-31) from the Italian. These translations are highly commended. Died in 1843. See the "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1823; "Black- wood's Magazine" for July, 1823 ; " North American Review" for October, 1824, (by W. H. Prescott.) Rosecrans, roz'krans, (William Stark,) an Ameri- can general, born at Kingston, Delaware county, Ohio, in September, 1819. He was educated at West Point, where he graduated in 1842. He was employed as engineer until 1854, when he resigned his place in the army. In the summer of i86r he was appointed a brigadier- general and sent to Western Virginia. He defeated the insurgents at Rich Mountain in July, 1861, after which he commanded in West Virginia for several months. He obtained command of the army of the Mississippi in June, 1862, and gained a decisive victory at Corinth (October 4) over Van Dorn and Price. He commanded the Union army at the great battle of Stone River, near Murfreesboro', which ended on the 2d of January, 1863. General Bragg retreated by night, leaving Rosecrans master of the field. The Union loss was 1533 killed and 7245 wounded. General Rosecrans in June moved his army southeastward in pursuit of Bragg, who retired into Georgia, and the Union army occupied Chattanooga about the 9th of September. Bragg, having been rein- forced, turned back and attacked Rosecrans on the 19th and 20th of September at Chickamauga. This battle was disastrous to the Union army, which retreated to Chattanooga. Rosecrans was relieved from the com- mand about the 20th of October, 1863, and was appointed commander of the district of Missouri in January, 1864. He was sent as minister to Mexico in July, 1868, but was recalled a few months later. See "The Army of the Cumberland;" Tennev, "Military and Naval History of the Rebellion," 1865. Roseingrave, ro'zin-grav, ? (Thomas,) an Irish mu- sician, went to Rome to study in 17 10. He became organist of the church of Saint George, London, in 1725. Died in 1750. Rosel or Roesel, ro'zel, (August Johann,) a Ger- man painter and naturalist, born near Arnstadt in 1705. He received the title of VoN Rosenhof. He published a periodical on insects, with good figures, (4 vols., 1746 -61.) Died in 1759. Roselli, ro-sel'lee, or Rosselli, (Cosimo,) an emi- nent Florentine painter, born at Florence in 1439. He painted frescos in the Sistine Chapel at Rome, which gained the prize offered by the pope, when among his competitors were Perugino and Ghirlandaio. He suc- ceeded by a profuse use of gold and ultramarine, although he was inferior to his competitors. Dif*d after 1506. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- ing in Italy;" Baldinucci, " Notizie." Roselli or Rosselli, (Matteo,) an Italian painter, born at Florence in 1578, was a pupil of Pagani. He opened at Florence a school, in which several able artists were formed. Died in 1650. Rosellini, ros^el-lee'nee or ro-s^l-lee'nee, (Ippolito,) Cavaliere, an eminent Italian antiquary and writer on Egyptian antiquities, born in August, 1800. He became professor of Oriental languages at Pisa in 1824. In 1827 he was commissioned by the Grand Duke of Tuscany to explore the monuments of Egypt, assisted by six com- panions, some of whom were artists. He co-operated with Champollion, who at the same time was sent to Egypt by the French government. They returned in 1830, and, Champollion having died in 1832, the results of their researches were published by Rosellini in a capital work entitled "The Monuments of Egypt and Nubia Explained and Illustrated," (" I Monmnenti dell' Egitto e della Nubia," etc., 10 vols., 1832-40.) He obtained the chair of universal history at Pisa in 1840. Died in June, 1843. See Bardei.t.i, " Biografia del Professore I. Rosellini," 1843; G. Dhi, " Biografia del Professore I. Rosellini," 1843; C. Cavedoni, "Biografia d'l. Rosellini," 1845. Rosemonde. See Rosamond. Rosen, ro'zen, (Friedrich August,) a celebrated German Orientalist and philologist, born at Hanover on the 2d of September, 1805. He was educated at the University of Leipsic and that of Berlin, the latter of which he entered in 1824. He gave special attention to Sanscrit and the Semitic languages, and published an important work entitled "Sanscrit Roots," ("Radices Sanscritae," 1827.) In 1828 he became professor of Oriental languages in the University of London, since called University College. He was appointed secretary to the Oriental Translation Committee, and in the latter part of his life was professor of Sanscrit in the college above named. He wrote the articles relating to Oriental literature for the "Penny Cyclopedia." Among his numerous publications is " Rig-Vedae Specimen," (1830,) and a valuable fragment of the "Rig- Veda," "Sanhita Liber primus, Sanscrite et Latine." (1838, unfinished.) He died prematurely in September, 1837. See " Biographie Universelle," (new edition.) Rosen, ( Georg, ) a German Orientalist, born at Detniold in 1821. Rosen, ro'zen, (Nikolaus,) a Swedish medical writer, born near Gothenburg in 1706. He was ennobled in 1762, and his name was then changed to Rosenstein. Died in 1773. Rosen, von, fon ro'zen, (George,) Baron, a Russian poet, born in Saint Petersburg about 1805, was an inti- mate friend of Pooshkin. He produced, besides other poems, "Ivan the Terrible," (1833,) and "Basmanof," (1836.) Died in i860. _ Rosenblut, ro'zen-bloot', (Hans,) sometimes calk I RosENER, a German poet and dramatic writer of the fifteenth century. Rosenhof, von. See Rosel. Rosenkranz, ro'zen-kR^nts^ (Johann Karl Fried- rich,) professor of philosophy at Konigsberg, was born at Magdeburg in 1805. He published a number of works in favour of Hegel's philosophy. Among his works is a "General History of Poetry," (3 vols., 1833,) and a " Life of Hegel," (1844.) Rosenmiiller, ro'zenm'tiiKler, (Ernst Friedrich Karl,) an eminent German Orientalist, born near Hild- burghausen in 1768. He studied at Leipsic, where he became in 1813 professor of Oriental literature. He was the author of " Scholia on the Old Testament," (" Scholia in Vetus Testamentum," 23 vols., 1788-1835,) " Manual for the Literature of Biblical Criticism and Exegesis," (4 vols., 1797-1800,) " Institutes of the Arabic a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, vi, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, f^t; mSt; ndt; good; moon- ROSENMULLER 1919 Language," (1818,) and " Manual of Biblical Antiquities," (4 vols., 1823.) Died at Leipsic in 1835. See "Biographie Universelle," (new edition.) Rosenmiiller, (Johann Christian,) a distinguished anatomist, a brother of the preceding, was born at Hess- berg'in 1771. He became professor of anatomy and surgery at Leipsic, and prosector at the Anatomical Theatre. He published several anatomical and scientific works. Died in 1820. Rosenmiiller, (Johann Georg,) a German Prot- estant theologian and pulpit orator, born at Ummer- stadt in 1736, was the father of the preceding. He became successively professor of theology at Erlangen, at Giessen, and at Leipsic. He published " Scholia in Novum Testamentum," (6 vols., 1 777-1807,) and a " His- tory of the Interpretation of the Sacred Books in the Christian Church from the Age of the Apostles to the Restoration of Letters," (in Latin, 5 vols., 1 795-1814;) also several religious treatises in German. Died at Leipsic in 1815. See Chr. Dolz, "J. G. Rosenmuller's Leben," i8i6; "Biogra- phie Universelle." Rosenstein. See Rosen, (Nikoi.aus.) Rosenthal, ro'zen-tSl', (Friedrich Christian,) a German anatomist and writer, born at Greifswalde in 1779. He published several professional works. Died in 1829. Rosenvinge, ro'zen-ving^eh, (Janus Lars Andreas Kolderup — koKder-oop',) a Danish jurist, born at Copenhagen in 1792. He published "Elements of the History of Danish Law," (1823.) Rosetti. See Rossetti. Rosetti, ro-set'tee, (Constantine,) a poet, born at Bucharest (Wallachia) about 1816. He was democratic or liberal in politics, was exiled about 1848, and took refuge in Paris. Rosetti, ro-set'tee, (Domenico,) an Italian painter and engraver, born at Venice about 1690. He is chiefly known as an engraver. Roshd, (or Roshed,) Ibn. See Averroes. Rosier, ro^ze-i', ( N.,) a Fretich dramatic author, born in Paris abolTt 1805. Among his works is a comedy called " Le Mari de ma Femme," (1830.) Rosin. See Rosin us. Rosini, ro-see'nee, (Carlo Maria,) an Italian archaeologist and bishop, born at Naples in 1748. He deciphered and published some manuscripts of Hercu- laneum, and wrote other works. Died in 1836. See Prospero della Rosa, "Vita di C. M. Rosini," 1837. Rosini, (Giovanni,) a distinguished Italian poet and novelist, born at Lucignano, in Tuscany, in 1776. He was professor of Italian literature at Pisa from 1803 until 1849. Among his numerous works are " Luisa Strozzi," (4 vols., 1833,) "Torquato Tasso," a drama, (1835,) and a "History of Italian Painting," (7 vols., 1838-54.) He wrote an "Essay on the Life and Works of Canova," (1825,) and published a good edition of Tasso's works, (30 vols., 1820-30.) Died in 1855. See Pozzoi.INI, "Vita di G. Rosini," 1855; Alfred von Reu- MONT, "G Rosini's Leben," i860; "Biographie Universelle;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for August, 1829. Ro-si'nus, [Ger. pron, ro-zee'nCis ; Fr. Rosin, ro'- z4n',] (Johann,) a German antiquary, whose proper name was Rossfeld or Roszfeld, was born at Eisenach in 1551. He published a " Complete Body of Roman Antiquities," ("Antiquitatum Romanorum Corpus abso- lutissimum," 1583.) Died in 1626. Roslin, ros-leen', (Alexander,) a Swedish portrait- painter, born at Malmo about 1718. He worked for many years in Paris, where he obtained great success. He was admitted into the French Academy of Art in 1753. Died in Paris in 1793. Rosmini, de', di ros-mee'nee, (Carlo,) an Italian biographer, born at Roveredo in 1758. He published, besides other works, a "Life of Ovid," (1789,) a "Life of Seneca," (1793,) a "Life of Victorino da Feltro," (4 vols., 1801,) and a "History of Milan," ("Storia di Mi- lano," 4 vols., 1820.) His works are commended as accurate and impartial. Died at Milan in 1827. See TiPAi.DO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri ;" A. M. Mene- GHELLi, "Rosmini e sue Opere," 1827. ROSS Rosmini-Serbati, ros-mee'nee sSR-bS'tee, (Anto* Nio,) an eminent Italian ecclesiastic and philosopher, born at Roveredo in 1787 or 1797. He produced "New Essay on the Origin of Ideas," ("II nuovo Saggio suirOrigine delle Idee," 1830,) and proj^ounded a new system of philosophy. He wrote numerous other works, on ethics, theology, education, etc. Died in 1855. SeeV. GioBERTi, " Degli Errori filosofici di A. Rosmini-Serbati," 3 vols., 1844; "Biographie Universelle." Rosny, de. See Sully. Rospigliosi, See Clement IX. Ross, (Alexander,) a Scottish theologian, born about 1570, became minister at Aberdeen in 1636. He was an adversary of the Covenanters. Died in 1639, Ross, (Alexander,) a Scottish divine and writer, born at Aberdeen in 1590. He was a zealous partisan of Charles I. in the civil war, (1642-49.) Among his numerous works are a "View of All Religions," ami " Virgilii Evangelizantis Christias," (1634.) Died in 1654. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Ross, (Alexander,) a Scottish poet and teacher, born in Aberdeenshire in 1699. He wrote " Helenore, or the Fortunate Shepherdess," (1768.) Died in 1784. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Ross, (Frederick Augustus,) a Presbyterian min- ister, born at Richmond, Virginia, in 1796. He became pastor of a church at Huntsville, Alabama, in 1855, and published " Slavery ordained of God," (1857.) Ross, (George,) an American patriot and signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born at New Cas- tle, Delaware, in 1730. He was a member of Congress from 1774 until 1777. He was appointed in 1779 a judge of the court of admiralty for the State of Pennsylvania, and died the same year. Ross, (Sir James Clark,) Admiral, F.R.S., an emi- nent English Arctic navigator, born in London in April, 1800. He served his uncle. Sir John Ross, as midship- man in his first voyage in search of a Northwest Passage, (1818.) Between 1819 and 1825 he made three voyages under Captain E. Parry. He took a ])rominent part in Sir John Ross's second voyage, (1829-33,) '^"'^^ raised to the rank of post-captain in 1834. In 1839 he was appointed commander of an expedition sent with two vessels, the Erebus and Terror, to explore the Ant- arctic regions with special reference to the science of magnetism. He reached the seventy-eighth degree of south latitude, and discovered an ice-bound continent, to which he gave the name of Victoria Land, and the coast of which his party traced for seven hundred miles. After a highly successful voyage of four years, he arrived at England in September, 1843. He published a "Voy- age of Discovery and Research in the Southern and Antarctic Regions," etc., (2 vols., 1847.) He was raised to the rank of rear-admiral in 1856. Died in 1862, See William Jerdan, "Men I have known," London, 1866; "Edinburgh Review" for March, 1819, and July, 1835; "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1819, July, 1835, and June, 1847; " North British Review" for November, 1847. Ross, (Sir John,) Rear-Admiral, a famous Arctic navigator, born at Balsarroch, (county of Wigton,) Scot- land, in 1777, was an uncle of the preceding. He served as an officer in several naval actions against the French and Spaniards between 1800 and 1814. In 1818 he was appointed commander of the first expedition sent to search for a Northwest Passage. Lieutenant Parry was the second in command. He passed through Baffin's Bay to Lancaster Sound, where he imagined he saw a barrier of mountains interposed, and he returned home in the same year. (See Parry, Captain.) In 1829 he renewed the enterprise in the Victory, entered Prince Regent Inlet, and was frozen up in the Gulf of Boothia in October, 1829. His party passed about four years of privation and peril in the Arctic seas, and abandoned the Victory in 1832. Captain Ross dis- covered in 183 1 a point which he believed to be the Northern Magnetic Pole. He and his party returned by boats to Lancaster Sound, where they were rescued bv a whaling-vessel, and arrived home in September, 1833. He published in 1835 a narrative of his second voyage. Died in 1856. « as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. {T^^^'S>qq Explanations, p. 23.) ROSS 1920 ROSSI Robs, written also Rouse and Rows, (John,) known as "the Antiquary of Warwick," wrote " History of the Kings of England," (in Latin, 1716.) Died in 1491. Ross, (John,) Bishop of Exeter, an Engiisii writer, born in Herefordshire. He edited Cicero's " Familiar Letters," ("Epistolae Familiares," 1749.) Died in 1792. Ross,, (John,) [called Koo'w^s-koo'we in the Cherokee language,] a noted halt-breed Indian, and head chief of the Cherokees, was born in Georgia about T790; died at Washington in 1866. Ross, (Leonard Fulton,) an American officer, born in Fulton county, Illinois. lie served in the Mexican war, and was made brigadier-general of Union volun- teers in 1862. Ross, ross, (Ludwig,) a German antiquary, born in Holstein in 1806, became in 1837 professor of archae- ology in the Otto University at Athens, in Greece. He subsequently filled the same chair at Halle. Ross, (Sir William Chaklf.s,) R.A., a popular English miniature-painter, born in London in June, 1794, was a nephew of Anker Smith, the engraver. In the early part of his career he painted history and por- traits. He excelled in miniature, and became in this department the most fashionable artist of his time. In 1837 he was appointed miniature-painter to the queen. He gained a prize of ;^ioo for a picture of "The Angel Raphael discoursing with Adam," (1843.) I^'^*^ Rossaeus. See Rose, (Guillaume.) Rosse, ross, (William Parsons,) third Earl of, an eminent English practical astronomer, born in June, 1800, was educated at the University of Oxford. He became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1831, and succeeded his father in the peerage in i8'4i. He acquired a wide reputation by the construction of a telescope which was finished about 1844 and is unrivalled in dimensions and space-penetrating power, and by his discoveries in sidereal or nebular astronon^y. This telescope, which has an aperture of six feet and a length of fifty-six feet, is located near Parsonstown, Kings county, Ireland. He was elected president of the Royal Society in 1849. Died in October, 1867. Rossel, de, deh ro's§K, (Elisabeth PaulEdouard,) Chevalier, a French navigator, born at Sens in 1765. He accompanied D'Entrecasteaux in his ex])edition in search of La Perouse, and succeeded to the chief com- mand in 1794. He was taken prisoner by the English in 1795, and released about 1802. In 1809 he published the " Voyage of D'Entrecasteaux in Search of La Pe- rouse," (2 vols.,) containing a good treatise on nautical astronomy. Died in 1829. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Rosselli. See Roselll Rossellino, ros-sSl-lee'no, or Rossellini, ros-sil- lee'nee, (Antonio,) an able Italian sculptor, whose family name was Gambarelli, was born at Florence about 1427. Among his works are several statues of the Madonna. Died in 1490. Rossellino or Rossellini, (Bernardo,) an architect and sculptor, born at Florence in 1409, was a brother of the preceding. He was patronized by Pope Nicholas v., and designed or restored several churches of Rome. Died about 1470. Rosset, ro'si', (Joseph,) a French sculptor, born at Saint-Claude in 1706 ; died in 1786. Rossetti, ros-set'tee, (Christina,) an English con- temporary poetess, sister of Dante Gabriel, noticed below, has written "Goblin Market," (1862,) "The Prince's Progress," (1866,) and other works. Rossetti, (Dante Gabriel,) an English painter and poet, born in London about 1828, is a son of Gabriel Rossetti, noticed below. He was the leader of the movement called Pre-Raphaelitism, an attempt to revive the style of Italian painters who preceded Raphael. He prefers religious subjects, and finishes his works with great minuteness. In 1862 he produced "The Early Italian Poets, from Cuillo d'Alcamo to Dante, (1100-1200 -1300,) in the Original Metres, together with Dante's 'Vita Nuova,' translated by D. G. Rossetti." He pub- lished a volume of original poems in 1870. See " Fraser's Magazine" for May, 1870 ; " Putnam's Magazine" for July, 1870. Rossetti or Rosetti, (Gabriel,) an Italian poet and critic, born in 1783. He became professor of Italian in King's College, London, and well known as a commen- tator on Dante. Died in 1854. Rossetti, (William M.,) an English writer, a son of the preceding, was born in London. He wrote an article on " English Opinion on the American War" for the "Atlantic Monthly" for February, 1866. He contributed to the "Imperial Dictionary of Universal Biography." Among his works is a "Life of Percy Bysshe Shelley," (2 vols., 1869.) Rossfeld. See Rosinus. Rosshirt, ros'he^Rt, (Konrad Franz,) a German jurist, born at Bamberg in 1793, was professor of law at Heidelberg. He wrote a number of legal works. Rossi, ros'see, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, born at Zoldo about the end of the fourteenth century. He is said to have been the first master of Titian. Rossi, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna about 1700 ; died about 1750. Rossi, (Francesco.) See Salviatl Rossi, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian architect, born at Rome in 1616. Among his works are the Palazzo Rinuccini, and the church of San Pantaleon, Rome. Died in 1695. Rossi, [Lat. Eryi-hr^'us,] (Giovanni Vittorio,) an Italian scholar, noted as a Latinist, was born at Rome in 1577. Among his works is "Pinacotheca Imaginum illustrium Virorum," (" Gallery of Portraits of Illustrious Men," 1643-48.) Died in 1647. See NicERON, "M^moires;" Tiraboschi, "Storia della Lettera- tura Italiana." Rossi, (GiROLAMO,) an Italian historian, born at Ravenna in 1539. His Latin name was Rubeus or De Rubeis. He wrote, in Latin, a good "History of Ravenna," (1572.) Died in 1607, Rossi, ros'see, (John Charles Felix,) an English sculptor, born at Nottingham in 1762, was of Italian origin. He gained the gold medal at London in 1784, after which he studied at Rome, and returned in 1788. He became sculptor to William IV. His best works are monuments of Lord Cornwallis, Lord Heathfield, Captain Riou, Captain Faulkner, and Lord Rodney, in Saint Paul's Cathedral. Died in 1839. Rossi, (LuiGi,) an Italian musician, born at Naples about 1590. He composed cantatas, etc. Died after 1640. Ros.si, (OiTAVio.) an Italian writer, born at Brescia in 1570. Among his works is " Brescian Memoirs," (" Memorie Bresciane," 1616.) Died in 1630. Rossi, (Pasquale.) See Pasqualino. Rossi, (Pellegrino Luigi Odoardo,) Count, an Italian orator, minister of state, and writer on law, was born at Carrara in 1787. As a partisan of the French regime and of Murat, he was exiled in 181 5. He became professor of Roman law at Geneva in 1819, and estab- lished his reputation as a jurist by his "Treatise on Penal Law," (Paris, 3 vols., 1825.) In 1832 he was appointed professor of political economy in the College de France, Paris. He was notninated a peer of France in 1839, and sent as ambassador to Rome in 1845. I" September, 1848, he was appointed chief minister of state by the pope. He was assassinated, November 15, 1848, by his political enemies. See J. Garnier, "Notice sur la Vie de Rossi," 1849; Huber- Sai.adin, "M. Rossi en Suisse de 1816 h 1833," 1849; Mignet, " Notice historique sur la Vie de M. Rossi," 1849; "Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generale." Rossi, de', dk ros'see, [in Latin, De Ru'beis,] (Ber- nardo Maria,) a learned Italian monk, born in Friuli in 1687. He wrote, besides other works, "On the Life, Writings, and Doctrine of Thomas Aquinas," (" De Gestis et Scriptis ac Doctrina Thomae Aquinatis," 1750.) Died in 1775. See Fabroni, " VitJe Italorum doctrina excellentium." Rossi, de', (Giovanni Bernardo,) an Italian Ori- entalist, born in Piedmont in 1742. Among his numerous works is " Various Readings of the Old Testament," (" Variae Lectiones Veteris Testamenti," 4 vols., 1784- 88.) He was for many years professor of Oriental languages at Parma. Died in 183 1. §, e, i, o, u, y, /ou^: k, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 6, u, % short; a, i, 9, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; nfit; good; moon; ROSSI 1921 ROSZFELD Rossi, de', (Giovanni Gherardo,) an Italian writer and antiquary, born in Rome in 1754. He displayed imagination, learning, and taste in numerous works, among which are several comedies, a " Life of G. Pik- ler," (1792,) and "Poetical and Pictorial Sports," (" Scherzi poetici e pittorici," 1795.) Died in 1827. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italian! illustii." Rossi, de', (Properzia,) a skilful Italian sculptor and musician, born at Bologna about 1490. Her master- piece is a bas-relief of " Joseph rejecting the Overtures of Potiphar's Wife." She made beautiful cameos of peach -stones. Died in 1530. Rossi, de', (Rosso.) See Rosso. Rossignol, ro'sen'yoK, (Jean Antoine,) a French Jacobin, born in Paris in 1759. He obtained command of an army sent against the Vendeans in 1793, but was removed for incapacity in 1794. He was banished in 1801, and died on the African island of Anjouan in 1802. Rossignol, (Jean Joseph,) a French Jesuit and writer, born in 1726. He wrote several scientific works. Died at Turin in 1817. Rossignol, (Jean Pierre,) a French scholar, born at Sarlat about 1805. He became a member of the Institute in 1853, and professor of Greek in the College de France in 1855. produced, besides other works, **Virgile et Constantin le Grand," (1846,) and a Latin poem called "Scholastic Life," ("Vita Scholastica," 1836.) Rossini, ros-see'nee, (Gioacchimo,) the most cele- brated composer of music of the present time, was born at Pesaro, in the Papal States, on the 29th of February, 1792. His father was a horn-blower, and his mother an actress or singer, in an itinerant opera-company. He received some instruction in music from Padre Mattei, of Bologna ; but he formed his style chiefly by the study of Mozart and Haydn. In 181 2 he produced "The Fortunate Deceit," ("L'Inganno felice,") and several other operas. His first famous work was the opera of "Tancredi," (1813,) which, performed first at Venice, was received with great enthusiasm and announced the advent of a new epoch in dramatic music. In 1815 he was engaged for a term of seven years as musical director of the theatre of San Carlo at Naples. He produced many operas in rapid succession. In 1816 appeared "The Barber of Seville," ("II Barbiere di Seviglia,") which is perhaps the most popular of all his works, and has been performed in many languages and in every theatre of the civilized world. His "Mose in Egitto" (18 1 8) was performed with success. He married Made- moiselle Colbran or Colbrand, a singer, about 1822, and left Italy in 1823. He was director of the Italian Opera in Paris from 1824 to 1830. In 1829 he produced the original and incomparable opera of " William Tell," which, says Dr. Hoefer, "was pronounced by all con- noisseurs the most beautiful of all the works of Rossini." It was also his last, except the " Stabat Mater," (1842.) He resolved to compose no more, saying, "Another success would add nothing to my celebrity, and a failure might impair it." The revolution of 1830 deprived him of the office of director or intendant-general in Paris, for which his indolence rendered him incompetent. In 1836 he returned to Italy, and resided for many years at Bologna. After 1855 he lived in Paris, where he died in November, 1868. See Beyle, (or Stenoahl,) "Vie de Rossini," 2 vols., 1823, and English version of the same, 1824 ; " Life of Rossini," by H. S. Edwards, 1869; Adolphe Adam, "Derniers Souvenirs d'un Musi- cien," 1859; L. de Lomenie, " M. Rossini, par un Homme de Rien," 1842 ; Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens ;" Dr. Hoefer, article in the " Nouvelle Biographie Geiierale;" "British Quarterly Review" for July, 1869. Rosslyn, Earl of. See Wedderburn. Ross'lj^n, (James Saint Clair Erskine,) Earl of, a general, born about 1762, was a son of General Harry Erskine, and a nephew of A. Wedderburn, Earl of Rosslyn. He became a major-general in 1798, and lieutenant-general in 1805, after which he served in Portugal, Holland, etc. He inherited the title of earl in 1805. In 1829 he was appointed keeper of the privy seal. He was president of the council in the cabinet of Peel from December, 1834, to April, 1835. Died in 1837. Rossmassler or Rossmaessler, ross'mSss'ler, (Emil Adolf,) a German naturalist, born at Leipsic in 1806. He has published " Iconography of the European Land and Fresh-Water Mollusks," (with sixty plates 1835-) Rosso, del, d§l ros'so, (Giuseppe,) an Italian archi- tect, born in Rome in 1760, lived for many years in Florence. He published many works on architecture. Died in 183 1. Rosso, del, (Paolo,) an Italian writer, born at Flor- ence, was author of "Physics," ("La Fisica," 1578,) a poem. Died in 1569. Rosso, II, ^1 ros'so, or del Rosso, d^l ros'so. or Rossi, (Giovanni Battista,) an eminent Italian painter, born at Florence in I4q6, was called by the French MAtxRE Roux. He studied the works of Mi- chael Angelo. About 1535 he went to France. He was patronized by Francis I., and adorned the palace of Fontainebleau with his works. His style is remarkably bold. Died in France in 1541. See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, "History of Paintmgin Italy;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Rossotto, ros-sot'to,(ANDREA,)an Italian biographer, born at Mondovi in 1610, wrote " Index of Piedmontese Writers," ("Syllabus Scriptorum Pedemontii," 1667.) Died in 1667. Rost, rost, (Friedrich Wilhelm Ehrenfried,) a German philologist, born at Budissin in 1768. He became rector of the " Thomasschule" at Leipsic, and published several critical works on the Greek and Latin classics. Died in 1835. Rost, (JoHANN Christoph,) a German litterateur, born at Leipsic in 171 7, published a number of tales, poems, and satires. Died in 1765. Rost, (Valentin Christian Friedrich,) a German lexicographer, born near Gotha in 1790. Among his principal works are a "Greek Grammar," a "Greek- German Dictionary," and a " German-Greek Dictionary," (1832.) Died in 1862. Rostan, ros'tdw', (Louis L60N,) a French medical writer, born at Saint-Maximin (Var) in 1790. He be- came professor of medicine in Paris in 1833. Rostgaard, de, deh rost'goRd or rost'gauR, (Fred- eric,) a learned Danish writer, born at Kraagerup in 167 1. He held several high civil offices. He published, besides other works, " Beauties of the Danish Poets," ("Deliciae Poetarum Danorum," 2 vols., 1693.) Died in 1745. See Kraft og Nverup, " Litteraturlexicon." Rostolan, de, deh ros'to'16N', (Louis,) a French general, born at Aix in 1791. He served in several campaigns in Algeria, and distinguished himself at the siege of Rome in 1849. Died in 1862. Rostoptchin, ros-top-ch^n' or ros-top-cheen', written also Rastopchin and Rostoptschin, (Feodor Vasi- lievitch,) Count, a Russian general, born in the province of Orel in 1765. He was minister of foreign affairs for a short time under Paul 1. In May, 1812, he was appointed governor of Moscow. According to the French accounts, he was the author of the conflagration of that city. He disclaimed his responsibility for that event, and affirmed that it was burned partly by the French and partly, perhaps, by some Russians acting without orders. He was removed from the office of governor in 1814. He published, besides other works, "Memoirs of Count Rostoptchin, written in Ten Min- utes," (in PVench,) and "Truth about the Burning of Moscow," (1823.) Died in 1826. See General Scarrow, " Notice sur le Comte Rostoptchine," 1854; Glinka, "History of Russia," (in Russian;) "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Rosweide or Rosweyde, ros'^i'deh, (Heribert,) a Dutch Jesuit, born at Utrecht in 1569." He wrote, be- sides other works, " Lives of the Fathers," etc., (" Vit^ Patrum, sive Historia eremitica," 1615,) and planned the "Acta Sanctorum," which was continued by Bolland and others. Died in 1629. See FOPPENS, "Bibliotheca Belgica." Rosweyde. See Rosweide. Roswitha. See Hrotsvitha. Roszfeld. See Rosinus. « as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this, (2i:^="See Explanations, p. 73.) 121 ROTA 1922 ROU Rota, ro'ta, (Bernardino,) an Italian poet, born at Naples in 1509. He wrote Latin elegies, Italian sonnets in imitation of Petrarch, and eclogues of the sea, entitled *• Piscatorie," (1560.) Died in 1575. See TiRABOscHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" Long- fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." Rota, (Martin,) a skilful engraver and designer, born at Sebenico, in Dalmatia, flourished between 1550 and 1590. He worked at Rome and Venice, He en- graved some works of Titian and Raphael, and " The Last Judgment," after Michael Angelo. Bryan says he was born about 1540. Rota, (ViNCENZO,) an Italian poet, born at Padua in 1703 ; died in 1785. See F. Fanzago, "Memorie intorno all'Abbate V. Rota," 1798. Rotari, ro-t^'ree, (Pietro,) Count, an Italian painter of history and portraits, born at Verona in 1707. He worked at Vienna, Dresden, and Saint Petersburg. Died about 1762, Rotembourg, ro'tSN^booR', ( Henri, ) Baron, a French general, born at Phalsbourg in 1769. He served with distinction at Lutzen, Bautzen, and Dresden, with the rank of general of brigade, in 1812-13. Died in 1857. Rotgans, rot'g^ns or rot'nlns, (Lucas,) an eminent Dutch poet, born at Amsterdam in 1645. He wrote "The Life of William III.," in verse, and some other poems. Died in 17 10. See Chalmot, " Biographisch Woordenboek. " Roth, r5t, (JoHANN Rudolf,) a German naturalist, born at Nuremberg in 181 5, travelled in Syria and Hindostan, and subsequently accompanied Harris's expedition to Abyssinia. He contributed the botanical, geological, and zoological portions to " The Highlands of Ethiopia," published by Major Harris. He died in Palestine in 1858, while on another journey to the East. Roth'a-ris, King of the Lombards, began to reign in 636 A.b. He conquered Genoa and Liguria. Died in 652. Rothelin, de, deh rot'liN', (Charles d'Orl^ans,) Abb6, a French antiquary, noted as a collector of medals and manuscripts, born in Paris in 1691 ; died in 1744. Rothenhamer. See Rottenhammer. Roth'er-am, (John,) a minister of the Anglican Church, was' born in Cumberland. He wrote several religious works. Died in 1788. Rotheram, (John,) an English physician, wrote a *• Philosophical Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of Water." Died in 1787. Rotherham, roth'er-am, alias Scott, (Thomas,) Archbishop of York, was born in 1423. He became lord chancellor of England in 1474. Died in 1500. Roth'er-mel, (Peter F.,) an eminent American painter, born in Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, in 181 7. Among his principal works are " De Soto discover- ing the Mississippi," "Columbus before Isabella the Catholic," "Christabel," and the "Christian Martyrs," finished in the early part of 1864, and exhibited at the great Sanitary Fair held in Philadelphia in June and July of that year. He was employed by the legislature of Pennsylvania to paint a grand historical piece, the "Battle of Gettysburg," (finished in 1871.) Roth'say or Rothesay, (David,) first Duke of, born in 1378, was the eldest son of Robert III. of Scot- land. He contracted profligate and disorderly habits. His uncle the Duke of Albany procured from the aged king an order for his confinement in prison, where he died in 1402. It is supposed that he died of starvation. Roth'say, Duke of, one of the titles of Prince Albert, the heir-apparent to the throne of Great Britain. Rothschild, ros'child, [Ger. pron. rot'shilt,] (Mayer (or Meyer) Anselm,) a famous Jewish banker, and the founder of the great monetary house of Rothschild, was born at Frankfort in 1743. He commenced business on a small scale as an exchange-broker, and acquired a high reputation for probity. He died in 1812, leaving five sons, — Anselm, who was born in 1773, settled at Frankfort, and died in 1855; Solomon, who was born in 1774, became banker at Vienna, and died in 1855; Nathan Mayer, (see separate article;) Carl, who was born in 1788, and died at Naples in 1855 ; and James, born in 1792, died in November, 1868. These brothers operated as members of one firm. See " Notice sur la Maison Rothschild," Paris, 1831. Rothschild, (Nathan Mayer or Meyer,) an emi- nent financier and millionaire, born at Frankfort-on-the- Main in 1777. He settled in London about 1800, and after the death of his father was the head of the house of Rothschild. He engaged in large financial opera- tions, was very successful as negotiator of loans foi : various European powers, and became the foremost I capitalist of the world. He died in 1836, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Lionel Nathan, Baron de Rothschild, born in 1808. Lionel was elected several times a member of Parliament for London, but was not admitted to a seat until 1858, because the oath adminis- tered to members was such as a Jew could not take. See Trrrkow, " Piiographische Notizen iiber Nathan Meyer Rothschild," 1837; MiCHAUD et Villenave, " Histoire de Saint- Simonisme et de la Familie de Rothschild," 1847. Rotrou, de, deh ro'tRoo', (Jean,) a popular French dramatic poet, born at Dreux in 1609, is styled " the founder of the French theatre." He produced numerous successful tragedies and comedies, and was patronized by Cardinal Richelieu. His tragedy of "Venceslas" was highly commended by Voltaire. Among his other works are "Cosroes" and "Antigone." He was a friend of Corneille, who called Rotrou his master. Died in 1650. See Blin de Sainmore, " Essai sur-la Vie de J. Rotrou," 1805; Nic^RON, "Memoires;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Rotscher or Roetscher, rot'sher, (Heinrich The- odore,) a German dramatic poet and critic, born in the duchy of Brandenburg in 1804. He published, besides other works, " Dissertations on the Philosophy of Art," (4 vols., 1837-42.) Rotteck, von, fon rot't?k, (Karl,) an eminent Ger- man historian, statesman, and jurist, born at Freiburg in 1775. He studied in his native town, where he became in 1798 professor of history. In 1819 he repre- sented his university in the first chamber of the States of Baden, where he distinguished hiinself by his liberal views and his eloquent advocacy of political reform. Having excited the hostility of the conservative party, he was forbidden by the government to edit any news- paper for five years, and to lecture in the university. The persecution to which he was exposed hastened his death, which occurred in 1840. Rotteck's " Universal History" (9 vols., 1827) is perhaps the most popular work of the kind that has yet appeared, and in 1841 had reached fifteen editions. It was translated into the principal languages of Europe, and a continuation, in two volumes, was published by Hermes in 1841. Rot- teck also wrote a number of valuable treatises on legal, historical, and political subjects. See Munch, "Carl von Rotteck geschildert," etc., 1831 ; Brock- HAUS, " Cnnversations-Lexikon ;" " Life of Rotteck," (in German,) by his son Hermann, 1842. Rottenhammer, rot'ten-hSm'mer, written also Ro- thenhamer, (JoHANN,) a celebrated German painter, born at Munich in 1564. He studied for a time under Tintoretto at Venice, and afterwards visited Rome, where he produced several historical pieces of great excellence. Among his master-pieces is "The Feast of the Gods," painted for the emperor Rudolph II. Died about 1620. See Nagler, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." Rottmann, rot'mS.n, (Karl,) a distinguished Ger- man landscape-painter, born near Heidelberg in 1798. He adorned with frescos the arcades of the Hofgarten at Munich, and painted several works for the Pina- kothek. His " Field of Marathon" is much admired. Died in 1850. Rou, roo, (Jean,) a French Protestant writer, born in Paris in 1638, lived in England and Holland. He became in 1689 secretary and interpreter to the States- General. He publi.'ihed, besides other works, " Seduction Avoided," (" I.a Seduction eludee,") a series of letters exchanged between Bossuet, on the one hand, and De Vrillac and Rou on the other. Died in 1711. He left "Memoires," which were first published in 2 vols., 1857. See Ha AG, "La France protestante ;" "Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 5, i, 6, ti, y, long; i, ^, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; ftr, f^ll, ftt; mSt; ndt; good; moon; ROUBAUD 1923 ROUSSEAU Roubaud, rooTjo', (Pierre Joseph Andr6, ) a French writer on grammar and history, was born at Avignon in 1 730. Among his works is "New French Synonyms," (" Nouveaux Synonymes Fran^ais," 4 vols., 1785,) which is commended. Died in 1791. Roubiliac, roo'be^e-^k', sometimes written Rou- billac, (Louis Francois,) an eminent French sculptor, born at Lyons in 1695. He passed a large part of his life in England, where he worked with great success. Among his works, which are remarkable for minuteness of finish, are a statue of Sir Isaac Newton, at Cambridge, the monument of the Nightingale family, in Westminster Abbey, and a statue of Shakspeare, executed for Garrick and given by him to the British Museum. Died in Lon- don in 1762. See Allan Cunningham, "Lives of Painters," etc. ; Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting." Roubiliac. See Roubiliac. Roucher, roo'shi', (Jean Antoine,) a French poet, born at Montpellier in 1745. He published a poem en- titled "On the Months," ("Des Mois," 1779.) He was imprisoned in Paris for seven months, and guillotined, with his friend Andre Chenier, in July, 1794. See RiGAUD, " £loge de Roucher," 1807 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Rouelle, xoo'lV, (Guillaume FRANgois,) a French chemist, born near Caen in 1703, was the father-in-law of J. Darcet. The celebrated Lavoisier was one of his pupils. He contributed greatly to popularize chemistry hy his lectures in Paris, and exerted, says Dr. Hoefer, a great influence on the progress of that science. He was professor or demonstratetcr at the Jardin du Roi. Died in 1770. See "Biographic Universelle ;" Paul Antoine Cap, " Biogra- phic Chimiqiie ; Rouelle," 1842 : "Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chimie." Rouelle, (Hilaire Marin,) a French chemist, born in 1 7 18, was a brother of the preceding, whom he suc- ceeded in 1768 at the Jardin du Roi. Died in 1779. Roug6, de, deh roo'zhV, (Olivier Charles Ca- MILLE,) a French archaeologist, born in Paris in 1811. He distinguished himself as an Egyptologist, and was admitted into the Institute in 1853. Among his works is " Chrestomathie figyptienne." He became professor of Egyptian archaeology, etc. in the College of France in i860. Rouget, roo'zhi', (Georges,) a French painter of history and portraits, born in Paris in 1781. lie gained a medal of the first class in 1855. Rouget de Lisle, (or Delisle,) roo'zhi' deh 1^1, (Claude Joseph,) a French poet and musician, born at Lons-le-Saulnier in 1760. He was an officer of engineers in the army when the Revolution began. Just after the declaration of war in April, 1792, he dined with the mayor of Strasbourg, where a wish was expressed that some poetical inspiration might respond to, or appeal to, the national enthusiasm. In the ensuing evening he composed for this purpose the famous war-song called the "Marseillaise." He was imprisoned during the reign of terror, and wounded at Quiberon, in 1795. He was author of numerous ballads, musical airs, etc. Died near Paris in 1836. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Miramont, "Biographic de Rouget-Delisle," 1842; Felix Pvat, " La Mar- seillaise, avec une Notice litteraire sur Rouget-Delisle," 1842; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Rougler, roo'zhe-i', (Louis Augustf.,) a French medical writer, born at Lyons in 1793. He published several valuable medical works. Died in 1863. Rongier de la Bergerie, roo'zhe-i' deh It h^Rzh're', (Jean Baptiste,) a French writer on agriculture, was born at Beaulieu in 1757. Among his numerous works are "French Georgics," a poem, (2 vols., 1804,) and a "History of the Ancient Agriculture of the Romans," (1834.) 'Died in 1836. See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Rougnon, roon'yAw', (Nicolas Franqois,) a French medical writer, born in Franche-Comte in 1727; died in 1799. Rouher, roo'V, (Eugene,) an eloquent French ad- vocate and minister of state, born at Riom in 1814. Having made profession of republican principles, he was elected to the Constituent Assembly in 1848. He suc- ceeded Odillon-Barrot as minister of justice in October, 1849, and retired from otifice in October, 1851. He was afterwards vice-president of the council of state, and in February, 1855, was appointed minister of agriculture, commerce, and public works. In June, 1863, he ex- changed that office for the position of president of the council. He became minister of state October 19, 1863, and as such had precedence of all the other ministers. In January or February, 1867, he was appointed minister of finance. Rouher was the chief organ of the govern- ment in the corps ISgislatif. In April, 1867, he made a rather passionate speech in reply to Thiers on the foreign policy of Napoleon III. In July, 1869, he ceased to be minister of state, and became president of tiie senate, which was abolished in September, 1870. Rouille, roo'yi', (Pierre.) Seigneur de Marbeui, a French diplomatist, born in Paris in 1657. He was sent as ambassador to Portugal in 1697, ^'"""^ negotiated a treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, between France and that power. In 1709 he was sent to Holland to treat secretly for a general peace ; but he failed in this mission. Died in 1712, Rouille, (Pierre Julien,) a French Jesuit, born at Tours in 1681. He was one of the authors or compilers of the "Memoires de Trevoux." Died in 1740. Roujoux, de, deh roo'zhoo', (Prudence Guil- laume,) Baron, a French historian, born at Lander- neau in 1779. He published, besides other works, a translation of Lingard's " History of England," (14 vols., 1825-31.) Died in 1836. Rouland, roo'lSw', (Gustave,) a French minister of state, born at Yvetot in 1802. He was appointed advocate-general of the court of cassation in 1847, and was minister of public instruction and worship from August, 1856, to June, 1863. Roulin, roo''liN', (Fran(;:ois D6sir6,) a French nat- uralist, born at Rennes in 1796. He contributed to several scientific journals, and was one of the editors of a new edition of Cuvier's " Regne animal." RouUet, roo'li', (Jean Louis,) a French engraver, born at Aries in 1645. He engraved after the Italian masters. Died in Paris in 1699. Roulliard, roo'le-t r', (S^bastien,) a French lawyer and pedantic writer, was born at Melun. He died in Paris, at an advanced age, in 1639. Rouquette, roo'kSt', (Adrian,) an American poet, born at New Orleans about 1808, has published poems in French and English. His brother, Fran9ois Domi- nique, has written a work on the Choctaw nation, and a number of poems. Rourik. -See Rurik. Rous or Rouse, (Francis,) an English republican legislator and writer on theology, was born at Hal ton in 1579. He was a friend of Pym, the great orator, and was a member of several Parliaments. He became a supporter of Cromwell, and obtained a seat in the House of Lords in 1657. Died in 1659. Rouse, (John.) See Ross. Roussat, roo'st', (Jean,) a French patriot, born at Langres in 1543, was noted for his devotion to Henry IV. and his hostility to the League. Eighty letter^ written to him by that king are extant, and were printed in 1816. Died in 1613. Rousseau, roo'so', (Georg Ludwig Claude,) a German chemist, born near Wiirzburg in 1724, was professor of chemistry at Ingolstadt. Died in 1794. Rousseau, roo's5', (Jacques,) a French painter and engraver, born in Paris in 1630, was a Protestant. He worked some years for Louis XIV. at Versailles and Saint-Cloud ; but after the revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685) he went into exile. Died in London in 1693 or 1694. Rousseau, (Jean Baptiste,) a French lyric poet of great eminence, was born in Paris qn the 6th of April, 1670. He was the son of a shoemaker, by whom he was liberally educated. His first productions were come- dies, which were not successful. About 1698 he served Marshal Tallard as secretary in his embassy to London. His reputation is founded on his odes, sacred and pro- C as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; g, h, y., guttural : n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2l^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ROUSSEAU 1924 ROUSSEAU l.itie, epigrams, and cantatas. He was admitted into tiie Academy of Inscriptions in 1701. He made many enemies by his satires and couplets. In 1712 he was banished for life for anonymous satires against La Motte and Saurin. It seems that he was convicted on circum- stantial evidence only. He passed the rest of his life in exile at Brussels, Vienna, London, etc., and found powerful patrons, among whom was Prince Eugene. About 1 71 7 he declined the offer of a pardon from the French court, and insisted on a formal recognition of the injustice of his sentence. He died at Brussels in March, 1741. By some critics he is considered the greatest lyric poet of France. According to the "Nou- velle Biographie Generale," his reputation has declined since the eighteenth century. " Rousseau is extremely skilful in versification," says Fournel, "a very adroit artisan of lyrical strophes. It was by calculation and nf»t by inspiration that he became a lyrical poet." (" Nou- ve.lle Biographie Generale.") See Seguy, "Notice siir la Vie et les CEuvres de J. B. Rous- seau," 1743: Amar-Durivier, " Nouvel Essai sur la Vie et les Ecrits de J. B. Rousseau," prefixed to his works, s vols., 1820; " Vie de J. B. Rousseau," 1748, attributed to Voltaire; Valmont BdUREY, " J. B. Rousseau ; Etude litteiaire," 1852 ; Sainte-Beuve, " Portraits litteraires." Rousseau, (Jean FRANgois Xavier,) a French diplomatist, born at Ispahan in 1738. He was consul at Bagdad, and was employed in negotiations with the Persian court. Died at Aleppo in 1808. His son, Jean Baptiste Louis Jacques, born in 1780, was an Orientalist. He wrote a "Historical Notice of Persia," (1818,) and other works. Died at Tripoli in 1831. Rousseau, (Jean Jacques,) a celebrated Swiss phi- losopher and eloquent writer, born at Geneva on the 28th of June, 1712, was a son of Isaac Rousseau, a watch- maker. His mother, whose maiden name was Bernard, and who is said to have been amiable and highly gifted, died during the infancy of the subject of this article, who was not fortunate in his education. His favourite author in childhood was Plutarch, to whose influence Rousseau ascribed his own republican tendencies and his love of independence. Jean Jacques had one brother, who in early youth went to seek his fortune in a foreign country and was never heard of afterwards. In conse- quence of a quarrel with a military officer, Isaac Rous- seau fled or removed to Nyon in 1722, leaving his son at Geneva in the care of his uncle, M. Bernard. About 1726 he was placed as an apprentice with an engraver, named Ducommun, a coarse man and harsh master, by whom he was so ill treated that in March, 1728, he ran away in the direction of Savoy. He was received as a guest at the house of Madame de Warens, of Annecy, a benevolent and frail lady, to whom he formed a lasting attachment. Having become an outcast and wanderer in a strange country and without resources, he changed his relig'on by a formal abjuration at Turin. He was employed for a short time at Turin as a servant of the Countess de Vercellis and the Count de Gouvon ; but his success was hindered by irregular habits and instability. He returned and became a second time an inmate in the house of Madame de Warens, who procured for him a situation as clerk in the bureau of the cadastre. Finding this employment uncongenial, he soon aban- doned it, and adopted the profession of a teacher of music, (of which he was very fond,) although he was scarcely qualified to teach it. He obtained, however, a r. umber of pupils. In the summer of 1736 Rousseau and Madame de Warens removed to a rural residence called Charmettes, near Chambery, where they passed two or three years, which, he informs us, were among the happiest of his life. His early career presents a series of bizarre ad- ventures, absurd vagaries, and surprising vicissitudes, of which he has given an extremely candid and unreserved narrative in his " Confessions." He was subject to hy- pochondria and morbid imaginations even in his youth. Having invented a system of musical notation by figures, (chiffres,) which he hoped would promote his interest and reputation, he went to Paris in the autumn of 1741, with only a few silver coins in his purse. He was presented to the Academy of Sciences by Reaumur, and read a memoir on his system of notation to that body, which decided that it was neither new nor practicable. He lived in great indigence until he obtained, in 1743, the place of secretary to M. de Montaigu, French ambassador to Venice, whom Rousseau represents as an incompetent and villanous person. After he had passed about eighteen months at Venice, Rousseau returned to Paris in 1745, and formed intimacies with Diderot, Grimm, Madame d'fipinay, and Therese Le Vasseur. The last was an illiterate woman, of low birth, whom he married after they had lived together as husband and wife for many years. They had five children, whom Rousseau sent to the foundling-hospital. He received a small legacy from his father, who died in 1747, after which he served as secretary to Madame Dupin of Paris, and her son, M. de Francueil, receiver-general of finances. In 1750 he gained the prize offered by the Academy of Dijon for an essay on the question whether the progress of the sciences and arts had contributed to corrupt morals. He took the affirmative ; and never was a paradox supported with greater eloquence. Rousseau's physical infirmities, his fondness for para- dox, and his hostility to conventional maxims and usurp- ation, combined to render him eccentric and singular in his manners and mode of living. He simplified his costume, renounced fashionable and convivial parties, and affected a stern and sententious tone. According to his own confession, a peculiar contempt for the riches and pleasures of the world was one of the prominent traits of his character. About 1750 he was appointed cashier to M. de Francueil ; but he soon resigned that place, because it seemed fatal to his health and incom- patible with his principles, — " for with what grace could the cashier of a receiver-general preach disinterest- edness and poverty?" He afterwards earned a scanty subsistence by copying music. In 1752 he produced his opera " Le Devin du Village," which was performed before the king at Fontainebleau and had a great success. The king expressed a wish to see the author ; but the timidity of Rousseau caused him to decline the honour. He produced in 1753 a " Discourse on the Origin of Inequality among Men," in which he maintains that all men are born equal. *' He was the father of modern democracy," says Professor Lowell, in the " North American Review" for July, 1867, "and without him our Declaration of Independence would have wanted some of those sentences in which the immemorial long- ings of the poor and the dreams of solitary enthusiasts were at last affirmed as axioms in the manifesto of a nation, so that all the world might hear." He offended the national vanity by his " Letter on French Music," (1753,) '^"'^ many respects he was a typical French- man. In 1754 he visited Geneva, where he was received with honour and was formally admitted into the Prot- estant communion. He passed seven days in a tour or promenade, by means of a boat, around Lake Geneva. In 1756 he was persuaded by Madame d'Epinay to occupy the Hermitage, a rural residence which she built for him in the valley of Montmorency, near Paris. He resided there about two years, and began to write a novel entitled " Julie, or the New Heloise," (" Nouvelle Heloise," 1760,) which was greatly admired for its elo- quence and sensibility. Before this work was finished he became enamoured of Madame d'Houdetot, who was a sister of Madame d'Epinay and was a married woman. He was alienated from Diderot, Grimm, and other friends, whom he accused of perfidious intrigues against his peace and reputation. " It was not so much my literary celebrity as my personal reformation that excited their jealousy. They could not pardon me for giving, in my conduct, an example which seetned to testify against thetn." (Rous- seau, " Confessions.") It appears certain that Grimm became a malevolent calumniator of Rousseau. His next important works were "The Social Contract," (" Du Contrat social, ou Principes du Droit politique," 1762,) and "Emile, ou de I'Education," (4 vols., 1762,) which, considered as a speculative philosophical treatise, is a work of a high order. It produced some useful re- forms in the treatment of young children ; but its tend- ency was considered so dangerous that it was burned at Geneva, and the Parliament of Paris issued an order for \ e, T, 5, u, y, long; \ hy 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, sAori; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good: moon; ROUSSEAV ROUX the arrest of Rousseau, who escaj^ed bv flight. He found refuge in the principah'ty of Neufchatel, the governor of which, Lord Keith, received him with kindness. In 1765 David Hume, who was then in France, offered the exiled author of " fimile" an asylum in England. Rousseau accepted the invitation, arrived in London in January, 1766, and went to reside at Wootton, in Staffordshire. He was annoyed by an offensive and libellous letter pub- lished in the journals with the signature of the King of Prussia; but the real author of it was Horace Walpole. Having become possessed by a suspicion that Hume was not his true friend, he returned to France in May, 1767. It is stated by M. Morin in the "Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale" that Hume avowed, in a letter pub- lished in 1820, that he co-operated in the redaction of the forged letter from the King of Prussia. Rousseau married Therese Le Vasseur in 1768, resided in Paris from 1770 until 1778, and was always on the verge of poverty. Among his later works were a " Dictionary of Music," (1767,) and his autobiographic "Confessions," which he began to write about 1766 and which were not published before 1782. Botany was one of his favourite pursuits when in the country. In the spring of 1778 he removed to Ermenonville, where he died on the 2d of July in the same year. He was a man of middle stature and well proportioned. "It was perhaps his sensibility to the surrounding atmosphere of feeling and specula- tion which made Rousseau more directly influential on contemporary thought (or perhaps we should say senti- ment) than any other writer of his time." (" Rousseau and the Sentimentalists," in the " North American Review" for July, 1867, written by Professor Lowell.) The same critic observes, "There was a faith and an ardour of conviction in him that distinguish him from most of the writers of his time. Nor were his practice and his preaching always inconsistent. He contrived to pay regularly, whatever his own circumstances were, one hundred livres a year to a maternal aunt who had been kind to him in childhood." " Though T see," savs Hume, " some tincture of extravagance in all his writings, I also think I see so much eloquence and force of imagination, such an energy of expression, and such a boldness of conception, as entitle him to a place amongst the first writers of his age." (Quoted in the " Encyclopaedia Britannica.") See Barruel-Bkauvert, "Vie de J. J. Rousseau," 17^(5; Hem- NINGS, " Rousseau," Berlin, 1797; Musset-Path ay, " Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de J. J. Rousseau," 2 vols., 1S21 ; Lord Brougham, "Voltaire and Rousseau," 1845: G. H. Morin, " Es- sai surla Vie et le Caractere de ]. J- Rousseau," 1851 : P. H Azais, "Jugement philosophique sur j. j. Rousseau." etc., 1817: Zoi.ler, " Pestalozzi und Rousseau," 1851 ; Sainte- Beuve. " Causeries du Lundi ;" Hrockekhoff, "J. J. Rousseau," (in German,) 3 vols., 1863; "Lives of the Most Eminent French Writers," by Mrs. Shellev; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale :" " Blackwood's Maga- zine" for February. 1822 ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1843 ; " Westminster Review" for October, 1859 ; " North American Review" for July, 1822, (by A. H. Everett.) Rousseau, (Louis FRANgois Emmanuel,) a French naturalist, born at Belleville (Seine) in 1788. Rousseau, roo^so', (Lovell H.,) an American general, born in Lincoln county, Kentuckv, about 1820. He was a lawyer, and a resident of Louisville before the civil war. He commanded a brigade of the Union army at Shiloh, April, 1862, and a division at the battle of Stone River, which ended January 2, 1863. He became a member of Congress about 1865. Died in January, 1869. Rousseau, (Philippe,) a French landscape-painter, born in Paris about 1808. He obtained a medal of the first class in 1848. Rousseau, (Samuel,) an English Orientalist, born in London in 1765. He published "The Flowers of Persian Literature, in Prose and Verse," (1801,) and other works. Died in 1820. Rousseau, (Theodore,) an excellent French land- scape-painter, born in Paris in 1812. He gained a medal of the first class in 1849. His works are commended for harmony of colour and for the transparency of the skies. Died in 1867. Roussel, roo's^K, [Lat. Ru'fus,] (Gerard,) written also Ruffi, a French Protestant Reformer, born near Amiens. He became in 1526 chaplain to Marguerite, a •ister of Francis I., and in 1536 Bishop of Oleron. He ' wished to propagate Reformed doctrines without a j separation from the old Church. Died in 1550. j See Cn. Schmidt, "Gerard Roussel," 1845; "Nouvelle Bio- 1 graphie Generale." Roussel, (Guillaume,) a French Benedictine and writer, born at Conches in 1658. He produced a French version of the "Letters of Saint Jerome," (3 vols., 1704- I 07.) Died in 1717. Roussel, (Henri Pierre Anselme,) a French I medical writer, born near Domfront in 1748; died at Caen in 1812. I Roussel, (Napoleon,) a French Protestant minister, j born about 1805. He preached for many years at Saint- Etienne, from which he removed to Paris. He published numerous works on theology. Roussel, (Pierre,) a French physician and able writer, born at Aqs, near Foix, in 1742. He produced in 1775 "The Physical and Moral System of Woman," which passed through many editions. He explained the organization of woman with great penetration and subtlety. "Roussel writes with elegance and in- terest," says La Harpe : "his observations are truly philosophic." Died in 1802. See Alibert, " filoges de Spallanzani, Galvani, Roussel et Bichat," 1806; " Biographie Medicale." Rousselet. See Chateau-Regnaud. Rousselin. See Saint- Alb in. Rousselot de Surgy, roosHo' deh siiR'zhe', (Jacques Philirert,) a French litterateur, born at Di- jon in 1737, obtained the office of royal censor at Paris. Rousset de Missy, roo'si' deh me'se', (Jean,) a French historical writer, born at Laon in 1686, was exiled for his religion (Protestantism) and settled in Holland about 1705. He published numerous mediocre works, among which are "Memoirs of the Reign of Peter the Great," (4 vols., 1726.) Died in 1762. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Roussin, roo'siN', (Albin Reine,) Baron, a French admiral, born at Dijon in 1781. He was ambassador at Constantinople from 1832 to 1839, and was minister of marine from March to October, 1840. Died in 1854. Roustain, roo'stiN', ( Aron Jean Baptiste Pierre,) a French jurist, born in Paris in 1804. He obtained a chair of Roman law in Paris in 1855. Died in 1856. Roustam. See Roostam. Roustaii, roo'stdx', (originally Roustam, roos'tam,) a Mameluke, born probably in Georgia in 1782. Having rendered some service to Napoleon in Egypt, the latter brought him to France in 1799. Roostan became a favourite personal attendant of Napoleon, and accom- panied him in his campaigns and journeys. Died in France in 1845. Roustan, roo'stSN', (Antoine Jacques,) a Swiss Protestant minister and writer, born at Geneva in 1734. He was minister of a Swiss church in London for twenty- six years, (1764-90.) He was author of several religious and moral works, which were highly esteemed, and of an "Abridgment of Universal History," (9 vols., 1790.) Died at Geneva in 1808. Roustem. See Roostam. Routh, rowth, (Rev. Martin Joseph,) an English scholar and writer, born near Beccles, in Suffolk, in Sep« tember, 1755, v. as educated at Oxford. He became president of Magdalene College in 1791, and rector of Tylehurst, near Reading, in 1810. In 1814 he published a work of superior merit on the fragments of authors of the second and third centuries, most of whose writ- ings are lost, entitled "Sacred Relics," etc., ("Reliquias Sacrae," etc., 3 vols.) Died in 1854, aged ninety-nine. Rouviere, roo've-aiR', (Philibert,) a French painter and actor, born at Nimes in 1809. Roux, roo, (AUGU.STIN,) a learned French physician, born at Bordeaux in 1726, settled in Paris about 1750. He obtained the chair of chemistry in the Faculty of Medicine in 1770, and published "Typographic Annals; or, Account of the Progress of Human Knowledge," ("Annales typographiques, ou Notice du Progres des Connaissances humaines," 10 vols., 1758-62,) which is a work of merit. Died in 1776. See J. Darcet, " filoge de Roux," 1777. < as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, Vi^guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ROUX 1926 ROT Roux, (Joseph Philibert,) an eminent French sur- geon, born at Auxerre in April, 1780, was a favourite pupil of Bichat. He published in 1812 a "Treatise on Resection," ("Traite sur la Resection,") and invented in 1819 an operation called Staphyloraphy. In 1820 he obtained the chair of pathology at the ficole de Mede- cine in Paris, and in 1835 succeeded Dupuytren at the Hotel-Dieu. He was author of several surgical treatises. Died in 1854. . See Sachaile, "Les Medecins de Paris;" "Biographic Medi- cale :" Malgaigne, " £loge de M. Roux," 1855; " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Roux, MAtTRE. See Rosso, II. Roux de Fazillac, roo deh ft'ze'ytk', (Pierre,) a French revolutionist, born at Excideuil in 1743. He was a member of the Convention, and voted for the death of Louis XVI. He wrote a " History of the War j'ai Germany in 1756," (2 vols., 1803.) Died in 1833. Roux-Lavergne, roo It'v^Rn', (Pierre C^i.estin,) a French publicist, born at Figeac in 1802. He aided M. Buchez in the "Parliamentary History of the French Revolution," (40 vols., 1833-38.) Roux, Le. See Leroux. Rovelli, ro-v§Klee, (Giuseppe,) Marquis, an Italian historian, born at Como in 1738. He published a " History of Como," (5 vols., 1789 et seq.) Died in 1813. Rovere, de la. See Sixtus IV. and Julius II. Rovere, della, del'li ro'v^-ri, (Francesco Maria,) Duke of Urbino, an Italian general, born in 1490, was a nephew of Pope Julius II. He commanded the papal army, and took several towns frorn the P'rench, in 1 5 12, Having been appointed captain-general of the Venetian armies about 1526, he displayed great military skill in the war against Charles V. Died in 1538. See Dennistoun, "Memoirs of the Diikes of Urbiiio," 1851; Ugolini, "Storia dei Coiiti e Diichi d'Urbino," 2 vols., 1859; " Noavelle Biographic Generale." Rovere, della, (Francesco Maria,) born in 1548, was a grandson of the preceding, and was eminent as a patron of learning. He was the last Duke of Urbino. He died in 163 1, when Urbino was annexed to the Papal States. See Ugolini, "Storia dei Conti e Duchi d'Urbino," 1859. Rovigo, de, Due. See Savary. Row, ro, (John,) a Scottish divine, born near Stirling about 1526. He was agent of the Scottish clergy at the Vatican, Rome, in 1550, and afterwards became a Prot- estant minister. He was one of the six ministers who composed the Scottish Confession and "First Book of Discipline." Died in 1580. Row, (John,) a son of the preceding, was born at Perth in 1568. It is stated that he could read the Old Testament in Hebrew at the age of seven. He was minister of the parish of Carnock for about fifty years, and wrote a " History of the Kirk of Scotland from 1558 to 1637." Died in 1646. Row, (John,) a Hebrew scholar, born at Carnock about 1598, was a son of the preceding. He was a Covenanter in the civil war, and, while Cromwell was in power, held the office of principal of King's College, Aberdeen. He published a Hebrew Grammar in 1644. Died about 1672. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Rowan, ro'an, (Stephen C.,) a rear-admiral, born in Ireland. He came to the United States in early youth, and entered the navy in 1826. He gained the rank of commander about 1855. In February, 1862, he defeated ?.nd destroyed six gunboats near Elizabeth City, North Carolina. He commanded the fleet which co-oi^erated with General Burnside in the capture of Nevvbern, March 14, 1862. In July, 1863, Captain Rowan took command of the New Ironsides, which performed a l^rominent part in the operations against the defences of Charleston harbour, August-September, 1863. It is stated that the New Ironsides was hit ninety-four times in the actions of September 7 and 8. He was raised to the rank of rear-admiral in July, 1866, and that of vice- admiral in 1870. Sec J. T. Headi.ey, " Farragnt and our Naval Commanders." Rowe, 10, (Ei-iZABK'i'H Singer,) an English authoress, born at Ilchester in 1674, l)ecame in 1709 the wife of Thomas Rowe, noticed below. She wrote several work.-?, in prose and verse, one of which is entitled "Friendship in Death," (1728.) Died in 1737. Rowe, (NiCHoi.A.s,) an English dramatic poet, born at Little Beckford, in Bedfordshire, in 1673. He studied law in the Middle Temple, but did not practise. In 1698 he produced "The Ambitious Step-Mother," and in 1702 the tragedy of "Tamerlane," which was very popular. His other chief works are " The Fair Penitent," (1703,) "Ulysses," (1706,) "The Royal Convert," (1708,) "Jane Shore," (1714,) and "Lady Jane Grey," (1715.) He was under-secretary of state for three years while the Duke of Queensberry was secretary of state. Rowe produced a version of Lucan's "Pharsalia," which was praised by Dr. Johnson, and an edition of Shakspeare's works, with a life of the author, (1709.) He became poet-laureate in 1714. Died in 1718. See Johnson, "Lives of the English Poets;" Baker, " Bio- graphia Dramatica ;" Campbell, " Specimens of the British Poets;" Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." Rowe, (Thomas,) an English poet and historian, born in 1687, married Elizabeth Singer, an authoress. He wrote a Supplement to Plutarch's "Lives," (1728.) Died in 1715. Rowe, (Thomas,) an English nonconformist minister, born in Devonshire, wrote "The Christian's Work." Died about 1698. Row'lands, (Henry,) a Welsh antiquary, born in Anglesey. He published an account of that island, called "Mona Restored," (" Mona Restaurata.") Died in i7_22. R6w'land-son, (Thomas,) an English artist, noted as a caricaturist, was born in London in 1756. Among his works are the plates of "Doctor Syntax." Died in 1827. Rowley, row'le, (Sir Josias,) a British admiral, born in Ireland in 176'; ; died in 1842. Rowley, row'le, (William,) an English dramatist, who flourished in the reign of James I. and was a contemporary of Shakspeare. Among his plays are a " Match at' Midnight," and "The Birth of Merlin." Rowley, (William,) an English physician, born in London in 1743, wrote "New School of Universal Medi- cine," ("Schola Medicinae universalis nova," 1793.) Died in 1806. RSw'ning, (Rev. John,) an English mathematician, born in 1699. He wrote on philosophy and mathe- matics. Died in 1771. Rox-a'na, [Fr. Roxane, rok'stn',] a beautiful Bac- trian or Persian princess, was captured by the Macedo- nians in 327 B.C. Soon after this date she became the wife of Alexander the Great. She had a son, Alexander, (born in 323,) who was recognized as one of the heirs of the king. She procured the death of Statira, one of the wives of Alexander, and was put to death by Cassander in 311 B.C. " See Justin, books xii.-xv. ; Arrian, "Anabasis," books iv., vi., and vii. Roxane. See Roxana. Roxas. See Rojas. Roxas or Rojas, de, di ro'nSs, (Domingo,) a Spanish Protestant, was originally a Dominican monk. Having been condemned to death by the Inquisition, he was burned at an auto de fe in Valladolid in 1559. See Prescott, " History of Philip II.," vol. i. book ii. Roxburgh, Duke of. See Ker, (John.) Roxburgh, rox'bur-eh, (William,) an eminent bota- nist, born in Scotland in 1759, was employed for many years as a physician in the service of the East India Company. He introduced the culture of coffee, the nutmeg, the breadfruit-tree, etc. into India. He was superintendent of the botanic garden of Calcutta from 1793 to 1814. His chief works are entitled " Coroman- del Plants," and "Flora Indica," (3 vols., 1832.) Died in 1815. See Chamber.s, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Roy, RwS, (Antoine,) Count, a French financier and legislator, born at Savigny ( Haute-Marne) in 1764. He became a member of the Chamber of Deputies in 1815, and was minister of finance from November, a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure ;^x, fill, fiLt; mSt; nftt; good; moon; ROT 1927 ROZIERE 1819, to December, 1821. He obtained the same office in January, 1828, and resigned in August, 1829. Died in 1847. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Roy, (Pierre Charles,) a French dramatic poet of little merit, born in Paris in 1683 ; died in 1764. Roy, (Rammohun.) See Rammohun Roy. Roy, (Major-General William,) F.R.S., a British surveyor, who acquired distinction by a trigonometrical survey of Great Britain. He received the Copley medal in 1785 for his measurement of a base on Hounslow Heath. He directed the triangulation by which a portion of the British arc of the meridian was measured in 1788. He wrote "The Military Antiquities of the Romans in North Britain," (1793.) Died in 1790. See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Roy, de, deh rwI, [Lat. Re'gius,] (Henri,) a Dutch writer on medicine and philosophy, born at Utrecht in 1598. He published " Principles of Physics," (" Funda- menta Physices," 1648,) and other works. Died in 1679. Roy, de, (Jean Baptiste,) a Flemish painter of land- scape and cattle, born at Brussels in 1759; died in 1839. Roy, Le. See Le Roy, (Julien David.) Roy, Le, leh Rwi, [Lat. Re'gius,] (Louis,) a French scholar, who became professor of Greek at Paris in 1570. He wrote a "Life of Budaeus." Died in 1577. Roye, de, deh Rwi, (Guy,) a French prelate, born near Soissons about 1345. He became Archbishop of Rheims, and founded the College of Rheims at Paris. Died in 1409. Royen, van, vtn roy'en, (Adrian,) a Dutch botanist, born in 1705. He succeeded Boerhaave as professor of botany at Leyden, and published " Florae Leidensis Pro- dromus," (1740.) Died in 1779. Royer, Rwi'yi', ( Alphonse,) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1803. He produced, besides other works, "The Constable Bourbon," (2 vols., 1838,) " Don Pasquale," an opera, (1843,) "The janissaries," (2 vols., 1844,) and several comedies. Royer, Rwi'yi', (Louis,) a Belgian or Dutch sculptor, born at Malines in 1793. He became director of the Royal Academy of Amsterdam. Royer, de, deh Rwi'yi', (Paul Henri Ernest,) a French minister of state, born about 1808. He studied law, and became a partisan of Napoleon HI., who ap- pointed him procureur-general to the court of cassation in 1853, minister of justice in November, 1857. Royer-CoUard, RwS'yi' ko'ltk', (Albert Paul,) a French jurist, born in Paris in 1797, was a nephew of the eminent statesman of that name. He obtained the chair of the law of nations in Paris in 1829. Royer-CoUard, (Antoine Athanase, ) an able French physician, born at Sompuis in 1768, was a brother of Pierre Paul, noticed below. He founded in 1803 the " Bibliotheque Medicale," a periodical. Li 1806 he was placed at the head of the institution for the insane at Charenton. He became professor (jf legal medicine in Paris in 1816, and physician-in-ordinary to Louis XVHL He wrote some able treatises on insanity, etc. Died in 1825. See Philippe, " Royei-Collard," 1861 ; "Biographie Medicale;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Royer-CoUard, (Hippolyte Louis,) a French phy- sician, born in Paris in 1802, was a son of the preceding. He succeeded Desgenettes as professor of hygiene in 1838. Died in 1850. See BoucHARDOT, " filoges de Royer-Collard et d'A. Richard," 1853. Royer-CoUard, (Pierre Paul,) an eminent French philosopher and statesman, born at Sompuis (Marne) on the 2ist of June, 1763. His father's family name was Royer, to which he joined the name of his wife. Mademoi- selle Collard. He chose the jjrofession of an advocate, and favoured the popular cause in the Revolution, but was always a moderate royalist. P'rom 1790 to 1792 he acted as a clerk ( secretaire-greffier ) of the nuinicipality of Paris. He retired for safety to the country in June, 1793, and remained in privacy during the reign of terror. About 1810 he was appointed professor of philosophy in the University of France. He adopted an eclectic sys- tem of philosophy, and became the founder of a school called the Doctrinaire. His system of philosophy is the same as the Spiritualism of Reid. Jouffroy and Cousin were his most eminent disciples. In 181 5 he was appointed president of the commission of public instruction, and elected to the Chamber of Deputies, in which he supported liberal measures. He preferred a moderate and middle course between that of the ultra-royalists and that of the Bonapartists and democrats. He was admitted into the French Academy in 1827, and was elected president of the Chamber of Deputies in 1828. In 1830 he presented to Charles X. the address of two hundred and twenty-one deputies who protested against the arbitrary measures of the court. He died in September, 1845, leaving a fair repu- tation for integrity, firmness, and civic virtues. His last words were, "There is nothing solid or substantial in this world except religious ideas." See Barante, "Vie politique de Royer-Collard," 2 vols., 1861 ; Philippe, "Royer-Collard," i86i ; De Remusat, " Eloge de Royer-Collard;" M. de Lacombe, "Vie de Royer-Collard," 1863; Genty de Bussy, " Memoires sur Royer-Collard ;" L. de Lomenie, " M. Royer-Collard, par un Homme de Rien," 1842; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" "North British Review" for August, 1863. Royle, roil, (John Forbes,) M.D., an English bota- nist, born at Cawnpore about 1799. He was educated at Edinburgh, and entered the service of the East India Company as assistant surgeon. He made a large collec- tion of the plants of Hindostan. Having returned to England about 1831, he published an important work entitled " Illustrations of the Botany and other Branches of Natural History of the Himalaya Mountains," (2 vols., 1839.) He was professor of materia medica in King's College, London, and published a "Manual of Materia Medica." Died near London in 1858. Royou, Rwa'yoo', (Jacques Corentin,) a French historian and advocate, born at Quimper about 1745. He published a "Roman History," (4 vols., 1806,) a " History of France," (6 vols., 1819,) and other histories ; also the " Fault- Finder," (" Frondeur,") a comedy, (1819.) Died in 1828. Royou, (Thomas Maurice,) Abbi^, a journalist, born at Quimper about 1740, was a brother of the preceding. He was professor of philosophy at the College Louis-le- Grand for twenty years, and editor of the " Ami du Roi," a royalist journal of Paris, (1790-92.) Died in 1792. Roze, roz, (Nicolas,) a French philanthropist of Marseilles, born in 1671, was a merchant in his youth. His name was rendered memorable by his devoted and courageous conduct during the prevalence of the plague at Marseilles in 1720, Died in 1733. Roze, (Nicolas,) Abb^;, a French composer of sacred music, born at Bourg-Neuf in 1745. He was appointed maitre de chapelle to the First Consul, but declined the office because he was an ecclesiastic. Died in 1819. Rozee, ro'zi'. Mademoiselle, a Dutch artist, born at Leyden in 1632. She produced landscapes, portraits, etc. embroidered with silk floss. Died in 1682. Rozet, ro'zi', (Claude Antoine,) a French geolo- gist, born at Chauvart (Marne) in 1798. He published, besides other works, " Travels in Algeria," (3 vols., 1833.) Died in 1858. Rozier, ro'ze-a', (Francois,) Abb^:, a French bota- nist and writer on agriculture, born at Lyons in 1734. He edited at Paris the "Journal de Physique" for ten years, (1771-80.) His principal work is a treatise on agriculture, " Cours complet d'Agriculture theoriquc et pratique," (9 vols., 1781-93,) which was highly esteemed. He was killed in his house by a bomb during the siege of Lyons, in September, 1793. See A. DE Boissieu, " filoge de F. Rozier," 1832; Cochard, " Notice historique sur M. I'Abbe F. Rozier," 1832 ; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Roziere, de la, deh It ro'ze3iR', (Louis Fran- cois Carlet — ktRia',) Marquis, a French general and writer on military tactics, was born near Charleville in 1735. served in the Seven Years' war with distinction, became marechal-de-camp in 1781, and emigrated in 1791, after which he fought against the French republic. He wrote, besides other works, "The Campaign of the Prince of Conde in Flanders in 1674," (1765.) Died at Lisbon in 1808. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." e as >6; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Y^^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this^ (2i;^^See Explanations, p. 23.) ROZOI 1928 RUCHRATH Rozoi, de, deh ro'zwS', ( Barnab6 Farmain, ) a mediocre French litterateur, born in Paris in 1743, was a royalist in tlie Revolution. He was guillotined in 1792. Rozoir, du. See Du Rozoir. Rualdus. See Ruault. Ruar, roo'Sr, [Lat. Rua'rus,] (Martin,) a learned German controversial writer, born in Holstein in 1588, was a Protestant minister. Died near Dantzic in 1657. "His ' Epistles,' " says Hallam, "throw much light on the theological opinions of the age." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." Ruarus. See Ruar. Ruault, riiV, [Lat. Rual'dus,] (Jean,) a French classical scholar, born at Coutances about 1575. He was twice elected rector of the University of Paris, and he became professor of belles-lettres at the College Royal in 1629. He published a good edition of Plutarch, (1624.) Died in 1636. Rubbi, roob'bee, (Andrea,) an Italian scholar and mediocre poet, born at Venice in 1738. He edited " Parnasso Italiano," (56 vols., 1784-91,) which is a col- lection of Italian poetry. Among his best works is a " Dictionary of Sacred and Profane Antiquities," (16 vols., 1793-1805.) Died in 1817. See TiPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." Rubeis or Rubeus. See Rossi. Ruben, the French of Reuben, which see. Ruben, roo'ben, (Christoph,) director of the Acad- emy of Arts at Vienna, was born at Treves in 1805. He studied painting under Cornelius. Rubens, roo'benz, [Fr. pron. rii'bdN',] (Albert,) an antiquary, born at Antwerp in 1614, was a son of the great painter. He wrote " On the Clothing Material of the Ancients," ("De Re Vestiaria Veterum," 1665,) which was edited by Graevius. Died in 1657. Rubens, (Peter Paul,) the most celebrated of the Flemish painters, was born at Siegen (not, as often stated, at Cologne) in 1577. His birth is variously dated in May and on the 29th of June. He was the son of John Rubens, a lawyer, and Mary Pypeling, both natives of Antwerp, to which, after the death of John Rubens, his widow returned with her children in 1587. His early masters in art were A. van Noort and Otto van Veen, (or Otto Venius.) In 1600 he went to Italy, where he passed about eight years at Venice, Mantua, Rome, Florence, and Genoa, and painted numerous works. He returned to Antwerp in 1608, was appointed court painter to the archduke Albert, and married Isabelle Brant or Brandt in 1609. Soon after this date he pro- duced his " Descent from the Cross," which is con- sidered by many his master-piece and is now in the cathedral of Antwerp. He rose rapidly to fame and afifluence, and was employed in diplomatic missions by the Flemish court. In 1629 he was sent as ambassador to England, where he painted for Charles I. the alle- gorical picture of " War and Peace." He succeeded in his mission, the object of which was to restore peace between England and Spain. Having lost his first wife, he married Helena Forman or Fourment, (1630,) who was only sixteen years of age. He received the honour of knighthood in 1630 from Charles I. of England, and also from Philip IV. of Spain. He was simple and temperate in his habits. Rising early, he went in the morning to church to hear mass. In the evening he often took a ride on horseback. Rubens painted history, portraits, landscapes, and ani- mals with equal success. He was a magnificent colorist, was unsurpassed in technical skill and facility of execu- tion, but was deficient in a taste for form. Among his famous productions are "The Last Judgment," at Mu- nich, "The Battle of the Amazons," "The Rape of the Sabines," and "The Judgment of Paris," in London. It is stated that the gallery of Munich contains no less than ninety-five of his works. He died at Antwerp in May, 1640. tlis principal pupils were Van Dyck, Jordaens, Van Thulden, Diepenbeck, and Quellyn. "Rubens," says Ruskin, "was an honourable and entirely well- intentioned man. He is a healthy, worthy, kind-hearted, courtly-phrased — Animal, — without any clearly per- ceptible traces of a soul, except when he paints chil- dren. . . . We saw how Veronese painted himself and his family as worshipping tiie Madonna. Rubens also painted himself and his family in an equally elaborate piece. But they are not tvorshipping the Madonna : they are performing the Madonna and her saintly entourage."- ("Modern Painters.") See A. VAN Hassei t, " Histoire He Rubens," 1840; G. Alvin, "Vie de Rubens," 1840; Waagen, "P. P. Rubens, sein Leben und Genius," i840,Ctranslated into English by R. R. Noel ;) A. Michiels, " Rubens et I'Ecole d'Anveis," 1854; G. Pi.anchh, " Rubens, sa Vie et ses CEuvres," 1854: A. Siret, " Raphae] et Rubens," 1849: W. Noel Sainsbury, "Original Unpublished Papers illustrative of the Life of Sir Peter Paul Rubeus," 1859; Wiektz, "P. P. Rubens," 1840 ; Michel, " Histoire de Rubens," 1771 ; " Nouvelle Biographit G^nerale ;" " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1841, and January, 1863. Rubens, (Philip,) a Flemish philologist, born at Cologne in 1574, was a brother of the preceding. He was appointed secretary of state by the senate of Antwerp in 1609. Died in 16 ii. Rubini, roo-bee^iee, (Giovanni Battista,) a popu- lar Italian vocalist, born at Romano, near Bergamo, in 1795. He performed with success in Paris and London. He was reputed the first Italian tenor of his time. Died in 1854. See " Biographie Universelle," (new edition.) Rubini, (Pietro,) an Italian medical writer, born at Parma in 1760. He was professor of medicine at Parma. Died in 1819. Rubio, roo'be-o, (LuiGi,) an Italian painter of history, born at Rome in 1797. He settled at Geneva about 1857. Rubruquis, de, deh rii'bRu'k^ss', ( Guillaume, ) sometimes called De Ruysbroek (rois'brook) or Rys- bruck, (ris'bRook,) a mediaeval traveller and missionary, born in Brabant about 1220 or 1230. In 1253 he and two other friars were sent to Tartary by Louis IX. of France, who charged them to propagate Christianity among the Tartars, to search for Prester John, and to visit Sartach, a Tartar chief who was reported to be a Christian. Rubruquis performed this arduous enterprise bravely, and, returning through Persia and Asia Minor, reached home in August, 1255. He wrote a narrative, in which the Caspian Sea is correctly described. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Rucellai, roo-chgl-lT', [Lat. Oricella'rius,] (Ber- nardo,) an Italian writer, born of a noble family at Florence in 1449. He married Nannina, a sister of Lorenzo the Magnificent. He was a liberal patron of the Platonic Academy. His chief work is entitled "On the City of Rome," ("De Urbe Roma,") written in elegant Latin. Died in 15 14. See TiRABoscHi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." Rucellai, (Giovanni,) an eminent poet, born at Florence in 1475, ^^^^ ^ ^^'^ ^^""^ preceding, and a cousin-german to Pope Leo X. He wrote " Rosmunda," a drama, (1525,) and a poem on bees, (" Le Api,") which is regarded as his finest production. It was printed in 1539. He was sent as nuncio to France by Leo X. Died in 1525. See Nic^RON, "Memoires;" Gingueni^, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." Ruchat, rii'shS', (Abraham,) a Swiss writer, born about 1680, taught theology at the Academy of Lau- sanne. He published a " History of the Reformation of Switzerland, 1516-56," (6 vols., 1727-40.) Died in 1750. Ruchel, von, fon rooK'el, (Ernst Friedrich ^V^L- helm,) a Prussian general, born in Pomerania in 1754. He commanded a division at the battle of Jena, (1806.) Died in 1823. Ruchrath, rooK'rSt, (called Johann von Wcsel — fon <^a'zel,) a German Reformer, born at Ober-Wesel, on the Rhine, about 1410. He became a professor of divinity at Erfurt, and afterwards preached at Worms for seventeen years. He wrote a " Treatise against Indulgences," and a work " Concerning the Authority, Duty, and Power of Pastors." He was accused of heresy, tried before the Inquisition in 1479, and, to escape death or torture, recanted. Died in 1481. See Hodgson, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867. a, e, T, o, u, y, long; \, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, i, 9, obscure; f^r, fill, fit; mSc; ndt; good; moon* RUCKERT 1929 RUDOLPH Riickert, rtik'kert, (Friedrich,) a popular German lyric poet and Oriental scholar, born at Schweinfurt in 1789. He studied at Jena, and in 1818 visited Rome. In 1826 he became professor of Oriental languages at Eriangen. His "German Poems" came out in 1814, and were followed by " Napoleon ; a Political Comedy," (i8i6,) "The Crown of the Time," (1817,) and "Eastern Roses," (1822.) He also published " Legends and Tales of the East," (1837,) "Brahman Tales," (1839,) and a translation of Hareeree's (Hariri's) "Makamat," under the title of " Metamorphoses of Abu-Seid." His poems are remarkable for beauty of versification as well as the great variety of forms of which he is a master, and he resembles in glowing fancy and inventive power the Eastern poets whom he made his study. He was pro- fessor in the University of Berlin from 1840 to 1849. Died in i860. See LoNGFEi,LOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Atlantic Monthly" for July. 1866; G. Pfizkr, "Uh'and und Riickert; kritisclier Versuch," 1837; " Biographic Uiiiverselle." Riickert, (Heinrich,) a German historian, son of the preceding, was born at Coburg in 1823. He pub- lished "Annals of German History," (1850,) and other works. Rudbeck, rood'b^k, [Lat. Ritdbeck'ius,] (Johan,) a learned and meritorious Swedish prelate and Re- former, born at Oerebro about 1580. He was chaplain to Gustavus Adolphus, and Bishop of Westeras. Died in 1646. Rudbeck, [Lat. Rudbeck'ius,] (Olaus or Olaf,) an eminent Swedish anatomist and botanist, born at Westeras in 1630, was a son of the preceding. He dis- covered the lymphatic vessels about 1650, after which he became professor at Upsal. His principal works are *' Atlantica," (4 vols., 1675-98,) in which, with great learning and ingenuity, he maintains that Sweden is the " Atlantis" of Plato, and a botanical treatise called " Elysian Fields," ("Campi Elysii," 2 vols., 1701.) He was remarkable for versatility and activity of mind. The genus Rudbeckia was named in his honour. Died in 1702. See Nic^RON, "Memoires;" Sax, " Onomasticon ;" " Biogra- phiskt- Lexicon ofver nainnkunnige Svenska Man." Rudbeck, (Olaus,) the Younger, a naturalist and philologist, born at Upsal in 1660, was a son of the pre- ceding. He succeeded his father as professor of botany and anatomy at Upsal, and published some works on botany, etc. He assisted his father in writing the "Campi Elysii." Died in 1740. See C. R. Berch, "Olaus Rudbeck's Lefvernesbeskrifning," 1798. Rudberg, rood'b^Rg, (Fredrtk,) a Swedish natu- ral philosopher, born at Norrkjoping in 1800. He became professor of physics at Upsal about 1828. He was the author of a number of able treatises on phi- losophy, and ascertained the rate of the expansion of air by heat. Died in 1839. Rud'borne or Rod'burne, (Thomas,) an English prelate and skilful architect. He was chaplain to Henry v., and became Bishop of Saint David's in 1433. He built the tower and gateway of Merton College, Oxford. Died about 1442. Rudder, de, deh rii'daiR', (Louis Henri,) a French painter of history, born in Paris in 1807. He gained a medal of the second class in 1848. Rud'dl-man, (Thomas,) an eminent Scottish gram- marian and critic, born in the parish of Boyndie, county of Banff, in October, 1674, was educated at King's Col- lege, Aberdeen. He published in 17 14 his " Rudiments of the Latin Tongue," a popular school-book. Among his other works is "Institutes of Latin Grammar," (" Grammaticae Latinas Institutiones," 1725-32.) Died in 1757. See George Chalmers, " Life of Ruddiman," 1794 ; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Rude, riid, (Franqois,) an eminent French sculptor, born at Dijon in 1784. He went to Rome in 1812 to pursue his studies, and returned to Paris about 1827. He adorned with some figures the Arc de I'fitoile at Paris. At the Exposition of 1855 he gained the grand medal of honour. Among his works are a marble statue of Joan of Arc in the Luxembourg, and bronze statues of Monge and Marshal Ney. Died in 1855. See "Rude, sa Vie, ses CEuvres," etc., (anonymous,) Paris, 1856: " Biographie Universelle. " Rudel, rxa'cMV, (Geoffrot,) a French poet of the latter part of the twelfth century, was Prince of Blaye and a favourite of Geoffrey Plantagenet. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Rudelbach, roo'del-bSK', (Andreas,) a Danish the- ologian, born at Copenhagen in 1792. He published a number of dogmatic works, in which he advocates the orthodox Lutheran creed. He became superintencisnt at Glauchau, Saxony, in 1829. Died in 1862. Riidiger, riiMic-er, (Feodor Vasilievitch,) Count, a Russian general, born about 1790. He commanded a division in the war against the Turks in 1828, and gained several victories over the Poles in 1831. Having obtamed command of a corps-d'armee in the Hungarian war, he defeated Gorgei, who surrendered to him at Vilagos in August, 1849. Died in 1856. Ru'ding, (Rev. Rogers,) an English antiquary and numismatist, born at Leicester in 1751. He became vicar of Maldon, in Surrey, in 1793. He published an important work, entitled "Annals of the Coinage of Britain and its Dependencies," (4 vols,, 1817.) Died in 1820. Rudolf. See Rudolph. Rudolph or Rudolf of Ems, a mediaeval German poet or minnesinger, born in Switzerland, flourished between 1220 and 1250. His works are highly extolled by some critics. Ru'dolph (or Ru'dolf) [Lat. Rudol'phus ; It. Ri- dolfo, re-doKfo] of Habsburg, [Fr. Rodolphe de Habsbourg, ro'dolf deh htbs^)ooR^] Emperor of Ger- many, and founder of the Austrian empire, was born in 1218. He was the son of Albert IV., Count of Habs- burg, and at an early age fought under Frederick II. in Italy. In 1255 he assisted Ottocar, King of Bohemia, in his crusade against the pagans of Prussia. On the death of his father, in 1240, he had succeeded to his possessions, and was involved in many contests with the feudal barons of the country, in which he was generally victorious. His high reputation for courage and love of justice caused him to be elected in 1273 Emperor of Germany, and he was soon after crowned at Aix-la- Chapelle. He procured from Pope Gregory X. the ratification of his right, which had been contested by Alfonso of Castile and Ottocar of Bohemia; and, after a war with the latter, a treaty was concluded by which Rudolph confirmed him in the possession of Bohemia and Moravia. He had previously given two of his daughters in marriage to Albert, Duke of Saxony, and the Count Palatine Louis of Bavaria. Having secured himself on the throne, he gave his attention to various reforms in the government and to restraining the power of the turbulent nobles, nearly seventy of whose castles in Thuringia he is said to have destroyed. He afterwards gave one of his daughters in marriage to Wenzel, the young king of Bohemia. He died in 1291, having been unable to secure the election of his son Albert as emperor, and was succeeded by Adolphus of Nassau. See J. J. Flschek, "Biographie Rudolph's L von Habsbirg, " 1784: HuNKi.ER, " Rodolphe de Habsbourg Empereur," etc., 1^42 ; E. M. VON LiCHNOvvs'a.) See Popp^a. Sab'ine, (Edward,) an English mathematician and Fellow of the Royal Society, born in October, 178H, accompanied Parry's expedition to the Arctic regions in 1819. He published in the " Philosophical Trans- actions," after his return, the result of his observations on the action of the magnetic needle. In 1822 he made a voyage to Africa and North and South America, of which he gave an account in his " Pendulum Expe- dition," (1825.) He has also written "Reports on Magnetic and Meteorological Observations," and other similar works. He became vice-president of the Royal Society in 1850, and president of the same in 1861. Sabine, (Joseph,) an English savant, born in 1770, was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and filled the post of vice-president of the Zoological Society, and other important offices. Died in 1837. Sa-bin-i-a'nus [Fr. Sakinien, st'be'neJ.N'] suc- ceeded Gregory I. as Pope of Rome in 604 A.D. He survived his election only eighteen months, and Boni- face HL was his successor. Sa-bi'nus, (Aulus,) a Roman poet, was the friend of Ovid, and the author of P^pistles, or " Heroides," in reply to those of Ovid. Only three of them are extant. Sabinus, (Calvisius,) a Roman commander, was an adherent of Caesar in the civil war. He obtained the province of Africa in 45 B.C., was consul in 39, and commanded the fleet of Octavius in 38 B.C. Sabinus, (Ccelius M.,) a Roman jurist, flourished in the reign of Vespasian, and became consul in 69 A.D. Sabinus, (Flavius,) a Roman general of high repu- tation, was a brother of the emperor Vespasian. He held the high office of prcefectus urbis from 58 to 69 A.D. Having been taken prisoner by the soldiers of Vitellius, he was massacred at Rome in 69 A.D. Sabinus, sS-bee'nus, (Georg,) a German scholar and Latin poet, whose original name was SCHULER, (shii'ler,) was born at Brandenburg in 1508. He was a son-in-law of Melanchthon. He became professor of poetry and eloquence at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and in 1544 rector of the University of Konigsberg. Atnong his works we may name his Latin elegies, entitled " Sabini Carmina." Died in 1560. See P. Albinus, "Vita G. Sabini," 1724; M. W. Heffter, " Erinnerung an G. Sabinus," 1844 ; A. FOkstenhaupt, "Georg Sabinus," 1849. Sabinus, (Julius,) a Gallic chieftain of the district of the Lingones, caused himself to be proclaimed Caesar about 70 A.D., and invaded the territory of the Sequani. He was soon after arrested and put to death by order of Vespasian. Sabinus, (Massurius or Masurius,) an eminent Roman jurist, lived in the reigns of Tiberius and Ca- ligula. He was a pupil of Capito, and the founder of a school of jurists called Sabiniani. He wrote an im- portant treatise on civil law, on which Pomponius, Paulus, and Ulpian wrote commentaries. See Grotius, " Vitae Jurisconsultorum ;" Arntzen, " De Ma- surio Sabino," 1768. Sablier, si'ble-i,', (Charles,) a French writer, born in Paris in 1693. He wrote, besides several dramas, " An Essay on Languages in general, and the French in particular," (1777.) Died in 1786. Sabliere, de la, deh It st'ble-aiR', (Antoine Ram- bouillet — rSN^boo^yi',) a French poet, born about 161 5, inherited a large fortune. He wrote a number of madrigals, which were praised by Voltaire, (" Siecle de Louis XIV," 1751, tome ii.) He died in 1680. His wife, Madame de la Sabli^re, was celebrated for her talents and accomplishments. She was a friend and benefactor of La Fontaine. Died in 1693. Sac'a-das [2aKu(^af] of Argos, an eminent Greek musician and poet, lived about 600 B.C. He excelled as a flute-player. € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as// G, H, VL^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) SACCHETTI 1940 SJDE Sacchetti, sSk-ket'tee, (Franco,) an Italian novelist and poet, born at Florence about 1335, was contempo- rary with Boccaccio. As a novelist, he was regarded by his countrymen as only second in genius to that celebrated writer. Died in 1410. Sacchetti, (Giamhattista,) a distinguished archi- tect, born at Turin in 1736. He was patronized by Philip V. of Spain, who employed him to build the new palace at Madrid. He afterwards became director of the public school of architecture in that city. Died in 1764. Sacchi, sik'kee, (Andrea,) an eminent Italian painter of the Roman school, was born near Rome about 1598. He was patronized by Urban VIII., who employed him to paint one of the great altar-pieces of Saint Peter's. Among his other works we may name a fresco in the Barberini palace representing "Divine Wisdom," eight pictures from the life of John the Baptist, the "Miracle of Saint Anthony," and "Saint Roniualdo relating his Vision to Five Monks of his Order." The last-named is esteemed his master-piece, and one of the best productions of the Roman school. Sacchi numbered among his pupils Carlo Maratta and N. Poussin. Died in 1661. See Passeri, " Vite de' Pittori ;" Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Sacchi, (PiETRO Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Pavia. He began to work in Milan about 1460. Many years after that date he lived at Genoa. Sacchi, or Sacchini, sSk-kee'nee, (Juvenal,) an Italian writer on music, born at Milan in 1726, was a monk or priest. He wrote, besides other works, an " Essay on the Music of the Ancient Greeks," (1778.) Died in 1789. Sacchini, sik-kee'nee, (Antonio Maria Gasparo,) an Italian composer of great celebrity in his time, born at Naples in 1735, was a pu])il of Durante. Among his best works are the operas of "CEdipe a Colone," " Mon- tezuma," " The Cid," and " Olympia." He passed about eight years in England, whither he went in 1772. He wrote with purity and elegance, and accomplished great effects by simple means. Died in Paris in 1786. See Framery, "Eloge de Sacchini," 1787; Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musicians;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." Sacchini, (Francesco,) an Italian Jesuit, born near Perugia in 1570, was professor of rhetoric in the Jesuits' College at Rome. He wrote a continuation of Orlandino's History of his Order, and other works. Died in 1625. Sacheverell, sa-shlv'e-rel, (Henry,) an English churchman, notorious as a partisan of Toryism, was born about 1672, and was educated at Oxford. He was ap- pointed preacher at Saint Saviour's, Southwark, in 1705, and preached in 1709 two political sermons which were offensive to the ministry and the majority of Parliament. He was impeached for libel by the House of Commons, and convicted in 1710 by the peers, who sentenced him to suspension from the ministry for three years. The clergy and country squires sympathized with him as the champion of the Church. The excitement occasioned by his trial contributed to the defeat of the Whigs in the next general election, and to the removal of Godolphin and his colleagues from power, (1710.) Queen Anne rewarded him with the valuable rectory of Saint An- drew's, Holborn, in 17 13. Died in 1724. See "The Life of Dr. H. Sacheverell," London, 1710. Sachs. See Hans Sach«, Sachsen, von, (Moritz.) See Saxe, (Hermann Maurice.) Sachtleven, siKt-la'ven, or Zachtleven, zlKt-la'- ven, (Cornri.is,) a Dutch painter, born at Rotterdam in 1606 or 161 2. His subjects are generally taken from low life, and painted in the style of Brauwer and Teniers. Died in 1685. Sachtleven, (Herman,) a Dutch landscape-painter of great merit, born at Rotterdam in 1609, was a pupil of J. van Goyen. He painted many scenes on the Rhine and Meuse. Died in 1685. Saci. See Lemaistre de Saci. Sack, sik, (Friedrich Samuel Gottfried,) a Ger- man theologian, born at Magdeburg in 1738, was the author of a treatise " On the Union of the Two Prot- estant Church Parties," (1812,) which was chiefly in- strumental in promoting the union of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches in Prussia. He also translated the principal part of Blair's " Sermons" into German. Died in 1817. Sack, (JoHANN August,) an able Prussian adminis- trator, born at Cleves in 1764. He was appointed in 1800 privy councillor of finance at Berlin, ( Oherfinanz- rath,) and in 1813 became civil governor of all the country between the Elbe and the Oder. Died in 1831. Sack, (Karl Heinrich,) a son of Friedrich Samuel Gottfried, noticed above, was born at Berlin in 1790. He became professor of theology at Bonn in 1823, and publi.shed several theological works. Sackborn. See Saxius, (Christoph.) Sacken. See Osten-Sacken. Sackville, (Charlp:s.) See Dorset, Earl of. Sackville, (Edward.) See Dorset, Earl of. Sack'ville, ( George, ) Viscount, called Lord George Germain, son of the Duke of Dorset, was born in 1716. He served in the Seven Years' war, and at the battle of Minden, in 1759, commanded the British forces under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick. Having disobeyed the prince's orders, he was tried in England by a court-martial and dismissed the service. Under George III, he became in 1775 secretary of state for the colonies. In this capacity he directed the milit'ary operations in the American war. Having inherited the estates of Lady Germain, he assumed that name in 1770. Died in 1785. See R. Cumberland, "Character of Lord G. Gerniain," 1785; Lord Stanhope, (Mahon,) "History of England." Sacro-Bosco. See Holywood. Sacy, de, deh st'se', (Antoine Isaac Silvestre,) Baron, often called simply Silvestre de Sacy, an eminent French Orientalist, born in Paris on the 21st of Septen)ber, L758. He was a son of J. Abraham Sil- vestre, a notary. After he had become a good classical scholar, he studied Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, Arabic, and Persian. He was also versed in German, English, Italian, and Spanish. In 1785 he was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions, and wrote a " Memoir on the History of the Arabs before Mohammed." He con- tributed to the Academy four able " Memoirs on Divers Antiquities of Persia," printed in 1793. He was ap- pointed professor of Arabic in a school founded at Paris in 1795. In 1799 he published his " Principles of Gen- eral Grammar," which is one of his best works. He became professor of Persian in the College of France in 1806, and published in the same year a work called " Chrestomathie Arabe," consisting of extracts from Arabian authors, with French versions and notes. He wrote many articles for the " Biographie Universelle" and the "Journal Asiatique." In the reign of Louis XVIII. he was a member of the council of public in- struction. S. de Sacy and Abel Remusat founded the Asiatic Society in 1822. He became a member of the Chamber of Peers in 1832, and perpetual secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1833. Among his works are an Arabic Grammar, (1810,) and " Pend-Nameh," in Persian and French, (1819.) Died in February, 1838. See Reinaud, "Notice historique et litteraire sur Silvestre de Sacy," 1838 ; Daunou, " filoge de Silvestre de Sacy," 1838; " Nou- velle Biographie Generale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for September, 1828. Sacy, de, deh st'se', (Louis,) a French advocate and litterateur, born in 1654, was a member of the French Academy. He published a "Treatise on Friendship," and translated some works of Pliny the Younger. Died in 1727. Sacy, de, (Louis Isaac.) See Lemaistre. Sacy, de, (Samuel Ustaza Silvestre,) a French journalist, a son of the eminent Orientalist, was born in Paris in 1801. He was one of the principal contributors to the "Journal des Debats." In 1854 he was elected to the French Academy. It is stated that during a period of twenty years (1828-48) he furnished two-thirds of the political articles of the "Journal des Debats." Sade, de, deh std, (Donatien Alphonse FRANgois,) Marquis, a profligate French novelist, a nephew of the following, was born in Paris in 1740 ; died in 1814. i,e,T, 6,u,y, A7«jf; 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, j>4<7r^; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; SADE S AH AG UN Sade, de, (Jacques Francois Paul Alphonse,) Abb6, a French ecclesiastic, born in 1705, wrote '* Me- moirs of the Life of Petrarch," (3 vols., 1764,) which is said to be a work of much merit. Died in 1778. Sadeel, (Antoine.) See Chandieu. Sadeler, siMeh-ler, (Giles,) a Flemish engraver, born at Antwerp in 1570, was a brother or nephew of Jean, noticed below. He engraved after the Italian masters. Among his works are "Vestiges of Roman Anti/juities." Died in 1629. He is said to have been the best engraver of the family. Sadeler, (Jean,) an able Flemish engraver and designer, born at Brussels in 1550. He studied and worked in Italy, and engraved many works of Italian masters. Among his prints are scriptural subjects, por- traits, and landscapes. He died at Venice about 1600 or 1610. Sadeler, (Raphael,) a skilful Flemish engraver, a brother of the preceding, was born in 1555; died in 1616. Sadi. See Saadee. Sad'ler, (Anthony,) an English divine, born in Wilt- shire, became chaplain to Charles II. He published a number of sermons, and a work entitled a "Divine Masque." Died in 1680. Sadler, (John,) an English writer, born in Shropshire in 1615. He pulDlished "Rights of the Kingdom, or Customs of our Ancestors." Died in 1674. Sadler, (Michael Thomas,) an English philanthro- pist and statesman, born in Derbyshire in 1780. He was twice elected to Parliament for Newark-upon-Trent, and in 183 1 represented Aldborough, in Yorkshire. He laboured earnestly to improve the condition of the poor and of the children employed in factories. He wrote a work entitled " Ireland : its Evils and their Remedies," and "The Law of Population." Died in 1835. See "Memoirs of the L*ife of M. T. Sadler," 1842; "Black- wood's Magazine" for February, 1831; "Maltlius and Sadler," in the " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1831 ; " Eraser's Maga- zine" for September, 1835. Sadler, (Sir Ralph,) was born in Middlesex, Eng- land, in 1507. At an early age he obtained the notice and patronage of Henry VIII., who employed him in various important missions. For his courage at the battle of Pinkie he was made knight-banneret on the field. After the accession of Elizabeth he became a member of her first Parliament, and, on the imprison- ment of Mary Queen of Scots at Tutbury, was appointed her keeper. He died in 1587. His "State Papers and Letters," edited by Arthur Clifford, appeared in 1809. See Sir Walter Scott, Miscellaneous Prose Works ; Froude, " History of England ;" Burton, "History of Scotland ;" "Edin- burgh Review" for August, 1810; " London Quarterly Review" for November, 18 10. Sadler, (William Windham,) an English aeronaut and chemist, who crossed the Irish Channel from Dub- lin to Wales, and made many other voyages of the kind. He was subsequently killed by a fall from his balloon, in 1824, at the age of about twenty-eight. Sadlier, std'le-i', ? (Mary Anne,) a writer of fiction, whose original name was Madden, was born in the county of Cavan, Ireland, in 1820. Having emigrated to Canada, she married a Mr. Sadlier, and published a n-umber of tales in favour of Catholicism. Sa'doc or Za'dok, a learned Jew, who lived about 250 K.C., was the disciple of Antigonus Sochaeus, and became the principal founder of the sect of Sadducees. Sadolet. See Sadoleto. Sadoleto, sS-do-la'to, or Sadoletti, sl-do-let'tee, [Fr. Sadolet, st'do'lk',] (Jacopo,) an eminent Italian writer and cardinal, born at Modenain 1477, was a friend of Bembo. He became secretary to Leo X. about 15 14, and was appointed Bishop of Carpentrafis in 1517. He was employed as secretary by Clement VII., and was made a cardinal by Paul III. about 1536, after which he passed the most of his time at Rome. In 1542 he was sent as ambassador to Francis T. of France. He is represented as a man of noble character, pious, modest, and liberal. Among his principal works are a treatise on education, entitled " De Liberis recte Instituendis," (1533,) "On the Merits of Philosophy," (" Phaedrus, sive de I>audibus Philosophiae," 1538,) and " Latin Poems," (1548.) Died at Rome in 1547. "There were two," says Hallam, " Bembo and Sadolet, who had by common confession reached a consummate elegance of style, in comparison of which the best productions of the last age seemed very imperfect." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") See F. G. Cancei.lieri, " Elogio storico di J. Sadoletti," 1828; A. P^ricaud, "Fragments biographioues sur J. Sadolet," 1849; JoLY, " Etude sur Sadolet," 1857 ; Niceron, " Memoires ;" " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." Sadoleto or Sadolet, (Paolo,) a poet and bishop, born at Modena in 1508, was a cousin-german or nephew of the preceding. He became Bishop of Carpentras in 1547. He wrote Latin Poems and Epistles. Died in 1572. Saeed (or Said) Pasha, sJ'eed' pS'shS^ Viceroy of Egypt, and fourth son of Mehemet Alee, was born.ia 1822, and succeeded Abbas Pasha in 1854. He died in January, 1863. Saehrimnir, si-rim'nir, written also Serimner, the boar on whose flesh the heroes who are admitted to Valhalla feast. Although boiled and served up every day, the boar is always whole again at evening. See Thorpe's "Northern Mythology," vol. i. Saemund. See Samund. Saenredam, sSn'reh-dim^ (Jan,) an able Dutch designer and engraver, born at Leyden about 1565. He engraved historical and scriptural subjects after various masters, also some of his own designs. Died in 1607. Saenredam, (Pieter,) a painter, born at Assendelft about 1597, was a son of the preceding. He painted architecture and interiors of churches. His works are highly praised. Died in 1666. Safarik. See Schafarik. Saga, si'ga, [from saga or saga, to "say," to "re- late,"] according to the Norse mythology, the goddess or muse of history. She is the intimate companion of Odin, (or " Mind.") Sage, stzh, (Balthasar Georges,) a French chemist and natural philosopher, born in Paris in 1740. He pub- lished numerous treatises on chemistry, mineralogy, and electricity. He was the principal founder of the School of Mines, (1783,) and contributed much to the art of docimasie in France. In 1801 he was admitted into the Institute. Died in 1824, See his " Autobiography," 1818 ; " Biographie Universelle." Sage, (John,) a bishop of the Scottish Episcopal Church, born in Fifeshire in 1652, was eminent for learning and talents. He preached at Edinburgh, wrote several polemical works against the Presbyterians, and became a bishop in 1705. Died in 1711. See J. GiM.AN, "Life of John Sage," 1714; Chambers, "Bio- graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." Sage, Le. See Le Sage. Sagittarius. See Schutz, (Heinrich.) Sagittarius, si-git-ti're-us, (Caspar,) a German his- torian and Lutheran minister, born at Lunenburg in 1643. became professor of history at Jena in 1674. He wrote several works on German history, and an " Introduction to Ecclesiastic History," (1694.) Died in 1694. Sagittarius, (Johann Christfried,) a German writer, born at Breslau in 161 7, became professor of history at Jena. He wrote many dissertations, and edited the works of Luther, (9 vols, folio, 1661-64.) Died in 1689. Sagoskin. See Zogoskin. Sagra, de la, di 13, si'gRi, (Don Ramon,) a Spanish writer, born at Corunna in 1798, published "The Physical, Political, and Natural History of the Island of Cuba," (1837,) and several treatises on political economy. Sagredo, s3-gRa'do, (Giovanni,) a Venetian diplo- matist and historian, published " Historical Memoirs of the Ottoman Monarchs from 1300 to 1646," (1677,) said to be well written. He became procurator of Saint Mark's about 1668. Died after 1691. Sahagun, de, di sS-S-goon', (Bernardino,) a Fran- ciscan friar, born at vSahagun, in Spain, was a missionary to Mexico in 1529. He wrote a valuable history entitled € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2i:^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) SJID 1942 SAINTE-AULAIRE " Historia universal de Nueva Espana," first published at Mexico in 1829. Died in 1590. See Prescott, "History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. i. book i. Said. See Saeed. Said-Ibn-Batric. See Eutychius. Saigey, si'zhi', (Jacques Fk6i)6ric, ) a French savant, born at Montbeliard in 1 797, published a num- ber of scientific treatises. Sailer, si'ler, (Johann Michael,) a German Catholic theologian, born near Schrobenhausen, in Bavaria, in 1 75 1. He was successively professor of divinity at Ingolstadt and at Landshut, and Bishop of Ratisbon, (1829.) He published a " Prayer-Book for Catholic Christians," (1831,) and other religious works. Died in 1832. See E. VON Schenk, "Die Bischofe J. M. von Sailer und G. M. Wittmann," 1838. Saillet, de, deh st'yi', (Alexandre,) a French litte- rateur and educational writer, born about 1805. Saiiictes, de, deh SclNkt, (Claude,) a French prelate and controversial writer, born in 1525, became a deputy to the Council of Trent. He was made Bishop of fivreux in 1575, and distinguished himself by his zeal in the cause of the Catholic League. Died in 1591. Saint-Aignan, de, deh stN'tin'ySN', (Paul de Beauvillier — deh b5\e'ya',) Due, a French nobleman, born at Saint-Aignan in 1648. He was appointed presi- dent of the council of finances in 1685, and governor of the Duke of Burgundy in 1689. He was a friend of Fenelon, whom he selected as preceptor of that prince, and to whom he remained faithful after Fenelon had lost the royal favour. He was a favourite counsellor of Louis XIV. Died in 1714. Saint-Albizi, de, deh s^w'tiKb^N', (Alexandre Charles Omer Rousselin de Corbeau — roos'Iiw' deh koR'bo',) Comte, a French writer and epigram- matist, born in 1773. He became in 1816 editor of the " Constitutionnel," a liberal journal of Paris. Among his works are lyric poems, ej^igrams, and a "Life of General Hoche," (2 vols., 1798.) Died in 1847. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Saint-Aldegonde. See Marnix. Saint- AUais, de, deh siN'tt'la', (Nicolas Viton — ve't6N',) a French genealogist and litterateur, born at Langres in 1773. He published, besides many works on genealogy, a new edition of "The Art of Verifying Dates," (6 vols. 4to, and 23 vols. 8vo, 1818-20.) Died in 1842. Saint-Alphonse, de, deh siN'tilT6Ns', (Pierre Wathier,) born at Laon, in France, in 1770, served under Napoleon in several campaigns, and rose to be general of division in 1811. He was afterwards made a count of the empire, and grand officer of the legion of honour. Died in 1840. Saint Am'and, (James,) an English scholar, made a valuable collection of books and manuscripts, which at his death, in 1754, he bequeathed to the Bodleian Library. Saint-Amans, de, deh siN^tS^m6N', (Jean Flo- RIMOND BouDON,) a French antiquary and naturalist, ■was born at Agen in 1748. He published numerous treatises on agriculture, botany, and antiquities. Died in 1831. See Qu^RARD, " La France Litteraire." Saint-Amant, siN'tt^nSN', (Marc Antoine Ge- rard,) a French poet, born at' Rouen in 1594, became a member of the French Academy in 1633. He wrote odes, idyls, satires, etc. Died in 1661. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Saint-Amour, siN'tS'mooR', (Louis,) a doctor of theology of the Sorbonne, and a distinguished advocate of Jansenism, was born in Paris in 1619; died in 1687. Saint-Amour, de, deh s^N'tt'mooR', (Guillaume,) a French philosopher and theologian, born at Saint- Amour, in Franche-Comte. He became professor of philosophy in Paris, and rector of the University. His name is chiefly memorable on account of the prominent part he performed in defending the privileges of the University against the Dominicans, who were favoured by the pope. He was the author of a work entitled "Perils of the Latter Times," ("De Periculis novissi- morum Temporum.") Died in 1272. See DupiN, " Histoire des Controverses dans le treizifeme Siecle." Saint- Andre, (Jean Bon.) See Jean Bon Saint- Andr6. Saint- Andre, de, deh s^N'tftN^Ri', (Jacques d'Al- bon — dtl'b6N',) Marshal, a French commander, who united with the Due de Guise and Constable Mont- morency to form a triumvirate against the Huguenots. He was killed in battle in the civil war in 1562. Saint- Ange, de, deh siw'tSNzh', (Ange FRANgois Fariau,) a French poet, born at Blois in 1747. He produced a French version of Ovid's "Metamorphoses," (1778-89,) which was received with favour. He trans- lated other poems of Ovid, and was admitted to the French Academy in 1810. Died in Paris in 1810. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Saint-Arnaud. See Leroy de Saint-Arnaud. Saint-Aubin, siw^to^biN', (Jean,) a ])hysician of Metz, assisted Foes in his translation of Hippocrates, and wrote a work on the plague. Died in 1597. Saint-Aubin, de, deh siN^td'b^N', (Augustin,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1736. He engraved fine portraits and vignettes for books. His works are extremely numerous. Died in 1807. Saint-Aubin, de, (Charles Germain,) a designer and engraver, born in Paris in 1 721, was a brother of the preceding. Died in 1786. Saint-Aubin, de, (Gabriel Jacques,) a painter and engraver, born in Paris in 1724, was a brother of the preceding. Died in 1780. Saint-Aubin, de, (Jean,) a French Jesuit, born in 1587, wrote a " History of the City of Lyons, Ancient and Modern." Died in 1660. Saint-Bris. See Lambert, de, (Henrl) Saint-Chamans, de, deh silN'sht'mSN', ( Auguste,) ViscoUN r, a French jurist and statesman, born in Peri- gord in 1 777, published several political and miscel- laneous works. Saint-Glair, sent klclr, (Arthur,) a general, born in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1735. He became a citizen of Pennsylvania, and served as brigadier-general at the battles of Trenton and Princeton, in the winter of 1776 -77. He was appointed a major-general in February, 1777, elected a member of Congress in 1785, and Presi- dent of Congress in 1787. In 1789 he was appointed Governor of Ohio. He commanded an army which was sent against the Miami Indians, and was defeated in Ohio, near the Miami River, with heavy loss, in No- vember, 1 791. He ceased to be Governor of Ohio in 1 802. Died in 181 8. See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. Saint-Clost, de, deh siN'klost', or Saint-Cloud, de, deh s^N^kloo', (Perros or Pierre,) a French writer of the thirteenth century, whose principal work is an allegorical poem entitled "The Romance of the Fox." Saint-Cyran. See Duvergier. Saint-Didier. See Limojon. Sainte-Aulaire, de, deh slLN'tolSR', (C6me Joseph de Beaupoil — deh bo'pwSK,) Coun i', a French royal- ist, born about 1742, served against France during and after the Revolution, and attained the rank of lieutenant- general in 1 814. Died in 1822. Sainte-Aulaire, de, (FRANgois Joseph de Beau- poil,) Marquis, a French poet and member of the French Academy, born in the Limousin in 1643. He wrote madrigals and amatory verses. Died in 1742. Sainte-Aulaire, de, (Louis Clair de Beaupoil,) CoMiE, a French writer and diplomatist, born in Peri- gord in 1778. He was a member of the Chamber of Deputies from 1818 to 1824, entered the Chamber of Peers about 1830, and was sent as ambassador to Vienna in 1833. In 1841 he was elected a member of the French Academy. He was minister at London from 1 841 to 1847. His chief work is a "History of the Fronde," (3 vols., 1827.) Died in 1854. See De Bar ante, " fitudes historiqueset biographiques ;" " Nou- velle Biographie Generale." a. e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/iort; a, e, i, g, obscure; ftr, f^ll, fit; mfit; nSt; good; moon; SAINTE^AULAIRE '943 SJINT-GELJIS " Memoirs of a Contemporary, or Recollections of the Principal Personages of the Republic, the Consulate, the Empire, and the Restoration," (8 vols., 1827.) Died in 1845. Sainte-Foi, siNt'fwi', (fiLOi Jourdan,) a French theologian, born at Beaufort in 1806, has published several religious works. Sainte-Marie, siNt'mt're', (Etienne,) a French physician, born near Lyons in 1777, published several medical works. Died in 1829. Sainte-Maithe, de, deh s^Nt^m^Rt', (Abel,) a French lawyer and Latin poet, born at Loudun in 1566, was a son of Scevole, noticed below. He was appointed a councillor of state by Louis XIIL Died in 1652. Sainte-Marthe, de, (Abel Louis,) a French theo- logian, born in Paris in 1621, was a son of Scevole the Younger. He became general of the Oratory in 1672. He wrote a work entitled "The Christian World," (" Orbis Christianus," 9 vols., manuscript.) Died in 1697. See NiCEKON. "Memoires." Sainte-Marthe, de, (Charles,) a French poet, born at Fontevrault. He taught Hebrew and Greek at Lyons, after he had been imprisoned two years on suspicion of being a Lutheran. Died after 1562. Sainte-Marthe, de, (Denis,) a theologian, born in Paris in 1650. He published, besides other works, "Gallia Christiana," (4 vols., 1715-28.) Died in 1725. See MoR^Ri, " Dictionnaire Historique." Sainte-Aulaire, de, (Martial Louis de Beau- POIL,) a French prelate, born in 1720, became Bishop of Poitiers, and was a deputy of the clergy from Poitou to the States-General in 1789. Died in 1798. Sainte-Beuve, s^Nt'buv', (Charles Augustin,) one of the most eminent of French critics, was born at Boulogne-sur-Mer on the 23d of December, 1804. He was educated in several colleges of Paris, and studied medi- cine, which he practised several years. He was succes- sively a contributor to the " Globe," the " Revue des Deux Mondes," and the " National." He published in 1828 his " Historical and Critical Picture of French Poetry and the French Theatre in the Sixteenth Century," and in 1829 poems entitled "Life, Poetry, and Thoughts of Joseph Delorme." His other principal works are "Consola- tions," a collection of poems, (1830,) "Literary Por- traits," (8 vols., 1832-39,) a series of criticisms which first appeared in the reviews, an excellent "History of Port-Royal," (4 vols., 1840-62,) and a series of able critiques entitled "Causeries du Lundi," (13 vols., 1851- 57,) which first appeared in the " Constitutionnel." He was admitted into the French Academy in 1845. I" 1852 he was appointed professor of Latin poetry in the College of France, and in 1857 7?iaitre des conferences in the Normal School. In 1865 he was raised to the dignity of a senator. Among his other works are " fitude sur Virgile," (2 vols., 1857,) and "Nouveaux Lundis," (1863.) Died in October, 18 '9. "The peculiarity and excellence of his criticism is its disinterestedness, its singular power of appreciating whatever may be good in the most opposite schools, and its wonderful faculty for penetrating into the secrets of the most strangely different natures. And now, if we turn from the man's works to the man himself, we see great natural power, a mind originally pliable, subtle, and comprehensive to the very highest degree, curious and penetrative, impartial to a fault." (" Quarterly Review" for January, 1866.) See L. DE LoM^NiE, " M. Sainte-Beuve, par un Homme de Rien," 1841 ; Planche, "Portraits litteraires ;" " Nouvelle Bio- graphie Generale." Sainte-Beuve, (Jacques,) a French casuist, born in Paris in 1613. He was professor of theology in the Sorbonne from 1643 to 1654. Died in 1677. Sainte - Claire - Deville, s^Nt'kliR' deh-v^l', (Charles,) a French geologist, born at Saint Thomas, in the Antilles, in 1814. He has published a "Geo- logical Voyage to the Antilles and the Island of Tene- riffe," etc., and other scientific works. Sainte-Claire-Deville, (Henri,) a French chemist, brother of the preceding, was born at Saint Thomas in i8r8. He studied in France, and in 1851 succeeded Balard as professor of chemistry in the Normal School. He is chiefly distinguished for having invented a method of producing in considerable quantities the metal aluminum, first discovered by Wohler in 1827. He published an account of his experiments in the "An- nales de Chimie et de Physique," (vols, xliii. and xlvi.) Sainte-Croix, de, deh sdNt'kRwS', (Guillaume Em ANUKL Joseph Guilhem de Clermont-Lodeve — ge'lSx' deh klgR'mdw' lo'div',) Baron, a French anti- quary and scholar, born at Mormoiron in 1746. He published, besides other works, "Historical Researches into the Mysteries of Paganism," (1784,) and a "Critical Examination of the Historians of Alexander the Great," (1804,) which are praised by Silvestre de Sacy. He was a member of the Institute. Died in 1809. See Dacier, " filojie de Sainte-Croix;" Silvestre de Sacy, "Notice siir la Vie et les Onvrages de M. de Sainte-Croix," 1809; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Sainte-Edme, siN't^dm', (properly Edme Theo- dore Bourg — booR,) a French polkical writer and biographer, born in Paris in 1785. He wrote against the Bourbons and Louis Phili])pe. In conjunction with Sarrut, he published " Biography of Living Men," (" Biographie des Hommes du Jour," 6 vols., 1835-42.) He committed suicide in Paris in 1852. See QuitRARD, "La France Litteraire." Sainte-Elme, siN'tllm', (Ida,) a French courtesan, whose real name was Elzflina Tolstoi Vanayl de Yongh, was born in 1778, She was the author of Sainte-Marthe, de, [Lat. Sammartha'nus,] (Sce- vole or Gaucher,) a French writer and Latin poet, born at Loudun in 1536, was a nephew of Charles. He held several high offices under Henry III. and Henry IV., and was an opponent of the League. He wrote " Paedotrophia," and other Latin poems, which were much admired. Died in 1623. See La Roche-M aillet, "Vie de Sainte-Marthe," 1629; Leon FEUcfeRE, " fitude sur S. de Sainte-Marthe," 1853; ''Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Sainte-Marthe, de, (Scevole and Louis,) twin brothers, born at Loudun in 1571, were sons of the pre- ceding. They produced an account of French bishops, entitled "Gallia Christiana," (4 vols., 1656.) Scevole died in 1650; Louis died in 1656. See NiCEKON, "Memoires." Sainte-Maure. See Montausier, (Due de.) Sainte-Palaye, de, deh sJNt'pi'l^', (Jean Baptiste de Lacurne,) a distinguished writer, and a member of the French Academy, was born at Auxerre in 1697. He published "Memoirs of Ancient Chivalry," (3 vols., 1759-81,) which was translated into English, and col- lected materials for a " History of the Troubadours," which was published by Millot, (1774.) Died in 1781. See Seguier, " filoge de Lacurne de Sainte-Palaye," 1782; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Sainte-Suzanne, de, deh s3,Nt'su'ztn', (Gilbert Joseph Martin Bruneteau — bRiin'to^) Comte, a French general, born near Poivre (Aube) in 1760. He became a general of division in 1796, and count in 1809. Died in 1830. Saint-Etienne. See Rabaut. Saint-Eve, s^N'tiv', (Jean Marie,) a skilful Frenc.h engraver, born in Lyons in 1810. Having gained the grand prize in 1840, he went to Rome with a pension, and engraved some works of Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, and Ary Scheffer. Died in 1856. Saint-:dvremond. See ^vremond. Saint-Fargeau. See Le Pellet ier. Saint-Felix, de, deh sSN'ti'leks', (Jules,) called also F^:lix d'Amoreux, a French poet and novelist, born at Uzes in 1806. Saint-Foix, de, deh siNTw^', (Germain Franqois PouLLAiN,) a French litterateur, born at Rennes, in Brittany, in 1698, was the author of "Turkish Letters," (1730,) and several dramas and other works. He was a famous duellist. Died in 1776. See DucouDRAv, " filoge de Saint- Foix," 1777; "Nouvelle Bia graphic Generale." Saint-Fond. See Faijjas de Saint-Fond. Saint-Gelais, de, deh saN''zheh-]i', (Melltn, ) a French ecclesiastic, born at Angouleme in 1491, pub' € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; g, h, Yi, guttural ; n, nasal; r, trilled; sas z; th as in this, (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) SAINT-GELAIS 1944 SAINT JOHN lished a number of poems in Latin and French. Died in 1558. He was a nephew (or, as some say, a son) of Octavien, noticed below. See Nic^RON, " Memoires ;" Castaigne, "Notice sur les Saint- Gelais," 1836. Saint-Gelais, de, (Octavien,) a French poet and prelate, born at Cognac in 1466. He was appointed Bishop of Angouleme in 1494. His principal work is "The Abode of Honour," ("Le Sejour d'Honneur.") Died in 1502. See E. Castaigne, " Notice sur les Saint-Gelais," 1836. Saint - Genies, sAN'zheh-ne-i', (Jean,) a French scholar and Latin poet, was born at Avignon in 1607. He wrote elegies, idyls, and satires, (1654,) which are commended. Died in 1663. Saint-Georges, siN'zhoRzl/, (N.,) Chevalier, a composer and violinist, born at Guadeloupe in 1745. His mother was a mulatto. He was an expert fencer. He composed several operas. Died in Paris in 1799. Saint-Georges, de, deh s^N'zhoRzh', Chevalier, a French naval officer, who, as commander of the Invincible, was defeated by Lord Anson off the coast of Spain, in 1 747, while assisting to convoy a fleet of merchant-vessels. Died in 1763. Saint-Georges, de, ( Jules Henri Vernoy, ) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1801, has published numerous dramatic works and romances. Saint-Germain, siN'zhgk'miN', Count, a notorious adventurer, sometimes called the Marquis de Betmar, is supposed to have been a Portuguese. About 1770 he appeared at the Parisian court, where he made a great sensation by his various accomplishments and pretended skill in alchemy. He professed to be three hundred and fifty years old, and to possess the elixir of life and the philosopher's stone. Died in 1795. See " Nachrichten vom Grafen Saint-Germain," 1780. Saint-Germain, de, deh saN'zh§R'miN', (Claude Louis,) Comte, a French general, born near Lons-le- Saulnier in 1707. He served as general in the Seven Years' war, (1755-62,) and afterwards passed several years in the Danish service, in which he obtained the rank of field-marshal. He became minister of war in France in 1775, and made important reforms in that department. He resigned in 1777. Died in 1778. See Abb^ de la Montagne, " Memoires dii Comte de Saint- Germain," 1779; " Nouvelle Biographie Geiierale;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Fran^ais." Saint-Ger'man or Ger'main, (Christopher,) an English jurist, published a work entitled "The Doctor and Student, or Dialogues between a Doctor of Divinity and Student in the Laws of England," (1523, in Latin.) Died in 1540. Saint-Haouen, siN'/5t'w6N', (Yves Marie Gabriel Pierre Lecoat — leh-ko^t',) Baron, born in Brittany in 1756, entered the navy at an early age, and served against the English in several campaigns of the Revolution. He was made an ofiicer of the legion of honour in 1804, and subsequently a rear-admiral. Died in 1826. Saint-Hilaire. See Geoffroy Sain t-Hilaire. Saint-Hilaire, siN^te'l^k', (Jean Henri,) sometimes called Jaume Saint-Hilaire, a French botanist, born at Grasse in 1772. A genus of composite plants was named Jaumea in his honour. Died in 1845. Saint-Hilaire, (Jules Barth6lemy.) See Barth6- LEMY. Saint-Hilaire, de, deh s^N^telaR', (Auguste,) a French naturalist, born at Orleans in 1779, (some author- ities say 1799,) spent six years in a botanical exploration of Brazil, to which he went in 1816. His principal works are his " Flora Brasiliae Meridionalis," (1825, with 192 coloured plates,) "Travels in the Provinces of Rio Janeiro and Minas Geraes," (1830,) "History of the Most Remarkable Plants of Brazil and Paraguay," " Journey to the Diamond District of Brazil," (1833,) and "Lectures on Botany," ("Le9ons de Botanique," 1841.) He became a member of the Institute in 183D. Died in 1853. See " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." Saint-Hilaire, de, (fiiviiLE Marc Hilaire,) some- times called Marco de Saint-Hilaire, a French writer, born about 1790, became at an early age cue of the pages of the emperor Napoleon. He published " Recollections of the Private Life of Napoleon," (1838,) "History of the Imperial Guard," (1845,) and other works illustrating the history of his time. Saint-Hilaire, de, (Louis Joseph Vincent Le- BLOND,) a PVench general of division, born at Ribemont, in Picardy, in 1766, served in the army of Napoleon in Italy, and in the principal Austrian campaigns. He died of a wound received at Essling in 1809. Saint-Huberti, saNV/U'b^R'te', (Anne Antoinette Clavel,) a favourite French actress, born about 1756. She performed operas with great success in Paris. About 1790 she was married to the Count d'Entraigues. who became an exile in England. They were assassinated near London in 1812. Saint-Hyacinthe. See CHARRifeRE, de, (Madame) Saint-Hyaointhe, sAw'te't'siNt', (Hyac[nthe Cor- donnier,) called also Chevalier de Th^miseul, (deh ti'me'zuK, ) a French litterateur^ born at Orleans in 1684. He wrote, besides other works, a satire called "The Master-Piece of an Unknown Author," ( " Le Chef-d'QIuvre d'un Inconnu," 1714,) He was a Prot- estant, and an adversary of Voltaire. Died in 1746. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale MM. Haag, "La France protestante." Saintine, s^N^t^n', (Joseph Xavier Boniface,) a distinguished French writer, born in Paris in 1790. He published dramas, poems, and romances, a collection of philosophical stories, entitled "Jonathan the Vision- ary," (1827,) and " History of the Wars in Italy." His most popular work is the tale of " Picciola," for which he received the Monthyon prize in 1837. It passed through ten editions in eight years, and was translated into several languages. See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1838. Saint-Ives or Saint- Yves, s^N't^v', (Charles,) an eminent French oculist, born near Rocroy in 1667. His principal work, entitled "New Treatise on Diseases of the Eye," (1722,) was translated into English and Ger- man. Died in 1733. Saint-Jacques de Sylvabelle, de, deh s^N^zhik' deh s^Kvt'b^K, (Guillaume,) a French savant, and director of the observatory at Marseilles, was born in that city in 1722. He published numerous treatises on mathematics, astronomy, etc. Died in 1801. Saint-Jean, siN'zhdx', (Simon,) a French flower- painter, born at Lyons in 181 2. Saint John. See Bolingbroke. Saint John, popularly called sin'jen, (Bayle,) son of James Augustus, noticed below, was born in London in 1822. He published, among other works, " Adven- tures in the Libyan Desert," "The Subalpine Kingdom," " Purple Tints of Paris," and "The Turks in Europe," (1853.) Died in 1859. His brother Horace has written a " History of British Conquests in India," and several other works. Saint John, (James Augustus,) a distinguished writer and traveller, born in Caermarthenshire, in Wales, about the beginning of the nineteenth century. He was for a time associated with J. S. Buckingham as editor of the "Oriental Herald," for which he wrote a history of British dominion in India. Having visited Egypt, Malta, and Italy, he published in 1834 a "Description of Egypt and Nubia." Among his other works we may name "The Lives of Celebrated Travellers," (1830,) a " History of the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Greeks," (3 vols., 1842,) and " Philosophy at the Foot of the Cross," (1855 ;) also the novels of " Margaret Ravenscroft" and " Sir Cosmo Digby." Saint John, (Oliver,) an English judge and re- publican, born in Bedfordshire about 1596, was an able lawyer. He was elected to Parliament about 1628, and became a leader of the country party. He was counsel for Hampden in the Ship-money case, (1637,) and then " delivered the finest argument that had ever been heard in Westminster Hall." (Lord Campbell.) In 1640 he became a member of the Long Parliament. According to Lord Campbell, " he was the first Englishman that seriously planned the establishment of a republican form of government in this country." He was appointed solicitor-general in 1641, and was influential in procuring i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; ^, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6^ u, y^ short; a, i, o, obscure; fSr, f^ll, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; SAINT-JORRT '945 SJINT^MARTIN the condemnation of the Earl of Strafford. In 1648 he became chief justice of the common pleas. He retained that position till the restoration, (1660.) He was ap- pointed a member of Cromwell's House of Lords in 1657. His life was spared at the restoration, on condition that he should never hold any office. He died in 1673. Clarendon says " he was a man reserved, and of a dark and clouded countenance, very proud, and con- versing with very few." He was a great-grandfather of Henry Saint John, Lord Bolingbroke. See Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Chief Justices," vol. i. ; Foss, "The Judges of England;" Clarendon, "History of the Great Rebellion." Saint-Jorry, de, deh siw^zho^re', (Pierre du Faur — du foR,) [Lat. Pe'trus Fa'ber,] a French jurist, born at Toulouse in 1540 ; died in 1600. Saint-JuUien, siN'zhu1eJ,N', (Barth^lemi fiivi^;,) Baron, a French diplomatist, was patronized by Fran- cis L, who employed him in several embassies. Died in 1597. Saint-Just. See Freteau. Saint- Just, de, deh s^N'zhiist', (Antoine Louis L6oN,) a French revolutionist, born at Decize in 1767 or 1768, was an intimate friend of Robespierre, through whose influence he became a member of the National Convention in 1792. He voted for the death of the king without delay or appeal to the people, and distinguished himself as one of the most violent of the Jacobin party. He had a prominent part in the downfall of the Giron- dists, and, as a member of the committee of public safety, was sent with Lebas to the Rhine, where he established the guillotine and put to death great numbers of the people. Appointed president of the Convention in 1794, he contributed mainly to the defeat of Danton's party, and became, with Robespierre and Couthon, one of the triumvirate of the reign of terror. He was involved in the ruin of Robespierre and his associates, with whom he was executed in July, 1794. He left a number of political works. See Fleurv, "Saint-Just et la Terreur," 2 vols., 1852: E. Ha- MEL, " Histoire de Saint-Jiist," 1859; Thiers, " History of the French Revolution;" Lamartine. "History of the Girondists;" " Nouveile Biographie Generale." Saint-Just, de, (C. Godard d'Aucour— do'kooR',) Baron, a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1769, was the author of tragedies, comedies, and comic operas. Among the last-named the " Caliph of Bagdad" was very successful. Died in 1826. Saint-Lambert, de, deh slN'lfiN'baiR', (Charles Francois,) Marquis, a French poet and infidel phi- losopher, born at Vezelise, in Lorraine, in 1716 or 1717. He was a contributor to the " EncycloiJedie," and an intimate friend of Voltaire, who commends his poems in extravagant terms. The principal of these, entitled "The Seasons," (1769,) procured for him ad- mission to the French Academy. He also published *' Universal Catechism," (1798,) and other philosophical works. Died in 1803. See PuYMAiGRE, " Saint-Lambert," 1840 ; Querard, " La France Litteraire;" "Nouveile Biographie Generale." Saint-Laurent, siN'lo'rfiN', (NoxMbret, n^N^bR^',) a French dramatist, published a number of popular vaudevilles. Died in 1833. Saint-L^ger. See Mercier. Saint-Legier, de, deh siN'li'zhe-i', (Jean Georges Lauren r,) a French litterateur^ born in the latter part of the eighteenth century. Saint Leonards, sent l^n'ardz, (Edward Burten- SHAW Sugden,) Baron, an English jurist and statesman, born in London in 1781. He became a member of Par- liament for Weymouth in 1828, and in 1829 was appointed solicitor-general under the Duke of Wellington, and made a knight. He was lord chancellor of Ireland from 1841 to 1846, and in 1852 was created a peer and lord chancellor of England. Among his principal works are "Practical Treatise on Powers," (1808,) " A Series of Letters to a Man of Property on Sales, Purchases, Mortgages," etc., (1809,) and "Treatise on the Law of Property as admin- istered in the House of Lords," (1849.) Died in 1870. Saint-Leu, de, Duchesse. See Horiense Beau- harnais. Saint-Lo, de, deh s4n'1o', (Alexis,) a French Ca- puchin friar, born in Normandy, visited America and Africa as a missionary, and published in 1637 an "Ac- count of a Voyage to Cape Verd." Died in 1638. Saint Loe', (Sir William,) an English diplomatist, born about 1520, was captain of the guard to Queen Elizabeth, and held other important offices. Died about 1565- See "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., 2d series, 1828. Saint Louis. See Louis IX. of France. Saint-Luc, de, deh s^N'luk', (FRANgois d'Espinay,) a French soldier of the sixteenth century, was appointed grand master of artillery by Henry IV. He was killed at the siege of Amiens, in 1597. Saint-Luc, de, (TimoliSon d'Espinay,) a French marshal, son of the preceding, was born about 1580; died in 1644. Saint-Marc, de, deh siN'miRk', (Charles Hugues Lefebvre,) a French writer, born in Paris in 1698. His principal work is a "Chronological Abridgment of the History of Italy from the Downfall of the Western Empire," (6 vols., 1761-70.) Died in 1769. Saint-Marc, de, (Jean Paul Andr6 des Rasins — di rt'z^N',) Marquis, a French lyric and dramatic poet, born in the province of Guienne in 1728. His opera ot "Adele de Ponthieu" met with brilliant success, and was set to music by Piccini. Died in 181 8. Saint - Marc - Girardin, siN^mtRk'zhe'rSR^diN', a French writer and statesman, born in Paris in 1801. He succeeded Guizot as professor of history in the Faculty of Letters about 1830, and was appointed minister of public instruction in 1848. He has published "Essays on Literature and Morals," and other works, and has contributed to the "Journal des Debats" and the " Revue des Deux Mondes." He was elected to the French Academy in 1844. See "Nouveile Biographie Generale." Saint-Marcellin, siN'mtRsHiN', (Jean Victor,) a French officer and litterateur, born in 1 791, served in the Russian campaign of 1812. He fell in a duel in 1819. Saint-Mard. See Remond de Saint-Mard. Saint-Marsan, de, deh siN^miR'sSN', ( Antoine Marie Philippe Asinari— t'ze^iS're',) Marqlji.s, born at Turin in 1761, was appointed by Napoleon in 1809 minister - plenipotentiary to Berlin, and was subse- quently minister of war under Victor Emanuel. Died in 1828. Saint-Martin, siN^mtR't^N', (Antoine Jean,) a French Orientalist, born in Paris in 1 791, was a disciple of Silvestre de Sacy, through whose influence he became in 1820 a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. He was afterwards associated with Abel Remusat as editor of the absolutist journal " L'Universel." He was the author of " Historical and Geographical Memoirs on Armenia," (1818,) " New Researches on the Epoch of the Death of Alexander and the Chronology of the Ptolemies," (1820,) "Historical Notice on the Zodiac of Denderah," (1822,) and several other works. He published a good edition of Lebeau's " Histoire du Bas- Empire," (21 vols., 1824-36.) Died in 1832. See Querard, " La France Litteraire ;" " Biographie Univer- selle. " Saint-Martin, (Jean Baptiste Pasinato — pi-se- ni'to,) an Italian savant, born in the province of Tre\'iso in 1739, published a number of treatises on agriculture and natural science. Died in 1800. Saint-Martin, de, deh siN'mtR'tiN', (Jean Didier,) a French missionary to China, born in Paris in 1743, translated into Chinese the "Imitation of Christ," and other works. Died in 180L Saint-Martin, de, (Louis Claude,) Marquis, a French mystic, sometimes called "the Unknown Phi- losopher," (" Le Philosophe inconnu,") was born at Am- boise in 1743. He was a warm admirer of the writings of Jacob Bohme, a number of which he translated into French. Among Saint-Martin's principal works are his treatise "On Errors and on Truth," (1775,) "Natural View of the Relations which exist between God, Man, and the Universe," (1782,) "The New Man," (1792,) and "On the Spirit of Things," (1800.) Died in 1803. € as ^; 9 as s; g hard; g as // G, H, Y.^ guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this ((S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) SAINT-MARTIN 1946 SAINT-PRIEST Chateaubriand characterized him as "a man of great merit." See Gence, "Notice sur L. C. de Saint-Martin," 1824; Caro, " Essai sur la Vie et la Doctrine de Saint-Martin," 1852; Matter, *' Saint-Martin, le Philosophe inconnu," 1862 ; " Nouvelle Biographie G6ndrale." Saint-Martin de la Motte, de, deh siN''mtR't4N' deh IS mot, (Felix,) Comte, a Piedmontese jurist and naturalist, born at Turin, was created by Napoleon a count and senator. Died in 1818. Saint-Maur. See Dupk6 de Saint-Maur. Saint-Maurice, de, deh siN^mo'r^ss', (Charles R. E.,) a French historian and novelist, born about 1796. Among his worl'ed in 1760. Saint-Simon, sant si'mon, de, [Fr. pron. deh s^n'- se'm6N',j (Claude Henri,) Count, a famous French socialist and philosopher, born in Paris in October, 1760, was a nephew of Charles Fran9ois, Bishop of Agde, and a relative of the Due de Saint-Simon. He was endowed with great energy of character. Having entered the army young, he served under Washington in the United States. After the end of the American war he passed several years in travel. He took little part in the French Revolution, but, in partnership with Count de Redern, speculated in confiscated property. They realized a large fortune ; but Redern appropriated all of it except $30,000. Saint-Simon entertained or professed a conviction that his mission was to be a social reformer, for which he qualified himself by various studies. In 1801 he married Mademoiselle de Champ- grand, whom he divorced in 1802 because he wished to marry Madame de Stael ; but she declined his offer. He soon dissipated his money in projects, experiments, etc. In 1807 he published an " Introduction to the Scientific Labours of the Nineteenth Century." With the aid of his disciple Augustin Thierry, he produced " The Reorganization of European Society," (1814.) Among his most remarkable works is "New Christianity," (" Nouveau Christianisme," 1825,) in which he maintains that Christianity is progressive. His doctrines exerted great influence in France, and attracted many eminent disciples, among whom were Auguste Comte, Michel Chevalier, Hyppolite Carnot, and O. Rodrigues. He died in 1825. After his death, Bazard, Rodrigues, and Enfantin were chief priests of the Saint- Simonian sect, which was very numerous until divergent tendencies produced its dissolution. See ViLLEN'AVE, " Histoire du Saint-Simonisme," 1847 ; G- Hubbard, " Saint-Simon, sa Vie et ses Travaux," 1857 ; Lo.mexib, " Galerie des Conteinporains," vol. x. ; F. W. Carove, "Der Saint- SinioTiismus," etc., 1831 ; " Noiivelle Biograplile Generale ;" Doc- trines of Saint-Simon," in "London Quarterly Review" tor July, 1831, (by SouTHEv;) "Westminster Review" tor July, 1863. Saint-Simon, de, (Henri Jean Victor de Rou- vroy,) Marquis, a French general and statesman, born at Prereuil in 1782. He served under Marshal Xey in Spain, and, after the second restoration, was appointed minister-plenipotentiarv to Copenhagen, (1820.) He was afterwards createcf lieutenant-general and senator, and obtained the grand cross of the legion of honour. Saint-Simon, de, (Louis de Rouvroy,) Due, a celebrated French writer and diplomatist, born in 1675. He entered the army at an early age, and took part in several important engagements under Marshal Luxem- bourg. At the court of Louis XIV., who had never regarded him with favour, Saint-SinKjn became a partisan of the Duke of Orleans and an opponent of the legiti- mate princes. He was also a zealous Jansenist and friend of Fenelon. After the death of the king he was appointed by the regent Orleans one of his council, and in 1721 was sent to Spain to negotiate the marriage of Louis XV. with the Infanta. Though unsuccessful in this affair, he was made a knight of the Golden Fleece, and obtained other distinctions. On the death of the regent, Saint- Simon applied himself to the composition of his "Me- moires," portions of which were first published in 1788. \ complete edition came out in 1830, entitled " Complete and Authentic Memoirs of the Duke of Saint-Simon on the Age of Louis XIV. and the Regency," (20 vols.) They are distinguished by great independence of thought and expression, fearless satire, and fine delineation of character, and rank among the most valuable and attract^ < as 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Kt^ucturai; N, nasal; R, trilled; s asa; th as in this. (3:^^See. Explanations, p. 23.) SJINT-SIMON 1948 SALADINUS ive works of the kind. An abridged English version was published by Bayle Saint John in 1857. Died in 1755. See A. Lefevre-Pontalis, " Discours sur la Vie et les CEuvres de Saiiit-Siiuon," 1855; Saintk-Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi ;" V. Tremblay, " Biographie du Diicde Saint-Simon," 1850 ; '* Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1832 ; " Fraser'? Magazine" for November, 1857. Saint-Simon, de, (Maximilien Henri,) Marquis, a French litterateur, born about 1720, was a brother of Charles Fran9ois, Bishop of Agde. He published sev- eral historical works, and translated Pope's "Essay on Man." Died neai Utrecht in 1799. Saint-Sorlin. See Dh:.smarets de Saint-Sorlin. Saint-Ursin, de, deh siN'tiiR'siN', (Marie,) a French physician and medical writer, born at Chartres in 1763 ; died in 1818. Saint- Vallier, sWv^'\e^', (Jean de Poitiers,) a French soldier of noble family, born in Dauphine about 1475, served in the Italian wars of Charles VHI. and Louis XH. Saint- Venant, de, deh s^N^veh-nSw', Madame, a French novelist, born in the eighteenth century; died in 1815. Saint- Victor, de, deh siw'v^k^toR', (Jacques Ben- jamin BiNSSE,) CoMiE, a French litterateur, born in 1772. He published various works in prose and verse, and translated the Odes of Anacreon into verse, (1810.) Died in 1858. Saint- Vincens, de, deh siN''viN^s5N', (Alexandre Jules Antoine Fauris — fo'r^ss',) son of the following, was born at Aix in 1750. He made large additions to the valuable collection of medals formed by his father, and wrote numerous treatises on numismatics and the ancient monuments of France. Died in 18 19. Saint-Vincens, de, (Jules Francois Paul Fau- ris,) a French antiquary, born at Aix in 17 18, published several treatises on numismatics. Died in 1798. Saint Vincent, Earl of. See Jervis, (John.) Saint- Vincent, siN^iN'sdN', (Gregory,) a Flemish mathematician, born at Bruges in 1584, was a pupil of Clavius. His " Opus Geometricum Quadraturae Circuli," etc. (1647) is highly commended by Montucla. Died in 1667. Saisset, sa'sk', (£mile Edmond,) a French philo- sophical writer, born at Montpellier in 1814. He became in 1856 professor of the history of philosophy at the Sorbonne. Among his principal works is a complete history of skepticism, entitled "iEnesideme," (1840 ;) he also contributed to the " Dictionnaire des Sciences philosophiques" and to other periodicals a number of philosophical essays of great merit. Died in 1863. See the "North British Review" for May, 1863. Saisseval, de, deh sis'vSl', (Claude Louis,) Mar- quis, born in 1754, attained the rank of marechal-de- camp in the French army. He wrote a number of treatises on politics and finance. Died about 1820. Saissy, si'se', (Jean Antoine,) a French surgeon and anatomist, born near Grasse, in Provence, in 1756; died in 1822. Saiva, si'va, written also Shaiva, the name applied by the Hindoos to the worshippers of Siva, which see. Saix,du,diisi, [Lat. Saxa'nus,] (Antoine,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Bourg in 151 5, wrote several re- ligious and moral works. Died about 1579. Sakawee, (Sakawi,) si-ki'wee, } written also Sa- kavi, an Arab writer of the fourteenth century, was the author of a " History of Great Men from 1340 to 1383." SAK' TI or SHAIC TI, written also SACTI, [modern Hindoo pron. siik'tee or shuk'tee,] a Sanscrit word de- noting " power" or " energy," often applied in the Hindoo mythology to the wives or consorts of the chief deities ; or, to speak more definitely, the power of each of the male deities was supposed to be personified in his consort. Thus, Lakshmi was the Sakti (" power" or "energy") of Vishnu ; Parvati or Kali was the Sakti of Siva ; and so on. Sakya Muni or Sakya Singha. See Gautama. Sala, siMi, (Angiolo,) an Italian chemist, born at Vicenza, flourished about 1610-40. He lived in Holland from 1613 to 1617, removed to Hamburg about 1620, and became physician to the Duke of Mecklenburg about 1632. He wrote numerous chemical works, which were highly commended by Haller. They were published collectively in 1647, under the title of " Opera Medico- Chymica." See Haller, " Bibliotheca Botanica." Sa'la, (George Augustus,) an English litterateur, born in London in 1827, has contributed numerous articles to " Household Words." Among his principal works are " Twice round the Clock, or the Hours of the Day and Night in London," (1859,) "The Badding- ton Peerage ; a Story of the Best and Worst Society," (i860,) "The Seven Sons of Mammon," (3 vols., 1861,) "Quite Alone," (3 vols., 1864,) "My Diary in America in the Midst of War," (2 vols., 1865,) and "Rome and Venice, with other Wanderings, 1866-67," (1869.) Sala, (NiccoLO,) an Italian composer and writer on music, born at Naples about 1702. He produced " Re- gole del Contrapunto pratico," (1794.) Died in 1800. Sala, (Vitale,) an Italian painter, born near Cano in 1803 ; died in 1835. Sala y Berart, sl'li e bi-raRt', (Gaspar,) a Spanish theologian and preacher, born at Saragossa; died in 1670. Salaberry, de, deh st'lt'bi're', (Charles Marie d'Yruniberry — de'ruN'bi're',) Comte, a French roy- alist, born in Paris in 1766, became a member of the Chamber of Deputies in 1815. He was afterwards as- sociated with Chateaubriand as editor of the " Conser- vateur." He published several political and historical works, and was a contributor to the " Biographie Universelle." Died in 1847. See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." SaPa-din, [Fr. pron. st'ItMiN',] the common English and French form of Salah-ed-Deen or Salah-eddin — sJ'liH ed-deen', the "Integrity of the Faith," [Lat. Saladi'nus; It. Saladino, s^-li-dee^no,] I., (Malek- N^sir-Yoosuf, (or -Yousouf,) mSKek nl'sir yoo'- soof,) a famous Sultan of Egypt, born at the castle of Tekrit, on the Tigris, in 1137, was a son of Aiyoob, a Koord, who had a high rank in the army of Noor-ed- Deen. In 1 168 he became vizier of Egypt, then under Noor-ed-Deen. Saladin, however, refused to obey him, and assumed the sovereign power. After the death of Noor-ed-Deen, (1173,) he made himself master of South- ern Syria. His ambitious efforts to extend his conquests soon brought him into collision with the Christians of Palestine, whom he defeated in the great battle of Tibe- rias or Hitten in July, 1187. Jerusalem surrendered to Saladin in October of the same year. His victorious progress was arrested by the armies of the third crusade, led by Richard I. of England and Philip Augustus of France. The crusaders commenced in 1189 the memo- rable siege of Acre, which was defended by Saladin with great valour, but was taken in July, 1191. He excited the admiration even of his enemies by his chivalrous spirit and magnanimity. In September, 1192, Saladin and Richard Coeur de Lion suspended hostilities by a truce of three years. The former remained master of Jerusalem. He treated with humanity the numerous Christian prisoners that fell into his power. He died at Damascus in March, 1193, leaving three or more sons, among whom his vast dominions were divided. See Aboolfeda, " Life of Saladin ;" Bohadin, " Saladini Vita et Res gestae ;" Marin, " Histoire de Saladin," 2 vols., 176.^ ; Reinaud, "Notice sur la Vie de Saiadin," 1824: A. Schultens, "Saladini Vita," 1755: Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. iii. ; Michaud, " History of the Crusades ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Saladin or Salah-ed-Deen II., Sultan of Aleppo born in 1229, was a great-grandson of the preceding. His dominions were invaded by the Mongols, who took Aleppo in 1260. Saladin was killed by Hoolagoo, the chief of the Mongols, in 1261. Saladin, st'it'd^N', (Jean Baptiste Michel,) a French lawyer, was a member of the Convention, (1792- 95,) and opposed the excesses of the Jacobins. Died in 1813. Saladin, (Nicolas Joseph,) a French mathematician, born at La Bassee in 1743. He became professor of mathematics and physics at Douai in 1792. Died in 1829. Saladino. See Saladin. Saladinus. See Saladin. a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; il, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, filt; mSt; ndt; good; moon; SALAGNT 1949 SALFI Salagny, de, d§h sS'lSi/ye', (Geoffroi,) a French jurist, born in 13 16; died in 1374. Salah-ed-Deen, (or -eddin.) See Saladin. Salai, si-li', or Salaino, sS-II'no, (Andrea,) an Italian painter, of remarkable personal beauty, was born at Milan about 1475. "^^^ ^ pupil of Leonardo da Vinci, whom he frequently served as a model. He pro- duced several admired works in the style of Da Vinci. See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- ing in Italy." Salamanca, sS-li-mSn'ki, (Antonio,) an Italian dealer in prints, flourished at Rome about 1540-50. He published many engravings, and is supposed to have engraved a " Pieta" of Michael Angelo. Saiamee or Salami, sS-li'mee, (Abool-Hassan- Mohammed,) an Arab poet, born at Bagdad in 915; died in 1002. Salamou, de, deh st'It'moN', (Louis Sifrein Jo- seph FoNCROS^,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Carpen- tras in 1759, was appointed Bishop of Belley in 181 7, and of Saint-Flour in 1823. Died in 1829. Salandri, si-lSn'dRee, (Pellegrino,) an Italian poet, born at Reggio in 1723. He wrote sonnets and other short poems, the style of which is said to be pure and elegant. Died in 1 771. Salas, si'lSs, (Gregorio Francisco,) a Spanish pas- toral poet, born in Estremadura in 1740; died in 1808. Salat, sd'iat, (Jakob,) a German philosopher and Catholic priest, born at Abbtsgmiind in 1766. He be- came professor of moral philosophy at Landshut in 1807, and published numerous works on philosophy, psychology, etc. Died in 185 1. Salat, si-lit', (Don Jos6,) a Spanish jurist and writer, born at Cervera in 1762 ; died about 1828. Salaville, st'lS'v^K, (Jean Bapiiste, ) a French writer, born at Saint-Leger in 1755, published an *' Essay on Duelling," and several political works. Died in 1832. Salaza, de, di si-li'thS, (Castro Luis,) historiogra- pher of Charles II. of Spain, lived about 1680. He published, among other works, a "Genealogical Historv of the House of Silva," (1685.) Salazar, de. See Mendoza, de, (Pedro.) Salazar y Torres, de, di si-li-thlu' e tor'r^s, (Au- GUSTIN,) a Spanish poet, born at Soria in 1642. He wrote comedies, one of which is entitled " Segunda Celestina," and lyric poems. Died in 1675. Saldanha Oliveira e Daun, sil-din'yS o-le-va^-ri i down, (JoAO Carlos,) Duke of, a Portuguese states- man and marshal, was born at Arinhaga about 1785. He was a grandson of the famous Marquis de Pombal. In 1825 he was appointed minister of foreign affairs, and subsequently minister of war under Dom Pedro. After the breaking out of the insurrection at Oporto, he became conjointly with Palmella commander-in-chief of the constitutional army. With the assistance of the Duke of Terceira, he gained several victories over the Miguelists in 1833. He was prime minister from 1851 to June, 1856. He recovered power by a coup d'etat in May, 1870. See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Salden, siKden, [ Lat. Salde'nus,] (Willem, ) a Dutch theologian, was a native of Utrecht. He pub- lished a number of learned works in Latin and Dutch. Died in 1694. Saldenus. See Salden. Saldern, von, fon siKd^Rn, (Friedrich Christoph,) a Prussian general and skilful tactician, born in 1 7 19, served in the Seven Years' war. He published "In- fantry Tactics," and other military works. Died in 1785. Sale, (George,) an English Orientalist, born in 1680. His principal work is an excellent English translation of the Koran, (1734,) with explanatory notes from the most approved commentators. He also contributed to the "Universal History" edited by Svvinton and others, and to the "General Dictionary" published in London in 1734. Died in 1736, Sale, (Sir Robert Henry,) an eminent British gene- ral, born in 1782. He became a captain in 1806, and a major in 1813. After he had served many years in India, he gained distinction in the Afghan war, which began about 1838, and became a major-general in 1840. He commanded the army which stormed the Khoord Cabool Pass in 1841, and defended Jelalabad in a long siege, from November, 1841, till April, 1842. For his conduct at the capture of Cabool he was knighted. He was killed in a battle against the Sikhs at Mookee in 1845. Saleh-Ibn-Nahala. See Salih-Ibn-Nahala. Salel, st'l^K, (HuGUES,) a French poet and ecclesi- astic, born in 1504, was patronized by Francis I. Salemon or Salmon, sitrm6N', (Jean Baptiste,) a French litterateur, born at Nancy in 1744; died in 1814. Salemon, si-l4-m6n', or Salmon, sdl-m6n', (Don Manuel Gonzales,) a Spanish statesman, born at Cadiz in 1778, was employed in important missions to Portugal, France, and Saxony, and was appointed by Ferdinand VIL, in 1830, first secretary of state, and minister of foreign affairs. Died in 1832. Salerne, si'iiRn', (Franqols,) a French physician and naturalist, born at Orleans, translated Ray's " Orni- thology." Died in 1760. Sales, de, deh sti, (Charles,) brother of the fol- lowing, was born at Thorens in 1625. In 1665 he was appointed by Louis XIV. Viceroy of Saint Christopher and the adjacent islands. He was killed in an engage- ment with the English in 1666. Sales, de, (Charles Auguste,) nephew of Saint Francis de Sales, born in Savoy in 1606, became Bishop and Prince of Geneva. He wrote "The Life of Saint Francis de Sales," (in Latin and French,) and other works. Died in 1660. Sales, de, deh stl or si'l§s, [sometimes Anglicized in pron. as salz,] (Saint Francis,) an excellent bishop and writer, born at Sales, in Savoy, on the 21st of August, 1567, was a son of the Count de Sales. He entered the College of the Jesuits, in Paris, in 1578, and studied Greek, with philosophy and theology. He afterwards studied law at Padua, where he also became a pupil of Antonio Possevino. Having resolved to renounce the world, he was ordained a priest in 1593, and became not only an eloquent preacher but a model of humility and other Christian virtues. He was soon employed as a missionary among the Calvinists of Ge- neva and Chablais, many of whom he is said to have converted. About 1602 he visited Paris and preached before Henry IV. He was appointed Bishop of Geneva in 1602. He enforced strict discipline, reformed the monasteries, and abounded in works of charity to the poor. In 1608 he published an "Introduction to a Religious Life," which was highly esteemed. He was offered the dignity of a cardinal, but he declined it. Among the eminent persons converted by him was Marshal Lesdiguieres. He wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on the Love of God," ("Traite de I'Amouf de Dieu," 1616.) He died at Lyons in December, 162?, and was canonized in 1665. See"Histoire de Francois de Sales," by his nephew, Charli s Auguste de Sai.es, 16^4; Jean Pierre Camus, "Esprit He Saint-Frangois de Sales," 1641 ; Louis de la Riviere, "Vie de 35. Frangois de Sales," 1634; Gai.i.izia, "La Vita di S. Francesco -le Sales," 1711; Marsollier, "Vie de Saint-Frangois de Sales." 1700, (and English version of the same, 1737;) Rensing, " Lebei s geschichte des heiligen Franz von Sales," 1818. Sales, de, (Louis,) a Catholic theologian, born in Savoy in 1564, was a cousin of the celebrated Saint Francis de Sales, Died in 1625. Sales, de, (Louis,) Comte, a brother of Saint Fran- cis de Sales, was born in Chablais in 1577, He ser\eJ as general of the army of the Duke of Savoy, His character is represented as excellent. Died in 1654. See Buffier, " Vie de Louis de Sales," 1718. Salfi, siKfee, (Francesco,) an Italian philosopher and litterateur, born at Cosenza, in Calabria, in 1/59. He became professor of history and philosophy at Milm in 1800, and subsequently of public law. He published a number of dramas, among which are "Medea," " ido meneo," and " Saul," and critical essays, and wrote a continuation of Ginguene's "Literary History of It;ilv," (1834.) He was also a contributor to the " Biograpliio Universelle." Died near Paris in 1832. See Angelo Renzi, " Memoire surlaVie politique et litt^rair.; da F. Salfi," 1832; L. Greco, "Vita letteraria ossia Analisi delle Oi>eie di F. Salfi," 1839. € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; o, H, Y., guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jE^^See Explanations, p, 23 ) SJLGUES SJLLENGROS Salgues, sSlg, (Jacques Barth6lemy,) a French littiratetir and journalist, born at Sens about 1760. Among his works is " Memoirs towards the History of France under Napoleon," (9 vols., 1814-28.) Died in 1830. Salian, st'le'fiN', (Jacques,) a French Jesuit, born in 1557, was rector of the College of Besanfon. He wrote "Ecclesiastical Annals," (in Latin.) Died in 1640. Salicet, See Saliceto. Saliceti, sS-le-cha'tee, (Aurelio,) an Italian jurist, born in the Abruzzo in 1804, filled several important offices under the government. Saliceti, [Fr. pron. st'le'si'te',] (Christophe,) born at Bastxa, in Corsica, in 1757, was a deputy to the French National Convention in 1792, and voted for the death of the king. He was subsequently a member of the Coun- cil of Five Hundred, and minister of war at Naples under Joseph Bonaparte. Died in 1809. See " Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale." Saliceto, sJ-le-cha'to, [Lat. Placenti'nus ; Fr. Salicet, st'le'si',] (Guglielmo,) an Italian physician, born at Piacenza, was the author of a treatise "On Sur- gery," (1476.) and other medical works, in Latin, which were highly esteemed in his time. The celebrated Lan- franc was one of his disciples. Died in 1280. Salieri, si-le-a'ree, (Antonio,) a celebrated Italian composer, born at Legnano, in the Venetian States, in 1750. He studied under Gassmann at Vienna, where he made the acquaintance of Gluck, at whose request he composed the opera of " Les Danaides," for the Royal Academy of Music in Paris. This work was received with the greatest favour, and was followed by " La Grotta de Trofonio," "Tarare," " Assur Roi d'Ormus," and other popular operas. Died in 1825. See MosEL, "Life and Works of Salieri," (in German,) 1827; F^Tis, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens ;," " Nouvelle Bio- graphic Generalc." Salies or Saliez, de, d?h st'le-i', (Antoinette Salvan,) a French authoress, born at Alby in 1638. Her works comprise poems, historical romances, and religious essays. Died in 1730. Salignac, de, deh st'len'ytk', (Bertrand,) a French diplomatist, was a great-uncle of the illustrious Fenelon. He was ambassador at London from 1572 to 1575, and was afterwards sent on a mission to Madrid by Henry IV. Died in 1599. Saiih-Ibn-Nahala, sS'lin ib'n nt'hi-lS, sometimes written Salih- (or Saleh-) Ben-Bahleh, a celebrated physician of Bagdad, lived in the reign of Haroun-al- Raschid. According to Abulpharagius, ( Aboolfaraj,) he was a native of India. Salimbeni, s^-l^m-ba'nee, written also Salimbene, (Arcangiolo,) an eminent Italian painter, born about 1536, was a native of Sienna. Salimbeni, (Ventura,) a painter, a son of the pre- ceding, was born a^ Sienna in 1557. He executed a number of fine frescos at Rome. Among his works is "Abraham and the Angels." He is sometimes called Bevilacqua, after his patron the cardinal of that name. Died in 1613. See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ticozzi, "Dizio- nario." Salinas, de, di sl-lee'nis, (Francisco.) a Spanish musician and writer on the theory of music, was born at Burgos about 15 12, and was blind from his infancy. He published in 1577 his celebrated treatise " De Musica," in seven books. Died in 1590. Salinas y Cordova, de, di sJ-lee'nJs e koR'do-vS, (Bonaventura,) a Franciscan monk, born at Lima, in Peru, became vicar-general of his order for the provinces of New Spain, Florida, and the Philippines. Died in 1653. His brother Diego was historiographer of his order in South America. Sal-i-na'tor, (M. Livius,) a Roman general, was consul with L. ^milius Paulus in 219 B.C. He was again elected consul in 207, as a colleague of C. Claudius Nero, who was his personal enemv. The consuls, how- ever, co operated in o])posing the Carthaginian invaders, and gained a decisive victory over Hasdrubal on the Metaurus, (207 B.C.) He became censor in 204 B.C., and put a tax on salt : hence his surname Salinator. Salins, de, deh sS'Iiw', (Hugues,) a French phy- sician and antiquarian writer, born at Beaune in 1632; died in 17 10. . Salio, ScVle-o, (Giuseppe,) an Italian littirateur, born at Padua in 1700. His principal work is a sacred poem on the Messiah. Died in 1737. Salis, de, deh sfl^ss', (Charles Ulysse,) a Swiss writer, born at Marschlins in 1728. He was appointed French minister for the Grisons in 1768. He published several historical works. Died in 1800. Salis, de, deh sS'l^ss', (Rodolphe Antoine Hu- bert,) Baron, born in 1732, entered the French service, and obtained the rank of marechal-de-camp. Died in 1807. Salis, de, (Tatius Rodolphe Gilbert,) a French royalist, born in Lorraine in 1752, became a member of the Chamber of Deputies for Ardennes. Died in 1820. Salis, de, (Ulysse,) Baron, a Swiss soldier and writer, born in 1594, distinguished himself at the siege of La Rochelle and in other important engagements. He died in 1674, leaving a collection of "Memoirs," written in Italian, which are highly commended by Haller. Salisbury, Earl of. See Cecil, (Robert.) Salisbury, (John of,) the Elder. See John of Salisbury. Salisbury, saulz'ber-e, (John of,) the Younger, an English Jesuit, born about 1575, translated several religious works into Welsh. Died in 1625. Salisbury, Marquis of. See Cranborne. Salisbury, (Richard Anthony,) an English bot- anist, born in 1762, contributed a number of treatises to the " Acts" of the Linnaean Society, of which he was a member. Salisbury or Salesbury, saulz'ber-e, ? (William,) a Welsh writer, born in Denbighshire, published a " Dictionary in English and Welsh," (1547,) and assisted Bishop Davies in translating the New Testament into Welsh. He also translated into that language the Lit- urgy of the Church of England. Salis-Seewis, si'lis sa'^is or st^l^ss' sa'v^ss', (Jo- HANN Gaudenz,) Baron, bom at Malans, (or Seewis,) in Switzerland, in 1762, published a collection of lyric poems, (in German.) He was an intimate friend of the poet Matthisson. Died in 1834. See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." Salis-Soglio, von, fon s^'less siKyo, (Johann Ul- ric,) a general, born at Chur, Switzerland, in 1790. He commanded the army of the Sunderbund — i.e. the league formed by the seven Roman Catholic cantons — in 1847. He was reduced to subjection in November of that year. Died in 1855. Salle, st'li', (Jacques Antotne,) a French jurist, born in Paris in 1712, was the author of "Spirit of the Statutes of Louis XV.," and other legal works. Died in 1778. Salle, de la, deh 5t stl, (Jean Baptiste,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Rheims in 165 1, was founder of the Institution of Brethren of the Christian Schools, having for its object the gratuitous instruction of the poor. Died in 1719. Salle, de la, (Philippe,) an ingenious French artisan and mechanician, born at Seyssel in 1723. He obtained in 1783 a gold medal for his improvements in the silk- loom. Died in 1804. Salle de Letang, de la, deh It stl deh li'tSN', (Si- mon Philiberi',) a French agricultural writer, born at Rheims about 1700; died in 1765. Salle, La. See La Salle. Sallengre, sSl-leng'Greh, ? (Albert Hendrtk,) a Dutch writer, born at the Hague in 1694. He pub- lished, among other works, a " New Treasury of Roman Antiquities," (3 vols., 1716-19,) and was a contributor to the " Literary Journal of the Hague." He died in 1723, leaving a "History of the United Provinces for the Year 1621," which came out in 1728. See NiCERON, " Memoires." Sallengros, st'lSN^gRo', (A. BENofr Franqois,) a French Jacobin, was a deputy to the National Conven- tion in 1792, and voted for the death of the king. Died about 18 1 6. a, e 1. o, u, y, long; k, 4, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fSr, fSll, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; SAIM-DYCK Salles, stl. (EusfeBE Francois,) a French physician and Criental scholar, born at Montpellier in 1799. He was appointed in 1835 professor of Arabic at Marseilles. Among his principal works are a " General History of Legal Medicine," " Peregrinations in the East," and "General History of the Human Races, or Ethnographic Philosophy." Salles, (Jean Baptiste,) a French revolutionist and member of the National Convention. During the trial of the king he voted for the appeal to the people, which he was the first to propose. He was executed at Bor- deaux in 1794. Salles, de, deh stl, (Chari.es Marie,) Comte, a French general, born about 1804. He commanded a division at Sebastopol in May-September, 1855. Died in 1858. Sallet, von, fon st'Ii', (Friedrich,) a German poet and litterateur, of French extraction, born at Neisse, in Silesia, in 1812. His principal work, entitled "Laien- evangelium," is a poem in praise of Pantheism. Died in 1843- Sallier, st'le-i', (Claude,) a French philologist, born at Saulieu in 1685. In 1719 he succeeded Sarrazin as professor of Hebrew in the Royal College, and was afterwards appointed keeper of the manuscripts in the Royal Library. He was elected to the French Academy in 1729, and was a member of the Royal Societies of London and Berlin. His works are chiefly critical and antiquarian treatises. Died in 1761. Sallier-Chamont, st'le-i' shfrniw', (Gui Marie,) a French writer, born about 1750. He was appointed in 1814 master of requests, and chevalier of the legion of honour. Died about 1840. Sallin, st'liiN', (Maurice,) a Savoyard artist, skilled in sculpture and engraving, born in 1760 ; died in 1809. Sallior, st'le'oR', (Marie FRANgois,) a French poli- tician and writer, born at Versailles about 1740 ; died in 1804. Sallo, de, deh st^lo', (Denis,) Sieur de La Coudraye, born in Paris in 1626, is called the founder of modern literary journals. He brought out in 1665, conjointly with other writers, the "Journal des Savants," which was at first very successful, but subsequently gave great offence by the freedom and severity of its criticisms. The Abbe Gallois afterwards became editor of the " Journal," which was continued till 1792. Died in 1669. See MoR^Ri, *' Dictionnaire Historique ;" Niceron, " Me- moires." Sal'lust, [Lat. Sallus'tius ; Fr. Sali.uste, sS'liist'; It. vSaixustio, sil-loos'te-o,] (or, more fully, Caius Sal- lustius Crispus,) a celebrated Roman historian, who was born of a plebeian family at Amiternum in 8^ R.C. He was elected tribune of the people in 52 B.C., and was expelled from the senate by the censors in 50 for alleged immoral conduct. He was a partisan of Caesar in the civil war. In the year 47 he obtained the office of praetor, and accompanied Caesar in his African campaign. He was appointed governor of Numidia by Caesar in 46 B.C. According to Dion Cassius, he enriched himself by the oppression and plunder of the people of that province. After the death of Julius Caesar he returned to Rome, and built a sumptuous palace on the Quirinal, with large gardens, still called Horti Sallustiani. Having retired from public life, he devoted his latter years to literary pursuits. He died in 34 B.C. The scandalous charges against the character of Sallust, made by several ancient and modern writers, may have been true, but, in the opinion of some of the best critics, they are far from having been established by any decisive evidence. He was much influenced by party spirit, and probably hated the aristocratic party more than he loved the ple- beians. Sallust wrote a "History of the Conspiracy of Catiline," ("Bellum Catilinarium,") and a "History of the War between the Romans and Jugurtha," (" Bellum Jugurthinum."). The speeches which he ascribes to Cato, Caesar, and others in his histories, though proba- bly expressed in the language of Sallust, give us, there is reason to believe, the substance of what was said by those eminent men. He also wrote a history of Rome for the period included between 78 and 66 B.C., which is lost. "The ancient critics," says Macaulay, "placed Sallust in the same rank with Livy; and unquestionably the small portion of his works which has come down to us is calculated to give a high opinion of his ta'ents. But his style is not very pleasant ; and his most power- ful work, the account of the conspiracy of Catiline, has rather the air of a clever party pamphlet than that of a history." (Essay on History in the "Edinburgh Re- view," 1828.) See Des Brosses, "Vie de Salluste ;" D. W. Moi.ler, "De C. Salliistio," 1684; MULLER, " C. Salliistius, oder historische Un- teisuclning," etc., 1817; F. D. Gerlach, " Ueber den Geschiclits- schreiber C. Sallustius Crispus," 1831 ; E. C. de Grrlache, "Etudes sur Sailuste," etc., 1847; Bregolini, "Vita di C. C. Salluslio," 1802; Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Frastir's Magazine" for February, 1846. Salluste, !he French for Sallust, which see. Sallustio. See Sallust. Sallustius. See Sallust. Sal-lus'ti-us or Salus'tius.surnamed the Philoso- pher, a Roman officer, and a pagan, was pretorian pre- fect under the emperor Julian. He dissuaded the latter from persecuting the Christians. He is supposed to have been the author of an extant work " On the Gods and the World." Sallustius, a Cynic philosopher, born in Syria, lived probably between 450 and 500 A.D. He gained distinc- tion as an orator. Sallus'tius Cris'pus, (Caius,) a Roman knight and courtier, was a grand-nephew of Sallust the historian, whose large fortune he inherited. He was a man of superior talents for public affairs, and became one of the most favoured and influential advisers of Augustus. He also obtained the confidence of Tiberius. Died in 20 A.D. Salm, stlm, a French general, born in the depart- ment of Vosges in 1768, served under Pichegru in 1794, and subsequently in Italy and Spain. He was mortally wounded at the siege of Olivo, in 1811. Salmanasar. See Shalmaneser. Salmasius, sil-ma'she-us, (Claudius,) [Fr. Claude DE Saumaise, klod deh so'miz',] a celebrated French scholar, born at Semur in 1588. He is said to have written Latin and Greek verses and to have read Pin- dar at the age of ten. While pursuing his studies in Paris, he acquired the friendship of Casaubon, by whom he was induced to become a Protestant. He subse- quently studied at Heidelberg, where he became ac- quainted with Gruter, to whom he dedicated his edition of Florus, published in 1609. This was succeeded by his "Historias Augustae Scriptores Sex," (1620,) a con- tinuation of the "Twelve Caesars" of Suetonius; edi- tions of Tertullian's " De Pallio," of Achilles Tatius, and other classics. His greatest work is entitled " Plinianae Exercitationes in C. J. Solini Polyhistoria," (2 vols., 1629.) The immense and varied learning displayed in this production raised his reputation to the highest point, and he received invitations from several princes of Europe to settle in their respective countries. In 1632 he became honorary professor at Leyden, where he con- tinued chiefly to reside till he visited Sweden in 1650 at the invitation of Queen Christina. At the request of Charles II., then in Holland, Salmasius wrote his " De- fensio Regia pro Carolo I.," (1649,) being a defence of monarchy and of the king Charles I., who had just been put to death. This called forth Milton's celebrated reply entitled " Defensio pro Populo Anglicano," which Salmasius was about to answer, when he died, in 1653. "But the greatest," says Hallam, "in this province of literature [philology] was Claude Saumaise, iSest known in the Latin form Salmasius, whom the general suffrage of his compeers placed at their head. An incredible erudition, so that it was said what Salmasius did not know was beyond the bounds of knowledge, — a memory such as none but those great scholars of former times seem to have possessed, — a life passed, naturally enough, in solitary labour, — were sufficient to establish his fame among the learned." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") See A. Clement, "Vita Salmasii," or "Vie de Saumaise," 1656 ; Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique;" "Nouvelle Biographie G^n^- rale." Salm-Dyck, stlm'd^k', (Constance Marie,) Prin- cess OF, a French poetess and miscellaneous writer. « as 9 as J • g hard; g as j; g, h, k, guttural; n, nasal ; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) SJLMEGGIA 1952 BAlTOmTALL whose original name was Th6is, born at Nantes in 1767, was the author of the lyric tragedy of *' Sappho," set to music by Martini, " Epistle to Women," " Eulogy on Lalande," and "My Political and Literary Reminis- cences," (1833.) Died in 1845. See MiCHKt. Berr, " Notice sur la Princesse de Salm ;" A. Mon- T^MONT, "Notice sur la Princesse de Salm-Dyck," 1845; " Nouvelle Biogvapliie Generale." Salmeggia, sSl-mSd'ja, (Enea,) an Italian painter, surnamed IL Talpino, was a native of Bergamo. He studied at Rome under Raphael, and became one of his most successful imitators. Among his best productions are the altar-pieces in the churches of Santa Marta and Santa Grata at Bergamo. He wrote a " Treatise on Painting." Died in 1626, at an advanced,age. See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." Salmeron, sai-mi-r6n', (Alfonso,) a Spanish Jesuit, born at Toledo in 1515, was one of the chief discijjles of Ignatius Loyola. He published several theological works, and had a prominent part in founding the order of Jesuits. He was one of the orators of the Council of Trent, to which he was sent by Pope Paul HI. Died in 1585. See RiBADENEiRA, " Vita Salmeronis ;" N.Antonio, " Biblio- theca Hispana Nova." Salmeron, (Crtstoval Garcia,) a Spanish painter, born at Cuenca in 1603; died in 1666. Salm-Kyrburg, de, deh stlm-keR'biiR', (Fr^:d6ric Ernest Otto,) Prince, born in Paris in 1789, served in the army of Napoleon in the campaign of 1807, and afterwards in Portugal, Spain, and Italy. Died in 1835. Salmon, stl'm6N', (FRANgors,) a doctor of the Sor- bonne, born in Paris in 1677, published a "Treatise on the Study of the Councils," (1724.) Died in 1736. Salmon, (Jean,) surnamed Maigret (mcVgRi') or Macri'nus, a French scholar, born at Loudun in 1490, was the author of Latin odes, which were highly esteemed in his time. Died in 1557. His son Charles was like- wise noted for his learning, and was preceptor to Cathe- rine of Bourbon, sister of Henry IV. He perished in the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, in 1572. Salmon, (Louis Adolphe,) a French engraver, born in Paris in 1 806. Among his works are plates after Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Da Vinci. Salmon, si'mon, (Nathaniel,) an English divine and antiquary, born in Bedfordshire. He published a " History of Hertfordshire," " Survey of the Roman Stations in Britain, according to the Roman Itinerary," (1721,) "Survey of the Roman Stations in the Midland Counties," (1726,) "Antiquities of Surrey," (1736,) and other works. Died in 1742. Salmon, (Robert,) an English mechanician, born in "Warwickshire in 1763; died in 1821. Salmon, (Thomas,) brother of Nathaniel, noticed above, was the author of " The Chronological Histo- rian," "Examination of Burnet's History of his Own Times," and other similar works. Died about 1745. Salmon, (William,) a celebrated English empiric, published "A Universal Herbal," "Compendium of the Theory and Practice of Physic," and several other works. Died in 1700. Salmonee. See Salmoneus. Sal-mo'neus, [Gr. ^ak^iovevg ; Fr. Salmonee, stK- mo'ni',] in classic mythology, a son of /Eolus, a brother of Sisyphus, and a king of Elis. The poets relate that he claimed divine honours, imitated thunder and lightning by driving his chariot over a brazen bridge, and by throwing burning torches, etc., for which impiety he was killed by a thunderbolt from Jupiter, See ViRcii., "iEneid," book vi., 5S5. Salm-Reifferscheidt, sSlm ri'fer-shit^ (Nicholas,) Count, a distinguished general in the Austrian service, was present at the battle of Pavi'a, and took prisoner the French king, Francis I. In 1530 he defended Vienna against the Turks under Solyman II., but he was mor- tally vvoimded during the last'attack. Salm-Salm, sSlm salm, (Felix,) Prince, was born of a distinguished Austrian family, December 28, 1828. In 1862 he married Mademoiselle Le Clerq, of New York, which act offended his family and caused his exclusion from the Austrian court. He served with distinction in the Federal army during the civil war. towards the close of which he was made post-commander at Atlanta. He accompanied Maximilian to Mexico in 1864, and was appointed by him aide-de-camp and chief of his household. After the downfall and death of Maxi- milian, to whom he remained faithful to the last, he re- turned to Europe. Having entered the Prussian service, as. major in the fourth regiment of grenadiers, he was killed at the battle of Gravelotte, August 16-17, ^870. Salnove, de, deh sti'nov', (Robert,) a French writer on the art of hunting, was a favourite at the court of Louis XIII. His principal work is entitled " Venerie royale," (1655.) Sa-lo'me, [Gr. Sa/lw/z??,] an artful and cruel woman, who was a sister of Herod the Great. By calumnious " accusations she induced Herod to put to death her own husband, Josephus, and Mariamne the wife of Herod. Died about 12 a.d. Salomon, the French for Solomon, which see. Salomon. st'lo^-niN', (Franqois Henri,) a French litterateur of little merit, born at Bordeaux in 1629, be- came a member of the French Academy in 1646, having for his competitor the great Corneille. Died in 1670. Sal'o-mon or Sol'o-mon, (Frederick,) a general, born in Prussia in 1826. He emigrated to the United States, and worked as an engineer in Wisconsin before the civil war. He was appointed a brigadier-general about July, 1862. Salomon, sS'lo-mon', (Gotthold,) a Jewish theo- logian and preacher at Hamburg, born in 1784, wrote commentaries on the prophets Haggai and Zechariah. Salomon, (Johann Peter,) a celebrated German composer and violinist, born at Bonn in 1745. After visiting Berlin and Paris, he settled in London, where he began about 1790 a series of subscription concerts, for which Haydn produced his twelve grand symphonies, generally known as " composed for Salomon's Concerts." Haydn's oratorio of " The Creation" was brought out in 1798 by Salomon at the Opera concert-room. Died in 1815. SaPo-mons, (David,) a Jewish magistrate and states- man, born in London in 1801. He was elected to Par- liament for Greenwicn in 185 1, and in 1855 became lord mayor of London, being the first Jew who had ever filled that office. Sal-o-ni'na,